Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/authen-e.col
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/authen-e.col	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/authen-e.col	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GathererCollection [
+  <!ELEMENT GathererCollection (Argument*, GathererConfig, BuildConfig)>
+  <!ELEMENT GathererConfig    (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT BuildConfig       (Build, Import)>
+  <!ELEMENT Build             (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Import            (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Schedule          (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Argument          (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Argument
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				enabled           CDATA "true">
+]>
+<GathererCollection>
+    <Argument name="built">false</Argument>
+    <Argument name="imported">false</Argument>
+    <GathererConfig/>
+    <BuildConfig>
+        <Build/>
+        <Import>
+            <Argument enabled="true" name="removeold"/>
+        </Import>
+        <Schedule/>
+    </BuildConfig>
+</GathererCollection>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/etc/collect.cfg
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,317 @@
+creator		greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+maintainer	greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+public		true
+
+buildtype	mgpp
+
+indexes		text dls.Title,Title dls.Subject dls.Organization dls.Keyword
+
+levels	section document
+
+plugin	GreenstoneXMLPlugin
+plugin	HTMLPlugin -description_tags -OIDtype dirname
+plugin	MetadataXMLPlugin
+plugin	ArchivesInfPlugin
+plugin	DirectoryPlugin
+
+classify	List -metadata dls.Title
+
+classify	Hierarchy -metadata "dls.Subject" -sort dls.Title
+
+classify	List -sort_leaf_nodes_using dls.Title -metadata dls.Organization -bookshelf_type always
+
+classify	List -metadata dls.Keyword -buttonname Howto
+
+format CL4VList "<td>[link][icon][/link]</td><td>[link][dls.Keyword][/link]"
+
+format SearchVList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td><td>{If}{[parent(All\': \'):Title],[parent(All\': \'):Title]:}[link][Title][/link]</td>"
+
+format VList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td><td valign=top>[highlight]{Or}{[Title],Untitled}[/highlight]{If}{[Date],<br><small><i>_textdate_[Date]</i></small>}{If}{[NumPages],<br><small><i>_textnumpages_[NumPages]</i></small>}{If}{[Source],<br><small><i>_textsource_[Source]</i></small>}</td>"
+
+format DocumentText "<h3>[Title]</h3>\\n\\n<p>[Text]"
+format DocumentImages true
+format DocumentButtons "Expand Text|Expand Contents|Highlight|Detach|Print"
+format DocumentSearchResultLinks true
+
+format HList "[link][highlight][Title][/highlight][/link]"
+
+format DocumentHeading "{Or}{[parent(Top):Title],[Title],untitled}<br>"
+
+format SearchTypes "plain,form"
+
+# Authentication directives
+
+authenticate		document
+public_documents	Jfb33fe Jfb34fe
+
+auth_group		demo
+
+# -- English strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=en] "Authentication demo"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=en] "text"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=en] "titles"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=en] "subjects"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=en] "organizations"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=en] "how to"
+
+collectionmeta	.document [l=en] "book"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=en] "chapter"
+
+collectionmeta	depositormetadata [l=en] "{\"name\":\"dls.Title\",\"label\":\"Title\",\"tooltip\":\"dls.Title: The title of this resource.\",\"type\":\"text\"}, {\"name\":\"dls.Organization\",\"label\":\"Organization\",\"tooltip\":\"dls.Organization: The organization responsible for producing this resource.\",\"type\":\"text\"}, {\"name\":\"dls.Subject\",\"label\":\"Subject\",\"tooltip\":\"dls.Subject: The subject of this resource.\",\"type\":\"text\"}, {\"name\":\"dls.Keyword\",\"label\":\"Keyword\",\"tooltip\":\"dls.Keyword: A more specific indication of what the resource can be used for.\",\"type\":\"text\"}, {\"name\":\"dls.Language\",\"label\":\"Language\",\"tooltip\":\"dls.Language: The language of this resource.\",\"type\":\"text\"}"
+
+# -- French strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=fr] "DÃ©monstration d\'authentification"
+
+# -- Spanish strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=es] "DemostraciÃ³n de autenticaciÃ³n"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=es] "texto"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=es] "tÃ­tulos"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=es] "temas"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=es] "Organizaciones"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=es] "cÃ³mo"
+
+collectionmeta	.document [l=es] "libro"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=es] "capÃ­tulo"
+
+# -- Russian strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=ru] "ÐÐµÐŒÐŸÐœÑÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÑ Ð°ÑÑÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=zh] "è®€è¯æŒç€ºéŠè"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=zh] "ææ¬"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=zh] "é¢å"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=zh] "äž»é¢"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=zh] "æºæ"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=zh] "åŠäœ"
+
+collectionmeta	.document [l=zh] "ä¹Š"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=zh] "ç« "
+
+# -- English text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=en] "This demonstration collection contains the same material as the original Greenstone demo collection, but it includes some basic authentication commands. Two documents are publicly available (Farming snails 1 & 2), while the others require logging in to view.
+
+<p><center><b> To access this collection try user:</b> <i>demo</i> <b>and password:</b> <i>demo</i></center></p>
+
+<h3>How the collection works</h3>\n
+
+<p>
+The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>collection
+configuration file</a> is exactly the same as for the original demo collection apart from the authentication directives, one plugin option (and this description).
+
+<p>
+The authentication scheme controls access to the collection. It works in two
+steps. First it determines whether to restrict access to the collection as a
+whole or to individual documents in it, and in the latter case which documents
+those are (either by giving a list of private documents for which access is to
+be authenticated, or specifying that all documents are private except for a
+given list of public documents). Then for access-restricted documents it
+determines which user groups are to have access.\n
+
+<p>
+Authentication is activated by the <i>authenticate</i> directive with the value
+<i>collection</i> or <i>document</i> depending on whether authentication is to
+be performed on the full collection or on a per-document basis (the default
+value is <i>collection</i>). If authentication is on a <i>document</i> basis,
+then one can <i>either</i> specify a list of private documents (in which
+case all others are public) or a list of public documents (in which case
+all others are private) using directives <i>private_documents</i> or
+<i>public_documents</i>. The documents themselves are specified using Greenstone
+document identifiers (separated by spaces): the easiest way to determine these
+is to locate each document in the collection and look at the <i>d</i> argument
+in its Greenstone URL. \n
+
+<p>In this case, we have used the <i>-OIDtype dirname</i> option to HTMLPlugin,
+which specifies that directory names should be used as identifiers. This works
+for collections where each document is in a separate directory. We have used
+this option to ensure that identifiers remain the same across different
+platforms (which may not be the case for HASH identifiers), as we need to
+specify identifiers here for the authentication directives.\n
+
+<p>
+The <i>auth_groups</i> directive specifies the Greenstone groups for to which
+access will be permitted, if the document (or collection) is one of those that
+requires authentication. It is followed by a group name (or a list of group
+names separated by spaces). The Greenstone <i>admin</i> pages allow you to
+define groups and add members to them.\n
+"
+
+# -- French text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=fr] "
+Cette collection de dÃ©monstration contient le mÃªme contenu que la
+collection de dÃ©monstration originale fournie avec Greenstone, mais elle
+inclue Ã©galement quelques commandes d\'authentification basiques. Deux
+documents sont diffusÃ©s de maniÃšre publique (Farming snails 1 & 2), alors
+que le reste des documents requiÃšrent une authentification afin de pouvoir
+les consulter.
+
+<p><center><b>Pour accÃ©der Ã  cette collection, essayez utilisateur : </b> <i>demo</i> <b> et mot de passe : </b> <i>demo.</i></center></p>
+
+<h3>Comment marche cette collection?</h3>
+
+<p>
+Ce <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier de configuration de collection</a> est exactement le mÃªme que celui de la collection de dÃ©monstration originale sauf pour les directives d'authentification, une option de plugiciel (et cette description).
+
+<p>
+Le schÃ©ma d\'authentification contrÃŽle l\'accÃšs Ã  la collection. Il fonctionne en
+deux Ã©tapes. Dans un premier temps il dÃ©termine s\'il faut restreindre l\'accÃšs Ã  la collection dans son ensemble ou Ã  des documents spÃ©cifiques qu\'elle contient, et dans ce dernier cas, de quels documents il s\'agit (soit en donnant une liste de documents privÃ©s dont l\'accÃšs nÃ©cessite une authentification, soit en dÃ©clarant que tous les documents sont privÃ©s Ã  l\'exeption d\'une liste de documents publics donnÃ©e). Ensuite, pour les documents Ã  accÃšs restreint, il dÃ©termine les utilisateurs qui y ont accÃšs.
+
+<p>
+L\'authentification est activÃ©e par la directive <i>authenticate</i> avec la valeur <i>collection</i> ou <i>document</i>, suivant que la restriction d\'accÃšs s\'applique Ã  toute la collection ou sur des documents spÃ©cifiques (la valeur par dÃ©faut est <i>collection</i>). Si l\'authentification est effectuÃ©e sur la base <i>document</i>, on peut donc soit spÃ©cifier une liste de documents privÃ©s (dans ce cas tous les autres sont publiques), soit une liste de documents publics (dans ce cas tous les autres sont privÃ©s)en utilisant les directives <i>private_documents</i> ou <i>public_documents</i>.
+Ces documents eux-mÃªmes sont specifiÃ©s en utilisant les identificateurs de
+documents de Greenstone (sÃ©parÃ©s par des espaces) : la faÃ§on la plus facile de
+les determiner est de localiser chaque document dans la collection et de
+regarder son argument <i>d</i> dans son URL Greenstone.
+
+<p>Dans ce cas, nous avons utilisÃ© l'option <i>-OIDtype dirname</i> du plugiciel HTMLPlugin, qui prÃ©cise que les noms de rÃ©pertoires seront utilisÃ©s comme identifiants. Cela fonctionne pour les collections dans lesquelles chaque document est stockÃ© dans un rÃ©pertoire distinct. Nous avons utilisÃ© cette option pour que les identifiants restent identiques sur diffÃ©rentes plateformes (ce qui ne pourrait Ãªtre le cas avec les identifiants de hachage), puisque nous avons besoin ici de prÃ©ciser les identifiants pour dÃ©finir les options d'identification.\n
+
+<p>
+La directive <i>auth-groups</i> prÃ©cise les groupes Greenstone pour lesquels l\'accÃšs sera permis, si le document (ou la collection) est de ceux qui exigent une authentification. Il est suivi par un nom de groupe (ou une liste de noms
+de groupe sÃ©parÃ©s par des espaces). Les pages <i>admin</i>de Greenstone vous permettent de dÃ©finir des groupes et d\'y ajouter des membres.
+"
+
+# -- Spanish text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=es] "
+Esta colecciÃ³n de demostraciÃ³n de Greenstone contiene el mismo material que la colecciÃ³n de demo original, pero incluye ademÃ¡s algunos comandos de autenticaciÃ³n bÃ¡sica. Solo dos documentos tienen libre acceso (Farming snails 1 & 2), mientras que los restantes requieren autenticaciÃ³n para poder visualizarse.
+<p>
+
+<center><b>
+Para tener acceso a esta colecciÃ³n ingrese el nombre de usuario:
+</b><i>demo</i><b> y la contraseÃ±a: </b><i>demo</i>
+</center>
+<p>
+
+<h3>CÃ³mo trabaja esta colecciÃ³n</h3>
+<p>
+El <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n</a> es exactamente el mismo que el de la demo original salvo las directivas para la autenticaciÃ³n (y su descripciÃ³n).
+
+<p>
+El esquema de autenticaciÃ³n controla el acceso a la colecciÃ³n. Consiste de dos pasos. Primero determina si se va a restringir el acceso a toda la colecciÃ³n o sÃ³lo a documentos individuales dentro de la misma y, en este Ãºltimo caso, a quÃ© documentos (ya sea dando una lista de los documentos confidenciales para los cuales el acceso estÃ¡ limitado a determinadas cuentas o especificando que todos los documentos son confidenciales, excepto por una lista dada de documentos del dominio pÃºblico). A continuaciÃ³n para los documentos con acceso restringido determina quÃ© usuarios tendrÃ¡n acceso a ellos.
+<p>
+
+La funciÃ³n de autenticaciÃ³n se activa por medio de la directiva <i>authenticate</i> con el valor <i>collection</i> o <i>document</i>, dependiendo de si la autenticaciÃ³n se debe realizar para tener acceso a toda la colecciÃ³n o por cada documento (el valor por omisiÃ³n es <i>colecciÃ³n</i>). Si la autenticaciÃ³n se va a realizar con base en cada <i>documento</i>, entonces se puede establecer una lista de documentos confidenciales (en cuyo caso todos los demÃ¡s son del dominio pÃºblico) o una lista de documentos de dominio pÃºblico (en cuyo caso todos los demÃ¡s documentos son confidenciales) usando las directivas <i>private_documents</i> o <i>public_documents</i>. Los documentos mismos se especifican por medio de los identificadores de documento de Greenstone (separados por espacios). La forma mÃ¡s fÃ¡cil de determinarlos es localizar cada documento en la colecciÃ³n y ver el argumento d en su URL.\n
+
+<p>En este caso, hemos usado la opciÃ³n <i>-OIDtype dirname</i> del HTMLPlugin,
+la cual especifica que deben usarse los nombres de las carpetas como identificadores. Esto funciona para cualquier colecciÃ³n en donde cada documento estÃ¡ en una carpeta separada. Hemos usado esta opciÃ³n para asegurarnos de que los identificadores permanezcan inalterados en diferentes plataformas (lo cual no es el caso de los identificadores HASH), ya que aquÃ­ necesitamos especificar identificadores en las directivas de autenticaciÃ³n.\n
+
+La directiva <i>auth_groups</i> especifica los grupos a los cuales se permite el acceso, si el documento (o la colecciÃ³n) es uno de los que requieren autenticaciÃ³n. EstÃ¡ seguida por el nombre del grupo (o una lista de nombres de grupos separados por espacios). Las pÃ¡ginas <i>admin</i> de Greenstone le permiten definir los grupos y aÃ±adir miembros.
+"
+
+# -- Russian text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=ru] "
+ÐÐ°ÐœÐœÐ°Ñ ÐŽÐµÐŒÐŸÐœÑÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐ°Ñ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ ÑÐµ Ð¶Ðµ ÐŒÐ°ÑÐµÑÐžÐ°Ð»Ñ ÑÑÐŸ Ðž ÐŸÑÐžÐ³ÐžÐœÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐ°Ñ ÐŽÐµÐŒÐŸÐœÑÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐ°Ñ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÐÑÐžÐœÑÑÐŸÑÐœ, ÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐ°ÐœÐŽÑ Ð±Ð°Ð·ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ¹ Ð°ÑÑÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž. ÐÐ²Ð° ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŸÑÐºÑÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿Ð° (Ð Ð°Ð·Ð²ÐµÐŽÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐžÑÐŸÐº 1 Ðž 2), ÐœÐŸ ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÐµ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ ÑÑÐµÐ±ÑÑÑ Ð²Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐ° ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐŸÑÑÐ°.
+
+<p><center><b> ÐÐ»Ñ ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿Ð° Ðº ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸ Ð²Ð²ÐµÑÑÐž user:</b> <i>demo</i> <b>Ðž password:</b> <i>demo</i></center></p>
+
+<h3>ÐÐ°Ðº ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ</h3>\n
+
+<p>
+<!-- _text1_  -->
+The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>collection
+configuration file</a> is exactly the same as for the original demo collection apart from the authentication directives, one plugin option (and this description).
+
+<p>
+Ð¡Ñ
+ÐµÐŒÐ° Ð°ÑÑÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÑÐ¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÐµÑ ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐŸÐŒ Ðº ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž. ÐÐœÐ° ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ²ÑÑ
+ÑÑÑÐ¿ÐµÐœÑÐ°ÑÐŸÐ¹. Ð¡ÐœÐ°ÑÐ°Ð»Ð° ÐŸÐœÐ° ÑÐµÑÐ°ÐµÑ, ÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐžÑÑ Ð»Ðž ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ Ðº ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž Ð² ÑÐµÐ»ÐŸÐŒ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ðº ÐŸÑÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐœÑÐŒ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°ÐŒ. Ð Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÐœÐµÐŒ ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ðµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑÑÑ, ÐºÐ°ÐºÐžÐµ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÑÐ°ÐºÐŸÐ²ÑÐŒÐž (ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÑ ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐŸÐº ÑÐµÑ
+ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ², Ðº ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒ ÑÑÐµÐ±ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÑÐµÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐœÐ° ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿, ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¶Ðµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÑ, ÑÑÐŸ Ð²ÑÐµ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÐœÐµÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÑÐŒÐž Ð·Ð° ÐžÑÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÑÐµÑ
+, ÑÑÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐœÑ Ð² ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐŸÐº ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÑÑ
+ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ²). Ð¢ÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿Ð° ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑÑÑ, ÐºÐ°ÐºÐžÐŒ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÐµÐ»ÑÐŒ ÑÐ°Ð·ÑÐµÑÐµÐœ Ðº ÐœÐžÐŒ ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿.
+
+<p>
+<!-- _text3_ -->Authentication is activated by the <i>authenticate</i> directive with the value
+<i>collection</i> or <i>document</i> depending on whether authentication is to
+be performed on the full collection or on a per-document basis (the default
+value is <i>collection</i>). If authentication is on a <i>document</i> basis,
+then one can <i>either</i> specify a list of private documents (in which
+case all others are public) or a list of public documents (in which case
+all others are private) using directives <i>private_documents</i> or
+<i>public_documents</i>.  Ð¡Ð¿ÐµÑÐžÑÐžÐºÑ ÑÐ°ÐŒÐžÑ
+ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÑÑ, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÑ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° Ð² Greenstone (ÑÐ°ÑÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÐŸ ÐŸÐ±Ð»Ð°ÑÑÑÐŒ). Ð¡Ð°ÐŒÑÐ¹ Ð»ÐµÐ³ÐºÐžÐ¹ ÑÐ¿ÐŸÑÐŸÐ± ÐžÑ
+ ÐŸÑÐœÐµÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÐžÑ Ð² ÑÐŸÐŒ, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐžÑÑ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐ¶ÐŽÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐºÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° Ð² ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž Ðž ÑÐ°ÑÑÐŒÐŸÑÑÐµÑÑ ÐµÐ³ÐŸ <i>d</i>-Ð°ÑÐ³ÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ Ð² URL Greenstone.
+
+<p><!-- _text2_ -->
+In this case, we have used the <i>-OIDtype dirname</i> option to HTMLPlugin,
+which specifies that directory names should be used as identifiers. This works 
+for collections where each document is in a separate directory. We have used 
+this option to ensure that identifiers remain the same across different 
+platforms (which may not be the case for HASH identifiers), as we need to 
+specify identifiers here for the authentication directives.\n
+
+<p>
+ÐÐžÑÐµÐºÑÐžÐ²Ð° <i>auth_groups</i> ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ Ð³ÑÑÐ¿Ð¿Ñ Greenstone, Ðº ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒ ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ Ð±ÑÐŽÐµÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÑÐµÑÐµÐœ, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ (ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ) ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÑÐžÑÑÑ Ðº ÑÐµÐŒ, ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÑ
+ ÑÑÐµÐ±ÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð°ÑÑÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÑ. Ð­ÑÐŸ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ Ð³ÑÑÐ¿Ð¿Ñ (ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐŸÐŒ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ Ð³ÑÑÐ¿Ð¿ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÐŸÐ±Ð»Ð°ÑÑÐµÐ¹). <i>Admin</i> ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ Greenstone Ð¿ÐŸÐ·Ð²ÐŸÐ»ÑÐµÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÑÑ Ð³ÑÑÐ¿Ð¿Ñ Ðž ÐŽÐŸÐ±Ð°Ð²Ð»ÑÑÑ Ðº ÐœÐžÐŒ ÐœÐŸÐ²ÑÐµ.
+"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=zh] "
+æ¬æŒç€ºéŠèæå
+å«çææ¡£äžGreenstoneæŒç€ºéŠèäž­äžæ ·ïŒäœæ¬éŠèè¿å
+æ¬äžäºåºæ¬çè®€è¯åèœã
+å
+¶äž­äž€äžªææ¡£æ¯å
+¬å
+±å¯è§çïŒFarming snails 1 å 2ïŒïŒèå
+¶ä»çææ¡£åèŠæ±å
+ç»åœåæµè§ã 
+<p><center><b>èŠè®¿é®æ¬éŠèïŒçšæ·åäžºïŒ</b> <i>demo</i> <b>ïŒå¯ç äžº:</b>
+<i>demo</i></center></p> 
+ 
+<h3>æ¬éŠèåŠäœå·¥äœ</h3>\n 
+ 
+<p>é€äºè®€è¯é
+çœ®ïŒäžäžªæä»¶åæ°ïŒä»¥åæ¬éŠèæè¿°ïŒä¹å€ïŒæ¬éŠèç
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>é
+çœ®æä»¶</a>äžæŒç€ºéŠèç
+é
+çœ®æä»¶äžæš¡äžæ ·ã 
+ 
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b17mie/b17mie.htm
===================================================================
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+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Microlivestock -  Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Microlivestock -  Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future</Metadata>
+  </Description>
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+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Tecnology for International Development </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competence and with regard for appropriate balance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Frank Press is president of the National Academy of Sciences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Robert M. White is president of the National Academy of Engineering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Samuel O. Their is president of the Institute of Medicine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Frank Press and Dr. Robert M. White are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID) of the Office of International Affairs addresses a range of issues arising from the ways in which science and technology in developing countries can stimulate and complement the complex processes of social and economic development. It oversees a broad program of bilateral workshops with scientific organizations in developing countries and conducts special studies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report was prepared by an ad hoc advisory panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Office of International Affairs, National Research Council. Staff support was funded by the Office of the Science Advisor, Agency for International Development, under Grant No. DAN-5538-G-SS-1023-00. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PANEL ON MICROLIVESTOCK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. PHILLIPS, Deputy Director General (Retired), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Senior Advisor to the President, African Development Bank, Abidjan, Ivory Coast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BONNIE V. BEAVER, Professor of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, Texas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT BENIRSCHKE, Professor of Pathology and Reproductive Medicine, University of California-San Diego, San Diego, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROY D. CRAWFORD, Professor of Animal and Poultry Genetics, Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONY J. CUNHA, Distinguished Service Professor Emeritus, University of Florida, Gainesville, and Dean Emeritus, School of Agriculture, California Polytechnic University, Pomona, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID E. DEPPNER, Director, New Forest Project, International Center, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELIZABETH L. HENSON, Executive Director, American Minor Breeds Conservancy, Pittsboro, North Carolina, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. HUSS, Menard, Texas, USA (Formerly Regional Animal Production Officer, FAO, Santiago, Chile)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID R. LINCICOME, Guest Scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS E. LOVEJOY, Assistant Secretary for External Affairs, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARNE W. NORDSKOG, Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LINDA M. PANEPINTO, Director, Miniature Swine Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT J. PETERS, Professor of Animal Breeding and Husbandry in the Tropics and Subtropics, University of Gottingen, Gottingen, West Germany, and Director of Research, International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN A. PINO, Senior Fellow, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Program in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL H. ROBINSON, Director, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KNUT SCHMIDT-NIELSON, James B. Duke Professor of Physiology, Department of Zoology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALBERT E. SOLLOD, Associate Professor and Head, Section of International Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEE M. TALBOT, Visiting Fellow, World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAIR E. TERRILL, Sheep and Goat Scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHRISTEN M. WEMMER, Assistant Director for Conservation, National Zoological Park, Front Royal, Virginia, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DANNY C. WHARTON, Associate Curator Animal Departments, New York Zoological Park, Bronx Zoo, The Bronx, New York, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES A. WOODS, Professor and Curator, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS M. YUILL, Associate Dean for Research and Graduate Training, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* * *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID), National Research Council, Washington, D.C., Microlivestock Study Director and Scientific Editor </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL STAFF</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARK DAFFORN, Technical Writer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELIZABETH MOUZON, Senior Secretary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN VREYENS, MUCIA Intern</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONTRIBUTORS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following individuals have made general contributions to the development of this book. All of the persons listed as research contacts in Appendix B also contributed - usually on one or two species that are their scientific specialty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ASHIQ AHMAD, Wildlife Management Specialist, Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar, Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANGEL C. ALCALA, Division Research, Extension and Development, Silliman University, Dumaguete City, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARTI AMMANN, Basel, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PATRICK ANDAU, Forest Department, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.P. ARORA, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. AYYAPPAN, CIFRI, Kausabyaganga, Bhubaneswar Orissa, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER BAKHUIS, Caribbean Marine Biological Institute, Willemstad, Curacao, Netherlands Antilles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES R. BARBORAK, CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PUSHKAR NATH BHAT, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEVE BENNETT, Curepe, Trinidad, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.P. BLAND, Department of Physiology, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MELVIN BOLTON, Yeppoon, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOSEPH BONNEMAIRE, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D.S. BRANCKRAERT, Faculte des Sciences Agronomiques, Universite du Burundi, Bujumbura, Burundi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER BRAZAITIS, Herpetology, New York Zoological Society, The Bronx, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. DE LA BRETONNE, JR., Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. BRINCK, Department of Animal Ecology, University of Lund, Lund, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LESLIE BROWNRIGG, CIAT, Cali, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. HOMER BUCK, Illinois Natural History Survey, Kinmundy, Illinois, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GERARDO BUDOWSKI, Natural Renewable Resources Programme, CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BUTCHER, Taronga Zoo, Mosman, New South Wales, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JULIAN O. CALDECOTT, World Wildlife Fund Malaysia, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GARY CALLIS, Texline, Texas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. CAMOENS, Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. CHRISTOPHER CARMICHAEL, The Museum, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. CHABRECK, School of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.M. CHAGULA, Research, Ministry of Agriculture, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARAN CHANTALAKHANA, Department of Animal Science, Kasetsart  University, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER R. CHEEKE, Rabbit Research Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis,  Oregon, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.S. CHILD, Forest Resources Division, FAO, Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.S. CHOPRA, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation,  New Delhi, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Ross COCKRILL 29 Downs Park West, Bristol, England, BS6 7QH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CRISOSTOMO CORTES, Dairy Promotion and Extension Section, Dairy Development  Division, Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WYLAND CRIPE, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville,  Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. BEN DAVID, Holon, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. DEVENDRA, International Development Research Centre, Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODNEY DILLINGER, International Agency for Apiculture Development, Rockford,  Illinois, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DIRECTOR, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLLANDE DUMONT, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques  Appliquees, Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.G. EHIOBU, Department of Agricultural Sciences, College of Education, Agbor,  Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD FARNER, Department of Zoology, University of Washington, Seattle,  Washington, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN A. FERGUSON, Overseas Development Administration, Eland House, London,  England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ABELARDO FERRER D., Quinta Nueva Exparta, San Bernardino, Caracas,  Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LYNWOOD A. FIEDLER, Section of International Programs, U.S. Fish and Wildlife  Service, Denver Wildlife Research Center, Denver, Colorado, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. FISCHER, Tropical Science Centre, Division of Tropical Veterinary Medicine,  Justus-Liebig University, Giessen, West Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. FURTADO, Commonwealth Science Council, London, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANK GOLLEY, Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. GONZALES J., Instituto de Produccion Animal, Universidad Central de Venezuela,  El Limon-Maracay, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GRAHAM GOUDIE, Mainland Holdings, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALISTAIR GRAHAM, Tanglewood, Crowborough, East Sussex, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GORDON GRIGG, Zoology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.R. DE GUMAN, JR., Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COLIN P. GROVES, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian  National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. HARDOUIN, Institut de Medicine Tropicale "Prince Leopold," Antwerp, Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEOFFREY HAWTIN, International Development Research Centre, University of  British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GORDON HAVORD, Technical Advisory Division, UNDP, New York, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TIN HLA, Veterinary Department, Director General's Office, Rangoon, Burma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES HENTGES, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. HOLLANDER, Department of Genetics, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RENE E. HONEGGER, Herpetology, Zurich Zoo, Zurich, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JACK HOWARTH, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUANG CHU-CHIEN, Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Beijing, China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANGUS HUTTON, Gympie, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. JASIOROWSKI, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MUHAMMAD YAQUB JAVAID, Directorate of Fisheries, Government of the Punjab, Punjab, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MANGALARAJ JOHNSON, Nudumalai Sanctuary, Vannarpet, Udagamandalani, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MATI KAAL, Tallinn Zoo, ESSR Tallinn, USSR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STELLAN KARLSSON, Simontorp Aquaculture AB, Blentarp, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JACKSON A. KATEGILE, International Development Research Centre, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT E. KENWARD, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Furzebrook Research Station, Wareham, Dorset, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES M. KEARNEY, Miami, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING, Florida State Museum, Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.-G. KLOS Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Berlin, West Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NELS M. KONNERUP, Boom International, Stanwood, Washington, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAVU KWAPENA, Office of Environment and Conservation, Boroko, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS E. LACHER, Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN K. LOOSLI, Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER LUTZ, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CRAIG MACFARLAND, CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE M. MCCORKLE, Department of Rural Sociology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT E. MCDOWELL, Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JEFFREY A. MCNEELY, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADRIAN G. MARSHALL, Institute of South-East Asian Biology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RICHARD R. MARSHALL, Veterinary Medicine, Sutter Hospitals Medical Research Foundation, Sacramento, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.H.G. MARTIN, Department of Zoology, Kenyatta University College, Nairobi, Kenya </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IAN L. MASON, Edinburgh, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN C. MASON, Pacific Biological Station, Nanaimo, B.C., Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MAYO MARTIN, Fish Farming Experimental Station, Stuttgart, Arkansas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">YOLANDA MATAMOROS, Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBIN MCKERGON, Livestock Development Corporation, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. MGHENI, Faculty of Agriculture, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. MONGIN, Station de Recherches Avicoles, INRA-Centre de Tours, Nouzilly, Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOSE ROBERTO DE ALENCAR MOREIRA, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, Belem, Para, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.L.R. OLIVER, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WERNER PAUWELS, Basel, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J.A. PAYNE, Worcester, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IAN PLAYER, Wilderness Leadership School, Bellair, Natal, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES H. POWELL, JR., Plainview, Texas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM R. PRITCHARD, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HECTOR HUGO LI PUN, International Development Research Centre, Bogota, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VICENTE T. QUIRANTE, Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Project, Bureau of Animal Industry, Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAN RATTNER, The Institute of Animal Research, Kibbutz Lahav, D.N. Negev, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.V. REDDY, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RHOEHEIT, Institute of Applied Science and Technology, University Campus, Turkeyen, Guyana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES T. ROBBINS, Department of Zoology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARMEN MA. ROJAS G., CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.H.L. ROLLINSON, Sardinia, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JULIO E. SANCHEZ P., Museo Nacional, San Jose, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JEFF SAYER, World Conservation Centre, Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. SEIFERT, Tropical Cattle Research Centre, CSIRO, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANDRES ELOY SEIJAS, Servicio Nacional de Fauna Silvestre, Maracay, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K. SHAH, Institute of Animal Sciences, National Institute of Health, Islamabad, Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SIEH CHENXIA, Department of Animal Science, Nanjing Agricultural College, Nanjing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.P. SINGH, College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Chandra Sekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. CATIBOG SINHA, Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna, Philippines </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. SMITH, Tropical Animal Health, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, Great Britain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. MITHAT EFENDI, Ankara, Turkey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HENRY STODDARD, Shamrock Veterinary Clinic and Fisheries, Cross City, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUKUT SULARSASA, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjalu Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. SUTTON, Agricultural Research and Education Center, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NICHOLAS SMYTHE, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. SZUMIEC, Polish Academy of Sciences, Experimental Fish Culture Station, Chybie, Poland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. TABUNAKAWAI, Ministry of Primary Industries, Suva, Fiji</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANK M. THOMPSON, Wild Animal Brokers, Bradenton, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALLEN D. TILLMAN, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DON TULLOCH, Winnellie, Northern Territory, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONRADO A. VALDEZ, Dairy Development Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LUIS VARONA, Havana, Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PRAN VOHRA, Department of Avian Sciences, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANTOON DE VOS Whitford, Auckland, New Zealand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GRAHAME WEBB, Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory, Winnellie, Northern Territory, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAGMAR WERNER, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GARY WETTERBERG, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES H. WHARTON, Clayton, Georgia, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.W. BERT WHEELER, College Station, Texas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROMULUS WHITAKER, Madras Crocodile Bank, Perur, Tamil Nadu, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILDLIFE CONSERVATION INTERNATIONAL, New York Zoological Society, The Bronx, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.R. YEO, USDA-ARS, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BRUCE A. YOUNG, Department of Animal Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHAROON YOUNGPRAPAKORN, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm and Zoo, Samutprakan, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS M. YUILL School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. ZEILLER, Miami Seaquarium, Miami, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The purpose of this report is to raise awareness of the potential of small livestock species and to stimulate their introduction into animal research and economic development programs. It is geared particularly towards benefiting developing nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Microlivestock" is a term we have coined for species that are inherently small, such as rabbits and poultry, as well as for breeds of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs that are less than about half the size of the most common breeds. These miniature animals are seldom considered in the broad picture of livestock development, but they seem to have a promising future. Wherever land is scarce it seems reasonable to assume that, things being equal, small animals would be more attractive than large ones. And land for livestock is becoming increasingly scarce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this report we have emphasized multipurpose species with promise for small  holders. In some species, the promise is immediate; in others, it is long term, and much research must be undertaken before that promise can be realized or even understood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We have included wild species that seem to have potential as future livestock. Some are threatened with extinction but are described here because their economic merits may be the key to acquiring support for their protection. Also we have highlighted rare breeds of domesticated species because the current tendency has been to concentrate on a small number of large breeds, and many potentially valuable breeds are becoming extinct through neglect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The book was prepared after an intensive survey of more than 300 animal scientists in 80 countries. They suggested more than 150 species for inclusion. The staff then drafted chapters on about 40 species and these drafts were reviewed by more than 400 researchers worldwide. The thousands of resulting comments, corrections, and additions were integrated into the drafts. The panel then met to review the product, to select the most promising species, and to rework the chapters based on their own experiences and joint conclusions. The result is the current 35 chapters. Most of the case studies and accounts of innovations highlighted in the various sidebars were developed by the staff study director. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collectively, this study covers many species, but it by no means exhausts all the microlivestock possibilities. Lack of space and time precludes discussion of creatures such as edible insects, snails, worms, turtles, and bats, which in some regions are highly regarded foods. Similarly, we have not included aquatic life. These decisions were arbitrary; perhaps invertebrates and aquatic species can be included in future volumes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report is addressed to government administrators, technical assistance personnel, and researchers in agriculture, nutrition, and related disciplines who are concerned with helping developing countries achieve a more efficient and balanced exploitation of their biological resources. Hence, we deal with the animals in a general way and do not cover details of biology, husbandry, or economics. A selection of readings that contains such technical information is cited in Appendix A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further goal of this project has been to explore the common ground between the disparate arms of animal science: to show that specialists in wildlife, zoology, and livestock science have much to learn from one another's field of expertise; to show that "fanciers" of pigeons, pheasants, chinchillas, iguanas, and other species may have much to offer livestock breeders - including germplasm; and that those who raise "obsolete" breeds are not only playing a vital role in the protection of rare genes but can offer the benefit of their experience to commercial livestock producers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout this report, the scientific names of mammals follow those in: Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. 1982. J.H. Honacki, K.E. Kinman, and J.W. Koeppl, editors. Published by Allen Press, Inc.; and the Association of Systematics Collections, Lawrence, Kansas, USA. All dollar figures are in U.S. dollars; all ton figures are in metric tons.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been produced under the auspices of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council. ACTI was mandated to assess innovative scientific and technological advances, with particular emphasis on those appropriate for developing countries. In this spirit, therefore, the current report includes some extremely unusual species. Whether these will eventually prove practical for widespread use is uncertain, but we present them here for researchers and others who look forward to challenges and enjoy the satisfaction of successful pioneering. The domestication of new poultry, as well as the management of rodents, iguanas, and small deer and antelope, should be viewed in this spirit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Current titles in the ACTI series on managing tropical animal resources are: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The production of these books has been supported largely by the Office of the Science Advisor of the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID), which also made this report possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WARNING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If misunderstood, this book is potentially dangerous. Because of the severity of the food crisis, the panel has selected some animals - mainly in the rodent section - that are highly adaptable and grow quickly. These seem appropriate for raising only in areas where they already exist, which are clearly identified in those chapters. Such potentially invasive animals should not be introduced to other environments because they could become serious pests. In any trials, local species should always be given priority.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to cite this report:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council. 1991. Microlivestock: Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cover Design by David Bennett </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the developing countries, there are over 100 million farms of less than five hectares, supporting about 700 million people, who represent about 17 percent of the world population. Even more significant is the fact that about 50 million farms have less than one hectare of land. C. Devendra and Marcia Burns Goat Production in the Tropics We may now be in the wind down stage of bigger is better animal selection trend and it has certainly been a wild ride.... the lesson now being learned is that the bigger breeding animals . . . cost more to maintain, are often slower to reproduce, and may even have a shorter lifespan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kelly Klober</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small Farmer's Journal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g001a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like computers, livestock for use in developing countries should be getting smaller and becoming more "personal." Conventional "mainframes," such as cattle, are too large for the world's poorest people; they require too much space and expense. "Miniframes," such as the conventional breeds of sheep and goats, have an increasingly important role to play. But tiny, "user-friendly" species for home use are the ones highlighted in this report. We have called them "microlivestock."'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two types of microlivestock. One consists of extremely small forms of conventional livestock - such as cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs. The other consists of species that are inherently small poultry, rabbits, and rodents, for instance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock are important because the developing world's animal production is only a fraction of what it should be. Throughout Latin America, Asia, and Africa, the poor eat almost no meat, milk, or eggs - the most nutritious foods. It is estimated, for example, that in Mexico 25 million campesinos cannot afford meat. In poor countries, even the middle class eats less meat in a year than the populations of North America and Europe eat in a month. Malnutrition is common and its effects, especially on children, can be debilitating. It is one of mankind's most serious imbalances - and most pressing problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural families in the Third World usually subsist mainly on the products from their homes or farms. Thus, if we are to help their livestock production, more attention must be given to animals that are sized for their situations. Examples discussed in the report are summarized here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microbreeds Small breeds of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs are common in the developing world. Because they are often raised for subsistence rather than for commerce, the national and global contribution that they make is often overlooked. These small, hardy animals deserve much greater recognition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Later chapters highlight dozens of promising microbreeds. All are less than half average size; some are far smaller than that. The "miniBrahman" cow of Mexico is only 60 cm tall and weighs 140 kg; the southern Sudan dwarf sheep of eastern Africa can weigh as little as 11 kg; the Terai goat of Nepal weighs less than 12 kg; and the cuing pig of Mexico weighs merely 10 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry The widespread use of poultry in Third World villages demonstrates the importance of small, easily managed, household livestock. Small size, the ability to forage for themselves, and a natural desire to stay around the house put chickens, ducks, guinea fowl, and other birds among the most vital resources of rural Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Scratching a living out of the dirt, dust, ditches, and debris, these often-scrawny creatures are a resource to be taken seriously. For the most poverty stricken, a bony bird may be the only source of meat during much of a lifetime. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among poultry, there are many underrated, but highly promising, species, including:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Pigeon. These birds forage widely but return home, thereby providing the farmers with squab, one of the tastiest of all meats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Quail. Small and efficient, they, too, are suited to home rearing, and in Japan and a few other countries, large numbers are raised commercially in very small space. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Muscovy. A native of South American rainforests, this bird is a major poultry resource of France, Taiwan, and a few other countries. Tame, tolerant, and tough, it deserves greater recognition everywhere. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Guinea Fowl. One of the most self-reliant of all domestic birds, this native of Africa is raised in huge numbers in Europe - notably France. Its potential for increased production elsewhere is exceptional. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Turkey. The traditional turkey of Mexico still exists as a scavenger bird in villages and household backyards. Unlike the highly selected modern breeds, it is self-reliant, robust, and disease-resistant. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits Like chickens, rabbits exemplify the vast possibilities that microlivestock offer for increasing meat production in the most poverty-stricken parts of the world. Captive rabbits have been popular as food at least since the time of the Romans. Rabbit rearing has been well established in Europe and China, and now national rabbit projects have begun in many developing nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents Some 7,000 years ago, guinea pigs were domesticated as a source of food for the high Andes; even today in the uplands of Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador, most Indians raise them inside their homes and regard them as an essential part of life. For many Indians, these indoor livestock are the main source of meat. Prolific, tractable, and easy to feed, house, and handle, guinea pigs are even kept in downtown apartment buildings - often in boxes under the bed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other rodents might also be suited to domestication; for instance, the potentially tamable, clean-living species of South American fields and woodlands - agouti, capybara, hutia, mare, coypu, pace, and vizcacha. Two remarkable domestication programs have been started in Africa: the grasscutter in West Africa and the giant rat in Nigeria. Both animals provide popular "bushmeat" and researchers are now learning to raise them in captivity. (Because of its tangy taste, Ghanaians actually pay three times more for grasscutter meat than for beef!)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antelope Another wild African mammal with potential for "household animal husbandry," the blue duiker, is a rabbit-sized antelope. In some areas of Central and Southern Africa the demand is so great that its population is declining at an alarming rate. Duiker rearing, if it can be made successful, might provide both food and an economic alternative to slaughtering the wild populations. It is reported that duikers are easy to maintain and they reproduce well in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat of several other tiny antelope species is also much sought in many African countries, and these animals are also suitably sized to feed the average family at one meal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer Several species of tiny deer - smaller than many dogs - might make useful microlivestock, although much research is needed before their true potential can be judged. Normal-sized deer were once considered too easily frightened to be reared as domestic livestock, but several species are now raised on thousands of deer farms in New Zealand as well as in at least a dozen other countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer and musk deer (which, strictly speaking, are not true deer at all) are of microlivestock size and are also possible future livestock. The musk deer produces one of the most valuable materials in the animal kingdom - more valuable, in fact, than gold. The musk from the male's glands is used in oriental medicines as well as in European perfumes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguanas Over much of the Caribbean and Latin America, iguanas are a traditional source of food. Indeed, the meat of these large herbivorous lizards is so delicious they are being hunted to extinction throughout their wide range. Their eggs are much enjoyed also. Programs in Panama, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Curacao, and Argentina have developed simple methods to hatch and rear three iguana species. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bees Honey bees are present almost everywhere, and honey and wax are high-value products that demand little processing and can be stored and transported easily. Innovations in equipment and technique have made beekeeping successful in the tropics without requiring sophisticated hives or elaborate training. Raising bees can also benefit the many crops that require pollination.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE MICROLIVESTOCK ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although animal science has traditionally emphasized bigness, smallness has its advantages. Some of these are summarized below.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock lend themselves to economic niches that are not easily filled by large livestock. Much of their potential is for subsistence production. They are promising for the many peasants who, being outside the cash economy, are now unable to purchase meat, milk, cheese, or eggs. These people can afford only animals that can be raised within the home or backyard under ambient climatic conditions and on feeds that are cheap and easily available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A subsistence farmer is likely to benefit more from small species than from large because of several factors:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The animals are less expensive to buy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They are less of a financial risk to maintain. (A farmer with several small animals is less vulnerable to loss than a farmer with a single large animal, a feature that is particularly important in subsistence farming where success determines whether the family will survive.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They give a faster return on investment. (Small size generally signifies high reproductive capacity and a fast turnover.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They provide flexibility. (Farmers can more easily change the size of their herd or flock to match the amount of feed available at a given time. Also, they can sell animals according to the family's fluctuating needs for cash or food.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They provide a steadier source of income.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They increase the chances of successful breeding because greater numbers are usually kept. (This also means that breeding stock is more likely to be retained in times of scarcity.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They are more easily transported. (Who hasn't traveled in a Third World bus or train without chickens, ducks, or guinea pigs as fellow passengers?)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- In some cases they are more efficient converters of food energy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are also a number of other benefits to small species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reduced Spoilage. A portion of meat that comes in a "package" of a size that can be readily consumed by a family is important in areas where refrigeration is unavailable or uneconomic. A family can eat the meat produced by most microlivestock in one meal or in one day to minimize the risk of spoilage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Efficient Use of Space. The space required for handling and feeding microlivestock is proportionately less than that required for large animals. Low space requirements make many microlivestock (such as guinea pigs, rabbits, pigeons, and quail) available to landless rural inhabitants who have no room for a cow. This is particularly important with respect to feed production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Cheaper Facilities. Facilities and equipment required for microlivestock are, by and large, smaller and simpler than those required for large animals. They often can be made from local products or scrap material or both.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Ease of Management. Farmers and villagers can manage small animals more easily than large, which is an advantage in the many places where women and children are the main keepers of livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Increased Productivity. Small animals tend to fit well into existing farming systems, thereby expanding the resource base and recycling nutrients. Some - for example bees, ducks, and geese - can feed themselves by scavenging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- By-Products. Many species have fur, feathers, skins, and other by-products that are often more valuable than their meat, milk, or eggs. Examples include the feet and tails of rabbits, musk from musk deer, and pelts from rodents such as coypu. Processing such byproducts creates diversification for the farmer and perhaps jobs for the village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RATIONALE FOR LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many have argued that livestock raising should be discouraged, that it is a primary cause of desertification through overgrazing and that it is an inefficient converter of basic material and energy into human food. "Grow more pulses, grow more grains," these people cry. Their arguments can be valid where the land has high potential for permanent cultivation. Much of the world's surface, however, does not fit into that category, and it is in these areas and for those people who have no access to arable lands that a convincing case for livestock can most easily tee mace. As W.J.A. Payne has written:*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Livestock, particularly ruminants, can process forage and waste crop materials inedible by man into nutritionally desirable food products, many of high protein, mineral and vitamin content and including some of high caloric value. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Approximately 40 percent of total land available in developing countries can be used only for some form of forage production and a further 30 percent is classified as forest with some potential for the production of forage. Some 12 percent of the world's total population live in areas where people depend almost entirely on the products obtained from ruminant livestock. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Livestock provide a range of extremely valuable by-products. Dung is not only a fertilizer and soil-stabilizer but also a fuel of often considerably greater value than the fodder consumed in its production. Other byproducts, especially hides and wool form the bases of rural enterprises that may provide significant incomes to the poorest members of society. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Animal plant and human life are ecologically interdependent. The establishment of agricultural systems in which livestock are integrated with crops, forestry and aquaculture is essential for the improvement of overall productivity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock produce food that adds to the nutritional quality and variety of human diets. Although it is possible for humans to exist without them, these foods are relished and sought after by the majority of humanity. These foods include meat, eggs and processed products such as biltong and cheese. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general, small species tend to expand the food base by using a wider array of resources than do major livestock such as cattle. Many can be raised on feeds that people discard: fibrous residues, industry by-products, or kitchen wastes. Some collect minute feeds that otherwise go unused. For example, chickens and pigeons gather scattered seeds, turkeys gobble up insects, geese graze water weeds, iguanas feed in the tops of trees, and bees collect nectar and pollen from flowers that may be miles away.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even some grazing microlivestock prefer different forages from those preferred by cattle. Antelope and deer, for instance, browse tree leaves; capybara and grasscutters eat reeds. Combining microlivestock with conventional livestock results in a more complete utilization of forage resources and greater animal production per hectare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under conditions of abundance, small size may be of no advantage in mammals, but if feed is limited, it is of great help. A small animal (or its keeper) needs to cover less area to fulfill its daily requirements, so that microlivestock may grow fat in areas where the forage is too sparse to support a larger animal. This is particularly vital when there are seasonal bottlenecks. For example, feed may be plentiful enough for most of the year to supply many large animals; however, the dry season may greatly restrict the numbers that can be kept.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although small animals generally require proportionately higher inputs of feed, they also grow proportionately faster (see sidebar opposite). In addition, species such as rabbits, guinea pigs, and grasscutters digest fibrous matter with surprising efficiency, even though they are not true ruminants like cattle, sheep, and goats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many small animals have high reproductive capacity with short gestation periods, large numbers of offspring, and rapid juvenile growth. They tend to reach sexual maturity at a younger age than large animals, and the interval between the generations can be very short. Thus, meat or other products can be produced more rapidly and more evenly throughout the year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cows, for example, produce a maximum of one calf per year. A pig, on the other hand, may produce 7 or more young; a rabbit, 30 or more; a chicken, more than 100.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adaptability and Hardiness</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The survival rates and manageability of many small breeds and species can be outstanding. Smallness is often an adaptation to harsh environment. Indeed, a major promise for microlivestock is in special environmental niches. Where cold, heat, temperature fluctuations, aridity, or humidity are extreme, microlivestock are likely to show their greatest advantage. Chickens, guinea fowl, goats, and many other small species already live in villages, homes, and backyards in harsh and disease-prone climates, and are usually given no care and sometimes no food: they have to scavenge for their sustenance and survive as best they can. Such selection pressures result in animals of remarkable adaptability, tolerance, and robustness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microlivestock can produce under conditions where conventional species die. The capybara, for instance, is at home in the Latin American lowlands, where the climate is hot and humid and floods cause seasonal inundations. Cattle, by contrast, die because of malnutrition, foot rot, or drowning. Other microlivestock species with a wide tolerance to ecological extremes include the turkey, pigeon, and bee. And some dwarf breeds of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs show surprising tolerance to trypanosomes, the parasites that make conventional breeds impossible to maintain throughout much of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some small species can be raised in cities, where poverty and malnutrition are often worse than in rural areas. It is estimated, for instance, that one million livestock exist in Cairo, not counting the pigeons that are raised on countless rooftops. Goats and cattle are common in urban India, and many Third World cities have far more chickens than people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p9a.png"></center><br>
+ Food utilization versus body size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICROLIVESTOCK LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raising microlivestock is not a panacea for the Third World's food problems. Efforts to develop them will not be without difficulties. Some likely problems are noted here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High Energy Requirements</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smaller animals tend to have a higher feed requirement per unit of body weight than large animals. Anatomical and physiological constraints prevent them from meeting their relatively high energy requirements simply by increasing the rate of food ingestion. Therefore, for optimum production, some small animals, particularly nonruminants, require feed that is higher in protein and lower in fiber than large animals. This is particularly true when the small animals are compared with ruminants such as cattle, sheep, and goats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increased Labor Requirements</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The advantages of low investment, fast return on capital, flexibility, and efficient resource utilization are offset by higher demands for labor. Keeping small animals often requires considerable effort, and its economic viability may depend on the availability of cheap and willing labor. Many small animals are raised at home by family members, such as children, the elderly, and the handicapped, who have time available and whose labor costs are nominally zero.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diseases</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some potential microlivestock are undomesticated, and resistance to diseases and parasites is one justification for their consideration. However, the general healthiness of a species when it is free-ranging can be a misleading guide for its husbandry. Confining any animal in high density invariably increases the potential for the spread of infectious diseases and parasites. Moreover, mismanagement can foster respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases (such as salmonella or coccidiosis) that are rare among scattered populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microlivestock are potential reservoirs for diseases that affect not only local animals but people as well. This may limit their successful development in some areas. Although the dangers are often exaggerated, controls may be needed, particularly of rinderpest, tickborne diseases, and those diseases communicable to humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Predation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small size makes microlivestock easy prey.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Techniques to manage some microlivestock species are not yet well established. The development of appropriate husbandry techniques, as well as a better understanding of the animals' particular biological and behavioral characteristics, will be needed before major progress can be made. These species (for instance rodents, deer, and iguanas) may require collection of different genotypes, as well as studies of diseases, nutrition, and management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Complex Logistics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is complicated and expensive to reach millions of widely scattered peasants, each having only a handful of small animals. Even though total production may far exceed that of commercial farms raising large animals, the smallholdings are often dispersed, their animals are often used for subsistence rather than commerce, and their managers are often ill-trained and illiterate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legislative Restrictions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The use of some microlivestock species may be restricted by legislation. For instance, some countries have meat and veterinary laws that work against the development of species other than cattle. Others have laws to protect wildlife, which could be important in the case of species such as antelope, deer, pace, and iguana.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of Markets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock need not be just for home or local consumption; they can also be raised for market. But some commercial programs, including some with rabbits and guinea pigs, have failed because no public demand was developed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resistance to New Species</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People have close associations with livestock, and in most cultures they do not easily accept animals or animal foods that are radically different from their traditional ones. In general, the ties between certain ethnic groups and a particular species or breed is very strong (one reason, for example, why European colonists introduced their own large breeds of cattle and sheep to Africa and Asia, paying little attention to small indigenous breeds). Moreover, people who are used to bringing the animal to the feed rather than the feed to the animal may resist a small animal that has to be penned up and fed by hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Opposition to Smallness</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, there seems to be an innate human trait that considers bigger to be better, especially among the common livestock. For example, because many tropical cattle are small, there is strong inclination on the part of those responsible for livestock improvement to dismiss them or to increase their size by crossing them with large breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FUTURE OF MICROLIVESTOCK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small animals are likely to become increasingly important. As human populations increase, the space available for growing forage decreases, and this phenomenon favors small animals. Many villagers already have little or no pastureland. Some live in areas (the rice-growing areas of Southeast Asia, for instance) where crops are grown on almost every square meter almost every month of the year. Microlivestock are potentially important for urban areas of developing countries as well. There, too, land is at a premium and is usually inadequate for raising conventional livestock. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, however, microlivestock have been largely ignored. Compared with cattle, they have been accorded little scientific effort. In the drive towards larger animals, stimulated by experience in the temperate zone, the virtually unstudied gene pool of small species and breeds has been mostly bypassed. There have been few attempts to assess or improve their farm productivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is unfortunate, and it is perhaps due to the fact that small animals may be less efficient at digesting certain foods and therefore technically less attractive than large, "modern" breeds. But to Third World peasants, an animal's efficiency is far less important than its survivability and manageability. If an animal cannot be raised under village conditions, its feed-use efficiency or milk yield is irrelevant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock production should be integrated into most ruraldevelopment projects. Small animals offer a way to improve the lives of people who are hard to reach by other methods. Only by expanding research on the husbandry, hygiene, nutrition, reproduction, physiology, and breeding can the promise of animals sized for small farms and villages be fulfilled. Moreover, the costs will be small compared with those of programs for large animals.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specifically, experiment stations should produce and promote methods and materials for use in rearing microlivestock. Donors and development institutions, planners, and policymakers should note the potentials of microlivestock and the benefits that can be derived from them. Teaching manuals and materials are needed, and classes in microlivestock husbandry should be included in rural school curricula.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raising personal livestock on weeds and table scraps in cages beside the house or boxes under the bed will, in many instances, get quality protein to the most poverty stricken more effectively than raising large livestock on pastures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although small size confers many advantages, the question is not whether the large or small animal is "best," but rather how well each can meet a person's varying requirements. In a given situation, livestock can be too small or too large. But the fact remains that not everyone who wants meat or money has the resources to acquire, keep, manage, or utilize a large animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key is balance. Both microlivestock and traditional livestock deserve serious attention. Indeed, it seems likely that the two will seldom compete. Most microlivestock complement traditional livestock because of unique physical, physiological, behavioral, or economic characteristics. They increase the range of options for the millions of poor for whom the choice may not even be between large and small livestock, but between microlivestock and no livestock at all. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It's an unfortunate fact that small animals don't have the prestige among Third World farmers that large animals do (perhaps this arose because children can look after goats and sheep but it takes men to look after cattle). Even sheep and goats are not accorded the same stature as cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hugh Popenoe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeds and varieties were created from mutant genes and thus haste become living reservoirs of these genes, holding them for use in future generations of mankind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g002a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part I : Microbreeds</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g003a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs supply millions of people around the world with the bulk of their cash and animal products. Yet scores of breeds - especially in the tropics - are left out of livestock development projects merely because they are considered too small. These "microbreeds"' have sometimes been considered genetic dead ends because they appear undersized and puny. Many of these traditional animals - some in local use for thousands of years - are disappearing, and even the small ancestors of large modern breeds are becoming extinct.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These small breeds deserve to be studied and developed in their own right. Throughout Africa, Asia, and Latin America, these usually hardy animals are especially adapted to traditional husbandry practices and harsh local conditions. Some have remarkable qualities and are well adapted to resist hostile weather, ravaging pestilence, and poor diets. In remote places and in areas of extreme climate, they are often vitally important for basic subsistence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, because of stress or disease, or insufficient forage, land, or money, microbreeds may be the only practical livestock in many settings. Their individual output may be low, but it can be efficient considering the lack of care and poor feeds they are given. Their availability and the growing number of small-sized farms in the developing world make them increasingly worthy of consideration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following chapters in this section describe microcattle, microgoats, microsheep, and micropigs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Microcattle</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g004a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the purposes of this report, "microcattle" are considered to be small breeds of cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus) with a mature weight of about 300 kg or less. In many areas of the developing world, these are actually the animals most widely held by farmers and pastoralists. They are often treasured because of their resilience and simple requirements. Many survive and produce under harsh conditions, grow rapidly, calve easily, show good maternal ability, yield lean meat, or have other advantages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle have generally been ignored in the push towards larger animals, but they seem inherently suitable for traditional and small-farm husbandry. As rural people in developing countries improve their own productivity, as they become more aware of nutritional needs, and as they depend more upon cash economies, microcattle could become vital means for improving personal, dietary, and economic status.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle have been classified in many ways, but they are generally designated as humped or humpless types. However, clear distinctions among them are sometimes difficult or impossible to make because they have intermingled for thousands of years. Representative microcattle types are listed at the end of the chapter. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than two-thirds of the world's 1.3 billion cattle are found in the developing world; one-third is in the tropics. As noted, a considerable number of these could be called "microcattle."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many strains of microcattle are threatened with extinction because of replacement or crossbreeding with larger types. This is in some respects shortsighted because promoting just a few breeds contributes to narrowing of the genetic base, and valuable traits may be lost when selection is done to conform to any preconceived standard, including large size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle are adapted to a wide variety of habitats. Many types thrive - even with little or no attention - in climates that are hot, humid, arid, or beset by diseases and parasites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle are ruminants and digest fiber well, although they are selective foragers and prefer tender grasses and low-growing legumes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with other tropical cattle, microbreeds generally reach physical and sexual maturity in 2 or 3 years. Many can breed year-round when conditions are favorable (gestation lasts about 9 months). Cows may remain fertile 10 years or more, and can live more than 20 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle usually graze from as few as four hours to as many as eight hours a day. If feed is of poor quality, they must forage (and ruminate) longer to receive adequate nutrition. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle are commonly docile and undemanding animals, and many small breeds are surprisingly responsive to humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like conventional breeds, microcattle produce the same well-known products: meat, milk, manure, hides, horn, blood, and bone. They are also used for traction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small cattle often produce only modest amounts of milk and meat per animal. However, given higher stocking rates, a herd of microcattle is often able to outyield larger, genetically improved animals on a per hectare basis, especially under stressful conditions. When their ability to survive adversity and poor management is taken into account, they may often be far and away the most efficient cattle for traditional husbandry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surprisingly, there is a place even for small draft animals. They tend to be active, thrifty (efficient), and more maneuverable in tight spaces, and so are adapted for use in the small fields, terraces, and paddies that are becoming increasingly common. The small hill cattle of Nepal, for instance, are valued because they can negotiate steep slopes and narrow terraces on Himalayan mountainsides. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle are handled like their larger counterparts, but herding, tethering, fencing, and hobbling are generally easier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle are familiar animals that are accepted in nearly all cultures; their meat, milk, manure, and leather are in demand almost everywhere. In many societies, beef is preferred over other meats, even by those who can rarely afford it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas, organized breeding, production, and marketing associations are already in place. Microcattle can also integrate well into traditional forms of husbandry, whether in pastoral herds of hundreds or as solitary backyard milk cows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under humid and hot conditions, microcattle probably suffer less than larger breeds because their greater ratio of skin area to body mass enhances their ability to shed heat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of cattle that can be kept on a given parcel of land may be increased, sometimes even doubled, with smaller animals. Microcattle can also be penned and fed cut-and-carry forage more easily than can larger cattle, and more of them can be maintained on the same amount of feed. This permits more continuous production and less financial hardship when an animal perishes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small cattle may require less labor because they are generally easier to handle, herd, confine, and transport. They usually have few problems with calving, and as a rule require little or no assistance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microcattle have unusual tolerances to disease. In Africa, for instance, there are breeds that tolerate or resist trypanosomiasis, a parasitic disease that makes large areas of that continent uninhabitable for most other cattle breeds. Others seem more tolerant of internal or external parasites, theileriosis (east coast fever), rinderpest, or other afflictions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle often lack the prestige of larger breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When given quality forage and supplemental feeding, small unimproved cattle may not match the overall productivity of the large, highly developed breeds. Their greatest potential may prove to be for traditional husbandry and for grazing marginal areas where survival is more important than feed efficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BONSAI BRAHMAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mexico, researchers are deliberately creating microcattle. Since 1970, Juan Manuel Berruecos Villalobos, former director of the Veterinary Medicine school at the National Autonomous University, has directed this enterprise. He and his colleagues have miniaturized cows by selecting the smallest specimens out of a herd of normal-sized Brahman cattle and breeding them with one another. After five generations, adult females average 15-180 kg adult males 20-220 kg. A few of the smallest cows are now only 60 cm tall and 140 kg in weight. Merely one-fifth of normal weight, they are shorter than the turkeys that share the barnyard with them. Indeed, they even get lost in the grassy pastures so that the farmers cannot see them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This program seems to have yielded a productive animal that can be cheaply and easily maintained in a small space. Berruecos has demonstrated that the tiny cows can be stocked on one-third the area needed to support one normal-sized cow. He reports that they are giving remarkable amounts of milk: up to four lifers a day, compared with six lifers from their full-sized counterparts. On a feed-intake to weight-gain basis, the tiny cattle are no less efficient than their normal-sized counterparts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although 17 years have gone into the selection of what Berruecos calls his "bonsai cattle," the process is not yet finished. Future goals include testing embryo transplants to see if one normal-sized cow can support multiple "microfetuses" (possibly as many as eight). This would help to rapidly increase the numbers of the miniature form, which weigh merely 4-5 kg at birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All in all, the Mexican researchers see miniaturization as a new option for governments and farmers increasingly squeezed by shrinking farm land and rising production costs. Small livestock they say, are a way to produce more food on less land faster. For example, a campesino with almost no land can have one or two bonsais, but could never maintain a standard-sized cow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their adaptability and robustness make microcattle worthy of preservation, study, and greater use, and they should be incorporated into many ongoing programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selective breeding, although infrequently attempted, can probably improve productivity significantly. Records of breed history should be established, and unusual or special characteristics noted and the information disseminated. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p24a.png"></center><br>
+ Original distribution of wild cattle and banteng (Based on Mason , 1984)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In areas where small, indigenous breeds are being replaced, representative populations should be maintained and studied to increase understanding of their adaptive diversity and to retain a genetic storehouse for the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MICROCATTLE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwarf West African Shorthorn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African coastal forests, and inland. Female 125 kg; male 150 kg. Adaptation to harsh, humid climates and good resistance to trypanosomiasis and other diseases allow these small animals to exist where other cattle die. They are perhaps the smallest cattle of all (often weighing less than 100 kg). In the areas of worst disease and highest rainfall, this hardy animal is often found thriving, but half wild. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muturu Nigeria. Female 160 kg; male 210 kg. This notable subtype is slightly larger. It is the most trypanotolerant of all cattle, showing no symptoms or loss of vitality. It is widely kept, mostly as a village scavenger and often as a pet, and yields a high percentage of meat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N'Dama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West Africa. 200-400 kg. These active, stocky animals utilize low-quality forage, produce good beef, and are used as light draft oxen. Milk production, though poor, improves with feeding level. N'Dama mature early and are exceptionally fertile, and they have already become important in breeding programs. They are resistant to trypanosomiasis, and can exist where temperatures average 30&Yacute; C with 1,500 mm annual rainfall. In the least hospitable areas, N'Damas ranging down to 200 kg are often the only cattle that can remain productive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodope</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southeastern Europe. Female 200 kg; male 350 kg. A humpless multipurpose breed - draft, milk, and beef - that is exceptionally hardy. The milk is high in butterfat. Possibly adaptable to the subtropics. It is rapidly being lost to crossbreeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zebu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zebus are among the most important tropical domestic animals. However, the dwarfs are not well known, although in many areas they are preferred, especially as draft animals. Zebus use less water, even though their sweat glands are larger and more numerous than those of most other cattle. All have a low basal metabolism and resist heat well. In general, they also have high resistance to ticks and other parasites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan Black Taiwan. Female 250 kg; male 250 kg. Well adapted to poor tropical conditions, these work animals are also used for meat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kedah-Kelantan Malaysia. Female 200 kg; male 250 kg. Hardy, well adapted cattle with exceptional fertility on a poor diet, both sexes are used as draft animals as well as sources of meat and cash. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sinhala (Dwarf Zebu) Sri Lanka. Female 200 kg; male 250 kg. An ancient type of zebu, preferred for its handiness in cultivating small paddies and terraced fields. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nuba Dwarf Sudan. 180-220 kg. These work animals are well proportioned but are not slaughtered for meat, and milk production is low. Although tolerant to trypanosomiasis, their numbers have dwindled because of crossbreeding. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small Zebu Somalia. 160-230 kg. These small native cattle are used for beef, milk, and for work. They are well adapted to poor feed in a desolate environment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abyssinian Shorthorn Zebu (Showa) Central highlands of Ethiopia. Female 225 kg; male 305 kg. These widespread, small-humped cattle are very hardy. They produce beef and are generally milked, with surplus production about 2-4 kg daily. Resistant to many parasites, they also have a gentle disposition and make good work animals. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwarf Zebu (Mongalla) Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya. Female 150 kg; male 250 kg. A highly variable, long-entrenched, small, East-African zebu with some nonzebu blood. Pastoralists favor it because of its hardiness. Although slow-maturing, it is well-fleshed, can yield excellent beef, and some types are milked. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mashona Zimbabwe. Female 200 kg; male 250 kg. This hardy zebusanga type (see below) is widespread in drier areas and has a high resistance to disease and parasites. Since the 1940s, it has been bred for beef production and selected animals now weigh more than 500 kg. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mini-Brahman Mexico. 135 kg. Downsized from 450-kg Brazilian zebus through selective breeding by Mexican researchers, these gentle animals are reported to yield two-thirds as much milk (3-4 liters daily) as the parent stock. Because of much higher stocking rates on grass, production per hectare is reportedly greater than with full-sized animals (see sidebar, page 22). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central and South America. Descendants of Spanish and Portuguese  cattle imported over 400 years ago, "criollo" cattle have adapted to a  wide range of harsh climates. Many varieties are small: mature females  often weigh 200-300 kg or less. They sometimes produce little beef or  milk under traditional conditions and management, but they are  extremely hardy and survive when other cattle perish. Through  importation and crossbreeding, many local types have been lost or are  threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chinampo Baja California, Mexico. 200-350 kg. Extremely tolerant of  wild desert conditions, these docile criollo cattle exist largely on scrub  and cactus. They get most of their water from succulent plants, have a  low metabolic rate and body temperature, and are mostly active at night. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Florida Scrub Florida, USA. 225-300 kg. Genetically isolated for more  than 300 years, the Florida Scrub is very hardy in harsh, subtropical  conditions. It has good resistance to ticks and screwworm, and can  subsist on forage with a high roughage content. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sanga</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This type - an ancient cross between longhorns or shorthorns and  humped animals - is found throughout eastern and southern Africa. It  weighs from 150 to 500 kg or more. Some types have been selectively  bred or crossed with European cattle and are quite productive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bavenda Transvaal, South Africa. 240-290 kg. This hardy and  disease tolerant tropical variety is small and prolific. It is generally used  for draft, barter, and beef. However, it has been crossbred with larger  animals so frequently that the smaller types are almost extinct; most  "Bavendas" now weigh more than 300 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ovambo' Northeastern Namibia. Female 160 kg; male 225 kg. A calm  and docile animal with a small hump, it is used by seasonal pastoralists  for beef and milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nilotic Sudan. 180-300 kg. These cattle of southern Sudan show great variation in size, partly due to environmental factors. They are generally resistant to local parasites and worms, have good potential for increased beef production, and their milk is very important locally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chadian "Native" and Dwarf Black Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad. Female 225 kg; male 275 kg. These two types are small, humped meat animals that graze the sparse savanna and are very drought resistant. Little scientific information exists about them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Arab Cattle"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East. Small types (female 225 kg; male 300 kg) are used for meat and some milk, especially in Lebanon. There are many local forms with variable appearance, but all have small humps. Well adapted to grazing sparse vegetation on rough land, they are becoming rare due to crossbreeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hill Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal. Female 160 kg; male 200 kg. A widespread type often recrossed with Indian zebu animals, they are bred to be small. They are thrifty creatures that maintain themselves well on poor forage. Bulls make sure-footed draft animals on rough ground and slopes, and the cows are milked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tibetan Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tibet. Less than 250 kg. These humpless cattle are used as pack animals and can tolerate poor forage and high altitudes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yellow Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southwest and south China. Female 220 kg; male 380 kg. In the subtropics and tropics, small multipurpose types of Yellow Cattle withstand high temperature and humidity. They are used mainly for work and meat, and seem well adapted to poor feed, harsh conditions, and rugged terrain. The Chowpei (190-380 kg) is a hardy working breed of more temperate areas in Hubei Province.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheju Hanwoo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Korea. Female 230 kg; male 280 kg. A yellowish-brown Cheju Island native that has almost no calving difficulty, it is well adapted to poor grazing conditions in harsh environments and is docile and obedient.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madura</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia. Female 220 kg; male 300 kg. An ancient cross between humped cattle and the banteng (see sidebar), these heat- and disease resistant hybrids also have good grazing and mothering ability, and are kept in the most extreme humid tropical environments. Breeding for fighting and racing has given them a poor disposition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dexter Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ireland and North America. 220-360 kg. This breed can be traced back to eighteenth-century Ireland and is believed to have been developed by peasant farmers living on rough land. It is exceptionally hardy and produces both milk and meat. In North America, it has become popular among city folk who acquire country property, as this microbreed is particularly well suited to their usually tiny farms. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BANTENG: THE CUTEST COW</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng (Bos Javanicus) is a small Southeast Asian bovine with a promising future.* It is a different species from cattle. The two will interbreed, but the hybrid offspring are normally sterile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although almost entirely neglected by the animal science community, the banteng is remarkable for an ability to thrive under hot, humid, and disease-ridden conditions where cattle often grow poorly. The sexes are easily distinguished: males are jet black, females are golden brown. Both have bright white socks and rumps as if they had been freshly whitewashed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng are found in remote areas of countries from Burma to Indonesia. But only Indonesia has used it as a farm animal so far. It has more than 1.5 million domesticated banteng - some 20 percent of the country's total "cattle" population. Indonesian farmers value the animal's agility, which allows them to cultivate Relds too narrow for cattle to turn the prow. In addition, gourmets consider banteng meat the tastiest of all. Indonesia appreciates the banteng so much that it has established a genetic sanctuary on the island of Bali - banning cattle in order to maintain the banteng's genetic purity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside Indonesia, only a few scientists have studied this animal, but it seems clear that it is particularly useful under tropical conditions. In heat and humidity, it thrives; even when cattle are starving, one rarely sees a skinny banteng. And demand for its meat is never ending.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Microgoats</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than 90 percent of the world's nearly half billion goats (Capra hircus) are found in developing countries; many weigh less than 35 kg fully grown.` Such "microgoats" are noted for their high reproductive rates, rapid growth, early maturity, tasty meat, and rich milk' as well as for their robust constitution, ease of handling, and tolerance of climatic stress and poor feeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To many people - especially where pigs and poultry are not common - meat and milk from microgoats are the primary animal proteins consumed during a lifetime. Perhaps the world's best foragers, goats eat practically anything made of cellulose, and are not dependent on grass. Because of their unselective feeding behavior, they are capable of living where the feeds - tree leaves, shrubs, and weeds - are too poor to support other types of livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such microgoats deserve wider recognition, for they are often the poor person's only source of milk, meat, and cash income. They are cheap to acquire and easy to maintain, even by people with little property and scarce resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, especially in arid and semiarid climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats generally have a long snout and an upright tail, by which they can be distinguished from most sheep. The mouth is unusual in having a mobile upper lip and a grasping tongue, which permits the animal to nibble even tiny leaves on spiny species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Common commercial goat breeds generally weigh between 60 and 100 kg, with some weighing more than 200 kg. Microgoats may weigh less than 15 kg. Representative examples are listed at the end of the chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, with half in Asia and one-third in Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The FAO projects that world numbers may nearly double by the turn of the century. Goats are thus not endangered, but in some areas select populations of feral goats are being deliberately eradicated, with the consequent loss of potentially valuable genes. Some small breeds are also threatened by excessive crossbreeding with larger types.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most adaptable of all livestock, goats can persist in conditions from arid to humid, and from sea level to high altitude. They are especially well adapted to hot, semiarid climates and to rocky, barren terrain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These ruminants can subsist on many feedstuffs that would otherwise be left to waste. Although selective browsers, they often prefer coarse leaves (including palm fronds) and shrubbery to palatable forage grass.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most microgoats mature quickly, and in the tropics they can generally breed year-round. Their reproductive potential has often been underestimated; kidding is rarely difficult, and many types produce twins and sometimes even triplets or quadruplets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In hot, dry areas, goats require less attention than other livestock, and smaller goats have the added advantage of better heat dissipation. Some microgoats may also show disease resistance. For example, tolerance to trypanosomiasis makes them an important livestock in many regions of Africa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are generally gentle, but can be easily frightened. They may become stubborn and aggressive when threatened or thwarted, and can prove hard to confine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If their feed smells of other animals - particularly of other goats -  they usually shun it unless nothing else is available. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoats mainly produce meat and form an important part of the diet in southern Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America, especially the Caribbean. Goat is sometimes a preferred meat, and there are few social or religious prohibitions against eating it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microgoats are good milkers, and under stressful conditions they may keep producing when other livestock are dry. Goat milk is a valuable dietary supplement: it is nutritious, easily digestible, and usually commands premium prices. It makes excellent cheese and yogurt and can be used by people allergic to cow's milk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoats produce some of the finest and most valuable fibers in the world. Angora and Cashmere goats often weigh less than 30 kg fully grown, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats produce a fine-textured, durable leather that finds extensive uses both locally and internationally. Horns, hooves, blood, and bone meal also have commercial value. Manure is another important product, and comes in fairly dry pellets that are easy to collect, store, and distribute.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats perform important functions in land management. Seeds of many trees (Acacia and Prosopis, for example) are "scarified" by passing through the goats' digestive system, fostering germination and natural revegetation. With care, goats can also be used to clear land of weeds and brush.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are often allowed to roam and scavenge for their own food. They form strong territorial attachments and can be trained to stay within a designated area. However, they cannot be kept from investigating - and quite probably devouring - anything within that territory. They are persistent browsers, so it is essential to prevent overstocking as well as raids on crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Variety of diet is important, and goats show much individuality in feed preferences. They are often raised on crop residue and kitchen refuse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats can be run with other livestock without creating serious competition. The goats browse weedy shrubs, whereas the sheep and cattle graze more on grasses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although perhaps the hardiest of all livestock, most breeds benefit when they are provided shelter from rain and high-noon sun. Abrupt chilling and poor ventilation can cause severe respiratory problems. They are also susceptible to various maladies, such as internal parasites, especially when confined. The highest mortality, however, is caused when very young kids are not supplied with adequate feed and clean, dry shelter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most developing countries goats are already prominent in rural life. Common almost everywhere in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, they are dependable multi-use animals. They are particularly important in providing ready cash, such as for school fees, taxes, marriages, or funerals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats integrate well in mixed agriculture, for example, by consuming leafy wastes, clearing land, and contributing fertilizer. In many places they are raised almost exclusively by women and children. If confined, goats require only simple, inexpensive shelters or pens, which makes them especially important as subsistence animals. In many situations, they may be the most efficient and economic producers for smallholders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals have a relatively fast rate of growth and early reproductive age, even under harsh conditions. They can graze rougher terrain than cattle and most sheep, can go for longer periods without water, and forage well in wooded areas where grass is lacking. They can derive most or all of their diet from roughage unusable by humans; high-energy feeds, such as protein supplements or carbohydrate supplements, are usually not needed even to fatten them for slaughter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are generally healthy and are not affected by many of the parasites and diseases that ravage other livestock. Some resistance to mange, internal parasites, foot-and-mouth disease, and other livestock scourges has been reported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some places (notably, in industrialized nations) there is a strong prejudice against goats and goat meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smallness makes microgoats targets for predators and thieves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many small goats are poor milkers, especially under hardship conditions; however, even small amounts of milk can often fulfill a child's daily nutritional requirement or reinforce a nursing mother's diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are independent and may wander away if not watched, and they can be difficult to pen. They may also have an unpleasant odor when kept confined (males are particularly malodorous during rutting season). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are often disparaged for degrading land and destroying vegetation because they continue to survive on overutilized lands often laid waste by mismanagement of sheep or cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRESH GENES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A rare wild animal with spectacular horns, the bezoar (Capra aegagrus) is the goat's wild ancestor. People domesticated it before 7000 B.C., probably in the mountains along the Iran/ Iraq border. Until recent times, it remained widely scattered across the vast region between Greece and Pakistan, but it now exists only in pockets and is threatened with extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This would be a tragedy because the bezoar is a resilient wild species that crosses readily with domestic goats, and it could pass on its genetic inheritance for heat, drought, and cold tolerance: disease resistance; and other survival qualities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p39a.png"></center><br>
+ Distribution of the bezoar. The arrow indicates the area where it was probably first domesticated, resulting in the goat as we know it (From Mason 1984)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fascinating science and valuable results probably await those willing to study this hardy, handsome creature and to explore the reharnessing of its genetic endowment. Today the bezoar is considered merely a trophy for hunters. The power of its genes to refresh - perhaps even revolutionize - the world's 500 million goats has been lost to sight. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The microgoat's potential has hardly been realized. More research on performance and husbandry is needed to preserve and restore small breeds. Selective breeding for prolificacy, viability, and rapid growth, as well as more selective on-site culling, could greatly improve both meat and milk yields and quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management systems that exploit smallness, stabilize production, and preserve the environment should be introduced and publicized in appropriate goat-rearing areas. Careful assessments of indigenous management methods should be made, particularly emphasizing their desirable characteristics. Improving hygiene in the wet season and supplemental feeding in the dry season are also important, as are disease- and parasite-control measures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The undomesticated ibex and markhor could possibly be major contributors in the development of new, useful breeds for tropical and arid regions (see sidebar, page 42). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE BREEDS OF MICROGOATS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African Dwarf (Djallon)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West and Central Africa. Female 20 kg; male 30 kg. Adapted to humid lowlands, this widespread goat is particularly valuable for meat and skin production. Generally, it is bred for meat, but milk is sometimes an important secondary product. Sexual maturity is very early (3-6 months), and quadruplets occasionally occur (most goat breeds normally produce only single births). Related types go by the names "Cameroon Dwarf," "Dirdi," and "Nigerian Dwarf."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nubian Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States. 35-40 kg (often less). A stable miniature variety of the milking Nubian, this microgoat has been developed recently in the United States by crossing standard-sized Nubians with the West African Dwarf. It combines a good milk output with high levels of butterfat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American Pygmy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States. 15-25 kg. Derived from the West African Dwarf, it is noted for its hardiness and good nature, good milk production, and adaptability to various climates. There are several varieties, some for milking, others for meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudanese Nubian</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Sudan. 25-30 kg. Widespread milk goats of riverain and urban areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudanese Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Sudan. 11-25 kg. A very hardy desert goat similar to the West African Dwarf, it averages 15 kg, but some mature individuals may weigh as little as 11 kg. Used for meat and hides, it produces little milk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small East African</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania. 20-30 kg. A widely neglected meat and hide animal found over a wide range, it is fast growing (sexual maturity at four months) and extremely hardy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritian</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritius. 25-30 kg. A prolific, year-round breeder raised for meat production, it is often confined in simple shelters from birth to slaughter. Perhaps because of this isolation, mortality is less than 10 percent, even with little or no veterinary care.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin America. "Criollo" is a name given to several breeds of ancient Iberian blood with local adaptations to many unfavorable conditions. They are often small and hardy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Creole Caribbean. Females 20 kg; males 25 kg. Robust meat goats of Spanish or West African origin that are kept throughout the Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crioulo Brazil. 30-35 kg. A meat and skin goat derived from Portuguese ancestors, it is hardy, prolific, undemanding, and adapted to harsh environments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chapper</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan. Female 20 kg; male 24 kg. Originating in dry regions, this meat and milk goat is a nonseasonal breeder with outstanding potential.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbari</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan, India. Females 20-25 kg; males 20-40 kg. A prolific, fastgrowing "urban" goat with high twinning and low mortality. Often kept inside houses, they adapt well to confinement and are important for both milk and meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaddi (White Himalaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hill districts of northern India. 25-30 kg. Kept for meat and their long, lustrous white hair, they are pure-breeding and healthy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Changthangi (Ladakh)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kashmir, India. Male 20 kg. A pashmina (cashmere) goat of India, it is adapted to a high altitude, high humidity climate with extremes of temperature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Terai</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal. 8-12 kg. A very small, hardy animal of the southern lowlands, it kids year-round (sometimes twice), and often produces twins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Hill Goat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal. 12-16 kg. A small, mid-altitude goat resembling the Terai. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Bengal (Teddy, Bangladesh Dwarf)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eastern India and Pakistan. Female 10 kg; male 14 kg. A widespread, humid-area, meat goat that is early maturing and very prolific. It kids twice a year, and produces 60 percent twins and 10 percent triplets. It produces a superior leather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katjang</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southeast Asia, China, and Pacific Islands. In places, less than 20 kg. A widespread, highly variable, hardy goat adapted to humid conditions, it usually has twins or triplets. Used for meat and skins, with exceptional females being milked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chinese Dwarf (Tibetan, Jining, Fuyang, or Chengdu Grey)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China. 20-40 kg. Well adapted to the humid tropics, it normally twins and is a good meat producer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heuk Yumso</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Korea. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. A prolific cold-climate goat with a year-round breeding season. The meat is highly prized, and often sells at a premium due to its supposed health-giving effects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hejazi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East. Female 20 kg; male 20 kg. A meat goat, usually black, for harsh desert conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sinai (Black Bedouin)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sinai, Egypt and Negev Desert, Israel. Female 20 kg; male 50 kg. Native to dry, hot deserts, this milk and meat goat matures at 5-8 months and has a twinning rate over 50 percent. A most important characteristic is its drought tolerance. The female, for instance, can drink only once a day - at a pinch, once every other day - without losing appetite or reducing milk flow. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILD RELATIVES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several wild relatives will cross with the goat. Surprisingly, they have the same chromosome number (2n=60), and the offspring are frequently fertile. Although essentially unknown to agricultural science, these hybrids may offer a new gene pool for creating new farm animals and for improving the world's goats. They seem to combine the self-reliance of wild species with the usefulness of domestic ones. Artificial insemination and other modern techniques could make them easier to produce today than ever before.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ibex*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A project in Israel has already produced a cross between the goat and the Nubian ibex (Capra ibex). The Sinai Desert goat, the breed that was used, ranks next to the camel in its ability to go without water - it often drinks only twice a week - but its meat has such a strong flavor that most people consider it dreadful. On the other hand, the ibex is compact and muscular and produces tender, mild meat that steak lovers find delicious. The product from crossbreeding the two is a creature seemingly able to endure extreme temperatures and drought, make use of poor pasture, and produce wonderful steaks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A herd of several hundred of these hybrids (dubbed 'ya-ez") has been created at Kibbutz Lahav in the northern Negev Desert area. Both sexes are fertile, and they can be bred with each other or with either parent. The meat is already in demand on the menus of elegant Tel Aviv hotels. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Markhor**</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Pakistan's northern uplands, it is not uncommon to find hybrids between domestic goats and the mountain goat known as "markhor" (Capra falconeri). Each year in Chitral and Gilgit, they can be found in the goat markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Markhors inhabit high elevations in rugged mountains and thrive on diets so meager as to be useless to goats. The hybrids are produced when markhor males - perhaps ousted by more dominant males - come in contact with feral domestic goats. However, some farmers raise young markhor and goats together (to overcome mutual resistance) and produce their own hybrids,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For a single hybrid animal local goatherds pay up to 5,000 rupees, a princely sum in this impoverished region. Traditionally, villagers have kept them as stud animals. They appreciate the animal's genetic endowment. Markhors tolerate extremes of cold and snow, are nimble and skilled at escaping predators, and survive on scanty fodder, Moreover, they have a high reproduction potential because they generally produce twins. As a result, they also tend to give more milk and it is rich in nutritive value. Instead of long body hairs, markhors possess insulating underfur - a soft and valuable raw material for the famous Kashmiri shawls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apparently, the hybrids can possess many of these qualities together with a calm disposition. Thus they could be useful in themselves and as conduits for passing such traits on to goats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 Microsheep</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the hundreds of breeds of sheep (Ovis aries) in the world, those weighing less than 35 kg when mature have been largely ignored. Although these are common, the impression lingers that they are too small to be useful. Yet this virtually untapped gene pool is esnecially well adapted to traditional Third World animal husbandry. Given attention, these "microsheep" could boost meat, milk, skin, wool, and pelt production in many villages and small farms of Africa, Asia, and Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many microsheep thrive in environments that tax the ability of larger breeds to survive. They are adapted to poor feeds and can be grazed in uncultivated wastelands unsuited to any other livestock except goats or camels. Because of their size, microsheep can fatten in areas where forage is so scattered and sparse that larger animals cannot cover enough ground to fill their bellies each day. In addition, their foraging complements that of other livestock. For example, sheep can graze rough grasses and weeds that cattle find unpalatable. Some survive even the stress of extreme aridity and for this reason are the predominant livestock in North Africa and the Middle East.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many small breeds can be disease resistant. Some, for example, are widespread in the zones of Africa where trypanosomiasis is prevalent. They are generally less adversely affected by foot-and-mouth disease than are cattle, and some small native sheep seem to have fewer problems with insects and parasites than do most other livestock, including temperate-area sheep.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giving more attention to the management and improvement of microsheep could pay back abundantly in the form of food, income, and improved land utilization in many parts of the developing world. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, but notably in drier regions of the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An average weight for temperate sheep breeds is about 70 kg,' but the smallest microsheep weigh less than 20 kg fully grown. Many tropical microsheep are "hairless," and have little or no wool. These are often difficult to distinguish from goats, but (like all sheep) they generally have blunter snouts, more fat, and hanging tails. Some have greatly enlarged rumps or tails that store fat. Unlike goats, sheep have no odor-producing glands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some representative microsheep are described at the end of this chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than one billion sheep occur worldwide, and they occupy every climatic zone in which people live. At least half are in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although more than 1,000 breeds are recognized, only a handful dominate the world's sheep industries. Lesser-known breeds are rapidly becoming extinct (especially in developed countries, although scattered efforts are being made to preserve them). Elsewhere, genetic resources have not been properly evaluated, and potentially valuable stock is being lost before it is even understood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep are among the most adaptable animals. Various types are kept in areas of extreme heat, cold, altitude, aridity, humidity, and rainfall. They are especially widespread in hot, dry climates, but some breeds also thrive in humid areas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep make efficient use of a wide variety of fodder: tree leaves, fortes, grasses, crop residues, and agricultural by-products, for instance. They often survive privation by calling on their reserves of body fat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the tropics, sheep reach sexual maturity in about a year. Many breeds lamb year-round, which allows for a continuous production of premium meat. Gestation takes about five months, and lambing is usually timed to occur when feed is most abundant and nutritious. Microsheep often bear two or more young and, under good management, may produce lambs annually for more than five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These shy animals flock together and, in general, are managed with little effort. They are easily panicked, however, and rams can become aggressive during rutting or when threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE LITTLE SHEEP THAT COULD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dozens of the world's neglected breeds of tiny sheep should be preserved from extinction, for many will undoubtedely prove to have outstanding qualities. Current efforts to save the Navajo sheep in the United States exemplify what can be achieved</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Navajo is a microsheep, and is perhaps the oldest breed of sheep in the United States. It may have been introduced to North America in 1540 by the Spanish explorer Francisco Vazquez de Coronado, who was seeking the mythical Seven Golden Cities of Cibola in the region that is now Arizona and New Mexico. Smaller than many dogs, a full-grown Navajo sheep may weigh only 30 kg, but it became a big part of the culture of the Southwest. Although the Navajos and other local Indians had never seen sheep before the 1500s, they soon became shepherds and weavers, and their rugs made from the unique wool of this wiry little animal remain famous even today.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navajo sheep have white or brown wool hanging in ringlets around their bodies. The fleece is a double coat: long, coarse guard hairs on the outside and short wool on the inside. It yields warm, waterproof, and long-lasting products. Many of the sheep have four horns because the Indians believed that this trait was sacred, and they favored four-horned rams for breeding purposes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of Navajo sheep was reduced sharply between 1950 and 1950 because of severe overgrazing and replacement by improved wool breeds. In recent times there has been so little commercial and scientific interest in this microsheep that by the 1970s only a handful of purebred specimens survived. Since the late 1970s, however, Lyle McNeal, a Utah State University professor, has been working to save it from extinction. By 1988 he had a burgeoning flock at the university and was learning that this supposedly obsolete dwarf is amazingly useful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The breed originated in the arid south of Spain (where it is called the "churro"), and it thrives in the hot, dry climate. Unlike normal breeds, it can exist in the desert without supplementary food and with little water. As McNeal has pointed out, any sheep that can survive and raise a lamb in the aridity and searing heat of the American Southwest has to be superior. He has found that the ewes have a strong maternal instinct, which is vital for protecting lambs against the coyotes that are common in the region. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thanks to the efforts of McNeal and his colleagues, Indians are beginning to use Navajo sheep again; by 1988 there were more than 400 on the Navajo reservation, with their wool fetching premium prices. This tough little sheep could prove valuable not only for American Indians but for poor people in many other dry regions as well. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microsheep are mainly kept for meat production, but - especially in arid regions - for milk as well. Their meat is usually lean with little "muttony" taste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wool or hair is taken from many breeds, although the yield is often small. Skins from hair sheep' thinner than cowhide, are widely used and are in international demand. In some places, manure is considered an important product. In Nepal, thousands of small sheep are used as pack animals, especially to carry salt into mountain valleys.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most sheep are maintained in free-ranging flocks. Many are grazed (often tethered) over a small area during the day and confined in a "fold" at night. Others are penned or kept as village scavengers. These are usually fed supplements of household scraps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep form an integral part of a mixed farming economy; for example, they may graze pastures during the wet season, and survive on crop residues and field weeds during the dry season. They have excellent foraging capabilities and are often kept alongside goats. This broadens the variety of forages utilized and often increases total production from a single piece of land, for sheep and goats have complementary feeding habits and male goats help protect the sheep from some predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In spite of the heavy toll that predators (such as feral dogs) can take on lambs and ewes, the largest proportion of sheep in the tropics are lost through lack of basic care. Modest supplemental feeding of lambs and inexpensive preventive medicines can do much to lower mortality and boost production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep are multipurpose animals, and almost everywhere they produce several products. The rich milk is often preferred to that of cows or goats, especially for making cheese and yogurt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lambs form an important part of the household economy for much of the rural world, and only rarely is social or religious stigma attached to keeping or eating them. Indeed, sheep are the traditional feast animals of several religions, and in some places sheep meat is preferred to beef and sells at a premium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By and large, all sheep products can be processed, utilized, or marketed by the producer. In addition, sheep marketing and transportation systems exist in most countries, at least to some degree.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep are efficient producers and can provide a quick turnover for food and cash. On the brush and coarse grasses of marginal lands, they may be more productive than cattle, and on grass they may outproduce goats. As long as they are not overstocked, sheep do not degrade vegetation; unless starving they will not debark trees. Small breeds cause little erosion, even on steep slopes, heavily traveled paths, or near water holes.2 In South Asia, they have been continuously stocked on the same ground for thousands of years without causing apparent harm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because sheep have a natural tendency to accumulate fat, they "finish" well on grazing and usually do not require a high-energy finishing diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their general healthiness, sheep are affected by many internal parasites and diseases, a few of which are communicable to man. They are especially susceptible to infectious conjunctivitis (pinkeye).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Predators and thieves can be greater threats than sickness. Labor inputs can be high because of the almost continual protection sheep need.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some mutton has a strong taste that many find unappealing. However, the taste is carried mainly by the fat, and the generally lean microsheep are often commended for their fine-textured, sweet meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The numerous breeds of small sheep should be investigated. Assessments should be made for the animals' ability to thrive under adverse conditions and for resistance to particular diseases and parasites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, even minimal extension services and veterinary support for sheep could greatly decrease mortality, especially among lambs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving microbreeds without increasing their size is one of the most interesting challenges facing sheep scientists today. While efforts should be made to conserve and select within types, research should also be conducted on hybrid vigor. Efforts to improve the pelt and fleece of microsheep should also be encouraged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More studies on the interactions between sheep and cropping systems are needed. Sheep (and the manure they produce) could become important components of forestry (see sidebar), crop rotation, alley cropping, and other forms of sustainable agriculture. For instance, sheep are especially effective for weed control in plantation crops such as oil palm and rubber as well as in forests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SMALL SHEEP IN THE FOREST</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even in countries with long traditions of raising large sheep, there are opportunities for using small, agile, hardy breeds. The following is an example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seeking safer methods for stopping brush from smothering newly planted trees, U.S. government foresters have turned from chemical defoliants to flocks of sheep. Court decisions in 1983 and 1984 barred the use of herbicides along Oregon's Pacific Coast. Various alternatives were tried, and the animals proved the most successful. Sheep are now the favored method for controlling unwanted vegetation. Indeed, they have changed the foresters' whore approach to managing reforestation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Formerly, the U.S. Forest Service allowed the brush to grow on logged-over sites and then sprayed it down before planting tree seedlings. Now it plants grass to suppress brush and reduce erosion. The sites are later fertilized, tree seedlings are planted, and within a year sheep are brought in to graze. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, in the district around Alsea, Oregon sheep nimbly skirt old stumps to graze on the lush vegetation. Three times each summer since 1984, about 2,000 sheep have been guided across the replanted areas by a herder and a range conservationist. The sheep eat both the grass and the new buds on brush, but they leave most fir-tree seedlings untouched. The key, according to Rick Breckle, a forester, is to have enough sheep to graze an area evenly and to keep them moving so they don't resort to nibbling the young trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Previously, chemical brush treatments had annually cost $135-$353 per hectare. Now, sowing grass and grazing sheep costs about $300 per hectare. And there is a product to sell: the adult sheep don't fatten well, but the lambs bring a useful income at the end of the summer. What is more, Breckle reports that the trees seem to be growing faster - probably because of the manurings they receive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This method seems likely to be effective elsewhere - at least with trees that are unpalatable or too tall for their growing points to be nibbled. Malaysia, for instance, doubled its sheep population between 1986 and 1989, in part because it has begun raising sheep between the trees in rubber plantations. With the use of agroforestry increasing worldwide, small sheep could find a whole new application.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MICROSHEEP</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Senegal to Nigeria, and south to Angola. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. Well adapted to warm, humid conditions. Prolific, and good disease resistance. Major meat producer in West Africa. Fast growing: by six months of age they approach adult weight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Landim (Small East African)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">East and Central Africa. 23-40 kg. Prolific, adaptable, long fat-tailed type. Large litter size for a sheep. In one recent test, ewes averaged more than 1.4 lambs.3 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berber</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Atlas Mountains. 25-41 kg. Needing little feed and remaining constantly outdoors, these extremely hardy sheep are exploited for meat and their coarse, hairy wool. They fatten easily when well fed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arab</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">North Africa. 40-50 kg. This thin-tailed sheep is exceptionally robust, and is resistant to extremes of temperature, drought, and poor nutrition. Primarily a meat producer, its wool is used for coarse cloths and carpets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Sudan Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the many small breeds of eastern and southern Africa, its weight ranges from 15 to 25 kg, but it may weigh as little as 11 kg. Yielding a fine, short fleece, this hardy, frugal sheep is often run with cattle to maximize grazing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hejazi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deserts of Arabia. 32 kg. A popular and ancient fat-tailed meat producer that is highly acclimatized to drought and privation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zel (Iranian Thin-Tailed)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caspian region of northern Iran. Female 30-32 kg. Well adapted to subtropical regions, they produce coarse wool, milk, and excellent meat that lacks the "mutton taste" and odor of some sheep meats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greek Zackel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mountain and island types. Female 30 kg; male 40 kg. These common sheep are active, hardy, and resistant to extremes of climate and disease. Primarily a milking sheep, their wool is used locally and lambs are slaughtered for special occasions. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sitia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crete. Female 25 kg; male 30 kg. Another of the hardy, screwhorned "zackel" sheep common to the Balkans, they are adapted to poor pasturage and extensive herding. Quick maturing and highly fertile, they can be exploited for milk as well as for meat and coarse wool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Common Albanian</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. Similar to the Greek Zackel, they are used as triple-purpose animals: meat, milk, and wool. They survive in low, marshy areas where parasites are common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zeta Yellow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yugoslavia. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. A small, hardy sheep used for milk and some meat, its primary product is wool. Often unshorn for several years, the long fibers are woven into expensive carpets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pag</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yugoslavia. Female 20-30 kg; male 25-35 kg. These wool, milk, and meat sheep are frugal and well adapted to scant vegetation and rocky terrain. Although they have a low birth rate and carcass yield, their milk and wool are commercially exploitable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roccia (Steinschaf)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Italy, Austria. Female 30 kg; Male 30-35 kg. These "stone sheep" resemble a goat in their ability to exploit the poor pastures of high, steep, rocky mountains. Although not highly productive, they are hardy and frugal and commonly produce twins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corsican</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corsica (France). 25-30 kg. A hardy native breed that is well adapted to rather sparse feed conditions. Coarse wool, both white and black, is well suited for hand processing. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entre Douro e Minho</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Portugal. Female 15-18 kg; Male 20-25 kg. These independent sheep yield a good wool in mountainous terrain that would otherwise be nonproductive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Churra do Campo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Portugal. Female 20 kg; male 30 kg. A coarse-woofed sheep extensively kept in Portugal's dry interior for milk and wool. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Galician</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spain. Female 18 kg; male 25 kg. A milking breed that survives on  poor pasture, it also produces a marketable wool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scotland. Female 25 kg; male 30 kg. Adapted to wide temperature  variations. Possibly the most primitive domesticated sheep of Europe,  probably unchanged from Viking times. Immune to foot rot. A wool  sheep with short brown fleece that is shed annually.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">North Ronaldsay (Orkney)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Scotland. 27-32 kg. Surviving year-round on seaweed,  this rare breed is adapted to high salt intake and the associated digestive  problems. Yield 1-2 kg medium-coarse wool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin America. Derived from ''native'' Spanish Churro and Merino  sheep. Many are small and very hardy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navajo-Churro Southwestern United States. Female 45 kg; male 70  kg. Maternal, and very resistant to internal parasites and hoof rot.  Although the Navajo subsists and reproduces on little feed and scarce  water in desert regions, it was widely replaced by improved breeds  earlier in this century. Because of its hardiness, however, and the use of  its wool in traditional weaving, its numbers are rebounding (see sidebar,  page 50). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Florida Native Southeastern United States. Females 35-45 kg;  males 45-6O kg. This long-isolated and highly variable sheep is  adapted to harsh subtropical climates and is known for its ability to  forage. A medium-wool breed, it is very resistant to intestinal parasites.  Verging on extinction due to neglect and uncontrolled crossbreeding. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Virgin Islands White Hair (St. Croix)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean. Female 35-45 kg; male 45-55 kg. Hair sheep with  some wool in young animals. Well adapted to warm humid conditions, it has fairly good disease and parasite resistance and produces good meat. Prolific, it breeds most of the year and commonly has twins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Magra (Chokhla)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northwest India, Pakistan.4 20-25 kg. Adapted to hot, dry areas, the extremely white and shiny fleece is valued for carpet wool. Slowmaturing and low fertility (lambing at 45 percent) plus extensive crossbreeding have led to serious declines in population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marwari</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northwest India. 25-30 kg. A widespread, white-fleeced sheep that has a high resistance to disease and worms, good fertility, and low mortality. They do well in large flocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mandya (Bandur)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southwest India. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. An outstanding meat breed with good mutton quality, it adapts well to mixed farming and has unusually low lamb mortality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hu (Huyang, Lake Sheep)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China. Female 35 kg; male 45 kg. These fat-tailed sheep have a six month lambing interval and are very prolific. They are used under intensive management to produce meat, wool, and a valuable lambskin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Javanese Thin-Tail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia. 25-40 kg. Widely held as a "bank account," these meat, manure, and skin sheep are well known for being prolific. Although single lambs are not uncommon, litters of six have also been recorded. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILD AND WOOLLY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Considering that dozens of countries depend on the productivity of more than a billion domesticated sheep, it is remarkable that their wild ancestor is accorded no attention. This fast-declining animal is now little more than a trophy for hunters, a fact that should be of vital intemational concern.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep were domesticated in the Middle East and Central Asia in the Stone Age era between 8,000 and 11,000 years ago.* Their wild ancestor was almost certainly the mouflon (Outs orientalis). However, domestication may have occurred in more than one place, and two other wild creatures, the urial (Outs vignei) and the argali (Outs ammon), also possibly provided genes to some sheep breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mouflon, urial, and argali still exist in the mountains of Central Asia, and a European subspecies of mouflon is also found in the Mediterranean, but only on Corsica, Cyprus, and Sardinia.** Because they live in remote, rugged, upland areas, these wild sheep are usually undisturbed, but the numbers are decreasing everywhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This may be a serious loss because these animals could be extremely valuable. They are capable of crossing with domestic sheep, and the offspring are viable and fully fertile.*** For developing new meat-producing breeds, their potential seems almost limitless.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the thousands of years that sheep have been protected by humans, their wild ancestors have continued to face predators, parasites, disease, extreme cold and seasonal starvation. Their genetic endowment, forged and tempered in unforgiving harshness, could be a benefit for all future sheep generations. These animals appear to resist various diseases. Their meat is reported to be of excellent quality, notably lacking the strong mutton flavor that many people find objectionable. They have relatively short, thin tails - a feature that might eliminate the need for docking (tail removal) in the domestic flock. Some (for instance, the Asian mouflon and the urial) have rates of effective reproduction up to 1.6 lambs per ewe, more than twice the average of most domestic types, especially under the conditions where these wild creatures live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That mouflon and other wild sheep could have practical utility is suggested by research at Utah State University. Scientists there have mated mouflon with farm sheep to create sheep better able to defend themselves against coyotes and other natural dangers. Half-wild, half-tame sheep hybrids have existed on a ranch in southern Utah for the past decade. Also, in Cyprus similar mouflon x sheep hybrids have shown considerable promise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the very least, this wiry little mountain sheep could be a model for educating students and the public. It is a living reminder of the fantastic changes that can be induced in animals by selection for various traits. Also, it is a "map" to the history of sheep domestication. Studies of mouflon genes, blood immunology, morphology, physiology, horn structure, skeleton, fleece, temperament, and a host of other features would help unravel the ancestry. These studies and various biochemical analyses would be a fascinating contribution to agriculture, science, history, and the public perception of the origins of our natural resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genes from wild sheep are not likely to quickly benefit wool production. Lack of fleece is one reason why these creatures have been neglected but throughout most of Asia and in North Africa, sheep are bred primarily for meat and milk, and there is a growing worldwide interest in the use of hair sheep. All of this brings new possibilities for the use of this old resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Micropigs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g005a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most breeds of swine (Sus scrofa) are too large to be considered microlivestock, but there are some whose mature weight is less than 70 kg. These micropigs are particularly common in West Africa, South Asia, the East Indies, Latin America, and oceanic islands around the world. At least one, the Mexican Cuino, may weigh a mere 12 kg full-grown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many miniature swine have been developed for use in medical research, but their agricultural potential has been largely ignored. This is unfortunate, for micropigs of all types - native, feral, and laboratory - deserve investigation. Swine provide more meat worldwide than any other animal, and micropigs are potentially important sources of food and income for poor people in many parts of the developing world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smallness makes for nimble and self-sufficient pigs, in contrast to large, lethargic breeds. Small breeds are easier to manage and cheaper to maintain; the threat of injury from angry or frightened animals is lessened; and the sows are less likely to crush newborn piglets, often a major cause of mortality in large breeds. Some micropigs - particularly those from hot regions or wild populations - also have a higher resistance to heat, thirst, starvation, and some diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs adapt to a wide variety of management conditions, from scavenging to total confinement; some are even kept indoors.2 They gain weight quickly, mature rapidly, and help complement grazing livestock because they relish many otherwise unused wastes from kitchens, farms, and food industries, as well as other foods such as small roots, leafy trash, or bitter fruits that are not consumed by humans or ruminants. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For these reasons, micropigs could become useful household and village livestock in the developing world, and they deserve greater attention than they now receive. Although their growth may not be as rapid as that of improved breeds raised under intensive commercial production, with modest care and minimum investment, backyard micropigs can produce sizable yields of meat and other products, as well as improved income for rural and even urban populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, especially in warm, humid areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like full-sized breeds, micropigs are stout-bodied, short-legged animals with small tails and flexible snouts ending in flat discs. Examples of some micropigs are listed at the end of the chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic pigs are found all over the world, but their concentrations vary greatly. Africa has the fewest per capita, but in recent years they have gained increasing favor in the sub-Saharan regions. In Latin America, pigs have long been a major component of backyard agriculture. In the Middle East, an early center of domestication, pigs are not widely kept today because of religious dietary restrictions. In the Ear East, they are the major meat source, and China has more pigs than any other country. And in the Pacific region, pigs and chickens are often the only meat available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are becoming more popular: their worldwide numbers increased by about 20 percent in the 1970s. However, in most countries commercial pig production has focused on a mere handful of breeds, and much genetic diversity is unstudied or even threatened with extinction. Some microbreeds have already been lost, and others are dwindling in numbers.3 Many European breeds have been completely lost. The Cuino and some other Latin American criollo types are threatened, as are most of Africa's traditional breeds. China, however, has made notable efforts to preserve its native types. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although, as previously noted, pigs are found all over the world, they are in general adapted to warm, humid climates where many other livestock species are more susceptible to diseases and environmental stresses. They are also raised at high altitudes, such as in the Andes and Tibet. Although there are few climatic limitations to pig production, only about 20 percent of the world's pigs are currently kept in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are omnivores, willing and able to eat almost anything.4 Unlike most other livestock, they eat their fill and sleep as the food digests, allowing humans to establish a convenient eating and sleeping schedule.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are prolific; a few Chinese breeds routinely have litters of 20 or more. Micropigs are no exception; litters of 6-10 are common. Piglets gain weight rapidly and can be weaned after a few weeks. Sexual maturity is sometimes attained as early as 4-6 months, depending on breed and environment. Pigs are usually slaughtered at 67 months of age, allowing them to be produced on an annual cycle. They can live 10-20 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their smaller size, micropigs have a relatively greater skin-to-weight ratio than today's commercial breeds, and therefore they probably shed heat more effectively. Certainly they seem to perform better in tropical heat and humidity, which normally keep the heavier types from reaching their maximum productivity. Studies have suggested that an optimal size for some tropical environments - because of metabolic and feed efficiency - may be less than 65 kg.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are social animals; they enjoy companionship and ferociously defend their young and sometimes even the humans who care for them. They are employed as guard animals in some areas and have been used extensively in behavioral research.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contrary to common belief, pigs are clean and tidy if provided adequate space. Larger breeds, however, wallow in mud to stay cool in hot weather and require a wallow or shade (except for some Latin American types, which seem less susceptible to heat). Some lightcolored pigs sunburn easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs will dig up earth with their mobile snouts; some breeds do it constantly. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fresh pork is the major pig product in tropical areas. It usually fetches premium prices, and in many places (such as the Pacific Islands and China) it is the most important red meat available to rural people. Nutritious and tasty, it is one of the easiest meats to preserve, needing only salt or melted fat. Processed products such as bacon and sausages can be important for both home consumption and cash sales.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig fat (lard) is a good source of food energy, and can substitute for cooking fats and oils. It is easily melted and clarified, is widely used to make soap, and is a valuable commercial product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig skin, once degreased, is easily tanned into leathers that are popular for garments, shoes, and other products demanding soft, light, and flexible leathers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig manure is a good fertilizer. Because the animals are often kept in confinement, it can be easily collected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many places, pigs are kept as free-roaming scavengers. They can be trained (by coaxing with feed, salt, or affection) to keep close to home, thereby helping to minimize destructive scavenging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Herding is a higher level of management that requires more effort, but it allows pigs to be integrated into other types of agriculture while utilizing feeds that otherwise go to waste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because their exercise needs are minimal and dominance is quickly established within litters, pigs are the easiest hoofed livestock to raise in small enclosures (sties). However, fencing must be secure, and if sties are small, the animals must be moved frequently to prevent diseases and parasites from building up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are well-known, often traditional, animals in many areas, and people usually do not have to be taught how to manage and use them. Efficient scavengers, they can live, grow, and reproduce with a minimum of investment or specialized care. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are highly efficient converters of feed to meat. They can provide the greatest return for the least investment of any hoofed livestock because of their fecundity, low management costs, broad food preferences, and rapid growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs normally accumulate fat during adolescent growth (making ''finishing" feeds less necessary). Some micropigs (especially those from feral ancestors) have the ability to quickly mobilize and store these body-fat reserves; in times of extreme scarcity, it aids their survival.6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs work well in multiple-cropping schemes. They are often used to help clear small plots by uprooting weeds, shrubs, and even small trees. In Southeast Asia, they are frequently raised in conjunction with aquaculture, their manure providing food for the fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If improperly managed or maintained in filthy conditions, pigs may quickly succumb to disease and parasite epidemics. Most diseases are communicated only among pigs, but some can be transmitted to humans. For this reason, pork should always be fully cooked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some cultures never eat pork. Others do, but nonetheless accord pigs and their keepers low status.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young pigs are vulnerable to many predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major survey of small pig breeds is needed. They have the potential to be valuable producers in their own right, as well as to improve other pig breeds. For instance, they represent a little-known reservoir of disease resistance and climatic adaptation. Governments, research stations, universities, and individuals should make special efforts to preserve types that have outstanding or unusual qualities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When it is necessary to eradicate feral pig populations (as is common on Pacific islands), representative stocks should be preserved. These rugged animals have been genetically isolated for decades or even centuries and are likely to carry valuable traits for survival under adversity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large breeds may be promising candidates for genetic "downsizing," which has already produced the many types of miniature pigs that are used in medical research. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE LITTLEST PIG</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although this chapter highlights the world's smallest breeds, there exists a pig that is even smaller. It is, however, an entirely different species and it is on the brink of extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog (Sus salvanius) is a shy and retiring wild creature of northeastern India. It is merely 60 cm long with a shoulder height of 25 cm, and weighs less than 10 kg. It was once found widely along the southern foothills of the Himalayas. Today, however, it apparently occurs in only one area, the Manas National Park in Assam. Despite this protection and the fact that it is listed among the 12 most endangered species on earth, it still falls victim to hunters and to habitat destruction - especially illegal grass fires.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If saved from extinction, this minute species - barely reaching a person's calf - might become useful throughout the world. Its chromosome number is the same as that of the common pig and its physiological processes are probably also similar. Therefore, were its numbers to be built up, it might become a valued and well-known resource for laboratories and small farms. Its daily food intake and its space requirements are only a fraction of a normal pig's. It probably has exceptional tolerance to heat, humidity, and disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not a domesticated species, and there is therefore much to learn before its usefulness can be clearly seen. Indeed, whether it can be reared in captivity is uncertain. Some attempts have ended in disaster, but this seems to have been the result of mismanagement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before there is any possibility of developing it, however, the pigmy hog must be preserved from ultimate loss. The last specimen could go into a villager's pot at any time now. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g006a.png"></center><br>
+ Adult male of the common pig (wild boar) and pigmy hog draw to same scale. (W.L.R. OLIVER)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MICROPIGS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African Dwarf (Nigerian Black, Ashanti)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West Africa. Mature weights of 25-45 kg are reported. In the humid lowland forests of West Africa this breed has long been kept by villagers, often as a scavenger. Indigenous to the hot, humid tsetse zones of West Africa, it seems resistant to trypanosomiasis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chinese Dwarfs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China (and Southeast Asian countries such as Vietnam) has long had small pigs - often characterized by numerous teats and large litters - associated with traditional intensive agriculture as well as scavenging conditions. Some Chinese pigs weighing less than 70 kg are adapted to tropical and subtropical conditions, but the smallest (20-35 kg) live in the cold climates and high altitudes of Gansu, Sichuan, and Tibet. Small black Chinese pigs were crossed with European types in the early 1800s and produced the foundation stock of many modern Western breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are a number of "native" breeds throughout Latin America commonly known as "criollo." Many are quite small. Although, apparently, they are slow to mature and bear small litters, they adapt well to environmental extremes and are widely kept by rural inhabitants for food and income. Criollos are little studied and are being replaced by imported breeds before their possibly outstanding qualities can be quantified.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cuino This micropig from the highlands of central Mexico may be descended from small Chinese types and is the smallest domestic pig, weighing as little as 10-12 kg fully grown. Hardy and an efficient scavenger, it can grow quickly when feed - especially corn - is abundant. A century ago the cuing was a widespread household animal and was used for a time for experimental work in central Mexico. It is now little known and could be threatened with extinction. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Hairless (felon, Tubasqueno, Birish) These small pigs of central and northern South America survive in hot, humid, adverse climates. They are adapted to bulkier feeds than most pigs and can thrive on fruit wastes. Many local types exist. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nilo (Macao, Tatu, Canastrinha) This small, widespread, black, hairless pig of Brazil is often kept inside the house. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yucatan Miniature Swine A subtype of the black hairless from Mexico's hot, arid Yucatan Peninsula, it was imported into the United States in 1960. It has been downsized for laboratory use in the United States and is known as the Yucatan Micropig (registered). Weight at sexual maturity has been lowered through selective breeding from 75 kg to, currently, between 30 and 50 kg, with an ultimate goal of 20-25 kg. There is no evidence of "dwarfism," stunting, or loss of reproductive performance, and it appears to hold notable promise as microlivestock for developing countries. The parent stock, used for meat and lard production in Yucatan, is renowned for gentleness, intelligence, resistance to disease, and relative lack of odor. Exceptional docility, even in older boars and sows with litters, makes them easy to handle without the need for specialized housing or equipment.7 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Laboratory Breeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other miniature laboratory pigs have potential for tropical use. These include the Goettingen, Hanford, Kangaroo Island, Ohmini, Pitman-Moore, and Sinclair (Hormel). In general they weigh 30-50 kg when ready for slaughter and mature at less than 70 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ossabaw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States. 20-30 kg. Feral on Ossabaw Island, South Carolina, for more than 300 years, this pig is well adapted to environmental extremes. Unlike most domestic animals, it can maintain itself in coastal salt marshes. It has perhaps the highest percentage of fat of any pig. The piglets are very precocious, self-reliant, and robust.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kunekune (Pua'a, Poaka)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Zealand. Female 40 kg; male 50 kg. Perhaps of Chinese origin, these black-and-white spotted pigs are docile, slow, and easy to contain. Although late maturing, they can fatten on grass alone. Like other native breeds throughout the Pacific region (for example, the Pauta of Hawaii), stock is being lost through crossbreeding, displacement by other breeds, and eradication efforts. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To find certain disease-resistant genes in poultry it may be necessary to go looking in the backyard chicken flocks in Latin America, Africa, or Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kelly Klober</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small Farmer's Journal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. . . Policies are needed to encourage development of a labor-intensive small-scale livestock sector, which would increase employment and provide a major market for surplus cereals. This sector, however, is particularly restrained by poor technology, poor public support services, and poor marketing channels. Third World livestock production of this type could provide a natural focus for foreign assistance that earlier seemed inappropriate because of concerns about global food scarcity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John W. Mellor International Food Policy Research Institute</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Successful development of agriculture often requires an intimate understanding of the society within which it is to take place - of its systems of values, of its customary restraints.... It has been necessary to understand what incentives the farmer needs to change, what practical difficulties he encounters introducing change, what his traditional pattern of land use is and how this pattern or system can be upset by thoughtless innovation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John de Wilde</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experience with Agricultural Development in Tropical Africa </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part II : Poultry</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g007a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens, ducks, muscovies, geese, guinea fowl, quail, pigeons, and turkeys epitomize the concept of microlivestock. Throughout Africa, Asia, and Latin America they are (collectively) the most common of all farm stock. In many - perhaps most - tropical countries, practically every family, settled or nomadic, owns some kind of poultry. In the countryside, in villages, even in cities, one or another species is seen almost everywhere; in some places, several may be seen together. Although raised in all levels of husbandry, these birds occur most often in scattered household flocks that scavenge for their food and survive with little care or management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their size bestows microlivestock advantages, including low capital cost, low food requirements, and little or no labor requirements. They are also "family sized": easily killed and dressed, with little waste or spoilage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These poultry species help meet the protein needs of the poorest people in the world. Some are raised even in areas where domestic cattle cannot survive because of afflictions such as trypanosomiasis and foot-and-mouth disease. Some are maintained under conditions of intensive confinement - provided a source of feed is available - and can be produced in areas with insufficient land for other meat-producing animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, these birds grow quickly and mature rapidly. (For instance, a chicken can, under proper conditions, reach maturity in 26 months.) They adapt readily to being fenced or penned much, or all, of the time. And, compared with the major farm livestock, their life cycles are short and their production of offspring is high. Thus, farmers can synchronize production to match seasonal changes in the availability of feed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although poultry contribute substantially to human nutrition in the tropics, it is a small fraction of what it could be. The meat is widely consumed and is in constant demand. An excellent source of protein, it also provides minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, and iron, as well as the B-complex vitamins riboflavin, thiamine, and niacin. Nutritionally as complete as red meat, it is much lower in cholesterol and saturated fats. Poultry eggs are also important sources of nutrients. They are a renewable resource, easy to prepare, and are among the best sources of quality protein and vitamins (except vitamin C).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In spite of their numbers and potential, poultry are rarely accorded primary consideration in economic development activities. All in all, these small birds lack the appeal of large, four-legged livestock. Indeed, most countries have little knowledge of the contribution household birds actually make to the well-being and diets of their peoples. In some countries - even those where birds are widely kept - there is little or no poultry research or extension. And where such programs do exist they usually focus almost exclusively on the production of chickens under "industrial" conditions near cities (see sidebar, page 75).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most developing countries now have these intensive chicken industries, in which birds are kept in complete confinement. However, these commercial operations provide food for people in the cash economy, not for subsistence farmers. Moreover, grain is sometimes diverted or imported to maintain these operations, perhaps causing food shortages, higher prices, or depleted foreign exchange. Thus, in this section we focus on other, neglected, aspects of poultry production.,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The neglect of poultry that scavenge around the rural farmhouses and in village yards is understandable. The birds are scattered across the countryside where extension programs are difficult to implement. Their presence is often so ingrained in traditional village life that they are taken for granted and ignored by the authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet village poultry deserve greater attention. As converters of vegetation into animal protein, poultry can be outstanding. In fact, it is estimated that, in terms of feed conversion, eggs rank with cow's milk as the most economically produced animal protein, and that poultry meat ranks above that of other domestic animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most Third World poultry flocks live a wary, half-wild existence, scrounging for insects, earthworms, snails, seeds, leaves, and leftovers from the human diet. From dung and refuse piles they salvage undigested grains, as well as insects and other invertebrates. Often the persons who care for them are women or children. Some keep the birds around the house, penning them at night for protection from predators and thieves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This almost zero-cost production has, in spite of high losses, a remarkable rate of return. Any improvements that require the purchase of supplies cut severely into the profitability. The first step in improving the production of free-ranging poultry is vaccination against diseases (especially Newcastle disease, fowl pox, and Marek's disease) and a modest, supplemental feeding during times of seasonal scarcity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE INDUSTRIAL CHICKEN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout modem livestock farming the trend is toward more intensive methods, and poultry specialists have set the pace. In many countries, since the 1920s, barnyard fowl have given way to egg and broiler factories. The old-fashioned chicken reared outside on corn stubbles for 5 or 6 months has been replaced by the broiler, mass-produced in controlled environment houses in 7 - 10 weeks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a result of this revolution in poultry raising, small farmers who once made a comfortable living from a few laying hens have been forced out of business. These economic changes have also forced poultry men to have larger and larger flocks to survive. The largest broiler-chicken companies even control their own breed development, feed production, house construction, slaughtering, and freezing, many even have wholesale outlets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rapid changes in poultry farming methods can be attributed to the application of advanced technology. The development of the incubator to replace the mother hen sitting her seasonal clutch of eggs was the first mayor step toward intensive poultry farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, chickens were the first livestock to receive serious attention from geneticists. Before World War II, it was discovered that crossbreeding selected pure and inbred lines could result in dramatic increases in production. Hybrids tailor-made for egg or meat production quickly ousted the old pure breeds such as the Rhode Island Red White and Brown Leghorns, Light Sussex, and the various crosses among them. Chicken broilers made by crosses involving parents derived from Cornish and Plymouth Rock have supplanted all others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This situation now prevails in most industrialized countries. The breeding of commercial stocks is in the hands of a few corporations for each commodity (white eggs, brown eggs, chicken broilers, turkeys) and each has national or even global distribution of its hybrid stocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A BREAKTHROUGH IN POULTRY HEALTH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newcastle disease is endemic in developing countries and is a constant threat to poultry. Farmers dread this virus, first identified half a century ago in northern England that brings diarrhea, paralysis, and death to most poultry. It is severe, highly contagious, and can cause 100 percent mortality. When it strikes an area, farmers must kill all chickens - even healthy ones - to stop it from spreading.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only Australia, New Zealand, Northern Ireland and some Pacific islands are unaffected. But, although the disease is not found in Australia, certain strains of the virus are present in Australian chickens. These strains are completely harmless, but Australian researchers have found that they induce antibodies that are effective against Newcastle disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a joint project (funded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research), scientists from Malaysia's University of Agriculture and Australia's University of Queensland* have put this to good use. They have produced a live culture of the harmless virus that farmers can spray onto feed pellets to vaccinate their birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Field tests of the new vaccine, carried out in Southeast Asia, have been extremely promising. Simply coating feeds with the virus seems to be enough to immunize some chickens, which then pass the immunity on to the others in the flock as well as to new hatchlings. In Malaysia, which has 49 million chickens and a population willing to pay a premium for tasty village poultry meat, one economist estimates that the vaccine might increase rural incomes by 25 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conventional vaccines must be stored under refrigerated conditions, which most villages lack. But the Malaysian workers made the Newcastle disease vaccine tolerant of heat. By selective breeding, they now have strains that resist 56&Yacute;C for at least 2 hours. Thus, even in the tropics, the vaccine remains effective for several weeks without refrigeration. The researchers have also devised methods for coating the vaccine onto pelleted feeds. Because the virus can withstand heat, they use a machine designed for coating pharmaceutical tablets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At this stage, the project is showing every promise of producing a cheap means of reducing Newcastle disease losses among chickens throughout much of the world. Already inquiries have come from other Asian countries and from Africa, and it is hoped that the vaccine may eventually benefit many countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">5 Chicken</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g008a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens (Gallus gallus or Gallus domesticus)1 are the world's  major source of eggs and are a meat source that supports a food  industry in virtually every country. There may be as many as 6.5 billion  chickens, the equivalent of 1.4 birds for every person on earth.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No other domesticated animal has enjoyed such universal acceptance,  and these birds are the prime example of the importance of  microlivestock. Kept throughout the Third World, they are one of the  least expensive and most efficient producers of animal protein.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To the world's poor, chickens are probably the most nutritionally  important livestock species. For instance, in Mauritius and Nigeria more  than 70 percent of rural households keep scavenger chickens. In  Swaziland, more than 95 percent of rural households own chickens,  most of them scavengers. In Thailand, where commercial poultry  production is highly developed, 80-90 percent of rural households still  keep chickens in backyards and under houses. And in other developing  countries from Pakistan to Peru, a similar situation prevails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clearly, these chickens should be given far more attention. They  represent an animal and a production system with remarkable qualities;  they compete little with humans for food; they produce meat at low  cost; and they provide a critical nutritional resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scavenger chickens are usually self-reliant, hardy birds capable of  withstanding the abuses of harsh climate, minimal management, and inadequate nutrition. They live largely on weed seeds, insects, and feeds that would otherwise go to waste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, however, quantitative information about the backyard chicken is hard to obtain. Few countries have any knowledge of its actual contribution to the well-being and diet of their people. Notably lacking is an understanding of the factors limiting egg production, which is markedly low and perhaps could be raised dramatically with modest effort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are so well known and ubiquitous that they need no further description. Varying in color from white through many shades of brown to black, they range in size from small bantams of less than 1 kg to giant breeds weighing 5 kg or more. Scavenger chickens tend to weigh about I kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The indigenous chickens of Asia are probably descended directly from the wild junglefowl. Those of West Africa are believed descended from European birds brought by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century; those of Latin America probably descend from Spanish birds introduced soon after the time of Columbus.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p81a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All countries have chickens in large numbers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are not endangered, but industrial stocks are replacing traditional breeds to such an extent that much potentially valuable genetic heritage is disappearing. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although chickens derive from tropical species, they adapt to a wide  variety of environments. The modern Leghorn, for example, is found  from the hot plains of India to the frozen tundra of Siberia, and from  sea level to altitudes above 4,000 m in the Andes. (There are, however,  hatching problems at such high altitudes because of oxygen deficiency.)  They also occur in desert countries such as Saudi Arabia, which has a  vast poultry industry and even exports broilers. (However, the birds  need shade and a lot of water where it is hot and dry.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are omnivorous, living on seeds, insects, worms, leaves,  green grass, and kitchen scraps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A commercial bird may produce 280 eggs annually, but a scavenger  may produce close to none. Commonly, a farmyard hen lays a dozen  eggs, takes three weeks to hatch out a brood of chicks, stays with the  chicks six weeks or more, and only then starts laying again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Egg production depends on daylength. For the highest production  rate, at least 12 hours of daylight are needed. The incubation period is  21 days. A hen can begin laying at 5 months of age or even earlier, but  in scavengers it may be much later. The average weight of the eggs is  approximately 55 g from industrial layers and approximately 40 g from  scavengers. Hatching success from breeder flocks often exceeds 90  percent. Industrial broilers can be marketed as early as 6 weeks, when  they are called "Cornish hens."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These passive, gregarious birds have a pronounced social (pecking)  order. If acclimated, they remain on the premises and are unlikely to go  feral. If given a little evening meal of "scratch," they learn to come  home to roost at night.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens have multiple uses. They were probably first used for cock  fighting; later they were used in religious rituals, and only much later  were raised for eggs and meat. Today, chickens can provide a family  with eggs, meat, feathers, and sometimes cash.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In different parts of the world, people keep scavenging chickens in  different ways. The managers are often women and children because  they have more time to spend at home to feed the birds and repel  predators. Some people leave the birds entirely to their own devices.  Many house them at night. Others take the birds each day to the fields,  where they may find much more food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many ingenious local practices. In Ghana, for example,  farmers "culture" termites for poultry by placing a moist piece of cow  dung (under a tin) over a known termite nest. The termites burrow into  the dung, and some can then be fed to the chickens each day. Because  termites digest cellulose, this system converts waste vegetation into  meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A ratio of 1 male to 10-15 females is adequate for barnyard flocks.  Hens will lay eggs in the absence of a rooster - but of course the rooster  is needed if fertile eggs are wanted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Removing chicks stimulates the hen to lay more eggs. This results in  more chicks being hatched, but it requires that the chicks be nurtured  and fed until they are old enough to fend for themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are everywhere; every culture knows them and how to  husband them. They have been utilized for so many centuries that in  most societies their use is ingrained. Unlike the case with pork and beef,  there are few strictures against eating chicken meat or eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat is high in quality protein, low in fat, and easily prepared. In  many countries, the village chicken's meat is preferred to that of  commercial broilers because it has better texture and stronger flavor.  Even in countries with vast poultry industries there is a growing demand  for the tasty, "organically grown," free-ranging chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are more suited to "urban farming" than most types of  livestock and can be raised in many city situations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds are conveniently sized, easily transported alive, and, by and  large, do not transmit diseases to humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout Asia, Africa, and Latin America, the problems of village  chickens are mainly those discussed below.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High Hatching Mortality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commonly, a hatch of eight or nine village chicks results in only two  or three live birds after a few days. A survey in Nigeria, for instance,  showed that 80 percent died before the age of eight weeks. Losses  elsewhere are known to be similar. This is mostly because of starvation,  cold, dehydration, predators (hawks, kites, snakes, dogs, and cats, for  example), diseases, parasites, accidents, and simply getting lost - all of  which can be prevented without great effort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chronic and Acute Disease</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry diseases can become epidemic in the villages because there  are few if any veterinarians. Newcastle disease, fowlpox, pullorum  disease, and coccidiosis, for example - all of which are endemic in the  Third World - can destroy the entire chicken population over large  areas. Lice and other parasites are also prevalent. Scavengers and  industrial birds seem to show no differences in their tolerance for such  diseases and parasites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Low Egg Production</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey in Nigeria showed that the annual production per hen was  merely 20 eggs. Such low production is common throughout the Third  World and is caused by a combination of low genetic potential,  inadequate nutrition, and poor management. Villagers rarely provide nest  boxes or laying areas, so that some eggs are just not found. Some birds  have high levels of broodiness, and eggs accumulating in a nest  stimulates this. There are indications, however, that some village  chickens (for example, some in China) have quite substantial egg-laying  potential when provided with adequate feed.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Low Egg Consumption</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the tropics, many people choose not to eat eggs. Often this is  because eggs are the source of the next generation of chickens;  sometimes it is because of superstition. Further, eggs do not keep well  because most are fertile and, exposed to constant tropical heat, undergo  rapid embryo development.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crop Damage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often necessary to confine the birds to protect young crops or  vegetable gardens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike the situation with small cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs, there are  few named and recognized breeds of Third World chickens. Yet, nearly  every country has at least one kind of village chicken. These have  survived there for centuries and are highly adapted to local conditions.  In village projects, these unnamed chickens deserve priority attention  before other types are sought from elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Generally speaking, improving the production of scavenging poultry  does not require sophisticated research. Instead, simple precautions are  sufficient. These are discussed below.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Disease Control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At a national or regional level, the initial approach to increasing  chicken production in tropical areas should be disease control. There are  several outstanding instances of success in this endeavor. For example,  the spectacular rise of poultry production in Singapore (from 250,000  birds in 1949 to 20 million in 1957) followed the control of Ranikhet  disease. Village flock-health programs, carried out regularly by visiting  veterinarians ("barefoot veterinarians"), might be the answer to some of  the routine health problems. Today, a prime target should be Newcastle  disease, for which there are good chances for success (see page 76).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first step in chicken production at the farm level is improved  management. With more care and attention, mortality can be greatly  reduced. Because incubating and brooding hens must spend the night on  the ground, they are extremely vulnerable. Even modest predator  controls can be highly beneficial. Building crude and inexpensive nest  boxes and constructing a simple holding area around them can  substantially raise production by ensuring that more chicks survive.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE CHICKEN'S WILD ANCESTOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although little known to most people, the red junglefowl has  contributed more to every nation than any other wild bird. It is  the ancestor of the chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given its descendants importance worldwide, the neglect of  this bird is baffling. If the cow's wild ancestor, the aurochs, had  not become extinct in the 1600s, it would now be worth millions  of dollars as the ultimate source of cattle genetic diversity. Yet  the world's chicken industry remains virtually unaware of the  origin of its source of livelihood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the aurochs, the red junglefowl has a wealth of wild  genes, and it deserves more recognition and protection. For one  thing the modern chicken - selectively bred in the temperate  zone - is highly susceptible to heat and humidity; the junglefowl,  on the other hand, is not. It inhabits the warmest and most humid  parts of Asia: Sri Lanka, India, Burma, Thailand, and most of  Southeast Asia. It may also be resistant to various chicken  diseases and pests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not a rare species. Throughout the wide crescent  stretching from Pakistan to Indonesia, junglefowls are still seen  in the wild, especially in forest clearings and lowland scrub.  Although they are a prized bag for hunters, they survive by fast  running and agile flying. They are sometimes sold in village  markets, but can easily be mistaken for domesticated chickens,  which in this region are often very similar. The wild junglefowl,  however, has feathered legs, a down-curving tail, and an overall  scragginess.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Junglefowls should be under intensive study. They are easy to  rear in captivity and do well in pens, even small ones, as long as  they are sheltered from rain and wind. One drawback is their  craze for scratching unless provided plenty of space they  promptly tear up all grass and dirt. Another is that junglecocks  are violent fighters and must be kept apart. (Cockfighting is  probably a major reason why they were initially selected, and  thus their aggressiveness is perhaps the reason we have the  chicken today.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These highly adaptable creatures live in a variety of habitats,  from sea level to 2,000 m. Most, however, are found in and  around damp forests, secondary growth, dry scrub, bamboo  groves, and small woods near farms and villages. They are  amazingly clever at evading capture and thrive wherever there is  some cover.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other junglefowl species might also provide useful poultry.  They, too, can be raised in captivity with comparative ease, as  long as the cocks are kept apart. Perhaps they might be tamed with imprinting and could prove useful as domestic fowl,  especially in marginal habitats. They are everywhere considered  culinary luxuries and their meat commands premium prices.  Moreover, several have colorful feathers, giving them additional  commercial value. These other species are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- La Fayette's Junglefowl (Gallus lafayettei). Avery attractive  bird of Sri Lanka, it is little known in captivity, and only in the  United States are there any number in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gray or Sonnerat's Junglefowl (Gallus sonnerati). A native  of India, this colorful bird produces feathers that are used in  tying the most prized trout and salmon flies. Demand is so great  that certain populations have declined, and since 1968 India has  banned all export of birds or feathers. Nonetheless, there are  several hundred in captivity in various countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Green Junglefowl (Gallus varius). This is yet another striking  bird. The cock has metallic, greenish-black feathering set off by  a comb that merges from brilliant green at the base to bright  purple and red at the top. Native to Java, Bali, and the  neighboring Indonesian islands as far out as Timor, it is found  particularly near rice paddies and rocky coasts. This species, too,  can be raised without great difficulty, and there are at least 90 in  captivity in various parts of the world.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving poultry nutrition is also of prime importance. There are no quantitative data on the quality of a scavenging chicken's diet. Surveys are badly needed so that appropriate, low-cost supplements can be devised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chances are that the diet for chicks of scavenging poultry is almost always deficient in available energy. Minimal supplementation in the form of cereals or energy-rich by-products can greatly improve both egg and meat production. However, caution must always be exercised and the supplements given only to chicks. Overfed adults will give up scavenging and stay around the owner's house, without really producing much more meat or eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetic Improvement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it seems attractive to replace the scrawny village chicken with bigger, faster-growing imported breeds, it is a process fraught with difficulty. Exotic breeds lack the ability to tolerate the rigors of mismanagement and environmental stress. Many cannot avoid predators, as a result either of being overweight or of having a poor conformation for flight. The local birds, however, probably have a genetic potential that is much higher than can be expressed in the constraining environment. Thus, the environmental constraints should be tackled first.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, the village birds may have a feed-conversion efficiency that is far less than ideal because they are adapted to a scavenging existence. Modern breeds imported into Ghana, for instance, showed a feed-conversion efficiency of less that 3.5:1 (weight of food eaten: growth and eggs), but the local birds had efficiencies of 11:1.4 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need for preserving genetic variability is greater in poultry, especially in chickens, than in any other form of domestic animal. North America, for instance, which years ago had 50 or more common breeds, now relies on only 2 for meat production, and the others have been largely lost. Conservation of germplasm has become a matter of serious concern, and the saving of rare breeds in domestic fowl should not be delayed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE SOUTH AMERICAN CHICKEN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Early European explorers of South America were surprised to discover an abundance of unusual chickens that laid colored eggs and had feathers resembling earrings on the side of the head. While the origin of this bird - commonly called the araucanian chicken and classified as Gallus inauris - is debatable, scientists generally agree that it is pre-Columbian. There is archeological evidence that this bird is native to the Americas. It is reported to have occurred in Chile, Ecuador, Bolivia, Costa Rica, Peru, and Easter Island. It still occurs in the wild in southern Chile and on Easter Island.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The araucanian has been called the "Easter-egg chicken" because it lays light green, light blue, and olive colored eggs. It lays well and has a delicious meat. In areas such as southern Chile the eggs are preferred over those of normal chickens because of their flavor and dark yellow yolk. This unusual bird has a high degree of variability; however, specimens of similar genetic background have been grouped to create "breeds" such as the White Araucanian, Black Araucanian, and Barred Araucanian. These are homozygotes and breed true.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The araucanian has been the subject of much public interest,. clubs dedicated to its preservation have been formed in the United States, Great Britain, and Chile. Its possible exploitation as a backyard microlivestock deserves serious consideration. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">6 Ducks</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g009a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos)1 are well known, but still have much unrealized promise for subsistence-level production. Although a major resource of Asia, where there is approximately one duck per 20 inhabitants, they are not so intensively used elsewhere. On a worldwide basis, for instance, they are of minor importance compared with chickens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is unfortunate because ducks are easy to keep, adapt readily to a wide range of conditions (including small-farm culture), and require little investment. They are also easily managed under village conditions, particularly if a waterway is nearby, and appear to be more resistant to diseases and more adept at foraging than chickens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, the products from ducks are in constant demand. Some breeds yield more eggs than the domestic chicken. And duck meat always sells at premium. A few recently created breeds (notably some in Taiwan) have much lower levels of fat than the traditional farm duck. This development could open up vast new markets for duck meat, especially in wealthy countries, where consumers are both concerned over fat in their diet and eager for alternatives to chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks are also efficient at converting waste resources - insects, weeds, aquatic plants, and fallen seeds, for instance - into meat and eggs. Indeed, they are among the most efficient of all food producers. Raised in confinement, ducks can convert 2.4-2.6 kg of concentrated feed into I kg of weight gain. The only domestic animal that has better feed conversion is the broiler chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raised as village birds and allowed to forage for themselves, ducks become less productive but become even more cost effective because much of the food they scavenge has no monetary value. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several distinctive types have been developed in various regions. Most have lost the ability to fly any distance, but they retain a characteristic boatlike posture and a labored, waddling walk. The Indian Runner, however, has an almost erect stance that permits it to walk and run with apparent ease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic ducks range in body size from the diminutive Call, weighing less than I kg, to the largest meat strains (Pekin, Rouen, and Aylesbury, for example) weighing as much as 4.5 kg. For intensive conditions, the Pekin is the most popular meat breed around the world. In confinement it grows rapidly - weighing 2.5-3 kg at a market age of 78 weeks. In addition, it is hardy, does not fly, lays well, and produces good quality (but somewhat fatty) meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Khaki Campbell breed is an outstanding egg producer, some individuals laying more than 300 eggs per bird per year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Taiwan Tsaiya (layer duck) is also a particularly efficient breed. It weighs 1.2 kg at maturity, starts laying at 120-140 days, and can produce 260-290 eggs a year. Its small body size, large egg weight, and phenomenal egg production make Brown Tsaiya the main breed for egg consumption in Taiwan. More than 2.5 million Brown Tsaiya ducks are raised annually for egg production.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domestic duck is distributed throughout the world; however, its greatest economic importance is in Southeast Asia, particularly in the wetland-rice areas. For example, about 28 percent of Taiwan's poultry are- ducks. In parts of Asia, some domestic flocks have as many as 20,000 birds. One farm near Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, rears 40,000 ducks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although ducks are abundant, some Western breeds are becoming rare. Indigenous types are little known outside their home countries and have received little study, so their status is uncertain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These adaptable creatures thrive in hot, humid climates. However, during torrid weather they must have access to shade, drinking water, and bathing water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks are well adapted to rivers, canals, lakes, ponds, marshes, and other aquatic locations. Moreover, they can be raised successfully in estuarine areas. Most ocean bays and inlets teem with plant and animal life that ducks relish, but (unlike wild sea ducks) domestic breeds have a low physiological tolerance for salt and must be supplied with fresh drinking water. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks search for food underwater, sieve organic matter from mud, root out morsels underground, and sometimes catch insects in the air. Their natural diet is normally about 90 percent vegetable matter (seeds, berries, fruits, nuts, bulbs, roots, succulent leaves, and grasses) and 10 percent animal matter (insects, snails, slugs, leeches, worms, eels, crustacea, and an occasional small fish or tadpole). They have little ability to utilize dietary fiber. Although they eat considerable quantities of tender grass, they are not true grazers (like geese), and don't eat coarse grasses and weeds at all. Sand and gravel is swallowed to serve as "grindstones" in the gizzard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When protected from accidents and predation, ducks live a surprisingly long time. It is not unusual for one to continue reproducing for up to 8 years, and there are reports of exceptional birds living more than 20 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite large differences in size, color, and appearance, all domestic breeds interbreed freely. Eggs normally take 28 days to incubate, brooding and rearing is performed solely by the female.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Depending on breed, a female may reach sexual maturity at about 20 weeks of age. Most begin laying at 20-26 weeks, but the best egg- laying varieties come into production at 16-18 weeks and lay profitably for 2 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is generally well known that ducks are shy, nervous, and seldom aggressive towards each other or humans. Skilled and enthusiastic swimmers from the day they hatch, they spend many hours each day bathing and frolicking in any available water. However, most breeds can be raised successfully without swimming water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although wild ducks normally pair off, domestic drakes will mate indiscriminately with any females in a flock. In intensively raised flocks, I male to 6 females, and in village flocks, 1 male for up to 25 females, results in good fertility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most domestic ducks, particularly the egg-laying strains, have little instinct to brood. If not confined, they will lay eggs wherever they happen to be - occasionally even while swimming. To facilitate egg collection, some keepers confine ducks until noon. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p96a.png"></center><br>
+ Figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a meat source, ducks have major advantages. Their growth rate is phenomenal during the first few weeks. (Acceptable market weights can be attained under intensive management with birds as young as 6-7 weeks of age.) Yet, even in older birds, the meat remains tender and palatable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eggs from many breeds are typically 20-35 percent larger than chicken eggs, weighing on average about 73 g. They are nutritious, have more fat and protein, and contain less water than hen's eggs. They are often used in cooking and make excellent custards and ice cream. Eggs incubated until just before the embryos form feathers produce a delicacy known as balut in the Philippines. Salted eggs are popular in China and Southeast Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feathers and down (an insulating undercoat of fine, fluffy feathers) are valuable by-products. Down is particularly sought as a filler for pillows, comforters, and winter clothing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks have a special fondness for mosquito and beetle larvae, grasshoppers, snails, slugs, and crustaceans, and therefore are effective pest control agents. China, in particular, uses ducks to reduce pests in rice fields.3 Its farmers also keep ducks to clear fields of scattered grain, to clear rice paddy banks of burrowing crabs, and to clear aquatic weeds and algae out of small lakes, ponds, and canals. This not only improves the conditions for aquaculture and agriculture, it also fattens the ducks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Southeast Asia, droving is a traditional form of duck husbandry, much as it was in medieval Europe. The birds are herded along slowly, foraging in fields or riverbanks as they march to market. The journey might cover hundreds of kilometers and take as long as six months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This process, however, is generally declining, and most ducks are raised under farm conditions where they scavenge for much of their feed. Throughout Southeast Asia, ducks have been integrated with aquaculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks can be raised on almost any kitchen wastes: vegetable trimmings, table scraps, garden leftovers, canning refuse, stale produce, and stale (but not moldy) baked goods. However, for top yields and quickest growth, protein-rich feeds are the key. Commercial duck farms rely on such things as fish scraps, grains, soybean meal, or coconut cake. Agricultural wastes such as sago chips, palm-kernel cake, and palm-oil sludge are being used in Malaysia.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks have a very high requirement for niacin (a B vitamin). If chicken rations are used, a plentiful supply of fresh greens must be provided to avoid "cowboy legs," a symptom of niacin deficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of all domestic animals, ducks are among the most versatile and useful and have multiple advantages, including:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Withstanding poor conditions;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Producing food efficiently;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Utilizing foodstuffs that normally go unharvested;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Helping to control pests; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Helping to fertilize the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also, they are readily herded (for instance, by children).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excellent foragers, they usually can find all their own food, getting by on only a minimum of supplements, if any. Raising them requires little work, and they provide farmers with food or an income from the sale of eggs, meat, and down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks can grow faster than broiler chickens if they have adequate nutrients. Like guinea fowl and geese, they are relatively resistant to disease. They also have a good tolerance to cold and, in most climates, don't need artificial heat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING NEW DUCKS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many species of ducks adapt readily to captivity; it is surprising, therefore, that only the mallard and the muscovy have been domesticated so far. Several wild tropical species seem especially worth exploring for possible future use in Third World farms, Because of the year-round tropical warmth, their instinct to migrate is either absent or unpronounced, and the heavy layer of fat (a feature of temperate-climate ducks that consumers in many countries consider a drawback) is lacking. Moreover, because of uniform daylength, they are ready to breed at any time of the year. Candidates for domestication as tropical ducks include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Whistling ducks (Dendrocygna species). These large, colorful, gooselike birds are noted for their beautiful, cheerful whistle.* They are long-necked perching ducks that are found throughout the tropics. By and large, they are gregarious, sedentary, vegetarian, and less arboreal than the muscovy - all positive traits for a poultry species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The black-bellied whistling duck (D. auturunalis) seems especially promising. It is common throughout tropical America (southwestern United States to northwestern Argentina) and is sometimes kept in semicaptivity. Occasionally, in the highlands of Guatemala, for instance, Indians sell young ones they have reared as pets. When hand reared, the birds can become very tame. * * They eat grain and other vegetation, require no swimming water, and will voluntarily use nest boxes. In the wild, they "dump" large numbers of eggs so that even if substantial numbers were removed for artificial hatching, the wild populations should not be affected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Greater wood ducks (Cairina species). The muscovy (C. moschata) was domesticated by South American Indians long before Europeans arrived (see page 124). Its counterparts in the forests of Southeast Asia and tropical Africa are, however, untried as domesticates. The white-winged wood duck (C. scutulata) is found from eastern India to Java. Hartlaub's duck (C. hartlaubi) occurs in forests and wooded savannas from Sierra Leone to Zaire. Both are rare in captivity, but might well prove to be future tropical resources. Both are strikingly similar to muscovies in size and habits, being large, phlegmatic, sedentary, and omnivorous. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Predators are the most important cause of losses in farm flocks. Ducks are almost incapable of defending themselves, and losses from dogs and poachers can be high. Locking them in at night both protects the birds and prevents eggs from being wastefully laid outside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks do suffer from some diseases, mainly those traceable to mismanagement such as poor diet, stagnant drinking water, moldy feed or bedding, or overcrowded and filthy conditions. Of all poultry, they are the most sensitive to aflatoxin, which usually comes from eating moldy feed. They are also susceptible to cholera (pasteurellosis) and botulism, either of which may wipe out entire flocks. Duck virus enteritis (duck plague) and duck virus hepatitis also can cause severe losses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If not carefully managed, ducks can become pests to some crops, especially cereals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, ducks tend to be extremely poor mothers and can be helped by using broody chicken hens or female muscovies as surrogate mothers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Major limitations to large-scale, intensive production are mud, smell, and noise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Defeathering ducks is much more difficult than defeathering chickens because of an abundance of small pinfeathers and down feathers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds already function so well that no fundamental research needs to be done. Nonetheless, there are a number of topics that could improve their production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, different types of low-cost systems need to be explored and developed. These must be low-input systems since cash is a limiting factor for most subsistence farmers. One possibility is the integration of duck and fish farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of all breeds is needed to determine their status and likelihood of extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One need in countries that already have ducks is to encourage the consumption of duck meat. Indonesia, for instance, has 25 million egg-producing ducks, but little duck meat is consumed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research on economically significant diseases is needed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">7 Geese</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g010a.png"></center><br>
+ Brown Chinese Geese</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although geese (Anser spp.) were one of the first domesticated animals, they have yet to receive the level of commercial or industrial exploitation of chickens or even ducks. Thus, their global potential is far greater than is generally recognized today.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic geese are easily managed and well suited to small-farm production; they are among the fastest growing avian species commonly raised for meat, and they have immediate application in many developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are especially appropriate for providing farmers a supplemental income. With little extra work they supply nutritious meat, huge eggs, and rich fat for cooking, as well as soft down and feathers for bedding and clothing. Moreover, their strident voices sound the alarm when strangers or predators approach. They are especially well suited to aquatic areas and marshy lands and are completely at home in warm shallow waterways. Nevertheless, they can thrive away from water. In fact, wherever pasture is available geese readily adapt to captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are grazers, and can be raised almost exclusively on pasture. They are excellent foragers, and on succulent grass can find most or all of their own food. With their powerful bills they pull up grasses and underwater plants and probe soil and water for roots, bulbs, and aquatic animals. Their long necks make them adept at gleaning weeds from hard-to-reach places - such as fence rows, ditches, and swampy areas that baffle larger livestock. They will also feast on vegetable trimmings, garden and table leftovers, canning refuse, and stale baked goods. Like other poultry, they pick up shattered grains of rice, wheat, barley, and other crops, which can reduce the bothersome problem of weeds volunteering in subsequent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are available worldwide. In most climates, they require little or no housing. Given reasonable care and protection from predators, mortality can be extremely low. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic geese come in an assortment of colors, sizes, and shapes. There are two main types, however. Descendants of the wild greylag goose (Anser anser) make up the domestic breeds common in North America and Europe, including the Embden, Toulouse, Pilgrim, American Buff, Pomeranian, Sebastopol, and Tufted Roman breeds. These are generally best suited to temperate climates. On the other hand, descendants of the wild "swan goose" (Anser cygnoides) make up the geese of Asia, including the Chinese and "African" types. These breeds seem better suited to hot climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to these, many European and Asian countries have their own local breeds and types, and there are even several wild species that show some potential for captive production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With their long legs and webbed toes, geese are equally at home walking or swimming. Avid walkers, they march long distances to find forage, but return home at dusk. Accomplished and graceful swimmers, geese are able to take to water soon after they hatch. Despite their large size, some domestic breeds - especially the leaner ones - have retained the ability to fly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are found worldwide, but goose farming is nationally important only in Asia and Central Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic geese are not threatened, although much local variation among the breeds is being lost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most geese adapt well to hot climates - as long as some shade is available. Their waterproof feathers help them adapt well to high rainfall regions. They also tolerate extreme cold. (For instance, in Canada, geese are wintered outdoors in subfreezing temperatures, with merely 'e simple shelter from wind.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For tropical developing countries, the Chinese type, which is widely kept in Southeast Asia, is especially promising. Smaller than most geese (although ganders can weigh over 5 kg), they are the best layers, the most active foragers (making them economical and useful as weeders), the most alert and "talkative," and they produce the leanest meat. Some European breeds, such as Embden and Toulouse, have also been used in the tropics with notable success. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING GEESE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Temperate Zones)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today's domestic geese are descended from two species: the greylag (Anser anser) and the swan goose (Anser cygnoides). These were domesticated in Europe and China, respectively. Their domestication occurred in ancient times, long before people knew about genetics, microorganisms, veterinary science, or behavior modifications such as imprinting. Today, armed with such knowledge, more geese may be amenable to domestication. Most of the 15 other wild species adapt to captivity. Compared to most birds, geese spend much time walking and swimming and are less inconvenienced by pinioning (removing the tip of the wing). Thus, they can be kept outdoors rather than in cages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both of the ancestors of today's domestic geese are native to the northern temperate zone. Two more wild species that might make useful domesticates are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Canada goose (Branta canadensis). North America. People feeding these birds in city parks and wildlife refuges are causing many local flocks to develop. These birds no longer migrate. They are increasing in numbers each year and are well on the way to de facto domestication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- American swan goose (Coscoroba coscoroba). Southern South America. Although most closely allied to swans in shape and physiology, this bird resembles a muscovy (see page 124) in size and behavior. Its calm disposition, as well as its attractive red feet and bill that accent its white plumage, have made it much sought as an ornament for parks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In its diet, the goose utilizes large quantities of tender forage. It can break down plant-cell walls and digest the contents. Although it has no crop for storing food, there is an enlargement at the end of the gullet that serves as a temporary storage organ. Sand and small gravel are swallowed to aid the gizzard in grinding hard seeds and fibrous grasses. Research has shown that geese can digest 15-20 percent of the fiber in their diet, which is 3-4 times the amount that other poultry species can digest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The natural diet consists of grasses, seeds, roots, bulbs, berries, and fruits, normally supplemented with a little animal matter (mainly insects and snails) picked up incidentally. Most feeding takes place on land. They characteristically feed for prolonged periods, even at night.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females may lay for 10 years or more. It is generally believed that reproduction is best in the second year and that it remains good until the fifth year. Geese outlive other types of poultry; life spans of 1520 years are common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The eggs incubate in 27-31 days. The incubation time is more variable than in most poultry species, perhaps because geese have not been subjected to the selection pressure that is imposed by artificial incubators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most intelligent birds, the goose has a good memory and does not quickly forget people, animals, or situations that have frightened it. While personalities and habits vary among individual specimens, there are common behavioral patterns, such as the pecking order, that allow individuals to live peaceably together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless conditions are crowded or there are too many males, geese normally live harmoniously both with themselves and with other creatures. The bond between male and female is strong. Changing mates is difficult, although most geese will eventually accept a new mate after a period of "mourning."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese nest on the ground and prefer the water's edge, but they adapt readily to man-made nesting boxes. The gander usually stands guard while the goose incubates the eggs. He then assists in rearing the goslings. Most geese become irritated if intruders approach their nest or goslings, and will even attack people and large dogs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As previously noted, these birds provide meat, eggs, fat, and down. The meat is lean, flavorful, and of outstanding quality. The fat accumulates between the skin and the flesh and can be rendered into a long-lasting oil. The eggs are large and taste much like chicken eggs. The "down" (the small, fluffy feathers that lie next to the body of adult birds) is the finest natural insulating material for clothing and bedding, and can fetch a premium price. Worldwide markets exist for both down and other goose feathers. In France, in particular, some geese are raised for their livers (foie gras).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese can control many types of aquatic weeds in shallow water as well as grass and some types of palatable broad-leaf weeds on the banks of lakes, ponds, and canals. They can also be used as ''lawn mowers" and "weeders" among cotton, fruit trees, and other crops (see sidebar).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Elongated necks not only allow geese to reach many different foods, they also help them keep a watchful eye on the surroundings. With their exceptional eyesight they can see great distances, and the position of the eyes gives them a wide field of vision. Geese are among the most alert of all animals, and strangers cannot calm them into silence. In the high Andes, in Southeast Asia, and in many other locations, they replace guard dogs. In Europe, they are used to guard whiskey warehouses and sensitive military installations (see page 111).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Methods of caring for adult geese vary according to climate, breed, and people's experiences and needs. Overall, however, the birds cause little trouble and require little expense. They range freely without restriction, feeding themselves and returning home of their own accord. They have strong flocking instincts and can readily be herded from one area to another.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like all young poultry, goslings are fragile. The highest mortality is caused by predators. Until the goslings are 6-10 weeks old, it is prudent to confine the parents and their young at night in a secure pen or building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are the only domestic fowl that can live and reproduce on a diet of grass. They cannot remain healthy on coarse dry fodder, but when grass is succulent they need little else other than drinking water. Many legumes also make excellent goose forage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the tropics, eggs can be laid year-round. The production seldom exceeds 40 eggs per year, although with feed supplement and simple management, the Chinese breed may yield more than 100 eggs. Geese go broody quickly. To break up broodiness, the goose can be confined for 4 6 days away from, but in sight of, the ganders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goslings grow rapidly and can reach market size as early as 10-12 weeks; most geese, however, are marketed at 20-30 weeks of age, when they may weigh from 5 to 7 kg, depending on type and breed. Some young birds (also called green or junior geese), force-fed for rapid growth, are marketed at 4-6 kg when they are 8-10 weeks old.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If fed a good diet to maximize growth and if slaughtered at, say, 10 weeks, the Embden, Chinese, or African will have a carcass low in fat. However, the carcass normally has much more fat than other poultry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese must have a constant supply of reasonably clean drinking water during daylight hours. Although swimming water is not necessary, it promotes cleaner and healthier birds because they find it easier to care for their plumage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING GEESE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Tropics)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese of the tropics have seldom if ever been considered for domestication, but they might provide poultry of considerable value. Presumably they are more heat tolerant and lack the layers of subcutaneous fat (which the ancestors of today's geese needed for warmth in the Arctic). They might thus produce lean birds that would fetch premium prices because excessive fat is the major drawback of today's commercial geese. Examples of tropical species that might be domesticable are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Egyptian goose (AIopochen aegyptiacus). Found throughout the African tropics, this bird is already partly domesticated. However, it is bad tempered and quarrelsome and, so far, this has limited its utility. It has therefore been kept only under semidomestication, without intensive breeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nene (Branta sandvicensis). A native of the Hawaiian Islands, this is one of the most endangered species on earth. So few specimens are in existence that farming enterprises cannot now be envisaged. Yet, should this bird prove amenable and suitable, the possibility of an economic future could boost efforts to build up its now meager populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Bar-headed goose (Anser indicus). India and Central Asia. These smallish geese are handsome, dainty, and have a musical horn-like call. They have distinct black bars across the nape, which gives them their popular name. Hand-reared specimens breed well in captivity. Despite heavy hunting they are still abundant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Northern spur-winged goose (Plectropterus gambensis gambensis). Tropical Africa (Senegal to Zimbabwe). This large bird is a ground nester, but it has long bony spurs on the wings that enable it to easily protect its eggs and young from predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Semipalmated (magpie) goose (Anseranas semipalmata). Australia and New Guinea. One of the most aberrant and primitive of all waterfowl, this long-legged sturdy-billed bird has only partially webbed feet. It perches high in trees and has a loud ungooselike whistling call. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE WADDLING WORK FORCE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because geese relish grasses and shun most broad-leafed plants, some enterprising U.S. farmers in the 1950s began using them to rid cotton fields of grassy weeds, which are difficult to kill with herbicides. The geese were put into the fields as soon as the crop came up. A brace of birds kept an acre of cotton weeded; a gaggle of 12 would gobble as many weeds as a hard-working man could clear with a hoe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This method of clearing fields was so effective that by 1960 more than 175,000 geese honked their way across the carefully tended farmland, mainly in the Southwest. Seven days a week, rain or shine, the feathered field hands slaved uncomplainingly from daybreak to dusk, even putting in overtime on moonlit nights. Many toiled so diligently that they worked themselves out of a job.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The geese cleared the fields more cheaply than hoe hands. They left the crop untouched and ate only the succulent young weeds. They did not damage crop roots (as hoes or tractors can), and they were safe and selective, unlike many herbicides. On top of all that they spread fertilizer for the farmer, and ultimately provided him meat for the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eventually, farmers found that geese could be used to weed nearly all broad-leafed crops: asparagus, potatoes, berry fruits, tobacco, mint, grapes, beets, beans, hops, onions, and strawberries, for example. Geese were used in vineyards and fruit orchards to eat both weeds and the fallen fruits that could otherwise harbor damaging insects. They were employed in fields producing trees for the forest industry and flowers for florists shops. Some growers turned goslings loose in cornfields to consume the "suckers" (cone, after all, is a grass) as well as the grain left on the ground. This eliminated the problem of corn as a weed when different crops were later planted in those fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the 1970s when cotton acreage dropped and herbicides selective for the troublesome grasses were developed, the use of geese declined. But today, some organic farmers are returning to the practice. From February to June in the Pacific Northwest, fields are resounding once more to the old-fashioned racket of White Chinese geese. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mature geese are independent creatures. When kept in small flocks and allowed to roam the farmyard or field, they require less attention than any other domestic bird with the possible exception of guinea fowl. In areas where grass is green for much of the year, they can be raised on less grain or concentrated feed than any other domestic fowl.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Durability is one of their most attractive features. Along with ducks, geese seem to be the most resistant of all poultry to disease, parasites, and cold or wet weather. They also do well in hot climates as long as drinking water and deep shade are available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Growth is not only rapid, it is also efficient. If managed properly, goslings can produce I kg of body weight for every 2.25-3.5 kg of concentrated feed consumed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are not usually thought of as prolific layers. However, as noted, some strains of the Chinese breed will yield well over 100 eggs per goose per year. At 140-170 g per egg, that compares favorably with the output of laying chickens. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are messy and their loud trumpeting is often irritating. However, unless they have been teased or mistreated or if they are nesting or brooding young, they are not aggressive. But kilo for kilo, they are stronger than most animals, and a harassed or angry adult can express its displeasure effectively with powerful bill and pounding wings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excessive concentrations of geese on ponds or along creeks encourages unsanitary conditions, muddies water, hastens bank erosion, and destroys plant life. Where sanitation is poor, salmonellosis can devastate geese and be transmitted, via meat and eggs, to humans. Coccidiosis and gizzard worm are other infections.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Defeathering geese is more difficult than plucking chickens because there are two coats (feathers and down) to remove.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some situations, geese may need a diet supplement (such as grain) if they are grazing vegetation exclusively. A balance must be struck: too much supplement and they will quit foraging and become too fat; too little and they grow slowly and may suffer malnutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are not fully mature until two years of age. Their overall reproductive rate, therefore, is lower than that of other poultry. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry researchers worldwide should begin studies to clarify the role that geese could play in helping to feed Third World nations. Studies might include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Management practices for tropical areas;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Breeding and management for increased egg production;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Incubation techniques;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutrition supplementation (for example, vitamins, minerals, energy, specific amino acids) needed by grazing geese;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Physiology of digestion and reproduction;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Clarifying the inheritance of various traits;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Genetic selection for specific meat, eggs, growth factors, or disease resistance;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Comparative studies of the relative efficiency (especially of feed utilization) of the various types and breeds for specific climates in underdeveloped countries;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Weeding tropical crops with geese; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Studying diseases and cross-infection with other birds. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">8 Guinea Fowl</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g011a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Third World villages, the guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) could become much more valuable than it is today. The bird thrives under semi-intensive conditions, forages well, and requires little attention. It retains many of its wild ancestor's survival characteristics: it grows, reproduces, and yields well in both cool and hot conditions; it is relatively disease free; it requires little water or attention; it is almost as easily raised as chickens and turkeys; and it is a most useful all-round farm bird.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea fowl's potential to increase meat production among hungry countries should be given greater recognition. The birds are widely known in Africa and occur in a few areas of Asia, but they show promise for use throughout all of Asia and Latin America and for increased use in Africa itself. Strains newly created for egg and meat production in Europe - notably in France - show excellent characteristics for industrial-scale production. Also, many semidomestic types in Africa deserve increased scientific assessment as scavenger birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meat from domestic guinea fowl is dark and delicate, the flavor resembling that of game birds. It is a special delicacy, served in some of the world's finest restaurants. Several European countries eat vast amounts. Annual consumption in France, for example, is about 0.8 kg per capita.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl also produce substantial numbers of eggs. In Africa, these are often sold hard-boiled in local markets. In the Soviet Union, they are produced in large commercial operations. In France, guinea fowl strains have been developed that not only grow quickly but lay as many as 190 eggs a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside Europe, virtually all guinea fowl are raised as free-ranging birds. These find most of their feed by scratching around villages and farmyards. Their cost of production is small, and they yield food for subsistence farmers. In Europe, on the other hand, most are raised in confinement, with artificial insemination, artificial lighting, and special feeding. In the main, this is to produce meat for luxury markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl production is beginning to increase all over the world. During the last 20 years, for example, many of Europe's chicken farmers and breeders, wishing to diversify, have switched to this bird. The United States is now studying ways to establish industrial production, and both Japan and Australia are increasing their flocks. Nonetheless, there is still a vast untapped future for this bird.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide. This species is robust and resilient and adapts to many climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are somewhat larger than average scavenger-type chickens: adults weigh up to 2.5 kilograms. They have dark-grey feathers with small white spots. Their heads are bare with a bony ridge (helmet) on top, which makes them look something like vultures. The short tail feathers usually slope downwards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chicks, known as "keels," resemble young quail. They are brown striped with red beaks and legs. The sexes are indistinguishable until eight weeks of age. After that, the males' larger helmets and wattles and the cries of the different sexes can be identified. Both sexes give a one-syllable shriek, but females also have a two-syllable call.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the chicken, the guinea fowl is a gallinaceous species and possesses the characteristic sternum with posterior notches and a raised "thumb."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among domestic types are pearl, white, royal purple, and lavender. Pearl is the most common, and is probably the type first developed from the wild West African birds. Its handsome feathers are often used for ornamental purposes. The white is entirely white from the time of hatching and has a lighter skin. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p117a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe dominates industrial production. France, Italy, the Soviet Union, and Hungary all raise millions of guinea fowl under intensive conditions, just as they raise chickens. Elsewhere, guinea fowl have become established as a semidomesticated species on small family farms. Native flocks are found about villages and homes in parts of East and West Africa, and free-ranging flocks can be seen in many parts of India, notably Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, and Madhya Pradesh. During the slavery era, they were introduced from Africa to the Americas to be used for food. In Jamaica, Central America, and Malaysia, the birds have reverted to the wild state and are treated as game.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are abundant; in most places even wild populations are not threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are native to the grasslands and woodlands of most of Africa south of the Sahara where they occupy all habitats except dense forests and treeless deserts. Being native also to temperate South Africa, they appear to have an inherent adaptability to both heat and cold. However, in cool climates, regardless of daylength, they will not begin egg production until temperatures exceed 15&Yacute;C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl accept many foods: grains, leaves, ant eggs (for which they will tear anthills open), and even carrion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, they lay their first egg at about 18 weeks of age. Unlike many wild birds, which produce a single clutch a year, guinea hens lay continuously until adverse weather sets in.2 Free-range "domestic" guinea hens lay up to 60 eggs a season. And well-managed birds under intensive management lay close to 200. The eggs weigh approximately 40 g. Shells are stronger than those of chickens and are usually brown, but can be white or tinted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea hen goes broody after laying, which can be overcome by removing most of the eggs. A clutch of 15-20 is common. The incubation period is 27 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds never become "tame," but neither do they leave the premises. Although they stray farther than chickens do, they always return. They like to hide their eggs in a bushy corner, often in hollows scratched in the ground. They can fly, although even in the wild they do not fly far. They prefer to roost on high branches and (unless pinioned) can be hard to catch during the day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although wild guinea fowl live in groups, they are monogamous by nature and tend to bond in pairs. However, in domestication a single male may serve four or more females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, guinea fowl are valuable sources of both meat and eggs. They can also be used to control insect pests on vegetable crops.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are good "watch animals"; they have fantastic eyesight, a harsh cry, and will shriek at the slightest provocation. Their agitation on sighting dogs, foxes, hawks, or other predators have saved the lives of many a chicken, duck, and turkey. They are brave and will attack even large animals that threaten them.4 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl can be kept in confinement using the methods for raising battery chickens. In this system, breeding stock are housed in cages and artificially inseminated. It gives the best egg production and fertility but requires housing, equipment, and skilled labor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds can also be kept in a semidomestic state in and around the farmyard. In such cases they are penned until they are 12 weeks old. Unaccustomed to foraging for natural food, they constantly return to their artificial food supply. Eventually, however, they learn to subsist by scavenging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds have been called "the worst parents in the world," and are almost incapable of looking after their keets.5 Because the females are such indifferent mothers, the eggs are best hatched in incubators or under other birds, to avoid the keets' being lost by their natural mothers. In many African countries, eggs are hatched under chickens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keets are often kept indoors until they are 3-4 weeks old to protect them from predators and wet weather. Sexual maturity can be delayed to as late as 32 weeks of age by holding the birds in windowless housing and controlling the lighting. This improves egg size and hatchability and reduces early mortality. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GUINEA FOWL AND THE ANCIENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The earliest reference to guinea fowl can be found in murals in the Pyramid of Wenis at Saqqara in Egypt, painted about 2400 B.C. Aviaries were quite fashionable at the time, and wealthy landowners maintained guinea fowl within their walled gardens. A thousand years later, by the time of Queen Hatshepsut (about 1475 B.C.), the junglefowl (the ancestor of the chicken) had arrived, and from then on it was raised on a substantial scale. Records of this period refer to "walk-in" incubators, constructed of mud bricks and heated by cameldung fires. The largest could hold up to 90,000 eggs (mainly from junglefowl but some from guinea fowl) and hatching rates of up to 70 percent were claimed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 400 B.C., guinea fowl were well established on farms in Greece. Later, they rose to importance in ancient Rome. Pliny the elder (in his Natural History, published 77 A.D.) stated that they were the last bird to be added to the Roman menu and that they were in great demand, both eggs and flesh being considered great delicacies. The emperor Caligula offered them as sacrifices to himself when he assumed the title of deity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea fowl then died out in Europe but was reintroduced by the Portuguese navigators returning from their African explorations in the late 1400s. They gave it the name pintada or "painted chicken" and this changed to pintade in French, while the name "Guinea fowl" (fowl from Africa) stayed in English, and gallina de Guinea in Spanish. Coincidentally, guinea fowl and turkeys were both introduced to England between 1530 and 1550, and the English, smitten with the original French misnomers, were left sorting out "Ginny birds" and "Turkey birds" for the remainder of the century. Both birds were adopted with great enthusiasm, and within 150 years they had utterly displaced the peafowl and swan as the major table birds for festive occasions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adapted from R.H.H. Belshaw, 1985 Guinea Fowl of the World</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with the farmyard chicken the guinea fowl's advantages are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Low production costs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Premium quality meat;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Greater capacity to utilize green feeds;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Better ability to scavenge for insects and grains;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Better ability to protect itself against predators; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Better resistance to common poultry parasites and diseases (for example, Newcastle disease and fowlpox).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surprisingly, this semidomestic bird, which has been farmed for centuries, retains the characteristics (feather morphology, hardiness, social behavior) of its wild ancestor - even when subjected to the most modern intensive-rearing methods employing battery cages and artificial insemination. Thus, it thrives under semicaptive conditions and needs little special care. The birds forage well for themselves and do not require much attention; their meat is tasty and they produce substantial numbers of eggs. Unlike chickens, they don't scratch to get insects out of the soil, so they are less destructive to the garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In backyard production the guinea fowl is supreme, but when produced intensively it costs more to raise than chickens. In Europe, for instance, day-old keets cost about twice as much as day-old broiler chicks. (The major reason is that guinea fowl produce fewer hatching eggs and require a longer feeding period.) Guinea fowl are also more expensive to feed. Their feed conversion (for meat production at the marketing age) is about 3.3-3.6 as compared with a broiler's feed conversion of 1.8-1.9. Moreover, guinea fowl take about twice as long to reach marketable size: they are marketed for meat at age 12-14 weeks, compared with 7-8 weeks for the broilers. Therefore, the selling price of guinea fowl in the Western world is up to twice that of broilers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are nervous and stupid. They can be difficult to catch' and when panicking they can easily suffocate their keets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are susceptible to some of the common diseases of chickens and turkeys. Salmonella is the most prevalent, but others are pullorum disease, staphylococcus, and Marek's disease. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE GUINEA FOWL'S WILD COUSINS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domesticated guinea fowl is descended from just one subspecies of the family's seven known species and numerous subspecies. Some of the others may also have promise as poultry. They, too, generally occur in flocks in bushy grasslands and open forests in Africa. All feed on vegetable matter such as seeds, berries, and tender shoots, and on invertebrates such as slugs. They rarely fly except to roost. They acclimatize well are easy to maintain in captivity, and can survive long periods away from water.** Their disposition is tame and nonaggressive, and they mix well with other birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild subspecies closely related to the domestic guinea fowl that might make future poultry in their own right include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gray-breasted guinea fowl (Numida meleagris galeata). This subspecies is the principal ancestor of domestic guinea fowls. It is found throughout West Africa and probably has many valuable genetic traits. There is much variation in the size and other characteristics among the various individuals. People along the Gambia, Volta, and Niger rivers have long traditions of breeding these birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Tufted guinea fowl (Numida meleagris meleagris). This subspecies is quite large and has black plumage thickly spotted with white dots. It is the probable ancestor of the birds reared in ancient Egypt and in the Roman empire (see page 120). Hill farmers in the southern Sudan sometimes breed them in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Mitred guinea fowl (Numida meleagris mitrata). Probably the most popular game bird in East Africa, this type has a bright blue-green head and red wattles. It was once a common sight in the wild but it has now been decimated by overhunting. It is now most numerous in the Masai lands of Kenya and Tanzania. It has been kept in a semidomesticated form in Zanzibar for several centuries. Zoos and aviaries around the world have imported it, and it has bred well for them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild guinea fowl that are different species from the domestic one but that are still worth considering as potential poultry include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Black guinea fowl (Phasidus niger or Agelastes niger). This bird of the tropical rainforests of West and Central Africa is the size of a small chicken. It has sooty black plumage, a naked head, and a pink or yellow neck. It is seldom hunted because the meat tastes dreadful but this is probably because of a particularly pungent fungus they eat in the forest. Raised on fungus-free forages, these birds are probably very palatable. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Crested guinea hen (Guttera spp.). Three species. These strange-looking birds have a thick mop of inky black feathers above their black, naked faces. Widely distributed in the thickly forested areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Unlike the other species, they prefer the rainforest. They have a musical trumpeting call. At least one species has bred well in Europe. For example, a flourishing colony has been established in the Walsrode Bird Park in Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Vulturine guinea fowl (Acryllium vulturinum). The largest of all guinea fowl, this species is found in parts of Ethiopia, Somalia, and East Africa. One of the most striking looking of all birds, its head is bare and blue, its body black with white spots, and its breast bears long bright cobalt-blue patches on either side. This has been reared as an aviary bird in both Europe and America and might make a useful domesticate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agencies involved in international economic development should undertake guinea fowl assessment trials, evaluations, and coordinated introductions to stimulate programs for small farmers and for industries in dozens of countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeders have been working to improve guinea fowl only since the 1950s. There is a need for more information on growth rate, health, egg production, feed conversion, body weight, carcass yield, laying intensity, fertility, hatchability, and egg weight - especially under free-ranging conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Husbandry research should also be directed towards feeds and feeding systems for growing and breeding stock. Other efforts are needed to increase the hatchability of eggs under natural conditions (under guinea hens or surrogate mothers), and to identify the best lighting regimes (both sexual maturity and rate of lay are influenced by changes in daylength).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea fowl that has become an important domesticated bird throughout the civilized world is descended from just one of seven known species in the family. These birds generally occur in flocks in bushy grasslands and open forest in Africa and Madagascar, and some of the others may also have promise as poultry (see sidebar opposite). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">9 Muscovy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g012a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy (Cairina moschata), a unique ducklike species of the South American rainforest, belongs to a small group of waterfowl that perch in trees. In poultry science, however, it is normally grouped with domestic ducks for lack of a better classification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except in France, Italy and Taiwan muscovies have received little modern research. But their promise can be judged from the fact that they account for 50 percent of the duck meat consumed in France - about 60,000 tons per year - and they are often consumed in Italy and Taiwan as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Third World subsistence farming, muscovies have excellent possibilities. There is probably no better choice for a meat bird that requires minimal care and feed. Tame, quiet, and able to forage for much of their keep, they are inherently hardy, vigorous, and robust. They have heavily fleshed breasts and are highly prized for their meat, which is dark, more flavorful, and less fatty than that of common ducks. An average muscovy gives more meat than a chicken of the same age, and it also survives hot, wet environments better. In addition, muscovies are better parents than the domestic duck. Females are probably the best natural mothers of any poultry species, as measured by their success at incubating their eggs and caring for their young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All in all, this bird deserves more attention than it has received so far in Third World livestock projects. Dispersed around the warm and hot regions of the world, muscovies already exist in small numbers in backyards and villages, much like the domestic chicken in previous centuries. Despite a lack of research, the present unimproved stocks are already impressive meat yielders. Used more widely and more intensively, they could contribute much to poor people's meat supplies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossing the muscovy with the common duck produces a hybrid that combines many of the advantages of both. This cross, known as "mulard," or "mule duck" in English, is raised in France for its liver and meat and is produced in quantity in Taiwan (see sidebar, page 132). It, too, has a major future role.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies are suitable for use almost anywhere that chickens can be kept. Moreover, their tropical ancestry and inherent robustness give them an advantage in hot and humid climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although a muscovy somewhat resembles a goose, it is one of the greater wood ducks of tropical South America. It was domesticated in pre-Columbian times, most likely in the rainforests of Colombia. Related wild types, looking very much like the muscovy, still occur in South American wetlands, particularly mangrove swamps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males have mature live weights of 5 kg and females about 2.5 kg. Both have broad and rounded wings. The adults have patches of bare skin around the eyes, rather than feathers. Much of this is covered in "caruncles," which superficially resemble warty outgrowths. The feet have sharp claws. Both sexes raise a crest of feathers when alarmed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is much color variation among the various muscovy populations including types that are called white, colored, black, blue, chocolate, silver, buff, and pied.2 The most common types (they are not considered breeds) are the white and the colored. The white produces a cleaner looking carcass, but the colored is the most popular meat type in France. Its plumage is an iridescent greenish black, except for white forewings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The native range of the muscovy's probable wild ancestor covers much of Central America and northern South America. The domestic form also occurs over most of Latin America - from southern Chile to the northern limits of traditional culture in lowland Mexico - including the Caribbean, where it was present shortly after Columbus landed.3 The birds can be observed among the domestic fowl in the high Andes, for example, and are feral in southern coastal areas of the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carried across the Atlantic, probably in the early 1500s, the domesticated muscovy spread quickly in Europe, and thence to North America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania. Today, it finds favor with the food-loving French as "canard de Barbarie," and France has the greatest concentration of muscovies in Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Down the centuries the muscovy became popular in tropical Asia (especially the Philippines and Indonesia) and in China and Taiwan. Throughout Indonesia (where it is known as "entok") it is popular with villagers for incubating eggs from ducks, geese, and chickens. It is now spreading into Oceania, and has recently gained particular favor in the Solomon Islands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies are also known in Africa and can be found in many villages, especially in West Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not endangered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild muscovies occur mainly along tropical jungle streams, but domestic muscovies are found in many environments from the heat of Central America to the cold of Central Europe. They also tolerate dry conditions, but they thrive best where climates are both hot and wet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies utilize high-fiber feeds better than chickens and common ducks, and eat larger quantities of grass. They also consume other green vegetation and readily snap up any insects they can find. If quality forage is available, only a small daily ration of grain or pellets is required for them to reach peak production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy females normally hatch and raise large broods efficiently. It is not unusual to see them with a dozen or more fragile ducklings in tow - many of them adopted from other species. They bravely protect their young and have been known to beat off cats, dogs, foxes, and other marauders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, muscovies are healthy and live and breed for many years. They suffer few diseases, especially when free ranging. However, they seem to be more susceptible to duck virus enteritis (duck plague) than common ducks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p129a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While appearing to be slow and lethargic, muscovies can be quick and agile when one tries to catch them. Females are strong fliers and readily clear a standard fence. Males frequently become so ponderous that they cannot get airborne without an elevated perch or the aid of a strong wind. Although they forage over a larger area than chickens, they generally neither decamp nor wander as far as common ducks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated muscovies are either solitary or live together in small family groups, but sometimes in winter they flock together on bodies of water. They swim and dive well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds seldom make loud noises. A drake's voice resembles a muffled "puff"; females are almost mute. However, both can hiss or make a soft sound not unlike that of sleigh bells.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is polygamous (a young male will try to mate with almost any fowl, including chickens). Mating can occur on land or in water. Males are pugnacious and tolerate no opposition. Because of this, they do not do well in close confinement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A BETTER FLY TRAP</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is a voracious omnivore that is particularly fond of insects. For years, some Canadian farmers have sworn that a few muscovies took care of all fly problems on their farms. In 1989, Ontario biologists Gordon Surgeoner and Barry Glofcheskie (see Research Contacts) decided to put this to the test.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting with laboratory trials, the entomologists first put a hungry five-week-old muscovy into a screened cage with 400 living houseflies. Within an hour it had eaten 326. Later, they placed four muscovies in separate cages containing 100 flies each. Within 30 minutes over 90 percent of the insects were gone. It took flypaper, fly traps, and bait cards anywhere from 15 to 86 hours to suppress the populations that much.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moving to fleld tests, the researchers placed pairs of twoyear-old muscovies on several Ontario farms. Videotapes showed the birds snapping at houseflies and biting flies about every 30 seconds and being successful on 70 percent of their attempts. With that efficiency, they achieved 80-90 percent fly control in enclosures such as calf rooms or piggeries. The birds were given only water and had to scavenge for all their food. Females seemed to eat about 10 percent more flies than males, and individuals of any age between eight days and two years were equally effective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds fit the practical needs for farmyard fly control. They stayed close to piglets and calves, to which flies are particularly attracted. They even snatched flies off the hides of resting animals without waking them up. On one farm, the birds huddled between sleeping piglets and were accepted by the sow lying beside them. This was noteworthy because most fly-catching devices (chemical, electrical, or mechanical) must be kept far from animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To the Canadians, the economic advantages are clear. A 35-cow dairy needs $150-$590 worth of chemicals for controlling flies during the fly season; muscovy chicks, on the other hand, cost less than $2 each, eat for free, and can be sold for a profit of 200-400 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The researchers point out that employing muscovies does not eliminate all need for insecticides, but it reduces the amounts required. And muscovies are biodegradable, will not cause a buildup of genetic resistance, and taste better than flypaper. Indeed, their meat is excellent, and the naturally mute birds seldom make any noise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reportedly, muscovies are kept in some houses in South America to control not only flies, but also roaches and other insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is generally raised only for its meat, which is of excellent quality and taste. In stews it is hard to distinguish from pork; cured and smoked it is similar to lean ham.4 The fat content is low.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy eggs are as tasty as other duck eggs, and a muscovy female can supply a large number if she is kept from sitting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are useful for clearing both terrestrial and aquatic weeds.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Down feathers are used, like those of other ducks, in clothing and comforters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies may be raised like common ducks. An ideal grouping is one male to five or six females. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except in Taiwan, France, Hungary, and a few other European countries, they exist predominantly in small flocks in farmyards and village ponds. However, they can be reared under intensive conditions in a shed or pen that is well lighted and equipped with low roosts and bedding. Under such conditions, they may be fed diets recommended for rearing common ducks or given coarse feeds, including whole grain. If chicken rations are used, fresh greens must be provided to avoid "cowboy" legs, a symptom of niacin deficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they thrive in areas where there is abundant water, they do not require access to swimming water. They prefer to nest under cover and will use nesting boxes. A normal clutch size is 9-14 eggs; however, clutches of up to 28 can occur. There may be 4 clutches annually, and (when the hen does not have to brood the ducklings) some muscovies have laid 100 eggs in a year.6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The egg weight, which increases with the female's age, ranges from 65 to 85 g. The eggs require 33-35 days to hatch, a week longer than the common duck's. Hatching success of 75 percent or more is common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with domestic ducks early growth is slow, which is perhaps why muscovies have not enjoyed wider industrial use. However, after the slow period they grow rapidly and, because they forage on a broader range of vegetation than common ducks, they can scavenge a large proportion of their diet at little or no cost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When raised intensively, females average 2 kg and males 4 kg at 11-12 weeks of age. Females may reach sexual maturity by 28 weeks of age; males require a month more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE MULE DUCK OF TAIWAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In parts of Europe, hybrids between muscovies and common ducks are reared for fattening. However, Taiwan has made the most outstanding use of this "mule duck." Thanks in part to this muscovy hybrid, Taiwan's duck industry has grown rapidly in the last decade. The total value of duck products now exceeds $346 million per year. Much of the boom in duck production is due to improved feeding disease control and management systems, but much is also due to the performance of the mule duck. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This hybrid is now Taiwan's major meat-duck breed, and about 30 million are consumed each year. Indeed, the duck industry has been so successful that Taiwan is increasingly exporting frozen duck breast and drumstick meat to Japan. It now provides 24 percent of the duck meat eaten in Japan most of it coming from mule ducks. Also, Taiwan is exporting partially incubated mule-duck eggs throughout Southeast Asia. And mule ducks supply most of the raw material for Taiwan's large feather industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan farmers have been producing mule ducks for 250 years, but the recent jump in production is due to the use of artificial insemination to overcome the natural reticence of the different species to mate. Fortunately, artificial insemination is well developed and is a standard part of farming practice in Taiwan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mule ducks are successful because they have less fat than a broiler chicken and they grow faster. Indeed, they can reach a market weight of 2.8 kg at 65 - 75 days of age, depending upon the weather, season, and management. In part, this fast growth is because they are sterile and waste no energy in preparing for a sexual existence or in laying eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The usual cross employs a muscovy male and a domesticduck female. The domestic breeds most employed for muleduck production are White Kaiya (Pekin male x White Tsaiya female), Large White Kaiya (Pekin male x White Kaiya female) and colored Kaiya. Both sexes of the hybrid offspring weigh about the same.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crosses between a muscovy hen and a domestic drake are much rarer (traditionally, this was because of the different mating behavior of the two species, but even with artificial insemination available they are not much used) and the males of these hybrids are much heavier than the females. Females of this cross do lay eggs, but the eggs are small (about 40 g) and their embryos do not develop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are almost 300 duck-breeding farms in Taiwan, annually producing more than 600,000 female domestic ducks for use in producing mule ducks. Some farmers combine duck raising with fish farming. The excrete of 4,000 ducks on one hectare of pond can provide 30,000 tilapia with 20 percent of their feed. It helps the farmer get rid of waste as well as giving him fresh fish to sell. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the muscovy is an extremely good forager and thrives under free-ranging conditions. Unlike other ducks, it grazes on grass and leaves and will maintain itself on pasture. Apparently, it can digest bran and other fibrous feeds better than common ducks can.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The males are larger than all but the largest strains of table duck. They have exceptionally broad, well-muscled breasts and provide one of the leanest meats of any waterfowl.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is apparently more resistant to diseases that regularly decimate other poultry. This is one reason why villagers favored them: when chickens die, muscovies often survive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The female's strong parental qualities help assure the survival of ducklings with a minimum of human intervention. Her ability to incubate and hatch most other poultry eggs is an added advantage to small farmers who have neither the capital to buy, nor the knowledge to operate, artificial incubators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike other ducks, muscovies are not easily alarmed, and fright does not affect their egg production and laying. Indeed, they are so phlegmatic that automobiles can be major causes of death.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they are a tropical species, these birds are much less tolerant of cold than common ducks and require more protection from freezing weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy's feed conversion is not as good as the chicken's. Also, compared with some other meat-duck breeds, muscovies have a slower rate of growth and require about 4 6 weeks longer to attain maximum development of breast muscles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies can be difficult to handle. If their legs are free, the handler may be badly lacerated by the claws.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although adults have a fair homing ability, muscovies may wander away when local forage is sparse, and young birds may be carried long distances downstream, never to return.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they feed on greenery, they can devastate gardens if the plants are very young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies can be unsuspected carriers of poultry diseases, so that healthy-looking muscovies may infect the other species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry scientists should unite in efforts to advance technical knowledge and public appreciation of this bird. Governments and researchers should begin evaluations of local varieties and their uses and performances. The experiences of France, Italy, Eastern Europe, and Taiwan should be gathered and made available for a worldwide readership.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important that the many muscovy varieties within the countries of Latin America - where the bird has a centuries-long history of domestication - be maintained and studied. Many superior varieties and specimens may be awaiting discovery.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy's nutritional requirements, range and confined systems of management, and disease vulnerability are poorly understood and need study. Especially needed are ways to increase growth rate. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">10 Pigeon</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g013a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons (Columba livia)1 are durable birds that can be raised with little effort. Able to survive in inhospitable climates, they fend for themselves - often ranging over many square kilometers to locate seeds and edible scraps. They have been raised for centuries, especially in North Africa and the Middle East. In parts of North America and Europe, they are produced as a delicacy for the gourmet market. But raising pigeons for food is not nearly as widespread as it could be; indeed, in modern times its potential has hardly been touched. Farmed pigeons are particularly promising as urban microlivestock because they require little space and thrive in cities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young pigeons (squab) grow at a rapid rate. Their meat is finely textured, has an attractive flavor, and is often used in place of game fowl. Tender and easily digested, it commands premium market prices. In many areas, the continuing demand is unfilled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are traditionally raised in dovecotes - "houses" that protect the birds from the elements and from predators. This system allows free-ranging flight and requires almost no human intervention. Dovecotes are a good source of both squab and garden manure, and they continue to be used, especially in Egypt. On the other hand, pigeons can also be raised in confinement - usually in enclosed yards - with all their needs supplied by the farmer. There are, for example, pigeon farms in the United States with up to 35,000 pairs of breeding birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeon production may never rise enough to compete with commercial poultry as a major source of food, but for Third World villages these birds could become a significant addition to the diet as well as a source for substantial supplemental income. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons have small heads, plump, full-breasted bodies, and soft, dense plumage. They weigh from about 0.5 to nearly I kg. A few large breeds (Runts, for instance, which commonly weigh 1.4 kg) are the size of small domestic chickens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many breeds have been developed for meat production. They produce squab that grow quicker and have larger breasts than unselected birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild ancestor of the common pigeon - domestic, wild, or feral -  is thought to be the rock pigeon or rock dove of Europe and Asia. Today its domestic descendants are bred in virtually every country, and those that have gone feral (reverted to the wild) occur in most of the world's cities and towns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are abundant. However, as with most other domestic species there is concern over the decline and loss of certain breeds. Societies have been organized (notably in the United Kingdom) to preserve rare types.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p138a.png"></center><br>
+ Natural habitat of the rock dove ancestor of the domestic pigeon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domestic pigeon can be raised equally well in temperate and tropical zones. Indeed, this adaptable species can be kept anywhere that wild pigeons exist, including arid and humid regions. It should be noted, however, that cold climates do not favor squab production and hot climates promote vermin and disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigeon's natural diet consists mostly of seeds, but includes fruits, leaves, and some invertebrates. Feral pigeons consume a wide array of materials, including insects, bread, meat scraps, weed seeds, and many kinds of spilled grains at mills, wharves, railway yards, grain elevators, and farm fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the first four or five days of life, the young are fed "crop milk." This substance, common to pigeons and doves,2 is composed of cells from the lining of the crop and is very high in fats and nutritional energy. The phenomenal growth rate of young squab has been attributed to crop milk and to its early replacement (within 8-10 days) with concentrated foods, regurgitated by both parents. The parents feed the squab for about four weeks before pushing it out of the nest to prepare for the next clutch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In domestic birds, sexual maturity (as measured by age at first egg) is reached at 120-150 days. Life span can be 15 years, although growth and egg production decline rapidly after the third year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild pigeons often nest on cliff sides. Domestic pigeons prefer to nest around buildings, in nooks and shelves and under the eaves - that is, in "pigeonholes."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In domestic varieties, the pair-bond often lasts until severe illness or death. Sometimes, however, a vigorous male will "invade" a nest and mate with the females there. Both sexes take nearly equal part in nest building, incubation, and caring for the young. Typically, there are two eggs to a clutch. Eight clutches a year is not uncommon for a breeding pair. The incubation period is 17-19 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike most birds, pigeons drink by inserting their beaks into water and sucking up a continuous draft. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Courtship is characterized by cooing, prancing, and displays of spread, lowered tail feathers. "Bow and coo" exhibitions are unique to pigeons and doves and differ among species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are usually raised exclusively for meat. The squab are harvested just before full feather development and before the youngster has started to fly, usually at 21-30 days of age. At this time the ratio of flesh to inedible parts is highest; once flying begins, the meat becomes tougher. Weight depends upon breed, nutrition, and other factors, but usually ranges from 340 to 680 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are extensively used for scientific research, notably in physiology and psychology. They are also widely kept as pets for plumage and for racing. The pigeon's unique homing ability was recognized in Roman times, and the birds have been trained to return to the dovecote from as far away as 700 km. Even today, homing pigeons are used to carry messages, especially during war.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are easily trained to recognize "home." The wing feathers are clipped and the birds are fed close to the dovecote; by the time they refledge, their homing instinct has been developed. Alternatively, newly captured pigeons may be trained by confining them to the dovecote for at least one week. At first, a little grain is provided in the morning (this is to ensure the birds will return to the coop). The birds can obtain the rest themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any waterproof house that is easy to clean is suitable for keeping pigeons. Many traditional dovecotes are built of earthenware pots. In Asia and Europe, wooden pigeon towers are generally used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike chickens, pigeons do not prefer communal roosts. Instead, they prefer nesting shelves, of which there should be two for each breeding pair. The shelves are usually placed in dark corners and are fitted with low walls to keep eggs from rolling out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grit is important in the diet, both to provide minerals and to allow the birds to grind feed in their gizzards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commercial squab breeds are often kept permanently in pens, a process that requires care and experience. Growers expect an average of 12-14 squab per pair per year, although much depends on environment and management. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds need fresh water daily and water for bathing at least weekly. Since they feed their young by regurgitation, the adults must have a continuous supply of clean drinking water. Orphan squab can be fed egg yolk until old enough to consume adult feeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like all poultry, confined pigeons must be provided enough supplemental feed to ensure a balanced diet. A mixture of whole grains can be fed for maximum production. It is important that grains be dry and free of mold (pigeons will not thrive on mash). Peas, beans, or similar pulses make good supplements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARRIER PIGEONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most people consider message-carrying pigeons to be a quaint anachronism. But in a few countries (both developed and developing) carrier pigeons are making a comeback, and in the future they may be used routinely once again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New techniques are making this process far more practical than before. For example, in the past the pigeons would be flown in one direction only. They were transported away from home and at the appropriate time released to find their way back. That was very limiting. But it has since been found that pigeons can be trained to carry messages in two directions: flying from one point to another and then back again. They will do it twice a day, and with almost perfect reliability. The key is to place the feeding station at one end and the nest at the other. This limits the pigeon's range, but they still can handle round-trip distances up to 160 km.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a little ingenuity, there is no need for a person to monitor the stations to receive the messages as the bird arrives. One simple technique is to arrange the station with one-way doors - one opening inwards, the other outwards. Placing a bar across the outward door means that the bird cannot get out until someone releases it. Thus the message can always be retrieved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This system has been employed in Puerto Rico and Guatemala, but it could be used almost anywhere. In many parts of the Third World, in particular, there are remote areas with no phones and with hilly, rough terrain where delivering messages can take hours of strenuous travel. Some locations are subject to unexpected isolation by natural calamities or military or terrorist actions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Puerto Rico, for instance, we kept pigeons in a village 32 km from the capital. The pigeons could get downtown in 20-30 minutes. It took us 1.5-2 hours each way by road. What was easy for the birds was a major trip for us. Pigeons carried the villagers' requests for certain foods and medicines. Our contact in the city then sent up the supplies by bus. The birds never let us down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carrier pigeons are useful for more than just flying far and fast. They have been bred for racing and their large pectoral muscles make them excellent meat producers - much better than the common pigeons normally raised for food. A pair of carriers typically will raise 12 - 16 young each year, and those not needed for message carrying can be butchered at 28 days of age - yielding meat that is nutritious and considered a delicacy in many countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Holderread</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Every day on the northwest coast of France, Petit Gendamme, a black and white carrier pigeon, flies on average 23 km between hospitals on his blood delivery route. Trussed in tiny hand-sewn harnesses, he and a flock of carrier pigeons set out (except during the hunting season) with little red tubes of blood secured to their breasts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"It's a simple, effective, and cost-saving transport system," said Yves Le Henaff, head of the Avranches Hospital laboratory, Cotentin, France, a central blood-testing center that serves a number of isolated medical centers along the coast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The service becomes particularly valuable during the summer tourist rush, when travellers flock to the seashore to visit nearby Mont Saint Michel, crowding the small country roads and increasing the risk of traffic accidents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds' average flight time between the hospitals of Avranches and Granville, for example, a distance of about 27 km, is 20 minutes, including the time for harnessing up. And with a favorable western wind their best time can reach 11 minutes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While gasoline costs the equivalent of $0. 75 a lifer in France, hospital officials say that a few grains of corn is all it takes to run this operation. According to Le Henaff, who supervises the carrier pigeon operation, the hospital is saving up to $46 a day on gas and auto maintenance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 40-year-old Le Henaff got the idea five years ago from an article in a scientific journal describing a similar experiment in Britain. A year later, he and an associate called on the local seamstress to design a light harness that could hold a tube, which, when filled, weighs approximately 39 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The flock now consists of 40 veteran fliers and 20 carrier pigeons in training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And what if the winged creatures stray en route? Le Henaff has devised a fall-back option: two pigeons carry two different test tubes containing the same blood sample.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds fly every day of the year with the exception of the three-month autumn hunting season. Since the beginning of the experiment four years ago, there have been two casualties. Le Henaff believes the birds probably met their fate in some Normand's oven.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sometimes weather is a factor, and heavy fog can keep the delivery team grounded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, the new job seems to benefit the pigeons, too. Unlike sickly city pigeons, whose average life span is about four years, well-cared-for carrier pigeons can live up to 15 years, Le Henaff said. "And how many people do you know who are willing to stay with the same outfit for that long?"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sabine Maubouche</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Washington Post</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">December 2, 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under extensive conditions - where the birds are released each day to feed themselves - almost no land is needed. Under intensive conditions, where the birds spend their lives in confinement, a mere half hectare can be enough space to raise 2,000 pairs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free-ranging pigeons forage over a wider area than most domestic fowl because they fly out to find their feed. Nutrient requirements3 are similar to those of chickens and other fowl (making allowance for the energy needed for flying), so commercial feed and other supplements - if needed at all - are generally available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In dovecote culture, pigeons require little or no handling. They brood the young with little intervention. Although not continuous, the production of meat from these fast-growing, rapidly reproducing birds is more sustained than with most livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost nowhere are there taboos against consuming pigeon meat. Prices received for squab are normally high, and in most places the demand is constant. The only limitation in some areas is the absence of an effective market, which is usually easy to create.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Squab contains a larger proportion of soluble protein and a smaller proportion of connective tissue than most meats and is therefore good for invalids and people with digestive disorders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As many hobbyists can testify, raising pigeons can be gratifying.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are subject to few diseases. However, worms, lice, diarrhea (coccidiosis), canker (trichomoniasis), and salmonella (paratyphoid) occur at some time in most domestic breeds. Salmonella exists in low levels in most flocks and will flare up if birds are stressed. Treatments recommended for domestic chickens are usually suitable for pigeons. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By flying over a wide area and eating grains and other foods, pigeons can cause conflicts with farmers. Indeed, in the 13th century the aristocracy's pigeons became a major grievance of the peasants who saw their seed devoured. On the other hand, "croppers" (breeds with large crops) were developed to steal grain from the lord's fields. The pigeon returned home and his crop was emptied of the grain, which was used by the peasant to make bread.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds can become nuisances. They leave droppings in annoying places, some people find them too noisy, and a few people are severely allergic to "pigeon dust."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Every conceivable type of predator can be expected; therefore, precautions must be taken. The dovecote must be well protected against rats, which are the principal enemy of the eggs and the squabs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nesting birds need a high-protein diet to raise squab at the high rates of gain that are possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry researchers should study the increased role pigeons might play in Third World economic development. Nothing comparable to the sophisticated selection employed with the domestic chicken has so far been attempted. Given such attention the gains could be great.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among pressing research needs are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Breeding. This needs to be better understood. For example, the effects of hybridization and inbreeding need clarification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Environmental limits. Little work has been done outside the temperate regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Diseases. These deserve increased attention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also the potential of "dovecotes" for wild pigeons. Numerous local species are well adapted to local conditions, and these deserve to be tested for "domestication."4 Many wild species quickly lose their fear of man, and in time they can even become too fat to fly. Wild pigeons are already found throughout the humid tropics and are trapped for meat and rearing in New Guinea and other places. They are already an important food source for many subsistence farmers and shifting cultivators, and with some dovecote management could provide a greater, more dependable source of food and income. The potential for domesticating local pigeon species, especially those suited to the tropics, deserves exploration. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">11 Quail</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g014a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native to Asia and Europe, quail' (Coturnix coturnix2) have been farmed since ancient times, especially in the Far East. They reproduce rapidly and their rate of egg production is remarkable. They are also robust, disease resistant, and easy to keep, requiring only simple cages and equipment and little space. Yet they are not well known around the world and deserve wider testing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are so precocious that they can lay eggs when hardly more than 5 weeks old. It is said that about 20 of them are sufficient to keep an average family in eggs year-round. Quail eggs are very popular in Japan, where they are packed in thin plastic cases and sold fresh in many food stores. They are also boiled, shelled, and either canned or boxed like chicken eggs. Quail eggs are excellent as hors d'oeuvres and they also are used to make mayonnaise, cakes, and other prepared foods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In France, Italy, the United States, and some countries in Latin America (Brazil and Chile, for example) as well as throughout Asia, it is the meat that is consumed. It is particularly delicious when charcoal broiled. One company in Spain annually processes 20 million quail for meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the domesticated strains seem to have originated in China, and migrating Chinese carried them throughout Asia. Today, millions of domestic quail are reared in Japan, Indonesia, Thailand, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Indochina, Philippines, and Malaysia, as well as in Brazil and Chile. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commercial production is carried out, as in the chicken industry, in specialized units involving hatcheries, farms, and factories that process eggs and meat. However, quail have outstanding potential for village and "backyard" production as well. It is this aspect that deserves greater attention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail come in various sizes. The smaller types are used for egg production, whereas the larger ones are better for meat. Adult females of improved meat strains may weigh up to 500 g. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several color varieties. However, mature females are characterized by a tan-colored throat and breast, with black spots on the breast. Mature males, which are slightly smaller than females, have rusty-brown throats and breasts. All mature males have a bulbous structure, known as the foam gland, located at the upper edge of the vent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the United States, the Pharaoh strain is the bird of choice for commercial production. Other available strains tend to be bred more for fancy than for food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail eggs are mottled brown, but some strains have been selected for white shells. These eggs are often preferred by consumers and are easier to candle (the process of holding eggs up to a light to check for interior quality and stage of incubation). An average egg weighs 10 g - about 8 percent of the female's body weight. (By comparison, a chicken egg weighs about 3 percent of the hen's body weight.) Quail chicks weigh merely 5-6 g when hatched and are normally covered in yellowish down with brown stripes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ancestral wild species is widely distributed over much of Europe and Asia as well as parts of North Africa. Although domestic quail are now available almost everywhere, Japan is probably the world leader in commercial production; quail farms are common throughout its central and southern regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not endangered. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p149a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are hardy birds that, within reasonable limits, can adapt to many different environments. However, they prefer temperate climates; the northern limit of their winter habitat is around 38&Yacute;N.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A quail's diet in the wild consists of insects, grain, and various other seeds. To thrive and reproduce efficiently in captivity, it needs feeds that are relatively high in protein.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The females mature at about 5-6 weeks of age and usually come into full egg production by the age of 50 days. With proper care, they will lay 200-300 eggs per year, but at that rate they age quickly. The life span under domestic conditions can be up to 5 years. However, second-year egg production is normally less than half the first year's, and fertility and hatchability fall sharply after birds reach 6 months of age, even though egg and sperm production continue. Thus, the commercial life is only about a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crosses between the wild and domestic stocks produce fertile hybrids. Repeated backcrossing to either wild quail or domestic quail is successful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only females hatch the eggs and raise the chicks. Males go off and court other females when their partners begin the nesting process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail eggs taste like chicken eggs. They are often served hard boiled, pickled, fried, or scrambled. Because of their size they make attractive snacks or salad ingredients. They provide an alternative for some people who are allergic to chicken eggs. On frying, the yolk hardens before the albumen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail meat is dark and can be prepared in all of the many ways used for chicken. The two meats are similar in taste, although quail is slightly gamier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its hardiness, small size, and short life cycle, quail are now commonly used as an experimental animal for biological research and for producing vaccines - especially the vaccine for Newcastle disease, to which quail are resistant. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many fanciers and hobbyists have also become interested in raising this adaptable species as a pet. Science teachers find it an excellent subject for classroom projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">QUAIL IN JAPAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some areas of Japan, quail are widely raised for their eggs and meat. However, Japanese originally valued the quail as a songbird. Tradition has it that about 600 years ago people began to enjoy its rhythmic call. In the feudal age, raising song quail became particularly popular among Samurai warriors. Contests were held to identify the most beautiful quail song and birds with the best voices were interbred in closed colonies. Even photostimulation was practiced to induce singing in winter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Around 1910, enthusiastic breeders produced the present domestic Japanese quail from the song quail. It was created as a food source and became a part of Japanese cuisine. During World War II it was almost exterminated, but Japanese quail breeders restored it from the few survivors and from birds imported from China. The original song quail, however, were lost. In the 1960s, commercial quail flocks rapidly recovered and Japan's quail population again reached its prewar level of about 2 million birds. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A QUAIL IN EVERY POT: AN OLD DELICACY FINDS A NEW PUBLIC</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For centuries, quail were considered a great delicacy: a dish that only eminent chefs would cook and diners with an appreciative palate could enjoy. These small migratory birds, which are found in one variety or another throughout the world, were available until recently almost exclusively to hunters in the wild.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But now quail are in danger: in danger of becoming commonplace.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the last few years, quail have gone from being rarefied to a supermarket specialty item. They are on menus in the most elegant restaurants and the most casual cafes and bistros.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Why so much interest?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are now available semi-boneless, which makes them faster and easier to cook, and easier to eat as well. The breastbones are removed by hand before the birds are packaged and shipped to stores. The bones in the wings and legs remain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A stainless-steel V-shaped pin - invented and patented by a restaurant chef who wanted a way to keep quail flat for grilling is inserted into the breast. The pin can be left there throughout cooking and removed just before serving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While whole quail might require 45 minutes to cook, the semi-boneless variety can be grilled in less than 10 minutes, or pan-roasted, braised or sauteed in less than 20 minutes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The flavor of farm-raised quail has also helped bring them into the mainstream. Most farm-raised quail have tender meat like the dark meat of chicken, whose flavor is enjoyed by many people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And at a time when people are searching for foods, specifically animal protein, with low fat and cholesterol, quail fills the bill. The Agriculture Department says that quail skin has about 7 percent fat, about the same as dark meat of roasted chicken without the skin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Judith Banrett Adapted from The New York Times </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">June 21, 1989</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is necessary to keep quail in battery cages on wire floors because males secrete a sticky foam (from the foam gland) with their feces; on a solid floor, this adheres to the feet and collects dung, leading to crippling and breakage of eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult quail can live and produce successfully if they are allowed 80 cm2 of floor space per bird. However, for reproduction about twice that is needed to allow for mating rituals.3 If properly mated, high fertility rates and good egg hatchability can be expected. To obtain fertile eggs, one male is needed for roughly six females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eggs hatch in about 17 days. Chicks require careful attention. Brooding temperatures of between 31 C and 35 C  are needed for the first week and above 21 C for the second week. From the second week on, chicks can survive at room temperature. (These temperatures are similar to those required for common chickens.) In cold climates, supplemental heat may be needed as well as protection from cool drafts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clean water must be provided at all times, with care taken to prevent the chicks from drowning in their water troughs. Shallow trays, jar lids, or pans filled with marbles or stones may be used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail production can be started with little money. These easy-care birds can be housed in small, simple, inexpensive cages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, they are resistant to Newcastle disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SIX OF ONE, HALF A DOZEN OF THE OTHER</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that chickens can be crossed with quail has been known for some time, but there has been little attempt to develop the fertile hybrids. Now Malaysia has begun a project aimed at producing a new poultry bird - a cross between a cockerel and a hen quail. Zainal Abidin bin Mohd Noor, of the Department of Veterinary Services in Kuala Lumpur, is creating a strain that produces eggs of good quality and meat with the flavor of both parents. The new bird is intermediate in size between chicken and quail which is convenient because it is about right for an individual helping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The crossbreeding is done through artificial insemination. The progeny exhibit a range of appearances, sizes, and plumage colors, depending on the strains of cockerel and quail hens used. In the Malaysian research, cockerels have been local Ayam Kampung Bantam, Hybro, and Golden Comet hybrids. The quails have been local inbred Japanese quail (IJQ) and imported meat strain quail (IMSQ).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The trials show that the hybrids derived from the IMSQ flocks grew faster and bigger than those from the IJQ cross. The best have been the Hybro x IMSQ crosses, which weigh 475 g at 10 weeks of age. The best of the IJQ group weighed 290 g during the same period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This type of "tropical game hen" might be a way to introduce hybrid vigor into poultry production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The researchers who developed the hybrid have named it the "yamyuh." </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although generally disease resistant, quail are affected by several common poultry diseases, including salmonella, cholera, blackhead, and lice. They also suffer epidemic mortality from "quail disease" (ulcerative enteritis), which can, however, be controlled with antibiotics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail seem to require more protein than chickens, and produce best when given feed that is fairly high in protein.4 However, they also perform satisfactorily when fed rations designed for turkeys. They have high requirements for vitamin A, which they do not store.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are not suitable as free-ranging "scavengers." They must be kept confined, which is a major constraint. Unlike chickens or pigeons, they have no homing instinct and will not remain on a given site; if released, they will be lost. In addition, since they nest on the ground, they are highly susceptible to predation; they must be protected, especially where certain animals, the mongoose for example, are common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Artificial incubation is essential. Natural incubation using the female is futile; the females do not go broody and rarely incubate their eggs. The shells are extremely thin, but the eggs can be incubated under a small chicken hen, such as a bantam.5 The eggs are also subject to minute fractures. However, the shell membrane is extremely tough and unfertilized eggs are generally unaffected, but the cracks cause fertilized embryos to dehydrate and die. This is a serious limitation. Whenever quail husbandry is introduced, artificial incubation should be included.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail deserve to be included in all poultry research aimed at helping the Third World. Through its international scientific program, Japan, in particular, could apply to developing nations its vast experience with quail farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiences with quail in the tropics (for example, Japanese farmers in the Amazon Basin) and in tropical highlands (for instance, in India, Nepal, or Central Africa) should be collected and assessed to improve understanding of the environmental limits to Third World quail farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cooperation between commercial and laboratory quail breeders should be encouraged. Mutants found at the commercial level would be useful for laboratory work. Conversely, introducing new stocks could help the farmer. In both cases, more genetic diversity might also lead to the production of hybrid vigor, and genetic variability would be conserved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sex-linked genes, if they can be found, would be useful to the commercial quail breeder for the rapid sexing of newly hatched chicks. This could lead to more efficient production techniques, like those in the chicken industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although virtually all work to date has been on the Japanese quail, other species and subspecies warrant research and testing. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">12 Turkey</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g015a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) is well-known in North America and Europe, but in the rest of the world, especially in developing countries, its potential has been largely overlooked. Partly, this is because chickens are so familiar and grow so well that there seems no reason to consider any other poultry. Partly, it is because modern turkeys have been so highly bred for intensive production that the resulting birds are inappropriate for home production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, there is a much wider potential role for turkeys in the future. There are types that thrive as village birds or as scavengers, but these are little known even to turkey specialists. These primitive types are probably the least studied of all domestic fowl; little effort has been directed at increasing their productivity under free-ranging conditions. However, they retain their ancestral self-reliance and are widely used by farmers in Mexico. That they are unrecognized elsewhere is a serious oversight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native to North America, the turkey was domesticated by Indians about 400 BC, and today's Mexican birds seem to be direct descendants.' Unlike the large-breasted, modern commercial varieties, they mate naturally and they retain colored feathers and a narrow breast configuration. Their persistence in Mexico after 500 years of competition with other poultry highlights their adaptability, ruggedness, and usefulness to people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds complement chicken production. They are able to thrive under more arid conditions, they tolerate heat better, they range farther, and they have higher quality meat. Also, the percentage of edible meat is much greater than that from a chicken. Turkey meat is so low in fat that in the United States, at least, it is making strong inroads into markets that previously used chicken exclusively. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkeys are natural foragers and can be kept as scavengers. Indeed, they thrive best where they can rove about, feeding on seeds, fresh grass, other herbage, and insects. As long as drinking water is available, they will return to their roost in the evening.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appreciation for the turkey could rise rapidly. Interest already has been shown by several African nations. A French company has created a strain of self-reliant farm turkeys and is exporting them to developing countries.2 Researchers in Mexico are displaying increased interest in their national resource. And as knowledge and breeding stock continue to be developed, it is likely that village turkeys will become increasingly popular around the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modern turkey breeding has been so dominated by selection for increased size and muscling that commercial turkeys have leg problems and cannot mate naturally (they are inseminated artificially). These highly bred birds are adapted for large-volume intensive production, and must be raised with care. As noted, this chapter emphasizes the more self-reliant, less highly selected turkeys found in Mexico and a few other Latin American countries. They do not require artificial insemination, and with little attention can care for themselves and their young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fully grown "criollo" turkeys of Mexico are less than half the size of some improved strains. Males weigh between 5 and 8 kg; females, between 3 and 4 kg.3 They vary in color from white, through splashed or mottled, to black. The skin of the neck and head is bare, rough, warty, and blue and red in color. A soft fleshy protuberance at the forehead (the snood) resembles a finger. In males it swells during courtship. The front of the neck is a pendant wattle. A bundle of long, coarse bristles (the beard) stands out prominently from the center of the breast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The unimproved domestic turkey is essentially limited to central Mexico and scattered locations throughout nearby Latin American countries. Some village birds are also kept in India, Egypt, and other areas, but these are descended from semi-improved strains exported from North America and Europe in earlier times. Generally speaking, few turkeys are found in tropical countries outside Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated turkeys are not endangered; there are estimated to be about 124 million in the world. However, the wild Mexican varieties, ancestors to the first domesticated turkeys sent to Europe, may now be endangered since their distribution in southwestern Mexico has been greatly reduced. Certainly, some primitive domestic strains in the uplands of central Mexico are also being depleted. A separate type, independently domesticated by the Pueblo Indians of the southwestern United States, seems to have disappeared entirely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkeys can be reared virtually anywhere. Their natural habitat is open forest and wooded areas of the North American continent, but in Mexico they are raised from sea level to over 2,000 m altitude, from  rainforest to desert, and from near-temperate climates to the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p159a.png"></center><br>
+ The original distribution of the turkey and the occellated</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The range of diet is broad. Turkeys eat greens, fruits, seeds, nuts,  grasses, berries, roots, insects (locusts, cicadas, crickets, and  grasshoppers, for example), worms, slugs, and snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction is generally seasonal and is stimulated by increasing  daylength. (A minimum daylength of 12 hours is required.) The birds  can reach sexual maturity at six months of age and may start breeding at  this time. Ten days after first mating, the hen searches out a nest and  commences laying. Industrial birds in temperate climates lay, on  average, 90 eggs a year. The nondescript type of turkey in the tropics  seldom lays more than 20 small eggs (weighing about 60 am) before  going broody.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic turkeys walk rather than fly, and find almost all their food  on the ground. They can, however, fly short distances to avoid  predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commercial birds have lost many abilities for survival in the wild;  they can no longer exist without human care. However, village types  can do well with little management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkeys prefer to make their own nests but can be induced to lay in a  convenient spot if provided with nest boxes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are raised almost exclusively for meat. In many countries,  they are a treat for holidays, birthdays, and weddings. In their native  range of Mexico and Central America, the "unimproved" birds are  usually produced as a cash crop for market. They receive little care or  feed, and thus they are almost all profit - providing a significant income  supplement to many rural homes.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The principles of turkey management (nutrition, housing, rearing' and prevention of disease, for example) are basically the same as those for other poultry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mexico, turkeys are usually kept under free-ranging conditions around houses and villages. Some shelter and kitchen scraps are occasionally provided. A number of them, however, are confined in backyards as protection from marauders and for shelter against rain and wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One male can service up to 12 females. Roomy nests are needed. (As a rule, turkeys require three times the space occupied by chickens.) Most range turkeys are corralled when they begin to lay, so as to protect them from predators. Eggs may be gathered to prevent broodiness and thereby increase production. The eggs may be kept for several days (cool, but not refrigerated) if turned daily, and then may be placed under a chicken hen. (A setting chicken can be used this way to hatch up to nine eggs at a time.) Hatching takes 28 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As in other birds, newly hatched turkeys (poults) must be kept warm during the first weeks of life. Until they begin foraging and have full access to pasture they are usually fed broken grain or fine mash, as well as finely chopped, tender green feed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although free-ranging turkeys are simple to raise, confined turkeys require more complex management. The birds need uncrowded, well ventilated conditions and should be on a wire or slatted floor to reduce parasitic infections. Any feeds recommended for chicks are suitable, but the protein content should be somewhat higher; that is, about 27 percent. They can be fed mixed grains, corn, and chopped legume hay. It may be necessary to provide vitamin supplements and antibiotics and take steps to prevent coccidiosis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"AN INCOMPARABLY FINER BIRD"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The turkey was domesticated in Mexico some time before the Conquest. It is the one and only important domestic animal of North American origin. When the Spanish arrived, they found barnyard turkeys in the possession of Indians in all parts of Mexico and even in Central America. However, the Aztecs and the Tarascans, originating in west-central Mexico, seemed to have achieved the highest development of turkey culture, and it is probable that turkeys were domesticated in the western highlands, perhaps in Michoacan. Wild turkeys of that region are morphologically very similar to the primitive domestic bronze type. Both the Aztecs and Tarascans kept great numbers of the birds, including even white ones. They paid royal tribute to their respective kings in turkeys, according to the Relacion de Michoacan. The Tarascan king fed turkeys to the hawks and eagles in his zoo. The economy of some highland tribes was based on the cultivation of corn and the raising of turkeys.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Starker Leopold</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE INDUSTRIAL TURKEY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The modern domesticated turkey is thought to be descended from two differing wild subspecies, one found in Mexico and Central America and the other in the United States. The southern type is small, whereas the U.S. native is larger and has a characteristic bronze plumage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexican turkeys were exported to Europe soon after the Conquest, and spread rapidly. In the 17th century, some were returned to North America, where they interbred with the eastern subspecies of wild turkey, producing a heavier bird, which was then re-exported to Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These types underwent little change until this century, when the Englishman Jesse Throssel bred them for meat quality. In the 1920s, he brought his improved birds to Canada, where their large size and broad breasts quickly made them foundation breeding stock. Crossed with the narrow-breasted North American types, these heavily muscled meat birds quickly supplanted other varieties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About the same time, the U.S. Department of Agriculture began the scientific development of a smaller meat turkey derived from a more diverse genetic base. By the 1950s, the Beltsville Small Whites predominated in the home consumption market in the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds are efficient and generally take care of themselves. They tolerate dry, hot, or cold climates and forage farther than chickens. They are large, fast growing, highly marketable, low in fat, and tasty. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE TURKEY'S TROPICAL COUSIN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ocellated turkey (Agriocharis ocellata) occurs in Yucatan, Guatemala, and Belize. It is much like the common turkey in size, form, and behavior: however, unlike the common turkey, which in Mexico lives in the high mountain pine and oak forests, the ocellated turkey inhabits bushy, semiforested lowlands. This splendid bird lacks the kind of beard sported by the common turkey gobbler, is generally more metallic in appearance, and has brighter coppery colors. The chief character is a neck and head that are bare, blue, and profusely covered with coral-colored pimples. It also has a yellow-tipped protuberance growing on the crown between the eyes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is worthy of investigation by poultry researchers because it might prove to be domesticable. It was possibly domesticated by the Mayas, whose ruins often include appropriately sized stone enclosures whose soil has elevated levels of phosphorus and potassium. Even today, in the rural Peten area of Guatemala, ocellated turkeys are sometimes kept around houses as scavengers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young birds are readily affected by temperature changes and must be protected from the sun as well as from sudden chills, such as may occur at night. They are particularly susceptible to dampness, especially if associated with cold. One peculiarity is the turkey's aversion to any change in feeding routine or the nature of the food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young turkeys are susceptible to parasitic infestation as well as to the same type of bacterial and virus diseases as chickens (for example, fowlpox and coccidiosis). Blackhead, a devastating disease of young turkeys, is carried by a common parasitic nematode, and can be contracted from chickens. Medicines are available to prevent or treat most disease and pest problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkey development is almost nonexistent in the Third World (and much of the rest of the world, too). Although commercial turkeys are highly developed in some countries, little or no research has been conducted on the criollo turkey. Research on physiology, disease, and husbandry of the criollo turkey should be given high priority.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need for conservation of genetic variability is perhaps more critical in this species than in almost any other domesticated animal. The unimproved types in Mexico should be collected and assessed, and a program to conserve the stocks should be initiated. An analysis should also be made of the traditional management and performance of these birds. In addition, the four or five recognized turkey subspecies should be evaluated for their potential as seed stock for Third World countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">13 Potential New Poultry</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g016a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several preceding chapters have discussed the possibilities of domesticating certain wild birds.l Here, briefly, are highlighted other wild species with qualities that might make them suitable for sustained production. It should be understood that their practical use in the long run is pure speculation; they are included here merely to guide those interested in exploring the farthest frontiers of livestock science.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collectively, poultry have become the most useful of all livestock and the most widespread. Yet only a handful of species are employed. Of the 9,000 bird species, only a few (for instance, chickens, ducks, geese, muscovies, pigeons, and turkeys) have been domesticated for farm use. Strictly speaking, all birds are edible - at least none have poisonous flesh - so it seems illogical to conclude that these are the only likely candidates. Perhaps they are not even the best.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At first sight there may seem to be little need for new species, but poultry meat is in ever increasing demand and there are many niches where the main species are stricken by disease, or are afflicted by heat, humidity, altitude problems, or other hazards. For these areas, a new species might become a vital future resource. Perhaps some could even become globally important. The modern guinea fowl, for example, is a relative newcomer as a worldwide resource (see page 120).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds now used as poultry were domesticated centuries ago by people unaware of behavior modification, nutrition, genetics, microbiology, disease control, and the other basics of domestication. Today we can tame species that they couldn't. In particular, the new understanding of "imprinting" may make the domestication of birds easier today than ever before. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this highly speculative concept, the birds described on the following pages are worth considering. They all eat vegetation and tend to live in flocks, which makes them likely to be easy to feed and to keep in crowded conditions. Most are sedentary, nonmigratory, and poor fliers. All but three (tinamous, sand grouse, and trumpeters) are gallinaceous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gallinaceous birds are already the most important to people. The best known are chickens, turkeys, quail, and guinea fowl. But there are about 240 other species. Most are chickenlike: heavy bodied with short, rounded wings, and adapted for life on the ground. Although some are solitary, many are sociable. Basically vegetarian, they also eat insects, worms, and other invertebrates. The young birds are extremely precocious, walking and feeding within hours of hatching. All of these are advantageous traits for domestication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Game birds are also emphasized here. Many today are considered gourmet delights, and this should give them a head start in the marketplace. Indeed, some are already being raised in a small way on game farms and are at least partly on the way to domestication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHACHALACAS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These brownish birds (Ortalis vetula and nine other species) are found throughout Central and South America, and, given research, could possibly be raised on a large scale. A sort of "tropical chicken," they tame easily, live together in dense populations, and protect their chicks extremely well. They commonly scavenge around houses and people often put out scraps to feed them.2 The chicks are easily hatched, grow fast, and can be fed standard chicken rations.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is already considerable demand for these birds. Everywhere they are found, they are prized as food. In some areas they constitute the single most important game species, and are heavily hunted to supply local communities. Although they have less meat than a chicken, it is tastier and darker.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chachalacas are very adaptable. They occur mainly around forest edges and thrive in the thickets that appear after tropical forests have been felled. They do well close to humans, and their populations are not threatened, despite much hunting. Indeed, they seem well adapted to existence around villages and towns. Although not strong fliers, they are one of the few tree-roosting gallinaceous species. Primarily fruit eaters, they also consume tender leaves, twigs, and buds, and they scratch up the ground, presumably for insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although excitable and noisy, chachalacas become remarkably tame when fed by people. In a few cases, full domestication has almost been reached. Farmers like to have chachalacas around and have even used them to guard domestic chickens. These very raucous and fearless birds will take on all potential threats, even weasels.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GUANS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Close relatives of the chachalacas, guans5 are glossy black birds about the size of small geese. They are highly gregarious and perhaps could be raised in larger numbers. They commonly live around houses, farms, and settlements in their native region of tropical America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike most game birds, guans are chiefly tree dwellers, but they also feed on the ground. Some 12 species are known. All are relentlessly hunted for food and sport - their tameness and inability to fly far or fast making them easy targets. The rapid destruction of tropical forests threatens their populations in some parts of their range. Conservation projects and specific plans of action are being proposed for the most threatened species. Perhaps for the other species, game-ranching projects or even outright domestication might provide just the right incentive for their protection and multiplication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CURASSOWS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curassows are also relatives of guans and chachalacas, but they are even larger - up to 1 m tall and 5 kg in weight. At least seven species are found over the vast area from northern Mexico to southern South America.6 Among them are Latin America's finest game birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It might be possible to produce curassows in organized farming or ranching. They are commonly called "tropical turkeys" because they look like and run like turkeys. Indeed, Latin Americans normally refer to them as "pavos" or "pavones," as if they were the real thing. Their plumage ranges from deep blue to black, invariably with a purple gloss, and all have rather curly crests on their heads. They are not good fliers and spend most of their time on the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curassows are increasingly hunted; their tropical forest habitat is shrinking, and the subsequent loss of populations is a calamity. They are special targets, not only because they are large but also because their light-colored flesh makes exceptional eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is hope that these large wild fowls can be raised and managed in organized programs. Even now, people commonly keep them around their farms and villages. For example, on a number of Venezuelan ranches, yellow-raped curassows can be seen wandering around the cattle yards as if they were chickens.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOREST BIRD RANCHING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has intentionally focused on intensive farming - the type where people bring feed to animals in captivity. However, where this normal type of farming is of marginal value, `'ranching'' free-ranging birds may often be a more effective option. In this, the farmer simply monitors and improves the condition of the range and devises methods to harvest the birds on a sustainable basis. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Bird ranching" may today have outstanding merit, particularly in tropical rainforests. Hence, in this chapter we emphasize birds of the jungle. These might help make standing rainforests profitable producers of income, and thereby provide economic incentives to stop felling trees for cow pastures. Indeed, forest birds might become part of a whole new "salvation farming'' that makes forests more valuable than fields. It is a technique that may contribute to preserving both bird life and its vitally valuable habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MEGAPODES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Megapodes (family Megapodiidae) include some of the world's most interesting birds. They have temperature-sensitive beaks and employ nature's own heat sources as incubators. The best-known species build piles of leaves and use the heat of decomposition to incubate their eggs. The species of Papua New Guinea and Indonesia, however, take advantage of sun-warmed sand or even geothermal activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People have long revered these birds. Aborigines in Australia, Melanesians in New Guinea, and many Micronesians all protect the bizarre nesting sites, and "farm" them for eggs. Local people consider the large eggs special delicacies, and sometimes the egg-laying sites are owned and exploited for generations without a single bird being killed for food.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Programs that provide sustainable supplies of eggs have been established in Papua New Guinea. One is near Mt. Tovarvar, a simmering volcano on the island of New Britain. Here, megapodes gather in large numbers to lay eggs in the hot sands. They dig until they locate sand that is exactly 32.7&Yacute;C, before laying their huge (more than 10 cm long and 6 cm wide) pink eggs. Each year the villagers dig up some 2O,OOO eggs, which are an important source of protein and cash income. The government now regulates the harvest in a way that protects the bird population while supplying a nourishing food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Megapodes are found in only a few parts of the world, but projects such as those in Papua New Guinea provide hope and guidance not only for the sustainable "ranching" of megapodes, but also for other species elsewhere. Many wild birds yield locally important products down, colored feathers, eggs, meat, and skins, and they make excellent songbirds and pets, for example. Their management on a sustainable basis may in certain cases be the key to turning local people into the most dedicated conservationists of all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PARTRIDGES AND FRANCOLINS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Partridges include many small game birds native to the Old World. They are robust, precocious, and larger than quails. Some lay many eggs - the European partridge, for example, lays up to 26 in a clutch. Newly hatched chicks are soon able to feed themselves and can fly within a few weeks, sometimes even within the first few days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species that may make useful poultry include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The European (or gray) partridge (Perdix perdix); </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The rock partridge (Alectoris), bantamlike birds of Africa; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The chukar (A. graeca). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A native of the vast area from southeastern Europe to India and Manchuria, the chukar is stocked as a game bird in many countries. It is now produced routinely under poultrylike husbandry in many parts of the United States, not only for hunting clubs, but also for expensive food markets. The birds are generally raised on turkey rations and dress out at about 500 g after 18 weeks. They sell for more than broiler chickens and are a profitable sideline for increasing numbers of poultry farmers.9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A group of closely related birds are the francolins (genus Francolinus), of which there are 34 species in Africa and 5 in West and South Asia. These adaptable birds are sturdy, live in a variety of habitats, and tend to be rather noisy. Basically, they are partridges with leg spurs. They are highly regarded as a food source and are hunted and trapped wherever they are found.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Francolins are much like quail, but are several times larger. Arabs introduced one of the most beautiful species (Francolinus francolinus) into southern Spain, Sicily, and Greece during the Middle Ages. However, it was hunted so heavily that it soon became extinct in Europe. More recently, francolins have been introduced to the Soviet Union.'&Yacute;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Francolins inhabit steppes, savannas, primeval forests, and mountains. They thrive in cultivated land with much cover. The clutch consists of 6-8 hard, thick-shelled eggs. In recent times at least one program to domesticate them for food has been started in Africa.11</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MALAYSIA'S MOBILE MOUSETRAP</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the report emphasizes microlivestock as food suppliers, it should be realized that small animals - even wild ones - can have other important uses as welt The following interesting example, with possible worldwide implications, comes from recent experiences in Malaysia. *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Certain rodents are major pests on farms and plantations. Now, however, Malaysian zoologists are finding that owls, particularly barn owls (Tyto alba), can help control them. An owl pair and its chicks annually consume 1,500 or more rodents. This is not new knowledge; indeed, on farms throughout the world the barn owl has always been a welcome guest. What is new is that Malaysians are showing how outstandingly effective this process is, and they have initiated major projects to attract and maintain these feathered friends. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barn owls are found in many parts of the world, but were formerly almost unknown in Peninsular Malaysia. In 1969, however, a pair began nesting in an oil-palm plantation in Johore State. Since then, these birds have steadily increased in numbers and have spread throughout most of the peninsula. Today, the population is increasing remarkably quickly as more and more managers erect nest boxes for the owls to live in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The owls are proving to be a good way to remove rats and are notably effective in plantations of oil palm. They perch on fronds and fly under and between the rows of trees. A cost of $1 - $2 per hectare per year is all that is required to install nest boxes, a negligible outlay for the control of such a serious and expensive problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is believed that the barn owls hunt mainly in plantations and other agricultural areas and not in the rainforest. Barn owls are, after all primarily adapted to open spaces and not dense forest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps this experience can be replicated and adopted in other locations and with other crops. Grain crops - notably rice - are particularly prone to the ravages of rodents, and one trial has commenced in Selangor State in a rice area. The concept of using owls for rodent control is also catching on in the United States. Indeed owl nest boxes are being erected in Central Park in the heart of New York City.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PHEASANTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One pheasant, the red junglefowl, gave the world the chicken (see page 86). The other 48 species may have some potential, too. These are rarely seen forest birds; all but one are confined to Asia.13 Because they are prolific they can sustain heavy predation, and many species, notably the ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), are constantly hunted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People in several countries have learned to exploit pheasants on farms and estates. As a result, there is a vast amount of information on how to rear and manage these birds. So far, however, it has been applied only to sport hunting in wealthy societies; the potential of raising pheasants for the mass market should now be seriously addressed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most dramatic-looking pheasant, the peacock (Pavo cristatus), is raised as a poultry species in Vietnam. The meat of the young birds is considered outstanding. In fine restaurants in New York, a peacock dinner is reputed to cost $150. Common peafowls are considered sacred in many parts of India, where they have become so tame that they are essentially domesticated. They also control snakes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">QUAIL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic quail have been previously described (page 146)J but dozens of wild quail species and subspecies occupy many different habitats and ecological niches in almost all parts of the world. Out of all this genetic wealth only one species - the Japanese quail - is widely used. Yet many other species seem easy to raise, becoming exceedingly tame after about the sixth generation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The management and even perhaps intensive production of these various local quails might provide long-term benefits for many developing nations. Quail meat ranks among the finest.14 Some of these lesser-studied birds are more meaty than the Japanese quail or have other possibly useful traits. Much is known about rearing a few of them because they are used in sport hunting or laboratory research. The possibility of domestication, therefore, is not farfetched.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Particular quail that might be considered for domestication are the lesser-known subspecies of Coturnix coturnix. These subspecies are found in various places, including the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Europe (C. c. coturnix breeds in the area ranging from northern Russia to North Africa and from the British Isles to Siberia. In winter it migrates to tropical Africa, Asia, and southern India.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Azores (C. c. conturbans) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands (C. c. confisa) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Cape Verde Islands (C. c. inopinata) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- East Africa (C. c. erlangeri) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Tropical Africa, southern Africa, Madagascar, and Mauritius (C. c. africana) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Japan (C. c. japonica, the most probable ancestor of the domesticated quail)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- China (C. c. ussuriensis, a possible ancestor of the domesticated Japanese quail)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TINAMOUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tinamous are quail-like birds of Central and South America's forests and grasslands. They are, however, much larger than quail and resemble small chickens, with plump bodies and no visible tail. There are more than 40 species, and all are much sought for food because their meat is tender and flavorful. The breast is surprisingly large, and its flesh is pale and translucent. One species, the great tinamou (Tinamus major), has been called "the most perfect of birds for culinary purposes." Frozen tinamous from Argentina were formerly sold in the United States under the name "South American quail."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tinamous are found mainly in tropical areas, but are also widely distributed in Argentina and Chile. They dwell in varied habitats: rainforests, thickets, bushlands, savannas, and grasslands up to 5,000 m altitude in the Andes. Some species sleep in trees, others on the ground. They spend their days creeping about in heavy cover, flying only when forced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At least some species tame readily. Indeed, during the nesting period males become so tractable that they can be picked up off the nest. At the turn of the century, many tinamous were raised as game birds in France, England, Germany, and Hungary. However, for reasons unknown, subsequent attempts to settle them in Europe have failed. Tinamous have been raised in Canada without undue difficulty; they showed little or no stress under captivity and there were few losses.15</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tinamous may also prove suitable for egg production. They lay clutches of 16-20 spectacular-looking shiny eggs that seem to be made of sky-blue and bright-green ceramic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAND GROUSE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sand grouse (mainly Pterocles species) are highly adapted to life in arid regions - desert, dry grasslands, arid savanna, and bushveld. Their entire body (including most of the bill and feet) is covered with dense down, which in the desert insulates them from the burning heat of midday and the freezing cold of night. It also protects the nostrils against blowing sand and dust.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These pigeonlike birds are found throughout the drier regions of Africa and Asia - for instance, the Sahara, Kalahari, Namib, Arabian, and Thar deserts. They live mainly on small seeds, and sometimes flocks of thousands may be seen at waterholes, flying in for a drink from up to 80 km away. For peoples of the driest spots on earth, these birds may make a useful food species: for one thing, they are not endangered. Indeed, they are proliferating as drought and overgrazing is increasing the amount of dry, desolate rangeland that they prefer. The bore holes provided for livestock have both boosted their populations and afforded a place where these wide-ranging birds can be easily captured. When nesting, sand grouse are highly vulnerable to foxes, jackals, mongooses, and other predators. Protection of the nesting sites may be the key to maintaining their populations if harvesting schemes are introduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TRUMPETERS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trumpeters (Psophia species) might prove to be a useful species for sustainable production within tropical forests. As "tree poultry," these relatives of cranes could help provide meat without destroying the trees, as is now done to raise cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These chicken-sized birds inhabit South America's jungles.16 They are nonmigrating, ground-dwelling, and are often kept as pets, notably by Amerindians. Under human protection, trumpeters become very tame. They recognize strangers and challenge them with a loud cackle. 17 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fully adapted to the forest environment, they can run fast, but fly poorly. In the wild, this makes them easy targets for hunters. Because of this and the fact that they make excellent eating, they are approaching extinction in some areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No attempts have been made to rear these birds in numbers, but this should be tried. They feed mainly on plant materials, particularly berries of all kinds. They also relish grasshoppers, spiders, and centipedes, and are particularly fond of termites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trumpeters require trees; they completely avoid cultivated land. Thus, as the destruction of forests in South America continues, their habitat is shrinking. Although their existence is not as yet threatened, the long-term prognosis is bleak. If managed in "forest-ranching" programs, however, they might be saved from extinction and thriving populations built up. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interest in rabbits continues to increase. It is now widely recognized that the raising of small animals in developing countries has great potential as a means of improving human nutrition and economic security. The famines in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia starkly illuminate the need for maximum efficiency in food production to maintain the quality of human life. Rabbit raising contributes to meeting these needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.R. Cheeke, N.M. Patton, S.D. Lukefahr, and J.I. McNitt Rabbit Production </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are especially well adapted to backyard rearing systems in which capital and fodder resources are usually limiting factors in animal production. When rabbits are reared according to the techniques appropriate to the environment they can do much to improve the family diet of many of the most needy rural families, while at the same time supplying them with a source of income. With more advanced technology rabbit production can also help to supply big city meat markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization The Rabbit: Husbandry, Health, and Production </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g017a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part III : Rabbits</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contrary to popular opinion, the domestic rabbit is a substantial part of the world's meat supply. Annual production of rabbit meat is estimated to be one million metric tons, and the total number of rabbits is approximately 708 million.' However, rabbits are now intensively raised for food only in temperate, mostly industrialized, nations. France, Italy, and Spain, for example, have long consumed rabbit meat; West German production was 20,000 tons each year; Hungary raises rabbits in large numbers (two of its commercial rabbitries have more than 10,000 does each); and the United States raises almost 8.5 million rabbits each year for consumption in homes and restaurants.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most developing countries, on the other hand, rabbits are not well known - at least compared with other livestock. But they have great promise there, and in recent years there has been a dramatic increase in interest. For those developing countries where information is available, rabbit meat production almost doubled between 1966 and 1980. For instance, several African countries - among them Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, and Zambia - now have national rabbit-raising programs. A number of Asian countries - such as the Philippines, Indonesia, India, and Vietnam - are also encouraging rabbit farming. And some Latin American countries - Mexico, Costa Rica, and El Salvador, for instance - are actively promoting rabbits for subsistence farmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana is also extensively promoting rabbit farming. Although able to produce all the cereals its population needs, it cannot produce enough meat to satisfy demand. In response, the government organized "Operation Feed Yourself." The National Rabbit Project was created </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hares</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The common hare (Lepus europus) has not been domesticated, but it is nevertheless a major cash crop of several countries. In Argentina, for example, there is a booming, million-dollar enterprise that exports hundreds of thousands of carcasses, mainly to Germany where they are sold as game meat. For Argentine campesinos, many of whom have few sources of livelihood, trapping hares provides a vital income. In New Zealand, too, hare has become an export item.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A closely related species (Lepus capensis) is native to Africa, and perhaps could be "ranched in the same fashion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rainforest Rabbit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forest rabbit, or tapeti (Sylvilagus brasiliensis), is commonly eaten in its native habitat, which extends from southern Mexico to southern Brazil. It occurs in various hot and humid areas of Central and South America and probably within the Amazon Basin itself. Thus, this creature seems a possible candidate for a "tropical rabbit" that can be raised under sweltering conditions, perhaps even in rainforest regions. Although it seems to be heat resistant, it has an especially fine fur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is now known about the tapeti. It is rather secretive and its natural history and even its range are still uncertain. However, its populations appear stable and it is not threatened with extinction. It produces litters of 1 - 5 young after a 44-day gestation, and may bear 4 litters a year. This may seem a lot, but compared with other wild rabbits, the litter size is small and the gestation period long. under this program to provide farmers with breeding stock and practical information on rearing rabbits. (To qualify for the purchase of new breeding stock, would-be rabbit raisers are required to take an intensive three-day course in rabbit husbandry, which is provided at no charge.) With both official and popular support, the rabbit's potential for Ghana has been enhanced through media campaigns complete with radio jingles (examples: "Get the bunny money!" "Grow rabbits - grow children." "Get into the rabbit habit!"), television spots, and large posters. Already, rabbit breeding is included in school curricula and rabbit meat is available in school lunches.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other countries have mounted similar campaigns. In Mexico, for instance, teachers raise rabbits in rural schools as a way of training students; scores of government officials have taken to breeding rabbits in their homes; and several army units are raising rabbits as mess-hall substitutes for costly beef, pork, and chicken. In Nigeria, farmers can now acquire rabbits from 18 government rabbit-breeding centers, which distribute thousands of animals each year. In Costa Rica, the government has similarly established a series of breeding, distribution, and rabbit-farming training centers. And in El Salvador, the technology of rabbit production is being transferred to farmers via the army.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although rabbits are ideal microlivestock in a general sense, rabbit rearing has many problems and limitations. Poor management is a common difficulty. Unlike the traditional method of keeping scavenger animals, rabbits have to be contained and cannot be left to find their own food. Raising rabbits requires more skills, more time, and much more effort than raising barnyard chickens or other familiar scavengers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For all that, rabbits produce more food than scavenging animals; they are less likely to damage crops because they are kept confined; they live exclusively on forage, which tends to grow vigorously in tropical zones; and they generally produce a more valuable product. The rabbit's potential is far from exploited, and rabbit farming will have to increase enormously before its promise for the small farms of the world is realized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is, however, an increasing concern over a recent outbreak of an exceptionally virulent viral rabbit disease - hemorrhagic tracheopneumonis, which attacks the lungs and lung tissue, killing 48 hours after the onset of symptoms. The virus, which has ravaged the animals in parts of Asia and Europe, was identified in China five years ago in Angora rabbits imported from Germany. It spread to Korea in 1986, and in early 1988 moved through southern and eastern Europe and spread as far as Egypt. It has also been identified in Mexico. Vaccination may become a future prerequisite of rabbit rearing in many countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAST FOOD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The order Lagomorpha includes more than 60 small quickmaturing, and rapidly reproducing species. It seems illogical to think that only one is useful as microlivestock. In principle, any rabbit, hare, or pike could be raised in captivity. All are clean, fast growing and rapid breeding. They are opportunistic feeders and can digest fibrous vegetation. Their meat tastes better than chicken and does not carry the stigma of rodent. The animals are small inoffensive, efficient at foraging, and generally tolerant of difficult environments. In theory, at least, they could be raised on vegetation not used by people or by many domesticated livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species worthy of exploratory research include the following.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">14 Domestic Rabbit</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g018a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)1 is suited to small-scale production and backyard farming. It is easily maintained, requires scant space, makes minimal demands on the family budget, and thrives on plant materials that are usually disdained by humans. It utilizes forage efficiently. even coarse vegetation that is high in fiber, and under ideal conditions it can grow so rapidly that its rate is only slightly lower than that of broiler chickens.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rabbit's capacity for reproduction is legendary. In theory, a single male and four females can produce as many as 3,000 offspring a year, representing some 1,450 kg of meat - as much as an average sized cow.3 The meat is pink, delicately flavored, and is usually considered a premium product that provides variety in the diet. It has more protein and less fat and calories per gram than beef, pork, lamb, or chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some breeds are raised for their wool. The long-haired Angora, for instance, yields a luxury fiber that makes a soft, lustrous fabric. It sells at high prices and makes these animals very valuable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbit pelts also bring cash. They are used in fur coats and other luxury garments. In addition, rabbit feet and tails are used in good luck charms and many curios.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are well known for their long ears, fluffy tails, and long hind legs. Many commercial breeds are white, although colored types are sometimes chosen because of special qualities in their meat or pelts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many breeds and much genetic diversity within and between breeds. (Almost 160 varieties are recognized by the American Rabbit Breeders Association.) However, in both North America and Europe, the New Zealand White has traditionally displaced most other breeds for commercial meat production. This medium-weight breed bears large litters, is a good milk producer, and has good mothering ability. It reproduces best under intensive farming and, among purebreds, yields the most meat. A full-grown New Zealand White weighs 4-5 kg, giving about 2 kg of meat at 8-10 weeks of age. Large breeds include the Flemish Giant or the Checkered Giant, which weigh more than 6 kg at maturity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids are rapidly replacing purebreds in Europe for commercial production. Specific crosses of breeds have been shown experimentally to be more productive overall compared with purebred New Zealand Whites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Different meat breeds are preferred in various countries. For example, in Ghana the most popular are Flemish Giants, New Zealand Whites, Yellow Silvers, and Checkered Giants; in Tanzania and Nigeria, New Zealand Whites and Dutch are preferred; in China, Chinchillas and Japanese Large Whites are the most widely consumed. Some smaller breeds - for instance, the Polish - are also valuable for husbandry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some Third World strains have already evolved. They show high tolerance to local conditions (for example, the Baladi - the main strain of the Sudan and the Near East - and the Criollo of Mexico). The Baladi has a small body and relatively low production, but it is hardy and tolerates harsh conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specialized breeds have been developed for wool, fur, and laboratory research. The Angora wool breed has already been mentioned. The Rex breed produces a high-quality pelt used in furs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild ancestor of the domestic rabbit was originally restricted to Spain and Portugal. Today, its descendants are found worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plentiful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic rabbits are best suited to temperate climates, but they do well in tropical and subtropical conditions if hutches are constructed and sited to take advantage of shade and cooling breezes. Ventilation is important (but care must be taken to avoid direct exposure to cold drafts). Prolonged exposure to temperatures higher than 30&Yacute;C reduces both fertility and growth. Apparently, all breeds tolerate heat equally well. However, heat is shed through the ears, and the longer the ear, the more heat a rabbit will tolerate. Lop-eared varieties withstand heat poorly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits eat fibrous vegetation. In addition to normal feces, they produce special droppings called cecotropes. Softer and smaller than the regular fecal pellets, they are excreted in clusters and are swallowed as soon as they are eliminated. Cecotropes are rich in bacterial protein, and this double digestion (coprophagy) enables the animals to utilize the fermentation products formed in the cecum. This process is rather like that of ruminants, and rabbits are sometimes called pseudoruminants.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding begins at 4-6 months of age and may continue up to age 4, occasionally to age 6. Gestation takes 28-32 days. Females can conceive within 24 hours after giving birth and can produce a second litter merely 4 weeks later. With good feed and early rebreeding, 9 or more litters a year are possible. (Such a rate is only achievable under exceptional management, however.) Litter size depends on breed and body weight. Small breeds average 4 young per litter; large breeds 810. Births occur at any time of the year, but production slackens when the weather is exceptionally cold or hot, when feed is scarce, or when days are short. Extremes of heat or cold can also affect the survival of the young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits raised under subsistence conditions are likely to produce 4 or 5 litters a year, with an average of 5-8 young per litter' depending on management and feed quality.5 Annual production of about 20 weaned offspring per female per year under tropical and subtropical conditions is common. The young remain in the nest until they are 2-3 weeks old. Their eyes open at approximately 10 days of age. About 4 months are required to produce a 2-kg market rabbit under subsistence conditions. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits that receive human handling are very gentle and can be trained to live inside people's houses and even use a "litter box."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are multipurpose animals yielding the following products:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Meat. Delicious hot or cold, fancy or plain, it can be breaded and fried, broiled, baked, or barbecued.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Wool. The fineness of rabbit hair is an asset in the production of wool, which is the plucked or shaved hair of the long-haired Angora breed. It is usually mixed with fine Merino sheep wool to give more substance and to improve its wearing quality. An average Angora rabbit produces about 850 g of wool each year. (Some specimens produce as much as 1,000 g.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Fur. The fur is dense.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Leather or vellum. Rabbit hide has the tension and strength required for tiny drive-belts in tape recorders and other delicate machines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Fertilizer. Rabbit manure often contains high proportions of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash, and it comes in convenient drypellet form.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Tourist charms. In many societies, rabbits are connected with good luck. Feet and tails are used for car decorations, key chains, charms, and mementos that appeal to tourists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are also used in biochemical and physiological research.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits can be housed in hutches ranging from sophisticated commercial cages to simple packing crates with a few ventilation holes and rough troughs for food and water. In all cases, watertight roofing is essential. A floor space of only 0.25 m&Yacute; is sufficient for one rabbit, but about 1 m&Yacute; is recommended for a female and her young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting small-scale rabbit production is generally inexpensive. An almost infinite variety of backyard feeding and drinking equipment can be made from various scrap items, such as old bottles. The main criteria are that cleaning should be easy and spillage minimized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In practice, diets can be based largely on herbage: grass, leaves, legumes, crop residues, and kitchen scraps. However, the diet must be wholesome, and caged rabbits fed on forage usually need some grain or agricultural by-products (rice bran, for instance) as a dietary supplement. Supplementation is particularly important for newborns and lactating females, whose diet must contain about 16 percent protein and at least 18 percent fiber. When "noncommercial" feeds are used, salt must be added to prevent salt deficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of higher protein content, legumes (for instance, alfalfa, cowpea, vetch, or pea) are better than grass. Alfalfa is particularly valuable, and in the Sudan and Mozambique it is already grown extensively for feeding rabbits. On diets consisting of alfalfa and rye grass, weaned New Zealand Whites have demonstrated growth rates of 38-39 g per day in animals weighing up to 2 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits, as mentioned, can utilize almost any type of edible vegetation. Also, despite their diminutive size, they can collectively produce as much meat per unit of forage as large livestock, or even more (see page 183).6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is much genetic diversity. Differences in growth rate, fertility, maternal ability, milk production, disease resistance, heat resistance, and other features have been noted. This is useful, since a wide genetic base enhances the likelihood of success of selection programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are easy to handle and can be raised under primitive conditions. They require little financial investment and their husbandry is easily accomplished in the home by women and children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal's rapid reproduction is a big advantage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical conditions produce special problems. There, rabbits must be protected from heat and rain. Stress brought on by high temperatures, high humidity, and wet conditions can lead to respiratory disorders and even sudden death.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most diseases are caused by poor management. Dirty or wet cages lead to diarrhea, sores, mites, and ringworm, all of which can cause serious losses. Enteritis (diarrhea) often kills 20 percent or more of all rabbits before they attain market age and weight. A major disease problem in most countries is coccidiosis, which is particularly harmful to young rabbits. Again, damp and unsanitary conditions increase the susceptibility; better management can control it. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries - notably Australia and New Zealand - escaping rabbits have become a serious menace and have destroyed crops and grazing lands. Because of this threat, it is illegal to import rabbits into some countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, many people are unaccustomed to eating rabbit. Indeed, where commercial ventures have been established in areas with an otherwise plentiful meat supply, there have been financial failures. However, where rabbit meat is familiar, there is usually great demand for it. Also, in poorer areas where animal protein is in short supply, the tasty pink meat is widely appreciated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HOW RABBITS WERE DOMESTICATED</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For 30 or 40 million years the wild species Oryctolagus Cuniculus lived only in the area that today is Spain. Caves there contain Stone Age drawings of it. Phoenician traders landing on the Iberian Peninsula in about 1100 B.C. found huge numbers of these wild rabbits. The little animals were unknown to them and they mistook them for the hyraxes they had seen in Africa. (Although small and rabbitlike, the hyrax is actually related to elephants.) Since the Semitic name for hyrax was shaphan ("one who hides"), the Phoenicians named the peninsula l-shepan-im, from which the Latin name Hispania developed. Thus, "Spain" actually means "island of hyraxes," even though these African animals have never occurred there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the rabbit's reproductive powers and adaptability it is surprising that it hadn't spread beyond Spain, but dense forests covered most of Europe after the last Ice Age. The rabbit, which is suited to open country, only spread rapidly after man had cleared most of the trees. Even then, the natural spread was slowed by the Pyrenees mountains blocking the way into the rest of Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ancient Romans became acquainted with rabbits after they invaded Spain, and they eagerly added wild rabbit meat to their banquets. The meat was so popular that around 1 A.D. Roman voyagers released a pair of rabbits onto the Balearic Islands. In time, these produced so many offspring that the islanders had to appeal to the Roman emperor for help. They even asked to be moved to another country if the emperor could not get rid of the plague of rabbits!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eventually, Romans in Italy, France, and other parts of the European mainland began raising rabbits for meat. They kept them in special cages called leporaria. Their rabbits were probably not truly domesticated; instead they were netted in the wild and caged for fattening before being prepared for the table. The Romans had little incentive to domesticate an animal that could be so easily captured.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tne rabbit was the last farm animal to be domesticated. It seems likely that this did not begin until the Christian era when monks in French monasteries began taming rabbits. In those days, rabbit embryos and newborn young were considered delicacies, called "laurices." In 600 A.D. the Pope declared that laurices were "not meatp," and permitted them to be eaten during fasts and in monasteries of strict discipline where meat was forbidden. Within a few years, the animal was domesticated, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government-sponsored rabbit-research stations and programs are found in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the United States, and the United Kingdom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbit husbandry is well known, but much basic research is needed; for example, specific nutrient requirements, breed comparisons, disease control, reproductive management, and efficient housing and equipment. There is a particular need to reduce the labor required for feeding, breeding, caging, and cleaning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the increasing number of rabbit programs in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, there is a need to share information and ideas among the various countries. The exchange of experiences with rabbit breeding, health and nutrition, and the practical experiences and field studies could be of great value.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further research in rabbit nutrition is necessary to identify nutrient requirements more precisely. Moreover, links between nutrition and disease should be clarified.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further research into the cause and prevention of enteritis is needed. (At present, this condition is prevented by maintaining a fiber level in the diet of at least 18 percent and keeping the energy level relatively low.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legume shrubs could be an answer to the feed problems in the dry season. Deep-rooted shrubby legumes, such as gliricidia or leucaena, remain green well into the dry season and have high protein contents. Rabbits find the leaves of leucaena palatable (see companion report Leucaena: Promising Forage and Tree Crop for the Tropics. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C. 1984), and they are fairly resistant to mimosine (a sometimes toxic amino acid found in leucaena foliage). More research on this promising approach is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted earlier (page 181), a killer virus has recently appeared. Studies into its epidemiology and control are most important. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outsiders who hope to improve conditions in underdeveloped areas, sometimes . . . introduce new food avoidances to the communities they came to help [if outsiders] show repugnance toward consuming goats, . . . rats, . . . crows, insects, intestines and blood, then the people they are educating may likewise give up those . . . foods and lose valuable proteins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calvin W. Schwabe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unmentionable Cuisine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can count on the fingers of one hand the domestic animals that produce virtually all of mankind's meat and milk - a selection made more than 10,000 years ago by our Neolithic ancestors. Yet the earth teems with thousands of species of animals; why limit ourselves to cattle, pigs, goats, and sheep? Given the world's shortages of energy and water and arable land, why not try to domesticate wild animals? The effort would save many species from extinction, provide the world with more food, and introduce gentle farming to fragile environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.D. Vietmeyer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g019a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part IV : Rodents</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents are the world's most widespread, adaptable, and prolific group of mammals. They reproduce well, grow fast, learn quickly, and adapt to a wide variety of local conditions. Many convert vegetation into meat efficiently, digesting some fiber, even though their stomach, like man's, is a simple one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems probable, therefore, that some species would make suitable microlivestock - a notion supported by the previous domestication of the guinea pig, laboratory rat and mouse, gerbil, and hamster. Indeed, "ranching" rodents might be an effective way to increase food supplies in remote areas. It could also be a mechanism to ensure the survival of rare rodents whose natural habitats are being rapidly destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODENTS AS FOOD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents are already common foods in many countries and are valued items of commerce. It has been estimated that 42 of 383 cultures eat rodents.! But the fact that they are a major meat source is almost unrecognized. This is due in part to cultural misunderstanding. Rodents suitable for human food or other products do not live in filth, like common rats. They are clean and vegetarian. Like rabbits, they eat grass and grains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some regions of the world, cooked rodent meat is regarded as the epitome of dining. In many countries, local rodent species are the most eagerly sought meats. City markets in different parts of Latin America carry guinea pig, pace, capybara, and vizcacha. Markets in Asia may carry rice rats, cloud rats, and bandicoot rats. Those of rural Africa are filled with "bushmeats" - usually including grasscutters, giant rats, and several other rodent species. These are often preferred to the meat of domestic stock and fetch higher prices than beef. And the amounts of rodent bushmeat available are not minor. In one year, for example, hunters in Botswana have brought to market 3.3 million kg of meat of the rodent called springhare (see page 278).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fondness for rodent meat is not restricted to the tropics. In the United States, squirrel was once a much sought treat. Fat, nut-fed grey squirrels went into Brunswick stew, which has been called the most famous dish to emerge from the campfires and cabins of Colonial America. Thomas Jefferson liked it. Today, squirrel is the country's number two game animal (after deer), and many are still eaten.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ancient Romans kept fat dormice in captivity, serving them as a delicacy. "The fat dormice are fattened up in barrel-like pots like those in country houses," wrote Varro (116-27 BC). "One feeds these animals large amounts of acorns, chestnuts, or other nuts."2 This small rodent remains a prized food in Europe and still appears on tables in certain areas. The meat is regarded as a delicacy because it tastes of almonds and other nuts. Often it is roasted, broiled, and cooked with its cracklings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents have seldom been included in livestock programs or economic development plans. Yet human appetite has actually caused the extinction of a number of species. Caribbean Indians ate several endemic rodents (one of which was as big as a bear), and may have caused several species to become extinct just before the time of Columbus. Others may soon follow the same dismal route, including the beautiful cloud rat of the Philippines, the hare-like mare of Argentina, the vizcacha of southern South America, and the gentle hutias of the Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea pig is described in a later chapter, but as it is the epitome of a rodent microlivestock species, some historical background is given here. It was domesticated for food use at least 7,000 years ago, probably in what is now the central highlands of Peru and Bolivia. With only llama and deer available, the prehistoric Andean peoples had few readily available sources of meat. They adopted wild cavies, and found that these rangeland rodents (which are more closely related to porcupines than to rats or mice) were gentle, manageable, and easy to rear. By the time the Spaniards arrived in the 1500s, the "cuy"  (pronounced "coo-ee," like the faint cry it makes) was a major food from  Argentina to the Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This impressed the conquistadores, who introduced cuys into Europe,  where they also became a delicacy.3 Within a century, these easily  transported animals began to appear on tables in many parts of the  Spanish empire. Guinea pigs are now reared in campesino huts in the  mountains of central Mexico, in the Philippines, and in several African  nations, along with other areas of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Elsewhere, guinea pigs came to be used only as house pets and  laboratory animals. Although during World War II Mussolini's  government urged Italians to keep them to supplement their meager  meat rations, their use as food was largely ignored in most parts of the  world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The idea of domesticating rodents may seem radical, but  domestication projects are already under way with capybara in  Venezuela (see page 206), pace in Panama (see next page and page  262), giant rat in Nigeria (see page 224), and the grasscutter in Ghana  (see page 232). Rodent husbandry is not complicated and the animals'  environmental requirements seem relatively simple and easy to satisfy.  Moreover, rodents are not usually fastidious feeders, and being  essentially vegetarian will readily accept a wide variety of commonly  available foodstuffs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with most animals with which man is in close contact, rodents can  transmit human diseases.4 With care, however, managed rodents need  not be any more dangerous to care for or to eat than pigs or  horses - both of which are worldwide food resources.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING RODENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To domesticate the pace (see page 262) would seem to be impossible. These large rodents of Central and South America are nocturnal and fiercely territorial; they have low fecundity and take 10 months to reach weaning, and they have tender skin that is easily damaged Most researchers have written them off as candidates for domestication. But at least two have undertaken to beat the odds. We present the findings of one of them here to show that, using modem techniques, even species that normally fight each other to the death on sight are potential farm animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through years of studying paces in Panama, Smithsonian biologist Nicholas Smythe has found that with care and planning the aggressive behavior can be so radically altered that the animals become calm. Indeed, some become almost loving. Newborns, Smythe found, undergo "imprinting" and when he places them with docile adults or with humans, the fierce territoriality never develops. He nurses newborns on "surrogate" mothers that have been imprinted on people. The youngsters then welcome human company and, if fumed out of the cage, return there voluntarily. "It's difficult to imagine a more manageable animal," Smythe said. "Technically speaking they are behaviorally indistinguishable from traditional domestic animals."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As of this writing, Smythe has three generations totalling about 50 individuals, and has several "families" of gentle paces living together in harmony. He has observed that they lose their nocturnal habit and, although they live mainly on fruits in the wild, they readily eat leafy vegetables and other foods in captivity. His captive specimens have recently begun to breed. The offspring remain docile, but they have so far averaged only a little more than two young per female per year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"If we can just double the reproduction rate, then raising paces can compete economically with raising cattle," Smythe explained. "The potential for a bigger brood is all in the animal's anatomy, and if successful, paces in the wet tropics could produce as much protein as cattle."*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas need the shade and protection of the forest. Thus, pace raising might provide an alternative to cutting down rainforests for cattle raising. Instead of toppling trees and planting pastures, people could farm paces in the forest, and perhaps make as much or more money at the same time. In tropical America, the ready acceptance of pace meat is a near guarantee that all they produce will be snapped up at premium prices. In the past, many territorial and aggressive species have been dismissed as being impossible to domesticate or manage. But Smythe has demonstrated that with imprinting and other methods of behavior modification, these need be dismissed no longer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, the pace may already be becoming a new domesticated species. In the first stage of his experiments, Smythe had to train his captive-born paces to be social and nonaggressive. Subsequent generations, however, need no training adopt the new behavior patterns of the parents, and do not revert to aggressive asocial behavior. By the third generation, they have become as accepting of, and indifferent to, people as cattle or sheep. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">15 Agouti</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g020a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the best known of all animals of the American tropics, agoutis (Dasyprocta species)' are prolific rabbit- or hare-sized rodents that are probably easily farmed. They are valued for food and are hunted throughout most of their range. Indeed, agouti meat, once common in Latin markets. is now difficult to find because of indiscriminate killing. Agouti hunting is already prohibited in Brazil; restaurants in Belem, for example, once offered a variety of "cotta" (agouti) dishes at prices equivalent to those of choice filet mignon, but since the early 1970s they have been banned from serving it. Other countries will probably have to institute similar bans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis are active, long-legged, and high-strung. They flee in panic at the slightest alarm. They do not climb but they do burrow occasionally, being essentially specialized ground-dwellers that live in tropical forest regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There have been no organized scientific attempts to raise these swift, shy animals in captivity, but Latin Americans sometimes keep them as "domestics," especially in parks and large gardens. (Agoutis are well known, for instance at the Goeldi Museum in Belem, Brazil.) These animals seem to tame easily, and could perhaps be mass produced on a large scale like rabbits or guinea pigs. They make affectionate pets, sometimes refusing to return to the wild. A research project on captive breeding of two local agouti species (Dasyprocta mexicana and D. punctata) for food is already under way in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of lowland, tropical Latin America and the Caribbean. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis are delicately built, graceful, nimble, and beautifully proportioned. They have slender bodies, short ears, and look somewhat like a rabbit that has been "jacked up" in back. Generally, adults are 40-60 cm long and weigh 2-5 kg. Some are even bigger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They run well and are good jumpers. From a standing start an agouti reportedly can leap as high as 2 m or as far as 6 m; however, as long as they are well fed, there is little problem keeping them behind a wall only 1 m high.2 Reportedly, they sometimes climb easy-sloping trees to collect green fruits, but researchers studying Central American agoutis report that they are strictly terrestrial.3 They swim well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The body hair is thick, coarse, and glossy: pale orange to black on the back, and white to yellow on the belly. Some species have faint stripes, and some have a rump that contrasts with the rest of the back. The short tail is partially concealed under the long body hair.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis occur over a vast area from southern Mexico to Paraguay, including many islands in the Caribbean.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they occasionally damage sugarcane plantings and because the meat is particularly tasty, people hunt agoutis relentlessly, especially near cities and towns. Now, in the l990s, they are becoming rare because of excessive hunting and habitat destruction. Many Latin Americans have never heard of them. In Mexico, for instance, there are few places where agoutis survive, and Dasyprocta mexicana may become extinct if habitat destruction and overhunting continue in its restricted range. In Costa Rica and Panama, agoutis occur only where there is little or no hunting or human interference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From sea level to elevations of at least 2,500 m, the adaptable agouti lives in many habitats: moist lowland forests, dry upland forests, thick brush, and savannas. However, although they thrive in secondary growth areas, they are mainly forest dwellers. Nonetheless, they often enter fields to forage, and young animals occasionally are seen in open areas such as grassy stream banks and cultivated fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis shelter in hollows among boulders, in riverbanks, or under tree roots. They also hide in heavy brush and sometimes in holes dug out by other species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These herbivores eat seeds, fruit, stalks, leaves, roots, and other succulent plant parts, as well as occasional insects and fungi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They seem to mate twice each year. The estrous cycle is variable, but is only about 34 days long. The young are born after a gestation period of 3.5-4 months. Usually, there are twins; however, single births and triplets have been recorded. Newborns are fully developed and are able to run around within hours. They start feeding on solids within a few days. Puberty occurs at about 9 months of age. Life expectancy is 10 years or more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild, agoutis are shy and retiring. Every sense seems constantly triggered for instantaneous action and sometimes they become hysterical. If danger threatens, they usually "freeze," but when discovered they stamp their feet as an alarm signal and dash away, nimbly dodging obstacles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite excessive timidity, they can be violent among themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In undisturbed forests, agoutis are diurnal and are often seen. But around villages they become nocturnal, as a means of self-preservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the most part, these rodents live in loosely formed pairs, with previous litters living around their territory as "satellites." There is some "bigamy," some "philandering," and some "divorce."5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their long claws, they display much finger dexterity. To eat, they usually sit erect, crouching on their haunches and holding the food in their forepaws. If it has a skin' they carefully peel it before starting their meal. They save some nonperishable foods (nuts, for instance) by digging holes in scattered locations, dropping each one in a separate location, stamping it down, and covering it over. This behavior helps disperse the seeds of many species of trees so that agoutis benefit tropical forests and reforestation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p203a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, agoutis are popular game animals. They are often hunted with dogs that even follow them into the burrows. Agouti meat is tasty, although it is usually said to fall short of the meat of the pace (see page 262) because it is leaner and gamier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis adapt well to captivity. With appropriate care they can be bred without difficulty.6 The nervousness that is pronounced in nature is quickly lost in captivity. The young become tame pets. They can be fed on foods such as leafy vegetables, fruit, potatoes, and bread scraps. Although many wild specimens have become nocturnal, captives readily readapt to daylight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Being entirely terrestrial, agoutis require no trees, but they do need space. Given enough area, they get on well (with each other and with different species), and they breed freely. To avoid fighting, it seems necessary to separate females from males at puberty. Probably removing progeny from breeding pens at weaning could also help avoid most of the interpersonal aggression. In large areas with plenty of cover (banana plants, for instance), groups can be kept, but breeding may be disappointing. Husbandry may be most appropriate in large enclosures (50-100 agoutis) with some animals then removed to small cages 0.5-1 m&Yacute; for selective feeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACOUCHIES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Close relatives, the green and red acouchies (Myoprocta acouchy and Myoprocta exilis) also deserve study. These are smaller animals with longer tails, bearing a little plume of white hairs. Although even more delicate and hypersensitive than agoutis, they can be kept in captivity and breed well. They then become less nervous and are easily handled. Acouchies. show remarkable intelligence and even some affection for those they trust. They frequent rainforests, but are rare or even absent in disturbed areas. Adults weigh up to 1.5 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The general biology (diet, reproduction, activity rhythm), is almost the same as that of the agouti, but they live in smaller home ranges (0.6-1.2 hectares versus 2.5 hectares for the agouti) and travel singly, although belonging to a well-established family unit. Adult males tolerate the juvenile males. They occur only in Colombia, the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farming methods would probably be the same as for the agoutis, but acouchies always need plant cover.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis are appropriately sized: a dressed carcass can weigh 1-3 kg. The meat is good, and large commercial undertakings in urban centers could profit from the ready market that already exists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are prolific: females can produce up to two litters a year, each litter averaging two offspring. In protected areas, populations may grow fast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These forest dwellers might provide a source of meat and income without destroying the forests in favor of cattle pastures. Also, they thrive in disturbed areas as long as there is some cover. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiments in Brazil show that agoutis are highly susceptible to foot-and-mouth disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals might become pests: they eat the roots, leaves, and fruit of agricultural crops and occasionally damage sugarcane and banana plants. However, current experience suggests that if they escape captivity they are quickly caught by hunters and do not reach pest levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Live agoutis have strong-smelling anal glands that may be offensive to breeders or could contaminate the meat if the animals are carelessly handled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where the rainforest is destroyed, the agouti population is destroyed. The animals were once well known throughout Latin America, but not anymore. In some areas, therefore, wild breeding stock may not be locally available. Moreover, people may have become sufficiently unfamiliar with them that their value may no longer be appreciated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, they can be the prey of large birds such as eagles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The taxonomy of agouti species needs clarification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Husbandry experiments are required, including studies on topics such as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutrition;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Growth rate;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Shelters and enclosures;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reproduction; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Techniques for catching, moving, marketing, and managing the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One area where agoutis might profitably be raised is in enclosures in palm plantations. Palms such as the babassu provide food, shade, and shelter, while fallen and rotten logs offer secure retreats from predators. This deserves investigation.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instead of clearing vast areas of rainforest for cattle pasture, as is being done in much of Latin America, people might well "farm" agouties in the forests. Few of the settlers flooding into such regions can afford, let alone raise, beef. Small-scale agouti farming offers a promising and inexpensive alternative that would be gentle on the fragile land. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">16 Capybara</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g021a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), the world's largest rodent, can be as big as a sheep and weigh as much as a small person. Its natural habitat is the environs of South America's rivers, marshlands, and swamps, where it feeds on the grasses and reeds that grow near water.1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its size, tasty meat, valuable leather, and rapid reproduction, the capybara is a candidate for both ranching and intensive husbandry throughout the hot and humid lowland tropical regions of Latin America. It seems easy to handle. It is commonly raised in zoos or occasionally as a pet, and has, in at least one instance, been proven successful in large commercial herds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In floodplain ecosystems, capybaras complement cattle because they prefer to graze swamp grasses rather than the dryland grasses on which cattle feed. They have simple stomachs, but are one of the more efficient herbivores. Although they are "selective feeders" that eat lush waterside grasses "preserved in quality" by the water, they also graze pasture, usually selecting new growth that is often too short and scattered for cattle, with their large muzzles, to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The floodplains of the South American subtropics and tropics where the animal is indigenous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they have blunt, horselike heads, capybaras look like gigantic guinea pigs. They are ponderous, barrel shaped, and have a tail too small to be seen from a distance. Their skin is tough and covered by sparse, bristlelike hairs: the color above is reddish brown to gray; beneath, it is yellowish brown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The front legs are shorter than the back. Slightly webbed toes - four on the front feet and three on the back - make them good swimmers. They dive with ease and can stay underwater for up to five minutes. They also move nimbly on land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara is extremely large for a rodent. In size and color, it looks much like a pig. Often more than 100 cm long and 50 cm high at the shoulder, it can exceed 50 kg liveweight. Indeed, specimens weighing up to 90 kg have been reported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before livestock were introduced, the capybara grazed widely over riverine regions throughout South and Central America. Today, it is found in the flooded grasslands from Panama to Paraguay. Mainly, it occurs in the watersheds of the Orinoco, Amazon, Paraguay, and Parana rivers. High population densities exist in the Pantanal of western Brazil and on the Llanos floodplains of Venezuela and Colombia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are few precise population counts, but capybaras can occur in large numbers.2 However, in many areas they appear to be on the verge of extinction, being deliberately eradicated by farmers who think they compete with cattle and transmit diseases. Also, in some areas illegal hunting goes on year-round and great numbers are killed. The animals are particularly vulnerable during the dry season, when they concentrate around the diminished river channels and water holes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, most capybaras live in swampy or grassy areas bordering rivers. However, some are found in other habitats, ranging from open plains to tropical rainforests. But even here they stay near ponds, lakes, streams, and swamps, and never venture much more than 500 m from water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p210a.png"></center><br>
+ The capybaras native range</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara, like all rodents, is a simple-stomached animal, but it is a true herbivore. Its digestive system is especially adapted for fibrous materials. The large cecum - the site of enzymatic digestion serves a function like that of the rumen of sheep, cattle, and goats. It has a digestive capacity similar to that of a sheep's rumen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like rabbits and all the rodents, capybaras are coprophagous. That is, during the morning hours when they are resting, soft feces from the cecum are passed a second time through the digestive system.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributing to the animal's digestive ability is its efficient mastication. It chews its forage seemingly incessantly, reducing it to extremely small particles before it is swallowed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under natural conditions, the females annually bear 1 or 2 litters, each averaging from 4 to 6 offspring. Birth weight is between 1 and 2 kg, depending on litter size and sex. Both males and females reach sexual maturity when they reach a liveweight of 30 kg or more usually between the first and second year of life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras are intelligent, shy, inoffensive, and harmless. In undisturbed ecosystems, they are gregarious and live in family groups of up to 30. The young follow the mother about for many months after birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike most rodents, they do not construct dens, but the groups have specific resting areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are both diurnal and nocturnal and, like many herbivores, they graze at daybreak and dusk, and perhaps also at midnight. They spend the morning resting in weeds on riverbanks, and at noon they cool off by bathing for an hour or so before grazing. They may feed belly deep in water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras wallow in mud, allowing it to dry on their skin before bathing again. Mange can develop in captivity when they cannot take a mud bath.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When startled, a capybara barks loudly and dashes away, but after running 200 m or so it tires, slows down, and may lapse into hyperthermia. At that point a hunter can easily catch it. However, if the animal reaches water, it usually eludes the pursuer because it swims so well - especially underwater.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybara meat is white and has qualities and properties (such as high emulsification) that might allow it to compete with pork and other meats in the food industry. Spanish-style sausages, Italian-style mortadellas, frankfurters, and German-style smoked chops have been produced experimentally.4 However, at present, the meat is mainly consumed only in the dried and salted form. It is particularly popular in Venezuela, where more than 400 tons are sold every year, especially during Easter festivities.5 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara's hide is one of the best for glove making. This luxury product, known in international commerce as carpincho leather, fetches high prices on European markets because it is more heat resistant than most leathers and because it stretches in only one direction. This one way grain allows gloves to stretch sideways without lengthening and looking sloppy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara appears suitable for raising as a livestock animal. Amerindians traditionally collected capybara orphans during the hunting season and raised them until needed for food. Capybara breeding was reported in Brazil as early as 1565.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modern attempts have been made towards domestication. Researchers at the Institute of Animal Production in Venezuela, for instance, started a breeding program in the 1970s using 20 females and 5 males. Since that time they have continuously kept capybaras in confinement. Through selection and management, they have improved the reproduction of captive animals. The current aim is to get 16 offspring per mother per year. Newborns are weaned after 5 weeks and the mother is returned to the breeding pen.6 In Colombia, similar work is in progress, and guidelines for raising capybaras on breeding farms have been published.7 In Brazil, research has been carried out to study capybara nutrition, genetics, management, reproduction, and social behavior in total confinement.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout South America, the price of beef has increased greatly within the last few years, thereby providing a new incentive for capybara husbandry. It has also forced many campesinos to eat more wildlife, which adds another incentive for producing capybara meat on farms and thereby perhaps helping to relieve pressure on the wild stocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When tame, the animals are amenable to handling without physical restraint. They are so tractable that in Surinam a blind man once used one as a guide animal. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras can be raised on a variety of readily available vegetation: leaves, roots, fruits, and vegetables. They thrive in coarse grasses, if given opportunity to select nutritious parts. Their large incisors allow them to bite off short grasses that many herbivores cannot use. For instance, they eat "capybara grass" (Paspalum fasciculatum) that is abundant on river edges in Venezuela and is normally too short for cattle to graze. This makes for low-cost feeding and utilization of a resource that is otherwise unused.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras are at home in hot, humid environments and are fully adapted to life on the tropical floodplains and seasonally flooded savannas. They thrive in extreme climates where cattle struggle, such as in the parts of the lower Paraguayan Chaco where summer temperatures reach 45&Yacute;C.9 An ecological benefit to raising capybaras is that there is no need to alter habitats by introducing exotic forage plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They reproduce quickly. Age at first conception for females is about 1.5 years, and the time between parturitions is generally shorter than that of goats or sheep in the tropics. Young capybaras grow so fast that in 18 months they can reach a liveweight of more than 40 kg. In their natural conditions, they are more disease resistant than cattle. The annual productivity is said to exceed that of cattle in many parts of its range.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is already so widely eaten in South America that the meat from farmed animals should be readily acceptable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras occasionally raid fields and can harm sugarcane, rice, bananas, sweet potatoes, cassava, corn, and other crops. In many parts of Brazil, they are considered agricultural pests and are shot.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Confining these animals in high density may create serious problems. Infectious diseases and parasite outbreaks seem to be worse than those that occur with conventional livestock. Aggression might prove a limitation to capybara husbandry: it is almost impossible to cage two adult males together or to introduce new animals to an existing group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals may transmit disease to people and livestock. They can harbor foot-and-mouth disease and are known to be susceptible to brucellosis. They also carry a form of trypanosome, Trypanosoma evansi. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with cattle, capybara use only a small proportion of the total plant biomass. They are largely selective feeders, and for satisfactory performance must have sufficient area to select the plants they need. If placed in a paddock of only coarse grass, most will eventually die. Like goats and gazelles, capybara probably select a diet that is at least 15 percent richer in crude protein than a typical cattle diet.'&Yacute;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High mortality has never been observed in Venezuela, but keeping the animals alive on a farm in some areas may not be easy. In one trial, more than half (55 percent) of the capybara died of disease, and a few of septicemia (the result of wounds incurred during fights), but most apparently of trypanosomiasis. Other losses were caused by speeding vehicles (29 percent), poaching (6 percent), and predation, mainly by jaguars (12 percent)."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important for researchers to undertake the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gather specimens from different regions for comparative evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Assess experiences of zoos and farms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Undertake nutritional trials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Initiate captive breeding trials - measurements of growth rates, space requirements, feed needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Characterize the animal's productivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Study the capybara's basic physiology and production potentials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Investigate biological factors, such as reproductive physiology, and social behavior (both in the wild and under controlled conditions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine the factors influencing capybara reproduction, growth, and development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine the animal's adaptability and economic merit in various farming systems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Study the influence of environment on reproduction rate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine their complementarily with water buffalo or other ruminants that normally use swampy habitats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine relative causes of mortality (such as diseases specific to capybaras) and predation (especially of the young) by spectacled caiman, crested caracayes, black vultures, and others. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">17 Coypu</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g022a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu' (Myocastor coypus) is an aquatic rodent native to South America. It has been called the "South American beaver," but its size is actually closer to that of a small dog or an agouti. It seems suited to be a microlivestock species because, compared with most rodents' it has a large body size and a relatively high reproduction rate. Moreover, it is easy to manage, and there is much literature on how to raise it in captivity.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fur is the main item of commercial value. In the late 19th century, it was in such high demand that the animal was nearly exterminated. However, in 1922 Argentineans began raising coypu in captivity and this practice spread through South America and to other regions. In many European countries and in various locations in the United States some specimens escaped or were released, and coypu have become established in the waterways.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu meat is tasty and is consumed in many regions of South America as well as in parts of Europe. Because of the absence of musk glands, the meat is free of the "gamy" flavor found in squirrels and rabbits. It is moist, fine "rained, medium light in color, and firm. It is one of the mildest and tenderest of wild meats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal has been widely distributed, but its area of safest use is within its natural range in South America. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu is adapted to a semiaquatic existence and has webbed feet, valvular nostrils that can be closed to keep water out, and underfur that remains dry even under water. Its long, powerful claws on the forefeet are used for grooming, excavating burrows, and digging up and holding food. The tail is slender; the extremely large incisor teeth are orange-red.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An adult is 40-65 cm long and weighs 7-10 kg. Some occasionally weigh up to 17 kg. Males are larger than females. The pelage is thick, with coarse guard hairs overlying the underfur. The soft dense underfur (the commercially valuable pelt called "nutria") is about 2 cm long on the belly, and 2-5 cm long and less dense on the back. The color is yellowish to reddish brown on the back and pale yellow on the belly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu is distributed through southern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. It has been widely introduced in North America, Europe, northern Asia, and eastern Africa. As a result of escapes and releases from fur farms, the animals are now feral in Europe, North America, northern Asia, Japan, and East Africa. In the United States, they are abundant in Louisiana, Oregon, Florida, and the Chesapeake Bay region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In various countries, the animal's status ranges from that of a rarity to that of a pest. Wild coypu are protected by law in Argentina because of overhunting, but there are about 100 producers of farmed coypu.3 Elsewhere the animals are destroyed en masse to reduce the threat of damage to irrigation ditches, dams, and agricultural crops. In England a decade-long program has eradicated them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu mainly inhabit the banks of fresh or brackish waterways.4 They live in temperate zones and are highly sensitive to freezing conditions. Also, their heat tolerance is poor; lowland tropical regions may be too hot for them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p219a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu feeds mainly at night. The diet consists chiefly of plants, particularly water plants and reeds. Large amounts of fibrous vegetation is decomposed in the cecum, where bacteria break down cellulose particles. Mussels, snails, and other small organisms are also often eaten.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals burrow into soft soil or construct nests out of vegetation above ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu are relatively fast breeding. Females first give birth at ages ranging from 6 to 15 months. From then on, they produce 2 or 3 litters a year. They are able to mate and give birth at any time of the year, although more young are born during certain seasons. The gestation period is between 128 and 140 days. There are 5 or 6 (sometimes up to 12) young in each litter. Newborns are well developed, able to see, and fully covered with hair at birth. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The female's four or five pairs of mammae are located on the side of the body, an adaptation that permits the young to nurse while floating with their mothers in the water. In captivity, young are nursed for two months, but can survive if weaned at five days. The mean body weight at birth is about 225 g, but growth is rapid during the first five months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu have a potential life span of more than six years. However, they seldom survive more than three years, and in the wild probably no animals are older than five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are passive creatures, usually entirely lacking in aggression. They are shy and fearful; the slightest disturbance will send them scurrying to the shelter of water, a burrow, or other hiding place. With their large incisors they can bite viciously, but in captivity they tame down, even to where they can be carried around by hand. Compared with domestic animals, they are very sanitary in their feeding and living habits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In hot climates they are nocturnal, in cooler climates crepuscular, and in cold weather they become diurnal. Captive animals become conditioned to diurnal activity if fed during daylight hours. Most of the active period is spent feeding, grooming, and swimming. Grooming is done by scratching and "nibbling" the fur, and an oily secretion from glands located near the mouth and anus lubricates the pelage. Secretions from the anal glands are also employed for marking out territory.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excellent swimmers, coypu spend most of their time in the water. They can remain submerged for five minutes or more. On land, they lumber about with awkward, clumsy movements; however, when the need arises they can run fast and jump short distances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they usually live together in pairs, coypu will form large colonies. They tend to remain in one area throughout their lives: their daily "cruising range" has been measured at less than 45 m.5 However, drought or freezing weather can induce mass migrations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The burrows, which are dug in sloping banks, are usually short with no branching tunnels and generally end in a simple chamber. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In South America, the coypu has a long history of use. Nutria fur was in such high demand and the animal was hunted so avidly at the beginning of the last century that it became rare and had to be protected by government decree. As a result, populations increased dramatically. Nowadays, coypu are protected in many areas, but widespread poaching has reduced their numbers and range.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many thousands are killed each year just for the guard hairs, which are used in making felt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu are used in marsh management to reduce infestations of aquatic weeds and to keep waterways open.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas where it is found, the coypu is trapped by commercial hunters. However, as noted, several countries have coypu farms. In Germany, the animals have been raised on diets consisting chiefly of potatoes supplemented with oats, clover, corn, hay, green forage, legumes, turnips, or cabbage. Elsewhere, feeds generally include such materials as hay, corn, crushed oats, greens, root vegetables, apples, bread, and rabbit feed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To confine coypu, a wall of stone or concrete or a fence of stout wire netting is necessary. It must be set 1 m deep into the ground and rise 1-1.5 m above ground. Water must be available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where selected strains of animals are kept, it is usual to house each female in separate small compartments, complete with pools and shelter boxes. Each is then paired with a male, which is removed after mating to leave the female to rear her brood in seclusion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fur is particularly valuable because the female's nipples are so high that the soft belly fur is unbroken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This herbivore is much cheaper to feed than the furbearing carnivores such as mink. Furs of coypu raised in captivity fetch a price about three times greater than furs from wild animals.6 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wherever the coypu has escaped it has damaged embankments and stream banks. The burrows sometimes weaken dikes that protect low lying areas from flooding. In northern Europe and eastern England, for example, it is considered a serious pest. In rice paddies, coypu could become particularly devastating. They can also damage crops and natural plant communities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu can carry viruses that result in toxoplasmosis, papillomatosis, rabies, and equine encephalomyelitis; bacteria that cause salmonellosis, paratyphoid, and leptospirosis; protozoans that produce sarcosporidiosis and coccidiosis; and rickettsia. Common diseases of captive specimens are bacterial pneumonia, hepatitis-nephritis, Strongyloides infection, and neoplasms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European winters often cause the coypu's tail (which is hairless) to freeze, but the animal hardly seems to notice. A more dangerous situation arises when lakes, streams, or rivers freeze over; beneath the ice, coypu cannot find their way as easily as beavers, and often drown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little research needs to be done. There is massive literature on farming coypu. Nonetheless, the animal's behavior is little studied, and there are few reliable published observations on its social organization. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">18 Giant Rat</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant rat, also known as the pouched rat, is one of Africa's largest rodents.! Two species have been distinguished: Cricetomys gambianus, which lives chiefly in savannas and around the edges of forests and human settlements; and Cricetomys emini, which occurs mainly in rainforests. Both are highly prized as food </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are solitary, but they are easy to handle, have a gentle nature, and make good pets. Researchers at the University of Ibadan in Nigeria have been developing techniques for managing them in captivity. Breeding stocks were established in 1973, and since then so many generations have been bred that this small population is considered domesticated. Commercial-scale giant rat farming is now being established in southern Nigeria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is a promising development because giant rats are a common "bushmeat" throughout much of Africa. Since these herbivores are well known there, and are acceptable as food, they may have as much or more potential as meat animals than the introduced rabbits that are getting considerable attention (see page 178).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The intertropical zone of Africa from the southern Sahara to the northern Transvaal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is among the most striking of all African rodents. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its large size, it often causes amazement - even alarm -  when seen for the first time. The body measures as much as 40 cm, and, on average, weighs about 1-1.5 kg. The record for a hand-reared specimen is 1.6 kg 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from its size, the best known species (Cricetomys gambianus) is noted for the dark hair around its eyes, a nose that is sharply divided into dark upper and pale lower regions, and a tail that has a dark (proximal) section and pale (distal) section. The overall body color is a dusky gray.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lesser known species (Cricetomys emini) has short, thin, and relatively sleek fur. Its upper parts are pale brown; the belly is white.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant rats are commonly found from Senegal to Sudan, and as far south as the northern region of South Africa. The main species is mostly found in moist savannas, patches of forests, and rainforests. However, it can also be found in all West African vegetation zones from the semiarid Sahel to the coast. It also exists at high altitudes up to about 2,OOO m in West Africa and 3,000 m in eastern Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rainforest species occurs in the great equatorial forest belts of Zaire and neighboring Central African countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are probably not threatened with extinction. However, they have been exterminated in some areas (such as in parts of eastern Zaire) where the human population is dense, the land fully cultivated, and the wildlife overhunted. Although common, they are not as well known as one might suppose from their bulk and from the fact that they are sometimes found around, and even inside, houses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant rats occur largely in lightly wooded dryland regions or in forested humid regions. They cannot tolerate high temperatures or truly arid conditions. They often live in farm areas and in gardens. Their burrows are commonly found inside deserted termite mounds and at the base of trees. Some have also been found in the middle of cassava fields. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p227a.png"></center><br>
+ The giant rats distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are herbivores with a tendency to omnivory. They prefer fruits, but also subsist on tubers, grains, vegetables, leaves, legume pods, and wastes (such as banana peels). However, they are not grasseaters. Giant rats also kill and eat mice, insects (caterpillars, cockroaches, and locusts, for example), and probably many other small animals.3 They are particularly fond of mollusks (such as snails).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction is prolific and year-round. The female attains puberty at 20-23 weeks and the gestation period is about 20-42 days. The young are weaned at 21-26 days of age but stay with their mother until 2-3 months of age. So far, the record for the most litters has been 5 in 9 months. It thus seems possible that a female can reproduce 6 times a year. Litter size ranges between I and 5, but 4 is most common. Thus, in 1 year a single female could produce 24 or more young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These strictly nocturnal animals usually lead solitary lives and forage alone. Mostly, they occupy a burrow by themselves, except when the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">young are being raised. The burrows can be complex. Below the entrances are vertical shafts leading to a system of galleries and chambers for storing food, depositing droppings, sleeping, or breeding. The home range is individual and limited (1-6 hectares). In the wild, one male "supervises" the home ranges of several females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, the animals are often seen sitting up and ramming large amounts of food into their spacious cheek pouches. With full cheeks, they return to their burrows and disgorge the food into a "larder." Food (chiefly hard nuts) is stored there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They swim and climb well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A study carried out in Nigeria showed that the giant rat produces about the same amount of meat as the domestic rabbit.4 The meat's nutritional value compares favorably with that of domestic livestock, and African villagers know how to preserve it by smoking or by salting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant rat has recently attracted attention as a potential laboratory animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farmers in Nigeria have traditionally trapped the juveniles and fattened them for slaughter. They usually keep the animals in wire cages and feed them daily with food gathered in the wild as well as with scraps from the household.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the program at the University of Ibadan indicates that the giant rat can be domesticated. Already, specimens are being bred and reared in an intensive program. They adapt to captivity after about a month. They are subsequently transferred into breeding cages, which are wooden boxes with a rectangular wire-mesh "playroom." Each cage holds a breeding pair or a nursing female with its young. Experimental feeding cages have also been designed.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food-preference trials show that palm fruits and root crops (especially sweet potato) are preferred to grains and vegetables. Nutritional studies show that the animals can tolerate up to 7 percent crude fiber in their rations. Although largely vegetarian, they eagerly consume dry and canned dog food. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals have several advantages:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They are well known and much sought after for food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They have adapted to life in lowland tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They are able to live on locally available plant materials, including vegetable waste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They reproduce rapidly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They are more tolerant of captivity than the grasscutter (see next chapter). This is largely because omnivorous feeding makes them easier to feed than the grasscutter and other strict herbivores.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species could easily become a pest. It is recommended for rearing only in areas where it already exists. The crops it damages include cacao, root crops, peanuts, maize, sorghum, vegetables, and stored grains and foods. There is also the possibility that this rodent may transmit diseases to humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A project at the University of Kinshasa in Zaire reports problems in getting giant rats to reproduce in captivity. When two specimens were paired they sometimes fought so viciously that copulation was impossible.6 Special management may be required, such as housing animals in adjacent cages before actually introducing them to each other. Moreover, selection for docility may also be necessary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ratlike appearance is not attractive, and a few African tribes have taboos against consuming the meat of these animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout Africa south of the Sahara, giant rat domestication deserves experimentation and trials. Success would open up the potential for supplemental meat supplies in rural and urban areas where meat is now scarce. Tests are needed to determine the factors that favor breeding: temperature, aeration, light, privacy, and size and form of cages. Moreover, diets that are cheap and easy to make from local feedstuffs must be identified. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further research on the domestication of the giant rat might include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Identifying husbandry techniques that are applicable at low cost in rural areas;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Studying food digestibility and setting up various diets;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Illuminating social behavior: pairing of animals, the best moment for pairing, duration of pairing, age of partners;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Outlining the basics of husbandry (for instance, capital costs, food conversion ratios, growth rates) and making simple and cheap cages;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Studying biology (anatomy, physiology, birth records, growth rate); and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Testing the practical likelihood that this rodent may transmit diseases to people and other animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant rat has an interesting commensal relationship with Hemimerus, an insect that feeds on secretions in the skin. It seems to cause no irritation or damage, and may even benefit the host by helping to keep the skin clean. Caging these animals results in the general loss of the insect, but attempts should be made to maintain them and to determine their role and life cycle.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The potential of this species as a laboratory animal in nutritional, clinical, and pharmacological research also deserves exploration. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">19 Grasscutter</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g023a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus and Thryonomys gregorianus) is found in many forests and savannas of Africa. Its meat, said to resemble suckling pig, often sells for more per kilogram than chicken, beef, pork, or lamb. It is the preferred, and perhaps most expensive meat in West Africa. Indeed. in Ivory</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coast it sells for about $9 per kg. With prices like that, grasscutter is a culinary luxury that only the wealthy can afford.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If domestication of this wild species were successful in providing meat at a price similar to that of poultry (the second most popular meat), markets would be unlimited.2 However, as production costs are high, long-term research will be required before grasscutter production can be profitable to the small farmer. This research should now be undertaken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an effort to capitalize on the markets for this delicacy, agricultural extension services of Cameroon, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Togo, and particularly Benin are already encouraging farmers to rear grasscutters as backyard livestock. They furnish breeding stock and information, and maintain central offices for records. In addition, a bilateral cooperation project in Benin has started experimental work on improved breeding methods combined with the study of animal responses under domestication.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In future, this vegetarian animal might become the African equivalent of South America's guinea pig, playing an important role in reducing Africa's chronic protein shortage. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Humid and subhumid Africa south of the Sahara.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters are robust animals with short tails, small ears, and stocky bodies. Taxonomically, they are more closely related to porcupines than to common rats or mice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although many varieties have been described, there are probably only two species. The larger (Thryonomys swinderianus) weighs 9 kg or more and has a head-and-body length of up to 60 cm. The smaller species (Thryonomys gregorianus) may occasionally reach 8 kg and a body length of 50 cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species have yellow-brown to gray-brown bodies, with whitish bellies. The fur is extremely coarse, firm, and bristly - reflecting the animal's kinship to the porcupine. The tail is scaly and has short, sparse hairs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species have thick, heavy claws and enormous orange incisors that can chew through even the toughest vegetation. (Grasscutters have been known to tear holes in corrugated iron fences.) Nevertheless, they do not bite when handled, although their claws sometimes cause injuries.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters occur in grassland or in wooded savanna throughout the humid and subhumid areas of Africa south of the Sahara. They often live in forest-savanna habitats where grass is present. They do not inhabit rainforest, dry scrub, or desert, but they have colonized the road borders in forest regions. Distribution is determined by availability of adequate or preferred grass species for food. Specifically, Thryonomys swinderianus occurs in virtually all countries of west, east, and southern Africa. Thryonomys gregorianus occurs in savannas in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Zaire, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite heavy hunting, these animals are not threatened with extinction. Nonetheless, many individual populations are well below carrying capacity, or are extinct because of local overexploitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The larger grasscutter (T. swinderianus) generally lives in swampy, low-lying areas, especially along river banks and the borders of lakes and streams. Occasionally, it is found on higher ground among bushes and rocks, living where savanna grasses are dense and tangled enough to afford good cover. In Ivory Coast and southern Guinea, for instance, grasscutters are found (and hunted) throughout the savanna zones. And they can occur in close proximity to farmlands and people (for example, in southwest Nigeria).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the precise diet in the wild has not been determined, grasscutters are vegetarian. They consume nuts, bark, and the soft parts of grasses and shrubs. They particularly favor elephant grass and sweet potatoes. They commonly "raid" cassava and yam plantations, and are considered local pests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters reproduce year-round, although the births seem to peak at certain times of the year, correlated with weather conditions.5 Probably one male takes several females, and the family group possibly has more than one generation of young. The gestation is about 152 days. Apparently, litters normally contain between 2 and 4 young, but in Benin and Togo some litters of up to 11 or 12 are reported.6 Newborns are fully developed, their eyes are open, they weigh approximately 80 g, have thick fur, and quickly become accomplished runners.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p236a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they commonly forage in groups, grasscutters are generally solitary. They are nocturnal, and they travel at night through trails in reeds and grass, often to water. Most specimens seen in markets are males, possibly because males lead the groups and are thus most prone to being trapped.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When alarmed, these animals stamp their hind feet and give a strange booming grunt. When fleeing, they can run very fast and, given a chance, will take to water. They swim with ease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For shelter, grasscutters usually weave nests of matted vegetation or scoop out shallow burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a broad geographic band across sub-Saharan Africa, cattle raising is severely limited by trypanosomiasis. There, other sources of animal protein, including rodents, are traditionally used. Thus, grasscutter meat constitutes an important food for many Africans. The animals are mostly caught and eaten by families for their own use, but some are sold in markets and especially in roadside stalls. Many families depend exclusively on selling bushmeat, particularly that of grasscutters. In Accra, Ghana, during one year, 73 tons of grasscutter meat were sold in the local market. This represented more than 15,000 animals. In southern Africa, too, people find that these rodents make tasty food, although they may cut off the tail to make the carcass look less ratlike.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat is usually eaten smoked, and is so much in demand that grasscutters are hunted in organized drives with spears, dogs, and sometimes fire. It is considered excellent, especially when cooked in soups and stews or barbecued.7 It has been described as resembling venison in flavor, but it is dark like the meat of wild duck.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the savanna area of West Africa, people have traditionally captured wild grasscutters and raised them at home. As an extension of this, organized grasscutter husbandry has been initiated in West Africa. The animals are provided with marshy, tightly fenced areas with plenty of plant cover. The young are harvested from these areas and raised separately.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghanaian researcher Emanuel Asibey, a pioneer of this research, reports success at getting such captive stocks to reproduce. To this end, farmers are provided with breeding boxes and foundation grass cutter colonies. They are taught how to rear and feed the animals for home consumption or for cash income. Basically, the farmers make available large sheds where the animals can move freely. To prevent escape, the walls may be reinforced with cement plaster. The farmers also provide piles of grass, sugarcane, and other foods. A grasscutter reportedly takes about a month to adjust to such confinement. High mortality can occur in this period. The average weight of a mature, home-raised grasscutter is 4-7 kg. The average killing-out (dressed carcass) is 64 percent.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Wildlife Domestication Unit of Ibadan University in Nigeria, another pioneer of rodent domestication, has also reported the potential of domesticated grasscutter colonies.9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research on grasscutter breeding, husbandry, and feeding is similarly being implemented by the Ministry for Rural Development in Benin and at the Lacena in Ivory Coast (see Research Contacts).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The demand for grasscutter meat is so large that it is not being met. Markets for it already exist over much of Africa,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters can devastate such crops as rice, sugarcane, soybeans, peanuts, yams, cassava, sweet potatoes, oil-palm seedlings, maize, young rubber, sorghum, and wheat. Therefore, as with most rodents, they should be reared only in areas where they already exist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In past years, captive animals in Benin have suffered fatal Clostridium infections during September and October. In 1986, a broad-spectrum antibiotic was given with outstanding results. During this season, the animals also suffered from ascarid worms, which were also successfully treated with standard drugs.10</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed in the following areas:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Digestive physiology, feeding habits, feed preferences, feed conversion and growth rate; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Diseases (pathogens and parasites);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Captive breeding and management (growth rates, space requirements, feed needs, etc);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Performance under different environments;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Productivity; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Basic biology (for example, chromosome type, reproductive physiology, and social behavior both in its wild state and under controlled conditions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, specimens should be gathered from different regions for comparative evaluation. A particular need is to select and breed docile specimens because today, even after several generations in captivity, the animal must still be handled with caution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although domestication of the grasscutter is encouraged, wild populations might also be managed to maximize and sustain production through habitat manipulation. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">20 Guinea Pig</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g024a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) are promising microlivestock because they require little capital or labor; provide an inexpensive, readily available, palatable meat; have no odor, and are suitable for keeping indoors. In the highlands of the Andes, many Indians raise them to supplement diets based on grains  and vegetables. Families eat them mostly on special occasions such as weddings and first communions, or they sell them to restaurants or peddle them in village markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The low cost of these small animals makes them available even to many landless peasants. For both the small farmer and apartment dweller, the guinea pig is a possible food reserve. It converts kitchen scraps and marginal wastelands into meat. According to estimates, 20 females and 2 males may produce enough meat year-round to provide an adequate meat diet for a family of 6.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since husbandry practices are simple and cheap, the guinea pig is an excellent source of supplementary income. An FAO study at Ibarra, Ecuador, showed that on small mountain farms the guinea pig provided more profit than either pigs or dairy cows, partly because its meat fetched high prices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although domesticated guinea pigs are mainly a food resource of Latin America, their use has also spread to parts of Africa and Asia. They are raised, for instance, in Nigeria, Cameroon, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Togo, and Zaire. In southern Nigeria, at least 10 percent of all households raise guinea pigs for food, with colonies of up to 30 animals per household. Guinea pigs are also raised in small cages or cardboard boxes by small farmers in the Philippines.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The feeding efficiency is high: studies have shown that it takes between 3.2 and 5.7 kg of forage to produce 1 kg of growth. This makes guinea pigs more efficient than most farm mammals. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs seem especially adapted to the climate and forages of high-altitude zones, but the fact that they are being raised in Central and West Africa indicates that they are also adapted to the lowland tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p243a.png"></center><br>
+ The native distribution of the guinea pigs wild ancestor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs have stocky bodies, fairly short hind legs, and short, unfurred ears. Adults can weigh up to 2 kg, but an average-sized specimen is about 0.5 kg. They are 20-40 cm long (average 28 cm) and have no tail. In domesticated forms, the pelage may be smooth or coarse, short or long, and in some types the hairs form rosettes.4 Domesticated types come in colors ranging from white to dark brown, as well as piebald.5 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The original home of the wild guinea pig is believed to have been the central highlands of Peru and Bolivia. Its domesticated descendants are important as meat animals mainly in that same area, but, as noted, they are also important in certain African and Asian countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few strains are distributed worldwide as laboratory animals and pets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated guinea pigs, as a whole, are in no danger of extinction, although some rare strains are threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These extremely adaptable animals are found in temperate zones and in the highland tropics, but they are usually kept indoors and protected from the extremes of weather. In Lambayeque and other departments of Peru, they are reared at elevations from sea level to more than 4,000 m. In areas where they are raised, daily temperatures fluctuate as much as 30&Yacute;C. In the Bolivian or Peruvian puna region, for instance, day temperatures can be 22&Yacute;C, while night temperatures are -7&Yacute;C. However, they cannot survive freezing temperatures and they may not perform well when exposed to the full tropical heat and sunlight. Many people of the Peruvian highlands keep the animals in darkness (for example, in wood boxes with little or no light).6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal's original wild habitat is believed to have been an area of grasslands, forest edges, swamps, and rocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These herbivores can be raised on kitchen scraps, garden wastes, and weedy vegetation plucked from backyards or roadsides. Andean peasants mainly feed them potato peels, scraps of cabbage, lettuce, carrot, wild grasses, corn stalks, and the foliage of miscellaneous wild plants. Some barley and alfalfa is grown specifically for guinea pigs; it is cut green and sold in small bundles in the markets. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs mate throughout the year except when climate is excessively adverse. Domestic breeds average 2-3 young per litter, although larger litters sometimes occur. The gestation period is 65-70 days with an average of 67. Females come into estrus every 13-24 days, and there is a fertile postpartum estrus.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females can become pregnant when merely 3 months old, and many produce 4 litters every year from then on. In principle, a farmer starting with 1 male and 10 females could see his herd grow to 3,000 animals in one year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newborns are so large that the female's pubic bones must separate for the birth. They emerge fully developed, with fur and open eyes. They look like miniature adults, and they start eating grass and other feedstuffs within hours. (For this reason, babies orphaned at birth have been known to survive.) Weaning may be reached as early as 21 days of age.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The life span in captivity is as long as 8 years, but animals used for breeding usually live only 3.5 years. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUPER GUINEA PIGS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even in their native region, guinea pigs have traditionally received little research attention. However, that began changing in the 1970s with the onset of meat shortages in Peru. (For a time the government restricted beef sales to only 15 days a month.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For instance, in 1972 Peru began a guinea pig improvement project. Researchers from i a Molina National Agrarian University traveled throughout Peru gathering many kinds of guinea pigs short haired long haired black, white, yellow, brown, and even purple. Practically all the guinea pigs eaten in Peru are home grown, and researchers observed that the bigger ones were generally winding up in the stew, leaving the smaller ones for breeding. The people inadvertently were making the animals smaller. (This is a common phenomenon for many animals.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To overcome it, the university research workers compared the mature size and growth rates of all the different guinea pigs. They selected and cross-bred the biggest, meatiest, and fastest-growing ones. This program, later taken over by Instituto Nacional de Investigacion y Promocion Agropecuaria (INIPA), produced remarkable results. The starting animals averaged little more than 0.5 kg, the resulting ones averaged almost 2 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru's "super guinea pigs" are now getting international recognition. They have been introduced into the highlands of Honduras, where the animal is also part of the Indian cuisine. The FAO has shipped some to the Dominican Republic. In addition, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Colombia have all begun their own guinea pig improvement programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within Peru the government has established 11 breeding stations to encourage the farming of guinea pigs for food. The goal is to provide better stud males to the people so that future animals will grow more quickly and reach a greater weight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs generally congregate in small groups, normally made up of 5-10 adults. In favorable areas, however, such groups may coalesce into large colonies. The animals communicate incessantly among themselves, emitting a variety of squeaks and other noises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males, although good-natured with other species, often fight fiercely among themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs are raised mainly for meat. Peru has about 20 million, which annually provide 16-17,000 tons of meat (only 4,000 tons less than Peru's sheep meat production).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs are used worldwide for studies on disease, nutrition, heredity, and toxicology, as well as for the development of serums and other biomedical research. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs require so little space that a small cage or pit can house up to 10 females and 1 male. They can be raised in cages with wire floors of small mesh as well. The labor required is low. A colony of 1,000 females reportedly can be properly cared for by one person. A layer of wood shavings, shredded paper, straw, and dried corncobs is usually recommended for bedding. The droppings are odorless, so the bedding does not need changing as often as with other animals. When the diet mainly consists of greens, much urine is produced, and then the beds have to be changed frequently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When grown for meat, the young are weaned at 3-4 weeks and are ready for market in a matter of 10-13 weeks. Weight gain is rapid for the first 4-6 weeks, and then decreases. The carcasses normally dress out at about 65 percent, including the skin and legs. The meat's protein content is approximately 21 percent.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a few regions of Peru, guinea pigs are "herded" on the open range and retired at night into small adobe coops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This small, inoffensive animal rarely bites, is easy to manage, and has no smell. It is an excellent supplemental meat supply. The improved breeds cannot climb or jump so that they are easy to contain. (Primitive "criollo" types, however, can jump.) If kept dry and given green vegetation, grain, and water, it survives in many environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major constraint is consumer reluctance. Even in Latin America, attempts to promote guinea pig consumption outside the Indian communities have failed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When raised in a clean environment and under normal feeding conditions, guinea pigs thrive and reproduce and do not need routine vaccinations or antibiotics that cattle, sheep, and pigs often require. However, guinea pigs can be carriers of Chagas' disease and salmonella. Further, they are susceptible to pneumonia if temperatures change abruptly when conditions are wet. Coccidiosis and internal and external parasites are also common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green forages and surplus fruits or by-products are critical to provide vitamin C, which the animal is unable to synthesize for itself. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the greatest concentration of guinea pigs is found in the Andes, particular efforts should be directed towards this region. Already, research on guinea pigs has begun in some universities and government research stations in Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, and Bolivia, but more work is needed on matters such as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Breeding "elite" stock for distribution;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Feeding and nutritional-requirement trials, especially for creating alternate feeds that peasants and commercial producers can use during seasons when conventional feeds are hard to get;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Diseases and parasites that may limit production in small farming systems;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Management practices concerning reproduction, housing, herd size, and feeding; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The genetic basis for weight gain and productivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some research should be directed towards developing rations or introducing drought-resistant forages for the dry season because green forage is needed year-round. A range of practical and economical diets needs to be created.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal geneticists in Latin American countries should establish "elite" populations that can provide superior stock throughout the world. It can be anticipated that applying modern breeding methods to existing improved strains will result in great advances in a relatively short period and at little cost (see sidebar).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three species of wild cavies (Cavia aperea, C. fulgida, and C. tschudii), close relatives of the guinea pig, are native to South America and are declining drastically. Research to preserve them is urgently needed. C. aperea is a widely used item of food in rural Brazil and other parts of South America. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">21 Hutia</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g025a.png"></center><br>
+ Hispaniolan Hutia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first meat Christopher Columbus tasted in the New World was probably hutia, a rodent avidly hunted by the Carib Indians. Hutia bones have been unearthed from kitchen middens of pre-Columbian inhabitants of all the Greater Antilles. Indians carried live hutias on voyages possibly in a semidomestic state as a source of food. On some islands, hutias were so eagerly sought that their populations were destroyed long before Europeans arrived. Slaves in the cane fields also hunted hutias for food. The surviving species later suffered when forests were cleared and cats, dogs, mongooses, and other predators were introduced. Consequently, the majority of hutia species died out, and today most surviving members of the family (Capromyidae) are facing extinction. Human predation continues in some areas (for instance, in Jamaica) where the tradition of "coneyhunting" still endures in a few regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias should be tested as possible microlivestock: success could create the incentive for their complete protection. The animals seem to take well to captivity. The Jamaican hutia is already overproducing in zoos, causing a local glut of animals. And hutias are, or were until recently, kept in barns by some people in Cuba, who fed them on banana and other vegetable waste and ate them regularly.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POTENTIAL AREA OF USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias are broad-headed, short-legged, robust animals with small eyes and ears. The various species are from 20 to 60 cm long and weigh from 1 to 9 kg - a size range from that of a guinea pig to that of a small dog. They walk with a slow, waddling motion, but can hop quickly if frightened or pursued. They also climb well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 10 1iving species are all big enough to be candidates for microlivestock. The best known and easiest species to keep in captivity are the Cuban hutia (Capromys pilorides) and Jamaican hutia (Geocapromys brownii). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Cuban hutia (also called hutia conga) is about 60 cm long, with coarse fur, a raccoon-shaped body, and a thick tail covered with sparse bristles. A forest dweller, it weighs up to 7 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The short-tailed Jamaican hutia is smaller: it is 33-45 cm long and weighs up to 2.5 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p252a.png"></center><br>
+ The hutias native range .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias are found only in the Caribbean (Greater Antilles and Bahamas). Most species are confined to a single island, where they represent the only remaining indigenous land mammals. The Cuban hutia is found only in Cuba. The Jamaican hutia is found only in Jamaica, although a close relative occurs on East Plana Cay, Bahamas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This once widely distributed and plentiful family is now failing. Of the 30 or so known recent taxa, more than half are already extinct, and the remainder all suffer from habitat alteration, predation by introduced animals, and hunting by man. With the exception of the Cuban hutia, all species are included on the list of the world's threatened mammals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia ranges have been so reduced that these animals survive only in the most inaccessible forests and rocky drylands. Both the Cuban and the Jamaican hutias occur in a variety of habitats from montane cloud forests to arid coastal semideserts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most species are terrestrial, but some live in trees. The Cuban and Jamaican species are terrestrial, but they can climb trees if circumstances demand. They maneuver well on trunks and larger branches, descending head first like squirrels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias are primarily vegetarian, their diets consisting of leaves, bark, fruits, and twigs, as well as incidental catches of small animals such as lizards and invertebrates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias seem to breed year-round, generally giving birth to litters of 1-4 offspring after a gestation period of 16-20 weeks. The young are well developed at birth, fully haired, open eyed, and capable of most adult movements. After 10 days they begin taking solid food, although they are not fully weaned for at least a month and a half (5 months for the Cuban hutia). Sexual maturity is at 10 months; life expectancy is 8-11 years in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Jamaican hutia has one of the highest diploid chromosome numbers (2n = 88) of any mammal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most hutias are wary and secretive and are easily displaced by human encroachment. They live like rabbits, hiding among tangled vegetation, in holes, and among rocks - communicating by voice and scent markings. They build shelters mainly in rock crevices, but also in the base of thick bushes or in natural cavities in trees. The Cuban hutia is often diurnal, whereas the Jamaican hutia is largely nocturnal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HISPANIOLAN HUTIA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Hispaniolan hutia, or zagouti (Plagiodontia aedium) as it is known in Haiti is smaller than the two Capromyids discussed here, weighing just 1.2 kg. It is difficult to breed in captivity and has a lower reproductive rate than either the Jamaican or Cuban hutia. It is therefore less suitable as an economic or food source.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, there is a significant need for supplemental protein sources in both Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It might be possible to develop a special captive-breeding program for this animal, but it should be done with great care. It is important that a hunting tradition for this animal not be reestablished in rural areas of Haiti or the Dominican Republic, and that local organizations not be misled into believing that there will be a rapid increase in the numbers of this species in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia meat is relished, especially in Jamaica. The animals are still hunted, often by using dogs that smell them out and retrieve them from a hole or hold them at bay in treetops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiences of zoos suggest that the Cuban and Jamaican hutias will thrive in captivity. The animals are generally long-lived and have survived up to 17 years. They are often friendly with their keepers and, when tame, can be held and carried about without any particular danger. However, if angered they can inflict deep bites and should normally be handled with considerable caution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are already much in demand. Their meat has an excellent flavor and they are big enough to provide a worthwhile quantity. If husbandry could be developed on a sustainable basis, it could be used as a mechanism for both economic development and for saving the remnant populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild populations are threatened. Any captive population must be built up without endangering them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All hutias are susceptible to predation by domestic cats, mongooses, dogs, and human poachers, so care must be taken to design predator-proof breeding facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are carriers of eastern equine encephalomyelitis, a serious disease of horses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias deserve urgent conservation attention. In particular, the following steps should be taken:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Establish reserves in natural habitats containing breeding populations to ensure the survival of the genetic diversity of these animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Build up breeding populations in suitable zoos and livestock research centers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gather specimens from different regions for comparative evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Investigate hutia biology, including chromosome type, reproductive physiology, nutrition, and diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Assess experiences of zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Perform captive breeding trials, measuring growth rates, space requirements, food needs, and social behavior (both in its wild state and under controlled conditions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Study the social organization and tameability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colonies of some species could be established on uninhabited islands, as has been done with the Bahamian hutia Geocapromys ingrahami. Even this rare species might eventually be raised to yield meat for local inhabitants, as it is well adapted to dry and barren environments and was a regular food of the pre-Columbian Indians. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">22 Mara</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g026a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many wild relatives of the guinea pig are native to South America. Some, such as the guinea pig itself, are small; others, such as the mare, are much bigger. Maras1 (Dolichotis patagonum) are as tall as terriers and, at first glance, look like dwarf antelopes or huge hares They have large ears and eyes, long legs, and short tails. They generally behave like hares or wild rabbits, but, like deer, they run with a stiff-legged gait when pursued by predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These strange-looking creatures are found in temperate regions in the southern half of South America. They are dry-country animals, living on the thorn-scrub, desert plains of Argentina and the stony wastes of Patagonia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although exceedingly shy, restless, and watchful, mares tame easily, make good pets, and are much favored by the local populace. They were introduced to France last century, and in Victorian times Europeans sometimes bred them. These big, handsome rodents, grazing in little herds, were considered an attractive addition to the lawns of country estates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POTENTIAL AREA OF USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras are best kept in their native region of southern South America. With care, however, they could be used in other areas because they are slow breeders and their population growth is easy to control.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At first sight, these large rodents look like some weird hybrid. They have the long ears of a hare and the tidy body and spindly legs of a small antelope. Although related to guinea pigs, they are long legged. The tail is short; the ears are long and erect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Average-size mares weigh about 8 kg, but large ones can be 1 m long and weigh up to 16 kg.2 Females are larger than males. The coat is light in color, with grey upper parts and whitish underparts. The limbs and feet are tinged a yellowish brown. The pelage is dense, with individual hairs standing at nearly right angles to the skin. This gives a harsh texture, even though the hairs are soft and fine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals can hop, walk, gallop, or run. They are extremely swift and can reach 45 km per hour over long distances. They are also accomplished jumpers, often leaping 2 m high from a standing start. The feet are compact and rather hooflike, but with sharp claws. The hind foot has three digits; the front foot has four.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mare's range in the thorn-scrub desert and Patagonian steppe of Argentina extends from about 28&Yacute;S to 50&Yacute;S.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered. These animals, once plentiful, are now threatened because of the introduction of the European hare, which is more successful at competing for food. In many of the eastern parts of its distribution (see map) it is now extinct.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras inhabit open, dry plains and other treeless semidesert areas of coarse grass or scattered shrubs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras are pure vegetarians. They feed on short grasses and herbs that are sparsely distributed between patches of dry desert scrub. Usually, they are satisfied with a few coarse weeds and the shoots of bushes. However, their overall diet consists of any available vegetation: leaves, roots, fruits, and stems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female mares become sexually receptive within a few hours after giving birth. The estrous cycle is 35 days, plus or minus 5 days.3 The gestation period is 77 days. Each female gives birth to 1-3 young at the mouth of the den; the pups crawl inside to safety. Newborns are well developed, and within a few hours they begin grazing vegetation. They remain in the vicinity of the den for up to 4 months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially, at least, the young are nervous and easily frightened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras shelter in a burrow that they either construct for themselves or "borrow" from another animal that has abandoned it. They are active during the day and spend considerable time basking in the sun. They are always alert for danger. When alarmed, they flee at high speed. The white rump patch flashes a warning to the others, who then follow this "flag."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A fundamental element of their social system is the monogamous pair bond. Certainly in captivity, and probably in the wild as well, the bond between a pair lasts for life. When breeding, 20 or more pairs may band together temporarily to share a single den for the pups.4 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals stand on straight legs, sit on bent haunches with the forepart of the body resting on the fully extended front legs, or recline in a catlike position with the front legs folded under the chest, an unusual position for a rodent. They travel in single file, with the female usually leading. Members of a pair maintain contact by means of a low grumble. Although the long legs can quickly carry it to safety, a mare usually stops every 20-30 m and turns to peer at its pursuer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals clean themselves by licking their sides and apparently by "combing" their fur with their teeth. They wipe their faces as cats do, with the inside of a foreleg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p260a.png"></center><br>
+ The maras native range</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the light-colored meat is said to be dry and flavorless, it is widely consumed in South America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras have been successfully raised and bred in many zoos, and, as noted, have been kept as pets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adults make little use of any shelter; they seem fond of being out and about in all weather. As long as they have a protected burrow for the use of the pups, mare populations can thrive in severe climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In zoos, diets include straw, vegetables, and crushed oats. Drinking water is supplied, although the animals rarely take it if they are feeding on fresh plant materials. They like to have salt blocks, however.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In South America, one mare lived in captivity for almost 14 years; most specimens do not live beyond 10 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras are a good size for microlivestock. They have a short gestation period, and they are social and easy to maintain in groups. They can be successfully kept in pens and can be fed relatively low-quality forage. Colonies can grow to be quite large.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals can easily dig under the edges of cages and escape. Extra-deep foundations are needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following heavy rains, care must be taken to keep them from drowning in their subterranean burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If suddenly disturbed, mares can become hysterical, leaping away regardless of anything in the way, and often seriously injuring or even killing themselves as a result. They fear bodily contact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mare's monogamous nature in the wild is a likely limitation. But perhaps, like chinchillas, the animal will become polygamous in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are sensitive to tuberculosis when kept in humid conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research needs to increase understanding of the mare include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutritional trials;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Husbandry experiments - measurements of growth rates, space requirements, feed needs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Productivity tests;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Grazing-efficiency measurements;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Exploration of commercial details; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determination of diseases and parasites. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">23 Paca</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas (Agouti paca)1,2 are large, white-spotted, almost tailless rodents with the potential to become a source of protein for the American tropics. They are found in lowlands from Mexico to northern Argentina. The meat is white and is considered the best of all Latin American game meat. It is common in local markets and restaurants. Tasting like a combination of pork and chicken, it sells at higher prices than beef and is a regular item of diet in some areas. In Costa Rica, pace is served on special occasions such as weddings or baptisms. It has a higher fat content than the lean meat of agoutis, rabbits, and chickens, and has no gamy taste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paca has promise as a microlivestock. In several countries, Belize and Mexico for example, people already keep them in cages beside their homes and fatten them on kitchen scraps. In Costa Rica, some are bred on farms, under houses, and even in apartments. Research on raising paces in captivity is under way at the Universidad Nacional in Heredia, Costa Rica; at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Balboa, Panama (see page 196); and at the Instituto de Historia Natural in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico. In Turrialba, Costa Rica, an entrepreneur is already breeding and raising pace commercially.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the pace has potential as a food source, many problems still must be resolved before it can be recommended for mass rearing. If solved, however, this species would become an attractive microlivestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pace has potential for use throughout its vast geographical range in Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general appearance, paces are somewhat like giant guinea pigs. The legs are short, the forefeet have four "fingers," and the hindfeet have five small, hooflike "toes." The feet are partially webbed and are adapted both for digging and for swimming. Pacas burrow with all four feet as well as their teeth; even large roots are no obstacle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adults weigh 6-14 kg, males being somewhat larger than females. Although they may become bulbously fat, paces remain "one of the fastest things on four feet. " From a standing start, even a fat specimen can jump at least 1 m off the ground. Pacas are also agile. However, their skin's epidermal layer is thin and fragile, and large strips may be ripped off as they rush headlong through spiky undergrowth. However, such wounds heal astonishingly fast - frequently within days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas are chocolate brown in colon The head is somewhat lighter in shade than the body, and the underparts are whitish or buff colored. There are usually four longitudinal rows of white spots that may merge into stripes along each side of the body. The fur is coarse, spiny, and slippery, and has no underwool. Each hair is stiff, relatively sharp, and very smooth, which makes paces extremely difficult for predators to hang on to.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parts of the cheekbones are enlarged, and the cheeks can open to form special pouches. This is more developed in adult males than in females - indeed, adults can be readily sexed by head shape. The pouches are outside of the mouth and are fully haired. The animals use them mainly to create a resonating chamber for their booming bark and noisy tooth grinding. These enlarged cheeks push the large bulging eyes toward the top of the skull. The eyes are suited for nocturnal conditions, the senses of smell and hearing are uncannily acute, and there is an array of long whiskers that is used when maneuvering at night.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lowland paces are found throughout most of Latin America from east central Mexico to northern Paraguay, Argentina, and Minas Gerais, Brazil. This includes all of Central America and most of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, and the Guianas. The animal has also been introduced into Cuba.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p265a.png"></center><br>
+ The pacas native range</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burgeoning human populations are severely reducing many of Latin America's native animal resources, and the pace is one of the most persecuted. It has been exterminated within hunting range of virtually all cities, towns, and villages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several governments, recognizing the pace's plight, have passed laws prohibiting the hunting and marketing of its meat. Nevertheless, people continue to take it, usually at night, using trail dogs and headlights.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas thrive in a variety of tropical habitats but are most common in forests, swamps, and partly cleared grazing lands. They inhabit most types of forests from deciduous woodland to rainforest. Usually, they stay near streams or rivers, but they often live where there is no permanent water. They are abundant only in little-disturbed forest areas. Although preferring low, dense tree cover, paces sometimes inhabit open rocky areas and farmland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These herbivores feed mainly on fruits, young seedlings, and some seeds. However, when fruits are scarce they may switch to browsing leaves and roots. They probably sometimes eat large insects, and, on rare occasion, may perhaps eat small vertebrates. Captive paces, like many other "frugivores," seem to develop a protein deficiency and will eagerly eat meat scraps on occasion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The young are usually born singly after a gestation period of 146 days. There are probably 2 births a year. Females have an estrous period that begins shortly after giving birth. If mating does not take place at this time, the female becomes unreceptive until after the 3-month (sometimes 4- to 6-month) lactation is over. The length of the estrous cycle is 30 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During daylight hours, paces seclude themselves in brushy cover, in or under fallen logs, or in extensive underground burrows. The burrows, which may be several meters long, are dug in moist soil or taken over from other animals; they are often in river banks, on slopes, among tree roots, or under rocks. Usually, several exits are provided, often being plugged with leaves as a disguise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild, paces dig large holes and rummage about the forest floor at night, gnawing on fruits. Pairs inhabit a defended area, sometimes living together in the same burrow, sometimes not. Also, they usually travel alone, following paths that lead to feeding grounds and water. Individual home ranges are small (1-3 hectares).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although paces are terrestrial, they enter water freely, they swim well, they copulate in water, and, when alarmed, they generally attempt to escape by swimming. They are also lively and playful; however, they can be exceedingly obstinate. Sometimes fighting among themselves becomes very savage. When angered they growl, sometimes noisily, and they can suddenly jump on aggressors, real or imagined, delivering frightful wounds with their chisel-like front teeth thrust forward like a spear. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, pace meat is tasty and brings high prices in the markets. It is considered a delicacy in fine restaurants and was served to Queen Elizabeth during her October 1985 visit to Belize. In Mexico, paces, like pigs, are usually boiled unskinned. Even the skin is then edible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If treated appropriately when young, paces become manageable. They undergo "imprinting," a characteristic of most species that have been domesticated. An imprinted pace becomes so tame that it seeks out human company, follows people around like an amiable dog and, if turned out of its cage, returns voluntarily. (To achieve this degree of tameness it is necessary to remove the animal from its mother at an early age.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although wild paces are almost entirely nocturnal, tame paces are more active during daylight hours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young or partly grown paces are commonly exhibited in zoos. They eat prodigious quantities of almost any vegetation and have been called, "a good substitute for a large garbage pail." Diets can include rolled oats, raw vegetables, bananas, apples, and bread. They probably need additional protein occasionally, and seem to appreciate some fat in their diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If husbandry can be developed, the clamor for pace meat throughout tropical America would be a big economic incentive for farming these animals. The excellence and wide acceptance of the meat is an indication that pace farming would be taken up both in rural and urban areas and by many levels of society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas can harbor human diseases, including leishmaniasis and Chagas' disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from the project in Panama (see page 194), paces have bred only sporadically in captivity, with few offspring surviving. However, successes have been recorded in zoos in London, San Diego, and Washington, D.C., and in a research project in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico. In Costa Rica, they are also reportedly breeding well, with a survival rate of 90 percent since 1982, and 80 percent of the females are reproducing.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All adult paces can be aggressive and dangerous. Their powerful incisors can inflict serious wounds. (They can even rip through planks.) Intraspecific aggression is one of the most serious impediments to captive breeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike the capybara, the pace not only has a long gestation but usually bears a single young. Thus, the output of a single breeding female may be, at best, two offspring per year (at least this is the expected production in the wild). This "slow" breeding is a limitation. In captivity, however, there is a possibility that it can be speeded up.4 The fact that paces bond together in pairs is a limitation. If every female has to be accompanied by a male, then many (otherwise unnecessary) males have to be fed and maintained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male paces are considered difficult to keep as household pets because they spray females (or human substitutes) with a mixture of urine and glandular secretions. This can occur several times a day. In addition, they have anal glands that produce a musky odor that some people find objectionable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although paces are common in some areas over the vast region from Mexico to Argentina, they are little understood, even by zoologists. In fact, most data concerning this animal have come from interviews with local hunters. Intensive field work is needed to develop an understanding of the pace's biology, status, and habitat requirements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The popularity of pace meat makes it urgent to start this work as well as to begin breeding paces on an organized basis. Such projects would lay the groundwork for preserving the species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Particular research needs concern the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Age structure and reproductive performance;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Growth rates and feeding habits;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Behavioral patterns in captivity;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutritional requirements;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Meat quality;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Helminth and arthropod parasites;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Role in transmitting or perpetuating diseases;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reproduction (such as external manifestations of estrus in females); and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Genetic variations that would allow the selection of animals adapted to captivity and females that produce multiple offspring - twins, triplets, or more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ways must be found to introduce more than one female to each male without inciting aggression. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">24 Vizcacha</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g027a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas (Lagostomus maximus) are soft-furred South American rodents that look like long-tailed guinea pigs. They can weigh as much as 8 kg and are resilient animals, inhabiting dry pampas and shrub lands in northern Argentina and neighboring countries. They seem to have promise for producing meat and hides in marginal zones whithin their native habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like chinchillas (page 277), these rodents provide a prized furry pelt. They also provide meat that reportedly tastes "as good as hare," which in Europe is considered the epitome of dining. They are easily trapped alive in cheap, homemade, multiple-catch, funnel traps. And they are thought to be suitable for farming on a large scale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, vizcachas are currently considered pests because they take grazing from cattle and sheep and because they build large burrows that undermine the land. Government campaigns have eradicated them in the richer agricultural areas of Argentina, but the animals are still common in marginal zones. There is evidence that they become more abundant when domestic livestock overgraze the land. In improverished marginal sites, where other livestock enterprises are unsuitable, the potential exists for game-ranching vizcachas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the potential hazard to new areas, vizcachas can be used only in the pampas regions of southern South America where they are already widespread.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas have short front legs, long, muscular hind legs, and round eyes and ears. Their heads seem oversized in proportion to their bodies. Males weigh 5-8 kg, females 2-4.5 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members of the same rodent subfamily as the chinchilla, they have a thick, soft, valuable fur that is grey or brown above, whitish or greyish below. They are, however, much larger than chinchillas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although basically running animals, vizcachas often jump bipedally (like kangaroos), and they sit erect while eating or grooming. The forefeet have four long flexible digits used to grasp food. Their soles and palms are naked and have fleshy pads (pallipes).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas once swarmed widely over the savannas of southern Paraguay, Bolivia, and Argentina, but they are being systematically exterminated. Today they inhabit isolated areas of north, central, and western Argentina and southern Paraguay.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1907, these animals have been mercilessly hunted. The governments of the Argentine provinces where they are mostly found, reward hunters for killing this "pest." However, the numbers are so reduced that now there is no need for a bounty system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas live in flat, dry, steppelike plains; in dry woodland (Chaco), and in low mountains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that these rodents eat their own droppings (coprophagy) augments their ability to utilize natural forages, and allows them to abound in degraded zones. They feed on any plant materials they can find near their colonies, particularly grasses. In feeding trials, their daily dry matter intake was 2-5 percent of the body weight. The metabolic efficiency (dry matter per kg) was 33-56 percent; the digestive efficiency was 50-60 percent.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male vizcachas become sexually mature at about seven months of age and remain fertile throughout the year. The gestation period is long: 154 days. Litters contain one or two young. Newborns are well developed, fully furred, and open eyed, although they cannot fend for themselves for at least three weeks. In the wild, one or two litters are reared each year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas are nocturnal and are active year-round. They inhabit underground burrows, living in colonies often containing many individuals. They collect a variety of materials (for example, bones, sticks, and stones), and heap them in piles above the entrances to their burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their hearing and sense of smell are acute. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p274a.png"></center><br>
+ Vizcachas native range</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas have long been hunted for food as well as for their fur. Their meat is often consumed in pickled form in southern South America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The skins are fabricated into table runners, rugs, bedspreads, slippers, and belts. The skins are also popular for overcoats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas can be kept in captivity without major difficulty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In zoos, vizcachas are fed the typical diets furnished for vegetarian rodents: rolled oats, green vegetables, bananas, apples, and bread. They are usually kept indoors in wire-fronted cages, about 1 x 2 m in size, and provided with sleeping boxes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about vizcacha husbandry, but in one trial, weight rose most rapidly in males until age 18 months (the average size was then 5.3 kg) and subsequently slowed. The heaviest male was 7.3 kg at 30-32 months. The female's weight gain was greatest until 16-18 months (average size 3.3 kg).3 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals seem well adapted to harsh sites where the climate and forage make raising conventional livestock difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat is white and has a good nutritive value because of its high digestibility, low levels of saturated fats, and high levels of proteins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In marginal zones of the pampas, these rodents appear far more productive than traditional livestock.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas may do considerable damage by foraging in cultivated crops. As noted, ranchers claim that they take grazing away from domestic animals, 10 vizcachas eating as much as a sheep. In addition, they claim, vizcachas destroy pasture with their acidic urine. And the large burrow systems sometimes create a hazard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because their reproductive rate is low and their growth rate is only moderate, their commercial breeding might not be profitable except in well-designed projects with clear markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas require sturdy pens, which implies a high initial cost for materials such as concrete and brick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas can be aggressive to one another, especially in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several possible research projects, including:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gathering specimens from different regions for comparative evaluation of characters such as biology, chromosome type, reproductive physiology, social behavior (both in its wild state and under controlled conditions);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Attempting captive rearing and small-scale husbandry;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Assessing performance under various environments; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Quantifying productivity and population dynamics in relation to rangeland use and improvement practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A rational cropping program based on wild stocks is perhaps more viable than captive breeding. This could be organized so as to keep vizcacha numbers in check while sustaining a small chain of processing plants by providing a constant supply of meat and skins. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">25 Other Rodents</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 10 previous chapters have described some rodent species that show promise as microlivestock. Rodentia, however, is one of the largest families of mammals, and the species highlighted by no means exhaust the possibilities. In this chapter we briefly mention others that deserve consideration and exploratory research. These might prove to be potential resources, at least in localized situations. Several are fast nearing extinction and they deserve protection and immediate attention from animal scientists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHINCHILLAS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the high Andes of South America are found the short-tailed chinchilla (Chinchilla brevicaudata) and the long-tailed chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera). These plump little rodents have fur that is possibly the thickest, softest, and warmest of any animal's.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the surface they would seem to be ideal candidates for microlivestock in Third World regions. Indeed, in recent years chinchilla-rearing has been successfully carried out in northern India. However, raising these animals for commercial markets is a highly specialized and costly business because only rare and expensive breeding stock produces top-quality pelts, and all other pelts are worthless in today's marketplace.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These guinea-pig-sized animals have round ears, a bushy tail, and range from 25 to 50 cm long. Adult males rarely weigh more than 500 g, but females may weigh up to 800 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PACARANA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pacarana (Dinomys branickii) is the third-largest living rodent only capybaras and some beavers are larger. But little is known about this seldom-encountered, forest-dwelling species. Nevertheless, pacaranas appear to be likely candidates for domestication. They are amazingly even-tempered and peaceful, and become surprisingly tame.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because these animals are endangered they are unlikely candidates for microlivestock in the short run, but their large size and good meat could be the stimulus for an international effort to study, protect, and rear them in large numbers before it is too late.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacaranas are found along the eastern foothills of the Andes, including parts of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Their area of potential use is in Latin America and the Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It would be advantageous for livestock scientists to investigate this species in captivity. Studies are needed of the animal's general biology, including its nutritional requirements, reproductive capacity, behavior, and physiology. For wildlife specialists, there is a compelling need to protect this species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SPRINGHARE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scattered through the dry lands of eastern and southern Africa - on numerous grasslands, plains, fossil lake beds, hill slopes, and floodplains - is the springhare (or springhaas). With its powerful hind legs, tiny forelegs, upright stance, and hopping gait, it looks something like a tiny kangaroo. It is commonly seen at night, eyes glowing a characteristic red in the headlights.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal is an important source of food and skins for rural peoples throughout southern Africa. In Botswana, it is the principal bushmeat in the human diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Springhares are 35-40 cm long and weigh 3-4 kg. There is one species (Pedetes capensis) and two subspecies: the East African springhare and the Cape springhare (formerly Pedetes cafer). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROCK CAVY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rock cavy (Kerodon rupestris) is closely related to the guinea pig and occurs in the impoverished semiarid region of northeastern Brazil. It is large and lean and has a face somewhat resembling a dog's. It is hunted extensively and is an important source of meat for country people, who consider it a delicacy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This creature might be suitable as a microlivestock. It consumes leaves and bark, and breeds well in captivity. Famine is a serious periodic problem in the often-drought-stricken area, and protein deficiency is common. The rock cavy, like the guinea pig, may be amenable to domestication and may be able to provide the people with better nutrition. However, it is difficult to keep in a cage because it moves fast, climbs well, and easily slips out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because these rodents occur in rare and patchily distributed habitats, they are in desperate need of protection, whether or not they prove to have any long-term utility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SALT-DESERT CAVY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A smaller relative of the mare (page 256), the salt-desert cavy (Dolichotis salinicola) is rabbitlike in appearance and behavior. It has large ears and eyes, long legs, and a short tail. It lacks the mare's white rump patch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal inhabits dry, salty areas of the Chaco desert, particularly areas of dry, woody brush. Specifically, it is found in the saline western Chaco of Paraguay and northwestern Argentina, as well as in the extreme south of Bolivia. It is about 45 cm long and weighs up to 4 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it might make a useful microlivestock in its native habitat, the salt-desert cavy breeds rapidly and can cause much devastation; it should never be introduced to new regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The salt-desert cavy's life in the wild is largely unknown; however, some have been successfully raised and bred in zoos. Exploratory research on keeping and managing these little creatures is warranted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OTHERS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted earlier (page 193), it has been estimated that 42 peoples of various cultures eat rodents. Most of these eat locally available species, some of which are listed below. Whether any have long-term usefulness is uncertain, but study of them in the wild and in captivity could result in some interesting and valuable scientific discoveries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solomon Islands Rodents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Solomon Islands in the southwest Pacific are home to a collection of six rare giant rodents that live in the rainforest canopy. At one time they were important food items. Archeologists have dug up tens of thousands of rodent bones on sites where people lived as long as 30,000 years ago. These mysterious animals were classified last century, but most have not been seen by biologists for decades. However, one, the thinking rat (Solomys sapientis), was rediscovered in 1987 - the first time it had been reported seen since 1901. The others may also be inhabiting the dense and undisturbed forests.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The thinking rat was located on the island of Santa Isabel. It proved to be gentle, unafraid, and friendly. It lives in the forest canopy, weighs up to 1 kg, and feeds on nuts and fruits. Efforts to build up the population are urgently needed. The other species should also be sought.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such animals could be a resource for rainforest production (perhaps in the manner of butterfly farming in Papua New Guinea2). They may never be plentiful enough to be food sources again, but they could nonetheless become valuable. Zoos the world over are likely first customers for these scientific curiosities if production can be boosted and the populations secured.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant New Guinea Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant New Guinea rat (Mallomys rothschildi) is often eaten in New Guinea. It is little known to science but is odorless and easily tamed. It grows so fast that it becomes as big as a guinea pig even before it is weaned. It feeds on a wide variety of tubers and vegetable products. An attractive species native to mountain forests, it has a long heavy tail and black fur with white ticking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porcupines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porcupines, brush-tailed porcupines, and their relatives are distantly related to guinea pigs and are widely consumed as food in tropical regions. Examples are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Indian porcupine (Hystrix indica) and other species of South Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Cape porcupine (H. africaeaustralis) of southern Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Prehensile-tailed porcupine (Coendou prehensilis), which inhabits Central and South America. These nocturnal creatures live in the thick, leafy crowns of trees or in hollow trees or holes in the ground. Although often belligerent among themselves, they can be very friendly and tame toward humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kiore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kiore (Rattus exulans) was formerly an important component of  the diet of most Polynesians, including the Maoris of New Zealand. It  has been successfully reared in captivity in recent times. Unlike many  other rodents, this animal is normally not a scavenger; it is a clean,  even fastidious feeder that is basically a vegetarian (flowers, berries,  nuts, and seeds) and is reckoned remarkably good eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soft-Furred Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The soft-furred rat (Praomys) is relatively large and slender and is  found in the tropical forests of Africa from sea level to more than  3,000 m. Among the most common rodents of the African jungle, it is  trapped almost everywhere. It feeds largely on plants, but eats large  quantities of ants and other insects. It has been raised successfully in  captivity and is eaten by villagers in Malawi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant Squirrels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant squirrel (Ratufa bicolor) occurs throughout Indonesia,  Malaysia, and Sri Lanka. It is the largest squirrel on earth, almost the  size of a cat. A related species, the palm squirrel (Funambulus), also  gets very large. It can crop nuts in the very high treetops that are  inaccessible to people. It is widely used as food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Squirrels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Squirrels of the genus Callosciurus (notably C. notatus and C.  prevostii) are significant pests on cocoa, oil palm, and mixed fruit  plantations in Southeast Asia. They can be reared and bred on a diet of  most types of fruit as long as a little protein, in the form of insects or  cooked wheat, is available. The systematic use of this animal may  offer a chance to turn a pest to advantage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cloud Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two species of slender-tailed cloud rats (Phlocomys spp.) are found  only in southeastern Asia. They live in tree cavities, climb well, and  are well adapted to tree life.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of these (P. cumingi) lives in the northeastern part of Luzon in the Philippines, where it appears to be thriving. It has a large body and long tail and is the largest member of the mouse subfamily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other (Crateromys schadenbergi) has long, thick hair and a thick, bushy tail. It lives in the mountainous areas of northern Luzon. A nocturnal animal, it feeds on buds, bark, and fruits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both are attractive, even fascinating, creatures that are relentlessly hunted for food. They might make useful livestock in forest situations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spiny Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Cayenne spiny rat (Proechimys guyannensis) is found throughout most of South America. It is tasty, easily kept in captivity, and is popularly used in Colombia for food. A nocturnal animal, it is one of the most common mammals in many areas. It has been raised in captivity on bananas, sweet corn, coconut, grain, and various seeds.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bamboo Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The bamboo rat (Rhyzomys spp.) is the largest rodent on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia; it weighs 2-4 kg and the body can be as long as 45 cm. It prefers to live in bamboo thickets and is hunted and eaten by many local peoples.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a need - in considering any sort of game farming - to relate the animal's "preferred" conditions (range, feed, temperature, etc.) to the varying land and climate types not being effectively utilized. In other words, rather than looking at animals that might be farmed, it might be necessary to consider the terrain and climate and then seek animals that would "do" well under those conditions. One major fault with traditional farming has been the tendency to force traditional livestock onto unsuitable land. This has given rise to numerous serious problems. In many cases the most suitable use of an area is provided by several species grazing together to mutual benefit (e.g., goats and sheep on New Zealand hill country improve grazing for each other if ratios are right).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Yerex</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g028a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part V : Deer and Antelope</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several types of tropical deer' and antelope are no bigger than an average-size dog. These "microdeer" and "microantelope"2 are the smallest of all ruminants. Although there is considerable experience with rearing and utilizing the larger species, little is known about these miniature ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given research, mouse deer, muntjac, musk deer, pudu, brocket, huemul, and water deer, as well as half a dozen small antelope, might prove to have considerable potential. Collectively, they come from diverse habitats, ranging from equatorial to subarctic and from moist rainforest to arid savanna. They are adapted to some environmental conditions that are only marginal for production of conventional livestock because of drought, heat, diseases, altitude, or other constraints.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEER FARMING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer appear to be unlikely candidates for livestock, but reindeer were probably among the first domesticated animals and have been draft animals for perhaps 2O,OOO years. Even today, tens of thousands of reindeer pull sleighs in the European arctic. On military expeditions, the ancient Romans took along herds of fallow deer as a source of meat, and more than 1,000 years ago deer were annually herded off the Scottish Highlands for winter meat supplies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, there have been breakthroughs in the "domestication" of deer. Species already being [armed are: red deer (New Zealand, Australia, Taiwan, Korea, Russia, China, Scotland, the United States), elk (New Zealand, Canada, the United States), fallow deer (New Zealand, Australia, England, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, Germany, the United States), ruse deer (Australia, Mauritius, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea), sika deer (Taiwan, New Zealand), musk deer (China, India), and PFre David's deer (New Zealand). Although not truly domesticated, even the moose has been tamed in Scandinavia and the Soviet Union, the calves being bottle-raised from three days of age.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Zealand has made particular progress in domesticating large deer (see sidebar). It seems probable, therefore, that similar success with small deer could be achieved. For those seeking interesting, pioneering research, microdeer are good candidates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANTELOPE RANCHING AND FARMING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The worldwide experiences in domesticating various deer species suggest that the organized production of small antelope should also be considered. Several large species have already been studied and are used in game farming in eastern and southern Africa. Similar research on the smaller species, which so far have received little or no attention, is one of the more speculative ideas in this report. We put it forward only for consideration by researchers, but if exploratory studies prove successful, this is a topic deserving international support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some parts of Africa there are large expanses of uninhabited lands, and producing any sort of livestock there is limited by aridity and by the presence of tsetse flies. But in this habitat live tiny antelope such as dikdik, suni, and klipspringer. In the rainforests and secondary forests are found duikers and the royal antelope. All these creatures have advantages that justify their consideration as microlivestock: they have a more rapid turnover than the big species, and they produce a high yield of quality meat. In addition, compared with cattle, these native ungulates make better use of the habitat. Cattle select a limited number of grass species; antelopes choose a wider range, and also include fortes, bushes, and trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More important perhaps is their resistance to many diseases. Most, if not all, are resistant to trypanosomiasis, the disease carried by the tsetse fly. They are not immune to this and other tropical diseases, but they are less susceptible than cattle. However, part of this may be owing to their ability to roam widely; if confined and treated like domestic animals, they may also require some protection against parasites and diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antelopes are also more productive than cattle; that is, they produce a given quantity of meat more quickly because they breed better in the African hinterlands and grow more rapidly on its existing forages. On the other hand, they generally require a richer diet than cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, in their favor, antelopes affect the habitat less than the same density of cattle does; they spread out more while feeding and thereby cause less erosion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two ways of exploiting this potential. One is by "cropping"taking a controlled offtake from free-ranging populations without depressing the overall population. Several methods for producing meat this way from large antelope have been attempted in countries such as Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique. Few have persisted. Often this has been due to opposition from the vested interests of the cattle industry and from stringent veterinary requirements. Nonetheless, game ranching offers a means by which marginal lands could produce food of a high nutritional quality on a sustained basis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other method is by farming - that is, domesticating or partially domesticating the animals, keeping them in pens or herding them like cattle. Experiments in farming antelopes have been less common than game ranching, but one of the most interesting is that conducted on the Galana Ranch in Kenya. Three wild species - buffalo, eland, and oryx - were selected for comparison with cattle. Half-grown animals were preferred for capture, and it was found that if they were kept in the dark for the first week after capture, and then gradually provided with more and more space while they became familiar with people, after about six weeks they could be released into the open and herded from place to place. Grazing during the day under the eye of a herdsman, they allowed themselves to be herded back to a pen at night in the traditional African manner, where they would sleep around the campfire. This was a promising advance in behavior modification leading toward domestication. The oryx, for example, gained weight on grazing that would not even sustain cattle, and it required only a quarter of the amount of water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At bottom, the question is not what contribution antelopes can make to the African larder, for they already make a significant contribution through (largely illegal) hunting. The question is whether farming could make them a sustainable asset rather than their being senselessly squandered, as is the case at present. Although its potential has yet to be realized, antelope farming is not a panacea for Africa's food problems, and certainly not the world's, but it might pave the way to a new and more gentle way to make savannas useful. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TAME GAME</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the 1970s, deer have taken the place of sheep on many New Zealand pastures, and today the country has more than 5, 000 deer farms carrying over one million head, mainly red deer. It is now common along country roads to see tall fences surrounding graceful deer quietly grazing ryegrass and clover. And there are all the appurtenances for deer that exist for cattle and sheep. Auctions and shows are held regularly. Deer farmers have a professional association and produce their own glossy magazine. Government scientists publish pamphlets on the care and management of deer. There are recognized stud stags, computerized recording schemes for breed improvement, and even veterinary services specifically for deer. Hybridization between wapiti and red deer, and PFre David's deer and red deer, is accepted practice. The animals are moved by use of dogs (which command by mere presence rather than by bark or bite), and herds of up to 80 are shifted by truck. Slaughter facilities specifically for deer are in operation throughout the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This transformation of a nervous, jumpy, and retiring wild species into a farm animal is a remarkable achievement. Once accustomed to people, many specimens become gentle, even affectionate, and will come at a farmer's call. Males are generally as easy to handle as females, except during the rutting season when they become aggressive and cannot be handled at all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, even at the best of times the farmed deer must be handled gingerly. If the causes of stress are not quickly suppressed, hysteria can erupt throughout a herd; in an instant, quiet animals can be leaping suicidally in all directions, disoriented, diving head-on into fences, charging gates. Chronic stress, the causes of which are not always obvious, can result in illness or death, although this trait diminishes in subsequent generations of farm-born stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A deer farm has to be laid out to certain special specifications. To prevent escapes, the boundary fences must be 2 m high with netting of 15- or 30-cm mesh. Inner fences need only be 1.5 m high. Water troughs are placed in the middle of the fields, and nothing is allowed to jut inwards from the fences because the animals tend to walk fencelines and take comfort from the illusion of openness. Because deer like to wallow in hot weather, some farmers also provide shallow waterholes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer yards can be of any design, but the sides of the passageways and holding pens should be solid, as deer do not see fences very well, particularly when under pressure, and may injure themselves in a leap towards what appear to be wide open space. (New Zealanders usually make the sides of plywood.) Also, the holding pens should be roofed, as semidarkness has a calming effect. Animals that in the sunlight become hysterical on seeing a person in the distance, can, in the relative darkness of a roofed shed, be touched and even given injections.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the special facilities, however, handling deer takes time and care and experience. The most successful farmers spend much time among the deer so that the animals become accustomed to human presence. This helps to make yard work easier. Also, new arrivals are allowed to wander through the yards on their own to become familiar with them. In addition, special tame deer are used as leads or decoys to encourage the rest of the herd to follow. Using such simple techniques, a formerly intractable species has become almost fully domesticated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">26 Mouse Deer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g029a.png"></center><br>
+ Lesser Malayan Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer1 (Tragulus spp. and Hyemoschus aquaticus) are among the smallest ruminants known. The lesser mouse deer of Southeast Asia is probably the smallest; an adult stands only 20 cm high and weighs a merc 1-2.5 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they look vaguely like tiny deer, mouse deer differ in several particulars. The stomach is simpler and (like the camel's) has three instead of four effective compartments. Rumination occurs, but mouse deer are the most primitive of all ruminants. Indeed, they share a number of characteristics with nonruminants, including lack of horns or antlers; continually growing, tusklike upper canines in males; sharp-crowned premolars; and four fully developed toes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Virtually unchanged in 25 million years of evolution, these are solitary, nocturnal, retiring animals that have seldom received detailed research. Whether they might make suitable microlivestock is unknown. However, they seem to be tractable, and people in Southeast Asia (Sarawak, for instance) have traditionally kept at least one of the species as backyard pets. Moreover, mouse deer are indigenous to tropical lowland regions and withstand the heat and humidity that are stressful to most conventional livestock species. They probably also are resistant to many diseases of those torrid regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the United States, mouse deer are being raised as laboratory animals for basic research on ungulates. This is because the animals are easier to handle than large deer or goats.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are graceful, lithe, and look somewhat like large rodents. The Asian species are the shape and size of an agouti (see page 198); the African species is more like the pace (see page 262). All have short legs, a small head, and a pointed snout. Adults weigh from 1 to 5 kg, depending on species. The head and body are only 04-1 m long, and the shoulder height is merely 20-36 cm. Males are generally smaller than females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most species the body is a rich brown with white spots and stripes. The belly is usually white. The animals stand on the middle toes, so that the lateral ones do not touch the ground. Neither sex bears antlers. In males the upper canines form long tusks that may extend outside the lips and even to below the line of the jaw.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty-five million years ago, early forms of mouse deer existed throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe. Today's species are restricted to tropical forests and mangrove thickets of Southeast Asia and Central Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the three Asian species, the Indian mouse deer occurs in southern India and Sri Lanka; the larger Malayan mouse deer occurs on the mainland of Southeast Asia and the lesser Malayan mouse deer occurs on Java as well. The water chevrotain, a related African animal, is found from eastern Zaire to the Atlantic coast. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p292a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p293a.png"></center><br>
+ Range of water chevrotain .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, human encroachment into the forest has caused the destruction of the mouse deer habitats and has put various mouse deer species under a pressure that is causing their populations to decline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals inhabit equatorial forests and mixed secondary tropical forest. They generally live among undergrowth on the edges of dense lowland rainforests. They especially haunt rivers and swampy bush areas, seeking escape by water when in danger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little about these animals is recorded. Essentially vegetarians, they feed chiefly on fruits, supplemented by leaves. They also eat insects (for instance, ants), if available. They do not seem to eat grass.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The premolars of the mouse deer are designed for piercing and chopping food rather than for chewing. As noted, the stomach consists of three functional compartments: the rumen, the reticulum, and the abomasum. (The omasum of ruminants is represented only by a rudimentary area.) The stomach occupies almost the whole of the abdominal cavity, extending from the diaphragm to the pelvic inlet, which provides this small animal with large food-storage capacity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The blood has a very high erythrocyte (red blood corpuscle) count as well as the smallest erythrocyte size of any mammal. The flesh is "white" and the muscles contain little myoglobin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mature females reproduce almost continuously, and usually regardless of season. In the female larger Malayan mouse deer, mating occurs within 2 days of giving birth. In the African species, many births are synchronized with the rainy seasons, when fruits are plentiful. The gestation period is about 5-6 months, depending on the species. There is only one young per birth. Weaning normally occurs at 2-3 months, but can occur as early as 3 weeks, with sexual maturity achieved at 4-5 months (Asian species) and 10 months (African species). The young stay alone, hidden in vegetation during the first month or two.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are shy, keeping to dense jungle and depending on concealment for protection. Although often present in large numbers, they are seldom seen. Preferring to be near lakes, rivers, or streams, they can nevertheless wander I km or more from water. They feed mostly at dusk or at night, sheltering in undisturbed areas or under shady bushes during the day. They utter weak, bleating sounds, and when frightened, jump a meter or more in the air.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Communication is by scent and calls. The African species possess anal and preputial glands, with which, along with urine and feces, they mark their home ranges. Males of both Asian and African species possess a chin gland to mark either the vegetation or their mates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are among the most excitable, nervous, and jumpy animals. One must tread softly in their presence for fear of causing absolute pandemonium and mishap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are widely sought by native people for food, and their meat is highly regarded. Dressed carcasses have a high proportion of muscle (84 percent in Asian species), low proportion of bone (15 percent), and an insignificant amount of fat. The ratio of muscle to bone is large - 5.6:1. The mean dressing percentage of 62.1 percent is greater than that reported for cattle, water buffalo, or goat.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adults are wild, generally intractable, and "flighty," but young animals (at least of the Asian species) tame readily and make good pets. Nevertheless, these are delicate creatures and must always be handled gently. Individuals caught in the wild tend to bash against the sides of cages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite an unpromising temperament, Asian mouse deer are regularly bred in zoos, including those in Amsterdam, New York, and Zurich. They also have been reared successfully in small enclosures at several research institutes, such as the I.R.E.T. Institute, Makokou, Gabon; the Institute of Medical Research in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; and at Fort Detrick in the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps the best way to breed this animal is by using the battery system of small units comprising one male and two females per cage. The costs are mostly for obtaining suitable enclosures and for feeding and watering troughs.6 The cages must be covered with mesh because the mouse deer can jump. However, the covering must be sufficiently high to allow the male to stand with its body vertical during copulation.7 They can be fed a variety of foods and grow well on stems of bean plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, these are small, seemingly tractable creatures that are at home in the heat, humidity, and diseases of tropical lowlands. They might play a particularly important role as livestock for tropical rainforests; the forests could be left standing while the animal still produces meat. Today, in a widely condemned process, tropical rainforests are being felled in order to raise cattle for meat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small size makes mouse deer easy prey for various predators. In the wild, snakes, crocodiles, eagles, and forest cats feed on them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are among the most excitable, nervous, and jumpy animals. One must tread softly in their presence for fear of causing absolute pandemonium and mishap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The different species are solitary, and it is difficult to keep many individuals (especially males) in a restricted space. They must be kept in a quiet enclosure, with cover or good shelters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The survival of these four "living fossils" depends on conserving their rainforest habitat and restricting hunting, especially night hunting. But studies of their propagation and management are also imperative.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In particular, research is warranted on various aspects of their husbandry, such as enclosure design, space requirements, and health. A special research need is to understand the animal's nutritional requirements and to develop diets for use in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">27 Muntjac</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g030a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac, or barking deer (Muntiacus species), are among the most widespread but least known of all Asian animals.1 They are almost the size of an average dog and they bark, but they are true deer. These little animals adapt well to captivity and have been introduced to zoos and wildlife collections throughout the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years one species, the Reeves' muntjac, has become established in England, and a few specimens have settled into semicaptivity - staying behind fences, accepting human presence, and even eating out of people's hands. In Sarawak, villagers have also been known to keep muntjac, feeding them a diet of rice with some leafy matter occasionally added.2 Such experiences show that these small, shy deer can be calm and adaptable. It also shows that they can be raised on practical, artificial diets and that they are not strictly browsers. This creates the possibility (admittedly highly speculative) that they might make future microlivestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac produce lean, palatable venison and perhaps could be farmed on an organized basis. They are native to severe environments where heat, humidity, and endemic diseases make raising conventional livestock difficult. In future, given research, muntjac might become widespread contributors to Asian economic development. The lessons learned in captive breeding could also be important for conserving endangered muntjac species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One species, the Indian muntjac, has an incredibly low chromosome number (2n=7 in males; 2n=6 in females), which makes them particularly promising candidates for mammalian genetic studies. This species has regularly bred well in both zoos and research institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are small and slender. Reeves' muntjac, the smallest, has a shoulder height of 45-60 cm. Fully grown, it weighs less than 20 kg; commonly it is merely 10-12 kg. The Java subspecies of the Indian muntjac is the biggest, with a shoulder height of 58 cm and a mature weight of 43 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antlers on the males usually include a main prong as well as a much shorter brow tine. Even the main prong is no larger than a finger, but its pointed tip is hooked and must be treated with caution. There are also two tusklike canine teeth that protrude from the mouth. These have sharp points and a knifelike posterior edge, capable of cutting to the bone a person's finger or another muntjac's rump.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coloration varies from deep brown to yellowish or greyish brown with cream or whitish markings, depending on the species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are native to a vast region from eastern China to Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost a century ago, Indian and Reeves' muntjac were introduced to a deer park in southeast England. Some escaped, and (as noted) the Reeves' muntjac has adapted, spread, and settled down to life in the countryside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the five muntjac species, the Reeves' and the Indian are well known and in no danger. For instance, recent estimates of annual game production have shown that there are about 650,000 Reeves' muntjac in China. The other three are threatened with extinction. Black, Roosevelt's, and Fea's muntjacs are virtually untried in captivity, but the success of raising Reeves' muntjac in English country gardens suggests that perhaps their populations could be saved through captive breeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In their native habitats, these small deer are usually found in dense vegetation on hilly ranges at elevations up to at least 3,000 m.3 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p301a.png"></center><br>
+ The native ranges of the various muntjacs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac seem to be primarily browsers. However, in captivity they eat fresh grass, alfalfa hay, and feed pellets. They also readily eat root crops such as potatoes, carrots, and parsnips. They are "concentrate selectors," preferring foods low in fiber and rich in protein and nutrients. Captive specimens reportedly need; a supply of cut browse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding may occur year-round, but in practice it is synchronized with certain seasons. The first conception can occur as early as 6 months of age. One, occasionally two, young are born after a gestation of about 200 days. They weigh around I kg at birth, and the fawns usually remain hidden until they can move about with the mother. The females mate within a few days of giving birth. Life spans up to 16 years have been recorded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the Indian muntjac is a species of great cytogenetic interest. It has the lowest diploid chromosome numbers yet found in a mammal.4 The large, easily distinguishable chromosomes are a great advantage in tissue culture, and many laboratories now have muntjac cell lines. The karyotypes of the different species' chromosomes are very different; the Indian and Reeves' muntjac can hybridize, but the offspring are infertile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are dainty and have a captivating charm. Always on the alert, they are active both day and night. Often they will bark for an hour or more, but typically they bark for only a minute or two. When panicked, captive muntjac may rush into fences or walls. They can easily leap barriers 1.5 m high.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males are highly territorial and defend their territories vigorously. Adult females also inhabit a specific territory, which they defend against strange individuals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males mark the ground at intervals by lowering the head and rubbing the frontal glands on the ground and by scraping their hooves against the ground. They mark trees by scraping the bark with the lower incisors and rubbing the base of their antlers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Asia, muntjac are hunted for meat, skins, and antlers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac thrive and, at least under ideal conditions, breed freely in captivity. However, they may stop breeding if they are crowded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In England, zoos and private collections keep as many as six muntjac in an area of 40 x 20 m. Plenty of cover is provided for the animals to hide in. Fences almost 2 m high are used. (Lower fences are reportedly adequate where there is no risk of the deer being panicked by dogs or people.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like other deer, muntjac produce extremely lean meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They seem to be healthy animals. In Britain, wild and captive muntjac have few gastrointestinal worms, and ectoparasites such as ticks and lice are not a problem. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MUNTJAC</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In England, far from Asia's forests and mountains, the Reeves' muntjac is the subject of a peculiar chapter in the otherwise unhappy history of introduced species. Charmed by the deer's odd characteristics, the British have welcomed its invasion into gardens around the country. Now, there are tens of thousands of muntjacs on the loose, and some people have even adopted them as pets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although other alien species have wreaked havoc on native plants and animals, muntjacs appear to be a merciful exception. At least over the short term, muntjacs "have proven to be an almost innocuous asset to the countryside. They give pleasure to thousands and pain to few. Eating mostly ivy, grass, leaves, and prickly bushes, they rarely feed in one place long enough to do much damage except to an occasional suburban garden." </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life for many muntjacs is made soft by homeowners who find the deer's large, dewy eyes and tiny antlers irresistible. The kind-hearted suburbanites put out salt licks, water, and kitchen scraps, and they built snug little shelters against the cold north wind. "All our adult deer will take food from the hand," says Walter Buckingham, who has kept muntjacs for five years in his garden in the county of </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hertfordshire, just north of London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The adaptable immigrant is colonizing new areas so rapidly, say biologists, that soon there may be more in England than in Asia. "In time," predicts muntjac-researcher Oliver Dansie (pictured opposite), "it may eventually establish itself as our most widely distributed deer species."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild these animals are not gregarious and are generally found alone or in pairs. Because of their strong territorial instincts, large males may not be able to be kept together without fighting. The upper canine teeth can inflict serious wounds. Some females are intolerant of each other as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are fragile; they cannot be held by the legs, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some infectious diseases may prove to be of epizootic importance: foot-and-mouth disease, mucosal disease, epizootic hemorrhagic disease, rinderpest, and tuberculosis (all three types). This may be a problem, especially when people are raising the animals by hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To ensure a better understanding of their potential as microlivestock, muntjac deserve research and recognition from animal scientists and conservationists from Nepal to China. The English experience shows how populations of the endangered species might be built up. At present, however, none are receiving any husbandry research; only the two most common species can generally be found in zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals deserve investigation into physiology, reproductive requirements, fertility, nutrition (for example, food preferences, feeding strategies, and food utilization), growth, adaptability and environmental tolerance, diseases, management, social structure, and selection for calm temperament. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">28 Musk Deer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The musk deer (Moschus species)1 is so small that (like other ungulates in this section) it is only as large as an average-size dog. A gland in males produces musk, a thick, oily secretion that is one of the most valuable substances in the animal kingdom. Musk is used in Oriental Medicine as well as in Europeans perfumes, and in recent year it has sometimes sold for as much as three times the price of gold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk is traditionally obtained by killing these deer and removing their glands. The dried glands, called pods, contain a reddish brown musk powder that has been a commodity in international commerce for more than 1,000 years. Despite bans in India (1972) and Nepal (1973), musk continues to be illegally exported, mainly via Hong Kong, for use in Japan and Europe. In Japan, for example, it is an ingredient in more than 200 different medicines.2 In Europe, musk goes into some of the most famous perfumes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international trade in Himalayan musk, originating from both northern and southern sides of the Himalayan divide, amounts to 200 kg per year, representing an annual slaughter of 20,000-32,000 male deer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commercial value of the animal makes it highly attractive for development as a livestock species. The economic force causing its slide toward extinction could be employed to protect and restore both the species and its habitat. Ranching these deer might put musk production on a sustainable footing. It might also encourage habitat protection, because in the harsh climate of the high Himalayas, rearing musk deer could be much more profitable to villagers than raising crops or cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer are already being farmed under primitive conditions in China, where techniques for extracting musk without killing the animal have been developed. In India, small collections of musk deer have been established by the forest departments of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. For several years authorities in Nepal have successfully extracted musk from an adult male at the Kathmandu Zoo' without apparent harm to the animal.3 These experiences suggest that musk might become a farmed product. So far, however, success has been limited. The Chinese animals, for example, have a high mortality rate and the musk is said to be of poor quality. Nonetheless, these examples are valuable pioneering case studies that deserve recognition, support, and further development.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With their long ears, arched back, and bounding gait, these diminutive deer remind one of large hares. The pointed face and large ears make their heads strikingly reminiscent of kangaroos. The coarse hair gives them a stocky appearance. The color varies according to species (and subspecies) from rich reddish brown to dark grey or black. The peculiarly brittle and wavy hair probably has good insulating properties, as it consists of air-filled cells arranged like a honeycomb.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer have an average mature weight of about 6-11 kg and a body length of 50-90 cm. They stand 50 60 cm high at the shoulder and 5 cm higher at the rump because the hind legs are longer than the forelegs. Some dwarf types are only 40-46 cm high. The tail is short, and in males it is naked, except for a terminal tuft of hair, because they mark their territories by constantly rubbing the caudal gland, which is located near the tail, onto objects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All four toes are flexible, which, compared to the rigid hoof of other ungulates, gives a firmer grip on precipitous slopes. The dew claws are enlarged and, together with the central digits, splay out, to minimize sinking in soft snow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Neither sex possesses antlers, but males have long upper canine teeth that project well below the lips. The lower front teeth have a spatulate form that probably helps the animals scrape lichens from the surfaces of rocks and trees in winter, when most vegetation is snow covered. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p309a.png"></center><br>
+ The musk deers native range.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The genus is distributed patchily throughout the forested mountainous parts of most of Asia. One population extends from just north of the Arctic Circle southward to the northern edge of Mongolia and Korea. Others occur in China, northern Vietnam, and the Himalayan region including Bhutan, Assam, Tibet, the Indian Himalayas, Nepal, and northern Pakistan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During this century, the musk deer has rapidly declined throughout its former regions. In many parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, and probably Tibet, it is already regarded as rare, with a distribution that is becoming increasingly localized. Possible exceptions are Bhutan and most of China, where its population is thought to be stable. In southern China, a recent estimate puts the musk deer population at 100,000 head. In western and northwestern China, the population is estimated at 200,000-300,000 head.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is the uncontrolled hunt for musk that in most places is driving this animal toward extinction, but its habitat is also being increasingly destroyed by livestock and woodcutters. Part of the loss to hunters is owing to the mindless way in which the animals are caught. Most are snared in traps or nets or killed by poisoned stakes set on trails. This kills all the animals indiscriminately, even females and fawns, which produce no musk. This waste of reproductive animals is extremely destructive to the populations and is senselessly hastening the musk deer's extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer mainly occur in upland woodland and scrub areas. They prefer remote, dense vegetation, especially birch-rhododendron forests in mountainous terrain. They are seldom found in treeless regions or areas thickly populated by people. In the Himalayas, the upper limit coincides approximately with the tree line, which is as high as 4,600 m at the eastern end.6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite its economic importance and wide distribution, little is known of the musk deer's biology. Nonetheless, it is known that musk deer have a gall bladder, a bovid feature that distinguishes it from the true deer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are browsers, relying on young leaves, buds, fruits, and flowers. During the winter, as snow deepens, they depend more on lichens growing above the snow on rocks or tree bark, although in shallow snow they scrape for vegetation with their hooves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The male's musk sac is unique among deer. Situated between the umbilicus and penis, it contains the gelatinous, odoriferous oil. The amount varies with the season and the age of the animal, but pods of adult males usually weigh about 30 g; occasionally up to 45 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males also have a caudal gland under the tail, which secretes a viscous yellow substance with a goaty smell. They mark vegetation with this secretion by rubbing their hindquarters against stems and branches.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males become sexually mature at about 18 months, but females seem capable of reproducing in their first year. The estrous cycle is 18-25 days; the receptive period lasts 36 60 hours. Gestation varies from 178 to 192 days. Each female usually bears one or two fawns, rarely three. The fawn is precocious - able to stand and move within 15 minutes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer are shy, furtive animals with keen senses of hearing, smell, and sight. They are normally solitary and are most active at dawn and dusk. Only under cover of darkness do they frequent the more open spaces. Except in the rutting season, more than two animals are seldom seen together; groups usually consist only of a female and her young. The alarm call, a loud hiss, is often accompanied by a highstepping, springy gait.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild, musk deer lead "orderly" lives. They use well established trails connecting well-established feeding places, resting places, and "latrines" where they deposit their droppings. Migration is uncommon.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remarkably sure footed, musk deer climb cliffs and even the trunks of leaning trees. Being small and solitary, they rely on camouflage to avoid predators but flee through established escape routes when disturbed. If cornered, males defend themselves by slashing with their tusks, often inflicting deep cuts and severe injuries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The strong-smelling, reddish-brown musk is obtainable only from this animal.7 It is used as a fixative in expensive perfumes to increase the retention of the fragrance on the skin. In Oriental medicines it is used in stimulants, sedatives, and other products. Some medicinal properties appear to be genuine.8 Recently, highly purified musk has been selling for as much as $27 a gram.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade in the Himalayan musk deer or its products is banned by all countries that are parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). However, products from musk deer in the Soviet Union and China can be traded legally under license. It seems likely that if formal, self-sufficient, musk-deer farming projects can be established elsewhere, with safeguards to minimize poaching, a wider trade would be officially sanctioned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since at least 1919, Chinese scientists have been experimenting with the extraction of musk without killing the males. When the sexual activity is at its peak, the males are caught and musk removed from the pod with a runcible spoon (curved fork) inserted into the sac's aperture. The procedure takes only minutes. There are records of up to 9 g being recovered at a time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, China established formal musk deer farms in 1958. They are clustered in the Maerkang, Miyalo, and Manchuan areas of Sichuan Province; the Zhenping county of Shanxi Province; and the Fuziling area of Anhui Province. Despite heavy initial losses of animals, mainly during transportation and acclimatization, the Chinese now breed musk deer in considerable numbers. However, juvenile mortality is still high and longevity relatively short. Zoos in other parts of the world have also had difficulties maintaining the animals.9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, musk deer readily accept many foods: lettuce, carrots, potatoes, apples, rolled oats, hay, alfalfa, bananas, some grass, bamboo leaves, and pumpkins, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The musk deer's social system may represent an impediment to its successful reproduction in captivity. It is irascible and scares easily. In close confinement, males fight and may have to be isolated from each other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is an inherent danger in any captive-breeding scheme in the Himalayas: resumption of legal trade in natural musk could damage the remaining populations by stimulating the market and providing an outlet for illicit musk from poached animals. Some biologists (notably in India) consider that a total ban on the trade in natural musk from all sources is essential.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, removing the musk without damaging the animals has not proved commercially successful because of market resistance. Most purchasers require the entire pod in order to be certain that they are receiving the genuine product. Given a regularized farming program, however, it seems likely that mutual trust would circumvent this lack of confidence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To protect this species will not be easy. It occurs in vast, remote areas that are difficult to patrol. The local people are poor and traditionally have used it as a source of income and food. The value of musk is so high that smuggling is already well organized and will be difficult to eradicate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is imperative that the status of existing musk deer populations be established. This is especially important in Nepal. The total population may be not more than 500 in the wild.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No matter what is achieved in farming, pressure on populations will only be reduced by protecting the wild specimens. Thus, the dietary requirements and behavior of musk deer should also be evaluated with a view to building up the wild populations directly. If the techniques of breeding and handling can be improved, farming the animal may also indirectly help wild populations by reducing the pressure to harvest them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An alternative to captive breeding might be ranching the wild animals. In this process, males would be caught periodically and the musk extracted before releasing them. The organized, sustainable harvesting is particularly attractive if developed at the rural level with revenue going directly to local people; it would provide them incentive to conserve not only "their" musk deer but also its habitat. For this purpose, today's musk deer hunters could be trained to extract musk from live animals, releasing and recapturing them on a controlled basis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another alternative could be controlled culling at a sustainable level, as is now done in the Soviet Union, where about 5 percent of the population is harvested each year. However, elsewhere annual culls at any level would not be feasible for at least 10 years because the populations are now so low. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g031a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">29 South America's Microdeer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g032a.png"></center><br>
+ Pudu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South America contains three types of tiny, indigenous deer. None are well known to science, yet they are of microlivestock size, and if given research attention at least two might respond to rearing in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PUDU</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pudu (pronounced "poo-doo") is native to temperate forests of the Andean region. It is among the smallest of all true deer, adult males being merely the size of small terriers and the females being smaller still. It is very shy and retiring and is endangered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All things considered, this animal would appear to be an unlikely candidate for microlivestock. But wherever it is found, the pudu is mercilessly hunted, and captive rearing might be the only way to save its populations from extinction. Indeed, it is already being raised in experimental herds in Chile and Argentina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pudus (also called the Andean dwarf deer) once ranged widely through the foothills, valleys, and lowlands of the Andes. They prefer the dark, dank underbrush of the cool rainforest, particularly thick bamboo stands. There are two species: Pudu pudu is distributed in parts of southern Bolivia and throughout much of southern Chile nearly to the Straits of Magellan. It is also found on islands off the Chilean coast. Pudu mephistophiles is distributed throughout the highlands of Ecuador, where it occurs only in cool areas at great height.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With their short legs, stocky bodies, and compact heads, pudus do not look much like deer - more like small antelopes with foxlike faces and spiky antlers. Full grown, they are only 40 cm tall and weigh less than 12 kg. They have thick fur ranging from reddish brown to pale gray.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the pudu's small size, shy and secretive nature, and forbidding habitat, few people have ever even seen one. Nonetheless, these animals tame easily and reportedly were once kept by South American Indians. Several generations were also once bred in a Paris apartment and were treated exactly like domestic dogs, which most people who saw them for the first time thought they were.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, habitat destruction has greatly reduced the range and numbers of these attractive and fascinating little creatures. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature already lists them as vulnerable to extinction. Pudu studies are highly recommended, and raising pudus promises to be an interesting and valuable activity that may one day lead to one of the most intriguing microlivestock of all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BROCKET</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brockets (Mazama spp.) are small deer that occupy the place in South America's environment that duikers occupy in Africa (see page 326). They typically reside in thick brush. They occur widely throughout South America and are found in every country except Chile and Uruguay. They also occur in Central America, the West Indies, and Mexico.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are four species:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Red brocket (Mazama americana), the most common and widespread, is found from Mexico to Argentina. It is also the largest species, with a mature weight of about 20 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gray (brown) brocket (Mazama gouazoubira) is also found throughout Latin America. It is slightly smaller, weighing about 17 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Lesser brocket (Mazama rufina)2 resides in small and scattered locations in Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay. It weighs 10-20 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Dwarf brocket (Mazama chunyi) is found only in pockets of forest and brush on certain mountainsides in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and northern Peru. The smallest brocket, it weighs only 8-12 kg. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except for their size and color, all brockets look alike. The head,  neck, and tail are short; the ears are wide. The lumbar region is higher  than the shoulders, and this, together with an arched back, gives them a  hunched appearance not unlike a duiker's. The antlers are simple  spikes, never longer than a person's hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The different species are similar in behavior, too.3 They generally  wander around singly or in pairs. Although frequenting dense cover  during the day, they emerge at night to feed in open areas. Little is  known of their food preferences. But farmers know only too well how  fond they are of melons, beans, peppers, and corn. Doubtless, wild  forest fruits dominate their native diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although extensively hunted, brockets are so adept at dodging into  dense brush that relatively few get caught. However, small size makes  them vulnerable to many other predators: puma, jaguar, ocelot, and  eagles and other large birds of prey. Near villages the domestic dog is  probably their worst enemy. (Infuriated vegetable growers commonly  set their dogs on them.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although at first sight these retiring, nervous, and agile creatures  seem unlikely to be even potential microlivestock, young brockets are  sometimes caught and raised by people. It is not uncommon to find  them as pets on farms and in gardens. They seem to become very  tame and might therefore make useful livestock at some future time.  At least one species, the grey brocket, adjusts particularly well to life in  and around human settlements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUEMUL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third type of South American microdeer, the huemul,4 is a much  less likely candidate. It is very rare, very shy, and has so far shown  little likelihood of settling into captivity. However, huemul conservation  is critical: without urgent attention, the animal will become extinct.  Although totally protected by law, it is declining owing to poaching,  farm dogs, habitat loss and diseases transmitted by cattle and other  livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two species:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Chilean huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus)5 occurs in high altitude forests, thickets, and grasslands in the Andes of southern Chile and Argentina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Peruvian huemul, or taruca (H. antisepsis), occurs in parts of the Andes of southern Peru and Bolivia as well as of northern Chile and Argentina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species live in small herds above the tree line. They are very shy, and even though the Chilean national seal bears the depiction of a huemul, almost no Chilean (or anyone else, for that matter) has ever seen a live one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At less than 85 cm tall and probably weighing under 15 kg, huemuls are sized to be microlivestock. However, previous attempts at rearing them in Chile have met with little success. Nevertheless, huemuls have been kept in zoos in Germany, and such experiences - together with the increasing knowledge of how to raise red deer and other species - may eventually provide the keys to their continued existence. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g033a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">30 Water Deer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g034a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about the water deer' (Hydropotes inermis), but it should be considered along with mouse deer, muntjacs, musk deer, and others as a possible species for microlivestock development. It is comparable in size, and it is unusual among deer for producing large litters: births of triplets or more are common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with the other species in this section, this is a highly speculative notion; however, there is some justification for it. The Zoological Society of London has successfully established breeding colonies, and other zoos have also bred the animal in captivity. The water deer has the advantage of rapid growth, early maturity, and high fecundity. Indeed, given protection, its populations have been known to increase rapidly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal has a graceful and delicate appearance, its best known characteristic being the male's long tusks. Both sexes are about the same size, standing 45-55 cm at the shoulder and weighing up to 19 kg. Body length is up to about I m, and the tail is so tiny that it is barely noticeable. The round-tipped ears are characteristically held erect above the head.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water deer are somewhat like muntjacs, but they are longer in the leg and lighter in build. Their forelegs are shorter than their hindlegs so that they stand slightly higher at the haunches than at the shoulders. This gives them a hunched appearance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hair is generally thick and coarse, longest on the flanks and rump. The backs and sides are usually yellowish brown, finely stippled with black. In winter, the coat is thick and variable in color; pale fawn and peppery gray-brown are common shades. In summer, the coat is sleek and reddish. Fawns are white spotted at birth, but this dappling soon fades.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Neither sex has antlers. The upper canine teeth, especially in the males, are enlarged, forming curved tusks 7 cm long. These are much bigger than those in muntjacs and can protrude well below the jawline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In both sexes there is a small inguinal gland present between the hind legs, the only instance among deer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In China the water deer has a wide distribution range. It is mainly found in the provinces of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hunan, Hubei, and Fujian, the mid and lower Yangtze River Basin, and coastal areas and islands in central and eastern China. It is also found in Guilin, southern Sichuan Province, Guangxi Province, and Guangdong Province in the south.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Korea, the animal lives along the lower reaches of most rivers, except those in the extreme northeast. Its northern limit of distribution is probably about latitude 43&Yacute;N.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At Woburn Park in England, a few escaped from a herd early this century and have increased and become established in a number of counties, particularly Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire, Cambridgeshire, and Norfolk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In China, owing to increasing reclamation and cultivation of wetlands, the habitat of the water deer is gradually shrinking. At present the animal is protected by the government, which designates appropriate hunting seasons. It is estimated that about 10,000 are killed each year by hunters. In Korea the water deer is still plentiful. As noted, in England it is maintaining itself and is thriving in some protected parks. It is also reported to be present in France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In its home range, the water deer is usually found among reeds and rushes in swampy areas. It also frequents the tall grasses and sparse shrubs of mountainsides and cultivated fields. In England it has adapted to a variety of habitats, including woodlands. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p323a.png"></center><br>
+ Native range of the water deer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer is chiefly a grazer. It feeds mainly on reeds, coarse grasses, and some tree leaves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As previously mentioned, this is the most prolific species of deer. Up to seven fetuses have been observed in a single pregnant female, although the normal litters are two or three. The gestation period is about 176 days. Fawns are born in late spring or early summer, and weigh only about 0.5 kg at birth. Within 4 days the newborns can live almost exclusively on grasses. Usually, however, they are fully weaned after 4 8 weeks, but remain socially attached to the mother. They appear to become independent after about 4 months. Males become sexually mature at about 5-6 months; females at about 7-8 months.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water deer are generally seen alone. Even where abundant, they seldom congregate in herds. Females are sometimes intolerant of each other, as are adult males or young males. However, in captivity, several females can graze and rest in loose aggregations. The peak period of grazing activity occurs around dusk. Feeding sessions are interspersed with periods of passive cud-chewing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water deer "bark" at intruders. During the rut, males are especially noisy and aggressive, and defend their territories with vigor. Fighting involves striking their tusks into the shoulder or back of their opponents. 3 Information from Lu Houji. These are extremely excitable little animals. When upset, they often "hump" their backs and bound away like rabbits. They are also good swimmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In China the water deer are hunted for their meat and skins, and newly born fawns are killed to obtain the mother's colostrum for medicinal purposes. In a few localities in England, the species has become a game animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer is not yet known on "farms." However, it seems to be easily kept, has bred well in zoos, and has thrived in many British wildlife parks. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The assets of early maturity and high fecundity mean that the potential exists for rapid population expansion. Such an event occurred at Britain's Whipsnade Zoo. In 1929 and 1930, 32 deer were released into undeveloped pasture; by 1937, 120 fawns had been raised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they are relatively small, and because in the wild state they aggregate only under exceptional conditions, water deer are unlikely to have any appreciable impact on vegetation in forests, farms, or gardens. Nonetheless, they can damage crops, and Chinese farmers, who consider them pests, often illegally kill them out of season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are swift and adept at escaping captivity. It is possible that because of territoriality only a single pair will live in a given area. Moreover, males are aggressive and must be kept apart.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They seem able to withstand chilly weather well, but a combination of wet and cold is harmful. Their heavy winter coat, essential to survival in the Far East, renders the animal susceptible to dehydration and heat exhaustion in comparatively mild climates, such as England's.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At birth, the tiny fawns are extremely vulnerable to a variety of predators, both birds and mammals. The species may need areas of dense cover or some shelter from wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer has been successfully kept in semicaptivity for many years; however, for it to reach a level of domestication suitable for use as microlivestock, research is needed in the following areas:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reproduction;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Performance under a range of environments;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Grazing efficiency;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Basic physiology;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Captive breeding and domestication - measurements of growth rates, space requirements, and feed needs; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Modifying behavior to overcome territoriality - for instance, imprinting on humans, selection of docile specimens, hand rearing, and castration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer is not an endangered species; however, efforts should be made to preserve the populations in their native ranges and habitats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">31 Duikers</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g035a.png"></center><br>
+ Red Duiker</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers (Cephalophus and Sylvicapra species) are small African antelopes. Although they are ruminants like cattle, sheep, and goats, some are hardly bigger than hares or rabbits. One, the blue duiker, is less than 40 cm high and usually weighs a mere 4-6 kg. It and some of the slightly larger duikers might be suitable for household husbandry because their meat is an extremely popular food throughout much of Africa. In West Africa, for example, it is one of the most common meats sold in both rural and urban markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This idea, however, is highly speculative because, despite their popularity, little is known about these tiny animals. Their husbandry has been attempted only a few times, but the results were encouraging, and rearing duikers deserves further investigation. They are already being raised in captivity in the United States,' Zimbabwe,2 Togo,3 and Gabon. Researchers in Nigeria have bred blue duikers to the fourth generation and found that, if the animals were first handled by people while young, they remained docile.4 Even blue duikers caught in the wild tame quickly if they are very young, but by the time they reach 3.5 months, they become barely tolerant of man's presence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If duiker husbandry can be developed, it might provide not only a more regular source of meat, but also a lessening of the hunting pressures, thereby giving the wild populations a better chance of survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These antelopes are suitable for testing as microlivestock only in their native region, sub-Saharan Africa. Eventually, they might prove to have wider applicability. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duiker species vary from about the size of a small dog to that of a small donkey. Most are similar in shape and are characterized by short front legs, arched back, and pointed hoofs. The tail is stubby, often with a terminal tuft. The coat varies from reddish brown to nearly black, although a few species are blue-grey and one is zebra striped.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females are slightly larger than males, but the sexes look alike. In most species, both sexes bear small straight horns that project backward from the skull, frequently hidden in a long tuft of hair.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers inhabit virtually all regions of Africa below the Sahara from Gambia in the west to Ethiopia in the east, and all countries as far south as South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are so shy that they are rarely encountered by people. But almost anywhere in Africa (other than North Africa), the observant traveler may glimpse them ducking into forests or thickets. Although there are still countless numbers, people are eating so many that in some localized areas the populations are fast heading toward extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All but one species are found in rainforests or dense woodlands. The grey duiker, however, is found in savannas. If the vegetation is juicy, only a few of the species need a separate water source, so they can thrive in very dry sites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main foods are fruits and seeds supplemented by leaves and shoots. Fruits, which they eat to a much greater degree than other antelopes, are an important part of their diet. Some rare species (for example, the red-flanked duiker, C. rufilatus) can graze. Occasionally (especially in captivity), duikers are also omnivorous, eating fish, crabs, insects, snails, frogs, small animals, or carrion; they also readily accept chopped meat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers reach sexual maturity at 9-15 months; gestation lasts about 7-8 months. In some species, females conceive a few days after calving on a 3- to 5-day postpartum estrus. Apparently one calf per birth is normal. A newborn blue duiker weighs between 0.4 and 0.7 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before one year of age, young duikers leave their parents to find their own mates and territories. Life expectancy is more than 10 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In spite of habitat differences, most duikers behave alike. In the wild they are nervous, shy, and retiring. When alarmed, they plunge into the protection of dense vegetation - hence the origin of the name duiker, which means "diver." Nonetheless, their behavior allows them to be easily netted. An experienced hunter can imitate duiker sounds and call the male out of the bush. Also, a startled animal freezes, thereby facilitating its capture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moving easily through dense vegetation, the head carried low, these tiny animals use regular runs. Forest duiker species are largely diurnal, although a few, such as the bay duiker, are nocturnal. Bush duikers are mainly nocturnal, feeding from early evening until morning. Such nocturnal species shelter during the day in holes (presumably dug by other animals) or inside fallen trees; the diurnal ones lie directly on the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blue duikers are the best-known species and are probably the most likely candidates for microlivestock (see page 332). They seem to be monogamous and apparently mate for life. Unlike most antelopes, their population densities can be high. The pairs reside in territories of 2-4 hectares, which both male and female stoutly defend against rivals. Other species appear to be polygamous and live in large territories (up to 80 hectares).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, the animals are generally calm. However, both males and females can be aggressive toward unfamiliar individuals of their own species. In an enclosure, one male can serve several females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large glands, located beneath each eye, exude a scent that is rubbed onto fences, trees, and other objects as territorial marking. In another form of marking the horns are rubbed against tree trunks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, duiker meat is much sought in many African countries, and the animals are regularly hunted. The meat is lean with little or no intramuscular fat (marbling). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers also have promise as experimental animals. They are true ruminants, with four-part stomachs, and they produce cud. Some are only rabbit size, they need far less room or feed than sheep, and thus are potentially an efficient test animal for determining the nutritional value of forages. Blue duikers, for instance, have a digestion efficiency comparable to that of sheep, but, because of their small size, a test needs only four rabbit cages and 5-10 kg of feed. Sheep, by comparison, require much more spacious facilities and 150 kg of feed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Nigeria, blue duiker pelts are used in making karosses, a traditional dress. A single garment may contain up to 60 pelts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost nothing is known about rearing duikers, but they seem to tame easily and perhaps may be kept in backyards like goats. Indeed, they reportedly make good house pets when hand raised. They are attractive, and from the day of capture young ones can be handled and petted.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Nigerian researchers who bred blue duikers to the fourth generation bottle-fed young specimens five times a day. Older animals were given feeds that included banana, plantain, and papaya; leaves of hibiscus, cassava, and banana; and dried corn. Variety seemed to be important, and the researchers could not predict the quantity of particular foods the animals would choose on any given day. In addition to varied vegetables, a small dish of salt or a salt lick was sometimes required.6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are unlikely to run away, except when startled. However, providing an enclosure is worthwhile. It enables them to establish a territory by marking poles, bushes, and fences. Although needing space in which to run, as little as 10 m&Yacute; is reportedly sufficient for 24 animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Satisfactory shelters include an open-ended oil drum laid on its side, a lean-to made of palm frond, or a small hut made of local matting. Apart from providing shade and protection, shelters should be built so that excited animals can run through them. When cornered, duikers tend to either flee for shelter or jump upwards; a run-through shelter can prevent a frightened one from accidentally leaping over the fence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Based on their own experiences, researchers at Pennsylvania State University in the United States report that blue duikers raised in captivity are easy to maintain, reproduce well, and are not fussy about environmental conditions. In fact, they say, blue duikers seem to enjoy living in cages.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In order to raise duikers successfully, post-pubertal males must be separated. A female should be bred with the same male throughout her productive life span.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE BLUE DUIKER</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In one sense, the blue duiker is the most important animal in Africa. It is the only one found throughout the continent south of the Sahara. It occurs at a greater range of altitudes than most - as low as sea level in many places to almost 5,000 m elevation in Kenya. It occurs in habitats from dense rainforests to dryland savannas. And, in sub-Saharan Africa as a whole, the blue duiker is eaten more than any other animal (although in West Africa it is generally called Maxwell's duiker).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This very small antelope, caught by snare or net, can be found in the meat markets of villages, towns, and cities in all countries from Senegal to Madagascar. It is a source of food for tens of millions. Bushmen, Pygmies, Dinkas, and Mandingos, thousands of miles apart; all share the same fondness for duiker meat and for duiker-skin clothes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, scientifically speaking, this is one of the world's least-known animals. And its numbers are diminishing rapidly. Areas that used to have plenty now have few or none. Overhunting and destruction of the rainforests are jointly contributing to their decline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the losses, people are snaring as many as they can, and there is no sense of concern - not even among most conservationists. However, in many locations there is already evidence that the animals won't be around much longer. Unless something is done - and soon - people will lose their major source of animal protein. If that happens, it is likely that they will move on to larger animals, such as gorillas, which would be an even worse disaster.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best long-term solution is to organize duiker husbandry. Learning to rear duikers would benefit people throughout Africa. The blue duiker is the most suitable species; it is the most common and the most important. Also, it inhabits the edges of the forest and could therefore become a suitable species for ranching without denuding the forest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blue duikers are easy to maintain in captivity. They tame readily and like to shelter and sleep In boxes or cages. They are good converters of vegetation and produce top-quality lean meat. In addition, they are neither affected by tsetse flies nor are very susceptible to diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key now is to learn how to keep these very timid creatures under different conditions. We need to know their foods (especially foods that might be harvested from forests) and reproductive biology. We need to know the right numbers to house together. Most of all, we need projects aimed at rearing and breeding them in captivity under village conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vivian J. Wilson</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many African countries already have a ready market for duiker meat. It is somewhat similar to goat meat, but most people agree that it is superior.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal can live on fibrous vegetation. Unlike conventional ruminant livestock, it is suitable for feeding an average family at one meal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ability to forage in undergrowth where other domestic livestock do not thrive makes duikers potential livestock for tropical forest and bushland regions. They can be raised for meat without cutting the trees or bushes to create pastures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are easy prey for predators: eagles, pythons, wildcats, and people, among others. Thus, they probably require more sophisticated management than common livestock such as goats. However, the quality of their meat could more than compensate for the extra effort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some species are territorial, which means that they may do poorly in captivity, unless their social organization can be altered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under good conditions, the ideal slaughtering age reportedly occurs at 8-10 months, when the blue duiker can weigh 4 kg. Compared to rabbits and guinea pigs, production is relatively slow because of long gestation and lack of multiple births.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are resistant to trypanosomiasis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One general problem is that duikers have short, sharp horns designed specifically for jabbing. This could be a potential danger, especially since the males of some species become aggressive when their females are receptive. However, the horns can easily be clipped and taped to limit the danger. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the duikers' secluded lifestyle, much has still to be learned about their habits. Specific information on behavior and breeding is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal scientists in Africa should gather small herds for comparative studies. This will provide insights into whether duiker temperaments facilitate or hinder their utilization. In addition, assessments of diet, growth rates, behavior in captivity, reproductive rate, adaptability, and future potential can be made. Management considerations include clipping horns, trimming hooves, and controlling lice and fleas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research of particular value would be chemical analysis of duiker milk and of other characteristic glandular secretions. The latter lend themselves especially to a study of animal communication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parming duikers might help rescue the wild populations by relieving hunting pressures. Programs in this area are recommended for locations where overhunting is occurring. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g036a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">32 Other Small Antelope</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g037a.png"></center><br>
+ Klipspringer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The least known and most obscure of all antelope are the delicate African creatures called dikdik, suni, royal antelope, pygmy antelope, and klipspringer. The smallest is a West African form of the royal antelope that stands a mere 25 cm high and weighs less than 2 kg. The four-horned antelope of South Asia is a similarly tough, tractable animal that is also the size of a small dog.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None of these has previously been seriously considered for use as livestock, but they are possibly amenable to rearing in captivity and they provide some of the finest game meat in the world. Given New Zealand's experience with various deer species (see page 288) and Africa's experience with large antelopes, basic research to test out the possibility of organized dwarf-antelope production could prove to be rewarding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The areas where these antelopes might be used are sub-Saharan Africa for the African species and South Asia for the four-horned antelope.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these animals, some, such as the pygmy antelopes, have a crouched appearance with an arched back and short neck; others have a more upright posture with a long neck and a raised head. In all species, the males are smaller than the females and bear tiny spikelike horns. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collectively, these antelopes have native ranges covering huge areas of Africa and part of Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dikdik: Six species occur in two discontinuous distributions - one from Somalia and Ethiopia southward through Kenya and Tanzania, the other in Namibia and Angola. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sunis: Eastern Africa, from Kenya to South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Royal antelope: West African forests. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pygmy antelope: Central Africa from southeastern Nigeria to Zaire. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Klipspringer: Ethiopia to the Cape of Good Hope. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four-horned antelope: India. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many forms are protected by local laws, but none of the species is on the international endangered-species list.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals occupy habitats from dense, moist forests to dry, rocky outcrops and even to deserts. Their ranges have almost certainly been affected by humans - sometimes for the better, since many prefer the secondary growth that invades disturbed areas, notably after overgrazing or slash-and-burn agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although dikdik and klipspringer usually frequent dry areas with scattered brush, the other dwarf antelopes normally stay in dense vegetation. All seem to live in definite areas and do not migrate. For instance:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Dikdik live near streambanks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Sunis inhabit dry country with thick bush, but they can also be found in reed scrub along rivers and in forests up to 3,000 m elevation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Klipspringers live on stony mountain slopes, rocky outcrops' or the sides of steep gorges at altitudes from sea level to 4,000 m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Four-horned antelopes live in undulating or hill country and shelter in tall grass and open jungle, a terrain more common to deer than to antelope. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of these antelope browse on shrubs. They are "concentrate selectors," taking easily digested vegetation such as buds, fruit, and succulent young leaves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also, most obtain much of their water requirement from dew and the vegetation they consume. Klipspringers, for example, are able to live for months without drinking. Sunis and four-horned antelope, on the other hand, drink regularly and seldom live far from water sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known of the reproduction and general performance of these animals. Females become sexually mature at about 6 months in the smaller species and 10 months in the larger. Males become sexually mature at about 14 months. The young are born throughout the year, but births peak with the vegetation flush following the first rains. Where there are two rainy seasons a year, two birth peaks occur. Usually a single calf is born. Dikdik is the only one whose reproduction has been studied in detail. Its pregnancy lasts 172 days, one young is born at a time, and the birth weight is 600-800 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their longevity is unknown but is probably in the range of 10-12 years.l</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These tiny creatures have some of the habits of deer. They are shy and elusive and generally rely on concealment to escape detection. Their first response to a predator is to freeze, and then to flee like hares - dashing off in a series of erratic, zigzag leaps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They live alone, in pairs, or in small family groups, but sometimes congregate in larger groups in thorn thickets. The species that have been studied most (dikdik and klipspringer) are strongly pair bonded. (A male, a female, and one or two young is typical, and a klipspringer rarely moves more than 5 m from its mate.) However, the royal and pygmy antelopes and the suni are more solitary in their behavior. Four-horned antelope are usually seen alone or in pairs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals feed mostly in the early morning and late afternoon Some species deposit dung and urine on particular sites. And they repeatedly daub secretions from glands in front of the eyes onto plant stems, where a sticky mass accumulates. Glands near the hooves mark the ground along frequently traveled pathways. Males also mark females with the scent, thus reinforcing the bond. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The four-horned antelope has a whistling call, which helps keep the family group together. Males repeat it frequently in hot weather. Gestation is 8-8.5 months. If taken young, they reportedly tame easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Much more research needs to be done before attempts are made to convince anyone to domesticate these antelope. There are likely to be considerable difficulties. Guinea pigs, rabbits, and giant rats can successfully be kept in cages or small enclosures, but most antelope probably cannot. Larger enclosures will be needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The food habits and general behavior of these small animals must be studied closely. They are strictly monogamous, and it may be necessary to keep them in pairs. Reproduction, growth, and general performance must become understood under different environmental and nutritional conditions. Mixing species is another aspect to be examined - whether these antelope can be kept with other species in the same enclosure (typical of livestock farming in most poor nations) is not known.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To settle such questions, representative species of microantelope should be gathered for comparative assessment. Researchers should focus on the animals' social structure, on husbandry methods for maintaining them over generations, and on how best to breed them. If the findings are promising, then a campaign to domesticate these antelope could be mounted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout most of their ranges these animals are highly sought "bushmeats." The meat is lean and of extremely high quality. In Zaire's Ituri Forest, for example, pygmies net and kill large numbers of pygmy antelope, hanging the carcasses on sticks by the roadside for sale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their small size, these species might make good laboratory animals for ruminant studies. The dikdik, for instance, becomes a fully functioning ruminant at a body weight of about only 1.5 kg.2 However, their digestive physiology is quite different from that of cattle, sheep, and goats, which makes them atypical ruminants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given organized production, it is likely that dwarf-antelope pelts could become commercially important. North Africa exports the hides of medium-size antelopes to Europe for use in fine sueded leathers. Hides of the small species would almost certainly be in demand as well if a steady supply could be obtained as a by-product of meat production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microantelope provide some of the finest game meat. They are small and perhaps tractable. Most are already widely eaten and are being eliminated over broad areas of their range. Turning them into a sustainable, economic food source could provide motivation for their conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These antelope can digest, and are adapted to, the indigenous forage over vast areas of Africa and South Asia. They are native to tropical habitats, where cattle and other livestock often grow poorly. They also appear to be resistant to trypanosomiasis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some African peoples (for example, the Kalahari Bushmen) have superstitions or social injunctions that prohibit the eating of some of these species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small antelope are probably not as efficient as larger ruminants in digesting fiber: the retention time in the rumen may be too short. On the other hand, quickly digestible cell walls of lush green plants can be used efficiently.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The territorial behavior of most of these species may limit their rearing in large numbers under captive conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, preliminary research on dwarf antelope husbandry is required. Specifically, studies should be conducted to assess:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Growth rates, feed efficiency, and reproductive rate;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Carcass quality;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Economics and the likely cost of production per animal unit; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Studies of digestion.4 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The few statistics available today on the use of wildlife as food are probably much below actual consumption. Most food consumption surveys record food obtained by hunting or trapping under the indiscriminate heading of "Bushmeat" and neglect to include the many small animals that are normally collected by children. In Africa, an amazing variety of wildlife is eaten, including all wild ungulates, primates, all cats, and many species of birds and reptiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization Ceres magazine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All the world's people must begin to overcome in themselves - and even more so in their children - senseless taboos about what is edible and what is not. Only then can we stop today's universal animal-protein wastage. How ironic it would be, in this scientific age, for mankind to starve largely because of a bunch of old wives' tales, irational beliefs, silly associations, and the lack of a sufficient spirit of culinary and gustatory adventure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calvin W. Schwabe Unmentionable Cuisine </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguana is really good, a thousand times better than chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Omero Asinto, waiter Pochote Bar and Restaurant</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barranca, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part VI : Lizards</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large lizards have been important foods since prehistoric times and are still commonly hunted in parts of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.1 Some (such as the monitor lizards seen in markets in Indochina) are carnivorous species that may be difficult to feed and raise economically. However, the iguanas of the Americas offer promise as microlivestock. They are herbivorous and feed primarily on leaves, flowers, and fruits, including many that are too high in the trees to be gathered by man or by other livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguana meat is popular throughout much of Latin America, where consumers willingly pay more for it than for fish, poultry, pork, or beef. To fill the demand, several iguana species are hunted by rifle, slingshot, trap, and noose; they are even run down by trained dogs. Villagers (often small children) catch them for food for the family; professional hunters snare and sell them to vendors. Iguanas are hauled around in gunny sacks and wicker baskets by car, boat, horseback, and people on foot. In parts of El Salvador they have been known to arrive at the market by the truckload.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a result of this indiscriminate hunting, iguanas are now steadily becoming more scarce, and the destruction of their habitat makes the situation even worse. At present, many parts of Latin America's tropical forests are being cleared. The green iguana in particular depends on trees, and as forests disappear its populations are destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, iguanas are forest-edge species: they will grow well on ranches and farms as long as patches of trees are left standing. This offers the hope that they can be raised as microlivestock. They reproduce so prolifically that, in principle, populations can build up exponentially. Mature females, for example, may produce 30 or more eggs a year for up to 10 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past few years, a notable research program in Panama and Costa Rica (see page 351) has laid the practical foundation for iguana farming. It has artificially incubated and raised thousands of green iguana hatchlings. With less than half a square meter of living space per animal, the hatchlings have grown as fast or faster than their wild counterparts. Unlike their kin in the wild - which in their first year of life suffer 95 percent mortality from birds, snakes, and other predators the captive-raised iguanas show almost 100 percent survival. This research project demonstrates that ranching iguanas both for food or for repopulating depleted habitats is feasible. In addition, experimental projects for farming green iguanas have begun in Curacao and El Salvador.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As livestock, lizards have advantages. Being cold-blooded they do not carry human diseases (except for those such as salmonella that result from gross mismanagement). They can be kept in captivity in fairly high densities without diseases breaking out. Although often aggressive in the wild, they coexist in dense populations with few problems as long as they are well fed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is an important conservation component as well. Farming these lizards may help check and may even reverse the downward trends of their populations by allowing large numbers to be released back to the wild at a size that inhibits predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three alternatives for utilizing iguanas:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To manage wild stocks as game animals;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To raise iguanas on farms, like chickens and pigs; or</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To raise young iguanas in captivity and then release them into the wild where they can grow to full size and later be harvested on a sustainable basis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the green iguana has so far received the most attention, two other Latin American species are in farming trials. Black iguanas (garrobos) are being raised experimentally in El Salvador and Costa Rica. And the omnivorous tegu lizard, which produces a valuable leather, is beginning to be farmed in Argentina and is briefly described opposite. Both iguana species are described in the following chapters. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TEGU</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tegus (Tupinambis rufescens and T. teguixin) are large lizards of South America. They are highly prized for their skins, which are made into leather for handbags and similar items. Tegus are heavily exploited; on average, Argentina exports over one million skins a year - about $15 million worth. The 50-year-old tegu industry is estimated to support as many as 30,000 people, including tannery employees and people in rural areas who hunt the lizards full- or part-time. Poor agricultural conditions make farming difficult in the Chaco, and sale of a single tegu skin is worth more than a day's wages for a farmband. Some families also eat the tegu meat and use the fat for medicinal purposes. In many areas, the populations have already been driven to the verge of extinction. Husbandry, therefore, could be beneficial. Traders are hoping that captive operations run by families can eventually replace hunting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although usually associated with the arid regions of northern Argentina and Paraguay, the tegu's range actually covers much of South America - as far north as Colombia, including Trinidad and the Amazon basin. One species (T. rufescens) normally occurs in a dryland habitat, such as Argentina's Chaco region. It can occur in great numbers in pastures, probably because of the insects associated with cattle. But it also occurs in areas that are unsuitable for cattle. Some places where tegus are common are so dry that they can carry only a single cow in 10 hectares. There, farmers might find it profitable to raise tegus. This would maintain the native biological diversity while perhaps reducing the soil degradation that cattle cause.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other species (T. tegubixin) occurs in wet forests, such as those found in Argentina's Formosa Province.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tegus are scientifically interesting. Little is known about their biology, and basic studies are needed. They are not much eaten, but in some areas the tail is considered a delicacy. Indeed, deteriorating economic conditions are already making them more important as a food resource. Convincing campesinos that they can increase their cash income and their meat production by rationally exploiting these large lizards should not be difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable exploitation could also benefit tegu conservation. Large populations still exist in some areas in Argentina and Paraguay, but, overall, the species are declining. A welldesigned management project could ensure the maintenance and reestablishment of large populations where numbers have drastically decreased. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">33 Green Iguana</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g038a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the green iguana (Iguana iguana) is consumed throughout Central America. It is already subject to heavy commercialization and its populations are plummeting. This is not likely to change: as human population increases, so does demand for iguana meat and eggs as well as for live iguanas, thousands of which are kept as house pets. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its herbivorous diet, inoffensive nature, and high reproductive potential, this reptile is a prime species for intensive management. Alert, curious, and social, it is easily tamed from birth. Given minimal protection during the reproductive season, large populations can build up, and animals can be maintained in simple facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, although iguanas can be maintained as microlivestock, they may require three years to reach market size. Raising them to maturity entirely under captive conditions is thus probably uneconomic at present, when specimens can still be inexpensively (albeit often illegally) harvested from the wild. However, it has been found that if released into the wild, most will remain in nearby trees, especially if people erect simple feeding stations and keep them stocked with table scraps or weedy vegetation. This makes for very low-cost production during the years of waiting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given such findings, iguana farming has a promising future. With research, growth rates can undoubtedly be increased and maintenance costs reduced. Also, iguanas are becoming more valuable each year. Even now, farming them could be economic in some areas where wild iguanas are scarce, especially if the young are released into forested sites when they have grown to a size where mortality is low.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although green iguanas will happily graze pastures, they need trees. Iguana farming, therefore, provides a way to keep tropical forests standing while still providing people with meat and income. By growing lizards, farmers don't have to fell the forests to create space for growing food crops or cattle. Iguana farming thus gives an economic incentive to preserve the beleaguered tracts of remaining trees. It may even render reforestation economically attractive. And it may promote the use of shelterbelts and contour strips of trees in cattle-ranching areas. Today's researchers estimate that 200-300 kg of meat can be produced per year per hectare from iguanas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The green iguana can grow to more than 2 m long, but more than half of that length is in its whiplike tail. Adults of breeding size generally weigh 2-4 kg. The scaly skin is green, yellowish, or golden brown with dark markings; color is a function of age and reproductive stage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This large lizard is indigenous to a vast region stretching from Mexico to northern Brazil and Peru, including a number of Caribbean islands. In Mexico, it occurs in tropical forests along both coasts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green iguanas were formerly abundant throughout Central America, but no longer. In the mangrove forests along Mexico's Pacific coast, for instance, only 5 percent of the former population remains. In Guatemala's Pacific lowlands, mere remnants are left. In El Salvador's jungles, the animals have declined to 1 percent of their former density. And in both Panama and Costa Rica, the species is now officially classified as endangered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The green iguana usually lives near water in tropical lowland forests. It thrives only as long as some trees remain. The forests may be either humid or seasonally dry. The animal normally inhabits the treetops, feeding on tender shoots and fruits in the canopy; few other herbivores can convert such forest foliage into food for humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like cattle and other herbivorous mammals, iguanas have a specialized digestive system with an enlarged fermentation chamber in which bacteria break down plant cells. Vegetation is converted into meat about as effectively as in cattle, but not as quickly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After reaching sexual maturity, at 2 or 3 years of age, females lay one clutch of 10 85 eggs each year. (For most specimens the average is probably about 35.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p349a.png"></center><br>
+ Native habitat of the green iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are generally slow moving and lethargic when cold, but during the heat of the day they become extremely alert and can run, swim, and climb with speed and agility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They have a complex social structure and a defined annual reproductive cycle. Hatchlings adapt easily to captivity both when artificially incubated and when captured in the wild. However, captured adults, used to living free, are hard to keep in small enclosures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green iguanas are used mainly for food. The meat tastes somewhat like chicken and in Latin America is typically cooked in a spicy stew. The eggs are also consumed. Small and leathery shelled, they are considered special delicacies and are said to cure various ailments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a sizable demand for live iguanas in the international pet trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exploitation has been mainly for the flesh; the skins are wasted in most cases. However, given organized production, green iguana skin could perhaps become a farm by-product. It sells in the international reptile-leather market under the trade name "chameleon lizard." The hide is typically up to 20 cm wide. Thin and relatively fragile, it is glued to a fabric or cowhide backing to prevent it from tearing. The prime uses are for ladies' accessories, belts, wallets, and shoes. It is inappropriate for uses that involve flexure because the scales overlap and repeated flexing causes them to separate. The skin then becomes rough to the touch and loses its glossy finish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IGUANA MAMA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The program that now offers hope for raising green iguanas as microlivestock is the brainchild of zoologist Dagmar Werner. She began in 1983 by collecting 700 iguana eggs and then learning what to do with them "on the job."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through a combination of luck and intuition, coupled with determination, she discovered appropriate conditions for incubating the eggs on the first try - no less surprising because her incubators (dirt-filled wooden boxes warmed with light bulbs) were in an apartment in a high-rise building in Panama City. Nonetheless, most of the eggs hatched and the several hundred squirming young lizards were quickly trucked to a forest park near the Panama Canal. Here, for five years, assisted by a steady stream of enthusiastic Panamanian biology students, Wemer experimented with cages, feeds, facilities, breeding genetic selection, and the myriad aspects of management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These dedicated researchers eventually devised what might be considered a production line, and they hatched and raised tens of thousands of green iguanas, reduced the animals' infant mortality rate, and created the basic underpinnings for economic production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1988, administration for the project was shifted to neighboring Costa Rica, where Werner established another research farm as well as a fund-raising foundation. From there, she hopes to catalyze all Central America to take up iguana production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Her immediate goal is, paradoxically, to preserve the lizards by putting an iguana in every pot. That will help reduce the indiscriminate hunting that is taking these animals toward extinction in the wild.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Her system is based on setting up feeding stations in the woods and releasing iguanas at seven months, an age at which they are virtually immune to predators. Iguanas need trees, and her ultimate goal is to help save the vanishing rainforests. With profitable iguana farming, she hopes to persuade farmers to save the trees as homes for iguanas, rather than clearing them for crops and cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Iguana management and an international marketing system will protect, rather than exterminate, the iguana," Werner says. "I don't think iguana farming will stop deforestation. But I do think it will contribute a great deal." </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The iguana farming project in Panama and Costa Rica (see sidebar) provides a model for what might be done elsewhere. In its first five years of operation, the project raised more than 10,000 green iguanas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To create the farms, enclosures are constructed with sheet-metal wails sunk 30 cm in the ground.' Inside, the animals sleep in shelters made of bamboo and vegetation. Each shelter has an adjustable entrance slit through which young lizards can slither, but predators, which usually are larger, cannot. Most are set on stilts and food is served in the shade underneath. With this system, from 20 to 60 young iguanas are kept in an area of 10 m&Yacute; (0.5-0.17 m&Yacute; of land area per individual). In another "high-intensity" design, 30 hatchlings are kept in cages I m&Yacute; in size (only 0.05 m&Yacute; per individual).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The iguana farms also include an artificial nest consisting of a "tunnel" leading to a sand-filled egg-laying chamber. (Both tunnel and chamber are made of concrete blocks or other predator-safe material.) Female iguanas (at least in captivity) prefer this to digging their own tunnels, and it is an important advance in iguana breeding because it produces a hatching success of close to 100 percent. Recent versions require no human intervention: the eggs incubate and hatch by themselves and the hatchlings climb out of the nest through a hollow bamboo "pipe" and fall into plastic bags, which can be easily emptied twice a day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The iguanas are fed mixtures of broken rice meal, meat meal, bone meal, fish meal, papayas, bananas, mangos, avocados, and a variety of leaves and flowers. Each day they receive fresh-cut leaves from plants such as beans, mustard, or hibiscus. Hatchlings are raised to an age of 6-10 months, when they are big enough to be released into forests, farmland with scattered trees, or into village backyards with almost no vulnerability to predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With each female producing an average of 35 eggs annually, these animals have inherently high reproductive potential. And if the young are protected from predators during their first few months, populations can build up rapidly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguanas adapt well to second-growth forest and to backyard conditions and can feed on the leaves of fruit trees or timber trees while the farmer can harvest the fruits or wood. Unless grossly overstocked, they are unlikely to affect the productivity of the trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These lizards may take three years to reach marketable size,2 and the cost of raising them to usable size entirely in captivity is currently greater than their market value as food. Less-expensive methods of raising the animals must be found if large-scale commercial iguana farming is to become economically feasible. The main problem is the high cost of the enclosures, not the cost of food. The food costs no more than that for raising a chicken to marketable size, but iguanas do not grow as fast as chickens. For smallholders the only cost of raising them is labor, and that is often unimportant. Free-ranging herbivorous lizards can damage home gardens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For conservation purposes, the main need is to educate people throughout Latin America to the iguana's plight. For example, in Central America people catch pregnant females and cut out the eggs for food. (There is a widespread misconception that the females survive this brutality.) This is devastating to the iguana populations, yet by installing artificial nests, farmers could let the females live and still harvest the eggs. Moreover, people could eat half the eggs and incubate the other half to repopulate the trees around their farms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also important to develop an understanding of iguana reproduction in the wild. At present, the longevity, growth rate, and age of sexual maturity are not well known. Such information would provide baseline data for creating conservation measures to reverse the depletion of this natural resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further husbandry research is needed. Costs must be reduced. The effectiveness of artificial nests must be tested in village practice. Survival rates of captive-raised young after release must be studied. And harvesting and recruitment schemes should be developed to secure optimum exploitation of the repopulated forests. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">34 Black Iguana</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g039a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work on green iguana husbandry may apply also to the black iguanas' (Ctenosaura similis, C. acanthura, C. hemilopha, and C. pectinata). These are similar lizards that live in dry habitats throughout Central America </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exploitation of wild black iguanas for food began in ancient times and has continued in most places over hundreds of years without much harm to the natural populations. Until the 1970s, Latin Americans could obtain the meat and eggs with little effort, and the animals sold cheaply in city markets. In recent years, however, the lizards have become scarce and prices have risen sharply. For instance, in 1976 the central market of San Salvador was selling large specimens for the equivalent of 80 cents, but by 1979 prices were generally from three to six times as much. Today, black iguana meat costs more than fish, poultry, pork, or beef.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eating small game animals is deeply rooted in the traditions of Central America and cannot readily be changed by legislation or education. Despite official edicts, campesinos on a subsistence diet will not willingly forego the little meat they get by capturing and eating lizards. Moreover, legislation is seldom effective because there are too few enforcement officials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with the green iguana, it seems likely that when the factors causing hatchling mortality are reduced, a large harvestable annual surplus can be produced. Black iguanas efficiently convert vegetation into high-grade protein suitable for human consumption. Young ones, however, are insectivorous and carnivorous rather than purely herbivorous, and during their first weeks of life may require a more expensive diet (perhaps meat scraps) than green iguanas require. Moreover, most insectivorous lizards require moving prey. They may or may not accept meat scraps as food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black iguanas are smaller and more stocky than green iguanas, but weigh up to 3 kg. Their tails are spiny and short. The scales on the tail are enlarged, grow in spirals, and are sharp-pointed. Other than that (apart from being generally greyish black in color), the two animals are similar in appearance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The different black iguana species range from northern Mexico along both coasts of Central America to Panama and Colombia's Caribbean islands. Most tolerate moderate human presence well, often thriving around town garbage dumps and cemeteries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As recently as 1981, black iguanas were shipped to markets by the truckload. Today, they are generally limited or even absent over much of their original range. Nevertheless, they are still the major game animals across extensive areas of Central America. Many of those taken are gravid females, which is disastrous for the populations. Excessive insecticide spraying is also thought to be reducing their populations in some areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black iguanas thrive in dry, open woodland. They particularly like rocky hillsides, for they depend for shelter on crevices, rock piles, or soft soil in which they dig burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These omnivores feed on foliage, flowers, and fruits, but also on insects and small vertebrates. Adults spend some of their time climbing trees, but they are much less arboreal than green iguanas. Hatchlings are initially terrestrial but have a mostly arboreal stage in their early weeks of life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females lay one clutch of 20-90 eggs each year. The eggs are much smaller than those of the green iguana and therefore are not as popular a food. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p357a.png"></center><br>
+ Distribution of the black iguana.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These lizards live in burrows or in holes in trees. A typical burrow has several entrances and is 1-2 m long. Several females may combine efforts to form a complex communal burrow with several individual nest chambers. They are such diligent diggers that many are caught while absorbed in the task of adding a new room.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some places, even where they are not common, black iguanas are still intensively hunted. Because their meat is valuable, the reward justifies the considerable effort involved in finding and killing them. Hence, where populations are so depleted that organized hunting is unprofitable, the animals are still subjected to relentless destruction by individuals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farming black iguanas is a novel idea. However, it is not a foolish one. In 1981 the Centro de Recursos Naturales (CENREN) in El </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Salvador started a black iguana farming project. Since then, its researchers have collected data on growth rates, feeding patterns, and the maintenance and reproduction of captive adults. The program offers some promise of maintaining breeding stock in large outdoor enclosures, of producing large numbers of hatchlings, and of restocking depleted areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OTHER IGUANAS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other iguanas that deserve consideration for husbandry include the rock (rhinoceros) iguana (Cyclura cornuta), a herbivorous lizard of the Antillean region. This has been raised in considerable numbers at the National Zoo of Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. Captive-bred specimens have reproduced at the age of 32 months, average clutch size has been about 15, and the average incubation time has been 82 days (at 31&Yacute;C). The innate tameness of these island iguanas renders them better adapted for captive rearing than either the green or the black iguana, and their greater size is an advantage as well. On the other hand, the length of time required to reach maturity, and the relatively small egg clutch (about half that of the green iguana and one-third that of the black iguana) are definite disadvantages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A related species, Iguana delicatissima, also deserves research and conservation attention. It occurs in the Leeward Islands and Martinique, and (as its specific name implies) is even better eating than the green iguana.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latins believe that various ailments are cured or benefited by the flesh of these lizards, so they willingly pay much more for their meat than they would for equivalent amounts of other meats. In most places where the two occur together, the black iguana is preferred over the green iguana.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with green iguana, the black iguana reproduces readily in captivity and has an even higher reproductive potential (averaging 43 eggs per clutch). It has the additional advantage that it thrives in deforested and altered habitats. It can survive near human settlements despite the attacks of dogs and cats, and it attains dense populations in suburban lots or open spaces. (It survives even downtown in cities such as Managua, but not in dense populations because dogs, cats, and humans take so many.) Hence, even in towns and cities, there are habitats capable of supporting it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black iguanas will feed on weedy vegetation or garbage, and adults seem easier to maintain in captivity than their green iguana counterparts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The long delay (probably at least two years) before the animals reach marketable size might make it difficult for the grower to compete with common meats such as poultry or fish. Certain parasitic worms can make the flesh inedible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although smaller than green iguanas, black iguanas are much more aggressive and will defend what they perceive to be their territory. They can inflict a painful bite. They also tend to escape from captivity more readily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, these omnivores depend on animal matter during part of their life cycle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biology of the black iguana deserves much more study.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management techniques developed for the green iguana should be tested for their applicability for black iguana species. Harvesting and recruitment schemes must be developed to create sustainable populations in the wild. The specific needs for feeding the young also need to be addressed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I am convinced that in the Third World, it is only when poor people are assured of their livelihood that they will help us to safeguard their natural environments. So long as people remain hungry, it is very difficult to talk to them about conservation. As a result, I believe that development and conservation are inseparable. Only when conservation takes on a dimension of helping the poor, the downtrodden, the destitute, will it have an enduring impact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.S. Swaminathan International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I suspect that wildness is an inherited characteristic as was found for the turkey by Starker Leopold. So in attempting domestication one should expect to have difficulty until there are enough animals that you can select breeding stock for quietness and tractability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ian McTaggart Cowan Emeritus Professor of Zoology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of British Columbia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle will never be extinct for the simple reason that man eats cattle. The best way to preserve wild species is by demonstrating that they, too, can be a valuable resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ernie Matteram</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York Times Magazine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife utilization should be considered a legitimate form of land use, just as much as livestock husbandry. In fact, what has happened in the past is that Man has domesticated a limited number of animals, mainly in the temperate zones, while overlooking a considerable potential of other animals, which could be domesticated or used with equal validity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antoon De Vos </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part VII Others</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted in the preface, this report by no means exhausts all the microlivestock possibilities. Lack of space and time precludes discussion of creatures such as edible insects, snails, worms, frogs, turtles, and bats, which in some regions are highly regarded foods. Similarly, we have not included fish, shrimp, and other aquatic life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not to say that these are less worthy of consideration. The decision to leave them out was arbitrary, but with several recent breakthroughs in tropical beekeeping it seems prudent to include bees. Accordingly, the final chapter of this book describes the smallest livestock of all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bees are one of the most promising microlivestock. They forage on flowers that are otherwise little utilized and produce honey, wax, and other products of high value. They are important as plant pollinators and can greatly increase the production of some crops. Bees can be kept virtually anywhere with little disruption of other activities, and they are easily available. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">35 Bees</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g040a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of all the livestock reviewed in this publication, bees are the smallest, the least demanding of space, probably the most familiar, and perhaps the most easily adapted to worldwide rural development efforts. For all that, however, they are an often forgotten component in agricultural programs. This is unfortunate because bees can be particularly valuable to tropical countries, providing pollination of crops, useful products, and a premium source of income.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost every village in every tropical country traditionally has had a beekeeper or two. Most use "seat-of-the-pants" methods and "rustic" hives, and this generally leads to low yields and inefficiencies. Today, numerous innovative methods and appropriate equipment are coming available. Many are still not widely known; however, their importance is slowly being recognized. Indeed, some developing countries are already turning bees into a valued natural resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, in less than 10 years Kenya has become self-sufficient in honey production and - despite increased local consumption - is now exporting. In seven years, Papua New Guinea has met its local honey requirements and now also exports its surplus. In only four years, Thailand increased yearly production from practically nothing to more than 1,000 tons. In Brazil, beekeeping is more widespread and production greater than before the outbreak of the African honey bee. These achievements can be largely attributed to the promotion of innovative equipment, modern beekeeping techniques, and extension support for small-scale beekeepers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees are generally easily recognized and need no description here. The major species and subspecies are all roughly similar in appearance and size. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among several hundred species of bees that store honey and pollen in harvestable amounts, only two "social" species, Apis mellifera and Apis cerana, produce multiple combs and can be kept in hives.' Given adequate forage and proper management, they can build up a honey surplus that can be harvested without harming their colonies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apis mellifera, the most widely distributed and exploited honey bee, comes from Europe and Africa. The subspecies from Europe (especially the Italian type, A. mellifera ligustica) is normally preferred because of its docility and high honey yields. It is now the predominant honey bee throughout the temperate zones of Europe, North America, Australasia, and China. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the many subspecies in Africa, A. mellifera adansonii and A. mellifera scutellata have the widest native ranges. The latter was accidently released in Brazil in 1957. It has become naturalized and has dominated the European bees formerly kept by beekeepers. By l990, it had spread northwards to the southernmost areas of the United States and southwards deep into Argentina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The docile Asian hive bee, A. cerana, is found in Asia from the Middle East to Japan and as far south as Indonesia. Although it produces much less honey per hive than A. mellifera, its overall production in many Southeast Asian countries may be greater.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees do not face extinction. However, genetic diversity is disappearing due to loss of habitat, insecticides, displacement by massproduced, genetically uniform queens and exotic breeds, destructive harvesting, and the spread of diseases and pests such as protozoans, bacteria, insects, and mites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees can exist in locations from deserts to rainforests and from near the Arctic to the tropics. They occur wherever there is nectar, pollen, tree resin (for nest building), shelter, and a little water. Heat, drought, and especially rain and humidity may curtail their activities, but a well-managed colony can survive periods of extreme adversity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees live in rigidly hierarchical colonies. Normally there is a  single queen. After mating, she begins laying hundreds of eggs a day.  Those that are fertilized become sterile females, called workers; those  that remain unfertilized develop into males (drones), whose only role is  to fertilize future queens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After two or three years the queen, worn-out, starts laying fewer  and fewer eggs, and the colony may replace her. At that time a few  female larvae are raised on royal jelly, a nutritious, little-understood  secretion that causes them to develop into queens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Workers perform different tasks as they mature. Young ones tend  the queen, guard the hive, and raise the larvae. Older ones, comprising  the vast majority of a colony's population, gather pollen and nectar and  water. Pollen provides the protein and fats, and the nectar, converted  into honey in the bee's body, provides carbohydrates to feed the colony.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bee activities are dictated by weather, availability of food,  genetics, and the overall strength of the colony. They are mediated by  chemical interactions between the queen and the workers that control  almost all behavior.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the Asian and European hive bees are relatively docile, most  of the African subspecies are unpredictable and may defend their  colonies in great numbers and with great persistence. The threat of  "killer bees" has been greatly exaggerated, however. Africans have  provided them nests and hives - and harvested their honey - for  thousands of years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Occasionally, large numbers of the bees in a colony split off from  their nest or hive. They usually cluster on a nearby tree or building,  calmly waiting for "scouts" to find a suitable new home. These  homeless swarms can be captured and will readily move into a hive  the simplest and cheapest way for beekeepers to acquire a colony.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey and beeswax are two of nature's best known and most  valuable products. Honey can be employed in hundreds of foods. It is  widely used in baking because, in addition to its flavor, it retains  moisture better than sugar or syrup, and the product keeps longer. Honey-based alcoholic beverages are popular in many parts of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beeswax also is used in many products, including candles, lubricants, polish, waterproofings, soaps, cosmetics, and electronics. Beeswax can be locally important for `'lost-wax" metal-casting and sculptures as well as batik-dyed clothing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both bee pollen and royal jelly are used in cosmetics and can be eaten. Bee venom is used medicinally, particularly in Europe and the developing world. Bee larvae are eaten raw or fried in many parts of Asia and Africa and are considered a delicacy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keeping bees means managing a colony so that it produces surplus honey or wax. Specifically this requires:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Providing a suitable hive;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Obtaining bees by collecting a swarm, transferring a wild colony, or purchasing a colony complete with an active queen;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Maintaining the colony free from natural enemies in an area that allows it to produce excess honey; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Harvesting the excess honey without weakening the colony or causing it to flee (abscond).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Few other livestock enterprises require less capital, less space, or less attention. Moreover, scarcely any other provides higher quality, more marketable products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beekeeping is a respected and traditional activity in most areas of the world. It promotes self-reliance and requires little, if any, land or money. It is an easy-entry cottage industry that can be started with minimal equipment or training. It can be done by any member of a family as it requires no special strength or size. It is especially appropriate for increasing women's income in the many areas where men are away working.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beekeeping is suited to remote areas where many agricultural enterprises are at a competitive disadvantage because their products are bulky and far from the markets. Honey, wax, pollen, and other bee products can all be sold far from their point of origin, have high monetary value for their weight, and generally find a ready market. Local honeys often command premium prices (in part because many of them are considered medicinal). In addition, beekeeping encourages people to remain in rural areas rather than move to the city in search of an income.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pollination increases the productivity of many crops, and therefore a few hives can boost local food production. By rotating hives among farmers' fields and orchards, a beekeeper performs a valuable service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beekeeping is also an important adjunct to reforestation and desert reclamation projects. It can provide income during the long wait for the trees to reach marketable size. Many forests are potential reservoirs of honey and other products. In some cases, the bees also enhance the fruitfulness and standing value of forests. They also increase pollination in tree-seed orchards and tree nurseries. And in newly established forests, bees improve reseeding potential. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BETTER BEEHIVES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So many hives have been developed in recent years that a design now exists for almost any level of expertise. One of the most important for Third World beekeeping is the top-bar hive. This crate-like box, derived from an ancient Greek design, incorporates modern beekeeping principles but adds the innovation of sloping sides. Beneath its lid are removable boards (top bars) from which the bees hang the combs (because the sides are sloping the bees do not attach the edges of the comb to them). By lifting a top bar, the comb can be inspected and handled - and the honey harvested - with little disturbance to the colony.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This simple hive can make beekeeping accessible to even the poorest people. It is easy to build and use, and can be locally constructed from scrap lumber. It is well suited for raising most types of honey bees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More elaborate and productive is the African long hive. In addition to having top bars, this square-sided box has removable frames within which the bees build their comb.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most elaborate is the Langstroth hive - the type most common in temperate zones.* These yield the most honey. They can be made only where there are facilities for precise carpentry, where durable, nonwarping parts are available, and where there are good extension services to aid and assist beekeepers. Although traditional Langstroth hives are demanding to build and maintain, simplified designs have been created for use in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STINGLESS BEES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By far the most common bees in the tropics, perhaps in the  world, are bees that cannot sting. Their stingers are so akophied  as to be essentially nonexistent (but some can deliver a pretty  fierce bite). They live in colonies and store their honey in wax  pots, some as large as egg cups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stingless bees can be abundant. In a two-block area in  downtown Panama City, 150 nests have been counted. However,  many species depend on trees and their populations are  plummeting as more and more tropical forests are felled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like honey bees, stingless bees have been "domesticated." For  thousands of years in the tropical Americas, Indians have raised  them in special hives made out of logs, gourds, clay pots, and  other simple containers. Cortes reported in 1519 that Indians on  the island of Cozumel, the now popular tourist spot off the east  coast of Yucatan, practiced beekeeping. That was almost 300 years  before the European honeybee was introduced. A popular Mayan  drink was honey wine, and Mayan beekeepers carved stone  earplugs to keep these bees out of their ears.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey from stingless bees has less sugar than normal honey.  However, it is usually more tasty. It is used throughout the  tropics: the Americas, Central Africa, and Southeast Asia, for  instance. Normally, the nests are just robbed, which devastates  the bees because the queen cannot fly, and when she is disturbed  the colony dies. In some areas people open a little hole in the nest.  By putting in a plug, they can then harvest honey a couple of  times a year without destroying the colony.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, a few scientists are reconsidering stingless beekeeping.  In the state of Maranhao in Brazil, an area of crushing poverty,  biologist Warwick Kerr is harnessing stingless bees. He began  after learning that peasants were spending a third of their meager  incomes buying sugar. As part of his experiments, he keeps 60  hives stacked in his garage on the outskirts of the city of San Luis.  (A notable feature of these bees is that there is no prohibition  against keeping them in populated areas.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kerr has found that stingless bees can be made to produce well.  After years of experimenting with different-sized boxes, he can  now obtain more than 4.5 lifers of honey per hive per year. He  reports that the stingless bees are easy to maintain, and can be  raised by poor peoole without land or equipment.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared to raising four-footed livestock, beekeeping is inexpensive and fairly trouble free, but it is not without problems. Many things can go wrong, and include, for example:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Losses. Bees are susceptible to various predators, pests, and diseases. Although ways to avoid or control most afflictions are available, once a colony becomes infested it may have to be destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Theft. Hives or combs - usually kept in secluded areas - that are full of honey are tempting targets and may be stolen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Swarming and absconding. Some or all of the bees may leave a hive and start a new nest, taking even the honey with them.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Bad management. Beekeeping requires certain skills and knowledge, and sometimes frequent attention (such as when the colony is stressed, diseased, or swarming).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Lack of equipment. Beekeepers need hives, smokers (to quiet and repel the bees), hive tools, and - advisable but not absolutely necessary - gloves and a veil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Inadequate storage. Some areas lack the knowledge or the bottles in which to store liquid honey.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Pesticides and herbicides. Nectar- and pollen-collecting bees are vulnerable to insecticides, which farmers may apply (often inappropriately) at the time their crops are flowering. Herbicides can destroy important sources of bee forage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Neighborhood concerns. Bees can sting people and livestock. Although wild bees (and other insects) are the principal culprits, the beekeeper is often blamed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Stressful conditions. When rainfall, aridity, heat, or cold are excessive, bees often cannot produce surplus honey.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surprisingly, much remains to be learned about the natural science of bees. Although some of the research requires sophisticated equipment and facilities, much can (or must) be performed locally by beekeepers because many factors - such as colony behavior, foraging habits, and microclimatic adaptation - depend on the local conditions. This research may include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Adaptation. The provision of locally adapted bee varieties is an important basis for developing advanced beekeeping. This can be done by selecting an appropriate local queen. Further, local breeding of queens and workers lessens the probability of importing exotic diseases and pests. Recent developments promise to move the mass production of queens and workers from the realm of high technology to common practice.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Integration. Continued developments in beekeeping cannot succeed without research, promotion, education, training, and extension services. These are essential for integrating beekeeping with agriculture and reforestation efforts. Thus, descriptions of agronomic plants should always include pollination requirements as well as nectar and pollen potentials. Planting nectar- and pollen-producing firewood species would increase the number of bees, which would in turn help ensure forest survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Bee plants. There is still much to be understood about the relative qualities that different plants bring to beekeeping. Recently, many valuable bee-forage plants have been identified.5 These deserve special consideration in any reforestation or beautification projects. Broad introduction of these plants may also encourage beekeeping that could produce high-value "specialty" honeys or ensure more continuous production of honey. There may also be a place for "bee farms," where every plant is bee forage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- New bee species. Nontraditional species of Apis as well as other members of the bee family (such as Anthophora, Bombus, Megachilae, Nomia, Osmia, Xylocopa, and especially Trigona and Melipona, which are stingless) should be studied to determine their role in pollination and - for some species - their further exploitation for honey. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A Selected Readings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A small selection follows of books and articles that are not too  difficult to locate and that will help readers explore each topic further. Obscure documents are accompanied by an address from which readers can obtain a reprint or photocopy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GENERAL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grzimek, B. 1975. Animal Life Encyclopedia. Vol. 1-13. Van Nostrand Reinhold  Company, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robbins, C.T. 1983. Wildlife Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICROBREEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. 1988. A World Dictionary of Livestock Breeds, Types and Varieties.  Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK. Microcattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barnard, J.P. and J.P. Venter. 1983. Indigenous and Exotic Beef Cattle in South West  Africa - A Progress Report. Available from Department of Agriculture and Nature  Conservation, PB 13184, Windhoek 9000, Namibia. (Sanga)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu. 1984. Livestock Breeds of China. FAO Animal Production and Health  Paper 46. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 217 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cole, H.H. and W.N. Garrett, eds. 1974. Animal Agriculture. 2nd edition. W.H. Freeman  and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Epstein, H. and l.L. Mason. 1984. Cattle. Pages 6-27 in Evolution of Domesticated  Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Felius, M. 1985. Genus Bos: Cattle Breeds of the World. MSD-AGVET, Merck and Co.,  Rahway, New Jersey. 234 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gryseels, G. 1980. Improving Livestock and Farm Production in the Ethiopian Highlands:  Initial Results. ILCA study. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa,  Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1979. Trypanotolerant Livestock in West and Central Africa. Vol. 1, General Study.  International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joshi, N.R. and R.W. Phillips. 1953. Zebu Cattle of India and Pakistan. FAO Agricultural  Study No. 19. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 297 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joshi, N.R., E.A. McLaughlin, and R.W. Phillips. 1957. Types and Breeds of African  Cattle. FAO Agricultural Study No. 37. Food and Agriculture Organization of the  United Nations, Rome. 297 pp. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Koger, M., T.J. Cunha, and A.C. Warnick, eds. 1973. Crossbreeding Beef Cattle. Series 2. University of Florida Press, Gainesville, Florida, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Martinez Balboa, A. 1980. La Ganaderia en Baja California Sur. Vol. 1. Editorial J.B. La Paz, BCS: Mexico. 229 pp. (Criollo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. and J.P. Maule. The Indigenous Livestock of Eastern and Southern Africa. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maule, J.P. 1989. The Cattle of the Tropics. Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Edinburgh University, Edinburgh, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McDowell, L.R., ed. 1985. Nutrition of Grazing Ruminants in Warm Climates. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McDowell, R.E. 1972. Improvement of Livestock Production in Warm Climates. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McDowell, R.E. 1983. Strategy for Improving Beef and Dairy Cattle in the Tropics. Cornell International Agricultural mimeo. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miller, W.J. 1979. Dairy Cattle Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council. 1980. Animal Science in China. CSCPRC Report No. 12. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council. 1981. Effect of Environment on Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perry, T.W. 1980. Beef Cattle Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rollinson, D.H.L. 1984. Bali cattle. Pages 28-34 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rouse, J.E. 1970. World Cattle. Vol. 1, Cattle of Europe, South America, Australia, and New Zealand. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rouse, J.E. 1970. World Cattle. Vol. 2, Cattle of Africa and Asia. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rouse, J.E. 1973. World Cattle. Vol.3, Cattle of North America. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rouse, J.E. 1977. The Criollo-Spanish Cattle in the Americas. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, USA. 303 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shirley, R.L. 1986. Nitrogen and Energy Nutrition of Ruminants. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thrower, W.R. 1954. The Dexter Cow. Revised third impression, 1980. The Spaulding Press, Bethel, Vermont, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G. and W.J.A. Payne. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Acharya, R.M. 1982. Sheep and Goat Breeds of India. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 30. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ademosun, A.A. 1985. Capra spp.: The Emblem of Anarchy - The King-Pin of Man's Pastoral Life. Ife Lectures No. 3. University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu. 1984. Livestock Breeds of China. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 46. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 217 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cole, H.H. and W.N. Garrett. 1980. Animal Agriculture. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copland, J.W. 1985. Goat Production and Research in the Tropics. Proceedings of a workshop held at the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, February 6-8, 1984. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) Proceedings Series No. 7, 118 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C. and M. Burns. 1983. Goat Production in the Tropics. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK. 83 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C. and G.L. McLeroy. 1983. Goat and Sheep Production in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London. 271 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C. and J.E. Owen. 1983. Quantitative and qualitative aspects of meat production from goats. World Animal Review (FAO) 47:19-29.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fielding, D. Goat-keeping in Mauritius. Sonderdruck aus Zeitschrift fur Tierzuchtung und Zuchtungsbiologie. Vol 97(1)(1980):21-27.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gall, C., ed. 1981. Goat Production. Academic Press, London. 619 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haenlein, G.F.W. and D.L. Ace. 1983. Goat Extension Handbook. University of Delaware Cooperative Extension Service, Newark, Delaware, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Husnain, H.V. 1985. Sheep and Goats in Pakistan. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 56. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Development Research Centre (IDRC). Small Ruminant Production Systems in South and Southeast Asia, C. Devendra, ed. Proceedings of a workshop held in Bogor, Indonesia, October 6-10, 1986, cosponsored by the Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Program. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1983. Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in Sheep and Goats, D.H. Hill, ed. Proceedings of the International Workshop held at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria, September 24-26, 1980. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1985. Sheep and Goats in Humid West Africa. Proceedings of the International Workshop held in Ibadan, Nigeria, January 23-26, 1984. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1979. Trypanotolerant Livestock in West and Central Africa. Vol. 1, General Study. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">King, J.W.B., ed. 1988. Directory of Research on Sheep and Goats. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux International, Wallingford, Oxford, UK. 271 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. 1981. Breeds. Pages 57-110 in Goat Production, C. Gall, ed. Academic Press, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. 1984. Goat. Pages 85-99 in Evolution of the Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. and J.P. Maule. 1960. The Indigenous Livestock of Eastern and Southern Africa. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council, 1980. Animal Science in China. CSCPRC Report No. 12. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W., R.G. Johnson, and R.T. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Goat Production and Disease. January 10-15, 1982, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona. Copies can be obtained from Kent Leach, Dairy Goat Journal, P.O. Box 1808, Scottsdale, Arizona 85252, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G. and W.J.A. Payne. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilson, R.T., T. Murayi, and A. Rocha. 1989. Indigenous African small ruminant strains with potentially high reproductive performance. Small Ruminant Research 2: 107-117.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Winrock International, 1984. Sheep and Goats in Developing Countries. Winrock International Technical Paper. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Acharya, R.M. 1982. Sheep and Goat Breeds of lndia. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 30. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carles, A.B. 1983. Sheep Production in the Tropics. Oxford University Press, London. 213 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu. 1984. Livestock Breeds of China. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 46. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 217 pp. Cole, H.H. and W.N. Garrett. 1980. Animal Agriculture. W.H. Freeman and Company,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Francisco, Calffornia, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C. and G.L. McLeroy. 1983. Goat and Sheep Production in the Tropics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Longman, London. 271 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitzhugh, H.A. and G.E. Bradford, eds. 1983. Hair Sheep of Western Africa and the Americas. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Husnain, H.V. 1985. Sheep and Goats in Pakistan. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 56. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. International Development Research Centre (IDRC). 1987. Small Ruminant Production Systems in South and Southeast Asia, C. Devendra, ed. Proceedings of a workshop held in Bogor, Indonesia, October 6-10, 1986, cosponsored by the Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Program. IDRC, Ottawa, Canada. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1983. Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in Sheep and Goats, D.H. Hill, ed. Proceedings of the International Workshop held at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria, September 24-26, 1980. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1985. Sheep and Goats in Humid West Africa. Proceedings of the International Workshop held in Ibadan, Nigeria, January 23-26, 1984. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1979. Trypanotolerant Livestock in West and Central Africa. Vol. 1, Ceneral </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Study. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">King, J.W.B., ed. 1988. Directory of Research on Sheep and Goats. Commonwealth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural Bureaux International, Wallingford, Oxford, UK. 271 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. 1980. Prolific Tropical Sheep. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 17. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, l.L.1967. Sheep Breeds of the Mediterranean. Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Nations. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. and J.P. Maule. 1960. The Indigenous Livestock of Eastern and Southern Africa. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK. Phillips, R.W., R.C. Johnson, and R.T. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ponting, K. 1980. Sheep of the World. Blandford Press, Ltd., Poole, Dorset, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ryder, M.L. 1984. Sheep. Pages 63-85 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ryder, M.L. 1983. Sheep and hIan. Monograph. Duckworth, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Terrill, C.E. 1970. Sheep breeds of the world. (505 breeds). USDA mimeo. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 163 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whitehurst, V.E., R.M. Crown, R.W. Phillips, and D.A. Spencer. 1947. Productivity of Columbia sheep in Florida and their use for crossing with native sheep. Florida Agricultural Experimental Station Bulletin 429. 34 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G. and W.J.A. Payne. 1965. An Introduotion to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilson, R.T., T. Murayi, and A. Rocha. 1989. Indigenous African small ruminant strains with potentially high reproductive performance. Small Ruminant Research 2: 107-117. Winrock International. 1984. Sheep and Goats in Developing Countries. Winrock International Technical Paper. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaltin, B.C. 1979. The Sheep Breeds of Afghanistan, lran, and Turkey. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Micropig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu. 1984. Livestock Breeds of China. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 46. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clutton-Brock, J. 1981. Domesticated Animals from Early Times. British Museum (Natural History), London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cole, H.H. and W.N. Garrett. 1980. Animal Agriculture. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, Calffornia, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cunha, T.J. 1977. Swine Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Epstein, H. and M. Bichard. 1984. Pigs. Pages 145-162 in Evolution of Domesticated </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Krider, J.L., J.H. Conrad, and W.E. Carroll. 1982. Swine Production. McGraw-Hill Company, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. and J.P. Maule. 1960. The Indigenous Livestock of Eastern and Southern Africa. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK. National Research Council. 1983. Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. National Research Council. 1980. Animal Science in China. CSCPRC Report No. 12. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panepinto, L.M. 1986. Miniature swine in biomedical research. LabAnimal 15(8)(November/December 1986):21-27.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panepinto, L.M., R.W. Phillips, L.R. Wheeler, and D.H. Will. 1978. The Yucatan miniature pig as a laboratory animal. Laboratory Animal Science 28(3):308-313.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W. and T.Y. Hou. 1944. Chinese swine and their performance compared with modern and crosses between Chinese and modern breeds. Journal of Heredity 35:365-79.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pond, W.G. and J.H. Maner. 1984. Swine Production and Nutrition. AVI Publishing Company, Westport, Connecticut, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G. and W.J.A. Payne. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POULTRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World's Poultry Science Journal is published 3 times a year by the World's Poultry Science Association, (c/o Institut f-r Kleintierzucht, Dornbergstrasse 25/27, Postfach 280, C-3100 Celle, Germany). It has also published a multilingual poultry dictionary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry, an international journal on poultry, is published by Misset International, a department of Uitgeversmaatschappij, C. Misset b.v., Doetinchem-The Netherlands. (Address: Misset International, P.O. Box 4, 7000 BA Doetinchem, Netherlands.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry Science is published monthly by the Poultry Science Association, Inc., 309 West Clark Street, Champaign, Illinois 61820, USA. British Poultry Science, a quarterly, is available c/o Longman Group Ltd., Subscriptions (Journals) Department, Fourth Avenue, Harlow, Essex CM195AA, UK. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicken</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attfield, H.H.D. 1990. Raising Chickens and Ducks. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, Arlington, Virginia, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crawford, R.D. 1984. Domestic fowl. Pages 298-311 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ensminger, M.E.1971. Poultry Science. Interstate Printers and Publishers, Inc., Danville, Illinois, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fielding, D. 1984. The silent scavengers. African Farming September/October 1984: 11-13.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Howman, K.C. 1980. Pheasants: Their Breeding and Management. K&amp;R Books, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Huchzermeyer, F.W. 1973. Free ranging hybrid chickens under African tribal conditions. Rhodesian Agricultural Journal 70:73-75.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latif, M.A. 1985. In-Depth Analysis on the Successful Experience of Poultry Production in Bangladesh. Report submitted to FAO-APHC Regional Animal Production and Health Office. FAD/UN, Bangkok, Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matthewman, R.W. 1977. A Survey of Small Livestock Production at the Village Level in the Derived Savannah and Lowland Forest Zones of South West Nigeria. M.Sc. thesis, University of Reading, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MTrat, P. 1986. Potential usefulness of the Na (Naked Neck) gene in poultry production. [Vorld's Poultry Science Journal 42:124-142.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nesheim, M.C., R.E. Austic, and L.E. Card. 1979. Poultry Production. 12th edition. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W., R.C. Johnson, and R.J. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sainsbury, D. 1980. Poultry Health and Management. Granada, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scott, M.L., M.C. Nesheim, and R.J. Young. 1982. Nutrition of the Chicken. M.L. Scott and Associates, Ithaca, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smith, A.J. nd. Supplementation for scavenging animals. Unpublished paper. Copies available from A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somes, R. 1984. International Registry of Poultry Genetic Stocks. BuDetin 469, University of Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Storrs, Connecticut, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Araucanian</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilhelm, G.O.E. 1965-1966. La Gallina Araucana (Gallus inauris castelloi 1914). Universidad de Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile, Boletia de Concepcion 40:5-26.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duck</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A film, Duck Farmingan Indonesian Tradition, is available from the CSIRO Film and Video Unit, 314 Albert Street, East Melbourne 3002, Victoria, Australia. Soundtrack is in English or Indonesian and it is available in 16 mm or VHS/Beta Video.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attfield, H.H.D. 1990. Raising Chickens and Ducks. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, Arlington, Virginia, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clayton, G.A. 1984. Common duck. Pages 334-339 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farrell, D. and P. Stapleton, eds. 1986. Duck Production, Science and World Practice. Proceedingsofaduckproductionworkshop, November 18-22, 1985, Bogor, Indonesia. Central Research Institute for Animal Science. Available from Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Nutrition, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia. 430 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holderread, D. 1978. The Home Duck Flock. The Hen House, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97330, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kingston, D.K., D. Kosasih, and I. Ardi. 1979. The Rearing of Alabio Dt~cklings -nd Management of the Laying Duck Flocks in the Swamps of South Kalimantan. Report No. 9. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Ciawi, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Petheram, R.J. and A. Thahar. 1983. Duck egg production systems in West Java. Agricultural Systems 2:75-86.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W., R.G. Johnson, and R.J. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sainsbury, D. 1980. Poultry Health and Management. Granada, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scott, M.L. and W.F. Dean. 1991. Nutrition and Management of Ducks. M.L. Scott of Ithaca, Publisher (P.O. Box 4464, Ithaca, New York 14852, USA)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Warren, A.G. 1972. Ducks and geese in the tropics. World Animal Review 3:35-36.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yi Yung and Yu-Ping Zhon. 1980. The Pekin duck in China. World Animal Review 34:11-14.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crawford, R.D. 1984. Goose. Pages 345-349 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1983. The Goose and its Possible Use for Controlling Weeds. Small Animals for Small Farms. GAN-I. FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Casilla 10095, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holderread, D. 1981. The Book of Geesea Complete Guide to Raising the Home Flock. Hen House Publications, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W., R.G. Johnson, and R.J. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soames, B. 1980. Keeping Domestic Geese. Blandford, London. 159 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USDA Extension Service. 1983. Raising Geese. Farmer's Bulletin No. 2251. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Warren, A.G. 1972. Ducks and geese in the tropics. World Animal Review 3:35-36.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Fowl</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many research papers have been published in French, Italian, Spanish, and Russian, but few in English.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ayeni, J.S.O. 1983. Studies of Grey Breasted Helmet Guineafowl (Numida meleagris galeata Pallas) in Nigeria. World's Poultry Science Journal 39(2):143-151.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belshaw, R.H.H. 1985. Guinea Fowl of the World. Nimrod Book Services, P.O. Box No. 1, Liss, Hampshire, UK. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blum, J.C., J. Guillaume, and B. Leclercq. 1975. Studies of the energy and protein requirements of the growing guinea-fowl. Br-ish Poultry Science 16:157-168.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cauchard, J.C. 1971. La Pintade. Henri Peladan, UzFs, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chemillier, J. 1984. L'Alimentation de la Pintade. F. Hoffmann-La Roche and Cie, 52, Boulevard du Parc, 92521 Neuilly-sur-Seine, Cedex, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux. 1968. Guinea Fowl Breeding and Managernent. Annotated Bibliography No. 85. The Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics, King's Buildings, Edinburgh 9, Scotland, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leclercq, B. 1982. Alimentation des Futurs Reproducteurs Pintades. Pages 101-111 in FertilitT et Alimentation des Volailles. I.N.R.A. Edit.7 Versailles, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leclercq, R. and B. Sauveur. 1982. L'alimentation des reproducteurs pintades. Pages 113-135 in FertilitT et Alimentation des Volailles, I.N.R.A. edit., Versailles, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lukefahr, S. Raising guinea fowl. Paper available from author, c/o International Small Livestock Research Center, Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University. P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. 1985. Small-scale guinea-few! production. Pamphlet 934. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (Publications), Lion House, Alnwick, Northumberland NE66 2PF, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mongin, P. and M. Plouzeau. 1984. Guinea-fowl. Pages 322-324 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I . L. Mason, ed. Longman, London .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USDA. 1970. Raising Cuinea Fowl. Leaflet No. 519. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clayton, G.A. 1984. Muscovy duck. Pages 340-344 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">De Corville, H. 1972. La Production du Canard de Barbarie. Copies available from Institut nacional de la recherce agronomique (INRA), Nouzilly, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farrell, D. and P. Stapleton, eds. 1986. Duck Production, Science and World Practice. Proceedings of a duck production workshop, November 18-22, 1985, Bogor, Indonesia. Central Research Institute for Animal Science. Copies available from D. Farrell, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffreys, M.D.W. 1956. The Muscovy duck. The Nigerian Field21(3):108-11.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kingston, D.J., D. Kosasih, and I. Ardi. 1978. The Use of the Muscovy Drrck for Hatching of Alabio Duck &Yacute;ggs in the Swamplands of Kalimantan. Centre Report No. 7. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Richet, M. 1985. La production du canard de Barbarie. Techniques Agricoles 3770.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abs, M., ed. 1983. Pltysiology and Behavior of the Pigeon. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hawes, R.O. 1984. Pigeons. Pages 351-356 in Evolution of Domesticated Anirnals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hollander, W.F. and W.J. Miller. 1981. Hereditary variants of behavior and vision in the pigeon. Iowa State Journal of Research 55(4):323-331.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Levi, W.M. 1965. Encyclopedia of Pigeon Breeds. T.F.H. Publications, Jersey City, New Jersey, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Levi, W.M. 1981. The Pigeon. 2nd edition revised. Levi Publishing, Sumter, South Carolina, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murton, R.K., R.P.J. Thearle, and J. Thompson. 1972. Ecological studies of the feral pigeon (Columba livia). 1. Population, breeding biology and methods of control. II. Flock behaviour and social organisation. Ecology 9:835-889.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Wisconsin. 1977. Pigeons. Bulletin 4-H 135. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USDA. 1963. Squab Raising. Farmers Bulletin No. 684. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bourquin, O. 1980. Biology of rhe Quail (Coturnix coturnix Linnaeus 1758). Ph.D. thesis, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, Republic of South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katoh, H. and N. Wakasugi. 1980. Studies on the blood groups in the Japanese quail: detection of three antigens and their inheritance. Developmental and Comparative Immunology 4:99-110.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kawahara, T. 1973. Comparative study of quantitative traits between wild and domestic Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Experimental Animals 22(supplement): 138-50.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marsh, A. Quail Manual. Marsh Farms, 7171 Patterson Drive, Garden Grove, Calffornia 92641, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Academy of Sciences. 1969. Coturnix (Coturnix coturnix japonica): Standards and Guidelines for the Breeding, Care, and Management of Laboratory' Animals. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail Production Technology. Leaflet No. 13/1982. Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar, India. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somes, R.G., Jr. 1981. International Registry of Poultry Genetic Stocks. Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Varghese, S.K. 1981. Coturnix Internationalat home and in the Caribbean. Poultry Science 60:1747.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Varghese, S.K. 1982. Coturnix production proves to be a profitable business. Poultry Science 61:1560.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Varghese, S.K. 1983. Processing and yield of coturnix (Japanese quail). Poultry Science 62:1517</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wakasugi, N. and K. Kondo. 1973. Breeding methods for maintenance of mutant genes and establishment of strains in the Japanese quail. Experimental Animals 22(Supplement): I 51 -9.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Woodard, A.E., A. Abplanalp, W.O. Wilson, and P. Vohra. 1973. Japanese Quail Husbandry in the Laboratory. Department of Avian Sciences, University of Calffornia, Davis, Calffornia 95616, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berg, R. and D. Halvorson. 1985. Turkey Management Guide. Minnesota Turkey Growers Association, 678 Transfer Road, St. Paul, Minnesota 55114, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crawford, R.D. 1984. Turkey. Pages 325-334 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ensminger, M.E. 1971. PoultryScience. InterstatePrintersandPublishers, Inc., Danville,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Illinois, USA. Sainsbury, D. 1980. Poultry Health and Management. Granada, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RABBITS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Rabbit Research Center has been established at Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA. It publishes the Journal of Applied Rabbit Research, whose purpose is to convey current research information to those with an interest in commercial rabbit production. The journal describes research conducted at the center and reviews rabbit research results reported in the world's scientific literature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Founded in 1976 in Paris, the World Rabbit Science Association (Typing House, Shurdington, Cheltenhem, Gloucestershire, GL51 SXF, UK) publishes a newsletter of coming events and chronicles the progress of rabbit farming in most countries of the world. Its aims are to facilitate the advancement of the various branches of the rabbit industry, disseminate knowledge, and study problems of production and marketing. Its members represent individuals and associations in 20 countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The American Rabbit Breeder's Association (1925 South Main Street, Bloomington, Illinois 61701, USA) has published a book, Guide to Producing Better Rabbits, which contains an abundance of information concerning management and diseases of the domestic rabbit. The organization also publishes a bimonthly magazine, Domestic Rabbit, that includes a great deal of updated information on rabbit raising.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asociacion Espanola de Cunicultura (Spanish Rabbit Science Association), Now, 23 08785 Ballbona d'Anoia, Barcelona, Spain, has a set of slides for training, covering breeds, handling, pathology, and commercialization.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Report of the Workshop on Rabbit Husbandry. Copies of this report are available free of charge from the International Foundation for Science, Sibyllegatan 47, S-114 42 Stockholm, Sweden. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Working Rabbit Literature Resources File. This materia, is directed at scientists working on some aspect of domestic rabbit research. It lists methods of computer searching for scientific reports in the world's scientific literature, various types of computer literature searches, including commerciaHy available ones, and government services. It a,so includes a list of prepared abstracts. The address is D.D. Caveny and H. L. Enos, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic Rabbit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ministry of Livestock Development. 1981. Rabbit Production. Kenya Ministry of Livestock Development. Copies can be obtained from the Agricultural Information Centre, P.O. Box 14733, Nairobi, Kenya.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attfield, H.H.D. 1977. Rabbit Raising. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, 1815 Lynn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Street, Arlington, Virginia 22209, USA. 90 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bennett, R. 1975. Raising Rabbits the Modern Way. Garden Way Publishing, Charlotte, Vermont 05445, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheeke, P.R. 1987. Rabbit Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheeke, P.R., N.M. Patton, S.D. Lukefahr, and J.I. McNitt. 1986. Rabbit Production. Sixth edition. The Interstate, Danville, Illinois, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1986. Cooking Rabbits. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,  Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1986. Self-Teaching Manual on Backyard Rabb- Rearing. Food and Agriculture  Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Latin America and the  Caribbean, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1986. Backyard Rabbit Rearing: Some Basic Husbandry Practices. Small Animals  for Small Farms. GAN-16. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,  Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schlolaut, W., ed. 1985. A Compendium of Rabbit Production. Gesellschaft f-r  Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) Publication No. 169. TZ-Verlagsgesellschaft mbH,  Postfach 36, D6101 Rossdorf, Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sicivaten, J. and D. Stahl. 1982. A Complete Handbook on Backyard and Commercial  Rabbit Production. CARE/Philippines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vogt, D.W. 1982. Raising Rabbits in Hawaii. Circular 499, Cooperative Extension  Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at  Manoa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agouti</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A report summarizing preliminary results in a captive-breeding project in Mexico is available from A. D. Cuaron (see Research Contacts for address).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deutsch, L.A., and G. Santos. 1984. Contribuitao pare o conhecimento do gOnero  Dasyproctareprodutao de cutiasentre cruzamente das espTcies Dasyprocta aguti,  Dasyprocta azarae e Dasyprocta fuliginosa. Congresso Brasileiro de Zoologia, II,  BelTm, 1984. Resumos. . .BelTm, SBZ/UFPalMPEC, p. 383-4/(Resumos 390). Copies  available from the authors, see Research Contacts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clark, M.M. and B.G. Galef, Jr. 1977. Patterns of agonistic interaction and space  utilization by agoutis, Dasyprocta punctata. Behavioral Biology 20:135-140.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopold, A.S. 1959. Pages 388-393 in Wildlife of Mexico. University of California Press,  Berkeley and Los Angeles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meritt, D.A., Jr. 1982. Bibliography of Dasyprocta (Rodentia). Brenesia 19/20:595-612.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meritt, D.A., Jr. 1983. Preliminary observations on reproduction in the Central  American agouti, Dasyprocta punctata. Zoo Biology 2:127-131.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morris, D. 1962. The behaviour of the green acouchi (Myoprocta pratti) with special  reference to scatter hoarding. Proceedings Zoological Society of London 139:701732.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smith N. 1974. Agouti and babassu. Oryx 12(5):581-582.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smythe, N. 1978. The Natural History of the Central American Agouti (Dasyprocta  punctata). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology No. 257. Smithsonian Institution,  Washington, D.C., USA. 52 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tribe, C.J., R. Leher, M.C.O. Doglio, M.I.L. Rebello, D.S. Mello, and E.M.M. Guimar es.  1985. Uma tentative de esclarecimento do uso de espato e estrutura social na cutia  Dasyprocta a. aguti (Rodentia). Pages 296-7 in Congresso Brasileiro de Zoologia, 12,  Campinas, 1985. Resumos. . .Campinas, SBZ/UNICAMP, 1985. (Resumo 614.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A capybara bibliography, Bibliograf a sobre Chiguires (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), is available from E. Gonzalez-Jimenez and JosT Roberto de Alencar Moreira (see Research Contacts for addresses).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aliaga Rodriguez, L. 1979. Produccion de Cuyes. Universidad Nacional del Centro del Peru, Puno.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baldizan, A., R.M. Dixon, and R. Parra. 1983. Digestion in the capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris). South African Journal of Animal Science 13(1):27-28.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gonzalez-Jimenez, E. 1977a. The capybara, an indigenous source of meat in tropical America. World Animal Review', 21:24-30.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gonzalez-Jimenez, E. 1977b. Digestive physiology and feeding of capybaras. Pages 167177 in Handbook Series in Nutrition and Food. Section G, Diets, Culture Media and Food Supplements, M. Rechcigl, ed. CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gonzalez-Jimenez, E. and R. Parra. 1975. The capybara, a meat-producing animal for the flooded areas of the tropics. Pages 81-86 in Proceedings of the Third World Conference on Animal Production, R.L. Reid, ed. Sydney University Press.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gonzalez-Jimenez, E. 1984. Capybara. Pages 258-259 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Macdonald, D.W., K. Krantz, and R.T. Aplin. 1984. Behavioural, anatomical and chemical aspects of scent marking amongst Capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) (Rodentia:Caviomorpha). Journal of Zoology (London) 202:341-360.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mones, A. and J. Ojasti. 1986. Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris. Mammalian Species 264: 1-7.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ojasti, J. 1968. Notes on the mating behavior of the capybara. Journal of Mammalogy 49:345-374.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ojasti, J. 1973. Estudio Biologico del Chiguire o Capybara. Fondo Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuaria, Caracas, Republica de Venezuela. 27 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zara, J.L. 1973. Breeding and husbandry of the capybara at Evansville Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 13:137-139.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Christen, M.F. 1978. Evaluacion nutritive de cuatro dietas mono especificas en la alimentacion del coipo (Myocastor coypus Molina 1782). Tesis. Faculty of Veterinary Science, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deems, E.F., Jr., and D. Pursley. 1978. North American Fur bearers. Maryland Wildlife Administration, Department of Natural Resources, Cheltenham, Maryland, USA. pp. 155.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CORFO. n.d. Pieles fieas. Especie coipos. Tomo 1, I! and III. Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murua, R., O. Newman, and J. Propelmann. 1981. Food habits of Myocastor coypus (Molina) in Chile. Pages 544-558 in Proceedings of rhe Worldwide Furbearer Conference, J.A. Chapman and D. Pursley, eds. Vol. 1. Worldwide Furbearer Conference, Inc., Frostburg, Maryland, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Willner, G.R. 1982. Nutria; Myocastor coypu. Pages 1059-1076 in Wild Mammals of NorthAmerica, J.A. Chapman and G.A. Feldhamer, eds. The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ajayi, S.S. 1975. Domestication of the African Giant Rat. Department of Forest Resources, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faturoti, E.O., O.O. Tewe, and S.S. Ajayi. 1982. Crude fibre tolerance by the African giant rat (Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse) (Potential sources of protein, Nigeria.) African Journal of Ecology 20(4):289-292.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faturoti, E.O., O.O. Tewe, and S.S. Ajayi. 1983. Effect of varying dietary oil levels on the performance of the African giant rat (Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse). Nutrition Reports International 27(3):525-530.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Den Hartog, A.P. and A. de Vos. 1973. The use of rodents as food in tropical Africa. Nutrition Newsletter (FAO) 11 (2):1-14.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Halcrow, J.G. 1958. The giant rat of East Africa. Nature (London) 181:649-650.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matthewman, R.W. 1977. A Survey of Small Livestock Production at the Village Level in the Derived Savanna and Lowland Forest Zones of South West Nigeria. Development Studies 24. Department of Agriculture and Horticulture, University of Reading, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tewe, O.O., S.S. Ajayi, and E.O. Faturoti. 1984. Giant rat and cane rat. Pages 291-293 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asibey, E.O.A. 1979. Some problems encountered in the field study of the grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus) population in Ghana. Pages 214-7 in Wildlife Management in Savannah Woodland, S.S. Ajayi and L. B. Halstead, eds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baptist, R. and G.A. Mensah. 1986. The Cane-RatFarm animal of the future? [Vorld Animal Review 60:2-6.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matthewman, R.W. 1977. A Survey of Small Livestock Production at the Village Level in the Derived Savanna and Lowland Forest Zones of South West Nigeria. Development Study 24. Department of Agriculture and Horticulture, University of Reading, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pich, S. and K.J. Peters. 1985. Possibilities of using the cane cutter for meat production in Africa. Unpublished manuscript. Copies available from K.J. Peters, Institute of Animal Breeding, Gottingen, Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tewe, O.O., S.S. Ajayi, and E.O. Faturoti. 1984. Giant rat and cane rat. Pages 291-293 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Let's Raise Guinea Pigs," a filmstrip on guinea pig farming, is available from World Neighbors International Headquarters, 5116 North Portland Avenue, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma73112, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aliaga Rodriguez, L. 1979. Produccion de Cuyes. Universidad Nacional del Centro del Peru, Huancayo, Peru. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aliaga Rodriguez, L. 1983. improvement of Guinea Pig Breeding as a Means of Increasing the Productivity and Production of Meat for Consumption oy the Rural Population in Peru. National University of Central Peru, Huancayo, Peru.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bolton, R. 1979. Guinea pigs, protein, and ritual. Ethnology 18(3):229-252.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Huss, D.L. 1982. Small animals for small farms in Latin America. World Animal Ret~iew (FAO) 43:24-29.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1982. The Guinea Pig and a Hypothetical Development Centre. Small Animals for Small Farms. FAO, Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loetz, E. and C. Novoa. 1983. Meat from the guinea pig. Span 26(2):84-86.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muller-Haye, B. 1984. Guinea-pig or cuy. Pages 252-257 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stansfield, S.K., C.L. Scribner, R.M. Kaminski, T. Cairns, J.B. McCormick, and K.M. Johnson. 1982. Antibody to ebola virus in guinea pigs: Tandala, Zaire. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 146(4):483-486.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anderson, S., C.A. Woods, G.S. Morgan, and W.L.R. Oliver. 1983. Geocaprornys brownii. Mammalian Species 201:1-5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Canet, R.S. and V. Berovides Alvares. 1984. Ecomorfologia y rendimiento de la jutia conga (Capromys pilorides Say). Poeyana 279:1-19.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Canet, R.S. and V. Berovides Alvares. 1984. Reproduccion y ecolog~a de la jutia conga (Capromys pilorides Say). Poeyana 220:1-20.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Howe, R., and G.C. Clough. 1971. The Bahamian hutia Geocapromys ingrahami in captivity. international Zoo Yearbook 11:89-93.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Johnson, M.L., R.H. Taylor, and N.W. Winnick. 1975. The breeding and exhibition of capromyd rodents at Tacoma Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 15:53-56.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W.L.R. 1977. The hutias (Capromyidae) of the West Indies. International Zoo Yearbook 17:14-20.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W.L.R. 1985. The Jamaican hutia or Indian Coney (Geocapromys brownii). A model programme for captive breeding and reintroduction? Symposium of the Association of British Wild Animal Keepers, 10:35-52. (Copies available from author, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rowlands, I.W., and B.J. Weir, eds. 1974. The Biology of Hystricomorph Rodents. Symposium of the Zoological Society of London, 34:1-482.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. and H. Genest. 1974. Le comportement social d'une colonide mares, Dolichotis patagonum Z. dans le Parc de BranfTrT. Zeitschrift fin Tierpsychologie 35:225-302.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taber, A.B. and D.W. Macdonald. 1984. Scent dispensing papillae and associated behaviour of the mare, Dolichotis patagonum (Rodentia: Caviomorpha). Journal of Zoology (London) 203:298-302. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paca</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A report summarizing progress in the captive-breeding project in Panama is available from Nicholas Smythe, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Box 2071, Balboa, Panama. A report summarizing preliminary results in the captive-breeding project in Mexico is available from Alfredo D. Cuaron, (see Research Contacts).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collett, S.F. 1981. Population characteristics of Agouti paca (Rodentia) in Colombia. Michigan State University, Publications of the Museum, Biological Series 5(7): 485-602.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matamoros, Y. 1982. Investigaciones preliminares sobre la reproduccion, comportamiento, alimentacion y manego del tepezcuinte (Cuniculus paca, Brisson) en cautiverio. Pages 961-992 in Zoologia Neotropical, Actas del VIII Congreso Latinoamericano de Zoologia, P.J. Salinas, ed. (Copies available from Y. Matamores, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcacha</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jackson, J.E. nd. Growth rates in vizcacha (Lagostomus maximus) in San Luis, Argentina. Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria, San Luis, Argentina. (Copies available from author, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Llanos, A.C., and J.A. Crespo. 1952. Ecologia de la vizcacha (Lagostomus maximus maximus Blainv.) en el nordeste de la provincia de Entre Rios. Revista de Investigaciones Agricolas (Buenos Aires) 6:289-378.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Rodents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butynski, T.M. 1973. Lffe history and economic value of the springhare (Pedetes capensis Forster) in Botswana. Botswana Notes Record 5:209-213.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butynski, T.M. 1979. Reproductive ecology of the springhaas Pedetes capensis in Botswana. Journal of Zoology 189:221-232.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butynski, T.M. 1984. Nocturnal ecology of the springhare, Pedetes capensis, in Botswana. African Journal of Ecology 22:7-22.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butynski, T.M. and R. Mattingly. 1979. Burrow structure and fossorial ecology of the springhare Pedetes capensis in Botswana. African Journal of Ecology 17:205-215.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kofron, C.P. 1987. Seasonal reproduction of the springhare, Pedetes capensis, in southeastern Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology 25.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rosenthal, M.A., and D.A. Meritt. 1973. Hand-rearing springhaas at Lincoln Park Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 18:206-208.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smithers, R.H.N. 1983. The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. University of Pretoria, Pretoria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Velte, F.F. 1978. Hand-rearing springhaas Pedetes capensis at Rochester Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 18:206-208. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEER AND ANTELOPE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Deer Farmer, a quarterly magazine, is published by the New Zealand Deer Farmers' Association, P.O. Box 2678, Wellington, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer Farming is the quarterly magazine of the British Deer Farmers Association (22 Levat Road, Inverness IV2 3NS, Scotland, UK).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaplin, R.E. 1977. Deer. Blandford Press, Poole, Dorset, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoffman, R.R. 1985. Digestion and feeding in deer: their morphophysiological adaptation. In Proceedings International Conference on Deer Biology and Production, eds. P.F. Fennessy and K.R. Drew. Royal Society of New Zealand Bulletin 22, Wellington, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fennessy, P.F. and K.R. Drew, eds. 1985. Biology of Deer Production. Proceedings of an international conference held February 13-18, 1983, Dunedin, New Zealand. Royal Society of New Zealand Bulletin 22, Wellington, New Zealand. Available from Royal Society of New Zealand, Private Bag, Wellington, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wemmer C., ed. 1987. The Biology and Management of the Cervidae. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yerex, D. 1982. The Farming of Deer. Agricultural Publishing, Box 176, Carterton, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kay, R.N.B. 1987. The comparative anatomy and physiology of digestion in tragulids and cervids and its relation to food intake. In The Biology and Management of the Cenvidae, C. Wemmer, ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1975. Le comportement du chevrotain africain, Hyemoschus aquaticus Ogilby (Artiodactyla, Ruminantia). Zeitschrift fdr Tierpsychologie 37:403-501.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1978. Un apertu sur l'Tcologie du chevrotain africain, Hyemoschus aquaticus Ogilby, Artiodactyle Tragulide. Mammalia 42:1-62.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralls, K., C. Barasch, and K. Minkowski. 1975. Behaviour of captive mouse deer, Tragulus napu. Zeitschrift Tierpsychology 37:356-378.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robin, K.P. 1979. Zum Verhalten des Kleinkantschils (Tragulus javanicus). Ph.D. dissertation, University of Zurich. (Copies available from K.P. Robin, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vidyadaran, M.K., M. Hilmi, and R.A. Sirimane. 1982. The gross morphology of the stomach of the Malaysian lesser mousedeer (Tragrrlus javanicus). Pertanika 5(1): 34-38.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vidyadran, M.K., S. Vellayan, and R. Karuppiah. 1983. Muscle weight distribution of the Malaysian lesser mousedeer (Tragulus javanicus). Pertanika 6(2):63-69. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wharton, D.C. 1987. Captive Management of Tragulids at New York Zoological Park. In Biology and Management of the Cervidae, C. Wemmer, ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anderson, J. 1981. Studies on digestion in Muntiacus reeves). M.Phil. thesis. Cambridge University. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barrette, C. 1977. The social behavior of captive muntjac Muntiacus reeves) (Ogilby  1839). Zeitschrift f-r Tierpsychologie 43: 188-213.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaplin, R.E. 1977. Deer. Blandford Press, Poole, Dorset, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chapman, D.I., N.G. Chapman, J.G. Mathews, and D.H. Wurster-Hill. 1983. Chromosome  studies of feral muntjac (Muntiacus sp.) in England. Journal of Zoology, London  201:557-559.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dansie, O. 1970. Muntjac. British Deer Society, Welwyn Garden City, England. 22 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1970. L'organisation spatiale et sociale de Muntiacus reeves) Ogilby 1839 en  semi-liberte. Mammalia 34:331-355.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1971. Observations Tthologiques sur le muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak  Zimmermann 1780 et Muntiacus reeves) Ogilby 1839) en captivitT et semi-libertT.  Zeitschrift fdr Tierpsychologie 28:387-427.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jackson, J.E., D.I. Chapman, and O. Dansie. 1977. A note on the food of muntjac deer  (Muntiacus reeves)). Journal of Zoology (London) 183:546-548.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lu Ho-gee and Sheng He-lin. 1984. Status of the black muntjac Muntiacus crinifrons, in  eastern China. Mammal Review 14(1):29-36.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oli, Madan K. 1986. Studies on stereotyped behavior of barking deer (Muntiacus  muntjak). M.S. dissertation, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhauvan  University, Kathmandu, Nepal. 84 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shi Liming, Ye Yingying, and Duan Xinsheng. 1980. Comparative cytogenetic studies on  the red muntjac, Chinese muntjac, and their Fl hybrids. Cytogenetics and Cell Genetics  26:22-7.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yonzon, Pralad B. 1978. Ecological studies on Muntaicus muntjack. Journal of Natural  History Museum (Nepal) 2(2):91-100.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1974. Feeding musk deer in captivity and collecting musk from the live  animal. Dongwuxue Zhazi, China 2:11-14.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1975. Preliminary experience in raising the survival rate of musk deer.  Dongwuxue Zhazi, China 1 :17-19.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bannikov, A.G., S.K. Ustinov, and P.N. Lobanov. 1980. The musk deer Moschus  moschiferus in the USSR. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural  Resources (IUCN), Gland, Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bi, S.Z., Y.H. Yan, Z.X. Qing, P.T. Sheng, Y.M. Wu, C.F. Chen, G.K. Yang, T.B. Yin,  and Y.J. Lu. 1980. Dissection and analysis of the musk gland of M. moschiferus and a  preliminary investigation into its histology. The Protection and Use of Wild Animals  (China) 1: 14-19.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green, M.J.B. 1978. Himalayan musk deer (Moschus moschiferus moschiferus). Pages  56-64 in Threatened Deer. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural  Resources (IUCN), Morges, Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green, M.J.B. 1985. The musk trade, with particular reference to its impact on the  Himalayan population of Moschus chrysogaster. In Conservation in Developir~g  Countries. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green, M.J.B. 1985. Aspects of the Ecology of the Himalayan Musk Deer. Ph.D.  dissertation, University of Cambridge, U.K. 280 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C.P. 1978. The taxonomy of Moschus, with particular reference to the Indian  Region. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 72:662-676.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holloway, C.W. 1973. Threatened deer of the world: conservation status. Biological  Conservation 5(4).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IUCN. 1974. Red Data Book: Mammalia. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), Morges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jamwal, P.S. 1972. Collection of deer musk in Nepal. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society 69(3):647-649.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seth, S.D., A. Muktiopadtiyay, K. Raghunatham, and R.B. Arora. 1975. Pharmodymamics of Musk. Central Council for Research on Indian Medicine and Homoeopathy, New Delhi, India.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zhang B. 1983. Musk-deer. Their capture, domestication and care according to Chinese experience and methods. Unasylva 35(139):16-24.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zhang, B.L., F.M. Dang, and B.S. Li. 1979. The Farming of Musk Deer. Agricultural Publishing Company, Peking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaplin, R.E. 1977. Deer. Blandford Press, Poole, Dorset, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cooke, A. and L. Farrell. 1983. Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis). British Deer Society Publication No. 2. Elvy and Gibbs, Canterbury, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feer, F. 1982. Quelques observations Tthologiques sur l'Hydropote de chine, Hydropotes inennis (Swinhoe, 1870) en captivitT. Zeitschrift fitr Saeugetierkunde 47: 175-185.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheng Helin and L. Housl. 1984. A preliminary study on the river deer (Hydropotes inermis) population of Shoushau Island (China) and adjacent islets. Acta Theriologica Sinica 4:161-166.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dittrich, L. 1972. Beobachtungen bei der Haltung von Cephalophus-Arten sowie zur Fortpflanzung und Jugendentwicklung von C. dorsalis und C. rufilatus in gefangenschaft. Zoologische Garten Lpz (N.F.) 42:1-16.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1980. L'Tcologie et la vie sociale du cTphalophe bleu (Cephalophus monticola Thunberg), petit ruminant forestier africain. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 54: 205-266.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R.l.M. and E.P. Dunbar. 1979. Observations on the social organisation of common duiker in Ethiopia. African Journal of Ecology 17:249-252.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R.I.M. and E.P. Dunbar. 1980. Animal Behaviour 28:219.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ketelhodt, H.F. Von. 1977. The lambing interval of the blue duiker, Cephalophus monticola Gray in captivity, with observations on its breeding and care. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 7:41-43.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralls, K. 1975. Agonistic behavior in Maxwell's duiker, Cephalophus max~elli. Marnrnalia 39:241-249.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schweers, S. 1984. The reproductive biology of the banded duiker Cephalophus zebra in comparison with other species of Cephalophus. Zeitschrift fur Saeugetierkunde 49(1):21-36.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whittle, C. and P. Whittle. 1977. Domestication and breeding of Maxwell's duiker. The Nigerian Field 42(4):13-21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antelope</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spinage, C.A. 1986. The Natural History of Antelopes. Christopher Helm, UK. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Klipspringer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R. and P. Dunbar. 1974. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 35:481-493.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R.I.M. 1979. Energetics, thermoregulation and the behavioural ecology of klipspringer. African Journal of Ecology 17:217-230.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R. I . M . and E. P. Dunbar. 1 980 . The pairbond in klipspringer. A nimal Beha vior 28:219-229.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dikdik</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hendricks, H. 1975. Zeitschrift fdr Tierpsychologie 38:55-69.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feer, F. 1979. Observations Tcologiques sur le neotrague de Bates (Neltragus bates) de Winton, 1903, Artiodactyle, ruminant, Bovide) du nord-est du gabon. Terre et vie 33: 159-239.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P.P. 1975. Acta Physiol. Scand. 95, 9A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P. P. 1 976 . Tritiated water turnover in Kirk' s dikdik, Madoqua (Rhynchotragus) kirk), Gunther, 1880. Zeischrift far Sadgetierkunde, Mitt. 24:318-319.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P.P. 1977. How to survive heat and aridity: ecophysiology of the dikdik antelope. Veterinary Medical Review 1:77-86.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P.P. 1977. Comparison of voluntary food and water intake and digestion in Kirk's dik-dik and suni. East African Wildlife Journal 15:41-48.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P.P. 1977. Rumen fermentation and body weight in African ruminants. Pages 141-150 in Proceedings 13th International Congress of Game Biologists, T.J. Peterle, ed. Wildlife Society, Washington, D.C., USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P. 1984. Strategies of digestion in African herbivores. Pages 222-243 in Herbivore Nutrition in the Tropics and Subtropics. F.M.C. Gilchrist and R.I. Machie, eds. The Science Press, South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hungate, R.E., G.D. Phillips, A. McGregor, D.P. Hungate, and H.K. Buechner. 1959. Microbial fermentation in certain mammals. Science 130:1192-1194.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morat, P. and M. Nording. 1978. Maximum food intake and passage of markers in the alimentary tract of the lesser mouse-deer. Malaysian Applied Biology 7:11-17.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yalden, D.W., M.J. Largen, and D. Kock. 1984. Catalogue of the mammals of Ethiopia. 5. Artiodactyla. Monitore Zoologico Italiano Supplemento 19:67-221.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIZARDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burghardt, G.M. and A.S. Rand, eds. 1982. Iguanas of the World: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Noyes, Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitch, H.S. and R.W. Henderson. 1977. Age and Sex Differences, Reproduction and Conservation of Iguana iguana. Milwaukee Public Museum Press. Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hirth, H.F. 1963. Some aspects of the natural history of Iguana iguana on a tropical strand. Ecology 44:613-615.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Klein, E.H. 1982. Reproduction of the green iguana (Iguana iguna L.) in the tropical dry forest of southern Honduras. Brenesia 19/20:301-310. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lazell, J.D., Jr. 1973. The lizard genus Iguana in the Lesser Antilles. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University 145(1):1-28.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamsitt, J.R. and D. Valdivieso. 1963. The herpetofauna of the Caribbean Islands San Andres and Providencia. Revista de Biologfa Tropical 11(2): 131- 139. (Copies available from C. LardT, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Van Devender, R.W. 1982. Growth and ecology of spiny-tailed and green iguanas in Costa Rica. with comments on the evolution of herbivory and large body size. Pages 162-183 in Iguanas of the World. Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Noyes, Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Werner, D. and T. Miller. 1984. Artificial nests for female green iguanas. Herpetological Review 15(2):57-58.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Werner, D. 1986. Iguana management in Central America. BOSTID Developments 6(1). 4 pp. (Available from BOSTID Publications, HA 476, National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burghardt, G.M. and A.S. Rand, eds. 1982. Iguanas of the World: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Noyes, Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitch, H.S. and R.W. Henderson. 1978. Ecology and exploitation of Ctenosaura similis. University of Kansas Science Bulletin 51 :483-500. (Copies available from the authors, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitch, H.S., R.W. Henderson, and D.M. Hillis. 1982. Exploitation of Iguanas in Central America. In Iguanas of the World: Behavior, Ecology, and Consen~ation. Noyes, Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iverson, J.B. 1979. Behavior and ecology of the rock iguana, Cyclura carinata. Bulletin of the Florida State Museum Biological Science 24(3):175-358.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Martinez, M.G. 1986. Habitos alimenticios de iguanas y garrobos. La Prensa Grafica, San Salvador, May 5:55. (Copies available from G. LardT, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sanchez, S.A. 1985. El garrobo. El Diario de Hoy, San Salvador June 18:36. (Copies available from G. LardT, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tegu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donadio, O.K. and J.M. Gallardo. 1984. Biologia y Conservacion de las Especies del GTnero Tupinambis (Squamata, Sauria Teiidae) en la Republica Argentina. Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales 'Bernardino Rivadavia" Zoologia, 13(11):117-127. Agosto.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Revision Bibliografica de algunos aspectos de la Biologfa conservacion y explotacion de los lagartos del gTnero topinambis (Daudin, 1803) by Laura Venturino, Dr. Thesis, Universidad de la Republic (Uruguay) 1983).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report to World Wildlife Fund, USA, Biologia y aprovechamiento de una poblacion de Tupinambis references, by Claudio Blanco and Leohor Pessina (1985).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the publications listed, many countries run beekeeping programs, and have literature and extension services available based on local experiences. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The International Bee Research Association (IBRA) publishes a Newsletter for Beekeepers in Tropical and Subtropical Countries twice each year. Its purpose is to provide a forum for exchange of information about beekeeping. The Newsletter is funded by the United Kingdom Overseas Development Agency (ODA) and is distributed free of charge to those in developing countries involved with beekeeping. Write to the International Bee Research Association, 18 North Road, Cardiff CFI 3DY, United Kingdom, for subscription information. The IBRA can also provide information on forthcoming conferences, grant programs, and the names of other beekeepers in your country. The International Agency for Apiculture Development (IAAD) publishes a quarterly newsletter called Cornucopia that contains articles from beekeepers around the world, especially from the developing world. It provides information on producing, selling, and manufacturing hive products on a local level and discusses agroforestry and the pest and pesticide problems of honeybees. Write to Cornucopia, c/o M. Coleman, 6N 909 Roosevelt Avenue, St. Charles, Illinois 60174, USA, for a free sample. Subscriptions are $12 a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adjare, S. 1984. The Golden Insect: a Handbook on Beekeeping for Beginners. Technology Consultancy Centre, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana, in association with Intermediate Technology Publications, Ltd., 9 King Street, Covent Garden, London, WC2 E8HN, UK. 103 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anderson, R.H., B. Buys, and M.F. Johannsmeier. 1983. Beekeeping in South Africa. Department of Agriculture BuHetin No. 394. Pretoria, South Africa. 207 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bradbear, N. and D. De Jong. 1985. The management of africanized honeybees. IBRA Leaflet No. 2. International Bee Research Association (IBRA). Available in English or Spanish from Hill House, Gerrards Cross, Buckinghamshire SL9 ONR, UK. 4 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clauss, B. 1982. A Beekeeping Handbook. Agricultural Information Service, Gaborne, Botswana. 65 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crane, E., P. Walker, and R. Day. 1984. Honey plants of the world. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1984. Proceedings of the expert consultation on beekeeping with Apis mellifera in tropical and sub-tropical Asia. 9-14 April, 1984. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Tropical Region, Paliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok, Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gentry, C. 1984. Small Scale Beekeeping. Manual M-17. Peace Corps, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IBRC. 1976. Apiculture in Tropical Climates. E. Crane, ed. Full report of the First Conference. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IBRC. 1982. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Apiculture in Tropical Climates. New Delhi, 1980. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IBRC. 1985. Proceedings of the Third international Conference on Apiculture in Tropical Climates. Nairobi, Kenya, November 5-9, 1984. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IBRC. 1988. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Apiculture in Tropical Climates. Cairo, Egypt, November 1988. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kigatiira, K.I. 1974. Hive Designs for Beekeeping in Kenya. Proceedings Entomological Society of Ontario 105:118-128.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McGregor, S.E. 1976. Insect Pollination of Cultivated Crop Plants. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 496. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 411 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Razafindrakoto, C. 1972. Beekeeping in Madagascar. UniversitT Paul-Sabaier de Toulouse, France. 123 pp. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sammataro, D. 1985. Beekeeping in the Philippines. 2nd edition. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sammataro, D. and A. Avitabile. 1986. Beekeepers Handbook. 2nd edition. Collier Books' MacMillan Co., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saubolle, B.R, and A. Bachmann. 1979. Beekeeping: an Introduction to Modern Beekeeping in Nepal. Sahayogi Prahashan, Tripureshwar, Kathmandu, Nepal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Silberrad, Roger E.M. n.d. Beekeeping in Zambia. Apimondia. Available through the International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, S. 1964. Beekeeping in India. Silver Jubilee Publication of the Entomological Society of India. Entomological Society of India, New Delhi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smith, Francis G. 1960. Beekeeping in the Tropics. Western Printing Service, Bristol UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Townsend, G.F. 1978. Preparation of Honey for Market. Ministry of Agriculture and Food Publication 544. Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Ontario, Canada.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Townsend, G.F. 1976. Transitional hives for use with the tropical African bee Apis mellifera adansonii. Pages 181-189 in Apiculture in Tropical Climates. E. Crane, ed. Full report of the First Conference. International Bee Research Association, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">B Research Contacts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section includes the names and addresses of individuals and institutions who are familiar with the animal listed. Each person has agreed to answer requests for information and advice. This personal follow-through is the main way this book can stimulate the development of microlivestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICROBREEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Ahunu, Animal Science Department, University of Ghana, P.O. Box 25, Legon, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Andres Poli, EEA San Luis INTA, CC 17, 5730 Mercedes (SL), Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.B. Bareeba, Department of Animal Science, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Bennett, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Berruecos V., School of Veterinary Medicine and Zoology, Universidad Nacional Aut6noma de MTxico, Ciudad Universitaria, Alvaro Obreg6n, 04510, Mexico D.F., Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cai Li, Animal Science and Veterinary Research Institute, Southwest College of Minority Nationalities, Chengdu, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), A.P. 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.L. Chan, B4-5 Nanyang Mansion, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Y. Cheneau, Institut d'Elevage et de MTdecine VTtTrinaire des Pays Tropicaux, Laboratoire de Farcha, BP 433, N'Djamena, Chad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.R. Cockrill, 29 Downs Park West, Bristol BS6 7QH, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.H. Conrad, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cunha, P.O. Box R, La Verne, California 91750, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.E. Deppner, Trees for the Future, 11306 Estona Drive, Silver Spring, Maryland 20902, USA (breeds of the Himalayas, East Indies)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Agriculture Food and Nutrition Sciences Division, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Tanglin P.O. Box 101, 9124 Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.l. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director, Agriculture and Forestry, PB 13184, Windhoek 9000, Namibia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.M.S. Duarte, Instituto de Investigatao Veterinaria, C.P. 7, Huambo, Angola</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Felius, Kerkhoflaan 47C, 3034 TA Rotterdam, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fleharty, American Dexter Cattle Association, R.R. #1, Box 378, Concordia, Missouri 64020. USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Garcia Lagombra, Animal Husbandry Department, Universidad Nacional "Pedro Henriquez Urena," Decanato Ciencias Agropecuarias, Km 5~/z Aut. Duarte, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Gebreab, College of Veterinary Science, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.F.W. Haenlein, Department of Animal Science and Agricultural Biochemistry University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19717-1303, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Z.B. Jensen, Animal and Dairy Science Research Institute, PB X02, Irene, Transvaal 1675, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jin Xizhen, Animal Science and Veterinary Research Institute, Southwest College of Minority Nationalities, Chengdu, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Kitsopanidis, Faculty of Agriculture, Aristotelian University of Thessaloniki, University Campus, Thessaloniki, Greece</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.E. Kodituwakku, Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.M. Konnerup, 74 North Sunrise Boulevard, Camano Island, Washington 98292, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.Y.L. Li, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, South China Agricultural College, Ghangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Loosli, 406 S.W. 40th Street, Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.B. Lwoga, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3000, Morogoro, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Martinez Balboa, Legaspy 1025, Apartado Postal 43, 23000, La Paz, Baja California Sur, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Masam, Livestock Training Institute, Tengeru, P.O. Box 3101, Arusha, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.P. Maule, Hannahfield Quarry House, 578 Lanark Road West, Balerno, Midlothian EH 14 7BN, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Mazid, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Aleppo, Aleppo, Syria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.R. McDowell, Department of Animal Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Morgan, College of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies, University of Juba, P.O. Box 82, Juba, Sudan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.B. Mpiri, Livestock Production Research Institute, Private Bag, Mpwapwa, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ni Shicheng, Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Zhejiang Agricultural University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Nikolov, Institute of Cattle and Sheep Breeding, 6000 Stara Zagora, Bulgaria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. Olson, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.W. Perry, Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Pirchner, Technical University of Munich, D-8050 Munich-Weihenstephan, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramamohana Rao, Postgraduate Studies, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soedomo Reksohadiprodjo, Department of Animai Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Sekip Blok N-42, Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.Y. Robles, Dairy Training and Research Institute, University of the Philippines at Los Banos, College, Laguna 3732, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sie Cheuxia, Department of Animal Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.D. Tillman, 523 West Harned Place, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.C.M. Trail, Livestock Productivity and Trypanotolerance Group, International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.C. Warnick, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.A. Adebowale, Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, University of Ife, Moor Plantation, P.M.B. 5029, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.A. Adeloye, Faculty of Agriculture, Adeyemi College of Education, Onjo, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.A. Ademosun, Department of Animal Science, University of Ife, lle-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.F. Adu, N.A.P.R.I., Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.A. Akinbode, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Akinsoyinu, Department of Animal Science, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Akonji, Institut de Recherches Zootechniques, Office National de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique (ONAREST), B.P. 65, Yaounde, Cameroon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baik Dong Hoon, Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture, Jeonbug National University, JEONJU, 520, Republic of Korea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S.F. Barker, Department of Animal Science, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Boateng, Cooperative Extension Service, University of the Virgin Islands, Box L, Kingshill, St. Croix, Virgin Islands 00850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.E. Bradford, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.S. Browne, Nutrition Consulting Services, P.O. Box 788, St. Thomas, Virgin Islands 00801, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.D. Bunch, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.C. Cartwright, Department of Animal Science, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), A.P. 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Agriculture Food and Nutrition Sciences Division, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Tanglin P.O. Box 101, 9124 Singapore, Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. Fitzhugh, Winrock International, Route 3, Petit Jean Mountain, Morrilton, Arkansas 72110, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.C. Foote, Utah State University International Sheep and Goat Institute, UNC 48, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.R. Gerona, Department of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.F.W. Haenlein, Department of Animal Science and Agricultural Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19717-1303, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Essa Haid, Essa International, Inc., 2550 M Street, Suite 405, Washington, D.C. 20037, USA (small East African)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Harding, Agrarian Society, Palazzo de la Salle, Valletta, Malta</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.A. Hasnath, Department of Animal Husbandry, Bangladesh Agricultural University, P.O. Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.S. Hoversland, Division of Research Grants, National Institutes of Health, 5333 Westbard Avenue, Bethesda, Maryland 20205, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Hulse, National Pygmy Goat Association, RFD #1, Fern Avenue, Amesbury, Massachusetts 01913, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.P. Husband, Department of Natural Resource Science, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, USA (bezoar, agrimi) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Hutchins, 2535 Halsted Road, Apartment 1, Rockford, Illinois 61103, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Iba+ez Herrera, Paraguay 160-Urbanizacion, Apartado 315, El Recreo, Trujillo, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Karam Shah, Livestock Experimental Station Rakh Khairewala, District Muzaffergarh, Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Katongole, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Makerere University, PO Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Kiwuwa, Department of Animal Science, Makerere University, PO Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.Y.L. Li, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, South China Agricultural College, Ghangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.R. Lincicome, Animal Parasitology Institute, U.S. Department of Agric£lture, Building 1180, BARC-East, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Chengxiang, Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science Research Institute, Guang^ dong Agricultural Academy, Guangdong, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Loosli, 406 S.W. 40th Street, Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Mahyuddin Dahan, Department of Animal Sciences, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C.H. Mandari, Livestock Research Centre, West Kilimanjaro, P.O. Box 103, Hai, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Mann, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University of Giessen, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Martinez Balboa, Legaspy 1025, Apartado Postal 43, 23000, La Paz, Baja California Sur, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Mecha, Department of Animal Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Anambra State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Metcalf, School of Medicine, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Khusahry Mohd Yusuff, Malaysian Agricultural and Research Institute (MARDI), G.P.O. Box 12301, Kuala Lumpur 01-02, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Monsi, Departments of Animal Science/Food Science and Technology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, P.M.B. 5080, Port Harcourt, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Montsma, Klomperweg 79, 6741 PD, Lunteren, Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Moore, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.M. Munyabuntu, Department of Animal Science, P.O. Box 7062, Makerere University' Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Th. Murayi, Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda, P.O. Box 138, Butare, Rwanda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.N.M. Mwenya, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Zambia, Box 32379, Lusaka, Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Nivyobizi, FacultT des Sciences Agronomiques, UniversitT du Burundi, BP 2940, Bujumbura, Burundi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Norman, Tropical Development Research Institute, 56/62 Gray's Inn Road, London WCIX 8LU, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Okello-Lapenga, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Makerere University, PO Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ramahefarison, DTpartement de Recherches Zootechniques et VTtTrinaires tCENRADERU), BP 904, Amatobe, Antananarivo, Madagascar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramamohana Rao, Postgraduate Studies, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.K. Rastogi, Department of Livestock Science, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad, West Indies </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Rasul, District Forest Officer &amp; Wildlffe Warden, P.O. Box 501, Gilgit (northern area), Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Rattner, Institute of Animal Research, Kibbutz Lahav, Israel (Sinai goat, ya-ez hybrids)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soedomo Reksohadiprodjo, Department of Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Sekip Blok N-42, Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Repollo, Jr., Palawan National Agricultural College, Aborlan, Palawan, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.Y. Robles, Dairy Training and Research Institute, University of the Pbilippines, Los Banos, Laguna 3732, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Rocha, Instituto de Reprodutao e Melhoramento Animal, C.P. 25, Matola, Mozambique</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Rodriguez, Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), Autopista Duarte Km 24, Apartado 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Nasim Siddiqi, Zoology Department, University of Peshawar, N.W.F.P., Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Shelton, Texas A &amp; M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA (criollo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Shkolnik, Department of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.C. Simpson, Cameroon Road, Prairie View A&amp;M University, Prairie View, Texas 77445, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sie Chenxia, Department of Animal Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People's Republic of Cbina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Wahome, Department of Animal Production, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Watts, Animal Science Department, Natural Resources Development College, Lusaka, Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Wood, Highland Game Farm, Route 4, Box 450, Alexandria, Indiana 46001, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.P. Husband, Department of Natural Resources Science, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microsheep</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.A. Adebowale, Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, University of Ife, Moor Plantation, P.M.B. 5029, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.F. Adu, N.A.P.R.I., Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.A. Akinbode, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Akinsoyinu, Department of Animal Science, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Amin, Jammu and Kashmis State Sheep and Shearing Products Development Board, Nowshera, Srinigar, Kashmir 190 011, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ahmad Mustaffa B. HJ. Babjee, Veterinary Services Department, Ibu Pejabat Perkhidmatan Haiwan, Kementerian Pertanian, Malaysia, Jalan Mahameru, Kuala Lumpur 10-02, Malaysia (grazing in rubber plantations)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S.F. Barker, Department of Animal Science, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, 2351, Australia (Indonesian breeds)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Boateng, Cooperative Extension Service, College of the Virgin Islands, Box L, Kingshill, St. Croix, Virgin Islands 00850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.E. Bradford, University of Calffornia, Davis, Calffornia 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Breckle, U.S. Forest Service, Alsea, Oregon 97324, USA (grazing sheep in forests)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. Bunch, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA (Iranian thin-tailed, Navajo, wild-sheep hybrids)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Carpio P., Departamento de Produccion Animal, Universidad Nacional Agraria, Apartado 456, La Molina, Lima, Peru </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), A.P. 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Cottrell, Pippin Farm, 3081 Goshen Road, Bellingham, Washington 98226, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Courtney, Veterinary Faculty, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Deller, Virgin Islands Department of Agriculture, St. Thomas, Virgin Islands 00820, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Dettmers, 5620 Longwood Avenue, Port Charlotte, Florida 33953, USA (West African dwarf)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Agricultural Food and Nutrition Sciences Division International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Tanglin P.O. Box 101, 9124 Singapore, Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.l. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Drew, Invermay Agricultural Research Centre, Private Bag, Mosgiel, New Zealand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. El Amin, Department of Animal Husandry, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Khartoum, P.O. Box 32, Khartoum North, Sudan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gholam-Hossein Erabi, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz, Tabriz 51664, Iran</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. Fitzhugh, Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development, Route 3, Petit Jean Mountain, Morrilton, Arkansas 72110, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Foote, Animal' Dairy, and Veterinary Science Department, UNC 48, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA (Virgin Islands white hair, wild-sheep hybrids)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.-H. Gueye, Centre de Recherches Zootechniques de Kolda, Institut SenTgalais de Recherches Agricoles, (ISRA), B.P. 53, Kolda, Senegal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Garcia Lagombra, Animal Husbandry Department, Universidad Nacional "Pedro Henriquez Urena," Decanato Ciencias Agropecuarias, Km 5 1/2 Aut. Duarte, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.F.W. Haenlein, Department of Animal Science and Agricultural Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19717-1303, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Henson, Bemborough, Guiting Power, Cheltenham, Gloucester, UK (rare breeds)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Ibanez Herrera, Paraguay 160 - Urbanizacion, Apartado 315, El Recreo, Trujillo, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Jewell, Department of Physiology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 ITN, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jones Sheep Farm, RR 2 Box 185-55, Peabody, Kansas 66866, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.E. Loggins, Animal Science Department, 108-D Suite, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Loosli, 406 S.W. 40th Street, Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C.H. Mandari, Livestock Research Centre, West Kilimanjaro, P.O. Box 103, Hai, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.P. Maule, Hannahfield Quarry House, 578 Lanark Road West, Balerno, Midlothian EH14 7BN, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.K. McNeal, Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Science Department, UNC 48, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Mecha, Department of Animal Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Anambra State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Monsi, Department of Animal Science, Food Science and Technology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, P.M.B. 5080, Port Harcourt, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.M. Munyabuntu, Department of Animal Science, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Th. Murayi, Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda, P.O. Box 138, Butare, Rwanda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.N.M. Mwenya, School of Agriculture Sciences, University of Zambia, Box 32379, Lusaka,  Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Ngendahayo, Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda, B.P. 138, Butare, Rwanda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Njwe, DTpartement des Sciences Animales, Ecole Nationale SupTrieure Agronomique, Centre  Universitaire de Dschang, B.P. 138, YaoundT, United Republic of Cameroon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J.A. Payne, 91 Bedwardine Road, London SE19 3AY, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington,  Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.V. Raghavan, Animal Science Department, College of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh  Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, Andhra Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramamohana Rao, Postgraduate Studies, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University,  Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.K. Rastogi, Department of Livestock Science, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine,  Trinidad, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soedomo Reksohadiprodjo, Department of Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Husbandry,  Universitas Gadjah Mada, Sekip Blok N-42, Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.Y. Robles, Dairy Training and Research Institute, University of the Philippines at Los Banos,  College, Laguna 3732, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Rocha, Instituto de Reprodutao e Melhoramento Animal, C.P. 25, Matola, Mozambique</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Ryder, c/o H.F.R.O., Bush Estate, Penicuik, Edinburgh, UK (Barbados blackbelly, wool)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sie Chenxia, Department of Animal Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People's  Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. David Simpson, Range and Wildlife Department, Texas Tech University, P.O. Box 4349,  Lubbock, Texas 79409, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.E. Terrill, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Building 005, BARC-West, Beltsville, Maryland 20705,  USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.N. Turner, Genetics Research Laboratories, CSIRO, P.O. Box 184, North Ryde, New South  Wales 2113, Australia (Indonesian breeds)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Vaccaro, Universidad Nacional Agraria, La Molina, P.O. Box 456, Lima, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Wahome, Department of Animal Production, P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Wildeus, College of the Virgin Islands, Agricultural Experiment Station, R.R. 2, Box 10051  Kingshill, St. Croix, Virgin Islands 00850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wu Jitang, Animal and Veterinary Science, Jiangsu Province Academy of Agricultural Sciences,  Nanjing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Yenikoye, FacultT d'Agronomie, UniversitT de Niamey, B.P. 10662, Niamey, Niger</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Micropig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.A. Akinbode, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,  University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Andrews, Mesoamerican Ecology Institute, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118, USA (Yucatan pig)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Ashton-Peach, Box 17, Ohaeawai, Bay of Islands, New Zealand (kunekune)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Berruecos V. Muz, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico D.F., Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Blakely, Sedgwick County Zoo, Wichita, Kansas 67203, USA (Ossabaw)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Boateng, Cooperative Extension Service, University of the Virgin Islands, Box L., Kingshill, St. Croix, Virgin Islands 00850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.L. Brisbin, Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, P.O. Drawer E, Aiken, South Carolina 29801, USA (Ossabaw)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Bustad, Veterinary School, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, 99163, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Catibog-Sinha, Forest Products Research and Development Institute, College, Laguna 4031, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), A.P. 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles River Laboratories, Inc., 251 Ballardvale Street, Wilmington, Massachusetts 01887-0630, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.H. Conrad, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cunha, PO Box R, LaVerne, California 91750, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Dederer, 712 Brown Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19123, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Dettmers, 5620 Longwood Avenue, Port Charlotte, Florida 33953, USA (miniature pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Agriculture Food and Nutrition Sciences Division, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Tanglin P.O. Box 101, 9124 Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Edgar, Greenhill, I R.D., Balfour, Southland, New Zealand (kunekune)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Hendricks, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.J. Hepburn, Swine Program, Charles River Laboratories, 251 Ballardvale Street, Wilmington, Massachusetts 01887-0630, USA (laboratory pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Holbrook, Aria Road' via Te Kuiti, New Zealand (kunekune)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.R. Hook, Jr., Sinclair Medical Research Farm, University of Missouri, Route 3, Columbia, Missouri 65203, USA (laboratory pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.O. Ilori, Faculty of Agriculture, University of If e, Ile-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. E. Kodituwakku, Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Loosli, 406 S.W. 40th Street' Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.H. Maner, Winrock International, Route 3, Petit Jean Mountain, Morrilton, Arkansas 72110, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.J. Mayer, Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, P.O. Drawer E, Aiken, South Carolina 29801, USA (Ossabaw)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Monsi, Departments of Animal Science/Food Science and Technology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, P.M.B. 508O, Port Harcourt, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Mtimuni, Livestock Production Department, Bunda College of Agriculture, University of Malawi, P.O. Box 219, Lilongwe, Malawi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.G. Mugisa, c/o Insure Consult, P.O. Box 30002, Nakivubo, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mull, 2834 Hamner Avenue #208, Norco, California 91760, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.L.R. Oliver, Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group, Jersey Wildlife Prescrvation Trust, Les AugrFs Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, UK (pigmy hog) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Panepinto, Redstone Canyon, P.O. Box 105, Masonville, Colorado 80541, USA (miniature pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J.A. Payne, 91 Bedwardine Road, London SE19 3AY, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.C. Perdomo, Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Suinos e Aves, BR 153, km 110, CP D-3, 89700 Concordia, SC, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA (Chinese breeds)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.G. Pond, Meat Animal Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Box 166, Clay Center, Nebraska 68933, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Popenoe, International Programs in Agriculture, 3028 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA (New Guinea pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.S. Reddi, CoHege of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Tirupati 517 502, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Avendano Reyes, Instituto Nacional de las Investigaciones sobre los Recursos BiotTcnicos, (INIREB), Apartado Postal 97, MTrida, Yucatan, Mexico (Yucatan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Robinson, Robinson's Racing Pigs, 5809 20th Avenue South, Tampa, Florida 336195457, USA (miniature pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Arellano Sota, Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Casillo 10095, Santiago, Chile (Cuing)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Sriramamurty, College of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Tirupati 517 502, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.M. Swindle, Comparative Medicine/Lab Animal Resources, Medical University of South Carolina, 171 Ashley Avenue, Charleston, South Carolina 29425, USA (laboratory pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Tilakaratne, Veterinary Research Institute, Gannoruwa, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Wahome, Department of Animal Production, P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wu Jitang, Animal and Veterinary Science, Jiangsu Provincial Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yong Shen Lee, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POULTRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information on poultry can generally be obtained from local ministries of agriculture or veterinary and livestock services. However, another source is the World's Poultry Science Association (c/o Institut fur Kleintierzucht, Dornbergstrasse 25/27, Postfach 280, C-3100 Celle, Germany). It has over 5,000 members from 40 national groups. Its objectives are (1) to advance poultry science and the poultry industry, (2) to disseminate and facilitate the exchange of knowledge pertaining to all branches of the poultry industry, (3) to encourage the promotion of world poultry congresses and regional conferences, and (4) to cooperate with other international organizations. It maintains working groups to explore and assess research work on tropical poultry problems. The World's Poultry Science Journal is published 3 times a year. It has also published a multilingual poultry dictionary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicken</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ben-David, Poultry Production Specialist, 5, Azar Street, Holon 58291, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.L. Brisbin, Jr., Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, P.O. Drawer E, Aiken, South Carolina 29801, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Senior Livestock Specialist, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. Couch, Poultry Science Department, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Crawford, Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 0W0, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Cuca G., Institucion de Ensenanza e Investigacion en Ciencias Agricolas, Colegio de Postgraduados, Chapingo, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.O. Hawes, Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.H. Huang, Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Fifih Floor, 14 Wenchow Street, Taipei, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.H. Ketelaars, Department of Tropical Husbandry, P.O. Box 338, 6700 A.H. Wageningen, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.A. Latif, Department of Poultry Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Martoyo, Faculty of Animal Science, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Jalan Raya Pajajaran, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.T. Moran, Jr., Poultry Science Department, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849-4291, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ochetim, School of Agriculture, University of the South Pacific, Alafua Campus, Apia, Western Samo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Parks, Route 1, Box 47-C, Brookshire, Texas 77423, USA (Araucanian chicken)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apt.810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.L. Polley, Programme DTveloppement Plateau Bateke, CBZO, B.P. 4728, Kinshasa 2, Zaire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramakrishman, Center for Advanced Studies in Poultry Science, Kerala Agricultural University, Mannuthy 680 651, Kerala, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.V. Reddy, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Ross, Department of Animal Science, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Scott, 16 Spruce Lane, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Sexton, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Building 262, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Somes, Nutritional Sciences, Box U-17, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Sunde, Poultry Science Department, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duck</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.E. Abdelsamie, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Nutrition, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ahmed, Department of Poultry Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Bande, PATI, Popondetta Agricultural College, Box 131, Popondetta, Oro Province, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.S. Bird, Cherry Valley Farms Ltd., Rothwell, Lincoln LN7 6BR, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.D. Bulbule, Central Duck Breeding Farm, Government of India, Hessaraghatta, Bangalore 560 088, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.M. Cheng, Avian Genetics Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 2A2, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Dean, Cornell University Duck Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 217, Eastport, New York 11941, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Edwards, Agricultural and Food Engineering Division, Asian Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 2754, Bangkok 10501, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Fishelson, Department of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Ramat-ave, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Floresca, Department of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte 7127, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Godoy, Ingeniero Agronomio, Simon Bolivar 2397, Santiago, Chile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Hardjosworo, Fakultas Peternakan, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Henry, Cherry Valley Farms Limited, Divisional Offices, North Kelsey Moor, Lincoln LN7 6HH, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Hollander, Route 4, Box 168, Ames, lowa 5001O, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Hoffmann, Canning, Nova Scotia BOP IHO, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.H. Huang, Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Fifth Floor, 14 Wenchow Street, Taipei, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Ibanez H., Bolivar 451, Trujillo, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Z. Jungkaro, Research Institute for Inland Fisheries, Jalan Sempur No. 1, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A.R. Kamar, Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.H. Ketelaars, Department of Tropical Husbandry, P.O. Box 338, 6700 A.H. Wageningen, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.P. Kompiang, BaliPenelitianTernak, P.O. Box 123, Bogor 16001, WestJava, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.A. Latif, Department of Poultry Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Martoyo, Faculty of Animal Science, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Jalan Raya Pajajaran, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Mongin, Station de Recherches Avicoles, I.N.R.A., Nouzilly 37380 Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.T. Moran, Jr., Poultry Science Department, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849-4291, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ochetim, School of Agriculture, University of the South Pacific, Alafua Campus, Apia, Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Pingel, Karl-Marx-Universitat, Sektion TV, Lehrstuhl Geflugel- und Pelztierzucht, 7010 Leipzig, Stephanstrasse 12, Germany </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Poernomo, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Jalan R.E. Martadinata 32, P.O. Box 52, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramakrishman, Center for Advanced Studies in Poultry Science' Kerala Agricultural University, Mannuthy 680 651, Kerala, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Retailleau, Grimaud FrFres S.A., La CorbiFre, 49450 Roussay, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.S. Sandhu, Cornell University Duck Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 217, Eastport, New York 11941, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Scott, 16 Spruce Lane, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Shingari, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Tai, Taiwan Livestock Research Institute, 112 Farm Road Shin-hua, Tainan, Taiwan 71210</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Tangendjaja, Bali Penelitian Ternak, P.O. Box 123, Bogor 16001, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tian Fuh Shen, Department of Animal Husbandry, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10764, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.S. Tsai, Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, National Pintung Institute of Agriculture, Pintung, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Romero Villanueva, Centro Tropical de Capacitaci6n Agropecuaria y Forestal, Apartado Postal #4S, Macuspana 86700 Tabasco, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildfowl Trust, Slimbridge, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yeong Shue Woh, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), G.P.O. No. 12301, 50774 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cha Tak Yimp, Poultry and Swine Unit, Department of Veterinary Services, Jalan Mahameru, 50630 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many universities have a department of animal or poultry science that should know about the culture and management of these birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Bande, PATI, Popondetta Agricultural College, Box 131, Popondetta, Oro Province, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.D. Chesterley, 4502 Loomis Trail, Blaine, Washington 98230, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Crawford, Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 0W0, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.l. Dim, Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Jackson, P.O. Box 3, Creenbank, Washington 98253, USA (weeder geese)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Fuan, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Mongin, Station de Recherches Avicoles, l.N.R.A., Nouzilly 37380, Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Ross, Department of Animal Science, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Shingari, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.R. Wilson, Poultry Science Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Fowl</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American Guinea Club, c/o Angie Papp, 620 Payne Road, New Albany, Indiana 47150, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S.O. Ayeni, Kainji Lake Research Institute, P.M.B. 666, New Bussa, Kwara State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ben-David, 5, Azar Street, Holon 58291, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.S. Brah, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">X. Colonna C., 14 Cotham Road, Bristol BS6 6DR, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Dumont, Ecole Nationale SupTrieure des Sciences Agronomiques AppliquTes, 26, boulevard Docteur Petitjean 21100 Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Etches, Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NIG 2WI, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.F. Hutton, Garaina Farms, Scrubby Creek Road, Gympie MS: 115, Queensland 4570, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.N. Johnson, Natal Parks, Game and Fish Preservation Board, P.O. Box 661, Pietermaritzburg 3200, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;:M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Michie, Poultry Husbandry Division, North of Scotland College of Agriculture, Parkhead, Craibstone, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB2 9SX, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Mongin, Station de Recherches Avicoles, I.N.R.A., Nouzilly, 37380 Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ochetim, School of Agriculture, University of the South Pacific, Alafua Campus, Apia, Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. Okaeme, Wildlife/Range Division, Kainji Lake Research Institute, P.M.B. 666, New Bussa, Kwara State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S. Sandhu, Poultry Breeder, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Shingari, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Somes, Nutritional Sciences, Box U-17, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.E. Abdelsamie, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Nutrition, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.P. Bilong, Department of Primary Industry, Monogastric Research Centre, P.O. Box 73, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. de Carville, Station de Recherches Avicoles, I.N.R.A., Centre de Tours, Nouzilly 37380, Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.D. Chesterley, 4502 Loomis Trail, Blaine, Washington 98230, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">X. Colonna C., 14 Cotham Road, Bristol BS6 6DR, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Dumont, Ecole Nationale SupTrieure des Sciences Agronomiques AppliquTes, 26, boulevard Docteur Petitjean 21100 Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.R. Gerona, Department of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barry Glofcheskie, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NIG 2WI, Canada (fly control)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread' P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Hollander, Route 4, Box 168, Ames, Iowa 50010, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Hoffmann, Canning, Nova Scotia BOP IH0, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.H. Huang, Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Fifth Floor, 14 Wenchow Street, Taipei, Taiwan (mule duck)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A.R. Kamar, Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Michie, Poultry Husbandry Division, North of Scotland College of Agriculture, Parkhead, Craibstone, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB2 9SX, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donald E. Mock, Department of Extension Entomology, 239 Waters Hall, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506-4004, USA (fly control)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Mongin, Station de Recherches Avicoles, I.N.R.A., Nouzilly 37380 Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ochetim, School of Agriculture, University of the South Pacific, Alafua Campus, Apia, Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Pingel, Karl Marx Universitat, Sektion TV, Lehrstuhl Geflugel- und Pelztierzucht, 7010 Leipzig, Stephanstrasse 12, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Retailleau, Grimaud FrFres S.A., La CorbiFre, 494S0 Roussay, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Romboli, Le Quericole, Universita Delgi Studi di Pisa 56010 S. Piero A Grado, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.S. Sandhu, Cornell University Duck Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 217, Eastport, New York 11941, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Surgeoner, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NIG 2WI, Canada (fly control)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Tai, Taiwan Livestock Research Institute, 112 Farm Road Shin-hua. Tainan, Taiwan 71210</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.M. Cheng, Avian Genetics Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 2A2, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Dillinger, 3201 Huffman Boulevard, Rockford, Illinois 61103, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Animal Science Department, FacultyofAgriculture, AhmaduBello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.O. Hawes, Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469, U.S.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA (carrier pigeons) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Hollander, Route 4, Box 168, Ames, lowa 5001O, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.A. Latif, Department of Poultry Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Y. Le HTnaff, Laboratoire de l'H(pital Avranches, Avranches, Cotentin, France (carrier pigeons)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A.R. Kamar, Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J. Miller, Department of Genetics, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Owen, 6520 Wiscasset Road, Bethesda, Maryland 20816, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Pena PTrez, Apartado Postal 23, La Nucia, Alicante, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Ross, Department of Animal Science, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.D. Roush, Green Valley Squab Farm, 1348 Green Valley Road, Folsom, California 9563O, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.S. Sandbu, Cornell University Duck Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 217, Eastport, New York 11941, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S. Sim, Department of Animal Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta TOG 2P5, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many people raise Japanese quail. Probably the best way to locate a local source is to consult local pet stores, the county farm advisor's office, university faculty of agriculture, game-bird fanciers, and the like. Finding people with local research experience is usually most useful to beginners. Coturnix International, Inc., is a nonprofit organization with primary interests in promoting small domesticated food animal production for both youth training and improved nutrition. The use of coturnix (Japanese quail) for these purposes is already well established in a number of Michigan schools and in the Dominican Republic, with special emphasis on science projects, especially where nutritional inadequacies exist. The address is Coturnix International Inc., International Headquarters, 1111 Michigan Avenue, Box 250O, East Lansing, Michigan 48823, USA. Avian Sciences Department, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.M. Cheng, Avian Genetics Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 2A2, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.E. Deppner, Trees for the Future, 11306 Estona Drive, Silver Spring, Maryland 20902, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Science and Animal Industries, Alabama AOcM University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.L. Marks, Genetics Unit, Room 107 Livestock-Poultry Building, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Marsh, Marsh Farms, 7171 Patterson Drive, Garden Grove, California 92641, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Martoyo, Faculty of Animal Science, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Jalan Raya Pajajaran, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Z. Abidin bin Mohd Noor, Department of Veterinary Services, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50630 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (chicken-quail hybrids)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.K. Pani, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar 243 122, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Pingel, Karl Marx Universitat, Sektion TV, Lehrstuhl Geflugel- und Pelztierzucht, 7010 Leipzig, Stephanstrasse 12, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Polin, Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.V. Reddy, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodale Research Center, RD #1, Box 323, Kutztown, Pennsylvania 19530, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Ross, Department of Animal Science, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Shingari, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 006, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Somes, Nutritional Sciences, Box U-17, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Tempest, Heifer Project International, P.O. Box 808, Little Rock, Arkansas 72203, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. K. Varghese, Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1225, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Wakasugi, Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusaku, Nagoya, Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.R. Wilson, Poultry Science Department, Archer Road, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Berruecos V. Muz, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico D.F., Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Crawford, Department of Animaland Poultry Science, UniversityofSaskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Cuca G., Institucion de Ensenanza e Investigacion en Ciencias Agricolas, Colegio de Postgraduados, Chapingo, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.E. Nestor, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Pingel, Karl-Marx-Universitat, Sektion TV, Lehrstuhl Geflugel- und Pelztierzucht, 7010 Leipzig, Stephanstrasse 12, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Scott, 16 Spruce Lane, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.J. Sexton, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Building 262, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Somes, Nutritional Sciences. Box U-17, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential New Poultry</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Duckett, P.O. Box 12378, 50776 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (barn owls)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.R. Marion, Department of Wildlife and Range Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA (chachalaca)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Smal, Wildlife Service, Sidmonton Place, Bray County, Wicklow, Ireland (barn owls) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RABBITS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic Rabbit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University,  P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Baselga, Departamento de Ciencia Animal, Escuela TTcnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agronomos, Camino de Vera 14, 46022 Valencia, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. de Blas, Departamento Alimentacion Animal, Escuela TTcnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agronomos, Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Castell6, Real Escuela Oficial y Superior de Avicultura (REOSA), Calle Plana Parafso, s/n  Arenys de Mar, Barcelona, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.B. Chawan, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and  Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.R. Cheeke, Rabbit Research Center, Department of Animal Science, Oregon State University,  Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Fekete, University of Veterinary Science, Department of Animal Nutrition, Budapest, Pf.2,  H-1400 Hungary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Fernandez C., Departamento de Ciencia Animal, Escuela TTcnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agronomos, Universidad PolitTcnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera, 14, 46022 Valencia, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Cervera Fras, Departamento de Ciencia Animal, Universidad PolitTcnica de Valencia, Apartado  22012, Valencia, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.J. Harris, Pel-Freez Rabbit Meat, Inc., P.O. Box 68, Rogers, Arkansas 72756, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A.B. Hundleby, Ciskei Agricultural Corporation Ltd., P.O. Box 59, Bisho, Ciskei, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. de Jong, Department of Tropical Animal Production, Marykeweg 40, 6709 P.G. Wageningen,  The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.A. Kamwanja, Bunda College of Agriculture, University of Malawi, P.O. Box 219, Lilongwe,  Malawi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Leyun, Instituto TTcnico Gesti6n Porcino (ITGP), Seccion Conejos, Ctra. del Sadar, s/n 31006  Pamplona (Navarra), Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Loliger, Lisztstrasse 20, 3100 Celle, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and  Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.P.E. Makhambera, Bunda College of Agriculture, University of Malawi, P.O. Box 219, Lilongwe,  Malawi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.I. McNitt, Center for Small Farm Research, Southern University, P.O. Box 11170, Baton Rouge,  Louisana 70813-1170, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Mgheni, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Animal Science and Production Department, P.O.  Box 3004, Morogoro, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Norman, Tropical Products Institute, Culham, Abingdon, Oxfordshire OX14 3DA, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.N. Odonker, P.O. Box 11, Tsito-Awudome, Volta Region, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.C. Onwudike, Department of Animal Science, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.G. Partridge, Rowett Research Institute, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB2 9SB, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.M. Patton, Rabbit Research Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.J. Paya, Departamento de Microbiologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Avenida Puerta de Hierro, Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. PTrez, Departamento de Reproduccion Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias (INIA), Avenida Puerta de Hierro, s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.L. Polley, Programme DTveloppement Plateau Bateke, CBZO, B.P. 4728, Kinshasa 2, Zaire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Ramchurn, School of Agriculture, University of Mauritius, RTduit, Mauritius</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.E. Reed, Box 98, Markle, Indiana 46770, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Respaldiza, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias (INIA), Departamento de Higiene y Sanidad Animal, Calle Embajadores, 68, 28012 Madrid, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Retailleau, Grimaud FrFres S.A., La CorbiFre, 49450 Roussay, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Rodriguez, Departamento Microbiologia e Inmunologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Calle Miguel Servet, numero 117, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Rodriguez de L., "Conejos" Centro de Investigacion Cientifica del Estado de MTxico A.C., Camino a Huexotla No. 5, San Miguel Coatlinchan, 56170 Texcoco, Estado de MTxico, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Schlolaut, Hessen Institute for Animal Production, Neu-Ulrichstein, 6313 Homberg, West Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.D. Semuguruka, Department of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3018, Chuo Kikuu Morogoro, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Sierra, Departamento Produccion Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Calle Miguel Servet, numero 117, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Valls, Institut de Recerce i Tecnologia Agroalimentaria (IRTA), Torre Marimon, 08140 Caldes de Montbui, Barcelona, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Zaragoza, Departamento de Genetica y Mejora, Facultad de Veterinaria, Calle Miguel Servet, numero 117, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agouti</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.J.R. Alho, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidade de Brasilia, 70910 Brazilia, DF, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.H. Baker, 302 North Strickland Street, Eagle Lake, Texas 77434-1841, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Bonilla Encizo, ICA Tibaitata, Apartado Aereo 151123, BogotG, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.D. Cuaron O., Instituto de Historia Natural, Apartado Postal No. 6, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas 29000, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.A. Deutsch, Parque Zoologico de Sao Paulo, SGo Paulo, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratorie d'Ecologie, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Frenkel, Department of Pathology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66013, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Escajadillo, Gorgas Memorial Laboratory, P.O. Box 935, APO Miami, Florida 340020012, USA OR Avenida Justo Arosemena 34-30, Apartado 6991, Panama 5, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Hallwachs, Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6018, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Hislop, Wildlife Section, Forest Division, Ministry of Food Production, Port-ofSpain, Trinidad and Tobago</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ingrand, I.N.R.A., Campus agronomique, B.P. 709, 97387 Kourou Cedex, French Guiana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.H. Janzen, Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Lavorenti, Animal Sciences Department, ESALQ Universidade de Sao Paulo, C.P. 9, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo 13.400, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.A. Meritt, Jr., 2200 North Cannon Drive, Chicago, IHinois 60614, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. de Alencar Moreira, EMBRAPA-CPATU, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, Caixa Postal 48, BelTm, Para 66000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.Ma. Rojas G., CATIE, 7170 Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Santos, Fundatao Parque Zoologico de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smith, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smythe, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Box 2072, Balboa, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O. Sousa, Department of Microbiology, Cinuad Universitaria "Dr Octavio MTndez Pereira," El Cangregio, Apartado Estafeta Universitaria, Panama City, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.B. Taber, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. Woods, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.J.R. Alho, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidade de Brasilia, 70910 Brasilia, DF, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.P. Bland, Department of Veterinary Physiology, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Summerhall, Edinburgh EH9 IQH, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Bonilla Encizo, ICA Tibaitata, Apartado Aereo 151123, Bogota, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.R. Cheeke, Rabbit Research Center, Department of Animal Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cunha, P.O. Box R, LaVerne, California 91750, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.F. Eisenberg, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Golley, Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30601, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Gonzalez-Jimenez, Facultad de Agronomia, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Maracay, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Hemmer, Institute of Zoology, Johannes Gutenberg University, Anemonenweg 18, D-6500 Mainz-Ebersheim, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Howarth, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ingrand, I.N.R.A., Campus agronomique, B.P. 709, 97387 Kourou Cedex, French Guiana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Konnerup, 74 North Sunrise Boulevard, Camano Island, Washington 98292, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Jackson, Terraza Turrado 80, 5730 Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Lavorenti, Animal Sciences Department, ESALQ Universidade de Sao Paulo, C.P. 9, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo 13.400, Brazil </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Lord, Biology Department, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, Pennsylvania 15705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.W. MacDonald, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. de Alencare Moreira, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, EMBRAPA-CPATU, Caixa Postal 48" BelTm, Para 66000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Muller-Haye, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Room F524, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Ojasti, Institute of Tropical Zoology, Apartado 47058, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas 1041A, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.L. Rondon, Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Centro de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidada Federal de Mato Grosso, Cuiaba-MT, 78000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smith, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.E. Sollod, Section of International Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafton, Massachusetts 01536, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Sunquist, Route 1, Box 1434, Melrose, Florida 32666, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.B. Taber, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.D. Thelen, FAO Regional Of fice for Latin America and the Caribbean, CasiHa 10095, Santiago, Chile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.C. Carmichael, The Museum, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1045, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Chapman, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Contreras, Universidad Cat61ica de Valpariso, Avenida Brasi. 295O, Casilla 4059, Valparaiso, Chile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.-G. Klos, Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Aktiengesellschaft, Hardenbergplatz, 1000 Berlin 30, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Lutz, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Biology and Living Resources, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. de Alencar Moreira, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, Caixa Postal 48, BelTm, ParG, 66000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Szumiec, Experimental Fish Culture Station, Polish Academy of Sciences, Golysz 43-422 Chybie, Poland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. Woods, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Research Institute, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), P.O. Box 20, Achimota, Chana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.P. Bland, Department of Veterinary Physiology, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Summerhall, Edinburgh EH9 IQH, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Brinck, Ecology Building, Department of Animal Ecology, University of Lund, S223 62 Lund, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratorie d'Ecologie, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.C.D. Happold, Department of Zoology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.C. Heymans, BP 1910, Cotonou, Benin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Kamara, c/o Njala University College, Private Mail Bag, Freetown, Sierra Leone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.H. Knight, Kalahari Gemsbok Park, Private Bag X5890, Upington 8800, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Malekani, DTpartement de Biologie, FacultT des Sciences, UniversitT de Kinshasa, B.P. 190, Kinshasa XI, Zaire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Matthewman, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School for Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Alexander, Department of Biology, Natal University, King George V Avenue, Durban 4001, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.O.A. Asibey, Department of Game and Wildlife, Ministry Post Office, Accra, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.S. Ayensu, African Development Bank, 01 B.P. No. 1837, Abidjan 01, Ivory Coast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Baptist, Institute for Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics, University of Hohenheim (480), P.O. Box 700562, D-7000 Stuttgart 70, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.Y. Bimpong-Buta, Council for Law Reporting, P.O. Box M165, Accra, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Brinck, Department of Animal Ecology, University of Lund, Ecology Building, S223 62, Lund, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Dosso, Institut d'Ecologie Tropicale, Abidjan, Ivory Coast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.C.D. Happold, Department of Zoology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Hardouin, Institut de Medicine Tropicale "Prince Leopold," Nationalestraat 155, B2000 Antwerp, Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.C. Heymans, BP 1910, Cotonou, Benin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Hutton, Garaina Farms, Scrubby Creek Road, Gympie MS:115, Queensland 4570, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Kamara, c/o Njala University College, Private Mail Bag, Freetown, Sierra Leone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Laboratoire Centrale de Nutrition Animale (LACENA), B.P. 353, Abidjan 06, Ivory Coast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.-P. Mack, Projet BTnino-Allemand Conseiller Technique auprTs du MDRAC, BP 504, Cotonou, Benin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.H.G. Martin, Department of Zoology, Kenyatta University College, P.O. Box 43844, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Matthewman, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Mensah, Responsable PBAA (Projet BTnino-Allemand d'Aulacodiculture), P.B. 2359, Cotonou, Benin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.A. Omole, Department of Animal Science, University of Ife, Ile-lfe, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.J. Peters, International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), P.O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Petter, MammifFres et Oiseaux, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle Zoologie, 55 rue de Buffon 75005, Paris, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Schr(der, Institute of Animal Breeding, Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 1, 3400 Gottingen, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.W. Thomas, Department of Biology, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec JIK 2RI, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">St. von Korn, Institute of Animal Breeding, Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 1, 3400 G(ttingen, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Walder, Presbyterian Rural Training Centre, P.O. Box 72, Bamenda, NW Province, Cameroon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.P. Bilong, Department of Pimary Industry, Monogastric Research Centre, P.O. Box 73, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.P. Bland, Department of Physiology, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Summerhall, Edinburgh EH9 IQH, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Bolton, Department of Anthropology, Pomona College, Claremont, California 91711, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Bonilla Encizo, ICA Tibaitata, Apartado Aereo 151123, Bogota, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Del Carpio R., Facultad de Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional "Pedro Ruiz Gallo," Calle Atahualpa No. 179, Apartado 48, Lambayeque, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.R. Cheeke, Rabbit Research Center, Department of Animal Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cunha, P.O. Box R, LaVerne, California 91750, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Descailleux, Laboratorio GenTtica Humana, C.P. 11010, Lima 14, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Ferguson, Overseas Development Administration, Eland House, Stug Place, London, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RC, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Frenkel, Department of Pathology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66013, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Hardouin, Institut de MTdecine Tropicale "Prince Leopold," Nationalestraat IS5, B2000 Antwerpen, Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.E. Honegger, Zurich Zoo, Zurichbergstrasse 221, CH-8044 Zurich, Switzerland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Howarth, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calffornia, Davis, Calffornia 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Jackson, Terraza Turrado 80, 5730 Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Jenkins, PNG Institute Medical Research, P.O. Box 60, Goroka, Eastern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. de Jong, Department of Tropical Animal Production, Marykeweg 40, 6709 PG Wageningen, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Kamara, c/o Njala University College, Private Mail Bag Freetown, Sierra Leone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.J. Kohun, Department of Agriculture, PNG University of Technology, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.M. Konnerup, 74 North Sunrise Boulevard, Camano Island, Washington 98292, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.E. Lacher, Jr., Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington 98225, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Feed Science and Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.C. Malik, Department of Agriculture, PNG University of Technology, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Matthewman, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.R. Moreno, Departamento de Produccion Animal, Universidad Nacional Agraria, Apartado 456, La Molina, Lima, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Muller-Haye, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Room F524, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.L. Polley, Programme DTveloppement Plateau Bateke, CBZO, B.P. 4728, Kinshasa 2, Zaire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V. Purizaga A., Alcalde del Concejo Provincial de Pacasmayo, Dos de Mayo 360, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.T. Quirante, Bureau of Animal Industry, Research Center, Alabang 3124, Metro Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.V. Reddy, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.W. Robinson, Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, Box 7621 Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7621, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.C. Allen, Hope Zoo, Kingston, Jamacia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.S. Canet, Instituto de Zoologla, Academia Ciencias de Cuba, Calle 214, esq. a Avenida 19, No. 17A 09, Reparto Atabey, Havana 16, Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Jordan, Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.L.R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les AugrFs Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Ottenwalder, Parque Zool6gico Nacional (ZOODOM), Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Woods, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.T. Blankenship, Animal Resources Center, School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27858-4354, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Jackson, Terraza Turrado 80, 5730 Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Agentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.W. MacDonald, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.H. Pryor, Jr., School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27858-4354, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.B. Taber, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paca</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. de Alencar Moreira, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, EMBRAPA-CPATU, Caixa Postal 48, BelTm, Para 66000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.J.R. Alho, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidade de Brasilia, 70910 Brasilia, DF, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.H. Baker, 302 North Strickland Street, Eagle Lake, Texas 77434-1841, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.D. Cuardn O., Instituto de Historia Natural, Apartado Postal No. 6, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas 29000, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. de Escalante, Zool6gico Nacional, Direccion del Patrimonio Natural y Cultural, San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Frenkel, Department of Pathology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66013, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Hallwachs, Ecology and Systematics, Corson Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Hislop, Wildlife Section, Forest Division, Ministry of Food Production, Port-ofSpain, Trinidad and Tobago</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.H. Janzen, Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Lavorenti, Animal Sciences Department, ESALQ Universidade de Sao Paulo, C.P. 9, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo 13.400, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Y. Matamoros, Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Nacional, Apartado 86, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Meritt, Jr., 2200 North Cannon Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60614, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.Ma. Rojas G., CATIE, 7170 Turrialba, Costa Rica </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O. Rosado, Ministry of Industry and Natural Resources, Belmopan, Belize</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smith, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smythe, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Box 2072, Balboa, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V. Solis, Union Internacional pare la Conservacion de la Naturaleza y de los Recursos Naturales, Oficina Regional pare Centro AmTrica, Apartado Postal 91-1009-FECOSA, San JosT, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. VaidTs, Centro Universitario del Norte Carrera ZootTcnica, Coban, A.V., Ciudad Guatemala 16001, Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcacha</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Bonilla Encizo, ICA Tibaitata, Apartado Aereo 151123, Bogota, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Jackson, Terraza Turrado 80, 5730 Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.L. Marmillon, Estancias del Conlara S.A., Casilla de Correo 451, 5800 Rio Cuarto, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.D. Thelen, FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Casilla 10095, Santiago, Chile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Rodents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.M. Butynski, Impenetrable Forest Conservation Project, Zoology Department, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. Flannery, Australian Museum, 6-8 College Street, Sydney, New South Wales 2000, Australia (Solomon Island rodents)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources, Maendeleo House, Monrovia Street, POB 30786, Nairobi, Kenya (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Jacobsen, Nature Conservation Division, Private Bag X209, Pretoria 0001, South Africa (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.P. Kofron, Museum of Zoology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70893, USA (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. Leary, Ministry of Natural Resources, Honiara, Solomon Islands (Solomon Island rodents)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. McLaughlin, San Diego Zoo, San Diego 92112, California, USA (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.P. Millar, Department of Chemical Pathology, Medical School, Observatory 7925, South Africa (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.D. Skinner, Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern African Wildlife Management Association, POB 413, Pretoria, South Africa ( s p ring hare )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chitton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Van der Merwe, University of Pretoria, Mammal Research Institute, Pretoria 0002, South Africa (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife Society of Zimbabwe, POB 3497, Harare, Zimbabwe (springhare) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEER AND ANTELOPE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.O. Caldecott, World Wildlife Fund Malaysia, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Chaplin, Burnhouse, Fountainhall, Galashiels, Selkirk TDI 2RX, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.W.H. Davison, Zoology Department, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Grubb, 35 Downhills Park Road, London N17 6PE, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Ruiqing, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. MacNamara, Fauna Research, Inc., 11 Park Avenue, Ardsley, New York 10502, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Muul, Integrated Conservation Research, P.O. Box 920, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia 25425, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Nordin, Bureau of Research and Consultancy, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Pathak, Department of Genetics, M.D. Anderson Hospital and Tumor Institute, Houston, Texas 77030, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.T. Robbins, Wildlife Biology Program, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164-4220, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Robin, Tierpark Dahlholzli Bern, Dalmaziquai 149, CH-3005 Bern, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.R. Schmidt, Zoological Garden, CH-8044 Zurich, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.A. Sirimanne, Singapore Zooological Gardens, 80 Mandai Lake Road, Singapore 2572</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.K. Vidyadaran, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Department of Animal Science, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wang Yingxiang, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C. Whittow, Department of Physiology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, 1960 East West Road, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Barrette, DTpartement de Biologie, FacultT des Sciences et de GTnie, UniversitT Laval, QuTbec, GIK 7P4, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Benirschke, 8457 Prestwick Drive, La Jolla, California 92037, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The British Deer Society, Church Farm, Lower Basildon, Reading, Berkshire RG8 9NH, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.O. Caldecott, World Wildlife Fund Malaysia, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 933200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Chapman, Larkmead, Barton Mills, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk IP28 6AA, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Coe, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O. Dansie, The Chapel, 2 Hobbs Hall, Welwyn, Hertsfordshire, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K. Dhungal, Department of Parks and Wildlffe, P.O. Box 860, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.J. Goss, Division of Biology and Medicine, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Grubb, 35 Downhills Park Road, London N17 6PE, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.P. Harding, Animal Ecology Research Group, Zoology Department, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Harris, Department of Zoology, University of Bristol, Woodland Road, Bristol BS8 JUG, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Heck, CatskiH Game Farm, Inc., RD #1, Box 133, Catskill, New York 12414, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. Jacobson, Fish and Wildlffe Department, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Ruiqing, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lu Houji, Department of Biology, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. MacNamara, Fauna Research, Inc., 11 Park Avenue, Ardsley, New York 10502, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.J.A. Manton, Zoological Society of London, Whipsnade Park, Dunstable, Bedfordshire LU6 2LF, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Miura, Department of Biology, Hyogo College of Medicine, Mukogawa-cho 1-1, Nishinomiya, Hyogo-ken 663, Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Muul, Integrated Conservation Research, P.O. Box 920, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia 25425, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Pathak, Department of Genetics, M.D. Anderson Hospital and Tumor Institute, Houston, Texas 77030, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.T. Robbins, Wildlife Biology Program, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Seidel, Tierpark Berlin, Tierklinik, DDR-1136 Berlin, Friedrichsfelde, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shi Liming, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Soma, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Tokyo Medical College Hospital, 1-7, Nishishinjuku 6, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160, Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Stadler, Fakultat fur Biologie, Universitat Bielefeld, 4800 Bielefeld, Universitatsstrasse 25, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.F. Taylor, Taylor Energy Company, The 2-3-4 Loyola Building, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wang Yingziang, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Wemmer, Conservation and Research Center, National Zoological Park, Front Royal, Virginia 22630, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.M. Wurster-HiH, Department of Pathology, Dartmouth Medical School, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.H. Yahner, 320 Forest Resources Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Chaplin, Burnhouse, Fountainhall, Galashiels, Selkirk TDI 2RX, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K. Dhungel, Department of Parks and Wildlife, P.O. Box 860, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. Gaston, Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa KIA OE7, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.J.B. Green, IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, 219C Huntingdon Road, Carnbridge CB3 ODL, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Grubb, 35 Downhills Park Road, London N17 6PE, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Hunter, Jr., Wildlife Department, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. Jacobson, Fish and Wildlife Department, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Kattel, P.O. Box 3070, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Riqing, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lu Houji, Department of Biology, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. McNeely, Program and Policy Division, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, CH1196 Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.W. O'Gara, Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana 59812, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.T. Robbins, Wildlife Biology Program, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164-4220, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Seidel, Tierpark Berlin, Tierklinik, DDR-1136 Berlin, Friedrichsfelde, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shi Liming, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.F. Taylor, Taylor Energy Co., The 2-3-4 Loyola Building, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wang Yingxiang, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Cooke, Nature Conservancy Council, Northminster House, Peterborough PEI I UA, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Farrell, Nature Conservancy Council, Northminster House, Peterborough PEI IUA, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Feer, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Crubb, 35 Downhills Park Road, London N17 6PE, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Riuqing, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica. Kunming Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lu Houji, Department of Biology, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.J.A. Manton, Zoological Society of London, Whipsnade Park, Dunstable, Bedfordshire LU6 2LF, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Seidel, Tierpark Berlin, Tierklinik DDR-1136, Berlin, Friedrichsfelde, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R Smith, Department of Zoology, Whiteknights Park, University of Reading, Reading, Berkshire RG6 2AH, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Stadler, Fakultat fur Biologie, Universitat Bielefeld, 4800 Bielefeld, Universitats strasse 25, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.F. Taylor, Taylor Energy Company, The 2-3-4 Loyola Building, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Wemmer, Conservation and Research Center, National Zoological Park, Front Royal, VA 2263O, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South American Microdeer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Sampath, Trinidad and Tobago Wildlffe Breeders and Farmers Association, c/o 5 3/4 Mile Mark, Penal Rock Road, Penal, Trinidad, West Indies (red brocket)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. MacNamara, Fauna Research, Inc., 11 Park Avenue, Ardsley, New York 10502, USA (pudu)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Chardonnet, Projet Petits Ruminants, B.P. 65, Atakpame, Togo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.L. Cowan, 324 Henning Building, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RI.M. Dunbar, Department of Zoology, University of Liverpool, P.O. Box 147, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Feer, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.R. Kranz, Zoological Society of Philadelphia, 34th Street and Girard Avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Lumpkin, Department of Zoological Research, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Player, Wilderness Leadership School, P.O. Box 15036, BeHair 4006, Natal, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Pond, Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, Box 7621, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Schweers, Bahnhofstrasse 29, D-6744 Kandee, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.D. Skinner, Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.E. SoHod, International Veterinary Medicine, Tufis University, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafion, Massachusetts 01536, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.C. Udell, 14934 VaHey Vista Blouvard, Sherman Oaks, Calffornia 91403, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Varga, Department of Dairy and Animal Science, 225B Borland Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.J. Wilson, Duiker Research and Breeding Centre, Chipangali Wildlife Trust, P.O. Box 1057, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Small Antelope</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Asibey, Department of Game and Wildlife, Ministry Post Office, Accra, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.I. Boshe, College of African Wildlife Management, Mweka, P.O. Box 3031, Moshi, Tanzania (dikdik)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Chardonnet, Project Petits Ruminants, BP 65, Atakpame, Togo (oribi)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K. Dhungel, Department of National Parks and Wildife, Conservation, Babar Mahal, Kathmandu, Nepal (four-horned antelope)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.I.M. Dunbar, Department of Zoology, University of Liverpool, P.O. Box 147, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK (dikdik, klipspringer)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Feer, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.M. Goebel, Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76019, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.P. Hoppe, Am Hauenstein 13, 6706 Wachenheim, Germany (dikdik, suni)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.R. Kranz, Zoological Society of Philadelphia, 34th Street and Girard Avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA (royal antelope, beira, dikdik, klipspringer, suni, four-horned antelope)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Player, Wilderness Leadership School, P.O. Box 15036, Bellair 4006, Natal, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.N.W. Oppong, UNDP/FGN/FAO Livestock Project, P.O. Box 6603, Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.R. Pritchard, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Skinner, Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa (otibi, steinbok)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.E. Sollod, International Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafton, Massachusetts 01536, USA (dikdik, klipspringer)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA (dikdik, klipspringer, four-horned antelope)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIZARDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Benirschke, 8457 Prestwick Drive, La Jolla, California 92037, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.M. Burghardt, Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ferreira, Parque Zoologico Nacional, Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.S. Fitch, Route #3, Box 142, Lawrence, Kansas 66044, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Hemley, World Wildlife Fund, 1255 23rd Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037, USA (for trade information)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Henderson, Milwaukee Public Museum, 800 West Wells Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Higginson, Voluntaria del Cuerpo de Paz, #156 6a Avenida 1-46, Zona 2 Guatemala, Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.B. Iverson, Department of Biology, Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana 47374, USA S.R. Kellert, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, 205 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.W. King, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Larde, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia Planes de Renderos, Km. 10 Col. Los Angeles 13, CP 01196 San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Marcellini, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Mora, 200 m sur Pulperia la Uni6n, Cinco Esquinas, Carrieal, Alajuela, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Ottenwalder, Parque Zool6gico Nacional, Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C. Packard, Department of Zoology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.J. Perez, Condominio Su. Antonio 7, C. San Antonio Abad, San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Phillips, Research Department, San Diego Zoo, Box 551, San Diego, Calffornia 92112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Werner, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Apa,-tado 1501-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.S. Fitch, Route #3, Box 142, Lawrence, Kansas 66044, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Henderson, Milwaukee Public Museum, 800 West Wells Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Higginson, Voluntaria del Cuerpo de Paz, #156 6a Avenida 1-46, Zona 2 Guatemala, Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.M. Hillis, Department of Biology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Larde, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Planes de Renderos Km. 10 Col. Los Angeles 13, CP 01196, San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Marcellini, National Zoologica, Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Mora, 200 m sur Pulperita La Union, Cinco Esquinas, Carrieal, Alajuela, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C. Packard, Department of Zoology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.J. Perez, Condominio Su. Antonio 7, C. San Antonio Abad, San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Phillips, Research Department, San Diego Zoo, Box 551, San Diego, Calffornia 92112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Werner, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Apartado 1501-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rock Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Auffenberg, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Auth, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cullen, Cullen Vivarium, 3401 South 16th Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53215 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ferreira, Parque Zool6gico Nacional, Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Henderson, Mi]waukee Public Museum, 800 West Wells Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.B. Iverson, Department of Biology, Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana 47374, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Ottenwalder, Parque Zool6gico Nacional, Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.A. Wiewandt, Wild Horizons, Inc., P.O. Box 5118, Tucson, Arizona 85703, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tegu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. Blanco, Direccion Nacional de Fauna Silvestre, Avenida Paseo Colon 922 2&Yacute;piso, (1063) Buenos Aires, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.K. Donadio, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, CC 220, Avenida Angel Gallardo 470, Suc. 5, 1405 Buenos Aires, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Gallardo, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, CC 220, Avenida Angel Gallardo 470, Suc. 5, 1405 Buenos Aires, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Hemley, World Wildlife Fund, 1255 23rd Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Marcellini, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.L. Marmillon, Casilla de Correo 451, 5800 Rio Cuarto, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C. Packard, Department of Zoology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Werner, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Apartado 1501-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Local Agriculture Extension Services and beekeepers are often the best source of information for beginning beekeeping. In addition, the following organizations can provide information: International Bee Research Association, 16/18 North Road, Cardiff CF1 3DY, UK; International Agency for Apiculture Development, 6N 909 Roosevelt, St. Charles, Illinois 60174, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Abt, Centre for International Agricultural Development Cooperation, Tel Aviv, Israel M. Adey. International Bee Research Association, 16/18 North Road, Cardiff CFI 3DY, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.O. Adjare, Technology Consultancy Centre, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All India Beekeepers' Association, 817 Sadashiv Peth, Poono 411 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K.N. Atuahene, Forest Product Research Institute (Ghana Forestry Commission), University P.O. Box 63, Kumasi, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.S. Brar, Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Bradbear, International Bee Research Association, North Road, Cardiff CFI 3DY, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.M. Caron, Department of Entomology and Applied Ecology, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19717, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.S. Chahal, Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Clauss, Beekeeping Survey, Kabompo, Zambia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.P. Coleman, International Agency for Apiculture Development, 6N 909 Roosevelt, St. Charles, Illinois 60174, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director, or Resident Bee Specialist, Apiary Studies, Zoological Institute, Leningrad, USSR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. DeJong, Departamento de Genetica, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirao Preto, Universidade Sao Paulo, 14.049Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Dutton, Centre for Overseas Research and Development (CORD), University of Durham, South Road, Durham DHI 3LE, UK (Apisflorea) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.H. Erickson, Carl Hayden Bee Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2000 East Allen Road, Tucson, Arizona 85719, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirao Preto, Departamento de GenTtica, 14100Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Fell, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Flottum, Gleanings in Bee Culture, 623 West Liberty Street, P.O. Box 706, Medina, Ohio 44258-0706, USA (editor)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Free, Rothamstead Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire L5 2JQ, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wolde-Semait Gebre-Wold, P.O. Box 7505, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.B. Habarugira, AHO (Apiary), Mbara Stockfarm, Beekeeping Section, P.O. Box 4, Mbarara, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.A.M. Hassan, Njiro Wildlife (Beekeeping) Research Centre, P.O. Box 661, Arusha, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Hoopingarner, Department of Entomology, University of Michigan, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1115, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.E. Kerr, Departamento de Biolgia, Universidade Federal de UberlGndia, 38400 UberlGndia, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.G. Kevan, or Resident Bee Specialist, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NIG 2WI, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.K. Kigatiia, Beekeeping Branch, Ministry of Agriculture c~ Livestock Development, P.O. Box 30028, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.C. Killins, 163 Trowbridge Avenue, London, Ontario N6J 3M2, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.M. Kiwuwa, AHL (Apiary), Department of Veterinary Services, Headquarters, Beekeeping Section, P.O. Box 7141, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Lanarolle, Apiculture Project, Bindunuwewa, Bandarawela, Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Y. Lensky, Triwaks Bee Research Center, Hebrew University Faculty of Agriculture, Rehovot 76-100, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.D. Levin, Carl Hayden Bee Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2000 East Allen Road, Tucson, Arizona 85719, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Singh Limbu, Godavari Ashram, GPO Box 50, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Mann, 14 Millimani Road, Box 20360, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.J. McGinley, Department of Entomology, NHB-105, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560, USA (Apoidea, except Apis) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. McKay, Peace Corps, American Embassy, Asunci6n, Paraguay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.D. Michener, Snow Entomological Museum, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.A. Morse, Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Morton, Morton Collectanea, University of Miami, Box 248204, Coral Gables, Florida 37724, USA (bee plants)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.G. Mugisa, c/o Insure Consult, P.O. Box 30002, Nakiuubo, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Bin Muid, Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.C. Mulzac, International Agency for Apiculture Development, 393 Decatur Street, Brooklyn, New York 11233, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.S. Najar, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Aleppo, Aleppo, Syria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.E. Nightingale, Box 23, Njoro, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Patty, Foreign Agriculture Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 6095 South Building, Washington, D.C. 20250, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.M. Phiri, Office of Chief Beekeeping Officer, P/BAC Mwekera, Kitwe, Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Pickard, Zoology Department, University College, P.O. Box 78, Cardiff CFI IXL, South Wales, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.W. Robins, GPO Box 50, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Roubik, Stop 105, Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560, USA (stingless bees)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Sammataro, 7011 Spieth Road, Medina, Ohio 44256, USA (editor, Cornucopia) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Schechtel, Cnel. Bogado/Itapua, Paraguay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Shimanuki, Beneficial Insects Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, B-476 BARC-East, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.R. Taylor, Department of Entomology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Tew, Agricultural Technical Institute, Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio 44691, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Tomasko, Pennsylvania State University, 106 Patterson Building, University Park7 Pennsylvania 16802, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Torchio, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bee Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-5310, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Wadlow, 8381 San Mateo, Ft. Myers, Florida 33907, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.W. Whitehead, International Agency for Apiculture Development, c/o 1000 Connecticut Avenue NW, #707, Washington, D.C. 20036, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siriwat Wongsiri, Department of Biology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok7 Thailand (Apis cerana) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wu Yan-ru, Department of Insect Taxonomy and Faunistics, Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, 7 Zhongguancun Lu, Haitien, Beijing, People's Republic of China </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">C BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF PANEL MEMBERS</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. PHILLIPS retired in 1982 from the post of deputy director general of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy, a post he held for four years. Among his earlier posts were that of professor and head, Animal Husbandry Department, Utah State University; senior animal husbandman in charge, Genetic Investigations, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA); chief, Animal Production Branch and deputy director, Agriculture Division, FAO; and executive director, International Organization Affairs, USDA. Among his special assignments were: serving as consultant on animal breeding to the governments of China and India for the U.S. Department of State in 1943-44; and as scientific secretary for agriculture of the United Nations Conference on Science and Technology for the Benefit of Developing Countries, in Ceneva, Switzerland, 1962-63. Dr. Phillips holds a B.S. degree in agriculture from Berea College (1930), M.A. (1931) and Ph.D. (1934) degrees from the University of Missouri, and Honorary D.Sc. degrees from Berea College and West Virginia University. He has been awarded the Berea College Distinguished Alumnus Award and the USDA's Distinguished Service Award. He is author or coauthor of some 240 scientific papers, review papers, chapters in books, and books on various aspects of physiology of reproduction, genetics, livestock production, and international agriculture. In his research, writings, and international activities, Dr. Phillips has given particular attention to breeding in relation to the environment and to the identification and conservation of valuable animal genetic resources. He is also the author of a definitive history of FAO entitled FAO: Its Origins, Formation and Evolution, 19451981 and an autobiography, The World Was My Barnyard. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU is currently senior advisor to the president of the African Development Bank. He is also president of ESA Associates, Washington, D.C., and former director of the Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. A citizen of Ghana, he received his B.A. in 1961 from Miami University in Ohio, M.Sc. from The George Washington University in 1963, and his Ph.D. in 1966 from the University of London. His research interests cover many areas of tropical biology. An internationally recognized expert on topics relating to science, technology, and development, especially in developing countries, he has also published extensively on tropical plants. Dr. Ayensu chairs and serves as a member of many international bodies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BONNIE V. BEAVER, professor of small animal medicine and surgery, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, is a specialist in animal behavior and problem behaviors, especially in domestic and laboratory animals. She received her B.S. and D.V.M. from the University of Minnesota and her M.S. from Texas A&amp;M. In addition to being a popular speaker at scientific meetings, she is the author of five books and numerous book chapters and articles. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT BENIRSCHKE, professor of pathology and reproductive medicine, University of California at San Diego, received his M.D. from the University of Hamburg, Germany, in 1948. He served on the faculties of Harvard and Dartmouth medical schools before coming to San Diego in 1970. At the San Diego Zoo he initiated a research department to advance knowledge in endangered species and now serves as a trustee of that organization. He has written on comparative mammalian cytogenetics, vanishing species, and human reproductive pathology. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROY D. CRAWFORD is professor of animal and poultry genetics at the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. He received his B.S.A. from the University of Saskatchewan in 1955, his M.S. in animal genetics from Cornell University in 1957, and his Ph.D. in poultry genetics from the University of Massachusetts in 1963. He was employed as a scientist with the Research Branch of Agriculture Canada from 1957 to 1964 in Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia. He joined the faculty of the University of Saskatchewan in 1964. He was made a fellow of the Agricultural Institute of Canada in 1986 in recognition of his teaching and research work. His research interests include single gene genetics of poultry, and conservation of genetic resources in poultry and livestock. He has discovered and studied many mutants in chickens; some of them have biomedical importance, including one shown to be an animal genetic model of human grand mal epilepsy; some of them are potentially useful in food production, including an albinism mutant that is being developed for autosexing of commercial chicken broilers. He maintains a very large conservation collection of poultry genetic resources at the University of Saskatchewan and has prepared an inventory and assessment of Canada's poultry and livestock genetic resources. Dr. Crawford is a member of the Expert Panel on Animal Genetic Resources Conservation and Management, FAO/UNEP, Rome, and is a member of the Animal Resources Committee, Canadian Council on Animal Care, Ottawa. He serves on the International Scientific Committee for the French journal GTnTtique, STlection, +volution. He is a member of the Rare Breeds Survival Trust (UK) and is a board member of the American Minor Breeds Conservancy (USA). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONY J. CUNHA, distinguished service professor emeritus, University of Florida, Gainesville, and dean emeritus, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, received his Ph.D. at the University of Wisconsin in 1944. He has given more than 100 lectures in livestock feeding and nutrition in 40 foreign countries. He served as chairman of the Animal Nutrition Committee of the National Academy of Sciences and as a member of the NAS-NRC Board of Agriculture and Renewable Resources, Latin American Science Board, and as chairman of the livestock committee of two world food studies by NAS-NRC. He served as a member of the organizing committee for the first two World Conferences on Animal Production in Rome (1963) and Washington, D.C. (1968). He served as a member of the Title XII Board of International Food and Agricultural Joint Committee on Research and as chairman of its research priorities committee 1977-1981. He is author, editor, coeditor, or contributor to 30 books and author of more than 1,423 scientific and professional articles. He is a winner of 42 campus, state, national, and international honors and awards. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID E. DEPPNER, director of Trees for the Future in Silver Spring, Maryland, has been a consultant for international development projects involving livestock and poultry management and marketing for the past 14 years. He has served in 17 countries of Asia, Africa, and Central America. He has written on processing livestock rations under tropical conditions and about the Madurese breed of cattle found in East Java, Indonesia, where he spent two years studying this ancient breed. He is currently providing technical assistance to projects in several countries for the development of improved forage production as an answer to destruction of natural resources of tropical uplands caused by overgrazing. He received his B.Sc. in animal science from Ohio State University in 1954 and M.Sc. in livestock economics from Araneta University, the Philippines, in 1977. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELIZABETH L. HENSON is the director of the American Minor Breeds Conservancy, based in Pittsboro, North Carolina. She received an M.A. in zoology from Oxford University in 1980 and an M.Sc. in domestic animal breeding from Edinburgh University in 1981. Her primary interests are in the conservation of rare and endangered breeds and varieties of domestic livestock as a genetic resource for changing agricultural needs. She represented Britain at the first international conference on domestic animal conservation in Hungary in 1982, and was a member of the Office of Technology Assessment Committee on grassroots strategies to maintain genetic diversity in 1985. She is executive secretary for four British breed associations and is a member of the British Rare Breeds Survival Trust Technical Panel. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. HUSS was regional animal production officer of the FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile, before his retirement. He received a B.S. in 1949, an M.A. in 1954, and a Ph.D. in 1959, all at Texas A&amp;M University. He was assistant professor of range management at Texas A&amp;M before joining the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in 1967. He founded the FAO Regional Office's Small Animals for Small Farms programme in 1980. Professional assignments and travels in Latin America, the Caribbean' Near and Middle East, and Africa have contributed to his knowledge and experience in microlivestock development. Dr. Huss was recognized by Texas A&amp;M University by being chosen as the recipient of the Memorial Student Center Appreciation and Distinguished Service Awards in 1958 and 196O, respectively, and Honour Professor in the College of Agriculture in 1966 67. He also received the Society for Range Management's Outstanding Service and Achievement Award in 1975 and its Fellow Award in 1978. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID RICHARD LINCICOME has been a guest scientist with the Animal Parasitology Institute, United States Department of Agriculture Experiment Station, Beltsville, Maryland, since 1978, having retired as professor of parasitology, Howard University, Washington, D.C., in 1970. He received the B.S. and M.S. degrees cum laude simultaneously in 1937 from the University of Illinois and a Ph.D. in tropical medicine from the Tulane Medical School, New Orleans, Louisiana, in 1941. His principal research interests have centered around morphologic studies on Acanthocephala, molecular exchanges of dependent cells and their environments, and diagnosis of parasitic diseases. He has been a breeder of Nubian and American pygmy goats for the past 20 years. Dr. Lincicome is currently a member of the Board of Directors of the American Dairy Goat Association and is past president of the National Pygmy Goat Association. He was founder and long time trustee of the American Dairy Goat Association Research Foundation. He is also past president of the Helminthological Society and currently serves the society as archivist. He received the Helminthological Society's Anniversary Award in 1975. He was founder and, for 27 years, editor of the journal Experimental Parasitology, and is the author and editor of more than 180 scientific contributions. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS E. LOVEJOY is a tropical biologist and ornithologist. He is assistant secretary for external affairs, Smithsonian Institution' Washington, D.C. He was formerly executive vice president for the World Wildlife Fund-U.S., chairman of the Wildlife Preservation Trust International, and a member of two commissions of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources. At present, Dr. Lovejoy is a principal investigator of the world's largest controlled ecological experiment, which is attempting to determine the optimum size for parks and reserves. This project, conceived and designed by Dr. Lovejoy, is called "the Minimum Critical Size of Ecosystems" and is a joint program of World Wildlife Fund-U. S. and Brazil's National Institute for Amazon Research. Dr. Lovejoy is also the principal advisor for NATURE (WNET/THIRTEEN, New York), a series that he started in 1980. As principal advisor, he recommends program content and oversees the factual accuracy of the program scripts. A member of 11 scientific societies, Dr. Lovejoy has received grants from 16 foundations and institutions and written more than 100 articles for various national and International publications. He has published three books, Key Environments, Pergamon Press, Oxford; Nearctic Avian Migrants in the Neotropics, a Department of the Interior publication; and Conservation of Tropical Forest Birds, an ICPB publication. He is currently working on The Magnificent Exception, a book on people and the biosphere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARNE W. NORDSKOG is professor emeritus, Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University. He received his B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Minnesota between 1937 and 1943. His training and principal area of research has been in quantitative genetics, but by about 1960 his interests shifted to immunogenetics and more recently to molecular genetics. He has traveled widely, spending two years as an instructor in agriculture at the University of Alaska (1937-39), and has been an NSF Research Fellow at Cal Tech (1960), a visiting professor at the University of Minnesota (1966), an FAO lecturer at the Indian Veterinary Institute (1973), and an FAO-sponsored lecturer on poultry breeding in China (1979). He has acted as a consultant to a commercial breeder in Japan for 20 years. He has been the major professor at Iowa State for more than 60 M.S. and Ph.D. candidates and has published more than 150 scientific papers. Dr. Nordskog is an honorary member of the Norwegian Poultry Breeding Association, a fellow of the Poultry Science Association, and a fellow of the AAAS. In 1972, he was the recipient of the Poultry Science Distinguished Service Research Award. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LINDA M. PANEPINTO, swine research consultant, was director of the Colorado State University Swine Laboratory through 1988. She earned her B.S. in animal sciences at Colorado State University in 1972. In 1973 she joined the research team developing Yucatan miniature swine at Colorado State University, where she was given primary responsibility for colony management, protocol development, and genetic selection programs. In 1977, she designed an experimental research program for the development of a line of Yucatan pigs with a genetic propensity for exceptionally small size. She has continued her work in that area and has developed the Yucatan Micropig, described elsewhere in this publication. Her other major professional area of interest has been the design of facilities and equipment for swine with emphasis on animal comfort and minimizing stress. Her invention, known as the Panepinto Sling, has been widely adopted as the primary restraint method for numerous medical schools and research facilities using swine in the laboratory. She has published extensively in the field.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT J. PETERS is professor of animal breeding and husbandry in the tropics and subtropics, University of Gottingen, and is currently director of research at the International Livestock Centre for Africa. He received his Dr. Agr. degree from the Technical University of Berlin in 1975. He has undertaken research in livestock production development in Southeast Asia and Africa. The major focus of his research has been small animals, with special attention given to the potential of unconventional animals. Early in 1985 he assumed his present position directing research at the International Livestock Centre for Africa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN A. PINO is a senior fellow of the National Research Council, Board on Agriculture, and is currently the project director of the study "Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Imperatives." He received his B.S. in agriculture in 1944-47 and Ph.D. in zoology in 1951 from Rutgers University. As an associate professor he taught and did research in the Department of Poultry Science at Rutgers until 1955 when he accepted a position with the Rockefeller Foundation as animal scientist with the Mexican Agricultural Program, becoming the associate director of that program in 1960. In 1965 he was transferred to the Rockefeller headquarters in New York and became director of the Agricultural Science Program in 1970. Most of his career has been in international agricultural development. He retired from the Foundation in 1983 and went to Washington to become agricultural science advisor at the InterAmerican Development Bank until July 1986 when he accepted his present position. Dr. Pino has been a member of the Board on Agriculture since 1983 and previously from 1973 to 1977. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE is professor of soils, agronomy, botany, and geography, and director of the Center for Tropical Agriculture and International Programs (Agriculture) at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. from the University of California at Davis in 1951 and his Ph.D. in soils from the University of Florida in 1960. His principal research interest has been in the area of tropical agriculture and land use. His early work on shifting cultivation is one of the major contributions to this system. He has traveled and worked in most of the countries in the tropical areas of Latin America, Asia, and Africa. His current interests include improving indigenous agricultural systems of small landholders, particularly with the integration of livestock and crops. He was chairman of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation and a member of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development (under whose aegis this report is presented). He chaired the BOSTID report panels on water buffalo and little-known Asian animals. Currently, he is on the International Advisory Committee of the National Science Foundation and serves as U.S. Board Member for the International Foundation of Science.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL HILL ROBINSON, director of the Smithsonian Institution's National Zoological Park, is an animal behaviorist and a tropical biologist. Before his appointment to the National Zoo, Dr. Robinson served as deputy director of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Panama, which he joined in 1966 as a tropical biologist. He received his Ph.D. from Oxford University after being awarded his B.S., summa cum laude, from the University of Wales. His scientific interests include predator-prey interactions, evolution of adaptations, tropical biology, courtship and mating behavior, phenology of arthropods, and freshwater biology. In the course of his studies, Dr. Robinson has done research in the United States and throughout the developing world. Recent publications include articles on predator-prey interactions, tropical forest conservation, reproductive behavior in spiders, and the function and purpose of zoos in relation to education and conservation. Dr. Robinson's favorite animals are cats, of all kinds. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KNUT SCHMIDT-NIELSON, J.B. Duke Professor of Physiology in the Department of Zoology at Duke University, has studied animal responses to extreme environmental conditions. His major emphasis has been on life in hot deserts, and he is widely recognized for his studies of camels and other desert animals. His research has involved field studies in North and South America, Africa, Asia, and Australia. Dr. Schmidt-Nielson has written several books, which have been translated into more than a dozen languages, and he has published several hundred research papers. He has been elected to the National Academy of Sciences, the Royal Society, the French Academie des Sciences, and several other academies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALBERT E. SOLLOD, is associate professor and head of the international veterinary medicine section at Tufts University School of Veterinary Medicine. He is currently stationed in Niger as chief of party of the integrated livestock project and policy advisor in the Ministry of Animal Resources. He has consulted in 15 countries in Africa and Asia, and his research interests include interdisciplinary systems analysis, indigenous pastoral technologies, monitoring change in agricultural production systems, and monitoring and assessing drought impact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEE M. TALBOT received his Ph.D. in geography and ecology from the University of California at Berkeley in 1963 and has worked on environmental and natural resource ecology and management in over 110 countries. At present he is visiting fellow at the World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., and senior environmental consultant to the World Bank. He carried out pioneering research in Africa and elsewhere on the use of wild animals for food production. He has written more than 180 scientific and technical publications, including ten books and monographs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAIR E. TERRILL, animal scientist, collaborator, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Beltsville, Maryland, received his Ph.D. from the University of Missouri in 1936, served briefly at the Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station, and joined the USDA at the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station, Dubois, Idaho, in the same year. His research concerned genetics and reproduction of sheep, leading to national and international responsibility regarding research and production of sheep, goats, and other animals, with primary emphasis on increasing efficiency of production of meat, wool, and other products. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHRISTIAN M. WEMMER is assistant director for conservation and captive breeding programs at the National Zoological Park and is also in charge of the zoo's 3,100 acre Conservation and Research Center in Front Royal, Virginia. He is vice chairman of the IUCN Deer Specialist Group and a member of the Mustelid and Viverrid Specialist Group of the same organization. His interest in evolutionary and conservation biology has been motivated by frequent travel to South Asia and his role as scientific coordinator of the Smithsonian Nepal Terai Ecology Project. For the past 12 years he has coordinated the development of facilities and programs at the Conservation and Research Center and with Dr. R. Rudran has promoted conservation training and wildlife research in developing nations. He has published over 50 papers on various aspects of mammalian biology and conservation and has co-edited with Benjamin Beck one book on PFre David's deer. His edited volume "The Biology and Management of the Cervidae" was published by the Smithsonian Institution Press. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DANNY C. WHARTON is associate curator, Animal Departments, at New York Zoological Park, Bronx, New York. He received a B.S. from the College of Idaho and an M.Sc. in 1975 from the School for International Training in Brattleboro, Vermont. His Ph.D. in biology was earned at Fordham University. Dr. Wharton was a Peace Corps volunteer to Ecuador 1969-71 and a Fulbright scholar to Germany 1976-77. His research interests have been in the genetic and demographic management of small populations. He works on several committees including the IUCN/SSC Captive Breeding Specialist Group, Species Survival Plan Committee of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, and is species chairman for the North American Propagation Group for the Snow Leopard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES A. WOODS IS curator of mammals at the Florida State Museum and a professor of zoology at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. in zoology from the University of Denver and his Ph.D. in zoology from the University of Massachusetts. He worked at the University of Vermont from 1970 to 1979 when he assumed his present position at the University of Florida. His principle research interests have been in the areas of mammalian ecology (Rodentia) and systematics and evolution and he is especially concerned with island biology. He has spent many years working in the West Indies on a variety of projects and has worked closely with the government of Haiti in establishing a plan for the National Parks of Haiti and in completing a biogeophysical inventory of the natural resources of Hispaniola. He is the ecological consultant for the Institut de Sauvegarde du Patrimoine National in Haiti. He is the author of a number of scientific articles on the fauna of the Antilles including a multivolume series on the fauna of the mountains of Haiti. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS M. YUILL is associate dean for research and graduate training of the School of Veterinary Medicine, assistant director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, and professor of pathobiology and of veterinary science at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He received his B.S. in wildlife management from Utah State University in 1959 and his Ph.D. jointly in veterinary science and wildlife ecology in 1964 from the University of Wisconsin. His principal research interests are animal health and diseases of wildlife, including those transmissible to domestic animals and to man. He worked in Thailand for two years and has had active research programs in Colombia for 17 years, and Costa Rica for 5 years. He has recently become involved in animal health and production development in the Gambia, West Africa. Dr. Yuill is an executive committee member and immediate past president of the Organization for Tropical Studies and currently serves as president of the Wildlife Disease Association. He completed a five-year term as Chairman of the U.S. Virus Diseases Panel of the U.S.-Japan Cooperative Biomedical Sciences Program. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
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+    <Metadata name="Title">Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID)</Metadata>
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+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALEXANDER SHAKOW, Director, Strategic Planning and Review,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank, Washington, D.C., Chairman</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PATRICIA BARNES-MCCONNELL, Director, Bean/Cowpea CRSP, East Lansing, Michigan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JORDAN J. BARUCH, President, Jordan Baruch Associates, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER D. BELL, President, The Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, New York, New York</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BARRY BLOOM, Professor, Department of Microbiology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, The Bronx, New York</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANE BORTNTCK, Assistant Chief, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE T. CURLIN, The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, The National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DTRK FRANKENBERG, Director, Marine Sciences Program, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HARDY, Boyce-Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK HORNE, Dean, College of Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELLEN MESSER, Allan Shaw Feinstein World Hunger Program, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLEs C. MUSCOPLAT, Executive Vice President, Molecular Genetics, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES QUINN, Amos Tuck School of Business, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VERNON RUTTAN, Regents Professor, Department of Agriculture and Applied Economics, Saint Paul, Minnesota</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANTHONY SAN PIETRO, Professor of Plant Biochemistry, Department of Biology, Bloomington, Indiana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST SMERDON, College of Engineering and Mines, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GERARD P. DINEEN, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., ex officio </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES B. WYNGAARDEN, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., ex officio </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development Publications and Information Services (H A-476E)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of International Affairs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20418 U SA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<!--
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b17mie/metadata.xml
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+<DirectoryMetadata>
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+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Microlivestock - Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future (b17mie)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">introduce small animals and micro-livestock in your farm</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b18ase/b18ase.htm
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+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Little Known Asian Animals With a Promising Economic Future</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Little Known Asian Animals With a Promising Economic Future</Metadata>
+  </Description>
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+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation Board on Science and Technology for International Development Office of International Affairs National Research Council </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 1983</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the Councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the Committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropiate balance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Research Council was established by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and of advising the federal government. The Council operates in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy under the authority of its congressional charter of 1863, which establishes the Academy as a private, nonprofit, self-governing membership corporation. The Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in the conduct of their services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. It is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. The National Academy of Engineering and the Institute of Medicine were established in 1964 and 1970, respectively, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID) of the Office of International Affairs addresses a range of issues arising from the ways in which science and technology in developing countries can stimulate and complement the complex processes of social and economic development. It oversees a broad program of bilateral workshops with scientific organizations in developing countries and conducts special studies. BOSTID's Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation publishes topical reviews of technical processes and biological resources of potential importance to developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been prepared by an ad hoc advisory panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Office of International Affairs, National Research Council. Program costs for the study were provided by the Office of Technical Resources, Bureau for Asia, Agency for International Development, under Grant No. ASB-0249-SS-00-1026-00 and the Office of the Science Advisor, Agency for International Development, under Grant No. DAN/ 5538-G-SS-1023-00.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Funding for this printing was provided by the Office of Agriculture, Bureau for Science and Technology, Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C., under Grant No. DAN 1406-G-SS-4001-00.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First Printing, June 1983</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second Printing, July 1984</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 83-061909</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participants in the Study</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributors </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AMBAR ROESYAT, Research Institute for Animal Husbandry, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. B. ARKA, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Udayana University, Bali, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. S. F. BARKER, Professor of Animal Sciences and Head of Department, The University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT BENIRSCHKE, Research Department, San Diego Zoological Garden, San Diego, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEN BERESKIN, Research Geneticist, Nonruminant Animal Nutrition Laboratory, Animal Science Institute, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALEIGH A. BLOUCH, World Wildlife Fund, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. BONGERS, Nature Conservation Department, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. BONNEMAIRE, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, Dijon, France </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. BOSMA, Vakgroep Funktionele Morfologie, Rijksuniversiteit, Utrecht, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. BUTCHER, Assistant Director, Western Plains Zoo, Dubbo, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. S. CHILD, Wildlife and Parks Management Officer, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. ROSS COCKRILL, International Animal Consultant, Almansil, Algarve, Portugal </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PAUL CONRY, Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources, Department of Agriculture, Guam </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD J. COOLIDGE, Former President, International Union for the Conservation of Nature, Beverly, Massachusetts, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. P. CROWCROFT, General Director, Metropolitan Zoo, Toronto, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONY J. CUNHA, Dean Emeritus, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. DEPPNER, Tropical Livestock Consultant, Washington, D.C., USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. DEVENDRA, Head, Feed Resources and Animal Nutrition Branch, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Selangor, Malaysia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. M. DOLAN, San Diego Zoological Garden, San Diego, California, USA DUKUT SULARSASA, Department of Tropical Veterinary Science, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. EPSTEIN, Faculty of Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, Israel (retired) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. FINNIE, Taronga Zoo, Mosman, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. FISCHER, Director, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, JustusLiebig-Universitat, Giessen, Federal Republic of Germany </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IAN FLETCHER, Project for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANNIE P. GRAY, Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Edinburgh, Scotland (retired) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. B. GRIFFITHS, Director, Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. R. GRiMWOOD, Nairobi, Kenya </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COLIN P. GROVES, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T., Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ULRICH HALDER, Swiss League for Nature Conservation, Basel, Switzerland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES G. HICKMAN, Livestock Consultant, A. Mithat Efendi Sokak No. 36/11, Cankaya, Ankara, Turkey </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. HOFFMAN, Veterinarian, Project for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. H. G. HOLMES, Department of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. HUITEMA, Veterinarian, Osterbeek, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. H. HUTASOIT, Director-General, Livestock Services, Jakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BENT JORGENSEN, Director, Copenhagen Zoo, Copenhagen, Denmark </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAT KlEFFER, Department of Animal Science, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, Texas, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING, Director and Professor, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GRAHAM W. M. KIRBY, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Production, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HEINZ-GEORG KLOS, Director, Zoologischer Garten, Berlin, West Germany </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KUSMAT TANUDIMADJA, Professor of Veterinary Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institut Pertanian, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN K. LOOSLI, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN A. LUKAS, White Oak Plantation, Yulee, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. MACDONALD, Vakgroep Funktionele Morfologie, Rijksuniversiteit, Utrecht, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN MACKINNON, Representative, World Wildlife Fund, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT E. McDOWELL, Professor, Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JEFFREY A. McNEELY, Executive Officer, Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADRIAN G. MARSHALL, Honorary Secretary, Institute of South-east Asian Biology, Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen, Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">[AN L. MASON, Animal Breeding Consultant, Edinburgh, Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEERT MONTSMA, Vakgroepen Veefokkerij, Veehouderij, Tropische Veehouderij, Wageningen, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. MORAN, Senior Research Officer, Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute, Kyabram, Victoria, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. MILLER, Chief, Milk Secretion and Mastitis Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAN NARI, Director, Central Research Institute for Animal Science, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARVEY NEESE, President, Agri-Food Systems International, Inc., Troy, Idaho, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. M. NITIS, Department of Animal Nutrition and Tropical Pasture Production, Udayana University, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM L. R. OLIVER, Chairman, lUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN PAYNE, Wildlife Section, Forest Department, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J.A. PAYNE, Tropical Animal Breeding Consultant, London, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. PHILLIPS, Arlington, Virginia, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Scientific Advisor, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C., USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID W. ROBINSON, Associate Dean, International Programs, University of California, Davis, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PATRICK J. ROBINSON, Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. H. L. ROLLINSON, Animal Production Officer, Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLIVE ROOTS, Director, Assiniboine Park Zoo, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. A. SAYER, Nature Conservation and National Parks Project, FAO, Rangoon, Burma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. E. SATTER, Nature Conservation and National Parks Project, FAO, Rangoon, Burma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORCE B. SCHALLER, New York Zoological Society, New York, New York, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN SCHOTTLER, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Industry, Lae, Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE SEIFERT, CSIRO, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROGER V. SHORT, Professor of Reproductive Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. C. SINHA, Outdoor Recreation and Wildlife Research Division, Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna, Philippines </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK J. SIMOONS, Professor, Department of Geography, University of California, Davis, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. D. SIMPSON, Senior Extension Specialist, Department of Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. SITORUS, Research Institute for Animal Production, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. J. SMITH, Royal School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. J. STOLP-DIEPEVEEN, Department of Tropical Animal Production, Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUBANDRlYO, Research Institute for Animal Production, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. SUMADI, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. M. TALBOT, World Wildlife Fund International, Gland, Switzerland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WARREN D. THOMAS, Director, Los Angeles Zoo, Los Angeles, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. L. THROP, Director, Taronga Zoo, Mosman, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALLEN D. TILLMAN, Private Consultant in Animal Production, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD G. TULLOCH, Division of Wildlife Research, CSIRO, Winnellie, Northern Territory, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HELEN NEWTON TURNER, Genetics Research Laboratories, CSIRO, North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. VAN PUIJENBROECK, Curator of Mammals, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. J. WARWICK, Visiting Professor, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WARTOMO HARDJOSUBROTO, Lecturer in Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. H. WHARTON, Chief Research Scientist, CSIRO, Long Pocket Laboratories, Brisbane, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. L. WHEELER, Project Manager, Project for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.H. WOODFORD, Wildlife Veterinarian, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.A.YOUNG, Department of Animal Science, the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.ZULBARDI, Research Institute for Animal Production, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Professional Associate, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Asian Animals Study Director </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council Staff</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE RECKS, Administrative Secretary </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is high time that the world was made aware of the valuable, large ruminant genetic resources of Southeast Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. MORAN Livestock Specialist Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute Kyabram, Victoria, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Without utilization preservation is doomed to failure. Local breeds able to perform well in difficult habitats, such as in sparse vegetation, mountainous terrain, or the tropics, should be used for their agricultural potential. Breeds that demonstrate hybrid vigor on crossing with improved or exotic breeds also merit utilization. Genetically unique breeds should be retained for scientific studies of genetics, evolution, and biochemistry. And aesthetically attractive and historically important breeds should be maintained in parks and preserves for their educational and cultural values.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. L. MASON Animal Breeding Consultant Edinburgh. Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p00.png"></center><br>
+ YAK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report began as a brief examination of the domesticated banteng, a little studied bovine that is an important livestock resource in eastern Indonesia. But the study expanded to include other possibly useful but obscure bovines of Asia: the madura (a hybrid between banteng and cattle), gaur, mithan, kouprey, anoa, tamaraw, yak, and yakowshybrids formed by crossing yaks with cattle. Four pig species were also included (the bearded pig, the Sulawesi warty pig, the Javan warty pig, and the pygmy hog) that are important traditional resources in parts of Asia, as well as the babirusaa piglike, wild animal of Sulawesi that may have a rudimentary rumen. (Asia also has some interesting, little-known breeds of cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats, and the common pig, but in this report we have chosen to highlight unconventional species only.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are unfamiliar to international animal science. This report aims to kindle awareness of their possible promise and to stimulate their introduction into projects in the world's animal research facilities. Only through active investigation will the potential of these species - most of which are now familiar only to a small number of wildlife specialists - become clear. Many are threatened with extinction; their genetic merits should be assessed before it is too late.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development agencies and governments in the tropics should regard local species, such as those described in this report, as important genetic material for bolstering the long-term success of domestic livestock breeding programs. These indigenous resources can probably be improved genetically to compare favorably with imported livestock, particularly in difficult tropical environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report was prepared after Hugh Popenoe, Chairman of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI), and Noel Vietmeyer of the ACT! staff visited banteng researchers in Indonesia, northern Australia, and Papua New Guinea in May 1981. More than 90 researchers (see contributor's list) provided information to the report through correspondence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACTI is a committee of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council. It assesses unconventional resources and technologies that might prove especially applicable to problems of developing countries. Current titles in the ACTI series Managing Tropical Animal Resources are: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal (1981)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea (1983). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The production of these books has been supported largely by the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID). Program costs for this study were sponsored by AID'S Bureau for Asia, and staff costs by AID'S Office of the Science Advisor, which also made possible the free distribution of this report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is an exploratory volume. It will, perhaps, lead in a few years' time to a more complete book on indigenous Asian animals - and perhaps also to similar books on little-known animals of Africa and Latin America. If you have material to contribute to the future edition, please send it to Noel Vietmeyer, JH213, National Academy of Sciences, 2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington, D.C. 20418, USA, who will contact you when any new publication on this subject is planned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia has several domesticated animals about which little is known. Among them are the banteng ("Bali cattle") of Indonesia, the yak of Central Asia's high country, and the mithan of the border region of India, Burma, and Bangladesh.( *The promise of another Asian animal, the water buffalo, is described in companion report no 32. ) Some Asian farmers use domesticated bovine hybrids: the madura (banteng-cattle hybrid) in Indonesia and the yakow (yak-cattle hybrid) in Central Asia. In addition, domesticated forms of at least two Asian pig species (the Indonesian wild boar and the Sulawesi warty pig) are important husbandry animals in parts of Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among Asia's undomesticated animals are five interesting and potentially valuable species of wild bovines: the kouprey in Thailand, Laos, and Kampuchea; the gaur in India and much of Southeast Asia; two species of anoas in Indonesia; and the tamaraw in the Philippines. There are also three species of undomesticated Asian pigs: the bearded pig, the Javan warty pig and pigmy hog. Perhaps the strangest Asian animal of all is the babirusa, a piglike species of eastern Indonesia that may be a rudimentary ruminant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of these animals are either threatened or endangered species, and some will soon be extinct unless scientists, governments, and resource managers take forceful action to preserve them. Scientific management and a better understanding of the animals themselves is required.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important need is to investigate their potential as livestock resources. All seem to be disease resistant and well adapted to difficult natural conditions. Some will interbreed with conventional livestock and might thereby pass on important characters to hybrid progeny. A few of the wild species are ancestors of domestic livestock and could be important genetic reservoirs for maintaining or improving the quality of their domestic descendants. Others may make useful new domesticates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appreciation of their potential in the long-term for the world's agricultural development could create a momentum for the protection, preservation, and greater use of these little-known animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Imported Livestock</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, many thought that the best way to raise animal productivity in tropical developing countries was to introduce high-performing breeds from temperate industrialized areas. The fact that the exotic animals were much more productive than local stock made this seem very appealing. But many such importations ended in failure when the animals either quickly died or their growth or reproduction rates declined so drastically that the herds dwindled away or became uneconomic. These introductions had been made without adequate consideration of the local environment that was expected to support the imported animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More recently, some animal scientists have decried the idea of wholesale importing of temperate-zone livestock into tropical countries without also evaluating the indigenous livestock. In many cases the local animals' apparent poor performance results not from their lack of genetic potential, but from inadequate feeding, breeding, selection, management, and health care.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indigenous Animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until an objective evaluation of particular indigenous breeds is undertaken, governments should regard local animals as vitally important for the long-term development of their domestic livestock industries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To achieve an agriculture that is compatible with nature, we should try to raise an animal as much as possible within its own natural environment. Indigenous species are necessarily well adapted to their surroundings and have survival qualities that imported livestock often lack. They generally select food, either graze or browse, better than foreign species and can therefore exploit the habitat more efficiently and live within it more harmoniously.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But most of the livestock species the world depends on today are best adapted to temperate conditions. This is because Stone Age peoples in what today are Europe, the Middle East, and eastern China domesticated the prototypes of agricultural animals that were available in those places. The world's best-known breeds of cattle, wool sheep, and horses, for example, usually perform well in temperate regions and poorly in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The species described in this report offer promise as new and important alternative livestock resources for tropical regions. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Embryo Transplants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems likely that modern technology will substantially improve our ability to use new species and breeds of livestock. One of the most encouraging of the new biotechnology techniques is embryo transplantation. In this process multiple eggs (produced by hormonally stimulating female animals) are fertilized and transplanted to other female animals. The hormonal cycles of the donor and receiving animals are synchronized so that a pregnancy results.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This technique is widely used to transfer embryos between cattle, but researchers are now exploring transfers between different species and even between different genera. In 1981, for example, animal scientists at the New York Zoological Garden transplanted a fertilized gaur ovum into a Holstein cow, which carried the gaur calf to term. Now veterinarians at the University of Florida are attempting to transplant water buffalo embryos into both zebu and Holstein-Friesian cattle, and vice versa. If such pioneering work can become everyday practice, it will open possibilities of using common livestock to raise rare animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, because embryos are thought to be free of many diseases, their shipment between nations may soon be permitted without elaborate quarantine precautions. Methods for freezing embryos have been worked out so that the tiny bundles of cells can be air freighted inexpensively in small, insulated containers. This may make animals such as those discussed in this report available to Africans, Latin Americans, North Americans, and Europeans. It may vastly simplify the worldwide exchange of animal genetic material and become the animal counterpart of exchanging seeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An additional benefit of embryo transplants is that the surrogate mother's placental blood supply provides the fetus with natural immunity to some local diseases, thus perhaps reducing one of the most serious causes of failure when exotic animals are introduced to new environments. And at Utah State University it has been noted that raising wildsheep embryos in domestic ewes produces lambs that are more docile than if they were raised by their biological mothers. Embryo transplants may be a small step toward domesticating new animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With these possibilities on the horizon, it becomes even more important that all countries preserve their indigenous animals. The rest of this report suggests and discusses Asian species for protection and study. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part I : Domesticated Bovine Species</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems probable that two of our widely used livestock species were domesticated in the Asian tropics: the zebu or humped cattle in India and the water buffalo in the humid marshlands of northeastern India or Southeast Asia. (Both the chicken and some races of pig may also have a tropical Asian origin, but the exact sites of their earliest domestication is unclear.) There are, however, other, much more localized, domesticated bovines in Asia. These are not well studied and deserve greatly increased recognition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section highlights:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Domesticated banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Banteng-cattle hybrids</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Mithan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yak</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yakows. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is time for the world's scientific community to study the genetics, evolution, and biochemical parameters of the unique animal resources, that are found in Southeast Asia. ALLEN D. TILLMAN Animal Consultant Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Though well adapted for survival in their own harsh tropical environments, many domestic livestock breeds are being neglected in the race to achieve temperate zone levels of productivity. CHARLES HICKMAN Department of Dairy Cattle Breeding Ottawa, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies should be made of the present and potential role, productivity and efficiency of all domestic animals and birds, large and small, before they are replaced by imported types. Many wild species also could make important contributions to human welfare with proper management. J. K. LOOSLI Department of Animal Science University of Florida .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conservation of endangered genetic resources represents a genuine and welcome synthesis of the concerns of the agriculturalist and the wildlife enthusiast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN TINKER British Journalist</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p06.png"></center><br>
+ MITHAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Domesticated Banteng</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng (*Bos javanicus is now the accepted name, but Bos sondaicus, Bibos banteng, and other synonyms have been used in the past. (See Hooijer, 1956.) The name "banteng" has traditionally referred to the wild form of Bos javanicus; the name "Bali cattle" to the domesticated form. This chapter describes the domesticated form, but we retain the name banteng to reinforce the fact that the animal is not a breed of cattle, but a distinct species. Despite a cattle-like appearance, the animals are at least as genetically remote from cattle as is the bison. Both produce sterile males when hybridized with European cattle. Australia. (N.D. Vietmeyer)) is a bovine that resembles a small cow. It is, however, an entirely different species from either European cattle (Bos taurus) or zebus (Bos indicus). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These docile animals thrive under hot, humid conditions and, like the water buffalo, have high resistance to ticks and tick-borne diseases. In parts of Southeast Asia they have proved acceptable for draft power and meat production, and they may have potential for many other regions of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng are remarkably uniform in type and have changed little from their wild ancestors (see chapter 6). Bulls stand from 1.3 to 1.5 m high at the shoulders, while cows are about 1.2 m high. They have the general conformation of beef cattle. The skin is tight, the neck short, and the dewlap inconspicuous. The face is narrow and is carried horizontally with the large ears pointing forward. There is no hump, but the male possesses a distinctive crest over the thorax because the spines of the thoracic vertebrae are unusually elongated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On both sexes a striking white oval patch covers the rump and all four legs have white stockings. Calves and females are usually light brown with a thin black line along the middle of the back. Bulls are brown when young but usually turn near-black at maturity, unless castrated. Thus, in a herd the sexes - black males and brown females - are strikingly apparent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male horns grow sideways, upward, and outward from a horny mass on the forehead. Females lack this horny shield and their horns usually grow upward and back, eventually curving down again toward the head. Polled animals have not been reported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mature banteng bulls can weigh from 450 to 500 kg. Under exceptional conditions they may reach 550 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly all the world's domesticated banteng are found in Indonesia. They are particularly important on the islands of Bali, Kalimantan, Lombok, Sulawesi, Sumbawa, and Timor. On Bali and Sumbawa, they are virtually uncontaminated by crossbreeding with other cattle and are thought to have been domesticated there in prehistoric times. Since 1913 government officials have enforced a law that prohibits crossbreeding so as to maintain the purity of the breed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small numbers of banteng have been introduced to Sumatra, Malaysia, and northern Australia, and there are experimental herds in Texas, USA, and New South Wales, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p09.png"></center><br>
+ DISTRIBUTION OF DOMESTICATED BANTEG</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated banteng account for about 20 percent of Indonesia's total population of "cattle." The banteng population increased from 1.1 million in 1967 to 1.4 million in 1975 and is now estimated to be more than 1.5 million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng are found mainly in lowland areas on Indonesian islands straddling the equator. The environment is monsoonal with mean annual temperatures ranging from 23° to 31°C. Most of the region receives heavy rainfall throughout the year, but dry spells as long as five months occur at some locations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng normally have high conception rates. In northern Australia they regularly achieve 80-90 percent conception, as compared with the 50-60 percent of Brahman-Shorthorn crossbred cattle. Similar conception rates have been recorded in Sulawesi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little basic information on the banteng's reproductive physiology has been reported. However, it appears that this differs little from that of cattle. Sexual maturity has been observed as early as 13 months and mating at 16 months.* The gestation period is about one week longer than that of cattle and twinning is not common. At birth, males weigh about 16-17 kg and females about 14-15 kg (about half the size of Brahman-Shorthorn calves). Calves are not weaned at any specific time, and dams may continue suckling a calf until the next birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng will crossbreed with domestic cattle, producing hybrids with notable vigor and heat tolerance (see chapter 2).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has been reported that banteng have the ability to drink water with high salinity," and in northern Australia they have even been seen grazing seaweed on coral reefs at low tide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On high-quality diets, feed-conversion ratios approach those of other bovine species. For example, banteng bulls on high-concentrate diets have shown daily growth rates of 0.7 kg, compared with 0.7 kg in water buffalo, 0.8 kg in zebu cattle, and 0.9 kg in British cattle bulls.:"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the banteng matures, its weight remains lower than that of cattle of similar age. However, relative to mature liveweight, this disadvantage is only about 8 percent.§</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behaviour</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng cannot be handled as roughly as domestic cattle. Cows and calves are timid and easily upset. When stressed they may run into fences and walls, incurring head and spinal injuries. They also easily get into a state of shock. Special squeeze chutes and other special facilities, along with much care in handling the animals, are essential. However, despite their lively temperament banteng are docile if reared, as in Indonesia, with frequent human contact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are promising beef producers. Gourmets consider banteng cuts among the finest of meats, and Indonesia cannot export enough to satisfy the demand in Hong Kong and Japan alone. The meat's outstanding characteristics are its tenderness and leanness. When the animals are maintained and finished under traditional village management, total fat content of the meat (both on a liveweight and carcass basis) is usually less than 4 percent. Little of the fat is deposited among the meat fibers (marbling); about two-thirds of it is mesenteric and the remainder is subcutaneous, laid down in small globules. The carcasses have a high dressing-out percentage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng have proved to be useful as draft animals for the farm but are reportedly less suitable than zebus for hauling carts on roads. Traditionally, both male and female animals are worked, but Balinese farmers normally use females for cultivating light soils only. Banteng are trained when they are about 2 years old and are reportedly easier to train than zebus.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like water buffaloes banteng can utilize low-quality feeds; they are similar in that they can live off forage unpalatable to cattle. It is rare to see banteng in poor condition. Animals of all ages appear to have an ability to maintain weight and body condition even when pasture quality is poor. In this respect, they have been noted to outperform cattle in Australia's Northern Territory. Moreover, due to their lower milk production banteng cows lose less weight and condition during lactation than, for example, Brahman-Shorthorn cows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In comparison with cattle (European breeds) kept under similar circumstances in Australia, banteng are less infested with external parasites. Their hair is short and their hide tough, which helps them resist ticks. Under field conditions few adult cattle ticks (Boophilus microplus) are observed on the animals, except on malnourished individuals, and the incidence of tick-borne disease is said to be very low. Sarcoptic mange is known to affect the animals, but it has a low incidence as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng also appear to tolerate several internal parasites. Liver fluke is probably the most prevalent. Although the animals themselves appear healthy at slaughter, some 80 percent or more of carcasses are found to have partially infected livers. In addition, intestinal worms are often present.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are only slightly affected by Asian trypanosomiasis (Trypanosoma evansi). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are poor milkers; their udders are almost invisible. The lactation varies from 6 to 10 months and milk production is only 0.9-2.8 kg per day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To keep from reverting to the wild state, banteng may need close contact with humans or regular handling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An unidentified banteng disease first appeared on Bali in 1964. Known locally as "jembrana," it spread rapidly, causing mortalities from 10 to 60 percent in certain localities. It was originally thought to be rinderpest; it is now believed to be caused by a rickettsia transmitted by cattle ticks. Outbreaks have occurred with decreasing intensity and virulence since the original outbreak. The disease is under intensive investigation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Bali ziekte," a disease affecting only banteng, has also been noted. It is characterized by dry eczema, followed by severe necrosis of the skin and exposed mucous membrances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their high susceptibility to bovine malignant catarrhal fever, banteng must not be brought in contact with sheep and some other animals. This virus is widely disseminated in sheep and several domestic and wild hoofed mammals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There have been few scientific studies of banteng and no coordinated attempt to improve their performance. They deserve more recognition and they merit testing in tropical locations outside their traditional home in Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The herds in northern Australia (descendants of animals remaining from an abortive colonization attempt in the 1820s) are in a relatively disease-free zone, and although they are feral, they can potentially provide animals for breeding and use in other nations. Although these few hundred banteng are a valuable resource, they are vulnerable to destruction if adverse environmental conditions arise or exotic diseases break out in Australia. Representatives of the herd should therefore be distributed and viable breeding stock established at several new locations. (Their genes and gene combinations may even prove valuable for the indigenous herds in Indonesia, and banteng research and development would make a valuable topic for cooperative research between Australia and Indonesia.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is particularly needed to identify the reasons for the banteng's apparent ability to maintain weight and body condition on poor-quality grazing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problems of bovine malignant catarrhal fever, Bali ziekte, and jembrana need increased attention, particularly directed toward prevention and control. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p13.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Banteng Cattle Hybrids</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng and cattle have the same number of chromosomes, and they will interbreed. Few scientific details on the hybrid progeny are available, but on the Indonesian island of Madura they are a "stabilized crossbreed" because they seem to be genetically uniform. This hybridization took place some 1,500 years ago, when Indian invaders brought zebus of the Sinhala, or Ceylonese, type to Madura and crossed them with the banteng.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These maduras reportedly show better growth rate than the pure banteng species itself. They are thrifty, hardy, and able to perform well under extremes of heat and poor nutrition. Though a hybrid in origin, both sexes of the madura are fully fertile. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For more than 15 centuries the winners of the bull races ("kerapan sap)") have been the herd sires of Madurese villages. This long breeding history has led to an animal with the following characteristics:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Long legs and small feet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Elongated muscles of the rear legs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Heavy muscling over the back, loin, and shoulder</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Quick reactions and nervous temperament</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Great heat tolerance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The ability to perform well as a work animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng-cattle hybrids vary in appearance, depending on whether European or zebu cattle are used in the cross as well as on the amount of backcrossing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maduras (banteng x zebu) are graceful animals. Their bodies are neat, compact, and deep, with well developed forequarters. The cows attain an average weight of about 210 kg and bulls range from 350 to 375 kg at maturity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Superficially, maduras are like Jersey cattle, except for having a much smaller udder. In most of them the banteng dominates the body structure and coat color. Bulls have a well-developed hump; females have almost none. There is no distinct dewlap. Horns are medium sized and curve upwards and slightly backwards. Ears are medium length and horizontal. Breeders on Madura accept only red-brown animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, crossbreeds of banteng and zebu are distributed throughout Indonesia. On the other hand, hybrids between banteng and European cattle have been made only in small programs in the United States and Australia. For example, researchers in central Texas are producing a cross that is one-eighth banteng/seven-eighths Charolais. They believe this will result in a beef animal able to grow well in warm, humid conditions. In the Northern Territory of Australia, no problems have been encountered in mating banteng bulls to Brahman-Shorthorn cows. Calves that are one-fourth banteng/three-fourths Brahman-Shorthorn have since been produced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Virtually all of the 575,000 "cattle" on the Indonesian island of Madura are hybrid animals resulting from crossing indigenous domesticated banteng with zebus. More than 200 head of banteng/Charolais hybrids are found near Easterly, Texas, and a score or so banteng/ Brahman-Shorthorn hybrids are on a research station near Darwin, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The environment in Madura, where most of these hybrids occur, is monsoonal, with mean average temperatures as high as 31°C in the hot season, and dry spells as long as 5 months. It seems likely that judicious selection of the cattle breed could result in hybrids suitable for many other environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the animals on Madura are bred to be raced. They are probably the fastest running bovines. From a standing start, a yoked pair pulling a sled can reach 50 kph by the end of the 130-meter course. An unencumbered individual can approach the speed of a horse (about 68 kph).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When compared with other bovine genotypes in Indonesia, the performance of these hybrids is more closely related to the banteng than the zebu ancestry."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the cross between banteng and European cattle all F1 bulls are sterile; their sperm development ceases at the secondary spermatocyte stage. Infertility also exists in most one-fourth banteng (although some sperm are present) and in all three-fourths banteng bulls. The fertility of the F1 cows, on the other hand, is high - 90 percent as compared with 70 percent for Brahman-Shorthorn cows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hybrids have a lively temperament. However, when they are reared with other domestic cattle or handled on a regular basis, they are almost as docile as cattle. For instance, they remain calm even in Madura's extremely crowded towns. Nevertheless, personal contact probably must be maintained to keep them accustomed to human management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cows are very protective of their calves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several reports from the livestock service of the former Dutch colonial government, as well as several books on the East Indies, state that meat from the madura is the tenderest of any known breed. In addition, the hides are pliable and superior to those of cattle and are used in the highest quality leather goods. They command a price about 20 percent higher than zebu hides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The breed is reportedly one of the best draft animals for its size in the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maduras have several desirable traits, including those outlined below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Feed efficiency. With grain rations, yearling bulls can gain 1 kg on less than 7 kg of ration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Thriftiness. The breed can maintain its body condition on low quality forages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Heat tolerance. The madura has a high rate of cutaneous evaporation and is therefore well adapted to the tropical monsoonal climate. Teams of madura can plow or cultivate land for more than 6 hours, even at high temperatures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Carcass quality. The madura fattens readily on a high-quality diet and  produces carcasses with high dressing percentages, a large rib-eye area, and  high yields of lean meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· External fat thickness. A well-finished madura normally has only a slight  covering of fat over ribs and lower round. Maximum thickness (over the top  round) is less than 1.5 cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Intelligence. These animals are responsive and easily trained. The famous  dancing cattle of Madura, for instance, are actually these banteng-cattle  hybrids.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Parasite resistance. Despite often high levels of fluke infections, the  animals continue to work, reproduce, and maintain body condition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maduras have been bred for one thing - speed. Some of their genetic  limitations are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Low birth weight. The calves begin small, weighing 12-14 kg at birth, and  they continue to be slow weight gainers. [Feeding trials with yearling bulls  have shown daily gains of over 600 g for 180 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Poor lactation. Milk production is normally less than 1.5 lifers per day and lactation ends after about 4 months. The cows often fail to produce milk. Much of this is probably caused by poor nutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the important features of the madura is that its genetic variation has been largely removed during 1,500 years of continuous breeding; with study much valuable information could be obtained that is beneficial to all bovine breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following topics need further study:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Fertility levels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crossbreeding to test the effect of using a wider range of cattle breeds*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Assessment of the hybrid's advantages over the pure banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Performance under a wide range of environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 Mithan</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan (Bos frontalis) is believed to be a domesticated form of gaur (see chapter 6).t (However, it resembles the banteng and some authors have proposed that it is a gaur-cattle cross, others a gaur-banteng cross.) The mithan is a domestic animal indigenous to parts of India, Burma, and Bangladesh. Because of large size and the high butterfat content of its milk it is widely used to crossbreed with cattle in Bhutan. It deserves greater recognition both in Asia and elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan is a handsome animal. Bulls may occasionally exceed 1.7 m at the shoulder and weigh 1,000 kg, but the average bull is about 1.5 m tall and weighs 540 kg. Cows are shorter and weigh less.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal has a dorsal ridge on the crest of the shoulders, a small but pronounced dewlap, and a generally flat forehead. Mithan horns are often of unusual girth; they are straight or gently curving, and many have an enormous base that practically covers the top of the skull.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most calves and females are brown, but adult males are generally black with white stockings on all four legs. Some, however, are light brown, white, or piebald.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the hill ranges of Assam, where gaur are still plentiful and interbreeding between mithan and gaur frequently occurs, the mithans are massive and gaurlike. But in the Chin Hills, where gaur are scarce, the mithans have lost their bulky proportions, probably by interbreeding with cattle. With them, the high dorsal ridge on the shoulder (which lends so much to the imposing stature of the gaur) has disappeared, the horns are cowlike, and the varied coloring of the domestic cow begins to appear.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithan are kept in a domesticated condition by the hill tribes of northeastern India (Mishmis, Mizo, Nagas), the Chittagong Hill tracts, and some Burmese hill ranges (Arakan and Chin Hills). It is the main domestic animal of the Nagas of Nagaland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In India feral herds totalling some 50,000 head roam the jungles of Arunachal Pradesh. Recently the Royal Government of Bhutan has established two herds by purchasing animals from Arunachal Pradesh. Bhutanese farmers have some 60,000 head of animals that are hybrids of mithan and the local breed of cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Bhutan is breeding mithans on government farms and distributing males to private breeders to improve the genetic base.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan is a grazing animal, but in some areas herds are allowed to browse freely in the woods; some return to the villages for protection at night, while others remain largely in the forests. The villagers keep the forest mithans nearby by providing salt, for which the animals have an insatiable craving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feral mithan live in the same habitat as gaurs and are said to move equally skillfully in mountainous terrain. Usually they are found at elevations from 600 to 3,000 m. However, in the Chittagong Hill tracts and the Mishmi country they descend to 300 m and lower, while in Bhutan they have been reported grazing in summer at altitudes as high as 3,300 m, for example around Thimphu.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p23.png"></center><br>
+ Mithan distribution. (after Simoons and Simoons, 1968)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithans are fully fertile amongst themselves. Also, they interbreed freely with the gaur, banteng, yak, and cattle of both the taurus and zebu types. Naga owners encourage the interbreeding with gaur, regarding it as an improvement of the race. (They arrange this by placing salt licks in the forest. After gaur bulls have formed a habit of coming to the licks, mithan cows are left there and in due course mating takes place.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The crosses between mithan and zebu are also encouraged in certain districts. Unlike most crosses between bovine species, those between mithan and cattle result in fertile male and female offspring (although some owners indicate that the F1 male is not a reliable breeder).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is an unusually gentle animal with a quiet disposition, as revealed in the Chin tribe's expression "gentle as a mithan." Normally even a stranger is safe to approach one; if he gives it a bit of salt, it will usually follow him about. Thus, mithans are easily managed in a regular cattlerearing operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many mithans are not domesticated in the strict sense. Their herds live in a semi-tame state near jungle villages and come to settlements only in the evening to lick salt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some regions of northern India, mithans are used for field work and as draft animals. They are also important as a meat supply. The Bhutanese government is establishing a national dairy-mithan breeding program, which could result in a valuable dairy animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To many tribes of northeast India and Burma, mithans serve mainly as sacrificial animals. The Nagas use them as a kind of "currency" to pay for goods, to buy brides, and to pay penalties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids resulting from backcrossing mithan with common cattle are also used as work animals. For at least a century, Bhutanese livestock breeders, particularly those in the eastern section, have mated mithan bulls to siri cows (Bos taurus) from India. This produces very profitable hybrid offspring that have high milk production. The milk is rich in total solids and produces exceptional yields of cheese and butter.* The male of the cross (called "jatsha") is a powerful draft animal, and the female ("jatshum") is a prized milk cow. To this day, extensive crossing continues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan is potentially an animal that can be used in difficult terrain where most domestic cattle breeds do not perform well. Mithans are superior when it comes to feeding on steep slopes and cliffs and for grazing native grass and the leaves of local fodder trees. They are also adapted to tropical and subtropical environments. And they are able to maintain themselves in small herds (6-10 head) in dense jungle.*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan could prove valuable in other parts of the world, and it could be important particularly for the genetic improvement of cattle in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If they are disturbed, mature mithans can be temperamental. They can be difficult to hold with normal fences or chutes, because of their size. When given injections or otherwise subjected to pain, they are liable to bolt to the jungle and not return.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The productivity of these animals needs to be better characterized and defined. Attention should be given to their grazing efficiency as compared with that of cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The two farms the Bhutan government has established for breeding mithans provide an opportunity to gather genetic information on the species and to have experimental matings take place to establish the most suitable animal for various conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The genetic relationship of mithan to gayal, gaur, and cattle needs to be clarified. Although it is believed that the mithan and gayal are the same animal, one of this report's reviewers points out that the mithan of Bhutan are strikingly different in color, body shape, and horn structure from gayals seen in zoos in Europe and India. Although the mithan is now considered a domesticated gaur, many in the past have claimed it as a gaur-cattle hybrid. Physiological research could remove lingering doubts. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p26.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Yak</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yak (Bos grunniens), is a grazing animal that is accustomed to traveling great distances in a harsh environment. Nothing is known about when it was first domesticated, but there has probably been a close association between man and yaks ever since the first humans migrated into the high mountains of Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated yaks are about the size of ordinary cattle and rarely exceed heights of 1.3 m at the shoulder. Their liveweight is generally 250-550 kg for the males and 180-350 kg for the females. They differ little from wild yaks except that they are smaller, have shorter and thinner horns, and may be rusty brown, black, silver grey, or piebald instead of black. Often they have whitish spots on their faces.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yak's hair is long, especially on the flanks, where it forms a shaggy fringe that often reaches the ground. This, together with an underlying layer of thick, fine wool, protects the animal from the bitter cold of its native region. The yak has an enormous tail with a brush of long hair coming from its root, which is rare in bovines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Long extensions of the thoracic vertebrae give the yak shoulders that look like a hump, but this is different from the boneless hump in zebus. The body is long, short-legged, and compact, with particularly large forequarters because, like the bison, the yak has 14 or 15 pairs of ribs instead of the 13 of domestic cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The horns spread outward and upward, and the head is held low, like that of the bison. While no hornless domestic yaks have been reported in Nepal, more than 90 percent of those found in Mongolia lack horns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most yaks are found especially in the mountains and plateaus of Tibet and western China, however they occur from northern Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and Bhutan to Mongolia, and the Soviet Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are more than one million domestic yaks in the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Himalayas the domestic yak is almost always found above 2,000 m elevation. Males are sometimes brought as low as 1,700 m for mating with cattle (see chapter 6), but they do not fare well at such altitudes. In Mongolia and Buryatiya (U.S.S.R.), however, they are found as low as 1,500 m elevation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p29.png"></center><br>
+ Yak distribution. (after J. Bonnemaire, 1976)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild yak lives in desolate mountain areas at altitudes of 4,000-6,000 m. Its habitat is the alpine tundra and the cold desert regions of the northern part of the Tibetan plateau. These barren mountain regions are remote and at higher elevations than the zones of human habitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks look ungainly, partly because they are covered with long hair, but they are agile climbers and can maneuver narrow mountain paths. Their long hair is one adaptation to the cold climate. Other adaptations are the small, compact scrotum of the male and udder of the female, the small teats (only 2-3 cm long) and covering of hair over the udder, and the covering of short hair over the muzzle, except just around the nostrils.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In early summer yaks graze the lush grass in valley bottoms, but for much of the year they live on dry, coarse mountain grass and for long periods obtain water by eating snow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gestation length is 258 days - slightly shorter than that of cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic yaks are docile and easily managed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks are especially useful as riding and pack animals; they can manage loads of more than 150 kg. At altitudes up to 6,000 m they may carry a pack or a person at a steady pace for days and still remain in good condition. In some regions they are the only feasible pack animal. Yak bulls (generally castrated) are also used for plowing and for threshing grain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Occasionally the yak is slaughtered for meat. The meat is particularly important in parts of the USSR and in Mongolia, where in the cold, high-altitude environments it reportedly costs only half as much to produce as beef.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas milk production is an essential aspect of yak husbandry. Yields vary considerably according to management and nutrition, but they average about 600 kg and can be more than 1,000 kg per lactation. Yak milk is golden colored. It is much richer than cow's milk; a typical analysis is: total dry matter, 17.35 percent; fat, 6.5 percent; protein, 5.3 percent; and sugars, 4.6 percent. The fat globules are much larger than those in cow's milk. People of Tibetan stock use yak butter as a food staple and as a lighting fuel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yak hide, though apparently not as good as that of cattle, is used for many purposes. It makes outstanding saddles. Yak hair is used for making ropes, saddle blankets (purportedly the best in the world), grainstorage bags, and tents. The fine wool that occurs beneath the long hair is used for making felt. The annual yield of adult females and males is about 750 g and 1,600 g of hair and about 350 g and 600 g of wool, respectively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because yaks are often found above the timberline their dung is an important fuel in many areas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks can live and work hard in a cold climate. They are the only bovines to thrive at high altitudes. In cold, high areas they can work and produce meat and milk more efficiently and cheaply than cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks are not well able to eliminate surplus heat because their heavy coat reduces their ability to sweat. In warm climates their respiration rate and body temperature increase and they become exhausted and susceptible to infections. At low altitudes in Nepal yaks die of a variety of diseases. Apparently not even yak-cattle hybrid animals (see next chapter) can successfully live below 700 m in that part of the world. This is probably due to overheating, since during the first half of this century yaks grew successfully in trials at low altitudes in Alaska and northern Canada.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yak improvement programs are much needed. It seems probable that the genetic potential of the species is far from realized because Buddhist beliefs oppose the deliberate killing of stock. Techniques for deep freezing yak semen have been successfully developed at Regents Park Zoo, London and should prove invaluable for improving the breed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· As a result of uncontrolled hunting the wild yak is endangered and is now restricted to remote barrens on upland plateaus and highlands in northern Tibet and Chinghai, inhospitable even to domestic yaks. The numbers of wild yak are unknown. They require total protection throughout their range and the establishment of adequately protected reserves with good pasture. To preserve their genetic purity, it is important to isolate wild yaks from domestic yaks and thus keep them pure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A primary need is to catalog the numbers and locations of purebred yaks. Today we have little idea of the total breeding population. Gathering such information is difficult, owing to the geographical isolation of the communities involved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It is also important to catalog the movement of yaks between different areas to see if enough genetic exchange occurs to prevent inbreeding of the population. Exchanges between local pastoralists were much more frequent in the past (for example, between Tibet and Nepal), but this is now more difficult because of border restrictions and because many yak </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">herders that used to move herds long distances have become sedentary farmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Breeding strategies, herd management, product processing, and herd hygiene in Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, northern India, and northern Pakistan, Tibet, Mongolia, and the Soviet Union all differ greatly. It is important to get an overall perspective so that the strengths of the different systems can be judged and the weaknesses reduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· There are clearly different domestic yak "breeds" in terms of their appearance, and these need to be identified and compared systematically. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p33.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">5 Yakows</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks and cattle have the same diploid number of chromosomes (60). And in the regions where yaks are found, they are often interbred with cattle, either the humpless cattle (Bos taurus) of Tibet and Mongolia or the zebu (Bos indicus) of South Asia. As with mules, the hybrid offspring of cattle and yak surpass their parents in strength and vigor. Yakows* grow faster than their parents, and they suffer less from high temperatures than yaks. The hybrid cow reaches sexual maturity earlier and yields larger quantities of milk than the yak cow. The males, however, are sterile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yakow's appearance varies with the type of cattle used in the cross. But because of the phenomenon of hybrid vigor (heterosis), the hybrids are considerably bigger than the mean size of their parents. (For instance, in one test the liveweight was approximately 18 percent higher than the average weight of the parents.) The hybrids also excel in hardiness, working ability, growth rate, and milk production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, their appearance and performance is closer to that of the mother than of the father. Because of this, the yakows can be "custom designed" for various altitude zones. For example, the farmer at lower altitudes may produce cattle-like yakows by breeding yak bulls to domestic cows, while farmers at higher altitudes would use the reverse cross.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yakows have shorter hair and a much less downy undercoat than purebred yaks. They are similar in color to yaks. (In Nepal, black is most frequent, but brown shades and even white may occur.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yakows are found in parts of northeastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, northeast and northwest India, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Tibet, western China, Mongolia, and southeastern Russia. They are found notably in the Himalayan region of Nepal, where they are bred by people of Tibetan culture and language. Sherpas, for instance, supply hybrid cows and heifers to dairy farmers throughout northeastern Nepal. Hybrids are also much bred in Ladakh (northern Pakistan) and Mongolia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whereas farmers in Nepal tend to use zebus to cross with yak, the inhabitants of the Tibetan plateau generally use Bos taurus cattle. People in some areas favor mating yak bulls to cows, while those in other areas prefer the reverse. But even within one village there can be a degree of specialization by different families, depending on wealth and the location of traditional grazing grounds. Generally, however, the crosses between domestic cattle bulls and yak cows are the predominant ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of yak-cattle hybrids in the world is unknown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the yak, the hybrid can live in cold, barren, upland terrain, but it has the advantage of being able to adapt to lower altitudes. In winter, caravans of hybrids may come down as low as 1,600 m in some parts of Nepal, and hybrid herds (especially those resulting from crossing yak bulls with zebu cows) can spend several weeks grazing at altitudes as low as about 1,700 m in winter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female hybrids are fertile when mated with either parent stock. Male hybrids, however, are sterile. Although they have fully developed secondary sexual characters and show libido, their testes do not produce spermatozoa because the seminiferous tubules are poorly developed and the spermatogonia and their nuclei are degenerate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few normal or motile spermatozoa may be found in the semen of backcrosses of the F1 hybrids to either parent, but as a rule the spermatozoa are normal and dead.* Backcrossing is reportedly not common, however, as the progeny do not retain hybrid vigor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tibetan farmers prefer the hybrids for plowing because of their docile temperament. The yak is said to be more stubborn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hybrids are valued as beasts of burden and draft, and are often preferred over yaks. Male hybrids are generally castrated at about 3 years of age so as to increase their strength and size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where pastures occur over areas of greatly varying altitude, the use of hybrid livestock is likely to be more efficient, in biological terms, than the use of yaks or cattle. By judiciously selecting cattle, yaks, or hybrids all altitudes from sea level to above 5,000 m can be utilized with best efficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hybrid's milk is intermediate in composition between that of its parents. However, hybrids yield up to 7 kg of milk per day against the yak's 3 kg. (It seems that the hybrid derived from cattle bull and female yak produces considerably more milk, with a higher fat content than that derived from yak bull x cattle female.) Also the female hybrids produce larger quantities of milk than Nepalese zebu cows on the same hill pastures. They also produce a calf each year, while under normal herd management yaks tend to produce a calf every 2 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids do not tolerate extremes of altitude or cold as well as purebred yaks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The normal gestation period for yaks is about 1 month shorter than that of cattle, and the gestation period for a hybrid is intermediate between that of the parents - hence there may be problems at calving when a female yak is sired by a bull from a large cattle breed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed to identify differences in altitude tolerance between various hybrids. This should include measurements of hemoglobin count, respiration rate, and pulse rates at different altitudes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies are also needed on all production characteristics, particularly on the meat and milk production potentials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cataloging the breeding strategies of different areas where hybrids occur would be useful, along with a historical perspective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research to determine the most productive hybrids by crossing different yak and cattle "breeds" in areas with different environmental conditions could be extremely useful. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part II : Wild Bovine Species</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In various parts of Southeast Asia there exist little-known relatives of cattle and water buffaloes. Many of these wild animals are close to extinction, and attention is drawn to them in hope their populations will be preserved. All of them survive in tropical regions subject to environmental extremes - flooding annual rains, searing droughts, and swarming pests and parasites. These are conditions to which conventional livestock are poorly adapted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None of Africa's bovines is threatened with extinction, and both the European and American forms of bison are being preserved by governments and individuals. In Asia, however, there has been an alarming drop in the numbers of wild water buffalo, wild yak, wild banteng, kouprey, gaur, and tamaraw in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section describes:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wild banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Gaur</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Kouprey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tamaraw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Anoas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If not molested, many of these animals can thrive side by side with human settlements. They may therefore have an important future role in the development of the tropics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is little point in conservation for conservation's sake, but loss of irreplaceable resources through ignorance, greed, or thoughtlessness should be avoided. It may be that these Asian animals have little merit other than their uniqueness, but at the very least, sufficient numbers should be conserved until we have time to find out. A. J. SMITH Royal School of Veterinary Studies, Edinburgh, Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rapid human increase and relative poverty deny hope that any land can lie idle when so many would be robbed of an opportunity simply to exist. For wildlife to survive, let alone at its breathtaking best, we must think of new and better ways to justify its future, preferably by having it contribute to the welfare of those hard-pressed humans who inevitably are further disadvantaged by the creation of national parks. DAVID WESTERN New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is an urgency to conserve and study nontraditional animal species, especially for use in the environmentally challenging tropical areas of the world. The philosophy plant scientists apply to exploring the potential of the plant kingdom needs to be more enthusiastically adopted for the world's animal species. G. W. M. KIRBY, Principal Animal Production Officer Department of Primary Production Darwin, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p40.png"></center><br>
+ GAUR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">6  Wild Banteng</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild banteng (Bos javanicus)* are the most cowlike of all the wild bovines and are the parent stock of the 1.5 million domesticated banteng in Indonesia (see chapter 1). They have a scattered distribution throughout Southeast Asia, and three subspecies are recognized:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Java banteng Bos javanicus javanicus (Java and Bali)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Borneo banteng Bos javanicus lowi (Borneo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Burma banteng Bos javanicus birmanicus (Burma, Thailand, Indochina).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng have been called the most beautiful of all wild relatives of cattle. The cows are usually a vibrant reddish brown, while adult bulls are mostly blackish-brown and sometimes even blue-black (although in Burma and Indochina bulls remain golden brown like the cows, and in Thailand a few banteng have been recorded with white, deerlike spots on their brown coats). Both sexes have white "stockings" and a large white patch on their rumps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng are larger than their domesticated counterparts. Average-sized bulls of the Java and Burma subspecies stand 1.6 m high and weigh 635 kg, but bulls as large as 1.9 m and 825 kg have been recorded. Cows average 1.4 m in height and weigh 400 kg. The Borneo subspecies is smaller.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The horns of banteng bulls are angular, turning out and then up, with inward-pointing tips and reaching a spread of 60-75 cm. The horns of cows are short and crescent shaped. There is a patch of thick, naked skin between the horns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are found in restricted localities scattered over an area ranging from the northeastern edge of India, through Burma, Thailand, the northern Malay Peninsula, central and southern Indochina, and the islands of Borneo, Java, and Bali.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only a few thousand wild banteng survive, and their numbers are decreasing. Most populations are endangered because their habitats are being encroached upon by the growing human population. In Sabah, Malaysia, for example, the areas where an estimated 300-550 banteng (the last remaining herds) occur are scheduled for conversion to permanent agriculture. The animals are being forced to use smaller and smaller habitats, thus increasing losses caused by malnutrition, diseases, and parasites. In addition, throughout much of the animal's range, hunting, military operations, and perhaps interbreeding with domestic cattle are further reducing the original stocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p43.png"></center><br>
+ Distribution of wild banteng. (courtesy of C.H. Wharton)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng's general distribution lies in the zone of deciduous monsoon forest in Southeast Asia. Habitats vary between the extremes of dry wooded parkland with large grassy plains to tropical rain forest with small clearings. The animals prefer flat or undulating terrain. In northern Kampuchea and eastern Java, they inhabit grassland savannas. In western Thailand, they live in a belt of grass and bamboo thickets along upper slopes of dry mountains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng inhabit sites from sea level to around 2,000 m elevation. They avoid large human settlements and plantations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas there are no pronounced hot or cold seasons, but dry seasons can be long.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng prefer feeding on grass, but are fond of herbs, leaves, fruits and blossoms, as well as the sprouts of trees, brush, and young bamboo. Under favorable conditions they drink daily, preferring standing water. During droughts, they seem able to survive several days without water. In coastal areas where there are no mineral licks they can meet their need for salt by occasionally drinking seawater. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sex ratio at birth is 140 males to 100 females, but mortality of bulls is heavy and the adult ratio is about three cows for every bull.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calves are suckled until they are 14-16 months old.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In undisturbed conditions, the banteng's daily activity has a more or less fixed rhythm. During daytime, the animals alternate active and resting periods of 2-3 hours each. The active periods predominantly involve feeding, drinking, and social interactions. While resting, the animals commonly ruminate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a reaction to heavy rains or human disturbances, the animals retreat into dense vegetation. In regions with frequent human disturbance they generally appear in the open only at night. However, where they find particularly suitable localities they become somewhat accustomed to human presence and will venture out in daylight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng live alone or in small groups of up to eight members. Males separate from their mothers at an age of 2-3 years. Sometimes female calves continue living with their mother even beyond maturity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cows and dominant bulls command the best pastures, and young and weaker bulls roam widely, rarely leaving the protection of the thick forest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng bull has a reputation for extraordinary savagery, but stories of its lightning attack have been exaggerated. Wildlife biologists in Indonesia have not been able to document any such attacks and have no qualms about walking in banteng habitats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng show important promise for improving domesticated banteng (see chapter 1) or for interbreeding with cattle (chapter 2). Almost 170 years ago Sir Stamford Raffles, founder of Singapore, noted that in Java "The degenerate domestic cows are sometimes driven into the forest to couple with the wild benteng, for the sake of improving that breed."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tourism could be developed in areas where these magnificent animals occur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng are large, robust animals fully at home both in the heat and humidity of the wet season and in the hot dry season. Their genetic </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">endowment for such tolerance could be of significant value fin improving domestic stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Possible Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng may prove to have a special susceptibility to diseases of domestic animals. Blackleg (Clostridium chauvoli) and mucosal disease have caused heavy losses in banteng in European zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capture of wild banteng may prove difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research on the physiology, production potential, and possible uses of wild banteng is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hunting and destruction of its habitats menace the wild banteng over all of its range. The only promising means for conservation is creation of nature reserves where hunting and forest destruction are forbidden. Conservation efforts should particularly include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Supporting government of Thailand efforts to conserve banteng in western Thailand and the Petchabun Range;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cooperating with the Burmese government in surveys to locate the best banteng habitats;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cooperating with the governments of Kampuchea and Laos to identify banteng habitats and establish appropriate protective measures; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Carrying out research in Java's nature reserves (Ujung Kulon National Park and Baluran Reserve) to ascertain the genetic distinctiveness of the banteng, its status, and its characteristics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Sabah and other areas of Southeast Asia there are cattle breeding projects that use imported stock exclusively. Experimental crossbreeding of local banteng with this stock should be encouraged. There are some feral and domestic banteng, as well as hybrids between wild banteng and feral cattle, that should also be tested.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p45.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">7 Gaur</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gaur (Bos gaurus) would seem to be an ideal meat-producing animal. It is a large bovine with massive muscular development, and it has already been domesticated (see mithan, chapter 3). Gaurs, which are threatened with extinction, deserve much greater attention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two subspecies of gaurs are recognized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bos gaurus gaurus (India, Nepal) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bos gaurus laosiensis (Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Kampuchea, West Malaysia). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With its huge head, massive body, and sturdy limbs, the gaur is the embodiment of vigor and strength. It is among the biggest of bovines. Bulls weigh 600-940 kg and stand 1.6-1.9 m tall at the shoulder, but a record bull of 2.2 m and 1,225 kg has been recorded. Cows are only about 10 cm shorter in height, but they are more lightly built and weigh 150 kg less.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On their shoulders gaur bulls have a striking muscular ridge that slopes down to the middle of the back, where it ends in an abrupt dip. The horns are crescent shaped, creamy yellow, and taper to a sharp point, which is usually tipped in black.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newborns are a light golden yellow, but soon darken to coffee or reddish brown, the color of young bulls and cows. Old bulls are jet black, their bodies almost hairless. Gaurs have light colored forehead and yellowish or white stockings. Their eyes are brown but in certain lights, because of reflection, they appear blue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs excrete an oily, aromatic sweat, unique to this species and to the mithan. It gives the animals a strong bovine smell and may be an adaptation for keeping away insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once common throughout South and Southeast Asia, gaurs now survive only in scattered remnant herds of up to 30 animals in the hill forests of India, Nepal, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Kampuchea, Vietnam, and the Malay Peninsula.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p48.png"></center><br>
+ Gaur distribution. (courtesy of C.H. Wharton)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Historically, the largest concentrations have coexisted with farmers in areas of shifting cultivation. The animals adjust to disturbed land, and they also adapt to man's presence if not unduly harassed. For example, gaurs will feed in agricultural fields, along roadsides, and near occupied houses. Herds in national parks feed peacefully while tourists stand by. Gaurs in zoos also become quite tame and manageable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Populations not protected in parks and reserves are in immediate danger of extinction. Even in the remotest hill forests gaurs are harassed by hunting, exposed to the diseases of domestic cattle, and driven from their natural habitat by human invasion. Most herds outside of parks or wildlife reserves are threatened by agricultural development, hydroelectric dam projects, human settlement, or extensive logging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In India, large populations still exist in the larger sanctuaries such as </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mudumalai and Kanha Park. In Thailand diseases carried by domestic animals, poaching, and habitat destruction have reduced total gaur numbers to fewer than 500. In Malaysia, the population is estimated to be only 400 animals. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs typically live on gentle, undulating terrain with natural mineral licks. They inhabit gaps in the forest, such as abandoned clearings, where they can find grasses and shrubs. In the northern portions of their range, they inhabit deciduous and semideciduous hill and mountain forests with light brush and many grassy clearings. In the lowlands they live in open bamboo jungles, grassy plains near forests, or dense forests broken by glades or open meadows. (In the forest they probably depend to some extent on the slash and burn agriculture of hill people.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals appear to be adapting to increased human presence. They make use of such man-modified habitats as logged forests and fringe areas of agricultural estates that abound with grasses and early secondgrowth vegetation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs are combination grazers and browsers. They feed on the grasses of forest openings as well as on the young leaves, fruits, twigs, and bark of shrubs and juvenile trees. In one study in Malaysia, grasses comprised 41 percent of their diet, fortes 23 percent, and woody browse 36 percent."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs develop large muscular bodies and maintain excellent condition on relatively low-quality feed. In the Malaysian study, crude protein content of grass species varied from 7.0 to 7.6 percent and phosphorus content varied from 0.11 to 0.17 percent; yet calves reached weights of 300 kg or more during their first year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Birth and survival rates of up to 100 percent have been reported for wild gaur populations. Calves are born at any time of the year. The gestation period is 270 days, a little shorter than for banteng or domestic cattle and longer than for yak or kouprey.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Captive gaurs calve first at 2.5 years of age.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gaur interbreeds with the mithan, and both have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 58.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By nature gaurs are shy and timid. As with most wild bovines, their hearing and eyesight seem comparatively poor. Their defense lies in their massive size and acute sense of smell. When a herd with juveniles is threatened by a predator, the adults form a protective circle around the young. Although individuals retreat from danger if they can, they have a unique form of threat: they approach their opponents broadside instead of head on, displaying the huge muscular body and dorsal ridge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In common with other wild bovids, gaurs habitually visit mineral licks, which appear to be necessary to their habitat and influence the herd's movements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike water buffaloes, gaurs do not wallow. They take cover in the forest during the heat of the day and may feed at night and in the early morning during hot weather. In populated areas such as near agricultural estates, they may feed only at night to avoid people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, gaurs associated in loose herds of up to 400 animals, but today groups of only 5 to 12 animals are normally found. The herds, which are of more stable composition than those of banteng, are separated by sex for most of the year; however, during the rut stronger bulls form a series of "tending bonds" with estrous cows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs are thought to be interfertile with domestic cattle. If so, their attributes of size, massive muscular development, tolerance of heat and humidity, and resistance to diseases and parasites can contribute to beef production in the tropics. A gaur-cattle hybrid might also have immunity to some cattle diseases; if it retained the mild temperament of the domesticated parent, an extremely powerful beast of burden could be produced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gaur is a truly majestic animal. Its habit of using grassy forest clearings and salt licks makes it a likely tourist attraction in parks and reserves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a climate and environment where domestic cattle are susceptible to heat stress and parasite infestation, gaur thrive and maintain body condition. Further, they are able to develop large muscular bodies and maintain excellent body conditions on relatively low-quality forage by feeding on a variety of woody browse, grasses, and fortes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Retaining its wild instincts for survival, the gaur is better able to withstand predator attacks them domestic cattle. This could be an advantage when animals graze in remote areas. Adult gaurs are strong enough to defend themselves against a predator as powerful as a tiger. In addition, they are also very protective of their young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs have little immunity to some cattle diseases. In many regions of India, cattle driven into the forests to graze infect gaur herds with rinderpest, foot and mouth disease, cattle plague, and other contagious diseases. Severe losses occur. Gaurs also appear very susceptible to malignant catarrhal fever.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaur numbers are declining throughout their range. If this trend is not reversed, it could effectively prohibit the use of gaur for domestication or crossbreeding purposes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs are shy and excitable, making them difficult to catch, but once in captivity the animals calm down. Second generation zoo populations are easily worked and handled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs on occasion damage cultivated crops such as young rubber trees and cassava. They require sturdy and well-kept fences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Southeast Asia there is special need to support the efforts of the governments of Malaysia and Thailand to conserve this species and to identify important gaur populations. Similar protective measures are needed in Burma, Laos, Kampuchea, and Vietnam.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed to establish and manage new gaur herds in forest reserves and build up the gaur population in the world's zoos. Techniques have been developed to capture and release wild gaur safely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fertilized gaur ova have been successfully transferred into a foster Holstein cow. The cow carried the gaur fetus to a successful delivery. This could be the forerunner of an important means of rapidly expanding captive herds by transferring gaur embryos into cattle in different parts of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is also needed on the basic physiology and production potential of gaur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossbreeding experiments should be started immediately to establish the degree of interfertility between the gaur and other bovine species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p52.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">8 Kouprey</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey (Bos sauveli) is the most primitive of living cattle. Its features are typical of some forms that existed in the Pleistocene era, 600,000 years ago. Discovered by Western scientists only in 1937, the kouprey was the last large mammal to enter the biology books. It is perhaps the most primitive of living cattle and is closely allied to Bos namadicus, the wild ancestor of zebu cattle. In 1964 it was declared Cambodia's national animal. It is now perilously close to extinction, and for a decade no koupreys have been observed close enough for a positive identification by a specialist. In 1982, however, five of the animals were believed sighted in Thailand, near the border with Kampuchea. Thus there are hopes that the kouprey still exists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey is large. Males stand 1.5-2 m high at the shoulder and may weigh 900 kg. Females are approximately three-quarters the height and weight of the males. The body is slender and long-legged. The hump from the withers to the center of the back is smaller than that of the gaur, but larger than that of the banteng. There is a well-developed dewlap from the throat to the mid-chest, which in old animals is sometimes so pendulous that it drags through the grass in front of the forelegs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young bulls are gray, with black on the head and dewlap. Old bulls are entirely black and cows are mouse gray or dullish light brown. As in the gaur and the banteng, the lower parts of the legs have white stockings, but kouprey stockings have a streak of dark hair down the front.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey. (P. Pfeffer)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey horns are among the longest and widest of any bovine. The tips of the adult male horns are surrounded by rough, frayed tissue caused by the animals' habit of digging in the soil with their horns. The females have slender, lyre-shaped horns that corkscrew upwards, unlike those of any other wild or domesticated cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey are said to have a grace more reminiscent of deer than cattle. They move at a light trot, as fast as 32 kph.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey's prevalence in ancient times is evidenced by prehistoric cave-paintings in Kampuchea. The animal was also a favorite of the ancient Khmers, who carved kouprey statues and featured the animal in bas-reliefs on temples, including the monuments of Angkor Wat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, whatever kouprey exist are restricted to an area along both sides of the Mekong River in northern Kampuchea, the Dangrek Range, and other parts of eastern Thailand to the far south of Laos, and to the westernmost part of Vietnam. Although one or two small herds may still exist in remote pockets of Laos and Vietnam, the bulk of the population has always been centered in Kampuchea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are no koupreys in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their large size, gregarious behavior, comparatively low reproductive rate, and preference for open areas, kouprey are vulnerable to hunting. The impressive horns and other tissues are valued as trophies and as medicinals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1964 it was estimated there were about 500 kouprey in Kampuchea, but by 1970 fewer than 70 were left. The subsequent fate of the species is unknown because of the years of warfare in the area. (Early in 1970, the three nominal kouprey reserves of Kampuchea were overrun by military forces.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p55.png"></center><br>
+ KOUPREY DISTRIBUTION. (AFTER C.H. WHARTON )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1975 the kouprey stocks in Laos and Thailand were estimated at only 50 and 20 animals, respectively. By now, hunting and habitat destruction probably have all but eliminated the kouprey from Thailand. However, a reported sighting of five animals that had strayed across the border from Kampuchea was made in July 1982. (By the time Thai zoologists arrived to investigate, the herd apparently had crossed back into Kampuchea.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the banteng, the kouprey inhabits open sites such as light savannas, woodland meadows, and scattered glades in the monsoon forests. It is adapted to dry country. This type of habitat is not widespread in Indochina, and the range of the kouprey is consequently limited.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey spend most of the year among low rolling hills in open areas where grazing and visibility are good. These open areas are a fire climax mosaic of dry dipterocarp savannas and patches of dense forest. Fires occur each dry season, most of them deliberately set by man. Kouprey capitalize on the young growth in burned-over areas. They feed primarily on grasses, sedges, and tree leaves. They also require salt licks and a supply of water in the dry season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gestation period is thought to be about 8.5 months. Cows leave the herd before parturition and return with their calves after about a month. They nurse their calves for about 6 months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey are said to be even more shy than banteng and gaur. They feed in erratic patterns and are always alert and nervous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loose herds of 20 or more have been reported. These were of mixed composition, often with more than one adult male, and were usually led by an old female. Adult bulls sometimes form bachelor herds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey utilize some of the same feeds as wild banteng, and the two animals often live in a loose association. They graze together, and, especially after the mating season, solitary kouprey bulls often associate with banteng herds. The two species do not, however, interbreed in the wild. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey is a candidate for domestication and has important potential as breeding stock. It is a wild animal, but it may have been domesticated temporarily during the Khmer culture, 400-800 years ago.* Both Vietnam and Laos have cattle breeds that resemble kouprey, and a kouprey bull, reputed to be a domestic animal of the Stieng tribe, was exhibited in the Paris Menagerie in the mid-nineteenth century. It may be that kouprey are domestic even today in parts of Indochina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey survival has worldwide significance. The animals could be important for studies of bovine evolution and as a genetic resource for crossbreeding to improve disease resistance and other characteristics of domesticated bovines. For instance, the kouprey is thought to be resistant to rinderpest, a killer disease of domestic cattle. Also, kouprey bulls are distinctive for their long dewlap, and they probably have more skin area for their weight than other bovines and are therefore better able to eliminate body heat. This genetic trait may help large cattle breeds survive in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey's potential may be moot - there may be none left in the world. It is feared that the warfare of recent years may have caused its extinction. However, if enough animals survive and can be protected, the kouprey could probably recover its numbers, as a higher calf-to-cow ratio (1:3) was reported for this species than for either banteng (1:4) or gaur (1:10).*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If wild kouprey are found, their capture is likely to be difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a long-term sequence of research needs for the kouprey, which includes the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.  Working with the governments of Thailand, Laos, and Kampuchea to identify any remaining pockets of this species and to establish conservation programs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establishing one or more captive breeding herds (because there is little chance of the animal surviving in the wild owing to the fighting and turmoil in the area);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Studying the animal's basic physiology and production potential;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Exploring its possible commercial utilization; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Investigating the kouprey's genetic relationship to zebu cattle and the transferability of genetic characters through interbreeding. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p58.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">9 Tamaraw</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) is related to the water buffalo, one of Asia's most important animal resources, but it has never been domesticated or studied and is threatened with extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw looks rather like a miniature water buffalo of the swamp type that is found in Southeast Asia. It reaches about I m in height and 300 kg in weight. It is much more stockily built and is blacker than the swamp buffalo. The tamaraw has white marks on the fetlocks, instead of completely white lower legs like the banteng, gaur, and kouprey. It has short (35-50 cm), very stout horns that curve out and back slightly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endemic to the Philippine island of Mindoro the tamaraw is now virtually restricted to three small areas (Mount Iglet/Mount Baco, Mount Calavita, and Sablayon) in Mindoro Occidental.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its limited distribution, the tamaraw's future is of concern to conservationists. Until World War II, hunting was carefully regulated in its native region and no serious concern was felt for the animal's safety. Since then, however, increases in human population, lumbering, and ranching have restricted the tamaraw's habitat, and the availability of rifles and automatic weapons has seriously threatened its numbers. In 1971, research teams counted 148 head, consisting of 116 adults and 32 calves. The latest estimate is 150-200 head.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these last remaining animals, about 80 are located at Mount Iglit, a game refuge established in 1961 primarily to protect the tamaraw. Recently an active tamaraw conservation program has been started in a 400-hectare enclosed area on the refuge. Stockade traps have been built and tamaraw are beginning to move into them. The goal is to establish a small, semicaptive population that can be properly guarded, studied, and managed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p61.png"></center><br>
+ Tamaraw distribution. (courtesy Wildlife magazine)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The habitat requirements of the tamaraw appear to be fairly flexible, and present habitat use reflects human pressures rather than the animal's preferences. In the past, tamaraw were found in virtually all parts of Mindoro, from sea level to mountain tops. They occupied open grasslands or glades, but hunting pressure and habitat change have forced it to retreat into forest environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present the tamaraw is found primarily in remote areas that have been partly cleared, largely by fire, so that only small pockets of trees remain among coarse grasses such as Imperata cylindrica (a widespread, unpalatable tropical weed commonly called cogon, kunai, alang alang, lalang, or blady grass), and "tahalib" (Saccharum spontaneum). The tamaraw uses the forest pockets for rest and retreat and the open land for grazing. It must have a supply of water for wallowing and drinking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to cattlemen, tamaraw eat both Imperata grass and tehalib but only when these are short and green. During the wet season when most forages are tall and unpalatable, the animals are known to feed on bamboo shoots.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy is about 20 years. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraw are reputed to be nocturnal, ferocious, and retiring. However, in earlier times they were reportedly relatively tame, diurnal animals of open areas. It was the continual hunting that made them increasingly nocturnal and secretive, and like other wild bovids they can become aggressive and dangerous when harassed or wounded. Given effective protection they doubtless would revert to placid, diurnal behavior.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw appears to be a possible livestock animal. Its meat and hides were highly regarded by local peoples, cattlemen, and visiting hunters. Because of its close relationship to the water buffalo, it may be able to provide genetic material for improving the health and hardiness of that valuable animal resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is renowned for hardiness and resilience to heat, humidity, and poor forage, as well as its capability to thrive in a variety of environmental conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraws have only once produced offspring in a zoo and may prove difficult to raise in captivity. However, they have been kept in captivity so seldom that the prospects are unclear. Experiences with other wild bovids suggests that captivity and captive breeding should be no problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw must be protected and preserved. There is urgent need, for example, to establish more secure parks in the Philippines to rebuild the wild population to safe levels. Other conservation measures should include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establishing and maintaining more reserves in natural habitats containing breeding populations, and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Building up breeding populations in suitable zoos and livestock research centers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed on the tamaraw's physiology, production characteristics, behavior, and genetic relationship to the water buffalo. None of these is well understood. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p63.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">10 Anoas</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lowland anoa (Bubalus depressicornis) and the mountain anoa (Bubalus quarlesi)* are small bovines that are related to the water buffalo but that are scarcely bigger than goats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with other bovines, the anoa is tiny. It stands only 0.75-1 m tall at the shoulder. The mountain anoa is smaller than its lowland counterpart. The limbs are short, the body plump, and the neck thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoa horns are short and straight, reaching a maximum length of about 380 mm; they are ringed and triangular in cross section at the base in lowland species and simple and conical in cross section in mountain species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the young are thickly covered with yellowish-brown woolly hair, the mountain anoa adults tend to have curly hair, while lowland anoa have straight hair or are hairless. Adults vary from dark brown to black, with frequent blotches of white on the face, nape, throat, and lower limbs. In mountain anoas the entire lower limbs are creamy white. The underbody parts are usually light brown. Males are generally darker than females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hide is exceptionally thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas are native to dense, mature forests of Sulawesi in eastern Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species are abundant and well distributed on Sulawesi. Most of the northern, eastern, and southeastern peninsulas and the central area of Sulawesi are still forested and have anoa populations, and there are several large nature reserves to protect them. *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several of the world's zoos have anoa collections (see Research Contacts).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The climate of Sulawesi is hot, but tempered by sea winds; annual rainfall varies from 500 mm to 4,000 mm. The eastern and southeastern peninsulas have a sparse population and a scattering of subsistence agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lowland species is found in forests and was once common along the coasts. The mountain anoa is found in primary forests at high altitudes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p66.png"></center><br>
+ DISTRIBUTION OF ANOA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas have a wide-ranging diet that includes grasses, ferns, saplings, palm, ginger, and fallen fruit, especially figs. It is of particular interest that the animals can live on a diet that contains no grass.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas have a high requirement for minerals. They visit mineral-rich hot springs and salt licks, and they even drink from the sea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The San Diego Zoo in the United States and Surabaya Zoo in Indonesia have successfully bred and reared the animals in captivity. The gestation period is 276-315 days, and there is generally only a single birth. The life expectancy is about 20-25 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas are shy animals, but they can be aggressive. The sideways and upwards stab of their straight, sharp horns can be dangerous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except when the cows are about to give birth, anoas apparently associate in pairs rather than in herds. They enjoy water and frequently wallow in mud. Their gait is a trot, but a times they make clumsy leaps. During the morning they feed alone. In the heat of the afternoon they seek refuge under shade trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On Sulawesi anoas are prized for their hide, horns, and meat. The flesh, especially that of calves, is tender and well flavored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although somewhat aggressive and pugnacious, anoas might make a suitable livestock animal. They grow and reproduce well in captivity and are adaptable and intelligent. Their small size makes them easier to handle than many other wild bovines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about the habits of these animals because of their wary nature, secluded environment, and restricted range. They can be tamed enough to obey commands ("lie down," for example) but they remain nervous and likely to butt strangers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surveys are needed throughout Sulawesi to determine the distribution and taxonomy of possible races of the two species, with a view to establishing a protected-area system that will ensure the survival of the genetic diversity of this group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is also needed on social organization and tameability, as well as on the anoa's biological relationship to the tamaraw and water buffalo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One target should be to build up the zoo populations of both species. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p68.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part IlI : Pig and Piglike Species</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In parts of Asia wild and feral pigs are often the most abundant source of meat. These animals are predominantly variants of the domestic pig, Sus scrofa, or of its ancestor, the Eurasian wild boar. Also contributing to the pig population are five Asian species:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bearded pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Sulawesi warty pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Javan warty pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Pigmy hog</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Babirusa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Southeast Asia hybridization between these species and common pigs has resulted in a confusing diversity of forms and interrelationships. Because of their value, these pigs have been spread since prehistoric times by traders and migrating peoples, creating odd and unpredictable distribution patterns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The species listed represent a gene pool of potential importance for the further development of one of man's most important sources of food. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many areas of the world, one must start with the native animals adapted to that environment. In many cases, they are the only animals the native human population can afford to begin with. And it is amazing the increased animal production that can result from the use of better production practices with them. TONY J. CUNHA, Dean Emeritus California State Polytechnic University Pomona, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitting the animal to the vegetation might be a better approach than trying to fit the vegetation to the animal, especially on ranges that have been changed or degraded by man. JAMES TEER, Director Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Austin, Texas, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is now widespread realization that breed importation is not necessarily the quickest route to increased animal production. Indigenous, adapted breeds should be examined more closely and, where necessary, steps should be taken to ensure conservation of at least some of them. HELEN NEWTON TURNER Genetics Research Laboratories, CSIRO, North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maximizing the animal harvest, essentially of animal protein, assumes in concept that all animals will be fully exploited in efficient and economic production systems. C.DEVENDRA Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Selangor, Malaysia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p70.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">11 The Bearded Pig</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it apparently has never been domesticated, the bearded pig (Sus barbatus) has a long history as an important resource in Southeast Asia. Human remains from the Niah Caves in Sarawak are accompanied by large numbers of its bones and teeth, indicating that 40,000 years ago it was the most commonly eaten large animal. Today in Sarawak and some other areas the bearded pig is still probably the most sought after source of wild meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bearded pigs are large. Boars measure 1-1.6 m in length (crown to rump), up to 1 m in height, and may weigh as much as 150 kg. Sows are smaller. Adult males have small facial warts (infraocular and preocular) and a bushy tuft of hair on the cheek. Both sexes vary in color from pale red-brown to yellow-brown or black. They have elongated skulls with longer, more flexible snouts than the common pig.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five subspecies are recognized. They range through the Philippines (Balabac, Palawan and offshore islands, Calamianes, Luzon, Mainit, Mindanao, Jolo, Mindoro, and Cebu) to Borneo, Bangka, Sumatra, the Riau Archipelago, and the Malay Peninsula.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Borneo subspecies (Sus barbatus barbatus) is still abundant in some parts of Sabah, Sarawak (including several wildlife reserves), and </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kalimantan. It remains an important food resource for some hill tribes, although with the spread of Islam, attitudes toward pork are changing in some areas. The Malayan subspecies (Sus barbatus of) is now rare in the Malay Peninsula. It is also becoming rare in Sumatra as the lowland forests are logged and broken up by commercial interests and as the human population expands. The status of the three Philippine subspecies is currently unknown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The bearded pig is most commonly found in both primary and secondary evergreen forests. However, it seems to have wide adaptability, and in Sarawak bearded pigs are found in virtually all habitats from the beaches to the upland rain forests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No biological research has yet been conducted on bearded pigs, but naturalists have made several observations. The pigs eat the seeds of trees (for example, those of species of Dipterocarpaceae and Fageceae), fallen fruits (of Moraceae, Bombacaceae, and other plant families), roots, stems of wild bananas, herbs, and probably earthworms, and along the coast they dig up and eat turtle eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Births occur throughout the year in Sabah, but the peak coincides with the fruiting season of forest trees, usually August-September. The litter size is from 3 to 11 piglets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p73.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No behavioral studies have been conducted, but observations suggest that bearded pigs are generally sedentary animals, although in some areas they congregate into large groups that may travel long distances together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The species might be used (alone or together with other pig species) as a local source of meat, or even as the foundation of a meat industry. The bearded pig is accustomed to living in groups, which may make it suitable for husbandry or game management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is evidence that the bearded pig will interbreed with the common pig, producing young in which both sexes are fertile.* The progeny might have considerable hybrid vigor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The bearded pig may have tolerance (if not actual resistance) to tropical diseases and conditions that affect the common pig. The species survives in areas of Southeast Asia where feral herds of common pigs are not common, apparently owing to their inability to cope with disease or other environmental challenges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No negative qualities have been reported, but the animal's biology, behavior, management, and potential uses are so far virtually unstudied.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aspects of the animal's general biology that should be investigated include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Chromosome type and variability, and chromosomal differences between the bearded pig and other wild and domesticated pig species</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Reproductive physiology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nutritional physiology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Social behavior (both in its wild state and under controlled conditions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To assist in the selective capture of young bearded pigs in the wild, external features that characterize the species at an early age need to be identified.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To assess the bearded pig's potential for contributing hybrid vigor, crossbreeding with other pig species should be attempted under controlled conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">12 The Sulawesi Warty Pig</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Sulawesi warty pig (Sus celebensis) is one of the world's few domesticated animals. It is maintained as a village or household animal in a few areas of Southeast Asia, such as on the Indonesian island of Roti. The common pigs of New Guinea and parts of the Moluccas group are hybrids between this species and the common pig.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sulawesi warty pigs are medium sized, averaging about 60 cm high and 40-70 kg. Boars are larger than females and have longer (10 cm) tusks on both jaws. Boars have three pairs of prominent facial warts: on the snout, the cheek, and on the angle of the jaw. In sows these warts are small or absent entirely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are usually red-brown with sharply marked white and yellow undersides; older animals have a round white spot (about 3 cm in diameter) on each side of the upper cheek. Piglets have horizontal stripes on the body, which disappear as they mature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The body is covered with scanty coarse hair, but stiff bristles, which become erect when the animal is alarmed, occur along the mid-dorsal line of the body. The longest and stiffest occur on the head and nape.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native to mainland Sulawesi and certain surrounding islands, the Sulawesi warty pig has been introduced to the Lesser Sunda Islands (Flores, Sumba, Roti, Semau, and Timor), the Moluccas (Malmahera and Buru), and Simaleue, a small island west of Sumatra. In some parts of the Philippines (for instance, Naujan and Mindoro Oriental) the animal either occur naturally or has been introduced. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids between the Sulawesi warty pig and the common domestic pig occur on New Guinea, Ternate, Morotai, Bacan, Amron, Seram, Kei island, Aru island, and Sulawatti.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many islands of eastern Indonesia, this species is widespread and common. In a few places it is extremely abundant, particularly at higher altitudes; in others, it has been greatly reduced by overhunting, deforestation, and expanding human settlement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Overall, however, Sulawesi warty pig populations are declining, probably due to increased hunting and to human alterations of the animal's habitats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This pig inhabits varied environments, including rain forest, mountain forest, grasslands, and agricultural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p77.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the common pig, the Sulawesi warty pig has broad dietary preferences. It feeds on roots, fallen fruit, leaves, and young shoots. The bulk of its food consists of vegetable materials, but it also feeds on earthworms, insects, aquatic invertebrates, rats, birds, and even carrion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The uterus and placenta are anatomically indistinguishable from those of the common pig. The litter size is from 2 to 8 piglets, with an average of 5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sows can give birth throughout the year, but usually have their young in April or May. The gestation period is about 4 months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding and farrowing occur in the forest and in open Imperata cylindrica grasslands. The pregnant female makes a nest of grasses, leaves, twigs, and branches, which she collects and places over a hole (approximately 2 m long) that she has previously dug. Here she gives birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Foraging is the main activity of the day and usually takes up several hours, mainly in the early morning and evening. In the wild the pigs travel in small groups, the young always traveling with an adult female. On the move, warty pigs feed and rest intermittently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a source of meat the Sulawesi warty pig has been recognized and exploited by local populations since prehistoric times. The presence of feral specimens far outside the pigs' natural range indicates that traders or migrants have long carried it with them on voyages, either as domestic stock or as wild specimens to be released for later capture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tusks, which can be carved like ivory, are a resource for local artisans. Wild specimens are suitable for sport hunting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a body of unrecorded indigenous experience with this animal as a domesticate, but the information needs to be collected and appraised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Sulawesi warty pig may be expected to possess resistance or tolerance to the many diseases prevalent in its native habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is promising potential for hybridization between this species and domestic pigs, which might lead to the improvement of common pigs in tropical regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from the unwritten knowledge of the indigenous people who raise the species, very little information is available on the characteristics and management of this animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The genetic variability within the species, as well as the karyotypic differences with common pigs and other Sus species, should be defined. Further, the hybrid vigor resulting from crossbreeding with other Sus species should be- quantified under controlled conditions. Apart from producing potentially important heat-tolerant livestock, crossbreeding may shed important light on the origins of the common pig in Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal's nutritional requirements and reproductive biology also need study. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p79.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">13 Javan Warty Pig</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Javan warty pig (Sus verrucosus) apparently has never been domesticated, but it has been a resource for hunting peoples for centuries. Now, however, the human population in its native region is predominantly Moslem, and all pigs are widely regarded as agricultural pests. Increasing numbers of them are poisoned each year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Javan warty pig can be up to 1.35 m long and 0.9 m tall. Mature males usually weigh between 80 and 120 kg; females are only half that weight - an unusually dramatic example of sexual dimorphism. The animal has a markedly elongated face with large warts, particularly the infraorbital wart and the smaller preorbital and mandibular warts. Body hairs can be black, red, or yellow, with black tips.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is found only on the Indonesian islands of Java and Bawean. It was formerly found on Madura as well, but because of deforestation it is now thought to be extinct there. Two extant subspecies are recognized. The nominate one, Sus verrucosus verrucosus, occurs on mainland Java. The second, Sus verrucosus blouchi, a smaller animal, has recently been described on Bawean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For years it was thought that the Javan warty pig was extinct in the wild, but in October 1981 a herd was found in a small area on Mount Penanggungan in East Java. This population may prove to be substantial, and there is reason to hope that other populations can be found. Overall, however, it is clear that the Javan warty pig is endangered and declining in numbers. In many areas the animals are subjected to uncontrolled poisoning and hunting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five new reserves have recently been proposed to protect the animal in a variety of habitats because it is not found in appreciable numbers in any of Java's nature reserves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Bawean subspecies is believed to be relatively secure since the establishment of a large reserve.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A breeding colony of 12 Javan warty pigs at the Surabaya Zoo includes 5 young ones born in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitats of the Javan warty pig appear to be confined to elevations below about 800 m. The animals prefer relatively large expanses of grassland or secondary vegetation, where human population is sparse. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p82.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The piglets can be born throughout the year; in one study of 8 sows the litter size ranged from 2 to 8, with a mean of 5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The (diploid) chromosome number has been found to be 38, the same as that of the common pig. Hybridization between these species is thought to occur in the wild, but apparently not with enough frequency to contaminate the Javan warty pig gene pool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unreported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are omnivorous, adaptable animals that might make useful domesticates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The small size of the sows could make this species particularly appropriate for households or smallholder farms. The animal's genetic "distance" from the domestic pig may make it a useful generator of hybrid vigor in crossbreeds. It could have particular value because its meat is much leaner than pork from the common pig.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The numbers in the wild are now too few to permit any cropping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efforts should be directed towards locating and breeding up the Javan warty pig populations that still exist. An immediate need is to isolate pure populations in reserves because it is essential to protect the animal from crossbreeding with other species. In addition, current specimens in zoos should be cataloged and a breeding program established. Other captive breeding colonies should also be started.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to determine the genetic differences between the Javan warty pig and the common pig, as well as the levels of existing hybridization between them. It is also necessary to determine what variation in karyotype may exist within the populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basic ecological and behavioral studies are needed, as well as studies of the dietary requirements, growth rates, and nutritional physiology of captive specimens. The reproductive biology of the animal should be studied, and the possibility of crossbreeding it with other Sus species should be examined under controlled conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Javan warty pig's potential for local meat production should be evaluated. The benefit to rural people of converting an agricultural pest into a profitable source of income should be explored within the local religious context. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p84.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">14 Pigmy Hog</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog (Sus salvanius), a shy and very small pig of northeastern India, is close to extinction because of hunters and the destruction of its habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog is only about 60 cm long, with a shoulder height of about 25 cm and a body weight of less than 10 kg. The hair is medium brown on the sides, darkening to blackish brown along the mid-dorsal line. A facial band of short, dark hair extends from the bridge of the nose to below the eye. The tiny tail is only 3 cm long.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal was once widely found along the southern foothills of the Himalayas; today, it is definitely known to occur in only one area, the Manas National Park in Assam.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy hogs are seriously endangered; in the wild they are close to extinction. Captive animals are now reduced to a single male in the Assam State Zoo and four male siblings in the Zurich Zoo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The few remaining pigmy hogs mainly inhabit tall-grass savannas, but it seems likely that they could adapt to other environments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy hog. (W.L.R. Oliver)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is omnivorous and consumes roots, tubers, grass, leaves, insects, earthworms, eggs, and carrion. While foraging, it undoubtedly consumes large quantities of earth as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chromosome number, 38, is the same as that of the common pig. The karyotype is similar to that the common pig, but small, significant differences have been demonstrated using chromosome banding techniques.*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The age at puberty, time of weaning, length of gestation and estrous cycle, and season of breeding are not yet known with certainty. However, the animal is known to have a single well-defined birth peak (April/May) that coincides with the onset of the rainy season when the food supply increases. The uterus and placenta are anatomically similar to those of the common pig. The litter size varies from 2 to 6. It is not known if the animal can be crossbred with the common pig.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p87.png"></center><br>
+ Distribution of pigmy hog. (W.L.R. Oliver)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are shy, but can be tamed. They tend to forage and run in groups. Nest building is carried out by both males and females and is not restricted to pre-farrowing periods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is no evidence that the pigmy hog has ever been domesticated; it has, however, been extensively hunted and trapped, and recently it was still being sold for human consumption. There would probably be no inherent difficulty in maintaining this species in husbandry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog's small size may make it useful in studies of the physiology of pigs and like mammals. In particular, a study of the uterine capacity may contribute to our understanding of the maternal factors that influence the number and size of mammalian young at birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is unknown if the animal carries genetic resistance to diseases of the domestic pig, but given its habitat, such resistance seems likely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The small numbers of surviving pigmy hogs obviate any consideration of its use in husbandry at the present time. Moreover, its nervous temperament might restrict its potential as a domesticate. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is essential to ensure the survival of this animal. Efforts should be directed towards locating and breeding up the populations that still exist. If its habitat could be protected by preventing the annual dry-season burning of grasses, it is possible that substantial populations could be established. Attempts should also be made to acquire two or more females as mates for the male pigmy hogs at the Assam and Zurich zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also an urgent need to ensure that the animals breed successfully in captivity, and the wealth of international expertise in pig reproduction should be applied to that end. For example, the reproductive biology of the animal could be studied by swine experts; the age at puberty, the length of the estrous cycle, the season of breeding (and whether it is influenced by light or temperature), the length of gestation, and time of weaning all need to be determined.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is an omnivore, but the physiology of its digestion has not been studied. Thus, its nutritive requirements are not well enough known to ensure its survival in captivity or reserves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiments should be made to determine if pigmy hog embryos can be brought to term in the uterus of the common pig. If so, such embryo transfers could be used to distribute embryos and set up new herds, lessening the risk of this species" extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p88.png"></center><br>
+ Adult male of the common pig (wild boar Sus scrofa) and pigmy hog drawn to the same scale. (W.L.R. Oliver) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">15 The Babirusa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa) is a piglike animal whose closest relative appears to be an ancestral animal that lived in Europe 35 million years ago. It is easily tamed, and in its native area there is an ancient tradition of raising young babirusa for meat and for the males' unique tusks. The animal appears to reproduce well in captivity, and with good management techniques it might gain wide use in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male babirusa can be up to 110 cm long and 80 cm tall and weigh up to 100 kg; females are smaller. The male has large upper canines that grow upwards, piercing right through the flesh of the snout and curving back and downwards towards the forehead without ever entering the mouth. The female may sometimes have small upper canines projecting through the skin of the upper lip.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is more slender than a pig of similar size. It has a gray or brown-grey skin color, although one subspecies, Babyrousa babyrussa babyrussa, has light body hair that is fawn colored or black.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa is unique to a few islands of eastern Indonesia: north, central, and southeast Sulawesi, the Togian Islands, and the Sula (Taliabu and Sulabesi) and Buru Islands. On Sula and Buru it is probably not native but was introduced in prehistoric times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On Sulawesi the babirusa remains abundant, despite hunting and the widespread clearing of the forest. Nevertheless, disturbances created by wood and rattan collectors, hunters, loggers, and farmers threaten the babirusa's survival. Throughout the rest of its range, it is also vulnerable to extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biologists are particularly concerned about some of the babirusa subspecies. The one from the north of mainland Sulawesi, Babyrousa babyrussa celebensis, is still relatively abundant in places and is probably in no immediate danger. The Togian Islands' subspecies, Babyrousa babyrussa togeanensis, is abundant in small islands but is threatened by Indonesia's settlement programs and deforestation. The Buru and Sula Islands subspecies, Babyrousa babyrussa babyrussa, may already be extinct; there have been no confirmed sightings in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1981, there were 26 male and 27 female babirusa held in six zoo collections; 22 of these animals are in the Surabaya Zoo in Indonesia, where they breed well. Most, if not all, are believed to belong to the mainland Sulawesi race.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals mainly inhabit moist forests at low altitudes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p91.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Precise details of babirusa biology are unknown, but the stomach has an extra sac, suggesting that the animals may have some ability to break down cellulose. Indeed, they browse leaves, a behavior more often found in a deer than in a pig, and have been referred to as "ruminant pigs." Babirusa also live on roots, berries, and grubs, making them true omnivores. Compared to other pigs, they do little rooting, and in captivity their enclosures remain quite grassy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Babirusa are said to be sexually mature at 5-10 months, but this depends on nutrition. Gestation length is about 158 days. One or two young are produced although there are some reports of litters of three.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One specimen was kept for 24 years in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa is a social animal that moves in groups. A retiring native of the dense jungle, it is a fast runner and swims readily. Mating behavior in captivity generally resembles that of domestic pig. Evidence from zoo animals suggests that the male must be removed from the young at birth but that by the time they are a month old the young are safe from paternal attack.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When captured young or reared in captivity, the babirusa is easily tamed. It has potential as a domesticated species, and with appropriate management may provide a useful source of meat. The meat is tasty and of good quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its unique tusks, the skull of the male finds ready markets. This could provide additional income to farmers raising babirusa for meat. The ivory of the tusks could also be a resource for local artisans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the anatomy of the stomach suggests that the babirusa may be able to make more efficient use of fibrous foodstuffs than other pigs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa produces only one or two young after a gestation period of just over five months; it may therefore take considerable time to build up herds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the babirusa is easily tamed, it is not known whether it can be husbanded in large groups. Also, present lack of knowledge of the animal's nutrition may restrict its husbandry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of animals in the wild is decreasing, and attempts should be made to determine their exact status. Particular attention should be paid to the subspecies Babyrousa babyrussa togeanensis and Babyrousa babyrussa babyrussa. Captive breeding programs for these subspecies should be started.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p93.png"></center><br>
+ When seen in longitudinal section, the stomach of babirusa presents striking similarities  to that of a relatively simple ruminant such as the domestic sheep. Every part except the  omasum, even including a rudimentary reticulum, is represented and occupies the same  relative position. The babirusa stomach differs from that of the domestic pig chiefly in  the enormous size of the diverticulum ventriculi, the prominence of the constrictions  that delimit its three main divisions, and in the size and complexity of the cardia. Regions  corresponding to parts of the ruminant stomach are labeled in brackets. (Information  from Davis, 1940; diagram courtesy Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild populations should be maintained in several regions to ensure that  the species" genetic base is retained. Advantage could be taken of the large  number of islands in eastern Indonesia to establish reserves for the different  babirusa subspecies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currently, little is known about the biology of the animal in the wild its  diet, social behavior, or reproductive performance are almost unstudied. In  view of the relatively small number of babirusa in zoos and the scarcity of  information about the animal's growth rate and general biology, coordinated  studies between zoos could provide much basic information. It has been  suggested that a studbook be initiated for this species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear from chromosome analysis that this pig differs markedly in  its karyotype from that of other pigs. However, more anatomical and  biochemical knowledge is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basic parameters of the animal's reproductive physiology are not known.  Questions to be answered include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can the babirusa be induced to reproduce twice per year?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can babirusa embryos be developed to term in the uterus of the domestic  pig? If so, can the number of babirusas be rapidly multiplied in this way?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Does the babirusa genotypic and gestation-length difference with the  common pig prevent the two from successfully crossbreeding? And if  crossbreeding can be achieved, will the progeny be fertile?  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p94.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part IV : Recommendations and  General Research  Needs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Asian animals described in this report are a natural resource whose  potential is barely glimpsed. They are virtually unknown to established  livestock interests and there has been little thought to developing them as  livestock. As a result, the research and trials that could lead to further use of  these animals is scattered, small scale, and conducted outside the mainstream  of livestock science, mainly by wildlife conservationists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet these animals seem worth considering for use in husbandry in many  tropical regions, especially where poor grazing and harsh environments limit  the performance of conventional livestock. There is a pressing need for  research to develop these species and to explore their potential. Only through  rapid action can many of them be kept available for study and possible  inclusion in agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One suggestion is that funds be provided to establish an Asian  native-livestock research-support team. Its primary purpose would be to  assist in the funding of research projects and to coordinate research being  done in various Asian countries. The team's goal would be to establish a  network of animal scientists based at institutions in Asia and elsewhere to  work cooperatively on the region's little-known bovines and pigs. In this  manner, relatively small sums of money could be used to stimulate and  coordinate Asia-wide research on indigenous animals.*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basic Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The time has come for basic studies on each of the 15 animals discussed in  this book. For each species, the following areas should be investigated:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Physiology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Reproductive requirements and fertility</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nutritional requirements (such as food preferences, feeding strategies, and food utilization)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Growth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Adaptability and environmental tolerance (for instance, water balance, sweat rate, and shade-seeking habits, as well as temperature, pulse, and respiration rates, both under normal conditions and heat stress)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Diseases</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. Management (including stocking rates and other production characteristics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Genetic selection for calm temperament, quick growth, and other desirable qualities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crossbreeding to take advantage of hybrid vigor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Social structure (for example population density and distribution, social organization, leadership, herding potential, aggressiveness of bulls)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Habitat characteristics (behavior-habitat interactions and herd dynamics, for instance).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies are also needed on better utilization of products, such as milk, meat, hides, horn, and hair, from these animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experimental transfer of fertilized eggs of all of these animals into domestic species should be explored with a view to establishing herds in secure and disease-free areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efforts specific to domesticated and wild species, and to hybrids of these species, are discussed below. The report concludes with brief discussions of a few promising species not taken up in the body of the text.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated Species Improving Performance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little data is available on the performance of the domesticated animals discussed in this report. Yet the main value of these species lies in the new and superior genes and gene combinations that can be adapted to animal production in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies need to be conducted with the indigenous species and strains in their native countries to determine if they will respond to improved conditions with improved performance. These projects could provide opportunities for geneticists and animal breeders to improve livestock production while conducting challenging basic research. It would be helpful to establish studbooks of captive specimens and to select and breed for desirable genetic qualities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetic improvement must be directed towards remedying production deficiencies. Methods include selection of superior breeding animals, crossbreeding, and combinations of selection and crossbreeding. Different genetic improvement techniques will be required for each species. Progress should be regularly monitored against the unselected animals and the domestic livestock breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Introductions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical countries should import breeding stock to evaluate the performance of some of these Asian animals in the local environment. Strict quarantine procedures must, of course, be observed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Special emphasis should be placed on the domesticated banteng of eastern Indonesia. These animals are already an important source of human food and they may have considerable potential for increasing production elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild Animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild animals contribute extensively to the welfare of people and economies of developing countries. In many areas they supply much of the animal protein consumed. But the contributions they make are largely unrecorded, and local officials and aid agencies seldom regard wildlife as an economic resource. As a result, few developing countries have analyzed how their people use indigenous animals for subsistence, and few nutritional studies recognize "bushmeat," although large numbers of people eat it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife's contribution justifies more detailed and precise evaluations. In many tropical regions few people even know what species are present, let alone in what numbers. Ecologists and animal scientists should be employed to identify and collect data on the fauna of the tropical forests and how it is used by local people. Their work will provide baseline information on the species present and on the potential utility of the undisturbed natural ecosystems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initial Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All wildlife utilization must be based on a thorough knowledge of the resource, its numbers, the animals' condition, annual recruitment in the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">various populations, and the seasonal movements of the herds. In addition, it is important to understand the interactions of the species with its habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thus, the immediate need is for action to assure the preservation of populations of these animals until research studies can be conducted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard, priority actions include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establishing adequate preserves</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Providing total protection for remaining animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Preventing poaching.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With few exceptions, the wild species described in this report are under the pressures of agricultural and human expansion. Without efforts to preserve their habitats it will be difficult for these species to survive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing Wildlife Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments cannot stop hungry people from hunting game, but they can use this impetus to help protect some indigenous animals as well as forest and woodland habitats. Fostering the production and supply of wild animals such as those described in this book could open up a new: source of meat and other products, particularly for subsistence farmers in remote areas. In the last analysis, this may be the only way of protecting and maintaining these animals and developing local awareness of their value.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International economic development organizations have traditionally shown little interest in wildlife or wildlife habitats. Yet maintaining these animals and their habitats is crucial to the continuing supply of many indigenous food animals, the most important of which are often the smaller ones that flourish in secondary growth. And the forests that support wildlife also protect some of the huge investments that AID, the World Bank, and other other agencies have made to help developing countries. The forest is the sponge that absorbs the water from tropical rains. Without trees covering the watersheds, heavy rains cause rushing water that erodes the land, despoils highways, silts up dams and reservoirs, knocks out bridges, and inundates towns, villages, and farm fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In principle, the farming of tropical wildlife could become a force in preventing clear-felling of the tropical forests. Rational utilization of tropical animals offers productive alternative use of the land. In some cases, the farming of indigenous animals can fit smoothly into tropical habitats and into traditional village life, because the livestock and its needs are usually familiar to local people and are often ingrained in their traditions.( For successful examples see companion reports nos. 44 and 45, Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea and Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrid Animals)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybridization may offer new prospects for using underexploited tropical animal resources. This is a speculative notion, but it deserves serious attention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossbreeding between the animals mentioned in this report holds exciting possibilities for expanding livestock options in the tropics. Some of the crosses, known or envisaged, are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· gaur x cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· banteng x cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· kouprey x cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· yak x cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· yak x banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· anoa x water buffalo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· tamaraw x water buffalo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· domestic pig x warty pigs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· warty pigs x bearded pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Care must be taken, however, to guard against the dilution of wild genes by the escape of hybrid or interbreeding domestic species, or the establishment of feral hybrid populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Exchange of Pig Germ Plasm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Present veterinary restrictions effectively prevent the movement of pigs between most countries. Relatively few species of wild pigs are therefore maintained in zoos outside their countries of origin. This stifles the promising potential for the species described in Part III, as well as for captive-breeding safeguards and research on the endangered species. It is important that attempts be made to identify channels for the future establishment of viable captive stocks both within Asia and elsewhere. Transfer of embryos should be verified as a means of permitting disease-free movement across frontiers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species Not Covered in this Report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This project, which began as a short report on banteng, quickly developed momentum as it brought in suggestion after suggestion of further species. Through pressures of time and budget, it was not possible to take up all of these interesting animals. Some of the omitted ones are listed below. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Takin (Budorcas taxicolor).* A heavily built, Southeast Asian hoofed mammal of the family Bovidae, the takin lives in small herds in the mountains, often above timberline. Though robust and short-legged, it can move about quickly and easily over difficult slopes. It stands up to about 1 m at the shoulder and has a shaggy yellowish- to blackish-brown coat. Both sexes have heavy horns that turn outward from the center of the forehead and then curve up and backward.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goral (Naemorhedus goral).* This small Asian goatlike bovine has slightly backward curving cylindrical horns and a coarse brownish-grey coat. It is related to the chamois and serow (see below) but is distinguished from them by peculiarities in skull form, as well as by smaller size, shorter horns, and the absence of face glands. Gorals are native to a vast area, ranging from the Himalayas to eastern Siberia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serow (Capricorhis sumatrensis). The serow has been called a "goatantelope." Found in Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Vietnam, Thailand, Burma, the eastern Himalayas, and China, it lives on forest-clad slopes, such as the mountains of southern China that are the home of the giant panda. Serows have coarse black hair, long pointed ears, a distinct mane, and short, backward pointing horns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native species of goats are also valuable genetic resources of Asia and examples include ibex (Capra ibex), markhor (Capra falconeri), and bharal (Pseudois nayaur). There are also various species of sheep, including the various races of argalis (Ovis ammon), which form small herds in the mountains, often above timberline. Although robust and short-legged, these animals can move about quickly and easily over difficult slopes. Soviet animal breeders apparently are exploring some of the possibilities of using argalis in animal husbandry. They are crossing domestic sheep with arkhar (Ovis ammon karelini) to produce a commercially viable hybrid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The marketable size of lamb might be increased appreciably to provide larger, leaner cuts of meat by crossing domestic sheep with the Marco Polo sheep (Ovis ammon polii), which is as big as deer and has a mature body weight of 400-500 pounds. Marco Polo sheep meat is reported to have none of the "mutton" favor of domestic sheep. Thus, crosses might enhance consumer acceptance of sheep meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia also has several species of deer that could have been included.§ The musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) is now domesticated in China for musk production and is a resource with a promising future. Also, sambar deer (Cervus unicolor), Asia's largest deer, may prove useful in husbandry. Several deer species are being farmed in New Zealand and ruse deer (Cervus rusa), which are native to South and Southeast Asia, are being farmed in Mauritius, Australia, and Papua New Guinea for meat and medicinal by-products. Two small, goat-sized Asian deer, the hog deer (Cervus porcinus) and the barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), may also be worth considering. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p101.png"></center><br>
+ KOUPREY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Selected Readings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bohlken, H. 1961. Haustiere und Zoologische Systematik. Zeitschrift fur Tierzuchtung und Zuchtungsbiologie76:107-113.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul, and J. A. McNeely. 1977. Mammals of Thailand. Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand. 758 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corbet, G. B., and J. E. Hill. 1980. A World List of Mammalian Species. British Museum of Natural History, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gray, A. P. 1972. Mammalian Hybrids: A Check-List with Bibliography. Commonwealth Technical Communication No. 10 (Rev.). Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Edinburgh, Scotland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honacki, J. H., K. E. Kinman, and J. W. Koeppl. 1982. Mammal Species of the World. Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas, USA. 694 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mochi, U. and T. D. Carter. 1953. Hoofed Mammals of the World. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Payne, W. J. A. 1970. Cattle Production in the Tropics. Longman, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robbins, C. T. In Press. Wildlife Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, New York, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Walker, E. P. 1975. Mammals of the World. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, USA, and London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wharton, C. H. 1969. Man, fire and wild cattle in Southeast Asia. Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference 8: 107-167.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated and Wild Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appleton, D. C., G. Dryden, and A. C. Kondos. 1976. A comparison of the digestive efficiency of the water buffalo and Brahman and Banteng cattle. In Proceedings of the Australian Society of Animal Production 11.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Budiarso, I. T., and S. Hardjosworo. 1976. Jembrana disease in Bali cattle. Australian Veterinary Journal 52(2):97.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copland, R. S. 1974. Observations on banteng cattle in Sabah. Tropical Animal Health and Production 6(2):89-94.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Darmadja, D., and P. Sutedja. 1975. Gestation period and calving interval in Bali cattle. Majalah Ilmiah Universitas Udayana 9:61 -65.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Darmadja, D., and P. Sutedja. 1976. Masa kebuntingan den interval beranak padas sapi Bali. In Proceedings, Seminar Reproduksi den Performance Sapi Bali, April 5-6, 1976. Dinas Peternakan Daerah Ternak Institute, Bali, Indonesia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C., T. Lee Kok Choc, and M. Pathmasingam. 1973. The productivity of Bali cattle in Malaysia. Malaysian Agricultural Journal 49(2):183-197.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holmes, J. H. C., J. H. Schottler, and T. F. Leche. 1977. Southeast Asian cattle, buffalo, and beef in Papua New Guinea. In Agriculture in the Tropics, B. A. C. Enyi and T. H. Varghese, eds. University of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoogerwerf, A. 1970. Udjung Kulan, The Land of the Last Javan Rhinoceros. E. J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hooijer, D. A. 1956. The valid name of the banteng Bibos javanicus d'Alton. Zoologische Mededelingenuitgegeven door het Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie te Leiden 34:223-226.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jellinek, P. J., J. Avenell, A. Thahar, and P. Sitorus. 1980. Infertility associated with crossbreeding of Bali cattle. In Proceedings, 2nd Ruminant Seminar, Ciawi, Indonesia. 79 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jenkinson, D. M., and T. Nay. 1975. The sweat glands and hair follicles of different species of Bovidae. Australian Journal of Biological Science 28:55-68.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kirby, G. W. M. 1979. Bali cattle in Australia. World Animal Review 31 :24-29.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, 1. L. In Press. Evolution of Domesticated Animals. Longman, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meijer, W. C. P. 1962. Das Balirind (Balinese Cattle). Die Neue Brehm-Bucherei, No. 303, A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg Lutherstadt, Federal Republic of Germany. (Translated from the Dutch by E. Mohr.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1973a. Liveweight changes of Brahman cross, Shorthorn, Banteng and buffalo steers grazing improved pastures at Darwin, Northern Territory. Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science 39:68-9.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1973b. Heat tolerance of Brahman cross, buffalo Banteng and Shorthorn steers during exposure to sun and as a result of exercise. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 24:775-782.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1978. Digestibility and water metabolism in Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers fed roughage diets. Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science 44: 57-59.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1980. The prediction of chemical content of the whole carcass from the physically-dissected rib in cattle and buffaloes. Proceedings of the Australian Society of Animal Production 13:503.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1981. Beef and buffalo production by smallholders in Indonesia. World Review of Animal Production 17:55-64.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1982. The performance of Indonesian beef breeds under traditional and improved management systems. Pp. 347-351 in Animal Production and Health in the Tropics, M. R. Jainudeen and A. R. Omar, eds. Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B., B. W. Norton, and J. V. Nolan. 1979. The intake, digestibility and utilization of a low quality roughage by Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 30:333-340.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Namikawa, T., and W. Widodo. 1978. Electrophoretic variations of hemoglobin and serum albumin in the Indonesian cattle including Bali cattle (Bos banteng). Japanese Journal of Zootechnical Science 49(11):817-827.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M., K. Rika, M. Supardjata, K. D. Nurbudhi, and L. R. Humphreys. 1976. Productivity of improved pastures grazed by Bali cattle under coconuts: a preliminary report. Universitas Udayana, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia. 18 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M., and K. Rika. 1978. Bali cattle grazing improved pasture under coconuts. 1. Effects of stocking rate on steer performance and coconut yield. In Seminar on Integration of Animals with Plantation Crops, April 13-15. Preprint No. 10. Penang, Indonesia. 8 pp</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M. 1979a. Effects of replacing 30 percent of the green roughage with concentrate on the performance of Bali steer. Progress report to the International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada. Centre file:3-P77-0087. 25 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M. 1979b. Performance of Bali cattle fed grass supplemented with stylosanthes. Progress report to the International Foundation for Science, Sweden. Project No. RR 76. 15 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M., K. Lana, 1. B. Sudana, N. Sutji, and 1. C. N. Sarka. I980. Persediaan den kebutuhan hijauan ternak di Bali (Roughage supply and requirement of livestock in </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bali). Fakultas Kedokteran Hewan den Peternakan, Universitas Udayana, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia. 218 pp. (Report series mimeograph.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Norton, B. W., J. B. Moran, and J. V. Nolan. 1979. Nitrogen metabolism in Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers fed on low quality roughage. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 30:341.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nursamad, M. 1972. Berat lahir den petumbuhan anak sapi Bali selama 4 bulan di kecamatan Watang Pulu, kabupaten Sidenreng, Sulawesi Selatan. Laporan, Fakultas Peternakan Universitas Hasanuddin yang berafinasi dengan Fakultas Peternakan Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pastika, M., and D. Darmadja. 1976. Performance reproduksi sapi Bali. In Proceedings, Seminar Reproduksi den Performance Sapi Bali, April 5-6, 1976. Dinas Peternakan Daerah Ternak Institut, Bali, lndonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Payne, W. J. A., and D. H. L. Rollinson. 1973. Bali cattle. World Animal Review 7: 13-21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pulungan, H., and K. Ma'sum. 1977. Performance sapi Bali den hasil persilangannya dengan sapi Hereford den Shorthorn. Laporan Khusus Lembaga Penelitian Peternakan, Cabang Grati 1977 (Abstract).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977. Livestock in Indonesia. Research Report No. 1. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siebert, B. D., and W. V. MacFarlane. 1969. Body water content and water turnover of tropical Bos taurus, Bos indicus, Bibos banteng, and Bos bubalus bubalis. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 20:613-622.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siregar, M. G., and 1. M. Suparjata. 1975. A half century existence of Bali cattle in South Sulawesi. Majalah llmiah Universitas Udayana 9: 13-21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Subandriyo, P. Sitorus, M. Zulbardi, and A. Roesyat. 1979. Performance of Bali cattle, as work animals and milk and beef producers. Indonesian Agricultural Research and Development Journal 1(1/2):9-10, 24.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sutedja, P., M. Kota, 1. B. Mantra, and D. Darmadja. 1976. Progress report beberapa performance pada sapi Bali. In Proceedings, Seminar Reproduksi den Performance Sapi Bali, April 5-6, 1976. Dinas Peternakan Daerah Ternak Institut, Bali, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thahar, A., J. B. Moran, and J. T. Wood. In press. Studies on the haemotology of Indonesian large ruminants. Tropical Animal Health and Production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thahar, A., J. B. Moran, and R. E. Soerifpo. In press. Observations on the hair and skin of Indonesian large ruminants and their relationships to heat tolerance. SABRAO Journal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vercoe, J. E., and J. E. Frisch. 1977. The importance of voluntary feed intake and metabolic rate to production in different genotypes of cattle in different environments. Pp. I(c)-42 in Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress of the Society for the Advancement of Breeding Researchers in Asia and Oceania, Canberra, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yeates, N. T. M., and P. J. Schmidt. 1974. Beef Cattle Production. Butterworths Pty Ltd., Chatswood, Sydney, Australia. 323 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng Cattle Hybrids</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Payne, W. J. A., and D. H. L. Rollinson. 1976. Madura cattle. Zeitschrift fur Tiezuchtung und Zuchtungsbiologie 93:89-100.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simoons, F. J., and E. S. Simoons. 1968. A Ceremonial Ox of India: The Mithan in Nature, Culture, and History. The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, 1. L. In Press. Evolution of Domesticated Animals. Longman, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scheurmann, E. 1975. Observations on the behaviour of the mithan (Bibos frontalis Lambert 1837) in captivity. Applied Animal Ethology I :321 -355. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yak and Yakow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Accolas, J. P., and J. P. Deffontaines. 1970. Quelques donnees sur l'elevage du Yak en Republique Populaire de Mongolie. Pp. 133-141 in The Yak: Its Role in the Economic and Cultural Life of Breeders in Central Asia. Societe d'Ethnozootechnie, 25 Boulevard Arago, 75013 Paris, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bonadonna, T. 1970. Nuove possibilita per la Zootechnia dei tropic). Zootecnica e Veterinaria 25:202-221.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bonnemaire, J. 1976. Le Yak domestique et son hybridation. Pp. 46-77 in The Yak: Its Role in the Economic and Cultural Life of Breeders in Central Asia. Societe d'Ethnozootechnie, Paris, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dor, R. 1976. Note sur le Yak au Pamir. Pp. 126-131 in The Yak: Its Role in the Economic and Cultural Life of Breeders in Central Asia. Societe d'Ethnozootechnie, Paris, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ekvall, R. B. 1968. Fields on the Hoof: Nexus of Tibetan Nomadic Pastoralism. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Epstein, H. 1974. Yak and chauri. World Animal Review 9:8-12.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Epstein, H. 1977. Yak and Yak-cattle hybrids. Chapter 3 in Domestic Animals of Nepal. Holmes and Meier Publishers, Inc., New York, USA, and London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivanova, V. V. 1938. K voprosu izucenija plodovitosti samvoc gibridov jaka s rogatym skotom (On the fertility of male yak x cattle hybrids). Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya Biologicheskaya 883-884.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R. W., R. G. Johnson, and R. T. Moyer. 1945. The livestock of China. Pp. 67-76 in United States Department of State Publication No. 2249; Far Eastern Series 9.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R. W., I. A. Tolstoy, and R. G. Johnson. 1946. Yaks and Yak-cattle hybrids in Asia. The Journal of Heredity 37(6): 162-170; 37(7):206-215.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schley, P. 1967. Der Yak und seine Kreuzung mit dem Rind in der Sowjetunion. Giessener Abhandlungen zur Agrar- und Wirtschaftsforschung des Europaischen Ostens, Vol. 44. Otto Harassowitz, Weisbaden, Federal Republic of Germany. 131 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shahrani, M. Nazif Mohib. 1979. The Kirghiz and Wakki of Afghanistan. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington, USA. 264 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vlasov, P., S. Gersenzon, and A. Poljakov. 1932. Gibridizacija mezdu jakom i krupnym rogatym skotom (Hybrids between yak and cattle). Problemy Zhivotnovodstva (1):48-57.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">White, W. T., R. W. Phillips, and E. C. Elting. 1946. Yaks and Yak-cattle hybrids in Alaska. Journal of Heredity 37:355-358.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zawadowsky, M. M. 1931. Zebu-Yak hybrids. Journal of Heredity 22:297.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zuitin, A. I. 1938. New data on the chromosome number in yak (Poephagus grunniens L.). Doklady Akademii Nauk Uzbekskoi SSR 19:201-202.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A unique, interesting film showing wild banteng, gaur and kouprey in Cambodia in 1951</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">is available for hire from The Coolidge Foundation, 38 Standley Street, Beverly, Massachusetts 01915, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul and J. A. McNeely. 1977. Mammals of Thailand. Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand. 758 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H., and E. Scheurmann. 1977. Cytogenetic investigations on domestic and wild animal populations in South and Southeast Asia. Animal Research and Development 6:63-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Halder, U. 1975. Okologie und Verhalten des banteng (Bos javanicus) in Java. Eine Feldstudie. Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg and Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany. 124 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoogerwerf, A. 1974. Report on a Visit to Wildlife Reserves in East Java. Mededelingen No. 21. Nederlandsche Commissie voor Internationale Natuurbescherming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McNeely, J. A. 1975. Wildlife and national parks in the Lower Mekong Basin. Unpub</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">lished report to the Committee for the Coordination of Investigations of the Lower  Mekong Basin, Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, Bangkok, Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sumardja, E. A. 1976. The relationships between banteng Bos javanicus (d'Alton) and  vegetation at the Pananjung-Pangandaran Nature Reserve. Research Grant No. 1237/  TF/VI/74. Preliminary Study Internal Report Biotrop. Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wind, J., and H. Amir. 1977. Distribution of banteng (Bos javanicus) in Java and Bali,  Indonesia. Unpublished ms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wind, J., and H. Amir. 1977. Management Plan Baluran Reserve FAO INS/73/013.  Nature Conservation and Wildlife Management Project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaur</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul. 1965. The gaur. (Bos gaurus). Conservation News of South East  Asia 5:7-10.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul and J. A. McNeely. 1977. Mammals of Thailand. Association for the  Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand. 758 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conry, P. J. 1980. The impact of development and the behavioural response of the  Malaysian seladang. Pp. 279-286 in Tropical Ecology and Development, Proceedings  Fifth International Symposium of Tropical Ecology. International Society of Tropical  Ecology, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conry, P. J. 1981. Habitat selection and use, movements, and home range of Malayan  gaur (Bos gaurus hubbacki) in Central Pahang, Malaysia. M.S. thesis. University of  Montana, Missoula, Montana, USA. 120 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conry, P. J. (In press) Immobilizing Malayan gaur with etorphine. Journal of Wildlife  Management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H. 1975. The water buffalo and related species as important genetic resources:  their conservation, evaluation and utilization. In The Asiatic Water Buffalo.  Proceedings of an International Symposium, Khon Kaen, Thailand. Food and Fertilizer  Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H. 1980. Hybrids between Gaur and Gayal and between Gayal and Banteng as  zoological rarities in Thailand. Animal Research and Development 12:116-119.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fradrich, H., and H. G. Klos. 1976. Zur Haltung und Zucht des Gaurs, Bos gaurus.  Zoologische Garten 46(6):417-425.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hussain, M. Khader. 1969. The southern Asiatic gaur or Indian bison (Bos gaurus  gaurus H. Smith). Cheetal 12(1):29-47.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Krishnan, M. 1972. An ecological survey of the larger mammals of peninsular India.  Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 69:322-349.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Medway, Lord. 1978. The Wild Mammals of Malaya and Singapore. 2nd Edition. Oxford  University Press, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 128 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Momin Khan, M. K. bin 1973. Studies on the seladang (Bos gaurus) in the State of  Perak. Malaysian Nature Journal 26:163-169.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahai, R. C. 1972. Distribution, composition and herd size of Gaur (Bos gaurus) in  Palamau, Bihar. Cheetal 15:60-66.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schaller, G. B. 1967. The Deer and the Tiger. Chicago University Press, Chicago, USA.  370 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weigun, L. E. 1971. The last refuge. Malaysian Nature Journal 24:132-137.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weigun, L. E. 1972. The problems in the preservation of the seladang in the Malaysian  National Park. M.S. thesis. Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.  55 pp</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul and J. A. McNeely. 1977. Mammals of Thailand. Association for the  Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand. 758 pp.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coolidge, H. J. 1940. The Indo-Chinese Forest Ox or Kouprey. Memoirs, Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College 54(6):421-431.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coolidge, H. J. 1955. The Forest Ox or Kouprey of South East Asia. P. 109 in Breeding Beef Cattle for Unfavorable Environments, A. O. Rhoad, ed. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Neese, H.C. 1976. Kouprey along the Laos/Cambodia border area. Unpublished report to the New York Zoological Society, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pfeffer, P., and O. Kim-San. 1967. Le kouprey, Bos(Bibos) sauvelli, Urbain, 1937: discussion systematique et status actuel. Hypothese sur l'origine du zebu (Bos indicus). Mammalia 31(4):521-536.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pfeffer, P. 1969. Considerations sur l'ecologie des forets claires du Cambodge oriental. Terre et Vie 23(1):3-24.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wharton, C. H. 1957. An Ecological Study of the Kouprey. Novibos sauveli (Urbain). Monograph No. 5. Institute of Science and Technology, Manila, Philippines. 111 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dolan, J. M. 1965. Breeding of the lowland anoa in the San Diego Zoological Garden. Zeitschrift Saugetierekunde 30(4):241-248.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duplaix-Hall, N., ed. 1975. International Zoo Yearbook 15. Zoological Society of London</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fradrich, H. 1973. Einige Bemerkungen uber den Anoa. Zeitschrift des Kolner Zoo 16(3):101-105.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H., and H. Hohn. 1976. Der Karyotyp eines weiblichen Tamarau (Anea mindorensis) [The Karyotype of a Female Tamaraw (Anoa mindorensis)]. Giessener Beitrage zur Erbpathologie und Zuchthygiene 6:173.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. P. 1969. Systematics of the anoa (Mammalia, Bovidae) Beaufortia 17(223): 1-12.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Koulischer, L., J. Tyskens, and J. Mortelsmanns. 1972. The chromosomes of a male specimen of Anoa depressicornis quarlesi. Acta Pathologica, Antwerp 56:21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scheurmann, E., H. Hohn, and H. Fischer. 1977. The karyotype of a male Bubalus (Anoa) depressicornis quarlesi Ouwens 1911. In Symposium, Domesticated Animal Cytogenetics, Jouy en Josas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alvarez, J. B., Jr. 1970. Philippines tamaraw, here to stay. IUCN Publication, New Series 18:46-51.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grimwood, l. R. 1975. National Parks and Wildlife Conservation in the Philippines. FAO: PHI/72/006. UNDP/FAO, Rome, Italy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harrisson, T. 1969. The tamaraw and its survival. Conservation News of South East Asia 8:60-61, 70.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kuchn, D. 1975. Tamaraw at Mt. Iglit Came Refuge, Philippines. Tigerpaper 2(3):26.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sitwell, N. 1975. On the track of the tamaraw. Wildlife 17:428-430.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Talbot, L. M., and M. H. Talbot. 1966. The tamaraw, Bubalus mindorensis (Heude). Observations and recommendations. Mammalia 30(1): 1 - 12.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bearded </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Allen, E. F. 1948. The bearded pig. Malaysian Nature Journal 3(2):98-99.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cranbrook, Earl of. 1979. A review of domestic pig remains from archaeological sites in </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diong, C. H. 1973. Studies of the Malayan wild pig in Perak and Johore. Malaysian Nature Journal26(2):120-151.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Croves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Cenus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hertwig, P. 1936. Artbastarde bei Tieren. Handbuch Vererb Wissenschaften 2B:21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hislop, J. A. 1949. Field notes on the bearded pig. Malaysian Nature Journal 4(2):62-64.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hislop, J. A. 1952. More about the bearded pig. Malaysian Nature Journal 7:22-23.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Union for the Conservation of Nature. 1972. Red Data Book 1: Mammalia. IUCN, Cland, Switzerland. (This is a loose-leaf binder that is updated from time to time.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kempe, J. E. 1948. The riddle of the bearded pig. Malaysian Nature Journal 3(1):36-42.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lotsy, J. P. 1922. Die Aufarbeitung des kuhn'schen kreuzungsmaterials im Institut fur Tierzucht der Universitat Halle. Cenetica 4:32-61.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The distribution and status of wild pigs in Indonesia. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 9 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Medway, Lord. 1978. The Wild Mammals of Malaya and Singapore, 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohr, E. 1960. Wilde Schweine. Die Neue Brehm-Biicherei, A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg Lutherstadt, Federal Republic of Cermany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. First written report. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist group. Unpublished report. 14 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pfeffer, P. 1959. Bologie et migrations du sanglier de Borneo (Sus barbatus Muller 1869). Mammalia 23:277-303.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sulawesi Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appelman, F. J. 1955. Uber Sus celebensis Muller und Schlegel. Der Zoologische Garten 21:152-156.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Catibog-Sinha, C. S. 1981. The quantity and quality of wild food plants and the depredation of wild pigs in the Philippines. Ph.D. thesis. Oklahoma State University, Stillwater Oklahoma, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Croves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Cenus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hooijer, D. A. 1968. Pleistocene Vertebrates from Celebes. 8. Sus celebensis Muller and Schlegel, 1845. Beaufortia 16:215-218.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The distribution and status of wild pigs in Indonesia. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Croup. Unpublished report. 9 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohr, E. 1960. Wilde Schweine. Die Neue Brehm-Bucherei, A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg Lutherstadt, Federal Republic of Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. Interim report. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 14, pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Javan Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blouch, R. A. 1979. Proposed Bawean Island Wildlife Reserve Management Plan. World Wildlife Fund, Report to Directorate of Nature Conservation, Indonesia. Unpublished report. 63 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blouch, R. A. 1981. Results of a preliminary search for Sus verrucosus in the Mt. Arjuna area. World Wildlife Fund, Meru Betiri Project 1024. Unpublished report. 4 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoogerwerf, A. 1970. Udjung Kulonthe Land of the Last Javan Rhinoceros. E. J. Brill, I.eiden. The Netherlands. Pp. 330-349. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The distribution and status of wild pigs in Indonesia. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 9 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. First written report. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 14 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy Hog</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bosma, A. A., W. L. R. Oliver, and A. A. MacDonald. In press. The karyotype, including g- and c- banding patterns, of the pigmy hog Sus (Porcula) salvanius (Suidae, Mammalia).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. T. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1980. The Pigmy Hog: The Biology and Conservation of the Pigmy Hog Sus (Porcula) salvanius, and the Hispid Hare, Caprolagus hispidus. Special Scientific Report No. I. Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust. 93 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. Pigmy hog and hispid hare: further observations of the continuing decline (or, a lament for Barnadi and a good cause for skepticism). The Dodo, Journal of the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust 18:10-20.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Babirus a</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bosma, A. A., 1980. The karyotype of the babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa); karyotype evolution in the Suidae. Fourth European Colloquium Cytogenetics Domestic Animals 1980:238-241.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bosma, A. A., and De Haan, N. A. 1981. The karyotype of Babrousa babyrussa (Suidae, Mammalia) Acta Zoologica et Pathologica Antverpiensia 76: 17-27.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Davis, D. D. 1940. Notes on the anatomy of the babirusa. Field Museum of Natural History-Zoology 22(5):363-411.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fradich, H. 1974. A comparison of behaviour in the suidae. Pp. 133-144 in The Behaviour of Ungulates and Its Relation to Management. V. Ceist and F. Walther, eds. IUCN Publication No. 24.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin, No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Croves, C. P. 1980. Notes on the systematics of Babyrousa (Artiodactyla, Suidae). Zoologische Mededelingen, Deel 55(3):29-46.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The structure and function of the tusks of babirusa. Mammal Review 1 1(1):37-40.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The distribution and status of wild pigs in Indonesia. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 9 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. First written report. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 14 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selmier, V. J. 1978. Only in Indonesia: the babirusa. Unpublished report to Directorate of Nature Conservation (P.P.A.), Bogor, Indonesia. 40 pp. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Research Contacts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because Asia contains many livestock breeds about which little is known, an expert committee on Animal Genetic Resources has been recently formed by the Society for the Advancement of Breeding Researchers in Asia and Oceania (SABRAO). Its chairman is Professor J. S. F. Barker of the University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Species Survival Commission of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature has a Wild Cattle Specialist Group that concerns itself with wild banteng, gaur, and kouprey. Its chairman is Mr. Mohd. Khan bin Momin Khan, Director-General, Wildlife and National Parks, West Malaysia, Kompleks Pejabat-Pejabat Kerajaan, Block K-20, Jalan Duta, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following have particular knowledge of the animals described in this book, have contributed to the various chapters, and (in most cases) have agreed to provide advice to bona fide researchers wishing to study further the animals in this report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ida Bagus Arka, Faculty for Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Udayana University, Jalan Sudirman Sanglah, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia J. S. F. Barker, Department of Animal Science, University of New</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Bongers, Department of Nature Conservation, Wageningen Agricultural University, Ritzema Bosweg 32a, 6703AZ Wageningen, The Netherlands David Butcher, Western Plains Zoo, Box 813, Dubbo, New South Wales</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2830, Australia (Banteng are available for research projects and zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quarantine for shipments between Australia and most countries are</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">straightforward)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. K. Camoens, Livestock Specialist, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila, Philippines 2800</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Deppner, 1603 Dayton Road, Hyattsville, Maryland 20783, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.-M. Duplan, Institut Technique de l'Elevage Bovin, Section Amelioration Genetique, Maison Nationale des Eleveurs, 149, rue de Bercy F, 75595 Paris Cedex 12, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. I. Furtado, Universiti Malaya, Lembah Pantai, Kuala Lumpur 22-11, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Hodges, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Huitema, Overzicht 60, 6862 CT, Oosterbeek, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham W. M. Kirby, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Production, P.O. Box 4160, Darwin, Northern Territory 5790, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moh. Zain Katoe, P.T. United Livestock, Jalan Bau Massepe 472, ParePare, South Sulawesi, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. -G. Klos, Director, Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Hardenbergplatz 8 , 1000 Berlin 30, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. Kusmat, Dean, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Jalan Oto Iskandardinata, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ian L. Mason, 8 Ramsay Garden, Edinburgh, EH1 1NA, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert E. McDowell, Department of Animal Science, Frank B. Morrison Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Montsma, Department of Animal Production, Wageningen Agricultural University, Ritzema Bosweg 32a, 6703 AZ Wageningen, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. Moran, Senior Research Officer, Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute, Kyabram, Victoria 3620, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jan Nari, Director of Central Research Institute for Animal Science, Jalan Raya Pajajaran, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. M. Nitis, Department of Animal Nutrition and Tropical Pasture Production, Udayana University, Jalan Sudirman Sanglah, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. J. A. Payne, 91 Bedwardine Road, London SE19 3AY, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donald L. Plucknett, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, 1818 H Street, Washington, D.C. 20433, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Institute for Animal Production, P.O. Box 123, Bogor, Indonesia (Amber Roesyat, Ian Fletcher, Dennis Hoffmann, P. Sitorus, Subandriyo, M. Zulbardi)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David W. Robinson, International Programs, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. H. L. Rollinson, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Seifert, CSIRO, Tropical Cattle Research Centre, P.O. Box 5545, Rockhampton Mail Centre, N. Rockhampton, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. David Simpson, Senior Extension Specialist, Veld, Pastures and Wildlife, Agritex Box 363, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. J. Smith, Tropical Animal Health, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Summerhall, Edinburgh, EH9 1QH Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dukut Sularsasa, Department of Tropical Veterinary Science, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Syamsul Arifin, Jalan Amin Jakfar 41, Pamekasan Madura, Jatim, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taronga Zoo, P.O. Box 20, Mosman, New South Wales 2088, Australia (T. Finnie and J. L. Throp)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frank M. Thompson, Wild Animal Brokers, 15605 S. R. #64, Bradenton, Florida 33508, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Allen D. Tillman, 523 West Harned Place, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Don Tulloch, P.O. Box 38841, Winnellie, Northern Territory 5789, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Helen Newton Turner, P.O. Box 184, North Ryde, New South Wales 2113, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antoon de Vos, P.O. Box 34, Whitford, Auckland, New Zealand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert Warren, Department or Range and Wildlife Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Everett J. Warwick, The Rockefeller Foundation, P.O. Box 63, Yogyakarta, D.I.Y., Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Woodward, 35AI, Sultan Hasanudin, Ujung Pandang, South Sulawesi, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Domesticated Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Askaniya-Nova, USSR (Zoologicheskii Park Askaniya-Nova)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park; banteng-mithan hybrid)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, German Democratic Republic (Tierpark Berlin)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copenhagen, Denmark (Zoologisk Have)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubbo, New South Wales, Australia (Western Plains Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kiev, USSR (Kievskii Zoologicheskii Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madrid, Spain (Zoo de la Casa de Campo; mithan-banteng hybrid)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pretoria, South Africa (National Zoological Gardens of South Africa) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rome, Italy (Giardino Zoologico e Museo de Zoologia del Comune de Rome and Zoorama)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde; 2 male, 2 female, may be wild form)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng-Cattle Hybrids</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abubakar Aldjufri, Secretary, Asian Livestock Business Club, Kebun Pala I/79B Tanah Abang, Jakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saleh Aldjufri, Jalan Jakarta 42, Surabaya, Jawa Timur, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Deppner, 1603 Dayton Rd., Hyattsville, Maryland 20783, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Huitema, Overzicht 60, 6862 CT, Oosterbeek, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham W. M. Kirby, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Production, P.O. Box 4160, Darwin, Northern Territory 5790, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. Moran, Senior Research Officer, Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute, Kyabram, Victoria 3620, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. J. A. Payne, 91 Bedwardine Road, London SE19 3AY, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David W. Robinson, International Programs, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. H. L. Rollinson, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Wheeler, 1000 Shady Lane, College Station, Texas 77840, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaichana Satrulee, Dusit Zoological Park, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. von Furer Haimendorf, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, London WC1, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles G. Hickman, Livestock Consultant, A. Mithat Efendi Sokak No. 36/11, Cankaya, Ankara, Turkey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frederick J. Simoons, 140 Bartlett Ave., Woodland, California 95695, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Mithan (Gayal)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aalborg, Denmark (Aalborg Zoologiske Have)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amsterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijk Zoologisch) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arnhem, The Netherlands (Burgers' Zoo and Safari)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, German Democratic Republic (Tierpark Berlin)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calcutta, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cologne, Federal Republic of Germany (Aktiengesellschaft Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heidelberg, Federal Republic of Germany (Tiergarten Heidelberg)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kolmarden, Sweden (Koemardens Djurpark)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madrid, Spain (Zoo de la Casa de Campo; mithan-banteng hybrid)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabat, Morocco (Pare Zoologique National)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vienna, Austria (Schonbrunn Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tallin, USSR (Tallinna Loomaaed)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yak</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joseph Bonnemaire, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, 26, Bd. Docteur Petitjean, 21100 Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corneille Jest, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1, Place Artistide-Briand, 92190 Meudon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. A. Kazarova, Director, Riga Zoological Garden, Meza prospekt 1, Riga 14 226014, Latvian SSR, USSR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. K. Panday, Swiss Association for Technical Assistance (SATA), Box 113, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralph W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Patrick J. Robinson, Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Oxford, Commonwealth Forestry Institute, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">George B. Schaller, New York Zoological Society, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. B. Singh, Director General, Department of Livestock, HMG, Harihar Bhawan, Pulchowk, Laitpur, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Societe d'Ethnozootechnie, 25, Boulevard Arago, 75013 Paris, France (R. Laurans)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Yak</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arnhem, The Netherlands (Burgers' Zoo and Safari)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baltimore, Maryland, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bronx, New York, USA (New York Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicago, Illinois, USA (Brookfield Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Denver, Colorado, USA (Denver Zoological Gardens)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Detroit, Michigan, USA (Detroit Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evansville, Indiana, USA (Meeker Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Granby, Quebec, Canada (Societe Zoologique de Granby, Inc.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA (John Ball Zoological Gardens)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kansas City, Missouri, USA (Kansas City Zoological Gardens)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Knoxville, Tennessee, USA (Knoxville Municipal Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rochester, New York, USA (Seneca Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Wild Animal Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sioux Falls, South Dakota, USA (Great Plains Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Bend, Indiana, USA (Potawatomi Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Syracuse, New York, USA (Burnet Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Metro Toronto Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Utica, New York, USA (Utica Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wichita, Kansas, USA (Sedgwick County Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West Orange, New Jersey, USA (Turtleback Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada (Assiniboine Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yakows</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joseph Bonnemaire, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, 26, Bd. Docteur Petitjean, 21100 Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Agriculture, Hari Har Bhawan, Pulchok, Lalitpur, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Kathmandu, Nepal (Tewari and Burathoky)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Livestock Development, Peking, China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Professor Karl Fredge, Department of Genetics, University of Uppsala, Uppsala, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian Veterinary Research Institute, P.O. Izatnagar 243 122, Uttar Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Division, National Agricultural Research Center, Islamabad, Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Sheep and Yak Development Project, Dechhen Pelrithang, P.O. Bumthang, Bhutan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralph W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Patrick J. Robinson, Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Oxford, Commonwealth Forestry Institute, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whipsnade Zoo, Whipsnade, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bruce A. Young, Department of Animal Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta TOG 2P5, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Amir, c/o Ministry of Development Supervision and the Environment, JalanMirdekaBarat 15, Jakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. H. Blower, National Parks Project, c/o UNDP, Box 650, Rangoon, Burma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bonsong Lekagul, Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, No. 4 Customhouse Road, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaichana Satrulee, Dusit Zoological Park, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Z. Coto, Tropical Forest Biology, SEAMEO-BIOTROP, P.O. Box 17, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest Department, P.O. Box 311, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia (Patrick Andau, Assistant Chief Game Warden)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. R. Grimwood, P.O. Box 45079, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U. Halder, Swiss League for Nature Conservation, P.O. Box 73, CH4020 Basel, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Huitema, Overzicht 60, 6862 CT, Oosterbeek, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Wayne King, Director and Professor, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lembaga Biologi Nasional (LBN-LIPI), Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John A. Lukas, White Oak Plantation, Rt. 3 Box 224, Yulee, Florida 32097, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffrey A. McNeely, Executive Officer, Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, 1196 Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Payne, Wildlife Section, Forest Department, P.O. Box 311, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somtob Norapuckprutikorn, Captive Propagation Section, Wildlife Conservation Division, Royal Forest Department, Bangkhen, Bangkok 9, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Wheeler, 1000 Shady Lane, College Station, Texas 77840, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Wild Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albuquerque, USA (Rio Grande Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amsterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijk Zoologisch)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicago, Illinois, USA (Brookfield Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cologne, Federal Republic of Germany (Aktiengesellschaft Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copenhagen, Denmark (Zoologisk Have)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Darmstadt, Federal Republic of Germany (Vivarium Darmstadt)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dortmund, Federal Republic of Germany (Tierpark Dortmund)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dresden, German Democratic Republic (Zoologischer Garten Dresden)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">St. Louis, Missouri, USA (St. Louis Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yulee, Florida, USA (White Oak Plantation)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaur</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Aspinal, Howlett's Wildlife Park, near Canterbury, Kent, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul, Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, No. 4 Customhouse Road, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paul Conry, Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources, Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 23367, GMF Guam 96921, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. R. Grimwood, P.O. Box45079, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohd Khan bin Momin Khan, Director-General, Department of Wildlife and National Parks, P.O. Box 611, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. A. Kazarova, Director, Riga Zoological Garden, Meza prospekt 1, Riga 14 226014, Latvian SSR, USSR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.-G. Klos, Director, Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Hardenbergplatz 8, 1000 Berlin 30, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adrian G. Marshall, Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">George B. Schaller, New York Zoological Society, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lee Simmons, Omaha Zoo, Omaha, Nebraska 68108, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Janet Stover, Bronx Zoo, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frank M. Thompson, Wild Animal Brokers, 15605 S. R. #64, Bradenton, Florida 33508, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Guar </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Berlin Zoo was assigned by the IUCN in cooperation with the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">lUDZG to keep the guar studbook records. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bronx, New York, USA (New York Zoological Park; 7 male, 3 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brownsville, Texas, USA (Gladys Porter Zoo; 5 male, 10 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copenhagen, Denmark (Zoologisk Have; 1 male, 2 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holiday Island, Eureka Springs, Arkansas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India (Nehru Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivey, Wilburton, Oklahoma, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kansas City, Missouri, USA (Kansas City Zoological Gardens; I male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kings Mill, Ohio, USA (Wild Animal Safari,; 1 male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Los Angeles, California, USA (The Los Angeles Zoo; I male, 3 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Memphis, Tennessee, USA (Memphis Zoo and Aquarium; I male, 2 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Munich, Federal Republic of Germany (Munchener Tierpark Hellabrunn Ag)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mysore, Karnataka, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA (Oklahoma City Zoo; 7 male, 7 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Omaha, Nebraska, USA (Henry Doorly Zoological Gardens; 7 male, 15 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Riga, Latvian SSR, USSR (Riga Zoological Garden)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Wild Animal Park; 6 male, 6 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Bend, Indiana, USA (Potawatomi Park Zoo; 1 male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">St. Louis, Missouri, USA (St. Louis Zoological Park; 1 male, 2 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Metro Toronto Zoo; 3 male, 1 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vienna, Austria (Schonbrunn Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul, Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, No. 4 Customhouse Road, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harold Coolidge, 38 Standley Street, Beverly, Massachusetts 01915, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffrey A. McNeely, Executive Officer, Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, 1196 Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harvey C. Neese, P.O. Box 332, Troy, Idaho 83871, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Anthony Parkinson, White House, San Roque 1, San Jose, Occidental Mindoro, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pierre Pfeffer, Zoologie, Mammiferes et Oiseaux Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle 55, rue de Buffon 75005 Paris, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Kelly Shelton, 211-A North Cordova, Burbank, California 91505, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Henry Stoddard, Branford Veterinary Clinics, Inc., P.O. Box 548, Branford, Florida 32008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles H. Wharton, Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA (Rt. 2, Clayton, Georgia 30525)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Conservation Centre, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, CH 1196 Gland, Switzerland (David Mitchell, Elizabeth Kemf)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Kouprey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. M. Dolan, San Diego Zoological Garden, San Diego, California 92112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Anoas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp; mountain anoa)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten; mountain anoa)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London, England (lowland anoa)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leipzig, German Democratic Republic (Zoologischer Garten Leipzig; mountain anoa)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde; 1 male, 3 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Zoological Garden; 1 male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Wild Animal Park; 1 male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (Taronga Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Natural Resources, Quezon City, Manila, Philippines (J. B. Alvarez, Jr., Assistant Director)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. R. Grimwood, P.O. Box 45079, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Natural Resources Conservation Office, Ministry of Natural Resources, Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Anthony Parkinson, White House, San Roque 1, San Jose, Occidental Mindoro, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ian Player, P.O. Box 192, Howick 3290, Natal, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Sitwell, c/o WWF(UK), 11-13 Ockford Rd., Godalming, Surrey GU7 lQU, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. M. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna 3720, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bearded Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Julian Oliver Caldecott, Sub-Department of Veterinary Anatomy, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3DY, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The AustralianNationalUniversity, P.O. Box4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 10H, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Parks and Wildlife Office, Sarawak Forest Department, Jalan Gartak, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia (Kron Aken, David Labang, Mike Kavanagh)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Payne, Wildlife Section, Forest Department, P.O. Box 311, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Bearded Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore, Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sulawesi Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Catibog-Sinha, Outdoor Recreation and Wildlife Research Division, Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna 3720, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The AustralianNationalUniversity, P.O. Box4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 10H, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Mackinnon, WWF/TUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, ChanneL Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Sulawesi Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Javan Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raleigh A. Blouch, 2125 Forest Glen, Lansing, Michigan 48906, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. Bosma, Department of Functional Morphology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, State University Utrecht, P.O. Box 80157, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Directorate of Nature Conservation (PPA), Jalan Ir. H. Juanda 9, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lembaga Biologi Nasional (LBN-LIPl), Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 10EI, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Werner Pauwels, Pfeffingerstrasse 48, CM-053, Basel, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perum Perhutani, Forest State Corporation, Jalan Jendral Gatot Subroto 17-18, Post Box 111, Jakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Javan Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy Hog</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. Bosma, Department of Functional Morphology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, State University Utrecht, P.O. Box 80157, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. C. Gogoi, Adviser Forests, (Wildlife and Environmental Planning), Meghalaya, P.O. Shillong 793 001, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The AustralianNationalUniversity, P.O. Box4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 lOH, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Deb Roy, Manas National Park, P.O. Barpeta Road, Kamrup 781 315, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Pigmy Hog</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gauhati, India (Assam State Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zurich, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Babirusa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. Bosma, Department of Functional Morphology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, State University Utrecht, P.O. Box 80157, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 lOH, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Victoria Selmier, 353 10th Street, San Francisco, California 94103, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Babirusa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, W. de Meurichy)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bandung, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany, (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copenhagen, Denmark, (Zoologisk Have)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia, (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nuremberg, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poznan, Poland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stuttgart, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia, (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas (member through 1981) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Native Plants, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOlS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (member through 1982) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGElARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAMUEL P. ASPER, Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BELL, Department of Population Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEONARD BERRY, Professor, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST.J. BRISKEY, Dean, School of Agriculture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON S. BROWN, Director, Resources Systems Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. BURRIS, Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAUDIA JEAN CARR, Associate Professor, Conservation and Resource Studies, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATE FIELDS, Director, Developing Markets, Control Data Corporation, Minneapolis, Minnesota </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND J. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN HOWARD GIBBONS, Director, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM HUGHES, Director, Engineering Energy Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM A. W. KREBS, Vice President, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Acorn Park, Cambridge, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE I. LYTHCOTT, University of Wisconsin, School of Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANICE E. PERLMAN, Executive Director, Committee for a New New York, New York City Partnership, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK C. ROBBINS, President, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER A. ROSENBLITH, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HERBERT SMUCKLER, Dean of International Studies and Programs, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GILBERT F. WHITE, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Assistant Dean for International Programs, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN G. HURLEY, Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Associate Director/Studies </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL P. GREENE. Associate Director/Research Grants </P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b18ase/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b18ase/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b18ase/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Little Known Asian Animals With a Promising Economic Future (b18ase)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">introduce little-known Asian farm animals with a promising future</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b20cre/b20cre.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b20cre/b20cre.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b20cre/b20cre.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1134 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Managing Tropical Animal Resources - Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Managing Tropical Animal Resources - Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of International Affairs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Cooperation with the Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 1983</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development(BOSTID) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panel on Crocodile Farming</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director, Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HOWARD W. CAMPBELL (deceased) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, Jr., Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING, Director, Florida Museum, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS, Furzebrook Research Station, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Wareham, Dorset, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT M. PYLE, Species Conservation Monitoring Unit, Cambridge, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS, Representative, The Asia Foundation, Taipei, Taiwan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CAROL GABARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WASSAM GABARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KAROL KISOKAU, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Waigani </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAVU KWAPENA, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MIRO LAUFA, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GREG MITCHELL, Crocodile Farm, Lae </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEO NING, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Wewak </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MIGUEE AEVAREZE DEE TORO, Instituto de Historia Natural, Departamento de Zoologia, Chiapas, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANGUS D'A.BELLAIRS, Department of Anatomy, St. Mary's Hospital Medical School, University of London, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER BRAZAITIS, Department of Herpetology, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H.CHABRECK, Louisiana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MAX C.DOWNES, The Game Conservation Centre, Melbourne, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KARLHEINZ FUCHS, hoechst Aktiengesellschaft, Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAIRE HACEN, Reptile Products Association, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RENEE.HONEGGER, Zurich Zoo, Zurich, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TED JOANEN, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, Chenier, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN LEVER, Koorana Crocodile Farm, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM MAGNUSSON, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia, Manaus, Amazonia, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRY MESSEE, School of Physics, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRED PARKER, Kirwan Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANTHONY POOLEY, St. Lucia Estuary, Zululand, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES A.ROSS, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.B.SALE, UNDP/FAO Crocodile Breeding and Management Project, Hyderabad, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LUISVARONA, La Habana, Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHAROON YOUNGPRAPAKORN, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm, Samutprakan, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UTAl YOUNGPRAPAKORN, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm, Samutprakan, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MYRNA WATANABE, Co-editor of ICUN Newsleter, Brooklyn, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROMULUS WHITAKER, Guindy Deer Park, Madras, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Professional Associate, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Crocodile Study Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council Staff</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY lANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE REGES, Administrative Secretary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This publication is dedicated to the memory of panel member Howard W. "Duke" Campbell who devoted most of his professional life to the conservation of crocodilians. Dr. Campbell was Chairman of the Crocodilian Specialist Group of the Survival Commission of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources at the time of his death in 1981.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel that produced this report met in Papua New Guinea in May 1981. Its purpose was to consider the principles of the Papua New Guinea crocodile farming program and their implications for economic development and for the management and survival of crocodilians elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles are an integral part of the tropical fauna; they are ecologically important, biologically interesting, and, potentially, a renewable natural resource of considerable economic value. The panel hopes that through this report the possibility of saving and managing this animal throughout the tropics can be better assessed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members of the panel consulted officials of the Ministry of Wildlife and Conservation in Port Moresby and visited crocodile farms in Moitaka, Popondetta, and Lae. The panel is grateful to Karol Kisokau, Navu Kwapena, and Miro Laufa of the Division of Wildlife for arranging its itinerary and visits in Papua New Guinea. It also wishes to thank Yano Belo, Minister of Environment, for hosting an evening social at the Moitaka crocodile farm; Greg Mitchell and his wife Judy, who entertained the panel at their home in Lae and conducted a tour of their company's crocodile farm; and Wassam and Carol Gabara who acted as guides and hosts in Popondetta.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council, is assessing scientific and technological advances that might prove especially applicable to problems of developing countries. This report is one of a series that explores promising areas of science previously unknown, neglected, or overlooked. Current titles in the ACT! series on Managing Tropical Animal Resources include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal (1981) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These activities are supported largely by the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID). Program costs for this study were sponsored by AID'S Bureau for Asia, and staff costs by AID'S Office of the Science Advisor, which also made possible the free distribution of this report. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gavials ( Present-day crocodilians are grouped into three families: crocodiles, alligators and caimans, and gavials (gharials). The animals differ from one another only in minor characters such as shape of snout, arrangement of scutes, and dental features. This report focuses mainly on crocodile species, but its conclusions are generally applicable to alligators, caimans, and gavials.) have existed for some 200 million years - much longer than mammals - but they are now disappearing at alarming rates. Of the 21 or so species of crocodilians distributed in the warm waters of the world, at least 18 are threatened with extinction in most of the countries where they are found.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although some species, such as the American alligator, appear to be out of danger because of strict conservation measures, many of the others survive mostly in national parks, protected preserves, or a few breeding stations. This is true for the slender-spouted crocodiles of Africa and Asia, the saltwater crocodile of Australia and Southeast Asia, the black caiman and Orinoco crocodile of South America, the Chinese alligator, the Siamese crocodile, and other species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat destruction is a major contributor to crocodilian decline; each year more breeding areas are disturbed as swamps and marshlands are drained, rivers dammed, estuaries reclaimed, and riverine forests denuded. However, illegal poaching by tribal people with their simple but effective traps, snares, and set hooks, as well as professional hunters operating with power boats, spotlights, and modern firearms are also decimating the animals over most of their ranges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To a large extent these animals are being destroyed because of their market value. Crocodile is regarded as the costliest and most fashionable leather in western markets. Since World War II, demand for crocodile leather shoes, handbags, luggage, wallets, watchbands, and other expensive luxury articles has far exceeded supply. Even small items such as purses and handbags sell for many hundreds of dollars each. For instance, a ladies' purse or handbag made from crocodile skin can command prices as high as $4,000. A pair of men's shoes may cost from $500 to $900, and a wallet from $150 to $250.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The crocodile trade peaked in the mid-1960s, when world markets absorbed more than 2 million crocodile skins each year. Today it is still large. In 1979, for instance, 1,000,000 caiman hides and 300,000 true crocodile hides entered international commerce. In 1981 the United States itself imported 100,000 hides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International markets for reptile hides and leathers are centered in France, Italy, the Federal Republic of Germany, and Japan. France, the single largest buyer of raw crocodilian hides, uses an estimated 300,000 to 400,000 skins a year. The major buyers of finished crocodile leather products are Hong Kong, Japan, Thailand, Singapore, and the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unrestricted hunting and poaching for hides are wiping out the large breeding animals. Excessive hunting has a devastating effect on crocodile populations because their age distribution is like a pyramid: a small number of breeding animals dominates a large number of juveniles and hatchlings, most of which never survive to maturity. Such societies, in which the size of future populations depends on only a few animals, are highly vulnerable to extinction; once some of the mature members are killed the population can crash. And it takes a long time for a crocodilian population to rebuild because for most large species the females do not begin breeding until they are at least 8 years old.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rearing Crocodiles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there may seem to be no future for many crocodile populations, the situation is not hopeless. With intelligent intervention and under good conditions they can recover rapidly. Mature crocodiles have no enemies other than man, and, given some care and protection, a small number of breeders can produce a huge number of progeny each year. Mature females of the various crocodilian species usually lay between 30 and 70 eggs each year, and under normal conditions most of these eggs hatch successfully. The key to conserving the population is to protect the few mature animals and their habitats. Then, because of their fecundity, crocodilians can rapidly build up large numbers of young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This has been exemplified by the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). Ten years ago its future seemed doubtful, but the legal protection of the populations has brought a remarkable recovery. Numbers are now so high that two states have lifted the ban on harvesting alligators, and between lo,ooo and 20,000 American alligator hides now enter commerce each year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The past few decades have seen several other examples of successful crocodile-rearing projects. Later chapters of this book highlight the national program in Papua New Guinea. In addition, three successful government-operated farms exist in India (where all the progeny is returned to the wild because current Indian law prohibits commercial crocodile farms). A remarkable farm with more than 3,000 breeding animals operates on the outskirts of Bangkok, Thailand. Australia has four crocodile farms, and a few African countries now have crocodile farms that are already beginning to supply hides internationally. For example, in 1982 Zambia had two such farms, Zimbabwe, five, South Africa, four (with five more planned or under construction), and Kenya, one. Appendix A lists these and other countries that are initiating farms for various crocodilian species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The early technical success of these projects offers the expectation that with an appropriate framework of safeguards and research, crocodiles might become a thriving resource for tropical nations. If such experiences can be replicated, crocodilians and their habitats may come to be considered as resources to be managed and treasured. This will require considerable investment, strict legislation and law enforcement, and international cooperation and research, as well as careful monitoring of the traffic in farmed hides. But national crocodile industries are a possibility, and they could result in thriving natural populations that are free from the danger of extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such prospects may also provide economic incentives for preserving the often-fragile ecosystem in which wild crocodilians live. Crocodile farming could play a part by slowing the uncontrolled draining of swamps and other wetlands that cover large areas of the lowland humid tropics of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles as a managed resource could economically benefit remote areas of the lowland tropics. Villagers there often have few alternative sources of income and possibilities for economic development are limited. Because the human population is relatively sparse, few opportunities exist for local trading; even where fish are abundant the problems of marketing are formidable. Indeed, in some areas crocodiles may constitute the only readily salvable resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles as Farm Animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Well-fed crocodiles grow quickly. Under ideal conditions they may reach lengths of 1 m or more in a year and 1.5 m in 2 years. They are normally harvested in the third year when they reach about 2 m in length. In this time their value may have risen from about $5 to as much as $200.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles have acquired a reputation as voracious feeders; investigations reveal this to be false. The animals actually have modest food requirements. Many hatchling animals have a food conversion rate of about 50 percent; that is, the crocodile adds 1 kg of weight for every 2 kg of food it consumes. Cattle, sheep, and pigs would have to eat 3-5 times as much food to achieve the same weight increase. After 2 years the crocodile's growth rate begins to slow down. During the third year the conversion falls to about 25 or 30 percent, which is still a high figure, and makes crocodiles probably the most nutritionally efficient land animal for commercial husbandry. Only the growth of some fish is comparable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The high food conversion efficiency is due to the fact that crocodiles have low metabolic rates and are normally extremely lethargic. They are active only in short bursts, spend hours immobile, and move only about one-third as much as mammals. Moreover, being reptiles, they spend almost no food energy maintaining body temperature. They bask in the sun to keep warm and seek shade or water to cool off. For these reasons crocodilians can thrive in marginal habitats unsuitable for mammals or birds (Investigations on the Nile crocodile showed that a pelican takes 3 days to consume food equal to its own weight, whereas a crocodile takes 125-160 days - Cott, 1961.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming is also space efficient. As long as they are sorted by size, hundreds of juveniles or dozens of larger animals can be penned together in a small area. Indeed crocodiles often choose to pile up on top of one another in stacks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about disease in reptiles. However, as farm animals, crocodiles have a major advantage: they produce antibodies readily and have few problems with external infections. In the wild it is common to find crocodiles missing limbs or tips of tails, with eyes gouged out, or enormous scars on the body. But the wounds heal readily, with little sign of infection (The American alligator is being used at the University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine as a model for studies on antibody formation.). This minimizes the need for veterinary services, a distinct benefit in remote village farms. Nevertheless, internal bacterial diseases, such as salmonella, can get out of hand and destroy a program by reducing growth rates, lowering hide quality, or killing the animals outright.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile Hides</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is the belly skin that is the valuable part of a crocodile, and the worth of a hide is determined by the size of the belly skin, the smallness of its scales, and the hide's general condition. (Holes, cuts, scars, and rot drastically reduce its value.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although international markets utilize any crocodile skin from 0.3 m to 6 m long, the most sought-after hides are not the biggest but the moderate-sized ones from animals about 1.5-2 m long. These hides are approximately 25-50 cm in belly width.( A crocodile's total length is approximately 4-4.5 times the width of its belly). Large hides, for example those more than 3 or 4 m in length, are suitable only for luggage and briefcases because their scales are large. Smaller hides, on the other hand, are suitable both for items such as shoes, handbags, and wallets and for larger items.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Internationally, the most desirable hides come from the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). It has proportionally the smallest belly scales of any crocodile, it lacks osteoderms,(Osteoderms are deposits of calcium carbonate under the skin. They are undesirable because they dissolve away during the tanning process, leaving a pitted surface),and on the side of its body the scales are uniformly small. The next most valuable hides probably come from Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii), the American alligator, the Siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis), and the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rest of this report highlights the program in Papua New Guinea, where during the last 10 years the government has made crocodile rearing an organized industry, much as poultry farming is elsewhere. This program, which is beginning to establish crocodiles as a significant natural asset, is designed both to protect the wild populations and to integrate traditional uses of these reptiles into a scientifically managed hide industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Papua New Guinea crocodile farming (In the official terminology of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the Papua New Guinea program is "ranching" rather than "farming" because the young livestock are mostly culled from wild populations and are not bred on the farm) has become the cornerstone for the economic improvement of some of the world's poorest people. It offers a means for bringing the rural poor into the process of economic development, and it can be blended into a traditional village structure where land and resources may be communally owned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The projects are small and many have had operational difficulties, but they suggest that conservation and economic development can be not only compatible, but also mutually reinforcing. The innovative idea is not that crocodiles can bring in money, but that sound conservation can be blended with marketing crocodile skins, meat, and by-products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important aspect of this approach to crocodile conservation is that it is based on protecting the existing landscape and resources. It provides a tool for conserving the species in their own wild habitats so that survival will not depend on a few captive specimens living under artificial conditions. It requires none of the bush clearing, fencing, forage planting or pesticide spraying that domestic animals often demand ,important advantages in an economic development project in a fragile tropical swamp or rain forest ecosystem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Papua New Guinea approach, then, provides an economic incentive for wildlife protection. Everyone ,from the villager to the minister of trade ,has a stake in keeping the wild populations healthy. Out of self-interest, in addition to natural respect, large numbers of people become the guardians of the resource and the habitat needed to keep it surviving and productive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The world's major conservation organizations have given Papua New Guinea's crocodile program their stamp of approval. In 1976 a team of scientists representing the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, one of the most prestigious conservation organizations in the world, inspected the program. As a result, Papua New Guinea was given special dispensation, and its crocodile skins can be legally traded internationally. For example, because of its endangered status the saltwater crocodile is banned from trade by the Convention on international Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). An exemption, however, is granted to Papua New Guinea in recognition of the fact that its crocodiles now are sufficiently well managed to sustain a skin industry without seriously damaging the wild stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This program serves as a model for nations of the Americas, Asia, and Africa where crocodilian resources are still unmanaged or managed poorly. Crocodiles are being destroyed so fast that within about five years Papua New Guinea and other countries that have organized crocodile farming operations may be the only ones supplying significant numbers of skins to the international market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the principles developed in Papua New Guinea deserve international attention, the recipe will not be a cure-all for problems of rural development or crocodile conservation. Instead, the Papua New Guinea experience suggests that local social, political, economic, and conservation goals can become the impetus for a successful blend of village improvement and wildlife protection.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Crocodile Farming in Papua New Guinea</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As recently as the l950s, crocodiles were abundant in Papua New Guinea. Hunting was a major occupation and was unrestricted. Some Australians and Europeans made fortunes by shooting thousands of crocodiles a year to make shoes and handbags in Europe and North America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it was obvious that wild populations could not sustain such wholesale slaughter, the destruction continued. By 1967 both the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) and the freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus novaeguineae) were threatened with extinction. By 1968, despite increased hunting, the yield of skins had dropped in half; along the easily accessible river systems, crocodile populations had been wiped out. By 1969 the saltwater crocodile had disappeared from much of its range throughout the country, and wildlife officers estimated that without protection most specimens of breeding size would be eliminated within five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But how could crocodiles be protected? Papua New Guinea is divided by mountain ranges, ravines, torrential rivers, forests, seas, malarial swamps, and more than 700 languages. It would take hundreds of trained wildlife officers to enforce a ban on crocodile hunting, particularly in the face of opposition from tribesmen who have traditionally harvested crocodiles for food, decorative items, and implements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge was given to the officers of the Wildlife Division. Under the leadership of Max C. Downes, these officials concluded that the best way to protect crocodile populations was to halt the slaughter of the large breeding adults and build up a new hide industry based on the increased numbers of young that would result.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Few young crocodiles ever reach breeding age in the wild. The tiny, virtually defenseless hatchlings are easy prey for large fish, birds, or other crocodiles. Almost all of them are killed by predators or by other natural causes, such as floods..</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main areas of crocodile distribution in Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What was needed, the wildlife officers concluded, were incentives to make these smaller animals economically attractive, incentives to encourage local people to raise small crocodiles to commercial size. If that could be accomplished, hundreds of hatchlings that would normally perish could be utilized without endangering the wild populations' future. Villagers could benefit by selling skins while the vital breeding-sized animals were being left alone to provide more hatchlings. The system could benefit both the villagers and the vulnerable crocodile populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="b20a.png"></center><br>
+ Main areas of crocodile distribution in Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The idea was viable partly because many Papua New Guineans - particularly those of the Sepik and Fly Rivers - have ancient spiritual and cultural attachments to crocodiles. To them, the idea of handling and managing the animals is not unusual. Crocodile motifs are common in their art and they live in harmony with the big beasts and do not consider them dangerous pests to be eliminated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legislation passed by the Papua New Guinea government in 1969 capitalized on this tradition by making the villagers themselves the real force in crocodile protection. The law did not ban crocodile hunting, but instead banned the possession, sale, and export of skins larger than 20 inches (51 cm) wide. In this way, it protected breeding-sized animals while allowing for the harvest of juveniles. It also allowed a person to kill a crocodile if attacked (but barred the selling of the skin, if it were oversized).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1980, the legislation was supplemented by a law banning the export of small skins. Together, the bans on possessing large skins and exporting small skins have created a stimulus for gathering small crocodiles from the wild and rearing them to moderate size on farms. The legislation has been the impetus for crocodile farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming officially started in Papua New Guinea in 1972. In the late 1970s, it was extensively supported by a UNDP/FAO assistance program that provided personnel and funds for technical support and program management. Today there are about 300 small village farms (The numbers vary, since some villagers go in and out of production depending on their need for income, seasonal variation in river levels, the cost of fuel, and the availability of government extension agents) supplying a number of larger business groups that rear crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife officers now teach crocodile farming, not crocodile conservation per se. They have introduced crocodile-rearing techniques to villagers all over Papua New Guinea. They help build pens and teach tribesmen how to care for the young reptiles, which are so vulnerable and timid that they can literally die of fright.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government loans of up to US$10,000, along with matching development bank loans, are available to help a farmer enter the crocodile farming business. The funds pay for pumps for changing the water in the pens and sometimes for an outboard motor used in gathering young crocodiles. Everything else a villager needs can be obtained from the forest, including materials for pen construction; a small farm can therefore be established inexpensively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Three Types of Farms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government's crocodile management program recognizes three levels of operation: village farms (up to 300 crocodiles), small-business farms (up to 1,000 crocodiles), and large-business farms (more than 1,000 crocodiles).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A village crocodile farm consists of a small pen fenced with posts lashed together with vines. This stockade fence is about 1.5 m high and is sunk about 60 cm in the ground so the crocodiles cannot burrow out. Much of the enclosure is planted with grass, cassava, and banana trees to provide secluded areas where the animals, which regulate their body temperature by the warmth of the sun, can find shade. A shallow pool is excavated in the center.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These village farms are usually run by only one or two people. Many are little more than pens scattered in the remote bush for holding young crocodiles until a buyer from a larger farm comes around. Small crocodiles bring less money than medium-sized animals, but the villager avoids having to feed and care for them for a long period.(Because of operational difficulties, many village farms were abandoned in 1982. Lack of proper husbandy - despite government efforts - were the main reason for these difficulties. Most villagers now collect and hold young only until buyers from commercial farms arrive. However, they are still earning money from crocodiles, and the concept of fully functioning village farms remains valid for the future in Papua New Guinea, as well as for appropriate sites elsewhere). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The small-business farm usually consists of a group of enclosures (each about 6 m x 6 m) constructed of bush materials. It is typically located near an airstrip. It buys crocodiles from the village farmer and, in turn, supplies them to the larger farms, which sometimes dispatch aircraft to pick the animals up (Special cardboard shipping containers have been devised. They can be folded to make cylinders of various diameters to fit crocodiles of different sizes). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large-scale crocodile farms accommodate as many as 20,000 crocodiles and require a large investment. They serve to regulate the export of skins and are the major purchasers of live crocodiles from the smaller farms. During periods of drought, flooding, or diminished food supplies, the large-scale farms also act as emergency buyers. On the outskirts of Lae on Papua New Guinea's northern coast, there is a 100-hectare farm with nearly 8,000 crocodiles. It is associated with a poultry company, and the crocodiles are raised on the offal from the slaughterhouse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government Research and Extension</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Wildlife Division has constructed four demonstration farms across the country and one large research farm at Moitaka near Port Moresby, the capital city. After training at one of these, a tribesman can start his own farm alone or can call on the government for further assistance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moitaka is also the site of short courses in crocodile farming. Prospective farmers are brought in for several weeks' training. They learn how to build pens, to feed and care for crocodiles, to kill and skin them, and to prepare the hides for market. They also learn about the crocodile laws and the reason they were enacted. A farm at Lake Murray, in a remote and swampy area of the Western Province, serves the same purpose. It is built entirely from bush materials (see picture, pp. 6-7).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Wildlife Division provides instruction books, profusely illustrated for the illiterate. The books include vivid descriptions of all phases of farming the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic Gains</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 10 years, crocodile rearing has expanded remarkably in Papua New Guinea. It has already become the main source of income for the people of some swamp and river areas. The Ambunti area, for example, produces coffee and rice, but crocodile skins now bring in much of the area's income. By 1981 the farms nationwide contained a total of 30,000 crocodiles, ensuring a sustained production of at least 10,000 skins a year worth approximately US$ 1-2 million on the international market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because crocodiles are a familiar resource, villagers take to the program quickly. By contrast, introducing cattle or western-style crop raising requires massive education and training, in addition to some social and environmental disruption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On government farms in Papua New Guinea, fish-fed crocodiles have increased their belly width by 25 cm per year and are ready for slaughter in 2-3 years when the width approaches 50 cm. The selling price of the skin is then between $100 and $200, depending on species, flaws, and size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But skins are not the only product. A crocodile with a skin big enough to market can provide 20 kg of meat. The meat is white and is low in fat. Papua New Guinea is a net importer of meat, and crocodile farming is now augmenting local supplies. The large farm at Lae already sells frozen crocodile meat (including front and hind legs, tail steaks, ribs, and chops) both locally and on foreign markets. Some orders have come in from dealers in Paris who supply expensive French restaurants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 Conclusions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benefits of Crocodile Farming</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming seems to be singularly appropriate for rural, isolated, lowland communities in the tropics. The land there is often unsuitable for conventional agriculture, and the people lead a tenuous existence or drift to the cities looking for work. In such areas, there are few opportunities for people to earn cash without drastic and expensive modifications to the environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming has many advantages over hunting the animal in the wild. For instance, crocodiles farms can:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Permit government monitoring of the crocodile industry. (Hunters are more difficult to regulate since they work in remote areas, often undetected and crossing borders at will.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yield a regular harvest of a specific number of animals of a selected size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Produce a standardized, premium product that better serves the needs of the international hide industry, making skins poached from the wild less desirable. (They may provide, for instance, a standard first grade 1-1.5 m long hide rather than hides of mixed size and quality.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Reduce the wasteful losses of hides from improper handling, the fate of a high proportion of skins now brought in from the wild.(*In remote areas, salt may become scarce late in the season as it is used for hides. This often results in insufficient salt being used when the supply runs out and hides subsequently rot or "slip". In some isolated areas, as much as 25 percent of the hides are lost or downgraded because of improper curing for lack of salt. However, skins produced on farms, especially near urban areas or large villages, are usually properly salted; if salt becomes scarce, killing of the animals can be delayed) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Educate the public about crocodile ecology and the animal's importance to the habitat and the local economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Provide sites for scientific studies on crocodilians. Studies conducted on alligators at the Rockefeller Refuge in Louisiana, USA, for example, have provided reproductive, nutritional, and growth data directed specifically towards developing efficient farming techniques.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For some farms the earnings from hides, meat, and by-products may be supplemented by tourism (through gate admissions and the sale of curios), as well as by selling eggs and young to other farms for breeding stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A long-term program of wise utilization of crocodiles can benefit governments by providing revenue from hides, curios, craftwork, and manufactured articles, as well as from export duties. Furthermore, in their natural state in parks and preserves, crocodiles are an important tourist attraction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an effort to preserve crocodile habitats, the Papua New Guinea program has encouraged the collection of eggs or young from the wild and has discouraged the breeding of crocodiles in captivity. This is because a reliance on the wild creates economic incentives to conserve crocodile habitats; if the habitats are drained for human settlement or conventional agriculture the farmers lose the source of their stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contrary to popular impression, preliminary observations indicate that crocodiles benefit commercial fisheries. The animals are important links in the ecosystems of rivers and lakes and are often the largest inhabitants of the freshwater wetlands. Their movements inhibit the growth of aquatic plants in the waterways, and, in areas with prolonged dry seasons, some species maintain residual waterholes that benefit small aquatic organisms that would otherwise perish. In estuaries and lakes, crocodiles enrich the nutrient content of the water by converting terrestrial prey into feces that in turn feed invertebrates and fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where crocodiles have been eliminated, reductions in the tonnage of fish caught for human consumption can usually be demonstrated. For example, in Brazil, Kenya, and India, a decline in the fishermen's catch has paralleled the decline in crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations of Crocodile Farming</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments and individuals seeking rapid returns on investments should realize that a crocodile farming industry is not a get-rich-quick scheme. To build a stable national industry may require 10 years and an investment of at least $500,000 before it is biologically and economically successful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, an organized industry is vital. A village crocodile-rearing pond is only profitable if there is someone to buy, grade, package, and ship the product with all its documentation. Services will be needed at all levels to advise on disease control, nutrition, skinning, and preserving the hides. In many parts of the world crocodile farms have been financial and conservation failures not just because of poor husbandry management, but also because of fiscal shortsightedness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selection of a suitable farm site is basic to the economics of the entire operation. Farms demand a steady supply of meat or fish to feed the crocodiles, and are most successful when located near a reliable source of inexpensive food. Some farms take advantage of offal from nearby chicken or cattle abattoirs; others use the fish by-catch from shrimping operations. In the absence of an inexpensive animal protein feed, the farm will have to raise its own food (tilapia is frequently used) or harvest it from the wild, both of which can be expensive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farms also require a steady year-round supply of clean water for the holding ponds and tanks. If this cannot be supplied by gravity flow from nearby sources, it must be pumped from wells or from nearby lakes or ponds. This, too, is likely to be expensive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the general hardiness of crocodiles, the farms must have access to veterinary care. Most disease problems stem from poor sanitation, low water temperatures, and poor diet, all of which can be easily corrected. But with large numbers of animals crowded together, disease problems, if not quickly diagnosed and treated, can wipe out the young captive animals in epidemic proportions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capturing and transporting large crocodilians is dangerous and difficult. Dealing with a large captive population of crocodiles of different age groups and sizes requires a great deal of experience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although crocodilians are common in zoos, successful breeding of these reptiles in captivity is so far a rare and remarkable event. However, researchers are now coming to understand the behavioral requirements for success. For instance, gravid females must have access to appropriate nesting sites, males must have ample space when they are penned in with other males, and juveniles and hatchlings must be separated from their parents and housed by size and feeding preferences. That prolific breeding can be achieved, however, is illustrated by the Samutprakan crocodile farm near Bangkok, Thailand, which reportedly has reared tens of thousands of its own animals and now aims for a population of 100,000 crocodiles by 1987.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The worldwide shortage of crocodile leather is becoming more acute each year, and it will be many years before any output from farms can significantly reduce pressure on wild populations. Thus, farming should be only one aspect of an overall conservation program that includes total protection of some populations in national parks and sanctuaries. In addition, the conservation of natural wetlands is an important part of overall economic planning. If wetlands are lost, many wild species in addition to crocodiles will be affected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Australia, Asia, Africa, and the Americas, many crocodilian populations are poorly protected because governments lack the manpower or the will to enforce conservation laws rigorously, especially in the remote areas where the last remaining crocodiles reside. Because most wildlife departments in the tropics are short staffed and have vast areas to police, their efforts at wildlife protection are frequently ineffective. Moreover, some countries have been slow to introduce protective legislation for an animal that does not engender public sympathy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea's program offers one of the best hopes for saving all endangered crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gavials. The methods developed there serve as a model for other nations. By providing an alternative, Papua New Guinea gives villagers the incentive to protect wild crocodiles that are breeding nearby so as to assure themselves of future supplies. The people themselves become the conservators of the local animals and habitats. In turn, watersheds, soils, and conventional agricultural development (including natural and forest products) can all benefit. The habitat is also preserved for many other wildlife species that share it, and genetic diversity can be maintained. Conversely, without a special incentive to conserve them, all these resources are normally degraded as a region develops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Regulations, Safeguards, and Research Needs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Papua New Guinea experience provides a model for other nations, but to implement such a program requires a foundation of legislation, government support, and legal safeguards. Prerequisites of any crocodile farming program are an overhaul of legislation, strict law enforcement, and reciprocal laws with neighboring countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The enforcement of wildlife regulations is so inadequate in most countries that crocodile farming is open to abuse. Farms can front for illegal poaching operations, and hides taken from the wild can be intermingled with hides produced on the ranch or farm unless government enforcement is stringent and inspection frequent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, the stimulation of world trade in crocodile hides through the sale of farmed hides might lead to increased poaching of wild crocodiles or eggs. Poachers have fewer operating expenses than farmers, and unscrupulous hunters and dealers can harvest hides, steal crocodile eggs or young, and subsequently sell them through countries that lack enforcement capabilities. This practice could be disastrous for countries where crocodile populations have almost disappeared.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government Regulations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before any farming scheme is attempted, protective legislation should be in operation throughout the country. This should make it unlawful to kill, capture by any means whatsoever, disturb willfully, or pursue any crocodiles, or to collect or gather any crocodile eggs without a permit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No crocodile eggs should be allowed to be imported or exported with out a permit. No persons should possess, sell, buy, donate, receive consequent upon a donation, convey, keep in captivity, or display any live crocodiles without being the holder of a permit. And no person should be allowed to import or export any crocodile, dead or alive, or any portion of a crocodile, processed or not, from any country without a permit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before granting a license for a commercial farm, the government should investigate the applicant's land tenure and financial resources, particularly since the farm will have to operate for three to four years before producing crocodiles suitable for culling. The applicant's ability and experience in rearing crocodiles should be determined. A plan of the proposed farm, including details of water and food supply and the proposed methods of harvesting food, should be examined.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is suggested that:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· No permit for egg harvesting should be issued until adequate rearing facilities have been prepared. The permit should state the name of the holder or his authorized representative, the annual total number of eggs allocated for harvesting, and the area where collection is permitted.(In some cases it is also important to specify a harvest time. Often it is best to take eggs laid early in the season because the female will then lay another clutch.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Permits should be issued on a year-by-year basis. The applicant should understand that the department may refuse to renew or issue further permits if the farm is not managed satisfactorily or if permit conditions have not been observed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The applicant should understand that the farm and all production records should be available for inspection by an official of the conservation department.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The farmer should be required to submit periodic reports detailing the total number of nests raided and eggs harvested, the egg mortality, and the number of eggs hatched. Thereafter, the number of animals held in captivity, the rate of mortality and its causes, if known, and the number of animals sold or culled should be included in each report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Furthermore, it is recommended that the permit holder release 5 percent of his annual crop of hatchlings in order to restock the natural habitat. In addition, a further 5 percent of the hatchling crop should be reared to a length of 1 m before being released, bringing the total release of young crocodilians to 10 percent of the annual crop of hatchlings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The distribution of hatchlings and young reared animals should be supervised by the conservation department.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless government agencies monitor the wild populations of crocodilians being harvested for hides, eggs, or young, the farms themselves could become a major drain on those populations, leading to their extinction. Therefore, before any farming program is started, a survey of the breeding grounds should be undertaken to determine the number of nests available and those from which eggs can be taken with least danger to the wild population (for example, from nests on grounds likely to be flooded).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These breeding grounds should be fully protected; tourists on foot, in vehicles, or in launches should not be allowed to visit or disturb crocodiles during the breeding season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Safeguards and Cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international traffic in millions of unmarked crocodilian hides and products poses one of the greatest obstacles to enforcement of national and international endangered species regulations. Hides and skins frequently cannot be traced to their source or country of origin. Legally harvested or farmed animals cannot readily be distinguished from those exported in secret from illegal sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need for internationally acceptable methods of marking individual hides and products is critical. Traffic in illegal crocodilian hides and products will continue as long as law enforcement agencies lack the means to detect them easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the United States a system has been developed in some states that enables conservation, police, and customs officials to monitor traffic in alligator hides. A conservation authority issues an official tag for each animal allowed by the license. All hides exported are tagged with a serially numbered plastic tag that cannot be removed without breaking it. The serial number is recorded on the export permit and with details of the buyer's and seller's name and address. This tag remains on the hide, right through the tanning process, until the hide reaches the manufacturer. Each tannery maintains a register of purchases that is available for inspection. This system also is being implemented in Zimbabwe and is worthy of trial in other countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tagging of all hides and products for individual identification is an important safeguard. Other safeguards include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The use of engraved stamps or seals to authenticate legal licenses and export permits and make it more difficult for documents to be forged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Internationally accessible data and a retrieval system that allows law enforcement personnel to corroborate the authenticity of documentation and the origin of hides and products;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Monitoring agencies to record and publish market statistics, traffic, and trends;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Laws limiting the sale of hides only to nations that cooperate in an internationally sanctioned program of safeguards; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Research funding to monitor populations and develop new marking and identification techniques. (For instance, the use of dyes, roll marking, and infusion of detectable chemical tracers has yet to be fully explored.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is urgent need for tannery owners, manufacturers, and conservation authorities to jointly work out the rational exploitation of crocodile populations. Commercial interests have reaped a rich reward over many years, and if the crocodile industry is to continue, its entrepreneurs must invest in management and conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clearly, research to improve farming techniques will be a wise investment for both commercial operators and the countries concerned. Surveys to determine population numbers and size as well as the structure of breeding stocks and recruitment rates are essential. Such surveys may indicate the need to establish sanctuaries to protect breeding stock and nesting grounds, or perhaps to ban hunting to allow populations to recover. A rearing program and restocking of suitable habitats might be necessary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix A: Crocodile Farming Around the World</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiences with crocodile farming in Papua New Guinea, the main subject of this report, are described in chapter 2. Here we summarize the status of similar efforts in other countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four crocodile farms have been established in Australia, one in the Northern Territory and three in Queensland. To date, only the Edward River farm, operated by the government as an aboriginal development project, has developed a successful breeding program. There, seven-yearold saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) hatched on the farm from wild eggs are now breeding and laying fertile eggs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A farm for Chinese alligators (Alligator sinensis) has been established at Xuancheng, Anhui Province. Its purpose is to breed alligators for conservation, although the hide of this species is not in great demand because it has many osteoderms in the belly scales. Recently the government has expressed interest in establishing a farm for saltwater crocodiles in southern China. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan has one crocodile farm or rearing station, but it is too far north to breed its own stock, except in heated indoor enclosures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several buyers in the Philippines who maintain pens of crocodiles for short periods. None of these is a farm. A new experimental farm for the Philippine freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus novaeguineae mindorensis) was established by Silliman University in an attempt to preserve that endangered species and to promote an economic interest in crocodile conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Micronesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A farm for saltwater crocodiles has been established on Palau, where a small population of these crocodiles occurs in a brackish interior swamp. In the past, the government hired a hunter to reduce the population whenever the local people felt it had become sufficiently large to present a danger, about once a decade. Presumably the nuisance crocodiles will now end up in the farm. The farm, which has been in existence only for a year or two, earns money from tourist admissions as well as hide production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few crocodile-rearing stations have operated for several decades in Java, Sumatra, and Kalimantan. These have been stocked with eggs and young animals collected from the wild in Sumatra and Kalimantan. In the early 1970s, three such operations in Samarinda, East Kalimantan, closed down for lack of wild stock. At least one operation in Jakarta, Java, continues to survive, but with virtually no output of stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of Irian Jaya (Indonesian New Guinea) in 1980 indicated a number of ranches in that region as well, but revealed that some were having difficulty obtaining stock because of overharvest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore has a famous crocodile farm that figures prominently in tourism. It breeds some of its stock, but also obtains wild stock from all over Southeast Asia. Singapore has a thriving crocodile hide trade. Many buyers and several tanneries are located there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore is not a member of CITES and openly trades in any and all species of crocodilians.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several crocodile farms in West Malaysia (at Penang, for example) and at least one in East Malaysia (near Sandakan, Sabah). These started out as rearing stations relying on wild young, but have moved slowly toward breeding their own stock. The Penang farm depends on tourism to pay many of its expenses. The Sandakan farm is operated in conjunction with a duck and pig farm that supplies it with offal. Its stock consists of saltwater crocodiles. Until at least 1980, it had very little production from captive animals, but the owner is hoping to broaden his stock from them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sarawak (East Malaysia) also used to have several rearing farms. The present status of these operations is unknown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm was started in 1950 with 20 wild crocodiles and an investment of US$500. Today it is reported to be the world's largest crocodile farm, with about 30,000 individuals. About 3,700 of these animals, placed in eight separate breeding ponds, are used for breeding stock, and there are plans for a population of 100,000 by 1987. The Samutprakan farm opened to the public 12 years ago and now receives about one million visitors annually.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of the farm's crocodiles are from the two species native to Thailand, the saltwater crocodile and the Siamese freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis). It also has hybrids of the two, as well as the indigenous false gavial (Tomistoma schlegelii) and five exotic species: South American caiman (Caiman crocodilus), New Guinea freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus novaeguineae), Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis), broad-spouted caiman (Caiman latirostris), and dwarf caiman (Paleosuchus palpebrosus). The farm has succeeded in breeding South American caiman (Caiman crocodilus); the other species are approaching maturity and it is hoped they will breed in the near future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The farm sells crocodile meat locally, mostly to restaurants as a delicacy (for US$5 per kg).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commercial and biological success of the farm is largely due to favorable conditions at Samutprakan. The temperature and humidity are high year-round, and low costs of labor and building materials permit the physical plant to be profitably established and maintained. The main cost is for food; approximately 4,000-5,000 kg of by-catch fish are needed daily at a cost of US 20 cents per kg. If the supply of fish is inadequate, the diet is supplemented with chicken wings, legs, and necks from a slaughterhouse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Rangoon there are some crocodile-holding pens operated by hide buyers. It is not clear whether breeding or farming of crocodiles occurs in them or whether the operation simply acts as a clearing center for wild hides. The government has expressed interest in establishing farms in the mangrove areas near the mouth of the Irrawaddy River. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1974 an FAO report on India's crocodiles noted that the Indian gavial (Gavialis gangeticus) was on the verge of extinction, the saltwater crocodile was extremely rare, and the Indian mugger (Crocodylus palustris was a depleted, although not threatened, species).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government, with United Nations assistance, then initiated a project for the conservation and management of all three species. This program aimed to protect and restock habitats. Animals for restocking were obtained by collecting eggs laid in the wild, incubating them under controlled conditions, raising the resulting hatchlings, and returning juveniles to specially selected sanctuaries when they reached about 1.2 m in length,at which time they are free from predation other than by man.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project has resulted in the comeback of the gavial. By March 1979, 200 gavials had been restored to the wild. The wild population now exceeds 1,000 animals of more than 2 m length, and the number is expected to increase rapidly through natural reproduction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project has also carried out extensive research on crocodiles, and since its founding in 1978 the Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute, located in Hyderabad, has trained many wildlife officers in crocodile protection. Crocodile-rearing facilities are also located near Madras, Lucknow, and Cuttack. All have had success in raising the animals and restocking their habitats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Indian crocodile project has been a notable success and it coincided with (and perhaps helped create) a wave of local interest in India's wildlife and its conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A farm stocked with American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) was established at a popular hotwater spring resort area, using animals supplied by a Florida farm. The Israeli program will earn money from tourist admissions and from future production of hides. The first successful hatching of captive-bred alligators was reported in 1982.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Near Mombasa a farm for the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) has been set up to produce hides from captive-bred stock. The farm is a demonstration project of a large cement factory that is attempting to return its limestone-mined areas to productive agriculture. Some sophisticated experiments are under way on crocodile nutrition, with food for the animals produced in an intensive aquaculture project using tilapia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia is planning a series of farms patterned after those in Zimbabwe (described below).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe has made great strides in captive breeding. In 1979, 87 captive females at two farms produced 1,906 eggs, and a third farm has set aside 30 captive females for breeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four of the country's five crocodile farms are on the shores of Lake Kariba and the other is at Victoria Falls. The government allows each farm an annual allotment of wild eggs (averaging 2,000 to 2,500 eggs) for stocking its rearing programs. Each farm is also striving to become self sufficient in egg production by developing successful breeding programs. The government is considering reducing each farm's allotment by the number of eggs produced annually in the farm so that each will eventually become independent of the wild populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe farmers operate on a system that obliges them to return a small percentage of live animals to the wild if the government requires it. At present, this requirement is being waived because the wild population is increasing on its own.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe has built its crocodile conservation program on a broad base. Crocodiles are protected throughout the country, as game animals in the country at large and as totally protected species in parks and sanctuaries. Populations have increased dramatically, from endangered status in the l950s to over 50,000 individuals today. In the 1950s a survey of the Zambesi River and Lake Kariba revealed no crocodiles; today thousands are seen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe's Department of National Parks and Wildlife is striving to ensure that its legitimate international trade in farm-raised hides does not provide illegal operators in other countries with the opportunity to sell poached hides (for example, forging papers that claim their hides originated on legitimate Zimbabwe farms). To make poaching difficult, Zimbabwe, taking a clue from the state of Louisiana, plans to use serially numbered nonremovable plastic tags to mark legitimate hides. Numbers of the tags will be noted on export permits. In addition, every export permit will be validated by the government with an engraved security stamp that is difficult to forge and that shows ink damage if any erasures or modifications are attempted. The use of such stamps is recommended by CITES, and Zimbabwe is the first nation to put them into use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa has four crocodile farms, and another five are planned or under construction. Apart from the Natal Parks Board Crocodile Research Station at St. Lucia Estuary, which breeds Nile crocodiles for restocking and conservation purposes, all farms are for tourism and hide production. So far only one farm, outside Pretoria, is reported to produce many offspring. Only the provinces of Transvaal and Natal have wild crocodiles, and neither allows eggs, young, or adults to be collected for stocking farms. Both provinces, however, permit the killing of nuisance crocodiles on private land. Transvaal will allow one or two nuisance crocodiles to be taken captive by farmers, but it refuses permission for removing larger numbers of nuisance animals,presumably for fear that this would generate a flood of spurious nuisance complaints. Natal will not permit the removal of any wild crocodiles to farms, nor will it supply offspring from the St. Lucia station to farmers. This makes the Pretoria farm the only source of crocodiles in South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following the example of Zimbabwe, the South African farmers (present and potential) formed a crocodile farming association in 1982.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several farms patterned after those in Zimbabwe are planned for the Okavango area. Petitions for approval are currently before the Botswana government.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1960s French businessmen established a farm for Nile crocodiles near Lake Chad. It collapsed after only a few years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivory Coast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Ivory Coast has obtained assistance from Zimbabwe to establish a conservation program for its three native crocodiles: the Nile crocodile, African slender-spouted crocodile (Crocodylus cataphractus), and Congo dwarf crocodile (Osteolaemus tetraspis). Recommendations were made for conserving the wild populations as well as for establishing farms. Field studies are under way.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A commercial farm for the South American caiman (Caiman crocodilus) was established in southern Italy in the late 1970s. Stock was obtained from Colombia. The animals, numbering in the thousands, arrived in Rome in winter and were transported south to the farm in an open truck. Most died from cold. Later shipments fared no better, and the few animals that survived died from poor husbandry. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Americas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are between 15 and 20 successful alligator farms in the United States. Most are located in Florida and Louisiana, and there is at least one in California. All earn a portion of their money from tourist admissions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the 1960s the Cuban government established at least two farms for crocodiles. One is located in the Zapata Peninsula National Park; the other is near Cienfuegos. The purpose of these farms is to breed crocodiles whose wetland habitat has been converted to sugar cane fields. Eventually, the farms will also produce a cash crop of hides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, what started out as an admirable effort created several conservation problems because the farm managers did not realize there were two crocodiles in Cuba ,the American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) in brackish waters, and the Cuban crocodile (Crocodylus rhombifer) in freshwater areas. The two were mixed in the farms and hybridization resulted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Mexican government has established several farms for Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii) in Chiapas and Veracruz. The purpose is to breed the species in captivity to relieve hunting pressure on the wild population and prevent its extinction. Original funding was provided by the World Wildlife Fund. At least one of these farms still exists. Breeding has been achieved, but there have been problems of survival in hatchlings. The cause of the deaths has not been discovered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years several businessmen in Mexico have expressed interest in starting one or more crocodile farms, but none has yet materialized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1960s, the Louisiana Game and Fisheries Commission supplied specimens of the American alligator to a cattle rancher in El Salvador for the purpose of establishing an experimental farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Louisiana was interested in studying growth rates of American alligators in a tropical nation where the animals did not have to undergo winter hibernation. The husbandry on the farm followed methods worked out in Louisiana. The animals grew fast and presumably have started breeding. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A captive breeding program for the Orinoco crocodile (Crocodylus intermedius) was established in Venezuela in the late 1970s on the ranch of Tomas Blohm. The operation is not commercial; its purpose is to prevent extinction of the species. The offspring may be used for restocking wild habitats in the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Venezuelan law there can be no commercial export of any crocodilians. In addition, the Orinoco crocodile and the various caimans are protected. However, the reptiles are everywhere killed as vermin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru has proposed harvesting certain wild populations of caimans (Caiman crocodilus) to supply animals to a ranching operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BraziI</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Brazil is interested in establishing farms for several species of caiman, including the yacare (Caiman crocodilusyacare). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Latin American Nations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the past two years, other Central and South American nations that have indicated their intention to set up farms for crocodiles or caimans are Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, and Uruguay. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix B: Practical Crocodile Farming</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This appendix is adapted from a paper by A. Pooley that detailed the lessons learned from farming crocodiles to restock depleted habitats in Natal, South Africa. The information is presented here not as a blueprint for setting up a farm, but to show prospective farmers some of the points that they must first consider before attempting to rear crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farm Location</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reliable supplies of good water and suitable food are the most important considerations for establishment of a crocodile farm; the area selected must have both. Village farms also need to be close enough to wild crocodile populations for the animals to be obtained easily. Larger farms can be located farther from the source.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For small farms, a natural supply of food should also be readily available in the wild. Areas that have a fishing industry are ideal locations. For large farms, sites near slaughterhouses or fish-processing facilities are ideal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other considerations also include the volume of water available throughout the year, the distance over which water must be piped to the ponds, and pumping costs. The quality of the water should be established, with samples tested for salinity and acidity and, where the supply comes from mineral springs, analyzed for harmful chemicals. Chlorinated water must be tested regularly to ensure that the chlorine content is not too high, and the nature of any factory effluents present should be determined. It is important to establish whether fish, frogs, crabs, mollusks, or aquatic insects survive in the water intended for use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bacterial analysis is advisable where the water is drawn from a river that drains an area densely populated by humans and livestock. If the water is found to be contaminated, the stagnant pond rearing pen system should not be used, particularly when Salmonella spp. are present in high concentrations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A filter system has advantages if water is pumped straight from a river carrying a heavy silt load. Apart from enabling farmers to see the animals in the pools, filtered water makes the pools and pipes easier to clean. Filtration can be achieved by drawing water from a deep pit close to the river so that the water collected seeps through sand or mud.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A reservoir or a series of supply tanks is useful as an additional method of filtering water. In the event that pumping equipment fails, such a reserve supply may prove vital to the health and survival of the crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ponds should receive as much sun as possible, particularly during the winter months. A series of winter air temperature recordings would be useful in choosing the site of rearing pens, since valley temperatures are often several degrees lower than the temperatures some 50 to 100 m uphill. Preference should be given to the warmer locations, taking into account the direction of local winds and heavy rains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil types are the next consideration. If soils are sandy and porous, earth ponds are impractical and a concrete lining is required to retain water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Drainage of the ponds must be carefully considered. Drainage is far easier if the ponds are built on a slight rise. Water from the ponds must not be allowed to stagnate nearby; the drainage system must be efficient. It is recommended that pens be spaced at least 8 m apart and that their drainpipes lead underground at least 10 m before emptying.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pen Construction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pens with rounded corners are the most successful. Crocodiles frequently choose to lie together in a pile. Square corners allow them to pile up against the angle, smothering those on the bottom and sometimes allowing animals to climb over the fence. With rounded corners, the pile cannot grow very high before the crocodiles slide sideways and the heap collapses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiments in South Africa indicate that natural pools containing rooted vegetation are less prone to become sources of disease than are concrete pools. The surface of the concrete seems to become impregnated with liquid and debris from food and to become a breeding ground for bacteria. For hatchlings and very small juvenile crocodiles, concrete has an added disadvantage; its rough surface can abrade the belly skin when the animals slide in and out of the water, which can foster infection. In 5 or 10 years, even smooth concrete will erode sufficiently to become a problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Researchers elsewhere, however, report better results with concrete lined ponds, which they find easier to clean. Concrete pools are useful for summer because they can be scrubbed clean and because the volume of water used is small. Normally they need only be emptied, cleaned, and refilled every third day, and there is no wastage through seepage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pools are best built as channels. This provides more bank for basking and enables the pools to accommodate more crocodiles. Because the larger males become belligerent only when they can see each other, floating logs, patches of grass, or channel corners are visual barriers that reduce interactions. The channel system also gives more water edge, and this appears to satisfy the territorial instinct.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles are famous for basking in the sun, but they die surprisingly easily of heat prostration. At least one-third of the land area of a farm pen should be shaded with vegetation. The amount of space around each pool is calculated to allow ample basking room for each animal, and an area of shade must likewise be provided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On land, crocodiles often seek contact with each other (thigmotaxis) and frequently lie piled on top of each other, but this should be a matter of choice rather than of overcrowding. There should be few enough animals in the enclosure to allow every crocodile to get out of the water if it chooses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ideally, only half the available number of pools should be occupied at a time, so that they can be used in rotation. In this system, the animals can be moved to fresh pools every two months (or as necessary), leaving the "used" pools to be drained and dried out to bake in the sun. After two months, the pools will then be clean and ready for use again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important requirement is that the pools be at least 60 cm in depth; otherwise, the water becomes too hot in summer. The pool floor should be sloped towards the drain outlet to facilitate cleaning and flushing away uneaten food. Also, the outlet pipe should be 10 cm in diameter, with a stopcock outside the enclosure, so that the pool can be cleaned and emptied efficiently. It is essential to place a screen in the drainpipe to prevent small crocodiles from escaping or being sucked out of the pool during cleaning. After some time, stagnant ponds may become difficult to clean because of the heavy growth of algae on their sides. Hard-bristle scrubbing brushes are needed to dislodge this growth. Small amounts of copper sulfate in the water will help control algae if used regularly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The entire pond and surrounding apron must be smoothly plastered to facilitate cleaning. It helps to have a water source close to each pool from which a hose pipe can be led to pressure spray and clean the pool and its apron.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important part of the design is a partly submerged, gently sloping ledge, some 45 cm in width, around the perimeter of the pool. This provides a shallow resting zone for the crocodiles and gives them easy access to the water. The crocodiles rest there when feeding, and the ledge prevents them from scraping their bellies and damaging their claws when they enter or leave the pool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For small crocodiles it is advisable to roof over the entire pen with wire netting or cries-crossed strands of wire. This protects against predators. Further, young crocodiles can climb vertical wire netting with ease and will escape unless the enclosure is either roofed or has side walls that slope inwards. A skirting board (planking, sheet iron, tin, or plastic sheeting) placed against the wire netting can also prevent this. If wire netting is used for the sides of the pens it should have mesh no larger than 1 cm so that hatchlings will not injure themselves by trying to climb through. While these pools are being cleaned, care must be exercised to prevent crocodiles from falling into the empty pool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water can be passed continuously through the pools. The advantage of this is that during hot summer weather, when crocodiles are feeding at their maximum rate, small uneaten food particles, feces, and urine are carried away. Constant dilution of the pond's water also ensures a low bacteria level. However, the pool must be drained and scrubbed clean at least weekly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earthen pools are easy and cheap to build and are a "natural" habitat where vegetation can be planted and small live fish introduced; insects, frogs, and other creatures attracted to the dams will be an important addition to the diet and health of the crocodiles. Earthen pools are ideal in climates where low winter temperatures are likely to cause respiratory illness in the young animals. During cold weather the crocodiles burrow into the mudbanks and survive nights of heavy frost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the animal's burrowing capabilities, it is important to provide a strip of land 4 m wide between the pool's edge and the boundary fence. Otherwise, crocodiles may tunnel beyond the fence line. Fences must be buried at least 1 m deep to intercept the burrows and to prevent predators from burrowing in. Burrowing, however, can be hazardous, because the burrows can collapse and suffocate the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In areas where the soil is porous or sandy, the floor of an earth dam can be sealed with concrete or plastic irrigation sheets. A layer of earth can be used to conceal this artificial floor. The disadvantages of earth pools are that, because of seepage, they require more water than concrete ones and that they require more maintenance because they cannot be efficiently cleaned. Even if the pools are provided with constantly circulating water, they eventually become fouled, particularly during hot weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Removing crocodiles from an earth pond can prove difficult, since most will take refuge in their burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capturing Crocodiles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles are located at night, usually from a boat, by shining a light along the edges of rivers and lagoons. Because of a reflective tapetum, the eyes of crocodiles glow reddish or orange and are visible for a hundred meters or more. If the population has not become exposed to hunting and become wary of people, the animals will not submerge when the light strikes them. Dazzled by the beam, they tolerate a stealthy approach, and small animals can simply be grabbed by hand or scooped up in a net. They can then be transported in sacks to the rearing pens. Larger animals may be noosed or baited into cylindrical screen traps at places they frequent along the water's edge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Managing a Crocodile Farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a problem to sort the young crocodiles. From one clutch of eggs, some individuals will be aggressive and others may be shy or extremely timid; growth may vary from rapid to very slow, with a few individuals classed as runts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Larger animals can be so dominant that smaller individuals will not even attempt to feed. If sorting is not done, the smaller, less-aggressive individuals do not get a fair share of the food; they grow slowly and get bitten and harassed by the larger animals. At feeding time, some will flee to the opposite side of the pen and stop feeding altogether. Keeping the young animals sorted into classes of the same size avoids many of these problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition and Feeding</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the crocodilian's reputation as a man-eater, small wild crocodiles live mainly on invertebrates and larger ones live mainly on fish. Papua New Guinea's farmers feed a varied diet of locally caught fish, crab, shrimp, frogs, snails, grasshoppers, beetles, and slaughterhouse waste. Whole animals minced up should be used, if necessary, because crocodiles require a diet of bone, intestine, scales, and other tissues to provide calcium and minerals. Bones in chopped fish must be minced thoroughly for hatchlings or very young crocodiles, or they should be fed very small fish supplemented by tadpoles or insects. One village in Papua New Guinea has shown remarkable success in rearing hatchlings on a diet of chopped fish and live freshwater shrimp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fish is an excellent food for the bulk feeding of a large captive population. Whole fish chopped into pieces, including the livers and hearts, forms a balanced diet that may be supplemented by meat, if available, to make up bulk. Small whole fish are particularly suitable; the crocodiles derive calcium from the bones and scales, plus roughage to facilitate digestion, while the flesh, liver, and heart are rich in nutrients and protein The main difficulty usually lies in harvesting enough fish to meet the crocodiles' demands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any method of supplementing the diet with live creatures is recommended. For instance, a light can be left burning in each pen about 15 cm above the water for attracting insects. Various types of insect traps may also be used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles also can be fed on a variety of wastes such as offal or noncommercial fish. Ideally, a large-scale farm should be located near a poultry slaughterhouse. (Cattle offal is also satisfactory, but it is not nutritionally adequate as a sole ration for crocodiles.) Even crocodile offal itself can be fed back to crocodiles. However, the use of offal will necessitate dietary supplements to assure sufficient phosphorus and calcium. These minerals are generally provided by feeding bones to the crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles usually consume their food in the water, but they can also be fed on land. They will eat daily, but are able to remain active for weeks without food. If they are fed in the water of a farm pen, the water will become polluted unless there is considerable flow to carry away the debris. In extreme cases, the pools become septic. To ensure the health of the growing animals, constantly flowing water is far superior to standing water. (The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm in Thailand feeds some of its animals in water, but the small feeding pools are separate from the large regular breeding pools and at a lower level to prevent their overflowing into the breeding pools.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to feed pieces of food small enough to be swallowed without difficulty. Large fish should be cut into elongated rather than square pieces, since the bones can cause damage during swallowing. Similarly, whole live fish should not be so large that the dorsal fin may cause damage to the reptile's throat and gullet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to know the amount of food that each group of animals will consume at each meal. By feeding at the same time each day, it is easy to calculate how much is required. Moreover, the crocodiles become accustomed to a routine and the food is consumed while it is still fresh. In the hot summer months the animals will devour a full meal every 24 hours, but the feeding rate slackens with the onset of colder weather. It is then wise to start reducing frequency and quantities until food is required only every second or third day, depending on the climate. Generally, young crocodiles will refuse food when the air or water temperature falls below 60°F (15.6°C). Even in midsummer sudden cold spells may occur; at such times, it is usually futile to feed the animals or try to coax them to eat until the weather warms up again. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During hot weather conditions it is preferable to feed late in the afternoon or evenings, mainly to avoid placing the food on a hot cement surface. The food should be spread out around the edge of the pool under the shaded area so that the animals do not have to climb over one another to reach it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In cemented pens the area where the food is laid out should be cleaned and scrubbed two hours after feeding time and any uneaten food removed from the water with a hand net. In earthen pools, the food should be placed at a different spot along the bank at each feeding. A useful aid to hygiene is keeping a few predacious fish, such as barbel (Clarias spp.), in each pool to clean up scraps of uneaten food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population Density</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty-five crocodiles are considered the maximum manageable number per unit; staying within this limit reduces competition for food, bullying and fighting, and the number of injuries. A low stocking rate also results in a more even average growth rate. Most important is the fact that the overall health of the crocodiles is better than in a more crowded pen; disease problems are fewer and the symptoms easier to detect in a small group. If the units are spaced 8 m apart, there is also less danger of infectious disease spreading to other pens. The cleaning of pens is facilitated, and the disturbance caused by capturing crocodiles to be moved to other units is minimized. Housing 500 crocodiles in groups of 25 will require 20 separate pens, and an additional two pens should be provided to allow for intensive care of sick, injured, and weaker animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the first year, when animals are graded frequently, they will often be moved from one pen to another. Recording the number of animals housed in each pen will make it possible to keep track of numbers and movements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction is impossible when crocodiles are kept in large groups composed of different species and sizes and in more or less unnatural enclosures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Healthy, sexually mature pairs of crocodiles are usually not enough to start a breeding program. Genetic diversity to maintain a long-term breeding group must be considered, and certain environmental factors are vital for success. The distinct size and age classes of a free-living population must also be taken into consideration. Optimal sex ratios for breeding in enclosed compounds must be determined and adhered to. If a breeding unit is not based on regard for the animals' basic needs for space, nesting sites, and retreats, the larger specimens will disturb, injure, and often kill smaller specimens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diseases and Parasites</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Disease symptoms may be easily overlooked if the observer is not familiar with the behavior of crocodiles under a variety of conditions. It is essential to know how they normally walk, swim, sleep, feed, and bask in relation to the time of day, the air and water temperatures, and the amount of sunlight or rain, by day, by night, and at different seasons of the year. Caretakers should notice the appearance of feces from healthy animals to be able to detect evidence of diarrhea, and to identify misaligned teeth and weakened limbs to detect nutritional deficiencies. Eggs are critically dependent on specific temperature and moisture requirements if the embryos are to develop normally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often difficult to determine the cause of illness or death, and even if the ailment has been correctly diagnosed, it is not easy to capture and administer drugs to large numbers of sick animals. Some animals may be injured during the handling process. Emphasis on preventing disease, rather than curing it, is the best way of ensuring a healthy crop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost inevitably, the water in the pools will harbor concentrations of bacteria such as salmonella. If strict hygiene is observed, however, the bacterial level will not be harmful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is recommended that whenever possible animals found newly dead should be dissected and vital organs such as the brain, heart, lung, liver, spleen, kidney, and stomach removed for veterinary research. Blood slides should also be taken and feces samples collected. The various specimens must be carefully labeled, frozen as quickly as possible, and packed on ice in a vacuum flask for immediate dispatch to the nearest veterinary research institute or pathologist. Alternatively, dying animals may be sent live for research purposes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is helpful for the handler to become thoroughly acquainted with the animal's internal anatomy, in order to distinguish between healthy and diseased organs. This knowledge, coupled with the symptoms noted before the animal dies, and the veterinary report, will be useful in future diagnosis and treatment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One problem for the crocodile farmer is a roundworm (nematode) parasite that burrows into the belly skin. When the burrow collapses it produces an undulating track across the belly and throat scales that ruins the hide. These parasites have been found in crocodiles from Latin America, Africa, Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Asia. They seem more prevalent in some areas and some farms than in others. The organism has been identified, but no treatment or control has been discovered. It is, however, believed that damp, muddy conditions foster the nematode, and that to reduce it pens should have areas of dry land where the animals can bask.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Killing, Skinning, and Tanning</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some farmers kill the crocodiles themselves, but many rear the animals and then sell them to a larger concern that is better equipped to deal with the skins. Killing is done most quickly and humanely by catching the crocodile with a noose and severing the spinal cord just behind the skull.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many hides are ruined or severely damaged during skinning. Even a single hole resulting from a slip of the skinning knife may reduce a hide's value by 25 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After skinning, the hides are normally coated with about 0.5 cm of coarse salt and rolled up. Within 48 hours they are unrolled and resalted. If the hide is not sufficiently salted, it may become infected with bacteria or fungi that cause the epidermis of the scales to decay or slip. Although this layer is removed during tannage, scale slip is a symptom of rot and usually causes damage to the finished hide product. If the decay is intense, the salted hides may become reddish or brown in color. This is called "red heat."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although salt remains the universally used preservative for raw hides, the reptile leather industry has developed chemical fixatives that are used in addition to salt for preserving hides for tanning. Most of these pretannage fixatives are liquid and require soaking the hide in a vat, which may not be feasible in remote areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A pretanned hide is called a crust. It is green-gray (chrome tanned) or tan (vegetable tanned) and is stiff. The hide is dyed and glazed to its final finish. To increase the workability and to remove as many of the osteoderms as possible (if they are present), the underside of the hide is shaved to an even thickness. The shaving is done by craftsmen. If they shaved too much, the hide will be thin and weak, especially over the suture between the scales.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix C: Selected Readings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information on the management and status of crocodiles can be found in the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IUCN/Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter. Available from the editors, Peter Brazaitis and Myrna Watanabe, c/o New York Zoological Park, Bronx Zoo, The Bronx, New York 10460, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Field Guide of Captive Rearing and Management of Crocodiles in India is available from Mr. R. K. Rao, Director, Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute (Government of India), Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blake, D. K. 1974. The rearing of crocodiles for commercial and conservation purposes in Rhodesia. The Rhodesia Science News 8(10):315-324.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blake, D. K., and J. P. Loveridge. 1975. The role of commercial crocodile farming in crocodile conservation. Biological Conservation 8(4): 261-272.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bolton, M. 1981. Crocodile Husbandry in Papua New Guinea. Field Document 4. FO: DP/ PNG/74/029. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 103 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bolton, M., and M. Laufa. 1982. The crocodile project in Papua New Guinea. Biological Conservation 22:169-179.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazaitis, P. (In press) Problems in the Identification of Commercial Crocodilian Hides and the Effect on Law Enforcement. Proceedings of the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group meeting in Zimbabwe September-October, 1982. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazaitis, P. 1973. The identification of living crocodiles. Zoologica 58(3-4):59-101.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cott, H. B. 1954. Ecology and economic status of the crocodile in Uganda. Record of the Symposium on African Hydrobiology and Inland Fisheries, Committee on Technical Cooperation for Africa South of the Sahara 6:119-122.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cott, H. B. 1961. Scientific results of an inquiry into the ecology and economic status of the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) in Uganda and Northern Rhodesia. Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 29(4):211-337.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Downes, M. C. 1978. An explanation of the National Policy for the Crocodile Programme. Wildlife Division, Department of Lands, Surveys and Environment, Konedobu, Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fuchs, K., nd. Die Krokodilhaut Eduard Roether Verlag Darmstadt, Frankfurt, West Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham, A., 1981. Mapping the pattern of crocodile nesting activity in Papua New Guinea. Field Document No. 3, FO: DP/PNG/74/029. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 50 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joanen, T., and L. McNease. 1975. Notes on the Reproductive Biology and Captive Propagation of the American Alligator. Proceedings of the 29th Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners 29:407-415. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joanen, T., and L. McNease. 1979. Culture of the American alligator. International Zoo Yearbook 19:61-66.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">King, F. W., and P. Brazaitis. 1971. Species identification of commercial crocodile skins. Zoologica 56(2): 15-72.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loveridge, J. P. ed. 1982. The Zimbabwe Science News 16(9):196-219. Causeway, Zimbabwe. (Contains five articles on crocodilian research and conservation; from Zimbabwe, Australia the United States, and lndia.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Millichamp, N. J. ;980. Medical aspects of disease in reptile collections. In The Care and Breeding of Captive Reptiles, The British Herpetological Society, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parker, F. 1981. New Crocodile Laws for Papua New Guinea. Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu, Papua New Guinea. 50 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1969. Some observations on the rearing of crocodiles. Lammergeyer 10:45-59.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1971. Crocodile rearing and restocking. Pp. 104-130 in Crocodiles, IUCN Publications New Series Supplementary Paper 32. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1110 Gland, Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1973. Conservation and Management of Crocodiles in Africa. Journal of the South African Wildlife Management Association 3(2):101-103.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1977. A report on Crocodile Farming. Papua New Guinea. Wildlife leaflet No. 77/27. pp. 1-14.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1981. Disappearing African Crocodiles. Oryx 16(1):38-40.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. (In press). The status of crocodiles in Africa. Paper Presented at 5th Meeting IUCN Survival Service Commission's Crocodile Specialist Group. Gainesville Florida, USA. September 1980.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C., and C. Gans. 1976. The Nile crocodile. Scientific American 234(4): 114-124.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wallis, B. E. 1980. Market prospects for reptile leathers. Report number ITC/DIP/12, International Trade Commission, Geneva, Switzerland. 50 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wermuth, Von H., and K. Fuchs. 1978. Bestimmen von Krokodilen und ihrer Haute. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whitaker, R. 1982. Export prospects from commercial crocodile farms in Bangladesh. ITC/UNCTAD, Geneva, Switzerland. 47 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whitaker, R., and M. Kemp. 1981. The crocodile industry in Papua New Guinea: Commercial Aspects. Field Document No. 2. FO:DP/PNC/74/029. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 35 pp. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix D: Research Contacts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following individuals are involved in crocodilian research. Most are biologists concerned with the conservation or natural history of the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Applied Ecology Crocodile Farm, Edward River, Queensland 4870</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shelley Burgin, Total Environment Center, 18 Argyle Street, Sydney, New South Wales 2000</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Melvin Bolton, Woodbury Farm, Woodbury Road, M.S. 142, Via Yeppoon, Queensland 4703</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Max C. Downes, The Game Conservation Center, 24 Queens Parade, North Fitzroy, Victoria 3068</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alistair Graham, P.O. Box41266, Darwin, Northern Territory 5792</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gordon Grigg, Zoology A08, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Lever, Koorana Crocodile Farm, M.S.F. 76, Rockhampton, Queensland 4702</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harry Messel, Head, School of Physics, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fred Parker, 717 Ross River Road, Kirwan, Queensland 4814</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grahame Webb, School of Zoology, University of New South Wales, Kensington 2033</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohd. Reza Khan, Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Dacca, Dacca 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">William Magnusson, Depto de Ecologia, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia, Caixa Postal 478, 69000, Manaus, Amazonia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ko Ko Gyi, Professor of Zoology, Rangoon Arts and Sciences University, Rangoon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nyan Taw, Research Officer, People's Pearl and Fishery Corporation, Myakhwanyo Street, Thaketa, Rangoon </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Huang Chu-Chien, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Swatow Prefecture Crocodile Farm, Shantou, Guang Dong Province</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federico Medem, Instituto Roberto Franco, Apartado Aereo 2261, Villavicencio (Meta)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gerado Budowski, Head, Natural Renewable Resources Programme, CATIE, Turrialba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Luis Varona, Norte 29, Nuevo Vedado, La Habana 6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jose Alberto Ottenwalder, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Plaza de la Cultura, Santo Domingo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Karlheinz Fuchs, Schillerstrasse 2, 6257 Hunfelder 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jaime Tres 1., Centro de Estudias Conservacionistas, Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, Avenida de la Reforma 0-63, Zona IO, Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. C. Choudhury and Lala A. K. Singh, Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute, 19-4-319, Lake Dale, Rajendranagar Road, Hyderabad 500 264, Andhra Pradesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian Board for Wildlife, c/o Department of Environment, Bikaner House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi 110 011</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Sale, UNDP/FAO Crocodile Breeding and Management Project, 19-4-319, Lake Dale, Rajendranagar Road Hyderabad 500 264, Andhra Pradesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Shanmugunathan, Chief Wildlife Warden, Vivekananda Road, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudhakar Kar, Saltwater Crocodile Research and Conservation Unit, Danginal 754 220 Via Rejkanika, District Cuttack, Orissa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Romulus Whitaker, Madras Snake Park Trust, Guindy Deer Park, Madras, Tamil Nadu, 600 002</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. S. Child, Wildlife and Parks Management Of ficer FAO, Rome</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wataru Kimura, Proprietor, Atagawa Tropical and Alligator Garden, Atagawa Higashi Zlu Town, Shizuoka Prefecture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Haller , Bamburi Portland Cement Co. ,Ltd., P.O. Box 90202 ,Mombasa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paul R. Wycherley, President, Malayan Nature Society, P.O. Box 150, Kuala Lumpur</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miguel Alvarez del Toro, Director, Instituto de Historia Natural, Departamento de Zoologia, Apartado Postal No. 6, Tuxtle Gutierrez, Chiapas, 29000</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marco Antonio Lascano B., INIREB, Apdo. No 281, Merida</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tirtha Maskey, National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Office, Thapathali, P.O. Box 107, Kathmandu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Zealand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antoon de Vos, Box 34, Whitford, Auckland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Milton G. Camacho B., Instituto Nicaraguense de Recursos Naturales y del Ambiente (IRENA), Depto. de Fauna Silvestre, Kim 12 1/2 Carreterra Norte, Managua.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ashiq Ahmad, Wildlife Management Specialist, Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abdul Latif Rao, Conservator of Wildlife, National Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, U.G. St. 51, Sector F 6/4, Islamabad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miro Laufa, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, P.O. Box 2585, Konedobu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Karol Kisokau, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Central Government Offices, Waigani</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navu Kwapena, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham Goudie, Crocodile Farm, Lae</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Martin Hollands, Monitoring Ecologist, National Crocodile Project, P.O. Box 2585 Konedobu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pedro Vasques Ruesta, Departamento de Manejo Forestal, Universidad Nacional Agraria, Apdo. 456, La Molina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angel C. Alcala, Division Research, Extension and Development, Silliman University, Dumaguete City, 6501, Negros</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">School of Agriculture, Silliman University, Dumaguete City, 6501, Negros.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. B. Anthony, The Natal Parks, Game and Fish Preservation Board, Box 662, Pietermaritzburg, Natal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antony Pooley, P.O. Box 42, St. Lucia Estuary, 3936 Zululand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rene E. Honegger, Curator, Zurich Zoo, Zurichbergstrasse 221, 8044 Zurich</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U. Srisomboon, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Livestock Development, Bangkok Utai Youngprapakorn and Charoon Youngprapakorn, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm and Zoo Co., Ltd., Talban Road, Samutprakan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angus d'A. Bellairs, Department of Anatomy, St. Mary's Hospital Medical School University of London, Paddington, London W2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Robert Bustard, Isle of Man</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Behler, New York Zoological Society, 185th Street &amp; Southern Blvd., The Bronx, New York 10460</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peter Brazaitis, New York Zoological Society, 185th Street &amp; Southern Blvd., The Bronx New York 10460</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gary Callis, Rt. I, Box 360, Clayton, New Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert H. Chabreck, Louisiana State University, School of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Michael Davenport, Department of Herpetology, National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20008</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Claire Hagen, Representative, Reptile Products Association, 120 Cabrini Blvd., New York, New York 10033</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fred Hauptfuhrer, Director of Planning and Development, World Wildlife Fund, Inc., 910 17th Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20006</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Howard Hunt, Atlanta Zoological Park, 518 Atlanta Ave. S.E., Atlanta, Georgia 30315</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ted Joanen, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, Route 1, Box 20-B, Grand Chenier, Louisiana 70643</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Wayne King, Director, Florida State Museum, Gainesville, Florida 32611</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffrey W. Lang, Biology Department, University of North Dakota, University Station, Grand Forks, North Dakota 58202</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles J. Lankester, UNDP, I United Nations Plaza, New York, New York 10017</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">James H. Powell, 1110 Kokomo Street, Plainview, Texas 79072</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles A. Ross, Division of Reptiles and Amphibians, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Myrna Watanabe, 141 Columbia Heights, Brooklyn, New York 11201</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uruguay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federico Achaval, Departamento de Zoologia (Vertebrados), Universidad de la Republic Cerrito73, Montevideo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tomas Blohm, Apartado 69, Caracas 1010-A</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andres Seijas Y., Servicio Nacional de Fauna Silvestre, MARNR, Apartado 184, Maracay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. K. Blake, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, P.O. Box 8365, Causeway, Harare</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Loveridge, Zoology Department, University of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kevin van Jaarsveldt, Crocodile Farmers Association of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box 2569, Harare </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix E: Biographical Sketches of Panel Members</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director of the Office of Biological Secretary General Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., is currently the Secretary General of the International Union of Biological Sciences. He received his B.A. in 1961 from Miami University in Ohio, M.Sc. from The George Washington University in 1963, and his Ph.D. in 1966 from the University of London. His research interests are in comparative anatomy and phylogeny of flowering plants, commercial timbers, histology of monocotyledons, economic botany, and tropical biology. An internationally recognized expert on tropical plants, he has published extensively in these areas and on topics relating to science, technology, and development, especially in developing countries. Dr. Ayensu was co-chairman of the Panel on Underexploited Tropical Plants of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation and chairs and serves as a member of many international bodies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, JR., is Graduate Research Professor in the Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville. As Technical Director of the Caribbean Conservation Corporation, he has directed a seasonal research program at the breeding ground of the green turtle at Tortuguero, Costa Rica, since 1952, with continuous grants from the National Science Foundation from 1955 to 1980, and has carried out investigations of marine turtle ecology and navigation in various parts of the world. The author of numerous papers, articles, and books, he received the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal of the National Academy of Sciences for Handbook of Turtles and the John Burroughs Medal for The Windward Road. He is Research Associate of the American Museum of Natural History; Affiliate Curator of Natural Sciences, Florida State Museum; Chairman of the Marine Turtle Specialist Group of the Survival Service Commission, International Union for the Conservation of Nature; Honorary Consultant of the World Wildlife Fund; Fellow of the Linnean Society of London; Fellow of the American Fisheries Society; and a member of Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi.In 1973 he was awarded a gold medal from the World Wildlife Fund for the application of scientific findings to the conservation of marine turtles. In 1975 he received the Edward W. Browning Award for achievement in biological conservation. In 1978 Dr. Carr was awarded the Gold Medal of the New York Zoological Society for contributions to natural science and conservation; in 1978 he became Officer of the Order of the Golden Ark (The Netherlands).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING is the Director of the Florida State Museum, Gainesville. He received a B.S. in 1957 and an M.S. in 1961 from the University of Florida and a Ph.D. from 1966 from the University of Miami. His research interests are in wildlife conservation and habitat preservation, impact of international trade on wildlife populations, and ecology and behavior of reptile populations. He worked at the New York Zoological Society from 1967 to 1975. As an international wildlife consultant, Dr. King has received honors from the Dominican Republic, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, and from H.R.H. Prince Bernhard of The Netherlands. He has served on committees advising the State Department and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources on policies regarding the trade of crocodile skins, turtle products, and other wildlife materials. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry and Professor of Forest Genetics, Yale University, was Dean of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale from 1965 to 1975. He received a B.A. from Luxembourg College and a B.Sc.F. from the University of New Brunswick in 1950, an M.F. in ecology in 1951, and a Ph.D. in forest genetics from Yale in 1954. He is especially knowledgeable about francophone Africa and was chairman of the Sahel program of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development and a member of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation. From 1960 to 1965 he was research collaborator at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. In 1966 he was the recipient of the Award for Outstanding Achievement in Biological Research from the Society of American Foresters and in 1975 was Distinguished Professor (Fulbright-Hays Program) in Yugoslavia. Before joining the Yale faculty, he served as project leader in forest genetics for the U.S. Forest Service in Florida. He has served as a consultant to FAO, various foreign governments, and private forestry companies, and he has traveled extensively in the tropical countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS is head of the Furzebrook Research Station of the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (National Environment Research Council, U.K.). He received a B.A. in natural sciences (zoology) at the University of Cambridge of 1958, M.A. in 1962, and received his Ph.D. from London University in research on the integrated control of orchard pests. Dr. Morris worked at Monks Wood Experimental Station on the effects of grassland management on populations of invertebrates and developed a strong interest in community and applied ecology, particularly the conservation of insect populations. Recently he has become involved with problems of butterfly conservation and resource utilization. He is Secretary of the Joint Committee for the Conservation of British Insects, a Vice-Chairman of the Lepidoptera Specialist Group of lUCN'S Survival Commission, and Chairman of the Habitat and Species Protection Committee of SEL (Societal Europaea Lepidoptero-Logica). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH L. POPENOE is Professor of Soils, Agronomy, Botany, and Geography and Director of the Center for Tropical Agriculture and International Programs (Agriculture) at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. from the University of California at Davis in 1951 and his Ph.D. in soils from the University of Florida in 1960. His principal research interest has been in the area of tropical agriculture and land use. His early work on shifting cultivation is one of the major contributions to this system. He has traveled and worked in most of the countries in the tropical areas of Latin America, Asia, and Africa. He is past Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Escuela Agricola Panamericana in Honduras, Visiting Lecturer on Tropical Public Health at the Harvard School of Public Health, and a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Society of Agronomy, the America Geographical Society, and the International Soils Science Society. He is Chairman of the Advisory Committee for Technology Innovation and a member of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT MICHAEL PYLE, a writer and consulting lepidopterist based in Gray's River, Washington, has served since 1979 as Co-Compiler of the lUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book. In this capacity he is consultant to the Conservation Monitoring Center in Cambridge, England. After receiving his B.S. and M.S. at the University of Washington, he took his Ph.D. through the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University in 1976. He worked for the Government of Papua New Guinea on the conservation and utilization of insect resources and then with the Nature Conservancy as Northwest Land Steward. A former Fulbright Scholar to the United Kingdom, Dr. Pyle subsequently founded the Xerces Society for conservation of beneficial insects and their habitats. He has been chairman of IUCN'S Lepidoptera Specialist Group (Species Survival Commission) since 1976. His publications include the Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Butterflies. A comprehensive book on insect conservation in his next project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS received his Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1977 in natural resources management. He has worked on various wildlife research projects in Asia since 1964 and is representative for the Asia Foundation in Taiwan. He has published articles on butterfly conservation and wildlife industries in Taiwan, where he has been studying the butterfly and wildlife farming projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, staff officer for this study, is Professional Associate of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. A New Zealander with a Ph.D. in organic chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley, he now works on innovations in science that are important for developing countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas (member through 1981) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Native Plants, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (member through 1982) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGLIARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAMUEL P. ASPER, Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BELL, Department of Population Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEONARD BERRY, Professor, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST I. BRISKEY, Dean, School of Agriculture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON S. BROWN, Director, Resources Systems Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. BURRIS, Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAUDIA JEAN CARR, Associate Professor, Conservation and Resource Studies, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATE FIELDS, Director, Developing Markets, Control Data Corporation, Minneapolis, Minnesota </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND J. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN HOWARD GIBBONS, Director, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM HUGHES, Director, Engineering Energy Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM A. W. KREBS, Vice President, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Acorn Park, Cambridge, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE I. LYTHCOTT, University of Wisconsin, School of Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANICE E. PERLMAN, Executive Director, Committee for a New New York, New York City Partnership, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK C. ROBBINS, President, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER A. ROSENBLITH, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HERBERT SMUCKLER, Dean of International Studies and Programs, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GILBERT F. WHITE, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Assistant Dean for International Programs, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN G. HURLEY, Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Associate Director/Studies </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL P. GREENE, Associate Director/Research Grants </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b20cre/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b20cre/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b20cre/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Managing Tropical Animal Resources - Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (b20cre)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b21wae/b21wae.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b21wae/b21wae.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b21wae/b21wae.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1888 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; The Water Buffalo: New Prospects For An Underutilized Animal (1984)</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Water Buffalo: New Prospects For An Underutilized Animal (1984)</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Original editon 1981</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second printing 1984</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission on International Relations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Panel on Water Buffalo</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of  Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEVE P. BENNETT, Bennett's Animal Clinic, Port of Spain, Trinidad, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARAN CHANTALAKHANA, Dean, Department of Animal Science, Kasetsart  University, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD D. CHARLES, Senior Lecturer, Meat Production, Department of Animal  Husbandry, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. ROSS COCKRILL, Livestock Expert, Food and Agriculture Organization (retired),  Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WYLAND CRIPE, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONY J. CUNHA, Dean, School of Agriculture, California Polytechnic University,  Pomona, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. JOHN DE BOER, Winrock International Livestock Research and Training Center,  Morrilton, Arkansas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MAARTEN DROST, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MOHAMED ALI EL-ASHRY, Department of Animal Production, Faculty of  Agriculture, Shoubra el Khiema, Cairo, Egypt </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ABELARDO FERRERD ., Former Director, Breeding Administration Centers,  Animal Sciences Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Caracas, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JEAN K. GARDNER, Former Chief, Logistics Division USAID/Philippines, Jackson,  Mississippi, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES F. HENTGES, Department of Animal Science,University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JACK HOWARTH, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis,  California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NELS M. KONNERUP, Livestock Expert, Agency for International Development  (retired), Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. P LEONARDS, Water buffalo breeder, Lake Charles, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN K. LOOSLI, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville,  Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOSEPH MADAMBA, Director, Asian Institute of Aquaculture, Iloilo, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CRISTO NASCIMENTO,Director, Brazilian Agriculture Research Corporation  (EMBRAPA), Agriculture Research Center for Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem,  Para, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural  Research, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM R. PRITCHARD, Dean, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. THOMAS REID, (deceased), Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN H. SCHOTTLER, Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Industries, Lae, Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DALBIR SINGH DEV, Dean, Animal Science Department, College of Agriculture, Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT W. TOUCHBERRY, Dean, Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD G. TULLOCH, Division of Wildlife Research, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Winnellie, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., Staff Study Director </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., Staff Associate </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is an animal resource whose potential seems to have been barely recognized or examined outside of Asia. Throughout the world there are proponents and enthusiasts for the various breeds of cattle; the water buffalo, however, is not a cow and it has been neglected. Nevertheless, this symbol of Asian life and endurance has performed notably well in recent trials in such diverse places as the United States, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Trinidad, Costa Rica, Venezuela, and Brazil. In Italy and Egypt as well as Bulgaria and other Balkan states the water buffalo has been an important part of animal husbandry for centuries. In each of these places certain herds of water buffalo appear to have equaled or surpassed the local cattle in growth, environmental tolerance, health, and the production of meat and calves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although these are empirical observations lacking painstaking, detailed experimentation, they do seem to indicate that the water buffalo could become an important resource in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate zones in developing and developed countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If this is the case, then it is clear that many countries should begin water buffalo research. Serious attention by scientists could help dispel the misperceptions and uncertainties surrounding the animal and encourage its true qualities to emerge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report describes the water buffalo's attributes as perceived by several animal scientists. It is designed to present the apparent strengths of buffaloes compared with those of cattle, to introduce researchers and administrators to the animal's potential, and to identify priorities for buffalo research and testing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel that produced this report met at Gainesville, Florida, in July 1979. It was composed of leading water buffalo experts (particularly those from outside Asia who have directed the beginnings of water buffalo industries in their countries) and leading American animal scientists, many of whom are also familiar with the animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report complements The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. Ross Cockrill and published in 1974 by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Cockrill's 933-page book is a "bible" of water buffalo knowledge and provides details of breeds, world distribution, physiology, and an extensive bibliography.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The present report is an introduction to the water buffalo and its potential. It is written particularly for decision makers, as well as scholars or students, in the hope that it will stimulate their interest in the animal and thereby increase the appreciation of, and funding for, buffalo research. The report includes much empirical observation, largely from the panel members. Some of these observations may, in the long run, prove not to be universally applicable. Much benchmark information needs to be obtained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since its creation in 1971, the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) has investigated innovative ways to use current technology and resources to help developing countries. Often this has meant taking a fresh look at some neglected and unappreciated plant or animal species. The committee assembles ad hoc panels of experts (usually incorporating both skeptics and proponents) to scrutinize the topics selected. The panel reports serve to draw attention to neglected, but promising, technologies and resources. (For a list of ACTI reports, see page 115.) ACTI reports are provided free to developing countries under funding by the Agency for International Development (AID).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program costs for this study were provided by AID'S Office of Agriculture, Development Support Bureau, and staff support was provided by the Office of Science and Technology, Development Support Bureau.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The final draft of this report was edited and prepared for publication by F. R. Ruskin. Bibliographic editing was by Wendy D. White. Cover art was by Deborah Hanson.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domesticated water buffalo Bubalus bubalis numbers at least 130 million-one-ninth the number of cattle in the world. It is estimated that between 1961 and 1981 the world's buffalo population increased by 11 percent, keeping pace with the percentage increase in the cattle population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there are some pedigreed water buffaloes, most are nondescript animals that have not been selected or bred for productivity. There are two general types-the Swamp buffalo and the River buffalo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swamp buffaloes are slate gray, droopy necked, and ox-like, with massive backswept horns that make them favorite subjects for postcards and wooden statuettes in the Far East. They are found from the Philippines to as far west as India. They wallow in any water or mud puddle they can find or make. Primarily employed as a work animal, the Swamp buffalo is also used for meat but almost never for milk production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">River buffaloes are found farther west, from India to Egypt and Europe. Usually black or dark gray, with tightly coiled or drooping straight horns, they prefer to wallow in clean water. River buffaloes produce much more milk than Swamp buffaloes. They are the dairy type of water buffalo. In India, River buffaloes play an important role in the rural economy as suppliers of milk and draft power. River buffaloes make up about 35 percent of India's milk animals (other than goats) but produce almost 70 percent of its milk. Buffalo butterfat is the major source of cooking oil (ghee) in some Asian countries, including India and Pakistan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although water buffaloes are bovine creatures that somewhat resemble cattle, they are genetically further removed from cattle than are the North American bison (improperly called buffalo) whose massive forequarters, shaggy mane, and small hindquarters are unlike those of cattle. While bison can be bred with cattle to produce hybrids,( This is not, however, very successful, the male progeny (at least of the F 1 generation) are sterile).there is no well-documented case of a mating between water buffalo and cattle that has produced progeny.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parts of Asia and even Europe have depended on water buffaloes for centuries. Their crescent horns, coarse skin, wide muzzles, and low-carried heads are represented on seals struck 5,000 years ago in the Indus Valley, suggesting that the animal had already been domesticated in the area that is now India and Pakistan. Although buffaloes were in use in China 4,000 years ago, they are not mentioned in the literature or seen in the art of the ancient Egyptians, Romans, or Greeks, to whom they were apparently unknown. It was not until about 600 A.D. that Arabs brought the animal from Mesopotamia and began moving it westward into the Near East (modern Syria, Israel, and Turkey). Water buffaloes were later introduced to Europe by pilgrims and crusaders returning from the Holy Land in the Middle Ages. In Italy buffaloes adapted to the area of the Pontine Marshes southeast of Rome and the area south of Naples. They also became established in Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, and Bulgaria and have remained there ever since.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Villagers in medieval Egypt adopted the water buffalo, which has since become the most important domestic animal in modern Egypt. Indeed, during the last 50 years, their buffalo population has doubled to over 2 million head. The animals now supply Egypt with more meat-much of it in the form of tender "veal"-than any other domestic animal. They also provide milk, cooking oil, and cheese.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other areas have capitalized on the water buffalo's promise only in very recent times. For instance, small lots of the animals brought to Brazil (from Italy, India, and elsewhere) during the last 84 years have reproduced so well that they now total about 400,000 head and are still increasing, especially in the lower Amazon region. Buffalo meat and milk are now sold widely in Amazon towns and villages; the meat sells for the same price as beef. Nearby countries have also become familiar with the water buffalo. Trinidad imported several breeds from India between 1905 and 1908, while Venezuela, Colombia, and Guyana have been importing them in recent decades. During the 1970s Costa Rica, Ecuador, Cayenne, Panama, Suriname, and Guyana introduced small herds. By 1979 the buffalo in Venezuela numbered more than 7,000 head.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Across the Pacific, the new nation of Papua New Guinea has found the water buffalo well suited to its difficult environment. For 9 years the government has attempted to run cattle on the Sepik and Ramu Plains on Papua New Guinea's north coast, where the temperatures are high and the forage of poor quality. But the cattle remain thin and underweight. In the 1960s animal scientists began evaluating water buffaloes already living in Papua New Guinea and, encouraged by the results, introduced additional buffaloes from Australia. These have performed remarkably well, producing greater numbers of calves and much more meat than the cattle in the region. The buffaloes appear to maintain appetite despite the heat and humidity, whereas cattle do not. The government of Papua New Guinea has since imported more water buffaloes and today has thriving herds totaling almost 3,500 head. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United States has been slow to recognize the water buffalo's potential, but the first herd (50 head) ever imported for commercial farming arrived in February 1978.(Air-freighted from the wilds of Guam, the U.S. island possession on the western Pacific, by panel member Tony Leonards. Prior to that time (in 1974), four head of water buffalo were imported to the Department of Animal science' university of Florida, for study. The only other water buffaloes in North America were a few animals in zoos.) The humble water buffalo, normally considered fit only for the steamy rice fields of Asia, is now proving itself on farm fields in Florida and Louisiana. As a result, interest in the animal is on the rise in U.S. university and farm circles.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From experience accumulated in Asia, Egypt, South America, Papua New Guinea, Australia, the United States, and elsewhere, animal scientists now perceive that many general impressions about the water buffalo are incorrect.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, it is widely believed that the water buffalo is mean and vicious. Encyclopedias reinforce this perception, and in the Western world it is the prevalent impression of the animal. The truth is, however, that unless wounded or severely stressed, the domesticated water buffalo is one of the gentlest of all farm animals. Despite an intimidating appearance, it is more like a household pet-sociable, gentle, and serene. In rural Asia the care of water buffaloes is often fumed over to small boys and girls aged about four to nine. The children spend their days with their family's gentle buffalo, riding it to water, washing it down, waiting while it rolls and wallows, and then riding it to some source of forage, perhaps a grassy field or thicket. It is not uncommon to see a buffalo patiently feeding, with a young friend stretched prone on its broad gray back, asleep.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps the notion about the viciousness of water buffaloes stems from confusing them with the mean-tempered African buffalo Syncerus caffer, actually a distant relative with which they will not interbreed and which is classified in a different genus.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ferocity is the most blatant misconception concerning the water buffalo, although other fallacies are widely reported as well.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One generally held belief is that water buffaloes can be raised only near water. Actually, buffaloes love to wallow, but they grow and reproduce normally without it, although in hot climates they must have shade available.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another belief is that the water buffalo is exclusively a tropical animal. River-type buffaloes, however, have been used to pull snow plows during Bulgarian winters. They are found in Italy (over 100,000 head), Albania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Turkey, the Georgia and Azerbaijan areas of the Soviet Union (almost 500,000 head) and other temperate-zone regions as well. They are also found in cold, mountainous areas of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Nepal.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p04to05.png"></center><br>
+ World Distribution of Water Buffaloes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet another misconception is that the water buffalo is just a poor man's beast of burden. In addition to providing fine lean meat, buffaloes in fact provide rich milk. Mozzarella cheese, one of the most popular in Europe, comes from the buffaloes in Italy. Buffalo milk has a higher content of both butterfat and nonfat solids than cow's milk does. It therefore often brings higher prices than cow's milk. Throughout much of India it is in such demand that cow's milk is sometimes hard to sell.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the misconceptions generally held about buffaloes are based on little data and much prejudice. For instance, it is widely believed that water buffalo meat is tough and less desirable than beef. However, when the animals are raised for meat, buffalo steaks are lean, as tender as beef, and in appearance it is difficult to distinguish the two. In taste-preference tests at the University of Queensland, buffalo steaks were preferred over those from Angus and Hereford cattle. Tests conducted in Trinidad, Venezuela, the United States, and Malaysia produced similar results.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia has shipped water buffalo meat to Hong Kong, the United States, Germany, and Scandinavia. Buffalo meat is now available in stores in Australia's Northern Territory, where demand exceeds supply. It sells at competitive prices and is particularly sought for barbecues and the famous Australian meat pie. In the Philippines, two-thirds of the meat consumed in homes and restaurants is actually water buffalo, a fact that many Filipinos do not realize.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with cattle,waterbuffaloes apparently have an efficient digestive system, one which extracts nourishment from forage so coarse and poor that cattle do not thrive on it. Thin cattle are commonly seen in Asia and northern Australia, for example, but it's rare to see a protruding rib on a buffalo, even though it uses the same source of feed.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, water buffaloes live on coarse vegetation on the marginal land traditionally left to the peasants. They help make human survival possible. An old Chinese woman in Taiwan once told panelist W. Ross Cockrill: "To my family the buffalo is more important than I am. When I die, they'll weep for me; but if our buffalo dies, they may starve."  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A better understanding of the water buffalo could be invaluable to many developing nations. In particular, improved production of water buffalo meat offers hope for helping feed India, the second most populous nation on earth. Although India for religious reasons forbids the slaughter of cows, it has no prohibitions regarding slaughter of water buffaloes or the consumption of buffalo meat.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most developing countries are in the tropics, and the water buffalo is inherently a tropical animal. It is comfortable in hot, humid environments. In the Amazon, for example, buffaloes are now common on the landscape and may even replace cattle completely.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical countries have more serious disease problems than temperate countries do. Although susceptible to most cattle diseases, the water buffalo seems to resist ticks and often appears to be more resistant to some of the most devastating plagues that make cattle raising risky, difficult, and sometimes impossible in the tropics. Several researchers report that when water buffaloes are allowed to wallow, their mud-coated skin seems to deter insect and tick ectoparasites and they consequently require greatly reduced treatment with insecticides. Although the buffalo fly (Siphona exigua) affects the animals, other pests such as the warble fly and the screwworm, for example, seldom affect healthy buffaloes. AIso, despite their inclination for living in swamps, Avers, and ponds, diseases of the feet such as foot rot and foot abscesses are rare.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another benefit to developing countries is the water buffalo's legendary strength. A large part of the total farm power available in South China, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, the Indochina states, India, and Pakistan comes from this "living tractor." Dependable and docile, the animals pull plows, harrows, and carts with loads that weigh several tons. In the Amazon buffalo teams pull boats laden with cargo and tourists through shallows and swamps.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The petroleum crisis has forced many farmers to reconsider animal power even in some of the technically advanced countries. Buffaloes are not only extraordinarily strong, they can also work in deep mud that may bog down a tractor. Even up to their bellies they forge on, dragging both plow and driver through the mud. Although its average walking speed is only about 3 kilometers per hour, the buffalo, unlike its mechanical competition, doesn't need gasoline or spare parts and its working life is often 20 years or more.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As already noted, the major genetic divisions of the water buffalo are the Swamp buffalo of the eastern half of Asia, which has swept-back horns, and the River buffalo of the western half of Asia, which usually has curled horns. There is also the Mediterranean buffalo, which is of the River type but has been isolated for so long that it has developed some unique characteristics. (Records of the buffalo in Italy date back 1,000 years, during which there have been no reported imports.) Mediterranean buffaloes are stocky, high yielding animals that combine both beef and dairy characteristics.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there is only one breed of Swamp buffalo, certain subgroups seem to have specific inherited characteristics. For example, the buffaloes of Thailand are noted for their large size, averaging 450-550 kg, and weights of up to 1,000 kg have been observed. Elsewhere, Swamp buffaloes range from 250 kg for some small animals in China to 300 kg in Burma and 500-600 kg in Laos.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only in India and Pakistan are there well-defined breeds with standard qualities. There are eighteen River buffalo breeds in South Asia, which are further classified into five major groups designated as the Murrah, Gujarat, Uttar  Pradesh, Central Indian, and South Indian breeds. These are the five groups and  main breeds:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=484>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Group</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeds</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murrah</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murrah, Nili/Ravi, Kundi</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gujarat</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surti, Mehsana, Jafarabadi</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uttar Pradesh</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhadawari, Tarai</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Indian</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nagpuri, Pandharpun, Manda, Jerangi, Kalahandi, Sambalpur</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Indian</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toda,  South Kanara</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best-known breeds are Murrah, Nili/Ravl, Jafarabadi, Surti, Mehsana, and  Nagpuri. Most of the buffaloes of the Indian subcontinent belong to a nondescript  group known as the Desi buffalo. There is no controlled breeding among these  animals and most are quite small, yield little milk, and are variable in color.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Swamp buffalo has 48 chromosomes, the River buffalo, 50. The chromosomal  material is, however, similar in the two types and they crossbreed to produce fertile  hybrid progeny. Cattle, however, have 60 chromosomes and although mating  between cattle and buffaloes is common, hybrids from the union are unlikely to  occur.( In 1965 a reputed hybrid was born at Askaniya Nova Zoopark in the Soviet Union  (see Gray, A., 1971. Mammalian Hybrids, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux,  Slough, England, p. 126). Hybrids have also been reported from China (Van  Fu-Czao 1959, Gibridy buivolc i krupnogo  i rogatogo skota(buffalo and  cattlehybrids)Zhivotnovodstro, Mosk., 21:92). Both of these reports seem doubtful  because despite many attempts, no other hybrids have ever been claimed to have  been produced). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Individual buffaloes show large variation in milk yield, conformation, horn shape,  color, meat production, temperament, growth rate, and other characteristics.  Selection for survival under adverse conditions has occurred naturally (those that  could not stand adversity died early) and farmers have probably tended to select  animals of gentle temperament. But systematic genetic improvement has almost  never been attempted. It seems likely that further selection could quickly improve  their productivity.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, the large bulls that would be best for breeding purposes are often  being selected as draft animals and castrated, or sent to slaughter, or (as with  some feral animals in northern Australia and on the Amazon island of Marajo) shot  by hunters. The result is that the buffalo's overall size in countries such as Thailand  and Indonesia has been decreasing as the genes for large size and fast growth are  lost.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo is still largely an animal of the village, and many of its reported  limitations are caused more by its environment than by the animal itself. Moreover,  much of the animal's genetic potential is obscured by environmental influences. For  example, for many breeds and types the genetic variations in milk yield and growth  cannot be accurately determined because they are overwhelmed by the effects of  inadequate nutrition and management.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, some inherent limitations of buffaloes can be identified. For instance,  buffaloes suffer if forced to remain, even for a few hours, in direct sunlight. They  have only one-tenth the density of sweat glands of cattle and their coating of hair is  correspondingly sparse, providing little protection from the sun. Accordingly,  buffaloes must not be driven over long distances in the heat of the day. They must  be allowed time for watering and, if possible, for wallowing. Driving under a hot sun  for long hours will cause heat exhaustion and possibly death; losses can be very  high and can occur suddenly. Young calves are particularly affected by heat.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are also sensitive to extreme cold and seem less able than cattle to  adapt to truly cold climates(A rule of thumb is that buffaloes don't do well where the sun is inadequate to ripen,  say, cotton, grapes, or Ace. Kaleff, B., 1942. Der Hausbuffel und seine  Zuchtungsbiologie im Vergleich zum Rind. Zeitschsift Tierzucht Biologze,  51:131-178). Sudden drops in temperature and chill winds may lead  to pneumonia and death.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is usually found m areas where there is ready access to a wallow  or shower. This is not a necessity, but when temperatures are high the availability of  water is important for maintaining buffalo health and productivity. It seems clear,  then, that the buffalo is not suitable for arid lands.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing buffalo productivity through breed improvement is just now beginning.  Throughout Asia buffalo mating is almost completely haphazard, and so the animal  lacks the quality improvement through breeding that most cattle have had.  Therefore, most buffaloes are of nondescript heritage and genetic potential.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On poor quality feed water buffalo grow at least as well as cattle, but under intensive  conditions they probably won't grow as fast as the best breeds of cattle. In feedlots,  therefore, the buffalo is likely to be less productive than improved cattle. Weight  gains of about 1 kg per day have been recorded, some exceptional cattle may gain  at almost twice that rate.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo has long been considered a poor breeder-slow to mature sexually,  and slow to rebreed after calving. Accumulated experience now shows, however,  that this is mainly a result of poor management and nutrition. Buffaloes are not  sluggish breeders. Nevertheless, their gestation period is about a month longer  than that of cows, buffalo estrus is difficult to detect, and many matings occur~at  night so that~ farmers are likely to encounter more problems breeding buffaloes  than cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are gentle creatures, but if roughly or inexpertly handled they can, through fear or pain, become completely unmanageable. Buffalo behavior sometimes differs from that of cattle. For example, most buffaloes are not trained to be driven. Instead, the herdsman must walk alongside or ahead of them; they then instinctively follow. Also, because of their innate attachment to an individual site or herd it is more difficult to move buffaloes to new locations or herds. In addition, buffaloes respect fences less than cattle do and when they have the desire to move they are harder to contain. (Electric fences, however, will stop them.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their general good health, buffaloes are probably as susceptible as cattle to most infections. However, the buffalo seems to be peculiarly sensitive to a few cattle diseases and resistant to a few others (see chapter 7). Reactions to some diseases seem to vary with region, environment, and breed, and the differences are not well understood.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Destruction of the environment is sometimes attributed to buffalo wallowing. This danger seems to have been overstated, except in cases where stocking rates were unreasonably high.(An ongoing study in Northern Australia of environmental degradation widely attributed to buffalo has now shown that the effects are caused by man and climatic changes and only very slightly by buffaloes. (information supplied by D. G. Tulloch.) ) However, buffaloes rub against trees more often than cattle do, and they sometimes de-bark the trees, causing them to die.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, some of the best genetic stocks of water buffaloes exist in areas where certain infections and viral and other diseases sometimes occur. Thus, many countries are reluctant to permit importation of water buffaloes, despite the fact that modern quarantine procedures under conditions of maximum security can essentially eliminate the risk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, it must be emphasized that because buffalo research has been largely neglected, most results reported in this and other buffalo writings cover small numbers of animals and short periods of time. Many are merely empirical observations that have not been subjected to independent confirmation.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1972.Buffalo at the crossroads. World Farming 14(n:l0-l3.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asian and Pacific Council. 1979. Priorities in buffalo research identified.ASPAC News letter No. 43.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bowman, J. c. 1977. Animals for Man. Edward Arnold Publishers, Ltd., London, United Kingdom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo Bulletin. Newsletter published by the Buffalo Research Committee of Kasetsart University, Bangkok' Thailand. (In English and Thai.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo World. Newsletter published by the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132001, Haryana, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chantalakhana, C. 1975. The buffaloes of Thailand-their potential, utilization and conservation. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chantalakhana, C., and Na Phuket, S. R. 1979. The role of swamp buffalo in small farm development and the need for breeding improvement in Southeast Asia. Extension Bulletin No. 125. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1967. The water buffalo. Scientific American 217:118.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R., ed. 1974. The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill W. R. 1975. The domestic buffalo. Blue Book for the Veterinary Profession No. 25. Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1976. The Buffaloes of China. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R., ed. 1977. The Water Buffalo. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1977. The water buffalo: domestic animal of the future. Bovine Practitioner 12:92-98.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1978. Domestic water buffaloes. In: The Care and Management of Farm Animals, edited by W. N. Scott. Bailliere TindaU, London, United Kingdom.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1980. The ascendant water buffalo-key domestic animal. World Animal Review 33:2-13.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DeBoer, A. J. 1972. Technical and economic constraints on bovine production in three villages in Thailand. Dissertation Abstracts International 33(5):1935.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DeBoer, A. J. 1975. Livestock and Poultry Industry in Selected Asian Countries. Report of Survey on Diversification of Agriculture: Livestock and Poultry Production. Asian Productivity Organization, Tokyo, Japan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">de Guzman, M. R., Jr. 1979. An overview of recent developments in buffalo research and management in Asia. Extension Bulletin No. 124. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Documentation Center on Water Buffalo. 1978. Abstract Bibliography on Water Buffalo, 1971-1975. Documentation Center on Water Buffalo, University of the Philippines at Los Banos Library, College, Laguna 3720, Philippines.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fahimuddin, M. 1975. Domestic Water Buffalo. Oxford and IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi, India  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H. 1975. The water buffalo and related species as important genetic resources: their conservation, evaluation and utilization. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6  1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ford, B. D., and Tulloch, D. G. 1977. The Australian buffalo-a collection of papers. Technical Bulletin No.18. Department of the Northern Territory, Animal Industry and Agriculture Branch, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, Australia.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gupta, H. C. 1977. Possibilities and realities of developing buffalo's performance, breeding and feeding. Indian Dairyman 29(6):337-346.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kartha, K. P. R.1965. Buffalo. In: An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics edited by G. Williamson and W. J. A. Payne. Longman, London, United Kingdom.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McKnight, T. L. 1971. Australia's buffalo dilemma. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 61(4):759-773.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madamba, J. C., and Eusebio, A. N. 1979. Developments in the strengthening of buffalo research in Asia. Buffalo Bulletin 2(3):7-16.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mahadevan, P. 1978. Water buffalo research-possible future trends. World Animal Review 25: 2-7.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oloufa, M. M. 1979. Buffaloes as producers of meat and milk. Egyptian Journal of AnimalProduction 19:1-10. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pant, H. C., and Roy, A. 1972. The water buffalo and its future. In: Improvement of Livestock Production in Warm Climates, edited by R. E McDowell. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research. 1978. The Philippines Recommends for Caraboo Production, PCARR, Los Banos, Laguna 3732, Philippines.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ranjhan, S. K., and Pathak, N. N. 1981. Management and Feeding of Buffaloes. Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, India  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977a. Livestock in Indonesia. Research Report No. 1. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia. (In English and Indonesian.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977b. Preliminary Observations on the Productivity of Porking Buffalo in Indonesia. Research Report No. 2. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia. (In English and Indonesian.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sundaresan, D. 1979. The role of improved buffaloes in rural development. Indian Dairyman 31(2):73-78.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1978. The water buffalo, Bubalus bubalis, in Australia: grouping and home range.Australian Wildlife Research 5:327-34.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wahid, A. 1973. Pakistani buffaloes. World Animal Review 7:22~28. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Meat</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo offers promise as a major source of meat, and the production of buffaloes solely for meat is now expanding.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because buffaloes have been used as draft animals for centuries, they have evolved with exceptional muscular development, some weigh 1,000 kg or more. Until recently, however, little thought was given to using them exclusively for meat production. Most buffalo meat was, and still is, derived from old animals slaughtered at the end of their productive life as work or milk animals. As a result, much of the buffalo meat sold is of poor quality. But when buffaloes are properly reared and fed, their meat is tender and palatable.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are exported for slaughter from India and Pakistan to the Middle East and from Thailand and Australia to Hong Kong. Demand for meat is so great that Thailand's buffalo population has dropped from 7 million to 5.7 million head in the last 20 years, a period in which the human population has more than doubled.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carcass Characteristics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All buffalo breeds-even the milking ones-produce heavy animals whose carcass characteristics are similar to those of cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite heavier hide and head, the amount of useful meat (dressing percentage) from buffaloes is almost the same as in cattle. Mediterranean type buffalo and Zebu cattle steers in Brazil yielded dressing percentages of 55.5 and 56.6 percent respectively. Swamp buffalo dressing percentages have been measured in Australia at 53 percent. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are lean animals. Although a layer of subcutaneous fat covers the carcass, it is usually thinner than that on comparably fed cattle. Even animals that appear to be fat prove to be largely muscle. Australian research on Swamp buffaloes reveals that buffaloes with more than 25 percent fat are difficult to produce, whereas average choice-grade beef carcasses may contain  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general, the buffalo carcass has rounder ribs, a higher proportion of muscle, and a lower proportion of bone and fat than beef has.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo hide is so thick that it can be sliced into two or three layers before tanning into leather.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meat Quality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo meat and beef are basically similar. The muscle pH (5.4), shrinkage on chilling (2 percent), moisture (76.6 percent), protein (19 percent), and ash (1 percent) are all about the same in buffalo meat and beef. Buffalo fat, however, is always white and buffalo meat is darker in color than beef because of more pigmentation or less intramuscular fat (2-3 percent "marbling," compared with the 3-4 percent in beef).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eating Quality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taste-panel tests and tenderness measurements conducted by research teams in a number of countries have shown that the meat of the water buffalo is as acceptable as that of cattle. Buffalo steaks have rated higher than beefsteaks in some taste tests in Australia, Malaysia, Venezuela, and Trinidad.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In taste-panel studies in Trinidad, cooked joints from three carcasses Trinidad buffalo, a crossbred steer (Jamaica-Red/Sahiwal), and an imported carcass of a top-grade European beef steer-were served. The 28 diners all had experience in beef production, butchery, or catering and were not told the sources of the various joints. All the carcasses were held in cold storage for one week before cooking. The buffalo meat was rated highest by 14 judges; 7 chose the European beef; 5 thought the crossbred beef the best; and 2 said that the buffalo and crossbred were equal to or better than the European beef. The buffalo meat received most points for color (both meat and fat), taste, and general acceptability. There was little difference noted in texture.( Information supplied by P. N. Wilson.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo veal is considered a delicacy. Calves are usually slaughtered for veal between 3 and 4 weeks of age; dressed weight is 59-66 percent of live weight.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is some evidence that buffaloes may retain meat tenderness to a more advanced age than cattle because the connective tissue hardens at a later age or because the diameter of muscle fibers in the buffalo increases more slowly than in cattle(Joksimonc, 1979) In one test the tenderness (measured by shearing force) of muscle samples from carcasses of buffalo steers 16-30 months old was the same as that from feedlot Angus, Hereford, and Friesian steers 12-18 months old. This gives farmers more flexibility in meeting fluctuating markets while still providing tender meat.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1976. Livestock Production in Asian Context of Agricultural Diversification. Asian Productivity Organization, Tokyo, Japan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arganosa, F. C., Sanchez, P. C., Ibarra, P. I., Gerpacio, A. L., Castillo, L. S., and Arganosa, V. G. 1973. Evaluation of carabeef as a potential substitute for beef. Philippine Journal of Nutrition 26(2).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arganosa, F. C., Arganosa, V. G., and Ibarra, P. I. 1975. Carcass evaluation and utilization of carabeef. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bennett, S. P. 1973. The "buffalypso"-an evaluation of a beef type of water buffalo in Trinidad, West Indies. Paper presented at the Third World Conference on Animal Production, Melbourne, Australia.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Borghese, A., Gigli, S., Romita, A., Di Giacomo, A., and Mormile, M. 1978. Fatty acid composition of fat in water buffalo calves and bovine calves slaughtered at 20, 28, and 36 weeks of age. In: Patterns of Growth and Development in Cattle: A Seminar in the EEC Programme of Coordination of Research on Beef Production, held at Ghent, October 11-13,1977. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles, D. D., and Johnson, E. R. 1972. Carcass composition of the water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Australian Journal of Agriculture Research 23:905-911.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles, D. D., and Johnson, E. R. 1975. Live weight gains and carcass composition of buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) steers on four feeding regimes. Australian Journal of Agriculture Research 26:407-413.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1975. Alternative livestock: with particular reference to the wafer buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). In: Meat. Proceedings of the 21st Easter School in Agricultural Science, University of Nottingham, edited by D. J. A. Cole and R. A. Lawrie. Butterworth, London, England.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El-Ashry, M. A., Mogawer, H. H., and Kishin, S. S. 1972. Comparative study of meat production from cattle and buffalo male calves. Egyptian Journal of Animal Production 12:99-107.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El-Koussy, H. A., Afifi, Y. A., Dessouki, T. A., and El-Ashry, M. A. 1977. Some chemical and physical changes of buffalo meat after slaughter. Agriculture Research Review 55:1-7.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Johnson, E. R., and Charles, D. D. 1975. Comparison of live weight gain and changes in carcass composition between buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and Bos taurus steers. Australian Journal of Agriculture Research 26:415- 422.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joksimovic, J. 1979. Physical, chemical and structural characteristics of buffalo meat. Arhiv za Polloprivredne Nauke 22:110.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joksimovic, J., and Ognjanovic, A. 1977. A comparison of carcass yield, carcass composition, and quality characteristics of buffalo meat and beef Meat Science 1:105 -110.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mai, S. C., and Wu, T. H. 1974. TSC's intensive feed-lot system for cow-calf and beef production program. Taiwan Sugar 21(6):198-211.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matassino, D., Romita, A., Cosentino, E., Girolami, A., and Cloatruglio, P. 1978. Myorheological, ohemical, and colour characteristics of meat in water buffalo and bovine calves slaughtered at 20, 28 and 36 weeks. In: Patterns of Growth and Development in Cattle: A Seminar in the EEC Programme of Coordination of Research on Beef Production, held at Chent, October 11-13, 1977. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mogawer, H. H., El-Ashry, M. A., and Mahmoud, S. A. 1976. Comparative study of meat production from cattle and buffalo male calves. II. Effect of different roughage concentrate ratios in ration on carcass traits. Journal of Agriculture Research {Tanta University) 2:6-12.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ognjanovic, A. 1974. Meat and meat production. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. CockrilL Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rastogi, R., Youssef, F. G., and Gonzalez, F. D. 1978. Beef type water buffalo of Trinidad-Beefalypso. World Review of Animal Production 14(2) :49 -56.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Romita, A., Borghese, A., Gigli, S., and Di Giacomo, A. 1978. Growth rate and carcass composition of water buffalo calves and bovine calves slaughtered at 20, 28 and 36 weeks. In: Patterns of Growth and Development in Cattle: A Seminar in the EEC Programme of Coordination of Research on Beef Production, Held at Chent, October 11-13, 1977. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilson, P. N. 1961. Palatability of water buffalo meat. Journal of the Agricultural Society of Trinidad 61:457, 459-460. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 Milk</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than 5 percent of the world's milk comes from water buffaloes. Buffalo milk is  used in much the same way as cow's milk. It is high in fat and total solids, which  gives it a rich flavor. Many people prefer it to cow's milk and are willing to pay more  for it. In Egypt, for example, the severe mortality rate among buffalo calves is due in  part to the sale of buffalo milk, which is in high demand, thus depriving calves of  proper nourishment. This also occurs in India, where in the Bombay area alone an  estimated 10,000 newborn calves starve to death each year through lack of milk.  The demand for buffalo milk in India (about 60 percent of the milk consumed; over  80 percent in some states) is reflected in the prices paid for a liter of milk: about  130 paisa for cow's milk compared with about 200 paisa for buffalo milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twelve of the 18 major breeds of water buffalo are kept primarily for milk production  (although males may be used for traction and all animals are eventually used for  meat). The main milk breeds of India and Pakistan are the Murrah, Nili/Ravi, Surti,  Mehsana, Nagpuri, and Jafarabadi. The buffaloes of Egypt, Eastern Europe  (Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia, and the USSR), and Italy are used for milk  production and there are also herds used principally for this purpose in Iran, Iraq,  and Turkey.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Composition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk contains less water, more total solids, more fat, slightly more lactose,  and more protein than cow's milk. It seems thicker than cow's milk because it  generally contains more than 16 percent total solids compared with 12-14 percent  for cow's milk. In addition, its fat content is usually 50-60 percent higher (or more)  than that of cow's milk. Although the butterfat content is usually 6-8 percent,( An analysis of 7,770 records of Nili/Ravi buffaloes in herds at the Pakistan  Research Institute showed that average butterfat content was 6.40 (a mean based  on 10 tests over 10 months). of all the samples tested, 77 percent ranged between  5 and 8 percent butterfat and 12 percent were below 5 percent butterfat.  -information supplied by R. E. McDowell.)  it can  go much higher in the milk of some well fed dairy buffaloes and in the milk of  Swamp buffaloes (which are not normally used for milking). Cow's milk butterfat content is usually between 3 and 5 percent.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its high butterfat content, buffalo milk has considerably higher energy value than cow's milk. Phospholipids are lower but cholesterol and saturated fatty acids are higher in buffalo milk. Studies have shown that digestibility is not adversely affected by this. Because of the high fat content, the buffalo's total fat yield per lactation compares favorably with that of improved breeds of dairy cattle; it is much higher than that of indigenous cows.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally the protein in buffalo milk contains more casein and slightly more albumin and globulin than cow's milk. Several researchers have claimed that the biological value of buffalo milk protein is higher than that of cow's milk, but this has not yet been proved conclusively.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p27.png"></center><br>
+ Tables 1 and 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mineral content of buffalo milk is nearly the same as that of cow's milk except for phosphorus, which occurs in roughly twice the amount in buffalo milk. Buffalo milk tends to be lower in salt.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk lacks the yellow pigment carotene, precursor for vitamin A, and its whiteness is frequently used to differentiate it from cow's milk in the market. Despite the absence of carotene, the vitamin A content in buffalo milk is almost as high as that of cow's milk. (Apparently the buffalo converts the carotene in its diet to vitamin A. The two milks are similar in B complex vitamins and vitamin C, but buffalo milk tends to be lower in riboflavin.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Milk Products</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk, like cow's milk, can provide a wide variety of products: butter, butter oil (clarified butter or ghee), soft and hard cheeses, condensed or evaporated milks, ice cream,yogurt, and buttermilk. It is of great economic importance in India in preparing "toned" milk-a mixture of buffalo milk and milk made by reconstituting skim milk powder.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The richness of buffalo milk makes it highly suitable for processing. To produce 1 kg of cheese, a cheese maker requires 8 kg of cow's milk but only 5 kg of buffalo milk. To produce 1 kg of butter requires 14 kg of cow's milk but only 10 kg of buffalo milk. Because of these high yields, processors appreciate the value of buffalo milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo cheese is pure white. It many countries it is among the most desirable cheeses (mozzarella and ricotta in Italy, gemir in Iraq, the salty cheeses of Egypt, and pecorino in Bulgaria, for example). In Venezuela all the cheese produced from the small La Guanota milking herd in the Apure River basin (about 100 kg a day) is bought by the Hilton Hotel and sells for 15 bolivars per kg compared with 8 bolivars per kg for cheese made from cow's milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although much in demand for making soft cheese, buffalo milk is less desirable for making hard cheeses such as cheddar or gouda. During cheesemaking it produces acid more slowly than cow's milk, retains more water in the curd, and loses more fat in the whey.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheeses are becoming increasingly popular throughout the world. Demand is rising at a rate that is among the highest for any food product. Cheese offers particular benefit to areas where refrigeration is not widely available, where transporting high-protein foods to remote areas is difficult, and where seasonal fluctuations affect milk supplies. Buffalo milk may make cheesemaking profitable on an even smaller scale than conventional dairying; it is more concentrated than cow's milk and requires relatively less energy to transport and process (an increasingly important factor where fuels are limited).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p31.png"></center><br>
+ Table 3 Highest Milk Yield (kg per Day) Recorded in the All India Milk Yield</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yield</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In countries like India and Egypt, the milk yield of buffaloes is generally higher  (680-800 kg) than for local cattle (360-500 kg). However, since selection for  exceptional milk production is not conducted systematically, large variations in yield  occur between individual animals, and milk production of dairy buffaloes falls short  of its potential.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nonetheless, some outstanding yields have been recorded. On Indian government  farms, average yields for milking buffaloes range from 4 to 7 kg per day in  lactations averaging 285 days. Daily yields of 12 kg have been reported for some  Bulgarian buffalo cows and a daily production of over 20 kg has been reported for  some remarkable animals in India. A peak milk yield of 31.5 kg in a day has been  recorded from a champion Murrah buffalo in the All India Milk Yield Competition  conducted by the Government of India (see Table 3).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At Caserta, Italy, a herd of 1,600 machine-milked, pedigreed dairy buffaloes has  produced average yields of 1,500 kg during lactations of 270 days. In Pakistan an  analysis of over 6,000 lactations of Nili/Ravi buffalo cows showed an average yield  of 1,925 kg during lactations averaging 282 days(Average adjusted for year and  season and calving. Cady et al., in press.) . In India the average milks yield of  Murrah buffaloes in established herds is also reported to be about  1,800kg(*"Williamson and Payne, 1965.)Table 4 lists some outstanding lactation  yields reported from different parts of the world. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with cattle, the percentages of fat, protein, and total solids decrease as the milks yield increases.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Swamp buffaloes of Southeast Asia are usually considered poor milk producers. They are used mainly as draft animals, but it may be that their milk potential has been underestimated. In the Philippines Swamp buffalo cows with nursing calves have produced 300-800 kg of milk during lactation periods of 180-300 days(*Philippines Council for Agriculture and Resources Research (PCARR). 1978. The Philippines Recommends for Caraboo Production, PCARR, Los Banos, Philippines)In Thailand Swamp buffaloes selected and reared for milk production have yielded 3-5 kg per day during 305-day lactations.(Information supplied by Charan Chantalakhana.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p32.png"></center><br>
+ Table 4 Milk Production of Some Outstading Buffalo Cows and Dairy Herds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Nanning Livestock Research Institute and Farm in Kwangsi Province,which is representative of many others in South China, is upgrading the native  Swamp buffaloes (or Shui Niu) by selective breeding for size and weight and by  crossbreeding with dairy breeds such as the Murrah and Nili/Ravi. The crossbreeds  that are milked yield 4-5 kg daily.(*CockriH, W. R. 1976. The Buffaloes of China.  FAO, Rome.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dairy Management</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The characteristics of the dairy buffalo so closely approximate those of the dairy cow that successful methods of breeding, husbandry, and feeding for  milks production for the cow can be applied equally to the dairy buffalo. Buffaloes,  however, have not been bred for uniform udders and it is more difficult to milk them  by machine.(Some thousands of buffaloes are machine milked in Bulgaria and Italy, however. At  Ain Shams University in Egypt, buffaloes have adapted to machine milking. The  calves are separated from their dams immediately after birth and no problems of  milk letdown have been observed. -information supplied by M. El Ashry.)Also, some buffaloes have more of a problem with milks letdown than  dairy cows (although not as much of a problem as some native cattle breeds in the  tropics). Frequently, a calf is kept with the cow and is tied to her foreleg at milking  time. In India, Burma, and other countries a dummy calf may be provided; playing  music seems to work, too.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Addeo, F., Mercier, J. C., and Ribadeau-Dumas, B. 1977. The caseins of buffalo  milk. Journal of Dairy Research 44(3):455-468.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agarwala, O. P. 1962. Certain factors of reproduction and production in a water  buffalo herd. Indian Joumal of Dairy Science 15(2):45-51.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albourco, F., Mincione, B., Addeo, F., and Ameno, M. 1969. Buffaloes' milk. II.  Variations in composition during lactation of milk produced without change in  feeding. Industrie Agraria 7(5):210-219.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associazione Italiana Tecnici del Latter. 1970. Buffaloes' milk and cheese. Scienza  e Tecnica 21(3):175-196.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhatnagar, V. K., Lohia, K. L., and Monga, O. P. 1961. Effect of the month of  calving on milk yield, lactation length and calving interval in Murrah buffaloes. Indian  Journal of Dairy Science 14(3): 102-108.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhasin N. R., and Desai, R. N. 1967. Effect of age at first calving and first lactation  yield on life time production in Hariana cattle. Indian Veterinary Journal 44:684694.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cady, R. A., Shah, S. K., Schermerhorn, E. C., and McDowell, R. E. In Press.  Factors affecting performance of Nili-Ravi buffaloes in Pakistan. Journal of Dairy  Science.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Castillo, L. S. 1975. Production, characteristics and processing of buffalo milk. In:  The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at  Khon Kahn, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology  Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dassat, P. M., de Paolis, P., and Sartore, G. 1966. Environmental effects on milks  yield in Italian buffalo.Acta Medica Veterinaria 12(6):587-593.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dave, B. K., and Taylor, C. M. 1975. A study on relationship of persistency with other first production traits in Indian water buffaloes. Indian Journal of Animal Health 14(1) :77-80.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deshmukh, S. N., and Choudhury, P. N. R. 1971. Repeatability estimates of some economic characteristics in Italian buffaloes. Zentralblatt fuer Veterinaer-medizen 18:104-107.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ganguli, N. C. 1979. Buffalo milk technology. World Animal Review 30:2-10.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gomez, I. V. 1977. The manufacture of semihard cheese (Danish type) from carabao milk. Philippine Agriculturalist 61(3/4) :78-86.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gurnani, M., and Nagarcenkar, R. 1971. Evaluation of breeding performance of buffaloes and estimation of genetic and phenotypic parameters. Annual Report of the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katpatal, B. G. 1977. Dairy cattle crossbreeding in India. I. Growth and development of crossbreeding. World Animal Review 22: 15-21.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kay, H. D. 1974. Milk and milk production. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kohli, M. L., and Malik, D. D. 1960. Effect of service period on total milk production and lactation length in Murrah buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 13(3): 105-111.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nascimento, C. N. B., Moura Carvalho, L. O. D., and Lourenco, J. B. 1979. Irnportancia do Bufalo para a Pecuarfa Brasileira. Agricultural Research Center for Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem, Para, Brazil.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raafat, M. A., El-Sayed, Abou-Hussein, Abou-Raya, A. K., and El-Shirbiny A. 1974. Some nutritional studies of colostrum and milk of cows and buffaloes E:gyptian Journal of Animal Production 14(1) :137-148.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ragab, M. T., Asker, A. A., and Kamal, T. H. 1958. The effect of age and seasonal calving on the composition of Egyptian buffalo milk. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 11(1):18-28.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saudi Arabia Standards Institution. 1978. Raw milk. Saudi Arabia Standard 98.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sebastian, J., Panthulu, P. C, and Bhimasena, M. 1971. Composition of Surti buffalo milk. Annual Report of the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sekhon, G. S., and Gehlon, M. S. 1966. Repeatability estimates of some economic traits in the Murrah buffalo. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 14:18-22.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, B. B., and Singh, B. P. 1971. Comparative study of lifetime economics of Hariana versus Murrah buffaloes. Indian Veterinary Journal 48:485-489.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, R. P. 1966. A study of production up to ten years of age in buffaloes maintained at military farms. Indian Veterinary Journal 43:986-992.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, S. B., and Desai, R. N. 1962. Production character of Bhadawari buffalo cow. Indian Veterinary journal 39:332-343.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venkayya, D., and Anantakrishnan, C. P. 1957. Influence of age at first calving on the performance of Murrah buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 10(1):20-24.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G., and Payne, W. J. A. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. Longman, London, United Kingdom. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Work</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is the classic work animal of Asia, an integral part of that  continent's traditional village farming structure. Probably the most adaptable and  versatile of all work animals, it is widely used to plow; level land; plant crops; puddle  rice fields; cultivate field crops; pump water; haul carts, sleds, and shallow-draft  boats; carry people; thresh grain; press sugar cane; haul logs; and much more.  Even today, water buffaloes provide 20-30 percent of the farm power in South  China, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, and Indochina(Figures provided by A. J. de veer. In India water buffaloes contribute much less to  farm power (6-12 percent); bullocks are more commonly used. In Pakistan  buffaloes are little used for farm power (1-2 percent) but provide much of the road  haulage. Papua New Guinea has no tradition of using any work animal, but villagers  are increasingly using buffaloes for farm work and the government is employing  Fillipinos to train them) . Millions of  peasants in the Far East, Middle East, and Near East have a draft buffalo. For them  it is often the only method of farming food crops.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As fuel becomes scarce and expensive in these countries, the buffalo is being used  more frequently as a draft animal. ln 1979 water buffalo prices soared in rural  Thailand because of the increased demand.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although Asian farms have increasingly mechanized in the last 20 years, it has  often proved difficult to persuade the farmer to replace his buffalo with a tractor  since the buffalo produces free fertilizer and does not require diesel fuel. Now there  is renewed official interest in draft power. Sri Lanka has recently opened up large  new tracts of farmland in the Mahawali Valley, creating such a demand for work  animals that buffalo shortages have become a national development problem.  Indonesia's transmigration schemes are also handicapped by shortages of animal  power.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For many small farmers the buffalo represents capital. It is often the major  investment they have. Buffalo energy increases their productivity and allows them to  diversify. Even small farms have work animals that, like the farmer himself, subsist  off the farm. Tractors usually require at least four hectares for economical operation,  which precludes their use on most peasant farms. Further, the infrastructure to  maintain machinery is often not readily available.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are also used for hauling. Buffalo-drawn carts carry goods between  villages where road surfaces are unfit for trucks. The animals easily traverse  ravines, streams, paddies, and narrow and rocky trails. In the cities carts can  compete economically with trucks where the road surface is unprepared, where  loading or unloading takes longer than the journey itself, or where the loads are too  small and distances too short to make trucking economical. For road haulage  buffaloes are generally shod: the shoes are flat plates fitted to each hoof.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capacity for Work</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is a sturdy draft animal Its body structure, especially the  distribution of body weight over the feet and legs, is an important advantage. Its  large boxy hooves allow it to move in the soft mud of rice fields. Moreover, the  buffalo has very flexible pastern and fetlock joints in the lower leg so that it can bend  back its hooves and step over obstacles more easily than cattle. This water-loving  animal is particularly well adapted to paddy farming because its legs withstand  continual wet conditions better than mules or oxen(Australian animal scientists working in Bogor, Indonesia, found that the puddling  effect of buffalo hooves on the soil was critical for rice cultivation in the local soils.  Tractors produced fields so porous that they drained dry. (Information supplied by  A. F. GurnettSmith.) On one research station near Darwin, Australia, buffaloes were  used to prevent water draining from a dam. (Information supplied by D. G. Tulloch.). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although buffaloes are preferred by farmers in the wet, often muddy lowlands of  Asia, mules, horses, and cattle move more rapidly and are preferred in the dryer  areas.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes do not work quickly. They plod along at about 3 km per hour. In  most parts of Southeast Asia they are worked about 5 hours a day and they may  take 6-10 days to plow, harrow, and grade one hectare of rice field. Their stamina  and drawing power increase with body weight.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they have difficulty keeping cool in hot, humid weather (see next chapter),  it is necessary to let working buffaloes cool off, preferably in a wallow, every 2 hours  or so. Without this their body temperatures may rise to dangerous levels.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A pair of 3-year-old buffaloes costs about the same as a small tractor in Thailand.  But many farmers raise their own calves and there is no investment beyond labor.  The "fuel" for the animals comes mainly from village pastures and farm wastes such  as crop stubble and sugarcane tops. Buffaloes have an average working life of  about 11 years, but some work to age 20.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harness</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yoke used on working buffalo in Asia has changed very little in the last 1,500 years. It is doubtful that a working buffalo can exert its full power with it. The hard wooden yoke presses on a very small area on top of the animal's neck, producing severe calluses, galls, and obvious discomfort. The harness tends to choke the animal as the straps under the neck tighten into the windpipe. Since the traditional hitch is usually higher than the buffalo's low center of gravity, the animal cannot pull efficiently. Considerably more pulling power and endurance can be obtained by improving the harness. The situation is not unlike that in Western agriculture in the twelfth century when the horse collar-one of the most important inventions of the Middle Ages first appeared. Before that, horses were yoked like buffalo and the harness passed across their windpipes and choked them as they pulled. Use of the horse collar improved pulling efficiency and speeded the development of transportation and trade.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The curved yoke now universally used on water buffalo contacts an area of the neck that is only about 200 cm2 (little more than half the size of this page). The entire load is pulled on this small area and causes the wood to dig into the flesh.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A horse collar is a padded leather device that encircles the animal's neck. One modified in Thailand for use on water buffalo (see page 43) had a contact area of 650 cm2, more than three times that of the yoke it replaced. The collar's padding pressed against the animal's shoulders, not its neck, and  therefore did not choke it. Attached to the collar were wooden hames with the traces for hitching the animal to a wagon or plow. In trials a buffalo pulled loads 24 percent heavier with the collar than with the yoke, and the horsepower it developed increased by 48 percent(These trials were conducted by J. K. Garner in Thailand in 1958. In the maximum-load test the yoked buffalo failed to move a load of 570 kg, but it moved a load of 640 kg when fitted with the horse collar. In an endurance test the yoked animal took 35 minutes to pull a load 550 m, but harnessed with the collar it took only 21 minutes). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another potentially valuable harness is the breast strap, a set of broad leather straps that pass over the animal's neck and back. One breast strap modified for water buffalo use had a contact area of 620 cm2, almost as much as that of the horse collar, and in trials the buffalo pulled a load 12 percent heavier than with a yoke and the horsepower it developed increased by almost 70 percent( The same animal used in the horse collar trials pulled 700 kg with the breast strap, in the endurance test it took 18.5 minutes to travel the 550-m distance). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These seem very good innovations. In the humid tropics, however, leather collars and breast straps may decay rapidly. To make them widely practical may require experimentation with, or development of, special leather treatments or more durable materials.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1974. The working buffalo. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domes tic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1976. The Buffaloes of China. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">de Guzman, M. R., Jr. 1975. The water buffalo-Asia's beast of burden and key to progress. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Garner, J. K. 1958 (Reprint 1980) Increasing the Work Efficiency of the Water Buffalo Through Use of Improved Harness. (Copies available from Office of Agriculture, Development Support Bureau, Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C. 20523)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kamal, T. H., Shehata, O., and Elbanna, I. M. 1972. Isotope Studies on the Physiology of Domestic Animals. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977. Preliminary Observations on the Productivity of Working Buffalo in Indonesia. Research Report No. 2, Center for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vaugh, M. 1945. Report on a detailed study of methods of yoking bullocks for agricultural work. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 15:186-198.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ward, G. M., Sutherland, T. M., and Sutherland, J. M. 1980. Animals as an energy source in Third World agriculture. Science 208:570. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">5 Adaptability and Environmental Tolerance</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heat Tolerance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the buffalo is remarkably versatile, it has less physiological adaptation to extremes of heat and cold than the various breeds of cattle. Body temperatures of buffaloes are actually lower than those of cattle, but buffalo skin is usually black and heat absorbent and only sparsely protected by hair. Also, buffalo skin has one-sixth the density of sweat glands that cattle skin has, so buffaloes dissipate heat poorly by sweating. If worked or  driven excessively in the hot sun, a buffalo's body temperature, pulse rate, respiration rate, and general discomfort increase more quickly than those of cattle(Failure to appreciate this has caused many buffalo deaths in northern Australia when the animals were herded long distances through the heat of the day as if they were cattle).. This is particularly true of young calves and pregnant females. During one trial in Egypt 2 hours' exposure to sun caused temperatures of buffalo to rise 1.3°C, whereas temperatures of cattle rose only 0.2-0.3°C.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes prefer to cool off in a wallow rather than seek shade. They may wallow for up to 5 hours a day when temperatures and humidity are high. Immersed in water or mud, chewing with half-closed eyes, buffaloes are a picture of bliss.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In shade or in a wallow buffaloes cool off quickly, perhaps because a black skin rich in blood vessels conducts and radiates heat efficiently (Tests at the University of Florida have shown that buffaloes in the shade cool off more quickly than cattle. -Robey, 1976).  Nonetheless, wallowing is not essential. Experience in Australia, Trinidad, Florida, Malaysia, and elsewhere has shown that buffaloes grow normally without wallowing as long as adequate shade is available.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cold Tolerance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although generally associated with the humid tropics, buffaloes, as already noted, have been reared for centuries in temperate countries such as Italy, Greece, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, and in the Azerbaijan and Georgian republics of the USSR. In 1807 Napoleon brought Italian buffaloes to the Landes region of southwest France and released them near Mont-deMarsan. They became feral and multiplied prodigiously in the woods and dunes of the littoral, but unfortunately the local peasants found them easy targets, and with the fall of Napoleon the whole herd was killed for meat(In the twelfth century Benedictine monks introduced buffaloes from their possessions in the Orient to work the lands of their abbey at Auge in northeastern France. In the thirteenth century a herd was introduced to England by the Earl of Cornwall, the brother of Henry III. Nothing is known about how well either herd survived). Buffaloes are also maintained on the high, snowy plateaus of Turkey as well as in Afghanistan and the northern mountains of Pakistan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo has greater tolerance of cold weather than is commonly supposed. The current range of the buffalo extends as far north as 45° latitude in Romania and the sizable herds in Italy and the Soviet Union range over 40° N latitude(Philadelphia and Peking are at comparable latitudes. In the Southern Hemisphere the 40° line of latitude easily encompasses Cape Town, Buenos Aires, Melbourne, and most of New Zealand's North Island).  Cold winds and rapid drops in temperatures, however, appear to have caused illness, pneumonia, and sometimes death. Most of the animals in Europe are of the Mediterranean breed, but other River-type buffaloes (mainly Murrahs from India) have been introduced to Bulgaria and the Soviet Union, which indicates that River breeds, at least, have some cold tolerance.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Altitude</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although water buffaloes are generally reared at low elevations, a herd of Swamp buffaloes is thriving at Kandep in Papua New Guinea, 2,500 m above sea level. And in Nepal, River buffaloes are routinely found at or above 2,800 m altitude.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wetlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are well adapted to swamps and to areas subject to flooding. They are at home in the marshes of southern Iraq and of the Amazon, the tidal plains near Darwin, Australia, the Pontine Marshes in south-central Italy, the Orinoco Basin of Venezuela, and other areas.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Amazon, buffaloes (Mediterranean and Swamp breeds) are demonstrating their exceptional adaptability to flood areas. Buffalo productivity outstrips that of cattle, with males reaching 400 kg in 30 months on a diet of native grasses( Information supplied by C. Nascimento). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The advantage of water buffaloes over Holstein, Brown Swiss, and Criollo cattle was demonstrated in a test at Delta Amacuro, Venezuela, when the cattle developed serious foot rot In the wet conditions of the Orinoco Delta and had to be withdrawn from the test. The area of Venezuela is flooded 6 months of the year and creates constant problems for cattle, yet the buffalo seems to adapt well(*Information supplied by A. Ferrer). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High humidities seem to affect buffaloes less than cattle. In fact, if shade or wallows are available, buffaloes may be superior to cattle in humid areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In southern Brazil, trials comparing buffalo and cattle on subtropical riverine plains have favored the buffalo also. This work is being carried out on native pastures, mostly in  the State of Sao Paulo.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hafez, E. S. E., Badreldin, A. L., and Shafei,M. M. 1955. Skin structure of Egyptian buffaloes and cattle with particular reference to sweat glands. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 46:19-30.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katyega, P. M. J., Masoud, A. J., and Kobo, E. 1980. Information on body and carcass characteristics of Egyptian water buffalo and Mpwapwa x Friesian steers raised in central Tanzania. Tanzania Veterinary Bulletin 2:86-90.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I. L. 1974. Environmental physiology. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1973. Heat tolerance of Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers during exposure to sun and as a result of exercise. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 24(5) :775 -782.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nair, P. G., and Benjamin, B. R. 1963. Studies on sweat glands in the Indian water buffalo. 1. Standardization of techniques and preliminary observations. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 33:102.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pandey, M. D., and Roy, A. 1969a. Studies on the adaptability of buffaloes to tropical climate. I. Seasonal changes in the water and electrolyte status of buffalo cows. Indian Journal of Animal Science 39:367.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pandey, M. D., and Roy, A. 1969b. Studies on the adaptability of buffaloes to tropical climate. II. Seasonal changes in the body temperature, cardio-respiratory and hematological attributes in buffalo cows. Indian Journal of Animal Science 39:378.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prusty, J. N. 1973. Role of the sweat glands in heat regulation in the Indian water buffalo. Indian Journal of Animal Health 12(1):33-37.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robey, C. A., Jr. 1976. Physiological Responses of Water Buffalo to the Florida Environment. M.S. Thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">6 Nutrition</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most buffaloes are located in countries where land, cultivated forage crops, and pastures  are limited. Livestock must feed on poor-quality forages, sometimes supplemented with  a little green fodder or byproducts from food, grain, and oil seed processing. Usually  feedstuffs are in such short supply that few animals have a balanced diet, but the buffalo  seems to perform fairly well under such adverse conditions.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Growth Rate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insufficient measurements have been taken to allow unequivocal state. meets about the  relative growth rates of cattle and buffaloes. However, many observations made in  various parts of the world indicate that the buffalo's growth is seldom inferior to that of  cattle breeds found in the same environments. Some observations are given below.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Trials in Trinidad in the early 1960s involved buffaloes grazing pangola grass (Digitaria  decumbens) together with Brahman and Jamaican Red cattle. Over a period of 20  months the buffaloes gained an average of 0.72 kg per day, whereas the cattle on a  comparable nearby pasture gained 0.63 per day(Experiments performed by P. N. Wilson. -Information supplied by S. P. Bennett.).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the Orinoco Delta of Venezuela unselected Criollo/Zebu crossbred cattle gained  0-0.2 kg per day on Paspalum fasciculatum, whereas the water buffaloes with them  gained 0.25-0.4 kg per day(Cunha  et al., 1975).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the Apure Valley of Venezuela, 100 buffalo steers studied in 1979 reached an  average weight of 508 kg in 30 months, whereas the 30-month old Zebu steers tested  with them weighed 320 kg. The feed consumed was a blend of native grasses (25  percent of the diet) and improved grasses (such as pangola, pare, and guinea grass)( Information supplied by A. Ferrer). In  the same valley 200 buffalo heifers (air freighted from Australia) produced weight gains  averaging 0.5 kg per day over a 2-year period (and 72 percent of them calved). Government statistics for the area record average weight gains in crossbreeds between Zebu and Criollo cattle as 0.28 kg per day (with 40 percent calving).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the Philippines, buffaloes showed weight gains of 0.75-1.25 kg per day, the same as those of cattle. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Daily weight gains of over 1 kg have been recorded for buffaloes in Bulgaria and Yugoslavia.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Liveweight gains of 0.80 kg per day have been recorded for buffaloes in Papua New Guinea. In a very humid, swampy area of the Sepik River coastal plains liveweight gains by males averaged 0.47 kg per day and females 0.43 kg per day for more than a year. The average weight of 30 4-year-old female buffaloes was 375 kg, while the average weight of 4-year-old female Brahman/ Shorthorn crossbred cattle was 320 kg.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· At the research station near Belem in the Brazilian Amazon weaned Murrah buffaloes, pastured continuously on Echinochloa pyramidalis (a nutritious grass), gained 0.8 kg daily and reached 450 kg in about 18 months. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Liveweight gains of 0.74-l.i kg per day have been obtained in Australia. Buffalo steers grew as fast or faster than crossbred Brahman cattle on several improved pastures near Darwin, but on one very poor pasture, 40-year-old buffaloes each weighed only 400 kg, whereas the Brahman crossbred steers reared with them weighed 500 kg. The reason for this is not clear.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efficiency of Digestion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian animal nutritionists have investigated water buffaloes intensively over the past two decades. Many have reported that buffaloes digest feeds more efficiently than do cattle, particularly when feeds are of poor quality and are high in cellulose.One trial revealed that the digestibility of wheat straw cellulose was 24.3 percent for cattle and 30.7 percent for buffalo. The figures for berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) cellulose were 34.6 percent for cattle and 52.2 percent for buffalo. In another trial the digestion of straw fiber was 64.7 percent in cattle, 79.8 percent in buffalo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other nutrients reported to be more highly digested in buffaloes than in cattle (Zebu) are crude fat, calcium and phosphorus, and nonprotein nitrogen.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recent experiments in India suggest that buffaloes also are able to utilize nitrogen more efficiently than cattle. Buffaloes digested less crude protein than cattle in one trial but increased their body nitrogen more (and they were being fed only 40 percent of the recommended daily intake of crude protein).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ability of buffaloes to digest fiber efficiently may be partly due to the microorganisms in their rumen. Several Indian research teams have published data indicating that the microbes in the buffalo rumen convert feed into energy more efficiently than do those in cattle (as measured by the rate of production of volatile fatty acids in the rumen).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also, in laboratory studies samples of buffalo rumen contents produced volatile fatty acids more quickly from a variety of animal feedstuffs than did samples from the rumen of cattle  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No single reason alone explains the buffalo's success in using poor quality forages. Rather, it is a combination of reasons that differ with the breed and conditions used. Studies by other researchers suggest that additional causes might include:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Higher dry matter intake; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Longer retention of feed in digestive tract;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Ruminal characteristics more favorable to ammonia-nitrogen utilization;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Less depression of cellulose digestion by soluble carbohydrates (e.g., starch or molasses);  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Superior ability to handle stressful environment; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A wider range of grazing preferences.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calf Growth Rates</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the buffalo's gestation period is more than a month longer than that of cattle, the calves are born weighing 35-40 kg, or about the same as that of a newborn Holstein calf. But because buffalo milk has about twice the butterfat of cow's milk, the calves grow very quickly. They also suffer more shock at weaning and have to be slowly changed to their new feeding program. Buffaloes can be marketed as full-grown animals for beef at the age of 2-3 years, sometimes even earlier.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p59.png"></center><br>
+ Table 5 Some Coarse Grasses and Forages Palatable to Buffaloes but Less Readily</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, in Indonesia it has been found that buffalo steers can be marketed 6 months before Zebu steers because they may be 100 kg heavier. In Egypt some buffalo calves given feed supplemented with concentrates weighed 360 kg at 1 year of age. At Ain Shams University near Cairo, buffalo calves weaned at 7-14 days of age gained 0.7 kg per day from weaning to slaughter at 18 months of age and weighed 400 kg. Rice straw comprised 50 percent of the finishing diet.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes on Italian farms have reached 350 kg in 15-18 months and some year-old calves weighed 320 kg. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grazing trials on native pasture (with mineral supplementation) in the Brazilian Amazon indicate that buffalo calves grew faster than cattle. At 2 years of age Mediterranean-type buffaloes averaged 369 kg, Swamp type, 322 kg, and Jafarabadi type, 308 kg. The Zebu cattle tested with them averaged 265 kg and the crossbred Zebu/Charolais, 282 kg. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feed Preferences</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes graze a wider range of plants than cattle. During floods near Manaus in the  Brazilian Amazon when cattle become marooned on small patches of high ground,  many suffer from foot rot and many starve to death. Their buffalo companions on the  other hand-bodies sleek and full-swim out to islands of floating aquatic plants and eat  them, treading water. Also, they dive almost 2 m to graze beneath the floodwaters. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Florida buffaloes in a lakefront voluntarily consumed vines, sedges, rushes, floating aquatic weeds, and the leaves and shoots of willows and other  trees along the water's edge. Few of these plants are voluntarily grazed by cattle. In  northern Australia water buffaloes graze the very pickily leaves of pandanus; they also  graze sedges, reeds, floating grass, and aquatic weeds. Hungry buffaloes will eat bark,  twigs, and other unpalatable vegetation.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the variety of their tastes they have been used in northern Queensland,  Australia, to clear pastures of woody weeds left untouched by cattle. In some countries  cattle are used to graze the palatable tops of pasture plants and are followed by  buffaloes to graze the less desirable lower parts.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afifi, Y. A., El-Koussy, H. A., El-Khishen, S. S., and El-Ashry, M. A. 1977. Production of  meat from Egyptian buffaloes. I. The effect of using different sources of roughages on  rate of gain, gross and net efficiency during the growth and finishing periods. Egyptian  Journal of Animal Production 17(2).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appleton, D. c., Dryden, G., and Kondos, A. C. 1976. A comparison of the digestive  efficiency of the water buffalo and the Brahman and Banteng cattle. Proceedings of the  Australian Society of Animal Production 11.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhatia, L S. 1967. The Study of Factors Affecting the Utilization of Low Grade  Roughages and Production of Volatile Fatty Acids in the Rumen of Indian Cattle. Punjab  Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chalmers, M. 1.1974. Nutrition. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo  edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome,  Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles, D. D., and Johnson, E. R. 1975. Live weight gains and carcass composition of  buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) steers on four feeding regimes. Australian Journal of  Agricultural Research 26:407-413.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaturvedi, M. L, Singh, u. B., and Ranjhan, 5. K 1973. Comparative studies on the  efficiency of feed unitization in cattle and buffaloes. Indian Journal of Animal Science  43(12):1034.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chutikul, K. 1975. Ruminant (Buffalo) nutrition. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kacn, Thailand, March 31April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cunha, E., Alvarez, F., Larez, O., and Bryan, W. B. 1975. Pasture and Livestock Investigations in the Humid Tropics: Orinoco Delta, Venezuela. 4. Beef Cattle and Water Buffalo Grazing Trials with Native and Introduced Grasses. IRI Research Institute, New York, New York, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Davendra, C. 1979. The potential value of grasses and crop by-products for feeding buffaloes in Asia. Extension Bulletin No. 126. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">de Guzman, M. R., Jr. 1975. A summary of research into buffalo feeding in the Philippines. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunkel, R. 1981. Animal production using nutrient-deficient fodders in the tropics and subtropics. Animal Research and Development 13:32-39.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El-Ashry, M. A., Mogawer, H. H., and Kishin, S. S. 1972. Comparative study of meat production from cattle and buffalo male calves. I. Effect of roughage: concentrate ratio in ration for rate of gain and feed efficiency of native cattle, Friesian and buffalo calves. Egyptian Journal of Animal Production 12(2) :99 -107.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grant, R. J., Van Soest, P. J., McDowell, R. E., and Perez, C. B. 1974. Intake, digestibility and metabolic loss of Napier grass by cattle and buffaloes when fed wilted, chopped and whole. Journal of Animal Science 39(2):423.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ibrovic, M., Cvetkovic, A., Smrcek, A., and Janevski, K. 1972. A contribution to the knowledge of metabolism of carotene and seasonal dynamics of vitamin A in the buffalo. Veterinaria 21(4) :511.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., Sidhu, G. S., and Moxin, A. L. 1962. Cellulose digestion in water buffaloes and Zebu cattle. Journal of Animal Science 21:1001.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1966. Effect of urea on the voluntary intake of wheat skew in Zebu cattle and the buffalo. Indian Veterinary Journal 43:880-886.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1969. Biochemical processes in the rumen. 111. Effect of different carbobydrates on in vitro digestion of cellulose and utilization of urea nikogen by rumen micro-organisms from zebu and buffalo. Indian Journal of Animal Science 39 :27-32.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1971a. Studies on the biochemical process in the rumen. Vl. In vivo digestion of cellulose in buffalo and cattle. Indian Veterinary Journal 48:267-271.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1971b. Studies on the biochemical process in the rumen. VII. In vitro digestion of cellulose in cattle and buffalo. Indian Veterinary Journal 48:583-586.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1972. Studies on the biochemical processes in the rumen. VIIL The significance of molar proportions of acetic and propionic acids in the rumen on the growth rate of buffalo and Zebu. Indian Veterinary Journal 49:995-1000.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Gill, R. S., Makkar, G. S., and Ranjan, S. K. 1977. Work done on buffalo nutrition in India-a review. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 30(3): 173-191.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Langar, P. N., Sidhu, G. S., and Bhatia, I. S. 1969. Utilization of nitrogen and production of volatile fatty acids in the rumina of buffalo (Bos bubalis) and zebu (Bos indicus) at different time intervals, under a feeding regimen deficient in carbohydrates. Indian Veterinary Journal 46:593-598.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ludri, R. S., and Razdan, M. N. 1975. Effect of level and source of dietary nitrogen on water metabolism in cows and buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 28:107109.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ludri, R. S., and Razdan, M. N. 1980. Efficiency of nitrogen utilization by Zebu cows and buffaloes. I. Nutrient utilization and nitrogen balances on preformed protein diets. TropicalAgriculture (Trinidad) 57:83-90. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1964. The fractionation of carbohydrates in Indian feedstuffs and the digestion of different fractions in the rumina of cattle and buffalo. Journal of Research, Ludhiana 1:56-66.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Misra, R. K., and Ranhoka, G. S. 1969. Influence of energy levels on the utilization of peanut protein-urea nikogen by cattle and buffalo. Journal of Animal Science 28: 107-109.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mullick, D. N. 1964. Review of the investigations on the physiology of Indian buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Saience 17:45-50.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Naga, M. A., El-Shazly, K., Deif, H. I., Abaza, M. A., and El-Faham, R. H. 1975. Relationship between nitrogen balance, digested nitrogen and dry matter digestibility in ruminants. Journal of Animal Science 40(2):366-373.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nangia, O. P., Aggarwal, V. K., and Singh, A. 1972. Studies on the utilization of dietary protein in cattle and buffaloes. Indian Joumal of Dairy &amp;ience 25: 1-5.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nascimento C. N. B., Moura Carvalho, L. O. D., and Lourenco, J. B. 1979. Importdneia do Bufaio para a Pecubria Brasileira. Agricultural Research Center for Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem, Para, Brazil.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nascimento, C. N. B., and Velga, J. B. 1973. Weight gains in stabled buffaloes of the Mediterranean breed. Boletim Tecnico do Instituto de Pesqutsas e Experimentacao Agropecuarias do Norte 58:24-72.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ponnappa, G. G., Nooruddin, M. D., and Raghavan, G. V. 1971. Rate of the passage of food and its relation to digestibility of nutrients in Murrah buffaloes and Hariana cattle. Indian Journal of Animal Science 41:1026-1030.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Punj, M. L., Kochar, A. S., Bhatia, I. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1968. In vitro studies on the cellulolytic activity and production of volatile fatty acids by the inocula obtained from the rumen of Zebu cattle and Murrah buffalo on different feeding regimens. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 38 :325-332.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raghavan, G. V., Kakkar, B., Rao, M. V. N., and Mullick, D. N. 1963. Effects of air temperature and humidity on the metabolism of food nutrients in cattle and buffalo bulls. Annals of Biochemistry and Experimental Medicine 23 :23-28.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ray, S. N., and Mudgal, V. D. 1962. Rumen metabolism studies in cattle and buffalo. Proceedings of the 16th International Dairy Congress, Copenhagen. A:105-l11.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahai, L., Johri, P. N., and Kehar, N. D. 1955. Effect of feeding alkali and water-treated cereal straws on milk yield. Indfan Journal of Veterinary Science 25:201-212.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saini, B. S., and Ray, S. N. 1964. Comparative utilization of coarse fodders in cattle and buffalo. Annual Report of the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schottler, J. H., Boromana, A., and Williams, W. T. 1977. Comparative performance of cattle and buffalo on the Sepik Plains, Papua New Guinea.AustralianJournal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 17(87) :550 -554. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sebastian, L., Mudgal, V. D., and Nair, P. G. 1970. Comparative efficiency of milk production by Sahiwal cattle and Murrah buffalo. Joumal of Animal Science 30:253256.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, C. B., and Mugdal, V. D. 1966. Studies on the lignin and cellulose contents of fedder crops and effect of lignification of cellulose digestion. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 19:100.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sidbu, G. S., Kochar, A. S., and Makkar, G. S. 1967. Effect of supplementing Bajra stalks with lucerne and concentrates and their part replacement by urea on the production of volatile fatty acids in the rumen of cows and buffaloes. Journal of Research, Ludhiana 4:104-110.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, B. K., and Mudgal, V. D. 1967. The comparative utilization of feed nutrients from lucerne hay in buffalo and crossbred zebu heifers. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 20: 142-145.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tandon, R. N.' Sharma, D. D., and Mugdal, V. D. 1972. Effect of feeding urea with different levels of energy on the biochemical changes in the rumen of cows and buffaloes. Indian Journal of Animal Science 42: 174-179  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Upadhyaya, R. S., Singh, U. B., and Ranjhan, S. K. 19i3. Digestibilit of nutrients and VFA concentation in zebu cattle and buffalo calves fed on green cowpea and maize. Indian Journal of Animal Science 43 :5 83-s 88.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Verma, M. L., Sidhu, G. S., and Kochar, A. S. 1968. Effect of frequency on the production of VFA in the rumen by zebu cattle and buffalo. Journal of Research, Ludhiana 5(3) :1 -6.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Verma, M. L., Singh, N., Sidhu, G. S., Kochar, A. S., and Bhatia, I. S. 1970. The in vitro cellulose digestion and VFA production from some of the common Indian feeds using rumen inocula from Zebu cattle and buffalo. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 23:155 -160. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">7 Health</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When compared with other domestic livestock, the water buffalo generally is a healthy animal. This is particularly impressive because most of them live in hot, humid regions that are conducive to disease, and the buffalo is a bovine susceptible to most diseases and parasites that afflict cattle. Although the reasons are not specifically known, the effect of disease on the buffalo and its productivity is often less deleterious than on cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antibiotics and vaccines developed for cattle work equally well on buffaloes. As a result, treatments are available for most of the serious diseases of buffaloes, although some are not very effective for either animal.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The greatest buffalo losses are often among calves. Newborn buffalo calves, like bovine calves, can succumb in large numbers to viruses, bacteria, and poor nutrition. This is largely due to poor management during the calf's frst 2 months of life. For example, as noted previously, villagers in some countries often sell the valuable buffalo milk, thus depriving the calves.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo calf losses are often similar to those of the cattle around them, but the animal's proclivity for wallowing exposes calves to waterborne diseases. Further, a young one occasionally drowns when an adult rolls on top of it.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reactions to some specific diseases and parasites are discussed below.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pasteurellosis- Probably the water buffalo's most serious disease, pasteurellosis, or hemorrhagic septicemia, is caused by the bacterium Pasteurella multocida (P. septica). Buffaloes are more susceptible to it than cattle and die in large numbers where pasteurellosis occurs. A vaccine against pasteurellosis is effective in protecting both buffaloes and cattle; it is cheap and easily made.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tuberculosis- Despite some claims to the contrary, the water buffalo is susceptible to the bovine strain of tuberculosis (Alycobacterium bovis). Scattered reports from different parts of India indicate no difference in the incidence of infection between cattle and buffaloes(Information supplied by S. K. Misra, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India).  Other strains of mycobacteria have been isolated from feral buffaloes and cattle in northern Australia but seem to have little effect on the animals. Tuberculosis occurs among the buffalo herds of the world only because most are kept under unsanitary conditions(In 1905 buffaloes were introduced to Trinidad because the cattle herds (Zebu and srahman breeds) were infected with tuberculosis and, in those days, it was thought that buffaloes were resistant to the disease. Most were housed in muddy, ill-kept pens and forced to eat sugarcane tops off the ground; consequently, in 1949 over 30 percent of the buffaloes reacted to the tuberculin test. (The cattle herds had 80 percent reactors.) Tuberculosis was eliminated in Trinidad's buffaloes by improving the sanitary conditions: installing concrete floors and mangers and cleaning the pens regularly. This, together with regular tuberculin testing and removal of reactors, led to such a dramatic improvement that buffalo tuberculosis is now virtually unknown. -Information supplied by S. K. Bennett.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brucellosis-Buffaloes and cattle are equally susceptible to brucellosis. Although seldom reported as a problem elsewhere, brucellosis in Venezuela is increasing more rapidly among buffaloes than among cattle. In India the disease is no more prevalent among buffaloes than among cattle.  As many as 57 percent of some Venezuelan herds are infected with the disease. It is a frequent cause of abortion in buffaloes. Serologic procedures and measures developed for the control of the disease in cattle are also effective means of curbing this infection in buffaloes. (Consumption of raw milk or contact with aborted fetuses may cause undulant fever in humans.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mastitis- Among milking buffaloes mastitis is a problem as it is in dairy cows, but to a lesser extent. It is likely to increase, however, as the milk production per individual buffalo is increased. The bacteria that cause mastitis in the buffalo are similar to those in cattle. Treatment and control programs used for cattle are equally effective for buffaloes.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Diseases -Among the epizootic diseases, rinderpest and piroplasmosis seem to affect buffaloes as much as cattle. Foot-and-mouth disease also affects buffaloes, but to a lesser degree than cattle, producing smaller lesions and having a lower incidence. In northern Australia buffaloes deliberately infected with bovine pleuropneumonia bacteria exhibited slight fever, but the disease never appeared. No naturally occurring eases have been reported in buffaloes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ticks -Buffaloes are notably resistant, although not immune, to ticks. In a tick-infested area of northern Australia only 2 engorged female ticks were found on 13 adult buffaloes during a 2-year test. Accordingly, healthy buffaloes are not commonly affected by diseases borne by ticks nor are the hides damaged by their bites. Since ticks are rarely found on buffaloes, anaplasmosis, theileriasis, and babesiosis, which are tick-borne, have little effect on buffaloes in the field. (Buffaloes and cattle are equally susceptible, however, if inoculated with East Coast fever, a form of theileriasis.) This is important because tick infestations in cattle are particularly troublesome in the tropics and the pesticides used to control them are becoming ineffective as the ticks develop resistance. The pesticides are also becoming expensive.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The basis of the buffalo's tick resistance is not known, but wallowing and rubbing may play a role in it; animals kept in experimental concrete pens in Australia have developed heavy tick infestation. (rials carried out on Magnetic Island by R. H. V/harton, Commonwealth Scientiflc and Industrial Research Organisation, Townsville, Queensland, Australia). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p68to69.png"></center><br>
+ Table 6 Some Infections and Parasites of Buffalo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Screwworm- Larvae of the screwworm fly (Callitroge species), a major pest of livestock in Central and South America and some other tropical areas, do not affect adult water buffalo. In Venezuelan areas where cattle (Zebu type) are severely infested, adult water buffaloes are virtually free of screwworm larvae and the umbilicus of newborn calves seldom if ever becomes infected. ( Information supplied by A. Ferrer). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The same is true in Papua New Guinea. It is thought that the mud plaster produced by wallowing suffocates the larvae, but in India screwworms do not affect water buffaloes either, and there they wallow in fairly clear water and the farmer usually washes them off. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roundworm- The heavy losses of young buffalo calves throughout the world are caused, in large measure, by the roundworm Toxocara vitulorum. The calves seem more susceptible than mature animals and they become infected before birth or within 24 hours after birth through the mother's colostrum. The roundworm is the most serious buffalo parasite and in untreated calves the small intestine can get packed with worms to the point of complete occlusion. Although huge numbers of calves die each year, anthelmintic drugs that control roundworms are highly effective and widely available.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The adult water buffalo appears to have a high degree of resistance to strongyloid nematodes. Being such excellent converters of rough fodders they do not suffer the nutritional deficiency and the resulting liability to these roundworms experienced seasonally by cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liver Fluke- During wallowing, water buffaloes can easily become infected with the waterborne infective stages of liver fluke (Fasciola gigantica). Although the number of flukes in a buffalo may be phenomenally high, no clinical signs of the disease are usually evident. It seems likely that the resulting liver damage reduces the growth and the work and milk production of buffaloes more than is generally appreciated.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trypanosomiasis- The water buffalo is susceptible to trypanosomiasis and is reportedly more susceptible than cattle to Trypanosoma evansi.Experience with the animal in Africa is limited, but trypanosomiasis may be the reason why Egypt is the only African country that has traditionally employed water buffalo.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Parasites- The wallow and its resulting mud cake seem to protect water buffalo from many biting flies, but the main ectoparasite in Australia and Southeast Asia is the buffalo fly (Siphona spp.). Pediculosis, caused by the sucking louse (Hematopinus tuberculatus), occurs widely among buffalo, and sarcoptic mange (Sarcoptes scabiei var. bubalus) is a serious disease, especially among calves and during dry seasons when wallowing opportunities are restricted. The lung worm Dictyocaulus ririparus thrives in warm, humid areas and sometimes infects buffaloes heavily, although its outward manifestations are rare.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barlow, J. N. 1977. Toxicology and safety evaluation of Phosvel to Egyptian water buffalo. Pages 517-522 in: Pesticide Management and Insecticide Resistance, edited by D. L. Watson and A. W. A. Brown. Academic Press, New York, New York, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhowmik, M. K., and Iyer, P. K. R. 1977. Studies on the pathology of chronic lesions in the mammary glands of buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). 1. Actinomycosis, nocardiosis and lesions simulating tuberculosis. Indian Veterinary Journal 54(5):342-346.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhowmik, M. K., Singh, S. P., and Iyer, P. K. R. 1977. Studies on chronic mastisis in buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). lndian Journal of Animal Health 16(2) :157-160.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1974. Aspects of disease. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dhar, S., Bhattacharyulu, Y., and Gautam, O. P. 1973. Susceptibility of Indian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) to Theileria annulata infection. Haryana Agricultural University Journal of Research 3(1):27-30.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwivedi, S. K., Mallick, K. P., and Malhotra, M. N. 1979. Babesiosis: clinical cases in Indian water buffaloes. Indian Veterinary Journal 56(4):333-335.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Griffiths, R. B. 1974. Parasites and parasitic diseases. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hafez, S. M., and Krauss, H. 1979. Detection of antibodies against some respiratory pathogens in the sera of domestic animals in Egypt. Bulletin of Animal Health and Production in Africa 27(3):209-214.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ho, T. M. 1976. Animal disease control program in Republic of China for better animal production. Korean Journal of Animal Science 18(4):317-321.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iannelli, D. 1978. Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis Arnee) allotypes: identification of a multiple allelic system. Animal Blood Groups and Biochemical Genetics 9(2):105113.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kapur, M. P., and Singh, R. P. 1977. Diagnosis of mastitis: a comparative study of four indirect tests.Haryana Veterinarian 16(2):69-73.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leue, A. 1971. Buffaloes in Nepal. Tierartliche Umschau 26(4):173-178.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohan, R. N. 1968. Diseases and parasites of buffaloes. I. Viral, mycoplasmal, and rickettsial diseases. II. Bacterial and fungal diseases. III. Parasitic and miscellaneous diseases. Veterinary Bulletin 38:567-576, 647-659, 735-756.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murthy, D. K., and Sharma, S. K. 1974. Studies on reactivity and immunogenecity of cell-culture rinderpest vaccine in different species of ruminants. Indian Journal of Animal Science 44(6):359-365.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Agustin, F. 1973. Important diseases and parasites of Carabaos. Philippine Journal of Nutrition 26(2):68-79.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schneider, C. R., Kitikoon, V., Sornmani, S., and Thiachantra, S. 1975. Mekong schistosomiasis. III. A parasitological survey of domestic water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) on Khong Island, Laos. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 69(2):227-232.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, K. N. S., Jain, D. K,, and Noble, D. 1975. Calf mortality in pure and crossbred Zebu cattle and Murrah buffaloes reared artificially from birth. Animal Production 20(2):207-211.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, S. K., Banegee, D. P., and Gautam, O. P. 1978. Anaplasma marginale infection in Indian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Indian Journal of Animal Health 17(2): 105-110.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shaw, J. J., and Lainson, R. 1972. Trypanosoma vivax in Brazil. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 66(1):25-32.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shukla, R. R., and Singh, G. 1972. Studies on tuberculosis amongst Indian buffaloes. Indian Veterinary Journal 49(2):119-123.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soni, J. L. 1978. Suitability of different serological tests for diagnosis of brucellosis in buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). Indian Journal of Animal Science 48(12) :873-881. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tantawi, H. H., Fayed, A. A., Shalaby, M. A., and Skalinsky, E. I. 1979. Isolation, cultivation and characterization of poxviruses from Egyptian water buffaloes .Journal of the Egyptian Veterinary Medical Association 37(4):15-23.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thomson, D. 1977. Diseases of water buffalo in the Northern Territory of Australia. Australian Veterinary Practioner 7(1):50-52.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young, P. L. 1979. Infection of water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) with bovine ephemeral fever virus. Australian Veterinary Journal 55(7):349-350. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">8 Reproduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo has a reputation for being a sluggish breeder, but the average animal is so poorly fed that its reproductive performance is unrepresentative of its capabilities. Without reasonable nutrition the animals cannot reach puberty as early in life or reproduce as regularly as their physiology or genetic capability would normally allow.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Actually, adequately nourished buffaloes reach puberty at about the same age as cattle, as early as 18 months of age in buffalo bulls. In northern Australia Swamp females have conceived even as early as 14 months of age and feral buffaloes routinely conceive at 16 months of age. In the herd at Punjab Agricultural University in Ludhiana, India, 11 River buffalo heifers showed estrus at ages less than 18.5 months and a few came into heat when less than 15 months old. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo also can calve at an age comparable to that of cattle. At the Ain Shams University in Egypt a well-fed Egyptian buffalo herd of several hundred animals has an average age at first calving of 27 months, 22 days(Information supplied by M. El Ashry. Because of nutritional uncertainties, El Ashry and his colleagues believe that body weight is a better indicator of sexual preparedness than age is. These researchers at Ain Shams University recommend mating heifers when they weigh 365 kg no matter what their age. Research at Punjab Agricultural University shows that buffalo heifers can be bred when they weigh over 270 kg and manifest estrus).Most animals in the Punjab Agricultural University River buffalo herd calved before 35 months, one at 28.3 months.! In one Venezuelan herd almost all heifers 20-24 months old were pregnant; virtually all calved before age 38 months, most by 30 months, and one at age 23 months. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In trials in Queensland, Australia, and in Papua New Guinea buffaloes produced more calves over a 3-year period than the cattle tested with them. In the hot, humid Sepik Plains in northern Papua New Guinea it was noticed that female buffaloes (Swamp breed) came into estrus even while they were losing weight because of inadequate nutrition, whereas cattle did not. Under these stressful conditions the buffalo calves also reached sexual maturity earlier and the buffaloes had a higher calving percentage and a shorter calving interval because they came back into estrus more quickly than cattle(Information supplied by J. Schottler. The age at first calving of more than 60 nutritionally poor buffaloes was 38 months in one herd and 45 months for Brahman cross cattle) . Similar observations have been made in Florida, Trinidad, the Brazilian Amazon, Venezuela, and elsewhere. Although these are exceptions to the normal observations in Asia, where buffaloes seem to breed more slowly than cattle, they do demonstrate the buffalo's potential for improved breeding.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estrus in buffalo cows usually lasts about 24 hours, but duration varies and may range from 11 to 72 hours. It occurs on an average 21-day cycle. Determination of when a cow is in estrus is difficult because often the animal shows few outward signs of "heat." This increases the chances of missing a cycle, especially for artificial insemination. Unclean surroundings, poor nutrition, and poor management, cause a high death rate among calves; this also contributes to the buffalo's often low reproductive rate.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many areas, calving is seasonal. This seems to be largely due to changes in nutrition. It may also be caused by heat stress, in either males or females, which results in a low breeding rate during the hot season. However, when buffalo cows are well fed, they come into estrus and will breed in any season.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many matings take place at night and are therefore unobserved. In one set of pregnancy diagnoses in northern Australia, the buffalo's conception rate (81 percent) was higher than that of the Brahman crossbreeds (70 percent) they were with. In India, artificial insemination of water buffaloes began in the late 1950s. Deep-frozen semen is now available and its use is spreading. Overall conception rates of 70-80 percent are obtained. It is estimated that some 100,000 buffaloes are now being artificially inseminated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo's gestation period is about one month longer and is more variable than that of cattle. Whereas cattle give birth after about 280 days (Angus, 279, Holstein, 279-280, Brown Swiss, 286), buffaloes take 300334 days (average 310) or roughly 10 months and 10 days (differences between breeds are unknown). In Punjab, India, River buffaloes have been observed to come into estrus as early as 40 days after calving. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nonetheless, only under uncommon circumstances can a buffalo cow produce a calf each year. In one herd of 800 cows in Venezuela the average female buffalo over age 4 produces 2 calves every 3 years. In response to a recent questionnaire, the majority of Indonesian farmers estimated that the calving rate was between 3 and 4 calves in 5 years. A few claimed a calf a year, some only 1 or 2 calves In 5 years. In Florida it has been noted that some buffalo cows having just calved became pregnant more quickly than cattle, so that a calf may indeed be produced each year. Regular yearly breeding has been noted also in northern Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The incidence of abortion, dystocia, retained placenta, and other parturition problems in buffaloes is similar to that in cattle. Twinning is very rare; probably no more than 0.01 percent of buffalo pregnancies produce twins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Preliminary results in northern Australia indicate that weaning can be carried out as late as 12 months of age without any effect on conception time of the buffalo dam.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhattacharya, P. 1974. Reproduction. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chauhan, F. S., Singh, N., and Singh, M. 1977. Involution of uterus and cervix in buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 30(4):286-291.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eusibio, A. N. 1975. Breeding, management and feeding practices of buffaloes in the Philippines. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Animal Production and Health Paper. 1979. Buffalo Reproduction and Artificial Insemination. Proceedings of the Seminar Sponsored by FAO/SIDA/Government of India, held at National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132001-India, December 4-15, 1978. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghanem, Y. S. 1955a. Environmental causes of variation in the length of gestation of buffaloes. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 25 :301-311.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghanem, Y. S. 1955b. Genetic causes of variation in the length of gestation of buffaloes. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 25:307-311.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health, E., and Gupta, R. 1976. Ultrastructure of water buffalo (Bos bubalis) spermatozoa. Zentralblatt fuer Veterinaerrnedizin 23(2):106-120.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu, C. H. 1978. The preliminary results of crossbreeding of buffaloes in China. Research Institute for Animal Science of Kwangsi, People's Republic of China.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matharoo, J. S., and Singh, M. 1980. Revivability of buffalo spermatozoa after deepfreezing the semen using various extenders. Zentralblatt fuer Veterinaermedizin 27(5): 385-391.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rao, A. V. N., Murthy, T. S., and Dutt, K. L. 1979. Effect of lunar cyclicity on oestrus rhythmicity in the Indian water buffalo. Livestock Advisor 4(7):29-30.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rawal, C. V. S. 1978. A study on correlations of weight of pituitary gland and reproductive organs in males of Indian water buffalo. Indian Journal of Heredity 10(3):11-12.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977. Livestock in Indonesia. Research Report No. 1. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia. (In English and Indonesian.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roy, A. 1974. Observations on the physiology of reproduction. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. CockrilL Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahai, R., and Singhal, R. A. 1977. The sex chromatin profile of water buffaloes of Murrah breed. Indian Journal of Animal &amp;Science 11(2):63-67.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, A. 1978. Studies on the process of spermatogenesis and epididymal sperm reserve in water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Thesis Abstracts, Haryana Agricultural University 4(4):331.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, M., Matharoo, J. S., and Chauhan, F. S. 1980. Preliminary fertility results with frozen buffalo semen in Tris extender. Theriogenology 13(3):191-194.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, N., Chauhan, F. S., and Singh, M. 1979. Postpartum ovarian activity and fertility in buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Sefence 32(2): 134-139.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sunkaporn Ratanadilok Na Puket. 1975. The improvement of buffalo production through breeding and management under Thailand conditions. In: Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Takkar, P. O., Chauhan, F. S., Tiwana, M. S., and Singh, M. 1979. Breeding behaviour of buffalo cows. Indian Veterinary Journal 56: 168-172.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toelihere, M. R. 1975. Physiology of reproduction and artificial insemination of water buffaloes. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1968. Incidence of calving and birth weights of domesticated buffalo in the Northern Territory. Proceedings of the Australian Society for Animal Productlon 7: 144-147.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1979. The water buffalo in Australia: reproductive and parent-offspring behaviour of buffalo. Australian Wildlife Research 6:265-287. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">9 Management</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are adaptable and are managed in many ways. In general, they are raised like cattle. But in some operations they must be handled differently. This chapter highlights these differences.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Millions of water buffaloes are managed in "backyards" in Asia. They exist on the resources of small holdings. Management and expenditures are minimal. Care of the family buffalo is usually entrusted to children, old people, or women not engaged in other farm duties; the buffalo allows them to be useful and productive.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo fits the resources available on the farm, but it is also an urban animal. Thousands of herds of 2-20 buffaloes may be found in the cities and towns of India, Pakistan, and Egypt-all fed, managed, and milked in the streets.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, the buffalo has important qualities as a feedlot animal; it can be herded and handled with relative ease because of its placid nature. The Anand Cooperative in India's Gujarat State, which daily contributes thousands of gallons of milk to Operation Flood (the world's largest nutrition project), involves more than 150,000 Surti buffaloes that are fed, managed, and milked by their owners under feedlot-like conditions in their villages. Many of Italy's 100,000 buffaloes are maintained under similar conditions.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes can also be managed on rangelands. In Brazil, Venezuela, Trinidad, the United States, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and elsewhere there is rising interest in raising buffalo beef on the range. The production practices for raising them are similar to those used for range cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes in the humid tropics must be able to cool off. Shade trees are desirable, and although a wallow is not essential, it is probably the most effective way the animal has of coping with heat. Alternatively, water showers may be provided to wet down the animals 3-5 times during the hottest part of the day.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are intelligent animals. Young ones learn patterns quickly and often are reluctant to change their habits. Feral animals-even those born in the wild-tame down after a week or two in a fenced enclosure to the point where many can be handled, haltered, and hand fed(In one example, loo feral buffalo were captured in Northern Territory, Australia. With in 14 days all the animals-males and females, young and old-had become docile and amenable to handling. -Information supplied by D. G. Tulloch) . Among feral herds of northern Australia it has been observed that buffaloes have clans and families. A female calf seems to remain with its family and mother for many years (possibly for life). A male calf stays until it is about 2 years old, when it is driven from the group by an adult bull. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has also been noted in northern Australia that free-ranging buffaloes instinctively select clean water areas to drink from, other areas to wallow in, and still others as "toilet areas." In addition, China's buffaloes reportedly are being "toilet trained" to defecate only at specific sites to avoid contaminating waterways with schistosome eggs.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another interesting observation from northern Australia is that most buffalo dams readily adopt a calf that has been orphaned by the death of its mother. In fact, females will allow several calves to nurse (including calves of other mothers and sometimes even adults).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are also self-reliant. For several months each year in Vietnam and Malaysia, for instance, they are turned loose in the forests to fend for themselves.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Provision of adequate fencing is one of the great problems of buffalo management. The  animals have strong survival instincts and if feed runs short, such as in the dry season,  they will break through fences that would deter cattle who would remain and starve. They  will also break through fences if their family unit is split up. Barriers must be stronger  than those used for cattle and the wires closer together and lower to the ground because  buffaloes lift fences up with their horns rather than trample them down. In northern  Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Costa Rica it has been found that buffaloes are  particularly sensitive to electric fences (a single wire is all that is needed), and in Brazil a  special suspension fence has been devised(Moura Carvalho et al., 1979). Both of these  seem to be cheap and efficient answers to the fencing problem.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are easily handled from horseback and easily worked through a corral.  Actually, because of their docility they can be mustered on foot, even on ranges where  cattle require horses. Unless they come from different areas they tend to herd together  and can be mustered like sheep.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the major management adjustments to be made by cattlemen is understanding  and capitalizing on the buffalo's placid nature. Buffaloes are naturally timid and startle  easily; they must be handled quietly and calmly. Rough handling, wild riding, and loud  shouting make handling them more difficult and training them much harder.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village buffaloes are led and managed by a ring threaded through the septum between  the nostrils. The technique is frequently applied crudely and cruelly, often resulting in a  ripped septum.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The identification of individual buffaloes is difficult. Fire brands do not remain legible on  the skin for long. Cryobranding (freeze branding) is more durable. Most types of ear tags  are not very successful; the numbers wear off and mud covers up the tag's color. In  northern Australia ear tattooing has been the most successful identification technique,  with tattoos remaining legible for at least 8 years(Between 1958 and 1962 hundreds of  Australian buffalo were shipped on the hoof to the meat markets in Hong Kong without  trouble, despite crowded shipboard conditions and the long sea voyage. But in 1962 one  roughly treated bull went berserk in Hong Kong and killed a handler, and the Hong Kong  authorities stopped the trade as a result, although the problem was really one of  mismanagement. Buffalo have since been sent by air from Australia to Venezuela,  Nigeria, and Papua New Guinea and by barge to Papua New Guinea. No handling  problems have been experienced en route).  When they pasture together, cattle and  buffaloes coexist satisfactorily. They segregate themselves into their own groups and do  not interfere with one another. The buffaloes, however, usually dominate the cattle and  tend to monopolize the areas with the best feed supply.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feed troughs and mineral boxes used for cattle are suitable for buffaloes, but chutes and  crushes must be widened to accommodate the buffalo's broader body and, when  necessary, the Swamp buffalo's greater horn spread. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are powerful  swimmers. In Brazil they have been known to escape by swimming down the Amazon River. An unusual management difficulty is caused by piranha in the rivers and swamps of Venezuela. In one herd of 100 heifer buffaloes, 40 have lost all or part of a teat to these voracious fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The horns of water buffaloes are seldom removed or prevented from growing, a  testament to the animal's docility. (When questioned, one Thai villager said that he wouldn't  allow it because it would be a disgrace to the buffalo.) However, the animals can be  dehorned as calves in the same manner as cattle. They are then easier to handle In  chutes and cause less accidental injury to neighboring animals, handlers, walls, and  trees.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benya, E. G. 1972. Cattle and buffalo production in Vietnam. Dairy Science Mimeo  Report, Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, Gainesville, Florida, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1974. Management, conservation and use. In: The Husbandry and Health  of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of  the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">De Boer, A. J. 1976. A further report on the Taiwan livestock industry: general policy  conclusions and further research needs. Journal of Agricultural Economics 19:116129.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lin, C. H. 1975. The breeding, management and feeding of water buffaloes in Taiwan. In:  The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon  Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei,  Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McDowell, R. E. 1972. Improvement of Livestock Production in Warm Climates. W. H.  Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moura Carvalho, L. O. D., LouIenco, J. B., Nascimento, C. N. B., and Costa, N. A. 1979.  Cerca de Contencao pare Bubalinos e Bovinos. Comunicado Tecnico No. 28,  Agricultural Research Center for the Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem, Para, Brazil.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rufener, W. H. 1975. Management and productive performance of water buffalo in  northeast Thailand. In: The Asiatic TVater Buffalo. Proceedings of an International  Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer  Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1978. The water buffalo in Australia: grouping and home range. Australian  Wildlife Research 5:327-354.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1979. Redomestication of water buffaloes in the Northern Territory of  Australia. Animal Regulation Studies 2(1):5-20.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">10 Environmental Effects</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The grazing and wallowing habits of water buffaloes may have unexpected consequences when the animals are introduced to new, perhaps fragile environments. The presence of several thousand feral buffaloes on the coastal plains of northern Australia, for example, has become a very emotional issue among Australian environmentalists, some of whom foretell the complete destruction of the environment if the uncontrolled feral herds are not destroyed( It is not at all clear, however, that the buffaloes (which have existed in the area for 150 years) are causing the observed environmental degradation. Other possibilities include: fire, climatic stress, overgrazing, and a variety of farming, hunting, and other human activities, especially the use of four-wheel-drive vehicles. Thousands of wild pigs also share the area, along with crayfish that burrow into and weaken the levees that keep out the sea, something for which the buffaloes have been blamed). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil Compaction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes have larger hooves than cattle of comparable size and thus they compact the soil less. But buffaloes often live in damp, boggy areas where their feet may compact soft soils. Also, buffaloes are creatures of habit and, when able, they set up fixed points for drinking, feeding, defecating, wallowing, and sleeping. Between the points they wear sharply defined trails in the vegetation and soil.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wallowing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Possibly the water buffalo's greatest environmental limitation is its propensity to build wallows. In hot climates every buffalo will wallow at some time during the heat of the day if water is available. When they can, buffaloes will make their own wallows, enlarging a mud puddle by rolling in it or even using their heads to flip water out of a drinking trough and muddying the ground nearby.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pasture in the immediate area of the wallow is usually damaged by trampling and waterholes may become fouled, but buffaloes return to the same wallow day after day and do not build new ones indiscriminately. Thus, the muddied area is not a large proportion of the location in which they graze unless a large number of animals are confined in a small space(At Gainesville, Florida (possibly because of its subtropical but not hot climate), a herd of 52 buffaloes concentrated in a one-hectare field did not attempt to build a wallow at ale -Information supplied by H. Popenoe.) . In addition, man-made wallows can be dug at safe sites and the animals will use them. The problem of wallowing is therefore not generally a serious one.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Damage to Waterways</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because buffaloes often live near and enter water freely, they may cause erosion in ditches, river banks, canals, and levees. Also, their wallowing muddies the water, which may adversely affect some fish species and reduce the growth of algae. Buffaloes commonly urinate and defecate in the water, possibly creating a pollution hazard, although in most situations this contamination is likely to be minor.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The presence of this herbivore in natural waterways may reduce the number of water plants. Some plants are trampled, some eaten, and some underwater species are suppressed because the muddied water transmits less light. This (and several other of the buffalo's environmental effects) can be turned to advantage (see picture page 85) when, as often occurs, aquatic plants grow out of control and become obnoxious weeds.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Damage to Pastures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes have very strong jaws, and when forage is sparse they graze it close to the ground; this overgrazing can destroy a pasture. In addition, they eat virtually all available plant material (including many species that cattle shun), so that a densely stocked pasture can become completely defoliated. In northern Australia it has been found that, with time, buffaloes become accustomed to a given pasture, and unless fences are strong they will instinctively return to it until the forage has been depleted.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo's inclination to eat many plants can be used to improve the environment and suppress growth of coarse weedy species of plants. On the Sepik Plains in Papua New Guinea buffaloes are being used to graze and suppress sedges (Cyperus species), as a result, the more desirable Paspalum species are beginning to appear. At Mount Bundy in northern Australia native pastures are being improved on a commercial scale by overstocking them with buffaloes. The animals reduce or completely eliminate spear grass and other weeds-even those with thorns-and thus foster the survival and growth of introduced forage legumes such as stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis). In Sri Lanka buffaloes have been used to graze out the vigorous tropical grass Imperata cylindrica.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Damage to Trees</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes instinctively rub against trees (and walls and fences), eagerly browse leaves, and sometimes nibble bark, so they damage trees more so than cattle. In northern Australia it has been noted that each "family herd" of feral buffaloes selects one or two trees for rubbing against so that the rubbing damage is confined to them. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rajapske, G., 1950. Death of illuk. Ceylon Coconut Quarterly, 1:7-9.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1969. Home range in feral water buffalo. Australian Journal of Zoology 17:143-152.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1970. Seasonal movement and distribution of the sexes in the water buffaloes in the Northern Territory. Australian Journal of Zoology 18:399-414.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1975. Buffalo in the northern swamplands. Proceedings III of the World Conference on Animal Production. Theme 1, Paper 7.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1977. Some aspects of the ecology of the water buffalo in the Northern Territory. In: The Australian buffalo-a collection of papers, edited by B. D. Ford and D. G. Tulloch. Technical Bulletin No. 18, Department of the Northern Territory, Animal Industry and Agriculture Branch, Australian Government Printing Service, Canberra, Australia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">11 Recommendations and Research Needs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has outlined the water buffalo's apparent merits, but most of the statements made about the animal are based on empirical observations. Many of its most exciting and potentially valuable features have not been subjected to the careful scrutiny needed to confirm their validity.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the fact that there are 130 million or more water buffalo in the world, research on the animal is scanty and limited to only a few situations and sites. Quantitative information (especially for the various breeds), tests, trials, and comparison studies are needed.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The research to be done on the water buffalo offers scientific challenges that can be undertaken in laboratories and experiment stations in most parts of the world and in many disciplines: breeding, physiology, microbiology, veterinary science, nutrition, food science, dairy science, and other fields. Water buffalo research is an area worthy of financial support by philanthropic institutions and international development agencies concerned with problems of food and resource shortages. The dominant role of the buffalo in the rural economies of Egypt and Asian countries offers the opportunity for buffalo research that can bring improvements quickly and easily to the rural poor. For other countries the water buffalo is an untapped resource, and they should test its productivity on native pasturelands, marshy lowlands, hot and humid areas where cattle do not thrive, and on areas prone to cattle diseases and parasites that are difficult to control.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specific recommendations follow.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Comparison with Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal scientists worldwide should undertake trials to compare growth rate, feeding, nutrition, breeding, and other aspects of buffalo and cattle performance.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle and water buffaloes are obviously different animals. Each has its own limitations and advantages, and each deserves to be studied in its own right. Perhaps the quickest way for animal scientists to experience for themselves the merits of the water buffalo is to conduct their own comparative trials with buffaloes and cattle in their areas. The results will provide local guidance and will help extend recognition of the buffalo's value, especially under difficult conditions where it may exceed cattle in productivity and profitability.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Germ Plasm Preservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Urgent action is needed, especially in Southeast Asia, to preserve and protect outstanding buffalo specimens.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries (Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia, for example) buffalo populations are decreasing dramatically. High demands for meat are causing slaughter at younger and younger ages. Much of the meat is exported to restaurants and markets in Singapore and Hong Kong. Unfortunately, the largest and quickest growing animals are often selected for slaughter. This results in the loss of a major genetic resource, which is compounded by the practice of castrating the largest males to make them more tractable as work animals. Ten years ago in Thailand it was common to find buffalo weighing 1,000 kg; now it is hard to find 750-kg specimens. A similar situation exists in the Philippines where there is no dearth of good breeding stock, but butchers are paying such high prices that farmers are selling even quality animals for slaughter. In northern Australia, where some of the bulls weigh almost 1,200 kg, the largest animals are being shot for meat, hides, pet food, or sportsmen's trophies,  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A large number of high-yielding buffaloes are taken each year to big cities in India (for example, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras) for milking. At the end of lactation many are returned to the villages, but many others are slaughtered, rather than being fed and retired. This creates a huge loss of valuable germ plasm. In many locations most of the largest animals have already been lost. Only urgent action will protect those remaining.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Shipment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo quarantine stations should be organized in "disease-free" areas to develop buffalo germ plasm pools for international exchange.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The importation of buffaloes presents difficulties for any government, researcher, or farmer wishing to obtain the animals for the first time or for breeding purposes. Quarantine laws make it extremely difficult and expensive to exchange genetic resources.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia is one of the few nations where there are large numbers of water buffalo in an area free of the major animal diseases. Papua New Guinea, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria, Colombia, Venezuela, and other nations have taken advantage of this and have  imported Australian buffaloes. But Australian herds are all Swamp buffaloes(The island  of Guam is also a safe source of Swamp animals, although the feral herds there are  depleted, only 300 or 400 animals were left on Guam in 1978) and so breeding centers  should be set up also (in Sri Lanka and Italy perhaps) where importers can obtain  River-type (including Mediterranean) buffaloes.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetic Improvement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide efforts should be made to select superior buffalo bulls and cows for breeding.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Performance testing, leading to the mass selection of superior animals, deserves high  priority. Virtually all buffalo breeding is haphazard and unplanned. Village animals graze  together and matings are usually not con" trolled, observed, or recorded. Thus, the full  genetic potential of the water buffalo is not being realized.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A massive selection program is needed to bring about genetic progress. For each breed,  bulls and cows with the potential for improving production of meat and milk and  increasing draft power should be identified and used for breed improvement. However,  the wide variations between the characteristics of individual animals may make  exceptional genetic advances difficult to achieve quickly.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Important traits for culling and selection include behavior, temperament, reproduction  rate, easy milk letdown, average daily gain in weight or weight at a given age, carcass  quality (for example, large hindquarters), and milk production, as well as strength and  endurance for work.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossbreeding of Swamp and River buffaloes is a potentially important route to genetic  improvement. The progeny reportedly show hybrid vigor (heterosis) in milking ability,  fertility, meat production, and working ability. Infusing genes for high milk production into  the Swamp buffalo, now used mainly for meat and work, creates the potential for a  triple-purpose animal.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The use of artificial insemination and deep-frozen semen should be a major help in  upgrading the buffalo. Moreover, the transport of live embryos (rather than neonatal  animals) for implantation in the uterus of surrogate mothers could be important for water  buffalo. It seems unlikely, however, that buffalo embryos can be implanted in cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most genetic selections should be made in Asia where 97 percent of the world's water  buffaloes are located. The improvements will depend on how accurately bulls can be  identified, selected, and mated. Performance and  progeny testing is sorely needed at research stations as well as "on the farm." Governments should also institute bull-loan or artificial-insemination programs as a means for upgrading the village herds.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Comparison of Breeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The relative merits of the various buffalo breeds should be determined,  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little or no information is available on the comparative performance of the different buffalo breeds in various environments, especially the 17 or so River breeds in the Subcontinent and the Egyptian and Mediterranean breeds. Comparison trials of the breeds and breed-crosses are needed in a wide range of climates from the humid tropical to the temperate. In addition, the cytogenetic, immunogenetic, and inheritance relationships of breeds should be clarified.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel encourages countries such as India and Pakistan that have a number of buffalo breeds (for example, Murrah, Surti, Jafarabadi, Mehsana, and Nili/Ravi) to set up experimental farms for scientific reproduction of superior specimens. Substantial research benefits as well as profitable economic returns from using and exporting some of them would be realized.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meat and Milk Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and demonstration is needed to foster the widespread consumption of buffalo meat and milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk, cheese, and other dairy products are considered outstanding foods in all locations where they are produced. Taste tests so far have indicated that buffalo meat is similar or slightly superior to beef produced under the same conditions.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A specific need is to feed the male calves and use them for meat. Many are now slaughtered at a young age and light weight. Research that provides either a partial or complete milk substitute for feeding calves would have a major impact on meat supplies and farmer income. Diets being developed for calves in Egypt incorporate such ingredients as whey, soybean meal, corn flour (corn starch), and yeast.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other research topics include:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The effect of climate, thermoregulation, and wallowing on meat and milk production;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The meat characteristics of each of the breeds and the differences between them,  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Milk production and quality for each of the breeds;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Adapting buffaloes to machine milking by genetic selection or by designing new milking  machinery;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Developing new or improved milk products (such as yogurt, cottage cheese, and hard  cheese); and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Banking genetically superior germ plasm for later use.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Work Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel recommends research on new harnesses to replace the omnipresent yoke.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As already noted, the wooden yoke, which has not changed in 1,500 years or more, is an  inefficient harness. Research is needed to adapt horse collars, hames, breast straps,  and other devices for the buffalo. Because much of the farm power in Asia comes from  buffaloes, the impact of improved harness could be dramatic, widespread, and of  enormous value to millions of small farmers there. If the experiments in Thailand  described earlier are an indication, the farm power in Asia could be increased by 25  percent overnight with the adoption of an improved harness. The buffalo will continue to  be the small farmer's "tractor," so the benefits from improved harnesses are likely to  continue for a long time.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are 13 million buffalo and bullock carts in India and 20 million Indians are engaged  in the business of road haulage. Application of appropriate technology would eliminate  the archaic wooden wheels, axles, and heavy carts and substitute lightweight carts,  perhaps with such features as metal wheels, pneumatic tires, ball bearings, and fixed  axles. With such improvements, loads might be increased and hauled over longer  distances at greater speed and with less work.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trials in New Areas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Testing of water buffalo production is needed in many areas where the animal is not  known.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A seemingly adaptable animal, the water buffalo should be productive throughout the  earth's warm temperate, subtropical, and tropical zones. Different breeds may adapt  differently to extremes of heat, humidity, and cold, and this needs further study.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United States, the Mediterranean Basin of Europe, and some of the more temperate  European areas like southern England are worth considering for water buffalo trials. In the Southern Hemisphere River buffaloes are already found as far south as 25° latitude in Brazil's Sao Paulo State (where large herds are raised); an experimental herd of Swamp buffaloes has performed outstandingly in Brisbane, Australia (27°S); and there are a few Swamp buffalo in South Australia and Victoria (35°S or more). There is good reason to believe that water buffaloes may be productive in all of the states in Australia, New Zealand's North Island, South Africa, Argentina, and other warm temperate areas of the Southern Hemisphere.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biggest void in the water buffalo map is virtually the entire continent of Africa. It seems a paradox that the buffalo-Egypt's most important domestic animal-is not farmed commercially in any other African country. Experimental herds have been introduced to Nigeria, Uganda, Mozambique, Tanzania, and other countries in the past, and the initial success of three of them is described in Appendix A.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo, with its tolerance for heat, disease, poor-quality feed, and mismanagement, appears to have outstanding promise for African nations such as Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco, Senegal, and The Gambia as well as all nations south of the Sahara (Nambia perhaps being an exception).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More specific aspects of environmental tolerance deserving research attention are:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The physiology of the buffalo's response to heat, cold, humidity, and other environmental factors;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The effect of climate on growth, reproduction, milk production, health, respiration rate, behavior, and carcass quality; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Measurement of the calorific efficiency and chemical composition of all breeds of buffaloes and cattle to determine the environments best suited to each breed.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite observations of the buffalo's ability to utilize poor quality forage, research is needed to learn how the animal does it.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This research should:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establish the buffalo's nutrient requirements by breed, sex, age, and weight for maintenance, growth, reproduction, lactation, and work;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Determine voluntary forage consumption and the nutrient utilization of different forages in various stages of maturity;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Examine rumen microbiology and fermentation, the rate of digestion, production, and absorption of volatile fatty acids produced in the rumen, and utilization of energy, nitrogen, vitamins, and minerals; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Develop milk replacements for early~weaned calves;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Observe the current village-level feeding of low~uality forages to learn their nutrient requirements, nutrient deficiency diseases, and nutrient supplementation needed;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Study the utilization of concentrated, high-energy feeds (especially byproduct feeds) to determine the upper limits of buffalo growth and productivity (milk, meat, and work) and carcass quality;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Compare various breeds of water buffaloes and other ruminants to determine possible differences in nutritional requirements and performance; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Apply economic research to production practices, including night feeding of cut forage and the use of improved pastures.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research to improve management practices could benefit small farmers, ranchers, and feedlot feeders alike.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about the farm management factors that influence water buffalo productivity. Studies and extension literature for farmers are needed on subjects such as:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Proper fencing;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Procedures for dehorning and for preventing horn growth in calves;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Grazing management methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Preservation of forages;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Methods and effect of castration;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Methods and effect of spaying;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Breeding methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Milking methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Artificial insemination, methodology and use;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Methods of handling animals under grazing conditions or in feedlots;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Age for weaning under different conditions;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Mineral and protein supplementation methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Semen freezing;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Ova transplantation methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cryobranding and other methods of animal identification;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Control of internal parasites; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Disease prevention and treatments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed in areas where uncertainties about buffalo diseases are hindering  the animals' use.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The research should:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Develop control and management practices to prevent specific infections and parasites  for buffalo groups such as calves, yearlings, heifers, pregnant cows, newly calved cows,  and bulls;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Elucidate the factors (genetic, nutritional,management, disease) causing losses of  newly born calves;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Prevent and control the major diseases and parasites of the buffalo: hemorrhagic  septicemia, brucellosis, tuberculosis, foot-and-mouth disease, sarcoptic mange,  fascioliasis, nematode parasites, rinderpest and "rinderpestlike" diseases, nephritis, and  conjunctivitis;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Develop herd-health programs and specific disease-control programs for the various  production systems;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Determine the level of susceptibility to trypanosomiasis, a disease that might mitigate  against introducing the animal widely to Africa; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Define the buffalo's role in malarial ecology.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed to improve water buffalo reproduction.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research topics should include:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Physiology and deep-freezing of buffalo semen. (Although it is possible to freeze the  buffalo semen now, further improvements are needed to achieve higher conception  rates.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Incidence of sub-estrus and anestrus. This is fairly high in buffaloes. Work is needed to  determine the factors contributing to this problem and find solutions applicable in the  field. A simple, inexpensive test for the routine diagnosis of estrus is needed. It could  ensure that buffaloes are inseminated at the optimal time and could lead to the possible  synchronizing of estrus in groups of animals as well as the elimination of seasonal  breeding.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Seasonality of breeding. Investigations are needed into seasonal effects on the intensity  and deviation of estrus in buffaloes. Most of the buffaloes in northern India and Pakistan,  for example, calve between July and December, causing scarcity of milk in the summer  season and a flush of production in the winter months (this phenomenon causes serious  marketing problems).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Low libido and low semen yield in buffalo bulls. Semen yield in buffalo bulls is less than half of the yield from cattle bulls.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Effect of season and other factors on semen quality.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Variation in the freezability of semen from different bulls.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dissemination of Information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel recommends that two water buffalo publications be produced.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These should be:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· An international water buffalo newsletter. It is important to maintain communication among researchers working with the water buffalo in far flung research stations, universities, missions, and villages. Research findings may not be widely shared if technical animal science journals and the one or two national newsletters now available remain the only source of water buffalo information. A newsletter would bring together results from different parts of the world. It would provide rapid exchange of information as well as a forum for informal opinions, observations, and preliminary experimental data that are usually not accepted by journals.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A formal journal of water buffalo research.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, other methods for disseminating water buffalo information are to be encouraged. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix A</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water Buffalo in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the water buffalo, Africa is the unknown continent. Apart from Egypt, where the  "gamoosa" is a major livestock resource, there have been few recorded experiences  with the animal in Africa. While this may be attributed to disease, chances are it is  because of historical oversight.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small herds of buffaloes were recently introduced to Uganda, Tanzania, and Nigeria, but  because there were so few animals no firm conclusions can be drawn. Initial  observations, however, suggest that the water buffalo could have an important future role  in Africa, south of the Sahara. There seems little reason to believe that they won't thrive  there as they have done elsewhere in the tropics.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following statements were provided by researchers involved in the enterprises.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Uganda imported a herd of 12 buffalo cows and one bull in 1969. Grazed on poor-quality  unimproved pasture they received neither supplementary feeding nor any preferential  treatment over the East African zebus kept with them. The herd stayed 7 years at  Entebbe before being moved to another part of the country. They proved to be very  efficient converters of the low protein, high-fber fodder. During this time the herd grew to  40 adult cows and 2 bulls (all other steers were slaughtered). The cows calved every  year. The calves matured at 2 to 21/2 years; the zebu calves took at least 3 years to  mature. Buffalo calves were much heavier than the zebus of comparable age.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"The buffalo cows averaged 7 liters of milk per milking. In taste it was preferred to zebu  milk. Also, the quality of the meat after slaughter was much better than that of the zebus.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"A major advantage the buffaloes had over the cattle was that they were remarkably  unaffected by diseases endemic to the area. Apart from a few calves that died of  diseases that also killed cattle on the farm at Entebbe, the buffaloes resisted tick-borne  diseases, the biggest killers of cattle in Uganda, and were unaffected by the virulent  strains of East Coast Fever (Theileriosis), Uganda's most serious endemic animal  disease."(Information supplied by G. L. Corry, Director, Veterinary Research Services, Entebbe  Uganda)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Early in 1976, 194 buffaloes aged 6-9 months were imported from the environs of Darwin in Australia's Northern Territory. The animals settled down quite well, and by the end of 1978 the stock population had risen to about 320, the adults weighing about 400 kg with about 80 percent fertility. The animals were in excellent health when an outbreak of streptothricosis occurred early in 1979. Because of the intractable nature of this rare disease of cattle, sheep, and pigs, the apparent spread of the disease in the confined area of the ranch, and the persistence of the organism, the animals were slaughtered(nformation supplied by Dr. J. E. Erhiaganoma, Chief Veterinary Officer, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Benin City, Bendel State of Nigeria)..  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania introduced 21 buffalo heifers and 2 buffalo bulls from Egypt in 1968 and 1970. By 1977 the herd had grown to 150 animals. They were kept at the Livestock Production Research Institute at Mpwapwa, a site representative of central Tanzania(Mpwapwa is located at an elevation of 1,000 m. It receives an annual rainfall of 700 mm during a single season between late November and early May. Mean minimum temperatures of 13°C occur in June, and mean maximum temperatures of 26°C occur in November). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over a period of 10 years the buffalo were studied and compared with crossbreeds of local Mpwapwa cows and Friesian steers. On average, the buffaloes conceived and calved 4 months earlier than the cattle, their mean calving intervals were about a month shorter, their birth and weaning weights were 1.5 times higher, and their daily weight gain was about double that of the crossbred cattle. The milk yield from the buffaloes was only about two thirds that of the crossbred cattle, but their rnilk's high butterfat content meant that the overall butterfat production was higher in buffaloes.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Figures reported are shown below:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p98.png"></center><br>
+ Table</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a second study (Shoo, R A. 1980. A study of the performance of Egyptian water buffaloes. Student project, Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Medicine, University of Dar-Es-Salaam, Morogoro, Tanzania.), 30 buffaloes and 34 Mpwapwa cattle (not the crossbreeds) were compared(Mpwapwa cattle are a Tanzanian breed with 55 percent Asian, 35 percent African, and 10 percent European blood). The calving intervals were 396 + 126 days for buffaloes and 437 + 109 days for cattle. The buffaloes first conceived at mean ages of 23-25 months (matings occurred in both wet and dry seasons), the cattle at 27-36 months. The buffaloes calved at 35 months, the cattle at 46 months.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On farms at Ruvu and Mabuki the calving rate was 63 percent, and the mortality rate 1.2-6.9 percent(Rakha, A. 1980. water buffalo Production, Tanzania. Report of the technical Cooperation Program TCP/URT/9002, Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations, Rome, Italy). The buffalo's overall milk yields averaged 1,237 kg in 225 days, or 5.5 kg per day.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results of the introduction of buffalo to Tanzania are considered "quite encouraging and the future of buffaloes in Tanzania will be bright." (Oloufa, M. M. 1981. The future of water buffaloes in Tanzania Paper presented at the Tanzania Society of Animal Production Eighth Scientific Conference, Arusha, Tanzania May 26-29, 1981.) Future plans call for increasing the herd to about 200 animals with a view toward establishing another buffalo herd. In addition, 5 buffalo sires have been selected in Egypt for shipment to Tanzania.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix B</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Contacts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A directory of names in buffalo studies and research is available from the International Buffalo Information Center, Kasetsart University Library, Bangkhen, Bangkok 10900, Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Industry Branch, Department of Primary Production, P.O. Box 5160, Darwin, Northern Territory 5790 (D.R. Thomson, B. Ford)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berrimah Agricultural Research Station, Darwin, Northern Territory</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coastal Plains Research Station, near Darwin, Northern Territory</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. G. Tulloch, P.O. Box 38841, Winnellie 5789, Northern Territory</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Queensland, Department of Animal Husbandry, St. Lucia, Queensland (D.D. Charles)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associacao de Criadores de Bufalos do Brasil, Cx Postal 832, Sao Paulo (President, Dr. Paulo Joaquim Monteiro da Silva)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Pesquisa Agropecuaria do Tropico Umido (Agricultural Reseach Center of the Humid Tropics), Caixa Postal, 48, Belem, Para, 66000  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faculdade de Medicina Veterinaria e Zootecnia (Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnology), Universidade Estadual "Julio de Mesquita Filho," Campus de Botucatu, Estado de Sao Paulo  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto de Zootecnia (Institute of Zootechnology), Nova Odessa, Sao Paulo (Prof. Alberto Alves Santiago)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr. Geraldo Mosse, Rua Apinages 716-CEP, 05017, Sao Paulo, S.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr. Walmore Muller Lacort, Ministerio de agriculture Explanada des Ministerios, Bloco 8-50 Andar Sala 518, 70.000 Brasilia, D.F.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bulgaria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Sofia (P. Ivanov, Z. Zahariev)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo Basis, Livestock Breeding Research Institute, Shumen (Dr. D. St. Polikhronov, Director; Dr. A. Alexis)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Nanking Agricultural College, Nanking (Professor Sieh Chen-Hsia)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kwangsi Agriculture College, Nanning, Kwangsi (Professor Wang Pei Chien</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Farm, Lu Hsu, Pinyang County, Kwasngsi Chang Autonomous Region</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Institute for Animal Science, Nanning, Kwangsi (Dr. Chou Chi-Sheng)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singchow Dairy Farm, Kwangtung Province</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jose Luis Pacheco, Director, Dept Formento, 8502 JAPDEVA, Puerto Limon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Egypt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ain Shams University, Kasr-EI-Zaafran, Abbasiyah, Cairo (M.A. El-Ashry, A.M. El-Serafy)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Production, College of Agriculture, Cairo University, Cairo (Dr. M.T. Ragab)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Alexandria, 22 Al-Gueish Avenue, Shatby, Alexandria (K. El-Shazly)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr. R. Dunkel, Herzeleidstrasse 39, 5330 Konigswinter 41, Bonn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. Dr. H. Fischer, Insitut fur Tropische Veterinarmedizin, Wilhelmstr. 15, 6300 Giessen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gesellschaft fur Agrarentwicklung (GAE), Meckenheimer Allee 113, 5300 Bonn 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hungary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Kovacs, Department of Animal Husbandry, Agricultural University, Deak F. -u16, 8361Keszthely  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Hyderabad, A.P. (Director of Research)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Husbandry Commissioner, Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Sciences, Director General, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Buffalo Breeding Farm, Sambalpua, PO: Sunbeda, Distt. Kerapur, Orissa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Frozen Semen Bank, Hessarghatta, Bangalore, Kamataka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Murrah Breeding Farm, Almadi, Tamil Nadu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Surti Buffalo Farm, Dhamrod, Gujarat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chief Superintendent, Govenment Livestock Farm, Hissar, Haryana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Chandra Sekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Mathura Campus, Mathura, U.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Co-ordinator, All India Buffalo Improvement Project, Natioal Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, (Dr. V. N. Tripathi)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director, Military Dairy Farm, Army Headquarters, Quatermaster, General Branch, DHQ PO New Delhi 11  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.B. Pant, University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, U.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government Livestock Farm, Anjora Distt: Durg, Madhya Pradesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gujarat Agricultural University, Reproductive Biology Research Unit, PO Anand Agricultural Institute, Anand, Gujarat  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haryana Agricultural University , Hissar, Haryana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Barcilly, V.P. (Dr. S.K. Ranjan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, 482004, M.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kaira District Cooperative Milk Producers Union Ltd., Anand, Gujarat (Dr. V. Kurien, Chairman)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Dairy Development Board, Anand, Gujarat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Dairy Research Institute (ICAR), Karnal 132002, Haryana (S.P. Arora, Dr. D. Sundaresan, Director)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab (Dr. J.S. Ichhponani, Dr. S.K. Misra)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwar Campus, Dharwar, Karnataka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Udaipur, Udaipur, Rajasthan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balai Inseminasi Buatan Lembang, Jawa Barat (Dr. R.D. Simangunsong)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Directorate of Animal Husbandry, Department of Agriculture, Jl Salemba Raya 16, Jakarta (Dr. Jaman Zailani)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pusat Penelitian den Pengambangan Ternak (Centre for Animal Research and Development), Bogor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iraq</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Rearing Station, Abu Ghraib, Baghdad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Production and Health Division, FAO,00100 Rome</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associazione Provinciale Allevatori, via Redentare, Caserta (Professore de Franciscis,Presidente)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto de Ricerche soll'Adattamento Bovini e dei Bufali, Ponticelli, Napoli (Director: Pro£ Lino Ferrara)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto Sperimentale per la Zootecnica, via Onofrio Panvino, Rome (Prof. A. Pilla)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto Sperimentale per la Zootecnice di Roma, via Salaria 31, 00016, Monterotondo Scalo (Dr. Augusto Romita)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ugo Jemma, Torre Lupara, 81050 Pastorano, near Caserta</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Shimuzu, The University of Tsukuba, Sakura-mura niihar gun ibaraki-ken 300-311</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Animal Husbandry Station, Kluang</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University Pertanian, Serdang, Selangor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Serdang, Selangor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Artificial Insemination Project, Tfipureshwar, Kathmandu (Dr. A.C. Gupta)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Division, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Kathmandu (Dr. N.D. Joshi)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">College of Animal Husbandry, Lahore (Dr. Mohammad Shafi Chaudhry)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Reproduction, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad (Dr. Rashid Ahmad Chaudhary)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Production Research Institute, Bahadurnagar District, Sahiwat, Punjab (Dr. S.K. Shah, Director)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Punjab Veterinary Research Institute, Lahore 13</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hugo Giraoud, Apartado 60-2745, El Dorado</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Primary Industry, ERAP, P.O. Box. 348, Lae (John H. Schottler)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sepik Plains Livestock Station, Ufimo via Wewak, E.S.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Science Department, Central Luzon State University, Muiloz, Nueva Ecija</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">College of Veterinary Medicine, University of the Philippines Systems, Diliman, Quezon City Dairy Development Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, Sta. Mesa, Metro Manila (Dr. Conrado A. Valdez)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dairy Training and Research Institute, University of the Philippines at Los Banos, College, Laguna 3720  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Science, University of the Philippines at Los Banos, College, Laguna 3720 (Dr. V. C. Momongon)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Documentation Center on Water Buffalo, University of the Philippines at Los Banos Library, College, Laguna 3720  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research, Livestock Research Division, Los Banos, Laguna 3732 (Dr. Alfonso N. Eusebio)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Portugal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Ross CockriII, 591 Vale do Lobo, Almansil, Algrave 8100</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Production and Health, Peradeniya (Dr. K. Balachandran)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">School of Veterinary Science, University of Sri Lanka, Peradenlya Dr. B.M.A.O. Perrera)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, P.O. Box 22-149, Taipei City</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Medicine, University of Dar es Salaam, Morogoro (M.L. Kyomo)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAFCO Farm, Ruvu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director, Livestock Development Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Dar es Salaam</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.M.J. Katyega, Director, Livestock Production Research Institute, Private Bag, Mpwapwa M.M. Oloufa, FAO, Morogoro  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kasetsart University, Department of Animal Science, Bangkok (Dr. Charan Chantalakhana) Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Henri Dunant Street, Bangkok 5 (Dr. Maneewan Kamonpatana)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Henri Dunant Road, Bangkok 10500  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Regional Office, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 2 (Dr. B. K. Soni)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of Livestock Development Project, Tha Phra, Khon Kaen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Buffalo Research and Training Center, Surin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trinidad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Steve Bennett, 61 Mucurapo Road, Port-of-Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. L. Corry, Director, Veterinary Research Services, P.O. Box 24, Entebbe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Mugerwa, Faculty of Agriculture, MaKerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. B. Begg, Resident Veterinary Surgeon, Howletts and Port Lympne Estates, Ltd., Port Lympne, Lympne, Kent CT21 4PD  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. N. Wilson, BOCM Silcock Ltd., Basing View, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2EQ</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wyland Cripe, Asst. Dean for Public Services, College of Veterinary Medicine, Box J-125, JHMHC, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Harrington, IRI Research Institute, Inc. One Rockefeller Plaza, New York, New York 10020 James Hentges, Department of Animal Science, Room 2104 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jack Howarth, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nels M. Konnerup, 609 East Iverson Road, Camano Island, Washington 98292</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. P. Leonards, P.O. Box 1094, Lake Charles, Louisiana 70602</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John K. Loosli, Department of Animal Science, Room 2103 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert E. McDowell, Department of Animal Science, Frank B. Morrison Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hugh Popenoe, International Programs in Agriculture, 3028 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">William R. Pritchard, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abelardo Ferrer D., Quinta Nueva Exparta, Avenida Jose Felix Rivas, San Bernardino, Caracas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix C</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANDREW HAY, President, Calvert-Peat, Inc., New York, New York (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Institute of Land Rehabilitation, Utah State University, Logan, Utah  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGLIARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director, Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PEDRO BARBOSA, Department of Entomology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FLETCHER L. BYROM, Chairman, Koppers Company, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON BROWN, Director, Resource Systems Institute, The East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DORIS GALLOWAY, Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, California  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY E. CARTER, Associate Administrator, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELIZABETH COLSON, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley, California  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BREWSTER C. DENNY, Dean, Graduate School of Public Affairs, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND I. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, ex-officio  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HERBERT I. FUSFELD, Director, Center for Science and Technology Policy, Graduate School of Public Administration, New York University, New York, New York (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARTIN GOLAND, President, Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LINCOLN GORDON, Senior Fellow, Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C. (member through September 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES P. GRANT, President, Overseas Development Council, Washington, D.C. (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, ax-officio  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE R. HERBERT, President, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM N. HUBBARD, JR., President, The Upjohn Company, Kalamazoo, Michigan (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT N. KREIDLER, Private Foundation Consultant, New York, New York  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RICHARD LASTER, Executive Vice President, General Foods Corporation, White Plains, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN LISTON, Director, Institute for Food Science &amp; Technology, College of Fisheries, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS F. MALONE, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, ex-officio  FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODNEY W. NICHOLS, Executive Vice President, Rockefeller University, New York, New York (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DANIEL A. OKUN, Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. RAY PARISER, Senior Research Scientist, Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAMES BRIAN QUINN, Amos Tuck School of Business Administration, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PRISCILLA C. REINING, Director, Project on Desertification, International Division, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C. (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. RICHARDSON, JR., Department of Horticulture, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, Rockefeller University, New York, New York  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. GUYFORD STEVER, Consultant, Washington, D.C.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Program Officer, Africa and the Middle East, International Agricultural Development Service, New York, New York  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VICTOR RABINOWITCH, Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Deputy Director  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN G. HURLEY, Deputy Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b21wae/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b21wae/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b21wae/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">The Water Buffalo: New Prospects For An Underutilized Animal (1984) (b21wae)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Cattle</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">utilize the Water Buffalo more effectively</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b22bue/b22bue.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b22bue/b22bue.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b22bue/b22bue.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,656 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea </TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Managing Tropical Animal Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First Printing, June 1983 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second Printing, May, 1985 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"><A NAME="Acknowledgements"></A></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of International Affairs </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Cooperation with the Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Bulolo, Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing  Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the Councils of  the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the  Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were  chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to the  procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the  National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute  of Medicine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Research Council was established by the National Academy of Sciences in  1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's  purposes of furthering knowledge and of advising the federal government. The Council  operates in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy under the  authority of its congressional charter of 1863, which establishes the Academy as a  private, nonprofit, self-governing membership corporation. The Council has become the  principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National  Academy of Engineering in the conduct of their services to the government, the public,  and the scientific and engineering communities. It is administered jointly by both  Academies and the Institute of Medicine. The National Academy of Engineering and the  Institute of Medicine were established in 1964 and 1970, respectively, under the charter  of the National Academy of Sciences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID) of the  Office of International Affairs addresses a range of issues arising from the ways in which  science and technology in developing countries can stimulate and complement the  complex processes of social and economic development. It oversees a broad program of  bilateral workshops with scientific organizations in developing countries and conducts  special studies. BOSTID's Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation publishes  topical reviews of technical processes and biological resources of potential importance to  developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been prepared by an ad hoc advisory panel of the Advisory Committee  on Technology I innovation, Board on Science and Technology for International  Development, Office of international Affairs, National Research Council. Program costs  for the study were provided by the Office of Technical Resources, Bureau for Asia,  Agency for International Development under Grant No. ASB-0249-SS-00-1026-00 and  the Office of the Science Advisor, Agency for International Development, under Grant  No DAN/5538-GSS- 1023-00.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First Printing, June 1983 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second Printing, May, 1985 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Panel_on_Butterfly_Farming_in_P"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Panel on Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT M. PYLE, Chairman, Lepidoptera Specialist Group, International  Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland,  Switzerland, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director, Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian  Institution, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, JR., Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING, Director, Florida State Museum, C;ainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOlS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, Yale University, New  Haven, Connecticut </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS, Head of Subdivision of Invertebrate Ecology,  Furzebrook Research Station, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Wareham,  Dorset, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University  of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS, Representative, The Asia Foundation, Taipei,  Taiwan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Contributors_"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Contributors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER CLARK, Manager, Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Bulolo </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CAROLE GABARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WASAM GARARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KAROL KISOKAU, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Waigani </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAVU KWAPENA, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and  Environment, Konedobu </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MIRO LAUFA, Crocodile Section, Department of Lands and Environment,  Konedobu </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEO NING, Division of Wildlife, East Sepik Province, Wewak </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODERICK ORARI, Butterfly farmer, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL PARSONS, Ecologist, Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Bulolo </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BLU RAIRI, Butterfly farmer, Maprik  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Countries </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. S. BROWN, JR., Department of Zoology, State University of Campinas, Sao  Paulo, Brazil </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. M. COLLINS, Co-compiler, Invertebrate Red Data Book, International Union  for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Cambridge, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WAYNE GAGNE, Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANGUS HUTTON, Garaina Farms, Gympie, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ASHLEY C. MORTON, Department of Biology, The University, Southampton,  England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRED PARKER, Kirwan, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* * *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Professional Associate, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Butterfly Study Director </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council Staff </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE REGES, Administrative Secretary </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Preface_"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly farming is a growing new industry in Papua New Guinea, and by  turning irdwings, mauve swallowtails, and other insects into a cash crop  villagers are both earning money and practicing sound wildlife conservation.  In this unique program butterfly farming is being used to complement the  preservation of species and of habitats. In balancing the utilization of  common butterflies with the protection of the most threatened species, Papua  New Guinea is providing a model for other countries, particularly those in the  tropics. The program demonstrates how village development can become an  integral part of conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel that produced this report convened in Papua New Guinea in  May 1981. Its purpose was to investigate the concepts underlying this  project and to assess their potential for application elsewhere. Panel members  met with staff of the government's Division of Wildlife in Port Moresby and  later visited butterfly farms in Popondetta and the insect trading agency in  Bulolo. The panel is grateful to Karol Kisokau, Navu Kwapena, and Miro  Laufa of the Division of Wildlife for arranging the itinerary in Papua New  Guinea and to Peter Clark and Michael Parsons for hosting the Bulolo and  Popondetta visits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report is one of the National Research Council series, Managing  Tropical Animal Resources. Current titles in the series are:*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal (  1981 ) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future  (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (1983)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea ( 1983)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These activities have been conducted under the auspices of the Advisory  Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research  Council (see page 29). The purpose of ACT}iS the assessment of  unconventional scientific advances that might prove especially applicable to  problems of developing countries. Since its founding in 1971, it has produced  about 30 reports covering subjects as diverse as ferrocement construction  materials, the winged bean (a high-protein tropical food crop), and techniques  to provide more water for arid lands. This study adds the dimension of  conservation and ecosystem protection to ACTI'S principal concerns of  promising but neglected resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACTI activities are supported largely by the U.S. Agency for International  Development (AID). Program costs for this study were supported by AID'S  Bureau for Asia, and staff costs by AID'S Office of the Science Advisor, which  also made possible the free distribution of this report.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"><A NAME="BM1_Introduction_and_Summary_"></A></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Introduction and Summary</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international demand for tropical butterflies is much greater than is  generally recognized. Each year millions of them are caught and sold  throughout the world. Many buyers are scientists engaged in research on  aspects of systematics, ecology, ethology, evolution, and conservation.  Others are individuals who like expensive curios that incorporate butterflies,  such as display cases, coffee tables, wall hangings, or other objects. But  increasingly, the fragile, iridescent creatures, mounted in plastic or glass, are  used to decorate less-expensive items such as purses, trays, platters, screens,  and other common objects in Europe, North America, and Japan. In addition,  amateur butterfly collecting, which reached a peak in Victorian times, is again becoming popular.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this has produced a strong and active market. The current trade is  estimated to be between US $10 and $20 million annually, and the demand is  rising.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remote regions of Papua New Guinea are benefiting from this burgeoning  interest in tropical insects, and several hundred villagers are rearing or  collecting butterflies, beetles, and other insects for export. The Papua New  Guinea government now considers insects a national resource, and it has  made butterfly farming part of the nation's village economic development. At Bulolo it has established an Insect Farming and Trading Agency (IFTA) to  handle the business details of a growing international trade. And Papua New  Guinea is the only country so far to specify insect conservation as a national  objective in its constitution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botanical research is the key to Papua New Guinea's butterfly farming  program. Local botanists and ecologists have identified the plants that the  various butterfly species use during their life cycle. The butterfly farmers  then build up their "livestock" by clearing small areas of ground  and planting leafy food plants for larvae, together with the nectar-producing  flowering plants that adult butterflies feed on. The combination of flowering  and leafy plants provides a complete habitat where butterflies find everything  they need to grow and reproduce. Therefore, most remain, and the farmer  retains his livestock without fences or walls.*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are among the most unusual farms in the world. Around their edges  are hibiscus and bougainvillea that attract the adult butterflies, whose  mouthparts are adapted for drinking nectar from flowers. And inside are leafy  plants, such as the strange Dutchman's pipe vine (Aristolochia tagala), on  which the caterpillars of several birdwing butterflies feed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The enriched butterfly habitat in the villager's garden attracts and holds a  breeding population that becomes a self-renewing resource. By varying the  plant species the farmer can even maintain colonies of different butterfly  species. And because insects are so prolific, some butterfly farmers are  beginning to have problems with overstocking and have had to shift larvae  from plant to plantrather like moving cattle from one field to the next as the  grazing runs out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic Development </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The IFTA program started in 1974 with fewer than 30 Papua New Guineans  from villages in two provinces. By 1978, more than 500 villagers in 10  provinces had been introduced to farming or collecting butterflies for export.  Since then, business has been increasing about 40 percent a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gram for gram, exotic butterflies are far more valuable than cattle. Prices  paid by dealers in Europe, North America, and Japan range from 30 cents for  individuals of common species to around $10 for the two birdwing species  whose export is allowed. A specimen of a rarer species (for example, a female  of the mauve swallowtail Graphium weiskei) may bring as much as $50.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project is still an embryonic activity; it is not large, as development  programs go. IFTA has only one professional staff person and two local  technicians to handle the distribution of specimens. The agency's goal is to  export between 5,000 and 10,000 specimens a month, from which the villages  can expect a return of $10,000 or more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency purchases butterflies from villagers and uses them to fill orders from overseas buyers. Colorful beetles, strange-looking stick and leaf insects, and some moths and cicadas are also caught in the wild and sent to Bulolo. The profits, less 25 percent, are returned to the villagers. At the time of the panel's visit, IFTA had received about 4,000 shipments of butterflies and other insects from the rural people and had paid out about US $180,000 to purchase them. In 1979, the average farmer or collector received about $37 per box of specimens. By 1980, this had risen to about $50 per box. In 1981 it was estimated that a diligent butterfly farmer could earn an annual income of about $1,200.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even so small an annual income is substantial in rural areas where the mean annual per capita income may be only $50. In many remote areas it is difficult to create income-producing opportunities because of illiteracy, dispersed population, and, in some cases, resistance to foreign ways.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through butterfly farming many rural Papua New Guineans are for the first time participating in a cash economy. The product is a highvalue, low-volume crop. It brings needed or supplementary income to the people of the predominantly rural areas. Compared with farming coffee, another possible industry in Papua New Guinea's rural regions, it requires far less effort or land, and it involves minimal costs to the producer. And where a few expatriate opportunists once made small fortunes exploiting Papua New Guinea's butterflies, the profits now go to the villagers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat loss is by far the most critical issue in butterfly conservation. If habitat changes, the animals must change, leave, or die. Usually they die, since alternative habitats are already occupied or too distant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly all the world's butterfly species have suffered diminished ranges, and an estimated half of the world's butterfly populations face threats from human development. From Britain to Bhutan, the insects' habitats have come under siege. In Europe, perhaps one-third of all butterfly species are threatened, owing chiefly to the reductions in their various habitats. In California, half-a-dozen coastal butterflies have been lost since the 1860s, and an equal number are now endangered. In Madagascar and Rwanda, swallowtails and some species that occur nowhere else are being sacrificed to the clearing of forests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The losses are much more than aesthetic, for many butterflies benefit people. They pollinate crops, are a major link in the food chain, and serve as sensitive indicators of ecological health.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A striking feature of the Papua New Guinea butterfly farming program is that it is designed to conserve and increase the species being traded. It is a pioneering conservation effort that has been endorsed by the Lepidoptera Specialist Group of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. The program helps relieve pressure on endangered populations, because for successful butterfly farms the villagers must retain - and even foster - a healthy wild population on or near their land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insect farming also helps preserve habitats because it leaves the bulk of the land intact and it helps landowners earn money without requiring them to cut down the rain forest as they would for timber or for cocoa, coffee, or oil palm plantations. Similarly, villagers can retain their traditional hunting grounds while cropping the insects that rely on these grounds for survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The existence of the butterfly farming project has served to focus attention on the status of all butterfly species. In 1968 this led to a law banning the taking of even a single specimen of the seven birdwing species threatened with extinction in Papua New Guinea. These large, brilliantly colored creatures can bring as much as $1,000 each in international trade, but there is a stiff fine in Papua New Guinea for even possessing one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enriching habitats with butterfly food plants (notably the Dutchman's pipe vine, Aristolochia tagala) has greatly increased the numbers of Papua New Guinea's two common birdwing species, Ornithoptera priamus and Troides oblongomaculatus. Now the country is taking on the challenge of increasing the seven endangered birdwing species that are protected and banned from trade. Already the IFTA staff has found that at least one of these rare species (Ornithoptera victoriae) is easily reared on the Dutchman's pipe vine. Farms are now being designed and sited with a view to building up the populations of this giant endangered species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclusions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At this stage, the importance of this pioneering activity lies not in its size, but in the new vistas it opens up for the use of tropical resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In farming butterflies, Papua New Guinea is showing that indigenous wildlife resources (especially those being depleted because of their commercial value) can contribute to economic development and that the farming of indigenous animals can be fitted smoothly into traditional village life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Providing employment in rural areas is a major problem of developing countries. And in a sense, butterflies are an "appropriate" livestock, particularly for remote areas of the tropics where other income-producing activities are difficult to establish or are harmful to traditional lifestyles and fragile environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterflies may seem unusual farm animals, but to villagers in the Papua New Guinea jungle it is cattle that are exotic. The villagers live in close contact with their local insects; invariably they know much about butterfly locations, behavior, habits, life cycle, and the food eaten by the caterpillars.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farming butterflies is proving a business to which villagers quickly adapt. Butterflies do not require the equipment or financing of a conventional farm; no capital is required, except for postage on the first shipment of specimens. Insect farming allows people to participate in the cash economy without causing disruptive changes in traditional village life. The villagers can work long and hard if they wish or they can put in only enough time to produce a little cash for necessities, leaving plenty of time for raising crops and other village activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often claimed that economic development is necessarily destructive to the environment and detrimental to conservation - that as rural societies develop, their natural surroundings must suffer. The Papua New Guinea butterfly farming project is an innovative program that demonstrates this need not be true.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The program also shows that where human needs are given attention, conservation can be successful. Elsewhere in the tropics, attempts to conserve habitat without considering the needs of the people who live nearby have often failed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In sum, the butterfly farming program demonstrates that certain natural resources can be used profitably in a way that protects the environment. The program offers a culturally appropriate use of the land; on a broad scale, it could become a force in preventing clear-felling of the forest for timber exports or the wholesale conversion of rain forest to cash-crop monocultures such as coconut, coffee, or oil palm. Most of Papua New Guinea is still covered by primary rain forest; exploiting the economic value of the insects that live there is helping safeguard this increasingly rare habitat, which is fast disappearing in most parts of the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species Conservation </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The knowledge gained from farming Papua New Guinea's butterflies has already contributed to relieving the threat of extinction from seven endangered species of birdwings. This experience could be replicated in other places where there are endangered butterfly species. Indeed, the program provides a model for nations that could profitably farm butterflies while protecting their threatened butterfly species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extension to Other Organisms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This project has a strategy and organizational structure that could well be applied to plants, such as rare orchids, and animals, such as crocodiles, that are endangered because of their commercial value. Indeed, using similar concepts of combining village income and conservation, the Papua New Guinea Division of Wildlife is farming crocodiles,* ruse deer, wallabies, and two native birds, the megapode and cassowary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through such husbandry practices, many species elsewhere might be saved from extinction, while providing income to the local people who traditionally have used the resource. Other countries should look with interest at the way Papua New Guinea is handling its wildlife enterprises. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM2_Butterfly_Status_and_Conserva"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Butterfly Status and Conservation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About 100,000-150,000 species of butterflies have been described; perhaps half that number remain to be discovered. Although there are important concentrations in the Arctic and temperate regions, most species are found in the tropics. There, the diversity of colors and forms is dazzling; every imaginable combination of hue and color is displayed. And many tropical butterflies are enriched with "structural" colors, which cause the wings to flash iridescently in the sun as they bend the light they reflect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although butterflies have long been admired and often depicted in art, they have been seriously studied only since the end of the seventeenth century. Linnaeus, in his Systema Naturae, placed the small number of butterflies then known in the single genus Papilio. Today that genus is restricted to the true swallowtails, and more than 700 genera of butterflies are recognized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Butterfly Trade</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Last century, as knowledge of butterflies grew and methods of preserving them improved, they become popular collectors' items. Wealthy naturalists such as Rothschild and LeMoult dispatched collectors to all parts of the world for specimens. Today the trade in butterflies is even more extensive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three major kinds of butterfly and insect trade. In one, large numbers of common species are collected in the wild and processed for use in ornamental objects such as coasters, mats, and lampshades. This is a low-value, high-volume industry that is both labor- and capital-intensive. It frequently uses "chipped" or slightly damaged butterflies. It often sells butterflies with paper bodies and only the wings of actual insects, which seem to be acceptable to a large part of the buying public.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Taiwanese butterfly trade is an example. It operates on a large scale. At least a dozen Taiwanese factories employ scores of workers to capture and process butterflies. Estimates of annual sales vary from 15 million to 500 million butterflies. Taiwanese butterfly wings pasted onto paper bodies with pig-bristle antennae are used in ornaments and household objects from wall hangings to clear-plastic toilet seats. The bodies are recycled as pig feed. Despite this massive trade, Taiwan's wild butterfly populations seem to be remaining steady.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Similar, though smaller, industries trafficking in common butterflies are found in Korea, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Brazil, Honduras, and several African nations. The famous blue morpho butterflies of the American tropics enter the trade at the rate of some 50 million per year. Nearly all of these are the brilliant iridescent males, and biologists believe the number sold could be doubled without harming the overall population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second type of trade involves higher value and lower volume. This produces a vastly different product from the paper-bodied butterflies bound for novelty stores. It is exemplified by the operation in Papua New Guinea where sales are to collectors, museums, and students, and the specimens are high-quality insects in good to perfect condition, usually bearing scientific data. Because of the relatively high value per specimen, this trade can be carried on by fewer individuals in a nonfactory setting, and it is well suited to village industry, provided there is supervision and a quality-control checkpoint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third type of butterfly trade is for high-quality, expensive ornamental items, such as glass cases, domes, wall mounts, or jewelry containing beautiful insects. Brazil, for example, has a thriving jewelry trade based on the iridescent blue morpho butterfly. This type of trade can also furnish high-paying outlets for village-farmed insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p08.png"></center><br>
+ Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In all three divisions of the butterfly trade, dealers fulfill an essential role. Few collectors and scientists can travel the world collecting their own specimens. Some dealers have established reputations for honesty, some have not. Exploitation of suppliers and customers alike has been rife. Few dealers are careful to attach accurate locality data to their specimens; some make serious mistakes in identifying them. (To combat this problem, British insect dealers have formed an association to monitor conservation-related activities and improve professional practice.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Generally, dealers supply specimens bred from the caterpillar or chrysalis and described as "ex pupa." Unless butterflies are caught immediately after emerging from the pupa the fragile wings tear and the scales detach to produce "worn" specimens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Taxonomy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Classifying butterflies is difficult. Their most obvious features, the color and pattern of the wings, vary greatly; individuals and populations of the same species often look quite different. This has led to the dubious naming of many species and subspecies. And the uncertainties it causes have led some biologists, especially those working in ecology and genetics, to name populations rather than species or subspecies. However, populations frequently evolve, and this introduces a further uncertainty. Much additional work on basic butterfly systematics is needed. The knowledge gained should contribute particularly to the conservation of endangered species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly conservation is still in an early state of development, bedeviled by scarce or incomplete information. The conservation status of even the most thoroughly studied butterfly species is known in only a few areas. The distribution and status of most species is essentially unknown, and proposals for conservation measures are largely based on guesswork. Nevertheless, some conservation programs have been enacted. Most have concentrated on designating endangered species and banning their collection.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The greatest threat to butterflies and other insects, however, is habitat alteration. On several continents some species have already become extinct or endangered when humans altered the special environment they require. The importance of protecting butterfly habitats should not be underrated. Many species are restricted to very small areas, particularly to individual islands (Corsica, Sardinia, Jamaica, Madagascar, Sumba, the Comoros, Fiji, the Solomon Islands, Manus, and the Duke of York Islands, for instance). Such species are vulnerable to extinction because nearly all island habitats are fragile and are changing rapidly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it is uncommon for insect species to be dangerously reduced merely by the capture of specimens, renewed commercial interest in butterflies gives rise to concern for their conservation. Most insects reproduce rapidly, and their high fecundity enables them to replace such losses in a generation or two - provided the basic environment has not been altered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But there are certain species of butterfly that reproduce slowly and are therefore more threatened by collection. The unusual birdwing butterflies of New Guinea, for example, produce only small broods. Moreover, these rare species command higher prices. Because this makes them particularly vulnerable, legislation to protect birdwing butterflies has been instituted in both parts of New Guinea - Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Accordingly, to save Queen Alexandra's birdwing (the largest and most threatened of the birdwings) from extinction, several wildlife management areas have been set up in Popondetta on Papua New Guinea's north coast. The government is also setting up refuges, administered by village councils, to preserve and protect other birdwing butterflies and wildlife resources. This habitat conservation is an important adjunct to the butterfly farming program. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM3_History_and_Government_Policy"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 History and Government Policy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soon after Europeans discovered New Guinea's remarkable insect fauna around the turn of the century, collectors began arriving, and they have been coming ever since. Many were reputable professional or amateur scientists, gathering modest numbers of specimens for study and for museums, including Papua New Guinea's own national collection. Others, however, were plunderers who carried away large numbers of rare butterflies, giving little or no compensation to the local people and showing no concern for survival of the species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1966 the Papua New Guinea government responded to excessive collecting by designating seven rare birdwing butterflies as protected species. It became illegal to collect these huge, colorful birdwings, and strong measures were instituted - fines for nationals, deportation of expatriates - to halt black market trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1960s and early 1970s commercial collecting of the other butterfly species continued piecemeal and unsupervised. Income was erratic, and expatriate dealers often paid their Papua New Guinean suppliers only a few cents for specimens that retailed for several hundred dollars in Europe and Japan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Insect Farming and Trading Agency</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When Papua New Guinea achieved independence in 1975, the new government decreed that only nationals should profit from the country's butterfly resource. Since that time only Papua New Guineans have been able to export butterfly specimens (nonprotected species) for profit. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1978, to guarantee Papua New Guineans fair prices and stable sales, a marketing agency was established. Its purpose was to protect the resource, to foster butterfly farming, and to ensure a high-quality export product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modest in its beginnings, the Insect Farming and Trading Agency (IFTA) was organized by Angus Hutton, a former tea planter and amateur lepidopterist. The business side of the agency was later developed by Peter Clark, who had worked with Hutton. Identification and production of food plants was advanced by Michael Parsons, Robert Pyle, and others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IFTA provides a market for those Papua New Guinea nationals who farm and collect butterflies and other insects. The agency allows them to obtain fair and fixed prices, maintains quality control, and ensures that current data accompanies all specimens. It also pools the insects from many sources and fills large orders from overseas dealers. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the butterflies IFTA exports, about 30 percent are from village farms and 70 percent are collected in the field. However, more than 50 percent of the revenue is made up of the farmed butterflies because of their better quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quality Control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency strives to sell only highest-quality insects; it rejects many butterflies as substandard. Most specimens are sold as named subspecies and to identify and name them requires much skill. Staff members have been specially trained to do this. (To a large extent, the area of origin, particularly in the case of the offshore islands, defines the subspecies concerned.) Locality data, usually consisting of village, province, and month and year of collecting or emergence, is affixed to all butterfly envelopes before they are pooled at the agency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IFTA stores its collection by species, in simple wooden boxes kept in cupboards lit from below (to lure potential pests away from the insects and to warm the cupboards and prevent mold). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marketing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency makes up orders and dispatches them (with the required export permits) to customers "on trust." Although this is open to abuse, most buyers pay promptly and the system is easy and convenient. Careful records are kept of all suppliers, customers, and species in stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the time of the panel's visit, about 80 percent of the agency's business consisted of responding to requests from dealers. However, less than 10 percent of the orders received from all sources could be filled.Some requests were too small and others too specialized; in some cases the agency simply didn't have the specimens on hand (for example, a request for all the subspecies of a given butterfly). Furthermore, the agency has neither the office staff nor space to cope with every order in a business whose volume is almost doubling every two years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Field Extension</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife extension officers periodically visit clients and new villages to sustain or develop enthusiasm for insect farming. They explain and demonstrate the procedures of butterfly farming and collecting and teach potential farmers how to recognize a valuable species in each of its life stages. Above all, they demonstrate how to prepare specimens for sale. This is because it is often difficult to convince farmers of the need for extreme care and delicacy in handling, and many inexperienced farmers send in bruised or hopelessly damaged specimens. Although about 500 villagers were farming butterflies at the time of the panel's visit, fewer than 50 were supplying good material regularly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These contacts are also important because the butterfly farmers easily become discouraged if no interest is shown in their work. In the Papua New Guinea countryside there is often little need for cash; people can obtain all their food, clothes, shelter, and resources from their gardens or from the bush. Money received from one shipment of butterflies may last a subsistence farmer for months, making it difficult for the agency to sustain his interest in providing regular shipments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency's extension officers have initiated a number of butterfly farming projects at primary, secondary, and vocational schools. These projects have proved most successful. Apart from the practical education they give students, they provide early insight into one of Papua New Guinea's most useful resources. Several vocational schools also provide training in mounting butterflies and beetles as souvenirs for tourists, as well as in the construction of hatching cages and solar driers. Beautiful wooden cabinets to hold butterflies have also been made by some teenage students.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Monitoring</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to teaching Papua New Guineans to collect and farm insects, IFTA promotes research both to conserve species and to make them available in quantity. Success has already been achieved in farming the common birdwing butterflies by planting large numbers of the Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia tagala) vines that they feed on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency's staff includes an ecologist, indicating the importance of the scientific basis for conservation in this project. The ecologist is at hand to conduct research on life histories, farming methods, and management measures for rare species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IFTA staff are now identifying new food plants that will permit more species to be farmed. Research into the life histories of many butterflies with economic potential is well under way, so that an increasing number of species will become "farmable" and will be available in future in perfect ex pupa condition. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sources of all specimens received by IFTA are recorded on a map so that a butterfly's range and rarity or abundance can be assessed and conservation measures implemented where necessary. In this way, even insects too damaged for sale at least have value to conservation efforts. All specimens of unusual scientific interest are lodged in the national insect collection for future study. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM4_Operating_a_Butterfly_Farm"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Operating a Butterfly Farm</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Planting the Farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key to farming butterflies is to establish a garden of the plants the various species need for their life cycles. The ideal farm area is about 0.2 hectares. This is spacious enough for growing food plants for adults and larvae and small enough to keep the plants watered, weeded, pruned, and generally well tended. Such a farm can contain about 500 vines, grown like bean plants on poles or shade trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to surround the site with a thick hedge of hibiscus, bougainvillea, ixora, poinsettia, or other nectar-bearing plants whose flowers attract adult butterflies and encourage them to remain in the area. The hedges also keep out pigs and other livestock that may damage the leafy plants inside the farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good way to start a farm is to establish it in a vegetable garden. (Papua New Guinea butterfly farmers often plant butterfly vines between their rows of sweet potato or tarot) By the time the vegetables are ready to harvest, the area already has some thriving butterfly food plants and probably some winged livestock as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most successful butterfly food plants in Papua New Guinea is Aristolochia tagala, a vine on which the larvae of more common birdwing butterflies feed. Another is Evodea - a food plant of the large blue ulysses swallowtail and many colorful weevils.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shade trees also can be food plants for butterflies other than birdwings and for beetles or weevils. Examples are species of Annona (such as soursop), Citrus (such as lemon), Cerbera, and Graptophyllum. Wallace's Longhorn Beetle feeds on breadfruit (Artocarpus communis). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, one area of the farm is kept aside for growing seeds or cuttings. (IFTA sells seed of some suitable species.) In this nursery the butterfly food plants are watered and cared for, and unhealthy ones are easily spotted and weeded out. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p16.png"></center><br>
+ Stylized diagram of a butterfly farm:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Hedge of hibiscus, ixora, and poinsettia to keep pigs out and provide nectar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B Fruits trees (such as lemon).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C The aristolochia vine grown on the branches of others trees (such as leucaena), to feed    caterpillar larvae.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D Nursery area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E A hut for tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Diagram courtesy IFTA, Bulolo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Life Cycle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, each butterfly species has a preferred food plant for its larvae. After the female has mated she searches for the correct plant and lays her eggs on or near it. In a few days the eggs hatch, and the young caterpillars usually eat their own eggshells and begin feeding on the softer leaves and shoots of the food plant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As they grow, the caterpillars shed their skins. Each molt is called an instar, and five instars occur before a larva is big enough to pupate. Pupation is a resting stage during which the adult butterfly develops inside the hard, protective chrysalis. For pupation the larva selects the underside of a stem or leaf to protect it from rain and predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After 10 days to 3 weeks, depending on the type of butterfly, the pupal case splits open and the adult insect emerges. This usually occurs before 9 o'clock in the morning. The freshly emerged adult then takes from 3 to 4 hours to expand and dry its wings before flying off to feed on nectar and to search for a mate to begin the life cycle once again. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harvesting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the farm is well established, pupae can be collected daily. Ideally, about 50 percent should be left or released. At least as many females as males should be released. Pupae that are too high to reach are usually left to emerge naturally and repopulate the farm. Others are left because they are not quite perfect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The farmer can usually see that emergence will occur on the next day, since the pupa becomes darker in color as the adult wing and body colors develop. He then plucks off the stem or leaf to which the pupa is attached. (The soft, new pupae are not touched because this damages the adult.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He pins the leaf to a board or puts it in a net or in a small cage. Often these are kept inside to protect the pupae against pests and large predators. However, some farmers construct small houses out of bush materials to hold pupae ready for hatching. Others keep their pupae in the open and count on being able to collect the adults before they have flown away.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Care is taken to protect the specimens from ants and rats. For example, the legs of the cage are placed in bowls of water to deter ants from climbing up. The pupae are sprayed with water 2-3 times a week to speed up the hatching process and to prevent them from drying out. (Only a light spray is used; otherwise the pupa develop mold.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pupae are best kept in a shady place so the butterflies will remain calm after hatching and will not flap and damage their wings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Processing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the newly emerged butterfly has completely dried its wings, it is carefully caught by the thorax and injected with a small amount of a killing agent such as ethyl acetate or boiling water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small butterflies are particularly easily damaged if handled, so they are placed for about 10 minutes in a killing jar containing cotton (cotton wool) soaked with a little ethyl acetate. A layer of cardboard is placed above the cotton so that the butterflies are not stained by the solvent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The farmer places the dead butterflies in paper envelopes, being careful at all times not to touch or damage the wings. The envelopes are easily made from grease-proof paper, which the agency supplies on request.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To ensure that the butterflies will not mold, they are placed on a black plastic tray and dried in the sun, in their papers, for about 4 days. During this time they are protected from pests such as ants, and the drying trays have a screen on top to prevent the envelopes from blowing away or from being rained on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once properly dried, the insects, still in their envelopes, are stored in boxes, preferably airtight to prevent condensation and molding. When enough specimens have been collected, the villager packs them carefully in strong cardboard boxes (which the agency also supplies) with cotton or kapok. A few naphthalene crystals are added to keep away pests, and the box is wrapped and sent to Bulolo. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM5_Application_to_Other_Nations"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">5 Application to Other Nations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the essence of the Papua New Guinea approach is the cultivation of food plants that the butterflies need to complete their life cycles. This is a process that could be replicated elsewhere, and the potential for butterfly farming exists in many countries. In fact, although Papua New Guinea is rich in butterfly species - some 700 of them - it is not unusually so. Other countries also have large numbers of species. There are, for instance 2,500 species known in Costa Rica.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are some 14,000 species of true butterflies in the world. Although there is possible competition, many countries have no overlap in species at all. As collectors and specialists usually want butterflies from many different parts of the world, the likely competition among countries exporting farmed or wild-caught butterflies is minimal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterflies are supplied to the trade from nearly every part of the world. But because they are most diverse in the tropics, it is likely that the best chance for success in farming them lies there. However, some temperate countries also have an abundance of particular species, and in Europe, the United States, and Japan, butterfly farming is already established on a small scale. This is mainly because many collectors like to rear their own material and they purchase eggs, caterpillars, or chrysalids instead of killed adults. Many dealers in these countries supply a few tropical species that are easy to rear, such as the orchard swallowtail (Papilio aegeus). However, this trade is generally low in volume and value, and temperate-zone butterfly farms are little more than a sideline to normal dealerships.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some general comments follow on the potential of butterfly farming in various parts of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Temperate regions of the Old World (Palaearctic Realm). East palaearctic species are in great demand internationally and obtainable with great difficulty. China, in particular, has species of both Parnassius and Papilio that might be farmed. However, all Parnassius species are montane to some degree and none has been farmed yet. Eurasian arctic satyrids, lesser fritillaries, and sulphurs are also in great commercial demand and could perhaps be farmed. Swallowtails are few and are frequently protected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tropical Africa and associated islands (Afrotropical Region). The potential for butterfly farming has not yet been considered in Africa, although the diversity of desirable species is great and the potential market extensive. This area has important swallowtails and Charaxes species (Nymphalidae), but so far as is known, no farming enterprises exist. Experimental or trial farms for butterflies are needed in different parts of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asian tropics (Oriental Realm). Silk moths, such as Bombyx mori, are commercially farmed in Asia, and butterfly farming would seem to be a natural extension of this. Many Asian butterflies are supplied to dealers, especially from Taiwan and the Philippines, but there is little farming. A very large trade originates in Malaysia, especially for Rajah Brooke's birdwing (Trogonoptera brookiana). Farming is reputed to take place, but most specimens are actually collected. Desirable species of swallowtails, including the black and gold birdwings (Troides species), occur throughout the region. Species belonging to the families Nymphalidae and Pieridae are good candidates for farming, as they are in much demand from dealers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Australia, New Guinea, and associated islands to the west (Australasian Realm). Australia is not rich in butterflies, but it has some important endemic species. At least one "farm" exists in Australia, but this appears to be an offshoot of a normal dealership, which rears a few local species to supply at early stages to collectors. Farming is to be encouraged here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Guinea's most coveted butterflies, which it shares with Irian Jaya, are the Ornithoptera birdwings. But almost equally desired by collectors and specialists are the Troides birdwings, concentrated to the west of New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Temperate regions of the Americas (Nearctic Realm). There is a considerable trade in New World butterflies from nearly every family (few Lycaenidae and Hesperiidae), but almost all are caught in the wild. There is a strong market for far-northern species (Boloria, Colias, Erebia, Oenesis). Farming these might be possible among Canadian and Alaskan Indian or Eskimo groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tropical regions of the Americas (Neotropical Realm). This is a likely area for the development of butterfly farming, particularly as its species are completely different from those of the tropics elsewhere. The Morpho and Agrias species of South America are much desired by collectors. It is possible that some of the highly prized morpho butterflies are already farmed (as the law, in fact, requires), but evidence is conflicting, and most biologists believe that the major supply of specimens is from wild populations. Other groups that lend themselves to farming include the swallowtails, nymphalids (including Agrias), and certain members of the family Satyridae. There are large fauna of Riodinidae and Lycaenidae that are potentially suitable for farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A dealer in preserved butterflies has recently set up business in the Dominican Republic, and butterfly farms have been established in Costa Rica.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· General. Butterflies in the family Riodinidae and, especially, Lycaenidae seem to be a neglected resource. Many species are relatively small but brightly colored. A major difficulty is that many Lycaenidae have to live with ants for part of their lives and this complicates their rearing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Parks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some regions with tourist industries are showing interest in establishing "butterfly zoos" or "butterfly jungles." These displays have live butterflies (usually farmed or reared) in artificial habitats resembling the natural ones. Some species, such as the orchard swallowtail (Papilio aegeus), respond well to such conditions. One British dealer has a "tropical jungle" in an enclosed environment in which both temperature and atmospheric pressure are regulated. A large British butterfly zoo has been established and a smaller one has been proposed. The New York Zoological Society is developing a butterfly component in its Wild Asia Hall at the Bronx Zoo, and San Francisco, Portland, Cincinnati, and Tokyo all have thriving insect zoos. Also, the Colombo Zoo in Sri Lanka has a live display and a successful program of butterfly rearing. Similar enterprise could be shown in other places with tourist industries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting a Butterfly Farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly farming is initially an ecological and botanical challenge. One must first observe, identify, and propagate the plants that the various species use for food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Success for butterfly farmers rests on their choosing commercially attractive species. Unfortunately, ecological details of the life histories of suitable species are known in only a few cases. The prospective farmer will be largely on his own and must first develop this information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the most desirable species are native to primary tropical forests, and they may need protection because of the rate at which their habitat is being destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any program to commercially exploit butterflies and other insects must either bypass the rarest, most restricted, and slowest reproducing species; farm them cautiously with a high percentage of adults released; or take them with the greatest of care. Further, there must be adequate habitat protection both in the natural state and in mixed land uses (rather than just agricultural croplands) to support the insects and furnish a continuing supply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some competition could occur if live butterflies were exported between countries and used to establish farming enterprises. In general, however, butterflies are easier to farm in their native habitats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Appendix_A"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A Selected Readings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carvalho, J. C. M., and O. H. H. Mielke. 1972. The trade of butterfly wings in Brazil and its effect upon survival of the species. Proceedings 19th International Congress of Entomology (Moscow) 1 :486-488.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fenner, T. L. 1976. Aspects of butterfly conservation in Papua New Guinea, Pp. 121-127 in Ecology and Conservation in Papua New Guinea, K. P. Lamb and J. L. Gressitt eds. Pamphlet 2. Wau Ecology Institute, Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parsons, M. n.d. Insect Farming and Trading Agency Farming Manual. Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Division of Wildlife, P.O. Box 129, Bulolo, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pyle, R. 1981. Butterflies: now you see them.... International Wildlife I I (1):4- 11.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pyle, R., M. Bentzien, and P. Opler. 1981. Insect conservation. Annual Review of Entomology 26:233-258.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pyle, R. M. and S. A. Hughes. 1978. Conservation and utilization of the insect resources of Papua New Guinea. Unpublished report, copies available from the author, see Research Contacts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Severinghaus, S. R. 1977. The butterfly industry and butterfly conservation in Taiwan. Atala 5(2):20-23.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unno, K. 1974. Taiwan's butterfly industry. Wildlife 16: 356-359.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vietmeyer, N. D. 1979. Butterfly ranching is taking wing in Papua New Guinea. Smithsonian 10(2):119-135. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Appendix_B"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix B</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Contacts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wayne Gagne, Bishop Museum, P.O. Box 6037, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96818 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angus Hutton, Garaina Farms, Scrubby Creek Road, Gympie 4570, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insect Farming and Trading Agency, P.O. Box 129, Bulolo, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea (Peter Clark, Manager; Michael Parsons, Ecologist)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Karol Kisokau, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Central Government Offices, Waigani, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navu Kwapena, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rudi Mattoni, 9620 Heather Road, Beverly Hills, California 90210, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Michael G. Morris, Chairman, Butterfly Specialist Group, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Furzebrook Research Station, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Wareham, Dorset BH20 5AS, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ashley C. Morton, Department of Biology, Building 44, The University, Southampton S09 5NH, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fred Parker, 717 Ross River Road, Kirwan, Queensland 4814, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert M. Pyle, Chairman, Monarch Project, Xerces Society, 369 Loop Road, Gray's River, Washington 98621, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheldon R. Severinghaus, Representative, The Asia Foundation, 42, Chien Kuo North Road, Taipei 104, Taiwan, Republic of China </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Appendix_C"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix C</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biographical Sketches of Panel Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director of the Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., is currently the Secretary-General of the International Union of Biological Sciences. He received his B.A. in 1961 from Miami University in Ohio, M.Sc. from The George Washington University in 1963, and his Ph.D. in 1966 from the University of London. His research interests are in comparative anatomy and phylogeny of flowering plants, commercial timbers, histology of monocotyledons, economic botany, and tropical biology. An internationally recognized expert on tropical plants, he has published extensively in these areas and on topics relating to science, technology, and development, especially in developing countries. Dr. Ayensu was co-chairman of the Panel on Under exploited Tropical Plants of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation and chairs and serves as a member of many international bodies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, JR., is Graduate Research Professor in the Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville. As Technical Director of the Caribbean Conservation Corporation, he has directed a seasonal research program at the breeding ground of the green turtle at Tortuguero, Costa Rica, since 1952, with continuous grants from the National Science Foundation from 1955 to 1980, and has carried out investigations of marine turtle ecology and navigation in various parts of the world. The author of numerous papers, articles, and books, he received the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal of the National Academy of Sciences for Handbook of Turtles and the John Burroughs Medal for The Windward Road. He is Research Associate of the American Museum of Natural History; Affiliate Curator of Natural Sciences, Florida State Museum; Chairman of the Marine Turtle Specialist Group of the Survival Service Commission, International Union for the Conservation of Nature; Honorary Consultant of the World Wildlife Fund; Fellow of the Linnean Society of London; Fellow of the American Fisheries Society; and a member of Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1973 he was awarded a gold medal from the World Wildlife Fund for the application of scientific findings to the conservation of marine turtles. In 1975 he received the Edward W. Browning Award for achievement in biological conservation. In 1978 Dr. Carr was awarded the Gold Medal of the New York Zoological Society for contributions to natural science and conservation; in 1978 he became Officer of the Order of the Golden Ark (The Netherlands).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING is the Director of the Florida State Museum, Gainesville. He received a B.S. in 1957 and an M.S. in 1961 from the University of Florida and a Ph.D. from 1966 from the University of Miami. His research interests are in wildlife conservation and habitat preservation, impact of international trade on wildlife populations, and ecology and behavior of reptile populations. He worked at the New York Zoological Society from 1967 to 1975. As an international wildlife consultant, Dr. King has received honors from the Dominican Republic, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, and from H.R.H. Prince Bernhard of The Netherlands. He has served on committees advising the State Department and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources on policies regarding the trade of crocodile skins, turtle products, and other wildlife materials. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOlS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry and Professor of Forest Genetics, Yale University, was Dean of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale from 1965 to 1975. He received a B.A. from Luxembourg College and a B.Sc.F. from the University of New Brunswick in 1950, an M.F. in ecology in 1951, and a Ph.D. in forest genetics from Yale in 1954. He is especially knowledgeable about francophone Africa and was chairman of the Sahel program of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development and a member of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation. From 1960 to 1965 he was research collaborator at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. In 1966 he was the recipient of the Award for Outstanding Achievement in Biological Research from the Society of American Foresters and in 1975 was Distinguished Professor (Fulbright-Hays Program) in Yugoslavia. Before joining the Yale faculty, he served as project leader in forest genetics for the U.S. Forest Service in Florida. He has served as a consultant to FAO, various foreign governments, and private forestry companies, and he has traveled extensively in the tropical countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS is head of the Furzebrook Research Station of the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (National Environment Research Council, U.K.). He received a B.A. in natural sciences (zoology) at the University of Cambridge of 1958, M.A. in 1962, and received his Ph.D. from London University in research on the integrated control of orchard pests. Dr. Morris worked at Monks Wood Experimental Station on the effects of grassland management on populations of invertebrates and developed a strong interest in community and applied ecology, particularly the conservation of insect populations. Recently he has become involved with problems of butterfly conservation and resource utilization. He is Secretary of the Joint Committee for the Conservation of British Insects, a Vice-Chairman of the Lepidoptera Specialist Group of lUCN'S Survival Commission, and Chairman of the Habitat and Species Protection Committee of SEL (Societal Europaea Lepidoptero-Logica). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH L. POPENOE is Professor of Soils, Agronomy, Botany, and Geography and Director of the Center for Tropical Agriculture and International Programs (Agriculture) at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. from the University of California at Davis in 1951 and his Ph.D. in soils from the University of Florida in 1960. His principal research interest has been in the area of tropical agriculture and land use. His early work on shifting cultivation is one of the major contributions to this sytem. He has traveled and worked in most of the countries in the tropical areas of Latin America, Asia, and Africa. He is past Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Escuela Agricola Panamericana in Honduras, Visiting Lecturer on Tropical Public Health at the Harvard School of Public Health, and a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Society of Agronomy, the America Geographical Society, and the International Soils Science Society. He is Chairman of the Advisory Committee for Technology Innovation and a member of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT MICHAEL PYLE, a writer and consulting lepidopterist based in Gray's River, Washington, has served since 1979 as Co-Compiler of the lUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book. In this capacity he is consultant to the Conservation Monitoring Centre in Cambridge, England. After receiving his B.S. and M.S. at the University of Washington, he took his Ph.D. through the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University in 1976. He worked for the Government of Papua New Guinea on the conservation and utilization of insect resources and then with the Nature Conservancy as Northwest Land Steward. A </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">former Fulbright Scholar to the United Kingdom, Dr. Pyle subsequently founded the Xerces Society for conservation of beneficial insects and their habitats. He has been chairman of IUCN'S Lepidoptera Specialist Group (Species Survival Commission) since 1976. His publications include the Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Butterflies. A comprehensive book on insect conservation in his next project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS received his Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1977 in natural resources management. He has worked on various wildlife research projects in Asia since 1964 and is representative for the Asia Foundation in Taiwan. He has published articles on butterfly conservation and wildlife industries in Taiwan, where he has been studying the butterfly and wildlife farming projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, staff officer for this study, is Professional Associate of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. A New Zealander with the Ph.D. in organic chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley, he now works on innovations in science that are important for developing countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Advisory_Committee_on_Technolog"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas (member through 1981) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L.GADEN,JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Native Plants, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (member through 1982) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Board_on_Science_and_Technology"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGLIARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAMUEL P. ASPER, Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BELL, Department of Population Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEONARD BERRY, Professor, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST J. BRISKEY, Dean, School of Agriculture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON S. BROWN, Director, Resources Systems Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. BURRIS, Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAUDIA JEAN CARR, Associate Professor, Conservation and Resource Studies, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATE FIELDS, Director, Developing Markets, Control Data Corporation, Minneapolis, Minnesota </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND J. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN HOWARD GIBBONS, Director, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM HUGHES, Director, Engineering Energy Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM A. W. KREBS, Vice President, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Acorn Park, Cambridge, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE 1. LYTHCOTT, University of Wisconsin, School of Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANICE E. PERLMAN, Executive Director, Committee for a New New York, New York City Partnership, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK C. ROBBINS, President, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER A. ROSENBLITH, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HERBERT SMUCKLER, Dean of International Studies and Programs, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GILBERT F. WHITE, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Assistant Dean for International Programs, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN C. HURLEY, Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Associate Director/Studies </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL P. GREENE, Associate Director/Research Grants </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/b22bue/metadata.xml
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@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea (b22bue)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">start a butterfly farm</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/ec158e/ec158e.htm
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--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/ec158e/ec158e.htm	(revision 21010)
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+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; The Courier - N°158 - July - August 1996 Dossier Communication and the media - Country report Cape Verde</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Courier - N°158 - July - August 1996 Dossier Communication and the media - Country report Cape Verde</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFRICA-CARIBBEAN-PACIFIC - EUROPEAN UNION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dossier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Communication and the media</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Press freedom, regarded as a fundamental human right, is also a key component in the democratization process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the help of experts in the field, we look at what various organizations are doing to combat censorship and promote a free press in ACP countries and elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We also highlight the new trend of donor support for projects aimed at promoting press freedom. These include, notably, provisions for the training of journalists. And as new means of communication, such as the World Wide Web, develop, we consider what is being done to prevent the opening up of a new divide - this time between the 'information rich' end the 'information poor'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the least-developed countries, Cape Verde is seen as a model of good governance and stable democracy. It is also admired for its perseverance in the struggle against the exigencies of history and climate. The country suffers from almost permanent drought and has virtually no regular supplies of fresh water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Its history has been punctuated by serious famines and while the people are no longer hungry, they still face formidable economic difficulties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde produces just 10% of what it consumes and its exports are one fifteenth of its imports. The one bright spot is in services, where it enjoys a positive trade balance. This sector (in particular, international transport and tourism), together with the country's cultural industries, offer the best hope for future development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Meeting point</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Robert M&eacute;nard, Director of 'Reporters sans fronti&egrave;res'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Combating attacks on press freedom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Reporters sans fronti&egrave;res' was founded in June 1985 in Montpellier where Robert M&eacute;nard was working as a journalist with Radio France. Now based in Paris, RSF has two main policy areas. In the first place it alerts international public opinion and the media to situations involving violations of press freedom (via publications such as 'RSF News letter' the Annual Report and specific books and reports). Secondly, RSF actively intervenes by sending letters of protest to official bodies and assisting victims. Last year RSF dealt with more than 350 cases involving the press throughout the world. The organisation's ambition, according to Mr M&eacute;nard, is to be a kind of Amnesty International in the press field. The interview began with Mr M&eacute;nard giving a detailed description of RSF's work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We do two things - we report violations of press freedom and help journalists who are the victims of such violations. Take the former Yugoslavia, for example. It would have been unthinkable to monitor what was going on in that war-torn country without, at the same time, helping the media who were victims of the repression. So we sent over lawyers to help in trials involving the press, helped the families of imprisoned journalists and gave general assistance to the media. In the case of Oslabodenje, the Sarajevo daily, this went on for four years. We did similar work in Rwanda where RSF helped the media to get back on its feet after the genocide. In Algeria at the moment we are involved in aiding  journalists who are obstructed when doing their work. We also give help in Europe - currently to refugee journalists in Belgium, France, Spain, Switzarland and Germany. That's basically what we do; reporting violations of press freedom and helping those who are the victims of it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you work with other organisations, for example the United Nations ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We work with various types of organisations. We have daily contact with other NGOs specialising in press freedom, such as Article 19 in London and the Committee for the Protection of Journalists in New York, to give just two examples. We also have contacts with NGOs involved in human rights issues in general and, above all, with Amnesty International.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then there are our links with international organisations and, first and foremost, with the UN system. RSF has submitted reports in response to requests from various organisations, ranging from the UN Committee for Human Rights to UNESCO. We also work with the Council of Europe and the Organisation of African Unity. But our closest  relationship is with the European Union, or two reasons; firstly because it is RSF's main financial backer and secondly Because the EU enables us to do three things. It has helped us set up and has Financed a vast network of correspondents in 130 different countries and, to my mind, this is the most important thing in terms of defending human rights and press freedom. We also publish reports, which we write in response to EU requests, on press freedom in one country or another and which are made available to the EU and European Parliament. Our third \ink comes in the form of assistance. We manage an aid fund to help where the press is in difficulties, and the money is provided by the Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-You have mentioned a network of correspondents which has been set up. How does it operate ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is a network of people who are in daily contact with RSF and who tip us off when a situation requiring our attention arises. Whenever there is a violation of press freedom in a country where the network operates, our correspondent lets us know - that's the first priority. Then, they make enquiries at our request. The third stage is to set up events. For example May 3 was World Press Freedom Day and, on that day, in about 20 countries in Africa, our correspondents organised events on the theme of press freedom. A fourth aspect of our correspondents' work is that they are often responsible on the ground for helping journalists in difficulty. They also help the media in general because we give them documents and supply them with information which they distribute in their particular country. Their task, therefore, is to alert us to a situation, meet our requirements for information and, on our behalf, physically to assist people on the ground, set up events and disseminate information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Are the correspondents all nationals of the countries in which they work ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. Also, about 90% of them are joumalists and they are all paid for what they do. Their relationship with us is clear-cut. It is very important for them to be paid because this means that   we can ask certain things of them. If you   work as a volunteer no-one can give you  a deadline to produce such and such a   document. In our case, we pay them to   do this work for RSF.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you choose countries where the situation is already problematic ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Unfortunately, problems exist in many countries. Less than half the countries in the world show any degree of respect for press freedom and that means we have a great deal of work. In addition, information arriving at RSF from the correspondents is distributed to other organisations. We have set up a system called Infex which is an electronic mailbox.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All RSF's information is put on a computerised system and immediately disseminated to all the organisations involved in the defence of human rights, and press freedom in particular.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So the technological revolution is a positive thing as far as you are concerned ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Absolutely. Both the Imais and Internet systems are unbelievably useful tools which have completely revolutionised our work. For example, RSF might protest about the situation in some country or other. Take China, for example - we regularly lodge protests against the lack of press freedom there. There are 17 journalists in jail, no freedom for the press and a great many problems. However, people in China are not aware of what we do and in order to get information they have to listen to international radio stations. On the Internet, RSF's services are available in French, English and Spanish and it is consulted by people the world over. It is thus one of their sources of information. Another example would be a case where we set up an operation and inundate a number of people in a particular country with faxes, in order to pass on the information. Modern technology enables us to break down the fortresses which totalitarian or dictatorial regimes attempt to construct around themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- RSF has just published its 1996 Report. What do you have to say regarding the current position of press freedom ? Has progress been made ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I would say two things. In the long term, the situation is improving. If you remember, 25 years ago, the regimes in half the countries in Latin America were dictatorships, communism dominated half of Europe and nearly all of Africa had single-party systems. Even in Europe, there were dictatorships - in Spain, Portugal and Greece. So we cannot deny that there has been progress. The problem is that, for three or four years now, there has been a noticeable rise in new threats to press freedom, and this is a great source of concern to us. Here I am thinking of the rise in power of fundamentalist movements, particularly religious fundamentalism. In a number of countries nowadays - the best example, or perhaps I should say the worst example, is Algeria - journalists are not only threatened by the state but are being killed by armed Islamic groups. The rise in religious fundamentalism is indeed a real danger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second type of threat confronting the press is the increased influence of mafia-type criminals. You will, of course, have heard about drug trafficking in places like Colombia or Peru. Nowadays, in some countries where communism has been overthrown, the big threat comes from these criminal gangs. Not so long ago in Russia, the star presenter on the main TV channel was killed because he got in the way of 'Mafia' interests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third threat comes from uncontrolled actions by groups fighting for autonomy or independence, like the Kurdish movement in Turkey (the PKK), and a number of separatist groups in India. The EU is no stranger to this either</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ETA poses a continual threat to the press, as do members of the FLNC in Corsica. It is only a few months since members of the latter group machine gunned a journalist's house. A fourth and new kind of threat, particularly in countries with a democratic system, comes from the rise of the extreme right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lastly, a point I draw particular attention to in our recent report is, in fact, a dual phenomenon. On the one hand there are states which pass laws under which any criticism is a crime and may lead to prosecution. An example of this is Egypt where the government has enacted a law which has led to charges being brought against some 60 journalists since summer 1995. On the other hand, there are states where justice simply does not operate and there is no will to make it function.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Last year, 51 journalists were killed and a number of others were attacked, but there has not been a single trial or conviction. It is a real culture of impunity. In some countries, the justice system either does not operate, or it is not independent. In such places, the authorities are reluctant to identify and prosecute those responsible for attacks on journalists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· RSFcurrently has project running in Rwanda, in collaboration with the EU. Could you tell us something about this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The EU is helping us to meet a wide range of needs in Rwanda, as well as in Burundi, where sadly, the situation is rather similar. In Rwanda, there are those who governed the country before the genocide and those in power at the moment. There was a specific problem there in that nearly half of Rwanda's journalists were killed during the genocide - 49 out of about 100. We had virtually to reconstruct the press system and the EU gave us the means to do this.The press currently has difficulties vis-&agrave;-vis the authorities but it is attempting to do its job.  in Burundi, where our work is of a more conventional type, we see continuing attacks on press freedom. There, RSF is trying to resist the pressure, again supported by the EU. In fact, thanks to the EU, we are helping a   number of countries' media to survive despite difficult conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another quite new problem is that before and during the genocide in Rwanda, the media were used as vehicles for disseminating hatred. They issued calls for people to kill their compatriots, in this instance the Tutsis, and the language they used was unbelievably violent. On Radio Mille Collines, presenters would say - and I quote; 'The graves are not full yet'. They would give out the addresses of people who had to be killed and when the murders had been carried out they would actually say, 'You killed them too quickly - you should have killed them more slowly to make them suffer more', or, 'You didn't kill the children, go back and kill the childreni. We actually have recordings of statements like this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In such a situation, journalists must be made to answer for what they have done and be brought to justice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has helped us conduct a number of surveys which will enable the international criminal court in The Hague to charge Rwandan journalists with complicity or incitement to genocide. We expect this to take place in the very near future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course in Rwanda, all that is in the past but the same thing is happening today in Burundi where there is a radio station called 'Radio Democracy' - what a joke! A number of journalists there are issuing calls for people to be killed and we have a copy of one of their newspapers whose front page offers a cash reward to anyone who kills such and such a person. This is not journalism. RSF has lodged complaints against these people and one of these 'journalists' has just been charged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We are doing three things in Rwanda and Burundi: denouncing violations of press freedom by the authorities, helping media victims and - something new - reporting what has come to be known as 'the media of hatred'. Unfortunately, this type of media is not restricted to Rwanda and Burundi. it is a phenomenon that we see in a number of African countries, in the former Yugoslavia, the Caucasus and the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East. Perhaps you are aware that the 50th anniversary of the Nuremberg trials has just passed ? But did you know that there were two journalists among the accused? The press has forgotten that journalists played a part in the rise of Nazism. RSF is pointing out that the same thing is happening today in many countries and we have to fight it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 'The EU is a  perfect partner</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Given what you have just said, should restrictions be placed on press freedom ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - This is a very complex subject. You have to remember that international texts, particularly the convention on civil and political rights, place restrictions on press freedom. Article 19, which defines press freedom, stipulates that there are certain limits to this and Article 20 forbids any dissemination of racist or antisemitic ideas and any incitements to violence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RSF has two things to say. First, governments which have signed the agreements must ensure they are observed. These set limits. Journalists are not above the law and they must be punished when they say certain things. So states must face up to their responsibilities and apply the treaties they have signed. Second, I feel that the international community, and Europe in particular - when it signs agreements or gives aid to third countries - should demand that they respect press freedom but clamp down on the media of hatred.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· RSF has just published a draft model legislation governing the press. In preparing this, were you influenced by your experience of the extremist media ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Perhaps we were influenced too much. I am my own worst critic. We sent a mission to Rwanda before the genocide but did not appreciate the full effects of the evil disseminated by the media of hatred, particularly Radio Mille </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collines. We underestimated the situation and are concerned at what is happening. We believe there must be express limits on press freedom and this draft framework law is one way of formulating such restrictions. It is not necessarily the best way of going about things, but our profession has to ask itself questions regarding the definition of press freedom and the limits we must not exceed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Are you satisfied with what the EU is doing in this area ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The EU is a perfect partner and has never exerted any pressure. With the Union, we are able to do things that would not be possible with individual Member-State government because the latter conduct foreign policy in defence of certain interests. Each country has its own cultural history linguistic links or links arising out of former colonial times which prevent it financing RSF's studies unconditionally. As far as our missions are concerned, RSF decides what it wants to do and we send our reports to the EU. They have also granted us a budget enabling us to give immediate aid to people in difficulty. This is the most positive action possible If the EU were not there, there would unfortunately be no-one else to finance an organisation like ours. 60% of our budget comes from the Union, 20%from various companies. We generate the remaining 20% ourselves through sales of books and contributions. Because the EU is a grouping of governments, the Commission has some room for manoeuvre. This is the only possible kind of support for organisations like RSF and, if it were not there, it would be the end for the people whom RSF supports.  interview by Dorothy Morrissey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ACP</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The economy of Cameroon: Better prospects but still a long way to go</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is an astonishing sight to behold during the rainy season. As you drive along the road from Yaound&eacute; to Bamenda, you come to a point where human habitation starts - and it then continues unbroken for more than 100 kiLom&eacute;tres. Just before Bafoussam, and as far as the eye can see, every patch of land is cultivated. Bananas, oranges, mangoes, sugarcane, cassava, palm trees, groundnuts and maize grow luxuriantly in open fields and in the front and back gardens of many houses. This route, of course, takes you mainly through the western part of Cameroon, home to the Bamilelr&eacute;s, recognised as one of the country's most enterprising and industrious ethnic groups. The population density here is 200 per km2 as opposed to 1 per km2 in the East.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The impact of this widespread farming, carried out by a large number of smallholders, is visible in the local markets, whether in Bafoussam, Mbouda or Bamenda. There, the stalls overflow with fruits and vegetables and prices are very low - a virtual paradise for the middlemen whose unmistakable presence is signalled by the significant number of trucks loading the produce for distribution throughout the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These scenes come as no surprise to the long-time observer of Cameroon's economy. The country achieved virtual self-sufficiency in food over 15 years ago. It is one of the few African countries to have been able to do this, thanks both to its physical  endowments and an early recognition of its agricultural vocation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon is often described as a microcosm of Africa, not just in terms of its make-up of English- and French speaking communities, but because it enjoys almost all the continent's climatic conditions. The south is equatorial, with two rainy seasons and two dry seasons of equal duration, the centre is Savannah country with one rainy season and one dry season, while the extreme north (part of the Sahel) is hot and dry. The country has a very good supply of rainfall - from 5000 mm annually in the southwest to around 600 mm near Lake Chad.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such varied climates favour the cultivation of a variety of crops. Timber is  produced mainly in the southern provinces while palm oil, tea, cocoa, coffee, rubber, timber and foodcrops are produced in the southwestern and western areas. The central and north provinces specialise in cattle and cotton production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concentration on agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon has, not surprisingly, concentrated on agriculture. Indeed the government has given top priority to the sector in all its development plans   since independence in 1960. It has been involved in the marketing of the main export crops and has provided subsidies to farmers in the form of low-priced fertilisers and pesticides for their cocoa, coffee, rubber, palm oil, etc. Almost three-quarters of the working population (the majority of whom are smallholders) are engaged in farming. And despite a low level of mechanisation, they are very efficient. The rate of growth in food outstrips the rate of population growth. Only a few largescale farmers or firms are involved in the production of cash crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until the early 1980s, when oil came into the picture, these large scalefarmers and firms amounted for more than 70% of export earnings, 40% of state revenue and 32% of the Gross Domestic Product. The plan initially was to use oil revenues to further boost and transform agriculture. However, the dramatic increase in the country's oil production, combined with much higher world petroleum prices during the first half of the 1980s, made the sector not only Cameroon's biggest export earner, but also, in a certain sense, a 'spoiler' for agriculture. Increased revenues enabled the government to maintain the level of prices paid to farmers, even though world prices had slumped to disastrous levels. This created distortions in the market. (Later, when the oil price slumped, and revenues dropped sharply, producer prices were also reduced, bringing them closer into line with international prices.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture's contribution to GDP declined steadily to around 21 % in 1985, rose to 27% in 1989 and has hovered around 30% ever since. The sector's share of export earnings has also fallen to about 40% of total exports by value.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite this, Cameroon's agriculture remains, comparatively, in a much better shape than that of most African countries. Indeed, it contributed in large measure to the country's reputation as one of Africa's economic successes in the 1980s. During that decade, growth averaged 8% per annum. However, the period was also marked by dramatic increases in oil revenues which induced  significant policy changes as well as leading to maladministration. The government paid less attention to taxation and customs duties as sources of income and turned a virtual blind eye to smuggling which harmed the manufacturing sector. The civil service, on the other hand, expanded beyond reason, a phenomenon that some have attributed to patronage by the ruling single party.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boom in public expenditure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Protected somewhat against fluctuations in earnings from export crops, by a strong but overvalued CFA franc, the government embarked on a wide range of capital expenditure and imports. Then, in 1987, international oil prices fell as dramatically as they had risen earlier in the decade. At the time, public spending was running at CFAF 8 billion - well above the CFAF 5.6bn the country actually earned. Revenues from oil continued their downward slide to CFAF4.5 bn in 1988, CFAF 2.8 bn in 1991 and CFAF 2.5 bn in 1994. 1995 saw a modest rise to CFAF 3 bn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1987 thus marked the beginning of a rapid deterioration in Cameroon's financial situation. In the period which followed, civil servants' salaries were unpaid for months, several of the country's foreign missions were left without resources and both domestic and foreign debts worsened. In 1993, the government owed commercial banks around CFAF 3.3bn. Its external debt stood at around $7.5bn with a service ratio of more than 25% of foreign exchange earnings. The devaluation of the CFA franc in January 1994 improved the internal debt situation significantly. In February, the government signed a letter of intent with the IMF after agreeing to a series of reforms which included, among other things, rationalising the banking and insurance sectors, raising revenue from non-oil sources, bringing inflation down and reducing the budget deficit. In return the IMF provided a stand-by loan equivalent to CFAF 1.4bn. However, the agreement was suspended just a few months later when the Fund reached the conclusion that the government lacked the will to carry the reforms through. The 1994/95 budget foresaw a deficit of 4.5% of GDP - well above the IMF's guideline of 1.5%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meanwhile the country's financial situation had become so critical that it could no longer service its debts, most notably, those it owed to the World Bank. France, which had traditionally been ready to come to the rescue, refused to bail Cameroon out and it finally dawned on the authorities that structural adjustment was unavoidable. When, in September 1995, talks resumed with the IMF, the commitment to adjustment was no longer in doubt. The government agreed, in addition to fiscal reforms, to liberalise trade in cocoa, coffee and timber, to prune the civil service and to privatise state enterprises which dominate the industrial sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commitment to reforms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since then the reform process has been in full swing. The first and most important task has been to improve the government's financial position. The civil service, which employs more than 175000 people, is gradually being reduced and salaries have been cut. Trade is also being liberalised and subsidies are being removed. The 1995/96 budget, unveiled in June last year, was welcomed by the IMF. It included, for the first time in a long while, increases in income tax and a widening of tax bands. A series of measures have also been introduced to combat tax evasion and fraud. External signs of wealth, water and electricity consumption, and telephone bills are now being used as means of assessing income tax.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Responsibility for the collection of customs duties has been removed from the Customs Department which was often accused in the past of corruption and inefficiency. The task has been given instead to a Swiss-based preshipment inspection company. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The donor community has responded positively. With French assistance, the government has been able to clear its outstanding debt to the World Bank. The IMF has provided a stand-by credit facility of $101 million in support of the adjustment programme for 1995/ 96 and debts to the Paris Club covering the same period have been rescheduled. In addition, now that Cameroon has been reclassified as a poor country, it is entitled to benefit from the terms of the Naples Agreement, which allow for up to 67% of debts to western govemments to be written off. A number of creditor nations have either forgiven the country its debts or have reduced them substantially. More loans have come from France and a number of other donors, including the World Bank and the European Community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EC is financing a series of projects within the framework of the adjustment programme, including the restructuring of the civil service and preparation of the ground for privatisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lately though, the donor community has been showing signs of disenchantment, following allegations of misuse of funds and perhaps even outright embezzlement. Last March, an IMF mission to Yaound&eacute; failed to obtain an adequate explanation concerning the allocation of certain sums. The result, at the time The Courier went to press, was that an IMF loan for settlement of Cameroon's debt to the African Development Bank was being held up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dealing with the negative social impact</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p07a.png"></center><br>
+ Figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sudden devaluation of the CFA franc in January 1994 halved Cameroon's purchasing power overnight. The government has since cut wages twice. The average salary of a top civil servant, which stood at around CFAF 300 000 before devaluation, is now less than CFAF 180 000 while the lowest paid government employees receive just CFAF 30 000. At the same time, prices, particularly of imported manufactured goods and inputs, have risen sharply. Increases of up to 150% have been  recorded. By way of example, the price of a baguette (french bread), which was only CFAF 80 in January 1994 had risen to CFAF 130 by March 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there is considerable hardship, Cameroonians are a great deal more fortunate than fellow Africans in many other countries undergoing a similar adjustment process. Staple food remains cheap and affordable to the vast majority, thanks to the continuing strength of agriculture. As a result, there are few, if any, cases of malnutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of donors, including China, Belgium and the EC, are concentrating on health and education with the specific aim of reducing the negative social impact of adjustment. The EC, for example, has a project designed to strengthen health provision at the grassroots. This entails rehabilitating  infrastructures (health centres and district hospitals in particular) and establishing medical supply centres in areas that are not covered by other donors. The project is governed by the principle of cost-recovery to ensure viability and sustainability. But one area where the donors cannot do much is in the field of job creation. There is growing unemployment and job prospects in the formal sector, at least in the short term, are not good.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In macro-economic terms, things are locking up slightly for Cameroon. After recording economic growth of 3% in 1994/95, the hope is for a 5% increase in 1995/96. However, Cameroon's main economic operators, grouped under the umbrella of GICAM (Groupement inter-patronal du Cameroun), expressed fears late last year   that the country would not achieve this level of growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon exports a variety of primary commodities, most of whose prices have recovered in recent years, and devaluation has had a positive impact on the country's balance of trade. Specifically, it has helped make exports more competitive and in 1994/ 95 the trade surplus was a healthy CFAF 349bn, almost double the CFAF 128bn recorded in the previous year. There was a noticeable slowdown in the export of timber in the latter half of last year and the qualities of coffee and cocoa being sold were not up to the usual standard, a situation that led to both crops being shunned in the world market. Bananas exported to France were also meeting stiffer competition from French Caribbean bananas. However, the fact that rubber production has risen by more than 10%, while aluminium output and sales have increased, should help Cameroon to record another positive trade balance when the figures are next published.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forestry sector, which has huge foreign-exchange earning and employment potential, is being rationalised as part of the current structural adjustment programme. The Canadian Agency for International Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(CAID) has a five-year project to conserve and regenerate some 30 000 hectares. In fact, half of Cameroon is covered by forest and less than 500 000 ha is currently being exploited. The objective is to ensure that forest resources are exploited in the future at a sustainable level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The private sector</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industry, which is still in its infancy, has been developed by the government since independence largely with a view to import-substitution, although with some gearing towards the regional market. It accounts for about 14% of GDP and is currently dominated by aluminium smelting. Although devaluation has lately improved the competitiveness of those enterprises that add value to locally available raw materials, the manufacturing sector as a whole faces two major challenges now that the government has accepted the idea that the economy is best driven by the private sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first relates to private investments, which have been sluggish  over the past ten years; a clear illustration of a lack of confidence in the economy. This was amply demonstrated when Cameroonians with funds abroad failed to repatriate them to take advantage of the CFAF devaluation as was widely expected. This phenomenon puts the whole privatisation exercise in jeopardy as it means that the government is more likely to have to rely on foreign entrepreneurs. The best the authorities can therefore expect in the short term, some observers say, is to convert those state enterprises that are not already joint-ventures into ones where private investors become the majority shareholders. Complete divestment will then take place gradually over a longer timescale. Overall, 150 state enterprises have been earmarked for sale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to Andr&eacute; Siaka, director of Cameroon's Brewery, who is also Chairman of GICAM, another reason for the lack of investment was high interest rates. These hovered around 20% for many years. Even now, after the reform of the banking sector, interest rates remain very high and there are no borrowers, he told The Courier. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donors again have been conscious of this and some of their interventions have reflected this concern. For example, Canada is providing funds for the establishment in Douala (the commercial capital) of a centre for the development of private enterprises. Meanwhile, the Chinese have promised to provide CFAF 7bn to enable a line of credit to be opened for small and medium sized enterprises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government itself is puting in place a number of incentives, according to Minister of Trade and Industry Eloundou Mani Pierre. The liberalisation of the economy and the reform of the customs regime in collaboration with UDEAC, to which Cameroon belongs, are part of these. Mr Mani told The Courier that with a population of under 12 million, Cameroun's most important market was Central Africa. He also, perhaps surprisingly, has high hopes for the new World Trade Aareement. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon meanwhile is reviewing its plan for the establishment of export processing zones with the help of its main donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also looking at other ways of attracting foreign investment, particularly in 'value-added' enterprises involved in the processing of locally available raw materials such as cotton, cocoa, coffee and timber.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social and political peace</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second, and by far the more serious challenge facing manufacturing, is the problem of large-scale smuggling by petty traders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evidence of this abounds in the booming central market of Douala, where goods of all kinds can be found at very reasonable prices. Ironically the measures which were being taken and judged to be relatively effective against smuggling in recent years have had to be abandoned under structural adjustment rules imposed on the government.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As Mr Siaka pointed out, petty traders dealing in smuggled goods put pressure on enterprises, 'because they do not pay tax', and threaten to render domestic manufacturing uncompetitive. It is also widely acknowledged, however, that the small-scale traders, who dominate the informal sector, provide job opportunities to Cameroonians, which is important at a time of economic austerity. Indeed petty trading has arguably been the safety-valve, helping to ease the social pressures brought about by structural adjustment, and thus preventing civil unrest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the extent to which that safety-valve can withstand the emerging political pressures is a different matter. Democratisation, understandably, was one of the conditions imposed by donors for assistance to Cameroon. After a series of elections - presidential, legislative and municipal - which were marred by violence and deaths, there are still doubts about the health of democracy in the country. Indeed, there are signs that tension is  mounting. And few would dispute that if Cameroon is to succeed economically, it needs both social peace and political stability. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Jacques Santer commends regional  initiative</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Alex Kremer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission President's visit to West Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union's commitment to regional development in sub-Saharan Africa is as strong as ever, but sustainable development can only come from Africa's own initiative. This was the message delivered by Jacques Santer, President of the European Commission, in his address to African heads of state at the UEMOA (Economic and Monetary Union of West Africa) summit in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, on May 10.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'I wish to emphasise from the start,' Mr Santer declared to the Presidents of Benin, Burkina Faso, C&ocirc;te d'lvoire, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo, 'that the European Commission and the European Parliament are both determined to make our partnership even more dynamic and in tune with today's rapidly changing world.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The presence of the Commission President at the UEMOA summit marks a milestone in the European Community's support for regional integration in the developing world. With its own Commission, Council of Ministers and Court of Justice, the UEMOA appears to be consciously  following the supranational model of regional integration pioneered by the European Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sequencing of UEMOA integration, however, is almost the reverse of the European model. Already linked by a single currency in the CFA franc, the West African Union's member states are now pressing ahead with plans for integration of their 'real' economies. The implementation timetable agreed in Ouagadougou covers freedom of establishment, free movement of capital, mutual macroeconomic monitoring and the first steps to customs union with the harmonisation of external tariffs and the lowering or removal of intra-regional barriers to trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President Santer indicated that the European Commission is keen to discuss how the European Development Fund (EDF) can support these initiatives. Such aid could take the form of technical assistance and training as well as direct budgetary support to mitigate the short-term costs of customs union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UEMOA is not, however, an aid project. Its member states have designed it to stand on its own feet financially from the start. A 'community solidarity levy' was due to come into effect on 1 July 1996. The money will be used for a structural fund programme beginning in late 1997, as well as to finance the Union's operating costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meeting with the President of Burkina Faso, Blaise Compaor&eacute;, Mr Santer said that it was particularly significant that his first official visit to Africa as President of the European</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission was to Ouagadougou. Not only was it a reaffirmation of the partnership between Africa and the EU, and a statement of the EU's willingness to support regional integration in the developing world. It was also a tribute to the determination of the people of Burkina Faso and other African countries to promote their own development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community is Burkina Faso's second largest donor, contributing 10% of total aid payments in 1994. Since 1991, the EC has committed an average of ECU 45 million each year to development cooperation with this country, rising to a peak of ECU 100m in 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Santer visited the EDF-financed road improvement site at Tougan, close to the frontier with Mali, and noted that intra-regional transport links were an essential complement to the legislative programme of the UEMOA. He concluded his tour of regional cooperation projects with a visit to a photovoltaic pumping system financed by the EC under its West African solar energy programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, on a more personal note, the Commission President was able to drop in on a project managed by the charity Chr&eacute;tiens pour le Sahel. Mr Santer worked for this Luxembourg-based organisation before starting his career in politics and he was visibly pleased to see that it was still going strong - supporting home-grown African initiatives with a little financial help from the European Community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.K. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA - moving with the times</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) was inaugurated 11 years ago in Ede, Prince Claus of the Netherlands - whose interest in development issues is well-known - attestded as guest of honour. On 19 April, he returned to take part in the official opening of the CTA's new building in neigh bouring Wageningen in the Dutch province of Gelderland. The siting of the purpose built premises is significant. The town of Wageningen has long been an important European centre for agricultural research and the Dutch, of course, are renowned for their commitment to cooperation with developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CTA may only have moved a short distance from its previous headquarters, but the Centre's 38-strong staff are also aware of the need to move with the times when it comes to fulfilling  their role in the field of agricultural information. This point was particularly emphasised by CTA Director, Dr. R.D. Cooke in his presentation at the opening ceremony. Recalling the Centre's main tasks (see box) Dr Cooke spoke of the 'changing horizons and challenges' which they faced, and he focused on four specific aspects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first of these is the big change taking place in national agricultural systems, with the state withdrawing more and more in favour of the private sector and NGOs. This is being accompanied by a trend towards decentralisation with the result that the CTA has many more potential partners to cater for and work with.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Global liberalisation has also had an effect on the kind of information being sought by the CTA's 'customers'. In the past, demand was almost exclusively for scientific or technical information, notably aimed at increasing productivity. Dr Cooke reported that while this remained important, there was now  an increasing interest in marketing and socio-economic aspects to facilitate decision-taking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It came as no surprise to hear the Director highlight the challenge posed by new technologies such as electronic networking and digital storage. The key point here, he stressed, was to find ways of adapting these to ACP needs and realities. 'In the next century,' he argued, 'the haves and the heve-nots will be defined by their access to information.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, Dr Cooke referred to the growing significance of regional linkages. He indicated that the CTA was locking at ways in which it could help its partners to devise regional development programmes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The declaration signalling the official opening of the building was made in the preceding presentation by E.F.C. Niehe who is Deputy DirectorGeneral for European Cooperation at the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In his speech, Mr Niehe emphasised the relevance of the CTA, pointing out that while the world food situation had improved, 'we are now on the threshold of structural food insecurity'. He also spoke in more general terms about the future of ACP-EU cooperation and acknowledged that 'partnership, sovereignty and equality had been somewhat neglected' by donors. However, he suggested that these concepts were now 'coming back'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the ACP side, the Swaziland ambassador, CS. Mamba,who is co-President of the Committee of Ambassadors, took up the theme of food shortages in sub-Saharan Africa and identified some of the difficulties encountered by African producers, particularly in respect of new technologies and marketing. He also referred to the environmental challenges facing ACP countries, especially in the Caribbean and Pacific. He was keen, however, to stress that the picture was 'not entirely negative'. Thus, for example, new technologies and methods had had a positive impact on grain production in Zimbabwe, horticulture in Kenya, and cocoa and coffee in West Africa. Mr Mamba echoed Dr Cooke in stressing the advantages of regional markets, and concluded with a firm statement of support for continuing ACP-EU cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'History,' he said, 'will show that the Lom&eacute; Convention played a central role in the momentum of development.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The final speaker was Steffen Smidt, Director-General for Development at the European Commission, who suggested that the CTA had played a pioneering role in developing a sectoral  approach at a time when the focus of development cooperation tended to be on individual projects. 'The Centre', he said, 'has become a well-respected international institution in the field of agricultural information.' The Director General focused on the need for ACP countries to develop their own capacities and on the gap that exists 'between potential and reality', because of capacity limitations. The Centre, he believed, could 'help bridge this gap.' Mr Smidt also reiterated a point made earlier that the information flow should not just be in one direction. 'Information from South to North is vital,' he argued, to ensure better targeting of programmes in future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the speeches, guests had an opportunity to learn more about the CTA's work by speaking to the Centre's personnel and visiting a special exhibition illustrating the nature and purpose of the Centre's activities. _</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer About the CTA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CIA's tasks are: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - to develop and provide services which improve access to information for agricultural and rural development ; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - to strengthen the Opacity of ACP countries to produce, acquire, exchange and utilise information in these areas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Programmes are organised around three principal themes: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strengthening information centres - designing strategies for improving agricultural information services; - promoting use of new information technologies; - providing training; - donating books. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Promoting contact and exchange of: experience among CTA's partners in rural development - seminars; - study visits. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Providing information on demand - publication s; - radio and audiovisual materials; - literature services for researchers; - Question and answer service. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(The address of the Technical Centre for Agriculture and Rural cooperation can be found in the CTA section towards the end of the white pages in   this issue.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bananas, Hamlet and the Windward IsIands</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Martin Dihm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What do the Windward Islands' banana industry and Hamlet have in common ? Both are intrigued by the same question: 'To be or not to be.' But unlike Hamlet, whose fete was decided rather quickly and tragically, the future of Windward Canibbean banana production is still open. And what is more, Windward producers have a distinct advantage over Hamlet. They can hire consultants to analyse their problem and come up with fresh solutions. That is what has happened. But before turning to the solutions, what have the problems been ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The four Windward Islands; Dominica, St Lucia, St Vincent and Grenada, have long enjoyed preferential market access to the UK. This first permitted the creation of the industry and then secured its survival, even with production costs that are much higher than those of other producers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A traumatic moment came when the European Community had to decide on a common market regime for bananas. Coming into effect in mid 1993 the regime maintained the principle of preferential access for traditional ACP producers. Nevertheless, it introduced a move towards greater market liberalisation. Fierce attacks on the regime by certain of the EU's trading partners have raised doubts about its viability. The system is due, in any case, to expire in 2002 when even further liberalisation seems likely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this could cause great difficulties for the Windward Islands which still depend substantially on banana exports to the EU. A decline in prices since mid-1993 and the appearance of new competitors in the previously protected UK market have further underlined the need for the Windwards to compete in a more liberal arena. The Islands commissioned a study, funded by the UK and the EC, into the competitiveness of their industry and on ways of improving its position. It was not the first study of this type, but earlier ones had had no real impact on the industry which had always been sufficiently protected to avoid swallowing the bitter pill of adjustment. This time, it was clear from the outset that action would have to be taken if the industry were to master the new situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The study provided a wealth of interesting insights and recommendations. The first big surprise - at least for outsiders - was the discovery that the industry was wasting considerable amounts each year through certain deficiencies in governance, management and production methods. The second theme of the study was the poor banana quality resulting from an inappropriate pricing system. In effect, price differences paid to farmers were not sufficient to reward extra attention to quality aspects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The study's recommendations pertaining to management, production and quality were all agreed in a meeting on 29 September 1995, which brought together the Prime Ministers, the EC and other donors. Prime Minister Mitchell of St Vincent labelled this chance for the industry to get its business right as 'the last train to San Fernando'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What has happened since then ? After some hesitation, the industry has indeed begun to 'take up arms against its sea of troubles' (to return to the Hamlet analogy). The EC, for its part, has taken the part of Horatio, the faithful friend. Its role is a delicate one though - for the EC has a lot of money available. Take, for example, the ECU 25m allocated to St Vincent in the 1994 STABEX exercise (roughly five times that  country's national indicative programme). How are such funds to be injected reasonably into the islands without undermining their own strength and sense of purpose in pursuing the right strategy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To answer this, one has to look at the actual requirements. Streamlining the banana industry is less a question of big infrastructure projects than of providing expertise to guide the necessary structural changes. It also means fewer people will be employed in the sector. Aid should, therefore, focus on technical assistance, promoting diversification, and social 'cushioning'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge, of course, remains considerable and the outcome will not be known for some time. But it is clear that the Windwards have taken bold steps in the right direction and that further steps are on the agenda. There is also little doubt that the islands small, sweet bananas can only be competitive in their market segment if they are produced and marketed professionally, and with dedication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So what could Hamlet have learnt from this experience ? In short - get sound analysis and fresh advice from outside - and then boldly implement. And stick close to your good old friend, Horatio! </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.D.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">British beef overshadows Development Council</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most recent meeting of the EC`s Development Council was one of the first to be hit by the non-cooperation policy adopted by the UK in protest at the export ban on British beef. The Overseas Development Minister, Linda Chalker, announced at the outset to her fellow ministers: 'I will not be able to agree today to the adoption of those texts... on which unanimity is required'. Britain is seeking agreement 'for a step-by-step lifting of the export ban', which was imposed after scientific evidence suggested a link between Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) - and its human 'equivalent', Creuzfeld Jakob Disease. Cases of BSE have been recorded across Europe, but the vast majority have been in the UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Texts which were approved included a regulation on refugees in non-Lom&eacute; developing countries. This makes available ECU 240 million over a four-year period (19961999) for longer term assistance to refugees and displaced persons - mainly in Asia and Latin America. Also agreed were two three-year programmes covering Aids control and environmental projects respectively. They will cover the period 1997-1999, and each has been allocated the sum of ECU 45m. In addition, ministers confirmed a regulation on the criteria for disbursing humanitarian aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the British stance meant that a number of important resolutions were blocked, including a text on mounting projects which link emergency, rehabilitation and longer-term aid. Rino Serri, Italy's Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs who presided the Council meeting, said that once adopted, this approach would represent a 'qualitative leap for the EU's development policy.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other resolutions awaiting approval relate to the strengthening of coordination between Member States, evaluation of the environmental impact of development policies, decentralised cooperation, and migration and development. Since good headway was made on these subjects despite the British attitude, the texts are expected  to be speedily agreed once the UK lifts its veto. Ministers also had an initial discussion on a paper presented by Commissioner Pinheiro on preventing conflicts in Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As is customary at these biannual meetings, several delegations raised points of particular national concern. Belgium, for example, is worried about the Commission's proposal which would finally establish the single market in chocolate products while leaving Member States the choice of adapting their legislation to allow a vegetable oil content of up to 5% in chocolate. Belgium feels that this approach could ultimately prove harmful to cacoa-producing countries and claims that it will be difficult to control the exact percentage of oil used. Sweden, meanwhile, wants action to reform the UN institutions while Italy is keen to increase public awareness of development policies. Finland emphasised the need for better coordination between the European Community and its Member States on environmentally sustainable projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Great Lakes region</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was backing for the June Round Table meeting on Rwanda organised by the UNDP, as well for the various diplomatic initiatives aimed at bringing stability to the Great Lakes region. On 27 May, the ministers dined  with Emma Bonino, the European Commissioner responsible for humanitarian issues, and with former US President, Jimmy Carter, who has played a major role in the search to find a solution to the region's problems. Others active in this effort include South Africa's Archbishop Tutu, and former Presidents Nyerere and Tour&eacute; of Tanzania and Mali respectively. Ministers also commended the efforts of the UN and the OAU.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Serri said there was a 'desperate need for a ceasefire' in Burundi and called for a 'speeding up of the peace process and full deployment of available humanitarian and development aid.' He told journalists it was vital for the EU to make special efforts to strengthen the judicial systems in Rwanda and Burundi - 'so that the justice system can work properly and identify those responsible for the genocide.' He pledged that 'substantial resources' would be made available once peace is secured. Ministers also called for a control of arms sales to the region, although they have no power to legislate in this area, which remains the preserve of the Member States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside the meeting place, Senegalese fishermen and NGOs joined forces to mount a protests against the effects of traditional EU fisheries agreements. These provide financial compensation to governments in exchange for access to their waters for EU vessels, but the protesters claim that they harm local fishing industries and disrupt food supplies. A significant number of agreements are due to come up for renewal later this year. NGOs are lobbying for a new and 'fairer' type of accord which provides for catch reductions, more selective fishing methods and the employment of locally-hired fishermen on EU boats. These proposals are all set out in a paper entitled 'The Fight for Fish: Towards Fair Fisheries Agreements,' published by Eurostep, a Brussels-based NGO. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Country report</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Cape Verde</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Making the best of history</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde has been shaped by the harmattan, the hot dry wind which blows from Africa, strong ocean currents and five hundred years of Portuguese colonialisation. Portugal has been a constant presence in the archipelago's history since the fifteenth century, when it granted the colonists who were to settle on the islands of Cape Verde a monopoly over the slave trade. The country became an interface between Africa, Europe and the Americas, at the centre of the triangle of trade in slaves, hardware and gold. The intermingling of black populations of every origin who  passed through the islands meant that the country was unable to present a united face against the colonialist culture. The colonists were therefore able to impose their own culture, with their fervent and proselytzing Catholicism becoming the principal ingredientin the mixture that is Cape Verde. Strong, scorching winds from the desert have shaped the islands' landscape and inhospitable ocean currents mean that approaches to the islands are difficult, their rocky cliff faces plunging into the sea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mythical Portuguese colonial oasis</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Up to the eighteenth century, Cape Verde was no more than a commercial centre for Portugal, its population at the end of that century barely exceeding 50,000, to be halved by the great drought between 1773-75. Other periods of drought regularly decimated the population and the arrival of new colonists and slaves did not offset such losses or compensate for the massive exodus which began in the early nineteenth century with the arrival of American whalers in search of crew members for their ships. Seven hundred thousand Cape Verdians currently live abroad, half of these in the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only four hundred thousand  have stayed in their own country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the beginning of the twentieth century, a period which signalled a turning point in the country's history, the population still numbered no more than 150 000. At the time, major sea voyages were being undertaken and Cape Verde's geographical location was highly valued. Mindelo, on the island of S&atilde;o Vicente in the north of the archipelago, developed as a coal-and-watersupply port for English vessels plying the route between India and the Americas, and England helped construct this port. However, Portugal's policy towards Cape Verde was double-edged. On the one hand, the islands were regarded as a natural extension of the home country, but as a competitor in terms of port activities. This led to Mindelo's slow development, although the trade in  skins, fishery produce, coffee and salt  could have made it a thriving centre. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mixing of races in Cape Verde has often been held up as, so-to-speak, 'humane colonisation', but this opinion is not corroborated by the under-developed state of the country at the time of independence and the fact that Portugal implemented food security measures to combat the ravages of catastrophic famines only when under pressure from public opinion, at the end of the first half of the twentieth century. The island's colonists had always used slave labour to produce food or fabrics which enabled them to purchase more slaves and it was only when the slave based economy began to decline, which   resulted in the impoverishment of the colonists, that a major grouping of free Blacks and rebel or emancipated slaves came into being. That is when the intermixing of races began. Therefore, before the abolition of slavery (18641869-1878), the vast majority of the black population of the island was free; both unmarried and married colonists would generally emancipate their children born of a secret relationship with female slaves. The aristocracy and white upper-middle classes continued to live a cloistered, aloof life and did not mix with other races. A second factor which would suggest that Portuguese colonisation of Cape Verde was sympathetic in outlook is the reputation of this small country's intellectuals; although colonisation created only a small intellectual elite which was the product of a single institution, the Mindelo College, opened in 1917. In a quote by Michel Lesourd, Deirdre Meintel refers to this phenomenon as the mythical 'cultural oasis'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A nation born of a middle class in tatters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through its contradictions, it was this black, mulatto and 'petty white' middle class which was to forge the mixed-race culture and national identity, caught between its own privileges and its aspirations of aristocracy, between its rejection of African culture (they sought a 'lusotropical' culture) and the need to find allies amongst the lower classes who retained African cultural values. In order to acquire the wealth and attributes of power, this middle class was to take over the lands vacated by the decline of the slavebased economy and which were often much improved by the former slaves (renamed 'tenant farmers' without a major change in their living conditions) preventing a major economic upheaval which could have put an end to this iniquitous system. Their wholesale appropriation of land explains why, today, there is a very high proportion of landless farmers in Cape Verde, seasonal agricultural workers who survive only thanks to the State's welfare system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This petty bourgeoisie was to give birth to growing awareness which would lead to calls for independence. Officially, Cape Verde was not a colony but a province, and its inhabitants in theory had the same rights or lack of rights as Portuguese citizens in Salazar's 'New State', where the right to vote depended on social and cultural status. In other Portuguese territories, members of the petty bourgeoisie held the rank of colonial administrators and, from their ranks, the pro-independence movements emerged. Such was the case of the PAIGC (Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde pro-lndependence Party), created by Amilcar Cabral, a symbolic figure in Africa's striuggles for independence and Cape Verde's national hero. He was assassinated in mysterious circumstances in Guinea-Conakry in 1973. His brother, Luiz Cabral, was to become president of Guinea-Bissau, and Aristides Pereira his successor as Party leader and Cape Verde's first president.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's uneventful transition to independence in July 1975 mirrored Portugalts Carnation Revolution and was quite unlike the fierce war entered into by Portugal in Mozambique and Angola. There was a clandestine struggle during which a number of combatants were imprisoned, but there was never any real guerilla warfare. The Portuguese governor remained at his post until he was replaced by an ambassador. The PAIGC was to govern both Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde until the coup d'&eacute;tat against Luiz Cabral in Guinea-Bissau in 1980, when it adopted the name of PAICV in Cape Verde, thereby signalling the end to any dream of a union between the two countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diplomatic ventures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new state pursued an even-handed diplomatic approach and accomplished the considerable diplomatic feat of remaining equidistant between the Cold wer's principal adversaries, adapting over time to all the changes which occurred on the world  scene. Post-independence, embassies were opened by the United States, China and the Soviet Union. Cape Verde, with its marxist leanings, maintained the former links created with apartheid South Africa by Portugal. The arrival in power of a liberal party had no effect on this diplomatic tightrope-walking act. It was South Africa which was to provide aid to build the international airport at Sal. Ironically, after the establishment of democracy in South Africa, it was at this very airport that President Mandela was to stress his desire for strengthened links with the archipelago. Latterly, Cape Verde has demonstrated this flexible in its recent decision to Join the group of, French-speaking countries whilst still regarding itself as a mouthpiece for the Portuguese-speaking world, enjoying a privileged relationship with Portugal, the Azores, Brazil and African countries where the official language is Portuguese. It is also a very active member of the CEDAO (Community of West-African States) and its President is currently chairman of the CILSS (Inter  national Commitee to Combat Drought). Cape Verde receives as much aid from China as from the US, from Russia and Sweden as from Cuba and Japan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This diplomacy is in keeping with the atypical 'Marxist' Party which first initiated it. With its interventionist approach to economics, its highly developed social policy which gives priority to education, health and combating unemployment through public welfare, this party could be regarded as a socialist party, yet it opted decisively for a market economy. Its single-party structure mirrored the example of would-be popular democracies, but it never set up a system of repression and terror: only one opposition member's death is said to have taken place in suspicious circumstances on the island of Santo Antao. The population was able to discuss politics at popular assemblies and held no fear of openly criticising the government and, in the case of the well-off, of displaying its wealth. A mudan&ccedil;a (change) was implemented calmly and collectedly by the PAICV when it was in power, sowing the seeds of its own downfall. With no pressure from street demonstrations and no insistent demands from political classes, the government of President Aristides Pereira and Prime Minister Pedro Pires adapted to the new situation created by the fall of the Berlin Wall. In early 1990, the PAICV gave up its privileged position as the single party and, one year later, at the legislative elections in January 1991 and presidential elections in February 1991, Africa witnessed the first democratic overthrow of a single-party government which had achieved independence. After the legislative elections, the PAICV, which had placed too great a reliance on being credited for its good governance, was silenced. The desire for change was too great and the position adopted by the Catholic church, anxious to punish a party which had dared to opt for a referendum on abortion, did the rest. President Aristides Pereira's personal prestige stood for little in the full face of this onslaught.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What change?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister Carlos Veiga, who had founded the MPD only eight months before his overwhelming success in the 1991 elections, became the new figurehead in Cape Verde politics. His power sharing with Antonio Mascarenhas Monteiro was again successful at the most recent elections (December 1995 and January 1996). Shortly before the poll, the MPD experienced a near-fatal split, but the new party which emerged, the PCD, had only one representative as against 50 (an absolute majority) for the MPD and 21 for the PAICV, which continued to exist. Three other parties taking part in the elections fell by the wayside and the polarisation of Cape Verde's politics into two camps locks set to continue. This is the second time that the MPD has surprised its opponents - this time, the political adversaries had attacked the MPD's attempt to curry favour, but the majority of the electorate, concentrated on the island of Santiago, continued to show their appreciation of the visible signs of modernisation in their lives and also the government's seductive politics, particularly in the ran-up to the elections. The country had also had a good harvest and, although this was unconnected with the MPD, that party could only benefit from it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite what MPD leaders might say, there has been no real ideological split, any political reorientation having been instigated in 1990 by the previous regime when it threw off its socialist trappings. Diplomacy remains  pragmatic and the new government's liberal rhetoric and social policy, particularly in the areas of education and health, has essentially been maintained. Suspension of the State's collective works programme, the symbol of the State's interventionist social policy, is only temporary, according to statements issued by the Prime Minister, counter to several rumours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More visible changes have taken place in the economy: partial liberalisation of the banking system; legislation relating to foreign investment; suspension of the requirement for preliminary import authorisation; despite the government's backtracking as regards certain basic products; privatisation of State assets, particularly in the hotel business, etc. Here, too, the PAICV government engineered the changes, but it can surely not be criticised for maintaining a delicate balance between the new demands of the global village and the social practices of a country which is very poor, but which is succeeding in putting an end to its poverty and creating a modest quality of life, but a secure one. Given its bleak geographical location, Cape Verde is simply  continuing to make the best of history. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The economy: too weak to worsen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The arrival in Praia on 30 April of a throng of IMF officials cannot have failed to cause the government some concern, despite its air of calm. Ministers repeated publicly that Cape Verde had already carried out its own programme of structural adjustments, that they were on the same wavelength as the Bretton Woods institutions, and that they could not, therefore, see any reason why any further adjustments  should be imposed upon them. Nevertheless, the fact that the Cape Verde escudo has had rather a bumpy ride since last year's elections, trading sometimes by as much as 15% under its official rate on the parallel market, caused a certain degree of anxiety within financial circles, with the banks taking action by freezing certain credit facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government insists that this situation has by no means arisen because of a sudden anxiety raised by opposition parties as to the effects of possible devaluation The truth is that there is a genuine structural imbalance caused by the trade deficit, a disequilibrium which is only being partially offset by official development assistance and the transfer of currency by Cape Verde emigres. As a percentage of the GDP, the overall budgetary deficit has tripled between 1993 and 1994 (increasing from 3.3% to 13.6%). For a country which could always be relied upon to pay its debts promptly, Cape Verde is now, for the first time, in arrears with its payments (see the 1995 report of the Bank of Portugal). The servicing of external debts represents 25.7% of goods and services exported - although these are relatvely small compared with neighbouring countries - the country's total outstanding debt is now nearing $200 million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although Cape Verde is one of the LDCs (least developed countries) with a total GNP of approximately $850 per capita, out of a total of 174 States, it actually ranks 123 in the Human Development Indicator Tables, which take into account various factors such as life expectancy, education, etc. Its position near the middle of these tables clearly shows that, although the country is poor, its affairs are nevertheless being managed fairly efficiently. Boasting an adult literacy rate of 66% and a life expectancy of 64.7 years, Cape Verde is well ahead of those countries at the bottom of the list, which include a number of its Sahelian neighbours. Efficient administration of the State and the absence of rampant corruption are further feathers in the nation's cap. These achievements have earned Cape Verde much esteem from its sponsors, which goes to explain the prudence of the Bretton Woods institutions and their relative sympathies towards the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unkind Mother Nature</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's history has been punctuated by great famines. Between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries the country suffered no less than 30 famines, with this century seeing some of the cruellest: 16 000 people died in 1903-1904, the death toll in 1921 was 17000, in 1941-43 it was 25000 and between 1946-48 famine claimed 20 000 lives - a figure which at the time represented 20% of the total population of the archipelago. After the last famine, the colonial authorities, under pressure from international opinion, adopted food programmes which made the country more able to cope with the consequences of subsequent droughts. The last great famine ended 50 years ago. The nation may no longer be hungry, but the factors which make its inhabitants' lives so difficult remain. The  main reason lies in the country's geography. Cape Verde has virtually no permanent springs and the topography of most of the islands, which are very mountainous, means that heavy rain simply runs down to the sea, the parched soil being unable to absorb it sufficiently. What is more, these downpours simultaneously wash away the little arable land that do" exist, thereby aggravating erosion. The whole situation is further worsened by the fact that the winter in this Sahelian region is very short. Despite huge efforts by successive governments, barely half the population has access to drinking water, with this figure barely reaching 25% in rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a population of less than 400 000, there are just not enough people to pull off the miracle of making such an unforgiving soil bear fruit. Hence, although providing 50% of all jobs, agriculture represents only 17% of the nation's gross domestic product and produces only 10% of food consumed locally. The mountainous islands that make up Cape Verde are like teeth jutting out of the sea, and with virtually no continental shelf to speak of, small scale fishing is extremely difficult. Even with industrial equipment such as that installed on board large trawlers, catches are small - so small in fact that the country's fisheries agreement with the European Commission brings it only one million ECU over three years, one tenth of the proportional amount earned by neighbouring Senegal. Fishing thus represents less than 4% of the GDP.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mere survival - a</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Herculean task</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Transport difficulties are another handicap for the economy. The sheer force of the harmattan, the strong ocean currents and the fog which often covers the region, make journeying by boat between the islands frequently hazardous. In addition, the volcanic relief of the islands makes them difficult to reach and means that there are very few locations that make suitable har  bours. construction is both complex and costly due to the steep rocky barriers that seal off deep valleys. Those roads which have been built under the FAIMO scheme (Highly Labour-lntensive Projects) have sometimes turned into real labours of Hercules, and many areas, especially those on sparsely-populated islands, remain completely cut-off. The use of aeroplanes only partly solves the problem. Although competitive, the prices charged by the national airline, TAICV, are still too high for the average inhabitant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not only does the soil on Cape Verde contain very little water, it has virtually no natural resources: a few stones, lime, pozzolana and a little salt. Within the manufacturing sector (which makes up less than 20% of the GDP), only the construction and civil engineering industries, representing more than 10% of the GDP, contribute in any significant way to the economy, thanks partly to the transfer of currency from emigres who invest in the construction  sector and works with wide public interest. These works, known as FAIMO schemes, have to some extent given this impoverished country a gloss that masks its poverty. Launched after Cape Verde gained its independence, they employ more than 25 000 people for up to ten months of the year in the construction of paved roads or in reafforestation projects, and ensure the survival of one hundred thousand people - over one quarter of the population. The workers are on the whole recruited from among farm labourers, with another large section of the workforce being made up of 'Solteiras' or 'single women', numerous in a country where the male population is constantly emigrating. Unfortunately, the liberal option adopted by the present government has cast some doubt as to whether these projects will continue and this year, for the first time, work ceased in April - three months ahead of the usual termination date. Yet the poor wages which these seasonal jobs pay (ECU 2 per day) are sometimes the only source of income for some families.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only the tertiary sector shows a healthy balance of trade, accounting for  more than 60% of the country's gross domestic production, with the biggest slice of the sector going to the hotel industry, followed by the transport industry. Although, overall, Cape Verde's balance of trade records a large deficit, the balance of trade for the services sector generally shows a profit, with the transport services provided by the international airport, Amilcar Cabral de Sal, alone accounting for 13% of exports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Barely 10% of commercial goods are domestically produced and this has at times fallen below 5%. Cape Verde is therefore genuinely dependent upon foreign aid. Official development assistance represents 27.8% of the GNP (1989 figures), having risen from 17.7% to 27.2% of the GNP between 1980 and 1986. Cape Verde also relies on a second source of income - its emigrant population. In 1990 the currency transfers of its emigres represented nearly 20% of the GNP. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The colonial heritage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributing too to the country's poverty are relatively low educational standards. In this area too, successive governments have continued their predecessors' efforts to improve standards of education. However, at the time the country achieved independence, it was in a deplorable state. The reputation of a small intellectual elite of Cape Verdians had, over several decades, led the world to believe that Portuguese colonial rule had been 'enlightened'. This was a mere illusion. It was not until 1917, when the Mindelo grammar school was founded, that the country was able to claim an educational establishment of any cultural sophistication. The Mindelo school was the first state school in the country and it was to provide the nation with its first batch of 'home-grown' intellectuals. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, the Church, which was in charge of all matters educational, had provided basic primary education; then, at the end of the last century, it opened two secondary schools with the purpose of training students for positions in government and the civil service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even so, the Mindelo school remained an exception until the middle of this century. In 1950, no more than 5000 children received primary education and no more than 400 went to secondary school. Thirty years earlier, the figure was slightly higher, but Salazar, with his retrograde ideologies, saw education as dangerous and threatening and trimmed the number of schools on the islands from 150 to 60. True, Cape Verde was undoubtedly in a better state than other Portuguese colonies, but, with an illiteracy rate of 80% at the beginning of the 1960s, its position was nevertheless far from enviable. It was not until independence that any real progress was made, with 60% of children attending primary school in 1989 (the average for LDCs is 54%). However, this figure is still well below the average for developing countries, which stands at 90%, and even now, only 13 % of children have access to secondary education. As for higher education, this is virtually only available abroad; in Europe, Brazil, USA and Cuba, in particular.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serious health problems still exist, exacerbated in particular by the scarcity of water. The cholera epidemic which has struck several African countries over the last two years has killed over 150 people in Cape Verde. The prevalence of AIDS exceeds the average for sub-Saharan Africa, with more than 2000 people being HIV positive and with some one hundred having developed the full-blown disease. According to official figures, 70 have died of the disease. The cholera epidemic which, unlike previous epidemics has affected towns much more than rural areas, is a sign of the deterioration of sanitary conditions in towns - particularly in Praia - affected by a lack of water, a dilapidated sewerage system and overcrowding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anchoring the country's economy in its culture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet, through all the doom and gloom, a small miracle is taking place in Cape Verde. Despite such a heavy burden of poverty, the country has, since gaining independence 20 years ago, managed to clamber up the league tables notably in the essential areas of health and education. Life expectancy at birth, which was only 52 years in 1950,  had increased in 1992 to 64.7 years, better than the average for developing countries and 13 years more than the average for sub-Saharan Africa. The infant mortality rate which stood at 110 per thousand in 1960, had dropped drastically to 50 per thousand by 1992, while virtually all children now receive essential vaccinations. Malaria is also now rare. In 1988 the GDP of Cape Verde amounted to only C.V.Esc 20 billion ($289 million), in other words, 6.9% of the GDP of Trinidad and Tobago, and 16.6% of that of Mauritius. But it is growing steadily. From 1980 to 1988, it grew by 6% per annum, compared with 3% per annum for the Sahel, and since 1980 the GDP per capita has doubled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The solution the nation's leaders should be seeking is greater integration in the global economy context by encouraging foreign investment. They do not need to create free zones but free enterprise, such as the shoe manufacturing concerns which, over the last two years, have contributed to achieving a considerable increase in exports. Various steps have been taken to attract investors, such as the adoption of the principle of tacit acceptance of applications for investment within 30 days. The Prime Minister, Carlos Veiga, and the 'Super-Minister' for Economic Coordination, Antonio Guelberto do Rosario, have highlighted the service, tourism and fishing industries as top government priorities. In order to develop these areas they intend to invest in infrastructures, with the aid, of course, of foreign backers. The modernisation of the port of S&atilde;o Vicente and of the international airport of Sal are currently underway, and the telecommunications project to link the islands by cable has also already been launched. The government's short-term plans also include the development of industries connected with the islands' culture. In the words of Mr Veiga: 'We in Cape Verde should develop our culture and use it as our anchor, to prevent our country drifting into oblivion. That way, our tiny country, which is fortunate enough to have a strong cultural identity, will be a Nation rather than a just a State'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.G. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with President Antonio Mascarenhas Monteiro</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A wealth of culture and a realistic approach to diplomacy: Cape Verde's two major assets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How the current government differ from the former administration which had Marxist leanings ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The two eras are distinct from each other in that, since 1990, the Cape Verde people have been able to choose a life of freedom and democracy. Before that, for the   first fifteen years after independence, there was a single-party system. So it is also valid to speak of a break - a break with the way in which institutions used to function at a political level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The single-party era does not seem to have been as strict as in other countries and the current regime appears to be continuing along the same lines in some areas. Was the former administration not, to some extent, responsible for initiating the change which has taken place ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No, that's something else entirely. I often say that we had a civilised single party, and I assume that is what you are referring to. However, it is not possible to speak of continuity when formerly we had a single party and now we have moved on to a system where there is freedom of expression and new parties can be set up. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Admittedly, the single party did initiate a change when it created the conditions necessary for the advent of democracy. It removed the infamous Article 4 from the constitution, which seates that the PAICV was the guiding force of society and the state. In fact, it was the PAICV which drew up the country's first electoral laws whereby we were elected. When I say 'we', I mean the party which is in power and also myself, President of the Republic. The single party thus opened the way to  democracy here: that much is undeniable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Am I also right in thinking that many of those who are in power today received their training in that single party ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - You are quite correct. When a change such as this comes about, one has to appreciate, and I do not wish to be elitist here, that it is the higher echelons of a party which lead the move towards change. Such people were there, working in the administration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Since politics gives direction to economic affairs, has there been a total turnaround in this sector, with a clear decision to opt for liberalisation and privatisation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Before 1990, we had a staterun economy. After that, the country's economy was opened up with a number of privatisations, fewer import restrictions, and so on. The word 'break' is also applicable in this area in that we now have a market economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Do you feel that the economy has really shaken off state control given that the govemment still manages important sectors, such as the price of raw materials ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That is necessary a market economy does not mean that the state is entirely absent. I am in favour of a market economy, but with state monitoring. As far as possible, the state has to correct the injustices which are necessarily generated by competition. This is not, as some would have it, ultraliberalism. The government is still entitled to monitor the economy, but the change has been greatest in terms of attitude, in terms of the way things are done.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Do you, like many leaders of developing countries, believe that the requirements set by international institutions as regards structure/ adjustment are too great ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We are not subject to compulsory adjustment - it is on a voluntary basis here. However, I do feel that adjustment, as implemented in Africa, sometimes has regrettable aspects. On occasion, it is asking a little too much to impose the same requirements on countries whose actual situations are very different. What is applicable to Nigeria is not necessarily suitable for S&atilde;o Tome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The 1992 constitution switched Cape Verde over from a presidential system to a parliamentary system. As President of the Republic, do you fee/ trapped by this constitution ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Cape Verde's constitution was never a presidential one. The system under which I was elected is effectively 'semi-presidential'. Admittedly, the constitution which was approved by Parliament in 1992 reduced the powers of the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President, particularly as regards the right to dissolve Parliament - which was unrestricted in the 1980 text. The revision was made to permit democratisation and ensure the proper functioning of the institutions, and it was therefore fairly wide-ranging. Now, in order to dissolve Parliament, the President has to have the support of the Council of the Republic, which means that his hands are tied to some extent. Previously, the President could also dismiss the government, without too many restrictions. I would say that the President's prerogatives have undergone a substantial reduction in comparison with those exceptional powers. As for the rest, things are as they were. In a semi-presidential regime as that envisaged by the 1980 constitution, the President has no executive role.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You seem to have chosen to play the role of 'wise man' Some observers think you give the Prime Minister too much leeway.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - They are wrong. The Prime Minister's post is conferred on him by the constitution. He is Head of Government and it is he who governs. I cannot govern in his place. What is true is that there is a great deal of ignorance - people do not restrict themselves to their own fields and attempt to teach lessons in subjects they are unfamiliar with. Germany has a parliamentary  regime like we do - what is the position of the President of the Republic in Germany? If you were to ask a Cape Verde intellectual for the name of the President of Germany, he would be unable to answer you. The parliamentary regime does not give the President of the Republic any powers to run the country. I do not know what the Prime Minister can have taken away from me because I have no power for him to take over. However, I would say that, here, the President of the Republic does have a fairly high profile, in spite of his reduced powers, because all the country's citizens know him. In terms of foreign policy, he plays a significant role in that he represents the country abroad. I attend international conferences like the Rio Summit, go to meetings of the OAU and sign international undertakings on behalf of my country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The President is also the guarantor of the new democracy, which observers seem to regard as well-established. But there still seem to be some bad habits. For instance, I have heard criticism of MPD power and of the fact that state  resources are made available to one party at election time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Look, this is criticism from the government's opponents - it is a normal state of affairs and happens everywhere. Any party, in any country, which has a parliamentary majority, can govern easily. This is possible, even when the majority is very small - and even in Europe. Look at Portugal when Cavaquo Silva was Prime Minister. There were people who said it was a PSD State. You will be familiar with France when Pompidou and even de Gaulle were in power, and Francis Mitterrand used to speak of a Gaullist state. As far as the election campaign is concerned, I am not aware of the government here having monopolised state resources and I don't believe this has happened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Another important factor involved in democracy is the press. Several journalists from the private media sector are awaiting a decision from you on a number of points - for example the lack of pubic support for the private press - in contrast to thestate-run press which has access to all that it needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - What decision are they waiting for ? Do they want me to decide in favour of resourcess being given to the private media ? I have already done that on a number of occasions. Recently, I had a meeting with the Prime Minister and I brought this matter up. He told me that it was something that was currently being considered. Sometimes, however, I get the impression that some of my critics want me to do the work of an opposition leader and to oppose the Government. That is not my job. I think that the President of the Republic, in a regime such as ours, ought to be a unifying force and not someone who foments political tension and instability. That is something I have always tried to avoid, but I do have sufficient courage to tell the government and the Prime Minister exactly what I think and I have actually dared to criticise them publicly several times. I am sole judge of the criticism I make, and I decide if it is appropriate and also when the time is right. Sometimes, people would have   me criticise the government according to a timetable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A number of journalists in the private sector are currently being prosecuted and these actions nearly all originate from sources close to the government Surely if they were actually acting unprofessionally, we would see legal actions from parts of society, such as business, and not just from the political class.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The reason for this is very simple. It is the political class that they vilify. I myself have been insulted on a number of occasions and, despite having put up with it for five years, I have not instigated any lawsuits. There was one case which was taken seriously by the Attorney General's office and there  were other cases when the Prime Minister was called a thief. I would ask you, is this a normal state of affairs ? Does freedom of the press mean that it can call a Minister or the Mayor of Praia a thief? Is that what is meant by democracy ? You have to be aware of the background to these court cases - and there are a good many of them, some dating from 1991. They are not designed to 'get at' any particular newspaper. The reason many of these cases have been brought is because serious insults of the kind we are talking about are a crime. That is true of even the most advanced democracies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In economic terms, Cape Verde does not appear too badly off. But some economic indicators do give rise to concern, notably the big gap between the export and import figures. How do you see your country's future when it no longer relies so much on international aid ? Do you believe in the dream of many of your fellow countrymen, that Cape Verde will be Africa's 'little dragon'?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Unlike some people, I have never spoken of becoming a dragon. I don't like this expression. I do believe that, despite our enormous problems - Cape Verde has few resources and we have been in the grip of drought for many years - it does have a number of assets. We are capable of making progress and I believe that there are a number of promising areas which have already been identified: for example, fisheries, tourism and even 'foreign' investment. We have to be optimistic about Cape Verde's future. We are in a difficult situation, everyone knows that, but we are a hard-working and courageous people and our prospects are good. The country will be able to forge ahead.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-On the diplomatic front, Cape Verde appears something of an expert at maintaining good relations with different regimes: for instance, with both Israel and the Arab countries, with China, and with South Africa before and after apartheid. How do you manage this ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - There is no magic formula. Since independence, Cape Verde has tried to adopt a realistic and pragmatic foreign policy. We are a small country with no great influence on the international scene and we have to be on good terms with everyone. That is the principle on which we base our foreign policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cape Verde and Guinea Bissau used to be fairly close - do you foresee any future rapprochement, perhaps in some form of federation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is difficult to say. I feel that there is already a degree of rapprochement in progress, particularly in economic terms. Recently, we signed a civil aviation cooperation agreement, and there are opportunities for similar achievements in the fisheries and shipping sectors as well. Relations between the Cape Verde and Guinea Bissau governments are excellent but, to my mind, the idea of our forming a federation is out of date. It would not be in our interests nor in those of Guinea Bissau. We do, however, intend to develop a closer economic relationship and our political relations are very good indeed. I would wager that our partners in Guinea Bissau would give you a similar analysis of the situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-In cultural terms, can it be said that your country has succeeded in becoming a multi-ethnic state ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The important thing is that the Cape Verde people should have their own identity; that there should be a specific Cape Verde culture. What I would say is that all the citizens of Cape Verde are proud of their culture and citizenship. This constitutes a great source of strength for a country such as ours which has major challenges to overcome. Our culture is also an asset in our country's development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview with Aristides Lima, leader of the Opposition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'The government owes its victory to abuse of the electoral system'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· As main leader of the Opposition, what are your views on the fact that the governing party has recently been reelected ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I believe the country's economy is in crisis. Growth rates are not very high, just like in the 1980s, for example, and there is a high level of structural imbalance. Unemployment has increased: in 1990, unemployment stood at approximately 25% and now it is 30%. There used to be 25 000 people who worked in what we call the high intensity labour sector and who had a job for about 10 months of the year. They were recently laid off early. Such jobs were part of a social programme which, amongst other things, enabled us to build roads. The prices of staple products, such as sugar, maize and rice, which were stable, have just gone up, and the price of cement, which was also controlled to promote economic growth, is no longer subject to the same control and I can foresee this giving rise to many problems in areas outside the towns and cities. In Praia, a 50-kg bag of cement used to cost 440 escudos and, although that price will stay more or less the same, on islands like Fogo, it will go up to about 660 escudos. This will generate problems for economic growth and a number of major projects in the tourism sector, for example, will suffer. The balance between exports and imports has also been adversely affected in that the level of coverage of imports by exports has fallen, despite announcements to the contrary made by the government.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· From 1993 to 1995, exports tripled in volume, if the government is to be believed. What are your thoughts on that ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The problem is that, in this country, some exports rely on the import of considerable amounts of raw materials. For example, in S&atilde;o Vicente, there is a shoe-manufacturing plant which gets its supplies of raw materials from abroad. The same applies to fishing and a number of fisheries products, such as anchovies, which are still canned in S&atilde;o Vicente but which have to be imported from Chile or elsewhere. This causes great problems when it comes to managing the country's foreign currency reserves, which have fallen markedly. In 1990, reserves provided over 6 months' coverage for imports, but now we have to operate in terms of weeks or even days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nevertheless, the government could say that it is not responsible for the economic picture you have just painted because the world economic situation is hitting all small countries harder.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No, the government is responsible, because it has been unable to implement the appropriate liberalization policy. For example, this should have been applied gradually to the trade sector, but the government rushed in and has now had to backtrack on goods which needed import authorization. What happened was that it lifted this authorization requirement but has now  had to bring it in once again. And another thing, the policy of liberalization has not been accompanied by very high levels of foreign investment and, in addition, the country's skilled workers feel marginalised, all of which goes to make the situation worse. As for structural adjustment, the government has always supported the idea of 'less State equals a better State', but, in practice, we have seen spending on the State's everyday activities go up and up. Civil service staff levels have now risen to about 12 000, compared with the former 10 000. However, increased spending is also a result of a not always equitable wages policy - the difference between the highest and lowest salaries is huge and, in some public bodies, one worker might be earning 15 times as much as another.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· According to the Minister for Economic Coordination, the currency is under pressure as a result of the Opposition's irresponsible scare tactics of announcing a future devaluation, leading to the stock-piling of currency and goods, a kind of artificial speculation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's a very good way of offloading one's responsibilities - the Opposition did no more than criticise the government's policy and point to the   facts of the situation. It was members of the government themselves who acknowledged the low levels of currency reserves and the State bank which suspended transfers abroad. The Minister would have people believe that the Opposition lacks any credibility so how could this same Opposition have any influence on peoples' behaviour? The problem is actually extremely basic: economic operators, society and foreigners are not really au fait with the country's real economic situation because the government does not issue information, which is one of our basic criticisms. Parliamentary representatives and political parties no longer receive the figures they need and the latter are sometimes forced to consult foreign sources or to rely on their personal links with people who are close to sources of information. I myself criticised the Prime Minister for adopting this attitude of regarding information as subversive. I asked the Prime Minister for a copy of the study on Cape Verde's economy by a Portuguese professor, which had been paid for with tax payers' money. I never received it. For our part, we hope that Cape Verde's partners will be able to recognise the true situation and persuade the government to act in a more equitable manner.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nonetheless the people cannot be too disappointed, because they reelected the government for another term.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That could be explained in many ways - the government controls information and therefore holds the reins of power. It controls television, radio, part of the print media, and the private-press sector is fairly weak, so it has been able to manipulate information and give people the idea that the country is on the right track. The government did do things to change peoples' lives, but it exaggerated its achievements using the State social communication means available to it. In fact, it did not achieve the major objectives it set itself: firstly its fight against unemployment - a failure. Balancing foreign economic relations - another failure. Balancing the domestic  economic situation: differences between our various islands have become more acute. In matters of health, Cape Verde made major advances when our party was in power and, although, to all intents and purposes, the health sector is just as good when compared with other African countries, it has, in fact, deteriorated. Diseases which had been eradicated from the country are returning, like malaria, for example, cholera, etc. Health services are concentrated in the capital city, Praia, and there is no decentralisation, which has negative effects on even links between carers and patients. Humanism shows the effects of a situation such as this, and it applies not only to health: there is an unfair distribution of State financial resources between the central government and local government. The State has been unable to reform local finances and has politicised transfers of funds to those districts which are closest to it. The government has also profited from the structural problems encountered in the working of our democracy. One of these structural problems is Parliament's weakness: it sits only three times a year and the representatives do not work full-time - they are sometimes employed by the administration which they are supposed to monitor. Democracy has a price and although savings can be made in other spheres, when one is  seeking good governance, one of the conditions for which is a strong, functional and effective Parliament, this is not possible. The weakness of the private-press sector is yet another problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-And are you continuing to work in the administration ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I am a 'full-time' parliamentary representative. There are now about 10 out of 79 representatives who work on a full-time basis. They are members of Parliament's office, chairmen of committees and parliamentary leaders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The government says that it inherited a serious state of affairs when it took over power from the PAICV.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is simply not true that the good life began with this government's accession to power. Here's a little history lesson: think back to colonial times. Admittedly, there were negative aspects to our time in power but you must remember that the PAICV did, in fact, leave in place the subjective.  physical basis for the new policy direction. When we achieved independence, Cape Verde had no ports or airports, apart from small-scale port facilities at S&atilde;o Vicente. We built the port at Praia, the port at Sal, the port at S&atilde;o Nicolau and a number of airports. The telecommunications system was also set up by the PAICV government and we implemented the initial educational reforms. In the 1980s, the GDP growth rate was 7%and the per capita income was one of the highest in Africa, more than $820.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The party in power describes the PAICV as marxist and non-democratic claiming that it was they, not the PAICV, who introduced democracy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That is nothing more than rhetoric, because all of the current governing party's members were in the PAICV - they were radicals, more marxist than anyone. Everyone knows that here, in Cape Verde, we had a pragmatic party, not a marxist party, although marxism was a source of ideas for many people. The idea was not to build socialism here. In those days, we had an open, not a centralised economy and all trade was private. We always had a market economy and to describe us as non-democratic is idle rhetoric. The PAICV's ideology has always been one of national liberation based on political and economic independence, with power vested in the people. This was a normal state of affairs during a national liberation struggle and, although it would be true to say that we were influenced by a certain single-party model which had gained widespread acceptance in Africa, the single party here could not be compared with any other. Both the PAIGC and later the PAICV attempted to force people into taking part in citizens' assemblies in order to put forward suggestions to the candidates. The current Prime Minister, Mr Veiga, for example, was put forward by a militants' assembly - he was on the PAICV's lists and they used to sit one beside the other on the benches in Parliament. The regime was, I suppose, slightly paternalistic but it was the people themselves who were really responsible for national liberation, it was they who had an idea of justice, patriotism, of being African, which explains the total commitment of Cape Verde's people to our party in the struggle for independence and also the good results we achieved when in power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Why, then, were you not re-elected ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The party had been in power for a long time, with the same president, the same prime minister, the same president of the national assembly and virtually all the same ministers. People were hungry for change because the ruling elite had been in place for so long. The international scene, also, did not favour the old single-party system. Another element, too, was the Church, which fought us over the question of abortion. Perhaps I should point out that, from the very beginning, a section of the Catholic church was not in favour of independence, but younger members of the clergy, with more sympathetic feelings towards the population, supported us and, thus, we changed peoples' attitudes. The Church in Africa is a phenomenon worthy of greater analysis, particularly in Cape Verde, where, I feel, the current government was able to take advantage of the Cape Verde peoples) essentially religious nature to criticise us and present us as an anticlerical party. In fact, the situation is quite different: most PAICV leaders and militants are Roman Catholics and some church" were damaged by opponents in an attempt to discredit the party. Another example of abuse of the electoral system, apart from taking advantage of the peoples' religious nature, is the country's poverty. During election campaigns, the government make it easier for people to obtain food, and it also creates more jobs, en masse, but these disappear again after the elections - precisely as is happening at the moment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· As it is governed at the moment, Cape Verde is regarded by other countries as a 'star pupil'. Surely this is another success for the government ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Cape Verde has always been regarded as a star pupil because, here, our society is fairly homogeneous and there are no major social or ethnic imbalances. However, in my opinion, the future depends on changes at a structural level and such changes cannot take place unless we have a functioning parliament and a strong private press. I cannot deny that the government has had some successes, but I also believe that the people will have an opportunity to judge how it keeps its promises.  interview by Hegei Gouger</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A portrait of towns and cities with atmosphere</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It suffices for an unruly little bird to escape</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For, suddenly, Fire to spark, Night to dissolve</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The walls of every prison to cave in</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the tidal-wave battering</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amassed, in its untamed heart,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By a tiny breathless bird.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Mario Fonseca in 'La Mer a tous les coupe')</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most cities in the Third World devote all their energy to mere survival and there are few imbued with the same atmosphere as Mindelo - the very air  appears to brim over with art and good taste, beauty and sensuality. Our guide to the city speaks slowly, measuring his words, his delivery not an indication that he is searching for a translation, although it could be interpreted as an affectation, but matching the modulation of the language which is closest to his heart: 'I believe the air in this city is imbued with hedonism. Here, we mix work and pleasure - today is a holiday, but I am working. However, my day is not so rigidly timetabled that I cannot do some work and, since you have invited me out for a drink, take some time off to accept'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antonio Firmino, director of the Craft Centre, continues to tell us about his favourite city in the same steady language, a dreamy look in his eyes and wearing a Che Guevara-style beret. The tale he tells is the story of a tiny country which has fallen in love with culture: the actual building housing the Craft Centre used to be a school, the 'Mindelo Technical College', founded in 1917, the first secular educational institution. It was to transform the city into a cultural haven. The story goes that a certain senator named Vera Cruz, who represented the island of S&atilde;o Vicente in the Portuguese Senate, wanted to establish Cape Verde's first college. His peers objected, arguing that Mindelo had no building worthy of housing an institution of such a high standing but</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vera Cruz straight away replied: 'So, why not use mine?'. Thus, he casually handed over his private residence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Art even in the fish market</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How many inhabitants are there in Mindelo? According to Antonio Firmino, 'Just me and my friends'. How right he is. It would be impossible not to become part of such a captivating place. And so a long journey began, which included the creation of Claridade, a review (and cultural movement) established in 1938 by Balthasar Lopes, a writer and essayist of world renown who was born in S&atilde;o Nicolau but taught in Mindelo, and other great artists who were to make up the country's literary and artistic roll of honour. Claridade was to be followed by Certeza which was also to influence the cultural elite. Although historians and other commentators feel that Claridade did no more than praise Cape Verde's 'latinity', rejecting its African side, artists are unanimous in regarding it as the cradle of Cape Verdian intellectual culture and the soil which was to nurture Mindelo and make it such an extraordinary little town. The impression is that everyone here is interested in art - the local authorities encourage and help sculptors in their creative activities all over the town, making it a living museum: here, there is a painting by Antonio Concei&ccedil;&auml;o and, over there, a huge flat sculpture of couples in languorous embraces, by Ro and Anildo, an illustration of the marvellous hedonism evoked by our host.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The same assured but delicate touch of these two artists can be seen in the lobby of Fishpackers, an anchovy- and tunapacking company, this time in the form of a celebration of fishermen. One of the finest examples of this type of art, which can be seen everywhere in the streets and public places, is the sequence of four huge decorative-tile frescoes in the fish market. When Bela Duarte showed them to us, it was such a delight to see how much at ease this famous artist was in the company of the staliholders, to whom both she and her work seemed so familiar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over and above this hedonistic atmosphere, there is, in Mindelo, an eclecticism which can be detected just as widely in other towns and cities, which means that you can talk about painting with the President of the Republic, dancing with a factory manager and decorative tiles with the man in the street. And the latter is literally 'in the street' - the inhabitants of S&atilde;o Vicente, the capital, derive immense pleasure from strolling in its squares and narrow streets, and around the port. A little stall, looking like a sugar loaf in the middle of one of the city's many squares, opposite a grand hotel, opens up in the early evening just like a flower, attracting hundreds of people to it who come to quench their thirst, to converse or woo, and to dance to the music escaping from the terrace of the Porto Grande Hotel, which has just reopened after being privatised and modernised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is as if a dress ball were taking place on two different levels, one in front of the other, dancing to the same music and with equal pleasure: above, in an enormous gallery open to the sky, elegant guests (who include a small gathering of government officials and pretty Brazilian actresses who are here to film television soaps) and, down in the square, the dancing promenaders, full of admiration, almost stimulating those above.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verdian nights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like all the island's intellectuals, Antonio Firmino has a number of different jobs. In addition to running the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Craft Centre, he teaches 'nautical' English to would-be sailors, is an amateur painter and musician (he plays and composes for his wife, who is a singer). His spare time is devoted to writing a column. The Craft Centre exhibits, amongst other things, a large number of tapestries, an art form much prized in Cape Verde. These admirable examples are by Ju&auml;n Fortes, Juamo Pento, and a good many others, in particular Bela Duarte, Tchal&ecirc; Figueira, Lucia Queiros and Miguel Figueira, Mindelo's top artistic foursome who appear to be  involved in everything, including the frescoes at the fish market. Bela, who showed us her studio, her house and the fish market, does not conceal the joy she derives from colour and allusion in her pictures, tapestries or decorative tiles, ranging from the most distant abstraction to an anecdotal figuration, using her native land with its doleful nuances, soft cries and romantic strength as raw  material. Above all, there is convivial artistic writing: 'Resistencia', which is at first sight a tapestry and then a patchwork of colour and sinuous lines. Scarcely has the artist begun to explain her work than everything becomes clear: this is a story, in threads and colours, about drought, representing roots, energy, space and struggle, all part of the Cape Verdian soul. She is also paying homage to those weavers of traditional African loincloth (badiu) from Cape Verde from whom today's artists inherited their technique.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So, where to meet Antonio's friends? To find them, look no further than the Cape Verdian nights (noite caboverdiana), those gatherings which take place everywhere and resemble both a nightclub and an artistic association, all those present sharing a fondness for Cape Verde mingled with nostalgia and yearning. One such place is the Piano Bar, which was closed on account of the departure of its owner Chico Serra, another notable in local society, who was accompanying a friend, C&eacute;saria Evora, in her attempt to conquer new lands. Mission accomplished, Chico Serra is back and will soon be open for business again, his club's atmosphere just as intimate and warm as before - just enough room for his piano, his musician friends and others who come to sample grog and music.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa nonetheless</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mario Fonseca also adores Mindelo but he would not agree that that wind-blown city has a monopoly on art and culture. He is from an island in the lee of the wind, from Praia, capital of the island of Santiago and of the country. In his opinion, it is the whole of Cape Verde which is bubbling with creativity and he will enchant you with his tales of Praia and its old colonial district, the 'Plateau', which still retains much of the nostalgic character to be seen in the now yellowing photographs taken 50 years ago when the city was not so sprawling and the ambience of Sucupira market was almost tangible. He will also tell you everything about the island of Santiago, with Cidade Velha, the ancient capital  which was too difficult to defend against repeated pirate attacks. It bowed to Praia's supremacy and, today, has an old-fashioned feeling, nestling within a cove around the ruins of its castle, and dominated by the fort which perches above a cliff face. The architecture owes much of its charm to the predominant Creole style which is vaguely reminiscent of Portugal, in every pastel shade. Cidade Velha's central square is caressed by a gentle breeze and groups of young people can always be seen lazing around the monument to the slaves. Time seems to stand still. The pretty little white church whose walls are decorated with sheaves of bougainvillaea, Santa Maria do Rosario, is the oldest on the island and, indeed, along the entire West African coast. It was built in 1460 and the white marble paving in the central nave conceals the final resting place of grandees from colonial times, their epitaphs erased over five hundred years by the soles and knees of penitents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The director of the INAC (National Cultural Institute), responsible for Praia National Museum (which is soon to open its doors), is Mario Alberto de Almeida Fonseca, who once taught French in Portugal; he is a former administrator who has worked in Mauritania and Turkey, a translator and also a former regional manager of the national airline. In addition he is a poet whose works have been translated into several languages, including Serbo-Croat and Russian. Above all, he is an amateur connoisseur of the art and artists of his country. As the INAC's director, he is responsible for cultural events, exhibitions, shows, publishing and also the compilation of an oral record of the country's history and the preparation of  a Creole dictionary. The INAC's work also involves a major history of Cape Verde, the first volume of which has already been published. He will show you the future National Museum's collection, moving from one painting to another, from an old photograph to an antique cimboa, a type of locally-manufactured violin from the 1 9th century, or to an old Massachusetts galleon, testament to the past explorations of his people. You will first of all discover the works of artists from Praia such as Mito and Kiki Lima, not on account of Fonseca's chauvinism but because he feels he has to 'convert' the visitor who may have left Mindelo with the impression that that city is Cape Verde's premier cultural centre. There is also the music from the island of Santiago - the funana, the batuque, the fina&ccedil;o - all more African than the languid style so influenced by the Portuguese fado of this island's musical groups (Fina&ccedil;on, Bulimundo, Tuvaroes, Kod&eacute; di Dona or the great traditional style singer Nha Inacia Gomes). Gomes is a 'women of the people' whose musical heritage consists of no more than local tradition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was she who 'reinvented' jazz and whom Alberto Fonseca admires a great deal. Cesaria Evora, moreover, is not the first musician to publicise Cape Verdian music abroad: Fina&ccedil;on or Kod&eacute; di Dona, for example, have captivated many music-lovers, particularly musicians, in Europe and America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Chamber and the stage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Daniel Brito is not from Mindelo either. He is from Sal but confesses to having to pay regular visits to Mindelo, to immerse himself in that city's hedonistic atmosphere. For three years he has been director of the National Cinematographic Institute which was established in 1967 and is currently exhibiting newfound dynamism on account of the 'production tax' (4% of the filming budget, paid to the Institute and generally converted into a holding, which the State supplements to make the sum up to slightly more than 10% in co-productions). There is also an agreement with Portugal which encourages co-productions between the two countries, thereby enabling Cape Verdian technicians to receive their training. Brito is working on a local video-film-production project (TV viewers are very fond of such things) and wants to set up a major production centre to be made available to lusophone African countries and, perhaps, others. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Daniel Spencer Brito is also Sal's parliamentary representative (10 000 inhabitants), musician, writer/composer and guitarist in his own group, Madrugada. His talents include the composition of morna and coladeira pieces, as well as jazz-rock. At the end of May, the MP was due to appear in his own production at the Cirque d'Hiver in Paris, as part of the lusophone music festival. You could say that he divides his time between the Institute, the Chamber and the stage; however, he is also involved in research into copyright protection in Cape Verde. Daniel (it would never occur to you to call him anything else, even five minutes after making his acquaintance) always gives the same advice to anyone wishing to discover Cape Verde, namely to get to know the atmosphere of a tocatinha, spontaneous jam sessions which take place at one location or another, usually even more intimate than the 'Cape Verdian nights'. By the way, I almost forgot - by training, Brito is a vet, having studied in Romania. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Cape Verd-EU Cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sponsors are delighted at the full use of aid</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's physical characteristics - its small size, the fact that its territory is scattered over a number of islands and islets, its Sahelian climate (continually rendering it vulnerable to drought), the arid nature of the soil and its low population (under five hundred  thousand inhabitants) - might explain its high levels of poverty and mean that, in order to survive and develop, it requires considerable amounts of foreign aid. However, it is the effort made by this small country to stabilise its economy and to gain maximum profit from foreign aid which has attracted special attention from sponsors. Last year the European Commission decided to increase its contribution to Cape Verde's National Indicative Programme, within the framework of the Lom&eacute; Convention (tome IV, first protocol 199-95, seventh EDF) by 7%, i.e. an extra ECU 1.7 million. Cape Verde had already put virtually all the ECU 23 million allocated to it to good use, an indication of the government's desire to use the aid granted to the full.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When realism is a luxury</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is difficult to imagine an island inhabited by 160 000 people - the island of S&atilde;o Vicente, where the country's second largest city, Mindelo, with its population of 70 000, is located - having no source of drinking water. In former times, water was shipped in from the neighbouring island of Santo Antao, but Mindelo now has a number of seawater desalination plants, most of these provided by Israel, which meet 100% of its supply needs. The supply of both water and electricity is managed by</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Electra, a publicly-owned company, which, within the framework of the EDF (European Development Fund), has received European Commission aid to increase its electricity-generating capacity. It has set up three wind pumps, of Danish manufacture, which alone supply 13% of the island's non-industrial requirements. Elsewhere, such solutions as sea-water desalination and wind pumps might appear to be unrealistic but, for 160 000 people with no indigenous supply, realism is sometimes a luxury.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the island of Santiago, which is home to Praia, the capital city, does have some natural water sources, these are far from sufficient for its needs. One of the projects recently financed by the European Union concerned improvements to water-distribution systems, water purity and rainwater drainage. Amongst other things, this work involves the recycling of waste water which the island cannot afford to let drain away. Cape Verde's Achilles' heel is definitely its lack of water, its strong point unquestionably the dynamic outlook of its population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has an office on Cape Verde where the work done at Praia (water distribution and purity, support for poorer districts of the capital threatened with overpopulation) is regarded as symbolic of the EU's desire to take account of both weaknesses and strengths and represents the overall intention behind Community aid to this country. Generally speaking, such aid is geared towards infrastructures (water and electricity production and distribution, urban development) on the one hand and education and health on the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Praia's historic old town, the 'Plateau', with its wealth of fine colonial and neo-classical architecture, risks losing many of its buildings which have been abandoned by their owners who lack the means to maintain them. Community aid has also been provided to help save this part of the country's heritage. Funds are insufficient to finance a complete restoration of the 'Plateau', but, following the example of the Cape Verde government, which has maintained administrative buildings in good condition, the Commission will probably assume responsibility for renovation of a superb nineteenth-century building, the 'Case Cor-de-Rosa'. The purpose of this project is two-fold; not only will the building be restored, but also it will become the core of a more general project to train professionals in building techniques and restoration and it will serve as an example to motivate future purchasers, institutions, businesses and individuals to preserve the historic old town.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Community has also funded a study into the preservation of the capital's historic old town, which has been used as a basis by Praia Town Council. A project is currently underway, costing 1 million ECU, to restore an islet. The principal aim of this project is to train Cape Verdian technicians. Other work in the field of training has induded the building of the Praia Technical College. The next phase of this project, worth almost ECU 1 million, will fund the supply of equipment and teacher training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Still within the context of the overall project to develop Praia city, an EDF programme worth ECU 1.3 million has been created for the development of a designated area as an industrial site. A rural electrification project in the area around Praia was, at the end of 1995, granted a budget of ECU 1.5 million and will benefit a population of 7500 people living in the three most densely populated rural centres on the island of Santiago. The technical side of the works will be entrusted to Electra, with the private sector being responsible for supplying equipment and monitoring the works. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's 'essence' as a resource</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's leaders regularly point to the richness, which they term the 'essence', of Cape Verde, contrasting this with the fact that their country is so poor. Indeed, despite limited resources, this country devotes a great deal of energy and ingenuity to 'cultivating' its culture. Two projects, financed within the framework of the National Indicative Programme and amounting to ECU 500 000, concern two feature-length films and will play a part in lessening the island's isolation by publicising its culture and people abroad. The first film, made during 1995 and entitled 'llh&eacute;u de Contenda', is the first fiction-based feature film to be made in Cape Verde and is the work of Leao Lopes, a director who has drawn his inspiration from the work of another Cape Verdian citizen, Teixeira de Sousa, and which centres on the history of Cape Verde and the birth of its national identity. The EDF contribution (approximately ECU 250 thousand) amounts to 14% of the total production cost. The film is currently being shown in a number of European countries. Virtually the same amount of  money has been set aside to fund another production, this time by a Portuguese director, Francisco Manso, based on a novel by a Cape Verdian author, Germano de Almeida, and entitled 'O Testamento do Sr. Napuceno', which was being filmed on the island of S&atilde;o Vicente at the time of our visit. 50% of the finance for this film comes from Portuguese producers, the other co-producers being French and Belgian.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Others EDF projects recently completed or being completed include one for improving roads on the islands of Santiago, S&atilde;o Nicolau and Maio (ECU 3 million) and a micro-project programme (ECU 1 million). In addition to funds from the EDF, Cape Verde has received further finance under the Lom&eacute; Convention, including ECU 700 000 within the context of the Stabex transfer schemes to offset loses in the banana-production sector during 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Design a micro climate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extemal food aid is essential in a country which cannot meet its own requirements and the Commission's most recent food-aid-budget contribution amounted to nearly ECU 2 million. Other special budget lines include funds provided under 'Human Rights and Democratisation in Developing Countries'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To an attentive foreign visitor, one of Cape Verde's most interesting achievements is the progress it has made in reforesting such an infertile soil. One of these reforested areas, covering 5000 hectares (1990-94) forms the basis of a regional project to disseminate knowhow accumulated in this sphere in Cape Verde. Training course. have enabled technicians and others involved in the reformtation of the Sahel countries to gain experience in methods which have proved succesful here. The production and distribution of teaching tools (books, posters, films, etc.) supplement the project. Since independence, Cape Verde has achieved a tenfold increase in the amount of land which is forested - admittedly there was little to start with, but since climatic conditions are so hostile this result can be regarded as a major accomplishment. There is even a hope that a micro-climate might form. On the island of Santiago, in some of these new green areas, wild duck which had long since disappeared have returned. It is nice to dream but the country cannot afford to rest on its laurels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 4 033 km2 Population: 390 000 (1990) Population density: 97 per km2 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population growth rate: 2.8 % (forecast for the period 19922000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Praia (pop. 75 000)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other main town: Mindelo (pop. 65 000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Languages: Portuguese, Creole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currency: Cape Verde Escudo (CVE). In May 1996,1 ECU was worth CVE 104 ($1 = CVE 83 approx.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government: Mixed presidential/parliamentary system. The President is not the head of the executive but he represents the country and is guarantor of national unity and the Constitution. Unicameral Parliament. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President: Antonio Mascarenhas Monteiro (elected in 1991 and reselected at the beginning of this year) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Carlos Veiga (since 1991) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Political parties represented in Parliament:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Movimento pare a Democracia (MPD)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Partido Africano pare a Independencia de Cabo Verde (PAICV)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Partido da Convergencia Democratica (PCD) - formed as a result of a break away from the MPD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Party representation in Parliament: MPD 50, PAICV 21, PCD 1 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1992 figures)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP: CVE 23.9 billion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP per capita: US $840</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Origin of GDP by sector: agriculture 13%, industry 17%, services 70% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Real GDP growth (estimate 1995): 4% Balance of payments: deficit of CVE 11.9 billion </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main trade partners: Portugal, Spain, Netherlands, Brazil. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual inflation rate: 9.1%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth: 64.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Infant mortality per 1000 live births: 56 Adult literacy: 66.4% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education (primary, secondary and tertiary): 59% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.536 (123rd out of 174) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: UNDP Human Development Report, 1995; Economic Intelligence Unit 1995; 'Etat et soci&eacute;t&eacute; aux iles du Cap Vert, by Michel Lesourd. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p32a.png"></center><br>
+ Figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Europe</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Lom&eacute; Convention in focus</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poll results and new brochure launched in Brussels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new poll of Europeans high lights a deficit of information about the European Community's development policies. A brochure just published on the Lom&eacute; Convention, available in all EU languages, seeks to fill some of the gaps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At a press conference on May 21, Development Commissioner, Joso de Deus Pinheiro, unveiled the findings of a survey commissioned from the Brussels consultancy, International Research Associates (INRA). The aim of the exercise was to sound out how Europeans perceive developing countries. The sample was 16 346 people, of 15 years and upwards, who were polled in the 15 Member States during December 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The survey shows that since 1991, helping the poor in the developing countries has slipped in the 'league' of issues of most concern to Europeans. The subject now ranks eighth in a table topped by the fight against unemployment. But the better news is that Europeans believe development of these regions should be the fourth most important priority for joint actions between Member States. This comes just below combating terrorism, environmental questions and defending Europe's economic interests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While 82% of Europeans are favourable to development cooperation, 12% are against. The degree of support varies, as one would expect, from one EU country to another. Interestingly, the survey shows that Member States facing an economic squeeze are the most reticent, irrespective of their past track record in development aid. In Belgium, only 65% are in favour while in</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Austria and France, the figures are 69% and 72% respectively. At the other end of the scale, Greece comes out top with 97% just ahead of Spain on 96% and Ireland on 91%. INRA's explanation for this variation is that it reflects the economic problems which are increasingly being felt in northern states of the Community. It is also worth pointing out that nations on EU's southern flank may be more convinced of the effectiveness of aid since they themselves are recipients of EC structural funds allocated to modernise the Union's disadvantaged regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But INRA's report also reveals some misconceptions about European development aid. These, says Commissioner Pinheiro, may be attributed to the lack of visibility of the relevant development policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">57% of those questioned believe that the bulk of the Community's assistance consists of emergency aid, rather than longer-term project support. The reverse is actually true. More people answer 'no' then 'yes' to the question: 'Does aid contribute to reducing poverty in developing countries'? And most consider that United Nations agencies (UNICEF, UNESCO etc.) do more in the  field of helping developing countries than the EC. Non-governmental organisations also have a high profile, with the EU Member States and Bretton Woods institutions (IMF and World Bank) trailing behind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other key findings from the poll - which Professor Pinheiro says will provide much food for thought in the coming months as thoughts turn to cooperation after Lom&eacute; IV - are highlighted in the box.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mid-term review and beyond</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Professor Pinheiro feels that some of results, which signal the need to tighten up on the management of development aid, have already been addressed in the mid-term review of the Lom&eacute; Convention which will come on stream from the beginning of 1997. The programming of the eighth European Development Fund (EDF) is already well under way and, with a view to increasing the effectiveness of aid, just 70% of resources earmarked for each ACP state will be allocated at the outset (for a three year period). An analysis of how the remainder should be spent will take place at the end of the three years. In addition, Professor Pinheiro indicated that a 'strategic' document was being drawn up on each of the 70 ACP states prior to allocation of funds. This was being done in 'permanent consultation with Member States and Commission delegations, in the interests of achieving a real synergy between the two.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More sweeping changes to the relationship are likely after the current</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some key findings from the INRA report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Aid must reach its intended destination and arrive where it is needed 93.2%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Aid must meet the needs of the local people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90.7%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The beneficiary state must raspect human rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">85.1%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Transparency, effective public management and the fight against  corruption are essential</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The beneficiary state must respect an overall development plan put forward by an  international aid organisation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">78.3%  plan  put  forward</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by an  internati onal  aid  organisa tion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Aid must be used to fund action by local NGOs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The beneficiary state must have a democratic system of government</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">59.3%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">56.0%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Convention expires at the turn of the century. Professor Pinheiro indicated that a first draft (green paper) on the possible shape of the ACP-KU relationship after 2000 will be published by the Commission by the end of the year. This, however, is likely to offer more questions than answers about future cooperation. 'I am not sure if we should keep the Lom&eacute; structure for every country, in the third millennium,' the Commissioner told the assembled journalists, highlighting the different levels of development now apparent between Lom&eacute; nations. Mauritius, now well on the way to becoming the 'Singapore' of Africa, was a case in point. He also pointed out the small island states of the Caribbean are at a very different stage of development from countries such as the Central African Republic or Burundi. He added that, in deciding what to do in future it would also be necessary to take stock of regional developments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Questions about Lom&eacute; answered</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the meantime, efforts are under way to boost the image of Community aid. With this in mind, the Information Unit of the Development Directorate-General has just published a brochure entitled 20 Questions and Answers about the Lom&eacute; Convention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides explaining in a nutshell what the Convention is, it answers some of the questions most frequently asked by sceptics about the benefits of development aid and trade preferences, highlighting the positive aspects for developing and developed economies alike. It points out, for example, that for every ECU 100 spent on aid, the Community recovers ECU 48 in the form of projects, supplies and technical assistance purchased from European companies!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The brochure provides a succinct explanation of how the Commission monitors aid to stop embezzlement and corruption. It highlights the right of the European Court of Auditors to check accounts of projects and fund transfers - and to investigate documents in the Lom&eacute; states, without the permission of the country concerned. Another precaution is that once a project is under way, financing is by banker's transfer. This involves a paper specifying that the holder of contract X, whose bank account number is Y. should be credited with Z amount of money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An explanation is given as to why the European Commission is involved in development aid when the Member States have their own bilateral development policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The brochure explains the advantages of EC assistance over bilateral arrangements and details how the Lom&eacute; system has been evolving in line with the increasing globalisation of the economy, in particular since the fall of the Berlin Wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It also contains some pocket statistics on official development assistance (ODA) flows which help to underline the message that the European Union (Community plus Member States) digs deeper into its pocket than its industrialised competitors in providing development aid. In 1994, the Community and its then 12 member states (excluding Austria, Sweden and Finland), contributed an average of 0.40% of their gross national product in ODA. The individual percentages varied from 1.03% in the case of Denmark to 0.20% in Italy. This compared with figures of 0.29% and 0.15% for Japan and the United States respectively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, total ODA from the Twelve reached $26.59 billion. Of this, $4.83 billion came from the European Community in its own right. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The content of chocolate</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Months of heated debate in the EU over the maximum allowable content of vegetable fats in chocolate have culminated in a Commission proposal for a revised Directive which, claim officials, should be to the taste of most interested parties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has proposed that the 'subsidiatity' principle should apply to the content of chocolate. This means leaving it to individual Member States to decide whether they will allow the use of vegetable oil - up to a maximum of 5% by weight - in their chocolate-making. The eight EU countries where this practice is currently prohibited  are free to modify their laws to take account of this 5% rule. The other cocoa butter and dry cocoa contents specified in the Directive - 18% and 35% respectively - may not be reduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The addition of up to 5% vegetable fats was authorised under Directive 73/241 for the UK, Ireland and Denmark when they first joined the EC. Other Member States who acceded later - Austria, Finland, Portugal and Sweden - also use these oils in chocolate production. The remaining EU countries have continued to prohibit the use of vegetable fats - and the sale of chocolate containing such fats. The result has been a partitioning of the EU market, in direct conflict with the Single Market principle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the proposal is approved by the Council and the Parliament, all 15 Member States will be free to decide whether vegetable oil can be used in making chocolate. Whatever their individual decisions, however, the barriers will come down, thus opening up the 'pure' chocolate markets to competition from less expensive varieties containing vegetable oil. Stricter labelling rules will also be introduced, with the precise nature of any substitute oils being clearly indicated. The simple mention 'vegetable oil' will no longer suffice. Martin Bangemann, the Commissioner responsible for industry, stressed the significance of revising the Directive in allowing  chocolate products to circulate freely throughout the KU. This, he argued, would be in the interests of consumers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Winners and losers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Traditional cocoa producers such as Cote d'lvoire, Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon are fearful that the proposal may prompt some of Europe's 'pure' chocolate countries to change their laws - and that they will lose trade as a result. On the other hand, sheanut exporters in Burkina Faso, Mali, Ghana, Togo and Benin are hoping for higher sales if the 5% rule is adopted by more EU countries. Sheanuts account for 20% of Burkinabe exports and 98% of these are used to make vegetable oil substitute for chocolate products. The sheanut price is just 10% of the cocoa bean price. The Commission calculates that the maximum saving a manufacturer could expect by substituting vegetable fat for cocoa butter is around 1.5% of the ax-factory price.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In weighing up what to do, the Commission also considered the objectives of the International Cocoa Organisation (ICCO). These include taking 'all practical measures to increase the cocoa consumption in their countries by eliminating or reducing all obstacles to the growth of consumption in cocoa.' The ICCO estimates that if the 5% rule is applied in the remaining eight states - Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain - it will lead to a reduction in cocoa butter usage of 36 000-50 000 tonnes, which amounts to a drop in demand for cocoa beans of between 88000 and 125000 tonnes. This represents between 9-12% of current consumption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some producers suggest that these estimates are too high since they assume that manufacturers will go for  almost full substitution, which is not necessarily seen as inevitable. In addition, there is a belief that overall demand for chocolate products may grow as a result of the legal change.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was not the view taken by NGOs who reacted promptly - and critically - to the Commission text. The Brussels NGO Liaison Committee issued a statement claiming that it would lead to a drop of between 6.25% and 12.5% in the main exporting countries' cocoa receipts - and an additional burden on the European Community's Stabex fund. But chocolate producers and others argue that this is speculative. The impact, they say, will depend on the legal response of the eight Member States, as well as on the reaction of manufacturers. There are signs that the latter may well stick to their traditional and distinctive methods. A spokesperson for the Belgian-based Cote d'Or/ Suchard, pointed out that the proposal had a long way to go before it was approved, and stressed that his company had no intention of changing their 'winning recipes which had served them well since 1883. At the same time, he admitted, vegetable oil could be useful in a more diversified range of chocolate products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The vegetable oil 'lobby' argues that the addition of vegetable fat makes chocolate easier to mould and less likely to melt in warm climates. And for those who fear the elimination of 'pure' chocolate from the market, they point to manufacturers in Britain, where vegetable oil has traditionally been used, who still exclude such fats from some of their brands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The proposal must now be debated by the Council and it is clear that the arguing is not over yet. But it is beginning to look as if the consumers may be the final arbiters. Through their purchasing habits, they are likely to be the ones who finally determine the winners and losers in the great chocolate debate. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Minority businesses in the UK</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In no country in Europe are ethnic minorities more organised than in the United Kingdom - though they are still not adequately organised, in the opinion of many, to pool their considerable resources together and overcome stereotypes, racism and unenployment. But this may  change if the morale engendered by a recent exhibition of minority businesses in the UK is anything to go by.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The statistics speak for themselves. There are 3.3 million Asians, Africans and Afro-Caribbeans in Britain, about 5% of the population (and the figure is projected to double in the next 25 years). They have six elected Members of Parliament - five Labour and one Conservative - as well as numerous personalities in the world of sports and the media. According to the 1994 Labour Force Survey, 48% of ethnic minorities are graduates or are in full time studies and 55% earn salaries well over &amp;15 000 (ECU 18 000) annually. They have a combined gross annual income estimated at f42 billion and an annual spending power of at least f26 ten.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past 15 years, ethnic minority-owned businesses have grown considerably. In the last two years alone, they were responsible for more than 30 000 new business concerns throughout the country, according to the Commission for Racial Equality (CRE). Although many are in the retail trade, the 10% or so involved in production or manufacturing are extremely dynamic,  particularly those connected with the clothing industry or operating franchises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are considerable differences between Asians on the one hand and Africans and Afro-Caribbeans on the other. The former are more business oriented and account for well over 80% of all ethnic enterprises. This success in business is often attributed to Asians' industriousness, but there is another crucial and often neglected factor: Asians have a stronger sense of group solidarity and patronage than Africans and Afro-Caribbeans. Whereas the former spend virtually all their earnings within their community, the latter (who are mainly Christians and are known to make greater efforts at integration into the British society) spend theirs in the society at large.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unemployment among the black population in general is 19% compared to 8% for whites (in London it is three times higher). They are much more likely to be turned down by employers even when they have better qualifications than their white counterparts. Often self-employment is the only way out. This explains why there has been a boom in business start-ups by ethnic minorities over the past two years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although several black profffsional associations have come into being in recent years, it has been clear for some time to black leaders that the community's energies are dispersed and that these needed to be harnessed for the benefit of ethnic minorities as a whole. Blacks clearly have political and business clout to be exploited.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The idea for an exhibition of black businesses in the United Kingdom was mooted by a black business couple who, were influenced by a similar event  held annually in the United States called 'Black Expo USA'. But the impetus came from the 'Race for Opportunity Campaign' launched in October last year by the Conservative Government through the Department of Trade and Industry. The campaign has so far seen more than 20 big British companies pledge to do business with ethnic minority enterprises. These include British Airways, British Gas, British Telecom, British Aerospace and several high-street banks and finance houses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Held at the Barbican Centre in London on 4 and 5 May, the exhibition was aimed at creating awareness among ethnic minorities of their potentialities, showing the opportunities available to them not only in the UK but also in Europe, and at promoting networking amongst their businessmen and women. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cross-party support</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The exhibition, which had a cross-party support, could not have come at a more favourable time. Both the Tory government and opposition Labour Party have expressed support for policies favourable to small and medium-sized enterprises, which means that there should be continuity in this area if Labour comes to power in the next general election.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was borne out by the enthusiasm with which the shadow minister for small business, Mrs Barbara Roche greeted the exhibition. To her, the event should be seen in the context of Labour's overall policy on small businesses. Speaking at one of the seminars which was run alongside the exhibition to discuss various aspects of minority business problems, Mrs Roche explained that there were three important reasons why her party was promoting small enterprises, especially those involved in exports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first was that large companies were downsizing, and job-creation towards the end of this century and into the next would be largely by small and medium-sized enterprises. The second was that small businesses were efficient distributors of wealth and the third was that they were good at innovation and using new technologies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because a large number of small businesses are folding, or are struggling to survive in the UK today (often as a result of late payment of bills by large companies), Mrs Roche said a Labour government would introduce a statutory limit of 30 days for the settlement of bills by large companies. The latter would then have to pay interest to small businesses for any late payments. Ethnic minority businesses, she also said, were part and parcel of Labour's strategy for economic growth and jobs in Britain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Barbican exhibition attracted more than 80 exhibitors mainly in retailing, finance, telecommunications, consultancy, arts and crafts, publishing, electronics and education. There were  very few exhibitors from the manufacturing sector (a disappointment considering the number of Asians in the clothing industry) and virtually none in engineering. Some of the big companies connected with the 'Race for Opportunity Campaign' like British Airways and British Gas, as well as the newly created government-backed Business Link, the Customs and Excise department, the Inland Revenue, the Army and the Metropolitan Police were there. Also present was Louis Farrakan's 'Nations of Islam', (not necessarily on a recruitment drive, though that must have been part of the game), but as a reminder of its campaign for greater self-reliance by the black community which culminated late last year in the 'Million-Man' march on Washington DC. Video tapes of the march and speeches by Farrakan and other black leaders in the United States were on sale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Difficulties</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The seminar run concurrently with the exhibition attracted many notable speakers, among them Members of Parliament, Keith Vaz, Bernie Grant and Barbara Roche and Commissioner Dr Zaka Khan of the Commission for Racial Equality. Jessie Boseman, vice-president of 'Black Expo USA, who was also scheduled to speak, did not turn up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was general agreement on the main factors inhibiting the growth of ethnic minority businesses, the most obvious being racism and  discimination. Ethnic businesspeople not only have difficulties obtaining public contracts, but they are often denied access to finance, market and even premises. Furthermore, they suffer from lack of management skills, networks and feedback. Dr Khan of the Commission for Racial Equality highlighted mounting racist attacks, mostly against Asianowned shops, which have claimed a number of lives in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Integration into mainstream economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is no longer a hidden fact that banks discriminate against black businesses. Surveys carried out by the NatWest and Midland banks have confirmed that fact. The latter though, it must be acknowledged, has a laudable Fellowship Programme, designed to encourage ethnic minority university students to take up careers in the Midland Bank on graduation. Lack of access to the market has effectively meant that black businesses have been left out of the mainstream of the British economy. Everyone agreed that it makes good economic sense to see them integrated into it. This was particularly   the position of both Barbara Roche and Zaka Khan. The question was: would it be possible ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some of the issues raised on the floor by businesspeople revealed that many were sceptical that racism and discrimination could be overcome in multiracial Britain. The Commission for Racial Equality symbolises the fight against these two evils and Dr Khan had a hard time defending its role. The CRE was criticised for constantly quoting statistics on improvements in the living conditions of ethnic minorities which, it was argued, were totally removed from reality. Despite this, Dr Khan remained upbeat. To him the future promises great things for ethnic minorities. He promised to look into the grievances aired by some businespeopie during the seminar. Barbara Roche, for her part, promised that a Labour government would encourage the banks to offer packages of assistance to small enterprises, in particular, black-owned ones. They would also ensure that local councils offered minority enterprises a share of local government contracts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greater self-reliance and global trade</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In view of the problems black businesspeople have had to contend with over the years, Bernie Grant, the Member of Parliament for Tottenham in North London, did not devote much time to the idea of integrating them into mainstream British economy. He felt that racism and discrimination were so prevalent that there was little chance of that happening. For him, the future for black businesspeople in Britain lay in greater self-reliance and entry into international trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a speech entitled 'political responsibility, and black import and export business', the M.P. set the Barbican exhibition in the context of the global economic situation - one where he said, 'the countries of the North are exploiting those of the South, in particular African countries.' Africa's heavy debts to the West should in fact be the other way round. He argued that the new world trade agreement, which  opens up the developing countries to competition, was unfair. 'This means that countries where minorities in the UK came from are going to have problems, and it is the duty of thee minorities to ensure that their countries have a fair deal,' he said. Mr Grant cited, by way of example, the EU's banana protocol under the Lom&eacute; Convention which gives preferential treatment to small Caribbean island producers and which is currently being 'unfairly' challenged by South American producers under the WTO rules. The role of multinationals, which are effectively acting es 'middleman', was, he believed, pernicious for developing countries. There was a need for black businessmen to step in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Minority enterprises in the UK do not exist in isolation from the rest of the world, he elaborated. They should seek to engage in international trade and take advantage of their connection with their countries of origin. To facilitate this, Mr Grant said that a group under his chairmanship had set up a Global Trade Centre in his constituency in North London with the aim of helping black and minority enterprises establish direct trade links with Africa, the Caribbean and black America. The Centre was already in contact with a number of African countries which have expressed interest in the idea. Such a link would not only ensure a better deal for African producers but also favour the growth of minority businesses across the world. This was, he confessed, 'a political agenda' designed to reduce the excessive profits of multinationals, if not put an end to their 'outright exploitation' of Africa and the Caribbean. Mrs Roche expressed support for the Centre for the role it could play in boosting British exports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UK minorities and the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European Union</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A self-confessed Eurosceptic, who would have preferred the UK to strengthen economic ties with the Commonwealth rather than with Europe, Mr Grant displayed an extraordinary understanding of the European</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Union's affairs. What worried him most about greater European integration, he said, was racism and the fact the UK job market, where black and ethnic minorities are already heavily disadvantaged, will be exposed to further competition from other Europeans most of whom speak several languages. However, he had no alternative but to support the Labour Party's line on Europe and work to secure the best advantage of British membership for ethnic minorities. He contrasted Tory 'divisions' on Europe with Labour's 'united' policy and condemned the British Government's attitude generally towards the Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development of the Union, Mr Grant said, was of great significance to black people. He was sure the Government's Immigration and Asylum bill, which had come up against strong opposition in the House of Lords, was aimed at harmonising immigration laws with other countries in the Union. The bill, if passed, will change the UK's visa regime and have serious implications for ethnic minorities and their businesses in Britain. He revealed that, with the support of ethnic minority members of the British Parliament, Bill Morris, the black General Secretary of the Transport and General Workers Union (the second biggest trade union in the UK) and other European trade union leaders, the Intergovernmental Conference was being lobbied for the inclusion of a stronger clause against racism in the Treaty of Rome. The aim, ultimately, is to see measures in line with the UK's laws against racism and discrimination enacted at the Union level. This would include the establishment of a European equivalent of the Commission for Racial Equality - with similar powers - so as to establish a level-playing field for ethnic minorities in competition for jobs and in business throughout Europe. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dossier</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Communication and the media</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Dossier coordinated by Debra Percival)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Press freedom is widely acknowledged as the cornerstone of democracy with a clamp-down anywhere in the world frequently interpreted as a sign of government repression. The rash of multi-party elections in African nations at the beginning of the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1990s brought new publications to news-stands. Many of these have since folded - often because of a lack of funds and sometimes because of government censorship.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many organisations are campaigning vigorously in the public eye for a free press in developing nations. These include Reporters Sans Frontieres, Article 19 and the International Federation of Joumalists - all of which are featured in this Dossier. The US-based Freedom House has also been monitoring the state of press freedom worldwide since 1979. In its recently published 1996 survey, it says that even today, only 22% of the world's population live in countries with a free press. 38% have a press sector that is 'partly free' while the description 'not free' is applied to the remaining 40%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are also regional organisations such as The Media Institute of Southern Africa (MISA), which are playing a part in keeping media issues to the fore. David Nthengwe, a researcher with MISA, highlights the fact that democratisation does not necessarily guarantee a free media or free expression more generally. He also draws attention to the difficulties faced by private and community organisations in obtaining adequate finance. These are  typical of the problems facing the media in many countries, both in the ACP group and elsewhere in the developing world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In seeking to tackle these issues, donors are showing increasing interest in backing media programmes with development finance (linked to democratisation and human rights). The European Union, UNESCO and a number of bilateral donors have expanded their activities in this area with a variety of projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One big change has been the rapid growth of the 'Information Superhighway'. This has prompted fears that the developing countries may fall further behind, although donors have indicated a willingness to help ensure this does not happen. One NGO closely monitoring the development of the Internet for the South is the PANOS Institute. Meanwhile, multilateral donors (notably the World Bank, through its INFODEV programme) are also becoming involved. A number of EU personalities lent their support to the development of the information society in the developing world, at a major conference staged in South Africa in May on the initiative of the country's Vice President, Thabo Mbeki. A work programme of projects was drawn up with the aim of making sure, in the words of European Commissioner, Martin Bangemann, that there is no divide between the 'information-poor' end the 'information-rich'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, although the world is undergoing an information revolution, the more traditional media (the press and above all, radio) will, for the foreseeable future, continue to have a central part in informing, educating and entertaining people in many developing  countries. It is important that those of us who increasingly communicate via our computer screens do not lose sight of this essential fact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this Dossier, we examine a number of the key issues affecting the media and highlight some innovative projects in this area - with the help of a series of experts. The subject has clearly moved higher up the development agenda, but there is still a long way to go, as the figures cited above show. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Aidan White of the IFJ</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Confronting the age-old problem</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the chance, 'governments would like to run and manipulate the media'. This is the view of Aidan White, General Secretary of the Brusselsbased International Federation of Journalists (IFJ), who says it is an 'ageold problem'. And the Federation, which has member organizations in 93 countries, works to prevent it from happening. It also provides a range of services to journalists throughout the world. We recently spoke to Mr White, who used to write for the British daily, The Guardian. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He began by outlining to us the Federation's key areas  of activity which include, in particular, the professional conditions in which journalists work and the defence of human rights. On the first of these, Mr White focused on the problem of economic pressures and difficult social conditions. 'We take a strong view that you can't have press freedom if journalists work in conditions of poverty or technical deprivation. It is a nonsense,' he stressed, 'to talk about a free press in a situation where journalists aren't paid, or if they are unable to function properly.' In seeking to tackle this, he spoke, in particular, of the 'need for independent organisations of journalists defending professional and social interests.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards human rights, the IFJ is active in the international community, working with bodies such as UNESCO and the UN Human Rights Commission. 'We are very interested in issues such as the legal environment in which journalists and the media operate, and are extremely active in the defence of physical safety.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr White went on to give more detailed information about the IFJ's work in Algeria, where many journalists have been killed in recent years. This country clearly has a bad international reputation and the General Secretary was anxious to offer a more balanced picture of the situation. 'In my view, there is a real malformation of Alaeria's  image in Europe and elsewhere. The view we get is of a paralysed society where nothing can function properly - a kind of international basket case. It is not like that. In Algeria, life continues. There is a form of democracy. There are a dozen newspapers which appear every day. The streets are full of traffic and people walking about. The reality is that there is a particularly horrifying and barbaric form of terrorism which is targeted against intellectuals including journalists. This means that the media has a terrible problem.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aidan White explained the strategy of the IFJ in seeking to confront this. 'We began by going to Algeria to investigate what was going on. Then we established an international office on the spot. This is a direct contact point of solidarity for local journalists and the local media. So we don't report Algeria through Paris. We don't see the need to go through some sort of middleman in order to find out what's going on in the country or have contact with Algerian journalists.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'And then we have two specific programmes which are very important', he continued. One involves providing humanitarian assistance to journalists and their families. The other is a series of practical activities in Algeria. Thus, for example, we are organising a round table on terrorism and information.' He pointed out that the Algerian government had resorted to the traditional method of press censorship in the face of ,the terrorist threat and stressed the 'need to counter this. 'We are also organising a practical seminar on personal safety, as well as one on professional social rights, the need for ethical standards and better social conditions.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The point, he emphasised was that events were being organised on the spot. Algeria may pose terrible difficulties 'but it doesn't mean we walk away from it.' The IFJ's emphasis was firmly on being a 'functional organisation working directly with the people who need help.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Funding and the EU link</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tuming to the issue of the IFJ's funding, Mr White explained how the core activities - his own salary and administrative costs - are paid for by the subscriptions of member organisations, which amount to roughly $1 million. On top of that, the Federation carries out projects with the EU and other donors. They also distribute funds, offering their expertise as a representative body to help other organisations that want to undertake work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asked in what way the EU could do more, the General Secretary stressed the political dimension. 'It should intervene,' he argued, 'to establish certain standards in international relations. We say, for instance, that political, economic and military cooperation with any state outside the Union should be based on a commitment to and respect for freedom of expression and opinion.' He underlined the 'responsibility' of the EU to take a stand against countries that locked up journalists, implicitly criticising those who argued that freedom of expression was very important but who then shelved the issue when economic relations were involved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He also urged a more proactive approach 'moving away from the strategy of counting bodies, complaining, and making reports about how bad the situation is' towards one based on comprehensive programmes of assistance. He described the IFJ's Media for Democracy programme in Africa as a 'first attempt' in that direction. Mr </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">White highlighted what he saw as a difficulty with existing projects. 'The problem is that the EU is confronted by all sorts of different NGOs who come and say: 'we have got this good project - give us support for it'. This is fine but it inevitably means that resources are spread very diffusely and often to no effect.' A lot of activities, he suggested, such as one-off seminars and conferences, were 'like fireworks in the night sky: they glow bright for a brief period and then they disappear.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He went on to plead for an integrated, comprehensive strategy. 'Until that exists, you will not be able to solve the fundamental problems facing journalists.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training and status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The discussion moved on to the subject of training. Perhaps surprisingly, Aidan White did not see this as an important priority in itself. As he explained: 'It's no use training journalists to be very high quality if they go off to work in a country where the legal environment does not allow them to function properly. And it's no use training them to be ethical if they go somewhere that is steeped in political or financial corruption, and where there is no culture which appreciates the media's role in democratic society.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With this in mind, he believes that training should be directly related to the strategic approach he referred to earlier. 'Yes, we need professional, well trained journalists, but it should be part of a range of programmes. And professional training is not just important for journalists. It should also be provided for managers, editors, advertisers... and perhaps even for politicians!'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The General Secretary noted that the status of journalists in most countries was quite high. They are seen as a filter for information 'coming from the government to the governed'. This was important, he thought, but 'tine real question is how the filter functions. On the one hand journalists have a relatively high status, and what they do is extremely important, but they work close to the political elites, which means they  are subject to pressure. They must retain their independent role, scrutinising and investigating what governments are doing.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the subject of access to information in developing countries, Aidan White observed that the situation is now better than it was ten years ago but pointed to the 'age-old problem of people in power wanting to control the media.' He gave the example of journalists in Indonesia, 'who really want to speak independently of the government, but who are being killed because they represent independent strands of opinion.' Overall, however, he believes the situation has been improving. 'This is partly due to changes in information technology. A government can no longer simply take a journalist out and beat him up. There are half a dozen press freedom organisations around the world watching for and reporting on such events.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a tendency in Europe to assume that 'everything in the garden is rosy' in terms of press freedom, and we were interested to hear what the Secretary General thought of this proposition. He was quick to offer a less complacent view. 'We have just issued a very strong statement against the EU about their secrecy policy,' he pointed out. 'You cannot claim the moral high ground for democracy in Africa or elsewhere if you have a system of secrecy in Europe which operates at the highest political level and which denies citizens access to information.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He was also concerned about the concentration of the media in enormous congLom&eacute;rates. This trend, he argued, 'is actually profoundly damaging to the culture of information.' He cited, in this context, the action of the Murdoch organisation 'in banning all news from his cable channels going into China.' Mr White continued: 'They banned the BBC and they banned news coverage in the Chinese language in order to make a business arrangement with the Beijing government. That sort of activity, in our view, is direct censorship from the heart of western democracy.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, Aidan White gave some more detailed information about the Media for Democracy programme in Africa which he described as 'ground-breaking.' The Federation has used it to develop key themes, including the coverage of elections. 'The real test of press freedom,' he continued, 'is at an election, because that is when the political pressure is toughest and the professional quality of journalism is exposed. For Africa, we developed a manual on election reporting and, interestingly, it has become the source document worldwide for election reporting.' He explained how it formed the basis for developing a text which is universal. This has been translated into various European languages, and Arabic, and has been employed in Poland, Romania, Albania and Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the first phase of the Media for Democracy programme, the Federation held a serf. of seminars and conferences on how the media covered elections. As Mr White stressed, this was a crucial time in Africa. Political change was taking place, multi-party democracy was being introduced and there was a need to clarify how elections operated and how they should be reported. 'People didn't have the experience. They wanted the information, and to discuss how things should be done.' The seminars covered aspects such as financial corruption, the organisation of journalists and the role of ethics. And what the IFJ found was that the same kind of things happen in Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique and South Africa - and indeed across the world. In the words of the Secretary General, 'they have an echo everywhere because, at its root, the problem is the same - those in power want to manipulate the media and use whatever pressures they can.' The lesson learnt from the IFJ's experience in Africa is that common solutions are also valid. Or as Aidan White put it, 'there is no part of the world that can't teach the rest of the world something.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.M. &amp; S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Freedom of expression: the first freedom</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Frances d'Souza</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frances d'Souza who is Executive Director of AROSE 19, a nom governmental organization which campaigns against censorship globally, explains why Freedom of Expression is for her the most important human right</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the absence of freedom of expression, it is almost impossible to protect other rights, including the right to life. Once governments can draw a cloak of secrecy round their actions and remain unaccountable, massive human rights violations can, and do, take place. For this reason alone, the right to free expression, specifically protected in international human rights treaties, must be considered a primary right. It is significant that one of the first indications of a government's intention to depart from democratic principles is when it increases its control over information, usually by gagging the media. At the one end of the spectrum, supposedly minor infringements of this fundamental right occur daily in western democracies; for example the abuse of national security laws to prevent publication of information which might embarrass the authorities. At the other end of the scale are regimes of terror which brutally suppress opposition, information and even the freedom to exercise religious beliefs. Without free speech and an independent media, it is easier for governments to employ propaganda to promote ethnic conflict, war and genocide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right to freedom of expression is formally protected in major international treaties including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* This text is an abridged version of a submission made by the author to a public hearing hosted by the European Parliament's Committee on Foreign Affairs, Security and Defence and the Sub-Committee on Human Rights and the Committee on Culture, Youth, Education and the Media, April 25, 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Political Rights (Article 19), and the European Convention on Human Rights (Article 10). It is also enshrined in many national constitutions, although this does not always guarantee its protection. Freedom of expression is something which applies even in countries which have not ratified the relevant international treaties. This is because the Universal Declaration is so widely accepted that its provisions now form part of customary international law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While it is generally agreed that freedom of expression is the cornerstone of democracy, international treaties permit certain restrictions. Unlike the American First Amendment rights which allow few, if any, checks on free speech, the international treaties aim for a balance between competing rights. Thus, for example, free speech may be limited where it impinges on the individual's right to privacy, or where it involves incitement to violence or hatred. Given that the permitted restrictions are necessarily broad, the limits of free speech are constantly being tested in national courts and in regional tribunals such as the European Commission and Court of Human Rights. In recent years, several landmark cases have helped define what restrictions may be imposed by governments and under what circumstances. In particular, it has been emphasised by the European Court that any restriction should 'pass' a threepart test; it should be prescribed by law (and thus not be arbitrarily imposed), it should be proportionate to the legitimate aims pursued, and it should be demonstrably necessary in a democratic society in order to protect the individual and/or the state.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Who censors what?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the rules governing restrictions on free speech, many justifications are still invoked by governments in suppressing information which may be inimical to their policies or interests. These include arguments in defence of national security or the 'public interest'. The mechanisms used to restrict the free flow of information range from subtle economic pressures, and devious methods of undermining political opponents and the independent media, to the enactment of restrictive press laws and rules for licensing journalists. In extreme cases, they may involve the illegal detention, torture and disappearance of journalists and others associated with the expression of independent views.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right of free speech may appear less important than, for example, freedom from torture or extrajudicial killing. It is also sometimes difficult to persuade the public that censorship, generally associated with banning obscene materials, is a bad thing! It requires a recognition of some of the fundamental principles of democracy to understand why censorship is so dangerous. Democracy implies that people can make choices about the issues that affect their lives, including what they wish to see, read, hear or discuss. While this may seem a luxurious freedom, mainly preoccupying the wealthy West, it is a comparatively short distance between state censorship of an offensive book to the silencing of political dissidents. And the distance between this and the use of violence to suppress opposition is even shorter. Censorship tends to grow rapidly from small beginnings. Allowing a government the power to deny people information, however trivial, not only leads to laws and procedures which can and will be used by those in authority against those with less authority. It also denies people the information they need to render their governments accountable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There have been some terrible examples of the role of censorship in recent years. We have seen it in the republics of the former Yugoslavia   where the media were manipulated for propaganda purposes. We have seen it in Rwanda where the government associated radio incited citizens to kill each other in the name of ethnic supremacy. And we have seen it in Iran which maintains the threat of murder against a citizen of another country because he wrote a book which displeased the authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are clear links between access to information (or rather the lack of it), and war. Democracy empowers people by increasing participation in decision-making at all levels. The poor, who are denied access to information on decisions which deeply affect their lives, are powerless and have no voice. They cannot influence the ruling elites whose interest in consolidating their own power and position may be served by initiating conflict.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is significant that of the 126 developing countries listed in the 1993 Human Development Report, wars were being waged in 30 and a further 33 were suffering severe civil conflicts. 55 of these 63 countries were to be found at the lower end of the Human Development Index which is an indicator of poverty. It is reasonably safe to assume that most people never welcome war. They may be coerced into supporting 'their' side in a conflict by their governments, using propaganda designed to whip up fear and extreme nationalist sentiment. If the majority had a democratic voice, they would undoubtedly object to war. But voices are silenced. Thus, the freedom to express one's views, to challenge government decisions and to insist upon political rather than violent solutions, are necessary aspects of democracy which can, and do, avert war.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">State-sponsored propaganda in Rwanda, as in the former Yugoslavia, succeeded because there were no ways of challenging it. One can conclude that it is impossible for a country to wage war in the absence of a compliant media willing to indulge in government propaganda. Governments needs civilians to fight wars for them and the media is needed to reinforce government policies and intentions at every turn. In a  totalitarian state where the expression of political views, let alone the possibility of political organisation is suppressed, one has to ask what other possibilities are open to a genuine political movement intent on introducing justice. All too often, terrorism and violence are the only perceived options available to communicate the need for change.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What NGOs can do</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work of human rights organizations has to become much more proactive and should be concerned with providing early warning and preventive action. Monitoring freedom of exprmsion, especially freedom of the press, offers an excellent context because it is widely recognised that would-be dictators always seek to silence people's voices through banning newspapers or other methods of censorship. One has to assume that when censorship begins in earnest, worse human rights abuses will follow and this should be the point for action. Had there been a greater international lobby for an independent media, for access to information and for participation in decision-making in the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Nigeria, Burma and many other countries, some of the gross violations which continue to occur, could have been prevented.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Censorship is the first instrument of a government intent on departing from democratic procedures. In this sense it is an early warning signal and at ARTICLE 19, we believe we have a special responsibility to understand better how democracy is destroyed through censorship and how we can alert the international community to act to prevent it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By way of conclusion, anything which can build strong and sound media infrastructures, at the earliest to pportunity, in transitional democracies, is both a gift and a great investment. A crusading press, prepared to separate fact from opinion and to verify its sources, can create a level playing field in which all sectors of society have a voice. This would preclude political control and manipulation for nationalistic power purposes. There is also a need to strengthen local monitoring groups which have the capacity to verify information. International organisations should amplify the voices of local organisations and bring them to the attention of the international community. It is only where there is a strong human rights culture in a given country, whether it has achieved democracy or not, that political changes can be seized upon and shaped into the democratic process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To achieve these objectives, NGOS need to work with governments which are obliged by international law to uphold fundamental rights. We need organisations such as the KU, the UN, ASEAN, and others, to insist on respect for human rights in their dealings with third countries. We also need the general public to be aware of what fundamental rights are, what are the consequences of infringement, and how they can, as individuals, successfully challenge restrictionss imposed on them by their governments. Above all, NGOS need to work with multilateral organisations to determine where slender resources can most fruitfully be targeted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.d'S.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Commission support for democratisation through the media</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Mark Leysen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amongst the many cooperation activities in which it is involved, the Lom&eacute; Convention covers cultural cooperation, which includes information and communication, yet European Development Fund support for the media in ACP countries is negligible. Although considerable and increasing amounts of aid are granted for the cinema in such countries, EU support for TV, radio and the printed media is small.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, for some years now, the Commission has provided considerable aid to the printed media and radio in ACP countries under its 'Support for democratisation and respect for human rights' budget, which heralds a new approach to media questions. The EDF does not participate in the vast majority of big communications projects in Africa, namely PANA (Panafrican News Agency), URTNA (African National Television and Radio Union, the African equivalent of the European Broadcasting Union), the Programme Exchange Centre, Afrovision, Cierro, etc. The reluctance of EU and ACP partners to embark on such media projects can be explained both by EDF procedures and by the worldwide political context including the situation in most African countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until recently, the media was a matter for the State in Africa. The 'New World Information and Communications Order', announced in the 1 970s, foresaw the participation of not only African citizens, but also of their governments in the world information highway. However, the democratic credentials of such governments were open to question - they controlled the printed media, radio, television and press agencies and any support for such media amounted to a strengthening of the State monopoly and this is why the EDF did not take part.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, aid to the independent media was impossible because such entities did not exist in most African countries and the authorities were not prepared to back a request for aid to the press which they regarded as contrary to their country's interests. If support for the media did exist, it was indirect and restricted to backing of means of communication servicing development projects: literacy campaigns, the fight against AIDS, increasing awareness of ecological problems, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was not until the advent of the democratisation movement and the support that Europe decided to grant to it that a media-aid strategy was to take root. As a kind of 'Fourth Estate', the media monitor executive power and report any abuse of it. In parallel, they play a key role in strengthening civil society by providing information (if not objective information, then at least information from many sources) on current political, social, economic and cultural issues and by providing a medium which offers an opportunity to speak out on matters of importance to society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Commission focuses its media support in five areas in agreement with representatives of African press and specialist European . organisations in this area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Freedom of expression It provides direct aid to national, regional and international organizations to defend freedom of expression, specifically financing monitoring, surveys and the reporting of any violation of press freedom (censorship, intimidation, arrests and arbitrary trials, etc.), and direct assistance to the media and any journalists who are victims of such attacks on press freedom. This direct aid is channelled to, inter alia, the activities of Reporters sans frontieres (see 'Interview with Mr Robert Menard', in this issue), 'Article XIX' and Index on Censorship, all organisations which operate like an Amnesty International for the press.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new independent press is often run by journalists who have had no journalistic training and the former State media often require being updated after many years of professional 'distortion' responding to 'his master's voice'. The Commission hence finances programmes offering training in basic journalistic techniques, election coverage; professional codes of ethics, etc. In this area, it is working with a number of European and African organizations, giving priority to long-term actions which are likely to spawn others and to programmes aimed at achieving a higher level of professionalism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid for vocational organizations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vocational organizations for journalists have a role to play in improving the profession's social standing, in strengthening its cohesion in the face of political division, in defending its interests and in coming to the aid of journalists who have been victims of repression. The Commission finances a vast 'Media for Democracy' programme conducted by the International Federation of Journalists and its affiliated regional and national organisations (see interview with Aidan White, in this issue). The programme aims to strengthen or create national and regional associations of journalists, but is also involved in more general actions to   increase the professional standing of the media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access to sources of information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A credible and responsible press requires sources of information which the new and financially precarious press cannot allow itself. The Commission supports the creation or updating of documentation centres, North/South  and South/South exchanges between publications and radio stations, access to international press agencies or photographic libraries, etc., being shared between several media bodies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legislative framework and code of ethics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not enough merely to guarantee freedom of expression in the   constitution. This principle must be embodied in all legislative and regulatory texts to prevent a journalist being prosecuted arbitrarily for 'defamation' or 'a breach of State security'. Moreover, to appear credible, the profession must observe a code of ethics. The Commission backs the drafting of press codes, codes of ethics and regulations to govern the air waves. It also backs the creation of press and air wave regulatory bodies as well as the provision of training in journalistic ethics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is obvious that the 'Democracy and Human Rights' budget cannot alone meet the needs of Africa's multi-faceted media scene. Moreover, although the media are a key element in any democratisation process, they are also much more than that - as a means of information and recreation, they have a role to play in the human development of society; as an instrument to create greater awareness, they can contribute to the strengthening of a civil society which is gradually taking charge; and as an economic sector in the full throes of development, they can make a contribution to the GDP and create jobs. All the more reason for national sponsors and the EDF to take more of an interest. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National television, victim of  democracy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than the other media, television in Africa is controlled by the State and serves, first and   fore most, to disse minat e news about the leade r and his govern ment. The state of equip ment depen ds on when it was suppl ied by a friend ly count ry from the North, and as it was almos t certai nly offere d to the count ry's leade rs 'as a perso nal gift', it usual ly consi sts of oversi zed equip ment which the nation al televis ion statio n canno t maint ain correc tly owing to a lack of resou rces. Whils t Europ e is movin g over to digita l Betac am and 1619 forma t, many Africa n TV statio ns are still opera ting with Umat ic and with mach ines that are impos sible to maint ain. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With such deriso ry mean s, nation al TV statio ns have to conte nd with unfair comp etition from the intern ationa l statio ns which, from their satell ites, are inund ating the contin ent with their broad casts . The worldbroad castin g chann els of Europ ean statio ns are receiv ed clearl y (CFI, TV5 Afriqu e, BBC World Telev ision, Deut sche Welle, etc.). The numb er of religio us statio ns (gene rally Islam ic) contin ues to increa se and comm ercial televi sion is develo ping apace - CN N, MTV, Cana l Horizo ns, M-Ne t and others can be picke d up just about every where and can thus cream off the best of a comm ercial mark et which is still virtual ly non-e xisten t and awaiti ng better days . </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The URTN A is unabl e to defen d the intere sts of its memb ers, prope rly and its initiat ives (which are, nevert heles s, lauda ble) are stagn ating: the -progr amme rexch ange centre in Nairob i does not excha nge very much at all and Afrovi sion, . the syste m for excha nging news betw een   nation al TV statio ns via satell ite, is strugg ling to Get off the aroun d. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Never theles s, Africa n TV statio ns do not lack talent or motiva tion and many of them are capab le of produ dng more qualit y progra mmes . What can be done to help them ? Firstly, a decis ion has to be made regar ding who is to be helpe d. Certa inly not intern ationa l TV statio ns' be they private or public, which have their own strate gy (comm ercial or politic al and produ ce televis ion progra mmes for impor t which make only a very margi nal contri bution to the expre ssion of Africa n talent . It would also be wrong to rely or, privati sation and comm ercial statio ns in order to obtain quali ty televis ion - t his much has been demo nstrat ed by the Europ ean exper ience . As for direct aid to nation al televis ion, this would mere ly reinfo rce the State mono poly over inform ation. Wha t is requir ed is greate r suppo rt for the transi tion of State televi sion into a genui ne public servic e. with the benef it of an indep enden t statut e and also true editor ial indep enden ce. Conse quent ly, as things curre ntly stand, aid for trainin g teievis ion' profes siona ls, suppo rt for qualit y progra mme produ ction and any aid aimed at draftin g a public -servic e televis ion Statu te, are usefu l forms of suppo rt which are neutra l with regard to State -medi a contro l. Any direct aid to nation al </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> televis ion statio ns in the form of   hardw are and equip ment shoul d be </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> subje ct to their conve rsion into an auton omou s public servic e. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Images of Africa in the Western media</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Geoff Mungham</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems difficult to find an African leader or African journalist who has not, at some time, been either fiercely critical or quietly despairing of the way in which the continent is depicted by the western media. Their grievances have come to form part of a now familiar litany. Claims are made that the reporting of Africa is now almost entirely in terms of what has been called a'coup, crisis and famine syndrome', and that the western media focus only on 'bad news' out of Africa and ignore the 'positive' achievements of many African countries. These criticisms go hand-in-hand with accusations that Africa cannot ' tell its own story, in its own way', because the global news market is dominated by powerful, westerr-owned corporations, who have their own agenda for reporting Africa. For many Africans, their continent is becoming increasingly invisible in the trade in global news. For them, Rupert Murdoch's cynical remark that 'the Third World sells no newspapers' would appear to have been uttered with Africa specifically in mind. Finally there are those Africans who are concerned about 'western cultural imperialism' undermining traditional African values and culture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How true are these claims? Is Africa becoming once again a dark continent; one largely excluded from the glare of western media coverage? Are some of the correctives suggested by different African leaders worse than the problems they are complaining about? And if Africa is in danger of becoming a 'disappearing world' for news, to what extent are many African countries themselves to blame?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To begin with, there is no doubt that African critics have a case. First and most obvious, is the undeniable brute fact that global news and information flows are dominated by a small number of multinational operators, nearly all of whom - especially since the end of the Cold War - are western owned and controlled. This is true of the great international news agencies, whether the traditional wire services like Reuters or Agence France-Press, or the newer global television news services represented by WTN and CNN, among others. The major clients for their output are western news organizations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, most African countries are in no position to mount a challenge to this world news order. The continent has recently been described as one of the 'least dynamic regions in the global economy, where buying power of consumers is low' and in which many countries are burdened with crippling debt payments. In the same vein, a 1991 World Bank report not only pointed to the increasing 'communications gap' between Africa and the developed world, but went on to suggest that most of the continent offered poor prospects for those wanting to invest in telecommunications projects. These are among the reasons why Africa scores so poorly in terms of putting in place viable national communications infrastructures, let alone being able to take on the global market leaders in securing a higher profile for Africa in the world's news rooms. The same factors also help explain why most African countries remain so dependent on western-controlled news sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This dependency is not simply a question of the easy availability of copy or other material from the western news agencies. Puri (a Tanzanian journalist and Managing Editor of Newslink Africa)  presents other reasons why African editors are interested in what's happening in the West. These include the links between many African countries and their former colonial rulers, the realities of global and economic relations and his claim that African editors often have little interest in other parts of the continent. As he puts it, '...a newspaper reader in Botswana, for example, is not much interested in reading detailed reports from Morocco.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, there is plenty of evidence to support the criticisms of the 'coup, crisis, famine' coverage. Examples are too numerous to cite here, but the following small selection is fairly representative of the broader picture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Introducing the findings of a 'Global News Agenda Survey', Malik and Anderson noted: 'For the rest of the world, Africa means coupe, and largescale killings (covered usually only in the first few days), almost ritualistic famine relief... and the occasional travelogues in the guise of saving something or other'. Similar claims were made by Okigho when he wrote that while CNN and other satellite organisations have 'revolutionised international news coverage', the most common images of Africa still depict internecine warfare (in Angola, Liberia, Somalia), pogroms in Rwanda, political violence in Sierra Leone and ethnic conflicts in Kenya and elsewhere in Africa. In contrast, says Okigho, the 'many positive developments' are routinely ignored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A limited review that I made of wire service copy from the main international news agencies during the week of 13-20 May 1996, produced findings that seemed to echo some of these complaints. In this period, hard news stories were concentrated on a handful of the 50 plus countries of Africa; Burundi, the Central African Republic (C.A.R.), Egypt, Liberia, Somalia, Sudan and South Africa - together with stories of alleged financial irregularities in the World Health Organisation in Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copy about Burundi dealt with ethnic violence and attacks inside Zaire   on Burundi by Hutu 'rebels'. Reports from the C.A.R. focused on an army mutiny, street battles and looting, but were angled on the mediating role of French troops (the C.A.R is a former French colony) and the fate of 100 Americans trapped in the capital, Bangui. Egypt was featured after its government accused Sudan of harbouring a 'vipers' nest of terrorists'. Out of Liberia came a torrent of wire copy about fighting in Monrovia along with assorted atrocity stories, but pinning the emphasis on the plight of foreign nationals (especially Britons and Americans) and the role being played by the USS Guam in air-lifting them to safety. Somalia rated a mention because of the release of two foreign aid workers (British and German) held by an unidentified 'rebel faction'. On South Africa, the wire services were fixed on further violence and killings in KwaZuluNatal, the result of ongoing struggles between rival supporters of the A.N.C and the Inkatha Freedom Party.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'agenda for Africa' sent out by the wire agencies, was replicated by  the menu offered by Reuters TV and APTV. For instance, on one day during the study period, the former was offering ten picture feeds; only one was from Africa (on the C.A.R.) while the rest included such compelling visuals as the British Queen's visit to the Chelsea Flower Show. For the fifteen picture feeds being touted by the APTV on a single day, one featured Africa ('news pictures to offer on the airlift by US marines'), which competed for the attention of western news rooms alongside visuals of a US woman who collected hubcaps (140 000 of them, no less!), Hugh Grant arriving by boat at the Cannes Film Festival, footage of the Monaco Grand Prix and a 'fun run' in Sarajevo (whether or not pictures are available, the idea of a 'fun-run' in Bosnia still seems a difficult concept to grasp) But what these studies show is not the whole picture about Africa which circulates in the West. Nor should they necessarily be used to support the usual criticisms about the performance of the western media in relation to the continent. In the first place, not all news  out of Africa fits into the syndrome the critics complain about. For example, a great deal of the coverage of South Africa has been 'positive' (if we trace the reporting of that country's transition to majority rule). So, too, have the moves towards multi-party politics in African states like Zimbabwe. Similarly, there is plenty of reporting of Africa's sporting successes (such as South Africa's Rugby World Cup triumph). Nor is the West unaware of the work of certain African musicians and film makers - indeed, it has been influenced by them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And even if 'positive' coverage is sometimes hard to find, the critics may still be missing some key points. The first is to do with western 'news values' or rather a failure to appreciate how they work - whether in relation to Africa or anywhere else. The staple diet of much of the global news flow is about 'bad news' and, in this respect, Africa prob  ably fares no worse or better than other parts of the developing world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, a more 'systematic' reporting of much of Africa is still difficult. My point here is about a lack of efficient and developed communication infrastructures, but also a reluctance by many African leaders to tolerate - let alone actively encourage - free and honest open reporting. Too many African journalists have been, and are being, harassed, imprisoned or killed by their own governments. Much of the media in Africa - especially the broadcast media - remains under state control. Newspapers that show a 'lack respect' for the ruling party are frequently shut down. These realities help explain why some of the maligned western media are turned to by those Africans who want something more than state propaganda from their newspapers or broadcasters. This is why the BBC World Service has come to enjoy such a high reputation in many parts of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Third, the attempts made by the African states to try and take on western dominance of global news and information flows, have been misjudged. Two failed initiatives in particular are worth mentioning in this context; the launch in 1983 of the Pan African News Agency (PANA) and the long-time obsession with setting up a 'New World Information Order' (NWIO).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the start, PANA has been dogged by financial and management problems. African governments owe $18 million, journalists have gone unpaid, lines have been disconnected and in 1992 a UNESCO-funded audit found evidence of financial mismanagement. The main source of information PANA traded in was material from the domestic news agencies of OAU member states. Since most of these are state-controlled, the 'news' they were offering was never likely to attract many western users. To try and give PANA a new lease of life, UNESCO are backing a rescue package, which would allow for private investors to be shareholders along with state-owned African national news agencies. But the pro  posed partnership funding is unlikely to work, especially in one-party states where the ruling groups have always been suspicious of any media not under their direct ownership.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The NWIO project has chased even more impossible dreams. Any attempt fundamentally to change the global news order was always going to be beyond countries with severe national communication 'deficits'. Most African countries, with weak and undercapitalised information infrastructures were never in a position to take on the market leaders in the global news business. In pursuit of the NWIO idea, endless international conferences were held, declarations passed and ritual attacks made on ' western media dominance'. Nothing came of it all. If the sense of frustration which kept the concept alive was understandable, less easy to grasp was why African leaders focused on the NWIO idea, while their own grassroots communication systems remained impoverished and under-resourced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most recent attempt to develop 'top-down' communications facilities in parts of Africa comes with the attempts to push satellite-delivered payTV on the continent. Among the 'players' here are Multi-Choice (which will be offered to subscribers in over 30 countries in sub-Saharan Africa), Canal Horizons (targeted on North Africa and Francophone West Africa) and Panafnet (also aimed at buyers in Francophone West Africa). Because these enterprises are subscription-based there will be a clear bias in take-up towards upperincome groups; and - certainly in the case of Multi-Choice - the output will have a 'strong UK/USA programming flavour'. It is hard to see how these initiatives will ever meet the real news and information needs of the vast majority of African consumers, who have limited spending power and are often deprived of the most basic communication tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As Hans Dieter Klee (former Head of the Africa Service of Deutsche Welle) has rightly argued, what Africa urgently needs is large-scale international media aid to help strengthen its own media. This aid should not be targeted at projects designed somehow to allow Africa to 'compete' with Western media congLom&eacute;rates. It should, instead, be aimed at building up diverse, viable and professional local and national media enterprises in African countries themselves. In this, the EU can play a leading role, working through the links established under the Lom&eacute; Convention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robust national communication structures in Africa will not, of course, alter the balance of global media power. They will be able to do little to stop the international news agencies reporting Africa in the way they have done in the past. And it will be a long time before most Africans becomes travellers on the 'information superhighway', since this, in essence, is an extension of existing computer and telephonic communications, which the continent lacks. But a vigorous local and national media, Africa-wide, would be good for Africa and the best barrier for resisting outside media influences. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6.M.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">References</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Okigho: 'National Images in the Age of the Information Super Highway </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African Perspectives', African Media Review, vol. 9,1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Malik and K. Anderson: 'TV: The Global New Agenda Survey', intermedia, January-February 1992. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Hicks 'North of the Limpopo', Cable and Satellite Europe, April 1996. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A message of hope on the Burundi airwaves</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Parliament may seem an unlikely launch pad for a radio station, but two members of this elected body, who are committed to a free and fair press as one of the cornerstones of democracy, have set up Radio Espoir (Radio Hope) in Burundi with backing of the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parliamentarians, Pierre Pradier (ERA-F) and Bernard Kouchner (PSE-F) are co-founders of Radio Espoir (Radio Umwizero, in Kirundi) which brings together a French association and a local Burundi radio station. Three expatriates are working on the Bujumbura-based project; an editor, a radio technician and an administrator. They have teamed up with local journalists who, for the moment, are providing their services free of charge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The station, which broadcasts in Kirundi, is targeted at an audience in the 15-25 age group. In a country with an 80% illiteracy rate, radio is the only way of reaching the population. 'The idea came to us in 1994, with Rwanda and Radio Libre des Mille Collines' says Pierre Pradier. 'If so much harm could be done with radio, then why equally could good not be achieved.' RLMC was the radio set up in July 1993 on the eve of the genocide in Rwanda. It became a mouthpiece  for the Akazu, a clan of Hutu extremists grouped around the then President's wife, Agathe Habyarimana, and it undermined the Arusha agreements by whipping up ethnic conflict in Rwanda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Pradier explains that Radio Hope journalists intentionally avoid speaking about Hutus and Tutsis. He also highlights the problems encountered in providing news coverage when local conditions are so difficult. As he points out; 'When you speak about the situation of a woman who has lost her husband in Burundi, you are talking politics.' Security considerations are important too while the MEP stresses that a proper analysis of events can only come with time: 'At the moment we are limited to reporting the facts. And it is only when the facts are verified that one can begin to interpret them.' The news items broadcast by the station rely on agency dispatches confirmed by a network of local people who call in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of such sensitivities and in an effort to find as much common ground as possible, the radio station gives music top billing. This has the added advantage of helping to attract listeners. It also offers general programmes on African roots, sport, culture and educational themes, in addition to its news items. It is currently broadcasting for six hours a day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pierre Pradier says he would like to see an end to the 'navel gazing' of Burundi's population. 'We want to show that peace is possible, by showing how it is progressing elsewhere: in Haiti, for example, where there is a legitimate President now, and amongst the Chiapas in Mexico.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But, like many fledgling stations, finding enough funds from donors to guarantee its future is a worry. The station's current ECHO grant runs out in September 1996. Indeed, the project, classified under emergency aid, was atypical for the humanitarian aid office. But Mr Pradier is hoping that continued support will come from one of the EU's budget lines. He believes that the Union is a particularly suitable donor because it tends to be less 'colonialistic' than some others. He also raises the possibility of seeking funds from private donors such as the Fondation de France. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking to the future of the station, Pierre Pradier argues that they cannot let the project 'drop' and hopes eventually to see it being handed over to local broadcasters, assuming 'they are people we can depend on'. The signs so far are encouraging. He would also like to see Radio Hope's programme content broadened to include game shows, with radios offered as prizes for the winners. As far as he is concerned, the more people who tune in, the better! _</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joint Assembly resolution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ACP/Ku Joint Assembly is pushing for EC institutions and Lom&eacute; signatories to be more supportive of media issues. A resolution on the role of communications media in the development and consolidation of democracy in ACP states. passed by the Assembly in March, contained the following points:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - freedom of expression and free communications and media are vital to the development of a democratic society;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - more ACP countries should give opposition parties access to the media' notably where this is controlled by the state;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - all candidates and political parties should be given access to the media in a 'balanced and fair manner'; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - laws which restrict press freedom and the electoral process should be repealed;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - any threat of physical attack against media organisations or their employees should be investigated by the authorities, with those responsible being brought to justice;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the media should be impartial, providing accurate information during elections, helping to educate the electorate, explaining the importance of elections, giving information on where, when and how to vote, and explaining the secret ballot;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - EU assistance for free and a fair elections - and a free media sector in ACP countries - should be increased. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Catholic radio in Southern Africa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Antonio Pacheco</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this abridged article, the author, who is a Portuguese journalist, gives details of two church-supported local radio projects in Southern Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the end of the 1980s, the Social Communication Department of IMBISA, the conference of Catholic bishops in Southern Africa (a kind of SADC for Roman Catholics) embarked on a local radio project. It had a two-pronged approach. First, it involved setting up a network of small community radio stations. The local population were involved, sharing responsibility for making programmes and broadcasting information and news about everyday life in the remotest places. In some cases, the programme content was retransmitted at a provincial or even national level. The second aspect was that it was supplemented by the creation of flexible and independent associations of journalists/presenters. They formed information agencies operating as a network to link up local radio stations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At that time, the main concern in Southern Africa was to rid South Africa of apartheid. There was also a desire to promote freedom of expression in Angola and Mozambique. Given that radio was (and still is) the most important means of communication in the region, the idea was to set up a regional network capable of overcoming all the constraints ranging from legal bans and restrictions on broadcasting to widespread illiteracy. The ultimate objective was to set up a Catholic radio station based in Swaziland. This project did not go ahead, however, because it was too expensive to finance and, above all, because it was dependent on the regional Catholic hierarchy. It proved difficult to reconcile the various ideological views and sensitivities of bishops in the various countries of the region. There was also a growing feeling amongst the Christian communities that the underlying need was not for a radio station which would be a vehicle for bishops' views, but rather a media system that served the people, offering recreation, training and information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio Pax</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another local radio project of interest, which is now up and running, involved reviving Radio Pax, the private Catholic radio station which made a significant contribution during the 1 960s to the struggle for a free Mozambique. The operation closed down in 1977 but the experience was not forgotten and 16 years later, the decision was made to bring the station back on air. Those behind the new project took advantage of the trend towards greater political openness in the country. Their aim was to offer a credible and informative alternative, which, they hoped, would be up and running in time for the elections scheduled for October 1994. A course was run between July and September 1994 which brought together young presenters chosen by small communities on the outskirts of Beira, Chimoio, Nampula, Quelimane and Maputo. The course involved honing the participants' presentation skills and providing practical training in technical subjects, and programme and information preparation. This was how the first association of young independent Christian journalists came into being.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For various reasons, including red-tape and customs regulations, the  new Radio Pax was unable to broadcast in the run-up to the general election. However, the young journalists, who received their training at various locations, were able to act as important independent sources of information. This was channelled to Maputo and used as backup for a number of international press officials and observers. The information relayed by the young presenters in the provinces made it possible to publish a newsletter which was circulated throughout the country, using fax, religious channels and a variety of other means.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio Pax is now in operation, although it faces major technical problems. It is based in a community centre in Inhamizua, 20 km from Beira. The station has already done important work in gathering information about local traditions, and has broadcast programmes aimed particularly at women and young people in suburban areas. The network also incorporates Mozambique's Radio Encontro, which broadcasts from Nampula in conjunction with the Anchilo training centre. There are plans for further local radio stations in Maputo in the south, Quelimane and Chimolo in the centre and Pemba in the north.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio Pax is managed entirely by the Association of Independent Young Christian Journalists in Beira. In terms of training, the current preoccupation is to teach the young people involved how to manage the small radio stations which have been made available to them, and to set up local self financing systems. Although equipment is important, what really counts in this project is the training of the presenters. Working in close collaboration with the community, it is they who are in the front linepromoting the inalienable right of free expression.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Voice of the Disabled in Chad!</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Mand Rya&iuml;ra Ngarara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Support Group for the Disabled in Chad (AEHPT) was set up in 1987 with the assistance of the International Christian Service for Peace (EIRENE), which has its headquarters in Germany. By coming together to form a group, disabled people hoped to take charge of their lives and break down the wall of silence that surrounds them. However, despite setting up various workshops (welding workshops, small printing works, musical groups) and publishing an information newsletter, entitled 'Perspectives'. the AEHPT has been unable to improve the image of disabled people within Chad society and has failed to  raise awareness that the work done by the disabled is not only of value, but deserves due recognition. From this status quo sprang the idea of broadcasting a national weekly radio programme called 'The Voice of the Disabled'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two reasons why radio was chosen as the communication medium: firstly, the very strong oral tradition of the country, together with the population's weak purchasing power, which make access to newspapers difficult, means that radio remains the most appropriate medium for reaching a wide audience; and secondly, radio programmes are not difficult to produce, since they do not require vast technical, financial or human resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Letting the disabled have their say</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially launched by the AEHPT, The Voice of the Disabled is now jointly produced and broadcast by four associations actively involved in defending the interests of those with disabilities. It is broadcast nationwide every Monday at peak listening times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The programme is not, however, aimed solely at those with disabilities but, on the contrary, seeks to increase awareness in Chad society as a whole. It also acts as a platform from which to urge the authorities to take concrete measures to help this section of the population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, more than a year after its launch, The Voice of the Disabled is enjoying tremendous success, with ever larger numbers of people, from all walks of life, tuning in. For the disabled themselves it provides a vast source of information, explaining the facts behind the causes of their disabilities and giving advice on how to prevent such disabilities and what can be done to treat them, and it keeps people informed about  what is happening within the various associations for the disabled, giving information about the activities, projects and special events that are taking place. As far as the rest of the population is concerned, The Voice of the Disabled has helped to raise the profile of disabled people in Chad. Slowly but surely, people's preconceptions are beginning to change and one of the programme's greatest achievements has been to eradicate gradually the negative image which people used to have of disabilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, the lamentable fact remains that this programme is broadcast solely in French, and this is why plans are now in the pipeline to broadcast The Voice of the Disabled in both Arabic and Sara - Chad's two national languages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.R.N. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">TV documentaries and development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Africa Express experiment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Richard Synge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'Africa Express' documentory series mounted by Channel4, an independent British TV station, has done more than just put a new slant on news provided by state-run African channels. it has also created jobs for African producers and reporters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Television viewers in Africa will soon get the chance to see documentaries on African current affairs and development topics which have hitherto only been seen on British TV sets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Channel Four's Africa Express programme has recently concluded its third series to much critical acclaim in Britain. it included items on a surprisingly diverse range of topics. One film showed how a cash-strapped Congolese prison saves money by sending its prisoners home one day in every month, and included lively interviews with the governor and the prisoners themselves as well as footage of the grim prison conditions. Others focused on the flourishing free currency market in Zaire, the spread of South Africa's 'shebeen' culture into the country's upmarket suburbs, political battles in Namibia over the rights to manage historic tourist sites and the Nigerian military government's blatant attempts to censor television reporting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The latest series supplemented the work of British film crews by incorporating several documentaries that were made entirely by African production teams. Special funding for this element of the Africa Express project came from the environmental television distribution agency TVE. As a result, Africa Express hired four African directors and used African-based crews to film half of the 24 films in the series.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other innovative part of the project was that the programmes are now becoming available to viewers in Africa at the lowest possible cost. To promote this concept of 'media feedback', TVE has been actively marketing the series to non-governmental organisations and facilitating arrangements for the distribution of the cassettes to African broadcasting stations, both state-owned and private.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'It is a way forward for us, because nothing like this has been done before,' says Raphael Tuju, a Kenyan film producer who runs a video resource centre in Nairobi, marketing documentaries to local broadcasting stations and the educational sector. 'There are too few opportunities for producers in African countries to break into the international networks. The subjects we cover are rarely of interest to the distribution companies, the differences in technology are too wide and getting wider, and there are not enough African producers who have reached the professional level to compete with their counterparts abroad.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peter Gill, who edited Africa Express for Channel Four, welcomed the opportunity to help promote the independent film industry in Africa. 'It was thoroughly stimulating,' he says, adding that one of the constant challenges was 'finding ways to bridge the gap between what is technically possible in Africa and the standards required for a European television production.' The four African directors hired for the series were two South Africans, Eddie Mbalo and Teddy Mattera, a Zimbabwean, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albert Chimedza, and a Namibian, Bridget Pickering. They all worked directly under Peter Gill's management and in contact with a producer in the field. Gill was impressed with the level of journalistic and technical expertise available in Africa and the dedication of the teams working in difficult situations. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even where the production teams were British, all the 24 films in the latest Africa Express series used African journalists and presenters. They researched and organised most of the films in advance of the actual shoot by the visiting film crews. Cameroonian journalist, Emmanual Wotany, played a prominent role in the films on Congo and Zaire. Kenyan reporter Joseph Warungu proposed and presented a film on the hazards of skin-bleaching in The Gambia. The presenter of the programme on Nigeria, Toyin Fane-Kayode, bravely challenged the censorship of the country's military regime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An all-African camera and sound team led by Lawrence Mbada and Mandla Mlambo was responsible for the four films in the series that were shot by the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC). In the extremely difficult conditions of Angola and Namibia, an experienced SABC cameraman was used. Here there was a need to ensure that the less experienced directors were not further challenged by having to work with an inexperienced crew.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For TVE's Robert Lamb, one of the main breakthroughs made by Africa Express was in the agreement of Channel Four to collaborate both with the SABC and with TVE itself, which insisted on the involvement and participation of African journalists, film-makers and technicians. He was impressed by the results and hopes that thee could be 'an even greater African involvement in another series, if one is commissioned.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The latest series was a success, being regularly watched by up to two million viewers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Channel Four granted broadcasting rights for the series in lowincome countries to TVE and Worldview International Foundation as well as the non-broadcast rights to TVE and its partners in the third world. These   agreements allow TVE to provide the tapes at nominal cost to a network of video resource centres, similar to that run by Raphael Tuju in Nairobi. Such centres seek to get development-oriented documentary films shown by the local broadcasting stations but survive by supplying the needs of schools, colleges, non-governmental organisations and other categories of 'multipliers'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most successful documentary centres is the Film Resource Unit (FRU) in Johannesburg. From its origins as a way of sharing bootlegged foreign films and TV programmes during the political repression of the 1980s, FRU is now a major distributor of educational and documentary films.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To overcome the inexperience of state-owned African broadcasting networks in showing programmes of developmental relevance to their societies, video resource centres have to provide their own sponsorship. 'It is difficult for us to compete with the likes of Coca Cola, which will sponsor programmes like soap operas,' says Raphael Tuju, 'but one way round this obstacle is to sponsor a programme and at the same time advertise our services. The business we generate this way usually means that we can at least break even.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Film-making capacity in Africa has been severely limited by most governments' domination of the broadcasting media and a deep and institutional reluctance to encourage independent local productions. The mainly government-owned television stations rarely have a policy to buy in locallymade programmes and tend to look to Britain, France or the US for outside material, which is often dumped on the market at low prices, making it an even harder challenge for local producers to generate the funds to make their own programmes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decline of the once-active film industry in Nigeria, in particular, means that in English-speaking Africa, the field is now dominated by South Africa and Zimbabwe. In French-speaking Africa, the continuation of subsidies  has kept an 'art house' tradition alive, especially in Senegal and Burkina Faso. In most of the continent, however, the only development-oriented programmes shown to the public tend to be made by the governments' own propaganda departments rather than by independent film-makers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where there is a lack of access  to local broadcasting media, African film-makers continue to experiment with making their own dramas and documentaries, showing their work on video in village halls and schools. 'At the grassroots, African film-making can be stimulated simply by consumer demand,' says Russel Honeyman, who publishes the African Film and TV Yearbook in Harare. 'But local products do not usually translate into international products. Film and television is a global industry and film-makers should not insist on being too parochial. There is room for greater international collaboration.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Based on the experience of the latest Africa Express series, TVE now plans to build on its achievements. In May 1996, it exhibited the series to the directors of African television stations at a conference in Windhoek, Namibia, and discussed arrangements for distribution of the cassettes. It is also planning to  participate in a workshop for French speaking West African nations in Senegal under a grant from the European Union's human rights division. The consultative process will continue with a meeting of the African video resource centre network at the end of 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TVE's Robert Lamb hopes that the success of Africa Express might encourage international funding agencies in Europe to take up the challenge of funding films made in Africa for African consumption. He doubts that Channel Four on its own would take such a risk. Constraints are, perhaps inevitably, imposed on TVE's concept by the fact that programmes produced for European audiences use a production and editorial structure that requires 'post production' in European capitals. 'Although we came out owning the rights to the programmes in Africa, Channel Four still had 80% of the control over the production and editorial decisions,' he acknowledges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert Lamb is fully aware of the challenges that lie ahead. 'National broadcasters are in a parlous financial position and are still, for the most part, stifled by government controls,' he notes. 'Africans who have received formal training rarely find the funds to apply their newly-acquired skills.' But Mr Lamb and his TVE organisation are convinced that there will be increasing demand for more programmes like Africa Express, as much from Africa itself as from European audiences. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.S. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Internet and the South</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Renaud de la Brosse</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, who works at the Panos Institute in Paris, reflects on the pros and cons of new information technology for countries in the South and on their chances of success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Internet has become such a craze amongst users in Third-World countries (researchers, teachers, businesses,, liberal professions, etc.) that it amply demonstrates that a real and genuine need is being met, despite adverse comments from its detractors. The rapid increase in the number of connections to the network in the North is mirrored by an exponential growth in the South. Africa is a good example of the possibilities offered by access to the global network whilst at the same time revealing the technical and financial restrictions facing countries in the South.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost all of Africa's 55 countries are today connected to the network, from South Africa, which has over 800.000 computers, to Uganda, which has just a few thousand. The importance of the Internet in Africa must be viewed less in terms of the number of computers (means of access to the Internet) and more in terms of the constant increase it represents in numbers of subscribers to the network. In the last six months alone, the number of subscribers increased by over 50%, whilst the increase in France, for example, was only 20%. Another telling figure is the number of host computers per 1.000 inhabitants, which rose by 147% in South Africa between 1994 and 1995 whereas the increase for Taiwan and Australia was 83% and 50%, respectively!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because it is under-supplied in communications equipment, Africa is starting out with a disadvantage compared with other continents. However, the recent G7 Conference on Information and Development, which took place in mid-May in Midrand in South Africa, brought together 40 countries and 18 intergovernmental organizations and made it possible 'to build a bridge between developed countries and developing countries' so that the latter are not excluded from the world of new information technologies. The benefit to be gained from the Net for the Black Continent lies in the fact that African surfers are anxious to break free  from their scientific, cultural or economic isolation which comes not only from relationships between Africa and the rest of the world, but often from relationships between regions and countries on the African continent itself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Precursors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As in Europe and the United States, scientists and researchers in Africa are the first to have understood the importance of the Net and there are now - in French speaking Africa - networks such as the Intertropical Computer Network, which groups together approximately 3000 surfers in 11 countries. The importance of the Internet for these researchers is manifold; in most countries, the education system is in grave crisis, essentially because of diminishing budget resources which for years, on account of structural adjustment measures, have been melting away. This explains the absence of libraries or documentation centres. The Internet is therefore becoming a stopgap measure, offering access to all current scientific production and giving African researchers the chance to publicise and gain recognition for their work outside their own continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interesting experiments in North/South cooperation are also being set up, with the French-speaking Agency for Higher Education and Research currently establishing what it calls a 'virtual French-speaking campus', a kind of vast library to which affiliated universities will be connected. The project is also justified in economic terms since, through the medium of electronic mail (e-mail), which goes hand in hand with the Internet, exchanges of information will be cheaper than by fax, for example, which costs at least five times as much for the same amount of information transmitted. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside the academic community, heads of African businesses are also launching themselves into cyberspace, particularly in the case of several hundred of them who have grouped together within a West-African Business Network. Internet's financial viability in the South is dependent on membership of African businesses and multinational companies established in Africa. The cost of subscription is still beyond the means of private individuals and only 'institutional' subscribers are currently able to guarantee payment in the short term.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A useful tool</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the possibilities on offer remain to be explored, so the Internet can therefore be an important medium for promoting African culture - Niger has set up a Web via which it is possible to visit its archaeological sites and Benin has just set up a server dedicated to voodoo. In general terms, there is the challenge of mastering content, in other words the African suffers should not restrict themselves to a  passive use (sleeking information from the North) but should, on the contrary, move progressively as players providing content and information. For the countries of the South, it is a matter of mastering information and preserving their culture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The range of possibilities offered by the Net is limitless. Its development in Africa or in the South in general does, however, run up against a number of obstacles, including those of both a technical and financial nature. The importance of the Internet lies in being able to transmit greater quantities of information more cheaply than by using other communications techniques. However, the required technology is expensive and therein lies the principal difference between the North and the South.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The infrastructure which would permit rapid, longterm expansion of the Internet is nowhere near being installed in Africa, just as in the other developing countries. The continent is still under-equipped in terms of telephone lines; according to a survey by the BDT (Telecommunications Development Office), the number of main telephone lines per 100 inhabitants is less than 0.5 in sub-Saharan Africa, and in terms of equipment providing access to the Net (computer, modem, etc.). In real terms, this makes access to the network much more expensive for a user in the South than for one in the North. All these imported electronic goods are much more expensive than in the West, and this is without taking account of the additional cost, in most African countries, imposed by tariff barriers on IT goods, which are regarded with great suspicion by the authorities who perceive them as a potential danger more than as essential development tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fear is that the remote transmission of data might pose a threat to less than democratic regimes. Under the pretext of 'the control of information-based wealth', a State may decide to interfere with the 'consent' or even 'suppress' a site for producing and exchanging information deemed contrary to its interests. Once more, the question of freedom of expression arises in different terms in the South and North. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Panos Institute</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Panos Institute is a non-profit-making association set up in 1988. Together with its counterparts in London and Washington, the Paris Panos Institute founded Panos International The Institute's aim is to strengthen, particularly in Africa, local expression and information capabilities. Within the context of sustainable and  better-shared development, it aims to promote the emergence of a more democratic culture and of more democratic debate. To this end, the Panos Institute runs two main programmes in west Africa from Paris and its branch offices (Senegal, Mali, Chad and Ghana).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The programme to support pluralism in matters of information, which has four major objectives: - to expand and consolidate the legal, institutional and statutory framework of pluralist-type information - to increase professionalism in the media - to give institutional support to authors in west Africa who promote pluralism in information - to contribute to the production and circulation of more diversified and more qualified information on certain priority topics such as the environment, human rights, management and prevention of conflict, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The migration and cooperation programme seeks to enhance the value of the contribution made by citizens from Third World countries residing in the rich nations to development in their countries of origin. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union, UNESCO and the ACCT, American foundations (Ford, Rockefeller) or German foundations, and bilateral cooperation agreements (Denmark, Netherlands, Norway, Germany, France) support the actions of the Panos Institute. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The press in Africa as a tool in the democratic  process</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Florence Win&eacute;ry</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although radio is 'king of the media' in Africa, the press is increasingly becoming an active player in the democratic process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This has been seen particularly over the last six years in the French-speaking African states where a burgeoning of political parties has been matched by the appearance of an unusually large number of  newspapers. In these countries, the press still requires rudimentary political stability - in contrast to English-speaking countries, where it has a much longer tradition and can nowadays be generally regarded as the 'Fourth Estate'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria is a good illustration of this. One need only cite the press campaigns mounted there to protest against the Federation's membership of the Islamic Conference Organisation in 1986, and more recently, the support given to Moshood Abiola. The vitality of the Nigerian press is something that deserves to be emphasised. Despite a series of measures over the years aimed at suppressing it (not exclusively by the military authorities) it is still much in evidence. There are demonstrations to support it, and it has 'gone underground' at times, continuing to publish clandestinely. The journalists' struggle intensified in June 1993, when it was recommended that they should exercise 'discretion and self-regulation'. In spite of the problems, the Nigerian press endeavours to remain a source of pressure in Nigeria's political and social arena.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Returning to the French-speaking media, we see that the pace of expansion varies considerably from one country to another. In Benin, for example, current discussions are centred  strongly on opening up the country's airwaves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Is a private press a partisan press?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is debatable whether the private press is truly independent. In the political sphere, it is often highly partisan while 'economic' independence - in the sense of access to the materials needed to produce a newspaper - is not always possible. Printing and distribution are often subject to monopolies which may constitute a form of disguised censorship for the publishers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initiatives aimed at setting up press associations in one form or another have been launched in an attempt to overcome these problems. This helps explain why the SEP (publishers' Society) was established. This group, which hopes to extend its activities throughout the region, is based in Benin where the democratisation process (and the proliferation of press titles) first begun. In many countries, media associations have already been formed covering specific areas such as radio, the press and publishing. There are plans for similar organisations in the field of television. Sometimes, they have printing facilities which are available to other private publications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The principal challenge facing a general information-based newspaper is that it should appear regularly and on time. The next stage, ideally, is for it to be able to increase its distribution. Initially, a number of newspapers only came out monthly or even every two months. After appearing regularly for several months - and thereby achieving  relative financial stability - they then moved to weekly publication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most countries, a new legal framework was also adopted, although the application of the legislation has often proved laborious. This is particularly true of the setting up of regulatory authorities. In Senegal, where the media was previously governed by a law passed in 1979 (and amended in 1986), new legislation was enacted at the beginning of 1996. The measure was prompted by concerns over ethical standards, a demand for a more 'responsible' approach, a desire to prevent monopolies developing, and fears of excessive foreign involvement. This year has also seen the implementation of media law amendments in Cote d'lvoire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The focus of the work of many newly-formed organisations has been the drawing up of a professional code of ethics, with a view to defining the basis of the journalist's profession. In Cote d'lvoire, the OLPED (Press Freedom and Professional Ethics Monitor) was created in September 1995 in Yamoussoukro at a seminar on journalists' responsibilities during elections. The OLPED is made up of 13 members representing publishers, civil society and the nation's journalists. Although the 'Monitor' has only moral authority, it has had considerable influence on journalists' professional consciences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The OLPED held weekly working sessions up to March 1996 and now meets every two months. One of its main achievements has been to define the criteria whereby a responsible attitude can be guaranteed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vigilance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The press can expect to be subject to rigorous supervision during an election campaign - as happened recently in Benin. Indeed, Benin's press has attracted special attention from various national institutions including, most notably, the NGO community. This interest resulted In the organisation of seminars on journalism during an election period, designed to avoid incitements to violence. The HAAC (Audi  ovisual and Communications High Authority), responsible for statutory control of the media in the run-up to and during the campaign, took part in these meetings which were aimed at increasing awareness and highlighting the heavy responsibility carried by the media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite a number of incidents during the campaign (which were immediately reported) and although the situation threatened to get out of hand while the country was obliged to wait for the publication of the results of the second round, the press conducted itself in a fairly moderate manner. It should be recalled that there was a great deal of apprehension in Benin before the results were announced with a widespread fear that violence might break out. These fears were given extensive coverage by the media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The HAAC proved to be central to the electoral process and, ultimately, the press was congratulated by most political leaders in Benin, and by those from abroad who were involved in organising and observing the poll, for the role that it played in the process. By and large, it concentrated on portraying popular expectations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During an election period, the print media is an essential vehicle of opinion and power, justifying the creation of special titles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, the private press is playing an increasingly important role in the democratic process and the question of its survival appears to have attracted more serious attention from the authorities. In Senegal, a subsidy has been granted to a number of newspapers, subject to certain conditions, and Mali set an example this year by establishing a private press aid fund, with Cote d'lvoire about to follow suit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The political context which has favoured this flourishing of the private press has had a marked influence on the way it has developed and on the editorial content of most journals - which is strongly focused on politics and 'national' issues. The press has barely had a chance to find its feet on the media scene and in the political process, and it has had to contend with huge  economic constraints. Low circulation figures are one key reason for its precarious position - newspapers are read only by an educated, urban minority. However, the press is now embarking on a new course, attempting to establish a loyal readership with a view to guaranteeing its long-term survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Independence and integrity ought, of course, to be the hallmark of journalism, although currently it is not  possible to say that the profession is dissociated entirely from political militancy. In the past, the press has played  a part in undermining the national consensus by promoting division and, on occasion, fomenting exclusion and confrontation. The issue today is whether the sector can now take its place in states governed by the rule of law, representing public opinion and helping to bring about a rapprochement of ideas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.M. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Benin's press on parole?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Richard Lawson T&egrave;vi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When President Mathieu K&eacute;rekou of Benin granted permission to set up private newspapers in his country, the result was an upsurge of new titles. The following article is written by a journalist who works on  one of these publications ('Tam-Tam Express'). He offers an assessment of the way the private press has developed in Benin, and in particular of the ethical and economic challenges it needs to overcome in the new democratic order.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1988, President K&eacute;r&eacute;kou's revolutionary regime authorised the setting-up of private newspapers in Benin. At the beginning, only a limited degree of freedom was granted to new publications but things have evolved quickly. 'La Gazette du Golfe' and 'Tam-Tam Express', the first independent weeklies to be set up (two years prior to the 1990 national conference), went beyond what the Marxist regime had in mind and effectively achieved press freedom in the face of opposition from the Ministry of Information and Propaganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalists took advantage of their initial limited freedom to publish reports about political and financial scandals and this, not surprisingly, gave a new lease of life to the media more generally in Benin. In particular, journalists from the national radio and television  channels were quick to switch their style of reporting, dispensing with the stereotyped formal language which had previously characterised the public-service media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meanwhile, several politically oriented publications came into being ('L'Opinion', 'La Recade', 'Le Canard du Golfe'). This development gave newfound dynamism to the emergence of a free and independent press in the crucial period prior to Benin's national conference, which was held in February 1990.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To date, 170 titles have been registered with the Ministry of the Interior, although barely half of these have been published more than five times. Some appeared only once and many have existed in name only. Publications which have had only a sporadic existence are legion and, in the years between 1991 and 1996, when political power alternated between Presidents Soglo and Kerekou, independent privatepress titles flourished. Unfortunately, they faced a number of problems - such as prohibitive paper and printing costs and poor distribution networks. The result was that many operators were financially ruined as a result of their decision to venture into this area of publication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currently, the Benin market has only 20 or so titles which appear on a   reasonably regular basis. For the most part, these are two-weekly and monthly publications which concentrate their activities in Cotonou. The audiovisual media are conspicuous by their absence, despite the provisions of the Constitution adopted in December 1990, which gave special powers to the HAAC (Audiovisual and Communications High Authority), particularly as regards guaranteeing 'press freedom' and 'opening up the audiovisual sector'. No one knows when this law will actually be implemented, but it does appear that the Benin Parliament, which sits in Porto Novo, has been giving more attention to this issue since General K&eacute;r&eacute;kou's accession to power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The relationship between the press and the state</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governmen/press relationships are not particularly healthy at the moment. The usual reflex of authorities in any country is to control or manipulate the press wherever possible. At the ORTB (Benin Broadcasting and Television Office), a branch of the public sector, journalists often complain of the pressures they face in processing information. The same is said at the national daily, 'La Nation'. Fortunately, such pressures have not always shaken the resolve of the professional journalists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The private press has a different problem. In this case, it is the newspaper proprietors who look to collaborate with the political parties. As one publishing editor has said, 'Our problem is more one of allegiance than of harassment'. Virtually all publications are political vehicles for one or other group - which makes nonsense of the code of ethics that is supposed to govern the profession. This phenomenon was most marked during the election period. All the titles that had been in 'hibernation' came to life again and new titles were born, only to disappear once the poll was over. This is also a reflection of the very meagre resources available to most private publishers. Those who do have sufficient means are usually quick to offer allegiance - for example to particular businesses - in order to position themselves more favourably from an economic  standpoint. Thus, some of the press rather overtly promotes particular economic interests. Others assiduously woo politicians and, in some cases, use blatant blackmailing techniques. In the latter situation, the 'market' operates on the basis that a file (sometimes assembled from a number of documents) will not be published if an endorsement is given or - what is worse - in return for hard cash. The justification for this shameful practice is that the market is highly restricted, sales of newspapers bring in very little income and advertising is non-existent but the newspaper has to keep going nonetheless. This situation also explains why defamation actions are frequently settled 'out of court' by the parties to the dispute.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A profession fraught with difficulties</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another explanation for the existence of blackmail is the lack of training. The majority of journalists working for private publications come into the profession for want of something better to do, after they have finished their university courses. One experienced journalist refers to these people as mere 'hirelings'. It is only once they have entered the profession that they learn the basics through joining journalists' associations and by receiving support from some of the bilateral-cooperation missions and foundations that are operating in Benin. The country does not, itself, have any colleges of journalism to speak of. Only recently, the national daily newspaper inaugurated a course for young journalists receiving their training on the country's various publications. This course will be spread over one year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young journalists working at the national agency, the Benin Press Agency, are trained by WANAD (the West-African National Agencies Development) centre, under the auspices of UNESCO, which is subregional in vocation. The 20 or so trainees have no clear idea of what awaits them when they finish their course - whether all, or just some of them, will be taken on full-time by the agency. Those who are not kept on at the end of their training period are likely to  swell the ranks of the 'hirelings' - who seem fated to remain at that level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new administration will have to tackle the more general question of aid to the press in order to give a fresh boost to the private sector. This has been facing a real struggle since the devaluation of the CFA franc. The effect of the devaluation was to increase the cost of all the inputs needed for publishing newspapers. A new initiative of the part of the authorities would make it possible to offer more work to journalists and to improve considerably the quality of work they produce. To quote the publisher of a private newspaper: 'The influence of money must be curbed. To do this, the state must grant genuine aid to the press so that the profession can be genuinely free and objective and thereby fulfil the important role it has to play in the consolidation of democracy'. R.L.T. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Current media in the English-speaking Caribbean</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Dr Marjan de Bruin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this abridged article, who leaches et the Caribbean institute of Media and Communication (CARIMAC) at the Mona (Jamaica) Campus of the University of the West Indies, focuses on some of the peculiarities of press and media development in small island Caribbean states.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The English-speaking</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean comprises thirteen independent nations that are members of Caricom (the Caribbean Community) and a few  remaining small dependent territories. The total population is about six million. In most of these countries, the majority of the population is of African descent although in Trinidad and Guyana, about half the people are of Asian (Indian) origin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sea, whose name unites the islands, is a serious barrier to communication and social interchange between them. it takes as long to go by plane from Barbados to Jamaica (1200 miles direct, but 2000 miles via Miami) as it takes to cross the Atlantic from Paris to New York (3600 miles) - and the latter journey is usually cheaper! And until fairly recently, telephone calls from neighbouring Caribbean countries without a common language were routed through London, Paris or Miami.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The distances make communications difficult. Mail can take weeks, telephone circuits are often overloaded and, in some countries, unscheduled power cuts often disrupt computer systems at the most inopportune moments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Communication and the media</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Caribbean has a strong oral tradition. This, together with poverty and an estimated general literacy rate of about 80%, makes radio the most popular medium. Recent studies show,  for instance, that 99% of Jamaican households reported having at least one radio at home. In Jamaica alone, three large national radio stations between them broadcast nine hours of prime time call-in radio.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In all Caribbean countries, alongside the mass media, 'alternative' medias play an important role in communication for social change. In some countries, the term simply connotes non mainstream operations. In others it refers to alternative formats which are found in the mainstream media. The term also represents the use of other communication behaviour - popular theatre, dance, music, oral history, story telling. It has been suggested that the increased use of alternative media and alternative uses of mainstream media are an indication of the audience's dissatisfaction with the mainstream mass media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most English-speaking Caribbean countries, the government owns some of the major mass media, especially electronic. Only recently has the private sector developed its own strongholds in radio and television. Print has always been an area of mainly private ownership. Only the larger countries have daily newspapers; morning or evening papers - although usually not more than two or three. In the smaller countries the press consists of weeklies, or bi-weeklies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government ownership</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ownership or control of media houses by governments is recognised as  a serious obstacle to true investigative journalism.The economies of all Caribbean countries are heavily dependent on tourism. Stories on environmental hazards and crises which might affect this essential source of income are subject to explicit or implicit (selfl censorship.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government ownership in some instances means policy discontinuity over time; each new regime imports its own set of administrators and sometimes even entire newsroom staffs. In other instances, where the same party has ruled for a long time, positions within the media are very stable because they are tied to political loyalty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Private ownership, however, does not mean an absence of potential pressure or political influences. In Trinidad &amp; Tobago, the country's oldest daily - The Trinidad Guardian - recently lost its Managing Director, its editor and six of its top editorial executives, after the owners - a supermarket chain - pressurised the editor to moderate criticisms of the country's new administration. The owners also tried to convince the managing director and editor to dismiss a columnist who was a disaffected and now hostile former member of the new ruling party. In apparent justification, the owners produced a document which suggested that it was the policy of the Guardian not to endanger the commercial prospects of its owners by injudicious criticism of the powers that be. Caribbean journalists attacked the Guardian ownership for what some saw as an attempt to turn a respected newspaper into the public relations arm of a commercial congLom&eacute;rate. Despite the protests, the Guardian's new editor, a veteran of forty years in journalism, argued that the proprietors had good reason to interfere with his predecessors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The region's oldest daily, The Jamaica Gleaner (established in 1834) went even further. In an editorial it said: 'In our view the owners have a right to oppose the way in which the judgment of the Editor and others is exercised. The right of the Guardian Board to query content cannot be questioned. It is impossible for a newspaper to be run   without the input of the Board of Governors.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small markets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most English-speaking Caribbean countries are relatively small in population as well as area. The number of media organizations is limited. The limited size of the market has important implications for the financial basis of the media, especially the part that is privately-owned. It limits the horizontal mobility of media workers - there are simply not that many options - and it makes the relationship between media and sources extremely vulnerable. There are not that many sources either. It also means that most Caribbean media houses have very limited resources. Many reporters have to cover a wide range of topics. Specialised reporting for instance on the environment, or health, is usually not feasible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the major problems in the Caribbean media is the high proportion of imported television programming. The region is geographically close to the United States and satellite broad  casting makes access to the Northern networks even easier. In the ten years from 1976 to 1986, the imported content of four large television stations in the region moved from an average of 78.5% to 87%. When the amount of imported content carried by the smaller stations was included, the average increased to 90% of all material televised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Privatisation and new technologies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several of the larger Caribbean countries have seen an explosive growth in the electronic media. Jamaica, which has a population of about 2.5 million living in some 620 000 households, and per capita GDP of $1563, has seen the number of radio stations grow from three to nine and TV stations from one two, in a period of just five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trinidad &amp; Tobago, with 1.2 million inhabitants in 300 000 households, and per capita GDP of $4049, went through a similar process, with seven new radio stations and two new, privately-owned TV stations being set up over the last five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbados, with a population of 260000 living in about 50000 households has long supported two daily newspapers. There are also two TV stations on the island, while viewers can receive television signals from neighbouring islands. This country has the highest per capita GDP in the region ($5562) after The Bahamas ($10,308).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One positive effect of this intensive growth is certainly to be found in the increased employment opportunities for broadcasters. In the past, journalists risked their careers if they disagreed with their employers. Now people have more options. However, increased competition in a relatively small market also enlarges the risk of commercialisation and a lowering of standards. One does not need to undertake in-depth research to discover that locally-produced television is scarce and not always of the highest standard. It is cheaper to buy foreign programming than to produce original content. Some   of the graduates of the Caribbean Institute of Media and Communication, who performed above average during their training and education in print journalism, can be seen sliding down the standards scale once they enter the mass media as working journalists. Similarly, the standards of newsrooms are not always high. In fairness to the professionals, it must be said that the decline in standards is partly due to the lack of resources in editorial departments. The major newsrooms in radio and television in Jamaica, still depend on typewriters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development of new technologies has contributed to two almost opposite movements. On the one hand, greater access to worldwide networks has widened horizons. On the other, the introduction of cable TV offers, at least in principle, the possibility for small-scale communication initiatives, such as community radio stations either for geographical communities or communities of interest (for example, people or groups interested in the environment).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Satellite dishes, VCRs and computers are breaking down traditional communication borders. In the Jamaican capital, Kingston, 28% of households have a dish and 21% a computer. The picture is very different just 20 miles away, in the neighbouring but rural parish of St Thomas, where the figures are just 1% and 2% respectively. New technologies are affordable for the happy few and are increasing the gap between the 'haves' and 'have-nots' of information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In all of these societies, computers sit uneasily in otherwise nondigital environments. The information that one works with is usually not computerised. Many records are still handwritten, with data kept on index cards. Computerisation is a costly process for which there is rarely a budget.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the hardware is available, it is easy to retrieve data from non Caribbean sources. At the same time, it is barely possible - at least at the moment - to tap into Caribbean data sources. There is no commercial Caribbean software. Page make-up and layout programmes, for instance, rely on  non-Caribbean electronic clip-art-images and symbols. It may simply be a matter of time before local products develop, but currently, the main constraints are to do with lack of funds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalism</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How is journalism faring in this environment ? The Caribbean context gives journalism a special professional profile. The small size of Caribbean societies has implications for the use of sources. Access is easier, but it also creates sharper dilemmas where loyalty is concerned: most sources are people you know personally and who know you. Anonymity is almost impossible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because the societies are so small, you will meet many of the same people in different roles on different occasions. The small scale of the market makes all enterprises in media and journalism very vulnerable to market forces: the withdrawal of one or two major advertisers would endanger the chances of survival of some media houses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The situation of the press is most marginal in the smaller countries. In Antigua (population 66000), radio and television are controlled either by the Government or by people with close links to those in power. One opposition paper, a trade union publication, has survived several legal assaults by the authorities over the years. The other, little more than a newsletter, has managed to survive into its second year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Grenada (population 91000), journalists complain about police harassment of reporters on duty, and in most of the smaller countries, journalists are uneasily aware of the continuing hostility of long-ruling political parties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The working environment of journalists in Caribbean media organisations is usually more modest compared to that of journalists in rich countries. There is less technology, smaller staffs and lower salaries. In the smaller Caribbean countries, it is not unusual for journalists to have to combine two jobs. Journalism alone cannot pay the bills.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a sharp difference between rich and poor in most developing countries. For large sections of the population, the big decisions will have nothing to do with buying a second or a third television set.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is more likely to be a simple matter of whether there is food on the table tonight. These different priorities obviously influence a journalist's agenda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In developing economies, this can create serious dilemmas for the journalists: if you know your story is likely to hurt the tourist industry - which happens to be the main national income earner of your country - will pursuing it be a waste of valuable time ? And how do you decide on the relevance of a scoop when people - some of whom are your friends - could lose their jobs ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.d.B.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Sources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hilary Brown (1995): American Media Impact on Jamaican Youth: The Cultural Dependency Thesis in 'Globalization, Communications and Caribbean identity', Edited by Hopeton S. Dunn, Kingston, Jamaica, lan Randle Publishers. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aggrey Brown and Roderick Sanatan !1987). Talking With Whom ? A Report a the State of the Media in the Caribbean. Caribbean Institute of Media and Communication (Carimac), Kingston, Jamaica. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aggrey Brown (1995). Caribbean Cultures and Mass Communication Technology: Re-examining the Cultural/ Dependency Thesis, in 'Globalization, Communications and Caribbean Identity'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Doctoring' the image</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With modern computer technology, it is now very easy for publishers (and film-makers) to dabble with reality. Whereas in the past, you could be reasonably sure that what you saw was a fair representation of what actually happened, today there is no such guarantee.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recently in the United Kingdom, one of the country's regional newspapers came in for criticism when it published a 'doctored' photograph of a well-known opposition politician. He was captured on  film at a social function sitting at a table with a glass of beer in front of him. By the time the paper's computer experts had finished with the photo, it looked as if he was drinking champagne ! When the story broke, the journal thought it expedient to issue an immediate apology. For while  this kind of misrepresentation may appear trivial, in the modern age, image is crucial for those who are involved in public life. Put simply, voters' are more likely to look kindly on beer-drinking politicians than on those whose favourite tipple is champagne.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was a similar case involving an advertisement issued by a well-known car manufacturer. For their publicity in Britain, the company used a landscape photo portraying a selection of their employees. In Poland, the same picture was used but black and Asian workers were no longer to be seen. Their places in the line-up were miraculously taken by people of Caucasian appearance. The advertisers' rather surprising explanation was that this had been a 'mistake'!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other recent victims of 'doctored' pictures or socalled 'photo collages' have included members of the European Parliament and a senior EC official, although these particular misrepresentations received very little publicity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Should consumers of printed or broadcast material be entitled to assume that images are never tampered with ? And if some doctoring is acceptable, where do you draw the line ? The answer to the first question is clearly no. There are certain situations where photo or film enhancement techniques are unobjectionable. We sometimes use them on The Courier cover pages to remove blemishes or fill in gaps which may detract from the main image. In fashion  advertising, it is common for the 'look' of the model to be altered. The aim here is to draw the reader's eye to the page so that their attention can then be focused on the product. More dramatic alterations may even be acceptable if it is evident to the reader that a change has been made. Satirical articles, for example, can sometimes be amusingly illustrated with obviously altered images.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where the practice is reprehensible is where the picture has been changed in a way that leads the reader to draw false conclusions about what he or she is observing. The  classic example of this is where the image of a person captured in one setting is placed against a different backdrop, without the reader being informed. This may be done to give either a more positive or a more negative impression (the latter approach is more usual) but in either case, it is dishonest. If a politician allows himself to be photographed on a Caribbean beach while on mission at the taxpayers' expense, even if he was only there during the lunch break for a quick dip, then he can't really complain. But if the picture was actually taken when he was on holiday in Majorca, and superimposed against a more exotic back  ground, then both the 'victim' and the reader are being cheated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There will always be borderline cases, but in principle, it ought to be possible to draw a reasonably clear distinction between 'right' and 'wrong' in this area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nonetheless, it is likely that distorted images will continue to be presented to us in the future. In pluralist societies, newspapers and broadcasters operate in a fiercely competitive environment and in theory, this should provide a deterrent. If one media organisation is found to have doctored images in a dishonest way, there will always be plenty of others willing to expose the misbehaviour.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In practice, however, the only real deterrent is the likelihood of a drop in circulation, or lower viewing figures. And while consumers may say they disapprove of journalistic dishonesty (whether in photographs or the written word), there is little evidence to suggest that they react by taking their custom elsewhere. Indeed, in some developed countries, the closer a journal sails to the wind, the more likely it is to enjoy a high circulation!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It used to be said that 'the camera never lies'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nowadays, we can't be so certain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Analysis</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Broadening the debate</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In issue 156 of The Courier, we announced the launch of a programme by the European Centre for Development Policy Management on the future of KU-ACP relations beyond Lom&eacute; IV. Here, we publish an abridged text supplied by the ECDPM reporting on progress.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After 20 years, the Lom&eacute; Convention is thought by some not to have lived up to expectations and now that East West rivalry is no longer an issue, many doubt its continued relevance. Questioning, as such, is no bad thing, provided it takes place in a fair and unbiased manner and is not used as a pretext to abandon the acquis  of more than 20 years of cooperation. This is the rationale behind a number of private and official initiatives to redefine KU-ACP cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Consultations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ECDPM's post-tome IV exercise has now been up and running for more than a year. Consultations have been held in more than 20 ACP countries, involving representatives from the private and non-governmental sectors, officials in the National Authorising Offices, EC delegations, regional organisations and research centres. A number of strong impressions have emerged from these interviews. In the first place, the initial comment of many NGOs and private sector representativ  was essentially 'what is in it for us ?'. This points to a lack of knowledge of the Convention in non-governmental circles and suggests that this complicated instrument is not entirely 'user-friendly'. Its government to government character was also criticised. There were calls for ACP-KU relations to be opened up to the private sector and civil society. In this context, experience with decentralised cooperation was seen as encouraging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, the benefits of the Lom&eacute; trade provisions were highlighted with fears being expressed about what would happen after the year 2000. It was felt that at a time when many ACPs  are undergoing structural adjustment, and the private sector is getting its act together, a clearer European commitment in this area would benefit both sides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Various actors from the private, NGO and research communities indicated a willingness to engage in debate on redefining mutual ACP-KU interests and on the design of a new cooperation contract. Some of them had an opportunity to present their views at an ECDPM conference on the future of KU-ACP relations held on 12-14 June.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear that the process of reflection is now firmly under way. At the institutional level, the Joint Assembly began as far back as February 1995, when it launched an action plan to revitalise KU-ACP cooperation. This year, it asked Senator Jean-Louis Firmin of Haiti to draw up a report on the future of the Lom&eacute; Convention. It also requested the Social Partners to tackle the issue at their next annual meeting in November 1996. On the European side, the Commission will present a Green Paper later this year while the ACPs are also studying the question. Last November, the ACP Council resolved that Heads of State should meet before the end of 1997 to agree on a joint position.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Obstacles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this activity suggests a real awareness of what is at stake. Many obstacles have to be overcome, however, if a new type of partnership is to emerge. The main pillars of Europe's commitment to the ACP countries - aid and trade - both appear under threat. It will be necessary to redefine mutual interests - beyond the negative interdependencies - so that they can serve as a basis for a more modern and effective partnership. Greater creativity  will also be required to find new forms of EU support on ACP trade issues that are compatible with World Trade Organisation obligations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An in-depth rethink of ACP-KU cooperation will significantly benefit from inputs by actors traditionally excluded from the discussions - who are anxious to participate in redefining cooperation ties. For instance, in Namibia, NGOs called for formal consultation mechanisms for non-governmental actors. Similarly, economic operators meeting in Trinidad in November called for a new Europe-Caribbean partnership. There should also be a role for applied research conducted in ACP centres. There is already a joint research project on the future of West Africa Europe relations and similar initiatives are being formulated elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The plea for a debate that is open to the key ACP actors should be taken on board by decision-makers and negotiators - and thus far, they have proved receptive. However, two conditions are needed to maintain this fruitful exchange. First, ACP stakeholders need to be able to base their views on full knowledge of the facts and issues. It is essential that the Convention's authors make a major effort to provide more and better information. The ECDPM is willing to play a part in this. Initiatives already under way include the development of EUFORIC - a Forum on the Internet for specialised information on European development cooperation - and the preparation of practical guides to the Lom&eacute; Convention. Enhanced access to information can help all partners move towards a real dialogue. Second, forms and channels for dialogue. need to be devised to ensure that an open debate is sustained beyond the initial reflections taking place within the EU and ACP groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ECDPM</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Re-compromising' development aid for the future</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Jos Jonckers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this article offers an academy critique of *e challenges facing the global system of development cooperation in the post-cold War era. He argues that the old compromises that have shaped development assistance since the Second World War have broken down and pleads for a radical re-think of the strategy in order to 'enable' fess affluent societies to gain from the advent of global 'free market democracy'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let us face it. International development early 50 years, the developed world has taken aid for granted. It no longer does. In real terms, it has started to give less. The expected 'peace dividend' has not materialised and scepticism is rising. Aid and solidarity are considered old-fashioned concepts. Progress and development, it is increasingly argued, must come from cooperation based on mutual interest and a businesslike approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid scepticism is at its highest in the USA. A conservative majority in Congress promotes radical 'winner' recipes and aid has been slashed. Slowly but surely, America is getting out of the development business. Lacking domestic support, the Clinton administration seeks to 'rescue' the country's aid programme by seeking more cooperation with other donors - particularly the KU, whose solidarity horizons do not yet stop at its own borders. But even here, horizons are shrinking. European aid to its immediate neighbours in the East and the southern Mediterranean basin has risen. Happy and prosperous neighbours suddenly seem more important than distant friends in need.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Has the end of the cold war marked the beginning of a cold world - where international solidarity is being dismantled together with the nuclear warheads ? Or could we be experiencing the beginning of a fundamental reshaping of international solidarity and aid between nations?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond altruism - self interest</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International aid has always involved a compromise within affluent society. People and nations are not normally disposed to give something away unless they receive something in return. Any attempt at understanding and reshaping the future of development aid must therefore start from the premise that those providing development aid do so as a result of a complex and evolving compromise between altruism and self-interest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Affluent countries are usually only interested in assisting poorer ones when the effect is to strengthen their international leadership, and in some way to enhance their security and material wellbeing. Looked at in this context, we must recognise that development aid, whatever its altruistic aims, will only exist if it also serves the legitimate, albeit more selfish agenda of the donor. It also means that the compromise which gives aid its rationale in affluent society changes over time: aid is regularly 'recompromised'. In secure and prosperous times, donors are  more inclined to forego self-interest and to cooperate in the interest of less affluent countries. In times of insecurity, the altruistic dimension is likely to diminish in importance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In colonial times, systematic aid flows first emerged as a result of a compromise between expansionist Northern governments and Christian society with its own 'colonizing' clergy. Decolonisation had the effect of increasing insecurity in most former colonial powers. In an attempt to safeguard the capital they had 'invested' in their overseas territories, following the latter's independence, they increasingly shaped aid with a view to 'buying' goodwill from the new rulers. This process, which 'recompromised' aid from a colonial into a neocolonial form, resulted in the secular, institutionalised arrangement now known as 'bilateral aid'. In addition, during the Cold War, Western aid was used increasingly as a device to stop the Third World joining the Second World (the communist bloc). The result was an aid system which was both more internationalised and more politicised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The next stage came with the end of the Cold War. Communism had joined colonialism and fascism in the dustbin of history. Affluent Western society had emerged as the winner. With it came the Western vision for stability, peace and progress: a world of sovereign nations, organised on the basis of democratic and capitalist market principles and committed to respect for each other's territory and for basic human rights. Today, capitalism has become the norm in most nation states. Long-time sceptics such as India, and even convinced opponents such as China and Vietnam, have embraced it. Democracy has not yet achieved the same coverage, but it is sailing forward under favourable conditions. Political pluralism is steadily being consolidated in much of East and Central Europe, while dictatorial regimes in Africa, Asia and Latin America are now the exception.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The effect of all of this has been a speedy erosion of the terms of the compromise on which development aid thrived for so long. In a rapidly globalis  ing,multi-polar world, the old approaches appear increasingly redundant. From this perspective, the current aid crisis is not surprising and is not necesarily a bad thing. Western affluent society is essentially trying to come to terms with the demystification of its development aid, as part of a process of reshaping it for the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three 'recompromising' strategies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As in the past, the recompromising process is influenced by both self-interest and altruism in affluent society. Three trends can be identified.. The first, which is the most idealistic, involves restoring altruism. This approach seeks to 'purge' aid of the perverse political and economic compromises and contradictions caused by decades of neocolonial and Cold-War self-interest. It has impacted on aid in several ways. First, it has given a significant boost to humanitarian aid - the most altruistic form - at the expense of development assistance. Second, it has led to a 'decentralisation' of aid - with more assistance being channelled through organisations such as NGOs, that have an 'uncompromised' altruistic profile. Third, it has led to a 'deconstruction' of development aid along idealistic-altruistic lines. 'Women in development', 'child health', 'environment'and 'poverty alleviation' are all examples of deconstructed labels around which aid is increasingly being structured and justified. Finally, it has prompted an 'intellectualisation' of development aid with the particular purpose of tightening its altruistic aims. For example, the Logical Framework Approach, the concept of 'sustainable development', the UNDP's Human Development Index and various experiments with more 'accountable' project management systems, have all essentially been devised as ways of encapsulating and supporting the altruistic intentions that lie behind aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second recompromising strategy, which may be summed up in the expression be businesslike, approaches development cooperation  much more skeptically. Aid, it is argued, only makes sense if it leads to real progress and development - and the prevailing view is that this is not happening. The approach is fueled by the obsession of trying to measure progress with the help of business tools such as 'output', 'impact', 'efficiency', 'rates of return' and so on. This has led to burgeoning aid 'evaluation'. It has also probably contributed to the discovery of aid failures which, in turn, has prompted growing criticism of aid agencies and operators. The businesslike strategy has gained further ground because of the failure of many countries to achieve any real progress in recent decades. Its advocates argue that the compromises which undermined aid's development impact in the past are inherently linked with its altruistic nature. The conclusion is that altruistic aid will seldom or never work. The strategy has impacted on aid in a number of ways being, for example, the major cause of so-called 'aid fatigue'. It has also prompted a search for ways to enhance cooperation for mutual benefit, indeed transforming the narrow, pre Cold War trade cooperation link with developing countries into a much broader and rapidly growing economic cooperation approach. Finally, it has sought to enhance aid's impact on the economic conditions and growth prospects of developing countries through more ambitious, structural-oriented forms of aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regionalism, the third major strategy, is linked to globalisation. Rooted in human survival psychology, this approach prompts nations in close proximity to form 'strategic' coalitions. In the post-Cold War era, development aid is one of the instruments used by affluent regions to strengthen their position in a 'globalising' environment. The strategy entails promoting 'open' regionalism elsewhere in the world and capitalising on this to create linkages and interactions which enhance their own influence or hegemony. From the point of view of the international political economy, this makes perfect sense. Having succeeded in making the 'world of nations' accept capitalism and democracy, it is through the consolidation   process of free market democracy in other countries and regions that powerful affluent nations will seek to gain maximum advantage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Need for a vision</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With this improved insight into the dynamics that have been reshaping development aid, is it now possible to go further and develop a more political vision of relations between affluent and less affluent nations in future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free market democracy, having endured the 'crises' of decolonisation, fascism and communism, has succeeded in promoting stability and peace within and between nations. Its main strength has probably been its crucial enabling function, with an increasing number of people and nations now in a position to 'earn' a better future. It appears that the model has the capacity to generate fairly equitable growth and progress, which is presumably why more and more countries are turning to it. As is so often the case, however, the strength of the system also contains the seeds of its weakness. Conceived as an 'enabling' mechanism, it results in the categorisation of those who fail to 'be enabled' as 'unable'. Marginalised because they cannot participate and perform in the   system, the excluded (whether individuals or states) are dubbed 'losers'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are seen as a burden and a threat by the 'winners'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The result is disparity in society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experience in most affluent nations suggests that despite the enabling environment created by free market democracy, up to a quarter of the population finds itself unable to perform effectively, and is marginalised as a result. Moreover, there seems to be an upward trend in the numbers affected by unemployment, underemployment and poverty. Disparity never occurs without some cost to society, which is a good reason why it ought to be minimised. The costs come mainly in the form of internal transfers earned (but foregone) by the active, 'winning' section of society. In more sociallyinspired, free market democracies, it is accepted that marginalisation resulting from the model's shortcomings must be minimised and/or adequately compensated for. In more conservative free market democracies, exclusion is seen more as a weakness of individuals than of the system. Compensatory transfers are generally kept to a minimum to induce people to 'break out' of their situation. But while such societies may save on 'empathetic' transfers, they will generally need to spend much more of their wealth defending against threats posed by growing disparity, such as crime, drug-trafficking and political extremism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The costs of disparity are political as well as financial. Genuine democracy is based on the participation of a representative majority of citizens. In affluent societies, however, a growing minority no longer participates. The real danger stems from the fact that this is highly skewed. It is the same, growing, marginalised minority that is 'unable' to participate which is also withdrawing from democratic involvement. The result is alienation from the political system and an erosion of democracy to the extent that its very survival may be threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is really at stake </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having conquered most of the world's nations, free market capitalism is now set to conquer the world of nations, helped by technological advances in communications, transport and computer technology. Economists have amply shown that the interdependence resulting from free international competition need not be detrimental. Indeed, because global capitalism ensures that ideas, initiatives and resources can be 'put to work' anywhere in the world - wherever they generate most profit - interdependence is usually seen as mutually beneficial. In essence, it confirms what might be called the global enabling effect of free-market capitalism. The basic thesis is that the adoption by less affluent nations of free market democracy should 'enable' many more of them to improve the lives of their people in the coming decades. The boost engendered by this 'enabling effect' will, in turn, help to sustain progress in the more affluent countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If this is the aim, then a new vision should progressively inspire future cooperation between the affluent and less affluent countries. The first concern should be to define 'purpose' and 'interest' much more in terms of system and process, than of output. What really matters is the 'enabling potential' of free market democracy in the specific context of the less affluent countries. How something is achieved and by whom should take precedence over what is achieved. The ultimate aim must be to ensure that free-market democracy 'takes root' in less affluent nations and is able to determine who does what and how.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A second major concern should be to maximise the 'enabling potential' of free market democracy for the most vulnerable sections of individual populations. As mentioned earlier, up to a quarter of the people in affluent societies are excluded. In poorer countries, the figure is much higher. If free market democracy fails to enable a significant proportion of this marginalised group, then it will not take root. And if the poor cannot be mobilised, the  growth that does occur will be highly skewed, leading to growing disparity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A third point is to ensure that the 'global enabling' effect of free market capitalism does not become the exclusive preserve of deregulated capital and the 'winners' who control it, leading to new forms of exploitation and disparity. The concern must be to find a way of directing the combined forces of 'capitalism without borders' and 'democracy within borders' in such a way that it leads to a genuinely better world in which the number of 'losers' is dropping and disparities are diminishing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A historic perspective</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is useful at this stage to take a look at the history of capitalism. Freemarket democracy delivered affluence to about a third of the global population over the last century mainly because of the 'accommodation' between labour and capital in an enabling environment created by 'Fordist' mass-production and consumption. A similar accommodation is now needed to enable global free market democracy to extend material wellbeing to the remaining two thirds of the (continually growing) world population, while at the same time sustaining it among the existing affluent third. It is no longer an accommodation between capitalists and workers that is required, however, but one between the affluent and the less affluent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fordism basically transformed the 'interdependent' stake of capital and labour in the economic pie, into a 'joint stake' - leading to the production of a larger pie. By analogy, what is needed today is to ensure that affluent and less affluent societies develop a joint stake in the production of a larger 'global pie' as a result of new technologies and more efficient, globalised modes of production. Attracting and sustaining capitalist investment in such modes will increasingly depend on demand and consumption structures which guarantee that poorer societies share with affluent ones the benefits of such global production systems. In the same way that a larger 'mess-produced pie' was dependent on higher and more   equitable mass consumption, so will a larger 'globally-produced pie' depend increasingly on higher and more equitable global consumption. In this context, the principal policy aim of development cooperation should be to ensure that growth resulting from globalisationis both enabling and disparity-reducing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The disabling effect of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'poor' competition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Driven by the powerful motive of capital accumulation, globalisation has the tendency to promote competition. In principle, this should be a good thing, but left unchanneled, it can have negative effects. One might draw an analogy between the conquering of the global market and the spread of water during a flood. The water always takes the easiest route, entering the most vulnerable areas first where it causes the most damage. Likewise, globalization, fueled by 'deregulated' capital, often tends to promote competition where it is easiest, but where it is not necessarily beneficial. This is the case, for example, in less affluent countries, where poverty is exploited to achieve what might be dubbed a 'poor' competitive advantage - in the sense that it is based on disparity, but also in that, far from 'enabling', it may actually have the opposite effect. Child labour, sex tourism, environmentally destructive tourism, tropical forms logging, the export of industrial pollution and misuse of intellectual property are all examples of 'disabling' competition resulting from global disparity. In a rapidly globalising world this is ultimately damaging to all concerned, which is why both affluent and less affluent nations have an interest in reducing the gap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All of this points to the need for a major redefinition of society's role in general and of aid in particular. During the colonial and Cold War periods, development cooperation was progressively uprooted and alienated from society. Serving an increasingly complex and non-transparent agenda, it became more and more a 'cockpit' affair, piloted by a small specialised crew - and it  found itself flying higher and higher above society. In short, affluent society lost touch with development cooperation and aid. Occasionally, the media intervened to 're-establish contact' but the result was that development aid usually only attracted mainstream public attention when things had gone terribly wrong.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning vision into action</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the aim is to have affluent and less affluent society working together to ensure that the latter adopts 'free market democracy'- and can adapt it in a way which benefits both - it is vital that the former be reconnected to the business of development cooperation. The affluent must be challenged to help transform their less affluent partners, in the interested and creative manner of a minority stakeholder. They must be ready to share the wealth of knowledge and experience generated in their own process of development. Representatives of all walks of affluent life should therefore be provided with greater opportunity for dialogue and cooperation with their less affluent counterparts. Increasingly easy and cheap communications and transport should facilitate this. This new form of stakeholdership will not happen, however, unless affluent society can be imbued with the new vision.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donors should actively support the process. Instead of spending most of their time and resources determining the scope and content of development cooperation, they should step down from their cockpit. Their new role should be as brokers and facilitators of cooperation. An initial priority must be to extol the vision itself. As this gathers momentum, they should then turn to 'brokering' it in practice - acting as a catalyst between the affluent and less affluent in order to facilitate 'enabling' cooperation between them. The development of an effective brokerage profile and methodology will probably entail important changes in the way that donors work. They need to move much closer to their  constituency, and to be made democratically accountable again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As mentioned earlier, the concept of enabling cooperation concentrates on who does what, and how. Essentially, therefore, it should be seeking to mobilise democratic and free market forces in less affluent societies. The advantage of working this way is that change and progress will be determined primarily from within the society in question - with cooperation as a source of encouragement. Such an approach also entails acceptance of the fact that the pace of progrms must be left much more to the enabling forces of the maturing democracies and free markets, however weak and imperfect these may still appear. Indeed, the central purpose of cooperation should be to help these fore" become stronger. To achieve this, cooperation will need to move away from an emphasis on engineering outputs to one which involves 'messaging' the system and process. And it is not just methodologies that need to be altered; there must also be a radical change in cooperation mentality. Thus, for example, donors should attempt to broker cooperation which is 'small but smart'. Advancing 'best practice' might be another creative way to pursue cooperation which is enabling. And while some output-related decision techniques can still be used, these must be creatively reshaped to support a more 'enabling' approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, this enabling vision entails an awareness of the imperfections of free-market democracy, combined with a conviction that it offers enormous potential for the less affluent countries of the world. 'Recompromising' development aid for the future will mean reshaping it to support a process of adoption and adaptation of free market democracy in less affluent countries which is highly 'enabling'. The result should be a system of international solidarity which is working for free-market democracy, rather than as a substitute for it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.J.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The effects of corruption on development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Dieter Frisch</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corruption - defined as 'the abuse of public power for personal ends' - has always existed. During recent decades, however, it has grown both in terms of geographic extent and intensity. Since the mid 1970s, it has infiltrated virtually every country in the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was hoped that the easing of political and economic restrictions that characterised the 1990s after the end of the Cold War would have gone some way to reducing this phenomenon. Through increased openness resulting from political pluralism and the freedom of the press, the process of democratisation should, under normal circumstances, mobilise efforts to overcome corruption. However, emergent democracies are still fragile and seem to find the task of tackling established self interests a formidable one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By reducing state intervention and therefore the opportunities for corruption, economic liberalisation should improve matters. In the short term, however, the opposite would appear to be true. Weakened state structures, a lack of appropriate legislation, powerlessness on the part of the judicial system to combat corruption, the pursuit of easy money - mistakenly perceived by some as being equivalent to a market economy - all these factors together contribute to aggravating the phenomenon, at least in the transitional stages. Such a state of affairs cannot fail to have some effect on those who are involved in and concerned by development issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Needless to say, corruption and its effects can be seen from a multitude of viewpoints. There is always the ethical angle - but how can we possibly presume to preach to countries of the South and East when bribery is just as rife in the North and when, as far as corruption within international economic relations is concerned, it is in fact, virtually by definition, the North who is the corrupter and the South and East who are the corrupted ? The only possible reply to such an argument - and one which is morally disputable even though economically valid - would be that the rich North can afford the luxury of wasting some of its wealth whereas in the case of developing countries, their sparse financial resources need to be used in the best way possible! Other lines of reasoning emphasise the distortions that corruption causes in the fair application of conditions of competition by penalising successful, yet honest, undertakings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major obstacle in the path of development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In my opinion, corruption should be approached from the point of view of the effects it has on development. I say this because long professional experience has taught me that corruption is one of the major obstacles to progress, and that its effects on development are disastrous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some people would no doubt counter this assertion with the 'cultural' argument whereby they would have us believe that, in certain cultures, corruption is quite normal and morally acceptable. Well I do not know of a single place on earth where growing rich through taking bribes is considered lawful or morally acceptable! I should like to quote Olusegun Obansanjo,  former President of Nigeria, on the subject: 'In the African concept of appreciation and hospitality, a gift is a token. It is not demanded. The value is in the spirit of the giving, not the material worth. The gift is made in the open for all to see, never in secret. Where the gift is excessive, it becomes an embarrassment, and is returned. If anything, corruption has perverted the positive aspects of this age-old tradition'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then there are the cynics - including renowned professors - who claim that corruption oils the wheels of progress and enables development to take place. In this respect again, and putting all ethical aspects aside, it would be worthwhile distinguishing between the small baksheesh which 'helps' certain administrative procedures along ('acceleration fees') and large-scale corruption which perverts the course of de  velopment. This does not of course mean that we should underestimate the destructive effects that even small-scale corruption can have on society!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet others have simply resigned themselves to the situation. For them, corruption is intrinsically linked to underdevelopment. As long as a person's normal income does not provide him with a decent living, the door will always be open to bribes. It is, therefore, through development that we should be attempting to eradicate corruption. Yet this argument is reminiscent of the debate on the population explosion. It is only through development, some say, that the problems of population growth will be resolved. But by then, the planet will be inexorably overpopulated! In my opinion, the same argument is just as valid as far as corruption is concerned. We simply cannot wait for it to be stamped out through development. (In any case, development is hardly a miracle cure: true, we have the examples of Singapore and Hong Kong where corruption is extremely uncommon, but we could also mention Italy, where it was precisely at the height of the country's development that corruption became the norm). We must act therefore, and without delay, focusing our efforts on eradicating large-scale corruption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If we analyse some of the effects that corruption has on development, the first thing we notice is that it increases the cost of goods and services, and not insignificantly either. Although a 5% reduction in the profit margin might, at a pinch, be absorbed by the supplier, corruption levels of 10% to 20%, which have become commonplace, will inevitably be reflected in the price and will, consequently, be paid for through the national or foreign (in the case of foreign aid) resources of a country. It is therefore the national economy that ultimately suffers the consequences of an unjustified surcharge on the goods or services, with the difference being pocketed by some government official or politician who has abused his power for his own personal gain. Given that such operations are generally financed by bank  loans or, in the case of foreign aid, by concessional loans, these surcharges inevitably bring about a proportionate increase in that country's debts. In fact it is now assumed that the exchange value of sums paid out in backhanders makes up a considerable proportion of the foreign debts of developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, the damaging effects of such practices do not stop there. The corrupt decision-maker may well be tempted to accept a substandard quality of service which will make his personal profit all the greater. Thus, with a road building project for example, complicity between government departments and contractors may result in corner-cutting with regard to agreed standards of quality so that the savings made may be shared out between the two parties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At their very worst, the disastrous effects of corruption mean that the conception of a project, and ultimately its very choice, are determined by corruption. As far as conception is concerned, a good example would be the purchase of a technology which is wholly unsuited to the particular needs of a country or the choice of a capital intensive project - more lucrative in terms of corruption - rather than a labour-intensive one which would nevertheless be far more beneficial to that nation's development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The absolute peak of perversion, however, is when the very choice of priorities - and therefore of projects - is determined by corruption. What we are referring to here are those situations in which the real development priorities of a country are neglected in favour of operations which generate the greatest personal gain for the decision-makers. At this point I would like to quote R&eacute;mi Godeau, writing in Jeune Afrique: 'These currency-guzzling abortive projects have become a graveyard of white elephants. Africa is littered with vast deserted motorways which are being eroded by the Savannah, with fully functional but empty factories which have been left to fall into ruin only a few years after they were opened, with railway lines which are now impassable  through a lack of maintenance, and with hydroelectric dams abandoned because they cost too much to run'. Let us pick up on the point about empty factories. These 'follies of development' are to be found in many developing countries and in Africa in particular. Some have never produced, others have failed to reach full production capacity while others still face such prohibitive costs that big state subsidies are needed to keep them going. If we follow the thread right back to the beginning we find, more often than not, that factories have been sold without ensuring real competition between suppliers. Admittedly, such projects usually have only private-sector backing (they are rarely financed through official aid), but the funding is nonetheless backed by state-controlled bodies. The existence of corruption in such cases must be more than mere presumption - what other reason could there be for making decisions which run so counter to the interests of development ? In his work 'Grand Corruption in Third World Development', George Moody-Stuart identified those areas which are especially vulnerable to corruption. These are most notably, the procurement of military and other   technically sophisticated equipment, and large-scale works (in other words, any major, capital-intensive project and any scheme where objective valuation and comparison is hampered because of the technical sophistication involved).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is worthwhile mentioning at this point that a country which borrows money to finance projects that do not satisfy its real needs, and which may indeed be considered economically futile or absurd, will see its debt burden increase - and not simply by the 10% to 20% that is used to fund 'backhanders'. The loss will ultimately be 100% if one views it in terms of the cost of the unproductive investment to the national economy. Discussions about the debts of developing countries rarely focus on the mechanisms which have produced these debts. Yet in most cases, they have become unserviceable on account of the ineffective use of overseas aid - the sort of bad management to which corruption contributes considerably.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is more, by deflecting the sparse resources which do exist towards non-priority or low-priority areas, corruption contributes to a large extent to ensuring that fundamental needs such as food, health and education, are not met. It is therefore one of the causes of under development and of poverty in general. Needless to say, official aid is often called upon to make good the deficit left by the irresponsible management of otherwise available resources. Is it any surprise if, in the long run, public opinion in the countries of the North begins to grow weary of bridging gaps which efficient management of resources should never have allowed to appear in the first place ? How are we to convince European taxpayers that it is they who need to provide the money to fund bush clinics in countries which put their funds in prestige projects, if not directly into Swiss bank accounts?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A vicious circle that must be broken</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effectively, we find ourselves in a 'catch-22'situation. Corruption is one of the causes of under development and poverty, yet poverty is in part responsible for its continuation. If a person cannot earn an honest living for himself and his family, then he is more or less forced into earning it by less honest means. Hence corruption is both the cause and the consequence of under development. In order to break the pattern we must therefore combat large-scale corruption inasmuch as it is a significant cause of underdevelopment and we must work gradually to eradicate the reasons for its propagation in society, and in particular to remedy the notorious lack of adequate income to ensure a decent standard of living.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general terms, we can say that corruption also kills off the spirit of development. Nothing is more destructive to a society than the pursuit of 'a fast and easy buck' which makes honest people who work hard appear naive or foolish. That is why, in the context of economic reforms under the heading of 'structural adjustment', it is vital that the model advocated be one of a market economy based on a sound framework of legislation and on an efficient state. It should not allow free rein to the sort of ruthless capitalism which is aimed at immediate profit at all costs. The example of certain transition countries in the East, where a market economy has become synonymous with the law of the jungle, the Mafia and corruption, really should make us stop and think.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the final analysis, an economy undermined by corruption has the effect of discouraging potential foreign investors and public donors. Yet if development is to succeed, countries have to be able to attract a flow of capital. As Serge Michailof put it: 'Success attracts money. Waste, failure and chaos drive it away'. And although investors are very keen to do business, with the exception of a few opportunists, they all look for host countries that have a stable and predictable climate. Entrepreneurs have been known to withdraw from certain African countries - which are nevertheless rich in resources - because of the constraints imposed on them by corruption on a scale which they considered to be unacceptable. As for public donors, they are increasingly reluctant to offer financial aid to those countries that manage their own resources poorly. It is precisely this failing which is one of the causes of what we now refer to as 'aid fatigue'. Financial aid institutions should go as far as suspending their cooperation in blatant cases of corruption and bad management, just as they do in cases of serious violation of human rights. Conversely, 'good governance' should be the determining factor when allocating aid, and it would appear that Article 5 of the revised Lom&eacute; IV Convention does in fact foresee such an approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, far from reserving the foregoing criticisms for countries of the South, I believe that the partners of the North have their part to play in the ravages wrought by corruption, be it only as a result of the inconsistencies between their development cooperation policies and their export promotion policies. Basing our assumptions on the principle that cooperation efforts are genuinely motivated by concerns for development - and I can attest that this is precisely the motivation behind the policies of the European Union, which I have served for a great many years - we should not forget that Western countries have a tendency to promote exports, by other means, without any consideration for the effects this has in terms of development. They thus contribute to the dishonest practices which we have been discussing. The fact that they tolerate, or even go as far as to encourage corruption as a means of promoting exports - restricting the application of the criminal law to acts committed on their own territory and allowing corruption to be taxdeductible under the heading of 'necessary expenses' - seems to me to be absolutely scandalous. In the AlortR too, the battle against the canker of international corruption is a formidable one. But it is a fight to which we are committed in the context of 'Transparency International' This NGO, which was created in 1993, makes its services available to any country which genuinely wishes to eradicate the scourge of corruption. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> D.F. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Close-up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">National park  restoration in Chad: luxury or necessity ?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Phllippe Dejace</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Terms like 'democracy' and 'sustainable development' are increasingly used to keep donors happy, and to present new development projects in the most favourable possible light. With this in mind, it is interesting to look at an example from 'the field' to see how genuine the commitment actually is. Adherence to these concepts has undoubtedly made a positive contribution to environmental protection, but there is also a negative side</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1989, the Zakouma National Park in south-east Chad has been undergoing restoration in a   programme supported by the KU. Devastated by a decade of conflict, this wildlife sanctuary of nearly 3000 square kiLom&eacute;tres was little more than a huge graveyard in 1986 when Pierre Pfeffer of the Paris Natural History Museum visited it and decided to campaign for its restoration. Today, this is recognised to have been a sensible decision. It is acknowledged that wildlife are better off when they have a reasonably large area in which to live, away from human activity. Aerial counts made in 1986, 1991 and 1995 confirm that animal numbers are on the increase in the park and that irreversible destruction has been averted. Currently, Zakouma is the only area effectively being protected in Chad. The other designated sites (one park and seven reservations) remain impoverished and in a state of near devastation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recognising the challenge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One should not be lulled into complacency. Even when a process involving local village communities is initiated, the low standard of living of the inhabitants, their educational level, and the progressive deterioration of vegetation around protected areas in  variably make the latter a tempting 'target'. In these circumstances, it is very hard to preserve their integrity. At Zakouma, a busy time lies ahead. The local people must be educated and informed as quickly as possible. This presents us with the first hurdle given the inadequacy of the education sector. The Ministry of Education is underfunded and with growing numbers of pupils in the system, it is virtually impossible to plan special programmes aimed at increasing awareness of this particular problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are other reasons why there should be short-term investment in this sector. There are good arguments for preserving a few control sites while the awareness programme is under way, since these will one day serve to illustrate what can be achieved. It is also much less difficult to preserve an area than to try to reconstitute it, once desertification has set in. The site is part of the national heritage whose value can only increase. Moreover, in most cases, the protected areas ensure the survival of fish stocks in lakes and rivers downstream and act as a reservoir for game: many of the animals which breed there provide food for the people living at the zone's edges. Even frequent wholesale slaughter of wildlife, as happens during a war, is reversible if the vegetation remains intact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the park is cut off from human activity (the area is flooded and therefore closed, to all intents and purpose, for four months of the year), it has an uncertain future. It faces pressure  from itinerant herdsmen and poachers, the latter tracking giraffe right up to the outskirts of Zakouma village, which is in the middle of the park. Although located in a wildlife reserve of 20 000 km2 - which is supposed to be a buffer zone - the park is not truly protected because human activity inside the reserve is not controlled. In the dry season, the park teems with wildlife. A clear density gradient has been identified with the animal population dropping as you move from the centre to the periphery. Indeed, only about a third of the 3000 km2 is intensively exploited by the wildlife which lives there - and even this area is relatively insecure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enclosure would give those who are keen to defend the park a grace period in which to set up long-term awareness strategies. Ironically, one danger results from the striking democratisation that has taken place in Chad. To win votes, some politicians have called for the bans applying to the park to be lifted. This approach has the potential to succeed because, owing to shortfalls in the education system, the electorate is insufficiently mature in political terms. Another factor is that traditional leaders, seeing their power progressively diminish, are inclined to 'revolt'. Thus, they may fail to intervene when stockmen deliberately invade the park, encouraged by demagogues in search of votes. When the grasslands are invaded by cattle, few wild animals can compete and they are forced to retreat to the central area of the park. Against this background of a need for urgent action, the Zakouma Park team is concentrating its awareness-raising efforts on traditional leaders and the administrative authorities - rather than on teaching schoolchildren about environmental protection (although such a campaign is also envisaged).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some argue that setting up a 'sustainable and participation-based development' strategy would make it possible to avoid the situation that now exists in Zakouma. The idea behind such a strategy - which clearly has its   attractions - is that man is perfectly capable of managing his native territory. All that is needed is for him to be granted land and to receive support for his initiatives. Many who espouse this approach continue to despatch teams to demonstrate that this is the ideal response. Unfortunately, in the particularly complicated case of managing the environment on the fringes of a national park, the local people are usually reluctant to make the investment. The more normal inclination is to reap a short-term profit from resources that are within reach. The inhabitants are also tired of the lectures they get from specialists who visit for just a few hours. The scope of the problem is such that expertise needs to be available on an ongoing basis. Considerable resources are also needed to ensure.that the effort is sustained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not easy to halt environmental destruction in a market economy which has overturned traditional values and gives priority to increasing personal wealth and consumption. A natural environment's potential for exploitation is always limited. Yet stock-rearing involves the use of animals 'selected' over thousands of years to take maximum advantage of the least scrap of vegetation. By contrast, a wild animal is much more selective and never ruins the environment it exploits. It may even be able to adapt its reproductive cycle to the available food resources! We are nowhere near this situation in domestic stockbreeding!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is where 'sustainable development', which sounds highly reassuring, appears at odds with reality. Beyond a certain threshold, one cannot avoid depleting the resource. If one is to adopt an approach that involves the population actively, one must acknowledge that their response may fall short of what is needed. Indeed, they may do things which provoke migration, and are thus damaging. Thus, for example, the opening-up of a water source may attract more nomadic herdsman, thereby undermining rather than enhancing the surrounding area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Awareness programme</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The single most significant step towards protecting the park would be to ease population pressure, but progress in this area is very limited. We can only wait for the birthrate to decrease; something which invariably happens as a country develops. But what will become of the national parks in the meantime ? In Zakouma, an eco-development team is currently listening to the villagers' claims. As elsewhere, an attempt is being made to gain time. Unfortunately, the current climate of transparency in Chad, which is one of the positive aspects of democratisation and should be a major asset, has not had much impact in this area. The awareness programme suffers from a serious lack of trained workers and when meetings are held, they usually turn into interminable discussions, simply increasing the level of frustration. On the other hand, a convincing discussion-leader can advance matters considerably and discussion is surely the right approach to adopt. Furthermore, the process must lead to concrete results. Otherwise, decisions taken may end up being postponed indefinitely because they conflict with the interests of political decision-makers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the difficulties, the Zakouma team is placing heavy reliance on this desire for transparency. Although the project's initial aims have essentially been to restore infrastructures and thereby promote an increase in wildlife, the addition of an ecodevelopment aspect and ecological monitoring has made it possible to create an important 'reservoir' of knowledge. A computerized map of the vegetation has been produced with the help of a microlight equipped with a GPS (satellite positioning) system. There have also been aerial inventories tracking the seasonal density and distribution of wildlife, as well as in-depth sociological surveys in the villages most hostile to the park's existence. This major database makes it possible to organise meetings, conferences and discussions to demonstrate that the park's contribution is greater than it seems. One big frustration for local people living on the  park's fringes concerns the redistribution of the income it generates. Looking first at tourism, Chad hardly qualifies as a major holiday destination and those who do visit the park are too few to make a significant contribution (the income raised barely covers the cost of replacing their bedlinen !)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One interesting conclusion has been drawn from studies of the animal distribution in the different seasons. It appears that when pressure from nomadic herdsman is at its strongest, during the dry season, the wildlife take refuge in the park and numbers multiply in safety. When the stockmen return northward, the wild animals then go beyond the park boundaries where they are hunted and eaten by villagers. This is surely a form of income redistribution! Moreover, many young fish in the park's only river (the bahr Salamat), take advantage of the flooding of the area during the rains. This releases huge volumes of nutrients back into the ecosystem. In the park, the fish are safe from the fishermen who work downstream and they can swim back to their spawning grounds. This guarantees the renewal of stocks depleted during the dry season. The level of fish stocks in Lake Iro - and probably in the River Chari as well - is thus linked to the existence of the Zakouma Park! When this version of income redistribution is explained, it often helps to convince traditional leaders who then use their influence to limit incursions by stockmen or poachers. However, a lot remains to be done because demographic pressure and standards of living both make it more difficult to get the message across.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We know that excessive human activity always results in environmental deterioration. Zakouma, although under pressure, has been 'spared' to some extent, and as such, it represents an important resource. But some see it as a luxury and it faces a suspended death sentence. If people stop regarding its conservation as something that is necessary, the sentence will end up being carried out. In my opinion, the most reliable way of guaranteeing its preservation would be to enclose it completely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.H.D. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Developing World</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">European NGOs look ahead at annual meeting in Brussels</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Agostino Ambrogetti</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 22nd annual General Assembly of European Development Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), and a thematic conference entitled 'A Europe open to the world', were held in Brussels from 18 - 20 April. Representatives of more than 800 NGOs attended, with the Assembly adopting 14 resolutions as well as issuing specific appeals on the European Union's Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) and on Lebanon. The Assembly renewed its approval of the development NGOs' 'Strategic Priorities', adopted the Work Plan for the 1996-98 period, and looked at the overall impact of the Lom&eacute; Convention with an eye to likely future developments. The subsequent Conference focused, among other things, on the issue of coherence between the EU's development cooperation and its other policies (notably trade and agriculture). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A general impression that emerged from the two events was that the NGO movement was attaching increasing importance to its role as advocate for the developing countries. A fundamental aspect of this is the ongoing dialogue that NGOs have with the European institutions, and the lobbying they carry out on policy issues. Commission representatives who spoke at the Assembly indicated their understanding and appreciation of this. For example, Development Commissioner, Jao de Deus Pinheiro, referred warmly to 'the very active role played by the NGO community in the debate on the mid-term revision of the Lom&eacute; Convention,' and acknowledged that the NGOs had mounted an 'important political lobby' in favour of increased funding for the next five-year period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commissioner was keen to emphasise the complementarily that existed between the European Commission and the NGO movement in support of emerging societies in the South. He also urged his audience to continue in their task of challenging the general apathy towards development cooperation. This, he said, entailed appealing directly to public opinion in order to influence political leaders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A similar tone was adopted by Bernard Ryelandt, who heads the unit responsible for cofinancing NGO projects in the Commission's development directorate-general (DG VIII) He spoke of the 'decisive' action of European NGOs in balancing other lobbies such as the agricultural one. This, he believed, had the effect of improving the coherence of EU policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Delegates from a number of countries set out their views on the advocacy issue, and what they saw as the growing NGO role in this area. Andy Rutherford from the United Kingdom said that he saw increased lobbying as necessary, complementing the work carried out in the field through development projects. He pointed out that Southern NGOs had themselves requested their Northern partners to pressurise European governments in the hope that the latter would adopt external policies more favourable to the developing world. Mr Rutherford also raised the thorny question of structural adjustment. The view that adjustment policies were not succeeding in eradicating poverty, had, he said, been acknowledged by the EU's Development Council in its resolution adopted in June 1995. With this in mind, the NGOs would be raising the issue with the World Bank and the IMF - where the EU Member States are among the most substantial contributors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guido Barbera, who headed the Italian delegation to the Assembly, took up this point, calling for more pressure to be exerted on the Bretton Woods institutions by European NGOs and indeed, by the European Commission itself. This was necessary, he believed, to promote coherent macroeconomic policies favouring the development of economic relationships with the less-developed countries. In more general terms, Mr Barbera applauded the growing NGO participation in the political arena, stating that this was both 'positive' and fundamental'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evaluation of the Liaison</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Committee's work</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A document was presented to the Conference by the NGDO-EU Liaison Committee containing an evaluation of its activities. The aim, in drawing up the document, was to 'review and critically assess the work and organization of the Committee, and evaluate whether it meets the expectations of its stake holders.' In order to do this, NGO members were consulted through questionnaires.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The evaluation revealed that support for the Liaison Committee as the representative umbrella organization of European NGOs remains strong, although there is widespread uncertainty about the future. This is reflected in the perception that the Committee has   gradually been losing momentum. There were also some doubts expressed about its representativeness. Large NGOs, it was noted, were able to spread their efforts across different networks. The fact that small NGOs tended not to be involved in the Committee emerged as one of the critical issues for discussion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attention was also focused on the alleged weakness of many national platforms (the documents containing proposals drawn up by the various national NGO assemblies) in representing the aspirations of their member organizations. This issue, and the question of voting on resolutions without debating the documents in question gave rise to controversy. Some delegates boycotted the vote while others submitted a written protest and there is clearly some demand for reforms designed to make the Assembly's procedures more democratic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General conditions of cm  financing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another highly topical subject on the Assembly's agenda was the proposed revision of the General Conditions for the Co-financing of NGO </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Projects in Developing Countries. Commission speakers who touched on this subject included Professor Pinheiro and Jacob Houtman who is a Director in DG VIII Both referred to the revision process that was currently under way, and emphasised the higher priority that would be attached to capacity building for Southern NGOs. This involves providing support to strengthen the organisational structure of the bodies in question, and to improve the skills of their staff in managing and implementing projects. Such an approach is now recognised as essential for the long-term sustainability of NGO activities. As Mr Houtman was keen to stress, the principles underpinning the KU-NGO relationship (recognition of NGO independence and specificity, freedom of initiative for European NGOs in cooperation with their Southern partners) would be safeguarded in the revised conditions. Other priorities to be set out in the conditions would include the promotion </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Notice at the site of a non governmental organisation in</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe devoted to improving agricultural productivity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Crucial to provide more institutional support for Southem</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGOs' of democracy and human rights through reinforced structures of civil society, and a greater emphasis on the fight against poverty, income-generating activities and social development programmes. With these objectives in mind, it was all the more crucial to provide more institutional support for Southern NGOs. They, unlike their Northern partners, had a permanent presence in society in the developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The revised general conditions would also reflect the new orientation which favours a long-term programme approach over the traditional project by-project method. This should lead to a reduced administrative burden, and benefit long-standing NGO partners who have demonstrated viable approaches in working with their Southern counterparts, as well as good management and accountability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'A Europe open to the world'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Conference which took place following the NGO General Assembly focused on assessing the coherence of different EU policies and on ways of achieving coherence where it might be lacking. As the title of the Conference suggests, the question which was never far from participants' minds was 'what sort of Europe is being created.' Is it a Europe which stands in solidarity with the South (and East), or is it one which retreats into its fortress, concerned only with its own prosperity ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the outset, EU policy - or rather its mode of implementation - came in for criticism. It was claimed, on the bask of the experience of both European and Southern NGOs, that the principles of development cooperation set out in the Maastricht Treaty (Title XVII) were not being applied universally and consistently. These principles include the sustainable economic and social development of developing countries, their integration into the world economy, the fight against poverty, and the development and consolidation of democracy, human rights and the rule of law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this connection, three specific discussion topics were selected: the EU's common foreign and security policy (CFSP), its common commercial and agriculture policies (CCP and CAP) and its immigration and asylum policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regarding the first of these, it was suggested that the EU's definition of 'security' tended to be viewed solely in terms of common defence, and that the concept of 'human security' drawn up by the UNDP had been neglected. The latter seeks to define the concept on a broader basis including aspects such as equitable and sustainable development, as well as human rights and democracy. The view was also expressed that a more firm and coordinated CFSP was needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the second topic - trade and agriculture - there was a strong feeling that the policies of the EU (and the USA) were heavily weighted in favour of 'home' producers and that this had the effect of undermining local production and food security in the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing countries. The Union was urged to remove the policy 'contradictions' that allowed this situation to arise bearing in mind the specificity and sensitivity of the food trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, several speakers were highly critical of what they viewed as negative trends in the approach to immigration and asylum adopted by the EU and its Member States, with increasingly strict rules being implemented. There were also calls for measures designed to integrate resident migrants into society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, integration may well be seen as the key message to have emerged from the NGOs' gathering. The call was for the people and governments of the European Union, acting in the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC), to integrate the needs of the rest of the world's people into their actions and programmes. The talk was of common values of human rights and solidarity, in both internal and external polices. And it was clear from the commitment of those who attended that the NGOs are determined to maintain and strengthen their role - as active partners in the development of the South, as advocates for the developing countries and perhaps indeed as keepers of the European conscience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Workshops</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As part of the proceedings of the NGO General Assembly, three workshops were organised dealing with specific themes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Workshop 1 was entitled Beyond Lom&eacute; IV. There was a general consensus among those taking part that the Convention's underlying philosophy helped to protect developing countries in today's global commercial environment. Without the Lom&eacute; system, it was felt that the ACP countries would have suffered even more from the deterioration in their terms of trade. With this in mind, the World Trade Organisation came in for criticism for its stance against regional preferential agreements (even if this does not apply to the least developed countries).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The major finding of Workshop 2, which dealt with Poverty in the North and the South, was that  poverty is the result of interactions at a global level - and is not 'nation specific'. It was therefore important to adopt a global approach in  seeking to tackle the causes of poverty, and to develop further North-South exchanges of experience for the benefit of both sides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third workshop was devoted to making the most of EU Presidencies. Here, the aim was to evaluate past experience of lobbying undertaken by the NGO community in those countries holding the EC Council Presidency, during the six-month period in question. The main recommendation to emerge was that more needed to be done in establishing contacts and exchanging information between the relevant national NGO communities. Such exchanges, it was felt, were needed before, during and after the six month Presidency period, in order to facilitate continuity of lobbying on key themes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resolutions </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Resolutions adopted by the NGO General Assembly, considerable emphasis was placed on human rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> issues, with texts being agreed on Nigeria, the peoples of the Western</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahara and the child sex 'industry'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade (in the widest sense of the word) also featured prominently. In addition to a general resolution on world trade, representatives passed motions on the arms trade, traffic in landmines and the production of the drug coca.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also adopted were resolutions on preventive diplomacy, cooperation with Cuba, the Euro-Mediterranean partnership and the 'deterioration' of the situation in the Great Lakes region of Africa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Africans seek bigger share of tourist dollar</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Godfrey Karoro</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe's government is under pressure to encourage greater African involvement in the predominantly white-run tourism industry, which is facing intense competition from neighbouring South Africa. 'Black participation in all sectors of tourism is a priority,' says Environment and Tourism Minister Chen Chimutengwende. 'Blacks have waited in the wings long enough,' he adds, 'and their entry on to centre stage is inevitable. The solution lies in nurturing black entrepreneurship and giving it the material and technical backup to ensure its growth.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only 38 of the country's 436 tour operators are indigenous, and most focus on provision of goods and services, particularly transport. African interest in the business was kindled last year when the government identified tourism as one of the sectors which could benefit from an international $74 million credit facility. This prompted enquiries from  about 500 potential entrepreneurs. Interest was heightened during the election campaign earlier this year, when President Mugabe's government made an issue of the continuing economic domination of the white community which constitutes  less than 1% of the country's 11 million population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Chimutengwende pledged support for greater black participation, but the government itself is under fire for not doing enough. 'We have a time-bomb and the government should do something about it quickly before it explodes,' says Colin Blythe-Wood, managing director of a tour company and chairman of the Zimbabwe Association of Tour and Safari Operators (ZATSO), referring to the black-white imbalance in the whole economy. 'We are indeed fortunate that this industry, which has perhaps the greatest potential in our economy, is still in its infancy,' he says. He argues that the government holds the trump card, through its ownership of vast tracts of land in national parks, forests and communal areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 1994 Zatso report identified more than 100 sites on state-owned land suitable for development by African tourism ventures. At least half, says Mr Blythe-Wood, were in areas of abundant wildlife, including the 'big five' - elephant, lion, rhinoceros, hippopotamus and buffalo. Other opportunities could be provided he suggests, if the National Park service got out of the accommodation business and concentrated on flora and fauna conservation. 'The government cannot be a referee and a player at the same time. It should sell off its shares in the Rainbow Tourism Group' - a wholly-owned government company which is the third largest operator in the tourism sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the industry's problems is that South Africa, too, has found tourism to be an unexpectedly good economic performer. Arrivals there rose by 50% in 1995, and a new government discussion document suggests that tourism could double its foreign exchange earnings by the year 2000 and triple its contribution to national income. South Africa's parks and beaches are well developed, but entrepreneurs are also fostering attractions such as Boer War battle sites and 'Road to Freedom' tours in which visitors have breakfast with former freedom fighters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fear is that South Africa will be the regional hub for visitors, siphonino off  most of the earnings, with</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe merely getting the overspill from short side-trips.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zatso chief executive, Elias Nyakuni, points out that South</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa is already using Zimbabwe's top attraction to lure visitors, urging them 'to come to South Africa to see the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Victoria Falls'! Efficient train, luxury bus and air services connect several South African cities to the Falls, which are on the Zimbabwe-Zambia border. Mr Nyakuni says that Zimbabwe  could also lose out if things go wrong in their southern neighbour. 'Violence in South Africa could deter people from coming to Zimbabwe.' He accuses the government of not taking marketing in Europe and North America sufficiently seriously. 'The 4-5% annual growth is, in essence, through word of mouth. We need to investt more in marketing.' He says that the Zimbabwe Council for Tourism is underfunded and that it operates 'without brochures or pamphlets.' Neverthelms,  with 1.25 million visitors last year spending $252m (up from 1.04m spending $203m in 1994) - tourism is a growth area in which black people could take a bigger share - and not just, as at present, as guides, drivers, mechanics and cooks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lovemore Chihota, who runs a booming Victoria Falls safari business, has shown the way. He admits that there is a lot of money to be made from tourism, but warns that careful preparation is needed, as well as determination, commitment and, a realisation that there are no quick returns. He also points to the need to have some equity. 'The promoter,' he stresses, 'must put his money where his mouth is.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> G.K.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Culture and society</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dak'Art 96</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most important exhibitions of African art, the Biennial Festival of Conternporary African Art, opened its doors to the public in Dakar, Senegal, on 8 May 1996. The 'Pan-African Art Exhibition', as it is still called, was being staged for the third time although it almost failed to take place at all, having been postponed several times over the last four years. All those who participated - from the artists who exhibited to the directors of art galleries and cultural  institions - were pleasantly surprised. The next edition of me Courier will include a more comprehensive account of the exhibition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President Abdou Diouf of Senegal inaugurated the event at the Daniel Sorano National Theatre in the company of a number of VlPs, including BartoLom&eacute; Amat Armengol who represented the European Commission. The Commission was Dak'Art 96's main financial partner providing support to the tune of CFAF 200 million (ECU 300 000 approx). The Biennial Festival aims to be a showcase for African artists allowing them to break into the international plastic arts market. Hitherto, this has remained relatively closed to them despite the general recognition that Africa has a contribution to make to the art world in this area. Mr Ousmane Sow Huchard, chairman of the Festival's scientific board, stressed that success lay first in stimulating the art market in Africa itself. He gave the example of his own country which had voted the so-called '1 % law', which stipulated the proportion of works of art that should be used to decorate all new public buildings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Festival's main exhibition, at the Ifan Museum of African Arts, was devoted to major trends in African sculpture. 42 artists selected by an international panel took part and, despite some criticism, their choice was a  judicious one. The same cannot be said, unfortunately, of the second major exhibition, at the National Art Gallery. This was devoted to contemporary Senegalese art and the skill involved in producing the exhibits was not of a consistently high standard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were also five individual exhibitions featuring artists chosen by internationally famous judges. These might be expected to have a dynamic effect in setting standards on the market. Zeribun Yempeta of Ethiopia offered a quite original style, working on a support of leather straps fastened to a trellis of fine strips of wood. He draws his inspiration from a combination of African design, Coptic and Greek influences, and ancient Egyptian art. Ethiopian painting was one of the major revelations of the 'Africa 95' exhibition in London last year and the Festival gave a further opportunity for such art to be displayed. Another display presented work by the Moroccan painter, Mohamed Kacimi, whose pictures have been hung in various exhibitions - although the term 'pictures' is not always appropriate to this artist's work. It is perhaps more fitting to say that he 'occupies space'. In Dakar, he covered three walls of a large room with 'rolling art'. His skill, particularly in monumental works, is to offer excitement and calm simultaneously, through the use of animated forms and soft, rhythmic harmonies. Ezrom Legae of South Africa, Moustapha Dime of Senegal and Pascale Martine Tayou of Cameroon were the three other artists granted individual exhibitions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the trends which came to the fore at Dak'Art was the use of alternative media and recycled material. The latter, in a sense, is the man in the street's legacy to art. Initially, recycling was used predominantly in the informal sector to produce utilitarian objects. The 'Biennial Festival Village' was set aside for informal sculptors, and in an open area beside the Village, both inside a marquee and outdoors, one of the most individually striking exhibitions was presented. This combined a variety of artistic forms ranging from painting to video, not to mention Adeagbo's unusual montages, including 'African artists and AIDS'. This had already been exhibited in a number of countries and was staged by the Revue Noire team in parallel with its 'AIDS' issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Festival included dozens of on-site exhibitions as well as all the 'fringe' presentations. The AIDS exhibition was one of the boldest but the display entitled 'Love' offered the greatest degree of unity and uniformity of design. Dak'Art 96 also made an attempt to integrate other forms of creativity such as dance, design and fashion. The latter two, for example, were presented at the Espace Vema, a fine metal structure where the creations of the Senegalese designer Claire Kane were in perfect harmony with the highly original furnishings. The European Union's prize for creativity, one of the Festival's four major prizes, was awarded to Vincent Namien, a designer from Cote d'lvoire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hege'Goueier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">On creativity... in Africa and elsewhere</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Alain Nicolas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this article is head curator and director of the Museum of African, Oceanic and Amerindian Arts in Marseilles. Here he offers his thoughts on the (partially unconscious) reluctance of the 'official' art world in the West - museums, critics and art historians - to accept contemporary African artists. Even now, they tend to be relegated to the sphere of 'alternative' art. However, he believes that the abundance of creative Africans, and the pressure they are exerting on the art world and market will, sooner or later, generate a 'new revolution' in the museums. This iswhat happened in the early20th century when traditional African art first arrived in the West. This article is linked to the dossier on African creativity published in our previous issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When I was asked to make this small contribution on African creativity, I was happy to oblige since, as a non-specialist, I am able to content myself with a few generalisations. I believe that there are still barriers, sometime not very visible, but nonetheless real, which have to be broken down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, writing just a few lines on creativity is a difficult exercise given the amount of literature on the subject and so many divergent opinions. So, what line should I adopt? About 15 years ago - in the wake of hordes of specialists in the humanities from sociology, psychology, ethnology, anthropology and so on - a rational approach, known as 'the anthropology of art', was at last proposed. The term 'rational' should be seen here in the context of the distinction between exact or 'hard' sciences such as mathematics, physics and astronomy, and the humanities, which are essentially inexact or 'soft' disciplines. And in brief, the West tends to take a scientific approach, relying on empirical evidence, even when it seeks to study such subjects as human creativity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Creativity obviously is to be found in many different spheres. It is needed in technology, it is fundamental to story-telling, it underpins all forms of social organisation and has a part to play in religion. Similarly, what we term 'art'  is one of the spheres of creative endeavour. The anthropology of art seeks to document artistic creativity and to analyse the conditions surrounding its expression in various cultures. This is a laudable enterprise insofar as art is regarded as another means of expression, used in one form or another by all human groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The creative function is universal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The basic postulate is that any society - and any individual - possesses creative potential which may be expressed in any way. The first thing to examine, therefore, is the context of choice. There are various modes of artistic expression ranging from music, poetry, prose and dance to architecture, painting and fashion. Some individuals or societies may have no choice, perhaps because of socio-economic constraints. Others may favour a particular mode of expression while nonetheless dabbling in more than one area. The expression of creativity is, therefore, like an identifying mark, claimed by the group or by the individual. The concept of 'style' now comes into play. The expression of one group is different from that of another and no two can ever be the same. Fundamental elements are at work in this materialisation of creativity. Some  are due to the natural environment. Thus, for example, a society located in a place where wood is abundant may favour sculpture. Others come from the group or individual themselves. And in the final analysis, it is the groups or individuals that decide what to portray (or not) on the basis of their own social norms and what they want to express.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These few limited thoughts should be supplemented by the observation that sculpture or the plastic arts more generally can also be examined from at least two angles: as a means of conveying information, and as a form of linguistic expression.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards the former, some have proposed analysing any work of art, from whatever culture, as a message. Analysis of the work therefore includes an examination of the conditions surrounding the production and transmission of the message. What message is broadcast ? How does it function ? What does the addressee gain from it? This approach is fine in hypothetical terms but does not allow one to go beyond theoretical and formal data, teaching us nothing about the content of the message under study. It refers back to the originator who holds the keys to the way in which it was sent and thus to its form and meaning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linguistically speaking, we assume that all expression through sculpture is a language and that the techniques for studying language can therefore be applied to the work of art. This approach is more rewarding because it brings us closer both to the sources and to the function of communication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Be that as it may, all methods involve knowledge of the group or of the individual (but also of the relationships between them) and thus of any organised knowledge. Art cannot be separated from perception. This is the position of the majority of scientists. Yet we are not completely certain of this. Briefly, we are led to imagine that art could be irreducible at a certain level. When we look at a sculpture or listen to a piece of music, aside from the emotional content which is at least   partly quantifiable, what are we able to understand about the culture which produced them ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having travelled widely throughout the world and kept my eyes open, without having become the 'observer-participant' which the ethnologist should be, I am certain that the same creative function can be seen everywhere, and it is not difficult to identify.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frequent visits to the world's museums and, perhaps above all, to their vaults, further reinforces the impression that constants do exist and are worthy of more and better investigation. Art, and more particularly the art of others, from other continents, is still the domain of a happy few.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are usually highly literate people, and are seldom activists expounding a cause.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contemporary African art must find its niche</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The above statements relate as much to contemporary art as to what we term 'traditional' art. How many of the world's museums really show contemporary art from Africa ? It is as if this sector were cut off from current cultural reality. This is despite the fact that each week, new artists, musicians, designers, painters, sculptors, dancers, film-makers, stylists and photographers emerge from Africa, to be 'recognised' in the West (if anyone knows what 'recognition' really means!). The museums are, in fact, confused by this burgeoning of talent because they have no idea how to manage it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has been said that contemporary African art is an urban phenomenon aimed at those living in towns and cities - and that it rebels against essentially rural, traditional art.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The argument is that the usual methods for analysing traditional art cannot be fully mobilised because 'urban civilisation' conforms to a set of universal norms (more or less), which are distinct from those studied by ethnologists. It would, therefore, be more appropriate to consider contemporary art in the context of sociology and aesthetics. This may be true, but it still comes down to a matter of observation. Confusion reigns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When we staged an exhibition in Marseilles by the Senegalese sculptor, Ousmane Sow, the first individual showing of his works came as a major shock to many people, including the specialists. I can remember the reactions of at least   two colleagues from museums of contemporary art. What they said was almost identical, and was along the following lines:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What's the name of this sculptor ? I am not familiar with him...</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. Do you like his work ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, I do, but what's his name ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. Ousmane Sow </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I don't know him. Astonishing! Where's he from ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. Senegal - he lives in Dakar. Are you interested in his sculptures ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but..</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. You can buy one of his works - he's not very expensive yet and it would be good for your museum. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The problem is he's African.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AN. I see... </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· His works are more your sphere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. But they don't have anything to do with traditional art which is what I have in my museum. Ousmane Sow is a contemporary artist, isn't he ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but he's African, and your museum is a museum of African art.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. You're correct, I would love to buy one of his works. But it would be the only example of contemporary art in my museum and would represent a change of policy for me. You wouldn't have anything by Ousmane Sow. And we would then be rivals! </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Critics, artists and art historians have begun discussing contemporary African art, more and more good reviews of it are being published, talks are being given and some major exhibitions have been mounted. There are pioneers and supporters in France, Germany and elsewhere, and there is even a great museum - Washington's Smithsonian - which took it on board several years  ago - but we still seem to be a long way from a commitment from most institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I hope this statement will soon be proved wrong. Institutions do not like taking risks. Either they create 'ghettos' ('let's set up a museum of contemporary African art'), or they set up committees to consider the subject. It is up to us to set our houses in order, but we must not be too naive. This is the art market, after</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although we tend to cling to this somewhat short-sighted administrative view that there should be different institutions depending on whether we are dealing with heritage or contemporary creativity, museums of contemporary art must integrate all the world's sculptural expression. If not, they will be in conflict with the above; postulate which claims that creative  potential is the same everywhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for so-called museums of anthropology and also a few rare museums such as the Museum of African, Oceanic and Amerindian Art in Marseilles, the systematic exhibition of contemporary art does generate a number of problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When I have wanted to do this in the past, I have been reminded of the 'museographic landscape' and advised to consult the authorities, to organise a major debate on the topic: who, what, where ? That is the rational approach, we are told. There is no great hurry!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, the recent arrival of African artists comes at a moment in our history when we are questioning the existence of our museums. When I say 'we', I mean the West in general.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So, what might happen ? Traditional African art caused an explosion in Western art and traditional art history at the very beginning of the 20th century, with the cubists and their research which led them to develop a passion for African sculpture. We are all aware of what we owe to Africa and its traditional artists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contemporary art from Africa is knocking on the closed door of Western museums, but the arrival of contemporary African artists and the pressure they exert on the art world and  market might trigger a new revolution in the museums, which are also the archives. Certainly, all the usual followers are ready to take up the cause, and that is how it should be. Let's be optimistic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The works of Ainsley Yearwood: Bombarded with colour</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Claude Smets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ainsley Yearwood is a Trinity dadian artist based in London. me Courier had the opportunity to meet him recently when an exhibition of his works was staged at his country's embassy in Brussels. Brought up in Trinidad, he moved to London to study fine arts at the Chelsea Art School. Feeling unable to express himself fully in this discipline, he ended up taking a degree in graphic design. Mr Yearwood is still based in the UK capital where, in addition to his work as a painter, he also designs costumes for the Notting Hill Carnival, a cousin of the famous Trinidad Carnival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The artist is fortunate to be able to live from his work. Besides the present exhibition which is touring Europe (Manchester, Brussels, Geneva and London), he has other works currently on show at three galleries in the US. He finds that the reaction of the American public is different from the European one. Americans, he believes, are more spontaneous and openminded. 'Europeans tend to stick more to things they already know; to which they are more accustomed.' The titles he gives to his art pieces are for him 'a basis for artistic conversation' with his audience. They express his emotions, feelings, and thoughts, but do not try to impose a specific interpretation of the painting on the viewer. Ainslie Yearwood dislikes the idea of being labelled or categorised - or as he describes it, 'to  be put into a box'. As such, he rebels against people who try to make him conform.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A world citizen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although Ainsley Yearwood recognises his African roots within Trinidadian society, he sees himself as 'a world citizen'. The influences in his paintings are many and varied - deriving from the multicultural background of Trinidad and Tobago, European art and graphic design, the memories of his own childhood and his recent experiences. 'I am like a sponge', he says. 'Everything influences me in my work... people, places and all that I see around me. They help me to view things from a different perspective.' These all then flow together to be visualised through his 'inner eye' (expressed, for example, by two blue dots in his work In the Company of Nature which represents the Grand Canyon). By paying particular attention to what he sees, his 'visual view' is transformed into an 'emotional view'. Thus, for example, his painting Evolution appears to be a landscape. A :loser look reveals that the rocks are in the shape of hands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The artist also uses symbols in dome of his work, as a personal means 'or him to express life. The butterfly :rapped in a jar, for example, in Love lost, is a symbol of the fragility of life. The glass of water in Soul of a Mother symbolises the way a child looks at the world as something exciting and new. he also draws strongly on the imagery of candles, inner eyes and doorways.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strong colours, strong emotions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What unifies Mr. Yearwood's work, is his use of colours. As he says, they are 'strong colours to express strong emotions'. In this, he has been inspired by his childhood in Trinidad which, in his own words, 'was an environment that constantly bombarded you with colour - from crystal to aquamarine, sapphire and emerald - a perpetual rainbow of red, yellow, green and blue'. One painting where colour is used to striking effect is Carnival Bacchanal. This depicts Trinidad's Carnival and reflects both the island's multicultural society and its vividness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ainsley Yearwood has also produced more surrealist and psycho-biographical works, under the influence of artists such as Salvador Dali and Francis Bacon. Emotions are revealed through the use of darker though still vivid colours. These works (such as Evolution, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Translucent State and Suspended in Limbo) show a fragmented self, stuck between past, present and future, looking for a way forward. They come in stark contrast to the brighter mood of paintings of island scenes - which are in a more African style - or of jazz musicians (such as Soul of a City or The Musician). According to the artist, this is being realistic. If he wants to paint life, he must show the different and contrasting emotions a human being experiences. 'You get up in the morning and you are feeling a little bit happy. You come home in the evening and you are feeling a little bit down. So emotions are continuously changing. If I said that I was always happy, that wouldn't be true.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As mentioned above, a number of Ainsley Yearwood's pieces portray jazz players. He enjoys going to New Orleans to listen to jazz bands and in Soul of a City he portrays one of the musicians. The title underlaines the importance of performers in a place like New Orleans - where indeed, they form an integral part of city life. In A Musical Love affair, the painter uses techniques learned as a graphic designer to help him express his feelings. By drawing graphic lines, the cello player and the instrument flow into one another. He explains: 'The cello player was not just playing the instrument. She was actually part of it. It is as if she were making love to the cello.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear from the foregoing that Mr. Yearwood's art is primarily visual. The onlooker is bombarded with strong colours - which are used, together with abstraction and symbolism, to express both optimistic and pessimistic feelings. The artist uses his multicultural background to great effect, drawing on influences from Trinidad, Africa and Europe, to create different modes of expression. These are the essential factors which make his paintings interesting and refreshing to look at.  c.s. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA-Bulletin</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Fairness on the livestock field of play</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Sarah Reynolds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the town of Thies one of Senegal's regional capitals, there is an abattoir where nothing goes to waste. Even the horns of cattle are sold for making carvings for sale to tourists while the tips of the horns are exported to Japan. In a rural area of Chad, small-scale livestock farmers are preserving meat by the age-old process of cutting it into strips and drying it in the sun. Careful attention to hygiene and quality control has resulted in a product so consistently good that it has found an export market as far away as Gabon. Livestock producers in sub-Saharan Africa are responding to market opportunities, not because they recognise the need to improve national food requirements, but in pursuit of profit. Therein lies the best chance for stimulating the livestock sector's production capacity. The challenge is to design policies that protect consumers without crushing entrepreneurial potential for producers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than half the population of sub-Saharan Africa is likely to be living in a town or city within the next 30 years. These city dwellers will have neither the skill, the time nor the space to raise livestock. There are indications on present trends that their demand for food of animal origin will increase. Where will they get it from ? Imported meat is more expensive than it used to be, largely as a result of the change in policies of the European Union. These have also affected the supply of low-cost milk powder and butter oil. Imports from countries outside the continent will  undoubtedly continue but intra-African   trade and local production will become   far more significant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has been estimated that the production of animal products in sub-Saharan Africa would have to increase by 4% per year to ensure an adequate supply of animal protein for the region's growing population, and to end the need for imports. This presents a major challenge to policy-makers. Already, the current pressure on land resources is causing conflict in some areas and the prospect of more people, more animals, and more strain on already inadequate resources, is perturbing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information vacuum  in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of value</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Decisions on how to achieve sustainable and yet more productive land-use, while at the same time ensuring fair access to resources for other interested users, cannot be soundly based if made in an information vacuum. It was in recognition of the lack of information about the livestock sector that the CTA organised and sponsored a seminar on Livestock development policies in the humid and sub-humid zones of sub-Saharan Africa. This was held in Abidjan, Cote d'lvoire on 5-9 February 1996. It was attended by participants from 17 countries within the region and by representatives from international institutions and from Europe. The objective was to contribute to the ongoing debate on policies aimed at bringing about sustainable livestock development while respecting natural resources in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of value</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effective planning of government action on issues such as import policy, provision of inputs and services, marketing and research priorities requires quantitative information on livestock production systems. Why is this information lacking when it is estimated that livestock products contribute about 25% of total agricultural GDP in subSaharan Africa? The livestock sector is too important to ignore and yet it is consistently undervalued. The reason is that economists and statisticians like to deal with a tangible unit that can be counted. Ideally, this should be a monetary unit but, failing that, it should at least be a unit that can be easily converted to money, such as the number of animals potentially available to the market. But if animals are used to sustain a traditional way of life, for people who do not have to pay before they can eat, it is difficult to put a monetary value on the food they consume. Similarly, if a herd of animals is sustained by forage that has no other use, on land that can be used for no other purpose, the cost of feeding cannot easily be measured in financial terms. Indeed producers have little to gain from allowing government   departments to acquire information about their assets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock owners have their own objectives when deciding whether and how to increase production. Livestock provide energy in the form of draught power, and dung for fuel or biogas. Their manure restores structure and fertility to the soil. Social prestige may be measured in the quantity and quality of the animals one possesses. For some livestock owners, their animals are their 'barking' system. They represent a deposit account for accumulated wealth and a current account when an animal is sold to raise cash. Indeed it may be impossible to obtain credit from an orthodox bank. There is an added advantage in that there are no interest charges to pay when you raise cash by selling your own animals as opposed to taking out a loan from a bank. It may be difficult to measure real production when animals are treated as a capital reserve. For example, an increase in meat prices, perhaps as a response to a change in economic policy, may result in a short-term reduction rather than increase, in the number of animals being marketed. This is because producers are able to maintain their income by selling fewer animals and can simultaneously  increase their breeding herds. Alternatively, there may be little incentive to producers to sell more animals if they have no use for the extra money they earn. It is of course true that more people are joining the cash economy as they become aware of the desirability of consumer goods, or of services such as schooling. Governments may aspire to design policies which will develop the livestock sector for the economic welfare of society as a whole, but if these policies ignore the objectives of livestock owners, they will fail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fair play</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a football match, the referee is there to see fair play. In the livestock sector, governments have to ensure fair play between the 'demand team' and the 'supply team', in other words the -consumers and the producers. Governments often make two mistakes. Either they help one team at the expense of the other, or else they join in the game themselves. The role of the authorities should be to make the rules that protect both teams from unfair or unsafe practices. For example, health and hygiene regulations must be in place, and  enforced, but not be so onerous that illegal and totally unregulated marketing channels are established.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Private traders have considerable power to manipulate markets if they collude to form cartels and prevent outsiders from entering their ring. Governments should ensure that this is not allowed to happen, that markets are open and that traders are free to operate provided that they observe health and hygiene regulations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Veterinary services</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most countries are no longer able to supply even minimum standards of veterinary support to their livestock producers. The efforts that have been made in recent years have been largely in the form of donor-funded projects where continuity is rarely guaranteed. The only viable alternative seems to be to transfer activities of this kind to service providers in the private sector. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work that they do under contract to the government, for example relating to the control of epidemic diseases, must be funded by government or other central agencies since cost-recovery from individual livestock owners is not feasible when participation has to be compulsory. The work that they do on behalf of individuals, or associations of livestock owners, should, however, be paid for by those who benefit directly from the increased productivity that should result - the farmers. The greatest difficulty lies in managing what will be a long and difficult transition period. The success of ventures to privatise veterinary services depends on whether the profession can deliver a decent living in the private sector, particularly in rural areas where the need is undoubtedly greatest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is in the rural areas that livestock production needs to be intensified. On the outskirts of Africa's major cities, intensive pig and poultry production is already being supported by commercial, joint venture capital. Dairy units, in which exotic, high performance cattle breeds are managed in a controlled environment, are producing fresh milk for cash-paying consumers in nearby towns and cities. Urban areas create the demand but it is the rural areas that need the development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal products are seasonal and prices fluctuate accordingly. However, consumers are more likely to develop the habit of using products that are consistently available at stable prices. Government intervention to stabilise  prices risks favouring the consumer at the expense of the producer. For example, if imports are used to counter temporarily high prices during periods of drought, then producers will receive less for their reduced output at the very time when they need support. The most effective policy of price stabilization is to encourage the adoption of production systems that are less vulnerable to seasonal changes. Processing achieves this to some degree and brings benefits to both producers and consumers. Furthermore, because animal products are perishable, and dangerous to human health when they deteriorate, processing extends storage life, and may even have an effect in improving food security.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most countries, the time of greatest food shortage is at the beginning of the rainy season. This is also the time when milk production soars because cattle have good feed; and yet much of that milk is wasted because there is more than required for home consumption. If that surplus milk can be fumed into cheese, potential customers in more distant markets may be reached. Provided that the product is acceptable to the consumer, cheese-making reduces wastage, diversifies the producer's source of income and may also provide employment, and therefore income, to those brought in to help with the production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A technology that has been exhaustively tested by FAO for its suitability for use in Africa is lactoperoxydase. This is an enzyme which extends by three hours the length of time before milk begins to curdle and clot. This effectively doubles the time available for milk to reach the cooling centre, and thereby extends the catchment areas for producers wishing to supply fresh milk to urban markets. The trials that have been conducted show that it is entirely safe. When milk is brought to rural collecting points, it is the responsibility of the cooling centre employee, not the farmer, to add the enzyme at the prescribed rate as the milk is transferred into cans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On current trends, it seems probable that there will be more than 20 capital cities in Africa that have a population of 10 million people by the year 2010. How many other cities and towns will have developed by that time ? There are so many people migrating to the urban areas, and they are doing so because the type of activities that ought to be taking place in the countryside do not exist. If the livestock industry, both primary production and processing, can be encouraged in rural areas, and if the infrastructure is in place to ensure that animal products, in whatever form, can reach urban markets, rural dwellers will find it more comfortable to stay where they are rather than going to the cities to look for jobs that do not exist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge for policy-makers is to deal even-handedly, not only in the interests of the livestock sector, but in the interests of other farmers, consumers, the national economy and the long-term sustainability of the nation's natural resources. For this task, reliable information, which is accessible to all countries within the region, is essential. The database structure of this information should be standardised so that it can form the basis of regional cooperation on trade and the sustainable use of land resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.R. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Couriers Mailbag</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WCL seeks a wider  expression views</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We refer to the article published by The Courier in issue no 156 (March-April 1996) entitled The changing face of trade unionism in Africa, which reflects the views of the ICFTU (AFRO) and OATUU.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We are surprised that you have not taken pains to solicit the views of the World Confederation of Labour (WCL) and its regional organisation, the Democratic Organisation of African Workers Trade Unions (DOAWTU) - which participated on the same footing as the two other trade union organisations at the ACP-KU Social Partners meeting in December last year. We strongly believe this omission on your part should be corrected in future in order to allow a wider expression of the views and stands of all representative trade unions in Africa on such important issues as structural adjustment programmes, the social clause, labour standards and working conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carlos L. Custer, Secretary-General, World Confederation of Labour, Brussels, Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linked destinies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The continuing dialogue between the ACP and EC Groups has exposed many mutual concerns about world affairs and has promoted a more complete understanding of the problems of both advanced and developing  nations. I am confident that in the future, we shall see further progress in our efforts to create a favourable financial climate for the resolution of our economic problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Global political and economic events have brought home to all of us how inextricably our social and economic destinies are linked. This is true of a whole range of subjects from human rights and political reform to economic development, conservation, health education and industrial promotion. None of these subjects can be put into independent boxes. We must seek more effective integration of our social and economic policies - both internally and internationally - if we are to serve the welfare of the people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I rejoice in your initiative in publishing The Courier. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teddyiniovo, International institute for Global Cooperation, Benin City, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scope for energy selfsufficiency</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">May I congratulate you on the new layout of The Courier, which is a great deal clearer and which you have instituted as a result of comments made by a number of your readers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I am surprised to discover that you have not said anything about the question of energy dependence in the Lom&eacute; Convention countries. Energy self sufficiency is an extremely important issue. ACP countries face a famine in this area which is rarely mentioned. Most are majors exporters of petroleum, which is  costly and absorbs a significant proportion of their foreign exchange earnings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Practically all the Lom&eacute; countries are in a position to produce alcohol from crops such as sugar cane and manioc without any negative impact on their food resources. These crops could be distilled to produce big-ethanol which is an excellent fuel. All that is needed - and it is a major challenge admittedly - is for production to be organised in each country, and for the required national and international financing to be set up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also required is the political will in these countries to overcome the various obstacles, including those lobbies who oppose this kind of production because they want petrol imports to be maintained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pierre Mariotte Consultant, Paris, France </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bibliography</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jean Monnet - 1888-1979  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Eric Roussel. Published by Fayard, Paris. 1996. 1004 pages. FFR 198.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jean Monnet was almost 91 years old when he died and, despite the fact that he had no higher education qualifications and at times did not hold any official post, his public role was legendary. From the very first page of his book, Eric Roussel stresses the fact that, from the moment Jean Monnet met the Prime Minister, Rene Viviani, in September 1914 until 9 May 1975, the day the Action Committee for a United States of Europe was dissolved, he worked constantly for the European cause.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He applied the same tireless enthusiasm to all his duties, in whatever sphere of activity he was involved - and these were many and varied. Despite his provincial origins, Jean Monnet was, among other things, a cognac merchant, an advocate of the Allied coordination effort during the First World War, Deputy Secretary General of the League of Nations (for a short time), a banker in America and China during the 1930s and in charge of the Victory Program in the USA in 1941. From 1947 to 1952, he was the first Commissioner-General of the Economic Plan in France. He and Robert Schuman were the architects of the famous Declaration of 9 May 1950 which was to form the basis of European construction. He went on to become the first President of the ECSC's High Authority and, until 1975, he was the driving force behind the Action Committee for a United States of Europe. And that is just to highlight his renowned roles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, Jean Monnet was both a visionary and a pragmatist, who was to become adviser to some of the greatest names of his day. General de Gaulle, another great visionary, albeit with a very different ideology, called him 'the inspiration' behind European integration, although such an accolade was not completely devoid of irony given that the two men could hardly be said to see eye to eye.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jean Monnet was a purveyor of new ideas, but also an eternal realist who never failed to recognise the importance of the status quo. Indeed, he could have stepped right out of the pages of a Paul Morand novel. And yet, despite the fact that he was held in the highest esteem by world political heavyweights (Clemenceau, Roosevelt, Churchill, Adenauer, de Gasperi, Brandt, Pompidou, John Kennedy, Henry Kissinger, Heath and Giscard d'Estaing, to name but a few), in his private life he was a simple man, of modest disposition - in fact a bourgeois in the best sense of the word.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 'workaholic', like many great men, Jean Monnet defied categorization. He has recently been described as 'a man of fringe ideologies who was nevertheless always at the centre of things'. During the latter part of his life, he settled comfortably into his role as 'rather' of Europe. His fundamental thoughts on that topic could be summed up in one line from the Declaration of 9 May 1950, (now a public holiday in the European institutions). 'Europe will not be built in a day, nor as a single structure, but will come about through concrete actions which, first and foremost, create a de facto solidarity'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Monnet, nationalism meant only war and, from 1942 onwards, he set his sights on preparing for the future, surrounding himself with a team of extraordinary talent - people such as Etienne Hirsch, Herve Alphand, Rene Mayer and Robert Marjolin. These men strove to find ways to avoid war between the countries of Western Europe, to define the objectives of European unification and to establish European institutions which would be equal to such a task.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eric Roussel is a journalist with an arts degree and a doctorate in law, and this is an outstanding work on the 'pragmatic visionary' that was Jean</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Monnet. The book is comprehensive, extremely well-written and impressively documented. Most notably, the author had access, for the first time, to the famous journal kept by Jean Monnet in which he recorded his countlles conversations with the key players and set out his own thoughts. Today, his dream of 'a united Europe complemented by a partnership with the United States' is still one of the big issues. And as the arguments rage, we should perhaps recall some other famous words from Jean Monnet's Memoires: 'We do not seek to form a coalition of States, we seek to unite men . </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alain Lacroix </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Le Choix de l'Europe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Opting for Europe)  by Laurent Cohen-Tanugi. Pub/ished by Fayard, Paris. 225 pages. FFR 110 - BFR 748.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Laurent Cohen-Tanugi successfully reminds us of the modernity of the European project; that there are aspects of it that are essential to our independence and our prosperity, to preserving our model of society and maintaining our influence on the international stage. By urging Europeans and European leaders to look to the future so as to be better able to manage the risks and seize the opportunities that it offers and, ultimately, to be in a better position to change things, he brings us all hope'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was how Jacques Delors described this book, and, basically, there you have it in a nutshell. It would, however, be worthwhile adding that 'opting for Europe' is not quite as simple as it sounds - a fact which has not escaped the attention of the author, who is a graduate of France's elite Ecole normale superieure and of the Harvard Law School. He is also a barrister and member of a renowned firm of international lawyers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the Treaty of Rome, European progress has very often come about because Member States have set themselves deadlines for achieving particular objectives. 1996 sees the opening of the Intergovernmental Conference, an event of major importance, which is expected to continue at least until the spring of 1997 (with parliamentary elections planned in several Member States in 1997 and 1998). Among the items on the agenda for the IGC is the need to adapt the European institutions - which in essence have hardly changed since 1958 - and to open up the way for the third phase of Economic and Monetary Union in 1999 for those States which have fulfilled the economic convergence criteria set out in the Maastricht Treaty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, besides the technical and financial problems involved, there are also differences between certain Member States about the political future of Europe. The author rightly stresses, in this respect, that the situation has become even more complex since the demise of the Soviet Union. In particular, some politicians support an expansion of the EU towards Central and Eastern Europe, so as to avoid strengthening European integration. The author believes that, broadly speaking, there are two distinct positions. On the one hand, there is the United Kingdom, which would be happy with a large free trade area guided by a 'Secretariat-Commission'and with flexible and relatively loose inter-State cooperation structures at a political level. On the other hand, there is Germany, which wants expansion of the Union towards the East as well, but also wants a swift and concrete consolidation of a common monetary and political 'hard core'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In his book, the author expresses his view that France will play a vital role in maintaining and advancing the essential elements that form the basis of the European enterprise. And he nails his own colours firmly to the mast as someone who hopes to see the continent moving towards some form of federal structure. As one observer commenting   on the work has noted, 'This little Bible, brimming with faith in the concept of a unified Europe, will be invaluable - even to the doubting Thomases among us'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publications received</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Et.... qu'en pensent les villageois? Projets de developpement durable et be veins de base b&eacute;n&eacute;ficiaires</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(But... what do the villagers think about it ? Sustainable development projects and basic needs of aid recipients)  by Myriam Bacquelaine. Published by Ured (Research, Education and Development Unit) of the K.U. Brussels (17, avenue de la Liberte, B- 1080 Brussels). 1995. 3Z2 pages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Les problemes du monde rural vus par les habitants - Portraits de villages de Haute-Guinee</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(me problems of rural life as seen by the inhabitants - Profiles of villages in Upper Guinea)  by Myriam Bacquelaine. Published by Ured (Research, Education and Development Unit) of the KU. Brussels (17, avenue de la Liberte, B- 1080 Brussels). 1995. 222 pages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, who has a PhD in educational sciences and is a researcher at Ured, has written these two works on the basis of a study she carried out on behalf of the European Commission in Guinea (Conakr,v). This aimed at identifying the most urgent priorities of village communities within the context of an environment restoration project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conclusion of the first book underlines research results which point to the adoption of a different approach to development at local level: one which respects the wishes of the recipients and which finally breaks free from western ethnocentrism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the second volume, the author presents the results of the survey conducted in the villages of Upper Guinea. Six villages with varying characteristics in terms of size, geographical location and administrative status are featured in more detail. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Informations pour le Developpement: Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Information on development: Agriculture)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Published by Ibiscus (ibis, rue du Havre, F-75008 Paris) and by the Agency for Cultural and Technical Cooperation. 1995. 271 pages. FFR 150.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than just an index, this publication is a useful working tool for anyone seeking reliable information about development in the agricultural sector. It includes a list of the main organisations specialising in agriculture in 40 French-speaking countries and a list of the principal places and means from which to obtain information (documentation centres, data banks, optical discs, CDs and on-line data services). There is also a selection of periodicals, a bibliographic section (with more than 300 references, including abstracts) and contributions by specialists relating to major topics connected with rural development: landownership systems, links between cash crops and food crops, agricultural funding, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda - Trois jour qui ont fait basculer l'histoire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Rwanda - Three days that shook history)  by Filip Reyntjens. Published by L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole-Polytechnique, F75005 Paris). Cahiers africains no. /6! 1995. 148 pages FFR 9O. ISBN 2-738437044.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although much has been written about the tragic events in Rwanda, this work examines an aspect of the story which is still largely a mystery: the brief period which began on 6 April with the missile attack on the presidential jet and ended on 9 April, when the 'caretaker government' was swam into office. According to the author, these 72 hours were of critical importance since it was during  this time that the country's killing machine was set in motion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Essentially based on eye-witnffs accounts, it is a tale which is far from complete. The book, however, does provide some hitherto undocumented information which allow us to delve deeper in search of the truth behind one of the darkest pages of recent human history.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Les refugies rwandais a Bukavu au Zaire - De nouveaux Palestiniens?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(The Rwandan refugees in Bukavu, Zaire - the new Palestinians ?)  by Philippe de Dorlodot Published by L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole-Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris) and by the Jeremie Group. 1995. 253 pages. FM 150. ISBN 2-7384-3698-6.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author has brought together various stories, appeals, communiques, analyses and thoughts to write this book about the crisis facing the Rwandan refugees. The accounts cover the period from April 1994 to October 1995 and relate to the situation in South Kivu, Zaire, where an already volatile position has been greatly exacerbated by the arrival of the refugees. The people living in the regional centres of Goma and Bukavu are having to live with the tragedy of gross overcrowding and all its consequences - environmental deterioration, price increases, general insecurity and the threat of war on the border between Rwanda and Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire now wants the refugees to leave as quickly as possible, but their return to Rwanda is still problematic. Rejected at every turn, are these Rwandan refugees set to become the new Palestinians? In the postscript to the work, Filip Reyntjens (the author of the book reviewed previously) states that 'These new refugees will not accept eternal exile. H voluntary repatriation is not possible, and if forced repatriation is unacceptable, the only way left open to them may be armed repatriation... The civil society of South Kivu... is well aware of this, and the international community would do well to listen to their cries of alarm... If  it does not, the tragic events of the past year will have been merely a prelude, with the worst still to come'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La tragedie rwandaise - Historique et Perspectives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(The Rwandan tragedy - historical background and future prospects)  by Emmanuel Nkunzumwami. Published by L'Harmaffan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1995. 480 pages. FFR 250. ISBN 2-7384-3697-8.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, a teiecommunications engineer and economist, was born and raised in Rwanda. He now lives in France and has had several articles about the situation in his country published. In this work, he seeks to Reconstruct the machine of central Rwandan power which first appeared in the eleventh century, seeking answers to questions such as: Who ruled the country and how? What alliances were forged and according to what criteria? What kinds of social structure existed and what forms did conflict take? He then goes on to describe the trauma of colonial rule which 'deliberately' fanned the flames of socio-ethnic conflict so that the people could be more easily controlled. From there, he takes us through the era of an 'independent' Rwanda under a dictatorial regime. Its power was progressively stripped away, initially under the pressure of internal calls for democracy, and then by the demands of Western aid donors. Finally, he recounts the events since April 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having given the historical background, the author examines the country's future prospects. He believes that the 'siege mentality' of the new government does nothing to induce the return of the 2 million refugees who shuffle back and forth across the border and who find themselves stuck between a 'rock and a hard place'. Finally, the author poses a straightforward question - but one which has yet to be answered: How can we rebuild a country that has witnessed genocide on such a scale ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">News round-up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In brief</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNCTAD Report on the least-developed countries (LDCs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to the annual report of UNCTAD (The UN Conference on Trade and Development), the 48 least developed countries of the planet, after several years of stagnation - and indeed, decline in some cases - enjoyed an average growth rate of 3% in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 1994-95. The figure was 4.6% for LDCs in Asia and 2.2% for those in Africa (33 out 48).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNCTAD says that the renewed grovvth rate for Africa's least developed nations is due to an increase in commodity prices, to improved political and social stability in certain countries and to economic reforms which have been implemented. If these favourable conditions are maintained, further modest progress can be anticipated for 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the positive impact of these factors on the development of countries, notably in Asia, UNCTAD believes that there is still a short-term danger that the world's weakest economies will suffer further marginalisation. It is pointed out, in this context, that the LDCs' share of total world trade - which stood at 1.7% in 1970 - had fallen to 0.4% for exports and 0.7% for imports, by 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the longer term it is thought that the LDCs, with their reliance on basic commodities for export receipts, may benefit from the globalization of their economies. This should happen notably through the regional trade agreements to which they are parties, alongside other developing countries. These regional markets, which are more attractive for investors, offer an opportunity for LDCs to try out their products and can, in time, help improve their competitiveness. In the  meantime, however, UNCTAD has noted that the immediate effects of the Uruguay Round have tended to be more negative, with reductions in the preferences enjoyed by LDCs in export markets and increases in the price of foodstuffs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, because they are dependent on official development aid (ODA) to finance investment, and even for their national budgets, LDCs are faced with possible further marginalisation as such aid flows are reduced. The figures show that, in terms of total resource flows, the amount of ODA provided by the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the OECD fell to 23% in 1994 from a figure of 27% a decade previously.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Likewise, the amount of aid, expressed as a proportion of the GDP of the donor countries, has been falling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNCTAD suggests a bolder policy as regards external debt - which, in 1994, amounted to 73% of the entire Gross Domestic Product of the LDCs. The organisation believes that the establishment of a new mechanism with sufficient resources to reduce multilateral indebtedness, combined with the expansion of existing mechanisms, could have the effect of reducing the overall debt burden to a more reasonable level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the subject of globalisation, UNCTAD argues that the international community should work to ensure that the LDCs' export markets do not become blocked by protectionist measures. It also believes that extensions to regional trade agreements, taking in the main industrialised countries, should not be allowed to have a damaging effect on the commercial interests of the LDCs. It points out that these countries have only limited scope for pursuing independent, national economic policies and that</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No agreement over banning landmines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Humanitarian organisations have expressed disappointment over the outcome of a recent United Nations conference, convened in Geneva to draw up a convention on 'Inhumane weapons). Both NGOs, and public agencies such as UNICEF, are particularly unhappy that state representatives at the meeting were unable to agree to an immediate and comprehensive ban on anti-personnel mines. These devices, which often lie hidden in the soil for many years, kill and maim thousands of civilians in current (and former) conflict areas across the globe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diplomats attending the Geneva conference were keen to emphasise what had been achieved. So-called 'dumb' mines, which do not self-destruct after a certain time will eventually be phased out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seif-destructing devices, which are still permitted under international law, will be subject to strict new standards, designed notably to ensure that they can be detected. And there will be new rules to ensure that minefieids are properly marked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Critics point out that signatories to the Convention will not be obliged to phase out 'dumb' mines immediately and that their use will remain legal for a further nine years after the agreement enters into force.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also an exception to the rule about marking the location of mines, 'where direct military action makes its impossible to comply' - a not uncommon circumstance in conflict situations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the Geneva Conference, a number of countries, including the United States, have announced their intention to reduce their stockpiles of mines. Few nations, however, seem willing to renounce their use altogether. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.  their governments have little choice but to adopt the prevailing market oriented approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Long-term food security</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A seminar on 'Long-Term Food Security Policies' was held in Brussels on 1-3 April at the initiative of the European Commission. The meeting, which was opened by Professor Pinheiro, Commissioner with responsibility for relations with the ACP countries, brought together about a hundred participants representing Member States, third countries, international organisations and major cooperation agencies. It was also attended by experts and researchers in the field of food security.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fulfilling a promise made by the Commission, the aim of the seminar was to clarify the long term strategic issues and take a closer look at food security policies with a view to preparing a European position for the World Food Summit scheduled for Rome in November under the auspices of the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community and its Member States are the world's main donors of food aid having spent ECU 1.089 billion on this in 1994. This amounted to 53% of the global total with the United States providing 44% and Japan 3%. Despite the large amounts being given, the FAO, the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the World Bank are all predicting that unless global food donations are boosted significantly, certain Asian and African countries will face an alarming food deficit by the beginning of the next century.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between 600 million and 800 million people are likely to be facing hunger by the year 2010 and the cereal needs  of the developing countries could well double between now and then.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This projected scenario coincides with a period of market difficulty. World stocks are low and grain prices have risen by 40% in just one year. Whether or not this is a portent of future food shortage, it has given rise to renewed debate on the ability of certain countries and regions of the world to supply themselves and the extent to which they will have to have recourse to the international markets. Closer attention is also being paid to the wider strategies that need to be implemented to ensure food security in the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If one looks at the issue solely in terms of increasing supply, the projections are gloomy. Experience shows that the 'right' of access to a sufficient food supply for each of the planet's inhabitants cannot be guaranteed whether through world economic growth, food self-sufficiency at the national level, or the international markets and trade liberalisation. There is, therefore, a need for food security policies, in the developing countries in particular, which act on the conditions of demand as well as supply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In his presentation opening the seminar, Commissioner Pinheiro stressed the fact that of the ECU 7 billion allocated by the EU for development cooperation last year, ECU 1 billion was in the form of food aid. He also noted that this aid 'category' had evolved over the last decade in the context of the search for food security and explained how the Commission, in revising the policy towards the end of 1994, had set out three essential aspects:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the use of food aid as a policy instrument designed to achieve longterm food security with the emphasis on local purchases and 'triangular' operations - thereby encouraging the growth of the agricultural sector in the developing countries: this entailed developing a new aid instrument in which funds are available to import basic food products (as a way of encouraging the private sector to  take a more active part in the economic life of those countries facing a structural food deficit);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the integration of aid instruments into the actual development efforts of the beneficiary countries;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - improved access for the people who suffer most from food shortages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Professor Pinheiro indicated that the Commission would shortly be presenting a communication on the strengthening of the link between development aid on the one hand and emergency, rehabilitation and food aid on the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He stressed the important role that food aid operations could play in preventing conflicts and easing social tensions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to the Commissioner, the challenge in this area have been clearly identified but he believes that additional thinking is needed, notably on the impact of events in China and the countries of the former Soviet Union, and on the effect of US and EC agricultural policies on the world markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, Professor Pinheiro expressed the view that food security was, above all, a national responsibility with all civil society actors having a role to play.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Citing the rise in the price of cereals during the second half of 1995 - which had prompted concerns about the availability of food aid and its impact on the balance of payments (notably in sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian sub-continent) - he gave an assurance that the Commission would remain vigilant about this. At the same time, he was concerned not to see a return to situations where aid in the form of straightforward transfers of food increased. These, he observed,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· had at least partly contributed to food costs, the destabilisation of local production and constraints on intra-regional trade. As such, they had set   back or undermined the reforms in this sector in the countries concerned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean rice exporters fear changes in OCT . rules</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guyana and Suriname, together with a number of Overseas Countries and Territories (OCTs), have expressed concern over the European Commission's recently announced intention to change the shape of its relations with the OCTs. In particular, they are worried that proposed new rules could harm their rice sales to the 15 European Union nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guyana currently exports 180 000 tonnes of rice (80% of its exports) to the KU. This is shipped initially to the Netherlands Antilles (Cura&ccedil;ao, Aruba and Bonaire) to be partially milled. It then enters the EU market duty-free by virtue of the Union's existing trade rules with the OCTs. But Caribbean exporters fear that this 'OCT route' could soon be blocked by changes currently being considered in Brussels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As already announced in issue no 157 of The Courier (May-June 1996), in the context of the mid-term review of the association with the OCTs, the Commission published a text on February 14 proposing some fine tuning to the trade preferences it grants to these territories. This has now gone forward to the Council of Ministers for decision. The Commission proposal is that while agricultural produce may continue being processed in the OCTs - and hence still benefit from the more relaxed rules - this should happen in future on a case-by-case basis, and only if priority is given to the least developed OCTs and the operations are economically justified.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, preferential arrangements do apply to direct rice exports from Guyana and Suriname to the KU, but it is argued that the levies are still too high to make the trade viable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to Yesu Persaud, who is Chairman of Guyana's Institute of Private Enterprise; 'it is only via the OCTs that we can export to the European Union.' Mr Persaud was speaking to journalists during a lobby visit to Brussels on April 16. He was accompanied by Charles P Kennard, Chairman of the Guyana Rice Development Board and David Jessop, director of the London-based Caribbean Council for Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Justifying the need for derange, some EU officials point to evidence that non-tome developing countries are 'abusing' the OCT rice route. Rice is a sensitive product for some EU nations such as Spain and Italy, who grow their own.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Persaud said that Guyana and Suriname were lobbying either for their own duty-free quota under the Lom&eacute; trade rules, or for 'a more reasonable levy'. At the same time, however, he indicated that the Caribbean rice growers were keen on keeping the route open via the Dutch and other OCTs (such as Montserrat and the Turks and Caicos) where major investments have been made on the  strength of the existing arrangements. A representative of the Turks and Caicos told reporters that his country earned half a million dollars a year from the trade, and that a new jetty had been built with British government support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guyana's rice exports have climbed from less than 39 000 tonnes in 1986 to more than 200 000 tonnes in 1995. And as Mr Persaud also stressed, the trade has done so well that Guyana is now investing in high-yielding varieties. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fight against locusts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fipronil, a recently developed pesticide, is said to be 10 times more effective than other products on the market in the control of locusts, according to representatives of the pharmaceutical giant, Rhone-Poulenc who organised a seminar on locust control </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Links between emergency, rehabilitation and development aid </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European commission has recently approved a communication </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> (COM(96) 153) which was due to be presented to the Development Council on 28 May. The document seeks to respond tO the challenge of I maintaining and improving the effectiveness of emergency aid  rehabilitation assistance and development cooperation with third countries - in the face of a wide variety of political, economic and social circumstances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Communication suggests ways of strengthening the links between the three types of aid within a strategic planning framework which includes intensified dialogue and political cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This initiative follows extensive consultations, both within the Commission (i_ service groups) and with representatives of numerous outside bodies (Member State experts, USAID, UN agencies, NGOs, academic institutions etc.). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the key phrase in the Communication may be 'strategy and global planning', emphasis is also placed on 'coordination' end 'opportunity'. This underlines a commitment to adapting procedures, where necessary, so that measures can be taken at the right time and the transition from emergency aid, to rehabilitation and subsequently to development cooperation can take place in the best possible conditions.  with the 70-member African, Caribbean and Pacific group. The event took place in Brussels in April.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new product, claims the company, fills a big gap that was left in the war against locust infestation when DDT was banned in 1986 (toxic residues from the chemical having been found to enter the food chain and damage the ecosystem).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is stated that Fipronil causes 99% mortality among locusts and gives complete protection for up to three weeks when applied in doses of six grammes per hectare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Its developers claim that it is three times cheaper than any other form of anti-locust pesticide used between 1987-1995, a calculation which includes the logistical costs involved in distributing the pesticide. It is said to be very effective in preventing locust infestations in countries in the Sahel that are particularly at risk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Sahel has some 250 acridian species. Of these, about 15, are known regularly to attack crops in large numbers, according to Michel Launois, who heads the French agricultural research body, CIRAD-GERDAT-PRIFAS.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the Brussels seminar, emphasis was placed on the need for donors to set aside more funds for the prevention of locust infestations. It was also stressed that locust control must be at a regional level because of the migratory nature of the species, and the link between locust control and food security was underlined.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CIRAD-GERDAT-PRIFAS has just published an educational cartoon strip entitled 'Les Dents du Ciel 11' (available from Cirad-Gerdat-Prifas, B.P. 5035, F34032 Montpellier Cedex 1). This is intended to explain to a wide audience the need for an integrated approach to locust control.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I New fishing agreement between Angola and the EU</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new fisheries agreement between Angola and the EU was initialled on 2 May. It is due to run for three years (as opposed to two years for the previous one) and should ensure greater stability and better programming of the Community fleet's fishing activities in Angolan waters. The EU will pay Angola the sum of ECU 13.35 million per annum in exchange for improved fishing rights for European fishermen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is worth noting that the agreement contains certain innovations. These concern, for example, the legal status of catches (which are given Community origin). This should help to avoid the kind of dispute that has arisen in the recent past. There is also the possibility of imposing an annual biological 'rest-period' for shrimp fishing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I African conference on consumer protection</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first African conference on consumer protection was held in Harare, Zimbabwe from 28 April to 2 May. This resulted from a joint initiative by the organization Consumers international and the United Nations, and it was supported financially by the European Commission. The latter was represented at the event by Mrs Emma Bonino, the Commissioner responsible for Consumer Policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The aim of the conference was to lay down the basis for a genuine consumer policy in Africa. Representatives of 45 African governments attended, together with officials from various regional and sub-regional organizations and delegates from a large number of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African consumer bodies. Coinciding with the tenth anniversary of the adoption by the UN of the guiding principles for the protection of consumers, the Conference offered an opportunity to track progress on the application of these principles in African countries. It also saw the adoption of 'model' legislation setting out the essential rights which should be guaranteed to consumers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In her speech, Mrs Bonino stressed the Commission's commitment to supporting the efforts of African governments and consumer organisations in seeking to establish, in a clear and pragmatic way, the link between consumption and development. Evidence of this commitment, she pointed out, was to be seen in her very presence at the conference. She also lent her support to the broad application of the UN's guiding principles in Africa. This would ensure that the health, security and economic rights of African consumers could be protected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the European Commissioner stressed that legislation, while important, was not enough in itself to tackle the fundamental problem - which was the satisfaction of basic needs. She appealed for global action in Africa deigned to break the vicious circle of poverty - based on voluntary action at all levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mrs Bonino added that the Commission would seek ways of supporting projects, in particular in the fields of food and health. This should assist citizens to meet their essential needs - with the opportunity to consume products which were different, 'local' and of better quality, and with risks to health and security minimised. The approach should avoid the exhaustion of scarce resources and respect nature. She indicated that an action plan would be drawn up by the Commission in collaboration with Consumers International. This, it was hoped, would allow financing of pilot programmes under a separate budget line which would be sought from the European Parliament for 1997. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE INSTITUTIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AT WORK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COMMON FOREIGN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> AND SECURITY POLICY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), the European Union has recently issued a number of statements, details of which are set out below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Towards national reconciliation in Angola</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 4 April 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Troika of the European Union Ambassadors in Luanda made a formal demarche with both the Government of Angola and UNITA in order to welcome the positive outcome of the Libreville Summit between the President of Angola, Jose Eduardo dos Santos, and the President of UNITA, Jonas Savimbi, and in particular their commitment to establish an integrated national army by June and the creation of an appropriate institutional structure, including the formation of a government of unity and national reconciliation by June/July. The Government and UNITA were encouraged to continue to refrain from military activity and hostile propaganda and to provide for free circulation of persons and goods as soon as possible. The EU Ambassadors underlined also the importance of securing human rights as well as transparency in financial management, economic stabilisation and reforms. Having recalled the terms of reference of the EU Joint Position adopted on 2 October, 1995, the Ambassadors underlined that the Union will continue to monitor, with the greatest attention, the development of the situation particularly as regards respect for the implementation of the calendar agreed in Libreville. Welcoming the recent steps taken by UNITA, the EU expressed concern at the slow pace of the quartering and disarming of UNITA troops and urged UNITA to proceed with its commitments, in full cooperation with UNAVEM ill. The EU encouraged the Government to continue the quartering of the rapid intervention police and the disengagement and pulling back of the FAA to the nearest barracks. The importance of disarming the civilian population was also emphasised. The EU also reiterated their call to the Government and UNITA to refrain from acquiring lethal material and to cooperate fully with the de-mining process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has reiterated its full support to the Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General, Maitre Blondin Beye, to the Joint Commission and to the United Nations Angola Verification Mission (UNAVEM).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia and Malta align themselves with this declaration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free elections in Sierra Leone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 4 April 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union welcomes the fact that presidential and parliamentary elections took place in Sierra Leone in a free and fair atmosphere and in fulfilment of the established timetable for the return to democracy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results reflect the will of the people of Sierra Leone to achieve a democratically elected civilian government despite attempts at intimidation by armed elements and the ongoing fighting in various parts of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU welcomes the peace talks between the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) and the Freetown authorities as well as the intention expressed by President Kabbah to meet Mr Sankoh at the earliest possible opportunity. The EU calls on all the parties to work for peace and national reconciliation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serious threat to peace process in Liberia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 11 April 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses its deep concern at the outbreak of fighting in Monrovia, which represents a serious threat to the peace process in Liberia. The EU is firmly convinced that the AbuJa agreement provides the right framework for resolving the crisis and calls upon the Council of State, the Liberian national transitional government and the Liberian factions to implement it, and to put the peace process back on track, in order to avoid further deterioration of the situation, and the violation of human rights. The EU condemns the loss of human life and the harassment of the civilian population and humanitarian workers. All parties concerned should prove their willingness to re-establish and maintain the ceasefire which represents the necessary prerequisite to disarmament and demobilization. The relevant measures and the necessary preparations can no longer be delayed. The EU asks the factions to return all weapons seized during the fighting to ECOMOG. The EU will base its attitude to Liberia on the concrete steps taken by all parties concerned to implement the Abuja agreement and bring the conflict to an end.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Treaty of Pelindaba on a nuclear weapon-free zone in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 12 April 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union welcomes the signature in Cairo on 11 April 1996 of the Pelindaba Treaty establishing the African Nuclear Weapon Free Zone. The Treaty is in line with the Decision on Principles and Objectives for Nuclear Non-Proliferation and Disarmament issued by the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference which   recognised that the creation of Nuclear Weapon Free Zones enhances global and regional peace and security.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU considers that Nuclear Weapon Free Zones are welcome complementary instruments to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, the universality of which the EU continues to promote.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Central and Eastern European countries associated with the EU and the associated countries Cyprus and Malta align themselves with this declaration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appeal for the 'boat people' of Liberia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 14 May 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses its deep concern at the grave humanitarian situation caused by the ongoing fighting in Monrovia and condemns the violence against the civilian population and the harassment of aid operations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While recognising the enormous efforts already made by neighbouring countries to assist the hundreds of thousands of existing Liberian refugees, the Council deplores the fact that the thousands of people crammed in precarious conditions on ships in the area are still in search of a friendly port.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It appeals on humanitarian grounds to the neighbouring countries to give at least temporary shelter to these victims of the fighting and affirms its own willingness to give humanitarian aid to cover their most urgent needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Council calls on all the Liberian factions to stop the fighting immediately and put the peace process back on track in order to avoid further suffering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VISITS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Prime Minister of Rwanda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Prime Minister of Rwanda, Pierre Celestin Rwigema, visited Brussels from 26 to 29 March in the course of a tour aimed at informing the main donors about the work undertaken by his government in recent months and about the policies which would be implemented in the future. He was accompanied by the Minister of Planning and the Minister for Rehabilitation. The Prime Minister was received by Commissioner Pinheiro, who is responsible for relations with the ACP countries and by Mrs Bonino, the Commission member in charge of humanitarian actions. He also spoke at meetings of the External Relations and Development Committees of the European Parliament. Professor Pinheiro took the opportunity to highlight to the Prime Minister his concerns about the current situation in Rwanda, reiterating the Commission's commitment to the country and its people. He also spoke of the need for the authorities to pursue policies and implement measures leading to the restoration of normality. He said it was essential to have a dialogue with the Rwandan refugees in neighbouring countries (there are now about 1.7 million) and to pursue the pacification process under the auspices of the United Nations and the Organisation of African Unity, with the involvement of all the heads of government in the Great Lakes region. Mr Rwigema's visit came at a crucial time for Rwanda. Even if the immediate crisis had passed, there was still a dire need for rehabilitation and development assistance, on top of the existing emergency aid programmes. The political situation remained delicate and the future was by no means secure, notwithstanding some encouraging signs of a progressive improvement as exemplified by the Tunis summit. The recent nomination of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aldo Ajello as the EU's special envoy to the Great Lakes region underlined the political and moral dimension of the EU's commitment to the peace process in this troubled part of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUPPORT FOR HUMAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RIGHTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently decided to provide the following financing for projects under the budget line 'Support for. democratisation and human rights'. Non-ACP countries </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central America: ECU 180.000 to support seven national and one regional fore aimed at providing training in the field of human rights for instructors. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central America: ECU 100.000 for a democracy consolidation training programme for 30 teams from various organisations in Nicaragua, Guatemala and El Salvador. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central America/Colombia: ECU 263.000 for a series of actions, notably in Colombia, involving the provision of information on human and citizens' rights. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil: ECU 190.000 for a project designed to boost the civil rights of black people in the country, through the training of judicial personnel and the strengthening of legislation against race discrimination. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil: ECU 145.000 for a training programme for magistrates, prosecutors and the police aimed at facilitating the uniform application of the law in the State of S&atilde;o Paulo. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil: ECU 290.000 for a training programme in the sphere of democratic municipal management, in the cities of Recife, Porto Alegre, Santos and Fortaleza. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala: ECU 308.000 for a project to collect and make available the case law of the Constitutional Court, and  to train officials and members of civil society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honduras: ECU 326.000 to support the National Human Rights Commission with a view to promoting such rights in the Departments of Comayagua and Olancho. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honduras: ECU 131.000 for an education programme dealing with civic and electoral issues and the rights of children. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexico: ECU 20.000 to support an initial Latin-American colloquium on the subject of the Ombudsman (in the face of the objectives and challenges of the region). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua: ECU 285.000 to support the social rehabilitation of minors in custody. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panama: ECU 125.000 for a training action in the field of the defence of human rights. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panama: ECU 250.000 to support a communication campaign designed to strengthen the image of the 'people's ombudsman'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela: ECU 160.000 to strengthen the institution of Justices of the Peace in the country's municipalities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela: ECU 100.000 ECU for a training and promotion action in the field of human rights and the strengthening of civil society. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EUROPEAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEVELOPMENT FUND</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following, where required, favourable opinions from the EDF Committee, the Commission has decided to provide grants and special loans from the 5th, 6th and 7th EDFs to finance the following operations (grants unless otherwise stated). Major projects and programmes are highlighted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic and social infrastructure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon: ECU 7.3 million for a programme aimed at protecting the urban boundary of the city of Kousseri from the encroachments of the Logone river, to improve sanitation and for the upgrading of an urban access route towards Chad. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 54 million for a transport infrastructure programme aimed at facilitating the social and economic development of the people living in the recisions in question (Western region, Brong Afaho, the Ashanti region). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 3.8 million for a human resource development programme designed to achieve better planning, management and implementation of development projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 1.9 million for a project to support the development of tourism. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 385 000 to extend the water supply system in the town of Mantola </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 13.5 million to upgrade the Ere-Kelo road </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade promotion/ structural adjustment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benin-Cameroon C&ocirc;te-d'lvoire-GhanaGuinea-Togo: ECU 1.99 million for a regional programme of trade activities and training with a view to relaunching the pineapple business in West and Central Africa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burkina Faso: ECU 180 000 for the construction of an 'export and creativity' pavilion at the Salon international de l'artisanat in Ouagadougou. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua-New Guinea: ECU 5.3 million for the fourth structural adjustment support programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madagascar: ECU 1.9 million for a rice irrigation project. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enterpris</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana: ECU 33.7 million from the Sysmin fund, to support the work of the BCL, Tati and FEB mining companies in the SelebiPhikwe region. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominican Republic: ECU 1.3 million to support the STD-HIV-AIDS prevention programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madagascar: ECU 1.9 million for a decentralised training project in favour of regional tourism operators. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tuvalu: ECU 300 000 for the rehabilitation of primary schools on the islands of Nukutetau and Nanumea. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Africa (Cameroon-Central African Republic-Congo-GabonEquatorial Guinea): ECU 16 million for phase 2 of the ECOFAC project (Conservation and rational utilisation of forest ecosystems in Central Africa). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Institutional support</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi: ECU 1 million towards a study aimed at allowing the government to implement its land reform policy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea: ECU 4.5 million for a study aimed at allowing the government to undertake proper planning in the area of water resources and irrigation. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miscellaneous</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacific region: ECU 4.9 million for a project designed to improve the efficiency and security at certain airports. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUMANITARIAN AID</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali: ECU 1 million towards the reintegration of some 200 000 Malians who fled to Algeria and Mauritania during the rebellions of the 1980s. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 317 000 for victims of the severe floods that struck the centre and south of the country recently. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria: ECU 850 000 to help fight the meningitis epidemic affecting seven provinces of the country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sierra Leone: ECU 700 000 in urgent food and medical assistance for some 250 000 refugees who fled to the areas around the towns of Bo and Kemena following the fighting. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 200 000 to help fight the meningitis epidemic. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 145 000 to help victims of the cholera epidemic and to assist in preventing its further spread (following the course of the Zaire river). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia: ECU 60 000 to help fight cholera in the municipality of Silvia, where some 40 000 are under threat due to a lack of drinking water and deficiencies in basic hygiene. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala: ECU 1.52 million to provide food aid and basic essentials to returnees from other parts of the country, and from Mexico, following years of civil war. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Armenia/Azerbaijan: ECU 11.57 million (ECU 4.07m for Armenia and ECU 7.5m for Azerbaijan), for food and medical assistance, targeted at the most vulnerable sections of the population, and for the provision of agricultural materials with a view to reducing progressively the dependence of the refugees, who are victims of the conflict in Nagomo-Karabakh.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caucasus-Georgia-Tadilkistan: ECU 3.2 million for food aid to be targeted at the most vulnerable sections of the population. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Georgia: ECU 7.43 million for victims of the internal conflict in this country where the loss of the Russian market has seriously undermined the rural economy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lebanon: ECU 600 000 for displaced people, to allow for the purchase of basic essentials including food, medicines, shelter and blankets. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afghanistan: ECU 600 000 for health infrastructures in the refugee camps   around Jalalabad, and for medical aid to refugees in the town of Herat. Indonesia: ECU 120 000 for toots and materials to construct shelters for the victims of the earthquake that struck in February. China (Tibetan nomads): ECU 550 000 for food aid, medicines and blankets for some 72 000 people living in the mountainous regions who have been badly hit by severe weather and a food shortage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AID </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p95a.png"></center><br>
+ The Commission has recently taken decisions to finance food aid as set out in the chart which follows: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
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+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa - Caribbean - Pacific - European Union</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Address: Postal address (mail only) 'The ACP-KU Courier' Commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 Brussels Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier office address (visitors) First floor Astrid Building 1, rue de Geneve Evere - Brussels Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publisher Steffen Smide commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 - BRUSSELS (Belgium) Tel. 00-32-2-299 11 11 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Publications</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assistant editors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeanne Remade</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associate assistant  editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joumalist:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Production Manager:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dorothy Morrissey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secretariat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carmela Peters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: 299-30~02</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Margriet Mahy-van der Werf</P></FONT>
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+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFRICA-CARIBBEAN-PACIFIC - EUROPEAN-UNION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali, which used to be the centre of great appears hemmed in by its frontiers, colonisation having culminated in the break-up of the old 'French Sudan'. Following the marxist regime of Modibo Keita (the 'founder' of the nation) and the dictatorship of Mousse Traor&eacute;, Mali has discovered democracy. It is still one of the world's poorest countries but recent macro-economic trends are highly encouraging and there is a new dynamism. It seems that the ending of the Tuareg conflict has provoked a surge of optimism- even among ordinary citizens whose wallets have yet to feel the effects of an improving national economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacific island nations have a reputation for idyllic scenery and rich cultural traditions. Western Samoa has both of these assets in abundance, but it also faces many development challenges. With a population of just 165 000, the country has a limited local market, and it is a very long way from potential overseas customers. It is also susceptible to destructive tropical storms. Despite these constraints, there have been some promising signs of economic progress in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dossier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Investing in people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To say that investing in people makes economic sense is to state the obvious. But to what extent are the implications of this statement fully understood in the developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, in these days of constantly shifting development theories? We look at this subject in our Dossier. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acnowledgements</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa - Caribbean - Pacific - European Union</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Address: Postal address (mail only) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'The ACP-EU Courier' Commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1049 Brussels </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belgium </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier office address (visitors) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First floor Astrid Building 1, rue de Gen&egrave;ve </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evere - Brussels </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publisher Steffen Smidt </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission of the European communities </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">200, rue de la Loi </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1049 - BRUSSELS </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Belgium) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. 00-32-2-299 11 11 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Publications</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assistant editors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeanne Remacle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associate assistant editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalist:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Production Manager:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dorothy Morrissey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secretariat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carmela Peters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: 299-30-02</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Margriet Mahy-van der Werf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(299-30-12)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cower page:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cover photo by</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John and Penny Hubley</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Meeting points</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Ieremiah Tabai, Secretary General of the Forum Secretariat</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Pacific Forum: 'responding to the needs of the Member States'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although an accountant by training, leremiah Tabai has never had the opportunity to practise his profession, having pursued a successful political career instead since 1974. In 1978, he was annointed head of government in Kiribati and a year later he became his country's first President, when it achieved independence. He held this position for 12 years. In 1991, he took up the top post in one of the South Pacific's key regional bodies, the Forum Secretariat, which is based in Suva, Fiji. During a recent Courier visit to the region, we had the opportunity to interview the Secretary General. Our discussion was wide-ranging, covering issues such as the Forum Secretariat's role, the economic challenges facing the South Pacific, and the development of regional links with Australia, New Zealand and Asia. We began by asking Mr Tabai to outline the objectives of the organisation that he heads.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Like many other organisations in the region, the Forum was established essentially to try and assist the development process of the Member States. At the time it was set up, there was already an organisation in existence - the South Pacific Commission - which dates back to 1947. But there was a feeling that we needed an organisation that was not just restricted to economic issues; that could talk about other matters with a bearing on the development of the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the early years, when the organisation was called the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Cooperation (SPEC), the focus was heavily on trying to assist the trade and economic development of the member countries. Later, the name was changed to the Forum Secretariat and its role evolved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In what way ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It has evolved in seeking to respond to the needs of the Member States. It started as a very small bureau essentially dealing, as I said, with trade and economic issues. Subsequently, it moved into areas like energy, civil aviation, maritime questions and telecommunications. It also became more involved in political issues. We have a division which deals specifically with these.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1995 was a very important year in the history of the Forum. We had a review of the organisation, looking at ways we could perform better and taking account of the changes in the region and the world at large. The fundamental recommendation in the report which came out of that review was that the Secretariat should focus mainly in future on poliy-related issues, in the areas of trade and investment, economics and international relations. This report was discussed and endorsed at the last Forum in Madang, Papua New Guinea. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Does this mean, in practice, a withdrawal from project activity ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It may. The essential focus of the work will be providing policy advice to countries. Having said this, there should still be some project work. For instance, we will be engaged in a programme to provide assistance for importers, particularly in the small island countries. The idea is to help people- who may not be familiar with all the legal requirements-to learn how to get into the business. This will involve running a workshop and inviting people with expertise to pass on their knowledge. So even though the focus will be on policy issues, there will still be room for project-type activities where needed -so long as these fit in with the policy priorities. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mentioned the fact that the Forum now deals with political questions. Although the issue may now be seen as 'water under the bridge' to what extent was the Forum Secretariat involved in the diplomatic disagreement over French nuclear testing ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- We were very much involved from the beginning. In 1991, when the French testing was not underground but atmospheric, the region, at a Forum meeting, came out strongly in opposition to the tests. Right up to our last meeting in Madang, the subject was always a major item on the agenda, and we left France in no doubt as to the resolve of our region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the new President took the decision to resume testing after a gap of several years, I was in the group from the South Pacific that went to France to express our views to French ministers, face-to-face. Our team was led by the then Australian Foreign Minister, Gareth Evans, who was President of the Forum. And when the tests began again, the Chairman took a decision suspending the dialogue and partner status of France with the Forum. So, as you see, we have been heavily involved in the issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What resources does the Forum have at its disposal and where does the money come from ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- An important source of funds is our members' contributions. These tend to be used to cover the operational costs of the organisation. Then of course, there are the funds made available by our donors. The main ones are obviously Australia and New Zealand but there are many other countries and international organisations who provide assistance. The EU, of course, is an important partner. There was also a private donor who funded our conference centre.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How many people are employed in the Secretariat ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Around 80, all based here in Suva. Most of these are support staff.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is the current state of relations between the Forum Secretariat and the main donors ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I would say our relations are good. We have an extensive mechanism for consultation with the donors. Every two years, we invite them here for a dialogue. We talk about the key issues and discuss ways in which they can assist us. There is also usually a dialogue associated with the Forum (ministerial) meetings. In September this year, after the Forum meeting, we will have more discussions with our main partners such as the EU, Canada, France, Japan and the UK. I should mention too the close links we have with international organisations like the Asian Development Bank, the World Bank and the IMF.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I think it is fair to say that the Forum Secretariat is seen as a particularly important organisation in the region. That is why donors are quite keen to be seen assisting us in what we do.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are the key development issues facing the South Pacific nations ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Development is quite a difficult process for our region. There are various international reports (particularly from the World Bank) - that describe how we have fared over the last few years. If you compare our performance with the Caribbean countries, for example, you find that we have not done nearly so well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We face a number of problems. First, there is the fact that we are so small. Small communities find it much more difficult than large ones to achieve development. You need to have the market and the critical mass to do all the things that are needed and we lack these. A second, related point is that our countries are very isolated from the rest of the world. It is true that here in Fiji, there are quite good connections, but if you go to Tuvalu, Kiribati or Niue, you will soon discover how difficult it is to get out. And if you are so isolated in terms of communication, how can you hope to increase your exports ? How can you airfreight your fish to Japan when there is no aircraft available-or the one that is available is not fast enough to ensure that the product is still fresh when it arrives?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On this question, one of the things we are increasingly realising is the need to do more in terms of human resource development. We all recognise that, without an educated population and workforce, it is very hard to achieve the development that we are aiming for. To be fair, if you compare the literacy rates here with those of many other countries, say in Africa, they are not at all bad. Our literacy levels are quite high. But I think we have a long way to go in acquiring problem-solving skills of the type needed to compete internationally. We are now talking with the EU about how we can utilise funding from the second protocol of Lom&eacute; IV. And I suspect that human resource development will remain high on the agenda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is that view shared by the European side ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think so. l have a feeling that they will support it because it is so obvious. If you develop human skills, you are better placed when it comes to problem-solving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Going back to the key development issues, another point is the lack of natural resources. This is less of a difficulty for countries like Fiji or Papua New Guinea, but it certainly affects the small island states. It hardly needs saying that if you don't have the resources in the first place, it is much harder to develop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, I think there is a question of how the Pacific region can get a better return on the resources it does have. This theme of 'managing our resources' was discussed by the Forum in Brisbane two years ago. Fisheries is probably the most important area here. The question is how we can earn more from this than we are currently doing- and there is no easy answer. Likewise in the forestry sector. We have to ensure that logging is done on a sustainable basis. But we must also recognise that leaders of the Pacific nations are under pressure. On the one hand, they are trying to take a lona-term view. but they are also striving to tackle the immediate problems. In an ideal world, our region would obtain a far better return on our resources, and that is something that we have to work on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having said all this, I don't think one should be too pessimistic. This region is still a very good place to live in. That is clearly reflected in the number of visitors we get. The 'South Seas' still have a special connotation that draws people here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You effectively have two 'genera/' regional organisations, with overlapping memberships, covering the South Pacific -the Forum, and the South Pacifc Commission (SPC). Do you think there is room for bath ? Do you complement each other or is there a rivalry ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We have more than two regional organisations. We also have SPREP (South Pacifc Regional Environment Programme), the FFA (Forum Fisheries Agency)....</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but these are specialist bodies with distinct sectoral responsibilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, that's true. In answer to your question, my view is that we have no problem with things as they stand. I was very involved in the debate some years back on the question of what we called an SRO - a single regional organisation. There was a strong push to try and achieve an SRO. The subject was debated for a few years and, in the end, it was possible to resolve the question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mean it was resolved by the idea being abandoned ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I suppose it depends on the way you look at it. The outcome was a decision to leave the regional organisations as they are but with the establishment of a mechanism to ensure they work together more effectively. This mechanism is called SPOCC-the South Pacific Organisations Coordinating Committee. It is a meeting of heads of regional organisations which happens at least once a year. We talk about the issues that are common to our mandate and work out ways of doing things better. SPOCC has been operating for six or seven years now and I think it works fairly well. There is, after all, no conflict in our underlying objectives. So my answer here is no, I don't see any problem. I don't see any rivalry between us. It is a question of seeing how we can work together to achieve the goals that we share.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the European Union, the fundamental goal, set out in the Treaty, is to move towards 'ever-closer union' We have been doing this in fits and starts over the past 35 years. Do you see the Forum perhaps taking on a similar role here-as the focus for economic, and perhaps ultimately, political integration in the South Pacifc ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- I think it is too early to speculate. We already have a number of sub-groups in the region like the MSG, the Melanesian Spearhead Group, whose members are the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu and Fiji (admitted last year). Further north, we have the Micronesian grouping which brings together Nauru, Tuvalu, the Marshall Islands and Kiribati. These groups meet outside the Forum framework and they essentially have a common aim which is to work more closely together. I think they feel it is easier to do it at this level because they are closer to each other and have more in common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for the Forum Secretariat, you can never tell what may come in the future. On balance, however, I think at the moment that integration is a long way off. Having said this, you do sometimes hear people putting the idea forward. There is, for example, something called the CER system, which stands for 'closer economic relations' between Australia and New Zealand. There have been suggestions that it might be possible to enlarge this grouping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking at closer economic cooperation, and the general dismantling of trade barriers, we also need to recognise the growing importance of APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) for the region. We are trying strengthen our links with the APEC countries and in October, we will be establishing a trade office in Japan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mean a Forum Secretariat office ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, in Tokyo. We are also talking with the Chinese and will probably end up with an office in Beijing. This is all part of our attempt to integrate ourselves with the Asean region. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by Simon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mission statement of the Forum Secretariat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mission of the Forum Secretariat is to enhance the economic and social well being of the people of the South Pacific, in support of the efforts of the national governments. The Secretariat has particular responsibility to facilitate, develop and maintain cooperation and consultation between member governments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Secretariat must pursue its mission in accordance with the directives of the Forum and within its mandated areas of operation. it undertakes political and economic activities, regional in nature and complementary to the activities of the member governments. Its role requires it to act as the secretariat to the Forum and to disseminate the Forum's views, to coordinate activities with other regional institutions in particular through the SPOCC process, and to represent the Forum's interests intemationally, as required. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ACP</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Investment symposium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A success story for African mining</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The MIGA (Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency) symposium was held in Montreal from 22-24 May. It brought together some 40 African mining ministers, most of the important donor agencies and representatives of around 25 mining companies. MIGA, which is a specialised agency of the World Bank, promotes the flow of private investment to developing countries. It provides insurance against political risks and assists member countries in attracting foreign investment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The purpose of the symposium was to attract investors from all over the world in order to exploit the rich mining possibilities offered by many African states. Several of the countries that attended went to considerable effort to present themselves well, and it was evident that some are quickly learning what it takes to attract foreign investors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The climate for mining investment in most African states has improved tremendously over the last two to three years. Most countries have introduced new mining codes, clearly defining the rights and obligations of foreign investors. State-owned companies are also being privatised, taxation has been made more reasonable and institutions in the mining sector, such as geological surveys, are becoming more efficient.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this has led to a big increase in exploration for new deposits and a substantial increase in investment. At present, the activity is particularly heavy in West Africa, where many countries have very good gold potential. The European Community is contributing to this development in several ways. The biggest success so far has been the exploration campaign in Mali, funded under that country's Lom&eacute; National Indicative Programme (NIP), which led to the discovery of the Sadiola gold deposit. A world-class gold mine will be built here, bringing substantial benefits to the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank has also supported many African countries in their efforts to reform the legal and administrative framework for the mining industry. An important element, however, in attracting mining companies is the availability of good geological data. This is a very expensive activity, which does not bring immediate returns, if at all. So it is not appropriate to finance this through bank loans. The NlPs and SYSMIN Fund, on the other hand, are instruments that are well-suited to this kind of work. The Community has already financed a series of airborne geophysical surveys in Botswana and Namibia -to mention just two examples-and a new Sysmin project is currently being prepared for Burkina Faso.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission Unit responsible for Mining Cooperation and Sysmin (VIIIl.B.5) was represented at the symposium. Its main purpose for being there was to present the functioning of Sysmin and the Community's cooperation in the field of mining to ACP ministers, mining companies and other donor agencies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Current state of the mining sector</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mining sector is currently very active. Exploration in West Africa doubled between 1993 and 1995 and new mines are being opened all the time. A lot of this new activity is to be found in the gold sector. This is mainly due to the development of cheaper production methods combined with a much more positive investment climate in many African countries. A gold mine takes less time to reach the production stage than, for example, a copper mine, with the former being far less dependent on good infrastructure. Outside the gold sector, activity is much more subdued. While base-metal prices are at a reasonable level, the pay-back period is much longer and the lack of suitable infrastructure kills many projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For many countries, mining is a key area in the growth of the private sector. State-ownad mines are being privatised and the new mines that are being opened have little or no state participation. Foreign investors are bringing in the most up-to-date mining technologies and business methods, and they are faced with the need to train local people in technical and business skills. Supporting the mining sector is clearly an efficient way of supporting private sector development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SYSMIN's future role</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given that most metals are currently fetching quite high prices, it is probable that relatively few ACP countries will be eligible for SYSMIN assistance over the next two to three years. The viability of most existing mines is not thought to be under threat and they should continue to be profitable. Thus, countries that are heavily dependent on mining should not experience severe losses in export income, which in turn means that relatively few SYSMIN requests are expected during the period of Lom&eacute; IV's second financial protocol. At the same time, the financial allocation for SYSMIN has been increased from ECU 48Om to ECU 575m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When trying to attract new mining investors, it is essential for a country to have good geological information. Private companies are normally unwilling to undertake much general prospect ion, such as airborne geophysical surveys, because it is very expensive and, if they do, it is usually limited to very small areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, companies are tending to restrict their activities to areas for which general information is already available. These points were raised by several of the mining companies that attended the symposium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the present mining boom is not going to last for ever. Metal prices are volatile and, with the next downturn in the business cycle, a decline in metal prices will surely follow. So it is essential to prepare the basis for future mining activities by collecting general data. Given that a significant part of the SYSMIN allocation may remain unused because of a lack of requests, it would be worthwhile to consider whether a part could be reallocated to prepare general geological data for mining activities in the next century. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. B.-H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Joint Assembly to consider climate problem</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Hans van de Veen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Can the EU-ACP relationship be used to strengthen the dialogue between Europe and the main victims of climate change ? And can the Lom&eacute; Convention be one of the tools to promote climate protection measures, as well as the implementation of the Climate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Treaty? These questions will be considered in depth at a hearing on climate derange scheduled for the next ACP-EU Joint Assembly, to be held in the last week of September 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Periods of heavy rain have always been part of normal life in Fiji. But the latest rains were different, says counsellor Taina Tudau of the Fiji Embassy in Brussels. 'They were much more extreme than what we were used to, and caused heavy damage. Normally it took several days of heavy rain before the floods came up. This time, the water flooded the islands almost immediately the rain began to fall.' Mrs Tudau sees two main causes for the recent flooding. First, there is heavy deforestation on the islands, causing widespread erosion. But she is sure there was another reason for the recent damage: 'In the Pacific we know the local climate is changing. We see that the sea is rising. We are experiencing more extreme weather events. There can be no doubt that global warming is already going on.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji is a prominent member of the Alliance of Small Island States (Aosis), the group of 36 nations which feel particularly threatened by global warming. At the first Conference of Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, held in Berlin in March 1995, Aosis called for industrialised nations to reduce their C02 emissions by 20% by 2005 (based on 1990 levels). At the end of the conference, the 150 national delegations agreed to begin negotiations on targets for industrialised nations to cut emissions in the early years of the next century.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So intentions may be good, but in practice not much has been done yet. The EU, for its part, risks losing credibility if firm action is not taken soon. According to a recent Commission White Paper on energy policy, the use of energy within the Union will increase by 1% a year up to 2020. Failing 'any strong policy interventions', the paper says, emissions of carbon dioxide are likely to show a 'substantial increase' during this period. Says Fiji-counsellor Tudau: 'As small island states we know what's at stake, but there seems to be no feeling of urgency in the rest of the world. We really wonder how long it will take before there is a definite move towards reduction of greenhouse gases.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EU-ACP cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the Berlin conference, the ACP countries-led by Aosis but with support from most of the African states -took a constructive and moderate position in the G77. The position adopted by the EU could also be described as moderate, certainly compared to that of other OECD countries. Several observers have pointed to the fact that these two moderate approaches by important blocks within the Climate Convention negotiations offer possibilities for some form of cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'No doubt the EU represents the most progressive group of countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">within the OECD, although its position is far from sufficient', says Sible Schone, a representative of the World Wide Fund for Nature. 'Besides that, the EU has a special relationship with a large group of developing countries. Quite obviously it will be significant to get a dialogue started between the EU and the ACPs on the subject of climate change.' Currently, there is no such dialogue. 'At the moment we are not in a dialogue with ACP countries on climate change', says Bertil Heerink of the European Commission's Environment Directorate-General who is a member of the EU delegation to the climate negotiations. 'I'm convinced this will happen some day, but first we have to agree on our own goals and measures. I am sure developing countries want us to give priority to this too.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The special ACP subcommittee to deal with tropical timber, the environment and fisheries, formed after the signing of the revised Lom&eacute; IV, only recently started its work. With respect to the global warming issue, it is waiting for the Joint Assembly hearing, according to ambassador Michael King of Barbados, who is a committee member. 'The specific interests of the different regions have to be articulated there, and then some kind of sustained effort has to be initiated.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The unit for Sustainable Development and Natural Resources in the Development Directorate-General of the Commission (DG VIII) not at present dealing with the subject of climate change. Says Head of Unit, Amos Tincani: 'We have worked on biodiversity and desertification, and we want to do more on the specific environmental problems of small island states. But we have done nothing similar on climate change. This is partly because it is so much a global problem, but the main reason is we simply lack the people and the time to go into it.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assembly hearing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At its meeting in Windhoek in March this year, the Joint Assembly adopted a resolution which had been proposed by representatives of 13 small island states. This urged the EU to take the lead in combating climate change and the adverse effects thereof. More specifically, the Commission is being asked to update its climate change strategy for the period post-2000 and to achieve significant reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases over the coming decade and thereafter. The resolution riches on to call for extra assistance to ACP countries in the Caribbean, Pacific and Indian Ocean to help them improve their disaster preparedness. The Commission is also urged to accelerate the transfer of appropriate technologies and practices, to enable ACP states to develop coastal zone management strategies and to rehabilitate and protect areas stricken by drought and desertification as well as by hurricanes and floods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two representatives of the European Parliament, Maartje van Putter (PES) and Peter Liege (EPP), have been active on the situation of the small island states and climate change for several years. According to Mrs Van Putten, the main effect of the coming Assembly hearing should be to put extra pressure on the Commission to take its responsibility seriously. 'Talking about climate change,' she says, 'one should never forget who is to blame and who, therefore, must take decisive action. A European tax on energy or carbon dioxide would be an important first step, but no more than that.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides influencing the Commission's energy policy, Mrs Van Putten hopes the Assembly hearing will raise public awareness on the climate problem in those ACP countries which are not in the 'small island' category. 'If you are talking about rising sea levels, the African states with low-lying coastal zones face the same problems as the small island countries,' she points out. 'And they also face the problem of desertification and declining food production.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Integrating the climate dimension</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a recent briefing paperto the Commission, the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) concluded that, hitherto, the aid community (including the EU) had not incorporated measures on global warming into their strategic thinking on sustainable development. 'Indeed, the possibility of climate change has been considered of minor importance in comparison to other environmental concerns.' This is hardly surprising, says the London-based institute, as the climate issue has only recently been placed on the international agenda. Moreover, the long-term threat of global warming raises some difficult questions regarding priorities in circumstances where resources are limited. In other words: who wants to spend scarce funds on problems the full effects of which will probably not be felt for another 25 to 50 years? The best way forward, suggests the IIED, is to tackle the apparent conflict between shortterm development priorities and longterm climate protection, by 'integrating the climate dimension' rather than considering climate change as an issue in isolation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Technology transfer could be a central point, according to WWF's Sible Schone. 'Developing countries see technology transfer as a central theme in the Climate Convention, but the industrialised countries don't give enough weight to these There are a lot of paragraphs about technology transfer in the Convention as well as in Lom&eacute;. Now it's time to fill in these commitments.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strangely, there are hardly any Lom&eacute; projects currently under way in the field of energy efficiency. It is strange because experts have pointed to the large potential in developing countries for cost-effective energy improvement and energy conservation. Improved management could save at least 25% of the energy now being consumed. Quick realisation of this potential would significantly contribute to alleviating environmental &agrave;nd development problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Henri Martin, energy specialist in DG VIII, agrees a lot more could be done in this field, but he points out: 'We are dependent on requests. If you look at the wording of the Convention, everything has already been said. There are chapters on energy and technology transfer. The problem is that we don't get enough signals back from the ACP countries that these items are a priority for them. I'm afraid sustainable energy or energy efficiency is not high on the agenda of most countries.' Taina Tudau disagrees strongly: 'Our experience is that the projects that could make a difference and contribute to sustainable development, protection of the environment and local sustainable energy production, are found to be too small. It is the donor that sets the conditions for the projects, not us, the small island states.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New funding?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Can the EU build a credible policy linking climate and development cooperation, without reserving extra money? Not surprisingly, there is disagreement on this question. In Brussels, officials are inclined to point to possibilities that are already there but not being used. Amos Tincani, for instance, observes that 'there are budgets for this kind of problem under Lom&eacute;. We have provisions specially targeted for the islands'. He mentions regional budgets in particular: 'A lot can be started at the regional level which then trickles down to the national level. But after producing fine resolutions, everybody seems to forget the work still needs to be done. The idea is: 'oh yes, we can do it, provided it is with fresh money'. We say: a lot more can be done with existing budgets and instruments.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maartje van Putten, from the Parliament, says the discussion should not be 'dominated by southern demands for additional money'. She agrees that ACP countries could make better use of existing funds and possibilities, such as, for instance, the funds for intra ACP cooperation. But counsellor Tudau points to the fact that the Climate Convention urges industrialised countries to support the response of developing countries to climate problems through 'new and additional' money, besides the transfer of environmentally sound technologies and expertise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a financial mechanism built into the Climate Convention, which is administered by the Global Environmental Facility, to cover additional costs of appropriate measures. But much more could be done by the aid community, including the EU, according to Mrs Tudau. 'Most European countries will not succeed in stabilising, let alone reducing, their emissions. In reaction to this, as ACP countries we should say: European Union, you are not fulfilling your obligations. You have to try harder and you have to set extra money aside to compensate for the damage this is doing to us. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.v.d.V.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ACP-EU Council in Apia</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were no real surprises or unexpected developments at the ACP-EU Council meeting which took place in Apia, Western Samoa, on 27 and 28 June, 1996. The session was preceded by an ACP Council, which saw the adoption of three important decisions. The first of these was the appointment of a new ACP Secretary-6eneral, Mr Ng'andu P. Magande of Zambia. The post had been vacant for some time, following deadlock within the ACP Group over a successor to Berhane Ghebray (see issue 155 of The Courier, p.6). The ministers also agreed to hold a summit of ACP heads of government in Libreville, Gabon, during the second half of 1997. This meeting is expected to focus heavily on the future of ACPEU relations once the present Lom&eacute; Convention has expired.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the substantive area, the ACP Council adopted a resolution deploring the suspension of cooperation with Equatorial Guinea. Ministers urged the European Union to make use of the procedure in Article 366a of the revised Lom&eacute; Convention, and to set in train the consultation procedure envisaged in this provision.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This issue was raised again by the ACP side at the subsequent ACP-EU Council. This meeting, which was presided over by Mrs Toya (Italian Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs) and Mr Syamujaye (Zambia's Trade Minister) had a relatively light agenda. There was a discussion about the Commission proposal for a directive on the use of vegetable fats, other than cocoa fat, in chocolate (see issue 158 of The Courier, p.35). Somalia also featured in the debate, with representatives agreeing on the need to find ways of allowing this country to benefit from Lom&eacute; Convention provisions. The civil conflict in Somalia, and the absence of an effective central administration have prevented the deployment of regular development aid for many years, although significant amounts of emergency assistance have been and are still being provided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, the ACP-EU Council approved two reports drawn up by the development finance cooperation subcommittee and commodities sub-committee respectively. Representatives were able to reach a compromise on two outstanding points of contention in the resolution on development finance relating to tenders and the dissemination of the user's guide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note was taken of the number of countries that have so far lodged instruments of ratification for the revisad Lom&eacute; Convention (Mauritius agreement). At the time of the Apia meeting, only nine countries had ratified: seven on the ACP side (Barbados, Dominica, Equatorial Guinea, Jamaica, Malawi, Mauritius and Solomon Islands) and two EU Member States (Denmark and Sweden). Appeals were made for the contracting parties to speed up their ratification procedures so that the Eighth European Development Fund can come on stream as speedily as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The next ACP-EU Council meeting will take place in Luxembourg on 24 and 25 April 1997.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Western Samoa deserves a special mention for the warmth of their hospitality and the efficient way in which they organised the Council meeting. Delegates from all sides were keen to express their appreciation of the host country's efforts, which ensured the smooth running of the various meetings and gave the visitors a real taste of this Pacific country's unique culture. ed. S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New ACP Secretary-General</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ng`andu Peter Magande, is no stranger to the challenge of development at the grassroots. The new Secretary-General of the ACP Group, who was born in 1947, began his working career as a provincial development officer, planning and supervising projects in the Southern Province of his native Zambia. He is an economics graduate of the University of Zambia and also holds a master's degree in agricultural economics from Makerere university, Uganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From working in the field, he moved into government administration, rising to the position of Permanent Secretary-a post which he held in a number of ministries. Since the mid-1980s, he has had key jobs in a number of Zambian enterprises (including Managing Director of the Zambia National Commercial Bank) His most recent work has been on a project to develop private sector participation in agricultural input and produce marketing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Kenya's economy in the 1990s</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Elisabeth Pape</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya has enjoyed rare political stability since independence in 1963. It is one of the most famous holiday destinations in Africa, with abundant wildlife, fine beaches and stunning scenery. But despite having the most advanced economy in East Africa, it is still one of the world's poorest countries. Over 11 million Kenyans live below the poverty line. But better times may be ahead. The Government has embarked on an ambitious reform programme which promises to lay the foundations for strong growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The early 1990s marked the worst time in Kenyan history, in economic development terms. Real GDP growth dropped from 4.3% in 1990 to 2.1% in 1991 and was almost zero in 1992 and 1993. This poor performance was due to drought, structural rigidities, lack of monetary discipline, non-enforcement of banking regulations, and reduced donor assistance. While Kenya was used to receiving substantial foreign aid inflows, the present decade began with growing tensions between Government and donors. In the new post-Cold War atmosphere, the latter wanted to see political and economic reforms, and in November 1991 they decided to halt guick-disbursing aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Multi-party elections in December 1992 did not immediately restore relations with the donors, in particular as they were accompanied by a lack of fiscal and monetary discipline whose effects threatened economic ruin. Monetary expansion was fuelled, among other things, by discretionary exemptions to Banking Act provisions, which enabled over-borrowing by certain 'political' banks from the Central Bank. In early 1993, things came to a head. Foreign currency reserves were down to just a few weeks of imports, the banking system was on the verge of collapse, and consumer prices had shot up. Against this background, the Government went for a comprehensive, IMF-supported structural adjustment programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of far-reaching reforms were implemented with unprecedented speed. Exchange restrictions were removed, import licensing was ended, import procedures were made easier and tariffs were reduced. The export license requirement was also lifted and price controls were abolished. In March 1993, the Central Bank (CBK) began to tighten monetary policy. By issuing large amounts of treasury bills, it soaked up most of the excess liquidity which had been injected the previous year. There was also stricter bank supervision and a number of weak financial institutions were closed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Structural reforms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Government began structural reforms aimed at reducing its own role in the economy in favour of the private sector. The privatisation programme, begun in 1991, was accelerated. By the end of 1995, the authorities had divested more than half of the 211 non-strategic parastatals-though critics complained the process often lacked transparency. The Government also substantially reduced its fiscal deficit through, above all, an improved revenue policy. The deficit fell from 11.4% of GDP in 1992/93 to 2.5% in 1994/95. The number of civil servants was reduced, mainly through voluntary early retirement, so that, by the end of 1995, the service had been trimmed by more than 30 000 (10% of the payroll).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1995, the reform programme lost momentum as proponents of the old and the new systems locked horns. Vested interests stood in the way of more radical reforms. Temporary import bans on maize and sugar were reimposed, key parastatal reforms were delayed and expensive but economically dubious projects were approved outside normal budgetary procedures. These included an international airport in Eldoret, a presidential jet and an identity card project. These further delayed the resumption of balance of payments support by the Bretton Woods Institutions and contributed to the frustration of efforts to improve relations with donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The economic crisis peaked in early 1993 and the shilling was sharply devalued. The official rate went from about KSh 36 to the dollar at the end of 1992 to KSh 60 in April 1993. On the market, the currency was being traded at a premium of more than 30% and that continued until July-i.e. about two months after the removal of exchange restrictions. The market premium then started to decline and the two rates converged in mid-October when the shilling stood at 69 to the dollar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The high interest rate on treasury bills under the liberalised foreign exchange regime was the main reason behind strong currency inflows which began in October 1993. Other factors, whose exact impact is difficult to gauge, included capital flight from neighbouring crisis-torn countries, the international money laundering one normally finds in places with newly liberalised foreign exchange regimes, and a surplus in the current account position. The shilling then started to rise, despite the CBK's massive currency purchases which led to a build up of reserves to the equivalent of six months of imports. The appreciation continued up to October 1994: indeed, at one point, the shilling reached a high of 35 to the dollar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That was the turning point. Strong import demand, fuelled in particular by a surge in oil imports in the wake of petroleum market liberalisation, and an outflow of portfolio investments due to lower interest rates, weakened the currency. By mid-1995, after two sharp falls, it reached a rate of 56 to the dollar. Since then, it has been relatively stable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic recovery</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Real GDP grew by 3% in 1994 and an estimated 5% in 1995. Good weather certainly helped, but the economy also benefited from the Government's reforms. Agriculture, the mainstay, grew by 2.8% in 1994 and by more than 5% in 1995. This compares with negative growth rates in 1992-93, when the sector was hard hit by bad weather. Elsewhere, the trends were more mixed. Many producers for the local market were affected by trade liberalisation and, in 1994, by the strong shilling. The former created a highly competitive environment almost overnight-after years of cosy protectionism. For cloth manufacturers, the liberalisation of imports of second-hand clothing further aggravated the problem. In 1994, the clothing sector's output dropped 35%. Tourism, the main foreign exchange earner, fared quite well in volume terms in 1994 despite the strong shilling. But while turnover may have gone up, it is likely that many operators did not earn enough extra to cover their increased local currency costs. In 1995, visitor arrivals fell by 20% to the lowest figure since 1988. In consequence, tourism earnings fell by a quarter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As intended, liberalisation led to higher trade volumes. In 1994, exports ( + 16%) rose by more than imports ( + 13%) in value terms, but the position was reversed in 1995 when the latter jumped by 35% while the former were 14% lower. One good sign was that the highest import growth was in industrial supplies and machinery (60% up) but the fact that the deficit almost doubled to reach record levels was obviously a cause for concern.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major revolution has also taken place in trade flows. In 1994, for the first time, Uganda overtook the UK as the biggest importer of Kenyan goods. In the same year, the value of Kenya's exports to African countries moved ahead of its combined exports to Europe and North America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During 1994, the Nairobi Stock Exchange proved to be one of the worid's best-performing stock markets, the value of shares rising by 80%.1995 was disappointing, however. Although foreigners were allowed to invest for the first time, the index nonetheless fell by 25%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fighting inflation has been the CBK's main objective since 1993 and a tight monetary policy has brought the problem under control. Inflation dropped from 46% in 1993 to 29% in 1994 and to below 2% in 1995. Recently, however, an upward trend has bean observed. This follows a money supply increase far in excess of the expansion of economic activity, and is mainly due to a substitution of treasury bills for borrowing from the Central Bank since the end of 1994. If inflation is to remain within the 5% target for 1996-which already seemed highly unlikely by the middle of the year - the trend needs to be speedily reversed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially, the main way of mopping up excess liquidity was through the sale of treasury bills. When the sales began in March 1993, there was a huge liquidity overhang and high interest rates had to be offered to take money out of the market quickly. The rate earned on 90-day bills-which became the lead interest rate in the economy- rose from 17% to 80% between March and July 1993. It then declined steadily, reaching 18% at the end of 1994. This prompted an outflow of short-term capital, leading to currency depreciation and lower foreign reserves. Since mid 1995, treasury bill rates have been back above 20% and this seems to have stabilised the foreign exchange situation. It is generally believed that the high prevailing real interest rates are a major obstacle to investment and economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interest on domestic debt is still a big item in the state budget, although, the situation is much improved, thanks to the reduction in the stock of treasury bills and lower interest rates. In fiscal year 1993/94, interest payments on domestic debt alone swallowed one third of total gavernnnent expenditure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agriculture sector employs 70% of the total labour force and generates more than a quarter of Kenya's GDP. Much of industry is linked to agricultural processing, and tea, coffee and horticultural products are Kenya's major foreign exchange earners after tourism. The marketing of key farm products is dominated by large parastatals and cooperatives which are often run like parastatals. Most marketing organisations have been hard hit by the liberalisation, which brought both inefficiency and corruption to light. Tea growers have complained about improprieties at the Kenya Tea Development Authority. Imported sugar flooded the local market, often without paying import duties, leaving the mills with huge stocks. This, in turn, created severe cash flow problems. Most sugar farmers have not been paid for months. Kenya Cooperative Creameries was not able to pay farmers for milk deliveries for up to half a year, and could only start servicing the arrears when the Government came to its rescue with KSh 800 million in January 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Formidable challenges</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya's labour force, around 12.5 million in 1996, is growing at more than 4% a year. This means that at least half a million people enter the job market annually. The challenge of absorbing the new workers is formidable. Studies show that any strategy to deal with this must be based on three pillars: smallholder agriculture (to absorb most of the growth in the rural labour force), continuing substantial job creation in the informal sector, and high real GDP growth (+8% per year is needed to ensure that the modem sector absorbs a significant number of workers).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Informal sector employment has risen rapidly (up by 15-20% a year since 1991). By 1994, for the first time, there were more people working here than in the modern economy. The informal sector covers semi-organised and unregulated activities largely under taken by self-employed people or employers with just a few workers. Typically, they do not comply fully with tax, registration, and licensing rules, and this sometimes leads to conflict with the authorities. Workers are often paid below the minimum wage and have no social security. For many, the informal sector is, therefore, an 'employer' of last resort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is estimated that almost 50% of rural people and 30% of urban residents live in absolute poverty- unable to meet their minimum requirements for food and essential non-food items. While the percentage has remained fairly stable in recent decades, the increase in the number of 'absolute' poor is alarming. So too is the extent of the poverty: the gap between these people's minimum needs and their actual disposable income has reportedly increased over the last ten years. The bulk of the poor live in the central and western parts of the country, which have the best agricultural potential, the rich soils having always attracted settlers. For decades there was enough land to go around, but demographic trends have finally started to take their toll. The size of landholding has declined continuously, in many cases reaching levels which are no longer capable of sustaining a family.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There has been some progress in restructuring parastatals, but much remains to be done. The performance of key parastatals has been unsatisfactory by international standards and this has constrained growth. At Mombasa port, which is managed by the Kenya Ports Authority, handling charges are 50% higher than the global average, while container turnover is three times slower. Rail transport is unreliable, slow and more expensive than road haulage. The Kenya Power and Lighting Company has a shortage of generating capacity which means periodic power cuts. And intervention in the maize market by the National Cereals and Produce Board- at above-market prices-has prevented private sector involvement as well as placing a heavy burden on government finances. The Board has posted annual operating losses of between KSh 1.8bn and KSh 2.5bn each fiscal year since 1992/93.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corruption, misuse of funds, and the politics of patronage remain endemic and these clearly distort development. Elimination of corruption has been an aim of most reform programmes but it seems that the effect so far has only been to change its form. Trade liberalisation has killed cash cows such as import and foreign exchange licences, and the commercialisation of parastatals has stopped them from doing deals with cronies which were profitable only for the latter. But other forms of non-acceptable wealth accumulation have emerged. In the early 1990s, alleged exports of gold and diamonds are thought to have resulted in a loss of KSh 7 billion of public funds. Land grabbing has also become widespread. This either involves land being sold to individuals or companies with well-established political connections at well below market prices, or the purchase of land by public institutions from the same individuals or companies at inflated prices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After delays because of political differences, cooperation between the three states of the former East African Community (Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya) was revived in early 1996. The EAC Secretariat, based in Arusha, is headed by a Kenyan, Francis Muthaura, a former ambassador in Brussels. For the three countries, the new cooperation aims at facilitating movements of people, capital and trade within the region, and harmonisation of external tariffs and investment regulations. Currencies will be fully convertible. This revived cooperation is expected to have a major growth impact. The Nairobi Stock Exchange is currently assisting Kampala and Dar es Salaam to set up their own exchanges. And the NSE Chairman, Jimnah Mbaru, sees the future not only in a cross-listing of companies in the three places, but in a regional stock exchange.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy framework</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Policy Framework Paper (PFP) for 1996-1998, which was published in February ahead of the donors' Consultative Group (CG) Meeting, was highly applauded for both its content and form. The programme, which the media has dubbed 'the big push', promises finally to crack most of the 'hard nuts' of previous reform agendas, in particular in the parastatal and public sector. It also lays down measures aimed at supporting fiscal and monetary discipline through the next elections. These include cutting the budget deficit to 1.5 % of GDP by 1997/98, a tight monetary policy, and more autonomy for the Central Bank. In addition, it tackles some areas'that have emerged as avenues of corruption in recent years, such as the National Social Security Fund. While previous PFPs were highly confidential, this one was published, and the President appointed a Commission chaired by himself to oversee its implementation. These are seen as important steps in bridging the credibility gap which threatened to open up again in 1995. Donors are prepared to support the reform agenda and are eager to see it implemented speedily. Shortly after the positive outcome of the CG meeting, the IMF approved a three-year Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility programme for a total of $220m. The World Bank is expected to follow suit with a credit of $85m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An increasing number of donors, however, have pointed to the link between democratic governance/ human rights issues on the one hand, and aid and investment flows on the other. If Kenya is to meet its ambitious targets and turn into a newly-industrialising country by 2010, foreign inflows will be vital. The point was succinctly put by a delegate to the CG meeting. 'If its (the Government's) economic successes are matched by a commitment to democracy and human rights, Kenya may yet prove that surging economic growth is not just for Asian tigers, but for African lions, too.' The period leading up to the next general election will be the acid test. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.P. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Country report</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Mali : An omnipresent sense of history</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some countries have a strong folk memory. Despite its size, Mali appears hemmed in by its frontiers. For more than a thousand years, this state was a splendid empire, constantly spreading outward and reflecting the history of the African continent with its conquests and alliances, reversals of fortune and moments of glory. At its height, it extended from the Atlantic to the Sudanese border, from the south of Morocco to the north of Nigeria. Mali's history rests in the minds of its people rather than in any structures inherited from the past. This acts as an antidote to the 'amnesia' often brought on by colonisation, which has the effect of paralysing the future. Although poor, the country has a well-established sense of its place in the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A racial melting pot</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">`</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the eve of colonisation, Mali was known es 'west Sudan'. In 1924, the territory then known as 'French Sudan' was split up and small portions of the Malian nation were incorporated into the seven states bordering it-a move certainly not calculated to have a cohesive effect on the remnants of the old empire. Mali has long been a melting pot of races, ethnic groups and cultures. They have learned to live together- intermingling, sometimes forming unexpected alliances, and occasionally fighting one another. The result today is a potpourri where true racial or ethnic confrontation is difficult to imagine. The interplay of history and the mixing of ethnic groups, families and individuals, has created what one intellectual de scribed to us as 'the anti Rwanda vaccine'. Historical mythology offers, perhaps, further evidence of the fusion of cultures in this country. As in ancient Greece or Rome, to take European examples, each ethnic group and each Malian empire, was 'backed' by a host of gods, spirits and totems. In this nebulous world, where dreams beget history and where vastly differing ethnic groups can trace themselves back to a common ancestor, the result was a multiplicity of interrelationships. Under various names, the python totem belongs to many different peoples, including the Peal, Ma/inke and Sarakolle. A study of the migrations of the peoples who make up Mali also reveals a great many relationships - for example, between the Dogon, who are black, and the Shongoi; who are more half-caste. They regard one another as cousins, originating from Aswan in Egypt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malians appear to share a genuine sense of belonging in keeping with their shared culture. The 'people' of Mali came into being long before the state of the same name. The guerilla war fought in recent years by the Tuaregs (this is the English plural, Tuareg already being the plural form of Targul) against the Malian army, is often viewed abroad as a struggle between whites (or Arabs) and blacks. But this is an illusion. Although the Tuaregs are probably the only 'white' minority in the country, they are an integral ingredient in the melting pot. They are also known as 'Kel-Tamasheq' - those who speak Tamashek, which was originally the language of their Bella slaves. Like all the country's ethnic groups, they have dominated and have in turn been dominated. They have forged alliances with one another, and, more commonly, have united against Arab or Berber invasions. The relative absence of bitterness overall is probably due to the fact that each of Mali's peoples has had its era of glory and imperial dominance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali is lucky to have such knowledge of its history. For centuries, the most precise details have been collected by the griots. The same role has also been played by the many secret societies which have initiation periods lasting, in some cases, up to 50 years. They were, and sometimes still are, repositories for the secrets of history, magic, astrology and science, and also for the symbols of power-the religious objects and artefacts of the former emperors. There are written sources as well, something which is quite rare in Africa. These have been transcribed since the beginning of the millennium and, in recent decades, close collaboration between historians, griots and members of traditional societies has enabled a deeper knowledge to be gained of Mali's history.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A rich empire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asselar Man, discovered near Timbuktu in the centre of Mali, was a contemporary of Cro Magnon Man. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cave paintings from five thousand B.C. reveal similarities with those in Egypt and are probably the work of migrant populations from the east, who moved into Mali as the Sahara Desert expanded. Less reliable sources state that interbred populations of Jews and Egyptians under the command of an officer of the Pharaoh Dinga created the Soninke dynasty (originating from Aswan). These people probably laid the found ations of the first great Malian empire, that of Ouagadou. Other sources, equally unreliable, report that they were probably Judaeo-Syrians who arrived at the end of the third century A.D. and found a population already in place. What is more or less certain is that, during the first millennium, a Soninke dynasty was installed around the current frontier between Mauritania and Mali and that 40 princes ruled it in succession in the period prior to 750 A.D. Initially, these rulers were white but, with increasing intermarriage, their skins became darker and darker. To Arab chroniclers, Mali came to be known as Bafour or Bilad es-Soudan (the country of the blacks). At the beginning of the second millennium, the Ouagadou empire held sway over several kingdoms in the south, including the Nigerian delta and a number of Berber principalities. Documents dating from this period have replaced the name Ouagadou with that of Ghana, by analogy, perhaps, with the emperor's title. The empire was already very rich, the richest in the world according to an Arab chronicler who visited it in 970. A work by the writer A/ Bakri, which appeared a century later (1087) went into great detail about the empire's organisation-the system of matrilinear succession, the role of councils of dignitaries, and the capital, Koumbi (whose foundations were discovered in 1914 in southern Mauritania). This city was divided into two districts, one of these being the sacred, imperial city, home to the empire's python totem to which a young girl was sacrificed every year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A story of courage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The killing of the snake totem is the most significant myths in the country's history. The hero of the story is Amadou Sefedokete whose love for his beautiful fiancee Sia (who was about to be offered in sacrifice), prompted him to descend into the monster's lair and confront it. By killing the totem, he broke the thread of countless generations before him, who had carried out the ritual sacrifice. He is still remembered for this magnificent action, based on love and a sense of nobility, and he remains a subject for artists of all types. His brave action still causes young lovers in Africa to shudder in admiration. However, this act of deicide brought about a reversal of fortunes. The monster's seven heads, which the young hero is said to have cut off one after the other, are reputed to have been scattered to the four comers of the earth, thereby dispersing the empire's riches and leaving it penniless. The true story is more prosaic. Ghana's wealth was eyed greedily by the Arabs and Berbers who had long traded with it. The empire's resistance in the face of Islam gave Moroccan religious fanatics a pretext for organising a jihad. It was invaded by an army of 30000 devotees supported by forces from some of the empire's black vassal states. The 'holy war' began in 1042 ending 34 years later with the occupation of Koumbi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The occupation did not last long but was followed by internal clan wars which brought about the end of an era. Restoration came about at the end of the 72th century , in the small Sosso kingdom, south of Ouagadou (also set up by a small group of Sonink&eacute;). One of the minor kings called Soumangourou Diarasso dreamed of recreating Ghana's empire, and, in 1203, he succeeded in sacking the ancient capital of Koumbi in a move designed to establish his own dynasty. This was an important symbolic act and in the fierce war which followed, Soumangourou subjugated Mand&eacute;, a region which was overflowing with wealth. One of Africa's greatest heroes, Soundjata, rose up against him. He was supposedly the legitimate heir to the Mandingo throne, but was unable to walk, having been born an invalid of a deformed mother who had been married at the recommendation of the king's sorcerer. His young half-brother took his place on the throne and sent the paralysed prince into exile. At the age of 18, Soundjata decided to seize his own place in history and a 'giant' was thus bom. In 1235, his army fought that of the bloodthirsty Sosso monarch whom he himself is said to have cut down in an extraordinary battle. It was a fight which, according to the legends, saw the use of all types of weapon, including magic. Soundjata had forged a grand alliance in order to gain victory. Rather than reducing to vassalage the small kingdoms which had allied themselves with him, the new emperor decided to form them into a federation-although he wisely declared that from Niani (his capital), 'I shall see all'. His empire took the name of 'Mali' (the hippopotamus) on account of that animal's strength and mastery of bath water and land. For 20 years, the empire was to stretch as far as the Atlantic Ocean. Its structure, based on a number of warrior clans, craftsmen, freemen and marabous, is still characteristic of Mali and neighbouring countries today. The empire was rich in gold once again but also in terms of agricultural organisation with the development of cotton and groundout farming. Soundjata disappeared mysteriously in 1255, leaving a prosperous empire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Conquest' of America?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1285, there was a struggle for succession between two princes and a third, Prince Sakoura (a freed slave), took advantage of the quarrel to take power for himself. Sakoura expanded the empire by subjugating the Timbuktu Tuaregs and the Gao Shongoi: After his short reign, a genuine heir of Soundjata, Aboubakar II, ascended the throne. He had his eye on conquests over the seas and, according to the story, he set sail westwards leading a fleet of 2000 vessels. He was never seen again. However, recent studies favour the hypothesis that he was not lost at sea as had always been supposed' but did, in fact, reach the Americas. A series of ineffective monarchs succeeded this 'conqueror of the impossible', who preceded Christopher Columbus by 200 years, leaving little real impression on history other than the records of their exuberant behaviour. One of them, for example, went on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 with a reported retinue of 60 000 and distributed considerable amounts of gold to all the dignitaries he encountered in that holy place. These kings, however, are acknowledged as having preserved the empire's unity, guaranteeing order without repression and allowing wide religious, moral and sexual tolerance, even for married women. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kingdom centred on Gao dates back to at least the first millennium but it was usually a vassal of the Ouagadou empire and of Mali. One of its kings, Sonny Ali Ber (known as Sonny the Great), came to the throne in 1464, profiting from the decay of the Mali empire. His reign was marked by a bitter struggle against the Ul&eacute;mas of Timbuktu who, over a period of four centuries following the Almoravid conquest, had converted a large portion of the empire to Islam. The circumstances of Sonny's disappearance are uncertain, but he is thought to have drowned in 1492, the year when a certain Genoese navigator was to achieve the ancient goal of 'discovering' the Malian empire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sonny Ber's successor did not last long in the face of Islamic expansion. The new Askia dynasty was installed to lead the Shongoi empire, and this expanded with the annexation of Dahomey and part of Nigeria. However, a small part of the former Mali empire never passed under their rule. The Askia dynasty blew hot and cold in terms of religious fervour. Tyrannical at first, it later took a softer line. Under the reign of one monarch, the Gao court based in the university city of Timbuktu became a place of exceptional refinement-only to slide once again into a state of intolerance. One of the Askias, having destroyed the last symbols of the former Mali empire, the city of Niani, set upon his former Moroccan allies. Another emperor, Askia Daoud (1549-1582), turned out to be a fine administrator. He developed agriculture and set up a genuine bank in Gaol War with Morocco continued throughout his reign and beyond. In 1584, imperial force defeated 20 000 Moroccan soldiers, winning a victory which might have been decisive had it not been for internal dissent. This weakened the Askia side and enabled Morocco, with a band of Spanish mercenaries, to take over the empire, following a battle in April 1591. Success was due, above all on this occasion, to the firearms deployed by the winning side. Such weapons were unknown to the 45 000 Malian cavalry and infantry who were engaged. It also turned out to be a Pyrrhic victory. The occupying troops sent the great scholars from Timbuktu University to Morocco, where their peers took up their cause. Moreover, the foreign soldiers were won over by the easy life in Mali-and one of the first results of their presence was a big increase in the half-caste population. In 1612, the troops rejected the Moroccan command: the occupation was at an end and the last few Moroccans were later expelled from Timbuktu by the Tuaregs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black religious proselytism and colonisation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To each dog his day. In the 17th century, the Bambaras set up an empire around Segou, but the debauched lifestyle of several of the sovereigns and disapproval of the part they played in the slave trade proved to be their downfall. Once again, the history of the country was to be shaped by a slave- Ngolo Diarra-who founded his dynasty in 1766. He was able to restore a degree of prestige to the kingdom, but his efforts were undermined after his death. As a reaction, a proselytising Black Islam then began to evolve.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Massina became a theocratic state around the beginning of the 19th century, in common with other kingdoms which appeared at the same time. One of their most famous rulers, the conqueror El Hadj Oumar, was defeated by the troops of the French General Faidherbe who forced him to give up West Senegal. The days of Malian independence were now numbered. The courage of his successor only delayed the progress of French colonisation, which finally prevailed at the end of the century.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resistance fighters carried on the war from other points in the old empire, particularly from what is now Guinea. The country was dismantled by the colonial system and pacified, but the end of the Second World War and the return of African soldiers brought a renewed desire for independence. French Sudan became the rallying point for freedom fighters in the French colonies-the old dream of reunification was not dead and buried. In 1946, the Rassemblement Democratique Africain was set up, later to become the USRDA (Union soudanaise-Rassemblement democratique africain). In 1956, the future architect of Mali's independence, Modibo Keita, was appointed leader of the movement and elected to represent the 'Sudan' in the French Assembly. A 'Malian Federation' project was drawn up to include Dahomey (Benin), Upper Volta (Burkina Faso), Senegal and 'Sudan' (Mali). A constituent assembly of independence movement representatives was set up in 1959. However, the constitution adopted by the local Malian and Senegalese assemblies was rejected by the other two. The Federation now had only two members but was nonetheless proclaimed independent on 20 June 1960. In the event, the spirit of unity was lacking and, on the pretext of a rivalry between the two leaders (the 'Sudanese' Modibo Keita and the Senegalese Mamadou Dia), Senegal withdrew from the union in August. On 22 September 1960, the 'Sudan', now without an outlet to the sea, adopted one of the most prestigious names in its history: Mali.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new state was landlocked not only geographically but also, very soon, politically. Modibo Keita's socialist agenda prompted foreign investors to pull out, and the country was organised increasingly as a 'people's democracy'. Fortunately, the repression was not excessive but a sizeable proportion of the population disapproved of the system that had been chosen. Mali and Guinea still had modest aspirations to their old dream of unification. The founder of the Republic, Modibo Keita, was overthrown by a military coup on 19 November 1968. More than the break-up by colonisation, which left dreams of Sudan being reconstituted, this military putsch sounded the knell of the old empire. Mali became just another state whose colonial and post-colonial eras have been marked by a lack of success. Nevertheless, a sense of history is still omnipresent. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goueier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Three republics to create one democracy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is just something you have to get used to-in French-speaking Africa, virtually all countries have imitated France in assigning a number to each republic formed under a new constitution. At the time of its independence on 20 June 1960, Mali was a federation of two states; Senegal and the former 'French Sudan'. It was an alliance which failed after only a few weeks'existence end 'French Sudan' then adopted one of its most prestigious former names- Mali. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first regime, under Modibo Keita, became increasingly unpopular as its form of 'tropical' marxism caused it to become more and more isolated. One of its main shortcomings was its unrealistic five-year plans, none of which were ever implemented. Discontent became rife among various social groups. including the farmers who, opposed collectivisation and were adept at passive resistance which they employed to disrupt the supply of produce. The regime also modelled itself on the so-called 'people's democracies' in certain respects. For instance, it made a determined effort to improve education, health and social justice, while refraining from the more dictatorial excesses that often characterised such systems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially welcomed by some sections of the population, the November 1968 putsch, by Lieutenant Moussa Traore quickly fumed into dictatorship although it was to be more than 10 years before there were any significant anti-government protests. At the end of 1990, opponents of the regime openly set up organisations which claimed opposition-party status. One of these was ADEMA (the Alliance for Democracy in Mali), formed by the current President of the Republic, Alpha Oumar Konare. Marches calling for a multi-party state attracted the support of tens of thousands of people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The dictator then sought to neutralise the opposition, beginning with the Tuaregs in the north who had been waging a guerilla war. This conflict was viewed by many as the 'front line' in the people's struggle against dictatorship, and the Tuareg cause was supported by opposition movements. The government, which had for some time opted for 'soft' repression, now revealed its claws and in January 1991 it began to imprison student leaders. The streets were filled with armoured vehicles and the first death amongst the students brought condemnation. Repression reached its height on 22 March 1991, when several dozen students were killed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prior to this, in February 1991, Moussa Traore's UDPM (Democratic Union of the Malian People) came out in support of a multi-party system - a move which marked the beginning of the end of the regime. The day after the students were killed, a democracy coordination committee launched an appeal for a general strike, to last until the dictator was overthrown. This began on 26 March, and amounted, in effect, to a 'democratic' coup d'etat. Its instigator was Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Toure, who took charge of the transition to-tether with the democratic movements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The former dictator was arrested and put on trial for his crimes. He was later condemned to death but his sentence was recently commuted by President Konare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Tuareg guerilla war continued despite the government's conciliatory attitude. The new administration also had to deal with a number of social claims which had long been stifled by the dictatorship. However, popular support for the regime remained firm. The new constitution was adopted virtually unanimously in a January 1992 referendum and, a week later, ADEMA won the municipal elections, the first in a series of electoral victories for Alpha Oumar Konare. He went on to win the Presidential election (for the Third Republic) in April, with almost 70% of the vote. Meanwhile, negotiations with the Tuareg rebels resulted only in signatures on agreements which were not observed. The situation grew worse with the Ghanda Koy counter-offensive, but this in turn led to a seemingly viable accord between the Azawad Arab Islamic front, the most important guerilla movement, and the Malian government. Last March, President Konare presided over an enormous bonfire of weapons seized from the former guerilla fighters. The flames lit up the skies above Timbuktoo, the symbol par excellence of rapprochement between the peoples of Mali.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the beginning of January 1994, the regime suffered the effects of the devaluation of the CFA franc. Economic liberalisation had enabled Mali to improve its macroeconomic position, but social discontent, particularly in the towns and cities, demonstrated that the average citizen was continuing to suffer economic hardship. The President still enjoys considerable support, and political democracy is greatly appreciated. Obviously, the government cannot be blamed for all the difficulties facing the country. There is, for example, a lack of professionalism in the press. However, it could have given a lead in the case of the State media, which still studiously avoids criticising the government's actions. The administration has also been taken to task for its apparently lax attitude towards 'economic' misdemeanours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Next year will see a series of elections. The government views these with apprehension, although it has stolen a march over its rivals by signing a political accord with several small parties. Opposition is centred around the MPR (Patriotic Movement for Renewal), the revamped former party of the dictator Moussa Traore. This has undergone a 'facelift, and now seems to be regaining support. lts trump card is decentralisation. Its former leaders, who held total power for a quarter of a century, can take advantage of the network of contacts they built up. The US-ADA, the party of the Republic's founder, Modibo Keita, which until recently appeared to be the herald of change, seems lately to have restricted its role to that of arbiter. Surprises are in the offing, but one thing is certain: the Third Republic's constitution will remain the guarantee of democracy in Mali. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.G.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with Ali N. Diallo, President of the National Assembly</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mali, the army has learnt if from the past</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali's institutions were radically remodelled in the wake of the recent vote on decentralisation. This is aimed at allowing, among other things, a degree of autonomy for the north of the country-which is essential to guarantee national reconciliation. The sudden growth in the number of small towns and villages may result in some political surprises during the long e/ection campaign period which is due to begin early next year. The President of the National Assembly, Ali N. Diallo, finds himself in a pivotal position: his Adema (A/fiance for Democracy in Mali) party current/y holds a comfortable majority in Parliament. With democracy being consolidated in Mali, he must find this an exhilarating time. Our frst question touched on this</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is certainly an excellent time to be in Mali, but freedom is the most difficult of man's needs to satisfy. Our National Assembly has 12 parties and most people in our country are inspired by ideas based on tolerance and respect for the right to be different. The main concern of those of us who lead the party currently in the majority, is to question constantly whether we are necessarily always right. We have a comfortable majority-72 members out of 115-but this certainly doesn't mean that the National Assembly is just a rubber stamp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· There is, of course, another stumbling block when one has such a large majority, which is the possibility of internal divisions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, I would agree with you there. Mali's MPs have to realise that they came into this business after a three-stage process. First there was a popular uprising, then the army intervened to put an end to the bloodbath.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, we had the high level national conference to draft the constitution, the electoral code and the charter for the country's parties. MPs, therefore, must always bear in mind that, though they can claim legitimacy on the basis of the revolution, there is also a republican legitimacy they ought to respect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The second phase in the process was the intervention of the army-are you not a*aid that the 'Niger syndrome'will raise its ugly head in Mali, too ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Naturally, MPs have seen what happened in Niger and elsewhere, but fear is tempered here because officers in Mali's forces have also given a great deal of thought to the effects of military dictatorship. Democrats and republicans within the armed forces are very aware that only a minority of men in uniform profited to any degree from the previous regime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think that because Mali had what might be called a 'moderate' dictatorship, it is now in a better position than it would have been had the previous administration been more repressive ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Let me put it this way. The military dictatorship went through three different stages. During the first stage, just after the coup on 19 November 1968, the junta chose Mao Tse Tung as a model, hammering home the idea that power could be won by force of arms-and it was carried away by the popular acclaim it initially received. Subsequent popular resistance then took them by surprise. People wanted more freedom, but they also wanted to keep what they had gained in social matters. Army officers asked the protestors to abandon their action so that normal constitutional life could be resumed, but the trade unions had their own ideas. They advocated things which the people in power opposed. The ensuing repression was therefore fierce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was a second phase during which the military were at odds with one another over the leadership question. The popular view was that the country had fourteen different heads of state at that time. This went on until 28 February 1978 when there was a brief Iuli and they were tempted to return power to the civil authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then came the third phase when, despite appearances, poverty was on the increase. At first, Malians said that there were two 'IMFs' on the loose in Mali-the International Monetary Fund and the intimate circle surrounding the Moussa family. When the social foundation of the regime contracted, and all the country's business became concentrated in the hands of Moussa, his wife and her relations, the popular forces went on the offensive. This was a period of vociferous protest. Moussa Traore reacted with brutality: hence the 200 dead amongst the schoolchildren and students who were protesting- we will never know the exact number.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yet, the former regime could be said to have made the crucial economic choices which your government has continued with. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I wouldn't agree with that. There was a half-hearted discussion at the time about liberalising the economy but, in reality, bureaucracy got in the way. It is the economic laws voted in by ourselves which form the true basis of a liberal economy. However, if you really want to look to the past, I would say that it was the February 1967 accords signed between Mali and France, when we came back into the franc zone, which set the whole process rolling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Tuaregs and the government have just signed an agreement but the question of the north of the country is still a sensitive one. What are your views on this subject ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The problem in the north of Mali is extremely complex. First, the Malian nation is made up of a patchwork of minorities, the largest being the Ban Mana (Ed. 'Bambara' in the colonial vocabulary), but no ethnic group is larger than all the others put together. Second, all groups have, at one time or another, held supremacy. But the fact is that the peoples involved have all lived in the same area throughout history- they have shared joys and sorrows, and their blood has mingled on Malian soil. l would accept that the Malian nation is not as well consolidated as it should be, but it is arguably one of the most advanced in the sub-region in terms of its constitution-though I don't mean to sound chauvinistic here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anyway, the problem in the north of the country seems to me to be one of development. The various regions have not all developed at the same rate on account of climate differences. In addition, the dictatorship did not show any great respect for minorities - although it did not direct its actions solely against the Tuaregs, who resorted to arms. The Tuaregs exaggerated the mistreatment they had suffered because they were unfamiliar with what was happening in the rest of the country. In fact, Moussa Traore oppressed everyone: the French-style Jacobin state we inherited did not allow for regional differences. After independence, the regime redoubled its efforts to centralise the state. both because it was Jacobin in outlook and because of Modibo Keita's communist leanings. In 1959, the French forced the Tamashek (ea. 'Tuaregs') to secede-Max Lejeune and Houphouet Boigny were mixed up in all that. This was when oil was first discovered in Algeria and the war with Algeria had been in full swing since 1954. Modibo Keita set up the Malian Federation and declared in 1959 that, upon independence, he would withdraw all soldiers from the Algerian front. Since the Malian Federation was dismantled, Gao virtually became an Algerian willaya, a base camp for its fighters. Mali did not accept this. Moreover, Algeria, around the time it achieved independence, took retaliatory measures and sealed off its borders, mercilessly sending back huge numbers of refugees. It mobilised them through humiliation, telling them that they were the last members of the white race-the only ones to allow themselves to be under black rule.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· But when Ganda Koy's militia halted the Tuareg movement, they appeared to have been supported by the black population. Doesn't that also suggest a racist attitude ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I addressed the Tuaregs in October 1992, and pointed out that their wish to regard themselves as overlords and the other peoples in Mali as vassals who ought to pay tribute would provoke a general uprising, with the risk of a slide into civil war. I told several of the Tuareg chiefs seated around me the legend of Ouagadou- about the serpent of the well who each year demanded that the Soninke people should sacrifice an 18-year-old girl in its honour. Then the day came when a young man refused to accept the sacrifice of his fiancee. He went down into the monster's lair, watched by a horrified crowd who saw his recklessness as folly, and cut off the serpent's head. In the beginning, the Malian people's sympathies in fact lay with the rebellion. On 26 March, when the rebellion against the dictatorship took place, the president at the time, Konare, asked for all the Tuareg chiefs to be brought to him so that they could set up a transition body. He got a nasty surprise when the Tuaregs resorted to arms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Was the government, as rumoured, behind the Ganda Koy ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Not the government as such. To my mind, it would be wrong to applaud when one faction of the people one governs wants to exterminate another faction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It appears that some of the people are unhappy with the concessions that have been made to the Tuaregs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is a myth. The idea that we are frustrated because the Tuaregs were once our masters, is a story put about by Europe. The situation is quite the reverse. At the time of colonisation, they were unwilling to ream, like other nomads, such as the Peul people, for example. There were splits with them, of course, but no actual, all-out war. Forging a nation always requires tears, sweat and mourning. Those who return will find what they left broken or stolen and will want land which is less barren than that impoverished by the encroaching desert. However, those who stayed put in the face of rebel attacks had their houses smashed and their animals taken away. There will be problems when some Peals, for example, identify their cows which were stolen. We will have to negotiate, but I have confidence in the people. Just as they ended the war, they will be able to heal the wounds-of this I am sure. And the process has already started.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I gather that you continue to practice as a doctor, on top of your political duties. Is this to teach a moral lesson to your political colleagues ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I would say that it is more of a weakness, an inability to abandon a passion, even for supposedly good reasons. l am an 'internalist' and I have a passion for mechanisms. If you cure an infection and it returns, you have to look elsewhere to solve the problem. There are those in authority who spend money on trying to tackle problems without troubling to locate the cause. I would like to think that the analytical rigour of clinical science might also be put to good use in promoting understanding in politics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 1 240 190 km²</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 10 million</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population density: 8.15 per km²</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population growth rate: 3.1 % </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Bamako (pop.700 000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other main towns: S&eacute;gou (65 000), Mopti (52 000), Sikasso (50 000), Koutiala (37 000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Languages: French (official language), Bambara, Peul, Shongoi, Tamashek </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curreny: CFA franc. In July 1996,1 ECU was worth CFAF 647.5 ($1 = CFAF 515) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government: Mixed presidential and parliamentary system. Greater powers are due to be transferred to the regions after the next elections. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Head of State: Alpha Oumar Konar&eacute;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Ibrahim Boubacar Keita Political parties represented in Parliament: ADEMA (absolute majority). 'Opposition' - CNID, USRDA and numerous other smaller groupings. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p021.png"></center><br>
+ Map</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1993 figures unless otherwise stated) GDP: CFAF 753.8 billion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP per capita: $530</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Origin of GDP by sector: agriculture 42%, industry 11 %, services 47% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Real GDP growth: 2.4%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balance of payments: deficit of CFAF 84.1 billion (estimated) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main trade partners (% of total trade) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exports: Thailand (24.2%), Brazil (19.1%), Ireland (9.7%), Belgium/Luxembourg (9.7%) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Imports: C&ocirc;te d'lvoire (22.2%), France (14.5%), Senegal (9.7%), Hong Kong (4.6%)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main exports: cotton 40%, livestock 28%, gold 17.5%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual inflation rate: 3%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth: 46.2 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Infant mortalityper 1000 live births: 158 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult literacy: 28.4% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education (primary, secondary and tertiary): 16% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.223 (171st out of 174)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with Amadou Seydou Traor&eacute;, opposition leader and USRDA spokesman</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Macro-economic indicators tell you nothing about the distribution of the country's resources'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It cannot be easy to be in opposition when Parliament is dominated by a majority which is given a good press and is regarded abroad as a good pupil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We do not really find it a problem. If one is familiar with Mali's current situation, the people's views, reactions and judgments count for more than outside opinion, despite the fact the latter may seem important. However, we do take account of others' opinions. We are pleased to be able to speak to you-to express our ideas and points of view- so that outsiders can see that the USRDA offers a credible alternative for Mali. We feel quite secure in our current position because the principles and values we stand for are those closest to the Malian people. So we have no problem in being the opposition party. We are not the kind of hysterical opposition which resorts to foul means as well as fair ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Given that most Malian political trends stem from the revolutionary democratic movement, what are your party's special features ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Our party's origins are in the movement which dates from 26 March 1960-which itself grew out of an underground movement. The main component of this was the USRDA whose government was overthrown by a reactionary military putsch. Adema won the last elections, and we do not contest this fact despite a number of irregularities. Indeed, we supported the Adema government's initial actions. We were one of seven parties who regarded the Third Republic as our own offspring. Between 1992 and 1994, even when we faced grave difficulties and they were asking for suggestions, the government ignored our proposals. This happened, for example, at the time the World Bank threatened to pull out. As it functions at the moment, the government is not meeting the Malian people's basic aspirations. They want to see a change from the previous regime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are your essential criticisms of the way Adema works ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We are critical on a number of fronts. Looking at it first from an institutional standpoint, when the Malian people rejected the old regime, they wanted the existing set-up to be changed into a democratic one. The few institutions that have been established since then do not reflect this desire. They are virtually no different from what we had under the single-party system. True, we have an opposition party, but its views are ignored. Second, in terms of the management of democracy, a number of bodies, such as the State Commission on the public media, simply do not function. You have been in Mali for a week now, so you must have heard Adema spokesmen on the TV or radio. But you will never hear a member of the opposition. The space reserved for that -formerly an open forum for free political discussion-has been removed and the state-controlled TV and radio stations do not allow political parties to have a say. In the economic sphere, our approach is also completely different. We believe that support for the development of the private sector means that the state has to act as regulator. Economic development cannot simply be left to run its course as a kind of 'rat race'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Could you give us a few practical examples of what you describe as Use selling-off of the family jewels ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-With pleasure. Before the 26 March revolution, there was a general consensus that, in the process of privatisation, the state sector should be managed in a way that benefited the Malian economy. But the reality is that privatisation methods have not changed. They are no different from what they were in Moussa Traor&eacute;'s time. The electricity sector, for example, which has not yet really been privatised, is now managed by the Bouyges group of France. And it costs more, which will hardly help the country's economic development. The state airline has simply been absorbed by Air Afrique. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· If you were in power, how much economic scope do you think you would have, given the prevailing trend towards international liberalisation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I recognise that there is a dominant international lobby which has drawn up its own conditions, laws and principles. Even if one does not agree with this approach, one has to take it into account. However, it should be feasible to achieve privatisation in a different way. We know what we are talking about because we used to run this country. Indeed, we set up the national economy. Before 1960, there was no economic system to speak of. l am currently completing the text of a work which looks at our economic position at the time of independence. The plain fact is that we had nothing at the time of independence. There were only three pharmacists, fewer than ten doctors, and about ten people qualified to teach in our grammar schools-not much to write home about after 70 years of colonialism! After 1960, we had to set everything up from scratch. If you trace the history of every country in the world, whether under a monarchy or a republic, you see that the state has always made the first move in bringing about industrialisation, developing the maritime sector, and stimulating imports and exports. If you think about it, at the outset, the main manufactured activities were the domain of royalty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You claim that your party left a legacy, but some might say that the highly interventionist regime of your hero, Modibo Keita, who brought about independence, contained the seeds of Moussa Traore's dictatorship.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-These are just fairy stories. When a regime is overthrown by a coup d'etat, it always becomes the victim of systematic defamation campaigns in the press. We were maligned for 23 years with no right of reply and no right to issue a statement to set the record straight. In a way, we are talking today about a past which did not exist. You know the saying 'you are not only what you are but also what people say you are'. This reference to dictatorship is one of the most serious calumnies. But no matter what lies are told, something of the truth will always remain. If our regime had been dictatorial or inquisitorial, a coup d'etat would not have been possible. Before the 1968 coup, Modibo Keita was given a file by the security services warning him of the plot by Moussa Traore, and giving a list of his accomplices. He was advised to arrest the conspirators and put them on trial. His response was that he would not agree to a Malian citizen being deprived of his liberty without a scrap of evidence. I knew Keita very well. It will be a long time before we have another head of state with such democratic convictions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The ordinary people, the farmers, say that they did better under Traore, than under Keita.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, but it depends who you talk to. With Traore, there was an atmosphere of moral decline. We were free to plunder, steal and murder, but it was not real freedom. The farmers see it from a different perspective. However, l can still show you a copy of the 'Summary Report on the Seminar on Cooperation in the Rural Environment' which we drew up in 1968, just a few months before the coup d'etat. This highlighted the fact that socialism had not penetrated into the countryside during the seven or eight years we were in power. So you see our own self criticism appeared in a document published in May 1968. This demonstrates the fact that we were not complacent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is your view of the compliments the current government is receiving from many foreign observers, and the good marks it has been given in the macro-economic field by international institutions ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Good macro-economic results which are due to good management of public finances are beneficial for the country. However, such management must be accompanied by greater welfare and an improved standard of living for the people. There is no point hailing a GDP increase of 3-4% if more than 10% of the population does not have enough to eat. You have been through Bamako and other towns and cities and you have seen the construction sites and big buildings. But in their daily life, people are now more ill at ease. They have been disappointed by the Adema regime. The welfare of the ordinary citizen cannot be defined by reference to the personal wealth of someone who is having a seven-storey building put up. All of this new construction is reflected in the higher GDP. But the macro-economic indicators tell you nothing about the distribution of the country's resources-and the scales are currently tipped towards injustice. Those who are working are earning less but those who do not work are earning more. Embezzlement and corruption are currently worse than under Moussa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is the likelihood of a changeover of political power given that the opposition groups are at odds? The union between yourselves and Parena appears to have been suspended.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We are capable of winning the forthcoming elections without entering into an agreement with any other party. Having said this, we are the party to which most groupings in Mali are now turning and we are currently in the process of forming an alliance which will carry a great deal of weight. l am not one to speculate but I am sure that Parena's supporters will, in time, reach the same conclusions as ourselves regarding the timeliness and suitability of an alliance between us. We have contacts with a number of other parties but we do not want to form an electoral pact in the way one would make preparations for a coup-forming a group, ousting the regime and then shooting at each other! Moreover, it is important not to confuse change with restoration. There are those who advocate the restoration of Moussa's regime. Opposition of that kind would suit the current government very well because it would allow them to raise the spectre of our former dictator in the hope of attracting support from those who are frightened by such a pro spect. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by H.G.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The magnetism of the unfamiliar... but unexotic</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In West Africa, there is a dry, desert-like region which a river tried to bring under its sway. Instead of flowing seawards, the river's path went in the opposite direction to find this region, impulsively tracing a majestic loop of 2000 kiLom&eacute;tres before heading seawards. The Niger may not have provided an ideal site for Mali's major towns and villages, but it was considerate enough to form a major waterway between them which is navigable over almost its entire course. Its network of tributaries has resulted in the formation of large landlocked lakes whose waters are full of fish-a reminder of the times when the Sahara was one huge expanse of water. It has also resulted in the extraordinary Niger basin, a central delta area the size of Belgium, criss-crossed by lesser tributaries which reach into the smallest valleys. The river has created a diverse landscape which entices the visitor back. The land is steeped in history and if one wishes to learn its secrets, one has no choice but to study the empires of the past, forged it is said, by mythological deities and heros.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the dry season, visitors marvel at the beauty of the plains, which stretch as far as the eye can see. They will be tempted to return to view the waters that will cover them for just a few months during the rains. This is when the towns and villages appear as islands in the flooded landscape. Later in the seasonal cycle, Nature divests itself of its watery raiment and prepares to welcome the egrets, pink flamingos and all the other richly coloured birds which have flown in from afar. The cultural life of this region is also imbued with a rare richness, combining mystery and individuality. Mali has a distinctive character: it is accessible but not adulterated by frippery, welcoming but not taken over, affable but able to treat everyone as its equal. There is no need to make constant reference to the past which existed before colonial times-the past simply exists, eloquent in its tranquil humility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of Mali should logically begin in Bamako, the likely port of arrival. But if one immediately journeys to the towns and villages that were the cradles of empire, one is better able to appreciate this young capital, barely 250 years old, whose history owes much to its smaller forebears. We arrived in the evening and departed at dawn the next day. So Bamako was no more than a blur. The River Niger, still known as the Djoliba in the capital, is crossed by two long bridges which offer a view over the wild river banks. Most of the constructions are brand-new and some have a style borrowed from their thousandyear-old 'Sudanese' architectural heritage. It would have been more romantic to travel by river to the central part of the delta but, despite the welcoming nature of the Niger as it flows through Mali, it is difficult to navigate over the Sotuba rapids, between Bamako and Koulikoro approximately 50 km away. When the waters are in spate from July to December, it takes no more than two days to reach Segou, three to reach Mopti, five to reach Gao and an extra day to arrive in Timbuktu.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Segou, the rebel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Our first stop after Bamako is Koulikoro, the departure point for Niger cruises. After the unusual houses of the bazo fisherman on the banks of the river, as one leaves Bamako, it is the river itself which is a source of curiosity, transforming the voyage into a wonderful promenade through a forest abounding in game. Then there are the thatched, circular mud huts. Those without a roof are built on piles and are often ovens for preparing karite-nut oil whose bitter-sweet fragrance mingles with the fruity scent of the mango trees which line our route. In Koulikoro, every day is market day. The market spills out into the road and then shrinks back to allow vehicles to pass. It is also a centre for hunters and poachers who come here to seek customers. Above all, it is the centre for the guilds of masons who jealously guard the secrets of traditional Sudanese building skills. For the visitor who cares to linger, the griots will sing the praises of the old magician-king Soumangourou whose spirit has haunted this small town for eight-and-a-half centuries. When he was overthrown by the hero Soundjata, he just vanished into thin air-in the land of mystery that is Mali, great kings do not die, they simply disappear.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first 250 kiLom&eacute;tres of the river's course from Bamako are enchanting. One's first real encounter with Mali's past come at Segou-when the balanzans come into view. The charming, independent city is close by. Segou, the Bambara capital, did not form part of most of Mali's empires. Indeed, the word Bambara comes from 'Ban-Mane', which means 'those who reject a master'. There are 4444 + 1 balanzans to announce the city, all of which are numbered except the last one, which still guards its secret. The balanzans conceal another secret: during the dry season they are covered with leaves, which they lose during the winter. A curious traveller might arrive at Segou with memories of Maryse Conde's fine prose (Segou, Robert Laffont, France, 1984). Her work is an epic fresco of life at the court of the Bambara kingdom in the nineteenth century. The city itself stretches for eight kiLom&eacute;tres along the river bank, with a promenade high above the river on an embankment from where there is an uninterrupted view over the water to the horizon. The richly coloured fabrics of the washer women create a dreamlike atmosphere, giving an impression of the shimmering tunics worn by princes, and the women who swim in the river are not given to excessive prudishness, another reminder of the city's enduring rebellious nature. The charm and cleanliness of the town are striking, its administrative buildings stretching along a grand boulevard lined with modern structures. We see in their profiles, the traditional architectural styles as well as a variety of colours. The whole scene is shaded by gardens full of flowers. It is easy to forget that Segou has retained none of its former architectural wealth. This was all destroyed by the organisers of a jihad who sacked this city of infidels who had never been won over to Islam or, later, to Catholicism. The city walls and the regal courtyards are all gone, so what remains is jealously protected: the sceptre and regal symbols of King Diarra, the kingdom's treasures and its secrets. On Mondays, market day, it is possible to see people kneeling at the feet of an old man. He is the custodian of the town's remaining riches, but will never reveal where they are held. Oumar Santara, one of Segou's intellectuals, is attempting to gain an insight into these mysteries in order to protect them better because, he says, the pillage is still going on. Mali's cultural heritage is being ransacked by outsiders. In some villages on the opposite bank of the river, it is still possible to find 13th-century coins in the village squares.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trial marriage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly 500 kiLom&eacute;tres separate Segou from Mopti. Midway between the two is San, barely more than a large village. San is bathed by the waters of the Bani, a major tributary of the Niger which it flows into it at Mopti. In the market, fine cotton fabrics can be bought, as can the skills of the blacksmiths. Here, however, there is above all an air of secrecy. The town's inhabitants are members of the Bobo people. The name translates es 'stammering', 'mute' being implied. This is the town which holds the secrets of fatal poisons- cocktails of poisonous plants and snake venom. There are also unguents of all kinds to relieve pain, alleviate scarring, and so on. San has another reputation, that of handing out severe punishment to adulteresses. This seems paradoxical when one discovers that women here enjoy exceptional sexual freedom during adolescence and up to the time of their marriage, and even afterwards. They enter into a trial marriage for three or four years, during which time they are free to 'play the field'. At the end of this period, on the occasion of a feast, they reveal whether or not they will accept their 'provisional' husband. If not, the woman regains her freedom and can start all over again as many times as she wishes. If she decides to become the man's wife, she chooses some of her husband's friends with whom she may 'have a fling' for two weeks, the aim being that she thereby lays to rest her unmarried freedom. She will then swear an oath of fidelity to her husband which she breaks on pain of being cast out of society and even, it would appear, at the risk of losing her life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 1 2-kiLom&eacute;tre dyke, which seems to float on the water during the winter season, links Sevare, the crossroads of the major routes across Mali, to Mopti. Situated below water level, Mopti owes its existence to the embankments which protect it. The dyke offers a fine promenade which opens out onto the quayside of this bustling town. The streets are crowded and the settlement has a vitality and beauty, with coloured lights mirrored in the water. On land, the crowds drift in much the same way as the multitude of boats anchored in staggered rows along the riverbank. These stretch for hundreds of metres- as far as the eye can see. All this wealth of detail forms a tableau punctuated by the outlines of the slender fishing smacks (pirogues or dugout canoes). Despite their size, these vessels retain their uncluttered lines, always giving the impression that they are slicing through the water. The biggest of them are perhaps 50 metres long, carrying cargoes of up to 150 tonnes. This strange, animated scene, which resembles no other in the world, seems to have been staged as a way of reviving the buried images of the Mali of legend-provoking a memory of things unseen and prompting new sensations. Despite the fact that it is replete with Malian influences, Mopti did not develop until colonial times. Like Segou, it never really belonged to any of Mali's great empires, although it became their meeting point. It is a place where all the country's languages are spoken. Indeed, the word 'mopte' in Peal means 'place of assembly'. At Zigui's restaurant or in a cafe down by the port, one find groups of beribboned Tuareg artisans still with their belle servants (former slaves) in tow. One can watch the Peals, also followed by their servants, negotiating their deals. Some trade in gold jewellery, dogon or other ethnic sculptures. Others buy and sell the magnificent Segou carpets or cotton fabrics. Others still dabble in ancient archaeological artifacts (which it is forbidden to sell) and in sacred objects from all over the country. The town itself is an artifact: the apparent hotchpotch is regulated by an internal, almost natural organisation. The hundreds of boats, fishing smacks and other small craft are arranged along the river banks according to the goods they are importing. There is one place for fishing boats, another for furniture imports, and so on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mopti merits an overnight stay. In the curve of the great arc which forms the port, a soft light lingers on the congested river banks. It is not just the people who seem to tire of the day's hustle and bustle. The biggest boats with their gentle backwash, anchored in the mud until the next incoming tide, grow too lazy for their images to be reflected in the water and they seem to hold on to the last of the sun's glow, awaiting the first glimmers of moonlight</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Dogon region, poetry in stone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As one approaches Bandiagara, on the threshold of the cliff faces which bear the name of this town, the landscape changes. Most of Mali is flat, but here, we find ourselves in the high land. In fact, the altitude is only a few hundred metres, but the landscape is dominated by sheer and rugged rock faces. This is Dogon country where everything seems to be made of stone: the roads, houses and hills appear in matching tones of salmon pink. The inhabitants, too, seem to have been hewn from the very rock. At first glance, the landscape is unremarkable apart from the sight of all this rock, but as one's perception grows keener, shapes can be made out. At the foot of the slopes are caves that are still lived in. And in the most vertical part of the cliff faces, we can pick out regular, sculpted barrel shapes, combining to form an impressive design. These stone cylinders are the ancient dwellings of the Telems, a mysterious people who preceded the Dogons and were conquered by them. Nothing is known about their disappearance. Today, the cylinders are used as Dogon graves. Access is gained to them during funeral services, by means of a system of ropes. At the top of the cliff is Shanga, the beauty of the Dogon region. It stands atop a 400metre sheer drop which extends over a length of 200 kiLom&eacute;tres. Reaching Shanga from Bandiagara involves picking one's way through the rocky landscape and sliding over sandstone scree.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before the Europeans arrived to colonise the country, no one had succeeded in subjugating the Dogon region. Was it really ever under the sway of the colonists ? This region, whose beauty lies in its harshness, has no embellishments. And its language is as hard on the ears as the rock is underfoot. As everywhere, to feed themselves, the Dogons till the soil. But this must be carried on the backs of men and women over distances of several kiLom&eacute;tres and then deposited on the rock. Every onion bulb and every root pulled from this thin layer is a testament to the tenacity of humankind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Dogon region is like a magnet-it attracts pilgrims from afar who come to venerate El Hadj Oumar, the founder of the Islamic brotherhood of the African Tidjani-a military and religious leader whose life and disappearance are shrouded in mystery. It also attracts people because of the beauty of its works of art. Some of these, apparently of recent manufacture, are actually centuries old. For the custodians of the sacred objects, the interest of outsiders is viewed as a catastrophe. The artefacts are constantly pilfered and sometimes, their keepers commit suicide in their horror at such desecration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fine regalia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djenne translates as 'the beloved of the waters' and is surrounded by two strekhes of the Bani river. Thus, apart from a short time in the dry season, when the river can be forded, it is an island accessible only by boat. The town has always been a rival of Timbuktu, the 'daughter' of the desert. Before Mopti was created, Djenne was the country's meeting point. The town is dominated by its mosque which is a masterpiece of Sudanese architecture. This imposing clay structure has been a magnet for the faithful since the thirteenth century. It has always been rebuilt in the same style, each version scrupulously identical to the previous one. The most recent reconstruction dates from the early 1900s.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centre of the Malian empire, Djenne has retained all its finery, magnificence and prestige. It was annexed by the Shongoi empire at the end of the Middle Ages and its conquerors have always been seduced by the town's beauty. The mosque has been designated a World Heritage Site, and the entire town has protected status. For centuries, its architecture influenced other towns and cities in the Sahel and it continues to do so. The secrets of the knowledge and skills of its master masons are still jealously guarded, passed on only reluctantly to the initiated. The whole town is built around the mosque, revealing an interplay of balance and power. There are magnificent inner courtyards to which entry is gained through massive, ornate studded gates. The elaborate and finely carved windows, the intertwined leaves and scrolls of the arabesques and the moucharabies, all bear witness to the Moroccan influence. This has, however, been toned down and it now blends in with Djenne's indigenous forms of decoration and architecture. Whilst all Mali's former great towns and cities were known for their power and military glory, Djenne takes pride in having dispensed with brute force, its spirit protecting it from subjugation. All those who pass through take something of Djenne's spirit away with them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coca Cola kept at bay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Returning to the capital from where we started, we discover that it was colonisation that turned Bamako from a village into the large city that it is today. It inhabitants now number approximately one million. Although a city of recent origin, the site on which it is built dates back to the dawn of time. The hills overlooking the city are home to cave paintings and the underground tombs provide more evidence of a human presence dating from ancient times. There is then a gap of several thousand years in Bamako's history. In early colonial times, just two centuries ago, the village had no more than 700 inhabitants. Bamako began to be developed at the beginning of the 1900s and it is the only city in Mali to have a colonial atmosphere. It has not, however, lost out to change. The ministerial buildings at Koulouba hill, one of five dominating the city, or the Point G houses in the National Museum area, may not equal the beauty of Sudanese architecture, but they are elegant nonetheless. Their plain style is softened by their leafy gardens. The administrative buildings in the lower part of the city are often a fusion of colonial or modern styles and traditional architecture. These edifices are also made more attractive by fine gardens, which lend originality to the city. One of the most successful combinations is the great market, unfortunately in the process of restoration at the time of our visit and whose beautiful interior we were unable to appreciate. It is interior beauty which characterises this city in comparison with other African capitals. Despite its congestion and the density of its population, Bamako still has the atmosphere of a lively village. There is little of what one might term a 'social scene', but it is enough to be invited into the 'squares' or respectfully to visit the block-shaped houses which are still home to entire families and where discussion sessions (grins) last into the small hours. These sessions are enhanced with food and the omnipresent cup of tea. Bamako still prefers tea to imported beverages and to receive guests in the family home rather than joining in the social round in the hotel foyers so characteristic of major capital cities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For those hesitant to venture into the traditional life of Bamako (although they would be assured of a welcome), there are many restaurants which make a good attempt at recreating a homely atmosphere. One is not, however, required to take part in the conversations. Two restaurants (the Djenne and the Santoro), which have opened recently, allow one to enjoy the pleasures of art and history. They are part of a wider project to promote Malian art and set up an organisation for artists and craftsmen. They contain areas modelled on the refinement of former imperial furnishing, interior design and architecture, as well as exhibits by Mali's greatest artists. Their creator, Aminata Traore, is an intellectual, art connoisseur and international expert. In Dakar or Abidjan, patrons of such establishments would probably be expatriates with perhaps a few local dignitaries. But at the Santoro and Djenne, prices have been kept reasonably low (no account having been taken of the 50% devaluation in the CFA franc) and the art remains accessible to middle-class Malians. Thus, the spirit of the 'grins' is preserved. The preferred beverage is still a cup of fragrant tea or perhaps a glass of refreshing juice. Whisky will never replace tea, nor will Coca Cola replace fruit juices. Mali is not a country which rejects other people, but it resists cultural encroachment, preferring the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">familiar to the exotic. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Mali-EU cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roads and adjustment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Theo Hoorntje</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For 1990-95, ECU 151.7m was allocated (mainly in project aid) under the seventh EDF National Indicative Programme (NIP). This is equivalent to about 1.5% of Mali's GDP and 13% of its public-sector investment programme for the period in question. European funds from sources other than the NIP-emergency aid, Stabex, European Investment Bank (EIB) venture capital and resources from the structural adjustment facility- reached ECU 87.2m over the same five-year period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1995, support for the structural adjustment programme represented 5.4% of the balance of payments deficit and 7.8% of the budget deficit. Looking at all instruments together, the amount involved in financing decisions taken by the Commission last year was ECU 42m, with the disbursement figure rising to ECU 40m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The NlP's primary commitment level under the 7th EDF rose from 76% at the beginning of the financial year to 92% at the end, which means that virtually all available programmable resources are now allocated to projects and programmes. The secondary commitment level, which involves the conversion of proposals into concrete agreements and contracts, rose from 33% to 45% by the end of the financial year. Disbursement rates remain relatively low (32% of available resources).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Allocations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid is distributed to the various sectors, as follows:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Roads (29% of the total);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Support for structural adjustment (20%);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Rural development / Environment (1 4%);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Support for the private sector (12%);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Decentralisation (9%); </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Public health (9%); </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Water supplies (4%); </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Education/Culture (3%).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear that Community aid concentrates mainly on road infrastructures-covering both maintenance and the opening-up of remote regions. Support for structural adjustment, which comes second, is used to finance the State budget's current expenses, particular emphasis being placed on improvement of fiscal and customs income and greater efficiency in health-policy matters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In other areas, such as rural development, Community aid also makes an attempt to consolidate gains from previous actions, particularly through the development of rice growing and stock rearing, which should improve supplies to the domestic market and offer further export potential. As far as the environment is concerned, the aim is to contribute to the sustainable management of natural resources on the part of basic users, such as farmers, breeders, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The private sector is supported by actions in key areas and by a programme that was recently set up which involves directing resources through a financial institution (Credit Initiative SA). The objective is to promote lending to SMEs, which is in keeping with the general aim of achieving economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the context of administrative reform, priority is given to the decentralisation process which aims to promote the emergence of new local decision making centres (which should, in the long term, become key players in project development and implementation), and to give such decentralised bodies the means they require to fulfil these new public-sector missions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for health, Community aid has contributed to the PSPHR project financed by other donors. Its main focus is initially on infrastructures and on the policy relating to the supply of essential medicines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the water-supply sector, actions are aimed at strengthening village infrastructures, particularly in the Bankass and Koro areas. A solar-pump programme has also been set up in the Mopti and Koulikoro regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to a school reconstruction programme in the north of the country, the Commission has been able to support education and culture through a dozen or so film projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the general 'heading' of non-programmable resources, there have been a number of interventions. These include extra support for structural adjustment, Stabex transfers, deployment of the balance from the 5th EDF and EIB projects. Emergency aid has been deployed in the north of the country where, despite difficult conditions, programmes have been able to continue without interruption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, Community regional aid is helping to combat rinderpest, as well as being directed towards road maintenance, and the provision of training and information on environmental protection. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.H. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">NGOs finally achieve tangible results</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Catherine Beauraind and her five colleagues in the small team of foreigners and Malians, woke early. It had been a short night: our fault, since we had arrived at Bandiagara on the edge of the Niger valley much later than expected having taken the Sevare route. This is the gateway to the rocky Dogon region and travellers on the road occacionaliy fall victim to bandits-which probably made our hosts somewhat apprehensive about our late arrival. The people we had come to see are road builders, working without sophisticated equipment in a region of rocks and cliffs. They seem very youth froml, particularly those who have come from afar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are 'Progress Volunteers', the name given to the many young people who come to this very poor African country to offer their commitment and dynamism, if not perhaps their experience. On this particular morning, still feeling fatigued, Catherine was having to coordinate the departure of escorts for seasonal workers who were being dispatched to various locations. Their job is to ensure the upkeep of the rocky roads, and the equipment they use is rudimentary to say the least. The Bandiagara-Dourou stretch is maintained by the AFVP (French Association of Progress Volunteers) and is one in a long list of NGO projects. In 1995 alone, the European Commission supported over 50 NGO schemes, to the tune of ECU 1.5 million. Most EU countries and a number of others also have their own projects. On top of this, there is the emergency help provided by the European Commission Humanitarian Office (ECHO), which has just approved a grant of ECU 1 million for the north of Mali. Now that a peace accord has been signed between the government and the Tuareg rebels, this region is likely to see a huge influx of refugees returning to villages that are ill prepared to receive them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali is a least-developed nation and one of the most highly subsidised countries in terms of per capita aid, though recently, its political fortunes have been boosted by the democratisation process. And the efforts of the NGOs now seem to be paying off. The recent times of famine have faded in people's memories even in the Dogon region, where many families ate calabashes in desperation before succumbing to starvation. Mother nature is playing a part in the country's renewal: there has been ample rain over the last Many NGO projects are aimed at helping the population use its meagre resources to exploit the natural wealth of the River Niger and its tributaries. At Konna, for example, a striking village at the confluence of two rivers, the Regional Literacy and Self-Management Project is up and running. Financed, among others, by the European Development Fund, this is being implemented at a number of localities, and it has played a part in the renewal which can now be seen. Fresh coats of paint, repairs to houses, fewer starving children and the return of many migrants all underline this new vitality. Each of the 17 small cultivated areas in the village that are covered by the project (worked by about 60 people), receives no more aid than a motorised pump, a few cereals and a small amount of cash in the first year. A basic course in management is also provided. It is up to the villagers to use these resources to yield a profit. Results tend to be good, proof of success being the growing number of such schemes which are being set up without aid from the organisation. The project is now in its seventh year. It did experience one bad year-1992-when, despite bumper harvests, rice imports into Mali were excessive and prices dropped. The village has therefore made an attempt to diversify its crops. Its objective is to sell onions in Cote d'lvoire, where the inhabitants are very fond of this vegetable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most villages have been able to save money which was initially placed in banks and then invested elsewhere in the wake of devaluation's harsh lessons. Konna opted for purchasing livestock. In nearby Kotaka, surpluses partially funded the construction of an impressive mosque. Kotaka was one of the places most affected by the recent meningitis epidemic, but a hospital would probably have been too expensive. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Western Samoa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A new spirit of enterprise</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small countries with a limited resource base are frequently buffeted by economic forces over which they have no control. If you live in Western Samoa, however, you are likely to be preoccupied by forces of a different kind. For while most of the time, Mother Nature presents a benign face in this attractive and fertile Pacific state, every once in a while, she loses her temper.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical storms are an unavoidable reality in much of the Pacific and they breed a special form of resilience which should impress the inhabitants of more temperate climes. The people of Samoa, and other cyclone prone countries in the region, are adept at picking themselves up and, if necessary, starting all over again, once the winds have passed. But between 1989 and 1993, the Samoans' capacity for renewal was to be tested more than ever before. Like a plucky boxer facing a much stronger opponent, the country would just be struggling back to its feet when another hammer blow would send it reeling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The closest to a knock-out punch came in December 1991 in the shape of Cyclone Val-the worst storm to hit the islands in more than a century. This brought death and injury, as well as widespread economic devastation. The coconut and coffee trees on which the country depends for much of its export income were either swept away or stripped bare. Many homes were also destroyed and infrastructures were severely damaged. (The 1993 cyclone, although less powerful, caused further crop destruction.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the last five years, virtually all the damage has been repaired. Indeed, a great many facilities have been upgraded with plans for further improvements in the pipeline. To some extent, the credit for this remarkable recovery must be shared. Overseas donors played an important part in restoring key infrastructures while expatriate Samoans, whose remittances are an important 'invisible' earning for the country in normal times, also rallied round. But the key players, of course, were the people themselves, who rose to the challenge of reconstructing their country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, Western Samoa - which has a population of 165 000-is experiencing an economic mini-boom. Growth during 1996 is expected to be between 5% and 6% for the second consecutive year and there are encouraging signs of a new, home-grown entrepreneurial spirit. This is not to say that everything in the garden is rosy. The latest growth figures need to be set against the unavoidable recession caused by Cyclones Val and Ofa (which struck in 1990) and a mediocre economic performance throughout the 1980s. And while there is some evidence of diversification, the economy is still very narrowly based. There is also considerable room for improvements in health care and education provision. Doubts have been expressed, for example, as to the accuracy of the official literacy figures. Finally, there is a high level of dependence on foreign aid (the country's main donors are the Asian Development Bank, Japan, Australia and the European Community).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economists will tell you how notoriously difficult it is to express the wealth of a developing nation in statistical form. GDP figures can offer a pointer, but they do not present the whole picture as they take no account of the informal economy. Western Samoa provides a particularly good illustration. At US $950, the estimated per capita GDP is very low by Pacific standards. Yet there is clearly no starvation. A great deal of the food consumed by the Samoans simply does not 'show up' in the cash economy. The term subsistence agriculture seems peculiarly inappropriate here since locally available food sources are many and varied.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Similarly, many of the materials used to build the 'fares' (traditional houses) in the villages are obtained without recourse to builders' merchants. And when a Samoan wants a new house, he builds it himself-with the help of his family and neighbours. This involves skilled carpentry work-for which people would pay highly in industrialised societies - and which does not register either in the country's economic statistics. So it is clear that the basic GDP figures do not paint a complete picture. Nonetheless, they illustrate the relatively underdeveloped state of the formal economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking at exports, Western Samoa's traditional agricultural sector has gone through some rough times, for a variety of reasons. In the past, the mainstays were copra and coconut products (oil and cream), cocoa and tarot</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The storms destroyed or damaged many of the coconut and cocoa trees, wiping out exports for a number of years until new plantings could reach maturity. The market in food products derived from the coconut had been depressed in any case. One reason for this was negative publicity over the high cholesterol content of coconuts, although more recent research, suggesting that not all types of cholesterol are bad for you, has at least partly restored the reputation of this highly flexible crop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taro, which is Western Samoa's staple food crop, was exported in ever increasing quantities during the 1980s but the trade has suffered badly in recent years because of an outbreak of taro leaf blight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, Western Samoa's most important primary exports are, once again, coconut-based (oil and cream). With the new trees reaching maturity, production recommenced on a small scale towards the end of 1994. The following year saw a big jump in exports and the figures for 1996 are expected to - come close to pre-cyclone levels,The marketing situation has also improved as a result of privatisation. The old Copra Board, a parastatal with a reputation for inefficiency, was abolished in 1990, its assets being bought for a nominal sum by a Samoan businessman who has invested heavily in refurbishment. This has all been achieved despite continuing low prices for coconut products in the world markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cocoa takes longer to recover but harvesting of the first new crop is due to take place this year with the emphasis on a high value, fine tasting variety. A new chocolate factory (Wilex C.C.P. Ltd), also masterminded by a local entrepreneur, Eddie Wilson, has been built with assistance from the EU's Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) and a credit from the European Investment Bank (EIB) channelled through the Development Bank of Western Samoa (DBWS). This is a particularly significant venture since it aims to maximise added value before export. The factory is currently operating well below full capacity, awaiting the arrival of the first local crop, but there are high hopes for its long term success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other main crops exported are bananas and kava. The latter is a mild narcotic based on the root of the pepper plant, which is used in pharmaceutical preparations. It also has an important place in Samoan (and wider Pacific) culture, being drunk in diluted form on ceremonial occasions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a view to achieving further export diversification, a number of other agricultural/horticultural export possibilities have also been identified. These include asparagus, mangos and cut flowers. The most likely potential market for new tropical production is New Zealand-already the destination for more than half of Western Samoa's exports. However, this country has stringent health rules with rigorous controls on the import of plant and animal material. The understandable aim is to protect the local farming sector from diseases introduced from outside, but it creates an additional hurdle for potential exporters in the developing countries of the Pacific. In particular, Western Samoa needs to come to grips with the fruit fly problem, if it wishes to make inroads into the New Zealand market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Timber also once featured prominently in the trade statistics before declining at the end of the 1980s. There are hopes for a revival here with the authorities keen to encourage value added processing of wood products within the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite its obvious association with the sea, Western Samoa has never really gone in for commercial fishing. While the Exclusive Economic Zone is small by Pacific standards, the country being 'hemmed in' by other island nations and territories, it is still more than 40 times the land area. The government would particularly like to attract foreign investment in fish processing and canning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industry</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is probably unrealistic to expect a small and geographically isolated nation such as Western Samoa to develop a highly diversified industrial base but there have been one or two notable ventures which show signs of potential. The above-mentioned chocolate factory is one such. The country also has a highly successful brewery. It is not uncommon for developing nations to produce their own local beer but Western Samoa's Vailima brand has managed to break out successfully into the regional market, bringing in useful foreign exchange in the process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biggest industrial success story-dwarfing all other manufacturing ventures-has been the establishment of a factory by the Japanese company Yazaki to produce wire harnesses for cars. The business employs some 2500 people (mainly women) in a highly labour-intensive operation-and it makes a significant contribution to the trade balance. The value-added electrical components are re-exported for incorporation into cars sold mainly in Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The company was attracted by a number of factors including low labour costs in this non-unionised society, and the political stability of Western Samoa. Perhaps most important, however, were the incentives offered by the government. These went well beyond the usual tax holidays provided by developing countries to attract foreign investors. Indeed, it was the government that built the factory and the company was allowed to occupy it rent-free. Some observers have expressed concern at such largesse but the authorities are insistent that it was still a good deal. They point to the jobs that were created (a huge number by Samoan standards) at a time when many people's livelihoods were threatened by taro blight. They also argue that the profits of the operation are retained in Western Samoa, thereby helping to boost the wider economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Services</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The service sector offers perhaps the best potential for expansion of Western Samoa's formal economy. Top of the list here comes tourism (featured in a separate article), which has been expanding much faster than the underlying rate of economic growth. Despite the increase in both visitors and income, tourism is still underdeveloped. The government (supported by the opposition) believes that this is one field where Western Samoa definitely has a 'comparative advantage'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linked to tourism, of course, is the air transport business. Although it might still be possible to obtain passage on a merchant ship bound for the South Sea islands, the vast majority of visitors arrive by plane, and good air connections are obviously essential. The history of the country's national carrier, Polynesian Airlines, offers two object lessons. The first is how not to run an airline and the second, more recent and encouraging one, is how to grasp the nettle when the crisis finally breaks. In 1992, with tourism in mind, the government owned airline decided to expand its operations substantially. It leased three long-haul aircraft which it hoped to fill with visitors in search of a new tropical haven. The market research was clearly inadequate and the planes flew with many empty seats. Other aspects of the company's management proved deficient and there was a chronic lack of financial. Debts mounted at such a frightening rate that the budgetary position of the entire country was threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, the government took decisive action, bringing in Richard Gates, the experienced airline entrepreneur, who is credited with having turned Air New Zealand around. Relatively small airline businesses in the Pacific are not likely to make a.fortune for anyone, but with proper management, they should at least be able to break even and perhaps even turn in a small profit. This was not something that even the prodigious talents of Mr Gates could achieve, however, with the crushing burden of debt accumulated by Polynesian Airlines. So the government assumed responsibility for the debts and then gave the new manager a free hand, on the firm understanding that the taxpayer would not come to the rescue again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the airline side, the operation was drastically slimmed down. The leases on the large aircraft were terminated, staff 'down-sizing' took place and bath ticketing and financial management were tightened up. The positive impact of these measures was soon evident, with a small operating profit registered in 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Left with huge debts, the action of the authorities was equally impressive, although it entailed discomfort for most Western Samoans. In order to restore its own financial position, the government instituted 15% public expenditure cuts across the board. In macro-economic terms, it is generally acknowledged that this strong medicine was needed, but the social consequences were all too clear as well: reduced funds for health and education, and pressure on important capital investment budgets. Perhaps fortuitously for the country, the financial crisis caused by the Polynesian Airlines debacle coincided with the payment of a substantial Stabex payment from the European Community. The country's was eligible for Stabex funds because of the collapse in agricultural export receipts following the cyclones, and the money-which was directed mainly into infrastructure projects-could hardly have come at a better time. Meanwhile, the government has paid off a large portion of the airline's debt with the residue rescheduled for payment over a five-year period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government has taken a number of steps aimed at attracting offshore finance business to the country. Western Samoa now has a comprehensive legal framework governing such activities, including crucial provisions guaranteeing secrecy. Another vital factor in attracting offshore funds, which has already been mentioned, is political stability. There is even the suggestion that the country's time zone, which puts it almost a day behind Australia and New Zealand, might somehow be turned to its advantage in global financial dealings (although it is not clear how the benefit would be derived in otherwise legitimate transactions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The last three years have seen a big increase in company incorporations and there are now more than 2500 offshore companies (including 15 banks and eight insurance companies) registered. It is difficult to imagine Western Samoa ever challenging the likes of Liechtenstein, the Bahamas or Jersey in this market, given its geographical distance from the main industrialised nations, but even a successful 'niche' operation could bring some useful income to the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five years ago, when the Courier last covered Western Samoa, the emphasis was heavily on recent constitutional changes and most notably, the introduction of universal franchise. At the time, there was a lot of interest in how the traditional Samoan way of life (faa-Samoa) would be affected. This is based on the village structure and the matai system which vests considerable authority in family heads. There is also a strong attachment to the Christian faith, as exemplified by strict Sunday observance rules (also found in Tonga and other Pacific countries).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, the Samoans appear to have embraced their more 'westernised' system of government without any difficulty. Although everyone over 21 has a vote, one still has to be a matai to be eligible to stand for Parliament. In contrast to hierarchical structures elsewhere in the Pacific, however, the system here seems to be based largely on merit and it is not particularly exclusive (there are an estimated 19 000 matai). The matai, nonetheless, exercise considerable authority in village affairs, most notably over the use of customary land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In short, the change seems to have caused few problems because Western Samoa already had its own decentralised form of democracy. It was not a question of educating people about hitherto alien concepts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that change in Western Samoa is slow and progressive rather than sudden and violent, is recognised by most observers to be a good thing. An illustration of this evolutionary approach is the arrangement governing the position of Head of State. The post, which is held by His Highness Malietoa Tunamefili 11, currently appears to be a cross between a presidency and a monarchy. Under the 1962 independence constitution, two of the country's four paramount chiefs were given the position, to be held jointly, for life. With the death of Tupua Tamasese Meaole in 1963, the surviving incumbent became sole Head of State. There will be no automatic succession, however, and Parliament will decide who should have the post in future, with the term of office limited to five years. There is obviously a great deal of respect for the Head of State and his office among Western Samoans, although it should be stressed that his role is largely ceremonial, with political authority being vested in the elected government. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for party politics, there are two groupings represented in Parliament, the ruling Human Rights Protection Party and the opposition Samoa National Development Party. The party system is not particularly strong, however, being based more on personalities than ideology. Corruption is not seen to be a major problem although a major row did blow up recently over a critical report issued by the Auditor-General for 1994. This led to him being suspended and this issue had not yet been resolved at the time The Courier went to press.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa is not unique in having to adapt to a rapidly changing world. The phenomenon affects all societies, with modern communications technology increasingly breaking down the 'protection' that geographical isolation used to afford. In Westem Samoa, as elsewhere, there must be concern about the impact of this on the country's traditional way of life. Yet the indications are that this Pacific nation is managing the transition rather better than many other developing countries. The people seem to combine an unselfconscious pride in their traditions and cultural assets with a pragmatic welcoming of ideas from outside which help to improve their material wellbeing. The hope must be that this process can continue as we approach the third millennium. S'imon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Historical summary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to archaeological evidence, the islands of Samoa were first settled about 3000 years ago, after gradual migration within the Pacific from people originally from South East Asia. Samoa, it seems, was the cradle of the Polynesian culture, and settlers from there spread to other islands of Polynesia in the east, north and south.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first European to sight the group in 1722 was Jacob Roggeveen, and although there was intermittent contact between European sailing vessels and the islanders during the 18th century, more permanent contact was established with the arrival of the European missionaries in the early 1980s. They were soon followed by traders looking for copra, beche de mer, sandalwood and other products. Later, some of the trading firms, notably German, fumed to large-scale production of copra and other products such as cotton, cacao and rubber, which also led a corresponding increase in interest on the part of colonial powers. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1800s, the Samoan group became the focus of colonial rivalry between Great Britain, the USA and Germany, leading, in 1900, to the partitioning of the islands between Germany and the United States. The eastern part of the group came under American control and has remained so to this day, while Germany controlled the western islands. Britain received territorial concessions elsewhere in the Pacific. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the outbreak of World War I, New Zealand took over what had come to be known as German Samoa, and became the administrative power there under the League of Nations and later the United Nations until Western Samoa became the first Patific island nation to become an independent state in 1962.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Source: Government of Western Samoa. this text is taken from the information brochure prepared by the authorities for distribution to delegates at the recent ACP-EU Council of Ministers meeting). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dream ticket ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Depart Nuku'alofa-12.00, January l 2000 Arrive Apia - 14.00, December 37 1999</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People with cash to burn are often ready to spend surprising amounts of money in their pursuit of the unusual. Tonga has already recognised this as it begins preparing for the third millennium Lying just to the west of the International Dateline, it believes it will the first country to see the sun rise on the new millennium, although other Pacific territories have also made the claim. (For this purpose, we ignore the purists who point out that the third millennium will not actually begin until January 1, 2001.) Celebrations are planned and bookings are already being taken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Westem Samoa is obviously not in the running for this distinction since it is east of the dateline, but what this means is it will be the last nation in the world to say goodbye to the old millennium. This surely presents an opportunity for the local tourist industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And what about those intrepid voyagers who fancy greeting the year 2000 in Tonga and then 'seeing out' the old millennium 24 hours later in Samoa. If i were an airline manager, I would be examining the possibility of extra flights from Nuku'alofa on the big day. (Let's hope it's not a Sunday I)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">An interview with Tuilaepa Sailele Malielegaoi, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Economic future in tourism end manufacturing'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier visited Western Samoa at the end of June while the country was hosting the ACP-EU Council of Ministers meeting. At the time, veteran Prime Minister, Tofilau Eti Alesana, was recovering from an operation, and his duties were being carried out by his deputy, Tuilaepa Sailele Malielegaoi, who is also the Minister of Finance. Despite a hectic schedule, the Deputy Prime Minister kindly managed to find a slot for a keynote interview with The Courier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· There is growing evidence of a new economic dynamism in this island nation, which has managed to find its feet remarkably speedily after the destruction wrought by cyclones in 1989 and 1990. With this in mind, we began by asking the Minister about the economic prospects for the country ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think they are excellent. Our country suffered a major catastrophe as a result of the cyclones, coming, as they did, in two successive years. There was major damage to our infrastructure and forestry resources- coconuts and cocoa. At the time, we estimated the bill at more than $600m. But the rehabilitation of the infrastructure went ahead quickly, thanks to the major support provided by bodies like the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and of course, the European Union, not to mention the bilateral donor countries who answered our call for help. So in some ways, it was a blessing in disguise. We suffered badly, but with the assistance that came, we have been able to improve our roads and electricity supply, and the protection of our foreshore. It also encouraged us to embark on replanting to replace the trees-mainly cocoa and coconut -that had been destroyed. Last year, for the first time since the cyclones, our copra exports came back in strength. We have, at last, started to approach the pre-cyclone export levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are likely to be the key sectors for future economic activity ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We believe that the economic future of our country now lies more in tourism and in manufacturing industries. Dealing with the latter first, we have already succeeded in attracting some industries. The major investment so-far has come from Yazaki, a Japanese company that produces wire harnessing systems (electrical components) for vehicles. This employs almost 3000 people in Western Samoa. In fact, the company set up here before the cyclones and it did not take long for us to see the benefits. The value added equivalent provided by just that one plant is roughly equivalent to our total agricultural exports for last year. So you can see the importance of manufacturing industry for us. We have provided very generous incentives and have also allocated sufficient government land to provide space for factories.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other industry which is now in the forefront, in terms of foreign exchange earnings, is tourism. We now earn four times more from this sector than we do from agriculture-and agriculture is supposed to be the mainstay of our economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course, we mustn't reduce the priority that we give to agriculture. It is one area where we have the resources. More specifically, I think that we have great potential for beef production. If we should have another cyclone, the trees will be damaged but cattle should not be affected. So I think we should look more towards beef production and other forms of agricultural diversification. We do have some good commercial farming in place at the moment, but it is not enough. We need to do more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about the chocolate industry ? You have traditionally grown cocoa but you now also have a factory to process the raw material right up to the end product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is a direct result of our drive to promote more manufacturing - whether it is export-oriented or geared towards import substitution. The chocolate venture is a new one and I think there are good, prospects here as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important point is that we are moving back into growing the fine flavour variety of cocoa here. We used to be one of the 14 producers of fine flavoured cocoa in the world, and we got premium prices for it. But somehow, over the years, we switched to producing inferior quality bulk cocoa. We regretted doing that and are now switching back to the higher quality variety-which is just coming back into production following the cyclones. So here we have another potential area for exports. On the other hand, taro which used to be our major export prior to 1993 is facing difficulties. It is affected by a disease, the taro blight, which seems to be uncontrollable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Thinking in particular of the impact of tourism, are you concerned that an influx of foreign visitors might damage Western Samoa's unique and very special culture ? I see, for example, that you now have a 'McDonalds' restaurant in the centre of Apia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- No. I am not really concerned. In 1992, we set up our own tourism festival. This takes place in the first week of September and is quite clearly intended to be a feature event with an emphasis on promoting tourism. All the activities at the festival focus on the various aspects of our culture-the arts, the dances, the preparation of food, the singing and so on. It seems to me that our drive for tourism is actually helping to revive some of the cultural aspects that would otherwise have been dvina out. So I believe there is a complementarily between culture and tourism, so long as we ensure that the relationship between the two is maintained. I think this point is backed up, if you look at the growing popularity of ecotourism nowadays. This is very much concerned with preservation-of both the environment and of local cultures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In international circles, Western Samoa is deemed to be a least-developed country on account of its low GDP per head figures. Yet nobody is starving here and you appear to have a very 'rich' lifestyle, even if people don't have a great deal of cash in their pockets. Do you think the international classification is a fair one ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- I think the first point to emphasise is that a lot of the signs of development you see here are of recent origin. They date back only to 1992-93. Infrastructures have improved considerably over a very short time and this could well create a certain impression about the people's standard of living. On the other hand, it is true that our economy is not completely based on cash. And, of course, our earnings are in Tala which go a lot further here than their dollar equivalent in the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Presumably, it is to your benefit to be classified as an LDC because it gives you access to more sources of foreign funding ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I am happy to leave the classification to the experts. They are the ones who come and estimate our average per capita income, which is then used as the yardstick for placing a country in one or other category. I think it is ironic though, that if you go to a country like the USA, which is supposed to be very rich, you find beggars on the street. It certainly makes you wonder. Perhaps it is not really the statistical wealth of a country that is important, but its social system. And our social system here ensures that no-one goes hungry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· That leads on rather neatly to my next question. What do you think are the main social challenges that need to be tackled here ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We still have quite a lot of 'service care' needs in the villages that we need to attend to. That is why we have placed the highest priority on social services over the next five years. I am talking here in particular about health, education and water supplies. There are still a lot of villages that need to have piped water brought into the home. Education-wise, we have reasonable access, but we need to improve the teaching material that is available in the classes and upgrade the general level of village schooling. We need to dissuade families from moving to the capital in the belief that they can get better education for their children here. So we still have a lot of work to do to ensure that the primary schools in the villages are upgraded. It is not simply a question of ensuring that competent teachers are available, but also as I say, providing good teaching materials and laboratory equipment for science subjects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· All of this obviously needs to be paid for, which entails healthy government finances. You recently had a serious problem over the debts run up by Air Polynesia, and you took very stringent measures to tackle this which resulted in expenditure cuts. What do the figures look like today ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-They are OK. We are running a budget deficit which means we have to borrow both overseas and locally, but we try to keep the deficit at a reasonable level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What has been the effect of introducing the Value Added Goods and Services Sales Tax (VAGST) ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It has helped enormously. Of course, in order to sell the idea, we had to reduce other taxes and duties. As you know, there is an international trend towards removing customs duties and shifting revenue-raising in the direction of consumption taxes. Customs levies, which are the traditional source of revenue are diminishing. So what we have done is to lay the foundation for the eventual shift in our revenue base. Also, we promised to cut income taxes even more-from 38% to 25% within two years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Has this measure been implemented yet ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-No, it is due to be introduced in 1998.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Finally, I would like to turn to a constitutional question. Western Samoa introduced universal franchise some five or six years ago, but you still have a system in which only matai (family heads) are entitled to stand as candidates in elections. Do you envisage any further changes to the system ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I cannot really see that we will ever change again. The Constitution stipulates that our government is based on Samoan traditions and Christian principles. When we introduced universal suffrage, we were applying something that had always been there in any case. Samoans have always taken part in the process of choosing their leaders and voting is simply another way of doing this. The only difference is that we would arrive at a decision by getting together through our village structures and talking, whereas your system involves marking a ballot. So the change was quite in accordance with our customs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let me say something about the way villages choose their matai. When there is a question of succession, everyone has a right to take part in the process. There is no age limit. So in that sense, you could argue that we are more advanced. And we always had female matai, even before the arrival of the Europeans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this respect, I believe we are quite different from Fiji and Tonga. In Tonga, the dividing line is quite clear. If you are born a noble, you remain a noble and if you are born a commoner, you will always be a commoner. It is the same in Fiji. There, you are automatically a ratu K your father was one. By contrast, here in Samoa, my son cannot automatically succeed to my title. So to become a matai, a person has to earn it, and to put his case at the family meeting which is convened to choose a successor. Usually, the person chosen is the one who displays the best leadership qualities. I think I should also point out that becoming a matai is not that difficult. If you want to be one, you inform the family and if they think you have matured sufficiently, you will generally get the position and then become eligible to be a parliamentary candidate. It is typical that when a family sees a fellow has matured, he becomes a matai.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 2934 km² (Exclusive Economic Zone of 130 000 km²)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 165000</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population density: 57 per kiLom&eacute;tres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Apia (situated on the island of Upolu)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National language: Samoan (English is the business language)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currency: Tala (WS$) made up of 100 sene. In June 1996, 1 ECU was worth approximately WS$ 3. (US$1 = WS$ 2.3)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">System of government: A unicameral constitutional democracy with strong traditional elements. The current Head of State is one of the country's four paramount chiefs, and he holds the office for life. Thereafter, the Fono (Legislative Assembly) will elect the Head of State for five-year terms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is universal franchise (introduced in 1991) but in order to be a Parliamentary candidate, one has to be a matai (family head). Western Samoa is said to have about 19000 matai. The minimum voting age is 21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Head of State: HH Malietoa Tanumafili II</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Tofilau Eti Alesana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main political parties: Human Rights Protection Party (HRPP), Samoa National Development Party (SNDP)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Party representation in Parliament: HRPP 35, SNDP 11, Independent 3. (The HRPP total includes 11 members elected as independents in the April 1996 election who subsequently joined the governing party).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p038.png"></center><br>
+ Map</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy (1995 figures unless otherwise stated)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual GDP per capita: approx US$ 950</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP growth rate: 7%. The target for 1996 is 34%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Principal exports: coconut oil (WS $8m), coconut cream (WS $4.8m), copra (WS $2.2m).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balance of payments: exports - WS $21.7m, imports - WS $228.1m. 'Invisible' earnings, officially described as 'net foreign earnings' amounted to WS $171m, leaving a current amount deficit of WS $36.8m in 1995 (20%lower than the previous year). The main 'invisibles' are private transfers (remittances from Western Samoans living abroad), tourism, income from services and the value added trade of the Yazaki electrical components firm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inflation rate (end 1995): 1 %. Inflation tends to fluctuate a great deal. The figure for 1994 was 18.4%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government budget (projected for 1996/97): revenue WS $288.4m, expenditure WS $312.7m, deficit WS $24.3m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Accumulated government debt: WS$ 389 m</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth (1993): 67.8 years</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult literacy (1993): 98% (A UNESCO report in 1994 suggested that real literacy levels were significantly below those indicated in official figures) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education: all levels from age 6-23: 74%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.700 (88th out of 174) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Marketing a tropical idyIl</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Folasaito Joe Annandale and his wife Tui are the brains behind Western Samoa's latest tourist facility- the Sinalei Reef Resort, which has just opened on the beautiful south coast of Upolu island. They are among a growing number of Samoan entrepreneurs who are injecting new dynamism into the country's economy although they are somewhat unusual in the tourist trade. With the notable exception of the famous 'Aggie Grey's Hotel' in Apia, tourist accommodation in Western Samoa has tended to be the preserve of foreign investors, including some of the major international hotel chains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At first sight, it is surprising to discover how underdeveloped the tourism sector is in Western Samoa. Tour operators may be inclined to use the phrase 'tropical paradise' a little too freely but this island nation certainly seems to meet most of the essential criteria. It has the obligatory golden beaches fringed with palm trees, extensive coral reefs and striking mountain scenery overlaid with lush vegetation. The vivid colours leave a particularly strong impression. Greens predominate but there are also many copper-leafed trees and bushes, and an abundance of red, orange and yellow flowers. Western Samoa can also offer a number of special features which are important in marketing terms. There is, of course, the legendary hospitality of the Samoans and their distinctive and vibrant traditions. This must be one of the most musically 'literate' populations in the world, a talent which is reflected in the numerous choirs/dance groups. The harmonies are impressive and the traditional dances are both expressive and entertaining. There is also the unique 'fare' architecture which is a particular source of fascination to outsiders, not to mention the Robert Louis Stevenson connection. The famous author spent the last four years of his life in Western Samoa and the house where he lived- which used to be the Head of State's residence - has recently been converted into a museum.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Good prospects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The potential for expanding tourism is something that has not escaped the government. In today's highly competitive free-market world, countries are being urged to exploit their 'comparative advantage' and the Western Samoan authorities recognise that this sector offers some of the best prospects for future growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like most other economic activities, the tourist trade was badly hit as a result of cyclone devastation in 1989 and 1990. However, visitor numbers have increased substantially since then. Indeed, looking at year on year earnings, the tourist sector is performing better than any other area of the economy. In 1994, income was WS$.58 million (50 000 + visitors). The following year, it reached WS$.78m and there are hopes that it could top WS$.100m in 1996. Of course, no-one in Samoa is talking about 'mass' tourism. The country is too far from the main industrialised nations to be able to offer traditional package holidays (perhaps fortunately !), and too small to absorb the cultural and environmental impact without lasting damage. Having said this, the market can be divided into two very distinct portions. At one end of the scale are the low spending 'back-packers'-often taking advantage of relatively cheap 'round the world' airline tickets to stop off and sample the pleasures of Western Samoa. These tourists may not spend very much on a daily basis but they are reasonably significant from a financial standpoint because they tend to stay for quite lengthy periods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the other end, you find the high-spending, 'exclusive' customer willing to pay for high quality accommodation and catering. Perhaps not surprisingly, the Government is more interested in attracting the latter, which is why they are keen to encourage investors such as the Annandales.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier spoke to Joe Annandale about his business strategy when we recently visited the country. The Sinalei Reef Resort, which has received EIB loan financing channelled through the Development Bank of Western Samoa, has just 20 rooms (including four suites) giving it a capacity of less than 50. Customers will be offered a tropical idyll and a chance to escape completely from the pressures of modern living. The long term aim, according to Mr Annandale, is to entice Europeans in general and Germans in particular. The latter, it is said, have a preference for environmentally-friendly, 'escapist' vacations and, of course, there is a historical link between Germany and Western Samoa. Until a European clientele can be built up, the focus will be on attracting guests from Australia and New Zealand. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Culture clash?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there is no question of Western Samoa being swamped by visitors from overseas, even a modest increase in tourist numbers is bound to have an impact in this country of just 165000 inhabitants. On the negative side, the Samoan system of customary (village) land ownership sometimes appears at odds with entrepreneurship founded on individual ownership of property and resources. In the early stages, Joe and Tui Annandale encountered local difficulties-including squatters-when they bought the land to develop the resort. The usual arrangement is for overseas tourism operators to lease customary land, a process which may involve protracted and ultimately fruitless negotiations with the matai (village heads) who have traditionally used the land for other purposes. Of course, the clash between traditional land tenure systems and 'modern' capitalism is not restricted to tourist ventures-as mining operators in Papua New Guinea have discovered. But while one understands the frustrations for developers, who may find themselves embroiled in complex and interminable land disputes, we should also recognise the concerns of local people who see a possible threat to their way of life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the positive side, new tourism developments mean jobs and trading opportunities. In the building of the Sinalei Resort, the Annandales drew heavily on local labour, employing 35 people from the neighbourhood. As Mr Annandale pointed out, this was essential for a complex designed to fit in with the local environment. The Samoans have always built their own houses and only they had the required carpentry skills. The resort also employs 35 regular staff for catering, housekeeping etc. and again, the majority are local people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, there is one criticism often levelled against tourist ventures which certainly does not apply at the Sinalei Reef (or other Samoan hotels). This is that most of the food and drink consumed by visitors is imported. The Annandales make a point of purchasing their fish, meat and fruit locally, thereby ensuring that some of the financial benefits of their venture flow back to their own community: in short, a happy combination of astute public relations and good economics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with opposition leader Tupua Tamasese Efi</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Revive the agricultural base'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tupua Tamasese Efi a former Prime Minister of Western Samoa, is leader of the opposition Samoa National Development Party which won 11 of the 49 seats in the parliamentary elections held in April 1996. In this interview, he outlines his own and his party's views on some of the key political and economic issues in his country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In what ways does your party offer a different agenda from that of the governing HRPP ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think the differences are mainly of emphasis. The present government tends to focus on law-making and exploiting the country's least developed status. Our focus would be more on developing our indigenous agricultural industries. If you scrutinise the economic picture in Samoa, you will find that there has been a very substantial decline in agricultural exports in the last fifteen years. Our economy, if you can call it that, is increasingly sustained by largesse-the donations that we get from overseas. This has complicated our situation. Our relative economic independence has been sabotaged to a point where, suddenly, we are getting a proletariat. That might be unavoidable in a lot of places, but it doesn't have to happen in a small country like ours which has self-sustaining village units, and a potentially secure agricultural base supported by products like cocoa, copra and bananas. If you look at what is happening today, you see that, all of a sudden, we have a new class of under-privileged people with absolutely no income at all. And the tragedy is that it has happened without anyone really noticing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So our emphasis is to try and revive our agricultural base, and to seek out exports. In the past, our economy was sustained by cocoa and copra exports, and a lot of our food was sold to New Zealand. Now, you find that there are hardly any exports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So your focus would be more on boosting the traditional aspects of the Samoan economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Not necessarily traditional. Our party is not bound to cocoa, or copra or whatever. But we are committed to improving our agriculture. It matters little whether it is traditional or other crops. But we need to break back into the New Zealand market. This is the best place to aim for. Australia has its own tropical sector and nothing that we can produce is needed by them. New Zealand is different. One of the biggest challenges we have to overcome in getting back into that market is our fruit fly problem. It would seem sensible for us to channel substantial resources into overcoming this hurdle so that we can sell to New Zealand again. There is a tremendous potential market-and not just for copra. There are also products such as flowers, and a whole number of other possibilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Given what you have just said,what emphasis would you place on sectors like manufacturing and tourism ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think that tourism is an obvious way to go and this is where we are in agreement with the government. Of course, you will have heard of the debacle of the Air Polynesia finances. When you compare the losses that were run up with our foreign exchange reserves you get some idea of how enormous the problem was. It was a situation that went badly awry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This issue aside, we agree that we need to get into tourism-but it must be within reason. Part of the explanation for people gravitating towards tourism is that they see it as the only available avenue-or at least the most visible way of making money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another economic point I want to raise concerns debt. Loans can be a quick fix, but when your whole economy is tied to indebtedness, you are creating something that is built on sand. You end 'A potentially secure agricultural base' up acquiring more and more capital items that are totally unrelated to your present or likely future resources. This is one of the most destructive things that can happen to a society, and it is very clearly happening here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have a rich and vibrant living culture here in Western Samoa. Are you concerned that globalisation could ultimately pose a threat to this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-No, I am not worried. You have to accept it as a natural development. The things that are distinctive in our culture have to find their place in adapting to the new realities. There is no point putting your head in the sand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Turning to political aspects, you now have universal franchise, but you still have to be a matai to be eligible to stand for Parliament Does your party have any plans to change this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Some years ago, we had a constitutional convention which led to changes in the system. Attached to that was a provision requiring a further constitutional convention to be convened in 20 or 25 years (I can't remember the exact period). So we are committed to that. We have to sit down and look at the overall picture. We have gone a long way in terms of universal franchise and it is possible that we need to go even further.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But if one takes the United Kingdom as a model, I think the important lesson is that you should 'make haste slowly'. The genius of the Westminster model is that it involves careful evolution. I hope that this tradition will be followed by our country. The constitution, as it was put together some 30 or 40 years ago, has served its purpose very well but there are quite a few anomalies appearing now.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is your view about regional cooperation in the South Pacific What future do you see in working together with the other countries of the region- perhaps presenting a more united front to the outside world ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-There is a lot of sense in the SAS approach-I am referring here to the Scandinavian countries getting together to form an airline. It is sensible to take a common stand where we have a common interest. But there are obviously intricacies resulting from historical, economic and social factors. At the moment I am reading a book on lain Macleod, the British Conservative statesman. His experience in the failed attempt to form a federation in the Caribbean is very revealing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When you enter a common endeavour, there is always the pull of your own particular interests. And there can be a suspicion that the 'bigger boys' will use the others to promote their own interests. A lot of this may be perception rather than reality. Also, traditional rivalries can intrude. Sometimes you need to fall flat on your face before you Let me give you an example from the world of rugby. It took Rupert Murdoch to get Fiji, Tonga and Western Samoa to realise that our fates are intertwined. He has come in with a commercial package that has taken over the entire rugby scene in the region- with a heavy emphasis on Australia and New Zealand-and this has hit us in a big way. For example, we find ourselves being cut out of traditional rugby tours. There is no point in us trying to claim that we are self-sufficient in this area. The big lesson is that we need to cooperate a lot more with the Tongans and Fijians in order to make an impact on the wider rugby scene._ </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Western Samoa-EU cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Focus on utilities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Mylanwy van de Velde</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa's cooperation with the European Community began in 1975 with its accession to the Lom&eacute; Convention. From the start, the sector to benefit most from programmable funds (ECU 4.6 m under Lom&eacute; I and ECU 6m under Lom&eacute; II) was the energy sector, with the financing of the Samasoni Hydroelectric Scheme in the late 1970s and the Sauniatu Hydropower Scheme in the early 1980s.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In parallel, a programme of 260 microprojects was funded involving the development of poultry and pig farming, and fisheries, covering 96 villages on the main islands of Upolu and Savai'i. A further ECU 890 000 was allocated to the Western Samoa Development Bank, in the form of a credit line, to increase the Bank's lending capacity. In addition, at a time when copra exports were still considerable, the Community financed storage and handling facilities for coconut oil and copra pellets (ECU 900 000).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On top of programmable aid, Western Samoa received 12 Stabex transfers totalling ECU 9.3m for export losses on copra, wood, bananas and cocoa in the period 1975-84.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Lom&eacute; III, the development of the country's substantial hydroelectric power potential continued, and Western Samoa began to make considerable steps towards self-sufficiency in energy needs. While in 1980 some 78% of the electricity generated came from diesel plants, by 1986 this percentage had dropped to 26%. The volume of petroleum imports for electricity generation dropped to 36% in the period 1982-86. With the building of the Afulilo Hydropower Plant (Lom&eacute; III and IV), these volumes have decreased further, with positive benefits in terms of foreign exchange savings. The scheme (which was co-funded by the Asian Development Bank, the EIB, the World Bank and the Western Samoa Electric Power Corporation) involved the construction of a 10 million cubic metre reservoir, a penstock, a powerhouse, and the installation of mechanical equipment and transmission lines, and has contributed substantially to the quality of electricity supply on the island of Upolu.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p043.png"></center><br>
+ Community aid to Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Additional work has been done with Lom&eacute; IV funds to address the question of rural water supply: a water master plan and design study for a number of rural areas have been completed, and a public awareness programme on the rational use of water resources has been designed for implemention at such time as planned infrastructural work goes ahead.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, an ECU 1 m microprojects programme has been initiated with the aim of financing the renovation of infrastructure for rural communities in the fields of water supply, health, education, tourism, agriculture and fisheries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stabex payments under Lom&eacute; 111 (1985-1989) and Lom&eacute; IV (1990-1994) amounted to ECU 11.1 m and ECU 5.7m respectively. These were paid to compensate for losses in coconut oil and copra products, especially, but also for losses on exports of cocoa beans and of wood in the rough.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the above grant aid, the EIB has provided a total of some ECU 9m in risk capital in the years since 1981, the bulk of which was used in connection with the Sauniatu and Afulilo Hydropower Schemes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further total of ECU 660 896 has been allocated in emergency aid to Western Samoa, in 1983 after a serious fire on Savai'i, and in 1990 and 1991 after the disastrous cyclones Ofa and Val.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Programming of the next tranche of EC funding under the eighth EDF has still to be completed, but the indications are that prominence will be given to extending and upgrading the water supply network. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.v.d.V.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new health-centre for Tafua</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sight that greeted the people of Tafua when they emerged from shelter in 1990, following the passage of Ccyclone Ofa,was one of complete devastation. The tropical storm had been one of the worst in living memory and this village community on the island of Savai'i, together with many others in the Samoas, found themselves having to start almost from scratch. Homes had been swept away' crops destroyed and much of the essential infrastructure Iay in ruins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a testament to the resilience and determination of the people in these communities that there are few signs today of the havoc wrought by the winds just six years ago. In some places, rows of dead trees still stand in silent witness to the power of Mother Nature, although the scene is softened : by the new crops and lush vegetation growing beneath. But the villagers have rebuilt their houses and, with some help from outside, they have been able to re-establish i the essential community facilities as well. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through its micro-projects programme, the EC was able to offer a helping hand in the task of reconstruction. For the modest sum of just ECU 10 000, Tafua now has a new community health clinic adjacent to the site of the old one which was swept away by Ofa. In keeping with the rules of the scheme, the villagers were obliged to contribute 25% of the cost-which they provided in kind, in the shape of the labour for rebuilding the clinic. The Courier visited Tafua in June and was shownaround the facility by Nurse Agata Leuelu who provides primary health care for the 600 villagers. We also met local Methodist minister, the Rev. Siaosi Selesele, who explained how the people had taken shelter in the neighbouring school when the storm reached Samoa. It turned out to be the right choice as it was one of very few structures left standing in the neighbourhood. Villagers are obviously hoping that there won't be another 'Ofa' for a very long time' but if and when the next big wind does strike, the new ctinic-which has been built to withstand a lot more strain-should hopefully be able to weather the storm. In the meantime, it provides an important service in the delivery of health care to the people of the area. The European Community has also provided micro-project funding to help rebuild the health clinic at Taga on Savai'i. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dossier</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Investing in people</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Dossier coordinated by Augustine Oyowe)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Previous editions of The Courier have dealt, separately and at length, with various aspects of human resource development, especially in the context of recent dossiers on population and social development, education and training, public health, women, and poverty. Our current dossier looks at the issue from the investment perspective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To say that investing in people makes economic sense is to state the obvious. But to what extent are the implications of this statement fully understood in the developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa in these days of constantly shifting development theories?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Labour or 'human capital' has long been recognised as a key factor of economic growth. As opposed to sustainable human development, which places human beings at the centre of economic activities (the recipient of the fruits of economic progess), 'human capital' places them at the beginning of the process. The difference of approach is thus evident even though the objective is the same. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Investing in people is a concept which simultaneously combines 'human welfare' with the 'human capital' approach at the beginning of the economic development process. It encompasses nutrition, health and education, and should, under the right investment climate or conditions, enable any investor, whether State or individual, to reap an adequate return .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After three decades of considerable efforts at investment in health and education by sub-Saharan African countries, the returns in terms of standards of living, economic grovvth and rate of development have been extremely disappointing. The conclusion which can be drawn is that the conditions necessary for adequate returns on these investments have been absent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colonial legacy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sub-Saharan Africa inherited from the colonial regimes, infrastructures in health delivery and education that were not only alien to its culture and traditions, but also totally inadequate for nation building. It is a well known fact that in 1960, there were no more than 1200 university graduates in Capital redefined</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important when thinking of investnent in human resources to understand the real concept of capital. Below is an extract of a definition given by Stefan de Vylder (taken from his UNDP discussion paper: 'Sustainable Human Development and Macroeconomics strategic links and implications' . </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A child in the North is born wealthy. His or her share of the capital accumulated by earlier generations is worth a fortune. The higher wages and salaries in the North, compared with those in the South, largely reflect differences in endowment of the country, rather than of the individual. The fact that, for example, a nurse in Germany earns 30 times more than one in Bangladesh or Zambia has little to do with individual differences in training or skills; the higher salaries in the North simply reflect the higher dividend on the capital bestowed from the past. Part of this wealth or heritage is easily visible: factories, roads, schools hospitals, universities, telecommunications, and other infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, there are other, less tangible, forms of capital that constitute a crucial complement to physical and infrastructural capital; parliamentary democracy, a free press, respect for human rights' norms for social interaction, systems of rapid dissemination of new ideas, trade unions and a myriad of other large or small social organisations, a judiciary system which, by and large, defends law and justice, and other institutions. This latter form of capital may be called institutional or social capital. It is also highly unevenly distributed in the world, with large differences both between the North and the South and within individual countries of the North as well as in the South the region as a whole. Indeed, some countries had no graduates at all and in others, they could be counted on the fingers of one hand. In what was effectively a race against time, African leaders understandably responded by investing massively in human resource development. This was made possible partly by small, but steady rates of economic growth and partly by sustained foreign assistance. Between 1960 and 1980, sub-Saharan African governments consistently allocated high proportions of their annual budgets to health and education. Households and individuals made similar efforts (accounting for nearly 75% of all spending on health). They made sacrifices and gave a high premium to the education of their children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results were tangible and very significant. By the late 1980s, sub-Saharan Africa was producing over 70 000 graduates a year. Major cities had hospitals and health centres and the rural areas, clinics and dispensaries. Amid a general improvement in nutrition and health-care delivery, the incidence of infectious disease, and maternal and infant mortality were considerably reduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite these achievements, the approach to manpower building by the post-independent African leaders was, to say the least, haphazard. As a result, a number of problems, such as the appropriateness of school curricula, under staffing and the long-term budget implications of recurrent expenditures, were overlooked (although reform efforts have since been attempted in some countries with varying degrees of success).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The consequences were felt in the 1980s when Africa's economic crisis was only just beginning. Health and school infrastructures deteriorated for lack of maintenance. There were shortages of qualified teachers and teaching materials leading to falls in educational standards as well as in primary school enrolments. And health systems failed for lack of personnel and drugs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The situation has worsened as the continent's economic crisis has deepened-a crisis characterised by huge budget deficits, high inflation rates, sluggish growth rates and a heavy debt burden. Structural adjustment programmes (SAPs), introduced in response to this, have only served to undermine further the gains made in human resource development. SAPs have been aimed mainly at macroeconomic stabilisation, deregulation and privatisation of state enterprises, and the social sectors have lost out in the process. Subsidies on basic commodities, especially food, have been removed, civil servants and employees of state enterprises have been made redundant and cost-recovery has become the standard practice in medical services. These measures have all combined to produce a level of poverty never before seen in the region, a situation which has adversely affected nutritional standards, provoked malnutrition in many countries and reduced resistance generally to infectious diseases. Because of the rise in unemployment, large sections of the educated population have been rendered unproductive, a waste of several years investment by both the state and the individuals in question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appropriateness of skills</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although sub-Saharan Africa produced a large number of graduates before the economic crisis began, few had the kinds of skills needed for industry and agriculture. The evidence of this lies in the unsuccessful attempts by some governments in the late 1970s to indigenise executive positions, most of which required high levels of technological knowledge or experience. The 1980s saw a dramatic increase in the number of foreign technical assistants working on the continent and, paradoxically, in the number of qualified African professionals leaving, mainly for Western Europe, the United States and Canada.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International technical assistance to, or cooperation with, subSaharan Africa has intensified. Organisations such as the World Bank, IMF, UNDP, UNCTAD, UNESCO, European Union and Commonwealth are all involved in one form or another. The effectiveness of this assistance varies, however. This dossier features articles on the work of three of these bodies (the Commonwealth, UNDP and VNESCO). The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation was set up more than 25 years ago to mobilise Commonwealth skills to meet the needs of member states as required. The UNDP's TOKTEN programme is designed to reduce the negative impact of the brain drain by getting highly qualified developing country expatriates to contribute their skills to the development of their home countries without necessarily having to return permanently. Finally, UNESCO's university twinning programme is designed as a mechanism for the rapid transfer of technology and sharing of knowledge. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While international assistance or cooperation is indispensable, it is surely no substitute for Africa's own efforts at human resource development. Three years ago, Edward Jaycox, then World Bank Vice-President for the Africa Region, announced what appeared to be a change of policy at the annual conference of the African-American Institute in Washington DC. He said that the Bank would no longer pay for foreign technical assistants to help resolve African economic problems but would instead help African governments build their own capacity. Although the Bank has traditionally had enormous influence on development thinking and policy worldwide, the apparent policy change does not appear to have influenced other donors. Nor, indeed, is there any evidence that the Bank itself is implementing it vigorously. The number of foreign experts being sent to Africa continues to grow. There were over 100 000 in 1988.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rationality of investing in people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the negative social impact, ten years of structural adjustment have not produced the sought-after stabilisation or the economic growth that was initally anticipated. Even the World Bank and IMF, who spearheaded the structural adjustment idea, have admitted that it has flaws and the need for a new approach to sub-Saharan Africa's economic problems could hardly be more urgent. In the Dossier, Giovanni Andreas Cornia argues for a new focus for structural adjustment, based on restoring adequate levels of public spending on health, education, social welfare and water supplies, so as to enable sub-Saharan Africa to restore and develop its human resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evidence of the impact of a healthy and educated population on economic growth and development abound. Studies on the economies of the East Asian 'tigers' have all concluded that big investments in education in the late 1950s and 1960s were largely responsible for the rapid growth they have experienced in recent years. Malaysia, although a latecomer, appears to be following in the footsteps of its neighbours. After nearly two decades of investment in human resource development, and the introduction of a foreign investment policy which requires some technology transfer, the Government now predicts Malaysia will achieve 'fully developed' status by 2016-twenty years from now.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A relatively well-educated workforce and a certain amount of physical capital or natural resources are all a country needs to succeed economically. Sub-Saharan Africa has sufficient natural resources as is often pointed out. The other side of the equation-a relatively well-educated workforce-is missing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sub-Saharan Africa lags behind other regions in human resource development for a complex variety of reasons. The natural and political environment are not conducive to the delivery of social services: low population density and weak transport infrastructures make such delivery expensive and the achievement of economies of scale impossible. The region's climate favours a variety of diseases (such as malaria and sleeping sickness) and many areas have little or no access to natural water sources. Political instability and weak institutions also continue to cast a long shadow. Although these constraints are long-term, appropriate policy measures could reduce their negative impact significantly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giovanni Cornia analyses the distributive effects of appropriate health care, nutrition and education on economic growth. He suggests ways of making rational use of available resources for maximum returns and of mobilising funds through taxation, foreign aid and other sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an age of increasing globalisation, where technology is more easily transferable across borders, a healthy and educated population is essential, not only for the absorption and use of new technology but also for meaningful participation in international trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is insufficient, however, to have an educated workforce. Sub Saharan Africa must acquire the institutional and managerial capacity to make the right decisions, both in the public and private sectors. This is essential in the quest to eliminate poverty, achieve sustained and sustainable economic growth and ensure a realistic integration of the region into the global economy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A much needed new focus for SAPs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Giovanni Andrea Cornia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two decades, a clear consensus, supported by a growing amount of empirical evidence, has emerged on the growth and distributive effects of appropriate health care, nutrition and education, and on the rationality of investing in human resources to promote development in low-income economies, and in sub-Saharan Africa in particular. It is now clear that public and private rates of return on investment in primary and secondary education are substantially greater than those in most industrial sectors. Similarly, it is now well demonstrated that nutritional interventions in favour of workers at low levels of food intake has a very large impact on labour productivity. Also, provision of simple but adequate nutrition and health care at an early age has been shown to spare substantially greater health outlays over the longer term. While the number of these examples can be multiplied, the lesson is overwhelmingly clear: investing in people is a sound development policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the same two decades, a broad political consensus has also emerged on the need to establish realistic targets in these areas and mobilise adequate resources to achieve them. The latter decade, however, has also been characterised by a widespread and acute recession which has reached its lowest point in the African continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While there has been a general recognition of the link between the deterioration of the social sector and Africa's economic decline, the interpretations of the causes of this decline and how best to address them vary considerably.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1980s also witnessed the advent of structural adjustment, an approach aiming at revitalising economies affected by severe crises and which calls, amongst other things, for a reduction in public spending, including on social services. With sharp falls in revenues, it was argued, African governments could no longer afford to provide health and education free of charge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments were to encourage instead the role of the private sector (since competition between state, private and non-governmental agencies fosters efficiency and enhances quality) and make households bear a greater share of the cost of publicly provided social services (as-it was alleged-households had a strong 'willingness to pay' for better quality health care and education).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a debate characterised by an overwhelming concern for expenditure reduction, little thought was given to protecting the provision and effectiveness of basic health care and education for all. Nor was sufficient attention paid to the mobilisation of additional revenue through taxation, foreign aid or other measures Even the introduction of rationalisation measures, which would have allowed for use and preservation of limited resources, received scant attention. During this period, public policies often ignored a number of well-known public finance arguments concerning market failures, externalities, natural monopolies, etc. typical of basic health and education. It was all too often forgotten, for instance, that the market systematically undersupplies 'quasi-public goods' like education, safe water, immunisation and collective infrastructure (i.e. goods which produce benefits not only for consumers but also for society as a whole); that incomplete or non-existent markets alone are unable to provide complete insurance coverage against the risks of sickness and disability; that the free play of market forces can generate levels of poverty that are socially unacceptable, and that competition among many small providers does not allow for the realisation of the economies of scale which only the public sector can realise because of its size, administrative infrastructure and revenue raising ability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greater and better government involvement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this paper, I will attempt to point out the main distortions in the social sector in sub-Saharan Africa and the major reforms, part of an alternative policy paradigm to the standard approach focusing on large expenditure reductions. My main line of argument is for more efficient and renewed but, in most cases, greater rather than less government involvement. I do not deny the important role of communities, nongovernmental bodies and private providers of social services, but the retreat of the state, which has been underway for several years in most of Africa, is palpably wrong: it may be a good survival strategy, it is definitely not a good development strategy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any approach to revitalisation of the social sector in Africa must aim at increasing both the quality and the relevance of services to the life, health and productivity of the population; enhancing efficiency; reducing distributive biases in the use of public expenditure, and improving the flow of both public and private resources to the social sector. These sets of measures are briefly discussed here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raising relevance, reducing unit costs and enhancing quality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two basic initiatives are essential to the achievement of this goal. Firstly, it is necessary to adapt the content of services to the demands placed on the child, the adolescent and the family by the external environment. Secondly, in doing so, it is necessary to provide minimum resources, particularly recurrent inputs, for every unit of service offered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Much can be done to improve the relevance of education in Africa. A key element in this is the wider use of African languages in the educational system. Admittedly such a step would probably encounter obstacles, but the results of pilot projects in the continent and experiences in several English speaking countries have been encouraging. The use of African languages should be expanded throughout primary and at least part of secondary schooling. And the curriculum of basic education should include basic health science, agriculture, food and nutrition, basic technological science, ecology and environmental studies as well as reading, writing, arithmetic, history, geography and elementary civics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While responding more appropriately to the life and developmental needs of children and adolescents, these measures offer the potential to improve substantially the cost effectiveness of the educational system by reducing the number of drop-outs and repeaters, particularly if the measures are accompanied by school-based nutritional support programmes and by steps to ensure a steady, if basic, supply of teaching materials such as books, chalk, slates, pens, exercise books and so on. Minimum expenditures for the latter, estimated at $5-10 per child per year, have been shown to have a profound impact on the quality and attractiveness of education.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving the relevance and quality of African secondary and higher education will require an increase in the number of courses in science, engineering, agronomy, management and other fields. Given the limited success of vocational training and yet the profound need for this type of education, a more flexible approach may be appropriate. Business associations and ministries of labour, rather than ministries of education, for example, could organise the type of vocational training that responds more closely to labour market conditions. Much needs to be done to gear university research to local and national needs. Rather than maintaining the model of independent residential universities, faculties could interact more with and rely upon local institutions and non-governmental organisations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the health sector, a more vigorous approach is necessary to implement the 'Health for All' strategy. In particular, more attention must be paid to the quality of the training imparted to village health workers, the provision of minimum supplies of essential drugs, adequate supervision, the mobilisation of communities and the strengthening of family planning services in the first tier of the primary health care pyramid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greater efforts are needed to contain unit costs through the mobilisation of community resources (such as materials and time) and the introduction of 'product standards' and 'production techniques' more in line with local factor endowments. With respect to capital expenditure, one major source of potential savings is the substitution of imported materials with local ones in the construction of schools, clinics and other public health facilities. Through this approach, capital costs per student could be more than halved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In health care, savings are also possible, in some cases, in wages and other recurrent expenditures. The potential for savings through increased efficiency in the procurement, management, storage, distribution and prescription of pharmaceuticals is substantial. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And there is a need for more carefully articulated manpower policies, with recognition of the cost implications of alternative skill mixes. Many tasks carried out by senior professionals can be performed by auxiliary personnel. In this regard, there is substantial scope for the application of nominal fees as a tool to guide demand for health care and thus increase efficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Similar considerations are valid in the education sector. Despite considerable declines during the 1980s in both French-speaking and Eastern and Southern Africa, teacher salaries in the late 1980s were still considerably higher than per capita GNP in several countries. While a cutback may be possible in some countries, reductions below the 'efficiency wage' should be avoided as they affect the quality of teaching.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are, of course, other approaches to reducing unit costs such as using teachers trained on crash courses and- paid salaries lower than that of fully trained ones, multi shift education to increase teaching hours, multigrade classes to increase class sizes and the creation of regional training centres with donor support. In addition, in most of sub-Saharan Africa, all university students receive fellowships to cover living expenses while at school. In many cases these fellowships represent a substantial proportion of total unit costs at the tertiary level. They add, in effect, to the regressive nature of educational subsidies and should be suppressed for all except for those who are least able to pay.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Substantial improvements in the distribution of benefits of public expenditure could be obtained through its restructuring towards basic services which benefit the poor more than they do the rich. This would mean, typically, the reallocation of part of the expenditure on hospitals to primary health care activities and part of the expenditure on universities to primary education. It would also mean that a greater share of investments in water supply and sanitation should be assigned to rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Correcting existing misallocation, however, is not simple, as capital and labour resources are only partially mobile. This is particularly true of capital expenditure which has already been invested in physical infrastructure. Inter sect oral reallocation is easier for recurrent expenditure, particularly when budgets are expanding, and it can lead to the achievement of more efficient and distributive gains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government subsidies need to be improved through effective targeting on 'merit goods' (such as food and shelter). Targeting is distributionally and administratively more effective when it is accomplished according to some objective criteria such as geography (the poorest areas), type of commodity ( low quality foods not consumed by the rich), easily identifiable population group (like pregnant women, young children, children in elementary school in poor areas, etc.) or season. It is less effective when carried out by means-testing or by targeting individuals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decentralisation of health care and education in the African context is likely to improve the geographical distribution of services. Poor communications and transport systems, population dispersion and the fact that the supervision of personnel, resource distribution and operations is easier at lower levels of administration, are all arguments in favour of such decentralisation. Nonetheless, where it means loss of control over the implementation of national policies (in curriculum development, manpower training, drug procurement and so forth) and excessive additional financial burdens on households and communities, decentralisation is potentially damaging. This was the experience of Kenya when the purchase of drugs was decentralised at the district level. It subsequently had to reverse this policy because of the problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing the flow of resources to basic social services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the considerable scope for protecting and, in some cases, expanding the delivery of cost-effective and high-impact social services, even during periods of declining resources, there are limits to what can be achieved through the measures discussed above, particularly in countries where the share in GDP of public health and education expenditure is already low. Indeed in most African countries, the flow of resources to these sectors must be vastly increased. The options available include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Increasing the share of government expenditure on key social services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Top priority should be given to a radical restructuring of government expenditure involving the shifting of resources towards those sectors with high social rates of return. Expenditure on defence can be cut substantially, while subsidies to chronically lossmaking public and private enterprises and interest payments on debt (the relief effect on foreign-debt interest payments of current provisions is utterly inadequate) should be reduced. If realistic expenditure restructuring like that proposed here were implemented, 1015% of overall public spending in many countries could be redirected to social activities with high rates of return. One half to two-thirds of these savings could be allocated to health care, nutrition, training, education and welfare, thus raising the share of these activities to about 30-35% of total expenditure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Increasing taxation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between the late 1970s and the mid-1980s, the average tax to GDP ratio for sub-Saharan Africa fell from 18% to 16-17%. (Only recently are there signs of recovery, but these are confined to only a few countries). This resulted mainly from the recession affecting the region and from the limited priority attached to revenue collection in most adjustment programmes implemented during the first part of the 1980s. In these 'first generation' programmes, the stabilisation of deficits was achieved mainly by cutting expenditure and raising excise duties. Increases in income taxes and progressive indirect taxes were far less frequent and land and property taxes were almost never introduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While taking effect rapidly, the measures implemented led to excessive drops in public expenditure on 'quasi public goods' and have had a regressive distributive impact. It is now widely recognised that a more active tax policy is needed. Such a policy should aim at improving revenue generation and enhancing the efficiency and equity of the overall tax system. This would permit a controlled rise in specific 'socially efficient' public expenditures, particularly basic health, primary and secondary education and public infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the 1980s, a number of countries, including Burkina Faso, Kenya, Malawi and Zimbabwe, initiated efforts to reform their tax systems. While the choice of optimal tax instruments has depended on specific country conditions, a few general principles of tax reform apply to all countries. First, colonial type tax systems emphasising the taxation of exports (and to some extent, of imports) should evolve towards systems which focus on income taxes, progressive and efficient indirect taxes and increases in the prices of such public utilities as telephone and electricity which benefit mainly the wealthier sections of society. Second, purchases of goods and services consumed by the poorest should be exempted from indirect taxes. Third, efforts should not concentrate on raising marginal tax rates but rather on broadening the tax base by reducing tax evasion and tax elusion, and fourth a low, uniform and broad-based tax on wealth (such as on land or other assets) should be introduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A non-distortionary and equitably-spread increase in the tax ratio equivalent to 2-3% of GPD is technically feasible in a good number of African countries and would by itself add to the real flow of resources to health care and education by about 15%, even assuming no growth and no shift in priorities towards the social sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Introducing 'earmarked' taxes or raising local ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The flow of tax resources to the social sector could be augmented more readily if the new tax revenue thus generated, or at least part of it, were directly earmarked for specific health and education activities (for which there are guarantees that tax money is spent efficiently), or if these taxes were raised directly by district and provincial authorities, who are usually entrusted with responsibility for social services at the local level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Mobilising additional resources from households and communities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In sub-Saharan Africa, as in most other developing regions, households have long borne a substantial share of the national expenditure on health, education, water supply and so on by contributing resources (in kind, cash and time) for the construction of health and education facilities, covering direct and indirect costs (transport uniforms, fees, drugs etc.) associated with the provision of public services and making payments to private providers. Despite these already considerable contributions, user charges have been introduced or raised on a large scale in recent years in many countries to alleviate the burden on public expenditure imposed by the economic crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, while the small but significant contribution of user charges to health and education budgets should be acknowledged, the negative effects of the indiscriminate application of these charges should also be emphasised. Indeed, in many African countries the need for health care, education and other social services rarely coincides with the ability to pay. The implementation of user charges can have adverse effects in three ways. First, it may lead to a contraction in the demand for services. Second, in the health sector, it tends to discourage the use of preventive services for which potential patients may not see an immediate relevance (such as ante natal care and immunisation). Third, it may adversely affect a household's ability to meet other basic needs, such as the purchase of food, particularly if fees are charged simultaneously for health, education and other services and if the household's income declines. In addition to these problems, there is little evidence that the revenue from user charges is actually reinvested to improve the quality or expand the coverage of local services, as those who promote user charges argue. Despite recent attempts at keeping a share of the user fees at the local level (e.g. at the collecting facilities), in most cases revenue merely flows to the public treasury. Moreover, user charges usually generate a relatively small proportion of the total operating cost of the health care sector, with gross yields at around 5%. If the costs of fee collection are included, the yields are lower and, in some cases, negative.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, health care, education and the provision of water include different types of services, some clearly geared to the needs of the poor and others catering more for middle and upper-income groups. While user charges are not well suited to primary education, disease control programmes, basic curative services and communal water supply, the same cannot be said of university education and other 'income elastic' services. For the latter, cost recovery measures would be advisable, although subsidised access for the deserving poor must be assured. For the intermediate category, which includes most curative health services and secondary education, selective cost-recovery measures might be desirable, with low income individuals exempted or charged only a nominal fee.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While direct user fees (levied on patients at the moment of their treatment) are problematic from several perspectives, there are other indirect ways to mobilise resources from communities (generally before episodes of illness), such as various kinds of prepayment schemes, health insurance, lotteries, mutual funds and the sale of produce from community fields, in addition to their contributions in kind. These schemes have two main features which are attractive for health-care: they shift the moment of payment, so that individuals are not burdened with relatively more significant expenditure at the time of illness, and they spread the burden of costs (e.g. for drugs) over a larger group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Increasing the volume of international aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There has been a considerable shift in official development assistance (ODA) in favour of Africa over the past two decades. Africa's share in total ODA rose from 19.4% in 1975/6 to 25.1% in 1980/1, and to 34.2% in 1988/9. However, the share assigned to human resource development has dropped, while- debt-service obligations have often absorbed a growing share of ODA. Greater flows are therefore needed. In the late 1980s, the World Bank estimated that additional annual aid of about $1 billion was required during the 1990s to halt social retrogression and ensure reasonable progress. But this flow of aid has not materialised on any appreciable scale. Indeed the trend in the 1990s has been towards an absolute decline in aid flows. The simplest and the most cost-effective way to effect such aid transfer would be through debt relief, although some increases in ODA are needed. Improvement in the quality of aid, including substantial shifts to programme aid, greater participation in the financing of recurrent costs and more focus on primary health care and education and on rural water supply are also required.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What role for NGOs and private providers?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While private providers, including church missions, have always been important in Africa, much of the market oriented literature tends to be very optimistic about the scope for expanding private services in order to replace government ones. Although a multiplicity of providers is desirable (and frequently unavoidable), there are several reasons why such optimism should be tempered. First, private sector services in Africa are typically concentrated in urban areas, and because of their cost, cater for upper-income groups. Although non-governmental providers (especially missions) are often located in rural areas, and they generally provide valuable services, they are seldom able to guarantee extensive coverage and in some cases may duplicate government services. Second, private providers are not without costs to governments; they often receive subsidies or preferential treatment in the allocation of foreign exchange and typically offer higher salaries and better working conditions which draw manpower away from the public sector. In Zambia, for instance, a teacher in a primary school run by the Consolidated Copper Mines can earn more than a lecturer at the University of Zambia. In countries with extremely limited numbers of doctors, certified nurses, qualified teachers and so on, greater privatisation would exacerbate the 'brain drain' from the public to the private sector and the undersupply of 'quasi public goods' for the majority, leading to harmful social differentiation. Third, quality is not necessarily an important incentive in the private sector in developing countries. The view that private institutions in health care and education are more efficient tends to be based largely on analyses in developed countries. Fourth, the growing pressure for pluralism in social service provision often gives scant attention to the problems of central coordination and planning and the development of an adequate 'regulatory framework' for private sector activities. While playing an important complementary role, the private sector and, to a lesser extent, the NGO sector, are thus affected by important objective limitations. Indeed, ironically, their proper functioning and social utility depends crucially on the existence of a stronger, not weaker, state able to regulate, coordinate and ensure that basic social services are provided - possibly through a multitude of public, NGO and private providers-to all citizens of a nation. G.A.C</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Capacity building for management and development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Franklyn Lisk</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development experience of much of sub-Saharan Africa in past decades provides ample illustration of the importance of capacity building in the development process. The importance is related to the ability to manage economic and social processes, including the analysis and formulation of policy options, for attaining development objectives such as employment generation and poverty reduction. The consequences of failures in domestic economic management, compounded by the effects of a prolonged economic crisis in the region have, inter alla, contributed to high and rising levels of open unemployment and underemployment, declining per Capita incomes and real wages, and an increase in the incidence and intensity of poverty in a number of African countries. The persistence of these adverse consequences, which represent a serious threat to economic growth and sustainable development, are somehow linked-either as a cause or an effect -to weaknesses and instability in the institutional framework for management and public administration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem of weak institutional and general capacity for management in Africa today can be traced to the colonial legacy. This left many countries in the region, at the time of independence, with insufficient institutional and human capacity to cope with the transition from colony to independent sovereign state, particularly with respect to the responsibility for economic management. More specifically, this related to the unequal and disadvantageous manner of Africa's incorporation into the international economic system in the late 1950s and the early 1960s. Lack of technological know-how, inadequate infrastructure and limited investment resources compounded the immediate post-independence problem of weak institutional capacity, and left many African countries highly vulnerable to external shocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was extremely difficult for the majority of African countries to break out of the old 'protected' colonial production and trade systems and rapidly to diversify their economies in line with the requirements of participating effectively in a competitive world economy. Since independence, institutional and human capacity for management in many African countries has not grown fast enough to keep up with the requirements of changing socioeconomic circumstances at the national level and to face the challenge of increasing globalisation. Critical skill shortages in public administration and private sector management in Africa can hardly be addressed in the context of the current economic crisis. The consequences of this crisis can be seen, for example, in underfunded and poorly equipped training and management development institutions, and in low-paid and demoralised civil services. At the same time, the 'brain drain' from the continent, partly as a consequence of poor pay and career prospects, has further undermined capacity in Africa. The interaction of foreign donors and African governments has not always served the interest of capacity building. It has been admitted, even by the World Bank that 'aid has done much less than one might have hoped to reduce poverty (in Africa)'. There is now more or less a consensus in the international donor community that expatriate technical assistance does not and cannot solve all kinds of development problems in the region. Far from solving problems, the imposition of foreign technical assistance has, in some cases, become a destructive force which undermines the development of domestic capacity that is critical to solving local development problems. Where donor assistance is inappropriate in terms of project concept and design, or there is a mismatch between design and domestic implementation and management capacity, technical assistance could end up becoming part of the problem rather than the solution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conceptual issues</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before examining the requirements for institutional capacity building in developing countries, and particularly African countries, it is necessary to clarify salient issues pertaining to the concept. Broadly speaking, capacity building in a development context refers to a comprehensive process which includes the ability to identify constraints and to plan and manage development. The process usually involves the development of human resources and institutions, and a supportive policy environment. Ideally, it aims at improving on existing capabilities and resources and using them efficiently to achieve sustainable economic and social development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Narrowing the concept to focus on institution-building, the emphasis will be on the development of particular institutions, their human and material resources, their organisational management and their administrative capacities. More specifically, the aim of institutional capacity building is to improve significantly the outputs and impacts of institutions concerned with economic management, public administration (including project management), enterprise development and so on-in both the public and private sectors. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is obvious that relevant development-oriented institutions within an economy can exert a decisive influence on economic growth and employment prospects, and indeed on the attainment of sustainable economic and social development. From a macro standpoint,planning and similar development institutions are required for better management of the economy including, more crucially, the ability to mobilise, allocate and utilise human and material resources in an efficient and productive manner. At the micro level, human and institutional capacity is critical to sound project management and public administration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The framework</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The general situation in Africa today suggests that capacity building is required in relation to the following priority areas:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- good governance, to ensure stability;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-economic management, to maximise resource mobilisation and promote sustainable development;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- human resource development, to support employment creation and income generation, and reduce poverty;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- science and technology, to increase the efficiency of the population and facilitate infrastructural development;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-enterprise development, to enhance the critical role of the private sector in overall development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The degree of emphasis given to each of the above in a given context would vary according to the level and complexity of existing human and institutional capacities, the economic and financial means to support capacity, the relative roles of the public and private sectors, and the degree of involvement of civil society in the decision-making process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The policy context for institutional capacity building should be multi-sectoral and flexible, but coherent in relation to the desired objectives of development. This is to ensure that the process of capacity building is adaptable to changing circumstances-an issue that is particularly relevant in the context of countries undertaking structural adjustment and economic reform programmes when there is a need effectively to nurture and utilise local skills and to mobilise investment resources efficiently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the light of the development challenge facing African countries, the process of capacity building in the region requires, above all, appropriate and adequate human and institutional capabilities to plan and manage economic and social development processes. These capabilities should include the means of assessing the achievements and impact of capacity building on poverty reduction, employment creation, etc. Existing public sector institutions for development planning and management could provide the operational framework for national capacity building, but the process should also include the participation of diverse social forces, the private sector and non-governmental institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regarding the role of external donors and technical assistance agencies, the approach should be based on the concept of 'partners in development', which implies consultation and dialogue between donor and recipient on all aspects of project planning, design and implementation- with project 'ownership' resting with national authorities. Technical assistance from foreign donors should therefore go mainly towards developing the necessary domestic capacity, rather than contributing to the undermining of existing or potential capacity. Furthermore, assistance provided by external donors should be directed towards the building of capacity for promoting regional economic cooperation and integration through support for the development of viable African regional and sub-regional development organisations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Support initiatives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The issue of domestic capacity building in Africa has more recently been the focus of attention by the international community as a whole. Indeed, the former World Bank vice-president for Africa, Edward Jaycox, has described 'capacity building' es the 'missing link in African development' which is 'critical to the development effort (of the region) and the chances of success'. UN agencies, spearheaded by the UNDP, have been active in promoting capacity building as a major requirement for attaining sustainable development. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1991, the UNDP Governing Council took a decision which resulted in the development of guidelines covering assistance to governments in the formulation and implementation of national capacity building strategies relating to all stages of the project cycle in the developing countries. The decision coincided with the introduction of the 'programme approach' by the UNDP which emphasised the centrality of national development programmes as the hub for the integration of UN technical assistance activities with national efforts. Emphasis on the use of national skills in the development process was consolidated within the general operational framework for 'national execution', which implied that overall responsibility for management of UN operational activities and accountability remained with the government and other national institutions and beneficiaries who 'owned' these activities. Under these new arrangements, a high priority was thus placed on the strengthening and sustaining of development management and administrative capacities on a long-term basis as an integral part of UNDP technical assistance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank's interest in capacity building in Africa has been more closely linked to the need for administrative and technical capacity at the national level to carry out policy analysis and economic management in the context of on-going structural adjustment and economic reform programmes. In a trailblazing address to the African American Institute Conference in 1993, Mr Jaycox came out strongly in favour of a new approach to lending to African countries which gave top priority to the development of critical human and institutional capacity. He admitted that the Bank's $4 billion a year lending programme in sub-Saharan Africa had not had the desired impact on development in the region because not enough attention had been paid to national capacity in the past. He went on to criticise the international donor community and financial institutions, including the World Bank itself, for designing and carrying out technical assistance activities which not only fail to solve problems but end up undermining the development of capacity in Africa. Mr Jaycox accordingly pledged to give direct support to capacity building in the Bank's lending programmes, mainly through human resource development and the creation of a 'demand for professionalism in Africa.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNDP, the African Development Bank and the World Bank, collaborated in the early 1990s to set up the 'African Capacity Building Foundation' (ACBF), based in Harare, Zimbabwe, with initial seed money of about $30 million and another $70 million attracted from bilateral donors and African governments themselves. The fund is to be used by the Foundation to support capacity building in Africa through training and institution building. Particular attention will be paid to the rehabilitation and strengthening of selected research and training institutions to meet the challenge of indigenous capacity building. Another initiative set up with foreign donors and African support, the Africa Research Consortium in Nairobi, is a good example of collaboration at regional level that is contributing to capacity building in the critical area of economic policy analysis and management. Similarly, the African Development Bank helped establish the African Business Round table which promotes entrepreneurship and enterprise development based on African ownership and control.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Role of the ILO</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For well over three decades the ILO, as part of its technical cooperation programme in Africa, has been involved in a wide range of management development, productivity and institution building initiatives at both national and regional levels. This is consistent with the need to strengthen African training institutions to play a crucial role in providing development managers with the necessary skills to analyse and formulate policy options and manage public and private enterprises efficiently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most successful initiatives undertaken by the ILO, in collaboration with the UNDP and the Economic Development Institute (EDI) of the World Bank, is the UNEDIL programme for strengthening management training in Africa. Since its inception in 1987, the UNEDIL programme has proven to be a worthwhile initiative in institutional capacity building in the management field. Support for the programme has also come from national and regional management development institutes (MDIs) in Africa, regional and sub-regional organisations such as SADC and the Commonwealth Secretariat, and major bilateral donors such as USAID, CIDA, NORAD, the Netherlands and France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from aiming at strengthening institutional capacity, the UNEDIL programme has been instrumental in fostering networking among African development institutes and promoting professional contacts and the exchange of experience. One outcome of the programme has been the revival of three subregional MDI associations which enjoy the direct support of UNEDIL and serve as focal points for UNEDIL's subregional networking arrangements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Networking on a subregional basis has made it possible to optimise the use of scarce resources and talents, and this has helped to increase managerial capacity in the region as a whole. Collaboration has also permitted an exchange of experience among African institutions, and has brought together expertise both from within Africa and from outside to assist in the development of managerial capacity across the continent. This fits in with the goals of technical cooperation in general, and of South-South cooperation in particular. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.L. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The role of international academic cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing demands and diminishing resources in higher education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Professor Dumitru Chitoran</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As we approach the end of the millennium, higher education world-wide finds itself in a paradoxical situation. On the one hand, it is witnessing unprecedented growth. Enrolments are on the increase and so are the expectations placed on it by society. The correlation between investment in higher education and research, and the level of social, economic and cultural development of nations is well-established and is gaining increasing ground at a time when all development has become knowledge-intensive. On the other hand, higher education is in a state of crisis in practically all countries of the world, under the pressure of serious financial constraints. It has to compete for public funds with many other sectors and very often it is among the first to undergo severe cuts. These cuts have reached a dramatic threshold in the developing countries. As a result, the gap between the developing and the developed countries with regard to higher learning and research is wider than ever and it continues to grow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inter-university cooperation has emerged as a major tool for the support of higher education in the developing countries and as a flexible mechanism for the rapid transfer and sharing of knowledge, channelled via university links and exchanges. As emphasised in the Policy Paper for Change and Development in Higher Education issued by UNESCO in 1995, 'the most pressing need for international cooperation in higher education is to reverse the process of decline of institutions in the developing countries, particularly in the least developed.' The internationalisation of higher education has advanced steadily, reinforced by current processes of economic and political integration and facilitated by the steady advances in information and communication technologies. But, as indicated in the UNESCO World Education Report (1993), it is increasingly subject to the competitive laws of the market. Universities have been urged to develop an entrepreneurial, commercial attitude and to regard international cooperation mainly as a source of additional income. Fees for foreign students have risen considerably in many countries. As a result, academic mobility is becoming more North-North and less South-North or South-South. The benefits of study abroad, of exchanges, networking and access to data are recognised, but the costs involved render them increasingly a privilege, restricted to those who can afford it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An innovative programme</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO's response to these trends was the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme, launched in 1991. While serving as an instrument to foster overall inter-university cooperation, it was aimed at giving a clear direction and goal, namely to support higher education in the developing countries. It was meant to mark a return to the spirit of international academic solidarity, through twinning, networking and other linking arrangements among universities. The programme was also designed as an innovative form for the rapid transfer of knowledge, and for institutional development in higher education, including the establishment of transnational centres for advanced studies and research, as a means of redressing the widening knowledge gap between industrially developed and developing countries. One other aim of the Programme was to alleviate the negative effects of the brain drain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme has seen steady and dynamic development from the very beginning, and has emerged as the major thrust of UNESCO's action in the field of higher education. The favoured institutional framework for carrying out activities is a UNESCO Chair. The programme's activities are extremely diverse. They include the appointment of visiting professors, provision of scholarships and fellowships, facilitating of staff and student exchanges and undertaking of joint research. The 'chairs' are typical of basic units of research and training, with a strong international dimension, since either the chairholder, or some of the professors or researchers associated with its programme come from abroad. Other projects involve complex inter university networks, varying in size from three to more than 50 institutions. Within networks, certain institutions serve as focal points, responsible for initiating activities and securing broad participation in their execution. Also included are cooperation programmes established by UNESCO with major university associations and networks in order to carry out UNITWIN-related activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, there are 163 established UNESCO Chairs (a further 84 are under consideration) and 34 largescale networks (18 more are being developed). A total of over 750 teachers, researchers and other support staff are involved in their activities. It is estimated that 350 courses (mainly at the graduate level), attended by more than 7500 students, were organised by the established UNESCO Chairs during the 1992-1996 period. Also, 120 seminars, training workshops, symposia and colloquia were staged over the same period, attended by more than 6000 participants. Some 580 academics from developing countries spent short periods of time at partner universities in the developed countries to upgrade their training. In addition, 355 scholarships have been granted to students and young academics from developing nations within the framework of the Programme. Research has been encouraged through 240 projects (mainly joint ones) resulting, according to progress reports received so far, in the publication of 55 volumes, some 100 published articles and over 150 monographs and progress reports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ACPs in the programme</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A large number of these projects (UNESCO Chairs and networks) concern ACP countries. Africa has been given top priority. Over 30 of the established Chairs are located there and 18 more are under consideration for subSaharan Africa, in order to reinforce the contribution of the programme to the development of higher education in this region. In addition, certain projects located at institutions in Europe and North America carry on activities which are designed to support African universities. A few examples illustrate this. Starting from its bilateral links with several African universities, the University of Utrecht proposed developing these into a broader, multilateral project under the umbrella of UNITWIN. For this purpose, it joined forces with three other European institutions: the University of Lund in Sweden, the Ruhr University in Bochum, Germany and the University of Porto in Portugal. The result was the establishment of the Utrecht/Southern Africa/UNITWIN (USU) network. It includes, at its southern pole, the universities of Harare, Maputo, Namibia, and Western Cape, where UNESCO Chairs have been established in different fields. The aim is to develop each of them into (sub)regional centres of advanced study and research. This is well under way in the case of the UNESCO Chair in Mathematics and Science Education at Western Cape University in South Africa. A first step was to link its activities to those of the MESA (Mathematics Education in South Africa) project, a cooperation project between the Utrecht-Freundenthal Institute for Mathematics Education and the University of the Western Cape. A school for Science and Maths Education is to be established at the University of Western Cape.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another large scale project is the Network of African Teacher Training Institutions, built around a UNESCO Chair at the Ecole Normale Superieure in Dakar. This is designed to serve as a regional centre for postgraduate training and research in the field of education. After several years preparation, activities were launched in 1995. The strength of networking is illustrated by a number of other linking arrangements in support of African higher education institutions. These include the network initiated by the NATURA Group of European universities in the field of agriculture, the ORBICOM Network in the field of Communication, which is a global network but pays particular attention to the needs of African universities, and the UNESCO/John Hopkins University Networking and Partnership in Adolescent Youth Health and Development. The last-mentioned focuses on HlV/AIDS-related research, and includes institutions such as Addis Ababa and Makerere Universities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agreement signed by UNESCO with the Association of African Universities (AAU) within the framework of UNITWIN provides for support of the latter's staff development and management programme. A UNESCO Chair in Educational Management and Administration is to be established. It will function on a rotating basis at several universities in South Africa, Botswana and Malawi. There are also a number of 'tailor-made' chairs which respond to more specific needs of institutions, notably to develop training and research capabilities in areas such as human rights, democray and peace (at the Universities of Namibia, Addis Ababa and Fianarantsoa in Madagascar), or in the field of Water Resources and Water Culture (at the Universities of Malawi and Omdurman in Sudan). In the latter field, an interesting example is the UNESCO Chair established at the University of Nice, which, although located in France, carries out its activities in Mauritania and has produced the most comprehensive study so far on water resource management in that country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The programme has also made a good start in the Pacific and the Caribbean, even if achievements there are on a more modest scale. There are already 22 established chairs with 14 more under consideration. They cover a wide spectrum of priority fields, including the sustainable use of rain forest resources at the University of Guyana, higher education management and information technology at the University of Havana in Cuba, educational sciences in Fiji, and the use of drugs in Chulalongkorn University in Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO works closely with the University of the South Pacific and the University of the West Indies, with which it has established four UNESCO Chairs. Moreover, it has signed a cooperation agreement, in the framework of UNITWIN, with the Commonwealth Secretariat and the Association of Commonwealth Universities for activities in both regions. There is great potential for the further development of the Chairs programme in the Pacific and Caribbean, given the existence of the two regional universities mentioned above and the strong interest of universities in a number of developed countries (such as Australia, Canada, Japan and Spain) in supporting the programme. It appears to be particularly well suited for the systems of higher education in the two regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Funding</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cost of international cooperation in higher education has risen steadily and this is currently one of the major obstacles preventing the full use of the potential of academic links. New information and communication technologies help reduce costs, but universities in the least-developed countries would first need considerable investment in order to procure and maintain the necessary equipment. That is why UNESCO has based the Chairs programme on funding principles aimed at lowering costs and sharing them in a genuine spirit of academic solidarity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the outset, UNESCO made it very clear that, since it was not a funding agency, it could not, by itself, assume the financial burden of such an ambitious programme, involving several hundred institutions and thousands of university teachers, researchers and students. However, it decided to make a commitment by providing some initial funds. Rough estimates indicate that, over the 1992-1995 period, UNESCO has contributed some $2.5 million (from its Regular and Participation Programmes, Fellowship Bank and Funds-in-Trust) to the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme. At the same time, it has pressed for increased international development aid for higher education, particularly from the developed countries, and from international organisations, including the UN specialised agencies. A strong case is made for the benefit of pooling resources and for involving directly the higher education institutions themselves </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNITWIN-based projects, including UNESCO Chairs, are usually initiated through the direct contributions of UNESCO (the range is generally between $15 000 and $25 000 per individual project). This is meant to help prepare and launch projects and to secure further funding from other sources. The institutions themselves must include allocations for the respective projects in their own budgets and request their appropriate national authorities to make contributions. This applies equally to universities in the developing countries, however poor their resources may be. It serves to indicate that the project in question is indeed seen as a priority by them and by their national authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experience of the UNITWIN funding formula so far gives cause for cautious optimism. Many projects have been able to secure funds by having recourse to the various sources mentioned above. Thus, the Utrecht/ Southern Africa/UNITWIN Project received a first UNESCO allocation of $50 000 in 1993, in order to launch its activities. The fact that it concerned a large-scale project (a network of eight universities, with four chairs established at four African universities and one at the University of Utrecht) explains the larger UNESCO allocation. This was followed by a second allocation of $70 000 in 1994 for the actual implementation of activities in Africa. The UNESCO seed money led to additional funding-$600 000 annually, for the 1992-1995 period, from various Dutch donors (mainly the Ministry of Development Cooperation, through NUFFIC) and from the European Union, and $450 000 from the University of Utrecht budget, including the total cost for the functioning of the UNESCO Chair on African Studies established at that university. The other three European universities participating in the network (Bochum, Lund and Porto) have also made contributions and are now looking for donor funding in their countries. It is important to mention that the four African universities belonging to the network have also allocated funds from their own budgets to the UNITWIN projects and are actively seeking additional resources from aid and development programmes established for their countries by various donor agencies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It can be fairly argued that in terms of cost-effectiveness, efficiency and the ability to generate funding from various sources, UNITWIN compares favourably with existing cooperation schemes in higher education and research. But it is still too early to conclude that the Chairs Programme can continue and develop further on the basis of the present funding arrangements. The needs are arguably too big for the institutions and individuals involved, who may find themselves in a perpetual search for funds. An evaluation of the programme is under way and this will be submitted to the Member States for their decision. UNESCO is hoping that its efforts to revive academic solidarity, and its campaign in favour of higher education in the developing countries will receive the support of the international community. More than ever before, these countries need to develop their capacity for advanced training and research in order to achieve self sustainable development. The academic community has already indicated its willingness to join forces with UNESCO in this undertaking. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Brain drain : Colossal loss of investments for developing countries</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a highly qualified professional chooses to leave his own country for another, he does so for one or several legitimate political or economic reasons: peace and security for himself and his family, job satisfaction, better pay and conditions. a higher standard of living, etc. Throughout history, countries and centres of academic excellence which offer these attractions have received the largest numbers of professional migrants and these have, in turn, made substantial contributions, not only to the economic growth of their host countries, but also to the scientific and technological advancement of humanity. The wave of German scientists who moved to the United States after the Second World war, and their discoveries and inventions, come readily to mind. On a global level, therefore, the free movement and interaction of highly skilled people is a positive thing. But the costs to the home countries of losing their professionals is incalculable-in terms of both development opportunities and loss of investment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whereas Western Europe was the main loser, especially to the United States, up until the 1960s, the developing countries have emerged in recent years as the biggest suppliers of qualified professionals to the industrialised world as a whole. Today there are more than a million and a half skilled expatriates from the developing countries settled in Western Europe, the USA, Japan and Canada. The USA's educational system and its research institutions are heavily dependent on them. These migrant professionals contribute in no small way to increasing the disparities between the world's rich and poor nations. And it is the developing countries that need them most.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa, which has serious shortages of manpower, has been worst hit. It is said to have lost 60 000 professionals (doctors, university lecturers, engineers, surveyors, etc) between 1985 and 1990 and to have been losing an average of 20 000 annually ever since.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are more than 21 000 Nigerian doctors practising in the United States alone. Meanwhile, Nigeria's own health system suffers a cruel lack of medical practitioners. 60% of all Ghanaian doctors trained locally in the 1980s have left the country, according to the UNDP's 1992 Human Development Report, while, in Sudan, 17% of doctors and dentists, 20% of university lecturers, 30% of engineers and 45% of surveyors have gone to work abroad.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it is difficult to calculate the cost of an expatriate professional in terms of the nutrition, health care and education provided by households and the State, it is clear developing countries are losing colossal amounts of investment annually to the developed countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The US Congressional Research Service, for example, computed in 197172 that the USA gained $20 000 annually on each skilled migrant from the developing countries. If this rather conservative amount is extrapolated for Africa, then the continent lost more than $1.2 billion of investment between 1985 and 1990 on the 60 000 or so African professionals who emigrated during that period. Much closer perhaps to the truth today would be the estimate made by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), using 1979 prices, which put a cash value of $184 000 on each African professional migrant (and this only for those between the ages of 25 and 35).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, expatriate remittances, particularly from skilled workers who earn higher salaries than the average migrant, constitute an important source of funds for development in their home countries. Throughout Africa, households are being maintained by remittances from relatives working abroad. Also, fine buildings are being put up and small-scale projects are financed in villages and cities across the continent with funds sent from overseas. But taken together, these will never be large enough to compensate Africa for the loss of investment suffered as a result of the 'brain drain'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serious flaw in international cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The migration of highly qualified professionals from the developing countries is an extremely complex problem which presents the international community with a major dilemma. First, the 'brain drain' cannot be stopped by force nor can it be legislated against. It is linked to fundamental human rights- the right of individuals to move from one country to another, although the exercise of that right is governed by the immigration policies of individual countries. Second, it is fundamentally a national problem which can only be resolved at the national level by providing enough incentives for qualified nationals to remain at home. Third, some industrialised countries like the USA and Canada, have historically operated liberal immigration policies. Even European states, whose immigration policies tend to be more restrictive, have a good number of third world professionals, but there are over a million in the USA and Canada. It is arguable whether, under the circumstances, the liberalisation of the international labour market under the World Trade Organisation, as is being suggested (even by some developing countries), will actually be in Africa's interests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The reasons for Africa's brain drain problem are legion and easily identifiable, being both structural and economic. The most often cited cause is the continent's school curricula which many see as still largely modelled on the systems of the former colonial masters. This, it is argued, has led to the production of graduates in disciplines that have little or no relevance to the socio-cultural and economic milieux of the continent. This is a highly debatable assertion, given the large numbers of the technical assistants currently working in Africa who are products of the educational systems of the former colonial powers-at least some of whom are having a positive impact on the continent's development. This, however, must not distract from the fact that African higher schools systems are illequipped to produce the right skills for Africa's development needs. Because of shortages of both science equipment and teachers, the system instructs the vast majority of pupils in arts rather than in science and technology-and it is the latter which hold the key to economic growth and development. Thus, there is overproduction of graduates in areas where there are few employment opportunities. This results in high levels of migration, even, paradoxically among the few trained scientists because of the absence of an environment conducive to full professional expression and satisfaction. It is not uncommon for things as simple as electricity and water supply to provide reasons for emigration. Examples abound of frustrated African scientists who have had their experimental work of several years destroyed overnight through power failures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Powerful factors in the brain drain include Africa's poor rates of economic growth over the past 30 years (worsened by structural adjustment measures which have resulted in dramatic falls in living standards) and political instability (disturbances in Nigeria and Zaire, civil war in Liberia, Sierra Leone and Somalia etc). Thousands of qualified professionals have been forced unwillingly into exile, and the majority of those left behind, in these times of serious economic crisis, are engaged in unskilled pursuits-in petty trading and taxi driving-far removed from their professional training. The loss of investment associated with this situation cannot be underestimated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sub-Saharan Africa is in the paradoxical situation today of having large numbers of graduates in various disciplines -from medicine and engineering to architecture and accountancy-who have either emigrated or are simply unemployed, while it hosts a large army of foreign technical assistants. Indeed, Africa receives more advice per capita than any other continent. In 1988, there were more than 80 000 technical assistants, and today the figure is well over 100 000. These experts are believed to cost donors a total of $4bn annually to maintain, a figure which represents nearly 35% of Africa's total official development aid. This situation reveals a serious flaw in the operation of international development cooperation. Would it not be more efficient and cost effective to employ qualified African expatriates in the place of many of these foreign technical experts. The former, after all, have both linguistic and cultural links with the continent. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has a programme in this area which points to a possible way forward. The article on that programme, TOKTEN, follows. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Brain gain' : A cost - effective UNDP programme</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the scale of the brain drain problem facing the developing countries, the UNDP's Transfer of Knowledge Through Expatriate Nationals (TOKTEN) project may not amount to much, but it has proved, in its 19 years of existence, to be a cost-effective way of getting highly qualified expatriates from the developing countries to contribute to the development of their countries of origin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It all started in Turkey in 1977 by pure accident. A Turkish mineral expert in Alberta, Canada, was asked by a compatriot if he would be kind enough to come over to Turkey and explain his innovative coal cleaning process to the staff and students of his old university in Ankara-the Middle East Technical University. He expressed his interest in the project. Soon afterwards he was contacted by the UNDP which offered to fund part of his trip to Ankara. The expert spent one month in Turkey giving a series of seminars, not only at the Middle East Technical University, but also at the Istanbul and Dokuz Eylul Universities. During these lectures, he made recommendations on resolving Turkey's specific coal utilisation problems. His impact was immense and such that the UNDP was inspired to set up the TOKTEN project along similar lines to help developing countries gain from the knowledge of their expatriate professionals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The system is simple. Member States of the United Nations can apply to join the project. The latter is administered in each country by a National Working Commitee (NWC) which is made up of representatives from the government, local organisations, the private sector and the UNDP. Institutions of that country (government ministries and agencies, private and public sector enterprises, universities, research and development institutions, hospitals, etc) can apply for assistance in a variety of areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Applications are processed by the NWC and recruitment of experts is usually in one or more of the following ways:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> through consultants with lists of experts recognised by the Government as having extensive contacts within their expatriate communities;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> through embassies and missions, alumni associations and research institutions;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> through prominent members of the country's expatriate community who identify and alert other high level expatriates of the opportunities to return home and serve their countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the Working Committee chooses a consultant, an offer of assignment is made. The beneficiary organisation and the consultant will then determine the timing of the mission and inform the UNDP.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOKTEN assignments last between one and three months depending on the ability of the consultant and the needs of the beneficiary'. They are not meant to be highly remunerative. Consultants are only entitled to round trip economy fare tickets (by the most direct route) and a daily subsistence allowance at the prevailing UN rate. The costs are paid out of the beneficiary country's 'Indicative Planning Figure'(IPF) which is the amount of assistance the UNDP makes available to a developing country over a five-year programming cycle. Health insurance cover and accommodation is not provided. Usually these are the responsibilities of the beneficiary government or organisation. The salaries of the consultants during their absence are paid by their affiliated employers whose agreement is often necessary for the projects to go ahead.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOKTEN consultants are thus not motivated by money but by a genuine desire (with a modicum of patriotism) to contribute to the development of their countries of origin to which they retain strong cultural and linguistic ties. And their impact on the ground is usually immediate and measurable. Pressures are not put on volunteers to return permanently to their countries, although many have chosen to do so since the programme began in 1977.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The system is not only low-cost and cost-effective. It covers a great variety of specialised fields and enables programmes to be implemented with speed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conditions for success</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A UNDP assessment of the programme in 1987, ten years after it began, concluded that regular monitoring of its operation had enabled information garnered to be applied to increase its effectiveness. It had been found, for example, that short-term expatriate consultancies were especially beneficial when the problem tackled was specific and the consultant selected was of international standing, when both the requesting organisation and the expatriate were well prepared in advance, and when the initial mission was followed up by a series of measures, often including a return visit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 1992, 35 countries were participating in the programme and over 3800 consultancies had been run. Since then, the number of countries has increased dramatically to 51 and con</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">sultancies to 5000. In 1994 and 1995 alone, 28 countries reported over 700 consultancies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has also become clear that, whereas the main recipient institutions have been government agencies, science and technology research institutions, universities and organisations, the private sector is increasingly showing interest in the programme. The number of female specialists is also increasing: in 1991, 40 consultants were women and last year this figure rose to over 100.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, the ACP countries participating in the programme are; Benin, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Dominica, Ethiopia, Fiji, Guinea, Guyana, Haiti, Liberia, Nigeria, Sao Tome &amp; Principe, Sierra Leone, St Lucia, Trinidad &amp; Tobago and Uganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Success stories include a highly skilled Guyanese medical practitioner in the United States who returned home after 17 years to assume the post of minister of health. He had been sent to oversee the introduction of certain aspects of health care such as preventive medicine (immunisation, general child care and nutrition), treatment of trauma (victims of accidents and violence etc) and the establishment and management of the physical facilities for emergency patients. During his stint, his recommendation on the upgrading of the emergency room facilities was rapidly implemented and this contributed significantly to improving patient care. Another story involved a Guinean banker who, after a consultancy stint in Guinea, abandoned a lucrative job in France to return home permanently to work at the Central Bank of Guinea, helping to set up a new loan system for commercial imprt and export businesses. Guinea, in fact, has been one of the greatest beneficiaries of the TOKTEN programme with numerous consultancies involving the University of Conakry, covering more than 20 disciplines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For very small sums the programme is ensuring that developing countries which have invested enormously in the education of their expatriate nationals have a return, at least, in the form of the knowledge they oquired.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Mobilising Commonwealth skills for Commonwealth development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The role of the Commonwealth in the economic and social progress of its member states is neither widely known nor widely publicised. Yet for over 25 years, the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation (CFTC) has made significant contributions to the efforts of its developing member countries to accelerate the pace of their economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The recognition by the Commonwealth that people are its greatest resource forms the basis of its approach to development assistance-providing, in the short term, specialist technical skills which are either not available or are in short supply to governments to enable them to fill key positions in areas as diverse as export and industrial promotion, high-level economic and legal services etc, and in the longer term, a wide range of training programmes in areas that are crucial for economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation is funded by voluntary financial contributions from member governments which, as has just been mentioned, can also draw on it according to their needs and priorities. As a pioneer of technical cooperation between developing countries, the Fund recruits its experts from these countries and encourages South/South cooperation. It is thus not uncommon to see West Africans serving, on short-term contracts, as legal officers in remote Pacifc island states or Sri Lankans or Indians advising on new agricultural techniques in Africa. The Fund is administered by four separate divisions within the Commonwealth Secretariat: the management and training division; the general technical assistance division; the export and industrial development division, and the economic and legal advisory services division. In 1994-95 the CFTC's financial resources stood at around f23.6 million (ECU 30m).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human resource development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly one-third of the CFTC's budget is spent on human resource development, helping enhance people's skills through a mix of training workshops, study visits and individual attachments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some 4000 training fellowships were awarded in 1993-95 to enhance technical skills. These were given to middle and senior professional, technical and administrative managers to study at some of the Commonwealth's best institutions or to take up work attachments (63% of training takes place in less-developed countries).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Fund also enables universities and other institutions to become centres of excellence and upgrade the tuition they offer by appointing academic and technical specialists. In 1993-95, for example, it helped five universities in Africa and the Caribbean to run applied Masters courses through collaboration with other Commonwealth universities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the CFTC is usually able to meet only 60% of the requests it receives for specialised training, its programmes are held on a regional and pan-Commonwealth basis to maximise impact, especially in topics such as administrative reform, financial management and strategic planning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Fund's training priorities include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- first and foremost, identifying needs (consultants are sent to countries to examine their development plans and help them to prioritise training needs).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- providing education and training in key areas that reflect CFTC concerns such as well-managed economic and financial reform by government, sustainable development, participation of women and application of technology.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- ensuring an integrated package of consultancy, advice and training to help managers in government, and public and private sector enterprises to coordinate and manage reforms and restructuring.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- organising policy workshops and seminars that bring together senior government officials, executives and academics from Commonwealth countries to pool experiences, learn examples of best practice, discuss problems and reflect on emerging issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- giving support to institutions to offer new and specialised education and training programmes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- providing technical and vocational training under the Commonwealth Industrial Training and Experience Programme (between 1993 and 1995, workshops were held in hospital equipment repairs, railway repairs and maintenance and computer-assisted manufacturing).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- providing training in information systems, new technologies and environmental issues (governments are helped to develop management information systems and apply information technology). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-setting up programmes for women with a particular focus on entrepreneurs and community managers (among other initiatives, the CFTC is helping three African universities develop specialised programmes in entrepreneurship for women in non-traditional sectors).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-coordinating wider linkages among professional networks to facilitate exchanges of information and examples of best practice (the CFTC recently helped to set up the Commonwealth Association for Public Administration and Management to assist in improving public service performance and in raising ethical standards).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Expertise on tap</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shortage of skills is one of the biggest stumbling-blocks facing countries trying to raise the living standards of their people. Providing experts accounts for about one-third of the CFTC's budget.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because its assistance is relatively small and carefully targeted, it avoids the potential waste associated with larger scale projects and poor technical planning. In 1993-95, the cost both of a typical long-term expert and an average project was around £50 000 (ECU 62 000) a year. Experts can be in place within three or four weeks of project approval.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the same period, over 200 long- and short-term experts were provided to 43 developing Commonwealth countries, six dependent territories and 18 regional organisations. The expertise requested is extremely diverse, from hydrography and agroforestry to tourism, statistics, legal affairs, health, social planning and computer science.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assignments for short-term experts can range from a few days to six months. Their role is advisory, helping governments to introduce new systems or technologies. Long-term experts stay usually from six months to two years; others may stay up to four years. Experts assist in the development and implementation of policies or in the provision of managerial skills and the training of counterpart staff to take over in due course. Some long-term experts are trainers in specialist fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CFTC makes every effort to appoint women experts. In 1993-95, they made up 13% of experts that were sent to the field. These included a consultant anaesthetist in Ghana, an agricultural economist in Mozambique, an information specialist in Barbados, a fisheries development officer in Papua New Guinea and an environmental lawyer in Seychelles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A scheme to allow suitably qualified and experienced people to volunteer as short-term experts for a maximum of three months was launched in mid-1995. The scheme draws on experts from the Commonwealth who are willing to give their services on a voluntary basis to developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entrepreneurs come first</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In its help to small businesses, the CFTC focuses on those who manage the businesses and identify new entrepreneurial talent. Most assistance is given to small states, especially in the Pacific. The programme has three phases: the first relates to 'surveys of opportunity' which is aimed at identifying suitable entrepreneurs, investment opportunities and potential for expansion as well as specific problems. Next comes 'workshops on entrepreneurship development' during which business owners and operators are helped to think creatively, to become more aware of opportunities that are available and to act strategically when planning expansion. And the last are what we call 'business clinics' in which one-to-one counselling is provided to an entrepreneur at his or her business. This personal support has proved very successful in helping individual entrepreneurs to become more efficient and competitive and, by implication, adapt to changing world economic conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing exports</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CFTC has pioneered the use of Contact-Promotion programmes and 'Buyer-Seller Meets' forums to help small exporters. These forums allow company representatives, often from small Commonwealth countries, to display their wares and meet prospective buyers from other countries. CFTC consultants plan these activities well ahead, short listing producers that are likely to succeed, identifying suitable foreign markets and advising on redesigning of products. Sometimes exporters and factory staff also receive training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CFTC funds a special 'export development programme' for women entrepreneurs. This includes detailed country studies of women engaged in exporting as well as sales promotions abroad. Studies of this type have recently been conducted in Cyprus, Sri Lanka and Zambia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are helped, under the programme, to adapt their handicrafts for export, improve their manufacturing techniques and undertake sales missions abroad. Training is also given in export marketing, product development, costing and pricing. If necessary, changes to government policy are recommended. In 1994, the assistance given to Ghanaian women to develop markets for their basket ware and handicrafts is estimated to have helped generate sales worth US$3.1 million (ECU 2.4m). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">EU's investments in education and training in the ACP states</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Digby Swift</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community's investments in human resource development-health, nutrition and education-in ACP states have regularly been covered in the pages of this magazine whether in the context of dosiers or of country resorts. Here we present a brief description of how the EU's policy in education and training evolved under the Yaounde and Lom&eacute; Convemntions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Educating all the people. This is not just a slogan. In a poor, underdeveloped country, there may be some short-term gains from supplying high quality education and training to an elite few. But, as the 'Asian Miracle' has proved, major long-term gains in development and wealth are possible only if the entire population possesses a reasonable level of education.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Now for the problem. For many countries, notably those of sub-Saharan Africa, a large proportion of school age children receive no education at all. Of those who do attend school, many receive little benefit from their education because of the very low quality of provision. Only a small minority reach secondary education. And yet a higher proportion than ever of national budgets is now going to the education sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem is urgent because of the time it will take to resolve. Even if we could wave a magic wand to provide all children with a good primary education, it would take a decade to see the benefits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How is European aid helping to tackle this problem? What have been the guiding principles of European aid to education in the past? And why is the problem still acute in, for example, subSaharan Africa, despite decades of investment in aid to education ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid mirrors developments</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid to education has mirrored developments in the education sectors of the countries concerned. For example, the low-income countries of Africa, which account for 73% of Africa's population, have seen a rapid expansion in their education systems followed by a collapse of funding. This has resulted in a serious decline in standards of provision. European aid, which began by providing piecemeal assistance to infrastructure and manpower, shifted to a 'project approach' to tackle these emerging problems and is now moving towards a coordinated sectoral approach to help tackle the reform of whole education systems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From 1970 to 1980, the number of pupils enrolling in the primary schools of developing countries more than doubled, and the numbers in secondary and tertiary education quadrupled. Even relative to the increasing population, there was a 90% increase in the proportion of primary-aged children in school, and a large increase in the proportion of girls. This growth was accompanied by a doubling of government budgetary resources made available to education.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the massive general economic decline between 1980 and 1985, the money made available for education from the public purse fell by 40%, yet the education systems continued to grow. The result was that teachers' salaries plummeted, and funds for non-salary recurrent costs such as teaching materials and maintenance virtually dried up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1985, the financial situation has somewhat improved and funding is now at an all-time high. Nevertheless, for many African states, the education sector is in a state of crisis. Buildings are crumbling and inadequate; teachers are untrained or undertrained and often absent because of low incentives and weak supervision. There are few books and other teaching materials. Consequently, many pupils leave school virtually illiterate and innumerate. Moreover, because of the low quality of instruction and increasing costs to parents, many parents are no longer bothering to send children to school even when places are available. Primary enrolment fell by around 10% between 1990 and 1992. Thus in many countries, a fundamental reform of the sector is seen as the only way forward.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evolution of aid</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the early days of European aid, education and training were seen as suppliers of manpower for countries to modernise their economies. The priority themes of the 1970 Yaounde Convention for European Community aid were industrialisation, regional cooperation and international trade. Community support to education and training focused on the construction of colleges and university faculties to serve industrialisation and regional cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1975 Lom&eacute; I Convention referred specifically to 'the establishment of regional institutions of advanced technology, in the context of training programmes to enable nationals to participate fully in economic development'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1980 Lom&eacute; II Convention introduced multiannual training programmes, and support in the form of training awards and courses/seminars; experts and instructors; teaching equipment; collaboration between training or research establishments and universities. The emphasis was still on vocational training for other sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A significant proportion of European bilateral aid to education and training took the form of European teachers for secondary schools, colleges and universities. These helped to cover the shortage of locally trained teachers, whilst educating an elite able to fill senior and middle positions in the public and private sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 1985, problems were becoming all too apparent within the education systems being supported. As in other sectors, there was increased emphasis on the 'project approach' towards tackling these problems. Thus the Lom&eacute; Ill Convention includes support to education and training 'in the form of integrated programmes aimed at a well defined objective'. This could include, for example, 'assisting the ACP States' own efforts to restructure their educational establishments and systems and to update curricula, methods and technology employed, in order to step up the effectiveness and cut back the cost of all types of training'. A concern for under-represented groups, particularly women, was also becoming explicit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 1990, the concept of investing in people through education and training had moved high on the donor agenda, and alongside it, a growing concern for sectoral reform. According to the 1989 Lom&eacute; IV Convention, 'Cooperation shall be aimed at supporting development in the ACP States, a process centred on man himself and rooted in each people's culture. It shall back up the policies and measures adopted by those States to enhance their human resources, increase their own creative capacities and promote their cultural identities. Cooperation shall also encourage participation by the population in the design and execution of development operations.' In a chapter entitled Operations to enhance the value of human resources, a section on Education and Training refers to supporting the ACP State's efforts to 'reform their basic education institutions and systems, in particular by providing overall primary education coverage and adjusting imported systems as well as building them into development strategies'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1980s and early 1990s, European states and the Community joined the World Bank in support of structural adjustment. In a 1991 communication to the European Development Council, the Commission stated that it 'will give absolute priority to the social dimension of adjustment, in particular ensuring that the health and education sectors are adequately covered, in conjunction with sectoral reforms introduced or planned in these two areas.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balancing this concern for system reform has been a growing appreciation of the importance of decentralised cooperation. An example is the cost-sharing microprojects for grassroots development first introduced in Lom&eacute; I with explicit mention of support to primary schools. Another example is the need to support the activities of nongovernmental organisations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new policy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two events in the early 1990s have had a profound impact on European support for education and training. The first was the World Conference on Education for All: Meeting the Basic Learning Needs held in Jomtien in 1990. This emphasised the need for universal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">primary education and adult literacy to be firmly placed on the political agenda, and has resulted in a profound swing of donor support away from higher education and towards primary education. The second important event was the 1992 Treaty of European Union which requires the coordination of Member States' policy and operations, particularly in the social sectors. Guidelines are contained in the 1994 Council Resolution on support to education and training in developing countries in which 'the Council emphasises that education, in particular basic education, is a fundamental right'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to the Resolution, 'the priority for the Community and the Member States must be both to maximise access to education within the limits of the resources available and to ensure that the quality of education provided is suited to the needs of the majority of students. 'This is to be achieved through 'a balanced, programme-based strategy, tailored to the specific circumstances of the individual developing country', with pride of place accorded to basic education. It should provide 'support to the developing countries' own policies and efforts', not acting as a substitute for local initiative, and should involve better integration of action under structural adjustment with education sector priorities and aid activities. The Council also recommends a special emphasis on coordination in a number of pilot countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the outset, Community aid to education and training in African, Caribbean and Pacific countries has been in response to requests from the ACP states with an emphasis on ownership of the resulting programme by those states. What the new policy introduces into this process is a dialogue between government and all donors on needs, priorities and approaches set in the context of the education sector as a whole. Only through such a comprehensive approach can developing countries and European states reach a true partnership in realising the education and training needs of all citizens on which the future of their countries so crucially depends. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.S.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Analysis</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">EU-ACP relations : Building for tomorrow</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Kenneth Karl</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1989 saw the end of the Yalta inspired twin-superpower dominance. Nations had to examine their priorities in their desire for integration in an international environment in which geostrategic and economic realignment would be unavoidable. The philosophy which had served as a basis and reference point for North/South relations throughout the Cold War period is now being called into question and necessary adjustments in ideas have been triggered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Lom&eacute; Convention, which governs the development-cooperation relationship between the EU and the 70 ACP countries, is a unique North/South cooperation agreement on account of its contractual nature, its durability, the funds it allocates and the fact that it provides for a permanent dialogue. But it is also now at a decisive point in its history.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Those who regard the Convention as out-of-date and in need of renovation, and those more radical critics who believe that it no longer serves any useful purpose and must be phased out, both argue that a new direction is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Beyond all the criticism formulated against this system, the fundamental question remains as to whether the Lom&eacute; Convention will be able, given the necessary changes, to carry on after its fourth version expires.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The years between now and the end of the century will, naturally, see the application of the revised Lom&eacute; IV, including the substantial improvements made to it. However, this same period must also be used to prepare the ground for ACP/KU development cooperation in the future, whatever form it might take.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shortly after his nomination as European Commissioner for relations with the ACP countries and South Africa, Professor Pinheiro commented, realistically, that the ACP countries are no longer 'in fashion'. The change of emphasis can be seen clearly if one looks at the EU's burgeoning relations with its eastern neighbours from the former Communist bloc (illustrated by the wide range of European programmes now benefiting these countries). One might also cite the strengthening of ties with countries in the Mediterranean basin. Economic and security concerns underpin this development, but it undoubtedly reduces the significance which was once accorded to the ACP states.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, the economic objectives of virtually all EU countries, as they seek to reduce budget deficits and deal with increasing internal social problems inevitably put pressure on the amount of development aid being granted to the Third World.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This situation is, of course, not restricted to the European Union - which in fact remains the world's main contributor of official development aid. At the instigation of a Republican dominated Congress, the United States is planning much more swingeing cuts in its contribution, both to certain international agencies and to certain regions (including Africa).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This undeniable cutback in public development aid has been offset in recent years by net increases in private capital flows, but the geographical distribution is highly skewed. Only a few of the poorest developing countries have benefited from the trend, the main 'winners' being the emerging states of Asia. These include countries such as China, India and Indonesia which, it is worth noting in passing, do not have particularly good human rights records, in the sense that the term is understood in Europe. Despite the fact that ACP countries have identified potential for attracting foreign investment, they have not actually benefited from this change in resource flows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this climate, with official development aid in inaeasingly short supply, innovative methods for making optimum use of the available resources must be devised within the context of the Lom&eacute; Convention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On current indications, it is quite possible that in the year 2000, the Lom&eacute; Convention will be filed away in the archives. ACP/KU relations will certainly have to be more in step with recent developments on the international scene. The initial reasons for the establishment of a cooperative relationship between Europe and the ACPs, following the signature of the Rome Treaty, are now outmoded. As Paul Valery has commented: 'One of the worst mental aberrations is to think that things can survive when the reasons for their existence have gone'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So, what type of development cooperation should the countries of the European Union and their ACP partners aim for in the future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alternative trends</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has stated that it is in favour of a globalisation of aid within an innovative framework. One of the first questions to be asked is whether uniform cooperation with regions whose monolithic character is being increasingly called into question is still desirable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Variable geometry in development cooperation relations is increasingly being seen as the trend to be followed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If this option is chosen, there is a risk of the following scenario being created: The EU's relationship with the Caribbean could become diluted within its relationship with Latin-American countries and links with the Pacific countries could become confused with economic relations with Asia. What would then become of Africa, the continent needing most attention on account of the wide range of its difficulties and its increasing marginalisation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1990, the United Nations General Assembly, aware of the African question, adopted a new agenda on development in Africa, thus making that continent its number-one priority. Europe, on the other hand, must not simply focus on Africa but must invent new modes of action which are more concrete and more effective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secondly, recent trends imply greater conditionality. This has been taken on board not just by EU Member States. A number of multilateral aid agencies have also included it in their strategy. The OECD's Development Aid Committee believes that future relationships between North and South will be greatly influenced by conditionality and, indeed, the Organisation goes so far as to advocate this approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, conditionality in terms of development is a strategic element which must be handled with extreme caution. If cooperation, whether today or in the future, is to be based on conditionality, then it can only be rendered effective if aid recipients (both governments and the governed) are genuinely committed to the idea. They must be convinced, in a climate of resource-scarcity, than the approach is motivated above all by a desire for greater success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union thus has a vital role to play, making full use of its advantages in terms of dialogue and consultation in order to prevent conditionality being perceived as a condescending mechanism. Thereby, it can help to prevent conditionality from generating the well-known perverse effects of 'tied' aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course, conditionality raises the thorny question of national sovereignty, but it is important to observe that modern international relations have moved on, both de jure and de facto, from a concept of absolute sovereignty to one of relative sovereignty. This is illustrated by the trend towards humanitarian intervention as a right, the requirements of the Bretton Woods institutions, supranationality in certain regional international organisations, and the very fact of world economic interdependence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This does not mean that the developing states should sell off their sovereignty to the highest bidder but that conditionality should be the subject of negotiation. Donors must be more flexible in their demands and thereby give the country in question such room to manoeuvre as is necessary for programmes to succeed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thirdly, development of the private sector appears now to be approved by all parties. Since independence, the State has been omnipresent and omnipotent in most productive areas of ACP economies. Given the failures of the public sector, private enterprise is now being called in to help. Its development is one of the sector specific policies which will and must receive most support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development of the private sector must permit better distribution of the fruits of the growth that it generates and promote integration of the ACP countries into the market economy. There can be no question of pitting private enterprise against the public sector, because any Manichean approach in this sphere might prove to be risky. It is important also to stress that free market development cannot take place overnight and that it is subject to inescapable macro and microeconomic preconditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, the birth and expansion of a dynamic private sector depends on the politico-economic fabric. This includes reliable financial bodies, functioning financial intermediation, adequate infrastructures, technical qualifications and training, a suitable legal/ regulatory framework, institutions to support private businesses, the channelling of the informal sector and a public sector which is prepared to play fair, aware of its regulatory role. These, in short, are the necessary ingredients for the adjustment of the private sector to permit the development of a true enterprise culture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development of a harmonious private sector will make it possible more easily to achieve the transformation and export objectives required by international competitiveness. It should, therefore, help to counteract the erosion of commercial preferences generated by the Uruguay Round. The latter's time limits should, in any case, be extended, because it seems clear that the ACP countries will be unable to fulfil their obligations by the end of the moratorium obtained by the EU during the negotiations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The notion of compensating for inequality that is found in international development law, implies the adoption of a normative system to counteract the weak trading position of developing countries vis-a-vis their competitors in the North. But in recent times, this idea has been losing ground and it is unlikely to cut much ice with the WTO authorities. Legal equality in a situation where there is structural inequality is not, in fact, equitable, and it is therefore necessary to find some other way of mitigating the adverse effects, looking at it in a global context.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Promotion of domestic and foreign investment should be better supported. People talk of the 'risk/ country' threshold that deters foreign investors. It may be that this can be measured objectively by looking at economic and other indicators, but even if this is not possible, it clearly exists as a psychological barrier. This is a problem for many ACP countries and it needs to be crossed, using measures which tackle the many obstacles to investment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Changing the culture of development cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides all the technical aspects, one could argue that the shortcomings of the Lom&eacute; Convention stem also from the perceptions of those involved in development cooperation. In short, it is the actual concept and culture of development aid which must be changed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the European side, the colonial legacy has conditioned attitudes, imprinting on them a dominant patemalism which is prejudicial to the aim of development. This European concept of cooperation must be overturned. Moreover, development cooperation must not be seen as the art of the possible but as the art of making possible what is strictly necessary, by virtue of genuine negotiation with the countries which have resolved to move forward.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, it is desirable to have a better developed policy of informing European public opinion about development cooperation. An effort is needed to counter false impressions, such as the one left by the French journalist who wrote: 'Official development aid is like taking money from the poor in rich countries to give it to the rich in poor countries'. Better information is needed to ensure that the public can decide such matters for itself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coordinating the Union's policies with those of the Member States now presents an enormous challenge. The political obstacles are huge and development cooperation may well suffer as a result of them if the objectives of coordination, coherence and complementarity contained in the Maastricht Treaty are not achieved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for the ACP countries, success in their economic development depends on many factors, cooperation being only one of them. Many political leaders in these nations have too often described cooperation with the North as the only way in which they can develop. In fact, this should be seen as nothing more than an additional factor - supporting the national effort and a genuine desire for development. It is pure fantasy to believe that development can be set in motion solely on the basis of an external impetus. To succeed, it must come from within a country. This is why future cooperation between the EU and the ACP countries must progress towards reinforcing the aptitude of the latter to devise, master and control their own development process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the future, the ACP countries must propose concrete and responsible solutions to their partners, doing so by means of the dialogue system. They must also promote development based on participation, particularly with the involvement of young people and women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that the ACPs can offer a credible prospectus for development must be acknowledged. It is undoubtedly a challenge, but it can successfully be overcome if a climate of stability, security and confidence is created, matched by an unambiguous political will.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In KU/ACP relations, programmes must include the long-term vision necessary for sustainable development. Too often in the past, the strategy has been aimed at an immediate and ostentatious result. Successful development in the future will depend crucially on a change in such attitudes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.K. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let us know what you think</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The debate about the future of cooperation between the European Union and the ACP states is now beginning to gash' pace. Last year, we established the 'Analysis' section in The Courier to report on this debate-and give readers an opportunity to express their own views on the subject.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The response so far has been encouraging, but it has come mainly from the European side. We are keen to receive contributions from ACP readers as well. If you have you own ideas or opinions about what should happen after Lom&eacute; IV expires, why not put them on paper and send them to us. Our address is on the inside front cover of the magazine. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The view of civil society on the future after Lom&eacute; IV</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was the subject of a conference which took place in Maastricht from 12-14 June, under the auspices of the European Centre for Development Policy Management (ECDPM). It brought together participants from ACP countries and Europe, including representatives of civil society (NGOs, the private sector, etc.). Four major topics were addressed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How can a new KU/ACP commercial relationship be constructed ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was agreement that some form of preferential trade regime should continue after 2000. Some participants stressed the need to Promote 'fair trade', which would contribute not only to growth but also to development. The impact of individual trade preferences is not always clear-cut, but obviously there cannot be a single solution covering all problems in all ACP countries. An analysis of negative constraints demonstrated the difficulties involved in reconciling the rules of the Lom&eacute; Convention and those of the World Trade Organisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How can the private sector become involved in development ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most important aspect of this topic is knowing how to create a favourable and business-friendly environment which will enable the private sector to play its part-and the role the European Union could play in this process. The private sector was defined as both formal and informal, encompassing large, medium and small enterprises, whether local or foreign. The importance of a strong local private sector in guaranteeing long-term stability was particularly emphasised. In this respect, the view was expressed that the role of the state and its relationship with the European Commission should be redefined. There was also a call for time to be set aside time for effective dialogue, and to create the space for a partnership between the public and private sectors. It was felt that the role of Economic and Social Councils should be expanded and specified more clearly. As for the specific issue of privatisation, the point was made that this should not be seen as a panacea and that it should be approached on a country-by-country basis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards current instruments, it was noted that their objective is essentially to meet public-sector requirements. The role of the Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) attracted some criticism. Speakers felt that the private sector should be more involved in the preparation and implementation of cooperation programmes with the European Community. Direct financial support to the private sector was seen as desirable, including backing from the European Investment Bank.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What partnership ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The partnership concept was seen to have been eroded over the past two decades, with the pretext of efficiency resulting in a more paternalistic approach. Mechanisms needed to be found to enable EU priorities and the prerogatives of ACP countries to be reconciled. Reference was made to the political nature of the origin of the partnership and the need to find a new political raison d'etre for this type of relationship. The problems of cohesion within the ACP group and its relations with the EU were also raised, and there was a discussion about the possibility of giving the Convention a regional character-although a number of speakers expressed reservations about this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the European side, two lacunae emerged, namely coordination between donors, and consistency between Lom&eacute; and other Community policies (including relationships with the Bretton Woods institutions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the principle of partnership, some participants were keen to stress the motives of solidarity and common interest that lay behind cooperation. It was not simply a matter of 'negative' interdependence. The appropriateness of the term 'partnership' was questioned, if this was only to mean financial and technical cooperation. The politicisation of Lom&eacute; appears to be on the agenda, involving a move from the current partnership to a genuine 'contractual approach' through political dialogue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for the role of partnership in cooperation policy management, it was felt essential that civil society and the private sector be involved. There was also a discussion of the debt problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How can financial and technical cooperation be improved ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As usual, reference was made to the need to simplify and differentiate management of Lom&eacute; Convention instruments, particularly in the context of the programming process. As regards the role of non-state actors, a cautious approach was recommended. Finally, new instruments were called for to prevent conflict.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Conclusions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This conference, coming after several others of the same type, was characterised essentially by private sector and NGO calls for greater participation in Community cooperation policy. Moreover, the need for 'politicisation' of the Lom&eacute; policy, shifting from purely financial and technical aid to a genuine cooperation contract, seems to have attracted the support of all participants. These questions are sure to figure in the 'Green Paper' on 'tome after 2000', which the European Commission plans to publish before the end of 1996. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Democratising democracy'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 6 and 7 June, the Belgian Par/iament hosted a UN seminar on 'me future of international development cooperation: new communication challenges' 'Democratising Democracy' was the succinct, journalistic way in which one of the speakers at the meeting summed up his solution to the problem of underdevelop meet. He was Jean-Bertrand Aristide, former President of Haiti, who observed that democracy, as advocated by the developed world, and increasingly accepted by developing countries, does not prevent the latter's slide into even greater poverty. The Courier had the opportunity to interview Mr Aristide. We began by asking him whether his statement implied that democracy is failing in a world striving to 'globalise' it J-B.A.-The word democracy comes from the Greek words 'demos', meaning people and 'kratein', meaning to govern. In other words, it signifies government of the people, for the people by the people-but if we take a look at the world today, the impression we get is that not all so-called democratic governments are in fact what they purport to be. Hence the need to 'democratise democracy', so as to create a situation in which all citizens can help set governments on a course towards such a model.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concepts usually generate conflict and, therefore, when speaking of revolution, democracy or globalisation, it is necessary to be au fait with the subject matter so as not to become involved in a dialogue of the deaf. In the specific case of globalisation, my opinion is that this has a tendency to make what is an already precarious situation even more unbalanced. Concepts cannot be applied everywhere without thought being given to their harmful consequences. This does not mean to say that we should give up completely. It's one thing to speak of the globalisation of peace, as if an ineluctable need existed to promote peace on a world scale, but I'm not sure that everyone would define the globalisation of peace in the same way as I do.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Could we turn now to your own country, Haiti. How do you view the future of democracy there, bearing in mind the economic circumstances ? At the seminar, you mentioned several factors which demonstrate democracy's *agility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Democracy is indeed fragile. 1% of Haiti's population owns 48% of the country's wealth and it is estimated that about 65% of the working population is employed in agriculture as against 5.1% in the 'industrial' sector. But is this really the true picture ? Reality for most people is poverty-unacceptable and sub-human poverty. A man needs work to earn his daily crust by the sweat of his brow, but unemployment has reached catastrophic proportions. When people are unable to earn their living, there is little point in discussing the positive influence of democracy. What is needed is for those with a great deal of wealth and those with less wealth to talk to each other; a dialogue between the private and public sectors, so that we can head off futile conflicts and devote all our efforts to economic growth coupled with human development. I do believe that this is possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yet, the rich are so rich and the poor so poor. Is it not fantasy to think that the gulf which separates them, and their mutual mistrust, can simply be set aside so that genuine dialogue can take place ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is one of the challenges we have faced ever since 1960 and, although we have not yet reaped the harvest of this process, we have to carry on. It's not too late. We just have to approach the subject logically and with all the facts to hand, and we must have the intelligence to be patient. If we continue with dialogue, we will achieve real results. Only the citizens of Haiti can play a part in Haiti's development-this is not a task for outsiders. We, on the other hand, have to be more receptive to international cooperation, while maintaining mutual respect and dignity. But what we also need is for our own people to act together in order to enhance our own growth. This is not to say that geopolitical reality can be disregarded. Other countries have to be taken into account, but, as a starting point, we have to consider Haiti's human and material resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Thereisdialogueata world level, but there are rules to be applied. I am thinking, here, of free competition. Haiti has to play by the rules, just like any other country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Since we gained independence, our history has seen a succession of coups d'etat and people have been over-eager in brandishing weapons to solve economic, political or social problems. Now that democracy has been restored in Haiti, weapons are not the solution to our problems-I cannot stress this enough. What we need is for those with money to sit down and negotiate with those who have none: for the government to get people round the table and devise a common plan to accommodate all interested parties- looking at both the nation's interests and the interests of investors. I do believe that it is possible to achieve this. We have, in fact, already begun to prepare the ground. I am not basing my words, here, on pure theory, but am speaking from experience. In concrete terms, we have to transcend class and racial differences to recognise that Haitian men and women, regardless of their colour and the country they might live in outside Haiti, regardless of their nationality, even, are still part of Haiti's indigenous population. The way must be kept open for dignified and balanced cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The other point you mentioned today was that there can be no development without the effective involvement of the population. Are you not leaving yourself open to accusations of having socialist or even communist tendencies ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-As I have just said, we have to be scientific in our approach and check our facts over and over again. I fail to see how anyone can claim to be working towards peace without looking at poverty which is the greatest threat to social cohesion. Of course, there are those who would deny this assertion, and that is their right. However, rational analysis of the situation can help us alleviate poverty and promote security. It needs to be underlined that security is also one of the essential factors in economics. The UN Security Council is called in to prevent or resolve conflicts. To my mind, we should also be talking about an economic security council to deal with the economic realities. The deeper one plunges into poverty, the greater one's feelings of insecurity-the two always go hand in hand. And insecurity can crop up anywhere in the world. Nor is it a question of charity. It is a real, rational question which must sharpen our awareness, stimulate our common sense and set us on a course to protect the world by alleviating poverty. That, at least, is one approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, you have to recognise that politics is essentially a question of power while economics is influenced by interests. Everyone uses the means at their disposal to defend their personal interests and we know perfectly well that there are no free gifts. The so-called developed countries allocate just 0.3% of their GDP to development aid, yet we are losing our tropical forests at the rate of the area of a football pitch every second. In Haiti, forests now cover only a small area of the country. But in the final analysis, environmental catastrophe threatens us all, rich and poor alike, even if certain countries do not face specific ecological risks. We either deal with it as reasonable people, or we close our eyes to the 'cause and effect' realities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but are we reasonable people ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The crisis of ethics is indeed a reality and a great many values are now being called into question. These days, we have to love in order to prove we are not contradicting ourselves. If we believe in God, we might call this love 'God', just as we might call it 'justice'. It all depends on your philosophy, religion or beliefs. If I feel love, I cannot be indifferent to the situation of victims of injustice, both in Haiti and elsewhere. If a man is humiliated, crushed, exploited or marginalised, then 1, too, am humiliated, crushed and marginalised. It is love which makes us fight for justice everywhere. Either one is a demagogue revelling in big words or one is sincere and ready to die so that another might live-this brings immortality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· One final question. You were speaking just now of insecurity and economics. Is there a link, here, with one of your most recent decisions, the abolition of Haiti's army ? Could you tell us how you were able to pull off this 'coup'? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- I am perfectly happy to answer such an important question and would like to be able to give a clear and direct reply. But given that the struggle is still going on, I don't think I should go into too much detail. A decision was made. The Haitian people opted to rid themselves of the army. Supporting their democratic wish, it was our job to help bring about this dissolution. The army, it is worth recalling, had about 7000 men, absorbed 40% of the national budget-and had killed many of our compatriots. We have had to be logical and patient in achieving this goal, bearing in mind that the guarantors of the agreement which led to my return had their own views, which were different from ours. We also needed courage and wisdom and, above all, the determination of the people. My motto has always been that it is better to fail with the people than to succeed without them, and in this we did not fail. Our task now is not to bask in our own glory but to continue the work of structuring the police force, to prevent it becoming another army. To achieve this, we have to make steady progress and use sound judgment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Close-up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Growing rice at high altitude in Burundi</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Jean-Pierre Tilquin and Miguel Amado</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This tiny country tucked away at the heart of Africa has, as is well known, been convulsed over the last three years by an acute socio-political crisis. The tragic consequences have included loss of human life, damage to the economic and social infrastructure, and a movement of refugees to neighbouring countries. Burundi, already one of the most densely populated nations in Africa, also has high population growth. It could be argued that it is only thanks to the hard work and perseverance of the farmers (admittedly, 90% of the population) that the country manages to keep going at all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture in Burundi follows traditional lines and is based on a farming system divided between food crops for consumption by the farmer and his family, and cash crops (mainly coffee, tea and cotton). Although at the beginning of the decade the crops grown for food were sufficient to meet the population's needs, today demographic pressures are forcing farmers to increase food-crop production. It is these pressures that have prompted them to descend into the marshlands which cover approximately 110 000 hectares (8% of cultivable land in Burundi). These marshes are flooded during the rainy season and so allow rice to be cultivated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population growth has also meant that fields cannot be left fallow for long periods. This has resulted in more intensive use of marginal land and an increase in forest clearing. Such practices exacerbate erosion of cultivated areas. The loss of organic matter and nutrients leads to reduced soil fertility and lower yields. Although rainfall in Burundi is high, the soil is only moderately fertile, because of factors such as acidity, aluminium toxicity, and phosphorus immobilisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While 20% of land suitable for cultivation is currently given over to growing dry beans-a staple in the Burundi diet - various factors now point towards farming the low-lying marshlands, with a particular emphasis on rice. This is one way of increasing the useful agricultural surface area of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The events of 1993 (democratic elections, followed by the assassination of President Ndadaye), have created a period of instability which has been highly damaging for the country's agriculture. Some people lost their property and livelihood, and are only now slowly re-establishing themselves. The environment has also suffered as a result of the sheer numbers of displaced people. They occupy areas, both urban and rural, which were completely unprepared for the flood of people. it is estimated that 50 000 hectares of forest have been destroyed as a result-with devastating consequences for the country's ecosystem. What is more, the rate of demographic growth has led to overfarming and to a reduction in the average surface area of farms (to 0.7 ha per household).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice-a crop for the future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Against this background, the prospect of farming low-lying marshland offers some hope for the people of Burundi. In fact, the marshy valleys have long been used to grow beans, maize and sweet potatoes during the long dry season for later consumption during the short dry season. This practice, which was environmentally sound, provided a regular harvest, but also ensured the preservation of the marshlands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The practice of growing rice during the rainy season, followed by a crop of maize and beans during the dry season, is a form of integrated agriculture. It should be economically viable and environmentally sustainable while ensuring product quality, delivering a good yield, limiting any risks involved and allowing a high degree of social integration. These are the criteria which need to be examined in determining whether high-altitude rice cultivation in Burundi succeeds or fails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice crops have been grown in this region, on the shores of Lake Tanganyika and in the Ruzizi valley (altitude 800 m), for more than 200 years, having been introduced by successive migrations of people travelling along the old slave route from Zanzibar. Certain varieties, known as 'pandabilima' (which in Swahili means 'he who climbs the mountain') can be grown on land up to a height of 1300 metres. They cannot, however, be planted on the higher central plateau because low temperatures at night render them completely infertile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not surprising that the new scheme to grow rice at high altitudes was greeted with interest. Indeed, it became almost a craze among farmers -to the extent that in 1990, rice crops covered more than 20 000 ha of Burundi. The area planted with rice fell subsequently, and in some regions the crop disappeared altogether. This was due largely to the appearance of the fungal 'rice blast disease', which can wipe out an entire crop, and to inadequate planning and misguided husbandry. The extensive planting of only one variety left the crop particularly vulnerable and once the disease did take hold, it was virtually impossible to eradicate. Needless to say, in a country where access to pesticides is non-existent, the introduction of a new crop cannot be based on a single variety; if it is to establish itself successfully, varietal diversification is vital. We should point out here that attempts were made in 1984 to improve varietal diversification </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">in the framework of the EU's Scientific and Technical Programme run by DG XII of the Commission. At that time, it was necessary to familiarise farmers with the techniques for growing the new crop and this aspect of the programme was funded by the EDF, in particular through three integrated projects. These related to agriculture and pastoral forestry and were initiated during 198889 in three provinces of Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Without going into the technical details of the programme, it suffices to say that growing rice at high altitude in the tropics differs from rice-growing in temperate regions. The low night-time temperatures characteristic of high altitudes mean that the crop is subject to constant stress. In temperate regions, the stress caused by cold weather is a problem only at the beginning and end of the growing cycle. As for selection methods, rice varieties have been produced that are resistant to rice blast disease - which remains the main problem. Also, by mixing the varieties grown, the farmers have created a wide diversity which offers a stable basis for a sustainable crop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Transformation of an ecosystem</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the viewpoint of development aid specialists, turning marshland into cultivable land means draining it (digging a ditch and fitting pipes). But this leaves the land open to erosion, causes silting in rivers and ultimately leading to desertification. By changing water levels in a region and disturbing the thermal equilibrium, marshlands cease to be marshlands. The method may have been justifiable before rice growing became possible. Indeed, it was employed in the natural marshlands of Buyenzi by some experts who specialised in upland rice. But it also resulted in large-scale destruction of one ricevariety-Yunnan 3-by rice blast disease in 1990.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development projects which set themselves spectacular objectives can involve major alterations to the landscape. More often than not, these need to be rectified later. Thus, when it was decided to cultivate vast expanses of papyrus, the plants were moderately successful only thanks to constant artificial assistance. Put simply, the land could not sustain the crop on its own. In the process, the marshes were turned into floating peat bogs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The option chosen here was to adapt the small valleys for rice cultivation and teach the farmers the relevant techniques. Together with their families, they have eagerly embarked on the work needed to prepare the terrain for cultivation, although there are still some land tenure issues that need resolving. (Some people have refused to commit themselves to marshland reclamation projects as long as the land does not belong to them). It should be stressed that growing rice along a strip of water is an option which is in harmony with environmental needs. It promotes percolation of the water, thereby restoring underground water levels and preventing pollutants from being washed down towards the Nile or Zaire basins. It is therefore in keeping with global strategies for conserving resources and ensuring sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the marshlands, farmers traditionally plant beans and maize in banked-up beds during the dry season (from June to November). By skilfully selecting and growing different bean varieties, the farmer can stagger his crops and thereby ensure a continuous harvest from September until the time the maize is harvested. The marshes are then left fallow during the heavy rains which reach their peak in April. A rice variety which can be harvested in six months could thus be fitted in during this perriod with out disturbing the traditional hill-farming work schedule.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since farmers on the high plateaux had not traditionally grown rice, it was necessary to teach them the techniques needed to produce a successful crop. They were also informed of the benefits that improvements such as dykes, water supply pipes and drainage pipes could have on crop productivity. They have since applied this knowledge in their cultivation. During the dry season, without disrupting the infrastructures on which their rice cultivation is based, they have rebuilt banked-up beds and grown the traditional bean and maize crop. The system has been in place for about ten years and no drop in yield has been recorded. The yield averages 4.5 t/ha for rice, 1 t/ha for beans and 0.4 t/ha for maize-figures which are quite remarkable when compared with the yields of crops grown on the hills in acid soil with increasing levels of aluminium toxicity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By alternating two different farming systems, the problem of weeds -and therefore hoeing-and of pests is greatly limited. The extensive mixing of the soil that takes place accelerates the recycling of biogenic material-and the marshlands stay as marshlands!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manageable land development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three main types of marshy valley, each requiring specific programmes. The first consists of valleys lying above 1400 m with a rainfall in excess of 1500 mm. These areas are characterised by a clay soil, are constantly fed with water (with a high iron content) from the mountains, and are often very rich in organic matter. They require drainage using ditches and filtration channels, with changes of gradient so that the mountain water tables can be tapped and the water levels controlled. This is important to prevent a build-up of ferrous toxicity in the soil, which is extremely harmful to rice. A farming system involving paddy fields and banked-up beds can be accommodated perfectly in these types of valleys. Then there are the valleys lying between 800 and 1400 m with a rainfall of between 1100 and 1500 mm. These are known as 'dambos' in Swahili, and they extend from Northern Kenya right down to Southern Zimbabwe. Strewn with giant termite nests, the land here is well-suited to rice cultivation as long as water levels are carefully controlled. All the available water needs to be harnessed via filtration canals dug into the hillside. These allow the paddies to be irrigated speedily and, during the dry season, they can also be used to irrigate between the rows of ridgeplanted crops. It would, however, be very difficult to irrigate the entire valley during the dry season and so it is pointless digging a drainage ditch. The third and final type consists of small alluvial plains tucked away between the hills and stretching along the escarpments. Here, the level of soil fertility is determined by the heavy erosion resulting from farming on burnt land, and the practice of setting fire to the hills in order to 'regenerate' pastures. To grow rice in such locations, a filtration canal needs to be dug into the hillside, into which water then collects from the water table. The paddy fields also need to be terraced. These alluvial plains lend themselves perfectly to a farming system in which paddy fields are alternated with banked-up beds. All these land-adaptation schemes can be easily implemented and maintained by the farmers themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A sociological revolution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although rice grows quickly, it is highly labour-intensive. Thus, when</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">the young rice plants need to be planted out-which happens to coincide with the end-of-year school holidays-the whole family takes part. What is more, rice has become extremely important in sociological terms: reserved in days gone by for special occasions, it now forms part of the nation's staple diet, being mixed together with beans and dressed with palm oil and tomato sauce. The rice harvest is also a time for merrymaking and festivities which go on for the best part of a week.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice cultivation has also engendered a vital sense of solidarity among farmers as far as sharing water is concerned, and rice-growing cooperatives have been a runaway success. These enable farming operations to be synchronised and running costs to be reduced, in particular by reducing the number of bird scarers needed. The crop, furthermore, can be harvested when fully ripe. On individual plots, farmers usually only allow the rice to mature to 75% before harvest for fear of theft. Finally, the cooperative helps to ensure that infrastructures such as drains and canals are properly maintained and that water supply installations are treated with respect. Each cooperative is run by a representative appointed by the group of farmers. These supervisors are then responsible for organising all operations: choosing and storing seed for the following season's crops, getting information about new varieties, consulting each other and pointing out any problems they may have to those in charge of research and advisory services. The area allotted to each cooperative depends on the number of households in the group and also takes into account the area available, with 10 ares per family being the usual maximum for planted-up paddy fields. Cooperatives may range in size from 5 to 25 families.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cooperatives like this are just the beginning. Networks of rural organisations, in which the farmers club together to buy equipment and fertilisers, need to be developed on a larger scale and they could provide a springboard for the development of the secondary sector, which is vital to the development of the country as a whole.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We would do well to recall that the cassava mills which have been so successful in Burundi and which still run today without any 'technical assistance' had equally humble beginnings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It must be acknowledged that the people who migrated to this 'wild frontier' of rice cultivation in Burundi also introduced into these regions diseases such as bilharzia and malaria (the mosquitoes carrying the parasite were transported in the luggage of people travelling from the capital to the provinces). Despite this, rice cultivation at high altitude has proved a veritable lifesaver for Burundi. In the year that the FAO plans to stage a summit on famine, it is appropriate to highlight the important role of rice-growing in the food production strategy of this country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until recently, Burundi ensured that it had enough to feed its people through a delicate balancing act between growing food crops, leaving land fallow and rearing livestock which produced manure. At present, however, increased agricultural production is only possible by increasing the surface area of the country under cultivation-at the expense of fallow land and livestock farming. Such a move risks reducing soil fertility and could lead to the substitution of crops of high nutritional value, such as beans, with higher yield crops such as cassava or sweet potatoes which suck the subsoil dry of minerals and nutrients.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In short, traditional farming methods in Burundi are arguably now out of balance and the situation is getting worse. This may, indeed, be a root cause of the ethnic crisis. A systematic policy of re-establishing marshlands and organising rural communities around high-altitude rice cultivation would allow the country to look ahead with optimism to the next 20 years. Suitable varieties are currently available and the altitudes at which rice can be grown have been pushed back in Burundi as far as 1700 m. What is now needed is the funds! </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J-P.T. &amp; M.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Developing world</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Freedom of expression: the heartbeat of democracy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A view from UNESCO.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The article which follows is an abridged version of a text compiled by Carlos Amaldo, who heads UNESCO's research into communication and the free flow of information. Mr Arnaldo highlights some of the main aspects of the UN agency's support for the development of a free press in the African, Caribbean and Pacific regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution passed by the ACP/KU Joint Assembly in March 1996 in Windhoek, Namibia, reflected the spirit of many of UNESCO's communication programmes in these regions. Echoing the principal tenets of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the resolution declares: 'freedom of expression is a precondition for holding free and fair elections'; 'the monopoly of information media is a barrier to the development of democracy,'; 'there is a need to create a climate in which all part)" can participate fully in political life.' It further holds: 'communication media must not only inform the electorate in an impartial and objective manner' but also; 'freedom of expression and the existence of free communications media are vital preconditions for the development of a democratic society.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution was timely, responding to a need to remind political leaders, as well as civic society, of the relation between free communication media and truly democratic practices. Just five years ago, on 3 May 1991,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African journalists and media adopted the Windhoek Declaration at the UN/ UNESCO seminar on promoting an independent and pluralistic African press. Likewise, journalists and media practitioners of each major region adopted the Declarations of Alma Ata (October 1992), Santiago (May 1994) and Sana'a (January 1996), all of which affirmed the unwavering belief of professional communicators in freedom of expression, press freedom, independence and pluralism of the media, and the contribution of such freedoms to democratic processes. At their 28th General Conference, UNESCO Member States further declared that, 'press freedom is an essential component of any democracy.' All these declarations contain action programmes to strengthen press freedom in these regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning to look at some practical initiatives, a media project entitled 'Independent Press in Africa', which was put in place after the signing of the Windhoek declaration, soon attracted the interest of a number of donors (Italy, USA, France). Under this project, the International Programme for the Development of Communication (IPDC) organised four sets of courses for journalists in 1994. In April 1995, IPDC arranged a multi-theme workshop for 33 English-speaking journalists and editors from Central and West Africa on marketing, distribution techniques, managing mass media enterprises in Africa, new communication technologies, journalism and ethical issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are now plans afoot to study the situation of the press in Mauritius, Madagascar and Comoros, and to publish several handbooks about press enterprises. Efforts will also be made to attract increased donor contributions so that the successes achieved by these initial training activities can be strengthened and shared with other regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further example of positive action in support of the media is the work of MISA (the Media Institute of Southern Africa-featured in more detail in the following article). This organisation has been receiving UNESCO support since 1994 under a funding arrangement with the Danish International Development Agency. The project seeks to strengthen links among the region's independent media so as to enhance the free flow of information. It also aims to boost cooperation and information-sharing with similar groups in developing and developed countries worldwide, to strengthen the ability of the region's independent media to stand on its own feet and to improve professional standards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MlSA, which was set up in 1992, has been monitoring and safeguarding press freedom in the region, facilitated by an electronic network for distribution of information on press freedom issues. It has mounted seminars and training workshops for professional journalists on computer-aided design, strategic financial management, journalism ethics and advertising management. MISA's campaigning material includes a bi-monthly magazine, Free Press: the Media Magazine of Southern Africa and a booklet, So this is Democray, which is a compilation of its 'action alerts' curing 1994 and 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another UNESCO initiative is the 'Communication and Good Governance in West and Central African Countries' project, supported by Germany. This aims to strengthen the human and technical capacity of the media in these regions so that they can make a contribution to good governance. The three year project is to be implemented in 10 countries - Benin, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Sao Tome &amp; Principe and Togo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Together with other institutions such as legislatures, the judiciary and civic organisations, media bodies like MISA have a useful role to play. They can enhance transparency and accountability by systematic analysis and reporting of government programmes, policies and pledges, and by encouraging public discussions which help people to make informed decisions about public issues and about how their leaders discharge the power vested in them. Fulfilment of these functions requires access to the media, and qualified, well-trained practitioners who can effectively use the media for information, education and communication on good governance issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning our attention now to the Caribbean, the question of media freedom recently came to the fore in Trinidad and Tobago when 13 editors and journalists on The Guardian lost their jobs following publication of a number of controversial articles (some reports said they 'constructively resigned'). The events cast a shadow over the famous Carnival. Indeed, as one journalist put it, the Carnival quickly ceded to the 'sacrificial rites' of Holy Week. Six of the paper's youngest reporters were among those who lost their jobs-but out of the furore, a new newspaper was born.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 'Comparative Study of Media Laws in the CARICOM countries' by Ainsley Sahai, commissioned earlier by UNESCO, became a reference in the debates that followed. The study highlighted that all Caribbean countries guaranteed freedom of expression in their national constitutions. Indeed, Trinidad and Tobago's constitution explicitly guarantees press freedom as well. The Media Association of Trinidad and Tobago (MATT) organised two meetings. The first of these, on 10 April 1996, was a public forum on issues of press freedom. Although a full cross-section of society was not present, and not all the issues at stake were fully debated, it was nevertheless a start. Those who took the floor came from many sectors of society -women, the unemployed, workers, community organisations and at least three different religious groups. About a quarter of those who contributed spoke as individuals. While many criticised the press for errors in reporting, all confirmed the need to uphold a free press vis-a-vis both political pressures and economic and financial interests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The public gave strong support to MATT and demanded that the forum be replicated in other parts of the country. It was the first time that the public had been given the opportunity to speak out on these issues. It was not so much the content of the discussion which counted, but the very fact that the event took place, bringing the media closer to its 'customers'. The meeting gave the public an opportunity to put over their own perceptions of press freedom, impartial reporting and the strengthening of democratic processes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two days later, with support from UNESCO, the Media Association staged a journalists' symposium, moderated by George John, consulting editor at The Guardian. David de Caires, publisher of Guyana's Stabroek News was invited by MATT as an external consultant. Drawing on past and more recent examples of uneasy relations between a free press and governments, Mr de Caires concluded with a headlinehitting statement; the relations of the press with government should not be too cosy, the press must maintain its adversarial position.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many journalists took the floor to stress Trinidad and Tobago's constitutional guarantees for both freedom of expression and press freedom. They also stressed the need to safeguard editorial independence, not only in the printed press, but also in broadcasting, and urged the repeal of 'antiquated' libel laws-a point also made in the Sahai study. The preparation of a Freedom of Information Act was strongly urged to ensure access to public information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These events appear to have strengthened the resolve of the jobless journalists. They grouped together to set up a new weekly newspaper, called The Independent. The new publication focuses on investigative articles, comment and reviews. In addition, a monthly called The Formatt was launched by MATT to disseminate specialised news on press freedom issues and to provide print support for future public fore. Both newspapers brought out their first editions in early May amidst the celebrations of World Press Freedom Day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacific</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Pacific, issues of freedom of expression and press freedom are no less salient, although a key issue for practitioners there is the modernisation of infrastructures. This is needed to ensure that this vast island region does not find itself in the slow lane of the information highway.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The computerisation of radio newsrooms, in places such as the Cook Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, Solomon Islands and Tonga, is a priority. The Cook Islands already has a fully computerised newspaper operation. Indeed, this is the first newspaper in the Pacific with the capacity to transmit photographs from various parts of the country to the newsroom electronically by phone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Considerable concern has been expressed about the inadequacy of national television programming. There is a need for the people of the Pacific to see themselves and their culture, and not just the imported fare distributed by most international TV services. With UNESCO support, women media producers from seven island countries were able to meet to work out ways of cooperating on a series of television documentaries that they themselves produced and exchanged within the region. Preparations are now under way for the annual evaluation and awarding of prizes at the end of 1996. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A.A. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Campaigning for free expression in the SADC region</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by David Nthengwe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Media Institute of Southern Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Officially launched in September 1992, the role of the Media Institute of Southern Africa is primarily that of coordinator, facilitator and communicator in the promotion of media freedom and diversity, (as envisaged in the 1991 Windhoek Declaration). MISA operates in 11 of the 1 2 SADC countries and is currently investigating setting up a chapter in the twelfth-Mauritius- which joined the Community 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chapters are serviced by a regional secretariat based in the Namibian capital, Windhoek. The secretariat is accountable to a policy-making governing council of elected representatives from each national chapter, while funding for MISA and its projects is channeled through the MISA Education and Production Trust, overseen by a board of independent trustees. The organisation is currently almost entirely donor-funded, with UNESCO, NORAD, SIDA, the KU, the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, IBIS, and the Australian and German governments being the main contributors. Other income is generated through the sale of subscriptions to MISA publications and services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Institute's main work is in the field of advocacy; highlighting violations of media freedom and free expression, and exploring ways of ensuring that these fundamental freedoms become entrenched throughout Southern Africa. In 1994, MISA became a member of the International Freedom of Expression Exchange (IFEX) network in a bid to increase international awareness of media freedom violations in Southern Africa. Membership of IFEX has enabled MISA to distribute as well as receive information on media freedom issues in a quick and relatively cheap way via the Internet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Action alerts'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994 and 1995, MISA issued via IFEX and its own electronic mail network, the MISANET (see below), more than 190 'action alerts' relating to media freedom infringements in Southern Africa, and effective campaigns against some of these violations have resulted. In August 1994, Lesotho journalist, Rabuka Chalatse, was shot by soldiers while covering a demonstration. An alert issued by MISA triggered a swift response, and within 24 hours, funds had been raised to pay for emergency treatment which saved the young journalist's leg. In November 1995, Angolan freelance journalist, Mario Paiva, had his life threatened by people who, it was alleged, were state security agents. MlSA's alert prompted protest from throughout the world, and resulted in several governments offering Paiva sanctuary in their embassies in Angola. The threat against the journalist was subsequently lifted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MlSA's advocacy work has also shown that democratisation does not necessarily result in guaranteed media freedom and free expression. In Zambia, for example, which had a multi-party election in 1991, arcane laws inherited from previous regimes have been used against the private media in particular, and free expression, in general. As this article was being written, Fred M'membe, the Editor-in-Chief of Zambia's privately-owned daily 'The Post', and two of his colleagues, were starting an indefinite prison term for contempt of Parliament. The sentence was passed not by a court of law, but by the Speaker, under legislation inherited from British colonial rule. Their 'crime' was to comment on criticism made in Parliament of a Supreme Court decision which declared unconstitutional, laws requiring anyone wishing to stage a demonstration to obtain police permission first.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five months prior to his arrest, M'membe received the MISA Press Freedom Award, which is presented annually to individuals or institutions considered to have made an outstanding contribution to the advancement of media freedom in Southern Africa. M'membe was the third recipient of the award.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free flow of information essential</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the Windhoek Declaration points out, 'the establishment, maintenance and fostering of an independent, pluralistic and free press' is essential to economic development, as well as for the growth of democracy. Accordingly, MISA argues that the free flow of information is vital to the development process. Effective communication within SADC-a 'development community'- has been hampered by the region's poor postal and telecommunications services. MISA considers that these logistical barriers to the free flow of information are a form of censorship. In a bid to break through the information voids which have kept Southern African media workers and their audiences isolated from each other for so long, it has made particular use of advances in information technology, including, most notably, the Internet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two years, MISA has been linking member organisations up to electronic mail (e-mail). This allows members throughout the region to exchange news, photographs and other information. To date, 25 MISA member organisations are linked to this network, called the MISANET, although further growth has been hampered by members' unfamiliarity with e-mail, and the lack of local technicians to train people and provide user support. Nonetheless, computerised communications have proved to be an appropriate technology, and development of the MISANET remains a top priority. By making some services available to non-MISA subscribers, MISA also intends to generate income and thus reduce its current dependency on donor funding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Focus on training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coordination of training and material support to independent media is another area where MISA looks to develop media freedom and diversity. The region's independent media sometimes operates in politically and economically hostile environments. Its survival-and thus the sustenance and growth of media diversity-hinges on these organisations becoming highly professional, well-managed concerns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Working through training institutions based primarily in the region, MISA coordinates workshops and other training programmes aimed at improving the skills of media workers, particularly in the fields of management and finance. Workshops in strategic and financial management, project management, advertising, marketing, sales and subscription management, ethics, subediting, and computerised design were staged during 1994 and 1995. For 1996, training is scheduled in economic reporting, project management, photography, advertising sales, circulation and sales management, computer-aided design, developing world and financial and strategic management. Instruction will also be provided to media workers without formal training. Meanwhile, research is to be carried out into setting up a media ombudsman for Southern Africa, printing press initiatives, media training needs, and the difficulties faced by women media workers in the region. The last-mentioned is in line with MlSA's policy of encouraging gender awareness and equality within the Southern African media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Private and community-based media organisations face constant problems securing adequate finance. As businesses, they often do not qualify for donor support, while banks are reluctant to lend them money. Therefore, MISA is looking to set up of a Media Development Fund to which independent media can apply for loans, credit guarantees and grants. A study is currently being conducted into the feasibility of such a fund, which MISA hopes to have up-andrunning by early 1997.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Broadcasting in Southern Africa is still largely state-controlled. Moves by some of the region's governments to 'deregulate' broadcasting have been erratic, and many private broadcasting licenses granted in the process have gone to organisations or individuals closely linked to the authorities. MISA is now drawing up a policy aimed at seeking the effective liberalisation of broadcasting legislation covering public, private and community broadcasting throughout the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As part of this process, MISA will, this year, stage a conference on broadcasting and community media, to coincide with its Annual General Meeting-which has become one of the largest gatherings of media workers on the African continent. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.N.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Volunteers show their worth</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Thomas M. Neufing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volunteers have become a major component in international development efforts. They make up a significant proportion of the total human resources available for development cooperation (up to a fifth of the skilled international personnel serving in developing countries). In the early days, volunteer service was strongly influenced by the idea of oneway technical assistance. Specialists, mainly from the North, served in developing nations where their expertise was desperately needed but not yet found among local citizens. Much has changed since.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the US Peace Corps, the UN Volunteers Programme (UNV) ranks as the second largest volunteer-sendina agency with some 4000 professionals in the field every year. Its universality and internationality is reflected in the high number of UNV specialists (74%) who come from developing countries. The scope and size of the international volunteer contribution to development cooperation (notably areas such as HIV/AIDS and the environment), has increased significantly over the years as a result of the changing development challenge. The re-thinking of the role of technical cooperation is equally central to the volunteer debate and this has led to much greater flexibility in the ways in which volunteer services are provided. The important role volunteers can play in peace building efforts with a long-term development dimension, complementary to humanitarian relief, is increasingly being recognised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Working with rather than for people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the UNV's 25th anniversary, and the relocation of its headquarters to Bonn this summer, it is an appropriate time both to assess and to acknowledge the contribution made by these volunteers. Since the programme began in 1971, some 14 000 professionals have dedicated a period of their lives to serve as a UNV. The programme is administered by UNDP, and is therefore intimately linked to its structures, particularly in the field. Regarding community-based initiatives, the comparative advantage of UNVs is that of working with rather than for people over an extended period, thus facilitating their initiatives. The experience of many development agencies shows that in promoting socio-economic change at the village level, the type of person needed is one who-through long-term commitment and sensitivity -can learn as much from local partners as offer advice to them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International volunteers are engaged mainly in rural development tasks. Those working through specialised NGOs such as the Red Cross, and Medecins Sans Frontieres have proved to be highly effective agents, supporting governments faced with disaster situations. In the case of UNV, the value of using volunteer specialists from other developing nations, as a way of encouraging technical cooperation amongst developing countries, is particularly recognised. Most volunteers- perhaps two-thirds - serve in least developed and small island countries. And about three-quarters serve in rural areas, working mostly in programmes of agricultural and community development, health, education and the supply of basic services. Since the end of the Cold War, a growing number have been deployed in emergency relief, refugee and rehabilitation programmes. UNVs make up 10% of the UN's civilian component in Cambodia; 4096 of the field staff of the World Food Programme and almost 100% of outreach workers attached to the UN Mission in Guatemala. UNVs are increasingly involved in human rights promotion, the organisation of elections and conflict resolution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a consensus among the main international humanitarian and development actors that their programmes should be mutually supportive. For example, development efforts must respond to humanitarian crises by remaining on the scene and supporting immediate needs, as well as aiding in the prevention of crises which are known to be looming. Emergency humanitarian assistance should also pave the way for longer term development by viewing the immediacy of the moment through the lens of future sustainable rehabilitation. Both sets of activities should, ideally, be launched and implemented in tandem with local bodies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">External assistance efforts must include strengthening local capacity to cope with problems. Empowerment strategies which inform, educate and facilitate the people's own vision of peaceful and sustainable living environments (including respect for human rights) are fundamental to the future of communities coping in the aftermath of crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Relief, rehabilitation and development?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNV programme has been active in exploring the efficacy of volunteer support to communities in crisis in order to bridge the gap between immediate needs and longer term developmental goals. In 1994, the UNV held its 4th Special Consultation, entitled, Between Crisis and Development - Volunteer Roles and UNV's Contribution. At this event, donor governments, UN agencies and cooperating partners from civil society had an indepth discussion of the issues surrounding volunteer efforts, and the complementary nature of emergency interventions and follow-up measures. The participants reconfirmed the need for local capacity building. They also affirmed the usefulness of the UN Volunteer contribution in crisis prevention, emergency rehabilitation and 'building bridges' to sustainable development. The work of UNVs in preventive action and promoting post-conflict development was highlighted. There has been a significant increase in demand for specialist volunteer services in all types of crisis. These may be economic, natural or man-made, but they all have in common the need to provide essential relief and rehabilitation services for basic survival (to refugees and resident populations). In many countries, disasters and internal strife have put so much pressure on essential public services that the longterm capacity of the people to recover may be threatened. Governments in developing countries and donors both believe it is fully justified to use volunteer specialists to help provide such services during the adjustment period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Mixed' teams</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The contribution of both international and national volunteers is often essential to link immediate relief efforts to future long-term development. National volunteers-people working in their own countries within the UN framework-complement the international approach by providing the key grassroots perspective. UN Volunteers who speak local languages, live and work in remote communities, are familiar with community structures and are known to local leaders, play a key part in facilitating preventive action and providing follow-up in the aftermath of a crisis. UNV specialists are well-placed to build effective partnerships with national and local actors. In the last two years, some 2000 UN Volunteers have worked in various parts of the world in prevention and preparedness, peacekeeping, electoral support, human rights, rehabilitation and reconstruction, and humanitarian relief.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi offers an example of an initiative designed to stem a crisis through local capacity-building. The UNV is financing a project there which supports the mediation and dialogue efforts of the UN Secretary General's Special Representative (SRSG) through the recruitment of UNV peace advisers and conflict resolution facilitators. This project is being run successfully out of the SRSG's office, extending public awareness of the reconciliation process. It includes use of the mass media to promote understanding, and brings local actors together to work for peaceful solutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tasks undertaken by UN volunteers all fit into the spectrum which has 'crisis' et one end end 'development' at the other. The work, moreover, is undertaken in partnership-with civil society (NGOs and community-based organisations), government departments, UN agencies and regional international organisations (such as the KU).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through efforts that aim to link relief, rehabilitation and development, new productive partnerships are emerging to enhance coherence, coordination and complementarily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The growth of professionalism</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30 years ago, the typical profile of an international volunteer was that of a generalist graduate from an industrialised country seeking first-time experience abroad before settling down to a career. Over time, the governments of developing countries made clear their need for practical and often specialised skills aimed at giving them the ability to manage their own programmes. They increasingly expressed impatience at hosting untrained volunteers. Professionalism became the key word. Unfortunately, the word 'volunteer' is still a source of confusion: it is often equated with 'amateur'. This is a perception that now needs to be corrected. The personnel sent out by most agencies that supply volunteers are likely to be in their thirties, with post-graduate qualifications and several years' practical experience in their fields. The typical UNV specialist is an example par excel/ence of this trend: 39 years of age, holding a Master's degree and with more than ten years of experience in a particular discipline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was not just the dedication, but also the professionalism of the hundreds of UN Volunteers serving in Mozambique that impressed Aldo Ajello, the former UN Special Representative in Mozambique (now EU Special Envoy for the Great Lakes Region). 'If I were to run another mission,' he said, 'I would ask immediately for volunteers.' In terms of monitoring-which was vital in building up the trust and confidence needed to ensure the election results were accepted-'UNV electoral officers were our only real presence and they proved to be extremely professional.' ~ T.N. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Study by the World Wide Fund for Nature</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Structural adiustment, the environment, and sustainable development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by David Reed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 29 May, David Reed of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) was in Brussels to present the results of a study undertaken by the WWF, with the support of the European Commission, the longterm consequences of structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) on the environment and the use of nature/ resources. Conclusions were drawn from nine country case studies from Cameroon, Mall Tanzania, Zambia, El Salvador, Jamaica, Venezuela, Vietnam and Pakistan. We publish here an abridged version of Mr Reed's general presentation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAPs, often implemented at the instigation of the international financial institutions, have responded to the pervasive economic problems of the 1980s and to profound changes in the economy in recent decades. The programmes have generally been successful in improving macroeconomic indicators in developing countries. The marketorientation of economies has been increased through liberalised trade and capital flows, privatisation, reductions in regulation and price setting, and cuts in government budgets and programmes. For most developing countries, these changes were essential to economic recovery and adjustment to the new global marketplace.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable development in the social, economic, and environmental sense, has, however, been ignored in SAPs. Many reform programmes have been accompanied by increases in poverty and unemployment, worsening income distribution, and the collapse of social services, environmental protection and state institutional capacities. These immediate costs of adjustment inhibit countries' long-term ability to expand productivity and employment opportunities, as natural resources are exploited indiscriminately to meet short-term needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environmental impacts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The environmental effects of structural adjustment vary from country to country depending on the specific components of the reform package, the structure of the economy, and the implementation process. The WWF's country case studies reveal particular mechanisms through which structural adjustment has altered resource-use patterns. Some more general patterns also emerge from the studies. Everywhere, cuts in government institutions and funding have reduced the state's capacity to facilitate the transition process, to compensate for market failures, and to provide for long-term and social sustainability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many reforms associated with structural adjustment have the potential to improve both environmental and economic outcomes. However, the failure to implement complementary environmental policies or strengthen institutions and regulations, has created a very mixed environmental record. Increases in poverty, greater production incentives, and the loss of government regulatory capacity, have all aggravated patterns of poor resource use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extractive and agricultural economies generally increased production in response to greater exposure to global markets. Without proper policies in place, this increase has put a strain on fragile ecosystems. Environmental pressures include increased land degradation and deforestation for agriculture, livestock and timber production; increased production of non-renewables without long-term investment of the proceeds or environmental safeguards; and increased pollution and damage to the ecosystem from unregulated tourism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The burden of fiscal retrenchment and price changes under structural adjustment have fallen most heavily on the poor, particularly women. The strong association between poverty and environmental degradation has been revealed, as efforts to maintain livelihoods have led to deforestation, land degradation, overhunting and other pressures on endangered species, as well as the unmanaged extraction of nonrenewable resources. Increasing poverty and unemployment associated with adjustment has also added to population pressures in urban areas with insufficient infrastructure exacerbating problems of pollution, disease and congestion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The implications of disregarding the environmental and social impact of adjustment are examined in the various case studies. Structural adjustment has been sustained by the promise that market-orientation and export-led - growth will raise living standards. Evidence from the studies, however, strongly suggests that long-term productive capacity is being destroyed by short-term exploitation of natural resources. Not only environmental but also economic and social sustainability are threatened by the loss of environmental goods and services. Drawing down natural capital has been encouraged by government policies that promote exports and open resources up to international markets. And the process is accelerated by the growing population of poor and unemployed who rely on natural resources for survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recommendations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following its study, the WWF offers a series of recommendations to reduce the environmental costs of structural adjustment and economic integration, and to reorient structural adjustment aims towards sustainable development. Most urgently, environmental issues must be integrated into structural economic reforms - environmental assessments must become part of the programmes. A strategic vision of the role that natural resources and environmental goods and services could play in the transformation of developing economies is essential to designing appropriate strategies. Efforts to industrialise economies must include consideration of the environmental implications. Social services and environmental institutions must be maintained during the adjustment process to prevent increases in poverty and environmental degradation that have both short-term and long-term consequences for development. Essential services include credit and marketing support to small farmers, income-generating opportunities for women, food-assistance programmes, and promotion of distributional equity. The state's role in providing services which neither the private sector nor civil society can provide, must be maintained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the great variety in economic structures and in the capacity of markets and civil society among developing countries, adjustment strategies and government roles must be tailored to each case. Everywhere, countries must implement national institutional reforms for environmental management. Civil society must be strengthened to allow participation in the adjustment process. International financial institutions promoting and designing SAPs must reform their policies and approaches to implementation in the light of the clear evidence that macroeconomic reforms are having a profound effect on the environment and on the possibilities for sustainable development. Continuing failure to correct these problems on a national level accentuates the concern for addressing issues of sustainability on a global level. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.R. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Culture and society</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Why a Biennial Festival of Contemporary African Art?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dak'Art 96</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first World Festival of Negro Art, held in 1966, was essentially a political exercise. In the post-independence period, it was felt necessary to show the world that the people of Africa (both the continent and the diaspora), had a rich culture which had long been suppressed. The festival - which has never been repeated-is viewed with a great deal of nostalgia by supporters of modern African art and black intellectuals. The better, brighter future, which seemed at the time to be just over the horizon, never quite lived up to expectation. Even before financing problems had surfaced, the festival's fate had already been sealed by petty political rivalries and a greedy pursuit of the limelight. Years later, attempts to relaunch the event met with a lukewarm reception. It was already the beginning of the end as far as ideologies were concerned. In complete contrast, Dak'Art 96 (Dakar, 915 May 1996) set its sights firmly on the market place, nowadays the yardstick by which all success is measured. Its goals were simple: to break into the art market and overcome the generally held prejudice that contemporary African art lacks modernity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An international market for African art does exist, but it concerns itself solely with ancient art- and Africa itself profits little from such trade. Indeed, it would be more accurate to speak of plundering than of trade. The seminar, organised last year by the Terveuren Museum in Brussels on the looting of African works of art, revealed the true extent of the phenomenon. Despite the fact that pirated works fetch considerable sums on the black market, contemporary African artists are faced with a 'Catch-22' situation. Major galleries in Europe, America and Japan do not exhibit their work because African art is ignored by the leading art periodicals; and their work never appears in these publications because it is never exhibited. One reason for the fact that African art is not put on show is that virtually no funds are allocated by international institutions to sponsor exhibitions by the artists in question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many third-world governments do not dare, are unwilling or are unable to include culture on their list of priorities within international cooperation agreements. One exception is Burkina Faso which now boasts a cinema industry as a result. Senegal is trying to follow in its footsteps. But there are not many places in Africa where artists are promoted for the quality of their creative output. The majority of initiatives have, in fact, been on a voluntary basis. The magazine Revue Noire is one of the most significant examples of this approach. A group of aficionados of contemporary African art - indeed with a passion for art pure and simple, whether African or European-decided to try and break the vicious circle. They looked at two options: the establishment of an art gallery of worldwide renown or of an equally prestigious arts publication, and came down in favour of the latter. Thus Revue Noire was born. However, its success was generally given very slim odds: it was seen as too glossy, too expensive and too intellectual. The sub-text here of course, is that a publication about African art had no right to be glossy, expensive or intellectual, especially since the money could have been used for something far more 'useful' to the development of these countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Others, such as Marie-Claire Mwanza from l'Espace Alizes in Brussels, have attacked the problem from a different angle-by exhibiting contemporary African art. Prior to her initiative, there was not a single gallery in Brussels that specialised in this sector of the market, and there are still none that figure on the shopping lists of the world's great collectors. Whatever the price set for a contemporary African work, it is generally perceived as being too high. The contrast with the prices demanded for works by even the youngest European or American artists, even for their very first exhibitions, speaks volumes. African art is too expensive in relation to what exactly ? The answer is in relation to the status accorded to it, which is of course determined by the art world. In other words, a big fat zero if one considers the fact that African art is never exhibited.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thanks to Revue Noire, African art has been brought to the major galleries of the Western world. Similar projects have been launched or are in the process of being launched in various countries of the West, such as the magazine NKA in Brooklyn, for example. Exhibition organisers, museums, galleries and those looking to stage art festivals now know on whose door to knock, and the last few months have proved extremely promising. The Guggenheim Museum in New York is currently hosting a major exhibition of African art, and Africa 95, held in London, was swiftly followed by Copenhagen 96. The Guggenheim Museum, moreover, is in a completely different league to the Museum of African and Oceanic Art in Paris or the Museum of Central Africa in Tervueren, Belgium (formerly the Colonial Museum)-it is one of the world's most prestigious temples of modern art. What is more, London's Africa 95, which was so disparaged by African art specialists, who considered it nothing more than a meeting place for traders, did, whether we like it or not, act as a significant catalyst. And what about pirated works of art, such as those plundered from the Niger Valley ? These have found a 'home' in public as well as private collections, pointing to a real need to 'clean out the Augean stables'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few African artists are beginning to get themselves known within 'the market', but there are still not enough of them. It was with great foresight that the organisers of Dak'Art placed these artists at the top of their invitation list. Another shrewd move was to invite the art market's arbiters of taste to select those African artists who should present solo exhibitions, and to ask celebrated art critics and collectors to form part of the international panel of judges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is probably true to say that Africa has rarely known such a dynamic period of creativity which places it at the forefront of global aesthetic trends. The aim of the Biennial Festival was to underline this fact beyond any doubt. Among those artists who are currently in a position to break into the market, the Senegalese sculptor, Ousmane Sow, probably heads the list. Paradoxically, however, Ousmane Sow's work was not presented at Dakar although he himself was there, his tall, striking figure standing out from the crowd. Despite the fact that he lent his support to Dak'Art 96 and that the opening gala was partly dedicated to him with the magnificent film of Beatrice Soule, Ousmane Sow resolutely refused to display his own work. He has no wish to take part in gatherings of 'African artists'. He is an artist and he is African, but he is not an 'African artist'. 'A Japanese artist is a contemporary artist in this universal world', he argues, 'so why should I allow myself to be pigeon-holed in a ghetto ?' No matter how satisfied and pleased champions of contemporary African art may be with the organisation behind the Biennial Festival, they cannot deny that Ousmane Sow has a point. Having said this, there is no contradiction here, but rather a complementary vision. Sow's stance and the idea behind Dak'Art are part of a two-pronged attack, to borrow a military term. The organisers of the Biennial and Sow himself doubtless saw it in this way, and decided to join forces.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each time Beatrice Soule tackles the work of an artist, she explores it in a very unusual way, reinventing the arts documentary. Her films are reminiscent of the music of Nino Rota in Fe//ini's films, Rota subjugating himself to the service of the director's work, sublimating his own originality through this extreme humility. It is impossible to picture the images of Federico Fellini without Rota's haunting music. Beatrice Soule saw in Sow's work a love affair between an artist and his sculpture, coming up with the idea of placing Sow's sculptures in the savannah and imagining the intimate interaction between Africa's natural world, which is at the heart of the artist's inspiration, and his works, which the natural world is able to absorb back into itself. The result of this juxtaposition is that the physical work of art is eclipsed by sheer creative force and spirit. The genius behind the work becomes the work, merges with it and is reincarnated in it. The one thing that Soule did not film was Ousmane Sow himself, her images concentrating solely on the creative act. It would be illusory to attempt to explain a Beatrice Soule film, especially this film. When she unveils how the artist tames physical matter, reinventing materials in order to create a work of art, technique simply recedes into the background, becoming blurred and intangible. Whereas others would have adopted a scientific or factual approach, her camera perceives the abstract aspects of the piece-and its gestation. The film was due to be broadcast on the international FrancoGerman arts channel Arte. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If Ousmane Sow's sculptures are characterised by their gigantic proportions, then those of Georges Adeagbo, a Beninois artist whose name is also beginning to be heard in the commercial art establishment, are characterised by their 'fugacity'. Adeagbo's artistic constructions are as fleeting as puffs of smoke, like voodoo symbols scratched out in the sand. His art is symbolic and ephemeral. Once one of his works has been exhibited, all that remains of it is a hollow shell which he has to reinvent over and over again. Adeagbo constructs ideas, using a host of assorted materials which he painstakingly selects over months, even years. Yet despite the meticulous care with which they are put together, as far as the artist is concerned, the materials per se are of no importance. He could convey exactly the same idea using other elements. An Adeagbo piece is not merely a pile of objects. It is neither conceptual art, nor scrap art. It consists rather of 'installations' which rise and spread outwards. Sometimes, he uses specially constructed sculptures. At other times he employs everyday objects- shoes, saucepans, stones, spectacles or footballs. He also works with written material; manuscripts, parchment, pieces of newspaper and books, portraying the written word as both a creative force and a deceptive screen. Adeagbo himself is a man of few words. Perpetually crouched on the ground, he constructs, modifies, touches and observes his creations. Why should these constructions remind us so much of paintings? They are as much a pile of objects as a painting is an accumulation of layers of paint. It is by forgetting the paint that we are able to admire the picture and it is by looking beyond the materials used by Adeagbo that his work truly reveals itself. Indeed, it is a sign of his genius as an artist that the materials never intrude upon our contemplation of his work. In Dakar, Adeagbo's work was shown in the AIDS exhibition organised by Revue Noire. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another artist who took part in the AIDS exhibition, and whose art could well be the impetus behind the new universal aesthetic, the avant-garde (if such a concept has a meaning), is Pascale Marthine Tayou from Cameroon. He was given the honour of presenting one of the five solo exhibitions. Tayou was sponsored by Yakuyi Kawagushi, the curator of the Setagaya Museum in Tokyo, who exhibited his work at the forum organised within the overall framework of the exhibition. While the term 'installation' may best describe the works of Georges Adeagbo's, Tayou's work falls unquestionably under the heading of sculpture. This is despite the fact that the two artists use virtually identical materials. Tayou sculpts from wood, covering his pieces with all manner of manufactured and salvaged objects such as shoes, nails, plastic bags and enormous condoms, or with natural objects such as bits of roots and stones. He then paints the arrangement. The work is dense, unyielding and mesmerising, often etching itself into the onlooker's mind. His sculpture lacks heavy ornamentation, yet its starkness has a rich quality, the theme encompassed by a jumble of material standing out clearly, like the outline of a silhouette. Take his work 'Fight against AIDS'. The piece consists of a wooden frame in the shape of figure-of-eight, with each horizontal line doubled, defining a key element in a tragic body with bulging eyes and a Pere Ubu belly. In contrast to this suffocatingly tragic figure, the brightly-coloured shoes of a Harlequin with a faded costume offer a comical note.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were other creators who could well ruffle a few feathers in the art market that ultimately makes or breaks an artist: Tamsir Dia of Cote d'lvoire (whose screaming figures are reminiscent of Munch), Cheikh Niass of Senegal, Mathilde Moro of Cote d'lvoire and Abdoulaye Konate of Mali. The last mentioned was honoured with the highest award of the festival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A decision was taken that Dak'Art 96 should encompass other areas of creativity, such as music, design and fashion, in addition to the visual arts. At the gala evening held to inaugurate the Festival, there was a fashion show choreographed in the manner of a ballet. The staging of this can only be described as mawkish. The audience were treated neither to a real performance, nor to a good fashion show. The second fashion spot, which was supposed to present an overview of African design, was also quite pitiful. If the event's organisers decide to keep these parallel areas of creativity in the Festival, then their decision will be solely thanks to the success of the International Design Exhibition. Apart from two or three 'exotic' pieces, this was generally of a very high standard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community's choice in awarding the prize for creativity to a designer, Vincent Amian Namien from the Cote d'lvoire, was particularly revealing. This artist strips everything down to its bare essentials, creating a line that is so purified as to leave only the quintessence of form. Thus, he creates a chair that is nothing more than a perfect metal triangle, with four boards and four metal wires-and yet offers perfect comfort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Claire Kane, a fashion designer of Franco-Senegalese descent, had the verve to go it alone and show her collection at the prestigious Salon of Design. Her clothes are characterised by the rejection of all superfluous detail, achieving a fluid line that stylises movement. Following an aesthetic code that has been decanted from the melting pot of the collective costume heritage of the entire continent, Claire Kane is directly involved in the creation of her designs, from the weaving of the cloth to the last finishing touches. In fact, she admits that her true passion is fabric rather than fashion, her favourite material being woven pagne. She often uses silk-screen printing to introduce pattern. She then adds words to the patterns in her designs and, abracadabra, one would think that this is the way it has always been done in Africa. A subtle modernity, combining both past and future, seems to be a recurring motif in African creativity. International artists, still few in number, travel from Dakar to be dressed by her.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If, in the future, the Festival's organisers decide to concentrate solety on the visual arts, this would come as no surprise. On the other hand, it would also make sense to continue to include design and fashion. A country's cultural heritage should be considered one of its raw materials and a source of economic wealth, and unimaginative accountants may have to resign themselves to this fact. Herein lies a possible answer to the question: 'why hold a Biennial Festival of Contemporary African Art?'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegei Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acting against AIDS</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Robert Rowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many ways of raising money to fight AlDS have been tried, but one of the most unusual must surely be the approach taken by an official of the European Commission. Robert Rowe, who until last year was an assistant editor on The Courier, put on a oneman show in Brussels and then rook it to the other side of the world to raise money for a voluntary organisation working on AIDS prevention and care in Malaysia. Here is his story of fighting the virus with the power of the theatre.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'By the year 2000, South-East Asia will be host to the majority of the world's AIDS cases.' So runs a stark prediction from the World Health Organisation, quoted in a recent paper from a grouping of NGOs affiliated to the Malaysian AIDS Foundation. It goes on to predict that 'the region faces a potential HIV spread of titanic proportions.' In Thailand, a country with a large population and a sad reputation for prostitution, the HIV threat was recognised relatively early and effective public awareness campaigns have successfully reversed the rise in the incidence of infection. But in neighbouring Malaysia, where stricter religious and social attitudes have inhibited wide public discussion of the disease and its methods of transmission, over 13000 people were HIV-positive at the last count-and that is just the figure derived from the small percentage of the population who have been tested. Activists say the true number is certainly higher and it is growing every day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first cases of HIV in Malaysia were found among intravenous drug users and sex workers, and one of the earliest organisations to begin working with people engaged in these high-risk activities was Pink Triangle. This is a voluntary, non-profit-making body which started up in 1987 by setting up AIDS prevention and support programmes for and with the general public and the gay community. Its name, in fact, refers to the pink triangle badge which men sent to concentration camps in Nazi Germany for homosexuality were made to wear. The group has always depended heavily on volunteers to plan and carry out its programmes, which now also involve running a support group for people with HIV or AIDS and a street outreach programme and drop-in centre providing AIDS information, basic medical care, temporary shelter and food for sex workers, injecting drug users and transsexuals. The centre can also provide legal referrals for members of these groups summonsed to appear in court. For the general public, talks, workshops and poster and photo exhibitions are held in schools, hospitals, factories, youth and corporate organisations and other NGOs. Pink Triangle trains its volunteers, too, to provide counselling and information about AIDS and sexuality to anyone who calls up on a confidential telephone line.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work is serious and vital, but the atmosphere is far from gloomy in Pink Triangle's premises in a lively part of the Malaysian capital, Kuala Lumpur. Though funding comes from several sources at home and abroad, including the European Union, the organisation still has to generate a lot of its own money, and one successful method they have used is to put on imaginative events where fund-raising can be combined with an opportunity to raise public awareness. Last December, for example, they marked the week surrounding World AIDS Day with a string of shows, dance parties, talk-ins and street activities called Pinkfest '95. In venues all over the town, and on television and radio, well-known personalities joined a hundred of Pink Triangle's own speakers and performers to provide education without moralising. The aim was to personalise the issue of AIDS by showing how anyone could be at risk, but at the same time dealing in facts, not fear. Thousands of attractively designed and very frank leaflets and posters put across the virus-busting message in catchy graphics and pithy phrases in several languages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I happened to be in Kuala Lumpur around New Year and saw a video of some of the Pinkfest highlights which set me thinking how admirable an impression of solidarity and self-help the anti-AIDS struggle in Malaysia conveys, and to wondering whether, back in Brussels, it might not be possible for us in Europe to do something to help. It particularly impressed and touched me that while Pink Triangle delivers its message to every single member of Malaysian society, it makes quite clear, even by its name, that it has a special care for some of that society's most downtrodden members, people for whom no one else had ever ventured to speak. Public silence, opprobrium and ridicule make it especially hard to get the safe-sex message through to gay men, especially the young, to transsexuals and sex workers, and as long as there is no cure the only way of containing the spread of infection is by education- and by changing social attitudes. The many women whose husbands or partners are careless about infection also stand to benefit from greater openness and more factual information. But organising all this takes money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It happens that among the multinational English-speaking expatriate community in Brussels there is a thriving amateur theatre scene-in fact they say that if two British people found themselves on an otherwise deserted island, one would immediately put on a play for the other, and the same seems to hold true of the Irish and the North Americans. However, it was less certain that anyone apart from me would want to exert themselves, for the many weeks required to stage a production, on behalf of an AIDS charity in a remote Asian country, so l decided to go ahead by myself and perform a one-man comedy. The play was Brief Lives; it has nothing whatever to do with AIDS, but in its day it was a huge success in London and New York. Adapted in the 1960s by the British actor Patrick Garland from the dusty old memoirs of a real historical figure, John Aubrey, it depicts a day in the life of this 1 7th-century English scientist, historian and wit. As he potters about, an extremely old man, in a garret full of manuscripts and curios, he reminisces about his contemporaries in hilarious and touching vignettes, the potted biographies which give the play its name. Aubrey died in penury, but the picture he gives of a vanished age is now reckoned to be the equal of the record we find in the diary of the better-known Samuel Pepys.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also a great deal funnier, and when I showed the script to various friends I was astounded and moved to discover how many of them wanted to be involved in the project. Eventually we put together a team headed by the director, Anne Wilkinson, a music impresario married to a coal expert from the European Commission, with production, design, stage management, lighting, sound effects, costume, music and offstage voices-not to mention publicity and box office-provided by other friends from the European institutions or the private sector. The five performances were given in June in a small theatre just adapted from a pottery workshop, and altogether the Brussels showing made a profit of some 110 000 Belgian francs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We had expected just to send this donation to Pink Triangle through the post, but to our immense pleasure they said they would like to see not just the money but, if possible, the play too. By ingenious compression the designer, Burt Baum, managed to cut the essentials of the set down to three sheets painted to give a three-dimensional effect, we put the voices and music on cassette, rolled up the costume tightly and worked out that the whole play, thus reduced, could be got into one suitcase. There is a little theatre company in the Pacific ACP state of Vanuatu called Wan Smol (One Small) Bag which actually gave me this idea. So off I went to Kuala Lumpur with this bag, and did the play another five times there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The staging in Malaysia was done by an adventurous outfit called Instant Cafe Theatre. This young company has a reputation for pushing forward the boundaries of public discussion with topical plays and supports Pink Triangle's aims and work. Brief Lives was well outside their usual repertoire, as well as being spoken in the English of 300 years ago. My worry was that bringing such a Western and Eurocentric entertainment might be resented as cultural imperialism in a country with three great and fascinating cultures of its own, Malay, Chinese and Indian, each with its own style of drama. But it turned out there was a local tradition of amateur dramatics in English, particularly Shakespeare, and that English is the usual lingua franca for speakers of different Asian languages. What went down unexpectedly well was the depiction of an old man nearing death and reviewing the best moments of his life; as the character puts it in the play, 'When a boy, I did always love to converse with old men, as living histories,' and Maiaysians have a particular regard and affection for the elderly. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I came away from Kuala Lumpur with many charming memories: the unfailing, sweet-natured enthusiasm of the audience; the relief on the first night as I stood on stage in a floor-length costume of three layers, designed to suggest London in midwinter rather than to cope with the equatorial heat of the Malay peninsula, and realised that the stage was air conditioned. The night when this air conditioning blew out a vital candle on the stage, and a man in the front row lent me his highly un-17th-century lighter to get my clay pipe going. The Chinese friend who gave me a genuine antique opium pipe to add to John Aubrey's collection of exotic curios. The delicious succession of Asian chicken dishes which the stage manager produced for me to eat on stage, cooked in very un-English coconut milk or glazed with rice wine. The work permit which specified I could perform as an artiste but must not 'sit out' or dance with the audience! The theatre's resident singer asking if she could add the play's Elizabethan theme song, with lute accompaniment, to her repertoire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taking this play to another continent was a fascinating cultural experience for me as a European, and I hope for the audiences too it was something more than just a painless way of being relieved of money in a deserving cause. At any rate the theatre asked if they could have another play soon, one in which Malaysian actors could be incorporated as well. As for Pink Triangle, some of its leading lights were packing their bags to go to Vancouver for this year's International AIDS Conference, but before they left it was a pleasure to hand over the proceeds of the whole venture and to hear that the organisation will use the money to develop a drop-in centre for people approaching them in person for the first time. Some first-timers are understandably timid about coming to the unfamiliar (and clearly signposted) premises for help or information, and a private space where they can talk in confidence is something Pink Triangle has always wanted to provide but could never find the funds for, as the project or programme money they get from their regular donors is invariably tied to what outsiders might think were more urgent priorities. It is not only the headline grabbing schemes which have useful effects: a quietly welcoming space where someone can be himself or herself may do more to dispel an individual's fear and ignorance than publicly visible campaigning, especially where religious and social pressures against certain types of nonconformity are strong. In fighting HIV/AIDS, we must try whatever works. And empowerment must begin with the self. It was a great privilege to be welcomed in like any other volunteer wanting to help bring about a necessary change. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.R. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
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+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA-Bulletin</Metadata>
+  </Description>
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+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Earthen architecture</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials, techniques and knowledge at the service of new architectural applications</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Hugo Houben and Hubert Guilland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major building material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The importance - both in quantity and quality- of unbaked earth constructions in the world is very little known. Believed to be of ancient origin, (it is associated with the early civilisations of the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Indus and Huang He), nowadays, earth is not usually regarded as a major building material. This is despite the fact that it continues to leave an undeniable and distinctive imprint on the architectural landscapes, both rural and urban, of many countries. Unbaked earth is still, in fact, a major building material, being used extensively by people to erect homes and other buildings. Although sites of human occupation have seen constant regeneration with the passage of time, unbaked earth construction has persisted. Excavated from the soil itself, and moulded by the hand of man (or trampled by beasts of burden), the result is a building material which is used in all forms of construction-from simple huts and modest homes, to farm buildings, large houses, urban blocks, religious edifices, castles and palaces. The skills employed are based on knowledge acquired and refined over a long period of time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A contemporary building material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the use of earth in so called 'advanced' countries has declined in the 40 years since the end of the Second World War, in the developing countries it has continued unabated. In the former, the industrialisation of construction and other sweeping changes have rendered obsolete ancient techniques based on the use of local skills and materials, and on mutual help within communities. In the latter, various factors have dictated the continuing use of locally available solutions, materials and knowledge. These include shortages of processed materials (which are costly in both foreign currency and imported energy terms), the widening of the development 'gap', the accumulation of debt contracted within the international monetary system and the survival of local life-styles in which people are accustomed to coming to get her for mutual help for survival. In these countries, which have no industrial means, and which are to be found in various latitudes across the world, earth remains the main-if not the only- building material. Do these circumstances mean that it is a poor material, fashioned using outmoded techniques and unsuitable for promoting the development which is so necessary? The answer to this question is a clear 'no'. On the contrary, the materials and techniques involved are generally of a high standard. They can ensure true architectural quality, allowing communities to continue creating their private or public living environments, and to integrate their buildings into a coherent framework of self-generated development which makes the most of the resources available, both human and material. In fact, scientific and architectural research into earth as a building material, and on related building techniques, has made considerable progress in recent decades. Combined with investments made by industrialists and construction companies, the result is that we now have a wide range of properly mastered production procedures and technical solutions available. These offer great flexibility in meeting a wide range of possible applications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Making a mark on world architecture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recent global surveys, although partial (covering about 30% of the world's housing), have given us an indication of how extensively earth is used in construction. In developing countries alone, 50% of the rural population and 20% of those living in urban areas are believed to be concerned. The figures, which are drawn from the combined data of statistical surveys in various areas, and from bibliographical information, almost certainly underestimate the true position. They show, for example, that 60% of the housing in Peru is in moulded bricks or rammed earth. 83% of the houses in Kigali, the capital of Rwanda, are made of earth. More than 70%of India's housing stock is constructed out of moulded earth bricks or using successive layers of earth, and these buildings provide shelter for nearly six hundred million people. In France, many rural dwellings are built from unbaked earth and one finds, for instance, that in the Dauphine region, up to 90% of the buildings in certain villages are made out of rammed 'pise' earth. Finally, in California, there were estimated to be almost 200 000 'adobe' (sun-dried earth brick) dwellings by 1980 and the use of this material was growing at the rate of 30% a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Closer examination reveals that the whole world bears the indelible stamp of earthen architecture. Earth is used in Africa-in humble shelters built on leased land and in the great granaries of the continent. It is found in the palaces of the Hausa emirs of Nigeria, the ksours and kasbahs of Morocco and the mosques of Mali. In the Middle East, you come auoss it in the tightly-packed neighbourhoods of Ispahan and Iran, the fortified dwellings of Najran in Saudi Arabia, the multi-storey earth blocks of Shibam and the valley of the Hadramaut in Yemen. In Europe, there are the mouded brick farms of Aquitaine and the baroque and neo-classical castles of the Saone valley. And bringing in other parts of the world, we might mention the pueblos of the New Mexico Indians, and the houses built by the Hakkas in the Chinese province of Fujian, laid out in their characteristic concentric circles. The use of unbaked earth in building may be seen as a vestige of past history, but it is actually a living framework for history in the making.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Realistic uses for the future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Confronted with the energy crisis of the 1970s, oil-dependent industrialised countries were forced to look again at tried and tested technical solutions which were now proving to be too 'energy-greedy'. The building sector did not escape this reappraisal and the search began for ways of reducing energy consumption both at source (covering the production and use of building materials) and further down the production chain (maintenance). Research on biomass and solar energy ran in parallel with experiments to update traditional materials and to attempt to rationalise the production process. Earth again became a focus of interest, with government institutions supporting a considerable amount of new research and experimentation. This covered applications in both the industrialised world and in developing countries, research for the latter being undertaken in the context of bilateral or multilateral cooperation. With the threat to the ecological balance posed by pollution, degradation and the plundering of natural areas, this interest in developing materials and techniques that are inherently friendly to the environment has not lessened. In many places, people are becoming increasingly involved in controlling and managing their living environment. The field has been opened up by qualitative research, a new awareness of the available options and an increase in leisure time. With techniques now at hand that are easy to use and economical, a greater measure of (partial or complete) selfhelp building is now possible. The USA, Australia and Germany all encourage new forms of intervention in building which give greater responsibility to the occupier in the creation of his living environment. Viewed from this perspective, earth as a building material has definite advantages and plays an important role.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In developing countries, burdened by debt and confronted by an urgent need to build on a scale unprecedented in history, imported materials, techniques and energy are largely inaccessible to the majority of people, and their use may contribute to promoting 'bad' development. Building with earth emerges as an efficient shortterm way of producing houses or public buildings such as schools, which are both economical and of high quality (being culturally and climatically suitable). Decision-makers in these countries are well aware of this and have mobilised 'upstream' feasibility studies in their education and public housing programmes. The research covers local resources and knowledge, and the use of labour intensive techniques that generate employment and enable the population gradually to become 'monetarised'. The days of costly experimentation, often with no practical result, are now over. A new confidence in the resources that are available must be encouraged. There needs to be an increase in building completions and those who built them need more training. Today, this is happening in Mexico (850 earthen houses recently built in the state of Zacatecas) and in Burkina Faso (6000 school classrooms constructed by 1995.) No fewer than forty million homes will have to be built between now and the year 2000 for the urban population of Africa alone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies show that for most of the people involved, there is no choice but to employ local materials, most often earth. One can thus predict that at least 20% of urban and pert-urban housing in African countries (about eight million units), will be built in earth over the next ten years, at a rate of eight hundred thousand units per year. If demand from rural areas is added to this, one gets some idea of the scale of the task facing decision-makers and builders. The use of earth and other locally available materials is unavoidable, and should be encouraged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environmental advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is particularly important to enumerate the many advantages of building in unbaked earth from the point of view of the environment. This issue, one of the contemporary problems facing society, is increasingly moving centre-stage, and in the future, it is sure to play a greater part in political, economic, social and cultural strategies linked to the planning and improvement of the quality of life. Here we refer to the concept of the environment in the widest sense of the word, ecological, economic, technical, health-wise and psychological, cultural and human.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the ecological environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In terms of pollution and degradation, unbaked earth offers a highly positive picture:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not contribute to the deforestation which results, for example, from the use of organic resources for firing baked earth materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not consume any nonrenewable energy (oil, gas, etc.) at source for the processing and production of materials, or further down the production line in their application. This is in sharp contrast to the production of cement, lime and other conventional binding materials, and steel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- By exploiting strata on construction sites, it allows a considerable saving in energy for the transport of materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not contribute to a degradation of the landscape as does the extraction of minerals and ores which hollows out hillsides and creates open cast sites. A great deal of the earth excavated in the course of large public works (notably roads and motorways) can be recycled and used in building (allowing very easy decentralised distribution).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not contribute to the diminution of resources of aggregates such as gravel and sand, excavated either from quarries or from water courses, in insular sites or lagoons. The latter can endanger the ecological balance of these natural environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It uses very little water which is essential for the life of the people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It produces no industrial or chemical waste and has the additional advantage of being almost entirely recyclable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the economic environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It is often comparable in cost with, or indeed more economic than competing technologies and requires no major financial mobilisation for its generally light production infrastructure. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It guarantees rapid amortisement thresholds for bankable investments thanks to its low infrastructure requirements for usable production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It contribution to local flexibility, being readily susceptible to a decentralised approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Throughout the production process, it creates employment and monetary added-value which can be injected for development purposes into other sectors of the economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- By allowing savings in energy and foreign currency, it contributes at the macro and micro economic levels of the building sector, to a considerable reduction in developing countries' debt and to the balance of payments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the technical environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It has thermophysical and hydric properties (good conductivity, energy retention capacity, thermal differential, delayed temperature differences etc.) which help ensure comfortable temperatures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It normally only requires simple production and application tools (moulds, presses, light shuttering, normal masonry tools, etc.) which are widely accessible to masons and self-help builders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of health and the psychological environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Not only non-polluting in its use, it also guarantees the absence of harmful effects in the context of daily life (no gaseous emissions or other toxic chemical components, radioactive emissions etc.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It contributes to psychological wellbeing by the architectural exploitation of its inherent characteristics; these include the surface texture, colour, form and luminosity of the material. It thus makes an active contribution to the beauty of the living environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the cultural and human environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It maintains the traditional architecture heritage of the area in question through the use of local materials and thus plays a part in the respect for, as well as the survival and updating of, cultural, architectural and urban environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It allows local populations to take charge of the production of their built environment and thus contributes to the expression of the democratic rights of all to control their living environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future of earth on the move</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In her work entitled 'A Fate Worse than Debt' (Penguin Books, 1988), the famous political commentator, Susan George, analysed the debt situation of developing countries and attempted to determine the basis for a positive resolution of the problem. Her approach focused in particular on solutions involving repayment in creative values or 'in kind' rather than in strictly monetary means. At the end of her analysis, she put forward eleven potential solutions to allow this repayment in kind and to launch a coherent approach for the development of less advanced societies. One of these recommendations was that it would be necessary to develop 'the study and survey (and if necessary the improvement) of local building techniques, in particular earth architecture ('pise' or 'banco').' Ms George argued that new buildings, particularly public ones, should be constructed using these techniques.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear that various solutions are being considered for the future: one in which building with earth, using a wide range of local techniques, will have a new technological, social, cultural, ecological, economic and political role of paramount importance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Various methods of utilisation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The technical, constructional and architectural possibilities of earth are very extensive. The study of popular traditions and of traditional knowledge throughout the world has enabled some 18 different methods of utilisation of the material to be identified, each in itself capable of being applied in a wide variety of ways. This wide construction potential has enabled the building of modest shelters, village houses, urban blocks, religious edifices and palaces. This is not to say that other traditional materials do not have an important role, but the sheer diversity and flexibility of earthen architecture probably cannot be equalled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As was indicated earlier, the use of earth as a building material has given rise to numerous applications using a wide variety of production and construction techniques. Some of these techniques are still used in traditional construction many countries, some have been abandoned, while others have only recently been the subject of developmental experimentation. It is worth noting that there is a register of the principal techniques, mainly associated with processes using moulds, shuttering and direct shaping. The six most widely used techniques are: 'adobe', 'rammed earth', 'straw clay', 'wattle and daub', 'cob' and 'compressed blocks'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these six, three (wattle and daub, straw clay, and cob), are highly traditional, while the others (adobe, rammed earth and compressed earth blocks) have recently been the subject of spectacular evolution linked to the modernisation of production machinery and methods of application. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p094.png"></center><br>
+ The use of earth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
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+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The couriers mailbag</Metadata>
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+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plea for African solidarity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thank you sincerely for your report on the second plenary of the Global Coalition for Africa which appeared in the March-April 1996 edition. As a 'displaced' Liberian, I would like to comment on some of the issues reported in the article.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First, I hope that Africans recognise and appreciate all that former President Jimmy Carter has done and continues to do for our beloved continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, I support the view of Ms Johnson-Sirleaf and President Afwerki of Eritrea that we, as Africans, must invest in ourselves and in productive endeavours in our own countries. However, given the number of civil wars, that have resulted in displacement of our peoples and migration of the labour force, it is imperative that we also begin to think of and recognise each other as Africans first - and only then as members of whatever ethnic group we belong to. As a Liberian with professional qualifications who relocated to Ghana in 1992, I met with opposition and resentment because of my nationality and sex. I subsequently went to the Caribbean where my acceptance as an African was easier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When there is a population movement, the psychological impact associated with feelings of rejection and intimidation is severe. Sub-Saharan Africa will never develop or reach its fullest potential until we begin to think and act as a united, yet diverse group of people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I agree that it is important to develop our homelands first, but in the case of Liberia, Burundi or Rwanda, where no one seems to understand the concept of peace or the idea of having a future, it is crucial that the displaced be respected and accepted as fellow Africans. It would be even better if we were afforded the opportunity to integrate and assimilate into society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ciata A. Bishop, Grand Cayman.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What about Guinea-Bissau ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I am a student from Guinea-Bissau reading international law and political science at the Social Science University in Toulouse. I have also been a faithful Courier reader for more than seven years. In the March-April issue of 1996, you published an article on fisheries by Anthony Acheampong entitled 'A vital food source in West Africa'. You gave the figures for fish production in 16 West African countries-but did not mention my native country! I should point out that Guinea-Bissau consumes and exports a great deal of fish, and the product is an important source of foreign exchange to the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.J. Alves d'Almada, Toulouse, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Media and democracy in Southern Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I refer to the article with the above title by Francis Caas which appeared in issue no. 154 of The Courier (November-December). I enjoyed reading the text which examined the emergence of a free press due to the advent of political liberalisation in the Southern African region. However, I wish to make a correction as to what I think is a misrepresentation of fact. The author said, and I quote: 'The installation of a democratic regime in 1994 (in Malawi) enabled the MBC to begin broadcasting in all languages spoken in the country'. This is not actually correct although the Malawi Broadcasting Corporation, apart from broadcasting in English and Chechewa, has since introduced Tumbuka on the radio. I felt it was important to put the record straight on this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Disher G.DJ. Pindani Lecturer in Public Administration, Chancellor College, Zomba, Malawi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corrigenda </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In issue no 157, a number of 'author' footnotes were inadvertently omitted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pascal Dotchevi, author of 'Togo: the victory of the taxi. bikes' (p.11) is a journalist on Kpakpa Desenchante, a satirical weekly published in Lom&eacute; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Piritta Sorsa, author of 'Banking and securities' (p.13) works at the IMF office in Geneva.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yves Delafon, author of 'Developing consultancy work in the ACP countries' (p.15) is the director of a consultancy and President of the Federation of External Trade Associations in Provence/ Cote d'Azur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N'Gone Fall, author of 'Fashion; Out of Africa.. the breath of inspiration' (p.53) is a journalist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also in issue 157, some errors appeared in the article entitled 'Sparks fly in Namibia'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the introductory section it was stated that secret harlots were held on resolutions relating to Nigeria, Niger and Sudan. This should have read Nigeria, Niger and Equatorial Guinea; a resolution on Sudan was passed by normal, open vote procedure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the heading 'The future of Lom&eacute;' the ACP Generai Rapporteur vvas refered to as Mr Firmin, which is the forename. The General Rapporteur's surname is Mr Jean-Louis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the fifth paragraph under the same heading, there was a reference to Helena Torres Couto. This should have read Mr Jose Manuel Torres Couto. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
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+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L'Afrique est-elle protectionniste- Les chemins buissonniers de la liberation exterieure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Is Africa protectionist ? Greater economic freedom via the maze)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Beatrice Hibou. Karthala Publications (22-24, boulevard Arago, F-75013 Paris). 1996. 334 pp. ISBN 286537-633-8.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This volume offers a clearsighted analysis of the foreign trade policies of African states, fraud, smuggling and the way in which the franc zone operates, giving a definitive, reformulated account of structural adjustment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In her approach, the author is critical of both the liberal political economy and the new trends (the 'new political economy' end the neoinstitutionalist trends) which perpetuate the division between the economy and society. She refers to K Polanyi for whom Man's social relationships include economics and in whose opinion the economic system is managed as a function of non-economic motives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From this starting point, Beatrice Hibou demonstrates the part played by the unexpected and the unintentional in economic policies as they currently exist, revealing that coherence in foreign-trade policies on the part of African countries is not an economic priority but a socio-political one. In this connection, she shows that structural adjustment programmes have been unsuccessful in making any real impact on protectionist practices, at least in terms of their political and historical bases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After an overview of (legal or illegal) foreign-trade practices in contemporary Africa, protectionism is clearly alive and well, although much less widely applied and effective than about a decade ago. The reduction in the State's legal powers has meant increased freedom for 'informal networks', various types of dispensation, and an increase in fraud and smuggling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the basis of Jean-Francois Bayart's opinion, dating from 1989, the author suggests that the explanation is to be found in the specific nature of Africa's economic history, which is one of independent means, a lack of production and management of dependency without the way in which it operates being affected. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Reality of Aid</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Independent review of international aid. Pub.: J. Randel and T. German. Earthscan Publications Ltd. (120, Pentonville Road, UK London N1 9JN). 1996. 244 pp. ISBN 1 85383 292 8.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Reality of Aid (now an annual publication) compiled by two NGOs; Eurostep and ICVA, aims to highlight the extent to which donor aid helps developing nations, looking beyond the official publications of governments, banks and inter-governmental bodies. It contains a useful critique of the European Union's various aid policies and the respective bilateral policies of each of its 15 member states, as well as those of other Western nations like Australia, New Zealand, Switzerland and the United States. This year's review highlights, in particular, the need to mount more projects to alleviate poverty, despite aid commitments becoming more scarce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It says, for example, 'Too much aid is being squandered by governments on projects which have more to do with commercial and political advantage than poverty eradication. Rigorous evaluation needs to identify those programmes which can make an impact -and aid must increasingly be directed only to these areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International aid to developing nations has fallen off over the years. In 1994, members of the OECD's Development Assistance Committee-21 of the world's richest countries-allowed their aid to fall to just 0.3 % of GNP, the lowest level for more than 20 years. The review stresses the need for donors to address in particular; policy coherence (environment, agriculture and consumption policies are all linked to poverty), the effectiveness of aid, the failure thus far to invest in people and the fact that the amount of assistance going to health and education is stagnating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The review also features analytical case studies of various donor activities in selected developing nations (India, Fiji, Cambodia, Peru, Zimbabwe) and looks at Western assistance to post communist countries in transition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A chapter on the European Union's current development policies, edited by Mirjam van Reisen, a Brussels-based Eurostep researcher, criticises the lack of coherence of EU aid with its Member States bilateral programmes-an issue which is likely to come more to the fore as other European nations join the Union in the next millennium. Ms van Reisen also claims that there are too few staff running the EU's development policies and suggests, in particular, that there is a lack of expertise in the social and poverty areas. She stresses the importance for the EU's political leaders of giving more political clout to the EU's development policies at the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC), which is currently engaged in revising the EU's treaties. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">News round-up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">In brief</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trafficking of women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European Commissioner for immigration policy and legal affairs, Anita Gradin, will set to work with fellow Commissioners over the coming months to draw up a European Union action programme to clamp down on the trafficking of women which she describes as, 'the modern slave trade'. This comes hot on the heels of the Vienna European conference on trafficking of women, held on June 10 and 11, which was co-hosted by the European Commission, the Austrian government and the International Organisation for Migration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ms Gradin told journalists on June 12: 'I will put forward to the Council and the European Parliament a communication on the trafficking in women for sexual exploitation. This will cover migration policy, police and judicial cooperation, and social aspects to support and protect the victims. It will also consider European relations with the source countries, where the women are recruited.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Vienna conference highlighted the need for cooperation between Member States and third countrie from which women are lured into prostitution in Western Europe. Recommendations, which are expected to be part of the EU policy, include setting up central national units in each Member State to exchange information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commissioner told the participants in Vienna: 'The slave trade in women is growing, a slave-trade that aims at sexual exploitation. No part of the world seems to be free from this degrading treatment of women. Women are bought and sold like cattle or commodities. They are deprived of their rights and their dignity. And the direction of the trade is the same all over-it is women from poor conditions that are forced into a deplorable life by men in richer countries.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">She cited a typical case of one woman from the Dominican Republic from the book 'Stolen Lives' by Sietske Altinks: 'One day I went to visit a friend who was going to discuss job opportunities in Europe. I went with her and met a schoolteacher who knew somebody called Juan who could get me a job in the Netherlands. When I went to see him, his associates told me that I would easily find employment in a beauty parlour.' She ended up in prostitution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ms Gradin continued: 'The consequences for the women are dreadful. Often, they find themselves deprived of their freedom to move and decide for themselves; they are often locked up and subjected to violence and sexual exploitation. And should they be able to free themselves, they are regarded as illegal residents and expelled.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Aid for development in the field of communication</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A seminar was held under the auspices of the United Nations in the Belgian Parliament on 6 and 7 June, on 'the future of international development cooperation: new challenges for communication'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union was represented at the event, among others, by Colette Flesch and Steffen Smidt, the directors general respectively of DG X and DG VlII of the Commission. Mrs Flesch gave a presentation at the opening session in which she highlighted the various communication approaches adopted by the European Community in its efforts to counter what appears to be a growing lack of interest in development aid on the continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Smidt, who spoke in the second session of the seminar, began his presentation with an anecdote, citing a text displayed at the entrance to a Federal building in Washington. This states: 'Taxes are what we pay to have a civilised society'. Paraphrasing this sentiment, the Director-General argued that, 'development assistance is what we pay to have a civilised European Union.' The question, he went on to pose, was whether we were paying enough ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of the participants painted a discouraging picture of the situation facing the world's poorest countries in a world of advanced communications and increasing globalisation. Almost all were pessimistic about the impact of the socalled 'information super highways' on the least-developed nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most striking interventions came from Mabbub Ul Haq, the former Finance Minister of Pakistan, who spoke just after Mr Smidt in the plenary meeting, as well as at one of the discussion workshops. Mr Ul Haq urged the creation of a UN Economic Security Council, arguing that the main risk of global conflagration lies in the disparity that exists between rich and poor, now that the dangers associated with the Cold War have receded. One of the most acute issues under discussion was the growing challenge to the received wisdom that technical assistance is essential for consolidating national capacities. The evidence of 40 years of technical assistance would suggest otherwise (with 95% of funds set aside for this purpose going to foreign experts). Indeed, it was argued that those countries receiving most technical assistance per capita, had 'benefited' least from the system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In his second contribution, Mr Ul Haq painted a somewhat more encouraging picture, pointing out that the shaky 0.3% share of GNP allocated to development aid by the industrialised countries had achieved miracles in terms of increased life expectancy (up by 17 years) and the doubling of school enrolments in the countries of the South.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Round one of the South Africa-EU talks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa gave no immediate response to the European Union's proposals for a bilateral trade agreement at the first round of high level negotiations in Brussels on June 20. The talks were headed by Dr L. T Links who is South Africa's new Ambassador in Brussels and for the KU, by the Director General for Development, Steffen Smidt. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most difficult subject to negotiate will be future terms of access for South Africa's farm produce. The European mandate, which was agreed by EU Member States on March 25, foresees the exclusion of 39% of South Africa's farm produce currently sold to the EU from the planned free trade area. Applying World Trade Organisation (WTO) rules, the EU wants a scaled dismantling of barriers to trade in both farm and manufactured goods over a 10-year period, with a maximum of 12 years for a few highly sensitive items. But the EU has agreed to 'asymmetry' whereby, in some areas, it will open up its market to South Africa at a faster pace than vice versa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abdul Minty, deputy Director General at the Foreign Affairs Department in Pretoria, who is one of ,the chief negotiators, explained that South Africa had not yet responded to the terms because it is still consulting internally with the National Economic Development and Labour Council and with its partners of the Southern African Customs Union (Botswana, Swaziland, Namibia and Lesotho). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During a recent visit to Brussels, South Africa's former agriculture minister, Dr Kraai van Niekerk and his deputy, Mrs Thoko Didiza, told reporters that as it stood, the EU's mandate was 'anti-developmental'. Dr van Niekerk said he would like to see citrus fruit, in particular, removed from the list of exclusions. He also sought to dispel the fears of some EU Member States who wish to omit a larger proportion of South Africa's farm produce from the FTA, for fear of competition with equivalent EU produce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr van Niekerk stressed the 'complementary' nature of South Africa's farm production. He pointed out that his country's growing season was at the opposite time of year to that of the EU and noted that South Africa's output of farm produce could only increase by about 2%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EU spokesman, Joao Vale de Almeida, said that progress had been made during the Brussels talks on aspects of South Africa's 'tome protocol'. This is aimed at giving South Africa certain benefits from the Lom&eacute; Convention- some eligibility for South African companies to tender for Lom&eacute; contracts and the partial extension of the Lom&eacute; rules of origin to South African exports. It was originally planned that the Lom&eacute; protocol should be implemented at the same time as a bilateral trade accord, (on January 1 1997). Mr Vale de Almeida spelt out that although it would not be technically and legally impossible for the Lom&eacute; protocol to come on stream without the bilateral pact, it would be more practical if the two could be implemented at the same time. A second round of talks is expected to take place in the autumn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Echo Media Awards</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 29 June, the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO) launched a Television and Radio awards scheme to reward high-quality coverage of humanitarian affairs. Prizes will go to programmes produced or co-produced by independent production companies and/or broadcasting stations in the 15 EU countries which have been transmitted in a Member State on terrestrial or satellite television or radio between January 1 1995 and September 1 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Judging by a panel made up of NGOs, environmentalists, politicians and the media will be in six categories:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People on the move-a television documentary on the humanitarian consequences of sudden or forced population movements; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the minds of the people-a TV documentary on the psychological trauma in crisis situations; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forgotten conflicts-TV coverage of a long-running crisis forgotten by the mainstream; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vulnerable groups-TV coverage of the hazards encountered by women, children and the elderly in rebuilding their lives; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Broadcast commitment-to a radio or TV station for consistent, high-quality coverage of humanitarian issues; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio award-for the most incisive and analytical coverage of an emergency or humanitarian crisis. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Announcing the scheme, EC Commissioner, Emma Bonino, said: 'These awards give us an opportunity to acknowledge the vital role that broadcasters play in raising awareness of the issues at stake in imaginative, accurate and moving ways. They also serve to remind us of some of the basic European values such as solidarity and humanitarianism that have sometimes been eclipsed by barrages of headlines about mad cows and fish wars.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entries for this inaugural year must be submitted by September 19, 1996. Details can be obtained from: Mandy Duncan-Smith, Media Natura (UK), tel: (44 171) 240 4936 fax: (44171) 240 2291 E-mail: medianatura@gn.apc.org</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Posters featuring contemporary Bantu art</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the framework of its cooperation programme with the Commission, CICIBA (Centre international des civilisations bantu-B.P. 770-Libreville- Gabon) has recently launched a series of large format reproductions featuring contemporary Bantu art. Thirteen works have been chosen, displaying a representative selection of art forms-painting, sculpture, engraving and moulded leather. The posters, more than 5000 of which have been printed in quadrichromic colour, have a 40 x 60 format. They are also available as postcards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The artists featured are Marcela Costa (Angola), Assouambo (Cameroon), Daikou (Central African Republic), Mouanga Nkodia (Congo), Abdou Moeou (Comoros), Pambou Boulaz (Gabon), Jose Menan (Equatorial Guinea), Protais Hakizimfura (Rwanda), Protasio Pina (Sao Tome &amp; Principe), Silu Kinanga and Munyenz Tshibangu (Zaire) and Mulenga Chafilwa (Zambia).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CICIBA has also put together a similar series on ancient Bantu art. The fourth bi-annual exhibition of contemporary Bantu art, which has received some support from the European Commission, was due to be staged in Luanda (Angola) during July and August.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Links between technology and society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For more than 50 years, technological innovation has been regarded by many writers in the field as the motor of economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, with rapid developments in the media sector and the emergence of 'information super-highways', the whole world is talking about the emergence of a new society dominated by 'smart' technology linked with research and creativity. This trend gives rise to many questions. Will the information be made available to all, and if so, when ? Will it lead to a change in North-South relations? Can we imagine what a world of 'tale-working', 'tale-education' and video on demand will be like ? What will the cost of all this be? Will biotechnology rescue the world or be the cause of its downfall ? What will the consequences be for the environment ? And in a globalised world, what standards and norms will be used ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In short, what is the real nature of the relationship between technology and society; between science and humankind ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fifteen universities of the EEA (European Economic Area) from Oslo to the Basque country and from London to Athens (taking in Roskilde, Maastricht, Louvainla-Neuve, Namur, Strasbourg, Lausanne, Sienna, Bari, Madrid, Valencia and Lisbon), have come together to offer a multidisciplinary course focusing on these key questions. During the first term, classes in theory and seminars are offered (in the local language of the institution) by experts from the academic world and the public and private sectors. Visits are also planned to multinational companies and laboratories. For the second half of the course, the students gain a wider European dimension by 'changing' university (with grants from the Socrates programme). The bulk of their time at this stage will be spent preparing a research dissertation in English on a topic which fits in with the specialisation of the host institution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For further information on the ESST</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">programme, contact:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. E Lints (UCL-Belgium)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. (32) 01047.82.60</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. T. Nguyen (FUNDP-Belgium)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. (32) 081-72.49.09</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The institutions at work</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Common foreign and security policy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), the European Union has recently issued a number of statements, details of which are set out below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antipersonnel mines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 13 May 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the closure of the Review Conference of the States Parties to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, the European Union recalls that it has, in recent years, redoubled its efforts to combat the severe consequences caused to civilians by the indiscriminate use of land mines, in particular anti-personnel mines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The KU, which adopted joint action in May 1995 in order to reconfirm its commitment to the objective of an overall strengthening of Protocol 11 of the CCW, considers that the achievements of the Review Conference (such as the extension of the scope of Protocol II; the strengthening of restrictions on the use of mines; the new and immediate prohibitions regarding transfers; the provisions on technological cooperation and assistance; the regular review mechanism, etc), taken together, are significant steps forward, both in terms of the land mines protocol itself and of the development of international humanitarian law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The KU, however, underlines that the resuits of the Review Conference fall short of its expectations and of some of the goals set out in its joint action. In particular, the EU should have liked an effective and binding verification mechanism and no periods of deferral of compliance, or at least much shorter ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is convinced that the conclusion of this Review Conference is only the beginning of a challenging process which requires constant and widespread efforts and persistence in order to fully achieve its basic humanitarian objectives. The EU will continue to seek solutions to the problems caused by antipersonnel land mines and will strive towards the goal of their eventual elimination as stated in UN Resolution 50/70 (O). In the meantime, the Member States of the EU will seek early ratification of the amended Protocol II, as well as of the new Protocol IV on blinding laser weapons, and will take urgent steps to ensure their compliance with all the provisions of these two protocols pending their entry into force.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU will also continue to make active efforts with a view to achieving universal adherence to the CCW, since its objectives can only be effectively attained through implementation of its provisions by the widest number of states and parties to conflicts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Furthermore, the EU recalls its determination to pursue its contribution to the international mine clearance efforts. The EU has already contributed to the UN Voluntary Trust Fund, financing, in particular, projects in Angola and Mozambique as well as in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. In addition, the EU will consider the possibility of conducting specific demining actions and will continue to seek to that effect the contribution of the WEU to the elaboration and implementation of such actions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Central and Eastern European countries associated with the EU (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania and Slovakia) and the associated countries Cyprus and Malta, as well as the EFTA country members of the EEA, Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway, align themselves with this statement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Great Lakes region and the situation in Burundi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 24 June 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU's objectives and priorities with regard to the Great Lakes region are to secure peace, to consolidate the process of national reconciliation in the countries concerned, to facilitate a return to normal democratic life, in particular by restoring the rule of law, and to encourage economic and social recovery.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aware as it is of the close links between the various political, economic and humanitarian problems in the region and of the serious risk of destabilisation which remains, the EU would emphasise the need for a comprehensive approach and a regional dimension in the search for lasting solutions to the crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It considers that the presence of over a million and a half refugees in the region constitutes a major factor of destabilisation and that their return to their countries of origin in safety and with dignity is essential if peace is to be restored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It appeals to the Heads of State who signed the Cairo and Tunis Declarations to comply with the undertakings they gave, so as in particular to stop trafficking in arms and the training of the various militia and armed groups which serve only to increase insecurity in the region. It would point to United Nations Resolution 1053 in this regard and also the measures in the plan of action adopted by the Bujumbura Conference (12 to 17 February 1995) for the prevention of subversive activities in countries of asylum. The EU also emphasises the importance of deploying United Nations observers in airports and at frontiers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is increasingly concerned at the deteriorating political and human rights situation in Burundi and at the increase in violence. The persistent clashes, spreading over different parts of the country, and the killings and atrocities committed against the civilian population could well involve Burundi in a spiral of permanent conflict.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU strongly condemns all recourse to violence, which will never bring about a solution to the country's problems, and appeals to all the factions in the country to begin negotiating a resolution of their differences and to agree on an immediate, general cessation of violence. It supports the initiatives taken by the United Nations and the Organisation of African Unity to restore peace, as well as former President Nyerere's current efforts in this area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It fervently hopes that the talks taking place will result in a national dialogue open to all factions within the country. It also expresses its support for the ongoing efforts made by various bodies and eminent figures such as former Presidents Carter and Toure, and Archbishop Tutu.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU would point out that it too has taken initiatives aimed at resolving the crisis and recently appointed a special envoy for the Great Lakes region, Mr Aldo Ajello, to assist the current efforts of the United Nations, the Organisation of African Unity and other bodies and individuals, and specifically to lend support to the organisation of a regional conference under the joint aegis of the UN and the OAU to examine and resolve the deep-rooted causes of the crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU remains convinced that such a conference must be convened as soon as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reiterates that it is prepared to assist with specific measures to promote peace and reconciliation in Burundi, in particular the organisation of a national dialogue, support for action to promote human rights and the restoring of the rule of law. It is furthermore willing to continue funding the presence of OAU observers and United Nations human rights observers in the country. It is also prepared to help with the economic and social recovery of Burundi as soon as political and security conditions allow rehabilitation programmes to be set up in the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: progressive restoration of aid</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 28 June 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union takes note of the fact that the regime in Niger has announced the results of the country's constitutional referendum and has lifted the state of emergency and the ban on political parties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU takes the view that Niger has thus met the conditions set out by the Council on 13 May 1996 for the progressive restoration of cooperation. In the first instance, this will take the form of: -support for the electoral process; -aid for structural adjustment which, at present, needs to be focused exclusively on the most pressing needs in the social sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Council will continue to follow closely the situation in Niger, in particular as regards the preparation and conduct of the presidential and legislative elections.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arusha summit on Burundi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 5 July 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recalling its declaration of 25 June 1996, the European Union congratulates President Mkapa on the organisation of the Arusha regional summit, which has produced constructive proposals on the conflict in Burundi. It expresses appreciation for the untiring efforts of former President Nyerere and reiterates its support for his peace initiative.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU encourages the region's Heads of State and the Organisation of African Unity to commit themselves resolutely to supporting and giving substance to the Arusha recommendations and to contribute to the restoration of security in Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU expects the President and the Prime Minister of Burundi to fulfil the undertakings they gave at the Summit to overcome the crisis in Burundi and, with the help of the countries of the region, to put an end to the violence which is destroying the people of Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU calls on all the political forces of Burundi to seek a political solution and to give a favourable reception to regional initiatives to restore peace to their country. It calls the attention of all the parties to the conflict in Burundi to the fact that it condemns all forms of violence and that it will not recognise a government that has taken power by force of arms. Only peace, a peace consolidated at regional level, can guarantee the security of all and lay the foundations for economic and social development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is prepared to support the realisation of the Arusha objectives with a view to restoring peace and security in Burundi. It reiterates its readiness to help Burundi in its economic and social recovery when political and security conditions make it possible to begin its rehabilitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reiterates the need to convene the Conference on Peace, Security and Stability in the Great Lakes Region under the joint aegis of the United Nations and the OAU.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: support for the OAU Resolution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 15 July 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recalling its previous Declarations and Common Position on Burundi and, in particular, the Declarations of 25 June 1996 and 5 July 1996, the European Union warmly welcomes the Resolution on Burundi adopted by the Organisation of African Unity's Assembly of Heads of State and Government in Yaounde on 8 -10 July 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Union particularly welcomes the reaffirmation by the OAU of its support for the Mwanza Peace Talks under the facilitation of former President Nyerere and its encouragement to him to continue with his efforts based on and incorporating the principles of sustainable democracy and security for all the people of Burundi and an all-inclusive negotiation process. The Union reiterates its appreciation of the untiring efforts of former President Nyerere and its support for his peace initiative in this context.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The declaration in the Resolution of the OAU's full support for the outcome of the Arusha Summit of 25 June 1996, especially the acceptance of the request by the Government of Burundi for security assistance in order to complement and reinforce the Mwanza peace talks, as well as creating conducive security conditions for all parties to freely participate in the Mwanza process is also welcomed by the Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reaffirms its willingness to support the realisation of the Arusha objectives with a view to restoring peace and security in Burundi. It remains ready to help Burundi in its economic and social recovery when political and security conditions make it possible to begin its rehabilitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Visits</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The President of Haiti</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The President of the Republic of Haiti, Rene Preval, visited the Commission on 11 June. He met with President Jacques Santer, Commissioner Joao de Deus Pinheiro (responsible for relations with the ACP States) and Commissioner Emma Bonino (responsible for humanitarian aid).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President Preval thanked the European Union for all the support it had provided both for the restoration of democracy in Haiti and for the country's economic development. He spoke in particular of the discussions that are currently under way with the Bretton Woods institutions aimed at restoring Haiti's economy. The President indicated that an economic recovery programme would need balance of payments support to the tune of $119m during 1996, as well as assistance for a range of economic sectors amounting to a billion dollars over a three-year period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For his part, Professor Pinheiro expressed satisfaction at being able to welcome the President at a time when the democratic process in Haiti was functioning normally and institutional consolidation was taking place. In a statement to the press, he said it was an appropriate moment 'to evaluate our cooperation and to strengthen it in a way that will contribute to economic and social development' in Haiti. He added that it was essential for the Haitian people to recognise that democracy was worthwhile. Professor Pinheiro also welcomed the normalisation of relations between Haiti and its neighbour, the Dominican Republic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The President of the Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The newly-elected President of the Dominican Republic, Leonel Fernandez Reyna, had a working session at the Commission on 15 and 16 July.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This trip to Brussels was the President's first overseas visit in his new capacity, following his election on 30 June. Indeed, he had not yet formally assumed office at the time of his visit. His inauguration was due to take place on 16 August and the President-elect extended an invitation to the Commission to attend the ceremony. Mr Fernandez Reyna's subsequent itinerary included visits to Spain, France and the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Support for human rights</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently approved the financing of the following projects under the budget line 'Human Rights and Democracy in the Developing Countries):</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea: ECU 120 000 for a project aimed at actively involving members of the National Assembly in the institution's functioning, and in the democratisation process taking place in the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: ECU 72 000 for a human rights training programme in schools in both urban and rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria: ECU 118 000 for a human -rights training programme to be run in educational establishments and through itinerant projects in regions lacking education infrastructures. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji: ECU 119 000 for a project to support a non-partisan, multi-ethnic civic forum, aimed at contributing to the achievement of a consensus among various social groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal: ECU 59 112 to safeguard texts which are essential to the preservation of Tibetan culture. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal: ECU 30196 for the archiving of slides and photographs depicting art objects in order to preserve the culture and traditional techniques of Tibet. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines: ECU 61 750 for a mission to identify the areas in which strategies for human rights and democracy could lead to positive and lasting changes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sri Lanka: ECU 84 314 for a programme of information in the field of promoting equal opportunities and non-discrimination </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Aid for rehabilitation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently decided to finance the following projects in developing countries affected by serious civil disturbances or natural disasters:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: ECU 847 000 for an integrated programme covering the rehabilitation of agriculture and basic infrastructures, training in demining, hygiene and self sustaining development in Kipungo. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: ECU 185 000 for the rehabilitation of basic infrastructures (water, health, education and housing) In the province of Luanda. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea: ECU 353 947 to support the rehabilitation and development of basic </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">health care services in the south-west of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea: ECU 575 197 for the rehabilitation of water supplies and community development in the town of Hagaz. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 515.685 for the rehabilitation of primary care and water supplies in the Warder area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 455 630 to help the rehabilitation of repatriated people and displaced persons in the Borena area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 308 475 for the rehabilitation of health care and water supplies in the Hararghe area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 848 000 for a programme of support to upgrade medical infrastructures. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 590 000 to consolidate the water sector and rehabilitate livestock infrastructures in Maputo and Gaza provinces. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 500 000 for the second phase of a programme to help reestablish and reintegrate displaced people in Milange. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 241 259 for a project designed to revitalise livestock producer groups, make available essential veterinary products and support cattle production in the landward prefecture of Kigali. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 411 751 to provide professional training in primary health care. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 805 475 for an environment rehabilitation project in the prefecture of Kibungo. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 437 622 for the rehabilitation of primary schools in the southwest of the country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 94 650 to train laboratory technicians. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 626 439 for the rehabilitation of wells and water points in the Nugal region. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 423 687 for the creation of enterprises involved in making bricks and earth blocks in order to assist in the rehabilitation of rural habitats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 1 491 117 for a tree-planting project around the Virungas National Park as part of a rehabilitation programme directed at Rwanda's immediate neighbours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 213 536 for operational and methodological support for rural development projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 645 120 for technical assistance in the follow-up and evaluation of rehabilitation projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 551980 for a programme to rehabilitate schools and provide support for the education sector. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">European development fund</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following, where required, favourable opinions from the EDF Committee, the Commission has decided to provide grants and special loans from the 5th, 6th and 7th EDFs to finance the following operations (grants unless otherwise stated). Major projects and programmes are highlighted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic and social infrastructure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi: ECU 1.9 million for the rehabilitation and construction of customs facilities. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 11 million for resurfacing and improvements to the runway at Lusaka international Airport. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji ECU 1.8 million for the rebuilding of three bridges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade promotion/ structural adjustment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Member states of SADC (Southern Africa), ECOWAS (West Africa) and ECOCAS (Central Africa): ECU 500 000 for a follow-up pilot project relating to industrial fore in different sectors. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana: ECU 1.9 million for a tourism development programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djibouti: ECU 4.1 million to support the 1996-97 structural adjustment programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Netherlands Antilles/Aruba: ECU 5 million for a tourism promotion programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture/ rural development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madagascar: ECU 1.9 million to support professional organisations in the field of rural credit. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swaziland: ECU 1.4 million to build a bridge at Maphobeni, to facilitate rural development in this area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swaziland: ECU 1.5 million to improve the storage and commercialisation of maize. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benin: ECU 700 000 to enhance the security of blood supplies in the Oueme, Mono and Atlantique departments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education/training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana: ECU 15 million for a training programme directed at SMEs, independent operators and the unemployed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 1.05 million for a programme designed to strengthen training and research capacity in the economic field. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Member states of IGAD (Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, Uganda): ECU 1.9 million for a training programme for the commercialisation of cereals. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lesotho: ECU 1.3 million for a community reforestation programme in the Lesotho Highlands. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Institutional support</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djibouti: ECU 250 000 to provide technical support for the computerisation of the National Bank's accounting system. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: ECU 1.8 million to support the electoral process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 1.7 million for an assistance programme for the National Authorising </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Officer covering the management of funds allocated by the European Community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 1.5 million for the first phase of a tourism development programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cariforum countries-Antigua &amp; Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, Bahamas, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, St Kitts &amp; Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent &amp; the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad &amp; Tobago): ECU 725 000 in technical assistance for the programming unit of the Cariforum General Secretariat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miscellaneous</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All ACPs: ECU 5 million to strengthen fisheries management and biodiversity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 1.5 million for a pilot project in the field of decentralised cooperation. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 12.5 million for a community development programme in the battle against poverty. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 47 million for the second rehabilitation programme. The focus will be on productive activities (livestock, agriculture and fisheries), the social sectors (health, water, sanitation systems and education), the private sector (revenue generation, job creation, SMEs), the public sector (training, establishment of institutions), demobilisation, and the integration of former combatants </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 1.6 million for a programme to combat poverty including, in particular, the provision of credit to micro-enterprises. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 2 million to support the integration of displaced people in Kasai. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">European investment bank</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa: A loan of ECU 56 million for Eskom, the public electricity company, for the modemisation of part of its electricity distribution network.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Humanitarian aid</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: ECU 14 million for a global assistance programme covering food and medical aid, the distribution of equipment and demining operations. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 500 000 for the distribution of essential food products and to meet the special nutritional needs of children in the north of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cote d'lvoire: ECU 340 000 to help combat cholera and yellow fever among refugees from Liberia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 140 000 towards the setting up of a camp for 'boat people' arriving from Liberia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea: ECU 160000 for the distribution of food to refugees from Liberia and Sierra Leone. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Senegal: ECU 250 000 towards the fight against cholera, notably in the town of Touba.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sierra Leone: ECU 4.2 million for food and emergency medical aid (to combat cholera) for people displaced by the civil war. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 1.5 million for a measles vaccination programme and for medical and food aid for victims of the internal conflict. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Sudan: ECU 13 million to finance ECHO flights, and for food, medical aid and the provision of water supplies, for civilian victims of the conflict, notably in Khartoum and its environs and in the refugee camps in the north of Uganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non - ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua: ECU 1.5 million for medicines, essential provisions, drinking water supply equipment and training actions in the area of epidemic prevention. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru: ECU 800 000 for shelters and medical assistance to people in the process of reestablishing their homes having fled from the violence that has occurred over the past ten years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ex-Yugoslavia: ECU 102 million for various emergency operations. The breakdown of this aid, by country, is as follows: Bosnia-Herzegovina-ECU 77.45 million; Croatia-ECU 11.95 million; Serbia-Montenegro-ECU 12,6 million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Russian Federation: ECU 900 000 for street children in St Petersburg and homeless people in Moscow. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afghanistan: ECU 7 million for a coordinated aid programme covering public health measures, the provision of drinking water, hygiene and refuse collection. The aid will be directed both at the people of Kabul and at other provinces of the country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kirghizistan: ECU 3.6 million for the purchase and distribution of food. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tadilkistan: ECU 8.9 million for a food and medical programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangladesh: ECU 300 000 to help victims of the tropical storm that struck in the middle of May. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Food aid</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: 15 000 tonnes of cereals, 2000 tonnes of oils and 3000 tonnes of beans amounting to a total value of ECU 20.075 million. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
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+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/ec159e/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/ec159e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/ec159e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
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+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">The Courier - NÂ°159 - Sept- Oct 1996 Dossier Investing in People Country Reports: Mali ; Western Samoa (ec159e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Society, Culture, Community, Woman, Youth, Population|Social sciences, sociology (works comprising several subgroups) incl. participatory research and training</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Development Periodicals and Magazines|The Courier ACP 1990 - 1996 Africa-Caribbean-Pacific - European Union</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">EC Courier</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/ec160e/ec160e.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/ec160e/ec160e.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/ec160e/ec160e.htm	(revision 21010)
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+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; The Courier - N°160 - Nov - Dec 1996 - Dossier Habitat - Country reports: Fiji , Tonga</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Courier - N°160 - Nov - Dec 1996 - Dossier Habitat - Country reports: Fiji , Tonga</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa - Caribbean - Pacific - European Union </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country reports</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji is home to people of a variety of cultures but it would not be accurate to describe this Pacific island country as a 'melting pot'. Politics here are dominated by the difficult relationship between indigenous Fijians and the descendants of indentured Indian labourers brought in to work the sugar cane fields. We look at how this situation affects the economy -  which everyone acknowledges has considerable potential, and examine the prospects for ethnic rapprochement as the nation begins a 'great debase' on the future shape of its Constitution. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga appears like a haven of tranquility in a turbulent world. A society which respects hierarchies and is strongly attached to 'traditional values', it is also one of the few remaining places with a hereditary ruler who wields substantial power. But outside influences cannot be ignored altogether and nations everywhere are having to adapt to living in the 'global village'. Our report focuses on the possible consequences of this for the 'Friendly Islands' as the new millenium approaches. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dossier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of 'habitat' conjures up different things to different people - from the right to a roof over one's head to the way in which we manage the flora and fauna of the planet. In our dossier, we consider the legacy of the United Nations 'Habitat' Conference held in Istanbul earlier this year. We also highlight some of the initiatives being taken to improve the quality of people's living environment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgements</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier: Africa  - Caribbean - Pacific - European union</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Address: Postal address (mail only) 'The ACP-EU Courier' Commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 Brussels Belgium </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier office address (visitors) First floor Astrid Building 1, rue de Geneve Evere- Brussels Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publisher Steffen Smidt commission of the European communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 - Brussels (Belgium) Tel. 00-32-2-299 1111 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Publications</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assistant editors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeanne Remacle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associate assistant editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalist:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Production Manager:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dorothy Morrissey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secretariat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carmela Peters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: 299-30-02</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Margriet Mahy-van der Werf (299-30-1 2)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Meeting point</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Jacques Bugnicourt, Executive Secretary of Enda Tiers Monde</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main development battle must be fought in the towns and cities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Founded in 1972, Enda Tiers Monde ('Enda' stands for 'environment and development') is one of the few large international NGOs to be based in a developing country. It has a presence in a number of states in Africa, Latin America and Asia and has been concentrating its efforts on towns and cities, in the belief that this is where deprived populations can be best assisted. Jacques Bugnicourt, who is Enda's Executive Secretary, has some strong views about what needs to be done to tackle the problem of urban deprivation. When we interviewed him at the Enda headquarters in Dakar, Senegal, we began by asking him about the history of the organisation that he heads.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - When we launched Enda, I am not sure that we had any particular goal in mind. You would have to go back to the end of the 1950s, with the war in Indochina, the approaching conflict in Algeria, the independence of countries in Africa and the last-ditch struggles of the colonial powers, notably France. It was in Paris that links were forged between activists from many Third-World countries - in particular, we all took part in the street demonstrations mounted by people from the French colonies. There were some very strong groupings like the Federation of Students from Black Africa, and its equivalents set up by students from the Maghreb, Latin America and Asia. Ten years later, in the 1970s, we could see that the independence experiment was turning sour and the hopes we vested in the actions of determined and brilliant people had come to nothing. The United Nations was becoming increasingly bureaucratic. Some of our friends and colleagues who had government posts had their hands tied, while others were in prison and were equally powerless. In addition, the communists were disappointed at not being able to apply their doctrine to local conditions. Some did, in fact, manage to achieve small-scale results locally when working at the grass-roots, but by and large, their efforts were not successful. I came to Dakar, where I taught in a United Nations institute.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A lot of people had theories. But you cannot take up the battle for the poor without the poor themselves, or for those under the yoke of colonial rule without the participation of the subjugated population. To begin with, you have to appreciate the diversity of the various peoples in developing countries, and be aware of their daily life and struggle. Cesaire wrote that you had to ask questions about the soil, about cities, about men and about the sun. Later, once you have done this, you can act.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We need to dismantle the barriers. There can be no agronomy without economics, and no economics without sociology. If you are talking about jobs in Senegal, you also must talk about jobs in Mali and Guinea - treat Africa as a whole. Another thing is that you have to stand up for yourself and not allow yourself to be manipulated by people from the developed countries. One of the major problems we have noticed is that part of Africa's elite is out of touch with the general population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are the underlying reasons for the foundation of Enda. Nowadays, it is a non-profit-making international organisation working with various communities - an 'INGO', if you like, with the 'I' standing for 'international'. We have bases almost everywhere in the Third World, from Ho Chi Minh City to La Paz.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is each section of Enda independent, then ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. We took the view that there was a danger of becoming too centralised and acting like a small-scale UNICEF or UNESCO, so we decided to guard our independence very carefully. We opted for the widest-ranging autonomy possible. This has its drawbacks of course, but these are far outweighed by the advantages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mention drawbacks. Would it be true to say that the original enthusiasm which greeted the creation of Enda has fallen off somewhat ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's something we are always concerned about. It is not structures which maintain cohesion, but the sharing of goals and the channelling of our actions towards the common good.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the various sections get together, we find that we have a great many things in common. But there is no good reason why those of us in Dakar should try to influence the way people work in working-class districts in Santo Domingo, for example, where they are trying to tackle problems like AIDS and unemployment. We simply tell them what we are doing here and vice versa. If you want to serve the people, you have to have a decentralised set-up. It would be wrong to deal with a problem centrally, and to do so would be against our instincts. Most of us have no particular liking for institutions. An institution must be of service in the battle, not the other way round.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How do you guarantee cohesion in practice ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It costs a great deal to travel of course, but we do have a lot of joint programmes. For example, the cities programme includes people from Bogota, Santo Domingo, Rabat, Dakar, Ho Chi Minh City and Bombay, all working together. They meet from time to time and, when they do, it is to get down to practical work. Together, their work is, say, three-quarters practical and one quarter reflective. Nevertheless, there is ongoing tension, particularly in the relationship between overall policy and local demands. Another conflict arises between grass-roots action and reflection.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The impression one gets is that you yourself are the 'cement' between the various groups which make up Enda. Could this not be seen as a weakness which may make things difficult in the future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's what other people say, not what I think. I try to make my presence useful and those who come after me will do the same. What really holds us together is our belief in what we are doing. It is not a question of adhering to some kind of 'monolithic' faith. We simply believe that we can be of use, recognising that there are many limitations. Let me give you a practical example. If someone involved in recycling in Bogota were to meet up with someone from a poor district in Dakar who works at the rubbish tip, they would have a great deal in common and would find it useful to compare their problems and consider practical ways of solving them together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are your most important activities in Senegal ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - By far the most important is the one covering the city of Dakar. As well as being a focus for the country itself, Dakar is a metropolitan centre for the entire sub-region, with influence over Bamako, Conakry, Bissau and perhaps even Praia in Cape Verde and Nouakchott in Mauritania. What happens here has repercussions in all those cities. I do not want to sound too dramatic, but the decisive factor in our destiny will be the fate of young people and the poor in the major cities. Two-thirds of these people are facing chronic problems. Those under twenty make up more than half the population and their lives are continuing to spiral down into poverty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enda should obviously be operating in those areas where it can be of most use. And in the context of towns and cities, we have completely reviewed our strategy. For some years we gave priority to the countryside. For a long time, in fact, we believed that rural development would permit a much improved urbanisation process. There was even the view that people in developed countries would not object to paying a little more for agricultural produce, because they could be certain that the money was going to those who actually grew the cotton, groundnuts, cocoa or whatever.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the last fifteen years or so, though, we have come round to the view that our actions must be directed principally at towns and cities. We found initially that there were some interesting projects involving small groups - working to improve the position of children or banding together in cooperative savings ventures. It was good, long-term work which gave results. But that is all out of date now. We have to speak in terms of much larger numbers  -  tens of thousands and not tens or hundreds. Otherwise, there is no chance of making a real difference. That is why we have considerably altered our strategy. Three years ago, approximately two thousand children were able to go to holiday camps. Most of these holidays were paid for by companies, but fewer than 10% of the beneficiaries were genuinely poor. Last year, no fewer than 10 000 children were sent away on five days' holiday -  to the coast near Dakar. Enda was involved in this programme working with 200 local cultural and sports associations. The idea was to give the children the chance to splash about in the sea, but also to use African resources to help them become full citizens and learn that our diversity is the source of our wealth. There are at least 100 000 children living in misery and many of them could end up joining the ranks of the street children. If you can give these youngsters five days holiday plus a bit of follow-up, you allow friendships to be built. It offers a brief escape from everyday reality. It may not be paradise, but it is something tangible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another example is the tontines that have been formed into a federation. We currently have nineteen thousand women participating in these and if you bear the large family sizes in mind - there are perhaps ten people in every family - that represents a lot of people. The women pay into the tontines and the money is used, not just for the security of their immediate family, but also to help young people set themselves up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then there is rubbish collection. Enda runs its own scheme but there are also a number of groups that have turned rubbish collection into a profession. The young people collect the rubbish and recycle it. There are about 50 000 people in the biggest district where we are involved in rubbish collection. There are also some young people in that district who are engaged in water recycling and although it only involves supplying about a hundred people at the moment, I believe this scheme will grow. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We also organise schools and are currently involved in making films for schools on the subjects of the environment, hygiene and solidarity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Enda has just opened an 'eco-centre'. If I understand it correctly, this is a showcase to promote a horizontal link between Enda's various activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That is right. We want it to be a place of passage, meeting, exhibition, permeation and redistribution. We hope people will feel comfortable there, and that it will be a tool symbolising a new way of working. So the centre offers an experience, but we also want it to be used to promote activity. A variety of events have been organised there simultaneously - recently for example, a meeting of shoe-shiners, a gathering of teachers from a long-standing educational centre, an exhibition for the Biennial Festival of Contemporary African Art, and a local-community meeting about setting up a small production facility. Two days earlier, there was a preliminary holiday-camp meeting where the instructors got together to look at the best available teaching methods designed to make children more aware of the importance of solidarity. We believe that solidarity is essential in tackling problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So the centre has a multitude of uses, all of which contribute to the vitality of the local economy. You have to understand the crucial importance of the local economy. It responds to all the basic needs of the poorest people, who want to live their lives just like the rest of us.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You talk of depending on the local (what some would call the informal) economy to live - or at least survive. But this sector is not viewed with enthusiasm by the international authorities ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Their policy is based on domination and fear: fear of those who accumulate assets. To see these hordes of people in the developing countries frightens them. It's a bit like the horror of the wealthy classes at the end of the nineteenth century when faced with a working class which dared to aspire to wealth. They will give to charity but are not prepared to make a long-term investment. The lack of support for the local economy stems from the fact that foreign aid is geared, first and foremost, towards major projects or emergency aid. Four or five years ago, the UN conducted a survey in 10 towns and cities in West Africa, but the results were not published because they showed that the average rate of growth of the local economy was 7.5%. So, you see, we are far from just muddling along. Great things could be achieved if only there were a change in attitude. It also requires a change of terminology. How can one justify the use of the word 'informal' and, worse still, treat the work of the poorest people and fraudulent activities under the same heading. Fraud may be formal or informal. Knowing African society as I do, I am aware that fraud is statistically more widespread amongst the prosperous and highly respected. So we must not cast stones at the little man selling socks who has no trading licence because he cannot afford one, or at the woman who sets up a stall at a school entrance without complying with the law which requires a recent certificate stating that she does not have tuberculosis. What is the bottom line here ? Must we respect the law or the people who want to live without being thieves, beggars or prostitutes ? It is unacceptable for force to lie with the law and for the majority to be cast into wretchedness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Senegal, there used to be fixed prices for milk. The World Bank protested, declaring that this was a restriction on free competition. Now we have to pay much more and many people can no longer afford to give their children-milk every day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To put it in perspective, Senegal's economy is about the same size as that of the city of Bordeaux. So we must use all the available potential. Highly qualified managers should do their job looking after the high-tech sectors. But, at the same time, we should not be driving out the poor people who are just trying to eke out a living. The informal sector creates services for a very small investment, and people also require services. Economic policy must allow society to walk on two legs, not just one. What that means is that we need a great deal of flexibility, and perhaps a complete review of the law. Contraceptive implants have to be licensed so that there are no more back-street abortions. And it must be possible for girls to attend school even if they do not have a proper birth certificate - why should they be excluded from education for want of a piece of paper. It should be possible to trade with a simple one-day ticket which people should be able to buy in post offices or cinemas. What would be wrong with that? And we should have a moratorium on a number of regulations. We need to wage war on the destitution that we are suffering and that means taking decisive measure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ACP</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Joint Assembly begins discussions on future ACP-EU relations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the agenda was, as usual, heavily laden with a variety of long-standing issues ranging from regional cooperation, fisheries, the cocoa content of chocolate and bananas to the situation in several ACP states (in particular Rwanda and Burundi), the future of ACP-EU relations was at the forefront of discussions at the ACP-EU Joint Assembly, which was held in Luxembourg from 23-26 September 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Opened in the presence of the Grand Duke and Grand Duchess of Luxembourg, the Assembly's general attitude was not one of speculation as to whether or not the European Union would abandon the ACP states when the Lom&eacute; IV Convention expires in the year 2000 - a feeling that was rife shortly after the signing of the revised version in Mauritius in November 1995. Instead, it was one of positive thinking and of exploring the kind of agreement that would succeed it. 'There is no question of the European Union getting out of a relationship which took decades to build', Luxembourg's Prime Minister Jean-Claude Junker, told participants in his welcoming address.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As pessimism gives way to guarded optimism, ACP-EU parliamentarians have taken an important initiative, even before the Commission's Green Paper is published, in what is bound to be a long and passionate debate. A special summit of ACP Heads of State is planned for Gabon later in 1997 to discuss the issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Options for the future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A general report, introduced by Mr Firmin Jean-Louis (Haiti), provided the main platform for the Joint Assembly's deliberation. Although presented too late for representatives to have the opportunity to examine it in detail, the exchange of views on the floor was wide-ranging and reflected the report's content to a considerable degree.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report encapsulates all the ideas that have emerged so far in various fore. It analyses framework options for future ACP-EU relations  -  bilateral, regional and multilateral - and raises pertinent questions and concerns. Noting that international cooperation is increasingly dictated by economic and security considerations, and that North-South solidarity is, as a result, being pushed to the background, it regrets the fact that certain EU member states appear to indicate a preference for bilateral over multilateral cooperation. The author of the report warns that this trend would not only diminish the credibility of the Union but also its international influence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any instrument of cooperation, the report says, should take into account the different levels of development among ACP states as well as the regional vocation of many others. Its objective must be poverty eradication, sustainable economic and social development, and the harmonious integration of the ACP states into the global economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It recognises the need to secure the support of European public opinion which is largely unconvinced that EU aid to ACP states has been effective over the past 20 years. Not enough publicity; it says, has been given to its positive aspects. The report goes on to warn that solidarity and development are at stake and that the debate on the future of ACP-EU relations should not be left to politicians and technocrats. It should also involve wider civil society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Joint Assembly debate, the commitment of EU political leaders to the development of the ACP states was often called into question. Francis Wurtz (EUL-F) summed it up when he said there were worrying signs that the EU intends to downgrade its relationship with the ACP states - signs which go back to the negotiations on the Lom&eacute; IV second financial protocol, when several countries refused to increase their contributions to the 8th EDF. The EU draft budget for 1997, which he said revealed a substantial reduction in the funds allocated to the developing countries outside the Mediterranean region, provided further evidence of this. 'We must be vigilant,' he told his colleagues, 'and must not allow the Lom&eacute; Convention to be revised downwards.' Mr Wurtz agreed that greater efforts were needed to create awareness and mobilise European opinion in favour of development. The European public should know that EU development policy was not based on charity but on self-interest. 'Without Africa developing, Europe has little chance of maintaining growth in the long run.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lord Plumb (EPP-UK), the European Co-President of the Joint Assembly, admitted that it would not be easy to influence European public opinion. 'One of the roles of the Joint Assemby,' he said, however, 'must be to ensure that the peoples of Europe have confidence in the progress being made by the countries of the South. We must all help in this task of confidence-building.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Glenys Kinnock (PES-UK) urged that there should be as much participation as possible in the ongoing dialogue over future ACP-EU relations in order to bridge what she saw as 'the gap between rhetoric and reality.' Equity, she argued, should be the main objective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP Co-President, Sir John Kaputin (Papua New Guinea), said there was no doubt that the EU was forging closer ties with the former Eastern bloc countries at the expense of the ACPs. He pointed out, however, that the Lom&eacute; Convention had always encouraged a 'forward-looking' approach and argued that whatever succeeded the current ACP-EU relationship should be 'the most important' agreement ever.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The representative from Barbados, Dr Richard Cheltenham, was of the opinion that whatever the outcome of the discussions, efforts were needed to avoid 'chaos'. There should, for example, be no immediate abandonment of the trade preferences that ACP states had acquired. Transformation must be gradual to enable them to adjust and restructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European Commissioner, Professor Pinheiro, chose, first of all, to underline the importance of the role of 'the state and civil society' in development. He indicated that he saw this as growing more and more in importance. This was reflected in the agreement signed in Mauritius -  an agreement which seeks to encourage the consolidation of democracy, the rule of law, good governance and transparency, and which emphasises decentralised cooperation and the role of the private sector. the Commissioner spoke about the current programming exercise, reminding the Assembly that resources were being allocated in two tranches in accordance with the provisions of the revised Convention, to take account of each ACP state's development strategy and the objectives and priorities of the Community's development policy. He revealed that only 16 ACP countries and two EU Member States had ratified the revised Convention and urged those that have not done so to accelerate the process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He welcomed the Joint Assembly's initiative in debating future ACP-EU relations. The Commission's Green Paper, he told representatives, will be published in November. He was, therefore, not in a position to enter into detailed discussions with members on the subject at this stage. He stressed, nonetheless, that the document 'will not be a blueprint for future EU strategy towards the ACP countries. It will be a discussion paper.' there were a number of key questions that needed to be addressed regarding strategy, the scope of future relations and the use of the traditional instruments of aid and trade. 'This is not to say that we should start afresh', he argued. 'We should build on what has been achieved so far, and adapt where necessary.' Professor Pinheiro was certain that whatever the outcome of the discussions, there were a number of 'unchallengeable principles' on which ACP-EU relations should continue to be based. These were: partnership, ownership by ACP countries of their development policies, security in terms of EU support and predictability of relations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New areas of concern</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This session of the Joint Assembly saw the emergence of two new areas of concern: urban development, and the effects of climate change on small island states. An initial report on the former was presented by the rapporteur, Daby Diagne (Senegal). It did not give rise to much debate. The report emphasises the pivotal role towns play in economic development and urges the Community to adopt an integrated policy on urban development (See our interview with Mr Daigne in the Dossier). The latter was the subject of a full morning hearing, involving a panel of ACP-EU experts who are closely involved with the problem. They warned of the threat posed by global warming to the survival, and even existence, of many islands in the Caribbean and the Pacific. The emission of greenhouse gases, the Assembly was told, has reached levels never before experienced (see the article which follows). Representatives agreed on the need to integrate climate change considerations into sustainable development strategies. A Working Group on the issue was set up with Karin Junker (PES-G) as general rapporteur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cocoa and babanas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was no avoiding the intractable problems of cocoa and bananas. On cocoa, opinions were divided as usual. There were those who felt that the Commission's proposed new directive allowing chocolate to contain vegetable oils (up to 5% of total volume) in place of cocoa butter, was reasonable. The proposal also involves a labelling system to ensure that the exact contents of the product are clearly indicated Advocates of this strategy argued that it would not only widen consumer choice but would also promote the export of shea-butter and other vegetable oils which a number of ACP countries produce. Opponents were worried that if implemented, the directive could lead to a big fall in cocoa exports and a commensurate loss of earnings for ACP cocoa producers. Magda Aelvoet (Greens-B) argued in favour of maintaining the status quo, saying that this was preferable to what was being put forward in the draft directive. She warned that the Commission propose' would almost certainly result in everyone (cocoa producers, shea-butter producers and consumers) losing out. There was no guarantee that menu facturers would choose shea-butter given that they would be free to use whatever vegetable oils they liked She was certain they would go for the cheapest substitute or even for synthetic products. Accordingly, Mrs Aelvoet proposed a 'freeze' on all proposals. This view was reflected in the resolution passed by the Assembly, which called on the Council to reject the proposed directive. It also requested the sever member countries which currently authorise the use of vegetable oil to comply gradually with the existing directive  -  which bans their use altogether.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banana issue proved even thornier. There is a dispute at the World Trade Organisation, where the Lom&eacute; Protocol is being challenged by the United States and Latin American banana producers. Mrs Kinnock expressed anger at the fact that the arbitration panel set up by the WTO is made UP of three countries known to advocate free trade. The panel, she said, is chaired by Hong Kong - which the Organisation told her was representing the 'developing countries!' The general feeling among representatives was that the odds were stacked against the European Union and the ACPs. The Assembly passed a resolution asking the Union to stand firm in defence of the banana regime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Democracy, human rights, peace and security</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty-seven questions were addressed to the Council of Ministers and a further 28 to the Commission. More than a third of these dealt with issues relating to emergency relief operations, democracy, human rights, peace and security  -  recurring themes throughout the four-day meeting. The emphasis, in this context, was on Burundi, Rwanda, Liberia and Nigeria, all of which were considered individually under the agenda item 'the situation in ACP states'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the detailed answers given by Commissioner Pinheiro to questions on Burundi and Rwanda, the Assembly had a long session with Aldo Ajello, the EU's Special Representative to the Great Lakes. The discussion focused on efforts to restore democracy and legitimate government in Burundi, national reconciliation, and the repatriation of refugees from neighbouring countries to both Burundi and Rwanda. Mr Ajello gave members a comprehensive picture of the complex political and humanitarian situation in the region. He spoke of the sanctions imposed on Burundi by neighbouring countries and the efforts of the former Tanzania President, Julius Nyerere, to bring about dialogue and a just political settlement in Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria was again in the dock. Its representative, Dada Olisa, acting Charge d'affaires at the Embassy in Brussels, gave an account of what he considered was the progress made by the Abacha regime on human rights and democracy since the Joint Assembly met in Windhoek last March. He mentioned the repeal of the decree under which Ken Saro-Wiwa and other minority activists were executed, the release of detainees and the transitional programme for a return to democracy by 1998. He pleaded for the Assembly's understanding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">His explanation cut no ice with any of the seven political groupings in the European Parliament, who came together to present a compromise draft resolution on Nigeria. They wish to see all political prisoners released immediately, and the restoration of civil and political rights, as well as a democratically elected civilian government, by the end of 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution on Nigeria was again passed by secret ballot - the very last act of the session. It calls, among other things, for a total arms embargo (preventing the trade in future but also covering existing supply agreements) and for the financial assets of the Nigerian government and of members of the country's ruling councils (and of their families), to be frozen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution does not differ very much from the previous one. Mrs Junker, Johanna Maij-Weggen (EPP-NL) and Mrs Kinnock all expressed disappointment that the EU Council had failed to implement this fully. However, by repeating the demand for sanctions, they said, the Assembly was sending a very strong message to the Council that it was determined to see Nigeria return to democracy as quickly as possible. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Alarm bells sound on small island states</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Climate change</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A morning session of the ACP-EU Joint Assembly was devoted to a public hearing on the effects of climate change on small island states. It was appropriate that the issue should be brought to the attention of the Assembly by Maartje van Putten (PESNL). Representing a country much of which lies below sea-level. she is familiar with the devastating effects of sea flooding. At the hearing, which was very well attended, a panel of invited ACP-EU experts was on hand to enlighten the audience on the extent of the problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although global warning has been on the international agenda for more than 10 years, the seriousness of the threat it poses to the survival of small island states is only now beginning to be taken seriously - and it might already be too late, if some of the most apocalyptic scientific predictions are to be believed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is now growing evidence that global warming is taking place. In recent years, we have experienced more extreme weather conditions - heatwaves, floods and increasingly destructive tropical storms - while there are signs that icecaps are melting and sea levels rising. The increasing incidence of malaria in Africa has been linked to these changes. And it is all happening because of the influence our style of living is having on the planet - in particular the huge emissions of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane, from our factories, vehicles and so on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That the public hearing attracted a large audience was not only a reflection of the interest the problem is now commanding. It also symbolised the mounting international pressure for reductions in CO2 levels in the atmosphere, and for the adoption of more realistic strategies of sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel of experts comprised Dr Leonard Nurse, Manager of the Coastal Conservation Project in Barbados, Donald Stewart, Acting Director of the South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme (SPREP), Dr Robert Watson, Senior Scientific Adviser at the Environment Department of the World Bank and Chairman of the second Working Group of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and Neroni Slade, Vice-Chairman of the Association of Small Island States (AOSIS) and AOSIS Coordinator on Climate Change. A separate workshop on climate change was also organised on the same afternoon outside the formal Joint Assembly setting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to Dr Nurse, current estimates based on most reliable models, suggest sea level is rising at the rate of 5mm a year (the 'range of uncertainty' is between 2mm and 9mm). This is two to five times the rate experienced in the last 100 years. This rise is expected to continue beyond the year 2100 even if greenhouse gases are stabilised. The implications for small island states, particularly the low-lying ones, would be severe. 'Atolls such as Tokelau, Marshall Islands, Tuvalu and the Maldives could possibly disappear', he said. 'Major population displacement would be experienced in Micronesia, Palau, Nauru, French Polynesia, the Cook Islands and Tonga.' Meanwhile, small islands with extensive coastal plains and limited upland areas such as Barbados, the Bahamas and Antigua, 'would be highly vulnerable to social and economic disruptions', as major cities, ports and tourist facilities, industries, freshwater sources, fertile agricultural lands and even coral reefs are destroyed by typhoons and cyclones, or washed away in floods. 'Given the limitations of climate models,' Dr Nurse said, 'it is not possible to state with certainty at this stage whether there will be a change in the behaviour of tropical storms and hurricanes. However, it is highly probable that an increase in the frequency and intensity of these phenomena could occur in a 'warmer world'. One study, he claims, predicts tropical storms would have a potential destructive force at least twice what they have today.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr Watson, similarly, struck a pessimistic note when he said that the potential for irreversible damage was great. He agreed with Dr Nurse that even if we took measures now to reduce CO2 emissions, stabilisation of the situation will take centuries. He pleaded for climate change to be taken into consideration 'in our everyday decisions.' Governments must not wait for cause and effect to be established before taking action. 'It is,' he said, 'economically feasible to reduce CO2' by introducing appropriate policy measures: looking at supply of and demand for energy, resorting to new and renewable energy sources, nuclear power, etc. and ensuring more efficient land management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The question of 'burden-sharing' in the reduction of emissions between the industrialised world and the developing countries was debated at length. It was noted, for example, that small islands states are responsible for a very small proportion of the emissions, yet they bear the brunt of the consequences. There was a general consensus that burden-sharing should be based on equity and justice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It should be noted that the Alliance of Small Island States (which was formed during the Second World Climate Conference in 1990) has called on the industrialised world to achieve a 20% reduction in their greenhouse gas emissions by the year 2005 (The 'Toronto objective'). This, it hopes, would bring CO2 in the atmosphere down to 1990 levels. Whether this is realistic is debatable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, a number of strategy options are being closely examined by the European Commision and the Council with a view to adopting Community-wide measures to reduce emissions significantly by 2005-2010. Member States have made phasing-out proposals with targets of 5-10% by 2005, 15-20% by 2020 and 50% by 2030. This works out at an average reduction of 196 2% annually from the year 2000.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several parliamentarians wanted to know what the Commission, in particular, had done and will do to help small ACP island states overcome the effects of climate change. It was soon discovered during the discussion that a number of African countries were equally concerned. A Commission representative referred the Assembly to the provisions in the Convention which covered global warming and the special problems of island states. Although there is no specific reference to climate change, the Commission had dealt and would continue to deal with the issue in the broader context of its environmental action. Studies, projects and programmes are being implemented in the Caribbean and Indian Ocean in particular. Furthermore, DG VIII has drawn up internal briefing papers aimed at making departments aware of the issues of climate change and the environment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Country reports</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Fiji</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Political stability is the key to economic success</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most of the ACP states featured in our Country Reports, the vital issues are usually economic and social ones. How is a nation with a poor natural resource base to achieve lasting development ? What can be done to improve the skills of the people? How can a vibrant private sector be created ? Can better health care be delivered and how should it be paid for? Some of these questions might well be valid for Fiji but the visiting journalist soon discovers that they are all secondary issues. For this is a country whose political system itself dominates the agenda. The fundamental issue here is the relationship between the indigenous people of Fiji and the descendants of indentured Indian labourers brought in by the British between 1879 and 1916 to work in the sugar cane fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji, in fact, is home to people of a variety of cultures. On the indigenous side, the majority are Melanesians but there are also some Polynesians (living on the island of Rotuma). The country even plays host to Banabans, from Kiribati, who were displaced from their homes on Ocean Island to make way for the phosphate diggers. They hold a freehold to the island of Rabi and enjoy a special self-governing status. And while the Indians form the bulk of the non-indigenous population, there are also small Chinese and European communities as well as a number of inhabitants of mixed race.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite this diversity, it would be inappropriate to describe Fiji as a melting pot. Ever since the rapid expansion of the Indian population, official policy has tended to accentuate the divisions. In the early days, it was the British who were responsible for this, although one has to be careful to avoid value judgments. The colonial administrators, it seems, were aware of the tensions that would arise by bringing in large numbers of people of a different culture, language and religion. Their eventual response was to provide guarantees for the local population, notably as regards land rights. The effect was to preserve the traditional land tenure system which was based on villages and families. At the time, it seemed a logical thing to do, but several generations on, the country now has a settled population of Indian origin (43% of the total) who have limited opportunities to own land - even though many of them work on it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the economy has developed, each of the two main communities has found itself 'specialising' in different fields. For example, cane farmers and retailers tend to be of Indian origin while the public service has traditionally attracted more native Fijians. Significantly, the army is almost exclusively filled by indigenous people - a crucial factor in the 1987 military coup.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the political front, as Fiji moved towards independence, the idea of providing separate representation for each ethnic group also took hold. The independence constitution of 1970 reflected this with the two main communities being given parity (22 seats each) in the House of Representatives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shattered illusion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there was no real assimilation between 1970 and 1987, Fiji was seen by many as a model of a successful multiracial society. It was only when the country got its first Indian-dominated administration (sustained in power by a smaller native Fijian party) that this illusion was shattered. There was a military coup led by Lieutenant-Colonel Sitiveni Rabuka, who is now the elected Prime Minister,. Shortly thereafter, Fiji became a republic (Queen Elizabeth was formerly Head of State) and in 1990, a new Constitution was adopted giving political primacy to the indigenous Fijians. Needless to say, it was a time of greatly heightened communal tension.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1987 coup and the events that followed have been well covered elsewhere (including our previous Country Report which was published in 1991). It suffices to say here that while the last few years have been a lot less turbulent, tensions remain. In 1997, the country must adopt a new set of constitutional proposals and a big debate is currently under way about the shape of the system of government for the 21st century. This subject is covered in a later article and also features prominently in our interviews with the Prime Minister and Opposition Leader.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main focus of this article is therefore on economic and social aspects although, as one soon discovers, this frequently leads us back to the ethnic question. This is particularly the case when one considers the overall economic performance of the country. Fiji is not poor by developing nation standards and it has enjoyed modest growth during 1995 and 1996, but there is a widespread view that it could be doing a great deal better were it not for the political uncertainties. The problem is summed up by the Economic Intelligence Unit in its Fiji Country Report for the first quarter of 1996: 'Political instability will continue to deter investment, other than that on highly favourable tax terms.' In other words, Fiji is paying a high economic price for its internal difficulties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General unease about the future and, in particular, the outcome of the constitutional review process is compounded by specific concerns over land tenure. The long-term leases granted to (mainly Indian) farmers are approaching their end and the government must soon decide what it should do next. Will any of the sugar cane farmers be evicted and if so, how many ? What alternative arrangements will be made for them? These questions remained to be answered when The Courier visited Fiji in July although, as our keynote interviews show, the subject was clearly exercising the minds of the politicians.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A long-term strategy for agriculture?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The way in which the land question is dealt with will have a crucial impact on the sugar industry - still the country's most important product in terms of its contribution to GDP and the jobs that it generates (see the article entitled 'Sugar definitely has a future'). With other uncertainties facing this sector - in particular, the process of global liberalisation - there is a growing recognition of the need for a long-term strategy. The government has a two-pronged approach  -  improving efficiency within the sector and diversifying into other agricultural products. To learn more about this, we spoke to Luke Ratuvuki, who is the Permanent Secretary for Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Ratuvuki began by stressing the scope for increasing the sugar yield per hectare by as much as 75% (and by even more with irrigation). If productivity could be boosted on this scale, Fiji sugar would be in a much better position to compete in open world markets. He admitted, however, that the country would still face a struggle in maintaining market share and, looking ahead ten years, foresaw a slimmed down industry providing high quality sugar with more of a focus on niche markets. This inevitably meant looking at other agricultural products as possible long-term substitutes. The coconut (or as the Permanent Secretary dubbed it, 'the tree of life') is traditionally grown here and seems poised to enjoy a new lease of life following a period of decline. Fiji has also picked up the taro trade at the expense of Western Samoa, which is affected by taro blight, while there are significant exports of ginger to Australia, New Zealand, Canada and Europe. Mr Ratuvuki spoke enthusiastically about branching out into other areas such as pawpaws, mangoes, bananas and aubergines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji has potential for growth in a range of non-agricultural sectors, but farming is sure to play a vital part in the economy for many years to come. Currently, sugar represents almost three quarters of all crops by value (excluding subsistence growing) and the Fijians are only too aware that this makes the country particularly vulnerable to external shocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other primary sectors are all present in Fiji, albeit on a more modest scale. There is some deep-sea fishing backed by Asian investors. This provides useful employment although perhaps not the best possible financial return to the country. As one would expect in a nation of three hundred islands, there is also extensive artisanal and subsistence fishing in the inshore areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forestry sector divides into two parts: artificial softwood plantations which are said to be managed sustainably and the naturally growing hardwoods. As regards the latter, the EU is helping with a mapping project. Although Asian loggers do not operate in Fiji, there is considerable land clearance taking place, leading to problems of erosion and silting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prospects for mining</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gold is the main mineral being exploited with important deposits around Vatukoula. The sector has had its ups and downs but the Emperor Gold Mining Company has now embarked on an expansion project aimed at raising production from the current level of about 4000 kilos per annum to 6000 kilos by the year 2000. A huge copper and gold mine is also planned for Namosi, some 35 km from Suva. Other minerals discovered but not exploited include bauxite, iron, lead, zinc, phosphates and marble. Mining currently makes a modest contribution to overall GDP but represents an important component in the export earnings figures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With one key exception, manufacturing is on a fairly small scale with an emphasis on staple items (butter, beer, soft drinks, paint, soap etc.) for the local market. The exception is the garment industry which provides some 20% of the country's export income and a considerable amount of employment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The investments in garment manufacturing and mining have been important in jobs terms and in improving the trade figures, but there are those who criticise the fact that the government appears to derive little revenue from the operations. The exact fiscal benefits are not easy to determine, prompting some observers to suggest that official secrecy should be eased (see the article on the Constitutional Review later in this Country Report).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the service sector, long-term growth is foreseen in the key area of tourism. The number of holidaymakers choosing Fiji dipped sharply at the time of the coup, illustrating the importance of political stability in attracting visitors. Tourist arrivals bounced back once Fiji's internal difficulties had receded from the international headlines. The politicians must be hoping that nothing will occur during the current period of constitutional discussion and negotiation to put Fiji back on the front pages. It is worth mentioning here that Fiji's national carrier, Air Pacific, is an example of a relatively rare bird - an airline that makes money ! According to journalist Avin Rahish, writing in the July 1996 issue of The Review (the news and business magazine of Fiji): 'It is one of the few government investments that is profitable on its own.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If tourism is a success story, there is something of a shadow over the financial services sector, which is more extensive here than in most developing countries. The reason is the collapse last year of the National Bank of Fiji with losses of US$ 142m (equivalent to 10% of the annual GDP). The authorities were accused of a failure in supervision and the taxpayers have had to pick up some of the bill. More serious, however, is the undermining of confidence in the system and it will take time for this to be restored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social challenges</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a middle-income country, Fiji has relatively favourable social indicators in the areas of health and education. Medical facilities are provided by the government but it is said that the public health system is not as good as it once was. This is attributed, among other things, to the emigration of highly qualified staff in the aftermath of the events of 1987. Nonetheless, the country does have 27 hospitals and one doctor for approximately every 1900 people. At 72 years, life expectancy is high compared to the ACP average.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The education sector is well-developed with more than 800 primary and secondary schools (for a population of less than 800 000) and 41 technical or vocational institutions. As a result, primary school enrolment is close to 100% while the 1986 census revealed that 60% of 15-year olds were still in education. On the other hand, there are concerns over the proportion of teachers lacking qualifications, notably in the primary school system. In practice, there is considerable racial segregation at both primary and secondary levels, although there is no official policy to this effect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Educationally, the jewel in the crown is almost certainly the University of the South Pacific whose main campus is in Suva. This regional institution, which has departments in a number of other countries of the South Pacific, draws students from various island nations. Dr Vijay Naidu, who is the USP's Pro-Vice Chancellor, outlined some of the special features of this unique university which has to cater for a highly dispersed population. Like traditional tertiary institutions, it provides a wide range of degree programmes on campus, catering for 3500 students. It has a further 9000 who are being educated using the 'distance mode'. Distance learning is organised through centres in each of the participating countries. Students can attend these centres from time to time but much of their work is done through radio and telephone linkages and, increasingly nowadays, by e-mail and satellite communications. The University, Dr Naidu stressed, also provides continuing education at non-degree level 'in everything from computing to basket-weaving'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the health sector, the USP suffered a loss of highly qualified staff after 1987  -  and not just among employees of Indian origin. As the Pro-Vice Chancellor pointed out, the coup created 'a new sense of insecurity' all round and teachers who decided to emigrate were quickly accepted in Australia and New Zealand. The loss has been particularly serious in the scientific disciplines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90% of the USP's recurrent expenditure is covered by member government contributions with the remainder coming from Australia and New Zealand. For capital investments, there is heavy reliance on external donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In both of Fiji's main ethnic communities, a strong commitment to the family ensures that there is relatively little absolute poverty although things may be changing as the country become more urbanised. It is rare to see beggars in the streets in the South Pacific but Suva, sadly, has a number of these.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall picture is of a country with very considerable potential in both human and natural resource terms which needs to overcome a number of challenges to secure a more prosperous future. Some of these challenges - adapting to the world of free markets, tackling bureaucratic impediments, bringing development to rural villages, improving the infrastructure, and so on - are familiar to all developing countries. The single most important constraint, however, is the big ethnic divide, and the political uncertainty which flows from this. And this is something which can only be solved by the people of Fiji themselves. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with Prime Minister Sitiveni Rabuka</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'The last ten years have been very educational for me'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is almost ten years since Sitiveni Rabuka led the military coup which toppled the newly-electerl coalition government The stormy events of 1987 are long gast end Fiji has returned to more peaceful ways, but the country is arguably not yet at peace with itself. Major-General Rabuka is now the erected Prime Minister, having led the SVT to victory at the polls in 1992 and 1994. But the gulf between the native Fijians end citizens of Indian descent remains -  indeed, it is institutionalised in a political system which ensures a parliamentary majority for the former. A constitutional review is currently under way end a new text must tee adopted by July 1997. For both sides, the stakes are high. In this interview, Prime Minister Rabuka speaks frankly about the crucial issues facing Fiji as the nation gears up for the great constitutional debate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji also faces some formidable economic challenges and we began by asking the Prime Minister about these.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The main challenge is the one that everybody faces: achieving an acceptable rate of growth to ensure job creation and address the unemployment problem. We also want to improve the standard of living of the people, to upgrade our infrastructure, and to develop both the urban and rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What sectors do you see as offering the best hope for future growth ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  We are looking particularly at tourism and the agro-based industries. In the international sphere, we are aiming to boost trade, particularly with our traditional trading partners, Australia and New Zealand, and with new partners that we are trying to cultivate in Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We are very grateful for the Lom&eacute; Convention and the various arrangements associated with it - particularly as regards access to the EU market for our sugar products. Although it would be desirable for us not to have to rely on preferential pricing for sugar, for the moment, there is no alternative. And while we are looking for alternatives and seeking to diversify our economy, we will need that system to remain in place. We would like to continue the dialogue to ensure that this happens. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the area of trade, as I say, our focus is on Australia and New Zealand, and the regional trade agreement that the Pacific island territories have with them. This agreement is currently under review. One important aspect is the clause governing the rules of origin. If we can convince Australia and New Zealand to reduce the local input requirement from 50% to 35%, then we won't need any aid from them. The effect will be to secure existing jobs and, indeed, to increase employment, particularly in the garment industry. At the moment, most of the textiles we import for further processing come from Australia. Because of the market we have to sell to, it is very good quality material. This means the costs are high, in comparison with the local input needed to turn it into finished products, and this makes it difficult for us to get up to the required 50%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If we don't get that reduction, things could go in the opposite direction. Manufacturers might relocate and we could be facing jobs losses. You have to remember that we are competing with Asian producers who have very low wage costs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is this proposal for a reduction in the local input requirement on the agenda with the Australians and New Zealanders ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The review actually excludes the clause on the rules of origin. Having said this, we have effectively raised the calculation of our local input in negotiations on a series of other points. On paper, the 50% figure is unchanged but in fact, there has been a reduction of about 5%, thus giving us a little margin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· On the sugar issue you said you were hopeful that some form of preferential access to the EU market would be maintained. Isn't there a concern that this may not last beyond the year 2000, particularly given the increasingly liberal world trading system ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, and we are looking at that. We should be gearing ourselves up for what happens at the end of the current Lom&eacute; agreement. It remains to be seen whether, with the WTO and the new trends, the curtain will suddenly be brought down on 1 January 2000, or whether there will be a grace period in which we are given time to consolidate our diversification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The other big issue in the sugar sector concerns the impending expiry of the land leases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That is a local issue and a very important one. It has high priority on our government agenda. We are currently talking to the landowners and lessees, explaining what will happen. The legislation (the Agricultural Landlord and Tenant Act) makes no provision for further extensions to the leases, which are now nearing their end. Do we need a new act or should we amend the present law to allow extensions beyond the 50 years originally allowed for ? And if we are to do that, what happens to the compensation provisions? At the moment, these are viewed in a rather one-sided way. The emphasis is on the situation where the landlord compensates the tenant for improvements made to the land. But the rules also provide for compensation in the other direction where the value has been reduced. This may be due to constant cultivation over 50 years. What if the owner wants to return the land to its original use, planting taro, yams or cassava, as his father may have done fifty years ago, and finds he can no longer do so ? There has to be a balancing act here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hopefully, most of the land will be leased again under a new agreement or under an amendment to the existing law - because we will need to continue sugar production. It is also worth noting that some sugar farmers are beginning to diversify into other crops, both subsistence and commercial.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What arrangements do you envisage for those farmers who do not have their leases renewed ? Will they be relocated ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Right now, we are looking at the use of state land. There are two basic categories here - what used to be known as 'Crown Land under Schedule A' and 'Crown Land under Schedule B'. Schedule A covers the land not claimed by anybody during the Commission that was set up to determine the ownership of land in the very early colonial years. Schedule B is land that belonged to a community or landholding unit that has since died out: in other words, where there is no surviving member of the land-owning unit. So we have those parcels of land available. My party's policy is to restore land to the traditional owners where possible, but in those cases where you cannot identify the original owners, there will be land available for resettlement - although resettlement is perhaps not a very good term to use. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It is somewhat emotive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It implies taking a person, family or community from somewhere and planting them somewhere else -  and I hope we can avoid that. On the other hand, if you look at what people are doing nowadays, everybody's relocating. People are always resettling, moving away from home and setting up elsewhere. In this case it is perhaps a necessity, in the sense that the legislation has caught up with us. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can I turn now to the sensitive issue of the constitution. This is another area where decision day is looming. You currently have a constitutional review under way with the Commission's report due out soon. What do you think will emerge from this process over the next 12-18 months ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I don't feel that the constitutional issue is a sensitive one and do not think anyone should feel restrained in asking questions about it. It reflects the reality of the situation in Fiji. There is a requirement that the 1990 Constitution be reviewed and we have a Review Commission chaired by Sir Paul Reeves. He is a very capable man who is a former Governor-General of New Zealand and a very eminent constitutional lawyer. Assisting him, we have two party nominees - one from the main Fijian party and one nominated jointly by the Indian parties in Parliament. I have total confidence in that Commission. I believe they will come up with very objective observations and recommendations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let me explain the timetable to you. The report is expected by the end of August. It will be presented first to the President and then to me for submission to Cabinet. I envisage it being tabled in Parliament towards the end of September. We cannot debate it until three months have elapsed from the date it was tabled - which takes us to the end of the year. A lot of work will be needed during the first half of 1997. The Joint Parliamentary Select Committee, made up of members of both the upper and lower houses, will have to work on the report and try and build consensus on the various issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given that the house is racially divided, and the possibility that a premature discussion on the floor of the house may raise the temperature, I would prefer not to have a full parliamentary sitting in the early part of next year. Instead, we should go into committee and deal with it there. And then when we are satisfied that the issues can be brought out into the open, we will debate them fully in Parliament. As soon as we start talking next year, the legislative craftsmen should begin their work. On the basis of this programme, I believe we can meet the deadline to the day, promulgating a new Constitution which has been accepted by both houses on 25 July 1997. So I am very hopeful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Without prejudging the final outcome, do you envisage a move away from strict communal separation ? I am thinking here, in particular, of the separate voting lists ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think there may be provision for some cross-communal voting. There was something like this in the 1970 Constitution which had both communal and national rolls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about the longer term. Do you foresee a political system developing in Fiji where ethnic origin is irrelevant -  perhaps a 'right-left' divide, if that is still a meaningful concept ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I am not bold enough to say that that will happen. I have seen the darkest side of Fijian nationalism. I have seen the fear that was in the Indian population in 1987. But if we move too quickly to remove the racial safeguards that are in the Constitution, we may run the risk of prolonging the bad relationship between the races that we now have. So I would say we should proceed very cautiously and let the natural healing process take its course. We also need to look beyond the Constitution at aspects such as our education system and enhancing the ability of the Fijians to compete.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I believe the education system is also very divided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Some schools are reserved for Fijians although, slowly, there are Indians from families close to the schools who are beginning to enter them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think that this is a promising sign for the future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think so. I went to a purely Fijian school and when I came out of that, everything was Fijian for me. I went straight into the army which is another Fijian-dominated institution. It was not planned that way. It is just the way it happened. My tolerance level of other races was very low. But you cannot expect somebody who gets to this level of leadership to have a low racial tolerance level. I must admit that the last ten years have been very, very educational for me - very good for my own being. I consider what I used to think before and the way I used to feel before. I have never been threatened by an Indian, but I had always been in Fijian 'safe' areas - a Fijian school and then in the army. But since coming out of that sort of cocoon, I have managed very well to accept that I have to compete with them, I have to look after them, and I have to devise policies and programmes that will be good for them as well as being good for us.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· One final question. Do you envisage Fiji seeking to rejoin the Commonwealth in the near future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think seeking is the wrong word. We will do what we feel is good for Fiji and its people. The people of Fiji are those who are here now but it will include some of those who have moved on looking for greener pastures and who are willing to come back. We were not expelled from the Commonwealth; our membership lapsed. It is up to the Commonwealth to say whether they are prepared to reconsider our member ship. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 18 272 km². Fiji has two main islands (Viti Levu and Vanua Levu) and about 300 smaller ones. It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of approximately 1.3 million km²). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 790 000</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population density: 43 per kilometre² </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Suva (situated on the island of Viti Levu) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main languaqes: English, Bauan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(main Fijian language)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currency: Fiji dollar (F$). In June 1996, 1 ECU was worth approximately F$ 1.80. (US$1 = F$ 1.40) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p15.png"></center><br>
+ Fiji</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">System of government: A bicameral parliamentary system consisting of an appointed Senate and an elected House of Representatives. The President is a non-executive head of state chosen by the Great Council of Chiefs. The President appoints the Prime Minister. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the Constitution, adopted in 1990, the Parliament is divided along racial lines. The Senate has 34 members, 24 of whom are indigenous Fijians. In the 70-member House of Representatives, 37 seats are reserved for native Fijians, 27 for Indo-Fijians, 5 for 'general voters' (other ethnic groups) and 1 for Rotuma Island (whose inhabitants are Polynesian). The 1990 Constitution provides for a review within seven years and discussions are currently under way with a view to amending the Constitution by the 1997 deadline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President: Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Major General Sitiveni Rabuka </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main political parties: Soqosoqo ni Vakavulewa ni Taukei (SVT - Fijian), National Federation Party (NFP  -  Indian), Fiji Labour Party (FLP - Indian),  Fijian Association (FA - Fijian), General Voters Party (GVP).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Party representation in Parliament (1994 election result): SVT 31, NFP 20, FLP 7, FA 5, GVP 4, Others 3. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP: (1995) F$ 2.85 billion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual GDP per capita: approx US$ 2600 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP growth rate (1995): 2.2% (2.9% predicted for 1996) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Principal exports (1994): Sugar (US$ 182m), Garments (US$ 96m), Gold (US$ 43m), Fish (US$ 38m), Timber (US$ 21 m) Main trading partners (in order of importance):</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exports - Australia, UK, USA, Japan, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Imports - Australia, New Zealand, USA, Japan, Singapore.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade balance (1994): exports - US$ 547m, imports - US$ 826, deficit - US$ 279m. The current account figures also usually reveal a deficit but this is much smaller due to tourism earnings and official transfers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inflation rate (1995): 2.2%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government budget (1996): revenue -  F$ 759m, expenditure  -  F$ 851 m, deficit - F$92 (about 3.5% of GDP) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forma/sector employment: 98 112 (out of a total economically active population of about 265 000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth (1993): 71.6 years </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult literacy (1993): 90.6%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education: all levels from age 6-23: 79% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.853 (47th out of 174) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: Economic Intelligence Unit, UNDP Human Development Report, 1996, EC Commission. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">An interview with opposition leader Jai Ram Reddy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'We need to move to a more racially neutral system'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji is not unique in having a political system that is heavily influenced by racial or communel issues In places as diverse as Northern Ireland, Belgium, Guyana and Trinidad - not to mention many parts of Africa - people vote for parties which claim to represent the particular ethnic, religious or linguistic group to which they belong. Where Fiji is different, however, is in having a Constitution that gives primacy to one particular community. Since the 1987 coup, native Fijians have held the upper hand with a guaranteed majority in Parliament and a firm grip on the levers or power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1990 Constitution, adopted when communal feelings were still running high, contained a requirement for a constitutional review within seven years. When The Courier visited Fiji (July 19961 the work of a three-member Commission appointed to carry out the review and make recormmendations was nearing completion. All sides seem to accept the need for reforms designed to help bridge the sharp racial divide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The big question is how radical these reforms are likely to be. We sought the views of Jai Ram Reddy, the leader of the opposition National Federation Party (NFP) which has the support of most of the country's Indian (Indo-Fijian) community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You are the first opposition leader I have met who cannot, constitutionally, become Prime Minister. How do you feel about that ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is something that rankles with me - the mere thought that I am not equal with my fellow citizens of other races. I think that's generally the way the Indians feel here. All the constraints and limitations, the denial of basic human rights, are the source of a great deal of unhappiness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You talk about basic human rights. Obviously, the political aspects are very important but I get the impression that, in other respects, this is a fairly free and easy society: there is free expression, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, but free expression is only one aspect of human rights. The fact is that discrimination based on race is widespread and institutionalised. About 45% of the population is Indo-Fijian but you will find they are not fairly represented in the higher levels of the public service. At the Permanent Secretary level, there is definitely a government policy to have a limited number of Indians - and there are hardly any in the more crucial ministries. The same is true of managerial positions throughout the public sector. In the statutory bodies and major public undertakings, there is a deliberate policy of excluding Indians. So we are very much a marginalised community in the public sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wouldn't it be true to say that Indians have quite a lot of economic power ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No, I don't agree. There is a tendency for people who come here, end for some people in Fiji, to project this image of Indians controlling the economy. It is a fallacy. It all boils down to how you define economic power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let's take natural resources. The land, and therefore the forests, are almost exclusively owned and controlled by native Fijians. Even in the corporate sector, the largest business undertaking is the manufacture of sugar, and 80% of the shares are owned by the government. The Indians don't own this industry. They are the small sugar cane producers working on ten-acre plots. And who controls banking and insurance ? Certainly not the Indians. Most of the financial services companies are foreign-owned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The area where the Indians are most visible is in the retail sector. But those little shops you see in the towns are small family businesses. The shopkeepers work up to 15 hours a day, and you will discover that many of them do not even own their premises; they are tenants. So the idea that Indians control the economy is a bit of a myth. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Constitution, and in particular the system of racial differentiation for voting and holding certain offices, is obviously a key issue for you. With the Constitution currently under review, what is your party's policy in this area ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The first elections under the current Constitution took place in 1992 and we took part in them under protest. We made clear that our participation should not be construed as acceptance of the system. Indeed, the sole issue on which we campaigned was our rejection of the Constitution. But we accepted the fact that we needed to get into the system as it was, and to try and create an environment where there would be widespread appreciation that it had to change. The 1990 text, in fact, laid down that it had to be reviewed by the seventh anniversary of its promulgation. I think the architects of the Constitution realised themselves that it was deficient. And we laid great emphasis on the need for dialogue; a general recognition that the country would be much better off with everybody working together and that there was nothing to be gained by oppressing or marginalising a community. And that is the kind of environment we have tried to create.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Constitutional review will shortly be published. What do you hope will come out of that exercise ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I am reasonably optimistic. I think the environment is more favourable now and there is a general recognition that the system has to change. I am sure you will get confirmation of this when you talk to the government side. We need to move away from this very polarised, compartmentalised political system to a more racially neutral one. I think views may diverge as to how far we should go. That will be the contentious issue. But I believe we will make progress.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I certainly think we will get a good report from the Constitutional Review Commission. One of our fears, when we started on this journey, was whether it would be independent and be given fair terms of reference. Largely because of the cooperative and accommodating attitude that we ourselves adopted, and to which the government responded, we were able to get a Commission that was well-balanced. We are very fortunate to have Sir Paul Reeves, a former Governor-General of New Zealand. His independence is taken for granted. The Commission also has one nominee from the indigenous side and one from the Indo-Fijian side. So we certainly expect a good report. There is already a kind of acceptance I think on all sides that political parties need to prepare themselves for a more multiracial approach to governance in the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· On this point, I see that the SVT (the governing party) is looking at the idea of opening up its membership to other groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think there will be many nonnative Fijians interested in joining ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Not straight away but at least it is a beginning. It is an acceptance that they can't remain racially exclusive. If, for example, the Commission recommends a move toward a racially neutral system - at least for a certain number of seats - then it would be important for the SVT to have non-Fijians in their party.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can I turn to economic issues, which I presume cannot be divorced altogether from political ones ? There is a lot of discussion about the future of the sugar industry which is tied in with the question of renewing the land leases This is an issue which is due to be resolved soon. How concerned are you about the impending decision on the leases ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - This is something that concerns us very deeply. As you correctly observe, you can't separate the political and economic aspects. The two are very closely interlinked here - perhaps more so than in other countries - because of the land situation. The bulk of Indian peasant farmers, both within and outside the sugar industry, are on leases that will begin to expire next year. If these are not renewed, the problem will not just be an economic one but an enormous human one. What do we do with these people who all belong to a particular racial group. It really boils down to our very survival. Despite the growth in the towns, the bulk of the people are still rurally based. They are small subsistence farmers, living in the country areas with no more than 10 or 12 acres to cultivate. So the social implications of non-renewal in terms of poverty, dispossession and hardship are enormous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· But how real is the concern ? Surely, the overwhelming economic logic is for the leases to be renewed. After all the land is being put to productive use at the moment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Yes, but unfortunately, when you have a communal dimension to the problem, logic does not always prevail. If you think about it, there was no logic in the events of 1987. The trouble is that every issue here has a racial twist. After the coup, communal sentiments were aroused and sharpened. There was a prolonged period of anti-lndian propaganda and in that environment of anger, a highly racial constitution was adopted. There were people in positions of influence openly advocating non-renewal, threatening to take all the land back. Now they need to undo all this and it will not be easy, given the enormous strength of feeling that has been aroused. Having said this, I believe that we are now in the process of restoring sanity to our public life. It is also beginning to dawn on everybody that the sugar industry is vital for Fiji and it will continue to be so for some years to come.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I have heard that view expressed on all sides, but I wonder if people are sufficiently aware of the implications of global liberalisation. It has been suggested that this will make sugar increasingly unviable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think a lot of people are unaware of the implications, because there has been very little public education in this field. But amongst those 'in the know', there is certainly an appreciation. I am a member of the Parliamentary Select Committee on Sugar and we were recently addressed by the head of the marketing company and the head of the Sugar Commission. At that level, there is an awareness, but if you speak to the average farmer who has been growing and selling sugar for many years, he will probably assume that life will just go on as before.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Isn't it true to say that sugar depends heavily on the Lom&eacute; Convention arrangement with the European Community ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Very much so. In my view, the sugar industry is run so inefficiently that but for the huge subsidy we get from the European Community, it would not be viable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Presumably, this means that measures must be taken to improve efficiency ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, absolutely. But the first issue to resolve is the land question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is no point talking to the farmers about efficiency  -  asking them to improve their husbandry and focus on sugar content rather than the quantity of cane produced - when they don't know if they will have land to cultivate after next year. So you see all other issues have become completely subsidiary to the tenure question. At the moment, we are in a limbo. The government and the people urgently need to resolve this problem. Then we can put it behind us and address the other concerns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Are there any other economic sectors which you feel offer promise for the future of the country ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Any growth outside of tourism will, I think, have to be centred on the agricultural sector. We need more agro-based industries and more diversification. We could grow a lot of other crops here - mangoes for example. We also need to improve extension services to farmers, and make an aggressive effort to identify markets. The farmers will grow the crops but they must be sure that somebody will buy them. Every year, for example, we have a glut of tomatoes - so many that they can't even give them away in the markets. This kind of problem kills the incentive to produce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is obviously heavy state involvement in the running of agriculture. Do you see scope for more privatisation or 'corporatisation' in line with global trends ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think that growth, even in the agricultural sector has to be private-sector driven. At the same time, you have got to create the right environment and infrastructure for this to happen. Unfortunately, it keeps coming back to this question of land. If big investors, for instance, want to come here and invest in agriculture, they need to know what sort of tenure they are going to get and whether they can buy the freehold. I am sure there are people, particularly now from the Asian region, who would be interested in investing in agriculture, but the land problem is a big constraint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do you think Fiji will rejoin the Commonwealth at any point ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Well, we hope so. You know we are all very strongly in favour of rejoining. One of the things that I personally feel very strongly about is the unfortunate severance of our link with the Queen. I don't know, constitutionally, whether it can be restored. Obviously, there are difficulties in that area, but I think a large majority of ordinary people in this country would like at least to see Fiji back in the Commonwealth. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Seeking a lasting constitutional settlement</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When The Courier visited Fiji in July, the report of the Constitutional Review Commission headed by Sir Paul Reeves (former Governor-General of New Zealand) had not yet been completed  -  and what it would contain was a major topic of speculation. As readers will see from the interview we publish with the Prime Minister and Opposition Leader, the impartiality of the three-member Commission was not in question  -  at least within the political mainstream on both the native Fijian and Indian sides. Nonetheless, there were doubts about whether a consensus could be found. For the Indo-Fijians, a scaling down of the 'racial' features in the Constitution was seen as a prerequisite. Yet the ruling SVT, in its own submissions to the Commission, had effectively supported the status quo. In view of this apparently unbridgeable gulf, could the compilers of the Report come up with recommendations capable of forming the basis for a lasting constitutional settlement ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The long-awaited Report was formally transmitted to President Ratu Mara on 6 September and a few days later, it was tabled to a joint session of the Senate and the House of Representatives. It now falls to a joint select committee of the two Houses to thrash out a new set of constitutional proposals. These will be presented to Parliament for debate and decision in the first half of next year with a view to meeting the July 1997 deadline foreseen in the 1990 Constitution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Report of the Review Commission is lengthy (almost 800 pages) and contains no fewer than 697 separate recommendations. The key ones, however, relate to the system for electing members of the House of Representatives. Currently, separate electoral lists based on race are used to fill all 70 seats (37 native Fijians, 27 Indo-Fijians, 1 Rotuman and 5 'General Electors', covering all other races). It was widely expected that the Commission would propose a mixture of 'reserve' seats and 'open' ones, with the latter, as their name implies, being chosen by the whole electorate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">45 'open' seats proposed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is precisely what they have done - but the suggested breakdown may have come as a surprise to some. The proposal is for 45 open seats (15 three-member constituencies) and 25 single-member 'reserve seats (12 native Fijian, 10 Indo-Fijian, 1 Rotuman and 2 'General Electors'). If adopted, the new system would no longer legally guarantee a majority for people of Fijian origin in the country's legislature. What would happen in practice would depend on a number of factors including the nature of the voting system in the three member open constituencies, the willingness of people to cast their ballots across the ethnic divide and the actual turnout of voters from the different communities. It should be pointed out, however, that native Fijians now constitute half the population, large numbers of Indians having emigrated over the past nine years. So long as communal voting patterns persist, this will presumably be reflected in the Parliamentary arithmetic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also proposed that the bulk of the 35-member Senate (Bose e Cake) should be made up of elected representatives of Fiji's provinces. In the field of local government, it is suggested that the present system based on villages and provinces, which applies only to native Fijians, might be replaced by an arrangement applicable to all races. In this context, the rote of the Council of Chiefs (Bose Levu Vakaturaga) would be reduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the sections of the Report relating to representation are bound to attract most attention, the Commission also put forward a series of other proposals aimed at improving the governance of Fiji. One idea, which appears designed to alter the political culture, is for the 'Official Secrets Act' to be replaced by a 'Freedom of Information Act'. The presumption of secrecy would be replaced by a rule that official information should be accessible to the public except where there is good reason to withhold it. In a similar vein, the Report recommends an 'integrity code' to govern the behaviour of holders of public office.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initial reactions to the outcome of the Commission's work were mixed. Key players, including the President, Prime Minister and opposition spokespersons broadly welcomed the Report but more nationalistic elements were quick to reject it and one group even mounted a ceremonial burning of the document.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is obvious that a great many more words will be exchanged - and some of them will no doubt be heated  - in the coming months. It is difficult to see how everyone can be 'brought on board' but the hope must be that a compromise can be crafted that is acceptable to the majority on both sides of the communal divide. The people of this Pacific island nation are well aware that prosperity and stability go hand in hand. The single most important achievement in ensuring stability for the longer term would be to secure a satisfactory settlement of the constitutional issue. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Sugar definitely has a future'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was the key sentiment expressed by Isimeli Bose, Fiji's Trade Minister, when he spoke to The Courier earlier this year. Mr Bose insisted that 'no matter what anybody says, sugar will be the backbone of this country's economy for years to come.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When we discussed Fiji's current economic situation and future prospects with the Minister, it was not surprising that sugar should have featured so prominently. The sector faces a difficult future for both internal and external reasons. At home, the long-term leases granted to the farmers (mainly Fiji Indians) under the Agricultural Landlord and Tenant Act are due to expire over the next few years. No provision was made for their renewal and the resulting uncertainty has provoked widespread concern, not least among the leaseholders themselves. The external 'threat' comes from new international trade rules administered by the World Trade Organisation. At present, Fiji's sugar industry is heavily dependent on the preferential access to the EU market which was granted under the Lom&eacute; Sugar Protocol. No one is quite sure what will happen when Lom&eacute; IV expires at the turn of the century but it is clear that the stakes are high.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Bose was quick to acknowledge the importance of ending the uncertainty facing the sugar farmers. 'But the real challenge', he said, 'is to ensure the maintenance of our markets for sugar.' He was aware of the encroachment of global trade liberalisation but stressed that the industry's leaders and the government were 'doing the work now and planning for the future.' At the same time, the authorities are clearly hoping that the European Union will be able to continue with some form of preferential arrangement after the year 2000, if only to buy time so that the industry can adapt and farmers can diversify.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the subject of trade diversification, Mr Bose pointed out that 'the field is very limited'. He continued; 'However, since 1988, we have seen garment production picking up from very humble beginnings. By 1995, we had about F$185 million-worth of exports in this area.' He also spoke enthusiastically about the government policy of encouraging manufacturing in tax-free factories and zones. 'This developed well between 1989 and 1992 and then there was something of a slowdown.' Tax-free factories have been established in a number of locations and the first real tax-free zone is now being set up in Kalabo. Mr Bose indicated that EU assistance was being provided in this area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Privatisation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Our conversation then turned to the changing economic role of governments - throughout the world, they are withdrawing from active involvement in industrial and commercial operations. We asked how far this process had occurred in Fiji and, in particular, whether there was a privatisation policy. The Minister replied in the affirmative, pointing out that government departments 'do not usually make very good businesspeople.' The policy, therefore, was to 'corporatise' and 'privatise', although the process is still in its early stages. The Trade and Commerce Ministry has a public enterprise unit which is responsible for drawing up a policy framework for the government. In 1995, Mr Bose explained, a public enterprise bill was presented to Parliament, 'but there were so many concerns expressed to the previous Minister that it was referred to a select committee -  which, in fact was chaired by me before I took up my present poet.' The committee had now completed its work and the Minister indicated that the issue would go back to Parliament in September.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the legislative delay, Mr Bose was keen to stress that his department was already working on individual programmes. The post and telecoms business, for example, had just gone through another stage towards privatisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is, of course, an important distinction between 'corporatisation' and 'privatisation' - the former implies staying within the state sector but at arms-length from the administration. This point was acknowledged by our interviewee who explained that the approach was a step-by-step one. The first stage was to reorganise a department along commercial lines. Corporatisation came next 'and then finally you have privatisation by disposing of shares.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He stressed that the most important aim was to ensure an element of competition wherever possible. 'There is no point simply moving from a government monopoly to a private monopoly', he insisted, 'although obviously, there are utilities like water, electricity and even telephones where this may not be easy.' The minister concluded; 'Where they are natural monopolies, we will regulate them.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Our final topic of discussion was the possibility of regional integration in the Pacific.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How far had the South Pacific countries gone in this direction and did the Minister think there was a need for closer economic cooperation? Mr Bose replied that he thought economic integration was a good thing. He pointed to a document on his desk containing a draft proposal for a bilateral trade agreement with Papua New Guinea. 'We will soon be holding negotiations with them, and have also just signed an agreement with Tonga.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The focus on bilateral trade arrangements at this stage suggests that the region still has some way to go on the regional integration path.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the Minister nonetheless insisted that it was something 'that can and will happen'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Our daily bread - courtesy of a remarkable Fijian businesswoman</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How can a businesswomen succeed in Fiji's patriarchal society? Mere Samisoni, the entrepreneur behind the 'Hotbread Kitchen' gave us an appropriate answer when she said 'I roll with it', although the pun was probably unintentional In fact, it is difficult to imagine this dynamic lady being pushed around. Anybody who manages to build up a chain of bakeries from scratch, capturing 35% of the country's urban consumer market in the process, must have a lot of determination. At the same time, Mrs Samisoni displays a strong sense of social commitment. She believes in community values, advocates group decision-making and consensus, and even describes the tax system as 'reasonably fair'. In short, she contradicts the widely-held view propagated by lurid American TV series, that a dogeat-dog attitude is needed for business success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, Mrs Samisoni started out with the idea of working with one of the caring professions. Trained in nursing administration in Australia and New Zealand, she returned to Fiji only to find that there were no openings available. That was when she decided to go into the private sector, establishing 'Samisoni Enterprises'. And over the years, she has succeeded in building up one of the largest bread-making operations in the country. The Hotbread Kitchen operation is highly decentralised with the bread being baked in different locations for sale through the company's local outlets. Her business is also the first Fijian one to franchise out its operations. And having already won a big chunk of the urban market, she is now looking to expand operations in the rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Samisoni Enterprises, of course, is not simply a bread-making operation. The company now offers a line of 62 separate bakery products, with some local adaptations to suit varying tastes. It employs some 275 staff with perhaps another 50 working in the related franchise operations. And the business had an important breakthrough when it won the contract for 'MacDonalds' in Nadi. With branches of the famous hamburger chain likely to open in other parts of Fiji, this could be the start of something big. In fact, there is even a suggestion that Fiji could be used to source Macdonalds' operations in New Zealand, the rolls (or buns, as the Americans like to call them) being exported frozen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Constant quality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Mrs Samisoni, the key to a successful and profitable operation is 'constant quality' and unfailing attention to customer service. As she puts its, 'if you let quality slip just once, you can end up losing customers for a very long time.' Baking is a labour-intensive business and she is keen to stress the importance of developing people's abilities - in particular, the human relaitons skills of those who deal direct with the customer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As if running a business wasn't enough, Mere Samisoni is also busy completing a Masters in Business Administration (MBA) at the University of the South Pacific, with a thesis on indigenous business. From what we discovered, speaking to this remarkable Fijian entrepreneur, she should have been helping to teach the course! </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Viti Levu - island of contrasts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anyone from overseas who is travelling to the Fijian capital, Suva, will soon discover that the country's largest island is a very diverse place. Roughly circular in shape, Viti Levu provides more than half of Fiji's total land area and is home to about three-quarters of the population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The journey to Suva on the south-east coast will almost certainly involve transiting through Nadi International Airport (pronounced Nandi) which is situated in the west. This is the country's only major international gateway and while it is ideal for tourists heading for the resort hotels, it is less convenient for business travellers whose destination is Suva. Their journey has to be completed either by road (which takes several hours) or on one of the small commuter planes which ply regularly between Nadi and Nausori (itself a half-hour drive from the capital).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biggest surprise to those who are unfamiliar with the country is that the west and the south-east have very different weather patterns. When your aircraft lands at Nadi, the chances are high that the sun will be shining. On reaching Suva, you are more likely to encounter rain. This part of the country enjoys - if that is the correct term - a micro-climate which is good for tropical vegetation but less appealing to human beings. The 'blame' for locating the Fijian capital in such a spot is said (not too seriously) to lie with the country's former colonial rulers. According to the story, a British envoy visited Suva on one of its rare sunny days and, on the strength of this, designated it as the seat of administration. The British can hardly deny their involvement since it was in 1882, during the early years of colonial rule, that the capital moved from Levuka (situated on the much smaller island of Ovalau). But the key reason was almost certainly the fact that Suva, with its large bay, could be developed as a port. Whatever the explanation, one must have some sympathy with the foreign diplomats who keep a raincoat or umbrella to hand at all times, and yet are viewed with envy back home because they have a 'paradise' posting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To be fair, Suva has attributes other than its weather which make it an interesting place. It has, for example, some very attractive architecture, both local and colonial. The views across the bay can be dramatic - and, in this respect, the rolling cloud formations may actually enhance the picture. And the centre of the city buzzes with activity (except on Sunday because of the Sabbatarian influence).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The population of the greater Suva area is about 160 000. This may not be enormous, but it is the largest concentration of humanity to be found between Hawaii and Australia. In some ways, it is the 'capital' of the South Pacific - a point which is underlined by the fact that the Forum Secretariat is based here. It is also the site of the University of the South Pacific's main campus. The local population is mainly ethnic Fijian but there are Indo-Fijians as well as citizens of Chinese and European extraction. Add to this the diplomatic corps, foreign businesspeople and students from other parts of the region, and you get a very cosmopolitan mix. This is reflected in the variety of cuisines available in the local restaurants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The western part of Viti Levu is also cosmopolitan but in a very different way, with a stronger Indian influence and, of course, a constantly changing tourist population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of the island's inhabitants live a relatively short distance from the sea. Thus, in demographic terms, Viti Levu is like a doughnut with a thick layer of humanity around the edge and a hole in the middle. The analogy may not be entirely apt since the 'hole' is, in fact, a spectacular mountainous area. This makes the road that runs round the island a key arterial route. Meanwhile, those who choose to fly from Nadi to Suva, assuming they are not of a nervous disosition, can enjoy the experience of travelling below the height of the surrounding peaks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The few people who do occupy the central region live in traditional Fijian villages and have a lifestyle far removed from either the town dwellers or the sugar cane farmers. Its size may be little more than ten thousand square kiLom&eacute;tres but Viti Levu is truly an island of contrasts. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Fiji-EU cooperation: comprehensive package</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Ernst Kroner</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji was a signatory of the first Lom&eacute; Convention in 1975 and, to date, the country has been allocated some ECU 190m in EU development cooperation funds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting with a relatively modest ECU 9.9m under Lom&eacute; I, the national indicative programme rose to ECU 13m under the following Convention. Without neglecting rural development (feeder roads in Vanua Levu), under Lom&eacute; I most of the resources were devoted to transport infrastructure (a main road on Vanua Levu). Under Lom&eacute; 11, cooperation concentrated clearly on agriculture and rural development, in particular by means of the funding of microprojects, with infrastructural programmes (the extension of the Vanua Levu road, social infrastructure) taking second place. Under this Convention, a new field of action was also addressed: trade development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tax free zone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade development was addressed further under Lom&eacute; III (6th EDF, ECU 20m, of which ECU 5m in special loans), with support given to an Investment and Trade Development Programme. The longer-term objective of the project was to widen the economic base of Fiji and to create employment. The more immediate objective was the i establishment of a Tax Free Zone near Suva. In order to promote this scheme and to secure markets for exporting the goods which would eventually be produced, the project included a programme of trade and investment promotion to be implemented by the Fiji Trade and Investment Board. Due to problems linked with identifying an appropriate site, the project, which had been given the go-ahead in 1990, only came on stream in 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural and agricultural development continued to be one of the main sectors of cooperation, with the funding of three major projects. The first was a coconut rehabilitation and development project, situated on the island of Taveuni, which aimed at improving the productivity of coconut plantations through the introduction and multiplication of high yield hybrids. The project also provided for the establishment of a 30 hectare coconut nursery centre, which was expected to finance itself through the sales of seedlings. EC support for this project ended in 1992, since when the scheme has been taken over by the Government. A second project (a large-scale microprogramme divided into two sub-programmes) aimed on the one hand at the construction of access roads to facilitate the development of cocoa plantations, and on the other at the introduction and development of pineapple plantations in Vanua Levu. The first component was closed after disappointing results. The second component, however, produced very interesting and promising results, which will, however, need private and governmental support in order to become sustainable. A rural electrification project involving 28 rural electrification schemes and the supply and installation of a small power plant is still ongoing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing human resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Lom&eacute; III, the formerly prominent transport infrastructure sector lost some importance. The Kubulau Peninsula road project on Vanua Levu brought to an end the work started under previous Conventions. This road, which filled the last gap in the circuminsular road, was opened on in July 1994. Lom&eacute; III also saw the beginning of human resources development as a new theme of cooperation, with Technical Assistance funded for the logging school. This area, embodying strong links with forestry and environmental issues, has been further developed under Lom&eacute; IV with the reconstruction of the school burnt down in 1993, and the enlargement of the training and education provided to what now constitutes a Forest Training Centre.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The national indicative programme relating to the first protocol of Lom&eacute; IV (7th EDF, ECU 22m in grant aid) identifies rural development and social infrastructure as the sectors of concentration to which 65% of resources are to be devoted. The remaining 35% will be used for non-focal activities, including trade and services, tourism, cultural cooperation, training and technical cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Building bridges</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, it was only following the very destructive cyclone Kina in January 1993 that cooperation activities could start in the form of the rebuilding of four bridges either severely damaged or completely destroyed by the post-cyclone floods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Work on two smaller bridges of major importance to Viti Levu (Korovou and Vunidawa, ECU 1.135m) was started in 1994 by the Public Works Department and completed in January 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Financing Agreement for the two major bridges (ECU 10.24m) was signed in June 1994 and provides for the rebuilding of the bridges of Ba and Sigatoka. These form part of the main road around the island of Viti Levu and are therefore vital for the movement of people and goods on Fiji's main island. The new bridges, 190 and 182 metres long respectively, will be two-lane, and will provide for footpaths and utilities. To enable the traffic to by-pass the often congested towns of Ba and Sigatoka, new sites for both bridges have been chosen, which also call for the building of new approach roads. Building works were under way in early 1996 and completion is expected by April 1997.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non programmable aid for Fiji has been considerable over the years. While Stabex transfers for losses on coconut oil (totalling ECU 5.4m under Lom&eacute; I - Lom&eacute; III) came to a halt under Lom&eacute; IV (because levels of exports fell below the required dependency threshold), emergency aid (total ECU 9.5m) has continued, unfortunately, to be needed. Time and again the islands have been hit by cyclones (the most recent occasion being in January 1993, when the EU made available ECU 1 m for food rations following cyclone Kina).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, a significant feature of EU-Fiji cooperation was the credits provided by the European Investment Bank. It was very active under Lom&eacute; I to Lom&eacute; III, providing loans from its own resources to a total value of ECU 87.5m with a further ECU 6.1 m allocated in risk capital. Loans went to the energy sector (hydropower scheme), industry (wood processing) and services (telecommunications, sea and air transport). Considerable interest rate subsidies (totalling ECU 14.1m) have also been made available under the various EDFs in support of these loans. More recently, the EIB has financed an aircraft maintenance centre (1991) and a telecommunications project (1995).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over and above financial cooperation, Fiji benefits from the second largest quota (165348 tonnes per annum) under the Sugar Protocol annexed to the Lom&eacute; Conventions. This covers some 45% of its total sugar exports. The yearly benefit from this provision is estimated at between ECU 45m and ECU 55m - in other words, only slightly less than the total of all programme aid granted since Lom&eacute; I (ECU 64.9m). About two-thirds of these benefits reach the farmers, so that the EU subsidises every sugar smallholder, on average, to the extent of some ECU 1500 a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recently, Fiji's quota under the Sugar Protocol was increased by 881 tonnes, as a result of the reallocation of the shortfall of deliveries by Barbados. Furthermore, Fiji benefits from an annual special tariff quota to the tune of some 30 000 tonnes up to the year 2001.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industrial development and external trade have been supported by the relaxation of the rules of origin for exports to the EU of canned tuna to the extent of 500 tonnes a year from 1993 to 1996. A similar arrangement, applicable for certain quantities of garments up the end of 1993 was recently extended to the end of 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji's main exports to the EU (sugar, fish and garments) - and the resulting surplus in its trade relations with the EU - are consequently highly dependent upon the continuity of these preferences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Support for tourism</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the field of services, and specifically in tourism, the EU - through its support of the Tourism Council of the South Pacific - has contributed to the fact that every sixth tourist or so arriving in Fiji comes from a member country of the Union. Tourism being by far Fiji's most important source of foreign exchange earnings, receipts from European tourists amount at present to some ECU 30m, and are greater than those from the export of fish and fish products</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taking the Sugar Protocol into consideration, the EU is by far the most important of Fiji's development partners, followed by Australia. The country also benefits from bilateral cooperation arrangements with EU Member States (UK, France, Germany). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Tonga</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Hoping to maintain harmony</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'None of the most civilised nations have ever exceeded these islanders in the great order and regularity maintained on every occasion, in ready and submissive compliance with the commands of their chiefs, and the perfect harmony that subsists among all ranks.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These were the words of Captain Cook who visited the Tonga archipelago several times on his voyages around the world in the eighteenth century. The famous explorer was obviously impressed by the social organisation of this island nation and, although it is more than two centuries since he undertook his Pacific voyages, many of his observations hold true today. Talk of submissive compliance may no longer be appropriate, but in contrast to the turbulence of much of the outside world, Tonga certainly ranks as a peaceful society, which is respectful of hierarchies and strongly attached to 'traditional values'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The reference to harmony is particularly apposite, as The Courier discovered when we visited Tonga earlier this year. It was fortunate that our trip coincided with the King's birthday celebrations and we had the opportunity to enjoy the superb choral music which plays a central part in many important ceremonies here. Like their Polynesian cousins in Western Samoa (featured in our last issue), the Tongans seem to have a natural flair for music and a talent for spontaneous harmony. The question is whether these 'Friendly Islands' - a name they certainly deserve  -  can maintain their reputation for social harmony into the third millenium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In order to answer this, one has to identify where discordant notes could creep in. The biggest challenge appears to come from the process of globalisation. New technologies, particularly in the field of communications, are rapidly breaking down barriers. The tide of the international economic system, with its emphasis on mass production, con sumerism and free trade, is lapping at the islands' shores And political systems everywhere are under pressure to con form to a 'democratic' model which some would argue places the individual above the community. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course, external influences can be both positive and negative Cultural exchanges can be enriching, and new ideas and techniques may offer opportunities for improving the quality of life. The key is to adapt without undermining the social fabric. And in Tonga, as in other countries, a harmonious future will ultimately depend on the way the country evolves both politically and economically.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking first at the current political set-up in Tonga, one cannot fault the use of the term constitutional monarchy which is the preferred description locally. It is important, however, to recognise that the constitution - which dates back to 1875 - gives considerable power to the monarchy. There is a measure of democracy in that all adults over 21 have a vote, but they only elect nine of the 30 Members of Parliament A further nine are chosen by the country's 30+ nobles while the twelve Cabinet Ministers, who sit in the House ex officio are nominated by the King. Tonga may' be small (it has fewer than 100 000 inhabitants) but it nonetheless attract: the interest of political scientists as one of the few remaining states with a hereditary ruler who wields substantial power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Critics of the system view it as an anachronism, although their emphasis is on reform rather than revolutionary change. Defenders argue that the arrangement works well in a small, homogenous nation which values its unique culture and traditions (even if the constitution contains many 'British' elements). The latter also point, with some justification, to the attitude of the population. There are dissenting voices but the majority appears to be happy with the existing set-up, thereby lending it democratic legitimacy  -  at least indirectly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There may not, at present, be any overwhelming demand for constitutional reform but things can change. In particular, a people's view of their political system and how it might evolve is likely to be influenced by the prevailing economic conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic outlook</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga's economy is not exactly booming with the most recent estimates suggesting a 2% GDP drop in 1995-96. Several of the traditional problems faced by developing countries are to be found writ large here. The local market is not just small but tiny by global standards, and this makes it exceptionally difficult to achieve economies of scale. There is heavy demand for imported manufactured items and few viable export opportunities to balance the equation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The education system compares favourably with those of other developing nations but the pool is so small that Tonga inevitably suffers from human resource shortages. This is exacerbated by a steady 'brain drain'. Qualified Tongans, who may already have experienced life abroad at college or university, are tempted by a range of attractions including higher salaries, better housing and more extensive career prospects. The skills shortage is particularly severe in the medical profession. In a recent issue of Matangi Tonga (the 'national news magazine'), it was reported that the country would only have one anaesthetist by 1997 - with a local doctor observing wryly that there was no need for one since the main hospital's only specialist surgeon had recently left to take up a post abroad.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it would be better for Tonga to retain its qualified people, the fact that the country 'exports' labour does have its positive side. Tongans have a strong sense of family and community, and overseas workers send significant amounts of money back home. This injection of 'foreign' funds boosts the local economy and reduces the overall balance of payments deficit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture is by far the most important economic sector, with most crops being grown for local consumption. The islands benefit from a fertile soil and a tropical climate, allowing the cultivation of a wide variety of fruit and vegetables. All land is vested in the Crown, with estates allocated to the nobles. By law, each adult male is also supposed to be allotted three hectares although there is not enough land to go round. Despite this difficulty, which means that some people do not receive their allocation, the result is that most Tongans are involved in farming. The advantage of the arrangement is that it guarantees a living for the bulk of the population even if their cash income is low. On the other hand, it is obviously a feudal system which favours the upper echelons of Tongan society. In addition, it tends to hinder the development of larger units which could benefit from economies of scale. While anxious to make farming more efficient (and export-oriented), the government currently has no plans to introduce land reform.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In export terms, the main crop is squash (pumpkins). Production increased dramatically in the early 1990s when a market niche was identified in Japan and it soon became the country's biggest foreign exchange-earner. More recently, income has been depressed, with overproduction in 1994 leading to a drop in prices, and poor rainfall the following year reducing yields. The November export figures for the last three years (November is the month when squash deliveries peak) illustrate the extent of Tonga's reliance on this single product. In November 1993, the country's overall export income was T$15m - more than half of the annual total. Twelve months later, the figure had dropped to T$9m and last year, it fell below T$6m. When The Courier visited Tonga, the authorities were talking about limiting the amount of squash exported to Japan this year to 15 000 tonnes, in the hope of maintaining premium prices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government is also acutely aware of the risks of mono-dependence and is looking for other outlets for its agricultural produce. Demand for copra, Tonga's traditional export, has apparently been reviving, but the price has not been high enough to attract local farmers back into the market. Other crops sold abroad include vanilla, cocoa, coffee, black pepper and ginger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One farmer who is doing his bit in the quest for export diversification is Masao Soakai, a former general manager of the Copra Board. He is now the managing director of a company that specialises in the import and export of produce. This energetic 73 year-old gave us a guided tour of the plots he had rented. He cultivates an astonishing range of different crops which include potatoes (for Fiji), cassava, taro, yams, carrots, broccoli, cauliflowers, strawberries, bananas and capsicums. He also rears cattle and pigs (a Tongan tradition). Masao Soakai stresses the importance of rotation in maintaining yields and believes strongly in planting for the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other sectors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wherever you happen to be in Tonga, the Pacific Ocean is never far away. Evidence of the country's maritime tradition can be found in accounts of the appropriately named William Mariner (see box article on this page). But while, in the past, Tongan vessels sailed far and wide, and the country has a huge exclusive economic zone (EEZ), the fishing industry is relatively undeveloped. The sector generates about 5% of GDP. A project sponsored jointly by the FAO and the UNDP revealed that there was considerable scope for expansion, both in the inshore and reef zones and in the deep sea area. The main species which could be exploited commercially are albacore, skipjack and yellowfin tuna. Tonga has received assistance to develop its fisheries from the USA and Japan, and the government has offered tax advantages in the hope of promoting investment, but there is still a long way to go before the country realises its full potential in this area. Hitherto, the country has not licensed foreign vessels to fish in its waters but there is talk of this policy changing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tourism could also generate a lot more income although it currently faces a number of infrastructural and practical constraints. The government is committed to expanding the sector but Mrs Papiloa Bloomlield Foliaki, the owner and manager of Nuku'alofa's third largest hotel (the 'Friendly Islander') feels that a lot more could be done. She pointed out to The Courier that a healthy tourist sector would provide employment as well as stimulating new business for food producers, builders and craft industries. She focused, in particular, on deficiencies in training and marketing, and suggested that some of the resources allocated to agriculture might be better spent in tackling these.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga's natural assets make it a 'dream' location for visitors looking for a complete change of scene - particularly if they happen to be keen on sailing, snorkelling or scuba diving. The problem is that the country is so far off the beaten track that it is expensive to get to (some would see this as an advantage in deterring mass tourism). Nothing much can be done to change this but it does mean that they have to aim at the upper end of the market. This requires top quality accommodation  -  of which there is a distinct shortage at the moment. As regards marketing, Mrs Foliaki was hopeful that the recent formation of a hotel association would enable the Tongan tourist industry to raise its profile abroad. Despite her optimism - echoed by all those we spoke to in official circles - the latest figures for visitor arrivals show a downturn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the manufacturing sector, the story is, sadly, one of long term decline. Clothing production ceased in 1994 and the output of leather items has been falling. There are very few industrial activities in which Tonga has a comparative advantage (whether actual, or potential) and this is something which is recognised locally. There may be some scope for adding value to agricultural products through processing but it is unlikely that industry will take off in a big way in the foreseeable future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sale of passports (see the interview with Prime Minister Baron Vaea) is an issue which attracted publicity - not all of it favourable - some years ago, when the government launched the TPPP (Tonga Protected Person's Passport). This was designed to be a travel document which did not confer the right of residence in the country. The authorities adopted the scheme with an eye firmly on Hong Kong, a British colony which is due to be transferred to China in 1997. Some passports were sold but the project never really took off as the immigration authorities of other countries refused to accept the document. Now there are suggestions that the idea may be revived, although this time involving normal passports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The foregoing survey of Tonga's economy does not paint a particularly happy picture but it should be stressed that there is very little real poverty in the islands. In many ways, the informal economy is more important, and subsistence agriculture and fishing ensure that people do not go hungry. With their traditional family structures and strong attachment to the Christian faith, the Tongans have not yet encountered many of the social problems associated with more consumption-oriented societies. But to paraphrase a famous saying, 'no nation is an island' nowadays - even if it happens to be surrounded by water! In an era of increasing globalisation, the key question is how to manage change. Let us hope that the people of Tonga can find the right answer. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview, Prime Minister Baron Vaea</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Constrained by our geography'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No-one can accuse Tonga's Prime Minister of being a starry-yed optimist. As the following interview reveals, Baron Vaea, who heads a twelve-member ministerial team, is refreshingly honest about the economic difficulties facing his small island country. The Courier interviewed him in July, at his office in Nuku'alofa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have suffered a GDP drop and a general slowdown of activity in recent years. What is the government doing to restore the situation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is true that the economy has been declining. The main cause is the excessive demand from the private sector for imports from New Zealand and Australia, combined with diminishing exports. Our exports fell when the price of copra dropped. Another problem is New Zealand's quarantine rules. New Zealand is very particular on quarantine against insects, notably fruit flies, which may damage their own export trade. We have endeavoured to balance this out by selling squash to Japan and indeed, it has been a saviour as far as our economy is concerned. Squash is something our farmers know how to grow. Of course, the market goes up and down. Recently, we made the mistake of over-producing and quite a lot of the crop could not be sold abroad. I think our farmers are now realising this, and that they have to plant according to the quota that we ourselves have imposed. Tourism is another important area although levels of room occupancy are very dependent</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">on the economic situation in other countries. Then there are passport sales.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is this something you are still doing ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, but it has been hit by technical difficulties. A number of Hong Kong Chinese bought our Tongan Protected Persons Passport (TPPP) in the hope that they could travel. The immigration authorities in other countries decided they would not accept the document so this source of income dried up. We have changed to national passports which people can use to travel. We are hoping to revive this in order to suit the conditions of the Hong Kong people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is this being done on the assumption that the people who purchase such a passport would not ultimately settle here ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. The main reason people in Hong Kong want a passport is to keep open the option of leaving after the changeover.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Has this policy prompted any criticism from other countries ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No. The main problem is the Chinese themselves who are due to take over Hong Kong next year. It is possible that they will not recognise these passports. We are planning to have discussions with the Chinese on this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Going back to the agricultural sector, are you not putting too many eggs in one basket in focusing so heavily on squash. What efforts are you making to diversify ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We have just signed a trade agreement with Fiji. They are such a close neighbour yet we have had virtually no trade with them. This should change with the agreement, to the benefit of our economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What products are we talking about here ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Mainly vegetables, particularly those that are favoured by the Indian community, such as chills and spices. A trade mission has just returned from Fiji where they picked up a number of orders. The representative of a group of growers also recently returned from Japan. He took a sample of dried pawpaw, a crop which is popular with the Japanese, and apparently received an excellent response. This is an area which is promising.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key issue, however, is the amount of space available in the aeroplane. You can't ask everyone to grow pawpaw when the airline tells us that they can only take eight tonnes at a time. Only a limited number of farmers can be involved, so that we can continue to supply the tonnage that the airline can handle. We will encourage the rest of the farmers to concentrate on other products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is your policy regarding foreign investment ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We encourage overseas investors to engage in activities that local people are not involved in. Land leases are available for anything they want to do which fits in with this policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga has an extremely limited manufacturing sector and there appears to have been a long-term decline. What prospects are there for reversing this trend ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - For many years, the policy of the government has been to encourage exports. We have had entrepreneurs here who have exported things like woollen garments, small boats, horse saddles and so on - but it didn't last. The sad fact is that hardy anything is exported from Tonga. The main reason is that we are constrained by our geography. We are so far away from the main markets. The raw materials have to be brought in and by the time the article is finished, there is no way that it can compete in price terms. This has always been our problem. We are always looking for new markets but it is not easy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A second limitation is the private sector in Tonga. This is weak in terms of technology, marketing and product quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about further processing of local products - perhaps value-added agricultural activity ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, this is something that we would hope to do, though the same kinds of problem arise. People don't set up the processing plant because they say there isn't enough local cultivation to make it worthwhile. And the farmers don't grow the crop because they say there is no market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So it is 'chicken and egg' situation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. The result is that people only grow for home consumption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I should mention here that there are other resources we have yet to exploit, notably in our waters. We have reserved these for ourselves and do not allow foreign fishing vessels. So we are trying to recover resources from the sea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also the possibility of drilling for oil. Research ships operating in the Pacific have found a limited number of locations where it would be worth looking for oil reserves and two of them are in our waters. We have been publicising this with a view to encouraging further exploration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· This would presumably involve drilling licences for oil multinationals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. Some companies have done this in the past although only on a small scale. The answer we got from the oil companies is that they are interested in exploitation - but not now because of the low oil price. When the price goes up, I think we may attract interest again but that is clearly only a long term possibility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A lot of young Tongans leave the islands to work overseas. What is the explanation for this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is true that a high percentage of our population migrates. These are people in search of a better life, who seek to reap the benefits of their abilities by working overseas. They can have a nice house and get a good education for their children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I should stress that we have a good education system here but there is a heavy emphasis on gaining qualifications in order to get into the civil service. Where we are lacking is in the field of technical education. We have some facilities of course - an Institute of Science and Technology and a Marine Institute to train people to go to sea. This is very much in its infancy and we hope it will help for the future. But even some who have gone through this system end up looking for jobs overseas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Turning to political issues, you have a monarchy here which is still very powerful. Do you anticipate any changes in the system ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - There has been some public pressure for change. I don't think people want a radical upheaval but there is a feeling in certain quarters that the present system could be improved upon. As you probably know, Parliament has nine members elected by the people and a further nine selected by the 28 nobles from among their own number. The third component is the government -  12 ministers who are appointed by the King. It has been suggested that qualified people who don't presently sit in Parliament should be there to help deal with the economy. One idea is to change the Constitution so that whole population elects 30 members. The King would then choose his ministers from these 30.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Has this idea made any headway ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  No, not so far. We are maintaining the old system. The proposal has been aired but it hasn't been passed in the House. There are a lot of people, I think, who prefer the present system because they feel the monarchy works for the benefit of all the people. Would a new team necessarily stick to this principle? There must be a danger that they would tend to favour just one section of the population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can you comment, finally, on Tonga' relations with its partners in development cooperation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - As you know, we have good relations with the EU through the Lom&eacute; Convention. We also have strong bilateral links with Australia and New Zealand which have been giving us assistance. But I think we have to face up to the fact that the aid cannot continue. The UK, for example, used to provide us with our judges. That has been taken over by Australia and New Zealand -  but for how long ? I think it is bound to be phased out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So we will continue to have relations with our partners, but we need to recognise that they are concentrating their efforts now and adapt accordingly. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 669 km². Tonga has about 170 small islands and four main island groups (Tongatapu, Ha'apai, Vava'u and the Niuas). It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of approximately 700 000 km,). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Nuku'alofa (situated on Tongatapu) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 99 000 (1994 census) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population density: 149 per kilometre² </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth (1992): 68 years Official languages: Tongan and English Currency: Pa'anga (T$) made up of 100 seniti. The currency is pegged to the Australian dollar. In September 1996, 1 ECU was worth T$ 1.57 (US$1 T$ 1.22)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p32.png"></center><br>
+ Tonga</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Polities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">System of government: Constitutional monarchy based on the Constitution promulgated in 1875. Considerable powers remain vested in the King. The Parliament has 31 members  -  the Speaker, 12 ministers (including the Governors of Vava'u and Ha'apai) who are appointed by the King, 9 nobles chosen by the 33 members of the nobility and 9 People's Representatives elected by universal suffrage. There are no political parties although there has been talk of setting up a 'people's Party'. The twelve cabinet ministers hold office until they reach retirement age.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Head of State: King Taufa'ahau Tupou IV</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Baron Vaea of Houma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy (estimated 1995 figures unless otherwise stated) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual GDP per capita: approx US $1900</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP growth rate: -2% (1995/96)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Principal exports: squash, vanilla, manufactured goods and fish. In the early 1990s, squash accounted for more than half the country's total export income. In 1995, however, the harvest was affected by drought and exports dropped significantly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balance of payments: A trade deficit of US $38.8m (exports  -  US $18.3m, imports  -  US $57.1 m). The current account deficit is much smaller thanks to 'invisible' earnings, notably from tourism and remittances from Tongans living overseas. Inflation rate (April 1995): 4.5%. Total external debt: T$ 44m (1993)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: Tonga in Profile (on the Internet -  http: 11l www. netstorage. com/kami/ tonga) Economic Intelligence Unit Country Report 1996. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with peoples representative, Teisina Fuko</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'There is much more political awareness'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People's representative, Teisina Fuko offers an alternative view</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While Tonga has no political parties, and the main levers of power remain in the hands of the monarch, it would be a mistake to conclude that there is no questioning of the status quo in this small Pacific kingdom. As The Courier discovered on its recent visit, Tongans are happy to speak openly about their political system and to criticise (or praise) aspects of it me local media may not be particularly extensive but it nonetheless allowe for different viewpoints to be expressed, including criticism of the authorities. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Those who advocate political reforms in Tonga face something of an uphill struggle. There is no overwhelming demand for change and although the lever of popular support for the current system is not easy to judge, there appears to be widespread acquiescence  -  which effectively amounts to the same thing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, the focus of 'opposition' has tended to be within the ranks of the people's representatives who sit in Parliament We spoke to one of these elected members, Teisina Fuko, who comes from the Ha'apai island group and began by asking how democratic the thought the system was.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I would say about 50%. Up until the 1970s, the system was very traditional but we now seem to be westernising quite quickly. People are returning from overseas with different ideas and this is having an impact on the way we are governed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think you will ultimately have a Parliament whose members are all elected by universal franchise ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I would say it is more certain now than ever before. There is much more political awareness. We see it in the schools, where children are being taught to think independently. There are also the new economic trends -  commercialisation and the focus on foreign earnings which imply the need for modernisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You sound quite enthusiastic about the 'westernisation' process. Are you not concerned about the possible negative aspects in terms of the survival of your traditional culture ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think we have to strike a balance. We mustn't go to extremes. Our culture and traditions are important but there are new things we need to take on board and some old habits we should drop. Take business opportunities: we have to be more democratic in this area. If one group has all the power then they will tend to favour their friends which isn't necessarily efficient. What it boils down to is a lack of checks and balances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the present economic difficulties, I also think we need to move quite quickly. I recently wrote an article arguing that the King should transfer his power to appoint ministers to the people. Ministers should be elected so that they can be accountable to the taxpayer. We are a close-knit family here and there is no question of getting rid of the monarchy. But we need to sit down and hammer out a compromise which will allow us to improve our economy and make it more competitive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let me give you a practical example. Defence is now third on our list of priorities. That doesn't make sense to me. We would be better spending the money on economic development. We also need to boost the private sector so it can create jobs, instead of tying its hands. At present, 50% of our revenue goes on paying civil servants. What for 7 It may create employment, but it is not productive. So the government has to be minimised. Having said this, there are some positive signs. I am glad, for example, to see new blood being brought into the ministerial team.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Parliament is currently composed of three groups - twelve ministers, nine nobles and nine people's representatives. On paper, that suggests that no group can dominate ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Yes, but the ministers and nobles often work together and we are  outvoted. It is difficult to imagine the nobles saying 'no' to the King although, to be fair, they do sometimes abstain and some of them recognise the need for certain reforms to the system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Turning to the economy, which areas do you think offer the best development prospects ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-  Tonga's potential lies in fishing. We are an island nation that has always depended on the resources of the sea and we have the necessary labour force. What the people need is the know-how  -  advanced technologies to develop this sector. We also have to set up credit programmes so that people can invest in boats and equipment. I believe we should spend a lot more on fishing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately the government does not take the same view. It has put a lot of resources into small industries, airlines and so on. Yet the reality is that these sectors are in decline. Manufacturing has fallen and so have agricultural exports. Fishing is the only sector that is expanding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about the prospects for agriculture ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think we have reached the limit in this sector. There is very little scope for expansion. I also believe we should be concentrating on what we can produce to use locally. There is very little more we can do in terms of commercial exploitation. Tonga is somewhat overcrowded and we cannot use too many chemicals because the water table is so low.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· One local issue, which presumably has economic implications, concerns the possible expulsion of foreigners who have been here for a certain amount of time. Apparently, the decision has been taken not to renew certain residence permits. What is your view on this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think Tonga should encourage skilled people who are here to stay. We should use make use of their skills, particularly where they have expertise that is lacking locally. At the same time, there are some people here who just came for a visit and ended up staying without doing anything very productive. There are also a number who came after the coup in Fiji and I think we should give them some leeway.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the whole, I don't think it is a big problem. Tonga has traditionally been very liberal in the application of its immigration law. We have never been colonised so we tend not to have a suspicion of foreigners. And whatever we do must be in accordance with the law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Could you sum up your vision for the future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  You only need to look around you to see that we have a youthful population here: a lot of young people who need to be catered for. We are investing heavily in education which I think is good but we need to do more to adapt to the changing world. We were peaceful in the past because most Tongans were on roughly the same level in terms of wealth. Now the poor are getting poorer while the rich get richer. This could lead to an increase in social tensions. With a more democratic system, we should be able to close the gap and work for a peaceful and more prosperous future. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Seeking business overseas</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Minister outlines economic strategy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the policy of appointing Ministers for life - or at least until retirement age - is maintained, then Dr Giulio Masasso Tu'ikolongahau Paunga can look forward to a long career in the Tonga Cabinet. At just 32, he has recently been been given the job of Minister for Labour, Commerce and Industries (with responsibility also for tourism). He may be relatively young, but the new minister has impressive academic credentials. He took a master's degree in Japan (in Japanese) and as we soon discovered, he has some new ideas about how to achieve economic development in his country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr Masasso's portfolio covers a wide range of economic activities and we began by asking what he thought the main focus of his work would be. He identified three areas  -  agriculture, which is the single most important sector; fisheries which has potential for growth; and tourism. He would also like to see more manufacturing, particularly for export, but acknowledged that the current prospects in this area were very limited.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking first at agricultural production for export, we noted that a significant change had taken place over the last decade. Coconut-related products had been largely replaced by squash, a 'gap' in the Japanese market having been identified when other sources of supply were not available. Tonga may have been the first to spot the opportunity but was there not a danger that other countries might 'muscle in'? The government was 'very aware of this danger', said the Minister and was trying very hard to diversify its export products. He mentioned vanilla, papaya, beans and, in particular, carrots. The last-mentioned crop grows well in the islands and there is apparently a growing taste for carrot juice in Japan. A list of products with export potential, which could be grown successfully in Tonga, had been drawn up in cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture, and Dr Masasso's department would be actively seeking new business overseas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government is obviously interested in developing trade with Japan and other countries in Asia, but the Minister felt that New Zealand and Australia were likely to remain the principal markets for Tongan farm products in the future. He was looking forward to easier access to New Zealand once new quarantine facilities had been set up at the international airport on Tongatapu. This, he said, should allow for a larger throughput of export crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efficiency, of course, is the key to winning and keeping overseas customers. With this in mind, our discussion turned to the land tenure system. The allocation (at least in theory) of parcels of land to all male Tongans discourages the development of larger farms or plantations. Was this the most effective way of exploiting the country's fertile lands? Dr Masasso acknowledged that the system hampered efficiency but stressed that the question was a very sensitive one. The right to cultivate a plot of land is deeply rooted in Tongan culture, and radical changes to the property laws are not on the agenda. As the Minister put it; 'We are trying to maximise our efficiency under the present system of land tenure.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning to tourism, Dr Masasso observed that 'this has been the most stable industry over the past ten years,' bringing an average of T$ 12 million into the country every year. In looking at possible growth, however, he stressed the need to take account of the environmental and cultural impact. 'Tonga is a very small country, and it would not be right to build too many hotels and related facilities. It might be possible, but the long-term effects would be a little too much for the country.' Dr Masasso said he favoured tourism which has 'e closer relationship with people -  a cultural exchange, targeting people who really wish to understand our country.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fishing is a sector which appears to have huge potential given the size of Tonga's exclusive economic zone. Dr Masasso explained how Japanese assistance was being used in a boat building scheme designed to produce vessels that local people could afford. He also spoke enthusiastically of the research that had been carried out to determine the nature and size of the fish stocks. He recognised, however, that while most of Tonga's fishing was inshore, there was scope for a great deal more revenue from deep-sea fishing. In this connection, negotiations were underway with the United States, Taiwan and Japan, to allow vessels from these nations to fish in Tongan waters. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conversation then moved on to the more general issue of entrepreneurship and the role of the state in the economy. The Minister indicated that the government believed in privatisation but stressed that this was not simply 'because other countries are doing ft.' The main issue at this stage, he said, was to create a sufficiently large pool of well-trained people to take over activities currently run by the authorities. 'The government wishes it didn't need to get involved but we are a small developing nation, and to get things started, you need capital and know-how  - which locals sometimes don't have access to.' In these circumstances, the state had to activate projects which could later be privatised once the necessary skills had been built up. Another 'major strategy' was to develop a much closer relationship between the Ministry and the private sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This led us into a discussion about Tonga's attitude to foreign investors who might also be in a position to supply capital and know-how. The authorities had recently threatened that a number of residence permits would not be renewed. Was this not a disincentive to potential overseas investors ? Dr Masasso was keen to offer clarification. 'The media makes it look as if Tonga doesn't like investors but they have misinterpeted the situation. He insisted; 'we want the foreign investment here and are encouraging it in those areas where locals cannot get involved.' Defending the actions of the immigration authorities, the Minister stressed that what they were doing was normal practice. 'Those who stay here illegally and do not extend their visa have to be deported.' The action, he argued, was not directed against foreign investors and indeed, the latter should be encouraged by the government's commitment to upholding the law.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Tonga-EU cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing the Vava'u islands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Myfanwy van de Velde</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EC-Tonga cooperation began in 1975 with the first Lom&eacute; Convention, soon after Tonga gained full independence in 1970. Grant aid totalling ECU 19.8m (Lom&eacute; I - Lom&eacute; IV) has been allocated to the country during its 20-year membership of the Convention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Lom&eacute; I, funds were directed principally towards two main projects: the construction of the wharf at Neiafu, Vava'u, and funding for the Ministry of Works to procure road maintenance equipment and build schools, rural health centres and small wharves at Ha'apai and Vava'u. Remaining funds were used to finance studies involving dredging, trade promotion and designs for Vava'u and Faua fisheries harbours. The EIB also financed a line of credit of ECU 130 000, under Lom&eacute; I, to the Tonga Development Bank.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lom&eacute; II funds focused on the fisheries sector, and on initiating works relating to the upgrading of the Vava'u airport. There were also projects in the fisheries sector, aimed at encouraging fishermen to undertake commercial fishing to meet local demand. To this end, the Faua Fisheries Harbour for small boats was built, and marketing and cold storage facilities were provided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By the time Lom&eacute; III funds came on stream, Tonga had adopted a regional development approach with regard to its various island groups. The aim was to have a coherent development programme taking account of the specific constraints and potential of each. The Vava'u group of islands became identified as the focal area for the use of EC assistance, and Lom&eacute; III resources (ECU 6.5m in grants and ECU 0.5m in the form of risk capital to be managed by the EIB) as well as Lom&eacute; IV funds (ECU 6m and ECU 1 m respectively) have duly focused on its development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Located in the north of the Kingdom, Vava'u is the second group of islands both in terms of population (16 000) and land area. With an abundance of natural resources, the group is thought to have greater potential for agriculture and tourism than other parts of the Kingdom. However, this potential was largely untapped at the time Lom&eacute; III was initiated. This was due to a variety of constraining factors including relatively low productivity, undeveloped marketing infrastructures, substantial import levels and poor distribution of utilities and other public services. One particular constraint preventing the development of tourism was limited access caused by a lack of transport infrastructures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two main projects aimed at addressing these problems have been implemented. The first, costing ECU 1.24m, involved completing the upgrading of the local airport at Lupepau'u (begun under Lom&eacute; II). In addition to runway improvements, a new terminal building was provided, complete with safety and navigational equipment. Passengers began using the new facilities in early 1995. The second project, entitled the 'Vava'u Development Programme', was allocated the sum of ECU 5m. This money is being used to pay for a series of activities including road upgrading, the provision of photovoltaic equipment for household energy needs and the supply of equipment for vocational training colleges. New buildings being funded include health clinics, a market and an agricultural quarantine building. The funds also cover the cost of establishing the Vava'u Development Unit as the monitoring and implementing agency for the programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Programme continues under Lom&eacute; IV, with about 85% of programmable resources for Tonga (approximately ECU 5m) set aside for activities in the focal area. Funds will be directed towards developing the Neiafu urban area, in recognition of the need to upgrade access and services in the commercial centre of Vava'u. The projects envisaged include upgrading the town centre and urban roads, port improvements, and measures to increase the capacity and improve the distribution of piped and rain water to households. In addition, a multi-annual micro-projects programme will lead to the construction of jetties on the inhabited outer islands of Vava'u, thereby improving access to Neiafu which is the main centre of the archipelago.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the above grant aid, Tonga has received funds in the form of Stabex transfers for losses in export earnings in respect of coconut products, bananas and vanilla. It also received emergency aid in 1977, following an earthquake, and in 1982 following Hurricane Isaac.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EIB interventions have contributed to the share capital of the Tonga Development Bank and have increased the Bank's lending capacity to small and medium-sized enterprises. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Switching on the Iights</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uelingatoni Tevita Vaea (known as 'T' to his friends), proved to be a mine of information for The Courier, when we visited the Vava'u island group in northern Tonga recently. 'T' is a Tongan engineer who returned to his native land from Australia to work as assistant project manager in the Vava'u Development Unit. His help was particularly useful during the highlight of our visit - a traditional celebratory feast laid on by the villagers of Nuapapu. This is one of Vava'u's inhabited outer islands and the celebration was staged to mark the installation of solar powered lighting, courtesy of Lom&eacute; Convention funds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nuapapu is one of a number of outlying villages to receive solar installations under the Vava'u Development Programme. In all, some 350 homes have been wired up. Units attached to individual buildings collect the power and convert it into electricity which is stored in a battery. When night falls, the lights can then be switched on. Although the bulk of the installation costs are covered by the project, each participating household is required to pay a lump sum to have a unit fitted. They are also contracted to pay a modest amount each month towards maintenance of the system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It may all seem rather prosaic to those of us accustomed to electrical power at the flick of a switch, but for the people of the villages in the Vava'u group, the project is little short of revolutionary. For centuries, their daily rhythm has been governed largely by the rising and setting of the sun. The only 'artificial' light available after darkness came from fuel-burning (and more recently, battery) torches or lamps  - enough perhaps to reveal a path or highlight the position of an object, but certainly not to read or do intricate work with one's hands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The formal 'switching on' ceremony was performed by the Dutch Ambassador, Mr van Thessen and Jonathan Rodwell, who is the European Commission's resident advisor in Tonga. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was preceded by a courtesy visit to the village chief and the above-mentioned feast, which gave the European visitors an authentic and memorable taste of traditional Tongan hospitality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The food was brought from all quarters of the village on long rectangular trays covered with leaves. Each was laden with food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fare was predominantly local: the famous roast pigs featured prominently along with fish, chicken, bananas, coconuts and a variety of root and tuber vegetables.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were also some 'imported' items: the corned beef which is so popular here, some packets of crisps to add colour to the guest 'table' and boiled sweets woven into garlands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The trays were laid end to end, stretching perhaps 20 metres and woven mats were placed all around. Having received our garlands of flowers, we were invited to sit down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The feast was interspersed by various speeches and 'T' helped out with a translation and explanation of the proceedings. We began with a prayer in Tongan, delivered by the local minister. This was followed by a speech of welcome and thanks by the matapule (spokesman) of the village chief.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High ranking people in Tonga always have a matapule to speak on their behalf on such occasions. Ambassador van Thessen and Mr Rodwell then replied on behalf of the guests, (in English, with consecutive translation provided).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They expressed thanks to the people of Nuapapu for their hospitality and wished them success with their new electric lighting. There was then a short discourse by the District Officer followed by a closing prayer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">References to all this speechmaking could leave a false impression that this was a formal and stilted affair.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact the reverse was very much the case: the mood was relaxed throughout and there is no doubt that the villagers know how to enjoy themselves. Music was supplied by a group of men playing a variety of instruments and the women joined in the festivities with what appeared to be spontaneous bursts of dancing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were also special solo dances performed by two young ladies whose bodies had been smeared with coconut oil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As tradition dictates, once their performances (involving highly expressive hand and finger movements) were complete, the audience expressed their appreciation by slapping banknotes on the oily exposed surfaces of the dancers' bodies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The light was fading as the feast ended and we moved to the brief 'lighting up' ceremony, carried out to the accompaniment of applause.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guests (including the staff of the Vava'u Development Unit who have guided the project through its various stages) then took their leave of this hospitable community and set off by boat on the return journey to Neiafu. As the vessel drew away from the shore, we were able to look up and see, for the first time, the twinkling lights of Nuapapu. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dossier</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Habitat</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Livable cities and rural rights</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Dossier coordinated by Debra Percival and  Claude Smets)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United Nations Conference, Habitat 11, on human settlements (Istanbul, June 3-14 1996) exposed the Herculean task of addressing the problems of ever-growing cities and called for 'shelter for all.' The special contribution of civil society in making cities more liveable was acknowledged at the conference - but the big question is, who will foot the bill ? The meeting also spoke of improving dwellings in rural areas to keep people on the land and halt the mass exodus to the cities. But the right to remain and prosper from one's habitat can be at odds with outside pressures for environmental conservation. The dossier looks at some of the issues raised by the conference, and the wider significance of 'Habitat II' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second UN gathering on the theme of 'habitat', staged two decades after the first conference in Vancouver, took place against a backdrop of rapid and alarming urban growth. In 1900, one person in ten lived in a city. By 1948, the ratio was three in ten and by the year 2000 half the world's population are expected to be urban dwellers. 25 years after that, the figure is expected to have climbed to 60%. Africa is the region that currently has the highest rate of urban growth. In 1950, it had only one city with a population of one million. By the end of this decade there could be 60 cities of this size, according to UN figures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The focus on human settlements and liveable cities inevitably meant that Habitat II covered some of the same ground as other UN conferences convened during the 1990s to explore the big issues facing mankind: the 1992 'Earth Summit' on environmental matters in Rio de Janeiro, the 1994 Population Conference in Cairo, the 1995 Social Summit in Copenhagen and the 1995 Women's Conference in Beijing. Issues common to all the agendas included rapid population growth, environmental degradation, access to clean water, poor sanitation, lack of infrastructures, and women's issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rallying calls of Habitat II, set out in the Conference's conclusions, were 'shelter for all' and 'sustainable human settlements in an urbanising world.' The Nairobi-based Centre for Human Settlements is to be the focus for the follow-up. But as delegates dispersed, one of the pressing questions was where the money will come from to meet the host of agreed objectives -  which include clean water with improved technology, conservation and protection of the environment, and better health and education. In this dossier, European Commission officials from the Development Directorate General, who attended the conference, reflect on Istanbul and its likely followup.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whereas in the past, cities were associated with economic development, innovation and the diffusion of new ideas, nowadays they conjure up the vision of urban poverty, environmental degradation, poor sanitation and a host of health hazards. Urbanisation is the direct consequence of rapid population growth, according to the 1993 Human Development Report. In 1965, agriculture provided 77% of employment in developing countries and represented more than 41 % of Gross Domestic Product. By 1985, this sector was contributing a lot less to GDP but was still providing 72% of all employment. So a large number of people continue to depend on agriculture although its share of the global economy is declining. In these circumstances, it not surprising that many of the world's poorest people are migrating to cities - the annual estimate is 20-30 million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The dossier looks, in particular, at the environmental cost of rampant urbanisation and at the problems of city living for more vulnerable groups such as women. They are often among the poorest urban dwellers and can fall victim to exploitation and crime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paradoxically, poor people in cities are becoming even poorer as economies improve. Additional pressures on these marginalised groups living in cities are neatly summed up by Jeremy Seabrook, author of 'In the Cities of the South.' In a recent article for Gemini news agency: 'Tougher Struggle for Survival in the Concrete Jungle,' he writes; 'As the pace of development quickens, with high economic growth and increased migration to urban areas, land price in most big cities have soared. Poor people are being increasingly removed from their hoary" - by mysterious fires, explosions and 'accidents'. Meanwhile, the urban poor's ability to mobilise and achieve has been used against them. The capacity of people to create homes and secure local communities has been used as a justification for the withdrawal of government services.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He continues: 'As inequalities become more glaring, enclaves of prosperity are sealed off from the slums by checkpoints, guards and fences - like frontiers to another country. Despite this, people are still flocking to the city  -  often refugees from intensifying, industrialised agriculture and.. megaprojects in the countryside...' Mr Seabrook points out that without decent jobs, they fall prey to sub-contractors, who exploit them, offering them low pay and demanding that they work long hours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Civil society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the cities of many developing nations, 'civil society' is taking a lead, with projects to bridge the gap between the 'haves' end the 'have note'. Numerous participants at the Istanbul conference applauded the urban programmes undertaken by various elements of civil society, which include NGOs, community groups and individuals. Their significance was recognised in Istanbul, where their voice came through loud and clear. Nigerian journalist, Paul Okunlola, writing in this dossier notes a move towards 'bottom up' projects in Lagos as a result of the tough times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agostinho Jardim Gon&ccedil;alves, the President of the NGO-EU Liaison Committee, was particularly pleased at the input of civil society to the conference's committees and conclusions. The debate, he said, had not just been about the macroeconomic aspects. Instead, it had come 'within the reach of the populations themselves.' The people, he argued, were both victims of the anomalies of inhumane settlement and the key players in efforts to construct a humane, dignified habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeremy Seabrook describes some of the inspiring international initiatives undertaken by civil society. Examples include the Society for the Promotion of Area Resource Centres (SPARC) in Bombay, which works with pavement dwellers; the Association of Basic Needs (ARBAN), and 'Health for All' in Dhaka; the Eddie Guazon Foundation in Manila, which seeks to protect the poor against private interests; and the Foundation for Women, which is trying to tackle the trafficking of girls for Bangkok's brothels. But Mr Seabrook also warns against overestimating the strengths of popular organisation. As he points out: 'They require an enabling and positive framework, which the free market can never provide. Government intervention, of a more benign and positive kind than hitherto, is vital if people are to help themselves. As it is, too often they are forced to struggle against the people elected to govern them.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chair of the Habitat Conference, Wally N'Dow, emphasised local solutions. The conference, he said, 'recognised the changing global patterns of life' and that solutions must be found at the local level. 'National governments and international agencies', he argued, were not in a position to solve massive urban problems or to pay to put them right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were a number of donor pledges at the conference. The European Union countries, for example, reiterated their long-standing commitment to provide 0.7% of GNP for development by the year 2000  -  though many of the 15 member states are still well short of this target.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One scheme which has attracted the particular interest of donors is South Africa's Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP). To a considerable extent, the success of President Mandela's government is likely to be judged on the success of this programme. It aims, among other things, to improve health, education, housing and sanitation and as such, it mirrors many of the 'Habitat II' goals. Launched in 1994, it is the centrepiece of the South African government's efforts to create a more democratic, prosperous, non-racial and non-sexist society. In the dossier, we look at the RDP's objectives, how it is faring and what sort of support the EU is giving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond the city, the dossier looks at what is happening to some rural dwellers who have not taken flight to the city. Although, largely focused on the city, Habitat II acknowledged the importance of urban and rural linkages in its conclusions: 'Rural and urban settlements are interdependent... governments must work to extend adequate infrastructure and opportunities to rural areas to increase their attractiveness and thereby minimise... migration.' There was mention too of the need for more jobs and housing for rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But in some rural areas, the inhabitants have found themselves in dispute with conservationists. The latter seek to protect wildlife and the rural habitat by setting up national parks - a solution which is not necessarily in the interests of local people struggling to maintain their livelihood. We take a look at such dilemmas and the possible solutions being developed so that rural dwellers can continue to make the most of their habitat. This rural struggle, where solutions are also being called for at a local level, is not unlike the battle being waged for a better quality of life in the cities. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Towards a global concept of urban development - an interview with Daby Diagne</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deputy mayor of the city of Louga, Daby Diagne is also President of the Finance Committee of Senegal's National Assembly, General Secretary of the Association of Mayors of Senegal and President of the World Federation of United Cities. He is the ACP-EU Joint Assembly's General Rapporteur on urban development and The Courier had the opportunity to interview him in September at the Assembly's meeting in Luxembourg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have just submitted an initial report on urban development to the Joint Assembly. In it, you recommend that the Community adopt a specific and consistent global policy in this field, notwithstanding the fact that successive Lom&eacute; Conventions have contained a number of significant provisions relating to the subject. What is the reasoning behind your recommendation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - There are several reasons. First, there is the fact that, in the past, cities were often viewed solely in terms of infrastructures and sectors. Experience shows that this approach is not effective. Specialists are increasingly opting for a more global 'city' concept. The Commission must therefore adapt itself to the new situation. It is true that it has financed infrastructures and launched health and clean-up programmes, but the problem is that this has been done in a somewhat unsystematic way without being linked to long-term regional development or a zonal policy. There is now an increasing need for an integrated regional development approach. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think ACP countries are aware of the importance of cities ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That's another question altogether. Obviously, the ACP countries are in the process of changing their views on this subject and a number have appointed ministers to look after urban affairs. The reality of city life has to be taken into account. The rate of urban growth in the ACPs far exceeds that in other parts of the world and it is in the towns and cities that one sees the most glaring instances of poverty and under-development. People have therefore been forced to take the 'city' phenomenon into account in the ACP countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The political will must exist for a policy to be successful. Do the ACP countries have a genuine will to implement an urban policy ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I don't think it is possible to speak of a uniform trend in all ACP states. However, in certain regions - for example in West Africa, which I know well - a municipal culture is beginning to take shape. There is a growing political will, which is illustrated by the discussions on decentralisation, and people are increasingly recognising that central government cannot do everything by itself. One can find regional development and planning policies designed to create the fabric of mediumsized cities. Not everyone has them but it is something we are seeing more and more of.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· ACP countries face complex challenges and there are people who say that the actions of the European Community are too dispersed owing to the number of sectors it is involved in. Doesn't your recommendation simply add to this problem ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - On the contrary. I regard my recommendation as being pro-integration and therefore pro-globalisation  - which is not the complete opposite of a sectoral, diversified approach. I believe it would allow the Union's activities in certain fields to be better interlinked. I am thinking here of water, health, clean-up operations and infrastructures  - all of which are major problems for society. Naturally, a more global concept will require greater dedication, and if there are additional resources, so much the better, but, in my view, the situation could be improved even with what we currently have available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The rate of urbanisation in Africa is higher than elsewhere and the living conditions of city dwellers - particularly those in the shanty towns  -  are becoming increasingly difficult in terms of health, education, environment and so on. What, in your opinion, would be the optimum strategy for reversing the decline, at least in the short-term ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - First of all, I think we have to make a distinction here. Let's take the actual rate of urbanisation. Contrary to what is generally thought, this is lower than in the rest of the world. In other words, Africa has fewer towns and cities than the rest of the world. It is the rate of growth in the urban population that is higher. Populations are becoming increasingly concentrated in the cities, with the drift of people from the countryside. In addition, the phenomenon is being fed by demographic trends. You ask me if there is anything we can do to halt this. There are actions that can be taken to restore some balance. For example, we could make investments in the rural environment to keep people in the countryside, and we could implement suitable agricultural policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But we must not labour under too many illusions, because life in towns and cities will be an inevitable characteristic of the next century. Economists and urban planners have been considering the phenomenon for a long time now - perhaps 30 or 40 years. It is  something that cannot be halted, because it is a fact of civilisation. So, what should we do? Above all, we should devote our efforts to regional development, achieving a balanced distribution of human resources, and a more equitable exploitation of natural resources. Power has to be decentralised so that people do not abandon their roots but face up to local challenges. And we have to implement urban policies which are satisfactory in terms of investment, management and popular participation. In simple terms, urbanisation has to be managed. We cannot hope to reverse the trend overnight, particularly in the case of a continent like Africa where everything happens quickly. Africa is enormous and its population has not yet reached its maximum levels. We have to take all this into account.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We must acknowledge that scientific progress and improvements in the field of health have contributed to population growth, and a reduction in mortality rates. This means that urban civilisation is a reality that we have to manage. There is a risk of uncontrolled growth in urban centres. When infrastructures are lacking, when there is no water, when hygiene cannot be guaranteed and when there is no work, a country's security is threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have mentioned democracy end the decentralisation of government This also requires adequate financial resources. Where do you think the ACP countries will find the money to implement decentralisation strategies ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Democracy involves a search for freedom - freedom of opinion and expression, independent of material or financial problems. The problem with decentralisation lies in administrative method. It is not purely a matter of money. In the first instance, it is a question of choosing the right approach. It has been demonstrated that without any extra resources, one can still act differently by delegating and decentralising. And success is much more likely because the people are involved in the process. Admittedly, it requires an internal reallocation of resources. A proportion of everything that was formerly centralised has to be allocated to development and to basic needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To answer your question more directly, there is a great deal of talk of this alternative method of governing. It is inspiring new hope and a thirst for something better. It is even being viewed as an 'ideal' solution - which it cannot be entirely. However, by decentralising human and economic resources, and by allowing people to participate, hope can be inspired at local level. This should make for better administration and support, which is an improvement in itself. Of course, this may make people more demanding. Will it satisfy their requirements? As I have already said, internal resources will have to be reallocated, but resources must also come from outside. One cannot make an allout effort for decentralisation without doing something to improve international cooperation. This cooperation, however, must be adaptable, and the state must retain its pre-eminent position and its role as guarantor and arbiter. But in addition, local communities should have access to international cooperation either directly or indirectly through their organisations, municipal structures and so on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In this context, what role do you see for international organisations - not just in terms of financial resources, but also of human resources ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think what we now need to do is build up a pool of skills in each municipal area. The developed countries have experience in this field. We have to take their processes as a model without necessarily copying their experience. This is something which will be discussed. Secondly, in the context of relationships between towns and cities, I believe it is possible to make access to experts more flexible and that this can take place very quickly, with the provision of training and fairly basic technology transfers. General training is also extremely important. In order to build up a pool of skills in towns and cities, local government must form a dynamic, management-oriented team. The approach has to be one of business-like management and objectives have to be targeted using private-sector methods, although public-service requirements always have to be borne in mind. A great deal, therefore, can be done at international level, in terms of support for networks of associations and committees of locally elected representatives, enabling them to discuss matters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We could, for example, carry out a comparative study of legislation in a particular area, thereby gaining access to other types of experience. Internationally, aid can be given to associations to help them buy equipment and attain a degree of freedom of manoeuvre vis-&agrave;-vis the authorities. In the field of decentralised cooperation, the international community can help elected representatives to implement their projects through partnerships, conducting studies, and providing personnel. Cooperation is possible in all spheres -  implementation, management, financing and so on. I believe that a new type of cooperation will gradually come into being. It is not a question of creating 'white elephants', but rather small and medium-scale projects which are of genuine use to the population. And I am not talking here about acts of charity, such as the donation of medicines, but sustainable projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Habitat II: taking stock</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Christian Cure'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future of towns and cities is not what it was. In the 20 years between the first United Nations conference on human settlements (1976) and Habitat II which took place in Istanbul in June 1996, the situation has changed a good deal. The significance of urbanisation  - and its irreversible nature -  are now acknowledged, as is the powerlessness of the authorities to deal single handedly with the complex phenomena which result The author of this article points out that civil society has suddenly broken into a field hitherto the preserve of official agencies and qualified experts, claiming a 'right to the city' based on research into more equitable development models.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vancouver to Istanbul: two symbols for two eras</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vancouver was the 1976 host of the first conference on human settlements organised by the United Nations. At that time, the UN was celebrating 30 years of existence and Vancouver, a model of urban development and modernity, provided inspiration for the developers and experts needed to plan the cities of the future. 'Appropriate technologies' heralded the possibility of mass-produced, cheap housing for everyone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty years later, the UN chose Istanbul as the host city for the Habitat II conference on human settlements, forcing us to face up to a quite different situation: uncontrollable urban growth (400 000 migrants arrive there every year), social and environmental problems, and intercultural and political tensions (amply illustrated by the Turkish politicians' inability to form a government at the very time the Conference was taking place). In brief, Istanbul presents us with the usual list of problems facing most of the world's major cities - and those of developing countries in particular.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Against this backdrop, the international community  -  180 countries, 500 local dignitaries, a few thousand professionals and even some ordinary citizens - came together from 3 to 14 June to discuss a 'settlement action plan'. This document, which had been in preparation for two years, contains 183 articles. It sets out a series of goals, principles and undertakings as well as providing an action plan for cities, the initial results of which should begin to be seen by the year 2001.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The preparatory committee selected two basic topics for discussion: securing adequate shelter for all, a basic but nonetheless controversial theme; and sustainable urban development The latter encompasses housing, demographic factors, infrastructure, services, the environment, transport, energy, social and economic development, the future of underprivileged groups and combating exclusion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cycle initiated at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 (followed by the Copenhagen, Beijing and Cairo meetings) was continued by Habitat II. Two major handicaps had to be overcome - 'conference fatigue' (with the resulting fact that there were fewer delegates than anticipated) and ensuring that what had been accomplished at earlier conferences was not undermined. Given that the subject of the meeting was human settlements, it was inevitable that sensitive issues already debated at previous summits, relating to the environment and social aspects, would keep recurring.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Civil society as an active force</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of conclusions arose from the official sessions (hearings, dialogues and various forums) which took place over the two weeks of the conference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First, Habitat II represented a recognition of the fact of urbanisation. In the past, there was a tendency on the part of the international community to play down, or even ignore, the phenomenon of urban growth and this was reflected in the meagre resources allocated to this area by donors. Today, the issue is better understood than it was 10 or 20 years ago, and it is acknowledged that the growth trend is unstoppable. Statistical studies and a set of 'urban indicators' drawn up for Habitat II confirm the scale of the problem. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, the Istanbul summit was a lesson in modesty. The obvious powerlessness of public authorities to deal single-handedly with the challenge of burgeoning towns and cities is recognised. The result was an understanding that a more pragmatic view is needed -  one which pays more attention to the complexities of urbanisation, to the wide variety of possible responses and, above all, to the multi-faceted nature of the players involved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Conference therefore became a genuine forum for debate. One of its most significant aspects was the emergence of 'civil society' as an active force. Hitherto, the field has largely been the preserve of official agencies and qualified experts. For the first time in a UN forum, local authorities, community leaders, private sector representatives and other dynamic forces in civil society were invited to give their views and take part in discussion groups. Whereas in the past, the debate was dominated by macroeconomic and technical questions, in Istanbul, the political and social aspects were given prominence as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The effect of this was to improve the quality of the debate. The outlines of a new relationship between governments and civil society (NGOs, ordinary citizens and popular urban groups) were defined - with the local authorities slotting in somewhere in the middle. And there was a particular focus on the question of dimension or scale: what should be the basis for urban democracy and citizenship. Both of these are seen as essential if one is to have successful and sustainable urban development policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A right to the city?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first stage of the analysis is to look at urban life from a macroeconomic standpoint. Urban growth is determined by the evolution of the world economic system and, in particular, by the globalisation of markets. This has generated increased competition, including competition between cities themselves. Since the end of the 1980s, cities have been responsible for between 50% and 80% of the GDP of most countries. In other words, they represent more than mere links in the global economy; they are, in fact, pivotal points.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hence the principles which broadly underpin the Habitat 11 programme. In fundamental terms, public policies must promote the capital, housing, property and employment markets, with a view to improving the efficiency of urban management (living conditions, infrastructures, services, environment, etc.). This is not just desirable in human terms but also essential if urban productivity is to be improved. Many decision-makers at the meeting agreed that privatisation of services, partnerships involving the authorities, the community and the private sector, and decentralisation were all part and parcel of a new standard for good local governance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Representatives of 'social' interests, on the other hand, were successful in focusing the debate on fundamental rights and principles, including individual and social rights. Indeed, these issues dominated the Conference and gave rise to the most difficult negotiations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were prolonged talks, for example, on the central issue of the right to a roof over one's head. The outcome was a commitment by governments to promote 'the full and progressive acceptance of the right to adequate shelter'. The NGOs had been hoping for a more clear-cut undertaking. Questions relating to the status of vulnerable groups, women's rights and their equal access to land, and protection against eviction, were also the subject of heated exchanges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps the most important step forward, however, was the success of civil society representatives in sowing the seeds of a new idea - the 'right to the city'. This concept has been devised on the basis of research into more equitable and soundly-based development models to which local authorities are increasingly giving practical support. Thousands of individual experiences and issues were highlighted in Istanbul by NGOs and community groups. Thus, there is a mass of evidence that populations are capable of responding through local initiatives and of taking responsibility for improving their living and housing conditions. If this 'resource' is to be exploited to the full, urban politicians must develop a deeper understanding of the scale of micro-territories and local societies within cities. They also need to promote and coordinate their decision-making in a way which involves consulting and involving the local populations. In the modern era, this is the key to ensuring social cohesion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond Istanbul</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There may have been a lot of new thinking on the basic principles, but there was no reference to financial undertakings in the Habitat 11 programme. On the latter issue, the international community was highly circumspect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank took the initiative, announcing the launch of an 'urban compact', involving an additional $15 billion in loans for urban projects over the next five years. It also revealed that it would triple its aid to NGOs involved in the urban environment. Recent World Bank estimates suggest that just 0.2% to 0.5% of a country's GDP would need to be set aside for the poor to gain access to basic urban services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards monitoring, the NGOs and local authorities won the right to sit on the Human Settlements Committee which will be responsible for implementing the habitat programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most important points to emerge from Istanbul, however, were that local authorities were given both formal recognition, and a major practical role - in keeping with their current responsibilities. The habitat programme is, in fact, a powerful call for decentralisation and increased local autonomy, its action plan being built on the implicit principles of 'subsidiarily' and 'proximity'. To a large extent, the successful implementation of the programme will depend on the mobilisation of municipal politicians and officials - and on the policies they adopt at local level. The agenda for cities in the 21 st century that was adopted at the Rio Summit must now be fleshed out and become the future reference for action by local authorities, NGOs and citizens' associations. Finally, the importance of decentralised cooperation and the role of local councils in international cooperation have been reconfirmed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Local authorities and their international organisations decided to form a worldwide coordinating group to continue structured dialogue with the international community and to guarantee that the Istanbul resolutions are followed up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some people predicted that Habitat 11 would be 'the revenge of the cities'. To quote P. Maragall, chairman of the Committee of the Regions, the conference at least provided the opportunity to build, and to give a wider audience to 'the voice of the United Cities within the United Nations'. That itself is a major step forward. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'A house to call my own'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tackling violence against women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Rosemary Okello</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this article is a journalist with the Nairobi-based Women's Feature Service (WFS) She contends that the Habitat 11 conference skirted around some of the issues affecting women city dwellers in Africa, such es violence and sexual abuse. Improving their lives, she argues, starts with a roof over their heads</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lofty ideals set during this year's UN Conference on Human Settlements in Istanbul meant little to African women like Catherine Kaberu. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As she recalls the misery of living on the streets of Nairobi, she is just happy now to have a safe, secure room for her family. 'I thought by running away from home and coming to Nairobi, I would find a better life" says Ms Kaberu. Instead, the streets became her home and her life was defined by the fear of violence against her. Her two children were born during that difficult period, following rapes. She cannot identify their father. There are an estimated 30 000 street people in Nairobi and Catherine Kaberu says that all street women and girls are regularly abused.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Every day we had to look for a place to sleep and we bribed the watchmen to guard us.' Often it was the same watchmen, employed to guard office blocks in the city's central district, who took advantage of the women's desperate situation. Not even age could protect them says 63-year old Felista Nyambura, herself a veteran of the streets. 'I suffered all manner of humiliation,' she states, referring to ten years spent on the streets with her seven children. 'The watchmen would rape me if I refused to give in to them - after they had offered me a place to sleep for the night with my children. I am just so happy to be off the streets. I will never go back,' she states firmly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The confidence of the two women comes from their new security as owners of simple one-roomed houses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Having a house to call my own is the most important thing that ever happened to me,' says Ms Nyambura as she explains how she ended up on the street after the piece of land her husband left in their rural home was taken over by her in-laws.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The two women are part of a group of 114 who have benefited from the Urban Destitute Programme, a project of the African Housing Fund which is involved in participatory community development with the homeless women of Nairobi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Catalina Trujillo, the 'Women in Development' coordinator for the Habitat conference stresses: 'If a woman's place is in the house, we had better make sure she owns it.' These sentiments were supported in Istanbul by the conference Secretary General, Wally N'Dow: He stated: 'By conviction, by analysis and even by instinct, women's rights to ownership and inheritance of property is right. If Habitat II... does not also contribute to social progress by addressing some of the issues like property rights for women, then it will have failed.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the women of-Africa in particular, the most important thing that should have come out of Istanbul was an affirmation of their right to own and inherit property, and to security.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These issues affect most African women regardless of their status and they were presented to ministers concerned with shelter and settlements when they met in Johannesburg last year to prepare an African agenda for the Istanbul meeting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most African countries accept the theoretical premise that women must have access to land, credit and inheritance, and recognise that certain types of violence are targeted primarily at women. South Africa's President Mandela affirmed: 'When we talk about people-centred development, we should understand that the involvement of women is often the difference between success and failure.' Yet in reality, customary law and insensitivity to gender concerns continue to predominate. Unfortunately, when the African ministers adopted their declaration, the point on the "unencumbered access of women to credit and land ownership' appeared in only 20th place. And while forced evictions were highlighted in Istanbul, violence against women did not feature at all among the 'key priorities'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet in parts of Africa these are major concerns affecting women every day. 'In South Africa, a women is raped every 83 seconds and in some areas, a girl can expect to be raped four times in her life,' says Emelda Boikanyo of the Johannesburg-based Women's Health Project. Idah Matou remembers how one Sunday morning in 1992, five men stormed into her shop in Alexandria township. They seized the day's earnings and anything else they could carry away before raping her 1 5-year old daughter. A few weeks earlier, they had called to demand protection money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Violence in the home is also a growing problem. Mmatshilo Motsei, Director of Agisanang Domestic Abuse Prevention and Training, an NGO based in Alexandria, South Africa, says the problem is so pervasive, 'it must be raised as a national concern.' Habitat II turned a deaf ear on these women's concerns. This was not their forum. Shawna Tropp of the NGO Women's Caucus criticised those attending the conference who claimed that it was not about women but cities. 'Women live in cities,' she says and adds: 'By and large, human settlements are still very much seen in terms of bricks and mortar'. She calls for greater understanding of the role played by women, usually in an unpaid capacity, in the management of communities. 'Everything begins with having a house in a secure neighbourhood where the dignity of women is protected.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Megacities</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The megacity personifies human misery for many in developing nations. As agglomerations proliferate in the twenty-first century, the United Nations Population Fund's 1996 report - The State of the World Population  -  considers how one might go about remedying the ills of city dwelling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNFPA's figures for urban growth make worrying reading. Over half the world's people will live in cities within ten years (3.3 billion out of a total of 6.59 billion). Between 1970 and 2020, the urban population will have risen by more than two billion - and 93% of these will be in developing nations. These increases will add to the strain of an estimated 600 million people already living in urban areas of developing nations without the resources to meet their basic housing and health needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Back in 1950, New York was the only city with more than 10 million inhabitants. Today, there are 14 in this category. Tokyo, which is home to 26.5 million people, is the largest. And by 2015, many others are expected to join the megacity 'club'  -  Djakarta (Indonesia), Karachi (Pakistan), Dhaka (Bangladesh), Delhi (India), Tianjin (China), Manila (Philippines), Cairo (Egypt), Istanbul (Turkey), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Lahore (Pakistan), Hyderabad (India), Bangkok (Thailand), Lima (Peru), Teheran (Iran) and Kinshasa (Zaire).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the majority of the world's people will be living in cities by 2005, it will take a little longer for the 50% threshold to be crossed in the less developed regions. However, this is expected to happen before 2015. Looking specifically at Africa, the current estimates reveal significant regional variations. In Southern Africa the rate of urbanisation is 48%. The figures for North, West, Central and East Africa are 45%, 36%, 33% and 21 % respectively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Expanding populations are likely to add to the widely reported list of horrors emanating from cities that are bursting at their seams. Problems include the collapse of basic services such as water and waste management, escalating social conflict, millions of urban children open to labour exploitation, sexual exploitation, environmental degradation, traffic congestion and environmental hazards such as increased air pollution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, the UNFPA report acknowledges that cities are also 'concentrations of human creativity and the highest form of social organisation'. It continues: 'Cities provide capital, labour and markets for entrepreneurs and innovators at all levels of economic activity'. Indeed, between 60% and 80% of developing countries' GNP is generated by their major conurbations. Social transformation occurs at a faster pace in urban areas. Thus, health indicators tend to be better, literacy is higher and there is more social mobility. And there are more opportunities for women. The city presents fewer obstacles for women's education and female city dwellers are less likely to be constrained by traditions which may stifle their creativity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But harnessing this potential is no easy task. The final chapter of the UNFPA report, entitled 'Policies, strategies and issues for improving cities', argues that urban dwellers in developing nations have been badly affected by structural adjustment policies. These have resulted in the elimination of subsidies on food and other commodities, increases in school fees and job losses in the public sector. Cities will also be required to adapt to the 'mass global experience in decentralisation' involving the shifting of local decisions from central government to municipal authorities, parastatal bodies and the private sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p48.png"></center><br>
+ Regional distribution of urban population</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women - a priority</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report stresses the importance of improving education and health, with a particular focus on women. As Dr Nafis Sadik, who is Executive Director of the UNFPA, observes; 'If urban centres are to be made liveable, and the quality of life of the poorer members of society is to be improved, women should be given the chance to play their role in the process.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report reiterates the specific targets for improving the lives of women that were drawn up by the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development held in Cairo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the field of education, these include 100% primary school enrolment (for both girls and boys) by 2015, improving access for girls and women to secondary, tertiary and vocational education, and closing the gender gap in the primary and secondary sectors by 2005.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other goals include a progressive reduction in infant and maternal mortality, making reproductive health services accessible to all through the primary health care system by 2015, greatly improved provision for family planning (allowing couples to make free and informed decisions on the number, spacing and timing of births) and providing better protection against sexually transmitted diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The State of the World Population Report concludes: 'A successful urban future depends, as much as anything else, on engaging all members of the community - especially women and the poor  -  in a constructive political process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There will have to be partnerships struck between governments, nongovernmental organisations, the private sector, and local and community organisations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And global urbanisation will require that the international community  -  governments, NGOs and international institutions - act to exploit the potential of cities to improve the lives of the world's people and to establish the foundations of sustainable development in the 21st century.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Lagos under stress</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Paul Okunlola</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a present population of some 7.5 million, the new millenium will propel Lagos to megacity status. The United Nations Population Fund predicts that 24 million people will live in the city by 2015, making it the third most populous conurbation on the globe. Whilst the donor community has supported urban projects in the past, tough times mean more reliance on 'bottom up' schemes backed by N60s and community-based groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When it began to rain in the small hours of Thursday 18 July 1996, residents of Lagos -  Nigeria's largest city and economic nerve centre -  merely stirred in their slumber. The gentle, but persistent showers, didn't rank among the heaviest downpours experienced by this coastal city, which gets rain on average for eight months in every year. Nor are Lagosians unfamiliar with spells of rain lasting up to seven days without break.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But by the time of the early morning 'rush hour', the traffic-laden streets of metropolitan Lagos were being swept with rampaging floods. Until well after noon, the city's social and economic life was at a standstill. Already difficult road conditions were rendered impossible for motorists, marooned at the wheel for hours. Exhausted school children eventually made it back home after spending the better part of the day in traffic. Crowds of commuters waited interminably at bus-stops for vehicles that never came.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The economic toll was expected to be heavy, with offices in both government and the private sector remaining empty all day. Commercial activities were put on hold as shops remained shuttered until well after noon. The communications network and electricity supply to key areas of the city were shut down for hours, to protect equipment. One state government official commented: 'It has never been so bad.' By the time the water receded and life had returned to normal, both government engineers and private sector consultants were in agreement: the main reasons for the flooding were illegal development along the natural courses of inner-city waterways, and the reduced drainage capacity of the overdeveloped metropolitan area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exploding metropolis</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both the flood itself, and the acknowledgement of the human limitations of the city officials, illustrate the frustrations that have attended the management of this exploding metropolis over the last three decades. In the months leading up to the July flooding, a major controversy erupted over plans to landfill the inland Kuramo lake in the highbrow Victoria Island district and develop it as a housing estate. This pitted state government officials and a firm of developers on the one hand, against a motley band of citizens groups, non-governmental organisations and concerned environmentalists on the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The unusual strength of local feeling against the project reflects growing fears that the island itself could be submerged. Five years ago, this was thought to be a remote prospect but today it is seen as a real threat, given the increasing frequency of flooding incidents and ocean surges along the coastal area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More and more people are arguing that there is a correlation between the growing frequency of flooding incidents and the massive sandfilling activity that has taken place over the years. The Kuramo issue remains contentious but it is just one example of the wider dilemma facing the city's development planners. They have the daunting task of providing for legions of migrants to Lagos - whose swelling numbers are placing great stress on the failing infrastructure. The problem may be particularly acute in the Nigeria's largest city, but it reflects a wider trend of urbanisation in the country over the past half century, as the overall population has increased.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1921, Nigeria had just 18.7 million inhabitants. Current estimates put the population in the region of 103.5 million. And the growth in the proportion of urban dwellers has been equally dramatic. In 1931, fewer than 7% of the people lived in urban centres. The figure had risen to 10% by 1952,19% by 1963, 33% by 1984, and 42% at the last count, in 1991. Current figures suggest that there are now seven Nigerian cities with more than a million inhabitants and no fewer than 78 whose population exceeds 100 000.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The changing structure of the country's human settlement profile has been linked to broader economic and social changes. The situation has been exacerbated by the economic depression of the last two decades. Analysts have noted a trend of declining primary production in such areas as agriculture, mining, quarrying and exploitation of natural resources. This has resulted in greater attention being paid to secondary and tertiary economic activities -  which are generally city-based. The figures illustrate the dramatic nature of the change that has taken place. In 1952, the ratio of primary to secondary/ tertiary economic activity, as measured in Nigeria's GDP, was 68:32. Four decades later, the ratio was 38:62.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to World Bank consultant, Prof. Akin Mabogunje, the trend is exemplified by the expansion of a whole range of activities located in urban centres -  large, medium and small-scale enterprises in manufacturing and construction, utilities, transport and communications systems, wholesale and retail outlets, hotels, restaurants, finance and insurance companies, and estate agencies. Then there is the whole range of government activity. Until 1991, Nigeria's huge federal bureaucracy was located in Lagos, operating alongside a state administration and some 15 local authorities. Add to this the major docks and airports of Lagos, and you get an urbanisation phenomenon which has, to say the least, been intimidating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lagos, which only occupies 0.4% of the country's land area, gains an extra 300 000 inhabitants every year on top of its natural growth rate. That the city is a 'pole of attraction' is hardly surprising. It is clearly the economic nucleus of the country, reputed to account for about 57% of total value added in manufacturing and about 40% of the nation's most highly skilled manpower.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Urban toll</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The costs have also been high. Professor Poju Onibokun, a human settlements expert, enumerates these: grossly inadequate housing and infrastructure with millions dwelling in slums; social amenities under enormous pressure with a shortage of schools and poor health facilities; endemic crime and juvenile delinquency; the breakdown of traditional values, family cohesiveness and community spirit. The capacity of law enforcement institutions is also increasingly hampered by technological and resource limitations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these ills, the shortage of housing and lack of infrastructure are seen as the most acute. This is borne out by a recent World Bank study which notes that:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the quality of life and living conditions have deteriorated;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - economic production has plunged;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the inadequate provision of infrastructural services has negatively affected the operations of most private sector investors, who now need to spend between 22% and 25% of their capital outlay on providing their own infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over 90% of the city's housing is provided by the private sector. But this has been handicapped in recent times by spiralling development costs and a general shortage of funds. New private housing has consisted largely of thousands of individual units, built mainly in areas of existing large scale developments. The authorities have made their own efforts to plug the gap and over the last 15 years, no fewer than 6000 hectares of marshland have been sandfilled and reclaimed in six separate development schemes (some of which have proved controversial). The Land Use Act of 1978 vested all urban land in the state authorities, although the administration of the legislation has not always proved satisfactory.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public transport is another problem for Lagos residents. There is no integrated system of mass transport and the sector is essentially made up of hundreds of privately operated buses and a dwindling taxi fleet. Massive currency devaluations have meant that the purchase price of new vehicles has rocketed. Maintenance costs for the increasingly dilapidated fleet have also spiralled. As a result, the system is stretched to beyond its capacity and it is the commuters who bear the brunt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public sector spending obviously has an important part to play in maintaining urban structures. The downturn in international aid flows has, therefore, had a visible impact with decline in infrastructure provision and maintenance, leading to a less favourable operating environment for private investors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, Lagos has been a notable beneficiary of urban support programmes with multi-million dollar schemes for water supply, storm water drainage, and infrastructure. Most of these have been World Bank-led but the support of the European Union and its Member States in this area is also considered crucial.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the positive side, adversity has proved a catalyst for greater community-based and NGO activity in environmental and human settlement issues over the last decade. This is a fresh approach, based on 'bottom-up' strategies, which should open up muchneeded new avenues to urban management in Nigeria more generally and in Lagos in particular. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A Eurocrat in Istanbul</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Gilles Fontaine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, a specialist in urban development, offers us his thoughts on the Istanbul conference. This event, he believes, was a landmark in the collective process of raising awareness which was begun at the Rio Conference on the environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14 June 1996 - last day of Habitat II</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Night fell a long time ago. A feeling of hope permeates the hall. Most of the work is completed but there are still disputes over a few paragraphs of the text of the Habitat 11 Agenda. Some delegates have not slept for two days and they can be seen standing around, afraid they might fall asleep. The sense of fatigue increases further when, at midnight, the symbolic 'stopping of the clocks' (to permit a successful outcome of the final negotiations) is announced over the PA system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At two in the morning, the wait has become almost unreal. It is virtually unimaginable that the Conference should come to nothing, after two years of intense work. Since Wednesday evening, the general atmosphere has been almost euphoric. Agreement has been reached on all the essential points within the allotted time and the Conference is already being heralded as another success story. All that remains to be done is to finalise the 'Istanbul Declaration', a four-page policy text broadly summarising the work of the Conference. The Conference would finally close about two hours later, amid general relief - but why the impasse?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breaking new ground... and remaining steadfast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some problems arose where they were least expected! To everyone's surprise, 'informal' working sub-groups had to be set up to discuss nuclear testing and anti-personnel mines! These themes were a far cry from the Habitat Agenda, but this sort of thing inevitably happens at major international conferences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other stumbling blocks appeared without any real warning, when some delegates attempted to renegotiate the conclusions of the Beijing and Cairo conferences. The negotiators had to stand firm on two counts. The hard-won recognition of women's rights needed to be defended all over again. And, more importantly, the attempt in Istanbul to reopen the debate on everything that had been gained at previous conferences had to be avoided. The European Union's negotiators took an aggressive stance on both these issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that so much negotiating effort is expended is a good illustration of the political significance governments attach to the topics debated on such occasions. A conference may be seen as resembling the proverbial half-bottle of water  - some regard it as half empty and others as half full. One's viewpoint depends on one's expectations  -  and much disappointment is caused by a misunderstanding of how such conferences operate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meeting the delegates</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although I am no anthropologist, I think I was able to identify three major groups of participants. First, there were the 'negotiators', who have built up a common language from conference to conference. I was surprised at the extent to which reference was constantly made, in the negotiating groups, to the 'Languages' of Rio, Copenhagen or Beijing. This is not just a question of vocabulary or syntax, but represents a genuine revolution in thought at international level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second group, to which I myself belonged, was made up of national and international officials. These are the people who, to a greater or lesser extent, prepare the conference. They then attend it and, ideally, write a mission report on returning to their offices (bemoaning the fact that few people will read their words of wisdom !)'These delegates tend to offer the harshest judgments. A common refrain is: 'We have long argument about words in parenthesis in a huge document that no one will ever read!'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third group, which nowadays is the largest, consists of representatives of so-called civil society. Since Rio, every United Nations conference has seen the parallel organisation of an NGO Forum, and the latter's influence has constantly increased. At Beijing, the authorities banished the NGO Forum to a site 60 km from the capital, but Istanbul welcomed it with open arms on the same footing as the 'Cities Summit' and the meetings of researchers and industrialists. A more fundamental development was the invitation to NGOs and local authorities to take an active part in the working groups and at meetings. This was a 'first' in international conference history and I was struck by the motivation and competence of many of the participants, as well as by the ease with which they have adapted to the information society. Gone are the days when addresses are exchanged on scraps of paper, accompanied by the ritual 'We must keep in touch!'. These days, your business card must include your Internet Email address. Contacts are organised through networks connected to databases, and people swap CD ROMs with each other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What did Habitat II achieve?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'official' end most visible result of the Conference was obviously the adoption of the Habitat Agenda - the final fruit of long hours of work within the national committees set up for the occasion. This document, over a hundred pages in length, contains a 'World Action Plan', accompanied by the 'Istanbul Declaration'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is not so well-publicised is the fact that many countries  -  including a number of ACPs  -  took the opportunity to publish their own national reports containing individual action plans. The amount of preparation that went into these reports revealed a high degree of motivation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having looked at them more closely since, I have gained a somewhat better understanding of the months of work put in tens of thousands of people across the world. This reassures me that the majority of state participants will monitor the Habitat 11 follow-up very closely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One has to recognise that the mere adoption of a text, however significant it may be, cannot be regarded as a magic formula which will change the face of the world overnight. To the impatient among us who want everything straight away, and to unrepentant sceptics, I would say this. In environmental matters there are two major periods in our recent history - the period before Rio and the period after Rio. The Rio meeting, and each subsequent conference, have been milestones in a long, coherent process of collective reflection and growing awareness. Istanbul did, in fact, keep its promises: the right to adequate shelter is now recognised internationally as the fundamental right of every human being.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The exploding city</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Stephane Yerasimos</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Istanbul. Ten million inhabitants - with double that number expected in 20 years time. Financial irregularities, a chaotic house-building sector, a lack of infrastructure and rampant speculation. One needed to look no further than the host city to find the key issues facing the Habitat Conference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Istanbul is a city steeped in history. It is also one of the Third World's biggest conurbations. Over the last 16 centuries, it has been the capital of two great empires - the Byzantine and the Ottoman - resulting in a rich legacy of monuments and a historic centre on a par with that of Rome. From the Middle Ages to the beginning of the modern era, it was regarded as Europe's largest city. On the eve of the Second World War, it had a population of one million, but that figure has now multiplied tenfold. Almost half of its ten million inhabitants are living on a knife edge, and many are in 'illegal' housing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first big transformation of the city came in the middle of the 19th century when the Ottoman authorities opted for westernisation and embarked on an extensive management programme. By the time the Empire collapsed in 1922, much of the ancient fabric - and traditional housing -  of the city had already been lost. Under the new republic, the capital was transferred to Ankara, and the authorities stepped up their efforts at modernisation. In 1937, Ataturk gave Frenchman Henri Prost, a city planner who had helped preserve the old centres of a number of Moroccan towns, the job of devising major public works in the heart of the old city. The infrastructure was also updated and taken together, these works (which were completed during the 1950s) transformed the old walled city and its ancient suburbs (Galata and Uskudar) into a modern aggLom&eacute;ration, interspersed with ancient monuments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mass immigration</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike the colonial powers who attempted to preserve the traditional character of old city centres around the Mediterranean rim and in the rest of the Islamic world, the desire of successive Turkish governments to modernise the country resulted in the disappearance of most of Istanbul's ancient fabric, and the city no longer has a compact area of old districts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The transformation of the city centre was matched, after the Second World War, by an explosion of building on the outskirts - a phenomenon characteristic of Third World countries. Improved sanitation and hygiene standards led to a natural population increase of between 2.5% and 3% per year. Meanwhile, the modernisation of agricultural practices caused a mass rural exodus. Marginalised in both economic and social terms. the people who flooded into Istanbul soon over whelmed the resident population. Today, the bulk of the people living in the city have rural origins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new residents began by occupying the edges of the old quarters and taking over the open spaces which remained after the ravages of an earlier fire. They then began to settle in ever-increasing circles around Istanbul, establishing the first gecekondu districts (groups of huts constructed overnight). These have been incorrectly described as shanty towns. In fact, most buildings are permanent structures and they rapidly develop into multi-storey dwellings. Most of the land on which these illegal buildings have sprung up was originally privately owned. But the elected multi-party government in power at the time was quick to spot the electoral possibilities in these areas. Each district was a reservoir of potential voters and, on the eve of each election, the parties in power would distribute property titles to the illegal occupants. They, in turn hastened to consolidate and increase their assets. This explains the emergence of increasingly densely populated districts without infrastructure during the 1950s and early 1960s</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industrialisation, and the arrival in the city of people who used to be rural landowners (driven out by the new market economy) later created a demand for housing which the normal market was unable to meet. This has given rise to a new phenomenon of urban marginalisation, involving the illegal division of land into plots. The system involves the purchase of agricultural properties by developers and speculative builders. These are divided into small plots and resold, quite legally, to purchasers  -  who then build unauthorised structures in contravention of the normal planning rules. Often, benefiting from political alliances, the developers take control of these districts and 'convert' the votes of the people living there into cash, in return for urban investments. This enables them to consolidate their power and increase the value of their remaining stock of plots.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An uncontrolled population increase</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, a third phenomenon, linked to the growth of a middle class, began to occur in the mid-1980s, when building cooperatives came into being. Their predecessors were the corporate associations which grouped together public officials (beginning with the army and the police). These developed into ad-hoc associations enabling a group of developers to tap people's savings, thereby dispensing with the need for loans in a country where chronic inflation makes credit prohibitive. Several thousands of dwellings are often constructed at the same time, in the form of tightly packed, multiple-occupancy blocks. The requirements of multi-storey construction mean that these buildings are of acceptable quality, but the related infrastructures are sorely lacking. Entire districts are built 'in the wilds' without any infrastructural investment by the developers or local authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The city is continuing to expand, without reference to any development plan. The fifteen or so major urban schemes drawn up since the 1950s have all remained in desk drawers and the only significant construction work has been on roads (notably bridges and ring roads). These generate further uncontrolled population increases on the outskirts of the city.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the natural rate of demographic growth is slowly declining - it has just dropped to under 2% per year -  the most recent census (in 1990) reveals that Turkey now has more people living in its cities than in its rural areas. Yet the statistics also show that half of the country's people are still involved in agriculture. Given the continuing natural growth, and the fact that in semi-industrialised countries, the rural population tends to settle at around a third or even just a quarter of the total, we can assume that the drift to towns and cities will continue for the next 30 or 40 years. This trend will affect all Turkish towns and cities, be they large, small or medium-sized. But Greater Istanbul, where the majority of the country's economic and social activity is concentrated, is set to experience a doubling of its population within the next twenty-five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dilemma for urban planners</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem caused by demographic changes is exacerbated by economic constraints. For a number of years now, Turkey has suffered a high (albeit stable) inflation rate of about 70% per year. This situation discourages investment in industry, and makes people take refuge in ownership of land that they can build on. Land has thus become the target of speculation by people in all social classes. Against this background, it is virtually impossible to regulate the use of land  - something which must be at the heart of any urban-development programme. An alternative is to discuss the possibility of developing a social consensus involving a more liberal approach to property speculation, recgnising that land is a source of revenue at all levels. This might entail releasing central and local authorities from any responsibility to provide services or other infrastructural investment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the present circumstances, however, any scheme to redevelop Istanbul effectively would seem doomed to failure. The only intervention which might succeed would be at the 'cleaning-up' stage - coming in after the construction of the dwellings under the conditions described above. It is only once the new inhabitants' dream of having a roof over their heads is realised that they come face to face with the harsh daily realities of living in a self-built city of nearly ten million people. They may then be prepared to make some sacrifices in order to improve their living conditions. The moment when harsh reality replaces emotion, is the only time the urban planner has the slightest chance of being listened to. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Adequate housing in the EU: rights and realities</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Misia Coghlan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are 2.7 million homeless people in the European Union and many millions more are badly housed. But the EU is said to be lagging in taking measures to provide adequate housing - one of the internationally recognised human rights. An expert from a leading campaign group for the homeless explains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the weeks and months leading up to the Second United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II), much argument and debate centred around the existence of the right to adequate housing. The legal basis of this right was challenged by a handful of delegates and the arguments continued right through the Conference itself. The outcome is that the final Declaration includes a reaffirmation of states to a 'commitment to the full and progressive realisation of the right to adequate housing as provided for in the international instruments.' (see first box)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The political impact of Habitat II as the culmination of the recent series of UN Conferences has been disappointing. The Istanbul Conference was originally heralded with the catch-phrase 'housing for all'. In the course of the preparatory process, this was watered-down to become 'shelter for all' and, as has been seen, the wording of the final Declaration simply refers to existing international commitments and allows for the 'full and progressive realisation of the right.' This of course begs the question of how such a right was ever supposed to have been achieved other than 'progressively' and how meaningful such a commitment can be in the absence of parallel undertakings as to implementation and enforcement. In short, very little has been achieved in progressing international commitment to the realisation of the right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right to adequate housing has in fact been recognised for some time now by the Member States of the European Union, all of whom have ratified the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (the most important legal basis of housing rights found in international law). Under article 11(1), the parties to the Covenant recognise, 'the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family, including adequate food, clothing and housing...'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of 'adequacy', it is generally acknowledged, is determined at least in part by social, economic, cultural and climatic factors. Adequate housing can be understood as including the following components: legal security of tenure, affordability, habitability, accessibility, location and availability of services, materials, facilities and infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It hardly needs pointing out that commitments in international law, whether legally binding or not, remain statements of intent and are of limited practical use unless accompanied by a comprehensive legislative framework in domestic law which will secure both the access to the right as well as providing enforcement mechanisms. What, then, is the reality ? Has the right to adequate housing been enacted into national legislation and, most importantly, is the right actually being respected across the European Union?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Realities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FEANTSA, the European Federation of National Associations Working with the Homeless, has been conducting the European Observatory on Homelessness with the support of the European Commission since 1991. FEANTSA's research findings have increasingly demonstrated both the extent and the gravity of the housing crisis in Europe: in what is one of the wealthiest subregions of the world, a large and growing group of the population is being excluded from adequate housing. (see box on next page)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, FEANTSA's 1995 transnational research report (Home/essness in the European Union) has found that the right to housing does not exist in any Member State as a legally enforceable claim. Although the right is recognised in the constitution of several Member States, this remains a statement of intent and does not create any entitlement. Other Member States have adopted a different approach - housing legislation in the United Kingdom, for example, does create an obligation on the local authorities to provide housing for those homeless people assessed to be in priority need and found to be unintentionally homeless. There is no sign of convergence in the ways EU Member States address the right to housing and housing exclusion in their national legislation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right to housing is not addressed in EU legislation as a legal principle and Member States have exclusive competence to deal with housing issues themselves. There is thus no overall European housing policy, nor is there yet any European policy on homelessness. FEANTSA has, however, identified common trends throughout Europe which have contributed to the escalation of homelessness and the lack of adequate housing provision.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall European trend has been an increased reliance on the competitive market to meet all housing needs, with an unwillingness on the part of government to commit public resources to assist lower income groups, who are therefore confronted with the limited choice available to them on the open housing market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The supply of housing has been undergoing change throughout Europe. In all countries, owner-occupation is on the increase, with tax relief generally being offered as an incentive. The private rented sector, on the other hand, has continued to decline. Social housing has generally suffered from cuts in funding. The result is that there is a shortfall in the supply of affordable housing for rent and rents have become correspondingly higher. It is clear that the competitive housing market cannot and will not meet the needs of the increasing numbers of people without the resources to afford market rents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The type of housing required has also changed: demographic trends have meant that households are getting smaller but more numerous - thus, there is a need for more but smaller dwellings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem has been exacerbated by the lack of an overall strategy either at European level or, indeed, often at national level, to meet the realities of structural changes on the labour market. Indeed, in some countries, the increase in long-term unemployment has been accompanied by an erosion of social protection systems. Faced with escalating demand for longterm welfare assistance, the authorities have often responded by tightening up on eligibility criteria in an attempt to cut or limit benefit payments, with shortterm palliative measures to deal with emergency cases. Thus, increasing numbers of people living on or under the poverty threshold, coupled with the deregulation of the housing market, have led to severe housing stress and increased vulnerability to homelessness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finland sets an example</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finland is one EU country tackling the housing problem. In 1987, the International Year of the Homeless, the Finnish government announced its intention to eliminate homelessness. At that time, the number of homeless people was put at close to 20 000. The programme for the development of housing set the objective of making 18 000 homes available for the homeless over a period of five years. Special funds were set aside in the national budget to permit the local authorities and other organisations to purchase housing for the homeless. State loans for the construction of housing for rent were made available to municipalities with a large homeless population. In under ten years, the number of homeless people in Finland has been reduced to half what it was in the mid-1980s. Finland now enjoys a comprehensive system of carefully targeted housing supply, housing subsidies, benefits and allowances and housing is seen as an integral part of a multi-dimensional strategy to combat poverty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For one in twenty citizens of the European Union, the criteria which, as a whole, constitute adequate housing remain inaccessible. Yet at Istanbul, the EU voiced its determination to make an important and constructive contribution to the implementation of the Habitat objectives. This included an acknowledgement that increased attention should be paid to people living in poverty and that appropriate action should be taken by governments at all levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European housing ministers were due to meet informally in Dublin, on 24 and 25 October of this year, specifically to tackle the question of 'housing for socially excluded people'. The time has come to devise and implement coherent strategies to prevent housing exclusion for low income groups. The market has neither the ethics nor the long-term planning capacity to do this; it remains the responsibility of the state. It can only be hoped that the housing ministers will recognise this and agree on the necessity of protecting housing as a product and as a service from the competitive market, at least for vulnerable groups. The housing ministers have been holding informal meetings since 1989. This year's meeting provides the opportunity, particularly in the light of the Habitat II debate, to exchange information on effective measures to help low income groups access and maintain a home. The result should be the drafting of a number of concrete goals to be achieved within a realistic time-scale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Homelessness in Europe is not on the scale seen in other regions of the world - with the development and reinforcement of effective preventive policies, based on proven and cost-effective welfare models existing in some Member States, the housing crisis can still be contained. In short, where there is a political will, there is a way. Europe has the potential to serve as a model of good practice to the rest of the world and should do so, more especially in the light of all that was - and wasn't  - achieved at Istanbul. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">References</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Is the European Union Housing its Poor ? Dragana Avramov, Catherine Parmentier and Brian Harvey, FEANTSA, Brussels 1995 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Homelessness in the European Union, Dragana Avramov, FEANTSA, Brussels 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Invisible Hand of the Housing Market, Dragana Avramov, FEANTSA, Brussels 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Cities of the Third World</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Francis Cass</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In ten or so years' time, more than half the world's population will be living in built-up areas and, according to UN figures, by 2025 nearly two thirds of us will live in towns and cities. This is not a complete surprise -  over the last few decades, the ratio of city dwellers to rural people has consistently moved in 'favour' of the former. In 1950, 29% of people were city dwellers. Since 1985, the urban population has exceeded 40% of the global total.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, we are witnessing an acceleration in demographic growth, especially in developing countries. Of the 2.6 billion people who currently live in towns, 1.6 billion live in the world's least developed regions. By 2025, the urban population of the Third World will have risen to 3.2 billion, out of a global urban population of just over 4 billion. On the basis of these figures, it is estimated that the number of urban dwellers in developing countries is increasing by approximately 150 000 people each day! In Cape Town in South Africa, for example, as in many towns and cities of the Third World, this demographic explosion can actually be seen happening. All you need to do is drive regularly along the N2 motor way  - which passes through the shanty towns of Khayelitsha and Guguletu -  to see how, week by week, the makeshift dwellings are spreading - gradually expanding to every available plot of land. The same scene is repeated in all of Africa's large towns. In Cot&eacute; d'lvoire, the population of Abidjan rises by 400 inhabitants a day on average. In Gabarone, the capital of Botswana, whose population was barely 3000 at the time of independence in the 1960s, the population is increasing by 18% each year and today 160 000 people live there. Such growth is often accompanied by widespread indifference on the part of local authorities. Such indifference is due, in particular, to a shortage of financial resources, but it also reflects an absence of political will to do anything to tackle the problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Demography and poverty</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The demographic explosion which has taken place in the urban areas of developing countries is due to three main factors: natural population growth, rural emigration to towns and cities, and (less importantly) the redefinition of the administrative boundaries of built-up areas. The first two factors are equally to 'blame' but in future, it is predicted that rural depopulation in Africa will become the single most important element in urban population growth. This will be especially true of countries where there is rampant rural poverty. In this context, we need to recognise other circumstances, such as famine, desertification, a shortage of cultivable land and conflicts, which serve to exacerbate the phenomenon. If people living in the countryside decide to migrate to towns, it is because they are looking for a better life and hope to improve their standard of living. Few succeed. According to a World Bank study, 50% of people in abject poverty will be living in urban areas by the year 2000.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The effects that urban poverty has on the environment are often dramatic. The reverse is also true. A damaged environment constitutes a daily hazard for town and city dwellers, in particular the most destitute. The precarious nature of their living conditions means that only in extremely rare cases are these people able to guard against the degeneration of their immediate surroundings. Driven to the outer limits of the towns - where even basic infrastructures such as sewers and the collection of household waste are often lacking, the poorest sections of society are left to fend for themselves. Local authorities have neither the means nor (often) the inclination to do anything to help them. Even those who are comfortably off and who can afford to give part of their income to safeguard their immediate environment (thereby protecting themselves to some extent) cannot escape the consequences of more general ecological problems such as air pollution and the contamination of water supplies. Living in a modern house in a well-to-do district is simply not enough. It is not possible to shield oneself completely from the problems created by environmental destruction. For example, even an unofficial rubbish tip, located several kilometres away from a residential area, can have disastrous effects on groundwater - meaning that sooner or later, the quality of the drinking water will suffer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Towns gasping for water...</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, the vast majority of Third World towns are facing a series of ecological problems which directly or indirectly, affect the lives of their inhabitants. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), 220 million city dwellers have no access to drinking water and 420 million have no latrines. It does not take much to imagine the potentially catastrophic health consequences of such a situation - in which people are forced to drink and irrigate their land with water from contaminated sources. The WHO has estimated that three million children died during 1993 as a direct result of diarrhoea, and that nearly two million of these victims had consumed drinking water contaminated with faecal matter. In developing countries, 90% of waste water is poured, completely untreated, into rivers, lakes and coastal waters. Again, one can easily imagine the impact on marine flora and fauna, and on the health of those who eat the products fished from these waters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">...and gasp for breath</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As far as air quality is concerned, the WHO intimates that more than a billion city dwellers throughout the world breathe highly polluted air. For the most part, this pollution is generated by industry and motor vehicles. A small improvement has been recorded in the urban areas of developed countries, but air quality in the towns and cities of the South has deteriorated considerably during recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many reasons for this. First, there has been an increase in industrial activity, mainly concentrated around towns and cities. This is a result of economic development, but also of the fact that many factories - including some with the worst pollution records  - have relocated from the North to the South, where legislation governing emissions is less stringent. Second, in contrast to the trends seen in developed countries - where cars are usually well-maintained, (running on unleaded petrol and rarely more than five years old) motor vehicles in the Third World -  whose numbers are increasing significantly  -  are frequently old, badly maintained and run on leaded fuel. According to the World Bank, 95% of the lead polluting the air in the towns and cities of developing countries comes from vehicles which run on leaded petrol and studies carried out on the subject have revealed concentrations of up to 1.5 microgrammes of lead per cubic metre of air. In North America and Europe the concentration varies between 0.2 and 0.8 microgrammes per cubic metre.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another problem facing towns and cities in the southern hemisphere arises from the enormous amounts of waste they produce and from the fact that they have few treatment facilities. In many cases, the rubbish is not even collected and is left to accumulate into the piles which can often be seen on the edges of shanty towns. This accumulation of refuse encourages the proliferation of certain diseases and poses a real threat to the health of residents both nearby and further away. In addition to this ordinary, everyday waste, the countries of the Third World have to deal with problems generated by toxic waste  - not just their own, but also that which is 'exported' there by industrialised countries. Needless to say, the towns which actually have the means and facilities needed to treat this highly polluting waste are few and far between.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linking development with environmental protection</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While environmental problems have a direct impact on human health and on the natural world, they also entail huge economic costs. The effect of pollution on human health translates into ever-increasing health costs and a decline in productivity. And it is not only city dwellers who suffer the consequences of a deteriorating urban environment. Depending on their size, the degree of industrial activity and population concentration, towns and cities pollute and destroy areas well beyond their own administrative boundaries. They swallow up enormous amounts of natural resources, suck their hinterlands dry and spit out 'what is left'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nowadays, there is an increasing global consensus over the need to tackle these growing problems rapidly. This was seen clearly at the Habitat II Conference in Istanbul. Most cities of the southern hemisphere urgently need to get to grips with their numerous ecological problems - the alternative is to sink further into chaos. In a similar vein, it has become obvious that some sort of balance must be found between economic development and safeguarding the environment - and that considerable investments are needed to achieve this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solutions do exist. Recycling projects, for example, could provide jobs for large numbers of town and city dwellers, as well as cleaning up the environment. Governments of industrialised nations should take the necessary steps to ensure that their toxic waste does not end up in the rubbish dumps of the countries of the South. Authorities in urban areas in the Third World should set aside more of their budgets to help the most underprivileged sections of their populations, so that they can manage their own environment. Local authorities should also respond more efficiently to the basic needs of impoverished districts, not least by building roads and sewer systems, by ensuring that rubbish is collected and by guaranteeing all people access to drinking water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Last but not least, a concerted effort - especially a concerted financial effort - should be made by decision-makers at the local, national and international levels. We need to recognise that environmental damage is a phenomenon which rarely confines itself to the local level. Sooner or later, it becomes a problem for all of us. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When conservation is at odds with the local population</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Hendrik Smets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The clash between the interests of people living on the edges of the Zakouma National Park in Chad and the authorities' attempts at conservation illustrates the situation facing many other nature reserves in Africa. This article argues in favour of a form of eco-development to suit everyone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the Zakouma National Park (PNZ) WAS officially set up in 1963 (it had been at the planning stage since 1956), the area it covered meant that local people had to be moved -  but the promised compensation was never paid. During the second phase of the PNZ's relaunch, financed by the European Development Fund (EDF), a perimeter path following the 1963 boundaries was marked out, but local villagers opposed this, regarding it as an extension of the Park's area. Subsequently, they rejected a move to build a dispensary in a village located at the edge of the park on the pretext that such a structure would again constitute an extension to the reserve's land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conflict between the itinerant stockbreeders of the region and the authorities has simmered for many years. The latter have shrunk from enforcing the 1963 law on transhumance corridors which applies to the fringes of the national park. Under this law, it is prohibited (in principle) to gather wood, hunt for game, fish, or gather honey and other natural produce. The result is a tendency among locals to view the PNZ as an adversary rather than a potential partner in development. Safari tourism is developing too slowly and is not leading to sufficient benefits for example, from a craft industry, or more general redevelopment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the second phase of the project was at the planning stage, its organisers recognised that, in order to guarantee the park's future, support had to be given to the people living on its edges. A high-level 'cooperation committee' was therefore proposed. The membership of this committee, which would sit in N'Djamena, was to include ministers, directors-general, park authorities and Commission representatives. Unfortunately it has not yet been brought into operation. By contrast, the local authorities and park management have been able to set up their own committee which met for the first time in January 1996. This body has helped to tackle some of the most sensitive problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second phase also saw the implementation of a series of microprojects. - school renovations, a dispensary, a bridge, the sinking of wells, a dam, a mill and a nursery. But these were set up without preliminary study, and no arrangements were made to sound out the views of the local people, or the form of development they would like promoted. Understandably, local hostility was encountered and the projects cannot, in any real sense, be viewed as offshoots of the wider PNZ scheme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project has not been extended to a third phase. Because of this, there is a risk that the capital invested -  and the positive results that have been achieved - could be lost altogether. Should any donor choose to 'pick up the baton' in future, they will need to recognise the key imperative of creating a symbiotic relationship between the park and the local population. To do this, there must be an awareness-raising effort, undertaken in parallel with any eco-development programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the first instance, a higher profile should be given to institutional issues. In particular, the cooperation committee in N'Djamena must be able to act, where necessary, as an appeal or arbitration chamber to deal with any disputes which cannot be resolved by the local authorities' committee. The latter, of course, would continue to meet on a regular basis to discuss any problems encountered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, there should be campaigns to disseminate information and train local people who are in daily contact with the park's environment. The aim here would be to make them progressively more accountable for conservation and the exploitation of natural resources (cutting wood, gathering produce, hunting, fishing, and so on). They must also gain a better understanding of the effects of poaching and desertification. Above all, such campaigns should seek to convince the people of the benefits they stand to gain from the park, if they continue to respect its integrity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this context, some lessons might be drawn from a regional project dating from April 1987 (which was never fully implemented). This was aimed at halting the advance of the desert in the northern Central African Republic and southern Chad. The component of the project which is of interest to the present discussion was its programme to increase public awareness  -  which involved training organisers, preparing and disseminating information (posters, videos, films), organising information tours and giving support to the Training and Environmental Information Programme of the CILSS (Inter-State Committee to Combat Drought in the Sahel), of which Chad is a member.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One could also learn something from the approach adopted by the Manda National Park which is situated 270 km from Zakouma. This has 'volunteer villagers' appointed by the chiefs of the four cantons making up the park zone, who know the territory well. The volunteers take part in information, awareness and monitoring operations alongside national park and animal reserve employees. Dressed in pale olivegreen uniforms, they cycle between the villages and encampments, providing a link between the villagers and officials in N'Djamena. They have an invaluable role in convincing village people of the advantages of cooperating in the development of the park and its surrounding areas. And the cost of a volunteer is just CFAF 5 000 (ECU 7.5) per month.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eco-development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Returning to the PNZ, it is true that a small proportion of the population already benefits from the park's existence. Wages are paid to the patrols, and the permanent and seasonal workforce, while micro-projects have been set up. The park pays traders, artisans, farmers and stockbreeders for certain services and there are some tourists. But the bulk of the population does not see these advantages having been largely excluded up to now.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any future eco-development programme should therefore aim at reducing pressure on the park in order to guarantee its long-term integrity. This would obviously need to be preceded by a clear definition of the action to be undertaken, but in the meantime, it might be useful to offer a few guidelines. The programme should include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - a series of flanking or support activities providing infrastructure and equipment, such as a dispensary, a school, paths, wells and carts;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - a food-security programme providing for the conservation of agricultural areas, as well as measures to prevent erosion and safeguard harvests (cereal banks, stores, gardens, agro-forestry systems and pest control);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a project to promote natural resources such as fisheries, gum arable, honey, and straw fodder;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a wood/energy management programme providing improved hearths and brick ovens, and the organised gathering and use of supplies;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- development of the craft industry and training of tourist guides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If, in a third phase, an awareness and eco-development programme could be successfully implemented, the Zakouma National Park should be able to look forward to a brighter future. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A new 'eco-centre' in West Africa: Two Presidents amid the dust</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In April, on the eve of the International Conference on Human Settlements, the first West-African eco-centre ('Ecopole`) was opened in Dakar. It was set up by Enda, one of the few international non-governmental organisations of significant size based in a developing country. The 'eco' refers to two things - the economic life of the ordinary people and the ecological aspect of the centre. One of the most memorable images of the opening ceremonies was the sight of two Presidents  -  Abdou Diouf of Senegal and his Malian counterpart, Alpha Oumar Konare  -  striding through the dust in a working-class district of the Senegalese capital. For supporters of the 'Ecopole', the event epitomised the fight back of the popular urban economy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The dust which settled on the Presidents' fine clothes was that of the Rail district, so called on account of the railway which cut through it in former times. Built in an old, disused factory, the airy, clean 'eco-complex' adds a touch of style to this semi-industrial, semi-shanty town district. The old buildings were redeveloped with the help of members of some two hundred cultural and sports associations, working in partnership with the NGO. They used recycling techniques of which they are past masters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The complex had, in fact, been in operation for some time prior to its formal inauguration, but the ceremony  -  which attracted the interest of international press agencies - provided an opportunity to publicise the venture. Since its formation in 1972, Enda has been working to give a higher profile to the 'popular' economy (they eschew the term 'informal') in Senegal and elsewhere. The NGO has focused, in particular, on trying to encourage those involved in the popular economy to collaborate more closely and integrate their activities, as well as on boosting awareness of what is happening in similar communities elsewhere. The opening of the 'Ecopole' provided a showcase for the achievements of the popular economy in West Africa, as well as a forum for dialogue. And it now has the seal of approval of two Heads of State, not to mention other VlPs who made supportive statements at the opening.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The popular economy fights back</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the inaugural ceremony, the former sheds - now converted into airy vaults clustered around a central structure - hosted a major presentation of the popular economy in a series of exhibitions. It is a kind of 'eco-museum' with pride of place going to recycling. Exhibits ranged from 'fabrics' made of old plastic bags crocheted together, to toy sports cars fashioned from wire and tin cans. And the reaction to the exhibition went beyond the usual, somewhat condescending appreciation of 'the skill of these people'. There were, of course, some curios of interest to tourists such as the aforementioned children's toys, small metal suitcases and papier-mache boxes. But there were also works of art, masks and sculptures, which captured something of the nature of this 'recycling culture'. Indeed, international art critics at the Biennal Festival of Contemporary African Art, taking place in Dakar, were talking of a new artistic trend, also seen in the work of artists from other regions, based on reclamation. This, of course, begs the question: 'Has art not always been based on reclamation?'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interesting though the subject may be, the artistic and aesthetic qualities of the fruits of recycling are of only secondary importance when one is dealing with everyday objects. The important thing is for deprived populations to use what means they have to survive and to improve the quality of their lives. Tourists may choose to buy decorative and unusual objects on the reclamation market, but more significantly, families can obtain essential items such as kitchen utensils, ploughing implements, carpentry tools and stoves  - all cast from vehicle wheels and bits of scrap metal. They are made using small forges and furnaces the size of a large saucepan, or cut from otherwise unusable pieces of metal sheet. The craftsmen can also supply somewhat more sophisticated equipment: ploughs, brick-moulding machines or soldering irons. One of the exhibitions staged at the 'eco-centre' was a co-production with the Quebec Museum of Civilisation and the Canadian Embassy in Senegal, which had previously toured Canada and four African countries. Entitled 'Africa's ingenuity', it covered a wide variety of styles, ranging from the utilitarian to the artistic. It will, in due course, form the eco-museum's centrepiece. Another temporary exhibition was called 'Antuka: Kinshasa, the art of living in the city', and this paid homage to the Zairean capital - a place which, of necessity, has become one of the 'capitals' of resourcefulness. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jet engines and donkeys</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One hopes that the two Heads of State found time to admire the jet engine constructed by a young Zairean from nothing but reclaimed materials: parts taken from cars, mopeds and unwanted metal sheet. And it works -  not on an aircraft, naturally, but on the bench. This engine is now a legend. Its constructor has apparently already been spotted by a European head-hunting company and offered a job in France. This is part of the 'fight-back' referred to by Enda officials, in which some recognition is finally being given to the economies of the world's poorest populations. During his visit, the President of Senegal issued a plea for greater integration of the informal sector into the overall economic fabric. His remarks were revealing: the West-African 'Ecopole', as its name implies, covers an entire region, and assumption of responsibility by the local people for the shanty towns and poorer districts has lifted a significant burden from central government.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another example of this trend is found in the Malian capital, Bamako, where a hundred or so local community associations have banded together to take over full responsibility for the collection of domestic waste. This organisation, whose initial efforts were ridiculed, is now fully operational. One wonders whether the authorities in other cities have heard about Bamako's scheme. What about Port-au-Prince in Haiti, for example, where they are struggling with mountains of rubbish which they cannot deal with owing to a lack of resources ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since their inception, economic interest groupings (ElGs) such as the one in Bamako have helped bridge the gap between the 'formal' and 'informal' economies. They rely on collaboration and their enterprise is exemplary. At the outset, the inhabitants of poor districts, acting on the initiative of the ElGs, expressed the desire to improve their neighbourhoods by organising refuse collection. They used whatever means were available - which in most cases meant donkeys and carts. In more central districts, delivery tricycles were employed for collection. Specially constructed, tipper-style carts, each costing CFAF 200 000 (ECU 300) have since been brought into service. The price of a donkey, by contrast, is about CFAF 50 000 (ECU 75). The animals and equipment belong to the ElGs and are looked after and maintained by them, with carters receiving a monthly income and social security benefits. A number of groups were set up eight years ago, promoted by young technicians, academics, architects and economists. Those who benefit are known as 'subscribers', with each family paying a contribution towards the service. Managing equipment and collecting contributions both require a well-structured administrative department, but the administrators are not confined to their offices. As employees of the business, they see nothing wrong in lending a hand and assisting the carters. In short, it is an enterprise based on a whole new approach. The contribution made by families varies according to the EIG and the district in question, but it is generally set at around CFAF 750 (ECU 1.2) per family per month. The price of the service may be up to twice this sum in the so called 'quartier des Blancs' (the 'white' district). In theory, the state ought to be subsidising the ElGs, but in practice, this does not happen. The authorities do not even fulfil the task allocated to them under agreements signed with the ElGs, which is to transport the refuse from temporary dumps to a final site. According to local people, the problem is not that the local authorities do not have the trucks available for the task. The vehicles, they allege, are used instead for the officials' own private purposes. The ElGs are forced to plug the gap as far as possible. At present, they appear to be the only ones taking any interest in waste recycling, aware as they are of the risk to the environment posed by permanent dumping grounds, and of the specific danger that the water table will be polluted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A modern concept of the 'informal' economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'informal' economy is increasingly becoming the norm. According to an Enda survey, 90% of businesspeople in Senegal started out in the informal sector. The conclusion would seem to be that the necessary training for dealing with current conditions is not to be found in the formal education system. The popular economy is not out of step with the modern economy as some would claim. Indeed, one could argue that it is the modern economy, as adapted to today's conditions. The increasing involvement of ordinary people in the economic circuit, which they enter via parallel routes, should also guarantee the continuation of Africa's experiment with democracy. We have seen attempts by former dictators to backtrack in this respect. They cite as evidence, the failure of technicians trained abroad - the 'darlings' of the West who, they claim, are at the beck and call of international institutions. But a return to the past, as exemplified by the regime of Nicephore Soglo, strikes fear into many people. Their response is to generate productivity, social cohesion and political stability through the popular economy, by way of compensation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is suggested that small-scale traders, who distribute hardware from south-east Asia, constitute an obstacle to the development of local production. But there is a confusion here between cause and effect. In fact, the popular economy appears more as a response to the lack of consumer goods. The problem lies with the so-called 'major' local entrepreneurs who favour the import/ export business over production, and with the banks that prefer to focus on larger businesses (influenced by anonymous officials or major economic interests) and have no time for small-scale operators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Rail district in Dakar has a long history. It is overpopulated, having been settled by workers and artisans, and their influx made it the most expensive poor district. It is a place where the rents, for even the humblest hut without water or electricity, accounted for most of the inhabitants' meagre income. This situation led to the appearance of squatters who built their own shacks on waste ground. For these people, the threat of eviction loomed constantly like a sword of Damocles. The district is also home to a large number of maids and other household employees. Two thousand of these people (from Rail and other parts of the city) set up their own friendly society to which they pay regular contributions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a world which has always teemed with good ideas: artisans recycling materials, blacksmiths working at the forge and so on. In this sense, nothing much has changed, but the big difference now is that the people have organised themselves. In so doing, they have been able to provide training for adults and children in makeshift schools, and to purchase and renovate old huts  - having extracted a guarantee from officials that such moves would not be opposed. Nowadays, those who live in the district no longer pay rent. However, it will only be possible to measure the true success of the Rail district when there is no longer a need for an organisation like Enda to ensure that it operates effectively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some years ago, a former sailor, who always dreamed of being a teacher, set up his own school in the main street which runs through the district. He worked on the pavement and in the car park in front of a furniture store, teaching children in the morning before the offices opened and adults in the evening after they had closed. Enda recently offered him a few pieces of furniture, but for many years, he received no help other than a few pieces of chalk, worn-down pencils and the remains of exercise books from his 'colleagues' in regular education. This is a man who has to supply his pupils not just with teaching materials but also sometimes with food. This year, with his voice catching in his throat, he told us that one of his former 'street pupils' is going to college. How can the learned economists calculate the value of this devoted 'academic'? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The RDP challenge</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Professor Willie Esterhuyse</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cornerstone of South Africa's Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) announced by President Nelson Mandela on May 24 1994, shortly after taking office, is people-centred development with an accent on modern infrastructure, health, education, housing and sanitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lessons have already been learnt from teething troubles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The RDP is the government's response to the massive socio-economic needs of the bulk of the South African population. It is foremost a strategic framework aimed at human development and restructuring the country's economy. It involves housing projects and programmes to improve the socioeconomic infrastructure covering clean water, electricity, public works, schools, urban renewal and primary health care. Empowerment programmes have been developed, for example; micro and small businesses, support for emergent farmers and skills training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the main achievements of the RDP has been to sensitise South Africans to the plight of the poor. Apartheid, amongst other things, succeeded in keeping this out of sight, effectively locking the poor out of the system. A veil of ignorance prevailed among the privileged class. The RDP tore away the veil and has led to a willingness to participate in development and reconstruction programmes, especially in private sector circles. It is succeeding in prioritising South Africa's socio-economic challenges, as well as mobilising funding and organising a common and sustainable approach. Its most important achievement to date is probably the idea of partnerships in development between the state, private sector institutions and non-governmental organisations. Through the RDP, South Africans have accepted that they will have to 'run with the development ball'. They are also aware that the state cannot go it alone, nor should it act as a 'super' development agency. Thus, a very high premium is put on involving the private sector and other actors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Problems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But many problems have already been encountered. Unfortunately, the RDP was seen by some as a quick-fix solution to South Africa's socio-economic difficulties. Expectations over delivery were too high. Red tape and a growing bureaucracy stifled the initiative early on. Frustrations among the poor quickly surfaced. Many of those who wanted to participate, and applied for RDP funding, were unable to develop viable business plans - a strict requirement to get funds. The launch of projects was further complicated by the absence, at one stage, of legitimate local and governmental structures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But important lessons were learnt from the initial phases, in particular the need to involve people on the ground from day one - starting with the identification of needs, the design of a specific project and its execution. It was accepted that process is more decisive than the product. A second lesson was that a separate RDP office, with its own Ministry, complicated matters as far as delivery was concerned, tending to centralise development. This led to the announcement by President Mandela on March 28 1996 that the RDP office would be closed down. RDP programmes were thereafter integrated into the main budget administered by functional government agencies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another very important lesson was that socio-economic development and reconstruction had to go hand in hand with a dynamic macro-economic strategy - made public earlier this year. It was realised that one cannot have good projects in a bad policy environment - to quote a World Bank report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, it is generally accepted that the RDP, on its own, cannot launch South Africa on a road to sustainable and vigorous economic growth. We needed a twin-track approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Progress</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The RDP has notched up a number of successes. The provision of clean water to rural and urban communities has gone a long way under the leadership of Minister Kadar Asmal -  highlighting the fact that leadership strengthened by solid management, does make a difference. The electrification programme for low-income households, involving the parastatal, Eskom (Electricity Supply Commission), is another success story. The same goes for the Presidential projects, such as free health care for expectant mothers and infants, and some of the nutrition programmes. But the provision of housing for low-income groups has been less successful than anticipated. Rent and services boycotts, as well as unemployment, are some of the reasons for slow progress. Job creation is another problem area. It is envisaged that visible progress in these areas will emerge in the course of next year. Establishing a culture of learning is another great challenge. A restructuring of the educational system is underway, but progress is restricted by severe financial constraints.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Implementation of the RDP, the best strategic framework for socioeconomic development South Africa has ever had, will be a long process. Courage and sustainability are key issues. How to lead and manage expectations, without undermining hope, is a great challenge. The meaningful involvement of donors is another issue. Joint ventures between donors, the private sector, government agencies and communities are happening. Most of these, having been carefully negotiated and executed, are already making a significant difference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But spectacular progress should not be expected. Development, reconstruction, and growth of the kind that South Africa needs, will take time. However, the lessons and achievements of the past two years have put South Africa in an excellent position to change the country's socio-economic environment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Targeting South Africa's poor</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Christine Thompson</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The provision of basic amenities for the urban and rural poor rank high on the agenda of the EU's aid policy towards South Africa. In this respect, European cooperation has been tailored to fit with the government's own Reconstruction and Development Programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Programme for Reconstruction and Development (EPRD) is the name of the current EU development assistance package to South Africa and it seeks to help improve living conditions for all South Africans. The programme earmarks ECU 125 million a year until 1999. It has evolved from the so-called 'positive measures' programme launched in 1985 to help counter the negative effects of sanctions and to help the victims of apartheid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under a Declaration of Intent drawn up with Minister Jay Naidoo, then at the helm of South Africa's Reconstruction and Development Programme, it was decided that EU aid should be channelled to the key sectors of education and training, health, rural development, water supply, urban development, economic cooperation, trade and investment promotion, and the promotion of good governance and democracy. In each of these areas, the EU actively encourages a partnership effort between governmental structures and NGOs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.5 million homes wanted</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over 60% of South Africa's population is urbanised. The apartheid government's restrictions on home ownership in urban areas for the past four decades resulted in a housing backlog estimated at 2.5 million units, with demand growing by 200 000 units per year. Estimates vary, but approximately seven million people are believed to be living in informal settlements throughout South Africa on land occupied both legally and illegally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improved housing and sanitation are seen as priority areas in urban and rural development. Between 1991 and 1996, the EU has funded 18 projects in the urban development sector valued at approximately R303.1 m (ECU 52m). The Urban Sector Network (USN) and the Cato Manor Development Programme are typical.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is providing the USN with a total of R26.2m (ECU 4.5m) between 1995 and 1998. The USN is a national network of nine affiliate NGOs, and its aim is to improve living conditions for the urban poor. The beneficiaries of the programme are city dwellers earning less than R2000 (ECU 344) a month and there is a particular emphasis on households with monthly incomes of under R800 (ECU 137) a month.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through integrated, community-based development, the USN and its affiliates provide technical support and service provision to urban development projects, focusing on housing, local government transformation, skills transfer, project planning, facilitation, information dissemination, education and training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Cato Manor Development Programme received funding in 1995, also for a three year period. The EU has contributed R117.6m (ECU 20.2m) to the project. Cato Manor, an area in Natal near Durban, was the location of the largest forced resettlement scheme implemented under apartheid. Today, it is the first area targeted for integrated housing in a former white township.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall objective of the programme is to improve living conditions through a policy that strengthens the delivery system for infrastructure and housing. The programme anticipates providing the community with primary and secondary schools, sports fields, community halls, libraries and a community health centre. Access to housing finance will be improved and opportunities for income generation provided through a vocational training centre and small-scale industry workshops. In addition, provision is being made to improve management and general policy-making capabilities. By continuing to fund such projects, the EU is working with the South African government to improve the living conditions of the urban and rural poor. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Guardians of Eden'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Theatre for Africa, a performing group from Southern Africa, went on tour this autumn to put across the message that the exploitation of Africa's fauna should remain in the hands of rural communities. They did this with a powerful mix of words, dance, mime and song, in a play entitled Guardians of Eden '. The Courier met the author and cast on the Brussels leg of their tour. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The setting for the Brussels' performance was the 'Grand Place' (Grote Markt). With its ornate mediaeval architecture, this famous square in the centre of the Belgian capital could hardly have been more removed from the theme of the play - which is about conservation and development problems in Africa and empowering rural people to manage, use and benefit from the wildlife around them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The play was commissioned by the Southern Africa Sustainable Use Specialist Group (SASUSG) and the idea was that it should reach as many people as possible in the run-up to the World Conservation Congress planned for Montreal in October 1996. South African writer and former economist, Nicolas Ellenbogen, travelled throughout Southern Africa to recruit the all-African cast. Many examples of cultural imperialism leading to the destruction of habitat, highlighted in the production, were actually encountered by Mr Ellenbogen as he travelled through the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The play opens with a spirit medium summoning representatives from villages in several African countries to discuss the threat to their survival. The actors display their athletic skills performing mimes of the abundant wildlife with simple props, as the history of Africa is recalled from the dinosaurs to the present day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A parable is then told. An old chief informs his three sons that to prosper in the 21st century, the village must change. He instructs them to return a year later with ideas for prosperity, which will be discussed in an indaba (debate). Each chooses a different path. The wheeling and dealing first son seeks out quick fix schemes with NGOs and various city authorities. The second son learns from the difficulties of city life and comes up with a blend of simple wisdom and new ideas. The third spends his time in beer halls -  and his revelry provokes roars of laughter throughout the performance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arriving back in his village after almost a year has elapsed, the second son finds that his older brother returned several months earlier to implement his money raising projects. Enjoying the cash benefits of the scheme, the men of the village do not want to hold an indaba. They are forced to do so by the women and Midzimu - the old chief. The audience is then asked to vote and there is a unanimous show of hands for the second son who symbolises the sustainable use of natural resources. The dissolute third son, meanwhile, is eaten by a crocodile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivory ban fury</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the message goes out to developers and donors to respect rural autonomy, the play also raises serious questions for Europe's politicians. The frequent appearance of the destructive elephant, in the course of the play, allows Mr Ellenbogen to vent his anger at the ivory import ban imposed by many European states. 'I am furious about the ban', be told The Courier, 'as it is having a profound effect on the daily needs of the people.' He rejects the argument that it helps conservation, insisting that; 'with a stroke of a pen, you reduced the value of the elephant.' The playwrite argues that local people need to see wildlife as economically and socially valuable. Otherwise, they will adopt new forms of land use which will result in the extinction of the species. He also draws attention to the growing black market in ivory in Southern Africa since the ban was introduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'token' South African - symbolically played by the only woman in the cast - is given a 'rough time as the baby of Africa', says Ellenbogen. The play also contains numerous swipes at the donor community which frequently gives grants, without, it is said, any respect for local traditions. The Swiss doctoral student researching the potential for producing goat's cheese in Africa exits the stage squealing after asking a goat herder what he does with his animals. 'We slit their throats', is his reply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guardians of Eden was first launched at the Grahamstown Arts Festival in South Africa in July. It was performed in Zimbabwe and Kenya, and won a prize at the Edinburgh Festival 'Fringe' in August. From there, it moved to Frankfurt and Geneva before reaching Brussels. It was due to be performed in Antwerp, London and several American cities before a final staging at the Montreal Congress in October.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The play is in English and the languages of Southern Africa, but Nicolas Ellenbogen believes it can be readily understood by his multinational audiences. For him, the message - that local people must have the power to manage their own wildlife on their own land - needs no translating. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Analysis</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Europeans and development cooperation: there are opportunities too!</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Stelios Christopoulos</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If politicians in Europe see jobs as their primary concern, it is probably because the citizens regard unemployment as their most serious problem. In the Europe of the Fifteen, the average unemployment rate was about 10% in 1985 dropping to 7.5% in 1990. By 1994, it had risen to a record high of more than 11%. By contrast, unemployment in the United States fell below 6.5% in 1994 and the figures for 1995 reveal a continuing downward trend. In Japan, the proportion of people without work remained below 3% in 1994. Assuming there is no change in current trends, the most recent demographic projections suggest that there will be 70 million people over the age of 65 in the EU by the year 2020, out of a total population of 348 million. This is 18 million more than there are today. The proportion of over-65s is, thus, projected to rise from 15% at present to 20% in less than 25 years. These two elements  -  an ageing population and ongoing structural unemployment - clearly reveal that European society lacks a degree of dynamism compared with its competitors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an attempt to address this problem, albeit partially, the President of the European Commission, Jacques Santer, launched a European employment pact in April 1996. There are three underlying reasons for this initiative -  Europe's endemic unemployment, the need to reestablish a climate of confidence as a prerequisite for renewed investment and consumption, and the need to fit the creation of the single currency into an overall economic strategy aimed at increasing growth, competitiveness and employment in Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'I'm young, help me find a job', is the heartfelt plea of many of young Europeans. But what chance is there that their cry for help will be answered in a difficult global environment?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We have seen the globalisation of strategic relationships in a range of key areas including the environment, the management of energy resources, health, demography and security. The trend has been accelerated by rapid technical progress in the fields of transport and telecommunications. This process has not taken the big multinational companies by surprise - they were already free of the constraints of sovereignty or space, and were quick to globalise their structures. These enterprises have become more competitive by taking advantage, wherever possible, of the most favourable production conditions, particularly regarding raw materials and employment conditions. More spectacular still has been the growth of international trade: in 1990, the volume of world trade was 11.5 times as great as it had been 40 years earlier. During the same period, global production only increased fivefold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What this means nowadays is that employment in the EU Member States is directly affected (and some would say threatened) by the world situation. Productivity and growth conditions in Europe are no longer sufficient to ensure full employment. Competition from developing countries, with their low wage bills and undervalued currencies, is too great for countries in the EU. Their position is not the same as that of the multinational companies. They do not have the structures to deal with swiftly evolving events, nor are they capable of controlling the process of globalisation. This is demonstrated, inter alia, by their inability to respond to the financial speculation which turns capital away from productive investment. Today, for example, for every US dollar in circulation, there are at least 30 dollars which are the product of financial speculation. This is not money from productive work by any particular person, but money which is the product of a financial 'virtual reality' and which is usually reinvested in financial speculation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Countries are beginning to realise the need to pool their national skills and cooperate at a regional level, in order to enhance their business competitiveness and take on the challenges of the globalised trading system. But the level of integration implied by this strategic choice must be sufficiently comprehensive if it is to make up for the reduced capability of countries to respond on an individual basis. This process of regionalisation may well be a prerequisite for regulating the world economy in such areas as exchange parities and financial speculation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And what of Europe in particular? Despite having a head-start on other regional groupings (such Asean, Nafta and Mercosur), the situation is not too rosy. Owing to the lack of a full internal market, Europe is unable to compete on equal terms with the United States or Japan. The internal market still comes up against blocks in important areas, as evidenced by problems over the European employment pact. And there are a number of other defects which make the internal market insufficiently competitive in the context of globalisation. It is true that a more coherent environment has been created for European companies, with common regulations and rules of competition enabling them to distribute their goods and services among the EU's consumers. But despite the appearance of a domestic, or single, market, it is one which is devoid of a genuine internal policy in keeping with its size. This is what distinguishes it from the internal markets of the United States or Japan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The explanation for the disparity may lie in the fact that the most recent moves towards the single market, through 'Single Act', date from 1987. This was before the upheavals which so decisively signalled the globalisation trend. Despite the criticisms sometimes levelled at it, it is a genuine single market which is largely open to the outside world (with only a few exceptions, notably as regards the Common Agricultural Policy, where it is recognised that there is a need for progressive adaptation). But there is still no single currency, nor is there a genuine common commercial and economic policy. The EU is unable to react to change at world level in the same way as its competitors. The common customs tariff, together with protective measures such as the anti-dumping regulations, are still not sufficient to solve all the Union's problems. What is needed on top of this is an active common policy component.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet, as the European employment pact makes clear, the EU holds a trump card in an increasingly interdependent world. The proviso is that it must speak with one voice, enforce multilateral rules and open up new markets for itself, because, as the document points out 'exports create jobs...'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, the developing world received 37% of global direct foreign investment ($84 billion) as against less than 20% at the beginning of the 1980s (the flow of foreign exchange is regarded nowadays as the principal factor influencing development). This is a spectacular increase but the resources are not 'fairly' distributed from the point of view of either the investing countries or the recipients. For example, southeast Asia is currently the world's most dynamic region. Yet, not to put too fine a point on it, it is virtually ignored by European investors. Only 3% of European overseas investment is directed towards this zone. Likewise, Europe's market share in the region is no more than 5%. The US has invested between two and three times more in south-east Asia while Japanese investment is four times higher.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, sub-Saharan Africa attracted just 0.8% of direct foreign investment ($1.8 billion). And there is no evidence that Europeans have invested more than the Japanese or Americans in this region. This is despite the highly optimistic outlook for the situation in Africa offered by the late Ron Brown, the former US Trade Secretary. On returning from a tour of Africa with American businesspeople in February 1994, he remarked that major opportunities were opening up in that continent, with spectacular returns on investments  - at the time, the best in the world. His regret was that so few people were aware of the situation. Undoubtedly more significant still was the declaration made in Washington before his departure for Africa to the effect that the United States would no longer leave African markets exclusively to the former colonial powers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So although others are beginning to explore the possibilities offered by Africa, Europe is still sceptical. A similar scepticism prevailed during the 1960s when it was assumed that the lot of south-east Asia would be famine, and few development prospects. Given the historical links between Europe and Africa, the geographical proximity of the two continents, and the pressing problems faced by the 'old' continent vis-&agrave;-vis its competitors, such an attitude appears difficult to explain. In the years since the former European colonies in Africa gained independence - and despite the creation of an institutional cooperation framework (the Lom&eacute; Convention, which many regard as a model of development cooperation)  -  many Europeans clearly no longer wish to be involved in Africa. The explanation for this lack of interest may be the difficult conditions within African countries -  obstacles preventing access to markets, the lack of liberalisation or political instability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But this analysis in not entirely convincing. More ACP countries are democracies than ever before in the post-independence era. As for Africa - a much-debated ACP region  -  it is wrong to talk purely in terms of internal conflict, famines or the AIDS epidemic. There are countries in this continent with growth rates of between 5% and 6%, and several examples of where European companies have successfully penetrated local markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need to highlight the existence of genuine business opportunities in ACP countries and to make the European public aware of development aid success stories, were among the main conclusions to come out of the first meeting of a television delegates' network, organised by the European Commission's Development Directorate-General on 31 January 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any European company chairman interested in expanding into an ACP country - thereby enlarging the company's market and enhancing its competitiveness - is likely to acknowledge the possibilities, if offered back-up from the EU or from national governments. But they will then probably point to the complications which remain -  and with some justification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With this in mind, it is worth reiterating the fact that specialised institutions exist for facilitating contact with the ACP countries. In 1995, for example, the Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) was involved in 367 projects, assisting, free of charge, in the expansion or rehabilitation of industrial companies in ACP countries, in partnership with European business. Although the number of such projects is constantly increasing (190 in 1993,229 in 1994), it is still a long way short of what is needed. But it should be stressed that the CDl's approach, which involves promoting the creation of networks, appears to work. The establishment OF ACP contact networks in ACP countries makes it easier to identify potential areas for involvement and to prepare better for European institutional and sectoral networks. There are several successful projects which have led to the creation or safeguarding of jobs in Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also in 1995, the European Investment Bank (EIB) granted ECU 430 million in loans to businesses in various sectors in 29 ACP countries. This includes an increase in the Bank's activity in Africa over previous years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What, then, of the effect of Europe's development cooperation policies on the European market ? According to the most conservative estimates, for every ECU 100 granted in aid, the Community 'gets back' ECU 48 in the form of jobs, supplies and technical assistance. This figure does not take account of additional 'secondary' business generated by, for example, the supply of spare parts or the provision of technical advice. This business can be quite significant given the degree of penetration achieved by European companies in the markets of many developing countries. Nor does the estimate include any new business opportunities directly arising from the links established between the companies involved in aid projects and the recipient countries. Thus, it is clear that when a project is set up, it may well have extra beneficial effects for Europe through additional flows of goods and services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'return' on aid is even greater in Member States' individual bilateral programmes. For example, tied aid from countries such as Belgium, Italy and the United Kingdom leads to a payback of more than 70%. Another point is that as Europe's industrial rules are harmonised, the success of a single European company in penetrating a particular developing country market may pave the way for companies in other EU Member States, thus benefiting the Union as a whole. Tied aid creates favourable conditions for setting up European companies and for placing European goods and services in other markets. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the return on aid may be described as satisfactory, the same is not true of the number of companies that benefit or of the actual turnover involved. One wonders whether this weakness is due to a lack of information about existing resources and facilities, or whether there still a lack of confidence about countries which, despite the progress they have made, are still politically unstable and therefore unpredictable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One might also wonder whether the time is right for investment. Our answer would be that, even though financial speculation is currently governed by global economic considerations, which prevent productive targeting of capital, this situation cannot last. There is a worldwide move to rectify the situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We all need to be aware that time is no longer on our side. In many sectors, European companies still have a competitive edge over businesses from third countries, owing to their degree of specialisation and technological expertise. But if they are to survive, they must take on a worldwide dimension. In particular, they should pay attention to the comparative advantage that they have in the ACP countries on account of their special skills, historic links, geographical location and, above all, the institutional connections between these developing nations and the 'old' continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although problems do exist and although both European and ACP bureaucracy can sometimes discourage private operators from exploring the potential of the developing world (and more particularly the ACP region), they should not give up. Europe's challenge is to help them to exploit this potential whilst not raising false hopes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nothing can take the place of the shared experience and confidence which arises spontaneously in full knowledge of the facts. In this regard, we feel, there is still much to be done. In both Europe and the ACP countries, one way to succeed is to increase the number of networks representing industrial, economic and financial interests at various levels, and to assist them in identifying opportunities more effectively. This would help to create a new dynamism and renewed vigour in Europe. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Close - up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Eritrea: the start of a renaissance ?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Courier's issue of July-August 1994, we published a country report on Eritrea. This country became independent in 1993 after almost 30 years of fighting which had bled the county white. Loss of human life, displaced persons, socio-economic disruption and environmental damage have been Eritrea's sad fate in recent times. However, there has now been peace for three years and the Eritrean people are attempting to pick up the threads. Alfonso Artico, a freelance journalist who recently travelled to Eritrea, now offers us a few on-the-spot impressions of his trip, focusing on some current projects which offer hope to this sorely afflicted people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fisheries at Massawa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The port of Massawa is located on the Red Sea, whose blue waters are teeming with fish. In 1986, the European Union suggested that it would be a suitable place for fisheries development. At the time, the city was a maze of back streets, baking in the sun. Few could have predicted the fate that would befall it five years later. For in 1991, war came to Massawa and 80% of the city was destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Italians, it is said, have 'always' been here, and they once had great plans for the city. Together with Assab, further to the south, Massawa was to be a key point of access to the sea, and a potential launch pad for the, country's struggling economy. The colonial days are long past but, when the Eritrean Popular Liberation Army took over the country after the recent war, the Italians came back to help tackle an immense task. The city, by then, was little more than a pile of rubble.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Help also came from somewhat further afield, in the shape of Professor Seichi Etoh, a Japanese specialist in marine biology. He had made a study of the city in 1989 and he chose to return in 1992 to help in fisheries development. At the outset, his working methods disconcerted the Eritreans who were used to a slightly more relaxed attitude to labour, under the hot sun and eternally blue sky.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Armed with the experience of working in Kenya and a number of other developing countries, Professor Etoh arrived in Massawa and installed himself in a house looking over the sea. After a period of adaptation, to gain his bearings, he took up his new challenge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge in question is a fisheries project whose main funders are the UNDP, Japan, Italy and the African Development Bank. A total of $7 million has been committed with payments spread over a five-year period. The project began operating in January 1993.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main problem at the outset was one of skills and qualifications. Important posts were often filled by high-ranking former solders, whose administrative skills were less than satisfactory. Conversely, those with the right qualifications - some of whom were criticised for spending the war years in the lecture theatres of European universities  -  had problems finding work. This was particularly true in the closed and conservative world of the fisherman. After a few teething troubles, Etoh was able to announce that he had the confidence of the government, and his efforts rapidly bore fruit thereafter. He set about reorganising the fishermen's cooperative - a task which entailed overcoming the reluctance of members to adopt new practices. He also arranged for the construction of jetties where vessels could take on supplies. Fish were to be unloaded at one spot, and their diesel tanks would be refilled at a different location. The cost of diesel is 1.41 birr (ECU 0.17) per litre. The fishermen's cooperative, which has 440 members, has 35 000 birr (ECU 4000) in its funds. It is also making repayments on a 1.8 million-birr (ECU 200 000) loan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'In the beginning, there was frenzied activity, which some regarded as chaos', Seichi Etoh recalls. However, in less than two years, the jetties have been completed and the ice plants -  essential for preserving the fish - are running flat out. Now they are producing eight tonnes of ice a day. The daily catch is about two tonnes of fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The real revolution occurred when Seichi Etoh decided to try and organise cooperatives for women, who represent 25% of the workforce in the production chain. He followed up with an even more radical scheme, offering them paid work in the relatively unrewarding but essential field of ship maintainance and repair. This freed the fishermen, most of whom had no remunerative activity outside the fishing season (November to March), to seek work elsewhere during the other seven months of the year. Eritrea, a country where women's potential has not traditionally been acknowledged (or tapped) had never seen the like before. Nowadays, of the 200 who fish out of Massawa, 50 are women who have formed their own organisation - and they generate a considerable profit. They have even opened up a fish restaurant!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall standard of living has increased considerably. This year, fisheries-related production has risen 120% compared with 1995. And the port is doing reasonably well in quality terms. Using the international scale, which ranks the catches from 0 to 10, the quality of fish landings by the Massawa fishermen is rated 6 overall - as against 8 for Japan. 5 for China and 6.5 for Europe. The local market has expanded as a result of efforts to modify local eating habits. People have been taught to grill fish instead of frying it in expensive (and somewhat unhealthy) oil. The message - 'eat grilled fish' - is going out daily on national radio, and women are going into the schools and villages to teach this 'latest' cooking technique.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The local market may be important, but the main target for the increased production is Ethiopia. With the purchase of four refrigerated lorries, it is now possible to transport fish products over long distances. Another important customer is Italy, which currently takes about a third of the total production. Seichi Etoh is hopeful that, following this example, new markets can be found in other parts of Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The success of the Massawa project has exceeded all expectations and, although he downplays the achievement with typical oriental modesty, it is clear that Etoh's bet has paid off. The fishermen have come to understand the advantages to be gained in reorganisation and maintaining their 'tools' of production. And as anticipated, the bulk of the profit from the project is going back to the fishermen. The government has taken care not to cream off too much for itself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other projects are now under way. Etoh is attempting to persuade the fishermen to give up their wooden craft in favour of ferro-cement vessels but after centuries of doing things in a certain way, it will take more than a few months for the new plans to be adopted. The monthly meetings with representatives from the cooperatives are stormy and animated. However, two vessels are already being built, on the assumption that a practical demonstration is worth far more than a long speech. The 60 people working directly on the project are awaiting the outcome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This change has become necessary owing to the cost of wood - which is one of the reasons why the fishermen have grown progressively poorer. Timber prices have been rising sharply for some years, particularly in Dubia, the regional centre of the wood trade. The war, in the meantime, sent incomes spiralling downwards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Overall, the Eritrean fishing fleet has 500 vessels, all made of wood, of which 250 have Massawa as their home port. In previous years, the wood (known as tengi in Eritrean) came from Ethiopia. But this country is facing ecological problems and fishermen have been forced to search elsewhere for building and maintenance materials for their unstable and costly vessels (a 13-metre boat requires 8 m³ of wood). Etoh explains that the new boats, while slower, glide more easily over the water on account of their stability. However, the first attempts at change have not been easy. Indeed, things got so bad that Etoh went on holiday 'for longer than expected', he said, though he took advantage of the break to visit Singapore and buy Chinese tricycles  -  which can now be seen in the streets of Massawa. The reign of the bicycle with a simple wicker basket which could carry just 20 kilos is over. Now, each tricycle can deliver 100 kg of fresh fish, packed in ice. All in all, the programme is running smoothly. Etoh has only to check it from time to time. After all this labour, will the smiling Japanese professor be taking a well-earned rest? 'Probably not,' he says, adding 'I am currently thinking about a chain of restaurants. Fish restaurants of course !'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An unusual 'bank'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The road leading to Gersteti village is so beautiful that it takes your breath away. Multicoloured birds fly lazily above the vehicle carrying the journalists and humanitarian aid workers - who are deep in discussion about the kind of world they wish to create. However, there is a switch in the conversation once they reach the Seraye plateaux. Their attention is drawn to the fields which stretch as far as the eye can see. It doesn't take long to discover that demand for land here far outweighs supply. The situation, which is already critical, has not been helped by the influx of refugees returning from neighbouring countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the war ended in 1991, everyone's prime concern was to relaunch an agricultural sector ruined by 28 years of combat. Farmers and farming communities, the lifeblood of the countryside, had been mobilised to fight on the front line. In 1990, agricultural production was at such a low level that the word 'negligible' featured prominently in the Ministry of Agriculture's statistics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oxfam, which first came to Eritrea in 1978, has been running an unusual project on the Seraye plateaux. Located to the south of Asmara, the capital, this region is the second most densely populated part of the country. Five districts containing 65 villages and 17000 families, were chosen for the project  -  on account of their low rainfall and the fact that it is difficult, and in some cases, impossible, to cultivate the exhausted soil. Local communities, village leaders and politicians all understood that only full-scale collaboration could prevent a food-supply disaster in the province. An organisation was therefore created: the villagers elected 13 representatives (12 men and one woman) and began by setting up a seed bank. There was a severe shortage of seed materials in this devastated country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project got off the ground in November 1995 and is set to run for three years. Its objective is simple: to guarantee self-sufficiency in seeds and to provide a reserve during hard times. The 'Seed Bank Committee' has also given training to 40 farmers in seed conservation, terracing and basic agricultural economics. Two wells have been sunk, but these are insufficient for the 40 square kiLom&eacute;tres that require irrigation. Oxfam is putting up the money for the various initiatives while the local community is providing the labour force. It is worth noting that a bag of averagequality cement costs 35 birrs (ECU4), equivalent to one third of a worker's monthly wage. Fourteen different varieties of seed have been stored in sheds - which the locals visit to obtain their supplies. The purchase of 230 quintals of local seeds and the donation of 70 quintals from elsewhere have started the programme off. Next year, Individual farmers will have to repay this 'loan' in kind, with a 10% 'interest payment', also in the form of seeds. The surplus generated will be retained by the bank as a resource to be drawn upon, if necessary, when times are hard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The local community was quick to understand the advantages to be gained from this system. They were all too aware of the low productivity of their land and up to then, were powerless to resolve the situation. The possibility of falling back on traditional resources to offset production difficulties no longer existed. And the skills they had acquired over the generations were now insufficient, given the poor condition of the soil. In these circumstances, one can well understand their enthusiasm when they saw that 100 kg of seeds per hectare yielded a harvest six times larger than previously. Other elements which contributed to a progressive improvement in conditions were the sinking of new wells, a reduced influx of refugees from Sudan, and a slow but appreciable improvement in the country's general economic situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As well as being involved in this project, Oxfam is an active member of Acord, an NGO association which extends cash loans at rates much lower than those demanded by the banks. (Acord's rate is 12% per annum with a minimum repayment of 5 birrs per month). Targeted mainly at the most deprived sections of the population, the loans enable the poor to set up small businesses or, more commonly, to purchase agricultural implements, repair irrigation channels and buy cattle. Once again, a village committee manages the transactions. The scheme has brought renewed hope to the most deprived groups. Individual loans have been available since 1994 and the association currently has 163 clients. The total amount lent so far is 878 000 birrs (ECU 110 000).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The combined effects of these programmes - seed banks and preferential loans - are already visible. It would take months to visit all the farms and fields, workshops and stores, where men and women have invested their energies and hopes. Seraye province now produces a third of Eritrea's cereals, a telling illustration of the fact that one does not need billions of dollars for development and humanitarian aid for the work to be effective. In the final analysis, a country's wealth lies in its citizens. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An up-to-date printing plant</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As one strolls down Liberation Avenue, which cuts the city of Asmara in two, one might be forgiven for thinking that 28 years of war have already been forgotten. Surveying the multi-coloured neon signs of the shops, it certainly appears as if the country has turned the corner and the wounds are healing rapidly. One building whose restrained frontage stands outs in sharp contrast is the Adulis printing-works. Adulis was the name of a semi-mythical city founded by the Greeks on the Red Sea in the third millennium before Christ. 'But there is nothing insubstantial about this place', comments Mohamad Shiffa Osman, with a smile. He is one of three expert typesetters who went on a training course in Belgium earlier this year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The Adulis printing works has its own particular memories of the Eritrean people's struggle for independence. As far back as the 1960s, when the first shots were being fired, the resistance recognised that their fighters and the civil population both had to have access to information. However, it was not until the 1980s that a true propaganda structure came into being. During the war, the Eritrean People's Liberation Army ran a clandestine ministry of information. In Eritrea and elsewhere, this became the channel for conveying practical information, and providing the latest news from the front. It was also used to transmit personal messages, which were delivered to the heart of areas occupied by the Ethiopian Army. 'Our presses were hidden in caves, up in the mountains, and everything was run on generators', Mohamed remembers. The initial amateur approach was quickly replaced by a more professional one. 'We did have professional printers working for us, but it was mainly self-taught comrades'. On-the job apprenticeships had to be fitted in between bouts of fighting!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'At the time of liberation, in 1991, we set about restoring this printing works, which was founded in 1896 by the Italians', Mohamed explained as he gave us a guided tour of the works. The effort put into relaunching this essential activity soon bore fruit. Within the year, the printing operation was running at a profit - indeed it had a virtual monopoly of printing in the country. The presses were brought down from the mountains on the backs of camels and then taken to Asmara by truck. 'You see this Aurelia 48?', asks Mohamed, pointing to a machine. 'Well, it was up in the north, hidden away in a village'. Throughout our visit, Mohamed draws attention to equipment from an earlier age  -  candidates for the museum which are still in operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some items have their own story to tell, like the press donated years ago by Oxfam which still churns out thousands of sheets every day. During the war, it was taken from cave to cave, following the army's advance as it conquered new terrain. Most of the Adulis machines, however, were already there, when the decision was taken to restart the operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The initial budget for the works was a tidy five million birr (ECU 620 000). Today, Adulis has an annual turnover of 20 million birr. Monthly salaries range from 400 birr (ECU 50) for maintenance staff to 1800 birr (ECU 225) for the director, Michael G. Bakhli. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The printing works also acts as a testing ground for workers' social progress. According to Mohamed and the director, the 350 or so people employed at the works benefit from exceptional social cover. If a worker falls ill, his wage is guaranteed for one month, then it drops to 50% in the second month and stops altogether at the end of the third. if a woman is pregnant, she has to take a month's statutory leave and is granted a further two months on full pay. In the event of dismissal, an employee receives two months' wages, although this latter arrangement is gradually changing to one month's wages for each year of service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Far from resting on the laurels of their success, the Adulis works' directors have appealed for assistance. In order to be at the cutting edge of technology and to have the resources to break into new markets, they need to supplement their knowledge. Therefore, three 'volunteers' spent the three months from January to March this year working in Belgian companies, to the satisfaction of everyone, both hosts and visitors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Mohamed's gaze, the walls of the workshop have been brightened up with posters which provide a splash of colour. Although the noise from the presses often drowns out conversation, you cannot escape the feeling of hope here. It is like a breath of fresh air, and one leaves with the strong impression of a country that is rising from the ashes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Developing world</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ECHO fine-tunes disaster preparedness strategy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Eva Kaluzynska</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a cyclone strikes in the Caribbean, beware of giant flying razorblades - airborne sheets of corrugated iron that kill and maim unsuspecting victims every time. 'The use of galvanised iron sheeting for roofing is extremely dangerous in cyclone-prone areas,' says Professor Debarati Guha-Sapir, Director of the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) at the Universite Catholique de Louvain. 'We know this, and we need to encourage the use of lighter materials, such as thatching, which doesn't kill if it flies off in a gale,' she adds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That is the kind of issue facing people exposed to unavoidable natural disasters  -  in the Caribbean's case, every year. In 1995, there were 27 tropical storms in the region. CRED has been in the vanguard of monitoring natural disasters and in coming up with solutions to the problems they create since it was set up in 1973. Now it is assisting the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO) in developing its new Disaster Prevention, Mitigation and Preparedness Programme (DIPECHO) to cover the next two years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1994, ECHO has spent almost ECU 7 million on 50 disaster prevention operations, at both national and regional levels. Now, instead of just responding to requests for funding from non-governmental organisations, international organisations and governments, ECHO has decided to fine-tune its strategy. It will concentrate its efforts on specific regions known to be particularly vulnerable and prone to natural disasters. We may not know exactly when disasters will strike, but we certainly know where to expect them. The regions selected at present are: the Caribbean, Central America, South East Asia and Bangladesh.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All of them are exposed to repeated emergencies. All of them have a struggle to develop when their efforts are disrupted so frequently. They cannot just pick up where they left off. Loss of life and property is just the most visible aspect of what happens when disaster strikes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The infrastructure, such as it is, takes a hammering. Road and rail links are severed. Communications, electricity and water supplies break down. Add loss of health care and sanitation, and you get populations exceedingly vulnerable to epidemics. Add loss of education facilites, and a vicious spiral of poverty sets in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An expert in emergency aid cites the sad example of the Aetas, a tribal group that used to live a secluded life on the remote slopes of Mount Pinatubo, the volcano that erupted spectacularly in 1991 in the Philippines. Though the volcano was known to be menacingly active, the Aetas were not evacuated and resettled in time. They fled in panic as disaster struck, to the plains, where they faced a deadly, invisible enemy: measles, a disease to which they had never been exposed. Measles claimed more victims than the volcano itself did in the months that followed. They could have been resettled earlier. And they could have been immunised years before, but weren't.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It's easy to be wise after the event. DlPECHO aims to encourage action before it's too late. The idea behind ECHO's new policy is to take each region, and to identify its hazards and capacity for dealing with disasters. This will help to pinpoint the gaps. Then it will draw up Action Plans that slot into the wider picture of potential development in each case.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DIPECHO projects will involve training personnel in the regions affected to handle disasters, and to strengthen the institutions that can contribute to effective prevention, preparedness and mitigation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some of the solutions are ingenious, low-cost, low-tech ideas. Take, for instance, the use of light, widely-available, inexpensive materials for roofing in earthquake or cyclone-prone zones - an idea poorer countries could adapt from wealthy Japan's experience. Or the construction of safe, raised 'islands' that will stay above the waterline amid flooding in Bangladesh to offer shelter. Or adapting drainage, and changing cropping patterns in Andhra Pradesh, India, to mitigate the effects of cyclones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In earthquake-prone Central America, protecting roads and bridges, or building schools less prone to collapse is very important. Using the radio or even neighbourhood watch systems to sound the alarm when disaster is imminent can make a big difference to its impact in terms of injuries. Drilling all at risk, from school-age up, to know what to expect and to know what to do is vital.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DIPECHO did not include Africa in its first selection of regions for Action Plans. This is not to underestimate the gravity or scale of the disasters experienced there, says Professor Guha-Sapir: 'Floods, drought and famine are very frequent events there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are often killers.' Overexploitation of scarce resources and political turmoil compound situations that lead to disasters which seem less dramatic than a volcano eruption, but are no less far-reaching in impact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The instability in many of the areas worst affected means that African countries lack the institutions needed to prepare for disasters in an organised way, she says. 'There are limits on ECHO's ability to intervene. It's unrealistic to expect the kind of grassroots, technical preparedness we are talking about in the current situation.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ECHO's Jean-Claude Heyraud sums up the new policy: 'As far as preventing, mitigating and preparing for catastrophes goes, the new proactive approach reflects the importance ECHO attaches to this type of action. The DIPECHO programme meets the growing need to evaluate risks in order to reduce loss of life and damage to property. If and when emergency aid is needed, preparation and prevention can help to reduce the scale and cost of such actions.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Culture and society</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">African reflections</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Seydou Sarr</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third Festival of African Cinema was held in Brussels on 15-22 June. For one week, film-goers in the Belgian capital filled the auditoria of the Palais des Beaux-Arts, where they discovered new images of an alternative Africa. And as always, when the time came to assess how the Festival had gone, professionals and organisers alike were left pondering the problems facing the African film industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Organised for the first time in 1994, on the initiative of Diaspora Productions, the Festival had a number of objectives, including that of bringing Africa's finest films to wider public notice. The initiative stemmed from two observations. In the first place, the European public's opinion of Africa is based on what it sees on television -  and that image is of a continent so ravaged by famine, misery and strife that it is incapable of progress. Second, from a professional standpoint, there is no effective distribution network in Belgium for African films. Samba Traore by Burkina Faso's Idrissa Ouedraogo and Hyenes by the Senegalese Djibril Diop Mambety were two rare exceptions in succeeding in getting on to the circuit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A forum for reflection</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In setting up film-industry meetings, the organisers of the Brussels Festival wanted the event to be a forum for reflection on the problems facing African cinema. In the 40 years it has existed, there has undoubtedly been some progress. It is even possible to speak of genuine mastery of images and cinematographic language. But there are also many problems -  involving production and distribution, a lack of official support, a shortage of private capital and limited access to international markets. At home, meanwhile, African firms face fierce competition from multi-million dollar productions coming out of the USA, Europe and Asia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe has traditionally offered the only feasible route for those seeking technical and financial resources. The principal donors are the European Union, the ACCT (Cultural and Technical Corporation Agency) and the French Ministry of Cooperation. There are, of course, many instances of African directors producing films without taking this route, but these ventures usually have smaller budgets, and insufficient funds to devote to promotion (press releases, trailers etc). As regards distribution in Belgium, directors face an additional difficulty - they have to take the language issue into account (particularly when films are shown in Flanders).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African professionals are looking at various ways of solving these problems, including the possibility of coproduction with European operators. For some years now, public and private bodies have also been considering the idea of establishing combined co-production teams in a form of partnership, as a way of supporting African cinema. This topic has been on the agenda of other African film festivals (notably in Amiens) and it came up for discussion in Brussels as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A colloquium on the subject of ACP/Europe co-production was staged on the fringe of the Brussels event. This served to highlight a number of successful experiments in North/South collaboration. One example was the Cape Verdian film Ilheu de Contenda, by Leao Lopes which was made with support from a Belgian production company, Saga Films. This film was screened at the Festival. It also gave an opportunity to discuss a range of other topics. African journalists accredited to the Festival were given the task of drafting a resolution whose conclusions will be submitted to various contributors including FEPACI (the Pan-African Federation of Film-Makers), the European Union, producers and other donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was general agreement that a coherent legal framework for organising relationships between directors and producers, on the basis of mutual trust, was badly needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Positive results</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is worth making a brief assessment of the efforts made by the organisers of the Brussels Festival to offer an improved programme. The showing of shorts at the beginning of a performance is undoubtedly a formula they should employ again. These works are a specialised genre which give young directors the chance to present their first work. The bulk of the shorts that were screened this year were in the form of 'documentaries' based on fiction - but with one foot in the real world. They dealt with people's lives, their daily concerns, and a variety of social phenomena. Thus, we were presented with films dealing with Aids, urban delinquency, the role of women in society and so on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another positive point the organisers should concentrate on is the space resewed for English and Portuguese-language films. There were eight performances in this category including four feature films in English and two in Portuguese. A further worthwhile element was the space allocated to African women (from Nigeria, Kenya, Zimbabwe and Burkina Faso) who have chosen to use the cinema as a means of expression.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diaspora Productions' managers are said to be reasonably satisfied with the way the Festival went. They hope it can continue to be held at the Palais des Beaux-Arts, since they see this as one way of liberating African cultural events from the Afro-Brussels 'ghetto' where they have often been held. They are also keen, in future years, for African films to be shown in Brussels cinemas while the Festival is under way. If this happens, film-goers in Brussels will have the pleasure, from next year, of seeing quality works in their usual cinemas. The timing is appropriate since the 1997 Brussels event will follow the Ouagadougou Festival (Fespaco) which traditionally sees the launch of a number of new films.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Family meeting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The organisers chose to close the 1996 Festival with a fashion parade which gave Pathe 'O, the designer from Cot&eacute; d'Ivoire, the chance to present his collection to the Brussels audience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the fringes of the Festival, there was also a musical offering in the shape of the Toure Kunda brothers who came to lend their support to filmmakers and other African artistes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are those who would argue that the Brussels Festival has now entered the category of a 'not-to-bemissed' event. Every year, it attracts significant numbers of film-makers from Africa and the diaspora, even when they have no current projects or films to present. There was a real family atmosphere in the corridors of the Palais des Beaux-Arts, due in no doubt to the absence of competition. From the outset, the Diaspora Productions team chose to stage an event at which prizes were not awarded, thereby promoting reflection and contact with the public. It is generally agreed that the Brussels Festival offers a rare opportunity for film-makers to meet and discuss their productions and projects in a relaxed atmosphere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The credit for this, in the view of many of the participants, lies with Pape Mbaye Sene, one of the guiding lights of the event, who has also been dubbed the 'high priest' of African cinema. It has, in fact, been suggested tongue-in-cheek that 'in Brussels, they award a Pape, not an Oscar'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'We make films... but we do not exist!' - interview with Souleymane Cisse</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future of African cinema seen through the eyes of the Malian film maker, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In April, The Courier had the opportunity of meeting Souleymane Cisse, one of Africa's most celebrated film-makers, who has won several awards at major international film festivals. His films, such as Yeelen, which was awarded the Prix du Jury in Cannes in 1987 (the first African film to receive such a prestigious accolade), Waati, which was entered at the same festival, and Finye, have already become classics. Cisse is not just a director, he also produces his own films. In 1972, he impressed international critics by single-handedly producing a short film of exceptionally high quality Cinq jours d'une vie -  which won an award at the Carthage Film Festival. By relying, above all, on his own limited resources, combined with a powerful determination to develop and promote Africa's film industry, Souleymane Cisse has an implied but powerful message for the entire African continent. When he went on stage at the Palais des Festivals in 1987 to receive his award for Yeelen, he said that he was accepting it on behalf of all those who did not have the opportunity to speak for themselves. In particular, he dedicated the film to all the South African technicians who had worked together with him on the project. His has made spirited efforts to boost the African film industry and it was in this context that he helped set up the 'Union of African cinema and audiovisual producers and entrepreneurs' last March. This organisation aims to encourage African countries (especially in West Africa), to take the necessary political decisions to ensure the survival and grouwth of African cinema. When we spoke to Souleymane Cisse, our discussion ranged far and wide. We began by asking the film director whether African art gets the recognition it deserves in Europe? He seemed surprised at the question but then, without hesitation, proceeded to explain his own approach - with the emphasis on the political rather than the aesthetic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The recognition that African art gets in the West has more to do with politics than aesthetic discernment. Such recognition evolves from the spirit of Africa's relations with the other continents, a spirit which is often devoid of all honesty. We stand at the threshold of the 21st century. We should be looking to develop ways of communicating with each other and finding common ground. We should be able to look each other in the eye. When, for example, people in France debate whether or not the Louvre should have a gallery of African art, it begs the question, 'who is asking for what ?'. When some people wonder whether or not African art really is art, they are asking themselves a pointless question. African art is. Nothing more, nothing less. In any case, the West has some highly contradictory views as far as the whole idea of art in Africa is concerned. On the one hand they dispute the fact that the culture of the Ancient Egyptians was, in essence, an African one, and yet on the other hand the characters of Ancient Egypt - in films for example - are always portrayed as dark-skinned. African art is the 'in' thing at the moment, despite the current tendency to belittle Africa. They think that today's Black Americans and Afro-Caribbeans can be made to forget their African roots, but that just will not happen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Generally speaking, do you think that African politicians should devote time and energy to this battle to defend African culture when their countries face such insurmountable material problems ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Once they have gained power, the obsessive preoccupation of our politicians has been to concentrate on economic policies, neglecting their countries' cultural needs. But without a deeply-rooted culture, you cannot discuss matters on equal terms with representatives of other nations. In their heart of hearts, they will not respect you fully. There have been two or three countries which have tried to combine economic development with cultural development - I'm thinking of Guinea under Sekou Toure, Mali under Modibo Keita and Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah, but in one way or another, all three have been thwarted, for their perceptiveness. I am not now commenting on, or necessarily agreeing with, their domestic policies, but rather with the broad vision they shared for Africa as a whole. The fact that Europe is currently in the process of forging the European Union will be an instrumental force in the opening up of other regions of the globe. It was Europe, after all, which divided much of the world into English speakers, French speakers, Portuguese speakers, Spanish speakers and so on. Now that Europeans are themselves seeking to unite their countries, how could they possibly object to a similar union in Africa - for the sake of its cultural identity. This idea of a United Europe is, therefore, a welcome one. What is more, I believe that the issue has already been tackled within relations between the European Union and ACP countries. Not only is Africa the continent closest to Europe; it is in helping to develop the African continent that Europe has most to gain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The cultural aspect has already been incorporated into Lom&eacute; IV, but it seems that ACP countries do not attach as much importance as they should to such matters when drawing up their lists of priorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Many of the politicians in charge of these countries themselves lack any sort of culture. Alternatively, stripped of their own culture, they flaunt that of a foreign land. They say that health care is a priority, that food is a priority, but cultural needs do not figure on their list. Yet culture forms part of an urgent need. You'll see - as soon as any sort of cultural development takes place in a country, or wherever a country already has a viable, thriving culture, its economy will also flourish; of that there is no doubt. A nation which has a highly developed culture will always be able to stand on its own two feet economically. Take, for example, the nations of the former Soviet Union  - their economies may be unstable at the moment. It's only natural that they have to start from scratch, but as long as they manage to hold on to their cultures, they will pull through. These countries will not lag behind as Africa has done.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It costs money to operate a film industry. Have you found that your reputation as a director has made the financial side of things any easier for you ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I don't honestly think much has changed in the way we finance our films. Perhaps I should only speak for myself, but I do not believe it is any easier for me than it is for young filmmakers. Mali has no film production facilities, so we are all in the same boat. That is why we organised a colloquium in March this year, aimed at getting a picture of the exact state of West Africa's film industry. What we learned was that it is in pretty bad state. We make films but, in a certain sense, we don't really exist as a film industry. I would dearly like my works to be screened, for example, in Mali, Guinea and Senegal, but that is not possible because the distribution and screening networks are no longer there. Even the most liberal Western countries have passed laws to promote and protect their local film industries, so why don't we do the same ? I cannot make films in the United States without first going through various unions and other professional associations. In France, I cannot distribute my films the way I want, and if I want to make a film, I have to make it through French producers. If people come to work here, they should have to use national producers. The relevant laws were drawn up three or four years ago, but they still haven't been passed. We want all those involved in the film industry to have the opportunity to be true professionals. There should be assistance available to modernise projection rooms and theatres. We are currently in the process of setting up the 'Union of African cinema and audiovisual producers and entrepreneurs' which should help to persuade governments to take our requests into account.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Isn't African cinema also a victim of television ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The problem in Mali is a very simple one. We live in a country where people like to get out and about. The cinema is somewhere they can do that quite easily. So people use it as a place where they can meet up in the evening, just as they like to congregate around the fire to sing and dance. So why are our cinemas empty ? Because when people do go to the cinema, they cannot see the screen properly or they cannot hear the soundtrack, or they are uncomfortable sitting on broken and rickety chairs. If you can provide a suitable and comfortable environment for them, people will start going to the cinema again. That doesn't mean that television doesn't have its place, but people like to go out. This is especially the case with our open air cinemas, which are the perfect places for people to come together, have a chat, enjoy each other's company and relax. A nice auditorium, a good film, and you'll see how the queues will form. All we need to do is upgrade the auditoria, re-equip the projection rooms, overhaul the sound systems, put new chairs in - just a few basic comforts. When people go out to the cinema, it's because they want to escape from their humdrum routine for a while, to dream and unwind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African governments should do what they can to enable people to relax and enjoy themselves like this. Going to the cinema is like going to school. People go there to learn something - whether consciously or subconsciously - and to see something different. We really must get rid of this purely commercial vision of the cinema, especially in Africa. It should, first and foremost, be a cultural experience, and only subsequently a commercial exercise. But we also need to be realistic. When helping those involved in promoting the film industry, the government should lay down a precise set of conditions, specifying how and when the loans should be repaid and requiring something in return for their subsidies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So you think that if the Ministries of Culture in African countries were given greater powers, they would be in a position to carry out this task ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is not something solely for the Ministry of Culture. This is the type of approach which should be adopted by the state as a whole, in each country. For example, the government should provide a support fund for the film industry and certain other branches of the arts. Even if they were increased substantially, the meagre budgets allocated to the Ministry of Culture in our countries would still represent paltry sums. In Africa, the department of culture is at the bottom of everybody's list.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· But if you look at the number of African films that have been shown in recent years at Cannes and other international festivals, surely one can afford to be a little more optimistic than you are ? More and more young African filmmakers are releasing films.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - True, but as I said earlier, no progress has been made as far as film production is concerned. In that respect, contrary to what people may think, we are still at square one. Young filmmakers are put off and, as more and more avenues are closed to them, they gradually lose their fighting spirit. A film director has no choice but to be his own producer, his own manager - to do everything himself in fact. The result is that he becomes a jack of all trades and a master of none. During our recent colloquium, we decided to set up smallscale facilities which will deal solely with film production and where young people can go and use their services, thus leaving them free to channel their energies into actually directing their films. In the same way, we intend to set up other structures which will deal exclusively with other aspects of the cinema industry. The goal we have set ourselves is that of fostering professionalism in the West African film industry. Maybe then our governments will listen to us.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think there is any difference between African countries as far as opportunities are concerned ? For example, Burkina Faso would appear to be the cinema capital of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, and no. More often than not, it is African film-makers who have chosen Burkina Faso to stage events connected with the cinema industry because it is a landlocked country. This is what has made it the film capital of Africa, not any deliberate move on the part of the politicians. Having said this, the government in Burkina Faso is also making great efforts, despite its limited resources. But each country has its own potential. We must stop trying to tear this continent apart.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mentioned the former President of your own country, Modibo Keita, as one of those far-sighted enough to appreciate the importance of nurturing African culture. Where does Mali stand at the moment in terms of strengthening its own cultural heritage identity ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - After independence, in the years from 1960 to 1968, there was a time when young people would get together and become involved in various biennial art festivals. We had a series of events which encouraged a kind of a 'cultural vision' nationwide. They were so successful that other countries were soon following our example. After the coup in 1968, however, everything fell apart. In the following 23 years there was a total cultural vacuum, in which young people felt completely disorientated, despite superficial attempts to relaunch the festivals. We are now only just trying to rediscover our cultural roots after a long period of upheaval. What we in Mali do have working in our favour, is the fact that our country is a harmonious patchwork of different peoples, all living together without the slightest trace of bitterness or hatred. We are lucky here because our rulers rarely tried to manipulate our ethnic loyalties to set one group against another. A Malian, irrespective of his roots, will always rejoice in the success of his fellow countrymen, whatever tribe they happen to belong to. We owe our good fortune to a heritage in which our peoples have always respected one another - even when they have faced each other as enemies. It is only as a result of this historic mutual respect that we can now speak of a Malian culture where each individual group of people has its own idiosyncrasies, its own customs, is sensitive towards other cultures and actually rejoices in their differences. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA Bulletin</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA and the promotion of rural development through book distribution</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of CTA's tasks is to provide information on request to researchers, extension workers, planners, farmers' organisations, trainers and information specialists involved in agricultural development in ACP states. In addition to requested publications, CTA also distributes publications on its own initiative to its target groups. These publications, some 550 titles, are also supplied free of charge and consist of books published by CTA, co-published, or purchased specially because of their relevance. In 1995, almost 65 000 books were posted to ACP countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The people who receive the publications to some extent select themselves, because they write to CTA with requests for information. They find out about its existence through attending CTA seminars held in ACP countries or in Europe, or through seeing copies of Spore (CTA's bi-monthly bulletin in English, French and Portuguese which goes to around 50 000 addresses and is seen by many more), or by word of mouth. Over the years, CTA has built up a mailing list of 42 500 addresses of people and organisations active in some way in agriculture and rural development. Of the total, 37 800 are in ACP countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But there are questions. Are our books getting to those who need them and is the targeting accurate enough? And, most importantly, is this the best way of doing things ? For CTA does not - and cannot - satisfy the total demand for books on agriculture and rural development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is the best way?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the number of addresses on the mailing list, many more people could in theory still be added. Should CTA even try to satisfy this demand ? The publications are free and, if CTA increased its coverage of the demand, it might in some countries hold back the development of local bookselling with a consequent detrimental effect on local publishing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The majority of those now on the mailing list are 'individuals' rather than institutions, libraries, documentation centres, associations, organisations, etc. On the face of it, more people could be reached by sending CTA publications to groups rather than to individuals, but it's not always clear who is an individual in the sense of information not being shared with others. Some individuals are teachers, some are extension agents, some receive publications on behalf of a cooperative, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the importance of information - the driving force behind development  -  CTA has been investigating and giving support to technical publishing and book distribution in Africa over the last few years and is currently examining its own policy on book distribution over the ACP countries as a whole. Part of the context for this policy re-appraisal is the state of bookselling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Difficulty of book distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Everyone involved in the books business in and for the ACP countries knows that getting books where you want them to go, book distribution, is not straightforward. The reasons for the difficulty are not straightforward either. One development officer remarked of Papua New Guinea that the lack of books outside the capital, Port Moresby, couldn't simply be explained by lack of roads, because in the most out of the way places you could be sure of finding Coca Cola. Is it, then, that the Coca Cola company has superior marketing and distribution arrangements ? Probably so, but it is the nature of the two products which also determines how far they get. Traders will more readily take goods which they know they will be able to sell easily and the immediate satisfaction given by cigarettes or Coca Cola tends to put them before books in the list of priorities for purchase.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the ACP countries where CTA sends books and information, many have under-developed road and rail networks while the postal facilities provide a reliable service only to a relatively small part of the country. The local book publishing and bookselling industries are often themselves developing. Potential readers often cannot afford to buy the books and consequently book distribution is the weak link in the chain from writing and publishing a book to selling it. If books can't be sold, new ones can't be published, for the investment finance for a new publishing project has to come from somewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Africa, the lack of a strong local book sector was attributed in part to the traditional oral culture of the continent which left little need for reading. The majority of students would read in order to pass their exams, after which they hardly sought books again to buy or to read.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main books distributed were therefore textbooks for schools, colleges and for higher education. As long as these were distributed through booksellers, a forum still existed for displaying and raising interest in other books.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Booksellers could also function as sources and conduits of information about the variety of books in print and of their interest to particular groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This development was stunted because of the low purchasing power of many people, lack of foreign exchange (except in the CFA franc states), high cost of importing (either books or the raw materials, print machinery and spare parts to manufacture books) and, consequentially, shortage and lack of variety of locally-published books.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, in some countries the state intervened in school book publishing and supply (for example in Tanzania), so that the bread and butter of the bookselling business disappeared.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Booksellers then either diversified their stock so that they became bookseller-stationers or worse - books came after groceries, footballs, hats, etc., or the booksellers ceased trading in books or closed down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The publishing-distribution chain in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Book distribution is part of a chain of activities in the book sector which depend on each other and support each other. The chain starts with an idea for a book which may come from an author or from potential readers who make known their needs and it ends with the published books being bought. The lack of a good book distribution infrastructure in Africa is linked to the lack of a wide variety of books from a good number of publishers and the lack of a market for the books.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At least until South Africa became a democracy, Nigeria probably had the most active publishing industry in Africa with a high level of publishing professionalism. In such a huge country this may not be surprising: there is a large market, state administrations with urban headquarters, and a variety of arrangements for publishing and distributing books. But publishers suffer from a scarcity of investment funds, with high costs of borrowing, which affects their ability to keep books in print and to start new publishing projects. Relatively few technical books are published locally because of the risks when compared with, for example, publishing school textbooks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In such a vast country, the state of book distribution varies from place to place, with cities and large towns obviously having a greater variety of books available for sale than small towns and rural areas. Small traders carry books to the latter; they do not take orders and the books they carry are those that they can get hold of which they think will sell. Would-be readers are frustrated unless they or their friends visit a city. Mail order is not a possibility because the domestic postal service is not trusted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the urban areas, where there are booksellers, an indeterminate number of potential readers cannot afford to buy books, especially those that have been imported. Book piracy is a consequence of this. Booksellers' sales have declined, their turnover has been reduced as has their ability to stay in business. Some institutions in the country buy direct from publishers or from overseas suppliers rather than from booksellers, which further damages them. Booksellers buy books from publishers in small quantities for a fast turn-round which affects publishers' ability to build up investment funds for the next publishing project or for a large reprint with its possibility of reducing unit book costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not to say that technical books are totally unavailable from Nigerian booksellers, but it is clear that only specialised outlets which know their book-buying customers well can risk stocking some of them. Rural dwellers have no chance of buying them without making a big effort in time and money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In contrast, Senegal has a less developed publishing and bookselling industry than Nigeria, with about a dozen professional publishers and a small network of booksellers, mostly in Dakar and the larger towns in the regions. The most important publishing opportunities in Senegal are in the field of primary school textbooks - where there is competition both within the country, with publishers from other developing states, and from the North. Senegal being a lot smaller than Nigeria, there is only room for one textbook, and primary school book production is not therefore the mainstay of local publishers. The publisher which used to supply all primary and secondary school textbooks for the Ministry of National Education is an exception and is still probably dependent upon educational publishing for its turnover. Few technical books are published; as with books for higher education, they are imported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The network of booksellers has been decreasing and it is difficult to make a living just by selling books without the back-up of other products to sell. Thus there are bookseller-stationers, bookseller-grocers, kiosks and street sellers, especially of secondhand books. Booksellers tend to order titles in small quantities because they cannot risk being left with unsold stock which ties up their capital. They order little and often. Most school textbooks are distributed through the Ministry of National Education, but booksellers still sell a variety of textbooks, some official and approved and some not. Before the devaluation of the CFA franc, booksellers ordered more from abroad. These books have now doubled in price, making them unaffordable, with a consequent opportunity opened for local publishers to fill a gap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from the professional publishers, various sorts of publications are being produced and distributed by literacy and post-literacy organisations and a delegated literacy ministry. Some organisations promote literacy for its own sake, while others use the attainment of literacy as the means through which development can spread in rural areas. The publications concern rural development, agriculture, health and nutrition, and rural democracy, amongst others. There is a good variety of different titles and a good supply of cheap and affordable books. Some are sold through booksellers, but most people buy them when they take their literacy courses, while small traders carry them up-country to sell and buy more copies from the publishers with the proceeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Book aid schemes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A whole literature exists on book aid schemes. Briefly, book aid comes in two forms, one using the local book sector and the other not to any great extent. The British Government's Educational Low Prices Books Scheme (sadly scheduled to end, at least in its present form, in April 1997) and the French Government's Programme Plus both use the local bookselling industry to make available standard tertiary textbooks and others at subsidised rates. Not all students could afford to buy them, but the two schemes nonetheless promote bookselling and commercial life within ACP countries and beyond. To some extent they safeguard the continuation of fore where up-to-date books can be seen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CTA's books aid scheme does not use the local book sector in terms of book distribution, although cooperation in co-publishing is beginning. The FAO, in distributing publications to ACP and other developing countries, is similar. Books supplied under multilateral and bilateral agencies' projects have tended to sidestep the local book sector, although this has been changing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with food aid, the question to be answered is whether continuing the aid prolongs the condition ? Or does the analogy with food aid break down in certain circumstances because books are different ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving book distribution in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Various efforts are being made to improve book markets for African publishers. For example, the African Books Collective, based in Oxford, UK, markets and sells both anglophone and francophone African publishers' selected books in the North and also to other African countries. It is often easier for publishers in the North to sell their books in Africa than it is for African publishers to sell their books across frontiers and in the continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publishers Associations have been formed in about a dozen countries with APNET, the African Publishers' Network, celebrating its fourth year as a continental association. CTA supported APNET in the production of the first catalogue of agricultural books published by African publishers. Very recently, an Africa-wide booksellers association has been created.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CTA and future book distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since CTA started distributing books on agriculture and rural development, publishing and bookselling activities in many ACP countries have multiplied and the context has changed somewhat. As noted at CTA's Montpellier conference in 1995, there is now much information and many documents going from North to South, suited to the planners, research workers and extension agents who process the information and pass it down to the small-scale farmers. Rather, a two-way information route would be more efficient, between farmers who have information to offer as well as information needs and information providers. The growth in requests to CTA for publications from co-operatives and farmer associations and from non-academic libraries and documentation units is evidence that the publications distribution service is fulfilling a need. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Couriers mailbag</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earthen architecture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I read your article on 'Earthen Architecture', published by the CTA Bulletin in the September-October 1996 issue of The Courier (n° 159) with a great deal of interest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The article presents such traditional products as rammed earth and adobe which have been used by man since time immemorial as witnessed by constructions and monuments to be found in the countries cited by the authors of the article, as well as industrial products such as the compressed earth block (CEB), which have provoked much interest in many parts of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The authors also demonstrate that the use of the compressed earth block has a distinct advantage in that it valorises local raw materials, encourages the setting up of local enterprises and creates employment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard, I would particularly wish to inform you that the Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) has, for the last ten years, been working on the industrial development of the CEB sector through support to ACP promoters at various levels:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - diagnostic studies of projects and setting-up of production units;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - search for EU technical partners who have economically advantageous technologies and are ready to transfer their know-how;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- training of enterprise personnel in CEB production and in the utilisation of this product;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- support in the manufacturing of brick presses such as is currently the case in Nigeria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some 100 small and mediumsized enterprises and non-governmental organisations in ACP countries involved in the CEB sector have benefited from direct CDI assistance. This assistance has, notably, led to the improved technical and economic performance of these enterprises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond support to projects, the CDI in collaboration with CRATerre actively participates in the industrial promotion of this technology. The Centre recently disseminated 2000 copies of a technical guide entitled 'CEB: Production Equipment' throughout the ACP countries. An exhibition on the compressed earth block and its application took place during the Industrial Mining Forum held in Lusaka, Zambia, in December 1994. Similar exhibitions were held during the Matconstruct Forum (Libreville, Gabon, October 1995) and at the Industrial Partnership event (Bordeaux, France, February 1995). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The standardisation of the compressed earth block is a prerequisite for the development of this sector. The Centre therefore organised a workshop on this topic in Yaounde in 1996 as a follow-up to the Matconstruct Forum. This seminar brought together some 40 ACP and EU participants to discuss the 'CEB: Standardisation' guide currently being prepared by CRATerre for publication in December 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main objective of the guide is to encourage ACP promoters to manufacture products in conformity with accepted norms and thus facilitate CEB integration in the industrial construction market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efforts made by the CDI, in collaboration with CRATerre, to develop the CEB sector deserve to be better known. We would therefore look forward to an opportunity to present the Centre's activities in this sector in a future issue of me Courier. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surendra Sharma, Director, Centre for the Development of Industry,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brussels, Belgium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Map insets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thank-you for your informative magazine. I wish you all the best in your endeavours to improve me Courier further. May I suggest that in the Country Report profiles, you include an inset map of the region highlighting the country in question for those readers who may not be familiar with the area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andrew Frederick Meya, Kampala, Uganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of readers have raised this point with us since we have rearranged the cover pages and transferred the ACP and Europe 'regional' maps to the inside back cover. In future, we will endeavour to ensure that there is a cross-reference to this page in the Country Report profile. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bibliography</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publications received</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La politique etrangere du Cameroun (Cameroon's foreign policy) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Narcisse Mouelle Kombi. Pub. L'Harmattan, Collection «Points de vue» (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1996. 238 pp. ISBN 2-73843701-X.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon belongs to the zone formerly called the 'Third World' which is nowadays labelled the 'South'. This region of great diversity currently faces major socio-economic and political conflict, and receives 'multiform' and 'tied' aid from the developed countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This does not, however, prevent it from having a degree of freedom of action in diplomatic terms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, who is a specialist in international law, believes that as a player on the world scene, Cameroon puts its foreign-policy skills to good advantage and has acquired a certain respect in international relations and in global institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He argues that Yaounde is attempting to implement a realistic and pragmatic foreign policy, reflecting its own sovereign status and the imperatives of development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, the country is endeavouring to implement the changes forced upon it by modern circumstances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Le developpement institutionnel - Les organisations a l'epreuve de la specificite et de la concurrence (Institutional development - Organisations based on specificity and competition) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Arturo Israel. Translated from the English by Alain Claisse. Pub. L'Harmattan (5-7, me de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1996. 235 pp. 140 FF. ISBN 2-73844322-2.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A graduate of the University of Chile and the London School of Economics, the author has devoted most of his career (particularly within the World Bank) to examining the problems of economic and social development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He has been one of the pioneers of institutional development, a field which is nowadays seen as essential to all development strategies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He argues that institutional development requires not bureaucratisation but the promotion and recognition of two principles in both public and private organisations. These are competition and specificity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The former induces those involved to improve the quality of their work, whilst forcing them to listen to the 'consumer'. The latter involves qualifications, specialisation and a precise definition of objectives, tasks, resources and results.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After a critical review of assessment reports produced over a 15-year period by the World Bank in the field of institutional development, Arturo Israel tells us why such development is one of the keys to success in development projects. He demonstrates that a good project being implemented in an unfavourable institutional environment has little chance of achieving positive long-term effects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La justice internationale face au drame rwandais (International justice confronted by the Rwandan crisis) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the direction of Jean-Fran&ccedil;oise Dupaquier, with William Bourdon, Pierre-Serge Heger, Frederic Mutagwera, Fran,cois-Xavier Nsanzuwera, Rakiya Omaar, William A. Schabas and Anne-Marie Swartenbroekx. Pub. Karthala (22-24, boulevard Arago, F-75013, Paris). 1996. 248 pp. FF 130. BF. 715. ISBN 2-86537-662-1.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is two years since the genocide and political massacres which resulted in the death of a million people in Rwanda. In this work, the authors describe and analyse the progress made in various legal proceedings in Rwanda itself, in the international arena and in the jurisdictions of Belgium, France, Canada and Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some countries have been slow and apparently reluctant to fulfil their international obligations and this has resulted in disappointment and impatience on the part of the victims' families, jurists and human rights activists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the example of the Nuremberg trials, the authors suggest there are good grounds for concluding that international human rights have become less important over the last 50 years. This work allows one to reach a considered opinion. Modern legal instruments provide for the punishment of those responsible for the appalling tragedy in Rwanda. These instruments could be seen as a significant advance in the recognition of human rights by the international community. But what is missing at the moment is the political will (and public pressure) to implement them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Methodologies d'analyse de la mortalite des enfants - Applications au Cameroun (Analytical methodologies in child mortality as applied to Cameroon) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Amadou Noumbissi. Pub. Braylant-Academia (25, Grand Rue, B-134B Louvainla-Neuve) and L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1996. 305 pp. ISBN 2-87209389-3 (Academia-Braylant) and ISBN 2-7384-3722-2 (L'Harmattan).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Child mortality, always very high in sub-Saharan Africa, varies according to social class, habitat and region. The identification of the social, economic and cultural factors which influence the survival of children depends on the quality of data, and on the relevance of the indicators and statistical models used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the aid of specific examples, this work attempts to demonstrate the origin of a number of sources of bias in so-called classical approaches and the distortion of the truth which a poor choice or detrimental manipulation of statistical models can give rise to.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A teacher and researcher at the Demographic Institute of the Catholic University of Louvain (Belgium), the author proposes methods to take account of the interdependence and synergy which exist between the factors which affect the risk of mortality. He applies these methods to the data gained in two national surveys which were carried out in Cameroon in 1978 and 1991.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Revue Region et Developpement (Region and Development Journal)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pub. L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F75005 Paris). 1995. 238 pp. ISBN 2-7384-4125-4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This half-yearly journal, first launched in 1995, deals with the various socio-economic aspects of regional development. The second issue contains articles which may be of interest to our readers, including: 'Regionalisation, globalisation and polarisation of the world economy: is there room for developing countries?', and 'Housing models in developing countries'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Structural adjustment and ethnicity in Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Eghosa E. Osaghae. Pub. The Nordic Africa Institute (P.O. Box 1703, S-751 47 Uppsala, Sweden). 1995. 66 pp. ISBN 91-7106373-0.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author is a lecturer who heads the politics department at the University of Transkei in South Africa. A significant conclusion from his study, undertaken at the Nordic Africa Institute, is that from the ethnic standpoint, the implementation of structural adjustment (with its corollary of reduced state involvement in public life), has had positive effects in Nigeria. This contrasts with the usual perception of the structural adjustment process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The migration experience in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collection prepared under the direction of Jonathan Baker and Tade Akin Aina. Pub. The Nordic Africa Institute (P.O. Box 1703, S-751 47 Uppsala, Sweden). 1995. 353 pp. ISBN-91-7106366-8.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This volume aims to take stock of migration in Africa. The causes of the phenomenon are varied and complex, and the authors have chosen an approach which illustrates the diversity of the theories, and methodological and analytical trends involved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The book offers an empirical assessment of migration in contemporary Africa, focusing particularly on the problem of women migrants. Migration is an important element in the wider development equation and this work fills a gap in the literature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Challenges to the Nation-State in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collection prepared under the direction of Adebayo O. Olukoshi and Liisa Laakso. Pub. The Nordic Africa Institute (P.O. Box 1703, S-751 47 Uppsala, Sweden) in collaboration with the Institute of Development Studies, University of Helsinki. 1996. 213 pp. ISBN 91-7106381-1.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge confronting the nation state in contemporary Africa are of great interest to specialists attempting to understand how deconstruction and recomposition of the political identity of populations affects the post-colonial unitarian project. The studies offered in this volume show that this process has often taken ethno-regionalist, religious or separatist forms -  reinforced by economic crisis and the negative effects of structural adjustment, not to mention the legacy of years of political authoritarianism and exclusion dating from the colonial period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The authors believe that in order to promote national unity and a sense of citizenship in Africa, priority should be given, inter alia, to more representative forms of government, power-sharing and decentralisation, multi-party elections, the reinvention of the post-colonial social contract and cultural autonomy for minority groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agenda for Africa's economic renewal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collection prepared under the direction of Benno Ndulu and Nicolas van de Walle. Pub. Overseas Department Council (1875 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 1012, Washington, DC 20009, USA). 1996. 246 pp. ISBN 1-56000900-4.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For 20 years, sub-Saharan Africa has been experiencing a severe economic crisis. Growth has been stagnant and the result has been reduced living standards for much of the population, and ever-increasing pressure on the continent's political structures. Structural adjustment, advocated by international organisations in an attempt to restore growth in Africa, has not had the anticipated results and has given rise to a number of disputes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this book, 10 African, US and European experts attempt to look beyond the immediate horizon and identify strategies which could be implemented to give renewed vigour to the African economy. They analyse the choices which should be made in key areas such as agriculture, trade and industry, the role of the state and the social sectors. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">News round - up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">In brief</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World congress against the sexual exploitation of children</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first international congress dealing with the problem of the sexual exploitation of children for profit was held in Stockholm from 27 to 31 August. The initiative for the meeting came from ECPAT (End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism), working in collaboration with the Swedish government, the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and a group of NGOs supporting the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The congress was attended by government representatives from most of the UN countries, participants from various international and regional organisations (including the UN Centre for Human Rights, the International Labour Organisation, the World Health Organisation, UNESCO, UNHCR and Interpol), NGOs, health professionals and media representatives from across the globe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The aim of the congress was to draw the international community's attention to the issue of the sexual exploitation of children and to promote the development of national plans to tackle all forms of abuse in this area. It focused particularly on three aspects: child prostitution, the 'trade' in children for sexual purposes, and child pornography.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there are a number of legal instruments which refer to these problems, the key one for the purposes of the Stockholm meeting was the Convention on the Rights of the Child. In Article 34 of this multilateral treaty, which has been ratified by 186 countries, the signatory states commit themselves to protect children against all forms of exploitation and violence of a sexual nature. For the purposes of the Convention, a child is defined as any human being less than 18 years old, except where the age of majority is lower than 18 in the relevant local legislation (Article 1).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The committee that was responsible for planning the Congress drew up documents on a number of themes including: the revision and application of laws; psycho-social prevention; tourism and child prostitution; those who engage in abuse; hygiene and health; the role of the media; child pornography; education; and human values. These subjects were all examined by working groups during the two-day session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The congress was addressed by Anita Gradin, Member of the European Commission with responsibility for internal and judicial affairs, and matters relating to immigration. She took the opportunity to underline the point that the traffic in women and children was international. Organised crime, she said, lay at the heart of the 'trade' and it was closely linked to a whole range of other criminal activities. She cited, in this context, kidnapping, forging of documents, 'false' marriages and adoptions, clandestine immigration, violence and forced labour. these, in turn were associated with the drug trade, extortion and murder. The conclusion was that a global action plan and more international cooperation were needed. Ms Gradin acknowledged that existing arrangements had been successful in exposing the existence of paedophile networks but she was convinced that international cooperation should be strengthened further, and that organisations such as Interpol and Europol would be called upon to play a bigger part in the future. The European Commissioner went on to declare that a commitment to the protection of children ought to be a priority. The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child - which is now eight years old -  should not merely tee 'adopted' by all countries. It should, rather, be applied in full and integrated into the legislation of every nation. There was no point, she suggested, in enacting new laws, if the existing ones were not being implemented and the financial resources had not been provided. Ms Gradin reaffirmed the European Commission's commitment to the fight against the exploitation of children. This would be reflected in communications to be drawn up by the Commission for presentation to the Council of Ministers and European Parliament, on the following subjects:  - the treatment of women (on the basis of the recommendations made by the Vienna Conference on this subject, which was held in June 1996);  - sex tourism, notably in certain countries in Asia and Latin America;  - actions designed to eliminate paedophile rings and child pornography networks which make use of new information technologies such as the Internet. During the congress, the Belgian Minister of Foreign Affairs announced that his country would be launching an initiative at the EC's Justice and Internal Affairs Council meeting scheduled for 26 and 27 September. They would be proposing common action designed to strengthen police and judicial cooperation in the fight against the sexual exploitation of children for profit. He believed that it should be possible to take measures both within the framework of the Europol Convention, and by means of new and specific cooperation instruments. The culmination of the Stockholm congress was the adoption of a declaration and an action plan. These foresee strengthened cooperation and coordination among local and national authorities, and a series of measures to protect children, prevent abuse and provide rehabilitation. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1997: European year against racism </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a resolution adopted on 23 July, the Council of Ministers formally designated 1997 as the European year against racism. The aims, set out in the resolution, include:  - highlighting the threat posed by racism, xenophobia and antisemitism, in terms of both respect for fundamental rights, and in ensuring the economic and social cohesion of the European Community;  - encouraging reflection and discussion of the measures needed to tackle racism, xenophobia and antisemitism in Europe;  - promoting a sharing of experiences, best practice, and effective strategies drawn up at the local, national and European levels;  - disseminating information on the aforementioned best practice and strategies amongst those most closely involved in the fight against racism, xenophobia and antisemitism, with a view to enhancing the effectiveness of their actions in this area;  - highlighting the advantages of integration policies implemented at the national level, in particular in the fields of employment, education, training and housing;  - taking account, wherever possible, of the experiences of victims of racism, xenophobia and antisemitism, and promoting the participation of these people in society. ECU 6 million will be spent on a series of activities designed to help achieve these objectives during the 'year against racism'. A logo and slogan will be devised, and seminars and conferences will be staged with the aim of strengthening international cooperation (themes will include the role of education in eliminating racism, ways of establishing dialogue, and establishing mutual respect between different communities living in towns and cities). Documents and audiovisual material will be distributed, and an effort will be made to get the message across in the media. There will also be action to encourage information exchanges on best practice, and to increase public awareness of the issue. Prizes will be awarded to media organisations which safeguard the quality of the information they put out and which seek to promote tolerance. A specific effort will be made to counter the racist propaganda now appearing on the Internet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WTO banana challenge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union has set out its legal defence of duty-free preferences for African and Caribbean banana producing countries that are members of the Fourth Lom&eacute; Convention. This took place in September at an initial hearing of a World Trade Organisation (WTO) panel  - convened at the request of a number of competing banana producer nations. African and Caribbean states were permitted to voice their opinion as third part)" in the case, despite an objection from the United States. The EU's banana market arrangements  - notably Protocol 5 of the Lom&eacute; Convention, which sanctions duty-free access  - have twice before come under attack in the Geneva body. Two earlier hearings in the WTO's forerunner, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), concerned the EU's previous state-to-state regime, and the new single market arrangements which have been in operation since July 1993. The present panel was set up at the request of four Latin American banana producer nations - Ecuador, Honduras, Mexico and Guatemala - together with the United States which is arguing that its domestic banana companies are losing out. The complainants jointly claim that the tariff quota for Latin American nations, the core of regulation 404/93 establishing the EU regime, discriminates against them. They also challenge the licensing arrangements of the so-called 'framework agreement' made under the GATT framework in 1994 with four Latin American nations (Colombia, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Venezuela). In return for a bigger share of the EU market, these four agreed to refrain from further challenges in the WTO against the EU's banana arrangements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel is expected to give its verdict in March 1997. The hearings are taking place behind closed doors, but it is understood that EU and ACP nations can count on the support of Japan - which currently imposes its own quotas on imports of other items and does not want to be challenged for these - and that of India which wants to show solidarity with the ACP countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Speaking in Geneva, Cot&eacute; d'lvoire's Commodities Minister, Alain Gauze, stressed the heavy dependence of many African and Caribbean states on banana growing. 90% of Dominica's commodity exports are bananas and the crop accounts for 70% of its export receipts and 25% of its Gross Domestic Product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One ACP representative in Brussels described the task ahead es 'convincing them (the panel) that the banana regime and regulation 404/93 are required to fulfil the obligations of the EU under the Lom&eacute; Convention and the subsequent waiver.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The waiver to which he referred was accorded by GATT to the Lom&eacute; Convention's various non-reciprocal trade preferences in 1994, but it is up for renewal at the end of the year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has already put in a request for its extension until February 29, 2000, coinciding with the expiry date of Lom&eacute; IV.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The WTO was expected to rule on the renewal of the waiver in mid-October ahead of the panel's decision. If the renewal of the waiver were to be disallowed, the EU and ACP 'defendants' at the panel could find themselves on shaky legal ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the meantime, the EU has fixed its 1996 tariff quota, allowing a maximum of 2.553 million tonnes of Latin American bananas to be imported into the Union with a tariff of ECU 75 per tonne.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further quota of 72 440 tonnes has been allocated to this region following tropical storms Iris, Luis et Marilyn. The damage caused by these storms led to the suspension of supplies of bananas from several Caribbean islands. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EU banana production is expected to reach 750 000 tonnes in 1996, while preferential imports from the African and Caribbean members of the ACP group have been fixed at 680 000 tonnes. According to latest predictions, the total consumption of this fruit in the European Union in 1996 will be 4030440 tonnes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade and labour standards</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ahead of the first ministerial meeting of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) to be held in December in Singapore, the European Commission has published a discussion paper (COM (96) 402 final) on whether labour standards should be linked to trade - which could mean sanctions for nations which do not comply with globally recognised labour clauses. What is at stake is to draw up globally recognised criteria and implement them without accusations of protectionism from some developing nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At an informal meeting of EU trade ministers in Dublin on September 18, EC Trade Commissioner, Sir Leon Brittan, said that, in supporting an international code, the European Union had no intention of damaging the competitive advantage of developing nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many Asian countries, who view the move of the EU and of other industrialised nations as veiled protectionism, do not even want the subject broached at the Singapore meeting. However, mention was made of the link between trade and internationally recognised labour standards in the conclusions of the Uruguay Round of GATT in Marrakesh in 1994, which requested that the WTO do more work on this issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The recent Commission paper advances the reasons for an international code: 'Workers in certain sectors in particular perceive that their jobs are under threat from imports from countries which allow unfair or unacceptable working practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These concerns cannot be ignored and should be addressed by the world trading system. Otherwise the perception will be - wrongly - that trade liberalisation is the problem and not the solution to the challenge to all societies to create a higher standard of living for all their citizens.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It further makes the point that such a policy is in line with others such as the promotion of democracy, respect for human rights and adherence to the rule of law. The EU has always upheld the view that there is a positive correlation between social progress, economic growth and trade liberalisation. According to the paper: 'There is no question of imposing on developing countries the higher wage levels and better working conditions which pertain in the industrialised world. Nor is this an action designed to re-erect new barriers to trade under cover of a social agenda.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU and international bodies are already looking at the kind of global criteria that might be adopted. A report of the International Labour Organisation (ILO), published in 1994, as well as the conclusions of the 1995 World Social Summit in Copenhagen, both suggest that freedom of association, collective bargaining, prohibition of forced labour and the elimination of child labour are top of the list.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A report entitled: 'Trade, Employment and Labour Standards - a study of core workers' rights and international trade', produced this year by the Paris-based Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), looks at the options in depth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeff Atkinson, trade policy advisor for the NGO, Oxfam UK, suggests that initial negotiations should be limited to matters covered in ILO Conventions 87 and 98. The former deals with freedom of association and protection of the right to organise, while the latter is on the right to organise and collective bargaining. He argues that other Conventions, covering such matters as the right to equal renumeration for men and women workers, freedom from discrimination and the abolition of forced labour, depend on the first two. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A notable omission from Jeff Atkinson's list is ILO Convention 138 on child labour. He does not feel that this Convention adequately addresses the issue. While international concern has focused on the most abusive forms of child labour such as slavery and prostitution, he points out not all child labour is so grossly abusive. Some forms can bring in money for food and shelter, which would otherwise not be available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He argues that if conditions are right, employment (say on a family farm or business) can contribute positively to a child's development, by providing an informal learning environment in which social and physical skills can develop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'To tackle the symptoms, for example by banning child labour, without addressing the underlying cause is likely to be counterproductive', says Mr Atkinson. He argues that it might induce children to seek illegal work in order to survive, or alternatively that they may end up becoming destitute.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some bodies are already trying to enforce improved standards. Although the ILO cannot implement sanctions, if an ILO member fails to comply with Conventions, a dialogue can be instituted with the defaulting country. It is also running an extensive public campaign against child labour and is assisting the development of social labelling for goods produced which fully respect ILO Conventions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under its new Generalised System of Preferences (GSP), the EU can remove some trade preferences if goods imported from non-Lom&eacute; developing nations are found to have been made with forced or slave labour. And from January 1, 1998, extra preferences can be given to countries which so request and comply with Conventions 87, 98 and 138. But if the enforcement of a socalled 'Social Clause' does reach the WTO level, some voices are already calling for joint monitoring involving the WTO and that long-time champion of human rights, the ILO. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1996 UNCTAD Report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A slow world growth rate is revealed in this year's annual report of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), published in September. The global economy expanded by only 2.4% in 1995 compared with a 2.8% increase in 1994. And production is below what it could be, says the report. On the whole, developing nations achieved higher growth rates than their industrialised counterparts in 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1996, world growth is expected to slow further although there will still be 'star performers' in some regions, and particularly slow movers in others. Asia is the continent currently doing best and China has the fastest expanding economy - despite this having slackened in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1995, Africa recorded higher growth than Latin America, according to the Rubens Ricupero, UNCTAD Secretary General. It also managed the first real increase in average per capita income for a long time. This was partly due to commodity prices picking up - they rose 10% on average.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But not such good news for the continent was a drop in private capital flows, notably direct investment. And the growth rate was highly variable across Africa. In some countries it was above 5% but in others, the economic situation was hit badly by political and armed conflicts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meanwhile, drought led to lower production in the Sahel. The prospects for 1996 are uncertain according to the report. It noted that even countries whose economies have expanded during 1995 and 1996 will need another ten concurrent years of good economic results to get back to the per capita income they enjoyed 20 years ago.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report highlights the tremendous difficulties facing many of the heavily-indebted, least developed nations. This is despite the fact that a number of donors have recently written off substantial amounts of some countries' public debts while the Paris Club has rescheduled repayments from other nations. Even if the new arrangements are followed through, UNCTAD is predicting that debt will remain a major burden for many countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One worrying factor is the weight of their multilateral debt and bilateral obligations to creditors other than the Paris Club. Multilateral institutions have implemented a number of measures, but these are of very limited scope. The UNCTAD Secretary General is encouraging multilateral creditors in particular, to put more muscle behind their debt relief plans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The authors of the report are also recommending the establishment of an agency, within UNCTAD itself, to help developing nations achieve trade diversification and industrialisation strategies for economic growth. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seminar on NGOs and government relations in humanitarian emergencies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The British Council is organising an international seminar on the above subject in Oxford, UK, from 12-17 December 1996. The main themes to be covered at the meeting will include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the actors in humanitarian assistance;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - funder and donor policy;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- government sovereignty;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- rights and obligations of intervention;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the role of the beneficiary;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- conflicts of interest and areas of cooperation between donor NGOs and host governments, and;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- accountability and evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information can be obtained from the Marketing Manager, International Seminars, The British Council, 1 Beaumont Place, GB-Oxford, OX1 2PJ.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. (44) 1B65 316 636, Fax. (44) 1865 57368.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E-mail: International. Seminar@britcoun.org </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The institutions at work</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COMMON FOREIGN AND SECURITY POLICY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), the European Union has recently issued a number of statements, details of which are set out below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: condemnation of the massacre on 19 July</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 23 July 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses grave concern at the deteriorating situation in Burundi especially at the killing of civilians and other gross violations of human rights which continue to be perpetrated in that country. It vehemently condemns the massacre of civilians in the Bugendana camp for displaced persons on 19 July last and deplores the expulsions of Rwandan refugees against their will. This massacre, following as it does those at Gishubi, Kivyuka, Teza, Mutoyi, Songa and Kamenge, represents a new stage in the vortex of violence, action and reaction putting Burundi at risk of being drawn ever further into a full civil war, the effects of which would be catastrophic for the people of Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU calls on all Burundians to turn away from violence and move singlemindedly along the road to a peaceful and negotiated solution of their problems. It would point to the undertakings given on 25 June 1996 at Arusha during the Summit of Heads of State of the region in favour of dialogue open to all sectors of Burundi's population together with provision of the security measures needed to create the conditions for such dialogue. It would also point out that these undertakings were given formal backing by the Heads of State and Government of the entire continent of Africa when they met from 8 to 10 July at Yaounde under the aegis of the Organisation for African Unity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU believes that only compliance with the undertakings given at Arusha and their swift implementation can restore a climate of confidence and prevent Burundi becoming embroiled in a generalised conflict. As it has already stressed in the Council's statement of 15 and 16 July, the EU reiterates that it is prepared to assist in pursuit of the Arusha objectives in order to restore peace and security in Burundi and it supports the efforts of former President Nyerere and the countries of the region to achieve this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: appeal for reconciliation following the coup d'Etat </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 26 July 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union shares the deep concern of the Secretary General of the United Nations, and others, about yesterday's military coup in Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU urges all sides to avoid recourse to violence and to take all steps to resolve the crisis by exclusively peaceful means.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU believes that the main immediate priority is the humanitarian situation. There must be no further loss of life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An immediate beginning of a national debate is essential, leading to a real process of national reconciliation, founded on democracy and security for all sections of society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard, the EU commends the efforts of former President Nyerere and regional leaders to broker an all-inclusive, negotiated settlement in Burundi, in peaceful conditions, and urges them to examine the possibility of continuing their efforts in this respect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reiterates its firm commitment to the re-establishment of peace in Burundi. The Union is following developments in the country closely, in active consultation with partners in the UN, with the OAU and others, towards the goal of restoring peace and security in Burundi. The EU Special Envoy, Mr Ajello, who is in the region, is actively assisting in this process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: doubts about the first round election results</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 1 August 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses deep concern about the way in which the first round of the presidential elections in Niger on 7-8 July was conducted. In particular, it deplores the decision taken by the Niger authorities to dissolve the independent national electoral commission during the voting process and to replace it with an alternative body. It is the view of the EU that this decision, by the Niger authorities, casts serious doubts on the credibility of the election results. It requests the Niger authorities to explain this decision and why observers found it impossible to assist in gathering and collating the election results.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU urges the Niger authorities, in dealing with the critical situation which has resulted from their decision, to respect fully the fundamental freedoms of movement, expression and association of the Niger people. It attaches great importance to the restoration of all civil rights.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU will examine, in the light of recent developments, its policies of economic and development cooperation with the Niger authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU calls for the full restoration of democratic civilian government in Niger through transparent processes. Free and fair elections will be crucial in this respect. The EU will continue to follow the situation in Niger closely and in particular the preparation, holding and transparency of the forthcoming legislative elections on 22 September. Iceland, the Central European countries associated with the EU and the associated countries Cyprus and Malta align themselves with this declaration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swaziland: revision of the Constitution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 6 August 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union welcomes the announcement by King Mswati III of the names of the new Prime Minister of Swaziland and of the Constitutional Review Commission and is pleased that its membership represents all shades of political opinion in Swaziland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU wishes to encourage all members of the Constitutional Review Commission to participate fully in its work and expresses confidence that their endeavours will bring about the adoption of a draft democratic constitution acceptable to the people of Swaziland as a whole. It hopes that the Commission will pursue its task energetically and is ready to offer appropriate assistance to the Commission if it so wishes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: appeal for talks and reconciliation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 19 August 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recalling its declarations of 25 June and 5, 15, 23 and 26 July 1996, the European Union reiterates its deep concern about the situation in Burundi. It urges all sides to refrain from violence and to commit themselves to, and work actively towards, a negotiated and peaceful resolution of the crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU wishes to express its support for the regional leaders, the Organisation of African Unity and the former President of Tanzania, Mr Julius Nyerere, in the efforts which they have been making to assist Burundi to overcome peacefully the grave crisis which it is experiencing, and encourages them to continue their efforts to facilitate the search for a political solution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU considers it essential for a dialogue to be organised without delay, bringing together all of Burundi's political forces without exception, including representatives of civil society, in order to negotiate a democratic, institutional consensus ensuring security for all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is convinced that national reconciliation and civil peace in Burundi can be restored on a lasting basis only through the participation of all sections of society in the principal institutions and bodies of the State.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU urges all sides in Burundi to call an immediate halt to the violence and respect the safety of all Burundians.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It reaffirms its willingness to support Burundi's recovery efforts, once the necessary national reconciliation is embarked upon with all the resolve required.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AID FOR REHABILITATION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of the 'European Programme for Reconstruction and Development in South Africa', the Commission has recently decided on financing for the following ten projects:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 19.2 million for a development programme covering the management of the public service;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 17.2 million for technical assistance to the Ministry of Education;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 16 million for a support programme for Parliament;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 15 million for the electrification of rural schools;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 9 million to support the reform process in the police services of the Eastern Cape province;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 8.9 million for a financing and investment development programme for SMEs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 5 million for a programme of rural water supply and sanitation projects to be implemented </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by the NGO Mvula Trust; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 4.3 million to support the trade union movement;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 2.3 million for the 'Soul City 1996' project designed to make full use of the mass media to promote health and development issues;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 1.9 million to support the 'Truth and National Reconciliation Commission'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EUROPEAN DEVELOPMENT FUND</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following, where required, favourable opinions from the EDF Committee, the Commission has decided to provide grants and special loans from the 5th, 6th and 7th EDFs to finance the following operations (grants unless otherwise stated). Major projects and programmes are highlighted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic and social infrastructure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burkina Faso: ECU 4.125 million for studies relating to certain road infrastructures. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritius: ECU 9 million for an irrigation programme in the northern plains. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominica: ECU 1.65 million towards the establishment of refuse treatments systems.  Trade promotion/ structural adjustment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cot&eacute; d'lvoire: ECU 25.5 million to , support the structural adjustment programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lesotho: ECU 8.6 million for the fourth structural adjustment programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture/rural development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia-Kenya-Uganda: ECU 20 million for a programme to coordinate national activities aimed at achieving sustainable rural development in the region (notably involving the fight against the Tsetse fly)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education/training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean region: ECU 5.9 million towards a post-secondary education training programme in the countries of the OECS (Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States - Antigua &amp; Barbuda, British Virgin Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St Kitts &amp; Nevis, St Lucia, St. Vincent &amp; the Grenadines). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi: ECU 4.4 million for a social/ participatory programme in the forestry sector as part of the implementation of a national forestry policy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Institutional support</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SADC member states: ECU 1.7 million to support the SADC (Southern African Development Community) secretariat in order to strengthen the SADC-EU regional programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UEMOA (West Africa Economic and Monetary Union): ECU 12 million to support the regional integration process in the member states (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cot&eacute; d'lvoire, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 1.5 million for a support programme for the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EUROPEAN INVESTMENT  BANK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the first half of 1996, the Bank has provided the following loans from its own resources or in the form of risk capital:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa/Madagascar: ECU 30 million for ASECNA (I'Agence pour la securite de la navigation aerienne en Afrique et a Madagascar) for the renewal and modernisation of air safety equipment. Botswana: ECU 6.6 million to the Botswana Power Corporation to help increase electricity-generating capacity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burkina Faso: ECU 6 million to SOFITEX (Societe burkinabe des fibres textiles) for the renewal and extension of its cotton ginneries facility. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali: ECU 5.3 million to the Societe Energie du Mali for the financing of the Balingue thermal power station. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritania: ECU 2 million to SNIM (Societe rationale industrielle et miniere) for the setting up and operation of a mechanical workshop. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritania: ECU 1.4 million to the Societe arabe du fer et de l'acier (Arab iron and steel company) for the construction of a foundry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 500 000 to Grafites de Ancuabe for the exploitation of a graphite mine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 2 million to the Zambia Venture Capital Fund, set up to subscribe for minority equity stakes in SMEs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jamaica: ECU 40 million to Telecommunications of Jamaica Ltd for expansion and modernisation of the domestic and international telecommunications network. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">British Virgin Islands: ECU 600 000 to the government for the design and feasibility study of the main airport at Beef Island, Tortola. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga: ECU 3.7 million to the Tonga Telecommunications Commission for the development of the country's domestic telecommunications network.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUMANITARIAN AID</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 5 million for the purchase and distribution of vegetable oils and cereals to refugees living in the country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 420 000 for emergency medical assistance in the fight against cholera in the Mandera region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 1.9 million for emergency food aid to the victims of the continuing factional fighting. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudan: ECU 2.5 million for the purchase and distribution of maize in a transit camp close to the capital (154 000 people) and in the south of the country (1 million people), and for the distribution of sorghum to Ethiopian and Eritrean refugees in the east (200 000 people). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 150 000 to help tackle the cholera epidemic. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 10 million for a programme to counter malnutrition and improve basic health care, in particular for women and children in isolated locations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Montserrat: ECU 380 000 to help evacuees in the wake of the recent volcanic eruption. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia: ECU 1 million for people displaced as a result of drug terrorism and the fighting that has been taking peace between government forces and guerillas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Costa Rica: ECU 400 000 for the victims of Hurricane Cesar. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala: ECU 220 000 to train teachers in order to improve education among repatriated communities in the department of Alta Verapaz. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua: ECU 440 000 to improve conditions for the social and economic reintegration of uprooted populations (people who have been repatriated, displaced or demobilised) in the department of Rio San Juan. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Caucasus: ECU 4.18 million for civilian victims of the war in Chechnya and for refugees in Ossetia and Dagestan. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iraq: ECU 9 million for food aid, medical provisions, rehabilitation of drinking water systems, sanitary equipment and educational material to assist 3 million people in the north and centre of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yemen: ECU 150 000 for flood victims. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cambodia: ECU 290 000 for a programme to construct and distribute artificial limbs to land-mine victims. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand (Burmese refugees): ECU 220 000 for 'Mon' refugees from Burma (Myanmar) who have fled the violence in their country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand (Burmese refugees): ECU 500 000 for medical aid in favour of 'Karen' refugees from Burma (Myanmar). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AID</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently decided to allocate the following aid: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p90.png"></center><br>
+Table</P>
+
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/ec160e/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/ec160e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/ec160e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">The Courier - NÂ°160 - Nov - Dec 1996 - Dossier Habitat - Country reports: Fiji , Tonga (ec160e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Settlements, Housing, Building - Infrastructure Construction (Roads etc)|Settlements and housing: general works incl. low- cost housing, planning techniques, surveying, etc.</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Development Periodicals and Magazines|The Courier ACP 1990 - 1996 Africa-Caribbean-Pacific - European Union</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">EC Courier</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/fb33fe/fb33fe.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/fb33fe/fb33fe.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/fb33fe/fb33fe.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,890 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Farming snails 1: Learning about snails; Building a pen; Food and shelter plants</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Farming snails 1: Learning about snails; Building a pen; Food and shelter plants</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rome 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P-69</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISBN 92-5-102396-4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&copy; FAO 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Did you know that many kinds of snails are good to eat?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Snail meat tastes good and it is also good for you. If you have snail meat to eat, it will help to keep you and your family strong and healthy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p60a.png"></center><br>
+ Family kept strong and healthy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. If you want to have snails to eat you can get them in different ways.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Many people gather wild snails that live nearby. Sometimes you can buy snails at the market or from people who gather them to sell to others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. You can also raise your own snails. This is called snail farming. Today, a great many people all over the world farm snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. If you farm your own snails, you will always have a supply of fresh snail meat whenever you want it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Then, if your family is not too big and you grow more snails than you need to eat, you can sell what you do not use to your neighbours or at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61a.png"></center><br>
+ Selling snails at the market</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. With more food to eat and the money you get by selling snails, you and your family can live better.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. However, if your family is big you will need to grow many more snails if you are going to have enough to eat and to sell at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61b.png"></center><br>
+ You need to grow more snails if your family is big</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">What do you need to start?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You will need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> enough snails to start your snail farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61c.png"></center><br>
+ Snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> a place near your house with the right kind of soil and the right amount of water for snails to live and grow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61d.png"></center><br>
+ A place near your house</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the kinds of plants that snails need for food and shelter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the materials to build a pen for the snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p62a.png"></center><br>
+ Plants that snails need; The materials to build a pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. If you have or can get all of these things, you can raise snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Learning about snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. To farm snails is not hard; however, it is quite different from keeping chickens or ducks or from growing crops such as maize, rice, cassava or groundnuts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12. Since farming snails is so different from other kinds of farming, you will have to learn a lot of new things.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">13. One way to learn about snails so that you will be able to farm them is to watch the wild snails that live near you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p62b.png"></center><br>
+ Watch the wild snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14. Try to see how they live, how they move and where they go, what plants they like best and what they eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15. You can learn many things by watching wild snails that will help you later if you decide to start a snail farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p63a.png"></center><br>
+ Wild snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">16. Another way to learn about snails is to ask an older farmer who knows a lot about your area. If there are people near you who gather snails to sell to others, they may be able to help you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">17. In the next part of this booklet, you will begin to learn some things that you need to know to farm snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">What kind of snails can you farm?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">18. The kind of snails that you can farm are snails that live on land, and there are many kinds of land snails that are good to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">19. However, some kinds of land snails are not good to eat and they may even make you very, very sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20. So, you must be very careful when you choose snails to farm. If you are not sure that a snail is good to eat, do not use it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p63b.png"></center><br>
+ Do not use snail unless you are sure it is good to eat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">21. Now look at the drawings on pages 8 to 11 and you will see four kinds of good snails that live in different places.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">22. You may be able to find one of these kinds of snails where you live. Notice that two of them are small and two of them are large.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">23. The smaller kinds of snails, shown on pages 8 and 9, can often be found in places where part of the year is warm and part of the year is cold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">24. The larger kinds of snails, shown on pages 10 and 11, can often be found in places where it is warm all year round.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64a.png"></center><br>
+ Helix pomatia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of small snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can be found in places where part of the year is warm and part of the year is cold</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 weighs from 15 to 25 grams and measures from 40 to 50 millimetres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 has a strong shell which is pale brown and off- white</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in two to three years if it is well fed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from 30 to 50 eggs each growing season</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64b.png"></center><br>
+ Helix Pomatia - 30 to 50 small eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64c.png"></center><br>
+ Helix aspersa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of small snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can often be found in places where part of the year is warm and part of the year is cold</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 weighs from 4 to 20 grams and measures from 30 to 45 millimetres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 has a weak shell with broken stripes which are light brown to black</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in one year if it is well fed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from 40 to 170 eggs one to three times each growing season</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64d.png"></center><br>
+ Helix aspersa - 40 to 170 small eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65a.png"></center><br>
+ Achatina achatina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of large snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can often be found in places where it is warm all year round</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 weighs from 150 to 200 grams or more and measures from 90 to 130 millimetres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 has a very strong brown shell</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in two years if it is well fed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from 100 to 300 eggs one to two times each growing season</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65b.png"></center><br>
+ Achatina achatina - 100 to 300 small eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65c.png"></center><br>
+ Archchatina marginata</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of large snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can often be found in places where it is warm all year round</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 weighs from 150 to 200 grams or more and measures from 90 to 130 millimetres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 has a very strong brown shell</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in two years if it is well fed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from five to ten eggs four to eight times each growing season</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65d.png"></center><br>
+ Archchatina marginata - five to ten large eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">25. If you cannot get one of these snails, you may be able to get others very much like them where you live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">26. There are many other kinds of good snails. There may even be several kinds of good snails that are eaten where you live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">27. If snails are eaten where you live, you can farm one of these. Then you will be sure that it is good to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Where can you get snails?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">28. When you are ready to get snails, perhaps you can get them by gathering wild snails that live near you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p66a.png"></center><br>
+ Gathering wild snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">29. Perhaps you can buy them from people who gather wild snails to sell to others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p66b.png"></center><br>
+ Buying from one who gathers wild snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30. You may even be able to buy them from another snail farmer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p66c.png"></center><br>
+ Buying from another snail farmer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Never term snails that you buy at the market. Snails at the market may have been washed, kept too cold or hurt and they may die soon.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Where can you farm snails?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">31. A good place for a snail farm is one where there already are snails. If there already are snails, you will know that the soil and the water in the soil are right for snails to live and grow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">32. However, if there are no snails near where you live it does not mean that you cannot raise snails there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">33. If you have the right kind of soil with the right amount of water, you can bring good snails from another place to start your snail farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The soil and the water in the soil</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">34. Soil is important for snails. Part of the time they live on the soil and part of the time they live in the soil, and to live well, snails need good soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p67a.png"></center><br>
+ Snail on the soil; Snail in the soil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">35. When snails are not on the soil or in the soil, they are on plants which grow in the soil. So, the soil must also be good for the kinds of plants that snails need.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p67b.png"></center><br>
+ Snail on plant</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">36. When snails are in the soil, they are resting or laying their eggs. If the soil has the right amount of water, snails will live well, the eggs they lay will hatch well and the baby snails will come out of the soil easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">37. Snails cannot live in hard soil such as heavy clay soils. When heavy clay soil is too dry, snails cannot dig into it to rest and lay their eggs. When heavy clay is too wet, snails and the eggs they lay may die.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">38. Snails cannot live in loose soil such as soils that have a lot of sand. Sandy soils do not hold enough water for snail eggs to hatch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">39. The drawings on the next page show how a snail digs a hole, lays its eggs, closes the hole and how the baby snails come out when they have hatched.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">40. Snails need calcium from the soil to make their shells. All snails grow better and have stronger shells when there is a lot of calcium in the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">41. So, if you are going to farm snails, you must have a good medium soil that has neither too much clay nor too much sand. It must also have enough calcium and the right amount of water for your snails to live and grow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you have a garden, you can easily tell if your soll is good for snails. If your green leafy vegetables grow well, snails will also grow well in the same kind of soil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68a.png"></center><br>
+ Snails will grow well in a garden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 snail digging a hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68b.png"></center><br>
+ 1 snail digging a hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 laying the eggs and closing the hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68c.png"></center><br>
+ Snail laying eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 baby snails hatching and coming out of the hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68d.png"></center><br>
+ Baby snails hatching and coming out of the hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Plants for food and plants for shelter</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">42. Snails need plants for both food and sheller. Most kinds of snails use several kinds for food and several other kinds for shelter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p69a.png"></center><br>
+ Plants for food and plants for shelter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">43. They may also use different plants for food and shelter at different times of the year. Sometimes during the growing season snails eat and find shelter on the same plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">44. Snails usually hide on shelter plants during the day when it is dry and move to food plants to eat at night or early in the morning when they are wet with dew. However, sometimes snails do eat during the day after it has rained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">45. If you live in a place which has a season when plants do not grow, snails will dig into the soil to rest and they do not eat then.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">46. During the growing season snails will eat a lot and grow very fast if they have food plants that they like.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">47. So, before you begin you will have to find out exactly what plants they like to eat. To do this you will have to watch snails at night when they eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p69b.png"></center><br>
+ See what snails eat at night</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">48. You can tell that snails are eating when you see their heads moving as they scrape food into their mouths. You can also tell when a snail has been eating by the holes it makes in the leaves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p69c.png"></center><br>
+ Snail on leaf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">49. You will also have to find out what plants they like for shelter. To do this you will have to watch snails during the day when they rest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p70a.png"></center><br>
+ See where snails rest during the day</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50. It is often difficult to find snails on shelter plants because they are hiding. So, you will have to look very carefully.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p70b.png"></center><br>
+ Snails are hiding on shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">51. In addition to the food plants, there are many other kinds of foods that you can put into a pen for your snails to eat. You will learn about these foods and when you should use them in the next booklet in this series.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dew and rain</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">52. Dew at night in the growing season helps the plants to grow and makes the leaves and the ground wet so that snails can move about.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">53. Rain in the growing season also helps the plants to grow and it cleans the plants of dust and the dirt that snails leave when they move about. The dirt that snails leave may make them sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">54. So, it is very important that the food and shelter plants are wet and clean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">55. When the leaves are wet, snails move easily, eat more and grow well. When the leaves are dry, snails move very little, or not at all, and they grow poorly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p70c.png"></center><br>
+ Wet leaves are good for snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">56. When it rains and the plants are clean, the snails will be healthy. When it does not rain and the plants are dirty, the snails may get sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">57. Dew and rain also keep the ground moist so that the snails can move easily and dig into it to rest and to lay their eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">58. In the next booklet, you will be told how to wet the leaves of plants and moisten the ground when it is too dry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Land that is wet</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">59. Land that is very wet, low land that does not drain well or land that floods in the rainy season is not good for snail farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p71a.png"></center><br>
+ Low, wet land is bad for snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Wind</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60. Wind during the growing season is bad because it dries the dew and dries out the snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p71b.png"></center><br>
+ Wind is bad for snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">61. If you decide to farm snails, try to keep them in a place that is protected from the wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p71c.png"></center><br>
+ Snails should be farmed in a place protected from the wind</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Where do you keep snails when you farm them?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">62. If you decide to farm snails you must keep them in a pen. Snails kept in a well- built pen will not get away easily and you can watch them and take care of them well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">63. After the first year you will need at least two pens. If you decide to farm more snails you may want even more pens. You will learn how to use two or more pens in the next booklet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p72a.png"></center><br>
+ Two pens the second year</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">64. In each pen you can give your snails the right kinds of plants for them to eat and to use as shelter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">65. In each pen you can put the food and shelter plants near each other so that the snails can move easily from one to the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">66. Each pen you build must also keep the snails safe from their enemies. Snails have many enemies. You must be careful to protect them from</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> mice and rats</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> shrews and moles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> walking insects that live on the ground such as ants and beetles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> slugs and other snails that eat snail meat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> birds that eat snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> frogs and toads</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> thieves</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p72b.png"></center><br>
+ Protect them from
+</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">67. A snail pen can be small or large depending on how many snails you want to raise. However, when you first begin, start with a small pen. You will need fewer materials. It will be easier to take care of.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">68. In addition, with a small pen you will need fewer snails to begin. When you know more about raising snails, you can build a bigger pen and get more snails to raise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">69. A good size for a pen is 5 x 5 metres. Later in this booklet you will learn how to build a small pen of this size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How many snails will you need when you first begin?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70. If you are using small snails like those you have seen on pages 8 and 9 in this booklet, you will need more snails to begin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">71. If you are using large snails like those you have seen on pages 10 and 11 in this booklet, you will need fewer snails to begin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">72. With a pen of 5 x 5 metres (25 square metres) you will need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 150 snails if you use the small kind (6 for each square metre)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 25 snails if you use the large kind (1 for each square metre).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p73a.png"></center><br>
+ 150 small snails; 25 large snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How much snail meat can you expect to get?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">73. The amount of snail meat that you will get from small snails will be about the same as what you would get from large snails. This is because you will use many more small snails than large snails and the meat will be about equal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">74. With one 5 x 5 metre pen you will get 12 to 13 kilograms of snail meat each year and with two 5 x 5 metre pens you will get 24 to 26 kilograms each year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p73b.png"></center><br>
+ 12 to 13 kilograms each year; 24 to 26 kilograms each year</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Now you must decide</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">75. In the first part of this booklet you have learned many things about snails and farming snails. You have learned</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> why it is good to farm snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> what you need to farm snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> what kinds of snails you can farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> how to find plants near you that are good for food and shelter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> what kind of soil and how much water in the soil snails need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> where to keep snails and how many you need to start</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">76. You may also have been able to learn a lot about snails by watching the wild snails near where you live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">77. An old farmer may have told you what he knows about snails. Someone who gathers snails to sell to others or another snail farmer may have helped you to learn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">78. So, now that you know a lot about snails it is time to decide if you would like to start your own snail farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">79. If you would like to begin you will learn exactly what to do in the rest of this booklet and in the next booklet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How to begin</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Choose a place on your land to put your snail farm</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">80. Try to choose a place that is close to your house. That way you will be able to watch your snails, protect them from their enemies and take care of them easily</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p74a.png"></center><br>
+ Close to your house</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">81. In Items 34 to 41 you were told that to farm snails you must have the right kind of soil with the right amount of water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">82. Remember, if green leafy vegetables grow well in your soil, snails will also grow well in the same kind of soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p74b.png"></center><br>
+ If your garden grows well, so will your snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">83. In Items 59 to 61 you were told that low, wet land and wind are bad for snails. So, avoid low, wet places and try to put your snail farm where it is protected from the wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p75a.png"></center><br>
+ Avoid low, wet land; Find a place protected from wind</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">84. In Item 63 you were told that after the first year you will need at least two pens and later you may want even more. In Item 69 you were told that it is best to start with a small pen of 5 x 5 metres.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">85. So, try to find a place where you can put at least two or three 5 x 5 metre pens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p75b.png"></center><br>
+ two or three 5 x 5 metre pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Clean the site and prepare the ground</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">86. Clean the site and prepare the ground a little before the growing season so that you can build the pen in time to plant the food and shelter plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">87. First, mark out a square of 8 x 8 metres on the place that you have chosen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p75c.png"></center><br>
+ Mark and clear the 8 x 8 metre square</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">88. That way, with a pen of 5 x 5 metres in the centre of the square, you will have a path of 1.5 metres all the way around it (see Item 92). If you have enough land, the path can be even wider.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">89. Clear the square of trees, bushes grass, creeping grass and weeds. Take away all of the roots and the big stones that you can.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p76a.png"></center><br>
+ Take away roots and big stones</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90. Spread the plant material that you have cleaned evenly on the ground and cover the whole square. If there is not enough, bring more plant material from another place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p76b.png"></center><br>
+ Cover the square with plant materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">91. When the plant material is dry, burn it. This will kill the insects, the weed seeds and the roots of creeping grass, and rid the ground of mice, rats and shrews.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p76c.png"></center><br>
+ Burn the plant materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insecticides and poisons can also be used to rid your pen of insects, mice, rats and other enemies of snails. However, if you use them, do not use them by yourself because they are very dangerous. Ask someone who knows how to use them, such as your extension agent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">92. Now mark out a smaller square of 5 x 5 metres inside the big square. This is for your first snail pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p77a.png"></center><br>
+ Mark the 5 x 5 metre square</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">93. Dig the ground in the smaller square to a depth of 20 centimetres and turn it over well. As you dig, remove any rubbish or roots that you find.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p77b.png"></center><br>
+ Dig in the ground</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">94. While you are digging, if you see any more insects or any of the enemies of snails, bring more dry plant material and burn the ground again. To farm snails, the area must be free of insects, mice, rats and other enemies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">95. When you have finished digging, the ground in the 5 x 5 metre square should be as smooth and well worked as it would be if you were planting a vegetable garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p77c.png"></center><br>
+ The 5 x 5 metre square should be smooth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">96. However, do not use any fertilizer, animal manure or compost as you might with a vegetable garden. Fertilizers may burn the snails and animal manure or compost may bring in insects and weed seeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Building a pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">97. Build a pen for your snails as soon as you can after you have burned the plant material. This is to keep other insects, mice, rats or shrews from getting into your pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">98. A snail pen is a simple fenced- in area and you can build a fence using</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> corrugated sheet metal or plastic sheets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> woven plant material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> woven plant material with chicken wire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p78a.png"></center><br>
+ Materials for fence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using corrugated sheet metal or plastic sheets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">99. A fence of corrugated sheet metal or plastic sheets makes the best pen for snails because it keeps out their enemies very well. However, sheet metal or plastic costs a lot of money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p78b.png"></center><br>
+ A fence of corrugated sheet metal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">100. If you are going to build a pen using corrugated metal or plastic, you must build it in such a way that the enemies of snails cannot get in between the sheets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using woven plant material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">101. To save money, you can build a fence of woven plant material such as split bamboo. If the woven material is tight, it will keep out enough of enemies for you to farm snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79a.png"></center><br>
+ Woven material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using woven plant material with chicken wire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">102. If you can get fine- mesh chicken wire, you can improve a fence that is made of woven material.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79b.png"></center><br>
+ Chicken wire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">103. To do this, first make the fence of chicken wire and then cover it with woven material.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79c.png"></center><br>
+ First use chicken wire then cover it with woven material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">104. The chicken wire will keep out rats and other small animals. The woven plant material will keep most of the insects out and keep the snails in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79d.png"></center><br>
+ Keep out small animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With any kind of pen animals such as rats may get in, and this is especially true with pens made only of woven plant material. So, you must always watch for rats and other animals and keep them out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to build the fence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">105. Build the fence as you would any fence, by driving posts into the ground. Use posts 1.40 metres long. When the posts are in place they should be 1.00 metre above and 0.40 metre below the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p80a.png"></center><br>
+ Drive posts into the ground</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">106. Whatever material you use for the fence of your pen, it should be buried 0.40 metre below the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">107. If you are using woven material you will have to change the bottom of the fence when it rots.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">108. This can be done more easily by making the woven material in two parts, one for the top and one for the bottom. When the bottom part rots, you can change it without having to change the whole fence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p80b.png"></center><br>
+ Attach top parts first; attach bottom parts second</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keeping your snails in the pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">109. Many of your snails may crawl over the fence and get out of the pen. If you build a flap on the inside at the top of the fence, it will be more difficult for your snails to get out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">110. However, even with a flap some snails may get out, and for this reason many snail farmers put two flaps on their fence. With two flaps they find that fewer snails get out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p81a.png"></center><br>
+ With two flaps, your snails will not easily crawl out of the pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you make your pen using galvanized sheet metal, you will not need flaps. Snails will not crawl on galvanized sheet metal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">111. The drawings show you how to build a 5 x 5 metre pen using woven plant material, with and without chicken wire and how to build flaps to keep your snails in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p81b.png"></center><br>
+ How to build a 5 x 5 metre small pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 if you are using woven material only, attach it as you were told to do in Item 108</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82a.png"></center><br>
+ Attach woven material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 If you are using chicken wire and woven material, attach the chicken wire first and then the woven material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82b.png"></center><br>
+ Attach the chicken material first</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 be sure that the fence cover goes all the way to the bottom of the 0.40- m trench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82c.png"></center><br>
+ 0.40- m trench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6 fill in the trench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82d.png"></center><br>
+ Fill in the trench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7 attach the flaps to the inside of the pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: use woven material 0.25 m wide for the flaps</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8 first attach the bottom flap using heavy cord</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p83a.png"></center><br>
+ Use heavy cord</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9 then attach the top flap</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Plant the food and shelter plants</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">112. You have already been told that you should clean and prepare the site and build your snail pen in time for the planting season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">113. If it has been only a short time since you dug the ground and worked the soil in your pen, you can begin to plant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">114. If it has been a long time, dig and work the soil again before you plant. However, as you were told in Item 96, do not use fertilizer, animal manure or compost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">115. Now you can begin to plant the food and shelter plants. Remember that you should use</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> plants that grow well where you live</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> plants that last a long time</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> plants that snails like</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">116. The drawings, show you two ways to plant food and shelter plants in a 5 x 5 metre pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">117. On pages 50 to 55 you will see some food and shelter plants that snails are known to like. Look at them carefully. Perhaps you can find some of them where you live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two ways plant food and shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 if your shelter plants are small, plant your pen like this</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84a.png"></center><br>
+ Mark three places for small shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 plant the shelter plants first and then plant the food plants all around the shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84b.png"></center><br>
+ First plant the shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 if your shelter plants are large, plant your pen like this</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84c.png"></center><br>
+ Mark only one place for large shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 plant the shelter plants first and then plant the food plants all around the shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84d.png"></center><br>
+ Leave a path inside the fence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RAMPE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p85a.png"></center><br>
+ Some plants for food</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rape is one of many kinds of smooth- leaved cabbage. It grows from seed and lasts a number of months. Rape is the best food plant for Helix snails (see pages 8 and 9 in this booklet). Many of the other kinds of smooth- leaved cabbage also make good food plants for snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p85b.png"></center><br>
+ Rape</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFRICAN SPINACH (Amaranthus)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This green leafy vegetable is a good food plant for young Achatina and Archachatina snails. However, if you plant African spinach for your snails, they will need other kinds of food plants as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p85c.png"></center><br>
+ African spinach</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PAPAYA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You have already been told that snails can be given food to eat other than the food plants that you have planted in the pen (see also Items 175 to 179 in the next booklet). The tender green leaves and cut- up fruit of the papaya tree are very good for Achatina and Archachatina snails. However, the papaya should not be planted inside the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p86a.png"></center><br>
+ Papaya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HORSE- RADISH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Horse- radish is a good food and shelter plant for young Helix snails. However, when they are older they will need other kinds of food plants as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p86b.png"></center><br>
+ Horse- Radish</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEAF BEET</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leaf beet grows well from seed and lives for one year. It can be used with He/ix snails for both food and for shelter. As a food plant alone it is not the best and you will have to give your snails other food plants as well. However, as a shelter plant it is very good for Helix snails. These snails lay eggs under the beet plants and find shelter around the roots in cold weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p86c.png"></center><br>
+ Leaf Beet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BURDOCK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burdock grows from seed and lives for more than a year. It grows very slowly and you should plant it as soon as you can so that it can grow big enough for your snails. However, once it has grown it makes a good food and shelter plant for almost any kind of snail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p87a.png"></center><br>
+ Burdock</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BANANA and LOOFAH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banana and loofah plants together provide both food and shelter for Achatina and Archachatina snails. Ripe bananas can be cut up and fed to the snails and they can use the loofah plant for food and for shelter. However, your snails will need other food plants as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p87b.png"></center><br>
+ Banana and Loofah</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PLANTAGO</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plantago grows well from seed and lasts about two years. It is the best shelter plant for Helix snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p87c.png"></center><br>
+ Plantago</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ASPARAGUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asparagus lives for many years and it is a good shelter plant for young Achatina and Archachatina snails. However, it is not good for older snails because they are too heavy for asparagus plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When are the plants big enough for food and for shelter?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">118. The food plants must be big enough to feed your snails and the shelter plants tall enough to cover them and to protect them from the sun.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">119. Depending on the kind of snails that you are raising, most plants will be big enough after they have been growing for about five to six weeks or when they have reached a height of 10 to 20 centimetres.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p88a.png"></center><br>
+ Plants will grow to a height of 10 to 20 cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">120. When you are sure that the plants are big enough to provide food and shelter, you can begin to collect the snails and put them into the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">121. In Booklet No. 34, Farming snails 2, you will learn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> how to choose good snails and how to put them in the pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> how to take care of your snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when and how to harvest snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> how to prepare snails for cooking</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">122. You will also be told some things that you can do to improve your snail farm so that later when you have more experience you can raise more and better snails.</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/fb33fe/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/fb33fe/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/fb33fe/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
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+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Farming snails 1: Learning about snails; Building a pen; Food and shelter plants (fb33fe)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Agriculture and Food Processing|Better Farming series of FAO and INADES - 46 booklets</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Settlements, Housing, Building - Infrastructure Construction (Roads etc)|Settlements and housing: general works incl. low- cost housing, planning techniques, surveying, etc.</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">FAO Better Farming series</Metadata>
+         </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/fb34fe/fb34fe.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/fb34fe/fb34fe.htm	(revision 21010)
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@@ -0,0 +1,672 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Farming snails 2: Choosing snails; Care and harvesting; Further improvement</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Farming snails 2: Choosing snails; Care and harvesting; Further improvement</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rome 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P-69</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISBN 92-5-102397-2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&copy; FAO 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first twenty- six volumes in FAO's Better Farming Series were based on the Cours d'apprentissage agricole prepared in C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire by the Institut africain de d&eacute;veloppement &eacute;conomique et social for use by extension workers. Later volumes, beginning with No. 27, have been prepared by FAO for use in agricultural development at the farm and family level. The approach has deliberately been a general one, the intention being to constitute basic prototype outlines to be modified or expanded in each area according to local conditions of agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the booklets deal with specific crops and techniques, while others are intended to give the farmer more general information which can help him to understand why he does what he does, so that he will be able to do it better. Booklets No. 33 and 34 were added to the series owing to a growing interest in small- scale snail farming for food and profit in many countries where FAO's Better Farming Series is widely used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adaptations of the series, or of individual volumes in it, have been published in Amharic, Arabic, Bengali, Creole, Hindi, Igala, Indonesian, Kiswahili, Malagasy, SiSwati, Thai and Turkish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Requests for permission to issue this manual in other languages and to adapt it according to local climatic and ecological conditions are welcomed. They should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Choosing your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">123. All of the snails that you choose for your pen must be of the same kind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p093a.png"></center><br>
+ All of the snails that you farm must be the same kind</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">124. You may have found one of the kinds of snails shown on pages 8 to 11 in the last booklet living in your area. You may also have found a different kind of snail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">125. Now you must learn to choose the beat of the kinds of snails that you have found. When you first begin you will need fully grown snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">126. Remember, that all snails are both male and female and all snails lay eggs. So, when you are looking for snails, you can choose any one that is fully grown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">127. You can tell that a snail is fully grown because it has a lip on the mouth of its shell. The drawings below show two fully grown snails with lips.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p094a.png"></center><br>
+ Snails which fill and which does not fill their cells</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">128. Look at the drawings again. Notice that although both snails are fully grown, one of them fills its shell and one of them does not.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">129. The snail that does not fill its shell may be sick or it may have lost its water because of dry weather. This snail may not grow well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">130. Choose only snails that fill their shells. Snails that fill their shells will usually grow well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">131. Choose snails that have good, strong shells. Strong shells protect snails from their enemies, and snails with strong shells sell better at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">132. Choose the largest of the fully grown snails that you can find from the kind of snail that you are going to farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p094b.png"></center><br>
+ Choose the largest snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">133. The larger snails of any kind of snail will be better and healthier and lay more eggs than a snail that is smaller.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">134. In addition, the eggs of large, healthy snails hatch better and the baby snails grow bigger and faster.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">135. Later, when you have more experience in choosing snails, you will learn just how large a fully grown snail should be. You will also learn the different colours of the kind of snail that you are farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">136. Then you can choose snails that are the same size and colour that you want your baby snails to be.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As you collect your snails, handle them very gently and put them carefully into a container such as a basket so that you can carry them to the pen without hurting them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p095a.png"></center><br>
+ Handle your snails carefully</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Putting your snails in the pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">137. Just before you put your snails in the pen, take out all the grass, the creeping grass and the weeds that may have grown while the food and shelter plants were growing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p095b.png"></center><br>
+ Take out all grass, creeping grass and weeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">138. Never put snails in a pen in the morning or during the day when the sun is hot. Always put them in the evening when it is cool. This is when they begin to move about and to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p095c.png"></center><br>
+ Always put snacks in the pen in the evening</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">139. If there is no dew and leaves of the plants and the ground are dry, wet them. Items 160 to 165 in this booklet will tell you how.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p096a.png"></center><br>
+ Wet the plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">140. When you put snails in the pen, put an equal number of them in four different places.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">141. In the last booklet you were told that for a 5 x 5 metre pen you would need 150 snails if you use the small kind, and 25 snails if you use the large kind. So, if you need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 150 snails, put 35 to 40 snails in four places</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 25 snails, put 6 snails in three places and 7 snails in one place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">142. The arrows in the drawing at the top of the next page will show you where to put snails in a 5 x 5 metre pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p096b.png"></center><br>
+ Where to put the snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When you put snails in a pen, never put them near the fence or in a corner of the fence. If you put them near the fence it is easier for them to get out than it is if you put them near the centre of the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p096c.png"></center><br>
+ Do not put snails in the corner or near the fence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">143. The morning after you have put your snails in the pen, look to see that they have all moved. If any of them have not moved, put them under shelter plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">144. If any snails die, take them out and put in the same number of new snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p097a.png"></center><br>
+ Take out the dead snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">145. At first your snails will try to crawl out of the pen. During this time, go around the pen each morning and put them back.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">146. After about two weeks your snails will become used to their new home and most of them will not try to crawl out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">147. However, it is a good idea, even after the first two weeks, to check from time to time and put back any of the snails that may have got out of the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When to take out the fully grown snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">148. When you see a lot of baby snails in your pen, you will no longer need to keep the fully grown snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">149. So, take out all of the fully grown snails that you first put into your pen. You can either eat them or sell them at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p097b.png"></center><br>
+ Take out all fully grown snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">150. Now, with only the baby snails left, the food plants in the pen will be more likely to last until the baby snails are big enough to harvest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">151. Later in this booklet, you will be told when the baby snails are big enough to harvest and how to harvest them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Taking care of your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">152. After you have put your snails in their pen, watch them carefully to see that they are eating well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">153. If you have given them enough of the right kinds of food plants, they will eat a lot and you will have very little to do for them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">154. However, here are some things that you must do</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> wet the plants and moisten the ground</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> take care of the plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> take away the weeds and the creeping grass</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></DIR>
+
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Wet the food and shelter plants and moisten the ground</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">155. You have already been told that the leaves of the food and shelter plants must be wet and clean and that the ground must be moist (see Items 52 to 58 in the last booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">156. If there is too lime dew and not enough rainfall during the time when the plants and the snails are growing, you will have to water the plants and the ground yourself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">157. If it is dry, you should water the plants and the ground at least every second day. However, if it is very dry, you may have to water them every day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">158. Never water in the morning or during the day when the sun is hot. Always water in the evening at about sunset.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">159. If you water when the sun is hot, the snails will begin to move away from the shelter plants and the hot sun may kill them before they can find shelter again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">160. An easy way to wet the plants and moisten the ground is by hand. First fill a bucket with water and wrap a piece of cloth around your hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p098a.png"></center><br>
+ Wrap a cloth around your hand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">161. Then, dip your hand with the cloth into the bucket of water and gently splash the plants and the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p099a.png"></center><br>
+ Gently splash plants and ground</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">162. Continue to splash the plants and the ground gently until you have watered the whole pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">163. When you have finished, the leaves of the plants should be wet and the ground should be moist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">164. You can tell when the plants are wet enough and the ground is moist enough when you can see your snails moving about easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p099b.png"></center><br>
+ Snails move about easily</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">165. Remember: the soil must be moist and not wet in order for snail eggs to hatch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You have already been told that if you live in a place that has a dry season when the plants do not grow, snails dig into the ground to rest. Never water at this time or your snails may come out of the ground when they should not.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Tend the food and shelter plants</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">166. Watch all of your plants to see that they are growing well and that they do not get too tall or too thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">167. Plants that are too tall or thick stop the dew from reaching the leaves and stop the rain from washing away the dust and the dirt that snails leave when they move about.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">168. If you see that the plants are not being wet or washed by dew or rain, cut them back.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p101a.png"></center><br>
+ Cut back the plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Take away the weeds and creeping grass</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">169. After your snails are in their pen you must be sure to take away all weeds and especially creeping grass as soon as you see them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">170. Creeping grass grows very fast and so thick that it can kill the food and shelter plants. If this happens, your snails will have no food and no place to find shelter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">171. Taking away weeds and creeping grass when snails are in the pen is very difficult. So, you must be very careful not to hurt them or step on them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">172. If the weeds and creeping grass get too thick, it may be better to move the snails before you take weeds and creeping grass away (see Item 183 in this booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">173. Keep the path around the pen clear of weeds, grass and creeping grass. This will help to keep weed seeds and unwanted plants out of the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p101b.png"></center><br>
+ Keep the path clean</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">174. If the path is clean, insects will be less likely to cross it to get into the pen and you will be able to see signs of mice, rats and shrews.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Feeding your snails other kinds of food</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">175. There are a number of reasons for giving your snails other kinds of food. Here are a few</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when you have not planted the right kinds of food plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when you have too many snails for the number of food plants that you have planted</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when most of the food plants in the pen have been eaten by the snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">176. If you decide for any of these reasons that you must give your snails other kinds of food, here are some foods that snails like to eat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the outside leaves of vegetables such as cabbage or cauliflower</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the tops of vegetables such as carrots or beets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> ripe banana fruit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> most waste fruit and vegetables</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> cut- up papaya, melon or squash</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p102a.png"></center><br>
+ Food snails eat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">177. There are many other foods that snails like to eat. If you have some food that you think might be good, try it with your snails and see if they like it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">178. If your snails are not eating their food plants well, you also can try some others. Cut pieces from the plant that you want to try and put them in the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">179. If you see that your snails like the new food plants better, you can use these plants when you build the second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Building the second pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">180. In the last booklet you were told that to farm snails you will need at least two pens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p103a.png"></center><br>
+ Two pens needed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">181 . With two pens you can move your snails from one pen to the other to get rid of any enemies that may have got in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">182. You can also move your snails to dig the ground and work the soil so that they can dig into the soil to rest and can lay their eggs easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">183. With two pens you can move your snails from one pen to the other if the weeds and creeping grass get too thick to take away with snails in the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">184. You can also plant new food plants when the old ones have been eaten. When you are moving the snails, you can get rid of any of them that have not grown well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When to build the second pen and how to build it</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">185. Build your second pen a little before the growing season and exactly one year after you built the first pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">186. Begin just as you did before, by cleaning and preparing the ground (see Items 86 to 96 in the last booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">187. However, if you put your second pen near your first pen, be very careful when you burn the plant material not to burn your first pen or harm the snails in it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">188. For this reason it is best to leave an open space of at least 3 metres between your first and second pens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p103b.png"></center><br>
+ Be very carefull when you burn the plant material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">189. Now you are ready to build the second 5 x 5 metre pen and to plant the food and shelter plants (see Items 97 to 117 in the last booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Putting snails in your second pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">190. When the plants in your second pen have grown big enough to provide food and shelter, you can put in the snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p104a.png"></center><br>
+ When the plants are grown, you can bring the snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">191. If the snails in your first pen have grown well, you can use some of them for your second pen. So, collect the right number of the biggest and best snails from your first pen to put in your second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">192. If the snails in your first pen have not grown well, you will have to begin again with new fully grown snails for your second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">193. Remember, with your first pen you put in 150 snails if you used the small kind and 25 snails if you used the large kind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">194. However, different snails lay different amounts of eggs. So with your second pen you may want to change the number of snails that you put in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">195. If there were too many baby snails for the food plants in your first pen, put fewer fully grown snails in your second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">196. If there were too few baby snails for the food plants in your first pen, put more fully grown snails in your second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">197. If you are not sure how many snails to use, it is best to continue to put in 150 if you use small snails and 25 if you use large snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p104b.png"></center><br>
+ 25 Large snails; 150 small snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">198. Later, when you have learned more about the kind of snails that you are using and how many baby snails they have, you will be better able to judge just how many fully grown snails that you should use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do not forget to take out all of the fully grown snails that you have put in after you see a lot of baby snails in your second pen (see Items 148 to 151 in this booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Harvesting your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When to harvest your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">199. If your snails have grown well, some of them will be big enough to harvest about one year after you have first put snails in the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">200. If you need any snails to put in another pen, collect them first. So, choose the right number (see Items 193 to 198 in this booklet) of the biggest and best snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">201. Carefully put these snails into a container so that you can carry them to the other pen without hurting them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p105a.png"></center><br>
+ Put snails into a container</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">202. Now you are ready to harvest the rest of your biggest snails. Remember, the best way to harvest is a few snails at a time when you want some to eat or to sell at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">203. However, harvest all of the snails by the end of the second year so that you can plant the pen in time for the next growing season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How to harvest your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">204. Harvesting snails is done by hand. It is often hard work to find them because they may be hiding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p105b.png"></center><br>
+ Harvesting snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">205. The easiest time to find the snails is when the plants are wet, after it has rained or at night when there is dew and they are moving about or eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">206. You can also put out some of the food that snails like and when they come to eat it, you can collect them easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p105c.png"></center><br>
+ Put out some food</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">207. When you are harvesting, handle your snails carefully and put them into a container such as a box or basket or a net sack. However, do not put more than 10 kilograms in a container or you may hurt them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106a.png"></center><br>
+ Put snails in a container</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">What to do with the snails you harvest</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">208. If you are going to sell the snails, you can carry them to the market in containers like the ones above. However, you must be very careful not to hurt them or break their shells.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">209. Remember, snails with clean shells and well- cared- for snails will sell better at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">210. If you want to keep the snails for you and your family to eat later, you can store them alive in containers filled with material such as sawdust or chopped maize husks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">211. That way you can keep them for as long as six to eight weeks before you use them. The drawings below show you how to store snails this way.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 a box is a good container to store snails in</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106b.png"></center><br>
+ A box</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 cover the bottom of the box with about 5 cm of sawdust or chopped maize husks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106c.png"></center><br>
+ Cover the bottom of the box with sawdust</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 carefully put in a layer of snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 cover the snails with about 3 cm of sawdust or chopped maize husks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106d.png"></center><br>
+ Cover the snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 continue to do this until the box is full</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: be sure that the top layer of snails is covered</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preparing snails for cooking</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">212. Before snails can be used you must be sure that there is no food in them. They must be clean inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">213. Snails that have been stored in a container (see Items 210 and 211 in this booklet) for more than four days will have no food left in them. They are clean inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">214. However, snails which have just been taken from the pen have been eating and are usually full of food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">215. So, before you can use them you must wait for them to become clean inside. To do this you need only to keep them from eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">216. Put them in a container where they can get no food but plenty of air. You can use a covered basket or a net sack.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p107a.png"></center><br>
+ Use a covered basket or a net sack</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">217. Put the basket or sack in a cool place away from the sun. After four days the snails will be clean inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p107b.png"></center><br>
+ Put the container away from sun</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">218. All snails must be washed and boiled just before cooking them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">219. First, put them in clean, cool water with a little salt and vinegar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p107c.png"></center><br>
+ Put them in clean water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">220. After a short time the water will begin 10 turn white and you will know that the snails are being washed inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">221. When the water is very white, take the snails out and empty out the old water. Then put them again in clean, cool water with a little salt and vinegar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p108a.png"></center><br>
+ Empty out dirty water; wash snails again</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">222. Continue to wash them this way until the water no longer turns white. Then you will know that the snails are completely washed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">223. Now put the snails in boiling water, again with salt and vinegar, and boil them at least five minutes. The snails are now ready to be cooked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p108b.png"></center><br>
+ Boil snails with salt and vinegar for five minutes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Snail meat can be cooked like any meat or it can be cut into pieces and added to a stew or vegetables. If snails are eaten where you live, there will be many ways to cook them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Further improvement</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">224. After you have been farming snails using two pens for some time, you may find that you and your family could eat or sell more snails if you had them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">225. You can raise more snails by building another pen. You can either build another 5 x 5 metre pen or you can build a still bigger pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">226. You can also raise more snails by taking better care of the snails that you have. If you take better care of your snails, year after year they will become bigger, healthier and stronger and produce more baby snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Building the third pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">227. Perhaps the most important thing that you can do to improve your snail farm is to build a third pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p109a.png"></center><br>
+ Build a third pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">228. Up until now, using only two pens, you have had to use both of them all of the time so that you could take fully grown snails from one after you had harvested the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p109b.png"></center><br>
+ Using two pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">229. Today, farmers know that it is not good to grow the same crops in the same place all of the time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">230. This is also true if you grow the same food and shelter plants in the same pen all of the time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">231. However, if you plant vegetables in one of your three pens for a year, the vegetables will grow well because of the snail manure in the soil. Afterwards, your food and shelter plants will also grow better because the soil has had a rest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">232. Also, if you raise snails in the same place all of the time, the sicknesses that they may get would do more harm year after year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">233. So, if you plant something else for a year or two and then start with snails again, they will be less likely to get sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">234. The diagram below shows you how to improve a snail farm by planting a vegetable garden in each pen from to time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p110a.png"></center><br>
+ Diagram</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Building a bigger pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">235. You may want to build a still bigger pen for your third pen so you can grow many more snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">236. If you build a 5 x 10 metre pen, you can grow two times as many snails. If you build a 10 x 10 metre pen, you can grow four times as many snails as you did in a 5 x 5 metre pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p110b.png"></center><br>
+ Pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">237. However, building a bigger pen is a lot more work and you will need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> more land</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> more materials to build it</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> more food and shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> more fully grown snails to begin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">238. You must also be sure that you and your family have enough time to take care of a bigger pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">239. If you do decide to build a bigger pen, build it exactly the same way that you built your first 5 x 5 metre pen (see pages 43 to 46 in the last booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p111a.png"></center><br>
+ Building a bigger pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Taking better care of your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">240. The better you understand the snails that you are farming, the better you can take care of them. So, you should always watch them and learn as much as you can.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">241. When you have learned the exact kinds of food plants that your snails like to eat, you will see that they grow well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">242. Then, if you always choose the biggest and best snails each time you begin, you will improve the quality of the snails that you are farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">243. So, with bigger and better snails and with more pens or bigger pens, you will be able to raise many more snails to eat or to sell and you arid your family will be able to live better.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p111b.png"></center><br>
+ Your family will be able to live better</P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/fb34fe/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/fb34fe/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/fb34fe/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Farming snails 2: Choosing snails; Care and harvesting; Further improvement (fb34fe)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Agriculture and Food Processing|Better Farming series of FAO and INADES - 46 booklets</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Settlements, Housing, Building - Infrastructure Construction (Roads etc)|Settlements and housing: general works incl. low- cost housing, planning techniques, surveying, etc.</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">FAO Better Farming series</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">farm snails</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/wb34te/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/wb34te/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/wb34te/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Development in practice: Toward Gender Equality (wb34te)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Women, gender and development, women&apos;s organizations</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">World Bank</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">achieve gender equality</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/wb34te/wb34te.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/wb34te/wb34te.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/import/wb34te/wb34te.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1910 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Development in practice: Toward Gender Equality </TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Development in practice: Toward Gender Equality</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Role of Public Policy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">@ 1995 The Intentional Bank for Reconstruction and Development / THE WORLD BANK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing July 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Development in Practice series publishes reviews of the World Bank's activities in different regions and sectors. It lays particular emphasis on the progress that is being made and on the policies and practices that hold the most promise of success in the effort to reduce poverty in the developing world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This book is a product of the staff of the World Bank. and the judgments made herein, do not necessarily reflect the views of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Photo credits: Maurice Asseo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Library of Congers Cataloging-in-Publication Data</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toward gender equality: the role of public policy.  p. cm-(Development in practice)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Includes bibliographer references (p. 70)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISBN 0-8213-3337-2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Women-Government policy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Women's rights. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Sex discrimination against women. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Series:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development in practice (Washington. D.C.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HQ 1 236.T68; 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">305.4-dc20 95-631</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CIP</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Foreword</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TWENTY years ago in Mexico the First World Conference on Women inspired a movement that has helped to reduce gender inequality worldwide. Illiteracy among women is declining, maternal mortality and total fertility rates are beginning to fall. and more women are participating in the labor force than ever before. However. much remains to be done.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In low-income countries women are often denied health care and basic education. Worldwide. women face limited access to financial services, technology. and infrastructure. They are locked into relatively low-productivity work. In addition to performing household tasks and child-rearing duties, women work longer hours for lower pay than most men. And. most discouraging of all. hundreds of thousands of women each year are subject to gender-related violence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Persistent inequality between women and men constrains a society's productivity and, ultimately slows its rate of economic growth. Although this problem has been generally recognized evidence on the need for corrective action is more controlling today than ever.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report written for the Fourth World Conference on Women is intended as a reference to strategies for promoting gender equality and. consequently enhancing economic efficiency. It pulls together evidence, including case studies, that demonstrates the need for governor action to improve the economic status of women. It points out how public policy can and should support services and infrastructure that provide the highest social returns and that are most heavily used by women. The report also aims to stimulate creative solutions to the problem of gender inequality by high lilting innovative and sometimes not obvious strategies that have proved successful. A study in Morocco, for instance, shows that paving public roads to schools increases by 40 percent the probability that local girls will attend classes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy reform that provides an enabling environment for economic growth goes hand in hand with investing in people. The success of one strategy draws on the success of the other. No efforts at gender equality. however, can be successful without the participation of women themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the international community gathers in Beijing for the Fourth World Conference on Women, the World Bank stands ready to assist client governments in response to the challenges ahead. The Bank believes that by advancing gender equality, governments can greatly enhance the future well-being and prosperity of their people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Armeane M. Choksi Vice President Human Capital Development and Operations Policy The World Bank</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THIS REPORT was prepared by a team led by Kei Kawabata and comprising Alison Evans, Zafiris Tzannatos. Tara Vishwanath, and Rekha Menon. The work was carried out under the direction of Minh Chau Nguyen and the overall guidance of K. Y. Amoako. Valuable contributions were made by Joyce Cacho, Lionel Demery, Shahid Khandker, and Kalanidhi Subbarao.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Background papers for the report were prepared by team members and by Anjana Bhushan; Lynn Brown and Lawrence Haddad; Florencia Castro-Leal, with Ignacio Tavares and Ramon Lopez; Roberta Cohen; Monica Fong: Roger Key, with Beverly Mullings; Andrew Mason; and Veena Siddharth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An external review group and a Bankwide advisory committee provided valuable guidance at all stages of the report's preparation. Kalpana Bardhan. Pranab Bardhan, Nancy Folbre. and T. Paul Schultz were the external reviewers. Harold Aldennan, Jean-Jacques Dethier, Louise Fox, Sunita Gandhi, Chris Grootaert, Jeffrey Hammer, Tariq Husahl, Elizabeth King, Augusta Molnar, Helena Ribe, and Paula Valad made up the advisory committee. The report was edited by Jo Bischoff, Richard M. Crum, and Fiona Mackintosh; Benjamin Crow provided word-processing and graphics support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report also reflects the contributions of the participants in consultations held with nongovenamental organizations on March 1S, 1995, in New York. Data supplied by the United Nations and its agencies. particularly the International Labour Organization, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Statistical Office, and the World Health Organization, were invaluable for the preparation of the report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The production of the report was made possible by the assistance of the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which has given unwavering support to the protnotion of gender equality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Definitions and Data Notes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Definitions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Expected number of years of formal schooling The total number of years of schooling that a child of a certain age can expect to receive if current enrollment patterns remain unchanged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Literacy rate. The proportion of the adult population that can read or write. This indicator is not always accurate because it is self-reported and represents past investments in schooling. It is often defined only with respect to selected languages and may not take into account the progress being made in many countries through literacy campaigns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy AT BIRTH The number of years a newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of birth were to remain unchanged throughout the child's life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maternal mortality ratio. The number of women who die in pregnancy and childbirth per 100,000 live births: A measure of the risk that women face of dying from pregnancy-related causes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Data Notes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless otherwise specified, dollar amounts are current U.S. dollars. A billion is a thousand million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The data used in this report cover a range of time periods and are from more than 100 countries (both developing and industrial).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless otherwise specified, geographic regions are those used by the World Bank in its analytical and operational work and are defined as follows:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">sub-Saharan  Africa countries south of the Sahara except Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">East Asia and the Pacific: low- and middle-income economies of East and Southeast Asia and the Pacific.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe and Central Asia. middle-income European countries and the countries that formed the former Soviet Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin America anti the Caribbean all American and Caribbean economies south of the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East and North Africa all the economies of North Africa and the Middle East.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India. Myantnar, Nepal, Pakistan. and Sri Lanka.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Summary</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THREE messages echo throughout this document:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The causes of gender inequality are complex, linked as they are to the intrahousehold decisionmaking process. However the decisions are made. the intrahousehold allocation of resources is influenced by market signals and institutional norms that do not capture the full benefits to society of investing in women. Low levels of education and training. poor health and nutritional status, and limited access to resources depress women's quality of life and hinder economic efficiency and growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> It is therefore essential that public policies work to compensate for market failures in the area of gender equality. These policies should equalize opportunities between women and men and redirect resources to those investments with the highest social returns. Of these investments. female education, particularly at the primary and lower-secondary level, is the most important, as it is the catalyst that increases the impact of other investments in health, nutrition, family planning, agriculture, industry, and infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Women themselves are agents for change because they play a key role in shaping the welfare of future generations. Public policies cannot be effective without the participation of the target group-in this case. women, who make up more than half the world's people. Their views need to be incorporated into policy formulation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Progress to Date</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two decades considerable progress has been made in reducing the gender gap world wide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> In 1960. for every 100 boys enrolled in primary school. there were 65 girls. In 1990 the ratio had risen to 85.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> In 1980 an average six-year-old girl in a developing country could expect to attend school for 7.3 years. By 1990 this figure had Increased to 8.4 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Since the 1950s the female labor force has grown twice as last as the male labor force. Worldwide, more than 40 percent of women over 15 years of age are now in the labor force; in developing countries women account for 30 percent of the labor force (These figures. it should be noted, do not fully reflect women's participation in the informal sector as unpaid family members in agriculture.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless. inequalities between men and women persist in many important areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Despite women s biological advantage, their mortality and morbidity rates frequently exceed those of men, particularly during childhood and the reproductive years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Traditionally women are employed in lower-pay jobs and in a narrower range of occupations than are men. Women's wages are typically only 60-70 percent of wages earned by men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Whether in private sector employment or public sector decisionmaking, women are less likely to be in positions of responsibility than are men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Why Do Gender Inequalities Persist?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The causes of the persistent inequality between men and women are only partially understood. In recent years attention has focused on inequalities in the allocation of resources at the household level. as seen in the higher share of education, health. and food expenditures boys receive in comparison with girls. The decisionmaking process within households is complex and is influenced by social and cultural norms market opportunities, and institutional factors. There is considerable proof that the intrahousehold allocation of resources is a key factor in determining the levels of schooling. health. and nutrition accorded household members.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inequalities in the allocation of household resources matter because education, health. and nutrition are strongly [hiked to well-being, economic efficiency. and growth. Low levels of educational attainment and poor health and nutrition aggravate poor living conditions and reduce an individual's capacity to work productively. Such economic inefficiency represents a significant loss to society and hampers future economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social returns to investments in women's education and health  a? e significantly greater than for similar investment in men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The social and economic losses are greatest when women are denied access to basic education and health care. Data from around the world show that private returns to investments in education are the same for women as for men and may even be marginally higher (Psacharopoulos 1994). More importantly. social returns (that is, total benefits to society) to investment in women's education and health are significantly greater than for similar investments in men, largely because of the strong correlation between women's education, health, nutritional status. and fertility levels and the education. health, and productivity of future generations. These correlation are even stronger when women have control over the way resources are allocated within the household.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wage differentials between women and men in the market are closely linked to educational levels and work experience. since on average. women earn 30-40 percent less than teen' it is not surprising that fewer women than men participate in the labor force. This wage disparity, reinforced by discriminality institutional norms, in turn influences the intrahousehold division of resources. A vicious circle ensues as households invest less in daughters than in sons in the belief that investment in girls yields fewer benefits. As a result. many women are unable to work outside the household because they lack the education or experience that men have.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decision not to participate in the labor force does not necessarily reflect a woman's own choice, no' does it always correspond to the optimum use of household resources. Furthermore. the market wage does not take into account the social benefits of educating and hiring women. Discrimination in households and in the market carries not only private costs for individuals and households but social costs for society as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public policies for reducing gender inequalities are therefore essential for counteracting market failure and improving the well-being of all members of society. Investing in women's education and health expands their choices in labor markets and other income-generating activities and increases the rate of return on a household's most valuable asset-its labor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decision to allocate women's time to the type of non wage work women typically carry out within the household. such as child care. food preparation, and, in low-income countries especially, subsistence farming and the collection of fuel wood and water, has less to do with economics than with social conventions and norms. These nones can have a strong influence on the household division of labor, even in industrial economies, where women's levels of human capital are equal to-and some times higher than those of most men</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The economy pays to this inequality in reduced labour productivity today and diminished national output tomorrow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whether this division of labor is appropriate is, essentially, for society to decide. However. there is no doubt that women's entry into the labor market and other spheres of the economy is directly affected by the extensive amounts of time they traditionally devote to household maintenance and family care. Most men do not make similar allocations of time in the home. Such inequality constrains women's employment choices and can limit girls' enrollment in schools. The economy pays for this inequality in reduced labor productivity today and diminished national output tomorrow. Public policy can address inequalities in the household division of labor by supporting initiatives that reduce the amount of time women spend doing unpaid work. Examples of such interventions include improved water and sanitation services, rural electrification, and batter transport infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Constraints on female employment opportunities arising from the household division of labor are compounded by institutional norms operating within the labor market. Although overt wage discrimination is illegal in many countries, employers frequently segregate jobs or offer less training to women workers. Employers often perceive the returns to investing in women workers as lower than those for men mainly because of women's primary role in childbearing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of access to financial services, to land, and to intonation and technology compounds the unequal treatment of women. Requirements for collateral, high transaction costs, and limited mobility and education contribute to women s inability to obtain credit. When women do have access to credit, the effect on household and individual well-being is striking. Bon-owing by women is linked to increased holdings of non-land assets, to improve in the health status of female children, and to an increased probability that girls will enroll in school. Independent access to land is associated with higher productivity and. in some cases, with greater investments by women in land conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Strategies for the Future</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the benefits from investing in girls and women are so great and can be quantified. why do households and employers underinvest in women? The main reason is that. as discussed above. markets fail to capture the full benefit to society of' investing in women and girls. Where the market fails or is absent. government must take the lead Public policy can contribute directly and indirectly. to reducing gender inequalities by, for example:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Modifying the legal and regulatory framework to ensure a opportunities </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Ensuring macroeconomic stability and improving, microeconomic incentives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Redirecting public policies and public expenditures to those investments with the highest social returns</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Adopting targeted interventions that correct for gender inequalities at the micro-level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modifying the law to eliminate gender discrimination and equalize opportunities for women and men is an important first step. However. legal reform by itself does not ensure equal treatment. Further public action is required to make sure that gender-neutral laws are enforced at the national and local levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sound economic policies and well-functioning markets are essential for growth, employment generation, and the creation of an environment in which the returns to divesting in women and owls can he fully realized. Economic instability and price distortions can hinder the process. Consequently. sound macroeconomic management is critical. In general. two sets of policies are necessary: one emphasizing macroeconomic stability and the elimination of price distortions. the other focusing on labor-demanding growth and a reorientation in public spending toward basic services with high social returns- such as education. health care and water supply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender inequalities in the distribution of the benefits of public spending frequently arise because of a bias within households that limits women's access to publicly provided services. In addition, the services provided by public spending often are of less benefit to women than to men. Public policy can help remedy this problem by rearranging expenditure priorities among sectors and within the social sectors. It can ensure support for those services and types of infrastructure that offer the highest social returns to public spending and that are most heavily used by women and children. such as water supply anti sanitation services and rural electrification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally general policy interventions may not be enough. and programs that specifically target women and girls may be required. Targeting is justified. Governments can no longer afford not to invest in women gable on two grounds. First. because women are disproportionately represented among the poor. targeting women can be an effective strategy for reducing poverty (broadly defined to include limited access to services. re sources, and other capability-enhancing factors). Second. where gender differences are wide, targeting-for example. the provision of stipends so that girls can attend school-they be needed to capture social gains and increase  internal efficiency</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Conclusion</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments can no longer afford not to invest in women. The evidence on the high private and social returns to investments in women and girls cannot be ignored. By directing public resources toward policies and projects that reduce gender inequality. policymakers not only promote equality but also lay the groundwork for slower population growth, greater labor productivity, a higher rate of human capital formation, and stronger economic growth However, none of these developments can be sustained without the participial of women themselves. Governments and collaborating institutions must listen more carefully to the voices of individual women. including policymakers. and to women's groups. By working with others to identity and implement policies that promote gender equality, governments can make a real difference to the future well-being and prosperity of their people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Chapter one</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Gender Inequalities Persist</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALTHOUGH the gap between opportunities for men and women is narrowing. inequalities persist, especially in certain regions. This report examines four major development indicators: educational attainment, maternal mortality. life expectancy. and economic participation outside the household. All four are closely related to each other and in turn are closely correlated with individual well-being. These indicators provide a broad picture of trends in gender inequality and their impact on the relative well-being of women and of men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Education</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the progress in raising educational enrollment rates for both males and females across all regions in the past three decades, growth in educational opportunities at all levels for females lags behind that for males (figure 1.1). In 1990 an average six-year-old girl in a developing country could expect to attend school for 8.4 years. The figure had increased from 7.3 years in 1980-but an average boy of the same age in a developing country could expect to attend school for 9.7 years The gender gap in expected years of schooling is widest in some countries in South Asia, the Middle East, and Sub-Saharan Africa (see figure 1.2). Gender differences in access to education are usually worse in minority populations such as refugees and internally displaced persons. of which only a few children go to school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p16.png"></center><br>
+ School enrollment ratios in developing countries </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The latest available figures show that 77 million girls of primary school age (6-11 years) are not in school, compared with 52 million boys (figure 1.3). Moreover, even these gross enrollment rates often mask high absenteeism and high dropout rates. Dropout rates are notably high in low-income countries but vary by gender worldwide and within regions. The rates for girls tend to be linked to age, peaking at about grade 5 and remaining high at the secondary level (Herz and others 1991) Cultural factors, early marriage, pregnancy, and household responsibilities affect the likelihood that girls will remain in school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the gross enrollment rate is an acceptable indicator of progress in education, most studies use literacy rates as an indicator of well-being. Overall illiteracy rates have decreased among adults in low- and middle-income countries, but the percentage of illiterate women in the world is still higher than the percentage of illiterate men. Older women constitute the largest share of the illiterates in the world today, a consequence of past inequalities in access to education. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia more than 70 percent of women age 25 and older are illiterate (United Nations 1991).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At post-secondary levels. where the gap in enrollment between women and men is wider, there is implicit "gender streaming," or sex segregation, by field of study, even in areas with snore female than male enrollees. Gender streaming. which is widespread in both developing and industrial countries, prevents women from acquiring training in agriculture, forestry, fishing, "hard" sciences, and engineering (figure 1.4).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p17.png"></center><br>
+ Expected years of schooling </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Health</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two decades life expectancy at birth has increased for both men and women in all regions of the world. In industrial countries women tend to outlive men by six to eight years on average: in low-income countries gender differences are much narrower (two to three years). Despite women's biological advantage, female mortality and morbidity rates frequently exceed those of men, particularly during early childhood and the reproductive years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the reproductive period the most Important causes of morbidity and mortality among women are high fertility and abortion rates, vulnerability to sexually transmitted diseases (STDS), genital mutilation. and gender violence. Each year, about 500,000 women worldwide die from the complications of pregnancy and childbirth. Maternal mortality ratios for developing and industrial countries vary greatly: the rates in parts of South Asia are among the world's highest, in some cases exceeding 1,500 per 100.000 live births. In Sub-Saharan Africa where the ratio is 700 maternal deaths per 100.000 live births, a woman runs a 1 in 22 lifetime risk of dying from pregnancy-related causes, but in northern Europe the risk falls to 10 in 100,000 (United Nations 1993). In the transition economies of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, the rates are around 40 to 50 per 100,000 live births</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p18.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 1.3 children not in school 1990 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major cause of maternal deaths is complications from unsafe abortions. Abortion-related deaths are highest in South and Southeast Asia. followed by Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean. Lack of access to contraceptives can mean that abortion, is used as a form of birth control. For example, in parts of Eastern Europe and Central Asia abortions are more numerous than live births (World Bank 1994b), and abortion rates were as high as 1.76 per live birth in Russia prior to the transition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As increasing numbers of women become aware of and learn to use contraceptives, total fertility rates are falling worldwide. The exception is Sub-Saharan Africa where the total fertility rate averaged 6.4 between 1985 have been infected by HIV. The World Health organization (WHO 1994) estimates that more than 13 million women will have been infected by HIV by 2000 and that about 4 million of that number will have died (figure 1.5 In Atrica, where 10 million adults are infected with the virus, ode-half of all newly infected adults are women, and more than 5 million are women of childbearing age. In Asia almost half of all adults newly infected with the virus are women, compared with less than 25 percent just six years ago.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p19.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 1.4 fields of study</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p20.png"></center><br>
+  Figure 1.5 HIV infected women 1995 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mortality risk for females is high during the reproductive years. but it is even higher during infancy and early childhood. Between 1962 and 1992 INFANT mortality in the developing world decreased by 50 percent (UNICEF 1993 However, in seventeen of the twenty-nine developing countries for which recent survey data are available, female children age 1-4 were found to have higher mortality rates than male children. despite girls? biological advantage (World Bank 1994b). In many of these countries the underlying cause of high mortality among girls is the parents' bias toward boys, who receive the best food and medical care.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genital mutilation, prevalent in twenty-eight countries, is performed on 2 million young girls yearly. The practice leads to long-term morbidity, complications during childbirth, mental trauma, and even death. Table 1.1 summarizes the best available statistics on this practice for selected countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Employment Work</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The time women spend on paid and unpaid work is typically greater than the time men spend in the labor market (see table 1.2 for an example). Unpaid family work is rarely recorded in official statistics. It manifests itself only indirectly in the labor market in the form of gender differences in labor force participation rates. sector of employment, hours of work, and wage level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the whole. labor force participation rates for women are lower than those for men (figure 1.6). However. these differences are often exaggerated because the definition of the participation rate fails to capture many aspects of women's work, particularly time spent on childbearing, childbearing. and other household tasks. Men are usually in the labor force throughout the prime working years (age 20-60), and their participation rates are typically more than 90 percent in virtually every country. Female participation rates vary widely across countries. In 1990, for every ten men in the labor force there were two women in the Middle East and North Africa, three in South Asia. six in Sub-Saharan Africa, and seven in Southeast Asia (United Nations 1991). Worldwide, 41 percent of women age 15 years or over are in the labor force, but in developing countries the corresponding figure is 31 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These numbers are deceptive, however, because they do not take into account the agricultural work for which women in developing countries are responsible within the family For example, the Dominican census of 1981 reported that only 21 percent of rural women participated in the labor force, but just three years later a special study suggested a figure of 81 percent. The census had omitted such activities as cultivating gardens and caring for domestic animals In India different definitions of what constitutes "work" have resulted in estimated participation rates as low as 13 percent and as high as 88 percent (Beneria 1992).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tens of Millions of Women Suffer Female Genital Mutilation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 1.1 female genital mutilation</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=468>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estimated prevalence (percent)</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estimated number of women affected (millions)</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djibouti</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">98</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Egypt</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">13.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">22.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6.3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">29.2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sierra Leone</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.0</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudan</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">89</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">118</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Sri Lanka's Dry Zone, Women Work Longer Hours than Men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 1.2 distribution of monthly work hours per month)</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=451>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peal. Season</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Slack season</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Activity </B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural production</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">298</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">299</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">245</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">235</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Household tasks</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">199</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">220</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fetching water and firewood</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">:30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social and religious duties</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total work hours</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">426</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">560</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">350</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">530</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leisure and sleep</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">294</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">160</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">370</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">190</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are usually employed in different sectors than men. Most of women's nonagricultural employment is in the service sector. but in developing countries female employment in manufacturing has been increasing and is catching up with female employment in services (ILO/ INSTRAW 1985). Women in manufacturing tend to be concentrated in only a few sub sectors: more than two-thirds of the global labor force in garment production is female. and this subsector absorbs almost one-fifth of the female labor force in manufacturing (UNIDO 1993). Men's employment is more evenly distributed across other sectors such as mining manufacturing, construction, utilities, and transport.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over their lifetime, women change their employment status more often than do men. They are also more likely to be self-employed or employed in occupations with flexible house such as subcontracted home work. Regardless of the sector in which they are employed, women tend to work in a narrow range of occupations. Only a few women are in high-paying jobs or in positions with significant responsibility. Nearly two-thirds of the women in manufacturing ate laborers, machine operators. and production workers; only 5 percent ate professional and technical workers and only 2 percent are administrators and managers (UNIDO 1993). However. there are regional differences: women occupy nearly 60 percent of clerical, sales. and service jobs in Latin America and the Caribbean but fewer than 20 percent of similar positions in South Asia North Africa. and the Middle East (figure 1.7).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p23.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 1.6 rates of participation in the labor force by gender</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wages paid to women are typically about 60-70 percent of those paid to men. About one-quarter of the gender wage gap is explained by differences in educational levels, labor market experience, and other human capital'' characteristics (Psacharopoulos and Tzannatos 1992 Horton 1994). The gender wage gap can also be explained in part by women's lower participation in the labor market-a consequence of domestic and other demands on their time and, possibly, of discriminatory employment practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Significant changes in the global economy have affected patterns of employment and working conditions for men and women worldwide. "Globalization" is associated with the deregulation of product and labor markets, with regionalization. and with the liberalization of international trade. In turn. these processes at-e associated with increased female participation in the labor force and with the at-owing "casualization'' of employment, as seen in the growth of part-time work in industrial economies. However, the net effect of globalization on women workers is not yet clear. Growth in the international traded service sector (for example, banking and telecommunications) seems to have offered women in developing countries greater employment opportunities. In addition, the participation rate of women in manufacturing jobs has increased faster than that of men. Women's average participation in the manufacturing labor force is now around 30 percent for both developing and industrial countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p24.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 1.7 types of jobs held by women </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, the number of women employed in export manufacturing has been increasing rapidly, even though this sector employs only a small fraction of all women workers. In Mexico, for example, the number of women employed in export manufacturing rose by nearly 15 percent a year in the 1980s (Jurisman and Moreno 1990). However, employment in this sector has been increasing more rapidly for men than for women, partly because of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">technological upgrading over time and partly; because women are less educated and tend to remain in low-skill occupations (Baden 1992).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women now account for a growing share ret wage employment they tend to stay longer in the labor force than ever before</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite persistent gender inequalities in the labor market. some recent trends  are encouraging. Increasing educational opportunities and decreasing fertility  rates have fed to an increase in the number of women entering the labor market. since the 1950s the female labor force has expanded twice as fast as the male  labor force. Women now account for a growing share of wage employment. and they tend to stay longer in the labor force than ever before The narrowing of the gender gap in labor force participation is enabling women to accumulate the work experience necessary tot- improving their job opportunities and increasing their amines. In the formal sector more and more women are working in occupations and sectors once dominated by men. and in many countries women s wages relative to men s have increased over time</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The data in this chapter illustrate some aggregate trends but they cannot tell US anything about the processes behind the persistence of gender inequality. For a more detailed look at these processes. We turn in the next chapter to a growing body of empirical evidence generated at the household and enterprise level. These studies provide a telling insight into the way in which gender inequalities are being challenged particularly by women At the same time these inequalities are reinforced by economic, legal. and cultural incentive systems that discriminate against women Discrimination continues despite compelling evidence showing that less inequality especially within the household. is associated with heftier welfare outcomes for children and better economic outcomes for the household as a v hole.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Chapter two</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Gender Inequalities Hamper Growth</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inequality women and men limits productivity ultimately slows economic growth. early empirical studies (for example, Kuznets 1955) suggested that income inequality would increase with economic growth during the initial phases of development. This chapter, however. starts with the hypothesis that there is not necessarily a tradeoff between inequality and growth and. indeed that high inequality especially as it affects human capital. hampers growth (Fields 1992: Birdsall and Sabot 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both theory and empirical evidence point to the importance of human capital in creating the necessary conditions for productivity growth and in reducing aggregate inequality in the future. In addition. women s human capital generates benefits for society in the form of lower child mortality.  higher educational attainment improved nutrition. and reduced population growth. Inequalities in the accumulation and use of human capital at-e related to lower economic and social well-being for all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Household and Intrahousehold Resource Allocation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, attempts to explain persistent gender inequalities in the accumulation and use of human capital have focused on the key role of household decisionmaking and tile process of resource allocation within household Households do not make decisions in isolation. however: their decision are linked to market prices and incentives and are influenced by cultural legal and state institutions. These institutions indirectly affect not only the returns on household investment but also access to productive resources and employment outside the house hold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Household decisions about the allocation of resources have a profound effect on the schooling, health care, and nutrition children receive. The mechanisms used to make these decisions and the effect of the decisions on the well-being of individual household members are not fully understood. Two frameworks for thinking about household decisions are the unitary household model and the collective household model (see box 3.1)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BOX 2.1 </P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two models of household members having their own prefer decisionmaking encase. Decisions on allocating resources reflect market rates of return. The unitary household model assumes but they also mirror the relative bar that household members pool regaining power of household members sources and allocate them according within the collective (Manser and to a common set of objectives and Brown 1980: McElroy and Homey goals. Households maximize the joint 1981). Bargaining power is a function welfare of their members by allocating of social and cultural norms. as well income and other resources to the in as of such external factors as opposed individuals and enterprises that promise "unities for paid work, laws governing the highest rate of return as reflected inheritance, and control over producing prices and wages. An increase initiative assets and property rights. These household income increases the well factors influence the terms governing being of all household members.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy interventions based on the sources and decisions about how unitary household model aim to in those resources are used within the crease household welfare, but they household. Thus, an increase in do not necessarily affect all household income may benefit some hold members in the same way. Some household members but leave others household members may be worse unaffected or worse off. The outcome off, for example, if they lose control depends on a member's ability to exover certain resources; others may excise control over resources both in be better off. in which case house-side and outside the household, and it hold welfare is not maximized. cannot be assumed that individual well</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the collective household being increases as household income model. the welfare of individual house-rises. (Collective household models do hold members is not synonymous with not exclude the possibility that the universal household welfare. Resources unitary model may be the best approximate not necessarily pooled, and the motion of household decisionmaking household acts as a collective, with in some contexts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The collective household model helps explain why gender inequalities persist even though household becomes increase over time The next sections adopt a collective household framework to explain how these inequalities exact costs in forgone productivity, seduced welfare for individuals and households, encl. ultimately. slower economic growth.(fender Inequalities in Human Capital )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are strong complementaires between education. health. and nutrition on the one hand, and increased well-being, labor productivity, and growth. On the other. Inequalities in resource allocation that limit household members' educational opportunities. access to health care, or nutrition are costly to individuals, households, and the economy as a whole.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Linkages between Education Health, and Nutritious</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the household level. gender differences in access to education are closely related to inequalities in the shares of household education expenditures allocated to boys and to girls This finding stands even though private returns to girls' schooling are similar to or marginally higher than. those to boys' schooling (figure 2.1; see also Schultz 1988: Mwabu 1994). In this case. parental choice reflects the relatively greater restrictions on educational opportunities and employment choices for girls. in comparison with boys. and cultural norms on the appropriate role for girls within the household.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p28.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 2.1 private returns to education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p29a.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 2.2 education, fertility. and child mortality (a)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p29b.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 2.2 education, fertility. and child mortality (b)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More importantly. the social externalities linked to female education are crucial. Evidence from a large number of countries shows that female education is linked with better health for women and their children and with lower levels (figure 2.2). This link stems from the direct effect of education on the value of a woman's time and consequently. on private returns to her labor. It also stems from the indirect effect of education on the average age at which women marry on their knowledge of basic health care and nutrition, and on reproductive choices (Rosenzweig and Schultz 1982, 1987).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Educating girls and women reduces maternal mortality and fertility rates and increases the demand for health services. A simulation study of seventy two developing countries shows that, with all other factors held constant, a doubling of female secondary school enrollments in 1975 would have reduced tile average fertility rate in 1985 from 5.3 to 3.9 children per household and would have lowered the number of births by 29 percent (Subbarao and Raney 1992. Studies for individual countries have found that one additional year of female schooling can reduce the fertility rate. on average, between 5 and 1 (i) percent (Summers 1994)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are more vulnerable than men to micronutrient deficiencies that aggravate poor health (World Batik 1994b). Poor health and nutrition reduce productivity and the chances of reaping gains from investment in education. Intrahousehold inequalities in consumption and nutritional allocations can therefore be a signal of inefficiency Recent estimates suggest that the com effects on morbidity and mortality of just three types of deficiency-in vitamin A, iodine. and iron-could waste as much as 5 percent of gross domestic product (GDP), yet correcting these deficiencies would cost less than 0.3 percent of low-income countries' GDP (World Bank 1994c, pp. 50-51). Studies of women tea producers in Sri Lanka and of women workers in Chinese cotton mills document the reduction in productivity associated with iron deficiencies and the positive effects of in-on supplementation on work and output (Edgerton and others 1979). A study of six villages in Andhra Pradesh, India, found that disabling conditions caused by malnutrition and the prevalence of diseases reduced female labor force participation by 22 percent (Chatterjee 1991).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Physical anti mental abuse can also have deleterious effects on the well-being and productivity of women (table 2.1). Violence against women is widespread in all cultures and cuts across all age and income groups Its consequences. include unwanted pregnancy. infection with STDs, miscarriage partial or permanent disability. and psychological problems such as depression anti low self-esteem. Recent World Bank estimates indicate that in both industrial and developing countries domestic violence and rape cause women of reproductive age to lose a significant percentage of really days. Domestic violence appears to be an example of how the relatively weaker bargaining power of women and the paucity of options for them outside the home can affect the intrahousehold distribution of welfare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Violence against Women Starts in the Womb and Continues  trough Life</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.1 Violence against women through the life cycle</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phase</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Type of violence</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pre birth</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Battering during pregnancy (emotional and physical effects on the ottoman) effects on birth outcome</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Infancy</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female infanticide: emotional and physical abuse</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Girl hood</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sexual abuse by family members and strangers: forced child prostitution</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adolescence</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dating and courtship violence: economically coerced sex: sexual abuse in the workplace: rape: farce prostitution and trafficking in women</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproductive</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coerced pregnancy: rape: abuse of women by male partners: down abuse and murder partner homicide psychological abuse sexual abuse of unmarried and childless women: abuse of women with disabilities</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Heise 1993 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prospects for gainful employment. as well as the availability of basic social services such as water supply and sanitation. also influence women's well-being. The survival chances of female children in India appear to increase as the employment rate for women rises and the earnings differential between men and women decreases Battilan 1988 Dowry and marriage practices. along with household ownership of land are closely linked to women's chances of survival The effect of such practices cannot be over late. Sen's (1990) comparison of female-male mortality rates in China. India. and Sub-Saharan Africa suggest that more than 100 million women are "missing"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public spending on social services affects the ability of individuals and households to benefit from their own private spending on human capital. In most industrial countries mortality rates decreased even before modern medical care became widely available, mainly because of improved water supplies and sanitation. The same is likely to hold for the developing world. Public interventions that address market under provision of water and sanitation facilities and shortages of health set-vices such as immunization and family planning-have a significant effect. and one that is probably greater for women than for men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of data makes it difficult to evaluate the effects of public spending on the educational attainment and health of women and men Very little empirical evidence in this area exists, but there is some indication that the proportion of public subsidies for education that benefits females is lower than the proportion that benefits males. In Kenya in 1992-93. for example. public spending on education amounted to the equivalent of an annual subsidy of 605 Kenyan shillings per capita: males received. on average. 670 shillings and females only 543 shillings. In Mexico the gender difference in public education subsidies was somewhat less: in Pakistan males received almost twice the female subsidy. Gender inequalities in the distribution of subsidies are greater at high than at primary levels. In Pakistan girls receive, on average. only 96 rupees a year for secondary school bag. compared with 58 rupees for boys. Box 2.2 explains how these figures are calculated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Supply-side differences are partly a function of poorly targeted resources (as. for example, when more is spent on tertiary than on primary schooling). More importantly. they reflect differences in household demand for education for girls and boys. If more girls attended anti stayed in school. the proportion of public subsidy going to girls would he greater.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In health care assessing the incidence of public spending by gender is particularly difficult because of the marked differences in the health needs of women and men. These differences are related to different biological re</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main advantage of this type of analysis is that it measures how well public  services are targeted to certain groups in the population, including women, the  poor, and residents of regions of interest.  Requirements anti to women's reproductive and childbearing roles. Some evidence suggests that because of these differences. per capita health cat-e subsidies to women are the same as and sometimes larger than those to men What is clearer is that women are less likely than men to seek health care. including in many countries. hospital care when it is netted and ate mote likely to consult a non medical health cat-e worker (lather than a qualified medical practitioner). Education tends to increase the likelihood that women will seek health care. whether public or  ace the likelihood that women will seek health care. whether public or private (World Bank 1994b). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The importance of private and public investments in education and health services that will improve women's well-being is cleat. These services at-e also important for another season: these is important evidence that increases in women's well-being yield important intergenerational benefits and productivity gains in the future World Bank Living Standards Measure Study (LSMS) surveys car-tried out in Nicaragua (1993 Viet Nam 1993) Pakistan (1991), and Cote (1988) suggest that the probability of children being enrolled in school increases with their mother's educational level and that (controlling, for income and household size) girls. particularly those in non poor households. are mote likely to attend school if their mothers attended school. Other studies show that households with educated mothers lend to provide children with greater quantities of mote nutritious food often at a lower cost. than households with poorly educated mothers (Thomas 1990b)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Data from Brazil show that giving women more control over nonlabor income has a larger impact on child measures, nutritional intakes, and the proportion of the household budget devoted to human capital inputs than if men had control of this income (Thomas 1993) Other studies indicate that women spend proportionately mote of the income they control on health care for children than do men. Women also spend more on food products (as opposed to such goods as alcohol and tobacco) than men do (Duraiswamy 1992: Hoddinot and Haddad 1992) But fathers education is also important especially in interaction with mothers' education (Thomas 1990a) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other studies have shown that children's educational attainment is lowest in households whet-e the male head has no schooling In Ghana the impact of a mother's education on her children's schooling is reduced when  their father has no schooling. even after controlling for income and household size (Lavy 1992).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Material health (which is linked to education) also has important intergenerational effects. Children of mothers who are malnourished or sickly or receive inadequate prenatal and delivery cat-e face a greater risk of disease and premature death. Iodine-deficient mothers run a greater risk of giving birth to infants with severe mental retardation and other congenital abnormalities than do healthy mothers. Reduced fertility and improved health for women can increase individual productivity and improve family well-being. When good health is combined with education and access to jobs. the result is higher rates of economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Household and Labor Market Linkages</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The link between the household and the labor market is particularly important. Specialization of labor within the household-whether individually chosen. socially determined. or legally induced-can accentuate gender inequalities in the formal and informal labor markets by leaving most of the unpaid work to women. This situation arises from convention rather than  from comparative advantage Inadequate public and community services.  transport. and housing also often have an uneven effect on the way men and women spend their time and can increase the demand for goods produced at home using unpaid labor (Moser 1994) Thus women may spend its much (or more time on unpaid work as on market work. In some countries this unpaid work contributes as much as one-third to the economy recorded GDP-and even mote to the welfare of poor families.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The amount of time women contribute to household production and maintenance, direct income generation. and family care combined is widely held to exceed that of men Analysis of data from Bangladesh. Botswana. Ghana. Kenya. Pakistan. the Philippines. and Zambia on how rural women spend their time confirms that, although use of time by women, and by different generations of women varies according to location. available technology. household characteristics. and cultural norms. gender bias in time use is widespread.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are generally responsible for collecting fuelwood and carrying water. Girls and alder women often do most of this work, although cultural norms in some countries affect women s mobility. The amount of time allocated to these activities is influenced by seasonal patterns of agricultural activity. the availability of substitute goods and services. and environmental changes. A study in Nepal, for instance, found that deforestation associated with a 75 percent rise in the time per trip would increase the time spent gathering fuelwood by 45 percent for all adults and by 50-60 percent for women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to fuel and water collection, child care is another activity that dominates women s time-although. considering the importance of children to future household welfare, the amount of direct time spent with children is limited. The seven-country study suggests that more time is spent on child cat-e in female-headed households. Female-headed households tend to have high dependency ratios and relatively large numbers of children, Implying more child-care time overall, but not necessarily on a per child basis. (Kumar and Hotchkiss 1988).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a large proportion of women's use of time goes unrecorded the design of projects and policies can yield false evaluations of costs and benefits. For example, women's unpaid work may be assumed to have zero value. As a result, women's response to changing incentives may be predicted as being higher than their time constraints actually allow. Project benefits-such as the time saved by locating piped water close to homes or by expanding rural electrification-may also be undervalued. Conversely, the benefits of treeing up time may be far more significant than might have been thought. A study in Tanzania, for example. shows that relieving certain time constraints in a community of smallholder coffee and banana growers increases household cash incomes by 10 percent, labor productivity by 15 percent, and capital productivity by 44 percent (Tibaijuka 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Formal Sector Employment</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unpaid work and family responsibilities. as well as lack of investment in women's education. are strongly associated with women's relatively low rates of participation and their limited earnings in formal sector labor. Women's participation rates usually dip in the childbearing years, and earnings tend to decline following an interruption in employment. Younger on average, work more hours than older women, and married women with young children tend to work less than childless women and mothers of grown children. The correlation of marriage and childbearing with labor market outcomes can be seen even in industrial countries, where wage differences between married women and men are larger than those between single women and men Similarly, in some developing countries relative earnings decline with age (table 2.2) Children are not the only treason for interruptions in women's labor force participation; caring for ill or aged family members is often a womans responsibility. A study from Hungary estimates that half of all absenteeism by women workers is the direct result of the need to care for sick relatives (Einhorn 1993).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Countries, Single Women Earn More Than Married Women and Younger Women More Than Older Women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.2 female-male earnings (adjusted for hours worked) by marital status and age (percent)</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=345>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female-male</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earnings ratio</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By marital status</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Married </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Single</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">69</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">91</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Austria</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">66</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">97</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Germany</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">57</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">103</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Norway</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">72</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">92</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sweden</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">72</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">94</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Switzerland</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">58</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">94</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Kingdom</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">95</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">59</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">96</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Age</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 25 </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B 45</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">75</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">63</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">94</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">81</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">82</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">61</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">92</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: Blau and Kahn 1992 Sedlacek Gutierrez. and Mohindra 1993 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thus. women s labor market outcomes can be substantially poorer than those of men because women's employment opportunities are constrained by social arrangements at the family or household level. These social demands are reinforced by legal conventions. Within the labor market itself, social or employer discrimination can affect women and men differently. and these differences are reflected in the resource allocation decisions taken within the household. Although wage discrimination is illegal in many countries, employers may respond to an increase in the supply of workers by segregating jobs by gender or offering less training to women who they perceive as being temporarily attached to the labor force (even if in fact most women never drop out). For example, women in the former Soviet Union are fairly well educated and have high labor force participation. but they are concentrated in occupations requiring fewer skills and less vocational training than men, and, on average. they earn less than men (Fong 1993).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female Wages Are Lower than Male Wages, but This Is Changing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.3 female-male earnings ratio over time Female-male earning 1 ratio (percent) </P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=496>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First observation</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second observation</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A v Average annual percentage change</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50.2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1981) </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">51.6</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1990)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.7</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">67.2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1984)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70 2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1990)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.7</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">75.7</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1985)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">81.4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1988)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.4</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">55.6</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1986)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60.0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1997)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70.9</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1978)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">80.0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1988)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">73.5</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1980)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">79.8</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1990)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.8</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: Monthly earnings for Indonesia and Thailand rural and urban: for all others urban only</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Tzanntors 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women's earnings relative to men's tend to increase over time. A study of six developing countries shows that female earnings relative to male earnings increased by 1 percent a year in the 1980s (table 2.3). There were two reasons for this increase: over the years women entered higher-paying sectors. and within sectors, their pay increased in relation to that of men. This gain would have been even greater had it not been for the effect on wages of increased female participation in the labor force. However, the most visible dimension of gender inequality in the formal labor sector remains the wage difference between men and women. Women's wages are. on average lower those of men by about 30 to 40 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social or employer discrimination can affect women and men difference and these difference are reflected i/? the resource allocation decisions taken within the household</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A recent study of the gender wage gap in Russia shows that after controlling for education differences, the ratio of women's to men's average hourly earnings stands at just over 71 percent: it has remained at that level since the 1960s. Part of the reason for women s lower hourly earnings in Russia and many other countries lies in patterns of occupational segmentation by ,gender. Some analysts argue that women-who do most of the household work in Russian households and also have high participation in the formal labor market cope with the burdens imposed on them by taking less demanding work and devoting less time to advancing their careers (Newell and Reilly 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Informal Sector</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One difficulty analysts face in interpreting trends in women's labor force participation and employment in developing economies is the large number of women engaged in informal sector activities, many of which overlap with subsistence - orientated household or community-based activities. Informal sector employment in most developing countries. whether in microentreprises or in casual work, is an important source of livelihood for women and their households.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The L competitiveness of women's informal sector activities is  constrained by women's limited mobility and lack of access to financial and public sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A recent study in Mexico estimates that 41 percent of the work force in Mexico's major-cities is employed in the informal sector (World Bank 1995c). Data from a 1989 survey show that 60 percent of men working in the sector are salaried workers' compared with only 18 percent of women. By contrast. 80 percent of women working in the sector are unpaid family members, as against 27 percent of men. By far the most common activity in the informal sector is commerce (fixed-location or itinerant), followed by repair works food preparation. and sales, and small-scale manufacturing. The sectoral distribution of informal employment reflects the hey role informal workers play in supplying goods and services to low-income consumers. Women tend to be concentrated in commerce and men in services and manufacturing, although the percentage differences are relatively small. Two generalizations can be made on the basis of this study: informal sector workers earn less than workers in large firms and women earn less than men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another recent study of tour communities in Lusaka. Guayaquil (Ecuador), Metro Manila, and Budapest shows that informal sector activities ate especially important for during periods of economic reform Although the numbers both of men and of women in the labor force tend to increase during these times women rely more on the informal sector than men clot The competitiveness of womens informal sector activities is informal by women's limited mobility and lack of access to financial and public services. Women also tend to specialize in non traded goods and services that show relatively low average returns to labor. Across the tour cities in the study, women earn between 46 and 68 percent of men's wages (Moser 1994)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ability of informal sector workers to increase their returns depends on access to physical and human capital and their relationship to the institutional and regulatory environment. Contrary to the common belief, many microenterprises face considerable costs associated with the regulatory environment, including registration and licensing fees, as well as outlays for contracts with public authorities concerning zoning regulations and use of public utilities. In Argentina regulatory costs are estimated to absorb as much as 21 percent of the average microfirm's operational expenses. In some sectors, such as manufacturing and construction, the costs of regulation are about 44 percent (World Bank 1994d). In Mexico real regulatory costs. including the costs of compliance and evasion, are about 20 percent of total costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regulatory costs also inhibit Job creation in the informal sector. In Argentina across-the-board deregulation could generate as many as 170,000 jobs in small-scale manufacturing alone. Furthermore. poor workers in family-based firms or micro enterprises and particularly women entrepreneurs-often lack access to such basics as water and power. Targeting infrastructure investments to the poor, which takes account of the needs of women entrepreneurs s. can significantly enhance their productivity and earnings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In rural area where formal markets often are not well developed. informal employment activities play a vital role. In Asia the proportion of female rural wage laborers increased sharply in the 1960s and 1970s. In India women make up a larger proportion of rural wage laborers than of the entire labor force, probably because of growing landlines and poverty among rural households. Rural household labor accounts for a disproportionately large share of employment among the poor and an even larger share among women. Furthermore, a larger proportion of female than male laborers are hired on a casual basis, largely because family arrangements, especially lack of control over property, limit women's ability to work (Hart 1986: Bardhan 1993). Low status in the labor market is also linked to low female indicators in education, health, and nutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Providing credit directly to women has a positive effect on  household and individual welfare and improved gender equality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social norms affecting decisions within the family about occupational choices or migration can also lead to differential patterns of male and female earnings in informal markets (Bhiswanger and Rosenzweig 1984). Family responsibilities hinder women's geographic mobility, constraining their ability to command high wages and limiting them to certain areas or industries. The concentration of women in certain sectors, especially nontraded goods and set-vices. intensifies competition between women entrepreneurs and wage workers and lowers the returns to female labor. These effects are compounded by women's lack of access to credit. training, and technology.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(fender Inequality in Access to Assets and Services )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Access to Financial Markets</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The availability of financial services and access to them are considered important for several reasons. First. savings provide a kind of self-insurance. Second, credit helps households maintain a certain level of consumption at those times when their income fluctuates temporarily. Third, credit can be used to fund investments in capital or other inputs that will yield relatively high returns to production. if households cannot finance such investments from their own savings. A fourth and no less important reason is the role of savings and credit in increasing household members' options outside the home.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inequalities between women and men in access to financial services- particularly credit--are widely documented. Collateral requirements, high transaction costs. limited mobility and education, and other social and cultural barriers contribute to women's inability to obtain credit (Holt and Ribe 1991). The implications tot household efficiency and individual well-being differ, however, depending on whether the household pools its financial resources. If, as the unitary household model assumes. a household pools its resources the characteristics of individual borrowers are less important than if there is little or no pooling. In the first case. credit resources will be used to meet household needs that have been jointly determined, regardless of who the borrower is. In the second case, the use credit is put to and the needs it then satisfies depend on which household member is borrowing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A recent study of credit programs in Bangladesh sponsored by the World Bank shows that providing credit directly to women has a positive effect on variables typically associated with household and individual welfare and improved gender equality (Pitt and Khandker 1995). The study looks at three programs in Bangladesh: the Grameen Bank. the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), and the Bangladesh Rural Development Board (BRDB). in 1992, women accounted for 94 percent of Grameen Bank members. 82 percent of BRAC members. and 68 percent of BRDB members (Khandker and Khalily 1995; Khandker, Lavy, and Filmer 1994). Only the results for the Grameen Bank are presented here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.4 presents the impact of credit obtained by women and men on a variety of social and economic indicators. The results show a clear and positive impact of both male and female borrowing on all indicators of Toward gender equality family welfare especially through an increase in per capita expenditures increases in both boys' and girls schooling, anti a reduction in fertility. Females borrowing has a greater effect on girls' schooling anti per capita expenditure than does male loot-rowing: male borrowing has a greater effect on boys' schooling and fertility than does female borrowing. Interestingly. female borrowing also results in mote female ownership of nonoland assets and an increased supply of female labor to cash - income -earning activities (Pitt and Khandker 1995).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loans to Women and Men Have Important Welfare Implications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2 4 welfare effects of Grameen Bank loans (percentage increase)</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=545>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Welfare e change</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effect of male borrowing</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effect female borrowing</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in boys' schooling</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7.2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6.1</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in girls schooling</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3.0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4.7</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in per capital expenditure</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.8</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4.3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reduction in recent fertility</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7.4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in women's labor supply to cash-income earning activities</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10.4</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in women nonland assents</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">19.9 </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The introduction of programs such as the Grameen Bank in a village has a positive effect on agricultural and nonagricultural production (Khatidketati Chowdhuty 1994: Rahman and Khandke 1994 The probability that women will be self-employed rather than work for wages increases by 52 percent. The latter finding is important because much of the wage employment open to women in rural areas is very poorly remunerated and can be quite exploitative. Self employment can bring the opportunity of higher returns for women, plus the freedom to integrate their earning activities into other work as they see fit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access to financial services alone cannot reduce gender inequalities in the allocation of household resources. A qualitative study reviewing several targeted credit programs in Bangladesh cautions against overgeneralizing about the benefits of giving women access to credit. The study finds that it is difficult to infer that increased borrowing alone improves women's bargaining power because in many rural Bangladesh households the question of who controls the resources is quite complex (Goetz and Sen Gupta 1994). Nevertheless. the possibility of receiving credit (or similarly of working for wages) may give women greater bargaining power within the household. This bargaining power can be used to improve child health and nutrition and may increase the likelihood that children will attend school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Access to Lund and Property</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ownership of land and the distributions of land rights influence the productivity of labor and capital resources and the incentive to invest in resource management Private property rights. in particular. are associated with increased access to product and factor markets. especially credit markets. and to public services such as public utilities and agricultural extension. However. relatively little direct evidence exists to link independent owner of land by women with increased access and productivity. One obstacle to empirical work is that women s access to land and property is often mediated trough marriage (A married woman land rights are frequently limited to use rather than ownership.) Future more. complex systems of land tenure make it difficult to generalize about the effects of owner ship on productivity. None some evidence suggests that independent land rights for women could enhance both the efficiency with which resources are used and the well-being of women and their households: (Agarwal 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The possibility of receiving credit may give e women   greater bargaining power within the  household which  can be used to improve child health and nutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While independent land rights may increase efficiency and household welfare, lack of secure land  appears to be associated with low investments by women in land conservation. In Zimbabwe's communal areas, land that a women acquires is often allocated to her only temporarily: for example, the location of land allotment received from husbands or borrowed from neighbors is usually subject to periodic change (Jackson 1993). The same is true in parts of West Africa (David 1992 Jackson 1994). Uncertainly about the permanence of their control over the land means that women may be reluctant to invest in improvements that will benefit the landowner rather than the user.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A significant trend in recent decades in developing countries has been the move toward private ownership In some countries this trend has been encoulagecl by reforms dealing with land redistribution tenancy or land titling Such reforms are considered important for promoting long-term investments and the adoption of the latest technology They also provide the collateral people need to gain access to credit and other factor markets Ironically, evidence also suggests that perform inequalities in male and female land rights are reinforced by land reform programs For example, in Latin America most reforms are based on the premise that the man of the household its the household head. This presumption means that women (except for widows  and ownership. Even where women and men benefit equally from land reform differences exist between nominal and real land rights (see box 2.3).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the central part of European Russia and in Moldova the lands and assets of state and collective farms are being parceled out in allotments as part of wider economic reforms. Every person who lived and worked on a collective farm receives a share of the land Data show that although on average, women have received a slightly higher proportion of land shares than men, the nonland capital assets of the old farms ale being distributed as property shares on the basis of a formula heavily weighted toward an individual's wage rate and years of employment. Such criteria favor men over women and give men more valuable property chares. Dividends paid on these property shares also tend to be higher than those paid 011 land shares Holt 1995).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Land reform programs that fail to account for gender differences in rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 2.3 who gets access to land? Honduras and Cameroon</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honduras' Agrarian Modernization Law of 1974 includes a provision giving men age 16 or older the right to access to land, independent of any other qualification. For women. however, this right is restricted to unmarried mothers or widows with dependent children. Furthermore. if a male beneficiary dies or becomes incapacitated. the law gives preference in inheritance rights to a male child over the child's legally married mother. Some 30 percent of rural Honduran households are headed by women at least part time because of the seasonal migration of men to look for work (Saito and Spurling 1992). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the northwest and southwest provinces of Cameroon. an estimated 50 percent or more of those who claimed land within the first ten years of land registration (1974-85) were classified as public servants. Over 32 percent of all the remaining land titles went to businesses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women make up more than 51 percent of Cameroon s population and do more than 75 percent of the agricultural work. but they are virtually absent from land registers. Only 3.2 percent of all land titles issued in the Northwest Province were given to women; in the Southwest Province the figure was 7.2 percent. For the country as a whole. it is estimated that women obtained under 10 percent of all land certificates (World Bank 1995a).  to own. use, and transfer land may actually exacerbate the insecurity of women's land claims and. as a result, harm household welfare. For example, there is evidence that land titling focused on male household heads has adversely affected women's ability to farm independently. Moreover. intrahousehold inequalities in income and decisionmaking have increased (FAO 1993) In Africa some titling programs have allowed men to take advantage of their control over land to redesignate land formerly cultivated by women as household land. This switch provided the opportunity for men to increase the amount of work they expect from women on household plots. In other cases women have received smaller and less fertile plots than they had before for their personal crops (FAO 1993).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recognizing women's independent claims to land is therefore an important issue in property reform. In poor households. having rights to land could alleviate both women's own poverty and the household's risk of remaining poor. The season is mainly that women s access to economic resources has a positive effect on household welfare (Agarwal 1994). From the point of view of efficiency, secret land tenure increases the incentive to manage resources efficiently and expands access to formal credit markets. Because secure land tenure can mean greater productivity, it may also increase the household's incentives to invest in women's human capital.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Access to Extension Services</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural extension services provide information training and technology to agricultural producers. Extension services have always been regarded as necessary for agricultural modernization. Given the importance of women's labor to agriculture in most regions, providing women with access to agricultural extension services is essential for current and future productivity. Types of agricultural extension services vary, hut in most countries publicly provided services dominate. Evidence suggests that women have not benefited as much as men have from publicly provided extension services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the importance of women's labor to agriculture it is in most regions providing women with access to agricultural extension services is essential for current  and future of productivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A review of five African countries shows that extension agents are most likely to visit male farmers than female farmers (table 2.5) The impact of this inequity on female productivity depends in part on whether women and men within households pool information. There is, however. little evidence to suggest that this happens (see box 2.4). It is important to ensure that extension services reach omen directly, not only to redress gender inequalities but also to maximize productive efficiency. omen play a critical role in production of food and cash crops for the household. in postharvest activities. and in livestock care Men and omen perform different tasks they can substitute for one another only to a limited extent. and this imitation creates different demands for extension information Also, as men leave farms in search of paid employment ill urban areas. women are increasingly managing and operating farms on a regular and full-time basis. Hence. omen are becoming a constituency for extension and research services in their own right (World Bank 1994e)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.5 visits by agricultural extension agents (percentage of households visited)</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=439>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country and year</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Households with female head</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Households with male head</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya. 1989</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">112</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi, 1989</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">58</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria 1989</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">37</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">22</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania, 1984</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">40</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="4%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1982</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">57</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">29</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="4%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1986</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">19</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 2.4 do women farmers learn from their husbands?</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of women farmers in Burkina Faso found that 40 percent had some knowledge of modern crop and livestock production technologies. For most of these women, relatives and friends were the source of information; nearly one-third had acquired their knowledge from the extension service, and only 1 percent had heard of the technologies from their husbands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Men are less likely to pass information on to their wives when crops and tasks are gender specific. In Malawi women claimed that their husbands rarely passed on advice to them: if their husbands did tell them something. the women did not find it relevant to their needs. In India women learned from friends, relatives. neighbors. and sometimes from their husbands. but this second-hand information seldom changed their production patterns (Saito and Spurling 1992). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The expansion of agricultural services beyond the public sector is a growing phenomenon in developing economies. The inadequacies of public funding plus the need to provide snore client-oriented services, suggest that the private sector has an important role to play However, women's limited access to land and credit put the many potential benefits offered by extension services out of reach. For example in Kenya's Meru and Maranga areas more than half the women surveyed cited a shortage of cash as their reason for not adopting, technologies that would maximize their output and increase their efficiency. The amount of education omen receive and the efficiency with which they run their farms are also closely linked This tie is particularly significant in light of the fact that one purpose of extension services is to advise farmers on use of modern technology.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three studies of Kenya found that the gender of the farm manager was, by itself. an insignification factor in output per hectare but that the manager's educational level had a significant effect on farm productivity (Moock 1976: Saito and Spurling 1992: Bindlish and Evenson 1993). Simulations based on these studies suggest that significant gains could accrue to increased investment in women's physical and human capital. As the data in table 2.6 show, if women and men shared the same educational characteristics and input levels. farm-specific yields would increase between 7 and 22 percent. Giving women primary schooling, by itself. would increase yields by 24 percent. Thus under investment in women's education limits growth of agricultural productivity. Well-targeted extension services can help to narrow the differences in productivity that arise from educational inequalities (Schultz 1988)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing Human Capital and Input Levels Would Increase tile Yield for Women Farmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.6 effects of increasing women farmers' human capital and input levels Increase  yields</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy experiment </B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(percent)</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maize farmers Kenya, 1976</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of giving female farmers sample mean characteristics and input levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of giving female farmer s men's education and input levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of giving women primary schooling</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">24</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food maize (maize beans and cow pears) farmers</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of giving female farmer men's education and input levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.0</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of increasing land area to male farmers' levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of increasing fertilizer to male farmers' levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.6</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Conclusion</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Analysts must look beyond market outcomes to identity the sources of persistent inequality between women and men. The search must focus on the household and its role in the formation of present and future human capital and on institutions beyond the household that reinforce and perpetuate gender inequalities. Gender inequalities within the household affect market outcomes, and these feed back; into household decisionmaking. This process is reinforced by inequalities in access to assets and services beyond the household. Improving the relative status of women within the household and increasing their access to assets and services will increase the returns to investment in human resources and improve the prospects for sustainable economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We must look for that which we have been trained not to see  Ann Scales, Yale Law Journal 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Chapter three</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Public Policies Matter</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As CHAPTER 2 has shown underivesting in girls and women is inefficient for society as a whole. Correcting for past underinvestment will require a "genders" approach to public policy. How this can be concretely achieved is the topic of this chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Equalizing Opportunities by Modifying, the Legal Framework</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Laws form tile functional framework of the economy and of civil society. Equality in the legal treatment of men and women creates the legitimacy policymakers need to seek change. Legal and regulatory provisions that discriminate against women-that. for example bar married women from seeking employment or prevent women from holding legal title to land-perpetuate gender inequalities and severely restrict women's ability to participate fully in social and economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modifying the legal framework to  eliminate discrimination and equalize opportunities for women and men is an important goal for public policy at the national and international levels. A supportive legal environment is also vital for other aspects of public policy that have a direct bearing on the opportunities available to women. such as regulations affecting the formal and informal sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four areas of the law are particularly important for equalizing the opportunities available to men and women: land and property rights; labor market policies and employment law: family law: and financial laws and regulations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Land and Property Rights</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policymakers should ensure that women and men are treated equally in the public allocation of land. Eligibility for land reform programs, for example. should not discriminate against women's perform claims whether the women are heads of households or members of households headed by men. When communities have been resettled or when a project allocates land to participating producers, women should have the same rights to land as men For refugee and displaced women returning to their homelands. often as de facto heads of households. need fair and equal treatment to allow them to establish a Farming or enterprise base as soon as possible. Whet-e land is in short supply, it may be necessary to recognize the land rights of certain groups, as well as their individual rights. The Indian National Sericulture Project is an example; it has leased land to women's groups and promoted women's access to land under state land-grant schemes (Quisumbilig 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some countries have enacted legislation to ensure gender equality in property and contractual rights. Under China's Law of Succession, for example males and females have equal rights to inheritance. Complementary measures are needed to ensure that women know their rights. Such measures include legal programs and campaigns to make judges and administrators sensitive to gender issues in the area of property rights (see box 2.1)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Labor Market Policies and Employment Law</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Discriminatory labor market policies and employment laws are widespread: examples are bans on hiring married women and restrictions on the type of work pregnant women may pet-form. Labor laws may also restrict female participation in jobs and deny women access to work settings. Even legislation that seeks to promote equal opportunity can have outcomes tot women workers. For example, generous maternity and child-care benefits tot women workers may make hiring women relatively mote costly than hiring men. perpetuating the gender wage gap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main issue for public policy its to ensure that fair and equal employment laws exist and are enforced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.1 some NGO efforts to promote women's legal literacy</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schuler and Kadirgamar - Rajasingham (1992) describe innovative approaches by  non governmental organizations to provide women with useful legal knowledge and tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Caribbean Association for Feminist Research and Action (CAFRA) has launched "women and the law" projects in five English-speaking Caribbean countries. Using a participatory methodology. the projects aim to create awareness of the law. provide women with legal information that will be useful to them in their daily lives, identify specific areas for action, and influence overall legislative policy. The projects develop educational materials for legal literacy and offer topic specific paralegal training for women's organizations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The legal literacy program of the Ugandan Women Lawyers' Association (FDA-Uganda) conducts legal literacy campaigns on specified dates each month in different districts. Pairs of FIDA volunteers conduct sessions, using role playing and discussions, on legal topics of relevance to women's lives and provide advice on contacting the FIDA legal clinic for advice and representation. In addition, FIDA and Action for Development broadcast regular radio and television programs on women and the law and publish pamphlets on legal issues of interest to women. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In India the Self - Employed Women's Association (SEWA) holds worker education meetings to provide members with legal information and offers one day training sessions on specialized legal information for community leaders. Members of SEWA paralegal staff research cases, prepare briefs, and argue all cases in labor courts for members. SEWA'S legal literacy efforts are part of its overall strategy of action for supporting self-employed women and women in the informal sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard. the main issue for public policy is to ensure that fair and equal employment laws exist and are enforced. Such laws should cover employment and employment-related benefits and should not be applied in a way that restricts women's access to the labor market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many countries women are protected by special standards in the workplace. These safeguards are of two types. The first includes measures intended to end discrimination in the labor market by requiring equal pay for work of equal value or by prohibiting the exclusion of workers from certain jobs because of gender. The second type protects women in their role as mottles by requiring employers to pay the full cost of maternity leave and provide childcare facilities. restricting night work, and limiting work categorized as dangerous or hazardous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first type of labor standard is often difficult to enforce. although nearly 120 countries have enacted equal opportunity laws. In most cases the law is in place but is not enforced. Furthermore. it often applies only to the formal sector of the labor market. leaving large number of women in the informal sector with little protection. More concerted public and private action is required to devise appropriate for enforcement. In additions complementary measures are needed to increase womens chances of entering the labor force. Such measures would include mote met-it-based hiring of women in the public sector and the creation of an appropriate regulatory framework that encourages the establishment of day-care centers private nursery schools. and kindergartens for the children of workers in both the formal and informal sectors. (Box 3.2 describes a day-care projects in Bolivia)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many countries have laws that limit night work. over theme and the use of heavy machinery by women. While well intentioned. these laws. too. can reduce women's employment options by raising the employer's cost of hiring women and perpetuating the notion that women workers are less flexible than male workers. This adverse result occurs because women already tend to have lower levels of capital than men and are limited by traditional notions of what womens work. Devising effective protective legislation for women is thus a difficult balancing act.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effective laws to protect women must honor the fine line between ensuring sate working conditions for all workers, including women in the informal sector. and providing equal opportunities for all workers seeking employment. Standards relating to maternity leave and child-care benefits are common in the formal sector. To ensure that such standards do not raise the costs of female labor unnecessarily employment legislation should avoid having employers pay benefits directly. Maternity benefits should be funded through general revenue taxes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.2 day-care center in Bolivia to enhance the status of women by increasing their employment opportunities in other Latin American countries, and their knowledge of women in Bolivia are over represented , health, and nutrition. The project among the poor, and many live in will establish day-care centers to proficult circumstances. They are twice vice non formal,  home-based, integrals likely as men to be illiterate, their child development for children unaccess to child care is limited, they the age of 6 in thirty-four poor subject to discrimination in hiring ban and purebred areas. Women and wages, and they are restricted benefit from the project either as by law from engaging in certain procure givers employed at the minimum ductive activities. wage or as clients of the centers. The Integrated Child Development children in day care gives women Project, financed by a credit from the more time to search for jobs or to in World Bank's International Development their current situations (Winkler opponent Association designed and Guedes 1995).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Or social security systems rather than by direct contributions from individual employers. In Eastern Europe and Latin America, however, this method of funding benefits has imposed a significant cost on the treasury, raising the question of how much should be paid and for how long.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One way of addressing this issue is for governments to encourage women and men to share the responsibility for childrearing by adopting legislation allowing either parent to qualify for the leave and benefits associated with having a child (Folbre 1994). Such legislation can be supported by changes in the tax system to ensure equal treatment of workers within the household and a margin tax rate on the earnings of additional workers in the household low enough to avoid creating a disincentive to women's participation in the labor force (Mac Donald 1994). These tax changes can be complemented by legislation that encourages absent to pay child support. Such laws are in place in many Latin American and Caribbean countries. but none systematically monitors transfers (Folbre 1994). Greater efforts to enforce the law are needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Family Law</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender inequality in family law can worsen women's bargaining position within and outside the household and affect household welfare and efficiency. As noted in chapter women's bargaining position in relation to Household resource allocation is often a key factor in determining the wellbeing of household members. particularly children. Reforms of family law can enhance women's economic and social opportunities while still respecting cultural norms. For instance the minim age of marriage for women  should be set high enough so that girls can complete secondary schooling: this would help lower fertility rates. (Allowing for exceptions such as parent consent negates the potential fertility benefit.) Marriage contracts should include stipulations guaranteeing the wife's rights. especially on separation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Women's bargaining position in relation to household</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legal and policy measures can have a direct bearing on the health of women. The law and its enforcement are essential for combating domestic violence against women. If the laws on violence against women are to be enforced, women need to be made aware of the legal recourse available to them and the judiciary and police need to be sensitized to the existence and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.3 innovative approaches to combating gender violence</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil's women-only police stations are an innovative approach to the problem of violence against women. They have been so successful that other countries-including Argentina, Colombia, Costa Rica, India, Peru, and Uruguay-have emulated them. The police stations have made it easier for women to report gender based crimes of violence, and, with that experience, women are now demanding more support from the police, such as legal counseling and advice. Despite the program's success, the number of convictions for gender-based crimes has not increased, largely because similar innovations have not been made in the  judicial system (Heise, Pitanguy, and Germain 1994). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Zimbabwe the Mussasa project provides support and counseling to abused women and sensitizes police and prosecutors to the issues of domestic violence and rape. To ensure the credibility and acceptability of the training, legal professionals are involved in the program. One branch of the criminal justice system-the police department, for example-often hosts training for another, such as prosecutors (Stewart 1992).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Costa Rica El Instituto Legal de las Naciones Unidas y Desarrollo runs gender sensitization training for prosecutors, judges, lawyers, and other professionals who deal with crimes of violence against women (Heise, Pitanguy, and Germain 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Implication of violence against women. Affirmative action policies can increase the number of women police officers lawyers, and judges. Trading police, lawyers, and judges can increase their gender sensitivity. making the legal system more responsive to women's needs. Legal literacy efforts can make women aware of their rights and show them how to use these rights to mobilize for change. Some approaches to dealing with domestic violence are illustrated in box 3.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Financial Laws and Regulations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access to credit is vital for women, allowing them to manage fluctuations in income and expenditures and to expand their businesses. As we saw in the preceding chapters, credit can be an important source of economic empowerment for women within the household. But in many countries. underdeveloped financial markets, controlled interest rates, and overly rigid backings regulations have led to systems of credit that tend to shut out the pool. many of whom are women If financial institutions are to lend to those unable to obtain credit in the current environment. interest rates must be liberalized. Positive interest rates have important effects on informational money markets, which tend to be more exploitative when formal sector credit is rationed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Changes in the laws governing access to credit are also vital because women's business profiles often differ from men's. Compared with men. women are more likely to work in low-risk small, and home-based businesses (Rhyne and Holt 1994). This situation creates a demand for small loans that can be obtained without formal, legally secured collateral and that offer relatively flexible repayment terms. Legislation that encourages broad access to financial institutions can increase the availability of these types of loans. but legal changes may also be needed to extend the range of acceptable collateral.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many countries the regulatory framework contains provisions that are especially punitive to small firms. This adds an additional constraint on women, whose businesses are concentrated at the small end of the size The deregulation of the microentreprise sector would remove implicit disincentives to small-film activity and would relieve some of these Such action would enhance women entrepreneurs' prospects of benefiting from training or credit programs targeted to the microentreprise sector (World Bank 1994d. 1995c).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Redirecting Public Policies and Expenditure to Promote (tender Equality)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is unlikely that legal reform by itself will be sufficient to ensure that women and men ate treated equally. Further public action may be required to guarantee that gentler-neutral laws are enforced at both national and local levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Macroeconomic: Policies</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many developing countries are implementing important policy and institutional reforms to address changing economic conditions on both the domestic and international fronts. These reforms are often supported by international financial institutions and bilateral donors. The pace of reform has varied across countries Those countries that have implemented reforms early on, carried them out consistently, and received adequate financial support have generally enjoyed faster and stronger economic growth than count ties that have undertaken reforms too slowly, too intermittently, or not at all. Where implementation has been slow or the government's commitment weak, economic distortions have tended to multiply and economic trowels to slow. limiting the government's ability to invest in physical and human capital for the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often the poorest groups in society that stand to lose the most from economic distortions. High and rising inflation places a disproportionate tax burden on the poor including low-paid wage workers and those with fixed incomes. For this and other reasons, inflation tends to hit women harder than men. An overvalued currency is also regressive; it keeps the price of goods artificially low. crowding out many locally produced goods. Women's businesses. which ate often concentrated in the informal sector, can be particularly vulnerable to competitions from cheap snorts. An overvalued currency reduces international competitiveness. limiting the availability of foreign exchange for domestic entrepreneurs and constraining business expansion and employment creation. A firm commitment to policy refortify is therefore essential to economic growth and sustainable initiatives for alleviating poverty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Inflation tends to hit women harder than men.</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such reforms generally include two kinds of necessary policies. The first emphasizes macroeconomic stability and the removal of price distortions: the second promotes labor-demanding growth in agriculture and industry and better. mote accessible basic social services. mightily in education, health care and water supply. Macroeconomic stability can be achieved by reducing large current account and government budget deficits and by curtailing excessive money and credit expansion. Correct pricing of foreign exchange and of domestic goods and services facilitates trade and investment and promotes growth Reforms of trade and price incentives encourage job creation and higher earnings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In shots. broadly based economic reforms benefit the poor, as the experiences of diverse countries have shown. Data from the LSMS and similar studies confirm that in Costa Rica, Ethiopia. Than Indonesia, Peru, the Philippines, and Tanzania, declines in poverty rates have accompanied economic reforms. Because of underlying gender inequalities, reductions in poverty do not necessarily improve the economic status of women. Nonetheless. although empirical evidence on changes in women's welfare following reforms is scarce, data from the Philippines suggest that for women. economic reform is by improvements in social indicators and important employment gains (box 3.4). An analysis of household data from Peru indicates that reforms there have not only led to renewed growth and reduced poverty but have also improved the status of female-headed households (box 3.5).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their seminal role in encouraging sustainable. long-term growth. some economic reforms involve transitional costs. for two reasons: the need to implement radical shifts in government policy, and the lag. perhaps of years, between acceleration of economic growth and the realization of the 
+</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.4 social progress and labor force gains for women in the Philippines</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Philippines began implementing economic reforms in the early 1980s. While political turmoil and some policy slippage have weakened GDP growth over the period and led to the need for further reforms, quality of life indicators have improved during adjustment. For example, by 1990 the incidence of absolute poverty had declined by about one-third (to approximately 20 percent of the population). Maternal and infant mortality rates also declined over the period: in 1980 the infant mortality rate was 52 per 1,000 live births, but by 1990 it had fallen to 41 per 1,000 births (Johansen 1993). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The percentage of the population with access to safe drinking water increased between 1980 and 1990, from 65 to 93 percent of the urban population and from 43 to 72 percent of the rural population. The figures for sanitation services showed the same increase, climbing from 81 percent with access in 1980 to 98 per  cent in 1990 among urban dwellers and from 67 to 85 percent among those in rural areas. Secondary school enrollment rates for boys and girls also showed gains. Girls and boys have traditionally reached similar educational levels in the Philippines, a trend that contributed to women's gains in the labor market during adjustment in the 1980s. While labor force participation rates for men rose only slightly, the rates for women increased dramatically, from 23 to 37 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, women's wages as a percentage of men's grew from 71 to 80 percent between 1978 and 1988 (Tzannatos 1995). A recent study of a low-income community in Manila found that in some private sector jobs women earn more than men, reflecting in part the high educational level among women in the sector. Earnings in the informal sector are generally low for both women and men. although some women have been so successful in their informal sector businesses that their spouses have opted to leave low-paying jobs in the formal sector to participate in their wives enterprises (Moser 1994).  benefits of growth by large segments of the population. The short-term costs can include increases in food prices as subsidies are removed temporary restrictions on credit to control monetary expansion, and cuts in public spending as governments attempt to control budget deficits and reorient spending toward the most important public services. Moreover, inequalities in access to and control over resources and in entry into markets hamper some groups in taking advantage of the opportunities created by economic reform For example, people who are unable to acquire new skills may remain for some thee. Gender inequalities in access to and control over land in rural areas can keep women farmers from taking advantage of changes in the relative prices of tradable and non tradable crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.5 macroeconomic reform and improved living standards in Peru</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between 1985 and 1990 Peru's economic regime was marked by expansionary monetary and fiscal policies and high levels of government intervention in most areas of the economy. Although these policies led to an initial period of growth, the approach proved unsustainable: by late 1987 growth had given way to hyperinflation and deep recession. During 1988-90 real GDP dropped by an average of 8 percent a year. Real wages and consumption expenditure also fell sharply as inflation soared to 7,600 percent a year in 1990.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1990 the new government of President Alberto Fujimori introduced macroeconomic reform measures designed to stabilize the economy, reduce fiscal deficits and inflation, increase market efficiency, and improve the country's competitiveness. Under this reform program inflation declined dramatically, falling to 57 percent in 1992 and to 17 percent in 1994. Real GDP grew by about 20 percent between 1991 and 1994, while real per capita consumption expenditure grew by more than 18.5 percent. LSMS data show that poverty declined by 11 percent-from 55 percent of the population in 1991 to 49 percent in 1994. Although the country experienced a brief contractionary period following the introduction of reform measures, household data from Lima for 1990, 1991, and 1994 indicate that in 1994 per capita expenditure was well above, and the incidence of poverty well below, 1990 levels. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improvements in living standards have been widespread, and the largest gains have been made in some of the country's poorest regions, such as the urban and rural sierra (mountain areas). In most parts of the country, increases in per capita expenditure among households headed by women have been above the national average. In the urban and rural sierra, for example. consumption expenditure by these households increased by 47.7 and 44.8 percent. respectively-figures that compare favorably with increases in per capita expenditure among households headed by men (35 and 28 percent for the same regions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although both women and men are expected to gain from economic reform in the long run. gender inequalities at the household and market levels can mean that the benefits of reform reach women, especially poor women. only slowly. Reforms must incorporate measures aimed at counter acting shot-term transitional costs. Among the most important are safety nets specifically targeted to vulnerable groups. For example, in fiscal 1994 seventeen of the twenty-three reform programs supported by the World Bank included components aimed specifically at reducing poverty: fourteen of them targeted programs or safety net measures such as labor-intensive public works projects. targeted and social assistance programs, and unemployment and social security schemes (see box 3.6).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.6 food coupons improve nutrition in Honduras</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The food coupon program in Honduras, part of a social safety net supported by the World Bank and financed by IDA and other donors, was put in place in 1990 to protect the country's most vulnerable people during economic reforms. Starting with about 182,000 participants, by 1994 the program had expanded its coverage to 345.000 of the estimated 430,000 children at risk of malnutrition. The effort also supports nutrition education for health workers, community groups, and mothers. Because coupons are used instead of food. the government saves some 30 percent over traditional food distribution costs, and the beneficiaries are able to choose the food  they will consume. Beginning in 1995, an adjustment for inflation will maintain the value of the coupons, enabling participants to satisfy a constant proportion of their food needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project also supports the development and implementation of a long-term nutrition assistance strategy for Honduras. Although attempting to measure changes in malnutrition is difficult in the short term, there have already been noticeable benefits. Between 1990 and 1993 the number of first-graders with severe or moderate malnutrition dropped by 4 percent. Organizers are now trying to graduate women participants from the program by offering training in basic skills such as food processing and helping them find assembly work in local factories (World Bank 1995b). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, safety nets are not a substitute for a mote integrated approach to economic and social policy that includes appropriate levels of harvest in social services and infrastructure. Recognizing this fact, governments and donors are increasingly incorporating into their reform packages antipoverty initiatives and measures to reduce gender inequality. In Pakistan, for example, the FIDA-financed Public Sector Adjustment. Program provides much needed the financial support for the balance of payments account and reinforces the emphasis on government investment in the social sectors. The program promotes increased access to and improvements in basic education. health. and water supply services that benefit girls and rural areas. It also supports a shift it government education and health spending toward the primary level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fiscal 1994 twelve of twenty-three World Bank economic reform pro emphasized the restructuring public expenditure, primarily to and increase spending on education. health care, and other areas important to poverty reduction such as water supply and sanitation. The Burkina Faso reform program is typical; it supports an increase in the total budgeted amounts for primary education and health services, which are particularly beneficial to the poor and to women. Uganda s program seeks to protect and enhance public expenditures for basic social services. including water supply primary health care and primary education. In the long term, the reform of public spending-especially in the social sectors, physical infrastructure and agricultural research and extension-promises significant benefits) trot women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Sectoral Investments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In principle. public expenditures on social services and infrastructure are allocated on a gender-neutral basis; in practice men and women use these services differently. The resulting inequalities frequently perpetuate gender based differences in the accumulation and distribution of human capital within households. Public policy can address this problem by public expenditure priorities between secrets and within social sectors. Further it can support services and types of infrastructure that provide the highest social returns to public spending and are most heavily used by women  and children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDUCATION. Estimations of the private returns to education for a number of countries (Psachatopoulos 1994) show that returns are at least equal for girls anti boys and are often higher for girls. Moreover, these rates do not capture the externalities generated by providing education to girls. The combination of private and social returns provides a clear signal for restructuring the allocations of public resources so as to support female education. Yet incidence analysis for a number of countries for which the necessary data are available reveals that educational subsidies per capita are higher for males than for females This difference is partly a result of the bias in allocation of subsidies toward higher levels of education, where female enrolled is lowest. Distortions in the allocation of public resources, such as the provision of mote money foe male-dominated tertiary institutions than for education that benefits girls, should be corrected by reallocating spending toward basic (primary and lower-secondary) schooling. Targeting these educational levels will have the maximum effect on girls' education and will yield higher social returns for society as a whole. In countries where universal basic education has been achieved and capital markets are unable to help households finance higher education, continuing subsidize higher education may be warranted. The rationale for the subsidy would be the productivity gains associated with a better-trained labor force.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To correct the bias against enrollment of girls more targeted interventions are need to influence household (see decisionmaking)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However reallocating public spending toward primary education and later toward higher levels is not sufficient to erase the gender gap in education The bias against enrolling girls in school is evident in both poor and no poor households and applies even at the primary level. To correct this bias, more targeted interventions are needed to influence household decision making</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HEALTH. Correcting the gender bias in the public financing of health care IS a more complex process than correcting the bias in education. for two main reasons: the marked differences between the health needs of men and women, and the unreliability of household data on demand for health services in comparison with the data on demand tot education). However it is cleat that targeting health services to women implies provision of adequate funding for prenatal care. infant immunization, and mother and child health services. Because of the significant social benefits of providing women with appropriate health care, governments should make basic services ices that benefit women a top priority among, public health care expenditures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a critical link between the public provision of health care and women's access to educational opportunities. A mother educated to seek preventive care and early treatment of illness for herself and her children (particularly girls) will reduce the cost of health care and in many cases. prevent premature death. Most of these highly cost-effective services can be supplied in rural clinics and health centers. Public spending should be so allocated as to ensure sufficient funding for these primary health facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICES. Agricultural extension and research services are widely considered vital to increasing and sustaining agricultural productivity. Many of these services are being provided by the private sector. but in some countries private services need public support, either because certain markets have not yet been developed or because the infrastructure is poorly developed. However. women farmers and small holders are often not served as effectively by public agricultural extension systems as ate and male farmers (FAO 1993). This disparity stems paltry from expend priorities within agricultural extension services. which concentrate resources on the crops and the technology controlled primarily by male commercial farmers. Reallocating public spending on agricultural extension and research services toward crops and technology raised by or used by small holders and women farmers could yield high social returns to public investment and could increase private returns by improving the skills and productivity of small agricultural producers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reallocating public spending on agricultural extension  and research services toward crops and technology </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Techniques for small holders and women farmers should take into account the need for quality and cost-effectiveness in public services, Economies of scale can be achieved if extension agents deal with groups of farmers instead of with individuals. This approach also provides a valuable forum for exchanging information. fostering peer learning. sharing expensive equipment. and pooling resources for- credit. Mobile trailing units and flexible hours that fit the crowded schedules of women farmers should also be considered. and more female extension agents should be trained to deal directly with female farmers. Such measures can be introduced without large additional resources if existing expenditures are carefully reallocated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INFRASTRUCTURE, Public investment in economic and social infrastructure is vital in facilitated individual and household investment in physical and human capital. However, public expenditures on roads, water supply, and sanitation infrastructure frequently do not meet the needs of those who use the services most heavily. Women are the main users of water services, and it is essential to involve them in designing and implementing water projects. For example. in areas where transport is inadequate and water collection is a daily burden for women and children, the population tends to use the closest available facility rather than the safest one. In such cases. projects that ensure a safe water supply and take into account the specific needs and constraints of the users often have a significant effect on users' health. In two villages in Zaire where a piped water network was installed to provide safe drinking water, the median incidence of diarrhea was halved among children in households located less than a five-minute walk from a public standpipe. Spending allocations that favor public water supply and sanitation improve the general health of the population, save time for women and children. and increase school attendance. A study from Morocco chows that access to tap and well water instead of pond or river water raised school enrollment for both boys and girls (Khandker, Lavy, and Filer 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are the main users of water services and it is essential  to involve them in designing and implementing water projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public spending on roads and energy-related facilities (for instance electrification or energy conservation) or other infrastructure is usually assumed to be gander neutral. Yet women and men use these facilities differently The Morocco study cited above found that the availability of electricity increased the rate for girls substantially more than for boys. The study also showed that the presence of a paved road increased by 40 percent the probability that girls would attend school and reduced by 5 percent their probability of dropping out. Overall, improved road conditions increased the probability of school attendance for girls by 32 percent and for boys by 20 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural electrification can also ease the time constraints on women who must balance household and productive work. Lack of time is often a primary season for women's weak response to economic incentives. especially in rural areas. The case for making public investments in infrastructure would be stronger if gender differences in the use of projects and services, as well as the potential effect of such investment on productivity and social development. were taken into account.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Using Targeting Measures to Narrow the Gender</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As we have seen. policies that specifically target women or girls can address the needs or this group more efficiently and with greater cost-effectiveness than general policy measures. Female household members tend to allocate resources more directly to children. while men tend to allocate more resources to adults. In households in which resources are not pooled. targeting programs to the household as a where will not necessarily benefit all members equally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Targeting women directly is justifiable on two grounds. First, to the extent that gender inequalities prevent an economy from realizing its full potential. targeting to women can be an effective strategy for increasing productivity and output Second, where gender differences are wide, targeting may be needed to capture social gains and to increase internal efficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Targeting women is especially when doing so contributes directly to reducing poverty; or when women have particular needs-for example. when maternal mortality is very high. The exceptionally high gender gap in educational enrollments in some countries can be reduced only by policies (including subsidies) that target girls. An obvious example would be policies that affect the private costs of schooling. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female household members tend to allocate resources more  directly to children it while men</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reducing these direct costs to households Will mean setting new public spending priorities. For example. education institutions for girls especially at the primary level, might be exempted from cost recovery measures. thus increasing the implied public spending subsidy to girls. Similarly. a far; number of publicly funded scholarships can be provided for girls' as has been done in and Guatemala.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Opportunity and travel costs can discourage parents from enrolling especially daughters in school. Some counties have tried to overcome the constraints imposed by opportunity costs by introducing flexible school hours and calendar years and providing child care for younger siblings (box 3.7). In some cases girls who are responsible for looking after their younger brothels and sisters ate allowed to bring them to school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In countries where cultural values may prevent girls from traveling alone to school. measures are needed that will increase access to safe transport.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.8 economic reforms and gender targeting in Mongolia</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since Mongolia began its transition to a market economy in 1990, the living conditions of the population have deteriorated dramatically. According to the government's estimates, a quarter of all Mongolians are now living below the poverty line. Single women with young children are among the "new" vulnerable groups that have emerged in the wake of the transition. As of December 1993 nearly 72 percent of households headed by single persons, usually women, were estimated to have incomes below the poverty line. (About 28 percent of all households in Mongolia are headed by women). The Mongolian Women's Federation reports that the divorce rate is rising among jobless low-income couples, increasing the number of single-parent households. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Along with job loss women are affected by the decline in services such as day care and maternity homes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mothers now have to look after their children at home, which restricts their ability to participate in the labor market and, ironically, increases their dependence on welfare. When herds were privatized, priority was given to people who, according to the government, could take better care of the animals. Unfortunately, this policy adversely affected female-headed households.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The maternal mortality rate has doubled over the past three years. in part because many more babies are being delivered at home. Other factors that have contributed to the rising maternal mortality rate include a decrease in the number of ambulances and the need for patients to pay for the food they consume while they are hospitalized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mongolia, targeting female-headed households, pregnant women, and children is essential for reducing poverty. Social assistance, health care. education, and help in finding employment are particularly important (Subbarao and Ezemenari forthcoming).  change the geographic distribution of primary schools, of provide more boarding facilities. Projects in Pakistan are using school mapping techniques to establish criteria for placing new schools in currently underserved areas. Such programs benefit both girls and boys.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It may be necessary to target women when economic reforms of systemic transitions are occurring. For example, in Mongolia, as well as in other countries making the transition from a socialist to a market economy, women are disproportionately represented among the unemployed and otherwise disadvantaged (box 3.8). Thus, in designing safety nets to mitigate the short negative effects or economic transitions. policymakers need to recognize and evaluate the specific adverse effects on women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not always necessary to restrict a particular program of benefit exclusively to women: the objective can sometimes be achieved indirectly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Techniques based on self-selection appear to be particularly efficient. In Zambia. where men have a strong preference for cash wages, offering wages in kind (food) attracted more women workers than men to public works programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the financial sector. women entrepreneurs are enabled to borrow at market rates of interest when banking institutions adopt innovate collateral requirements, reduce transaction costs, and offer small loans at repeated intervals The Grameen Bank in Bangladesh and Badan Kredit Kecaman in Indonesia do not reserve loans for women specifically: instead. they adopt innovative lending policies the result of which is that women snake up the majority of participants-is 96 percent in a new branch of the Grameen Bank.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Involving Beneficiaries in Public Policy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until recently. the absence of input from beneficiaries often let's ignorant about how the costs and benefits of policy changes would be distributed among the population Today the views and needs of potential beneficiaries are being taken into account at both the macroeconomic and sectoral levels. This trend should make it possible to determine who benefits. who does not, and why. A good example of a situation in which a beneficiary's point of view can make a significant difference is in public expenditure reviews. Governments with unsustainable budget deficits must make difficult decisions about the allocation of public resources. Their task can of ten be facilitated by suggestions from the potential beneficiaries themselves, since one of the key questions policymakers face is whether investments as presently allocated are reaching the intended populations efficiently and effectively</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three broad approaches can be used to guarantee that the views of women and other intended beneficiaries are adequately reflected in policy and project formulation. First. surveys and other methods of collecting statistical data can be designed to ensure that gender-desegregated data are properly collected and analyzed. Second, beneficiary assessments, which use a range of qualitative research methods such as direct observation. selected individual of group interviews. and case studies. can be used to ensure that the views of all groups are adequately represented.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A third approach involves a range of participatory planning and management techniques that reflect a significant transfer of control to the community and local levels. Participatory evaluations use innovative research that allow illiterate and otherwise voiceless groups to express their concerns and priorities. Small grants and credits managed at the local level by NGOs or governments agencies permit a community to choose the projects that best reflect its OWN priorities. Social funds. whereby resources are channeled to demand-driven projects, are one such mechanism While these participatory approaches have been implemented primarily at the local level, they are also beginning to be used to involve the community in regional and national planning. Participatory methods, by helping to create local capacity. ensure the sustainability of projects and programs. They also help establish rational criteria for making public investment choices that incorporate both social and efficiency objectives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Generating and Analyzing Gender-Desegregated Data</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender-desegregated data and the capacity to analyze these data provide public policymakers with essential information and enhance the dialogue with agents outside government. One of the most valuable instruments for collecting desegregated data is the household survey. which can provide detailed information that is invaluable in policymaking. Obtaining full gender information in many instances entails only a small increase in costs. since the desegregation itself involves little extra work. However additional resources ate often needed to analyze the data and make it useful to policymakers. Public statistical agencies might analyze gender-desegregated information in partnership with private and academic institutions in order to share the costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several important steps in collecting useful and accurate data. First. in places where gender -desegregated household data have not yet been collected. special efforts should be made to obtain them. At a minimum data on how individuals use health and educational services should be collected routinely as part of national consumption and expenditure surveys. If household consumption. income or production surveys have already been carried out but little or no gender--desegregated data have been collected, the marginal cost of collection is likely to be quite modest-perhaps on the order of 10 percent of total costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participatory methods help establish rational criteria  for making public investment choose that incorporate  both social and efficiency objectives. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second. in places where basic gender-desegregated data have already been collected, it is important to gather more data from individuals on consumption and. as much as possible. on income and the ownership of assets. Such data ate vital for developing a deeper understanding of how access to and allocation and control of resources are determined within households. More data on men's and women's access to credit and information services, such as agricultural extension programs, are needed for an understanding of women's limited access to important production inputs. The data also indicate the effectiveness of projects and programs in providing such services to women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Third, there should be an increased emphasis on collecting panel data (thee series) to facilitate snore detailed analyses of changes in household behavior over time. Because full panel surveys are costly, it may be necessary to adopt less-expensive panel methods and combine them with flexible data collection. Anthropological and participatory research methods can be used to enhance the quality and relevance of formal survey questions, as well as to provide a "reality check" on formal survey responses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, greater priority needs to be given to gender-disaggregated analysis of existing data sets. This analysis should be carried out not only in social sectors such as health and education but also on such issues as the intrahousehold allocation of time and labor and access to and use of productive resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Working in Collaboration</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments' ability to identify and implement policies that promote gender equality is greatly enhanced by the active participation of other players from the development community and civil society. These agents include individual women and men, community-based groups, private-for-profit firms, trade unions, non governmental organizations, and multilateral and bilateral agencies. Interaction between public institutions and other actors provides the basis for a more informed policy dialogue on gender issues. It also lays the foundation for operational collaboration and for broadly based support for public policy measures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past several decades NGOs have become major players in international development. NGOs are by no means homogenous. In the field of development, they range from large volunteer and charity organizations, many of them based in industrial countries, to community-based self-help groups. They also include research institutes, volunteer-sending agencies, religious organizations, professional associations, and lobbying groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGOs concerned with gender issues have had a particularly important role in designing and implementing gender programs, especially at the grassroots level, and in advocating policy change at the national level NGOs have been effective in providing information and education to women and in helping community-based women's organizations lobby for change. In many countries collaboration between NGOs and governments is still relatively new. Nonetheless, it is growing rapidly-most visibly in the delivery of social and financial services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, in Peru a proposed basic health and nutrition project aims to improve the quality and accessibility of health and nutritional services, with an emphasis on poor women and children. NGOs are expected to play a major role in implementing the project and will be responsible for 75 percent of training and research, 40 percent of education, and 20 percent of service delivery (World Bank 1994g). In Africa many HIV/AIDS support programs are managed by NGOs with assistance from governments and funds from international donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the long run choices made by private sector agents are profoundly important for the persistence  or reduction of gender inequalities </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the financial services sector NGOs have found innovative ways of overcoming barriers that women face in access to credit and savings facilities. Among the better-know programs are the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, ACCION International in Latin America, and the NGO consortium ACCORD in Africa. NGOs have been very successful in organizing village banks and mobile banking systems to reach the rural poor. These credit programs provide women not only with the funds to finance income-generating activities but also with opportunities to acquire basic business skills and to assume leadership positions within their peer groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments also seek to collaborate with a range of institutions from the private sector. In the long run the choices made by private sector agents- whether households, firms, or trade unions-are profoundly important for the persistence or seduction of gender inequalities. Joint public-private sector initiatives can be vital in changing peoples perceptions about the benefits of investing in or hiring women. The private sector has a comparative advantage in providing certain kinds of services to women-for example, vocational education and training. Collaboration with the private sector- often means that public resources can be reallocated to those investments that offer the highest rate of social return. such as basic education and health care.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Strengthening International Policies to Meet New Challenges</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not all issues that bear on gender equality can be effectively addressed by individual nations. For example, refugee and displaced women and children account for up to 80 percent of the 50 million refugees and displaced persons worldwide. The sheer numbers of refugee and displaced women and children highlight the urgent need to devise international strategies for dealing with this problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sheer numbers of refugee and displaced women and  children (estimated at 4 million) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The constraints that refugee and displaced women lace are similar to those faced by other women, only magnified many times. They lack access to health services, even though their health risks are high. Girls often have less access to basic education than in their home countries. With little access to family planning, women s fertility rates may be extraordinarily high at a time when the burden of additional children hinders the chances of survival for both mothers and infants. In the absence of professional abortion services, women may rely on self-induced and unsafe abortions. The proportion of female-headed households is highest in refugee situations, yet the women's income-generating activities and skills are minimal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international response to this type of crisis is usually limited to emergency relief measures. Although vital, these measures often fail to recognize the long-term economic and social costs involved in restructuring the lives of displaced women when they return to their home countries. International public policy has an important role in preparing refugee and displaced women for their future role in rebuilding their societies. Long-term repatriation and development on a regional basis along the lines of the International Conference on Central American Refugees (CIREFCA) in Central America is one approach to involving governments, NGOs and development agencies in a coordinated response to refugee problems. Governments and agencies must make every effort to collaborate in making repatriation viable by establishing development programs that explicitly take account of refugees' needs. Otherwise, chances are high that people will once again be forced to leave their countries. putting at risk national reconciliation efforts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another area that demands an international response is the establishment of legal conventions for the enforcement of social justice and human rights. Equality under the law creates the legitimacy policymakers and private individuals need to seek change that will increase well-being and encourage economic opportunity. In certain instances, legitimacy needs to be established at the international level. For this reason it is vitally important that governments ratify the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. This convention. adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979, provides a framework for action by countries to reduce discrimination against women in political and public life, law and education, employment, health care. commerce. and domestic relations. International conventions of this type provide an important policy lever for women's organizations and other groups in civil society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Conclusions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This chapter has presented the rationale for public interventions to promote gender equality. Such interventions are needed because of market failures and social externalities that extend beyond the individual household to affect society in general. For resources to be allocated efficiently, public spending should focus on those investments with the highest social returns. Given the evidence of high social and private returns to investments in women's human capital, public expenditures should give priority to the investments that have the largest impact on the welfare of girls and women, especially in basic education and reproductive and other health care services. Policymakers also need to identify areas in which actions can be taken that would have gender neutral outcomes, including sectoral programs addressing transport and infrastructure, water supply. and sanitation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BY directing  public resource toward policies and projects  that reduce gender inequality policy markers are promoting  not only equality today but also higher labor productivity </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments can no longer afford not to invest in women. The evidence on private and social returns to investments in women and girls cannot be ignored. By directing public resources toward policies and projects that reduce gender inequality, policy makers are promoted not only equality today but also higher labor productivity, a higher rate of human capital formation, slower population growth. and stronger economic growth tomorrows However, none of these goals can be reached without the participation of women  themselves. Governments and collaborating institutions must listen carefully to the voices of individual women, to women s groups, and to woman policymakers By working with others to identify and implement policies for greater gander equality, governments can take actions that will make a real difference to the future well-being and prosperity of their people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Notes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Birdsall and Sabot (1994) use earlier findings by Barro (1991) to test the relationship between inequality and growth. They find that in Latin America unequal distribution of education. in terms of both quality and quantity, constrained economic growth in the region by reducing opportunities for increasing labor productivity. In East Asia open and relatively equal access to high-quality basic education led to a virtuous circle of high educational performance that stimulated growth and reduced inequality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Subbarao and Raney (1993) estimate that a doubling of family planning services in 1982 would have reduced the fertility rate from 5.5 to 5 0 and the number of births by 3.5 percent</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. The Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS) is a series of multitopic surveys designed to study multiple aspects of household welfare</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Deforestation is represented by the time required to collect a standard load of fuelwood</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. It would be more illuminating to compare wage differences across three categories of women workers: women without children: women with children but with no interruption in employment except for statutory maternity leave: and women with children and with interrupted employment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Among women workers. 53 percent are in commerce. compared with 33 percent of men. In manufacturing. 16 percent of the workers are men. compared with 14 percent for women. In services, 37 percent are men anti 33 percent are women (World Bank 1995c)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. In Bolivia informal moneylenders require borrowers to write postdated checks. If borrowers tail to make timely repayments, these checks are deposited and, as the lender knows will bounce for lack of funds A bounced check is a criminal offense in Bolivia. and the lender can have the borrower arrested The World Bank estimates that about 20 percent of all Bolivian prison inmates-and 40 percent of female inmates imprisoned for 'bouncing' checks and for other collateral-related crimes. In many cases children must live in prison with their mothers (winkler and Guedes, 1995)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. The International Conference on Central American Refugees (CIREECA) was held in Guatemala City in May 1989 A total of 126 projects in seven countries were introduced. with an overall investment of $365 million Areas with high densities of returnees were targeted. and special attention was given to projects to support displaced women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">References</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toubia, Nahid 1993. Female Genital Mutilation: A Call for Global Action. New York: United Nations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tzannatos, Zafiris 1995. "Growths, Adjustment, and the Labor Market: Effects on Women Workers." World Bank, Poverty and Social Policy Department, Washington. D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization). 1991. 1991. Paris</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. 1993b Trends and Projections of Enrollment by Level of Education by Age and Sex, 1960-2025. Paris</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund! 1993. The Progress of Nations. New York</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNIDO (United Nations Industrial Development Organization). 1993 11 Women in Manu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Recent Development in Practice Books</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Priorities and Strategies for Education: A World Bank Review (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Better Urban Services: Finding the Right Incentives (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strengthening the Effectiveness of Aid: Lessons for Donors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enriching Lives: Overcoming Vitamin and Mineral Malnutrition in Developing Countries (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A New Agenda for Women's Health and Nutrition (also available in French)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population and Development: Implications for the World Bank</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">East Asia's Trade and Investment: Regional and Global Gains from Liberalization</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governance: The World Bank's Experience</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Higher Education: The Lessons of Experience (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Better Health in Africa: Experience and Lessons Learned (also available in French)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Argentina's Privatization Program: Experience, Issues, and Lessons Sustaining Rapid Development in East Asia and the Pacific</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE WORLD BANK A partner in strengthening economies and expanding markets to improve the quality of life for people everywhere, especially the poorest</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender equality is not only a matter of social justice but also good economics. It is of foremost importance to women's wellbeing and development. Discrimination means losses in productivity and lower welfare of women, their families, and society at large.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the gender gap is narrowing in education, health, and many other areas, women are still less educated than men, work more hours, and are paid less. The reasons why gender disparities persist are complex, having to do with social and institutional norms, relationships within households, and even lack of information about the benefits of educating and employing women. Despite the weight of social and cultural factors, public policy can influence women's status and well-being. Governments have a leading role in widening the opportunities available to women and extending the services that are vitally important to them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report outlines what governments and development agencies can do to work toward greater gender equality- one of the best investments a society can make. Public policy can affect investments in health, education, and infrastructure through laws and regulations. It can also affect land ownership, financial services, and access to employment. Not least important, public  policies can affect macroeconomic performance and create a favorable climate for economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/metadata/dls.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/metadata/dls.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/metadata/dls.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet SYSTEM "http://www.greenstone.org/dtd/MetadataSet/1.0/MetadataSet.dtd">
+<MetadataSet contact="nzdl.org" creator="New Zealand Digital Libraries Project: Greenstone" family="Development Library Subset" lastchanged="Tue Jun 04 10:35:30 2002 - jmt12 on blackbird" namespace="dls">
+    <Name language="en">Development Library Subset Example Metadata</Name>
+    <Description language="en">A metadata set file for use in The Gatherer, created from original metadata found within the Development Library Subset.</Description>
+    <Element name="Title">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment"/>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The title of this resource.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="identifier">Title</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="version">1.0</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Organization">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment"/>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The organization responsible for producing this resource.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="identifier">Organization</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="version">1.0</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Subject">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Currently uses a hierarchy.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The subject of this resource.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="identifier">Subject And Keywords</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="version">1.0</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Keyword">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Informal.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">A more specific indication of what the resource can be used for.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="identifier">Keyword</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="version">1.0</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Language">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment"/>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The language of this resource.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="identifier">Language</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="version">1.0</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/metadata/ex.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet [
+
+  <!-- The outer tag of any metadata set. Contains some number of elements.             -->
+  <!-- @param contact     A contact address for the creator.                            -->
+  <!-- @param creator     The name of the entity resposibly for this set.               -->
+  <!-- @param family      The name of this sets family.                                 -->
+  <!-- @param lastchanged The full date, user name and machine name of the last editor. --> 
+  <!--   uses the form:                                                                 -->
+  <!--   Day Mon(th) dd hh:mm:ss yyyy '-' <username> on <machine>                       -->
+  <!-- @param namespace   The namespace of this metadata set.                           -->
+  <!ELEMENT MetadataSet ((Name|Description|Element)+)>
+  <!ATTLIST MetadataSet
+				contact     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				creator     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				description CDATA #REQUIRED
+            family      CDATA #REQUIRED
+				lastchanged CDATA #REQUIRED
+            name        CDATA #REQUIRED
+				namespace   CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- The name of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Name (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Name
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- The description of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Description (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Description
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- An element in the metadata set. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Element (Attribute*,OptionList?)>
+  <!ATTLIST Element
+            name       CDATA #REQUIRED
+				occurances CDATA "0">
+
+  <!-- Each element has several attribute children. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Attribute (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Attribute
+            name CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- For listing predefined values for this element. -->
+  <!ELEMENT OptionList (Value+)>
+  <!ATTLIST OptionList
+            restricted (true|false) "false">
+]>
+<MetadataSet contact="nzdl.org" creator="New Zealand Digital Libraries Project: Greenstone" family="Extracted Greenstone" lastchanged="Tue May 20 10:30:32 2003 - jmt12 on narya" namespace="ex">
+    <Name language="en">Extracted Greenstone Metadata 1.0</Name>
+    <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.0 of the automatically extracted Greenstone Metadata Element Set.</Description>
+    <Element name="Encoding">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Not always available.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The encoding of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="identifier">Encoding</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Language">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Not always available.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The language of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="identifier">Language</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Source">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Hidden in the Librarian Interface as it already shown by the various file trees.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The filename of the document imported by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="identifier">Source</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Title">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Not always available.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The title of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="identifier">Title</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/metadata/profile.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/authen-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE Profiles [
+<!ELEMENT Profiles (Action*)>
+<!ELEMENT Action (#PCDATA)>
+<!ATTLIST Action
+                source     CDATA #REQUIRED
+                target     CDATA "">
+]>
+<Profiles/>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/bibtex-e.col
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/bibtex-e.col	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/bibtex-e.col	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GathererCollection [
+  <!ELEMENT GathererCollection (Argument*, GathererConfig, BuildConfig)>
+  <!ELEMENT GathererConfig    (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT BuildConfig       (Build, Import)>
+  <!ELEMENT Build             (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Import            (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Schedule          (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Argument          (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Argument
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				enabled           CDATA "true">
+]>
+<GathererCollection>
+    <Argument name="built">false</Argument>
+    <Argument name="imported">true</Argument>
+    <Argument name="skimfile">true</Argument>
+    <GathererConfig/>
+    <BuildConfig>
+        <Build>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="faillog"/>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="index"/>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="language"/>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="maxnumeric">4</Argument>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="mode">all</Argument>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="sections_index_document_metadata">never</Argument>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="verbosity">0</Argument>
+        </Build>
+        <Import>
+            <Argument enabled="true" name="removeold"/>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="faillog"/>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="maxdocs">1</Argument>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="OIDtype">hash</Argument>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="OIDmetadata">dc.Identifier</Argument>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="saveas">GA</Argument>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="sortmeta">dc.Title</Argument>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="removeprefix"/>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="removesuffix"/>
+            <Argument enabled="true" name="groupsize">200</Argument>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="verbosity">0</Argument>
+        </Import>
+        <Schedule/>
+    </BuildConfig>
+</GathererCollection>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/etc/collect.cfg
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,767 @@
+creator		greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+maintainer	greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+public		true
+
+buildtype	mgpp
+
+groupsize	200
+
+indexes		text metadata
+
+plugin	BibTexPlugin -OIDtype assigned -OIDmetadata Number
+plugin	GreenstoneXMLPlugin
+plugin	MetadataXMLPlugin
+plugin	ArchivesInfPlugin
+plugin	DirectoryPlugin
+
+classify	AZList -metadata Title
+classify	AZCompactList -metadata Author -buttonname Creator
+classify	DateList -metadata Date
+
+classify	Phind -text document:Title,document:Creator,document:Booktitle,document:Publisher
+
+format SearchTypes "form,plain"
+
+format VList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td valign=top><b>[Title]</b> - <i>{Or}{[Creator],[Editor]}</i>
+{If}{[Year], - [Month] [Year]}</td>"
+
+format CL2VList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td valign=top>{If}{[numleafdocs],<b>[Title]</b>,
+<b>[Author]</b> ([Creator]) -- <i>[Title]</i>}
+{If}{[Year], - [Month] [Year]}</td>"
+
+format DateList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td valign=top><b>[Title]</b> - <i>{Or}{[Creator],[Editor]}</i></td>"
+
+format HList "[link][highlight][ex.Title][/highlight][/link]"
+
+format DocumentHeading "<H1>[Title]</H1><hr><table>
+{If}{[Creator],<tr><td><b>_AuthoredBy_:</b></td><td>[Creator]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Title],<tr><td><b>_PaperTitle_:</b></td><td>[Title]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Editor],<tr><td><b>_Editors_:</b></td><td>[Editor]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[EditorRole],<tr><td><b>_EditorRole_:</b></td><td>[EditorRole]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Booktitle],<tr><td><b>_BookJournalTitle_:</b></td><td>[Booktitle]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Journal],<tr><td><b>_In_:</b></td><td>[Journal]</td></tr>}
+{If}{\\"[Volume][Number]\\",<tr><td>}
+{If}{[Number], <b>_Number_:</b></td><td> [Number]}
+{If}{[Volume], <b>_Vol_:</b> [Volume]}
+{If}{\\"[Volume][Number]\\",</td></tr>}
+{If}{[MeetingDate],<tr><td><b>_MeetingDate_:</b></td><td>[MeetingDate]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[MeetingPlace],<tr><td><b>_MeetingPlace_:</b></td><td>[MeetingPlace]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[PublicationPlace],<tr><td><b>_PublicationPlace_:</b></td><td>[PublicationPlace] </td></tr>}
+{If}{[Publisher],<tr><td><b>_Publisher_:</b></td><td>[Publisher]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Year],<tr><td><b>_PublicationDate_:</b></td><td>[Month] [Year]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Pages],<tr><td><b>_Pages_:</b></td><td>[Pages]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[DocType],<tr><td><b>_DocType_:</b></td><td>[DocType]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Location],<tr><td><b>_LocationURL_:</b></td><td>[Location]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Notes],<tr><td><b>_Annotations_:</b></td><td>[Notes]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Abstract],<tr><td><b>_Abstract_:</b></td><td>[Abstract]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Keywords],<tr><td><b>_Keywords_:</b></td><td>[Keywords]</td></tr>}
+</table><hr>"
+
+format DocumentText "{If}{_cgiargshowrecord_,
+<b>_BibTeXrecord_:</b><br/><tt>[Text]</tt><br><center>
+<a href=\'_gwcgi_?e=_cgiarge_&c=_cgiargc_&cl=_cgiargcl_&a=d&d=_cgiargd_\'>_HideBibTeXrecord_</a></center>,
+<center><a href=\'_gwcgi_?e=_cgiarge_&c=_cgiargc_&cl=_cgiargcl_&a=d&d=_cgiargd_&showrecord=1\'>
+_ShowBibTeXrecord_</a></center>}"
+
+format DocumentButtons ""
+format DocumentContents false
+
+collectionmeta	sampleoid [l=en] "13/2004"
+
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=en] "Bibliography collection"
+collectionmeta	.text [l=en] "full records"
+collectionmeta	.Title [l=en] "titles"
+collectionmeta	.Source [l=en] "filenames"
+
+collectionmeta	AuthoredBy [l=en] "Authored By"
+collectionmeta	PaperTitle [l=en] "Paper Title"
+collectionmeta	Editors [l=en] "Editor(s)"
+collectionmeta	EditorRole [l=en] "Editor Role"
+collectionmeta	BookJournalTitle [l=en] "Book/Journal Title"
+collectionmeta	In [l=en] "In"
+collectionmeta	Number [l=en] "Number"
+collectionmeta	Vol [l=en] "Vol."
+collectionmeta	MeetingDate [l=en] "Meeting Date"
+collectionmeta	MeetingPlace [l=en] "Meeting Place"
+collectionmeta	PublicationPlace [l=en] "Publication Place"
+collectionmeta	Publisher [l=en] "Publisher"
+collectionmeta	PublicationDate [l=en] "Publication Date"
+collectionmeta	Pages [l=en] "Pages"
+collectionmeta	DocType [l=en] "DocType"
+collectionmeta	LocationURL [l=en] "Location/URL"
+collectionmeta	Annotations [l=en] "Annotations"
+collectionmeta	Abstract [l=en] "Abstract"
+collectionmeta	Keywords [l=en] "Keywords"
+
+collectionmeta	BibTeXrecord [l=en] "BibTeX Record"
+collectionmeta	ShowBibTeXrecord [l=en] "Show BibTeX Record"
+collectionmeta	HideBibTeXrecord [l=en] "Hide BibTeX Record"
+
+# -- French strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=fr] "Collection bibliographie"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=fr] "enregistrements complets"
+
+collectionmeta	AuthoredBy [l=fr] "Nom de l\'auteur"
+collectionmeta	PaperTitle [l=fr] "Titre de l\'article"
+collectionmeta	Editors [l=fr] "Editeur(s)"
+collectionmeta	EditorRole [l=fr] "RÃŽle de l\'Ã©diteur"
+collectionmeta	BookJournalTitle [l=fr] "Titre de Livre/Journal"
+collectionmeta	In [l=fr] "Dans"
+collectionmeta	Number [l=fr] "NumÃ©ro"
+collectionmeta	Vol [l=fr] "Vol."
+collectionmeta	MeetingDate [l=fr] "Date de rencontre"
+collectionmeta	MeetingPlace [l=fr] "Lieu de rencontre"
+collectionmeta	PublicationPlace [l=fr] "Lieu de publication"
+collectionmeta	Publisher [l=fr] "Editeur"
+collectionmeta	PublicationDate [l=fr] "Date de publication"
+collectionmeta	Pages [l=fr] "Pages"
+collectionmeta	DocType [l=fr] "TypeDocument"
+collectionmeta	LocationURL [l=fr] "Emplacement/URL"
+collectionmeta	Annotations [l=fr] "Annotations"
+collectionmeta	Abstract [l=fr] "RÃ©sumÃ©"
+collectionmeta	Keywords [l=fr] "Mots-clÃ©s"
+
+collectionmeta	BibTeXrecord [l=fr] "Enregistrement BibTeX"
+collectionmeta	ShowBibTeXrecord [l=fr] "Montrer Enregistrement BibTeX"
+collectionmeta	HideBibTeXrecord [l=fr] "Cacher l\'enregistrement BibTeX"
+
+# -- Spanish strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=es] "ColecciÃ³n bibliogrÃ¡fica"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=es] "registros completos"
+collectionmeta	.Title [l=es] "tÃ­tulos"
+collectionmeta	.Source [l=es] "nombres de archivos"
+
+collectionmeta	AuthoredBy [l=es] "Autor"
+collectionmeta	PaperTitle [l=es] "TÃ­tulo del documento"
+collectionmeta	Editors [l=es] "Editor(es)"
+collectionmeta	EditorRole [l=es] "Rol del editor"
+collectionmeta	BookJournalTitle [l=es] "TÃ­tulo del libro o revista"
+collectionmeta	In [l=es] "En"
+collectionmeta	Number [l=es] "NÃºmero"
+collectionmeta	Vol [l=es] "Volumen"
+collectionmeta	MeetingDate [l=es] "Fecha de la reuniÃ³n"
+collectionmeta	MeetingPlace [l=es] "Lugar de la reuniÃ³n"
+collectionmeta	PublicationPlace [l=es] "Lugar de la publicaciÃ³n"
+collectionmeta	Publisher [l=es] "Editorial"
+collectionmeta	PublicationDate [l=es] "Fecha de publicaciÃ³n"
+collectionmeta	Pages [l=es] "PÃ¡ginas"
+collectionmeta	DocType [l=es] "Tipo de documento"
+collectionmeta	LocationURL [l=es] "UbicaciÃ³n/URL"
+collectionmeta	Annotations [l=es] "Anotaciones"
+collectionmeta	Abstract [l=es] "Resumen"
+collectionmeta	Keywords [l=es] "Palabras clave"
+
+collectionmeta	BibTeXrecord [l=es] "Registro BibTeX"
+collectionmeta	ShowBibTeXrecord [l=es] "Mostrar registro BibTeX"
+collectionmeta	HideBibTeXrecord [l=es] "Ocultar registro BibTeX"
+
+# -- Russian strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=ru] "ÐÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=ru] "ÐÐŸÐ»ÐœÑÐµ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÐž"
+
+collectionmeta	AuthoredBy [l=ru] "ÐÐ²ÑÐŸÑ"
+collectionmeta	PaperTitle [l=ru] "ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÐž"
+collectionmeta	Editors [l=ru] "Ð ÐµÐŽÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑ (Ñ)"
+collectionmeta	EditorRole [l=ru] "Ð ÐŸÐ»Ñ ÑÐµÐŽÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÐ°"
+collectionmeta	BookJournalTitle [l=ru] "ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐºÐœÐžÐ³Ðž/Ð¶ÑÑÐœÐ°Ð»Ð°"
+collectionmeta	In [l=ru] "Ð"
+collectionmeta	Number [l=ru] "Ð§ÐžÑÐ»ÐŸ (ÐÐŸÐŒÐµÑ)"
+collectionmeta	Vol [l=ru] "Ð¢ÐŸÐŒ"
+collectionmeta	MeetingDate [l=ru] "ÐÐ°ÑÐ° Ð²ÑÑÑÐµÑÐž"
+collectionmeta	MeetingPlace [l=ru] "ÐÐµÑÑÐŸ Ð²ÑÑÑÐµÑÐž"
+collectionmeta	PublicationPlace [l=ru] "ÐÐ°ÑÐ° ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž"
+collectionmeta	Publisher [l=ru] "ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ"
+collectionmeta	PublicationDate [l=ru] "ÐÐ°ÑÐ° ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž"
+collectionmeta	Pages [l=ru] "Ð¡ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ"
+collectionmeta	DocType [l=ru] "Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°"
+collectionmeta	LocationURL [l=ru] "ÐÐµÑÑÐŸÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ/URL"
+collectionmeta	Annotations [l=ru] "ÐÐœÐœÐŸÑÐ°ÑÐžÐž"
+collectionmeta	Abstract [l=ru] "Ð ÐµÐ·ÑÐŒÐµ"
+collectionmeta	Keywords [l=ru] "ÐÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÐµ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°"
+
+collectionmeta	BibTeXrecord [l=ru] "ÐÐ°Ð¿ÐžÑÑ BibTeX"
+collectionmeta	ShowBibTeXrecord [l=ru] "ÐÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÑÑ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÑ BibTeX"
+collectionmeta	HideBibTeXrecord [l=ru] "Ð¡ÐºÑÑÑÐ°Ñ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÑ BibTeX"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=zh] "æç®éŠè"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=zh] "ææè®°åœ"
+
+collectionmeta	AuthoredBy [l=zh] "èè
+"
+collectionmeta	PaperTitle [l=zh] "è®ºæé¢å"
+collectionmeta	Editors [l=zh] "çŒèŸ"
+collectionmeta	EditorRole [l=zh] "çŒèŸè§è²"
+collectionmeta	BookJournalTitle [l=zh] "ä¹Š/æåé¢å"
+collectionmeta	In [l=zh] "äº"
+collectionmeta	Number [l=zh] "æ"
+collectionmeta	Vol [l=zh] "å·"
+collectionmeta	MeetingDate [l=zh] "äŒè§æ¶æ"
+collectionmeta	MeetingPlace [l=zh] "äŒè§å°ç¹"
+collectionmeta	PublicationPlace [l=zh] "åºçå°å"
+collectionmeta	Publisher [l=zh] "åºçå"
+collectionmeta	PublicationDate [l=zh] "åºçæ¥æ"
+collectionmeta	Pages [l=zh] "é¡µ"
+collectionmeta	DocType [l=zh] "ææ¡£ç±»å"
+collectionmeta	LocationURL [l=zh] "äœçœ®/URL"
+collectionmeta	Annotations [l=zh] "æ³šé"
+collectionmeta	Abstract [l=zh] "ææ"
+collectionmeta	Keywords [l=zh] "å
+³é®è¯"
+
+collectionmeta	BibTeXrecord [l=zh] "BibTeXè®°åœ"
+collectionmeta	ShowBibTeXrecord [l=zh] "æŸç€ºBibTeXè®°åœ"
+collectionmeta	HideBibTeXrecord [l=zh] "éèBibTeXè®°åœ"
+
+# -- English text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=en] "
+This collection, which contains _about:numdocs_
+BibTeX entries, is a collection of working papers published from 1997 to 2006
+at <a href=\"http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/\">Department of Computer Science</a>,
+<a href=\"http://www.waikato.ac.nz/\">the University of Waikato</a>.\n
+
+\n<h3>How the collection works</h3>\n
+
+<p>
+The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>collection
+configuration file</a> begins with the specification <i>groupsize 200</i>.
+This groups 200 documents together into a single archive file. Bibliography collections
+typically have many small documents, and grouping them together prevents
+Greenstone\'s internal file structures from becoming bloated and occupying more
+disk space than necessary.\n
+
+<p>
+Apart from the standard plugins, this collection uses <i>BibTexPlugin</i>,
+which processes references in the BibTeX format (well known to computer
+scientists). Two options have been set for BibTexPlugin:
+<i>-OIDtype assigned -OIDmetadata Number</i>. This means the metadata
+element \"Number\" will be used as the record identifier, instead of
+Greenstone\'s default hash identifiers. These options are available for
+all plugins.\n
+
+<p>
+Fielded searching, with a form-based interface, is selected by <i>format SearchTypes \"form,plain\"
+</i> in the configuration file. In fact, a plain textual full-text search
+index is included in this collection as well (since <i>form</i> comes first,
+it is the default interface; you reach the <i>plain</i> search through
+the <i>Preferences</i> page).\n
+
+<p>
+The <i>buildtype</i> option shows that the default search engine <i>mgpp</i> is
+used. The <i>indexes</i> line specifies indexes for \"text\", and \"metadata\". In this case, \"text\" will be the original BibTeX record. \"metadata\" is a special keyword signifying that an index should be built for any metadata item found in the collection.
+Thus when the \"field\" menus in the
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q&ct=1&qt=1\">search page</a> are pulled down, they show
+<i>full records</i> followed by an entry for each metadata element.
+Collection-level metadata <i>collectionmeta</i> can be specified for any index
+to determine what it is called in the menu (except for <i>metadata</i>, which
+produces many menu items). In this case, the
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>configuration
+file</a> specifies that the text index should be named \"full records\" because it
+contains the original bibliographic record.\n
+<p>
+An additional keyword, \"allfields\", could also be used in the <i>indexes</i> line, specifying that combined searching over all indexes should be available. 
+<p>
+The <i>levels</i> lines specifies only document level, as bibliographic records don\'t have internal structure.
+<p>
+This collection contains <i>Title, Author</i>, and <i>Date</i> browsers, and a
+special kind of phrase index called \"Phind.\" The <i>AZCompactList</i>
+classifier used for the <i>Author</i> browser is like <i>AZList</i> but
+generates a bookshelf for duplicate items as shown <a
+href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2\">here</a>. The BibTeX plugin records each
+author as <i>Author</i> metadata; it also puts a list containing all authors
+into the <i>Creator</i> metadata element. Consequently the <i>AZCompactList</i>
+classifier is based on <i>Author</i>. However, Greenstone has a standard button
+reading <i>authors</i> whose name is (confusingly) \"Creator\", so this
+button name is specified for the classifier.\n
+
+<p>
+The \"Phind\" classifier creates a phrase index like
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL4\">this</a>. It contains a browsable list
+of phrases extracted from the material specified
+in the <i>text</i> argument of the <i>classify Phind</i> line in the
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>configuration file</a>.
+Here the specification is\n
+<pre>
+document:Title,document:Creator,document:Booktitle,document:Publisher
+</pre>\n
+
+-- that is, the title, list of authors, title of the collected work (if any) in
+which this item appears, and publisher. Note that this specification follows
+the <i>mg</i> convention with <i>level:field</i>. <i>Phind</i> indexes are more
+usually based on the entire full text of a collection, using the specification
+<i>document:text</i>.\n
+
+<p>
+The best way to see what Phind does is to play with this index. You type a word in
+the search box, click <i>Search</i>, and a list of phrases containing that term
+appears in the top panel. Click on one of these phrases and a list of phrases
+containing that <i>phrase</i> appears in the bottom panel. You can continue
+doing this, expanding the phrase more and more. The lists can be lengthened
+using the <i>get more phrases </i> button. At the end of the list of phrases
+appears a list of documents containing that phrase, in blue text; you can
+lengthen this list by clicking get <i>more documents</i>.\n
+
+<p>
+The format statements for the search results list and the title browser are
+both determined by the <i>VList</i> specification. It gives a document icon
+that links to the document itself (which in this collection is the full
+reference); the title in bold; <i>Creator</i> metadata if there is any,
+otherwise <i>Editor</i> metadata; and <i>Month, Year</i> metadata if there is any.
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q&ct=1&qt=1&r=1&hs=1&fqa=0&fqv=Jain,,,&fqf=TX,CR,BO,SO\">Here</a>
+is an example.\n
+
+<p>
+The format statement for the author browser (<i>CL2VList</i>) is more
+complex. The <i>AZCompactList</i> classifier generates a tree whose nodes are
+either leaf nodes, representing documents, or internal nodes. A metadata item
+called <i>numleafdocs</i> gives the total number of documents below an internal
+node. This format statement checks whether numleafdocs exists. If so the node
+must be an internal node, in which case the node is labeled by its
+<i>Title</i>. But beware: this classifier is generated on <i>Author</i>
+metadata, so its title -- the title of the classifier -- is actually the author\'s
+name! This means that the bookshelf nodes
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2\">here</a> are labeled by author\'s name.
+The leaf nodes, however, are labeled the same way as documents (i.e. references)
+are in the search results list.\n
+
+<p>
+The documents themselves (here is an
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&cl=CL1.12&d=_sampleoid_\">example</a>)
+are generated by two format statements, one (a long one)
+called <i>DocumentHeading</i>, and another called <i>DocumentText</i>. The
+<i>DocumentHeading</i>, which is the top two-thirds of the page, contains the
+document\'s <i>Title</i> followed by a table that gives all the metadata
+elements that the BibTeX plugin can generate. The role of all the <i>If</i>
+statements in the <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\"
+target=collect.cfg>configuration file</a> is to determine which elements are
+defined.\n
+
+<p>
+The <i>DocumentText</i> shows the BibTeX version of the reference. However,
+when the document is displayed initially, only a hyperlink reading <i>Show
+BibTex Record</i> appears -- this corresponds to the last part (that is, the
+\"else\" part) of the <i>If</i> statement in <i>DocumentText</i>. When this
+hyperlink is clicked, the <i>href</i> goes to the same URL but with
+<i>showrecord=1</i>, which generates a page like <a
+href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&cl=CL1.12&d=_sampleoid_&showrecord=1\">this</a>.
+The <i>If</i> test succeeds, which shows the <i>Text</i> of the document. With
+the BibTeX plugin, the text of a document is its unadulterated BibTeX record.\n
+"
+
+# -- French text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=fr] "
+Cette collection qui contient des entrÃ©es _about:numdocs_ BibTex, est working papers Ã©ditÃ©es de 1997 Ã  2006
+au <a href=\"http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/\">DÃ©partement d\'informatique</a>, <a href=\"http://www.waikato.ac.nz/\">UniversitÃ© de Waikato</a>.\n
+
+<h3>Comment marche la collection?</h3>
+
+<p>
+Le <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier de
+configuration de la collection</a> commence par la spÃ©cification
+<i>groupsize 200</i>. Cela rassemble 200 documents dans un seul fichier d'archive.
+Les collections de bibliographies ont gÃ©nÃ©ralement beaucoup de petits documents; le fait de les regrouper empÃªche le gonflement des structures de fichiers internes et l\'occupation inutile d\'espace disque.
+
+<p>
+En plus des plugiciels standards, cette collection utilise <i>BibTexPlugin</i>, qui traite les rÃ©fÃ©rences Ã©crites au format BibTex (bien connu des informaticiens). Deux options ont Ã©tÃ© dÃ©finies pour le plugiciel BibTexPlugin : <i>-OIDtype assigned -OIDmetadata Number</i>. Cela signifie que l'Ã©lÃ©ment de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es \"Number\" sera utilisÃ© comme identifiant de l'enregistrement, Ã  la place de l'identifiant de hachage dÃ©fini par dÃ©faut dans Greenstone. Ces options sont utilisables avec tous les plugiciels.
+
+<p>
+La recherche par champ Ã  travers une interface basÃ©e sur un formulaire est sÃ©lectionnÃ©e par <i>format SearchTypes \"form,plain\"</i> dans le fichier de configuration. En fait, cette collection utilise <i>format SearchTypes \"form,plain\"</i> qui contient aussi un index de recherche de texte simple textuelle (puisque <i>form</i> vient en premier, c\'est l\'interface par defaut; vous accÃ©dez Ã  la recherche <i>plain</i> a travers la page <i>PrÃ©fÃ©rences</i>).
+
+<p>
+L'option <i>buildtype</i> montre que c'est le moteur de recherche par dÃ©faut <i>mgpp</i> qui sera utilisÃ©. La ligne <i>indexes</i> dÃ©finit les index pour \"text\", et \"metadata\". Dans ce cas, \"text\" sera l'enregistrement BibTex dans son format original. \"metadata\" est un mot-clÃ© particulier qui signifie qu'un index sera construit pour toutes les mÃ©tadonnÃ©es prÃ©sentes dans la collection.
+Ainsi, quand les menus dÃ©roulants \"Field\" dans la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q&ct=1&qt=1\">page recherche</a> sont
+sÃ©lectionnÃ©s, ils montrent <i>Full records</i> suivi par une entrÃ©e pour
+chaque Ã©lÃ©ment de mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e. Une mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>collectionmeta</i> de niveau collection peut Ãªtre spÃ©cifiÃ©e pour tout index pour dÃ©terminer
+ce qui est appele dans le menu (exceptÃš pour <i>metadata</i> qui
+produit beaucoup d\'Ã©lÃ©ments de menu). Dans ce cas,le <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier
+de configuration</a> spÃ©cifie que l\'index du texte devrait Ãªtre
+appele \"full records\" parcequ\'il contient l\'enregistrement bibliographique
+original.
+<p>
+Un mot clÃ© supplÃ©mentaire, \"allfields\", peut aussi Ãªtre utilisÃ© dans la ligne <i>indexers</i>, pour prÃ©ciser qu'une recherche combinÃ©e sur tous les index est disponible. <p> Les lignes <i>levels</i> ne prÃ©cisent qu'un niveau document, puisque les notices bibliographiques n'ont pas de structure interne. 
+<p>
+Cette collection contient les \"browsers\" <i>Title</i>, <i>Author</i>,et <i>Date</i> ainsi qu\'un type special d\'index de phrase appele \"Phind\".
+Le classificateur <i>AZCompactList</i> utilisÃ© pour le browser <i>Author</i> est comme <i>AZList</i> mais produit un rayon pour les Ã©lÃ©ments dupliquÃ©s comme montrÃ© <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2\">ici</a>. Le plugin BibTEX enregistre chaque auteur comme mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>Author</i>; il met aussi une liste contenant tous les auteurs dans l\'Ã©lÃ©ment de mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>Creator</i>.
+Par consÃ©quent, le classificateur <i>AZCompactList</i> est basÃ© sur <i>Author</i>. Cependant, Greenstone a un bouton standard appelÃ© <i>authors</i> dont le nom (qui prÃªte Ã  confusion) est \"Creator\", ainsi le nom
+de ce bouton est spÃ©cifiÃ© pour le classificateur.
+
+<p>
+Le classificateur \"Phind\" crÃ©e un index d\'expression comme <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL4\">ceci</a>. Il contient une liste d\'expressions qu\'on peut parcourir extraite du materiel spÃ©cifiÃ© dans l\'argument <i>text</i> de la ligne
+<i>Classify Phind</i> du <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier de configuration</a>.
+Ici, la spÃ©cification est :
+<pre>
+document:Title,document:Creator,document:Booktitle,document:Publisher
+</pre>
+
+-- c\'est le titre, la liste des auteurs, le titre du travail
+recueilli (s\'il y en a) dans lequel chaque article apparaÃ®t,
+et l\'Ã©diteur. Il faut noter que cette spÃ©cification suit la
+convention <i>mg</i> avec <i>level:field</i>. Les indexes <i>Phind</i>
+sont gÃ©nÃ©ralement plus basÃ©s sur le texte entier de la collection,
+en utilisant la spÃ©cification <i>document:text</i>.
+
+<p>
+La meilleure faÃ§on de voir ce que fait Phind est de jouer
+avec cet index. Vous tapez un mot dans la boÃ®te recherche,
+cliquez <i>Search</i>, et une liste d\'expressions contenant ce terme
+apparaÃ®t en haut du tableau. Cliquez sur une de ces expressions
+et une liste d\'expressions contenant cette <i>expression</i> apparaÃ®t
+au bas du tableau. Vous pouvez continuer Ã  faire ceci en
+allongeant l\'expression de plus en plus. Ces listes peuvent
+Ãªtre allongees en utilisant le bouton <i>Get more phrases</i>.
+A la fin de la liste d\'expression une liste de document
+contenant cette expression apparaÃ®t dans un texte bleu, vous
+pouvez allonger cette liste en cliquant sur Get <i>more documents</i>.
+
+<p>
+Le format de dÃ©claration pour la liste de rÃ©sultats de recherche
+et le browser de titre sont tous les deux dÃ©terminÃ©s par la spÃ©cification <i>VList</i>. Elle donne une icÃŽne de document qui renvoie sur le document lui-mÃªme (qui est la rÃ©fÃ©rence complÃšte dans cette collection);
+le titre en gras; la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>Creator</i> s\'il y en a, sinon la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>Editor</i>; et la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>Month, Year</i> s\'il y en a. En <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q&ct=1&qt=1&r=1&hs=1&fqa=0&fqv=Jain,,,&fqf=TX,CR,BO,SO\">voici</a> un exemple.
+
+<p>
+Le format de dÃ©claration pour le browser auteur (<i>CL2VList</i>) est plus
+complexe. Le classificateur <i>AZCompactList</i> donne un arbre dont les nÅuds
+sont soit des nÅuds de feuilles reprÃ©sentant des documents ou des
+nÅuds internes. Un Ã©lÃ©ment de de mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e appelÃ© <i>numleafdocs</i> donne le nombre total de documents en dessous d\'un nÅud interne. La dÃ©claration de
+format vÃ©rifie si numleafdocs existe. Si le nÅud doit Ãªtre un nÅud
+interne, dans ce cas le nÅud est catalogue par son <i>Title</i>.
+Mais attention : ce classificateur est produit sur la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>Author</i>, donc son titre -- le titre du classificateur -- est en fait le nom de l\'auteur! Ceci signifie que les nÅuds des rayons sont cataloguÃ©s <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2\">ici</a> suivant le nom de l\'auteur. Les nÅuds d\'extrÃ©mitÃ© sont cataloguÃ©s dans la liste des rÃ©sultats de recherche de la mÃªme faÃ§on que les documents (c.-Ã -d. les rÃ©fÃ©rences) .
+
+<p>
+Les documents eux-mÃªmes (voici un <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&cl=CL1.12&d=_sampleoid_\">exemple</a>) sont produits par
+deux dÃ©clarations de format, une (longue celle-la) appelÃ©e <i>DocumentHeading</i>, et une autre appelÃ©e <i>DocumentText</i>. Le <i>Document Heading</i>, qui est reprÃ©sente les deux tiers supÃ©rieurs de la page contient le <i>Titre</i> du document suivi d\'une table qui
+donne tous les Ã©lÃ©ments de mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e que le plugin BibTex peut gÃ©nÃ©rer.
+Le rÃŽle de toutes les instructions <i>If</i> dans le <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier de
+configuration</a> est de dÃ©terminer les Ã©lÃ©ments dÃ©finis.
+
+<p>
+Le <i>DocumentText</i> montre la version BibTex de la rÃ©fÃ©rence.
+Cependant, quand le document est affichÃ© la premiÃšre fois, seul
+le lien <i>ShowBibtexRecord</i> apparaÃ®t --- ceci correspond Ã  la derniÃšre partie (c\'est la partie \"else\") de l\'instruction <i>If</i> dans <i>DocumentText</i>. Quand le lien est cliquÃ©, <i>href</i> va vers la mÃªme URL mais avec <i>showrecord=1</i>, qui gÃ©nÃšre une page comme <a
+href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&cl=CL1.12&d=_sampleoid_&showrecord=1\">celle-ci</a>. Le test <i>If</i> marche, ce qui affiche le <i>Text</i> du document. Avec le plugin BibTex, le texte d\'un document est son enregistrement BibTEX pur.
+"
+
+# -- Spanish text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=es] "
+Esta colecciÃ³n contiene _about:numdocs_ registros de  BibTeX y ha sido creada a partir de papers de trabajos publicados entre 1997 y 2006 por el <a href=\"http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/\">Departmento de Ciencias de la ComputaciÃ³n</a>, <a href=\"http://www.waikato.ac.nz/\">de la Universidad de Waikato</a>.\n
+
+<h3>CÃ³mo trabaja esta colecciÃ³n</h3>
+<p>
+El <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n de la colecciÃ³n</a> empieza con la especificaciÃ³n <i>groupsize 200</i>. Esto agrupa 200 documentos dentro de un Ãºnico archivo. Por lo general las colecciones bibliogrÃ¡ficas tienen muchos documentos pequeÃ±os y al agruparlos se evita que las estructuras de archivos internos de Greenstone crezcan demasiado y ocupen mÃ¡s espacio del necesario.
+<p>
+AdemÃ¡s de los plugins estÃ¡ndar, esta colecciÃ³n utiliza <i>BibTexPlugin</i>,
+el cual procesa referencias en formato BibTeX  (bien conocido entre los cientÃ­ficos). Se han fijado dos  opciones para BibTexPlugin:
+<i>-OIDtype assigned -OIDmetadata Number</i>. Esto significa que el elemento de metadato \"Number\" se usarÃ¡ como identificador de registro, en lugar de los identificadores hash de Greenstone. Estas opciones estÃ¡n disponibles para todos los plugins.\n
+
+<p>
+La bÃºsqueda por campos con una interfaz basada en formularios se habilita mediante la sentencia <i>format SearchTypes \"form,plain\"</i> en el archivo de configuraciÃ³n. De hecho, esta colecciÃ³n tambiÃ©n utiliza la forma simple de bÃºsqueda. Dado que <i>form</i> aparece primero es la forma predeterminada de bÃºsqueda. La forma simple se puede seleccionar por medio de la pÃ¡gina de <i>Preferencias</i>.
+
+<p>
+La opciÃ³n <i>buildtype</i> muestra que el motor de bÃºsqueda utilizado por defecto es el <i>mgpp</i>. La lÃ­nea <i>indexes</i>  especifica los Ã­ndices \"text\", y \"metadata\". En este caso, \"text\" serÃ¡ el registro original BibTeX. \"metadata\" es una clave especial que significa que debe construirse un Ã­ndice por cada metadato encontrado en la colecciÃ³n.
+
+AsÃ­, cuando los menÃºes de \"campo\" se despliegan en la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q&ct=1&qt=1\">pÃ¡gina de bÃºsqueda</a>, muestran el <i>registro completo</i> seguido de una entrada para cada elemento del metadato. El metadato a nivel de colecciÃ³n <i>collectionmeta</i> se puede especificar para cualquier Ã­ndice con el fin de determinar lo que se selecciona en el menÃº (excepto metadato, que produce varios Ã­tems). En este caso el <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n</a> especifica que el Ã­ndice de texto deberÃ­a llamarse \"registro completo\", debido a que contiene el registro bibliogrÃ¡fico original.
+<p>
+Una clave adicional, \"allfields\", tambiÃ©n puede usarse en la lÃ­nea <i>indexes</i>, especificando una bÃºsqueda combinada sobre todos los Ã­ndices disponibles.<p> La lÃ­nea <i>levels</i> indica solamente el nivel de documento, ya que los registros bibliogrÃ¡ficos no poseen una estructura interna.
+<p>
+Esta colecciÃ³n contiene clasificadores por <i>TÃ­tulo</i>, <i>Autor</i> y <i>Fecha</i>, asÃ­ como un tipo especial de Ã­ndice de frases llamado \"Phind\". El clasificador <i>AZCompactList</i> que se usa para el clasificador de <i>Autor</i> es como <i>AZList</i>, pero genera un estante para los Ã­tems duplicados tal como se muestra <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2\">aquÃ­</a>. El plugin BibTeX registra a cada autor como metadato <i>Author</i>. TambiÃ©n coloca una lista de todos los autores en el elemento del metadato <i>Creator</i>. Como resultado de ello, el clasificador <i>AZCompactList</i> se basa en el <i>Author</i>. Sin embargo, Greenstone tiene un botÃ³n estÃ¡ndar que lee los <i>autores</i> y cuyo nombre es (de manera un tanto confusa) \"Creator\", por lo que el nombre de este botÃ³n ha sido especificado para el clasificador.
+<p>
+
+El clasificador \"Phind\" crea un Ã­ndice de frases como <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL4\">este</a>, el cual contiene una lista navegable de frases extraÃ­das del material especificado en el argumento <i>text</i> de la lÃ­nea <i>classify Phind</i> en el <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n</a>. AquÃ­ la especificaciÃ³n es
+<p>
+
+<pre>
+document:Title,document:Creator,document:Booktitle,document:Publisher
+</pre>\n
+
+<p>
+
+es decir, el tÃ­tulo, la lista de autores, el tÃ­tulo del trabajo (si es que hay alguno) en el que aparece este Ã­tem y el editor. Recuerde que esta especificaciÃ³n sigue la convenciÃ³n <i>mg</i> con <i>level:field</i>. Los Ã­ndices <i>Phind</i> se basan mÃ¡s comÃºnmente en el texto completo de una colecciÃ³n por medio de la especificaciÃ³n <i>document:text</i>.
+<p>
+
+La mejor forma de ver lo que hace Phind es practicar con este Ã­ndice. Escriba una palabra en el cuadro de bÃºsqueda, haga click en <i>Buscar</i> y una lista de frases con dicho tÃ©rmino aparecerÃ¡ en el panel de la parte superior. Haga click en una de estas frases y una lista de frases que contengan dicha <i>frase</i> aparecerÃ¡ en el panel de la parte inferior. Usted puede continuar extendiendo la frase mÃ¡s y mÃ¡s. Las listas se pueden alargar utilizando el botÃ³n <i>obtener mÃ¡s frases</i>. Al final de la lista de frases aparece una lista de los documentos que contienen dicha frase en azul. Usted puede extender esta lista haciendo click en <i>mÃ¡s documentos</i>.
+<p>
+
+Los cadenas de formateo para la lista de resultados de la bÃºsqueda y el clasificador por tÃ­tulos se determinan por medio de la especificaciÃ³n <i>VList</i>. Ãsta proporciona un icono de documento que lo vincula con el documento mismo (el cual es en esta colecciÃ³n la referencia completa), el tÃ­tulo en negritas, el metadato <i>Creator</i> si es que hay alguno o en su defecto el metadato <i>Editor</i>, y el metadato de <i>Month, Year</i> si es que hay alguno. He <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q&ct=1&qt=1&r=1&hs=1&fqa=0&fqv=Jain,,,&fqf=TX,CR,BO,SO\">aquÃ­</a> un ejemplo.
+<p>
+
+La cadena de formateo para el explorador por autor (<i>CL2VList</i>) es mÃ¡s compleja. El clasificador AZCompactList genera un Ã¡rbol cuyos nodos son hojas representando documentos o nodos internos. Un Ã­tem de metadato llamado <i>numleafdocs</i> proporciona el nÃºmero total de documentos debajo de un nodo interno. Este enunciado de formato comprueba si numleafdocs existe. En caso afirmativo se trata de un nodo interno, en cuyo caso el nodo se etiquetarÃ¡ por su <i>TÃ­tulo</i>. Â¡Pero cuidado! Este clasificador se genera en el metadato <i>Autor</i>, por lo que su tÃ­tulo -- el tÃ­tulo del clasificador -- es realmente el nombre del autor, lo que significa que los nodos del estante que estÃ¡n <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2\">aquÃ­</a> se etiquetan de acuerdo al nombre del autor. Las hojas se etiquetan de la misma manera que los documentos (es decir, referencias) en la lista de resultados de la bÃºsqueda.
+<p>
+
+Los documentos (he aquÃ­ un <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&cl=CL1.12&d=_sampleoid_\">ejemplo</a>) se generan por medio de dos cadenas de formato, una llamado <i>DocumentHeading</i>, que es bastante larga, y otra llamada <i>DocumentText</i>. DocumentHeading ocupa los dos tercios superiores de la pÃ¡gina y contiene el <i>TÃ­tulo</i> del documento seguido por una tabla de todos los elementos del metadato que el plugin BibTeX puede generar. El papel de todos los enunciados <i>If</i> en el <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n</a> es determinar los elementos que se definen.
+<p>
+
+<i>DocumentText</i> muestra la versiÃ³n BibTeX de la referencia. Sin embargo, cuando el documento se despliega por primera vez Ãºnicamente aparece un hipervÃ­nculo llamado <i>Mostrar Registro BibTex</i>. Este corresponde a la Ãºltima parte (es decir, a la parte \"adicional\") del enunciado <i>If</i> en <i>DocumentText</i>. Cuando se hace click en este hipervÃ­nculo la <i>href</i> va al mismo URL pero con showrecord=1, que genera una pÃ¡gina como <a  href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&cl=CL1.12&d=_sampleoid_&showrecord=1\">Ã©sta</a>. A continuaciÃ³n sigue la prueba <i>If</i>, que muestra el <i>Texto</i> del documento. Con el plugin BibTeX el texto de un documento es su registro BibTeX no adulterado.
+"
+
+# -- Russian text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=ru] "
+Ð­ÑÐ° ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐ°Ñ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÐž _about:numdocs_ BibTeX, is a collection of working papers published from 1997 to 2006
+at <a href=\"http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/\">Department of Computer Science</a>,
+<a href=\"http://www.waikato.ac.nz/\">the University of Waikato</a>.\n.
+
+<p>
+
+<h3>ÐÐ°Ðº ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ</h3>\n
+
+<p>
+
+Ð€Ð°Ð¹Ð» ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÐœÐ°ÑÐžÐœÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ <i>groupsize 200</i>, **ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐµ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐŽÐžÐœÑÐµÑ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ Ð² Ð³ÑÑÐ¿Ð¿Ñ Ð¿ÐŸ 200**. ÐÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÐµ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÑÑ ÐžÐ· Ð±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð° ÐœÐµÐ±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐžÑ
+ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ², Ðž Ð³ÑÑÐ¿Ð¿ÐžÑÐŸÐ²ÐºÐ° ÐžÑ
+ Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐŸÑÐ²ÑÐ°ÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»ÐŸÐ²ÑÐµ ÑÑÑÑÐºÑÑÑÑ Greenstone ÐŸÑ ÑÐ²ÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐŒÐ° Ðž Ð·Ð°ÐœÑÑÐžÑ Ð±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐžÑÐºÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÑÑÐ²Ð°, ÑÐµÐŒ ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸ.
+
+<p>
+<!-- _text1_ -->
+Apart from the standard plugins, this collection uses <i>BibTexPlugin</i>, 
+which processes references in the BibTeX format (well known to computer 
+scientists). Two options have been set for BibTexPlugin: 
+<i>-OIDtype assigned -OIDmetadata Number</i>. This means the metadata 
+element \"Number\" will be used as the record identifier, instead of 
+Greenstone's default hash identifiers. These options are available for 
+all plugins.\n
+
+<p>
+<!-- _text5_ -->
+Fielded searching, with a form-based interface, is selected by <i>format SearchTypes \"form,plain\"
+</i> in the configuration file. In fact, a plain textual full-text search
+index is included in this collection as well (since <i>form</i> comes first, 
+it is the default interface; you reach the <i>plain</i> search through 
+the <i>Preferences</i> page).\n
+
+<p>
+<!-- _text3_-->
+The <i>buildtype</i> option shows that the default search engine <i>mgpp</i> is
+used. The <i>indexes</i> line specifies indexes for \"text\", and \"metadata\". In this case, \"text\" will be the original BibTeX record. \"metadata\" is a special keyword signifying that an index should be built for any metadata item found in the collection. 
+
+<p>
+Ð¢Ð°ÐºÐžÐŒ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŸÐŒ, ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÐœÐ° Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐ¿ÑÑÐºÐ°ÑÑÐµÐµÑÑ ÐŒÐµÐœÑ \"Ð¿ÐŸÐ»Ðµ\", Ð² ÐœÑÐŒ Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°Ðœ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐŸÐº, ÑÐŸÐ¿ÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ¶ÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐžÐ¹ Ð¿ÑÐž
+Ð²Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐµ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+. ÐÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐœÐ° ÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐœÐµ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž <i>collectionmeta</i> ÐŒÐŸÐ³ÑÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ Ð·Ð°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð»ÑÐ±ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÐ°, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐžÑÑ, ÑÑÐŸ ÑÑÐŸ ÐŸÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð² ÐŒÐµÐœÑ (Ð·Ð° ÐžÑÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐœÐžÐµÐŒ <i>metadata</i>, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐµ ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐµÑ ÐŒÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐœÐºÑÐŸÐ² ÐŒÐµÐœÑ). Ð ÑÑÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ðµ <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»</a> ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ, ÑÑÐŸ ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐŸÐ²ÑÐ¹ ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑ ÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶ÐµÐœ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°Ðœ \"<i>full record</i>\", Ð¿ÐŸÑÐŸÐŒÑ ÑÑÐŸ ÐŸÐœÐ° ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ ÐŸÑÐžÐ³ÐžÐœÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÑÑ Ð±ÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÑÑ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÑ.
+
+<p>
+<!-- _text4_  -->
+An additional keyword, \"allfields\", could also be used in the <i>indexers</i> line, specifying that combined searching over all indexes should be available. 
+<p>
+The <i>levels</i> lines specifies only document level, as bibliographic records don't have internal structure.
+
+<p>
+Ð­ÑÐ° ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŒÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐŸÑÑÐ° Ð¿ÐŸ <i>ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ</i>, <i>ÐÐ²ÑÐŸÑÑ Ðž ÐÐ°ÑÐµ</i>, Ðž ÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐžÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÑÐ¹ Ð²ÐžÐŽ ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÐ° ÑÑÐ°Ð·Ñ, ÐœÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÐŒÑÐ¹ \"<i>Phind</i>\". ÐÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ <i>AZCompactList</i>, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÐŒÑÐ¹ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐŸÑÑÐ° Ð¿ÐŸ <i>ÐÐ²ÑÐŸÑÑ</i>, Ð¿ÐŸÑ
+ÐŸÐ¶ <i>ÐœÐ° AZList</i>, ÐœÐŸ Ð³ÐµÐœÐµÑÐžÑÑÐµÑ ÐºÐœÐžÐ¶ÐœÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐºÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŽÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÐ², ÐºÐ°Ðº Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐŸ Ð·ÐŽÐµÑÑ. ÐÐ»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœ BibTeX ÑÐŸÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÐµÑ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð°Ð²ÑÐŸÑÐ° Ð¿ÐŸ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐŒ <i>Author</i>; ÐŸÐœ ÑÐ°ÐºÐ¶Ðµ Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐŸÐº, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐžÐ¹ Ð¿ÐµÑÐµÑÐµÐœÑ Ð²ÑÐµÑ
+ Ð°Ð²ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ², Ð² ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ <i>Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</i> (<i>Creator</i>). Ð¢Ð°ÐºÐžÐŒ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŸÐŒ, ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ <i>AZCompactList</i> Ð±Ð°Ð·ÐžÑÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐœÐ° Ð¿ÐŸÐ»Ðµ <i>Author</i>. ÐÐŽÐœÐ°ÐºÐŸ Ð² Greenstone ÐžÐŒÐµÐµÑÑÑ ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐœÐ°Ñ ÐºÐœÐŸÐ¿ÐºÐ°, ÑÐžÑÐ°ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÑ ÐºÐ°Ðº <i>ÐÐ²ÑÐŸÑÑ</i>, ÑÑÐµ ÐœÐ°ÐžÐŒÐµÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸÑÐŽÐ°Ð»ÐµÐœÐœÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÐµÑ <i>Creator</i>, ÑÐ°Ðº ÑÑÐŸ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐœÐŸÐ¿ÐºÐž ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐŸ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ°.
+
+<p>
+
+ÐÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ \"Phind\" ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐµÑ ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑ ÑÑÐ°Ð·Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸ <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL4\">Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐœÐŸÐŒÑ Ð·ÐŽÐµÑÑ</a>. ÐÐœ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐŸÐº ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÑÑ
+ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐŸÑÑÐ° ÑÑÐ°Ð·, ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÐžÐ· ÐŒÐ°ÑÐµÑÐžÐ°Ð»Ð°, ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð² Ð°ÑÐ³ÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐµ <i>text</i> ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž <i>classify</i> Ð² <i>Phind</i> ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ð°. ÐÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑÐŒÐž Ð·ÐŽÐµÑÑ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ
+
+<p>
+<pre>
+document:Title,document:Creator,document:Booktitle,document:Publisher
+</pre>\n
+<p>
+
+(<i>ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ:ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ, ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ:Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ, ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ:ÐÐ°Ð³ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐº ÐºÐœÐžÐ³Ðž, ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ: ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</i>)
+
+ÑÐŸ ÐµÑÑÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ, ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐŸÐº Ð°Ð²ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ², ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ Ð»ÑÐ±ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ±ÐŸÑÐœÐžÐºÐ° ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑ, Ð² ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÐŸÑ Ð¿ÑÐœÐºÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ, Ðž ÐžÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµ Ð²ÐœÐžÐŒÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ, ÑÑÐŸ ÑÑÐž ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸÐŒÑ <i>mg</i> ÐœÐ° ÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐœÐµ:Ð¿ÐŸÐ»Ðµ (<i>level:field</i>). ÐÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÑ ÑÐ°ÑÐµ Ð±Ð°Ð·ÐžÑÑÑÑÑÑ ÐœÐ° ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ðµ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐŸÑÐµÐºÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÑ ÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÑ <i>ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°:text</i>.
+
+<p>
+
+ï¿œÑÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÑÐ¿ÐŸÑÐŸÐ± ÑÐ²ÐžÐŽÐµÑÑ, ÑÑÐŸ <i>Phind</i> ÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°ÐµÑ, ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÐžÑ Ð² ÑÐŸÐŒ, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÑ Ñ ÑÑÐžÐŒ ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÐŸÐŒ. ÐÑ ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐ°Ð»Ðž ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²ÐŸ Ð² Ð¿ÐŸÐ»Ðµ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ°, ÑÐµÐ»ÐºÐœÑÐ»Ðž <i>ÐÐŸÐžÑÐº</i>, Ðž ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐŸÐº ÑÑÐ°Ð·, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐžÑ
+ ÑÑÐŸÑ ÑÐµÑÐŒÐžÐœ, Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐœÐ° Ð²ÐµÑÑ
+ÐœÐµÐ¹ Ð¿Ð°ÐœÐµÐ»Ðž. Ð©ÐµÐ»ÐºÐœÐžÑÐµ ÐœÐ° ÐŸÐŽÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐ· ÑÑÐžÑ
+ ÑÑÐ°Ð·, Ðž ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐŸÐº, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐžÐ¹ ÑÑÑ ÑÑÐ°Ð·Ñ, Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐœÐ° ÐœÐžÐ¶ÐœÐµÐ¹ Ð¿Ð°ÐœÐµÐ»Ðž. ÐÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑÐµ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶Ð°ÑÑ ÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°ÑÑ ÑÑÐŸ, ÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÑÑÑ ÑÑÐ°Ð·Ñ Ð²ÑÐµ Ð±ÐŸÐ»ÐµÐµ. Ð¡Ð¿ÐžÑÐºÐž ÐŒÐŸÐ³ÑÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÑÐ²ÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐµÐœÑ, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÑ ÐºÐœÐŸÐ¿ÐºÑ <i>get more phrases</i>. Ð ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐµ ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ° ÑÑÐ°Ð· Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐŸÐº ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ², ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐžÑ
+ ÑÑÑ ÑÑÐ°Ð·Ñ, ÐŸÐºÑÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ Ð² ÑÐžÐœÐžÐ¹ ÑÐ²ÐµÑ. ÐÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑÐµ ÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÑÑ ÑÑÐŸÑ ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐŸÐº Ð¿ÑÑÐµÐŒ ÑÐµÐ»ÑÐºÐ° ÐœÐ° <i>more documents</i>.
+
+<p>
+
+ÐÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ° ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ° ÑÐµÐ·ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÐŸÐ² Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ° Ðž ÐœÐ°ÐžÐŒÐµÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ Ð±ÑÐ°ÑÐ·ÐµÑÐ° ÐŸÐ±Ð° ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÑ Ð² ÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž <i>VList</i>. ÐÐœÐž ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ (ÐžÐºÐŸÐœÐºÑ) ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐµ ÑÐ²ÑÐ·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑÑÑ Ñ ÑÐ°ÐŒÐžÐŒ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐŒ (ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ Ð² ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐŸÐ¹); <i>ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</i> Ð²ÑÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐŸ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ¶ÐžÑÐœÑÐŒ ÑÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐŒ; ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ <i>Creator??Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</i> ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÑÐ°ÐºÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŒÐµÐµÑÑÑ, ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¶Ðµ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ <i>Editor??ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</i> Ðž ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ <i>Month, YearÐÐ°ÑÑ</i>, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÐŸÐœÐ° ÑÑÑÐµÑÑÐ²ÑÐµÑ. <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q&ct=1&qt=1&r=1&hs=1&fqa=0&fqv=Jain,,,&fqf=TX,CR,BO,SO\">ÐÐŽÐµÑÑ</a> Ð¿ÑÐžÐ²ÐŸÐŽÐžÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ.
+
+<p>
+
+ÐÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ° ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·Ð° Ð°Ð²ÑÐŸÑÐ° (<i>CL2Vlist</i>) ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð±ÐŸÐ»ÐµÐµ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐœÑÐŒ. ÐÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ <i>AZCompactList</i> Ð³ÐµÐœÐµÑÐžÑÑÐµÑ ÐŽÐµÑÐµÐ²ÐŸ, ÑÐ·Ð»Ñ ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ·Ð»Ð°ÐŒÐž ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ°, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÑ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ, ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¶Ðµ Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐžÐŒÐž ÑÐ·Ð»Ð°ÐŒÐž. ÐÑÐœÐºÑ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+, ÐœÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÐŒÑÐ¹ <i>numleafdocs</i>, ÐŽÐ°ÐµÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐµ ÐºÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÐµÑÑÐ²ÐŸ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ², ÑÐ°ÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÐœÐžÐ¶Ðµ Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ·Ð»Ð°. Ð­ÑÐŸÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ° Ð¿ÑÐŸÐ²ÐµÑÑÐµÑ, ÑÑÑÐµÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑ Ð»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»ÐŸ Ð»ÐžÑÑÐŸÐ² ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² <i>numleafdocs</i>. ÐÑÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐŸ ÑÐ°Ðº, ÑÐŸ ÑÐ·ÐµÐ» ÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶ÐµÐœ Ð±ÑÑÑ Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐžÐŒ ÑÐ·Ð»ÐŸÐŒ. Ð ÑÑÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ðµ ÐžÐŒÐµÐµÑ ÑÐ²ÐŸÑ ÐŒÐµÑÐºÑ <i>ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</i>. ÐÐŸ ÐžÐŒÐµÐ¹ÑÐµ Ð² Ð²ÐžÐŽÑ, ÑÑÐŸ ÑÑÐŸÑ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÐŽÐµÐœ ÐœÐ° ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ðµ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ <i>ÐÐ²ÑÐŸÑÐ°</i>, ÑÐ°Ðº ÑÑÐŸ ÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ - ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ° -- ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐž ÐžÐŒÐµÐœÐµÐŒ Ð°Ð²ÑÐŸÑÐ°. Ð­ÑÐŸ ÐŸÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÐ°ÐµÑ, ÑÑÐŸ ÑÐ·Ð»Ñ ÐºÐœÐžÐ¶ÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐºÐž <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2\">Ð·ÐŽÐµÑÑ</a> ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÑ ÐžÐŒÐµÐœÐµÐŒ Ð°Ð²ÑÐŸÑÐ°. Ð£Ð·Ð»Ñ Ð»ÐžÑÑÐ°, ÐŸÐŽÐœÐ°ÐºÐŸ, Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐµÑÐµÐœÑ ÑÐ°ÐºÐžÐŒ Ð¶Ðµ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŸÐŒ, ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ (ÑÐŸ ÐµÑÑÑ ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐž ÐœÐ° ÐœÐžÑ
+), ÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÑÑÐžÐµÑÑ Ð² ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐµ ÑÐµÐ·ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÐŸÐ² Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ°.
+
+<p>
+
+Ð¡Ð°ÐŒÐž Ð¶Ðµ ÐÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ (Ð·ÐŽÐµÑÑ ÐžÐŒÐµÐµÑÑÑ <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&cl=CL1.12&d=_sampleoid_\">Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ</a>), Ð³ÐµÐœÐµÑÐžÑÑÑÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ²ÑÐŒÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ°ÐŒÐž ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ°, ÐŸÐŽÐžÐœ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÑ
+ (ÐŽÐ»ÐžÐœÐœÑÐ¹) ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°Ðœ <i>DocumentHeading</i>, Ð° ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐŸÐ¹ - <i>DocumentText</i>. <i>DocumentHeading</i>, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ ÑÐŸÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÐµÑ Ð²ÐµÑÑ
+ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŽÐ²Ðµ ÑÑÐµÑÐž ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ <i>ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</i> ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°, ÑÐŸÐ¿ÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ¶ÐŽÐ°ÐµÐŒÐŸÐµ ÑÐ°Ð±Ð»ÐžÑÐµÐ¹, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐ°Ñ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ Ð²ÑÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœ BibTex ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð³ÐµÐœÐµÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ. ÐÐ°Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ Ð²ÑÐµÑ
+ ÐŸÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ² <i>If</i> Ð² ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ðµ ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÐžÑ Ð² ÑÐŸÐŒ, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÑÐµÑÐžÑÑ, ÐºÐ°ÐºÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÑ.
+
+<p>
+
+<i>DocumentText</i> Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ BibTex-Ð²ÐµÑÑÐžÑ ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐž. ÐÐŽÐœÐ°ÐºÐŸ, ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°Ðœ Ð² Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÑÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð·, Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ Ð³ÐžÐ¿ÐµÑÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐ° <i>Show BibTex Record</i>. Ð­ÑÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÐµÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÐœÐµÐ¹ ÑÐ°ÑÑÐž, ÑÐŸ ÐµÑÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÑ \"ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐŸÐ¹\" ÐŸÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ° <i>If</i> Ð² <i>DocumentText</i>. ÐÑÐ»Ðž ÑÐµÐ»ÐºÐœÑÑÑ ÐœÐ° ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ Ð³ÐžÐ¿ÐµÑÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐµ, <i>href</i> ÐžÐŽÐµÑ Ðº ÑÐŸÐŒÑ Ð¶Ðµ ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŸÐŒÑ URL, ÐœÐŸ Ñ <i>Showrecord=1</i>, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ Ð³ÐµÐœÐµÑÐžÑÑÐµÑ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸ ÑÑÐŸÐ¹. ÐÐŸÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÑÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÑÐµÑÑ <i>If</i> Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ <i>Ð¢ÐµÐºÑÑ</i> ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°. ÐÐ»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœ <i>BibTeX</i> ÐŽÐ°ÐµÑ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÑ ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐ° ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° Ð² ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐµ <i>BibTeX</i>.
+"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=zh] "
+æ¬éŠèå
+å«äº_about:numdocs_æ¡BibTeXè®°åœïŒæ¯äžäžªç±<a href=\"http://www.waikato.ac.nz\">æå¡æå€§å­Š</a>
+<a href=\"http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz\">è®¡ç®æºç³»</a>åš1997è³2006å¹ŽéŽåè¡šçå·¥äœè®ºæç»æã\n 
+ 
+<h3>æ¬éŠèåŠäœå·¥äœ</h3>\n 
+ 
+<p>æ¬éŠèç<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>é
+çœ®æä»¶</a>çåŒå€Žå®ä¹äº<i>groupsize 200</i>ã
+è¿äžªå®ä¹å³å®äºæ¯200äžªææ¡£å°è¢«ç»åæäžäžªå­åšææ¡£ãæç®éŠèéåžžç±åŸå€åŸå°çææ¡£ç»æïŒèå°å®ä»¬ç»åèµ·æ¥å¯ä»¥é¿å
+Greenstoneçå
+éš
+æä»¶ç»æè¿äºåºæä»¥åå çšäžå¿
+èŠçç£çç©ºéŽã\n 
+ 
+<p>åšæ åçæä»¶ä¹å€ïŒæ¬éŠèäœ¿çšäº<i>BibTexPlugin</i>ïŒè¿äžªæä»¶å€çBibTeXæ ŒåŒïŒè¿æ¯è®¡ç®æºå­Šå®¶çæçæ ŒåŒïŒçåèæç®ã
+BibTexPluginè®Ÿçœ®äºäž€äžªåæ°ïŒ<i>-OIDtype assigned -OIDmetadata Number</i>ãè¿æå³çå
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ \"Number\"ïŒæ°å­ïŒå°è¢«çšäœè®°
+åœçæ è¯ç¬ŠïŒèäžæ¯GreenstoneçŒºççååžïŒhashïŒæ è¯ç¬Šãæææä»¶éœæè¿äºåæ°ã\n 
+ 
+<p>åºäºè¡šæ Œçé¢çå­æ®µæçŽ¢æ¯éè¿é
+çœ®æä»¶äž­ç<i>format SearchTypes \"form,plain\"</i>è®Ÿå®ãäºå®äžïŒè¿äžªéŠèè¿å
+å«äºäžäžªå
+šææ¬ç
+å
+šææçŽ¢çŽ¢åŒïŒç±äº<i>form</i>åšå
+ïŒåºäºè¡šæ Œççé¢æ¯çŒºçççé¢ïŒäœ å¯éè¿<i>åå¥œ</i>é¡µé¢èœ¬æ¢å°<i>plain</i>ïŒæ®éïŒæçŽ¢çé¢ïŒã\n 
+ 
+<p><i>buildtype</i>éé¡¹æŸç€ºæ¬éŠèäœ¿çšçæ¯çŒºçç<i>mgpp</i>æçŽ¢åŒæã<i>indexes</i>è¡æå®äºæ¬éŠèççŽ¢åŒïŒ\"text\"ïŒå
+šæïŒ
+ä»¥å\"metadata\"ïŒå
+æ°æ®ïŒãåšè¿ç§æ
+åµäžïŒ\"text\"ïŒå
+šæïŒæåå§çBibTeXè®°åœã\"metadata\"ïŒå
+æ°æ®ïŒæ¯äžäžªç¹æ®çæå®ïŒè¯Žæäžºæææ¬
+éŠèäž­å
+å«çå
+æ°æ®åå»ºäžäžªçŽ¢åŒãå æ­€åœäžæ<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q&ct=1&qt=1\">æçŽ¢é¡µé¢</a>äž­ç\"å­æ®µ\"
+èåæ¶ïŒä»ä»¬å°æŸç€º<i>ææè®°åœ</i>ïŒéåæ¯æ¯äžªå
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ ãéŠèçº§å«çå
+æ°æ®<i>collectionmeta</i>å¯è¢«çšäºå®ä¹çŽ¢åŒåšèåé¡¹äž­çæŸç€º
+åå­ïŒé€äº<i>metadata</i>ïŒå
+æ°æ®ïŒïŒå äžºå®å°çæå€äžªèåé¡¹ïŒã
+åšè¿ç§æ
+åµäžïŒ<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>é
+çœ®æä»¶</a>æå®ææ¬çŽ¢åŒåºè¢«ç§°äœ\"ææè®°åœ\"å äžºå®å
+å«
+åå§çæç®è®°åœã\n 
+ 
+<p>åŠäžäžªå
+³é®è¯ïŒ\"allfields\"ïŒå
+šéšå­æ®µïŒåæ ·å¯è¢«çšåš<i>indexes</i>è¡äž­ïŒæ­€æ¶è¯Žæå¯ä»¥ç»åææçŽ¢åŒè¿è¡æçŽ¢ã 
+ 
+<p><i>levels</i>ïŒçº§å«ïŒåªæå®äºææ¡£çº§å«ïŒå äžºæç®è®°åœå¹¶æ²¡æå
+éšç»æã 
+ 
+<p>æ¬éŠèå
+å«<i>é¢å</i>ïŒ<i>äœè
+</i>ä»¥å<i>æ¥æ</i>æµè§åšïŒä»¥åäžäžªç¹æ®çè¯ç»çŽ¢åŒç§°äœ\"Phind\"ã
+<i>AZCompactList</i>åç±»åšè¢«çšäœ<i>äœè
+</i>æµè§åšïŒå¹¶äž<i>AZList</i>ç±»äŒŒïŒäœäŒäžºéå€æ¡ç®åå»ºäžäžªä¹Šæ¶ïŒ
+åŠ<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2\">è¿é</a>æç€ºãBibTeXæä»¶çš<i>äœè
+</i>å
+çŽ æ¥è®°åœæ¯äžªäœè
+ïŒ
+ææäœè
+çåè¡šä¹è¢«è®°åœå°<i>èè
+</i>å
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ äž­ãå æ­€<i>AZCompactList</i>åç±»åšæ¯æå»ºåš<i>äœè
+</i>å
+æ°æ®äžçãç¶èïŒ
+Greenstoneäž­æäžäžªåå«<i>äœè
+</i>çæ åæé®ïŒè¿äžªæé®çåå­ä¹æ¯\"äœè
+\"ïŒå¯èœäŒåŒèµ·æ··æ·ïŒå æ­€è¯¥åç±»åšå°äœ¿çšè¿äžªæé®åã\n 
+ 
+<p>\"Phind\"åç±»åšåå»ºäžäžªè¯ç»çŽ¢åŒïŒåŠ<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL4\">è¿é</a>æç€ºãå®å
+æ¬äžäžª
+å¯æµè§çè¯ç»åè¡šïŒè¯¥åè¡šå
+æ¬çè¯ç»æœåèª<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>é
+çœ®æä»¶</a>äž­
+<i>classify Phind</i>è¡äž­ç<i>text</i>åæ°ææå®çææ¡£ã 
+ 
+è¿éçè®Ÿå®æ¯\n 
+<pre> 
+  document:Title,document:Creator,document:Booktitle,\n 
+      document:Publisher 
+</pre>\n 
+ 
+ââä¹å°±æ¯è¯ŽïŒé¢åïŒäœè
+åè¡šïŒè®°åœçåéé¢åïŒåŠææçè¯ïŒïŒä»¥ååºçåãè¯·æ³šæïŒè¿éçè®Ÿå®éµåŸª<i>mg</i>æ ŒåŒïŒå³
+<i>level:field</i>ã<i>Phind</i>çŽ¢åŒéåžžæ
+åµäžéœæ¯åšéŠèçææææ¬åºç¡äžåå»ºçïŒçš<i>document:text</i>è®Ÿå®ã\n 
+ 
+<p>èŠåŒæž
+PhindçåèœïŒæå¥œçæ¹åŒæ¯äœ¿çšè¿äžªçŽ¢åŒãåšæçŽ¢æ¡äž­èŸå
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+å«è¯¥è¯ç»çææ¡£åè¡šïŒå¹¶çšèè²æå­æŸç€ºãè¿äžªææ¡£åè¡šå¯é
+è¿ç¹å»<i>è·åŸæŽå€ææ¡£</i>æ¥æ©å±ã\n 
+ 
+<p>æçŽ¢ç»æåè¡šçæ ŒåŒåéä»¥åé¢åæµè§åšéœæ¯ç±<i>VList</i>è®Ÿå®çãå®çæäžäžªéŸæ¥å°ææ¡£æ¬èº«çææ¡£åŸæ ïŒåšæ¬éŠèäž­æ¯å®æŽçåè
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+</i>ä¿¡æ¯ïŒåŠææçè¯ïŒïŒåŠåæŸç€º<i>çŒèŸ</i>å
+æ°æ®ã<i>å¹Žæ</i>å
+æ°æ®ïŒåŠææçè¯ïŒã
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+æ¯äžäžªäŸå­ã\n 
+ 
+<p>äœè
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+¶èç¹èŠä¹æ¯ä»£è¡šææ¡£ç
+å¶å­èç¹ïŒèŠä¹æ¯å
+éšèç¹ã<i>numleafdocs</i>å
+æ°æ®é¡¹ç»åºäºäžäžªå
+éšèç¹äžçææ¡£æ»æ°ãè¿äžªæ ŒåŒåéå°æ£æ¥numleafdocsæ¯åŠå­åšã
+åŠæå­åšçè¯ïŒåè¯¥èç¹å¿
+ç¶æ¯äžäžªå
+éšèç¹ïŒåšè¿ç§æ
+åµäžïŒè¯¥èç¹å°è¢«å
+¶<i>é¢å</i>ææ è¯ãèŠæ³šæçæ¯ïŒè¯¥åç±»åšæ¯åºäº<i>äœè
+</i>
+å
+æ°æ®åå»ºçïŒå æ­€å
+¶é¢åââåç±»åšçé¢åââå®é
+äžæ¯äœè
+çåå­ïŒè¿æå³çä¹Šæ¶èç¹ïŒ
+åŠ<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2\">è¿é</a>æç€ºïŒå°è¢«äœè
+åå­ææ è¯ãç¶èæçŽ¢ç»æåè¡šäž­çææå¶å­
+èç¹åéœçšåäžç§æ¹åŒæ è¯äžºææ¡£ïŒå³åŒæïŒã\n 
+ 
+<p>ææ¡£æ¬èº«ïŒåŠ<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&cl=CL1.12&d=_sampleoid_\">ç€ºäŸ</a>æç€ºïŒåç±äž€äžªæ ŒåŒå
+æ°æçæïŒäžäžªïŒé¿çïŒç§°äžº<i>DocumentHeading</i>ïŒåŠäžäžªç§°äžº<i>DocumentText</i>ã<i>DocumentHeading</i>èŽèŽ£é¡µé¢çäž
+é¢äžåä¹äºéšåïŒå
+æ¬ææ¡£ç<i>é¢å</i>ïŒæ¥äžæ¥æ¯ç»åºBibTeXæä»¶å¯çæçææå
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ çè¡šæ Œã
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>é
+çœ®æä»¶</a>äž­çææ<i>If</i>åæ°çäœçšæ¯çšæ¥å€æ­åªäºå
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ 
+æ¯è¢«å®ä¹äºçã\n 
+ 
+<p><i>DocumentText</i>æŸç€ºäºBibTeXæ ŒåŒçåŒæãç¶èïŒåœææ¡£æåè¢«æŸç€ºæ¶ïŒåªæäžäžª<i>æŸç€ºBibTexè®°åœ</i>çéŸæ¥ââè¿å¯¹åºäº
+<i>DocumentText</i>äž­<i>If</i>æ¡ä»¶çæåé£éšåïŒå³\"å
+¶ä»\"éšåãåœç¹å»è¯¥éŸæ¥æ¶ïŒ<i>href</i>éŸæ¥å°åäžURLäœ<i>showrecord=1</i>ïŒ
+è¿å°çæäžäžªç±»äŒŒäº<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&cl=CL1.12&d=_sampleoid_&showrecord=1\">è¿é</a>çé¡µé¢ã
+<i>If</i>å€æ­æç«çè¯ïŒåæŸç€ºææ¡£ç<i>ææ¬</i>ãçšBibTeXæä»¶ïŒææ¡£çææ¬æ¯æå
+¶åå§çBibTeXè®°åœã\n
+"
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/import/1978 to 2006 Pubs.bib
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/import/1978 to 2006 Pubs.bib	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/import/1978 to 2006 Pubs.bib	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,2999 @@
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Bainbridge, D. and Inglis, S.J.},
+
+   Title = {Musical image compression},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/25},
+
+   Pages = {1-10},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Barbour, R.H. and Yeo, A.W.},
+
+   Title = {Internationalising a spreadsheet for Pacific Basin languages},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/17},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Cleary, J.G. and Littin, R.H. and McWha, J. and Pearson, M.W.},
+
+   Title = {Constraints on parallelism beyond 10 instructions per cycle},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/27},
+
+   Pages = {1-15},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Cockburn, A. and Jones, S.R.},
+
+   Title = {Design issues for World Wide Web navigation visualisation tools},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/2},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Cunningham, S.J. and Littin, J.N. and Witten, I.H.},
+
+   Title = {Applications of machine learning in information retrieval},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/6},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Frank, E.T. and Wang, Y. and Inglis, S.J. and Holmes, G. and Witten, I.H.},
+
+   Title = {Using model trees for classification},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/12},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Holmes, G.},
+
+   Title = {Discovering inter-attribute relationships},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/13},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Holmes, G. and Rogers, W.J.},
+
+   Title = {Freezing rich fragments of the World Wide Web},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/11},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Holmes, G. and Smith, T.C. and Rogers, W.J.},
+
+   Title = {Computer concepts without computers: a first course in computer science},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/7},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Humphrey, M.C.},
+
+   Title = {A graphical notation for the design of information visualisations},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/5},
+
+   Month = {14/5/04},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Jones, S.R. and Marsh, S.},
+
+   Title = {A dynamic and flexible representation of social relationships in CSCW},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/1},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Jones, S.R. and McInnes, S.},
+
+   Title = {A graphical user interface for Boolean query specification},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/31},
+
+   Pages = {1-18},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Littin, R.H. and Cleary, J.G.},
+
+   Title = {Effects of re-ordered memory operations on parallelism},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/28},
+
+   Pages = {1-13},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Nevill-Manning, C.G. and Reed, T. and Witten, I.H.},
+
+   Title = {Extracting text from PostScript},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/10},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Nevill-Manning, C.G. and Witten, I.H. and Paynter, G.W.},
+
+   Title = {Browsing in digital libraries: a phrase-based approach},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/4},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Peeters, R. and Smith, T.C.},
+
+   Title = {Fast convergence with a greedy tag-phrase dictionary},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/23},
+
+   Pages = {1-10},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Phillips, C. and McKauge, J.},
+
+   Title = {OZCHI'96 Industry Session: Sixth Australian Conference on Human-Computer Interaction},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/29},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Rauterberg, M. and Oestreicher, L. and Grundy, J.C.},
+
+   Title = {Proceedings of the INTERACT97 Combined Workshop on CSCW in HCI-worldwide},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/16},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Smith, L.A. and McNab, R.J.},
+
+   Title = {A sight-singing tutor},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/8},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Teahan, W.J. and Cleary, J.G.},
+
+   Title = {Adaptive models of English text},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/30},
+
+   Pages = {1-28},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Teahan, W.J. and Cleary, J.G.},
+
+   Title = {Tag based models of English text},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/24},
+
+   Pages = {1-10},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Teahan, W.J. and Inglis, S.J. and Cleary, J.G. and Holmes, G.},
+
+   Title = {Correcting English text using PPM models},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/26},
+
+   Pages = {1-10},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Ting, K.M.},
+
+   Title = {Inducing cost-sensitive trees via instance weighting},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/22},
+
+   Pages = {1-16},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Ting, K.M. and Low, B.T. and Witten, I.H.},
+
+   Title = {Learning from batched data: model combination vs data combination},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/14},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Ting, K.M. and Witten, I.H.},
+
+   Title = {Stacked generalization: when does it work?},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/3},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Ting, K.M. and Witten, I.H.},
+
+   Title = {Stacking bagged and dagged models},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/9},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Turner, K.},
+
+   Title = {Information seeking, retrieving, reading and storing behaviour of library users},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/15},
+
+   Pages = {1-28},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Yeo, A.W. and Barbour, R.H.},
+
+   Title = {Language use in software},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/20},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Yeo, A.W. and Barbour, R.H.},
+
+   Title = {Localising a spreadsheet: an Iban example},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/18},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Yeo, A.W. and Barbour, R.H.},
+
+   Title = {Strategies of internationalisation and localisation: a postmodernistâs perspective},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/19},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Yeo, A.W. and Barbour, R.H. and Apperley, M.D.},
+
+   Title = {Usability testing: a Malaysian study},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {97/21},
+
+   Pages = {1-8},
+
+      Year = {1997} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Bainbridge, D. and Cunningham, S.J.},
+
+   Title = {Making oral history accessible over the World Wide Web},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {98/18},
+
+   Pages = {1-25},
+
+      Year = {1998} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Bainbridge, D. and McNab, R.J. and Smith, L.A.},
+
+   Title = {Melody based tune retrieval over the World Wide Web},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {98/17},
+
+   Pages = {1-9},
+
+      Year = {1998} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Cleary, J.G. and Graham, I.D. and Pearson, M.W. and McGregor, A.J.},
+
+   Title = {Measuring ATM traffic: final report for New Zealand Telecom},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {98/14},
+
+   Pages = {1-15},
+
+      Year = {1998} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Cleary, J.G. and Trigg, L.E.},
+
+   Title = {Experiences with a weighted decision tree learner},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {98/10},
+
+   Pages = {1-15},
+
+      Year = {1998} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Frank, E.T. and Trigg, L.E. and Holmes, G. and Witten, I.H.},
+
+   Title = {Naive Bayes for regression},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {98/15},
+
+   Pages = {1-17},
+
+      Year = {1998} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Frank, E.T. and Witten, I.H.},
+
+   Title = {Generating accurate rule sets without global optimization},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {98/2},
+
+   Pages = {1-15},
+
+      Year = {1998} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Grundy, J.C.},
+
+   Title = {Proceedings of CBISE'98 Workshop on component based information systems engineering},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {98/12},
+
+   Pages = {1-107},
+
+      Year = {1998} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Henson, M.C. and Reeves, S.V.},
+
+   Title = {A logic for the schema calculus},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {98/5},
+
+   Pages = {1-20},
+
+      Year = {1998} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Henson, M.C. and Reeves, S.V.},
+
+   Title = {New foundations for Z},
+
+   Publisher = {Computer Science University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {98/6},
+
+   Pages = {1-20},
+
+      Year = {1998} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Henson, M.C. and Reeves, S.V.},
+
+   Title = {Revising Z: semantics and logic},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {98/4},
+
+   Pages = {1-42},
+
+      Year = {1998} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Holmes, G. and Cunningham, S.J. and Dela Rue, B.T. and Bollen, A.F.},
+
+   Title = {Predicting apple bruising using machine learning},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {98/7},
+
+   Pages = {1-8},
+
+      Year = {1998} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Jones, S.R.},
+
+   Title = {Link as you type: using key phrases for automated dynamic link generation},
+
+   Publisher = {Computer Science University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {98/16},
+
+   Pages = {1-9},
+
+      Year = {1998} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Jones, S.R.},
+
+   Title = {VQuery: a graphical user interface for Boolean query specification and dynamic result preview},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {98/3},
+
+   Pages = {1-9},
+
+      Year = {1998} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Jones, S.R. and Cunningham, S.J. and McNab, R.J.},
+
+   Title = {An analysis of usage of a digital library},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {98/13},
+
+   Pages = {1-12},
+
+      Year = {1998} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Ting, K.M. and Zheng, Z.},
+
+   Title = {Boosting trees for cost-sensitive classifications},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {98/1},
+
+   Pages = {1-14},
+
+      Year = {1998} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Trigg, L.E.},
+
+   Title = {An entropy gain measure of numeric prediction performance},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {98/11},
+
+   Pages = {1-11},
+
+      Year = {1998} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Williams, M.},
+
+   Title = {An evaluation of passage-level indexing strategies for a technical report archive},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {98/8},
+
+   Pages = {1-9},
+
+      Year = {1998} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Witten, I.H. and McNab, R.J. and Jones, S.R. and Cunningham, S.J. and Bainbridge, D. and Apperley, M.D.},
+
+   Title = {Managing multiple collections, multiple languages, and multiple media in a distributed digital library},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {98/9},
+
+   Pages = {1-17},
+
+      Year = {1998} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Apperley, M.D.},
+
+   Title = {Facilitating multiple copy/paste functions},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {99/6},
+
+   Pages = {1-8},
+
+      Year = {1999} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Apperley, M.D. and Spence, R. and Hodge, S.B. and Chester, M.},
+
+   Title = {Browsing tree structures},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {99/5},
+
+   Pages = {1-14},
+
+      Year = {1999} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Bach, J. and Witten, I.H.},
+
+   Title = {Lexical attraction for text compression},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {99/1},
+
+   Pages = {1-10},
+
+      Year = {1999} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Chang, C. and McGregor, A.J. and Holmes, G.},
+
+   Title = {The LRU*WWW proxy cache document replacement algorithm},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {99/9},
+
+   Pages = {1-11},
+
+      Year = {1999} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Cleary, J.G. and Graham, I.D. and McGregor, A.J. and Pearson, M.W. and Ziedins, I. and Curtis, J.P. and Donnelly, S.F. and Martens, J. and Martin, H.S.},
+
+   Title = {High precision traffic measurement by the WAND research group},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {99/17},
+
+   Pages = {1-11},
+
+      Year = {1999} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Frank, E.T. and Witten, I.H.},
+
+   Title = {Reduced-error pruning with significance tests},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {99/10},
+
+   Pages = {1-42},
+
+      Year = {1999} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Groves, L. and Nickson, R. and Reeve, G.R. and Reeves, S.V. and Utting, B.M.},
+
+   Title = {A survey of software requirements specification practices in the New Zealand software industry},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {99/8},
+
+   Pages = {1-22},
+
+      Year = {1999} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Hall, M.A.},
+
+   Title = {Feature selection for discrete and numeric class machine learning},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {99/4},
+
+   Pages = {1-16},
+
+      Year = {1999} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Holmes, G. and Hall, M.A. and Frank, E.T.},
+
+   Title = {Generating rule sets from model trees},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {99/2},
+
+   Pages = {1-9},
+
+      Year = {1999} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Holmes, G. and Trigg, L.E.},
+
+   Title = {A diagnostic tool for tree based supervised classification learning algorithms},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {99/3},
+
+   Pages = {1-5},
+
+      URL = {25/6/04},
+
+   Year = {1999} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Keegan, T.T. and Cunningham, S.J. and Apperley, M.D.},
+
+   Title = {The Niupepa collection: opening the blinds on a window to the past},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {99/16},
+
+   Pages = {1-9},
+
+      Year = {1999} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Paynter, G.W. and Witten, I.H.},
+
+   Title = {Automating iterative tasks with programming by demonstration: a user evaluation},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {99/7},
+
+   Pages = {1-9},
+
+      Year = {1999} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Teahan, W.J. and Wen, Y.Y. and McNab, R.J. and Witten, I.H.},
+
+   Title = {A compression-based algorithm for Chinese word segmentation},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {99/13},
+
+   Pages = {1-20},
+
+      Year = {1999} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Wang, Y. and Witten, I.H.},
+
+   Title = {Clustering with finite data from semi-parametric mixture distributions},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {99/14},
+
+   Pages = {1-6},
+
+      Year = {1999} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Wang, Y. and Witten, I.H.},
+
+   Title = {Pace regression},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {99/12},
+
+   Pages = {1-27},
+
+      Year = {1999} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Witten, I.H. and Frank, E.T. and Trigg, L.E. and Hall, M.A. and Holmes, G. and Cunningham, S.J.},
+
+   Title = {Weka: practical machine learning tools and techniques with Java implementations},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {99/11},
+
+   Pages = {1-4},
+
+      Year = {1999} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Frank, E.T. and Chui, C.K. and Witten, I.H.},
+
+   Title = {Text categorization using compression models},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {00/2},
+
+   Pages = {1-10},
+
+      Year = {2000} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Hall, M.A.},
+
+   Title = {Correlation-based feature selection for discrete and numeric class machine learning},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {00/8},
+
+   Pages = {1-9},
+
+      Year = {2000} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Hall, M.A. and Holmes, G.},
+
+   Title = {Benchmarking attribute selection techniques for data mining},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {00/10},
+
+   Pages = {1-14},
+
+      Year = {2000} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Holmes, G. and Hall, M.A.},
+
+   Title = {A development environment for predictive modelling in foods},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {00/9},
+
+   Pages = {1-13},
+
+      Year = {2000} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Jones, S.R. and Mahoui-Guerni, M.},
+
+   Title = {Hierarchical document clustering using automatically extracted keyphrases},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {00/13},
+
+   Pages = {1-8},
+
+      Year = {2000} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Mahoui, A.},
+
+   Title = {One dimensional non-uniform rational B-splines for animation control},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {00/7},
+
+   Pages = {1-52},
+
+      Year = {2000} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Mahoui-Guerni, M. and Cunningham, S.J.},
+
+   Title = {A comparative transaction log analysis of two computing collections},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {00/12},
+
+   Pages = {1-6},
+
+      Year = {2000} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Reeve, G.R. and Reeves, S.V.},
+
+   Title = {m-charts and Z: extending the translation},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {00/11},
+
+   Pages = {1-56},
+
+      Year = {2000} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Reeve, G.R. and Reeves, S.V.},
+
+   Title = {m-charts and Z: hows, whys and wherefores},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {00/6},
+
+   Pages = {1-24},
+
+      Year = {2000} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Ware, M.F. and Frank, E.T. and Holmes, G. and Hall, M.A. and Witten, I.H.},
+
+   Title = {Interactive machine learningâletting users build classifiers},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {00/4},
+
+   Pages = {1-7},
+
+      Year = {2000} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Witten, I.H. and Paynter, G.W. and Frank, E.T. and Gutwin, C.A. and Nevill-Manning, C.G.},
+
+   Title = {KEA: practical automatic keyphrase extraction},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {00/5},
+
+   Pages = {1-9},
+
+      Year = {2000} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Yeates, S.A. and Bainbridge, D. and Witten, I.H.},
+
+   Title = {Using compression to identify acronyms in text},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {00/1},
+
+   Pages = {1-10},
+
+      Year = {2000} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Frank, E.T. and Hall, M.A.},
+
+   Title = {A simple approach to ordinal classification},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {01/5},
+
+      Year = {2001} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Jones, S.R. and Lundy, S. and Paynter, G.W.},
+
+   Title = {Interactive document summarisation},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {01/1},
+
+   Abstract = {This paper describes the Interactive Document Summariser (IDS).  IDS provides dynamic control over document summary characteristics, such as length and topic focus, so that changes made by the user are instantly reflected in an on-screen summary.  ÅSummary-in-context1 vies allow users to move easily between summaries and their source documents.  IDS adopts the technique of sentence extraction, exploiting keyphrases that are automatically extracted from document text as the primary attribute of a sentence extraction algorithm.  We report an evaluation of IDS summaries, which representative end users of on-line documents identified relevant summary sentences in source documents.  IDS summaries were then compared to the recommendations of the users and we report the efficacy of the summaries based on standard precision and recall measures.  In addition, using established evaluation metrics we found that IDS summaries were better than baseline summaries based on within-document sentence ordering.},
+
+      Year = {2001} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Jones, S.R. and Paynter, G.W.},
+
+   Title = {Human evaluation of Kea, an automatic keyphrasing system},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {01/2},
+
+      Year = {2001} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Reeve, G.R. and Reeves, S.V.},
+
+   Title = {Experiences using Z animation tools},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {01/3},
+
+   Pages = {1-15},
+
+      Year = {2001} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Utting, B.M.},
+
+   Title = {Data structures for Z testing tools},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {01/4},
+
+      Year = {2001} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Apperley, M.D. and McLeod, L.C. and Masoodian, M. and Paine, L.B. and Phillips, M. and Rogers, W.J. and Thomson, K.},
+
+   Title = {Use of video shadow for small group interaction awareness on a large interactive display surface},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {07/02},
+
+   Pages = {1-10},
+
+   Abstract = {This paper reports work done as part of the Large Interactive Display Surface (LIDS) project at the University of Waikato.  One application of the LIDS equipment is distributed meeting support.Â  In this context large display surfaces are used as shared workspaces by people at collaborating sites.Â  A meeting with start with a shared presentation document, typically and agenda document with summary and detail on agenda items as required.Â  During the meeting, annotations with be made on the shared document, and new pages will be added with notes and drawings. 
+
+
+
+To prevent access collisions and generally mediate use of the shared space, mechanisms to provide awareness of actions of people at other sites are required.Â  In our system a web camera is used to capture a low-resolution image of the person/people near the board on each side.Â  Rather than transmit the image directly we computed a shadow/silhouette.Â  The shadow is displayed behind other screen content.Â  This provides awareness of position and impending write actions and allows intentional pointing to locations of the screen.  It also has the advantage of being transmitted with low bandwidth, being relatively insensitive to low frame rates, and minimizing visual interference with substantive data being displayed on the screen.},
+
+      Year = {2002} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Bouckaert, R.},
+
+   Title = {Accuracy bounds for ensembles under 0-1 loss},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {04/02},
+
+   Pages = {1-19},
+
+   Abstract = {This paper is an attempt to increase the understanding in the behavior of ensembles for discrete variables in a quantitative way.Â  A set of tight upper and lower bounds for the accuracy of an ensemble is presented for wide classes of ensemble algorithms, including bagging and boosting.Â  The ensemble accuracy is expressed in terms of the accuracies of the members of the ensemble. 
+
+
+
+Since those bounds represent best and worst case behavior only, we study typical behavior as well, and discuss its properties.Â  A parameterised bound is presented which describes ensemble bahavior as a mixture of dependent base classifier and independent base classifier areas.Â  Some empirical results are presented to support our conclusions.},
+
+      Year = {2002} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Cunningham, S.J.},
+
+   Title = {Toward a theory of music information retrieval queries: system design implications},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {05/02},
+
+   Pages = {1-11},
+
+   Abstract = {Interest in the development of content-based music information retrieval (MIR) systems is growing rapidly.Â  The MIR research community consists of a multidisciplinary amalgam of librarian, digital librarian, information scientists, computer scientists, musicologists, audio engineers, lawyers and business persons.Â  This multidisciplinary approach has given rise to significant technological advancements in retrieval algorithms, audio interfaces and data representation schemes.},
+
+      Year = {2002} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Frank, E.T. and Holmes, G. and Kirkby, R.B. and Hall, M.A.},
+
+   Title = {Racing committees for large datasets},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {03/02},
+
+   Pages = {1-12},
+
+   Abstract = {This paper proposes a method for generating classifiers from large datasets by building a committee of simple base classifiers using a standard boosting algorithm.Â  It allows the processing of large datasets even if the underlying base learning algorithm cannot efficiently do so.Â  The basic idea is to split incoming data into chunks and build a committee based on classifiers build from these individual chunks [3].Â  Our method extends earlier work in two ways:Â  (a) the best chunk size is chosen automatically by racing committees corresponding to different chunk sizes, and (b) the committees are pruned adaptively to keep the size of each individual committee as small as possible without negatively affecting accuracy.Â  This paper shows that choosing an appropriate chunk size automatically is important because the accuracy of the resulting committee can vary significantly with the chunk size.Â  It also shows that pruning is crucial to make the method practical for large datasets in terms of running time and memory requirements.Â  Surprisingly, the results demonstrate that pruning can also improve accuracy.},
+
+      Year = {2002} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Hall, M.A. and Holmes, G.},
+
+   Title = {Benchmarking attribute selection techniques for discrete class data mining},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {02/02},
+
+   Pages = {1-21},
+
+   Abstract = {Data engineering is generally considered to be a central issue in the development of data mining applications.Â  The success of many learning schemes, in their attempts to construct models of data, hinges on the reliable identification of a small set of highly predictive attributes.Â  The inclusion of irrelevant, redundant and noisy attributes in the model building process phase can result in poor predictive performance and increased computation. 
+
+
+
+Attribute selection generally involves a combination of search and attribute utility estimation plus evaluation with respect to specific learning schemes.Â  This leads to a large number of possible permutation and has led to a situation where very few benchmark studies have been conducted. 
+
+
+
+This paper presents a benchmark comparison of several attribute selection methods for supervised classification.Â  All the methods produce an attribute ranking, a useful devise for isolating the individual merit of an attribute. Attribute selection is achieved by cross-validating the attribute rankings with respect to a classification learner to find the best attributes.Â  Results are reported for a selection of standard data sets and two diverse learning schemes C4.5 and naÃ¯ve Bayes.},
+
+      Year = {2002} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Holmes, G. and Pfahringer, B. and Frank, E.T. and Kirkby, R.B. and Hall, M.A.},
+
+   Title = {A logistic boosting approach to inducing multiclass alternating decision trees},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {01/02},
+
+   Pages = {1-11},
+
+   Abstract = {The alternating decision tree (ADTree) is a successful classification technique that combine decision trees with the predictive accuracy of boosting into a ser to interpretable classification rules.Â  The original formulation of the tree induction algorithm restricted attention to binary classification problems.Â  This paper empirically evaluates several methods for extending the algorithm to the multiclass case by splitting the problem into several two-class LogitBoost procedure to induce alternating decision trees directly.Â  Experimental results confirm that this procedure is comparable with methods that are based on the original ADTree formulation in accuracy, while inducing much smaller trees.},
+
+      Year = {2002} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Nichols, D.M. and Twidale, M.B.},
+
+   Title = {Usability and open source software},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {10/02},
+
+   Pages = {1-15},
+
+   Abstract = {Open source communities have successfully developed many pieces of software although most computer users only use proprietary applications. The usability of open source software is often regarded as one reason for this limited distribution. In this paper we review the existing evidence of the usability of open source software and discuss how the characteristics of open-source development influence usability. We describe how existing human-computer interaction techniques can be used to leverage distributed networked communities, of developers and users, to address issues of usability.},
+
+      Year = {2002} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Thomson, K.},
+
+   Title = {Research laboratory survey},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {09/02},
+
+   Pages = {1-30},
+
+   Abstract = {This report represents the results of a survey conducted by the University of Waikato Usability Laboratory of the research laboratories at the Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand. The study was conducted on behalf of the Department of Computer Science. 
+
+
+
+The goal of the research was to: 
+
+
+
+Inform the development of future laboratories; 
+
+Inform the process any of re-development of current laboratories; 
+
+Provide information about the use and acceptance of the laboratories.},
+
+      Year = {2002} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Thomson, K. and McLeod, L.C.},
+
+   Title = {The Lids research project appendage to usability study report 1/2002},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {08/02},
+
+   Pages = {1-33},
+
+   Abstract = {This report is a follow on to an earlier report (titled: Usability Study Report (1/2002), dated 1 July 2002) that presented the University of Waikato Usability Laboratoryâs (Usability Laboratory) analysis of the Large Interactive Display Screen (LIDS) technologies as developed by the LIDS Research Project.},
+
+      Year = {2002} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Thomson, K. and McLeod, L.C.},
+
+   Title = {The Lids research project usability study report 1/2002},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {06/02},
+
+   Pages = {1-160},
+
+   Abstract = {This report represents the University of Waikato Usability Laboratoryâs (Usability Laboratory) analysis of the Large Interactive Display Screen (LIDS) technologies as developed by the LIDS Research Group. 
+
+
+
+The Usability Laboratory conducted three exploratory-type studies of the LIDS technology over January and February 2002.Â  The studies each focused on individual elements of the LIDS technology, while at the same time contributing to the general understanding and knowledge of the technology.},
+
+      Year = {2002} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Utting, B.M. and Toyn, I. and Sun, J. and Martin, A. and Dong, J. and Daley, N.T. and Currie, D.},
+
+   Title = {ZML:XML support for standard Z},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {11/02},
+
+   Pages = {1-20},
+
+   Abstract = {This paper proposes an XML format for standard Z. We describe several earlier XML proposals for Z, the problems and issues that arose, and the rationales behind our new proposal. The new proposal is based upon a comparison of various existing Z annotated syntaxes, to ensure that the mark-up will be widely usable. This XML format is expected to become a central feature of the CZT (Community Z Tools) initiative.},
+
+      Year = {2002} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Utting, B.M. and Wang, S.},
+
+   Title = {Object-orientation in standard Z},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {12/02},
+
+   Pages = {1-20},
+
+   Abstract = {The good news of this paper is that an elegant object-oriented specification style is possible in standard Z. The bad news is that this style is rather different to normal Z specifications, more abstract and axiomatic, which means that it is not so well supported by current Z tools such as animators. It also enforces behavioural subtyping, unlike most object-oriented programming languages. This paper explains the proposed style, with examples, and discusses its advantages and disadvantages.},
+
+      Year = {2002} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Frank, E.T. and Hall, M.A.},
+
+   Title = {Visualizing class probability estimators},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {02/03},
+
+   Pages = {1-13},
+
+   Month = {February},
+
+   Abstract = {Inducing classifiers that make accurate predictions on future data is a driving force for research in inductive learning.  However, also of importance to the users is how to gain information from the models produced.  Unfortunately, some of the most powerful inductive learning algorithms generate "black boxes"âthat is, the representation of the model makes it virtually impossible to gain any insight into what has been learned.  This paper presents a technique that can help the user understand why a classifier makes the predictions that it does by providing a two-dimensional visualization of its class probability estimates.  It requires the classifier to generate class probabilities but most practical algorithms are able to do so (or can be modified to this end).},
+
+      Year = {2003} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Frank, E.T. and Hall, M.A. and Pfahringer, B.},
+
+   Title = {Locally weighted naive Bayes},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {04/03},
+
+   Pages = {1-11},
+
+   Month = {April},
+
+   Abstract = {Despite its simplicity, the naive Bayes classifier has surprised machine learning researchers by exhibiting good performance on a variety of learning problems.  Encouraged by these results, researchers have looked to overcome naive Bayes' primary weaknessâattribute independenceâand improve the performance of the algorithm.  This paper presents a locally weighted version of naive Bayes that relaxes the independence assumption by learning local models at prediction time.  Experimental results show that locally weighted naive Bayes rarely degrades accuracy compared to standard naive Bayes and, in many cases, improves accuracy dramatically.  The main advantage of this method compared to other techniques for enhancing naive Bayes is its conceptual and computational simplicity.},
+
+      Year = {2003} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Frank, E.T. and Paynter, G.W.},
+
+   Title = {Predicting Library of Congress Classifications from Library of Congress Subject Headings},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {01/03},
+
+   Pages = {1-23},
+
+   Month = {January},
+
+   Abstract = {This paper addresses the problem of automatically assigning a Library of Congress Classification (LCC) to work given its set of Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH).  LCC are organized in a tree: the root node of this hierarchy comprises all possible topics, and leaf nodes correspond to the most specialized topic areas defined.  We describe a procedure that, given a resource identified by its LCSH, automatically places that resource in the LCC hierarchy.  The procedure uses machine learning techniques and training data from a large library catalog to learn a classification model mapping from sets of LCSH to nodes in the LCC tree.  We present empirical results for our technique showing its accuracy on an independent collection of 50,000 LCSH/LCC pairs.},
+
+      Year = {2003} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Frank, E.T. and Xu, X.},
+
+   Title = {Applying propositional learning algorithms to multi-instance data},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {06/03},
+
+   Pages = {1-12},
+
+   Month = {June},
+
+   Abstract = {Multi-instance learning is commonly tackled using special-purpose algorithms.  Development of these algorithms has started because early experiments with standard propositional learners have failed to produce satisfactory results on multi-instance dataâmore specifically, the Musk data.  In this paper we present evidence that this is not necessarily the case.  We introduce a simple wrapper for applying standard propositional learners to multi-instance problems and present empirical results for the Musk data that are competitive with genuine multi-instance algorithms.  The key features of our new wrapper technique are: (1) it discards the standard multi-instance assumption that there is some inherent difference between positive and negative bags, and (2) it introduces weights to treat instances from different bags differently.  We show that these two modifications are essential for producing good results on the Musk benchmark datasets.},
+
+      Year = {2003} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Holmes, G. and Pfahringer, B. and Kirkby, R.B.},
+
+   Title = {Mining data streams using option trees},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {08/03},
+
+   Pages = {1-11},
+
+   Month = {September},
+
+   Abstract = {The data stream model for data mining places harsh restrictions on a learning algorithm.  A model must be induced following the briefest interrogation of the data, must use only available memory and must update itself over time within these constraints.  Additionally, the model must be able to be used for data mining at any point in time.  This paper describes a data stream classification algorithm using an ensemble of option trees.  The ensemble of trees is induced by boosting and iteratively combined into a single interpretable model.  The algorithm is evaluated using benchmark datasets for accuracy against state-of-the-art algorithms that make use of the entire dataset.},
+
+   Keywords = {classification, option trees, ensemble methods, data streams},
+
+   Year = {2003} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Jones, M. and Jain, P. and Buchanan, G. and Marsden, G.},
+
+   Title = {From sit-forward to lean-back: using a mobile device to vary interactive pace},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {03/03},
+
+   Pages = {1-13},
+
+   Month = {March},
+
+   Abstract = {Although online, handheld, mobile computers offer new possibilities in searching and retrieving information on the go, the fast-paced, "sit-forward" style of interaction may not be appropriate for all user search needs.  In this paper, we explore how a handheld computer can be used to enable interactive search experiences that vary in pace from fast and immediate through to reflective and delayed.  We describe a system that asynchronously combines an offline handheld computer and an online desktop Personal Computer, and discuss some results of an initial user evaluation.},
+
+      Year = {2003} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Jones, S.R. and Jones, M. and Deo, S.J.},
+
+   Title = {Using keyphrases as search result surrogates on small screen devices},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {07/03},
+
+   Pages = {1-33},
+
+   Month = {September},
+
+   Abstract = {This paper investigates user interpretation of search result displays on small screen devices.  Such devices present interesting design challenges given their limited display capabilities, particularly in relation to screen size.  Our aim is to provide users with succinct yet useful representations of search results that allow rapid and accurate decisions to be made about the utility of result documents, yet minimize user actions (such as scrolling), the use of device resources, and the volume of data to be downloaded.  Our hypothesis is that keyphrases that are automatically extracted from documents can support this aim.  We report on a user study that compared how accurately users categorized result documents on small screens when the document surrogates consisted of either keyphrases only, or document titles.  We found no significant performance differences between the two conditions.  In addition to these encouraging results, keyphrases have the benefit that they can be extracted and presented when no other document metadata can be identified.},
+
+   Keywords = {Small screen device, searching, usability evaluation, keyphrase extraction},
+
+   Year = {2003} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Reeves, S.V. and Streader, D.},
+
+   Title = {Comparison of data and process refinement},
+
+   Publisher = {University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {05/03},
+
+   Pages = {1-10},
+
+   Month = {May},
+
+   Abstract = {When is it reasonable, or possible, to refine a one place buffer into a two place buffer?  In order to answer this question we characterise refinement based on substitution in restricted contexts.  We see that data refinement (specifically in Z) and process refinement give differing answers to the original question, and we compare the precise circumstances which give rise to this difference by translating programs and processes into labelled transition systems, so providing a common basis upon which to make the comparison.  We also look at the closely related area of subtyping of objects.  Along the way we see how all these sorts of computational construct are related as far as refinement is concerned, discover and characterise some (as far as we can tell) new sorts of refinement and, finally, point up some research avenues for the future.},
+
+   Keywords = {Data refinement, process refinement, labelled transition systems, Z, subtyping, theoretical paper},
+
+   Year = {2003} }
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Bittner, S. and Hinze, A.},
+
+   Title = {Design and analysis of an efficient distributed event notification service},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {11/2004},
+
+   Pages = {1-44},
+
+   Month = {December},
+
+   Abstract = {Event Notification Services (ENS) use the publish/subscribe paradigm to continuously inform subscribers about events they are interested in.  Subscribers define their interest in so-called profiles.  The event information is provided by event publishers, filtered by the service against the profiles, and then send to the subscribers.  In real-time systems such as facility management, an efficiency filter component is one of the most important design goals.
+
+
+
+In this paper, we present our analysis and evaluation of efficient distributed filtering algorithms.  Firstly, we propose a classification and first-cut analysis of distributed filtering algorithms.  Secondly, based on the classification we describe our analysis of selected algorithms.  Thirdly, we describe our ENS prototype DAS that includes three filtering algorithms.  This prototype is tested with respect to efficiency, network traffic and memory consumption.  In this paper, we discuss the results of our practical analysis in detail.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2004/uow-cs-wp-2004-11.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2004} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Bouckaert, R.},
+
+   Title = {Bayesian network classifiers in Weka},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {14/2004},
+
+   Pages = {1-23},
+
+   Month = {September},
+
+   Abstract = {Various Bayesian network classifier learning algorithms are implemented in Weka.  This note provides some user documentation and implementation details.  Summary of the main capabilities:
+
+*  Structure learning of Bayesian networks using various hill climbing (K2, B, etc) and general purpose (simulated annealing, tabu search) algorithms.
+
+*  Local score metrics implemented; Bayes, BDe, MDL, entropy, AIC.
+
+*  Global score metrics implemented; leave one out cv, k-fold cv and cumulative cv.
+
+*  Conditional independence based causal recovery algorithm available.
+
+*  Parameter estimation using direct estimates and Bayesian model averaging.
+
+*  GUI for easy inspection of Bayesian networks.
+
+*  Part of Weka allowing systematic experiments to compare Bayes net performance with general purpose classifiers like C4.5, nearest neighbor, support vector, etc.
+
+*  Source code available under GPL allows for integration in other systems and makes it easy to extend.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2004/uow-cs-wp-2004-14.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2004} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Frank, E.T. and Kramer, S.},
+
+   Title = {Ensembles of nested dichotomies for multi-class problems},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {06/2004},
+
+   Pages = {1-16},
+
+   Month = {February},
+
+   Abstract = {Nested dichotomies are a standard statistical technique for tackling certain polytomous classification problems with logistic regression.  They can be represented as binary trees that recursively split a multi-class classification task into a system of dichotomies and provide a statistically sound way of applying two-class learning algorithms to multi-class problems (assuming these algorithms generate class probability estimates).  However, there are usually many candidate trees for a given problem and in the standard approach the choice of a particular tree is based on domain knowledge that may not be available in practice.  An alternative is to treat every system of nested dichotomies as equally likely and to form an ensemble classifier based on this assumption.  We show that this approach produces more accurate classifications than applying C4.5 and logistic regression directly to multi-class problems.  Our results also show that ensembles of nested dichotomies produce more accurate classifiers than pairwise classification if both techniques are used with C4.5, and comparable results for logistic regression.  Compared to error-correcting output codes, they are preferable if logistic regression is used, and comparable in the case of C4.5.  An additional benefit is that they generate class probability estimates.  Consequently they appear to be a good general-purpose method for applying binary classifiers to multi-class problems.},
+
+      Year = {2004} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Genet, B. and Hinze, A.},
+
+   Title = {Open issues in Semantic Query Optimization in relational DBMS},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {10/2004},
+
+   Pages = {1-30},
+
+   Month = {August},
+
+   Abstract = {After two decades of research into Semantic Query Optimization (SQO) there is clear agreement as to the efficacy of SQO.  However, although there are some experimental implementations there are still no commercial implementations.  We first present a thorough analysis of research into SQO.  We identify three problems which inhibit the effective use of SQO in Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS).  We then propose solutions to these problems and describe first steps towards the implementation of an effective semantic query optimizer for relational databases.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2004/uow-cs-wp-2004-10.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2004} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Holmes, G. and Kirkby, R.B. and Pfahringer, B.},
+
+   Title = {Mining data streams using option trees (revised edition, 2004)},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {03/2004},
+
+   Pages = {1-13},
+
+   Month = {August},
+
+   Abstract = {The data stream model for data mining places harsh restrictions on a learning algorithm.  A model must be induced following the briefest interrogation of the data, must use only available memory and must update itself over time within these constraints.  Additionally, the model must be able to be used for data mining at any point in time.  This paper describes a data stream classification algorithm using an ensemble of option trees.  The ensemble of trees is induced by boosting and iteratively combined into a single interpretable model.  The algorithm is evaluated using benchmark datasets for accuracy against state-of-the-art algorithms that make use of the entire dataset.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2004/uow-cs-wp-2004-03.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2004} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Jones, M. and Marsden, G.},
+
+   Title = {"Please turn ON your mobile phone" - first impressions of text-messaging in lectures},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {07/2004},
+
+   Pages = {1-7},
+
+   Month = {May},
+
+   Abstract = {Previous work by Draper and Brown [3] investigated the use of specialized handsets in increate interactivity in lecture settings. Inspired by their encouraging findings we have been exploring the use of conventional mobile phones and text-messaging to allow students to communicate with the lecturer as the class proceeds.  In our pilot-study, students were able to respond to MCQs and send free-text comments and questions to the lecturer via SMS.  Through observations and interviews with students and lecturers, we gained useful impressions of the value of such an approach.  Students enjoyed the opportunity to be more actively involved but voiced concerns about costs.},
+
+      Year = {2004} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Jung, D. and Hinze, A.},
+
+   Title = {Event notification services: analysis and transformation of profile definition languages},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {12/2004},
+
+   Pages = {1-51},
+
+   Abstract = {The integration of event information from diverse event notification sources is, as with meta-searching over heterogeneous search engines, a challenging task. Due to the complexity of profile definition languages, known solutions for heterogeneous searching cannot be applied for event notification. In this technical report, we propose transformation rules for profile rewriting. We transform each profile defined at a meta-service into a profile expressed in the language of each event notification source. Due to unavoidable asymmetry in the semantics of different languages, some superfluous information may be delivered to the meta-service. These notifications are then post-processed to reduce the number of spurious messages. We present a survey and classification of profile definition languages for event notification, which serves as basis for the transformation rules. The proposed rules are implemented in a prototype transformation module for a Meta-Service for event notification.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2004/uow-cs-wp-2004-12.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2004} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Keegan, T.T. and Cunningham, S.J. and Don, K.},
+
+   Title = {Language switching in a digital library},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {13/2004},
+
+   Pages = {1-7},
+
+   Month = {August},
+
+   Abstract = {In this paper we investigate the effect of default interface language on usage patterns of the Niupepa digital library (a collection of historic Maori language newspapers), by switching the default interface language between Maori and English in alternate weeks. Transaction analysis of the Niupepa collection logs indicates that changing default language affects the length of user sessions and the number of actions within sessions, and that the English language interface was used most frequently.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2004/uow-cs-wp-2004-13.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2004} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Masoodian, M. and McKoy, S. and Rogers, W.J. and Ware, D.},
+
+   Title = {DeepDocument: use of a multi-layered display to provide context awareness in text editing},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {05/2004},
+
+   Pages = {1-13},
+
+   Month = {May},
+
+   Abstract = {The most commonly used view in word processing software shows only the paragraphs of text immediately adjacent to the cursor position.  Generally this is appropriate, for example when composing a single paragraph.  However, when reviewing or working on the layout of a document it is necessary to establish awareness of current text in the context of the document as a whole.  This can be done by scrolling or zooming, but when doing so, focus is easily lost and hard to regain.  Furthermore, in a collaborative editing/review setting it is not only necessary for each user to understand their own context, but also to have an awareness of the contexts of the other participants.  Although systems have been developed that provide awareness in collaborative settings, they usually rely on multiple windows, which use valuable screen real-estate.
+
+
+
+We have developed a system called DeepDocument using a two-layered LCD display in which both focussed and document-wide views are presented simultaneously.  The overview is shown on the rear display and the focussed view on the front, maintaining full screen size for each.  The physical separation of the layers takes advantage of human depth perception capabilities to allow users to perceive the views independently without having to redirect their gaze.  DeepDocument has been written as an extension to Microsoft Wordâ¢.  It also includes awareness features to track focus positions for both single and multiple users.},
+
+   Keywords = {Multi-layered display, context awareness, collaborative awareness, CSCW, text editing, word processing, Deep Videoâ¢, Microsoft Wordâ¢},
+
+   Year = {2004} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Reeve, G.R. and Reeves, S.V.},
+
+   Title = {The syntax and semantics of m-Charts},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {04/2004},
+
+   Pages = {1-65},
+
+   Month = {February},
+
+   Abstract = {m-Charts is a language for specifying the behaviour of reactive systems.  The language is a simplified variant of the well-known language Statecharts that was introduced by Harel [1].  Development of the m-Charts language is ongoing research undertaken under the auspices of the Formal Methods Laboratory of the Computer Science Department, University of Waikato [5].  This paper gives a comprehensive treatment of the syntax and semantic for m-Charts.},
+
+      Year = {2004} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Reeves, S.V. and Streader, D.},
+
+   Title = {Atomic components},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {01/2004},
+
+   Pages = {1-11},
+
+   Month = {February},
+
+   Abstract = {There has been much interest in components that combine the best of state-based and event-based approaches.  The interface of a component can be thought of as its specification and substituting components with the same interface cannot be observed by any user of the components.  Here we will define the semantics of atomic components where both states and event can be part of the interface.  The resulting semantics is very similar to that of (event only) processes.  But it has two main novelties: one, it does not need recursion or unique fixed points to model nontermination; and two, the behaviour of divergence is modelled by abstraction, i.e. the construction of the observational semantics.},
+
+   Keywords = {State and action, components, refinement labelled transition systems, Z},
+
+   Year = {2004} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Reeves, S.V. and Streader, D.},
+
+   Title = {Unifying state and process determinism},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {02/2004},
+
+   Pages = {1-10},
+
+   Month = {February},
+
+   Abstract = {If a coin is given to a deterministic robot that interacts with a deterministic vending machine then is the drink that the robot is delivered determined?  Using process definitions of determinism from CSP, CCS or ACP the answer is "no", whereas state-based definitions of determinism can reasonably be construed as giving the answer "yes".
+
+
+
+In order to unify what we see as discrepancies in state- and action-based notions of determinism we will consider process algebras over two sets of actions: the active or casual actions of the robot and the passive or reactive actions of the vending machine.  In addition we will add priority to the actions and when two t actions are possible then the t action with the highest priority will be executed.},
+
+   Keywords = {Process algebra, determinism, abstraction, hiding state},
+
+   Year = {2004} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {SÃ¡nchez, J.A. and Twidale, M.B. and Nichols, D.M. and Silva, N.N.},
+
+   Title = {Analyzing library collections with starfield visualizations},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {09/2004},
+
+   Pages = {1-12},
+
+   Month = {July},
+
+   Abstract = {This paper presents a qualitative and formative study of the uses of a starfield-based visualization interface for analysis of library collections.  The evaluation process has produced feedback that suggests ways to significantly improve starfield interfaces and the interaction process to improve their learnability and usability.  The study also gave us clear indication of additional potential uses of starfield visualizations that can be exploited by further functionality and interface development.  We report on resulting implications for the design and use of starfield visualizations that will impact their graphical interface features, their use for managing data quality and their potential for various forms of visual data mining.  Although the current implementation and analysis focuses on the collection of a physical library, the most important contributions of our work will be in digital libraries, in which volume, complexity and dynamism of collections are increasing dramatically and tools are needed for visualization and analysis.},
+
+   Keywords = {Collections, starfields, large information spaces, libraries},
+
+   URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2004/uow-cs-wp-2004-09.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2004} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Twidale, M.B. and Nichols, D.M.},
+
+   Title = {Usability discussions in open source development},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {08/2004},
+
+   Pages = {1-11},
+
+   Month = {June},
+
+   Abstract = {The public nature of discussion in open source projects provides a valuable resource for understanding the mechanisms of open source software development.  In this paper we explore how open source projects address issues of usability.  We examine bug reports of several projects to characterise how developers address and resolve issues concerning user interfaces and interaction design.  We discuss how bug reporting and discussion systems can be improved to better support bug reporters and open source developers.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2004/uow-cs-wp-2004-08.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2004} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Bittner, S. and Hinze, A.},
+
+   Title = {Investigating the memory requirements for publish/subscribe filtering algorithms},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {03/2005},
+
+   Month = {August},
+
+   Abstract = {Various filtering algorithms for publish/subscribe systems have been proposed. One distinguishing characteristic is their internal representation of Boolean subscriptions: They either require conversions into disjunctive normal forms (canonical approaches) or are directly exploited in event filtering (non-canonical approaches).
+
+
+
+In this paper we present a detailed analysis and comparison of the memory requirements of canonical and non-canonical filtering algorithms. This includes a theoretical analysis of space usages as well as a verification of our theoretical results by an evaluation of a practical implementation. This practical analysis also considers time (filter) efficiency, which is the other important quality measure of filtering algorithms. By correlating the results of space and time efficiency, we conclude when to use non-canonical and canonical approaches.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2005/uow-cs-wp-2005-03.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2005} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Buchanan, G. and Hinze, A.},
+
+   Title = {A distributed directory service for Greenstone},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {01/2005},
+
+   Pages = {1-18},
+
+   Month = {April},
+
+   Abstract = {Greenstone is a software for creating and maintaining distributed digtal library collections. It provides a sophisticated federation mechanism for the collections. In order to support alerting notification about changes in the distributed collections, we propose a distributed directory service for the management of the distributed Greenstone installations. The Greenstone directory service (GDS) acts on top of the distributed Greenstone structure for the management of collections. this paper describes both, the initial distributed Greenstone structure and the distributed directory service.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2004/uow-cs-wp-2004-01.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2005} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Hinze, A. and Malik, P. and Malik, R.},
+
+   Title = {Towards a TIP 3.0 service-oriented architecture: interaction design},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {08/2005},
+
+   Pages = {1-26},
+
+   Month = {September},
+
+   Abstract = {This paper describes our experience when applying formal methods in the design
+
+of the tourist information system TIP, which presents context-sensitive information to mobile users with small screen devices. The dynamics of this system are very complex and pose several challenges, firstly because of the sophisticated interaction of several applications on a small screen device and the user, and secondly because of the need for communication with highly asynchronous event-based information systems. UML sequence diagrams have been used to capture the requirements and possible interactions of the system. In a second step, a formal model has been created using discrete event systems, in order to thoroughly understand and analyse the dynamics of the system. By verifying general properties of the formal model, several conceptual difficulties have been revealed in very early stages of the design process, considerably speeding up the development. This work shows the limitations of typical methods for interaction design when applied to mobile systems using small screen devices and proposes an alternative approach using discrete event systems.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2005/uow-cs-wp-2005-08.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2005} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Junmanee, S. and Hinze, A.},
+
+   Title = {Advanced recommendation in a mobile tourist information system},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {04/2005},
+
+   Month = {August},
+
+   Abstract = {An advanced tourist information provider system delivers information regarding sights and events on their users' travel route.  In order to give sophisticated personalized information about tourist attractions to their users, the system is required to consider base data which are user preferences defined in their user profiles, user context, sights context, user travel history as well as their feedback given to the sights they have visited.  In addition to sights information, recommendation  on sights to the user could also be provided.  This project concentrates on combinations of knowledge on recommendation systems and base information given by the users to build a recommendation component in the Tourist Information Provider or TIP system.  To accomplish our goal, we not only examine several tourist information systems but also conduct the investigation on recommendation systems.  We propose a number of approaches for advanced recommendation models in a tourist information system and select a subset of these for implementation to prove the concept.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2005/uow-cs-wp-2005-04.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2005} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Kozuka, T. and Hinze, A.},
+
+   Title = {Design and implementation of a filter engine for semantic web documents},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {05/2005},
+
+   Month = {August},
+
+   Abstract = {This report describes our project that addresses the challenge of changes in the semantic web.  Some studies have already been done for the so-called adaptive semantic web, such as applying inferring rules.  In this study, we apply the technology of Event Notification System (ENS).  Treating changes as events, we developed a notification system for such events.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2005/uow-cs-wp-2005-05.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2005} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Michel, Y.-R. and Hinze, A.},
+
+   Title = {ApproXFILTER â an approximative XML filter},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {06/2005},
+
+   Pages = {1-16},
+
+   Month = {October},
+
+   Abstract = {Publish/subscribe systems filter published documents and inform their subscribers about documents matching their interests. Recent systems have focussed on documents or messages sent in XML format. Subscribers have to be familiar with the underlying XML format to create meaningful subscriptions. A service might support several providers with slightly differing formats, e.g., several publishers of books. This makes the definition of a successful subscription almost impossible. We propose the use of an approximative language for subscriptions. We introduce the design our ApproXFILTER algorithm for approximative filtering in a pub/sub system. We present the results of our analysis of a prototypical implementation.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2005/uow-cs-wp-2005-06.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2005} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Reeves, S.V. and Streader, D.},
+
+   Title = {Constructing programs or processes},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {09/2005},
+
+   Pages = {1-13},
+
+   Month = {December},
+
+   Abstract = {We define interacting sequential programs, motivated originally by constructivist
+
+considerations. We use them to investigate notions of implementation and determinism. Process algebras do not define what can be implemented and what cannot. As we demonstrate it is problematic to do so on the set of all processes. Guided by constructivist notions we have constructed interacting sequential programs which we claim can be readily implemented and are a subset of processes.},
+
+   Keywords = {Process algebra, determinism, cause, refinement, constructive},
+
+   URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2005/uow-cs-wp-2005-09.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2005} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Reeves, S.V. and Streader, D.},
+
+   Title = {Stepwise refinement of processes},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {07/2005},
+
+   Pages = {1-15},
+
+   Month = {December},
+
+   Abstract = {Industry is looking to create a market in reliable "plug-and-play" components. To model components in a modular style it would be useful to combine event-based and state-based reasoning. One of the first steps in building an event-based model is to decide upon a set of atomic actions. This choice will depend on the formalism used, and may restrict in quite unexpected ways what we are able to formalise. In this paper we illustrate some limits to developing real world processes using existing formalisms, and we define a new notion of refinement, vertical refinement, which addresses some of these limitations. We show that using vertical refinement we can rewrite a specification into a different formalism, allowing us to move between handshake processes, broadcast processes and abstract data types.},
+
+   Keywords = {Components, process, vertical refinement},
+
+   URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2005/uow-cs-wp-2005-07.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2005} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Witten, I.H. and Bainbridge, D. and Tansley, R. and Huang, C.-Y. and Don, K.},
+
+   Title = {A bridge between Greenstone and DSpace},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {02/2005},
+
+   Pages = {1-10},
+
+   Month = {April},
+
+   Abstract = {Greenstone and Dspace are widely-used software systems for digital libraries, and prospective users sometimes wonder which one to adopt. In fact, the aims of the two are very different, although their domains of application do overlap. This paper describes the systems  and identifies their similarities and differences. We also present StoneD,  a stone bridge between the production versions of Greenstone  and DSpace that allows users of either system to easily migrate to the other, or continue with a combination of both. This bridge eliminates the risk of finding oneself locked in to an inappropriate choice of system. We also discuss other possible opportunities for combining the advantages of the two, to the benefit of the user common of both systems.},
+
+      Year = {2005} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Bittner, S. and Hinze, A.},
+
+   Title = {Event distributions in online book auctions},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {03/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-23},
+
+   Month = {February},
+
+   Abstract = {Current quantitative evaluations in various research areas for pub-lish/subscribe systems use artiï¬cially created event messages to model the system workload. The assumptions made to create these workloads are rather strong and hardly ever described in detail. This does not allow for a repetition of experiments or comparative evaluations of different approaches by different researches.
+
+
+
+In this paper, we present an evaluation of the distributions of the values of attributes typically used in online auction scenarios. In particular, we focus on auctions of ï¬ction books. We further show our approach of creating event messages by the help of the gained information. Publishing this information on how to create a typical workload for online auctions should allow for the repetition of experiments and the comparison of different evaluations.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-03.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2006} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Bittner, S. and Hinze, A.},
+
+   Title = {Subscription tree pruning: a structure-independent routing optimization for general-purpose publish/subscribe systems},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {01/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-31},
+
+   Month = {January},
+
+   Abstract = {A main challenge in distributed publish/subscribe systems is the efficient and scalable routing of incoming information (event messages). For large-scale publish/subscribe services, subscription forwarding has been established as a prevalent routing scheme. It reduces the network traffic for event routing due to selectively forwarding event messages to relevant parts of the network only. To further improve event routing, publish/subscribe systems apply routing optimizations. So far, optimizations for general-purpose publish/subscribe systems are still missing.
+
+
+
+In this paper, we present the architecture, realization, and evaluation of our prototype of a large-scale publish/subscribe service applying a novel routing optimization, subscription tree pruning. We also show a comparison of five existing routing optimizations in respect to six important characteristic parameters affecting the suitability of these approaches in practice (including space usage, time efficiency (throughput), and network load). This comparative analysis clearly demonstrates the advantages of subscription pruning over other routing optimizations. In our practical experiments, we then investigate the behavior of our prototype regarding all quantitatively measurable parameters from our previously theoretically analyzed ones. Our evaluation of subscription pruning in this paper is more extensive than previous analyses of any routing optimizations for publish/subscribe systems, which focus on selected parameters only.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-01.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2006} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Hinze, A. and Jung, D. and Cunningham, S.J.},
+
+   Title = {Proceedings of the Second Computing Women Congress (CWC 2006): Student Papers, Hamilton, New Zealand, 11-19 February 2006},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {02/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-32},
+
+   Month = {February},
+
+   Abstract = {The Second Computing Women Congress was held at the University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand from February 11th to 19th, 2006.  The Computing Women Congress (CWC) is a Summer University of women in computer science.  It is a meeting-place for female students, academics and professionals who study or work in Information Technology.  CWC provides a forum to learn about and share the latest ideas of computing related topics in a supportive environment.  CWC provides an open, explorative learning and teaching environment.  Experimentation with new styles of learning is encouraged, with an emphasis on hands-on experience and engaging participatory techniques.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-02.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2006} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Utting, M. and Pretschner, A. and Legeard, B.},
+
+   Title = {A taxonomy of model-based testing},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {04/2006},
+
+      Year = {2006} }
+      
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Bittner, S. and Hinze, A.},
+
+   Title = {Arbitrary Boolean advertisements: the final step in supporting the Boolean publish/subscribe model},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {06/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-46},
+
+   Month = {June},
+
+   Abstract = {Publish/subscribe systems allow for an efficient filtering of incoming information. This filtering is based on the specifications of subscriber interests, which are registered with the system as subscriptions. Publishers conversely specify advertisements, describing the messages they will send later-on. What is missing so far is the support of arbitrary Boolean advertisements in publish/subscribe systems. Introducing the opportunity to specify these richer Boolean advertisements increases the accuracy of publishers to state their future messages compared to currently supported conjunctive advertisements. Thus, the amount of subscriptions forwarded in the network is reduced. Additionally, the system can more time efficiently decide whether a subscription needs to be forwarded and more space efficiently store and index advertisements. 
+
+
+
+In this paper, we introduce a publish/subscribe system that supports arbitrary Boolean advertisements and, symmetrically, arbitrary Boolean subscriptions. We show the advantages of supporting arbitrary Boolean advertisements and present an algorithm to calculate the practically required overlapping relationship among subscriptions and advertisements. Additionally, we develop the first optimization approach for arbitrary Boolean advertisements, advertisement pruning. Advertisement pruning is tailored to optimize advertisements, which is a strong contrast to current optimizations for conjunctive advertisements. These recent proposals mainly apply subscription-based optimization ideas, which is leading to the same disadvantages. 
+
+
+
+In the second part of this paper, our evaluation of practical experiments, we analyze the efficiency properties of our approach to determine the overlapping relationship. We also compare conjunctive solutions for the overlapping problem to our calculation algorithm to show its benefits. Finally, we present a detailed evaluation of the optimization potential of advertisement pruning. This includes the analysis of the effects of additionally optimizing subscriptions on the advertisement pruning optimization.
+
+},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-06.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2006} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Hall, M.},
+
+   Title = {A decision tree-based attribute weighting filter for Naive Bayes},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {05/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-12},
+
+   Month = {May},
+
+   Abstract = {The naive Bayes classiï¬er continues to be a popular learning algorithm for data mining applications due to its simplicity and linear run-time. Many enhancements to the basic algorithm have been proposed to help mitigate its primary weaknessâthe assumption that attributes are independent given the class. All of them improve the performance of naive Bayes at the expense (to a greater or lesser degree) of execution time and/or simplicity of the ï¬na lmodel. In this paper we present a simple ï¬lter method for setting attribute weights for use with naive Bayes. Experimental results show that naive Bayes with attribute weights rarely degrades the quality of the model compared to standard naive Bayes and, in many cases, improves it dramatically. The main advantages of this method compared to other approaches for improving naive Bayes is its run-time complexity and the fact that it maintains the simplicity of the ï¬nal model.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-05.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2006} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Reeves, S. and Streader, D.},
+
+   Title = {Liberalising Event B without changing it},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {07/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-13},
+
+   Month = {July},
+
+   Abstract = {We transfer a process algebraic notion of refinement to the B method by using the well-known bridge between the relational semantics underlying the B machines and the labelled transition system semantics of processes. Thus we define delta refinement on Event B systems. We then apply this new refinement to a problem from the literature that previously could only be solved by retrenchment.},
+
+   Keywords = {process refinement, automatic verification, frame refinement, Event B},
+
+   URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-07.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2006} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Reeves, S. and Streader, D.},
+
+   Title = {LSB - Live and Safe B alternative semantics for Event B},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {08/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-18},
+
+   Month = {July},
+
+   Abstract = {We define two lifted, total relation semantics for Event B machines: Safe B for
+
+safety-only properties and Live B for liveness properties. The usual Event B proof
+
+obligations, Safe, are sufficient to establish Safe B refinement. Satisfying Safe
+
+plus a simple additional proof obligation ACT_REF is sufficient to establish Live
+
+B refinement. The use of lifted, total relations both prevents the ambiguity of the
+
+unlifted relational semantics and prevents operations being clairvoyant.},
+
+   Keywords = {Process refinement, Event B, Live B, Safe B, LSB},
+
+   URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-08.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2006} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Reeves, S. and Streader, D.},
+
+   Title = {State- and Event-based refinement},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {09/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-8},
+
+   Month = {September},
+
+   Abstract = {In this paper we give simple example abstract data types, with atomic operations, that are related by data refinement under a definition used widely in the literature, but these abstract data types are not related by singleton failure refinement. This contradicts results found in the literature. Further we show that a common way to change a model of atomic operations to one of value passing operations actually changes the underlying atomic operational semantics.},
+
+   Keywords = {Data refinement, process refinement, singleton failures},
+
+   URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-09.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2006} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Twidale, M.B. and Nichols, D.M.},
+
+   Title = {Computational sense: the role of technology in the education of digital librarians},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {10/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-8},
+
+   Month = {October},
+
+   Abstract = {The rapid progress of digital library technology from research to implementation has created a force for change in the curricula of library schools. The education of future librarians has always had to adapt to new technologies but the pace, complexity and implications of digital libraries pose considerable challenges. In this article we explore how we might successfully blend elements of computer science and library science to produce effective educational experiences for the digital librarians of tomorrow. We first outline the background to current digital librarian education and then propose the concept of computational sense as an appropriate meeting point for these two disciplines.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-10.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2006} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/metadata/dublin.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/metadata/dublin.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/metadata/dublin.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1617 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet SYSTEM "http://www.greenstone.org/dtd/MetadataSet/1.0/MetadataSet.dtd">
+<MetadataSet contact="dcmi-feedback@dublincore.org" creator="Dublin Core Metadata Initiative" family="Dublin Core" language_dependent="label, definition, comment" lastchanged="Tue Sep 05 14:40:36 NZST 2006 - kjdon on kanuka" namespace="dc">
+    <!-- English Version sourced from http://www.dublincore.org/documents/dces/ -->
+    <SetLanguage code="en">
+        <Name language="en">Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, Version 1.1: Reference Description</Name>
+        <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.1 of the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set. This document supersedes the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, version 1.0. See the Dublin Core Home Page (http://dublincore.org) for further information about the workshops, reports, working group papers, projects, and new developments concerning the Dublin Core Metadata Element set</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Maori Version sourced from http://www.tki.org.nz/r/maori/pedagogy/dc_elements_m.php -->
+    <SetLanguage code="mi">
+        <Name>Dublin Core Huanga - Maori (He Tauira)</Name>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- French Version sourced from http://www-rocq.inria.fr/%7Evercoust/METADATA/DC-fr.1.1.html -->
+    <!--  by Anne-Marie Vercoustre, Inria -->
+    <SetLanguage code="fr">
+        <Name language="fr">ElÃ©ments de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es du Dublin Core, Version 1.1: Description de RÃ©ference</Name>
+        <Description language="fr">Ce document rÃ©sume les derniÃšres dÃ©finitions des Ã©lÃ©ments demÃ©tadonnÃ©es du Dublin Core originellement dÃ©finis dans le document[RFC2413]. Ces nouvelles dÃ©finitions seront officiellement connues comme la Version 1.1. Elles utilisent un standard dÃ©fini formellement pour la description d&apos;Ã©lÃ©ments de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es. Cette formalisation contribue Ã  amÃ©liorer la cohÃ©rence avec d&apos;autres communautÃ©s dÃ©crivant des mÃ©tadonnÃ©es et Ã  augmenter la prÃ©cision, la portÃ©e et la cohÃ©rence interne de la dÃ©finition des Ã©lÃ©ments du Dublin Core.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Russian Version sourced from -->
+    <!-- by Olga Barysheva, National Library of Russia -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ru">
+        <Name language="ru">ÐÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Dublin Core (ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐœÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŽÑÐ°) ÐÐµÑÑÐžÑ 1.1: Ð¡Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ</Name>
+        <Description language="ru">ÐÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐŸÐ±ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸÐ²Ð»ÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Dublin Core (ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐœÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŽÑÐ°), Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐŸÐœÐ°ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð² RFC2413 (ÐÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ Dublin Core ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐ¶ÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐŸÐ²). Ð­ÑÐž ÐœÐŸÐ²ÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŸÑÐžÑÐžÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÑÑÐœÑ ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐÐµÑÑÐžÑ 1.1.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Spanish Version sourced from http://www.rediris.es/metadata/. Please note that this is a translation for Dublin Core v1.0 -->
+    <!-- by Javi Masa, RedIRIS -->
+    <SetLanguage code="es">
+        <Name language="es">Elementos del conjunto de metadatas de Dublin Core: DescripciÃ³n de Referencia</Name>
+        <Description language="es">Este documento corresponde a una traducciÃ³n del original en lengua inglesa, con fecha 02/11/1997 que se encuentra en http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core_elements. Este documento es una descripciÃ³n de referencia de los elementos del conjunto de &quot;Dublin Core&quot;. Para mÃ¡s informaciÃ³n sobre reuniones de trabajo, documentos de trabajo, proyectos y nuevos desarrollos relacionados con el conjunto de elementos que aquÃ­ se describen consultar la &quot;Home Page&quot; de &quot;Dublin Core&quot; (http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core). Los elementos poseen nombres descriptivos que pretenden transmitir un significado semÃ¡ntico a los mismos. Para promover una interoperabilidad global, una descripciÃ³n del valor de algunos elementos prodrÃ¡ ser asociada a vocabularios controlados. Se asume que otros vocabularios controlados serÃ¡n desarrollados para asegurar esta interoperabilidad en dominios especÃ­ficos. Cada elemento es opcional y puede repetirse. AdemÃ¡s, los elementos pueden aparecer en cualquier orden. Aunque algunos entornos, como HTML, no diferencian entre mayÃºsculas y minÃºsculas, es recomendable escribir correctamente cada metadata segÃºn su definiciÃ³n para evitar conflictos con otros entornos, como XML (Extensible Markup Language) http://www.w3.org/TR/PR-xml</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Arabic Version sourced from http://haddouti.de/DC_arabic.html -->
+    <!-- maintained by Hachim Haddouti. -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ar">
+        <Name>Ø¯ØšÙÙÙ ÙÙØ±</Name>
+        <Description>ÙØ±Ø­Øš ØšÙÙ
+ ÙÙ ØµÙØ­Ø©  Ø¯ ØšÙÙÙ ÙÙ  Ø± ØšØ§ÙØ¹Ø±ØšÙ    ÙÙ  ÙØ°Ù Ø§ÙØµÙØ­Ø©  Ù ØšØ§ÙØªØ¹Ø§ÙÙ Ù
+Ø¹ Ø§ÙØ§Ø®ÙØ§Ù Ø§ÙØ¹Ø±Øš Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªØšØ§ØªØ Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø§ÙÙØŽØ±Ø Ø§ÙØšØ­ÙØ« Ø§ÙØ¹ÙÙ
+ÙØ© Ù    ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+ÙWorking Group On Multilingual Dublin Core (DC-International) Ø</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Chinese - Simplified Version from http://dc.library.sh.cn/DC/1-1.htm -->
+    <!-- by Liu Wei, Shanghai Library -->
+    <SetLanguage code="cn">
+        <Name>éœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ é1.1çïŒåèæè¿°</Name>
+        <Description>æ¬ææ¡£å
+³äºéœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ é1.1çæ¬çåèæè¿°ãæ­€æè¿°äžå·²ç»æäº€ç»ISOçšäºåœé
+æç¥šçNISOå®æ¹æ åä¿æäžèŽã    éœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®éæ¯äžç§è·šé¢åçä¿¡æ¯èµæºæè¿°æ åãè¿éçä¿¡æ¯èµæºè¢«å®ä¹äžºâä»»äœå
+·ææ è¯çäžè¥¿âãæ­€å®ä¹æ¥èªäºTim Berners-Leeç­äººæèçInternet RFC2396 &quot;Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax&quot;æä»¶ãéœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®çåºçšé¢åæ²¡ææ ¹æ¬çéå¶ã</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Czech Version from http://www.ics.muni.cz/dublin_core/DC-czech-1.1.html -->
+    <!-- Ustav vypocetni techniky Masarykovy univerzity v Brne -->
+    <SetLanguage code="cs">
+        <Name>Soubor metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core, verze 1.1: referenÄnÃ­ popis</Name>
+        <Description>Tento dokument je ÄeskÃœm pÅekladem anglickÃ© verze referenÄnÃ­ho popisu souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯  Dublin Core, verze 1.1 [DCEN1.1]. Tento dokument nahrazuje ÄeskÃœ pÅeklad souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core, verze 1.0 [DCCS1.0]. DalÅ¡Ã­ informace o pracovnÃ­ch seminÃ¡ÅÃ­ch (workshopech), zprÃ¡vÃ¡ch, studiÃ­ch pracovnÃ­ch skupin, projektech a dalÅ¡Ã­m vÃœvoji souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core najdete na domovskÃ© strÃ¡nce Dublin Core (http://purl.org/dc)</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Dutch Version from http://www.kb.nl/coop/donor/project-nl-index.html?/coop/donor/rapporten/DCsimpleformat.html -->
+    <!-- by ... -->
+    <SetLanguage code="nl">
+        <Name>Rapporten Dublin Core Simple Format</Name>
+        <Description>Dit document beschrijft welke Dublin Core metadata elementen er zijn en geeft een korte definitie van elk element. Voor uitgebreide uitleg en gebruik van de Dublin Core elementen wordt u verwezen naar de gebruikershandleiding. Deze vertaling geeft ook de keuzes aan voor standaarden (taalcodes, datum codes) die wij in DONOR verband gaan hanteren. In zoverre kan deze vertaling afwijken van het oorspronkelijke document &quot;Description of Dublin Core Elements&quot; http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core_elements&quot;</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Finnish Version from http://www.lib.helsinki.fi/dublin_core/dcref-fin.html -->
+    <!-- by Jani Stenvall and Juha Hakala, Helsinki University Library -->
+    <SetLanguage code="fi">
+        <Name/>
+        <Description/>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Interlingua Version sourced from http://www.nautilus.com.br/%7Eensjo/ia/purl.org/dc/documents/rec-dces-19990702.htm -->
+    <!-- by Emerson Jose` Silveira da Costa -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ia">
+        <Name>Collection de elementos de metadatos de Dublin Core, version 1.1: Description de referentia</Name>
+        <Description>Isto es un traduction de un Recommendation del Dublin Core Metadata Initiative. Le publication como un recommendation significa que le specificationes es stabile e su adoption es supportate per le communitate Dublin Core (http://purl.org/dc/).</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Marathi Version sourced from http://bioinfo.ernet.in/library/dc/ele.txt -->
+    <!-- by by Shubhada Nagarkar, Bioinformatics Centre, University of Pune -->
+    <SetLanguage code="mr">
+        <Name>à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿ à€žà¥à€ à€à€µà¥à€€à¥à€€à¥ à¥§.à¥§ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­ à€žà¥à€ªà€·à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£ à¥§.à¥§ à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿà€à€µà¥à€€à¥à€€à¥ à¥§.à¥§.</Name>
+        <Description>à¥§.à¥§ à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿ à€¹à¥ à€µà¥à€à€µà¥à€à€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€µà€¿à€·à€¯à€Ÿà€€à¥à€² à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€µà€Šà¥à€Šà€²à€à¥ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€Šà¥à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à€¹à¥.  à€¯à€Ÿà€€ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€®à¥à€¹à€£à€à¥ à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€²à€Ÿ à€à€³à€ à€à€¹à¥ à€
+à€žà€Ÿ à€à€žà€€à¥.  à€
+à€¶à€Ÿ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°à€à¥ à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€µà€°à¥à€² à€. à€à€«.à€žà¥. à¥šà¥©à¥¯à¥¬URI: Generic Syntax -- Tim Berners Lee et al. à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à¥à€£à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¹à¥ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥ à€µà€Ÿà€ªà€°à€€à€Ÿ à€¯à¥à€€à¥.  à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€žà€Ÿà€ à¥ à€à¥à€£à€€à€Ÿà€¹à¥ à€®à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€µ à€šà€Ÿà€¹à¥.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <Element name="Title">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Title</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A name given to the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Title will be a name by which the resource is formally known.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Taitara</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te ingoa ka tapaina tetahi rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ko te Taitara te ingoa ka mohio whanuitia te ingoa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Titre</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le nom donnÃ© Ã  la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, un titre sera le nom par lequel la ressource est officiellement connue.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐŒÑ, ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÑ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŒÑ, Ð¿ÐŸÐŽ ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ ÐŸÑÐžÑÐžÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÑÑÐµÐœ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">TÃ­tulo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">El nombre dado a un recurso, usualmente por el autor.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØ¹ÙÙØ§Ù</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ§Ø³Ù
+ ÙØ¹Ø·Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, Ù
+Ù ÙØšÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŽØ±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èµæºå</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµäºèµæºçåç§°ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èµæºåäžè¬æèµæºå¯¹è±¡æ­£åŒå
+¬åŒçåç§°ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">NÃ¡zev</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">JmÃ©no danÃ© zdroji.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">NÃ¡zev bude typicky jmÃ©no, pod nÃ­mÅŸ je zdroj oficiÃ¡lnÄ znÃ¡m.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Titel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De naam van de Internetbron. Meestal gegeven door de auteur, maker of uitgever</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Titulo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un nomine date al ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente se utiliza un nomine per le qual le ressource es formalmente cognite.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€ªà€°à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¯à¥ à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€žà€à€à¥à€·à€¿à€ªà¥à€€ ,  à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿà€à€€à€°à¥à€€  à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Creator">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Creator</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity primarily responsible for making the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Creator include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Creator should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaihanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi, nana, na ratou ranei i matua oti ai te hanganga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaihanga. Ko te tikanga, ko te Kaihanga te ingoa ka whakamahia hei tohu i te putahi na ratou te hanganga.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">CrÃ©ateur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">L&apos;entitÃ© principalement responsable de la crÃ©ation du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples de CrÃ©ateur incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, un nom du CrÃ©ateur devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© pour dÃ©signer cette entitÃ©.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, ÐœÐµÑÑÑÐµÐµ Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐžÑÐœÑÑ ÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÑ Ð·Ð° ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Autor o Creador</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La persona u organizaciÃ³n responsable de la creaciÃ³n del contenido intelectual del recurso. Por ejemplo, los autores en el caso de documentos escritos, artistas, fotografos e ilustradores en el caso de recursos visuales.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØ§ØªØš Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø£ÙÙØ§  Ø¹Ù ÙØŽØŠ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ± Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ø¹ÙÙ Ø³ØšÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø«Ø§Ù , Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€ÙÙÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ØŠÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªÙØšØ© , Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØ§ÙÙÙ , Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµÙØ±ÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ØŠÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">åå»ºè
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">åå»ºèµæºå
+å®¹çäž»èŠèŽ£ä»»è
+ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åå»ºè
+çå®äŸå
+æ¬äžªäººïŒç»ç»ææé¡¹æå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒçšåå»ºè
+çåç§°æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">TvÅ¯rce</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita primÃ¡rnÄ odpovÄdnÃ¡ za vytvoÅenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady TvÅ¯rce zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no tvÅ¯rce.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Auteur of maker</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De auteur, maker of organisatie die primair verantwoordelijk is voor de intellectuele inhoud van het werk. Bijvoorbeeld auteurs in geval van geschreven documenten, artiesten, fotografen of illustrators in geval van visuele bronnen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Creator</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le entitate primarimente responsabile pro producer le contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de creator include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de creator pro indicar iste entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€šà€¿à€°à¥à€®à€Ÿà€€à€Ÿ, à€à€šà€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€šà€¿à€°à¥à€®à€Ÿà€£  à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.  à€²à¥à€à€, à€²à¥à€à€¿à€à€Ÿ,  à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥, à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ,  à€žà€à€ªà€Ÿà€Šà€, à€žà€à€ªà€Ÿà€Šà€¿à€à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Subject">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Subject and Keywords</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The topic of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Subject will be expressed as keywords, key phrases or classification codes that describe a topic of the resource. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary or formal classification scheme.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaupapa</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te take/ nga take o te kaupapa, o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka whakaaturia te kaupapa o te rauemi e nga kupu matua, nga kimahi matua, nga tohu wehewehenga whakaahua ranei.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Sujet</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le sujet du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, le sujet sera dÃ©crit par un ensemble de mots-clefs ou de phrases ou un code de classification qui prÃ©cisent le sujet de la ressource. L&apos;utilisation de vocabulaires contrÃŽlÃ©s et de schÃ©mas formels de classification est encouragÃ©e.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ Ðž ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÐµ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¢ÐµÐŒÐ° ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ Ð²ÑÑÐ°Ð¶Ð°ÐµÑÑÑ Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐŸÑÑÑ ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ², ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÑÑÐ°Ð· ÐžÐ»Ðž  ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÐºÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ², ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÑÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÐŒÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑ
+ÐµÐŒÑ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Claves</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Los tÃ³picos del recurso. TÃ­picamente, Subject expresarÃ¡ las claves o frases que describen el tÃ­tulo o el contenido del recurso. Se fomentarÃ¡ el uso de vocabularios controlados y de sistemas de clasificaciÃ³n formales. Se pueden ver ejemplos de vocabularios controlados en: Controlled vocabularies, thesauri and classification systems available in the WWW. DC Subject</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§ÙØ±ØŠÙØ³ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ù
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±. ÙÙ
+ÙØ°Ø¬ÙØ§  ÙØ¹ØšØ± Ø¹Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ ØšØ§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+Ù
+ÙØªØ§Ø­  Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª  Ø§Ù Ø¬Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ  ØªØµÙ Ù
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ø§Ù Ù
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù ÙØ³ØªØ­Ø³Ù Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ù
+ÙØ±Ø¯Ø§Øª Ù
+Ø®Ø·Ø·Ø©Ù Ù
+Ø­ÙÙ
+Ø©  ÙØ§Ø¯ÙØ© ØªØµÙÙÙ ØŽÙÙÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">äž»é¢åå
+³é®è¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çäž»é¢æè¿°ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åŠæèŠæè¿°ç¹å®èµæºçæäžäž»é¢ïŒäžè¬éçšå
+³é®è¯ãå
+³é®å­ç­è¯­æåç±»å·ïŒæå¥œäž»é¢åå
+³é®è¯ä»åæ§    è¯è¡šæè§èçåç±»äœç³»äž­ååŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PÅedmÄt a klÃ­ÄovÃ¡ slova</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">TÃ©ma obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅedmÄt bude typicky vyjÃ¡dÅen pomocÃ­ klÃ­ÄovÃœch slov, klÃ­ÄovÃœch frÃ¡zÃ­ nebo klasifikaÄnÃ­ch znakÅ¯ popisujÃ­cÃ­ch tÃ©ma zdroje. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu prvku z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku nebo formÃ¡lnÃ­ho klasifikaÄnÃ­ho schÃ©matu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Onderwerp en trefwoorden</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het onderwerp van de Internetbron. Het onderwerp wordt beschreven in korte zinnen of door het gebruik van trefwoorden. Het gebruik van gecontroleerde trefwoorden of classificatie schema&apos;s wordt aanbevolen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Subjecto e parolas-clave</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le topico del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le subjecto es expresse per medio de parolas-clave, phrases-clave, o codices de classification que describe le topico del ressource. Le melior practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate o un schema formal de classification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€µà€¿à€·à€¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€µà€¿à€·à€¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ, à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€šà€žà€Ÿà€§à€šà¥ à€¯à€Ÿà€€à¥à€² à€à€¶à€¯ à€žà¥à€ªà€·à¥à€ à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à¥ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Š, à€µà€¿à€·à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€µà€°à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£ à€à€°à€€à€Ÿà€šà€Ÿ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Šà€žà€à€à¥à€°à€¹ à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Š à€à¥à€·à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€µà€Ÿà€ªà€° à€à€°à€Ÿà€µà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Description">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An account of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Description may include but is not limited to: an abstract, table of contents, reference to a graphical representation of content or a free-text account of the content.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Whakaaturanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He whakaaturanga o nga kaupapa o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ka uru atu, engari ehara noa ko: te whakarapopototanga korero, te ihirangi, te tohutanga o te kaupapa ma te whakaahua, te whakaaturanga kore kupu ranei, o te kauapapa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une description du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Une Description peut contenir, mais ce n&apos;est pas limitatif: un rÃ©sumÃ©, une table des matiÃšres, une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une reprÃ©sentation graphique du contenu, ou un texte libre sur le contenu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¡ÐŸÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÐž ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐŸ (Ð¿ÐŸ ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÑÑÐž) Ð² Ð²ÐžÐŽÐµ: ÑÐµÑÐµÑÐ°ÑÐ°, ÐŸÐ³Ð»Ð°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ, ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐž ÐœÐ° Ð³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">DescripciÃ³n</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una descripciÃ³n textual del recurso, tal como un resumen en el caso de un documento o una descripciÃ³n del contenido en el caso de un documento visual.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØµÙ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ ÙØµÙ ÙØµÙ  ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, ÙÙØ¶Ù
+ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ®ØµØ§Øª ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙØ«Ø§ØŠÙ Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø§ÙØ§ØŽÙØ§Ø¡ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªÙØšØ© Ø§Ù ØªÙØµÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ØŠÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">è¯Žæ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çè§£é</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">è¯Žæå¯ä»¥å
+æ¬äœäžéäºä»¥äžå
+å®¹ïŒææãç®åœãå¯¹ä»¥åŸåœ¢æ¥æ­ç€ºå
+å®¹çèµæºèèšçæå­è¯Žæãæè
+äž    äžªæå
+³èµæºå
+å®¹çèªç±ææ¬æè¿°ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Popis</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">VysvÄtlenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Popis mÅ¯ÅŸe obsahovat (mimo jinÃ©): abstrakt, obsah, odkaz na grafickÃ© nebo volnÃ© textovÃ© vyjÃ¡dÅenÃ­ obsahu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Omschrijving</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een omschrijving van de inhoud van de Internetbron. Abstracts of inhoudsomschrijvingen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un description del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le description pote includer, ma non se limita a: summario, indice, referentia a un representation graphic del contento o un texto libere a proposito del contento.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€µà€°à¥à€£à€š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥, à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€šà€žà€Ÿà€§à€šà€Ÿà€à¥à€µà€°à¥à€£à€š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€šà€¿à€µà¥à€Šà€š, à€à€²à¥à€, à€à€¿à€€à¥à€°à€°à¥à€ª</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Publisher">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Publisher</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity responsible for making the resource available.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Publisher include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Publisher should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaiwhakaputa</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi nana i whakaputa te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaiwhakaputa. Ko te tikanga, ka whakamahia te ingoa o te Kaiwhakaputa hei tohu i te putahi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Editeur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">L&apos;entitÃ© responsable de la diffusion de la ressource, dans sa forme actuelle, tels, un dÃ©partement universitaire, une entreprise.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples d&apos;Editeurs incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, le nom d&apos;une maison d&apos;Ã©dition devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© ici.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, ÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ Ð·Ð° Ð²Ð²ÐŸÐŽ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° Ð² ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Editor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">&gt;La entidad responsable de hacer que el recurso se encuentre disponible en la red en su formato actual, por ejemplo la empresa editora, un departamento universitario u otro tipo de organizaciÃ³n.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŽØ±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØŠØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø€ÙÙØ© Ø¹Ù ØµÙØ§Ø¹Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªÙÙØ± ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØªÙ Ø§ÙØ­Ø§Ø¶Ø±Ø©, Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø§ÙÙØŽØ±, ÙØ³Ù
+ Ø¬Ø§Ù
+Ø¹Ù Ø§Ù Ù
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§Ø¹Ù
+Ø§Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">åºçè
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">äœ¿èµæºæäžºå¯ä»¥è·åŸå¹¶å¯çšçèŽ£ä»»è
+ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åºçè
+çå®äŸå
+æ¬äžªäœïŒç»ç»ïŒææå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒåºè¯¥çšåºçè
+çåç§°æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Vydavatel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita odpovÄdnÃ¡ za zpÅÃ­stupnÄnÃ­ zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady Vydavatele zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no vydavatele.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Uitgever</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De entiteit die verantwoordelijk is voor het beschikbaarstellen van de Internetbron in de huidig vorm. Bijvoorbeeld een uitgeversbedrijf, een universiteitsafdeling.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Editor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un entitate responsabile pro disponibilizar le ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de editor include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de editor pro indicar le entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ  à€à€ªà€²à€¬à¥à€§ à€à€°à¥à€š à€Šà¥à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.à€ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€ , à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€š  à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ, à€žà¥à€µà€Ÿ    à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€² à€°à¥à€ªà€Ÿà€€  à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€à€à€à€°à€šà¥à€ à€µà€° à€à€ªà€²à€¬à¥à€§ à€à€°à¥à€š à€Šà¥à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Contributor">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Contributor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity responsible for making contributions to the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Contributor include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Contributor should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaiwhakaaro</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi nana, na ratou ranei nga whakakaupapatanga whakaaro o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaiwhakaaro. Ko te tikanga ka whakamahia te ingoa o te Kaiwhakaaro hei tohu i te putahi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Contributeur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une entitÃ© qui a contribuÃ© Ã  la crÃ©ation du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples de Contributeur incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, le nom d&apos;un contributeur devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© ici pour dÃ©signer l&apos;entitÃ©.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, Ð²ÐœÐµÑÑÐµÐµ Ð²ÐºÐ»Ð°ÐŽ Ð² ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Otros Colaboradores</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una persona u organizacion que haya tenido una contribuciÃ³n intelectual significativa en la creaciÃ³n del recurso pero cuyas contribuciones son secundarias en comparaciÃ³n a las de las personas u organizaciones especificadas en el elementeo Creator (por ejemplo, editor, ilustrador y traductor).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+ Ø§ÙØ§Ø®Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§ÙØºÙØ± Ù
+Ø°ÙÙØ± ØµØ±Ø§Ø­Ø© ÙÙ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù &quot; Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹ &quot; Ù Ø§ÙØ°Ù ÙØ¯Ù
+ Ù
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø§Øª ÙÙØ±ÙØ© ÙØ§Ù
+Ø© ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, ÙÙÙ Ù
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªÙØªØšÙÙ    Ø«Ø§ÙÙÙØ© Ù
+ÙØ§Ø±ÙØ© Ù
+Ø¹ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø£Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø°ÙÙØ±Ø© ÙØµØ§ ÙÙ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù &quot; Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØŽØŠ &quot; Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§Ù Ù
+ØµØ­Ø­, Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ±Ø¬Ù
+, Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ³Ø±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">å
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">å¯¹èµæºçå
+å®¹äœåºèŽ¡ç®çå
+¶ä»å®äœã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+çå®äŸå¯å
+æ¬äžªäººãç»ç»ææé¡¹æå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒçšå
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+çåå­æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PÅispÄvatel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita, kterÃ¡ pÅispÄla k vytvoÅenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady PÅispÄvatele zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no pÅispÄvatele.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Andere medewerkers</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een persoon of organisatie die een belangrijke bijdrage heeft geleverd, maar die secondair is aan de persoon of organisatie die bij &quot;Creator&quot; genoemd wordt. Gedacht kan worden aan editors, vertalers en illustrators.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Contribuente</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un entitate responsabile pro facer contributiones al contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de contribuente include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de contribuente pro indicar le entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label"> à€žà€¹à€¯à¥à€à€, à€žà€¹à€¯à¥à€à¥, à€žà€¹à€Ÿà€¯à¥à€¯à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€žà€à€à€²à¥à€€ à€à€°à€£à¥à¥à€Ÿà€ž  à€®à€Šà€€ à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à¥ à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.à€ à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥, à€žà¥à€µà€Ÿ, à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Date">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Date</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A date associated with an event in the life cycle of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, Date will be associated with the creation or availability of the resource.  Recommended best practice for encoding the date value is defined in a profile of ISO 8601 and follows the YYYY-MM-DD format.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ra</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He ra e whai panga ana ki te huringa ora o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka whai panga te ra ki te hanganga, te wateatanga ranei, o te rauemi. Ko te huarahi tino pai hei tohu i te uara o te ra (date value) kua whakaritea i roto i te whakaritenga IS0 8601 [W3CDTF], a, e whai atu ana ki te whakatakotoranga YYYY-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Date</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une date associÃ©e avec un Ã©vÃ©nement dans le cycle de vie de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, une date sera associÃ©e Ã  la crÃ©ation ou Ã  la publication d&apos;une ressource. Il est fortement recommandÃ© d&apos;encoder la valeur de la date en utilisant le format dÃ©fini par l&apos;ISO 8601 [W3CDTF] sous la forme AAAA-MM-JJ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ°ÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐ°ÑÐ°, ÑÐ²ÑÐ·Ð°ÐœÐœÐ°Ñ Ñ ÑÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐžÐµÐŒ Ð² Ð¶ÐžÐ·ÐœÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐžÐºÐ»Ðµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐÐ°ÑÐ° Ð°ÑÑÐŸÑÐžÐžÑÑÐµÑÑÑ Ñ ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÐŸÑÑÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. ÐÐ° Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÐºÐµ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐŸÐŽÐžÑÐŸÐ²ÐºÐž Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐžÐ»Ñ ISO 8601 (Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÑ ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐž W3C), ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐÐÐÐ-ÐÐ-ÐÐ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Fecha</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una fecha en la que el recurso se puso a disposiciÃ³n del usuario en su forma actual. Esta fecha no ha de confundirse con la que pertenece al elemento Coverage, que serÃ­a asociada con el recurso sÃ³lo en la medida en que el contenido intelectual estÃ¡ de algÃºn modo relacionado con esa fecha. Recomendamos la utiliazaciÃ³n de uno de los formatos definidos en el documento &quot;Date and Time Formats&quot;, http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime basado en la norma ISO 8601 que incluye, entre otras, fechas en el formato AAAA y AAAA-MM-DD. De esta forma la fecha 1994-11-05 corresponderÃ­a al 5 de Noviembre de 1994.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±Ø®</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹ÙÙ ØšÙÙØª ÙØŽØŠ Ø£Ù ØªÙÙØ± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ù ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØ§ ÙØ®ÙØ· ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§ØŠØ¯ ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© , Ù Ø§ÙØ° Ù ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù    ÙÙØ­Ù ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± ÙÙØ· Ù
+Ù ÙØ§Ø­ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙØ§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙÙÙ ÙÙØ¹Ø§ Ù
+Ø§ ÙÙ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®. Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø«Ø­Ø³ÙØ© ÙÙØ§Ø­Ø³Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹Ø§Ø±Ù Ø¹ÙÙÙ    Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙØªØ·ØšÙÙ ÙÙ Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø¯Ø© ÙÙ ØªØŽÙÙÙ (ISO 8601) ØµÙØºØ© ØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ (ISO 8601) Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§Ø­ØžØ© Ø§ÙÙÙÙØ© http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime, W3C. ÙÙÙ    ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙÙØ³Ù , Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§, ØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ 1994-11-04 ÙÙØ§ØžØ± ÙÙÙ
+ 5 ÙÙÙÙ
+ØšØ± 1994</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æ¥æ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">äžèµæºçåœåšæäž­çäžäžªäºä»¶çžå
+³çæ¶éŽã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæ¥æåºäžèµæºçåå»ºæåºçæ¥æçžå
+³ãå»ºè®®éçšçæ¥ææ ŒåŒåºç¬ŠåISO 8601 [W3CDTF]è§    èïŒå¹¶äœ¿çšYYYY-MM-DDçæ ŒåŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Datum</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Datum spojenÃ© s urÄitou udÃ¡lostÃ­ bÄhem existence zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Datum bude typicky spojeno s vytvoÅenÃ­m nebo zpÅÃ­stupnÄnÃ­m zdroje. DoporuÄenÃœ postup pro kÃ³dovÃ¡nÃ­ hodnoty data je definovÃ¡n v ISO 8601 [W3CDTF]: formÃ¡t RRRR-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Datum</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De datum van de totstandkoming of beschikbaarstelling van een Internetbron. Deze datum moet niet verward worden met de datum in &quot;Coverage&quot;. De datum in &quot;Coverage&quot; geeft de tijdsperiode van de inhoud van de Internetbron aan. Voorgeschreven wordt de ISO 8601 standaard voor datum, zoals beschreven in W3C Technical Note http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime. Hierin wordt het formaat YYYY-MM-DD beschreven. Het formaat YYYY-MM-DD wordt de voorgeschreven standaard. 3 September 1998 wordt in dit geval 1998-09-03.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Data</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un data associate a un evento in le cyclo vital del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le data es associate al creation o disponibilization del ressource. Le practica recommendate pro codificar le valor del datas es definite in un profilo de ISO 8601 [W3CDTF] e seque le formato AAAA-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€,  à€Šà€¿à€šà€Ÿà€à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€€à€¯à€Ÿà€° à€à¥à€²à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€  à€²à€¿à€¹à¥à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€žà¥à€µà€°à¥à€ª à€ à€µà€°à¥à€·. à€®à€¹à€¿à€šà€Ÿ. à€Šà€¿à€µà€ž à¥§à¥¯à¥«à¥Š. à¥Šà¥ª. à¥Šà¥ª</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Type">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Resource Type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The nature or genre of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Type includes terms describing general categories, functions, genres, or aggregation levels for content. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the working draft list of Dublin Core Types). To describe the physical or digital manifestation of the resource, use the FORMAT element.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Tumomo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te ahua, te tu-ahuatanga ranei o nga kaupapa o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Kei roto i te Tumomo nga kupu whakaatu i nga wehewehenga whanui, nga aheinga, nga tu-ahuatanga, te whakaritenga ranei o nga taumata o te/ nga kaupapa. Ko te huarahi tino pai kua tohua, ko te tipako i tetahi uara mai i nga kupu kua whakaritea (hei tauira, ko te tauira rarangi e whakamahia ana o nga Dublin Core Types [DCT1]. Hei whakaatu i te whakatinanatanga o te rauemi, whakamahia ko te huanga WHAKATAKOTORANGA (FORMAT).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La nature ou le genre du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Type inclut des termes dÃ©crivant des catÃ©gories, fonctions ou genres gÃ©nÃ©raux pour le contenu, ou des niveaux d&apos;agrÃ©gation. Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la valeur du type dans une liste de vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ© (par exemple, la liste provisoire de Types du Dublin Core[DCT1]). Pour dÃ©crire la matÃ©rialisation physique ou digitale de la ressource, il faut utiliser l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Format.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÑÐžÑÐŸÐŽÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¶Ð°ÐœÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐµÑÐŒÐžÐœÑ, ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÑÐ²Ð°ÑÑÐžÐµ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐžÐµ ÐºÐ°ÑÐµÐ³ÐŸÑÐžÐž, ÑÑÐœÐºÑÐžÐž, Ð¶Ð°ÐœÑÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐŽÐžÐœÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ ÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐœÐž ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐµÐºÑÐ° ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ° Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ÐŸÐ² Dublin Core DCT1). ÐÐ»Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐžÐ·ÐžÑÐµÑ-ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Tipo del Recurso</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La categorÃ­a del recurso, por ejemplo pÃ¡gina personal, romance, poema, minuta, diccionario. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, Type deberÃ­a ser seleccionado de entre una lista de valores que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo. En http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Metadata/types.html se puede consultar el estado actual de la discusiÃ³n en torno a este tema.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÙÙØ¹ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ ÙØŠØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§ Ø§ÙØµÙØ­Ø© Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+, Ø±ÙØ§ÙØ© , ÙØ·Ø¹Ø© ØŽØ¹Ø±ÙØ© , ÙØ±ÙØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù , ØªÙØ±ÙØ± ÙÙÙ , Ù
+ÙØ§Ù , ÙØ§Ù
+ÙØ³ . Ù Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù    ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØ®ØªØ§Ø± Ø§ÙÙÙØ¹ Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© ÙØ§ÙØªÙ ÙÙÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§ Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èµæºç±»å</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çç¹åŸæç±»åã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èµæºç±»åå
+æ¬æè¿°èµæºå
+å®¹çäžè¬èçŽïŒåèœïŒç§å±ïŒæèç±»å±æ¬¡çæ¯è¯­ãå»ºè®®éçšæ¥èªäºåæ§è¯è¡š    äž­çåŒïŒäŸåŠDCMIç±»åè¯æ±è¡š[DCMITYPE]ïŒãèŠæè¿°èµæºçç©çææ°å­åè¡šç°åœ¢åŒïŒè¯·äœ¿çšâæ ŒåŒïŒFORMATïŒâå
+çŽ ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Typ zdroje</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Povaha nebo druh obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typ obsahuje termÃ­ny popisujÃ­cÃ­ obecnÃ© kategorie, funkce, druhy nebo agregaÄnÃ­ ÃºrovnÄ obsahu. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. pracovnÃ­ nÃ¡vrh seznamu TypÅ¯ Dublin Core [DCT1]). K popisu fyzickÃ© nebo digitÃ¡lnÃ­ reprezentace zdroje uÅŸijte prvek FormÃ¡t.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bestands type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het soort Internetbron, bijvoorbeeld home page, gedicht, working paper, technical report, essay, woordenboek etc. De DC working groups zijn momenteel bezig met twee voorstellen; een minimalist draft: http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Metadata/minimalist.html en een structuralist draft: http://sunsite.berkely.edu/Metadata/structuralist.html. Het wordt sterk aanbevolen om &quot;Type&quot; van deze lijsten te selecteren.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Typo del ressource</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le natura o genere del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le typo del ressource include terminos que describe categorias general, functiones, generes, o nivellos de aggregation pro le contento. Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le lista de schizzos de travalio de typos de Dublin Core [DCT1]). Pro describer le manifestation physic o digital del ressource, utiliza le elemento Formato.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€µà€°à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£, à€µà€°à¥à€à€µà€Ÿà€°à¥à€®à€§à¥à€¯à¥ à€à€à€Ÿà€Šà¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€šà¥à€à€Šà¥à€à€Ÿ à€®à¥à€à¥à€¯ à€à€à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Format">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The physical or digital manifestation of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, Format may include the media-type or dimensions of the resource. Format may be used to determine the software, hardware or other equipment needed to display or operate the resource. Examples of dimensions include size and duration. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the list of Internet Media Types [MIME] defining computer media formats).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Whakatakotoranga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te whakatinanatanga, te whakaputanga a-mati o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka taea te Whakatakotoranga te whakamahi hei whakarite i te rawa-ngohe (software), te rawa-maro (hardware), ma etahi taputapu ranei me matua whiwhi, hei whakahaere i te rauemi. Ko te rahi me te roanga etahi tauira hanga. Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua ko te tipako uara mai i tetahi whakaritenga kupu (hei tauira, te rarangi o nga Tumomo Papaho Ipurangi (Internet Media Types [MIME]) e whakaatu ana i nga whakatakotoranga papaho rorohiko.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La matÃ©rialisation physique ou digitale de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, Format peut inclure le media ou les dimensions de la ressource. Format peut Ãªtre utilisÃ© pour prÃ©ciser le logiciel, le matÃ©riel ou autre Ã©quipement nÃ©cessaire pour afficher ou faire fonctionner la ressource. Exemples de dimensions incluent la taille et la durÃ©e. Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la valeur du format dans une liste de vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ©(par exemple, la liste des types de media dÃ©finis sur Internet [MIME]).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð€ÐžÐ·ÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐµ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ ÑÐžÐ¿ Ð°ÑÐŽÐžÐŸÐ²ÐžÐ·ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÐž (ÐŒÐµÐŽÐžÐ°-ÑÐžÐ¿) ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐžÐœÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ Ð°Ð¿Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, Ð¿ÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŒÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÐµÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÐŸÑÑÐŽÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ, ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐŸÑÐ¿ÑÐŸÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÑ Ñ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐŸÐŒ. ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð²ÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐžÐœÑ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŒÐµÑ Ðž Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶ÐžÑÐµÐ»ÑÐœÐŸÑÑÑ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ° ÐÐµÐŽÐžÐ°-ÑÐžÐ¿ÐŸÐ² ÐÐœÑÐµÑÐœÐµÑ MIME, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐ¿ÑÑÑÐµÑÐœÑÐµ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÑ Ð°ÑÐŽÐžÐŸÐ²ÐžÐ·ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÐž).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Formato</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">El formato de datos de un recurso, usado para identificar el software y posiblemente, el hardware que se necesitarÃ­a para mostrar el recurso. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, los valores de Format deberÃ­an ser seleccionados de entre una lista de valores que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ù ØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù ØªØ³ØªØ®Ø¯Ù
+ ÙÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ ØšØ§ÙØšØ±Ù
+Ø¬ÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØšÙ
+Ø§ Ø§ÙØµÙØš ÙÙØ­Ø§Ø³ÙØš Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø£Ù ÙØ­ØªØ§Ø¬    ÙÙØ§ ÙØ¹Ø±Ø¶ Ø£Ù ØªØŽØºÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù, ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ØªØ®ØªØ§Ø± Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙØªÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§    Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æ ŒåŒ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºçç©çææ°å­è¡šç°åœ¢åŒã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæ ŒåŒå¯èœå
+æ¬èµæºçåªäœç±»åæèµæºçå€§å°ïŒæ ŒåŒå
+çŽ å¯ä»¥çšæ¥å³å®å±ç€ºææäœèµæºæé    çèœ¯ç¡¬ä»¶æå
+¶ä»çžåºè®Ÿå€ïŒäŸåŠå€§å°å
+æ¬èµæºæå çå­åšç©ºéŽåæç»­æ¶éŽãå»ºè®®éçšæ¥èªäºåæ§è¯è¡š    äž­çåŒïŒïŒäŸåŠInternetåªäœç±»å[MIME]å®ä¹è®¡ç®æºåªäœæ ŒåŒïŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">FormÃ¡t</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">FyzickÃ¡ nebo digitÃ¡lnÃ­ reprezentace zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicky mÅ¯ÅŸe FormÃ¡t obsahovat typ mÃ©dia nebo rozmÄry zdroje. FormÃ¡t lze pouÅŸÃ­vat k urÄenÃ­ softwaru, hardwaru nebo dalÅ¡Ã­ho zaÅÃ­zenÃ­ potÅebnÃ©ho k zobrazenÃ­ nebo k manipulaci se zdrojem. PÅÃ­klady rozmÄrÅ¯ zahrnujÃ­ velikost a dobu trvÃ¡nÃ­. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. seznam typÅ¯ internetovÃœch mÃ©diÃ­ [MIME] definujÃ­cÃ­ formÃ¡ty poÄÃ­taÄovÃœch mÃ©diÃ­).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het data formaat van het Internetbestand. Dit gegeven kan gebruikt worden om systeemvereisten (hard- en software) te identificeren die nodig zijn voor raadpleging of bediening van de Internetbron. &quot;Format&quot; is nog in ontwikkeling bij de DC workshop. Uit compatibiliteitsoverwegingen wordt aanbevolen formaatgegevens te selecteren uit een gecontroleerde lijst. Formaten kunnen van de Internet Media Types (MIME types) lijst gekozen worden: http://www.isi.edu/in-notes/iana/assignments/media-types/media-types</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Formato</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le manifestation physic o digital del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le formato pote includer le typo de medio o dimensiones del ressource. Le formato pote esser utilizate pro determinar le software o le equipamento necessari pro exhibir o operar le ressource. Exemplos de dimensiones include grandessa e duration. Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le lista de typos de medios de Internet [MIME] que defini formatos de medios).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ, à€šà€®à¥à€šà€Ÿà€¬à¥à€Š à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€žà¥à€µà€°à¥à€ª, à€°à€à€šà€Ÿà€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€°à¥à€ª à€à€žà¥ à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€à€°à¥à€ª, à€žà€à€à€£à€à¥à€¯ à€°à¥à€ª, à€µà€¿à€Šà¥à€¯à¥à€€ à€ªà€°à€®à€Ÿà€£à¥à€à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€žà€¹à€Ÿà€¯à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€šà¥ à€žà€à€à€£à€à¥à€à¥à€€ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Identifier">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Resource Identifier</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Recommended best practice is to identify the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system. Example formal identification systems include the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (including the Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), the Digital Object Identifier (DOI) and the International Standard Book Number (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Taututanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro e hangai ana ki te rauemi i roto i tetahi horopaki.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tautu i te rauemi ma tetahi aho (string), tau ranei, e hangai ana ki tetahi punaha taututanga okawa. Ko etahi punaha taututanga okawa ko te Taututanga Rauemi Orite (Uniform Resource Identifier - URI), te Taututanga Rauemi Tohu-wahi (Uniform Resource Locator - URL), Te Mea A-mati (Digital Object Identifier - DOI) me te Tau Pukapuka Aro Whanui o te Ao (International Standard Book Number - ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Identifiant</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence non ambiguÃ« Ã  la ressource dans un contexte donnÃ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© d&apos;identifier la ressource par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšre ou un nombre conforme Ã  un sytÃšme formel d&apos;identification. Exemples de systemes formels d&apos;identification incluent le &quot;Uniform Resource Identifier&quot; (URI) (qui inclut le &quot;Uniform Resource Locator&quot; (URL)), le &quot;Digital Object Identifier&quot;(DOI) et le &quot;International Standard Book Number&quot;(ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐŽÐœÐŸÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÐœÐ°Ñ ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐ° ÐœÐ° ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð² Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°Ñ
+ ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐµÐºÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ. ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÑÑ
+ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð£ÐœÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ Ð ÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° (URI), (Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ñ Ð£ÐœÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÑÐ¹ ÐÐŸÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ Ð ÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° URL), ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÐŠÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ° (DOI) Ðž ÐÐµÐ¶ÐŽÑÐœÐ°ÑÐŸÐŽÐœÑÐ¹ Ð¡ÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐœÐžÐ¶ÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐŸÐŒÐµÑ (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Identificador del Recurso</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Secuencia de caracteres usados para identificar unÃ­vocamente un recurso. Ejemplos para recursos en lÃ­nea pueden ser URLs y URNs (cuando estÃ©n implementados). Para otros recursos pueden ser usados otros formatos de identificadores, como por ejemplo ISBN (&quot;International Standard Book Number&quot; - NÃºmero Internacional Normalizado para Libros)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ù
+Ø¬Ù
+ÙØ¹Ø© Ø­Ø±ÙÙØ© Ø£Ù Ø±ÙÙ
+ ÙØ³ØªØ®Ø¯Ù
+ ÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§Ø­Ø¯ÙØ§ : Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ÙØ°Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙØŽØšÙÙØ©ØªØ¶Ù
+ ) URNs, URLs Ø¹ÙØ¯ ØšÙØ§ØŠÙØ§ (    ÙØ°ÙÙ ÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø§Ø¹ØªØšØ§Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹Ø±ÙØ§Øª Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ§Ø­Ø§Ø¯ÙØ© Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø§ÙØ±ÙÙ
+ Ø§ÙØ¯ÙÙÙ ÙØªØµÙÙÙ Ø§ÙÙØ§ØªØš (ISBN) Ù
+Ø±ØŽØ­Ø© ÙÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èµæºæ è¯ç¬Š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">åšç¹å®çèåŽå
+ç»äºèµæºçäžäžªæç¡®çæ è¯ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å»ºè®®å¯¹èµæºçæ è¯éçšç¬Šåæäžæ­£åŒæ è¯äœç³»çå­ç¬Šäž²åæ°å­ç»åãäŸåŠæ­£åŒçæ è¯äœç³»å
+æ¬ç»äžèµ    æºæ è¯ç¬Š(URI) (å
+æ¬åäžèµæºå®äœç¬ŠURL)ãæ°å­å¯¹è±¡æ è¯ç¬Š(DOI)ååœé
+æ åä¹Šå·(ISBN)ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">IdentifikÃ¡tor zdroje</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">JednoznaÄnÃœ odkaz na zdroj v rÃ¡mci danÃ©ho kontextu.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄuje se identifikovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯. PÅÃ­klady formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯ zahrnujÃ­ Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (vÄetnÄ Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), Digital Object Identifier (DOI) a MezinÃ¡rodnÃ­ standardnÃ­ ÄÃ­slo knihy (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bestandsidentificatie</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een unieke string of nummer ter identificatie van de Internetbron. Voorbeelden zijn URL&apos;s of URN&apos;s Andere voorbeelden zijn International Standard Book Number (ISBN) of International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Identificator del ressource</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia inambigue al ressource intra un date contexto.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Se recommenda identificar le ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o numero conforme a un systema formal de identification. Exemplos de systemas formal de identification include le Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (includente le Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), le Digital Object Identifier (DOI) e le International Standard Book Number (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€à€³à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€à€ à€
+à€°à¥à€¥à¥ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ, à€µà€¿à€¶à€¿à€·à¥à€  à€žà¥à€¥à€³,  à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€à€à€€à€°à€°à€Ÿà€·à¥à€à¥à€°à¥à€¯  à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à¥à€°à€®à€Ÿà€à€,  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€à€³à€ à€ªà€à€µà€¿à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€à€à€à€°à€šà¥à€ à€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Source">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Source</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A Reference to a resource from which the present resource is derived.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">The present resource may be derived from the Source resource in whole or in part.  Recommended best practice is to reference the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Matapuna</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro ki tetahi rauemi koira te matapuna o te rauemi e tirohia ana.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Tera pea i puta te katoa, tetahi wahanga ranei o te rauemi, e tirohia ana, mai i te Matapuna rauemi. Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua ko te tohutoro ki te rauemi ma te aho, ma te tau ranei e hangai ana ki tetahi punaha taututanga okawa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Source</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une ressource Ã  partir de laquelle la ressource actuelle a Ã©tÃ© dÃ©rivÃ©e.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">La ressource actuelle peut avoir Ã©tÃ© dÃ©rivÃ©e d&apos;une autre ressource source, en totalitÃ© ou en partie. Il est recommandÃ© de refÃ©rencer cette source par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšre ou un nombre conforme Ã  un systÃšme formel d&apos;identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐœÐžÐº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¡ÑÑÐ»ÐºÐ° ÐœÐ° ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ, ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœ ÐœÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœ ÐžÐ· ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐœÐžÐºÐ° ÑÐµÐ»ÐžÐºÐŸÐŒ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÑÐœÐŸ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Fuente</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Secuencia de caracteres utilizado para identificar unÃ­vocamente un trabajo a partir del cual proviene el recurso actual. Por ejemplo, es posible usar Source con la fecha de 1603 como descripciÃ³n de una pelÃ­cula basada en una obra de Shakespeare, pero es preferible, en ese caso, usar Relation &quot;IsBasedOn&quot; con una referencia a un recurso distinto cuya descripciÃ³n contenga el elemento Date con valor 1603.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø«Ø§ÙÙ Ù Ø§ÙØ°Ù Ø§Ø³ØªÙ
+Ø¯ Ù
+ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ. Ù
+Ø¹ Ø£ÙÙ Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØµÙ ØšÙ Ø£Ù ØªÙØ¯Ù
+ Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§Ù
+Ù    Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø¹Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙØ· , ÙÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø£Ù ÙØ­ÙÙ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®, Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØŽØŠ , Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© , Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹Ø±Ù , Ø§Ù Ø§ÙØ© Ù
+ÙØ© - Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§Ø®Ø±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ÙÙ Ø¹ÙØ¯Ù
+Ø§ ØªØ¹ØªØšØ± Ù
+ÙÙ
+Ø© ÙØ§ÙØªØŽØ§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ , Ù ÙØ°Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙØµÙ Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙØªØ·ØšÙÙÙÙ Ø§Ø­Ø³Ù     Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹Ø§Ø±Ù Ø¹ÙÙÙ ØšØ§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æ¥æº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ç°æèµæºæ¥æºçåç
+§ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åœåèµæºå¯èœéšåæå
+šéšæºèªè¯¥å
+çŽ ææ è¯çèµæºïŒå»ºè®®å¯¹è¿äžèµæºçæ è¯éçšäžäžªç¬Šåæ­£åŒæ è¯ç³»    ç»çå­äž²åæ°å­ç»å ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Zdroj</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Odkaz na zdroj, z nÄhoÅŸ je popisovanÃœ zdroj odvozen.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PopisovanÃœ zdroj mÅ¯ÅŸe bÃœt zcela nebo zÄÃ¡sti odvozen ze zdroje uvedenÃ©ho v prvku Zdroj. DoporuÄuje se odkazovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bron</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Informatie over een tweede bron waar de huidige Internetbron is van afgeleid. Bij &quot;Source&quot; mag een datum, auteur of maker, formaat, identificatie of andere metadata voor de tweede bron worden ingevuld. Voorbeeld: het is mogelijk om een &quot;Source&quot; datum 1603 in een omschrijving van een 1996 film bewerking van een Shakespeare stuk te gebruiken. &quot;Source&quot; is niet bruikbaar wanneer de huidige bron de orginele is.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Fonte</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia a un ressource del qual se deriva le ressource presente.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le ressource presente pote derivar se del ressource-fonte in toto o in parte. Le practica recommendate es facer referentia al ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o un numero conforme a un systema formal de identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€à€à€®</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿ à€à€à€® à€žà€Ÿà€à€à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€à€à€
+à€°à¥à€¥à¥ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€, à€®à€Ÿà€žà€¿à€,  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿà€¯à€Ÿà€à€à€Ÿ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Language">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Language</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A language of the intellectual content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Recommended best practice for the values of the Language element is defined by RFC 1766 which includes a two-letter Language Code (taken from the ISO 639 standard, followed optionally, by a two-letter Country Code (taken from the ISO 3166 standard). For example, &apos;en&apos; for English, &apos;fr&apos; for French, or &apos;en-uk&apos; for English used in the United Kingdom.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Reo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te reo o te whakakaupapatanga o nga matauranga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua mo nga uara o te huanga Reo kua whakaritea ki te RFC 1766 [RFC1766] kei roto te Tohu Reo kupu-rua (two-letter Language Code) (no te aro whanui ISO 639 [ISO639], ka taea e tetahi tohu kupu-rua te whai atu (no te aro whanui ISO 3166) [ISO366]). Hei tauira, te &apos;en&apos; mo te English, te &apos;fr&apos; mo te French, &apos;te en-uk&apos; mo te English e whakamahia ana i Ingarangi (UK).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Langue</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La langue du contenu intellectuel de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© d&apos;utiliser comme valeur de l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Langue celles definies par la RFC 1766 [RFC1766] qui comprend un code de langage Ã  deux caractÃšres(venant du standard ISO 639 [ISO639]), Ã©ventuellement suivi d&apos;un code Ã  deux lettres pour le pays (venant du standard ISO 3166 [ISO3166] ou en franÃ§ais [ISO3166]). Par exemple, &apos;en&apos; pour l&apos;anglais, &apos;fr&apos; pour le franÃ§ais, ou &apos;en-uk&apos; pour l&apos;anglais utilisÃ© au Royaume-Uni.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº ÐžÐœÑÐµÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐµ RFC 1766 (Ð¢ÑÐ³Ðž ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ°), Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÐŒ ÐŽÐ²ÑÑ
+Ð±ÑÐºÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐŽ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ° (Ð²Ð·ÑÑÑÐ¹ ÐžÐ· ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐ° ISO 639 (ÐÐŸÐŽÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐŸÐ²)), Ð·Ð° ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÑÐµÑ (Ð¿ÑÐž ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÑÑÐž) ÐŽÐ²ÑÑ
+Ð±ÑÐºÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐŽ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÑ (Ð²Ð·ÑÑÑÐŒÐž ÐžÐ· ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐ° ISO 3166 (ÐÐŸÐŽÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°Ðœ)). ÐÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, &quot;en&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð°ÐœÐ³Ð»ÐžÐ¹ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, &quot;fr&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÑÐ°ÐœÑÑÐ·ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, &quot;en-uk&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð°ÐœÐ³Ð»ÐžÐ¹ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð² ÐÐµÐ»ÐžÐºÐŸÐ±ÑÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐž.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Lengua</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Lengua/s del contenido intelectual del recurso. Practicamente el contenido de este campo deberÃ­a coincidir con los de la RFC 1766 (Tags para la identificaciÃ³n de lenguas, http://ds.internic.net/rfc/rfc1766.txt); por ejemplo: en, es, de, fi, ja y zh.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØºØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ù ÙÙ ÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . ÙÙÙ
+Ø§ ÙØ§Ù  Ø¹Ù
+ÙÙØ§ , Ù
+Ø­ØªÙÙ ÙØžØ§ Ø§ÙØ­ÙÙ ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØªØ·Ø§ØšÙ Ù
+Ø¹ RFC 1766    ] Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ØªØ¶Ù
+ th, ja, fr, es, fi, de, en Ù zh ÙØ±Ù
+ÙØ² ÙÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ ØšØ§ÙÙØºØ© [</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">è¯­ç§</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æè¿°èµæºç¥è¯å
+å®¹çè¯­ç§ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å»ºè®®æ¬å
+çŽ çåŒéçšRFC 3066[RFC3066]ïŒè¯¥æ åäžISO 639 [ISO639]äžèµ·å®ä¹äºç±äž€äžªåäžäžªè±    æå­æ¯ç»æçäž»è¯­èšæ ç­Ÿåå­æ ç­ŸäŸåŠå
+æ¬âenâæâengâæ¥è¡šç€ºEnglish, &quot;akk&quot; æ¥è¡šç€º    &quot;en-GB&quot;è¡šç€ºè±åœè±è¯­ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Jazyk</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Jazyk intelektuÃ¡lnÃ­ho obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄenÃœ postup pro hodnoty prvku Jazyk je definovÃ¡n v RFC 1766 [RFC1766]: dvouznakovÃœ kÃ³d jazyka (pÅevzatÃœ z normy ISO 639 [ISO639]) volitelnÄ nÃ¡sledovanÃœ dvouznakovÃœm kÃ³dem zemÄ (pÅevzatÃœm z normy ISO 3166 [ISO3166]). NapÅÃ­klad &apos;en&apos; pro angliÄtinu, &apos;fr&apos; pro francouzÅ¡tinu, &apos;cs&apos; pro ÄeÅ¡tinu, nebo &apos;en-uk&apos; pro angliÄtinu uÅŸÃ­vanou ve SpojenÃ©m krÃ¡lovstvÃ­.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Taal</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De taal waarin het document is beschreven. Voorgeschreven wordt de ISO639-1 norm, een twee karakter taalcode van de ISO 639(639-1 en 639-2) norm. Taalcodes kunnen van een lijst worden gekozen: http://www.ics.uci.edu/pub/ietf/http/related/iso639.txt, Eventueel kan ISO3166 (landencodes) gebruikt worden om aan te geven in welk gebied de taal wordt gesproken. Deze kunnen ook van een lijst worden gekozen:  http://www.ics.uci.edu/pub/ietf/http/related/iso3166.txt.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Lingua</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le lingua del contento intellectual del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le practica recommendate pro le valores del elemento lingua es definite per RFC 1766 [RFC1766], que include un codice de lingua de duo litteras (prendite del standard ISO 639 [ISO639]), sequite optionalmente per un codice de pais de duo litteras (prendite del standard ISO 3166 [ISO3166]). Per exemplo, &apos;ia&apos; pro interlingua, &apos;fr&apos; pro francese, o &apos;en-uk&apos; pro le anglese del Regno Unite.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€®à€°à€Ÿà€ à¥ - à€­à€Ÿà€°à€€à¥à€¯ à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Relation">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A reference to a related resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Recommended best practice is to reference the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Whai Panga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro ki tetahi rauemi whai panga.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tohutoro ki te rauemi ma te aho, te tau ranei, e hangai ana ki te punaha taututanga okawa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une autre ressource qui a un rapport avec cette ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© de rÃ©fÃ©rencer cette ressource par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšres ou un numÃ©ro conforme Ã  un systÃšme formel d&apos;identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÐœÐŸÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">RelaciÃ³n</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un identificador de un segundo recurso y su relaciÃ³n con el recurso actual. Este elemento permite enlazar los recursos relacionados y las descripciones de los recursos. Por ejemplo: IsVersionOf - Incluye la ediciÃ³n de un trabajo, IsBasedOn - La traducciÃ³n de un trabajo, IsPartOf - Un capÃ­tulo de un libro, IsFormatOf - Un mecanismo de transformaciÃ³n de un conjunto de datos en una imagen. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, las relaciones deberÃ­an ser seleccionadas de una lista de elementos que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ø§ Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ÙÙ Ù Ø¹ÙØ§ÙØªÙ ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ . ÙØ³Ù
+Ø­ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù ØšØªÙØ¶ÙØ­ Ø§ÙØ±ÙØ§ØšØ· ØšÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹ÙÙØ©     ØšØšØ¹Ø¶ÙØ§ Ù ØªÙØµÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ØªØ¶Ù
+ Ø·ØšØ¹Ø© Ø§ÙØ¹Ù
+Ù ) ÙØ³Ø®Ø© Ù
+Ù ( ØªØ±Ø¬Ù
+Ø© Ø¹Ù
+Ù ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ ( ÙØµÙ Ù
+Ù ÙØªØ§Øš ) Ø¬Ø²Ø¡ Ù
+Ù (    Ù ØªØ­ÙÙÙÙ Ù
+ÙÙØ§ÙÙÙÙØ© ÙÙ
+Ø¬Ù
+ÙØ¹Ø© Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§ØªÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ ØµÙØ±Ø© ) ØµÙØºØ© Ù
+Ù ( Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù , ÙØ¬Øš Ø§Ø®ØªÙØ§Ø± Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ§Øª Ù
+Ù    Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙØªÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§ Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">å
+³è</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æ¶åççžå
+³èµæºã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èåœçžå
+³èµæºæ¶ïŒå»ºè®®äœ¿çšç¬Šåæ­£åŒæ è¯ç³»ç»çå­ç¬Šäž²æè
+æ°å­ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Vztah</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Odkaz na pÅÃ­buznÃœ zdroj.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄuje se odkazovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Relatie</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een identificatie van een tweede bron en de relatie met de huide Internetbron. Voorbeelden zijn een editie van een werk (IsVersionOf), een vertaling van een werk (IsBasedOn), een hoofdstuk van een boek (IsPartOf) en een mechanische transformatie van een dataset in een plaatje (IsFormatOf). De DC Working Groups zijn bezig met een lijst met de meest verwachte relaties. Aanbevolen wordt om de relaties van deze lijst te gebruiken: http://purl.oclc.org/metadata/dublin_core/wrelationdraft.html.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="definition">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia a un ressource correlate.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le practica recommendate es facer referentia al ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o numero conforme a un systema de identification formal.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€šà€Ÿà€€à¥ , à€žà€à€¬à€à€§</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¶à¥ à€žà€à€¬à€à€§ à€Šà€Ÿà€à€µà€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ(URL)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Coverage">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Coverage</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The extent or scope of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Coverage will typically include spatial location (a place name or geographic coordinates), temporal period (a period label, date, or date range) or jurisdiction (such as a named administrative entity). Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the Thesaurus of Geographic Names [TGN]) and that, where appropriate, named places or time periods be used in preference to numeric identifiers such as sets of coordinates or date ranges.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kapitanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te roanga, te whanuitanga ranei o te whakakaupapatanga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka uru atu te wahi mokowa (te ingoa o tetahi wahi, whakapiritanga matawhenua ranei), whakaritenga wa (he tapatanga wa (period label, ra, whakatakotoranga whanui o nga ra), te whakaritenga ture (penei i te putahi whakahaere). Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tipako uara mai i tetahi whakaritenga kupu (hei tauira, i tetahi Puna Kupu Ingoa Matawhenua (Geographic Names [TGN] i nga wahi tika, ko nga wahi me nga whakaritenga wa ka whakamahia i mua i te whakamahitanga o nga taututanga tau penei i nga huinga whakapiritanga me nga whakatakotoranga whanui o nga ra.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Couverture</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La portÃ©e ou la couverture spatio-temporelle de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">La couverture typiquement inclut une position gÃ©ographique (le nom d&apos;un lieu ou ses coordonnÃ©es), une pÃ©riode de temps (un nom de pÃ©riode, une date, ou un intervalle de temps) ou une juridiction (telle que le nom d&apos;une entitÃ© administrative). Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la  valeur de Couverture dans un vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ© (par exemple, un thÃ©saurus de noms gÃ©ographiques, comme[TGN]) et, quand cela est appropriÃ©, des noms de lieux ou de pÃ©riodes plutÃŽt que des identifiants numÃ©riques tels que des coordonnÃ©es ou des intervalles de dates. </Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑ
+Ð²Ð°Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÑÐŸÑÑÐ¶ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÑ Ðž Ð³ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑ
+Ð²Ð°Ñ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐºÐœÐŸÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐ¶ÐŽÐµÐœÐžÐµ (ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸÑÑÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð³ÐµÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÐµ ÐºÐŸÐŸÑÐŽÐžÐœÐ°ÑÑ), Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŒÐµÐ¶ÑÑÐŸÐº (ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÐµÑÐžÐŸÐŽÐ°, ÐŽÐ°ÑÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐŽ ÐŽÐ°Ñ) ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐžÑÐŽÐžÐºÑÐžÑ (ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐµÐŽÐžÐœÐžÑÑ Ð°ÐŽÐŒÐžÐœÐžÑÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐ²ÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ). ÐÐ° Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÐºÐµ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, Ð¢ÐµÐ·Ð°ÑÑÑÑÐ° Ð³ÐµÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÑ
+ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ TGN), Ðž, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐŸ ÑÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸ, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸÑÐŽÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÑÐŒ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸÑÑÐµÐ¹ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŒÐµÐ¶ÑÑÐºÐŸÐ² Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸ ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ², ÐºÐ°Ðº, ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒ ÐºÐŸÐŸÑÐŽÐžÐœÐ°Ñ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÑÐŽÐŸÐ².</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Cobertura</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La caracterÃ­stica de cobertura espacial y/o temporal del contenido intelectual del recurso. La cobertura espacial se refiere a una regiÃ³n fÃ­sica (por ejemplo, sector celestial); uso de coordenadas (por ejemplo, longitud y latitud) o nombres de lugares extraidos de una lista controlada. La cobertura temporal se refiere al contenido del recurso en vez de a cuando fue creado o puesto accesible ya que este Ãºltimo pertenece al elemento Date. Se usa el mismo formato basado en http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØ®ØµØ§ØŠØµ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§ÙÙØ© Ø§Ù Ø§ÙØ²Ù
+ÙÙØ© ÙÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§ÙÙØ© ØªØŽÙØ± Ø§ÙÙ Ø¬ÙØ© Ø·ØšÙØ¹ÙØ© )Ù
+Ø«Ù , ÙØ·Ø§Ø¹ Ø³Ù
+Ø§ÙÙ (    Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ø§ÙØ§Ø­Ø¯Ø§Ø«ÙØ§Øª ) Ù
+Ø«Ù  Ø®Ø· Ø§ÙØ·ÙÙ Ù Ø®Ø· Ø§ÙØ¹Ø±Ø¶ ( ÙÙ Ø£Ø³Ù
+Ø§Ø¡ Ø§Ù
+ÙÙØ© Ù
+Ø³ØªØ­ÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªØ¬ÙØ§Øª ØšØ§ÙÙØ§Ù
+Ù . Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ²Ù
+ÙÙØ©    Ø«Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙÙ Ù
+Ø§ ÙØ±Ø¬Ø¹ Ø§ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ù ÙÙØ³ Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªÙ ØªÙ
+ ØªÙÙÙØ±Ù ) Ø§ÙØ§Ø®ÙØ± ÙØªØ¹ÙÙ ØšØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® ( Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ ÙÙØ³ ØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®  Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª    ) Ø¹Ø§Ø¯Ø© Ù
+Ø¯Ù ] ( ØµÙØ§ØºØ§Øª Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ (ISO 8601 Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§Ø­ØžØ© Ø§ÙÙÙÙØ© [http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime, W3C    ÙÙ
+Ø§ ÙÙ Ù
+ÙØµÙ ØšÙ ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§Ù ÙØªØ±Ø§Øª Ø²Ù
+ÙÙØ© Ù
+Ù ÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ù
+Ø³ØªØ­ÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªØ¬ÙØ§Øª ØšØ§ÙÙØ§Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èŠçèåŽ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹ææ¶åçå€å»¶äžèŠçèåŽ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èŠçèåŽäžè¬å
+æ¬ç©ºéŽäœçœ®ïŒäžäžªå°åæå°çåæ ïŒãæ¶éŽåºéŽïŒäžäžªæ¶éŽæ è¯ïŒæ¥ææäžäžªæ¥æè    åŽïŒãæè
+æéïŒæ¯åŠåœåçææå®äœïŒæšèèŠçèåŽæå¥œæ¯åèªäºäžäžªåæ§è¯è¡šïŒäŸåŠå°åè¯åº    [TGN]ïŒïŒå¹¶åºå°œå¯èœå°äœ¿çšç±æ°å­è¡šç€ºçåæ ææ¥æåºéŽæ¥æè¿°å°åäžæ¶éŽæ®µã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PokrytÃ­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Rozsah nebo zÃ¡bÄr obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PokrytÃ­ bude typicky obsahovat prostorovÃ© umÃ­stÄnÃ­ (jmÃ©no mÃ­sta nebo zemÄpisnÃ© souÅadnice), ÄasovÃ© obdobÃ­ (oznaÄenÃ­ obdobÃ­, datum nebo ÄasovÃœ interval) nebo jurisdikci (napÅ. jmÃ©no administrativnÃ­ jednotky). DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. Thesaurus of Geographic Names [TGN]) a tam, kde je to vhodnÃ©, uvÃ¡dÄt mÃ­sta nebo ÄasovÃ© Ãºseky spÃ­Å¡e jmÃ©nem neÅŸ ÄÃ­selnÃœmi identifikÃ¡tory jako jsou soubory souÅadnic nebo ÄasovÃ© intervaly.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Dekking</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De ruimtelijke of tijdelijke karakteristieken van de intellectuele inhoud van de Internetbron. Ruimtelijke dekking verwijst naar een geografisch gebied. Gebruik coordinaten (longitude (lengtegraad) en latitude (breedtegraad)) of plaatsnamen die van een gecontroleerde lijst komen of volledig uitgeschreven zijn. Dekking in de tijd geeft de tijdsperiode aan waarop de inhoud van de Internetbron betrekking heeft en niet wanneer de Internetbron is gemaakt of beschikbaar is gesteld (dit laatste hoort ingevult te worden bij &quot;Date&quot;). Gebruik dezelfde datum/tijd formaat als bij &quot;Date&quot;; W3C Technical Note http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime of tijdsperioden die van een gecontroleerde lijst komen of volledig uitgeschreven zijn. Coverage is in ontwikkeling bij de Dublin Core Working group http://www.alexandria.ucsb.edu/docs/metadata/dc_coverage.html.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Copertura</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le extension physic o abstracte del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le copertura typicamente include un location spatial (un nomine de localitate o coordinatas geographic), un periodo de tempore (un etiquetta de periodo, data, o gamma de datas), o un jurisdiction (tal como un entitate administrative nominate). Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le Thesaurus of Geographical Names [TGN]) e que, quando appropriate, localitates o periodos de tempore nominate sia utilizate in preferentia a identificatores numeric tales como collectiones de coordinatas o gammas de datas.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€­à¥à€à¥à€²à€¿à€  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€­à¥à€à¥à€²à€¿à€ à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Rights">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Rights Management</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information about rights held in and over the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Rights element will contain a rights management statement for the resource, or reference a service providing such information. Rights information often encompasses Intellectual Property Rights (IPR), Copyright, and various Property Rights. If the Rights element is absent, no assumptions can be made about the status of these and other rights with respect to the resource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Motika</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ko nga mohiohio ki nga motika o tetahi rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, kei te huanga Motika e pupuri ana he korero mo te whakaritenga motika mo te rauemi, he ratonga tohutoro e whakarato ana ranei i enei tumomo mohiohio. He nui nga wa, puta ai i roto i te mohiohio Motika te Mana Whakairo Hinegaro (Intellectual Property Rights - (IPR)), te Manatarua me nga Tuahua Mana Taonga (Property Rights). Ki te kore te huanga Motika, kaore e taea te pohehe noa ki te mana o enei, nga motika ranei e pa ana ki te rauemi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Droits</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information sur les droits sur et au sujet de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, un Ã©lÃ©ment Droits contiendra un Ã©tat du droit Ã  gÃ©rer une ressource, ou la refÃ©rence Ã  un service fournissant cette information. Ces droits souvent couvrent les droits de propriÃ©tÃ© intellectuelle (IPR), Copyright, et divers droits de propriÃ©tÃ©. Si l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Droits est absent, aucune hypothÃšse ne peut Ãªtre faite sur l&apos;Ã©tat de ces droits, ou de tout autre, par rapport Ã  la ressource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐµ ÑÐµÐ³ÑÐ»ÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐ°ÑÑÑ Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐž Ðž Ð²ÐœÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð° ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐœÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ
+, ÑÐµÐ³ÑÐ»ÐžÑÑÑÑÐžÑ
+ ÑÑÐœÐºÑÐžÐŸÐœÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÑ ÐœÐ° ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐŸÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÑÑÑ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ. ÐÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²Ð°Ñ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐ²ÐµÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŸ ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+ ÐžÐœÑÐµÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÐž, ÐÐ²ÑÐŸÑÑÐºÐŸÐŒ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ðµ Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ ÐÐŒÑÑÐµÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+. ÐÑÑÑÑÑÑÐ²ÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð° ÐœÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ°ÐºÐžÑ
+-Ð»ÐžÐ±ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÑÐµ Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+, ÐºÐ°ÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÑ
+ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Derechos</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una referencia (URL, por ejemplo) para una nota sobre derechos de autor, para un servicio de gestiÃ³n de derechos o para un servicio que darÃ¡ informaciÃ³n sobre tÃ©rminos y condiciones de acceso a un recurso. Una especificaciÃ³n formal del elemento Rights se encuentra catualmente en discusiÃ³n y por lo tanto su uso se considera experimental.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø© Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© , Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ù
+Ø±ØªØšØ· ØšØ§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø© Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© , Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ù
+Ø±ØªØšØ· ØšØ®Ø¯Ù
+Ø© ØªÙØ¯Ù
+ Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø¹Ù Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æé</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æå
+³èµæºæ¬èº«ææçæè¢«èµäºçæéä¿¡æ¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæéå
+çŽ åºå
+æ¬äžäžªå¯¹èµæºçæéå£°æïŒæè
+æ¯å¯¹æäŸè¿äžä¿¡æ¯çæå¡çåç
+§ãæéäžè¬    å
+æ¬ç¥è¯äº§æ(IPR)ïŒçææå
+¶ä»åç§åæ ·çäº§æãåŠææ²¡ææéå
+çŽ çæ æ³šïŒäžå¯ä»¥å¯¹äžèµæºçžå
+³    çäžè¿°æå
+¶ä»æå©çæ
+åµäœåºä»»äœåå®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PrÃ¡va</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Informace o prÃ¡vech vztahujÃ­cÃ­ch se k popisovanÃ©mu zdroji.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Prvek PrÃ¡va bude typicky obsahovat ustanovenÃ­ o sprÃ¡vÄ autorskÃœch/vlastnickÃœch prÃ¡v ke zdroji nebo odkaz na sluÅŸbu poskytujÃ­cÃ­ takovÃ©to informace. Informace o prÃ¡vech Äasto zahrnujÃ­ prÃ¡va duÅ¡evnÃ­ho vlastnictvÃ­ (IPR), autorskÃ© prÃ¡vo a rÅ¯znÃ¡ vlastnickÃ¡ prÃ¡va. JestliÅŸe prvek PrÃ¡va chybÃ­, nelze odvozovat ÅŸÃ¡dnÃ© pÅedpoklady o stavu tÄchto a jinÃœch prÃ¡v vztahujÃ­cÃ­ch se k popisovanÃ©mu zdroji.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Copyright</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een copyright verklaring of een link naar een copyright verklaring of een link naar een service die informatie geeft over de copyright van de Internetbron.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Gestion de derectos</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information super derectos detenite super e a proposito del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le elemento derectos continera un declaration de gestion de derectos pro le ressource, o un referentia a un servicio que provide tal information. Information de derectos frequentemente involve derectos de proprietate intellectual (IPR), copyright e varie derectos de proprietate. Si le elemento Derectos es absente, necun hypothese pote esser facite quanto al stato de iste e altere derectos concernente ressource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€¬à¥à€§à¥à€Šà€¿à€ à€žà€à€ªà€Šà¥à€à€Ÿà€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€žà¥à€µà€€à€à€¹à€Ÿà€à¥ à€²à¥à€à€š à€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€š à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€° à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€¿à€€ à€à€°à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€²à¥à€à€ à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€²à¥à€à€¿à€à¥à€à€Ÿ à€¬à¥à€§à¥à€Šà€¿à€ à€žà€à€ªà€Šà¥à€à€Ÿà€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/metadata/ex.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet SYSTEM "http://www.greenstone.org/dtd/MetadataSet/1.0/MetadataSet.dtd">
+<MetadataSet contact="nzdl.org" creator="New Zealand Digital Libraries Project: Greenstone" family="Extracted Greenstone" lastchanged="Tue Sep 05 14:40:36 NZST 2006 - kjdon on kanuka" namespace="ex">
+    <Name language="en">Extracted Greenstone Metadata 1.0</Name>
+    <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.0 of the automatically extracted Greenstone Metadata Element Set.</Description>
+    <Element name="Encoding">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Not always available.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The encoding of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="label">Encoding</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Language">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Not always available.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The language of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="label">Language</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Source">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Hidden in the Librarian Interface as it already shown by the various file trees.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The filename of the document imported by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="label">Source</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Title">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Not always available.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The title of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="label">Title</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/metadata/exp.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/metadata/exp.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/metadata/exp.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet SYSTEM "http://www.greenstone.org/dtd/MetadataSet/1.0/MetadataSet.dtd">
+<MetadataSet contact="nzdl.org" creator="New Zealand Digital Libraries Project: Greenstone" family="Exploded Metadata" lastchanged="Mon Mar 13 10:30:32 2006 - mdewsnip on bedrock" namespace="exp">
+    <Name language="en">Exploded Metadata Set</Name>
+    <Description language="en">An empty metadata set that is a good place to put metadata exploded from a metadata database (eg. CDS/ISIS).</Description>
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/metadata/profile.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE Profiles [
+<!ELEMENT Profiles (Action*)>
+<!ELEMENT Action (#PCDATA)>
+<!ATTLIST Action
+                source     CDATA #REQUIRED
+                target     CDATA "">
+]>
+<Profiles/>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/bibtex-supp-e.col
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/bibtex-supp-e.col	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/bibtex-supp-e.col	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GathererCollection [
+  <!ELEMENT GathererCollection (Argument*, GathererConfig, BuildConfig)>
+  <!ELEMENT GathererConfig    (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT BuildConfig       (Build, Import)>
+  <!ELEMENT Build             (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Import            (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Schedule          (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Argument          (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Argument
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				enabled           CDATA "true">
+]>
+<GathererCollection>
+    <Argument name="built">false</Argument>
+    <Argument name="imported">true</Argument>
+    <Argument name="skimfile">true</Argument>
+    <GathererConfig/>
+    <BuildConfig>
+        <Build/>
+        <Import>
+            <Argument enabled="true" name="removeold"/>
+        </Import>
+        <Schedule/>
+    </BuildConfig>
+</GathererCollection>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/etc/collect.cfg
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,522 @@
+creator		greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+maintainer	greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+public		true
+
+buildtype	mgpp
+
+groupsize	200
+
+supercollection	documented-examples/bibtex-supp-e documented-examples/bibtex-e
+
+indexes		text metadata
+
+plugin	BibTexPlugin -OIDtype assigned -OIDmetadata Number
+plugin	GreenstoneXMLPlugin
+plugin	MetadataXMLPlugin
+plugin	ArchivesInfPlugin
+plugin	DirectoryPlugin
+
+classify	AZList -metadata Title
+classify	AZCompactList -metadata Author -buttonname Creator
+classify	DateList -metadata Date
+
+format SearchTypes "form, plain"
+
+format VList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td valign=top><b>[Title]</b> - <i>{Or}{[Creator],[Editor]}</i>
+{If}{[Year], - [Month] [Year]}</td>"
+
+format CL2VList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td valign=top>{If}{[numleafdocs],<b>[Title]</b>,
+<b>[Author]</b> ([Creator]) -- <i>[Title]</i>}
+{If}{[Year], - [Month] [Year]}</td>"
+
+format DateList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td valign=top><b>[Title]</b> - <i>{Or}{[Creator],[Editor]}</i></td>"
+
+format HList "[link][highlight][ex.Title][/highlight][/link]"
+
+format DocumentHeading "<H1>[Title]</H1><hr><table>
+{If}{[Creator],<tr><td><b>_AuthoredBy_:</b></td><td>[Creator]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Title],<tr><td><b>_PaperTitle_:</b></td><td>[Title]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Editor],<tr><td><b>_Editors_:</b></td><td>[Editor]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[EditorRole],<tr><td><b>_EditorRole_:</b></td><td>[EditorRole]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Booktitle],<tr><td><b>_BookJournalTitle_:</b></td><td>[Booktitle]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Journal],<tr><td><b>_In_:</b></td><td>[Journal]</td></tr>}
+{If}{\"[Volume][Number]\",<tr><td colspan=\'2\'>}
+{If}{[Number], <b>_Number_</b> [Number] }
+{If}{[Volume], <b>_Vol_</b> [Volume]}
+{If}{\"[Volume][Number]\",</td></tr>}
+{If}{[MeetingDate],<tr><td><b>_MeetingDate_:</b></td><td>[MeetingDate]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[MeetingPlace],<tr><td><b>_MeetingPlace_:</b></td><td>[MeetingPlace]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[PublicationPlace],<tr><td><b>_PublicationPlace_:</b></td><td>[PublicationPlace] </td></tr>}
+{If}{[Publisher],<tr><td><b>_Publisher_:</b></td><td>[Publisher]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Year],<tr><td><b>_PublicationDate_:</b></td><td>[Month] [Year]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Pages],<tr><td><b>_Pages_:</b></td><td>[Pages]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[DocType],<tr><td><b>_DocType_:</b></td><td>[DocType]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Location],<tr><td><b>_LocationURL_:</b></td><td>[Location]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Notes],<tr><td><b>_Annotations_:</b></td><td>[Notes]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Abstract],<tr><td><b>_Abstract_:</b></td><td>[Abstract]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Keywords],<tr><td><b>_Keywords_:</b></td><td>[Keywords]</td></tr>}
+</table><hr>"
+
+format DocumentText "{If}{_cgiargshowrecord_,
+<b>_BibTeXrecord_:</b><br/><tt>[Text]</tt><br><center>
+<a href=\'_gwcgi_?e=_cgiarge_&c=_cgiargc_&cl=_cgiargcl_&a=d&d=_cgiargd_\'>_HideBibTeXrecord_</a></center>,
+<center><a href=\'_gwcgi_?e=_cgiarge_&c=_cgiargc_&cl=_cgiargcl_&a=d&d=_cgiargd_&showrecord=1\'>
+_ShowBibTeXrecord_</a></center>} "
+
+format DocumentButtons ""
+format DocumentContents false
+
+# -- English strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=en] "Bibliography supplement"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=en] "full records"
+
+collectionmeta	AuthoredBy [l=en] "Authored By"
+collectionmeta	PaperTitle [l=en] "Paper Title"
+collectionmeta	Editors [l=en] "Editor(s)"
+collectionmeta	EditorRole [l=en] "Editor Role"
+collectionmeta	BookJournalTitle [l=en] "Book/Journal Title"
+collectionmeta	In [l=en] "In"
+collectionmeta	Number [l=en] "Number"
+collectionmeta	Vol [l=en] "Vol."
+collectionmeta	MeetingDate [l=en] "Meeting Date"
+collectionmeta	MeetingPlace [l=en] "Meeting Place"
+collectionmeta	PublicationPlace [l=en] "Publication Place"
+collectionmeta	Publisher [l=en] "Publisher"
+collectionmeta	PublicationDate [l=en] "Publication Date"
+collectionmeta	Pages [l=en] "Pages"
+collectionmeta	DocType [l=en] "DocType"
+collectionmeta	LocationURL [l=en] "Location/URL"
+collectionmeta	Annotations [l=en] "Annotations"
+collectionmeta	Abstract [l=en] "Abstract"
+collectionmeta	Keywords [l=en] "Keywords"
+
+collectionmeta	BibTeXrecord [l=en] "BibTeX Record"
+collectionmeta	ShowBibTeXrecord [l=en] "Show BibTeX Record"
+collectionmeta	HideBibTeXrecord [l=en] "Hide BibTeX Record"
+
+# -- French strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=fr] "SupplÃ©ment bibliographie"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=fr] "enregistrements complets"
+
+collectionmeta	AuthoredBy [l=fr] "Nom de l\'auteur"
+collectionmeta	PaperTitle [l=fr] "Titre de l\'article"
+collectionmeta	Editors [l=fr] "Editeur(s)"
+collectionmeta	EditorRole [l=fr] "RÃŽle de l\'Ã©diteur"
+collectionmeta	BookJournalTitle [l=fr] "Titre de Livre/Journal"
+collectionmeta	In [l=fr] "Dans"
+collectionmeta	Number [l=fr] "NumÃ©ro"
+collectionmeta	Vol [l=fr] "Vol."
+collectionmeta	MeetingDate [l=fr] "Date de rencontre"
+collectionmeta	MeetingPlace [l=fr] "Lieu de rencontre"
+collectionmeta	PublicationPlace [l=fr] "Lieu de publication"
+collectionmeta	Publisher [l=fr] "Editeur"
+collectionmeta	PublicationDate [l=fr] "Date de publication"
+collectionmeta	Pages [l=fr] "Pages"
+collectionmeta	DocType [l=fr] "TypeDocument"
+collectionmeta	LocationURL [l=fr] "Emplacement/URL"
+collectionmeta	Annotations [l=fr] "Annotations"
+collectionmeta	Abstract [l=fr] "RÃ©sumÃ©"
+collectionmeta	Keywords [l=fr] "Mots-clÃ©s"
+
+collectionmeta	BibTeXrecord [l=fr] "Enregistrement BibTeX"
+collectionmeta	ShowBibTeXrecord [l=fr] "Montrer Enregistrement BibTeX"
+collectionmeta	HideBibTeXrecord [l=fr] "Cacher l\'enregistrement BibTeX"
+
+# -- Spanish strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=es] "Suplemento bibliogrÃ¡fico"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=es] "registros completos"
+
+collectionmeta	AuthoredBy [l=es] "Autor"
+collectionmeta	PaperTitle [l=es] "TÃ­tulo del documento"
+collectionmeta	Editors [l=es] "Editor(es)"
+collectionmeta	EditorRole [l=es] "Papel del editor"
+collectionmeta	BookJournalTitle [l=es] "TÃ­tulo del libro o revista"
+collectionmeta	In [l=es] "En"
+collectionmeta	Number [l=es] "NÃºmero"
+collectionmeta	Vol [l=es] "Volumen"
+collectionmeta	MeetingDate [l=es] "Fecha de la reuniÃ³n"
+collectionmeta	MeetingPlace [l=es] "Lugar de la reuniÃ³n"
+collectionmeta	PublicationPlace [l=es] "Lugar de publicaciÃ³n"
+collectionmeta	Publisher [l=es] "Editorial"
+collectionmeta	PublicationDate [l=es] "Fecha de publicaciÃ³n"
+collectionmeta	Pages [l=es] "PÃ¡ginas"
+collectionmeta	DocType [l=es] "Tipo de documento"
+collectionmeta	LocationURL [l=es] "UbicaciÃ³n/URL"
+collectionmeta	Annotations [l=es] "Anotaciones"
+collectionmeta	Abstract [l=es] "Resumen"
+collectionmeta	Keywords [l=es] "Palabras clave"
+
+collectionmeta	BibTeXrecord [l=es] "Registro BibTeX"
+collectionmeta	ShowBibTeXrecord [l=es] "Mostrar registro BibTeX"
+collectionmeta	HideBibTeXrecord [l=es] "Ocultar registro BibTeX"
+
+# -- Russian strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=ru] "ÐÑÐžÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ Ð±ÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÐž"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=ru] "ÐÐŸÐ»ÐœÑÐµ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÐž"
+
+collectionmeta	AuthoredBy [l=ru] "ÐÐ²ÑÐŸÑ"
+collectionmeta	PaperTitle [l=ru] "ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÐž"
+collectionmeta	Editors [l=ru] "Ð ÐµÐŽÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑ (Ñ)"
+collectionmeta	EditorRole [l=ru] "Ð ÐŸÐ»Ñ ÑÐµÐŽÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÐ°"
+collectionmeta	BookJournalTitle [l=ru] "ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐºÐœÐžÐ³Ðž/Ð¶ÑÑÐœÐ°Ð»Ð°"
+collectionmeta	In [l=ru] "Ð"
+collectionmeta	Number [l=ru] "Ð§ÐžÑÐ»ÐŸ (ÐÐŸÐŒÐµÑ)"
+collectionmeta	Vol [l=ru] "Ð¢ÐŸÐŒ"
+collectionmeta	MeetingDate [l=ru] "ÐÐ°ÑÐ° Ð²ÑÑÑÐµÑÐž"
+collectionmeta	MeetingPlace [l=ru] "ÐÐµÑÑÐŸ Ð²ÑÑÑÐµÑÐž"
+collectionmeta	PublicationPlace [l=ru] "ÐÐ°ÑÐ° ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž"
+collectionmeta	Publisher [l=ru] "ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ"
+collectionmeta	PublicationDate [l=ru] "ÐÐ°ÑÐ° ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž"
+collectionmeta	Pages [l=ru] "Ð¡ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ"
+collectionmeta	DocType [l=ru] "Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°"
+collectionmeta	LocationURL [l=ru] "ÐÐµÑÑÐŸÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ/URL"
+collectionmeta	Annotations [l=ru] "ÐÐœÐœÐŸÑÐ°ÑÐžÐž"
+collectionmeta	Abstract [l=ru] "Ð ÐµÐ·ÑÐŒÐµ"
+collectionmeta	Keywords [l=ru] "ÐÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÐµ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°"
+
+collectionmeta	BibTeXrecord [l=ru] "ÐÐ°Ð¿ÐžÑÑ BibTeX"
+collectionmeta	ShowBibTeXrecord [l=ru] "ÐÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÑÑ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÑ BibTeX"
+collectionmeta	HideBibTeXrecord [l=ru] "Ð¡ÐºÑÑÑÐ°Ñ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÑ BibTeX"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=zh] "æç®è¡¥å
+
+éŠè"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=zh] "ææè®°åœ"
+
+collectionmeta	AuthoredBy [l=zh] "èè
+"
+collectionmeta	PaperTitle [l=zh] "è®ºæé¢å"
+collectionmeta	Editors [l=zh] "çŒèŸ"
+collectionmeta	EditorRole [l=zh] "çŒèŸè§è²"
+collectionmeta	BookJournalTitle [l=zh] "ä¹Š/æåé¢å"
+collectionmeta	In [l=zh] "äº"
+collectionmeta	Number [l=zh] "æ"
+collectionmeta	Vol [l=zh] "å·"
+collectionmeta	MeetingDate [l=zh] "äŒè§æ¶æ"
+collectionmeta	MeetingPlace [l=zh] "äŒè§å°ç¹"
+collectionmeta	PublicationPlace [l=zh] "åºçå°å"
+collectionmeta	Publisher [l=zh] "åºçå"
+collectionmeta	PublicationDate [l=zh] "åºçæ¥æ"
+collectionmeta	Pages [l=zh] "é¡µ"
+collectionmeta	DocType [l=zh] "ææ¡£ç±»å"
+collectionmeta	LocationURL [l=zh] "äœçœ®/URL"
+collectionmeta	Annotations [l=zh] "æ³šé"
+collectionmeta	Abstract [l=zh] "ææ"
+collectionmeta	Keywords [l=zh] "å
+³é®è¯"
+
+collectionmeta	BibTeXrecord [l=zh] "BibTeXè®°åœ"
+collectionmeta	ShowBibTeXrecord [l=zh] "æŸç€ºBibTeXè®°åœ"
+collectionmeta	HideBibTeXrecord [l=zh] "éèBibTeXè®°åœ"
+
+# -- English text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=en] "This collection, which contains _about:numdocs_
+BibTeX entries, is a small adjunct to the sample bibliography
+collection. It contains working papers published in the year 2006 at <a href=\"http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/\">Department of Computer Science</a>, <a href=\"http://www.waikato.ac.nz/\">the University of Waikato</a>.\n
+
+\n<h3>How the collection works</h3>\n
+
+<p>
+The purpose of the collection, whose name is \"bibtex-supp-e\", is to
+illustrate Greenstone\'s \"supercollection\" facility.\n
+
+<p>
+It is a very small collection with only _about:numdocs_ documents, as you
+can see by clicking the
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\"><i>titles</i></a> button.
+It has the same structure as the much larger
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=documented-examples/bibtex-e&a=p&p=about&ct=1&qto=3&qt=1&l=en&w=utf-8\">bibliography
+collection</a>, except that there is no <i>phrases</i> button (because it\'s far too small
+for a phrase index to make sense).\n
+
+<p>
+The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>collection
+configuration file</a> is just the same as that for the bibliography
+collection (which is called \"bibtex-e\"), except for one small but crucial
+difference: a line that states\n
+
+<pre>
+supercollection documented-examples/bibtex-supp-e documented-examples/bibtex-e
+</pre>\n
+
+The \"documented-examples/\" parts of the collection names are necessary
+because these collections reside in the \"documented-examples\" collection
+group subfolder in the collect directory.\n
+
+<p>
+This only affects <i>searching</i>, not browsing. It means that when you do
+a search, the <i>bibtex-e</i> collection is automatically
+searched as well. For example, if you look in the
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\"><i>titles</i></a> list you will see that a couple of the items are about \"event\". But if you
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q&ct=1&qt=1&r=1&hs=1&fqa=0&fqv=event,,,&fqf=TX,CR,LA,SO\">search</a>
+for <i>event</i> you will find that 17 documents match the query. That\'s
+because the same search in the bibliography collection finds 12 documents.\n
+
+<p>
+<i>Supercollection</i> has two principal uses. One is when a collection is
+be continually updated with new material, but is impractical to rebuild
+after each addition. New material can be accumulated in a small supplementary
+collection that rebuilds very quickly. Periodically, the two are amalgamated
+and rebuilt. The main collection would contain a <i>supercollection</i>
+statement. (The present collection has a main \"bibliography\" and a smaller
+\"supplement\", but here -- because of the way we have decided to explain it --
+the <i>supercollection</i> statement is in the wrong collection!)\n
+
+<p>
+<i>Supercollection</i> is also useful for gigantic collections. Ordinary
+Greenstone collections can be very large -- we have built one with 11 million
+short documents, and another with 7 GB of text. However, gigantic collections
+may have be split up. One smaller-scale example is a collection of over a
+million small documents that is delivered on 5 CD-ROMs, each of which works
+individually as an independent Greenstone collection. When several are insalled on the hard
+drive, they can be searched together as a seamless unit.\n
+
+<p>
+The supercollection facility only works for <i>searching</i>. The present
+collection, when browsed, is very small; but when searched it is much larger.
+We have found that browsing is of limited use for very large collections
+anyway. For example, in the above-mentioned CD-ROM collection, there are no
+browsing buttons, only searching.\n
+
+<p>
+In the present example the two collections have precisely the same structure.
+<i>Supercollection</i> still works even if they are different.
+Each collection appears as it would normally, and cross-collection searching
+works as expected. When documents are displayed, they\'re shown according to the
+format defined in the collection to which they belong.\n
+
+<p>
+Each collection can be used individually by following the instructions below
+(which Greenstone generates automatically).\n
+"
+
+# -- French text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=fr] "
+Cette collection qui contient _about:numdocs_ entrÃ©es BibTeX est un ajout Ã  la collection de bibliographie fournie en exemple.
+Elle contient quelques articles published in the year 2006 at <a href=\"http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/\">Department of Computer Science</a>, <a href=\"http://www.waikato.ac.nz/\">the University of Waikato</a>. \n
+
+<h3>Comment marche cette collection ?</h3>
+
+<p>
+Le but de la collection dont le nom est \"bibtex-supp-e\", est d\'illustrer
+la fonctionnalitÃ© \"supercollection\" de Greenstone.
+
+<p>
+C\'est une petite collection avec environ seulement _about:numdocs_ documents, comme vous le voyez en cliquant le bouton
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\"><i>titles a-z</i></a>.
+
+Elle a la mÃªme structure que la plus grande <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=documented-examples/bibtex-e&a=p&p=about&ct=1&qto=3&qt=1&l=en&w=utf-8\">Bibliography Collection</a>,
+exceptÃ© qu\'il n\'y a pas de bouton <i>phrase</i> (parce qu\'elle
+est beaucoup trop petite pour qu\'un index d\'expression ait un sens).
+
+<p>
+Le <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier de configuration</a> de la collection est le mÃªme que celui de la collection de bibliographies (qui est appelÃ© \"bibtex-e\"), exceptÃ© une petite mais cruciale diffÃ©rence: une ligne qui stipule
+
+<pre>
+supercollection documented-examples/bibtex-supp-e documented-examples/bibtex-e
+</pre>
+Les parties des noms de collections \"documented-examples/\" sont nÃ©cessaires parce que ces collections sont localisÃ©es dans le sous-dossier du groupe de collections \"documented-examples\", situÃ© dans le rÃ©pertoire collect.\n
+
+<p>
+Ceci affecte seulement la fonction <i>\"rechercher\"</i>, mais pas \"parcourir\". Ceci signifie que quand on effectue une recherche dans la collection, une recherche est automatiquement effectuÃ©e dans la collection <i>bibtex-e</i> aussi. Par exemple, si vous regardez dans la liste <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\"><i>titles a-z</i></a>, on voit que quelques Ã©lÃ©ments sont sur \"event\". Mais si on <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q&ct=1&qt=1&r=1&hs=1&fqa=0&fqv=event,,,&fqf=TX,CR,LA,SO\">recherche</a> <i>event</i>, on trouvera 17 documents qui traitent le sujet. C\'est par ce que la mÃªme recherche dans la collection de bibliographie trouve 12 documents.
+
+<p>
+<i>Supercollection</i> a deux principales utilisations. L\'une est
+quand la collection est continuellement mise Ã  jour avec du nouveau
+matÃ©riau, et qu\'il n\'est pas pratique de reconstruire la collection aprÃšs chaque ajout.
+Les nouveaux matÃ©riaux peuvent Ãªtre accumulÃ©s dans une petite collection
+supplÃ©mentaire qu\'on peut reconstruire trÃšs rapidement. PÃ©riodiquement,
+les deux sont unifiÃ©es et reconstruites. La collection principale
+contiendrait une dÃ©claration <i>supercollection</i>. (La prÃ©sente
+collection possÃšde une \"bibliographie\" principale et un \"supplÃ©ment\" plus petit. Mais ici -- Ã  cause dela maniÃšre dont nous avez dÃ©cidÃ© de l\'expliquer -- la dÃ©claration <i>supercollection</i> n\'est pas dans la bonne collection!)
+
+<p>
+<i>Supercollection</i> est aussi utile pour les collections gigantesques.
+En gÃ©nÃ©ral, les collections Greenstone peuvent Ãªtre trÃšs grandes.
+Nous en avons construit une avec 11 millions de courts documents
+et une autre avec 7 GB de texte. Cependant, les trÃšs grandes collections
+peuvent Ãªtre segmentÃ©es. Un exemple a Ã©chelle rÃ©duite est une
+collection de plus d\'un million de documents qui est produite
+dans 5 CD-ROMs, chacune travaillant individuellement dans une
+collection Greenstone indÃ©pendante. Quand plusieurs de ces CD-ROMs sont
+installÃ©es sur le disque dur, on peut y effectuer des recherches comme s\'ils formaient une seule unitÃ©.
+
+<p>
+La fonctionnalitÃ© \"supercollection\" ne marche que pour la <i>recherche</i>. Quand on parcourt la prÃ©sente collection, on voit qu\'elle est trÃšs petite. Mais quand on effectue des recherches sur elle, elle devient beaucoup plus grande.
+De toutes les faÃ§ons, nous avons trouvÃ© que parcourir de trÃšs grandes collections n\'est que d\'une utilitÃ© trÃšs limitÃ©e. Par exemple, dans
+la collection CD-ROM mentionnÃ©e ci-dessus, il n\'y a pas de
+boutons pour \"Parcourir\" mais seulement pour \"Rechercher\".
+
+<p>
+Dans le prÃ©sent exemple, les deux collections ont exactement
+la mÃªme structure. <i>Supercollection</i> fonctionne aussi mÃªme si
+elles sont diffÃ©rentes. Chaque collection apparaÃ®t comme elle
+le serait normallement, et la recherche \"inter-collection\" marche comme prÃ©vu. Quand des documents sont affichÃ©s, ils sont prÃ©sentÃ©s selon le format dÃ©fini dans la collection Ã  laquelle ils appartiennent.
+
+<p>
+Chaque collection peut Ãªtre utilisÃ©e individuellement en suivant les instructions ci-dessous (que Greenstone gÃ©nÃšre automatiquement).
+"
+
+# -- Spanish text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=es] "
+Esta colecciÃ³n contiene _about:numdocs_ registros de BibTeX y es un pequeÃ±o anexo de la misma colecciÃ³n bibliogrÃ¡fica. Contiene papers de trabajo EstÃ¡ formada por unos cuantos documentos correspondientes a la TeorÃ­a para published in the year 2006 at <a href=\"http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/\">Department of Computer Science</a>, <a href=\"http://www.waikato.ac.nz/\">the University of Waikato</a>. \n
+<p>
+
+<h3>CÃ³mo trabaja esta colecciÃ³n</h3>
+<p>
+
+El propÃ³sito de esta colecciÃ³n, cuyo nombre es \"bibtex-supp-e\", es ilustrar la opciÃ³n \"supercolecciÃ³n\" de Greenstone.
+<p>
+
+Se trata de una colecciÃ³n muy pequeÃ±a con solo unos _about:numdocs_ documentos , como se puede ver haciendo click en el botÃ³n <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\">tÃ­tulos</a>. Tiene la misma estructura que la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/bibtex-e&ct=1&qto=3&qt=1\">colecciÃ³n bibliogrÃ¡fica</a> mÃ¡s grande, excepto que Ã©sta no cuenta con el botÃ³n de frases (ya que es demasiado pequeÃ±a para que el Ã­ndice de frases tuviera sentido).
+<p>
+
+El <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n de la colecciÃ³n</a> es el mismo que el de la colecciÃ³n bibliogrÃ¡fica (llamada \"bibtex-e\"), excepto por una pequeÃ±a pero muy importante diferencia: la lÃ­nea que dice  
+
+<pre>
+supercollection documented-examples/bibtex-supp-e documented-examples/bibtex-e
+</pre>\n
+
+La parte \"documented-examples/\" de los nombres de las colecciones es necesaria porque estas colecciones residen en el subgrupo de colecciones \"documented-examples\" en la carpeta collect.\n
+
+Este enunciado sÃ³lo afecta a la <i>bÃºsqueda</i> y no a los navegadores. Esto significa que cuando se hace una bÃºsqueda tambiÃ©n se busca automÃ¡ticamente en la colecciÃ³n bibtex-e. Por ejemplo, si se mira en la lista de tÃ­tulos se verÃ¡ que un par de Ã­tems son acerca de \"event\". Pero si se <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q&ct=1&qt=1&r=1&hs=1&fqa=0&fqv=event,,,&fqf=TX,CR,LA,SO\">busca</a> <i>event</i>, entonces aparecerÃ¡n 17 documentos. Esto se debe a que se encontraron al mismo tiempo 12 documentos en la colecciÃ³n bibliogrÃ¡fica.
+<p>
+
+La <i>supercolecciÃ³n</i> tiene dos usos principales. Una es cuando la colecciÃ³n se va actualizar continuamente con nuevos materiales, pero no resulta prÃ¡ctico reconstruirla despuÃ©s de cada adiciÃ³n. Los nuevos materiales se pueden acumular en una pequeÃ±a colecciÃ³n suplementaria que se reconstruye rÃ¡pidamente. PeriÃ³dicamente ambas colecciones se juntan y reconstruyen. La colecciÃ³n principal tendrÃ¡ un enunciado de <i>supercolecciÃ³n</i>. (La presente colecciÃ³n tiene una \"bibliografÃ­a\" principal y un \"suplemento\" mÃ¡s pequeÃ±o, pero debido a la forma en que hemos querido explicarlo, aquÃ­ el enunciado de <i>supercolecciÃ³n</i> no estÃ¡ en la colecciÃ³n que le corresponde.)
+<p>
+
+La <i>supercolecciÃ³n</i> tambiÃ©n es Ãºtil para colecciones de gran tamaÃ±o. Las colecciones Greenstone pueden ser muy grandes: una vez construimos una con 11 millones de pequeÃ±os documentos y otra con 7 GB de texto. Sin embargo, es posible que las colecciones de gran tamaÃ±o tengan que dividirse. Un ejemplo a pequeÃ±a escala es una colecciÃ³n de mÃ¡s de un millÃ³n de pequeÃ±os documentos que se distribuyen en 5 CD-ROMs, cada uno de los cuales trabaja de manera individual como una colecciÃ³n Greenstone independiente. De esta manera, cuando se instalan varios en la unidad de disco duro pueden buscarse como una unidad continua y sin interrupciones.
+<p>
+
+La opciÃ³n de supercolecciÃ³n Ãºnicamente sirve para <i>bÃºsquedas</i>. Cuando se explora la presente colecciÃ³n resulta muy pequeÃ±a, pero cuando se busca es mucho mÃ¡s grande. De cualquier manera hemos encontrado que los navegadores tienen un uso limitado para colecciones muy grandes. Por ejemplo, en el caso arriba mencionado de la colecciÃ³n en CD-ROM no hay botones que permitan realizar exploraciones, sÃ³lo bÃºsquedas.
+<p>
+
+En el presente ejemplo las dos colecciones tienen precisamente la misma estructura. No obstante, la opciÃ³n de <i>supercolecciÃ³n</i> trabaja incluso si son diferentes. Cada colecciÃ³n aparece tal como lo harÃ­a normalmente y la bÃºsqueda a travÃ©s de las colecciones funciona como es de esperarse. Cuando los documentos aparecen en pantalla lo hacen de acuerdo al formato definido en la colecciÃ³n a a la que pertenecen.
+<p>
+
+Cada colecciÃ³n puede usarse de manera individual siguiendo las instrucciones que aparecen a continuaciÃ³n (que Greenstone genera automÃ¡ticamente).
+<p>
+"
+
+# -- Russian text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=ru] "
+Ð­ÑÐ° ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐ°Ñ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÐž <i>about:numdocs BibTeX</i>, ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŒÐ°Ð»ÐµÐœÑÐºÐžÐŒ ÐŽÐŸÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐµÐœÐžÐµÐŒ Ðº ÑÐžÐ¿ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ¹ Ð±ÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž. ÐÐœÐ° ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ ÐœÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÑÑÐ°ÑÐµÐ¹ published in the year 2006 at <a href=\"http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/\">Department of Computer Science</a>, <a href=\"http://www.waikato.ac.nz/\">the University of Waikato</a>. \n
+<p>
+
+<h3>ÐÐ°Ðº ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ</h3>
+<p>
+
+ÐŠÐµÐ»Ñ ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž, ÐžÐŒÑ ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ¹ \"<i>bibtex-supp-e</i>\", ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÐžÑ Ð² ÑÐŸÐŒ, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐžÐ»Ð»ÑÑÑÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ Ð²ÐŸÐ·ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐœÐŸÑÑÐž \"ÑÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž\" Greenstone.
+<p>
+
+Ð­ÑÐŸ ÐŸÑÐµÐœÑ ÐŒÐ°Ð»ÐµÐœÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐ°Ñ ÑÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ _about:numdocs_, ÑÑÐŸ ÐÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑÐµ Ð²ÐžÐŽÐµÑÑ, ÑÐµÐ»ÐºÐ°Ñ ÐºÐœÐŸÐ¿ÐºÑ <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\"><i>titles</i></a>. ÐÐœÐ° ÐžÐŒÐµÐµÑ ÑÐ°ÐºÑÑ Ð¶Ðµ ÑÑÑÑÐºÑÑÑÑ, ÑÑÐŸ Ðž Ð³ÐŸÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐŸ Ð±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ñ Ð±ÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ, Ð·Ð° ÐžÑÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÑÑÐŸ Ð·ÐŽÐµÑÑ ÐœÐµÑ ÐºÐœÐŸÐ¿ÐºÐž <i>phrases</i>, Ð¿ÐŸÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÑ ÐŸÐœÐ° ÑÐ»ÐžÑÐºÐŸÐŒ ÐŒÐ°Ð»Ð° ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑ ÑÑÐ°Ð·Ñ ÐžÐŒÐµÐ» ÑÐŒÑÑÐ».
+<p>
+
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>ÐÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»</a> ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐ°ÐºÐžÐŒ Ð¶Ðµ, ÐºÐ°ÐºÐžÐŒ ÐŸÐœ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð±ÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž (ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐ°Ñ ÐœÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑÑÑ \"<i>bibtex-e</i>\"), Ð·Ð° ÐžÑÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÐŸÐŽÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐœÐµÐ±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÐœÐŸ ÐºÑÐžÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ°Ð·Ð»ÐžÑÐžÑ Ð² ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐµ ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÑÐœÐžÑ.
+<pre>
+supercollection documented-examples/bibtex-supp-e documented-examples/bibtex-e
+</pre>
+
+<!-- _text1_ -->
+The \"documented-examples/\" parts of the collection names are necessary 
+because these collections reside in the \"documented-examples\" collection 
+group subfolder in the collect directory.\n
+<p>
+
+Ð­ÑÐŸ Ð·Ð°ÑÑÐ°Ð³ÐžÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐº, ÐœÐŸ ÐœÐµ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐŸÑÑ. Ð­ÑÐŸ ÐŸÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÐ°ÐµÑ, ÑÑÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÐÑ ÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°ÐµÑÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐº, ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ <i>bibtex-e</i> ÑÐ°ÐºÐ¶Ðµ Ð°Ð²ÑÐŸÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐž Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐ²ÐµÑÐ³Ð°ÐµÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐŸÑÑÑ. ÐÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÐÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÑÐžÐ²Ð°ÐµÑÐµ ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐŸÐº <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\"><i>titles</i></a>, ÐÑ ÑÐ²ÐžÐŽÐžÑÐµ, ÑÑÐŸ ÐœÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÑÐžÑÑÑ Ðº \"event\". ÐÐŸ ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÐÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐ²ÐµÐŽÐµÑÐµ <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q&ct=1&qt=1&r=1&hs=1&fqa=0&fqv=event,,,&fqf=TX,CR,LA,SO\">Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐº</a> Ð¿ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ñ <i>event</i>, ÑÐŸ ÐÑ ÐœÐ°Ð¹ÐŽÐµÑÐµ, ÑÑÐŸ 17 ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑ ÑÑÐŸÐŒÑ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑ, ÑÐŸÐ³Ð»Ð° ÐºÐ°Ðº ÑÐŸÑ Ð¶Ðµ ÑÐ°ÐŒÑÐ¹ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐº Ð² Ð±ÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÐœÐ°ÑÑÐ¶ÐžÑ ÑÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ 12 ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ².
+
+<p>
+
+Ð¡ÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÐžÐŒÐµÐµÑ ÐŽÐ²Ð° ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²ÐœÑÑ
+ ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ. ÐÐŽÐœÐŸ -- ÑÑÐŸ, ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÐœÐµÐ¿ÑÐµÑÑÐ²ÐœÐŸ Ð¿ÐŸÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐœÐŸÐ²ÑÐŒ ÐŒÐ°ÑÐµÑÐžÐ°Ð»ÐŸÐŒ, ÐœÐŸ ÐœÐµÐ¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐœÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑ ÐµÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ»Ðµ ÐºÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐŸÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐµÐœÐžÑ. ÐÐŸÐ²ÑÐ¹ ÐŒÐ°ÑÐµÑÐžÐ°Ð» ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ ÐœÐ°ÐºÐ°Ð¿Ð»ÐžÐ²Ð°ÑÑÑÑ Ð² ÐœÐµÐ±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐŽÐŸÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐ°Ñ ÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŸÑÐµÐœÑ Ð±ÑÑÑÑÐŸ. ÐÐµÑÐžÐŸÐŽÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐž ÑÑÐž ÐŽÐ²Ðµ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐŽÐžÐœÑÑÑÑÑ Ðž ÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ. ÐÐ»Ð°Ð²ÐœÐ°Ñ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ Ð±ÑÐŽÐµÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑ -- <i>supercollection</i>. ÐÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐ°Ñ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ -- \"Ð±ÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑ\" Ðž ÐŒÐµÐœÑÑÑÑ -- \"Ð¿ÑÐžÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ\", ÐœÐŸ Ð·ÐŽÐµÑÑ ÐžÐ·-Ð·Ð° ÑÐ¿ÐŸÑÐŸÐ±Ð°, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ ÐŒÑ ÑÐµÑÐžÐ»Ðž ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÑÐœÐµÐœÐžÑ, ÐŸÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑ <i>supercollection</i> ÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÑÑÑ Ð² ÐœÐµÐ¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐžÐ»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž(!).
+<p>
+
+<i>Ð¡ÑÐ¿Ð¿ÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ</i> ÑÐ°ÐºÐ¶Ðµ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐµÐ·ÐœÐ° ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð³ÐžÐ³Ð°ÐœÑÑÐºÐžÑ
+ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐ¹. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÑÐµ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž Greenstone ÐŒÐŸÐ³ÑÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÐŸÑÐµÐœÑ Ð±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐžÐŒÐž -- ÐŒÑ ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°Ð»Ðž ÐŸÐŽÐœÑ, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÑÑ 11 ÐŒÐžÐ»Ð»ÐžÐŸÐœÐŸÐ² ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐºÐžÑ
+ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ², Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÑÑ, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÑÑ 7 Gb ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐ°. ÐÐŽÐœÐ°ÐºÐŸ Ð³ÐžÐ³Ð°ÐœÑÑÐºÐžÐµ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÐŒÐŸÐ³ÑÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÑÐŸÐ±Ð»ÐµÐœÐœÑÐŒÐž. ÐÐŽÐœÐžÐŒ ÐžÐ· Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÐŸÐ² ÐŒÐµÐœÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÐŒÐ°ÑÑÑÐ°Ð±Ð° ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐ°Ñ Ð±ÐŸÐ»ÐµÐµ ÐŒÐžÐ»Ð»ÐžÐŸÐœÐ° ÐœÐµÐ±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐžÑ
+ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ², ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐ°Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐœÐ° 5 CD-ROM, ÐºÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÑÐ¹ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÑ
+ ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐ²ÐžÐŽÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐœÐµÐ·Ð°Ð²ÐžÑÐžÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ Greenstone. ÐÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÐœÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÐžÐ· ÐœÐžÑ
+ ÐžÐœÑÑÐ°Ð»Ð»ÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÑ ÐœÐ° Ð¶ÐµÑÑÐºÐŸÐŒ ÐŽÐžÑÐºÐµ, Ð² ÐœÐžÑ
+ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐŽÐžÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐº ÐºÐ°Ðº Ð² ÐµÐŽÐžÐœÐŸÐŒ ÐŒÐ°ÑÑÐžÐ²Ðµ.
+<p>
+
+Ð¡ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²Ð° ÑÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐœÐ°Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÑ ÑÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÐŽÐ»Ñ <i>Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ°</i>. ÐÐ°ÐœÐœÐ°Ñ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ, ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÐµÐµ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÑÐžÐ²Ð°ÑÑ, ÐŸÑÐµÐœÑ ÐŒÐ°Ð»Ð°, ÐœÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° Ð² ÐœÐµÐ¹ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐžÐ·Ð²ÐŸÐŽÐžÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐº, ÐŸÐœÐ° Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÐ»ÑÐœÐŸ Ð±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐµ. ÐÑ ÐŸÐ±ÐœÐ°ÑÑÐ¶ÐžÐ»Ðž, ÑÑÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐŸÑÑ ÑÐ°Ðº ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐžÐœÐ°ÑÐµ ÐžÐŒÐµÐµÑ ÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŸÑÐµÐœÑ Ð±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐžÑ
+ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐ¹. ÐÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, Ð² Ð²ÑÑÐµÑÐ¿ÐŸÐŒÑÐœÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÐœÐ° CD-ROM ÐœÐµÑ ÐœÐžÐºÐ°ÐºÐžÑ
+ ÐºÐœÐŸÐ¿ÐŸÐº Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐŸÑÑÐ°, Ð° ÐžÐŒÐµÑÑÑÑ ÑÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐŸÐ²ÑÐµ.
+<p>
+
+Ð Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÐµ ÑÑÐž ÐŽÐ²Ðµ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÐŸÐŽÐžÐœÐ°ÐºÐŸÐ²ÑÑ ÑÑÑÑÐºÑÑÑÑ. <i>Ð¡ÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ</i> Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐ°ÑÑ, ÐŽÐ°Ð¶Ðµ ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÐŸÐœÐž ÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÐŸÑÐ»ÐžÑÐžÑ. ÐÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÐ°Ñ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ, Ðž Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐº Ð² ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐŽÐžÐœÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž Ð²ÐŸÐ·ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœ, ÐºÐ°Ðº Ðž ÐŸÐ¶ÐžÐŽÐ°Ð»ÐŸÑÑ. ÐÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ Ð²ÑÑ
+ÐŸÐŽÑÑ ÐœÐ° ÐŒÐŸÐœÐžÑÐŸÑ, ÐŸÐœÐž Ð²ÑÐ³Ð»ÑÐŽÑÑ ÑÐŸÐ³Ð»Ð°ÑÐœÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŒÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÑ, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœ Ð² ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž, Ðº ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐŸÐœÐž Ð¿ÑÐžÐœÐ°ÐŽÐ»ÐµÐ¶Ð°Ñ.
+
+<p>
+
+ÐÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÐ°Ñ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑÑÑ ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŸÑÑÐŸÑÑÐµÐ»ÑÐœÐŸ, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÐžÐœÑÑÑÑÐºÑÐžÑÐŒ, Ð¿ÑÐžÐ²ÐµÐŽÐµÐœÐœÑÐŒ ÐœÐžÐ¶Ðµ, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ Greenstone Ð³ÐµÐœÐµÑÐžÑÑÑÑ Ð°Ð²ÑÐŸÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐž.
+"
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/import/2006 Working Papers.bib
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/import/2006 Working Papers.bib	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/import/2006 Working Papers.bib	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,278 @@
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Bittner, S. and Hinze, A.},
+
+   Title = {Arbitrary Boolean advertisements: the final step in supporting the Boolean publish/subscribe model},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {06/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-46},
+
+   Month = {June},
+
+   Abstract = {Publish/subscribe systems allow for an efficient filtering of incoming information. This filtering is based on the specifications of subscriber interests, which are registered with the system as subscriptions. Publishers conversely specify advertisements, describing the messages they will send later-on. What is missing so far is the support of arbitrary Boolean advertisements in publish/subscribe systems. Introducing the opportunity to specify these richer Boolean advertisements increases the accuracy of publishers to state their future messages compared to currently supported conjunctive advertisements. Thus, the amount of subscriptions forwarded in the network is reduced. Additionally, the system can more time efficiently decide whether a subscription needs to be forwarded and more space efficiently store and index advertisements. 
+   
+   In this paper, we introduce a publish/subscribe system that supports arbitrary Boolean advertisements and, symmetrically, arbitrary Boolean subscriptions. We show the advantages of supporting arbitrary Boolean advertisements and present an algorithm to calculate the practically required overlapping relationship among subscriptions and advertisements. Additionally, we develop the first optimization approach for arbitrary Boolean advertisements, advertisement pruning. Advertisement pruning is tailored to optimize advertisements, which is a strong contrast to current optimizations for conjunctive advertisements. These recent proposals mainly apply subscription-based optimization ideas, which is leading to the same disadvantages. 
+   
+   In the second part of this paper, our evaluation of practical experiments, we analyze the efficiency properties of our approach to determine the overlapping relationship. We also compare conjunctive solutions for the overlapping problem to our calculation algorithm to show its benefits. Finally, we present a detailed evaluation of the optimization potential of advertisement pruning. This includes the analysis of the effects of additionally optimizing subscriptions on the advertisement pruning optimization.},
+
+   URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-06.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2006} }
+   
+
+   
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Bittner, S. and Hinze, A.},
+
+   Title = {Event distributions in online book auctions},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {03/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-23},
+
+   Month = {February},
+
+   Abstract = {Current quantitative evaluations in various research areas for publish/subscribe systems use artificially created event messages to model the system workload. The assumptions made to create these workloads are rather strong and hardly ever described in detail. This does not allow for a repetition of experiments or comparative evaluations of different approaches by different researches.
+   
+   In this paper, we present an evaluation of the distributions of the values of attributes typically used in online auction scenarios. In particular, we focus on auctions of fiction books. We further show our approach of creating event messages by the help of the gained information. Publishing this information on how to create a typical workload for online auctions should allow for the repetition of experiments and the comparison of different evaluations.},
+
+   URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-03.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2006} }
+   
+   
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Bittner, S. and Hinze, A.},
+
+   Title = {Subscription tree pruning: a structure-independent routing optimization for general-purpose publish/subscribe systems},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {01/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-31},
+
+   Month = {January},
+
+   Abstract = {A main challenge in distributed publish/subscribe systems is the efficient and scalable routing of incoming information (event messages). For large-scale publish/subscribe services, subscription forwarding has been established as a prevalent routing scheme. It reduces the network traffic for event routing due to selectively forwarding event messages to relevant parts of the network only. To further improve event routing, publish/subscribe systems apply routing optimizations. So far, optimizations for general-purpose publish/subscribe systems are still missing.
+   
+   In this paper, we present the architecture, realization, and evaluation of our prototype of a large-scale publish/subscribe service applying a novel routing optimization, subscription tree pruning. We also show a comparison of five existing routing optimizations in respect to six important characteristic parameters affecting the suitability of these approaches in practice (including space usage, time efficiency (throughput), and network load). This comparative analysis clearly demonstrates the advantages of subscription pruning over other routing optimizations. In our practical experiments, we then investigate the behavior of our prototype regarding all quantitatively measurable parameters from our previously theoretically analyzed ones. Our evaluation of subscription pruning in this paper is more extensive than previous analyses of any routing optimizations for publish/subscribe systems, which focus on selected parameters only.},
+
+   URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-01.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2006} }
+
+
+   
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Hall, M.},
+
+   Title = {A decision tree-based attribute weighting filter for Naive Bayes},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {05/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-12},
+
+   Month = {May},
+
+   Abstract = {The naive Bayes classifier continues to be a popular learning algorithm for data mining applications due to its simplicity and linear run-time. Many enhancements to the basic algorithm have been proposed to help mitigate its primary weakness?the assumption that attributes are independent given the class. All of them improve the performance of naive Bayes at the expense (to a greater or lesser degree) of execution time and/or simplicity of the fina lmodel. In this paper we present a simple filter method for setting attribute weights for use with naive Bayes. Experimental results show that naive Bayes with attribute weights rarely degrades the quality of the model compared to standard naive Bayes and, in many cases, improves it dramatically. The main advantages of this method compared to other approaches for improving naive Bayes is its run-time complexity and the fact that it maintains the simplicity of the final model.},
+
+   URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-05.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2006} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Hinze, A. and Jung, D. and Cunningham, S.J.},
+
+   Title = {Proceedings of the Second Computing Women Congress (CWC 2006): Student Papers, Hamilton, New Zealand, 11-19 February 2006},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {02/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-32},
+
+   Month = {February},
+
+   Abstract = {The Second Computing Women Congress was held at the University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand from February 11th to 19th, 2006.  The Computing Women Congress (CWC) is a Summer University of women in computer science.  It is a meeting-place for female students, academics and professionals who study or work in Information Technology.  CWC provides a forum to learn about and share the latest ideas of computing related topics in a supportive environment.  CWC provides an open, explorative learning and teaching environment.  Experimentation with new styles of learning is encouraged, with an emphasis on hands-on experience and engaging participatory techniques.},
+
+      Year = {2006} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Reeves, S. and Streader, D.},
+
+   Title = {Liberalising Event B without changing it},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {07/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-13},
+
+   Month = {July},
+
+   Abstract = {We transfer a process algebraic notion of refinement to the B method by using the well-known bridge between the relational semantics underlying the B machines and the labelled transition system semantics of processes. Thus we define delta refinement on Event B systems. We then apply this new refinement to a problem from the literature that previously could only be solved by retrenchment.},
+
+   Keywords = {process refinement, automatic verification, frame refinement, Event B},
+
+   URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-07.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2006} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Reeves, S. and Streader, D.},
+
+   Title = {LSB - Live and Safe B alternative semantics for Event B},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {08/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-18},
+
+   Month = {July},
+
+   Abstract = {We define two lifted, total relation semantics for Event B machines: Safe B for
+
+safety-only properties and Live B for liveness properties. The usual Event B proof
+
+obligations, Safe, are sufficient to establish Safe B refinement. Satisfying Safe
+
+plus a simple additional proof obligation ACT_REF is sufficient to establish Live
+
+B refinement. The use of lifted, total relations both prevents the ambiguity of the
+
+unlifted relational semantics and prevents operations being clairvoyant.},
+
+   Keywords = {Process refinement, Event B, Live B, Safe B, LSB},
+
+   URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-08.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2006} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Reeves, S. and Streader, D.},
+
+   Title = {State- and Event-based refinement},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {09/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-8},
+
+   Month = {September},
+
+   Abstract = {In this paper we give simple example abstract data types, with atomic operations, that are related by data refinement under a definition used widely in the literature, but these abstract data types are not related by singleton failure refinement. This contradicts results found in the literature. Further we show that a common way to change a model of atomic operations to one of value passing operations actually changes the underlying atomic operational semantics.},
+
+   Keywords = {Data refinement, process refinement, singleton failures},
+
+   URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-09.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2006} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Twidale, M.B. and Nichols, D.M.},
+
+   Title = {Computational sense: the role of technology in the education of digital librarians},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {10/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-8},
+
+   Month = {October},
+
+   Abstract = {The rapid progress of digital library technology from research to implementation has created a force for change in the curricula of library schools. The education of future librarians has always had to adapt to new technologies but the pace, complexity and implications of digital libraries pose considerable challenges. In this article we explore how we might successfully blend elements of computer science and library science to produce effective educational experiences for the digital librarians of tomorrow. We first outline the background to current digital librarian education and then propose the concept of computational sense as an appropriate meeting point for these two disciplines.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-10.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2006} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+@workingpaper{
+
+   Author = {Utting, M. and Pretschner, A. and Legeard, B.},
+
+   Title = {A taxonomy of model-based testing},
+
+   Publisher = {Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato},
+
+   Number = {04/2006},
+
+   Pages = {1-18},
+
+   Month = {April},
+
+   Abstract = {Model-based testing relies on models of a system under test and/or its environment to derive test cases for the system. This paper provides an overview of the field. Seven different dimensions define a taxonomy that allows the characterization of different approaches to model-based testing. It is intended to help with understanding benefits and limitations of model-based testing, understanding the approach used in a particular model-based testing tool, and understanding the issues involved in integrating model-based testing into a software development process. To illustrate the taxonomy, we classify several approaches embedded in existing model-based testing tools.},
+
+      URL = {http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-04.pdf},
+
+   Year = {2006} }
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+      
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+      
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/metadata/dublin.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/metadata/dublin.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/metadata/dublin.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1617 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet SYSTEM "http://www.greenstone.org/dtd/MetadataSet/1.0/MetadataSet.dtd">
+<MetadataSet contact="dcmi-feedback@dublincore.org" creator="Dublin Core Metadata Initiative" family="Dublin Core" language_dependent="label, definition, comment" lastchanged="Tue Sep 05 14:40:36 NZST 2006 - kjdon on kanuka" namespace="dc">
+    <!-- English Version sourced from http://www.dublincore.org/documents/dces/ -->
+    <SetLanguage code="en">
+        <Name language="en">Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, Version 1.1: Reference Description</Name>
+        <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.1 of the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set. This document supersedes the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, version 1.0. See the Dublin Core Home Page (http://dublincore.org) for further information about the workshops, reports, working group papers, projects, and new developments concerning the Dublin Core Metadata Element set</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Maori Version sourced from http://www.tki.org.nz/r/maori/pedagogy/dc_elements_m.php -->
+    <SetLanguage code="mi">
+        <Name>Dublin Core Huanga - Maori (He Tauira)</Name>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- French Version sourced from http://www-rocq.inria.fr/%7Evercoust/METADATA/DC-fr.1.1.html -->
+    <!--  by Anne-Marie Vercoustre, Inria -->
+    <SetLanguage code="fr">
+        <Name language="fr">ElÃ©ments de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es du Dublin Core, Version 1.1: Description de RÃ©ference</Name>
+        <Description language="fr">Ce document rÃ©sume les derniÃšres dÃ©finitions des Ã©lÃ©ments demÃ©tadonnÃ©es du Dublin Core originellement dÃ©finis dans le document[RFC2413]. Ces nouvelles dÃ©finitions seront officiellement connues comme la Version 1.1. Elles utilisent un standard dÃ©fini formellement pour la description d&apos;Ã©lÃ©ments de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es. Cette formalisation contribue Ã  amÃ©liorer la cohÃ©rence avec d&apos;autres communautÃ©s dÃ©crivant des mÃ©tadonnÃ©es et Ã  augmenter la prÃ©cision, la portÃ©e et la cohÃ©rence interne de la dÃ©finition des Ã©lÃ©ments du Dublin Core.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Russian Version sourced from -->
+    <!-- by Olga Barysheva, National Library of Russia -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ru">
+        <Name language="ru">ÐÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Dublin Core (ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐœÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŽÑÐ°) ÐÐµÑÑÐžÑ 1.1: Ð¡Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ</Name>
+        <Description language="ru">ÐÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐŸÐ±ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸÐ²Ð»ÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Dublin Core (ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐœÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŽÑÐ°), Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐŸÐœÐ°ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð² RFC2413 (ÐÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ Dublin Core ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐ¶ÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐŸÐ²). Ð­ÑÐž ÐœÐŸÐ²ÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŸÑÐžÑÐžÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÑÑÐœÑ ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐÐµÑÑÐžÑ 1.1.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Spanish Version sourced from http://www.rediris.es/metadata/. Please note that this is a translation for Dublin Core v1.0 -->
+    <!-- by Javi Masa, RedIRIS -->
+    <SetLanguage code="es">
+        <Name language="es">Elementos del conjunto de metadatas de Dublin Core: DescripciÃ³n de Referencia</Name>
+        <Description language="es">Este documento corresponde a una traducciÃ³n del original en lengua inglesa, con fecha 02/11/1997 que se encuentra en http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core_elements. Este documento es una descripciÃ³n de referencia de los elementos del conjunto de &quot;Dublin Core&quot;. Para mÃ¡s informaciÃ³n sobre reuniones de trabajo, documentos de trabajo, proyectos y nuevos desarrollos relacionados con el conjunto de elementos que aquÃ­ se describen consultar la &quot;Home Page&quot; de &quot;Dublin Core&quot; (http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core). Los elementos poseen nombres descriptivos que pretenden transmitir un significado semÃ¡ntico a los mismos. Para promover una interoperabilidad global, una descripciÃ³n del valor de algunos elementos prodrÃ¡ ser asociada a vocabularios controlados. Se asume que otros vocabularios controlados serÃ¡n desarrollados para asegurar esta interoperabilidad en dominios especÃ­ficos. Cada elemento es opcional y puede repetirse. AdemÃ¡s, los elementos pueden aparecer en cualquier orden. Aunque algunos entornos, como HTML, no diferencian entre mayÃºsculas y minÃºsculas, es recomendable escribir correctamente cada metadata segÃºn su definiciÃ³n para evitar conflictos con otros entornos, como XML (Extensible Markup Language) http://www.w3.org/TR/PR-xml</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Arabic Version sourced from http://haddouti.de/DC_arabic.html -->
+    <!-- maintained by Hachim Haddouti. -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ar">
+        <Name>Ø¯ØšÙÙÙ ÙÙØ±</Name>
+        <Description>ÙØ±Ø­Øš ØšÙÙ
+ ÙÙ ØµÙØ­Ø©  Ø¯ ØšÙÙÙ ÙÙ  Ø± ØšØ§ÙØ¹Ø±ØšÙ    ÙÙ  ÙØ°Ù Ø§ÙØµÙØ­Ø©  Ù ØšØ§ÙØªØ¹Ø§ÙÙ Ù
+Ø¹ Ø§ÙØ§Ø®ÙØ§Ù Ø§ÙØ¹Ø±Øš Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªØšØ§ØªØ Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø§ÙÙØŽØ±Ø Ø§ÙØšØ­ÙØ« Ø§ÙØ¹ÙÙ
+ÙØ© Ù    ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+ÙWorking Group On Multilingual Dublin Core (DC-International) Ø</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Chinese - Simplified Version from http://dc.library.sh.cn/DC/1-1.htm -->
+    <!-- by Liu Wei, Shanghai Library -->
+    <SetLanguage code="cn">
+        <Name>éœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ é1.1çïŒåèæè¿°</Name>
+        <Description>æ¬ææ¡£å
+³äºéœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ é1.1çæ¬çåèæè¿°ãæ­€æè¿°äžå·²ç»æäº€ç»ISOçšäºåœé
+æç¥šçNISOå®æ¹æ åä¿æäžèŽã    éœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®éæ¯äžç§è·šé¢åçä¿¡æ¯èµæºæè¿°æ åãè¿éçä¿¡æ¯èµæºè¢«å®ä¹äžºâä»»äœå
+·ææ è¯çäžè¥¿âãæ­€å®ä¹æ¥èªäºTim Berners-Leeç­äººæèçInternet RFC2396 &quot;Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax&quot;æä»¶ãéœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®çåºçšé¢åæ²¡ææ ¹æ¬çéå¶ã</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Czech Version from http://www.ics.muni.cz/dublin_core/DC-czech-1.1.html -->
+    <!-- Ustav vypocetni techniky Masarykovy univerzity v Brne -->
+    <SetLanguage code="cs">
+        <Name>Soubor metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core, verze 1.1: referenÄnÃ­ popis</Name>
+        <Description>Tento dokument je ÄeskÃœm pÅekladem anglickÃ© verze referenÄnÃ­ho popisu souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯  Dublin Core, verze 1.1 [DCEN1.1]. Tento dokument nahrazuje ÄeskÃœ pÅeklad souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core, verze 1.0 [DCCS1.0]. DalÅ¡Ã­ informace o pracovnÃ­ch seminÃ¡ÅÃ­ch (workshopech), zprÃ¡vÃ¡ch, studiÃ­ch pracovnÃ­ch skupin, projektech a dalÅ¡Ã­m vÃœvoji souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core najdete na domovskÃ© strÃ¡nce Dublin Core (http://purl.org/dc)</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Dutch Version from http://www.kb.nl/coop/donor/project-nl-index.html?/coop/donor/rapporten/DCsimpleformat.html -->
+    <!-- by ... -->
+    <SetLanguage code="nl">
+        <Name>Rapporten Dublin Core Simple Format</Name>
+        <Description>Dit document beschrijft welke Dublin Core metadata elementen er zijn en geeft een korte definitie van elk element. Voor uitgebreide uitleg en gebruik van de Dublin Core elementen wordt u verwezen naar de gebruikershandleiding. Deze vertaling geeft ook de keuzes aan voor standaarden (taalcodes, datum codes) die wij in DONOR verband gaan hanteren. In zoverre kan deze vertaling afwijken van het oorspronkelijke document &quot;Description of Dublin Core Elements&quot; http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core_elements&quot;</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Finnish Version from http://www.lib.helsinki.fi/dublin_core/dcref-fin.html -->
+    <!-- by Jani Stenvall and Juha Hakala, Helsinki University Library -->
+    <SetLanguage code="fi">
+        <Name/>
+        <Description/>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Interlingua Version sourced from http://www.nautilus.com.br/%7Eensjo/ia/purl.org/dc/documents/rec-dces-19990702.htm -->
+    <!-- by Emerson Jose` Silveira da Costa -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ia">
+        <Name>Collection de elementos de metadatos de Dublin Core, version 1.1: Description de referentia</Name>
+        <Description>Isto es un traduction de un Recommendation del Dublin Core Metadata Initiative. Le publication como un recommendation significa que le specificationes es stabile e su adoption es supportate per le communitate Dublin Core (http://purl.org/dc/).</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Marathi Version sourced from http://bioinfo.ernet.in/library/dc/ele.txt -->
+    <!-- by by Shubhada Nagarkar, Bioinformatics Centre, University of Pune -->
+    <SetLanguage code="mr">
+        <Name>à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿ à€žà¥à€ à€à€µà¥à€€à¥à€€à¥ à¥§.à¥§ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­ à€žà¥à€ªà€·à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£ à¥§.à¥§ à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿà€à€µà¥à€€à¥à€€à¥ à¥§.à¥§.</Name>
+        <Description>à¥§.à¥§ à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿ à€¹à¥ à€µà¥à€à€µà¥à€à€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€µà€¿à€·à€¯à€Ÿà€€à¥à€² à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€µà€Šà¥à€Šà€²à€à¥ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€Šà¥à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à€¹à¥.  à€¯à€Ÿà€€ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€®à¥à€¹à€£à€à¥ à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€²à€Ÿ à€à€³à€ à€à€¹à¥ à€
+à€žà€Ÿ à€à€žà€€à¥.  à€
+à€¶à€Ÿ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°à€à¥ à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€µà€°à¥à€² à€. à€à€«.à€žà¥. à¥šà¥©à¥¯à¥¬URI: Generic Syntax -- Tim Berners Lee et al. à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à¥à€£à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¹à¥ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥ à€µà€Ÿà€ªà€°à€€à€Ÿ à€¯à¥à€€à¥.  à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€žà€Ÿà€ à¥ à€à¥à€£à€€à€Ÿà€¹à¥ à€®à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€µ à€šà€Ÿà€¹à¥.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <Element name="Title">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Title</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A name given to the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Title will be a name by which the resource is formally known.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Taitara</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te ingoa ka tapaina tetahi rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ko te Taitara te ingoa ka mohio whanuitia te ingoa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Titre</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le nom donnÃ© Ã  la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, un titre sera le nom par lequel la ressource est officiellement connue.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐŒÑ, ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÑ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŒÑ, Ð¿ÐŸÐŽ ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ ÐŸÑÐžÑÐžÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÑÑÐµÐœ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">TÃ­tulo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">El nombre dado a un recurso, usualmente por el autor.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØ¹ÙÙØ§Ù</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ§Ø³Ù
+ ÙØ¹Ø·Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, Ù
+Ù ÙØšÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŽØ±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èµæºå</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµäºèµæºçåç§°ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èµæºåäžè¬æèµæºå¯¹è±¡æ­£åŒå
+¬åŒçåç§°ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">NÃ¡zev</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">JmÃ©no danÃ© zdroji.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">NÃ¡zev bude typicky jmÃ©no, pod nÃ­mÅŸ je zdroj oficiÃ¡lnÄ znÃ¡m.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Titel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De naam van de Internetbron. Meestal gegeven door de auteur, maker of uitgever</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Titulo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un nomine date al ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente se utiliza un nomine per le qual le ressource es formalmente cognite.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€ªà€°à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¯à¥ à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€žà€à€à¥à€·à€¿à€ªà¥à€€ ,  à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿà€à€€à€°à¥à€€  à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Creator">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Creator</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity primarily responsible for making the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Creator include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Creator should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaihanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi, nana, na ratou ranei i matua oti ai te hanganga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaihanga. Ko te tikanga, ko te Kaihanga te ingoa ka whakamahia hei tohu i te putahi na ratou te hanganga.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">CrÃ©ateur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">L&apos;entitÃ© principalement responsable de la crÃ©ation du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples de CrÃ©ateur incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, un nom du CrÃ©ateur devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© pour dÃ©signer cette entitÃ©.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, ÐœÐµÑÑÑÐµÐµ Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐžÑÐœÑÑ ÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÑ Ð·Ð° ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Autor o Creador</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La persona u organizaciÃ³n responsable de la creaciÃ³n del contenido intelectual del recurso. Por ejemplo, los autores en el caso de documentos escritos, artistas, fotografos e ilustradores en el caso de recursos visuales.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØ§ØªØš Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø£ÙÙØ§  Ø¹Ù ÙØŽØŠ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ± Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ø¹ÙÙ Ø³ØšÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø«Ø§Ù , Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€ÙÙÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ØŠÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªÙØšØ© , Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØ§ÙÙÙ , Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµÙØ±ÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ØŠÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">åå»ºè
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">åå»ºèµæºå
+å®¹çäž»èŠèŽ£ä»»è
+ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åå»ºè
+çå®äŸå
+æ¬äžªäººïŒç»ç»ææé¡¹æå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒçšåå»ºè
+çåç§°æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">TvÅ¯rce</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita primÃ¡rnÄ odpovÄdnÃ¡ za vytvoÅenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady TvÅ¯rce zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no tvÅ¯rce.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Auteur of maker</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De auteur, maker of organisatie die primair verantwoordelijk is voor de intellectuele inhoud van het werk. Bijvoorbeeld auteurs in geval van geschreven documenten, artiesten, fotografen of illustrators in geval van visuele bronnen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Creator</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le entitate primarimente responsabile pro producer le contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de creator include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de creator pro indicar iste entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€šà€¿à€°à¥à€®à€Ÿà€€à€Ÿ, à€à€šà€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€šà€¿à€°à¥à€®à€Ÿà€£  à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.  à€²à¥à€à€, à€²à¥à€à€¿à€à€Ÿ,  à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥, à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ,  à€žà€à€ªà€Ÿà€Šà€, à€žà€à€ªà€Ÿà€Šà€¿à€à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Subject">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Subject and Keywords</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The topic of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Subject will be expressed as keywords, key phrases or classification codes that describe a topic of the resource. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary or formal classification scheme.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaupapa</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te take/ nga take o te kaupapa, o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka whakaaturia te kaupapa o te rauemi e nga kupu matua, nga kimahi matua, nga tohu wehewehenga whakaahua ranei.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Sujet</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le sujet du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, le sujet sera dÃ©crit par un ensemble de mots-clefs ou de phrases ou un code de classification qui prÃ©cisent le sujet de la ressource. L&apos;utilisation de vocabulaires contrÃŽlÃ©s et de schÃ©mas formels de classification est encouragÃ©e.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ Ðž ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÐµ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¢ÐµÐŒÐ° ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ Ð²ÑÑÐ°Ð¶Ð°ÐµÑÑÑ Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐŸÑÑÑ ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ², ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÑÑÐ°Ð· ÐžÐ»Ðž  ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÐºÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ², ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÑÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÐŒÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑ
+ÐµÐŒÑ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Claves</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Los tÃ³picos del recurso. TÃ­picamente, Subject expresarÃ¡ las claves o frases que describen el tÃ­tulo o el contenido del recurso. Se fomentarÃ¡ el uso de vocabularios controlados y de sistemas de clasificaciÃ³n formales. Se pueden ver ejemplos de vocabularios controlados en: Controlled vocabularies, thesauri and classification systems available in the WWW. DC Subject</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§ÙØ±ØŠÙØ³ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ù
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±. ÙÙ
+ÙØ°Ø¬ÙØ§  ÙØ¹ØšØ± Ø¹Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ ØšØ§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+Ù
+ÙØªØ§Ø­  Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª  Ø§Ù Ø¬Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ  ØªØµÙ Ù
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ø§Ù Ù
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù ÙØ³ØªØ­Ø³Ù Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ù
+ÙØ±Ø¯Ø§Øª Ù
+Ø®Ø·Ø·Ø©Ù Ù
+Ø­ÙÙ
+Ø©  ÙØ§Ø¯ÙØ© ØªØµÙÙÙ ØŽÙÙÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">äž»é¢åå
+³é®è¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çäž»é¢æè¿°ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åŠæèŠæè¿°ç¹å®èµæºçæäžäž»é¢ïŒäžè¬éçšå
+³é®è¯ãå
+³é®å­ç­è¯­æåç±»å·ïŒæå¥œäž»é¢åå
+³é®è¯ä»åæ§    è¯è¡šæè§èçåç±»äœç³»äž­ååŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PÅedmÄt a klÃ­ÄovÃ¡ slova</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">TÃ©ma obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅedmÄt bude typicky vyjÃ¡dÅen pomocÃ­ klÃ­ÄovÃœch slov, klÃ­ÄovÃœch frÃ¡zÃ­ nebo klasifikaÄnÃ­ch znakÅ¯ popisujÃ­cÃ­ch tÃ©ma zdroje. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu prvku z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku nebo formÃ¡lnÃ­ho klasifikaÄnÃ­ho schÃ©matu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Onderwerp en trefwoorden</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het onderwerp van de Internetbron. Het onderwerp wordt beschreven in korte zinnen of door het gebruik van trefwoorden. Het gebruik van gecontroleerde trefwoorden of classificatie schema&apos;s wordt aanbevolen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Subjecto e parolas-clave</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le topico del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le subjecto es expresse per medio de parolas-clave, phrases-clave, o codices de classification que describe le topico del ressource. Le melior practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate o un schema formal de classification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€µà€¿à€·à€¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€µà€¿à€·à€¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ, à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€šà€žà€Ÿà€§à€šà¥ à€¯à€Ÿà€€à¥à€² à€à€¶à€¯ à€žà¥à€ªà€·à¥à€ à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à¥ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Š, à€µà€¿à€·à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€µà€°à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£ à€à€°à€€à€Ÿà€šà€Ÿ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Šà€žà€à€à¥à€°à€¹ à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Š à€à¥à€·à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€µà€Ÿà€ªà€° à€à€°à€Ÿà€µà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Description">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An account of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Description may include but is not limited to: an abstract, table of contents, reference to a graphical representation of content or a free-text account of the content.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Whakaaturanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He whakaaturanga o nga kaupapa o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ka uru atu, engari ehara noa ko: te whakarapopototanga korero, te ihirangi, te tohutanga o te kaupapa ma te whakaahua, te whakaaturanga kore kupu ranei, o te kauapapa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une description du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Une Description peut contenir, mais ce n&apos;est pas limitatif: un rÃ©sumÃ©, une table des matiÃšres, une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une reprÃ©sentation graphique du contenu, ou un texte libre sur le contenu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¡ÐŸÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÐž ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐŸ (Ð¿ÐŸ ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÑÑÐž) Ð² Ð²ÐžÐŽÐµ: ÑÐµÑÐµÑÐ°ÑÐ°, ÐŸÐ³Ð»Ð°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ, ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐž ÐœÐ° Ð³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">DescripciÃ³n</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una descripciÃ³n textual del recurso, tal como un resumen en el caso de un documento o una descripciÃ³n del contenido en el caso de un documento visual.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØµÙ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ ÙØµÙ ÙØµÙ  ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, ÙÙØ¶Ù
+ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ®ØµØ§Øª ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙØ«Ø§ØŠÙ Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø§ÙØ§ØŽÙØ§Ø¡ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªÙØšØ© Ø§Ù ØªÙØµÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ØŠÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">è¯Žæ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çè§£é</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">è¯Žæå¯ä»¥å
+æ¬äœäžéäºä»¥äžå
+å®¹ïŒææãç®åœãå¯¹ä»¥åŸåœ¢æ¥æ­ç€ºå
+å®¹çèµæºèèšçæå­è¯Žæãæè
+äž    äžªæå
+³èµæºå
+å®¹çèªç±ææ¬æè¿°ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Popis</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">VysvÄtlenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Popis mÅ¯ÅŸe obsahovat (mimo jinÃ©): abstrakt, obsah, odkaz na grafickÃ© nebo volnÃ© textovÃ© vyjÃ¡dÅenÃ­ obsahu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Omschrijving</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een omschrijving van de inhoud van de Internetbron. Abstracts of inhoudsomschrijvingen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un description del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le description pote includer, ma non se limita a: summario, indice, referentia a un representation graphic del contento o un texto libere a proposito del contento.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€µà€°à¥à€£à€š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥, à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€šà€žà€Ÿà€§à€šà€Ÿà€à¥à€µà€°à¥à€£à€š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€šà€¿à€µà¥à€Šà€š, à€à€²à¥à€, à€à€¿à€€à¥à€°à€°à¥à€ª</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Publisher">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Publisher</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity responsible for making the resource available.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Publisher include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Publisher should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaiwhakaputa</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi nana i whakaputa te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaiwhakaputa. Ko te tikanga, ka whakamahia te ingoa o te Kaiwhakaputa hei tohu i te putahi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Editeur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">L&apos;entitÃ© responsable de la diffusion de la ressource, dans sa forme actuelle, tels, un dÃ©partement universitaire, une entreprise.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples d&apos;Editeurs incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, le nom d&apos;une maison d&apos;Ã©dition devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© ici.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, ÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ Ð·Ð° Ð²Ð²ÐŸÐŽ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° Ð² ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Editor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">&gt;La entidad responsable de hacer que el recurso se encuentre disponible en la red en su formato actual, por ejemplo la empresa editora, un departamento universitario u otro tipo de organizaciÃ³n.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŽØ±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØŠØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø€ÙÙØ© Ø¹Ù ØµÙØ§Ø¹Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªÙÙØ± ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØªÙ Ø§ÙØ­Ø§Ø¶Ø±Ø©, Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø§ÙÙØŽØ±, ÙØ³Ù
+ Ø¬Ø§Ù
+Ø¹Ù Ø§Ù Ù
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§Ø¹Ù
+Ø§Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">åºçè
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">äœ¿èµæºæäžºå¯ä»¥è·åŸå¹¶å¯çšçèŽ£ä»»è
+ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åºçè
+çå®äŸå
+æ¬äžªäœïŒç»ç»ïŒææå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒåºè¯¥çšåºçè
+çåç§°æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Vydavatel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita odpovÄdnÃ¡ za zpÅÃ­stupnÄnÃ­ zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady Vydavatele zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no vydavatele.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Uitgever</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De entiteit die verantwoordelijk is voor het beschikbaarstellen van de Internetbron in de huidig vorm. Bijvoorbeeld een uitgeversbedrijf, een universiteitsafdeling.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Editor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un entitate responsabile pro disponibilizar le ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de editor include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de editor pro indicar le entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ  à€à€ªà€²à€¬à¥à€§ à€à€°à¥à€š à€Šà¥à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.à€ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€ , à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€š  à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ, à€žà¥à€µà€Ÿ    à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€² à€°à¥à€ªà€Ÿà€€  à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€à€à€à€°à€šà¥à€ à€µà€° à€à€ªà€²à€¬à¥à€§ à€à€°à¥à€š à€Šà¥à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Contributor">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Contributor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity responsible for making contributions to the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Contributor include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Contributor should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaiwhakaaro</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi nana, na ratou ranei nga whakakaupapatanga whakaaro o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaiwhakaaro. Ko te tikanga ka whakamahia te ingoa o te Kaiwhakaaro hei tohu i te putahi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Contributeur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une entitÃ© qui a contribuÃ© Ã  la crÃ©ation du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples de Contributeur incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, le nom d&apos;un contributeur devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© ici pour dÃ©signer l&apos;entitÃ©.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, Ð²ÐœÐµÑÑÐµÐµ Ð²ÐºÐ»Ð°ÐŽ Ð² ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Otros Colaboradores</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una persona u organizacion que haya tenido una contribuciÃ³n intelectual significativa en la creaciÃ³n del recurso pero cuyas contribuciones son secundarias en comparaciÃ³n a las de las personas u organizaciones especificadas en el elementeo Creator (por ejemplo, editor, ilustrador y traductor).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+ Ø§ÙØ§Ø®Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§ÙØºÙØ± Ù
+Ø°ÙÙØ± ØµØ±Ø§Ø­Ø© ÙÙ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù &quot; Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹ &quot; Ù Ø§ÙØ°Ù ÙØ¯Ù
+ Ù
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø§Øª ÙÙØ±ÙØ© ÙØ§Ù
+Ø© ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, ÙÙÙ Ù
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªÙØªØšÙÙ    Ø«Ø§ÙÙÙØ© Ù
+ÙØ§Ø±ÙØ© Ù
+Ø¹ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø£Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø°ÙÙØ±Ø© ÙØµØ§ ÙÙ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù &quot; Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØŽØŠ &quot; Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§Ù Ù
+ØµØ­Ø­, Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ±Ø¬Ù
+, Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ³Ø±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">å
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">å¯¹èµæºçå
+å®¹äœåºèŽ¡ç®çå
+¶ä»å®äœã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+çå®äŸå¯å
+æ¬äžªäººãç»ç»ææé¡¹æå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒçšå
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+çåå­æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PÅispÄvatel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita, kterÃ¡ pÅispÄla k vytvoÅenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady PÅispÄvatele zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no pÅispÄvatele.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Andere medewerkers</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een persoon of organisatie die een belangrijke bijdrage heeft geleverd, maar die secondair is aan de persoon of organisatie die bij &quot;Creator&quot; genoemd wordt. Gedacht kan worden aan editors, vertalers en illustrators.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Contribuente</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un entitate responsabile pro facer contributiones al contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de contribuente include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de contribuente pro indicar le entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label"> à€žà€¹à€¯à¥à€à€, à€žà€¹à€¯à¥à€à¥, à€žà€¹à€Ÿà€¯à¥à€¯à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€žà€à€à€²à¥à€€ à€à€°à€£à¥à¥à€Ÿà€ž  à€®à€Šà€€ à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à¥ à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.à€ à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥, à€žà¥à€µà€Ÿ, à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Date">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Date</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A date associated with an event in the life cycle of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, Date will be associated with the creation or availability of the resource.  Recommended best practice for encoding the date value is defined in a profile of ISO 8601 and follows the YYYY-MM-DD format.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ra</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He ra e whai panga ana ki te huringa ora o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka whai panga te ra ki te hanganga, te wateatanga ranei, o te rauemi. Ko te huarahi tino pai hei tohu i te uara o te ra (date value) kua whakaritea i roto i te whakaritenga IS0 8601 [W3CDTF], a, e whai atu ana ki te whakatakotoranga YYYY-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Date</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une date associÃ©e avec un Ã©vÃ©nement dans le cycle de vie de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, une date sera associÃ©e Ã  la crÃ©ation ou Ã  la publication d&apos;une ressource. Il est fortement recommandÃ© d&apos;encoder la valeur de la date en utilisant le format dÃ©fini par l&apos;ISO 8601 [W3CDTF] sous la forme AAAA-MM-JJ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ°ÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐ°ÑÐ°, ÑÐ²ÑÐ·Ð°ÐœÐœÐ°Ñ Ñ ÑÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐžÐµÐŒ Ð² Ð¶ÐžÐ·ÐœÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐžÐºÐ»Ðµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐÐ°ÑÐ° Ð°ÑÑÐŸÑÐžÐžÑÑÐµÑÑÑ Ñ ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÐŸÑÑÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. ÐÐ° Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÐºÐµ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐŸÐŽÐžÑÐŸÐ²ÐºÐž Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐžÐ»Ñ ISO 8601 (Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÑ ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐž W3C), ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐÐÐÐ-ÐÐ-ÐÐ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Fecha</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una fecha en la que el recurso se puso a disposiciÃ³n del usuario en su forma actual. Esta fecha no ha de confundirse con la que pertenece al elemento Coverage, que serÃ­a asociada con el recurso sÃ³lo en la medida en que el contenido intelectual estÃ¡ de algÃºn modo relacionado con esa fecha. Recomendamos la utiliazaciÃ³n de uno de los formatos definidos en el documento &quot;Date and Time Formats&quot;, http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime basado en la norma ISO 8601 que incluye, entre otras, fechas en el formato AAAA y AAAA-MM-DD. De esta forma la fecha 1994-11-05 corresponderÃ­a al 5 de Noviembre de 1994.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±Ø®</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹ÙÙ ØšÙÙØª ÙØŽØŠ Ø£Ù ØªÙÙØ± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ù ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØ§ ÙØ®ÙØ· ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§ØŠØ¯ ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© , Ù Ø§ÙØ° Ù ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù    ÙÙØ­Ù ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± ÙÙØ· Ù
+Ù ÙØ§Ø­ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙØ§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙÙÙ ÙÙØ¹Ø§ Ù
+Ø§ ÙÙ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®. Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø«Ø­Ø³ÙØ© ÙÙØ§Ø­Ø³Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹Ø§Ø±Ù Ø¹ÙÙÙ    Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙØªØ·ØšÙÙ ÙÙ Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø¯Ø© ÙÙ ØªØŽÙÙÙ (ISO 8601) ØµÙØºØ© ØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ (ISO 8601) Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§Ø­ØžØ© Ø§ÙÙÙÙØ© http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime, W3C. ÙÙÙ    ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙÙØ³Ù , Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§, ØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ 1994-11-04 ÙÙØ§ØžØ± ÙÙÙ
+ 5 ÙÙÙÙ
+ØšØ± 1994</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æ¥æ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">äžèµæºçåœåšæäž­çäžäžªäºä»¶çžå
+³çæ¶éŽã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæ¥æåºäžèµæºçåå»ºæåºçæ¥æçžå
+³ãå»ºè®®éçšçæ¥ææ ŒåŒåºç¬ŠåISO 8601 [W3CDTF]è§    èïŒå¹¶äœ¿çšYYYY-MM-DDçæ ŒåŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Datum</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Datum spojenÃ© s urÄitou udÃ¡lostÃ­ bÄhem existence zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Datum bude typicky spojeno s vytvoÅenÃ­m nebo zpÅÃ­stupnÄnÃ­m zdroje. DoporuÄenÃœ postup pro kÃ³dovÃ¡nÃ­ hodnoty data je definovÃ¡n v ISO 8601 [W3CDTF]: formÃ¡t RRRR-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Datum</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De datum van de totstandkoming of beschikbaarstelling van een Internetbron. Deze datum moet niet verward worden met de datum in &quot;Coverage&quot;. De datum in &quot;Coverage&quot; geeft de tijdsperiode van de inhoud van de Internetbron aan. Voorgeschreven wordt de ISO 8601 standaard voor datum, zoals beschreven in W3C Technical Note http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime. Hierin wordt het formaat YYYY-MM-DD beschreven. Het formaat YYYY-MM-DD wordt de voorgeschreven standaard. 3 September 1998 wordt in dit geval 1998-09-03.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Data</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un data associate a un evento in le cyclo vital del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le data es associate al creation o disponibilization del ressource. Le practica recommendate pro codificar le valor del datas es definite in un profilo de ISO 8601 [W3CDTF] e seque le formato AAAA-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€,  à€Šà€¿à€šà€Ÿà€à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€€à€¯à€Ÿà€° à€à¥à€²à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€  à€²à€¿à€¹à¥à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€žà¥à€µà€°à¥à€ª à€ à€µà€°à¥à€·. à€®à€¹à€¿à€šà€Ÿ. à€Šà€¿à€µà€ž à¥§à¥¯à¥«à¥Š. à¥Šà¥ª. à¥Šà¥ª</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Type">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Resource Type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The nature or genre of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Type includes terms describing general categories, functions, genres, or aggregation levels for content. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the working draft list of Dublin Core Types). To describe the physical or digital manifestation of the resource, use the FORMAT element.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Tumomo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te ahua, te tu-ahuatanga ranei o nga kaupapa o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Kei roto i te Tumomo nga kupu whakaatu i nga wehewehenga whanui, nga aheinga, nga tu-ahuatanga, te whakaritenga ranei o nga taumata o te/ nga kaupapa. Ko te huarahi tino pai kua tohua, ko te tipako i tetahi uara mai i nga kupu kua whakaritea (hei tauira, ko te tauira rarangi e whakamahia ana o nga Dublin Core Types [DCT1]. Hei whakaatu i te whakatinanatanga o te rauemi, whakamahia ko te huanga WHAKATAKOTORANGA (FORMAT).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La nature ou le genre du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Type inclut des termes dÃ©crivant des catÃ©gories, fonctions ou genres gÃ©nÃ©raux pour le contenu, ou des niveaux d&apos;agrÃ©gation. Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la valeur du type dans une liste de vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ© (par exemple, la liste provisoire de Types du Dublin Core[DCT1]). Pour dÃ©crire la matÃ©rialisation physique ou digitale de la ressource, il faut utiliser l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Format.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÑÐžÑÐŸÐŽÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¶Ð°ÐœÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐµÑÐŒÐžÐœÑ, ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÑÐ²Ð°ÑÑÐžÐµ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐžÐµ ÐºÐ°ÑÐµÐ³ÐŸÑÐžÐž, ÑÑÐœÐºÑÐžÐž, Ð¶Ð°ÐœÑÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐŽÐžÐœÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ ÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐœÐž ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐµÐºÑÐ° ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ° Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ÐŸÐ² Dublin Core DCT1). ÐÐ»Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐžÐ·ÐžÑÐµÑ-ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Tipo del Recurso</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La categorÃ­a del recurso, por ejemplo pÃ¡gina personal, romance, poema, minuta, diccionario. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, Type deberÃ­a ser seleccionado de entre una lista de valores que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo. En http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Metadata/types.html se puede consultar el estado actual de la discusiÃ³n en torno a este tema.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÙÙØ¹ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ ÙØŠØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§ Ø§ÙØµÙØ­Ø© Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+, Ø±ÙØ§ÙØ© , ÙØ·Ø¹Ø© ØŽØ¹Ø±ÙØ© , ÙØ±ÙØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù , ØªÙØ±ÙØ± ÙÙÙ , Ù
+ÙØ§Ù , ÙØ§Ù
+ÙØ³ . Ù Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù    ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØ®ØªØ§Ø± Ø§ÙÙÙØ¹ Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© ÙØ§ÙØªÙ ÙÙÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§ Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èµæºç±»å</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çç¹åŸæç±»åã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èµæºç±»åå
+æ¬æè¿°èµæºå
+å®¹çäžè¬èçŽïŒåèœïŒç§å±ïŒæèç±»å±æ¬¡çæ¯è¯­ãå»ºè®®éçšæ¥èªäºåæ§è¯è¡š    äž­çåŒïŒäŸåŠDCMIç±»åè¯æ±è¡š[DCMITYPE]ïŒãèŠæè¿°èµæºçç©çææ°å­åè¡šç°åœ¢åŒïŒè¯·äœ¿çšâæ ŒåŒïŒFORMATïŒâå
+çŽ ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Typ zdroje</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Povaha nebo druh obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typ obsahuje termÃ­ny popisujÃ­cÃ­ obecnÃ© kategorie, funkce, druhy nebo agregaÄnÃ­ ÃºrovnÄ obsahu. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. pracovnÃ­ nÃ¡vrh seznamu TypÅ¯ Dublin Core [DCT1]). K popisu fyzickÃ© nebo digitÃ¡lnÃ­ reprezentace zdroje uÅŸijte prvek FormÃ¡t.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bestands type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het soort Internetbron, bijvoorbeeld home page, gedicht, working paper, technical report, essay, woordenboek etc. De DC working groups zijn momenteel bezig met twee voorstellen; een minimalist draft: http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Metadata/minimalist.html en een structuralist draft: http://sunsite.berkely.edu/Metadata/structuralist.html. Het wordt sterk aanbevolen om &quot;Type&quot; van deze lijsten te selecteren.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Typo del ressource</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le natura o genere del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le typo del ressource include terminos que describe categorias general, functiones, generes, o nivellos de aggregation pro le contento. Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le lista de schizzos de travalio de typos de Dublin Core [DCT1]). Pro describer le manifestation physic o digital del ressource, utiliza le elemento Formato.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€µà€°à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£, à€µà€°à¥à€à€µà€Ÿà€°à¥à€®à€§à¥à€¯à¥ à€à€à€Ÿà€Šà¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€šà¥à€à€Šà¥à€à€Ÿ à€®à¥à€à¥à€¯ à€à€à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Format">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The physical or digital manifestation of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, Format may include the media-type or dimensions of the resource. Format may be used to determine the software, hardware or other equipment needed to display or operate the resource. Examples of dimensions include size and duration. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the list of Internet Media Types [MIME] defining computer media formats).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Whakatakotoranga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te whakatinanatanga, te whakaputanga a-mati o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka taea te Whakatakotoranga te whakamahi hei whakarite i te rawa-ngohe (software), te rawa-maro (hardware), ma etahi taputapu ranei me matua whiwhi, hei whakahaere i te rauemi. Ko te rahi me te roanga etahi tauira hanga. Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua ko te tipako uara mai i tetahi whakaritenga kupu (hei tauira, te rarangi o nga Tumomo Papaho Ipurangi (Internet Media Types [MIME]) e whakaatu ana i nga whakatakotoranga papaho rorohiko.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La matÃ©rialisation physique ou digitale de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, Format peut inclure le media ou les dimensions de la ressource. Format peut Ãªtre utilisÃ© pour prÃ©ciser le logiciel, le matÃ©riel ou autre Ã©quipement nÃ©cessaire pour afficher ou faire fonctionner la ressource. Exemples de dimensions incluent la taille et la durÃ©e. Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la valeur du format dans une liste de vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ©(par exemple, la liste des types de media dÃ©finis sur Internet [MIME]).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð€ÐžÐ·ÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐµ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ ÑÐžÐ¿ Ð°ÑÐŽÐžÐŸÐ²ÐžÐ·ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÐž (ÐŒÐµÐŽÐžÐ°-ÑÐžÐ¿) ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐžÐœÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ Ð°Ð¿Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, Ð¿ÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŒÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÐµÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÐŸÑÑÐŽÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ, ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐŸÑÐ¿ÑÐŸÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÑ Ñ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐŸÐŒ. ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð²ÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐžÐœÑ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŒÐµÑ Ðž Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶ÐžÑÐµÐ»ÑÐœÐŸÑÑÑ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ° ÐÐµÐŽÐžÐ°-ÑÐžÐ¿ÐŸÐ² ÐÐœÑÐµÑÐœÐµÑ MIME, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐ¿ÑÑÑÐµÑÐœÑÐµ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÑ Ð°ÑÐŽÐžÐŸÐ²ÐžÐ·ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÐž).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Formato</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">El formato de datos de un recurso, usado para identificar el software y posiblemente, el hardware que se necesitarÃ­a para mostrar el recurso. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, los valores de Format deberÃ­an ser seleccionados de entre una lista de valores que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ù ØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù ØªØ³ØªØ®Ø¯Ù
+ ÙÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ ØšØ§ÙØšØ±Ù
+Ø¬ÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØšÙ
+Ø§ Ø§ÙØµÙØš ÙÙØ­Ø§Ø³ÙØš Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø£Ù ÙØ­ØªØ§Ø¬    ÙÙØ§ ÙØ¹Ø±Ø¶ Ø£Ù ØªØŽØºÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù, ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ØªØ®ØªØ§Ø± Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙØªÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§    Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æ ŒåŒ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºçç©çææ°å­è¡šç°åœ¢åŒã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæ ŒåŒå¯èœå
+æ¬èµæºçåªäœç±»åæèµæºçå€§å°ïŒæ ŒåŒå
+çŽ å¯ä»¥çšæ¥å³å®å±ç€ºææäœèµæºæé    çèœ¯ç¡¬ä»¶æå
+¶ä»çžåºè®Ÿå€ïŒäŸåŠå€§å°å
+æ¬èµæºæå çå­åšç©ºéŽåæç»­æ¶éŽãå»ºè®®éçšæ¥èªäºåæ§è¯è¡š    äž­çåŒïŒïŒäŸåŠInternetåªäœç±»å[MIME]å®ä¹è®¡ç®æºåªäœæ ŒåŒïŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">FormÃ¡t</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">FyzickÃ¡ nebo digitÃ¡lnÃ­ reprezentace zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicky mÅ¯ÅŸe FormÃ¡t obsahovat typ mÃ©dia nebo rozmÄry zdroje. FormÃ¡t lze pouÅŸÃ­vat k urÄenÃ­ softwaru, hardwaru nebo dalÅ¡Ã­ho zaÅÃ­zenÃ­ potÅebnÃ©ho k zobrazenÃ­ nebo k manipulaci se zdrojem. PÅÃ­klady rozmÄrÅ¯ zahrnujÃ­ velikost a dobu trvÃ¡nÃ­. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. seznam typÅ¯ internetovÃœch mÃ©diÃ­ [MIME] definujÃ­cÃ­ formÃ¡ty poÄÃ­taÄovÃœch mÃ©diÃ­).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het data formaat van het Internetbestand. Dit gegeven kan gebruikt worden om systeemvereisten (hard- en software) te identificeren die nodig zijn voor raadpleging of bediening van de Internetbron. &quot;Format&quot; is nog in ontwikkeling bij de DC workshop. Uit compatibiliteitsoverwegingen wordt aanbevolen formaatgegevens te selecteren uit een gecontroleerde lijst. Formaten kunnen van de Internet Media Types (MIME types) lijst gekozen worden: http://www.isi.edu/in-notes/iana/assignments/media-types/media-types</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Formato</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le manifestation physic o digital del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le formato pote includer le typo de medio o dimensiones del ressource. Le formato pote esser utilizate pro determinar le software o le equipamento necessari pro exhibir o operar le ressource. Exemplos de dimensiones include grandessa e duration. Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le lista de typos de medios de Internet [MIME] que defini formatos de medios).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ, à€šà€®à¥à€šà€Ÿà€¬à¥à€Š à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€žà¥à€µà€°à¥à€ª, à€°à€à€šà€Ÿà€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€°à¥à€ª à€à€žà¥ à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€à€°à¥à€ª, à€žà€à€à€£à€à¥à€¯ à€°à¥à€ª, à€µà€¿à€Šà¥à€¯à¥à€€ à€ªà€°à€®à€Ÿà€£à¥à€à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€žà€¹à€Ÿà€¯à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€šà¥ à€žà€à€à€£à€à¥à€à¥à€€ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Identifier">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Resource Identifier</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Recommended best practice is to identify the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system. Example formal identification systems include the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (including the Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), the Digital Object Identifier (DOI) and the International Standard Book Number (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Taututanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro e hangai ana ki te rauemi i roto i tetahi horopaki.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tautu i te rauemi ma tetahi aho (string), tau ranei, e hangai ana ki tetahi punaha taututanga okawa. Ko etahi punaha taututanga okawa ko te Taututanga Rauemi Orite (Uniform Resource Identifier - URI), te Taututanga Rauemi Tohu-wahi (Uniform Resource Locator - URL), Te Mea A-mati (Digital Object Identifier - DOI) me te Tau Pukapuka Aro Whanui o te Ao (International Standard Book Number - ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Identifiant</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence non ambiguÃ« Ã  la ressource dans un contexte donnÃ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© d&apos;identifier la ressource par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšre ou un nombre conforme Ã  un sytÃšme formel d&apos;identification. Exemples de systemes formels d&apos;identification incluent le &quot;Uniform Resource Identifier&quot; (URI) (qui inclut le &quot;Uniform Resource Locator&quot; (URL)), le &quot;Digital Object Identifier&quot;(DOI) et le &quot;International Standard Book Number&quot;(ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐŽÐœÐŸÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÐœÐ°Ñ ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐ° ÐœÐ° ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð² Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°Ñ
+ ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐµÐºÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ. ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÑÑ
+ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð£ÐœÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ Ð ÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° (URI), (Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ñ Ð£ÐœÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÑÐ¹ ÐÐŸÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ Ð ÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° URL), ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÐŠÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ° (DOI) Ðž ÐÐµÐ¶ÐŽÑÐœÐ°ÑÐŸÐŽÐœÑÐ¹ Ð¡ÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐœÐžÐ¶ÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐŸÐŒÐµÑ (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Identificador del Recurso</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Secuencia de caracteres usados para identificar unÃ­vocamente un recurso. Ejemplos para recursos en lÃ­nea pueden ser URLs y URNs (cuando estÃ©n implementados). Para otros recursos pueden ser usados otros formatos de identificadores, como por ejemplo ISBN (&quot;International Standard Book Number&quot; - NÃºmero Internacional Normalizado para Libros)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ù
+Ø¬Ù
+ÙØ¹Ø© Ø­Ø±ÙÙØ© Ø£Ù Ø±ÙÙ
+ ÙØ³ØªØ®Ø¯Ù
+ ÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§Ø­Ø¯ÙØ§ : Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ÙØ°Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙØŽØšÙÙØ©ØªØ¶Ù
+ ) URNs, URLs Ø¹ÙØ¯ ØšÙØ§ØŠÙØ§ (    ÙØ°ÙÙ ÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø§Ø¹ØªØšØ§Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹Ø±ÙØ§Øª Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ§Ø­Ø§Ø¯ÙØ© Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø§ÙØ±ÙÙ
+ Ø§ÙØ¯ÙÙÙ ÙØªØµÙÙÙ Ø§ÙÙØ§ØªØš (ISBN) Ù
+Ø±ØŽØ­Ø© ÙÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èµæºæ è¯ç¬Š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">åšç¹å®çèåŽå
+ç»äºèµæºçäžäžªæç¡®çæ è¯ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å»ºè®®å¯¹èµæºçæ è¯éçšç¬Šåæäžæ­£åŒæ è¯äœç³»çå­ç¬Šäž²åæ°å­ç»åãäŸåŠæ­£åŒçæ è¯äœç³»å
+æ¬ç»äžèµ    æºæ è¯ç¬Š(URI) (å
+æ¬åäžèµæºå®äœç¬ŠURL)ãæ°å­å¯¹è±¡æ è¯ç¬Š(DOI)ååœé
+æ åä¹Šå·(ISBN)ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">IdentifikÃ¡tor zdroje</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">JednoznaÄnÃœ odkaz na zdroj v rÃ¡mci danÃ©ho kontextu.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄuje se identifikovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯. PÅÃ­klady formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯ zahrnujÃ­ Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (vÄetnÄ Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), Digital Object Identifier (DOI) a MezinÃ¡rodnÃ­ standardnÃ­ ÄÃ­slo knihy (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bestandsidentificatie</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een unieke string of nummer ter identificatie van de Internetbron. Voorbeelden zijn URL&apos;s of URN&apos;s Andere voorbeelden zijn International Standard Book Number (ISBN) of International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Identificator del ressource</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia inambigue al ressource intra un date contexto.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Se recommenda identificar le ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o numero conforme a un systema formal de identification. Exemplos de systemas formal de identification include le Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (includente le Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), le Digital Object Identifier (DOI) e le International Standard Book Number (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€à€³à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€à€ à€
+à€°à¥à€¥à¥ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ, à€µà€¿à€¶à€¿à€·à¥à€  à€žà¥à€¥à€³,  à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€à€à€€à€°à€°à€Ÿà€·à¥à€à¥à€°à¥à€¯  à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à¥à€°à€®à€Ÿà€à€,  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€à€³à€ à€ªà€à€µà€¿à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€à€à€à€°à€šà¥à€ à€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Source">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Source</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A Reference to a resource from which the present resource is derived.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">The present resource may be derived from the Source resource in whole or in part.  Recommended best practice is to reference the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Matapuna</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro ki tetahi rauemi koira te matapuna o te rauemi e tirohia ana.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Tera pea i puta te katoa, tetahi wahanga ranei o te rauemi, e tirohia ana, mai i te Matapuna rauemi. Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua ko te tohutoro ki te rauemi ma te aho, ma te tau ranei e hangai ana ki tetahi punaha taututanga okawa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Source</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une ressource Ã  partir de laquelle la ressource actuelle a Ã©tÃ© dÃ©rivÃ©e.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">La ressource actuelle peut avoir Ã©tÃ© dÃ©rivÃ©e d&apos;une autre ressource source, en totalitÃ© ou en partie. Il est recommandÃ© de refÃ©rencer cette source par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšre ou un nombre conforme Ã  un systÃšme formel d&apos;identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐœÐžÐº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¡ÑÑÐ»ÐºÐ° ÐœÐ° ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ, ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœ ÐœÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœ ÐžÐ· ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐœÐžÐºÐ° ÑÐµÐ»ÐžÐºÐŸÐŒ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÑÐœÐŸ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Fuente</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Secuencia de caracteres utilizado para identificar unÃ­vocamente un trabajo a partir del cual proviene el recurso actual. Por ejemplo, es posible usar Source con la fecha de 1603 como descripciÃ³n de una pelÃ­cula basada en una obra de Shakespeare, pero es preferible, en ese caso, usar Relation &quot;IsBasedOn&quot; con una referencia a un recurso distinto cuya descripciÃ³n contenga el elemento Date con valor 1603.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø«Ø§ÙÙ Ù Ø§ÙØ°Ù Ø§Ø³ØªÙ
+Ø¯ Ù
+ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ. Ù
+Ø¹ Ø£ÙÙ Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØµÙ ØšÙ Ø£Ù ØªÙØ¯Ù
+ Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§Ù
+Ù    Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø¹Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙØ· , ÙÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø£Ù ÙØ­ÙÙ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®, Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØŽØŠ , Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© , Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹Ø±Ù , Ø§Ù Ø§ÙØ© Ù
+ÙØ© - Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§Ø®Ø±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ÙÙ Ø¹ÙØ¯Ù
+Ø§ ØªØ¹ØªØšØ± Ù
+ÙÙ
+Ø© ÙØ§ÙØªØŽØ§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ , Ù ÙØ°Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙØµÙ Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙØªØ·ØšÙÙÙÙ Ø§Ø­Ø³Ù     Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹Ø§Ø±Ù Ø¹ÙÙÙ ØšØ§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æ¥æº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ç°æèµæºæ¥æºçåç
+§ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åœåèµæºå¯èœéšåæå
+šéšæºèªè¯¥å
+çŽ ææ è¯çèµæºïŒå»ºè®®å¯¹è¿äžèµæºçæ è¯éçšäžäžªç¬Šåæ­£åŒæ è¯ç³»    ç»çå­äž²åæ°å­ç»å ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Zdroj</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Odkaz na zdroj, z nÄhoÅŸ je popisovanÃœ zdroj odvozen.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PopisovanÃœ zdroj mÅ¯ÅŸe bÃœt zcela nebo zÄÃ¡sti odvozen ze zdroje uvedenÃ©ho v prvku Zdroj. DoporuÄuje se odkazovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bron</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Informatie over een tweede bron waar de huidige Internetbron is van afgeleid. Bij &quot;Source&quot; mag een datum, auteur of maker, formaat, identificatie of andere metadata voor de tweede bron worden ingevuld. Voorbeeld: het is mogelijk om een &quot;Source&quot; datum 1603 in een omschrijving van een 1996 film bewerking van een Shakespeare stuk te gebruiken. &quot;Source&quot; is niet bruikbaar wanneer de huidige bron de orginele is.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Fonte</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia a un ressource del qual se deriva le ressource presente.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le ressource presente pote derivar se del ressource-fonte in toto o in parte. Le practica recommendate es facer referentia al ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o un numero conforme a un systema formal de identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€à€à€®</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿ à€à€à€® à€žà€Ÿà€à€à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€à€à€
+à€°à¥à€¥à¥ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€, à€®à€Ÿà€žà€¿à€,  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿà€¯à€Ÿà€à€à€Ÿ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Language">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Language</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A language of the intellectual content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Recommended best practice for the values of the Language element is defined by RFC 1766 which includes a two-letter Language Code (taken from the ISO 639 standard, followed optionally, by a two-letter Country Code (taken from the ISO 3166 standard). For example, &apos;en&apos; for English, &apos;fr&apos; for French, or &apos;en-uk&apos; for English used in the United Kingdom.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Reo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te reo o te whakakaupapatanga o nga matauranga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua mo nga uara o te huanga Reo kua whakaritea ki te RFC 1766 [RFC1766] kei roto te Tohu Reo kupu-rua (two-letter Language Code) (no te aro whanui ISO 639 [ISO639], ka taea e tetahi tohu kupu-rua te whai atu (no te aro whanui ISO 3166) [ISO366]). Hei tauira, te &apos;en&apos; mo te English, te &apos;fr&apos; mo te French, &apos;te en-uk&apos; mo te English e whakamahia ana i Ingarangi (UK).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Langue</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La langue du contenu intellectuel de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© d&apos;utiliser comme valeur de l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Langue celles definies par la RFC 1766 [RFC1766] qui comprend un code de langage Ã  deux caractÃšres(venant du standard ISO 639 [ISO639]), Ã©ventuellement suivi d&apos;un code Ã  deux lettres pour le pays (venant du standard ISO 3166 [ISO3166] ou en franÃ§ais [ISO3166]). Par exemple, &apos;en&apos; pour l&apos;anglais, &apos;fr&apos; pour le franÃ§ais, ou &apos;en-uk&apos; pour l&apos;anglais utilisÃ© au Royaume-Uni.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº ÐžÐœÑÐµÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐµ RFC 1766 (Ð¢ÑÐ³Ðž ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ°), Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÐŒ ÐŽÐ²ÑÑ
+Ð±ÑÐºÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐŽ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ° (Ð²Ð·ÑÑÑÐ¹ ÐžÐ· ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐ° ISO 639 (ÐÐŸÐŽÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐŸÐ²)), Ð·Ð° ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÑÐµÑ (Ð¿ÑÐž ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÑÑÐž) ÐŽÐ²ÑÑ
+Ð±ÑÐºÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐŽ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÑ (Ð²Ð·ÑÑÑÐŒÐž ÐžÐ· ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐ° ISO 3166 (ÐÐŸÐŽÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°Ðœ)). ÐÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, &quot;en&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð°ÐœÐ³Ð»ÐžÐ¹ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, &quot;fr&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÑÐ°ÐœÑÑÐ·ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, &quot;en-uk&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð°ÐœÐ³Ð»ÐžÐ¹ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð² ÐÐµÐ»ÐžÐºÐŸÐ±ÑÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐž.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Lengua</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Lengua/s del contenido intelectual del recurso. Practicamente el contenido de este campo deberÃ­a coincidir con los de la RFC 1766 (Tags para la identificaciÃ³n de lenguas, http://ds.internic.net/rfc/rfc1766.txt); por ejemplo: en, es, de, fi, ja y zh.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØºØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ù ÙÙ ÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . ÙÙÙ
+Ø§ ÙØ§Ù  Ø¹Ù
+ÙÙØ§ , Ù
+Ø­ØªÙÙ ÙØžØ§ Ø§ÙØ­ÙÙ ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØªØ·Ø§ØšÙ Ù
+Ø¹ RFC 1766    ] Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ØªØ¶Ù
+ th, ja, fr, es, fi, de, en Ù zh ÙØ±Ù
+ÙØ² ÙÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ ØšØ§ÙÙØºØ© [</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">è¯­ç§</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æè¿°èµæºç¥è¯å
+å®¹çè¯­ç§ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å»ºè®®æ¬å
+çŽ çåŒéçšRFC 3066[RFC3066]ïŒè¯¥æ åäžISO 639 [ISO639]äžèµ·å®ä¹äºç±äž€äžªåäžäžªè±    æå­æ¯ç»æçäž»è¯­èšæ ç­Ÿåå­æ ç­ŸäŸåŠå
+æ¬âenâæâengâæ¥è¡šç€ºEnglish, &quot;akk&quot; æ¥è¡šç€º    &quot;en-GB&quot;è¡šç€ºè±åœè±è¯­ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Jazyk</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Jazyk intelektuÃ¡lnÃ­ho obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄenÃœ postup pro hodnoty prvku Jazyk je definovÃ¡n v RFC 1766 [RFC1766]: dvouznakovÃœ kÃ³d jazyka (pÅevzatÃœ z normy ISO 639 [ISO639]) volitelnÄ nÃ¡sledovanÃœ dvouznakovÃœm kÃ³dem zemÄ (pÅevzatÃœm z normy ISO 3166 [ISO3166]). NapÅÃ­klad &apos;en&apos; pro angliÄtinu, &apos;fr&apos; pro francouzÅ¡tinu, &apos;cs&apos; pro ÄeÅ¡tinu, nebo &apos;en-uk&apos; pro angliÄtinu uÅŸÃ­vanou ve SpojenÃ©m krÃ¡lovstvÃ­.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Taal</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De taal waarin het document is beschreven. Voorgeschreven wordt de ISO639-1 norm, een twee karakter taalcode van de ISO 639(639-1 en 639-2) norm. Taalcodes kunnen van een lijst worden gekozen: http://www.ics.uci.edu/pub/ietf/http/related/iso639.txt, Eventueel kan ISO3166 (landencodes) gebruikt worden om aan te geven in welk gebied de taal wordt gesproken. Deze kunnen ook van een lijst worden gekozen:  http://www.ics.uci.edu/pub/ietf/http/related/iso3166.txt.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Lingua</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le lingua del contento intellectual del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le practica recommendate pro le valores del elemento lingua es definite per RFC 1766 [RFC1766], que include un codice de lingua de duo litteras (prendite del standard ISO 639 [ISO639]), sequite optionalmente per un codice de pais de duo litteras (prendite del standard ISO 3166 [ISO3166]). Per exemplo, &apos;ia&apos; pro interlingua, &apos;fr&apos; pro francese, o &apos;en-uk&apos; pro le anglese del Regno Unite.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€®à€°à€Ÿà€ à¥ - à€­à€Ÿà€°à€€à¥à€¯ à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Relation">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A reference to a related resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Recommended best practice is to reference the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Whai Panga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro ki tetahi rauemi whai panga.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tohutoro ki te rauemi ma te aho, te tau ranei, e hangai ana ki te punaha taututanga okawa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une autre ressource qui a un rapport avec cette ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© de rÃ©fÃ©rencer cette ressource par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšres ou un numÃ©ro conforme Ã  un systÃšme formel d&apos;identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÐœÐŸÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">RelaciÃ³n</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un identificador de un segundo recurso y su relaciÃ³n con el recurso actual. Este elemento permite enlazar los recursos relacionados y las descripciones de los recursos. Por ejemplo: IsVersionOf - Incluye la ediciÃ³n de un trabajo, IsBasedOn - La traducciÃ³n de un trabajo, IsPartOf - Un capÃ­tulo de un libro, IsFormatOf - Un mecanismo de transformaciÃ³n de un conjunto de datos en una imagen. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, las relaciones deberÃ­an ser seleccionadas de una lista de elementos que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ø§ Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ÙÙ Ù Ø¹ÙØ§ÙØªÙ ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ . ÙØ³Ù
+Ø­ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù ØšØªÙØ¶ÙØ­ Ø§ÙØ±ÙØ§ØšØ· ØšÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹ÙÙØ©     ØšØšØ¹Ø¶ÙØ§ Ù ØªÙØµÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ØªØ¶Ù
+ Ø·ØšØ¹Ø© Ø§ÙØ¹Ù
+Ù ) ÙØ³Ø®Ø© Ù
+Ù ( ØªØ±Ø¬Ù
+Ø© Ø¹Ù
+Ù ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ ( ÙØµÙ Ù
+Ù ÙØªØ§Øš ) Ø¬Ø²Ø¡ Ù
+Ù (    Ù ØªØ­ÙÙÙÙ Ù
+ÙÙØ§ÙÙÙÙØ© ÙÙ
+Ø¬Ù
+ÙØ¹Ø© Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§ØªÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ ØµÙØ±Ø© ) ØµÙØºØ© Ù
+Ù ( Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù , ÙØ¬Øš Ø§Ø®ØªÙØ§Ø± Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ§Øª Ù
+Ù    Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙØªÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§ Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">å
+³è</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æ¶åççžå
+³èµæºã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èåœçžå
+³èµæºæ¶ïŒå»ºè®®äœ¿çšç¬Šåæ­£åŒæ è¯ç³»ç»çå­ç¬Šäž²æè
+æ°å­ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Vztah</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Odkaz na pÅÃ­buznÃœ zdroj.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄuje se odkazovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Relatie</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een identificatie van een tweede bron en de relatie met de huide Internetbron. Voorbeelden zijn een editie van een werk (IsVersionOf), een vertaling van een werk (IsBasedOn), een hoofdstuk van een boek (IsPartOf) en een mechanische transformatie van een dataset in een plaatje (IsFormatOf). De DC Working Groups zijn bezig met een lijst met de meest verwachte relaties. Aanbevolen wordt om de relaties van deze lijst te gebruiken: http://purl.oclc.org/metadata/dublin_core/wrelationdraft.html.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="definition">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia a un ressource correlate.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le practica recommendate es facer referentia al ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o numero conforme a un systema de identification formal.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€šà€Ÿà€€à¥ , à€žà€à€¬à€à€§</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¶à¥ à€žà€à€¬à€à€§ à€Šà€Ÿà€à€µà€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ(URL)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Coverage">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Coverage</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The extent or scope of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Coverage will typically include spatial location (a place name or geographic coordinates), temporal period (a period label, date, or date range) or jurisdiction (such as a named administrative entity). Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the Thesaurus of Geographic Names [TGN]) and that, where appropriate, named places or time periods be used in preference to numeric identifiers such as sets of coordinates or date ranges.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kapitanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te roanga, te whanuitanga ranei o te whakakaupapatanga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka uru atu te wahi mokowa (te ingoa o tetahi wahi, whakapiritanga matawhenua ranei), whakaritenga wa (he tapatanga wa (period label, ra, whakatakotoranga whanui o nga ra), te whakaritenga ture (penei i te putahi whakahaere). Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tipako uara mai i tetahi whakaritenga kupu (hei tauira, i tetahi Puna Kupu Ingoa Matawhenua (Geographic Names [TGN] i nga wahi tika, ko nga wahi me nga whakaritenga wa ka whakamahia i mua i te whakamahitanga o nga taututanga tau penei i nga huinga whakapiritanga me nga whakatakotoranga whanui o nga ra.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Couverture</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La portÃ©e ou la couverture spatio-temporelle de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">La couverture typiquement inclut une position gÃ©ographique (le nom d&apos;un lieu ou ses coordonnÃ©es), une pÃ©riode de temps (un nom de pÃ©riode, une date, ou un intervalle de temps) ou une juridiction (telle que le nom d&apos;une entitÃ© administrative). Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la  valeur de Couverture dans un vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ© (par exemple, un thÃ©saurus de noms gÃ©ographiques, comme[TGN]) et, quand cela est appropriÃ©, des noms de lieux ou de pÃ©riodes plutÃŽt que des identifiants numÃ©riques tels que des coordonnÃ©es ou des intervalles de dates. </Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑ
+Ð²Ð°Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÑÐŸÑÑÐ¶ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÑ Ðž Ð³ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑ
+Ð²Ð°Ñ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐºÐœÐŸÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐ¶ÐŽÐµÐœÐžÐµ (ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸÑÑÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð³ÐµÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÐµ ÐºÐŸÐŸÑÐŽÐžÐœÐ°ÑÑ), Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŒÐµÐ¶ÑÑÐŸÐº (ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÐµÑÐžÐŸÐŽÐ°, ÐŽÐ°ÑÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐŽ ÐŽÐ°Ñ) ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐžÑÐŽÐžÐºÑÐžÑ (ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐµÐŽÐžÐœÐžÑÑ Ð°ÐŽÐŒÐžÐœÐžÑÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐ²ÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ). ÐÐ° Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÐºÐµ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, Ð¢ÐµÐ·Ð°ÑÑÑÑÐ° Ð³ÐµÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÑ
+ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ TGN), Ðž, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐŸ ÑÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸ, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸÑÐŽÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÑÐŒ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸÑÑÐµÐ¹ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŒÐµÐ¶ÑÑÐºÐŸÐ² Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸ ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ², ÐºÐ°Ðº, ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒ ÐºÐŸÐŸÑÐŽÐžÐœÐ°Ñ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÑÐŽÐŸÐ².</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Cobertura</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La caracterÃ­stica de cobertura espacial y/o temporal del contenido intelectual del recurso. La cobertura espacial se refiere a una regiÃ³n fÃ­sica (por ejemplo, sector celestial); uso de coordenadas (por ejemplo, longitud y latitud) o nombres de lugares extraidos de una lista controlada. La cobertura temporal se refiere al contenido del recurso en vez de a cuando fue creado o puesto accesible ya que este Ãºltimo pertenece al elemento Date. Se usa el mismo formato basado en http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØ®ØµØ§ØŠØµ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§ÙÙØ© Ø§Ù Ø§ÙØ²Ù
+ÙÙØ© ÙÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§ÙÙØ© ØªØŽÙØ± Ø§ÙÙ Ø¬ÙØ© Ø·ØšÙØ¹ÙØ© )Ù
+Ø«Ù , ÙØ·Ø§Ø¹ Ø³Ù
+Ø§ÙÙ (    Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ø§ÙØ§Ø­Ø¯Ø§Ø«ÙØ§Øª ) Ù
+Ø«Ù  Ø®Ø· Ø§ÙØ·ÙÙ Ù Ø®Ø· Ø§ÙØ¹Ø±Ø¶ ( ÙÙ Ø£Ø³Ù
+Ø§Ø¡ Ø§Ù
+ÙÙØ© Ù
+Ø³ØªØ­ÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªØ¬ÙØ§Øª ØšØ§ÙÙØ§Ù
+Ù . Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ²Ù
+ÙÙØ©    Ø«Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙÙ Ù
+Ø§ ÙØ±Ø¬Ø¹ Ø§ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ù ÙÙØ³ Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªÙ ØªÙ
+ ØªÙÙÙØ±Ù ) Ø§ÙØ§Ø®ÙØ± ÙØªØ¹ÙÙ ØšØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® ( Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ ÙÙØ³ ØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®  Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª    ) Ø¹Ø§Ø¯Ø© Ù
+Ø¯Ù ] ( ØµÙØ§ØºØ§Øª Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ (ISO 8601 Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§Ø­ØžØ© Ø§ÙÙÙÙØ© [http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime, W3C    ÙÙ
+Ø§ ÙÙ Ù
+ÙØµÙ ØšÙ ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§Ù ÙØªØ±Ø§Øª Ø²Ù
+ÙÙØ© Ù
+Ù ÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ù
+Ø³ØªØ­ÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªØ¬ÙØ§Øª ØšØ§ÙÙØ§Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èŠçèåŽ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹ææ¶åçå€å»¶äžèŠçèåŽ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èŠçèåŽäžè¬å
+æ¬ç©ºéŽäœçœ®ïŒäžäžªå°åæå°çåæ ïŒãæ¶éŽåºéŽïŒäžäžªæ¶éŽæ è¯ïŒæ¥ææäžäžªæ¥æè    åŽïŒãæè
+æéïŒæ¯åŠåœåçææå®äœïŒæšèèŠçèåŽæå¥œæ¯åèªäºäžäžªåæ§è¯è¡šïŒäŸåŠå°åè¯åº    [TGN]ïŒïŒå¹¶åºå°œå¯èœå°äœ¿çšç±æ°å­è¡šç€ºçåæ ææ¥æåºéŽæ¥æè¿°å°åäžæ¶éŽæ®µã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PokrytÃ­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Rozsah nebo zÃ¡bÄr obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PokrytÃ­ bude typicky obsahovat prostorovÃ© umÃ­stÄnÃ­ (jmÃ©no mÃ­sta nebo zemÄpisnÃ© souÅadnice), ÄasovÃ© obdobÃ­ (oznaÄenÃ­ obdobÃ­, datum nebo ÄasovÃœ interval) nebo jurisdikci (napÅ. jmÃ©no administrativnÃ­ jednotky). DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. Thesaurus of Geographic Names [TGN]) a tam, kde je to vhodnÃ©, uvÃ¡dÄt mÃ­sta nebo ÄasovÃ© Ãºseky spÃ­Å¡e jmÃ©nem neÅŸ ÄÃ­selnÃœmi identifikÃ¡tory jako jsou soubory souÅadnic nebo ÄasovÃ© intervaly.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Dekking</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De ruimtelijke of tijdelijke karakteristieken van de intellectuele inhoud van de Internetbron. Ruimtelijke dekking verwijst naar een geografisch gebied. Gebruik coordinaten (longitude (lengtegraad) en latitude (breedtegraad)) of plaatsnamen die van een gecontroleerde lijst komen of volledig uitgeschreven zijn. Dekking in de tijd geeft de tijdsperiode aan waarop de inhoud van de Internetbron betrekking heeft en niet wanneer de Internetbron is gemaakt of beschikbaar is gesteld (dit laatste hoort ingevult te worden bij &quot;Date&quot;). Gebruik dezelfde datum/tijd formaat als bij &quot;Date&quot;; W3C Technical Note http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime of tijdsperioden die van een gecontroleerde lijst komen of volledig uitgeschreven zijn. Coverage is in ontwikkeling bij de Dublin Core Working group http://www.alexandria.ucsb.edu/docs/metadata/dc_coverage.html.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Copertura</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le extension physic o abstracte del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le copertura typicamente include un location spatial (un nomine de localitate o coordinatas geographic), un periodo de tempore (un etiquetta de periodo, data, o gamma de datas), o un jurisdiction (tal como un entitate administrative nominate). Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le Thesaurus of Geographical Names [TGN]) e que, quando appropriate, localitates o periodos de tempore nominate sia utilizate in preferentia a identificatores numeric tales como collectiones de coordinatas o gammas de datas.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€­à¥à€à¥à€²à€¿à€  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€­à¥à€à¥à€²à€¿à€ à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Rights">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Rights Management</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information about rights held in and over the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Rights element will contain a rights management statement for the resource, or reference a service providing such information. Rights information often encompasses Intellectual Property Rights (IPR), Copyright, and various Property Rights. If the Rights element is absent, no assumptions can be made about the status of these and other rights with respect to the resource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Motika</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ko nga mohiohio ki nga motika o tetahi rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, kei te huanga Motika e pupuri ana he korero mo te whakaritenga motika mo te rauemi, he ratonga tohutoro e whakarato ana ranei i enei tumomo mohiohio. He nui nga wa, puta ai i roto i te mohiohio Motika te Mana Whakairo Hinegaro (Intellectual Property Rights - (IPR)), te Manatarua me nga Tuahua Mana Taonga (Property Rights). Ki te kore te huanga Motika, kaore e taea te pohehe noa ki te mana o enei, nga motika ranei e pa ana ki te rauemi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Droits</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information sur les droits sur et au sujet de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, un Ã©lÃ©ment Droits contiendra un Ã©tat du droit Ã  gÃ©rer une ressource, ou la refÃ©rence Ã  un service fournissant cette information. Ces droits souvent couvrent les droits de propriÃ©tÃ© intellectuelle (IPR), Copyright, et divers droits de propriÃ©tÃ©. Si l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Droits est absent, aucune hypothÃšse ne peut Ãªtre faite sur l&apos;Ã©tat de ces droits, ou de tout autre, par rapport Ã  la ressource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐµ ÑÐµÐ³ÑÐ»ÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐ°ÑÑÑ Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐž Ðž Ð²ÐœÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð° ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐœÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ
+, ÑÐµÐ³ÑÐ»ÐžÑÑÑÑÐžÑ
+ ÑÑÐœÐºÑÐžÐŸÐœÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÑ ÐœÐ° ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐŸÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÑÑÑ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ. ÐÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²Ð°Ñ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐ²ÐµÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŸ ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+ ÐžÐœÑÐµÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÐž, ÐÐ²ÑÐŸÑÑÐºÐŸÐŒ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ðµ Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ ÐÐŒÑÑÐµÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+. ÐÑÑÑÑÑÑÐ²ÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð° ÐœÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ°ÐºÐžÑ
+-Ð»ÐžÐ±ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÑÐµ Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+, ÐºÐ°ÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÑ
+ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Derechos</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una referencia (URL, por ejemplo) para una nota sobre derechos de autor, para un servicio de gestiÃ³n de derechos o para un servicio que darÃ¡ informaciÃ³n sobre tÃ©rminos y condiciones de acceso a un recurso. Una especificaciÃ³n formal del elemento Rights se encuentra catualmente en discusiÃ³n y por lo tanto su uso se considera experimental.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø© Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© , Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ù
+Ø±ØªØšØ· ØšØ§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø© Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© , Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ù
+Ø±ØªØšØ· ØšØ®Ø¯Ù
+Ø© ØªÙØ¯Ù
+ Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø¹Ù Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æé</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æå
+³èµæºæ¬èº«ææçæè¢«èµäºçæéä¿¡æ¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæéå
+çŽ åºå
+æ¬äžäžªå¯¹èµæºçæéå£°æïŒæè
+æ¯å¯¹æäŸè¿äžä¿¡æ¯çæå¡çåç
+§ãæéäžè¬    å
+æ¬ç¥è¯äº§æ(IPR)ïŒçææå
+¶ä»åç§åæ ·çäº§æãåŠææ²¡ææéå
+çŽ çæ æ³šïŒäžå¯ä»¥å¯¹äžèµæºçžå
+³    çäžè¿°æå
+¶ä»æå©çæ
+åµäœåºä»»äœåå®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PrÃ¡va</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Informace o prÃ¡vech vztahujÃ­cÃ­ch se k popisovanÃ©mu zdroji.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Prvek PrÃ¡va bude typicky obsahovat ustanovenÃ­ o sprÃ¡vÄ autorskÃœch/vlastnickÃœch prÃ¡v ke zdroji nebo odkaz na sluÅŸbu poskytujÃ­cÃ­ takovÃ©to informace. Informace o prÃ¡vech Äasto zahrnujÃ­ prÃ¡va duÅ¡evnÃ­ho vlastnictvÃ­ (IPR), autorskÃ© prÃ¡vo a rÅ¯znÃ¡ vlastnickÃ¡ prÃ¡va. JestliÅŸe prvek PrÃ¡va chybÃ­, nelze odvozovat ÅŸÃ¡dnÃ© pÅedpoklady o stavu tÄchto a jinÃœch prÃ¡v vztahujÃ­cÃ­ch se k popisovanÃ©mu zdroji.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Copyright</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een copyright verklaring of een link naar een copyright verklaring of een link naar een service die informatie geeft over de copyright van de Internetbron.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Gestion de derectos</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information super derectos detenite super e a proposito del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le elemento derectos continera un declaration de gestion de derectos pro le ressource, o un referentia a un servicio que provide tal information. Information de derectos frequentemente involve derectos de proprietate intellectual (IPR), copyright e varie derectos de proprietate. Si le elemento Derectos es absente, necun hypothese pote esser facite quanto al stato de iste e altere derectos concernente ressource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€¬à¥à€§à¥à€Šà€¿à€ à€žà€à€ªà€Šà¥à€à€Ÿà€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€žà¥à€µà€€à€à€¹à€Ÿà€à¥ à€²à¥à€à€š à€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€š à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€° à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€¿à€€ à€à€°à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€²à¥à€à€ à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€²à¥à€à€¿à€à¥à€à€Ÿ à€¬à¥à€§à¥à€Šà€¿à€ à€žà€à€ªà€Šà¥à€à€Ÿà€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/metadata/ex.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet SYSTEM "http://www.greenstone.org/dtd/MetadataSet/1.0/MetadataSet.dtd">
+<MetadataSet contact="nzdl.org" creator="New Zealand Digital Libraries Project: Greenstone" family="Extracted Greenstone" lastchanged="Tue Sep 05 14:40:36 NZST 2006 - kjdon on kanuka" namespace="ex">
+    <Name language="en">Extracted Greenstone Metadata 1.0</Name>
+    <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.0 of the automatically extracted Greenstone Metadata Element Set.</Description>
+    <Element name="Encoding">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Not always available.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The encoding of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="label">Encoding</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Language">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Not always available.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The language of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="label">Language</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Source">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Hidden in the Librarian Interface as it already shown by the various file trees.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The filename of the document imported by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="label">Source</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Title">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Not always available.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The title of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="label">Title</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/metadata/profile.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE Profiles [
+<!ELEMENT Profiles (Action*)>
+<!ELEMENT Action (#PCDATA)>
+<!ATTLIST Action
+                source     CDATA #REQUIRED
+                target     CDATA "">
+]>
+<Profiles/>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/metadata/qdublin.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/metadata/qdublin.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/bibtex-supp-e/metadata/qdublin.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1908 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet SYSTEM "http://www.greenstone.org/dtd/MetadataSet/1.0/MetadataSet.dtd">
+<MetadataSet contact="dcmi-feedback@dublincore.org" creator="Dublin Core Metadata Initiative" family="Dublin Core" language_dependent="label, definition, comment" lastchanged="Tue Sep 05 14:40:36 NZST 2006 - kjdon on kanuka" namespace="dc">
+    <!-- English Version sourced from http://www.dublincore.org/documents/dces/ -->
+    <SetLanguage code="en">
+        <Name language="en">Qualified Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, Version 1.1: Reference Description</Name>
+        <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.1 of the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set. This document supersedes the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, version 1.0. See the Dublin Core Home Page (http://dublincore.org) for further information about the workshops, reports, working group papers, projects, and new developments concerning the Dublin Core Metadata Element set</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Maori Version sourced from http://www.tki.org.nz/r/maori/pedagogy/dc_elements_m.php -->
+    <SetLanguage code="mi">
+        <Name>Dublin Core Huanga - Maori (He Tauira)</Name>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- French Version sourced from http://www-rocq.inria.fr/%7Evercoust/METADATA/DC-fr.1.1.html -->
+    <!--  by Anne-Marie Vercoustre, Inria -->
+    <SetLanguage code="fr">
+        <Name language="fr">ElÃ©ments de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es du Dublin Core, Version 1.1: Description de RÃ©ference</Name>
+        <Description language="fr">Ce document rÃ©sume les derniÃšres dÃ©finitions des Ã©lÃ©ments demÃ©tadonnÃ©es du Dublin Core originellement dÃ©finis dans le document[RFC2413]. Ces nouvelles dÃ©finitions seront officiellement connues comme la Version 1.1. Elles utilisent un standard dÃ©fini formellement pour la description d&apos;Ã©lÃ©ments de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es. Cette formalisation contribue Ã  amÃ©liorer la cohÃ©rence avec d&apos;autres communautÃ©s dÃ©crivant des mÃ©tadonnÃ©es et Ã  augmenter la prÃ©cision, la portÃ©e et la cohÃ©rence interne de la dÃ©finition des Ã©lÃ©ments du Dublin Core.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Russian Version sourced from -->
+    <!-- by Olga Barysheva, National Library of Russia -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ru">
+        <Name language="ru">ÐÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Dublin Core (ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐœÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŽÑÐ°) ÐÐµÑÑÐžÑ 1.1: Ð¡Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ</Name>
+        <Description language="ru">ÐÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐŸÐ±ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸÐ²Ð»ÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Dublin Core (ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐœÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŽÑÐ°), Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐŸÐœÐ°ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð² RFC2413 (ÐÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ Dublin Core ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐ¶ÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐŸÐ²). Ð­ÑÐž ÐœÐŸÐ²ÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŸÑÐžÑÐžÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÑÑÐœÑ ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐÐµÑÑÐžÑ 1.1.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Spanish Version sourced from http://www.rediris.es/metadata/. Please note that this is a translation for Dublin Core v1.0 -->
+    <!-- by Javi Masa, RedIRIS -->
+    <SetLanguage code="es">
+        <Name language="es">Elementos del conjunto de metadatas de Dublin Core: DescripciÃ³n de Referencia</Name>
+        <Description language="es">Este documento corresponde a una traducciÃ³n del original en lengua inglesa, con fecha 02/11/1997 que se encuentra en http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core_elements. Este documento es una descripciÃ³n de referencia de los elementos del conjunto de &quot;Dublin Core&quot;. Para mÃ¡s informaciÃ³n sobre reuniones de trabajo, documentos de trabajo, proyectos y nuevos desarrollos relacionados con el conjunto de elementos que aquÃ­ se describen consultar la &quot;Home Page&quot; de &quot;Dublin Core&quot; (http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core). Los elementos poseen nombres descriptivos que pretenden transmitir un significado semÃ¡ntico a los mismos. Para promover una interoperabilidad global, una descripciÃ³n del valor de algunos elementos prodrÃ¡ ser asociada a vocabularios controlados. Se asume que otros vocabularios controlados serÃ¡n desarrollados para asegurar esta interoperabilidad en dominios especÃ­ficos. Cada elemento es opcional y puede repetirse. AdemÃ¡s, los elementos pueden aparecer en cualquier orden. Aunque algunos entornos, como HTML, no diferencian entre mayÃºsculas y minÃºsculas, es recomendable escribir correctamente cada metadata segÃºn su definiciÃ³n para evitar conflictos con otros entornos, como XML (Extensible Markup Language) http://www.w3.org/TR/PR-xml</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Arabic Version sourced from http://haddouti.de/DC_arabic.html -->
+    <!-- maintained by Hachim Haddouti. -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ar">
+        <Name>Ø¯ØšÙÙÙ ÙÙØ±</Name>
+        <Description>ÙØ±Ø­Øš ØšÙÙ
+ ÙÙ ØµÙØ­Ø©  Ø¯ ØšÙÙÙ ÙÙ  Ø± ØšØ§ÙØ¹Ø±ØšÙ    ÙÙ  ÙØ°Ù Ø§ÙØµÙØ­Ø©  Ù ØšØ§ÙØªØ¹Ø§ÙÙ Ù
+Ø¹ Ø§ÙØ§Ø®ÙØ§Ù Ø§ÙØ¹Ø±Øš Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªØšØ§ØªØ Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø§ÙÙØŽØ±Ø Ø§ÙØšØ­ÙØ« Ø§ÙØ¹ÙÙ
+ÙØ© Ù    ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+ÙWorking Group On Multilingual Dublin Core (DC-International) Ø</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Chinese - Simplified Version from http://dc.library.sh.cn/DC/1-1.htm -->
+    <!-- by Liu Wei, Shanghai Library -->
+    <SetLanguage code="cn">
+        <Name>éœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ é1.1çïŒåèæè¿°</Name>
+        <Description>æ¬ææ¡£å
+³äºéœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ é1.1çæ¬çåèæè¿°ãæ­€æè¿°äžå·²ç»æäº€ç»ISOçšäºåœé
+æç¥šçNISOå®æ¹æ åä¿æäžèŽã    éœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®éæ¯äžç§è·šé¢åçä¿¡æ¯èµæºæè¿°æ åãè¿éçä¿¡æ¯èµæºè¢«å®ä¹äžºâä»»äœå
+·ææ è¯çäžè¥¿âãæ­€å®ä¹æ¥èªäºTim Berners-Leeç­äººæèçInternet RFC2396 &quot;Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax&quot;æä»¶ãéœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®çåºçšé¢åæ²¡ææ ¹æ¬çéå¶ã</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Czech Version from http://www.ics.muni.cz/dublin_core/DC-czech-1.1.html -->
+    <!-- Ustav vypocetni techniky Masarykovy univerzity v Brne -->
+    <SetLanguage code="cs">
+        <Name>Soubor metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core, verze 1.1: referenÄnÃ­ popis</Name>
+        <Description>Tento dokument je ÄeskÃœm pÅekladem anglickÃ© verze referenÄnÃ­ho popisu souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯  Dublin Core, verze 1.1 [DCEN1.1]. Tento dokument nahrazuje ÄeskÃœ pÅeklad souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core, verze 1.0 [DCCS1.0]. DalÅ¡Ã­ informace o pracovnÃ­ch seminÃ¡ÅÃ­ch (workshopech), zprÃ¡vÃ¡ch, studiÃ­ch pracovnÃ­ch skupin, projektech a dalÅ¡Ã­m vÃœvoji souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core najdete na domovskÃ© strÃ¡nce Dublin Core (http://purl.org/dc)</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Dutch Version from http://www.kb.nl/coop/donor/project-nl-index.html?/coop/donor/rapporten/DCsimpleformat.html -->
+    <!-- by ... -->
+    <SetLanguage code="nl">
+        <Name>Rapporten Dublin Core Simple Format</Name>
+        <Description>Dit document beschrijft welke Dublin Core metadata elementen er zijn en geeft een korte definitie van elk element. Voor uitgebreide uitleg en gebruik van de Dublin Core elementen wordt u verwezen naar de gebruikershandleiding. Deze vertaling geeft ook de keuzes aan voor standaarden (taalcodes, datum codes) die wij in DONOR verband gaan hanteren. In zoverre kan deze vertaling afwijken van het oorspronkelijke document &quot;Description of Dublin Core Elements&quot; http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core_elements&quot;</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Finnish Version from http://www.lib.helsinki.fi/dublin_core/dcref-fin.html -->
+    <!-- by Jani Stenvall and Juha Hakala, Helsinki University Library -->
+    <SetLanguage code="fi">
+        <Name/>
+        <Description/>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Interlingua Version sourced from http://www.nautilus.com.br/%7Eensjo/ia/purl.org/dc/documents/rec-dces-19990702.htm -->
+    <!-- by Emerson Jose` Silveira da Costa -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ia">
+        <Name>Collection de elementos de metadatos de Dublin Core, version 1.1: Description de referentia</Name>
+        <Description>Isto es un traduction de un Recommendation del Dublin Core Metadata Initiative. Le publication como un recommendation significa que le specificationes es stabile e su adoption es supportate per le communitate Dublin Core (http://purl.org/dc/).</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Marathi Version sourced from http://bioinfo.ernet.in/library/dc/ele.txt -->
+    <!-- by by Shubhada Nagarkar, Bioinformatics Centre, University of Pune -->
+    <SetLanguage code="mr">
+        <Name>à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿ à€žà¥à€ à€à€µà¥à€€à¥à€€à¥ à¥§.à¥§ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­ à€žà¥à€ªà€·à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£ à¥§.à¥§ à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿà€à€µà¥à€€à¥à€€à¥ à¥§.à¥§.</Name>
+        <Description>à¥§.à¥§ à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿ à€¹à¥ à€µà¥à€à€µà¥à€à€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€µà€¿à€·à€¯à€Ÿà€€à¥à€² à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€µà€Šà¥à€Šà€²à€à¥ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€Šà¥à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à€¹à¥.  à€¯à€Ÿà€€ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€®à¥à€¹à€£à€à¥ à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€²à€Ÿ à€à€³à€ à€à€¹à¥ à€
+à€žà€Ÿ à€à€žà€€à¥.  à€
+à€¶à€Ÿ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°à€à¥ à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€µà€°à¥à€² à€. à€à€«.à€žà¥. à¥šà¥©à¥¯à¥¬URI: Generic Syntax -- Tim Berners Lee et al. à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à¥à€£à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¹à¥ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥ à€µà€Ÿà€ªà€°à€€à€Ÿ à€¯à¥à€€à¥.  à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€žà€Ÿà€ à¥ à€à¥à€£à€€à€Ÿà€¹à¥ à€®à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€µ à€šà€Ÿà€¹à¥.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <Element name="Title" >
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Title</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A name given to the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Title will be a name by which the resource is formally known.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Taitara</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te ingoa ka tapaina tetahi rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ko te Taitara te ingoa ka mohio whanuitia te ingoa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Titre</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le nom donnÃ© Ã  la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, un titre sera le nom par lequel la ressource est officiellement connue.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐŒÑ, ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÑ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŒÑ, Ð¿ÐŸÐŽ ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ ÐŸÑÐžÑÐžÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÑÑÐµÐœ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">TÃ­tulo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">El nombre dado a un recurso, usualmente por el autor.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØ¹ÙÙØ§Ù</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ§Ø³Ù
+ ÙØ¹Ø·Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, Ù
+Ù ÙØšÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŽØ±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èµæºå</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµäºèµæºçåç§°ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èµæºåäžè¬æèµæºå¯¹è±¡æ­£åŒå
+¬åŒçåç§°ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">NÃ¡zev</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">JmÃ©no danÃ© zdroji.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">NÃ¡zev bude typicky jmÃ©no, pod nÃ­mÅŸ je zdroj oficiÃ¡lnÄ znÃ¡m.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Titel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De naam van de Internetbron. Meestal gegeven door de auteur, maker of uitgever</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Titulo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un nomine date al ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente se utiliza un nomine per le qual le ressource es formalmente cognite.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€ªà€°à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¯à¥ à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€žà€à€à¥à€·à€¿à€ªà¥à€€ ,  à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿà€à€€à€°à¥à€€  à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+        <Element name="alternative">
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Alternative</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">Any form of the title used as a substitute or alternative to the formal title of the resource.</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="comment">This qualifier can include Title abbreviations as well as translations.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Creator" >
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Creator</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity primarily responsible for making the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Creator include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Creator should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaihanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi, nana, na ratou ranei i matua oti ai te hanganga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaihanga. Ko te tikanga, ko te Kaihanga te ingoa ka whakamahia hei tohu i te putahi na ratou te hanganga.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">CrÃ©ateur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">L&apos;entitÃ© principalement responsable de la crÃ©ation du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples de CrÃ©ateur incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, un nom du CrÃ©ateur devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© pour dÃ©signer cette entitÃ©.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, ÐœÐµÑÑÑÐµÐµ Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐžÑÐœÑÑ ÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÑ Ð·Ð° ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Autor o Creador</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La persona u organizaciÃ³n responsable de la creaciÃ³n del contenido intelectual del recurso. Por ejemplo, los autores en el caso de documentos escritos, artistas, fotografos e ilustradores en el caso de recursos visuales.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØ§ØªØš Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø£ÙÙØ§  Ø¹Ù ÙØŽØŠ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ± Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ø¹ÙÙ Ø³ØšÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø«Ø§Ù , Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€ÙÙÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ØŠÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªÙØšØ© , Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØ§ÙÙÙ , Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµÙØ±ÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ØŠÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">åå»ºè
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">åå»ºèµæºå
+å®¹çäž»èŠèŽ£ä»»è
+ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åå»ºè
+çå®äŸå
+æ¬äžªäººïŒç»ç»ææé¡¹æå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒçšåå»ºè
+çåç§°æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">TvÅ¯rce</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita primÃ¡rnÄ odpovÄdnÃ¡ za vytvoÅenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady TvÅ¯rce zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no tvÅ¯rce.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Auteur of maker</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De auteur, maker of organisatie die primair verantwoordelijk is voor de intellectuele inhoud van het werk. Bijvoorbeeld auteurs in geval van geschreven documenten, artiesten, fotografen of illustrators in geval van visuele bronnen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Creator</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le entitate primarimente responsabile pro producer le contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de creator include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de creator pro indicar iste entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€šà€¿à€°à¥à€®à€Ÿà€€à€Ÿ, à€à€šà€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€šà€¿à€°à¥à€®à€Ÿà€£  à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.  à€²à¥à€à€, à€²à¥à€à€¿à€à€Ÿ,  à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥, à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ,  à€žà€à€ªà€Ÿà€Šà€, à€žà€à€ªà€Ÿà€Šà€¿à€à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Subject" >
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Subject and Keywords</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The topic of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Subject will be expressed as keywords, key phrases or classification codes that describe a topic of the resource. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary or formal classification scheme.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaupapa</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te take/ nga take o te kaupapa, o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka whakaaturia te kaupapa o te rauemi e nga kupu matua, nga kimahi matua, nga tohu wehewehenga whakaahua ranei.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Sujet</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le sujet du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, le sujet sera dÃ©crit par un ensemble de mots-clefs ou de phrases ou un code de classification qui prÃ©cisent le sujet de la ressource. L&apos;utilisation de vocabulaires contrÃŽlÃ©s et de schÃ©mas formels de classification est encouragÃ©e.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ Ðž ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÐµ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¢ÐµÐŒÐ° ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ Ð²ÑÑÐ°Ð¶Ð°ÐµÑÑÑ Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐŸÑÑÑ ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ², ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÑÑÐ°Ð· ÐžÐ»Ðž  ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÐºÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ², ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÑÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÐŒÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑ
+ÐµÐŒÑ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Claves</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Los tÃ³picos del recurso. TÃ­picamente, Subject expresarÃ¡ las claves o frases que describen el tÃ­tulo o el contenido del recurso. Se fomentarÃ¡ el uso de vocabularios controlados y de sistemas de clasificaciÃ³n formales. Se pueden ver ejemplos de vocabularios controlados en: Controlled vocabularies, thesauri and classification systems available in the WWW. DC Subject</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§ÙØ±ØŠÙØ³ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ù
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±. ÙÙ
+ÙØ°Ø¬ÙØ§  ÙØ¹ØšØ± Ø¹Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ ØšØ§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+Ù
+ÙØªØ§Ø­  Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª  Ø§Ù Ø¬Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ  ØªØµÙ Ù
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ø§Ù Ù
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù ÙØ³ØªØ­Ø³Ù Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ù
+ÙØ±Ø¯Ø§Øª Ù
+Ø®Ø·Ø·Ø©Ù Ù
+Ø­ÙÙ
+Ø©  ÙØ§Ø¯ÙØ© ØªØµÙÙÙ ØŽÙÙÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">äž»é¢åå
+³é®è¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çäž»é¢æè¿°ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åŠæèŠæè¿°ç¹å®èµæºçæäžäž»é¢ïŒäžè¬éçšå
+³é®è¯ãå
+³é®å­ç­è¯­æåç±»å·ïŒæå¥œäž»é¢åå
+³é®è¯ä»åæ§    è¯è¡šæè§èçåç±»äœç³»äž­ååŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PÅedmÄt a klÃ­ÄovÃ¡ slova</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">TÃ©ma obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅedmÄt bude typicky vyjÃ¡dÅen pomocÃ­ klÃ­ÄovÃœch slov, klÃ­ÄovÃœch frÃ¡zÃ­ nebo klasifikaÄnÃ­ch znakÅ¯ popisujÃ­cÃ­ch tÃ©ma zdroje. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu prvku z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku nebo formÃ¡lnÃ­ho klasifikaÄnÃ­ho schÃ©matu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Onderwerp en trefwoorden</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het onderwerp van de Internetbron. Het onderwerp wordt beschreven in korte zinnen of door het gebruik van trefwoorden. Het gebruik van gecontroleerde trefwoorden of classificatie schema&apos;s wordt aanbevolen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Subjecto e parolas-clave</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le topico del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le subjecto es expresse per medio de parolas-clave, phrases-clave, o codices de classification que describe le topico del ressource. Le melior practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate o un schema formal de classification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€µà€¿à€·à€¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€µà€¿à€·à€¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ, à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€šà€žà€Ÿà€§à€šà¥ à€¯à€Ÿà€€à¥à€² à€à€¶à€¯ à€žà¥à€ªà€·à¥à€ à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à¥ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Š, à€µà€¿à€·à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€µà€°à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£ à€à€°à€€à€Ÿà€šà€Ÿ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Šà€žà€à€à¥à€°à€¹ à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Š à€à¥à€·à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€µà€Ÿà€ªà€° à€à€°à€Ÿà€µà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Description" >
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An account of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Description may include but is not limited to: an abstract, table of contents, reference to a graphical representation of content or a free-text account of the content.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Whakaaturanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He whakaaturanga o nga kaupapa o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ka uru atu, engari ehara noa ko: te whakarapopototanga korero, te ihirangi, te tohutanga o te kaupapa ma te whakaahua, te whakaaturanga kore kupu ranei, o te kauapapa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une description du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Une Description peut contenir, mais ce n&apos;est pas limitatif: un rÃ©sumÃ©, une table des matiÃšres, une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une reprÃ©sentation graphique du contenu, ou un texte libre sur le contenu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¡ÐŸÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÐž ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐŸ (Ð¿ÐŸ ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÑÑÐž) Ð² Ð²ÐžÐŽÐµ: ÑÐµÑÐµÑÐ°ÑÐ°, ÐŸÐ³Ð»Ð°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ, ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐž ÐœÐ° Ð³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">DescripciÃ³n</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una descripciÃ³n textual del recurso, tal como un resumen en el caso de un documento o una descripciÃ³n del contenido en el caso de un documento visual.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØµÙ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ ÙØµÙ ÙØµÙ  ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, ÙÙØ¶Ù
+ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ®ØµØ§Øª ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙØ«Ø§ØŠÙ Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø§ÙØ§ØŽÙØ§Ø¡ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªÙØšØ© Ø§Ù ØªÙØµÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ØŠÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">è¯Žæ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çè§£é</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">è¯Žæå¯ä»¥å
+æ¬äœäžéäºä»¥äžå
+å®¹ïŒææãç®åœãå¯¹ä»¥åŸåœ¢æ¥æ­ç€ºå
+å®¹çèµæºèèšçæå­è¯Žæãæè
+äž    äžªæå
+³èµæºå
+å®¹çèªç±ææ¬æè¿°ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Popis</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">VysvÄtlenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Popis mÅ¯ÅŸe obsahovat (mimo jinÃ©): abstrakt, obsah, odkaz na grafickÃ© nebo volnÃ© textovÃ© vyjÃ¡dÅenÃ­ obsahu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Omschrijving</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een omschrijving van de inhoud van de Internetbron. Abstracts of inhoudsomschrijvingen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un description del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le description pote includer, ma non se limita a: summario, indice, referentia a un representation graphic del contento o un texto libere a proposito del contento.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€µà€°à¥à€£à€š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥, à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€šà€žà€Ÿà€§à€šà€Ÿà€à¥à€µà€°à¥à€£à€š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€šà€¿à€µà¥à€Šà€š, à€à€²à¥à€, à€à€¿à€€à¥à€°à€°à¥à€ª</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+        <Element name="abstract">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Abstract</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">A summary of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="tableOfContents">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Table Of Contents</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">A list of subunits of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Publisher" >
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Publisher</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity responsible for making the resource available.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Publisher include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Publisher should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaiwhakaputa</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi nana i whakaputa te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaiwhakaputa. Ko te tikanga, ka whakamahia te ingoa o te Kaiwhakaputa hei tohu i te putahi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Editeur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">L&apos;entitÃ© responsable de la diffusion de la ressource, dans sa forme actuelle, tels, un dÃ©partement universitaire, une entreprise.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples d&apos;Editeurs incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, le nom d&apos;une maison d&apos;Ã©dition devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© ici.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, ÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ Ð·Ð° Ð²Ð²ÐŸÐŽ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° Ð² ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Editor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">&gt;La entidad responsable de hacer que el recurso se encuentre disponible en la red en su formato actual, por ejemplo la empresa editora, un departamento universitario u otro tipo de organizaciÃ³n.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŽØ±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØŠØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø€ÙÙØ© Ø¹Ù ØµÙØ§Ø¹Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªÙÙØ± ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØªÙ Ø§ÙØ­Ø§Ø¶Ø±Ø©, Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø§ÙÙØŽØ±, ÙØ³Ù
+ Ø¬Ø§Ù
+Ø¹Ù Ø§Ù Ù
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§Ø¹Ù
+Ø§Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">åºçè
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">äœ¿èµæºæäžºå¯ä»¥è·åŸå¹¶å¯çšçèŽ£ä»»è
+ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åºçè
+çå®äŸå
+æ¬äžªäœïŒç»ç»ïŒææå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒåºè¯¥çšåºçè
+çåç§°æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Vydavatel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita odpovÄdnÃ¡ za zpÅÃ­stupnÄnÃ­ zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady Vydavatele zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no vydavatele.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Uitgever</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De entiteit die verantwoordelijk is voor het beschikbaarstellen van de Internetbron in de huidig vorm. Bijvoorbeeld een uitgeversbedrijf, een universiteitsafdeling.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Editor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un entitate responsabile pro disponibilizar le ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de editor include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de editor pro indicar le entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ  à€à€ªà€²à€¬à¥à€§ à€à€°à¥à€š à€Šà¥à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.à€ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€ , à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€š  à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ, à€žà¥à€µà€Ÿ    à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€² à€°à¥à€ªà€Ÿà€€  à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€à€à€à€°à€šà¥à€ à€µà€° à€à€ªà€²à€¬à¥à€§ à€à€°à¥à€š à€Šà¥à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Contributor" >
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Contributor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity responsible for making contributions to the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Contributor include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Contributor should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaiwhakaaro</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi nana, na ratou ranei nga whakakaupapatanga whakaaro o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaiwhakaaro. Ko te tikanga ka whakamahia te ingoa o te Kaiwhakaaro hei tohu i te putahi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Contributeur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une entitÃ© qui a contribuÃ© Ã  la crÃ©ation du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples de Contributeur incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, le nom d&apos;un contributeur devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© ici pour dÃ©signer l&apos;entitÃ©.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, Ð²ÐœÐµÑÑÐµÐµ Ð²ÐºÐ»Ð°ÐŽ Ð² ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Otros Colaboradores</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una persona u organizacion que haya tenido una contribuciÃ³n intelectual significativa en la creaciÃ³n del recurso pero cuyas contribuciones son secundarias en comparaciÃ³n a las de las personas u organizaciones especificadas en el elementeo Creator (por ejemplo, editor, ilustrador y traductor).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+ Ø§ÙØ§Ø®Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§ÙØºÙØ± Ù
+Ø°ÙÙØ± ØµØ±Ø§Ø­Ø© ÙÙ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù &quot; Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹ &quot; Ù Ø§ÙØ°Ù ÙØ¯Ù
+ Ù
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø§Øª ÙÙØ±ÙØ© ÙØ§Ù
+Ø© ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, ÙÙÙ Ù
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªÙØªØšÙÙ    Ø«Ø§ÙÙÙØ© Ù
+ÙØ§Ø±ÙØ© Ù
+Ø¹ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø£Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø°ÙÙØ±Ø© ÙØµØ§ ÙÙ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù &quot; Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØŽØŠ &quot; Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§Ù Ù
+ØµØ­Ø­, Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ±Ø¬Ù
+, Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ³Ø±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">å
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">å¯¹èµæºçå
+å®¹äœåºèŽ¡ç®çå
+¶ä»å®äœã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+çå®äŸå¯å
+æ¬äžªäººãç»ç»ææé¡¹æå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒçšå
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+çåå­æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PÅispÄvatel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita, kterÃ¡ pÅispÄla k vytvoÅenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady PÅispÄvatele zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no pÅispÄvatele.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Andere medewerkers</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een persoon of organisatie die een belangrijke bijdrage heeft geleverd, maar die secondair is aan de persoon of organisatie die bij &quot;Creator&quot; genoemd wordt. Gedacht kan worden aan editors, vertalers en illustrators.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Contribuente</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un entitate responsabile pro facer contributiones al contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de contribuente include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de contribuente pro indicar le entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label"> à€žà€¹à€¯à¥à€à€, à€žà€¹à€¯à¥à€à¥, à€žà€¹à€Ÿà€¯à¥à€¯à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€žà€à€à€²à¥à€€ à€à€°à€£à¥à¥à€Ÿà€ž  à€®à€Šà€€ à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à¥ à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.à€ à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥, à€žà¥à€µà€Ÿ, à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Date" >
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Date</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A date associated with an event in the life cycle of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, Date will be associated with the creation or availability of the resource.  Recommended best practice for encoding the date value is defined in a profile of ISO 8601 and follows the YYYY-MM-DD format.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ra</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He ra e whai panga ana ki te huringa ora o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka whai panga te ra ki te hanganga, te wateatanga ranei, o te rauemi. Ko te huarahi tino pai hei tohu i te uara o te ra (date value) kua whakaritea i roto i te whakaritenga IS0 8601 [W3CDTF], a, e whai atu ana ki te whakatakotoranga YYYY-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Date</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une date associÃ©e avec un Ã©vÃ©nement dans le cycle de vie de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, une date sera associÃ©e Ã  la crÃ©ation ou Ã  la publication d&apos;une ressource. Il est fortement recommandÃ© d&apos;encoder la valeur de la date en utilisant le format dÃ©fini par l&apos;ISO 8601 [W3CDTF] sous la forme AAAA-MM-JJ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ°ÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐ°ÑÐ°, ÑÐ²ÑÐ·Ð°ÐœÐœÐ°Ñ Ñ ÑÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐžÐµÐŒ Ð² Ð¶ÐžÐ·ÐœÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐžÐºÐ»Ðµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐÐ°ÑÐ° Ð°ÑÑÐŸÑÐžÐžÑÑÐµÑÑÑ Ñ ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÐŸÑÑÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. ÐÐ° Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÐºÐµ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐŸÐŽÐžÑÐŸÐ²ÐºÐž Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐžÐ»Ñ ISO 8601 (Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÑ ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐž W3C), ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐÐÐÐ-ÐÐ-ÐÐ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Fecha</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una fecha en la que el recurso se puso a disposiciÃ³n del usuario en su forma actual. Esta fecha no ha de confundirse con la que pertenece al elemento Coverage, que serÃ­a asociada con el recurso sÃ³lo en la medida en que el contenido intelectual estÃ¡ de algÃºn modo relacionado con esa fecha. Recomendamos la utiliazaciÃ³n de uno de los formatos definidos en el documento &quot;Date and Time Formats&quot;, http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime basado en la norma ISO 8601 que incluye, entre otras, fechas en el formato AAAA y AAAA-MM-DD. De esta forma la fecha 1994-11-05 corresponderÃ­a al 5 de Noviembre de 1994.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±Ø®</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹ÙÙ ØšÙÙØª ÙØŽØŠ Ø£Ù ØªÙÙØ± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ù ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØ§ ÙØ®ÙØ· ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§ØŠØ¯ ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© , Ù Ø§ÙØ° Ù ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù    ÙÙØ­Ù ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± ÙÙØ· Ù
+Ù ÙØ§Ø­ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙØ§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙÙÙ ÙÙØ¹Ø§ Ù
+Ø§ ÙÙ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®. Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø«Ø­Ø³ÙØ© ÙÙØ§Ø­Ø³Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹Ø§Ø±Ù Ø¹ÙÙÙ    Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙØªØ·ØšÙÙ ÙÙ Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø¯Ø© ÙÙ ØªØŽÙÙÙ (ISO 8601) ØµÙØºØ© ØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ (ISO 8601) Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§Ø­ØžØ© Ø§ÙÙÙÙØ© http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime, W3C. ÙÙÙ    ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙÙØ³Ù , Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§, ØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ 1994-11-04 ÙÙØ§ØžØ± ÙÙÙ
+ 5 ÙÙÙÙ
+ØšØ± 1994</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æ¥æ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">äžèµæºçåœåšæäž­çäžäžªäºä»¶çžå
+³çæ¶éŽã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæ¥æåºäžèµæºçåå»ºæåºçæ¥æçžå
+³ãå»ºè®®éçšçæ¥ææ ŒåŒåºç¬ŠåISO 8601 [W3CDTF]è§    èïŒå¹¶äœ¿çšYYYY-MM-DDçæ ŒåŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Datum</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Datum spojenÃ© s urÄitou udÃ¡lostÃ­ bÄhem existence zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Datum bude typicky spojeno s vytvoÅenÃ­m nebo zpÅÃ­stupnÄnÃ­m zdroje. DoporuÄenÃœ postup pro kÃ³dovÃ¡nÃ­ hodnoty data je definovÃ¡n v ISO 8601 [W3CDTF]: formÃ¡t RRRR-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Datum</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De datum van de totstandkoming of beschikbaarstelling van een Internetbron. Deze datum moet niet verward worden met de datum in &quot;Coverage&quot;. De datum in &quot;Coverage&quot; geeft de tijdsperiode van de inhoud van de Internetbron aan. Voorgeschreven wordt de ISO 8601 standaard voor datum, zoals beschreven in W3C Technical Note http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime. Hierin wordt het formaat YYYY-MM-DD beschreven. Het formaat YYYY-MM-DD wordt de voorgeschreven standaard. 3 September 1998 wordt in dit geval 1998-09-03.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Data</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un data associate a un evento in le cyclo vital del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le data es associate al creation o disponibilization del ressource. Le practica recommendate pro codificar le valor del datas es definite in un profilo de ISO 8601 [W3CDTF] e seque le formato AAAA-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€,  à€Šà€¿à€šà€Ÿà€à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€€à€¯à€Ÿà€° à€à¥à€²à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€  à€²à€¿à€¹à¥à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€žà¥à€µà€°à¥à€ª à€ à€µà€°à¥à€·. à€®à€¹à€¿à€šà€Ÿ. à€Šà€¿à€µà€ž à¥§à¥¯à¥«à¥Š. à¥Šà¥ª. à¥Šà¥ª</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+        <Element name="available">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Available</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">Date (often a range) that the resource will become or did become available.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="created">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Created</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">Date of creation of the resource.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="dateAccepted">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Date Accepted</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">Date of acceptance of the resource (e.g. of thesis by university department, of article by journal, etc.).</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">conforming</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="dateCopyrighted">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Date Copyrighted</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">Date of a statement of copyright.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">conforming</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="dateSubmitted">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Date Submitted</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">Date of submission of the resource (e.g. thesis, articles, etc.).</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">conforming</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="issued">
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Issued</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">Date of formal issuance (e.g., publication) of the resource.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="modified">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Modified</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">Date on which the resource was changed.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="valid">
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Valid</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">Date (often a range) of validity of a resource.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+        </Element>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Type" >
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Resource Type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The nature or genre of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Type includes terms describing general categories, functions, genres, or aggregation levels for content. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the working draft list of Dublin Core Types). To describe the physical or digital manifestation of the resource, use the FORMAT element.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Tumomo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te ahua, te tu-ahuatanga ranei o nga kaupapa o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Kei roto i te Tumomo nga kupu whakaatu i nga wehewehenga whanui, nga aheinga, nga tu-ahuatanga, te whakaritenga ranei o nga taumata o te/ nga kaupapa. Ko te huarahi tino pai kua tohua, ko te tipako i tetahi uara mai i nga kupu kua whakaritea (hei tauira, ko te tauira rarangi e whakamahia ana o nga Dublin Core Types [DCT1]. Hei whakaatu i te whakatinanatanga o te rauemi, whakamahia ko te huanga WHAKATAKOTORANGA (FORMAT).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La nature ou le genre du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Type inclut des termes dÃ©crivant des catÃ©gories, fonctions ou genres gÃ©nÃ©raux pour le contenu, ou des niveaux d&apos;agrÃ©gation. Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la valeur du type dans une liste de vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ© (par exemple, la liste provisoire de Types du Dublin Core[DCT1]). Pour dÃ©crire la matÃ©rialisation physique ou digitale de la ressource, il faut utiliser l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Format.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÑÐžÑÐŸÐŽÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¶Ð°ÐœÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐµÑÐŒÐžÐœÑ, ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÑÐ²Ð°ÑÑÐžÐµ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐžÐµ ÐºÐ°ÑÐµÐ³ÐŸÑÐžÐž, ÑÑÐœÐºÑÐžÐž, Ð¶Ð°ÐœÑÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐŽÐžÐœÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ ÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐœÐž ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐµÐºÑÐ° ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ° Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ÐŸÐ² Dublin Core DCT1). ÐÐ»Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐžÐ·ÐžÑÐµÑ-ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Tipo del Recurso</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La categorÃ­a del recurso, por ejemplo pÃ¡gina personal, romance, poema, minuta, diccionario. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, Type deberÃ­a ser seleccionado de entre una lista de valores que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo. En http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Metadata/types.html se puede consultar el estado actual de la discusiÃ³n en torno a este tema.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÙÙØ¹ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ ÙØŠØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§ Ø§ÙØµÙØ­Ø© Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+, Ø±ÙØ§ÙØ© , ÙØ·Ø¹Ø© ØŽØ¹Ø±ÙØ© , ÙØ±ÙØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù , ØªÙØ±ÙØ± ÙÙÙ , Ù
+ÙØ§Ù , ÙØ§Ù
+ÙØ³ . Ù Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù    ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØ®ØªØ§Ø± Ø§ÙÙÙØ¹ Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© ÙØ§ÙØªÙ ÙÙÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§ Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èµæºç±»å</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çç¹åŸæç±»åã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èµæºç±»åå
+æ¬æè¿°èµæºå
+å®¹çäžè¬èçŽïŒåèœïŒç§å±ïŒæèç±»å±æ¬¡çæ¯è¯­ãå»ºè®®éçšæ¥èªäºåæ§è¯è¡š    äž­çåŒïŒäŸåŠDCMIç±»åè¯æ±è¡š[DCMITYPE]ïŒãèŠæè¿°èµæºçç©çææ°å­åè¡šç°åœ¢åŒïŒè¯·äœ¿çšâæ ŒåŒïŒFORMATïŒâå
+çŽ ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Typ zdroje</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Povaha nebo druh obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typ obsahuje termÃ­ny popisujÃ­cÃ­ obecnÃ© kategorie, funkce, druhy nebo agregaÄnÃ­ ÃºrovnÄ obsahu. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. pracovnÃ­ nÃ¡vrh seznamu TypÅ¯ Dublin Core [DCT1]). K popisu fyzickÃ© nebo digitÃ¡lnÃ­ reprezentace zdroje uÅŸijte prvek FormÃ¡t.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bestands type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het soort Internetbron, bijvoorbeeld home page, gedicht, working paper, technical report, essay, woordenboek etc. De DC working groups zijn momenteel bezig met twee voorstellen; een minimalist draft: http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Metadata/minimalist.html en een structuralist draft: http://sunsite.berkely.edu/Metadata/structuralist.html. Het wordt sterk aanbevolen om &quot;Type&quot; van deze lijsten te selecteren.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Typo del ressource</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le natura o genere del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le typo del ressource include terminos que describe categorias general, functiones, generes, o nivellos de aggregation pro le contento. Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le lista de schizzos de travalio de typos de Dublin Core [DCT1]). Pro describer le manifestation physic o digital del ressource, utiliza le elemento Formato.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€µà€°à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£, à€µà€°à¥à€à€µà€Ÿà€°à¥à€®à€§à¥à€¯à¥ à€à€à€Ÿà€Šà¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€šà¥à€à€Šà¥à€à€Ÿ à€®à¥à€à¥à€¯ à€à€à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Format" >
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The physical or digital manifestation of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, Format may include the media-type or dimensions of the resource. Format may be used to determine the software, hardware or other equipment needed to display or operate the resource. Examples of dimensions include size and duration. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the list of Internet Media Types [MIME] defining computer media formats).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Whakatakotoranga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te whakatinanatanga, te whakaputanga a-mati o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka taea te Whakatakotoranga te whakamahi hei whakarite i te rawa-ngohe (software), te rawa-maro (hardware), ma etahi taputapu ranei me matua whiwhi, hei whakahaere i te rauemi. Ko te rahi me te roanga etahi tauira hanga. Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua ko te tipako uara mai i tetahi whakaritenga kupu (hei tauira, te rarangi o nga Tumomo Papaho Ipurangi (Internet Media Types [MIME]) e whakaatu ana i nga whakatakotoranga papaho rorohiko.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La matÃ©rialisation physique ou digitale de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, Format peut inclure le media ou les dimensions de la ressource. Format peut Ãªtre utilisÃ© pour prÃ©ciser le logiciel, le matÃ©riel ou autre Ã©quipement nÃ©cessaire pour afficher ou faire fonctionner la ressource. Exemples de dimensions incluent la taille et la durÃ©e. Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la valeur du format dans une liste de vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ©(par exemple, la liste des types de media dÃ©finis sur Internet [MIME]).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð€ÐžÐ·ÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐµ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ ÑÐžÐ¿ Ð°ÑÐŽÐžÐŸÐ²ÐžÐ·ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÐž (ÐŒÐµÐŽÐžÐ°-ÑÐžÐ¿) ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐžÐœÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ Ð°Ð¿Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, Ð¿ÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŒÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÐµÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÐŸÑÑÐŽÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ, ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐŸÑÐ¿ÑÐŸÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÑ Ñ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐŸÐŒ. ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð²ÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐžÐœÑ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŒÐµÑ Ðž Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶ÐžÑÐµÐ»ÑÐœÐŸÑÑÑ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ° ÐÐµÐŽÐžÐ°-ÑÐžÐ¿ÐŸÐ² ÐÐœÑÐµÑÐœÐµÑ MIME, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐ¿ÑÑÑÐµÑÐœÑÐµ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÑ Ð°ÑÐŽÐžÐŸÐ²ÐžÐ·ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÐž).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Formato</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">El formato de datos de un recurso, usado para identificar el software y posiblemente, el hardware que se necesitarÃ­a para mostrar el recurso. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, los valores de Format deberÃ­an ser seleccionados de entre una lista de valores que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ù ØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù ØªØ³ØªØ®Ø¯Ù
+ ÙÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ ØšØ§ÙØšØ±Ù
+Ø¬ÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØšÙ
+Ø§ Ø§ÙØµÙØš ÙÙØ­Ø§Ø³ÙØš Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø£Ù ÙØ­ØªØ§Ø¬    ÙÙØ§ ÙØ¹Ø±Ø¶ Ø£Ù ØªØŽØºÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù, ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ØªØ®ØªØ§Ø± Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙØªÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§    Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æ ŒåŒ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºçç©çææ°å­è¡šç°åœ¢åŒã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæ ŒåŒå¯èœå
+æ¬èµæºçåªäœç±»åæèµæºçå€§å°ïŒæ ŒåŒå
+çŽ å¯ä»¥çšæ¥å³å®å±ç€ºææäœèµæºæé    çèœ¯ç¡¬ä»¶æå
+¶ä»çžåºè®Ÿå€ïŒäŸåŠå€§å°å
+æ¬èµæºæå çå­åšç©ºéŽåæç»­æ¶éŽãå»ºè®®éçšæ¥èªäºåæ§è¯è¡š    äž­çåŒïŒïŒäŸåŠInternetåªäœç±»å[MIME]å®ä¹è®¡ç®æºåªäœæ ŒåŒïŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">FormÃ¡t</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">FyzickÃ¡ nebo digitÃ¡lnÃ­ reprezentace zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicky mÅ¯ÅŸe FormÃ¡t obsahovat typ mÃ©dia nebo rozmÄry zdroje. FormÃ¡t lze pouÅŸÃ­vat k urÄenÃ­ softwaru, hardwaru nebo dalÅ¡Ã­ho zaÅÃ­zenÃ­ potÅebnÃ©ho k zobrazenÃ­ nebo k manipulaci se zdrojem. PÅÃ­klady rozmÄrÅ¯ zahrnujÃ­ velikost a dobu trvÃ¡nÃ­. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. seznam typÅ¯ internetovÃœch mÃ©diÃ­ [MIME] definujÃ­cÃ­ formÃ¡ty poÄÃ­taÄovÃœch mÃ©diÃ­).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het data formaat van het Internetbestand. Dit gegeven kan gebruikt worden om systeemvereisten (hard- en software) te identificeren die nodig zijn voor raadpleging of bediening van de Internetbron. &quot;Format&quot; is nog in ontwikkeling bij de DC workshop. Uit compatibiliteitsoverwegingen wordt aanbevolen formaatgegevens te selecteren uit een gecontroleerde lijst. Formaten kunnen van de Internet Media Types (MIME types) lijst gekozen worden: http://www.isi.edu/in-notes/iana/assignments/media-types/media-types</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Formato</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le manifestation physic o digital del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le formato pote includer le typo de medio o dimensiones del ressource. Le formato pote esser utilizate pro determinar le software o le equipamento necessari pro exhibir o operar le ressource. Exemplos de dimensiones include grandessa e duration. Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le lista de typos de medios de Internet [MIME] que defini formatos de medios).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ, à€šà€®à¥à€šà€Ÿà€¬à¥à€Š à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€žà¥à€µà€°à¥à€ª, à€°à€à€šà€Ÿà€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€°à¥à€ª à€à€žà¥ à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€à€°à¥à€ª, à€žà€à€à€£à€à¥à€¯ à€°à¥à€ª, à€µà€¿à€Šà¥à€¯à¥à€€ à€ªà€°à€®à€Ÿà€£à¥à€à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€žà€¹à€Ÿà€¯à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€šà¥ à€žà€à€à€£à€à¥à€à¥à€€ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+        <Element name="extent">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Extent</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">The size or duration of the resource.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="medium">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Medium</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">The material or physical carrier of the resource.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Identifier" >
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Resource Identifier</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Recommended best practice is to identify the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system. Example formal identification systems include the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (including the Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), the Digital Object Identifier (DOI) and the International Standard Book Number (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Taututanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro e hangai ana ki te rauemi i roto i tetahi horopaki.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tautu i te rauemi ma tetahi aho (string), tau ranei, e hangai ana ki tetahi punaha taututanga okawa. Ko etahi punaha taututanga okawa ko te Taututanga Rauemi Orite (Uniform Resource Identifier - URI), te Taututanga Rauemi Tohu-wahi (Uniform Resource Locator - URL), Te Mea A-mati (Digital Object Identifier - DOI) me te Tau Pukapuka Aro Whanui o te Ao (International Standard Book Number - ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Identifiant</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence non ambiguÃ« Ã  la ressource dans un contexte donnÃ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© d&apos;identifier la ressource par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšre ou un nombre conforme Ã  un sytÃšme formel d&apos;identification. Exemples de systemes formels d&apos;identification incluent le &quot;Uniform Resource Identifier&quot; (URI) (qui inclut le &quot;Uniform Resource Locator&quot; (URL)), le &quot;Digital Object Identifier&quot;(DOI) et le &quot;International Standard Book Number&quot;(ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐŽÐœÐŸÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÐœÐ°Ñ ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐ° ÐœÐ° ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð² Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°Ñ
+ ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐµÐºÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ. ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÑÑ
+ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð£ÐœÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ Ð ÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° (URI), (Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ñ Ð£ÐœÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÑÐ¹ ÐÐŸÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ Ð ÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° URL), ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÐŠÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ° (DOI) Ðž ÐÐµÐ¶ÐŽÑÐœÐ°ÑÐŸÐŽÐœÑÐ¹ Ð¡ÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐœÐžÐ¶ÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐŸÐŒÐµÑ (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Identificador del Recurso</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Secuencia de caracteres usados para identificar unÃ­vocamente un recurso. Ejemplos para recursos en lÃ­nea pueden ser URLs y URNs (cuando estÃ©n implementados). Para otros recursos pueden ser usados otros formatos de identificadores, como por ejemplo ISBN (&quot;International Standard Book Number&quot; - NÃºmero Internacional Normalizado para Libros)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ù
+Ø¬Ù
+ÙØ¹Ø© Ø­Ø±ÙÙØ© Ø£Ù Ø±ÙÙ
+ ÙØ³ØªØ®Ø¯Ù
+ ÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§Ø­Ø¯ÙØ§ : Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ÙØ°Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙØŽØšÙÙØ©ØªØ¶Ù
+ ) URNs, URLs Ø¹ÙØ¯ ØšÙØ§ØŠÙØ§ (    ÙØ°ÙÙ ÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø§Ø¹ØªØšØ§Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹Ø±ÙØ§Øª Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ§Ø­Ø§Ø¯ÙØ© Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø§ÙØ±ÙÙ
+ Ø§ÙØ¯ÙÙÙ ÙØªØµÙÙÙ Ø§ÙÙØ§ØªØš (ISBN) Ù
+Ø±ØŽØ­Ø© ÙÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èµæºæ è¯ç¬Š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">åšç¹å®çèåŽå
+ç»äºèµæºçäžäžªæç¡®çæ è¯ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å»ºè®®å¯¹èµæºçæ è¯éçšç¬Šåæäžæ­£åŒæ è¯äœç³»çå­ç¬Šäž²åæ°å­ç»åãäŸåŠæ­£åŒçæ è¯äœç³»å
+æ¬ç»äžèµ    æºæ è¯ç¬Š(URI) (å
+æ¬åäžèµæºå®äœç¬ŠURL)ãæ°å­å¯¹è±¡æ è¯ç¬Š(DOI)ååœé
+æ åä¹Šå·(ISBN)ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">IdentifikÃ¡tor zdroje</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">JednoznaÄnÃœ odkaz na zdroj v rÃ¡mci danÃ©ho kontextu.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄuje se identifikovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯. PÅÃ­klady formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯ zahrnujÃ­ Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (vÄetnÄ Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), Digital Object Identifier (DOI) a MezinÃ¡rodnÃ­ standardnÃ­ ÄÃ­slo knihy (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bestandsidentificatie</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een unieke string of nummer ter identificatie van de Internetbron. Voorbeelden zijn URL&apos;s of URN&apos;s Andere voorbeelden zijn International Standard Book Number (ISBN) of International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Identificator del ressource</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia inambigue al ressource intra un date contexto.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Se recommenda identificar le ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o numero conforme a un systema formal de identification. Exemplos de systemas formal de identification include le Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (includente le Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), le Digital Object Identifier (DOI) e le International Standard Book Number (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€à€³à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€à€ à€
+à€°à¥à€¥à¥ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ, à€µà€¿à€¶à€¿à€·à¥à€  à€žà¥à€¥à€³,  à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€à€à€€à€°à€°à€Ÿà€·à¥à€à¥à€°à¥à€¯  à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à¥à€°à€®à€Ÿà€à€,  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€à€³à€ à€ªà€à€µà€¿à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€à€à€à€°à€šà¥à€ à€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+        <Element name="bibliographicCitation">
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">conforming</Attribute>
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Bibliographic Citation</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">A bibliographic reference for the resource. </Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="comment">Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible, whether or not the citation is in a standard form.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Source" >
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Source</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A Reference to a resource from which the present resource is derived.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">The present resource may be derived from the Source resource in whole or in part.  Recommended best practice is to reference the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Matapuna</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro ki tetahi rauemi koira te matapuna o te rauemi e tirohia ana.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Tera pea i puta te katoa, tetahi wahanga ranei o te rauemi, e tirohia ana, mai i te Matapuna rauemi. Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua ko te tohutoro ki te rauemi ma te aho, ma te tau ranei e hangai ana ki tetahi punaha taututanga okawa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Source</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une ressource Ã  partir de laquelle la ressource actuelle a Ã©tÃ© dÃ©rivÃ©e.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">La ressource actuelle peut avoir Ã©tÃ© dÃ©rivÃ©e d&apos;une autre ressource source, en totalitÃ© ou en partie. Il est recommandÃ© de refÃ©rencer cette source par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšre ou un nombre conforme Ã  un systÃšme formel d&apos;identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐœÐžÐº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¡ÑÑÐ»ÐºÐ° ÐœÐ° ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ, ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœ ÐœÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœ ÐžÐ· ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐœÐžÐºÐ° ÑÐµÐ»ÐžÐºÐŸÐŒ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÑÐœÐŸ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Fuente</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Secuencia de caracteres utilizado para identificar unÃ­vocamente un trabajo a partir del cual proviene el recurso actual. Por ejemplo, es posible usar Source con la fecha de 1603 como descripciÃ³n de una pelÃ­cula basada en una obra de Shakespeare, pero es preferible, en ese caso, usar Relation &quot;IsBasedOn&quot; con una referencia a un recurso distinto cuya descripciÃ³n contenga el elemento Date con valor 1603.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø«Ø§ÙÙ Ù Ø§ÙØ°Ù Ø§Ø³ØªÙ
+Ø¯ Ù
+ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ. Ù
+Ø¹ Ø£ÙÙ Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØµÙ ØšÙ Ø£Ù ØªÙØ¯Ù
+ Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§Ù
+Ù    Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø¹Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙØ· , ÙÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø£Ù ÙØ­ÙÙ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®, Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØŽØŠ , Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© , Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹Ø±Ù , Ø§Ù Ø§ÙØ© Ù
+ÙØ© - Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§Ø®Ø±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ÙÙ Ø¹ÙØ¯Ù
+Ø§ ØªØ¹ØªØšØ± Ù
+ÙÙ
+Ø© ÙØ§ÙØªØŽØ§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ , Ù ÙØ°Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙØµÙ Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙØªØ·ØšÙÙÙÙ Ø§Ø­Ø³Ù     Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹Ø§Ø±Ù Ø¹ÙÙÙ ØšØ§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æ¥æº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ç°æèµæºæ¥æºçåç
+§ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åœåèµæºå¯èœéšåæå
+šéšæºèªè¯¥å
+çŽ ææ è¯çèµæºïŒå»ºè®®å¯¹è¿äžèµæºçæ è¯éçšäžäžªç¬Šåæ­£åŒæ è¯ç³»    ç»çå­äž²åæ°å­ç»å ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Zdroj</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Odkaz na zdroj, z nÄhoÅŸ je popisovanÃœ zdroj odvozen.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PopisovanÃœ zdroj mÅ¯ÅŸe bÃœt zcela nebo zÄÃ¡sti odvozen ze zdroje uvedenÃ©ho v prvku Zdroj. DoporuÄuje se odkazovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bron</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Informatie over een tweede bron waar de huidige Internetbron is van afgeleid. Bij &quot;Source&quot; mag een datum, auteur of maker, formaat, identificatie of andere metadata voor de tweede bron worden ingevuld. Voorbeeld: het is mogelijk om een &quot;Source&quot; datum 1603 in een omschrijving van een 1996 film bewerking van een Shakespeare stuk te gebruiken. &quot;Source&quot; is niet bruikbaar wanneer de huidige bron de orginele is.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Fonte</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia a un ressource del qual se deriva le ressource presente.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le ressource presente pote derivar se del ressource-fonte in toto o in parte. Le practica recommendate es facer referentia al ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o un numero conforme a un systema formal de identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€à€à€®</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿ à€à€à€® à€žà€Ÿà€à€à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€à€à€
+à€°à¥à€¥à¥ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€, à€®à€Ÿà€žà€¿à€,  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿà€¯à€Ÿà€à€à€Ÿ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Language" >
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Language</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A language of the intellectual content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Recommended best practice for the values of the Language element is defined by RFC 1766 which includes a two-letter Language Code (taken from the ISO 639 standard, followed optionally, by a two-letter Country Code (taken from the ISO 3166 standard). For example, &apos;en&apos; for English, &apos;fr&apos; for French, or &apos;en-uk&apos; for English used in the United Kingdom.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Reo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te reo o te whakakaupapatanga o nga matauranga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua mo nga uara o te huanga Reo kua whakaritea ki te RFC 1766 [RFC1766] kei roto te Tohu Reo kupu-rua (two-letter Language Code) (no te aro whanui ISO 639 [ISO639], ka taea e tetahi tohu kupu-rua te whai atu (no te aro whanui ISO 3166) [ISO366]). Hei tauira, te &apos;en&apos; mo te English, te &apos;fr&apos; mo te French, &apos;te en-uk&apos; mo te English e whakamahia ana i Ingarangi (UK).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Langue</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La langue du contenu intellectuel de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© d&apos;utiliser comme valeur de l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Langue celles definies par la RFC 1766 [RFC1766] qui comprend un code de langage Ã  deux caractÃšres(venant du standard ISO 639 [ISO639]), Ã©ventuellement suivi d&apos;un code Ã  deux lettres pour le pays (venant du standard ISO 3166 [ISO3166] ou en franÃ§ais [ISO3166]). Par exemple, &apos;en&apos; pour l&apos;anglais, &apos;fr&apos; pour le franÃ§ais, ou &apos;en-uk&apos; pour l&apos;anglais utilisÃ© au Royaume-Uni.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº ÐžÐœÑÐµÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐµ RFC 1766 (Ð¢ÑÐ³Ðž ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ°), Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÐŒ ÐŽÐ²ÑÑ
+Ð±ÑÐºÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐŽ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ° (Ð²Ð·ÑÑÑÐ¹ ÐžÐ· ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐ° ISO 639 (ÐÐŸÐŽÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐŸÐ²)), Ð·Ð° ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÑÐµÑ (Ð¿ÑÐž ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÑÑÐž) ÐŽÐ²ÑÑ
+Ð±ÑÐºÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐŽ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÑ (Ð²Ð·ÑÑÑÐŒÐž ÐžÐ· ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐ° ISO 3166 (ÐÐŸÐŽÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°Ðœ)). ÐÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, &quot;en&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð°ÐœÐ³Ð»ÐžÐ¹ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, &quot;fr&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÑÐ°ÐœÑÑÐ·ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, &quot;en-uk&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð°ÐœÐ³Ð»ÐžÐ¹ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð² ÐÐµÐ»ÐžÐºÐŸÐ±ÑÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐž.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Lengua</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Lengua/s del contenido intelectual del recurso. Practicamente el contenido de este campo deberÃ­a coincidir con los de la RFC 1766 (Tags para la identificaciÃ³n de lenguas, http://ds.internic.net/rfc/rfc1766.txt); por ejemplo: en, es, de, fi, ja y zh.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØºØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ù ÙÙ ÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . ÙÙÙ
+Ø§ ÙØ§Ù  Ø¹Ù
+ÙÙØ§ , Ù
+Ø­ØªÙÙ ÙØžØ§ Ø§ÙØ­ÙÙ ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØªØ·Ø§ØšÙ Ù
+Ø¹ RFC 1766    ] Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ØªØ¶Ù
+ th, ja, fr, es, fi, de, en Ù zh ÙØ±Ù
+ÙØ² ÙÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ ØšØ§ÙÙØºØ© [</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">è¯­ç§</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æè¿°èµæºç¥è¯å
+å®¹çè¯­ç§ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å»ºè®®æ¬å
+çŽ çåŒéçšRFC 3066[RFC3066]ïŒè¯¥æ åäžISO 639 [ISO639]äžèµ·å®ä¹äºç±äž€äžªåäžäžªè±    æå­æ¯ç»æçäž»è¯­èšæ ç­Ÿåå­æ ç­ŸäŸåŠå
+æ¬âenâæâengâæ¥è¡šç€ºEnglish, &quot;akk&quot; æ¥è¡šç€º    &quot;en-GB&quot;è¡šç€ºè±åœè±è¯­ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Jazyk</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Jazyk intelektuÃ¡lnÃ­ho obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄenÃœ postup pro hodnoty prvku Jazyk je definovÃ¡n v RFC 1766 [RFC1766]: dvouznakovÃœ kÃ³d jazyka (pÅevzatÃœ z normy ISO 639 [ISO639]) volitelnÄ nÃ¡sledovanÃœ dvouznakovÃœm kÃ³dem zemÄ (pÅevzatÃœm z normy ISO 3166 [ISO3166]). NapÅÃ­klad &apos;en&apos; pro angliÄtinu, &apos;fr&apos; pro francouzÅ¡tinu, &apos;cs&apos; pro ÄeÅ¡tinu, nebo &apos;en-uk&apos; pro angliÄtinu uÅŸÃ­vanou ve SpojenÃ©m krÃ¡lovstvÃ­.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Taal</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De taal waarin het document is beschreven. Voorgeschreven wordt de ISO639-1 norm, een twee karakter taalcode van de ISO 639(639-1 en 639-2) norm. Taalcodes kunnen van een lijst worden gekozen: http://www.ics.uci.edu/pub/ietf/http/related/iso639.txt, Eventueel kan ISO3166 (landencodes) gebruikt worden om aan te geven in welk gebied de taal wordt gesproken. Deze kunnen ook van een lijst worden gekozen:  http://www.ics.uci.edu/pub/ietf/http/related/iso3166.txt.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Lingua</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le lingua del contento intellectual del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le practica recommendate pro le valores del elemento lingua es definite per RFC 1766 [RFC1766], que include un codice de lingua de duo litteras (prendite del standard ISO 639 [ISO639]), sequite optionalmente per un codice de pais de duo litteras (prendite del standard ISO 3166 [ISO3166]). Per exemplo, &apos;ia&apos; pro interlingua, &apos;fr&apos; pro francese, o &apos;en-uk&apos; pro le anglese del Regno Unite.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€®à€°à€Ÿà€ à¥ - à€­à€Ÿà€°à€€à¥à€¯ à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Relation" >
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A reference to a related resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Recommended best practice is to reference the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Whai Panga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro ki tetahi rauemi whai panga.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tohutoro ki te rauemi ma te aho, te tau ranei, e hangai ana ki te punaha taututanga okawa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une autre ressource qui a un rapport avec cette ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© de rÃ©fÃ©rencer cette ressource par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšres ou un numÃ©ro conforme Ã  un systÃšme formel d&apos;identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÐœÐŸÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ï¿œÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">RelaciÃ³n</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un identificador de un segundo recurso y su relaciÃ³n con el recurso actual. Este elemento permite enlazar los recursos relacionados y las descripciones de los recursos. Por ejemplo: IsVersionOf - Incluye la ediciÃ³n de un trabajo, IsBasedOn - La traducciÃ³n de un trabajo, IsPartOf - Un capÃ­tulo de un libro, IsFormatOf - Un mecanismo de transformaciÃ³n de un conjunto de datos en una imagen. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, las relaciones deberÃ­an ser seleccionadas de una lista de elementos que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ø§ Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ÙÙ Ù Ø¹ÙØ§ÙØªÙ ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ . ÙØ³Ù
+Ø­ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù ØšØªÙØ¶ÙØ­ Ø§ÙØ±ÙØ§ØšØ· ØšÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹ÙÙØ©     ØšØšØ¹Ø¶ÙØ§ Ù ØªÙØµÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ØªØ¶Ù
+ Ø·ØšØ¹Ø© Ø§ÙØ¹Ù
+Ù ) ÙØ³Ø®Ø© Ù
+Ù ( ØªØ±Ø¬Ù
+Ø© Ø¹Ù
+Ù ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ ( ÙØµÙ Ù
+Ù ÙØªØ§Øš ) Ø¬Ø²Ø¡ Ù
+Ù (    Ù ØªØ­ÙÙÙÙ Ù
+ÙÙØ§ÙÙÙÙØ© ÙÙ
+Ø¬Ù
+ÙØ¹Ø© Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§ØªÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ ØµÙØ±Ø© ) ØµÙØºØ© Ù
+Ù ( Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù , ÙØ¬Øš Ø§Ø®ØªÙØ§Ø± Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ§Øª Ù
+Ù    Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙØªÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§ Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">å
+³è</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æ¶åççžå
+³èµæºã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èåœçžå
+³èµæºæ¶ïŒå»ºè®®äœ¿çšç¬Šåæ­£åŒæ è¯ç³»ç»çå­ç¬Šäž²æè
+æ°å­ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Vztah</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Odkaz na pÅÃ­buznÃœ zdroj.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄuje se odkazovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Relatie</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een identificatie van een tweede bron en de relatie met de huide Internetbron. Voorbeelden zijn een editie van een werk (IsVersionOf), een vertaling van een werk (IsBasedOn), een hoofdstuk van een boek (IsPartOf) en een mechanische transformatie van een dataset in een plaatje (IsFormatOf). De DC Working Groups zijn bezig met een lijst met de meest verwachte relaties. Aanbevolen wordt om de relaties van deze lijst te gebruiken: http://purl.oclc.org/metadata/dublin_core/wrelationdraft.html.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="definition">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia a un ressource correlate.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le practica recommendate es facer referentia al ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o numero conforme a un systema de identification formal.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€šà€Ÿà€€à¥ , à€žà€à€¬à€à€§</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¶à¥ à€žà€à€¬à€à€§ à€Šà€Ÿà€à€µà€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ(URL)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+        <Element name="conformsTo">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Conforms To</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">A reference to an established standard to which the resource conforms.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="hasFormat">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Has Format</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">The described resource pre-existed the referenced resource, which is essentially the same intellectual content presented in another format.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="hasPart">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Has Part</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">The described resource includes the referenced resource either physically or logically.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="hasVersion">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Has Version</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">The described resource has a version, edition, or adaptation, namely, the referenced resource.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="isFormatOf">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Is Format Of</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">The described resource is the same intellectual content of the referenced resource, but presented in another format.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="isPartOf">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Is Part Of</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">The described resource is a physical or logical part of the referenced resource.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="isReferencedBy">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Is Referenced By</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">The described resource is referenced, cited, or otherwise pointed to by the referenced resource.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="isReplacedBy">
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Is Replaced By</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">The described resource is supplanted, displaced, or superseded by the referenced resource.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="isRequiredBy">
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Is Required By</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">The described resource is required by the referenced resource, either physically or logically.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="isVersionOf">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Is Version Of</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">The described resource is a version, edition, or adaptation of the referenced resource. Changes in version imply substantive changes in content rather than differences in format.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="references">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">References</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">The described resource references, cites, or otherwise points to the referenced resource.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="replaces">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="label">Replaces</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">The described resource supplants, displaces, or supersedes the referenced resource.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="requires">
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Requires</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">The described resource requires the referenced resource to support its function, delivery, or coherence of content.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Coverage" >
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Coverage</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The extent or scope of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Coverage will typically include spatial location (a place name or geographic coordinates), temporal period (a period label, date, or date range) or jurisdiction (such as a named administrative entity). Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the Thesaurus of Geographic Names [TGN]) and that, where appropriate, named places or time periods be used in preference to numeric identifiers such as sets of coordinates or date ranges.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kapitanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te roanga, te whanuitanga ranei o te whakakaupapatanga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka uru atu te wahi mokowa (te ingoa o tetahi wahi, whakapiritanga matawhenua ranei), whakaritenga wa (he tapatanga wa (period label, ra, whakatakotoranga whanui o nga ra), te whakaritenga ture (penei i te putahi whakahaere). Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tipako uara mai i tetahi whakaritenga kupu (hei tauira, i tetahi Puna Kupu Ingoa Matawhenua (Geographic Names [TGN] i nga wahi tika, ko nga wahi me nga whakaritenga wa ka whakamahia i mua i te whakamahitanga o nga taututanga tau penei i nga huinga whakapiritanga me nga whakatakotoranga whanui o nga ra.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Couverture</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La portÃ©e ou la couverture spatio-temporelle de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">La couverture typiquement inclut une position gÃ©ographique (le nom d&apos;un lieu ou ses coordonnÃ©es), une pÃ©riode de temps (un nom de pÃ©riode, une date, ou un intervalle de temps) ou une juridiction (telle que le nom d&apos;une entitÃ© administrative). Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la  valeur de Couverture dans un vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ© (par exemple, un thÃ©saurus de noms gÃ©ographiques, comme[TGN]) et, quand cela est appropriÃ©, des noms de lieux ou de pÃ©riodes plutÃŽt que des identifiants numÃ©riques tels que des coordonnÃ©es ou des intervalles de dates. </Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑ
+Ð²Ð°Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÑÐŸÑÑÐ¶ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÑ Ðž Ð³ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑ
+Ð²Ð°Ñ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐºÐœÐŸÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐ¶ÐŽÐµÐœÐžÐµ (ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸÑÑÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð³ÐµÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÐµ ÐºÐŸÐŸÑÐŽÐžÐœÐ°ÑÑ), Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŒÐµÐ¶ÑÑÐŸÐº (ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÐµÑÐžÐŸÐŽÐ°, ÐŽÐ°ÑÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐŽ ÐŽÐ°Ñ) ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐžÑÐŽÐžÐºÑÐžÑ (ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐµÐŽÐžÐœÐžÑÑ Ð°ÐŽÐŒÐžÐœÐžÑÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐ²ÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ). ÐÐ° Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÐºÐµ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, Ð¢ÐµÐ·Ð°ÑÑÑÑÐ° Ð³ÐµÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÑ
+ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ TGN), Ðž, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐŸ ÑÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸ, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸÑÐŽÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÑÐŒ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸÑÑÐµÐ¹ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŒÐµÐ¶ÑÑÐºÐŸÐ² Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸ ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ², ÐºÐ°Ðº, ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒ ÐºÐŸÐŸÑÐŽÐžÐœÐ°Ñ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÑÐŽÐŸÐ².</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Cobertura</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La caracterÃ­stica de cobertura espacial y/o temporal del contenido intelectual del recurso. La cobertura espacial se refiere a una regiÃ³n fÃ­sica (por ejemplo, sector celestial); uso de coordenadas (por ejemplo, longitud y latitud) o nombres de lugares extraidos de una lista controlada. La cobertura temporal se refiere al contenido del recurso en vez de a cuando fue creado o puesto accesible ya que este Ãºltimo pertenece al elemento Date. Se usa el mismo formato basado en http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØ®ØµØ§ØŠØµ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§ÙÙØ© Ø§Ù Ø§ÙØ²Ù
+ÙÙØ© ÙÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§ÙÙØ© ØªØŽÙØ± Ø§ÙÙ Ø¬ÙØ© Ø·ØšÙØ¹ÙØ© )Ù
+Ø«Ù , ÙØ·Ø§Ø¹ Ø³Ù
+Ø§ÙÙ (    Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ø§ÙØ§Ø­Ø¯Ø§Ø«ÙØ§Øª ) Ù
+Ø«Ù  Ø®Ø· Ø§ÙØ·ÙÙ Ù Ø®Ø· Ø§ÙØ¹Ø±Ø¶ ( ÙÙ Ø£Ø³Ù
+Ø§Ø¡ Ø§Ù
+ÙÙØ© Ù
+Ø³ØªØ­ÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªØ¬ÙØ§Øª ØšØ§ÙÙØ§Ù
+Ù . Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ²Ù
+ÙÙØ©    Ø«Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙÙ Ù
+Ø§ ÙØ±Ø¬Ø¹ Ø§ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ù ÙÙØ³ Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªÙ ØªÙ
+ ØªÙÙÙØ±Ù ) Ø§ÙØ§Ø®ÙØ± ÙØªØ¹ÙÙ ØšØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® ( Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ ÙÙØ³ ØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®  Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª    ) Ø¹Ø§Ø¯Ø© Ù
+Ø¯Ù ] ( ØµÙØ§ØºØ§Øª Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ (ISO 8601 Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§Ø­ØžØ© Ø§ÙÙÙÙØ© [http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime, W3C    ÙÙ
+Ø§ ÙÙ Ù
+ÙØµÙ ØšÙ ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§Ù ÙØªØ±Ø§Øª Ø²Ù
+ÙÙØ© Ù
+Ù ÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ù
+Ø³ØªØ­ÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªØ¬ÙØ§Øª ØšØ§ÙÙØ§Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èŠçèåŽ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹ææ¶åçå€å»¶äžèŠçèåŽ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èŠçèåŽäžè¬å
+æ¬ç©ºéŽäœçœ®ïŒäžäžªå°åæå°çåæ ïŒãæ¶éŽåºéŽïŒäžäžªæ¶éŽæ è¯ïŒæ¥ææäžäžªæ¥æè    åŽïŒãæè
+æéïŒæ¯åŠåœåçææå®äœïŒæšèèŠçèåŽæå¥œæ¯åèªäºäžäžªåæ§è¯è¡šïŒäŸåŠå°åè¯åº    [TGN]ïŒïŒå¹¶åºå°œå¯èœå°äœ¿çšç±æ°å­è¡šç€ºçåæ ææ¥æåºéŽæ¥æè¿°å°åäžæ¶éŽæ®µã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PokrytÃ­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Rozsah nebo zÃ¡bÄr obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PokrytÃ­ bude typicky obsahovat prostorovÃ© umÃ­stÄnÃ­ (jmÃ©no mÃ­sta nebo zemÄpisnÃ© souÅadnice), ÄasovÃ© obdobÃ­ (oznaÄenÃ­ obdobÃ­, datum nebo ÄasovÃœ interval) nebo jurisdikci (napÅ. jmÃ©no administrativnÃ­ jednotky). DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. Thesaurus of Geographic Names [TGN]) a tam, kde je to vhodnÃ©, uvÃ¡dÄt mÃ­sta nebo ÄasovÃ© Ãºseky spÃ­Å¡e jmÃ©nem neÅŸ ÄÃ­selnÃœmi identifikÃ¡tory jako jsou soubory souÅadnic nebo ÄasovÃ© intervaly.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Dekking</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De ruimtelijke of tijdelijke karakteristieken van de intellectuele inhoud van de Internetbron. Ruimtelijke dekking verwijst naar een geografisch gebied. Gebruik coordinaten (longitude (lengtegraad) en latitude (breedtegraad)) of plaatsnamen die van een gecontroleerde lijst komen of volledig uitgeschreven zijn. Dekking in de tijd geeft de tijdsperiode aan waarop de inhoud van de Internetbron betrekking heeft en niet wanneer de Internetbron is gemaakt of beschikbaar is gesteld (dit laatste hoort ingevult te worden bij &quot;Date&quot;). Gebruik dezelfde datum/tijd formaat als bij &quot;Date&quot;; W3C Technical Note http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime of tijdsperioden die van een gecontroleerde lijst komen of volledig uitgeschreven zijn. Coverage is in ontwikkeling bij de Dublin Core Working group http://www.alexandria.ucsb.edu/docs/metadata/dc_coverage.html.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Copertura</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le extension physic o abstracte del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le copertura typicamente include un location spatial (un nomine de localitate o coordinatas geographic), un periodo de tempore (un etiquetta de periodo, data, o gamma de datas), o un jurisdiction (tal como un entitate administrative nominate). Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le Thesaurus of Geographical Names [TGN]) e que, quando appropriate, localitates o periodos de tempore nominate sia utilizate in preferentia a identificatores numeric tales como collectiones de coordinatas o gammas de datas.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€­à¥à€à¥à€²à€¿à€  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€­à¥à€à¥à€²à€¿à€ à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+        <Element name="spatial">
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Spatial</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">Spatial characteristics of the intellectual content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="temporal">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Temporal</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">Temporal characteristics of the intellectual content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Rights" >
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Rights Management</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information about rights held in and over the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Rights element will contain a rights management statement for the resource, or reference a service providing such information. Rights information often encompasses Intellectual Property Rights (IPR), Copyright, and various Property Rights. If the Rights element is absent, no assumptions can be made about the status of these and other rights with respect to the resource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Motika</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ko nga mohiohio ki nga motika o tetahi rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, kei te huanga Motika e pupuri ana he korero mo te whakaritenga motika mo te rauemi, he ratonga tohutoro e whakarato ana ranei i enei tumomo mohiohio. He nui nga wa, puta ai i roto i te mohiohio Motika te Mana Whakairo Hinegaro (Intellectual Property Rights - (IPR)), te Manatarua me nga Tuahua Mana Taonga (Property Rights). Ki te kore te huanga Motika, kaore e taea te pohehe noa ki te mana o enei, nga motika ranei e pa ana ki te rauemi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Droits</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information sur les droits sur et au sujet de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, un Ã©lÃ©ment Droits contiendra un Ã©tat du droit Ã  gÃ©rer une ressource, ou la refÃ©rence Ã  un service fournissant cette information. Ces droits souvent couvrent les droits de propriÃ©tÃ© intellectuelle (IPR), Copyright, et divers droits de propriÃ©tÃ©. Si l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Droits est absent, aucune hypothÃšse ne peut Ãªtre faite sur l&apos;Ã©tat de ces droits, ou de tout autre, par rapport Ã  la ressource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐµ ÑÐµÐ³ÑÐ»ÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐ°ÑÑÑ Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐž Ðž Ð²ÐœÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð° ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐœÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ
+, ÑÐµÐ³ÑÐ»ÐžÑÑÑÑÐžÑ
+ ÑÑÐœÐºÑÐžÐŸÐœÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÑ ÐœÐ° ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐŸÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÑÑÑ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ. ÐÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²Ð°Ñ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐ²ÐµÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŸ ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+ ÐžÐœÑÐµÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÐž, ÐÐ²ÑÐŸÑÑÐºÐŸÐŒ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ðµ Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ ÐÐŒÑÑÐµÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+. ÐÑÑÑÑÑÑÐ²ÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð° ÐœÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ°ÐºÐžÑ
+-Ð»ÐžÐ±ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÑÐµ Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+, ÐºÐ°ÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÑ
+ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Derechos</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una referencia (URL, por ejemplo) para una nota sobre derechos de autor, para un servicio de gestiÃ³n de derechos o para un servicio que darÃ¡ informaciÃ³n sobre tÃ©rminos y condiciones de acceso a un recurso. Una especificaciÃ³n formal del elemento Rights se encuentra catualmente en discusiÃ³n y por lo tanto su uso se considera experimental.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø© Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© , Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ù
+Ø±ØªØšØ· ØšØ§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø© Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© , Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ù
+Ø±ØªØšØ· ØšØ®Ø¯Ù
+Ø© ØªÙØ¯Ù
+ Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø¹Ù Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æé</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æå
+³èµæºæ¬èº«ææçæè¢«èµäºçæéä¿¡æ¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæéå
+çŽ åºå
+æ¬äžäžªå¯¹èµæºçæéå£°æïŒæè
+æ¯å¯¹æäŸè¿äžä¿¡æ¯çæå¡çåç
+§ãæéäžè¬    å
+æ¬ç¥è¯äº§æ(IPR)ïŒçææå
+¶ä»åç§åæ ·çäº§æãåŠææ²¡ææéå
+çŽ çæ æ³šïŒäžå¯ä»¥å¯¹äžèµæºçžå
+³    çäžè¿°æå
+¶ä»æå©çæ
+åµäœåºä»»äœåå®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PrÃ¡va</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Informace o prÃ¡vech vztahujÃ­cÃ­ch se k popisovanÃ©mu zdroji.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Prvek PrÃ¡va bude typicky obsahovat ustanovenÃ­ o sprÃ¡vÄ autorskÃœch/vlastnickÃœch prÃ¡v ke zdroji nebo odkaz na sluÅŸbu poskytujÃ­cÃ­ takovÃ©to informace. Informace o prÃ¡vech Äasto zahrnujÃ­ prÃ¡va duÅ¡evnÃ­ho vlastnictvÃ­ (IPR), autorskÃ© prÃ¡vo a rÅ¯znÃ¡ vlastnickÃ¡ prÃ¡va. JestliÅŸe prvek PrÃ¡va chybÃ­, nelze odvozovat ÅŸÃ¡dnÃ© pÅedpoklady o stavu tÄchto a jinÃœch prÃ¡v vztahujÃ­cÃ­ch se k popisovanÃ©mu zdroji.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Copyright</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een copyright verklaring of een link naar een copyright verklaring of een link naar een service die informatie geeft over de copyright van de Internetbron.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Gestion de derectos</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information super derectos detenite super e a proposito del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le elemento derectos continera un declaration de gestion de derectos pro le ressource, o un referentia a un servicio que provide tal information. Information de derectos frequentemente involve derectos de proprietate intellectual (IPR), copyright e varie derectos de proprietate. Si le elemento Derectos es absente, necun hypothese pote esser facite quanto al stato de iste e altere derectos concernente ressource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€¬à¥à€§à¥à€Šà€¿à€ à€žà€à€ªà€Šà¥à€à€Ÿà€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€žà¥à€µà€€à€à€¹à€Ÿà€à¥ à€²à¥à€à€š à€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€š à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€° à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€¿à€€ à€à€°à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€²à¥à€à€ à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€²à¥à€à€¿à€à¥à€à€Ÿ à€¬à¥à€§à¥à€Šà€¿à€ à€žà€à€ªà€Šà¥à€à€Ÿà€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+        <Element name="accessRights">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Access Rights</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">Information about who can access the resource or an indication of its security status.</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="comment">Access Rights may include information regarding access or restrictions based on privacy, security or other regulations.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">conforming</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="license">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">License</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">A legal document giving official permission to do something with the resource.</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="comment">Recommended best practice is to identify the license using a URI. Examples of such licenses can be found at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">conforming</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Audience">
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Audience</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A class of entity for whom the resource is intended or useful.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">A class of entity may be determined by the creator or the publisher or by a third party.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <Element name="educationLevel">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="label">Audience Education Level</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="definition">A general statement describing the education or training context. Alternatively, a more specific statement of the location of the audience in terms of its progression through an education or training context.</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">conforming</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+        <Element name="mediator">
+            <Language code="en">
+                <Attribute name="definition">A class of entity that mediates access to the resource and for whom the resource is intended or useful.</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="comment">The audiences for a resource are of two basic classes: (1) an ultimate beneficiary of the resource, and (2) frequently, an entity that mediates access to the resource. The mediator element refinement represents the second of these two classes.</Attribute>
+                <Attribute name="label">Mediator</Attribute>
+            </Language>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="type">element-refinement</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="status">recommended</Attribute>
+        </Element>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Provenance">
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Provenance</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A statement of any changes in ownership and custody of the resource since its creation that are significant for its authenticity, integrity and interpretation.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">The statement may include a description of any changes successive custodians made to the resource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="RightsHolder">
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="definition">A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Recommended best practice is to use the URI or name of the Rights Holder to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="label">Rights Holder</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="status">conforming</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/dls-e.col
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/dls-e.col	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/dls-e.col	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GathererCollection [
+  <!ELEMENT GathererCollection (Argument*, GathererConfig, BuildConfig)>
+  <!ELEMENT GathererConfig    (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT BuildConfig       (Build, Import)>
+  <!ELEMENT Build             (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Import            (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Schedule          (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Argument          (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Argument
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				enabled           CDATA "true">
+]>
+<GathererCollection>
+    <Argument name="built">false</Argument>
+    <Argument name="imported">false</Argument>
+    <GathererConfig/>
+    <BuildConfig>
+        <Build/>
+        <Import/>
+        <Schedule/>
+    </BuildConfig>
+</GathererCollection>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/etc/collect.cfg
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,922 @@
+creator		greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+public		true
+
+buildtype	mg
+
+plugin	HTMLPlugin -input_encoding iso_8859_1 -description_tags -OIDtype dirname
+plugin	GreenstoneXMLPlugin
+plugin	MetadataXMLPlugin
+plugin	ArchivesInfPlugin
+plugin	DirectoryPlugin
+
+indexes		section:text section:Title document:text
+
+classify	Hierarchy -metadata "dls.Subject" -buttonname Subject -hfile dls.Subject.txt -sort dls.Title
+classify	Hierarchy -metadata dls.AZList -buttonname Title -hfile dls.AZList.txt -hlist_at_top -sort dls.Title
+classify	List -metadata dls.Organization -sort_leaf_nodes_using dls.Title -buttonname Organization -bookshelf_type always
+classify	List -metadata dls.Keyword -buttonname Howto -bookshelf_type never
+
+format VList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td valign=top>[highlight]{Or}{[dls.Title],[Title],Untitled}[/highlight]
+<i><small>{If}{[Date],<br>_textdate_[Date]}{If}{[NumPages],
+<br>_textnumpages_[NumPages]}{If}{[Source],<br>_textsource_[Source]}</small></i>
+</td>"
+
+format SearchVList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td>{If}{[parent(All\': \'):Title],
+[parent(All\': \'):Title]:}
+[link][Title][/link]</td>"
+
+format CL4VList "<td valign=top>[link][dls.Keyword][/link]</td>"
+
+format DocumentText "<h3>[Title]</h3>\\n\\n<p>[Text]"
+format DocumentImages true
+format DocumentButtons "Expand Text|Expand Contents|Detach|Highlight"
+
+format HList "[link][highlight][ex.Title][/highlight][/link]"
+
+format DocumentHeading "{Or}{[parent(Top):Title],[Title],untitled}<br>"
+
+# -- English strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=en] "Development Library Subset collection"
+
+collectionmeta	.section:text [l=en] "chapters"
+collectionmeta	.section:Title [l=en] "section titles"
+collectionmeta	.document:text [l=en] "entire documents"
+
+# -- French strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=fr] "Sous-ensemble de la collection BibliothÃšque de DÃ©veloppement"
+
+collectionmeta	.section:text [l=fr] "chapitres"
+collectionmeta	.section:Title [l=fr] "titres des sections"
+collectionmeta	.document:text [l=fr] "documents entiers"
+
+# -- Spanish strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=es] "Subconjunto de la Biblioteca para el Desarrollo"
+
+collectionmeta	.section:text [l=es] "capÃ­tulos"
+collectionmeta	.section:Title [l=es] "tÃ­tulos de las secciones"
+collectionmeta	.document:text [l=es] "documentos completos"
+
+# -- Russian strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=ru] "Ð¡ÑÐ±ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÐÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÑÐµÐºÐž ÑÐ°Ð·Ð²ÐžÑÐžÑ"
+
+collectionmeta	.section:text [l=ru] "ÐÐ»Ð°Ð²Ñ"
+collectionmeta	.section:Title [l=ru] "ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐŸÐ²"
+collectionmeta	.document:text [l=ru] "ÐÐŸÐ»ÐœÑÐµ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=zh] "åå±åŸä¹ŠéŠå­éŠè"
+
+collectionmeta	.section:text [l=zh] "ç« "
+collectionmeta	.section:Title [l=zh] "èæ é¢"
+collectionmeta	.document:text [l=zh] "æŽäžªææ¡£"
+
+# -- English text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=en] "The Humanitarian Development Libraries
+represent a large collection of practical information aimed at helping
+reduce poverty, increasing human potential, and providing a practical and
+useful education for all. This subset contains about 25
+publications--documents, reports, and periodical articles--in various areas
+of human development, from agricultural practice to economic policies, from
+water and sanitation to society and culture, from education to
+manufacturing, from disaster mitigation to micro-enterprises.
+
+<p> The editors of this collection are Human Info NGO, HumanityCD Ltd, and
+participating organizations. Contact us at Humanitarian and Development
+Libraries Project, Oosterveldiaan 196, B-2610 Antwerp, Belgium, Tel
+32-3-448.05.54, Fax 32-3-449.75.74,
+email <a href=mailto:humanity@humaninfo.org>humanity@humaninfo.org</a>.\n
+
+<h3>How the collection works</h3>\n
+
+<p>
+The DLS collection is fairly complex. If you\'re
+just starting out you might prefer to look at some other
+collections first (e.g.
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=documented-examples/wrdpdf-e&a=p&p=about\">Word and PDF demonstration</a>, or the
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=documented-examples/gsarch-e&a=p&p=about\">Greenstone Archives</a>, or the
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=documented-examples/image-e&a=p&p=about\">Simple Image collection</a>).\n
+
+<p>
+The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>collection
+configuration file</a>, like all collection configuration files, begins with a
+line (\"creator\") that gives the email address of the collection\'s creator, and
+another (\"public\") that determines whether the collection will appear on the
+home page of the Greenstone installation. Note that setting \"public\" to \"false\" only removes it from the home page; it will still be accessible in the library to anyone that knows the URL (a=p&p=about&c=coll-shortname). \n
+
+<p>
+<b>Plugins</b>. The \"plugin\" lines in the
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>configuration file</a>
+give the plugins used by the collection. The documents in the DLS collection
+are in HTML, so <i>HTMLPlugin</i> must be included. The <i>description_tags</i>
+option processes tags in the text that define sections and section titles as
+described below. \n
+
+<p>
+The other plugins, <i>GreenstoneXMLPlugin, MetadataXMLPlugin, ArchivesInfPlugin, and DirectoryPlugin</i>, are used by Greenstone
+for internal purposes and are standard in almost all collections.
+
+<p>
+<b>Searchable indexes</b>. The block of lines starting with <i>indexes</i>
+specifies what searchable indexes will be available. In this collection there
+are three: you can see them when you pull down the \"Search for\" menu on the
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">search page</a>.
+The first index is called \"chapters\", the second \"section titles\",
+and the third \"entire documents\". The names of these three indexes are given by
+three <i>collectionmeta</i> statements.\n
+
+<p>
+The contents of the indexes -- that is, the specification of what it is that
+will be searched -- are defined by the <i>indexes</i> line at the beginning of
+this block. This specifies three indexes, two at the section level (beginning
+with <i>section:</i>) and one at the document level (beginning with
+<i>document:</i>). The difference is that a multi-word query will only match a
+section-level index if all query terms appear in the same section, whereas it
+will match a document-level index if the terms appear anywhere within the
+document (which typically comprises several sections). The first and third
+indexes are <i>section:text</i> and <i>document:text</i>, and the <i>:text</i>
+means that the full text of sections and documents respectively will be
+searched. The second is <i>section:Title</i>, which means that <i>Title</i>
+metadata will be searched -- in this case, section titles (rather than document
+titles). The three indexes appear in the order in which they are specified on
+the <i>indexes</i> line.\n
+
+<p>
+<b>Classifiers</b>. The block of lines labeled <i>classify</i> define the
+browsing indexes, called \"classifiers\" in Greenstone. There are four of them,
+corresponding to four buttons on the navigation bar at the top of each page in
+the collection (e.g. the <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">search page</a>):
+<i>subjects</i>, <i>titles</i>, <i>organisations</i>, and <i>howto</i>
+The <i>search</i> button comes first, then come the four classifiers, in order.\n
+
+<p>
+The first classifier provides access by subject. It is a <i>Hierarchy</i>
+classifier whose hierarchy is defined in the file
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.Subject.txt\" target=text>dls.Subject.txt</a>
+(the <i>hfile</i> argument); this file is discussed below. This classifier is
+based on <i>dls.Subject</i> metadata, and when several books appear at a leaf of
+the hierarchy they are sorted by <i>dls.Title</i> metadata (as you can see
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1.4.1\">here</a>).
+
+The second classifier provides access by title. It is also a <i>Hierarchy</i> classifier, this time based on
+<i>dls.AZList</i> metadata, whose hierarchy is defined in <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.Title.txt\" target=text>dls.AZList.txt</a>. This file is discussed below.
+
+The third provides access by organization: it is a
+<i>List</i> classifier based on <i>dls.Organization</i> metadata. The <i>-bookshelf_type always</i> option creates a new bookshelf for each organization, even if only one document belongs to that category.
+
+The fourth provides access by \"Howto\" text: it is a <i>List</i> classifier based on <i>dls.Keyword</i> metadata. The <i>-bookshelf_type never</i> option prevents bookshelves being created even if two documents share the same keywords.
+
+<p>
+<b>Cover images</b>. Greenstone looks for a cover image for each document, whose name is the same as the document\'s but with a <i>.jpg</i>
+extension. This image is associated with the document, and may be displayed on the document page (see below). Cover images can be switched off by setting the -no_cover_image flag for each plugin. \n
+
+<p>
+<b>Format statements</b>. The lines beginning with <i>format</i>, called \"format statements\", govern how various parts of the collection should be displayed. The <i>VList</i> format statement applies to lists of items displayed vertically, such as the lists of titles, subjects and organisations, and the table of contents for the target documents. It is overridden for the search results list by the <i>SearchVList</i> format statement, and also for the <i>Howto</i> classifier by the <i>CL4VList</i> statement (CL4 specifies the fourth classifier).
+<p>
+The <i>DocumentText</i> statement governs how the document text is formatted,
+with <i>Title</i> metadata ([<i>Title</i>]) in HTML &lt;<i>h3</i>&gt; format
+followed by the text of the document [<i>Text</i>]. Setting the <i>DocumentImages</i> format statement to <i>true</i> ensures that cover images are shown with each document. The <i>DocumentButtons</i> statement calls for the <i>Expand
+Text, Expand Contents, Detach</i> and <i>Highlight</i> buttons to be shown with each document.
+
+<p>
+Most format statements contain a string specified in an augmented form of
+HTML. Metadata names in square brackets (e.g. [<i>Title</i>], [<i>Creator</i>])
+give the value of that metadata; [<i>Text</i>] gives the document text. A
+hyperlink to the document can be made using [<i>link</i>] ...[<i>/link</i>]; an
+appropriate icon is produced by [<i>icon</i>]. Format strings can include
+{<i>If</i>}{... , ...} and {<i>Or</i>}{... , ...}; the first two give
+examples. These two are fairly complex format statements; we will not explain
+them here. In Greenstone, changes in format strings take effect immediately
+unless you are using the local library server, in which case the server needs
+to be restarted. This makes it easy to experiment with different versions of a
+format statement and see what happens.\n
+
+
+<p>
+<b>Collection-level metadata</b>. The <i>collectionmeta</i> lines in the
+configuration file are also standard in all Greenstone collections. They give
+general information about the collection, defining its name, and a
+description that appears on its home page. The description (in <i>collectionextra</i>) can be
+seen on the DLS collection\'s home page (this text is part of it).\n
+
+
+<p>
+<b>Language translations</b>. The last part of the
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>collection
+configuration file</a> gives the collection-level metadata in French and
+Spanish respectively. The languages are indicated by square brackets:
+[<i>fr</i>] and [<i>es</i>]. If there is no language specification, English is
+assumed by default. The configuration file shows accented characters
+(e.g. French <i>Ã©</i>). This file is in UTF-8, and these characters are
+represented by multi-byte sequences (&lt;C3&gt;&lt;A9&gt; in this
+case). Alternatively they could be represented by their HTML entity names (like
+<i>&amp;eacute</i>). It makes no difference: they look the same on the
+screen. However, if the text were <i>searchable</i> it would make a difference;
+Greenstone uses Unicode internally to ensure that searching works as expected
+for non-English languages.\n
+
+<p>
+<b>Description tags</b>. The description tags recognized by <i>HTMLPlugin</i>
+are inserted into the HTML source text of the documents to define where
+sections begin and end, and to specify section titles. They look like this:
+<pre>
+&lt;!--\n
+&lt;Section&gt;\n
+&lt;Description&gt;\n
+&lt;Metadata name=\"Title\"&gt;\n
+Realizing human rights for poor people: Strategies\n
+for achieving the international development targets\n
+&lt;/Metadata&gt;\n
+&lt;/Description&gt;\n
+--&gt;\n
+(text of section goes here)\n
+&lt;!--\n
+&lt;/Section&gt;\n
+-->\n
+</pre>
+The &lt;!-- ... --&gt; markers are used to ensure that these tags are marked as
+comments in HTML and therefore do not affect document formatting. In the
+<i>Description</i> part other kinds of metadata can be specified, but this is
+not done for the style of collection we are describing here. Exactly the same
+specification (including the &lt;!-- ... --&gt markers) can be used in Word
+documents too.\n
+
+<p>
+<b>Metadata Files</b>. Metadata for all documents in the DLS collection
+is provided in metadata.xml files, one per document folder.
+The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/import/r0087e/metadata.xml\" target=text>metadata.xml</a> file for one book -- <i>Income generation and money management: training women as entrepreneurs</i>
+-- is a block of about ten lines encased in &lt;<i>FileSet</i>&gt; ...
+&lt;<i>/FileSet</i>&gt; tags. It defines
+<i>dls.Title</i>, <i>dls.Language</i>, <i>dls.Subject</i> and <i>dls.AZList</i> metadata. More
+than one value can be specified for any metadata item. For example, this book has two dls.Subject classifications. Both of these
+are stored as metadata values for this particular document (because
+<i>mode=accumulate</i> is specified; the alternative, and the default, is
+<i>mode=override</i>).\n
+
+<p><b>Hierarchy files</b>. Hierarchy files contain a
+succession of lines each of which has three items. The first item is a text string which is matched against the metadata that occurs in the <i>metadata.xml</i> file described above. The second item is a number that defines the position in the hierarchy. The third item is a text string that describes the node of the hierarchy on the web pages that Greenstone generates.
+<p>
+For example, the following shows three lines from the subject hierarchy file <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.Subject.txt\" target=text>dls.Subject.txt</a>.
+
+<pre>
+\"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing\" 7 \"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing\" \n
+\"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Cattle\" 7.1 \"Cattle\" \n
+\"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, \n      silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)\" 7.2 \"Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, \n      silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)\" \n
+</pre>
+
+<p>
+These three lines define one top level bookshelf (at position 7), titled \"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing\", with two bookshelves underneath it, titled \"Cattle\" and \"Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)\" respectively.
+<p>
+In this case, the first strings (and therefore the entries in metadata.xml files) contain the entire hierarchy values. Levels in the hierarchy are separated by \"|\". They could be used directly by a <i>Hierarchy</i> classifier without the use of the hierarchy file. However, then the entries would be ordered alphabetically, not in the special order defined by the file.
+<p>
+The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.AZList.txt\" target=text>dls.AZList.txt</a> hierarchy file used by the titles classifier contains a similar structure. Ordinarily, a titles browser would use a <i>List</i> (or <i>AZList</i>) classifier. In this case, we want to predefine the A-Z groupings, and include a separate entry for periodicals, as can be seen <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2.7\">here</a>.
+"
+
+# -- French text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=fr] "Les BibliothÃšques humanitaires pour le
+DÃ©veloppement constituent une collection importante dont les objectifs sont
+d\'aider Ã  rÃ©duire la pauvretÃ©, de promouvoir l\'accroissement du
+potentiel humain, et d\'offrir une Ã©ducation pratique et utile Ã  tous.
+Cette collection contient environ 25 publications -- documents, rapports, et
+articles de pÃ©riodiques -- qui traitent de diffÃ©rents sujets liÃ©s au
+dÃ©veloppement humain. On y trouve des informations concernant les pratiques
+agricoles aussi bien que les politiques Ã©conomiques; les mesures d\'hygiÃšne
+pour l\'eau et la sociÃ©tÃ© et la culture; l\'Ã©ducation et la petite
+industrie; la prÃ©vention des dÃ©sastres et les micro-entreprises.
+<p>
+Les Ã©diteurs
+de cette collection sont Human Info NGO, HumanityCD Ltd, and organisations
+ayant contribuÃ©. Vous pouvez nous contacter Ã  Humanitarian and Development
+Libraries Project, Oosterveldiaan 196, B-2610 Antwerp, Belgium, Tel
+32-3-448.05.54, Fax 32-3-449.75.74, courriel <a
+href=mailto:humanity@humaninfo.org>humanity@humaninfo.org</a>.
+
+<h3>Comment, marche la collection</h3>
+
+<p>
+La collection DLS est assez
+complexe. Pour un dÃ©butant, il serait prÃ©fÃ©rable de consulter d\'abord d\'autres collections
+(par exemple <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=documented-examples/wrdpdf-e&a=p&p=about\">DÃ©monstration Word et PDF</a> ou les <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=documented-examples/gsarch-e&a=p&p=about\">Greenstone Archives</a> ou la collection <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=documented-examples/image-e&a=p&p=about\">Simple Image</a>).
+
+<p>
+Le <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier de configuration</a> de la collection, comme tous les fichiers de configuration de collection, commence avec une ligne (\"creator\") qui donne l\'adresse e-mail du crÃ©ateur de la collection et une autre ligne (\"public\") qui dÃ©termine la maniÃšre d\'apparition de la collection sur la page d\'accueil de Greenstone. Noter que paramÃ©trer \"public\" Ã  \"false\" ne supprime le lien vers la collection que sur la page d'accueil; la collection reste accessible via la bibliothÃšque numÃ©rique Ã  toute personne qui en connaÃ®t l'URL (a=p&p=about&c=nom-abrÃ©gÃ©-collection).
+
+<p>
+<b>Plugins</b>. Le troisiÃšme bloc de lignes dans le <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier de configuration</a> donne la liste des plugins utilisÃ©s par cette collection. Les documents dans la collection DLS sont en HTML, ainsi <i>HTMLPlugin</i> doit Ãªtre inclus. L\'option <i>description_tags</i> traite des onglets dans le texte qui dÃ©finissent les sections et les titres de section comme dÃ©crit ci-dessous.
+
+<p>
+Les autres plugins, <i>GreenstoneXMLPlugin, MetadataXMLPlugin, ArchivesInfPlugin et DirectoryPlugin</i> sont utilisÃ©s par Greenstone pour des objectifs internes et sont des rÃ©fÃ©rences dans presque toutes les collections.
+
+<p>
+<b>Index recherchables</b>. Le bloc de lignes qui commence avec <i>index</i>
+prÃ©cise les type d\'index de recherche disponibles. Dans cette collection on en compte trois. Vous pouvez les voir en dÃ©roulant le menu \"Rechercher des\" sur la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">page de recherche</a>. Le premier index est appelÃ© \"chapitre\" , le second \"titres de section\" et le troisiÃšme \"documents entiers\". Les noms de ces trois index sont donnÃ©s par les trois dÃ©clarations <i>collectionmeta</i>.
+
+<p>
+Les contenus des trois index, Ã  savoir la spÃ©cification de ce qui sera recherchÃ©, sont dÃ©finies
+par la ligne des <i>index</i> au dÃ©but de ce bloc. Trois index sont spÃ©cifiÃ©s, deux au niveau section (commenÃ§ant par <i>section:</i>) et un autre au niveau document (commenÃ§ant par <i>document:</i>.) La diffÃ©rence est qu\'une requÃªte Ã  mots multiples ne conviendra qu\'Ã  un index de niveau section si tous les termes recherchÃ©s se trouvent dans la mÃªme section, tandis qu\'elle conviendra Ã  un index de niveau document si les termes apparaissent n\'importe oÃ¹ dans le document
+(qui typiquement, comprend plusieurs sections). Le premier et le troisiÃšme index sont
+<i>section:text</i> et <i>document:text</i>, et <i>:text</i> signifie que le texte complet des sections et celui des documents seront respectivement recherchÃ©s. Le second est <i>section:Title</i>, qui signifie que la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>Title</i> sera recherchÃ©e -- dans ce cas, les titres de section (plutÃŽt que les titres de document). Les trois index apparaissent dans l\'ordre dans lequel ils sont prÃ©cisÃ©s sur la ligne <i>indexes</i>.
+
+<p>
+<b>Classificateurs</b>. Le bloc de lignes libellÃ© <i>classify</i> dÃ©finit les index de navigation appelÃ©s \"classifiers\" dans Greenstone. Ils sont quatre, correspondant aux quatre boutons sur la barre de navigation en haut de chaque page dans la collection (c\'est Ã  dire la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">page de recherche</a>): <i>sujets</i>, <i>titres</i>, <i>organisations</i> et <i>comment</i>. Le bouton de <i>recherche</i> vient en premier, les quatre classificateurs.
+
+<p>
+Le premier classificateur fournit un accÃšs par sujet. C\'est un classificateur <i>Hierarchy</i> dont la hiÃ©rarchie est dÃ©finie dans le fichier <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.Subject.txt\" target=text>dls.Subject.txt</a> (l\'argument \"<i>hfile</i>\"); ce fichier est prÃ©sentÃ© ci-dessous. Ce classificateur est basÃ© sur la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>dls.Subject</i> et quand plusieurs livres apparaissent sur une feuille de la hiÃ©rarchie, ils sont triÃ©s suivant la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>dls.Title</i> (comme visible <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1.4.1\">ici</a>).
+
+Le second classificateur fournit un accÃšs par titre. C'est aussi un classificateur de la <i>Hierarchy</i>, basÃ© cette fois sur la mÃ©tadonnÃ©e <i>dls.AZList</i>, dont la hiÃ©rarchie est dÃ©finie dans le fichier <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.Title.txt\" target=text>dls.AZList.txt</a>. Ce fichier est dÃ©crit plus loin.
+
+Le troisiÃšme fournit un accÃšs par organisation: c\'est un classificateur <i>List</i> basÃ© sur les mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es <i>Organization</i>. L'option <i>-bookshelf_type always</i> crÃ©e une nouvelle Ã©tagÃšre pour chaque organisation, mÃªme s'il n'existe qu'un seul document appartenant Ã  cette catÃ©gorie. 
+
+Le quatriÃšme fournit un accÃšs par \"Howto\" : c'est un classificateur <i>List</i> basÃ© sur les mÃ©tadonnÃ©es <i>dls.Keyword</i>. L'option <i>-bookshelf_type never</i> permet d'Ã©viter la crÃ©ation des Ã©tagÃšres mÃªme si deux documents ont les mÃªmes mots-clÃ©s.
+
+
+<p>
+<b>Images Couverture</b>. Greenstone cherche une image couverture pour chaque document, dont le nom est le mÃªme que le document\'s mais avec une extension <i>.jpg</i>. Cette image est associÃ©e avec le document et pourrais Ãªtre visualisÃ© sur la page du document (voir ce-dessous). Les images couverture peuvent-Ãªtre Ã©teintes en rÃ©glant le drapeau -no_cover_image pour chauqe plug-in. \n
+
+<p>
+<b>DÃ©clarations de format</b>. Les lignes commenÃ§ant par <i>format</i>, appelÃ©es \"format statements\", dÃ©terminent la faÃ§on dont certaines parties de la collection seront affichÃ©es. Le format <i>VList</i> est appliquÃ© aux listes d'Ã©lÃ©ments prÃ©sentÃ©s verticalement, comme les listes de titres, de sujets ou d'organisations, et la table des matiÃšres pour les documents cibles. Il est modifiÃ© pour les liste de rÃ©sultats de recherche par le format <i>SearchVList</i>, ainsi que par le format <i>CL4VList</i> pour le classificateur <i>Howto</i> (CL4 dÃ©termine le quatriÃšme classificateur).
+
+<p>
+L'enregistrement <i>DocumentText</i> dÃ©termine la faÃ§on de formater le document textuel, avec la mÃ©tadonnÃ©e <i>Title</i> ([<i>Title</i>]) insÃ©rÃ©e dans la balise HTML &lt;<i>h3</i>&gt; suivie par le texte du document ([<i>Text</i>]). Positionner la variable <i>DocumentImages</i> sur <i>true</i> entraÃ®ne l'affichage des images de couverture pour chaque document. La variable <i>DocumentButtons</i> permet l'affichage des boutons <i>Expand Text, Expand Contents, Detach</i> et <i>Highlight</i> avec chaque document. 
+
+
+<p>
+La plupart des dÃ©clarations de format contiennent une chaÃ®ne spÃ©cifiÃ©e en HTML mise en valeur.
+Les noms de mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es entre crochets (c\'et Ã  dire [<i>Title</i>], [<i>Creator</i>]), donne la valeur de ces mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es; [<i>Text</i>] donne le document texte. Un hyperlien au document peut Ãªtre obtenu en utilisant [<i>link</i>] ... [<i>/link</i>]; une icÃŽne appropriÃ©e est gÃ©nÃ©rÃ©e par [<i>icon</i>]. Des chaÃ®nes de format peuvent inclure {<i>If</i>} {...,...} et {<i>Or</i>} {...,...}; les deux premiÃšres en donnent des exemples. Ces deux sont des dÃ©clarations de format assez complexes qui ne seront pas expliquÃ©es ici. Dans Greenstone, les changements dans les chaÃ®nes de format prennent effet immÃ©diatement Ã  moins que vous n\'utilisiez le serveur de la bibliothÃšque locale, auquel cas, le serveur Ã  besoin d\'Ãªtre rÃ©initialisÃ©. Cela rend facile l\'expÃ©rimentation de versions diffÃ©rentes d\'une dÃ©claration de format et de voir ce qui se passe.
+
+<p>
+<b>MÃ©ta-donnÃ©es de niveau collection</b>. Les lignes <i>collectionmeta </i> dans le fichier de configuration sont aussi standard dans toutes les collections Greenstone.
+Elles donnent une information gÃ©nÃ©rale sur la collection par la dÃ©finition de son nom, et par une description qui apparaÃ®t sur la page d\'accueil. La description (dans <i>collectionextra</i>) peut Ãªtre vue sur la page
+d\'accueil de la collection (ce texte en fait partie).
+
+<p>
+<b>Traduction de langues</b>. La derniÃšre partie du <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier de configuration de la collection</a> donne les mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es de niveau collection en FranÃ§ais et en Espagnol respectivement. Les langues sont indiquÃ©es par des crochets:[<i>fr</i>] et [<i>es</i>]. Si aucune langue n\'est spÃ©cifiÃ©e, l\'Anglais est supposÃ© par dÃ©faut. Le fichier de configuration montre des caractÃšres mis en valeur (par exemple le \"<i>Ã©</i>\" franÃ§ais). Ce fichier est en UTF-8, et ces caractÃšres sont reprÃ©sentÃ©s par des sÃ©quences multi-octets (&lt;C3&gt;&lt;A9&gt) dans ce cas). Autrement, elles pourraient Ãªtre reprÃ©sentÃ©es par leurs noms d\'entitÃ© (comme <i>&amp;eacute</i>). Cela ne prÃ©sente aucune diffÃ©rence: ils sont identiques Ã  l\'Ã©cran. Cependant si les textes faisaient l\'objet d\'une recherche, une diffÃ©rence aurait Ã©tÃ© notÃ©e; Greenstone utilise Unicode de faÃ§on interne pour s\'assurer que le processus de recherche fonctionne comme prÃ©vu pour les langues autre que l\'anglais.
+
+<p>
+<b>Etiquettes de description</b>. Les Ã©tiquettes de description identifiÃ©es par \"HTMLPlugin\" sont insÃšrÃ©es dans le texte source HTML des documents pour dÃ©limiter le dÃ©but et la fin des sections et pour spÃ©cifier les titres de section. Ils se prÃ©sentent comme suit:
+<pre>
+&lt;!--\n
+&lt;Section&gt;\n
+&lt;Description&gt;\n
+&lt;Metadata name=\"Title\"&gt;\n
+Realizing human rights for poor people: Strategies\n
+for achieving the international development targets\n
+&lt;/Metadata&gt;\n
+&lt;/Description&gt;\n
+--&gt;\n
+(text of section goes here)\n
+&lt;!--\n
+&lt;/Section&gt;\n
+-->\n
+</pre>
+Les marqueurs &lt;!-- ... --&gt; sont utilisÃ©s pour assurer que ces Ã©tiquettes sont indiquÃ©es comme
+commentaires dans HTML et par consÃ©quent n\'ont aucun effet sur le formatage. Dans la partie
+<i>Description</i>, d\'autres types de mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es peuvent Ãªtre spÃ©cifiÃ©s mais ceci n\'est pas fait pour le style de collection dÃ©crit ici. La mÃªme spÃ©cification (y compris les marqueurs &lt;!-- ... --&gt;) peut Ãªtre utilisÃ©e de faÃ§on tout Ã  fait identique dans les documents Word.
+
+<p>
+<b>Fichiers de mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es</b>. Les mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es pour tous les documents de la collection DLS sont fournies dans le fichier metadata.xml. Le fichier <a href=\"_httpcollection_/import/r0087e/metadata.xml\" target=text>metadata.xml</a> pour le livre--<i>Income generation and money management: training women as entrepreneurs</i> --est un bloc de dix lignes comprises entre les Ã©tiquettes &lt;<i>FileSet</i>&gt; ... &lt;<i>/FileSet</i>&gt;. Elle dÃ©finit les mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es <i>dls.Title</i>, <i>dls.Language</i>, <i>dls.Subject</i> et <i>dls.AZList</i>. Plus d\'une valeur peut Ãªtre spÃ©cifiÃ©e pour n\'importe quel Ã©lÃ©ment de mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e. Par exemple, ce livre a deux classifications dls.Subject. Toutes les deux sont enregistrÃ©es comme comme valeurs de mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e pour ce document particulier (parce que <i>mode=accumulate</i> est spÃ©cifiÃ©; autrement, le dÃ©faut est <i>mode=override</i>).
+
+<p>
+<b>Fichiers d\'hiÃ©rarchie</b>. Les fichiers de hiÃ©rarchie contiennent une succession de lignes qui comportent chacune trois Ã©lÃ©ments. Le premier Ã©lÃ©ment est une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšres pour laquelle une correspondance sera recherchÃ©e avec les mÃ©tadonnÃ©es prÃ©sentes dans le fichier <i>metadata.xml</i> dÃ©crit ci-dessus. Le second Ã©lÃ©ment est un nombre qui dÃ©termine la position dans la hiÃ©rarchie. Le troisiÃšme Ã©lÃ©ment est une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšres qui dÃ©crit le noeud de la hiÃ©rarchie sur les pages que Greenstone gÃ©nÃšre. 
+
+<p>
+Par exemple, ce qui suit reprÃ©sente trois lignes du fichier <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.Subject.txt\" target=text>dls.Subject.txt</a> qui organise la hiÃ©rarchie des sujets. 
+
+<pre>
+\"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing\" 7 \"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing\" \n
+\"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Cattle\" 7.1 \"Cattle\" \n
+\"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, \n      silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)\" 7.2 \"Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, \n      silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)\" \n
+</pre>
+
+<p>
+Ces trois lignes dÃ©finissent une Ã©tagÃšre situÃ©e au plus haut niveau (Ã  la position 7), intitulÃ©e  \"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing\", contenant deux Ã©tagÃšres, intitulÃ©es respectivement \"Cattle\" et \"Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)\".
+
+<p>
+Dans ce cas, les premiÃšres chaÃ®nes (et par consÃ©quent les entrÃ©es dans le fichier metadata.xml) contiennent les valeurs de toute la hiÃ©rarchie. Les niveaux sont sÃ©parÃ©s dans la hiÃ©rarchie par \"|\". Elles peuvent Ãªtre utilisÃ©es directement par un classificateur <i>Hierarchy</i>, sans passer par le fichier de hiÃ©rarchie. Cependant, les entrÃ©es seront ordonnÃ©es dans ce cas alphabÃ©tiquement, et non dans l'ordre dÃ©fini dans le fichier. 
+
+<p>
+Le fichier de hiÃ©rarchie <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.AZList.txt\" target=text>dls.AZList.txt</a> utilisÃ© par le classificateur de titres obÃ©it Ã  une structure similaire. Normalement, un feuilletage des titres devrait utiliser un classificateur de <i>List</i> (ou de <i>AZList</i>). Dans ce cas, nous voulons prÃ©dÃ©finir les regroupements A-Z et inclure une entrÃ©e sÃ©parÃ©e pour les pÃ©riodiques, comme cela se voit <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2.7\">ici</a>.
+"
+
+# -- Spanish text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=es] "
+Las Bibliotecas sobre Desarrollo Humanitario representan una extensa colecciÃ³n de informaciÃ³n prÃ¡ctica cuyo propÃ³sito es ayudar a
+reducir la pobreza, acrecentar el potencial humano y proveer una
+educaciÃ³n prÃ¡ctica y Ãºtil para todos. Este subconjunto
+comprende unas 25 publicaciones - documentos, informes tÃ©cnicos y
+artÃ­culos de publicaciones periÃ³dicas - en varias
+Ã¡reas del desarrollo humano, desde prÃ¡cticas agrÃ­colas
+a polÃ­ticas econÃ³micas, desde agua y saneamiento a sociedad y
+cultura, desde educaciÃ³n a manufactura, desde mitigaciÃ³n de
+desastres a microemprendimientos.
+
+<p>Los editores de esta colecciÃ³n son la ONG Human Info, HumanityCD Ltd y demÃ¡s organizaciones participantes. ContÃ¡ctenos en: Proyecto de Bibliotecas sobre Aspectos Humanitarios y de Desarrollo , Oosterveldiaan
+196, B-2610 Antwerp, BÃ©lgica, Tel 32-3-448.05.54, Fax
+32-3-449.75.74, correo electrÃ³nico <a
+href=mailto:humanity@humaninfo.org>humanity@humaninfo.org</a>.
+
+<h3>CÃ³mo trabaja esta colecciÃ³n</h3>
+
+<p>
+La colecciÃ³n DLS es bastante compleja. Si apenas estÃ¡ empezando a familiarizarse con su uso quizÃ¡ fuera mejor que se fijara primero en alguna otra colecciÃ³n (como la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=documented-examples/wrdpdf-e&a=p&p=about\">DemostraciÃ³n en Word y PDF</a>, los <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=documented-examples/gsarch-e&a=p&p=about\">Archivos Greenstone</a> o la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=documented-examples/image-e&a=p&p=about\">colecciÃ³n sencilla de imÃ¡genes</a>).
+<p>
+
+Al igual que todos los archivos de configuraciÃ³n de colecciones, el <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n de esta colecciÃ³n</a>, empieza con una lÃ­nea (\"creator\") que proporciona la direcciÃ³n de correo electrÃ³nico del creador de la colecciÃ³n y otra linea  (\"public\") que determina si la colecciÃ³n aparecerÃ¡ en la pÃ¡gina principal del programa Greenstone. Note que configurando la opciÃ³n \"public\" como \"false\" solo la quita de la pÃ¡gina home, pero permanecerÃ¡ accesible en la biblioteca para cualquiera que conozca la URL (a=p&p=about&c=coll-shortname).
+
+<p>
+ <b>Plugins</b>. Las lÃ­neas \"plugin\" en el <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n</a> indican los plugins usados en la colecciÃ³n. Los documentos en la colecciÃ³n DLS estÃ¡n en HTML, por lo que se deberÃ¡ incluir <i>HTMLPlugin</i>. La opciÃ³n <i>description_tags</i> procesa las etiquetas en el texto que definen secciones y tÃ­tulos de secciones tal como se describe a continuaciÃ³n.
+<p>
+
+Los otros plugins, GreenstoneXMLPlugin, MetadataXMLPlugin, ArchivesInfPlugin, y DirectoryPlugin, son empleados por Greenstone con fines particulares y son estÃ¡ndar en casi todas las colecciones.
+<p>
+
+<b>Ãndices de bÃºsqueda</b>. El bloque de lÃ­neas que empieza con <i>indexes</i> especifica los Ã­ndices de bÃºsqueda que estÃ¡n disponibles. En esta colecciÃ³n hay tres, los cuales se pueden ver al momento de desplegar el menÃº \"Buscar\" en la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">pÃ¡gina de bÃºsqueda</a>. El primer Ã­ndice se llama \"capÃ­tulos\", el segundo \"tÃ­tulos de secciÃ³n\" y el tercero \"documentos enteros\". Los nombres de estos tres Ã­ndices estÃ¡n dados por tres sentencias  <i>collectionmeta</i>.
+<p>
+
+El contenido de los Ã­ndices -- es decir, la especificaciÃ³n de lo que se va a buscar -- se define por medio de la lÃ­nea <i>indexes</i> que se encuentra al principio de este bloque. Esta especifica tres Ã­ndices, dos a nivel de secciÃ³n (los cuales empiezan con <i>section:</i>) y uno a nivel de documento (el cual empieza con <i>document:</i>). La diferencia estÃ¡ en que una consulta de varias palabras Ãºnicamente encontrarÃ¡ una correspondencia en un Ã­ndice a nivel de secciÃ³n si todos los tÃ©rminos de la consulta aparecen en la misma secciÃ³n, mientras que encontrarÃ¡ la correspondencia en un Ã­ndice a nivel de documento si los tÃ©rminos aparecen en cualquier parte del documento (el cual consiste normalmente de varias secciones). El primero y tercer Ã­ndices son <i>section:text</i> y <i>document:text</i>, donde <i>:text</i> significa que se buscarÃ¡ en todo el texto de la secciÃ³n o el documento, respectivamente. El segundo es <i>section:Title</i>, el cual indica que se buscarÃ¡n metadatos de <i>TÃ­tulo</i>, en este caso tÃ­tulos de secciones (mÃ¡s que tÃ­tulos de documentos). Los tres Ã­ndices aparecerÃ¡n en el orden en que se especificaron en la lÃ­nea de <i>Ã­ndices</i>.
+<p>
+
+<b>Clasificadores</b>. El bloque de lÃ­neas con la etiqueta <i>classifiers</i> define los Ã­ndices de exploraciÃ³n, llamados \"clasificadores\" en Greenstone. Hay cuatro de ellos correspondientes a los cuatro botones en la barra de navegaciÃ³n que se encuentra en la parte superior de cada pÃ¡gina de la colecciÃ³n (p. ej. la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">pÃ¡gina de bÃºsqueda</a>): <i>temas, tÃ­tulos, organizaciÃ³n</i> y <i>cÃ³mo</i>. El botÃ³n de <i>bÃºsqueda</i> aparece primero y a continuaciÃ³n los cuatro clasificadores en orden.
+<p>
+
+El primer clasificador le da acceso al asunto. Es un clasificador <i>Hierarchy</i>, el cual se define en el archivo <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.Subject.txt\" target=text>dls.Subject.txt</a> (el argumento <i>hfile</i>); este archivo se describe mÃ¡s adelante. El clasificador se basa en el metadato <i>dls.Subject</i> y cuando varios libros aparecen en una hoja de la jerarquÃ­a se ordenan por medio del metadato <i>dls.Title</i> (como se puede ver <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1.4.1\">aquÃ­</a>).
+
+El segundo clasificador provee acceso por tÃ­tulo. Es un clasificador <i>Hierarchy</i> tambiÃ©n, pero esta vez basado en el metadato <i>dls.AZList</i>, cuya jerarquÃ­a estÃ¡ definida en <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.Title.txt\" target=text>dls.AZList.txt</a>. Este archivo se describe abajo.
+
+El tercero le da acceso a la organizaciÃ³n. Es un clasificador <i>List</i> basado en el metadato <i>dls.Organization</i>. La opciÃ³n <i>-bookshelf_type always</i> crea un estante para cada organizaciÃ³n, aÃºn cuando un solo documento pertenezca a esa categorÃ­a.
+
+El cuarto provee acceso por el texto \"Howto\": es un clasificador <i>List</i> basado en el metadato <i>dls.Keyword</i>. La opciÃ³n <i>-bookshelf_type never</i> previene la creaciÃ³n del estante aÃºn cuando dos documentos compartan las mismas keywords.
+
+<p>
+
+<p>
+<b>ImÃ¡genes de Portada</b>. Greenstone busca una imagen de portada para cada documento cuyo nombre sea igual al documento pero con una extensiÃ³n <i>.jpg</i>. Esta imagen estÃ¡ asociada con el documento, y puede ser mostrada en la pÃ¡gina del documento (ver aqui abajo). Las imÃ¡genes de portada pueden ser deshabilitadas con la opciÃ³n -no_cover_image en cada plugin. \n
+
+<b>Enunciados de formato</b>. La lÃ­neas que comienzan con <i>format</i>, llamadas  \"cadenas de formateo\", determinan la forma en la que deben mostrarse muchas de las partes de la colecciÃ³n. La sentencia de formato de <i>VList</i> se aplica a las listas de items mostrados verticalmente, como por ejemplo listas de tÃ­tulos, temas y organizaciones y la tabla de contenidos de los documentos. Es omitida para la lista de resultados mediante la sentencia <i>SearchVList</i>, y tambiÃ©n para el clasificador <i>Howto</i>  a travÃ©s de la sentencia <i>CL4VList</i> (CL4 especifica el cuarto clasificador).
+<p>
+La sentencia <i>DocumentText</i> determina el modo en el que se formatea el texto, con el metadato <i>Title</i> ([<i>Title</i>]) en formato HTML &lt;<i>h3</i>&gt; seguido por el texto del documento [<i>Text</i>]. Configurando la sentencia <i>DocumentImages</i> como <i>true</i> aseguramos que las imÃ¡genes de portada se visualicen en cada documento. <i>DocumentButtons</i> indica cuales botones se muestran en cada documento. Las opciones son: <i>ExpandText, Expand Contents, Detach</i> y <i>Highlight</i>.
+<p>
+
+La mayorÃ­a de las cadenas de formateo contienen cÃ³digo HTML. Los nombres de los metadatos entre corchetes (p. ej. [<i>Title</i>], [<i>Creator</i>]) dan el valor de dicho metadato. [<i>Text</i>] da el texto del documento. TambiÃ©n se puede establecer un hipervÃ­nculo con el documento por medio de [link] ...[/link]. Un icono apropiado es producido por [<i>icon</i>]. Las cadenas de formato pueden incluir {<i>If</i>}{... , ...} y {<i>Or</i>}{... , ...}. Los primeros dos contienen ejemplos. Estos dos son enunciados de formato demasiado complejos, por lo que no los explicaremos aquÃ­. En Greenstone los cambios en las cadenas de formato tienen efecto inmediatamente a menos que se estÃ© usando el servidor local, en cuyo caso el servidor necesitarÃ¡ reiniciarse. Esto hace que sea fÃ¡cil experimentar con diferentes versiones de un enunciado de formato y ver quÃ© pasa.
+
+<p>
+
+<b>Metadatos a nivel de colecciÃ³n</b>. Las lÃ­neas de <i>collectionmeta</i> en el archivo de configuraciÃ³n tambiÃ©n son estÃ¡ndar en todas las colecciones Greenstone. Contienen informaciÃ³n general acerca de la colecciÃ³n definiendo su nombre, y una descripciÃ³n que aparece en su pÃ¡gina inicial. La descripciÃ³n (en <i>collectionextra</i>) se puede ver en la pÃ¡gina inicial de la colecciÃ³n DLS (este texto es parte de Ã©l).
+<p>
+
+<b>TraducciÃ³n de idioma</b>. La Ãºltima parte del <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n de la colecciÃ³n</a> proporciona los metadatos a nivel de colecciÃ³n en francÃ©s y espaÃ±ol, respectivamente. Estos idiomas se indican por medio de corchetes: [<i>fr</i>] y [<i>es</i>]. Si no hay ninguna especificaciÃ³n del idioma, entonces el inglÃ©s se asume por omisiÃ³n. El archivo de configuraciÃ³n muestra los caracteres que se acentÃºan (p. ej. <i>Ã©</i> francesa). Este archivo estÃ¡ en UTF-8 y los caracteres se representan por medio de secuencias de varios bytes (&lt;C3&gt;&lt;A9&gt; en este caso). De forma alternativa se pueden representar por medio de nombres de entidades HTML (como <i>&eacute</i>). No hay ninguna diferencia y se ven igual en la pantalla. Sin embargo, esto sÃ­ representarÃ­a una diferencia en el caso de que el texto se buscara. Greenstone utiliza Unicode internamente para asegurarse que las bÃºsquedas trabajen tal como se espera con idiomas diferentes al inglÃ©s.
+<p>
+
+<b>Etiquetas de descripciÃ³n</b>. Las etiquetas de descripciÃ³n reconocidas por <i>HTMLPlugin</i> se insertan en el texto fuente HTML de los documentos para definir el lugar en el que las secciones empiezan y terminan y para especificar los tÃ­tulos de secciÃ³n. Se ven de la siguiente manera:
+<p>
+
+<pre>
+&lt;!--\n
+&lt;Section&gt;\n
+&lt;Description&gt;\n
+&lt;Metadata name=\"Title\"&gt;\n
+Haciendo realidad los derechos humanos para la gente pobre: Estrategias\n
+para lograr los objetivos de desarrollo mundial\n
+&lt;/Metadata&gt;\n
+&lt;/Description&gt;\n
+--&gt;\n
+(el texto de la secciÃ³n va aquÃ­)\n
+&lt;!--\n
+&lt;/Section&gt;\n
+-->\n
+</pre>
+<p>
+
+Los marcadores &lt;!-- ... --> se utilizan para asegurarse que estas etiquetas estÃ©n marcadas como comentarios en HTML y por lo tanto que no afecten el formato del documento. En la parte de <i>Description</i> se pueden especificar otros tipos de metadatos, pero esto no se hace para el estilo de colecciÃ³n que estamos describiendo aquÃ­. Exactamente la misma especificaciÃ³n (incluyendo los marcadores &lt;!-- ... -->) se puede usar tambiÃ©n en los documentos Word.
+<p>
+
+<b>Archivos de metadatos</b>. Los metadatos para todos los documentos de la colecciÃ³n DLS se asignan en archivos llamados metadata.xml, un documento por carpeta. El documento <a href=\"_httpcollection_/import/r0087e/metadata.xml\" target=text>metadata.xml</a> para el libro--<i>Income generation and money management: training women as entrepreneurs</i> -- es un bloque de alrededor diez lineas encerradas en las etiquetas &lt;<i>FileSet</i>&gt; ... &lt;<i>/FileSet</i>&gt;. El cual define los metadatos <i>dls.Title, dls.Language, dls.Subject</i> y <i>dls.AZList</i>. Se puede especificar mÃ¡s de un valor para cualquier Ã­tem del metadato. Por ejemplo, este libro tiene dos clasificaciones dls.Subject. Ambos se almacenan como valores del metadato para este documento en particular (ya que se especifica <i>mode=accumulate</i>; la alternativa y el valor por omisiÃ³n es <i>mode=override</i>).
+<p>
+
+<b>Archivos de jerarquÃ­a</b>. Los archivos de Hierarchy contienen una sucesiÃ³n de lÃ­neas, cada una de las cuales tiene tres items. El primer item es una cadena de texto que es confrontada con el metadato que aparece en el archivo <i>metadata.xml</i> descripto arriba. El segundo item es un nÃºmero que define la posiciÃ³n en la jerarquÃ­a. El tercer item es una cadena de texto que describe al nodo de la jerarquÃ­a de la pÃ¡gina web que genera Greenstone.
+<p>
+
+Por ejemplo, las siguientes tres lÃ­neas pertenecen al archivo de jerarquia <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.Subject.txt\" target=text>dls.Subject.txt</a>.
+
+<pre>
+\"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing\" 7 \"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing\" \n
+\"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Cattle\" 7.1 \"Cattle\" \n
+\"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, \n      silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)\" 7.2 \"Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, \n      silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)\" \n
+</pre>
+
+<p>
+Estas tres lÃ­neas definen un estante de nivel superior (en la posiciÃ³n 7), titulado \"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing\", con dos estantes bajo Ã©l, \"Cattle\"  y \"Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)\" respectivamente.
+
+<p>
+En este caso, las primeras cadenas de texto (y por consiguiente las entradas en el archivo metadata.xml) contienen todos los valores de la jerarquÃ­a. Los niveles en una jerarquÃ­a se separan con \"|\". Estos niveles pueden usarse directamente con el clasificador <i>Hierarchy</i> sin tener que usar el archivo de jerarquÃ­a. Sin embargo, de esta manera las entradas serÃ­an ordenadas alfabÃ©ticamente, y no en el orden particular definido en el archivo.
+
+<p>
+El archivo de jerarquÃ­a <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.AZList.txt\" target=text>dls.AZList.txt</a> usado por el clasificador por tÃ­tulos contiene una estructura similar. Ordinariamente, un navegador por tÃ­tulos usarÃ­a un clasificador <i>List</i> (o <i>AZList</i>). En este caso, queremos predefinir el agrupamiento A-Z, e incluye una entrada separada para periÃ³dicos, como puede verse <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2.7\">aquÃ­</a>.
+"
+
+# -- Russian text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=ru] "
+ÐÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÑÐµÐºÐž Ð³ÑÐŒÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐ°ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ°Ð·Ð²ÐžÑÐžÑ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÑÑ Ð±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÑÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÐž, Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐµÐ·ÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð¿ÑÐž ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÐž Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐŸÑÐž ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑÐµÐœÐžÑ Ð±ÐµÐŽÐœÐŸÑÑÐž, ÑÐ²ÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐµÐœÐžÑ Ð³ÑÐŒÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐ°ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÐŸÑÐµÐœÑÐžÐ°Ð»Ð°, Ð° ÑÐ°ÐºÐ¶Ðµ ÐŸÐ±ÐµÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐµÐœÐžÑ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ðž Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐµÐ·ÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð²ÑÐµÑ
+. Ð­ÑÐŸ Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŒÐœÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑÑÐ²ÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ Ð¿ÑÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐ·ÐžÑÐµÐ»ÑÐœÐŸ 25 Ð¿ÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐ¹ -- ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ², ÑÐŸÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐœÐžÐ¹ Ðž Ð¿ÐµÑÐžÐŸÐŽÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÑ
+ ÑÑÐ°ÑÐµÐ¹ -- Ð² ÑÐ°Ð·Ð»ÐžÑÐœÑÑ
+ ÐŸÐ±Ð»Ð°ÑÑÑÑ
+ ÑÐµÐ»ÐŸÐ²ÐµÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ°Ð·Ð²ÐžÑÐžÑ, ÐŸÑ ÑÐµÐ»ÑÑÐºÐŸÑ
+ÐŸÐ·ÑÐ¹ÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÐºÐž ÐŽÐŸ ÑÐºÐŸÐœÐŸÐŒÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ¹ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÐžÐºÐž, ÐŸÑ Ð²ÐŸÐŽÑ Ðž ÐŸÑÐžÑÑÐºÐž ÐŽÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÑÑÐ²Ð° Ðž ÐºÑÐ»ÑÑÑÑÑ, ÐŸÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÐŽÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐžÐ·Ð²ÐŸÐŽÑÑÐ²Ð°, ÐŸÑ ÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑÐµÐœÐžÑ Ð±ÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐžÐ¹ ÐŽÐŸ ÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐ¿ÑÐžÑÑÐžÐ¹.
+<p>
+
+ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž -- ÐÑÐŒÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐ°ÑÐœÐ°Ñ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐ°Ñ ÐœÐµÐ¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐžÑÐµÐ»ÑÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐ°Ñ ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ Human Info NGO, Humanity CD Ltd, Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÑÑÑÐŽÐœÐžÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÐµ ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÐž. ÐÐŸÐœÑÐ°ÐºÑÑ Ñ ÐœÐžÐŒÐž Ð²ÐŸÐ·ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐœÑ ÑÐµÑÐµÐ· ÐÑÐŸÐµÐºÑ Ð³ÑÐŒÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐ°ÑÐœÑÑ
+ Ðž ÑÐ°Ð·Ð²ÐžÐ²Ð°ÑÑÐžÑ
+ÑÑ Ð±ÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÑÐµÐº: Oosterveldiaan 196, B-2610 Antwerp, Belgium, Tel 32-3-448.05.54, Fax 32-3-449.75.74, email <a href=mailto:humanity@humaninfo.org>humanity@humaninfo.org</a>.
+<p>
+
+<h3>ÐÐ°Ðº ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ</h3>
+<p>
+
+<!-- _text1_ -->
+The DLS collection is fairly complex.
+ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÐÑ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÐµÑÑ ÑÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÐœÐ°ÑÐžÐœÐ°ÑÑÐžÐŒ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÐµÐ»ÐµÐŒ, ÑÐŸ Ð»ÑÑÑÐµ Ð²ÐœÐ°ÑÐ°Ð»Ðµ ÐŸÐ·ÐœÐ°ÐºÐŸÐŒÐžÑÑÑÑ Ñ ÐœÐµÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒÐž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÐŒÐž ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑÐŒÐž (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, Ñ <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=documented-examples/wrdpdf-e&a=p&p=about\">msword Ðž pdf ÐŽÐµÐŒÐŸÐœÑÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐŒÐž</a> ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¶Ðµ Ñ Ð°ÑÑ
+ÐžÐ²Ð°ÐŒÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž Ñ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÐ¹ Ð³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐµÐ¹).
+<p>
+
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>ÐÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»</a> ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž, Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸ Ð²ÑÐµÐŒ ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÐŒ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ð°ÐŒ ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐ¹, ÐœÐ°ÑÐžÐœÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐŸ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž Â«Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»ÑÂ» (\"Ð¡reator\"), ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐ°Ñ ÑÐŸÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð°ÐŽÑÐµÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐºÑÑÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž, Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐŸÐ¹ -- Â«ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐºÐ°Â» (\"Public\"), ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐ°Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ, Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ²ÐžÑÑÑ Ð»Ðž ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÐœÐ° ÐŽÐŸÐŒÐ°ÑÐœÐµÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐµ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŸÐ²ÐºÐž Greenstone. <!-- _text3_ -->Note that setting \"public\" to \"false\" only removes it from the home page; it will still be accessible in the library to anyone that knows the URL (a=p&p=about&c=coll-shortname).
+
+<p>
+
+
+<b>ÐÐ»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœÑ</b>. ÐÐ»ÐŸÐº ÑÑÑÐŸÐº \"plugin\" Ð² <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ðµ</a> Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÐµÑ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœÑ, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÐŒÑÐµ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐµÐ¹. ÐÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ Ð² ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž DLS Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÑ Ð² HTML-ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐµ, ÑÐ°Ðº ÑÑÐŸ <i>HTMLPlugin</i> ÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶ÐµÐœ Ð±ÑÑÑ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐœ. ÐÐ¿ÑÐžÑ <i>description_tags</i> ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð±Ð°ÑÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÑÐ³Ðž (Ð¿ÑÐžÐ·ÐœÐ°ÐºÐž) Ð² ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐµ, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÑÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐµÐ»Ñ Ðž ÐœÐ°ÐžÐŒÐµÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐŸÐ², ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐŸ ÐœÐžÐ¶Ðµ.
+<p>
+
+ÐÑÑÐ³ÐžÐµ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœÑ <i>GreenstoneXMLPlugin</i>, <i>MetadataXMLPlugin</i>,<i>ArchivesInfPlugin</i> Ðž <i>DirectoryPlugin</i> ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÑÑÑÑ Ð² Greenstone ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐžÑ
+ ÑÐµÐ»ÐµÐ¹ Ðž ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐœÑÐŒÐž Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐž Ð²ÐŸ Ð²ÑÐµÑ
+ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑÑ
+.
+<p>
+
+<b>ÐÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ°</b>. ÐÐ»ÐŸÐº ÑÑÑÐŸÐº, ÐœÐ°ÑÐžÐœÐ°ÑÑÐžÐ¹ÑÑ Ñ <i>indexes</i>, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ, ÐºÐ°ÐºÐžÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐŸÐ²ÑÐµ ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÑ Ð±ÑÐŽÑÑ ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÑ. Ð ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÐµÑÑÑ ÑÑÐž ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÐ°. ÐÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑÐµ ÐžÑ
+ Ð²ÐžÐŽÐµÑÑ Ð² ÐœÐžÑÐ¿Ð°ÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐµÐŒ ÐŒÐµÐœÑ Â«ÐÐŸÐžÑÐºÂ» ÐœÐ° <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ°</a>. ÐÐµÑÐ²ÑÐ¹ ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑÑÑ Â«ÐÐ»Ð°Ð²ÑÂ», Ð²ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ¹ -- Â«ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐŸÐ²Â» Ðž ÑÑÐµÑÐžÐ¹ -- Â«ÐÐŸÐ»ÐœÑÐµ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑÂ». ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÑÐžÑ
+ ÑÑÐµÑ
+ ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÐŸÐ² ÐŽÐ°ÑÑÑÑ ÑÑÐµÐŒÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ°ÐŒÐž <i>collectionmeta</i>.
+<p>
+
+Ð¡ÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÐŸÐ² -- ÑÐŸ ÐµÑÑÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÑÑÐŸ Ð±ÑÐŽÐµÑ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑÐŸÐŒ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ° -- ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐŸÐ¹ <i>indexes</i> Ð² ÐœÐ°ÑÐ°Ð»Ðµ ÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð±Ð»ÐŸÐºÐ°. ÐÐœÐ° ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ ÑÑÐž ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÐ°, ÐŽÐ²Ð° ÐžÐ· ÐœÐžÑ
+ -- ÐœÐ° ÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐœÐµ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐµÐ»Ð° (ÐœÐ°ÑÐžÐœÐ°ÑÑÐžÐµÑÑ Ñ <i>section:</i>) Ðž ÐŸÐŽÐžÐœ ÐœÐ° ÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐœÐµ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° (ÐœÐ°ÑÐžÐœÐ°ÑÑÐžÐ¹ÑÑ Ñ <i>document:</i>). Ð Ð°Ð·Ð»ÐžÑÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÐžÑ Ð² ÑÐŸÐŒ, ÑÑÐŸ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÑÐŸÑ, ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÐžÐ· ÐœÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐžÑ
+ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ², Ð±ÑÐŽÐµÑ ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÑ ÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐœÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž Ð²ÑÐµ ÑÐµÑÐŒÐžÐœÑ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐ° Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ Ð² ÑÐŸÐŒ Ð¶Ðµ ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐµÐ»Ðµ, ÑÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐŸÐœ Ð±ÑÐŽÐµÑ ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐœÑ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÑÐµÑÐŒÐžÐœÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ Ð³ÐŽÐµ-Ð»ÐžÐ±ÐŸ Ð² Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°Ñ
+ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐœÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐŸÐ². ÐÐµÑÐ²ÑÐ¹ Ðž ÑÑÐµÑÐžÐ¹ ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÑ -- ÑÑÐŸ <i>section:text</i> Ðž <i>document:text</i>, Ð³ÐŽÐµ <i>:text</i> ÐŸÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÐ°ÐµÑ, ÑÑÐŸ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐµÐºÑÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐŸÐ² Ðž ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸ Ð±ÑÐŽÐµÑ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑÐŸÐŒ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ°. ÐÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑ -- <i>section:Title</i> ÐŸÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÐ°ÐµÑ, ÑÑÐŸ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ (<i>Title</i>) Ð±ÑÐŽÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐ²ÐµÑÐ³ÐœÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÑ. Ð ÑÑÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ðµ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐŸÐ² ÑÐºÐŸÑÐµÐµ, ÑÐµÐŒ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ². Ð­ÑÐž ÑÑÐž ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÐ° Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ Ð² Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐŽÐºÐµ, Ð² ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐŒ ÐŸÐœÐž ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÑ Ð² ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐµ <i>indexes</i>.
+<p>
+
+<b>ÐÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÑ</b>. ÐÐ»ÐŸÐº ÑÑÑÐŸÐº, Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐµÑÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ <i>classify</i>, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÑÑÐžÐµ ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐŸÑÑÐ°, Ð² Greenstone ÐœÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÑÑÑÑ ÐÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ°ÐŒÐž. ÐÐŒÐµÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÐµ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐžÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÐµÐŒ ÐºÐœÐŸÐ¿ÐºÐ°ÐŒ ÐœÐ° ÐœÐ°Ð²ÐžÐ³Ð°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð»ÐžÐœÐµÐ¹ÐºÐµ ÐœÐ°Ð²ÐµÑÑ
+Ñ ÐºÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ Ð² ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐŸÐ²Ð°Ñ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐ°</a>): <i>Ð£ÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ, ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ, ÐÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÐž Ðž ÐÐ°Ðº</i>. ÐÐµÑÐ²ÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐºÐœÐŸÐ¿ÐºÐ° Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ°, Ð° Ð·Ð°ÑÐµÐŒ Ð¿ÐŸ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐŽÐºÑ ÑÑÐž ÑÐµÑÑÑÐµ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ°.
+<p>
+
+ÐÐµÑÐ²ÑÐ¹ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÐŸÐ±ÐµÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐžÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ Ðº Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŒ. Ð­ÑÐŸ ÐžÐµÑÐ°ÑÑ
+ÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÐ¹ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ ÐžÐµÑÐ°ÑÑ
+ÐžÑ Ð² ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ðµ <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.Subject.txt\" target=text>dls.Subject.txt</a> (Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÐŒÐµÑÑ <i>hfile</i>); ÑÑÐŸÑ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð» ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐ¶ÐŽÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ ÐœÐžÐ¶Ðµ. Ð­ÑÐŸÑ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ Ð±Ð°Ð·ÐžÑÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐœÐ° ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ <i>dls.Subject</i>(ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑÐ°). ÐÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÐœÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÐºÐœÐžÐ³ Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ Ð² Ð»ÐžÑÑÐµ ÐžÐµÑÐ°ÑÑ
+ÐžÐž, ÐŸÐœÐž ÑÐŸÑÑÐžÑÑÑÑÑÑ Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐŸÑÑÑ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ <i>dls.Title</i> (ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ) (ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑÐµ Ð²ÐžÐŽÐµÑÑ <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1.4.1\">Ð·ÐŽÐµÑÑ</a>).
+
+<!-- _text6_ -->
+The second classifier provides access by title. It is also a <i>Hierarchy</i> classifier, this time based on
+<i>dls.AZList</i> metadata, whose hierarchy is defined in <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.Title.txt\" target=text>dls.AZList.txt</a>. This file is discussed below.
+
+Ð¢ÑÐµÑÐžÐ¹ ÐŽÐ°ÐµÑ ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ Ð¿ÐŸ ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑÐŒ: ÑÑÐŸ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ <i>Ð¡Ð¿ÐžÑÐŸÐº</i> ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐœÐ° ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ <i>dls.Organization</i>. <!-- _text8_ -->The <i>-bookshelf_type always</i> option creates a new bookshelf for each organization, even if only one document belongs to that category.
+
+<!-- _text9_ -->The fourth provides access by \"Howto\" text: it is a <i>List</i> classifier based on <i>dls.Keyword</i> metadata. The <i>-bookshelf_type never</i> option prevents bookshelves being created even if two documents share the same keywords.
+
+<p>
+<b>ÐÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŸÐ±Ð»ÐŸÐ¶ÐºÐž</b>. ÐÑÐžÐœÑÑÐŸÑÐœ ÐžÑÐµÑ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŸÐ±Ð»ÐŸÐ¶ÐºÐž ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°, ÑÑÐµ ÐžÐŒÑ ÑÐŸÐ²Ð¿Ð°ÐŽÐ°ÐµÑ Ñ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°, ÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÐµÐµÑ ÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ <i>.jpg</i>. Ð­ÑÐŸ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ Ð°ÑÑÐŸÑÐžÐžÑÑÐµÑÑÑ Ñ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐŒ Ðž ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑÑÑ ÐœÐ° ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐºÐµ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° (ÑÐŒÐŸÑÑÐž ÐœÐžÐ¶Ðµ). ÐÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŸÐ±Ð»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐº ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐœÐŸ Ð²ÑÐºÐ»ÑÑÐžÑÑ, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÑ ÑÐ»Ð°Ð³ -no_cover_image Ð² ÐºÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÐŸÐŒ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœÐµ. \n
+
+<p>
+<b>ÐÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ°</b>. 
+<!-- _text10_ -->
+The lines beginning with <i>format</i>, called \"format statements\", govern how various parts of the collection should be displayed. The <i>VList</i> format statement applies to lists of items displayed vertically, such as the lists of titles, subjects and organisations, and the table of contents for the target documents. It is overridden for the search results list by the <i>SearchVList</i> format statement, and also for the <i>Howto</i> classifier by the <i>CL4VList</i> statement (CL4 specifies the fourth classifier). 
+<p>
+<!--_text11_ -->
+The <i>DocumentText</i> statement governs how the document text is formatted,
+with <i>Title</i> metadata ([<i>Title</i>]) in HTML &lt;<i>h3</i>&gt; format
+followed by the text of the document [<i>Text</i>]. Setting the <i>DocumentImages</i> format statement to <i>true</i> ensures that cover images are shown with each document. The <i>DocumentButtons</i> statement calls for the <i>Expand
+Text, Expand Contents, Detach</i> and <i>Highlight</i> buttons to be shown with each document.
+
+<p>
+
+ÐÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐžÐœÑÑÐ²ÐŸ ÐŸÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ² ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ° ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°Ñ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÑ, ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐœÑÑ Ð² Ð¿ÐŸÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐµ HTML. ÐÐŒÑ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð² ÐºÐ²Ð°ÐŽÑÐ°ÑÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÐºÐŸÐ±ÐºÐ°Ñ
+ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, [<i>ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</i>], [<i>Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</i>]) ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÑÐžÐŒ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐŒ. [<i>Ð¢ÐµÐºÑÑ</i>] ÐŽÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐµÐºÑÑ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°. ÐÐžÐ¿ÐµÑÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐ° Ðº ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐ°, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÑ [<i>link</i>]...[<i>/link</i>]; ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐµ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸÐ±Ð»ÐŸÐ¶ÐºÐž Ð¿ÑÐŸÐžÐ·Ð²ÐŸÐŽÐžÑÑÑ Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐŸÑÑÑ [<i>icon</i>]. Ð¡ÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ° ÐŒÐŸÐ³ÑÑ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ {<i>If</i>} {...,...}Ðž {<i>Or</i>} {...,...}; ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐŽÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐŽÐ°ÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ. Ð­ÑÐž ÐŽÐ²Ð° -- ÐŽÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ»ÑÐœÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐœÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ°. ÐÑ ÐœÐµ Ð±ÑÐŽÐµÐŒ ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÑÐœÑÑÑ ÐžÑ
+ Ð·ÐŽÐµÑÑ. Ð Greenstone ÐžÐ·ÐŒÐµÐœÐµÐœÐžÑ Ð² ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐ°Ñ
+ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ° Ð²ÑÑÑÐ¿Ð°ÑÑ Ð² ÑÐžÐ»Ñ ÐœÐµÐŒÐµÐŽÐ»ÐµÐœÐœÐŸ, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÐÑ ÐœÐµ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÐµ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐµÑÐ²ÐµÑ Ð±ÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÑÐµÐºÐž, ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÑÐµÑÐ²ÐµÑ ÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶ÐµÐœ Ð±ÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ²ÑÐŸÑÐœÐŸ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÑÑÐµÐœ. Ð­ÑÐŸ ÐŸÐ±Ð»ÐµÐ³ÑÐžÑ ÑÐºÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐžÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ Ñ ÑÐ°Ð·Ð»ÐžÑÐœÑÐŒÐž Ð²ÐµÑÑÐžÑÐŒÐž ÐŸÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ° ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ° Ðž ÐœÐ°Ð±Ð»ÑÐŽÐµÐœÐžÐµ Ð·Ð° ÑÐµÐŒ, ÑÑÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐž ÑÑÐŸÐŒ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐžÑÑ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÑ.
+
+<p>
+
+<b>ÐÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ ÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐœÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž</b>. Ð¡ÑÑÐŸÐºÐž <i>collectionmeta</i> Ð² ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ðµ ÑÐ°ÐºÐ¶Ðµ ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐœÑ Ð²ÐŸ Ð²ÑÐµÑ
+ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑÑ
+ Greenstone. ÐÐœÐž ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÑ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÑ ÐµÐµ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ (ÐžÐŒÑ), Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÑÑ ÐºÑÐ°ÑÐºÐŸÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐœÐ° ÐµÐµ ÐŽÐŸÐŒÐ°ÑÐœÐµÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐµ. ÐÑÐ°ÑÐºÐŸÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ (Ð² <i>collectionextra</i>) ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐžÐŽÐµÑÑ ÐœÐ° ÐŽÐŸÐŒÐ°ÑÐœÐµÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐµ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž <!-- (_text2_) -->(this text is part of it)
+<p>
+
+<b>ÐÐµÑÐµÐ²ÐŸÐŽÑ Ñ ÐŸÐŽÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ° ÐœÐ° ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐŸÐ¹</b>. ÐÐŸÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÐœÑÑ ÑÐ°ÑÑÑ <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ð°</a> ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÐµÑ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐœÐ° ÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐœÐµ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÐœÐ° ÑÑÐ°ÐœÑÑÐ·ÑÐºÐŸÐŒ Ðž ÐžÑÐ¿Ð°ÐœÑÐºÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ°Ñ
+ ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸ. Ð¯Ð·ÑÐºÐž ÐŸÐ±ÐŸÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÑ Ð² ÐºÐ²Ð°ÐŽÑÐ°ÑÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÐºÐŸÐ±ÐºÐ°Ñ
+: [<i>fr</i>] Ðž [<i>es</i>]. ÐÑÐ»Ðž ÐŸÑÑÑÑÑÑÐ²ÑÐµÑ ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ°, Ð°ÐœÐ³Ð»ÐžÐ¹ÑÐºÐžÐ¹ ÑÐ·ÑÐº Ð¿ÑÐžÐœÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸ ÑÐŒÐŸÐ»ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ. ÐÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð» Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ Ñ
+Ð°ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐµÑÐœÑÐµ ÐŸÑÐŸÐ±ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÐž Ð·ÐœÐ°ÐºÐŸÐ² (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, Ð²ÐŸ ÑÑÐ°ÐœÑÑÐ·ÑÐºÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐµ). Ð­ÑÐŸÑ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð» ÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÑÑÑ Ð² UTF-8, Ð³ÐŽÐµ ÑÑÐž Ð·ÐœÐ°ÐºÐž Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÑ ÐŒÑÐ»ÑÑÐžÐ±Ð°Ð¹ÑÐœÑÐŒ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐŽÐºÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ (&lt;C3&gt;&lt;A9&gt; Ð² ÑÑÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ðµ). ÐÐ»ÑÑÐµÑÐœÐ°ÑÐžÐ²ÐœÐŸ ÐŸÐœÐž ÐŒÐŸÐ³ÑÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÑ ÐžÑ
+ HTML ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑÐŒÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ° (Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸ <i>&amp;eacute</i>). Ð ÑÑÐŸÐŒ ÐœÐµÑ ÐœÐžÐºÐ°ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ°Ð·Ð»ÐžÑÐžÑ: ÐŸÐœÐž Ð²ÑÐ³Ð»ÑÐŽÑÑ ÐœÐ° ÑÐºÑÐ°ÐœÐµ ÐŸÐŽÐžÐœÐ°ÐºÐŸÐ²ÐŸ. ÐÐŽÐœÐ°ÐºÐŸ, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž Ð±Ñ ÑÐµÐºÑÑ Ð±ÑÐ» ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐµÐœ <i>ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ°</i>, ÑÐŸ ÑÐ°Ð·Ð»ÐžÑÐžÐµ ÐžÐŒÐµÐ»ÐŸ Ð±Ñ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸ. Greenstone ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑ Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐžÐ¹ Unicode, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ Ð³Ð°ÑÐ°ÐœÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ Ð²ÐŸÐ·ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐœÐŸÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ° Ðž ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐœÐµÐ°ÐœÐ³Ð»ÐžÐ¹ÑÐºÐžÑ
+ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐŸÐ².
+<p>
+
+<b>ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŽÐµÑÐºÑÐžÐ¿ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ²</b>. ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŽÐµÑÐºÑÐžÐ¿ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ², ÑÐ°ÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ·ÐœÐ°Ð²Ð°ÐµÐŒÑÑ
+ <i>HTMLPlugin</i>, Ð²ÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÑ Ð² HTML ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐ° ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ², ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐžÑÑ, Ð³ÐŽÐµ ÐœÐ°ÑÐžÐœÐ°ÑÑÑÑ Ðž Ð·Ð°ÐºÐ°ÐœÑÐžÐ²Ð°ÑÑÑÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐµÐ»Ñ, Ðž ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐžÑÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐŸÐ². ÐÐœÐž Ð²ÑÐ³Ð»ÑÐŽÑÑ ÑÐ°ÐºÐžÐŒ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŸÐŒ:
+<p>
+<pre>
+&lt;!--\n
+&lt;Section&gt;\n
+&lt;Description&gt;\n
+&lt;Metadata name=\"Title\"&gt;\n
+Realizing human rights for poor people: Strategies\n
+for achieving the international development targets\n
+&lt;/Metadata&gt;\n
+&lt;/Description&gt;\n
+--&gt;\n
+(ÑÐµÐºÑÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐµÐ»Ð° ÐžÐŽÐµÑ ÑÑÐŽÐ°)\n
+&lt;!--\n
+&lt;/Section&gt;\n
+-->\n
+</pre>
+<p>
+
+ÐÐ°ÑÐºÐµÑÑ &lt;!-...-&gt; ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÑÑÑÑ, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ Ð³Ð°ÑÐ°ÐœÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ, ÑÑÐŸ ÑÑÐž ÐŽÐµÑÐºÑÐžÐ¿ÑÐŸÑÑ ÐŸÑÐŒÐµÑÐµÐœÑ ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐºÐŸÐŒÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°ÑÐžÐž Ð² HTML Ðž Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐŸÐŒÑ Ð·Ð°ÑÑÐ°Ð³ÐžÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°. Ð <i>ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐž</i> ÐŒÐŸÐ³ÑÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÑ ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÐµ Ð²ÐžÐŽÑ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+, ÐœÐŸ ÑÑÐŸ ÐœÐµ ÑÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°ÐœÐŸ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÑÐžÐ»Ñ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÑ ÐŒÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÐŒ Ð·ÐŽÐµÑÑ. Ð¢ÐŸÑÐœÐŸ ÑÐ°ÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¶Ðµ ÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÑ (Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ñ Ðž &lt;!-...-&gt; ÐŒÐ°ÑÐºÐµÑÑ) ÐŒÐŸÐ³ÑÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑÑÑ ÑÐ°ÐºÐ¶Ðµ Ð² ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°Ñ
+ Word.
+<p>
+
+<b>Ð€Ð°Ð¹Ð»Ñ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+</b>. ÐÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð²ÑÐµÑ
+ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² Ð² DLS-ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÑÐ°ÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÑ Ð² ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ð°Ñ
+ metadata.xml, Ð¿ÐŸ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ñ Ð² Ð¿Ð°Ð¿ÐºÐµ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°. Ð€Ð°Ð¹Ð» <a href=\"_httpcollection_/import/r0087e/metadata.xml\" target=text>metadata.xml</a> ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐœÐžÐ³Ðž -- <i>Income generation and money management: training women as entrepreneurs</i> -- Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÐµÑ ÑÐŸÐ±ÐŸÐ¹ Ð±Ð»ÐŸÐº ÐžÐ· 10 ÑÑÑÐŸÐº Ð·Ð°ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð² ÑÑÐ³Ð°Ñ
+ &lt;<i>FileSet</i>&gt; ... &lt;<i>FileSet</i>&gt;. ÐÐœÐž ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÑÑ <i>dls.Title, dls.Language, dls.Subject</i> Ðž ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ <i>dls.AZList</i>. ÐÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐµ ÑÐµÐŒ ÐŸÐŽÐœÐŸ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐŸ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð»ÑÐ±ÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐœÐºÑÐŸÐ² ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+. <!-- _text5_ -->For example, this book has two dls.Subject classifications. ÐÐ±Ð° ÑÐŸÑ
+ÑÐ°ÐœÐµÐœÑ Ð² ÐºÐ°ÑÐµÑÑÐ²Ðµ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐžÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°, Ð¿ÐŸÑÐŸÐŒÑ ÑÑÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÑÐœÐžÐµ=ÐœÐ°ÐºÐ°Ð¿Ð»ÐžÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (<i>mode=accumulate</i>) ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐŸ, Ð° Ð² ÐºÐ°ÑÐµÑÑÐ²Ðµ Ð°Ð»ÑÑÐµÑÐœÐ°ÑÐžÐ²Ñ - Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÐŸ ÑÐŒÐŸÐ»ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ <i>mode=override</i>.
+<p>
+
+<b>ÐÐµÑÐ°ÑÑ
+ÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÐµ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ñ</b>. 
+<!-- _text12_ -->
+Hierarchy files contain a
+succession of lines each of which has three items. The first item is a text string which is matched against the metadata that occurs in the <i>metadata.xml</i> file described above. The second item is a number that defines the position in the hierarchy. The third item is a text string that describes the node of the hierarchy on the web pages that Greenstone generates.
+
+<p>
+<!-- _text13_ -->
+For example, the following shows three lines from the subject hierarchy file <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.Subject.txt\" target=text>dls.Subject.txt</a>.
+
+<pre>
+\"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing\" 7 \"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing\" \n
+\"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Cattle\" 7.1 \"Cattle\" \n
+\"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, \n      silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)\" 7.2 \"Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, \n      silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)\" \n
+</pre>
+
+<p>
+<!--_text14_ -->
+These three lines define one top level bookshelf (at position 7), titled \"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing\", with two bookshelves underneath it, titled \"Cattle\" and \"Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)\" respectively.
+
+<p>
+<!--_text15_-->
+In this case, the first strings (and therefore the entries in metadata.xml files) contain the entire hierarchy values. Levels in the hierarchy are separated by \"|\". They could be used directly by a <i>Hierarchy</i> classifier without the use of the hierarchy file. However, then the entries would be ordered alphabetically, not in the special order defined by the file.
+
+<p>
+<!--_text16_ -->
+The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.AZList.txt\" target=text>dls.AZList.txt</a> hierarchy file used by the titles classifier contains a similar structure. Ordinarily, a titles browser would use a <i>List</i> (or <i>AZList</i>) classifier. In this case, we want to predefine the A-Z groupings, and include a separate entry for periodicals, as can be seen <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2.7\">here</a>.
+"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=zh] "
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+ïŒHumanitarian and Development Libraries ProjectïŒïŒOosterveldiaan 196ïŒB-2610 AntwerpïŒBelgiumã
+çµè¯ 32-3-448.05.54ïŒäŒ ç 32-3-449.75.74ïŒçµé® <a href=mailto:humanity@humaninfo.org>humanity@humaninfo.org</a>.\n 
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+<h3>æ¬éŠèåŠäœå·¥äœ</h3>\n  
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+åé¢ææè¿° ç<i>metadata.xml</i>
+æä»¶äž­çå
+æ°æ®ãç¬¬äºäžªæ¡ç®æ¯äžäžªæ°å­ïŒå®å®ä¹äºå±çº§äž­çäœçœ®ãç¬¬äžäžªæ¡ç®æ¯å­ç¬Šäž²ïŒ å®æè¿°äºæçæççœé¡µäž­è¯¥å±çº§èç¹çäœçœ®ã 
+ 
+<p>
+æ¯åŠïŒäžé¢æŸç€ºäºäž»é¢å±çº§æä»¶<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.Subject.txt\" target=text>dls.Subject.txt</a>äž­çäžè¡ã
+
+<pre>
+\"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing\" 7 \"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing\" \n
+\"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Cattle\" 7.1 \"Cattle\" \n
+\"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, \n      silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)\" 7.2 \"Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, \n      silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)\" \n
+</pre>
+
+<p>
+è¿äžè¡å®ä¹äºäžäžªé¡¶å±ä¹Šæ¶ïŒäœçœ®7ïŒïŒé¢åäžº\"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing\"ïŒ 
+å
+¶äžæäž€äžªä¹Šæ¶ïŒé¢ååå«äžº\"Cattle\"å\"Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)\"ã 
+ 
+<p>
+åšè¿äž­æ
+åµäžïŒç¬¬äžäžªå­ç¬Šäž²ïŒå³metadata.xmlæä»¶äž­çæ¡ç®ïŒå
+å«äºæŽäžªå±çº§åŒãå±çº§äž­çåäžªå±æ¬¡ç±\"|\"åéãå®ä»¬å¯ä»¥çŽæ¥äœ¿çšäžäžª 
+<i>Hierarchy</i>åç±»åšèäžçšå±çº§æä»¶ãç¶èïŒæ­€æ¶æææ¡ç®å°æå­ç¬Šé¡ºåºæåºïŒèäžæ¯ä»¥é£äžªæä»¶äž­å®ä¹çç¹å«é¡ºåºã 
+ 
+<p>
+è¿äºæ é¢åç±»åšäœ¿çšç<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.AZList.txt\" target=text>dls.AZList.txt</a>å±çº§æä»¶æçç±»äŒŒçç»æãéåžžæ
+åµäžïŒ 
+é¢åæµè§åšäŒäœ¿çš<i>List</i>ïŒæ<i>AZList</i>ïŒåç±»åšãåšè¿ç§æ
+åµäžïŒæä»¬é¢å
+å®ä¹Aå°Zçåç»ïŒå¹¶äžºæåäžéšè®Ÿçœ®äžäžªç¬ç«çæ¡ç®ïŒåŠ 
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2.7\">è¿é</a>æç€ºã
+"
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/etc/dls.AZList.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/etc/dls.AZList.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/etc/dls.AZList.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+"A-B"	1	"A-B"
+"C-D-E"	2	"C-D-E"
+"F-G-H-I-J-K"	3	"F-G-H-I-J-K"
+"L-M-N-O-P"	4	"L-M-N-O-P"
+"Q-R-S"	5	"Q-R-S"
+"T-U-V-W-X-Y-Z"	6	"T-U-V-W-X-Y-Z"
+"_textperiodicals_"	7	"_textperiodicals_"
+"_textperiodicals_|Go Between"	7.1	"Go Between"
+"_textperiodicals_|The Courier"	7.2	"The Courier"
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/etc/dls.Subject.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/etc/dls.Subject.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/etc/dls.Subject.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+# Subject Hierarchy file based around that from Humanity Development Library collection. Ordering and subject headings kept the same. Unused heading removed, and all items renumbered to avoid gaps in the hierarchy.
+"Sustainable Development, International cooperation, Projects; NGO, Organizations, Poverty and Hunger Alleviation, Basic Human Needs"	1	"Sustainable Development, International cooperation, Projects; NGO, Organizations, Poverty and Hunger Alleviation, Basic Human Needs"
+"Sustainable Development, International cooperation, Projects; NGO, Organizations, Poverty and Hunger Alleviation, Basic Human Needs|Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in general, self- help organizations (their role in development). "	1.1	"Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in general, self- help organizations (their role in development). "
+"Society, Culture, Community, Woman, Youth, Population"	2	"Society, Culture, Community, Woman, Youth, Population"
+"Society, Culture, Community, Woman, Youth, Population|Social sciences, sociology (works comprising several subgroups) incl. participatory research and training"	2.1	"Social sciences, sociology (works comprising several subgroups) incl. participatory research and training"
+"Society, Culture, Community, Woman, Youth, Population|Women, gender and development, women's organizations"	2.2	"Women, gender and development, women's organizations"
+"Education and Training"	3	"Education and Training"
+"Education and Training|Environmental education, Global education, Psychological and assertiveness education, Non-formal education etc"	3.1	"Environmental education, Global education, Psychological and assertiveness education, Non-formal education etc"
+"Communication, Information and Documentation"	4	"Communication, Information and Documentation"
+"Communication, Information and Documentation|Communication, telecommunication, mass communication, mass media, film-making"	4.1	"Communication, telecommunication, mass communication, mass media, film-making"
+"Ecology, Biodiversity, Natural resources, Environment, Waste Disposal"	5	"Ecology, Biodiversity, Natural resources, Environment, Waste Disposal"
+ "Ecology, Biodiversity, Natural resources, Environment, Waste Disposal|Resources conservation, environmental protection, biodiversity" 5.1 "Resources conservation, environmental protection, biodiversity"
+"Ecology, Biodiversity, Natural resources, Environment, Waste Disposal|Resources conservation, environmental protection, biodiversity|Biodiversity conservation"	5.1.1	"Biodiversity conservation"
+"Agriculture and Food Processing"	6	"Agriculture and Food Processing"
+"Agriculture and Food Processing|Better Farming series of FAO and INADES - 46 booklets"	6.1	"Better Farming series of FAO and INADES - 46 booklets"
+"Agriculture and Food Processing|Storage and packaging of agricultural products, Post-Harvest management"	6.2	"Storage and packaging of agricultural products, Post-Harvest management"
+"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing"	7	"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing"
+"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Cattle"	7.1	"Cattle"
+"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)"	7.2	"Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)"
+"Fishery and Aquaculture"	8	"Fishery and Aquaculture"
+"Fishery and Aquaculture|Fishing techniques and equipment"	8.1	"Fishing techniques and equipment"
+"Industry, Manufacture and Services"	9	"Industry, Manufacture and Services"
+"Industry, Manufacture and Services|Small- scale industry, handicraft, home industry"	9.1	"Small- scale industry, handicraft, home industry"
+"Industry, Manufacture and Services|Metal industry"	9.2	"Metal industry"
+"Industry, Manufacture and Services|Metal industry|Forging and blacksmithing"	9.2.1	"Forging and blacksmithing"
+"Energy , Renewable energies, Household energy"	10	"Energy , Renewable energies, Household energy"
+"Energy , Renewable energies, Household energy|Wood and charcoal (incl. kilns and activated charcoal)"	10.1	"Wood and charcoal (incl. kilns and activated charcoal)"
+"Settlements, Housing, Building - Infrastructure Construction (Roads etc)"	11	"Settlements, Housing, Building - Infrastructure Construction (Roads etc)"
+"Settlements, Housing, Building - Infrastructure Construction (Roads etc)|Settlements and housing: general works incl. low- cost housing, planning techniques, surveying, etc."	11.1	"Settlements and housing: general works incl. low- cost housing, planning techniques, surveying, etc."
+"Settlements, Housing, Building - Infrastructure Construction (Roads etc)|Building and construction (building components, construction techniques)"	11.2	"Building and construction (building components, construction techniques)"
+"Development Periodicals and Magazines"	12	"Development Periodicals and Magazines"
+"Development Periodicals and Magazines|Sustainable Energy Newsletters of the INFORSE network"	12.1	"Sustainable Energy Newsletters of the INFORSE network"
+"Development Periodicals and Magazines|The Courier ACP 1990 - 1996 Africa-Caribbean-Pacific - European Union"	12.2	"The Courier ACP 1990 - 1996 Africa-Caribbean-Pacific - European Union"
+"Development Periodicals and Magazines|The NGLS Magazine Go Between"	12.3	"The NGLS Magazine Go Between"
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/b17mie/b17mie.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/b17mie/b17mie.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/b17mie/b17mie.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,7650 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Microlivestock -  Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Microlivestock -  Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Tecnology for International Development </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competence and with regard for appropriate balance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Frank Press is president of the National Academy of Sciences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Robert M. White is president of the National Academy of Engineering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Samuel O. Their is president of the Institute of Medicine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Frank Press and Dr. Robert M. White are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID) of the Office of International Affairs addresses a range of issues arising from the ways in which science and technology in developing countries can stimulate and complement the complex processes of social and economic development. It oversees a broad program of bilateral workshops with scientific organizations in developing countries and conducts special studies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report was prepared by an ad hoc advisory panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Office of International Affairs, National Research Council. Staff support was funded by the Office of the Science Advisor, Agency for International Development, under Grant No. DAN-5538-G-SS-1023-00. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PANEL ON MICROLIVESTOCK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. PHILLIPS, Deputy Director General (Retired), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Senior Advisor to the President, African Development Bank, Abidjan, Ivory Coast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BONNIE V. BEAVER, Professor of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, Texas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT BENIRSCHKE, Professor of Pathology and Reproductive Medicine, University of California-San Diego, San Diego, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROY D. CRAWFORD, Professor of Animal and Poultry Genetics, Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONY J. CUNHA, Distinguished Service Professor Emeritus, University of Florida, Gainesville, and Dean Emeritus, School of Agriculture, California Polytechnic University, Pomona, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID E. DEPPNER, Director, New Forest Project, International Center, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELIZABETH L. HENSON, Executive Director, American Minor Breeds Conservancy, Pittsboro, North Carolina, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. HUSS, Menard, Texas, USA (Formerly Regional Animal Production Officer, FAO, Santiago, Chile)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID R. LINCICOME, Guest Scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS E. LOVEJOY, Assistant Secretary for External Affairs, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARNE W. NORDSKOG, Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LINDA M. PANEPINTO, Director, Miniature Swine Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT J. PETERS, Professor of Animal Breeding and Husbandry in the Tropics and Subtropics, University of Gottingen, Gottingen, West Germany, and Director of Research, International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN A. PINO, Senior Fellow, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Program in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL H. ROBINSON, Director, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KNUT SCHMIDT-NIELSON, James B. Duke Professor of Physiology, Department of Zoology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALBERT E. SOLLOD, Associate Professor and Head, Section of International Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEE M. TALBOT, Visiting Fellow, World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAIR E. TERRILL, Sheep and Goat Scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHRISTEN M. WEMMER, Assistant Director for Conservation, National Zoological Park, Front Royal, Virginia, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DANNY C. WHARTON, Associate Curator Animal Departments, New York Zoological Park, Bronx Zoo, The Bronx, New York, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES A. WOODS, Professor and Curator, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS M. YUILL, Associate Dean for Research and Graduate Training, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* * *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID), National Research Council, Washington, D.C., Microlivestock Study Director and Scientific Editor </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL STAFF</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARK DAFFORN, Technical Writer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELIZABETH MOUZON, Senior Secretary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN VREYENS, MUCIA Intern</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONTRIBUTORS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following individuals have made general contributions to the development of this book. All of the persons listed as research contacts in Appendix B also contributed - usually on one or two species that are their scientific specialty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ASHIQ AHMAD, Wildlife Management Specialist, Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar, Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANGEL C. ALCALA, Division Research, Extension and Development, Silliman University, Dumaguete City, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARTI AMMANN, Basel, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PATRICK ANDAU, Forest Department, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.P. ARORA, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. AYYAPPAN, CIFRI, Kausabyaganga, Bhubaneswar Orissa, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER BAKHUIS, Caribbean Marine Biological Institute, Willemstad, Curacao, Netherlands Antilles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES R. BARBORAK, CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PUSHKAR NATH BHAT, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEVE BENNETT, Curepe, Trinidad, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.P. BLAND, Department of Physiology, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MELVIN BOLTON, Yeppoon, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOSEPH BONNEMAIRE, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D.S. BRANCKRAERT, Faculte des Sciences Agronomiques, Universite du Burundi, Bujumbura, Burundi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER BRAZAITIS, Herpetology, New York Zoological Society, The Bronx, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. DE LA BRETONNE, JR., Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. BRINCK, Department of Animal Ecology, University of Lund, Lund, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LESLIE BROWNRIGG, CIAT, Cali, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. HOMER BUCK, Illinois Natural History Survey, Kinmundy, Illinois, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GERARDO BUDOWSKI, Natural Renewable Resources Programme, CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BUTCHER, Taronga Zoo, Mosman, New South Wales, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JULIAN O. CALDECOTT, World Wildlife Fund Malaysia, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GARY CALLIS, Texline, Texas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. CAMOENS, Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. CHRISTOPHER CARMICHAEL, The Museum, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. CHABRECK, School of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.M. CHAGULA, Research, Ministry of Agriculture, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARAN CHANTALAKHANA, Department of Animal Science, Kasetsart  University, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER R. CHEEKE, Rabbit Research Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis,  Oregon, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.S. CHILD, Forest Resources Division, FAO, Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.S. CHOPRA, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation,  New Delhi, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Ross COCKRILL 29 Downs Park West, Bristol, England, BS6 7QH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CRISOSTOMO CORTES, Dairy Promotion and Extension Section, Dairy Development  Division, Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WYLAND CRIPE, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville,  Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. BEN DAVID, Holon, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. DEVENDRA, International Development Research Centre, Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODNEY DILLINGER, International Agency for Apiculture Development, Rockford,  Illinois, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DIRECTOR, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLLANDE DUMONT, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques  Appliquees, Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.G. EHIOBU, Department of Agricultural Sciences, College of Education, Agbor,  Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD FARNER, Department of Zoology, University of Washington, Seattle,  Washington, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN A. FERGUSON, Overseas Development Administration, Eland House, London,  England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ABELARDO FERRER D., Quinta Nueva Exparta, San Bernardino, Caracas,  Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LYNWOOD A. FIEDLER, Section of International Programs, U.S. Fish and Wildlife  Service, Denver Wildlife Research Center, Denver, Colorado, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. FISCHER, Tropical Science Centre, Division of Tropical Veterinary Medicine,  Justus-Liebig University, Giessen, West Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. FURTADO, Commonwealth Science Council, London, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANK GOLLEY, Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. GONZALES J., Instituto de Produccion Animal, Universidad Central de Venezuela,  El Limon-Maracay, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GRAHAM GOUDIE, Mainland Holdings, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALISTAIR GRAHAM, Tanglewood, Crowborough, East Sussex, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GORDON GRIGG, Zoology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.R. DE GUMAN, JR., Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COLIN P. GROVES, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian  National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. HARDOUIN, Institut de Medicine Tropicale "Prince Leopold," Antwerp, Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEOFFREY HAWTIN, International Development Research Centre, University of  British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GORDON HAVORD, Technical Advisory Division, UNDP, New York, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TIN HLA, Veterinary Department, Director General's Office, Rangoon, Burma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES HENTGES, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. HOLLANDER, Department of Genetics, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RENE E. HONEGGER, Herpetology, Zurich Zoo, Zurich, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JACK HOWARTH, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUANG CHU-CHIEN, Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Beijing, China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANGUS HUTTON, Gympie, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. JASIOROWSKI, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MUHAMMAD YAQUB JAVAID, Directorate of Fisheries, Government of the Punjab, Punjab, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MANGALARAJ JOHNSON, Nudumalai Sanctuary, Vannarpet, Udagamandalani, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MATI KAAL, Tallinn Zoo, ESSR Tallinn, USSR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STELLAN KARLSSON, Simontorp Aquaculture AB, Blentarp, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JACKSON A. KATEGILE, International Development Research Centre, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT E. KENWARD, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Furzebrook Research Station, Wareham, Dorset, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES M. KEARNEY, Miami, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING, Florida State Museum, Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.-G. KLOS Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Berlin, West Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NELS M. KONNERUP, Boom International, Stanwood, Washington, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAVU KWAPENA, Office of Environment and Conservation, Boroko, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS E. LACHER, Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN K. LOOSLI, Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER LUTZ, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CRAIG MACFARLAND, CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE M. MCCORKLE, Department of Rural Sociology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT E. MCDOWELL, Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JEFFREY A. MCNEELY, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADRIAN G. MARSHALL, Institute of South-East Asian Biology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RICHARD R. MARSHALL, Veterinary Medicine, Sutter Hospitals Medical Research Foundation, Sacramento, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.H.G. MARTIN, Department of Zoology, Kenyatta University College, Nairobi, Kenya </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IAN L. MASON, Edinburgh, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN C. MASON, Pacific Biological Station, Nanaimo, B.C., Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MAYO MARTIN, Fish Farming Experimental Station, Stuttgart, Arkansas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">YOLANDA MATAMOROS, Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBIN MCKERGON, Livestock Development Corporation, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. MGHENI, Faculty of Agriculture, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. MONGIN, Station de Recherches Avicoles, INRA-Centre de Tours, Nouzilly, Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOSE ROBERTO DE ALENCAR MOREIRA, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, Belem, Para, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.L.R. OLIVER, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WERNER PAUWELS, Basel, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J.A. PAYNE, Worcester, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IAN PLAYER, Wilderness Leadership School, Bellair, Natal, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES H. POWELL, JR., Plainview, Texas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM R. PRITCHARD, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HECTOR HUGO LI PUN, International Development Research Centre, Bogota, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VICENTE T. QUIRANTE, Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Project, Bureau of Animal Industry, Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAN RATTNER, The Institute of Animal Research, Kibbutz Lahav, D.N. Negev, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.V. REDDY, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RHOEHEIT, Institute of Applied Science and Technology, University Campus, Turkeyen, Guyana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES T. ROBBINS, Department of Zoology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARMEN MA. ROJAS G., CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.H.L. ROLLINSON, Sardinia, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JULIO E. SANCHEZ P., Museo Nacional, San Jose, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JEFF SAYER, World Conservation Centre, Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. SEIFERT, Tropical Cattle Research Centre, CSIRO, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANDRES ELOY SEIJAS, Servicio Nacional de Fauna Silvestre, Maracay, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K. SHAH, Institute of Animal Sciences, National Institute of Health, Islamabad, Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SIEH CHENXIA, Department of Animal Science, Nanjing Agricultural College, Nanjing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.P. SINGH, College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Chandra Sekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. CATIBOG SINHA, Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna, Philippines </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. SMITH, Tropical Animal Health, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, Great Britain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. MITHAT EFENDI, Ankara, Turkey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HENRY STODDARD, Shamrock Veterinary Clinic and Fisheries, Cross City, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUKUT SULARSASA, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjalu Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. SUTTON, Agricultural Research and Education Center, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NICHOLAS SMYTHE, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. SZUMIEC, Polish Academy of Sciences, Experimental Fish Culture Station, Chybie, Poland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. TABUNAKAWAI, Ministry of Primary Industries, Suva, Fiji</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANK M. THOMPSON, Wild Animal Brokers, Bradenton, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALLEN D. TILLMAN, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DON TULLOCH, Winnellie, Northern Territory, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONRADO A. VALDEZ, Dairy Development Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LUIS VARONA, Havana, Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PRAN VOHRA, Department of Avian Sciences, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANTOON DE VOS Whitford, Auckland, New Zealand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GRAHAME WEBB, Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory, Winnellie, Northern Territory, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAGMAR WERNER, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GARY WETTERBERG, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES H. WHARTON, Clayton, Georgia, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.W. BERT WHEELER, College Station, Texas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROMULUS WHITAKER, Madras Crocodile Bank, Perur, Tamil Nadu, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILDLIFE CONSERVATION INTERNATIONAL, New York Zoological Society, The Bronx, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.R. YEO, USDA-ARS, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BRUCE A. YOUNG, Department of Animal Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHAROON YOUNGPRAPAKORN, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm and Zoo, Samutprakan, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS M. YUILL School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. ZEILLER, Miami Seaquarium, Miami, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The purpose of this report is to raise awareness of the potential of small livestock species and to stimulate their introduction into animal research and economic development programs. It is geared particularly towards benefiting developing nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Microlivestock" is a term we have coined for species that are inherently small, such as rabbits and poultry, as well as for breeds of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs that are less than about half the size of the most common breeds. These miniature animals are seldom considered in the broad picture of livestock development, but they seem to have a promising future. Wherever land is scarce it seems reasonable to assume that, things being equal, small animals would be more attractive than large ones. And land for livestock is becoming increasingly scarce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this report we have emphasized multipurpose species with promise for small  holders. In some species, the promise is immediate; in others, it is long term, and much research must be undertaken before that promise can be realized or even understood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We have included wild species that seem to have potential as future livestock. Some are threatened with extinction but are described here because their economic merits may be the key to acquiring support for their protection. Also we have highlighted rare breeds of domesticated species because the current tendency has been to concentrate on a small number of large breeds, and many potentially valuable breeds are becoming extinct through neglect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The book was prepared after an intensive survey of more than 300 animal scientists in 80 countries. They suggested more than 150 species for inclusion. The staff then drafted chapters on about 40 species and these drafts were reviewed by more than 400 researchers worldwide. The thousands of resulting comments, corrections, and additions were integrated into the drafts. The panel then met to review the product, to select the most promising species, and to rework the chapters based on their own experiences and joint conclusions. The result is the current 35 chapters. Most of the case studies and accounts of innovations highlighted in the various sidebars were developed by the staff study director. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collectively, this study covers many species, but it by no means exhausts all the microlivestock possibilities. Lack of space and time precludes discussion of creatures such as edible insects, snails, worms, turtles, and bats, which in some regions are highly regarded foods. Similarly, we have not included aquatic life. These decisions were arbitrary; perhaps invertebrates and aquatic species can be included in future volumes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report is addressed to government administrators, technical assistance personnel, and researchers in agriculture, nutrition, and related disciplines who are concerned with helping developing countries achieve a more efficient and balanced exploitation of their biological resources. Hence, we deal with the animals in a general way and do not cover details of biology, husbandry, or economics. A selection of readings that contains such technical information is cited in Appendix A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further goal of this project has been to explore the common ground between the disparate arms of animal science: to show that specialists in wildlife, zoology, and livestock science have much to learn from one another's field of expertise; to show that "fanciers" of pigeons, pheasants, chinchillas, iguanas, and other species may have much to offer livestock breeders - including germplasm; and that those who raise "obsolete" breeds are not only playing a vital role in the protection of rare genes but can offer the benefit of their experience to commercial livestock producers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout this report, the scientific names of mammals follow those in: Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. 1982. J.H. Honacki, K.E. Kinman, and J.W. Koeppl, editors. Published by Allen Press, Inc.; and the Association of Systematics Collections, Lawrence, Kansas, USA. All dollar figures are in U.S. dollars; all ton figures are in metric tons.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been produced under the auspices of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council. ACTI was mandated to assess innovative scientific and technological advances, with particular emphasis on those appropriate for developing countries. In this spirit, therefore, the current report includes some extremely unusual species. Whether these will eventually prove practical for widespread use is uncertain, but we present them here for researchers and others who look forward to challenges and enjoy the satisfaction of successful pioneering. The domestication of new poultry, as well as the management of rodents, iguanas, and small deer and antelope, should be viewed in this spirit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Current titles in the ACTI series on managing tropical animal resources are: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The production of these books has been supported largely by the Office of the Science Advisor of the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID), which also made this report possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WARNING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If misunderstood, this book is potentially dangerous. Because of the severity of the food crisis, the panel has selected some animals - mainly in the rodent section - that are highly adaptable and grow quickly. These seem appropriate for raising only in areas where they already exist, which are clearly identified in those chapters. Such potentially invasive animals should not be introduced to other environments because they could become serious pests. In any trials, local species should always be given priority.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to cite this report:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council. 1991. Microlivestock: Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cover Design by David Bennett </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the developing countries, there are over 100 million farms of less than five hectares, supporting about 700 million people, who represent about 17 percent of the world population. Even more significant is the fact that about 50 million farms have less than one hectare of land. C. Devendra and Marcia Burns Goat Production in the Tropics We may now be in the wind down stage of bigger is better animal selection trend and it has certainly been a wild ride.... the lesson now being learned is that the bigger breeding animals . . . cost more to maintain, are often slower to reproduce, and may even have a shorter lifespan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kelly Klober</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small Farmer's Journal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g001a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like computers, livestock for use in developing countries should be getting smaller and becoming more "personal." Conventional "mainframes," such as cattle, are too large for the world's poorest people; they require too much space and expense. "Miniframes," such as the conventional breeds of sheep and goats, have an increasingly important role to play. But tiny, "user-friendly" species for home use are the ones highlighted in this report. We have called them "microlivestock."'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two types of microlivestock. One consists of extremely small forms of conventional livestock - such as cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs. The other consists of species that are inherently small poultry, rabbits, and rodents, for instance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock are important because the developing world's animal production is only a fraction of what it should be. Throughout Latin America, Asia, and Africa, the poor eat almost no meat, milk, or eggs - the most nutritious foods. It is estimated, for example, that in Mexico 25 million campesinos cannot afford meat. In poor countries, even the middle class eats less meat in a year than the populations of North America and Europe eat in a month. Malnutrition is common and its effects, especially on children, can be debilitating. It is one of mankind's most serious imbalances - and most pressing problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural families in the Third World usually subsist mainly on the products from their homes or farms. Thus, if we are to help their livestock production, more attention must be given to animals that are sized for their situations. Examples discussed in the report are summarized here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microbreeds Small breeds of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs are common in the developing world. Because they are often raised for subsistence rather than for commerce, the national and global contribution that they make is often overlooked. These small, hardy animals deserve much greater recognition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Later chapters highlight dozens of promising microbreeds. All are less than half average size; some are far smaller than that. The "miniBrahman" cow of Mexico is only 60 cm tall and weighs 140 kg; the southern Sudan dwarf sheep of eastern Africa can weigh as little as 11 kg; the Terai goat of Nepal weighs less than 12 kg; and the cuing pig of Mexico weighs merely 10 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry The widespread use of poultry in Third World villages demonstrates the importance of small, easily managed, household livestock. Small size, the ability to forage for themselves, and a natural desire to stay around the house put chickens, ducks, guinea fowl, and other birds among the most vital resources of rural Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Scratching a living out of the dirt, dust, ditches, and debris, these often-scrawny creatures are a resource to be taken seriously. For the most poverty stricken, a bony bird may be the only source of meat during much of a lifetime. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among poultry, there are many underrated, but highly promising, species, including:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Pigeon. These birds forage widely but return home, thereby providing the farmers with squab, one of the tastiest of all meats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Quail. Small and efficient, they, too, are suited to home rearing, and in Japan and a few other countries, large numbers are raised commercially in very small space. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Muscovy. A native of South American rainforests, this bird is a major poultry resource of France, Taiwan, and a few other countries. Tame, tolerant, and tough, it deserves greater recognition everywhere. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Guinea Fowl. One of the most self-reliant of all domestic birds, this native of Africa is raised in huge numbers in Europe - notably France. Its potential for increased production elsewhere is exceptional. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Turkey. The traditional turkey of Mexico still exists as a scavenger bird in villages and household backyards. Unlike the highly selected modern breeds, it is self-reliant, robust, and disease-resistant. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits Like chickens, rabbits exemplify the vast possibilities that microlivestock offer for increasing meat production in the most poverty-stricken parts of the world. Captive rabbits have been popular as food at least since the time of the Romans. Rabbit rearing has been well established in Europe and China, and now national rabbit projects have begun in many developing nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents Some 7,000 years ago, guinea pigs were domesticated as a source of food for the high Andes; even today in the uplands of Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador, most Indians raise them inside their homes and regard them as an essential part of life. For many Indians, these indoor livestock are the main source of meat. Prolific, tractable, and easy to feed, house, and handle, guinea pigs are even kept in downtown apartment buildings - often in boxes under the bed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other rodents might also be suited to domestication; for instance, the potentially tamable, clean-living species of South American fields and woodlands - agouti, capybara, hutia, mare, coypu, pace, and vizcacha. Two remarkable domestication programs have been started in Africa: the grasscutter in West Africa and the giant rat in Nigeria. Both animals provide popular "bushmeat" and researchers are now learning to raise them in captivity. (Because of its tangy taste, Ghanaians actually pay three times more for grasscutter meat than for beef!)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antelope Another wild African mammal with potential for "household animal husbandry," the blue duiker, is a rabbit-sized antelope. In some areas of Central and Southern Africa the demand is so great that its population is declining at an alarming rate. Duiker rearing, if it can be made successful, might provide both food and an economic alternative to slaughtering the wild populations. It is reported that duikers are easy to maintain and they reproduce well in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat of several other tiny antelope species is also much sought in many African countries, and these animals are also suitably sized to feed the average family at one meal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer Several species of tiny deer - smaller than many dogs - might make useful microlivestock, although much research is needed before their true potential can be judged. Normal-sized deer were once considered too easily frightened to be reared as domestic livestock, but several species are now raised on thousands of deer farms in New Zealand as well as in at least a dozen other countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer and musk deer (which, strictly speaking, are not true deer at all) are of microlivestock size and are also possible future livestock. The musk deer produces one of the most valuable materials in the animal kingdom - more valuable, in fact, than gold. The musk from the male's glands is used in oriental medicines as well as in European perfumes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguanas Over much of the Caribbean and Latin America, iguanas are a traditional source of food. Indeed, the meat of these large herbivorous lizards is so delicious they are being hunted to extinction throughout their wide range. Their eggs are much enjoyed also. Programs in Panama, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Curacao, and Argentina have developed simple methods to hatch and rear three iguana species. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bees Honey bees are present almost everywhere, and honey and wax are high-value products that demand little processing and can be stored and transported easily. Innovations in equipment and technique have made beekeeping successful in the tropics without requiring sophisticated hives or elaborate training. Raising bees can also benefit the many crops that require pollination.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE MICROLIVESTOCK ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although animal science has traditionally emphasized bigness, smallness has its advantages. Some of these are summarized below.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock lend themselves to economic niches that are not easily filled by large livestock. Much of their potential is for subsistence production. They are promising for the many peasants who, being outside the cash economy, are now unable to purchase meat, milk, cheese, or eggs. These people can afford only animals that can be raised within the home or backyard under ambient climatic conditions and on feeds that are cheap and easily available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A subsistence farmer is likely to benefit more from small species than from large because of several factors:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The animals are less expensive to buy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They are less of a financial risk to maintain. (A farmer with several small animals is less vulnerable to loss than a farmer with a single large animal, a feature that is particularly important in subsistence farming where success determines whether the family will survive.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They give a faster return on investment. (Small size generally signifies high reproductive capacity and a fast turnover.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They provide flexibility. (Farmers can more easily change the size of their herd or flock to match the amount of feed available at a given time. Also, they can sell animals according to the family's fluctuating needs for cash or food.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They provide a steadier source of income.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They increase the chances of successful breeding because greater numbers are usually kept. (This also means that breeding stock is more likely to be retained in times of scarcity.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They are more easily transported. (Who hasn't traveled in a Third World bus or train without chickens, ducks, or guinea pigs as fellow passengers?)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- In some cases they are more efficient converters of food energy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are also a number of other benefits to small species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reduced Spoilage. A portion of meat that comes in a "package" of a size that can be readily consumed by a family is important in areas where refrigeration is unavailable or uneconomic. A family can eat the meat produced by most microlivestock in one meal or in one day to minimize the risk of spoilage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Efficient Use of Space. The space required for handling and feeding microlivestock is proportionately less than that required for large animals. Low space requirements make many microlivestock (such as guinea pigs, rabbits, pigeons, and quail) available to landless rural inhabitants who have no room for a cow. This is particularly important with respect to feed production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Cheaper Facilities. Facilities and equipment required for microlivestock are, by and large, smaller and simpler than those required for large animals. They often can be made from local products or scrap material or both.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Ease of Management. Farmers and villagers can manage small animals more easily than large, which is an advantage in the many places where women and children are the main keepers of livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Increased Productivity. Small animals tend to fit well into existing farming systems, thereby expanding the resource base and recycling nutrients. Some - for example bees, ducks, and geese - can feed themselves by scavenging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- By-Products. Many species have fur, feathers, skins, and other by-products that are often more valuable than their meat, milk, or eggs. Examples include the feet and tails of rabbits, musk from musk deer, and pelts from rodents such as coypu. Processing such byproducts creates diversification for the farmer and perhaps jobs for the village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RATIONALE FOR LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many have argued that livestock raising should be discouraged, that it is a primary cause of desertification through overgrazing and that it is an inefficient converter of basic material and energy into human food. "Grow more pulses, grow more grains," these people cry. Their arguments can be valid where the land has high potential for permanent cultivation. Much of the world's surface, however, does not fit into that category, and it is in these areas and for those people who have no access to arable lands that a convincing case for livestock can most easily tee mace. As W.J.A. Payne has written:*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Livestock, particularly ruminants, can process forage and waste crop materials inedible by man into nutritionally desirable food products, many of high protein, mineral and vitamin content and including some of high caloric value. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Approximately 40 percent of total land available in developing countries can be used only for some form of forage production and a further 30 percent is classified as forest with some potential for the production of forage. Some 12 percent of the world's total population live in areas where people depend almost entirely on the products obtained from ruminant livestock. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Livestock provide a range of extremely valuable by-products. Dung is not only a fertilizer and soil-stabilizer but also a fuel of often considerably greater value than the fodder consumed in its production. Other byproducts, especially hides and wool form the bases of rural enterprises that may provide significant incomes to the poorest members of society. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Animal plant and human life are ecologically interdependent. The establishment of agricultural systems in which livestock are integrated with crops, forestry and aquaculture is essential for the improvement of overall productivity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock produce food that adds to the nutritional quality and variety of human diets. Although it is possible for humans to exist without them, these foods are relished and sought after by the majority of humanity. These foods include meat, eggs and processed products such as biltong and cheese. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general, small species tend to expand the food base by using a wider array of resources than do major livestock such as cattle. Many can be raised on feeds that people discard: fibrous residues, industry by-products, or kitchen wastes. Some collect minute feeds that otherwise go unused. For example, chickens and pigeons gather scattered seeds, turkeys gobble up insects, geese graze water weeds, iguanas feed in the tops of trees, and bees collect nectar and pollen from flowers that may be miles away.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even some grazing microlivestock prefer different forages from those preferred by cattle. Antelope and deer, for instance, browse tree leaves; capybara and grasscutters eat reeds. Combining microlivestock with conventional livestock results in a more complete utilization of forage resources and greater animal production per hectare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under conditions of abundance, small size may be of no advantage in mammals, but if feed is limited, it is of great help. A small animal (or its keeper) needs to cover less area to fulfill its daily requirements, so that microlivestock may grow fat in areas where the forage is too sparse to support a larger animal. This is particularly vital when there are seasonal bottlenecks. For example, feed may be plentiful enough for most of the year to supply many large animals; however, the dry season may greatly restrict the numbers that can be kept.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although small animals generally require proportionately higher inputs of feed, they also grow proportionately faster (see sidebar opposite). In addition, species such as rabbits, guinea pigs, and grasscutters digest fibrous matter with surprising efficiency, even though they are not true ruminants like cattle, sheep, and goats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many small animals have high reproductive capacity with short gestation periods, large numbers of offspring, and rapid juvenile growth. They tend to reach sexual maturity at a younger age than large animals, and the interval between the generations can be very short. Thus, meat or other products can be produced more rapidly and more evenly throughout the year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cows, for example, produce a maximum of one calf per year. A pig, on the other hand, may produce 7 or more young; a rabbit, 30 or more; a chicken, more than 100.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adaptability and Hardiness</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The survival rates and manageability of many small breeds and species can be outstanding. Smallness is often an adaptation to harsh environment. Indeed, a major promise for microlivestock is in special environmental niches. Where cold, heat, temperature fluctuations, aridity, or humidity are extreme, microlivestock are likely to show their greatest advantage. Chickens, guinea fowl, goats, and many other small species already live in villages, homes, and backyards in harsh and disease-prone climates, and are usually given no care and sometimes no food: they have to scavenge for their sustenance and survive as best they can. Such selection pressures result in animals of remarkable adaptability, tolerance, and robustness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microlivestock can produce under conditions where conventional species die. The capybara, for instance, is at home in the Latin American lowlands, where the climate is hot and humid and floods cause seasonal inundations. Cattle, by contrast, die because of malnutrition, foot rot, or drowning. Other microlivestock species with a wide tolerance to ecological extremes include the turkey, pigeon, and bee. And some dwarf breeds of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs show surprising tolerance to trypanosomes, the parasites that make conventional breeds impossible to maintain throughout much of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some small species can be raised in cities, where poverty and malnutrition are often worse than in rural areas. It is estimated, for instance, that one million livestock exist in Cairo, not counting the pigeons that are raised on countless rooftops. Goats and cattle are common in urban India, and many Third World cities have far more chickens than people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p9a.png"></center><br>
+ Food utilization versus body size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICROLIVESTOCK LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raising microlivestock is not a panacea for the Third World's food problems. Efforts to develop them will not be without difficulties. Some likely problems are noted here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High Energy Requirements</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smaller animals tend to have a higher feed requirement per unit of body weight than large animals. Anatomical and physiological constraints prevent them from meeting their relatively high energy requirements simply by increasing the rate of food ingestion. Therefore, for optimum production, some small animals, particularly nonruminants, require feed that is higher in protein and lower in fiber than large animals. This is particularly true when the small animals are compared with ruminants such as cattle, sheep, and goats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increased Labor Requirements</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The advantages of low investment, fast return on capital, flexibility, and efficient resource utilization are offset by higher demands for labor. Keeping small animals often requires considerable effort, and its economic viability may depend on the availability of cheap and willing labor. Many small animals are raised at home by family members, such as children, the elderly, and the handicapped, who have time available and whose labor costs are nominally zero.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diseases</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some potential microlivestock are undomesticated, and resistance to diseases and parasites is one justification for their consideration. However, the general healthiness of a species when it is free-ranging can be a misleading guide for its husbandry. Confining any animal in high density invariably increases the potential for the spread of infectious diseases and parasites. Moreover, mismanagement can foster respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases (such as salmonella or coccidiosis) that are rare among scattered populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microlivestock are potential reservoirs for diseases that affect not only local animals but people as well. This may limit their successful development in some areas. Although the dangers are often exaggerated, controls may be needed, particularly of rinderpest, tickborne diseases, and those diseases communicable to humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Predation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small size makes microlivestock easy prey.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Techniques to manage some microlivestock species are not yet well established. The development of appropriate husbandry techniques, as well as a better understanding of the animals' particular biological and behavioral characteristics, will be needed before major progress can be made. These species (for instance rodents, deer, and iguanas) may require collection of different genotypes, as well as studies of diseases, nutrition, and management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Complex Logistics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is complicated and expensive to reach millions of widely scattered peasants, each having only a handful of small animals. Even though total production may far exceed that of commercial farms raising large animals, the smallholdings are often dispersed, their animals are often used for subsistence rather than commerce, and their managers are often ill-trained and illiterate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legislative Restrictions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The use of some microlivestock species may be restricted by legislation. For instance, some countries have meat and veterinary laws that work against the development of species other than cattle. Others have laws to protect wildlife, which could be important in the case of species such as antelope, deer, pace, and iguana.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of Markets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock need not be just for home or local consumption; they can also be raised for market. But some commercial programs, including some with rabbits and guinea pigs, have failed because no public demand was developed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resistance to New Species</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People have close associations with livestock, and in most cultures they do not easily accept animals or animal foods that are radically different from their traditional ones. In general, the ties between certain ethnic groups and a particular species or breed is very strong (one reason, for example, why European colonists introduced their own large breeds of cattle and sheep to Africa and Asia, paying little attention to small indigenous breeds). Moreover, people who are used to bringing the animal to the feed rather than the feed to the animal may resist a small animal that has to be penned up and fed by hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Opposition to Smallness</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, there seems to be an innate human trait that considers bigger to be better, especially among the common livestock. For example, because many tropical cattle are small, there is strong inclination on the part of those responsible for livestock improvement to dismiss them or to increase their size by crossing them with large breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FUTURE OF MICROLIVESTOCK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small animals are likely to become increasingly important. As human populations increase, the space available for growing forage decreases, and this phenomenon favors small animals. Many villagers already have little or no pastureland. Some live in areas (the rice-growing areas of Southeast Asia, for instance) where crops are grown on almost every square meter almost every month of the year. Microlivestock are potentially important for urban areas of developing countries as well. There, too, land is at a premium and is usually inadequate for raising conventional livestock. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, however, microlivestock have been largely ignored. Compared with cattle, they have been accorded little scientific effort. In the drive towards larger animals, stimulated by experience in the temperate zone, the virtually unstudied gene pool of small species and breeds has been mostly bypassed. There have been few attempts to assess or improve their farm productivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is unfortunate, and it is perhaps due to the fact that small animals may be less efficient at digesting certain foods and therefore technically less attractive than large, "modern" breeds. But to Third World peasants, an animal's efficiency is far less important than its survivability and manageability. If an animal cannot be raised under village conditions, its feed-use efficiency or milk yield is irrelevant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock production should be integrated into most ruraldevelopment projects. Small animals offer a way to improve the lives of people who are hard to reach by other methods. Only by expanding research on the husbandry, hygiene, nutrition, reproduction, physiology, and breeding can the promise of animals sized for small farms and villages be fulfilled. Moreover, the costs will be small compared with those of programs for large animals.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specifically, experiment stations should produce and promote methods and materials for use in rearing microlivestock. Donors and development institutions, planners, and policymakers should note the potentials of microlivestock and the benefits that can be derived from them. Teaching manuals and materials are needed, and classes in microlivestock husbandry should be included in rural school curricula.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raising personal livestock on weeds and table scraps in cages beside the house or boxes under the bed will, in many instances, get quality protein to the most poverty stricken more effectively than raising large livestock on pastures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although small size confers many advantages, the question is not whether the large or small animal is "best," but rather how well each can meet a person's varying requirements. In a given situation, livestock can be too small or too large. But the fact remains that not everyone who wants meat or money has the resources to acquire, keep, manage, or utilize a large animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key is balance. Both microlivestock and traditional livestock deserve serious attention. Indeed, it seems likely that the two will seldom compete. Most microlivestock complement traditional livestock because of unique physical, physiological, behavioral, or economic characteristics. They increase the range of options for the millions of poor for whom the choice may not even be between large and small livestock, but between microlivestock and no livestock at all. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It's an unfortunate fact that small animals don't have the prestige among Third World farmers that large animals do (perhaps this arose because children can look after goats and sheep but it takes men to look after cattle). Even sheep and goats are not accorded the same stature as cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hugh Popenoe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeds and varieties were created from mutant genes and thus haste become living reservoirs of these genes, holding them for use in future generations of mankind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g002a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part I : Microbreeds</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g003a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs supply millions of people around the world with the bulk of their cash and animal products. Yet scores of breeds - especially in the tropics - are left out of livestock development projects merely because they are considered too small. These "microbreeds"' have sometimes been considered genetic dead ends because they appear undersized and puny. Many of these traditional animals - some in local use for thousands of years - are disappearing, and even the small ancestors of large modern breeds are becoming extinct.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These small breeds deserve to be studied and developed in their own right. Throughout Africa, Asia, and Latin America, these usually hardy animals are especially adapted to traditional husbandry practices and harsh local conditions. Some have remarkable qualities and are well adapted to resist hostile weather, ravaging pestilence, and poor diets. In remote places and in areas of extreme climate, they are often vitally important for basic subsistence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, because of stress or disease, or insufficient forage, land, or money, microbreeds may be the only practical livestock in many settings. Their individual output may be low, but it can be efficient considering the lack of care and poor feeds they are given. Their availability and the growing number of small-sized farms in the developing world make them increasingly worthy of consideration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following chapters in this section describe microcattle, microgoats, microsheep, and micropigs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Microcattle</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g004a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the purposes of this report, "microcattle" are considered to be small breeds of cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus) with a mature weight of about 300 kg or less. In many areas of the developing world, these are actually the animals most widely held by farmers and pastoralists. They are often treasured because of their resilience and simple requirements. Many survive and produce under harsh conditions, grow rapidly, calve easily, show good maternal ability, yield lean meat, or have other advantages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle have generally been ignored in the push towards larger animals, but they seem inherently suitable for traditional and small-farm husbandry. As rural people in developing countries improve their own productivity, as they become more aware of nutritional needs, and as they depend more upon cash economies, microcattle could become vital means for improving personal, dietary, and economic status.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle have been classified in many ways, but they are generally designated as humped or humpless types. However, clear distinctions among them are sometimes difficult or impossible to make because they have intermingled for thousands of years. Representative microcattle types are listed at the end of the chapter. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than two-thirds of the world's 1.3 billion cattle are found in the developing world; one-third is in the tropics. As noted, a considerable number of these could be called "microcattle."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many strains of microcattle are threatened with extinction because of replacement or crossbreeding with larger types. This is in some respects shortsighted because promoting just a few breeds contributes to narrowing of the genetic base, and valuable traits may be lost when selection is done to conform to any preconceived standard, including large size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle are adapted to a wide variety of habitats. Many types thrive - even with little or no attention - in climates that are hot, humid, arid, or beset by diseases and parasites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle are ruminants and digest fiber well, although they are selective foragers and prefer tender grasses and low-growing legumes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with other tropical cattle, microbreeds generally reach physical and sexual maturity in 2 or 3 years. Many can breed year-round when conditions are favorable (gestation lasts about 9 months). Cows may remain fertile 10 years or more, and can live more than 20 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle usually graze from as few as four hours to as many as eight hours a day. If feed is of poor quality, they must forage (and ruminate) longer to receive adequate nutrition. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle are commonly docile and undemanding animals, and many small breeds are surprisingly responsive to humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like conventional breeds, microcattle produce the same well-known products: meat, milk, manure, hides, horn, blood, and bone. They are also used for traction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small cattle often produce only modest amounts of milk and meat per animal. However, given higher stocking rates, a herd of microcattle is often able to outyield larger, genetically improved animals on a per hectare basis, especially under stressful conditions. When their ability to survive adversity and poor management is taken into account, they may often be far and away the most efficient cattle for traditional husbandry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surprisingly, there is a place even for small draft animals. They tend to be active, thrifty (efficient), and more maneuverable in tight spaces, and so are adapted for use in the small fields, terraces, and paddies that are becoming increasingly common. The small hill cattle of Nepal, for instance, are valued because they can negotiate steep slopes and narrow terraces on Himalayan mountainsides. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle are handled like their larger counterparts, but herding, tethering, fencing, and hobbling are generally easier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle are familiar animals that are accepted in nearly all cultures; their meat, milk, manure, and leather are in demand almost everywhere. In many societies, beef is preferred over other meats, even by those who can rarely afford it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas, organized breeding, production, and marketing associations are already in place. Microcattle can also integrate well into traditional forms of husbandry, whether in pastoral herds of hundreds or as solitary backyard milk cows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under humid and hot conditions, microcattle probably suffer less than larger breeds because their greater ratio of skin area to body mass enhances their ability to shed heat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of cattle that can be kept on a given parcel of land may be increased, sometimes even doubled, with smaller animals. Microcattle can also be penned and fed cut-and-carry forage more easily than can larger cattle, and more of them can be maintained on the same amount of feed. This permits more continuous production and less financial hardship when an animal perishes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small cattle may require less labor because they are generally easier to handle, herd, confine, and transport. They usually have few problems with calving, and as a rule require little or no assistance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microcattle have unusual tolerances to disease. In Africa, for instance, there are breeds that tolerate or resist trypanosomiasis, a parasitic disease that makes large areas of that continent uninhabitable for most other cattle breeds. Others seem more tolerant of internal or external parasites, theileriosis (east coast fever), rinderpest, or other afflictions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle often lack the prestige of larger breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When given quality forage and supplemental feeding, small unimproved cattle may not match the overall productivity of the large, highly developed breeds. Their greatest potential may prove to be for traditional husbandry and for grazing marginal areas where survival is more important than feed efficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BONSAI BRAHMAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mexico, researchers are deliberately creating microcattle. Since 1970, Juan Manuel Berruecos Villalobos, former director of the Veterinary Medicine school at the National Autonomous University, has directed this enterprise. He and his colleagues have miniaturized cows by selecting the smallest specimens out of a herd of normal-sized Brahman cattle and breeding them with one another. After five generations, adult females average 15-180 kg adult males 20-220 kg. A few of the smallest cows are now only 60 cm tall and 140 kg in weight. Merely one-fifth of normal weight, they are shorter than the turkeys that share the barnyard with them. Indeed, they even get lost in the grassy pastures so that the farmers cannot see them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This program seems to have yielded a productive animal that can be cheaply and easily maintained in a small space. Berruecos has demonstrated that the tiny cows can be stocked on one-third the area needed to support one normal-sized cow. He reports that they are giving remarkable amounts of milk: up to four lifers a day, compared with six lifers from their full-sized counterparts. On a feed-intake to weight-gain basis, the tiny cattle are no less efficient than their normal-sized counterparts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although 17 years have gone into the selection of what Berruecos calls his "bonsai cattle," the process is not yet finished. Future goals include testing embryo transplants to see if one normal-sized cow can support multiple "microfetuses" (possibly as many as eight). This would help to rapidly increase the numbers of the miniature form, which weigh merely 4-5 kg at birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All in all, the Mexican researchers see miniaturization as a new option for governments and farmers increasingly squeezed by shrinking farm land and rising production costs. Small livestock they say, are a way to produce more food on less land faster. For example, a campesino with almost no land can have one or two bonsais, but could never maintain a standard-sized cow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their adaptability and robustness make microcattle worthy of preservation, study, and greater use, and they should be incorporated into many ongoing programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selective breeding, although infrequently attempted, can probably improve productivity significantly. Records of breed history should be established, and unusual or special characteristics noted and the information disseminated. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p24a.png"></center><br>
+ Original distribution of wild cattle and banteng (Based on Mason , 1984)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In areas where small, indigenous breeds are being replaced, representative populations should be maintained and studied to increase understanding of their adaptive diversity and to retain a genetic storehouse for the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MICROCATTLE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwarf West African Shorthorn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African coastal forests, and inland. Female 125 kg; male 150 kg. Adaptation to harsh, humid climates and good resistance to trypanosomiasis and other diseases allow these small animals to exist where other cattle die. They are perhaps the smallest cattle of all (often weighing less than 100 kg). In the areas of worst disease and highest rainfall, this hardy animal is often found thriving, but half wild. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muturu Nigeria. Female 160 kg; male 210 kg. This notable subtype is slightly larger. It is the most trypanotolerant of all cattle, showing no symptoms or loss of vitality. It is widely kept, mostly as a village scavenger and often as a pet, and yields a high percentage of meat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N'Dama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West Africa. 200-400 kg. These active, stocky animals utilize low-quality forage, produce good beef, and are used as light draft oxen. Milk production, though poor, improves with feeding level. N'Dama mature early and are exceptionally fertile, and they have already become important in breeding programs. They are resistant to trypanosomiasis, and can exist where temperatures average 30&Yacute; C with 1,500 mm annual rainfall. In the least hospitable areas, N'Damas ranging down to 200 kg are often the only cattle that can remain productive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodope</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southeastern Europe. Female 200 kg; male 350 kg. A humpless multipurpose breed - draft, milk, and beef - that is exceptionally hardy. The milk is high in butterfat. Possibly adaptable to the subtropics. It is rapidly being lost to crossbreeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zebu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zebus are among the most important tropical domestic animals. However, the dwarfs are not well known, although in many areas they are preferred, especially as draft animals. Zebus use less water, even though their sweat glands are larger and more numerous than those of most other cattle. All have a low basal metabolism and resist heat well. In general, they also have high resistance to ticks and other parasites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan Black Taiwan. Female 250 kg; male 250 kg. Well adapted to poor tropical conditions, these work animals are also used for meat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kedah-Kelantan Malaysia. Female 200 kg; male 250 kg. Hardy, well adapted cattle with exceptional fertility on a poor diet, both sexes are used as draft animals as well as sources of meat and cash. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sinhala (Dwarf Zebu) Sri Lanka. Female 200 kg; male 250 kg. An ancient type of zebu, preferred for its handiness in cultivating small paddies and terraced fields. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nuba Dwarf Sudan. 180-220 kg. These work animals are well proportioned but are not slaughtered for meat, and milk production is low. Although tolerant to trypanosomiasis, their numbers have dwindled because of crossbreeding. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small Zebu Somalia. 160-230 kg. These small native cattle are used for beef, milk, and for work. They are well adapted to poor feed in a desolate environment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abyssinian Shorthorn Zebu (Showa) Central highlands of Ethiopia. Female 225 kg; male 305 kg. These widespread, small-humped cattle are very hardy. They produce beef and are generally milked, with surplus production about 2-4 kg daily. Resistant to many parasites, they also have a gentle disposition and make good work animals. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwarf Zebu (Mongalla) Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya. Female 150 kg; male 250 kg. A highly variable, long-entrenched, small, East-African zebu with some nonzebu blood. Pastoralists favor it because of its hardiness. Although slow-maturing, it is well-fleshed, can yield excellent beef, and some types are milked. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mashona Zimbabwe. Female 200 kg; male 250 kg. This hardy zebusanga type (see below) is widespread in drier areas and has a high resistance to disease and parasites. Since the 1940s, it has been bred for beef production and selected animals now weigh more than 500 kg. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mini-Brahman Mexico. 135 kg. Downsized from 450-kg Brazilian zebus through selective breeding by Mexican researchers, these gentle animals are reported to yield two-thirds as much milk (3-4 liters daily) as the parent stock. Because of much higher stocking rates on grass, production per hectare is reportedly greater than with full-sized animals (see sidebar, page 22). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central and South America. Descendants of Spanish and Portuguese  cattle imported over 400 years ago, "criollo" cattle have adapted to a  wide range of harsh climates. Many varieties are small: mature females  often weigh 200-300 kg or less. They sometimes produce little beef or  milk under traditional conditions and management, but they are  extremely hardy and survive when other cattle perish. Through  importation and crossbreeding, many local types have been lost or are  threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chinampo Baja California, Mexico. 200-350 kg. Extremely tolerant of  wild desert conditions, these docile criollo cattle exist largely on scrub  and cactus. They get most of their water from succulent plants, have a  low metabolic rate and body temperature, and are mostly active at night. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Florida Scrub Florida, USA. 225-300 kg. Genetically isolated for more  than 300 years, the Florida Scrub is very hardy in harsh, subtropical  conditions. It has good resistance to ticks and screwworm, and can  subsist on forage with a high roughage content. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sanga</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This type - an ancient cross between longhorns or shorthorns and  humped animals - is found throughout eastern and southern Africa. It  weighs from 150 to 500 kg or more. Some types have been selectively  bred or crossed with European cattle and are quite productive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bavenda Transvaal, South Africa. 240-290 kg. This hardy and  disease tolerant tropical variety is small and prolific. It is generally used  for draft, barter, and beef. However, it has been crossbred with larger  animals so frequently that the smaller types are almost extinct; most  "Bavendas" now weigh more than 300 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ovambo' Northeastern Namibia. Female 160 kg; male 225 kg. A calm  and docile animal with a small hump, it is used by seasonal pastoralists  for beef and milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nilotic Sudan. 180-300 kg. These cattle of southern Sudan show great variation in size, partly due to environmental factors. They are generally resistant to local parasites and worms, have good potential for increased beef production, and their milk is very important locally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chadian "Native" and Dwarf Black Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad. Female 225 kg; male 275 kg. These two types are small, humped meat animals that graze the sparse savanna and are very drought resistant. Little scientific information exists about them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Arab Cattle"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East. Small types (female 225 kg; male 300 kg) are used for meat and some milk, especially in Lebanon. There are many local forms with variable appearance, but all have small humps. Well adapted to grazing sparse vegetation on rough land, they are becoming rare due to crossbreeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hill Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal. Female 160 kg; male 200 kg. A widespread type often recrossed with Indian zebu animals, they are bred to be small. They are thrifty creatures that maintain themselves well on poor forage. Bulls make sure-footed draft animals on rough ground and slopes, and the cows are milked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tibetan Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tibet. Less than 250 kg. These humpless cattle are used as pack animals and can tolerate poor forage and high altitudes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yellow Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southwest and south China. Female 220 kg; male 380 kg. In the subtropics and tropics, small multipurpose types of Yellow Cattle withstand high temperature and humidity. They are used mainly for work and meat, and seem well adapted to poor feed, harsh conditions, and rugged terrain. The Chowpei (190-380 kg) is a hardy working breed of more temperate areas in Hubei Province.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheju Hanwoo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Korea. Female 230 kg; male 280 kg. A yellowish-brown Cheju Island native that has almost no calving difficulty, it is well adapted to poor grazing conditions in harsh environments and is docile and obedient.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madura</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia. Female 220 kg; male 300 kg. An ancient cross between humped cattle and the banteng (see sidebar), these heat- and disease resistant hybrids also have good grazing and mothering ability, and are kept in the most extreme humid tropical environments. Breeding for fighting and racing has given them a poor disposition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dexter Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ireland and North America. 220-360 kg. This breed can be traced back to eighteenth-century Ireland and is believed to have been developed by peasant farmers living on rough land. It is exceptionally hardy and produces both milk and meat. In North America, it has become popular among city folk who acquire country property, as this microbreed is particularly well suited to their usually tiny farms. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BANTENG: THE CUTEST COW</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng (Bos Javanicus) is a small Southeast Asian bovine with a promising future.* It is a different species from cattle. The two will interbreed, but the hybrid offspring are normally sterile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although almost entirely neglected by the animal science community, the banteng is remarkable for an ability to thrive under hot, humid, and disease-ridden conditions where cattle often grow poorly. The sexes are easily distinguished: males are jet black, females are golden brown. Both have bright white socks and rumps as if they had been freshly whitewashed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng are found in remote areas of countries from Burma to Indonesia. But only Indonesia has used it as a farm animal so far. It has more than 1.5 million domesticated banteng - some 20 percent of the country's total "cattle" population. Indonesian farmers value the animal's agility, which allows them to cultivate Relds too narrow for cattle to turn the prow. In addition, gourmets consider banteng meat the tastiest of all. Indonesia appreciates the banteng so much that it has established a genetic sanctuary on the island of Bali - banning cattle in order to maintain the banteng's genetic purity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside Indonesia, only a few scientists have studied this animal, but it seems clear that it is particularly useful under tropical conditions. In heat and humidity, it thrives; even when cattle are starving, one rarely sees a skinny banteng. And demand for its meat is never ending.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Microgoats</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than 90 percent of the world's nearly half billion goats (Capra hircus) are found in developing countries; many weigh less than 35 kg fully grown.` Such "microgoats" are noted for their high reproductive rates, rapid growth, early maturity, tasty meat, and rich milk' as well as for their robust constitution, ease of handling, and tolerance of climatic stress and poor feeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To many people - especially where pigs and poultry are not common - meat and milk from microgoats are the primary animal proteins consumed during a lifetime. Perhaps the world's best foragers, goats eat practically anything made of cellulose, and are not dependent on grass. Because of their unselective feeding behavior, they are capable of living where the feeds - tree leaves, shrubs, and weeds - are too poor to support other types of livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such microgoats deserve wider recognition, for they are often the poor person's only source of milk, meat, and cash income. They are cheap to acquire and easy to maintain, even by people with little property and scarce resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, especially in arid and semiarid climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats generally have a long snout and an upright tail, by which they can be distinguished from most sheep. The mouth is unusual in having a mobile upper lip and a grasping tongue, which permits the animal to nibble even tiny leaves on spiny species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Common commercial goat breeds generally weigh between 60 and 100 kg, with some weighing more than 200 kg. Microgoats may weigh less than 15 kg. Representative examples are listed at the end of the chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, with half in Asia and one-third in Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The FAO projects that world numbers may nearly double by the turn of the century. Goats are thus not endangered, but in some areas select populations of feral goats are being deliberately eradicated, with the consequent loss of potentially valuable genes. Some small breeds are also threatened by excessive crossbreeding with larger types.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most adaptable of all livestock, goats can persist in conditions from arid to humid, and from sea level to high altitude. They are especially well adapted to hot, semiarid climates and to rocky, barren terrain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These ruminants can subsist on many feedstuffs that would otherwise be left to waste. Although selective browsers, they often prefer coarse leaves (including palm fronds) and shrubbery to palatable forage grass.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most microgoats mature quickly, and in the tropics they can generally breed year-round. Their reproductive potential has often been underestimated; kidding is rarely difficult, and many types produce twins and sometimes even triplets or quadruplets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In hot, dry areas, goats require less attention than other livestock, and smaller goats have the added advantage of better heat dissipation. Some microgoats may also show disease resistance. For example, tolerance to trypanosomiasis makes them an important livestock in many regions of Africa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are generally gentle, but can be easily frightened. They may become stubborn and aggressive when threatened or thwarted, and can prove hard to confine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If their feed smells of other animals - particularly of other goats -  they usually shun it unless nothing else is available. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoats mainly produce meat and form an important part of the diet in southern Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America, especially the Caribbean. Goat is sometimes a preferred meat, and there are few social or religious prohibitions against eating it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microgoats are good milkers, and under stressful conditions they may keep producing when other livestock are dry. Goat milk is a valuable dietary supplement: it is nutritious, easily digestible, and usually commands premium prices. It makes excellent cheese and yogurt and can be used by people allergic to cow's milk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoats produce some of the finest and most valuable fibers in the world. Angora and Cashmere goats often weigh less than 30 kg fully grown, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats produce a fine-textured, durable leather that finds extensive uses both locally and internationally. Horns, hooves, blood, and bone meal also have commercial value. Manure is another important product, and comes in fairly dry pellets that are easy to collect, store, and distribute.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats perform important functions in land management. Seeds of many trees (Acacia and Prosopis, for example) are "scarified" by passing through the goats' digestive system, fostering germination and natural revegetation. With care, goats can also be used to clear land of weeds and brush.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are often allowed to roam and scavenge for their own food. They form strong territorial attachments and can be trained to stay within a designated area. However, they cannot be kept from investigating - and quite probably devouring - anything within that territory. They are persistent browsers, so it is essential to prevent overstocking as well as raids on crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Variety of diet is important, and goats show much individuality in feed preferences. They are often raised on crop residue and kitchen refuse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats can be run with other livestock without creating serious competition. The goats browse weedy shrubs, whereas the sheep and cattle graze more on grasses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although perhaps the hardiest of all livestock, most breeds benefit when they are provided shelter from rain and high-noon sun. Abrupt chilling and poor ventilation can cause severe respiratory problems. They are also susceptible to various maladies, such as internal parasites, especially when confined. The highest mortality, however, is caused when very young kids are not supplied with adequate feed and clean, dry shelter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most developing countries goats are already prominent in rural life. Common almost everywhere in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, they are dependable multi-use animals. They are particularly important in providing ready cash, such as for school fees, taxes, marriages, or funerals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats integrate well in mixed agriculture, for example, by consuming leafy wastes, clearing land, and contributing fertilizer. In many places they are raised almost exclusively by women and children. If confined, goats require only simple, inexpensive shelters or pens, which makes them especially important as subsistence animals. In many situations, they may be the most efficient and economic producers for smallholders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals have a relatively fast rate of growth and early reproductive age, even under harsh conditions. They can graze rougher terrain than cattle and most sheep, can go for longer periods without water, and forage well in wooded areas where grass is lacking. They can derive most or all of their diet from roughage unusable by humans; high-energy feeds, such as protein supplements or carbohydrate supplements, are usually not needed even to fatten them for slaughter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are generally healthy and are not affected by many of the parasites and diseases that ravage other livestock. Some resistance to mange, internal parasites, foot-and-mouth disease, and other livestock scourges has been reported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some places (notably, in industrialized nations) there is a strong prejudice against goats and goat meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smallness makes microgoats targets for predators and thieves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many small goats are poor milkers, especially under hardship conditions; however, even small amounts of milk can often fulfill a child's daily nutritional requirement or reinforce a nursing mother's diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are independent and may wander away if not watched, and they can be difficult to pen. They may also have an unpleasant odor when kept confined (males are particularly malodorous during rutting season). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are often disparaged for degrading land and destroying vegetation because they continue to survive on overutilized lands often laid waste by mismanagement of sheep or cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRESH GENES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A rare wild animal with spectacular horns, the bezoar (Capra aegagrus) is the goat's wild ancestor. People domesticated it before 7000 B.C., probably in the mountains along the Iran/ Iraq border. Until recent times, it remained widely scattered across the vast region between Greece and Pakistan, but it now exists only in pockets and is threatened with extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This would be a tragedy because the bezoar is a resilient wild species that crosses readily with domestic goats, and it could pass on its genetic inheritance for heat, drought, and cold tolerance: disease resistance; and other survival qualities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p39a.png"></center><br>
+ Distribution of the bezoar. The arrow indicates the area where it was probably first domesticated, resulting in the goat as we know it (From Mason 1984)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fascinating science and valuable results probably await those willing to study this hardy, handsome creature and to explore the reharnessing of its genetic endowment. Today the bezoar is considered merely a trophy for hunters. The power of its genes to refresh - perhaps even revolutionize - the world's 500 million goats has been lost to sight. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The microgoat's potential has hardly been realized. More research on performance and husbandry is needed to preserve and restore small breeds. Selective breeding for prolificacy, viability, and rapid growth, as well as more selective on-site culling, could greatly improve both meat and milk yields and quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management systems that exploit smallness, stabilize production, and preserve the environment should be introduced and publicized in appropriate goat-rearing areas. Careful assessments of indigenous management methods should be made, particularly emphasizing their desirable characteristics. Improving hygiene in the wet season and supplemental feeding in the dry season are also important, as are disease- and parasite-control measures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The undomesticated ibex and markhor could possibly be major contributors in the development of new, useful breeds for tropical and arid regions (see sidebar, page 42). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE BREEDS OF MICROGOATS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African Dwarf (Djallon)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West and Central Africa. Female 20 kg; male 30 kg. Adapted to humid lowlands, this widespread goat is particularly valuable for meat and skin production. Generally, it is bred for meat, but milk is sometimes an important secondary product. Sexual maturity is very early (3-6 months), and quadruplets occasionally occur (most goat breeds normally produce only single births). Related types go by the names "Cameroon Dwarf," "Dirdi," and "Nigerian Dwarf."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nubian Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States. 35-40 kg (often less). A stable miniature variety of the milking Nubian, this microgoat has been developed recently in the United States by crossing standard-sized Nubians with the West African Dwarf. It combines a good milk output with high levels of butterfat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American Pygmy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States. 15-25 kg. Derived from the West African Dwarf, it is noted for its hardiness and good nature, good milk production, and adaptability to various climates. There are several varieties, some for milking, others for meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudanese Nubian</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Sudan. 25-30 kg. Widespread milk goats of riverain and urban areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudanese Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Sudan. 11-25 kg. A very hardy desert goat similar to the West African Dwarf, it averages 15 kg, but some mature individuals may weigh as little as 11 kg. Used for meat and hides, it produces little milk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small East African</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania. 20-30 kg. A widely neglected meat and hide animal found over a wide range, it is fast growing (sexual maturity at four months) and extremely hardy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritian</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritius. 25-30 kg. A prolific, year-round breeder raised for meat production, it is often confined in simple shelters from birth to slaughter. Perhaps because of this isolation, mortality is less than 10 percent, even with little or no veterinary care.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin America. "Criollo" is a name given to several breeds of ancient Iberian blood with local adaptations to many unfavorable conditions. They are often small and hardy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Creole Caribbean. Females 20 kg; males 25 kg. Robust meat goats of Spanish or West African origin that are kept throughout the Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crioulo Brazil. 30-35 kg. A meat and skin goat derived from Portuguese ancestors, it is hardy, prolific, undemanding, and adapted to harsh environments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chapper</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan. Female 20 kg; male 24 kg. Originating in dry regions, this meat and milk goat is a nonseasonal breeder with outstanding potential.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbari</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan, India. Females 20-25 kg; males 20-40 kg. A prolific, fastgrowing "urban" goat with high twinning and low mortality. Often kept inside houses, they adapt well to confinement and are important for both milk and meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaddi (White Himalaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hill districts of northern India. 25-30 kg. Kept for meat and their long, lustrous white hair, they are pure-breeding and healthy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Changthangi (Ladakh)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kashmir, India. Male 20 kg. A pashmina (cashmere) goat of India, it is adapted to a high altitude, high humidity climate with extremes of temperature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Terai</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal. 8-12 kg. A very small, hardy animal of the southern lowlands, it kids year-round (sometimes twice), and often produces twins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Hill Goat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal. 12-16 kg. A small, mid-altitude goat resembling the Terai. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Bengal (Teddy, Bangladesh Dwarf)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eastern India and Pakistan. Female 10 kg; male 14 kg. A widespread, humid-area, meat goat that is early maturing and very prolific. It kids twice a year, and produces 60 percent twins and 10 percent triplets. It produces a superior leather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katjang</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southeast Asia, China, and Pacific Islands. In places, less than 20 kg. A widespread, highly variable, hardy goat adapted to humid conditions, it usually has twins or triplets. Used for meat and skins, with exceptional females being milked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chinese Dwarf (Tibetan, Jining, Fuyang, or Chengdu Grey)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China. 20-40 kg. Well adapted to the humid tropics, it normally twins and is a good meat producer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heuk Yumso</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Korea. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. A prolific cold-climate goat with a year-round breeding season. The meat is highly prized, and often sells at a premium due to its supposed health-giving effects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hejazi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East. Female 20 kg; male 20 kg. A meat goat, usually black, for harsh desert conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sinai (Black Bedouin)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sinai, Egypt and Negev Desert, Israel. Female 20 kg; male 50 kg. Native to dry, hot deserts, this milk and meat goat matures at 5-8 months and has a twinning rate over 50 percent. A most important characteristic is its drought tolerance. The female, for instance, can drink only once a day - at a pinch, once every other day - without losing appetite or reducing milk flow. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILD RELATIVES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several wild relatives will cross with the goat. Surprisingly, they have the same chromosome number (2n=60), and the offspring are frequently fertile. Although essentially unknown to agricultural science, these hybrids may offer a new gene pool for creating new farm animals and for improving the world's goats. They seem to combine the self-reliance of wild species with the usefulness of domestic ones. Artificial insemination and other modern techniques could make them easier to produce today than ever before.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ibex*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A project in Israel has already produced a cross between the goat and the Nubian ibex (Capra ibex). The Sinai Desert goat, the breed that was used, ranks next to the camel in its ability to go without water - it often drinks only twice a week - but its meat has such a strong flavor that most people consider it dreadful. On the other hand, the ibex is compact and muscular and produces tender, mild meat that steak lovers find delicious. The product from crossbreeding the two is a creature seemingly able to endure extreme temperatures and drought, make use of poor pasture, and produce wonderful steaks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A herd of several hundred of these hybrids (dubbed 'ya-ez") has been created at Kibbutz Lahav in the northern Negev Desert area. Both sexes are fertile, and they can be bred with each other or with either parent. The meat is already in demand on the menus of elegant Tel Aviv hotels. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Markhor**</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Pakistan's northern uplands, it is not uncommon to find hybrids between domestic goats and the mountain goat known as "markhor" (Capra falconeri). Each year in Chitral and Gilgit, they can be found in the goat markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Markhors inhabit high elevations in rugged mountains and thrive on diets so meager as to be useless to goats. The hybrids are produced when markhor males - perhaps ousted by more dominant males - come in contact with feral domestic goats. However, some farmers raise young markhor and goats together (to overcome mutual resistance) and produce their own hybrids,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For a single hybrid animal local goatherds pay up to 5,000 rupees, a princely sum in this impoverished region. Traditionally, villagers have kept them as stud animals. They appreciate the animal's genetic endowment. Markhors tolerate extremes of cold and snow, are nimble and skilled at escaping predators, and survive on scanty fodder, Moreover, they have a high reproduction potential because they generally produce twins. As a result, they also tend to give more milk and it is rich in nutritive value. Instead of long body hairs, markhors possess insulating underfur - a soft and valuable raw material for the famous Kashmiri shawls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apparently, the hybrids can possess many of these qualities together with a calm disposition. Thus they could be useful in themselves and as conduits for passing such traits on to goats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 Microsheep</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the hundreds of breeds of sheep (Ovis aries) in the world, those weighing less than 35 kg when mature have been largely ignored. Although these are common, the impression lingers that they are too small to be useful. Yet this virtually untapped gene pool is esnecially well adapted to traditional Third World animal husbandry. Given attention, these "microsheep" could boost meat, milk, skin, wool, and pelt production in many villages and small farms of Africa, Asia, and Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many microsheep thrive in environments that tax the ability of larger breeds to survive. They are adapted to poor feeds and can be grazed in uncultivated wastelands unsuited to any other livestock except goats or camels. Because of their size, microsheep can fatten in areas where forage is so scattered and sparse that larger animals cannot cover enough ground to fill their bellies each day. In addition, their foraging complements that of other livestock. For example, sheep can graze rough grasses and weeds that cattle find unpalatable. Some survive even the stress of extreme aridity and for this reason are the predominant livestock in North Africa and the Middle East.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many small breeds can be disease resistant. Some, for example, are widespread in the zones of Africa where trypanosomiasis is prevalent. They are generally less adversely affected by foot-and-mouth disease than are cattle, and some small native sheep seem to have fewer problems with insects and parasites than do most other livestock, including temperate-area sheep.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giving more attention to the management and improvement of microsheep could pay back abundantly in the form of food, income, and improved land utilization in many parts of the developing world. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, but notably in drier regions of the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An average weight for temperate sheep breeds is about 70 kg,' but the smallest microsheep weigh less than 20 kg fully grown. Many tropical microsheep are "hairless," and have little or no wool. These are often difficult to distinguish from goats, but (like all sheep) they generally have blunter snouts, more fat, and hanging tails. Some have greatly enlarged rumps or tails that store fat. Unlike goats, sheep have no odor-producing glands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some representative microsheep are described at the end of this chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than one billion sheep occur worldwide, and they occupy every climatic zone in which people live. At least half are in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although more than 1,000 breeds are recognized, only a handful dominate the world's sheep industries. Lesser-known breeds are rapidly becoming extinct (especially in developed countries, although scattered efforts are being made to preserve them). Elsewhere, genetic resources have not been properly evaluated, and potentially valuable stock is being lost before it is even understood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep are among the most adaptable animals. Various types are kept in areas of extreme heat, cold, altitude, aridity, humidity, and rainfall. They are especially widespread in hot, dry climates, but some breeds also thrive in humid areas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep make efficient use of a wide variety of fodder: tree leaves, fortes, grasses, crop residues, and agricultural by-products, for instance. They often survive privation by calling on their reserves of body fat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the tropics, sheep reach sexual maturity in about a year. Many breeds lamb year-round, which allows for a continuous production of premium meat. Gestation takes about five months, and lambing is usually timed to occur when feed is most abundant and nutritious. Microsheep often bear two or more young and, under good management, may produce lambs annually for more than five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These shy animals flock together and, in general, are managed with little effort. They are easily panicked, however, and rams can become aggressive during rutting or when threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE LITTLE SHEEP THAT COULD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dozens of the world's neglected breeds of tiny sheep should be preserved from extinction, for many will undoubtedely prove to have outstanding qualities. Current efforts to save the Navajo sheep in the United States exemplify what can be achieved</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Navajo is a microsheep, and is perhaps the oldest breed of sheep in the United States. It may have been introduced to North America in 1540 by the Spanish explorer Francisco Vazquez de Coronado, who was seeking the mythical Seven Golden Cities of Cibola in the region that is now Arizona and New Mexico. Smaller than many dogs, a full-grown Navajo sheep may weigh only 30 kg, but it became a big part of the culture of the Southwest. Although the Navajos and other local Indians had never seen sheep before the 1500s, they soon became shepherds and weavers, and their rugs made from the unique wool of this wiry little animal remain famous even today.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navajo sheep have white or brown wool hanging in ringlets around their bodies. The fleece is a double coat: long, coarse guard hairs on the outside and short wool on the inside. It yields warm, waterproof, and long-lasting products. Many of the sheep have four horns because the Indians believed that this trait was sacred, and they favored four-horned rams for breeding purposes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of Navajo sheep was reduced sharply between 1950 and 1950 because of severe overgrazing and replacement by improved wool breeds. In recent times there has been so little commercial and scientific interest in this microsheep that by the 1970s only a handful of purebred specimens survived. Since the late 1970s, however, Lyle McNeal, a Utah State University professor, has been working to save it from extinction. By 1988 he had a burgeoning flock at the university and was learning that this supposedly obsolete dwarf is amazingly useful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The breed originated in the arid south of Spain (where it is called the "churro"), and it thrives in the hot, dry climate. Unlike normal breeds, it can exist in the desert without supplementary food and with little water. As McNeal has pointed out, any sheep that can survive and raise a lamb in the aridity and searing heat of the American Southwest has to be superior. He has found that the ewes have a strong maternal instinct, which is vital for protecting lambs against the coyotes that are common in the region. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thanks to the efforts of McNeal and his colleagues, Indians are beginning to use Navajo sheep again; by 1988 there were more than 400 on the Navajo reservation, with their wool fetching premium prices. This tough little sheep could prove valuable not only for American Indians but for poor people in many other dry regions as well. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microsheep are mainly kept for meat production, but - especially in arid regions - for milk as well. Their meat is usually lean with little "muttony" taste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wool or hair is taken from many breeds, although the yield is often small. Skins from hair sheep' thinner than cowhide, are widely used and are in international demand. In some places, manure is considered an important product. In Nepal, thousands of small sheep are used as pack animals, especially to carry salt into mountain valleys.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most sheep are maintained in free-ranging flocks. Many are grazed (often tethered) over a small area during the day and confined in a "fold" at night. Others are penned or kept as village scavengers. These are usually fed supplements of household scraps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep form an integral part of a mixed farming economy; for example, they may graze pastures during the wet season, and survive on crop residues and field weeds during the dry season. They have excellent foraging capabilities and are often kept alongside goats. This broadens the variety of forages utilized and often increases total production from a single piece of land, for sheep and goats have complementary feeding habits and male goats help protect the sheep from some predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In spite of the heavy toll that predators (such as feral dogs) can take on lambs and ewes, the largest proportion of sheep in the tropics are lost through lack of basic care. Modest supplemental feeding of lambs and inexpensive preventive medicines can do much to lower mortality and boost production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep are multipurpose animals, and almost everywhere they produce several products. The rich milk is often preferred to that of cows or goats, especially for making cheese and yogurt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lambs form an important part of the household economy for much of the rural world, and only rarely is social or religious stigma attached to keeping or eating them. Indeed, sheep are the traditional feast animals of several religions, and in some places sheep meat is preferred to beef and sells at a premium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By and large, all sheep products can be processed, utilized, or marketed by the producer. In addition, sheep marketing and transportation systems exist in most countries, at least to some degree.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep are efficient producers and can provide a quick turnover for food and cash. On the brush and coarse grasses of marginal lands, they may be more productive than cattle, and on grass they may outproduce goats. As long as they are not overstocked, sheep do not degrade vegetation; unless starving they will not debark trees. Small breeds cause little erosion, even on steep slopes, heavily traveled paths, or near water holes.2 In South Asia, they have been continuously stocked on the same ground for thousands of years without causing apparent harm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because sheep have a natural tendency to accumulate fat, they "finish" well on grazing and usually do not require a high-energy finishing diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their general healthiness, sheep are affected by many internal parasites and diseases, a few of which are communicable to man. They are especially susceptible to infectious conjunctivitis (pinkeye).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Predators and thieves can be greater threats than sickness. Labor inputs can be high because of the almost continual protection sheep need.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some mutton has a strong taste that many find unappealing. However, the taste is carried mainly by the fat, and the generally lean microsheep are often commended for their fine-textured, sweet meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The numerous breeds of small sheep should be investigated. Assessments should be made for the animals' ability to thrive under adverse conditions and for resistance to particular diseases and parasites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, even minimal extension services and veterinary support for sheep could greatly decrease mortality, especially among lambs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving microbreeds without increasing their size is one of the most interesting challenges facing sheep scientists today. While efforts should be made to conserve and select within types, research should also be conducted on hybrid vigor. Efforts to improve the pelt and fleece of microsheep should also be encouraged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More studies on the interactions between sheep and cropping systems are needed. Sheep (and the manure they produce) could become important components of forestry (see sidebar), crop rotation, alley cropping, and other forms of sustainable agriculture. For instance, sheep are especially effective for weed control in plantation crops such as oil palm and rubber as well as in forests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SMALL SHEEP IN THE FOREST</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even in countries with long traditions of raising large sheep, there are opportunities for using small, agile, hardy breeds. The following is an example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seeking safer methods for stopping brush from smothering newly planted trees, U.S. government foresters have turned from chemical defoliants to flocks of sheep. Court decisions in 1983 and 1984 barred the use of herbicides along Oregon's Pacific Coast. Various alternatives were tried, and the animals proved the most successful. Sheep are now the favored method for controlling unwanted vegetation. Indeed, they have changed the foresters' whore approach to managing reforestation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Formerly, the U.S. Forest Service allowed the brush to grow on logged-over sites and then sprayed it down before planting tree seedlings. Now it plants grass to suppress brush and reduce erosion. The sites are later fertilized, tree seedlings are planted, and within a year sheep are brought in to graze. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, in the district around Alsea, Oregon sheep nimbly skirt old stumps to graze on the lush vegetation. Three times each summer since 1984, about 2,000 sheep have been guided across the replanted areas by a herder and a range conservationist. The sheep eat both the grass and the new buds on brush, but they leave most fir-tree seedlings untouched. The key, according to Rick Breckle, a forester, is to have enough sheep to graze an area evenly and to keep them moving so they don't resort to nibbling the young trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Previously, chemical brush treatments had annually cost $135-$353 per hectare. Now, sowing grass and grazing sheep costs about $300 per hectare. And there is a product to sell: the adult sheep don't fatten well, but the lambs bring a useful income at the end of the summer. What is more, Breckle reports that the trees seem to be growing faster - probably because of the manurings they receive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This method seems likely to be effective elsewhere - at least with trees that are unpalatable or too tall for their growing points to be nibbled. Malaysia, for instance, doubled its sheep population between 1986 and 1989, in part because it has begun raising sheep between the trees in rubber plantations. With the use of agroforestry increasing worldwide, small sheep could find a whole new application.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MICROSHEEP</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Senegal to Nigeria, and south to Angola. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. Well adapted to warm, humid conditions. Prolific, and good disease resistance. Major meat producer in West Africa. Fast growing: by six months of age they approach adult weight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Landim (Small East African)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">East and Central Africa. 23-40 kg. Prolific, adaptable, long fat-tailed type. Large litter size for a sheep. In one recent test, ewes averaged more than 1.4 lambs.3 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berber</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Atlas Mountains. 25-41 kg. Needing little feed and remaining constantly outdoors, these extremely hardy sheep are exploited for meat and their coarse, hairy wool. They fatten easily when well fed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arab</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">North Africa. 40-50 kg. This thin-tailed sheep is exceptionally robust, and is resistant to extremes of temperature, drought, and poor nutrition. Primarily a meat producer, its wool is used for coarse cloths and carpets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Sudan Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the many small breeds of eastern and southern Africa, its weight ranges from 15 to 25 kg, but it may weigh as little as 11 kg. Yielding a fine, short fleece, this hardy, frugal sheep is often run with cattle to maximize grazing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hejazi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deserts of Arabia. 32 kg. A popular and ancient fat-tailed meat producer that is highly acclimatized to drought and privation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zel (Iranian Thin-Tailed)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caspian region of northern Iran. Female 30-32 kg. Well adapted to subtropical regions, they produce coarse wool, milk, and excellent meat that lacks the "mutton taste" and odor of some sheep meats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greek Zackel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mountain and island types. Female 30 kg; male 40 kg. These common sheep are active, hardy, and resistant to extremes of climate and disease. Primarily a milking sheep, their wool is used locally and lambs are slaughtered for special occasions. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sitia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crete. Female 25 kg; male 30 kg. Another of the hardy, screwhorned "zackel" sheep common to the Balkans, they are adapted to poor pasturage and extensive herding. Quick maturing and highly fertile, they can be exploited for milk as well as for meat and coarse wool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Common Albanian</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. Similar to the Greek Zackel, they are used as triple-purpose animals: meat, milk, and wool. They survive in low, marshy areas where parasites are common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zeta Yellow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yugoslavia. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. A small, hardy sheep used for milk and some meat, its primary product is wool. Often unshorn for several years, the long fibers are woven into expensive carpets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pag</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yugoslavia. Female 20-30 kg; male 25-35 kg. These wool, milk, and meat sheep are frugal and well adapted to scant vegetation and rocky terrain. Although they have a low birth rate and carcass yield, their milk and wool are commercially exploitable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roccia (Steinschaf)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Italy, Austria. Female 30 kg; Male 30-35 kg. These "stone sheep" resemble a goat in their ability to exploit the poor pastures of high, steep, rocky mountains. Although not highly productive, they are hardy and frugal and commonly produce twins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corsican</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corsica (France). 25-30 kg. A hardy native breed that is well adapted to rather sparse feed conditions. Coarse wool, both white and black, is well suited for hand processing. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entre Douro e Minho</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Portugal. Female 15-18 kg; Male 20-25 kg. These independent sheep yield a good wool in mountainous terrain that would otherwise be nonproductive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Churra do Campo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Portugal. Female 20 kg; male 30 kg. A coarse-woofed sheep extensively kept in Portugal's dry interior for milk and wool. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Galician</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spain. Female 18 kg; male 25 kg. A milking breed that survives on  poor pasture, it also produces a marketable wool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scotland. Female 25 kg; male 30 kg. Adapted to wide temperature  variations. Possibly the most primitive domesticated sheep of Europe,  probably unchanged from Viking times. Immune to foot rot. A wool  sheep with short brown fleece that is shed annually.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">North Ronaldsay (Orkney)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Scotland. 27-32 kg. Surviving year-round on seaweed,  this rare breed is adapted to high salt intake and the associated digestive  problems. Yield 1-2 kg medium-coarse wool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin America. Derived from ''native'' Spanish Churro and Merino  sheep. Many are small and very hardy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navajo-Churro Southwestern United States. Female 45 kg; male 70  kg. Maternal, and very resistant to internal parasites and hoof rot.  Although the Navajo subsists and reproduces on little feed and scarce  water in desert regions, it was widely replaced by improved breeds  earlier in this century. Because of its hardiness, however, and the use of  its wool in traditional weaving, its numbers are rebounding (see sidebar,  page 50). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Florida Native Southeastern United States. Females 35-45 kg;  males 45-6O kg. This long-isolated and highly variable sheep is  adapted to harsh subtropical climates and is known for its ability to  forage. A medium-wool breed, it is very resistant to intestinal parasites.  Verging on extinction due to neglect and uncontrolled crossbreeding. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Virgin Islands White Hair (St. Croix)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean. Female 35-45 kg; male 45-55 kg. Hair sheep with  some wool in young animals. Well adapted to warm humid conditions, it has fairly good disease and parasite resistance and produces good meat. Prolific, it breeds most of the year and commonly has twins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Magra (Chokhla)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northwest India, Pakistan.4 20-25 kg. Adapted to hot, dry areas, the extremely white and shiny fleece is valued for carpet wool. Slowmaturing and low fertility (lambing at 45 percent) plus extensive crossbreeding have led to serious declines in population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marwari</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northwest India. 25-30 kg. A widespread, white-fleeced sheep that has a high resistance to disease and worms, good fertility, and low mortality. They do well in large flocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mandya (Bandur)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southwest India. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. An outstanding meat breed with good mutton quality, it adapts well to mixed farming and has unusually low lamb mortality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hu (Huyang, Lake Sheep)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China. Female 35 kg; male 45 kg. These fat-tailed sheep have a six month lambing interval and are very prolific. They are used under intensive management to produce meat, wool, and a valuable lambskin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Javanese Thin-Tail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia. 25-40 kg. Widely held as a "bank account," these meat, manure, and skin sheep are well known for being prolific. Although single lambs are not uncommon, litters of six have also been recorded. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILD AND WOOLLY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Considering that dozens of countries depend on the productivity of more than a billion domesticated sheep, it is remarkable that their wild ancestor is accorded no attention. This fast-declining animal is now little more than a trophy for hunters, a fact that should be of vital intemational concern.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep were domesticated in the Middle East and Central Asia in the Stone Age era between 8,000 and 11,000 years ago.* Their wild ancestor was almost certainly the mouflon (Outs orientalis). However, domestication may have occurred in more than one place, and two other wild creatures, the urial (Outs vignei) and the argali (Outs ammon), also possibly provided genes to some sheep breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mouflon, urial, and argali still exist in the mountains of Central Asia, and a European subspecies of mouflon is also found in the Mediterranean, but only on Corsica, Cyprus, and Sardinia.** Because they live in remote, rugged, upland areas, these wild sheep are usually undisturbed, but the numbers are decreasing everywhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This may be a serious loss because these animals could be extremely valuable. They are capable of crossing with domestic sheep, and the offspring are viable and fully fertile.*** For developing new meat-producing breeds, their potential seems almost limitless.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the thousands of years that sheep have been protected by humans, their wild ancestors have continued to face predators, parasites, disease, extreme cold and seasonal starvation. Their genetic endowment, forged and tempered in unforgiving harshness, could be a benefit for all future sheep generations. These animals appear to resist various diseases. Their meat is reported to be of excellent quality, notably lacking the strong mutton flavor that many people find objectionable. They have relatively short, thin tails - a feature that might eliminate the need for docking (tail removal) in the domestic flock. Some (for instance, the Asian mouflon and the urial) have rates of effective reproduction up to 1.6 lambs per ewe, more than twice the average of most domestic types, especially under the conditions where these wild creatures live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That mouflon and other wild sheep could have practical utility is suggested by research at Utah State University. Scientists there have mated mouflon with farm sheep to create sheep better able to defend themselves against coyotes and other natural dangers. Half-wild, half-tame sheep hybrids have existed on a ranch in southern Utah for the past decade. Also, in Cyprus similar mouflon x sheep hybrids have shown considerable promise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the very least, this wiry little mountain sheep could be a model for educating students and the public. It is a living reminder of the fantastic changes that can be induced in animals by selection for various traits. Also, it is a "map" to the history of sheep domestication. Studies of mouflon genes, blood immunology, morphology, physiology, horn structure, skeleton, fleece, temperament, and a host of other features would help unravel the ancestry. These studies and various biochemical analyses would be a fascinating contribution to agriculture, science, history, and the public perception of the origins of our natural resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genes from wild sheep are not likely to quickly benefit wool production. Lack of fleece is one reason why these creatures have been neglected but throughout most of Asia and in North Africa, sheep are bred primarily for meat and milk, and there is a growing worldwide interest in the use of hair sheep. All of this brings new possibilities for the use of this old resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Micropigs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g005a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most breeds of swine (Sus scrofa) are too large to be considered microlivestock, but there are some whose mature weight is less than 70 kg. These micropigs are particularly common in West Africa, South Asia, the East Indies, Latin America, and oceanic islands around the world. At least one, the Mexican Cuino, may weigh a mere 12 kg full-grown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many miniature swine have been developed for use in medical research, but their agricultural potential has been largely ignored. This is unfortunate, for micropigs of all types - native, feral, and laboratory - deserve investigation. Swine provide more meat worldwide than any other animal, and micropigs are potentially important sources of food and income for poor people in many parts of the developing world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smallness makes for nimble and self-sufficient pigs, in contrast to large, lethargic breeds. Small breeds are easier to manage and cheaper to maintain; the threat of injury from angry or frightened animals is lessened; and the sows are less likely to crush newborn piglets, often a major cause of mortality in large breeds. Some micropigs - particularly those from hot regions or wild populations - also have a higher resistance to heat, thirst, starvation, and some diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs adapt to a wide variety of management conditions, from scavenging to total confinement; some are even kept indoors.2 They gain weight quickly, mature rapidly, and help complement grazing livestock because they relish many otherwise unused wastes from kitchens, farms, and food industries, as well as other foods such as small roots, leafy trash, or bitter fruits that are not consumed by humans or ruminants. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For these reasons, micropigs could become useful household and village livestock in the developing world, and they deserve greater attention than they now receive. Although their growth may not be as rapid as that of improved breeds raised under intensive commercial production, with modest care and minimum investment, backyard micropigs can produce sizable yields of meat and other products, as well as improved income for rural and even urban populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, especially in warm, humid areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like full-sized breeds, micropigs are stout-bodied, short-legged animals with small tails and flexible snouts ending in flat discs. Examples of some micropigs are listed at the end of the chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic pigs are found all over the world, but their concentrations vary greatly. Africa has the fewest per capita, but in recent years they have gained increasing favor in the sub-Saharan regions. In Latin America, pigs have long been a major component of backyard agriculture. In the Middle East, an early center of domestication, pigs are not widely kept today because of religious dietary restrictions. In the Ear East, they are the major meat source, and China has more pigs than any other country. And in the Pacific region, pigs and chickens are often the only meat available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are becoming more popular: their worldwide numbers increased by about 20 percent in the 1970s. However, in most countries commercial pig production has focused on a mere handful of breeds, and much genetic diversity is unstudied or even threatened with extinction. Some microbreeds have already been lost, and others are dwindling in numbers.3 Many European breeds have been completely lost. The Cuino and some other Latin American criollo types are threatened, as are most of Africa's traditional breeds. China, however, has made notable efforts to preserve its native types. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although, as previously noted, pigs are found all over the world, they are in general adapted to warm, humid climates where many other livestock species are more susceptible to diseases and environmental stresses. They are also raised at high altitudes, such as in the Andes and Tibet. Although there are few climatic limitations to pig production, only about 20 percent of the world's pigs are currently kept in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are omnivores, willing and able to eat almost anything.4 Unlike most other livestock, they eat their fill and sleep as the food digests, allowing humans to establish a convenient eating and sleeping schedule.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are prolific; a few Chinese breeds routinely have litters of 20 or more. Micropigs are no exception; litters of 6-10 are common. Piglets gain weight rapidly and can be weaned after a few weeks. Sexual maturity is sometimes attained as early as 4-6 months, depending on breed and environment. Pigs are usually slaughtered at 67 months of age, allowing them to be produced on an annual cycle. They can live 10-20 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their smaller size, micropigs have a relatively greater skin-to-weight ratio than today's commercial breeds, and therefore they probably shed heat more effectively. Certainly they seem to perform better in tropical heat and humidity, which normally keep the heavier types from reaching their maximum productivity. Studies have suggested that an optimal size for some tropical environments - because of metabolic and feed efficiency - may be less than 65 kg.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are social animals; they enjoy companionship and ferociously defend their young and sometimes even the humans who care for them. They are employed as guard animals in some areas and have been used extensively in behavioral research.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contrary to common belief, pigs are clean and tidy if provided adequate space. Larger breeds, however, wallow in mud to stay cool in hot weather and require a wallow or shade (except for some Latin American types, which seem less susceptible to heat). Some lightcolored pigs sunburn easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs will dig up earth with their mobile snouts; some breeds do it constantly. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fresh pork is the major pig product in tropical areas. It usually fetches premium prices, and in many places (such as the Pacific Islands and China) it is the most important red meat available to rural people. Nutritious and tasty, it is one of the easiest meats to preserve, needing only salt or melted fat. Processed products such as bacon and sausages can be important for both home consumption and cash sales.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig fat (lard) is a good source of food energy, and can substitute for cooking fats and oils. It is easily melted and clarified, is widely used to make soap, and is a valuable commercial product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig skin, once degreased, is easily tanned into leathers that are popular for garments, shoes, and other products demanding soft, light, and flexible leathers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig manure is a good fertilizer. Because the animals are often kept in confinement, it can be easily collected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many places, pigs are kept as free-roaming scavengers. They can be trained (by coaxing with feed, salt, or affection) to keep close to home, thereby helping to minimize destructive scavenging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Herding is a higher level of management that requires more effort, but it allows pigs to be integrated into other types of agriculture while utilizing feeds that otherwise go to waste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because their exercise needs are minimal and dominance is quickly established within litters, pigs are the easiest hoofed livestock to raise in small enclosures (sties). However, fencing must be secure, and if sties are small, the animals must be moved frequently to prevent diseases and parasites from building up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are well-known, often traditional, animals in many areas, and people usually do not have to be taught how to manage and use them. Efficient scavengers, they can live, grow, and reproduce with a minimum of investment or specialized care. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are highly efficient converters of feed to meat. They can provide the greatest return for the least investment of any hoofed livestock because of their fecundity, low management costs, broad food preferences, and rapid growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs normally accumulate fat during adolescent growth (making ''finishing" feeds less necessary). Some micropigs (especially those from feral ancestors) have the ability to quickly mobilize and store these body-fat reserves; in times of extreme scarcity, it aids their survival.6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs work well in multiple-cropping schemes. They are often used to help clear small plots by uprooting weeds, shrubs, and even small trees. In Southeast Asia, they are frequently raised in conjunction with aquaculture, their manure providing food for the fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If improperly managed or maintained in filthy conditions, pigs may quickly succumb to disease and parasite epidemics. Most diseases are communicated only among pigs, but some can be transmitted to humans. For this reason, pork should always be fully cooked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some cultures never eat pork. Others do, but nonetheless accord pigs and their keepers low status.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young pigs are vulnerable to many predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major survey of small pig breeds is needed. They have the potential to be valuable producers in their own right, as well as to improve other pig breeds. For instance, they represent a little-known reservoir of disease resistance and climatic adaptation. Governments, research stations, universities, and individuals should make special efforts to preserve types that have outstanding or unusual qualities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When it is necessary to eradicate feral pig populations (as is common on Pacific islands), representative stocks should be preserved. These rugged animals have been genetically isolated for decades or even centuries and are likely to carry valuable traits for survival under adversity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large breeds may be promising candidates for genetic "downsizing," which has already produced the many types of miniature pigs that are used in medical research. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE LITTLEST PIG</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although this chapter highlights the world's smallest breeds, there exists a pig that is even smaller. It is, however, an entirely different species and it is on the brink of extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog (Sus salvanius) is a shy and retiring wild creature of northeastern India. It is merely 60 cm long with a shoulder height of 25 cm, and weighs less than 10 kg. It was once found widely along the southern foothills of the Himalayas. Today, however, it apparently occurs in only one area, the Manas National Park in Assam. Despite this protection and the fact that it is listed among the 12 most endangered species on earth, it still falls victim to hunters and to habitat destruction - especially illegal grass fires.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If saved from extinction, this minute species - barely reaching a person's calf - might become useful throughout the world. Its chromosome number is the same as that of the common pig and its physiological processes are probably also similar. Therefore, were its numbers to be built up, it might become a valued and well-known resource for laboratories and small farms. Its daily food intake and its space requirements are only a fraction of a normal pig's. It probably has exceptional tolerance to heat, humidity, and disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not a domesticated species, and there is therefore much to learn before its usefulness can be clearly seen. Indeed, whether it can be reared in captivity is uncertain. Some attempts have ended in disaster, but this seems to have been the result of mismanagement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before there is any possibility of developing it, however, the pigmy hog must be preserved from ultimate loss. The last specimen could go into a villager's pot at any time now. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g006a.png"></center><br>
+ Adult male of the common pig (wild boar) and pigmy hog draw to same scale. (W.L.R. OLIVER)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MICROPIGS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African Dwarf (Nigerian Black, Ashanti)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West Africa. Mature weights of 25-45 kg are reported. In the humid lowland forests of West Africa this breed has long been kept by villagers, often as a scavenger. Indigenous to the hot, humid tsetse zones of West Africa, it seems resistant to trypanosomiasis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chinese Dwarfs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China (and Southeast Asian countries such as Vietnam) has long had small pigs - often characterized by numerous teats and large litters - associated with traditional intensive agriculture as well as scavenging conditions. Some Chinese pigs weighing less than 70 kg are adapted to tropical and subtropical conditions, but the smallest (20-35 kg) live in the cold climates and high altitudes of Gansu, Sichuan, and Tibet. Small black Chinese pigs were crossed with European types in the early 1800s and produced the foundation stock of many modern Western breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are a number of "native" breeds throughout Latin America commonly known as "criollo." Many are quite small. Although, apparently, they are slow to mature and bear small litters, they adapt well to environmental extremes and are widely kept by rural inhabitants for food and income. Criollos are little studied and are being replaced by imported breeds before their possibly outstanding qualities can be quantified.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cuino This micropig from the highlands of central Mexico may be descended from small Chinese types and is the smallest domestic pig, weighing as little as 10-12 kg fully grown. Hardy and an efficient scavenger, it can grow quickly when feed - especially corn - is abundant. A century ago the cuing was a widespread household animal and was used for a time for experimental work in central Mexico. It is now little known and could be threatened with extinction. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Hairless (felon, Tubasqueno, Birish) These small pigs of central and northern South America survive in hot, humid, adverse climates. They are adapted to bulkier feeds than most pigs and can thrive on fruit wastes. Many local types exist. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nilo (Macao, Tatu, Canastrinha) This small, widespread, black, hairless pig of Brazil is often kept inside the house. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yucatan Miniature Swine A subtype of the black hairless from Mexico's hot, arid Yucatan Peninsula, it was imported into the United States in 1960. It has been downsized for laboratory use in the United States and is known as the Yucatan Micropig (registered). Weight at sexual maturity has been lowered through selective breeding from 75 kg to, currently, between 30 and 50 kg, with an ultimate goal of 20-25 kg. There is no evidence of "dwarfism," stunting, or loss of reproductive performance, and it appears to hold notable promise as microlivestock for developing countries. The parent stock, used for meat and lard production in Yucatan, is renowned for gentleness, intelligence, resistance to disease, and relative lack of odor. Exceptional docility, even in older boars and sows with litters, makes them easy to handle without the need for specialized housing or equipment.7 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Laboratory Breeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other miniature laboratory pigs have potential for tropical use. These include the Goettingen, Hanford, Kangaroo Island, Ohmini, Pitman-Moore, and Sinclair (Hormel). In general they weigh 30-50 kg when ready for slaughter and mature at less than 70 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ossabaw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States. 20-30 kg. Feral on Ossabaw Island, South Carolina, for more than 300 years, this pig is well adapted to environmental extremes. Unlike most domestic animals, it can maintain itself in coastal salt marshes. It has perhaps the highest percentage of fat of any pig. The piglets are very precocious, self-reliant, and robust.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kunekune (Pua'a, Poaka)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Zealand. Female 40 kg; male 50 kg. Perhaps of Chinese origin, these black-and-white spotted pigs are docile, slow, and easy to contain. Although late maturing, they can fatten on grass alone. Like other native breeds throughout the Pacific region (for example, the Pauta of Hawaii), stock is being lost through crossbreeding, displacement by other breeds, and eradication efforts. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To find certain disease-resistant genes in poultry it may be necessary to go looking in the backyard chicken flocks in Latin America, Africa, or Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kelly Klober</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small Farmer's Journal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. . . Policies are needed to encourage development of a labor-intensive small-scale livestock sector, which would increase employment and provide a major market for surplus cereals. This sector, however, is particularly restrained by poor technology, poor public support services, and poor marketing channels. Third World livestock production of this type could provide a natural focus for foreign assistance that earlier seemed inappropriate because of concerns about global food scarcity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John W. Mellor International Food Policy Research Institute</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Successful development of agriculture often requires an intimate understanding of the society within which it is to take place - of its systems of values, of its customary restraints.... It has been necessary to understand what incentives the farmer needs to change, what practical difficulties he encounters introducing change, what his traditional pattern of land use is and how this pattern or system can be upset by thoughtless innovation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John de Wilde</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experience with Agricultural Development in Tropical Africa </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part II : Poultry</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g007a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens, ducks, muscovies, geese, guinea fowl, quail, pigeons, and turkeys epitomize the concept of microlivestock. Throughout Africa, Asia, and Latin America they are (collectively) the most common of all farm stock. In many - perhaps most - tropical countries, practically every family, settled or nomadic, owns some kind of poultry. In the countryside, in villages, even in cities, one or another species is seen almost everywhere; in some places, several may be seen together. Although raised in all levels of husbandry, these birds occur most often in scattered household flocks that scavenge for their food and survive with little care or management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their size bestows microlivestock advantages, including low capital cost, low food requirements, and little or no labor requirements. They are also "family sized": easily killed and dressed, with little waste or spoilage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These poultry species help meet the protein needs of the poorest people in the world. Some are raised even in areas where domestic cattle cannot survive because of afflictions such as trypanosomiasis and foot-and-mouth disease. Some are maintained under conditions of intensive confinement - provided a source of feed is available - and can be produced in areas with insufficient land for other meat-producing animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, these birds grow quickly and mature rapidly. (For instance, a chicken can, under proper conditions, reach maturity in 26 months.) They adapt readily to being fenced or penned much, or all, of the time. And, compared with the major farm livestock, their life cycles are short and their production of offspring is high. Thus, farmers can synchronize production to match seasonal changes in the availability of feed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although poultry contribute substantially to human nutrition in the tropics, it is a small fraction of what it could be. The meat is widely consumed and is in constant demand. An excellent source of protein, it also provides minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, and iron, as well as the B-complex vitamins riboflavin, thiamine, and niacin. Nutritionally as complete as red meat, it is much lower in cholesterol and saturated fats. Poultry eggs are also important sources of nutrients. They are a renewable resource, easy to prepare, and are among the best sources of quality protein and vitamins (except vitamin C).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In spite of their numbers and potential, poultry are rarely accorded primary consideration in economic development activities. All in all, these small birds lack the appeal of large, four-legged livestock. Indeed, most countries have little knowledge of the contribution household birds actually make to the well-being and diets of their peoples. In some countries - even those where birds are widely kept - there is little or no poultry research or extension. And where such programs do exist they usually focus almost exclusively on the production of chickens under "industrial" conditions near cities (see sidebar, page 75).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most developing countries now have these intensive chicken industries, in which birds are kept in complete confinement. However, these commercial operations provide food for people in the cash economy, not for subsistence farmers. Moreover, grain is sometimes diverted or imported to maintain these operations, perhaps causing food shortages, higher prices, or depleted foreign exchange. Thus, in this section we focus on other, neglected, aspects of poultry production.,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The neglect of poultry that scavenge around the rural farmhouses and in village yards is understandable. The birds are scattered across the countryside where extension programs are difficult to implement. Their presence is often so ingrained in traditional village life that they are taken for granted and ignored by the authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet village poultry deserve greater attention. As converters of vegetation into animal protein, poultry can be outstanding. In fact, it is estimated that, in terms of feed conversion, eggs rank with cow's milk as the most economically produced animal protein, and that poultry meat ranks above that of other domestic animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most Third World poultry flocks live a wary, half-wild existence, scrounging for insects, earthworms, snails, seeds, leaves, and leftovers from the human diet. From dung and refuse piles they salvage undigested grains, as well as insects and other invertebrates. Often the persons who care for them are women or children. Some keep the birds around the house, penning them at night for protection from predators and thieves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This almost zero-cost production has, in spite of high losses, a remarkable rate of return. Any improvements that require the purchase of supplies cut severely into the profitability. The first step in improving the production of free-ranging poultry is vaccination against diseases (especially Newcastle disease, fowl pox, and Marek's disease) and a modest, supplemental feeding during times of seasonal scarcity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE INDUSTRIAL CHICKEN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout modem livestock farming the trend is toward more intensive methods, and poultry specialists have set the pace. In many countries, since the 1920s, barnyard fowl have given way to egg and broiler factories. The old-fashioned chicken reared outside on corn stubbles for 5 or 6 months has been replaced by the broiler, mass-produced in controlled environment houses in 7 - 10 weeks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a result of this revolution in poultry raising, small farmers who once made a comfortable living from a few laying hens have been forced out of business. These economic changes have also forced poultry men to have larger and larger flocks to survive. The largest broiler-chicken companies even control their own breed development, feed production, house construction, slaughtering, and freezing, many even have wholesale outlets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rapid changes in poultry farming methods can be attributed to the application of advanced technology. The development of the incubator to replace the mother hen sitting her seasonal clutch of eggs was the first mayor step toward intensive poultry farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, chickens were the first livestock to receive serious attention from geneticists. Before World War II, it was discovered that crossbreeding selected pure and inbred lines could result in dramatic increases in production. Hybrids tailor-made for egg or meat production quickly ousted the old pure breeds such as the Rhode Island Red White and Brown Leghorns, Light Sussex, and the various crosses among them. Chicken broilers made by crosses involving parents derived from Cornish and Plymouth Rock have supplanted all others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This situation now prevails in most industrialized countries. The breeding of commercial stocks is in the hands of a few corporations for each commodity (white eggs, brown eggs, chicken broilers, turkeys) and each has national or even global distribution of its hybrid stocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A BREAKTHROUGH IN POULTRY HEALTH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newcastle disease is endemic in developing countries and is a constant threat to poultry. Farmers dread this virus, first identified half a century ago in northern England that brings diarrhea, paralysis, and death to most poultry. It is severe, highly contagious, and can cause 100 percent mortality. When it strikes an area, farmers must kill all chickens - even healthy ones - to stop it from spreading.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only Australia, New Zealand, Northern Ireland and some Pacific islands are unaffected. But, although the disease is not found in Australia, certain strains of the virus are present in Australian chickens. These strains are completely harmless, but Australian researchers have found that they induce antibodies that are effective against Newcastle disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a joint project (funded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research), scientists from Malaysia's University of Agriculture and Australia's University of Queensland* have put this to good use. They have produced a live culture of the harmless virus that farmers can spray onto feed pellets to vaccinate their birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Field tests of the new vaccine, carried out in Southeast Asia, have been extremely promising. Simply coating feeds with the virus seems to be enough to immunize some chickens, which then pass the immunity on to the others in the flock as well as to new hatchlings. In Malaysia, which has 49 million chickens and a population willing to pay a premium for tasty village poultry meat, one economist estimates that the vaccine might increase rural incomes by 25 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conventional vaccines must be stored under refrigerated conditions, which most villages lack. But the Malaysian workers made the Newcastle disease vaccine tolerant of heat. By selective breeding, they now have strains that resist 56&Yacute;C for at least 2 hours. Thus, even in the tropics, the vaccine remains effective for several weeks without refrigeration. The researchers have also devised methods for coating the vaccine onto pelleted feeds. Because the virus can withstand heat, they use a machine designed for coating pharmaceutical tablets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At this stage, the project is showing every promise of producing a cheap means of reducing Newcastle disease losses among chickens throughout much of the world. Already inquiries have come from other Asian countries and from Africa, and it is hoped that the vaccine may eventually benefit many countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">5 Chicken</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g008a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens (Gallus gallus or Gallus domesticus)1 are the world's  major source of eggs and are a meat source that supports a food  industry in virtually every country. There may be as many as 6.5 billion  chickens, the equivalent of 1.4 birds for every person on earth.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No other domesticated animal has enjoyed such universal acceptance,  and these birds are the prime example of the importance of  microlivestock. Kept throughout the Third World, they are one of the  least expensive and most efficient producers of animal protein.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To the world's poor, chickens are probably the most nutritionally  important livestock species. For instance, in Mauritius and Nigeria more  than 70 percent of rural households keep scavenger chickens. In  Swaziland, more than 95 percent of rural households own chickens,  most of them scavengers. In Thailand, where commercial poultry  production is highly developed, 80-90 percent of rural households still  keep chickens in backyards and under houses. And in other developing  countries from Pakistan to Peru, a similar situation prevails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clearly, these chickens should be given far more attention. They  represent an animal and a production system with remarkable qualities;  they compete little with humans for food; they produce meat at low  cost; and they provide a critical nutritional resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scavenger chickens are usually self-reliant, hardy birds capable of  withstanding the abuses of harsh climate, minimal management, and inadequate nutrition. They live largely on weed seeds, insects, and feeds that would otherwise go to waste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, however, quantitative information about the backyard chicken is hard to obtain. Few countries have any knowledge of its actual contribution to the well-being and diet of their people. Notably lacking is an understanding of the factors limiting egg production, which is markedly low and perhaps could be raised dramatically with modest effort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are so well known and ubiquitous that they need no further description. Varying in color from white through many shades of brown to black, they range in size from small bantams of less than 1 kg to giant breeds weighing 5 kg or more. Scavenger chickens tend to weigh about I kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The indigenous chickens of Asia are probably descended directly from the wild junglefowl. Those of West Africa are believed descended from European birds brought by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century; those of Latin America probably descend from Spanish birds introduced soon after the time of Columbus.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p81a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All countries have chickens in large numbers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are not endangered, but industrial stocks are replacing traditional breeds to such an extent that much potentially valuable genetic heritage is disappearing. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although chickens derive from tropical species, they adapt to a wide  variety of environments. The modern Leghorn, for example, is found  from the hot plains of India to the frozen tundra of Siberia, and from  sea level to altitudes above 4,000 m in the Andes. (There are, however,  hatching problems at such high altitudes because of oxygen deficiency.)  They also occur in desert countries such as Saudi Arabia, which has a  vast poultry industry and even exports broilers. (However, the birds  need shade and a lot of water where it is hot and dry.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are omnivorous, living on seeds, insects, worms, leaves,  green grass, and kitchen scraps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A commercial bird may produce 280 eggs annually, but a scavenger  may produce close to none. Commonly, a farmyard hen lays a dozen  eggs, takes three weeks to hatch out a brood of chicks, stays with the  chicks six weeks or more, and only then starts laying again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Egg production depends on daylength. For the highest production  rate, at least 12 hours of daylight are needed. The incubation period is  21 days. A hen can begin laying at 5 months of age or even earlier, but  in scavengers it may be much later. The average weight of the eggs is  approximately 55 g from industrial layers and approximately 40 g from  scavengers. Hatching success from breeder flocks often exceeds 90  percent. Industrial broilers can be marketed as early as 6 weeks, when  they are called "Cornish hens."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These passive, gregarious birds have a pronounced social (pecking)  order. If acclimated, they remain on the premises and are unlikely to go  feral. If given a little evening meal of "scratch," they learn to come  home to roost at night.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens have multiple uses. They were probably first used for cock  fighting; later they were used in religious rituals, and only much later  were raised for eggs and meat. Today, chickens can provide a family  with eggs, meat, feathers, and sometimes cash.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In different parts of the world, people keep scavenging chickens in  different ways. The managers are often women and children because  they have more time to spend at home to feed the birds and repel  predators. Some people leave the birds entirely to their own devices.  Many house them at night. Others take the birds each day to the fields,  where they may find much more food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many ingenious local practices. In Ghana, for example,  farmers "culture" termites for poultry by placing a moist piece of cow  dung (under a tin) over a known termite nest. The termites burrow into  the dung, and some can then be fed to the chickens each day. Because  termites digest cellulose, this system converts waste vegetation into  meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A ratio of 1 male to 10-15 females is adequate for barnyard flocks.  Hens will lay eggs in the absence of a rooster - but of course the rooster  is needed if fertile eggs are wanted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Removing chicks stimulates the hen to lay more eggs. This results in  more chicks being hatched, but it requires that the chicks be nurtured  and fed until they are old enough to fend for themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are everywhere; every culture knows them and how to  husband them. They have been utilized for so many centuries that in  most societies their use is ingrained. Unlike the case with pork and beef,  there are few strictures against eating chicken meat or eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat is high in quality protein, low in fat, and easily prepared. In  many countries, the village chicken's meat is preferred to that of  commercial broilers because it has better texture and stronger flavor.  Even in countries with vast poultry industries there is a growing demand  for the tasty, "organically grown," free-ranging chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are more suited to "urban farming" than most types of  livestock and can be raised in many city situations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds are conveniently sized, easily transported alive, and, by and  large, do not transmit diseases to humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout Asia, Africa, and Latin America, the problems of village  chickens are mainly those discussed below.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High Hatching Mortality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commonly, a hatch of eight or nine village chicks results in only two  or three live birds after a few days. A survey in Nigeria, for instance,  showed that 80 percent died before the age of eight weeks. Losses  elsewhere are known to be similar. This is mostly because of starvation,  cold, dehydration, predators (hawks, kites, snakes, dogs, and cats, for  example), diseases, parasites, accidents, and simply getting lost - all of  which can be prevented without great effort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chronic and Acute Disease</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry diseases can become epidemic in the villages because there  are few if any veterinarians. Newcastle disease, fowlpox, pullorum  disease, and coccidiosis, for example - all of which are endemic in the  Third World - can destroy the entire chicken population over large  areas. Lice and other parasites are also prevalent. Scavengers and  industrial birds seem to show no differences in their tolerance for such  diseases and parasites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Low Egg Production</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey in Nigeria showed that the annual production per hen was  merely 20 eggs. Such low production is common throughout the Third  World and is caused by a combination of low genetic potential,  inadequate nutrition, and poor management. Villagers rarely provide nest  boxes or laying areas, so that some eggs are just not found. Some birds  have high levels of broodiness, and eggs accumulating in a nest  stimulates this. There are indications, however, that some village  chickens (for example, some in China) have quite substantial egg-laying  potential when provided with adequate feed.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Low Egg Consumption</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the tropics, many people choose not to eat eggs. Often this is  because eggs are the source of the next generation of chickens;  sometimes it is because of superstition. Further, eggs do not keep well  because most are fertile and, exposed to constant tropical heat, undergo  rapid embryo development.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crop Damage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often necessary to confine the birds to protect young crops or  vegetable gardens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike the situation with small cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs, there are  few named and recognized breeds of Third World chickens. Yet, nearly  every country has at least one kind of village chicken. These have  survived there for centuries and are highly adapted to local conditions.  In village projects, these unnamed chickens deserve priority attention  before other types are sought from elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Generally speaking, improving the production of scavenging poultry  does not require sophisticated research. Instead, simple precautions are  sufficient. These are discussed below.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Disease Control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At a national or regional level, the initial approach to increasing  chicken production in tropical areas should be disease control. There are  several outstanding instances of success in this endeavor. For example,  the spectacular rise of poultry production in Singapore (from 250,000  birds in 1949 to 20 million in 1957) followed the control of Ranikhet  disease. Village flock-health programs, carried out regularly by visiting  veterinarians ("barefoot veterinarians"), might be the answer to some of  the routine health problems. Today, a prime target should be Newcastle  disease, for which there are good chances for success (see page 76).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first step in chicken production at the farm level is improved  management. With more care and attention, mortality can be greatly  reduced. Because incubating and brooding hens must spend the night on  the ground, they are extremely vulnerable. Even modest predator  controls can be highly beneficial. Building crude and inexpensive nest  boxes and constructing a simple holding area around them can  substantially raise production by ensuring that more chicks survive.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE CHICKEN'S WILD ANCESTOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although little known to most people, the red junglefowl has  contributed more to every nation than any other wild bird. It is  the ancestor of the chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given its descendants importance worldwide, the neglect of  this bird is baffling. If the cow's wild ancestor, the aurochs, had  not become extinct in the 1600s, it would now be worth millions  of dollars as the ultimate source of cattle genetic diversity. Yet  the world's chicken industry remains virtually unaware of the  origin of its source of livelihood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the aurochs, the red junglefowl has a wealth of wild  genes, and it deserves more recognition and protection. For one  thing the modern chicken - selectively bred in the temperate  zone - is highly susceptible to heat and humidity; the junglefowl,  on the other hand, is not. It inhabits the warmest and most humid  parts of Asia: Sri Lanka, India, Burma, Thailand, and most of  Southeast Asia. It may also be resistant to various chicken  diseases and pests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not a rare species. Throughout the wide crescent  stretching from Pakistan to Indonesia, junglefowls are still seen  in the wild, especially in forest clearings and lowland scrub.  Although they are a prized bag for hunters, they survive by fast  running and agile flying. They are sometimes sold in village  markets, but can easily be mistaken for domesticated chickens,  which in this region are often very similar. The wild junglefowl,  however, has feathered legs, a down-curving tail, and an overall  scragginess.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Junglefowls should be under intensive study. They are easy to  rear in captivity and do well in pens, even small ones, as long as  they are sheltered from rain and wind. One drawback is their  craze for scratching unless provided plenty of space they  promptly tear up all grass and dirt. Another is that junglecocks  are violent fighters and must be kept apart. (Cockfighting is  probably a major reason why they were initially selected, and  thus their aggressiveness is perhaps the reason we have the  chicken today.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These highly adaptable creatures live in a variety of habitats,  from sea level to 2,000 m. Most, however, are found in and  around damp forests, secondary growth, dry scrub, bamboo  groves, and small woods near farms and villages. They are  amazingly clever at evading capture and thrive wherever there is  some cover.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other junglefowl species might also provide useful poultry.  They, too, can be raised in captivity with comparative ease, as  long as the cocks are kept apart. Perhaps they might be tamed with imprinting and could prove useful as domestic fowl,  especially in marginal habitats. They are everywhere considered  culinary luxuries and their meat commands premium prices.  Moreover, several have colorful feathers, giving them additional  commercial value. These other species are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- La Fayette's Junglefowl (Gallus lafayettei). Avery attractive  bird of Sri Lanka, it is little known in captivity, and only in the  United States are there any number in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gray or Sonnerat's Junglefowl (Gallus sonnerati). A native  of India, this colorful bird produces feathers that are used in  tying the most prized trout and salmon flies. Demand is so great  that certain populations have declined, and since 1968 India has  banned all export of birds or feathers. Nonetheless, there are  several hundred in captivity in various countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Green Junglefowl (Gallus varius). This is yet another striking  bird. The cock has metallic, greenish-black feathering set off by  a comb that merges from brilliant green at the base to bright  purple and red at the top. Native to Java, Bali, and the  neighboring Indonesian islands as far out as Timor, it is found  particularly near rice paddies and rocky coasts. This species, too,  can be raised without great difficulty, and there are at least 90 in  captivity in various parts of the world.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving poultry nutrition is also of prime importance. There are no quantitative data on the quality of a scavenging chicken's diet. Surveys are badly needed so that appropriate, low-cost supplements can be devised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chances are that the diet for chicks of scavenging poultry is almost always deficient in available energy. Minimal supplementation in the form of cereals or energy-rich by-products can greatly improve both egg and meat production. However, caution must always be exercised and the supplements given only to chicks. Overfed adults will give up scavenging and stay around the owner's house, without really producing much more meat or eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetic Improvement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it seems attractive to replace the scrawny village chicken with bigger, faster-growing imported breeds, it is a process fraught with difficulty. Exotic breeds lack the ability to tolerate the rigors of mismanagement and environmental stress. Many cannot avoid predators, as a result either of being overweight or of having a poor conformation for flight. The local birds, however, probably have a genetic potential that is much higher than can be expressed in the constraining environment. Thus, the environmental constraints should be tackled first.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, the village birds may have a feed-conversion efficiency that is far less than ideal because they are adapted to a scavenging existence. Modern breeds imported into Ghana, for instance, showed a feed-conversion efficiency of less that 3.5:1 (weight of food eaten: growth and eggs), but the local birds had efficiencies of 11:1.4 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need for preserving genetic variability is greater in poultry, especially in chickens, than in any other form of domestic animal. North America, for instance, which years ago had 50 or more common breeds, now relies on only 2 for meat production, and the others have been largely lost. Conservation of germplasm has become a matter of serious concern, and the saving of rare breeds in domestic fowl should not be delayed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE SOUTH AMERICAN CHICKEN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Early European explorers of South America were surprised to discover an abundance of unusual chickens that laid colored eggs and had feathers resembling earrings on the side of the head. While the origin of this bird - commonly called the araucanian chicken and classified as Gallus inauris - is debatable, scientists generally agree that it is pre-Columbian. There is archeological evidence that this bird is native to the Americas. It is reported to have occurred in Chile, Ecuador, Bolivia, Costa Rica, Peru, and Easter Island. It still occurs in the wild in southern Chile and on Easter Island.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The araucanian has been called the "Easter-egg chicken" because it lays light green, light blue, and olive colored eggs. It lays well and has a delicious meat. In areas such as southern Chile the eggs are preferred over those of normal chickens because of their flavor and dark yellow yolk. This unusual bird has a high degree of variability; however, specimens of similar genetic background have been grouped to create "breeds" such as the White Araucanian, Black Araucanian, and Barred Araucanian. These are homozygotes and breed true.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The araucanian has been the subject of much public interest,. clubs dedicated to its preservation have been formed in the United States, Great Britain, and Chile. Its possible exploitation as a backyard microlivestock deserves serious consideration. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">6 Ducks</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g009a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos)1 are well known, but still have much unrealized promise for subsistence-level production. Although a major resource of Asia, where there is approximately one duck per 20 inhabitants, they are not so intensively used elsewhere. On a worldwide basis, for instance, they are of minor importance compared with chickens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is unfortunate because ducks are easy to keep, adapt readily to a wide range of conditions (including small-farm culture), and require little investment. They are also easily managed under village conditions, particularly if a waterway is nearby, and appear to be more resistant to diseases and more adept at foraging than chickens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, the products from ducks are in constant demand. Some breeds yield more eggs than the domestic chicken. And duck meat always sells at premium. A few recently created breeds (notably some in Taiwan) have much lower levels of fat than the traditional farm duck. This development could open up vast new markets for duck meat, especially in wealthy countries, where consumers are both concerned over fat in their diet and eager for alternatives to chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks are also efficient at converting waste resources - insects, weeds, aquatic plants, and fallen seeds, for instance - into meat and eggs. Indeed, they are among the most efficient of all food producers. Raised in confinement, ducks can convert 2.4-2.6 kg of concentrated feed into I kg of weight gain. The only domestic animal that has better feed conversion is the broiler chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raised as village birds and allowed to forage for themselves, ducks become less productive but become even more cost effective because much of the food they scavenge has no monetary value. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several distinctive types have been developed in various regions. Most have lost the ability to fly any distance, but they retain a characteristic boatlike posture and a labored, waddling walk. The Indian Runner, however, has an almost erect stance that permits it to walk and run with apparent ease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic ducks range in body size from the diminutive Call, weighing less than I kg, to the largest meat strains (Pekin, Rouen, and Aylesbury, for example) weighing as much as 4.5 kg. For intensive conditions, the Pekin is the most popular meat breed around the world. In confinement it grows rapidly - weighing 2.5-3 kg at a market age of 78 weeks. In addition, it is hardy, does not fly, lays well, and produces good quality (but somewhat fatty) meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Khaki Campbell breed is an outstanding egg producer, some individuals laying more than 300 eggs per bird per year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Taiwan Tsaiya (layer duck) is also a particularly efficient breed. It weighs 1.2 kg at maturity, starts laying at 120-140 days, and can produce 260-290 eggs a year. Its small body size, large egg weight, and phenomenal egg production make Brown Tsaiya the main breed for egg consumption in Taiwan. More than 2.5 million Brown Tsaiya ducks are raised annually for egg production.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domestic duck is distributed throughout the world; however, its greatest economic importance is in Southeast Asia, particularly in the wetland-rice areas. For example, about 28 percent of Taiwan's poultry are- ducks. In parts of Asia, some domestic flocks have as many as 20,000 birds. One farm near Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, rears 40,000 ducks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although ducks are abundant, some Western breeds are becoming rare. Indigenous types are little known outside their home countries and have received little study, so their status is uncertain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These adaptable creatures thrive in hot, humid climates. However, during torrid weather they must have access to shade, drinking water, and bathing water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks are well adapted to rivers, canals, lakes, ponds, marshes, and other aquatic locations. Moreover, they can be raised successfully in estuarine areas. Most ocean bays and inlets teem with plant and animal life that ducks relish, but (unlike wild sea ducks) domestic breeds have a low physiological tolerance for salt and must be supplied with fresh drinking water. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks search for food underwater, sieve organic matter from mud, root out morsels underground, and sometimes catch insects in the air. Their natural diet is normally about 90 percent vegetable matter (seeds, berries, fruits, nuts, bulbs, roots, succulent leaves, and grasses) and 10 percent animal matter (insects, snails, slugs, leeches, worms, eels, crustacea, and an occasional small fish or tadpole). They have little ability to utilize dietary fiber. Although they eat considerable quantities of tender grass, they are not true grazers (like geese), and don't eat coarse grasses and weeds at all. Sand and gravel is swallowed to serve as "grindstones" in the gizzard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When protected from accidents and predation, ducks live a surprisingly long time. It is not unusual for one to continue reproducing for up to 8 years, and there are reports of exceptional birds living more than 20 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite large differences in size, color, and appearance, all domestic breeds interbreed freely. Eggs normally take 28 days to incubate, brooding and rearing is performed solely by the female.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Depending on breed, a female may reach sexual maturity at about 20 weeks of age. Most begin laying at 20-26 weeks, but the best egg- laying varieties come into production at 16-18 weeks and lay profitably for 2 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is generally well known that ducks are shy, nervous, and seldom aggressive towards each other or humans. Skilled and enthusiastic swimmers from the day they hatch, they spend many hours each day bathing and frolicking in any available water. However, most breeds can be raised successfully without swimming water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although wild ducks normally pair off, domestic drakes will mate indiscriminately with any females in a flock. In intensively raised flocks, I male to 6 females, and in village flocks, 1 male for up to 25 females, results in good fertility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most domestic ducks, particularly the egg-laying strains, have little instinct to brood. If not confined, they will lay eggs wherever they happen to be - occasionally even while swimming. To facilitate egg collection, some keepers confine ducks until noon. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p96a.png"></center><br>
+ Figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a meat source, ducks have major advantages. Their growth rate is phenomenal during the first few weeks. (Acceptable market weights can be attained under intensive management with birds as young as 6-7 weeks of age.) Yet, even in older birds, the meat remains tender and palatable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eggs from many breeds are typically 20-35 percent larger than chicken eggs, weighing on average about 73 g. They are nutritious, have more fat and protein, and contain less water than hen's eggs. They are often used in cooking and make excellent custards and ice cream. Eggs incubated until just before the embryos form feathers produce a delicacy known as balut in the Philippines. Salted eggs are popular in China and Southeast Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feathers and down (an insulating undercoat of fine, fluffy feathers) are valuable by-products. Down is particularly sought as a filler for pillows, comforters, and winter clothing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks have a special fondness for mosquito and beetle larvae, grasshoppers, snails, slugs, and crustaceans, and therefore are effective pest control agents. China, in particular, uses ducks to reduce pests in rice fields.3 Its farmers also keep ducks to clear fields of scattered grain, to clear rice paddy banks of burrowing crabs, and to clear aquatic weeds and algae out of small lakes, ponds, and canals. This not only improves the conditions for aquaculture and agriculture, it also fattens the ducks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Southeast Asia, droving is a traditional form of duck husbandry, much as it was in medieval Europe. The birds are herded along slowly, foraging in fields or riverbanks as they march to market. The journey might cover hundreds of kilometers and take as long as six months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This process, however, is generally declining, and most ducks are raised under farm conditions where they scavenge for much of their feed. Throughout Southeast Asia, ducks have been integrated with aquaculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks can be raised on almost any kitchen wastes: vegetable trimmings, table scraps, garden leftovers, canning refuse, stale produce, and stale (but not moldy) baked goods. However, for top yields and quickest growth, protein-rich feeds are the key. Commercial duck farms rely on such things as fish scraps, grains, soybean meal, or coconut cake. Agricultural wastes such as sago chips, palm-kernel cake, and palm-oil sludge are being used in Malaysia.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks have a very high requirement for niacin (a B vitamin). If chicken rations are used, a plentiful supply of fresh greens must be provided to avoid "cowboy legs," a symptom of niacin deficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of all domestic animals, ducks are among the most versatile and useful and have multiple advantages, including:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Withstanding poor conditions;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Producing food efficiently;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Utilizing foodstuffs that normally go unharvested;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Helping to control pests; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Helping to fertilize the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also, they are readily herded (for instance, by children).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excellent foragers, they usually can find all their own food, getting by on only a minimum of supplements, if any. Raising them requires little work, and they provide farmers with food or an income from the sale of eggs, meat, and down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks can grow faster than broiler chickens if they have adequate nutrients. Like guinea fowl and geese, they are relatively resistant to disease. They also have a good tolerance to cold and, in most climates, don't need artificial heat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING NEW DUCKS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many species of ducks adapt readily to captivity; it is surprising, therefore, that only the mallard and the muscovy have been domesticated so far. Several wild tropical species seem especially worth exploring for possible future use in Third World farms, Because of the year-round tropical warmth, their instinct to migrate is either absent or unpronounced, and the heavy layer of fat (a feature of temperate-climate ducks that consumers in many countries consider a drawback) is lacking. Moreover, because of uniform daylength, they are ready to breed at any time of the year. Candidates for domestication as tropical ducks include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Whistling ducks (Dendrocygna species). These large, colorful, gooselike birds are noted for their beautiful, cheerful whistle.* They are long-necked perching ducks that are found throughout the tropics. By and large, they are gregarious, sedentary, vegetarian, and less arboreal than the muscovy - all positive traits for a poultry species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The black-bellied whistling duck (D. auturunalis) seems especially promising. It is common throughout tropical America (southwestern United States to northwestern Argentina) and is sometimes kept in semicaptivity. Occasionally, in the highlands of Guatemala, for instance, Indians sell young ones they have reared as pets. When hand reared, the birds can become very tame. * * They eat grain and other vegetation, require no swimming water, and will voluntarily use nest boxes. In the wild, they "dump" large numbers of eggs so that even if substantial numbers were removed for artificial hatching, the wild populations should not be affected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Greater wood ducks (Cairina species). The muscovy (C. moschata) was domesticated by South American Indians long before Europeans arrived (see page 124). Its counterparts in the forests of Southeast Asia and tropical Africa are, however, untried as domesticates. The white-winged wood duck (C. scutulata) is found from eastern India to Java. Hartlaub's duck (C. hartlaubi) occurs in forests and wooded savannas from Sierra Leone to Zaire. Both are rare in captivity, but might well prove to be future tropical resources. Both are strikingly similar to muscovies in size and habits, being large, phlegmatic, sedentary, and omnivorous. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Predators are the most important cause of losses in farm flocks. Ducks are almost incapable of defending themselves, and losses from dogs and poachers can be high. Locking them in at night both protects the birds and prevents eggs from being wastefully laid outside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks do suffer from some diseases, mainly those traceable to mismanagement such as poor diet, stagnant drinking water, moldy feed or bedding, or overcrowded and filthy conditions. Of all poultry, they are the most sensitive to aflatoxin, which usually comes from eating moldy feed. They are also susceptible to cholera (pasteurellosis) and botulism, either of which may wipe out entire flocks. Duck virus enteritis (duck plague) and duck virus hepatitis also can cause severe losses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If not carefully managed, ducks can become pests to some crops, especially cereals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, ducks tend to be extremely poor mothers and can be helped by using broody chicken hens or female muscovies as surrogate mothers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Major limitations to large-scale, intensive production are mud, smell, and noise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Defeathering ducks is much more difficult than defeathering chickens because of an abundance of small pinfeathers and down feathers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds already function so well that no fundamental research needs to be done. Nonetheless, there are a number of topics that could improve their production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, different types of low-cost systems need to be explored and developed. These must be low-input systems since cash is a limiting factor for most subsistence farmers. One possibility is the integration of duck and fish farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of all breeds is needed to determine their status and likelihood of extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One need in countries that already have ducks is to encourage the consumption of duck meat. Indonesia, for instance, has 25 million egg-producing ducks, but little duck meat is consumed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research on economically significant diseases is needed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">7 Geese</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g010a.png"></center><br>
+ Brown Chinese Geese</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although geese (Anser spp.) were one of the first domesticated animals, they have yet to receive the level of commercial or industrial exploitation of chickens or even ducks. Thus, their global potential is far greater than is generally recognized today.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic geese are easily managed and well suited to small-farm production; they are among the fastest growing avian species commonly raised for meat, and they have immediate application in many developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are especially appropriate for providing farmers a supplemental income. With little extra work they supply nutritious meat, huge eggs, and rich fat for cooking, as well as soft down and feathers for bedding and clothing. Moreover, their strident voices sound the alarm when strangers or predators approach. They are especially well suited to aquatic areas and marshy lands and are completely at home in warm shallow waterways. Nevertheless, they can thrive away from water. In fact, wherever pasture is available geese readily adapt to captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are grazers, and can be raised almost exclusively on pasture. They are excellent foragers, and on succulent grass can find most or all of their own food. With their powerful bills they pull up grasses and underwater plants and probe soil and water for roots, bulbs, and aquatic animals. Their long necks make them adept at gleaning weeds from hard-to-reach places - such as fence rows, ditches, and swampy areas that baffle larger livestock. They will also feast on vegetable trimmings, garden and table leftovers, canning refuse, and stale baked goods. Like other poultry, they pick up shattered grains of rice, wheat, barley, and other crops, which can reduce the bothersome problem of weeds volunteering in subsequent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are available worldwide. In most climates, they require little or no housing. Given reasonable care and protection from predators, mortality can be extremely low. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic geese come in an assortment of colors, sizes, and shapes. There are two main types, however. Descendants of the wild greylag goose (Anser anser) make up the domestic breeds common in North America and Europe, including the Embden, Toulouse, Pilgrim, American Buff, Pomeranian, Sebastopol, and Tufted Roman breeds. These are generally best suited to temperate climates. On the other hand, descendants of the wild "swan goose" (Anser cygnoides) make up the geese of Asia, including the Chinese and "African" types. These breeds seem better suited to hot climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to these, many European and Asian countries have their own local breeds and types, and there are even several wild species that show some potential for captive production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With their long legs and webbed toes, geese are equally at home walking or swimming. Avid walkers, they march long distances to find forage, but return home at dusk. Accomplished and graceful swimmers, geese are able to take to water soon after they hatch. Despite their large size, some domestic breeds - especially the leaner ones - have retained the ability to fly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are found worldwide, but goose farming is nationally important only in Asia and Central Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic geese are not threatened, although much local variation among the breeds is being lost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most geese adapt well to hot climates - as long as some shade is available. Their waterproof feathers help them adapt well to high rainfall regions. They also tolerate extreme cold. (For instance, in Canada, geese are wintered outdoors in subfreezing temperatures, with merely 'e simple shelter from wind.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For tropical developing countries, the Chinese type, which is widely kept in Southeast Asia, is especially promising. Smaller than most geese (although ganders can weigh over 5 kg), they are the best layers, the most active foragers (making them economical and useful as weeders), the most alert and "talkative," and they produce the leanest meat. Some European breeds, such as Embden and Toulouse, have also been used in the tropics with notable success. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING GEESE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Temperate Zones)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today's domestic geese are descended from two species: the greylag (Anser anser) and the swan goose (Anser cygnoides). These were domesticated in Europe and China, respectively. Their domestication occurred in ancient times, long before people knew about genetics, microorganisms, veterinary science, or behavior modifications such as imprinting. Today, armed with such knowledge, more geese may be amenable to domestication. Most of the 15 other wild species adapt to captivity. Compared to most birds, geese spend much time walking and swimming and are less inconvenienced by pinioning (removing the tip of the wing). Thus, they can be kept outdoors rather than in cages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both of the ancestors of today's domestic geese are native to the northern temperate zone. Two more wild species that might make useful domesticates are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Canada goose (Branta canadensis). North America. People feeding these birds in city parks and wildlife refuges are causing many local flocks to develop. These birds no longer migrate. They are increasing in numbers each year and are well on the way to de facto domestication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- American swan goose (Coscoroba coscoroba). Southern South America. Although most closely allied to swans in shape and physiology, this bird resembles a muscovy (see page 124) in size and behavior. Its calm disposition, as well as its attractive red feet and bill that accent its white plumage, have made it much sought as an ornament for parks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In its diet, the goose utilizes large quantities of tender forage. It can break down plant-cell walls and digest the contents. Although it has no crop for storing food, there is an enlargement at the end of the gullet that serves as a temporary storage organ. Sand and small gravel are swallowed to aid the gizzard in grinding hard seeds and fibrous grasses. Research has shown that geese can digest 15-20 percent of the fiber in their diet, which is 3-4 times the amount that other poultry species can digest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The natural diet consists of grasses, seeds, roots, bulbs, berries, and fruits, normally supplemented with a little animal matter (mainly insects and snails) picked up incidentally. Most feeding takes place on land. They characteristically feed for prolonged periods, even at night.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females may lay for 10 years or more. It is generally believed that reproduction is best in the second year and that it remains good until the fifth year. Geese outlive other types of poultry; life spans of 1520 years are common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The eggs incubate in 27-31 days. The incubation time is more variable than in most poultry species, perhaps because geese have not been subjected to the selection pressure that is imposed by artificial incubators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most intelligent birds, the goose has a good memory and does not quickly forget people, animals, or situations that have frightened it. While personalities and habits vary among individual specimens, there are common behavioral patterns, such as the pecking order, that allow individuals to live peaceably together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless conditions are crowded or there are too many males, geese normally live harmoniously both with themselves and with other creatures. The bond between male and female is strong. Changing mates is difficult, although most geese will eventually accept a new mate after a period of "mourning."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese nest on the ground and prefer the water's edge, but they adapt readily to man-made nesting boxes. The gander usually stands guard while the goose incubates the eggs. He then assists in rearing the goslings. Most geese become irritated if intruders approach their nest or goslings, and will even attack people and large dogs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As previously noted, these birds provide meat, eggs, fat, and down. The meat is lean, flavorful, and of outstanding quality. The fat accumulates between the skin and the flesh and can be rendered into a long-lasting oil. The eggs are large and taste much like chicken eggs. The "down" (the small, fluffy feathers that lie next to the body of adult birds) is the finest natural insulating material for clothing and bedding, and can fetch a premium price. Worldwide markets exist for both down and other goose feathers. In France, in particular, some geese are raised for their livers (foie gras).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese can control many types of aquatic weeds in shallow water as well as grass and some types of palatable broad-leaf weeds on the banks of lakes, ponds, and canals. They can also be used as ''lawn mowers" and "weeders" among cotton, fruit trees, and other crops (see sidebar).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Elongated necks not only allow geese to reach many different foods, they also help them keep a watchful eye on the surroundings. With their exceptional eyesight they can see great distances, and the position of the eyes gives them a wide field of vision. Geese are among the most alert of all animals, and strangers cannot calm them into silence. In the high Andes, in Southeast Asia, and in many other locations, they replace guard dogs. In Europe, they are used to guard whiskey warehouses and sensitive military installations (see page 111).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Methods of caring for adult geese vary according to climate, breed, and people's experiences and needs. Overall, however, the birds cause little trouble and require little expense. They range freely without restriction, feeding themselves and returning home of their own accord. They have strong flocking instincts and can readily be herded from one area to another.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like all young poultry, goslings are fragile. The highest mortality is caused by predators. Until the goslings are 6-10 weeks old, it is prudent to confine the parents and their young at night in a secure pen or building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are the only domestic fowl that can live and reproduce on a diet of grass. They cannot remain healthy on coarse dry fodder, but when grass is succulent they need little else other than drinking water. Many legumes also make excellent goose forage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the tropics, eggs can be laid year-round. The production seldom exceeds 40 eggs per year, although with feed supplement and simple management, the Chinese breed may yield more than 100 eggs. Geese go broody quickly. To break up broodiness, the goose can be confined for 4 6 days away from, but in sight of, the ganders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goslings grow rapidly and can reach market size as early as 10-12 weeks; most geese, however, are marketed at 20-30 weeks of age, when they may weigh from 5 to 7 kg, depending on type and breed. Some young birds (also called green or junior geese), force-fed for rapid growth, are marketed at 4-6 kg when they are 8-10 weeks old.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If fed a good diet to maximize growth and if slaughtered at, say, 10 weeks, the Embden, Chinese, or African will have a carcass low in fat. However, the carcass normally has much more fat than other poultry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese must have a constant supply of reasonably clean drinking water during daylight hours. Although swimming water is not necessary, it promotes cleaner and healthier birds because they find it easier to care for their plumage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING GEESE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Tropics)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese of the tropics have seldom if ever been considered for domestication, but they might provide poultry of considerable value. Presumably they are more heat tolerant and lack the layers of subcutaneous fat (which the ancestors of today's geese needed for warmth in the Arctic). They might thus produce lean birds that would fetch premium prices because excessive fat is the major drawback of today's commercial geese. Examples of tropical species that might be domesticable are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Egyptian goose (AIopochen aegyptiacus). Found throughout the African tropics, this bird is already partly domesticated. However, it is bad tempered and quarrelsome and, so far, this has limited its utility. It has therefore been kept only under semidomestication, without intensive breeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nene (Branta sandvicensis). A native of the Hawaiian Islands, this is one of the most endangered species on earth. So few specimens are in existence that farming enterprises cannot now be envisaged. Yet, should this bird prove amenable and suitable, the possibility of an economic future could boost efforts to build up its now meager populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Bar-headed goose (Anser indicus). India and Central Asia. These smallish geese are handsome, dainty, and have a musical horn-like call. They have distinct black bars across the nape, which gives them their popular name. Hand-reared specimens breed well in captivity. Despite heavy hunting they are still abundant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Northern spur-winged goose (Plectropterus gambensis gambensis). Tropical Africa (Senegal to Zimbabwe). This large bird is a ground nester, but it has long bony spurs on the wings that enable it to easily protect its eggs and young from predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Semipalmated (magpie) goose (Anseranas semipalmata). Australia and New Guinea. One of the most aberrant and primitive of all waterfowl, this long-legged sturdy-billed bird has only partially webbed feet. It perches high in trees and has a loud ungooselike whistling call. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE WADDLING WORK FORCE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because geese relish grasses and shun most broad-leafed plants, some enterprising U.S. farmers in the 1950s began using them to rid cotton fields of grassy weeds, which are difficult to kill with herbicides. The geese were put into the fields as soon as the crop came up. A brace of birds kept an acre of cotton weeded; a gaggle of 12 would gobble as many weeds as a hard-working man could clear with a hoe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This method of clearing fields was so effective that by 1960 more than 175,000 geese honked their way across the carefully tended farmland, mainly in the Southwest. Seven days a week, rain or shine, the feathered field hands slaved uncomplainingly from daybreak to dusk, even putting in overtime on moonlit nights. Many toiled so diligently that they worked themselves out of a job.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The geese cleared the fields more cheaply than hoe hands. They left the crop untouched and ate only the succulent young weeds. They did not damage crop roots (as hoes or tractors can), and they were safe and selective, unlike many herbicides. On top of all that they spread fertilizer for the farmer, and ultimately provided him meat for the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eventually, farmers found that geese could be used to weed nearly all broad-leafed crops: asparagus, potatoes, berry fruits, tobacco, mint, grapes, beets, beans, hops, onions, and strawberries, for example. Geese were used in vineyards and fruit orchards to eat both weeds and the fallen fruits that could otherwise harbor damaging insects. They were employed in fields producing trees for the forest industry and flowers for florists shops. Some growers turned goslings loose in cornfields to consume the "suckers" (cone, after all, is a grass) as well as the grain left on the ground. This eliminated the problem of corn as a weed when different crops were later planted in those fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the 1970s when cotton acreage dropped and herbicides selective for the troublesome grasses were developed, the use of geese declined. But today, some organic farmers are returning to the practice. From February to June in the Pacific Northwest, fields are resounding once more to the old-fashioned racket of White Chinese geese. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mature geese are independent creatures. When kept in small flocks and allowed to roam the farmyard or field, they require less attention than any other domestic bird with the possible exception of guinea fowl. In areas where grass is green for much of the year, they can be raised on less grain or concentrated feed than any other domestic fowl.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Durability is one of their most attractive features. Along with ducks, geese seem to be the most resistant of all poultry to disease, parasites, and cold or wet weather. They also do well in hot climates as long as drinking water and deep shade are available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Growth is not only rapid, it is also efficient. If managed properly, goslings can produce I kg of body weight for every 2.25-3.5 kg of concentrated feed consumed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are not usually thought of as prolific layers. However, as noted, some strains of the Chinese breed will yield well over 100 eggs per goose per year. At 140-170 g per egg, that compares favorably with the output of laying chickens. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are messy and their loud trumpeting is often irritating. However, unless they have been teased or mistreated or if they are nesting or brooding young, they are not aggressive. But kilo for kilo, they are stronger than most animals, and a harassed or angry adult can express its displeasure effectively with powerful bill and pounding wings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excessive concentrations of geese on ponds or along creeks encourages unsanitary conditions, muddies water, hastens bank erosion, and destroys plant life. Where sanitation is poor, salmonellosis can devastate geese and be transmitted, via meat and eggs, to humans. Coccidiosis and gizzard worm are other infections.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Defeathering geese is more difficult than plucking chickens because there are two coats (feathers and down) to remove.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some situations, geese may need a diet supplement (such as grain) if they are grazing vegetation exclusively. A balance must be struck: too much supplement and they will quit foraging and become too fat; too little and they grow slowly and may suffer malnutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are not fully mature until two years of age. Their overall reproductive rate, therefore, is lower than that of other poultry. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry researchers worldwide should begin studies to clarify the role that geese could play in helping to feed Third World nations. Studies might include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Management practices for tropical areas;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Breeding and management for increased egg production;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Incubation techniques;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutrition supplementation (for example, vitamins, minerals, energy, specific amino acids) needed by grazing geese;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Physiology of digestion and reproduction;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Clarifying the inheritance of various traits;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Genetic selection for specific meat, eggs, growth factors, or disease resistance;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Comparative studies of the relative efficiency (especially of feed utilization) of the various types and breeds for specific climates in underdeveloped countries;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Weeding tropical crops with geese; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Studying diseases and cross-infection with other birds. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">8 Guinea Fowl</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g011a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Third World villages, the guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) could become much more valuable than it is today. The bird thrives under semi-intensive conditions, forages well, and requires little attention. It retains many of its wild ancestor's survival characteristics: it grows, reproduces, and yields well in both cool and hot conditions; it is relatively disease free; it requires little water or attention; it is almost as easily raised as chickens and turkeys; and it is a most useful all-round farm bird.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea fowl's potential to increase meat production among hungry countries should be given greater recognition. The birds are widely known in Africa and occur in a few areas of Asia, but they show promise for use throughout all of Asia and Latin America and for increased use in Africa itself. Strains newly created for egg and meat production in Europe - notably in France - show excellent characteristics for industrial-scale production. Also, many semidomestic types in Africa deserve increased scientific assessment as scavenger birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meat from domestic guinea fowl is dark and delicate, the flavor resembling that of game birds. It is a special delicacy, served in some of the world's finest restaurants. Several European countries eat vast amounts. Annual consumption in France, for example, is about 0.8 kg per capita.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl also produce substantial numbers of eggs. In Africa, these are often sold hard-boiled in local markets. In the Soviet Union, they are produced in large commercial operations. In France, guinea fowl strains have been developed that not only grow quickly but lay as many as 190 eggs a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside Europe, virtually all guinea fowl are raised as free-ranging birds. These find most of their feed by scratching around villages and farmyards. Their cost of production is small, and they yield food for subsistence farmers. In Europe, on the other hand, most are raised in confinement, with artificial insemination, artificial lighting, and special feeding. In the main, this is to produce meat for luxury markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl production is beginning to increase all over the world. During the last 20 years, for example, many of Europe's chicken farmers and breeders, wishing to diversify, have switched to this bird. The United States is now studying ways to establish industrial production, and both Japan and Australia are increasing their flocks. Nonetheless, there is still a vast untapped future for this bird.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide. This species is robust and resilient and adapts to many climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are somewhat larger than average scavenger-type chickens: adults weigh up to 2.5 kilograms. They have dark-grey feathers with small white spots. Their heads are bare with a bony ridge (helmet) on top, which makes them look something like vultures. The short tail feathers usually slope downwards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chicks, known as "keels," resemble young quail. They are brown striped with red beaks and legs. The sexes are indistinguishable until eight weeks of age. After that, the males' larger helmets and wattles and the cries of the different sexes can be identified. Both sexes give a one-syllable shriek, but females also have a two-syllable call.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the chicken, the guinea fowl is a gallinaceous species and possesses the characteristic sternum with posterior notches and a raised "thumb."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among domestic types are pearl, white, royal purple, and lavender. Pearl is the most common, and is probably the type first developed from the wild West African birds. Its handsome feathers are often used for ornamental purposes. The white is entirely white from the time of hatching and has a lighter skin. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p117a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe dominates industrial production. France, Italy, the Soviet Union, and Hungary all raise millions of guinea fowl under intensive conditions, just as they raise chickens. Elsewhere, guinea fowl have become established as a semidomesticated species on small family farms. Native flocks are found about villages and homes in parts of East and West Africa, and free-ranging flocks can be seen in many parts of India, notably Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, and Madhya Pradesh. During the slavery era, they were introduced from Africa to the Americas to be used for food. In Jamaica, Central America, and Malaysia, the birds have reverted to the wild state and are treated as game.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are abundant; in most places even wild populations are not threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are native to the grasslands and woodlands of most of Africa south of the Sahara where they occupy all habitats except dense forests and treeless deserts. Being native also to temperate South Africa, they appear to have an inherent adaptability to both heat and cold. However, in cool climates, regardless of daylength, they will not begin egg production until temperatures exceed 15&Yacute;C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl accept many foods: grains, leaves, ant eggs (for which they will tear anthills open), and even carrion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, they lay their first egg at about 18 weeks of age. Unlike many wild birds, which produce a single clutch a year, guinea hens lay continuously until adverse weather sets in.2 Free-range "domestic" guinea hens lay up to 60 eggs a season. And well-managed birds under intensive management lay close to 200. The eggs weigh approximately 40 g. Shells are stronger than those of chickens and are usually brown, but can be white or tinted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea hen goes broody after laying, which can be overcome by removing most of the eggs. A clutch of 15-20 is common. The incubation period is 27 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds never become "tame," but neither do they leave the premises. Although they stray farther than chickens do, they always return. They like to hide their eggs in a bushy corner, often in hollows scratched in the ground. They can fly, although even in the wild they do not fly far. They prefer to roost on high branches and (unless pinioned) can be hard to catch during the day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although wild guinea fowl live in groups, they are monogamous by nature and tend to bond in pairs. However, in domestication a single male may serve four or more females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, guinea fowl are valuable sources of both meat and eggs. They can also be used to control insect pests on vegetable crops.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are good "watch animals"; they have fantastic eyesight, a harsh cry, and will shriek at the slightest provocation. Their agitation on sighting dogs, foxes, hawks, or other predators have saved the lives of many a chicken, duck, and turkey. They are brave and will attack even large animals that threaten them.4 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl can be kept in confinement using the methods for raising battery chickens. In this system, breeding stock are housed in cages and artificially inseminated. It gives the best egg production and fertility but requires housing, equipment, and skilled labor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds can also be kept in a semidomestic state in and around the farmyard. In such cases they are penned until they are 12 weeks old. Unaccustomed to foraging for natural food, they constantly return to their artificial food supply. Eventually, however, they learn to subsist by scavenging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds have been called "the worst parents in the world," and are almost incapable of looking after their keets.5 Because the females are such indifferent mothers, the eggs are best hatched in incubators or under other birds, to avoid the keets' being lost by their natural mothers. In many African countries, eggs are hatched under chickens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keets are often kept indoors until they are 3-4 weeks old to protect them from predators and wet weather. Sexual maturity can be delayed to as late as 32 weeks of age by holding the birds in windowless housing and controlling the lighting. This improves egg size and hatchability and reduces early mortality. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GUINEA FOWL AND THE ANCIENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The earliest reference to guinea fowl can be found in murals in the Pyramid of Wenis at Saqqara in Egypt, painted about 2400 B.C. Aviaries were quite fashionable at the time, and wealthy landowners maintained guinea fowl within their walled gardens. A thousand years later, by the time of Queen Hatshepsut (about 1475 B.C.), the junglefowl (the ancestor of the chicken) had arrived, and from then on it was raised on a substantial scale. Records of this period refer to "walk-in" incubators, constructed of mud bricks and heated by cameldung fires. The largest could hold up to 90,000 eggs (mainly from junglefowl but some from guinea fowl) and hatching rates of up to 70 percent were claimed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 400 B.C., guinea fowl were well established on farms in Greece. Later, they rose to importance in ancient Rome. Pliny the elder (in his Natural History, published 77 A.D.) stated that they were the last bird to be added to the Roman menu and that they were in great demand, both eggs and flesh being considered great delicacies. The emperor Caligula offered them as sacrifices to himself when he assumed the title of deity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea fowl then died out in Europe but was reintroduced by the Portuguese navigators returning from their African explorations in the late 1400s. They gave it the name pintada or "painted chicken" and this changed to pintade in French, while the name "Guinea fowl" (fowl from Africa) stayed in English, and gallina de Guinea in Spanish. Coincidentally, guinea fowl and turkeys were both introduced to England between 1530 and 1550, and the English, smitten with the original French misnomers, were left sorting out "Ginny birds" and "Turkey birds" for the remainder of the century. Both birds were adopted with great enthusiasm, and within 150 years they had utterly displaced the peafowl and swan as the major table birds for festive occasions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adapted from R.H.H. Belshaw, 1985 Guinea Fowl of the World</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with the farmyard chicken the guinea fowl's advantages are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Low production costs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Premium quality meat;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Greater capacity to utilize green feeds;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Better ability to scavenge for insects and grains;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Better ability to protect itself against predators; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Better resistance to common poultry parasites and diseases (for example, Newcastle disease and fowlpox).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surprisingly, this semidomestic bird, which has been farmed for centuries, retains the characteristics (feather morphology, hardiness, social behavior) of its wild ancestor - even when subjected to the most modern intensive-rearing methods employing battery cages and artificial insemination. Thus, it thrives under semicaptive conditions and needs little special care. The birds forage well for themselves and do not require much attention; their meat is tasty and they produce substantial numbers of eggs. Unlike chickens, they don't scratch to get insects out of the soil, so they are less destructive to the garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In backyard production the guinea fowl is supreme, but when produced intensively it costs more to raise than chickens. In Europe, for instance, day-old keets cost about twice as much as day-old broiler chicks. (The major reason is that guinea fowl produce fewer hatching eggs and require a longer feeding period.) Guinea fowl are also more expensive to feed. Their feed conversion (for meat production at the marketing age) is about 3.3-3.6 as compared with a broiler's feed conversion of 1.8-1.9. Moreover, guinea fowl take about twice as long to reach marketable size: they are marketed for meat at age 12-14 weeks, compared with 7-8 weeks for the broilers. Therefore, the selling price of guinea fowl in the Western world is up to twice that of broilers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are nervous and stupid. They can be difficult to catch' and when panicking they can easily suffocate their keets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are susceptible to some of the common diseases of chickens and turkeys. Salmonella is the most prevalent, but others are pullorum disease, staphylococcus, and Marek's disease. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE GUINEA FOWL'S WILD COUSINS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domesticated guinea fowl is descended from just one subspecies of the family's seven known species and numerous subspecies. Some of the others may also have promise as poultry. They, too, generally occur in flocks in bushy grasslands and open forests in Africa. All feed on vegetable matter such as seeds, berries, and tender shoots, and on invertebrates such as slugs. They rarely fly except to roost. They acclimatize well are easy to maintain in captivity, and can survive long periods away from water.** Their disposition is tame and nonaggressive, and they mix well with other birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild subspecies closely related to the domestic guinea fowl that might make future poultry in their own right include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gray-breasted guinea fowl (Numida meleagris galeata). This subspecies is the principal ancestor of domestic guinea fowls. It is found throughout West Africa and probably has many valuable genetic traits. There is much variation in the size and other characteristics among the various individuals. People along the Gambia, Volta, and Niger rivers have long traditions of breeding these birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Tufted guinea fowl (Numida meleagris meleagris). This subspecies is quite large and has black plumage thickly spotted with white dots. It is the probable ancestor of the birds reared in ancient Egypt and in the Roman empire (see page 120). Hill farmers in the southern Sudan sometimes breed them in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Mitred guinea fowl (Numida meleagris mitrata). Probably the most popular game bird in East Africa, this type has a bright blue-green head and red wattles. It was once a common sight in the wild but it has now been decimated by overhunting. It is now most numerous in the Masai lands of Kenya and Tanzania. It has been kept in a semidomesticated form in Zanzibar for several centuries. Zoos and aviaries around the world have imported it, and it has bred well for them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild guinea fowl that are different species from the domestic one but that are still worth considering as potential poultry include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Black guinea fowl (Phasidus niger or Agelastes niger). This bird of the tropical rainforests of West and Central Africa is the size of a small chicken. It has sooty black plumage, a naked head, and a pink or yellow neck. It is seldom hunted because the meat tastes dreadful but this is probably because of a particularly pungent fungus they eat in the forest. Raised on fungus-free forages, these birds are probably very palatable. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Crested guinea hen (Guttera spp.). Three species. These strange-looking birds have a thick mop of inky black feathers above their black, naked faces. Widely distributed in the thickly forested areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Unlike the other species, they prefer the rainforest. They have a musical trumpeting call. At least one species has bred well in Europe. For example, a flourishing colony has been established in the Walsrode Bird Park in Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Vulturine guinea fowl (Acryllium vulturinum). The largest of all guinea fowl, this species is found in parts of Ethiopia, Somalia, and East Africa. One of the most striking looking of all birds, its head is bare and blue, its body black with white spots, and its breast bears long bright cobalt-blue patches on either side. This has been reared as an aviary bird in both Europe and America and might make a useful domesticate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agencies involved in international economic development should undertake guinea fowl assessment trials, evaluations, and coordinated introductions to stimulate programs for small farmers and for industries in dozens of countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeders have been working to improve guinea fowl only since the 1950s. There is a need for more information on growth rate, health, egg production, feed conversion, body weight, carcass yield, laying intensity, fertility, hatchability, and egg weight - especially under free-ranging conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Husbandry research should also be directed towards feeds and feeding systems for growing and breeding stock. Other efforts are needed to increase the hatchability of eggs under natural conditions (under guinea hens or surrogate mothers), and to identify the best lighting regimes (both sexual maturity and rate of lay are influenced by changes in daylength).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea fowl that has become an important domesticated bird throughout the civilized world is descended from just one of seven known species in the family. These birds generally occur in flocks in bushy grasslands and open forest in Africa and Madagascar, and some of the others may also have promise as poultry (see sidebar opposite). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">9 Muscovy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g012a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy (Cairina moschata), a unique ducklike species of the South American rainforest, belongs to a small group of waterfowl that perch in trees. In poultry science, however, it is normally grouped with domestic ducks for lack of a better classification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except in France, Italy and Taiwan muscovies have received little modern research. But their promise can be judged from the fact that they account for 50 percent of the duck meat consumed in France - about 60,000 tons per year - and they are often consumed in Italy and Taiwan as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Third World subsistence farming, muscovies have excellent possibilities. There is probably no better choice for a meat bird that requires minimal care and feed. Tame, quiet, and able to forage for much of their keep, they are inherently hardy, vigorous, and robust. They have heavily fleshed breasts and are highly prized for their meat, which is dark, more flavorful, and less fatty than that of common ducks. An average muscovy gives more meat than a chicken of the same age, and it also survives hot, wet environments better. In addition, muscovies are better parents than the domestic duck. Females are probably the best natural mothers of any poultry species, as measured by their success at incubating their eggs and caring for their young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All in all, this bird deserves more attention than it has received so far in Third World livestock projects. Dispersed around the warm and hot regions of the world, muscovies already exist in small numbers in backyards and villages, much like the domestic chicken in previous centuries. Despite a lack of research, the present unimproved stocks are already impressive meat yielders. Used more widely and more intensively, they could contribute much to poor people's meat supplies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossing the muscovy with the common duck produces a hybrid that combines many of the advantages of both. This cross, known as "mulard," or "mule duck" in English, is raised in France for its liver and meat and is produced in quantity in Taiwan (see sidebar, page 132). It, too, has a major future role.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies are suitable for use almost anywhere that chickens can be kept. Moreover, their tropical ancestry and inherent robustness give them an advantage in hot and humid climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although a muscovy somewhat resembles a goose, it is one of the greater wood ducks of tropical South America. It was domesticated in pre-Columbian times, most likely in the rainforests of Colombia. Related wild types, looking very much like the muscovy, still occur in South American wetlands, particularly mangrove swamps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males have mature live weights of 5 kg and females about 2.5 kg. Both have broad and rounded wings. The adults have patches of bare skin around the eyes, rather than feathers. Much of this is covered in "caruncles," which superficially resemble warty outgrowths. The feet have sharp claws. Both sexes raise a crest of feathers when alarmed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is much color variation among the various muscovy populations including types that are called white, colored, black, blue, chocolate, silver, buff, and pied.2 The most common types (they are not considered breeds) are the white and the colored. The white produces a cleaner looking carcass, but the colored is the most popular meat type in France. Its plumage is an iridescent greenish black, except for white forewings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The native range of the muscovy's probable wild ancestor covers much of Central America and northern South America. The domestic form also occurs over most of Latin America - from southern Chile to the northern limits of traditional culture in lowland Mexico - including the Caribbean, where it was present shortly after Columbus landed.3 The birds can be observed among the domestic fowl in the high Andes, for example, and are feral in southern coastal areas of the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carried across the Atlantic, probably in the early 1500s, the domesticated muscovy spread quickly in Europe, and thence to North America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania. Today, it finds favor with the food-loving French as "canard de Barbarie," and France has the greatest concentration of muscovies in Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Down the centuries the muscovy became popular in tropical Asia (especially the Philippines and Indonesia) and in China and Taiwan. Throughout Indonesia (where it is known as "entok") it is popular with villagers for incubating eggs from ducks, geese, and chickens. It is now spreading into Oceania, and has recently gained particular favor in the Solomon Islands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies are also known in Africa and can be found in many villages, especially in West Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not endangered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild muscovies occur mainly along tropical jungle streams, but domestic muscovies are found in many environments from the heat of Central America to the cold of Central Europe. They also tolerate dry conditions, but they thrive best where climates are both hot and wet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies utilize high-fiber feeds better than chickens and common ducks, and eat larger quantities of grass. They also consume other green vegetation and readily snap up any insects they can find. If quality forage is available, only a small daily ration of grain or pellets is required for them to reach peak production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy females normally hatch and raise large broods efficiently. It is not unusual to see them with a dozen or more fragile ducklings in tow - many of them adopted from other species. They bravely protect their young and have been known to beat off cats, dogs, foxes, and other marauders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, muscovies are healthy and live and breed for many years. They suffer few diseases, especially when free ranging. However, they seem to be more susceptible to duck virus enteritis (duck plague) than common ducks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p129a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While appearing to be slow and lethargic, muscovies can be quick and agile when one tries to catch them. Females are strong fliers and readily clear a standard fence. Males frequently become so ponderous that they cannot get airborne without an elevated perch or the aid of a strong wind. Although they forage over a larger area than chickens, they generally neither decamp nor wander as far as common ducks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated muscovies are either solitary or live together in small family groups, but sometimes in winter they flock together on bodies of water. They swim and dive well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds seldom make loud noises. A drake's voice resembles a muffled "puff"; females are almost mute. However, both can hiss or make a soft sound not unlike that of sleigh bells.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is polygamous (a young male will try to mate with almost any fowl, including chickens). Mating can occur on land or in water. Males are pugnacious and tolerate no opposition. Because of this, they do not do well in close confinement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A BETTER FLY TRAP</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is a voracious omnivore that is particularly fond of insects. For years, some Canadian farmers have sworn that a few muscovies took care of all fly problems on their farms. In 1989, Ontario biologists Gordon Surgeoner and Barry Glofcheskie (see Research Contacts) decided to put this to the test.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting with laboratory trials, the entomologists first put a hungry five-week-old muscovy into a screened cage with 400 living houseflies. Within an hour it had eaten 326. Later, they placed four muscovies in separate cages containing 100 flies each. Within 30 minutes over 90 percent of the insects were gone. It took flypaper, fly traps, and bait cards anywhere from 15 to 86 hours to suppress the populations that much.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moving to fleld tests, the researchers placed pairs of twoyear-old muscovies on several Ontario farms. Videotapes showed the birds snapping at houseflies and biting flies about every 30 seconds and being successful on 70 percent of their attempts. With that efficiency, they achieved 80-90 percent fly control in enclosures such as calf rooms or piggeries. The birds were given only water and had to scavenge for all their food. Females seemed to eat about 10 percent more flies than males, and individuals of any age between eight days and two years were equally effective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds fit the practical needs for farmyard fly control. They stayed close to piglets and calves, to which flies are particularly attracted. They even snatched flies off the hides of resting animals without waking them up. On one farm, the birds huddled between sleeping piglets and were accepted by the sow lying beside them. This was noteworthy because most fly-catching devices (chemical, electrical, or mechanical) must be kept far from animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To the Canadians, the economic advantages are clear. A 35-cow dairy needs $150-$590 worth of chemicals for controlling flies during the fly season; muscovy chicks, on the other hand, cost less than $2 each, eat for free, and can be sold for a profit of 200-400 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The researchers point out that employing muscovies does not eliminate all need for insecticides, but it reduces the amounts required. And muscovies are biodegradable, will not cause a buildup of genetic resistance, and taste better than flypaper. Indeed, their meat is excellent, and the naturally mute birds seldom make any noise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reportedly, muscovies are kept in some houses in South America to control not only flies, but also roaches and other insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is generally raised only for its meat, which is of excellent quality and taste. In stews it is hard to distinguish from pork; cured and smoked it is similar to lean ham.4 The fat content is low.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy eggs are as tasty as other duck eggs, and a muscovy female can supply a large number if she is kept from sitting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are useful for clearing both terrestrial and aquatic weeds.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Down feathers are used, like those of other ducks, in clothing and comforters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies may be raised like common ducks. An ideal grouping is one male to five or six females. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except in Taiwan, France, Hungary, and a few other European countries, they exist predominantly in small flocks in farmyards and village ponds. However, they can be reared under intensive conditions in a shed or pen that is well lighted and equipped with low roosts and bedding. Under such conditions, they may be fed diets recommended for rearing common ducks or given coarse feeds, including whole grain. If chicken rations are used, fresh greens must be provided to avoid "cowboy" legs, a symptom of niacin deficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they thrive in areas where there is abundant water, they do not require access to swimming water. They prefer to nest under cover and will use nesting boxes. A normal clutch size is 9-14 eggs; however, clutches of up to 28 can occur. There may be 4 clutches annually, and (when the hen does not have to brood the ducklings) some muscovies have laid 100 eggs in a year.6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The egg weight, which increases with the female's age, ranges from 65 to 85 g. The eggs require 33-35 days to hatch, a week longer than the common duck's. Hatching success of 75 percent or more is common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with domestic ducks early growth is slow, which is perhaps why muscovies have not enjoyed wider industrial use. However, after the slow period they grow rapidly and, because they forage on a broader range of vegetation than common ducks, they can scavenge a large proportion of their diet at little or no cost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When raised intensively, females average 2 kg and males 4 kg at 11-12 weeks of age. Females may reach sexual maturity by 28 weeks of age; males require a month more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE MULE DUCK OF TAIWAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In parts of Europe, hybrids between muscovies and common ducks are reared for fattening. However, Taiwan has made the most outstanding use of this "mule duck." Thanks in part to this muscovy hybrid, Taiwan's duck industry has grown rapidly in the last decade. The total value of duck products now exceeds $346 million per year. Much of the boom in duck production is due to improved feeding disease control and management systems, but much is also due to the performance of the mule duck. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This hybrid is now Taiwan's major meat-duck breed, and about 30 million are consumed each year. Indeed, the duck industry has been so successful that Taiwan is increasingly exporting frozen duck breast and drumstick meat to Japan. It now provides 24 percent of the duck meat eaten in Japan most of it coming from mule ducks. Also, Taiwan is exporting partially incubated mule-duck eggs throughout Southeast Asia. And mule ducks supply most of the raw material for Taiwan's large feather industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan farmers have been producing mule ducks for 250 years, but the recent jump in production is due to the use of artificial insemination to overcome the natural reticence of the different species to mate. Fortunately, artificial insemination is well developed and is a standard part of farming practice in Taiwan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mule ducks are successful because they have less fat than a broiler chicken and they grow faster. Indeed, they can reach a market weight of 2.8 kg at 65 - 75 days of age, depending upon the weather, season, and management. In part, this fast growth is because they are sterile and waste no energy in preparing for a sexual existence or in laying eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The usual cross employs a muscovy male and a domesticduck female. The domestic breeds most employed for muleduck production are White Kaiya (Pekin male x White Tsaiya female), Large White Kaiya (Pekin male x White Kaiya female) and colored Kaiya. Both sexes of the hybrid offspring weigh about the same.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crosses between a muscovy hen and a domestic drake are much rarer (traditionally, this was because of the different mating behavior of the two species, but even with artificial insemination available they are not much used) and the males of these hybrids are much heavier than the females. Females of this cross do lay eggs, but the eggs are small (about 40 g) and their embryos do not develop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are almost 300 duck-breeding farms in Taiwan, annually producing more than 600,000 female domestic ducks for use in producing mule ducks. Some farmers combine duck raising with fish farming. The excrete of 4,000 ducks on one hectare of pond can provide 30,000 tilapia with 20 percent of their feed. It helps the farmer get rid of waste as well as giving him fresh fish to sell. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the muscovy is an extremely good forager and thrives under free-ranging conditions. Unlike other ducks, it grazes on grass and leaves and will maintain itself on pasture. Apparently, it can digest bran and other fibrous feeds better than common ducks can.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The males are larger than all but the largest strains of table duck. They have exceptionally broad, well-muscled breasts and provide one of the leanest meats of any waterfowl.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is apparently more resistant to diseases that regularly decimate other poultry. This is one reason why villagers favored them: when chickens die, muscovies often survive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The female's strong parental qualities help assure the survival of ducklings with a minimum of human intervention. Her ability to incubate and hatch most other poultry eggs is an added advantage to small farmers who have neither the capital to buy, nor the knowledge to operate, artificial incubators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike other ducks, muscovies are not easily alarmed, and fright does not affect their egg production and laying. Indeed, they are so phlegmatic that automobiles can be major causes of death.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they are a tropical species, these birds are much less tolerant of cold than common ducks and require more protection from freezing weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy's feed conversion is not as good as the chicken's. Also, compared with some other meat-duck breeds, muscovies have a slower rate of growth and require about 4 6 weeks longer to attain maximum development of breast muscles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies can be difficult to handle. If their legs are free, the handler may be badly lacerated by the claws.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although adults have a fair homing ability, muscovies may wander away when local forage is sparse, and young birds may be carried long distances downstream, never to return.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they feed on greenery, they can devastate gardens if the plants are very young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies can be unsuspected carriers of poultry diseases, so that healthy-looking muscovies may infect the other species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry scientists should unite in efforts to advance technical knowledge and public appreciation of this bird. Governments and researchers should begin evaluations of local varieties and their uses and performances. The experiences of France, Italy, Eastern Europe, and Taiwan should be gathered and made available for a worldwide readership.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important that the many muscovy varieties within the countries of Latin America - where the bird has a centuries-long history of domestication - be maintained and studied. Many superior varieties and specimens may be awaiting discovery.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy's nutritional requirements, range and confined systems of management, and disease vulnerability are poorly understood and need study. Especially needed are ways to increase growth rate. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">10 Pigeon</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g013a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons (Columba livia)1 are durable birds that can be raised with little effort. Able to survive in inhospitable climates, they fend for themselves - often ranging over many square kilometers to locate seeds and edible scraps. They have been raised for centuries, especially in North Africa and the Middle East. In parts of North America and Europe, they are produced as a delicacy for the gourmet market. But raising pigeons for food is not nearly as widespread as it could be; indeed, in modern times its potential has hardly been touched. Farmed pigeons are particularly promising as urban microlivestock because they require little space and thrive in cities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young pigeons (squab) grow at a rapid rate. Their meat is finely textured, has an attractive flavor, and is often used in place of game fowl. Tender and easily digested, it commands premium market prices. In many areas, the continuing demand is unfilled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are traditionally raised in dovecotes - "houses" that protect the birds from the elements and from predators. This system allows free-ranging flight and requires almost no human intervention. Dovecotes are a good source of both squab and garden manure, and they continue to be used, especially in Egypt. On the other hand, pigeons can also be raised in confinement - usually in enclosed yards - with all their needs supplied by the farmer. There are, for example, pigeon farms in the United States with up to 35,000 pairs of breeding birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeon production may never rise enough to compete with commercial poultry as a major source of food, but for Third World villages these birds could become a significant addition to the diet as well as a source for substantial supplemental income. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons have small heads, plump, full-breasted bodies, and soft, dense plumage. They weigh from about 0.5 to nearly I kg. A few large breeds (Runts, for instance, which commonly weigh 1.4 kg) are the size of small domestic chickens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many breeds have been developed for meat production. They produce squab that grow quicker and have larger breasts than unselected birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild ancestor of the common pigeon - domestic, wild, or feral -  is thought to be the rock pigeon or rock dove of Europe and Asia. Today its domestic descendants are bred in virtually every country, and those that have gone feral (reverted to the wild) occur in most of the world's cities and towns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are abundant. However, as with most other domestic species there is concern over the decline and loss of certain breeds. Societies have been organized (notably in the United Kingdom) to preserve rare types.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p138a.png"></center><br>
+ Natural habitat of the rock dove ancestor of the domestic pigeon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domestic pigeon can be raised equally well in temperate and tropical zones. Indeed, this adaptable species can be kept anywhere that wild pigeons exist, including arid and humid regions. It should be noted, however, that cold climates do not favor squab production and hot climates promote vermin and disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigeon's natural diet consists mostly of seeds, but includes fruits, leaves, and some invertebrates. Feral pigeons consume a wide array of materials, including insects, bread, meat scraps, weed seeds, and many kinds of spilled grains at mills, wharves, railway yards, grain elevators, and farm fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the first four or five days of life, the young are fed "crop milk." This substance, common to pigeons and doves,2 is composed of cells from the lining of the crop and is very high in fats and nutritional energy. The phenomenal growth rate of young squab has been attributed to crop milk and to its early replacement (within 8-10 days) with concentrated foods, regurgitated by both parents. The parents feed the squab for about four weeks before pushing it out of the nest to prepare for the next clutch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In domestic birds, sexual maturity (as measured by age at first egg) is reached at 120-150 days. Life span can be 15 years, although growth and egg production decline rapidly after the third year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild pigeons often nest on cliff sides. Domestic pigeons prefer to nest around buildings, in nooks and shelves and under the eaves - that is, in "pigeonholes."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In domestic varieties, the pair-bond often lasts until severe illness or death. Sometimes, however, a vigorous male will "invade" a nest and mate with the females there. Both sexes take nearly equal part in nest building, incubation, and caring for the young. Typically, there are two eggs to a clutch. Eight clutches a year is not uncommon for a breeding pair. The incubation period is 17-19 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike most birds, pigeons drink by inserting their beaks into water and sucking up a continuous draft. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Courtship is characterized by cooing, prancing, and displays of spread, lowered tail feathers. "Bow and coo" exhibitions are unique to pigeons and doves and differ among species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are usually raised exclusively for meat. The squab are harvested just before full feather development and before the youngster has started to fly, usually at 21-30 days of age. At this time the ratio of flesh to inedible parts is highest; once flying begins, the meat becomes tougher. Weight depends upon breed, nutrition, and other factors, but usually ranges from 340 to 680 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are extensively used for scientific research, notably in physiology and psychology. They are also widely kept as pets for plumage and for racing. The pigeon's unique homing ability was recognized in Roman times, and the birds have been trained to return to the dovecote from as far away as 700 km. Even today, homing pigeons are used to carry messages, especially during war.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are easily trained to recognize "home." The wing feathers are clipped and the birds are fed close to the dovecote; by the time they refledge, their homing instinct has been developed. Alternatively, newly captured pigeons may be trained by confining them to the dovecote for at least one week. At first, a little grain is provided in the morning (this is to ensure the birds will return to the coop). The birds can obtain the rest themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any waterproof house that is easy to clean is suitable for keeping pigeons. Many traditional dovecotes are built of earthenware pots. In Asia and Europe, wooden pigeon towers are generally used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike chickens, pigeons do not prefer communal roosts. Instead, they prefer nesting shelves, of which there should be two for each breeding pair. The shelves are usually placed in dark corners and are fitted with low walls to keep eggs from rolling out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grit is important in the diet, both to provide minerals and to allow the birds to grind feed in their gizzards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commercial squab breeds are often kept permanently in pens, a process that requires care and experience. Growers expect an average of 12-14 squab per pair per year, although much depends on environment and management. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds need fresh water daily and water for bathing at least weekly. Since they feed their young by regurgitation, the adults must have a continuous supply of clean drinking water. Orphan squab can be fed egg yolk until old enough to consume adult feeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like all poultry, confined pigeons must be provided enough supplemental feed to ensure a balanced diet. A mixture of whole grains can be fed for maximum production. It is important that grains be dry and free of mold (pigeons will not thrive on mash). Peas, beans, or similar pulses make good supplements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARRIER PIGEONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most people consider message-carrying pigeons to be a quaint anachronism. But in a few countries (both developed and developing) carrier pigeons are making a comeback, and in the future they may be used routinely once again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New techniques are making this process far more practical than before. For example, in the past the pigeons would be flown in one direction only. They were transported away from home and at the appropriate time released to find their way back. That was very limiting. But it has since been found that pigeons can be trained to carry messages in two directions: flying from one point to another and then back again. They will do it twice a day, and with almost perfect reliability. The key is to place the feeding station at one end and the nest at the other. This limits the pigeon's range, but they still can handle round-trip distances up to 160 km.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a little ingenuity, there is no need for a person to monitor the stations to receive the messages as the bird arrives. One simple technique is to arrange the station with one-way doors - one opening inwards, the other outwards. Placing a bar across the outward door means that the bird cannot get out until someone releases it. Thus the message can always be retrieved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This system has been employed in Puerto Rico and Guatemala, but it could be used almost anywhere. In many parts of the Third World, in particular, there are remote areas with no phones and with hilly, rough terrain where delivering messages can take hours of strenuous travel. Some locations are subject to unexpected isolation by natural calamities or military or terrorist actions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Puerto Rico, for instance, we kept pigeons in a village 32 km from the capital. The pigeons could get downtown in 20-30 minutes. It took us 1.5-2 hours each way by road. What was easy for the birds was a major trip for us. Pigeons carried the villagers' requests for certain foods and medicines. Our contact in the city then sent up the supplies by bus. The birds never let us down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carrier pigeons are useful for more than just flying far and fast. They have been bred for racing and their large pectoral muscles make them excellent meat producers - much better than the common pigeons normally raised for food. A pair of carriers typically will raise 12 - 16 young each year, and those not needed for message carrying can be butchered at 28 days of age - yielding meat that is nutritious and considered a delicacy in many countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Holderread</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Every day on the northwest coast of France, Petit Gendamme, a black and white carrier pigeon, flies on average 23 km between hospitals on his blood delivery route. Trussed in tiny hand-sewn harnesses, he and a flock of carrier pigeons set out (except during the hunting season) with little red tubes of blood secured to their breasts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"It's a simple, effective, and cost-saving transport system," said Yves Le Henaff, head of the Avranches Hospital laboratory, Cotentin, France, a central blood-testing center that serves a number of isolated medical centers along the coast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The service becomes particularly valuable during the summer tourist rush, when travellers flock to the seashore to visit nearby Mont Saint Michel, crowding the small country roads and increasing the risk of traffic accidents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds' average flight time between the hospitals of Avranches and Granville, for example, a distance of about 27 km, is 20 minutes, including the time for harnessing up. And with a favorable western wind their best time can reach 11 minutes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While gasoline costs the equivalent of $0. 75 a lifer in France, hospital officials say that a few grains of corn is all it takes to run this operation. According to Le Henaff, who supervises the carrier pigeon operation, the hospital is saving up to $46 a day on gas and auto maintenance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 40-year-old Le Henaff got the idea five years ago from an article in a scientific journal describing a similar experiment in Britain. A year later, he and an associate called on the local seamstress to design a light harness that could hold a tube, which, when filled, weighs approximately 39 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The flock now consists of 40 veteran fliers and 20 carrier pigeons in training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And what if the winged creatures stray en route? Le Henaff has devised a fall-back option: two pigeons carry two different test tubes containing the same blood sample.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds fly every day of the year with the exception of the three-month autumn hunting season. Since the beginning of the experiment four years ago, there have been two casualties. Le Henaff believes the birds probably met their fate in some Normand's oven.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sometimes weather is a factor, and heavy fog can keep the delivery team grounded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, the new job seems to benefit the pigeons, too. Unlike sickly city pigeons, whose average life span is about four years, well-cared-for carrier pigeons can live up to 15 years, Le Henaff said. "And how many people do you know who are willing to stay with the same outfit for that long?"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sabine Maubouche</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Washington Post</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">December 2, 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under extensive conditions - where the birds are released each day to feed themselves - almost no land is needed. Under intensive conditions, where the birds spend their lives in confinement, a mere half hectare can be enough space to raise 2,000 pairs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free-ranging pigeons forage over a wider area than most domestic fowl because they fly out to find their feed. Nutrient requirements3 are similar to those of chickens and other fowl (making allowance for the energy needed for flying), so commercial feed and other supplements - if needed at all - are generally available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In dovecote culture, pigeons require little or no handling. They brood the young with little intervention. Although not continuous, the production of meat from these fast-growing, rapidly reproducing birds is more sustained than with most livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost nowhere are there taboos against consuming pigeon meat. Prices received for squab are normally high, and in most places the demand is constant. The only limitation in some areas is the absence of an effective market, which is usually easy to create.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Squab contains a larger proportion of soluble protein and a smaller proportion of connective tissue than most meats and is therefore good for invalids and people with digestive disorders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As many hobbyists can testify, raising pigeons can be gratifying.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are subject to few diseases. However, worms, lice, diarrhea (coccidiosis), canker (trichomoniasis), and salmonella (paratyphoid) occur at some time in most domestic breeds. Salmonella exists in low levels in most flocks and will flare up if birds are stressed. Treatments recommended for domestic chickens are usually suitable for pigeons. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By flying over a wide area and eating grains and other foods, pigeons can cause conflicts with farmers. Indeed, in the 13th century the aristocracy's pigeons became a major grievance of the peasants who saw their seed devoured. On the other hand, "croppers" (breeds with large crops) were developed to steal grain from the lord's fields. The pigeon returned home and his crop was emptied of the grain, which was used by the peasant to make bread.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds can become nuisances. They leave droppings in annoying places, some people find them too noisy, and a few people are severely allergic to "pigeon dust."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Every conceivable type of predator can be expected; therefore, precautions must be taken. The dovecote must be well protected against rats, which are the principal enemy of the eggs and the squabs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nesting birds need a high-protein diet to raise squab at the high rates of gain that are possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry researchers should study the increased role pigeons might play in Third World economic development. Nothing comparable to the sophisticated selection employed with the domestic chicken has so far been attempted. Given such attention the gains could be great.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among pressing research needs are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Breeding. This needs to be better understood. For example, the effects of hybridization and inbreeding need clarification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Environmental limits. Little work has been done outside the temperate regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Diseases. These deserve increased attention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also the potential of "dovecotes" for wild pigeons. Numerous local species are well adapted to local conditions, and these deserve to be tested for "domestication."4 Many wild species quickly lose their fear of man, and in time they can even become too fat to fly. Wild pigeons are already found throughout the humid tropics and are trapped for meat and rearing in New Guinea and other places. They are already an important food source for many subsistence farmers and shifting cultivators, and with some dovecote management could provide a greater, more dependable source of food and income. The potential for domesticating local pigeon species, especially those suited to the tropics, deserves exploration. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">11 Quail</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g014a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native to Asia and Europe, quail' (Coturnix coturnix2) have been farmed since ancient times, especially in the Far East. They reproduce rapidly and their rate of egg production is remarkable. They are also robust, disease resistant, and easy to keep, requiring only simple cages and equipment and little space. Yet they are not well known around the world and deserve wider testing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are so precocious that they can lay eggs when hardly more than 5 weeks old. It is said that about 20 of them are sufficient to keep an average family in eggs year-round. Quail eggs are very popular in Japan, where they are packed in thin plastic cases and sold fresh in many food stores. They are also boiled, shelled, and either canned or boxed like chicken eggs. Quail eggs are excellent as hors d'oeuvres and they also are used to make mayonnaise, cakes, and other prepared foods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In France, Italy, the United States, and some countries in Latin America (Brazil and Chile, for example) as well as throughout Asia, it is the meat that is consumed. It is particularly delicious when charcoal broiled. One company in Spain annually processes 20 million quail for meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the domesticated strains seem to have originated in China, and migrating Chinese carried them throughout Asia. Today, millions of domestic quail are reared in Japan, Indonesia, Thailand, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Indochina, Philippines, and Malaysia, as well as in Brazil and Chile. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commercial production is carried out, as in the chicken industry, in specialized units involving hatcheries, farms, and factories that process eggs and meat. However, quail have outstanding potential for village and "backyard" production as well. It is this aspect that deserves greater attention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail come in various sizes. The smaller types are used for egg production, whereas the larger ones are better for meat. Adult females of improved meat strains may weigh up to 500 g. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several color varieties. However, mature females are characterized by a tan-colored throat and breast, with black spots on the breast. Mature males, which are slightly smaller than females, have rusty-brown throats and breasts. All mature males have a bulbous structure, known as the foam gland, located at the upper edge of the vent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the United States, the Pharaoh strain is the bird of choice for commercial production. Other available strains tend to be bred more for fancy than for food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail eggs are mottled brown, but some strains have been selected for white shells. These eggs are often preferred by consumers and are easier to candle (the process of holding eggs up to a light to check for interior quality and stage of incubation). An average egg weighs 10 g - about 8 percent of the female's body weight. (By comparison, a chicken egg weighs about 3 percent of the hen's body weight.) Quail chicks weigh merely 5-6 g when hatched and are normally covered in yellowish down with brown stripes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ancestral wild species is widely distributed over much of Europe and Asia as well as parts of North Africa. Although domestic quail are now available almost everywhere, Japan is probably the world leader in commercial production; quail farms are common throughout its central and southern regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not endangered. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p149a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are hardy birds that, within reasonable limits, can adapt to many different environments. However, they prefer temperate climates; the northern limit of their winter habitat is around 38&Yacute;N.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A quail's diet in the wild consists of insects, grain, and various other seeds. To thrive and reproduce efficiently in captivity, it needs feeds that are relatively high in protein.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The females mature at about 5-6 weeks of age and usually come into full egg production by the age of 50 days. With proper care, they will lay 200-300 eggs per year, but at that rate they age quickly. The life span under domestic conditions can be up to 5 years. However, second-year egg production is normally less than half the first year's, and fertility and hatchability fall sharply after birds reach 6 months of age, even though egg and sperm production continue. Thus, the commercial life is only about a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crosses between the wild and domestic stocks produce fertile hybrids. Repeated backcrossing to either wild quail or domestic quail is successful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only females hatch the eggs and raise the chicks. Males go off and court other females when their partners begin the nesting process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail eggs taste like chicken eggs. They are often served hard boiled, pickled, fried, or scrambled. Because of their size they make attractive snacks or salad ingredients. They provide an alternative for some people who are allergic to chicken eggs. On frying, the yolk hardens before the albumen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail meat is dark and can be prepared in all of the many ways used for chicken. The two meats are similar in taste, although quail is slightly gamier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its hardiness, small size, and short life cycle, quail are now commonly used as an experimental animal for biological research and for producing vaccines - especially the vaccine for Newcastle disease, to which quail are resistant. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many fanciers and hobbyists have also become interested in raising this adaptable species as a pet. Science teachers find it an excellent subject for classroom projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">QUAIL IN JAPAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some areas of Japan, quail are widely raised for their eggs and meat. However, Japanese originally valued the quail as a songbird. Tradition has it that about 600 years ago people began to enjoy its rhythmic call. In the feudal age, raising song quail became particularly popular among Samurai warriors. Contests were held to identify the most beautiful quail song and birds with the best voices were interbred in closed colonies. Even photostimulation was practiced to induce singing in winter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Around 1910, enthusiastic breeders produced the present domestic Japanese quail from the song quail. It was created as a food source and became a part of Japanese cuisine. During World War II it was almost exterminated, but Japanese quail breeders restored it from the few survivors and from birds imported from China. The original song quail, however, were lost. In the 1960s, commercial quail flocks rapidly recovered and Japan's quail population again reached its prewar level of about 2 million birds. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A QUAIL IN EVERY POT: AN OLD DELICACY FINDS A NEW PUBLIC</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For centuries, quail were considered a great delicacy: a dish that only eminent chefs would cook and diners with an appreciative palate could enjoy. These small migratory birds, which are found in one variety or another throughout the world, were available until recently almost exclusively to hunters in the wild.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But now quail are in danger: in danger of becoming commonplace.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the last few years, quail have gone from being rarefied to a supermarket specialty item. They are on menus in the most elegant restaurants and the most casual cafes and bistros.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Why so much interest?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are now available semi-boneless, which makes them faster and easier to cook, and easier to eat as well. The breastbones are removed by hand before the birds are packaged and shipped to stores. The bones in the wings and legs remain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A stainless-steel V-shaped pin - invented and patented by a restaurant chef who wanted a way to keep quail flat for grilling is inserted into the breast. The pin can be left there throughout cooking and removed just before serving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While whole quail might require 45 minutes to cook, the semi-boneless variety can be grilled in less than 10 minutes, or pan-roasted, braised or sauteed in less than 20 minutes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The flavor of farm-raised quail has also helped bring them into the mainstream. Most farm-raised quail have tender meat like the dark meat of chicken, whose flavor is enjoyed by many people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And at a time when people are searching for foods, specifically animal protein, with low fat and cholesterol, quail fills the bill. The Agriculture Department says that quail skin has about 7 percent fat, about the same as dark meat of roasted chicken without the skin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Judith Banrett Adapted from The New York Times </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">June 21, 1989</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is necessary to keep quail in battery cages on wire floors because males secrete a sticky foam (from the foam gland) with their feces; on a solid floor, this adheres to the feet and collects dung, leading to crippling and breakage of eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult quail can live and produce successfully if they are allowed 80 cm2 of floor space per bird. However, for reproduction about twice that is needed to allow for mating rituals.3 If properly mated, high fertility rates and good egg hatchability can be expected. To obtain fertile eggs, one male is needed for roughly six females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eggs hatch in about 17 days. Chicks require careful attention. Brooding temperatures of between 31 C and 35 C  are needed for the first week and above 21 C for the second week. From the second week on, chicks can survive at room temperature. (These temperatures are similar to those required for common chickens.) In cold climates, supplemental heat may be needed as well as protection from cool drafts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clean water must be provided at all times, with care taken to prevent the chicks from drowning in their water troughs. Shallow trays, jar lids, or pans filled with marbles or stones may be used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail production can be started with little money. These easy-care birds can be housed in small, simple, inexpensive cages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, they are resistant to Newcastle disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SIX OF ONE, HALF A DOZEN OF THE OTHER</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that chickens can be crossed with quail has been known for some time, but there has been little attempt to develop the fertile hybrids. Now Malaysia has begun a project aimed at producing a new poultry bird - a cross between a cockerel and a hen quail. Zainal Abidin bin Mohd Noor, of the Department of Veterinary Services in Kuala Lumpur, is creating a strain that produces eggs of good quality and meat with the flavor of both parents. The new bird is intermediate in size between chicken and quail which is convenient because it is about right for an individual helping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The crossbreeding is done through artificial insemination. The progeny exhibit a range of appearances, sizes, and plumage colors, depending on the strains of cockerel and quail hens used. In the Malaysian research, cockerels have been local Ayam Kampung Bantam, Hybro, and Golden Comet hybrids. The quails have been local inbred Japanese quail (IJQ) and imported meat strain quail (IMSQ).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The trials show that the hybrids derived from the IMSQ flocks grew faster and bigger than those from the IJQ cross. The best have been the Hybro x IMSQ crosses, which weigh 475 g at 10 weeks of age. The best of the IJQ group weighed 290 g during the same period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This type of "tropical game hen" might be a way to introduce hybrid vigor into poultry production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The researchers who developed the hybrid have named it the "yamyuh." </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although generally disease resistant, quail are affected by several common poultry diseases, including salmonella, cholera, blackhead, and lice. They also suffer epidemic mortality from "quail disease" (ulcerative enteritis), which can, however, be controlled with antibiotics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail seem to require more protein than chickens, and produce best when given feed that is fairly high in protein.4 However, they also perform satisfactorily when fed rations designed for turkeys. They have high requirements for vitamin A, which they do not store.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are not suitable as free-ranging "scavengers." They must be kept confined, which is a major constraint. Unlike chickens or pigeons, they have no homing instinct and will not remain on a given site; if released, they will be lost. In addition, since they nest on the ground, they are highly susceptible to predation; they must be protected, especially where certain animals, the mongoose for example, are common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Artificial incubation is essential. Natural incubation using the female is futile; the females do not go broody and rarely incubate their eggs. The shells are extremely thin, but the eggs can be incubated under a small chicken hen, such as a bantam.5 The eggs are also subject to minute fractures. However, the shell membrane is extremely tough and unfertilized eggs are generally unaffected, but the cracks cause fertilized embryos to dehydrate and die. This is a serious limitation. Whenever quail husbandry is introduced, artificial incubation should be included.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail deserve to be included in all poultry research aimed at helping the Third World. Through its international scientific program, Japan, in particular, could apply to developing nations its vast experience with quail farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiences with quail in the tropics (for example, Japanese farmers in the Amazon Basin) and in tropical highlands (for instance, in India, Nepal, or Central Africa) should be collected and assessed to improve understanding of the environmental limits to Third World quail farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cooperation between commercial and laboratory quail breeders should be encouraged. Mutants found at the commercial level would be useful for laboratory work. Conversely, introducing new stocks could help the farmer. In both cases, more genetic diversity might also lead to the production of hybrid vigor, and genetic variability would be conserved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sex-linked genes, if they can be found, would be useful to the commercial quail breeder for the rapid sexing of newly hatched chicks. This could lead to more efficient production techniques, like those in the chicken industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although virtually all work to date has been on the Japanese quail, other species and subspecies warrant research and testing. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">12 Turkey</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g015a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) is well-known in North America and Europe, but in the rest of the world, especially in developing countries, its potential has been largely overlooked. Partly, this is because chickens are so familiar and grow so well that there seems no reason to consider any other poultry. Partly, it is because modern turkeys have been so highly bred for intensive production that the resulting birds are inappropriate for home production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, there is a much wider potential role for turkeys in the future. There are types that thrive as village birds or as scavengers, but these are little known even to turkey specialists. These primitive types are probably the least studied of all domestic fowl; little effort has been directed at increasing their productivity under free-ranging conditions. However, they retain their ancestral self-reliance and are widely used by farmers in Mexico. That they are unrecognized elsewhere is a serious oversight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native to North America, the turkey was domesticated by Indians about 400 BC, and today's Mexican birds seem to be direct descendants.' Unlike the large-breasted, modern commercial varieties, they mate naturally and they retain colored feathers and a narrow breast configuration. Their persistence in Mexico after 500 years of competition with other poultry highlights their adaptability, ruggedness, and usefulness to people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds complement chicken production. They are able to thrive under more arid conditions, they tolerate heat better, they range farther, and they have higher quality meat. Also, the percentage of edible meat is much greater than that from a chicken. Turkey meat is so low in fat that in the United States, at least, it is making strong inroads into markets that previously used chicken exclusively. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkeys are natural foragers and can be kept as scavengers. Indeed, they thrive best where they can rove about, feeding on seeds, fresh grass, other herbage, and insects. As long as drinking water is available, they will return to their roost in the evening.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appreciation for the turkey could rise rapidly. Interest already has been shown by several African nations. A French company has created a strain of self-reliant farm turkeys and is exporting them to developing countries.2 Researchers in Mexico are displaying increased interest in their national resource. And as knowledge and breeding stock continue to be developed, it is likely that village turkeys will become increasingly popular around the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modern turkey breeding has been so dominated by selection for increased size and muscling that commercial turkeys have leg problems and cannot mate naturally (they are inseminated artificially). These highly bred birds are adapted for large-volume intensive production, and must be raised with care. As noted, this chapter emphasizes the more self-reliant, less highly selected turkeys found in Mexico and a few other Latin American countries. They do not require artificial insemination, and with little attention can care for themselves and their young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fully grown "criollo" turkeys of Mexico are less than half the size of some improved strains. Males weigh between 5 and 8 kg; females, between 3 and 4 kg.3 They vary in color from white, through splashed or mottled, to black. The skin of the neck and head is bare, rough, warty, and blue and red in color. A soft fleshy protuberance at the forehead (the snood) resembles a finger. In males it swells during courtship. The front of the neck is a pendant wattle. A bundle of long, coarse bristles (the beard) stands out prominently from the center of the breast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The unimproved domestic turkey is essentially limited to central Mexico and scattered locations throughout nearby Latin American countries. Some village birds are also kept in India, Egypt, and other areas, but these are descended from semi-improved strains exported from North America and Europe in earlier times. Generally speaking, few turkeys are found in tropical countries outside Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated turkeys are not endangered; there are estimated to be about 124 million in the world. However, the wild Mexican varieties, ancestors to the first domesticated turkeys sent to Europe, may now be endangered since their distribution in southwestern Mexico has been greatly reduced. Certainly, some primitive domestic strains in the uplands of central Mexico are also being depleted. A separate type, independently domesticated by the Pueblo Indians of the southwestern United States, seems to have disappeared entirely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkeys can be reared virtually anywhere. Their natural habitat is open forest and wooded areas of the North American continent, but in Mexico they are raised from sea level to over 2,000 m altitude, from  rainforest to desert, and from near-temperate climates to the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p159a.png"></center><br>
+ The original distribution of the turkey and the occellated</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The range of diet is broad. Turkeys eat greens, fruits, seeds, nuts,  grasses, berries, roots, insects (locusts, cicadas, crickets, and  grasshoppers, for example), worms, slugs, and snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction is generally seasonal and is stimulated by increasing  daylength. (A minimum daylength of 12 hours is required.) The birds  can reach sexual maturity at six months of age and may start breeding at  this time. Ten days after first mating, the hen searches out a nest and  commences laying. Industrial birds in temperate climates lay, on  average, 90 eggs a year. The nondescript type of turkey in the tropics  seldom lays more than 20 small eggs (weighing about 60 am) before  going broody.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic turkeys walk rather than fly, and find almost all their food  on the ground. They can, however, fly short distances to avoid  predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commercial birds have lost many abilities for survival in the wild;  they can no longer exist without human care. However, village types  can do well with little management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkeys prefer to make their own nests but can be induced to lay in a  convenient spot if provided with nest boxes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are raised almost exclusively for meat. In many countries,  they are a treat for holidays, birthdays, and weddings. In their native  range of Mexico and Central America, the "unimproved" birds are  usually produced as a cash crop for market. They receive little care or  feed, and thus they are almost all profit - providing a significant income  supplement to many rural homes.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The principles of turkey management (nutrition, housing, rearing' and prevention of disease, for example) are basically the same as those for other poultry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mexico, turkeys are usually kept under free-ranging conditions around houses and villages. Some shelter and kitchen scraps are occasionally provided. A number of them, however, are confined in backyards as protection from marauders and for shelter against rain and wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One male can service up to 12 females. Roomy nests are needed. (As a rule, turkeys require three times the space occupied by chickens.) Most range turkeys are corralled when they begin to lay, so as to protect them from predators. Eggs may be gathered to prevent broodiness and thereby increase production. The eggs may be kept for several days (cool, but not refrigerated) if turned daily, and then may be placed under a chicken hen. (A setting chicken can be used this way to hatch up to nine eggs at a time.) Hatching takes 28 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As in other birds, newly hatched turkeys (poults) must be kept warm during the first weeks of life. Until they begin foraging and have full access to pasture they are usually fed broken grain or fine mash, as well as finely chopped, tender green feed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although free-ranging turkeys are simple to raise, confined turkeys require more complex management. The birds need uncrowded, well ventilated conditions and should be on a wire or slatted floor to reduce parasitic infections. Any feeds recommended for chicks are suitable, but the protein content should be somewhat higher; that is, about 27 percent. They can be fed mixed grains, corn, and chopped legume hay. It may be necessary to provide vitamin supplements and antibiotics and take steps to prevent coccidiosis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"AN INCOMPARABLY FINER BIRD"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The turkey was domesticated in Mexico some time before the Conquest. It is the one and only important domestic animal of North American origin. When the Spanish arrived, they found barnyard turkeys in the possession of Indians in all parts of Mexico and even in Central America. However, the Aztecs and the Tarascans, originating in west-central Mexico, seemed to have achieved the highest development of turkey culture, and it is probable that turkeys were domesticated in the western highlands, perhaps in Michoacan. Wild turkeys of that region are morphologically very similar to the primitive domestic bronze type. Both the Aztecs and Tarascans kept great numbers of the birds, including even white ones. They paid royal tribute to their respective kings in turkeys, according to the Relacion de Michoacan. The Tarascan king fed turkeys to the hawks and eagles in his zoo. The economy of some highland tribes was based on the cultivation of corn and the raising of turkeys.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Starker Leopold</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE INDUSTRIAL TURKEY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The modern domesticated turkey is thought to be descended from two differing wild subspecies, one found in Mexico and Central America and the other in the United States. The southern type is small, whereas the U.S. native is larger and has a characteristic bronze plumage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexican turkeys were exported to Europe soon after the Conquest, and spread rapidly. In the 17th century, some were returned to North America, where they interbred with the eastern subspecies of wild turkey, producing a heavier bird, which was then re-exported to Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These types underwent little change until this century, when the Englishman Jesse Throssel bred them for meat quality. In the 1920s, he brought his improved birds to Canada, where their large size and broad breasts quickly made them foundation breeding stock. Crossed with the narrow-breasted North American types, these heavily muscled meat birds quickly supplanted other varieties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About the same time, the U.S. Department of Agriculture began the scientific development of a smaller meat turkey derived from a more diverse genetic base. By the 1950s, the Beltsville Small Whites predominated in the home consumption market in the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds are efficient and generally take care of themselves. They tolerate dry, hot, or cold climates and forage farther than chickens. They are large, fast growing, highly marketable, low in fat, and tasty. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE TURKEY'S TROPICAL COUSIN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ocellated turkey (Agriocharis ocellata) occurs in Yucatan, Guatemala, and Belize. It is much like the common turkey in size, form, and behavior: however, unlike the common turkey, which in Mexico lives in the high mountain pine and oak forests, the ocellated turkey inhabits bushy, semiforested lowlands. This splendid bird lacks the kind of beard sported by the common turkey gobbler, is generally more metallic in appearance, and has brighter coppery colors. The chief character is a neck and head that are bare, blue, and profusely covered with coral-colored pimples. It also has a yellow-tipped protuberance growing on the crown between the eyes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is worthy of investigation by poultry researchers because it might prove to be domesticable. It was possibly domesticated by the Mayas, whose ruins often include appropriately sized stone enclosures whose soil has elevated levels of phosphorus and potassium. Even today, in the rural Peten area of Guatemala, ocellated turkeys are sometimes kept around houses as scavengers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young birds are readily affected by temperature changes and must be protected from the sun as well as from sudden chills, such as may occur at night. They are particularly susceptible to dampness, especially if associated with cold. One peculiarity is the turkey's aversion to any change in feeding routine or the nature of the food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young turkeys are susceptible to parasitic infestation as well as to the same type of bacterial and virus diseases as chickens (for example, fowlpox and coccidiosis). Blackhead, a devastating disease of young turkeys, is carried by a common parasitic nematode, and can be contracted from chickens. Medicines are available to prevent or treat most disease and pest problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkey development is almost nonexistent in the Third World (and much of the rest of the world, too). Although commercial turkeys are highly developed in some countries, little or no research has been conducted on the criollo turkey. Research on physiology, disease, and husbandry of the criollo turkey should be given high priority.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need for conservation of genetic variability is perhaps more critical in this species than in almost any other domesticated animal. The unimproved types in Mexico should be collected and assessed, and a program to conserve the stocks should be initiated. An analysis should also be made of the traditional management and performance of these birds. In addition, the four or five recognized turkey subspecies should be evaluated for their potential as seed stock for Third World countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">13 Potential New Poultry</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g016a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several preceding chapters have discussed the possibilities of domesticating certain wild birds.l Here, briefly, are highlighted other wild species with qualities that might make them suitable for sustained production. It should be understood that their practical use in the long run is pure speculation; they are included here merely to guide those interested in exploring the farthest frontiers of livestock science.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collectively, poultry have become the most useful of all livestock and the most widespread. Yet only a handful of species are employed. Of the 9,000 bird species, only a few (for instance, chickens, ducks, geese, muscovies, pigeons, and turkeys) have been domesticated for farm use. Strictly speaking, all birds are edible - at least none have poisonous flesh - so it seems illogical to conclude that these are the only likely candidates. Perhaps they are not even the best.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At first sight there may seem to be little need for new species, but poultry meat is in ever increasing demand and there are many niches where the main species are stricken by disease, or are afflicted by heat, humidity, altitude problems, or other hazards. For these areas, a new species might become a vital future resource. Perhaps some could even become globally important. The modern guinea fowl, for example, is a relative newcomer as a worldwide resource (see page 120).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds now used as poultry were domesticated centuries ago by people unaware of behavior modification, nutrition, genetics, microbiology, disease control, and the other basics of domestication. Today we can tame species that they couldn't. In particular, the new understanding of "imprinting" may make the domestication of birds easier today than ever before. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this highly speculative concept, the birds described on the following pages are worth considering. They all eat vegetation and tend to live in flocks, which makes them likely to be easy to feed and to keep in crowded conditions. Most are sedentary, nonmigratory, and poor fliers. All but three (tinamous, sand grouse, and trumpeters) are gallinaceous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gallinaceous birds are already the most important to people. The best known are chickens, turkeys, quail, and guinea fowl. But there are about 240 other species. Most are chickenlike: heavy bodied with short, rounded wings, and adapted for life on the ground. Although some are solitary, many are sociable. Basically vegetarian, they also eat insects, worms, and other invertebrates. The young birds are extremely precocious, walking and feeding within hours of hatching. All of these are advantageous traits for domestication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Game birds are also emphasized here. Many today are considered gourmet delights, and this should give them a head start in the marketplace. Indeed, some are already being raised in a small way on game farms and are at least partly on the way to domestication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHACHALACAS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These brownish birds (Ortalis vetula and nine other species) are found throughout Central and South America, and, given research, could possibly be raised on a large scale. A sort of "tropical chicken," they tame easily, live together in dense populations, and protect their chicks extremely well. They commonly scavenge around houses and people often put out scraps to feed them.2 The chicks are easily hatched, grow fast, and can be fed standard chicken rations.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is already considerable demand for these birds. Everywhere they are found, they are prized as food. In some areas they constitute the single most important game species, and are heavily hunted to supply local communities. Although they have less meat than a chicken, it is tastier and darker.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chachalacas are very adaptable. They occur mainly around forest edges and thrive in the thickets that appear after tropical forests have been felled. They do well close to humans, and their populations are not threatened, despite much hunting. Indeed, they seem well adapted to existence around villages and towns. Although not strong fliers, they are one of the few tree-roosting gallinaceous species. Primarily fruit eaters, they also consume tender leaves, twigs, and buds, and they scratch up the ground, presumably for insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although excitable and noisy, chachalacas become remarkably tame when fed by people. In a few cases, full domestication has almost been reached. Farmers like to have chachalacas around and have even used them to guard domestic chickens. These very raucous and fearless birds will take on all potential threats, even weasels.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GUANS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Close relatives of the chachalacas, guans5 are glossy black birds about the size of small geese. They are highly gregarious and perhaps could be raised in larger numbers. They commonly live around houses, farms, and settlements in their native region of tropical America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike most game birds, guans are chiefly tree dwellers, but they also feed on the ground. Some 12 species are known. All are relentlessly hunted for food and sport - their tameness and inability to fly far or fast making them easy targets. The rapid destruction of tropical forests threatens their populations in some parts of their range. Conservation projects and specific plans of action are being proposed for the most threatened species. Perhaps for the other species, game-ranching projects or even outright domestication might provide just the right incentive for their protection and multiplication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CURASSOWS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curassows are also relatives of guans and chachalacas, but they are even larger - up to 1 m tall and 5 kg in weight. At least seven species are found over the vast area from northern Mexico to southern South America.6 Among them are Latin America's finest game birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It might be possible to produce curassows in organized farming or ranching. They are commonly called "tropical turkeys" because they look like and run like turkeys. Indeed, Latin Americans normally refer to them as "pavos" or "pavones," as if they were the real thing. Their plumage ranges from deep blue to black, invariably with a purple gloss, and all have rather curly crests on their heads. They are not good fliers and spend most of their time on the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curassows are increasingly hunted; their tropical forest habitat is shrinking, and the subsequent loss of populations is a calamity. They are special targets, not only because they are large but also because their light-colored flesh makes exceptional eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is hope that these large wild fowls can be raised and managed in organized programs. Even now, people commonly keep them around their farms and villages. For example, on a number of Venezuelan ranches, yellow-raped curassows can be seen wandering around the cattle yards as if they were chickens.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOREST BIRD RANCHING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has intentionally focused on intensive farming - the type where people bring feed to animals in captivity. However, where this normal type of farming is of marginal value, `'ranching'' free-ranging birds may often be a more effective option. In this, the farmer simply monitors and improves the condition of the range and devises methods to harvest the birds on a sustainable basis. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Bird ranching" may today have outstanding merit, particularly in tropical rainforests. Hence, in this chapter we emphasize birds of the jungle. These might help make standing rainforests profitable producers of income, and thereby provide economic incentives to stop felling trees for cow pastures. Indeed, forest birds might become part of a whole new "salvation farming'' that makes forests more valuable than fields. It is a technique that may contribute to preserving both bird life and its vitally valuable habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MEGAPODES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Megapodes (family Megapodiidae) include some of the world's most interesting birds. They have temperature-sensitive beaks and employ nature's own heat sources as incubators. The best-known species build piles of leaves and use the heat of decomposition to incubate their eggs. The species of Papua New Guinea and Indonesia, however, take advantage of sun-warmed sand or even geothermal activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People have long revered these birds. Aborigines in Australia, Melanesians in New Guinea, and many Micronesians all protect the bizarre nesting sites, and "farm" them for eggs. Local people consider the large eggs special delicacies, and sometimes the egg-laying sites are owned and exploited for generations without a single bird being killed for food.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Programs that provide sustainable supplies of eggs have been established in Papua New Guinea. One is near Mt. Tovarvar, a simmering volcano on the island of New Britain. Here, megapodes gather in large numbers to lay eggs in the hot sands. They dig until they locate sand that is exactly 32.7&Yacute;C, before laying their huge (more than 10 cm long and 6 cm wide) pink eggs. Each year the villagers dig up some 2O,OOO eggs, which are an important source of protein and cash income. The government now regulates the harvest in a way that protects the bird population while supplying a nourishing food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Megapodes are found in only a few parts of the world, but projects such as those in Papua New Guinea provide hope and guidance not only for the sustainable "ranching" of megapodes, but also for other species elsewhere. Many wild birds yield locally important products down, colored feathers, eggs, meat, and skins, and they make excellent songbirds and pets, for example. Their management on a sustainable basis may in certain cases be the key to turning local people into the most dedicated conservationists of all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PARTRIDGES AND FRANCOLINS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Partridges include many small game birds native to the Old World. They are robust, precocious, and larger than quails. Some lay many eggs - the European partridge, for example, lays up to 26 in a clutch. Newly hatched chicks are soon able to feed themselves and can fly within a few weeks, sometimes even within the first few days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species that may make useful poultry include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The European (or gray) partridge (Perdix perdix); </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The rock partridge (Alectoris), bantamlike birds of Africa; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The chukar (A. graeca). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A native of the vast area from southeastern Europe to India and Manchuria, the chukar is stocked as a game bird in many countries. It is now produced routinely under poultrylike husbandry in many parts of the United States, not only for hunting clubs, but also for expensive food markets. The birds are generally raised on turkey rations and dress out at about 500 g after 18 weeks. They sell for more than broiler chickens and are a profitable sideline for increasing numbers of poultry farmers.9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A group of closely related birds are the francolins (genus Francolinus), of which there are 34 species in Africa and 5 in West and South Asia. These adaptable birds are sturdy, live in a variety of habitats, and tend to be rather noisy. Basically, they are partridges with leg spurs. They are highly regarded as a food source and are hunted and trapped wherever they are found.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Francolins are much like quail, but are several times larger. Arabs introduced one of the most beautiful species (Francolinus francolinus) into southern Spain, Sicily, and Greece during the Middle Ages. However, it was hunted so heavily that it soon became extinct in Europe. More recently, francolins have been introduced to the Soviet Union.'&Yacute;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Francolins inhabit steppes, savannas, primeval forests, and mountains. They thrive in cultivated land with much cover. The clutch consists of 6-8 hard, thick-shelled eggs. In recent times at least one program to domesticate them for food has been started in Africa.11</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MALAYSIA'S MOBILE MOUSETRAP</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the report emphasizes microlivestock as food suppliers, it should be realized that small animals - even wild ones - can have other important uses as welt The following interesting example, with possible worldwide implications, comes from recent experiences in Malaysia. *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Certain rodents are major pests on farms and plantations. Now, however, Malaysian zoologists are finding that owls, particularly barn owls (Tyto alba), can help control them. An owl pair and its chicks annually consume 1,500 or more rodents. This is not new knowledge; indeed, on farms throughout the world the barn owl has always been a welcome guest. What is new is that Malaysians are showing how outstandingly effective this process is, and they have initiated major projects to attract and maintain these feathered friends. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barn owls are found in many parts of the world, but were formerly almost unknown in Peninsular Malaysia. In 1969, however, a pair began nesting in an oil-palm plantation in Johore State. Since then, these birds have steadily increased in numbers and have spread throughout most of the peninsula. Today, the population is increasing remarkably quickly as more and more managers erect nest boxes for the owls to live in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The owls are proving to be a good way to remove rats and are notably effective in plantations of oil palm. They perch on fronds and fly under and between the rows of trees. A cost of $1 - $2 per hectare per year is all that is required to install nest boxes, a negligible outlay for the control of such a serious and expensive problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is believed that the barn owls hunt mainly in plantations and other agricultural areas and not in the rainforest. Barn owls are, after all primarily adapted to open spaces and not dense forest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps this experience can be replicated and adopted in other locations and with other crops. Grain crops - notably rice - are particularly prone to the ravages of rodents, and one trial has commenced in Selangor State in a rice area. The concept of using owls for rodent control is also catching on in the United States. Indeed owl nest boxes are being erected in Central Park in the heart of New York City.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PHEASANTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One pheasant, the red junglefowl, gave the world the chicken (see page 86). The other 48 species may have some potential, too. These are rarely seen forest birds; all but one are confined to Asia.13 Because they are prolific they can sustain heavy predation, and many species, notably the ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), are constantly hunted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People in several countries have learned to exploit pheasants on farms and estates. As a result, there is a vast amount of information on how to rear and manage these birds. So far, however, it has been applied only to sport hunting in wealthy societies; the potential of raising pheasants for the mass market should now be seriously addressed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most dramatic-looking pheasant, the peacock (Pavo cristatus), is raised as a poultry species in Vietnam. The meat of the young birds is considered outstanding. In fine restaurants in New York, a peacock dinner is reputed to cost $150. Common peafowls are considered sacred in many parts of India, where they have become so tame that they are essentially domesticated. They also control snakes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">QUAIL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic quail have been previously described (page 146)J but dozens of wild quail species and subspecies occupy many different habitats and ecological niches in almost all parts of the world. Out of all this genetic wealth only one species - the Japanese quail - is widely used. Yet many other species seem easy to raise, becoming exceedingly tame after about the sixth generation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The management and even perhaps intensive production of these various local quails might provide long-term benefits for many developing nations. Quail meat ranks among the finest.14 Some of these lesser-studied birds are more meaty than the Japanese quail or have other possibly useful traits. Much is known about rearing a few of them because they are used in sport hunting or laboratory research. The possibility of domestication, therefore, is not farfetched.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Particular quail that might be considered for domestication are the lesser-known subspecies of Coturnix coturnix. These subspecies are found in various places, including the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Europe (C. c. coturnix breeds in the area ranging from northern Russia to North Africa and from the British Isles to Siberia. In winter it migrates to tropical Africa, Asia, and southern India.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Azores (C. c. conturbans) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands (C. c. confisa) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Cape Verde Islands (C. c. inopinata) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- East Africa (C. c. erlangeri) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Tropical Africa, southern Africa, Madagascar, and Mauritius (C. c. africana) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Japan (C. c. japonica, the most probable ancestor of the domesticated quail)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- China (C. c. ussuriensis, a possible ancestor of the domesticated Japanese quail)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TINAMOUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tinamous are quail-like birds of Central and South America's forests and grasslands. They are, however, much larger than quail and resemble small chickens, with plump bodies and no visible tail. There are more than 40 species, and all are much sought for food because their meat is tender and flavorful. The breast is surprisingly large, and its flesh is pale and translucent. One species, the great tinamou (Tinamus major), has been called "the most perfect of birds for culinary purposes." Frozen tinamous from Argentina were formerly sold in the United States under the name "South American quail."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tinamous are found mainly in tropical areas, but are also widely distributed in Argentina and Chile. They dwell in varied habitats: rainforests, thickets, bushlands, savannas, and grasslands up to 5,000 m altitude in the Andes. Some species sleep in trees, others on the ground. They spend their days creeping about in heavy cover, flying only when forced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At least some species tame readily. Indeed, during the nesting period males become so tractable that they can be picked up off the nest. At the turn of the century, many tinamous were raised as game birds in France, England, Germany, and Hungary. However, for reasons unknown, subsequent attempts to settle them in Europe have failed. Tinamous have been raised in Canada without undue difficulty; they showed little or no stress under captivity and there were few losses.15</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tinamous may also prove suitable for egg production. They lay clutches of 16-20 spectacular-looking shiny eggs that seem to be made of sky-blue and bright-green ceramic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAND GROUSE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sand grouse (mainly Pterocles species) are highly adapted to life in arid regions - desert, dry grasslands, arid savanna, and bushveld. Their entire body (including most of the bill and feet) is covered with dense down, which in the desert insulates them from the burning heat of midday and the freezing cold of night. It also protects the nostrils against blowing sand and dust.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These pigeonlike birds are found throughout the drier regions of Africa and Asia - for instance, the Sahara, Kalahari, Namib, Arabian, and Thar deserts. They live mainly on small seeds, and sometimes flocks of thousands may be seen at waterholes, flying in for a drink from up to 80 km away. For peoples of the driest spots on earth, these birds may make a useful food species: for one thing, they are not endangered. Indeed, they are proliferating as drought and overgrazing is increasing the amount of dry, desolate rangeland that they prefer. The bore holes provided for livestock have both boosted their populations and afforded a place where these wide-ranging birds can be easily captured. When nesting, sand grouse are highly vulnerable to foxes, jackals, mongooses, and other predators. Protection of the nesting sites may be the key to maintaining their populations if harvesting schemes are introduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TRUMPETERS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trumpeters (Psophia species) might prove to be a useful species for sustainable production within tropical forests. As "tree poultry," these relatives of cranes could help provide meat without destroying the trees, as is now done to raise cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These chicken-sized birds inhabit South America's jungles.16 They are nonmigrating, ground-dwelling, and are often kept as pets, notably by Amerindians. Under human protection, trumpeters become very tame. They recognize strangers and challenge them with a loud cackle. 17 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fully adapted to the forest environment, they can run fast, but fly poorly. In the wild, this makes them easy targets for hunters. Because of this and the fact that they make excellent eating, they are approaching extinction in some areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No attempts have been made to rear these birds in numbers, but this should be tried. They feed mainly on plant materials, particularly berries of all kinds. They also relish grasshoppers, spiders, and centipedes, and are particularly fond of termites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trumpeters require trees; they completely avoid cultivated land. Thus, as the destruction of forests in South America continues, their habitat is shrinking. Although their existence is not as yet threatened, the long-term prognosis is bleak. If managed in "forest-ranching" programs, however, they might be saved from extinction and thriving populations built up. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interest in rabbits continues to increase. It is now widely recognized that the raising of small animals in developing countries has great potential as a means of improving human nutrition and economic security. The famines in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia starkly illuminate the need for maximum efficiency in food production to maintain the quality of human life. Rabbit raising contributes to meeting these needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.R. Cheeke, N.M. Patton, S.D. Lukefahr, and J.I. McNitt Rabbit Production </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are especially well adapted to backyard rearing systems in which capital and fodder resources are usually limiting factors in animal production. When rabbits are reared according to the techniques appropriate to the environment they can do much to improve the family diet of many of the most needy rural families, while at the same time supplying them with a source of income. With more advanced technology rabbit production can also help to supply big city meat markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization The Rabbit: Husbandry, Health, and Production </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g017a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part III : Rabbits</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contrary to popular opinion, the domestic rabbit is a substantial part of the world's meat supply. Annual production of rabbit meat is estimated to be one million metric tons, and the total number of rabbits is approximately 708 million.' However, rabbits are now intensively raised for food only in temperate, mostly industrialized, nations. France, Italy, and Spain, for example, have long consumed rabbit meat; West German production was 20,000 tons each year; Hungary raises rabbits in large numbers (two of its commercial rabbitries have more than 10,000 does each); and the United States raises almost 8.5 million rabbits each year for consumption in homes and restaurants.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most developing countries, on the other hand, rabbits are not well known - at least compared with other livestock. But they have great promise there, and in recent years there has been a dramatic increase in interest. For those developing countries where information is available, rabbit meat production almost doubled between 1966 and 1980. For instance, several African countries - among them Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, and Zambia - now have national rabbit-raising programs. A number of Asian countries - such as the Philippines, Indonesia, India, and Vietnam - are also encouraging rabbit farming. And some Latin American countries - Mexico, Costa Rica, and El Salvador, for instance - are actively promoting rabbits for subsistence farmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana is also extensively promoting rabbit farming. Although able to produce all the cereals its population needs, it cannot produce enough meat to satisfy demand. In response, the government organized "Operation Feed Yourself." The National Rabbit Project was created </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hares</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The common hare (Lepus europus) has not been domesticated, but it is nevertheless a major cash crop of several countries. In Argentina, for example, there is a booming, million-dollar enterprise that exports hundreds of thousands of carcasses, mainly to Germany where they are sold as game meat. For Argentine campesinos, many of whom have few sources of livelihood, trapping hares provides a vital income. In New Zealand, too, hare has become an export item.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A closely related species (Lepus capensis) is native to Africa, and perhaps could be "ranched in the same fashion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rainforest Rabbit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forest rabbit, or tapeti (Sylvilagus brasiliensis), is commonly eaten in its native habitat, which extends from southern Mexico to southern Brazil. It occurs in various hot and humid areas of Central and South America and probably within the Amazon Basin itself. Thus, this creature seems a possible candidate for a "tropical rabbit" that can be raised under sweltering conditions, perhaps even in rainforest regions. Although it seems to be heat resistant, it has an especially fine fur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is now known about the tapeti. It is rather secretive and its natural history and even its range are still uncertain. However, its populations appear stable and it is not threatened with extinction. It produces litters of 1 - 5 young after a 44-day gestation, and may bear 4 litters a year. This may seem a lot, but compared with other wild rabbits, the litter size is small and the gestation period long. under this program to provide farmers with breeding stock and practical information on rearing rabbits. (To qualify for the purchase of new breeding stock, would-be rabbit raisers are required to take an intensive three-day course in rabbit husbandry, which is provided at no charge.) With both official and popular support, the rabbit's potential for Ghana has been enhanced through media campaigns complete with radio jingles (examples: "Get the bunny money!" "Grow rabbits - grow children." "Get into the rabbit habit!"), television spots, and large posters. Already, rabbit breeding is included in school curricula and rabbit meat is available in school lunches.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other countries have mounted similar campaigns. In Mexico, for instance, teachers raise rabbits in rural schools as a way of training students; scores of government officials have taken to breeding rabbits in their homes; and several army units are raising rabbits as mess-hall substitutes for costly beef, pork, and chicken. In Nigeria, farmers can now acquire rabbits from 18 government rabbit-breeding centers, which distribute thousands of animals each year. In Costa Rica, the government has similarly established a series of breeding, distribution, and rabbit-farming training centers. And in El Salvador, the technology of rabbit production is being transferred to farmers via the army.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although rabbits are ideal microlivestock in a general sense, rabbit rearing has many problems and limitations. Poor management is a common difficulty. Unlike the traditional method of keeping scavenger animals, rabbits have to be contained and cannot be left to find their own food. Raising rabbits requires more skills, more time, and much more effort than raising barnyard chickens or other familiar scavengers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For all that, rabbits produce more food than scavenging animals; they are less likely to damage crops because they are kept confined; they live exclusively on forage, which tends to grow vigorously in tropical zones; and they generally produce a more valuable product. The rabbit's potential is far from exploited, and rabbit farming will have to increase enormously before its promise for the small farms of the world is realized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is, however, an increasing concern over a recent outbreak of an exceptionally virulent viral rabbit disease - hemorrhagic tracheopneumonis, which attacks the lungs and lung tissue, killing 48 hours after the onset of symptoms. The virus, which has ravaged the animals in parts of Asia and Europe, was identified in China five years ago in Angora rabbits imported from Germany. It spread to Korea in 1986, and in early 1988 moved through southern and eastern Europe and spread as far as Egypt. It has also been identified in Mexico. Vaccination may become a future prerequisite of rabbit rearing in many countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAST FOOD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The order Lagomorpha includes more than 60 small quickmaturing, and rapidly reproducing species. It seems illogical to think that only one is useful as microlivestock. In principle, any rabbit, hare, or pike could be raised in captivity. All are clean, fast growing and rapid breeding. They are opportunistic feeders and can digest fibrous vegetation. Their meat tastes better than chicken and does not carry the stigma of rodent. The animals are small inoffensive, efficient at foraging, and generally tolerant of difficult environments. In theory, at least, they could be raised on vegetation not used by people or by many domesticated livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species worthy of exploratory research include the following.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">14 Domestic Rabbit</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g018a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)1 is suited to small-scale production and backyard farming. It is easily maintained, requires scant space, makes minimal demands on the family budget, and thrives on plant materials that are usually disdained by humans. It utilizes forage efficiently. even coarse vegetation that is high in fiber, and under ideal conditions it can grow so rapidly that its rate is only slightly lower than that of broiler chickens.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rabbit's capacity for reproduction is legendary. In theory, a single male and four females can produce as many as 3,000 offspring a year, representing some 1,450 kg of meat - as much as an average sized cow.3 The meat is pink, delicately flavored, and is usually considered a premium product that provides variety in the diet. It has more protein and less fat and calories per gram than beef, pork, lamb, or chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some breeds are raised for their wool. The long-haired Angora, for instance, yields a luxury fiber that makes a soft, lustrous fabric. It sells at high prices and makes these animals very valuable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbit pelts also bring cash. They are used in fur coats and other luxury garments. In addition, rabbit feet and tails are used in good luck charms and many curios.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are well known for their long ears, fluffy tails, and long hind legs. Many commercial breeds are white, although colored types are sometimes chosen because of special qualities in their meat or pelts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many breeds and much genetic diversity within and between breeds. (Almost 160 varieties are recognized by the American Rabbit Breeders Association.) However, in both North America and Europe, the New Zealand White has traditionally displaced most other breeds for commercial meat production. This medium-weight breed bears large litters, is a good milk producer, and has good mothering ability. It reproduces best under intensive farming and, among purebreds, yields the most meat. A full-grown New Zealand White weighs 4-5 kg, giving about 2 kg of meat at 8-10 weeks of age. Large breeds include the Flemish Giant or the Checkered Giant, which weigh more than 6 kg at maturity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids are rapidly replacing purebreds in Europe for commercial production. Specific crosses of breeds have been shown experimentally to be more productive overall compared with purebred New Zealand Whites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Different meat breeds are preferred in various countries. For example, in Ghana the most popular are Flemish Giants, New Zealand Whites, Yellow Silvers, and Checkered Giants; in Tanzania and Nigeria, New Zealand Whites and Dutch are preferred; in China, Chinchillas and Japanese Large Whites are the most widely consumed. Some smaller breeds - for instance, the Polish - are also valuable for husbandry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some Third World strains have already evolved. They show high tolerance to local conditions (for example, the Baladi - the main strain of the Sudan and the Near East - and the Criollo of Mexico). The Baladi has a small body and relatively low production, but it is hardy and tolerates harsh conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specialized breeds have been developed for wool, fur, and laboratory research. The Angora wool breed has already been mentioned. The Rex breed produces a high-quality pelt used in furs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild ancestor of the domestic rabbit was originally restricted to Spain and Portugal. Today, its descendants are found worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plentiful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic rabbits are best suited to temperate climates, but they do well in tropical and subtropical conditions if hutches are constructed and sited to take advantage of shade and cooling breezes. Ventilation is important (but care must be taken to avoid direct exposure to cold drafts). Prolonged exposure to temperatures higher than 30&Yacute;C reduces both fertility and growth. Apparently, all breeds tolerate heat equally well. However, heat is shed through the ears, and the longer the ear, the more heat a rabbit will tolerate. Lop-eared varieties withstand heat poorly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits eat fibrous vegetation. In addition to normal feces, they produce special droppings called cecotropes. Softer and smaller than the regular fecal pellets, they are excreted in clusters and are swallowed as soon as they are eliminated. Cecotropes are rich in bacterial protein, and this double digestion (coprophagy) enables the animals to utilize the fermentation products formed in the cecum. This process is rather like that of ruminants, and rabbits are sometimes called pseudoruminants.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding begins at 4-6 months of age and may continue up to age 4, occasionally to age 6. Gestation takes 28-32 days. Females can conceive within 24 hours after giving birth and can produce a second litter merely 4 weeks later. With good feed and early rebreeding, 9 or more litters a year are possible. (Such a rate is only achievable under exceptional management, however.) Litter size depends on breed and body weight. Small breeds average 4 young per litter; large breeds 810. Births occur at any time of the year, but production slackens when the weather is exceptionally cold or hot, when feed is scarce, or when days are short. Extremes of heat or cold can also affect the survival of the young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits raised under subsistence conditions are likely to produce 4 or 5 litters a year, with an average of 5-8 young per litter' depending on management and feed quality.5 Annual production of about 20 weaned offspring per female per year under tropical and subtropical conditions is common. The young remain in the nest until they are 2-3 weeks old. Their eyes open at approximately 10 days of age. About 4 months are required to produce a 2-kg market rabbit under subsistence conditions. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits that receive human handling are very gentle and can be trained to live inside people's houses and even use a "litter box."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are multipurpose animals yielding the following products:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Meat. Delicious hot or cold, fancy or plain, it can be breaded and fried, broiled, baked, or barbecued.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Wool. The fineness of rabbit hair is an asset in the production of wool, which is the plucked or shaved hair of the long-haired Angora breed. It is usually mixed with fine Merino sheep wool to give more substance and to improve its wearing quality. An average Angora rabbit produces about 850 g of wool each year. (Some specimens produce as much as 1,000 g.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Fur. The fur is dense.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Leather or vellum. Rabbit hide has the tension and strength required for tiny drive-belts in tape recorders and other delicate machines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Fertilizer. Rabbit manure often contains high proportions of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash, and it comes in convenient drypellet form.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Tourist charms. In many societies, rabbits are connected with good luck. Feet and tails are used for car decorations, key chains, charms, and mementos that appeal to tourists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are also used in biochemical and physiological research.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits can be housed in hutches ranging from sophisticated commercial cages to simple packing crates with a few ventilation holes and rough troughs for food and water. In all cases, watertight roofing is essential. A floor space of only 0.25 m&Yacute; is sufficient for one rabbit, but about 1 m&Yacute; is recommended for a female and her young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting small-scale rabbit production is generally inexpensive. An almost infinite variety of backyard feeding and drinking equipment can be made from various scrap items, such as old bottles. The main criteria are that cleaning should be easy and spillage minimized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In practice, diets can be based largely on herbage: grass, leaves, legumes, crop residues, and kitchen scraps. However, the diet must be wholesome, and caged rabbits fed on forage usually need some grain or agricultural by-products (rice bran, for instance) as a dietary supplement. Supplementation is particularly important for newborns and lactating females, whose diet must contain about 16 percent protein and at least 18 percent fiber. When "noncommercial" feeds are used, salt must be added to prevent salt deficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of higher protein content, legumes (for instance, alfalfa, cowpea, vetch, or pea) are better than grass. Alfalfa is particularly valuable, and in the Sudan and Mozambique it is already grown extensively for feeding rabbits. On diets consisting of alfalfa and rye grass, weaned New Zealand Whites have demonstrated growth rates of 38-39 g per day in animals weighing up to 2 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits, as mentioned, can utilize almost any type of edible vegetation. Also, despite their diminutive size, they can collectively produce as much meat per unit of forage as large livestock, or even more (see page 183).6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is much genetic diversity. Differences in growth rate, fertility, maternal ability, milk production, disease resistance, heat resistance, and other features have been noted. This is useful, since a wide genetic base enhances the likelihood of success of selection programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are easy to handle and can be raised under primitive conditions. They require little financial investment and their husbandry is easily accomplished in the home by women and children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal's rapid reproduction is a big advantage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical conditions produce special problems. There, rabbits must be protected from heat and rain. Stress brought on by high temperatures, high humidity, and wet conditions can lead to respiratory disorders and even sudden death.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most diseases are caused by poor management. Dirty or wet cages lead to diarrhea, sores, mites, and ringworm, all of which can cause serious losses. Enteritis (diarrhea) often kills 20 percent or more of all rabbits before they attain market age and weight. A major disease problem in most countries is coccidiosis, which is particularly harmful to young rabbits. Again, damp and unsanitary conditions increase the susceptibility; better management can control it. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries - notably Australia and New Zealand - escaping rabbits have become a serious menace and have destroyed crops and grazing lands. Because of this threat, it is illegal to import rabbits into some countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, many people are unaccustomed to eating rabbit. Indeed, where commercial ventures have been established in areas with an otherwise plentiful meat supply, there have been financial failures. However, where rabbit meat is familiar, there is usually great demand for it. Also, in poorer areas where animal protein is in short supply, the tasty pink meat is widely appreciated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HOW RABBITS WERE DOMESTICATED</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For 30 or 40 million years the wild species Oryctolagus Cuniculus lived only in the area that today is Spain. Caves there contain Stone Age drawings of it. Phoenician traders landing on the Iberian Peninsula in about 1100 B.C. found huge numbers of these wild rabbits. The little animals were unknown to them and they mistook them for the hyraxes they had seen in Africa. (Although small and rabbitlike, the hyrax is actually related to elephants.) Since the Semitic name for hyrax was shaphan ("one who hides"), the Phoenicians named the peninsula l-shepan-im, from which the Latin name Hispania developed. Thus, "Spain" actually means "island of hyraxes," even though these African animals have never occurred there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the rabbit's reproductive powers and adaptability it is surprising that it hadn't spread beyond Spain, but dense forests covered most of Europe after the last Ice Age. The rabbit, which is suited to open country, only spread rapidly after man had cleared most of the trees. Even then, the natural spread was slowed by the Pyrenees mountains blocking the way into the rest of Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ancient Romans became acquainted with rabbits after they invaded Spain, and they eagerly added wild rabbit meat to their banquets. The meat was so popular that around 1 A.D. Roman voyagers released a pair of rabbits onto the Balearic Islands. In time, these produced so many offspring that the islanders had to appeal to the Roman emperor for help. They even asked to be moved to another country if the emperor could not get rid of the plague of rabbits!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eventually, Romans in Italy, France, and other parts of the European mainland began raising rabbits for meat. They kept them in special cages called leporaria. Their rabbits were probably not truly domesticated; instead they were netted in the wild and caged for fattening before being prepared for the table. The Romans had little incentive to domesticate an animal that could be so easily captured.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tne rabbit was the last farm animal to be domesticated. It seems likely that this did not begin until the Christian era when monks in French monasteries began taming rabbits. In those days, rabbit embryos and newborn young were considered delicacies, called "laurices." In 600 A.D. the Pope declared that laurices were "not meatp," and permitted them to be eaten during fasts and in monasteries of strict discipline where meat was forbidden. Within a few years, the animal was domesticated, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government-sponsored rabbit-research stations and programs are found in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the United States, and the United Kingdom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbit husbandry is well known, but much basic research is needed; for example, specific nutrient requirements, breed comparisons, disease control, reproductive management, and efficient housing and equipment. There is a particular need to reduce the labor required for feeding, breeding, caging, and cleaning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the increasing number of rabbit programs in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, there is a need to share information and ideas among the various countries. The exchange of experiences with rabbit breeding, health and nutrition, and the practical experiences and field studies could be of great value.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further research in rabbit nutrition is necessary to identify nutrient requirements more precisely. Moreover, links between nutrition and disease should be clarified.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further research into the cause and prevention of enteritis is needed. (At present, this condition is prevented by maintaining a fiber level in the diet of at least 18 percent and keeping the energy level relatively low.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legume shrubs could be an answer to the feed problems in the dry season. Deep-rooted shrubby legumes, such as gliricidia or leucaena, remain green well into the dry season and have high protein contents. Rabbits find the leaves of leucaena palatable (see companion report Leucaena: Promising Forage and Tree Crop for the Tropics. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C. 1984), and they are fairly resistant to mimosine (a sometimes toxic amino acid found in leucaena foliage). More research on this promising approach is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted earlier (page 181), a killer virus has recently appeared. Studies into its epidemiology and control are most important. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outsiders who hope to improve conditions in underdeveloped areas, sometimes . . . introduce new food avoidances to the communities they came to help [if outsiders] show repugnance toward consuming goats, . . . rats, . . . crows, insects, intestines and blood, then the people they are educating may likewise give up those . . . foods and lose valuable proteins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calvin W. Schwabe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unmentionable Cuisine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can count on the fingers of one hand the domestic animals that produce virtually all of mankind's meat and milk - a selection made more than 10,000 years ago by our Neolithic ancestors. Yet the earth teems with thousands of species of animals; why limit ourselves to cattle, pigs, goats, and sheep? Given the world's shortages of energy and water and arable land, why not try to domesticate wild animals? The effort would save many species from extinction, provide the world with more food, and introduce gentle farming to fragile environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.D. Vietmeyer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g019a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part IV : Rodents</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents are the world's most widespread, adaptable, and prolific group of mammals. They reproduce well, grow fast, learn quickly, and adapt to a wide variety of local conditions. Many convert vegetation into meat efficiently, digesting some fiber, even though their stomach, like man's, is a simple one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems probable, therefore, that some species would make suitable microlivestock - a notion supported by the previous domestication of the guinea pig, laboratory rat and mouse, gerbil, and hamster. Indeed, "ranching" rodents might be an effective way to increase food supplies in remote areas. It could also be a mechanism to ensure the survival of rare rodents whose natural habitats are being rapidly destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODENTS AS FOOD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents are already common foods in many countries and are valued items of commerce. It has been estimated that 42 of 383 cultures eat rodents.! But the fact that they are a major meat source is almost unrecognized. This is due in part to cultural misunderstanding. Rodents suitable for human food or other products do not live in filth, like common rats. They are clean and vegetarian. Like rabbits, they eat grass and grains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some regions of the world, cooked rodent meat is regarded as the epitome of dining. In many countries, local rodent species are the most eagerly sought meats. City markets in different parts of Latin America carry guinea pig, pace, capybara, and vizcacha. Markets in Asia may carry rice rats, cloud rats, and bandicoot rats. Those of rural Africa are filled with "bushmeats" - usually including grasscutters, giant rats, and several other rodent species. These are often preferred to the meat of domestic stock and fetch higher prices than beef. And the amounts of rodent bushmeat available are not minor. In one year, for example, hunters in Botswana have brought to market 3.3 million kg of meat of the rodent called springhare (see page 278).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fondness for rodent meat is not restricted to the tropics. In the United States, squirrel was once a much sought treat. Fat, nut-fed grey squirrels went into Brunswick stew, which has been called the most famous dish to emerge from the campfires and cabins of Colonial America. Thomas Jefferson liked it. Today, squirrel is the country's number two game animal (after deer), and many are still eaten.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ancient Romans kept fat dormice in captivity, serving them as a delicacy. "The fat dormice are fattened up in barrel-like pots like those in country houses," wrote Varro (116-27 BC). "One feeds these animals large amounts of acorns, chestnuts, or other nuts."2 This small rodent remains a prized food in Europe and still appears on tables in certain areas. The meat is regarded as a delicacy because it tastes of almonds and other nuts. Often it is roasted, broiled, and cooked with its cracklings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents have seldom been included in livestock programs or economic development plans. Yet human appetite has actually caused the extinction of a number of species. Caribbean Indians ate several endemic rodents (one of which was as big as a bear), and may have caused several species to become extinct just before the time of Columbus. Others may soon follow the same dismal route, including the beautiful cloud rat of the Philippines, the hare-like mare of Argentina, the vizcacha of southern South America, and the gentle hutias of the Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea pig is described in a later chapter, but as it is the epitome of a rodent microlivestock species, some historical background is given here. It was domesticated for food use at least 7,000 years ago, probably in what is now the central highlands of Peru and Bolivia. With only llama and deer available, the prehistoric Andean peoples had few readily available sources of meat. They adopted wild cavies, and found that these rangeland rodents (which are more closely related to porcupines than to rats or mice) were gentle, manageable, and easy to rear. By the time the Spaniards arrived in the 1500s, the "cuy"  (pronounced "coo-ee," like the faint cry it makes) was a major food from  Argentina to the Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This impressed the conquistadores, who introduced cuys into Europe,  where they also became a delicacy.3 Within a century, these easily  transported animals began to appear on tables in many parts of the  Spanish empire. Guinea pigs are now reared in campesino huts in the  mountains of central Mexico, in the Philippines, and in several African  nations, along with other areas of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Elsewhere, guinea pigs came to be used only as house pets and  laboratory animals. Although during World War II Mussolini's  government urged Italians to keep them to supplement their meager  meat rations, their use as food was largely ignored in most parts of the  world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The idea of domesticating rodents may seem radical, but  domestication projects are already under way with capybara in  Venezuela (see page 206), pace in Panama (see next page and page  262), giant rat in Nigeria (see page 224), and the grasscutter in Ghana  (see page 232). Rodent husbandry is not complicated and the animals'  environmental requirements seem relatively simple and easy to satisfy.  Moreover, rodents are not usually fastidious feeders, and being  essentially vegetarian will readily accept a wide variety of commonly  available foodstuffs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with most animals with which man is in close contact, rodents can  transmit human diseases.4 With care, however, managed rodents need  not be any more dangerous to care for or to eat than pigs or  horses - both of which are worldwide food resources.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING RODENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To domesticate the pace (see page 262) would seem to be impossible. These large rodents of Central and South America are nocturnal and fiercely territorial; they have low fecundity and take 10 months to reach weaning, and they have tender skin that is easily damaged Most researchers have written them off as candidates for domestication. But at least two have undertaken to beat the odds. We present the findings of one of them here to show that, using modem techniques, even species that normally fight each other to the death on sight are potential farm animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through years of studying paces in Panama, Smithsonian biologist Nicholas Smythe has found that with care and planning the aggressive behavior can be so radically altered that the animals become calm. Indeed, some become almost loving. Newborns, Smythe found, undergo "imprinting" and when he places them with docile adults or with humans, the fierce territoriality never develops. He nurses newborns on "surrogate" mothers that have been imprinted on people. The youngsters then welcome human company and, if fumed out of the cage, return there voluntarily. "It's difficult to imagine a more manageable animal," Smythe said. "Technically speaking they are behaviorally indistinguishable from traditional domestic animals."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As of this writing, Smythe has three generations totalling about 50 individuals, and has several "families" of gentle paces living together in harmony. He has observed that they lose their nocturnal habit and, although they live mainly on fruits in the wild, they readily eat leafy vegetables and other foods in captivity. His captive specimens have recently begun to breed. The offspring remain docile, but they have so far averaged only a little more than two young per female per year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"If we can just double the reproduction rate, then raising paces can compete economically with raising cattle," Smythe explained. "The potential for a bigger brood is all in the animal's anatomy, and if successful, paces in the wet tropics could produce as much protein as cattle."*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas need the shade and protection of the forest. Thus, pace raising might provide an alternative to cutting down rainforests for cattle raising. Instead of toppling trees and planting pastures, people could farm paces in the forest, and perhaps make as much or more money at the same time. In tropical America, the ready acceptance of pace meat is a near guarantee that all they produce will be snapped up at premium prices. In the past, many territorial and aggressive species have been dismissed as being impossible to domesticate or manage. But Smythe has demonstrated that with imprinting and other methods of behavior modification, these need be dismissed no longer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, the pace may already be becoming a new domesticated species. In the first stage of his experiments, Smythe had to train his captive-born paces to be social and nonaggressive. Subsequent generations, however, need no training adopt the new behavior patterns of the parents, and do not revert to aggressive asocial behavior. By the third generation, they have become as accepting of, and indifferent to, people as cattle or sheep. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">15 Agouti</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g020a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the best known of all animals of the American tropics, agoutis (Dasyprocta species)' are prolific rabbit- or hare-sized rodents that are probably easily farmed. They are valued for food and are hunted throughout most of their range. Indeed, agouti meat, once common in Latin markets. is now difficult to find because of indiscriminate killing. Agouti hunting is already prohibited in Brazil; restaurants in Belem, for example, once offered a variety of "cotta" (agouti) dishes at prices equivalent to those of choice filet mignon, but since the early 1970s they have been banned from serving it. Other countries will probably have to institute similar bans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis are active, long-legged, and high-strung. They flee in panic at the slightest alarm. They do not climb but they do burrow occasionally, being essentially specialized ground-dwellers that live in tropical forest regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There have been no organized scientific attempts to raise these swift, shy animals in captivity, but Latin Americans sometimes keep them as "domestics," especially in parks and large gardens. (Agoutis are well known, for instance at the Goeldi Museum in Belem, Brazil.) These animals seem to tame easily, and could perhaps be mass produced on a large scale like rabbits or guinea pigs. They make affectionate pets, sometimes refusing to return to the wild. A research project on captive breeding of two local agouti species (Dasyprocta mexicana and D. punctata) for food is already under way in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of lowland, tropical Latin America and the Caribbean. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis are delicately built, graceful, nimble, and beautifully proportioned. They have slender bodies, short ears, and look somewhat like a rabbit that has been "jacked up" in back. Generally, adults are 40-60 cm long and weigh 2-5 kg. Some are even bigger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They run well and are good jumpers. From a standing start an agouti reportedly can leap as high as 2 m or as far as 6 m; however, as long as they are well fed, there is little problem keeping them behind a wall only 1 m high.2 Reportedly, they sometimes climb easy-sloping trees to collect green fruits, but researchers studying Central American agoutis report that they are strictly terrestrial.3 They swim well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The body hair is thick, coarse, and glossy: pale orange to black on the back, and white to yellow on the belly. Some species have faint stripes, and some have a rump that contrasts with the rest of the back. The short tail is partially concealed under the long body hair.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis occur over a vast area from southern Mexico to Paraguay, including many islands in the Caribbean.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they occasionally damage sugarcane plantings and because the meat is particularly tasty, people hunt agoutis relentlessly, especially near cities and towns. Now, in the l990s, they are becoming rare because of excessive hunting and habitat destruction. Many Latin Americans have never heard of them. In Mexico, for instance, there are few places where agoutis survive, and Dasyprocta mexicana may become extinct if habitat destruction and overhunting continue in its restricted range. In Costa Rica and Panama, agoutis occur only where there is little or no hunting or human interference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From sea level to elevations of at least 2,500 m, the adaptable agouti lives in many habitats: moist lowland forests, dry upland forests, thick brush, and savannas. However, although they thrive in secondary growth areas, they are mainly forest dwellers. Nonetheless, they often enter fields to forage, and young animals occasionally are seen in open areas such as grassy stream banks and cultivated fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis shelter in hollows among boulders, in riverbanks, or under tree roots. They also hide in heavy brush and sometimes in holes dug out by other species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These herbivores eat seeds, fruit, stalks, leaves, roots, and other succulent plant parts, as well as occasional insects and fungi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They seem to mate twice each year. The estrous cycle is variable, but is only about 34 days long. The young are born after a gestation period of 3.5-4 months. Usually, there are twins; however, single births and triplets have been recorded. Newborns are fully developed and are able to run around within hours. They start feeding on solids within a few days. Puberty occurs at about 9 months of age. Life expectancy is 10 years or more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild, agoutis are shy and retiring. Every sense seems constantly triggered for instantaneous action and sometimes they become hysterical. If danger threatens, they usually "freeze," but when discovered they stamp their feet as an alarm signal and dash away, nimbly dodging obstacles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite excessive timidity, they can be violent among themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In undisturbed forests, agoutis are diurnal and are often seen. But around villages they become nocturnal, as a means of self-preservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the most part, these rodents live in loosely formed pairs, with previous litters living around their territory as "satellites." There is some "bigamy," some "philandering," and some "divorce."5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their long claws, they display much finger dexterity. To eat, they usually sit erect, crouching on their haunches and holding the food in their forepaws. If it has a skin' they carefully peel it before starting their meal. They save some nonperishable foods (nuts, for instance) by digging holes in scattered locations, dropping each one in a separate location, stamping it down, and covering it over. This behavior helps disperse the seeds of many species of trees so that agoutis benefit tropical forests and reforestation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p203a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, agoutis are popular game animals. They are often hunted with dogs that even follow them into the burrows. Agouti meat is tasty, although it is usually said to fall short of the meat of the pace (see page 262) because it is leaner and gamier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis adapt well to captivity. With appropriate care they can be bred without difficulty.6 The nervousness that is pronounced in nature is quickly lost in captivity. The young become tame pets. They can be fed on foods such as leafy vegetables, fruit, potatoes, and bread scraps. Although many wild specimens have become nocturnal, captives readily readapt to daylight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Being entirely terrestrial, agoutis require no trees, but they do need space. Given enough area, they get on well (with each other and with different species), and they breed freely. To avoid fighting, it seems necessary to separate females from males at puberty. Probably removing progeny from breeding pens at weaning could also help avoid most of the interpersonal aggression. In large areas with plenty of cover (banana plants, for instance), groups can be kept, but breeding may be disappointing. Husbandry may be most appropriate in large enclosures (50-100 agoutis) with some animals then removed to small cages 0.5-1 m&Yacute; for selective feeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACOUCHIES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Close relatives, the green and red acouchies (Myoprocta acouchy and Myoprocta exilis) also deserve study. These are smaller animals with longer tails, bearing a little plume of white hairs. Although even more delicate and hypersensitive than agoutis, they can be kept in captivity and breed well. They then become less nervous and are easily handled. Acouchies. show remarkable intelligence and even some affection for those they trust. They frequent rainforests, but are rare or even absent in disturbed areas. Adults weigh up to 1.5 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The general biology (diet, reproduction, activity rhythm), is almost the same as that of the agouti, but they live in smaller home ranges (0.6-1.2 hectares versus 2.5 hectares for the agouti) and travel singly, although belonging to a well-established family unit. Adult males tolerate the juvenile males. They occur only in Colombia, the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farming methods would probably be the same as for the agoutis, but acouchies always need plant cover.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis are appropriately sized: a dressed carcass can weigh 1-3 kg. The meat is good, and large commercial undertakings in urban centers could profit from the ready market that already exists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are prolific: females can produce up to two litters a year, each litter averaging two offspring. In protected areas, populations may grow fast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These forest dwellers might provide a source of meat and income without destroying the forests in favor of cattle pastures. Also, they thrive in disturbed areas as long as there is some cover. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiments in Brazil show that agoutis are highly susceptible to foot-and-mouth disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals might become pests: they eat the roots, leaves, and fruit of agricultural crops and occasionally damage sugarcane and banana plants. However, current experience suggests that if they escape captivity they are quickly caught by hunters and do not reach pest levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Live agoutis have strong-smelling anal glands that may be offensive to breeders or could contaminate the meat if the animals are carelessly handled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where the rainforest is destroyed, the agouti population is destroyed. The animals were once well known throughout Latin America, but not anymore. In some areas, therefore, wild breeding stock may not be locally available. Moreover, people may have become sufficiently unfamiliar with them that their value may no longer be appreciated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, they can be the prey of large birds such as eagles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The taxonomy of agouti species needs clarification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Husbandry experiments are required, including studies on topics such as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutrition;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Growth rate;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Shelters and enclosures;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reproduction; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Techniques for catching, moving, marketing, and managing the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One area where agoutis might profitably be raised is in enclosures in palm plantations. Palms such as the babassu provide food, shade, and shelter, while fallen and rotten logs offer secure retreats from predators. This deserves investigation.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instead of clearing vast areas of rainforest for cattle pasture, as is being done in much of Latin America, people might well "farm" agouties in the forests. Few of the settlers flooding into such regions can afford, let alone raise, beef. Small-scale agouti farming offers a promising and inexpensive alternative that would be gentle on the fragile land. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">16 Capybara</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g021a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), the world's largest rodent, can be as big as a sheep and weigh as much as a small person. Its natural habitat is the environs of South America's rivers, marshlands, and swamps, where it feeds on the grasses and reeds that grow near water.1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its size, tasty meat, valuable leather, and rapid reproduction, the capybara is a candidate for both ranching and intensive husbandry throughout the hot and humid lowland tropical regions of Latin America. It seems easy to handle. It is commonly raised in zoos or occasionally as a pet, and has, in at least one instance, been proven successful in large commercial herds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In floodplain ecosystems, capybaras complement cattle because they prefer to graze swamp grasses rather than the dryland grasses on which cattle feed. They have simple stomachs, but are one of the more efficient herbivores. Although they are "selective feeders" that eat lush waterside grasses "preserved in quality" by the water, they also graze pasture, usually selecting new growth that is often too short and scattered for cattle, with their large muzzles, to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The floodplains of the South American subtropics and tropics where the animal is indigenous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they have blunt, horselike heads, capybaras look like gigantic guinea pigs. They are ponderous, barrel shaped, and have a tail too small to be seen from a distance. Their skin is tough and covered by sparse, bristlelike hairs: the color above is reddish brown to gray; beneath, it is yellowish brown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The front legs are shorter than the back. Slightly webbed toes - four on the front feet and three on the back - make them good swimmers. They dive with ease and can stay underwater for up to five minutes. They also move nimbly on land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara is extremely large for a rodent. In size and color, it looks much like a pig. Often more than 100 cm long and 50 cm high at the shoulder, it can exceed 50 kg liveweight. Indeed, specimens weighing up to 90 kg have been reported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before livestock were introduced, the capybara grazed widely over riverine regions throughout South and Central America. Today, it is found in the flooded grasslands from Panama to Paraguay. Mainly, it occurs in the watersheds of the Orinoco, Amazon, Paraguay, and Parana rivers. High population densities exist in the Pantanal of western Brazil and on the Llanos floodplains of Venezuela and Colombia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are few precise population counts, but capybaras can occur in large numbers.2 However, in many areas they appear to be on the verge of extinction, being deliberately eradicated by farmers who think they compete with cattle and transmit diseases. Also, in some areas illegal hunting goes on year-round and great numbers are killed. The animals are particularly vulnerable during the dry season, when they concentrate around the diminished river channels and water holes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, most capybaras live in swampy or grassy areas bordering rivers. However, some are found in other habitats, ranging from open plains to tropical rainforests. But even here they stay near ponds, lakes, streams, and swamps, and never venture much more than 500 m from water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p210a.png"></center><br>
+ The capybaras native range</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara, like all rodents, is a simple-stomached animal, but it is a true herbivore. Its digestive system is especially adapted for fibrous materials. The large cecum - the site of enzymatic digestion serves a function like that of the rumen of sheep, cattle, and goats. It has a digestive capacity similar to that of a sheep's rumen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like rabbits and all the rodents, capybaras are coprophagous. That is, during the morning hours when they are resting, soft feces from the cecum are passed a second time through the digestive system.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributing to the animal's digestive ability is its efficient mastication. It chews its forage seemingly incessantly, reducing it to extremely small particles before it is swallowed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under natural conditions, the females annually bear 1 or 2 litters, each averaging from 4 to 6 offspring. Birth weight is between 1 and 2 kg, depending on litter size and sex. Both males and females reach sexual maturity when they reach a liveweight of 30 kg or more usually between the first and second year of life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras are intelligent, shy, inoffensive, and harmless. In undisturbed ecosystems, they are gregarious and live in family groups of up to 30. The young follow the mother about for many months after birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike most rodents, they do not construct dens, but the groups have specific resting areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are both diurnal and nocturnal and, like many herbivores, they graze at daybreak and dusk, and perhaps also at midnight. They spend the morning resting in weeds on riverbanks, and at noon they cool off by bathing for an hour or so before grazing. They may feed belly deep in water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras wallow in mud, allowing it to dry on their skin before bathing again. Mange can develop in captivity when they cannot take a mud bath.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When startled, a capybara barks loudly and dashes away, but after running 200 m or so it tires, slows down, and may lapse into hyperthermia. At that point a hunter can easily catch it. However, if the animal reaches water, it usually eludes the pursuer because it swims so well - especially underwater.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybara meat is white and has qualities and properties (such as high emulsification) that might allow it to compete with pork and other meats in the food industry. Spanish-style sausages, Italian-style mortadellas, frankfurters, and German-style smoked chops have been produced experimentally.4 However, at present, the meat is mainly consumed only in the dried and salted form. It is particularly popular in Venezuela, where more than 400 tons are sold every year, especially during Easter festivities.5 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara's hide is one of the best for glove making. This luxury product, known in international commerce as carpincho leather, fetches high prices on European markets because it is more heat resistant than most leathers and because it stretches in only one direction. This one way grain allows gloves to stretch sideways without lengthening and looking sloppy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara appears suitable for raising as a livestock animal. Amerindians traditionally collected capybara orphans during the hunting season and raised them until needed for food. Capybara breeding was reported in Brazil as early as 1565.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modern attempts have been made towards domestication. Researchers at the Institute of Animal Production in Venezuela, for instance, started a breeding program in the 1970s using 20 females and 5 males. Since that time they have continuously kept capybaras in confinement. Through selection and management, they have improved the reproduction of captive animals. The current aim is to get 16 offspring per mother per year. Newborns are weaned after 5 weeks and the mother is returned to the breeding pen.6 In Colombia, similar work is in progress, and guidelines for raising capybaras on breeding farms have been published.7 In Brazil, research has been carried out to study capybara nutrition, genetics, management, reproduction, and social behavior in total confinement.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout South America, the price of beef has increased greatly within the last few years, thereby providing a new incentive for capybara husbandry. It has also forced many campesinos to eat more wildlife, which adds another incentive for producing capybara meat on farms and thereby perhaps helping to relieve pressure on the wild stocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When tame, the animals are amenable to handling without physical restraint. They are so tractable that in Surinam a blind man once used one as a guide animal. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras can be raised on a variety of readily available vegetation: leaves, roots, fruits, and vegetables. They thrive in coarse grasses, if given opportunity to select nutritious parts. Their large incisors allow them to bite off short grasses that many herbivores cannot use. For instance, they eat "capybara grass" (Paspalum fasciculatum) that is abundant on river edges in Venezuela and is normally too short for cattle to graze. This makes for low-cost feeding and utilization of a resource that is otherwise unused.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras are at home in hot, humid environments and are fully adapted to life on the tropical floodplains and seasonally flooded savannas. They thrive in extreme climates where cattle struggle, such as in the parts of the lower Paraguayan Chaco where summer temperatures reach 45&Yacute;C.9 An ecological benefit to raising capybaras is that there is no need to alter habitats by introducing exotic forage plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They reproduce quickly. Age at first conception for females is about 1.5 years, and the time between parturitions is generally shorter than that of goats or sheep in the tropics. Young capybaras grow so fast that in 18 months they can reach a liveweight of more than 40 kg. In their natural conditions, they are more disease resistant than cattle. The annual productivity is said to exceed that of cattle in many parts of its range.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is already so widely eaten in South America that the meat from farmed animals should be readily acceptable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras occasionally raid fields and can harm sugarcane, rice, bananas, sweet potatoes, cassava, corn, and other crops. In many parts of Brazil, they are considered agricultural pests and are shot.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Confining these animals in high density may create serious problems. Infectious diseases and parasite outbreaks seem to be worse than those that occur with conventional livestock. Aggression might prove a limitation to capybara husbandry: it is almost impossible to cage two adult males together or to introduce new animals to an existing group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals may transmit disease to people and livestock. They can harbor foot-and-mouth disease and are known to be susceptible to brucellosis. They also carry a form of trypanosome, Trypanosoma evansi. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with cattle, capybara use only a small proportion of the total plant biomass. They are largely selective feeders, and for satisfactory performance must have sufficient area to select the plants they need. If placed in a paddock of only coarse grass, most will eventually die. Like goats and gazelles, capybara probably select a diet that is at least 15 percent richer in crude protein than a typical cattle diet.'&Yacute;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High mortality has never been observed in Venezuela, but keeping the animals alive on a farm in some areas may not be easy. In one trial, more than half (55 percent) of the capybara died of disease, and a few of septicemia (the result of wounds incurred during fights), but most apparently of trypanosomiasis. Other losses were caused by speeding vehicles (29 percent), poaching (6 percent), and predation, mainly by jaguars (12 percent)."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important for researchers to undertake the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gather specimens from different regions for comparative evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Assess experiences of zoos and farms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Undertake nutritional trials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Initiate captive breeding trials - measurements of growth rates, space requirements, feed needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Characterize the animal's productivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Study the capybara's basic physiology and production potentials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Investigate biological factors, such as reproductive physiology, and social behavior (both in the wild and under controlled conditions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine the factors influencing capybara reproduction, growth, and development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine the animal's adaptability and economic merit in various farming systems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Study the influence of environment on reproduction rate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine their complementarily with water buffalo or other ruminants that normally use swampy habitats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine relative causes of mortality (such as diseases specific to capybaras) and predation (especially of the young) by spectacled caiman, crested caracayes, black vultures, and others. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">17 Coypu</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g022a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu' (Myocastor coypus) is an aquatic rodent native to South America. It has been called the "South American beaver," but its size is actually closer to that of a small dog or an agouti. It seems suited to be a microlivestock species because, compared with most rodents' it has a large body size and a relatively high reproduction rate. Moreover, it is easy to manage, and there is much literature on how to raise it in captivity.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fur is the main item of commercial value. In the late 19th century, it was in such high demand that the animal was nearly exterminated. However, in 1922 Argentineans began raising coypu in captivity and this practice spread through South America and to other regions. In many European countries and in various locations in the United States some specimens escaped or were released, and coypu have become established in the waterways.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu meat is tasty and is consumed in many regions of South America as well as in parts of Europe. Because of the absence of musk glands, the meat is free of the "gamy" flavor found in squirrels and rabbits. It is moist, fine "rained, medium light in color, and firm. It is one of the mildest and tenderest of wild meats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal has been widely distributed, but its area of safest use is within its natural range in South America. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu is adapted to a semiaquatic existence and has webbed feet, valvular nostrils that can be closed to keep water out, and underfur that remains dry even under water. Its long, powerful claws on the forefeet are used for grooming, excavating burrows, and digging up and holding food. The tail is slender; the extremely large incisor teeth are orange-red.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An adult is 40-65 cm long and weighs 7-10 kg. Some occasionally weigh up to 17 kg. Males are larger than females. The pelage is thick, with coarse guard hairs overlying the underfur. The soft dense underfur (the commercially valuable pelt called "nutria") is about 2 cm long on the belly, and 2-5 cm long and less dense on the back. The color is yellowish to reddish brown on the back and pale yellow on the belly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu is distributed through southern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. It has been widely introduced in North America, Europe, northern Asia, and eastern Africa. As a result of escapes and releases from fur farms, the animals are now feral in Europe, North America, northern Asia, Japan, and East Africa. In the United States, they are abundant in Louisiana, Oregon, Florida, and the Chesapeake Bay region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In various countries, the animal's status ranges from that of a rarity to that of a pest. Wild coypu are protected by law in Argentina because of overhunting, but there are about 100 producers of farmed coypu.3 Elsewhere the animals are destroyed en masse to reduce the threat of damage to irrigation ditches, dams, and agricultural crops. In England a decade-long program has eradicated them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu mainly inhabit the banks of fresh or brackish waterways.4 They live in temperate zones and are highly sensitive to freezing conditions. Also, their heat tolerance is poor; lowland tropical regions may be too hot for them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p219a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu feeds mainly at night. The diet consists chiefly of plants, particularly water plants and reeds. Large amounts of fibrous vegetation is decomposed in the cecum, where bacteria break down cellulose particles. Mussels, snails, and other small organisms are also often eaten.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals burrow into soft soil or construct nests out of vegetation above ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu are relatively fast breeding. Females first give birth at ages ranging from 6 to 15 months. From then on, they produce 2 or 3 litters a year. They are able to mate and give birth at any time of the year, although more young are born during certain seasons. The gestation period is between 128 and 140 days. There are 5 or 6 (sometimes up to 12) young in each litter. Newborns are well developed, able to see, and fully covered with hair at birth. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The female's four or five pairs of mammae are located on the side of the body, an adaptation that permits the young to nurse while floating with their mothers in the water. In captivity, young are nursed for two months, but can survive if weaned at five days. The mean body weight at birth is about 225 g, but growth is rapid during the first five months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu have a potential life span of more than six years. However, they seldom survive more than three years, and in the wild probably no animals are older than five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are passive creatures, usually entirely lacking in aggression. They are shy and fearful; the slightest disturbance will send them scurrying to the shelter of water, a burrow, or other hiding place. With their large incisors they can bite viciously, but in captivity they tame down, even to where they can be carried around by hand. Compared with domestic animals, they are very sanitary in their feeding and living habits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In hot climates they are nocturnal, in cooler climates crepuscular, and in cold weather they become diurnal. Captive animals become conditioned to diurnal activity if fed during daylight hours. Most of the active period is spent feeding, grooming, and swimming. Grooming is done by scratching and "nibbling" the fur, and an oily secretion from glands located near the mouth and anus lubricates the pelage. Secretions from the anal glands are also employed for marking out territory.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excellent swimmers, coypu spend most of their time in the water. They can remain submerged for five minutes or more. On land, they lumber about with awkward, clumsy movements; however, when the need arises they can run fast and jump short distances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they usually live together in pairs, coypu will form large colonies. They tend to remain in one area throughout their lives: their daily "cruising range" has been measured at less than 45 m.5 However, drought or freezing weather can induce mass migrations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The burrows, which are dug in sloping banks, are usually short with no branching tunnels and generally end in a simple chamber. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In South America, the coypu has a long history of use. Nutria fur was in such high demand and the animal was hunted so avidly at the beginning of the last century that it became rare and had to be protected by government decree. As a result, populations increased dramatically. Nowadays, coypu are protected in many areas, but widespread poaching has reduced their numbers and range.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many thousands are killed each year just for the guard hairs, which are used in making felt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu are used in marsh management to reduce infestations of aquatic weeds and to keep waterways open.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas where it is found, the coypu is trapped by commercial hunters. However, as noted, several countries have coypu farms. In Germany, the animals have been raised on diets consisting chiefly of potatoes supplemented with oats, clover, corn, hay, green forage, legumes, turnips, or cabbage. Elsewhere, feeds generally include such materials as hay, corn, crushed oats, greens, root vegetables, apples, bread, and rabbit feed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To confine coypu, a wall of stone or concrete or a fence of stout wire netting is necessary. It must be set 1 m deep into the ground and rise 1-1.5 m above ground. Water must be available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where selected strains of animals are kept, it is usual to house each female in separate small compartments, complete with pools and shelter boxes. Each is then paired with a male, which is removed after mating to leave the female to rear her brood in seclusion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fur is particularly valuable because the female's nipples are so high that the soft belly fur is unbroken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This herbivore is much cheaper to feed than the furbearing carnivores such as mink. Furs of coypu raised in captivity fetch a price about three times greater than furs from wild animals.6 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wherever the coypu has escaped it has damaged embankments and stream banks. The burrows sometimes weaken dikes that protect low lying areas from flooding. In northern Europe and eastern England, for example, it is considered a serious pest. In rice paddies, coypu could become particularly devastating. They can also damage crops and natural plant communities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu can carry viruses that result in toxoplasmosis, papillomatosis, rabies, and equine encephalomyelitis; bacteria that cause salmonellosis, paratyphoid, and leptospirosis; protozoans that produce sarcosporidiosis and coccidiosis; and rickettsia. Common diseases of captive specimens are bacterial pneumonia, hepatitis-nephritis, Strongyloides infection, and neoplasms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European winters often cause the coypu's tail (which is hairless) to freeze, but the animal hardly seems to notice. A more dangerous situation arises when lakes, streams, or rivers freeze over; beneath the ice, coypu cannot find their way as easily as beavers, and often drown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little research needs to be done. There is massive literature on farming coypu. Nonetheless, the animal's behavior is little studied, and there are few reliable published observations on its social organization. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">18 Giant Rat</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant rat, also known as the pouched rat, is one of Africa's largest rodents.! Two species have been distinguished: Cricetomys gambianus, which lives chiefly in savannas and around the edges of forests and human settlements; and Cricetomys emini, which occurs mainly in rainforests. Both are highly prized as food </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are solitary, but they are easy to handle, have a gentle nature, and make good pets. Researchers at the University of Ibadan in Nigeria have been developing techniques for managing them in captivity. Breeding stocks were established in 1973, and since then so many generations have been bred that this small population is considered domesticated. Commercial-scale giant rat farming is now being established in southern Nigeria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is a promising development because giant rats are a common "bushmeat" throughout much of Africa. Since these herbivores are well known there, and are acceptable as food, they may have as much or more potential as meat animals than the introduced rabbits that are getting considerable attention (see page 178).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The intertropical zone of Africa from the southern Sahara to the northern Transvaal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is among the most striking of all African rodents. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its large size, it often causes amazement - even alarm -  when seen for the first time. The body measures as much as 40 cm, and, on average, weighs about 1-1.5 kg. The record for a hand-reared specimen is 1.6 kg 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from its size, the best known species (Cricetomys gambianus) is noted for the dark hair around its eyes, a nose that is sharply divided into dark upper and pale lower regions, and a tail that has a dark (proximal) section and pale (distal) section. The overall body color is a dusky gray.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lesser known species (Cricetomys emini) has short, thin, and relatively sleek fur. Its upper parts are pale brown; the belly is white.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant rats are commonly found from Senegal to Sudan, and as far south as the northern region of South Africa. The main species is mostly found in moist savannas, patches of forests, and rainforests. However, it can also be found in all West African vegetation zones from the semiarid Sahel to the coast. It also exists at high altitudes up to about 2,OOO m in West Africa and 3,000 m in eastern Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rainforest species occurs in the great equatorial forest belts of Zaire and neighboring Central African countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are probably not threatened with extinction. However, they have been exterminated in some areas (such as in parts of eastern Zaire) where the human population is dense, the land fully cultivated, and the wildlife overhunted. Although common, they are not as well known as one might suppose from their bulk and from the fact that they are sometimes found around, and even inside, houses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant rats occur largely in lightly wooded dryland regions or in forested humid regions. They cannot tolerate high temperatures or truly arid conditions. They often live in farm areas and in gardens. Their burrows are commonly found inside deserted termite mounds and at the base of trees. Some have also been found in the middle of cassava fields. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p227a.png"></center><br>
+ The giant rats distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are herbivores with a tendency to omnivory. They prefer fruits, but also subsist on tubers, grains, vegetables, leaves, legume pods, and wastes (such as banana peels). However, they are not grasseaters. Giant rats also kill and eat mice, insects (caterpillars, cockroaches, and locusts, for example), and probably many other small animals.3 They are particularly fond of mollusks (such as snails).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction is prolific and year-round. The female attains puberty at 20-23 weeks and the gestation period is about 20-42 days. The young are weaned at 21-26 days of age but stay with their mother until 2-3 months of age. So far, the record for the most litters has been 5 in 9 months. It thus seems possible that a female can reproduce 6 times a year. Litter size ranges between I and 5, but 4 is most common. Thus, in 1 year a single female could produce 24 or more young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These strictly nocturnal animals usually lead solitary lives and forage alone. Mostly, they occupy a burrow by themselves, except when the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">young are being raised. The burrows can be complex. Below the entrances are vertical shafts leading to a system of galleries and chambers for storing food, depositing droppings, sleeping, or breeding. The home range is individual and limited (1-6 hectares). In the wild, one male "supervises" the home ranges of several females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, the animals are often seen sitting up and ramming large amounts of food into their spacious cheek pouches. With full cheeks, they return to their burrows and disgorge the food into a "larder." Food (chiefly hard nuts) is stored there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They swim and climb well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A study carried out in Nigeria showed that the giant rat produces about the same amount of meat as the domestic rabbit.4 The meat's nutritional value compares favorably with that of domestic livestock, and African villagers know how to preserve it by smoking or by salting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant rat has recently attracted attention as a potential laboratory animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farmers in Nigeria have traditionally trapped the juveniles and fattened them for slaughter. They usually keep the animals in wire cages and feed them daily with food gathered in the wild as well as with scraps from the household.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the program at the University of Ibadan indicates that the giant rat can be domesticated. Already, specimens are being bred and reared in an intensive program. They adapt to captivity after about a month. They are subsequently transferred into breeding cages, which are wooden boxes with a rectangular wire-mesh "playroom." Each cage holds a breeding pair or a nursing female with its young. Experimental feeding cages have also been designed.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food-preference trials show that palm fruits and root crops (especially sweet potato) are preferred to grains and vegetables. Nutritional studies show that the animals can tolerate up to 7 percent crude fiber in their rations. Although largely vegetarian, they eagerly consume dry and canned dog food. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals have several advantages:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They are well known and much sought after for food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They have adapted to life in lowland tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They are able to live on locally available plant materials, including vegetable waste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They reproduce rapidly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They are more tolerant of captivity than the grasscutter (see next chapter). This is largely because omnivorous feeding makes them easier to feed than the grasscutter and other strict herbivores.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species could easily become a pest. It is recommended for rearing only in areas where it already exists. The crops it damages include cacao, root crops, peanuts, maize, sorghum, vegetables, and stored grains and foods. There is also the possibility that this rodent may transmit diseases to humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A project at the University of Kinshasa in Zaire reports problems in getting giant rats to reproduce in captivity. When two specimens were paired they sometimes fought so viciously that copulation was impossible.6 Special management may be required, such as housing animals in adjacent cages before actually introducing them to each other. Moreover, selection for docility may also be necessary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ratlike appearance is not attractive, and a few African tribes have taboos against consuming the meat of these animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout Africa south of the Sahara, giant rat domestication deserves experimentation and trials. Success would open up the potential for supplemental meat supplies in rural and urban areas where meat is now scarce. Tests are needed to determine the factors that favor breeding: temperature, aeration, light, privacy, and size and form of cages. Moreover, diets that are cheap and easy to make from local feedstuffs must be identified. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further research on the domestication of the giant rat might include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Identifying husbandry techniques that are applicable at low cost in rural areas;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Studying food digestibility and setting up various diets;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Illuminating social behavior: pairing of animals, the best moment for pairing, duration of pairing, age of partners;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Outlining the basics of husbandry (for instance, capital costs, food conversion ratios, growth rates) and making simple and cheap cages;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Studying biology (anatomy, physiology, birth records, growth rate); and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Testing the practical likelihood that this rodent may transmit diseases to people and other animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant rat has an interesting commensal relationship with Hemimerus, an insect that feeds on secretions in the skin. It seems to cause no irritation or damage, and may even benefit the host by helping to keep the skin clean. Caging these animals results in the general loss of the insect, but attempts should be made to maintain them and to determine their role and life cycle.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The potential of this species as a laboratory animal in nutritional, clinical, and pharmacological research also deserves exploration. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">19 Grasscutter</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g023a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus and Thryonomys gregorianus) is found in many forests and savannas of Africa. Its meat, said to resemble suckling pig, often sells for more per kilogram than chicken, beef, pork, or lamb. It is the preferred, and perhaps most expensive meat in West Africa. Indeed. in Ivory</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coast it sells for about $9 per kg. With prices like that, grasscutter is a culinary luxury that only the wealthy can afford.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If domestication of this wild species were successful in providing meat at a price similar to that of poultry (the second most popular meat), markets would be unlimited.2 However, as production costs are high, long-term research will be required before grasscutter production can be profitable to the small farmer. This research should now be undertaken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an effort to capitalize on the markets for this delicacy, agricultural extension services of Cameroon, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Togo, and particularly Benin are already encouraging farmers to rear grasscutters as backyard livestock. They furnish breeding stock and information, and maintain central offices for records. In addition, a bilateral cooperation project in Benin has started experimental work on improved breeding methods combined with the study of animal responses under domestication.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In future, this vegetarian animal might become the African equivalent of South America's guinea pig, playing an important role in reducing Africa's chronic protein shortage. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Humid and subhumid Africa south of the Sahara.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters are robust animals with short tails, small ears, and stocky bodies. Taxonomically, they are more closely related to porcupines than to common rats or mice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although many varieties have been described, there are probably only two species. The larger (Thryonomys swinderianus) weighs 9 kg or more and has a head-and-body length of up to 60 cm. The smaller species (Thryonomys gregorianus) may occasionally reach 8 kg and a body length of 50 cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species have yellow-brown to gray-brown bodies, with whitish bellies. The fur is extremely coarse, firm, and bristly - reflecting the animal's kinship to the porcupine. The tail is scaly and has short, sparse hairs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species have thick, heavy claws and enormous orange incisors that can chew through even the toughest vegetation. (Grasscutters have been known to tear holes in corrugated iron fences.) Nevertheless, they do not bite when handled, although their claws sometimes cause injuries.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters occur in grassland or in wooded savanna throughout the humid and subhumid areas of Africa south of the Sahara. They often live in forest-savanna habitats where grass is present. They do not inhabit rainforest, dry scrub, or desert, but they have colonized the road borders in forest regions. Distribution is determined by availability of adequate or preferred grass species for food. Specifically, Thryonomys swinderianus occurs in virtually all countries of west, east, and southern Africa. Thryonomys gregorianus occurs in savannas in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Zaire, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite heavy hunting, these animals are not threatened with extinction. Nonetheless, many individual populations are well below carrying capacity, or are extinct because of local overexploitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The larger grasscutter (T. swinderianus) generally lives in swampy, low-lying areas, especially along river banks and the borders of lakes and streams. Occasionally, it is found on higher ground among bushes and rocks, living where savanna grasses are dense and tangled enough to afford good cover. In Ivory Coast and southern Guinea, for instance, grasscutters are found (and hunted) throughout the savanna zones. And they can occur in close proximity to farmlands and people (for example, in southwest Nigeria).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the precise diet in the wild has not been determined, grasscutters are vegetarian. They consume nuts, bark, and the soft parts of grasses and shrubs. They particularly favor elephant grass and sweet potatoes. They commonly "raid" cassava and yam plantations, and are considered local pests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters reproduce year-round, although the births seem to peak at certain times of the year, correlated with weather conditions.5 Probably one male takes several females, and the family group possibly has more than one generation of young. The gestation is about 152 days. Apparently, litters normally contain between 2 and 4 young, but in Benin and Togo some litters of up to 11 or 12 are reported.6 Newborns are fully developed, their eyes are open, they weigh approximately 80 g, have thick fur, and quickly become accomplished runners.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p236a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they commonly forage in groups, grasscutters are generally solitary. They are nocturnal, and they travel at night through trails in reeds and grass, often to water. Most specimens seen in markets are males, possibly because males lead the groups and are thus most prone to being trapped.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When alarmed, these animals stamp their hind feet and give a strange booming grunt. When fleeing, they can run very fast and, given a chance, will take to water. They swim with ease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For shelter, grasscutters usually weave nests of matted vegetation or scoop out shallow burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a broad geographic band across sub-Saharan Africa, cattle raising is severely limited by trypanosomiasis. There, other sources of animal protein, including rodents, are traditionally used. Thus, grasscutter meat constitutes an important food for many Africans. The animals are mostly caught and eaten by families for their own use, but some are sold in markets and especially in roadside stalls. Many families depend exclusively on selling bushmeat, particularly that of grasscutters. In Accra, Ghana, during one year, 73 tons of grasscutter meat were sold in the local market. This represented more than 15,000 animals. In southern Africa, too, people find that these rodents make tasty food, although they may cut off the tail to make the carcass look less ratlike.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat is usually eaten smoked, and is so much in demand that grasscutters are hunted in organized drives with spears, dogs, and sometimes fire. It is considered excellent, especially when cooked in soups and stews or barbecued.7 It has been described as resembling venison in flavor, but it is dark like the meat of wild duck.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the savanna area of West Africa, people have traditionally captured wild grasscutters and raised them at home. As an extension of this, organized grasscutter husbandry has been initiated in West Africa. The animals are provided with marshy, tightly fenced areas with plenty of plant cover. The young are harvested from these areas and raised separately.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghanaian researcher Emanuel Asibey, a pioneer of this research, reports success at getting such captive stocks to reproduce. To this end, farmers are provided with breeding boxes and foundation grass cutter colonies. They are taught how to rear and feed the animals for home consumption or for cash income. Basically, the farmers make available large sheds where the animals can move freely. To prevent escape, the walls may be reinforced with cement plaster. The farmers also provide piles of grass, sugarcane, and other foods. A grasscutter reportedly takes about a month to adjust to such confinement. High mortality can occur in this period. The average weight of a mature, home-raised grasscutter is 4-7 kg. The average killing-out (dressed carcass) is 64 percent.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Wildlife Domestication Unit of Ibadan University in Nigeria, another pioneer of rodent domestication, has also reported the potential of domesticated grasscutter colonies.9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research on grasscutter breeding, husbandry, and feeding is similarly being implemented by the Ministry for Rural Development in Benin and at the Lacena in Ivory Coast (see Research Contacts).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The demand for grasscutter meat is so large that it is not being met. Markets for it already exist over much of Africa,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters can devastate such crops as rice, sugarcane, soybeans, peanuts, yams, cassava, sweet potatoes, oil-palm seedlings, maize, young rubber, sorghum, and wheat. Therefore, as with most rodents, they should be reared only in areas where they already exist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In past years, captive animals in Benin have suffered fatal Clostridium infections during September and October. In 1986, a broad-spectrum antibiotic was given with outstanding results. During this season, the animals also suffered from ascarid worms, which were also successfully treated with standard drugs.10</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed in the following areas:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Digestive physiology, feeding habits, feed preferences, feed conversion and growth rate; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Diseases (pathogens and parasites);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Captive breeding and management (growth rates, space requirements, feed needs, etc);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Performance under different environments;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Productivity; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Basic biology (for example, chromosome type, reproductive physiology, and social behavior both in its wild state and under controlled conditions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, specimens should be gathered from different regions for comparative evaluation. A particular need is to select and breed docile specimens because today, even after several generations in captivity, the animal must still be handled with caution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although domestication of the grasscutter is encouraged, wild populations might also be managed to maximize and sustain production through habitat manipulation. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">20 Guinea Pig</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g024a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) are promising microlivestock because they require little capital or labor; provide an inexpensive, readily available, palatable meat; have no odor, and are suitable for keeping indoors. In the highlands of the Andes, many Indians raise them to supplement diets based on grains  and vegetables. Families eat them mostly on special occasions such as weddings and first communions, or they sell them to restaurants or peddle them in village markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The low cost of these small animals makes them available even to many landless peasants. For both the small farmer and apartment dweller, the guinea pig is a possible food reserve. It converts kitchen scraps and marginal wastelands into meat. According to estimates, 20 females and 2 males may produce enough meat year-round to provide an adequate meat diet for a family of 6.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since husbandry practices are simple and cheap, the guinea pig is an excellent source of supplementary income. An FAO study at Ibarra, Ecuador, showed that on small mountain farms the guinea pig provided more profit than either pigs or dairy cows, partly because its meat fetched high prices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although domesticated guinea pigs are mainly a food resource of Latin America, their use has also spread to parts of Africa and Asia. They are raised, for instance, in Nigeria, Cameroon, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Togo, and Zaire. In southern Nigeria, at least 10 percent of all households raise guinea pigs for food, with colonies of up to 30 animals per household. Guinea pigs are also raised in small cages or cardboard boxes by small farmers in the Philippines.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The feeding efficiency is high: studies have shown that it takes between 3.2 and 5.7 kg of forage to produce 1 kg of growth. This makes guinea pigs more efficient than most farm mammals. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs seem especially adapted to the climate and forages of high-altitude zones, but the fact that they are being raised in Central and West Africa indicates that they are also adapted to the lowland tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p243a.png"></center><br>
+ The native distribution of the guinea pigs wild ancestor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs have stocky bodies, fairly short hind legs, and short, unfurred ears. Adults can weigh up to 2 kg, but an average-sized specimen is about 0.5 kg. They are 20-40 cm long (average 28 cm) and have no tail. In domesticated forms, the pelage may be smooth or coarse, short or long, and in some types the hairs form rosettes.4 Domesticated types come in colors ranging from white to dark brown, as well as piebald.5 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The original home of the wild guinea pig is believed to have been the central highlands of Peru and Bolivia. Its domesticated descendants are important as meat animals mainly in that same area, but, as noted, they are also important in certain African and Asian countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few strains are distributed worldwide as laboratory animals and pets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated guinea pigs, as a whole, are in no danger of extinction, although some rare strains are threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These extremely adaptable animals are found in temperate zones and in the highland tropics, but they are usually kept indoors and protected from the extremes of weather. In Lambayeque and other departments of Peru, they are reared at elevations from sea level to more than 4,000 m. In areas where they are raised, daily temperatures fluctuate as much as 30&Yacute;C. In the Bolivian or Peruvian puna region, for instance, day temperatures can be 22&Yacute;C, while night temperatures are -7&Yacute;C. However, they cannot survive freezing temperatures and they may not perform well when exposed to the full tropical heat and sunlight. Many people of the Peruvian highlands keep the animals in darkness (for example, in wood boxes with little or no light).6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal's original wild habitat is believed to have been an area of grasslands, forest edges, swamps, and rocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These herbivores can be raised on kitchen scraps, garden wastes, and weedy vegetation plucked from backyards or roadsides. Andean peasants mainly feed them potato peels, scraps of cabbage, lettuce, carrot, wild grasses, corn stalks, and the foliage of miscellaneous wild plants. Some barley and alfalfa is grown specifically for guinea pigs; it is cut green and sold in small bundles in the markets. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs mate throughout the year except when climate is excessively adverse. Domestic breeds average 2-3 young per litter, although larger litters sometimes occur. The gestation period is 65-70 days with an average of 67. Females come into estrus every 13-24 days, and there is a fertile postpartum estrus.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females can become pregnant when merely 3 months old, and many produce 4 litters every year from then on. In principle, a farmer starting with 1 male and 10 females could see his herd grow to 3,000 animals in one year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newborns are so large that the female's pubic bones must separate for the birth. They emerge fully developed, with fur and open eyes. They look like miniature adults, and they start eating grass and other feedstuffs within hours. (For this reason, babies orphaned at birth have been known to survive.) Weaning may be reached as early as 21 days of age.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The life span in captivity is as long as 8 years, but animals used for breeding usually live only 3.5 years. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUPER GUINEA PIGS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even in their native region, guinea pigs have traditionally received little research attention. However, that began changing in the 1970s with the onset of meat shortages in Peru. (For a time the government restricted beef sales to only 15 days a month.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For instance, in 1972 Peru began a guinea pig improvement project. Researchers from i a Molina National Agrarian University traveled throughout Peru gathering many kinds of guinea pigs short haired long haired black, white, yellow, brown, and even purple. Practically all the guinea pigs eaten in Peru are home grown, and researchers observed that the bigger ones were generally winding up in the stew, leaving the smaller ones for breeding. The people inadvertently were making the animals smaller. (This is a common phenomenon for many animals.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To overcome it, the university research workers compared the mature size and growth rates of all the different guinea pigs. They selected and cross-bred the biggest, meatiest, and fastest-growing ones. This program, later taken over by Instituto Nacional de Investigacion y Promocion Agropecuaria (INIPA), produced remarkable results. The starting animals averaged little more than 0.5 kg, the resulting ones averaged almost 2 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru's "super guinea pigs" are now getting international recognition. They have been introduced into the highlands of Honduras, where the animal is also part of the Indian cuisine. The FAO has shipped some to the Dominican Republic. In addition, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Colombia have all begun their own guinea pig improvement programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within Peru the government has established 11 breeding stations to encourage the farming of guinea pigs for food. The goal is to provide better stud males to the people so that future animals will grow more quickly and reach a greater weight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs generally congregate in small groups, normally made up of 5-10 adults. In favorable areas, however, such groups may coalesce into large colonies. The animals communicate incessantly among themselves, emitting a variety of squeaks and other noises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males, although good-natured with other species, often fight fiercely among themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs are raised mainly for meat. Peru has about 20 million, which annually provide 16-17,000 tons of meat (only 4,000 tons less than Peru's sheep meat production).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs are used worldwide for studies on disease, nutrition, heredity, and toxicology, as well as for the development of serums and other biomedical research. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs require so little space that a small cage or pit can house up to 10 females and 1 male. They can be raised in cages with wire floors of small mesh as well. The labor required is low. A colony of 1,000 females reportedly can be properly cared for by one person. A layer of wood shavings, shredded paper, straw, and dried corncobs is usually recommended for bedding. The droppings are odorless, so the bedding does not need changing as often as with other animals. When the diet mainly consists of greens, much urine is produced, and then the beds have to be changed frequently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When grown for meat, the young are weaned at 3-4 weeks and are ready for market in a matter of 10-13 weeks. Weight gain is rapid for the first 4-6 weeks, and then decreases. The carcasses normally dress out at about 65 percent, including the skin and legs. The meat's protein content is approximately 21 percent.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a few regions of Peru, guinea pigs are "herded" on the open range and retired at night into small adobe coops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This small, inoffensive animal rarely bites, is easy to manage, and has no smell. It is an excellent supplemental meat supply. The improved breeds cannot climb or jump so that they are easy to contain. (Primitive "criollo" types, however, can jump.) If kept dry and given green vegetation, grain, and water, it survives in many environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major constraint is consumer reluctance. Even in Latin America, attempts to promote guinea pig consumption outside the Indian communities have failed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When raised in a clean environment and under normal feeding conditions, guinea pigs thrive and reproduce and do not need routine vaccinations or antibiotics that cattle, sheep, and pigs often require. However, guinea pigs can be carriers of Chagas' disease and salmonella. Further, they are susceptible to pneumonia if temperatures change abruptly when conditions are wet. Coccidiosis and internal and external parasites are also common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green forages and surplus fruits or by-products are critical to provide vitamin C, which the animal is unable to synthesize for itself. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the greatest concentration of guinea pigs is found in the Andes, particular efforts should be directed towards this region. Already, research on guinea pigs has begun in some universities and government research stations in Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, and Bolivia, but more work is needed on matters such as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Breeding "elite" stock for distribution;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Feeding and nutritional-requirement trials, especially for creating alternate feeds that peasants and commercial producers can use during seasons when conventional feeds are hard to get;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Diseases and parasites that may limit production in small farming systems;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Management practices concerning reproduction, housing, herd size, and feeding; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The genetic basis for weight gain and productivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some research should be directed towards developing rations or introducing drought-resistant forages for the dry season because green forage is needed year-round. A range of practical and economical diets needs to be created.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal geneticists in Latin American countries should establish "elite" populations that can provide superior stock throughout the world. It can be anticipated that applying modern breeding methods to existing improved strains will result in great advances in a relatively short period and at little cost (see sidebar).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three species of wild cavies (Cavia aperea, C. fulgida, and C. tschudii), close relatives of the guinea pig, are native to South America and are declining drastically. Research to preserve them is urgently needed. C. aperea is a widely used item of food in rural Brazil and other parts of South America. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">21 Hutia</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g025a.png"></center><br>
+ Hispaniolan Hutia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first meat Christopher Columbus tasted in the New World was probably hutia, a rodent avidly hunted by the Carib Indians. Hutia bones have been unearthed from kitchen middens of pre-Columbian inhabitants of all the Greater Antilles. Indians carried live hutias on voyages possibly in a semidomestic state as a source of food. On some islands, hutias were so eagerly sought that their populations were destroyed long before Europeans arrived. Slaves in the cane fields also hunted hutias for food. The surviving species later suffered when forests were cleared and cats, dogs, mongooses, and other predators were introduced. Consequently, the majority of hutia species died out, and today most surviving members of the family (Capromyidae) are facing extinction. Human predation continues in some areas (for instance, in Jamaica) where the tradition of "coneyhunting" still endures in a few regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias should be tested as possible microlivestock: success could create the incentive for their complete protection. The animals seem to take well to captivity. The Jamaican hutia is already overproducing in zoos, causing a local glut of animals. And hutias are, or were until recently, kept in barns by some people in Cuba, who fed them on banana and other vegetable waste and ate them regularly.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POTENTIAL AREA OF USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias are broad-headed, short-legged, robust animals with small eyes and ears. The various species are from 20 to 60 cm long and weigh from 1 to 9 kg - a size range from that of a guinea pig to that of a small dog. They walk with a slow, waddling motion, but can hop quickly if frightened or pursued. They also climb well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 10 1iving species are all big enough to be candidates for microlivestock. The best known and easiest species to keep in captivity are the Cuban hutia (Capromys pilorides) and Jamaican hutia (Geocapromys brownii). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Cuban hutia (also called hutia conga) is about 60 cm long, with coarse fur, a raccoon-shaped body, and a thick tail covered with sparse bristles. A forest dweller, it weighs up to 7 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The short-tailed Jamaican hutia is smaller: it is 33-45 cm long and weighs up to 2.5 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p252a.png"></center><br>
+ The hutias native range .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias are found only in the Caribbean (Greater Antilles and Bahamas). Most species are confined to a single island, where they represent the only remaining indigenous land mammals. The Cuban hutia is found only in Cuba. The Jamaican hutia is found only in Jamaica, although a close relative occurs on East Plana Cay, Bahamas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This once widely distributed and plentiful family is now failing. Of the 30 or so known recent taxa, more than half are already extinct, and the remainder all suffer from habitat alteration, predation by introduced animals, and hunting by man. With the exception of the Cuban hutia, all species are included on the list of the world's threatened mammals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia ranges have been so reduced that these animals survive only in the most inaccessible forests and rocky drylands. Both the Cuban and the Jamaican hutias occur in a variety of habitats from montane cloud forests to arid coastal semideserts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most species are terrestrial, but some live in trees. The Cuban and Jamaican species are terrestrial, but they can climb trees if circumstances demand. They maneuver well on trunks and larger branches, descending head first like squirrels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias are primarily vegetarian, their diets consisting of leaves, bark, fruits, and twigs, as well as incidental catches of small animals such as lizards and invertebrates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias seem to breed year-round, generally giving birth to litters of 1-4 offspring after a gestation period of 16-20 weeks. The young are well developed at birth, fully haired, open eyed, and capable of most adult movements. After 10 days they begin taking solid food, although they are not fully weaned for at least a month and a half (5 months for the Cuban hutia). Sexual maturity is at 10 months; life expectancy is 8-11 years in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Jamaican hutia has one of the highest diploid chromosome numbers (2n = 88) of any mammal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most hutias are wary and secretive and are easily displaced by human encroachment. They live like rabbits, hiding among tangled vegetation, in holes, and among rocks - communicating by voice and scent markings. They build shelters mainly in rock crevices, but also in the base of thick bushes or in natural cavities in trees. The Cuban hutia is often diurnal, whereas the Jamaican hutia is largely nocturnal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HISPANIOLAN HUTIA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Hispaniolan hutia, or zagouti (Plagiodontia aedium) as it is known in Haiti is smaller than the two Capromyids discussed here, weighing just 1.2 kg. It is difficult to breed in captivity and has a lower reproductive rate than either the Jamaican or Cuban hutia. It is therefore less suitable as an economic or food source.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, there is a significant need for supplemental protein sources in both Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It might be possible to develop a special captive-breeding program for this animal, but it should be done with great care. It is important that a hunting tradition for this animal not be reestablished in rural areas of Haiti or the Dominican Republic, and that local organizations not be misled into believing that there will be a rapid increase in the numbers of this species in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia meat is relished, especially in Jamaica. The animals are still hunted, often by using dogs that smell them out and retrieve them from a hole or hold them at bay in treetops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiences of zoos suggest that the Cuban and Jamaican hutias will thrive in captivity. The animals are generally long-lived and have survived up to 17 years. They are often friendly with their keepers and, when tame, can be held and carried about without any particular danger. However, if angered they can inflict deep bites and should normally be handled with considerable caution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are already much in demand. Their meat has an excellent flavor and they are big enough to provide a worthwhile quantity. If husbandry could be developed on a sustainable basis, it could be used as a mechanism for both economic development and for saving the remnant populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild populations are threatened. Any captive population must be built up without endangering them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All hutias are susceptible to predation by domestic cats, mongooses, dogs, and human poachers, so care must be taken to design predator-proof breeding facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are carriers of eastern equine encephalomyelitis, a serious disease of horses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias deserve urgent conservation attention. In particular, the following steps should be taken:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Establish reserves in natural habitats containing breeding populations to ensure the survival of the genetic diversity of these animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Build up breeding populations in suitable zoos and livestock research centers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gather specimens from different regions for comparative evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Investigate hutia biology, including chromosome type, reproductive physiology, nutrition, and diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Assess experiences of zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Perform captive breeding trials, measuring growth rates, space requirements, food needs, and social behavior (both in its wild state and under controlled conditions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Study the social organization and tameability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colonies of some species could be established on uninhabited islands, as has been done with the Bahamian hutia Geocapromys ingrahami. Even this rare species might eventually be raised to yield meat for local inhabitants, as it is well adapted to dry and barren environments and was a regular food of the pre-Columbian Indians. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">22 Mara</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g026a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many wild relatives of the guinea pig are native to South America. Some, such as the guinea pig itself, are small; others, such as the mare, are much bigger. Maras1 (Dolichotis patagonum) are as tall as terriers and, at first glance, look like dwarf antelopes or huge hares They have large ears and eyes, long legs, and short tails. They generally behave like hares or wild rabbits, but, like deer, they run with a stiff-legged gait when pursued by predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These strange-looking creatures are found in temperate regions in the southern half of South America. They are dry-country animals, living on the thorn-scrub, desert plains of Argentina and the stony wastes of Patagonia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although exceedingly shy, restless, and watchful, mares tame easily, make good pets, and are much favored by the local populace. They were introduced to France last century, and in Victorian times Europeans sometimes bred them. These big, handsome rodents, grazing in little herds, were considered an attractive addition to the lawns of country estates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POTENTIAL AREA OF USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras are best kept in their native region of southern South America. With care, however, they could be used in other areas because they are slow breeders and their population growth is easy to control.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At first sight, these large rodents look like some weird hybrid. They have the long ears of a hare and the tidy body and spindly legs of a small antelope. Although related to guinea pigs, they are long legged. The tail is short; the ears are long and erect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Average-size mares weigh about 8 kg, but large ones can be 1 m long and weigh up to 16 kg.2 Females are larger than males. The coat is light in color, with grey upper parts and whitish underparts. The limbs and feet are tinged a yellowish brown. The pelage is dense, with individual hairs standing at nearly right angles to the skin. This gives a harsh texture, even though the hairs are soft and fine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals can hop, walk, gallop, or run. They are extremely swift and can reach 45 km per hour over long distances. They are also accomplished jumpers, often leaping 2 m high from a standing start. The feet are compact and rather hooflike, but with sharp claws. The hind foot has three digits; the front foot has four.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mare's range in the thorn-scrub desert and Patagonian steppe of Argentina extends from about 28&Yacute;S to 50&Yacute;S.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered. These animals, once plentiful, are now threatened because of the introduction of the European hare, which is more successful at competing for food. In many of the eastern parts of its distribution (see map) it is now extinct.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras inhabit open, dry plains and other treeless semidesert areas of coarse grass or scattered shrubs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras are pure vegetarians. They feed on short grasses and herbs that are sparsely distributed between patches of dry desert scrub. Usually, they are satisfied with a few coarse weeds and the shoots of bushes. However, their overall diet consists of any available vegetation: leaves, roots, fruits, and stems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female mares become sexually receptive within a few hours after giving birth. The estrous cycle is 35 days, plus or minus 5 days.3 The gestation period is 77 days. Each female gives birth to 1-3 young at the mouth of the den; the pups crawl inside to safety. Newborns are well developed, and within a few hours they begin grazing vegetation. They remain in the vicinity of the den for up to 4 months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially, at least, the young are nervous and easily frightened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras shelter in a burrow that they either construct for themselves or "borrow" from another animal that has abandoned it. They are active during the day and spend considerable time basking in the sun. They are always alert for danger. When alarmed, they flee at high speed. The white rump patch flashes a warning to the others, who then follow this "flag."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A fundamental element of their social system is the monogamous pair bond. Certainly in captivity, and probably in the wild as well, the bond between a pair lasts for life. When breeding, 20 or more pairs may band together temporarily to share a single den for the pups.4 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals stand on straight legs, sit on bent haunches with the forepart of the body resting on the fully extended front legs, or recline in a catlike position with the front legs folded under the chest, an unusual position for a rodent. They travel in single file, with the female usually leading. Members of a pair maintain contact by means of a low grumble. Although the long legs can quickly carry it to safety, a mare usually stops every 20-30 m and turns to peer at its pursuer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals clean themselves by licking their sides and apparently by "combing" their fur with their teeth. They wipe their faces as cats do, with the inside of a foreleg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p260a.png"></center><br>
+ The maras native range</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the light-colored meat is said to be dry and flavorless, it is widely consumed in South America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras have been successfully raised and bred in many zoos, and, as noted, have been kept as pets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adults make little use of any shelter; they seem fond of being out and about in all weather. As long as they have a protected burrow for the use of the pups, mare populations can thrive in severe climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In zoos, diets include straw, vegetables, and crushed oats. Drinking water is supplied, although the animals rarely take it if they are feeding on fresh plant materials. They like to have salt blocks, however.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In South America, one mare lived in captivity for almost 14 years; most specimens do not live beyond 10 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras are a good size for microlivestock. They have a short gestation period, and they are social and easy to maintain in groups. They can be successfully kept in pens and can be fed relatively low-quality forage. Colonies can grow to be quite large.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals can easily dig under the edges of cages and escape. Extra-deep foundations are needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following heavy rains, care must be taken to keep them from drowning in their subterranean burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If suddenly disturbed, mares can become hysterical, leaping away regardless of anything in the way, and often seriously injuring or even killing themselves as a result. They fear bodily contact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mare's monogamous nature in the wild is a likely limitation. But perhaps, like chinchillas, the animal will become polygamous in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are sensitive to tuberculosis when kept in humid conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research needs to increase understanding of the mare include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutritional trials;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Husbandry experiments - measurements of growth rates, space requirements, feed needs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Productivity tests;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Grazing-efficiency measurements;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Exploration of commercial details; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determination of diseases and parasites. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">23 Paca</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas (Agouti paca)1,2 are large, white-spotted, almost tailless rodents with the potential to become a source of protein for the American tropics. They are found in lowlands from Mexico to northern Argentina. The meat is white and is considered the best of all Latin American game meat. It is common in local markets and restaurants. Tasting like a combination of pork and chicken, it sells at higher prices than beef and is a regular item of diet in some areas. In Costa Rica, pace is served on special occasions such as weddings or baptisms. It has a higher fat content than the lean meat of agoutis, rabbits, and chickens, and has no gamy taste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paca has promise as a microlivestock. In several countries, Belize and Mexico for example, people already keep them in cages beside their homes and fatten them on kitchen scraps. In Costa Rica, some are bred on farms, under houses, and even in apartments. Research on raising paces in captivity is under way at the Universidad Nacional in Heredia, Costa Rica; at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Balboa, Panama (see page 196); and at the Instituto de Historia Natural in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico. In Turrialba, Costa Rica, an entrepreneur is already breeding and raising pace commercially.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the pace has potential as a food source, many problems still must be resolved before it can be recommended for mass rearing. If solved, however, this species would become an attractive microlivestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pace has potential for use throughout its vast geographical range in Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general appearance, paces are somewhat like giant guinea pigs. The legs are short, the forefeet have four "fingers," and the hindfeet have five small, hooflike "toes." The feet are partially webbed and are adapted both for digging and for swimming. Pacas burrow with all four feet as well as their teeth; even large roots are no obstacle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adults weigh 6-14 kg, males being somewhat larger than females. Although they may become bulbously fat, paces remain "one of the fastest things on four feet. " From a standing start, even a fat specimen can jump at least 1 m off the ground. Pacas are also agile. However, their skin's epidermal layer is thin and fragile, and large strips may be ripped off as they rush headlong through spiky undergrowth. However, such wounds heal astonishingly fast - frequently within days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas are chocolate brown in colon The head is somewhat lighter in shade than the body, and the underparts are whitish or buff colored. There are usually four longitudinal rows of white spots that may merge into stripes along each side of the body. The fur is coarse, spiny, and slippery, and has no underwool. Each hair is stiff, relatively sharp, and very smooth, which makes paces extremely difficult for predators to hang on to.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parts of the cheekbones are enlarged, and the cheeks can open to form special pouches. This is more developed in adult males than in females - indeed, adults can be readily sexed by head shape. The pouches are outside of the mouth and are fully haired. The animals use them mainly to create a resonating chamber for their booming bark and noisy tooth grinding. These enlarged cheeks push the large bulging eyes toward the top of the skull. The eyes are suited for nocturnal conditions, the senses of smell and hearing are uncannily acute, and there is an array of long whiskers that is used when maneuvering at night.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lowland paces are found throughout most of Latin America from east central Mexico to northern Paraguay, Argentina, and Minas Gerais, Brazil. This includes all of Central America and most of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, and the Guianas. The animal has also been introduced into Cuba.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p265a.png"></center><br>
+ The pacas native range</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burgeoning human populations are severely reducing many of Latin America's native animal resources, and the pace is one of the most persecuted. It has been exterminated within hunting range of virtually all cities, towns, and villages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several governments, recognizing the pace's plight, have passed laws prohibiting the hunting and marketing of its meat. Nevertheless, people continue to take it, usually at night, using trail dogs and headlights.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas thrive in a variety of tropical habitats but are most common in forests, swamps, and partly cleared grazing lands. They inhabit most types of forests from deciduous woodland to rainforest. Usually, they stay near streams or rivers, but they often live where there is no permanent water. They are abundant only in little-disturbed forest areas. Although preferring low, dense tree cover, paces sometimes inhabit open rocky areas and farmland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These herbivores feed mainly on fruits, young seedlings, and some seeds. However, when fruits are scarce they may switch to browsing leaves and roots. They probably sometimes eat large insects, and, on rare occasion, may perhaps eat small vertebrates. Captive paces, like many other "frugivores," seem to develop a protein deficiency and will eagerly eat meat scraps on occasion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The young are usually born singly after a gestation period of 146 days. There are probably 2 births a year. Females have an estrous period that begins shortly after giving birth. If mating does not take place at this time, the female becomes unreceptive until after the 3-month (sometimes 4- to 6-month) lactation is over. The length of the estrous cycle is 30 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During daylight hours, paces seclude themselves in brushy cover, in or under fallen logs, or in extensive underground burrows. The burrows, which may be several meters long, are dug in moist soil or taken over from other animals; they are often in river banks, on slopes, among tree roots, or under rocks. Usually, several exits are provided, often being plugged with leaves as a disguise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild, paces dig large holes and rummage about the forest floor at night, gnawing on fruits. Pairs inhabit a defended area, sometimes living together in the same burrow, sometimes not. Also, they usually travel alone, following paths that lead to feeding grounds and water. Individual home ranges are small (1-3 hectares).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although paces are terrestrial, they enter water freely, they swim well, they copulate in water, and, when alarmed, they generally attempt to escape by swimming. They are also lively and playful; however, they can be exceedingly obstinate. Sometimes fighting among themselves becomes very savage. When angered they growl, sometimes noisily, and they can suddenly jump on aggressors, real or imagined, delivering frightful wounds with their chisel-like front teeth thrust forward like a spear. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, pace meat is tasty and brings high prices in the markets. It is considered a delicacy in fine restaurants and was served to Queen Elizabeth during her October 1985 visit to Belize. In Mexico, paces, like pigs, are usually boiled unskinned. Even the skin is then edible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If treated appropriately when young, paces become manageable. They undergo "imprinting," a characteristic of most species that have been domesticated. An imprinted pace becomes so tame that it seeks out human company, follows people around like an amiable dog and, if turned out of its cage, returns voluntarily. (To achieve this degree of tameness it is necessary to remove the animal from its mother at an early age.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although wild paces are almost entirely nocturnal, tame paces are more active during daylight hours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young or partly grown paces are commonly exhibited in zoos. They eat prodigious quantities of almost any vegetation and have been called, "a good substitute for a large garbage pail." Diets can include rolled oats, raw vegetables, bananas, apples, and bread. They probably need additional protein occasionally, and seem to appreciate some fat in their diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If husbandry can be developed, the clamor for pace meat throughout tropical America would be a big economic incentive for farming these animals. The excellence and wide acceptance of the meat is an indication that pace farming would be taken up both in rural and urban areas and by many levels of society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas can harbor human diseases, including leishmaniasis and Chagas' disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from the project in Panama (see page 194), paces have bred only sporadically in captivity, with few offspring surviving. However, successes have been recorded in zoos in London, San Diego, and Washington, D.C., and in a research project in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico. In Costa Rica, they are also reportedly breeding well, with a survival rate of 90 percent since 1982, and 80 percent of the females are reproducing.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All adult paces can be aggressive and dangerous. Their powerful incisors can inflict serious wounds. (They can even rip through planks.) Intraspecific aggression is one of the most serious impediments to captive breeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike the capybara, the pace not only has a long gestation but usually bears a single young. Thus, the output of a single breeding female may be, at best, two offspring per year (at least this is the expected production in the wild). This "slow" breeding is a limitation. In captivity, however, there is a possibility that it can be speeded up.4 The fact that paces bond together in pairs is a limitation. If every female has to be accompanied by a male, then many (otherwise unnecessary) males have to be fed and maintained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male paces are considered difficult to keep as household pets because they spray females (or human substitutes) with a mixture of urine and glandular secretions. This can occur several times a day. In addition, they have anal glands that produce a musky odor that some people find objectionable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although paces are common in some areas over the vast region from Mexico to Argentina, they are little understood, even by zoologists. In fact, most data concerning this animal have come from interviews with local hunters. Intensive field work is needed to develop an understanding of the pace's biology, status, and habitat requirements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The popularity of pace meat makes it urgent to start this work as well as to begin breeding paces on an organized basis. Such projects would lay the groundwork for preserving the species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Particular research needs concern the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Age structure and reproductive performance;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Growth rates and feeding habits;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Behavioral patterns in captivity;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutritional requirements;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Meat quality;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Helminth and arthropod parasites;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Role in transmitting or perpetuating diseases;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reproduction (such as external manifestations of estrus in females); and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Genetic variations that would allow the selection of animals adapted to captivity and females that produce multiple offspring - twins, triplets, or more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ways must be found to introduce more than one female to each male without inciting aggression. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">24 Vizcacha</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g027a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas (Lagostomus maximus) are soft-furred South American rodents that look like long-tailed guinea pigs. They can weigh as much as 8 kg and are resilient animals, inhabiting dry pampas and shrub lands in northern Argentina and neighboring countries. They seem to have promise for producing meat and hides in marginal zones whithin their native habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like chinchillas (page 277), these rodents provide a prized furry pelt. They also provide meat that reportedly tastes "as good as hare," which in Europe is considered the epitome of dining. They are easily trapped alive in cheap, homemade, multiple-catch, funnel traps. And they are thought to be suitable for farming on a large scale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, vizcachas are currently considered pests because they take grazing from cattle and sheep and because they build large burrows that undermine the land. Government campaigns have eradicated them in the richer agricultural areas of Argentina, but the animals are still common in marginal zones. There is evidence that they become more abundant when domestic livestock overgraze the land. In improverished marginal sites, where other livestock enterprises are unsuitable, the potential exists for game-ranching vizcachas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the potential hazard to new areas, vizcachas can be used only in the pampas regions of southern South America where they are already widespread.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas have short front legs, long, muscular hind legs, and round eyes and ears. Their heads seem oversized in proportion to their bodies. Males weigh 5-8 kg, females 2-4.5 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members of the same rodent subfamily as the chinchilla, they have a thick, soft, valuable fur that is grey or brown above, whitish or greyish below. They are, however, much larger than chinchillas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although basically running animals, vizcachas often jump bipedally (like kangaroos), and they sit erect while eating or grooming. The forefeet have four long flexible digits used to grasp food. Their soles and palms are naked and have fleshy pads (pallipes).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas once swarmed widely over the savannas of southern Paraguay, Bolivia, and Argentina, but they are being systematically exterminated. Today they inhabit isolated areas of north, central, and western Argentina and southern Paraguay.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1907, these animals have been mercilessly hunted. The governments of the Argentine provinces where they are mostly found, reward hunters for killing this "pest." However, the numbers are so reduced that now there is no need for a bounty system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas live in flat, dry, steppelike plains; in dry woodland (Chaco), and in low mountains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that these rodents eat their own droppings (coprophagy) augments their ability to utilize natural forages, and allows them to abound in degraded zones. They feed on any plant materials they can find near their colonies, particularly grasses. In feeding trials, their daily dry matter intake was 2-5 percent of the body weight. The metabolic efficiency (dry matter per kg) was 33-56 percent; the digestive efficiency was 50-60 percent.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male vizcachas become sexually mature at about seven months of age and remain fertile throughout the year. The gestation period is long: 154 days. Litters contain one or two young. Newborns are well developed, fully furred, and open eyed, although they cannot fend for themselves for at least three weeks. In the wild, one or two litters are reared each year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas are nocturnal and are active year-round. They inhabit underground burrows, living in colonies often containing many individuals. They collect a variety of materials (for example, bones, sticks, and stones), and heap them in piles above the entrances to their burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their hearing and sense of smell are acute. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p274a.png"></center><br>
+ Vizcachas native range</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas have long been hunted for food as well as for their fur. Their meat is often consumed in pickled form in southern South America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The skins are fabricated into table runners, rugs, bedspreads, slippers, and belts. The skins are also popular for overcoats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas can be kept in captivity without major difficulty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In zoos, vizcachas are fed the typical diets furnished for vegetarian rodents: rolled oats, green vegetables, bananas, apples, and bread. They are usually kept indoors in wire-fronted cages, about 1 x 2 m in size, and provided with sleeping boxes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about vizcacha husbandry, but in one trial, weight rose most rapidly in males until age 18 months (the average size was then 5.3 kg) and subsequently slowed. The heaviest male was 7.3 kg at 30-32 months. The female's weight gain was greatest until 16-18 months (average size 3.3 kg).3 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals seem well adapted to harsh sites where the climate and forage make raising conventional livestock difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat is white and has a good nutritive value because of its high digestibility, low levels of saturated fats, and high levels of proteins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In marginal zones of the pampas, these rodents appear far more productive than traditional livestock.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas may do considerable damage by foraging in cultivated crops. As noted, ranchers claim that they take grazing away from domestic animals, 10 vizcachas eating as much as a sheep. In addition, they claim, vizcachas destroy pasture with their acidic urine. And the large burrow systems sometimes create a hazard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because their reproductive rate is low and their growth rate is only moderate, their commercial breeding might not be profitable except in well-designed projects with clear markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas require sturdy pens, which implies a high initial cost for materials such as concrete and brick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas can be aggressive to one another, especially in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several possible research projects, including:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gathering specimens from different regions for comparative evaluation of characters such as biology, chromosome type, reproductive physiology, social behavior (both in its wild state and under controlled conditions);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Attempting captive rearing and small-scale husbandry;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Assessing performance under various environments; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Quantifying productivity and population dynamics in relation to rangeland use and improvement practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A rational cropping program based on wild stocks is perhaps more viable than captive breeding. This could be organized so as to keep vizcacha numbers in check while sustaining a small chain of processing plants by providing a constant supply of meat and skins. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">25 Other Rodents</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 10 previous chapters have described some rodent species that show promise as microlivestock. Rodentia, however, is one of the largest families of mammals, and the species highlighted by no means exhaust the possibilities. In this chapter we briefly mention others that deserve consideration and exploratory research. These might prove to be potential resources, at least in localized situations. Several are fast nearing extinction and they deserve protection and immediate attention from animal scientists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHINCHILLAS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the high Andes of South America are found the short-tailed chinchilla (Chinchilla brevicaudata) and the long-tailed chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera). These plump little rodents have fur that is possibly the thickest, softest, and warmest of any animal's.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the surface they would seem to be ideal candidates for microlivestock in Third World regions. Indeed, in recent years chinchilla-rearing has been successfully carried out in northern India. However, raising these animals for commercial markets is a highly specialized and costly business because only rare and expensive breeding stock produces top-quality pelts, and all other pelts are worthless in today's marketplace.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These guinea-pig-sized animals have round ears, a bushy tail, and range from 25 to 50 cm long. Adult males rarely weigh more than 500 g, but females may weigh up to 800 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PACARANA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pacarana (Dinomys branickii) is the third-largest living rodent only capybaras and some beavers are larger. But little is known about this seldom-encountered, forest-dwelling species. Nevertheless, pacaranas appear to be likely candidates for domestication. They are amazingly even-tempered and peaceful, and become surprisingly tame.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because these animals are endangered they are unlikely candidates for microlivestock in the short run, but their large size and good meat could be the stimulus for an international effort to study, protect, and rear them in large numbers before it is too late.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacaranas are found along the eastern foothills of the Andes, including parts of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Their area of potential use is in Latin America and the Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It would be advantageous for livestock scientists to investigate this species in captivity. Studies are needed of the animal's general biology, including its nutritional requirements, reproductive capacity, behavior, and physiology. For wildlife specialists, there is a compelling need to protect this species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SPRINGHARE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scattered through the dry lands of eastern and southern Africa - on numerous grasslands, plains, fossil lake beds, hill slopes, and floodplains - is the springhare (or springhaas). With its powerful hind legs, tiny forelegs, upright stance, and hopping gait, it looks something like a tiny kangaroo. It is commonly seen at night, eyes glowing a characteristic red in the headlights.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal is an important source of food and skins for rural peoples throughout southern Africa. In Botswana, it is the principal bushmeat in the human diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Springhares are 35-40 cm long and weigh 3-4 kg. There is one species (Pedetes capensis) and two subspecies: the East African springhare and the Cape springhare (formerly Pedetes cafer). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROCK CAVY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rock cavy (Kerodon rupestris) is closely related to the guinea pig and occurs in the impoverished semiarid region of northeastern Brazil. It is large and lean and has a face somewhat resembling a dog's. It is hunted extensively and is an important source of meat for country people, who consider it a delicacy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This creature might be suitable as a microlivestock. It consumes leaves and bark, and breeds well in captivity. Famine is a serious periodic problem in the often-drought-stricken area, and protein deficiency is common. The rock cavy, like the guinea pig, may be amenable to domestication and may be able to provide the people with better nutrition. However, it is difficult to keep in a cage because it moves fast, climbs well, and easily slips out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because these rodents occur in rare and patchily distributed habitats, they are in desperate need of protection, whether or not they prove to have any long-term utility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SALT-DESERT CAVY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A smaller relative of the mare (page 256), the salt-desert cavy (Dolichotis salinicola) is rabbitlike in appearance and behavior. It has large ears and eyes, long legs, and a short tail. It lacks the mare's white rump patch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal inhabits dry, salty areas of the Chaco desert, particularly areas of dry, woody brush. Specifically, it is found in the saline western Chaco of Paraguay and northwestern Argentina, as well as in the extreme south of Bolivia. It is about 45 cm long and weighs up to 4 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it might make a useful microlivestock in its native habitat, the salt-desert cavy breeds rapidly and can cause much devastation; it should never be introduced to new regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The salt-desert cavy's life in the wild is largely unknown; however, some have been successfully raised and bred in zoos. Exploratory research on keeping and managing these little creatures is warranted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OTHERS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted earlier (page 193), it has been estimated that 42 peoples of various cultures eat rodents. Most of these eat locally available species, some of which are listed below. Whether any have long-term usefulness is uncertain, but study of them in the wild and in captivity could result in some interesting and valuable scientific discoveries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solomon Islands Rodents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Solomon Islands in the southwest Pacific are home to a collection of six rare giant rodents that live in the rainforest canopy. At one time they were important food items. Archeologists have dug up tens of thousands of rodent bones on sites where people lived as long as 30,000 years ago. These mysterious animals were classified last century, but most have not been seen by biologists for decades. However, one, the thinking rat (Solomys sapientis), was rediscovered in 1987 - the first time it had been reported seen since 1901. The others may also be inhabiting the dense and undisturbed forests.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The thinking rat was located on the island of Santa Isabel. It proved to be gentle, unafraid, and friendly. It lives in the forest canopy, weighs up to 1 kg, and feeds on nuts and fruits. Efforts to build up the population are urgently needed. The other species should also be sought.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such animals could be a resource for rainforest production (perhaps in the manner of butterfly farming in Papua New Guinea2). They may never be plentiful enough to be food sources again, but they could nonetheless become valuable. Zoos the world over are likely first customers for these scientific curiosities if production can be boosted and the populations secured.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant New Guinea Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant New Guinea rat (Mallomys rothschildi) is often eaten in New Guinea. It is little known to science but is odorless and easily tamed. It grows so fast that it becomes as big as a guinea pig even before it is weaned. It feeds on a wide variety of tubers and vegetable products. An attractive species native to mountain forests, it has a long heavy tail and black fur with white ticking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porcupines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porcupines, brush-tailed porcupines, and their relatives are distantly related to guinea pigs and are widely consumed as food in tropical regions. Examples are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Indian porcupine (Hystrix indica) and other species of South Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Cape porcupine (H. africaeaustralis) of southern Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Prehensile-tailed porcupine (Coendou prehensilis), which inhabits Central and South America. These nocturnal creatures live in the thick, leafy crowns of trees or in hollow trees or holes in the ground. Although often belligerent among themselves, they can be very friendly and tame toward humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kiore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kiore (Rattus exulans) was formerly an important component of  the diet of most Polynesians, including the Maoris of New Zealand. It  has been successfully reared in captivity in recent times. Unlike many  other rodents, this animal is normally not a scavenger; it is a clean,  even fastidious feeder that is basically a vegetarian (flowers, berries,  nuts, and seeds) and is reckoned remarkably good eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soft-Furred Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The soft-furred rat (Praomys) is relatively large and slender and is  found in the tropical forests of Africa from sea level to more than  3,000 m. Among the most common rodents of the African jungle, it is  trapped almost everywhere. It feeds largely on plants, but eats large  quantities of ants and other insects. It has been raised successfully in  captivity and is eaten by villagers in Malawi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant Squirrels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant squirrel (Ratufa bicolor) occurs throughout Indonesia,  Malaysia, and Sri Lanka. It is the largest squirrel on earth, almost the  size of a cat. A related species, the palm squirrel (Funambulus), also  gets very large. It can crop nuts in the very high treetops that are  inaccessible to people. It is widely used as food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Squirrels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Squirrels of the genus Callosciurus (notably C. notatus and C.  prevostii) are significant pests on cocoa, oil palm, and mixed fruit  plantations in Southeast Asia. They can be reared and bred on a diet of  most types of fruit as long as a little protein, in the form of insects or  cooked wheat, is available. The systematic use of this animal may  offer a chance to turn a pest to advantage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cloud Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two species of slender-tailed cloud rats (Phlocomys spp.) are found  only in southeastern Asia. They live in tree cavities, climb well, and  are well adapted to tree life.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of these (P. cumingi) lives in the northeastern part of Luzon in the Philippines, where it appears to be thriving. It has a large body and long tail and is the largest member of the mouse subfamily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other (Crateromys schadenbergi) has long, thick hair and a thick, bushy tail. It lives in the mountainous areas of northern Luzon. A nocturnal animal, it feeds on buds, bark, and fruits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both are attractive, even fascinating, creatures that are relentlessly hunted for food. They might make useful livestock in forest situations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spiny Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Cayenne spiny rat (Proechimys guyannensis) is found throughout most of South America. It is tasty, easily kept in captivity, and is popularly used in Colombia for food. A nocturnal animal, it is one of the most common mammals in many areas. It has been raised in captivity on bananas, sweet corn, coconut, grain, and various seeds.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bamboo Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The bamboo rat (Rhyzomys spp.) is the largest rodent on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia; it weighs 2-4 kg and the body can be as long as 45 cm. It prefers to live in bamboo thickets and is hunted and eaten by many local peoples.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a need - in considering any sort of game farming - to relate the animal's "preferred" conditions (range, feed, temperature, etc.) to the varying land and climate types not being effectively utilized. In other words, rather than looking at animals that might be farmed, it might be necessary to consider the terrain and climate and then seek animals that would "do" well under those conditions. One major fault with traditional farming has been the tendency to force traditional livestock onto unsuitable land. This has given rise to numerous serious problems. In many cases the most suitable use of an area is provided by several species grazing together to mutual benefit (e.g., goats and sheep on New Zealand hill country improve grazing for each other if ratios are right).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Yerex</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g028a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part V : Deer and Antelope</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several types of tropical deer' and antelope are no bigger than an average-size dog. These "microdeer" and "microantelope"2 are the smallest of all ruminants. Although there is considerable experience with rearing and utilizing the larger species, little is known about these miniature ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given research, mouse deer, muntjac, musk deer, pudu, brocket, huemul, and water deer, as well as half a dozen small antelope, might prove to have considerable potential. Collectively, they come from diverse habitats, ranging from equatorial to subarctic and from moist rainforest to arid savanna. They are adapted to some environmental conditions that are only marginal for production of conventional livestock because of drought, heat, diseases, altitude, or other constraints.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEER FARMING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer appear to be unlikely candidates for livestock, but reindeer were probably among the first domesticated animals and have been draft animals for perhaps 2O,OOO years. Even today, tens of thousands of reindeer pull sleighs in the European arctic. On military expeditions, the ancient Romans took along herds of fallow deer as a source of meat, and more than 1,000 years ago deer were annually herded off the Scottish Highlands for winter meat supplies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, there have been breakthroughs in the "domestication" of deer. Species already being [armed are: red deer (New Zealand, Australia, Taiwan, Korea, Russia, China, Scotland, the United States), elk (New Zealand, Canada, the United States), fallow deer (New Zealand, Australia, England, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, Germany, the United States), ruse deer (Australia, Mauritius, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea), sika deer (Taiwan, New Zealand), musk deer (China, India), and PFre David's deer (New Zealand). Although not truly domesticated, even the moose has been tamed in Scandinavia and the Soviet Union, the calves being bottle-raised from three days of age.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Zealand has made particular progress in domesticating large deer (see sidebar). It seems probable, therefore, that similar success with small deer could be achieved. For those seeking interesting, pioneering research, microdeer are good candidates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANTELOPE RANCHING AND FARMING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The worldwide experiences in domesticating various deer species suggest that the organized production of small antelope should also be considered. Several large species have already been studied and are used in game farming in eastern and southern Africa. Similar research on the smaller species, which so far have received little or no attention, is one of the more speculative ideas in this report. We put it forward only for consideration by researchers, but if exploratory studies prove successful, this is a topic deserving international support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some parts of Africa there are large expanses of uninhabited lands, and producing any sort of livestock there is limited by aridity and by the presence of tsetse flies. But in this habitat live tiny antelope such as dikdik, suni, and klipspringer. In the rainforests and secondary forests are found duikers and the royal antelope. All these creatures have advantages that justify their consideration as microlivestock: they have a more rapid turnover than the big species, and they produce a high yield of quality meat. In addition, compared with cattle, these native ungulates make better use of the habitat. Cattle select a limited number of grass species; antelopes choose a wider range, and also include fortes, bushes, and trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More important perhaps is their resistance to many diseases. Most, if not all, are resistant to trypanosomiasis, the disease carried by the tsetse fly. They are not immune to this and other tropical diseases, but they are less susceptible than cattle. However, part of this may be owing to their ability to roam widely; if confined and treated like domestic animals, they may also require some protection against parasites and diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antelopes are also more productive than cattle; that is, they produce a given quantity of meat more quickly because they breed better in the African hinterlands and grow more rapidly on its existing forages. On the other hand, they generally require a richer diet than cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, in their favor, antelopes affect the habitat less than the same density of cattle does; they spread out more while feeding and thereby cause less erosion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two ways of exploiting this potential. One is by "cropping"taking a controlled offtake from free-ranging populations without depressing the overall population. Several methods for producing meat this way from large antelope have been attempted in countries such as Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique. Few have persisted. Often this has been due to opposition from the vested interests of the cattle industry and from stringent veterinary requirements. Nonetheless, game ranching offers a means by which marginal lands could produce food of a high nutritional quality on a sustained basis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other method is by farming - that is, domesticating or partially domesticating the animals, keeping them in pens or herding them like cattle. Experiments in farming antelopes have been less common than game ranching, but one of the most interesting is that conducted on the Galana Ranch in Kenya. Three wild species - buffalo, eland, and oryx - were selected for comparison with cattle. Half-grown animals were preferred for capture, and it was found that if they were kept in the dark for the first week after capture, and then gradually provided with more and more space while they became familiar with people, after about six weeks they could be released into the open and herded from place to place. Grazing during the day under the eye of a herdsman, they allowed themselves to be herded back to a pen at night in the traditional African manner, where they would sleep around the campfire. This was a promising advance in behavior modification leading toward domestication. The oryx, for example, gained weight on grazing that would not even sustain cattle, and it required only a quarter of the amount of water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At bottom, the question is not what contribution antelopes can make to the African larder, for they already make a significant contribution through (largely illegal) hunting. The question is whether farming could make them a sustainable asset rather than their being senselessly squandered, as is the case at present. Although its potential has yet to be realized, antelope farming is not a panacea for Africa's food problems, and certainly not the world's, but it might pave the way to a new and more gentle way to make savannas useful. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TAME GAME</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the 1970s, deer have taken the place of sheep on many New Zealand pastures, and today the country has more than 5, 000 deer farms carrying over one million head, mainly red deer. It is now common along country roads to see tall fences surrounding graceful deer quietly grazing ryegrass and clover. And there are all the appurtenances for deer that exist for cattle and sheep. Auctions and shows are held regularly. Deer farmers have a professional association and produce their own glossy magazine. Government scientists publish pamphlets on the care and management of deer. There are recognized stud stags, computerized recording schemes for breed improvement, and even veterinary services specifically for deer. Hybridization between wapiti and red deer, and PFre David's deer and red deer, is accepted practice. The animals are moved by use of dogs (which command by mere presence rather than by bark or bite), and herds of up to 80 are shifted by truck. Slaughter facilities specifically for deer are in operation throughout the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This transformation of a nervous, jumpy, and retiring wild species into a farm animal is a remarkable achievement. Once accustomed to people, many specimens become gentle, even affectionate, and will come at a farmer's call. Males are generally as easy to handle as females, except during the rutting season when they become aggressive and cannot be handled at all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, even at the best of times the farmed deer must be handled gingerly. If the causes of stress are not quickly suppressed, hysteria can erupt throughout a herd; in an instant, quiet animals can be leaping suicidally in all directions, disoriented, diving head-on into fences, charging gates. Chronic stress, the causes of which are not always obvious, can result in illness or death, although this trait diminishes in subsequent generations of farm-born stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A deer farm has to be laid out to certain special specifications. To prevent escapes, the boundary fences must be 2 m high with netting of 15- or 30-cm mesh. Inner fences need only be 1.5 m high. Water troughs are placed in the middle of the fields, and nothing is allowed to jut inwards from the fences because the animals tend to walk fencelines and take comfort from the illusion of openness. Because deer like to wallow in hot weather, some farmers also provide shallow waterholes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer yards can be of any design, but the sides of the passageways and holding pens should be solid, as deer do not see fences very well, particularly when under pressure, and may injure themselves in a leap towards what appear to be wide open space. (New Zealanders usually make the sides of plywood.) Also, the holding pens should be roofed, as semidarkness has a calming effect. Animals that in the sunlight become hysterical on seeing a person in the distance, can, in the relative darkness of a roofed shed, be touched and even given injections.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the special facilities, however, handling deer takes time and care and experience. The most successful farmers spend much time among the deer so that the animals become accustomed to human presence. This helps to make yard work easier. Also, new arrivals are allowed to wander through the yards on their own to become familiar with them. In addition, special tame deer are used as leads or decoys to encourage the rest of the herd to follow. Using such simple techniques, a formerly intractable species has become almost fully domesticated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">26 Mouse Deer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g029a.png"></center><br>
+ Lesser Malayan Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer1 (Tragulus spp. and Hyemoschus aquaticus) are among the smallest ruminants known. The lesser mouse deer of Southeast Asia is probably the smallest; an adult stands only 20 cm high and weighs a merc 1-2.5 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they look vaguely like tiny deer, mouse deer differ in several particulars. The stomach is simpler and (like the camel's) has three instead of four effective compartments. Rumination occurs, but mouse deer are the most primitive of all ruminants. Indeed, they share a number of characteristics with nonruminants, including lack of horns or antlers; continually growing, tusklike upper canines in males; sharp-crowned premolars; and four fully developed toes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Virtually unchanged in 25 million years of evolution, these are solitary, nocturnal, retiring animals that have seldom received detailed research. Whether they might make suitable microlivestock is unknown. However, they seem to be tractable, and people in Southeast Asia (Sarawak, for instance) have traditionally kept at least one of the species as backyard pets. Moreover, mouse deer are indigenous to tropical lowland regions and withstand the heat and humidity that are stressful to most conventional livestock species. They probably also are resistant to many diseases of those torrid regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the United States, mouse deer are being raised as laboratory animals for basic research on ungulates. This is because the animals are easier to handle than large deer or goats.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are graceful, lithe, and look somewhat like large rodents. The Asian species are the shape and size of an agouti (see page 198); the African species is more like the pace (see page 262). All have short legs, a small head, and a pointed snout. Adults weigh from 1 to 5 kg, depending on species. The head and body are only 04-1 m long, and the shoulder height is merely 20-36 cm. Males are generally smaller than females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most species the body is a rich brown with white spots and stripes. The belly is usually white. The animals stand on the middle toes, so that the lateral ones do not touch the ground. Neither sex bears antlers. In males the upper canines form long tusks that may extend outside the lips and even to below the line of the jaw.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty-five million years ago, early forms of mouse deer existed throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe. Today's species are restricted to tropical forests and mangrove thickets of Southeast Asia and Central Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the three Asian species, the Indian mouse deer occurs in southern India and Sri Lanka; the larger Malayan mouse deer occurs on the mainland of Southeast Asia and the lesser Malayan mouse deer occurs on Java as well. The water chevrotain, a related African animal, is found from eastern Zaire to the Atlantic coast. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p292a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p293a.png"></center><br>
+ Range of water chevrotain .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, human encroachment into the forest has caused the destruction of the mouse deer habitats and has put various mouse deer species under a pressure that is causing their populations to decline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals inhabit equatorial forests and mixed secondary tropical forest. They generally live among undergrowth on the edges of dense lowland rainforests. They especially haunt rivers and swampy bush areas, seeking escape by water when in danger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little about these animals is recorded. Essentially vegetarians, they feed chiefly on fruits, supplemented by leaves. They also eat insects (for instance, ants), if available. They do not seem to eat grass.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The premolars of the mouse deer are designed for piercing and chopping food rather than for chewing. As noted, the stomach consists of three functional compartments: the rumen, the reticulum, and the abomasum. (The omasum of ruminants is represented only by a rudimentary area.) The stomach occupies almost the whole of the abdominal cavity, extending from the diaphragm to the pelvic inlet, which provides this small animal with large food-storage capacity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The blood has a very high erythrocyte (red blood corpuscle) count as well as the smallest erythrocyte size of any mammal. The flesh is "white" and the muscles contain little myoglobin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mature females reproduce almost continuously, and usually regardless of season. In the female larger Malayan mouse deer, mating occurs within 2 days of giving birth. In the African species, many births are synchronized with the rainy seasons, when fruits are plentiful. The gestation period is about 5-6 months, depending on the species. There is only one young per birth. Weaning normally occurs at 2-3 months, but can occur as early as 3 weeks, with sexual maturity achieved at 4-5 months (Asian species) and 10 months (African species). The young stay alone, hidden in vegetation during the first month or two.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are shy, keeping to dense jungle and depending on concealment for protection. Although often present in large numbers, they are seldom seen. Preferring to be near lakes, rivers, or streams, they can nevertheless wander I km or more from water. They feed mostly at dusk or at night, sheltering in undisturbed areas or under shady bushes during the day. They utter weak, bleating sounds, and when frightened, jump a meter or more in the air.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Communication is by scent and calls. The African species possess anal and preputial glands, with which, along with urine and feces, they mark their home ranges. Males of both Asian and African species possess a chin gland to mark either the vegetation or their mates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are among the most excitable, nervous, and jumpy animals. One must tread softly in their presence for fear of causing absolute pandemonium and mishap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are widely sought by native people for food, and their meat is highly regarded. Dressed carcasses have a high proportion of muscle (84 percent in Asian species), low proportion of bone (15 percent), and an insignificant amount of fat. The ratio of muscle to bone is large - 5.6:1. The mean dressing percentage of 62.1 percent is greater than that reported for cattle, water buffalo, or goat.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adults are wild, generally intractable, and "flighty," but young animals (at least of the Asian species) tame readily and make good pets. Nevertheless, these are delicate creatures and must always be handled gently. Individuals caught in the wild tend to bash against the sides of cages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite an unpromising temperament, Asian mouse deer are regularly bred in zoos, including those in Amsterdam, New York, and Zurich. They also have been reared successfully in small enclosures at several research institutes, such as the I.R.E.T. Institute, Makokou, Gabon; the Institute of Medical Research in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; and at Fort Detrick in the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps the best way to breed this animal is by using the battery system of small units comprising one male and two females per cage. The costs are mostly for obtaining suitable enclosures and for feeding and watering troughs.6 The cages must be covered with mesh because the mouse deer can jump. However, the covering must be sufficiently high to allow the male to stand with its body vertical during copulation.7 They can be fed a variety of foods and grow well on stems of bean plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, these are small, seemingly tractable creatures that are at home in the heat, humidity, and diseases of tropical lowlands. They might play a particularly important role as livestock for tropical rainforests; the forests could be left standing while the animal still produces meat. Today, in a widely condemned process, tropical rainforests are being felled in order to raise cattle for meat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small size makes mouse deer easy prey for various predators. In the wild, snakes, crocodiles, eagles, and forest cats feed on them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are among the most excitable, nervous, and jumpy animals. One must tread softly in their presence for fear of causing absolute pandemonium and mishap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The different species are solitary, and it is difficult to keep many individuals (especially males) in a restricted space. They must be kept in a quiet enclosure, with cover or good shelters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The survival of these four "living fossils" depends on conserving their rainforest habitat and restricting hunting, especially night hunting. But studies of their propagation and management are also imperative.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In particular, research is warranted on various aspects of their husbandry, such as enclosure design, space requirements, and health. A special research need is to understand the animal's nutritional requirements and to develop diets for use in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">27 Muntjac</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g030a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac, or barking deer (Muntiacus species), are among the most widespread but least known of all Asian animals.1 They are almost the size of an average dog and they bark, but they are true deer. These little animals adapt well to captivity and have been introduced to zoos and wildlife collections throughout the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years one species, the Reeves' muntjac, has become established in England, and a few specimens have settled into semicaptivity - staying behind fences, accepting human presence, and even eating out of people's hands. In Sarawak, villagers have also been known to keep muntjac, feeding them a diet of rice with some leafy matter occasionally added.2 Such experiences show that these small, shy deer can be calm and adaptable. It also shows that they can be raised on practical, artificial diets and that they are not strictly browsers. This creates the possibility (admittedly highly speculative) that they might make future microlivestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac produce lean, palatable venison and perhaps could be farmed on an organized basis. They are native to severe environments where heat, humidity, and endemic diseases make raising conventional livestock difficult. In future, given research, muntjac might become widespread contributors to Asian economic development. The lessons learned in captive breeding could also be important for conserving endangered muntjac species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One species, the Indian muntjac, has an incredibly low chromosome number (2n=7 in males; 2n=6 in females), which makes them particularly promising candidates for mammalian genetic studies. This species has regularly bred well in both zoos and research institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are small and slender. Reeves' muntjac, the smallest, has a shoulder height of 45-60 cm. Fully grown, it weighs less than 20 kg; commonly it is merely 10-12 kg. The Java subspecies of the Indian muntjac is the biggest, with a shoulder height of 58 cm and a mature weight of 43 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antlers on the males usually include a main prong as well as a much shorter brow tine. Even the main prong is no larger than a finger, but its pointed tip is hooked and must be treated with caution. There are also two tusklike canine teeth that protrude from the mouth. These have sharp points and a knifelike posterior edge, capable of cutting to the bone a person's finger or another muntjac's rump.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coloration varies from deep brown to yellowish or greyish brown with cream or whitish markings, depending on the species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are native to a vast region from eastern China to Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost a century ago, Indian and Reeves' muntjac were introduced to a deer park in southeast England. Some escaped, and (as noted) the Reeves' muntjac has adapted, spread, and settled down to life in the countryside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the five muntjac species, the Reeves' and the Indian are well known and in no danger. For instance, recent estimates of annual game production have shown that there are about 650,000 Reeves' muntjac in China. The other three are threatened with extinction. Black, Roosevelt's, and Fea's muntjacs are virtually untried in captivity, but the success of raising Reeves' muntjac in English country gardens suggests that perhaps their populations could be saved through captive breeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In their native habitats, these small deer are usually found in dense vegetation on hilly ranges at elevations up to at least 3,000 m.3 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p301a.png"></center><br>
+ The native ranges of the various muntjacs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac seem to be primarily browsers. However, in captivity they eat fresh grass, alfalfa hay, and feed pellets. They also readily eat root crops such as potatoes, carrots, and parsnips. They are "concentrate selectors," preferring foods low in fiber and rich in protein and nutrients. Captive specimens reportedly need; a supply of cut browse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding may occur year-round, but in practice it is synchronized with certain seasons. The first conception can occur as early as 6 months of age. One, occasionally two, young are born after a gestation of about 200 days. They weigh around I kg at birth, and the fawns usually remain hidden until they can move about with the mother. The females mate within a few days of giving birth. Life spans up to 16 years have been recorded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the Indian muntjac is a species of great cytogenetic interest. It has the lowest diploid chromosome numbers yet found in a mammal.4 The large, easily distinguishable chromosomes are a great advantage in tissue culture, and many laboratories now have muntjac cell lines. The karyotypes of the different species' chromosomes are very different; the Indian and Reeves' muntjac can hybridize, but the offspring are infertile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are dainty and have a captivating charm. Always on the alert, they are active both day and night. Often they will bark for an hour or more, but typically they bark for only a minute or two. When panicked, captive muntjac may rush into fences or walls. They can easily leap barriers 1.5 m high.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males are highly territorial and defend their territories vigorously. Adult females also inhabit a specific territory, which they defend against strange individuals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males mark the ground at intervals by lowering the head and rubbing the frontal glands on the ground and by scraping their hooves against the ground. They mark trees by scraping the bark with the lower incisors and rubbing the base of their antlers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Asia, muntjac are hunted for meat, skins, and antlers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac thrive and, at least under ideal conditions, breed freely in captivity. However, they may stop breeding if they are crowded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In England, zoos and private collections keep as many as six muntjac in an area of 40 x 20 m. Plenty of cover is provided for the animals to hide in. Fences almost 2 m high are used. (Lower fences are reportedly adequate where there is no risk of the deer being panicked by dogs or people.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like other deer, muntjac produce extremely lean meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They seem to be healthy animals. In Britain, wild and captive muntjac have few gastrointestinal worms, and ectoparasites such as ticks and lice are not a problem. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MUNTJAC</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In England, far from Asia's forests and mountains, the Reeves' muntjac is the subject of a peculiar chapter in the otherwise unhappy history of introduced species. Charmed by the deer's odd characteristics, the British have welcomed its invasion into gardens around the country. Now, there are tens of thousands of muntjacs on the loose, and some people have even adopted them as pets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although other alien species have wreaked havoc on native plants and animals, muntjacs appear to be a merciful exception. At least over the short term, muntjacs "have proven to be an almost innocuous asset to the countryside. They give pleasure to thousands and pain to few. Eating mostly ivy, grass, leaves, and prickly bushes, they rarely feed in one place long enough to do much damage except to an occasional suburban garden." </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life for many muntjacs is made soft by homeowners who find the deer's large, dewy eyes and tiny antlers irresistible. The kind-hearted suburbanites put out salt licks, water, and kitchen scraps, and they built snug little shelters against the cold north wind. "All our adult deer will take food from the hand," says Walter Buckingham, who has kept muntjacs for five years in his garden in the county of </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hertfordshire, just north of London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The adaptable immigrant is colonizing new areas so rapidly, say biologists, that soon there may be more in England than in Asia. "In time," predicts muntjac-researcher Oliver Dansie (pictured opposite), "it may eventually establish itself as our most widely distributed deer species."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild these animals are not gregarious and are generally found alone or in pairs. Because of their strong territorial instincts, large males may not be able to be kept together without fighting. The upper canine teeth can inflict serious wounds. Some females are intolerant of each other as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are fragile; they cannot be held by the legs, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some infectious diseases may prove to be of epizootic importance: foot-and-mouth disease, mucosal disease, epizootic hemorrhagic disease, rinderpest, and tuberculosis (all three types). This may be a problem, especially when people are raising the animals by hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To ensure a better understanding of their potential as microlivestock, muntjac deserve research and recognition from animal scientists and conservationists from Nepal to China. The English experience shows how populations of the endangered species might be built up. At present, however, none are receiving any husbandry research; only the two most common species can generally be found in zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals deserve investigation into physiology, reproductive requirements, fertility, nutrition (for example, food preferences, feeding strategies, and food utilization), growth, adaptability and environmental tolerance, diseases, management, social structure, and selection for calm temperament. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">28 Musk Deer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The musk deer (Moschus species)1 is so small that (like other ungulates in this section) it is only as large as an average-size dog. A gland in males produces musk, a thick, oily secretion that is one of the most valuable substances in the animal kingdom. Musk is used in Oriental Medicine as well as in Europeans perfumes, and in recent year it has sometimes sold for as much as three times the price of gold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk is traditionally obtained by killing these deer and removing their glands. The dried glands, called pods, contain a reddish brown musk powder that has been a commodity in international commerce for more than 1,000 years. Despite bans in India (1972) and Nepal (1973), musk continues to be illegally exported, mainly via Hong Kong, for use in Japan and Europe. In Japan, for example, it is an ingredient in more than 200 different medicines.2 In Europe, musk goes into some of the most famous perfumes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international trade in Himalayan musk, originating from both northern and southern sides of the Himalayan divide, amounts to 200 kg per year, representing an annual slaughter of 20,000-32,000 male deer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commercial value of the animal makes it highly attractive for development as a livestock species. The economic force causing its slide toward extinction could be employed to protect and restore both the species and its habitat. Ranching these deer might put musk production on a sustainable footing. It might also encourage habitat protection, because in the harsh climate of the high Himalayas, rearing musk deer could be much more profitable to villagers than raising crops or cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer are already being farmed under primitive conditions in China, where techniques for extracting musk without killing the animal have been developed. In India, small collections of musk deer have been established by the forest departments of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. For several years authorities in Nepal have successfully extracted musk from an adult male at the Kathmandu Zoo' without apparent harm to the animal.3 These experiences suggest that musk might become a farmed product. So far, however, success has been limited. The Chinese animals, for example, have a high mortality rate and the musk is said to be of poor quality. Nonetheless, these examples are valuable pioneering case studies that deserve recognition, support, and further development.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With their long ears, arched back, and bounding gait, these diminutive deer remind one of large hares. The pointed face and large ears make their heads strikingly reminiscent of kangaroos. The coarse hair gives them a stocky appearance. The color varies according to species (and subspecies) from rich reddish brown to dark grey or black. The peculiarly brittle and wavy hair probably has good insulating properties, as it consists of air-filled cells arranged like a honeycomb.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer have an average mature weight of about 6-11 kg and a body length of 50-90 cm. They stand 50 60 cm high at the shoulder and 5 cm higher at the rump because the hind legs are longer than the forelegs. Some dwarf types are only 40-46 cm high. The tail is short, and in males it is naked, except for a terminal tuft of hair, because they mark their territories by constantly rubbing the caudal gland, which is located near the tail, onto objects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All four toes are flexible, which, compared to the rigid hoof of other ungulates, gives a firmer grip on precipitous slopes. The dew claws are enlarged and, together with the central digits, splay out, to minimize sinking in soft snow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Neither sex possesses antlers, but males have long upper canine teeth that project well below the lips. The lower front teeth have a spatulate form that probably helps the animals scrape lichens from the surfaces of rocks and trees in winter, when most vegetation is snow covered. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p309a.png"></center><br>
+ The musk deers native range.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The genus is distributed patchily throughout the forested mountainous parts of most of Asia. One population extends from just north of the Arctic Circle southward to the northern edge of Mongolia and Korea. Others occur in China, northern Vietnam, and the Himalayan region including Bhutan, Assam, Tibet, the Indian Himalayas, Nepal, and northern Pakistan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During this century, the musk deer has rapidly declined throughout its former regions. In many parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, and probably Tibet, it is already regarded as rare, with a distribution that is becoming increasingly localized. Possible exceptions are Bhutan and most of China, where its population is thought to be stable. In southern China, a recent estimate puts the musk deer population at 100,000 head. In western and northwestern China, the population is estimated at 200,000-300,000 head.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is the uncontrolled hunt for musk that in most places is driving this animal toward extinction, but its habitat is also being increasingly destroyed by livestock and woodcutters. Part of the loss to hunters is owing to the mindless way in which the animals are caught. Most are snared in traps or nets or killed by poisoned stakes set on trails. This kills all the animals indiscriminately, even females and fawns, which produce no musk. This waste of reproductive animals is extremely destructive to the populations and is senselessly hastening the musk deer's extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer mainly occur in upland woodland and scrub areas. They prefer remote, dense vegetation, especially birch-rhododendron forests in mountainous terrain. They are seldom found in treeless regions or areas thickly populated by people. In the Himalayas, the upper limit coincides approximately with the tree line, which is as high as 4,600 m at the eastern end.6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite its economic importance and wide distribution, little is known of the musk deer's biology. Nonetheless, it is known that musk deer have a gall bladder, a bovid feature that distinguishes it from the true deer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are browsers, relying on young leaves, buds, fruits, and flowers. During the winter, as snow deepens, they depend more on lichens growing above the snow on rocks or tree bark, although in shallow snow they scrape for vegetation with their hooves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The male's musk sac is unique among deer. Situated between the umbilicus and penis, it contains the gelatinous, odoriferous oil. The amount varies with the season and the age of the animal, but pods of adult males usually weigh about 30 g; occasionally up to 45 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males also have a caudal gland under the tail, which secretes a viscous yellow substance with a goaty smell. They mark vegetation with this secretion by rubbing their hindquarters against stems and branches.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males become sexually mature at about 18 months, but females seem capable of reproducing in their first year. The estrous cycle is 18-25 days; the receptive period lasts 36 60 hours. Gestation varies from 178 to 192 days. Each female usually bears one or two fawns, rarely three. The fawn is precocious - able to stand and move within 15 minutes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer are shy, furtive animals with keen senses of hearing, smell, and sight. They are normally solitary and are most active at dawn and dusk. Only under cover of darkness do they frequent the more open spaces. Except in the rutting season, more than two animals are seldom seen together; groups usually consist only of a female and her young. The alarm call, a loud hiss, is often accompanied by a highstepping, springy gait.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild, musk deer lead "orderly" lives. They use well established trails connecting well-established feeding places, resting places, and "latrines" where they deposit their droppings. Migration is uncommon.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remarkably sure footed, musk deer climb cliffs and even the trunks of leaning trees. Being small and solitary, they rely on camouflage to avoid predators but flee through established escape routes when disturbed. If cornered, males defend themselves by slashing with their tusks, often inflicting deep cuts and severe injuries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The strong-smelling, reddish-brown musk is obtainable only from this animal.7 It is used as a fixative in expensive perfumes to increase the retention of the fragrance on the skin. In Oriental medicines it is used in stimulants, sedatives, and other products. Some medicinal properties appear to be genuine.8 Recently, highly purified musk has been selling for as much as $27 a gram.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade in the Himalayan musk deer or its products is banned by all countries that are parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). However, products from musk deer in the Soviet Union and China can be traded legally under license. It seems likely that if formal, self-sufficient, musk-deer farming projects can be established elsewhere, with safeguards to minimize poaching, a wider trade would be officially sanctioned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since at least 1919, Chinese scientists have been experimenting with the extraction of musk without killing the males. When the sexual activity is at its peak, the males are caught and musk removed from the pod with a runcible spoon (curved fork) inserted into the sac's aperture. The procedure takes only minutes. There are records of up to 9 g being recovered at a time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, China established formal musk deer farms in 1958. They are clustered in the Maerkang, Miyalo, and Manchuan areas of Sichuan Province; the Zhenping county of Shanxi Province; and the Fuziling area of Anhui Province. Despite heavy initial losses of animals, mainly during transportation and acclimatization, the Chinese now breed musk deer in considerable numbers. However, juvenile mortality is still high and longevity relatively short. Zoos in other parts of the world have also had difficulties maintaining the animals.9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, musk deer readily accept many foods: lettuce, carrots, potatoes, apples, rolled oats, hay, alfalfa, bananas, some grass, bamboo leaves, and pumpkins, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The musk deer's social system may represent an impediment to its successful reproduction in captivity. It is irascible and scares easily. In close confinement, males fight and may have to be isolated from each other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is an inherent danger in any captive-breeding scheme in the Himalayas: resumption of legal trade in natural musk could damage the remaining populations by stimulating the market and providing an outlet for illicit musk from poached animals. Some biologists (notably in India) consider that a total ban on the trade in natural musk from all sources is essential.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, removing the musk without damaging the animals has not proved commercially successful because of market resistance. Most purchasers require the entire pod in order to be certain that they are receiving the genuine product. Given a regularized farming program, however, it seems likely that mutual trust would circumvent this lack of confidence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To protect this species will not be easy. It occurs in vast, remote areas that are difficult to patrol. The local people are poor and traditionally have used it as a source of income and food. The value of musk is so high that smuggling is already well organized and will be difficult to eradicate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is imperative that the status of existing musk deer populations be established. This is especially important in Nepal. The total population may be not more than 500 in the wild.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No matter what is achieved in farming, pressure on populations will only be reduced by protecting the wild specimens. Thus, the dietary requirements and behavior of musk deer should also be evaluated with a view to building up the wild populations directly. If the techniques of breeding and handling can be improved, farming the animal may also indirectly help wild populations by reducing the pressure to harvest them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An alternative to captive breeding might be ranching the wild animals. In this process, males would be caught periodically and the musk extracted before releasing them. The organized, sustainable harvesting is particularly attractive if developed at the rural level with revenue going directly to local people; it would provide them incentive to conserve not only "their" musk deer but also its habitat. For this purpose, today's musk deer hunters could be trained to extract musk from live animals, releasing and recapturing them on a controlled basis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another alternative could be controlled culling at a sustainable level, as is now done in the Soviet Union, where about 5 percent of the population is harvested each year. However, elsewhere annual culls at any level would not be feasible for at least 10 years because the populations are now so low. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g031a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">29 South America's Microdeer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g032a.png"></center><br>
+ Pudu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South America contains three types of tiny, indigenous deer. None are well known to science, yet they are of microlivestock size, and if given research attention at least two might respond to rearing in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PUDU</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pudu (pronounced "poo-doo") is native to temperate forests of the Andean region. It is among the smallest of all true deer, adult males being merely the size of small terriers and the females being smaller still. It is very shy and retiring and is endangered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All things considered, this animal would appear to be an unlikely candidate for microlivestock. But wherever it is found, the pudu is mercilessly hunted, and captive rearing might be the only way to save its populations from extinction. Indeed, it is already being raised in experimental herds in Chile and Argentina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pudus (also called the Andean dwarf deer) once ranged widely through the foothills, valleys, and lowlands of the Andes. They prefer the dark, dank underbrush of the cool rainforest, particularly thick bamboo stands. There are two species: Pudu pudu is distributed in parts of southern Bolivia and throughout much of southern Chile nearly to the Straits of Magellan. It is also found on islands off the Chilean coast. Pudu mephistophiles is distributed throughout the highlands of Ecuador, where it occurs only in cool areas at great height.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With their short legs, stocky bodies, and compact heads, pudus do not look much like deer - more like small antelopes with foxlike faces and spiky antlers. Full grown, they are only 40 cm tall and weigh less than 12 kg. They have thick fur ranging from reddish brown to pale gray.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the pudu's small size, shy and secretive nature, and forbidding habitat, few people have ever even seen one. Nonetheless, these animals tame easily and reportedly were once kept by South American Indians. Several generations were also once bred in a Paris apartment and were treated exactly like domestic dogs, which most people who saw them for the first time thought they were.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, habitat destruction has greatly reduced the range and numbers of these attractive and fascinating little creatures. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature already lists them as vulnerable to extinction. Pudu studies are highly recommended, and raising pudus promises to be an interesting and valuable activity that may one day lead to one of the most intriguing microlivestock of all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BROCKET</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brockets (Mazama spp.) are small deer that occupy the place in South America's environment that duikers occupy in Africa (see page 326). They typically reside in thick brush. They occur widely throughout South America and are found in every country except Chile and Uruguay. They also occur in Central America, the West Indies, and Mexico.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are four species:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Red brocket (Mazama americana), the most common and widespread, is found from Mexico to Argentina. It is also the largest species, with a mature weight of about 20 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gray (brown) brocket (Mazama gouazoubira) is also found throughout Latin America. It is slightly smaller, weighing about 17 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Lesser brocket (Mazama rufina)2 resides in small and scattered locations in Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay. It weighs 10-20 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Dwarf brocket (Mazama chunyi) is found only in pockets of forest and brush on certain mountainsides in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and northern Peru. The smallest brocket, it weighs only 8-12 kg. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except for their size and color, all brockets look alike. The head,  neck, and tail are short; the ears are wide. The lumbar region is higher  than the shoulders, and this, together with an arched back, gives them a  hunched appearance not unlike a duiker's. The antlers are simple  spikes, never longer than a person's hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The different species are similar in behavior, too.3 They generally  wander around singly or in pairs. Although frequenting dense cover  during the day, they emerge at night to feed in open areas. Little is  known of their food preferences. But farmers know only too well how  fond they are of melons, beans, peppers, and corn. Doubtless, wild  forest fruits dominate their native diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although extensively hunted, brockets are so adept at dodging into  dense brush that relatively few get caught. However, small size makes  them vulnerable to many other predators: puma, jaguar, ocelot, and  eagles and other large birds of prey. Near villages the domestic dog is  probably their worst enemy. (Infuriated vegetable growers commonly  set their dogs on them.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although at first sight these retiring, nervous, and agile creatures  seem unlikely to be even potential microlivestock, young brockets are  sometimes caught and raised by people. It is not uncommon to find  them as pets on farms and in gardens. They seem to become very  tame and might therefore make useful livestock at some future time.  At least one species, the grey brocket, adjusts particularly well to life in  and around human settlements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUEMUL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third type of South American microdeer, the huemul,4 is a much  less likely candidate. It is very rare, very shy, and has so far shown  little likelihood of settling into captivity. However, huemul conservation  is critical: without urgent attention, the animal will become extinct.  Although totally protected by law, it is declining owing to poaching,  farm dogs, habitat loss and diseases transmitted by cattle and other  livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two species:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Chilean huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus)5 occurs in high altitude forests, thickets, and grasslands in the Andes of southern Chile and Argentina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Peruvian huemul, or taruca (H. antisepsis), occurs in parts of the Andes of southern Peru and Bolivia as well as of northern Chile and Argentina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species live in small herds above the tree line. They are very shy, and even though the Chilean national seal bears the depiction of a huemul, almost no Chilean (or anyone else, for that matter) has ever seen a live one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At less than 85 cm tall and probably weighing under 15 kg, huemuls are sized to be microlivestock. However, previous attempts at rearing them in Chile have met with little success. Nevertheless, huemuls have been kept in zoos in Germany, and such experiences - together with the increasing knowledge of how to raise red deer and other species - may eventually provide the keys to their continued existence. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g033a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">30 Water Deer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g034a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about the water deer' (Hydropotes inermis), but it should be considered along with mouse deer, muntjacs, musk deer, and others as a possible species for microlivestock development. It is comparable in size, and it is unusual among deer for producing large litters: births of triplets or more are common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with the other species in this section, this is a highly speculative notion; however, there is some justification for it. The Zoological Society of London has successfully established breeding colonies, and other zoos have also bred the animal in captivity. The water deer has the advantage of rapid growth, early maturity, and high fecundity. Indeed, given protection, its populations have been known to increase rapidly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal has a graceful and delicate appearance, its best known characteristic being the male's long tusks. Both sexes are about the same size, standing 45-55 cm at the shoulder and weighing up to 19 kg. Body length is up to about I m, and the tail is so tiny that it is barely noticeable. The round-tipped ears are characteristically held erect above the head.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water deer are somewhat like muntjacs, but they are longer in the leg and lighter in build. Their forelegs are shorter than their hindlegs so that they stand slightly higher at the haunches than at the shoulders. This gives them a hunched appearance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hair is generally thick and coarse, longest on the flanks and rump. The backs and sides are usually yellowish brown, finely stippled with black. In winter, the coat is thick and variable in color; pale fawn and peppery gray-brown are common shades. In summer, the coat is sleek and reddish. Fawns are white spotted at birth, but this dappling soon fades.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Neither sex has antlers. The upper canine teeth, especially in the males, are enlarged, forming curved tusks 7 cm long. These are much bigger than those in muntjacs and can protrude well below the jawline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In both sexes there is a small inguinal gland present between the hind legs, the only instance among deer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In China the water deer has a wide distribution range. It is mainly found in the provinces of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hunan, Hubei, and Fujian, the mid and lower Yangtze River Basin, and coastal areas and islands in central and eastern China. It is also found in Guilin, southern Sichuan Province, Guangxi Province, and Guangdong Province in the south.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Korea, the animal lives along the lower reaches of most rivers, except those in the extreme northeast. Its northern limit of distribution is probably about latitude 43&Yacute;N.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At Woburn Park in England, a few escaped from a herd early this century and have increased and become established in a number of counties, particularly Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire, Cambridgeshire, and Norfolk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In China, owing to increasing reclamation and cultivation of wetlands, the habitat of the water deer is gradually shrinking. At present the animal is protected by the government, which designates appropriate hunting seasons. It is estimated that about 10,000 are killed each year by hunters. In Korea the water deer is still plentiful. As noted, in England it is maintaining itself and is thriving in some protected parks. It is also reported to be present in France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In its home range, the water deer is usually found among reeds and rushes in swampy areas. It also frequents the tall grasses and sparse shrubs of mountainsides and cultivated fields. In England it has adapted to a variety of habitats, including woodlands. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p323a.png"></center><br>
+ Native range of the water deer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer is chiefly a grazer. It feeds mainly on reeds, coarse grasses, and some tree leaves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As previously mentioned, this is the most prolific species of deer. Up to seven fetuses have been observed in a single pregnant female, although the normal litters are two or three. The gestation period is about 176 days. Fawns are born in late spring or early summer, and weigh only about 0.5 kg at birth. Within 4 days the newborns can live almost exclusively on grasses. Usually, however, they are fully weaned after 4 8 weeks, but remain socially attached to the mother. They appear to become independent after about 4 months. Males become sexually mature at about 5-6 months; females at about 7-8 months.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water deer are generally seen alone. Even where abundant, they seldom congregate in herds. Females are sometimes intolerant of each other, as are adult males or young males. However, in captivity, several females can graze and rest in loose aggregations. The peak period of grazing activity occurs around dusk. Feeding sessions are interspersed with periods of passive cud-chewing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water deer "bark" at intruders. During the rut, males are especially noisy and aggressive, and defend their territories with vigor. Fighting involves striking their tusks into the shoulder or back of their opponents. 3 Information from Lu Houji. These are extremely excitable little animals. When upset, they often "hump" their backs and bound away like rabbits. They are also good swimmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In China the water deer are hunted for their meat and skins, and newly born fawns are killed to obtain the mother's colostrum for medicinal purposes. In a few localities in England, the species has become a game animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer is not yet known on "farms." However, it seems to be easily kept, has bred well in zoos, and has thrived in many British wildlife parks. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The assets of early maturity and high fecundity mean that the potential exists for rapid population expansion. Such an event occurred at Britain's Whipsnade Zoo. In 1929 and 1930, 32 deer were released into undeveloped pasture; by 1937, 120 fawns had been raised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they are relatively small, and because in the wild state they aggregate only under exceptional conditions, water deer are unlikely to have any appreciable impact on vegetation in forests, farms, or gardens. Nonetheless, they can damage crops, and Chinese farmers, who consider them pests, often illegally kill them out of season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are swift and adept at escaping captivity. It is possible that because of territoriality only a single pair will live in a given area. Moreover, males are aggressive and must be kept apart.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They seem able to withstand chilly weather well, but a combination of wet and cold is harmful. Their heavy winter coat, essential to survival in the Far East, renders the animal susceptible to dehydration and heat exhaustion in comparatively mild climates, such as England's.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At birth, the tiny fawns are extremely vulnerable to a variety of predators, both birds and mammals. The species may need areas of dense cover or some shelter from wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer has been successfully kept in semicaptivity for many years; however, for it to reach a level of domestication suitable for use as microlivestock, research is needed in the following areas:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reproduction;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Performance under a range of environments;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Grazing efficiency;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Basic physiology;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Captive breeding and domestication - measurements of growth rates, space requirements, and feed needs; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Modifying behavior to overcome territoriality - for instance, imprinting on humans, selection of docile specimens, hand rearing, and castration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer is not an endangered species; however, efforts should be made to preserve the populations in their native ranges and habitats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">31 Duikers</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g035a.png"></center><br>
+ Red Duiker</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers (Cephalophus and Sylvicapra species) are small African antelopes. Although they are ruminants like cattle, sheep, and goats, some are hardly bigger than hares or rabbits. One, the blue duiker, is less than 40 cm high and usually weighs a mere 4-6 kg. It and some of the slightly larger duikers might be suitable for household husbandry because their meat is an extremely popular food throughout much of Africa. In West Africa, for example, it is one of the most common meats sold in both rural and urban markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This idea, however, is highly speculative because, despite their popularity, little is known about these tiny animals. Their husbandry has been attempted only a few times, but the results were encouraging, and rearing duikers deserves further investigation. They are already being raised in captivity in the United States,' Zimbabwe,2 Togo,3 and Gabon. Researchers in Nigeria have bred blue duikers to the fourth generation and found that, if the animals were first handled by people while young, they remained docile.4 Even blue duikers caught in the wild tame quickly if they are very young, but by the time they reach 3.5 months, they become barely tolerant of man's presence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If duiker husbandry can be developed, it might provide not only a more regular source of meat, but also a lessening of the hunting pressures, thereby giving the wild populations a better chance of survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These antelopes are suitable for testing as microlivestock only in their native region, sub-Saharan Africa. Eventually, they might prove to have wider applicability. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duiker species vary from about the size of a small dog to that of a small donkey. Most are similar in shape and are characterized by short front legs, arched back, and pointed hoofs. The tail is stubby, often with a terminal tuft. The coat varies from reddish brown to nearly black, although a few species are blue-grey and one is zebra striped.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females are slightly larger than males, but the sexes look alike. In most species, both sexes bear small straight horns that project backward from the skull, frequently hidden in a long tuft of hair.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers inhabit virtually all regions of Africa below the Sahara from Gambia in the west to Ethiopia in the east, and all countries as far south as South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are so shy that they are rarely encountered by people. But almost anywhere in Africa (other than North Africa), the observant traveler may glimpse them ducking into forests or thickets. Although there are still countless numbers, people are eating so many that in some localized areas the populations are fast heading toward extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All but one species are found in rainforests or dense woodlands. The grey duiker, however, is found in savannas. If the vegetation is juicy, only a few of the species need a separate water source, so they can thrive in very dry sites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main foods are fruits and seeds supplemented by leaves and shoots. Fruits, which they eat to a much greater degree than other antelopes, are an important part of their diet. Some rare species (for example, the red-flanked duiker, C. rufilatus) can graze. Occasionally (especially in captivity), duikers are also omnivorous, eating fish, crabs, insects, snails, frogs, small animals, or carrion; they also readily accept chopped meat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers reach sexual maturity at 9-15 months; gestation lasts about 7-8 months. In some species, females conceive a few days after calving on a 3- to 5-day postpartum estrus. Apparently one calf per birth is normal. A newborn blue duiker weighs between 0.4 and 0.7 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before one year of age, young duikers leave their parents to find their own mates and territories. Life expectancy is more than 10 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In spite of habitat differences, most duikers behave alike. In the wild they are nervous, shy, and retiring. When alarmed, they plunge into the protection of dense vegetation - hence the origin of the name duiker, which means "diver." Nonetheless, their behavior allows them to be easily netted. An experienced hunter can imitate duiker sounds and call the male out of the bush. Also, a startled animal freezes, thereby facilitating its capture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moving easily through dense vegetation, the head carried low, these tiny animals use regular runs. Forest duiker species are largely diurnal, although a few, such as the bay duiker, are nocturnal. Bush duikers are mainly nocturnal, feeding from early evening until morning. Such nocturnal species shelter during the day in holes (presumably dug by other animals) or inside fallen trees; the diurnal ones lie directly on the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blue duikers are the best-known species and are probably the most likely candidates for microlivestock (see page 332). They seem to be monogamous and apparently mate for life. Unlike most antelopes, their population densities can be high. The pairs reside in territories of 2-4 hectares, which both male and female stoutly defend against rivals. Other species appear to be polygamous and live in large territories (up to 80 hectares).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, the animals are generally calm. However, both males and females can be aggressive toward unfamiliar individuals of their own species. In an enclosure, one male can serve several females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large glands, located beneath each eye, exude a scent that is rubbed onto fences, trees, and other objects as territorial marking. In another form of marking the horns are rubbed against tree trunks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, duiker meat is much sought in many African countries, and the animals are regularly hunted. The meat is lean with little or no intramuscular fat (marbling). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers also have promise as experimental animals. They are true ruminants, with four-part stomachs, and they produce cud. Some are only rabbit size, they need far less room or feed than sheep, and thus are potentially an efficient test animal for determining the nutritional value of forages. Blue duikers, for instance, have a digestion efficiency comparable to that of sheep, but, because of their small size, a test needs only four rabbit cages and 5-10 kg of feed. Sheep, by comparison, require much more spacious facilities and 150 kg of feed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Nigeria, blue duiker pelts are used in making karosses, a traditional dress. A single garment may contain up to 60 pelts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost nothing is known about rearing duikers, but they seem to tame easily and perhaps may be kept in backyards like goats. Indeed, they reportedly make good house pets when hand raised. They are attractive, and from the day of capture young ones can be handled and petted.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Nigerian researchers who bred blue duikers to the fourth generation bottle-fed young specimens five times a day. Older animals were given feeds that included banana, plantain, and papaya; leaves of hibiscus, cassava, and banana; and dried corn. Variety seemed to be important, and the researchers could not predict the quantity of particular foods the animals would choose on any given day. In addition to varied vegetables, a small dish of salt or a salt lick was sometimes required.6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are unlikely to run away, except when startled. However, providing an enclosure is worthwhile. It enables them to establish a territory by marking poles, bushes, and fences. Although needing space in which to run, as little as 10 m&Yacute; is reportedly sufficient for 24 animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Satisfactory shelters include an open-ended oil drum laid on its side, a lean-to made of palm frond, or a small hut made of local matting. Apart from providing shade and protection, shelters should be built so that excited animals can run through them. When cornered, duikers tend to either flee for shelter or jump upwards; a run-through shelter can prevent a frightened one from accidentally leaping over the fence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Based on their own experiences, researchers at Pennsylvania State University in the United States report that blue duikers raised in captivity are easy to maintain, reproduce well, and are not fussy about environmental conditions. In fact, they say, blue duikers seem to enjoy living in cages.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In order to raise duikers successfully, post-pubertal males must be separated. A female should be bred with the same male throughout her productive life span.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE BLUE DUIKER</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In one sense, the blue duiker is the most important animal in Africa. It is the only one found throughout the continent south of the Sahara. It occurs at a greater range of altitudes than most - as low as sea level in many places to almost 5,000 m elevation in Kenya. It occurs in habitats from dense rainforests to dryland savannas. And, in sub-Saharan Africa as a whole, the blue duiker is eaten more than any other animal (although in West Africa it is generally called Maxwell's duiker).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This very small antelope, caught by snare or net, can be found in the meat markets of villages, towns, and cities in all countries from Senegal to Madagascar. It is a source of food for tens of millions. Bushmen, Pygmies, Dinkas, and Mandingos, thousands of miles apart; all share the same fondness for duiker meat and for duiker-skin clothes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, scientifically speaking, this is one of the world's least-known animals. And its numbers are diminishing rapidly. Areas that used to have plenty now have few or none. Overhunting and destruction of the rainforests are jointly contributing to their decline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the losses, people are snaring as many as they can, and there is no sense of concern - not even among most conservationists. However, in many locations there is already evidence that the animals won't be around much longer. Unless something is done - and soon - people will lose their major source of animal protein. If that happens, it is likely that they will move on to larger animals, such as gorillas, which would be an even worse disaster.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best long-term solution is to organize duiker husbandry. Learning to rear duikers would benefit people throughout Africa. The blue duiker is the most suitable species; it is the most common and the most important. Also, it inhabits the edges of the forest and could therefore become a suitable species for ranching without denuding the forest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blue duikers are easy to maintain in captivity. They tame readily and like to shelter and sleep In boxes or cages. They are good converters of vegetation and produce top-quality lean meat. In addition, they are neither affected by tsetse flies nor are very susceptible to diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key now is to learn how to keep these very timid creatures under different conditions. We need to know their foods (especially foods that might be harvested from forests) and reproductive biology. We need to know the right numbers to house together. Most of all, we need projects aimed at rearing and breeding them in captivity under village conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vivian J. Wilson</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many African countries already have a ready market for duiker meat. It is somewhat similar to goat meat, but most people agree that it is superior.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal can live on fibrous vegetation. Unlike conventional ruminant livestock, it is suitable for feeding an average family at one meal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ability to forage in undergrowth where other domestic livestock do not thrive makes duikers potential livestock for tropical forest and bushland regions. They can be raised for meat without cutting the trees or bushes to create pastures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are easy prey for predators: eagles, pythons, wildcats, and people, among others. Thus, they probably require more sophisticated management than common livestock such as goats. However, the quality of their meat could more than compensate for the extra effort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some species are territorial, which means that they may do poorly in captivity, unless their social organization can be altered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under good conditions, the ideal slaughtering age reportedly occurs at 8-10 months, when the blue duiker can weigh 4 kg. Compared to rabbits and guinea pigs, production is relatively slow because of long gestation and lack of multiple births.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are resistant to trypanosomiasis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One general problem is that duikers have short, sharp horns designed specifically for jabbing. This could be a potential danger, especially since the males of some species become aggressive when their females are receptive. However, the horns can easily be clipped and taped to limit the danger. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the duikers' secluded lifestyle, much has still to be learned about their habits. Specific information on behavior and breeding is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal scientists in Africa should gather small herds for comparative studies. This will provide insights into whether duiker temperaments facilitate or hinder their utilization. In addition, assessments of diet, growth rates, behavior in captivity, reproductive rate, adaptability, and future potential can be made. Management considerations include clipping horns, trimming hooves, and controlling lice and fleas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research of particular value would be chemical analysis of duiker milk and of other characteristic glandular secretions. The latter lend themselves especially to a study of animal communication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parming duikers might help rescue the wild populations by relieving hunting pressures. Programs in this area are recommended for locations where overhunting is occurring. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g036a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">32 Other Small Antelope</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g037a.png"></center><br>
+ Klipspringer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The least known and most obscure of all antelope are the delicate African creatures called dikdik, suni, royal antelope, pygmy antelope, and klipspringer. The smallest is a West African form of the royal antelope that stands a mere 25 cm high and weighs less than 2 kg. The four-horned antelope of South Asia is a similarly tough, tractable animal that is also the size of a small dog.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None of these has previously been seriously considered for use as livestock, but they are possibly amenable to rearing in captivity and they provide some of the finest game meat in the world. Given New Zealand's experience with various deer species (see page 288) and Africa's experience with large antelopes, basic research to test out the possibility of organized dwarf-antelope production could prove to be rewarding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The areas where these antelopes might be used are sub-Saharan Africa for the African species and South Asia for the four-horned antelope.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these animals, some, such as the pygmy antelopes, have a crouched appearance with an arched back and short neck; others have a more upright posture with a long neck and a raised head. In all species, the males are smaller than the females and bear tiny spikelike horns. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collectively, these antelopes have native ranges covering huge areas of Africa and part of Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dikdik: Six species occur in two discontinuous distributions - one from Somalia and Ethiopia southward through Kenya and Tanzania, the other in Namibia and Angola. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sunis: Eastern Africa, from Kenya to South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Royal antelope: West African forests. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pygmy antelope: Central Africa from southeastern Nigeria to Zaire. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Klipspringer: Ethiopia to the Cape of Good Hope. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four-horned antelope: India. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many forms are protected by local laws, but none of the species is on the international endangered-species list.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals occupy habitats from dense, moist forests to dry, rocky outcrops and even to deserts. Their ranges have almost certainly been affected by humans - sometimes for the better, since many prefer the secondary growth that invades disturbed areas, notably after overgrazing or slash-and-burn agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although dikdik and klipspringer usually frequent dry areas with scattered brush, the other dwarf antelopes normally stay in dense vegetation. All seem to live in definite areas and do not migrate. For instance:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Dikdik live near streambanks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Sunis inhabit dry country with thick bush, but they can also be found in reed scrub along rivers and in forests up to 3,000 m elevation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Klipspringers live on stony mountain slopes, rocky outcrops' or the sides of steep gorges at altitudes from sea level to 4,000 m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Four-horned antelopes live in undulating or hill country and shelter in tall grass and open jungle, a terrain more common to deer than to antelope. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of these antelope browse on shrubs. They are "concentrate selectors," taking easily digested vegetation such as buds, fruit, and succulent young leaves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also, most obtain much of their water requirement from dew and the vegetation they consume. Klipspringers, for example, are able to live for months without drinking. Sunis and four-horned antelope, on the other hand, drink regularly and seldom live far from water sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known of the reproduction and general performance of these animals. Females become sexually mature at about 6 months in the smaller species and 10 months in the larger. Males become sexually mature at about 14 months. The young are born throughout the year, but births peak with the vegetation flush following the first rains. Where there are two rainy seasons a year, two birth peaks occur. Usually a single calf is born. Dikdik is the only one whose reproduction has been studied in detail. Its pregnancy lasts 172 days, one young is born at a time, and the birth weight is 600-800 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their longevity is unknown but is probably in the range of 10-12 years.l</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These tiny creatures have some of the habits of deer. They are shy and elusive and generally rely on concealment to escape detection. Their first response to a predator is to freeze, and then to flee like hares - dashing off in a series of erratic, zigzag leaps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They live alone, in pairs, or in small family groups, but sometimes congregate in larger groups in thorn thickets. The species that have been studied most (dikdik and klipspringer) are strongly pair bonded. (A male, a female, and one or two young is typical, and a klipspringer rarely moves more than 5 m from its mate.) However, the royal and pygmy antelopes and the suni are more solitary in their behavior. Four-horned antelope are usually seen alone or in pairs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals feed mostly in the early morning and late afternoon Some species deposit dung and urine on particular sites. And they repeatedly daub secretions from glands in front of the eyes onto plant stems, where a sticky mass accumulates. Glands near the hooves mark the ground along frequently traveled pathways. Males also mark females with the scent, thus reinforcing the bond. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The four-horned antelope has a whistling call, which helps keep the family group together. Males repeat it frequently in hot weather. Gestation is 8-8.5 months. If taken young, they reportedly tame easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Much more research needs to be done before attempts are made to convince anyone to domesticate these antelope. There are likely to be considerable difficulties. Guinea pigs, rabbits, and giant rats can successfully be kept in cages or small enclosures, but most antelope probably cannot. Larger enclosures will be needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The food habits and general behavior of these small animals must be studied closely. They are strictly monogamous, and it may be necessary to keep them in pairs. Reproduction, growth, and general performance must become understood under different environmental and nutritional conditions. Mixing species is another aspect to be examined - whether these antelope can be kept with other species in the same enclosure (typical of livestock farming in most poor nations) is not known.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To settle such questions, representative species of microantelope should be gathered for comparative assessment. Researchers should focus on the animals' social structure, on husbandry methods for maintaining them over generations, and on how best to breed them. If the findings are promising, then a campaign to domesticate these antelope could be mounted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout most of their ranges these animals are highly sought "bushmeats." The meat is lean and of extremely high quality. In Zaire's Ituri Forest, for example, pygmies net and kill large numbers of pygmy antelope, hanging the carcasses on sticks by the roadside for sale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their small size, these species might make good laboratory animals for ruminant studies. The dikdik, for instance, becomes a fully functioning ruminant at a body weight of about only 1.5 kg.2 However, their digestive physiology is quite different from that of cattle, sheep, and goats, which makes them atypical ruminants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given organized production, it is likely that dwarf-antelope pelts could become commercially important. North Africa exports the hides of medium-size antelopes to Europe for use in fine sueded leathers. Hides of the small species would almost certainly be in demand as well if a steady supply could be obtained as a by-product of meat production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microantelope provide some of the finest game meat. They are small and perhaps tractable. Most are already widely eaten and are being eliminated over broad areas of their range. Turning them into a sustainable, economic food source could provide motivation for their conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These antelope can digest, and are adapted to, the indigenous forage over vast areas of Africa and South Asia. They are native to tropical habitats, where cattle and other livestock often grow poorly. They also appear to be resistant to trypanosomiasis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some African peoples (for example, the Kalahari Bushmen) have superstitions or social injunctions that prohibit the eating of some of these species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small antelope are probably not as efficient as larger ruminants in digesting fiber: the retention time in the rumen may be too short. On the other hand, quickly digestible cell walls of lush green plants can be used efficiently.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The territorial behavior of most of these species may limit their rearing in large numbers under captive conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, preliminary research on dwarf antelope husbandry is required. Specifically, studies should be conducted to assess:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Growth rates, feed efficiency, and reproductive rate;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Carcass quality;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Economics and the likely cost of production per animal unit; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Studies of digestion.4 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The few statistics available today on the use of wildlife as food are probably much below actual consumption. Most food consumption surveys record food obtained by hunting or trapping under the indiscriminate heading of "Bushmeat" and neglect to include the many small animals that are normally collected by children. In Africa, an amazing variety of wildlife is eaten, including all wild ungulates, primates, all cats, and many species of birds and reptiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization Ceres magazine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All the world's people must begin to overcome in themselves - and even more so in their children - senseless taboos about what is edible and what is not. Only then can we stop today's universal animal-protein wastage. How ironic it would be, in this scientific age, for mankind to starve largely because of a bunch of old wives' tales, irational beliefs, silly associations, and the lack of a sufficient spirit of culinary and gustatory adventure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calvin W. Schwabe Unmentionable Cuisine </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguana is really good, a thousand times better than chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Omero Asinto, waiter Pochote Bar and Restaurant</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barranca, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part VI : Lizards</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large lizards have been important foods since prehistoric times and are still commonly hunted in parts of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.1 Some (such as the monitor lizards seen in markets in Indochina) are carnivorous species that may be difficult to feed and raise economically. However, the iguanas of the Americas offer promise as microlivestock. They are herbivorous and feed primarily on leaves, flowers, and fruits, including many that are too high in the trees to be gathered by man or by other livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguana meat is popular throughout much of Latin America, where consumers willingly pay more for it than for fish, poultry, pork, or beef. To fill the demand, several iguana species are hunted by rifle, slingshot, trap, and noose; they are even run down by trained dogs. Villagers (often small children) catch them for food for the family; professional hunters snare and sell them to vendors. Iguanas are hauled around in gunny sacks and wicker baskets by car, boat, horseback, and people on foot. In parts of El Salvador they have been known to arrive at the market by the truckload.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a result of this indiscriminate hunting, iguanas are now steadily becoming more scarce, and the destruction of their habitat makes the situation even worse. At present, many parts of Latin America's tropical forests are being cleared. The green iguana in particular depends on trees, and as forests disappear its populations are destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, iguanas are forest-edge species: they will grow well on ranches and farms as long as patches of trees are left standing. This offers the hope that they can be raised as microlivestock. They reproduce so prolifically that, in principle, populations can build up exponentially. Mature females, for example, may produce 30 or more eggs a year for up to 10 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past few years, a notable research program in Panama and Costa Rica (see page 351) has laid the practical foundation for iguana farming. It has artificially incubated and raised thousands of green iguana hatchlings. With less than half a square meter of living space per animal, the hatchlings have grown as fast or faster than their wild counterparts. Unlike their kin in the wild - which in their first year of life suffer 95 percent mortality from birds, snakes, and other predators the captive-raised iguanas show almost 100 percent survival. This research project demonstrates that ranching iguanas both for food or for repopulating depleted habitats is feasible. In addition, experimental projects for farming green iguanas have begun in Curacao and El Salvador.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As livestock, lizards have advantages. Being cold-blooded they do not carry human diseases (except for those such as salmonella that result from gross mismanagement). They can be kept in captivity in fairly high densities without diseases breaking out. Although often aggressive in the wild, they coexist in dense populations with few problems as long as they are well fed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is an important conservation component as well. Farming these lizards may help check and may even reverse the downward trends of their populations by allowing large numbers to be released back to the wild at a size that inhibits predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three alternatives for utilizing iguanas:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To manage wild stocks as game animals;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To raise iguanas on farms, like chickens and pigs; or</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To raise young iguanas in captivity and then release them into the wild where they can grow to full size and later be harvested on a sustainable basis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the green iguana has so far received the most attention, two other Latin American species are in farming trials. Black iguanas (garrobos) are being raised experimentally in El Salvador and Costa Rica. And the omnivorous tegu lizard, which produces a valuable leather, is beginning to be farmed in Argentina and is briefly described opposite. Both iguana species are described in the following chapters. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TEGU</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tegus (Tupinambis rufescens and T. teguixin) are large lizards of South America. They are highly prized for their skins, which are made into leather for handbags and similar items. Tegus are heavily exploited; on average, Argentina exports over one million skins a year - about $15 million worth. The 50-year-old tegu industry is estimated to support as many as 30,000 people, including tannery employees and people in rural areas who hunt the lizards full- or part-time. Poor agricultural conditions make farming difficult in the Chaco, and sale of a single tegu skin is worth more than a day's wages for a farmband. Some families also eat the tegu meat and use the fat for medicinal purposes. In many areas, the populations have already been driven to the verge of extinction. Husbandry, therefore, could be beneficial. Traders are hoping that captive operations run by families can eventually replace hunting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although usually associated with the arid regions of northern Argentina and Paraguay, the tegu's range actually covers much of South America - as far north as Colombia, including Trinidad and the Amazon basin. One species (T. rufescens) normally occurs in a dryland habitat, such as Argentina's Chaco region. It can occur in great numbers in pastures, probably because of the insects associated with cattle. But it also occurs in areas that are unsuitable for cattle. Some places where tegus are common are so dry that they can carry only a single cow in 10 hectares. There, farmers might find it profitable to raise tegus. This would maintain the native biological diversity while perhaps reducing the soil degradation that cattle cause.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other species (T. tegubixin) occurs in wet forests, such as those found in Argentina's Formosa Province.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tegus are scientifically interesting. Little is known about their biology, and basic studies are needed. They are not much eaten, but in some areas the tail is considered a delicacy. Indeed, deteriorating economic conditions are already making them more important as a food resource. Convincing campesinos that they can increase their cash income and their meat production by rationally exploiting these large lizards should not be difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable exploitation could also benefit tegu conservation. Large populations still exist in some areas in Argentina and Paraguay, but, overall, the species are declining. A welldesigned management project could ensure the maintenance and reestablishment of large populations where numbers have drastically decreased. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">33 Green Iguana</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g038a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the green iguana (Iguana iguana) is consumed throughout Central America. It is already subject to heavy commercialization and its populations are plummeting. This is not likely to change: as human population increases, so does demand for iguana meat and eggs as well as for live iguanas, thousands of which are kept as house pets. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its herbivorous diet, inoffensive nature, and high reproductive potential, this reptile is a prime species for intensive management. Alert, curious, and social, it is easily tamed from birth. Given minimal protection during the reproductive season, large populations can build up, and animals can be maintained in simple facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, although iguanas can be maintained as microlivestock, they may require three years to reach market size. Raising them to maturity entirely under captive conditions is thus probably uneconomic at present, when specimens can still be inexpensively (albeit often illegally) harvested from the wild. However, it has been found that if released into the wild, most will remain in nearby trees, especially if people erect simple feeding stations and keep them stocked with table scraps or weedy vegetation. This makes for very low-cost production during the years of waiting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given such findings, iguana farming has a promising future. With research, growth rates can undoubtedly be increased and maintenance costs reduced. Also, iguanas are becoming more valuable each year. Even now, farming them could be economic in some areas where wild iguanas are scarce, especially if the young are released into forested sites when they have grown to a size where mortality is low.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although green iguanas will happily graze pastures, they need trees. Iguana farming, therefore, provides a way to keep tropical forests standing while still providing people with meat and income. By growing lizards, farmers don't have to fell the forests to create space for growing food crops or cattle. Iguana farming thus gives an economic incentive to preserve the beleaguered tracts of remaining trees. It may even render reforestation economically attractive. And it may promote the use of shelterbelts and contour strips of trees in cattle-ranching areas. Today's researchers estimate that 200-300 kg of meat can be produced per year per hectare from iguanas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The green iguana can grow to more than 2 m long, but more than half of that length is in its whiplike tail. Adults of breeding size generally weigh 2-4 kg. The scaly skin is green, yellowish, or golden brown with dark markings; color is a function of age and reproductive stage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This large lizard is indigenous to a vast region stretching from Mexico to northern Brazil and Peru, including a number of Caribbean islands. In Mexico, it occurs in tropical forests along both coasts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green iguanas were formerly abundant throughout Central America, but no longer. In the mangrove forests along Mexico's Pacific coast, for instance, only 5 percent of the former population remains. In Guatemala's Pacific lowlands, mere remnants are left. In El Salvador's jungles, the animals have declined to 1 percent of their former density. And in both Panama and Costa Rica, the species is now officially classified as endangered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The green iguana usually lives near water in tropical lowland forests. It thrives only as long as some trees remain. The forests may be either humid or seasonally dry. The animal normally inhabits the treetops, feeding on tender shoots and fruits in the canopy; few other herbivores can convert such forest foliage into food for humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like cattle and other herbivorous mammals, iguanas have a specialized digestive system with an enlarged fermentation chamber in which bacteria break down plant cells. Vegetation is converted into meat about as effectively as in cattle, but not as quickly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After reaching sexual maturity, at 2 or 3 years of age, females lay one clutch of 10 85 eggs each year. (For most specimens the average is probably about 35.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p349a.png"></center><br>
+ Native habitat of the green iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are generally slow moving and lethargic when cold, but during the heat of the day they become extremely alert and can run, swim, and climb with speed and agility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They have a complex social structure and a defined annual reproductive cycle. Hatchlings adapt easily to captivity both when artificially incubated and when captured in the wild. However, captured adults, used to living free, are hard to keep in small enclosures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green iguanas are used mainly for food. The meat tastes somewhat like chicken and in Latin America is typically cooked in a spicy stew. The eggs are also consumed. Small and leathery shelled, they are considered special delicacies and are said to cure various ailments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a sizable demand for live iguanas in the international pet trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exploitation has been mainly for the flesh; the skins are wasted in most cases. However, given organized production, green iguana skin could perhaps become a farm by-product. It sells in the international reptile-leather market under the trade name "chameleon lizard." The hide is typically up to 20 cm wide. Thin and relatively fragile, it is glued to a fabric or cowhide backing to prevent it from tearing. The prime uses are for ladies' accessories, belts, wallets, and shoes. It is inappropriate for uses that involve flexure because the scales overlap and repeated flexing causes them to separate. The skin then becomes rough to the touch and loses its glossy finish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IGUANA MAMA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The program that now offers hope for raising green iguanas as microlivestock is the brainchild of zoologist Dagmar Werner. She began in 1983 by collecting 700 iguana eggs and then learning what to do with them "on the job."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through a combination of luck and intuition, coupled with determination, she discovered appropriate conditions for incubating the eggs on the first try - no less surprising because her incubators (dirt-filled wooden boxes warmed with light bulbs) were in an apartment in a high-rise building in Panama City. Nonetheless, most of the eggs hatched and the several hundred squirming young lizards were quickly trucked to a forest park near the Panama Canal. Here, for five years, assisted by a steady stream of enthusiastic Panamanian biology students, Wemer experimented with cages, feeds, facilities, breeding genetic selection, and the myriad aspects of management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These dedicated researchers eventually devised what might be considered a production line, and they hatched and raised tens of thousands of green iguanas, reduced the animals' infant mortality rate, and created the basic underpinnings for economic production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1988, administration for the project was shifted to neighboring Costa Rica, where Werner established another research farm as well as a fund-raising foundation. From there, she hopes to catalyze all Central America to take up iguana production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Her immediate goal is, paradoxically, to preserve the lizards by putting an iguana in every pot. That will help reduce the indiscriminate hunting that is taking these animals toward extinction in the wild.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Her system is based on setting up feeding stations in the woods and releasing iguanas at seven months, an age at which they are virtually immune to predators. Iguanas need trees, and her ultimate goal is to help save the vanishing rainforests. With profitable iguana farming, she hopes to persuade farmers to save the trees as homes for iguanas, rather than clearing them for crops and cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Iguana management and an international marketing system will protect, rather than exterminate, the iguana," Werner says. "I don't think iguana farming will stop deforestation. But I do think it will contribute a great deal." </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The iguana farming project in Panama and Costa Rica (see sidebar) provides a model for what might be done elsewhere. In its first five years of operation, the project raised more than 10,000 green iguanas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To create the farms, enclosures are constructed with sheet-metal wails sunk 30 cm in the ground.' Inside, the animals sleep in shelters made of bamboo and vegetation. Each shelter has an adjustable entrance slit through which young lizards can slither, but predators, which usually are larger, cannot. Most are set on stilts and food is served in the shade underneath. With this system, from 20 to 60 young iguanas are kept in an area of 10 m&Yacute; (0.5-0.17 m&Yacute; of land area per individual). In another "high-intensity" design, 30 hatchlings are kept in cages I m&Yacute; in size (only 0.05 m&Yacute; per individual).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The iguana farms also include an artificial nest consisting of a "tunnel" leading to a sand-filled egg-laying chamber. (Both tunnel and chamber are made of concrete blocks or other predator-safe material.) Female iguanas (at least in captivity) prefer this to digging their own tunnels, and it is an important advance in iguana breeding because it produces a hatching success of close to 100 percent. Recent versions require no human intervention: the eggs incubate and hatch by themselves and the hatchlings climb out of the nest through a hollow bamboo "pipe" and fall into plastic bags, which can be easily emptied twice a day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The iguanas are fed mixtures of broken rice meal, meat meal, bone meal, fish meal, papayas, bananas, mangos, avocados, and a variety of leaves and flowers. Each day they receive fresh-cut leaves from plants such as beans, mustard, or hibiscus. Hatchlings are raised to an age of 6-10 months, when they are big enough to be released into forests, farmland with scattered trees, or into village backyards with almost no vulnerability to predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With each female producing an average of 35 eggs annually, these animals have inherently high reproductive potential. And if the young are protected from predators during their first few months, populations can build up rapidly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguanas adapt well to second-growth forest and to backyard conditions and can feed on the leaves of fruit trees or timber trees while the farmer can harvest the fruits or wood. Unless grossly overstocked, they are unlikely to affect the productivity of the trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These lizards may take three years to reach marketable size,2 and the cost of raising them to usable size entirely in captivity is currently greater than their market value as food. Less-expensive methods of raising the animals must be found if large-scale commercial iguana farming is to become economically feasible. The main problem is the high cost of the enclosures, not the cost of food. The food costs no more than that for raising a chicken to marketable size, but iguanas do not grow as fast as chickens. For smallholders the only cost of raising them is labor, and that is often unimportant. Free-ranging herbivorous lizards can damage home gardens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For conservation purposes, the main need is to educate people throughout Latin America to the iguana's plight. For example, in Central America people catch pregnant females and cut out the eggs for food. (There is a widespread misconception that the females survive this brutality.) This is devastating to the iguana populations, yet by installing artificial nests, farmers could let the females live and still harvest the eggs. Moreover, people could eat half the eggs and incubate the other half to repopulate the trees around their farms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also important to develop an understanding of iguana reproduction in the wild. At present, the longevity, growth rate, and age of sexual maturity are not well known. Such information would provide baseline data for creating conservation measures to reverse the depletion of this natural resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further husbandry research is needed. Costs must be reduced. The effectiveness of artificial nests must be tested in village practice. Survival rates of captive-raised young after release must be studied. And harvesting and recruitment schemes should be developed to secure optimum exploitation of the repopulated forests. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">34 Black Iguana</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g039a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work on green iguana husbandry may apply also to the black iguanas' (Ctenosaura similis, C. acanthura, C. hemilopha, and C. pectinata). These are similar lizards that live in dry habitats throughout Central America </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exploitation of wild black iguanas for food began in ancient times and has continued in most places over hundreds of years without much harm to the natural populations. Until the 1970s, Latin Americans could obtain the meat and eggs with little effort, and the animals sold cheaply in city markets. In recent years, however, the lizards have become scarce and prices have risen sharply. For instance, in 1976 the central market of San Salvador was selling large specimens for the equivalent of 80 cents, but by 1979 prices were generally from three to six times as much. Today, black iguana meat costs more than fish, poultry, pork, or beef.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eating small game animals is deeply rooted in the traditions of Central America and cannot readily be changed by legislation or education. Despite official edicts, campesinos on a subsistence diet will not willingly forego the little meat they get by capturing and eating lizards. Moreover, legislation is seldom effective because there are too few enforcement officials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with the green iguana, it seems likely that when the factors causing hatchling mortality are reduced, a large harvestable annual surplus can be produced. Black iguanas efficiently convert vegetation into high-grade protein suitable for human consumption. Young ones, however, are insectivorous and carnivorous rather than purely herbivorous, and during their first weeks of life may require a more expensive diet (perhaps meat scraps) than green iguanas require. Moreover, most insectivorous lizards require moving prey. They may or may not accept meat scraps as food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black iguanas are smaller and more stocky than green iguanas, but weigh up to 3 kg. Their tails are spiny and short. The scales on the tail are enlarged, grow in spirals, and are sharp-pointed. Other than that (apart from being generally greyish black in color), the two animals are similar in appearance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The different black iguana species range from northern Mexico along both coasts of Central America to Panama and Colombia's Caribbean islands. Most tolerate moderate human presence well, often thriving around town garbage dumps and cemeteries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As recently as 1981, black iguanas were shipped to markets by the truckload. Today, they are generally limited or even absent over much of their original range. Nevertheless, they are still the major game animals across extensive areas of Central America. Many of those taken are gravid females, which is disastrous for the populations. Excessive insecticide spraying is also thought to be reducing their populations in some areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black iguanas thrive in dry, open woodland. They particularly like rocky hillsides, for they depend for shelter on crevices, rock piles, or soft soil in which they dig burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These omnivores feed on foliage, flowers, and fruits, but also on insects and small vertebrates. Adults spend some of their time climbing trees, but they are much less arboreal than green iguanas. Hatchlings are initially terrestrial but have a mostly arboreal stage in their early weeks of life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females lay one clutch of 20-90 eggs each year. The eggs are much smaller than those of the green iguana and therefore are not as popular a food. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p357a.png"></center><br>
+ Distribution of the black iguana.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These lizards live in burrows or in holes in trees. A typical burrow has several entrances and is 1-2 m long. Several females may combine efforts to form a complex communal burrow with several individual nest chambers. They are such diligent diggers that many are caught while absorbed in the task of adding a new room.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some places, even where they are not common, black iguanas are still intensively hunted. Because their meat is valuable, the reward justifies the considerable effort involved in finding and killing them. Hence, where populations are so depleted that organized hunting is unprofitable, the animals are still subjected to relentless destruction by individuals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farming black iguanas is a novel idea. However, it is not a foolish one. In 1981 the Centro de Recursos Naturales (CENREN) in El </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Salvador started a black iguana farming project. Since then, its researchers have collected data on growth rates, feeding patterns, and the maintenance and reproduction of captive adults. The program offers some promise of maintaining breeding stock in large outdoor enclosures, of producing large numbers of hatchlings, and of restocking depleted areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OTHER IGUANAS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other iguanas that deserve consideration for husbandry include the rock (rhinoceros) iguana (Cyclura cornuta), a herbivorous lizard of the Antillean region. This has been raised in considerable numbers at the National Zoo of Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. Captive-bred specimens have reproduced at the age of 32 months, average clutch size has been about 15, and the average incubation time has been 82 days (at 31&Yacute;C). The innate tameness of these island iguanas renders them better adapted for captive rearing than either the green or the black iguana, and their greater size is an advantage as well. On the other hand, the length of time required to reach maturity, and the relatively small egg clutch (about half that of the green iguana and one-third that of the black iguana) are definite disadvantages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A related species, Iguana delicatissima, also deserves research and conservation attention. It occurs in the Leeward Islands and Martinique, and (as its specific name implies) is even better eating than the green iguana.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latins believe that various ailments are cured or benefited by the flesh of these lizards, so they willingly pay much more for their meat than they would for equivalent amounts of other meats. In most places where the two occur together, the black iguana is preferred over the green iguana.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with green iguana, the black iguana reproduces readily in captivity and has an even higher reproductive potential (averaging 43 eggs per clutch). It has the additional advantage that it thrives in deforested and altered habitats. It can survive near human settlements despite the attacks of dogs and cats, and it attains dense populations in suburban lots or open spaces. (It survives even downtown in cities such as Managua, but not in dense populations because dogs, cats, and humans take so many.) Hence, even in towns and cities, there are habitats capable of supporting it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black iguanas will feed on weedy vegetation or garbage, and adults seem easier to maintain in captivity than their green iguana counterparts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The long delay (probably at least two years) before the animals reach marketable size might make it difficult for the grower to compete with common meats such as poultry or fish. Certain parasitic worms can make the flesh inedible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although smaller than green iguanas, black iguanas are much more aggressive and will defend what they perceive to be their territory. They can inflict a painful bite. They also tend to escape from captivity more readily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, these omnivores depend on animal matter during part of their life cycle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biology of the black iguana deserves much more study.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management techniques developed for the green iguana should be tested for their applicability for black iguana species. Harvesting and recruitment schemes must be developed to create sustainable populations in the wild. The specific needs for feeding the young also need to be addressed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I am convinced that in the Third World, it is only when poor people are assured of their livelihood that they will help us to safeguard their natural environments. So long as people remain hungry, it is very difficult to talk to them about conservation. As a result, I believe that development and conservation are inseparable. Only when conservation takes on a dimension of helping the poor, the downtrodden, the destitute, will it have an enduring impact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.S. Swaminathan International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I suspect that wildness is an inherited characteristic as was found for the turkey by Starker Leopold. So in attempting domestication one should expect to have difficulty until there are enough animals that you can select breeding stock for quietness and tractability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ian McTaggart Cowan Emeritus Professor of Zoology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of British Columbia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle will never be extinct for the simple reason that man eats cattle. The best way to preserve wild species is by demonstrating that they, too, can be a valuable resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ernie Matteram</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York Times Magazine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife utilization should be considered a legitimate form of land use, just as much as livestock husbandry. In fact, what has happened in the past is that Man has domesticated a limited number of animals, mainly in the temperate zones, while overlooking a considerable potential of other animals, which could be domesticated or used with equal validity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antoon De Vos </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part VII Others</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted in the preface, this report by no means exhausts all the microlivestock possibilities. Lack of space and time precludes discussion of creatures such as edible insects, snails, worms, frogs, turtles, and bats, which in some regions are highly regarded foods. Similarly, we have not included fish, shrimp, and other aquatic life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not to say that these are less worthy of consideration. The decision to leave them out was arbitrary, but with several recent breakthroughs in tropical beekeeping it seems prudent to include bees. Accordingly, the final chapter of this book describes the smallest livestock of all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bees are one of the most promising microlivestock. They forage on flowers that are otherwise little utilized and produce honey, wax, and other products of high value. They are important as plant pollinators and can greatly increase the production of some crops. Bees can be kept virtually anywhere with little disruption of other activities, and they are easily available. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">35 Bees</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g040a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of all the livestock reviewed in this publication, bees are the smallest, the least demanding of space, probably the most familiar, and perhaps the most easily adapted to worldwide rural development efforts. For all that, however, they are an often forgotten component in agricultural programs. This is unfortunate because bees can be particularly valuable to tropical countries, providing pollination of crops, useful products, and a premium source of income.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost every village in every tropical country traditionally has had a beekeeper or two. Most use "seat-of-the-pants" methods and "rustic" hives, and this generally leads to low yields and inefficiencies. Today, numerous innovative methods and appropriate equipment are coming available. Many are still not widely known; however, their importance is slowly being recognized. Indeed, some developing countries are already turning bees into a valued natural resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, in less than 10 years Kenya has become self-sufficient in honey production and - despite increased local consumption - is now exporting. In seven years, Papua New Guinea has met its local honey requirements and now also exports its surplus. In only four years, Thailand increased yearly production from practically nothing to more than 1,000 tons. In Brazil, beekeeping is more widespread and production greater than before the outbreak of the African honey bee. These achievements can be largely attributed to the promotion of innovative equipment, modern beekeeping techniques, and extension support for small-scale beekeepers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees are generally easily recognized and need no description here. The major species and subspecies are all roughly similar in appearance and size. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among several hundred species of bees that store honey and pollen in harvestable amounts, only two "social" species, Apis mellifera and Apis cerana, produce multiple combs and can be kept in hives.' Given adequate forage and proper management, they can build up a honey surplus that can be harvested without harming their colonies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apis mellifera, the most widely distributed and exploited honey bee, comes from Europe and Africa. The subspecies from Europe (especially the Italian type, A. mellifera ligustica) is normally preferred because of its docility and high honey yields. It is now the predominant honey bee throughout the temperate zones of Europe, North America, Australasia, and China. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the many subspecies in Africa, A. mellifera adansonii and A. mellifera scutellata have the widest native ranges. The latter was accidently released in Brazil in 1957. It has become naturalized and has dominated the European bees formerly kept by beekeepers. By l990, it had spread northwards to the southernmost areas of the United States and southwards deep into Argentina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The docile Asian hive bee, A. cerana, is found in Asia from the Middle East to Japan and as far south as Indonesia. Although it produces much less honey per hive than A. mellifera, its overall production in many Southeast Asian countries may be greater.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees do not face extinction. However, genetic diversity is disappearing due to loss of habitat, insecticides, displacement by massproduced, genetically uniform queens and exotic breeds, destructive harvesting, and the spread of diseases and pests such as protozoans, bacteria, insects, and mites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees can exist in locations from deserts to rainforests and from near the Arctic to the tropics. They occur wherever there is nectar, pollen, tree resin (for nest building), shelter, and a little water. Heat, drought, and especially rain and humidity may curtail their activities, but a well-managed colony can survive periods of extreme adversity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees live in rigidly hierarchical colonies. Normally there is a  single queen. After mating, she begins laying hundreds of eggs a day.  Those that are fertilized become sterile females, called workers; those  that remain unfertilized develop into males (drones), whose only role is  to fertilize future queens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After two or three years the queen, worn-out, starts laying fewer  and fewer eggs, and the colony may replace her. At that time a few  female larvae are raised on royal jelly, a nutritious, little-understood  secretion that causes them to develop into queens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Workers perform different tasks as they mature. Young ones tend  the queen, guard the hive, and raise the larvae. Older ones, comprising  the vast majority of a colony's population, gather pollen and nectar and  water. Pollen provides the protein and fats, and the nectar, converted  into honey in the bee's body, provides carbohydrates to feed the colony.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bee activities are dictated by weather, availability of food,  genetics, and the overall strength of the colony. They are mediated by  chemical interactions between the queen and the workers that control  almost all behavior.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the Asian and European hive bees are relatively docile, most  of the African subspecies are unpredictable and may defend their  colonies in great numbers and with great persistence. The threat of  "killer bees" has been greatly exaggerated, however. Africans have  provided them nests and hives - and harvested their honey - for  thousands of years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Occasionally, large numbers of the bees in a colony split off from  their nest or hive. They usually cluster on a nearby tree or building,  calmly waiting for "scouts" to find a suitable new home. These  homeless swarms can be captured and will readily move into a hive  the simplest and cheapest way for beekeepers to acquire a colony.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey and beeswax are two of nature's best known and most  valuable products. Honey can be employed in hundreds of foods. It is  widely used in baking because, in addition to its flavor, it retains  moisture better than sugar or syrup, and the product keeps longer. Honey-based alcoholic beverages are popular in many parts of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beeswax also is used in many products, including candles, lubricants, polish, waterproofings, soaps, cosmetics, and electronics. Beeswax can be locally important for `'lost-wax" metal-casting and sculptures as well as batik-dyed clothing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both bee pollen and royal jelly are used in cosmetics and can be eaten. Bee venom is used medicinally, particularly in Europe and the developing world. Bee larvae are eaten raw or fried in many parts of Asia and Africa and are considered a delicacy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keeping bees means managing a colony so that it produces surplus honey or wax. Specifically this requires:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Providing a suitable hive;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Obtaining bees by collecting a swarm, transferring a wild colony, or purchasing a colony complete with an active queen;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Maintaining the colony free from natural enemies in an area that allows it to produce excess honey; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Harvesting the excess honey without weakening the colony or causing it to flee (abscond).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Few other livestock enterprises require less capital, less space, or less attention. Moreover, scarcely any other provides higher quality, more marketable products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beekeeping is a respected and traditional activity in most areas of the world. It promotes self-reliance and requires little, if any, land or money. It is an easy-entry cottage industry that can be started with minimal equipment or training. It can be done by any member of a family as it requires no special strength or size. It is especially appropriate for increasing women's income in the many areas where men are away working.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beekeeping is suited to remote areas where many agricultural enterprises are at a competitive disadvantage because their products are bulky and far from the markets. Honey, wax, pollen, and other bee products can all be sold far from their point of origin, have high monetary value for their weight, and generally find a ready market. Local honeys often command premium prices (in part because many of them are considered medicinal). In addition, beekeeping encourages people to remain in rural areas rather than move to the city in search of an income.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pollination increases the productivity of many crops, and therefore a few hives can boost local food production. By rotating hives among farmers' fields and orchards, a beekeeper performs a valuable service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beekeeping is also an important adjunct to reforestation and desert reclamation projects. It can provide income during the long wait for the trees to reach marketable size. Many forests are potential reservoirs of honey and other products. In some cases, the bees also enhance the fruitfulness and standing value of forests. They also increase pollination in tree-seed orchards and tree nurseries. And in newly established forests, bees improve reseeding potential. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BETTER BEEHIVES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So many hives have been developed in recent years that a design now exists for almost any level of expertise. One of the most important for Third World beekeeping is the top-bar hive. This crate-like box, derived from an ancient Greek design, incorporates modern beekeeping principles but adds the innovation of sloping sides. Beneath its lid are removable boards (top bars) from which the bees hang the combs (because the sides are sloping the bees do not attach the edges of the comb to them). By lifting a top bar, the comb can be inspected and handled - and the honey harvested - with little disturbance to the colony.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This simple hive can make beekeeping accessible to even the poorest people. It is easy to build and use, and can be locally constructed from scrap lumber. It is well suited for raising most types of honey bees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More elaborate and productive is the African long hive. In addition to having top bars, this square-sided box has removable frames within which the bees build their comb.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most elaborate is the Langstroth hive - the type most common in temperate zones.* These yield the most honey. They can be made only where there are facilities for precise carpentry, where durable, nonwarping parts are available, and where there are good extension services to aid and assist beekeepers. Although traditional Langstroth hives are demanding to build and maintain, simplified designs have been created for use in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STINGLESS BEES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By far the most common bees in the tropics, perhaps in the  world, are bees that cannot sting. Their stingers are so akophied  as to be essentially nonexistent (but some can deliver a pretty  fierce bite). They live in colonies and store their honey in wax  pots, some as large as egg cups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stingless bees can be abundant. In a two-block area in  downtown Panama City, 150 nests have been counted. However,  many species depend on trees and their populations are  plummeting as more and more tropical forests are felled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like honey bees, stingless bees have been "domesticated." For  thousands of years in the tropical Americas, Indians have raised  them in special hives made out of logs, gourds, clay pots, and  other simple containers. Cortes reported in 1519 that Indians on  the island of Cozumel, the now popular tourist spot off the east  coast of Yucatan, practiced beekeeping. That was almost 300 years  before the European honeybee was introduced. A popular Mayan  drink was honey wine, and Mayan beekeepers carved stone  earplugs to keep these bees out of their ears.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey from stingless bees has less sugar than normal honey.  However, it is usually more tasty. It is used throughout the  tropics: the Americas, Central Africa, and Southeast Asia, for  instance. Normally, the nests are just robbed, which devastates  the bees because the queen cannot fly, and when she is disturbed  the colony dies. In some areas people open a little hole in the nest.  By putting in a plug, they can then harvest honey a couple of  times a year without destroying the colony.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, a few scientists are reconsidering stingless beekeeping.  In the state of Maranhao in Brazil, an area of crushing poverty,  biologist Warwick Kerr is harnessing stingless bees. He began  after learning that peasants were spending a third of their meager  incomes buying sugar. As part of his experiments, he keeps 60  hives stacked in his garage on the outskirts of the city of San Luis.  (A notable feature of these bees is that there is no prohibition  against keeping them in populated areas.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kerr has found that stingless bees can be made to produce well.  After years of experimenting with different-sized boxes, he can  now obtain more than 4.5 lifers of honey per hive per year. He  reports that the stingless bees are easy to maintain, and can be  raised by poor peoole without land or equipment.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared to raising four-footed livestock, beekeeping is inexpensive and fairly trouble free, but it is not without problems. Many things can go wrong, and include, for example:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Losses. Bees are susceptible to various predators, pests, and diseases. Although ways to avoid or control most afflictions are available, once a colony becomes infested it may have to be destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Theft. Hives or combs - usually kept in secluded areas - that are full of honey are tempting targets and may be stolen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Swarming and absconding. Some or all of the bees may leave a hive and start a new nest, taking even the honey with them.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Bad management. Beekeeping requires certain skills and knowledge, and sometimes frequent attention (such as when the colony is stressed, diseased, or swarming).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Lack of equipment. Beekeepers need hives, smokers (to quiet and repel the bees), hive tools, and - advisable but not absolutely necessary - gloves and a veil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Inadequate storage. Some areas lack the knowledge or the bottles in which to store liquid honey.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Pesticides and herbicides. Nectar- and pollen-collecting bees are vulnerable to insecticides, which farmers may apply (often inappropriately) at the time their crops are flowering. Herbicides can destroy important sources of bee forage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Neighborhood concerns. Bees can sting people and livestock. Although wild bees (and other insects) are the principal culprits, the beekeeper is often blamed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Stressful conditions. When rainfall, aridity, heat, or cold are excessive, bees often cannot produce surplus honey.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surprisingly, much remains to be learned about the natural science of bees. Although some of the research requires sophisticated equipment and facilities, much can (or must) be performed locally by beekeepers because many factors - such as colony behavior, foraging habits, and microclimatic adaptation - depend on the local conditions. This research may include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Adaptation. The provision of locally adapted bee varieties is an important basis for developing advanced beekeeping. This can be done by selecting an appropriate local queen. Further, local breeding of queens and workers lessens the probability of importing exotic diseases and pests. Recent developments promise to move the mass production of queens and workers from the realm of high technology to common practice.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Integration. Continued developments in beekeeping cannot succeed without research, promotion, education, training, and extension services. These are essential for integrating beekeeping with agriculture and reforestation efforts. Thus, descriptions of agronomic plants should always include pollination requirements as well as nectar and pollen potentials. Planting nectar- and pollen-producing firewood species would increase the number of bees, which would in turn help ensure forest survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Bee plants. There is still much to be understood about the relative qualities that different plants bring to beekeeping. Recently, many valuable bee-forage plants have been identified.5 These deserve special consideration in any reforestation or beautification projects. Broad introduction of these plants may also encourage beekeeping that could produce high-value "specialty" honeys or ensure more continuous production of honey. There may also be a place for "bee farms," where every plant is bee forage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- New bee species. Nontraditional species of Apis as well as other members of the bee family (such as Anthophora, Bombus, Megachilae, Nomia, Osmia, Xylocopa, and especially Trigona and Melipona, which are stingless) should be studied to determine their role in pollination and - for some species - their further exploitation for honey. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A Selected Readings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A small selection follows of books and articles that are not too  difficult to locate and that will help readers explore each topic further. Obscure documents are accompanied by an address from which readers can obtain a reprint or photocopy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GENERAL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grzimek, B. 1975. Animal Life Encyclopedia. Vol. 1-13. Van Nostrand Reinhold  Company, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robbins, C.T. 1983. Wildlife Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICROBREEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. 1988. A World Dictionary of Livestock Breeds, Types and Varieties.  Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK. Microcattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barnard, J.P. and J.P. Venter. 1983. Indigenous and Exotic Beef Cattle in South West  Africa - A Progress Report. Available from Department of Agriculture and Nature  Conservation, PB 13184, Windhoek 9000, Namibia. (Sanga)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu. 1984. Livestock Breeds of China. FAO Animal Production and Health  Paper 46. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 217 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cole, H.H. and W.N. Garrett, eds. 1974. Animal Agriculture. 2nd edition. W.H. Freeman  and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Epstein, H. and l.L. Mason. 1984. Cattle. Pages 6-27 in Evolution of Domesticated  Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Felius, M. 1985. Genus Bos: Cattle Breeds of the World. MSD-AGVET, Merck and Co.,  Rahway, New Jersey. 234 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gryseels, G. 1980. Improving Livestock and Farm Production in the Ethiopian Highlands:  Initial Results. ILCA study. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa,  Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1979. Trypanotolerant Livestock in West and Central Africa. Vol. 1, General Study.  International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joshi, N.R. and R.W. Phillips. 1953. Zebu Cattle of India and Pakistan. FAO Agricultural  Study No. 19. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 297 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joshi, N.R., E.A. McLaughlin, and R.W. Phillips. 1957. Types and Breeds of African  Cattle. FAO Agricultural Study No. 37. Food and Agriculture Organization of the  United Nations, Rome. 297 pp. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Koger, M., T.J. Cunha, and A.C. Warnick, eds. 1973. Crossbreeding Beef Cattle. Series 2. University of Florida Press, Gainesville, Florida, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Martinez Balboa, A. 1980. La Ganaderia en Baja California Sur. Vol. 1. Editorial J.B. La Paz, BCS: Mexico. 229 pp. (Criollo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. and J.P. Maule. The Indigenous Livestock of Eastern and Southern Africa. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maule, J.P. 1989. The Cattle of the Tropics. Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Edinburgh University, Edinburgh, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McDowell, L.R., ed. 1985. Nutrition of Grazing Ruminants in Warm Climates. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McDowell, R.E. 1972. Improvement of Livestock Production in Warm Climates. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McDowell, R.E. 1983. Strategy for Improving Beef and Dairy Cattle in the Tropics. Cornell International Agricultural mimeo. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miller, W.J. 1979. Dairy Cattle Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council. 1980. Animal Science in China. CSCPRC Report No. 12. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council. 1981. Effect of Environment on Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perry, T.W. 1980. Beef Cattle Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rollinson, D.H.L. 1984. Bali cattle. Pages 28-34 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rouse, J.E. 1970. World Cattle. Vol. 1, Cattle of Europe, South America, Australia, and New Zealand. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rouse, J.E. 1970. World Cattle. Vol. 2, Cattle of Africa and Asia. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rouse, J.E. 1973. World Cattle. Vol.3, Cattle of North America. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rouse, J.E. 1977. The Criollo-Spanish Cattle in the Americas. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, USA. 303 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shirley, R.L. 1986. Nitrogen and Energy Nutrition of Ruminants. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thrower, W.R. 1954. The Dexter Cow. Revised third impression, 1980. The Spaulding Press, Bethel, Vermont, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G. and W.J.A. Payne. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Acharya, R.M. 1982. Sheep and Goat Breeds of India. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 30. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ademosun, A.A. 1985. Capra spp.: The Emblem of Anarchy - The King-Pin of Man's Pastoral Life. Ife Lectures No. 3. University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu. 1984. Livestock Breeds of China. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 46. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 217 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cole, H.H. and W.N. Garrett. 1980. Animal Agriculture. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copland, J.W. 1985. Goat Production and Research in the Tropics. Proceedings of a workshop held at the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, February 6-8, 1984. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) Proceedings Series No. 7, 118 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C. and M. Burns. 1983. Goat Production in the Tropics. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK. 83 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C. and G.L. McLeroy. 1983. Goat and Sheep Production in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London. 271 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C. and J.E. Owen. 1983. Quantitative and qualitative aspects of meat production from goats. World Animal Review (FAO) 47:19-29.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fielding, D. Goat-keeping in Mauritius. Sonderdruck aus Zeitschrift fur Tierzuchtung und Zuchtungsbiologie. Vol 97(1)(1980):21-27.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gall, C., ed. 1981. Goat Production. Academic Press, London. 619 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haenlein, G.F.W. and D.L. Ace. 1983. Goat Extension Handbook. University of Delaware Cooperative Extension Service, Newark, Delaware, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Husnain, H.V. 1985. Sheep and Goats in Pakistan. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 56. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Development Research Centre (IDRC). Small Ruminant Production Systems in South and Southeast Asia, C. Devendra, ed. Proceedings of a workshop held in Bogor, Indonesia, October 6-10, 1986, cosponsored by the Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Program. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1983. Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in Sheep and Goats, D.H. Hill, ed. Proceedings of the International Workshop held at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria, September 24-26, 1980. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1985. Sheep and Goats in Humid West Africa. Proceedings of the International Workshop held in Ibadan, Nigeria, January 23-26, 1984. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1979. Trypanotolerant Livestock in West and Central Africa. Vol. 1, General Study. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">King, J.W.B., ed. 1988. Directory of Research on Sheep and Goats. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux International, Wallingford, Oxford, UK. 271 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. 1981. Breeds. Pages 57-110 in Goat Production, C. Gall, ed. Academic Press, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. 1984. Goat. Pages 85-99 in Evolution of the Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. and J.P. Maule. 1960. The Indigenous Livestock of Eastern and Southern Africa. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council, 1980. Animal Science in China. CSCPRC Report No. 12. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W., R.G. Johnson, and R.T. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Goat Production and Disease. January 10-15, 1982, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona. Copies can be obtained from Kent Leach, Dairy Goat Journal, P.O. Box 1808, Scottsdale, Arizona 85252, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G. and W.J.A. Payne. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilson, R.T., T. Murayi, and A. Rocha. 1989. Indigenous African small ruminant strains with potentially high reproductive performance. Small Ruminant Research 2: 107-117.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Winrock International, 1984. Sheep and Goats in Developing Countries. Winrock International Technical Paper. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Acharya, R.M. 1982. Sheep and Goat Breeds of lndia. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 30. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carles, A.B. 1983. Sheep Production in the Tropics. Oxford University Press, London. 213 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu. 1984. Livestock Breeds of China. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 46. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 217 pp. Cole, H.H. and W.N. Garrett. 1980. Animal Agriculture. W.H. Freeman and Company,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Francisco, Calffornia, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C. and G.L. McLeroy. 1983. Goat and Sheep Production in the Tropics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Longman, London. 271 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitzhugh, H.A. and G.E. Bradford, eds. 1983. Hair Sheep of Western Africa and the Americas. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Husnain, H.V. 1985. Sheep and Goats in Pakistan. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 56. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. International Development Research Centre (IDRC). 1987. Small Ruminant Production Systems in South and Southeast Asia, C. Devendra, ed. Proceedings of a workshop held in Bogor, Indonesia, October 6-10, 1986, cosponsored by the Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Program. IDRC, Ottawa, Canada. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1983. Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in Sheep and Goats, D.H. Hill, ed. Proceedings of the International Workshop held at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria, September 24-26, 1980. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1985. Sheep and Goats in Humid West Africa. Proceedings of the International Workshop held in Ibadan, Nigeria, January 23-26, 1984. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1979. Trypanotolerant Livestock in West and Central Africa. Vol. 1, Ceneral </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Study. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">King, J.W.B., ed. 1988. Directory of Research on Sheep and Goats. Commonwealth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural Bureaux International, Wallingford, Oxford, UK. 271 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. 1980. Prolific Tropical Sheep. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 17. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, l.L.1967. Sheep Breeds of the Mediterranean. Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Nations. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. and J.P. Maule. 1960. The Indigenous Livestock of Eastern and Southern Africa. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK. Phillips, R.W., R.C. Johnson, and R.T. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ponting, K. 1980. Sheep of the World. Blandford Press, Ltd., Poole, Dorset, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ryder, M.L. 1984. Sheep. Pages 63-85 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ryder, M.L. 1983. Sheep and hIan. Monograph. Duckworth, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Terrill, C.E. 1970. Sheep breeds of the world. (505 breeds). USDA mimeo. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 163 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whitehurst, V.E., R.M. Crown, R.W. Phillips, and D.A. Spencer. 1947. Productivity of Columbia sheep in Florida and their use for crossing with native sheep. Florida Agricultural Experimental Station Bulletin 429. 34 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G. and W.J.A. Payne. 1965. An Introduotion to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilson, R.T., T. Murayi, and A. Rocha. 1989. Indigenous African small ruminant strains with potentially high reproductive performance. Small Ruminant Research 2: 107-117. Winrock International. 1984. Sheep and Goats in Developing Countries. Winrock International Technical Paper. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaltin, B.C. 1979. The Sheep Breeds of Afghanistan, lran, and Turkey. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Micropig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu. 1984. Livestock Breeds of China. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 46. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clutton-Brock, J. 1981. Domesticated Animals from Early Times. British Museum (Natural History), London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cole, H.H. and W.N. Garrett. 1980. Animal Agriculture. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, Calffornia, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cunha, T.J. 1977. Swine Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Epstein, H. and M. Bichard. 1984. Pigs. Pages 145-162 in Evolution of Domesticated </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Krider, J.L., J.H. Conrad, and W.E. Carroll. 1982. Swine Production. McGraw-Hill Company, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. and J.P. Maule. 1960. The Indigenous Livestock of Eastern and Southern Africa. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK. National Research Council. 1983. Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. National Research Council. 1980. Animal Science in China. CSCPRC Report No. 12. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panepinto, L.M. 1986. Miniature swine in biomedical research. LabAnimal 15(8)(November/December 1986):21-27.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panepinto, L.M., R.W. Phillips, L.R. Wheeler, and D.H. Will. 1978. The Yucatan miniature pig as a laboratory animal. Laboratory Animal Science 28(3):308-313.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W. and T.Y. Hou. 1944. Chinese swine and their performance compared with modern and crosses between Chinese and modern breeds. Journal of Heredity 35:365-79.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pond, W.G. and J.H. Maner. 1984. Swine Production and Nutrition. AVI Publishing Company, Westport, Connecticut, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G. and W.J.A. Payne. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POULTRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World's Poultry Science Journal is published 3 times a year by the World's Poultry Science Association, (c/o Institut f-r Kleintierzucht, Dornbergstrasse 25/27, Postfach 280, C-3100 Celle, Germany). It has also published a multilingual poultry dictionary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry, an international journal on poultry, is published by Misset International, a department of Uitgeversmaatschappij, C. Misset b.v., Doetinchem-The Netherlands. (Address: Misset International, P.O. Box 4, 7000 BA Doetinchem, Netherlands.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry Science is published monthly by the Poultry Science Association, Inc., 309 West Clark Street, Champaign, Illinois 61820, USA. British Poultry Science, a quarterly, is available c/o Longman Group Ltd., Subscriptions (Journals) Department, Fourth Avenue, Harlow, Essex CM195AA, UK. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicken</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attfield, H.H.D. 1990. Raising Chickens and Ducks. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, Arlington, Virginia, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crawford, R.D. 1984. Domestic fowl. Pages 298-311 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ensminger, M.E.1971. Poultry Science. Interstate Printers and Publishers, Inc., Danville, Illinois, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fielding, D. 1984. The silent scavengers. African Farming September/October 1984: 11-13.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Howman, K.C. 1980. Pheasants: Their Breeding and Management. K&amp;R Books, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Huchzermeyer, F.W. 1973. Free ranging hybrid chickens under African tribal conditions. Rhodesian Agricultural Journal 70:73-75.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latif, M.A. 1985. In-Depth Analysis on the Successful Experience of Poultry Production in Bangladesh. Report submitted to FAO-APHC Regional Animal Production and Health Office. FAD/UN, Bangkok, Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matthewman, R.W. 1977. A Survey of Small Livestock Production at the Village Level in the Derived Savannah and Lowland Forest Zones of South West Nigeria. M.Sc. thesis, University of Reading, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MTrat, P. 1986. Potential usefulness of the Na (Naked Neck) gene in poultry production. [Vorld's Poultry Science Journal 42:124-142.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nesheim, M.C., R.E. Austic, and L.E. Card. 1979. Poultry Production. 12th edition. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W., R.C. Johnson, and R.J. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sainsbury, D. 1980. Poultry Health and Management. Granada, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scott, M.L., M.C. Nesheim, and R.J. Young. 1982. Nutrition of the Chicken. M.L. Scott and Associates, Ithaca, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smith, A.J. nd. Supplementation for scavenging animals. Unpublished paper. Copies available from A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somes, R. 1984. International Registry of Poultry Genetic Stocks. BuDetin 469, University of Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Storrs, Connecticut, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Araucanian</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilhelm, G.O.E. 1965-1966. La Gallina Araucana (Gallus inauris castelloi 1914). Universidad de Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile, Boletia de Concepcion 40:5-26.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duck</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A film, Duck Farmingan Indonesian Tradition, is available from the CSIRO Film and Video Unit, 314 Albert Street, East Melbourne 3002, Victoria, Australia. Soundtrack is in English or Indonesian and it is available in 16 mm or VHS/Beta Video.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attfield, H.H.D. 1990. Raising Chickens and Ducks. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, Arlington, Virginia, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clayton, G.A. 1984. Common duck. Pages 334-339 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farrell, D. and P. Stapleton, eds. 1986. Duck Production, Science and World Practice. Proceedingsofaduckproductionworkshop, November 18-22, 1985, Bogor, Indonesia. Central Research Institute for Animal Science. Available from Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Nutrition, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia. 430 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holderread, D. 1978. The Home Duck Flock. The Hen House, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97330, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kingston, D.K., D. Kosasih, and I. Ardi. 1979. The Rearing of Alabio Dt~cklings -nd Management of the Laying Duck Flocks in the Swamps of South Kalimantan. Report No. 9. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Ciawi, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Petheram, R.J. and A. Thahar. 1983. Duck egg production systems in West Java. Agricultural Systems 2:75-86.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W., R.G. Johnson, and R.J. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sainsbury, D. 1980. Poultry Health and Management. Granada, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scott, M.L. and W.F. Dean. 1991. Nutrition and Management of Ducks. M.L. Scott of Ithaca, Publisher (P.O. Box 4464, Ithaca, New York 14852, USA)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Warren, A.G. 1972. Ducks and geese in the tropics. World Animal Review 3:35-36.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yi Yung and Yu-Ping Zhon. 1980. The Pekin duck in China. World Animal Review 34:11-14.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crawford, R.D. 1984. Goose. Pages 345-349 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1983. The Goose and its Possible Use for Controlling Weeds. Small Animals for Small Farms. GAN-I. FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Casilla 10095, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holderread, D. 1981. The Book of Geesea Complete Guide to Raising the Home Flock. Hen House Publications, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W., R.G. Johnson, and R.J. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soames, B. 1980. Keeping Domestic Geese. Blandford, London. 159 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USDA Extension Service. 1983. Raising Geese. Farmer's Bulletin No. 2251. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Warren, A.G. 1972. Ducks and geese in the tropics. World Animal Review 3:35-36.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Fowl</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many research papers have been published in French, Italian, Spanish, and Russian, but few in English.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ayeni, J.S.O. 1983. Studies of Grey Breasted Helmet Guineafowl (Numida meleagris galeata Pallas) in Nigeria. World's Poultry Science Journal 39(2):143-151.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belshaw, R.H.H. 1985. Guinea Fowl of the World. Nimrod Book Services, P.O. Box No. 1, Liss, Hampshire, UK. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blum, J.C., J. Guillaume, and B. Leclercq. 1975. Studies of the energy and protein requirements of the growing guinea-fowl. Br-ish Poultry Science 16:157-168.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cauchard, J.C. 1971. La Pintade. Henri Peladan, UzFs, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chemillier, J. 1984. L'Alimentation de la Pintade. F. Hoffmann-La Roche and Cie, 52, Boulevard du Parc, 92521 Neuilly-sur-Seine, Cedex, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux. 1968. Guinea Fowl Breeding and Managernent. Annotated Bibliography No. 85. The Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics, King's Buildings, Edinburgh 9, Scotland, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leclercq, B. 1982. Alimentation des Futurs Reproducteurs Pintades. Pages 101-111 in FertilitT et Alimentation des Volailles. I.N.R.A. Edit.7 Versailles, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leclercq, R. and B. Sauveur. 1982. L'alimentation des reproducteurs pintades. Pages 113-135 in FertilitT et Alimentation des Volailles, I.N.R.A. edit., Versailles, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lukefahr, S. Raising guinea fowl. Paper available from author, c/o International Small Livestock Research Center, Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University. P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. 1985. Small-scale guinea-few! production. Pamphlet 934. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (Publications), Lion House, Alnwick, Northumberland NE66 2PF, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mongin, P. and M. Plouzeau. 1984. Guinea-fowl. Pages 322-324 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I . L. Mason, ed. Longman, London .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USDA. 1970. Raising Cuinea Fowl. Leaflet No. 519. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clayton, G.A. 1984. Muscovy duck. Pages 340-344 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">De Corville, H. 1972. La Production du Canard de Barbarie. Copies available from Institut nacional de la recherce agronomique (INRA), Nouzilly, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farrell, D. and P. Stapleton, eds. 1986. Duck Production, Science and World Practice. Proceedings of a duck production workshop, November 18-22, 1985, Bogor, Indonesia. Central Research Institute for Animal Science. Copies available from D. Farrell, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffreys, M.D.W. 1956. The Muscovy duck. The Nigerian Field21(3):108-11.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kingston, D.J., D. Kosasih, and I. Ardi. 1978. The Use of the Muscovy Drrck for Hatching of Alabio Duck &Yacute;ggs in the Swamplands of Kalimantan. Centre Report No. 7. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Richet, M. 1985. La production du canard de Barbarie. Techniques Agricoles 3770.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abs, M., ed. 1983. Pltysiology and Behavior of the Pigeon. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hawes, R.O. 1984. Pigeons. Pages 351-356 in Evolution of Domesticated Anirnals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hollander, W.F. and W.J. Miller. 1981. Hereditary variants of behavior and vision in the pigeon. Iowa State Journal of Research 55(4):323-331.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Levi, W.M. 1965. Encyclopedia of Pigeon Breeds. T.F.H. Publications, Jersey City, New Jersey, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Levi, W.M. 1981. The Pigeon. 2nd edition revised. Levi Publishing, Sumter, South Carolina, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murton, R.K., R.P.J. Thearle, and J. Thompson. 1972. Ecological studies of the feral pigeon (Columba livia). 1. Population, breeding biology and methods of control. II. Flock behaviour and social organisation. Ecology 9:835-889.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Wisconsin. 1977. Pigeons. Bulletin 4-H 135. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USDA. 1963. Squab Raising. Farmers Bulletin No. 684. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bourquin, O. 1980. Biology of rhe Quail (Coturnix coturnix Linnaeus 1758). Ph.D. thesis, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, Republic of South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katoh, H. and N. Wakasugi. 1980. Studies on the blood groups in the Japanese quail: detection of three antigens and their inheritance. Developmental and Comparative Immunology 4:99-110.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kawahara, T. 1973. Comparative study of quantitative traits between wild and domestic Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Experimental Animals 22(supplement): 138-50.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marsh, A. Quail Manual. Marsh Farms, 7171 Patterson Drive, Garden Grove, Calffornia 92641, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Academy of Sciences. 1969. Coturnix (Coturnix coturnix japonica): Standards and Guidelines for the Breeding, Care, and Management of Laboratory' Animals. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail Production Technology. Leaflet No. 13/1982. Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar, India. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somes, R.G., Jr. 1981. International Registry of Poultry Genetic Stocks. Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Varghese, S.K. 1981. Coturnix Internationalat home and in the Caribbean. Poultry Science 60:1747.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Varghese, S.K. 1982. Coturnix production proves to be a profitable business. Poultry Science 61:1560.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Varghese, S.K. 1983. Processing and yield of coturnix (Japanese quail). Poultry Science 62:1517</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wakasugi, N. and K. Kondo. 1973. Breeding methods for maintenance of mutant genes and establishment of strains in the Japanese quail. Experimental Animals 22(Supplement): I 51 -9.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Woodard, A.E., A. Abplanalp, W.O. Wilson, and P. Vohra. 1973. Japanese Quail Husbandry in the Laboratory. Department of Avian Sciences, University of Calffornia, Davis, Calffornia 95616, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berg, R. and D. Halvorson. 1985. Turkey Management Guide. Minnesota Turkey Growers Association, 678 Transfer Road, St. Paul, Minnesota 55114, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crawford, R.D. 1984. Turkey. Pages 325-334 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ensminger, M.E. 1971. PoultryScience. InterstatePrintersandPublishers, Inc., Danville,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Illinois, USA. Sainsbury, D. 1980. Poultry Health and Management. Granada, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RABBITS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Rabbit Research Center has been established at Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA. It publishes the Journal of Applied Rabbit Research, whose purpose is to convey current research information to those with an interest in commercial rabbit production. The journal describes research conducted at the center and reviews rabbit research results reported in the world's scientific literature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Founded in 1976 in Paris, the World Rabbit Science Association (Typing House, Shurdington, Cheltenhem, Gloucestershire, GL51 SXF, UK) publishes a newsletter of coming events and chronicles the progress of rabbit farming in most countries of the world. Its aims are to facilitate the advancement of the various branches of the rabbit industry, disseminate knowledge, and study problems of production and marketing. Its members represent individuals and associations in 20 countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The American Rabbit Breeder's Association (1925 South Main Street, Bloomington, Illinois 61701, USA) has published a book, Guide to Producing Better Rabbits, which contains an abundance of information concerning management and diseases of the domestic rabbit. The organization also publishes a bimonthly magazine, Domestic Rabbit, that includes a great deal of updated information on rabbit raising.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asociacion Espanola de Cunicultura (Spanish Rabbit Science Association), Now, 23 08785 Ballbona d'Anoia, Barcelona, Spain, has a set of slides for training, covering breeds, handling, pathology, and commercialization.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Report of the Workshop on Rabbit Husbandry. Copies of this report are available free of charge from the International Foundation for Science, Sibyllegatan 47, S-114 42 Stockholm, Sweden. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Working Rabbit Literature Resources File. This materia, is directed at scientists working on some aspect of domestic rabbit research. It lists methods of computer searching for scientific reports in the world's scientific literature, various types of computer literature searches, including commerciaHy available ones, and government services. It a,so includes a list of prepared abstracts. The address is D.D. Caveny and H. L. Enos, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic Rabbit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ministry of Livestock Development. 1981. Rabbit Production. Kenya Ministry of Livestock Development. Copies can be obtained from the Agricultural Information Centre, P.O. Box 14733, Nairobi, Kenya.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attfield, H.H.D. 1977. Rabbit Raising. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, 1815 Lynn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Street, Arlington, Virginia 22209, USA. 90 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bennett, R. 1975. Raising Rabbits the Modern Way. Garden Way Publishing, Charlotte, Vermont 05445, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheeke, P.R. 1987. Rabbit Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheeke, P.R., N.M. Patton, S.D. Lukefahr, and J.I. McNitt. 1986. Rabbit Production. Sixth edition. The Interstate, Danville, Illinois, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1986. Cooking Rabbits. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,  Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1986. Self-Teaching Manual on Backyard Rabb- Rearing. Food and Agriculture  Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Latin America and the  Caribbean, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1986. Backyard Rabbit Rearing: Some Basic Husbandry Practices. Small Animals  for Small Farms. GAN-16. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,  Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schlolaut, W., ed. 1985. A Compendium of Rabbit Production. Gesellschaft f-r  Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) Publication No. 169. TZ-Verlagsgesellschaft mbH,  Postfach 36, D6101 Rossdorf, Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sicivaten, J. and D. Stahl. 1982. A Complete Handbook on Backyard and Commercial  Rabbit Production. CARE/Philippines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vogt, D.W. 1982. Raising Rabbits in Hawaii. Circular 499, Cooperative Extension  Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at  Manoa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agouti</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A report summarizing preliminary results in a captive-breeding project in Mexico is available from A. D. Cuaron (see Research Contacts for address).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deutsch, L.A., and G. Santos. 1984. Contribuitao pare o conhecimento do gOnero  Dasyproctareprodutao de cutiasentre cruzamente das espTcies Dasyprocta aguti,  Dasyprocta azarae e Dasyprocta fuliginosa. Congresso Brasileiro de Zoologia, II,  BelTm, 1984. Resumos. . .BelTm, SBZ/UFPalMPEC, p. 383-4/(Resumos 390). Copies  available from the authors, see Research Contacts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clark, M.M. and B.G. Galef, Jr. 1977. Patterns of agonistic interaction and space  utilization by agoutis, Dasyprocta punctata. Behavioral Biology 20:135-140.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopold, A.S. 1959. Pages 388-393 in Wildlife of Mexico. University of California Press,  Berkeley and Los Angeles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meritt, D.A., Jr. 1982. Bibliography of Dasyprocta (Rodentia). Brenesia 19/20:595-612.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meritt, D.A., Jr. 1983. Preliminary observations on reproduction in the Central  American agouti, Dasyprocta punctata. Zoo Biology 2:127-131.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morris, D. 1962. The behaviour of the green acouchi (Myoprocta pratti) with special  reference to scatter hoarding. Proceedings Zoological Society of London 139:701732.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smith N. 1974. Agouti and babassu. Oryx 12(5):581-582.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smythe, N. 1978. The Natural History of the Central American Agouti (Dasyprocta  punctata). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology No. 257. Smithsonian Institution,  Washington, D.C., USA. 52 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tribe, C.J., R. Leher, M.C.O. Doglio, M.I.L. Rebello, D.S. Mello, and E.M.M. Guimar es.  1985. Uma tentative de esclarecimento do uso de espato e estrutura social na cutia  Dasyprocta a. aguti (Rodentia). Pages 296-7 in Congresso Brasileiro de Zoologia, 12,  Campinas, 1985. Resumos. . .Campinas, SBZ/UNICAMP, 1985. (Resumo 614.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A capybara bibliography, Bibliograf a sobre Chiguires (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), is available from E. Gonzalez-Jimenez and JosT Roberto de Alencar Moreira (see Research Contacts for addresses).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aliaga Rodriguez, L. 1979. Produccion de Cuyes. Universidad Nacional del Centro del Peru, Puno.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baldizan, A., R.M. Dixon, and R. Parra. 1983. Digestion in the capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris). South African Journal of Animal Science 13(1):27-28.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gonzalez-Jimenez, E. 1977a. The capybara, an indigenous source of meat in tropical America. World Animal Review', 21:24-30.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gonzalez-Jimenez, E. 1977b. Digestive physiology and feeding of capybaras. Pages 167177 in Handbook Series in Nutrition and Food. Section G, Diets, Culture Media and Food Supplements, M. Rechcigl, ed. CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gonzalez-Jimenez, E. and R. Parra. 1975. The capybara, a meat-producing animal for the flooded areas of the tropics. Pages 81-86 in Proceedings of the Third World Conference on Animal Production, R.L. Reid, ed. Sydney University Press.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gonzalez-Jimenez, E. 1984. Capybara. Pages 258-259 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Macdonald, D.W., K. Krantz, and R.T. Aplin. 1984. Behavioural, anatomical and chemical aspects of scent marking amongst Capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) (Rodentia:Caviomorpha). Journal of Zoology (London) 202:341-360.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mones, A. and J. Ojasti. 1986. Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris. Mammalian Species 264: 1-7.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ojasti, J. 1968. Notes on the mating behavior of the capybara. Journal of Mammalogy 49:345-374.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ojasti, J. 1973. Estudio Biologico del Chiguire o Capybara. Fondo Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuaria, Caracas, Republica de Venezuela. 27 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zara, J.L. 1973. Breeding and husbandry of the capybara at Evansville Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 13:137-139.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Christen, M.F. 1978. Evaluacion nutritive de cuatro dietas mono especificas en la alimentacion del coipo (Myocastor coypus Molina 1782). Tesis. Faculty of Veterinary Science, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deems, E.F., Jr., and D. Pursley. 1978. North American Fur bearers. Maryland Wildlife Administration, Department of Natural Resources, Cheltenham, Maryland, USA. pp. 155.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CORFO. n.d. Pieles fieas. Especie coipos. Tomo 1, I! and III. Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murua, R., O. Newman, and J. Propelmann. 1981. Food habits of Myocastor coypus (Molina) in Chile. Pages 544-558 in Proceedings of rhe Worldwide Furbearer Conference, J.A. Chapman and D. Pursley, eds. Vol. 1. Worldwide Furbearer Conference, Inc., Frostburg, Maryland, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Willner, G.R. 1982. Nutria; Myocastor coypu. Pages 1059-1076 in Wild Mammals of NorthAmerica, J.A. Chapman and G.A. Feldhamer, eds. The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ajayi, S.S. 1975. Domestication of the African Giant Rat. Department of Forest Resources, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faturoti, E.O., O.O. Tewe, and S.S. Ajayi. 1982. Crude fibre tolerance by the African giant rat (Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse) (Potential sources of protein, Nigeria.) African Journal of Ecology 20(4):289-292.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faturoti, E.O., O.O. Tewe, and S.S. Ajayi. 1983. Effect of varying dietary oil levels on the performance of the African giant rat (Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse). Nutrition Reports International 27(3):525-530.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Den Hartog, A.P. and A. de Vos. 1973. The use of rodents as food in tropical Africa. Nutrition Newsletter (FAO) 11 (2):1-14.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Halcrow, J.G. 1958. The giant rat of East Africa. Nature (London) 181:649-650.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matthewman, R.W. 1977. A Survey of Small Livestock Production at the Village Level in the Derived Savanna and Lowland Forest Zones of South West Nigeria. Development Studies 24. Department of Agriculture and Horticulture, University of Reading, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tewe, O.O., S.S. Ajayi, and E.O. Faturoti. 1984. Giant rat and cane rat. Pages 291-293 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asibey, E.O.A. 1979. Some problems encountered in the field study of the grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus) population in Ghana. Pages 214-7 in Wildlife Management in Savannah Woodland, S.S. Ajayi and L. B. Halstead, eds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baptist, R. and G.A. Mensah. 1986. The Cane-RatFarm animal of the future? [Vorld Animal Review 60:2-6.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matthewman, R.W. 1977. A Survey of Small Livestock Production at the Village Level in the Derived Savanna and Lowland Forest Zones of South West Nigeria. Development Study 24. Department of Agriculture and Horticulture, University of Reading, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pich, S. and K.J. Peters. 1985. Possibilities of using the cane cutter for meat production in Africa. Unpublished manuscript. Copies available from K.J. Peters, Institute of Animal Breeding, Gottingen, Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tewe, O.O., S.S. Ajayi, and E.O. Faturoti. 1984. Giant rat and cane rat. Pages 291-293 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Let's Raise Guinea Pigs," a filmstrip on guinea pig farming, is available from World Neighbors International Headquarters, 5116 North Portland Avenue, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma73112, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aliaga Rodriguez, L. 1979. Produccion de Cuyes. Universidad Nacional del Centro del Peru, Huancayo, Peru. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aliaga Rodriguez, L. 1983. improvement of Guinea Pig Breeding as a Means of Increasing the Productivity and Production of Meat for Consumption oy the Rural Population in Peru. National University of Central Peru, Huancayo, Peru.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bolton, R. 1979. Guinea pigs, protein, and ritual. Ethnology 18(3):229-252.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Huss, D.L. 1982. Small animals for small farms in Latin America. World Animal Ret~iew (FAO) 43:24-29.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1982. The Guinea Pig and a Hypothetical Development Centre. Small Animals for Small Farms. FAO, Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loetz, E. and C. Novoa. 1983. Meat from the guinea pig. Span 26(2):84-86.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muller-Haye, B. 1984. Guinea-pig or cuy. Pages 252-257 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stansfield, S.K., C.L. Scribner, R.M. Kaminski, T. Cairns, J.B. McCormick, and K.M. Johnson. 1982. Antibody to ebola virus in guinea pigs: Tandala, Zaire. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 146(4):483-486.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anderson, S., C.A. Woods, G.S. Morgan, and W.L.R. Oliver. 1983. Geocaprornys brownii. Mammalian Species 201:1-5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Canet, R.S. and V. Berovides Alvares. 1984. Ecomorfologia y rendimiento de la jutia conga (Capromys pilorides Say). Poeyana 279:1-19.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Canet, R.S. and V. Berovides Alvares. 1984. Reproduccion y ecolog~a de la jutia conga (Capromys pilorides Say). Poeyana 220:1-20.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Howe, R., and G.C. Clough. 1971. The Bahamian hutia Geocapromys ingrahami in captivity. international Zoo Yearbook 11:89-93.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Johnson, M.L., R.H. Taylor, and N.W. Winnick. 1975. The breeding and exhibition of capromyd rodents at Tacoma Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 15:53-56.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W.L.R. 1977. The hutias (Capromyidae) of the West Indies. International Zoo Yearbook 17:14-20.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W.L.R. 1985. The Jamaican hutia or Indian Coney (Geocapromys brownii). A model programme for captive breeding and reintroduction? Symposium of the Association of British Wild Animal Keepers, 10:35-52. (Copies available from author, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rowlands, I.W., and B.J. Weir, eds. 1974. The Biology of Hystricomorph Rodents. Symposium of the Zoological Society of London, 34:1-482.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. and H. Genest. 1974. Le comportement social d'une colonide mares, Dolichotis patagonum Z. dans le Parc de BranfTrT. Zeitschrift fin Tierpsychologie 35:225-302.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taber, A.B. and D.W. Macdonald. 1984. Scent dispensing papillae and associated behaviour of the mare, Dolichotis patagonum (Rodentia: Caviomorpha). Journal of Zoology (London) 203:298-302. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paca</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A report summarizing progress in the captive-breeding project in Panama is available from Nicholas Smythe, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Box 2071, Balboa, Panama. A report summarizing preliminary results in the captive-breeding project in Mexico is available from Alfredo D. Cuaron, (see Research Contacts).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collett, S.F. 1981. Population characteristics of Agouti paca (Rodentia) in Colombia. Michigan State University, Publications of the Museum, Biological Series 5(7): 485-602.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matamoros, Y. 1982. Investigaciones preliminares sobre la reproduccion, comportamiento, alimentacion y manego del tepezcuinte (Cuniculus paca, Brisson) en cautiverio. Pages 961-992 in Zoologia Neotropical, Actas del VIII Congreso Latinoamericano de Zoologia, P.J. Salinas, ed. (Copies available from Y. Matamores, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcacha</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jackson, J.E. nd. Growth rates in vizcacha (Lagostomus maximus) in San Luis, Argentina. Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria, San Luis, Argentina. (Copies available from author, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Llanos, A.C., and J.A. Crespo. 1952. Ecologia de la vizcacha (Lagostomus maximus maximus Blainv.) en el nordeste de la provincia de Entre Rios. Revista de Investigaciones Agricolas (Buenos Aires) 6:289-378.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Rodents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butynski, T.M. 1973. Lffe history and economic value of the springhare (Pedetes capensis Forster) in Botswana. Botswana Notes Record 5:209-213.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butynski, T.M. 1979. Reproductive ecology of the springhaas Pedetes capensis in Botswana. Journal of Zoology 189:221-232.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butynski, T.M. 1984. Nocturnal ecology of the springhare, Pedetes capensis, in Botswana. African Journal of Ecology 22:7-22.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butynski, T.M. and R. Mattingly. 1979. Burrow structure and fossorial ecology of the springhare Pedetes capensis in Botswana. African Journal of Ecology 17:205-215.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kofron, C.P. 1987. Seasonal reproduction of the springhare, Pedetes capensis, in southeastern Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology 25.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rosenthal, M.A., and D.A. Meritt. 1973. Hand-rearing springhaas at Lincoln Park Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 18:206-208.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smithers, R.H.N. 1983. The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. University of Pretoria, Pretoria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Velte, F.F. 1978. Hand-rearing springhaas Pedetes capensis at Rochester Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 18:206-208. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEER AND ANTELOPE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Deer Farmer, a quarterly magazine, is published by the New Zealand Deer Farmers' Association, P.O. Box 2678, Wellington, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer Farming is the quarterly magazine of the British Deer Farmers Association (22 Levat Road, Inverness IV2 3NS, Scotland, UK).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaplin, R.E. 1977. Deer. Blandford Press, Poole, Dorset, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoffman, R.R. 1985. Digestion and feeding in deer: their morphophysiological adaptation. In Proceedings International Conference on Deer Biology and Production, eds. P.F. Fennessy and K.R. Drew. Royal Society of New Zealand Bulletin 22, Wellington, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fennessy, P.F. and K.R. Drew, eds. 1985. Biology of Deer Production. Proceedings of an international conference held February 13-18, 1983, Dunedin, New Zealand. Royal Society of New Zealand Bulletin 22, Wellington, New Zealand. Available from Royal Society of New Zealand, Private Bag, Wellington, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wemmer C., ed. 1987. The Biology and Management of the Cervidae. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yerex, D. 1982. The Farming of Deer. Agricultural Publishing, Box 176, Carterton, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kay, R.N.B. 1987. The comparative anatomy and physiology of digestion in tragulids and cervids and its relation to food intake. In The Biology and Management of the Cenvidae, C. Wemmer, ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1975. Le comportement du chevrotain africain, Hyemoschus aquaticus Ogilby (Artiodactyla, Ruminantia). Zeitschrift fdr Tierpsychologie 37:403-501.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1978. Un apertu sur l'Tcologie du chevrotain africain, Hyemoschus aquaticus Ogilby, Artiodactyle Tragulide. Mammalia 42:1-62.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralls, K., C. Barasch, and K. Minkowski. 1975. Behaviour of captive mouse deer, Tragulus napu. Zeitschrift Tierpsychology 37:356-378.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robin, K.P. 1979. Zum Verhalten des Kleinkantschils (Tragulus javanicus). Ph.D. dissertation, University of Zurich. (Copies available from K.P. Robin, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vidyadaran, M.K., M. Hilmi, and R.A. Sirimane. 1982. The gross morphology of the stomach of the Malaysian lesser mousedeer (Tragrrlus javanicus). Pertanika 5(1): 34-38.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vidyadran, M.K., S. Vellayan, and R. Karuppiah. 1983. Muscle weight distribution of the Malaysian lesser mousedeer (Tragulus javanicus). Pertanika 6(2):63-69. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wharton, D.C. 1987. Captive Management of Tragulids at New York Zoological Park. In Biology and Management of the Cervidae, C. Wemmer, ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anderson, J. 1981. Studies on digestion in Muntiacus reeves). M.Phil. thesis. Cambridge University. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barrette, C. 1977. The social behavior of captive muntjac Muntiacus reeves) (Ogilby  1839). Zeitschrift f-r Tierpsychologie 43: 188-213.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaplin, R.E. 1977. Deer. Blandford Press, Poole, Dorset, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chapman, D.I., N.G. Chapman, J.G. Mathews, and D.H. Wurster-Hill. 1983. Chromosome  studies of feral muntjac (Muntiacus sp.) in England. Journal of Zoology, London  201:557-559.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dansie, O. 1970. Muntjac. British Deer Society, Welwyn Garden City, England. 22 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1970. L'organisation spatiale et sociale de Muntiacus reeves) Ogilby 1839 en  semi-liberte. Mammalia 34:331-355.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1971. Observations Tthologiques sur le muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak  Zimmermann 1780 et Muntiacus reeves) Ogilby 1839) en captivitT et semi-libertT.  Zeitschrift fdr Tierpsychologie 28:387-427.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jackson, J.E., D.I. Chapman, and O. Dansie. 1977. A note on the food of muntjac deer  (Muntiacus reeves)). Journal of Zoology (London) 183:546-548.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lu Ho-gee and Sheng He-lin. 1984. Status of the black muntjac Muntiacus crinifrons, in  eastern China. Mammal Review 14(1):29-36.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oli, Madan K. 1986. Studies on stereotyped behavior of barking deer (Muntiacus  muntjak). M.S. dissertation, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhauvan  University, Kathmandu, Nepal. 84 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shi Liming, Ye Yingying, and Duan Xinsheng. 1980. Comparative cytogenetic studies on  the red muntjac, Chinese muntjac, and their Fl hybrids. Cytogenetics and Cell Genetics  26:22-7.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yonzon, Pralad B. 1978. Ecological studies on Muntaicus muntjack. Journal of Natural  History Museum (Nepal) 2(2):91-100.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1974. Feeding musk deer in captivity and collecting musk from the live  animal. Dongwuxue Zhazi, China 2:11-14.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1975. Preliminary experience in raising the survival rate of musk deer.  Dongwuxue Zhazi, China 1 :17-19.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bannikov, A.G., S.K. Ustinov, and P.N. Lobanov. 1980. The musk deer Moschus  moschiferus in the USSR. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural  Resources (IUCN), Gland, Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bi, S.Z., Y.H. Yan, Z.X. Qing, P.T. Sheng, Y.M. Wu, C.F. Chen, G.K. Yang, T.B. Yin,  and Y.J. Lu. 1980. Dissection and analysis of the musk gland of M. moschiferus and a  preliminary investigation into its histology. The Protection and Use of Wild Animals  (China) 1: 14-19.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green, M.J.B. 1978. Himalayan musk deer (Moschus moschiferus moschiferus). Pages  56-64 in Threatened Deer. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural  Resources (IUCN), Morges, Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green, M.J.B. 1985. The musk trade, with particular reference to its impact on the  Himalayan population of Moschus chrysogaster. In Conservation in Developir~g  Countries. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green, M.J.B. 1985. Aspects of the Ecology of the Himalayan Musk Deer. Ph.D.  dissertation, University of Cambridge, U.K. 280 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C.P. 1978. The taxonomy of Moschus, with particular reference to the Indian  Region. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 72:662-676.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holloway, C.W. 1973. Threatened deer of the world: conservation status. Biological  Conservation 5(4).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IUCN. 1974. Red Data Book: Mammalia. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), Morges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jamwal, P.S. 1972. Collection of deer musk in Nepal. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society 69(3):647-649.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seth, S.D., A. Muktiopadtiyay, K. Raghunatham, and R.B. Arora. 1975. Pharmodymamics of Musk. Central Council for Research on Indian Medicine and Homoeopathy, New Delhi, India.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zhang B. 1983. Musk-deer. Their capture, domestication and care according to Chinese experience and methods. Unasylva 35(139):16-24.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zhang, B.L., F.M. Dang, and B.S. Li. 1979. The Farming of Musk Deer. Agricultural Publishing Company, Peking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaplin, R.E. 1977. Deer. Blandford Press, Poole, Dorset, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cooke, A. and L. Farrell. 1983. Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis). British Deer Society Publication No. 2. Elvy and Gibbs, Canterbury, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feer, F. 1982. Quelques observations Tthologiques sur l'Hydropote de chine, Hydropotes inennis (Swinhoe, 1870) en captivitT. Zeitschrift fitr Saeugetierkunde 47: 175-185.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheng Helin and L. Housl. 1984. A preliminary study on the river deer (Hydropotes inermis) population of Shoushau Island (China) and adjacent islets. Acta Theriologica Sinica 4:161-166.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dittrich, L. 1972. Beobachtungen bei der Haltung von Cephalophus-Arten sowie zur Fortpflanzung und Jugendentwicklung von C. dorsalis und C. rufilatus in gefangenschaft. Zoologische Garten Lpz (N.F.) 42:1-16.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1980. L'Tcologie et la vie sociale du cTphalophe bleu (Cephalophus monticola Thunberg), petit ruminant forestier africain. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 54: 205-266.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R.l.M. and E.P. Dunbar. 1979. Observations on the social organisation of common duiker in Ethiopia. African Journal of Ecology 17:249-252.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R.I.M. and E.P. Dunbar. 1980. Animal Behaviour 28:219.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ketelhodt, H.F. Von. 1977. The lambing interval of the blue duiker, Cephalophus monticola Gray in captivity, with observations on its breeding and care. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 7:41-43.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralls, K. 1975. Agonistic behavior in Maxwell's duiker, Cephalophus max~elli. Marnrnalia 39:241-249.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schweers, S. 1984. The reproductive biology of the banded duiker Cephalophus zebra in comparison with other species of Cephalophus. Zeitschrift fur Saeugetierkunde 49(1):21-36.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whittle, C. and P. Whittle. 1977. Domestication and breeding of Maxwell's duiker. The Nigerian Field 42(4):13-21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antelope</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spinage, C.A. 1986. The Natural History of Antelopes. Christopher Helm, UK. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Klipspringer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R. and P. Dunbar. 1974. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 35:481-493.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R.I.M. 1979. Energetics, thermoregulation and the behavioural ecology of klipspringer. African Journal of Ecology 17:217-230.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R. I . M . and E. P. Dunbar. 1 980 . The pairbond in klipspringer. A nimal Beha vior 28:219-229.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dikdik</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hendricks, H. 1975. Zeitschrift fdr Tierpsychologie 38:55-69.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feer, F. 1979. Observations Tcologiques sur le neotrague de Bates (Neltragus bates) de Winton, 1903, Artiodactyle, ruminant, Bovide) du nord-est du gabon. Terre et vie 33: 159-239.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P.P. 1975. Acta Physiol. Scand. 95, 9A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P. P. 1 976 . Tritiated water turnover in Kirk' s dikdik, Madoqua (Rhynchotragus) kirk), Gunther, 1880. Zeischrift far Sadgetierkunde, Mitt. 24:318-319.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P.P. 1977. How to survive heat and aridity: ecophysiology of the dikdik antelope. Veterinary Medical Review 1:77-86.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P.P. 1977. Comparison of voluntary food and water intake and digestion in Kirk's dik-dik and suni. East African Wildlife Journal 15:41-48.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P.P. 1977. Rumen fermentation and body weight in African ruminants. Pages 141-150 in Proceedings 13th International Congress of Game Biologists, T.J. Peterle, ed. Wildlife Society, Washington, D.C., USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P. 1984. Strategies of digestion in African herbivores. Pages 222-243 in Herbivore Nutrition in the Tropics and Subtropics. F.M.C. Gilchrist and R.I. Machie, eds. The Science Press, South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hungate, R.E., G.D. Phillips, A. McGregor, D.P. Hungate, and H.K. Buechner. 1959. Microbial fermentation in certain mammals. Science 130:1192-1194.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morat, P. and M. Nording. 1978. Maximum food intake and passage of markers in the alimentary tract of the lesser mouse-deer. Malaysian Applied Biology 7:11-17.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yalden, D.W., M.J. Largen, and D. Kock. 1984. Catalogue of the mammals of Ethiopia. 5. Artiodactyla. Monitore Zoologico Italiano Supplemento 19:67-221.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIZARDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burghardt, G.M. and A.S. Rand, eds. 1982. Iguanas of the World: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Noyes, Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitch, H.S. and R.W. Henderson. 1977. Age and Sex Differences, Reproduction and Conservation of Iguana iguana. Milwaukee Public Museum Press. Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hirth, H.F. 1963. Some aspects of the natural history of Iguana iguana on a tropical strand. Ecology 44:613-615.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Klein, E.H. 1982. Reproduction of the green iguana (Iguana iguna L.) in the tropical dry forest of southern Honduras. Brenesia 19/20:301-310. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lazell, J.D., Jr. 1973. The lizard genus Iguana in the Lesser Antilles. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University 145(1):1-28.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamsitt, J.R. and D. Valdivieso. 1963. The herpetofauna of the Caribbean Islands San Andres and Providencia. Revista de Biologfa Tropical 11(2): 131- 139. (Copies available from C. LardT, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Van Devender, R.W. 1982. Growth and ecology of spiny-tailed and green iguanas in Costa Rica. with comments on the evolution of herbivory and large body size. Pages 162-183 in Iguanas of the World. Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Noyes, Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Werner, D. and T. Miller. 1984. Artificial nests for female green iguanas. Herpetological Review 15(2):57-58.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Werner, D. 1986. Iguana management in Central America. BOSTID Developments 6(1). 4 pp. (Available from BOSTID Publications, HA 476, National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burghardt, G.M. and A.S. Rand, eds. 1982. Iguanas of the World: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Noyes, Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitch, H.S. and R.W. Henderson. 1978. Ecology and exploitation of Ctenosaura similis. University of Kansas Science Bulletin 51 :483-500. (Copies available from the authors, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitch, H.S., R.W. Henderson, and D.M. Hillis. 1982. Exploitation of Iguanas in Central America. In Iguanas of the World: Behavior, Ecology, and Consen~ation. Noyes, Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iverson, J.B. 1979. Behavior and ecology of the rock iguana, Cyclura carinata. Bulletin of the Florida State Museum Biological Science 24(3):175-358.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Martinez, M.G. 1986. Habitos alimenticios de iguanas y garrobos. La Prensa Grafica, San Salvador, May 5:55. (Copies available from G. LardT, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sanchez, S.A. 1985. El garrobo. El Diario de Hoy, San Salvador June 18:36. (Copies available from G. LardT, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tegu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donadio, O.K. and J.M. Gallardo. 1984. Biologia y Conservacion de las Especies del GTnero Tupinambis (Squamata, Sauria Teiidae) en la Republica Argentina. Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales 'Bernardino Rivadavia" Zoologia, 13(11):117-127. Agosto.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Revision Bibliografica de algunos aspectos de la Biologfa conservacion y explotacion de los lagartos del gTnero topinambis (Daudin, 1803) by Laura Venturino, Dr. Thesis, Universidad de la Republic (Uruguay) 1983).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report to World Wildlife Fund, USA, Biologia y aprovechamiento de una poblacion de Tupinambis references, by Claudio Blanco and Leohor Pessina (1985).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the publications listed, many countries run beekeeping programs, and have literature and extension services available based on local experiences. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The International Bee Research Association (IBRA) publishes a Newsletter for Beekeepers in Tropical and Subtropical Countries twice each year. Its purpose is to provide a forum for exchange of information about beekeeping. The Newsletter is funded by the United Kingdom Overseas Development Agency (ODA) and is distributed free of charge to those in developing countries involved with beekeeping. Write to the International Bee Research Association, 18 North Road, Cardiff CFI 3DY, United Kingdom, for subscription information. The IBRA can also provide information on forthcoming conferences, grant programs, and the names of other beekeepers in your country. The International Agency for Apiculture Development (IAAD) publishes a quarterly newsletter called Cornucopia that contains articles from beekeepers around the world, especially from the developing world. It provides information on producing, selling, and manufacturing hive products on a local level and discusses agroforestry and the pest and pesticide problems of honeybees. Write to Cornucopia, c/o M. Coleman, 6N 909 Roosevelt Avenue, St. Charles, Illinois 60174, USA, for a free sample. Subscriptions are $12 a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adjare, S. 1984. The Golden Insect: a Handbook on Beekeeping for Beginners. Technology Consultancy Centre, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana, in association with Intermediate Technology Publications, Ltd., 9 King Street, Covent Garden, London, WC2 E8HN, UK. 103 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anderson, R.H., B. Buys, and M.F. Johannsmeier. 1983. Beekeeping in South Africa. Department of Agriculture BuHetin No. 394. Pretoria, South Africa. 207 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bradbear, N. and D. De Jong. 1985. The management of africanized honeybees. IBRA Leaflet No. 2. International Bee Research Association (IBRA). Available in English or Spanish from Hill House, Gerrards Cross, Buckinghamshire SL9 ONR, UK. 4 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clauss, B. 1982. A Beekeeping Handbook. Agricultural Information Service, Gaborne, Botswana. 65 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crane, E., P. Walker, and R. Day. 1984. Honey plants of the world. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1984. Proceedings of the expert consultation on beekeeping with Apis mellifera in tropical and sub-tropical Asia. 9-14 April, 1984. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Tropical Region, Paliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok, Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gentry, C. 1984. Small Scale Beekeeping. Manual M-17. Peace Corps, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IBRC. 1976. Apiculture in Tropical Climates. E. Crane, ed. Full report of the First Conference. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IBRC. 1982. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Apiculture in Tropical Climates. New Delhi, 1980. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IBRC. 1985. Proceedings of the Third international Conference on Apiculture in Tropical Climates. Nairobi, Kenya, November 5-9, 1984. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IBRC. 1988. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Apiculture in Tropical Climates. Cairo, Egypt, November 1988. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kigatiira, K.I. 1974. Hive Designs for Beekeeping in Kenya. Proceedings Entomological Society of Ontario 105:118-128.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McGregor, S.E. 1976. Insect Pollination of Cultivated Crop Plants. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 496. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 411 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Razafindrakoto, C. 1972. Beekeeping in Madagascar. UniversitT Paul-Sabaier de Toulouse, France. 123 pp. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sammataro, D. 1985. Beekeeping in the Philippines. 2nd edition. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sammataro, D. and A. Avitabile. 1986. Beekeepers Handbook. 2nd edition. Collier Books' MacMillan Co., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saubolle, B.R, and A. Bachmann. 1979. Beekeeping: an Introduction to Modern Beekeeping in Nepal. Sahayogi Prahashan, Tripureshwar, Kathmandu, Nepal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Silberrad, Roger E.M. n.d. Beekeeping in Zambia. Apimondia. Available through the International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, S. 1964. Beekeeping in India. Silver Jubilee Publication of the Entomological Society of India. Entomological Society of India, New Delhi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smith, Francis G. 1960. Beekeeping in the Tropics. Western Printing Service, Bristol UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Townsend, G.F. 1978. Preparation of Honey for Market. Ministry of Agriculture and Food Publication 544. Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Ontario, Canada.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Townsend, G.F. 1976. Transitional hives for use with the tropical African bee Apis mellifera adansonii. Pages 181-189 in Apiculture in Tropical Climates. E. Crane, ed. Full report of the First Conference. International Bee Research Association, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">B Research Contacts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section includes the names and addresses of individuals and institutions who are familiar with the animal listed. Each person has agreed to answer requests for information and advice. This personal follow-through is the main way this book can stimulate the development of microlivestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICROBREEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Ahunu, Animal Science Department, University of Ghana, P.O. Box 25, Legon, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Andres Poli, EEA San Luis INTA, CC 17, 5730 Mercedes (SL), Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.B. Bareeba, Department of Animal Science, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Bennett, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Berruecos V., School of Veterinary Medicine and Zoology, Universidad Nacional Aut6noma de MTxico, Ciudad Universitaria, Alvaro Obreg6n, 04510, Mexico D.F., Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cai Li, Animal Science and Veterinary Research Institute, Southwest College of Minority Nationalities, Chengdu, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), A.P. 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.L. Chan, B4-5 Nanyang Mansion, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Y. Cheneau, Institut d'Elevage et de MTdecine VTtTrinaire des Pays Tropicaux, Laboratoire de Farcha, BP 433, N'Djamena, Chad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.R. Cockrill, 29 Downs Park West, Bristol BS6 7QH, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.H. Conrad, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cunha, P.O. Box R, La Verne, California 91750, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.E. Deppner, Trees for the Future, 11306 Estona Drive, Silver Spring, Maryland 20902, USA (breeds of the Himalayas, East Indies)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Agriculture Food and Nutrition Sciences Division, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Tanglin P.O. Box 101, 9124 Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.l. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director, Agriculture and Forestry, PB 13184, Windhoek 9000, Namibia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.M.S. Duarte, Instituto de Investigatao Veterinaria, C.P. 7, Huambo, Angola</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Felius, Kerkhoflaan 47C, 3034 TA Rotterdam, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fleharty, American Dexter Cattle Association, R.R. #1, Box 378, Concordia, Missouri 64020. USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Garcia Lagombra, Animal Husbandry Department, Universidad Nacional "Pedro Henriquez Urena," Decanato Ciencias Agropecuarias, Km 5~/z Aut. Duarte, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Gebreab, College of Veterinary Science, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.F.W. Haenlein, Department of Animal Science and Agricultural Biochemistry University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19717-1303, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Z.B. Jensen, Animal and Dairy Science Research Institute, PB X02, Irene, Transvaal 1675, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jin Xizhen, Animal Science and Veterinary Research Institute, Southwest College of Minority Nationalities, Chengdu, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Kitsopanidis, Faculty of Agriculture, Aristotelian University of Thessaloniki, University Campus, Thessaloniki, Greece</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.E. Kodituwakku, Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.M. Konnerup, 74 North Sunrise Boulevard, Camano Island, Washington 98292, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.Y.L. Li, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, South China Agricultural College, Ghangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Loosli, 406 S.W. 40th Street, Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.B. Lwoga, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3000, Morogoro, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Martinez Balboa, Legaspy 1025, Apartado Postal 43, 23000, La Paz, Baja California Sur, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Masam, Livestock Training Institute, Tengeru, P.O. Box 3101, Arusha, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.P. Maule, Hannahfield Quarry House, 578 Lanark Road West, Balerno, Midlothian EH 14 7BN, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Mazid, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Aleppo, Aleppo, Syria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.R. McDowell, Department of Animal Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Morgan, College of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies, University of Juba, P.O. Box 82, Juba, Sudan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.B. Mpiri, Livestock Production Research Institute, Private Bag, Mpwapwa, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ni Shicheng, Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Zhejiang Agricultural University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Nikolov, Institute of Cattle and Sheep Breeding, 6000 Stara Zagora, Bulgaria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. Olson, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.W. Perry, Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Pirchner, Technical University of Munich, D-8050 Munich-Weihenstephan, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramamohana Rao, Postgraduate Studies, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soedomo Reksohadiprodjo, Department of Animai Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Sekip Blok N-42, Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.Y. Robles, Dairy Training and Research Institute, University of the Philippines at Los Banos, College, Laguna 3732, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sie Cheuxia, Department of Animal Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.D. Tillman, 523 West Harned Place, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.C.M. Trail, Livestock Productivity and Trypanotolerance Group, International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.C. Warnick, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.A. Adebowale, Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, University of Ife, Moor Plantation, P.M.B. 5029, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.A. Adeloye, Faculty of Agriculture, Adeyemi College of Education, Onjo, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.A. Ademosun, Department of Animal Science, University of Ife, lle-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.F. Adu, N.A.P.R.I., Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.A. Akinbode, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Akinsoyinu, Department of Animal Science, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Akonji, Institut de Recherches Zootechniques, Office National de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique (ONAREST), B.P. 65, Yaounde, Cameroon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baik Dong Hoon, Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture, Jeonbug National University, JEONJU, 520, Republic of Korea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S.F. Barker, Department of Animal Science, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Boateng, Cooperative Extension Service, University of the Virgin Islands, Box L, Kingshill, St. Croix, Virgin Islands 00850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.E. Bradford, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.S. Browne, Nutrition Consulting Services, P.O. Box 788, St. Thomas, Virgin Islands 00801, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.D. Bunch, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.C. Cartwright, Department of Animal Science, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), A.P. 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Agriculture Food and Nutrition Sciences Division, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Tanglin P.O. Box 101, 9124 Singapore, Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. Fitzhugh, Winrock International, Route 3, Petit Jean Mountain, Morrilton, Arkansas 72110, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.C. Foote, Utah State University International Sheep and Goat Institute, UNC 48, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.R. Gerona, Department of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.F.W. Haenlein, Department of Animal Science and Agricultural Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19717-1303, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Essa Haid, Essa International, Inc., 2550 M Street, Suite 405, Washington, D.C. 20037, USA (small East African)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Harding, Agrarian Society, Palazzo de la Salle, Valletta, Malta</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.A. Hasnath, Department of Animal Husbandry, Bangladesh Agricultural University, P.O. Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.S. Hoversland, Division of Research Grants, National Institutes of Health, 5333 Westbard Avenue, Bethesda, Maryland 20205, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Hulse, National Pygmy Goat Association, RFD #1, Fern Avenue, Amesbury, Massachusetts 01913, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.P. Husband, Department of Natural Resource Science, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, USA (bezoar, agrimi) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Hutchins, 2535 Halsted Road, Apartment 1, Rockford, Illinois 61103, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Iba+ez Herrera, Paraguay 160-Urbanizacion, Apartado 315, El Recreo, Trujillo, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Karam Shah, Livestock Experimental Station Rakh Khairewala, District Muzaffergarh, Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Katongole, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Makerere University, PO Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Kiwuwa, Department of Animal Science, Makerere University, PO Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.Y.L. Li, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, South China Agricultural College, Ghangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.R. Lincicome, Animal Parasitology Institute, U.S. Department of Agric£lture, Building 1180, BARC-East, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Chengxiang, Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science Research Institute, Guang^ dong Agricultural Academy, Guangdong, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Loosli, 406 S.W. 40th Street, Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Mahyuddin Dahan, Department of Animal Sciences, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C.H. Mandari, Livestock Research Centre, West Kilimanjaro, P.O. Box 103, Hai, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Mann, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University of Giessen, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Martinez Balboa, Legaspy 1025, Apartado Postal 43, 23000, La Paz, Baja California Sur, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Mecha, Department of Animal Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Anambra State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Metcalf, School of Medicine, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Khusahry Mohd Yusuff, Malaysian Agricultural and Research Institute (MARDI), G.P.O. Box 12301, Kuala Lumpur 01-02, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Monsi, Departments of Animal Science/Food Science and Technology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, P.M.B. 5080, Port Harcourt, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Montsma, Klomperweg 79, 6741 PD, Lunteren, Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Moore, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.M. Munyabuntu, Department of Animal Science, P.O. Box 7062, Makerere University' Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Th. Murayi, Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda, P.O. Box 138, Butare, Rwanda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.N.M. Mwenya, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Zambia, Box 32379, Lusaka, Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Nivyobizi, FacultT des Sciences Agronomiques, UniversitT du Burundi, BP 2940, Bujumbura, Burundi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Norman, Tropical Development Research Institute, 56/62 Gray's Inn Road, London WCIX 8LU, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Okello-Lapenga, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Makerere University, PO Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ramahefarison, DTpartement de Recherches Zootechniques et VTtTrinaires tCENRADERU), BP 904, Amatobe, Antananarivo, Madagascar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramamohana Rao, Postgraduate Studies, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.K. Rastogi, Department of Livestock Science, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad, West Indies </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Rasul, District Forest Officer &amp; Wildlffe Warden, P.O. Box 501, Gilgit (northern area), Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Rattner, Institute of Animal Research, Kibbutz Lahav, Israel (Sinai goat, ya-ez hybrids)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soedomo Reksohadiprodjo, Department of Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Sekip Blok N-42, Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Repollo, Jr., Palawan National Agricultural College, Aborlan, Palawan, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.Y. Robles, Dairy Training and Research Institute, University of the Pbilippines, Los Banos, Laguna 3732, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Rocha, Instituto de Reprodutao e Melhoramento Animal, C.P. 25, Matola, Mozambique</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Rodriguez, Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), Autopista Duarte Km 24, Apartado 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Nasim Siddiqi, Zoology Department, University of Peshawar, N.W.F.P., Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Shelton, Texas A &amp; M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA (criollo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Shkolnik, Department of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.C. Simpson, Cameroon Road, Prairie View A&amp;M University, Prairie View, Texas 77445, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sie Chenxia, Department of Animal Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People's Republic of Cbina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Wahome, Department of Animal Production, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Watts, Animal Science Department, Natural Resources Development College, Lusaka, Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Wood, Highland Game Farm, Route 4, Box 450, Alexandria, Indiana 46001, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.P. Husband, Department of Natural Resources Science, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microsheep</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.A. Adebowale, Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, University of Ife, Moor Plantation, P.M.B. 5029, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.F. Adu, N.A.P.R.I., Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.A. Akinbode, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Akinsoyinu, Department of Animal Science, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Amin, Jammu and Kashmis State Sheep and Shearing Products Development Board, Nowshera, Srinigar, Kashmir 190 011, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ahmad Mustaffa B. HJ. Babjee, Veterinary Services Department, Ibu Pejabat Perkhidmatan Haiwan, Kementerian Pertanian, Malaysia, Jalan Mahameru, Kuala Lumpur 10-02, Malaysia (grazing in rubber plantations)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S.F. Barker, Department of Animal Science, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, 2351, Australia (Indonesian breeds)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Boateng, Cooperative Extension Service, College of the Virgin Islands, Box L, Kingshill, St. Croix, Virgin Islands 00850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.E. Bradford, University of Calffornia, Davis, Calffornia 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Breckle, U.S. Forest Service, Alsea, Oregon 97324, USA (grazing sheep in forests)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. Bunch, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA (Iranian thin-tailed, Navajo, wild-sheep hybrids)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Carpio P., Departamento de Produccion Animal, Universidad Nacional Agraria, Apartado 456, La Molina, Lima, Peru </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), A.P. 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Cottrell, Pippin Farm, 3081 Goshen Road, Bellingham, Washington 98226, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Courtney, Veterinary Faculty, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Deller, Virgin Islands Department of Agriculture, St. Thomas, Virgin Islands 00820, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Dettmers, 5620 Longwood Avenue, Port Charlotte, Florida 33953, USA (West African dwarf)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Agricultural Food and Nutrition Sciences Division International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Tanglin P.O. Box 101, 9124 Singapore, Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.l. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Drew, Invermay Agricultural Research Centre, Private Bag, Mosgiel, New Zealand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. El Amin, Department of Animal Husandry, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Khartoum, P.O. Box 32, Khartoum North, Sudan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gholam-Hossein Erabi, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz, Tabriz 51664, Iran</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. Fitzhugh, Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development, Route 3, Petit Jean Mountain, Morrilton, Arkansas 72110, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Foote, Animal' Dairy, and Veterinary Science Department, UNC 48, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA (Virgin Islands white hair, wild-sheep hybrids)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.-H. Gueye, Centre de Recherches Zootechniques de Kolda, Institut SenTgalais de Recherches Agricoles, (ISRA), B.P. 53, Kolda, Senegal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Garcia Lagombra, Animal Husbandry Department, Universidad Nacional "Pedro Henriquez Urena," Decanato Ciencias Agropecuarias, Km 5 1/2 Aut. Duarte, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.F.W. Haenlein, Department of Animal Science and Agricultural Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19717-1303, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Henson, Bemborough, Guiting Power, Cheltenham, Gloucester, UK (rare breeds)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Ibanez Herrera, Paraguay 160 - Urbanizacion, Apartado 315, El Recreo, Trujillo, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Jewell, Department of Physiology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 ITN, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jones Sheep Farm, RR 2 Box 185-55, Peabody, Kansas 66866, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.E. Loggins, Animal Science Department, 108-D Suite, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Loosli, 406 S.W. 40th Street, Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C.H. Mandari, Livestock Research Centre, West Kilimanjaro, P.O. Box 103, Hai, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.P. Maule, Hannahfield Quarry House, 578 Lanark Road West, Balerno, Midlothian EH14 7BN, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.K. McNeal, Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Science Department, UNC 48, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Mecha, Department of Animal Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Anambra State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Monsi, Department of Animal Science, Food Science and Technology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, P.M.B. 5080, Port Harcourt, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.M. Munyabuntu, Department of Animal Science, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Th. Murayi, Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda, P.O. Box 138, Butare, Rwanda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.N.M. Mwenya, School of Agriculture Sciences, University of Zambia, Box 32379, Lusaka,  Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Ngendahayo, Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda, B.P. 138, Butare, Rwanda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Njwe, DTpartement des Sciences Animales, Ecole Nationale SupTrieure Agronomique, Centre  Universitaire de Dschang, B.P. 138, YaoundT, United Republic of Cameroon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J.A. Payne, 91 Bedwardine Road, London SE19 3AY, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington,  Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.V. Raghavan, Animal Science Department, College of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh  Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, Andhra Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramamohana Rao, Postgraduate Studies, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University,  Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.K. Rastogi, Department of Livestock Science, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine,  Trinidad, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soedomo Reksohadiprodjo, Department of Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Husbandry,  Universitas Gadjah Mada, Sekip Blok N-42, Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.Y. Robles, Dairy Training and Research Institute, University of the Philippines at Los Banos,  College, Laguna 3732, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Rocha, Instituto de Reprodutao e Melhoramento Animal, C.P. 25, Matola, Mozambique</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Ryder, c/o H.F.R.O., Bush Estate, Penicuik, Edinburgh, UK (Barbados blackbelly, wool)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sie Chenxia, Department of Animal Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People's  Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. David Simpson, Range and Wildlife Department, Texas Tech University, P.O. Box 4349,  Lubbock, Texas 79409, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.E. Terrill, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Building 005, BARC-West, Beltsville, Maryland 20705,  USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.N. Turner, Genetics Research Laboratories, CSIRO, P.O. Box 184, North Ryde, New South  Wales 2113, Australia (Indonesian breeds)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Vaccaro, Universidad Nacional Agraria, La Molina, P.O. Box 456, Lima, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Wahome, Department of Animal Production, P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Wildeus, College of the Virgin Islands, Agricultural Experiment Station, R.R. 2, Box 10051  Kingshill, St. Croix, Virgin Islands 00850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wu Jitang, Animal and Veterinary Science, Jiangsu Province Academy of Agricultural Sciences,  Nanjing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Yenikoye, FacultT d'Agronomie, UniversitT de Niamey, B.P. 10662, Niamey, Niger</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Micropig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.A. Akinbode, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,  University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Andrews, Mesoamerican Ecology Institute, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118, USA (Yucatan pig)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Ashton-Peach, Box 17, Ohaeawai, Bay of Islands, New Zealand (kunekune)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Berruecos V. Muz, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico D.F., Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Blakely, Sedgwick County Zoo, Wichita, Kansas 67203, USA (Ossabaw)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Boateng, Cooperative Extension Service, University of the Virgin Islands, Box L., Kingshill, St. Croix, Virgin Islands 00850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.L. Brisbin, Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, P.O. Drawer E, Aiken, South Carolina 29801, USA (Ossabaw)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Bustad, Veterinary School, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, 99163, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Catibog-Sinha, Forest Products Research and Development Institute, College, Laguna 4031, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), A.P. 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles River Laboratories, Inc., 251 Ballardvale Street, Wilmington, Massachusetts 01887-0630, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.H. Conrad, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cunha, PO Box R, LaVerne, California 91750, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Dederer, 712 Brown Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19123, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Dettmers, 5620 Longwood Avenue, Port Charlotte, Florida 33953, USA (miniature pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Agriculture Food and Nutrition Sciences Division, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Tanglin P.O. Box 101, 9124 Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Edgar, Greenhill, I R.D., Balfour, Southland, New Zealand (kunekune)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Hendricks, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.J. Hepburn, Swine Program, Charles River Laboratories, 251 Ballardvale Street, Wilmington, Massachusetts 01887-0630, USA (laboratory pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Holbrook, Aria Road' via Te Kuiti, New Zealand (kunekune)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.R. Hook, Jr., Sinclair Medical Research Farm, University of Missouri, Route 3, Columbia, Missouri 65203, USA (laboratory pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.O. Ilori, Faculty of Agriculture, University of If e, Ile-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. E. Kodituwakku, Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Loosli, 406 S.W. 40th Street' Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.H. Maner, Winrock International, Route 3, Petit Jean Mountain, Morrilton, Arkansas 72110, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.J. Mayer, Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, P.O. Drawer E, Aiken, South Carolina 29801, USA (Ossabaw)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Monsi, Departments of Animal Science/Food Science and Technology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, P.M.B. 508O, Port Harcourt, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Mtimuni, Livestock Production Department, Bunda College of Agriculture, University of Malawi, P.O. Box 219, Lilongwe, Malawi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.G. Mugisa, c/o Insure Consult, P.O. Box 30002, Nakivubo, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mull, 2834 Hamner Avenue #208, Norco, California 91760, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.L.R. Oliver, Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group, Jersey Wildlife Prescrvation Trust, Les AugrFs Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, UK (pigmy hog) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Panepinto, Redstone Canyon, P.O. Box 105, Masonville, Colorado 80541, USA (miniature pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J.A. Payne, 91 Bedwardine Road, London SE19 3AY, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.C. Perdomo, Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Suinos e Aves, BR 153, km 110, CP D-3, 89700 Concordia, SC, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA (Chinese breeds)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.G. Pond, Meat Animal Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Box 166, Clay Center, Nebraska 68933, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Popenoe, International Programs in Agriculture, 3028 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA (New Guinea pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.S. Reddi, CoHege of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Tirupati 517 502, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Avendano Reyes, Instituto Nacional de las Investigaciones sobre los Recursos BiotTcnicos, (INIREB), Apartado Postal 97, MTrida, Yucatan, Mexico (Yucatan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Robinson, Robinson's Racing Pigs, 5809 20th Avenue South, Tampa, Florida 336195457, USA (miniature pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Arellano Sota, Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Casillo 10095, Santiago, Chile (Cuing)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Sriramamurty, College of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Tirupati 517 502, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.M. Swindle, Comparative Medicine/Lab Animal Resources, Medical University of South Carolina, 171 Ashley Avenue, Charleston, South Carolina 29425, USA (laboratory pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Tilakaratne, Veterinary Research Institute, Gannoruwa, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Wahome, Department of Animal Production, P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wu Jitang, Animal and Veterinary Science, Jiangsu Provincial Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yong Shen Lee, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POULTRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information on poultry can generally be obtained from local ministries of agriculture or veterinary and livestock services. However, another source is the World's Poultry Science Association (c/o Institut fur Kleintierzucht, Dornbergstrasse 25/27, Postfach 280, C-3100 Celle, Germany). It has over 5,000 members from 40 national groups. Its objectives are (1) to advance poultry science and the poultry industry, (2) to disseminate and facilitate the exchange of knowledge pertaining to all branches of the poultry industry, (3) to encourage the promotion of world poultry congresses and regional conferences, and (4) to cooperate with other international organizations. It maintains working groups to explore and assess research work on tropical poultry problems. The World's Poultry Science Journal is published 3 times a year. It has also published a multilingual poultry dictionary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicken</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ben-David, Poultry Production Specialist, 5, Azar Street, Holon 58291, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.L. Brisbin, Jr., Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, P.O. Drawer E, Aiken, South Carolina 29801, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Senior Livestock Specialist, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. Couch, Poultry Science Department, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Crawford, Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 0W0, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Cuca G., Institucion de Ensenanza e Investigacion en Ciencias Agricolas, Colegio de Postgraduados, Chapingo, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.O. Hawes, Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.H. Huang, Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Fifih Floor, 14 Wenchow Street, Taipei, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.H. Ketelaars, Department of Tropical Husbandry, P.O. Box 338, 6700 A.H. Wageningen, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.A. Latif, Department of Poultry Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Martoyo, Faculty of Animal Science, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Jalan Raya Pajajaran, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.T. Moran, Jr., Poultry Science Department, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849-4291, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ochetim, School of Agriculture, University of the South Pacific, Alafua Campus, Apia, Western Samo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Parks, Route 1, Box 47-C, Brookshire, Texas 77423, USA (Araucanian chicken)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apt.810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.L. Polley, Programme DTveloppement Plateau Bateke, CBZO, B.P. 4728, Kinshasa 2, Zaire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramakrishman, Center for Advanced Studies in Poultry Science, Kerala Agricultural University, Mannuthy 680 651, Kerala, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.V. Reddy, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Ross, Department of Animal Science, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Scott, 16 Spruce Lane, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Sexton, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Building 262, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Somes, Nutritional Sciences, Box U-17, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Sunde, Poultry Science Department, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duck</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.E. Abdelsamie, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Nutrition, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ahmed, Department of Poultry Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Bande, PATI, Popondetta Agricultural College, Box 131, Popondetta, Oro Province, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.S. Bird, Cherry Valley Farms Ltd., Rothwell, Lincoln LN7 6BR, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.D. Bulbule, Central Duck Breeding Farm, Government of India, Hessaraghatta, Bangalore 560 088, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.M. Cheng, Avian Genetics Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 2A2, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Dean, Cornell University Duck Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 217, Eastport, New York 11941, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Edwards, Agricultural and Food Engineering Division, Asian Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 2754, Bangkok 10501, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Fishelson, Department of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Ramat-ave, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Floresca, Department of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte 7127, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Godoy, Ingeniero Agronomio, Simon Bolivar 2397, Santiago, Chile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Hardjosworo, Fakultas Peternakan, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Henry, Cherry Valley Farms Limited, Divisional Offices, North Kelsey Moor, Lincoln LN7 6HH, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Hollander, Route 4, Box 168, Ames, lowa 5001O, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Hoffmann, Canning, Nova Scotia BOP IHO, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.H. Huang, Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Fifth Floor, 14 Wenchow Street, Taipei, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Ibanez H., Bolivar 451, Trujillo, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Z. Jungkaro, Research Institute for Inland Fisheries, Jalan Sempur No. 1, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A.R. Kamar, Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.H. Ketelaars, Department of Tropical Husbandry, P.O. Box 338, 6700 A.H. Wageningen, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.P. Kompiang, BaliPenelitianTernak, P.O. Box 123, Bogor 16001, WestJava, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.A. Latif, Department of Poultry Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Martoyo, Faculty of Animal Science, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Jalan Raya Pajajaran, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Mongin, Station de Recherches Avicoles, I.N.R.A., Nouzilly 37380 Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.T. Moran, Jr., Poultry Science Department, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849-4291, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ochetim, School of Agriculture, University of the South Pacific, Alafua Campus, Apia, Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Pingel, Karl-Marx-Universitat, Sektion TV, Lehrstuhl Geflugel- und Pelztierzucht, 7010 Leipzig, Stephanstrasse 12, Germany </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Poernomo, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Jalan R.E. Martadinata 32, P.O. Box 52, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramakrishman, Center for Advanced Studies in Poultry Science' Kerala Agricultural University, Mannuthy 680 651, Kerala, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Retailleau, Grimaud FrFres S.A., La CorbiFre, 49450 Roussay, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.S. Sandhu, Cornell University Duck Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 217, Eastport, New York 11941, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Scott, 16 Spruce Lane, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Shingari, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Tai, Taiwan Livestock Research Institute, 112 Farm Road Shin-hua, Tainan, Taiwan 71210</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Tangendjaja, Bali Penelitian Ternak, P.O. Box 123, Bogor 16001, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tian Fuh Shen, Department of Animal Husbandry, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10764, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.S. Tsai, Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, National Pintung Institute of Agriculture, Pintung, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Romero Villanueva, Centro Tropical de Capacitaci6n Agropecuaria y Forestal, Apartado Postal #4S, Macuspana 86700 Tabasco, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildfowl Trust, Slimbridge, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yeong Shue Woh, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), G.P.O. No. 12301, 50774 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cha Tak Yimp, Poultry and Swine Unit, Department of Veterinary Services, Jalan Mahameru, 50630 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many universities have a department of animal or poultry science that should know about the culture and management of these birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Bande, PATI, Popondetta Agricultural College, Box 131, Popondetta, Oro Province, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.D. Chesterley, 4502 Loomis Trail, Blaine, Washington 98230, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Crawford, Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 0W0, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.l. Dim, Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Jackson, P.O. Box 3, Creenbank, Washington 98253, USA (weeder geese)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Fuan, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Mongin, Station de Recherches Avicoles, l.N.R.A., Nouzilly 37380, Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Ross, Department of Animal Science, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Shingari, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.R. Wilson, Poultry Science Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Fowl</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American Guinea Club, c/o Angie Papp, 620 Payne Road, New Albany, Indiana 47150, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S.O. Ayeni, Kainji Lake Research Institute, P.M.B. 666, New Bussa, Kwara State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ben-David, 5, Azar Street, Holon 58291, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.S. Brah, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">X. Colonna C., 14 Cotham Road, Bristol BS6 6DR, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Dumont, Ecole Nationale SupTrieure des Sciences Agronomiques AppliquTes, 26, boulevard Docteur Petitjean 21100 Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Etches, Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NIG 2WI, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.F. Hutton, Garaina Farms, Scrubby Creek Road, Gympie MS: 115, Queensland 4570, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.N. Johnson, Natal Parks, Game and Fish Preservation Board, P.O. Box 661, Pietermaritzburg 3200, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;:M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Michie, Poultry Husbandry Division, North of Scotland College of Agriculture, Parkhead, Craibstone, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB2 9SX, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Mongin, Station de Recherches Avicoles, I.N.R.A., Nouzilly, 37380 Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ochetim, School of Agriculture, University of the South Pacific, Alafua Campus, Apia, Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. Okaeme, Wildlife/Range Division, Kainji Lake Research Institute, P.M.B. 666, New Bussa, Kwara State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S. Sandhu, Poultry Breeder, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Shingari, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Somes, Nutritional Sciences, Box U-17, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.E. Abdelsamie, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Nutrition, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.P. Bilong, Department of Primary Industry, Monogastric Research Centre, P.O. Box 73, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. de Carville, Station de Recherches Avicoles, I.N.R.A., Centre de Tours, Nouzilly 37380, Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.D. Chesterley, 4502 Loomis Trail, Blaine, Washington 98230, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">X. Colonna C., 14 Cotham Road, Bristol BS6 6DR, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Dumont, Ecole Nationale SupTrieure des Sciences Agronomiques AppliquTes, 26, boulevard Docteur Petitjean 21100 Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.R. Gerona, Department of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barry Glofcheskie, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NIG 2WI, Canada (fly control)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread' P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Hollander, Route 4, Box 168, Ames, Iowa 50010, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Hoffmann, Canning, Nova Scotia BOP IH0, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.H. Huang, Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Fifth Floor, 14 Wenchow Street, Taipei, Taiwan (mule duck)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A.R. Kamar, Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Michie, Poultry Husbandry Division, North of Scotland College of Agriculture, Parkhead, Craibstone, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB2 9SX, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donald E. Mock, Department of Extension Entomology, 239 Waters Hall, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506-4004, USA (fly control)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Mongin, Station de Recherches Avicoles, I.N.R.A., Nouzilly 37380 Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ochetim, School of Agriculture, University of the South Pacific, Alafua Campus, Apia, Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Pingel, Karl Marx Universitat, Sektion TV, Lehrstuhl Geflugel- und Pelztierzucht, 7010 Leipzig, Stephanstrasse 12, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Retailleau, Grimaud FrFres S.A., La CorbiFre, 494S0 Roussay, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Romboli, Le Quericole, Universita Delgi Studi di Pisa 56010 S. Piero A Grado, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.S. Sandhu, Cornell University Duck Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 217, Eastport, New York 11941, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Surgeoner, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NIG 2WI, Canada (fly control)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Tai, Taiwan Livestock Research Institute, 112 Farm Road Shin-hua. Tainan, Taiwan 71210</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.M. Cheng, Avian Genetics Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 2A2, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Dillinger, 3201 Huffman Boulevard, Rockford, Illinois 61103, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Animal Science Department, FacultyofAgriculture, AhmaduBello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.O. Hawes, Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469, U.S.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA (carrier pigeons) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Hollander, Route 4, Box 168, Ames, lowa 5001O, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.A. Latif, Department of Poultry Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Y. Le HTnaff, Laboratoire de l'H(pital Avranches, Avranches, Cotentin, France (carrier pigeons)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A.R. Kamar, Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J. Miller, Department of Genetics, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Owen, 6520 Wiscasset Road, Bethesda, Maryland 20816, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Pena PTrez, Apartado Postal 23, La Nucia, Alicante, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Ross, Department of Animal Science, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.D. Roush, Green Valley Squab Farm, 1348 Green Valley Road, Folsom, California 9563O, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.S. Sandbu, Cornell University Duck Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 217, Eastport, New York 11941, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S. Sim, Department of Animal Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta TOG 2P5, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many people raise Japanese quail. Probably the best way to locate a local source is to consult local pet stores, the county farm advisor's office, university faculty of agriculture, game-bird fanciers, and the like. Finding people with local research experience is usually most useful to beginners. Coturnix International, Inc., is a nonprofit organization with primary interests in promoting small domesticated food animal production for both youth training and improved nutrition. The use of coturnix (Japanese quail) for these purposes is already well established in a number of Michigan schools and in the Dominican Republic, with special emphasis on science projects, especially where nutritional inadequacies exist. The address is Coturnix International Inc., International Headquarters, 1111 Michigan Avenue, Box 250O, East Lansing, Michigan 48823, USA. Avian Sciences Department, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.M. Cheng, Avian Genetics Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 2A2, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.E. Deppner, Trees for the Future, 11306 Estona Drive, Silver Spring, Maryland 20902, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Science and Animal Industries, Alabama AOcM University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.L. Marks, Genetics Unit, Room 107 Livestock-Poultry Building, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Marsh, Marsh Farms, 7171 Patterson Drive, Garden Grove, California 92641, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Martoyo, Faculty of Animal Science, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Jalan Raya Pajajaran, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Z. Abidin bin Mohd Noor, Department of Veterinary Services, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50630 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (chicken-quail hybrids)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.K. Pani, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar 243 122, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Pingel, Karl Marx Universitat, Sektion TV, Lehrstuhl Geflugel- und Pelztierzucht, 7010 Leipzig, Stephanstrasse 12, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Polin, Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.V. Reddy, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodale Research Center, RD #1, Box 323, Kutztown, Pennsylvania 19530, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Ross, Department of Animal Science, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Shingari, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 006, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Somes, Nutritional Sciences, Box U-17, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Tempest, Heifer Project International, P.O. Box 808, Little Rock, Arkansas 72203, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. K. Varghese, Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1225, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Wakasugi, Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusaku, Nagoya, Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.R. Wilson, Poultry Science Department, Archer Road, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Berruecos V. Muz, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico D.F., Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Crawford, Department of Animaland Poultry Science, UniversityofSaskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Cuca G., Institucion de Ensenanza e Investigacion en Ciencias Agricolas, Colegio de Postgraduados, Chapingo, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.E. Nestor, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Pingel, Karl-Marx-Universitat, Sektion TV, Lehrstuhl Geflugel- und Pelztierzucht, 7010 Leipzig, Stephanstrasse 12, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Scott, 16 Spruce Lane, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.J. Sexton, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Building 262, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Somes, Nutritional Sciences. Box U-17, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential New Poultry</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Duckett, P.O. Box 12378, 50776 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (barn owls)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.R. Marion, Department of Wildlife and Range Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA (chachalaca)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Smal, Wildlife Service, Sidmonton Place, Bray County, Wicklow, Ireland (barn owls) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RABBITS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic Rabbit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University,  P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Baselga, Departamento de Ciencia Animal, Escuela TTcnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agronomos, Camino de Vera 14, 46022 Valencia, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. de Blas, Departamento Alimentacion Animal, Escuela TTcnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agronomos, Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Castell6, Real Escuela Oficial y Superior de Avicultura (REOSA), Calle Plana Parafso, s/n  Arenys de Mar, Barcelona, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.B. Chawan, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and  Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.R. Cheeke, Rabbit Research Center, Department of Animal Science, Oregon State University,  Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Fekete, University of Veterinary Science, Department of Animal Nutrition, Budapest, Pf.2,  H-1400 Hungary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Fernandez C., Departamento de Ciencia Animal, Escuela TTcnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agronomos, Universidad PolitTcnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera, 14, 46022 Valencia, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Cervera Fras, Departamento de Ciencia Animal, Universidad PolitTcnica de Valencia, Apartado  22012, Valencia, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.J. Harris, Pel-Freez Rabbit Meat, Inc., P.O. Box 68, Rogers, Arkansas 72756, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A.B. Hundleby, Ciskei Agricultural Corporation Ltd., P.O. Box 59, Bisho, Ciskei, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. de Jong, Department of Tropical Animal Production, Marykeweg 40, 6709 P.G. Wageningen,  The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.A. Kamwanja, Bunda College of Agriculture, University of Malawi, P.O. Box 219, Lilongwe,  Malawi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Leyun, Instituto TTcnico Gesti6n Porcino (ITGP), Seccion Conejos, Ctra. del Sadar, s/n 31006  Pamplona (Navarra), Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Loliger, Lisztstrasse 20, 3100 Celle, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and  Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.P.E. Makhambera, Bunda College of Agriculture, University of Malawi, P.O. Box 219, Lilongwe,  Malawi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.I. McNitt, Center for Small Farm Research, Southern University, P.O. Box 11170, Baton Rouge,  Louisana 70813-1170, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Mgheni, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Animal Science and Production Department, P.O.  Box 3004, Morogoro, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Norman, Tropical Products Institute, Culham, Abingdon, Oxfordshire OX14 3DA, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.N. Odonker, P.O. Box 11, Tsito-Awudome, Volta Region, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.C. Onwudike, Department of Animal Science, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.G. Partridge, Rowett Research Institute, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB2 9SB, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.M. Patton, Rabbit Research Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.J. Paya, Departamento de Microbiologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Avenida Puerta de Hierro, Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. PTrez, Departamento de Reproduccion Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias (INIA), Avenida Puerta de Hierro, s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.L. Polley, Programme DTveloppement Plateau Bateke, CBZO, B.P. 4728, Kinshasa 2, Zaire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Ramchurn, School of Agriculture, University of Mauritius, RTduit, Mauritius</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.E. Reed, Box 98, Markle, Indiana 46770, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Respaldiza, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias (INIA), Departamento de Higiene y Sanidad Animal, Calle Embajadores, 68, 28012 Madrid, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Retailleau, Grimaud FrFres S.A., La CorbiFre, 49450 Roussay, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Rodriguez, Departamento Microbiologia e Inmunologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Calle Miguel Servet, numero 117, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Rodriguez de L., "Conejos" Centro de Investigacion Cientifica del Estado de MTxico A.C., Camino a Huexotla No. 5, San Miguel Coatlinchan, 56170 Texcoco, Estado de MTxico, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Schlolaut, Hessen Institute for Animal Production, Neu-Ulrichstein, 6313 Homberg, West Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.D. Semuguruka, Department of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3018, Chuo Kikuu Morogoro, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Sierra, Departamento Produccion Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Calle Miguel Servet, numero 117, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Valls, Institut de Recerce i Tecnologia Agroalimentaria (IRTA), Torre Marimon, 08140 Caldes de Montbui, Barcelona, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Zaragoza, Departamento de Genetica y Mejora, Facultad de Veterinaria, Calle Miguel Servet, numero 117, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agouti</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.J.R. Alho, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidade de Brasilia, 70910 Brazilia, DF, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.H. Baker, 302 North Strickland Street, Eagle Lake, Texas 77434-1841, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Bonilla Encizo, ICA Tibaitata, Apartado Aereo 151123, BogotG, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.D. Cuaron O., Instituto de Historia Natural, Apartado Postal No. 6, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas 29000, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.A. Deutsch, Parque Zoologico de Sao Paulo, SGo Paulo, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratorie d'Ecologie, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Frenkel, Department of Pathology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66013, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Escajadillo, Gorgas Memorial Laboratory, P.O. Box 935, APO Miami, Florida 340020012, USA OR Avenida Justo Arosemena 34-30, Apartado 6991, Panama 5, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Hallwachs, Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6018, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Hislop, Wildlife Section, Forest Division, Ministry of Food Production, Port-ofSpain, Trinidad and Tobago</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ingrand, I.N.R.A., Campus agronomique, B.P. 709, 97387 Kourou Cedex, French Guiana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.H. Janzen, Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Lavorenti, Animal Sciences Department, ESALQ Universidade de Sao Paulo, C.P. 9, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo 13.400, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.A. Meritt, Jr., 2200 North Cannon Drive, Chicago, IHinois 60614, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. de Alencar Moreira, EMBRAPA-CPATU, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, Caixa Postal 48, BelTm, Para 66000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.Ma. Rojas G., CATIE, 7170 Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Santos, Fundatao Parque Zoologico de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smith, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smythe, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Box 2072, Balboa, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O. Sousa, Department of Microbiology, Cinuad Universitaria "Dr Octavio MTndez Pereira," El Cangregio, Apartado Estafeta Universitaria, Panama City, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.B. Taber, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. Woods, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.J.R. Alho, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidade de Brasilia, 70910 Brasilia, DF, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.P. Bland, Department of Veterinary Physiology, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Summerhall, Edinburgh EH9 IQH, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Bonilla Encizo, ICA Tibaitata, Apartado Aereo 151123, Bogota, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.R. Cheeke, Rabbit Research Center, Department of Animal Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cunha, P.O. Box R, LaVerne, California 91750, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.F. Eisenberg, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Golley, Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30601, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Gonzalez-Jimenez, Facultad de Agronomia, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Maracay, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Hemmer, Institute of Zoology, Johannes Gutenberg University, Anemonenweg 18, D-6500 Mainz-Ebersheim, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Howarth, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ingrand, I.N.R.A., Campus agronomique, B.P. 709, 97387 Kourou Cedex, French Guiana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Konnerup, 74 North Sunrise Boulevard, Camano Island, Washington 98292, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Jackson, Terraza Turrado 80, 5730 Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Lavorenti, Animal Sciences Department, ESALQ Universidade de Sao Paulo, C.P. 9, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo 13.400, Brazil </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Lord, Biology Department, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, Pennsylvania 15705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.W. MacDonald, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. de Alencare Moreira, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, EMBRAPA-CPATU, Caixa Postal 48" BelTm, Para 66000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Muller-Haye, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Room F524, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Ojasti, Institute of Tropical Zoology, Apartado 47058, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas 1041A, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.L. Rondon, Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Centro de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidada Federal de Mato Grosso, Cuiaba-MT, 78000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smith, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.E. Sollod, Section of International Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafton, Massachusetts 01536, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Sunquist, Route 1, Box 1434, Melrose, Florida 32666, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.B. Taber, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.D. Thelen, FAO Regional Of fice for Latin America and the Caribbean, CasiHa 10095, Santiago, Chile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.C. Carmichael, The Museum, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1045, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Chapman, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Contreras, Universidad Cat61ica de Valpariso, Avenida Brasi. 295O, Casilla 4059, Valparaiso, Chile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.-G. Klos, Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Aktiengesellschaft, Hardenbergplatz, 1000 Berlin 30, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Lutz, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Biology and Living Resources, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. de Alencar Moreira, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, Caixa Postal 48, BelTm, ParG, 66000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Szumiec, Experimental Fish Culture Station, Polish Academy of Sciences, Golysz 43-422 Chybie, Poland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. Woods, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Research Institute, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), P.O. Box 20, Achimota, Chana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.P. Bland, Department of Veterinary Physiology, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Summerhall, Edinburgh EH9 IQH, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Brinck, Ecology Building, Department of Animal Ecology, University of Lund, S223 62 Lund, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratorie d'Ecologie, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.C.D. Happold, Department of Zoology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.C. Heymans, BP 1910, Cotonou, Benin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Kamara, c/o Njala University College, Private Mail Bag, Freetown, Sierra Leone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.H. Knight, Kalahari Gemsbok Park, Private Bag X5890, Upington 8800, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Malekani, DTpartement de Biologie, FacultT des Sciences, UniversitT de Kinshasa, B.P. 190, Kinshasa XI, Zaire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Matthewman, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School for Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Alexander, Department of Biology, Natal University, King George V Avenue, Durban 4001, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.O.A. Asibey, Department of Game and Wildlife, Ministry Post Office, Accra, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.S. Ayensu, African Development Bank, 01 B.P. No. 1837, Abidjan 01, Ivory Coast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Baptist, Institute for Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics, University of Hohenheim (480), P.O. Box 700562, D-7000 Stuttgart 70, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.Y. Bimpong-Buta, Council for Law Reporting, P.O. Box M165, Accra, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Brinck, Department of Animal Ecology, University of Lund, Ecology Building, S223 62, Lund, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Dosso, Institut d'Ecologie Tropicale, Abidjan, Ivory Coast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.C.D. Happold, Department of Zoology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Hardouin, Institut de Medicine Tropicale "Prince Leopold," Nationalestraat 155, B2000 Antwerp, Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.C. Heymans, BP 1910, Cotonou, Benin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Hutton, Garaina Farms, Scrubby Creek Road, Gympie MS:115, Queensland 4570, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Kamara, c/o Njala University College, Private Mail Bag, Freetown, Sierra Leone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Laboratoire Centrale de Nutrition Animale (LACENA), B.P. 353, Abidjan 06, Ivory Coast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.-P. Mack, Projet BTnino-Allemand Conseiller Technique auprTs du MDRAC, BP 504, Cotonou, Benin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.H.G. Martin, Department of Zoology, Kenyatta University College, P.O. Box 43844, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Matthewman, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Mensah, Responsable PBAA (Projet BTnino-Allemand d'Aulacodiculture), P.B. 2359, Cotonou, Benin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.A. Omole, Department of Animal Science, University of Ife, Ile-lfe, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.J. Peters, International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), P.O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Petter, MammifFres et Oiseaux, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle Zoologie, 55 rue de Buffon 75005, Paris, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Schr(der, Institute of Animal Breeding, Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 1, 3400 Gottingen, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.W. Thomas, Department of Biology, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec JIK 2RI, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">St. von Korn, Institute of Animal Breeding, Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 1, 3400 G(ttingen, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Walder, Presbyterian Rural Training Centre, P.O. Box 72, Bamenda, NW Province, Cameroon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.P. Bilong, Department of Pimary Industry, Monogastric Research Centre, P.O. Box 73, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.P. Bland, Department of Physiology, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Summerhall, Edinburgh EH9 IQH, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Bolton, Department of Anthropology, Pomona College, Claremont, California 91711, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Bonilla Encizo, ICA Tibaitata, Apartado Aereo 151123, Bogota, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Del Carpio R., Facultad de Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional "Pedro Ruiz Gallo," Calle Atahualpa No. 179, Apartado 48, Lambayeque, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.R. Cheeke, Rabbit Research Center, Department of Animal Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cunha, P.O. Box R, LaVerne, California 91750, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Descailleux, Laboratorio GenTtica Humana, C.P. 11010, Lima 14, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Ferguson, Overseas Development Administration, Eland House, Stug Place, London, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RC, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Frenkel, Department of Pathology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66013, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Hardouin, Institut de MTdecine Tropicale "Prince Leopold," Nationalestraat IS5, B2000 Antwerpen, Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.E. Honegger, Zurich Zoo, Zurichbergstrasse 221, CH-8044 Zurich, Switzerland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Howarth, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calffornia, Davis, Calffornia 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Jackson, Terraza Turrado 80, 5730 Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Jenkins, PNG Institute Medical Research, P.O. Box 60, Goroka, Eastern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. de Jong, Department of Tropical Animal Production, Marykeweg 40, 6709 PG Wageningen, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Kamara, c/o Njala University College, Private Mail Bag Freetown, Sierra Leone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.J. Kohun, Department of Agriculture, PNG University of Technology, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.M. Konnerup, 74 North Sunrise Boulevard, Camano Island, Washington 98292, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.E. Lacher, Jr., Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington 98225, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Feed Science and Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.C. Malik, Department of Agriculture, PNG University of Technology, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Matthewman, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.R. Moreno, Departamento de Produccion Animal, Universidad Nacional Agraria, Apartado 456, La Molina, Lima, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Muller-Haye, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Room F524, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.L. Polley, Programme DTveloppement Plateau Bateke, CBZO, B.P. 4728, Kinshasa 2, Zaire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V. Purizaga A., Alcalde del Concejo Provincial de Pacasmayo, Dos de Mayo 360, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.T. Quirante, Bureau of Animal Industry, Research Center, Alabang 3124, Metro Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.V. Reddy, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.W. Robinson, Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, Box 7621 Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7621, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.C. Allen, Hope Zoo, Kingston, Jamacia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.S. Canet, Instituto de Zoologla, Academia Ciencias de Cuba, Calle 214, esq. a Avenida 19, No. 17A 09, Reparto Atabey, Havana 16, Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Jordan, Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.L.R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les AugrFs Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Ottenwalder, Parque Zool6gico Nacional (ZOODOM), Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Woods, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.T. Blankenship, Animal Resources Center, School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27858-4354, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Jackson, Terraza Turrado 80, 5730 Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Agentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.W. MacDonald, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.H. Pryor, Jr., School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27858-4354, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.B. Taber, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paca</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. de Alencar Moreira, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, EMBRAPA-CPATU, Caixa Postal 48, BelTm, Para 66000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.J.R. Alho, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidade de Brasilia, 70910 Brasilia, DF, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.H. Baker, 302 North Strickland Street, Eagle Lake, Texas 77434-1841, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.D. Cuardn O., Instituto de Historia Natural, Apartado Postal No. 6, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas 29000, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. de Escalante, Zool6gico Nacional, Direccion del Patrimonio Natural y Cultural, San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Frenkel, Department of Pathology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66013, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Hallwachs, Ecology and Systematics, Corson Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Hislop, Wildlife Section, Forest Division, Ministry of Food Production, Port-ofSpain, Trinidad and Tobago</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.H. Janzen, Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Lavorenti, Animal Sciences Department, ESALQ Universidade de Sao Paulo, C.P. 9, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo 13.400, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Y. Matamoros, Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Nacional, Apartado 86, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Meritt, Jr., 2200 North Cannon Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60614, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.Ma. Rojas G., CATIE, 7170 Turrialba, Costa Rica </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O. Rosado, Ministry of Industry and Natural Resources, Belmopan, Belize</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smith, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smythe, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Box 2072, Balboa, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V. Solis, Union Internacional pare la Conservacion de la Naturaleza y de los Recursos Naturales, Oficina Regional pare Centro AmTrica, Apartado Postal 91-1009-FECOSA, San JosT, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. VaidTs, Centro Universitario del Norte Carrera ZootTcnica, Coban, A.V., Ciudad Guatemala 16001, Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcacha</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Bonilla Encizo, ICA Tibaitata, Apartado Aereo 151123, Bogota, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Jackson, Terraza Turrado 80, 5730 Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.L. Marmillon, Estancias del Conlara S.A., Casilla de Correo 451, 5800 Rio Cuarto, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.D. Thelen, FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Casilla 10095, Santiago, Chile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Rodents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.M. Butynski, Impenetrable Forest Conservation Project, Zoology Department, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. Flannery, Australian Museum, 6-8 College Street, Sydney, New South Wales 2000, Australia (Solomon Island rodents)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources, Maendeleo House, Monrovia Street, POB 30786, Nairobi, Kenya (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Jacobsen, Nature Conservation Division, Private Bag X209, Pretoria 0001, South Africa (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.P. Kofron, Museum of Zoology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70893, USA (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. Leary, Ministry of Natural Resources, Honiara, Solomon Islands (Solomon Island rodents)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. McLaughlin, San Diego Zoo, San Diego 92112, California, USA (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.P. Millar, Department of Chemical Pathology, Medical School, Observatory 7925, South Africa (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.D. Skinner, Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern African Wildlife Management Association, POB 413, Pretoria, South Africa ( s p ring hare )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chitton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Van der Merwe, University of Pretoria, Mammal Research Institute, Pretoria 0002, South Africa (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife Society of Zimbabwe, POB 3497, Harare, Zimbabwe (springhare) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEER AND ANTELOPE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.O. Caldecott, World Wildlife Fund Malaysia, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Chaplin, Burnhouse, Fountainhall, Galashiels, Selkirk TDI 2RX, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.W.H. Davison, Zoology Department, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Grubb, 35 Downhills Park Road, London N17 6PE, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Ruiqing, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. MacNamara, Fauna Research, Inc., 11 Park Avenue, Ardsley, New York 10502, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Muul, Integrated Conservation Research, P.O. Box 920, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia 25425, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Nordin, Bureau of Research and Consultancy, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Pathak, Department of Genetics, M.D. Anderson Hospital and Tumor Institute, Houston, Texas 77030, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.T. Robbins, Wildlife Biology Program, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164-4220, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Robin, Tierpark Dahlholzli Bern, Dalmaziquai 149, CH-3005 Bern, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.R. Schmidt, Zoological Garden, CH-8044 Zurich, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.A. Sirimanne, Singapore Zooological Gardens, 80 Mandai Lake Road, Singapore 2572</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.K. Vidyadaran, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Department of Animal Science, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wang Yingxiang, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C. Whittow, Department of Physiology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, 1960 East West Road, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Barrette, DTpartement de Biologie, FacultT des Sciences et de GTnie, UniversitT Laval, QuTbec, GIK 7P4, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Benirschke, 8457 Prestwick Drive, La Jolla, California 92037, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The British Deer Society, Church Farm, Lower Basildon, Reading, Berkshire RG8 9NH, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.O. Caldecott, World Wildlife Fund Malaysia, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 933200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Chapman, Larkmead, Barton Mills, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk IP28 6AA, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Coe, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O. Dansie, The Chapel, 2 Hobbs Hall, Welwyn, Hertsfordshire, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K. Dhungal, Department of Parks and Wildlffe, P.O. Box 860, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.J. Goss, Division of Biology and Medicine, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Grubb, 35 Downhills Park Road, London N17 6PE, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.P. Harding, Animal Ecology Research Group, Zoology Department, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Harris, Department of Zoology, University of Bristol, Woodland Road, Bristol BS8 JUG, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Heck, CatskiH Game Farm, Inc., RD #1, Box 133, Catskill, New York 12414, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. Jacobson, Fish and Wildlffe Department, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Ruiqing, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lu Houji, Department of Biology, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. MacNamara, Fauna Research, Inc., 11 Park Avenue, Ardsley, New York 10502, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.J.A. Manton, Zoological Society of London, Whipsnade Park, Dunstable, Bedfordshire LU6 2LF, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Miura, Department of Biology, Hyogo College of Medicine, Mukogawa-cho 1-1, Nishinomiya, Hyogo-ken 663, Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Muul, Integrated Conservation Research, P.O. Box 920, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia 25425, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Pathak, Department of Genetics, M.D. Anderson Hospital and Tumor Institute, Houston, Texas 77030, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.T. Robbins, Wildlife Biology Program, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Seidel, Tierpark Berlin, Tierklinik, DDR-1136 Berlin, Friedrichsfelde, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shi Liming, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Soma, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Tokyo Medical College Hospital, 1-7, Nishishinjuku 6, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160, Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Stadler, Fakultat fur Biologie, Universitat Bielefeld, 4800 Bielefeld, Universitatsstrasse 25, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.F. Taylor, Taylor Energy Company, The 2-3-4 Loyola Building, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wang Yingziang, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Wemmer, Conservation and Research Center, National Zoological Park, Front Royal, Virginia 22630, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.M. Wurster-HiH, Department of Pathology, Dartmouth Medical School, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.H. Yahner, 320 Forest Resources Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Chaplin, Burnhouse, Fountainhall, Galashiels, Selkirk TDI 2RX, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K. Dhungel, Department of Parks and Wildlife, P.O. Box 860, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. Gaston, Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa KIA OE7, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.J.B. Green, IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, 219C Huntingdon Road, Carnbridge CB3 ODL, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Grubb, 35 Downhills Park Road, London N17 6PE, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Hunter, Jr., Wildlife Department, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. Jacobson, Fish and Wildlife Department, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Kattel, P.O. Box 3070, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Riqing, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lu Houji, Department of Biology, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. McNeely, Program and Policy Division, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, CH1196 Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.W. O'Gara, Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana 59812, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.T. Robbins, Wildlife Biology Program, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164-4220, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Seidel, Tierpark Berlin, Tierklinik, DDR-1136 Berlin, Friedrichsfelde, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shi Liming, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.F. Taylor, Taylor Energy Co., The 2-3-4 Loyola Building, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wang Yingxiang, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Cooke, Nature Conservancy Council, Northminster House, Peterborough PEI I UA, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Farrell, Nature Conservancy Council, Northminster House, Peterborough PEI IUA, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Feer, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Crubb, 35 Downhills Park Road, London N17 6PE, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Riuqing, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica. Kunming Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lu Houji, Department of Biology, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.J.A. Manton, Zoological Society of London, Whipsnade Park, Dunstable, Bedfordshire LU6 2LF, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Seidel, Tierpark Berlin, Tierklinik DDR-1136, Berlin, Friedrichsfelde, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R Smith, Department of Zoology, Whiteknights Park, University of Reading, Reading, Berkshire RG6 2AH, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Stadler, Fakultat fur Biologie, Universitat Bielefeld, 4800 Bielefeld, Universitats strasse 25, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.F. Taylor, Taylor Energy Company, The 2-3-4 Loyola Building, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Wemmer, Conservation and Research Center, National Zoological Park, Front Royal, VA 2263O, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South American Microdeer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Sampath, Trinidad and Tobago Wildlffe Breeders and Farmers Association, c/o 5 3/4 Mile Mark, Penal Rock Road, Penal, Trinidad, West Indies (red brocket)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. MacNamara, Fauna Research, Inc., 11 Park Avenue, Ardsley, New York 10502, USA (pudu)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Chardonnet, Projet Petits Ruminants, B.P. 65, Atakpame, Togo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.L. Cowan, 324 Henning Building, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RI.M. Dunbar, Department of Zoology, University of Liverpool, P.O. Box 147, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Feer, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.R. Kranz, Zoological Society of Philadelphia, 34th Street and Girard Avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Lumpkin, Department of Zoological Research, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Player, Wilderness Leadership School, P.O. Box 15036, BeHair 4006, Natal, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Pond, Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, Box 7621, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Schweers, Bahnhofstrasse 29, D-6744 Kandee, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.D. Skinner, Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.E. SoHod, International Veterinary Medicine, Tufis University, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafion, Massachusetts 01536, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.C. Udell, 14934 VaHey Vista Blouvard, Sherman Oaks, Calffornia 91403, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Varga, Department of Dairy and Animal Science, 225B Borland Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.J. Wilson, Duiker Research and Breeding Centre, Chipangali Wildlife Trust, P.O. Box 1057, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Small Antelope</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Asibey, Department of Game and Wildlife, Ministry Post Office, Accra, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.I. Boshe, College of African Wildlife Management, Mweka, P.O. Box 3031, Moshi, Tanzania (dikdik)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Chardonnet, Project Petits Ruminants, BP 65, Atakpame, Togo (oribi)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K. Dhungel, Department of National Parks and Wildife, Conservation, Babar Mahal, Kathmandu, Nepal (four-horned antelope)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.I.M. Dunbar, Department of Zoology, University of Liverpool, P.O. Box 147, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK (dikdik, klipspringer)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Feer, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.M. Goebel, Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76019, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.P. Hoppe, Am Hauenstein 13, 6706 Wachenheim, Germany (dikdik, suni)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.R. Kranz, Zoological Society of Philadelphia, 34th Street and Girard Avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA (royal antelope, beira, dikdik, klipspringer, suni, four-horned antelope)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Player, Wilderness Leadership School, P.O. Box 15036, Bellair 4006, Natal, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.N.W. Oppong, UNDP/FGN/FAO Livestock Project, P.O. Box 6603, Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.R. Pritchard, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Skinner, Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa (otibi, steinbok)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.E. Sollod, International Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafton, Massachusetts 01536, USA (dikdik, klipspringer)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA (dikdik, klipspringer, four-horned antelope)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIZARDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Benirschke, 8457 Prestwick Drive, La Jolla, California 92037, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.M. Burghardt, Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ferreira, Parque Zoologico Nacional, Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.S. Fitch, Route #3, Box 142, Lawrence, Kansas 66044, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Hemley, World Wildlife Fund, 1255 23rd Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037, USA (for trade information)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Henderson, Milwaukee Public Museum, 800 West Wells Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Higginson, Voluntaria del Cuerpo de Paz, #156 6a Avenida 1-46, Zona 2 Guatemala, Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.B. Iverson, Department of Biology, Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana 47374, USA S.R. Kellert, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, 205 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.W. King, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Larde, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia Planes de Renderos, Km. 10 Col. Los Angeles 13, CP 01196 San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Marcellini, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Mora, 200 m sur Pulperia la Uni6n, Cinco Esquinas, Carrieal, Alajuela, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Ottenwalder, Parque Zool6gico Nacional, Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C. Packard, Department of Zoology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.J. Perez, Condominio Su. Antonio 7, C. San Antonio Abad, San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Phillips, Research Department, San Diego Zoo, Box 551, San Diego, Calffornia 92112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Werner, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Apa,-tado 1501-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.S. Fitch, Route #3, Box 142, Lawrence, Kansas 66044, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Henderson, Milwaukee Public Museum, 800 West Wells Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Higginson, Voluntaria del Cuerpo de Paz, #156 6a Avenida 1-46, Zona 2 Guatemala, Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.M. Hillis, Department of Biology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Larde, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Planes de Renderos Km. 10 Col. Los Angeles 13, CP 01196, San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Marcellini, National Zoologica, Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Mora, 200 m sur Pulperita La Union, Cinco Esquinas, Carrieal, Alajuela, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C. Packard, Department of Zoology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.J. Perez, Condominio Su. Antonio 7, C. San Antonio Abad, San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Phillips, Research Department, San Diego Zoo, Box 551, San Diego, Calffornia 92112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Werner, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Apartado 1501-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rock Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Auffenberg, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Auth, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cullen, Cullen Vivarium, 3401 South 16th Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53215 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ferreira, Parque Zool6gico Nacional, Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Henderson, Mi]waukee Public Museum, 800 West Wells Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.B. Iverson, Department of Biology, Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana 47374, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Ottenwalder, Parque Zool6gico Nacional, Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.A. Wiewandt, Wild Horizons, Inc., P.O. Box 5118, Tucson, Arizona 85703, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tegu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. Blanco, Direccion Nacional de Fauna Silvestre, Avenida Paseo Colon 922 2&Yacute;piso, (1063) Buenos Aires, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.K. Donadio, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, CC 220, Avenida Angel Gallardo 470, Suc. 5, 1405 Buenos Aires, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Gallardo, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, CC 220, Avenida Angel Gallardo 470, Suc. 5, 1405 Buenos Aires, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Hemley, World Wildlife Fund, 1255 23rd Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Marcellini, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.L. Marmillon, Casilla de Correo 451, 5800 Rio Cuarto, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C. Packard, Department of Zoology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Werner, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Apartado 1501-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Local Agriculture Extension Services and beekeepers are often the best source of information for beginning beekeeping. In addition, the following organizations can provide information: International Bee Research Association, 16/18 North Road, Cardiff CF1 3DY, UK; International Agency for Apiculture Development, 6N 909 Roosevelt, St. Charles, Illinois 60174, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Abt, Centre for International Agricultural Development Cooperation, Tel Aviv, Israel M. Adey. International Bee Research Association, 16/18 North Road, Cardiff CFI 3DY, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.O. Adjare, Technology Consultancy Centre, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All India Beekeepers' Association, 817 Sadashiv Peth, Poono 411 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K.N. Atuahene, Forest Product Research Institute (Ghana Forestry Commission), University P.O. Box 63, Kumasi, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.S. Brar, Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Bradbear, International Bee Research Association, North Road, Cardiff CFI 3DY, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.M. Caron, Department of Entomology and Applied Ecology, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19717, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.S. Chahal, Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Clauss, Beekeeping Survey, Kabompo, Zambia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.P. Coleman, International Agency for Apiculture Development, 6N 909 Roosevelt, St. Charles, Illinois 60174, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director, or Resident Bee Specialist, Apiary Studies, Zoological Institute, Leningrad, USSR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. DeJong, Departamento de Genetica, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirao Preto, Universidade Sao Paulo, 14.049Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Dutton, Centre for Overseas Research and Development (CORD), University of Durham, South Road, Durham DHI 3LE, UK (Apisflorea) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.H. Erickson, Carl Hayden Bee Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2000 East Allen Road, Tucson, Arizona 85719, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirao Preto, Departamento de GenTtica, 14100Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Fell, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Flottum, Gleanings in Bee Culture, 623 West Liberty Street, P.O. Box 706, Medina, Ohio 44258-0706, USA (editor)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Free, Rothamstead Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire L5 2JQ, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wolde-Semait Gebre-Wold, P.O. Box 7505, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.B. Habarugira, AHO (Apiary), Mbara Stockfarm, Beekeeping Section, P.O. Box 4, Mbarara, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.A.M. Hassan, Njiro Wildlife (Beekeeping) Research Centre, P.O. Box 661, Arusha, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Hoopingarner, Department of Entomology, University of Michigan, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1115, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.E. Kerr, Departamento de Biolgia, Universidade Federal de UberlGndia, 38400 UberlGndia, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.G. Kevan, or Resident Bee Specialist, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NIG 2WI, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.K. Kigatiia, Beekeeping Branch, Ministry of Agriculture c~ Livestock Development, P.O. Box 30028, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.C. Killins, 163 Trowbridge Avenue, London, Ontario N6J 3M2, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.M. Kiwuwa, AHL (Apiary), Department of Veterinary Services, Headquarters, Beekeeping Section, P.O. Box 7141, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Lanarolle, Apiculture Project, Bindunuwewa, Bandarawela, Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Y. Lensky, Triwaks Bee Research Center, Hebrew University Faculty of Agriculture, Rehovot 76-100, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.D. Levin, Carl Hayden Bee Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2000 East Allen Road, Tucson, Arizona 85719, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Singh Limbu, Godavari Ashram, GPO Box 50, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Mann, 14 Millimani Road, Box 20360, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.J. McGinley, Department of Entomology, NHB-105, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560, USA (Apoidea, except Apis) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. McKay, Peace Corps, American Embassy, Asunci6n, Paraguay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.D. Michener, Snow Entomological Museum, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.A. Morse, Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Morton, Morton Collectanea, University of Miami, Box 248204, Coral Gables, Florida 37724, USA (bee plants)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.G. Mugisa, c/o Insure Consult, P.O. Box 30002, Nakiuubo, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Bin Muid, Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.C. Mulzac, International Agency for Apiculture Development, 393 Decatur Street, Brooklyn, New York 11233, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.S. Najar, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Aleppo, Aleppo, Syria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.E. Nightingale, Box 23, Njoro, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Patty, Foreign Agriculture Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 6095 South Building, Washington, D.C. 20250, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.M. Phiri, Office of Chief Beekeeping Officer, P/BAC Mwekera, Kitwe, Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Pickard, Zoology Department, University College, P.O. Box 78, Cardiff CFI IXL, South Wales, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.W. Robins, GPO Box 50, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Roubik, Stop 105, Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560, USA (stingless bees)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Sammataro, 7011 Spieth Road, Medina, Ohio 44256, USA (editor, Cornucopia) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Schechtel, Cnel. Bogado/Itapua, Paraguay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Shimanuki, Beneficial Insects Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, B-476 BARC-East, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.R. Taylor, Department of Entomology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Tew, Agricultural Technical Institute, Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio 44691, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Tomasko, Pennsylvania State University, 106 Patterson Building, University Park7 Pennsylvania 16802, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Torchio, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bee Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-5310, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Wadlow, 8381 San Mateo, Ft. Myers, Florida 33907, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.W. Whitehead, International Agency for Apiculture Development, c/o 1000 Connecticut Avenue NW, #707, Washington, D.C. 20036, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siriwat Wongsiri, Department of Biology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok7 Thailand (Apis cerana) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wu Yan-ru, Department of Insect Taxonomy and Faunistics, Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, 7 Zhongguancun Lu, Haitien, Beijing, People's Republic of China </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">C BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF PANEL MEMBERS</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. PHILLIPS retired in 1982 from the post of deputy director general of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy, a post he held for four years. Among his earlier posts were that of professor and head, Animal Husbandry Department, Utah State University; senior animal husbandman in charge, Genetic Investigations, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA); chief, Animal Production Branch and deputy director, Agriculture Division, FAO; and executive director, International Organization Affairs, USDA. Among his special assignments were: serving as consultant on animal breeding to the governments of China and India for the U.S. Department of State in 1943-44; and as scientific secretary for agriculture of the United Nations Conference on Science and Technology for the Benefit of Developing Countries, in Ceneva, Switzerland, 1962-63. Dr. Phillips holds a B.S. degree in agriculture from Berea College (1930), M.A. (1931) and Ph.D. (1934) degrees from the University of Missouri, and Honorary D.Sc. degrees from Berea College and West Virginia University. He has been awarded the Berea College Distinguished Alumnus Award and the USDA's Distinguished Service Award. He is author or coauthor of some 240 scientific papers, review papers, chapters in books, and books on various aspects of physiology of reproduction, genetics, livestock production, and international agriculture. In his research, writings, and international activities, Dr. Phillips has given particular attention to breeding in relation to the environment and to the identification and conservation of valuable animal genetic resources. He is also the author of a definitive history of FAO entitled FAO: Its Origins, Formation and Evolution, 19451981 and an autobiography, The World Was My Barnyard. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU is currently senior advisor to the president of the African Development Bank. He is also president of ESA Associates, Washington, D.C., and former director of the Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. A citizen of Ghana, he received his B.A. in 1961 from Miami University in Ohio, M.Sc. from The George Washington University in 1963, and his Ph.D. in 1966 from the University of London. His research interests cover many areas of tropical biology. An internationally recognized expert on topics relating to science, technology, and development, especially in developing countries, he has also published extensively on tropical plants. Dr. Ayensu chairs and serves as a member of many international bodies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BONNIE V. BEAVER, professor of small animal medicine and surgery, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, is a specialist in animal behavior and problem behaviors, especially in domestic and laboratory animals. She received her B.S. and D.V.M. from the University of Minnesota and her M.S. from Texas A&amp;M. In addition to being a popular speaker at scientific meetings, she is the author of five books and numerous book chapters and articles. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT BENIRSCHKE, professor of pathology and reproductive medicine, University of California at San Diego, received his M.D. from the University of Hamburg, Germany, in 1948. He served on the faculties of Harvard and Dartmouth medical schools before coming to San Diego in 1970. At the San Diego Zoo he initiated a research department to advance knowledge in endangered species and now serves as a trustee of that organization. He has written on comparative mammalian cytogenetics, vanishing species, and human reproductive pathology. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROY D. CRAWFORD is professor of animal and poultry genetics at the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. He received his B.S.A. from the University of Saskatchewan in 1955, his M.S. in animal genetics from Cornell University in 1957, and his Ph.D. in poultry genetics from the University of Massachusetts in 1963. He was employed as a scientist with the Research Branch of Agriculture Canada from 1957 to 1964 in Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia. He joined the faculty of the University of Saskatchewan in 1964. He was made a fellow of the Agricultural Institute of Canada in 1986 in recognition of his teaching and research work. His research interests include single gene genetics of poultry, and conservation of genetic resources in poultry and livestock. He has discovered and studied many mutants in chickens; some of them have biomedical importance, including one shown to be an animal genetic model of human grand mal epilepsy; some of them are potentially useful in food production, including an albinism mutant that is being developed for autosexing of commercial chicken broilers. He maintains a very large conservation collection of poultry genetic resources at the University of Saskatchewan and has prepared an inventory and assessment of Canada's poultry and livestock genetic resources. Dr. Crawford is a member of the Expert Panel on Animal Genetic Resources Conservation and Management, FAO/UNEP, Rome, and is a member of the Animal Resources Committee, Canadian Council on Animal Care, Ottawa. He serves on the International Scientific Committee for the French journal GTnTtique, STlection, +volution. He is a member of the Rare Breeds Survival Trust (UK) and is a board member of the American Minor Breeds Conservancy (USA). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONY J. CUNHA, distinguished service professor emeritus, University of Florida, Gainesville, and dean emeritus, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, received his Ph.D. at the University of Wisconsin in 1944. He has given more than 100 lectures in livestock feeding and nutrition in 40 foreign countries. He served as chairman of the Animal Nutrition Committee of the National Academy of Sciences and as a member of the NAS-NRC Board of Agriculture and Renewable Resources, Latin American Science Board, and as chairman of the livestock committee of two world food studies by NAS-NRC. He served as a member of the organizing committee for the first two World Conferences on Animal Production in Rome (1963) and Washington, D.C. (1968). He served as a member of the Title XII Board of International Food and Agricultural Joint Committee on Research and as chairman of its research priorities committee 1977-1981. He is author, editor, coeditor, or contributor to 30 books and author of more than 1,423 scientific and professional articles. He is a winner of 42 campus, state, national, and international honors and awards. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID E. DEPPNER, director of Trees for the Future in Silver Spring, Maryland, has been a consultant for international development projects involving livestock and poultry management and marketing for the past 14 years. He has served in 17 countries of Asia, Africa, and Central America. He has written on processing livestock rations under tropical conditions and about the Madurese breed of cattle found in East Java, Indonesia, where he spent two years studying this ancient breed. He is currently providing technical assistance to projects in several countries for the development of improved forage production as an answer to destruction of natural resources of tropical uplands caused by overgrazing. He received his B.Sc. in animal science from Ohio State University in 1954 and M.Sc. in livestock economics from Araneta University, the Philippines, in 1977. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELIZABETH L. HENSON is the director of the American Minor Breeds Conservancy, based in Pittsboro, North Carolina. She received an M.A. in zoology from Oxford University in 1980 and an M.Sc. in domestic animal breeding from Edinburgh University in 1981. Her primary interests are in the conservation of rare and endangered breeds and varieties of domestic livestock as a genetic resource for changing agricultural needs. She represented Britain at the first international conference on domestic animal conservation in Hungary in 1982, and was a member of the Office of Technology Assessment Committee on grassroots strategies to maintain genetic diversity in 1985. She is executive secretary for four British breed associations and is a member of the British Rare Breeds Survival Trust Technical Panel. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. HUSS was regional animal production officer of the FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile, before his retirement. He received a B.S. in 1949, an M.A. in 1954, and a Ph.D. in 1959, all at Texas A&amp;M University. He was assistant professor of range management at Texas A&amp;M before joining the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in 1967. He founded the FAO Regional Office's Small Animals for Small Farms programme in 1980. Professional assignments and travels in Latin America, the Caribbean' Near and Middle East, and Africa have contributed to his knowledge and experience in microlivestock development. Dr. Huss was recognized by Texas A&amp;M University by being chosen as the recipient of the Memorial Student Center Appreciation and Distinguished Service Awards in 1958 and 196O, respectively, and Honour Professor in the College of Agriculture in 1966 67. He also received the Society for Range Management's Outstanding Service and Achievement Award in 1975 and its Fellow Award in 1978. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID RICHARD LINCICOME has been a guest scientist with the Animal Parasitology Institute, United States Department of Agriculture Experiment Station, Beltsville, Maryland, since 1978, having retired as professor of parasitology, Howard University, Washington, D.C., in 1970. He received the B.S. and M.S. degrees cum laude simultaneously in 1937 from the University of Illinois and a Ph.D. in tropical medicine from the Tulane Medical School, New Orleans, Louisiana, in 1941. His principal research interests have centered around morphologic studies on Acanthocephala, molecular exchanges of dependent cells and their environments, and diagnosis of parasitic diseases. He has been a breeder of Nubian and American pygmy goats for the past 20 years. Dr. Lincicome is currently a member of the Board of Directors of the American Dairy Goat Association and is past president of the National Pygmy Goat Association. He was founder and long time trustee of the American Dairy Goat Association Research Foundation. He is also past president of the Helminthological Society and currently serves the society as archivist. He received the Helminthological Society's Anniversary Award in 1975. He was founder and, for 27 years, editor of the journal Experimental Parasitology, and is the author and editor of more than 180 scientific contributions. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS E. LOVEJOY is a tropical biologist and ornithologist. He is assistant secretary for external affairs, Smithsonian Institution' Washington, D.C. He was formerly executive vice president for the World Wildlife Fund-U.S., chairman of the Wildlife Preservation Trust International, and a member of two commissions of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources. At present, Dr. Lovejoy is a principal investigator of the world's largest controlled ecological experiment, which is attempting to determine the optimum size for parks and reserves. This project, conceived and designed by Dr. Lovejoy, is called "the Minimum Critical Size of Ecosystems" and is a joint program of World Wildlife Fund-U. S. and Brazil's National Institute for Amazon Research. Dr. Lovejoy is also the principal advisor for NATURE (WNET/THIRTEEN, New York), a series that he started in 1980. As principal advisor, he recommends program content and oversees the factual accuracy of the program scripts. A member of 11 scientific societies, Dr. Lovejoy has received grants from 16 foundations and institutions and written more than 100 articles for various national and International publications. He has published three books, Key Environments, Pergamon Press, Oxford; Nearctic Avian Migrants in the Neotropics, a Department of the Interior publication; and Conservation of Tropical Forest Birds, an ICPB publication. He is currently working on The Magnificent Exception, a book on people and the biosphere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARNE W. NORDSKOG is professor emeritus, Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University. He received his B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Minnesota between 1937 and 1943. His training and principal area of research has been in quantitative genetics, but by about 1960 his interests shifted to immunogenetics and more recently to molecular genetics. He has traveled widely, spending two years as an instructor in agriculture at the University of Alaska (1937-39), and has been an NSF Research Fellow at Cal Tech (1960), a visiting professor at the University of Minnesota (1966), an FAO lecturer at the Indian Veterinary Institute (1973), and an FAO-sponsored lecturer on poultry breeding in China (1979). He has acted as a consultant to a commercial breeder in Japan for 20 years. He has been the major professor at Iowa State for more than 60 M.S. and Ph.D. candidates and has published more than 150 scientific papers. Dr. Nordskog is an honorary member of the Norwegian Poultry Breeding Association, a fellow of the Poultry Science Association, and a fellow of the AAAS. In 1972, he was the recipient of the Poultry Science Distinguished Service Research Award. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LINDA M. PANEPINTO, swine research consultant, was director of the Colorado State University Swine Laboratory through 1988. She earned her B.S. in animal sciences at Colorado State University in 1972. In 1973 she joined the research team developing Yucatan miniature swine at Colorado State University, where she was given primary responsibility for colony management, protocol development, and genetic selection programs. In 1977, she designed an experimental research program for the development of a line of Yucatan pigs with a genetic propensity for exceptionally small size. She has continued her work in that area and has developed the Yucatan Micropig, described elsewhere in this publication. Her other major professional area of interest has been the design of facilities and equipment for swine with emphasis on animal comfort and minimizing stress. Her invention, known as the Panepinto Sling, has been widely adopted as the primary restraint method for numerous medical schools and research facilities using swine in the laboratory. She has published extensively in the field.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT J. PETERS is professor of animal breeding and husbandry in the tropics and subtropics, University of Gottingen, and is currently director of research at the International Livestock Centre for Africa. He received his Dr. Agr. degree from the Technical University of Berlin in 1975. He has undertaken research in livestock production development in Southeast Asia and Africa. The major focus of his research has been small animals, with special attention given to the potential of unconventional animals. Early in 1985 he assumed his present position directing research at the International Livestock Centre for Africa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN A. PINO is a senior fellow of the National Research Council, Board on Agriculture, and is currently the project director of the study "Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Imperatives." He received his B.S. in agriculture in 1944-47 and Ph.D. in zoology in 1951 from Rutgers University. As an associate professor he taught and did research in the Department of Poultry Science at Rutgers until 1955 when he accepted a position with the Rockefeller Foundation as animal scientist with the Mexican Agricultural Program, becoming the associate director of that program in 1960. In 1965 he was transferred to the Rockefeller headquarters in New York and became director of the Agricultural Science Program in 1970. Most of his career has been in international agricultural development. He retired from the Foundation in 1983 and went to Washington to become agricultural science advisor at the InterAmerican Development Bank until July 1986 when he accepted his present position. Dr. Pino has been a member of the Board on Agriculture since 1983 and previously from 1973 to 1977. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE is professor of soils, agronomy, botany, and geography, and director of the Center for Tropical Agriculture and International Programs (Agriculture) at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. from the University of California at Davis in 1951 and his Ph.D. in soils from the University of Florida in 1960. His principal research interest has been in the area of tropical agriculture and land use. His early work on shifting cultivation is one of the major contributions to this system. He has traveled and worked in most of the countries in the tropical areas of Latin America, Asia, and Africa. His current interests include improving indigenous agricultural systems of small landholders, particularly with the integration of livestock and crops. He was chairman of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation and a member of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development (under whose aegis this report is presented). He chaired the BOSTID report panels on water buffalo and little-known Asian animals. Currently, he is on the International Advisory Committee of the National Science Foundation and serves as U.S. Board Member for the International Foundation of Science.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL HILL ROBINSON, director of the Smithsonian Institution's National Zoological Park, is an animal behaviorist and a tropical biologist. Before his appointment to the National Zoo, Dr. Robinson served as deputy director of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Panama, which he joined in 1966 as a tropical biologist. He received his Ph.D. from Oxford University after being awarded his B.S., summa cum laude, from the University of Wales. His scientific interests include predator-prey interactions, evolution of adaptations, tropical biology, courtship and mating behavior, phenology of arthropods, and freshwater biology. In the course of his studies, Dr. Robinson has done research in the United States and throughout the developing world. Recent publications include articles on predator-prey interactions, tropical forest conservation, reproductive behavior in spiders, and the function and purpose of zoos in relation to education and conservation. Dr. Robinson's favorite animals are cats, of all kinds. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KNUT SCHMIDT-NIELSON, J.B. Duke Professor of Physiology in the Department of Zoology at Duke University, has studied animal responses to extreme environmental conditions. His major emphasis has been on life in hot deserts, and he is widely recognized for his studies of camels and other desert animals. His research has involved field studies in North and South America, Africa, Asia, and Australia. Dr. Schmidt-Nielson has written several books, which have been translated into more than a dozen languages, and he has published several hundred research papers. He has been elected to the National Academy of Sciences, the Royal Society, the French Academie des Sciences, and several other academies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALBERT E. SOLLOD, is associate professor and head of the international veterinary medicine section at Tufts University School of Veterinary Medicine. He is currently stationed in Niger as chief of party of the integrated livestock project and policy advisor in the Ministry of Animal Resources. He has consulted in 15 countries in Africa and Asia, and his research interests include interdisciplinary systems analysis, indigenous pastoral technologies, monitoring change in agricultural production systems, and monitoring and assessing drought impact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEE M. TALBOT received his Ph.D. in geography and ecology from the University of California at Berkeley in 1963 and has worked on environmental and natural resource ecology and management in over 110 countries. At present he is visiting fellow at the World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., and senior environmental consultant to the World Bank. He carried out pioneering research in Africa and elsewhere on the use of wild animals for food production. He has written more than 180 scientific and technical publications, including ten books and monographs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAIR E. TERRILL, animal scientist, collaborator, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Beltsville, Maryland, received his Ph.D. from the University of Missouri in 1936, served briefly at the Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station, and joined the USDA at the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station, Dubois, Idaho, in the same year. His research concerned genetics and reproduction of sheep, leading to national and international responsibility regarding research and production of sheep, goats, and other animals, with primary emphasis on increasing efficiency of production of meat, wool, and other products. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHRISTIAN M. WEMMER is assistant director for conservation and captive breeding programs at the National Zoological Park and is also in charge of the zoo's 3,100 acre Conservation and Research Center in Front Royal, Virginia. He is vice chairman of the IUCN Deer Specialist Group and a member of the Mustelid and Viverrid Specialist Group of the same organization. His interest in evolutionary and conservation biology has been motivated by frequent travel to South Asia and his role as scientific coordinator of the Smithsonian Nepal Terai Ecology Project. For the past 12 years he has coordinated the development of facilities and programs at the Conservation and Research Center and with Dr. R. Rudran has promoted conservation training and wildlife research in developing nations. He has published over 50 papers on various aspects of mammalian biology and conservation and has co-edited with Benjamin Beck one book on PFre David's deer. His edited volume "The Biology and Management of the Cervidae" was published by the Smithsonian Institution Press. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DANNY C. WHARTON is associate curator, Animal Departments, at New York Zoological Park, Bronx, New York. He received a B.S. from the College of Idaho and an M.Sc. in 1975 from the School for International Training in Brattleboro, Vermont. His Ph.D. in biology was earned at Fordham University. Dr. Wharton was a Peace Corps volunteer to Ecuador 1969-71 and a Fulbright scholar to Germany 1976-77. His research interests have been in the genetic and demographic management of small populations. He works on several committees including the IUCN/SSC Captive Breeding Specialist Group, Species Survival Plan Committee of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, and is species chairman for the North American Propagation Group for the Snow Leopard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES A. WOODS IS curator of mammals at the Florida State Museum and a professor of zoology at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. in zoology from the University of Denver and his Ph.D. in zoology from the University of Massachusetts. He worked at the University of Vermont from 1970 to 1979 when he assumed his present position at the University of Florida. His principle research interests have been in the areas of mammalian ecology (Rodentia) and systematics and evolution and he is especially concerned with island biology. He has spent many years working in the West Indies on a variety of projects and has worked closely with the government of Haiti in establishing a plan for the National Parks of Haiti and in completing a biogeophysical inventory of the natural resources of Hispaniola. He is the ecological consultant for the Institut de Sauvegarde du Patrimoine National in Haiti. He is the author of a number of scientific articles on the fauna of the Antilles including a multivolume series on the fauna of the mountains of Haiti. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS M. YUILL is associate dean for research and graduate training of the School of Veterinary Medicine, assistant director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, and professor of pathobiology and of veterinary science at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He received his B.S. in wildlife management from Utah State University in 1959 and his Ph.D. jointly in veterinary science and wildlife ecology in 1964 from the University of Wisconsin. His principal research interests are animal health and diseases of wildlife, including those transmissible to domestic animals and to man. He worked in Thailand for two years and has had active research programs in Colombia for 17 years, and Costa Rica for 5 years. He has recently become involved in animal health and production development in the Gambia, West Africa. Dr. Yuill is an executive committee member and immediate past president of the Organization for Tropical Studies and currently serves as president of the Wildlife Disease Association. He completed a five-year term as Chairman of the U.S. Virus Diseases Panel of the U.S.-Japan Cooperative Biomedical Sciences Program. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
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+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALEXANDER SHAKOW, Director, Strategic Planning and Review,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank, Washington, D.C., Chairman</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PATRICIA BARNES-MCCONNELL, Director, Bean/Cowpea CRSP, East Lansing, Michigan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JORDAN J. BARUCH, President, Jordan Baruch Associates, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER D. BELL, President, The Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, New York, New York</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BARRY BLOOM, Professor, Department of Microbiology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, The Bronx, New York</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANE BORTNTCK, Assistant Chief, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE T. CURLIN, The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, The National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DTRK FRANKENBERG, Director, Marine Sciences Program, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HARDY, Boyce-Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK HORNE, Dean, College of Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELLEN MESSER, Allan Shaw Feinstein World Hunger Program, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLEs C. MUSCOPLAT, Executive Vice President, Molecular Genetics, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES QUINN, Amos Tuck School of Business, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VERNON RUTTAN, Regents Professor, Department of Agriculture and Applied Economics, Saint Paul, Minnesota</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANTHONY SAN PIETRO, Professor of Plant Biochemistry, Department of Biology, Bloomington, Indiana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST SMERDON, College of Engineering and Mines, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GERARD P. DINEEN, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., ex officio </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES B. WYNGAARDEN, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., ex officio </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development Publications and Information Services (H A-476E)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of International Affairs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20418 U SA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
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+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Microlivestock - Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future (b17mie)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">L-M-N-O-P</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">introduce small animals and micro-livestock in your farm</Metadata>
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+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Little Known Asian Animals With a Promising Economic Future</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
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+    <Metadata name="Title">Little Known Asian Animals With a Promising Economic Future</Metadata>
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+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation Board on Science and Technology for International Development Office of International Affairs National Research Council </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 1983</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the Councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the Committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropiate balance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Research Council was established by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and of advising the federal government. The Council operates in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy under the authority of its congressional charter of 1863, which establishes the Academy as a private, nonprofit, self-governing membership corporation. The Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in the conduct of their services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. It is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. The National Academy of Engineering and the Institute of Medicine were established in 1964 and 1970, respectively, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID) of the Office of International Affairs addresses a range of issues arising from the ways in which science and technology in developing countries can stimulate and complement the complex processes of social and economic development. It oversees a broad program of bilateral workshops with scientific organizations in developing countries and conducts special studies. BOSTID's Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation publishes topical reviews of technical processes and biological resources of potential importance to developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been prepared by an ad hoc advisory panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Office of International Affairs, National Research Council. Program costs for the study were provided by the Office of Technical Resources, Bureau for Asia, Agency for International Development, under Grant No. ASB-0249-SS-00-1026-00 and the Office of the Science Advisor, Agency for International Development, under Grant No. DAN/ 5538-G-SS-1023-00.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Funding for this printing was provided by the Office of Agriculture, Bureau for Science and Technology, Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C., under Grant No. DAN 1406-G-SS-4001-00.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First Printing, June 1983</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second Printing, July 1984</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 83-061909</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participants in the Study</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributors </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AMBAR ROESYAT, Research Institute for Animal Husbandry, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. B. ARKA, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Udayana University, Bali, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. S. F. BARKER, Professor of Animal Sciences and Head of Department, The University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT BENIRSCHKE, Research Department, San Diego Zoological Garden, San Diego, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEN BERESKIN, Research Geneticist, Nonruminant Animal Nutrition Laboratory, Animal Science Institute, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALEIGH A. BLOUCH, World Wildlife Fund, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. BONGERS, Nature Conservation Department, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. BONNEMAIRE, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, Dijon, France </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. BOSMA, Vakgroep Funktionele Morfologie, Rijksuniversiteit, Utrecht, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. BUTCHER, Assistant Director, Western Plains Zoo, Dubbo, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. S. CHILD, Wildlife and Parks Management Officer, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. ROSS COCKRILL, International Animal Consultant, Almansil, Algarve, Portugal </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PAUL CONRY, Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources, Department of Agriculture, Guam </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD J. COOLIDGE, Former President, International Union for the Conservation of Nature, Beverly, Massachusetts, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. P. CROWCROFT, General Director, Metropolitan Zoo, Toronto, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONY J. CUNHA, Dean Emeritus, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. DEPPNER, Tropical Livestock Consultant, Washington, D.C., USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. DEVENDRA, Head, Feed Resources and Animal Nutrition Branch, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Selangor, Malaysia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. M. DOLAN, San Diego Zoological Garden, San Diego, California, USA DUKUT SULARSASA, Department of Tropical Veterinary Science, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. EPSTEIN, Faculty of Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, Israel (retired) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. FINNIE, Taronga Zoo, Mosman, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. FISCHER, Director, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, JustusLiebig-Universitat, Giessen, Federal Republic of Germany </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IAN FLETCHER, Project for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANNIE P. GRAY, Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Edinburgh, Scotland (retired) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. B. GRIFFITHS, Director, Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. R. GRiMWOOD, Nairobi, Kenya </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COLIN P. GROVES, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T., Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ULRICH HALDER, Swiss League for Nature Conservation, Basel, Switzerland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES G. HICKMAN, Livestock Consultant, A. Mithat Efendi Sokak No. 36/11, Cankaya, Ankara, Turkey </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. HOFFMAN, Veterinarian, Project for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. H. G. HOLMES, Department of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. HUITEMA, Veterinarian, Osterbeek, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. H. HUTASOIT, Director-General, Livestock Services, Jakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BENT JORGENSEN, Director, Copenhagen Zoo, Copenhagen, Denmark </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAT KlEFFER, Department of Animal Science, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, Texas, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING, Director and Professor, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GRAHAM W. M. KIRBY, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Production, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HEINZ-GEORG KLOS, Director, Zoologischer Garten, Berlin, West Germany </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KUSMAT TANUDIMADJA, Professor of Veterinary Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institut Pertanian, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN K. LOOSLI, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN A. LUKAS, White Oak Plantation, Yulee, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. MACDONALD, Vakgroep Funktionele Morfologie, Rijksuniversiteit, Utrecht, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN MACKINNON, Representative, World Wildlife Fund, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT E. McDOWELL, Professor, Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JEFFREY A. McNEELY, Executive Officer, Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADRIAN G. MARSHALL, Honorary Secretary, Institute of South-east Asian Biology, Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen, Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">[AN L. MASON, Animal Breeding Consultant, Edinburgh, Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEERT MONTSMA, Vakgroepen Veefokkerij, Veehouderij, Tropische Veehouderij, Wageningen, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. MORAN, Senior Research Officer, Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute, Kyabram, Victoria, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. MILLER, Chief, Milk Secretion and Mastitis Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAN NARI, Director, Central Research Institute for Animal Science, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARVEY NEESE, President, Agri-Food Systems International, Inc., Troy, Idaho, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. M. NITIS, Department of Animal Nutrition and Tropical Pasture Production, Udayana University, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM L. R. OLIVER, Chairman, lUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN PAYNE, Wildlife Section, Forest Department, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J.A. PAYNE, Tropical Animal Breeding Consultant, London, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. PHILLIPS, Arlington, Virginia, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Scientific Advisor, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C., USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID W. ROBINSON, Associate Dean, International Programs, University of California, Davis, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PATRICK J. ROBINSON, Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. H. L. ROLLINSON, Animal Production Officer, Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLIVE ROOTS, Director, Assiniboine Park Zoo, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. A. SAYER, Nature Conservation and National Parks Project, FAO, Rangoon, Burma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. E. SATTER, Nature Conservation and National Parks Project, FAO, Rangoon, Burma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORCE B. SCHALLER, New York Zoological Society, New York, New York, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN SCHOTTLER, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Industry, Lae, Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE SEIFERT, CSIRO, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROGER V. SHORT, Professor of Reproductive Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. C. SINHA, Outdoor Recreation and Wildlife Research Division, Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna, Philippines </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK J. SIMOONS, Professor, Department of Geography, University of California, Davis, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. D. SIMPSON, Senior Extension Specialist, Department of Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. SITORUS, Research Institute for Animal Production, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. J. SMITH, Royal School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. J. STOLP-DIEPEVEEN, Department of Tropical Animal Production, Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUBANDRlYO, Research Institute for Animal Production, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. SUMADI, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. M. TALBOT, World Wildlife Fund International, Gland, Switzerland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WARREN D. THOMAS, Director, Los Angeles Zoo, Los Angeles, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. L. THROP, Director, Taronga Zoo, Mosman, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALLEN D. TILLMAN, Private Consultant in Animal Production, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD G. TULLOCH, Division of Wildlife Research, CSIRO, Winnellie, Northern Territory, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HELEN NEWTON TURNER, Genetics Research Laboratories, CSIRO, North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. VAN PUIJENBROECK, Curator of Mammals, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. J. WARWICK, Visiting Professor, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WARTOMO HARDJOSUBROTO, Lecturer in Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. H. WHARTON, Chief Research Scientist, CSIRO, Long Pocket Laboratories, Brisbane, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. L. WHEELER, Project Manager, Project for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.H. WOODFORD, Wildlife Veterinarian, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.A.YOUNG, Department of Animal Science, the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.ZULBARDI, Research Institute for Animal Production, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Professional Associate, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Asian Animals Study Director </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council Staff</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE RECKS, Administrative Secretary </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is high time that the world was made aware of the valuable, large ruminant genetic resources of Southeast Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. MORAN Livestock Specialist Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute Kyabram, Victoria, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Without utilization preservation is doomed to failure. Local breeds able to perform well in difficult habitats, such as in sparse vegetation, mountainous terrain, or the tropics, should be used for their agricultural potential. Breeds that demonstrate hybrid vigor on crossing with improved or exotic breeds also merit utilization. Genetically unique breeds should be retained for scientific studies of genetics, evolution, and biochemistry. And aesthetically attractive and historically important breeds should be maintained in parks and preserves for their educational and cultural values.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. L. MASON Animal Breeding Consultant Edinburgh. Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p00.png"></center><br>
+ YAK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report began as a brief examination of the domesticated banteng, a little studied bovine that is an important livestock resource in eastern Indonesia. But the study expanded to include other possibly useful but obscure bovines of Asia: the madura (a hybrid between banteng and cattle), gaur, mithan, kouprey, anoa, tamaraw, yak, and yakowshybrids formed by crossing yaks with cattle. Four pig species were also included (the bearded pig, the Sulawesi warty pig, the Javan warty pig, and the pygmy hog) that are important traditional resources in parts of Asia, as well as the babirusaa piglike, wild animal of Sulawesi that may have a rudimentary rumen. (Asia also has some interesting, little-known breeds of cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats, and the common pig, but in this report we have chosen to highlight unconventional species only.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are unfamiliar to international animal science. This report aims to kindle awareness of their possible promise and to stimulate their introduction into projects in the world's animal research facilities. Only through active investigation will the potential of these species - most of which are now familiar only to a small number of wildlife specialists - become clear. Many are threatened with extinction; their genetic merits should be assessed before it is too late.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development agencies and governments in the tropics should regard local species, such as those described in this report, as important genetic material for bolstering the long-term success of domestic livestock breeding programs. These indigenous resources can probably be improved genetically to compare favorably with imported livestock, particularly in difficult tropical environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report was prepared after Hugh Popenoe, Chairman of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI), and Noel Vietmeyer of the ACT! staff visited banteng researchers in Indonesia, northern Australia, and Papua New Guinea in May 1981. More than 90 researchers (see contributor's list) provided information to the report through correspondence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACTI is a committee of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council. It assesses unconventional resources and technologies that might prove especially applicable to problems of developing countries. Current titles in the ACTI series Managing Tropical Animal Resources are: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal (1981)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea (1983). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The production of these books has been supported largely by the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID). Program costs for this study were sponsored by AID'S Bureau for Asia, and staff costs by AID'S Office of the Science Advisor, which also made possible the free distribution of this report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is an exploratory volume. It will, perhaps, lead in a few years' time to a more complete book on indigenous Asian animals - and perhaps also to similar books on little-known animals of Africa and Latin America. If you have material to contribute to the future edition, please send it to Noel Vietmeyer, JH213, National Academy of Sciences, 2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington, D.C. 20418, USA, who will contact you when any new publication on this subject is planned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia has several domesticated animals about which little is known. Among them are the banteng ("Bali cattle") of Indonesia, the yak of Central Asia's high country, and the mithan of the border region of India, Burma, and Bangladesh.( *The promise of another Asian animal, the water buffalo, is described in companion report no 32. ) Some Asian farmers use domesticated bovine hybrids: the madura (banteng-cattle hybrid) in Indonesia and the yakow (yak-cattle hybrid) in Central Asia. In addition, domesticated forms of at least two Asian pig species (the Indonesian wild boar and the Sulawesi warty pig) are important husbandry animals in parts of Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among Asia's undomesticated animals are five interesting and potentially valuable species of wild bovines: the kouprey in Thailand, Laos, and Kampuchea; the gaur in India and much of Southeast Asia; two species of anoas in Indonesia; and the tamaraw in the Philippines. There are also three species of undomesticated Asian pigs: the bearded pig, the Javan warty pig and pigmy hog. Perhaps the strangest Asian animal of all is the babirusa, a piglike species of eastern Indonesia that may be a rudimentary ruminant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of these animals are either threatened or endangered species, and some will soon be extinct unless scientists, governments, and resource managers take forceful action to preserve them. Scientific management and a better understanding of the animals themselves is required.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important need is to investigate their potential as livestock resources. All seem to be disease resistant and well adapted to difficult natural conditions. Some will interbreed with conventional livestock and might thereby pass on important characters to hybrid progeny. A few of the wild species are ancestors of domestic livestock and could be important genetic reservoirs for maintaining or improving the quality of their domestic descendants. Others may make useful new domesticates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appreciation of their potential in the long-term for the world's agricultural development could create a momentum for the protection, preservation, and greater use of these little-known animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Imported Livestock</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, many thought that the best way to raise animal productivity in tropical developing countries was to introduce high-performing breeds from temperate industrialized areas. The fact that the exotic animals were much more productive than local stock made this seem very appealing. But many such importations ended in failure when the animals either quickly died or their growth or reproduction rates declined so drastically that the herds dwindled away or became uneconomic. These introductions had been made without adequate consideration of the local environment that was expected to support the imported animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More recently, some animal scientists have decried the idea of wholesale importing of temperate-zone livestock into tropical countries without also evaluating the indigenous livestock. In many cases the local animals' apparent poor performance results not from their lack of genetic potential, but from inadequate feeding, breeding, selection, management, and health care.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indigenous Animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until an objective evaluation of particular indigenous breeds is undertaken, governments should regard local animals as vitally important for the long-term development of their domestic livestock industries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To achieve an agriculture that is compatible with nature, we should try to raise an animal as much as possible within its own natural environment. Indigenous species are necessarily well adapted to their surroundings and have survival qualities that imported livestock often lack. They generally select food, either graze or browse, better than foreign species and can therefore exploit the habitat more efficiently and live within it more harmoniously.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But most of the livestock species the world depends on today are best adapted to temperate conditions. This is because Stone Age peoples in what today are Europe, the Middle East, and eastern China domesticated the prototypes of agricultural animals that were available in those places. The world's best-known breeds of cattle, wool sheep, and horses, for example, usually perform well in temperate regions and poorly in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The species described in this report offer promise as new and important alternative livestock resources for tropical regions. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Embryo Transplants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems likely that modern technology will substantially improve our ability to use new species and breeds of livestock. One of the most encouraging of the new biotechnology techniques is embryo transplantation. In this process multiple eggs (produced by hormonally stimulating female animals) are fertilized and transplanted to other female animals. The hormonal cycles of the donor and receiving animals are synchronized so that a pregnancy results.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This technique is widely used to transfer embryos between cattle, but researchers are now exploring transfers between different species and even between different genera. In 1981, for example, animal scientists at the New York Zoological Garden transplanted a fertilized gaur ovum into a Holstein cow, which carried the gaur calf to term. Now veterinarians at the University of Florida are attempting to transplant water buffalo embryos into both zebu and Holstein-Friesian cattle, and vice versa. If such pioneering work can become everyday practice, it will open possibilities of using common livestock to raise rare animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, because embryos are thought to be free of many diseases, their shipment between nations may soon be permitted without elaborate quarantine precautions. Methods for freezing embryos have been worked out so that the tiny bundles of cells can be air freighted inexpensively in small, insulated containers. This may make animals such as those discussed in this report available to Africans, Latin Americans, North Americans, and Europeans. It may vastly simplify the worldwide exchange of animal genetic material and become the animal counterpart of exchanging seeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An additional benefit of embryo transplants is that the surrogate mother's placental blood supply provides the fetus with natural immunity to some local diseases, thus perhaps reducing one of the most serious causes of failure when exotic animals are introduced to new environments. And at Utah State University it has been noted that raising wildsheep embryos in domestic ewes produces lambs that are more docile than if they were raised by their biological mothers. Embryo transplants may be a small step toward domesticating new animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With these possibilities on the horizon, it becomes even more important that all countries preserve their indigenous animals. The rest of this report suggests and discusses Asian species for protection and study. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part I : Domesticated Bovine Species</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems probable that two of our widely used livestock species were domesticated in the Asian tropics: the zebu or humped cattle in India and the water buffalo in the humid marshlands of northeastern India or Southeast Asia. (Both the chicken and some races of pig may also have a tropical Asian origin, but the exact sites of their earliest domestication is unclear.) There are, however, other, much more localized, domesticated bovines in Asia. These are not well studied and deserve greatly increased recognition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section highlights:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Domesticated banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Banteng-cattle hybrids</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Mithan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yak</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yakows. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is time for the world's scientific community to study the genetics, evolution, and biochemical parameters of the unique animal resources, that are found in Southeast Asia. ALLEN D. TILLMAN Animal Consultant Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Though well adapted for survival in their own harsh tropical environments, many domestic livestock breeds are being neglected in the race to achieve temperate zone levels of productivity. CHARLES HICKMAN Department of Dairy Cattle Breeding Ottawa, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies should be made of the present and potential role, productivity and efficiency of all domestic animals and birds, large and small, before they are replaced by imported types. Many wild species also could make important contributions to human welfare with proper management. J. K. LOOSLI Department of Animal Science University of Florida .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conservation of endangered genetic resources represents a genuine and welcome synthesis of the concerns of the agriculturalist and the wildlife enthusiast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN TINKER British Journalist</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p06.png"></center><br>
+ MITHAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Domesticated Banteng</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng (*Bos javanicus is now the accepted name, but Bos sondaicus, Bibos banteng, and other synonyms have been used in the past. (See Hooijer, 1956.) The name "banteng" has traditionally referred to the wild form of Bos javanicus; the name "Bali cattle" to the domesticated form. This chapter describes the domesticated form, but we retain the name banteng to reinforce the fact that the animal is not a breed of cattle, but a distinct species. Despite a cattle-like appearance, the animals are at least as genetically remote from cattle as is the bison. Both produce sterile males when hybridized with European cattle. Australia. (N.D. Vietmeyer)) is a bovine that resembles a small cow. It is, however, an entirely different species from either European cattle (Bos taurus) or zebus (Bos indicus). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These docile animals thrive under hot, humid conditions and, like the water buffalo, have high resistance to ticks and tick-borne diseases. In parts of Southeast Asia they have proved acceptable for draft power and meat production, and they may have potential for many other regions of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng are remarkably uniform in type and have changed little from their wild ancestors (see chapter 6). Bulls stand from 1.3 to 1.5 m high at the shoulders, while cows are about 1.2 m high. They have the general conformation of beef cattle. The skin is tight, the neck short, and the dewlap inconspicuous. The face is narrow and is carried horizontally with the large ears pointing forward. There is no hump, but the male possesses a distinctive crest over the thorax because the spines of the thoracic vertebrae are unusually elongated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On both sexes a striking white oval patch covers the rump and all four legs have white stockings. Calves and females are usually light brown with a thin black line along the middle of the back. Bulls are brown when young but usually turn near-black at maturity, unless castrated. Thus, in a herd the sexes - black males and brown females - are strikingly apparent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male horns grow sideways, upward, and outward from a horny mass on the forehead. Females lack this horny shield and their horns usually grow upward and back, eventually curving down again toward the head. Polled animals have not been reported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mature banteng bulls can weigh from 450 to 500 kg. Under exceptional conditions they may reach 550 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly all the world's domesticated banteng are found in Indonesia. They are particularly important on the islands of Bali, Kalimantan, Lombok, Sulawesi, Sumbawa, and Timor. On Bali and Sumbawa, they are virtually uncontaminated by crossbreeding with other cattle and are thought to have been domesticated there in prehistoric times. Since 1913 government officials have enforced a law that prohibits crossbreeding so as to maintain the purity of the breed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small numbers of banteng have been introduced to Sumatra, Malaysia, and northern Australia, and there are experimental herds in Texas, USA, and New South Wales, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p09.png"></center><br>
+ DISTRIBUTION OF DOMESTICATED BANTEG</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated banteng account for about 20 percent of Indonesia's total population of "cattle." The banteng population increased from 1.1 million in 1967 to 1.4 million in 1975 and is now estimated to be more than 1.5 million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng are found mainly in lowland areas on Indonesian islands straddling the equator. The environment is monsoonal with mean annual temperatures ranging from 23° to 31°C. Most of the region receives heavy rainfall throughout the year, but dry spells as long as five months occur at some locations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng normally have high conception rates. In northern Australia they regularly achieve 80-90 percent conception, as compared with the 50-60 percent of Brahman-Shorthorn crossbred cattle. Similar conception rates have been recorded in Sulawesi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little basic information on the banteng's reproductive physiology has been reported. However, it appears that this differs little from that of cattle. Sexual maturity has been observed as early as 13 months and mating at 16 months.* The gestation period is about one week longer than that of cattle and twinning is not common. At birth, males weigh about 16-17 kg and females about 14-15 kg (about half the size of Brahman-Shorthorn calves). Calves are not weaned at any specific time, and dams may continue suckling a calf until the next birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng will crossbreed with domestic cattle, producing hybrids with notable vigor and heat tolerance (see chapter 2).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has been reported that banteng have the ability to drink water with high salinity," and in northern Australia they have even been seen grazing seaweed on coral reefs at low tide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On high-quality diets, feed-conversion ratios approach those of other bovine species. For example, banteng bulls on high-concentrate diets have shown daily growth rates of 0.7 kg, compared with 0.7 kg in water buffalo, 0.8 kg in zebu cattle, and 0.9 kg in British cattle bulls.:"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the banteng matures, its weight remains lower than that of cattle of similar age. However, relative to mature liveweight, this disadvantage is only about 8 percent.§</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behaviour</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng cannot be handled as roughly as domestic cattle. Cows and calves are timid and easily upset. When stressed they may run into fences and walls, incurring head and spinal injuries. They also easily get into a state of shock. Special squeeze chutes and other special facilities, along with much care in handling the animals, are essential. However, despite their lively temperament banteng are docile if reared, as in Indonesia, with frequent human contact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are promising beef producers. Gourmets consider banteng cuts among the finest of meats, and Indonesia cannot export enough to satisfy the demand in Hong Kong and Japan alone. The meat's outstanding characteristics are its tenderness and leanness. When the animals are maintained and finished under traditional village management, total fat content of the meat (both on a liveweight and carcass basis) is usually less than 4 percent. Little of the fat is deposited among the meat fibers (marbling); about two-thirds of it is mesenteric and the remainder is subcutaneous, laid down in small globules. The carcasses have a high dressing-out percentage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng have proved to be useful as draft animals for the farm but are reportedly less suitable than zebus for hauling carts on roads. Traditionally, both male and female animals are worked, but Balinese farmers normally use females for cultivating light soils only. Banteng are trained when they are about 2 years old and are reportedly easier to train than zebus.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like water buffaloes banteng can utilize low-quality feeds; they are similar in that they can live off forage unpalatable to cattle. It is rare to see banteng in poor condition. Animals of all ages appear to have an ability to maintain weight and body condition even when pasture quality is poor. In this respect, they have been noted to outperform cattle in Australia's Northern Territory. Moreover, due to their lower milk production banteng cows lose less weight and condition during lactation than, for example, Brahman-Shorthorn cows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In comparison with cattle (European breeds) kept under similar circumstances in Australia, banteng are less infested with external parasites. Their hair is short and their hide tough, which helps them resist ticks. Under field conditions few adult cattle ticks (Boophilus microplus) are observed on the animals, except on malnourished individuals, and the incidence of tick-borne disease is said to be very low. Sarcoptic mange is known to affect the animals, but it has a low incidence as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng also appear to tolerate several internal parasites. Liver fluke is probably the most prevalent. Although the animals themselves appear healthy at slaughter, some 80 percent or more of carcasses are found to have partially infected livers. In addition, intestinal worms are often present.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are only slightly affected by Asian trypanosomiasis (Trypanosoma evansi). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are poor milkers; their udders are almost invisible. The lactation varies from 6 to 10 months and milk production is only 0.9-2.8 kg per day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To keep from reverting to the wild state, banteng may need close contact with humans or regular handling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An unidentified banteng disease first appeared on Bali in 1964. Known locally as "jembrana," it spread rapidly, causing mortalities from 10 to 60 percent in certain localities. It was originally thought to be rinderpest; it is now believed to be caused by a rickettsia transmitted by cattle ticks. Outbreaks have occurred with decreasing intensity and virulence since the original outbreak. The disease is under intensive investigation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Bali ziekte," a disease affecting only banteng, has also been noted. It is characterized by dry eczema, followed by severe necrosis of the skin and exposed mucous membrances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their high susceptibility to bovine malignant catarrhal fever, banteng must not be brought in contact with sheep and some other animals. This virus is widely disseminated in sheep and several domestic and wild hoofed mammals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There have been few scientific studies of banteng and no coordinated attempt to improve their performance. They deserve more recognition and they merit testing in tropical locations outside their traditional home in Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The herds in northern Australia (descendants of animals remaining from an abortive colonization attempt in the 1820s) are in a relatively disease-free zone, and although they are feral, they can potentially provide animals for breeding and use in other nations. Although these few hundred banteng are a valuable resource, they are vulnerable to destruction if adverse environmental conditions arise or exotic diseases break out in Australia. Representatives of the herd should therefore be distributed and viable breeding stock established at several new locations. (Their genes and gene combinations may even prove valuable for the indigenous herds in Indonesia, and banteng research and development would make a valuable topic for cooperative research between Australia and Indonesia.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is particularly needed to identify the reasons for the banteng's apparent ability to maintain weight and body condition on poor-quality grazing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problems of bovine malignant catarrhal fever, Bali ziekte, and jembrana need increased attention, particularly directed toward prevention and control. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p13.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Banteng Cattle Hybrids</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng and cattle have the same number of chromosomes, and they will interbreed. Few scientific details on the hybrid progeny are available, but on the Indonesian island of Madura they are a "stabilized crossbreed" because they seem to be genetically uniform. This hybridization took place some 1,500 years ago, when Indian invaders brought zebus of the Sinhala, or Ceylonese, type to Madura and crossed them with the banteng.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These maduras reportedly show better growth rate than the pure banteng species itself. They are thrifty, hardy, and able to perform well under extremes of heat and poor nutrition. Though a hybrid in origin, both sexes of the madura are fully fertile. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For more than 15 centuries the winners of the bull races ("kerapan sap)") have been the herd sires of Madurese villages. This long breeding history has led to an animal with the following characteristics:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Long legs and small feet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Elongated muscles of the rear legs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Heavy muscling over the back, loin, and shoulder</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Quick reactions and nervous temperament</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Great heat tolerance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The ability to perform well as a work animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng-cattle hybrids vary in appearance, depending on whether European or zebu cattle are used in the cross as well as on the amount of backcrossing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maduras (banteng x zebu) are graceful animals. Their bodies are neat, compact, and deep, with well developed forequarters. The cows attain an average weight of about 210 kg and bulls range from 350 to 375 kg at maturity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Superficially, maduras are like Jersey cattle, except for having a much smaller udder. In most of them the banteng dominates the body structure and coat color. Bulls have a well-developed hump; females have almost none. There is no distinct dewlap. Horns are medium sized and curve upwards and slightly backwards. Ears are medium length and horizontal. Breeders on Madura accept only red-brown animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, crossbreeds of banteng and zebu are distributed throughout Indonesia. On the other hand, hybrids between banteng and European cattle have been made only in small programs in the United States and Australia. For example, researchers in central Texas are producing a cross that is one-eighth banteng/seven-eighths Charolais. They believe this will result in a beef animal able to grow well in warm, humid conditions. In the Northern Territory of Australia, no problems have been encountered in mating banteng bulls to Brahman-Shorthorn cows. Calves that are one-fourth banteng/three-fourths Brahman-Shorthorn have since been produced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Virtually all of the 575,000 "cattle" on the Indonesian island of Madura are hybrid animals resulting from crossing indigenous domesticated banteng with zebus. More than 200 head of banteng/Charolais hybrids are found near Easterly, Texas, and a score or so banteng/ Brahman-Shorthorn hybrids are on a research station near Darwin, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The environment in Madura, where most of these hybrids occur, is monsoonal, with mean average temperatures as high as 31°C in the hot season, and dry spells as long as 5 months. It seems likely that judicious selection of the cattle breed could result in hybrids suitable for many other environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the animals on Madura are bred to be raced. They are probably the fastest running bovines. From a standing start, a yoked pair pulling a sled can reach 50 kph by the end of the 130-meter course. An unencumbered individual can approach the speed of a horse (about 68 kph).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When compared with other bovine genotypes in Indonesia, the performance of these hybrids is more closely related to the banteng than the zebu ancestry."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the cross between banteng and European cattle all F1 bulls are sterile; their sperm development ceases at the secondary spermatocyte stage. Infertility also exists in most one-fourth banteng (although some sperm are present) and in all three-fourths banteng bulls. The fertility of the F1 cows, on the other hand, is high - 90 percent as compared with 70 percent for Brahman-Shorthorn cows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hybrids have a lively temperament. However, when they are reared with other domestic cattle or handled on a regular basis, they are almost as docile as cattle. For instance, they remain calm even in Madura's extremely crowded towns. Nevertheless, personal contact probably must be maintained to keep them accustomed to human management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cows are very protective of their calves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several reports from the livestock service of the former Dutch colonial government, as well as several books on the East Indies, state that meat from the madura is the tenderest of any known breed. In addition, the hides are pliable and superior to those of cattle and are used in the highest quality leather goods. They command a price about 20 percent higher than zebu hides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The breed is reportedly one of the best draft animals for its size in the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maduras have several desirable traits, including those outlined below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Feed efficiency. With grain rations, yearling bulls can gain 1 kg on less than 7 kg of ration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Thriftiness. The breed can maintain its body condition on low quality forages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Heat tolerance. The madura has a high rate of cutaneous evaporation and is therefore well adapted to the tropical monsoonal climate. Teams of madura can plow or cultivate land for more than 6 hours, even at high temperatures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Carcass quality. The madura fattens readily on a high-quality diet and  produces carcasses with high dressing percentages, a large rib-eye area, and  high yields of lean meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· External fat thickness. A well-finished madura normally has only a slight  covering of fat over ribs and lower round. Maximum thickness (over the top  round) is less than 1.5 cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Intelligence. These animals are responsive and easily trained. The famous  dancing cattle of Madura, for instance, are actually these banteng-cattle  hybrids.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Parasite resistance. Despite often high levels of fluke infections, the  animals continue to work, reproduce, and maintain body condition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maduras have been bred for one thing - speed. Some of their genetic  limitations are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Low birth weight. The calves begin small, weighing 12-14 kg at birth, and  they continue to be slow weight gainers. [Feeding trials with yearling bulls  have shown daily gains of over 600 g for 180 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Poor lactation. Milk production is normally less than 1.5 lifers per day and lactation ends after about 4 months. The cows often fail to produce milk. Much of this is probably caused by poor nutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the important features of the madura is that its genetic variation has been largely removed during 1,500 years of continuous breeding; with study much valuable information could be obtained that is beneficial to all bovine breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following topics need further study:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Fertility levels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crossbreeding to test the effect of using a wider range of cattle breeds*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Assessment of the hybrid's advantages over the pure banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Performance under a wide range of environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 Mithan</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan (Bos frontalis) is believed to be a domesticated form of gaur (see chapter 6).t (However, it resembles the banteng and some authors have proposed that it is a gaur-cattle cross, others a gaur-banteng cross.) The mithan is a domestic animal indigenous to parts of India, Burma, and Bangladesh. Because of large size and the high butterfat content of its milk it is widely used to crossbreed with cattle in Bhutan. It deserves greater recognition both in Asia and elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan is a handsome animal. Bulls may occasionally exceed 1.7 m at the shoulder and weigh 1,000 kg, but the average bull is about 1.5 m tall and weighs 540 kg. Cows are shorter and weigh less.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal has a dorsal ridge on the crest of the shoulders, a small but pronounced dewlap, and a generally flat forehead. Mithan horns are often of unusual girth; they are straight or gently curving, and many have an enormous base that practically covers the top of the skull.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most calves and females are brown, but adult males are generally black with white stockings on all four legs. Some, however, are light brown, white, or piebald.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the hill ranges of Assam, where gaur are still plentiful and interbreeding between mithan and gaur frequently occurs, the mithans are massive and gaurlike. But in the Chin Hills, where gaur are scarce, the mithans have lost their bulky proportions, probably by interbreeding with cattle. With them, the high dorsal ridge on the shoulder (which lends so much to the imposing stature of the gaur) has disappeared, the horns are cowlike, and the varied coloring of the domestic cow begins to appear.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithan are kept in a domesticated condition by the hill tribes of northeastern India (Mishmis, Mizo, Nagas), the Chittagong Hill tracts, and some Burmese hill ranges (Arakan and Chin Hills). It is the main domestic animal of the Nagas of Nagaland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In India feral herds totalling some 50,000 head roam the jungles of Arunachal Pradesh. Recently the Royal Government of Bhutan has established two herds by purchasing animals from Arunachal Pradesh. Bhutanese farmers have some 60,000 head of animals that are hybrids of mithan and the local breed of cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Bhutan is breeding mithans on government farms and distributing males to private breeders to improve the genetic base.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan is a grazing animal, but in some areas herds are allowed to browse freely in the woods; some return to the villages for protection at night, while others remain largely in the forests. The villagers keep the forest mithans nearby by providing salt, for which the animals have an insatiable craving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feral mithan live in the same habitat as gaurs and are said to move equally skillfully in mountainous terrain. Usually they are found at elevations from 600 to 3,000 m. However, in the Chittagong Hill tracts and the Mishmi country they descend to 300 m and lower, while in Bhutan they have been reported grazing in summer at altitudes as high as 3,300 m, for example around Thimphu.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p23.png"></center><br>
+ Mithan distribution. (after Simoons and Simoons, 1968)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithans are fully fertile amongst themselves. Also, they interbreed freely with the gaur, banteng, yak, and cattle of both the taurus and zebu types. Naga owners encourage the interbreeding with gaur, regarding it as an improvement of the race. (They arrange this by placing salt licks in the forest. After gaur bulls have formed a habit of coming to the licks, mithan cows are left there and in due course mating takes place.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The crosses between mithan and zebu are also encouraged in certain districts. Unlike most crosses between bovine species, those between mithan and cattle result in fertile male and female offspring (although some owners indicate that the F1 male is not a reliable breeder).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is an unusually gentle animal with a quiet disposition, as revealed in the Chin tribe's expression "gentle as a mithan." Normally even a stranger is safe to approach one; if he gives it a bit of salt, it will usually follow him about. Thus, mithans are easily managed in a regular cattlerearing operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many mithans are not domesticated in the strict sense. Their herds live in a semi-tame state near jungle villages and come to settlements only in the evening to lick salt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some regions of northern India, mithans are used for field work and as draft animals. They are also important as a meat supply. The Bhutanese government is establishing a national dairy-mithan breeding program, which could result in a valuable dairy animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To many tribes of northeast India and Burma, mithans serve mainly as sacrificial animals. The Nagas use them as a kind of "currency" to pay for goods, to buy brides, and to pay penalties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids resulting from backcrossing mithan with common cattle are also used as work animals. For at least a century, Bhutanese livestock breeders, particularly those in the eastern section, have mated mithan bulls to siri cows (Bos taurus) from India. This produces very profitable hybrid offspring that have high milk production. The milk is rich in total solids and produces exceptional yields of cheese and butter.* The male of the cross (called "jatsha") is a powerful draft animal, and the female ("jatshum") is a prized milk cow. To this day, extensive crossing continues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan is potentially an animal that can be used in difficult terrain where most domestic cattle breeds do not perform well. Mithans are superior when it comes to feeding on steep slopes and cliffs and for grazing native grass and the leaves of local fodder trees. They are also adapted to tropical and subtropical environments. And they are able to maintain themselves in small herds (6-10 head) in dense jungle.*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan could prove valuable in other parts of the world, and it could be important particularly for the genetic improvement of cattle in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If they are disturbed, mature mithans can be temperamental. They can be difficult to hold with normal fences or chutes, because of their size. When given injections or otherwise subjected to pain, they are liable to bolt to the jungle and not return.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The productivity of these animals needs to be better characterized and defined. Attention should be given to their grazing efficiency as compared with that of cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The two farms the Bhutan government has established for breeding mithans provide an opportunity to gather genetic information on the species and to have experimental matings take place to establish the most suitable animal for various conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The genetic relationship of mithan to gayal, gaur, and cattle needs to be clarified. Although it is believed that the mithan and gayal are the same animal, one of this report's reviewers points out that the mithan of Bhutan are strikingly different in color, body shape, and horn structure from gayals seen in zoos in Europe and India. Although the mithan is now considered a domesticated gaur, many in the past have claimed it as a gaur-cattle hybrid. Physiological research could remove lingering doubts. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p26.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Yak</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yak (Bos grunniens), is a grazing animal that is accustomed to traveling great distances in a harsh environment. Nothing is known about when it was first domesticated, but there has probably been a close association between man and yaks ever since the first humans migrated into the high mountains of Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated yaks are about the size of ordinary cattle and rarely exceed heights of 1.3 m at the shoulder. Their liveweight is generally 250-550 kg for the males and 180-350 kg for the females. They differ little from wild yaks except that they are smaller, have shorter and thinner horns, and may be rusty brown, black, silver grey, or piebald instead of black. Often they have whitish spots on their faces.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yak's hair is long, especially on the flanks, where it forms a shaggy fringe that often reaches the ground. This, together with an underlying layer of thick, fine wool, protects the animal from the bitter cold of its native region. The yak has an enormous tail with a brush of long hair coming from its root, which is rare in bovines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Long extensions of the thoracic vertebrae give the yak shoulders that look like a hump, but this is different from the boneless hump in zebus. The body is long, short-legged, and compact, with particularly large forequarters because, like the bison, the yak has 14 or 15 pairs of ribs instead of the 13 of domestic cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The horns spread outward and upward, and the head is held low, like that of the bison. While no hornless domestic yaks have been reported in Nepal, more than 90 percent of those found in Mongolia lack horns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most yaks are found especially in the mountains and plateaus of Tibet and western China, however they occur from northern Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and Bhutan to Mongolia, and the Soviet Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are more than one million domestic yaks in the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Himalayas the domestic yak is almost always found above 2,000 m elevation. Males are sometimes brought as low as 1,700 m for mating with cattle (see chapter 6), but they do not fare well at such altitudes. In Mongolia and Buryatiya (U.S.S.R.), however, they are found as low as 1,500 m elevation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p29.png"></center><br>
+ Yak distribution. (after J. Bonnemaire, 1976)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild yak lives in desolate mountain areas at altitudes of 4,000-6,000 m. Its habitat is the alpine tundra and the cold desert regions of the northern part of the Tibetan plateau. These barren mountain regions are remote and at higher elevations than the zones of human habitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks look ungainly, partly because they are covered with long hair, but they are agile climbers and can maneuver narrow mountain paths. Their long hair is one adaptation to the cold climate. Other adaptations are the small, compact scrotum of the male and udder of the female, the small teats (only 2-3 cm long) and covering of hair over the udder, and the covering of short hair over the muzzle, except just around the nostrils.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In early summer yaks graze the lush grass in valley bottoms, but for much of the year they live on dry, coarse mountain grass and for long periods obtain water by eating snow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gestation length is 258 days - slightly shorter than that of cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic yaks are docile and easily managed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks are especially useful as riding and pack animals; they can manage loads of more than 150 kg. At altitudes up to 6,000 m they may carry a pack or a person at a steady pace for days and still remain in good condition. In some regions they are the only feasible pack animal. Yak bulls (generally castrated) are also used for plowing and for threshing grain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Occasionally the yak is slaughtered for meat. The meat is particularly important in parts of the USSR and in Mongolia, where in the cold, high-altitude environments it reportedly costs only half as much to produce as beef.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas milk production is an essential aspect of yak husbandry. Yields vary considerably according to management and nutrition, but they average about 600 kg and can be more than 1,000 kg per lactation. Yak milk is golden colored. It is much richer than cow's milk; a typical analysis is: total dry matter, 17.35 percent; fat, 6.5 percent; protein, 5.3 percent; and sugars, 4.6 percent. The fat globules are much larger than those in cow's milk. People of Tibetan stock use yak butter as a food staple and as a lighting fuel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yak hide, though apparently not as good as that of cattle, is used for many purposes. It makes outstanding saddles. Yak hair is used for making ropes, saddle blankets (purportedly the best in the world), grainstorage bags, and tents. The fine wool that occurs beneath the long hair is used for making felt. The annual yield of adult females and males is about 750 g and 1,600 g of hair and about 350 g and 600 g of wool, respectively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because yaks are often found above the timberline their dung is an important fuel in many areas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks can live and work hard in a cold climate. They are the only bovines to thrive at high altitudes. In cold, high areas they can work and produce meat and milk more efficiently and cheaply than cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks are not well able to eliminate surplus heat because their heavy coat reduces their ability to sweat. In warm climates their respiration rate and body temperature increase and they become exhausted and susceptible to infections. At low altitudes in Nepal yaks die of a variety of diseases. Apparently not even yak-cattle hybrid animals (see next chapter) can successfully live below 700 m in that part of the world. This is probably due to overheating, since during the first half of this century yaks grew successfully in trials at low altitudes in Alaska and northern Canada.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yak improvement programs are much needed. It seems probable that the genetic potential of the species is far from realized because Buddhist beliefs oppose the deliberate killing of stock. Techniques for deep freezing yak semen have been successfully developed at Regents Park Zoo, London and should prove invaluable for improving the breed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· As a result of uncontrolled hunting the wild yak is endangered and is now restricted to remote barrens on upland plateaus and highlands in northern Tibet and Chinghai, inhospitable even to domestic yaks. The numbers of wild yak are unknown. They require total protection throughout their range and the establishment of adequately protected reserves with good pasture. To preserve their genetic purity, it is important to isolate wild yaks from domestic yaks and thus keep them pure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A primary need is to catalog the numbers and locations of purebred yaks. Today we have little idea of the total breeding population. Gathering such information is difficult, owing to the geographical isolation of the communities involved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It is also important to catalog the movement of yaks between different areas to see if enough genetic exchange occurs to prevent inbreeding of the population. Exchanges between local pastoralists were much more frequent in the past (for example, between Tibet and Nepal), but this is now more difficult because of border restrictions and because many yak </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">herders that used to move herds long distances have become sedentary farmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Breeding strategies, herd management, product processing, and herd hygiene in Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, northern India, and northern Pakistan, Tibet, Mongolia, and the Soviet Union all differ greatly. It is important to get an overall perspective so that the strengths of the different systems can be judged and the weaknesses reduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· There are clearly different domestic yak "breeds" in terms of their appearance, and these need to be identified and compared systematically. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p33.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">5 Yakows</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks and cattle have the same diploid number of chromosomes (60). And in the regions where yaks are found, they are often interbred with cattle, either the humpless cattle (Bos taurus) of Tibet and Mongolia or the zebu (Bos indicus) of South Asia. As with mules, the hybrid offspring of cattle and yak surpass their parents in strength and vigor. Yakows* grow faster than their parents, and they suffer less from high temperatures than yaks. The hybrid cow reaches sexual maturity earlier and yields larger quantities of milk than the yak cow. The males, however, are sterile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yakow's appearance varies with the type of cattle used in the cross. But because of the phenomenon of hybrid vigor (heterosis), the hybrids are considerably bigger than the mean size of their parents. (For instance, in one test the liveweight was approximately 18 percent higher than the average weight of the parents.) The hybrids also excel in hardiness, working ability, growth rate, and milk production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, their appearance and performance is closer to that of the mother than of the father. Because of this, the yakows can be "custom designed" for various altitude zones. For example, the farmer at lower altitudes may produce cattle-like yakows by breeding yak bulls to domestic cows, while farmers at higher altitudes would use the reverse cross.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yakows have shorter hair and a much less downy undercoat than purebred yaks. They are similar in color to yaks. (In Nepal, black is most frequent, but brown shades and even white may occur.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yakows are found in parts of northeastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, northeast and northwest India, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Tibet, western China, Mongolia, and southeastern Russia. They are found notably in the Himalayan region of Nepal, where they are bred by people of Tibetan culture and language. Sherpas, for instance, supply hybrid cows and heifers to dairy farmers throughout northeastern Nepal. Hybrids are also much bred in Ladakh (northern Pakistan) and Mongolia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whereas farmers in Nepal tend to use zebus to cross with yak, the inhabitants of the Tibetan plateau generally use Bos taurus cattle. People in some areas favor mating yak bulls to cows, while those in other areas prefer the reverse. But even within one village there can be a degree of specialization by different families, depending on wealth and the location of traditional grazing grounds. Generally, however, the crosses between domestic cattle bulls and yak cows are the predominant ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of yak-cattle hybrids in the world is unknown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the yak, the hybrid can live in cold, barren, upland terrain, but it has the advantage of being able to adapt to lower altitudes. In winter, caravans of hybrids may come down as low as 1,600 m in some parts of Nepal, and hybrid herds (especially those resulting from crossing yak bulls with zebu cows) can spend several weeks grazing at altitudes as low as about 1,700 m in winter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female hybrids are fertile when mated with either parent stock. Male hybrids, however, are sterile. Although they have fully developed secondary sexual characters and show libido, their testes do not produce spermatozoa because the seminiferous tubules are poorly developed and the spermatogonia and their nuclei are degenerate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few normal or motile spermatozoa may be found in the semen of backcrosses of the F1 hybrids to either parent, but as a rule the spermatozoa are normal and dead.* Backcrossing is reportedly not common, however, as the progeny do not retain hybrid vigor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tibetan farmers prefer the hybrids for plowing because of their docile temperament. The yak is said to be more stubborn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hybrids are valued as beasts of burden and draft, and are often preferred over yaks. Male hybrids are generally castrated at about 3 years of age so as to increase their strength and size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where pastures occur over areas of greatly varying altitude, the use of hybrid livestock is likely to be more efficient, in biological terms, than the use of yaks or cattle. By judiciously selecting cattle, yaks, or hybrids all altitudes from sea level to above 5,000 m can be utilized with best efficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hybrid's milk is intermediate in composition between that of its parents. However, hybrids yield up to 7 kg of milk per day against the yak's 3 kg. (It seems that the hybrid derived from cattle bull and female yak produces considerably more milk, with a higher fat content than that derived from yak bull x cattle female.) Also the female hybrids produce larger quantities of milk than Nepalese zebu cows on the same hill pastures. They also produce a calf each year, while under normal herd management yaks tend to produce a calf every 2 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids do not tolerate extremes of altitude or cold as well as purebred yaks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The normal gestation period for yaks is about 1 month shorter than that of cattle, and the gestation period for a hybrid is intermediate between that of the parents - hence there may be problems at calving when a female yak is sired by a bull from a large cattle breed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed to identify differences in altitude tolerance between various hybrids. This should include measurements of hemoglobin count, respiration rate, and pulse rates at different altitudes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies are also needed on all production characteristics, particularly on the meat and milk production potentials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cataloging the breeding strategies of different areas where hybrids occur would be useful, along with a historical perspective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research to determine the most productive hybrids by crossing different yak and cattle "breeds" in areas with different environmental conditions could be extremely useful. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part II : Wild Bovine Species</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In various parts of Southeast Asia there exist little-known relatives of cattle and water buffaloes. Many of these wild animals are close to extinction, and attention is drawn to them in hope their populations will be preserved. All of them survive in tropical regions subject to environmental extremes - flooding annual rains, searing droughts, and swarming pests and parasites. These are conditions to which conventional livestock are poorly adapted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None of Africa's bovines is threatened with extinction, and both the European and American forms of bison are being preserved by governments and individuals. In Asia, however, there has been an alarming drop in the numbers of wild water buffalo, wild yak, wild banteng, kouprey, gaur, and tamaraw in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section describes:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wild banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Gaur</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Kouprey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tamaraw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Anoas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If not molested, many of these animals can thrive side by side with human settlements. They may therefore have an important future role in the development of the tropics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is little point in conservation for conservation's sake, but loss of irreplaceable resources through ignorance, greed, or thoughtlessness should be avoided. It may be that these Asian animals have little merit other than their uniqueness, but at the very least, sufficient numbers should be conserved until we have time to find out. A. J. SMITH Royal School of Veterinary Studies, Edinburgh, Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rapid human increase and relative poverty deny hope that any land can lie idle when so many would be robbed of an opportunity simply to exist. For wildlife to survive, let alone at its breathtaking best, we must think of new and better ways to justify its future, preferably by having it contribute to the welfare of those hard-pressed humans who inevitably are further disadvantaged by the creation of national parks. DAVID WESTERN New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is an urgency to conserve and study nontraditional animal species, especially for use in the environmentally challenging tropical areas of the world. The philosophy plant scientists apply to exploring the potential of the plant kingdom needs to be more enthusiastically adopted for the world's animal species. G. W. M. KIRBY, Principal Animal Production Officer Department of Primary Production Darwin, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p40.png"></center><br>
+ GAUR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">6  Wild Banteng</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild banteng (Bos javanicus)* are the most cowlike of all the wild bovines and are the parent stock of the 1.5 million domesticated banteng in Indonesia (see chapter 1). They have a scattered distribution throughout Southeast Asia, and three subspecies are recognized:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Java banteng Bos javanicus javanicus (Java and Bali)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Borneo banteng Bos javanicus lowi (Borneo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Burma banteng Bos javanicus birmanicus (Burma, Thailand, Indochina).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng have been called the most beautiful of all wild relatives of cattle. The cows are usually a vibrant reddish brown, while adult bulls are mostly blackish-brown and sometimes even blue-black (although in Burma and Indochina bulls remain golden brown like the cows, and in Thailand a few banteng have been recorded with white, deerlike spots on their brown coats). Both sexes have white "stockings" and a large white patch on their rumps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng are larger than their domesticated counterparts. Average-sized bulls of the Java and Burma subspecies stand 1.6 m high and weigh 635 kg, but bulls as large as 1.9 m and 825 kg have been recorded. Cows average 1.4 m in height and weigh 400 kg. The Borneo subspecies is smaller.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The horns of banteng bulls are angular, turning out and then up, with inward-pointing tips and reaching a spread of 60-75 cm. The horns of cows are short and crescent shaped. There is a patch of thick, naked skin between the horns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are found in restricted localities scattered over an area ranging from the northeastern edge of India, through Burma, Thailand, the northern Malay Peninsula, central and southern Indochina, and the islands of Borneo, Java, and Bali.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only a few thousand wild banteng survive, and their numbers are decreasing. Most populations are endangered because their habitats are being encroached upon by the growing human population. In Sabah, Malaysia, for example, the areas where an estimated 300-550 banteng (the last remaining herds) occur are scheduled for conversion to permanent agriculture. The animals are being forced to use smaller and smaller habitats, thus increasing losses caused by malnutrition, diseases, and parasites. In addition, throughout much of the animal's range, hunting, military operations, and perhaps interbreeding with domestic cattle are further reducing the original stocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p43.png"></center><br>
+ Distribution of wild banteng. (courtesy of C.H. Wharton)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng's general distribution lies in the zone of deciduous monsoon forest in Southeast Asia. Habitats vary between the extremes of dry wooded parkland with large grassy plains to tropical rain forest with small clearings. The animals prefer flat or undulating terrain. In northern Kampuchea and eastern Java, they inhabit grassland savannas. In western Thailand, they live in a belt of grass and bamboo thickets along upper slopes of dry mountains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng inhabit sites from sea level to around 2,000 m elevation. They avoid large human settlements and plantations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas there are no pronounced hot or cold seasons, but dry seasons can be long.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng prefer feeding on grass, but are fond of herbs, leaves, fruits and blossoms, as well as the sprouts of trees, brush, and young bamboo. Under favorable conditions they drink daily, preferring standing water. During droughts, they seem able to survive several days without water. In coastal areas where there are no mineral licks they can meet their need for salt by occasionally drinking seawater. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sex ratio at birth is 140 males to 100 females, but mortality of bulls is heavy and the adult ratio is about three cows for every bull.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calves are suckled until they are 14-16 months old.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In undisturbed conditions, the banteng's daily activity has a more or less fixed rhythm. During daytime, the animals alternate active and resting periods of 2-3 hours each. The active periods predominantly involve feeding, drinking, and social interactions. While resting, the animals commonly ruminate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a reaction to heavy rains or human disturbances, the animals retreat into dense vegetation. In regions with frequent human disturbance they generally appear in the open only at night. However, where they find particularly suitable localities they become somewhat accustomed to human presence and will venture out in daylight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng live alone or in small groups of up to eight members. Males separate from their mothers at an age of 2-3 years. Sometimes female calves continue living with their mother even beyond maturity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cows and dominant bulls command the best pastures, and young and weaker bulls roam widely, rarely leaving the protection of the thick forest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng bull has a reputation for extraordinary savagery, but stories of its lightning attack have been exaggerated. Wildlife biologists in Indonesia have not been able to document any such attacks and have no qualms about walking in banteng habitats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng show important promise for improving domesticated banteng (see chapter 1) or for interbreeding with cattle (chapter 2). Almost 170 years ago Sir Stamford Raffles, founder of Singapore, noted that in Java "The degenerate domestic cows are sometimes driven into the forest to couple with the wild benteng, for the sake of improving that breed."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tourism could be developed in areas where these magnificent animals occur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng are large, robust animals fully at home both in the heat and humidity of the wet season and in the hot dry season. Their genetic </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">endowment for such tolerance could be of significant value fin improving domestic stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Possible Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng may prove to have a special susceptibility to diseases of domestic animals. Blackleg (Clostridium chauvoli) and mucosal disease have caused heavy losses in banteng in European zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capture of wild banteng may prove difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research on the physiology, production potential, and possible uses of wild banteng is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hunting and destruction of its habitats menace the wild banteng over all of its range. The only promising means for conservation is creation of nature reserves where hunting and forest destruction are forbidden. Conservation efforts should particularly include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Supporting government of Thailand efforts to conserve banteng in western Thailand and the Petchabun Range;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cooperating with the Burmese government in surveys to locate the best banteng habitats;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cooperating with the governments of Kampuchea and Laos to identify banteng habitats and establish appropriate protective measures; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Carrying out research in Java's nature reserves (Ujung Kulon National Park and Baluran Reserve) to ascertain the genetic distinctiveness of the banteng, its status, and its characteristics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Sabah and other areas of Southeast Asia there are cattle breeding projects that use imported stock exclusively. Experimental crossbreeding of local banteng with this stock should be encouraged. There are some feral and domestic banteng, as well as hybrids between wild banteng and feral cattle, that should also be tested.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p45.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">7 Gaur</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gaur (Bos gaurus) would seem to be an ideal meat-producing animal. It is a large bovine with massive muscular development, and it has already been domesticated (see mithan, chapter 3). Gaurs, which are threatened with extinction, deserve much greater attention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two subspecies of gaurs are recognized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bos gaurus gaurus (India, Nepal) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bos gaurus laosiensis (Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Kampuchea, West Malaysia). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With its huge head, massive body, and sturdy limbs, the gaur is the embodiment of vigor and strength. It is among the biggest of bovines. Bulls weigh 600-940 kg and stand 1.6-1.9 m tall at the shoulder, but a record bull of 2.2 m and 1,225 kg has been recorded. Cows are only about 10 cm shorter in height, but they are more lightly built and weigh 150 kg less.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On their shoulders gaur bulls have a striking muscular ridge that slopes down to the middle of the back, where it ends in an abrupt dip. The horns are crescent shaped, creamy yellow, and taper to a sharp point, which is usually tipped in black.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newborns are a light golden yellow, but soon darken to coffee or reddish brown, the color of young bulls and cows. Old bulls are jet black, their bodies almost hairless. Gaurs have light colored forehead and yellowish or white stockings. Their eyes are brown but in certain lights, because of reflection, they appear blue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs excrete an oily, aromatic sweat, unique to this species and to the mithan. It gives the animals a strong bovine smell and may be an adaptation for keeping away insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once common throughout South and Southeast Asia, gaurs now survive only in scattered remnant herds of up to 30 animals in the hill forests of India, Nepal, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Kampuchea, Vietnam, and the Malay Peninsula.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p48.png"></center><br>
+ Gaur distribution. (courtesy of C.H. Wharton)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Historically, the largest concentrations have coexisted with farmers in areas of shifting cultivation. The animals adjust to disturbed land, and they also adapt to man's presence if not unduly harassed. For example, gaurs will feed in agricultural fields, along roadsides, and near occupied houses. Herds in national parks feed peacefully while tourists stand by. Gaurs in zoos also become quite tame and manageable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Populations not protected in parks and reserves are in immediate danger of extinction. Even in the remotest hill forests gaurs are harassed by hunting, exposed to the diseases of domestic cattle, and driven from their natural habitat by human invasion. Most herds outside of parks or wildlife reserves are threatened by agricultural development, hydroelectric dam projects, human settlement, or extensive logging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In India, large populations still exist in the larger sanctuaries such as </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mudumalai and Kanha Park. In Thailand diseases carried by domestic animals, poaching, and habitat destruction have reduced total gaur numbers to fewer than 500. In Malaysia, the population is estimated to be only 400 animals. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs typically live on gentle, undulating terrain with natural mineral licks. They inhabit gaps in the forest, such as abandoned clearings, where they can find grasses and shrubs. In the northern portions of their range, they inhabit deciduous and semideciduous hill and mountain forests with light brush and many grassy clearings. In the lowlands they live in open bamboo jungles, grassy plains near forests, or dense forests broken by glades or open meadows. (In the forest they probably depend to some extent on the slash and burn agriculture of hill people.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals appear to be adapting to increased human presence. They make use of such man-modified habitats as logged forests and fringe areas of agricultural estates that abound with grasses and early secondgrowth vegetation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs are combination grazers and browsers. They feed on the grasses of forest openings as well as on the young leaves, fruits, twigs, and bark of shrubs and juvenile trees. In one study in Malaysia, grasses comprised 41 percent of their diet, fortes 23 percent, and woody browse 36 percent."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs develop large muscular bodies and maintain excellent condition on relatively low-quality feed. In the Malaysian study, crude protein content of grass species varied from 7.0 to 7.6 percent and phosphorus content varied from 0.11 to 0.17 percent; yet calves reached weights of 300 kg or more during their first year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Birth and survival rates of up to 100 percent have been reported for wild gaur populations. Calves are born at any time of the year. The gestation period is 270 days, a little shorter than for banteng or domestic cattle and longer than for yak or kouprey.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Captive gaurs calve first at 2.5 years of age.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gaur interbreeds with the mithan, and both have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 58.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By nature gaurs are shy and timid. As with most wild bovines, their hearing and eyesight seem comparatively poor. Their defense lies in their massive size and acute sense of smell. When a herd with juveniles is threatened by a predator, the adults form a protective circle around the young. Although individuals retreat from danger if they can, they have a unique form of threat: they approach their opponents broadside instead of head on, displaying the huge muscular body and dorsal ridge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In common with other wild bovids, gaurs habitually visit mineral licks, which appear to be necessary to their habitat and influence the herd's movements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike water buffaloes, gaurs do not wallow. They take cover in the forest during the heat of the day and may feed at night and in the early morning during hot weather. In populated areas such as near agricultural estates, they may feed only at night to avoid people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, gaurs associated in loose herds of up to 400 animals, but today groups of only 5 to 12 animals are normally found. The herds, which are of more stable composition than those of banteng, are separated by sex for most of the year; however, during the rut stronger bulls form a series of "tending bonds" with estrous cows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs are thought to be interfertile with domestic cattle. If so, their attributes of size, massive muscular development, tolerance of heat and humidity, and resistance to diseases and parasites can contribute to beef production in the tropics. A gaur-cattle hybrid might also have immunity to some cattle diseases; if it retained the mild temperament of the domesticated parent, an extremely powerful beast of burden could be produced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gaur is a truly majestic animal. Its habit of using grassy forest clearings and salt licks makes it a likely tourist attraction in parks and reserves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a climate and environment where domestic cattle are susceptible to heat stress and parasite infestation, gaur thrive and maintain body condition. Further, they are able to develop large muscular bodies and maintain excellent body conditions on relatively low-quality forage by feeding on a variety of woody browse, grasses, and fortes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Retaining its wild instincts for survival, the gaur is better able to withstand predator attacks them domestic cattle. This could be an advantage when animals graze in remote areas. Adult gaurs are strong enough to defend themselves against a predator as powerful as a tiger. In addition, they are also very protective of their young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs have little immunity to some cattle diseases. In many regions of India, cattle driven into the forests to graze infect gaur herds with rinderpest, foot and mouth disease, cattle plague, and other contagious diseases. Severe losses occur. Gaurs also appear very susceptible to malignant catarrhal fever.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaur numbers are declining throughout their range. If this trend is not reversed, it could effectively prohibit the use of gaur for domestication or crossbreeding purposes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs are shy and excitable, making them difficult to catch, but once in captivity the animals calm down. Second generation zoo populations are easily worked and handled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs on occasion damage cultivated crops such as young rubber trees and cassava. They require sturdy and well-kept fences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Southeast Asia there is special need to support the efforts of the governments of Malaysia and Thailand to conserve this species and to identify important gaur populations. Similar protective measures are needed in Burma, Laos, Kampuchea, and Vietnam.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed to establish and manage new gaur herds in forest reserves and build up the gaur population in the world's zoos. Techniques have been developed to capture and release wild gaur safely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fertilized gaur ova have been successfully transferred into a foster Holstein cow. The cow carried the gaur fetus to a successful delivery. This could be the forerunner of an important means of rapidly expanding captive herds by transferring gaur embryos into cattle in different parts of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is also needed on the basic physiology and production potential of gaur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossbreeding experiments should be started immediately to establish the degree of interfertility between the gaur and other bovine species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p52.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">8 Kouprey</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey (Bos sauveli) is the most primitive of living cattle. Its features are typical of some forms that existed in the Pleistocene era, 600,000 years ago. Discovered by Western scientists only in 1937, the kouprey was the last large mammal to enter the biology books. It is perhaps the most primitive of living cattle and is closely allied to Bos namadicus, the wild ancestor of zebu cattle. In 1964 it was declared Cambodia's national animal. It is now perilously close to extinction, and for a decade no koupreys have been observed close enough for a positive identification by a specialist. In 1982, however, five of the animals were believed sighted in Thailand, near the border with Kampuchea. Thus there are hopes that the kouprey still exists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey is large. Males stand 1.5-2 m high at the shoulder and may weigh 900 kg. Females are approximately three-quarters the height and weight of the males. The body is slender and long-legged. The hump from the withers to the center of the back is smaller than that of the gaur, but larger than that of the banteng. There is a well-developed dewlap from the throat to the mid-chest, which in old animals is sometimes so pendulous that it drags through the grass in front of the forelegs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young bulls are gray, with black on the head and dewlap. Old bulls are entirely black and cows are mouse gray or dullish light brown. As in the gaur and the banteng, the lower parts of the legs have white stockings, but kouprey stockings have a streak of dark hair down the front.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey. (P. Pfeffer)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey horns are among the longest and widest of any bovine. The tips of the adult male horns are surrounded by rough, frayed tissue caused by the animals' habit of digging in the soil with their horns. The females have slender, lyre-shaped horns that corkscrew upwards, unlike those of any other wild or domesticated cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey are said to have a grace more reminiscent of deer than cattle. They move at a light trot, as fast as 32 kph.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey's prevalence in ancient times is evidenced by prehistoric cave-paintings in Kampuchea. The animal was also a favorite of the ancient Khmers, who carved kouprey statues and featured the animal in bas-reliefs on temples, including the monuments of Angkor Wat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, whatever kouprey exist are restricted to an area along both sides of the Mekong River in northern Kampuchea, the Dangrek Range, and other parts of eastern Thailand to the far south of Laos, and to the westernmost part of Vietnam. Although one or two small herds may still exist in remote pockets of Laos and Vietnam, the bulk of the population has always been centered in Kampuchea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are no koupreys in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their large size, gregarious behavior, comparatively low reproductive rate, and preference for open areas, kouprey are vulnerable to hunting. The impressive horns and other tissues are valued as trophies and as medicinals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1964 it was estimated there were about 500 kouprey in Kampuchea, but by 1970 fewer than 70 were left. The subsequent fate of the species is unknown because of the years of warfare in the area. (Early in 1970, the three nominal kouprey reserves of Kampuchea were overrun by military forces.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p55.png"></center><br>
+ KOUPREY DISTRIBUTION. (AFTER C.H. WHARTON )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1975 the kouprey stocks in Laos and Thailand were estimated at only 50 and 20 animals, respectively. By now, hunting and habitat destruction probably have all but eliminated the kouprey from Thailand. However, a reported sighting of five animals that had strayed across the border from Kampuchea was made in July 1982. (By the time Thai zoologists arrived to investigate, the herd apparently had crossed back into Kampuchea.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the banteng, the kouprey inhabits open sites such as light savannas, woodland meadows, and scattered glades in the monsoon forests. It is adapted to dry country. This type of habitat is not widespread in Indochina, and the range of the kouprey is consequently limited.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey spend most of the year among low rolling hills in open areas where grazing and visibility are good. These open areas are a fire climax mosaic of dry dipterocarp savannas and patches of dense forest. Fires occur each dry season, most of them deliberately set by man. Kouprey capitalize on the young growth in burned-over areas. They feed primarily on grasses, sedges, and tree leaves. They also require salt licks and a supply of water in the dry season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gestation period is thought to be about 8.5 months. Cows leave the herd before parturition and return with their calves after about a month. They nurse their calves for about 6 months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey are said to be even more shy than banteng and gaur. They feed in erratic patterns and are always alert and nervous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loose herds of 20 or more have been reported. These were of mixed composition, often with more than one adult male, and were usually led by an old female. Adult bulls sometimes form bachelor herds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey utilize some of the same feeds as wild banteng, and the two animals often live in a loose association. They graze together, and, especially after the mating season, solitary kouprey bulls often associate with banteng herds. The two species do not, however, interbreed in the wild. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey is a candidate for domestication and has important potential as breeding stock. It is a wild animal, but it may have been domesticated temporarily during the Khmer culture, 400-800 years ago.* Both Vietnam and Laos have cattle breeds that resemble kouprey, and a kouprey bull, reputed to be a domestic animal of the Stieng tribe, was exhibited in the Paris Menagerie in the mid-nineteenth century. It may be that kouprey are domestic even today in parts of Indochina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey survival has worldwide significance. The animals could be important for studies of bovine evolution and as a genetic resource for crossbreeding to improve disease resistance and other characteristics of domesticated bovines. For instance, the kouprey is thought to be resistant to rinderpest, a killer disease of domestic cattle. Also, kouprey bulls are distinctive for their long dewlap, and they probably have more skin area for their weight than other bovines and are therefore better able to eliminate body heat. This genetic trait may help large cattle breeds survive in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey's potential may be moot - there may be none left in the world. It is feared that the warfare of recent years may have caused its extinction. However, if enough animals survive and can be protected, the kouprey could probably recover its numbers, as a higher calf-to-cow ratio (1:3) was reported for this species than for either banteng (1:4) or gaur (1:10).*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If wild kouprey are found, their capture is likely to be difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a long-term sequence of research needs for the kouprey, which includes the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.  Working with the governments of Thailand, Laos, and Kampuchea to identify any remaining pockets of this species and to establish conservation programs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establishing one or more captive breeding herds (because there is little chance of the animal surviving in the wild owing to the fighting and turmoil in the area);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Studying the animal's basic physiology and production potential;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Exploring its possible commercial utilization; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Investigating the kouprey's genetic relationship to zebu cattle and the transferability of genetic characters through interbreeding. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p58.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">9 Tamaraw</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) is related to the water buffalo, one of Asia's most important animal resources, but it has never been domesticated or studied and is threatened with extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw looks rather like a miniature water buffalo of the swamp type that is found in Southeast Asia. It reaches about I m in height and 300 kg in weight. It is much more stockily built and is blacker than the swamp buffalo. The tamaraw has white marks on the fetlocks, instead of completely white lower legs like the banteng, gaur, and kouprey. It has short (35-50 cm), very stout horns that curve out and back slightly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endemic to the Philippine island of Mindoro the tamaraw is now virtually restricted to three small areas (Mount Iglet/Mount Baco, Mount Calavita, and Sablayon) in Mindoro Occidental.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its limited distribution, the tamaraw's future is of concern to conservationists. Until World War II, hunting was carefully regulated in its native region and no serious concern was felt for the animal's safety. Since then, however, increases in human population, lumbering, and ranching have restricted the tamaraw's habitat, and the availability of rifles and automatic weapons has seriously threatened its numbers. In 1971, research teams counted 148 head, consisting of 116 adults and 32 calves. The latest estimate is 150-200 head.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these last remaining animals, about 80 are located at Mount Iglit, a game refuge established in 1961 primarily to protect the tamaraw. Recently an active tamaraw conservation program has been started in a 400-hectare enclosed area on the refuge. Stockade traps have been built and tamaraw are beginning to move into them. The goal is to establish a small, semicaptive population that can be properly guarded, studied, and managed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p61.png"></center><br>
+ Tamaraw distribution. (courtesy Wildlife magazine)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The habitat requirements of the tamaraw appear to be fairly flexible, and present habitat use reflects human pressures rather than the animal's preferences. In the past, tamaraw were found in virtually all parts of Mindoro, from sea level to mountain tops. They occupied open grasslands or glades, but hunting pressure and habitat change have forced it to retreat into forest environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present the tamaraw is found primarily in remote areas that have been partly cleared, largely by fire, so that only small pockets of trees remain among coarse grasses such as Imperata cylindrica (a widespread, unpalatable tropical weed commonly called cogon, kunai, alang alang, lalang, or blady grass), and "tahalib" (Saccharum spontaneum). The tamaraw uses the forest pockets for rest and retreat and the open land for grazing. It must have a supply of water for wallowing and drinking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to cattlemen, tamaraw eat both Imperata grass and tehalib but only when these are short and green. During the wet season when most forages are tall and unpalatable, the animals are known to feed on bamboo shoots.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy is about 20 years. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraw are reputed to be nocturnal, ferocious, and retiring. However, in earlier times they were reportedly relatively tame, diurnal animals of open areas. It was the continual hunting that made them increasingly nocturnal and secretive, and like other wild bovids they can become aggressive and dangerous when harassed or wounded. Given effective protection they doubtless would revert to placid, diurnal behavior.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw appears to be a possible livestock animal. Its meat and hides were highly regarded by local peoples, cattlemen, and visiting hunters. Because of its close relationship to the water buffalo, it may be able to provide genetic material for improving the health and hardiness of that valuable animal resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is renowned for hardiness and resilience to heat, humidity, and poor forage, as well as its capability to thrive in a variety of environmental conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraws have only once produced offspring in a zoo and may prove difficult to raise in captivity. However, they have been kept in captivity so seldom that the prospects are unclear. Experiences with other wild bovids suggests that captivity and captive breeding should be no problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw must be protected and preserved. There is urgent need, for example, to establish more secure parks in the Philippines to rebuild the wild population to safe levels. Other conservation measures should include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establishing and maintaining more reserves in natural habitats containing breeding populations, and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Building up breeding populations in suitable zoos and livestock research centers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed on the tamaraw's physiology, production characteristics, behavior, and genetic relationship to the water buffalo. None of these is well understood. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p63.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">10 Anoas</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lowland anoa (Bubalus depressicornis) and the mountain anoa (Bubalus quarlesi)* are small bovines that are related to the water buffalo but that are scarcely bigger than goats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with other bovines, the anoa is tiny. It stands only 0.75-1 m tall at the shoulder. The mountain anoa is smaller than its lowland counterpart. The limbs are short, the body plump, and the neck thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoa horns are short and straight, reaching a maximum length of about 380 mm; they are ringed and triangular in cross section at the base in lowland species and simple and conical in cross section in mountain species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the young are thickly covered with yellowish-brown woolly hair, the mountain anoa adults tend to have curly hair, while lowland anoa have straight hair or are hairless. Adults vary from dark brown to black, with frequent blotches of white on the face, nape, throat, and lower limbs. In mountain anoas the entire lower limbs are creamy white. The underbody parts are usually light brown. Males are generally darker than females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hide is exceptionally thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas are native to dense, mature forests of Sulawesi in eastern Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species are abundant and well distributed on Sulawesi. Most of the northern, eastern, and southeastern peninsulas and the central area of Sulawesi are still forested and have anoa populations, and there are several large nature reserves to protect them. *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several of the world's zoos have anoa collections (see Research Contacts).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The climate of Sulawesi is hot, but tempered by sea winds; annual rainfall varies from 500 mm to 4,000 mm. The eastern and southeastern peninsulas have a sparse population and a scattering of subsistence agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lowland species is found in forests and was once common along the coasts. The mountain anoa is found in primary forests at high altitudes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p66.png"></center><br>
+ DISTRIBUTION OF ANOA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas have a wide-ranging diet that includes grasses, ferns, saplings, palm, ginger, and fallen fruit, especially figs. It is of particular interest that the animals can live on a diet that contains no grass.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas have a high requirement for minerals. They visit mineral-rich hot springs and salt licks, and they even drink from the sea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The San Diego Zoo in the United States and Surabaya Zoo in Indonesia have successfully bred and reared the animals in captivity. The gestation period is 276-315 days, and there is generally only a single birth. The life expectancy is about 20-25 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas are shy animals, but they can be aggressive. The sideways and upwards stab of their straight, sharp horns can be dangerous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except when the cows are about to give birth, anoas apparently associate in pairs rather than in herds. They enjoy water and frequently wallow in mud. Their gait is a trot, but a times they make clumsy leaps. During the morning they feed alone. In the heat of the afternoon they seek refuge under shade trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On Sulawesi anoas are prized for their hide, horns, and meat. The flesh, especially that of calves, is tender and well flavored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although somewhat aggressive and pugnacious, anoas might make a suitable livestock animal. They grow and reproduce well in captivity and are adaptable and intelligent. Their small size makes them easier to handle than many other wild bovines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about the habits of these animals because of their wary nature, secluded environment, and restricted range. They can be tamed enough to obey commands ("lie down," for example) but they remain nervous and likely to butt strangers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surveys are needed throughout Sulawesi to determine the distribution and taxonomy of possible races of the two species, with a view to establishing a protected-area system that will ensure the survival of the genetic diversity of this group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is also needed on social organization and tameability, as well as on the anoa's biological relationship to the tamaraw and water buffalo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One target should be to build up the zoo populations of both species. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p68.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part IlI : Pig and Piglike Species</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In parts of Asia wild and feral pigs are often the most abundant source of meat. These animals are predominantly variants of the domestic pig, Sus scrofa, or of its ancestor, the Eurasian wild boar. Also contributing to the pig population are five Asian species:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bearded pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Sulawesi warty pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Javan warty pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Pigmy hog</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Babirusa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Southeast Asia hybridization between these species and common pigs has resulted in a confusing diversity of forms and interrelationships. Because of their value, these pigs have been spread since prehistoric times by traders and migrating peoples, creating odd and unpredictable distribution patterns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The species listed represent a gene pool of potential importance for the further development of one of man's most important sources of food. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many areas of the world, one must start with the native animals adapted to that environment. In many cases, they are the only animals the native human population can afford to begin with. And it is amazing the increased animal production that can result from the use of better production practices with them. TONY J. CUNHA, Dean Emeritus California State Polytechnic University Pomona, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitting the animal to the vegetation might be a better approach than trying to fit the vegetation to the animal, especially on ranges that have been changed or degraded by man. JAMES TEER, Director Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Austin, Texas, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is now widespread realization that breed importation is not necessarily the quickest route to increased animal production. Indigenous, adapted breeds should be examined more closely and, where necessary, steps should be taken to ensure conservation of at least some of them. HELEN NEWTON TURNER Genetics Research Laboratories, CSIRO, North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maximizing the animal harvest, essentially of animal protein, assumes in concept that all animals will be fully exploited in efficient and economic production systems. C.DEVENDRA Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Selangor, Malaysia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p70.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">11 The Bearded Pig</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it apparently has never been domesticated, the bearded pig (Sus barbatus) has a long history as an important resource in Southeast Asia. Human remains from the Niah Caves in Sarawak are accompanied by large numbers of its bones and teeth, indicating that 40,000 years ago it was the most commonly eaten large animal. Today in Sarawak and some other areas the bearded pig is still probably the most sought after source of wild meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bearded pigs are large. Boars measure 1-1.6 m in length (crown to rump), up to 1 m in height, and may weigh as much as 150 kg. Sows are smaller. Adult males have small facial warts (infraocular and preocular) and a bushy tuft of hair on the cheek. Both sexes vary in color from pale red-brown to yellow-brown or black. They have elongated skulls with longer, more flexible snouts than the common pig.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five subspecies are recognized. They range through the Philippines (Balabac, Palawan and offshore islands, Calamianes, Luzon, Mainit, Mindanao, Jolo, Mindoro, and Cebu) to Borneo, Bangka, Sumatra, the Riau Archipelago, and the Malay Peninsula.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Borneo subspecies (Sus barbatus barbatus) is still abundant in some parts of Sabah, Sarawak (including several wildlife reserves), and </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kalimantan. It remains an important food resource for some hill tribes, although with the spread of Islam, attitudes toward pork are changing in some areas. The Malayan subspecies (Sus barbatus of) is now rare in the Malay Peninsula. It is also becoming rare in Sumatra as the lowland forests are logged and broken up by commercial interests and as the human population expands. The status of the three Philippine subspecies is currently unknown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The bearded pig is most commonly found in both primary and secondary evergreen forests. However, it seems to have wide adaptability, and in Sarawak bearded pigs are found in virtually all habitats from the beaches to the upland rain forests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No biological research has yet been conducted on bearded pigs, but naturalists have made several observations. The pigs eat the seeds of trees (for example, those of species of Dipterocarpaceae and Fageceae), fallen fruits (of Moraceae, Bombacaceae, and other plant families), roots, stems of wild bananas, herbs, and probably earthworms, and along the coast they dig up and eat turtle eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Births occur throughout the year in Sabah, but the peak coincides with the fruiting season of forest trees, usually August-September. The litter size is from 3 to 11 piglets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p73.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No behavioral studies have been conducted, but observations suggest that bearded pigs are generally sedentary animals, although in some areas they congregate into large groups that may travel long distances together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The species might be used (alone or together with other pig species) as a local source of meat, or even as the foundation of a meat industry. The bearded pig is accustomed to living in groups, which may make it suitable for husbandry or game management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is evidence that the bearded pig will interbreed with the common pig, producing young in which both sexes are fertile.* The progeny might have considerable hybrid vigor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The bearded pig may have tolerance (if not actual resistance) to tropical diseases and conditions that affect the common pig. The species survives in areas of Southeast Asia where feral herds of common pigs are not common, apparently owing to their inability to cope with disease or other environmental challenges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No negative qualities have been reported, but the animal's biology, behavior, management, and potential uses are so far virtually unstudied.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aspects of the animal's general biology that should be investigated include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Chromosome type and variability, and chromosomal differences between the bearded pig and other wild and domesticated pig species</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Reproductive physiology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nutritional physiology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Social behavior (both in its wild state and under controlled conditions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To assist in the selective capture of young bearded pigs in the wild, external features that characterize the species at an early age need to be identified.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To assess the bearded pig's potential for contributing hybrid vigor, crossbreeding with other pig species should be attempted under controlled conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">12 The Sulawesi Warty Pig</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Sulawesi warty pig (Sus celebensis) is one of the world's few domesticated animals. It is maintained as a village or household animal in a few areas of Southeast Asia, such as on the Indonesian island of Roti. The common pigs of New Guinea and parts of the Moluccas group are hybrids between this species and the common pig.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sulawesi warty pigs are medium sized, averaging about 60 cm high and 40-70 kg. Boars are larger than females and have longer (10 cm) tusks on both jaws. Boars have three pairs of prominent facial warts: on the snout, the cheek, and on the angle of the jaw. In sows these warts are small or absent entirely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are usually red-brown with sharply marked white and yellow undersides; older animals have a round white spot (about 3 cm in diameter) on each side of the upper cheek. Piglets have horizontal stripes on the body, which disappear as they mature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The body is covered with scanty coarse hair, but stiff bristles, which become erect when the animal is alarmed, occur along the mid-dorsal line of the body. The longest and stiffest occur on the head and nape.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native to mainland Sulawesi and certain surrounding islands, the Sulawesi warty pig has been introduced to the Lesser Sunda Islands (Flores, Sumba, Roti, Semau, and Timor), the Moluccas (Malmahera and Buru), and Simaleue, a small island west of Sumatra. In some parts of the Philippines (for instance, Naujan and Mindoro Oriental) the animal either occur naturally or has been introduced. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids between the Sulawesi warty pig and the common domestic pig occur on New Guinea, Ternate, Morotai, Bacan, Amron, Seram, Kei island, Aru island, and Sulawatti.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many islands of eastern Indonesia, this species is widespread and common. In a few places it is extremely abundant, particularly at higher altitudes; in others, it has been greatly reduced by overhunting, deforestation, and expanding human settlement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Overall, however, Sulawesi warty pig populations are declining, probably due to increased hunting and to human alterations of the animal's habitats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This pig inhabits varied environments, including rain forest, mountain forest, grasslands, and agricultural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p77.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the common pig, the Sulawesi warty pig has broad dietary preferences. It feeds on roots, fallen fruit, leaves, and young shoots. The bulk of its food consists of vegetable materials, but it also feeds on earthworms, insects, aquatic invertebrates, rats, birds, and even carrion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The uterus and placenta are anatomically indistinguishable from those of the common pig. The litter size is from 2 to 8 piglets, with an average of 5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sows can give birth throughout the year, but usually have their young in April or May. The gestation period is about 4 months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding and farrowing occur in the forest and in open Imperata cylindrica grasslands. The pregnant female makes a nest of grasses, leaves, twigs, and branches, which she collects and places over a hole (approximately 2 m long) that she has previously dug. Here she gives birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Foraging is the main activity of the day and usually takes up several hours, mainly in the early morning and evening. In the wild the pigs travel in small groups, the young always traveling with an adult female. On the move, warty pigs feed and rest intermittently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a source of meat the Sulawesi warty pig has been recognized and exploited by local populations since prehistoric times. The presence of feral specimens far outside the pigs' natural range indicates that traders or migrants have long carried it with them on voyages, either as domestic stock or as wild specimens to be released for later capture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tusks, which can be carved like ivory, are a resource for local artisans. Wild specimens are suitable for sport hunting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a body of unrecorded indigenous experience with this animal as a domesticate, but the information needs to be collected and appraised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Sulawesi warty pig may be expected to possess resistance or tolerance to the many diseases prevalent in its native habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is promising potential for hybridization between this species and domestic pigs, which might lead to the improvement of common pigs in tropical regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from the unwritten knowledge of the indigenous people who raise the species, very little information is available on the characteristics and management of this animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The genetic variability within the species, as well as the karyotypic differences with common pigs and other Sus species, should be defined. Further, the hybrid vigor resulting from crossbreeding with other Sus species should be- quantified under controlled conditions. Apart from producing potentially important heat-tolerant livestock, crossbreeding may shed important light on the origins of the common pig in Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal's nutritional requirements and reproductive biology also need study. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p79.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">13 Javan Warty Pig</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Javan warty pig (Sus verrucosus) apparently has never been domesticated, but it has been a resource for hunting peoples for centuries. Now, however, the human population in its native region is predominantly Moslem, and all pigs are widely regarded as agricultural pests. Increasing numbers of them are poisoned each year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Javan warty pig can be up to 1.35 m long and 0.9 m tall. Mature males usually weigh between 80 and 120 kg; females are only half that weight - an unusually dramatic example of sexual dimorphism. The animal has a markedly elongated face with large warts, particularly the infraorbital wart and the smaller preorbital and mandibular warts. Body hairs can be black, red, or yellow, with black tips.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is found only on the Indonesian islands of Java and Bawean. It was formerly found on Madura as well, but because of deforestation it is now thought to be extinct there. Two extant subspecies are recognized. The nominate one, Sus verrucosus verrucosus, occurs on mainland Java. The second, Sus verrucosus blouchi, a smaller animal, has recently been described on Bawean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For years it was thought that the Javan warty pig was extinct in the wild, but in October 1981 a herd was found in a small area on Mount Penanggungan in East Java. This population may prove to be substantial, and there is reason to hope that other populations can be found. Overall, however, it is clear that the Javan warty pig is endangered and declining in numbers. In many areas the animals are subjected to uncontrolled poisoning and hunting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five new reserves have recently been proposed to protect the animal in a variety of habitats because it is not found in appreciable numbers in any of Java's nature reserves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Bawean subspecies is believed to be relatively secure since the establishment of a large reserve.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A breeding colony of 12 Javan warty pigs at the Surabaya Zoo includes 5 young ones born in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitats of the Javan warty pig appear to be confined to elevations below about 800 m. The animals prefer relatively large expanses of grassland or secondary vegetation, where human population is sparse. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p82.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The piglets can be born throughout the year; in one study of 8 sows the litter size ranged from 2 to 8, with a mean of 5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The (diploid) chromosome number has been found to be 38, the same as that of the common pig. Hybridization between these species is thought to occur in the wild, but apparently not with enough frequency to contaminate the Javan warty pig gene pool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unreported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are omnivorous, adaptable animals that might make useful domesticates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The small size of the sows could make this species particularly appropriate for households or smallholder farms. The animal's genetic "distance" from the domestic pig may make it a useful generator of hybrid vigor in crossbreeds. It could have particular value because its meat is much leaner than pork from the common pig.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The numbers in the wild are now too few to permit any cropping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efforts should be directed towards locating and breeding up the Javan warty pig populations that still exist. An immediate need is to isolate pure populations in reserves because it is essential to protect the animal from crossbreeding with other species. In addition, current specimens in zoos should be cataloged and a breeding program established. Other captive breeding colonies should also be started.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to determine the genetic differences between the Javan warty pig and the common pig, as well as the levels of existing hybridization between them. It is also necessary to determine what variation in karyotype may exist within the populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basic ecological and behavioral studies are needed, as well as studies of the dietary requirements, growth rates, and nutritional physiology of captive specimens. The reproductive biology of the animal should be studied, and the possibility of crossbreeding it with other Sus species should be examined under controlled conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Javan warty pig's potential for local meat production should be evaluated. The benefit to rural people of converting an agricultural pest into a profitable source of income should be explored within the local religious context. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p84.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">14 Pigmy Hog</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog (Sus salvanius), a shy and very small pig of northeastern India, is close to extinction because of hunters and the destruction of its habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog is only about 60 cm long, with a shoulder height of about 25 cm and a body weight of less than 10 kg. The hair is medium brown on the sides, darkening to blackish brown along the mid-dorsal line. A facial band of short, dark hair extends from the bridge of the nose to below the eye. The tiny tail is only 3 cm long.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal was once widely found along the southern foothills of the Himalayas; today, it is definitely known to occur in only one area, the Manas National Park in Assam.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy hogs are seriously endangered; in the wild they are close to extinction. Captive animals are now reduced to a single male in the Assam State Zoo and four male siblings in the Zurich Zoo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The few remaining pigmy hogs mainly inhabit tall-grass savannas, but it seems likely that they could adapt to other environments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy hog. (W.L.R. Oliver)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is omnivorous and consumes roots, tubers, grass, leaves, insects, earthworms, eggs, and carrion. While foraging, it undoubtedly consumes large quantities of earth as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chromosome number, 38, is the same as that of the common pig. The karyotype is similar to that the common pig, but small, significant differences have been demonstrated using chromosome banding techniques.*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The age at puberty, time of weaning, length of gestation and estrous cycle, and season of breeding are not yet known with certainty. However, the animal is known to have a single well-defined birth peak (April/May) that coincides with the onset of the rainy season when the food supply increases. The uterus and placenta are anatomically similar to those of the common pig. The litter size varies from 2 to 6. It is not known if the animal can be crossbred with the common pig.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p87.png"></center><br>
+ Distribution of pigmy hog. (W.L.R. Oliver)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are shy, but can be tamed. They tend to forage and run in groups. Nest building is carried out by both males and females and is not restricted to pre-farrowing periods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is no evidence that the pigmy hog has ever been domesticated; it has, however, been extensively hunted and trapped, and recently it was still being sold for human consumption. There would probably be no inherent difficulty in maintaining this species in husbandry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog's small size may make it useful in studies of the physiology of pigs and like mammals. In particular, a study of the uterine capacity may contribute to our understanding of the maternal factors that influence the number and size of mammalian young at birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is unknown if the animal carries genetic resistance to diseases of the domestic pig, but given its habitat, such resistance seems likely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The small numbers of surviving pigmy hogs obviate any consideration of its use in husbandry at the present time. Moreover, its nervous temperament might restrict its potential as a domesticate. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is essential to ensure the survival of this animal. Efforts should be directed towards locating and breeding up the populations that still exist. If its habitat could be protected by preventing the annual dry-season burning of grasses, it is possible that substantial populations could be established. Attempts should also be made to acquire two or more females as mates for the male pigmy hogs at the Assam and Zurich zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also an urgent need to ensure that the animals breed successfully in captivity, and the wealth of international expertise in pig reproduction should be applied to that end. For example, the reproductive biology of the animal could be studied by swine experts; the age at puberty, the length of the estrous cycle, the season of breeding (and whether it is influenced by light or temperature), the length of gestation, and time of weaning all need to be determined.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is an omnivore, but the physiology of its digestion has not been studied. Thus, its nutritive requirements are not well enough known to ensure its survival in captivity or reserves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiments should be made to determine if pigmy hog embryos can be brought to term in the uterus of the common pig. If so, such embryo transfers could be used to distribute embryos and set up new herds, lessening the risk of this species" extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p88.png"></center><br>
+ Adult male of the common pig (wild boar Sus scrofa) and pigmy hog drawn to the same scale. (W.L.R. Oliver) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">15 The Babirusa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa) is a piglike animal whose closest relative appears to be an ancestral animal that lived in Europe 35 million years ago. It is easily tamed, and in its native area there is an ancient tradition of raising young babirusa for meat and for the males' unique tusks. The animal appears to reproduce well in captivity, and with good management techniques it might gain wide use in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male babirusa can be up to 110 cm long and 80 cm tall and weigh up to 100 kg; females are smaller. The male has large upper canines that grow upwards, piercing right through the flesh of the snout and curving back and downwards towards the forehead without ever entering the mouth. The female may sometimes have small upper canines projecting through the skin of the upper lip.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is more slender than a pig of similar size. It has a gray or brown-grey skin color, although one subspecies, Babyrousa babyrussa babyrussa, has light body hair that is fawn colored or black.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa is unique to a few islands of eastern Indonesia: north, central, and southeast Sulawesi, the Togian Islands, and the Sula (Taliabu and Sulabesi) and Buru Islands. On Sula and Buru it is probably not native but was introduced in prehistoric times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On Sulawesi the babirusa remains abundant, despite hunting and the widespread clearing of the forest. Nevertheless, disturbances created by wood and rattan collectors, hunters, loggers, and farmers threaten the babirusa's survival. Throughout the rest of its range, it is also vulnerable to extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biologists are particularly concerned about some of the babirusa subspecies. The one from the north of mainland Sulawesi, Babyrousa babyrussa celebensis, is still relatively abundant in places and is probably in no immediate danger. The Togian Islands' subspecies, Babyrousa babyrussa togeanensis, is abundant in small islands but is threatened by Indonesia's settlement programs and deforestation. The Buru and Sula Islands subspecies, Babyrousa babyrussa babyrussa, may already be extinct; there have been no confirmed sightings in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1981, there were 26 male and 27 female babirusa held in six zoo collections; 22 of these animals are in the Surabaya Zoo in Indonesia, where they breed well. Most, if not all, are believed to belong to the mainland Sulawesi race.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals mainly inhabit moist forests at low altitudes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p91.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Precise details of babirusa biology are unknown, but the stomach has an extra sac, suggesting that the animals may have some ability to break down cellulose. Indeed, they browse leaves, a behavior more often found in a deer than in a pig, and have been referred to as "ruminant pigs." Babirusa also live on roots, berries, and grubs, making them true omnivores. Compared to other pigs, they do little rooting, and in captivity their enclosures remain quite grassy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Babirusa are said to be sexually mature at 5-10 months, but this depends on nutrition. Gestation length is about 158 days. One or two young are produced although there are some reports of litters of three.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One specimen was kept for 24 years in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa is a social animal that moves in groups. A retiring native of the dense jungle, it is a fast runner and swims readily. Mating behavior in captivity generally resembles that of domestic pig. Evidence from zoo animals suggests that the male must be removed from the young at birth but that by the time they are a month old the young are safe from paternal attack.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When captured young or reared in captivity, the babirusa is easily tamed. It has potential as a domesticated species, and with appropriate management may provide a useful source of meat. The meat is tasty and of good quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its unique tusks, the skull of the male finds ready markets. This could provide additional income to farmers raising babirusa for meat. The ivory of the tusks could also be a resource for local artisans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the anatomy of the stomach suggests that the babirusa may be able to make more efficient use of fibrous foodstuffs than other pigs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa produces only one or two young after a gestation period of just over five months; it may therefore take considerable time to build up herds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the babirusa is easily tamed, it is not known whether it can be husbanded in large groups. Also, present lack of knowledge of the animal's nutrition may restrict its husbandry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of animals in the wild is decreasing, and attempts should be made to determine their exact status. Particular attention should be paid to the subspecies Babyrousa babyrussa togeanensis and Babyrousa babyrussa babyrussa. Captive breeding programs for these subspecies should be started.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p93.png"></center><br>
+ When seen in longitudinal section, the stomach of babirusa presents striking similarities  to that of a relatively simple ruminant such as the domestic sheep. Every part except the  omasum, even including a rudimentary reticulum, is represented and occupies the same  relative position. The babirusa stomach differs from that of the domestic pig chiefly in  the enormous size of the diverticulum ventriculi, the prominence of the constrictions  that delimit its three main divisions, and in the size and complexity of the cardia. Regions  corresponding to parts of the ruminant stomach are labeled in brackets. (Information  from Davis, 1940; diagram courtesy Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild populations should be maintained in several regions to ensure that  the species" genetic base is retained. Advantage could be taken of the large  number of islands in eastern Indonesia to establish reserves for the different  babirusa subspecies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currently, little is known about the biology of the animal in the wild its  diet, social behavior, or reproductive performance are almost unstudied. In  view of the relatively small number of babirusa in zoos and the scarcity of  information about the animal's growth rate and general biology, coordinated  studies between zoos could provide much basic information. It has been  suggested that a studbook be initiated for this species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear from chromosome analysis that this pig differs markedly in  its karyotype from that of other pigs. However, more anatomical and  biochemical knowledge is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basic parameters of the animal's reproductive physiology are not known.  Questions to be answered include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can the babirusa be induced to reproduce twice per year?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can babirusa embryos be developed to term in the uterus of the domestic  pig? If so, can the number of babirusas be rapidly multiplied in this way?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Does the babirusa genotypic and gestation-length difference with the  common pig prevent the two from successfully crossbreeding? And if  crossbreeding can be achieved, will the progeny be fertile?  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p94.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part IV : Recommendations and  General Research  Needs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Asian animals described in this report are a natural resource whose  potential is barely glimpsed. They are virtually unknown to established  livestock interests and there has been little thought to developing them as  livestock. As a result, the research and trials that could lead to further use of  these animals is scattered, small scale, and conducted outside the mainstream  of livestock science, mainly by wildlife conservationists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet these animals seem worth considering for use in husbandry in many  tropical regions, especially where poor grazing and harsh environments limit  the performance of conventional livestock. There is a pressing need for  research to develop these species and to explore their potential. Only through  rapid action can many of them be kept available for study and possible  inclusion in agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One suggestion is that funds be provided to establish an Asian  native-livestock research-support team. Its primary purpose would be to  assist in the funding of research projects and to coordinate research being  done in various Asian countries. The team's goal would be to establish a  network of animal scientists based at institutions in Asia and elsewhere to  work cooperatively on the region's little-known bovines and pigs. In this  manner, relatively small sums of money could be used to stimulate and  coordinate Asia-wide research on indigenous animals.*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basic Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The time has come for basic studies on each of the 15 animals discussed in  this book. For each species, the following areas should be investigated:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Physiology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Reproductive requirements and fertility</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nutritional requirements (such as food preferences, feeding strategies, and food utilization)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Growth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Adaptability and environmental tolerance (for instance, water balance, sweat rate, and shade-seeking habits, as well as temperature, pulse, and respiration rates, both under normal conditions and heat stress)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Diseases</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. Management (including stocking rates and other production characteristics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Genetic selection for calm temperament, quick growth, and other desirable qualities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crossbreeding to take advantage of hybrid vigor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Social structure (for example population density and distribution, social organization, leadership, herding potential, aggressiveness of bulls)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Habitat characteristics (behavior-habitat interactions and herd dynamics, for instance).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies are also needed on better utilization of products, such as milk, meat, hides, horn, and hair, from these animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experimental transfer of fertilized eggs of all of these animals into domestic species should be explored with a view to establishing herds in secure and disease-free areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efforts specific to domesticated and wild species, and to hybrids of these species, are discussed below. The report concludes with brief discussions of a few promising species not taken up in the body of the text.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated Species Improving Performance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little data is available on the performance of the domesticated animals discussed in this report. Yet the main value of these species lies in the new and superior genes and gene combinations that can be adapted to animal production in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies need to be conducted with the indigenous species and strains in their native countries to determine if they will respond to improved conditions with improved performance. These projects could provide opportunities for geneticists and animal breeders to improve livestock production while conducting challenging basic research. It would be helpful to establish studbooks of captive specimens and to select and breed for desirable genetic qualities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetic improvement must be directed towards remedying production deficiencies. Methods include selection of superior breeding animals, crossbreeding, and combinations of selection and crossbreeding. Different genetic improvement techniques will be required for each species. Progress should be regularly monitored against the unselected animals and the domestic livestock breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Introductions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical countries should import breeding stock to evaluate the performance of some of these Asian animals in the local environment. Strict quarantine procedures must, of course, be observed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Special emphasis should be placed on the domesticated banteng of eastern Indonesia. These animals are already an important source of human food and they may have considerable potential for increasing production elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild Animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild animals contribute extensively to the welfare of people and economies of developing countries. In many areas they supply much of the animal protein consumed. But the contributions they make are largely unrecorded, and local officials and aid agencies seldom regard wildlife as an economic resource. As a result, few developing countries have analyzed how their people use indigenous animals for subsistence, and few nutritional studies recognize "bushmeat," although large numbers of people eat it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife's contribution justifies more detailed and precise evaluations. In many tropical regions few people even know what species are present, let alone in what numbers. Ecologists and animal scientists should be employed to identify and collect data on the fauna of the tropical forests and how it is used by local people. Their work will provide baseline information on the species present and on the potential utility of the undisturbed natural ecosystems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initial Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All wildlife utilization must be based on a thorough knowledge of the resource, its numbers, the animals' condition, annual recruitment in the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">various populations, and the seasonal movements of the herds. In addition, it is important to understand the interactions of the species with its habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thus, the immediate need is for action to assure the preservation of populations of these animals until research studies can be conducted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard, priority actions include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establishing adequate preserves</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Providing total protection for remaining animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Preventing poaching.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With few exceptions, the wild species described in this report are under the pressures of agricultural and human expansion. Without efforts to preserve their habitats it will be difficult for these species to survive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing Wildlife Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments cannot stop hungry people from hunting game, but they can use this impetus to help protect some indigenous animals as well as forest and woodland habitats. Fostering the production and supply of wild animals such as those described in this book could open up a new: source of meat and other products, particularly for subsistence farmers in remote areas. In the last analysis, this may be the only way of protecting and maintaining these animals and developing local awareness of their value.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International economic development organizations have traditionally shown little interest in wildlife or wildlife habitats. Yet maintaining these animals and their habitats is crucial to the continuing supply of many indigenous food animals, the most important of which are often the smaller ones that flourish in secondary growth. And the forests that support wildlife also protect some of the huge investments that AID, the World Bank, and other other agencies have made to help developing countries. The forest is the sponge that absorbs the water from tropical rains. Without trees covering the watersheds, heavy rains cause rushing water that erodes the land, despoils highways, silts up dams and reservoirs, knocks out bridges, and inundates towns, villages, and farm fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In principle, the farming of tropical wildlife could become a force in preventing clear-felling of the tropical forests. Rational utilization of tropical animals offers productive alternative use of the land. In some cases, the farming of indigenous animals can fit smoothly into tropical habitats and into traditional village life, because the livestock and its needs are usually familiar to local people and are often ingrained in their traditions.( For successful examples see companion reports nos. 44 and 45, Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea and Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrid Animals)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybridization may offer new prospects for using underexploited tropical animal resources. This is a speculative notion, but it deserves serious attention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossbreeding between the animals mentioned in this report holds exciting possibilities for expanding livestock options in the tropics. Some of the crosses, known or envisaged, are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· gaur x cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· banteng x cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· kouprey x cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· yak x cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· yak x banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· anoa x water buffalo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· tamaraw x water buffalo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· domestic pig x warty pigs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· warty pigs x bearded pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Care must be taken, however, to guard against the dilution of wild genes by the escape of hybrid or interbreeding domestic species, or the establishment of feral hybrid populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Exchange of Pig Germ Plasm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Present veterinary restrictions effectively prevent the movement of pigs between most countries. Relatively few species of wild pigs are therefore maintained in zoos outside their countries of origin. This stifles the promising potential for the species described in Part III, as well as for captive-breeding safeguards and research on the endangered species. It is important that attempts be made to identify channels for the future establishment of viable captive stocks both within Asia and elsewhere. Transfer of embryos should be verified as a means of permitting disease-free movement across frontiers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species Not Covered in this Report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This project, which began as a short report on banteng, quickly developed momentum as it brought in suggestion after suggestion of further species. Through pressures of time and budget, it was not possible to take up all of these interesting animals. Some of the omitted ones are listed below. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Takin (Budorcas taxicolor).* A heavily built, Southeast Asian hoofed mammal of the family Bovidae, the takin lives in small herds in the mountains, often above timberline. Though robust and short-legged, it can move about quickly and easily over difficult slopes. It stands up to about 1 m at the shoulder and has a shaggy yellowish- to blackish-brown coat. Both sexes have heavy horns that turn outward from the center of the forehead and then curve up and backward.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goral (Naemorhedus goral).* This small Asian goatlike bovine has slightly backward curving cylindrical horns and a coarse brownish-grey coat. It is related to the chamois and serow (see below) but is distinguished from them by peculiarities in skull form, as well as by smaller size, shorter horns, and the absence of face glands. Gorals are native to a vast area, ranging from the Himalayas to eastern Siberia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serow (Capricorhis sumatrensis). The serow has been called a "goatantelope." Found in Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Vietnam, Thailand, Burma, the eastern Himalayas, and China, it lives on forest-clad slopes, such as the mountains of southern China that are the home of the giant panda. Serows have coarse black hair, long pointed ears, a distinct mane, and short, backward pointing horns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native species of goats are also valuable genetic resources of Asia and examples include ibex (Capra ibex), markhor (Capra falconeri), and bharal (Pseudois nayaur). There are also various species of sheep, including the various races of argalis (Ovis ammon), which form small herds in the mountains, often above timberline. Although robust and short-legged, these animals can move about quickly and easily over difficult slopes. Soviet animal breeders apparently are exploring some of the possibilities of using argalis in animal husbandry. They are crossing domestic sheep with arkhar (Ovis ammon karelini) to produce a commercially viable hybrid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The marketable size of lamb might be increased appreciably to provide larger, leaner cuts of meat by crossing domestic sheep with the Marco Polo sheep (Ovis ammon polii), which is as big as deer and has a mature body weight of 400-500 pounds. Marco Polo sheep meat is reported to have none of the "mutton" favor of domestic sheep. Thus, crosses might enhance consumer acceptance of sheep meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia also has several species of deer that could have been included.§ The musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) is now domesticated in China for musk production and is a resource with a promising future. Also, sambar deer (Cervus unicolor), Asia's largest deer, may prove useful in husbandry. Several deer species are being farmed in New Zealand and ruse deer (Cervus rusa), which are native to South and Southeast Asia, are being farmed in Mauritius, Australia, and Papua New Guinea for meat and medicinal by-products. Two small, goat-sized Asian deer, the hog deer (Cervus porcinus) and the barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), may also be worth considering. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p101.png"></center><br>
+ KOUPREY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Selected Readings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bohlken, H. 1961. Haustiere und Zoologische Systematik. Zeitschrift fur Tierzuchtung und Zuchtungsbiologie76:107-113.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul, and J. A. McNeely. 1977. Mammals of Thailand. Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand. 758 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corbet, G. B., and J. E. Hill. 1980. A World List of Mammalian Species. British Museum of Natural History, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gray, A. P. 1972. Mammalian Hybrids: A Check-List with Bibliography. Commonwealth Technical Communication No. 10 (Rev.). Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Edinburgh, Scotland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honacki, J. H., K. E. Kinman, and J. W. Koeppl. 1982. Mammal Species of the World. Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas, USA. 694 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mochi, U. and T. D. Carter. 1953. Hoofed Mammals of the World. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Payne, W. J. A. 1970. Cattle Production in the Tropics. Longman, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robbins, C. T. In Press. Wildlife Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, New York, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Walker, E. P. 1975. Mammals of the World. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, USA, and London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wharton, C. H. 1969. Man, fire and wild cattle in Southeast Asia. Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference 8: 107-167.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated and Wild Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appleton, D. C., G. Dryden, and A. C. Kondos. 1976. A comparison of the digestive efficiency of the water buffalo and Brahman and Banteng cattle. In Proceedings of the Australian Society of Animal Production 11.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Budiarso, I. T., and S. Hardjosworo. 1976. Jembrana disease in Bali cattle. Australian Veterinary Journal 52(2):97.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copland, R. S. 1974. Observations on banteng cattle in Sabah. Tropical Animal Health and Production 6(2):89-94.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Darmadja, D., and P. Sutedja. 1975. Gestation period and calving interval in Bali cattle. Majalah Ilmiah Universitas Udayana 9:61 -65.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Darmadja, D., and P. Sutedja. 1976. Masa kebuntingan den interval beranak padas sapi Bali. In Proceedings, Seminar Reproduksi den Performance Sapi Bali, April 5-6, 1976. Dinas Peternakan Daerah Ternak Institute, Bali, Indonesia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C., T. Lee Kok Choc, and M. Pathmasingam. 1973. The productivity of Bali cattle in Malaysia. Malaysian Agricultural Journal 49(2):183-197.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holmes, J. H. C., J. H. Schottler, and T. F. Leche. 1977. Southeast Asian cattle, buffalo, and beef in Papua New Guinea. In Agriculture in the Tropics, B. A. C. Enyi and T. H. Varghese, eds. University of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoogerwerf, A. 1970. Udjung Kulan, The Land of the Last Javan Rhinoceros. E. J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hooijer, D. A. 1956. The valid name of the banteng Bibos javanicus d'Alton. Zoologische Mededelingenuitgegeven door het Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie te Leiden 34:223-226.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jellinek, P. J., J. Avenell, A. Thahar, and P. Sitorus. 1980. Infertility associated with crossbreeding of Bali cattle. In Proceedings, 2nd Ruminant Seminar, Ciawi, Indonesia. 79 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jenkinson, D. M., and T. Nay. 1975. The sweat glands and hair follicles of different species of Bovidae. Australian Journal of Biological Science 28:55-68.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kirby, G. W. M. 1979. Bali cattle in Australia. World Animal Review 31 :24-29.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, 1. L. In Press. Evolution of Domesticated Animals. Longman, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meijer, W. C. P. 1962. Das Balirind (Balinese Cattle). Die Neue Brehm-Bucherei, No. 303, A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg Lutherstadt, Federal Republic of Germany. (Translated from the Dutch by E. Mohr.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1973a. Liveweight changes of Brahman cross, Shorthorn, Banteng and buffalo steers grazing improved pastures at Darwin, Northern Territory. Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science 39:68-9.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1973b. Heat tolerance of Brahman cross, buffalo Banteng and Shorthorn steers during exposure to sun and as a result of exercise. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 24:775-782.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1978. Digestibility and water metabolism in Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers fed roughage diets. Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science 44: 57-59.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1980. The prediction of chemical content of the whole carcass from the physically-dissected rib in cattle and buffaloes. Proceedings of the Australian Society of Animal Production 13:503.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1981. Beef and buffalo production by smallholders in Indonesia. World Review of Animal Production 17:55-64.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1982. The performance of Indonesian beef breeds under traditional and improved management systems. Pp. 347-351 in Animal Production and Health in the Tropics, M. R. Jainudeen and A. R. Omar, eds. Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B., B. W. Norton, and J. V. Nolan. 1979. The intake, digestibility and utilization of a low quality roughage by Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 30:333-340.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Namikawa, T., and W. Widodo. 1978. Electrophoretic variations of hemoglobin and serum albumin in the Indonesian cattle including Bali cattle (Bos banteng). Japanese Journal of Zootechnical Science 49(11):817-827.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M., K. Rika, M. Supardjata, K. D. Nurbudhi, and L. R. Humphreys. 1976. Productivity of improved pastures grazed by Bali cattle under coconuts: a preliminary report. Universitas Udayana, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia. 18 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M., and K. Rika. 1978. Bali cattle grazing improved pasture under coconuts. 1. Effects of stocking rate on steer performance and coconut yield. In Seminar on Integration of Animals with Plantation Crops, April 13-15. Preprint No. 10. Penang, Indonesia. 8 pp</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M. 1979a. Effects of replacing 30 percent of the green roughage with concentrate on the performance of Bali steer. Progress report to the International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada. Centre file:3-P77-0087. 25 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M. 1979b. Performance of Bali cattle fed grass supplemented with stylosanthes. Progress report to the International Foundation for Science, Sweden. Project No. RR 76. 15 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M., K. Lana, 1. B. Sudana, N. Sutji, and 1. C. N. Sarka. I980. Persediaan den kebutuhan hijauan ternak di Bali (Roughage supply and requirement of livestock in </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bali). Fakultas Kedokteran Hewan den Peternakan, Universitas Udayana, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia. 218 pp. (Report series mimeograph.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Norton, B. W., J. B. Moran, and J. V. Nolan. 1979. Nitrogen metabolism in Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers fed on low quality roughage. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 30:341.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nursamad, M. 1972. Berat lahir den petumbuhan anak sapi Bali selama 4 bulan di kecamatan Watang Pulu, kabupaten Sidenreng, Sulawesi Selatan. Laporan, Fakultas Peternakan Universitas Hasanuddin yang berafinasi dengan Fakultas Peternakan Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pastika, M., and D. Darmadja. 1976. Performance reproduksi sapi Bali. In Proceedings, Seminar Reproduksi den Performance Sapi Bali, April 5-6, 1976. Dinas Peternakan Daerah Ternak Institut, Bali, lndonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Payne, W. J. A., and D. H. L. Rollinson. 1973. Bali cattle. World Animal Review 7: 13-21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pulungan, H., and K. Ma'sum. 1977. Performance sapi Bali den hasil persilangannya dengan sapi Hereford den Shorthorn. Laporan Khusus Lembaga Penelitian Peternakan, Cabang Grati 1977 (Abstract).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977. Livestock in Indonesia. Research Report No. 1. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siebert, B. D., and W. V. MacFarlane. 1969. Body water content and water turnover of tropical Bos taurus, Bos indicus, Bibos banteng, and Bos bubalus bubalis. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 20:613-622.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siregar, M. G., and 1. M. Suparjata. 1975. A half century existence of Bali cattle in South Sulawesi. Majalah llmiah Universitas Udayana 9: 13-21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Subandriyo, P. Sitorus, M. Zulbardi, and A. Roesyat. 1979. Performance of Bali cattle, as work animals and milk and beef producers. Indonesian Agricultural Research and Development Journal 1(1/2):9-10, 24.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sutedja, P., M. Kota, 1. B. Mantra, and D. Darmadja. 1976. Progress report beberapa performance pada sapi Bali. In Proceedings, Seminar Reproduksi den Performance Sapi Bali, April 5-6, 1976. Dinas Peternakan Daerah Ternak Institut, Bali, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thahar, A., J. B. Moran, and J. T. Wood. In press. Studies on the haemotology of Indonesian large ruminants. Tropical Animal Health and Production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thahar, A., J. B. Moran, and R. E. Soerifpo. In press. Observations on the hair and skin of Indonesian large ruminants and their relationships to heat tolerance. SABRAO Journal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vercoe, J. E., and J. E. Frisch. 1977. The importance of voluntary feed intake and metabolic rate to production in different genotypes of cattle in different environments. Pp. I(c)-42 in Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress of the Society for the Advancement of Breeding Researchers in Asia and Oceania, Canberra, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yeates, N. T. M., and P. J. Schmidt. 1974. Beef Cattle Production. Butterworths Pty Ltd., Chatswood, Sydney, Australia. 323 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng Cattle Hybrids</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Payne, W. J. A., and D. H. L. Rollinson. 1976. Madura cattle. Zeitschrift fur Tiezuchtung und Zuchtungsbiologie 93:89-100.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simoons, F. J., and E. S. Simoons. 1968. A Ceremonial Ox of India: The Mithan in Nature, Culture, and History. The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, 1. L. In Press. Evolution of Domesticated Animals. Longman, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scheurmann, E. 1975. Observations on the behaviour of the mithan (Bibos frontalis Lambert 1837) in captivity. Applied Animal Ethology I :321 -355. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yak and Yakow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Accolas, J. P., and J. P. Deffontaines. 1970. Quelques donnees sur l'elevage du Yak en Republique Populaire de Mongolie. Pp. 133-141 in The Yak: Its Role in the Economic and Cultural Life of Breeders in Central Asia. Societe d'Ethnozootechnie, 25 Boulevard Arago, 75013 Paris, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bonadonna, T. 1970. Nuove possibilita per la Zootechnia dei tropic). Zootecnica e Veterinaria 25:202-221.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bonnemaire, J. 1976. Le Yak domestique et son hybridation. Pp. 46-77 in The Yak: Its Role in the Economic and Cultural Life of Breeders in Central Asia. Societe d'Ethnozootechnie, Paris, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dor, R. 1976. Note sur le Yak au Pamir. Pp. 126-131 in The Yak: Its Role in the Economic and Cultural Life of Breeders in Central Asia. Societe d'Ethnozootechnie, Paris, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ekvall, R. B. 1968. Fields on the Hoof: Nexus of Tibetan Nomadic Pastoralism. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Epstein, H. 1974. Yak and chauri. World Animal Review 9:8-12.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Epstein, H. 1977. Yak and Yak-cattle hybrids. Chapter 3 in Domestic Animals of Nepal. Holmes and Meier Publishers, Inc., New York, USA, and London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivanova, V. V. 1938. K voprosu izucenija plodovitosti samvoc gibridov jaka s rogatym skotom (On the fertility of male yak x cattle hybrids). Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya Biologicheskaya 883-884.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R. W., R. G. Johnson, and R. T. Moyer. 1945. The livestock of China. Pp. 67-76 in United States Department of State Publication No. 2249; Far Eastern Series 9.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R. W., I. A. Tolstoy, and R. G. Johnson. 1946. Yaks and Yak-cattle hybrids in Asia. The Journal of Heredity 37(6): 162-170; 37(7):206-215.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schley, P. 1967. Der Yak und seine Kreuzung mit dem Rind in der Sowjetunion. Giessener Abhandlungen zur Agrar- und Wirtschaftsforschung des Europaischen Ostens, Vol. 44. Otto Harassowitz, Weisbaden, Federal Republic of Germany. 131 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shahrani, M. Nazif Mohib. 1979. The Kirghiz and Wakki of Afghanistan. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington, USA. 264 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vlasov, P., S. Gersenzon, and A. Poljakov. 1932. Gibridizacija mezdu jakom i krupnym rogatym skotom (Hybrids between yak and cattle). Problemy Zhivotnovodstva (1):48-57.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">White, W. T., R. W. Phillips, and E. C. Elting. 1946. Yaks and Yak-cattle hybrids in Alaska. Journal of Heredity 37:355-358.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zawadowsky, M. M. 1931. Zebu-Yak hybrids. Journal of Heredity 22:297.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zuitin, A. I. 1938. New data on the chromosome number in yak (Poephagus grunniens L.). Doklady Akademii Nauk Uzbekskoi SSR 19:201-202.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A unique, interesting film showing wild banteng, gaur and kouprey in Cambodia in 1951</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">is available for hire from The Coolidge Foundation, 38 Standley Street, Beverly, Massachusetts 01915, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul and J. A. McNeely. 1977. Mammals of Thailand. Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand. 758 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H., and E. Scheurmann. 1977. Cytogenetic investigations on domestic and wild animal populations in South and Southeast Asia. Animal Research and Development 6:63-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Halder, U. 1975. Okologie und Verhalten des banteng (Bos javanicus) in Java. Eine Feldstudie. Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg and Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany. 124 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoogerwerf, A. 1974. Report on a Visit to Wildlife Reserves in East Java. Mededelingen No. 21. Nederlandsche Commissie voor Internationale Natuurbescherming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McNeely, J. A. 1975. Wildlife and national parks in the Lower Mekong Basin. Unpub</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">lished report to the Committee for the Coordination of Investigations of the Lower  Mekong Basin, Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, Bangkok, Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sumardja, E. A. 1976. The relationships between banteng Bos javanicus (d'Alton) and  vegetation at the Pananjung-Pangandaran Nature Reserve. Research Grant No. 1237/  TF/VI/74. Preliminary Study Internal Report Biotrop. Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wind, J., and H. Amir. 1977. Distribution of banteng (Bos javanicus) in Java and Bali,  Indonesia. Unpublished ms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wind, J., and H. Amir. 1977. Management Plan Baluran Reserve FAO INS/73/013.  Nature Conservation and Wildlife Management Project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaur</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul. 1965. The gaur. (Bos gaurus). Conservation News of South East  Asia 5:7-10.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul and J. A. McNeely. 1977. Mammals of Thailand. Association for the  Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand. 758 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conry, P. J. 1980. The impact of development and the behavioural response of the  Malaysian seladang. Pp. 279-286 in Tropical Ecology and Development, Proceedings  Fifth International Symposium of Tropical Ecology. International Society of Tropical  Ecology, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conry, P. J. 1981. Habitat selection and use, movements, and home range of Malayan  gaur (Bos gaurus hubbacki) in Central Pahang, Malaysia. M.S. thesis. University of  Montana, Missoula, Montana, USA. 120 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conry, P. J. (In press) Immobilizing Malayan gaur with etorphine. Journal of Wildlife  Management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H. 1975. The water buffalo and related species as important genetic resources:  their conservation, evaluation and utilization. In The Asiatic Water Buffalo.  Proceedings of an International Symposium, Khon Kaen, Thailand. Food and Fertilizer  Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H. 1980. Hybrids between Gaur and Gayal and between Gayal and Banteng as  zoological rarities in Thailand. Animal Research and Development 12:116-119.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fradrich, H., and H. G. Klos. 1976. Zur Haltung und Zucht des Gaurs, Bos gaurus.  Zoologische Garten 46(6):417-425.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hussain, M. Khader. 1969. The southern Asiatic gaur or Indian bison (Bos gaurus  gaurus H. Smith). Cheetal 12(1):29-47.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Krishnan, M. 1972. An ecological survey of the larger mammals of peninsular India.  Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 69:322-349.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Medway, Lord. 1978. The Wild Mammals of Malaya and Singapore. 2nd Edition. Oxford  University Press, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 128 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Momin Khan, M. K. bin 1973. Studies on the seladang (Bos gaurus) in the State of  Perak. Malaysian Nature Journal 26:163-169.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahai, R. C. 1972. Distribution, composition and herd size of Gaur (Bos gaurus) in  Palamau, Bihar. Cheetal 15:60-66.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schaller, G. B. 1967. The Deer and the Tiger. Chicago University Press, Chicago, USA.  370 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weigun, L. E. 1971. The last refuge. Malaysian Nature Journal 24:132-137.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weigun, L. E. 1972. The problems in the preservation of the seladang in the Malaysian  National Park. M.S. thesis. Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.  55 pp</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul and J. A. McNeely. 1977. Mammals of Thailand. Association for the  Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand. 758 pp.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coolidge, H. J. 1940. The Indo-Chinese Forest Ox or Kouprey. Memoirs, Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College 54(6):421-431.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coolidge, H. J. 1955. The Forest Ox or Kouprey of South East Asia. P. 109 in Breeding Beef Cattle for Unfavorable Environments, A. O. Rhoad, ed. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Neese, H.C. 1976. Kouprey along the Laos/Cambodia border area. Unpublished report to the New York Zoological Society, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pfeffer, P., and O. Kim-San. 1967. Le kouprey, Bos(Bibos) sauvelli, Urbain, 1937: discussion systematique et status actuel. Hypothese sur l'origine du zebu (Bos indicus). Mammalia 31(4):521-536.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pfeffer, P. 1969. Considerations sur l'ecologie des forets claires du Cambodge oriental. Terre et Vie 23(1):3-24.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wharton, C. H. 1957. An Ecological Study of the Kouprey. Novibos sauveli (Urbain). Monograph No. 5. Institute of Science and Technology, Manila, Philippines. 111 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dolan, J. M. 1965. Breeding of the lowland anoa in the San Diego Zoological Garden. Zeitschrift Saugetierekunde 30(4):241-248.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duplaix-Hall, N., ed. 1975. International Zoo Yearbook 15. Zoological Society of London</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fradrich, H. 1973. Einige Bemerkungen uber den Anoa. Zeitschrift des Kolner Zoo 16(3):101-105.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H., and H. Hohn. 1976. Der Karyotyp eines weiblichen Tamarau (Anea mindorensis) [The Karyotype of a Female Tamaraw (Anoa mindorensis)]. Giessener Beitrage zur Erbpathologie und Zuchthygiene 6:173.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. P. 1969. Systematics of the anoa (Mammalia, Bovidae) Beaufortia 17(223): 1-12.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Koulischer, L., J. Tyskens, and J. Mortelsmanns. 1972. The chromosomes of a male specimen of Anoa depressicornis quarlesi. Acta Pathologica, Antwerp 56:21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scheurmann, E., H. Hohn, and H. Fischer. 1977. The karyotype of a male Bubalus (Anoa) depressicornis quarlesi Ouwens 1911. In Symposium, Domesticated Animal Cytogenetics, Jouy en Josas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alvarez, J. B., Jr. 1970. Philippines tamaraw, here to stay. IUCN Publication, New Series 18:46-51.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grimwood, l. R. 1975. National Parks and Wildlife Conservation in the Philippines. FAO: PHI/72/006. UNDP/FAO, Rome, Italy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harrisson, T. 1969. The tamaraw and its survival. Conservation News of South East Asia 8:60-61, 70.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kuchn, D. 1975. Tamaraw at Mt. Iglit Came Refuge, Philippines. Tigerpaper 2(3):26.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sitwell, N. 1975. On the track of the tamaraw. Wildlife 17:428-430.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Talbot, L. M., and M. H. Talbot. 1966. The tamaraw, Bubalus mindorensis (Heude). Observations and recommendations. Mammalia 30(1): 1 - 12.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bearded </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Allen, E. F. 1948. The bearded pig. Malaysian Nature Journal 3(2):98-99.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cranbrook, Earl of. 1979. A review of domestic pig remains from archaeological sites in </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diong, C. H. 1973. Studies of the Malayan wild pig in Perak and Johore. Malaysian Nature Journal26(2):120-151.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Croves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Cenus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hertwig, P. 1936. Artbastarde bei Tieren. Handbuch Vererb Wissenschaften 2B:21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hislop, J. A. 1949. Field notes on the bearded pig. Malaysian Nature Journal 4(2):62-64.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hislop, J. A. 1952. More about the bearded pig. Malaysian Nature Journal 7:22-23.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Union for the Conservation of Nature. 1972. Red Data Book 1: Mammalia. IUCN, Cland, Switzerland. (This is a loose-leaf binder that is updated from time to time.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kempe, J. E. 1948. The riddle of the bearded pig. Malaysian Nature Journal 3(1):36-42.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lotsy, J. P. 1922. Die Aufarbeitung des kuhn'schen kreuzungsmaterials im Institut fur Tierzucht der Universitat Halle. Cenetica 4:32-61.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The distribution and status of wild pigs in Indonesia. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 9 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Medway, Lord. 1978. The Wild Mammals of Malaya and Singapore, 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohr, E. 1960. Wilde Schweine. Die Neue Brehm-Biicherei, A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg Lutherstadt, Federal Republic of Cermany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. First written report. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist group. Unpublished report. 14 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pfeffer, P. 1959. Bologie et migrations du sanglier de Borneo (Sus barbatus Muller 1869). Mammalia 23:277-303.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sulawesi Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appelman, F. J. 1955. Uber Sus celebensis Muller und Schlegel. Der Zoologische Garten 21:152-156.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Catibog-Sinha, C. S. 1981. The quantity and quality of wild food plants and the depredation of wild pigs in the Philippines. Ph.D. thesis. Oklahoma State University, Stillwater Oklahoma, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Croves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Cenus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hooijer, D. A. 1968. Pleistocene Vertebrates from Celebes. 8. Sus celebensis Muller and Schlegel, 1845. Beaufortia 16:215-218.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The distribution and status of wild pigs in Indonesia. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Croup. Unpublished report. 9 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohr, E. 1960. Wilde Schweine. Die Neue Brehm-Bucherei, A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg Lutherstadt, Federal Republic of Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. Interim report. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 14, pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Javan Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blouch, R. A. 1979. Proposed Bawean Island Wildlife Reserve Management Plan. World Wildlife Fund, Report to Directorate of Nature Conservation, Indonesia. Unpublished report. 63 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blouch, R. A. 1981. Results of a preliminary search for Sus verrucosus in the Mt. Arjuna area. World Wildlife Fund, Meru Betiri Project 1024. Unpublished report. 4 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoogerwerf, A. 1970. Udjung Kulonthe Land of the Last Javan Rhinoceros. E. J. Brill, I.eiden. The Netherlands. Pp. 330-349. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The distribution and status of wild pigs in Indonesia. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 9 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. First written report. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 14 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy Hog</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bosma, A. A., W. L. R. Oliver, and A. A. MacDonald. In press. The karyotype, including g- and c- banding patterns, of the pigmy hog Sus (Porcula) salvanius (Suidae, Mammalia).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. T. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1980. The Pigmy Hog: The Biology and Conservation of the Pigmy Hog Sus (Porcula) salvanius, and the Hispid Hare, Caprolagus hispidus. Special Scientific Report No. I. Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust. 93 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. Pigmy hog and hispid hare: further observations of the continuing decline (or, a lament for Barnadi and a good cause for skepticism). The Dodo, Journal of the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust 18:10-20.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Babirus a</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bosma, A. A., 1980. The karyotype of the babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa); karyotype evolution in the Suidae. Fourth European Colloquium Cytogenetics Domestic Animals 1980:238-241.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bosma, A. A., and De Haan, N. A. 1981. The karyotype of Babrousa babyrussa (Suidae, Mammalia) Acta Zoologica et Pathologica Antverpiensia 76: 17-27.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Davis, D. D. 1940. Notes on the anatomy of the babirusa. Field Museum of Natural History-Zoology 22(5):363-411.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fradich, H. 1974. A comparison of behaviour in the suidae. Pp. 133-144 in The Behaviour of Ungulates and Its Relation to Management. V. Ceist and F. Walther, eds. IUCN Publication No. 24.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin, No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Croves, C. P. 1980. Notes on the systematics of Babyrousa (Artiodactyla, Suidae). Zoologische Mededelingen, Deel 55(3):29-46.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The structure and function of the tusks of babirusa. Mammal Review 1 1(1):37-40.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The distribution and status of wild pigs in Indonesia. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 9 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. First written report. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 14 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selmier, V. J. 1978. Only in Indonesia: the babirusa. Unpublished report to Directorate of Nature Conservation (P.P.A.), Bogor, Indonesia. 40 pp. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Research Contacts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because Asia contains many livestock breeds about which little is known, an expert committee on Animal Genetic Resources has been recently formed by the Society for the Advancement of Breeding Researchers in Asia and Oceania (SABRAO). Its chairman is Professor J. S. F. Barker of the University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Species Survival Commission of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature has a Wild Cattle Specialist Group that concerns itself with wild banteng, gaur, and kouprey. Its chairman is Mr. Mohd. Khan bin Momin Khan, Director-General, Wildlife and National Parks, West Malaysia, Kompleks Pejabat-Pejabat Kerajaan, Block K-20, Jalan Duta, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following have particular knowledge of the animals described in this book, have contributed to the various chapters, and (in most cases) have agreed to provide advice to bona fide researchers wishing to study further the animals in this report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ida Bagus Arka, Faculty for Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Udayana University, Jalan Sudirman Sanglah, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia J. S. F. Barker, Department of Animal Science, University of New</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Bongers, Department of Nature Conservation, Wageningen Agricultural University, Ritzema Bosweg 32a, 6703AZ Wageningen, The Netherlands David Butcher, Western Plains Zoo, Box 813, Dubbo, New South Wales</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2830, Australia (Banteng are available for research projects and zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quarantine for shipments between Australia and most countries are</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">straightforward)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. K. Camoens, Livestock Specialist, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila, Philippines 2800</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Deppner, 1603 Dayton Road, Hyattsville, Maryland 20783, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.-M. Duplan, Institut Technique de l'Elevage Bovin, Section Amelioration Genetique, Maison Nationale des Eleveurs, 149, rue de Bercy F, 75595 Paris Cedex 12, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. I. Furtado, Universiti Malaya, Lembah Pantai, Kuala Lumpur 22-11, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Hodges, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Huitema, Overzicht 60, 6862 CT, Oosterbeek, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham W. M. Kirby, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Production, P.O. Box 4160, Darwin, Northern Territory 5790, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moh. Zain Katoe, P.T. United Livestock, Jalan Bau Massepe 472, ParePare, South Sulawesi, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. -G. Klos, Director, Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Hardenbergplatz 8 , 1000 Berlin 30, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. Kusmat, Dean, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Jalan Oto Iskandardinata, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ian L. Mason, 8 Ramsay Garden, Edinburgh, EH1 1NA, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert E. McDowell, Department of Animal Science, Frank B. Morrison Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Montsma, Department of Animal Production, Wageningen Agricultural University, Ritzema Bosweg 32a, 6703 AZ Wageningen, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. Moran, Senior Research Officer, Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute, Kyabram, Victoria 3620, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jan Nari, Director of Central Research Institute for Animal Science, Jalan Raya Pajajaran, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. M. Nitis, Department of Animal Nutrition and Tropical Pasture Production, Udayana University, Jalan Sudirman Sanglah, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. J. A. Payne, 91 Bedwardine Road, London SE19 3AY, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donald L. Plucknett, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, 1818 H Street, Washington, D.C. 20433, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Institute for Animal Production, P.O. Box 123, Bogor, Indonesia (Amber Roesyat, Ian Fletcher, Dennis Hoffmann, P. Sitorus, Subandriyo, M. Zulbardi)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David W. Robinson, International Programs, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. H. L. Rollinson, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Seifert, CSIRO, Tropical Cattle Research Centre, P.O. Box 5545, Rockhampton Mail Centre, N. Rockhampton, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. David Simpson, Senior Extension Specialist, Veld, Pastures and Wildlife, Agritex Box 363, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. J. Smith, Tropical Animal Health, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Summerhall, Edinburgh, EH9 1QH Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dukut Sularsasa, Department of Tropical Veterinary Science, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Syamsul Arifin, Jalan Amin Jakfar 41, Pamekasan Madura, Jatim, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taronga Zoo, P.O. Box 20, Mosman, New South Wales 2088, Australia (T. Finnie and J. L. Throp)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frank M. Thompson, Wild Animal Brokers, 15605 S. R. #64, Bradenton, Florida 33508, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Allen D. Tillman, 523 West Harned Place, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Don Tulloch, P.O. Box 38841, Winnellie, Northern Territory 5789, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Helen Newton Turner, P.O. Box 184, North Ryde, New South Wales 2113, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antoon de Vos, P.O. Box 34, Whitford, Auckland, New Zealand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert Warren, Department or Range and Wildlife Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Everett J. Warwick, The Rockefeller Foundation, P.O. Box 63, Yogyakarta, D.I.Y., Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Woodward, 35AI, Sultan Hasanudin, Ujung Pandang, South Sulawesi, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Domesticated Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Askaniya-Nova, USSR (Zoologicheskii Park Askaniya-Nova)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park; banteng-mithan hybrid)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, German Democratic Republic (Tierpark Berlin)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copenhagen, Denmark (Zoologisk Have)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubbo, New South Wales, Australia (Western Plains Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kiev, USSR (Kievskii Zoologicheskii Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madrid, Spain (Zoo de la Casa de Campo; mithan-banteng hybrid)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pretoria, South Africa (National Zoological Gardens of South Africa) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rome, Italy (Giardino Zoologico e Museo de Zoologia del Comune de Rome and Zoorama)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde; 2 male, 2 female, may be wild form)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng-Cattle Hybrids</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abubakar Aldjufri, Secretary, Asian Livestock Business Club, Kebun Pala I/79B Tanah Abang, Jakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saleh Aldjufri, Jalan Jakarta 42, Surabaya, Jawa Timur, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Deppner, 1603 Dayton Rd., Hyattsville, Maryland 20783, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Huitema, Overzicht 60, 6862 CT, Oosterbeek, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham W. M. Kirby, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Production, P.O. Box 4160, Darwin, Northern Territory 5790, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. Moran, Senior Research Officer, Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute, Kyabram, Victoria 3620, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. J. A. Payne, 91 Bedwardine Road, London SE19 3AY, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David W. Robinson, International Programs, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. H. L. Rollinson, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Wheeler, 1000 Shady Lane, College Station, Texas 77840, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaichana Satrulee, Dusit Zoological Park, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. von Furer Haimendorf, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, London WC1, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles G. Hickman, Livestock Consultant, A. Mithat Efendi Sokak No. 36/11, Cankaya, Ankara, Turkey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frederick J. Simoons, 140 Bartlett Ave., Woodland, California 95695, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Mithan (Gayal)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aalborg, Denmark (Aalborg Zoologiske Have)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amsterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijk Zoologisch) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arnhem, The Netherlands (Burgers' Zoo and Safari)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, German Democratic Republic (Tierpark Berlin)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calcutta, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cologne, Federal Republic of Germany (Aktiengesellschaft Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heidelberg, Federal Republic of Germany (Tiergarten Heidelberg)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kolmarden, Sweden (Koemardens Djurpark)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madrid, Spain (Zoo de la Casa de Campo; mithan-banteng hybrid)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabat, Morocco (Pare Zoologique National)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vienna, Austria (Schonbrunn Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tallin, USSR (Tallinna Loomaaed)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yak</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joseph Bonnemaire, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, 26, Bd. Docteur Petitjean, 21100 Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corneille Jest, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1, Place Artistide-Briand, 92190 Meudon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. A. Kazarova, Director, Riga Zoological Garden, Meza prospekt 1, Riga 14 226014, Latvian SSR, USSR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. K. Panday, Swiss Association for Technical Assistance (SATA), Box 113, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralph W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Patrick J. Robinson, Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Oxford, Commonwealth Forestry Institute, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">George B. Schaller, New York Zoological Society, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. B. Singh, Director General, Department of Livestock, HMG, Harihar Bhawan, Pulchowk, Laitpur, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Societe d'Ethnozootechnie, 25, Boulevard Arago, 75013 Paris, France (R. Laurans)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Yak</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arnhem, The Netherlands (Burgers' Zoo and Safari)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baltimore, Maryland, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bronx, New York, USA (New York Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicago, Illinois, USA (Brookfield Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Denver, Colorado, USA (Denver Zoological Gardens)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Detroit, Michigan, USA (Detroit Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evansville, Indiana, USA (Meeker Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Granby, Quebec, Canada (Societe Zoologique de Granby, Inc.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA (John Ball Zoological Gardens)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kansas City, Missouri, USA (Kansas City Zoological Gardens)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Knoxville, Tennessee, USA (Knoxville Municipal Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rochester, New York, USA (Seneca Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Wild Animal Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sioux Falls, South Dakota, USA (Great Plains Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Bend, Indiana, USA (Potawatomi Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Syracuse, New York, USA (Burnet Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Metro Toronto Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Utica, New York, USA (Utica Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wichita, Kansas, USA (Sedgwick County Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West Orange, New Jersey, USA (Turtleback Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada (Assiniboine Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yakows</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joseph Bonnemaire, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, 26, Bd. Docteur Petitjean, 21100 Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Agriculture, Hari Har Bhawan, Pulchok, Lalitpur, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Kathmandu, Nepal (Tewari and Burathoky)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Livestock Development, Peking, China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Professor Karl Fredge, Department of Genetics, University of Uppsala, Uppsala, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian Veterinary Research Institute, P.O. Izatnagar 243 122, Uttar Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Division, National Agricultural Research Center, Islamabad, Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Sheep and Yak Development Project, Dechhen Pelrithang, P.O. Bumthang, Bhutan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralph W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Patrick J. Robinson, Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Oxford, Commonwealth Forestry Institute, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whipsnade Zoo, Whipsnade, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bruce A. Young, Department of Animal Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta TOG 2P5, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Amir, c/o Ministry of Development Supervision and the Environment, JalanMirdekaBarat 15, Jakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. H. Blower, National Parks Project, c/o UNDP, Box 650, Rangoon, Burma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bonsong Lekagul, Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, No. 4 Customhouse Road, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaichana Satrulee, Dusit Zoological Park, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Z. Coto, Tropical Forest Biology, SEAMEO-BIOTROP, P.O. Box 17, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest Department, P.O. Box 311, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia (Patrick Andau, Assistant Chief Game Warden)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. R. Grimwood, P.O. Box 45079, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U. Halder, Swiss League for Nature Conservation, P.O. Box 73, CH4020 Basel, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Huitema, Overzicht 60, 6862 CT, Oosterbeek, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Wayne King, Director and Professor, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lembaga Biologi Nasional (LBN-LIPI), Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John A. Lukas, White Oak Plantation, Rt. 3 Box 224, Yulee, Florida 32097, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffrey A. McNeely, Executive Officer, Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, 1196 Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Payne, Wildlife Section, Forest Department, P.O. Box 311, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somtob Norapuckprutikorn, Captive Propagation Section, Wildlife Conservation Division, Royal Forest Department, Bangkhen, Bangkok 9, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Wheeler, 1000 Shady Lane, College Station, Texas 77840, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Wild Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albuquerque, USA (Rio Grande Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amsterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijk Zoologisch)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicago, Illinois, USA (Brookfield Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cologne, Federal Republic of Germany (Aktiengesellschaft Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copenhagen, Denmark (Zoologisk Have)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Darmstadt, Federal Republic of Germany (Vivarium Darmstadt)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dortmund, Federal Republic of Germany (Tierpark Dortmund)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dresden, German Democratic Republic (Zoologischer Garten Dresden)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">St. Louis, Missouri, USA (St. Louis Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yulee, Florida, USA (White Oak Plantation)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaur</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Aspinal, Howlett's Wildlife Park, near Canterbury, Kent, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul, Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, No. 4 Customhouse Road, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paul Conry, Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources, Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 23367, GMF Guam 96921, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. R. Grimwood, P.O. Box45079, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohd Khan bin Momin Khan, Director-General, Department of Wildlife and National Parks, P.O. Box 611, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. A. Kazarova, Director, Riga Zoological Garden, Meza prospekt 1, Riga 14 226014, Latvian SSR, USSR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.-G. Klos, Director, Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Hardenbergplatz 8, 1000 Berlin 30, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adrian G. Marshall, Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">George B. Schaller, New York Zoological Society, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lee Simmons, Omaha Zoo, Omaha, Nebraska 68108, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Janet Stover, Bronx Zoo, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frank M. Thompson, Wild Animal Brokers, 15605 S. R. #64, Bradenton, Florida 33508, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Guar </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Berlin Zoo was assigned by the IUCN in cooperation with the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">lUDZG to keep the guar studbook records. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bronx, New York, USA (New York Zoological Park; 7 male, 3 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brownsville, Texas, USA (Gladys Porter Zoo; 5 male, 10 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copenhagen, Denmark (Zoologisk Have; 1 male, 2 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holiday Island, Eureka Springs, Arkansas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India (Nehru Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivey, Wilburton, Oklahoma, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kansas City, Missouri, USA (Kansas City Zoological Gardens; I male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kings Mill, Ohio, USA (Wild Animal Safari,; 1 male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Los Angeles, California, USA (The Los Angeles Zoo; I male, 3 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Memphis, Tennessee, USA (Memphis Zoo and Aquarium; I male, 2 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Munich, Federal Republic of Germany (Munchener Tierpark Hellabrunn Ag)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mysore, Karnataka, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA (Oklahoma City Zoo; 7 male, 7 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Omaha, Nebraska, USA (Henry Doorly Zoological Gardens; 7 male, 15 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Riga, Latvian SSR, USSR (Riga Zoological Garden)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Wild Animal Park; 6 male, 6 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Bend, Indiana, USA (Potawatomi Park Zoo; 1 male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">St. Louis, Missouri, USA (St. Louis Zoological Park; 1 male, 2 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Metro Toronto Zoo; 3 male, 1 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vienna, Austria (Schonbrunn Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul, Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, No. 4 Customhouse Road, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harold Coolidge, 38 Standley Street, Beverly, Massachusetts 01915, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffrey A. McNeely, Executive Officer, Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, 1196 Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harvey C. Neese, P.O. Box 332, Troy, Idaho 83871, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Anthony Parkinson, White House, San Roque 1, San Jose, Occidental Mindoro, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pierre Pfeffer, Zoologie, Mammiferes et Oiseaux Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle 55, rue de Buffon 75005 Paris, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Kelly Shelton, 211-A North Cordova, Burbank, California 91505, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Henry Stoddard, Branford Veterinary Clinics, Inc., P.O. Box 548, Branford, Florida 32008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles H. Wharton, Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA (Rt. 2, Clayton, Georgia 30525)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Conservation Centre, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, CH 1196 Gland, Switzerland (David Mitchell, Elizabeth Kemf)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Kouprey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. M. Dolan, San Diego Zoological Garden, San Diego, California 92112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Anoas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp; mountain anoa)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten; mountain anoa)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London, England (lowland anoa)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leipzig, German Democratic Republic (Zoologischer Garten Leipzig; mountain anoa)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde; 1 male, 3 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Zoological Garden; 1 male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Wild Animal Park; 1 male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (Taronga Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Natural Resources, Quezon City, Manila, Philippines (J. B. Alvarez, Jr., Assistant Director)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. R. Grimwood, P.O. Box 45079, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Natural Resources Conservation Office, Ministry of Natural Resources, Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Anthony Parkinson, White House, San Roque 1, San Jose, Occidental Mindoro, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ian Player, P.O. Box 192, Howick 3290, Natal, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Sitwell, c/o WWF(UK), 11-13 Ockford Rd., Godalming, Surrey GU7 lQU, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. M. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna 3720, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bearded Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Julian Oliver Caldecott, Sub-Department of Veterinary Anatomy, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3DY, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The AustralianNationalUniversity, P.O. Box4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 10H, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Parks and Wildlife Office, Sarawak Forest Department, Jalan Gartak, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia (Kron Aken, David Labang, Mike Kavanagh)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Payne, Wildlife Section, Forest Department, P.O. Box 311, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Bearded Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore, Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sulawesi Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Catibog-Sinha, Outdoor Recreation and Wildlife Research Division, Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna 3720, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The AustralianNationalUniversity, P.O. Box4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 10H, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Mackinnon, WWF/TUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, ChanneL Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Sulawesi Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Javan Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raleigh A. Blouch, 2125 Forest Glen, Lansing, Michigan 48906, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. Bosma, Department of Functional Morphology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, State University Utrecht, P.O. Box 80157, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Directorate of Nature Conservation (PPA), Jalan Ir. H. Juanda 9, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lembaga Biologi Nasional (LBN-LIPl), Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 10EI, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Werner Pauwels, Pfeffingerstrasse 48, CM-053, Basel, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perum Perhutani, Forest State Corporation, Jalan Jendral Gatot Subroto 17-18, Post Box 111, Jakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Javan Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy Hog</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. Bosma, Department of Functional Morphology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, State University Utrecht, P.O. Box 80157, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. C. Gogoi, Adviser Forests, (Wildlife and Environmental Planning), Meghalaya, P.O. Shillong 793 001, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The AustralianNationalUniversity, P.O. Box4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 lOH, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Deb Roy, Manas National Park, P.O. Barpeta Road, Kamrup 781 315, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Pigmy Hog</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gauhati, India (Assam State Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zurich, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Babirusa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. Bosma, Department of Functional Morphology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, State University Utrecht, P.O. Box 80157, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 lOH, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Victoria Selmier, 353 10th Street, San Francisco, California 94103, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Babirusa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, W. de Meurichy)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bandung, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany, (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copenhagen, Denmark, (Zoologisk Have)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia, (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nuremberg, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poznan, Poland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stuttgart, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia, (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas (member through 1981) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Native Plants, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOlS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (member through 1982) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGElARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAMUEL P. ASPER, Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BELL, Department of Population Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEONARD BERRY, Professor, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST.J. BRISKEY, Dean, School of Agriculture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON S. BROWN, Director, Resources Systems Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. BURRIS, Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAUDIA JEAN CARR, Associate Professor, Conservation and Resource Studies, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATE FIELDS, Director, Developing Markets, Control Data Corporation, Minneapolis, Minnesota </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND J. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN HOWARD GIBBONS, Director, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM HUGHES, Director, Engineering Energy Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM A. W. KREBS, Vice President, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Acorn Park, Cambridge, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE I. LYTHCOTT, University of Wisconsin, School of Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANICE E. PERLMAN, Executive Director, Committee for a New New York, New York City Partnership, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK C. ROBBINS, President, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER A. ROSENBLITH, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HERBERT SMUCKLER, Dean of International Studies and Programs, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GILBERT F. WHITE, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Assistant Dean for International Programs, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN G. HURLEY, Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Associate Director/Studies </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL P. GREENE. Associate Director/Research Grants </P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/b18ase/metadata.xml
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+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Little Known Asian Animals With a Promising Economic Future (b18ase)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">L-M-N-O-P</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">introduce little-known Asian farm animals with a promising future</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/b20cre/b20cre.htm
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+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Managing Tropical Animal Resources - Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Managing Tropical Animal Resources - Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of International Affairs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Cooperation with the Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 1983</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development(BOSTID) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panel on Crocodile Farming</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director, Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HOWARD W. CAMPBELL (deceased) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, Jr., Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING, Director, Florida Museum, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS, Furzebrook Research Station, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Wareham, Dorset, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT M. PYLE, Species Conservation Monitoring Unit, Cambridge, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS, Representative, The Asia Foundation, Taipei, Taiwan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CAROL GABARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WASSAM GABARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KAROL KISOKAU, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Waigani </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAVU KWAPENA, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MIRO LAUFA, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GREG MITCHELL, Crocodile Farm, Lae </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEO NING, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Wewak </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MIGUEE AEVAREZE DEE TORO, Instituto de Historia Natural, Departamento de Zoologia, Chiapas, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANGUS D'A.BELLAIRS, Department of Anatomy, St. Mary's Hospital Medical School, University of London, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER BRAZAITIS, Department of Herpetology, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H.CHABRECK, Louisiana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MAX C.DOWNES, The Game Conservation Centre, Melbourne, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KARLHEINZ FUCHS, hoechst Aktiengesellschaft, Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAIRE HACEN, Reptile Products Association, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RENEE.HONEGGER, Zurich Zoo, Zurich, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TED JOANEN, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, Chenier, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN LEVER, Koorana Crocodile Farm, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM MAGNUSSON, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia, Manaus, Amazonia, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRY MESSEE, School of Physics, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRED PARKER, Kirwan Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANTHONY POOLEY, St. Lucia Estuary, Zululand, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES A.ROSS, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.B.SALE, UNDP/FAO Crocodile Breeding and Management Project, Hyderabad, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LUISVARONA, La Habana, Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHAROON YOUNGPRAPAKORN, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm, Samutprakan, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UTAl YOUNGPRAPAKORN, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm, Samutprakan, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MYRNA WATANABE, Co-editor of ICUN Newsleter, Brooklyn, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROMULUS WHITAKER, Guindy Deer Park, Madras, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Professional Associate, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Crocodile Study Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council Staff</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY lANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE REGES, Administrative Secretary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This publication is dedicated to the memory of panel member Howard W. "Duke" Campbell who devoted most of his professional life to the conservation of crocodilians. Dr. Campbell was Chairman of the Crocodilian Specialist Group of the Survival Commission of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources at the time of his death in 1981.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel that produced this report met in Papua New Guinea in May 1981. Its purpose was to consider the principles of the Papua New Guinea crocodile farming program and their implications for economic development and for the management and survival of crocodilians elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles are an integral part of the tropical fauna; they are ecologically important, biologically interesting, and, potentially, a renewable natural resource of considerable economic value. The panel hopes that through this report the possibility of saving and managing this animal throughout the tropics can be better assessed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members of the panel consulted officials of the Ministry of Wildlife and Conservation in Port Moresby and visited crocodile farms in Moitaka, Popondetta, and Lae. The panel is grateful to Karol Kisokau, Navu Kwapena, and Miro Laufa of the Division of Wildlife for arranging its itinerary and visits in Papua New Guinea. It also wishes to thank Yano Belo, Minister of Environment, for hosting an evening social at the Moitaka crocodile farm; Greg Mitchell and his wife Judy, who entertained the panel at their home in Lae and conducted a tour of their company's crocodile farm; and Wassam and Carol Gabara who acted as guides and hosts in Popondetta.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council, is assessing scientific and technological advances that might prove especially applicable to problems of developing countries. This report is one of a series that explores promising areas of science previously unknown, neglected, or overlooked. Current titles in the ACT! series on Managing Tropical Animal Resources include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal (1981) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These activities are supported largely by the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID). Program costs for this study were sponsored by AID'S Bureau for Asia, and staff costs by AID'S Office of the Science Advisor, which also made possible the free distribution of this report. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gavials ( Present-day crocodilians are grouped into three families: crocodiles, alligators and caimans, and gavials (gharials). The animals differ from one another only in minor characters such as shape of snout, arrangement of scutes, and dental features. This report focuses mainly on crocodile species, but its conclusions are generally applicable to alligators, caimans, and gavials.) have existed for some 200 million years - much longer than mammals - but they are now disappearing at alarming rates. Of the 21 or so species of crocodilians distributed in the warm waters of the world, at least 18 are threatened with extinction in most of the countries where they are found.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although some species, such as the American alligator, appear to be out of danger because of strict conservation measures, many of the others survive mostly in national parks, protected preserves, or a few breeding stations. This is true for the slender-spouted crocodiles of Africa and Asia, the saltwater crocodile of Australia and Southeast Asia, the black caiman and Orinoco crocodile of South America, the Chinese alligator, the Siamese crocodile, and other species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat destruction is a major contributor to crocodilian decline; each year more breeding areas are disturbed as swamps and marshlands are drained, rivers dammed, estuaries reclaimed, and riverine forests denuded. However, illegal poaching by tribal people with their simple but effective traps, snares, and set hooks, as well as professional hunters operating with power boats, spotlights, and modern firearms are also decimating the animals over most of their ranges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To a large extent these animals are being destroyed because of their market value. Crocodile is regarded as the costliest and most fashionable leather in western markets. Since World War II, demand for crocodile leather shoes, handbags, luggage, wallets, watchbands, and other expensive luxury articles has far exceeded supply. Even small items such as purses and handbags sell for many hundreds of dollars each. For instance, a ladies' purse or handbag made from crocodile skin can command prices as high as $4,000. A pair of men's shoes may cost from $500 to $900, and a wallet from $150 to $250.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The crocodile trade peaked in the mid-1960s, when world markets absorbed more than 2 million crocodile skins each year. Today it is still large. In 1979, for instance, 1,000,000 caiman hides and 300,000 true crocodile hides entered international commerce. In 1981 the United States itself imported 100,000 hides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International markets for reptile hides and leathers are centered in France, Italy, the Federal Republic of Germany, and Japan. France, the single largest buyer of raw crocodilian hides, uses an estimated 300,000 to 400,000 skins a year. The major buyers of finished crocodile leather products are Hong Kong, Japan, Thailand, Singapore, and the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unrestricted hunting and poaching for hides are wiping out the large breeding animals. Excessive hunting has a devastating effect on crocodile populations because their age distribution is like a pyramid: a small number of breeding animals dominates a large number of juveniles and hatchlings, most of which never survive to maturity. Such societies, in which the size of future populations depends on only a few animals, are highly vulnerable to extinction; once some of the mature members are killed the population can crash. And it takes a long time for a crocodilian population to rebuild because for most large species the females do not begin breeding until they are at least 8 years old.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rearing Crocodiles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there may seem to be no future for many crocodile populations, the situation is not hopeless. With intelligent intervention and under good conditions they can recover rapidly. Mature crocodiles have no enemies other than man, and, given some care and protection, a small number of breeders can produce a huge number of progeny each year. Mature females of the various crocodilian species usually lay between 30 and 70 eggs each year, and under normal conditions most of these eggs hatch successfully. The key to conserving the population is to protect the few mature animals and their habitats. Then, because of their fecundity, crocodilians can rapidly build up large numbers of young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This has been exemplified by the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). Ten years ago its future seemed doubtful, but the legal protection of the populations has brought a remarkable recovery. Numbers are now so high that two states have lifted the ban on harvesting alligators, and between lo,ooo and 20,000 American alligator hides now enter commerce each year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The past few decades have seen several other examples of successful crocodile-rearing projects. Later chapters of this book highlight the national program in Papua New Guinea. In addition, three successful government-operated farms exist in India (where all the progeny is returned to the wild because current Indian law prohibits commercial crocodile farms). A remarkable farm with more than 3,000 breeding animals operates on the outskirts of Bangkok, Thailand. Australia has four crocodile farms, and a few African countries now have crocodile farms that are already beginning to supply hides internationally. For example, in 1982 Zambia had two such farms, Zimbabwe, five, South Africa, four (with five more planned or under construction), and Kenya, one. Appendix A lists these and other countries that are initiating farms for various crocodilian species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The early technical success of these projects offers the expectation that with an appropriate framework of safeguards and research, crocodiles might become a thriving resource for tropical nations. If such experiences can be replicated, crocodilians and their habitats may come to be considered as resources to be managed and treasured. This will require considerable investment, strict legislation and law enforcement, and international cooperation and research, as well as careful monitoring of the traffic in farmed hides. But national crocodile industries are a possibility, and they could result in thriving natural populations that are free from the danger of extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such prospects may also provide economic incentives for preserving the often-fragile ecosystem in which wild crocodilians live. Crocodile farming could play a part by slowing the uncontrolled draining of swamps and other wetlands that cover large areas of the lowland humid tropics of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles as a managed resource could economically benefit remote areas of the lowland tropics. Villagers there often have few alternative sources of income and possibilities for economic development are limited. Because the human population is relatively sparse, few opportunities exist for local trading; even where fish are abundant the problems of marketing are formidable. Indeed, in some areas crocodiles may constitute the only readily salvable resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles as Farm Animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Well-fed crocodiles grow quickly. Under ideal conditions they may reach lengths of 1 m or more in a year and 1.5 m in 2 years. They are normally harvested in the third year when they reach about 2 m in length. In this time their value may have risen from about $5 to as much as $200.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles have acquired a reputation as voracious feeders; investigations reveal this to be false. The animals actually have modest food requirements. Many hatchling animals have a food conversion rate of about 50 percent; that is, the crocodile adds 1 kg of weight for every 2 kg of food it consumes. Cattle, sheep, and pigs would have to eat 3-5 times as much food to achieve the same weight increase. After 2 years the crocodile's growth rate begins to slow down. During the third year the conversion falls to about 25 or 30 percent, which is still a high figure, and makes crocodiles probably the most nutritionally efficient land animal for commercial husbandry. Only the growth of some fish is comparable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The high food conversion efficiency is due to the fact that crocodiles have low metabolic rates and are normally extremely lethargic. They are active only in short bursts, spend hours immobile, and move only about one-third as much as mammals. Moreover, being reptiles, they spend almost no food energy maintaining body temperature. They bask in the sun to keep warm and seek shade or water to cool off. For these reasons crocodilians can thrive in marginal habitats unsuitable for mammals or birds (Investigations on the Nile crocodile showed that a pelican takes 3 days to consume food equal to its own weight, whereas a crocodile takes 125-160 days - Cott, 1961.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming is also space efficient. As long as they are sorted by size, hundreds of juveniles or dozens of larger animals can be penned together in a small area. Indeed crocodiles often choose to pile up on top of one another in stacks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about disease in reptiles. However, as farm animals, crocodiles have a major advantage: they produce antibodies readily and have few problems with external infections. In the wild it is common to find crocodiles missing limbs or tips of tails, with eyes gouged out, or enormous scars on the body. But the wounds heal readily, with little sign of infection (The American alligator is being used at the University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine as a model for studies on antibody formation.). This minimizes the need for veterinary services, a distinct benefit in remote village farms. Nevertheless, internal bacterial diseases, such as salmonella, can get out of hand and destroy a program by reducing growth rates, lowering hide quality, or killing the animals outright.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile Hides</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is the belly skin that is the valuable part of a crocodile, and the worth of a hide is determined by the size of the belly skin, the smallness of its scales, and the hide's general condition. (Holes, cuts, scars, and rot drastically reduce its value.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although international markets utilize any crocodile skin from 0.3 m to 6 m long, the most sought-after hides are not the biggest but the moderate-sized ones from animals about 1.5-2 m long. These hides are approximately 25-50 cm in belly width.( A crocodile's total length is approximately 4-4.5 times the width of its belly). Large hides, for example those more than 3 or 4 m in length, are suitable only for luggage and briefcases because their scales are large. Smaller hides, on the other hand, are suitable both for items such as shoes, handbags, and wallets and for larger items.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Internationally, the most desirable hides come from the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). It has proportionally the smallest belly scales of any crocodile, it lacks osteoderms,(Osteoderms are deposits of calcium carbonate under the skin. They are undesirable because they dissolve away during the tanning process, leaving a pitted surface),and on the side of its body the scales are uniformly small. The next most valuable hides probably come from Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii), the American alligator, the Siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis), and the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rest of this report highlights the program in Papua New Guinea, where during the last 10 years the government has made crocodile rearing an organized industry, much as poultry farming is elsewhere. This program, which is beginning to establish crocodiles as a significant natural asset, is designed both to protect the wild populations and to integrate traditional uses of these reptiles into a scientifically managed hide industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Papua New Guinea crocodile farming (In the official terminology of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the Papua New Guinea program is "ranching" rather than "farming" because the young livestock are mostly culled from wild populations and are not bred on the farm) has become the cornerstone for the economic improvement of some of the world's poorest people. It offers a means for bringing the rural poor into the process of economic development, and it can be blended into a traditional village structure where land and resources may be communally owned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The projects are small and many have had operational difficulties, but they suggest that conservation and economic development can be not only compatible, but also mutually reinforcing. The innovative idea is not that crocodiles can bring in money, but that sound conservation can be blended with marketing crocodile skins, meat, and by-products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important aspect of this approach to crocodile conservation is that it is based on protecting the existing landscape and resources. It provides a tool for conserving the species in their own wild habitats so that survival will not depend on a few captive specimens living under artificial conditions. It requires none of the bush clearing, fencing, forage planting or pesticide spraying that domestic animals often demand ,important advantages in an economic development project in a fragile tropical swamp or rain forest ecosystem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Papua New Guinea approach, then, provides an economic incentive for wildlife protection. Everyone ,from the villager to the minister of trade ,has a stake in keeping the wild populations healthy. Out of self-interest, in addition to natural respect, large numbers of people become the guardians of the resource and the habitat needed to keep it surviving and productive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The world's major conservation organizations have given Papua New Guinea's crocodile program their stamp of approval. In 1976 a team of scientists representing the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, one of the most prestigious conservation organizations in the world, inspected the program. As a result, Papua New Guinea was given special dispensation, and its crocodile skins can be legally traded internationally. For example, because of its endangered status the saltwater crocodile is banned from trade by the Convention on international Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). An exemption, however, is granted to Papua New Guinea in recognition of the fact that its crocodiles now are sufficiently well managed to sustain a skin industry without seriously damaging the wild stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This program serves as a model for nations of the Americas, Asia, and Africa where crocodilian resources are still unmanaged or managed poorly. Crocodiles are being destroyed so fast that within about five years Papua New Guinea and other countries that have organized crocodile farming operations may be the only ones supplying significant numbers of skins to the international market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the principles developed in Papua New Guinea deserve international attention, the recipe will not be a cure-all for problems of rural development or crocodile conservation. Instead, the Papua New Guinea experience suggests that local social, political, economic, and conservation goals can become the impetus for a successful blend of village improvement and wildlife protection.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Crocodile Farming in Papua New Guinea</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As recently as the l950s, crocodiles were abundant in Papua New Guinea. Hunting was a major occupation and was unrestricted. Some Australians and Europeans made fortunes by shooting thousands of crocodiles a year to make shoes and handbags in Europe and North America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it was obvious that wild populations could not sustain such wholesale slaughter, the destruction continued. By 1967 both the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) and the freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus novaeguineae) were threatened with extinction. By 1968, despite increased hunting, the yield of skins had dropped in half; along the easily accessible river systems, crocodile populations had been wiped out. By 1969 the saltwater crocodile had disappeared from much of its range throughout the country, and wildlife officers estimated that without protection most specimens of breeding size would be eliminated within five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But how could crocodiles be protected? Papua New Guinea is divided by mountain ranges, ravines, torrential rivers, forests, seas, malarial swamps, and more than 700 languages. It would take hundreds of trained wildlife officers to enforce a ban on crocodile hunting, particularly in the face of opposition from tribesmen who have traditionally harvested crocodiles for food, decorative items, and implements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge was given to the officers of the Wildlife Division. Under the leadership of Max C. Downes, these officials concluded that the best way to protect crocodile populations was to halt the slaughter of the large breeding adults and build up a new hide industry based on the increased numbers of young that would result.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Few young crocodiles ever reach breeding age in the wild. The tiny, virtually defenseless hatchlings are easy prey for large fish, birds, or other crocodiles. Almost all of them are killed by predators or by other natural causes, such as floods..</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main areas of crocodile distribution in Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What was needed, the wildlife officers concluded, were incentives to make these smaller animals economically attractive, incentives to encourage local people to raise small crocodiles to commercial size. If that could be accomplished, hundreds of hatchlings that would normally perish could be utilized without endangering the wild populations' future. Villagers could benefit by selling skins while the vital breeding-sized animals were being left alone to provide more hatchlings. The system could benefit both the villagers and the vulnerable crocodile populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="b20a.png"></center><br>
+ Main areas of crocodile distribution in Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The idea was viable partly because many Papua New Guineans - particularly those of the Sepik and Fly Rivers - have ancient spiritual and cultural attachments to crocodiles. To them, the idea of handling and managing the animals is not unusual. Crocodile motifs are common in their art and they live in harmony with the big beasts and do not consider them dangerous pests to be eliminated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legislation passed by the Papua New Guinea government in 1969 capitalized on this tradition by making the villagers themselves the real force in crocodile protection. The law did not ban crocodile hunting, but instead banned the possession, sale, and export of skins larger than 20 inches (51 cm) wide. In this way, it protected breeding-sized animals while allowing for the harvest of juveniles. It also allowed a person to kill a crocodile if attacked (but barred the selling of the skin, if it were oversized).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1980, the legislation was supplemented by a law banning the export of small skins. Together, the bans on possessing large skins and exporting small skins have created a stimulus for gathering small crocodiles from the wild and rearing them to moderate size on farms. The legislation has been the impetus for crocodile farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming officially started in Papua New Guinea in 1972. In the late 1970s, it was extensively supported by a UNDP/FAO assistance program that provided personnel and funds for technical support and program management. Today there are about 300 small village farms (The numbers vary, since some villagers go in and out of production depending on their need for income, seasonal variation in river levels, the cost of fuel, and the availability of government extension agents) supplying a number of larger business groups that rear crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife officers now teach crocodile farming, not crocodile conservation per se. They have introduced crocodile-rearing techniques to villagers all over Papua New Guinea. They help build pens and teach tribesmen how to care for the young reptiles, which are so vulnerable and timid that they can literally die of fright.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government loans of up to US$10,000, along with matching development bank loans, are available to help a farmer enter the crocodile farming business. The funds pay for pumps for changing the water in the pens and sometimes for an outboard motor used in gathering young crocodiles. Everything else a villager needs can be obtained from the forest, including materials for pen construction; a small farm can therefore be established inexpensively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Three Types of Farms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government's crocodile management program recognizes three levels of operation: village farms (up to 300 crocodiles), small-business farms (up to 1,000 crocodiles), and large-business farms (more than 1,000 crocodiles).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A village crocodile farm consists of a small pen fenced with posts lashed together with vines. This stockade fence is about 1.5 m high and is sunk about 60 cm in the ground so the crocodiles cannot burrow out. Much of the enclosure is planted with grass, cassava, and banana trees to provide secluded areas where the animals, which regulate their body temperature by the warmth of the sun, can find shade. A shallow pool is excavated in the center.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These village farms are usually run by only one or two people. Many are little more than pens scattered in the remote bush for holding young crocodiles until a buyer from a larger farm comes around. Small crocodiles bring less money than medium-sized animals, but the villager avoids having to feed and care for them for a long period.(Because of operational difficulties, many village farms were abandoned in 1982. Lack of proper husbandy - despite government efforts - were the main reason for these difficulties. Most villagers now collect and hold young only until buyers from commercial farms arrive. However, they are still earning money from crocodiles, and the concept of fully functioning village farms remains valid for the future in Papua New Guinea, as well as for appropriate sites elsewhere). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The small-business farm usually consists of a group of enclosures (each about 6 m x 6 m) constructed of bush materials. It is typically located near an airstrip. It buys crocodiles from the village farmer and, in turn, supplies them to the larger farms, which sometimes dispatch aircraft to pick the animals up (Special cardboard shipping containers have been devised. They can be folded to make cylinders of various diameters to fit crocodiles of different sizes). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large-scale crocodile farms accommodate as many as 20,000 crocodiles and require a large investment. They serve to regulate the export of skins and are the major purchasers of live crocodiles from the smaller farms. During periods of drought, flooding, or diminished food supplies, the large-scale farms also act as emergency buyers. On the outskirts of Lae on Papua New Guinea's northern coast, there is a 100-hectare farm with nearly 8,000 crocodiles. It is associated with a poultry company, and the crocodiles are raised on the offal from the slaughterhouse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government Research and Extension</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Wildlife Division has constructed four demonstration farms across the country and one large research farm at Moitaka near Port Moresby, the capital city. After training at one of these, a tribesman can start his own farm alone or can call on the government for further assistance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moitaka is also the site of short courses in crocodile farming. Prospective farmers are brought in for several weeks' training. They learn how to build pens, to feed and care for crocodiles, to kill and skin them, and to prepare the hides for market. They also learn about the crocodile laws and the reason they were enacted. A farm at Lake Murray, in a remote and swampy area of the Western Province, serves the same purpose. It is built entirely from bush materials (see picture, pp. 6-7).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Wildlife Division provides instruction books, profusely illustrated for the illiterate. The books include vivid descriptions of all phases of farming the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic Gains</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 10 years, crocodile rearing has expanded remarkably in Papua New Guinea. It has already become the main source of income for the people of some swamp and river areas. The Ambunti area, for example, produces coffee and rice, but crocodile skins now bring in much of the area's income. By 1981 the farms nationwide contained a total of 30,000 crocodiles, ensuring a sustained production of at least 10,000 skins a year worth approximately US$ 1-2 million on the international market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because crocodiles are a familiar resource, villagers take to the program quickly. By contrast, introducing cattle or western-style crop raising requires massive education and training, in addition to some social and environmental disruption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On government farms in Papua New Guinea, fish-fed crocodiles have increased their belly width by 25 cm per year and are ready for slaughter in 2-3 years when the width approaches 50 cm. The selling price of the skin is then between $100 and $200, depending on species, flaws, and size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But skins are not the only product. A crocodile with a skin big enough to market can provide 20 kg of meat. The meat is white and is low in fat. Papua New Guinea is a net importer of meat, and crocodile farming is now augmenting local supplies. The large farm at Lae already sells frozen crocodile meat (including front and hind legs, tail steaks, ribs, and chops) both locally and on foreign markets. Some orders have come in from dealers in Paris who supply expensive French restaurants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 Conclusions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benefits of Crocodile Farming</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming seems to be singularly appropriate for rural, isolated, lowland communities in the tropics. The land there is often unsuitable for conventional agriculture, and the people lead a tenuous existence or drift to the cities looking for work. In such areas, there are few opportunities for people to earn cash without drastic and expensive modifications to the environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming has many advantages over hunting the animal in the wild. For instance, crocodiles farms can:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Permit government monitoring of the crocodile industry. (Hunters are more difficult to regulate since they work in remote areas, often undetected and crossing borders at will.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yield a regular harvest of a specific number of animals of a selected size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Produce a standardized, premium product that better serves the needs of the international hide industry, making skins poached from the wild less desirable. (They may provide, for instance, a standard first grade 1-1.5 m long hide rather than hides of mixed size and quality.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Reduce the wasteful losses of hides from improper handling, the fate of a high proportion of skins now brought in from the wild.(*In remote areas, salt may become scarce late in the season as it is used for hides. This often results in insufficient salt being used when the supply runs out and hides subsequently rot or "slip". In some isolated areas, as much as 25 percent of the hides are lost or downgraded because of improper curing for lack of salt. However, skins produced on farms, especially near urban areas or large villages, are usually properly salted; if salt becomes scarce, killing of the animals can be delayed) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Educate the public about crocodile ecology and the animal's importance to the habitat and the local economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Provide sites for scientific studies on crocodilians. Studies conducted on alligators at the Rockefeller Refuge in Louisiana, USA, for example, have provided reproductive, nutritional, and growth data directed specifically towards developing efficient farming techniques.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For some farms the earnings from hides, meat, and by-products may be supplemented by tourism (through gate admissions and the sale of curios), as well as by selling eggs and young to other farms for breeding stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A long-term program of wise utilization of crocodiles can benefit governments by providing revenue from hides, curios, craftwork, and manufactured articles, as well as from export duties. Furthermore, in their natural state in parks and preserves, crocodiles are an important tourist attraction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an effort to preserve crocodile habitats, the Papua New Guinea program has encouraged the collection of eggs or young from the wild and has discouraged the breeding of crocodiles in captivity. This is because a reliance on the wild creates economic incentives to conserve crocodile habitats; if the habitats are drained for human settlement or conventional agriculture the farmers lose the source of their stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contrary to popular impression, preliminary observations indicate that crocodiles benefit commercial fisheries. The animals are important links in the ecosystems of rivers and lakes and are often the largest inhabitants of the freshwater wetlands. Their movements inhibit the growth of aquatic plants in the waterways, and, in areas with prolonged dry seasons, some species maintain residual waterholes that benefit small aquatic organisms that would otherwise perish. In estuaries and lakes, crocodiles enrich the nutrient content of the water by converting terrestrial prey into feces that in turn feed invertebrates and fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where crocodiles have been eliminated, reductions in the tonnage of fish caught for human consumption can usually be demonstrated. For example, in Brazil, Kenya, and India, a decline in the fishermen's catch has paralleled the decline in crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations of Crocodile Farming</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments and individuals seeking rapid returns on investments should realize that a crocodile farming industry is not a get-rich-quick scheme. To build a stable national industry may require 10 years and an investment of at least $500,000 before it is biologically and economically successful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, an organized industry is vital. A village crocodile-rearing pond is only profitable if there is someone to buy, grade, package, and ship the product with all its documentation. Services will be needed at all levels to advise on disease control, nutrition, skinning, and preserving the hides. In many parts of the world crocodile farms have been financial and conservation failures not just because of poor husbandry management, but also because of fiscal shortsightedness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selection of a suitable farm site is basic to the economics of the entire operation. Farms demand a steady supply of meat or fish to feed the crocodiles, and are most successful when located near a reliable source of inexpensive food. Some farms take advantage of offal from nearby chicken or cattle abattoirs; others use the fish by-catch from shrimping operations. In the absence of an inexpensive animal protein feed, the farm will have to raise its own food (tilapia is frequently used) or harvest it from the wild, both of which can be expensive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farms also require a steady year-round supply of clean water for the holding ponds and tanks. If this cannot be supplied by gravity flow from nearby sources, it must be pumped from wells or from nearby lakes or ponds. This, too, is likely to be expensive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the general hardiness of crocodiles, the farms must have access to veterinary care. Most disease problems stem from poor sanitation, low water temperatures, and poor diet, all of which can be easily corrected. But with large numbers of animals crowded together, disease problems, if not quickly diagnosed and treated, can wipe out the young captive animals in epidemic proportions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capturing and transporting large crocodilians is dangerous and difficult. Dealing with a large captive population of crocodiles of different age groups and sizes requires a great deal of experience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although crocodilians are common in zoos, successful breeding of these reptiles in captivity is so far a rare and remarkable event. However, researchers are now coming to understand the behavioral requirements for success. For instance, gravid females must have access to appropriate nesting sites, males must have ample space when they are penned in with other males, and juveniles and hatchlings must be separated from their parents and housed by size and feeding preferences. That prolific breeding can be achieved, however, is illustrated by the Samutprakan crocodile farm near Bangkok, Thailand, which reportedly has reared tens of thousands of its own animals and now aims for a population of 100,000 crocodiles by 1987.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The worldwide shortage of crocodile leather is becoming more acute each year, and it will be many years before any output from farms can significantly reduce pressure on wild populations. Thus, farming should be only one aspect of an overall conservation program that includes total protection of some populations in national parks and sanctuaries. In addition, the conservation of natural wetlands is an important part of overall economic planning. If wetlands are lost, many wild species in addition to crocodiles will be affected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Australia, Asia, Africa, and the Americas, many crocodilian populations are poorly protected because governments lack the manpower or the will to enforce conservation laws rigorously, especially in the remote areas where the last remaining crocodiles reside. Because most wildlife departments in the tropics are short staffed and have vast areas to police, their efforts at wildlife protection are frequently ineffective. Moreover, some countries have been slow to introduce protective legislation for an animal that does not engender public sympathy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea's program offers one of the best hopes for saving all endangered crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gavials. The methods developed there serve as a model for other nations. By providing an alternative, Papua New Guinea gives villagers the incentive to protect wild crocodiles that are breeding nearby so as to assure themselves of future supplies. The people themselves become the conservators of the local animals and habitats. In turn, watersheds, soils, and conventional agricultural development (including natural and forest products) can all benefit. The habitat is also preserved for many other wildlife species that share it, and genetic diversity can be maintained. Conversely, without a special incentive to conserve them, all these resources are normally degraded as a region develops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Regulations, Safeguards, and Research Needs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Papua New Guinea experience provides a model for other nations, but to implement such a program requires a foundation of legislation, government support, and legal safeguards. Prerequisites of any crocodile farming program are an overhaul of legislation, strict law enforcement, and reciprocal laws with neighboring countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The enforcement of wildlife regulations is so inadequate in most countries that crocodile farming is open to abuse. Farms can front for illegal poaching operations, and hides taken from the wild can be intermingled with hides produced on the ranch or farm unless government enforcement is stringent and inspection frequent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, the stimulation of world trade in crocodile hides through the sale of farmed hides might lead to increased poaching of wild crocodiles or eggs. Poachers have fewer operating expenses than farmers, and unscrupulous hunters and dealers can harvest hides, steal crocodile eggs or young, and subsequently sell them through countries that lack enforcement capabilities. This practice could be disastrous for countries where crocodile populations have almost disappeared.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government Regulations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before any farming scheme is attempted, protective legislation should be in operation throughout the country. This should make it unlawful to kill, capture by any means whatsoever, disturb willfully, or pursue any crocodiles, or to collect or gather any crocodile eggs without a permit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No crocodile eggs should be allowed to be imported or exported with out a permit. No persons should possess, sell, buy, donate, receive consequent upon a donation, convey, keep in captivity, or display any live crocodiles without being the holder of a permit. And no person should be allowed to import or export any crocodile, dead or alive, or any portion of a crocodile, processed or not, from any country without a permit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before granting a license for a commercial farm, the government should investigate the applicant's land tenure and financial resources, particularly since the farm will have to operate for three to four years before producing crocodiles suitable for culling. The applicant's ability and experience in rearing crocodiles should be determined. A plan of the proposed farm, including details of water and food supply and the proposed methods of harvesting food, should be examined.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is suggested that:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· No permit for egg harvesting should be issued until adequate rearing facilities have been prepared. The permit should state the name of the holder or his authorized representative, the annual total number of eggs allocated for harvesting, and the area where collection is permitted.(In some cases it is also important to specify a harvest time. Often it is best to take eggs laid early in the season because the female will then lay another clutch.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Permits should be issued on a year-by-year basis. The applicant should understand that the department may refuse to renew or issue further permits if the farm is not managed satisfactorily or if permit conditions have not been observed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The applicant should understand that the farm and all production records should be available for inspection by an official of the conservation department.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The farmer should be required to submit periodic reports detailing the total number of nests raided and eggs harvested, the egg mortality, and the number of eggs hatched. Thereafter, the number of animals held in captivity, the rate of mortality and its causes, if known, and the number of animals sold or culled should be included in each report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Furthermore, it is recommended that the permit holder release 5 percent of his annual crop of hatchlings in order to restock the natural habitat. In addition, a further 5 percent of the hatchling crop should be reared to a length of 1 m before being released, bringing the total release of young crocodilians to 10 percent of the annual crop of hatchlings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The distribution of hatchlings and young reared animals should be supervised by the conservation department.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless government agencies monitor the wild populations of crocodilians being harvested for hides, eggs, or young, the farms themselves could become a major drain on those populations, leading to their extinction. Therefore, before any farming program is started, a survey of the breeding grounds should be undertaken to determine the number of nests available and those from which eggs can be taken with least danger to the wild population (for example, from nests on grounds likely to be flooded).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These breeding grounds should be fully protected; tourists on foot, in vehicles, or in launches should not be allowed to visit or disturb crocodiles during the breeding season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Safeguards and Cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international traffic in millions of unmarked crocodilian hides and products poses one of the greatest obstacles to enforcement of national and international endangered species regulations. Hides and skins frequently cannot be traced to their source or country of origin. Legally harvested or farmed animals cannot readily be distinguished from those exported in secret from illegal sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need for internationally acceptable methods of marking individual hides and products is critical. Traffic in illegal crocodilian hides and products will continue as long as law enforcement agencies lack the means to detect them easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the United States a system has been developed in some states that enables conservation, police, and customs officials to monitor traffic in alligator hides. A conservation authority issues an official tag for each animal allowed by the license. All hides exported are tagged with a serially numbered plastic tag that cannot be removed without breaking it. The serial number is recorded on the export permit and with details of the buyer's and seller's name and address. This tag remains on the hide, right through the tanning process, until the hide reaches the manufacturer. Each tannery maintains a register of purchases that is available for inspection. This system also is being implemented in Zimbabwe and is worthy of trial in other countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tagging of all hides and products for individual identification is an important safeguard. Other safeguards include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The use of engraved stamps or seals to authenticate legal licenses and export permits and make it more difficult for documents to be forged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Internationally accessible data and a retrieval system that allows law enforcement personnel to corroborate the authenticity of documentation and the origin of hides and products;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Monitoring agencies to record and publish market statistics, traffic, and trends;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Laws limiting the sale of hides only to nations that cooperate in an internationally sanctioned program of safeguards; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Research funding to monitor populations and develop new marking and identification techniques. (For instance, the use of dyes, roll marking, and infusion of detectable chemical tracers has yet to be fully explored.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is urgent need for tannery owners, manufacturers, and conservation authorities to jointly work out the rational exploitation of crocodile populations. Commercial interests have reaped a rich reward over many years, and if the crocodile industry is to continue, its entrepreneurs must invest in management and conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clearly, research to improve farming techniques will be a wise investment for both commercial operators and the countries concerned. Surveys to determine population numbers and size as well as the structure of breeding stocks and recruitment rates are essential. Such surveys may indicate the need to establish sanctuaries to protect breeding stock and nesting grounds, or perhaps to ban hunting to allow populations to recover. A rearing program and restocking of suitable habitats might be necessary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix A: Crocodile Farming Around the World</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiences with crocodile farming in Papua New Guinea, the main subject of this report, are described in chapter 2. Here we summarize the status of similar efforts in other countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four crocodile farms have been established in Australia, one in the Northern Territory and three in Queensland. To date, only the Edward River farm, operated by the government as an aboriginal development project, has developed a successful breeding program. There, seven-yearold saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) hatched on the farm from wild eggs are now breeding and laying fertile eggs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A farm for Chinese alligators (Alligator sinensis) has been established at Xuancheng, Anhui Province. Its purpose is to breed alligators for conservation, although the hide of this species is not in great demand because it has many osteoderms in the belly scales. Recently the government has expressed interest in establishing a farm for saltwater crocodiles in southern China. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan has one crocodile farm or rearing station, but it is too far north to breed its own stock, except in heated indoor enclosures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several buyers in the Philippines who maintain pens of crocodiles for short periods. None of these is a farm. A new experimental farm for the Philippine freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus novaeguineae mindorensis) was established by Silliman University in an attempt to preserve that endangered species and to promote an economic interest in crocodile conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Micronesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A farm for saltwater crocodiles has been established on Palau, where a small population of these crocodiles occurs in a brackish interior swamp. In the past, the government hired a hunter to reduce the population whenever the local people felt it had become sufficiently large to present a danger, about once a decade. Presumably the nuisance crocodiles will now end up in the farm. The farm, which has been in existence only for a year or two, earns money from tourist admissions as well as hide production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few crocodile-rearing stations have operated for several decades in Java, Sumatra, and Kalimantan. These have been stocked with eggs and young animals collected from the wild in Sumatra and Kalimantan. In the early 1970s, three such operations in Samarinda, East Kalimantan, closed down for lack of wild stock. At least one operation in Jakarta, Java, continues to survive, but with virtually no output of stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of Irian Jaya (Indonesian New Guinea) in 1980 indicated a number of ranches in that region as well, but revealed that some were having difficulty obtaining stock because of overharvest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore has a famous crocodile farm that figures prominently in tourism. It breeds some of its stock, but also obtains wild stock from all over Southeast Asia. Singapore has a thriving crocodile hide trade. Many buyers and several tanneries are located there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore is not a member of CITES and openly trades in any and all species of crocodilians.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several crocodile farms in West Malaysia (at Penang, for example) and at least one in East Malaysia (near Sandakan, Sabah). These started out as rearing stations relying on wild young, but have moved slowly toward breeding their own stock. The Penang farm depends on tourism to pay many of its expenses. The Sandakan farm is operated in conjunction with a duck and pig farm that supplies it with offal. Its stock consists of saltwater crocodiles. Until at least 1980, it had very little production from captive animals, but the owner is hoping to broaden his stock from them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sarawak (East Malaysia) also used to have several rearing farms. The present status of these operations is unknown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm was started in 1950 with 20 wild crocodiles and an investment of US$500. Today it is reported to be the world's largest crocodile farm, with about 30,000 individuals. About 3,700 of these animals, placed in eight separate breeding ponds, are used for breeding stock, and there are plans for a population of 100,000 by 1987. The Samutprakan farm opened to the public 12 years ago and now receives about one million visitors annually.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of the farm's crocodiles are from the two species native to Thailand, the saltwater crocodile and the Siamese freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis). It also has hybrids of the two, as well as the indigenous false gavial (Tomistoma schlegelii) and five exotic species: South American caiman (Caiman crocodilus), New Guinea freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus novaeguineae), Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis), broad-spouted caiman (Caiman latirostris), and dwarf caiman (Paleosuchus palpebrosus). The farm has succeeded in breeding South American caiman (Caiman crocodilus); the other species are approaching maturity and it is hoped they will breed in the near future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The farm sells crocodile meat locally, mostly to restaurants as a delicacy (for US$5 per kg).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commercial and biological success of the farm is largely due to favorable conditions at Samutprakan. The temperature and humidity are high year-round, and low costs of labor and building materials permit the physical plant to be profitably established and maintained. The main cost is for food; approximately 4,000-5,000 kg of by-catch fish are needed daily at a cost of US 20 cents per kg. If the supply of fish is inadequate, the diet is supplemented with chicken wings, legs, and necks from a slaughterhouse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Rangoon there are some crocodile-holding pens operated by hide buyers. It is not clear whether breeding or farming of crocodiles occurs in them or whether the operation simply acts as a clearing center for wild hides. The government has expressed interest in establishing farms in the mangrove areas near the mouth of the Irrawaddy River. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1974 an FAO report on India's crocodiles noted that the Indian gavial (Gavialis gangeticus) was on the verge of extinction, the saltwater crocodile was extremely rare, and the Indian mugger (Crocodylus palustris was a depleted, although not threatened, species).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government, with United Nations assistance, then initiated a project for the conservation and management of all three species. This program aimed to protect and restock habitats. Animals for restocking were obtained by collecting eggs laid in the wild, incubating them under controlled conditions, raising the resulting hatchlings, and returning juveniles to specially selected sanctuaries when they reached about 1.2 m in length,at which time they are free from predation other than by man.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project has resulted in the comeback of the gavial. By March 1979, 200 gavials had been restored to the wild. The wild population now exceeds 1,000 animals of more than 2 m length, and the number is expected to increase rapidly through natural reproduction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project has also carried out extensive research on crocodiles, and since its founding in 1978 the Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute, located in Hyderabad, has trained many wildlife officers in crocodile protection. Crocodile-rearing facilities are also located near Madras, Lucknow, and Cuttack. All have had success in raising the animals and restocking their habitats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Indian crocodile project has been a notable success and it coincided with (and perhaps helped create) a wave of local interest in India's wildlife and its conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A farm stocked with American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) was established at a popular hotwater spring resort area, using animals supplied by a Florida farm. The Israeli program will earn money from tourist admissions and from future production of hides. The first successful hatching of captive-bred alligators was reported in 1982.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Near Mombasa a farm for the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) has been set up to produce hides from captive-bred stock. The farm is a demonstration project of a large cement factory that is attempting to return its limestone-mined areas to productive agriculture. Some sophisticated experiments are under way on crocodile nutrition, with food for the animals produced in an intensive aquaculture project using tilapia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia is planning a series of farms patterned after those in Zimbabwe (described below).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe has made great strides in captive breeding. In 1979, 87 captive females at two farms produced 1,906 eggs, and a third farm has set aside 30 captive females for breeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four of the country's five crocodile farms are on the shores of Lake Kariba and the other is at Victoria Falls. The government allows each farm an annual allotment of wild eggs (averaging 2,000 to 2,500 eggs) for stocking its rearing programs. Each farm is also striving to become self sufficient in egg production by developing successful breeding programs. The government is considering reducing each farm's allotment by the number of eggs produced annually in the farm so that each will eventually become independent of the wild populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe farmers operate on a system that obliges them to return a small percentage of live animals to the wild if the government requires it. At present, this requirement is being waived because the wild population is increasing on its own.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe has built its crocodile conservation program on a broad base. Crocodiles are protected throughout the country, as game animals in the country at large and as totally protected species in parks and sanctuaries. Populations have increased dramatically, from endangered status in the l950s to over 50,000 individuals today. In the 1950s a survey of the Zambesi River and Lake Kariba revealed no crocodiles; today thousands are seen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe's Department of National Parks and Wildlife is striving to ensure that its legitimate international trade in farm-raised hides does not provide illegal operators in other countries with the opportunity to sell poached hides (for example, forging papers that claim their hides originated on legitimate Zimbabwe farms). To make poaching difficult, Zimbabwe, taking a clue from the state of Louisiana, plans to use serially numbered nonremovable plastic tags to mark legitimate hides. Numbers of the tags will be noted on export permits. In addition, every export permit will be validated by the government with an engraved security stamp that is difficult to forge and that shows ink damage if any erasures or modifications are attempted. The use of such stamps is recommended by CITES, and Zimbabwe is the first nation to put them into use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa has four crocodile farms, and another five are planned or under construction. Apart from the Natal Parks Board Crocodile Research Station at St. Lucia Estuary, which breeds Nile crocodiles for restocking and conservation purposes, all farms are for tourism and hide production. So far only one farm, outside Pretoria, is reported to produce many offspring. Only the provinces of Transvaal and Natal have wild crocodiles, and neither allows eggs, young, or adults to be collected for stocking farms. Both provinces, however, permit the killing of nuisance crocodiles on private land. Transvaal will allow one or two nuisance crocodiles to be taken captive by farmers, but it refuses permission for removing larger numbers of nuisance animals,presumably for fear that this would generate a flood of spurious nuisance complaints. Natal will not permit the removal of any wild crocodiles to farms, nor will it supply offspring from the St. Lucia station to farmers. This makes the Pretoria farm the only source of crocodiles in South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following the example of Zimbabwe, the South African farmers (present and potential) formed a crocodile farming association in 1982.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several farms patterned after those in Zimbabwe are planned for the Okavango area. Petitions for approval are currently before the Botswana government.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1960s French businessmen established a farm for Nile crocodiles near Lake Chad. It collapsed after only a few years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivory Coast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Ivory Coast has obtained assistance from Zimbabwe to establish a conservation program for its three native crocodiles: the Nile crocodile, African slender-spouted crocodile (Crocodylus cataphractus), and Congo dwarf crocodile (Osteolaemus tetraspis). Recommendations were made for conserving the wild populations as well as for establishing farms. Field studies are under way.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A commercial farm for the South American caiman (Caiman crocodilus) was established in southern Italy in the late 1970s. Stock was obtained from Colombia. The animals, numbering in the thousands, arrived in Rome in winter and were transported south to the farm in an open truck. Most died from cold. Later shipments fared no better, and the few animals that survived died from poor husbandry. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Americas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are between 15 and 20 successful alligator farms in the United States. Most are located in Florida and Louisiana, and there is at least one in California. All earn a portion of their money from tourist admissions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the 1960s the Cuban government established at least two farms for crocodiles. One is located in the Zapata Peninsula National Park; the other is near Cienfuegos. The purpose of these farms is to breed crocodiles whose wetland habitat has been converted to sugar cane fields. Eventually, the farms will also produce a cash crop of hides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, what started out as an admirable effort created several conservation problems because the farm managers did not realize there were two crocodiles in Cuba ,the American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) in brackish waters, and the Cuban crocodile (Crocodylus rhombifer) in freshwater areas. The two were mixed in the farms and hybridization resulted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Mexican government has established several farms for Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii) in Chiapas and Veracruz. The purpose is to breed the species in captivity to relieve hunting pressure on the wild population and prevent its extinction. Original funding was provided by the World Wildlife Fund. At least one of these farms still exists. Breeding has been achieved, but there have been problems of survival in hatchlings. The cause of the deaths has not been discovered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years several businessmen in Mexico have expressed interest in starting one or more crocodile farms, but none has yet materialized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1960s, the Louisiana Game and Fisheries Commission supplied specimens of the American alligator to a cattle rancher in El Salvador for the purpose of establishing an experimental farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Louisiana was interested in studying growth rates of American alligators in a tropical nation where the animals did not have to undergo winter hibernation. The husbandry on the farm followed methods worked out in Louisiana. The animals grew fast and presumably have started breeding. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A captive breeding program for the Orinoco crocodile (Crocodylus intermedius) was established in Venezuela in the late 1970s on the ranch of Tomas Blohm. The operation is not commercial; its purpose is to prevent extinction of the species. The offspring may be used for restocking wild habitats in the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Venezuelan law there can be no commercial export of any crocodilians. In addition, the Orinoco crocodile and the various caimans are protected. However, the reptiles are everywhere killed as vermin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru has proposed harvesting certain wild populations of caimans (Caiman crocodilus) to supply animals to a ranching operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BraziI</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Brazil is interested in establishing farms for several species of caiman, including the yacare (Caiman crocodilusyacare). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Latin American Nations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the past two years, other Central and South American nations that have indicated their intention to set up farms for crocodiles or caimans are Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, and Uruguay. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix B: Practical Crocodile Farming</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This appendix is adapted from a paper by A. Pooley that detailed the lessons learned from farming crocodiles to restock depleted habitats in Natal, South Africa. The information is presented here not as a blueprint for setting up a farm, but to show prospective farmers some of the points that they must first consider before attempting to rear crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farm Location</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reliable supplies of good water and suitable food are the most important considerations for establishment of a crocodile farm; the area selected must have both. Village farms also need to be close enough to wild crocodile populations for the animals to be obtained easily. Larger farms can be located farther from the source.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For small farms, a natural supply of food should also be readily available in the wild. Areas that have a fishing industry are ideal locations. For large farms, sites near slaughterhouses or fish-processing facilities are ideal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other considerations also include the volume of water available throughout the year, the distance over which water must be piped to the ponds, and pumping costs. The quality of the water should be established, with samples tested for salinity and acidity and, where the supply comes from mineral springs, analyzed for harmful chemicals. Chlorinated water must be tested regularly to ensure that the chlorine content is not too high, and the nature of any factory effluents present should be determined. It is important to establish whether fish, frogs, crabs, mollusks, or aquatic insects survive in the water intended for use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bacterial analysis is advisable where the water is drawn from a river that drains an area densely populated by humans and livestock. If the water is found to be contaminated, the stagnant pond rearing pen system should not be used, particularly when Salmonella spp. are present in high concentrations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A filter system has advantages if water is pumped straight from a river carrying a heavy silt load. Apart from enabling farmers to see the animals in the pools, filtered water makes the pools and pipes easier to clean. Filtration can be achieved by drawing water from a deep pit close to the river so that the water collected seeps through sand or mud.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A reservoir or a series of supply tanks is useful as an additional method of filtering water. In the event that pumping equipment fails, such a reserve supply may prove vital to the health and survival of the crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ponds should receive as much sun as possible, particularly during the winter months. A series of winter air temperature recordings would be useful in choosing the site of rearing pens, since valley temperatures are often several degrees lower than the temperatures some 50 to 100 m uphill. Preference should be given to the warmer locations, taking into account the direction of local winds and heavy rains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil types are the next consideration. If soils are sandy and porous, earth ponds are impractical and a concrete lining is required to retain water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Drainage of the ponds must be carefully considered. Drainage is far easier if the ponds are built on a slight rise. Water from the ponds must not be allowed to stagnate nearby; the drainage system must be efficient. It is recommended that pens be spaced at least 8 m apart and that their drainpipes lead underground at least 10 m before emptying.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pen Construction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pens with rounded corners are the most successful. Crocodiles frequently choose to lie together in a pile. Square corners allow them to pile up against the angle, smothering those on the bottom and sometimes allowing animals to climb over the fence. With rounded corners, the pile cannot grow very high before the crocodiles slide sideways and the heap collapses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiments in South Africa indicate that natural pools containing rooted vegetation are less prone to become sources of disease than are concrete pools. The surface of the concrete seems to become impregnated with liquid and debris from food and to become a breeding ground for bacteria. For hatchlings and very small juvenile crocodiles, concrete has an added disadvantage; its rough surface can abrade the belly skin when the animals slide in and out of the water, which can foster infection. In 5 or 10 years, even smooth concrete will erode sufficiently to become a problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Researchers elsewhere, however, report better results with concrete lined ponds, which they find easier to clean. Concrete pools are useful for summer because they can be scrubbed clean and because the volume of water used is small. Normally they need only be emptied, cleaned, and refilled every third day, and there is no wastage through seepage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pools are best built as channels. This provides more bank for basking and enables the pools to accommodate more crocodiles. Because the larger males become belligerent only when they can see each other, floating logs, patches of grass, or channel corners are visual barriers that reduce interactions. The channel system also gives more water edge, and this appears to satisfy the territorial instinct.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles are famous for basking in the sun, but they die surprisingly easily of heat prostration. At least one-third of the land area of a farm pen should be shaded with vegetation. The amount of space around each pool is calculated to allow ample basking room for each animal, and an area of shade must likewise be provided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On land, crocodiles often seek contact with each other (thigmotaxis) and frequently lie piled on top of each other, but this should be a matter of choice rather than of overcrowding. There should be few enough animals in the enclosure to allow every crocodile to get out of the water if it chooses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ideally, only half the available number of pools should be occupied at a time, so that they can be used in rotation. In this system, the animals can be moved to fresh pools every two months (or as necessary), leaving the "used" pools to be drained and dried out to bake in the sun. After two months, the pools will then be clean and ready for use again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important requirement is that the pools be at least 60 cm in depth; otherwise, the water becomes too hot in summer. The pool floor should be sloped towards the drain outlet to facilitate cleaning and flushing away uneaten food. Also, the outlet pipe should be 10 cm in diameter, with a stopcock outside the enclosure, so that the pool can be cleaned and emptied efficiently. It is essential to place a screen in the drainpipe to prevent small crocodiles from escaping or being sucked out of the pool during cleaning. After some time, stagnant ponds may become difficult to clean because of the heavy growth of algae on their sides. Hard-bristle scrubbing brushes are needed to dislodge this growth. Small amounts of copper sulfate in the water will help control algae if used regularly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The entire pond and surrounding apron must be smoothly plastered to facilitate cleaning. It helps to have a water source close to each pool from which a hose pipe can be led to pressure spray and clean the pool and its apron.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important part of the design is a partly submerged, gently sloping ledge, some 45 cm in width, around the perimeter of the pool. This provides a shallow resting zone for the crocodiles and gives them easy access to the water. The crocodiles rest there when feeding, and the ledge prevents them from scraping their bellies and damaging their claws when they enter or leave the pool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For small crocodiles it is advisable to roof over the entire pen with wire netting or cries-crossed strands of wire. This protects against predators. Further, young crocodiles can climb vertical wire netting with ease and will escape unless the enclosure is either roofed or has side walls that slope inwards. A skirting board (planking, sheet iron, tin, or plastic sheeting) placed against the wire netting can also prevent this. If wire netting is used for the sides of the pens it should have mesh no larger than 1 cm so that hatchlings will not injure themselves by trying to climb through. While these pools are being cleaned, care must be exercised to prevent crocodiles from falling into the empty pool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water can be passed continuously through the pools. The advantage of this is that during hot summer weather, when crocodiles are feeding at their maximum rate, small uneaten food particles, feces, and urine are carried away. Constant dilution of the pond's water also ensures a low bacteria level. However, the pool must be drained and scrubbed clean at least weekly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earthen pools are easy and cheap to build and are a "natural" habitat where vegetation can be planted and small live fish introduced; insects, frogs, and other creatures attracted to the dams will be an important addition to the diet and health of the crocodiles. Earthen pools are ideal in climates where low winter temperatures are likely to cause respiratory illness in the young animals. During cold weather the crocodiles burrow into the mudbanks and survive nights of heavy frost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the animal's burrowing capabilities, it is important to provide a strip of land 4 m wide between the pool's edge and the boundary fence. Otherwise, crocodiles may tunnel beyond the fence line. Fences must be buried at least 1 m deep to intercept the burrows and to prevent predators from burrowing in. Burrowing, however, can be hazardous, because the burrows can collapse and suffocate the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In areas where the soil is porous or sandy, the floor of an earth dam can be sealed with concrete or plastic irrigation sheets. A layer of earth can be used to conceal this artificial floor. The disadvantages of earth pools are that, because of seepage, they require more water than concrete ones and that they require more maintenance because they cannot be efficiently cleaned. Even if the pools are provided with constantly circulating water, they eventually become fouled, particularly during hot weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Removing crocodiles from an earth pond can prove difficult, since most will take refuge in their burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capturing Crocodiles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles are located at night, usually from a boat, by shining a light along the edges of rivers and lagoons. Because of a reflective tapetum, the eyes of crocodiles glow reddish or orange and are visible for a hundred meters or more. If the population has not become exposed to hunting and become wary of people, the animals will not submerge when the light strikes them. Dazzled by the beam, they tolerate a stealthy approach, and small animals can simply be grabbed by hand or scooped up in a net. They can then be transported in sacks to the rearing pens. Larger animals may be noosed or baited into cylindrical screen traps at places they frequent along the water's edge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Managing a Crocodile Farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a problem to sort the young crocodiles. From one clutch of eggs, some individuals will be aggressive and others may be shy or extremely timid; growth may vary from rapid to very slow, with a few individuals classed as runts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Larger animals can be so dominant that smaller individuals will not even attempt to feed. If sorting is not done, the smaller, less-aggressive individuals do not get a fair share of the food; they grow slowly and get bitten and harassed by the larger animals. At feeding time, some will flee to the opposite side of the pen and stop feeding altogether. Keeping the young animals sorted into classes of the same size avoids many of these problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition and Feeding</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the crocodilian's reputation as a man-eater, small wild crocodiles live mainly on invertebrates and larger ones live mainly on fish. Papua New Guinea's farmers feed a varied diet of locally caught fish, crab, shrimp, frogs, snails, grasshoppers, beetles, and slaughterhouse waste. Whole animals minced up should be used, if necessary, because crocodiles require a diet of bone, intestine, scales, and other tissues to provide calcium and minerals. Bones in chopped fish must be minced thoroughly for hatchlings or very young crocodiles, or they should be fed very small fish supplemented by tadpoles or insects. One village in Papua New Guinea has shown remarkable success in rearing hatchlings on a diet of chopped fish and live freshwater shrimp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fish is an excellent food for the bulk feeding of a large captive population. Whole fish chopped into pieces, including the livers and hearts, forms a balanced diet that may be supplemented by meat, if available, to make up bulk. Small whole fish are particularly suitable; the crocodiles derive calcium from the bones and scales, plus roughage to facilitate digestion, while the flesh, liver, and heart are rich in nutrients and protein The main difficulty usually lies in harvesting enough fish to meet the crocodiles' demands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any method of supplementing the diet with live creatures is recommended. For instance, a light can be left burning in each pen about 15 cm above the water for attracting insects. Various types of insect traps may also be used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles also can be fed on a variety of wastes such as offal or noncommercial fish. Ideally, a large-scale farm should be located near a poultry slaughterhouse. (Cattle offal is also satisfactory, but it is not nutritionally adequate as a sole ration for crocodiles.) Even crocodile offal itself can be fed back to crocodiles. However, the use of offal will necessitate dietary supplements to assure sufficient phosphorus and calcium. These minerals are generally provided by feeding bones to the crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles usually consume their food in the water, but they can also be fed on land. They will eat daily, but are able to remain active for weeks without food. If they are fed in the water of a farm pen, the water will become polluted unless there is considerable flow to carry away the debris. In extreme cases, the pools become septic. To ensure the health of the growing animals, constantly flowing water is far superior to standing water. (The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm in Thailand feeds some of its animals in water, but the small feeding pools are separate from the large regular breeding pools and at a lower level to prevent their overflowing into the breeding pools.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to feed pieces of food small enough to be swallowed without difficulty. Large fish should be cut into elongated rather than square pieces, since the bones can cause damage during swallowing. Similarly, whole live fish should not be so large that the dorsal fin may cause damage to the reptile's throat and gullet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to know the amount of food that each group of animals will consume at each meal. By feeding at the same time each day, it is easy to calculate how much is required. Moreover, the crocodiles become accustomed to a routine and the food is consumed while it is still fresh. In the hot summer months the animals will devour a full meal every 24 hours, but the feeding rate slackens with the onset of colder weather. It is then wise to start reducing frequency and quantities until food is required only every second or third day, depending on the climate. Generally, young crocodiles will refuse food when the air or water temperature falls below 60°F (15.6°C). Even in midsummer sudden cold spells may occur; at such times, it is usually futile to feed the animals or try to coax them to eat until the weather warms up again. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During hot weather conditions it is preferable to feed late in the afternoon or evenings, mainly to avoid placing the food on a hot cement surface. The food should be spread out around the edge of the pool under the shaded area so that the animals do not have to climb over one another to reach it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In cemented pens the area where the food is laid out should be cleaned and scrubbed two hours after feeding time and any uneaten food removed from the water with a hand net. In earthen pools, the food should be placed at a different spot along the bank at each feeding. A useful aid to hygiene is keeping a few predacious fish, such as barbel (Clarias spp.), in each pool to clean up scraps of uneaten food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population Density</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty-five crocodiles are considered the maximum manageable number per unit; staying within this limit reduces competition for food, bullying and fighting, and the number of injuries. A low stocking rate also results in a more even average growth rate. Most important is the fact that the overall health of the crocodiles is better than in a more crowded pen; disease problems are fewer and the symptoms easier to detect in a small group. If the units are spaced 8 m apart, there is also less danger of infectious disease spreading to other pens. The cleaning of pens is facilitated, and the disturbance caused by capturing crocodiles to be moved to other units is minimized. Housing 500 crocodiles in groups of 25 will require 20 separate pens, and an additional two pens should be provided to allow for intensive care of sick, injured, and weaker animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the first year, when animals are graded frequently, they will often be moved from one pen to another. Recording the number of animals housed in each pen will make it possible to keep track of numbers and movements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction is impossible when crocodiles are kept in large groups composed of different species and sizes and in more or less unnatural enclosures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Healthy, sexually mature pairs of crocodiles are usually not enough to start a breeding program. Genetic diversity to maintain a long-term breeding group must be considered, and certain environmental factors are vital for success. The distinct size and age classes of a free-living population must also be taken into consideration. Optimal sex ratios for breeding in enclosed compounds must be determined and adhered to. If a breeding unit is not based on regard for the animals' basic needs for space, nesting sites, and retreats, the larger specimens will disturb, injure, and often kill smaller specimens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diseases and Parasites</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Disease symptoms may be easily overlooked if the observer is not familiar with the behavior of crocodiles under a variety of conditions. It is essential to know how they normally walk, swim, sleep, feed, and bask in relation to the time of day, the air and water temperatures, and the amount of sunlight or rain, by day, by night, and at different seasons of the year. Caretakers should notice the appearance of feces from healthy animals to be able to detect evidence of diarrhea, and to identify misaligned teeth and weakened limbs to detect nutritional deficiencies. Eggs are critically dependent on specific temperature and moisture requirements if the embryos are to develop normally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often difficult to determine the cause of illness or death, and even if the ailment has been correctly diagnosed, it is not easy to capture and administer drugs to large numbers of sick animals. Some animals may be injured during the handling process. Emphasis on preventing disease, rather than curing it, is the best way of ensuring a healthy crop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost inevitably, the water in the pools will harbor concentrations of bacteria such as salmonella. If strict hygiene is observed, however, the bacterial level will not be harmful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is recommended that whenever possible animals found newly dead should be dissected and vital organs such as the brain, heart, lung, liver, spleen, kidney, and stomach removed for veterinary research. Blood slides should also be taken and feces samples collected. The various specimens must be carefully labeled, frozen as quickly as possible, and packed on ice in a vacuum flask for immediate dispatch to the nearest veterinary research institute or pathologist. Alternatively, dying animals may be sent live for research purposes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is helpful for the handler to become thoroughly acquainted with the animal's internal anatomy, in order to distinguish between healthy and diseased organs. This knowledge, coupled with the symptoms noted before the animal dies, and the veterinary report, will be useful in future diagnosis and treatment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One problem for the crocodile farmer is a roundworm (nematode) parasite that burrows into the belly skin. When the burrow collapses it produces an undulating track across the belly and throat scales that ruins the hide. These parasites have been found in crocodiles from Latin America, Africa, Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Asia. They seem more prevalent in some areas and some farms than in others. The organism has been identified, but no treatment or control has been discovered. It is, however, believed that damp, muddy conditions foster the nematode, and that to reduce it pens should have areas of dry land where the animals can bask.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Killing, Skinning, and Tanning</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some farmers kill the crocodiles themselves, but many rear the animals and then sell them to a larger concern that is better equipped to deal with the skins. Killing is done most quickly and humanely by catching the crocodile with a noose and severing the spinal cord just behind the skull.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many hides are ruined or severely damaged during skinning. Even a single hole resulting from a slip of the skinning knife may reduce a hide's value by 25 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After skinning, the hides are normally coated with about 0.5 cm of coarse salt and rolled up. Within 48 hours they are unrolled and resalted. If the hide is not sufficiently salted, it may become infected with bacteria or fungi that cause the epidermis of the scales to decay or slip. Although this layer is removed during tannage, scale slip is a symptom of rot and usually causes damage to the finished hide product. If the decay is intense, the salted hides may become reddish or brown in color. This is called "red heat."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although salt remains the universally used preservative for raw hides, the reptile leather industry has developed chemical fixatives that are used in addition to salt for preserving hides for tanning. Most of these pretannage fixatives are liquid and require soaking the hide in a vat, which may not be feasible in remote areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A pretanned hide is called a crust. It is green-gray (chrome tanned) or tan (vegetable tanned) and is stiff. The hide is dyed and glazed to its final finish. To increase the workability and to remove as many of the osteoderms as possible (if they are present), the underside of the hide is shaved to an even thickness. The shaving is done by craftsmen. If they shaved too much, the hide will be thin and weak, especially over the suture between the scales.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix C: Selected Readings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information on the management and status of crocodiles can be found in the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IUCN/Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter. Available from the editors, Peter Brazaitis and Myrna Watanabe, c/o New York Zoological Park, Bronx Zoo, The Bronx, New York 10460, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Field Guide of Captive Rearing and Management of Crocodiles in India is available from Mr. R. K. Rao, Director, Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute (Government of India), Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blake, D. K. 1974. The rearing of crocodiles for commercial and conservation purposes in Rhodesia. The Rhodesia Science News 8(10):315-324.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blake, D. K., and J. P. Loveridge. 1975. The role of commercial crocodile farming in crocodile conservation. Biological Conservation 8(4): 261-272.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bolton, M. 1981. Crocodile Husbandry in Papua New Guinea. Field Document 4. FO: DP/ PNG/74/029. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 103 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bolton, M., and M. Laufa. 1982. The crocodile project in Papua New Guinea. Biological Conservation 22:169-179.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazaitis, P. (In press) Problems in the Identification of Commercial Crocodilian Hides and the Effect on Law Enforcement. Proceedings of the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group meeting in Zimbabwe September-October, 1982. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazaitis, P. 1973. The identification of living crocodiles. Zoologica 58(3-4):59-101.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cott, H. B. 1954. Ecology and economic status of the crocodile in Uganda. Record of the Symposium on African Hydrobiology and Inland Fisheries, Committee on Technical Cooperation for Africa South of the Sahara 6:119-122.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cott, H. B. 1961. Scientific results of an inquiry into the ecology and economic status of the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) in Uganda and Northern Rhodesia. Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 29(4):211-337.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Downes, M. C. 1978. An explanation of the National Policy for the Crocodile Programme. Wildlife Division, Department of Lands, Surveys and Environment, Konedobu, Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fuchs, K., nd. Die Krokodilhaut Eduard Roether Verlag Darmstadt, Frankfurt, West Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham, A., 1981. Mapping the pattern of crocodile nesting activity in Papua New Guinea. Field Document No. 3, FO: DP/PNG/74/029. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 50 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joanen, T., and L. McNease. 1975. Notes on the Reproductive Biology and Captive Propagation of the American Alligator. Proceedings of the 29th Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners 29:407-415. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joanen, T., and L. McNease. 1979. Culture of the American alligator. International Zoo Yearbook 19:61-66.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">King, F. W., and P. Brazaitis. 1971. Species identification of commercial crocodile skins. Zoologica 56(2): 15-72.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loveridge, J. P. ed. 1982. The Zimbabwe Science News 16(9):196-219. Causeway, Zimbabwe. (Contains five articles on crocodilian research and conservation; from Zimbabwe, Australia the United States, and lndia.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Millichamp, N. J. ;980. Medical aspects of disease in reptile collections. In The Care and Breeding of Captive Reptiles, The British Herpetological Society, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parker, F. 1981. New Crocodile Laws for Papua New Guinea. Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu, Papua New Guinea. 50 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1969. Some observations on the rearing of crocodiles. Lammergeyer 10:45-59.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1971. Crocodile rearing and restocking. Pp. 104-130 in Crocodiles, IUCN Publications New Series Supplementary Paper 32. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1110 Gland, Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1973. Conservation and Management of Crocodiles in Africa. Journal of the South African Wildlife Management Association 3(2):101-103.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1977. A report on Crocodile Farming. Papua New Guinea. Wildlife leaflet No. 77/27. pp. 1-14.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1981. Disappearing African Crocodiles. Oryx 16(1):38-40.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. (In press). The status of crocodiles in Africa. Paper Presented at 5th Meeting IUCN Survival Service Commission's Crocodile Specialist Group. Gainesville Florida, USA. September 1980.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C., and C. Gans. 1976. The Nile crocodile. Scientific American 234(4): 114-124.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wallis, B. E. 1980. Market prospects for reptile leathers. Report number ITC/DIP/12, International Trade Commission, Geneva, Switzerland. 50 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wermuth, Von H., and K. Fuchs. 1978. Bestimmen von Krokodilen und ihrer Haute. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whitaker, R. 1982. Export prospects from commercial crocodile farms in Bangladesh. ITC/UNCTAD, Geneva, Switzerland. 47 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whitaker, R., and M. Kemp. 1981. The crocodile industry in Papua New Guinea: Commercial Aspects. Field Document No. 2. FO:DP/PNC/74/029. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 35 pp. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix D: Research Contacts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following individuals are involved in crocodilian research. Most are biologists concerned with the conservation or natural history of the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Applied Ecology Crocodile Farm, Edward River, Queensland 4870</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shelley Burgin, Total Environment Center, 18 Argyle Street, Sydney, New South Wales 2000</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Melvin Bolton, Woodbury Farm, Woodbury Road, M.S. 142, Via Yeppoon, Queensland 4703</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Max C. Downes, The Game Conservation Center, 24 Queens Parade, North Fitzroy, Victoria 3068</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alistair Graham, P.O. Box41266, Darwin, Northern Territory 5792</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gordon Grigg, Zoology A08, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Lever, Koorana Crocodile Farm, M.S.F. 76, Rockhampton, Queensland 4702</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harry Messel, Head, School of Physics, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fred Parker, 717 Ross River Road, Kirwan, Queensland 4814</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grahame Webb, School of Zoology, University of New South Wales, Kensington 2033</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohd. Reza Khan, Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Dacca, Dacca 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">William Magnusson, Depto de Ecologia, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia, Caixa Postal 478, 69000, Manaus, Amazonia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ko Ko Gyi, Professor of Zoology, Rangoon Arts and Sciences University, Rangoon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nyan Taw, Research Officer, People's Pearl and Fishery Corporation, Myakhwanyo Street, Thaketa, Rangoon </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Huang Chu-Chien, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Swatow Prefecture Crocodile Farm, Shantou, Guang Dong Province</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federico Medem, Instituto Roberto Franco, Apartado Aereo 2261, Villavicencio (Meta)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gerado Budowski, Head, Natural Renewable Resources Programme, CATIE, Turrialba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Luis Varona, Norte 29, Nuevo Vedado, La Habana 6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jose Alberto Ottenwalder, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Plaza de la Cultura, Santo Domingo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Karlheinz Fuchs, Schillerstrasse 2, 6257 Hunfelder 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jaime Tres 1., Centro de Estudias Conservacionistas, Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, Avenida de la Reforma 0-63, Zona IO, Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. C. Choudhury and Lala A. K. Singh, Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute, 19-4-319, Lake Dale, Rajendranagar Road, Hyderabad 500 264, Andhra Pradesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian Board for Wildlife, c/o Department of Environment, Bikaner House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi 110 011</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Sale, UNDP/FAO Crocodile Breeding and Management Project, 19-4-319, Lake Dale, Rajendranagar Road Hyderabad 500 264, Andhra Pradesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Shanmugunathan, Chief Wildlife Warden, Vivekananda Road, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudhakar Kar, Saltwater Crocodile Research and Conservation Unit, Danginal 754 220 Via Rejkanika, District Cuttack, Orissa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Romulus Whitaker, Madras Snake Park Trust, Guindy Deer Park, Madras, Tamil Nadu, 600 002</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. S. Child, Wildlife and Parks Management Of ficer FAO, Rome</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wataru Kimura, Proprietor, Atagawa Tropical and Alligator Garden, Atagawa Higashi Zlu Town, Shizuoka Prefecture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Haller , Bamburi Portland Cement Co. ,Ltd., P.O. Box 90202 ,Mombasa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paul R. Wycherley, President, Malayan Nature Society, P.O. Box 150, Kuala Lumpur</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miguel Alvarez del Toro, Director, Instituto de Historia Natural, Departamento de Zoologia, Apartado Postal No. 6, Tuxtle Gutierrez, Chiapas, 29000</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marco Antonio Lascano B., INIREB, Apdo. No 281, Merida</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tirtha Maskey, National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Office, Thapathali, P.O. Box 107, Kathmandu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Zealand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antoon de Vos, Box 34, Whitford, Auckland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Milton G. Camacho B., Instituto Nicaraguense de Recursos Naturales y del Ambiente (IRENA), Depto. de Fauna Silvestre, Kim 12 1/2 Carreterra Norte, Managua.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ashiq Ahmad, Wildlife Management Specialist, Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abdul Latif Rao, Conservator of Wildlife, National Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, U.G. St. 51, Sector F 6/4, Islamabad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miro Laufa, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, P.O. Box 2585, Konedobu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Karol Kisokau, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Central Government Offices, Waigani</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navu Kwapena, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham Goudie, Crocodile Farm, Lae</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Martin Hollands, Monitoring Ecologist, National Crocodile Project, P.O. Box 2585 Konedobu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pedro Vasques Ruesta, Departamento de Manejo Forestal, Universidad Nacional Agraria, Apdo. 456, La Molina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angel C. Alcala, Division Research, Extension and Development, Silliman University, Dumaguete City, 6501, Negros</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">School of Agriculture, Silliman University, Dumaguete City, 6501, Negros.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. B. Anthony, The Natal Parks, Game and Fish Preservation Board, Box 662, Pietermaritzburg, Natal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antony Pooley, P.O. Box 42, St. Lucia Estuary, 3936 Zululand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rene E. Honegger, Curator, Zurich Zoo, Zurichbergstrasse 221, 8044 Zurich</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U. Srisomboon, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Livestock Development, Bangkok Utai Youngprapakorn and Charoon Youngprapakorn, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm and Zoo Co., Ltd., Talban Road, Samutprakan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angus d'A. Bellairs, Department of Anatomy, St. Mary's Hospital Medical School University of London, Paddington, London W2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Robert Bustard, Isle of Man</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Behler, New York Zoological Society, 185th Street &amp; Southern Blvd., The Bronx, New York 10460</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peter Brazaitis, New York Zoological Society, 185th Street &amp; Southern Blvd., The Bronx New York 10460</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gary Callis, Rt. I, Box 360, Clayton, New Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert H. Chabreck, Louisiana State University, School of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Michael Davenport, Department of Herpetology, National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20008</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Claire Hagen, Representative, Reptile Products Association, 120 Cabrini Blvd., New York, New York 10033</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fred Hauptfuhrer, Director of Planning and Development, World Wildlife Fund, Inc., 910 17th Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20006</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Howard Hunt, Atlanta Zoological Park, 518 Atlanta Ave. S.E., Atlanta, Georgia 30315</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ted Joanen, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, Route 1, Box 20-B, Grand Chenier, Louisiana 70643</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Wayne King, Director, Florida State Museum, Gainesville, Florida 32611</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffrey W. Lang, Biology Department, University of North Dakota, University Station, Grand Forks, North Dakota 58202</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles J. Lankester, UNDP, I United Nations Plaza, New York, New York 10017</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">James H. Powell, 1110 Kokomo Street, Plainview, Texas 79072</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles A. Ross, Division of Reptiles and Amphibians, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Myrna Watanabe, 141 Columbia Heights, Brooklyn, New York 11201</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uruguay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federico Achaval, Departamento de Zoologia (Vertebrados), Universidad de la Republic Cerrito73, Montevideo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tomas Blohm, Apartado 69, Caracas 1010-A</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andres Seijas Y., Servicio Nacional de Fauna Silvestre, MARNR, Apartado 184, Maracay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. K. Blake, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, P.O. Box 8365, Causeway, Harare</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Loveridge, Zoology Department, University of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kevin van Jaarsveldt, Crocodile Farmers Association of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box 2569, Harare </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix E: Biographical Sketches of Panel Members</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director of the Office of Biological Secretary General Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., is currently the Secretary General of the International Union of Biological Sciences. He received his B.A. in 1961 from Miami University in Ohio, M.Sc. from The George Washington University in 1963, and his Ph.D. in 1966 from the University of London. His research interests are in comparative anatomy and phylogeny of flowering plants, commercial timbers, histology of monocotyledons, economic botany, and tropical biology. An internationally recognized expert on tropical plants, he has published extensively in these areas and on topics relating to science, technology, and development, especially in developing countries. Dr. Ayensu was co-chairman of the Panel on Underexploited Tropical Plants of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation and chairs and serves as a member of many international bodies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, JR., is Graduate Research Professor in the Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville. As Technical Director of the Caribbean Conservation Corporation, he has directed a seasonal research program at the breeding ground of the green turtle at Tortuguero, Costa Rica, since 1952, with continuous grants from the National Science Foundation from 1955 to 1980, and has carried out investigations of marine turtle ecology and navigation in various parts of the world. The author of numerous papers, articles, and books, he received the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal of the National Academy of Sciences for Handbook of Turtles and the John Burroughs Medal for The Windward Road. He is Research Associate of the American Museum of Natural History; Affiliate Curator of Natural Sciences, Florida State Museum; Chairman of the Marine Turtle Specialist Group of the Survival Service Commission, International Union for the Conservation of Nature; Honorary Consultant of the World Wildlife Fund; Fellow of the Linnean Society of London; Fellow of the American Fisheries Society; and a member of Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi.In 1973 he was awarded a gold medal from the World Wildlife Fund for the application of scientific findings to the conservation of marine turtles. In 1975 he received the Edward W. Browning Award for achievement in biological conservation. In 1978 Dr. Carr was awarded the Gold Medal of the New York Zoological Society for contributions to natural science and conservation; in 1978 he became Officer of the Order of the Golden Ark (The Netherlands).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING is the Director of the Florida State Museum, Gainesville. He received a B.S. in 1957 and an M.S. in 1961 from the University of Florida and a Ph.D. from 1966 from the University of Miami. His research interests are in wildlife conservation and habitat preservation, impact of international trade on wildlife populations, and ecology and behavior of reptile populations. He worked at the New York Zoological Society from 1967 to 1975. As an international wildlife consultant, Dr. King has received honors from the Dominican Republic, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, and from H.R.H. Prince Bernhard of The Netherlands. He has served on committees advising the State Department and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources on policies regarding the trade of crocodile skins, turtle products, and other wildlife materials. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry and Professor of Forest Genetics, Yale University, was Dean of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale from 1965 to 1975. He received a B.A. from Luxembourg College and a B.Sc.F. from the University of New Brunswick in 1950, an M.F. in ecology in 1951, and a Ph.D. in forest genetics from Yale in 1954. He is especially knowledgeable about francophone Africa and was chairman of the Sahel program of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development and a member of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation. From 1960 to 1965 he was research collaborator at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. In 1966 he was the recipient of the Award for Outstanding Achievement in Biological Research from the Society of American Foresters and in 1975 was Distinguished Professor (Fulbright-Hays Program) in Yugoslavia. Before joining the Yale faculty, he served as project leader in forest genetics for the U.S. Forest Service in Florida. He has served as a consultant to FAO, various foreign governments, and private forestry companies, and he has traveled extensively in the tropical countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS is head of the Furzebrook Research Station of the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (National Environment Research Council, U.K.). He received a B.A. in natural sciences (zoology) at the University of Cambridge of 1958, M.A. in 1962, and received his Ph.D. from London University in research on the integrated control of orchard pests. Dr. Morris worked at Monks Wood Experimental Station on the effects of grassland management on populations of invertebrates and developed a strong interest in community and applied ecology, particularly the conservation of insect populations. Recently he has become involved with problems of butterfly conservation and resource utilization. He is Secretary of the Joint Committee for the Conservation of British Insects, a Vice-Chairman of the Lepidoptera Specialist Group of lUCN'S Survival Commission, and Chairman of the Habitat and Species Protection Committee of SEL (Societal Europaea Lepidoptero-Logica). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH L. POPENOE is Professor of Soils, Agronomy, Botany, and Geography and Director of the Center for Tropical Agriculture and International Programs (Agriculture) at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. from the University of California at Davis in 1951 and his Ph.D. in soils from the University of Florida in 1960. His principal research interest has been in the area of tropical agriculture and land use. His early work on shifting cultivation is one of the major contributions to this system. He has traveled and worked in most of the countries in the tropical areas of Latin America, Asia, and Africa. He is past Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Escuela Agricola Panamericana in Honduras, Visiting Lecturer on Tropical Public Health at the Harvard School of Public Health, and a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Society of Agronomy, the America Geographical Society, and the International Soils Science Society. He is Chairman of the Advisory Committee for Technology Innovation and a member of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT MICHAEL PYLE, a writer and consulting lepidopterist based in Gray's River, Washington, has served since 1979 as Co-Compiler of the lUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book. In this capacity he is consultant to the Conservation Monitoring Center in Cambridge, England. After receiving his B.S. and M.S. at the University of Washington, he took his Ph.D. through the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University in 1976. He worked for the Government of Papua New Guinea on the conservation and utilization of insect resources and then with the Nature Conservancy as Northwest Land Steward. A former Fulbright Scholar to the United Kingdom, Dr. Pyle subsequently founded the Xerces Society for conservation of beneficial insects and their habitats. He has been chairman of IUCN'S Lepidoptera Specialist Group (Species Survival Commission) since 1976. His publications include the Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Butterflies. A comprehensive book on insect conservation in his next project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS received his Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1977 in natural resources management. He has worked on various wildlife research projects in Asia since 1964 and is representative for the Asia Foundation in Taiwan. He has published articles on butterfly conservation and wildlife industries in Taiwan, where he has been studying the butterfly and wildlife farming projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, staff officer for this study, is Professional Associate of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. A New Zealander with a Ph.D. in organic chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley, he now works on innovations in science that are important for developing countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas (member through 1981) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Native Plants, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (member through 1982) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGLIARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAMUEL P. ASPER, Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BELL, Department of Population Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEONARD BERRY, Professor, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST I. BRISKEY, Dean, School of Agriculture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON S. BROWN, Director, Resources Systems Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. BURRIS, Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAUDIA JEAN CARR, Associate Professor, Conservation and Resource Studies, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATE FIELDS, Director, Developing Markets, Control Data Corporation, Minneapolis, Minnesota </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND J. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN HOWARD GIBBONS, Director, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM HUGHES, Director, Engineering Energy Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM A. W. KREBS, Vice President, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Acorn Park, Cambridge, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE I. LYTHCOTT, University of Wisconsin, School of Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANICE E. PERLMAN, Executive Director, Committee for a New New York, New York City Partnership, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK C. ROBBINS, President, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER A. ROSENBLITH, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HERBERT SMUCKLER, Dean of International Studies and Programs, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GILBERT F. WHITE, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Assistant Dean for International Programs, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN G. HURLEY, Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Associate Director/Studies </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL P. GREENE, Associate Director/Research Grants </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/b20cre/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/b20cre/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/b20cre/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Managing Tropical Animal Resources - Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (b20cre)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
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+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; The Water Buffalo: New Prospects For An Underutilized Animal (1984)</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Water Buffalo: New Prospects For An Underutilized Animal (1984)</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Original editon 1981</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second printing 1984</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission on International Relations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Panel on Water Buffalo</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of  Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEVE P. BENNETT, Bennett's Animal Clinic, Port of Spain, Trinidad, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARAN CHANTALAKHANA, Dean, Department of Animal Science, Kasetsart  University, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD D. CHARLES, Senior Lecturer, Meat Production, Department of Animal  Husbandry, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. ROSS COCKRILL, Livestock Expert, Food and Agriculture Organization (retired),  Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WYLAND CRIPE, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONY J. CUNHA, Dean, School of Agriculture, California Polytechnic University,  Pomona, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. JOHN DE BOER, Winrock International Livestock Research and Training Center,  Morrilton, Arkansas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MAARTEN DROST, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MOHAMED ALI EL-ASHRY, Department of Animal Production, Faculty of  Agriculture, Shoubra el Khiema, Cairo, Egypt </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ABELARDO FERRERD ., Former Director, Breeding Administration Centers,  Animal Sciences Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Caracas, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JEAN K. GARDNER, Former Chief, Logistics Division USAID/Philippines, Jackson,  Mississippi, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES F. HENTGES, Department of Animal Science,University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JACK HOWARTH, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis,  California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NELS M. KONNERUP, Livestock Expert, Agency for International Development  (retired), Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. P LEONARDS, Water buffalo breeder, Lake Charles, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN K. LOOSLI, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville,  Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOSEPH MADAMBA, Director, Asian Institute of Aquaculture, Iloilo, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CRISTO NASCIMENTO,Director, Brazilian Agriculture Research Corporation  (EMBRAPA), Agriculture Research Center for Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem,  Para, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural  Research, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM R. PRITCHARD, Dean, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. THOMAS REID, (deceased), Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN H. SCHOTTLER, Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Industries, Lae, Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DALBIR SINGH DEV, Dean, Animal Science Department, College of Agriculture, Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT W. TOUCHBERRY, Dean, Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD G. TULLOCH, Division of Wildlife Research, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Winnellie, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., Staff Study Director </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., Staff Associate </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is an animal resource whose potential seems to have been barely recognized or examined outside of Asia. Throughout the world there are proponents and enthusiasts for the various breeds of cattle; the water buffalo, however, is not a cow and it has been neglected. Nevertheless, this symbol of Asian life and endurance has performed notably well in recent trials in such diverse places as the United States, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Trinidad, Costa Rica, Venezuela, and Brazil. In Italy and Egypt as well as Bulgaria and other Balkan states the water buffalo has been an important part of animal husbandry for centuries. In each of these places certain herds of water buffalo appear to have equaled or surpassed the local cattle in growth, environmental tolerance, health, and the production of meat and calves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although these are empirical observations lacking painstaking, detailed experimentation, they do seem to indicate that the water buffalo could become an important resource in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate zones in developing and developed countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If this is the case, then it is clear that many countries should begin water buffalo research. Serious attention by scientists could help dispel the misperceptions and uncertainties surrounding the animal and encourage its true qualities to emerge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report describes the water buffalo's attributes as perceived by several animal scientists. It is designed to present the apparent strengths of buffaloes compared with those of cattle, to introduce researchers and administrators to the animal's potential, and to identify priorities for buffalo research and testing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel that produced this report met at Gainesville, Florida, in July 1979. It was composed of leading water buffalo experts (particularly those from outside Asia who have directed the beginnings of water buffalo industries in their countries) and leading American animal scientists, many of whom are also familiar with the animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report complements The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. Ross Cockrill and published in 1974 by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Cockrill's 933-page book is a "bible" of water buffalo knowledge and provides details of breeds, world distribution, physiology, and an extensive bibliography.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The present report is an introduction to the water buffalo and its potential. It is written particularly for decision makers, as well as scholars or students, in the hope that it will stimulate their interest in the animal and thereby increase the appreciation of, and funding for, buffalo research. The report includes much empirical observation, largely from the panel members. Some of these observations may, in the long run, prove not to be universally applicable. Much benchmark information needs to be obtained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since its creation in 1971, the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) has investigated innovative ways to use current technology and resources to help developing countries. Often this has meant taking a fresh look at some neglected and unappreciated plant or animal species. The committee assembles ad hoc panels of experts (usually incorporating both skeptics and proponents) to scrutinize the topics selected. The panel reports serve to draw attention to neglected, but promising, technologies and resources. (For a list of ACTI reports, see page 115.) ACTI reports are provided free to developing countries under funding by the Agency for International Development (AID).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program costs for this study were provided by AID'S Office of Agriculture, Development Support Bureau, and staff support was provided by the Office of Science and Technology, Development Support Bureau.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The final draft of this report was edited and prepared for publication by F. R. Ruskin. Bibliographic editing was by Wendy D. White. Cover art was by Deborah Hanson.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domesticated water buffalo Bubalus bubalis numbers at least 130 million-one-ninth the number of cattle in the world. It is estimated that between 1961 and 1981 the world's buffalo population increased by 11 percent, keeping pace with the percentage increase in the cattle population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there are some pedigreed water buffaloes, most are nondescript animals that have not been selected or bred for productivity. There are two general types-the Swamp buffalo and the River buffalo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swamp buffaloes are slate gray, droopy necked, and ox-like, with massive backswept horns that make them favorite subjects for postcards and wooden statuettes in the Far East. They are found from the Philippines to as far west as India. They wallow in any water or mud puddle they can find or make. Primarily employed as a work animal, the Swamp buffalo is also used for meat but almost never for milk production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">River buffaloes are found farther west, from India to Egypt and Europe. Usually black or dark gray, with tightly coiled or drooping straight horns, they prefer to wallow in clean water. River buffaloes produce much more milk than Swamp buffaloes. They are the dairy type of water buffalo. In India, River buffaloes play an important role in the rural economy as suppliers of milk and draft power. River buffaloes make up about 35 percent of India's milk animals (other than goats) but produce almost 70 percent of its milk. Buffalo butterfat is the major source of cooking oil (ghee) in some Asian countries, including India and Pakistan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although water buffaloes are bovine creatures that somewhat resemble cattle, they are genetically further removed from cattle than are the North American bison (improperly called buffalo) whose massive forequarters, shaggy mane, and small hindquarters are unlike those of cattle. While bison can be bred with cattle to produce hybrids,( This is not, however, very successful, the male progeny (at least of the F 1 generation) are sterile).there is no well-documented case of a mating between water buffalo and cattle that has produced progeny.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parts of Asia and even Europe have depended on water buffaloes for centuries. Their crescent horns, coarse skin, wide muzzles, and low-carried heads are represented on seals struck 5,000 years ago in the Indus Valley, suggesting that the animal had already been domesticated in the area that is now India and Pakistan. Although buffaloes were in use in China 4,000 years ago, they are not mentioned in the literature or seen in the art of the ancient Egyptians, Romans, or Greeks, to whom they were apparently unknown. It was not until about 600 A.D. that Arabs brought the animal from Mesopotamia and began moving it westward into the Near East (modern Syria, Israel, and Turkey). Water buffaloes were later introduced to Europe by pilgrims and crusaders returning from the Holy Land in the Middle Ages. In Italy buffaloes adapted to the area of the Pontine Marshes southeast of Rome and the area south of Naples. They also became established in Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, and Bulgaria and have remained there ever since.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Villagers in medieval Egypt adopted the water buffalo, which has since become the most important domestic animal in modern Egypt. Indeed, during the last 50 years, their buffalo population has doubled to over 2 million head. The animals now supply Egypt with more meat-much of it in the form of tender "veal"-than any other domestic animal. They also provide milk, cooking oil, and cheese.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other areas have capitalized on the water buffalo's promise only in very recent times. For instance, small lots of the animals brought to Brazil (from Italy, India, and elsewhere) during the last 84 years have reproduced so well that they now total about 400,000 head and are still increasing, especially in the lower Amazon region. Buffalo meat and milk are now sold widely in Amazon towns and villages; the meat sells for the same price as beef. Nearby countries have also become familiar with the water buffalo. Trinidad imported several breeds from India between 1905 and 1908, while Venezuela, Colombia, and Guyana have been importing them in recent decades. During the 1970s Costa Rica, Ecuador, Cayenne, Panama, Suriname, and Guyana introduced small herds. By 1979 the buffalo in Venezuela numbered more than 7,000 head.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Across the Pacific, the new nation of Papua New Guinea has found the water buffalo well suited to its difficult environment. For 9 years the government has attempted to run cattle on the Sepik and Ramu Plains on Papua New Guinea's north coast, where the temperatures are high and the forage of poor quality. But the cattle remain thin and underweight. In the 1960s animal scientists began evaluating water buffaloes already living in Papua New Guinea and, encouraged by the results, introduced additional buffaloes from Australia. These have performed remarkably well, producing greater numbers of calves and much more meat than the cattle in the region. The buffaloes appear to maintain appetite despite the heat and humidity, whereas cattle do not. The government of Papua New Guinea has since imported more water buffaloes and today has thriving herds totaling almost 3,500 head. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United States has been slow to recognize the water buffalo's potential, but the first herd (50 head) ever imported for commercial farming arrived in February 1978.(Air-freighted from the wilds of Guam, the U.S. island possession on the western Pacific, by panel member Tony Leonards. Prior to that time (in 1974), four head of water buffalo were imported to the Department of Animal science' university of Florida, for study. The only other water buffaloes in North America were a few animals in zoos.) The humble water buffalo, normally considered fit only for the steamy rice fields of Asia, is now proving itself on farm fields in Florida and Louisiana. As a result, interest in the animal is on the rise in U.S. university and farm circles.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From experience accumulated in Asia, Egypt, South America, Papua New Guinea, Australia, the United States, and elsewhere, animal scientists now perceive that many general impressions about the water buffalo are incorrect.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, it is widely believed that the water buffalo is mean and vicious. Encyclopedias reinforce this perception, and in the Western world it is the prevalent impression of the animal. The truth is, however, that unless wounded or severely stressed, the domesticated water buffalo is one of the gentlest of all farm animals. Despite an intimidating appearance, it is more like a household pet-sociable, gentle, and serene. In rural Asia the care of water buffaloes is often fumed over to small boys and girls aged about four to nine. The children spend their days with their family's gentle buffalo, riding it to water, washing it down, waiting while it rolls and wallows, and then riding it to some source of forage, perhaps a grassy field or thicket. It is not uncommon to see a buffalo patiently feeding, with a young friend stretched prone on its broad gray back, asleep.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps the notion about the viciousness of water buffaloes stems from confusing them with the mean-tempered African buffalo Syncerus caffer, actually a distant relative with which they will not interbreed and which is classified in a different genus.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ferocity is the most blatant misconception concerning the water buffalo, although other fallacies are widely reported as well.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One generally held belief is that water buffaloes can be raised only near water. Actually, buffaloes love to wallow, but they grow and reproduce normally without it, although in hot climates they must have shade available.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another belief is that the water buffalo is exclusively a tropical animal. River-type buffaloes, however, have been used to pull snow plows during Bulgarian winters. They are found in Italy (over 100,000 head), Albania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Turkey, the Georgia and Azerbaijan areas of the Soviet Union (almost 500,000 head) and other temperate-zone regions as well. They are also found in cold, mountainous areas of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Nepal.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p04to05.png"></center><br>
+ World Distribution of Water Buffaloes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet another misconception is that the water buffalo is just a poor man's beast of burden. In addition to providing fine lean meat, buffaloes in fact provide rich milk. Mozzarella cheese, one of the most popular in Europe, comes from the buffaloes in Italy. Buffalo milk has a higher content of both butterfat and nonfat solids than cow's milk does. It therefore often brings higher prices than cow's milk. Throughout much of India it is in such demand that cow's milk is sometimes hard to sell.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the misconceptions generally held about buffaloes are based on little data and much prejudice. For instance, it is widely believed that water buffalo meat is tough and less desirable than beef. However, when the animals are raised for meat, buffalo steaks are lean, as tender as beef, and in appearance it is difficult to distinguish the two. In taste-preference tests at the University of Queensland, buffalo steaks were preferred over those from Angus and Hereford cattle. Tests conducted in Trinidad, Venezuela, the United States, and Malaysia produced similar results.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia has shipped water buffalo meat to Hong Kong, the United States, Germany, and Scandinavia. Buffalo meat is now available in stores in Australia's Northern Territory, where demand exceeds supply. It sells at competitive prices and is particularly sought for barbecues and the famous Australian meat pie. In the Philippines, two-thirds of the meat consumed in homes and restaurants is actually water buffalo, a fact that many Filipinos do not realize.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with cattle,waterbuffaloes apparently have an efficient digestive system, one which extracts nourishment from forage so coarse and poor that cattle do not thrive on it. Thin cattle are commonly seen in Asia and northern Australia, for example, but it's rare to see a protruding rib on a buffalo, even though it uses the same source of feed.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, water buffaloes live on coarse vegetation on the marginal land traditionally left to the peasants. They help make human survival possible. An old Chinese woman in Taiwan once told panelist W. Ross Cockrill: "To my family the buffalo is more important than I am. When I die, they'll weep for me; but if our buffalo dies, they may starve."  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A better understanding of the water buffalo could be invaluable to many developing nations. In particular, improved production of water buffalo meat offers hope for helping feed India, the second most populous nation on earth. Although India for religious reasons forbids the slaughter of cows, it has no prohibitions regarding slaughter of water buffaloes or the consumption of buffalo meat.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most developing countries are in the tropics, and the water buffalo is inherently a tropical animal. It is comfortable in hot, humid environments. In the Amazon, for example, buffaloes are now common on the landscape and may even replace cattle completely.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical countries have more serious disease problems than temperate countries do. Although susceptible to most cattle diseases, the water buffalo seems to resist ticks and often appears to be more resistant to some of the most devastating plagues that make cattle raising risky, difficult, and sometimes impossible in the tropics. Several researchers report that when water buffaloes are allowed to wallow, their mud-coated skin seems to deter insect and tick ectoparasites and they consequently require greatly reduced treatment with insecticides. Although the buffalo fly (Siphona exigua) affects the animals, other pests such as the warble fly and the screwworm, for example, seldom affect healthy buffaloes. AIso, despite their inclination for living in swamps, Avers, and ponds, diseases of the feet such as foot rot and foot abscesses are rare.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another benefit to developing countries is the water buffalo's legendary strength. A large part of the total farm power available in South China, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, the Indochina states, India, and Pakistan comes from this "living tractor." Dependable and docile, the animals pull plows, harrows, and carts with loads that weigh several tons. In the Amazon buffalo teams pull boats laden with cargo and tourists through shallows and swamps.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The petroleum crisis has forced many farmers to reconsider animal power even in some of the technically advanced countries. Buffaloes are not only extraordinarily strong, they can also work in deep mud that may bog down a tractor. Even up to their bellies they forge on, dragging both plow and driver through the mud. Although its average walking speed is only about 3 kilometers per hour, the buffalo, unlike its mechanical competition, doesn't need gasoline or spare parts and its working life is often 20 years or more.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As already noted, the major genetic divisions of the water buffalo are the Swamp buffalo of the eastern half of Asia, which has swept-back horns, and the River buffalo of the western half of Asia, which usually has curled horns. There is also the Mediterranean buffalo, which is of the River type but has been isolated for so long that it has developed some unique characteristics. (Records of the buffalo in Italy date back 1,000 years, during which there have been no reported imports.) Mediterranean buffaloes are stocky, high yielding animals that combine both beef and dairy characteristics.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there is only one breed of Swamp buffalo, certain subgroups seem to have specific inherited characteristics. For example, the buffaloes of Thailand are noted for their large size, averaging 450-550 kg, and weights of up to 1,000 kg have been observed. Elsewhere, Swamp buffaloes range from 250 kg for some small animals in China to 300 kg in Burma and 500-600 kg in Laos.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only in India and Pakistan are there well-defined breeds with standard qualities. There are eighteen River buffalo breeds in South Asia, which are further classified into five major groups designated as the Murrah, Gujarat, Uttar  Pradesh, Central Indian, and South Indian breeds. These are the five groups and  main breeds:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=484>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Group</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeds</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murrah</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murrah, Nili/Ravi, Kundi</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gujarat</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surti, Mehsana, Jafarabadi</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uttar Pradesh</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhadawari, Tarai</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Indian</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nagpuri, Pandharpun, Manda, Jerangi, Kalahandi, Sambalpur</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Indian</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toda,  South Kanara</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best-known breeds are Murrah, Nili/Ravl, Jafarabadi, Surti, Mehsana, and  Nagpuri. Most of the buffaloes of the Indian subcontinent belong to a nondescript  group known as the Desi buffalo. There is no controlled breeding among these  animals and most are quite small, yield little milk, and are variable in color.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Swamp buffalo has 48 chromosomes, the River buffalo, 50. The chromosomal  material is, however, similar in the two types and they crossbreed to produce fertile  hybrid progeny. Cattle, however, have 60 chromosomes and although mating  between cattle and buffaloes is common, hybrids from the union are unlikely to  occur.( In 1965 a reputed hybrid was born at Askaniya Nova Zoopark in the Soviet Union  (see Gray, A., 1971. Mammalian Hybrids, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux,  Slough, England, p. 126). Hybrids have also been reported from China (Van  Fu-Czao 1959, Gibridy buivolc i krupnogo  i rogatogo skota(buffalo and  cattlehybrids)Zhivotnovodstro, Mosk., 21:92). Both of these reports seem doubtful  because despite many attempts, no other hybrids have ever been claimed to have  been produced). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Individual buffaloes show large variation in milk yield, conformation, horn shape,  color, meat production, temperament, growth rate, and other characteristics.  Selection for survival under adverse conditions has occurred naturally (those that  could not stand adversity died early) and farmers have probably tended to select  animals of gentle temperament. But systematic genetic improvement has almost  never been attempted. It seems likely that further selection could quickly improve  their productivity.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, the large bulls that would be best for breeding purposes are often  being selected as draft animals and castrated, or sent to slaughter, or (as with  some feral animals in northern Australia and on the Amazon island of Marajo) shot  by hunters. The result is that the buffalo's overall size in countries such as Thailand  and Indonesia has been decreasing as the genes for large size and fast growth are  lost.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo is still largely an animal of the village, and many of its reported  limitations are caused more by its environment than by the animal itself. Moreover,  much of the animal's genetic potential is obscured by environmental influences. For  example, for many breeds and types the genetic variations in milk yield and growth  cannot be accurately determined because they are overwhelmed by the effects of  inadequate nutrition and management.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, some inherent limitations of buffaloes can be identified. For instance,  buffaloes suffer if forced to remain, even for a few hours, in direct sunlight. They  have only one-tenth the density of sweat glands of cattle and their coating of hair is  correspondingly sparse, providing little protection from the sun. Accordingly,  buffaloes must not be driven over long distances in the heat of the day. They must  be allowed time for watering and, if possible, for wallowing. Driving under a hot sun  for long hours will cause heat exhaustion and possibly death; losses can be very  high and can occur suddenly. Young calves are particularly affected by heat.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are also sensitive to extreme cold and seem less able than cattle to  adapt to truly cold climates(A rule of thumb is that buffaloes don't do well where the sun is inadequate to ripen,  say, cotton, grapes, or Ace. Kaleff, B., 1942. Der Hausbuffel und seine  Zuchtungsbiologie im Vergleich zum Rind. Zeitschsift Tierzucht Biologze,  51:131-178). Sudden drops in temperature and chill winds may lead  to pneumonia and death.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is usually found m areas where there is ready access to a wallow  or shower. This is not a necessity, but when temperatures are high the availability of  water is important for maintaining buffalo health and productivity. It seems clear,  then, that the buffalo is not suitable for arid lands.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing buffalo productivity through breed improvement is just now beginning.  Throughout Asia buffalo mating is almost completely haphazard, and so the animal  lacks the quality improvement through breeding that most cattle have had.  Therefore, most buffaloes are of nondescript heritage and genetic potential.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On poor quality feed water buffalo grow at least as well as cattle, but under intensive  conditions they probably won't grow as fast as the best breeds of cattle. In feedlots,  therefore, the buffalo is likely to be less productive than improved cattle. Weight  gains of about 1 kg per day have been recorded, some exceptional cattle may gain  at almost twice that rate.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo has long been considered a poor breeder-slow to mature sexually,  and slow to rebreed after calving. Accumulated experience now shows, however,  that this is mainly a result of poor management and nutrition. Buffaloes are not  sluggish breeders. Nevertheless, their gestation period is about a month longer  than that of cows, buffalo estrus is difficult to detect, and many matings occur~at  night so that~ farmers are likely to encounter more problems breeding buffaloes  than cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are gentle creatures, but if roughly or inexpertly handled they can, through fear or pain, become completely unmanageable. Buffalo behavior sometimes differs from that of cattle. For example, most buffaloes are not trained to be driven. Instead, the herdsman must walk alongside or ahead of them; they then instinctively follow. Also, because of their innate attachment to an individual site or herd it is more difficult to move buffaloes to new locations or herds. In addition, buffaloes respect fences less than cattle do and when they have the desire to move they are harder to contain. (Electric fences, however, will stop them.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their general good health, buffaloes are probably as susceptible as cattle to most infections. However, the buffalo seems to be peculiarly sensitive to a few cattle diseases and resistant to a few others (see chapter 7). Reactions to some diseases seem to vary with region, environment, and breed, and the differences are not well understood.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Destruction of the environment is sometimes attributed to buffalo wallowing. This danger seems to have been overstated, except in cases where stocking rates were unreasonably high.(An ongoing study in Northern Australia of environmental degradation widely attributed to buffalo has now shown that the effects are caused by man and climatic changes and only very slightly by buffaloes. (information supplied by D. G. Tulloch.) ) However, buffaloes rub against trees more often than cattle do, and they sometimes de-bark the trees, causing them to die.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, some of the best genetic stocks of water buffaloes exist in areas where certain infections and viral and other diseases sometimes occur. Thus, many countries are reluctant to permit importation of water buffaloes, despite the fact that modern quarantine procedures under conditions of maximum security can essentially eliminate the risk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, it must be emphasized that because buffalo research has been largely neglected, most results reported in this and other buffalo writings cover small numbers of animals and short periods of time. Many are merely empirical observations that have not been subjected to independent confirmation.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1972.Buffalo at the crossroads. World Farming 14(n:l0-l3.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asian and Pacific Council. 1979. Priorities in buffalo research identified.ASPAC News letter No. 43.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bowman, J. c. 1977. Animals for Man. Edward Arnold Publishers, Ltd., London, United Kingdom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo Bulletin. Newsletter published by the Buffalo Research Committee of Kasetsart University, Bangkok' Thailand. (In English and Thai.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo World. Newsletter published by the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132001, Haryana, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chantalakhana, C. 1975. The buffaloes of Thailand-their potential, utilization and conservation. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chantalakhana, C., and Na Phuket, S. R. 1979. The role of swamp buffalo in small farm development and the need for breeding improvement in Southeast Asia. Extension Bulletin No. 125. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1967. The water buffalo. Scientific American 217:118.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R., ed. 1974. The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill W. R. 1975. The domestic buffalo. Blue Book for the Veterinary Profession No. 25. Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1976. The Buffaloes of China. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R., ed. 1977. The Water Buffalo. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1977. The water buffalo: domestic animal of the future. Bovine Practitioner 12:92-98.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1978. Domestic water buffaloes. In: The Care and Management of Farm Animals, edited by W. N. Scott. Bailliere TindaU, London, United Kingdom.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1980. The ascendant water buffalo-key domestic animal. World Animal Review 33:2-13.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DeBoer, A. J. 1972. Technical and economic constraints on bovine production in three villages in Thailand. Dissertation Abstracts International 33(5):1935.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DeBoer, A. J. 1975. Livestock and Poultry Industry in Selected Asian Countries. Report of Survey on Diversification of Agriculture: Livestock and Poultry Production. Asian Productivity Organization, Tokyo, Japan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">de Guzman, M. R., Jr. 1979. An overview of recent developments in buffalo research and management in Asia. Extension Bulletin No. 124. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Documentation Center on Water Buffalo. 1978. Abstract Bibliography on Water Buffalo, 1971-1975. Documentation Center on Water Buffalo, University of the Philippines at Los Banos Library, College, Laguna 3720, Philippines.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fahimuddin, M. 1975. Domestic Water Buffalo. Oxford and IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi, India  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H. 1975. The water buffalo and related species as important genetic resources: their conservation, evaluation and utilization. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6  1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ford, B. D., and Tulloch, D. G. 1977. The Australian buffalo-a collection of papers. Technical Bulletin No.18. Department of the Northern Territory, Animal Industry and Agriculture Branch, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, Australia.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gupta, H. C. 1977. Possibilities and realities of developing buffalo's performance, breeding and feeding. Indian Dairyman 29(6):337-346.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kartha, K. P. R.1965. Buffalo. In: An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics edited by G. Williamson and W. J. A. Payne. Longman, London, United Kingdom.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McKnight, T. L. 1971. Australia's buffalo dilemma. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 61(4):759-773.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madamba, J. C., and Eusebio, A. N. 1979. Developments in the strengthening of buffalo research in Asia. Buffalo Bulletin 2(3):7-16.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mahadevan, P. 1978. Water buffalo research-possible future trends. World Animal Review 25: 2-7.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oloufa, M. M. 1979. Buffaloes as producers of meat and milk. Egyptian Journal of AnimalProduction 19:1-10. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pant, H. C., and Roy, A. 1972. The water buffalo and its future. In: Improvement of Livestock Production in Warm Climates, edited by R. E McDowell. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research. 1978. The Philippines Recommends for Caraboo Production, PCARR, Los Banos, Laguna 3732, Philippines.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ranjhan, S. K., and Pathak, N. N. 1981. Management and Feeding of Buffaloes. Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, India  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977a. Livestock in Indonesia. Research Report No. 1. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia. (In English and Indonesian.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977b. Preliminary Observations on the Productivity of Porking Buffalo in Indonesia. Research Report No. 2. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia. (In English and Indonesian.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sundaresan, D. 1979. The role of improved buffaloes in rural development. Indian Dairyman 31(2):73-78.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1978. The water buffalo, Bubalus bubalis, in Australia: grouping and home range.Australian Wildlife Research 5:327-34.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wahid, A. 1973. Pakistani buffaloes. World Animal Review 7:22~28. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Meat</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo offers promise as a major source of meat, and the production of buffaloes solely for meat is now expanding.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because buffaloes have been used as draft animals for centuries, they have evolved with exceptional muscular development, some weigh 1,000 kg or more. Until recently, however, little thought was given to using them exclusively for meat production. Most buffalo meat was, and still is, derived from old animals slaughtered at the end of their productive life as work or milk animals. As a result, much of the buffalo meat sold is of poor quality. But when buffaloes are properly reared and fed, their meat is tender and palatable.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are exported for slaughter from India and Pakistan to the Middle East and from Thailand and Australia to Hong Kong. Demand for meat is so great that Thailand's buffalo population has dropped from 7 million to 5.7 million head in the last 20 years, a period in which the human population has more than doubled.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carcass Characteristics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All buffalo breeds-even the milking ones-produce heavy animals whose carcass characteristics are similar to those of cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite heavier hide and head, the amount of useful meat (dressing percentage) from buffaloes is almost the same as in cattle. Mediterranean type buffalo and Zebu cattle steers in Brazil yielded dressing percentages of 55.5 and 56.6 percent respectively. Swamp buffalo dressing percentages have been measured in Australia at 53 percent. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are lean animals. Although a layer of subcutaneous fat covers the carcass, it is usually thinner than that on comparably fed cattle. Even animals that appear to be fat prove to be largely muscle. Australian research on Swamp buffaloes reveals that buffaloes with more than 25 percent fat are difficult to produce, whereas average choice-grade beef carcasses may contain  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general, the buffalo carcass has rounder ribs, a higher proportion of muscle, and a lower proportion of bone and fat than beef has.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo hide is so thick that it can be sliced into two or three layers before tanning into leather.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meat Quality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo meat and beef are basically similar. The muscle pH (5.4), shrinkage on chilling (2 percent), moisture (76.6 percent), protein (19 percent), and ash (1 percent) are all about the same in buffalo meat and beef. Buffalo fat, however, is always white and buffalo meat is darker in color than beef because of more pigmentation or less intramuscular fat (2-3 percent "marbling," compared with the 3-4 percent in beef).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eating Quality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taste-panel tests and tenderness measurements conducted by research teams in a number of countries have shown that the meat of the water buffalo is as acceptable as that of cattle. Buffalo steaks have rated higher than beefsteaks in some taste tests in Australia, Malaysia, Venezuela, and Trinidad.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In taste-panel studies in Trinidad, cooked joints from three carcasses Trinidad buffalo, a crossbred steer (Jamaica-Red/Sahiwal), and an imported carcass of a top-grade European beef steer-were served. The 28 diners all had experience in beef production, butchery, or catering and were not told the sources of the various joints. All the carcasses were held in cold storage for one week before cooking. The buffalo meat was rated highest by 14 judges; 7 chose the European beef; 5 thought the crossbred beef the best; and 2 said that the buffalo and crossbred were equal to or better than the European beef. The buffalo meat received most points for color (both meat and fat), taste, and general acceptability. There was little difference noted in texture.( Information supplied by P. N. Wilson.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo veal is considered a delicacy. Calves are usually slaughtered for veal between 3 and 4 weeks of age; dressed weight is 59-66 percent of live weight.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is some evidence that buffaloes may retain meat tenderness to a more advanced age than cattle because the connective tissue hardens at a later age or because the diameter of muscle fibers in the buffalo increases more slowly than in cattle(Joksimonc, 1979) In one test the tenderness (measured by shearing force) of muscle samples from carcasses of buffalo steers 16-30 months old was the same as that from feedlot Angus, Hereford, and Friesian steers 12-18 months old. This gives farmers more flexibility in meeting fluctuating markets while still providing tender meat.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1976. Livestock Production in Asian Context of Agricultural Diversification. Asian Productivity Organization, Tokyo, Japan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arganosa, F. C., Sanchez, P. C., Ibarra, P. I., Gerpacio, A. L., Castillo, L. S., and Arganosa, V. G. 1973. Evaluation of carabeef as a potential substitute for beef. Philippine Journal of Nutrition 26(2).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arganosa, F. C., Arganosa, V. G., and Ibarra, P. I. 1975. Carcass evaluation and utilization of carabeef. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bennett, S. P. 1973. The "buffalypso"-an evaluation of a beef type of water buffalo in Trinidad, West Indies. Paper presented at the Third World Conference on Animal Production, Melbourne, Australia.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Borghese, A., Gigli, S., Romita, A., Di Giacomo, A., and Mormile, M. 1978. Fatty acid composition of fat in water buffalo calves and bovine calves slaughtered at 20, 28, and 36 weeks of age. In: Patterns of Growth and Development in Cattle: A Seminar in the EEC Programme of Coordination of Research on Beef Production, held at Ghent, October 11-13,1977. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles, D. D., and Johnson, E. R. 1972. Carcass composition of the water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Australian Journal of Agriculture Research 23:905-911.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles, D. D., and Johnson, E. R. 1975. Live weight gains and carcass composition of buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) steers on four feeding regimes. Australian Journal of Agriculture Research 26:407-413.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1975. Alternative livestock: with particular reference to the wafer buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). In: Meat. Proceedings of the 21st Easter School in Agricultural Science, University of Nottingham, edited by D. J. A. Cole and R. A. Lawrie. Butterworth, London, England.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El-Ashry, M. A., Mogawer, H. H., and Kishin, S. S. 1972. Comparative study of meat production from cattle and buffalo male calves. Egyptian Journal of Animal Production 12:99-107.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El-Koussy, H. A., Afifi, Y. A., Dessouki, T. A., and El-Ashry, M. A. 1977. Some chemical and physical changes of buffalo meat after slaughter. Agriculture Research Review 55:1-7.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Johnson, E. R., and Charles, D. D. 1975. Comparison of live weight gain and changes in carcass composition between buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and Bos taurus steers. Australian Journal of Agriculture Research 26:415- 422.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joksimovic, J. 1979. Physical, chemical and structural characteristics of buffalo meat. Arhiv za Polloprivredne Nauke 22:110.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joksimovic, J., and Ognjanovic, A. 1977. A comparison of carcass yield, carcass composition, and quality characteristics of buffalo meat and beef Meat Science 1:105 -110.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mai, S. C., and Wu, T. H. 1974. TSC's intensive feed-lot system for cow-calf and beef production program. Taiwan Sugar 21(6):198-211.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matassino, D., Romita, A., Cosentino, E., Girolami, A., and Cloatruglio, P. 1978. Myorheological, ohemical, and colour characteristics of meat in water buffalo and bovine calves slaughtered at 20, 28 and 36 weeks. In: Patterns of Growth and Development in Cattle: A Seminar in the EEC Programme of Coordination of Research on Beef Production, held at Chent, October 11-13, 1977. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mogawer, H. H., El-Ashry, M. A., and Mahmoud, S. A. 1976. Comparative study of meat production from cattle and buffalo male calves. II. Effect of different roughage concentrate ratios in ration on carcass traits. Journal of Agriculture Research {Tanta University) 2:6-12.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ognjanovic, A. 1974. Meat and meat production. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. CockrilL Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rastogi, R., Youssef, F. G., and Gonzalez, F. D. 1978. Beef type water buffalo of Trinidad-Beefalypso. World Review of Animal Production 14(2) :49 -56.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Romita, A., Borghese, A., Gigli, S., and Di Giacomo, A. 1978. Growth rate and carcass composition of water buffalo calves and bovine calves slaughtered at 20, 28 and 36 weeks. In: Patterns of Growth and Development in Cattle: A Seminar in the EEC Programme of Coordination of Research on Beef Production, Held at Chent, October 11-13, 1977. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilson, P. N. 1961. Palatability of water buffalo meat. Journal of the Agricultural Society of Trinidad 61:457, 459-460. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 Milk</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than 5 percent of the world's milk comes from water buffaloes. Buffalo milk is  used in much the same way as cow's milk. It is high in fat and total solids, which  gives it a rich flavor. Many people prefer it to cow's milk and are willing to pay more  for it. In Egypt, for example, the severe mortality rate among buffalo calves is due in  part to the sale of buffalo milk, which is in high demand, thus depriving calves of  proper nourishment. This also occurs in India, where in the Bombay area alone an  estimated 10,000 newborn calves starve to death each year through lack of milk.  The demand for buffalo milk in India (about 60 percent of the milk consumed; over  80 percent in some states) is reflected in the prices paid for a liter of milk: about  130 paisa for cow's milk compared with about 200 paisa for buffalo milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twelve of the 18 major breeds of water buffalo are kept primarily for milk production  (although males may be used for traction and all animals are eventually used for  meat). The main milk breeds of India and Pakistan are the Murrah, Nili/Ravi, Surti,  Mehsana, Nagpuri, and Jafarabadi. The buffaloes of Egypt, Eastern Europe  (Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia, and the USSR), and Italy are used for milk  production and there are also herds used principally for this purpose in Iran, Iraq,  and Turkey.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Composition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk contains less water, more total solids, more fat, slightly more lactose,  and more protein than cow's milk. It seems thicker than cow's milk because it  generally contains more than 16 percent total solids compared with 12-14 percent  for cow's milk. In addition, its fat content is usually 50-60 percent higher (or more)  than that of cow's milk. Although the butterfat content is usually 6-8 percent,( An analysis of 7,770 records of Nili/Ravi buffaloes in herds at the Pakistan  Research Institute showed that average butterfat content was 6.40 (a mean based  on 10 tests over 10 months). of all the samples tested, 77 percent ranged between  5 and 8 percent butterfat and 12 percent were below 5 percent butterfat.  -information supplied by R. E. McDowell.)  it can  go much higher in the milk of some well fed dairy buffaloes and in the milk of  Swamp buffaloes (which are not normally used for milking). Cow's milk butterfat content is usually between 3 and 5 percent.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its high butterfat content, buffalo milk has considerably higher energy value than cow's milk. Phospholipids are lower but cholesterol and saturated fatty acids are higher in buffalo milk. Studies have shown that digestibility is not adversely affected by this. Because of the high fat content, the buffalo's total fat yield per lactation compares favorably with that of improved breeds of dairy cattle; it is much higher than that of indigenous cows.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally the protein in buffalo milk contains more casein and slightly more albumin and globulin than cow's milk. Several researchers have claimed that the biological value of buffalo milk protein is higher than that of cow's milk, but this has not yet been proved conclusively.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p27.png"></center><br>
+ Tables 1 and 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mineral content of buffalo milk is nearly the same as that of cow's milk except for phosphorus, which occurs in roughly twice the amount in buffalo milk. Buffalo milk tends to be lower in salt.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk lacks the yellow pigment carotene, precursor for vitamin A, and its whiteness is frequently used to differentiate it from cow's milk in the market. Despite the absence of carotene, the vitamin A content in buffalo milk is almost as high as that of cow's milk. (Apparently the buffalo converts the carotene in its diet to vitamin A. The two milks are similar in B complex vitamins and vitamin C, but buffalo milk tends to be lower in riboflavin.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Milk Products</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk, like cow's milk, can provide a wide variety of products: butter, butter oil (clarified butter or ghee), soft and hard cheeses, condensed or evaporated milks, ice cream,yogurt, and buttermilk. It is of great economic importance in India in preparing "toned" milk-a mixture of buffalo milk and milk made by reconstituting skim milk powder.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The richness of buffalo milk makes it highly suitable for processing. To produce 1 kg of cheese, a cheese maker requires 8 kg of cow's milk but only 5 kg of buffalo milk. To produce 1 kg of butter requires 14 kg of cow's milk but only 10 kg of buffalo milk. Because of these high yields, processors appreciate the value of buffalo milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo cheese is pure white. It many countries it is among the most desirable cheeses (mozzarella and ricotta in Italy, gemir in Iraq, the salty cheeses of Egypt, and pecorino in Bulgaria, for example). In Venezuela all the cheese produced from the small La Guanota milking herd in the Apure River basin (about 100 kg a day) is bought by the Hilton Hotel and sells for 15 bolivars per kg compared with 8 bolivars per kg for cheese made from cow's milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although much in demand for making soft cheese, buffalo milk is less desirable for making hard cheeses such as cheddar or gouda. During cheesemaking it produces acid more slowly than cow's milk, retains more water in the curd, and loses more fat in the whey.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheeses are becoming increasingly popular throughout the world. Demand is rising at a rate that is among the highest for any food product. Cheese offers particular benefit to areas where refrigeration is not widely available, where transporting high-protein foods to remote areas is difficult, and where seasonal fluctuations affect milk supplies. Buffalo milk may make cheesemaking profitable on an even smaller scale than conventional dairying; it is more concentrated than cow's milk and requires relatively less energy to transport and process (an increasingly important factor where fuels are limited).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p31.png"></center><br>
+ Table 3 Highest Milk Yield (kg per Day) Recorded in the All India Milk Yield</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yield</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In countries like India and Egypt, the milk yield of buffaloes is generally higher  (680-800 kg) than for local cattle (360-500 kg). However, since selection for  exceptional milk production is not conducted systematically, large variations in yield  occur between individual animals, and milk production of dairy buffaloes falls short  of its potential.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nonetheless, some outstanding yields have been recorded. On Indian government  farms, average yields for milking buffaloes range from 4 to 7 kg per day in  lactations averaging 285 days. Daily yields of 12 kg have been reported for some  Bulgarian buffalo cows and a daily production of over 20 kg has been reported for  some remarkable animals in India. A peak milk yield of 31.5 kg in a day has been  recorded from a champion Murrah buffalo in the All India Milk Yield Competition  conducted by the Government of India (see Table 3).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At Caserta, Italy, a herd of 1,600 machine-milked, pedigreed dairy buffaloes has  produced average yields of 1,500 kg during lactations of 270 days. In Pakistan an  analysis of over 6,000 lactations of Nili/Ravi buffalo cows showed an average yield  of 1,925 kg during lactations averaging 282 days(Average adjusted for year and  season and calving. Cady et al., in press.) . In India the average milks yield of  Murrah buffaloes in established herds is also reported to be about  1,800kg(*"Williamson and Payne, 1965.)Table 4 lists some outstanding lactation  yields reported from different parts of the world. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with cattle, the percentages of fat, protein, and total solids decrease as the milks yield increases.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Swamp buffaloes of Southeast Asia are usually considered poor milk producers. They are used mainly as draft animals, but it may be that their milk potential has been underestimated. In the Philippines Swamp buffalo cows with nursing calves have produced 300-800 kg of milk during lactation periods of 180-300 days(*Philippines Council for Agriculture and Resources Research (PCARR). 1978. The Philippines Recommends for Caraboo Production, PCARR, Los Banos, Philippines)In Thailand Swamp buffaloes selected and reared for milk production have yielded 3-5 kg per day during 305-day lactations.(Information supplied by Charan Chantalakhana.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p32.png"></center><br>
+ Table 4 Milk Production of Some Outstading Buffalo Cows and Dairy Herds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Nanning Livestock Research Institute and Farm in Kwangsi Province,which is representative of many others in South China, is upgrading the native  Swamp buffaloes (or Shui Niu) by selective breeding for size and weight and by  crossbreeding with dairy breeds such as the Murrah and Nili/Ravi. The crossbreeds  that are milked yield 4-5 kg daily.(*CockriH, W. R. 1976. The Buffaloes of China.  FAO, Rome.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dairy Management</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The characteristics of the dairy buffalo so closely approximate those of the dairy cow that successful methods of breeding, husbandry, and feeding for  milks production for the cow can be applied equally to the dairy buffalo. Buffaloes,  however, have not been bred for uniform udders and it is more difficult to milk them  by machine.(Some thousands of buffaloes are machine milked in Bulgaria and Italy, however. At  Ain Shams University in Egypt, buffaloes have adapted to machine milking. The  calves are separated from their dams immediately after birth and no problems of  milk letdown have been observed. -information supplied by M. El Ashry.)Also, some buffaloes have more of a problem with milks letdown than  dairy cows (although not as much of a problem as some native cattle breeds in the  tropics). Frequently, a calf is kept with the cow and is tied to her foreleg at milking  time. In India, Burma, and other countries a dummy calf may be provided; playing  music seems to work, too.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Addeo, F., Mercier, J. C., and Ribadeau-Dumas, B. 1977. The caseins of buffalo  milk. Journal of Dairy Research 44(3):455-468.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agarwala, O. P. 1962. Certain factors of reproduction and production in a water  buffalo herd. Indian Joumal of Dairy Science 15(2):45-51.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albourco, F., Mincione, B., Addeo, F., and Ameno, M. 1969. Buffaloes' milk. II.  Variations in composition during lactation of milk produced without change in  feeding. Industrie Agraria 7(5):210-219.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associazione Italiana Tecnici del Latter. 1970. Buffaloes' milk and cheese. Scienza  e Tecnica 21(3):175-196.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhatnagar, V. K., Lohia, K. L., and Monga, O. P. 1961. Effect of the month of  calving on milk yield, lactation length and calving interval in Murrah buffaloes. Indian  Journal of Dairy Science 14(3): 102-108.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhasin N. R., and Desai, R. N. 1967. Effect of age at first calving and first lactation  yield on life time production in Hariana cattle. Indian Veterinary Journal 44:684694.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cady, R. A., Shah, S. K., Schermerhorn, E. C., and McDowell, R. E. In Press.  Factors affecting performance of Nili-Ravi buffaloes in Pakistan. Journal of Dairy  Science.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Castillo, L. S. 1975. Production, characteristics and processing of buffalo milk. In:  The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at  Khon Kahn, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology  Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dassat, P. M., de Paolis, P., and Sartore, G. 1966. Environmental effects on milks  yield in Italian buffalo.Acta Medica Veterinaria 12(6):587-593.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dave, B. K., and Taylor, C. M. 1975. A study on relationship of persistency with other first production traits in Indian water buffaloes. Indian Journal of Animal Health 14(1) :77-80.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deshmukh, S. N., and Choudhury, P. N. R. 1971. Repeatability estimates of some economic characteristics in Italian buffaloes. Zentralblatt fuer Veterinaer-medizen 18:104-107.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ganguli, N. C. 1979. Buffalo milk technology. World Animal Review 30:2-10.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gomez, I. V. 1977. The manufacture of semihard cheese (Danish type) from carabao milk. Philippine Agriculturalist 61(3/4) :78-86.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gurnani, M., and Nagarcenkar, R. 1971. Evaluation of breeding performance of buffaloes and estimation of genetic and phenotypic parameters. Annual Report of the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katpatal, B. G. 1977. Dairy cattle crossbreeding in India. I. Growth and development of crossbreeding. World Animal Review 22: 15-21.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kay, H. D. 1974. Milk and milk production. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kohli, M. L., and Malik, D. D. 1960. Effect of service period on total milk production and lactation length in Murrah buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 13(3): 105-111.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nascimento, C. N. B., Moura Carvalho, L. O. D., and Lourenco, J. B. 1979. Irnportancia do Bufalo para a Pecuarfa Brasileira. Agricultural Research Center for Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem, Para, Brazil.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raafat, M. A., El-Sayed, Abou-Hussein, Abou-Raya, A. K., and El-Shirbiny A. 1974. Some nutritional studies of colostrum and milk of cows and buffaloes E:gyptian Journal of Animal Production 14(1) :137-148.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ragab, M. T., Asker, A. A., and Kamal, T. H. 1958. The effect of age and seasonal calving on the composition of Egyptian buffalo milk. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 11(1):18-28.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saudi Arabia Standards Institution. 1978. Raw milk. Saudi Arabia Standard 98.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sebastian, J., Panthulu, P. C, and Bhimasena, M. 1971. Composition of Surti buffalo milk. Annual Report of the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sekhon, G. S., and Gehlon, M. S. 1966. Repeatability estimates of some economic traits in the Murrah buffalo. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 14:18-22.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, B. B., and Singh, B. P. 1971. Comparative study of lifetime economics of Hariana versus Murrah buffaloes. Indian Veterinary Journal 48:485-489.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, R. P. 1966. A study of production up to ten years of age in buffaloes maintained at military farms. Indian Veterinary Journal 43:986-992.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, S. B., and Desai, R. N. 1962. Production character of Bhadawari buffalo cow. Indian Veterinary journal 39:332-343.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venkayya, D., and Anantakrishnan, C. P. 1957. Influence of age at first calving on the performance of Murrah buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 10(1):20-24.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G., and Payne, W. J. A. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. Longman, London, United Kingdom. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Work</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is the classic work animal of Asia, an integral part of that  continent's traditional village farming structure. Probably the most adaptable and  versatile of all work animals, it is widely used to plow; level land; plant crops; puddle  rice fields; cultivate field crops; pump water; haul carts, sleds, and shallow-draft  boats; carry people; thresh grain; press sugar cane; haul logs; and much more.  Even today, water buffaloes provide 20-30 percent of the farm power in South  China, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, and Indochina(Figures provided by A. J. de veer. In India water buffaloes contribute much less to  farm power (6-12 percent); bullocks are more commonly used. In Pakistan  buffaloes are little used for farm power (1-2 percent) but provide much of the road  haulage. Papua New Guinea has no tradition of using any work animal, but villagers  are increasingly using buffaloes for farm work and the government is employing  Fillipinos to train them) . Millions of  peasants in the Far East, Middle East, and Near East have a draft buffalo. For them  it is often the only method of farming food crops.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As fuel becomes scarce and expensive in these countries, the buffalo is being used  more frequently as a draft animal. ln 1979 water buffalo prices soared in rural  Thailand because of the increased demand.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although Asian farms have increasingly mechanized in the last 20 years, it has  often proved difficult to persuade the farmer to replace his buffalo with a tractor  since the buffalo produces free fertilizer and does not require diesel fuel. Now there  is renewed official interest in draft power. Sri Lanka has recently opened up large  new tracts of farmland in the Mahawali Valley, creating such a demand for work  animals that buffalo shortages have become a national development problem.  Indonesia's transmigration schemes are also handicapped by shortages of animal  power.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For many small farmers the buffalo represents capital. It is often the major  investment they have. Buffalo energy increases their productivity and allows them to  diversify. Even small farms have work animals that, like the farmer himself, subsist  off the farm. Tractors usually require at least four hectares for economical operation,  which precludes their use on most peasant farms. Further, the infrastructure to  maintain machinery is often not readily available.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are also used for hauling. Buffalo-drawn carts carry goods between  villages where road surfaces are unfit for trucks. The animals easily traverse  ravines, streams, paddies, and narrow and rocky trails. In the cities carts can  compete economically with trucks where the road surface is unprepared, where  loading or unloading takes longer than the journey itself, or where the loads are too  small and distances too short to make trucking economical. For road haulage  buffaloes are generally shod: the shoes are flat plates fitted to each hoof.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capacity for Work</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is a sturdy draft animal Its body structure, especially the  distribution of body weight over the feet and legs, is an important advantage. Its  large boxy hooves allow it to move in the soft mud of rice fields. Moreover, the  buffalo has very flexible pastern and fetlock joints in the lower leg so that it can bend  back its hooves and step over obstacles more easily than cattle. This water-loving  animal is particularly well adapted to paddy farming because its legs withstand  continual wet conditions better than mules or oxen(Australian animal scientists working in Bogor, Indonesia, found that the puddling  effect of buffalo hooves on the soil was critical for rice cultivation in the local soils.  Tractors produced fields so porous that they drained dry. (Information supplied by  A. F. GurnettSmith.) On one research station near Darwin, Australia, buffaloes were  used to prevent water draining from a dam. (Information supplied by D. G. Tulloch.). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although buffaloes are preferred by farmers in the wet, often muddy lowlands of  Asia, mules, horses, and cattle move more rapidly and are preferred in the dryer  areas.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes do not work quickly. They plod along at about 3 km per hour. In  most parts of Southeast Asia they are worked about 5 hours a day and they may  take 6-10 days to plow, harrow, and grade one hectare of rice field. Their stamina  and drawing power increase with body weight.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they have difficulty keeping cool in hot, humid weather (see next chapter),  it is necessary to let working buffaloes cool off, preferably in a wallow, every 2 hours  or so. Without this their body temperatures may rise to dangerous levels.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A pair of 3-year-old buffaloes costs about the same as a small tractor in Thailand.  But many farmers raise their own calves and there is no investment beyond labor.  The "fuel" for the animals comes mainly from village pastures and farm wastes such  as crop stubble and sugarcane tops. Buffaloes have an average working life of  about 11 years, but some work to age 20.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harness</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yoke used on working buffalo in Asia has changed very little in the last 1,500 years. It is doubtful that a working buffalo can exert its full power with it. The hard wooden yoke presses on a very small area on top of the animal's neck, producing severe calluses, galls, and obvious discomfort. The harness tends to choke the animal as the straps under the neck tighten into the windpipe. Since the traditional hitch is usually higher than the buffalo's low center of gravity, the animal cannot pull efficiently. Considerably more pulling power and endurance can be obtained by improving the harness. The situation is not unlike that in Western agriculture in the twelfth century when the horse collar-one of the most important inventions of the Middle Ages first appeared. Before that, horses were yoked like buffalo and the harness passed across their windpipes and choked them as they pulled. Use of the horse collar improved pulling efficiency and speeded the development of transportation and trade.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The curved yoke now universally used on water buffalo contacts an area of the neck that is only about 200 cm2 (little more than half the size of this page). The entire load is pulled on this small area and causes the wood to dig into the flesh.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A horse collar is a padded leather device that encircles the animal's neck. One modified in Thailand for use on water buffalo (see page 43) had a contact area of 650 cm2, more than three times that of the yoke it replaced. The collar's padding pressed against the animal's shoulders, not its neck, and  therefore did not choke it. Attached to the collar were wooden hames with the traces for hitching the animal to a wagon or plow. In trials a buffalo pulled loads 24 percent heavier with the collar than with the yoke, and the horsepower it developed increased by 48 percent(These trials were conducted by J. K. Garner in Thailand in 1958. In the maximum-load test the yoked buffalo failed to move a load of 570 kg, but it moved a load of 640 kg when fitted with the horse collar. In an endurance test the yoked animal took 35 minutes to pull a load 550 m, but harnessed with the collar it took only 21 minutes). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another potentially valuable harness is the breast strap, a set of broad leather straps that pass over the animal's neck and back. One breast strap modified for water buffalo use had a contact area of 620 cm2, almost as much as that of the horse collar, and in trials the buffalo pulled a load 12 percent heavier than with a yoke and the horsepower it developed increased by almost 70 percent( The same animal used in the horse collar trials pulled 700 kg with the breast strap, in the endurance test it took 18.5 minutes to travel the 550-m distance). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These seem very good innovations. In the humid tropics, however, leather collars and breast straps may decay rapidly. To make them widely practical may require experimentation with, or development of, special leather treatments or more durable materials.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1974. The working buffalo. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domes tic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1976. The Buffaloes of China. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">de Guzman, M. R., Jr. 1975. The water buffalo-Asia's beast of burden and key to progress. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Garner, J. K. 1958 (Reprint 1980) Increasing the Work Efficiency of the Water Buffalo Through Use of Improved Harness. (Copies available from Office of Agriculture, Development Support Bureau, Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C. 20523)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kamal, T. H., Shehata, O., and Elbanna, I. M. 1972. Isotope Studies on the Physiology of Domestic Animals. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977. Preliminary Observations on the Productivity of Working Buffalo in Indonesia. Research Report No. 2, Center for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vaugh, M. 1945. Report on a detailed study of methods of yoking bullocks for agricultural work. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 15:186-198.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ward, G. M., Sutherland, T. M., and Sutherland, J. M. 1980. Animals as an energy source in Third World agriculture. Science 208:570. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">5 Adaptability and Environmental Tolerance</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heat Tolerance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the buffalo is remarkably versatile, it has less physiological adaptation to extremes of heat and cold than the various breeds of cattle. Body temperatures of buffaloes are actually lower than those of cattle, but buffalo skin is usually black and heat absorbent and only sparsely protected by hair. Also, buffalo skin has one-sixth the density of sweat glands that cattle skin has, so buffaloes dissipate heat poorly by sweating. If worked or  driven excessively in the hot sun, a buffalo's body temperature, pulse rate, respiration rate, and general discomfort increase more quickly than those of cattle(Failure to appreciate this has caused many buffalo deaths in northern Australia when the animals were herded long distances through the heat of the day as if they were cattle).. This is particularly true of young calves and pregnant females. During one trial in Egypt 2 hours' exposure to sun caused temperatures of buffalo to rise 1.3°C, whereas temperatures of cattle rose only 0.2-0.3°C.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes prefer to cool off in a wallow rather than seek shade. They may wallow for up to 5 hours a day when temperatures and humidity are high. Immersed in water or mud, chewing with half-closed eyes, buffaloes are a picture of bliss.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In shade or in a wallow buffaloes cool off quickly, perhaps because a black skin rich in blood vessels conducts and radiates heat efficiently (Tests at the University of Florida have shown that buffaloes in the shade cool off more quickly than cattle. -Robey, 1976).  Nonetheless, wallowing is not essential. Experience in Australia, Trinidad, Florida, Malaysia, and elsewhere has shown that buffaloes grow normally without wallowing as long as adequate shade is available.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cold Tolerance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although generally associated with the humid tropics, buffaloes, as already noted, have been reared for centuries in temperate countries such as Italy, Greece, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, and in the Azerbaijan and Georgian republics of the USSR. In 1807 Napoleon brought Italian buffaloes to the Landes region of southwest France and released them near Mont-deMarsan. They became feral and multiplied prodigiously in the woods and dunes of the littoral, but unfortunately the local peasants found them easy targets, and with the fall of Napoleon the whole herd was killed for meat(In the twelfth century Benedictine monks introduced buffaloes from their possessions in the Orient to work the lands of their abbey at Auge in northeastern France. In the thirteenth century a herd was introduced to England by the Earl of Cornwall, the brother of Henry III. Nothing is known about how well either herd survived). Buffaloes are also maintained on the high, snowy plateaus of Turkey as well as in Afghanistan and the northern mountains of Pakistan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo has greater tolerance of cold weather than is commonly supposed. The current range of the buffalo extends as far north as 45° latitude in Romania and the sizable herds in Italy and the Soviet Union range over 40° N latitude(Philadelphia and Peking are at comparable latitudes. In the Southern Hemisphere the 40° line of latitude easily encompasses Cape Town, Buenos Aires, Melbourne, and most of New Zealand's North Island).  Cold winds and rapid drops in temperatures, however, appear to have caused illness, pneumonia, and sometimes death. Most of the animals in Europe are of the Mediterranean breed, but other River-type buffaloes (mainly Murrahs from India) have been introduced to Bulgaria and the Soviet Union, which indicates that River breeds, at least, have some cold tolerance.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Altitude</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although water buffaloes are generally reared at low elevations, a herd of Swamp buffaloes is thriving at Kandep in Papua New Guinea, 2,500 m above sea level. And in Nepal, River buffaloes are routinely found at or above 2,800 m altitude.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wetlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are well adapted to swamps and to areas subject to flooding. They are at home in the marshes of southern Iraq and of the Amazon, the tidal plains near Darwin, Australia, the Pontine Marshes in south-central Italy, the Orinoco Basin of Venezuela, and other areas.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Amazon, buffaloes (Mediterranean and Swamp breeds) are demonstrating their exceptional adaptability to flood areas. Buffalo productivity outstrips that of cattle, with males reaching 400 kg in 30 months on a diet of native grasses( Information supplied by C. Nascimento). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The advantage of water buffaloes over Holstein, Brown Swiss, and Criollo cattle was demonstrated in a test at Delta Amacuro, Venezuela, when the cattle developed serious foot rot In the wet conditions of the Orinoco Delta and had to be withdrawn from the test. The area of Venezuela is flooded 6 months of the year and creates constant problems for cattle, yet the buffalo seems to adapt well(*Information supplied by A. Ferrer). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High humidities seem to affect buffaloes less than cattle. In fact, if shade or wallows are available, buffaloes may be superior to cattle in humid areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In southern Brazil, trials comparing buffalo and cattle on subtropical riverine plains have favored the buffalo also. This work is being carried out on native pastures, mostly in  the State of Sao Paulo.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hafez, E. S. E., Badreldin, A. L., and Shafei,M. M. 1955. Skin structure of Egyptian buffaloes and cattle with particular reference to sweat glands. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 46:19-30.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katyega, P. M. J., Masoud, A. J., and Kobo, E. 1980. Information on body and carcass characteristics of Egyptian water buffalo and Mpwapwa x Friesian steers raised in central Tanzania. Tanzania Veterinary Bulletin 2:86-90.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I. L. 1974. Environmental physiology. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1973. Heat tolerance of Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers during exposure to sun and as a result of exercise. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 24(5) :775 -782.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nair, P. G., and Benjamin, B. R. 1963. Studies on sweat glands in the Indian water buffalo. 1. Standardization of techniques and preliminary observations. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 33:102.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pandey, M. D., and Roy, A. 1969a. Studies on the adaptability of buffaloes to tropical climate. I. Seasonal changes in the water and electrolyte status of buffalo cows. Indian Journal of Animal Science 39:367.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pandey, M. D., and Roy, A. 1969b. Studies on the adaptability of buffaloes to tropical climate. II. Seasonal changes in the body temperature, cardio-respiratory and hematological attributes in buffalo cows. Indian Journal of Animal Science 39:378.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prusty, J. N. 1973. Role of the sweat glands in heat regulation in the Indian water buffalo. Indian Journal of Animal Health 12(1):33-37.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robey, C. A., Jr. 1976. Physiological Responses of Water Buffalo to the Florida Environment. M.S. Thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">6 Nutrition</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most buffaloes are located in countries where land, cultivated forage crops, and pastures  are limited. Livestock must feed on poor-quality forages, sometimes supplemented with  a little green fodder or byproducts from food, grain, and oil seed processing. Usually  feedstuffs are in such short supply that few animals have a balanced diet, but the buffalo  seems to perform fairly well under such adverse conditions.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Growth Rate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insufficient measurements have been taken to allow unequivocal state. meets about the  relative growth rates of cattle and buffaloes. However, many observations made in  various parts of the world indicate that the buffalo's growth is seldom inferior to that of  cattle breeds found in the same environments. Some observations are given below.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Trials in Trinidad in the early 1960s involved buffaloes grazing pangola grass (Digitaria  decumbens) together with Brahman and Jamaican Red cattle. Over a period of 20  months the buffaloes gained an average of 0.72 kg per day, whereas the cattle on a  comparable nearby pasture gained 0.63 per day(Experiments performed by P. N. Wilson. -Information supplied by S. P. Bennett.).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the Orinoco Delta of Venezuela unselected Criollo/Zebu crossbred cattle gained  0-0.2 kg per day on Paspalum fasciculatum, whereas the water buffaloes with them  gained 0.25-0.4 kg per day(Cunha  et al., 1975).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the Apure Valley of Venezuela, 100 buffalo steers studied in 1979 reached an  average weight of 508 kg in 30 months, whereas the 30-month old Zebu steers tested  with them weighed 320 kg. The feed consumed was a blend of native grasses (25  percent of the diet) and improved grasses (such as pangola, pare, and guinea grass)( Information supplied by A. Ferrer). In  the same valley 200 buffalo heifers (air freighted from Australia) produced weight gains  averaging 0.5 kg per day over a 2-year period (and 72 percent of them calved). Government statistics for the area record average weight gains in crossbreeds between Zebu and Criollo cattle as 0.28 kg per day (with 40 percent calving).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the Philippines, buffaloes showed weight gains of 0.75-1.25 kg per day, the same as those of cattle. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Daily weight gains of over 1 kg have been recorded for buffaloes in Bulgaria and Yugoslavia.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Liveweight gains of 0.80 kg per day have been recorded for buffaloes in Papua New Guinea. In a very humid, swampy area of the Sepik River coastal plains liveweight gains by males averaged 0.47 kg per day and females 0.43 kg per day for more than a year. The average weight of 30 4-year-old female buffaloes was 375 kg, while the average weight of 4-year-old female Brahman/ Shorthorn crossbred cattle was 320 kg.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· At the research station near Belem in the Brazilian Amazon weaned Murrah buffaloes, pastured continuously on Echinochloa pyramidalis (a nutritious grass), gained 0.8 kg daily and reached 450 kg in about 18 months. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Liveweight gains of 0.74-l.i kg per day have been obtained in Australia. Buffalo steers grew as fast or faster than crossbred Brahman cattle on several improved pastures near Darwin, but on one very poor pasture, 40-year-old buffaloes each weighed only 400 kg, whereas the Brahman crossbred steers reared with them weighed 500 kg. The reason for this is not clear.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efficiency of Digestion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian animal nutritionists have investigated water buffaloes intensively over the past two decades. Many have reported that buffaloes digest feeds more efficiently than do cattle, particularly when feeds are of poor quality and are high in cellulose.One trial revealed that the digestibility of wheat straw cellulose was 24.3 percent for cattle and 30.7 percent for buffalo. The figures for berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) cellulose were 34.6 percent for cattle and 52.2 percent for buffalo. In another trial the digestion of straw fiber was 64.7 percent in cattle, 79.8 percent in buffalo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other nutrients reported to be more highly digested in buffaloes than in cattle (Zebu) are crude fat, calcium and phosphorus, and nonprotein nitrogen.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recent experiments in India suggest that buffaloes also are able to utilize nitrogen more efficiently than cattle. Buffaloes digested less crude protein than cattle in one trial but increased their body nitrogen more (and they were being fed only 40 percent of the recommended daily intake of crude protein).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ability of buffaloes to digest fiber efficiently may be partly due to the microorganisms in their rumen. Several Indian research teams have published data indicating that the microbes in the buffalo rumen convert feed into energy more efficiently than do those in cattle (as measured by the rate of production of volatile fatty acids in the rumen).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also, in laboratory studies samples of buffalo rumen contents produced volatile fatty acids more quickly from a variety of animal feedstuffs than did samples from the rumen of cattle  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No single reason alone explains the buffalo's success in using poor quality forages. Rather, it is a combination of reasons that differ with the breed and conditions used. Studies by other researchers suggest that additional causes might include:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Higher dry matter intake; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Longer retention of feed in digestive tract;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Ruminal characteristics more favorable to ammonia-nitrogen utilization;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Less depression of cellulose digestion by soluble carbohydrates (e.g., starch or molasses);  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Superior ability to handle stressful environment; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A wider range of grazing preferences.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calf Growth Rates</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the buffalo's gestation period is more than a month longer than that of cattle, the calves are born weighing 35-40 kg, or about the same as that of a newborn Holstein calf. But because buffalo milk has about twice the butterfat of cow's milk, the calves grow very quickly. They also suffer more shock at weaning and have to be slowly changed to their new feeding program. Buffaloes can be marketed as full-grown animals for beef at the age of 2-3 years, sometimes even earlier.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p59.png"></center><br>
+ Table 5 Some Coarse Grasses and Forages Palatable to Buffaloes but Less Readily</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, in Indonesia it has been found that buffalo steers can be marketed 6 months before Zebu steers because they may be 100 kg heavier. In Egypt some buffalo calves given feed supplemented with concentrates weighed 360 kg at 1 year of age. At Ain Shams University near Cairo, buffalo calves weaned at 7-14 days of age gained 0.7 kg per day from weaning to slaughter at 18 months of age and weighed 400 kg. Rice straw comprised 50 percent of the finishing diet.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes on Italian farms have reached 350 kg in 15-18 months and some year-old calves weighed 320 kg. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grazing trials on native pasture (with mineral supplementation) in the Brazilian Amazon indicate that buffalo calves grew faster than cattle. At 2 years of age Mediterranean-type buffaloes averaged 369 kg, Swamp type, 322 kg, and Jafarabadi type, 308 kg. The Zebu cattle tested with them averaged 265 kg and the crossbred Zebu/Charolais, 282 kg. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feed Preferences</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes graze a wider range of plants than cattle. During floods near Manaus in the  Brazilian Amazon when cattle become marooned on small patches of high ground,  many suffer from foot rot and many starve to death. Their buffalo companions on the  other hand-bodies sleek and full-swim out to islands of floating aquatic plants and eat  them, treading water. Also, they dive almost 2 m to graze beneath the floodwaters. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Florida buffaloes in a lakefront voluntarily consumed vines, sedges, rushes, floating aquatic weeds, and the leaves and shoots of willows and other  trees along the water's edge. Few of these plants are voluntarily grazed by cattle. In  northern Australia water buffaloes graze the very pickily leaves of pandanus; they also  graze sedges, reeds, floating grass, and aquatic weeds. Hungry buffaloes will eat bark,  twigs, and other unpalatable vegetation.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the variety of their tastes they have been used in northern Queensland,  Australia, to clear pastures of woody weeds left untouched by cattle. In some countries  cattle are used to graze the palatable tops of pasture plants and are followed by  buffaloes to graze the less desirable lower parts.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afifi, Y. A., El-Koussy, H. A., El-Khishen, S. S., and El-Ashry, M. A. 1977. Production of  meat from Egyptian buffaloes. I. The effect of using different sources of roughages on  rate of gain, gross and net efficiency during the growth and finishing periods. Egyptian  Journal of Animal Production 17(2).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appleton, D. c., Dryden, G., and Kondos, A. C. 1976. A comparison of the digestive  efficiency of the water buffalo and the Brahman and Banteng cattle. Proceedings of the  Australian Society of Animal Production 11.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhatia, L S. 1967. The Study of Factors Affecting the Utilization of Low Grade  Roughages and Production of Volatile Fatty Acids in the Rumen of Indian Cattle. Punjab  Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chalmers, M. 1.1974. Nutrition. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo  edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome,  Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles, D. D., and Johnson, E. R. 1975. Live weight gains and carcass composition of  buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) steers on four feeding regimes. Australian Journal of  Agricultural Research 26:407-413.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaturvedi, M. L, Singh, u. B., and Ranjhan, 5. K 1973. Comparative studies on the  efficiency of feed unitization in cattle and buffaloes. Indian Journal of Animal Science  43(12):1034.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chutikul, K. 1975. Ruminant (Buffalo) nutrition. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kacn, Thailand, March 31April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cunha, E., Alvarez, F., Larez, O., and Bryan, W. B. 1975. Pasture and Livestock Investigations in the Humid Tropics: Orinoco Delta, Venezuela. 4. Beef Cattle and Water Buffalo Grazing Trials with Native and Introduced Grasses. IRI Research Institute, New York, New York, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Davendra, C. 1979. The potential value of grasses and crop by-products for feeding buffaloes in Asia. Extension Bulletin No. 126. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">de Guzman, M. R., Jr. 1975. A summary of research into buffalo feeding in the Philippines. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunkel, R. 1981. Animal production using nutrient-deficient fodders in the tropics and subtropics. Animal Research and Development 13:32-39.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El-Ashry, M. A., Mogawer, H. H., and Kishin, S. S. 1972. Comparative study of meat production from cattle and buffalo male calves. I. Effect of roughage: concentrate ratio in ration for rate of gain and feed efficiency of native cattle, Friesian and buffalo calves. Egyptian Journal of Animal Production 12(2) :99 -107.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grant, R. J., Van Soest, P. J., McDowell, R. E., and Perez, C. B. 1974. Intake, digestibility and metabolic loss of Napier grass by cattle and buffaloes when fed wilted, chopped and whole. Journal of Animal Science 39(2):423.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ibrovic, M., Cvetkovic, A., Smrcek, A., and Janevski, K. 1972. A contribution to the knowledge of metabolism of carotene and seasonal dynamics of vitamin A in the buffalo. Veterinaria 21(4) :511.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., Sidhu, G. S., and Moxin, A. L. 1962. Cellulose digestion in water buffaloes and Zebu cattle. Journal of Animal Science 21:1001.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1966. Effect of urea on the voluntary intake of wheat skew in Zebu cattle and the buffalo. Indian Veterinary Journal 43:880-886.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1969. Biochemical processes in the rumen. 111. Effect of different carbobydrates on in vitro digestion of cellulose and utilization of urea nikogen by rumen micro-organisms from zebu and buffalo. Indian Journal of Animal Science 39 :27-32.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1971a. Studies on the biochemical process in the rumen. Vl. In vivo digestion of cellulose in buffalo and cattle. Indian Veterinary Journal 48:267-271.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1971b. Studies on the biochemical process in the rumen. VII. In vitro digestion of cellulose in cattle and buffalo. Indian Veterinary Journal 48:583-586.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1972. Studies on the biochemical processes in the rumen. VIIL The significance of molar proportions of acetic and propionic acids in the rumen on the growth rate of buffalo and Zebu. Indian Veterinary Journal 49:995-1000.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Gill, R. S., Makkar, G. S., and Ranjan, S. K. 1977. Work done on buffalo nutrition in India-a review. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 30(3): 173-191.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Langar, P. N., Sidhu, G. S., and Bhatia, I. S. 1969. Utilization of nitrogen and production of volatile fatty acids in the rumina of buffalo (Bos bubalis) and zebu (Bos indicus) at different time intervals, under a feeding regimen deficient in carbohydrates. Indian Veterinary Journal 46:593-598.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ludri, R. S., and Razdan, M. N. 1975. Effect of level and source of dietary nitrogen on water metabolism in cows and buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 28:107109.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ludri, R. S., and Razdan, M. N. 1980. Efficiency of nitrogen utilization by Zebu cows and buffaloes. I. Nutrient utilization and nitrogen balances on preformed protein diets. TropicalAgriculture (Trinidad) 57:83-90. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1964. The fractionation of carbohydrates in Indian feedstuffs and the digestion of different fractions in the rumina of cattle and buffalo. Journal of Research, Ludhiana 1:56-66.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Misra, R. K., and Ranhoka, G. S. 1969. Influence of energy levels on the utilization of peanut protein-urea nikogen by cattle and buffalo. Journal of Animal Science 28: 107-109.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mullick, D. N. 1964. Review of the investigations on the physiology of Indian buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Saience 17:45-50.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Naga, M. A., El-Shazly, K., Deif, H. I., Abaza, M. A., and El-Faham, R. H. 1975. Relationship between nitrogen balance, digested nitrogen and dry matter digestibility in ruminants. Journal of Animal Science 40(2):366-373.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nangia, O. P., Aggarwal, V. K., and Singh, A. 1972. Studies on the utilization of dietary protein in cattle and buffaloes. Indian Joumal of Dairy &amp;ience 25: 1-5.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nascimento C. N. B., Moura Carvalho, L. O. D., and Lourenco, J. B. 1979. Importdneia do Bufaio para a Pecubria Brasileira. Agricultural Research Center for Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem, Para, Brazil.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nascimento, C. N. B., and Velga, J. B. 1973. Weight gains in stabled buffaloes of the Mediterranean breed. Boletim Tecnico do Instituto de Pesqutsas e Experimentacao Agropecuarias do Norte 58:24-72.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ponnappa, G. G., Nooruddin, M. D., and Raghavan, G. V. 1971. Rate of the passage of food and its relation to digestibility of nutrients in Murrah buffaloes and Hariana cattle. Indian Journal of Animal Science 41:1026-1030.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Punj, M. L., Kochar, A. S., Bhatia, I. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1968. In vitro studies on the cellulolytic activity and production of volatile fatty acids by the inocula obtained from the rumen of Zebu cattle and Murrah buffalo on different feeding regimens. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 38 :325-332.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raghavan, G. V., Kakkar, B., Rao, M. V. N., and Mullick, D. N. 1963. Effects of air temperature and humidity on the metabolism of food nutrients in cattle and buffalo bulls. Annals of Biochemistry and Experimental Medicine 23 :23-28.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ray, S. N., and Mudgal, V. D. 1962. Rumen metabolism studies in cattle and buffalo. Proceedings of the 16th International Dairy Congress, Copenhagen. A:105-l11.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahai, L., Johri, P. N., and Kehar, N. D. 1955. Effect of feeding alkali and water-treated cereal straws on milk yield. Indfan Journal of Veterinary Science 25:201-212.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saini, B. S., and Ray, S. N. 1964. Comparative utilization of coarse fodders in cattle and buffalo. Annual Report of the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schottler, J. H., Boromana, A., and Williams, W. T. 1977. Comparative performance of cattle and buffalo on the Sepik Plains, Papua New Guinea.AustralianJournal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 17(87) :550 -554. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sebastian, L., Mudgal, V. D., and Nair, P. G. 1970. Comparative efficiency of milk production by Sahiwal cattle and Murrah buffalo. Joumal of Animal Science 30:253256.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, C. B., and Mugdal, V. D. 1966. Studies on the lignin and cellulose contents of fedder crops and effect of lignification of cellulose digestion. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 19:100.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sidbu, G. S., Kochar, A. S., and Makkar, G. S. 1967. Effect of supplementing Bajra stalks with lucerne and concentrates and their part replacement by urea on the production of volatile fatty acids in the rumen of cows and buffaloes. Journal of Research, Ludhiana 4:104-110.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, B. K., and Mudgal, V. D. 1967. The comparative utilization of feed nutrients from lucerne hay in buffalo and crossbred zebu heifers. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 20: 142-145.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tandon, R. N.' Sharma, D. D., and Mugdal, V. D. 1972. Effect of feeding urea with different levels of energy on the biochemical changes in the rumen of cows and buffaloes. Indian Journal of Animal Science 42: 174-179  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Upadhyaya, R. S., Singh, U. B., and Ranjhan, S. K. 19i3. Digestibilit of nutrients and VFA concentation in zebu cattle and buffalo calves fed on green cowpea and maize. Indian Journal of Animal Science 43 :5 83-s 88.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Verma, M. L., Sidhu, G. S., and Kochar, A. S. 1968. Effect of frequency on the production of VFA in the rumen by zebu cattle and buffalo. Journal of Research, Ludhiana 5(3) :1 -6.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Verma, M. L., Singh, N., Sidhu, G. S., Kochar, A. S., and Bhatia, I. S. 1970. The in vitro cellulose digestion and VFA production from some of the common Indian feeds using rumen inocula from Zebu cattle and buffalo. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 23:155 -160. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">7 Health</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When compared with other domestic livestock, the water buffalo generally is a healthy animal. This is particularly impressive because most of them live in hot, humid regions that are conducive to disease, and the buffalo is a bovine susceptible to most diseases and parasites that afflict cattle. Although the reasons are not specifically known, the effect of disease on the buffalo and its productivity is often less deleterious than on cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antibiotics and vaccines developed for cattle work equally well on buffaloes. As a result, treatments are available for most of the serious diseases of buffaloes, although some are not very effective for either animal.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The greatest buffalo losses are often among calves. Newborn buffalo calves, like bovine calves, can succumb in large numbers to viruses, bacteria, and poor nutrition. This is largely due to poor management during the calf's frst 2 months of life. For example, as noted previously, villagers in some countries often sell the valuable buffalo milk, thus depriving the calves.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo calf losses are often similar to those of the cattle around them, but the animal's proclivity for wallowing exposes calves to waterborne diseases. Further, a young one occasionally drowns when an adult rolls on top of it.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reactions to some specific diseases and parasites are discussed below.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pasteurellosis- Probably the water buffalo's most serious disease, pasteurellosis, or hemorrhagic septicemia, is caused by the bacterium Pasteurella multocida (P. septica). Buffaloes are more susceptible to it than cattle and die in large numbers where pasteurellosis occurs. A vaccine against pasteurellosis is effective in protecting both buffaloes and cattle; it is cheap and easily made.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tuberculosis- Despite some claims to the contrary, the water buffalo is susceptible to the bovine strain of tuberculosis (Alycobacterium bovis). Scattered reports from different parts of India indicate no difference in the incidence of infection between cattle and buffaloes(Information supplied by S. K. Misra, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India).  Other strains of mycobacteria have been isolated from feral buffaloes and cattle in northern Australia but seem to have little effect on the animals. Tuberculosis occurs among the buffalo herds of the world only because most are kept under unsanitary conditions(In 1905 buffaloes were introduced to Trinidad because the cattle herds (Zebu and srahman breeds) were infected with tuberculosis and, in those days, it was thought that buffaloes were resistant to the disease. Most were housed in muddy, ill-kept pens and forced to eat sugarcane tops off the ground; consequently, in 1949 over 30 percent of the buffaloes reacted to the tuberculin test. (The cattle herds had 80 percent reactors.) Tuberculosis was eliminated in Trinidad's buffaloes by improving the sanitary conditions: installing concrete floors and mangers and cleaning the pens regularly. This, together with regular tuberculin testing and removal of reactors, led to such a dramatic improvement that buffalo tuberculosis is now virtually unknown. -Information supplied by S. K. Bennett.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brucellosis-Buffaloes and cattle are equally susceptible to brucellosis. Although seldom reported as a problem elsewhere, brucellosis in Venezuela is increasing more rapidly among buffaloes than among cattle. In India the disease is no more prevalent among buffaloes than among cattle.  As many as 57 percent of some Venezuelan herds are infected with the disease. It is a frequent cause of abortion in buffaloes. Serologic procedures and measures developed for the control of the disease in cattle are also effective means of curbing this infection in buffaloes. (Consumption of raw milk or contact with aborted fetuses may cause undulant fever in humans.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mastitis- Among milking buffaloes mastitis is a problem as it is in dairy cows, but to a lesser extent. It is likely to increase, however, as the milk production per individual buffalo is increased. The bacteria that cause mastitis in the buffalo are similar to those in cattle. Treatment and control programs used for cattle are equally effective for buffaloes.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Diseases -Among the epizootic diseases, rinderpest and piroplasmosis seem to affect buffaloes as much as cattle. Foot-and-mouth disease also affects buffaloes, but to a lesser degree than cattle, producing smaller lesions and having a lower incidence. In northern Australia buffaloes deliberately infected with bovine pleuropneumonia bacteria exhibited slight fever, but the disease never appeared. No naturally occurring eases have been reported in buffaloes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ticks -Buffaloes are notably resistant, although not immune, to ticks. In a tick-infested area of northern Australia only 2 engorged female ticks were found on 13 adult buffaloes during a 2-year test. Accordingly, healthy buffaloes are not commonly affected by diseases borne by ticks nor are the hides damaged by their bites. Since ticks are rarely found on buffaloes, anaplasmosis, theileriasis, and babesiosis, which are tick-borne, have little effect on buffaloes in the field. (Buffaloes and cattle are equally susceptible, however, if inoculated with East Coast fever, a form of theileriasis.) This is important because tick infestations in cattle are particularly troublesome in the tropics and the pesticides used to control them are becoming ineffective as the ticks develop resistance. The pesticides are also becoming expensive.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The basis of the buffalo's tick resistance is not known, but wallowing and rubbing may play a role in it; animals kept in experimental concrete pens in Australia have developed heavy tick infestation. (rials carried out on Magnetic Island by R. H. V/harton, Commonwealth Scientiflc and Industrial Research Organisation, Townsville, Queensland, Australia). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p68to69.png"></center><br>
+ Table 6 Some Infections and Parasites of Buffalo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Screwworm- Larvae of the screwworm fly (Callitroge species), a major pest of livestock in Central and South America and some other tropical areas, do not affect adult water buffalo. In Venezuelan areas where cattle (Zebu type) are severely infested, adult water buffaloes are virtually free of screwworm larvae and the umbilicus of newborn calves seldom if ever becomes infected. ( Information supplied by A. Ferrer). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The same is true in Papua New Guinea. It is thought that the mud plaster produced by wallowing suffocates the larvae, but in India screwworms do not affect water buffaloes either, and there they wallow in fairly clear water and the farmer usually washes them off. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roundworm- The heavy losses of young buffalo calves throughout the world are caused, in large measure, by the roundworm Toxocara vitulorum. The calves seem more susceptible than mature animals and they become infected before birth or within 24 hours after birth through the mother's colostrum. The roundworm is the most serious buffalo parasite and in untreated calves the small intestine can get packed with worms to the point of complete occlusion. Although huge numbers of calves die each year, anthelmintic drugs that control roundworms are highly effective and widely available.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The adult water buffalo appears to have a high degree of resistance to strongyloid nematodes. Being such excellent converters of rough fodders they do not suffer the nutritional deficiency and the resulting liability to these roundworms experienced seasonally by cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liver Fluke- During wallowing, water buffaloes can easily become infected with the waterborne infective stages of liver fluke (Fasciola gigantica). Although the number of flukes in a buffalo may be phenomenally high, no clinical signs of the disease are usually evident. It seems likely that the resulting liver damage reduces the growth and the work and milk production of buffaloes more than is generally appreciated.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trypanosomiasis- The water buffalo is susceptible to trypanosomiasis and is reportedly more susceptible than cattle to Trypanosoma evansi.Experience with the animal in Africa is limited, but trypanosomiasis may be the reason why Egypt is the only African country that has traditionally employed water buffalo.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Parasites- The wallow and its resulting mud cake seem to protect water buffalo from many biting flies, but the main ectoparasite in Australia and Southeast Asia is the buffalo fly (Siphona spp.). Pediculosis, caused by the sucking louse (Hematopinus tuberculatus), occurs widely among buffalo, and sarcoptic mange (Sarcoptes scabiei var. bubalus) is a serious disease, especially among calves and during dry seasons when wallowing opportunities are restricted. The lung worm Dictyocaulus ririparus thrives in warm, humid areas and sometimes infects buffaloes heavily, although its outward manifestations are rare.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barlow, J. N. 1977. Toxicology and safety evaluation of Phosvel to Egyptian water buffalo. Pages 517-522 in: Pesticide Management and Insecticide Resistance, edited by D. L. Watson and A. W. A. Brown. Academic Press, New York, New York, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhowmik, M. K., and Iyer, P. K. R. 1977. Studies on the pathology of chronic lesions in the mammary glands of buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). 1. Actinomycosis, nocardiosis and lesions simulating tuberculosis. Indian Veterinary Journal 54(5):342-346.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhowmik, M. K., Singh, S. P., and Iyer, P. K. R. 1977. Studies on chronic mastisis in buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). lndian Journal of Animal Health 16(2) :157-160.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1974. Aspects of disease. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dhar, S., Bhattacharyulu, Y., and Gautam, O. P. 1973. Susceptibility of Indian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) to Theileria annulata infection. Haryana Agricultural University Journal of Research 3(1):27-30.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwivedi, S. K., Mallick, K. P., and Malhotra, M. N. 1979. Babesiosis: clinical cases in Indian water buffaloes. Indian Veterinary Journal 56(4):333-335.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Griffiths, R. B. 1974. Parasites and parasitic diseases. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hafez, S. M., and Krauss, H. 1979. Detection of antibodies against some respiratory pathogens in the sera of domestic animals in Egypt. Bulletin of Animal Health and Production in Africa 27(3):209-214.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ho, T. M. 1976. Animal disease control program in Republic of China for better animal production. Korean Journal of Animal Science 18(4):317-321.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iannelli, D. 1978. Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis Arnee) allotypes: identification of a multiple allelic system. Animal Blood Groups and Biochemical Genetics 9(2):105113.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kapur, M. P., and Singh, R. P. 1977. Diagnosis of mastitis: a comparative study of four indirect tests.Haryana Veterinarian 16(2):69-73.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leue, A. 1971. Buffaloes in Nepal. Tierartliche Umschau 26(4):173-178.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohan, R. N. 1968. Diseases and parasites of buffaloes. I. Viral, mycoplasmal, and rickettsial diseases. II. Bacterial and fungal diseases. III. Parasitic and miscellaneous diseases. Veterinary Bulletin 38:567-576, 647-659, 735-756.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murthy, D. K., and Sharma, S. K. 1974. Studies on reactivity and immunogenecity of cell-culture rinderpest vaccine in different species of ruminants. Indian Journal of Animal Science 44(6):359-365.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Agustin, F. 1973. Important diseases and parasites of Carabaos. Philippine Journal of Nutrition 26(2):68-79.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schneider, C. R., Kitikoon, V., Sornmani, S., and Thiachantra, S. 1975. Mekong schistosomiasis. III. A parasitological survey of domestic water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) on Khong Island, Laos. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 69(2):227-232.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, K. N. S., Jain, D. K,, and Noble, D. 1975. Calf mortality in pure and crossbred Zebu cattle and Murrah buffaloes reared artificially from birth. Animal Production 20(2):207-211.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, S. K., Banegee, D. P., and Gautam, O. P. 1978. Anaplasma marginale infection in Indian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Indian Journal of Animal Health 17(2): 105-110.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shaw, J. J., and Lainson, R. 1972. Trypanosoma vivax in Brazil. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 66(1):25-32.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shukla, R. R., and Singh, G. 1972. Studies on tuberculosis amongst Indian buffaloes. Indian Veterinary Journal 49(2):119-123.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soni, J. L. 1978. Suitability of different serological tests for diagnosis of brucellosis in buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). Indian Journal of Animal Science 48(12) :873-881. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tantawi, H. H., Fayed, A. A., Shalaby, M. A., and Skalinsky, E. I. 1979. Isolation, cultivation and characterization of poxviruses from Egyptian water buffaloes .Journal of the Egyptian Veterinary Medical Association 37(4):15-23.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thomson, D. 1977. Diseases of water buffalo in the Northern Territory of Australia. Australian Veterinary Practioner 7(1):50-52.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young, P. L. 1979. Infection of water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) with bovine ephemeral fever virus. Australian Veterinary Journal 55(7):349-350. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">8 Reproduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo has a reputation for being a sluggish breeder, but the average animal is so poorly fed that its reproductive performance is unrepresentative of its capabilities. Without reasonable nutrition the animals cannot reach puberty as early in life or reproduce as regularly as their physiology or genetic capability would normally allow.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Actually, adequately nourished buffaloes reach puberty at about the same age as cattle, as early as 18 months of age in buffalo bulls. In northern Australia Swamp females have conceived even as early as 14 months of age and feral buffaloes routinely conceive at 16 months of age. In the herd at Punjab Agricultural University in Ludhiana, India, 11 River buffalo heifers showed estrus at ages less than 18.5 months and a few came into heat when less than 15 months old. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo also can calve at an age comparable to that of cattle. At the Ain Shams University in Egypt a well-fed Egyptian buffalo herd of several hundred animals has an average age at first calving of 27 months, 22 days(Information supplied by M. El Ashry. Because of nutritional uncertainties, El Ashry and his colleagues believe that body weight is a better indicator of sexual preparedness than age is. These researchers at Ain Shams University recommend mating heifers when they weigh 365 kg no matter what their age. Research at Punjab Agricultural University shows that buffalo heifers can be bred when they weigh over 270 kg and manifest estrus).Most animals in the Punjab Agricultural University River buffalo herd calved before 35 months, one at 28.3 months.! In one Venezuelan herd almost all heifers 20-24 months old were pregnant; virtually all calved before age 38 months, most by 30 months, and one at age 23 months. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In trials in Queensland, Australia, and in Papua New Guinea buffaloes produced more calves over a 3-year period than the cattle tested with them. In the hot, humid Sepik Plains in northern Papua New Guinea it was noticed that female buffaloes (Swamp breed) came into estrus even while they were losing weight because of inadequate nutrition, whereas cattle did not. Under these stressful conditions the buffalo calves also reached sexual maturity earlier and the buffaloes had a higher calving percentage and a shorter calving interval because they came back into estrus more quickly than cattle(Information supplied by J. Schottler. The age at first calving of more than 60 nutritionally poor buffaloes was 38 months in one herd and 45 months for Brahman cross cattle) . Similar observations have been made in Florida, Trinidad, the Brazilian Amazon, Venezuela, and elsewhere. Although these are exceptions to the normal observations in Asia, where buffaloes seem to breed more slowly than cattle, they do demonstrate the buffalo's potential for improved breeding.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estrus in buffalo cows usually lasts about 24 hours, but duration varies and may range from 11 to 72 hours. It occurs on an average 21-day cycle. Determination of when a cow is in estrus is difficult because often the animal shows few outward signs of "heat." This increases the chances of missing a cycle, especially for artificial insemination. Unclean surroundings, poor nutrition, and poor management, cause a high death rate among calves; this also contributes to the buffalo's often low reproductive rate.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many areas, calving is seasonal. This seems to be largely due to changes in nutrition. It may also be caused by heat stress, in either males or females, which results in a low breeding rate during the hot season. However, when buffalo cows are well fed, they come into estrus and will breed in any season.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many matings take place at night and are therefore unobserved. In one set of pregnancy diagnoses in northern Australia, the buffalo's conception rate (81 percent) was higher than that of the Brahman crossbreeds (70 percent) they were with. In India, artificial insemination of water buffaloes began in the late 1950s. Deep-frozen semen is now available and its use is spreading. Overall conception rates of 70-80 percent are obtained. It is estimated that some 100,000 buffaloes are now being artificially inseminated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo's gestation period is about one month longer and is more variable than that of cattle. Whereas cattle give birth after about 280 days (Angus, 279, Holstein, 279-280, Brown Swiss, 286), buffaloes take 300334 days (average 310) or roughly 10 months and 10 days (differences between breeds are unknown). In Punjab, India, River buffaloes have been observed to come into estrus as early as 40 days after calving. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nonetheless, only under uncommon circumstances can a buffalo cow produce a calf each year. In one herd of 800 cows in Venezuela the average female buffalo over age 4 produces 2 calves every 3 years. In response to a recent questionnaire, the majority of Indonesian farmers estimated that the calving rate was between 3 and 4 calves in 5 years. A few claimed a calf a year, some only 1 or 2 calves In 5 years. In Florida it has been noted that some buffalo cows having just calved became pregnant more quickly than cattle, so that a calf may indeed be produced each year. Regular yearly breeding has been noted also in northern Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The incidence of abortion, dystocia, retained placenta, and other parturition problems in buffaloes is similar to that in cattle. Twinning is very rare; probably no more than 0.01 percent of buffalo pregnancies produce twins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Preliminary results in northern Australia indicate that weaning can be carried out as late as 12 months of age without any effect on conception time of the buffalo dam.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhattacharya, P. 1974. Reproduction. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chauhan, F. S., Singh, N., and Singh, M. 1977. Involution of uterus and cervix in buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 30(4):286-291.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eusibio, A. N. 1975. Breeding, management and feeding practices of buffaloes in the Philippines. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Animal Production and Health Paper. 1979. Buffalo Reproduction and Artificial Insemination. Proceedings of the Seminar Sponsored by FAO/SIDA/Government of India, held at National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132001-India, December 4-15, 1978. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghanem, Y. S. 1955a. Environmental causes of variation in the length of gestation of buffaloes. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 25 :301-311.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghanem, Y. S. 1955b. Genetic causes of variation in the length of gestation of buffaloes. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 25:307-311.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health, E., and Gupta, R. 1976. Ultrastructure of water buffalo (Bos bubalis) spermatozoa. Zentralblatt fuer Veterinaerrnedizin 23(2):106-120.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu, C. H. 1978. The preliminary results of crossbreeding of buffaloes in China. Research Institute for Animal Science of Kwangsi, People's Republic of China.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matharoo, J. S., and Singh, M. 1980. Revivability of buffalo spermatozoa after deepfreezing the semen using various extenders. Zentralblatt fuer Veterinaermedizin 27(5): 385-391.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rao, A. V. N., Murthy, T. S., and Dutt, K. L. 1979. Effect of lunar cyclicity on oestrus rhythmicity in the Indian water buffalo. Livestock Advisor 4(7):29-30.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rawal, C. V. S. 1978. A study on correlations of weight of pituitary gland and reproductive organs in males of Indian water buffalo. Indian Journal of Heredity 10(3):11-12.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977. Livestock in Indonesia. Research Report No. 1. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia. (In English and Indonesian.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roy, A. 1974. Observations on the physiology of reproduction. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. CockrilL Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahai, R., and Singhal, R. A. 1977. The sex chromatin profile of water buffaloes of Murrah breed. Indian Journal of Animal &amp;Science 11(2):63-67.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, A. 1978. Studies on the process of spermatogenesis and epididymal sperm reserve in water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Thesis Abstracts, Haryana Agricultural University 4(4):331.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, M., Matharoo, J. S., and Chauhan, F. S. 1980. Preliminary fertility results with frozen buffalo semen in Tris extender. Theriogenology 13(3):191-194.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, N., Chauhan, F. S., and Singh, M. 1979. Postpartum ovarian activity and fertility in buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Sefence 32(2): 134-139.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sunkaporn Ratanadilok Na Puket. 1975. The improvement of buffalo production through breeding and management under Thailand conditions. In: Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Takkar, P. O., Chauhan, F. S., Tiwana, M. S., and Singh, M. 1979. Breeding behaviour of buffalo cows. Indian Veterinary Journal 56: 168-172.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toelihere, M. R. 1975. Physiology of reproduction and artificial insemination of water buffaloes. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1968. Incidence of calving and birth weights of domesticated buffalo in the Northern Territory. Proceedings of the Australian Society for Animal Productlon 7: 144-147.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1979. The water buffalo in Australia: reproductive and parent-offspring behaviour of buffalo. Australian Wildlife Research 6:265-287. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">9 Management</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are adaptable and are managed in many ways. In general, they are raised like cattle. But in some operations they must be handled differently. This chapter highlights these differences.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Millions of water buffaloes are managed in "backyards" in Asia. They exist on the resources of small holdings. Management and expenditures are minimal. Care of the family buffalo is usually entrusted to children, old people, or women not engaged in other farm duties; the buffalo allows them to be useful and productive.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo fits the resources available on the farm, but it is also an urban animal. Thousands of herds of 2-20 buffaloes may be found in the cities and towns of India, Pakistan, and Egypt-all fed, managed, and milked in the streets.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, the buffalo has important qualities as a feedlot animal; it can be herded and handled with relative ease because of its placid nature. The Anand Cooperative in India's Gujarat State, which daily contributes thousands of gallons of milk to Operation Flood (the world's largest nutrition project), involves more than 150,000 Surti buffaloes that are fed, managed, and milked by their owners under feedlot-like conditions in their villages. Many of Italy's 100,000 buffaloes are maintained under similar conditions.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes can also be managed on rangelands. In Brazil, Venezuela, Trinidad, the United States, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and elsewhere there is rising interest in raising buffalo beef on the range. The production practices for raising them are similar to those used for range cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes in the humid tropics must be able to cool off. Shade trees are desirable, and although a wallow is not essential, it is probably the most effective way the animal has of coping with heat. Alternatively, water showers may be provided to wet down the animals 3-5 times during the hottest part of the day.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are intelligent animals. Young ones learn patterns quickly and often are reluctant to change their habits. Feral animals-even those born in the wild-tame down after a week or two in a fenced enclosure to the point where many can be handled, haltered, and hand fed(In one example, loo feral buffalo were captured in Northern Territory, Australia. With in 14 days all the animals-males and females, young and old-had become docile and amenable to handling. -Information supplied by D. G. Tulloch) . Among feral herds of northern Australia it has been observed that buffaloes have clans and families. A female calf seems to remain with its family and mother for many years (possibly for life). A male calf stays until it is about 2 years old, when it is driven from the group by an adult bull. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has also been noted in northern Australia that free-ranging buffaloes instinctively select clean water areas to drink from, other areas to wallow in, and still others as "toilet areas." In addition, China's buffaloes reportedly are being "toilet trained" to defecate only at specific sites to avoid contaminating waterways with schistosome eggs.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another interesting observation from northern Australia is that most buffalo dams readily adopt a calf that has been orphaned by the death of its mother. In fact, females will allow several calves to nurse (including calves of other mothers and sometimes even adults).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are also self-reliant. For several months each year in Vietnam and Malaysia, for instance, they are turned loose in the forests to fend for themselves.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Provision of adequate fencing is one of the great problems of buffalo management. The  animals have strong survival instincts and if feed runs short, such as in the dry season,  they will break through fences that would deter cattle who would remain and starve. They  will also break through fences if their family unit is split up. Barriers must be stronger  than those used for cattle and the wires closer together and lower to the ground because  buffaloes lift fences up with their horns rather than trample them down. In northern  Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Costa Rica it has been found that buffaloes are  particularly sensitive to electric fences (a single wire is all that is needed), and in Brazil a  special suspension fence has been devised(Moura Carvalho et al., 1979). Both of these  seem to be cheap and efficient answers to the fencing problem.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are easily handled from horseback and easily worked through a corral.  Actually, because of their docility they can be mustered on foot, even on ranges where  cattle require horses. Unless they come from different areas they tend to herd together  and can be mustered like sheep.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the major management adjustments to be made by cattlemen is understanding  and capitalizing on the buffalo's placid nature. Buffaloes are naturally timid and startle  easily; they must be handled quietly and calmly. Rough handling, wild riding, and loud  shouting make handling them more difficult and training them much harder.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village buffaloes are led and managed by a ring threaded through the septum between  the nostrils. The technique is frequently applied crudely and cruelly, often resulting in a  ripped septum.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The identification of individual buffaloes is difficult. Fire brands do not remain legible on  the skin for long. Cryobranding (freeze branding) is more durable. Most types of ear tags  are not very successful; the numbers wear off and mud covers up the tag's color. In  northern Australia ear tattooing has been the most successful identification technique,  with tattoos remaining legible for at least 8 years(Between 1958 and 1962 hundreds of  Australian buffalo were shipped on the hoof to the meat markets in Hong Kong without  trouble, despite crowded shipboard conditions and the long sea voyage. But in 1962 one  roughly treated bull went berserk in Hong Kong and killed a handler, and the Hong Kong  authorities stopped the trade as a result, although the problem was really one of  mismanagement. Buffalo have since been sent by air from Australia to Venezuela,  Nigeria, and Papua New Guinea and by barge to Papua New Guinea. No handling  problems have been experienced en route).  When they pasture together, cattle and  buffaloes coexist satisfactorily. They segregate themselves into their own groups and do  not interfere with one another. The buffaloes, however, usually dominate the cattle and  tend to monopolize the areas with the best feed supply.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feed troughs and mineral boxes used for cattle are suitable for buffaloes, but chutes and  crushes must be widened to accommodate the buffalo's broader body and, when  necessary, the Swamp buffalo's greater horn spread. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are powerful  swimmers. In Brazil they have been known to escape by swimming down the Amazon River. An unusual management difficulty is caused by piranha in the rivers and swamps of Venezuela. In one herd of 100 heifer buffaloes, 40 have lost all or part of a teat to these voracious fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The horns of water buffaloes are seldom removed or prevented from growing, a  testament to the animal's docility. (When questioned, one Thai villager said that he wouldn't  allow it because it would be a disgrace to the buffalo.) However, the animals can be  dehorned as calves in the same manner as cattle. They are then easier to handle In  chutes and cause less accidental injury to neighboring animals, handlers, walls, and  trees.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benya, E. G. 1972. Cattle and buffalo production in Vietnam. Dairy Science Mimeo  Report, Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, Gainesville, Florida, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1974. Management, conservation and use. In: The Husbandry and Health  of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of  the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">De Boer, A. J. 1976. A further report on the Taiwan livestock industry: general policy  conclusions and further research needs. Journal of Agricultural Economics 19:116129.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lin, C. H. 1975. The breeding, management and feeding of water buffaloes in Taiwan. In:  The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon  Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei,  Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McDowell, R. E. 1972. Improvement of Livestock Production in Warm Climates. W. H.  Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moura Carvalho, L. O. D., LouIenco, J. B., Nascimento, C. N. B., and Costa, N. A. 1979.  Cerca de Contencao pare Bubalinos e Bovinos. Comunicado Tecnico No. 28,  Agricultural Research Center for the Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem, Para, Brazil.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rufener, W. H. 1975. Management and productive performance of water buffalo in  northeast Thailand. In: The Asiatic TVater Buffalo. Proceedings of an International  Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer  Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1978. The water buffalo in Australia: grouping and home range. Australian  Wildlife Research 5:327-354.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1979. Redomestication of water buffaloes in the Northern Territory of  Australia. Animal Regulation Studies 2(1):5-20.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">10 Environmental Effects</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The grazing and wallowing habits of water buffaloes may have unexpected consequences when the animals are introduced to new, perhaps fragile environments. The presence of several thousand feral buffaloes on the coastal plains of northern Australia, for example, has become a very emotional issue among Australian environmentalists, some of whom foretell the complete destruction of the environment if the uncontrolled feral herds are not destroyed( It is not at all clear, however, that the buffaloes (which have existed in the area for 150 years) are causing the observed environmental degradation. Other possibilities include: fire, climatic stress, overgrazing, and a variety of farming, hunting, and other human activities, especially the use of four-wheel-drive vehicles. Thousands of wild pigs also share the area, along with crayfish that burrow into and weaken the levees that keep out the sea, something for which the buffaloes have been blamed). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil Compaction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes have larger hooves than cattle of comparable size and thus they compact the soil less. But buffaloes often live in damp, boggy areas where their feet may compact soft soils. Also, buffaloes are creatures of habit and, when able, they set up fixed points for drinking, feeding, defecating, wallowing, and sleeping. Between the points they wear sharply defined trails in the vegetation and soil.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wallowing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Possibly the water buffalo's greatest environmental limitation is its propensity to build wallows. In hot climates every buffalo will wallow at some time during the heat of the day if water is available. When they can, buffaloes will make their own wallows, enlarging a mud puddle by rolling in it or even using their heads to flip water out of a drinking trough and muddying the ground nearby.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pasture in the immediate area of the wallow is usually damaged by trampling and waterholes may become fouled, but buffaloes return to the same wallow day after day and do not build new ones indiscriminately. Thus, the muddied area is not a large proportion of the location in which they graze unless a large number of animals are confined in a small space(At Gainesville, Florida (possibly because of its subtropical but not hot climate), a herd of 52 buffaloes concentrated in a one-hectare field did not attempt to build a wallow at ale -Information supplied by H. Popenoe.) . In addition, man-made wallows can be dug at safe sites and the animals will use them. The problem of wallowing is therefore not generally a serious one.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Damage to Waterways</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because buffaloes often live near and enter water freely, they may cause erosion in ditches, river banks, canals, and levees. Also, their wallowing muddies the water, which may adversely affect some fish species and reduce the growth of algae. Buffaloes commonly urinate and defecate in the water, possibly creating a pollution hazard, although in most situations this contamination is likely to be minor.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The presence of this herbivore in natural waterways may reduce the number of water plants. Some plants are trampled, some eaten, and some underwater species are suppressed because the muddied water transmits less light. This (and several other of the buffalo's environmental effects) can be turned to advantage (see picture page 85) when, as often occurs, aquatic plants grow out of control and become obnoxious weeds.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Damage to Pastures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes have very strong jaws, and when forage is sparse they graze it close to the ground; this overgrazing can destroy a pasture. In addition, they eat virtually all available plant material (including many species that cattle shun), so that a densely stocked pasture can become completely defoliated. In northern Australia it has been found that, with time, buffaloes become accustomed to a given pasture, and unless fences are strong they will instinctively return to it until the forage has been depleted.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo's inclination to eat many plants can be used to improve the environment and suppress growth of coarse weedy species of plants. On the Sepik Plains in Papua New Guinea buffaloes are being used to graze and suppress sedges (Cyperus species), as a result, the more desirable Paspalum species are beginning to appear. At Mount Bundy in northern Australia native pastures are being improved on a commercial scale by overstocking them with buffaloes. The animals reduce or completely eliminate spear grass and other weeds-even those with thorns-and thus foster the survival and growth of introduced forage legumes such as stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis). In Sri Lanka buffaloes have been used to graze out the vigorous tropical grass Imperata cylindrica.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Damage to Trees</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes instinctively rub against trees (and walls and fences), eagerly browse leaves, and sometimes nibble bark, so they damage trees more so than cattle. In northern Australia it has been noted that each "family herd" of feral buffaloes selects one or two trees for rubbing against so that the rubbing damage is confined to them. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rajapske, G., 1950. Death of illuk. Ceylon Coconut Quarterly, 1:7-9.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1969. Home range in feral water buffalo. Australian Journal of Zoology 17:143-152.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1970. Seasonal movement and distribution of the sexes in the water buffaloes in the Northern Territory. Australian Journal of Zoology 18:399-414.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1975. Buffalo in the northern swamplands. Proceedings III of the World Conference on Animal Production. Theme 1, Paper 7.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1977. Some aspects of the ecology of the water buffalo in the Northern Territory. In: The Australian buffalo-a collection of papers, edited by B. D. Ford and D. G. Tulloch. Technical Bulletin No. 18, Department of the Northern Territory, Animal Industry and Agriculture Branch, Australian Government Printing Service, Canberra, Australia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">11 Recommendations and Research Needs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has outlined the water buffalo's apparent merits, but most of the statements made about the animal are based on empirical observations. Many of its most exciting and potentially valuable features have not been subjected to the careful scrutiny needed to confirm their validity.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the fact that there are 130 million or more water buffalo in the world, research on the animal is scanty and limited to only a few situations and sites. Quantitative information (especially for the various breeds), tests, trials, and comparison studies are needed.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The research to be done on the water buffalo offers scientific challenges that can be undertaken in laboratories and experiment stations in most parts of the world and in many disciplines: breeding, physiology, microbiology, veterinary science, nutrition, food science, dairy science, and other fields. Water buffalo research is an area worthy of financial support by philanthropic institutions and international development agencies concerned with problems of food and resource shortages. The dominant role of the buffalo in the rural economies of Egypt and Asian countries offers the opportunity for buffalo research that can bring improvements quickly and easily to the rural poor. For other countries the water buffalo is an untapped resource, and they should test its productivity on native pasturelands, marshy lowlands, hot and humid areas where cattle do not thrive, and on areas prone to cattle diseases and parasites that are difficult to control.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specific recommendations follow.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Comparison with Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal scientists worldwide should undertake trials to compare growth rate, feeding, nutrition, breeding, and other aspects of buffalo and cattle performance.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle and water buffaloes are obviously different animals. Each has its own limitations and advantages, and each deserves to be studied in its own right. Perhaps the quickest way for animal scientists to experience for themselves the merits of the water buffalo is to conduct their own comparative trials with buffaloes and cattle in their areas. The results will provide local guidance and will help extend recognition of the buffalo's value, especially under difficult conditions where it may exceed cattle in productivity and profitability.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Germ Plasm Preservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Urgent action is needed, especially in Southeast Asia, to preserve and protect outstanding buffalo specimens.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries (Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia, for example) buffalo populations are decreasing dramatically. High demands for meat are causing slaughter at younger and younger ages. Much of the meat is exported to restaurants and markets in Singapore and Hong Kong. Unfortunately, the largest and quickest growing animals are often selected for slaughter. This results in the loss of a major genetic resource, which is compounded by the practice of castrating the largest males to make them more tractable as work animals. Ten years ago in Thailand it was common to find buffalo weighing 1,000 kg; now it is hard to find 750-kg specimens. A similar situation exists in the Philippines where there is no dearth of good breeding stock, but butchers are paying such high prices that farmers are selling even quality animals for slaughter. In northern Australia, where some of the bulls weigh almost 1,200 kg, the largest animals are being shot for meat, hides, pet food, or sportsmen's trophies,  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A large number of high-yielding buffaloes are taken each year to big cities in India (for example, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras) for milking. At the end of lactation many are returned to the villages, but many others are slaughtered, rather than being fed and retired. This creates a huge loss of valuable germ plasm. In many locations most of the largest animals have already been lost. Only urgent action will protect those remaining.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Shipment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo quarantine stations should be organized in "disease-free" areas to develop buffalo germ plasm pools for international exchange.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The importation of buffaloes presents difficulties for any government, researcher, or farmer wishing to obtain the animals for the first time or for breeding purposes. Quarantine laws make it extremely difficult and expensive to exchange genetic resources.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia is one of the few nations where there are large numbers of water buffalo in an area free of the major animal diseases. Papua New Guinea, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria, Colombia, Venezuela, and other nations have taken advantage of this and have  imported Australian buffaloes. But Australian herds are all Swamp buffaloes(The island  of Guam is also a safe source of Swamp animals, although the feral herds there are  depleted, only 300 or 400 animals were left on Guam in 1978) and so breeding centers  should be set up also (in Sri Lanka and Italy perhaps) where importers can obtain  River-type (including Mediterranean) buffaloes.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetic Improvement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide efforts should be made to select superior buffalo bulls and cows for breeding.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Performance testing, leading to the mass selection of superior animals, deserves high  priority. Virtually all buffalo breeding is haphazard and unplanned. Village animals graze  together and matings are usually not con" trolled, observed, or recorded. Thus, the full  genetic potential of the water buffalo is not being realized.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A massive selection program is needed to bring about genetic progress. For each breed,  bulls and cows with the potential for improving production of meat and milk and  increasing draft power should be identified and used for breed improvement. However,  the wide variations between the characteristics of individual animals may make  exceptional genetic advances difficult to achieve quickly.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Important traits for culling and selection include behavior, temperament, reproduction  rate, easy milk letdown, average daily gain in weight or weight at a given age, carcass  quality (for example, large hindquarters), and milk production, as well as strength and  endurance for work.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossbreeding of Swamp and River buffaloes is a potentially important route to genetic  improvement. The progeny reportedly show hybrid vigor (heterosis) in milking ability,  fertility, meat production, and working ability. Infusing genes for high milk production into  the Swamp buffalo, now used mainly for meat and work, creates the potential for a  triple-purpose animal.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The use of artificial insemination and deep-frozen semen should be a major help in  upgrading the buffalo. Moreover, the transport of live embryos (rather than neonatal  animals) for implantation in the uterus of surrogate mothers could be important for water  buffalo. It seems unlikely, however, that buffalo embryos can be implanted in cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most genetic selections should be made in Asia where 97 percent of the world's water  buffaloes are located. The improvements will depend on how accurately bulls can be  identified, selected, and mated. Performance and  progeny testing is sorely needed at research stations as well as "on the farm." Governments should also institute bull-loan or artificial-insemination programs as a means for upgrading the village herds.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Comparison of Breeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The relative merits of the various buffalo breeds should be determined,  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little or no information is available on the comparative performance of the different buffalo breeds in various environments, especially the 17 or so River breeds in the Subcontinent and the Egyptian and Mediterranean breeds. Comparison trials of the breeds and breed-crosses are needed in a wide range of climates from the humid tropical to the temperate. In addition, the cytogenetic, immunogenetic, and inheritance relationships of breeds should be clarified.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel encourages countries such as India and Pakistan that have a number of buffalo breeds (for example, Murrah, Surti, Jafarabadi, Mehsana, and Nili/Ravi) to set up experimental farms for scientific reproduction of superior specimens. Substantial research benefits as well as profitable economic returns from using and exporting some of them would be realized.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meat and Milk Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and demonstration is needed to foster the widespread consumption of buffalo meat and milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk, cheese, and other dairy products are considered outstanding foods in all locations where they are produced. Taste tests so far have indicated that buffalo meat is similar or slightly superior to beef produced under the same conditions.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A specific need is to feed the male calves and use them for meat. Many are now slaughtered at a young age and light weight. Research that provides either a partial or complete milk substitute for feeding calves would have a major impact on meat supplies and farmer income. Diets being developed for calves in Egypt incorporate such ingredients as whey, soybean meal, corn flour (corn starch), and yeast.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other research topics include:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The effect of climate, thermoregulation, and wallowing on meat and milk production;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The meat characteristics of each of the breeds and the differences between them,  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Milk production and quality for each of the breeds;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Adapting buffaloes to machine milking by genetic selection or by designing new milking  machinery;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Developing new or improved milk products (such as yogurt, cottage cheese, and hard  cheese); and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Banking genetically superior germ plasm for later use.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Work Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel recommends research on new harnesses to replace the omnipresent yoke.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As already noted, the wooden yoke, which has not changed in 1,500 years or more, is an  inefficient harness. Research is needed to adapt horse collars, hames, breast straps,  and other devices for the buffalo. Because much of the farm power in Asia comes from  buffaloes, the impact of improved harness could be dramatic, widespread, and of  enormous value to millions of small farmers there. If the experiments in Thailand  described earlier are an indication, the farm power in Asia could be increased by 25  percent overnight with the adoption of an improved harness. The buffalo will continue to  be the small farmer's "tractor," so the benefits from improved harnesses are likely to  continue for a long time.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are 13 million buffalo and bullock carts in India and 20 million Indians are engaged  in the business of road haulage. Application of appropriate technology would eliminate  the archaic wooden wheels, axles, and heavy carts and substitute lightweight carts,  perhaps with such features as metal wheels, pneumatic tires, ball bearings, and fixed  axles. With such improvements, loads might be increased and hauled over longer  distances at greater speed and with less work.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trials in New Areas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Testing of water buffalo production is needed in many areas where the animal is not  known.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A seemingly adaptable animal, the water buffalo should be productive throughout the  earth's warm temperate, subtropical, and tropical zones. Different breeds may adapt  differently to extremes of heat, humidity, and cold, and this needs further study.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United States, the Mediterranean Basin of Europe, and some of the more temperate  European areas like southern England are worth considering for water buffalo trials. In the Southern Hemisphere River buffaloes are already found as far south as 25° latitude in Brazil's Sao Paulo State (where large herds are raised); an experimental herd of Swamp buffaloes has performed outstandingly in Brisbane, Australia (27°S); and there are a few Swamp buffalo in South Australia and Victoria (35°S or more). There is good reason to believe that water buffaloes may be productive in all of the states in Australia, New Zealand's North Island, South Africa, Argentina, and other warm temperate areas of the Southern Hemisphere.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biggest void in the water buffalo map is virtually the entire continent of Africa. It seems a paradox that the buffalo-Egypt's most important domestic animal-is not farmed commercially in any other African country. Experimental herds have been introduced to Nigeria, Uganda, Mozambique, Tanzania, and other countries in the past, and the initial success of three of them is described in Appendix A.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo, with its tolerance for heat, disease, poor-quality feed, and mismanagement, appears to have outstanding promise for African nations such as Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco, Senegal, and The Gambia as well as all nations south of the Sahara (Nambia perhaps being an exception).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More specific aspects of environmental tolerance deserving research attention are:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The physiology of the buffalo's response to heat, cold, humidity, and other environmental factors;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The effect of climate on growth, reproduction, milk production, health, respiration rate, behavior, and carcass quality; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Measurement of the calorific efficiency and chemical composition of all breeds of buffaloes and cattle to determine the environments best suited to each breed.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite observations of the buffalo's ability to utilize poor quality forage, research is needed to learn how the animal does it.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This research should:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establish the buffalo's nutrient requirements by breed, sex, age, and weight for maintenance, growth, reproduction, lactation, and work;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Determine voluntary forage consumption and the nutrient utilization of different forages in various stages of maturity;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Examine rumen microbiology and fermentation, the rate of digestion, production, and absorption of volatile fatty acids produced in the rumen, and utilization of energy, nitrogen, vitamins, and minerals; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Develop milk replacements for early~weaned calves;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Observe the current village-level feeding of low~uality forages to learn their nutrient requirements, nutrient deficiency diseases, and nutrient supplementation needed;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Study the utilization of concentrated, high-energy feeds (especially byproduct feeds) to determine the upper limits of buffalo growth and productivity (milk, meat, and work) and carcass quality;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Compare various breeds of water buffaloes and other ruminants to determine possible differences in nutritional requirements and performance; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Apply economic research to production practices, including night feeding of cut forage and the use of improved pastures.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research to improve management practices could benefit small farmers, ranchers, and feedlot feeders alike.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about the farm management factors that influence water buffalo productivity. Studies and extension literature for farmers are needed on subjects such as:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Proper fencing;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Procedures for dehorning and for preventing horn growth in calves;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Grazing management methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Preservation of forages;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Methods and effect of castration;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Methods and effect of spaying;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Breeding methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Milking methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Artificial insemination, methodology and use;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Methods of handling animals under grazing conditions or in feedlots;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Age for weaning under different conditions;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Mineral and protein supplementation methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Semen freezing;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Ova transplantation methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cryobranding and other methods of animal identification;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Control of internal parasites; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Disease prevention and treatments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed in areas where uncertainties about buffalo diseases are hindering  the animals' use.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The research should:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Develop control and management practices to prevent specific infections and parasites  for buffalo groups such as calves, yearlings, heifers, pregnant cows, newly calved cows,  and bulls;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Elucidate the factors (genetic, nutritional,management, disease) causing losses of  newly born calves;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Prevent and control the major diseases and parasites of the buffalo: hemorrhagic  septicemia, brucellosis, tuberculosis, foot-and-mouth disease, sarcoptic mange,  fascioliasis, nematode parasites, rinderpest and "rinderpestlike" diseases, nephritis, and  conjunctivitis;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Develop herd-health programs and specific disease-control programs for the various  production systems;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Determine the level of susceptibility to trypanosomiasis, a disease that might mitigate  against introducing the animal widely to Africa; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Define the buffalo's role in malarial ecology.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed to improve water buffalo reproduction.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research topics should include:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Physiology and deep-freezing of buffalo semen. (Although it is possible to freeze the  buffalo semen now, further improvements are needed to achieve higher conception  rates.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Incidence of sub-estrus and anestrus. This is fairly high in buffaloes. Work is needed to  determine the factors contributing to this problem and find solutions applicable in the  field. A simple, inexpensive test for the routine diagnosis of estrus is needed. It could  ensure that buffaloes are inseminated at the optimal time and could lead to the possible  synchronizing of estrus in groups of animals as well as the elimination of seasonal  breeding.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Seasonality of breeding. Investigations are needed into seasonal effects on the intensity  and deviation of estrus in buffaloes. Most of the buffaloes in northern India and Pakistan,  for example, calve between July and December, causing scarcity of milk in the summer  season and a flush of production in the winter months (this phenomenon causes serious  marketing problems).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Low libido and low semen yield in buffalo bulls. Semen yield in buffalo bulls is less than half of the yield from cattle bulls.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Effect of season and other factors on semen quality.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Variation in the freezability of semen from different bulls.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dissemination of Information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel recommends that two water buffalo publications be produced.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These should be:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· An international water buffalo newsletter. It is important to maintain communication among researchers working with the water buffalo in far flung research stations, universities, missions, and villages. Research findings may not be widely shared if technical animal science journals and the one or two national newsletters now available remain the only source of water buffalo information. A newsletter would bring together results from different parts of the world. It would provide rapid exchange of information as well as a forum for informal opinions, observations, and preliminary experimental data that are usually not accepted by journals.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A formal journal of water buffalo research.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, other methods for disseminating water buffalo information are to be encouraged. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix A</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water Buffalo in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the water buffalo, Africa is the unknown continent. Apart from Egypt, where the  "gamoosa" is a major livestock resource, there have been few recorded experiences  with the animal in Africa. While this may be attributed to disease, chances are it is  because of historical oversight.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small herds of buffaloes were recently introduced to Uganda, Tanzania, and Nigeria, but  because there were so few animals no firm conclusions can be drawn. Initial  observations, however, suggest that the water buffalo could have an important future role  in Africa, south of the Sahara. There seems little reason to believe that they won't thrive  there as they have done elsewhere in the tropics.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following statements were provided by researchers involved in the enterprises.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Uganda imported a herd of 12 buffalo cows and one bull in 1969. Grazed on poor-quality  unimproved pasture they received neither supplementary feeding nor any preferential  treatment over the East African zebus kept with them. The herd stayed 7 years at  Entebbe before being moved to another part of the country. They proved to be very  efficient converters of the low protein, high-fber fodder. During this time the herd grew to  40 adult cows and 2 bulls (all other steers were slaughtered). The cows calved every  year. The calves matured at 2 to 21/2 years; the zebu calves took at least 3 years to  mature. Buffalo calves were much heavier than the zebus of comparable age.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"The buffalo cows averaged 7 liters of milk per milking. In taste it was preferred to zebu  milk. Also, the quality of the meat after slaughter was much better than that of the zebus.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"A major advantage the buffaloes had over the cattle was that they were remarkably  unaffected by diseases endemic to the area. Apart from a few calves that died of  diseases that also killed cattle on the farm at Entebbe, the buffaloes resisted tick-borne  diseases, the biggest killers of cattle in Uganda, and were unaffected by the virulent  strains of East Coast Fever (Theileriosis), Uganda's most serious endemic animal  disease."(Information supplied by G. L. Corry, Director, Veterinary Research Services, Entebbe  Uganda)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Early in 1976, 194 buffaloes aged 6-9 months were imported from the environs of Darwin in Australia's Northern Territory. The animals settled down quite well, and by the end of 1978 the stock population had risen to about 320, the adults weighing about 400 kg with about 80 percent fertility. The animals were in excellent health when an outbreak of streptothricosis occurred early in 1979. Because of the intractable nature of this rare disease of cattle, sheep, and pigs, the apparent spread of the disease in the confined area of the ranch, and the persistence of the organism, the animals were slaughtered(nformation supplied by Dr. J. E. Erhiaganoma, Chief Veterinary Officer, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Benin City, Bendel State of Nigeria)..  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania introduced 21 buffalo heifers and 2 buffalo bulls from Egypt in 1968 and 1970. By 1977 the herd had grown to 150 animals. They were kept at the Livestock Production Research Institute at Mpwapwa, a site representative of central Tanzania(Mpwapwa is located at an elevation of 1,000 m. It receives an annual rainfall of 700 mm during a single season between late November and early May. Mean minimum temperatures of 13°C occur in June, and mean maximum temperatures of 26°C occur in November). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over a period of 10 years the buffalo were studied and compared with crossbreeds of local Mpwapwa cows and Friesian steers. On average, the buffaloes conceived and calved 4 months earlier than the cattle, their mean calving intervals were about a month shorter, their birth and weaning weights were 1.5 times higher, and their daily weight gain was about double that of the crossbred cattle. The milk yield from the buffaloes was only about two thirds that of the crossbred cattle, but their rnilk's high butterfat content meant that the overall butterfat production was higher in buffaloes.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Figures reported are shown below:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p98.png"></center><br>
+ Table</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a second study (Shoo, R A. 1980. A study of the performance of Egyptian water buffaloes. Student project, Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Medicine, University of Dar-Es-Salaam, Morogoro, Tanzania.), 30 buffaloes and 34 Mpwapwa cattle (not the crossbreeds) were compared(Mpwapwa cattle are a Tanzanian breed with 55 percent Asian, 35 percent African, and 10 percent European blood). The calving intervals were 396 + 126 days for buffaloes and 437 + 109 days for cattle. The buffaloes first conceived at mean ages of 23-25 months (matings occurred in both wet and dry seasons), the cattle at 27-36 months. The buffaloes calved at 35 months, the cattle at 46 months.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On farms at Ruvu and Mabuki the calving rate was 63 percent, and the mortality rate 1.2-6.9 percent(Rakha, A. 1980. water buffalo Production, Tanzania. Report of the technical Cooperation Program TCP/URT/9002, Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations, Rome, Italy). The buffalo's overall milk yields averaged 1,237 kg in 225 days, or 5.5 kg per day.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results of the introduction of buffalo to Tanzania are considered "quite encouraging and the future of buffaloes in Tanzania will be bright." (Oloufa, M. M. 1981. The future of water buffaloes in Tanzania Paper presented at the Tanzania Society of Animal Production Eighth Scientific Conference, Arusha, Tanzania May 26-29, 1981.) Future plans call for increasing the herd to about 200 animals with a view toward establishing another buffalo herd. In addition, 5 buffalo sires have been selected in Egypt for shipment to Tanzania.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix B</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Contacts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A directory of names in buffalo studies and research is available from the International Buffalo Information Center, Kasetsart University Library, Bangkhen, Bangkok 10900, Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Industry Branch, Department of Primary Production, P.O. Box 5160, Darwin, Northern Territory 5790 (D.R. Thomson, B. Ford)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berrimah Agricultural Research Station, Darwin, Northern Territory</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coastal Plains Research Station, near Darwin, Northern Territory</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. G. Tulloch, P.O. Box 38841, Winnellie 5789, Northern Territory</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Queensland, Department of Animal Husbandry, St. Lucia, Queensland (D.D. Charles)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associacao de Criadores de Bufalos do Brasil, Cx Postal 832, Sao Paulo (President, Dr. Paulo Joaquim Monteiro da Silva)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Pesquisa Agropecuaria do Tropico Umido (Agricultural Reseach Center of the Humid Tropics), Caixa Postal, 48, Belem, Para, 66000  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faculdade de Medicina Veterinaria e Zootecnia (Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnology), Universidade Estadual "Julio de Mesquita Filho," Campus de Botucatu, Estado de Sao Paulo  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto de Zootecnia (Institute of Zootechnology), Nova Odessa, Sao Paulo (Prof. Alberto Alves Santiago)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr. Geraldo Mosse, Rua Apinages 716-CEP, 05017, Sao Paulo, S.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr. Walmore Muller Lacort, Ministerio de agriculture Explanada des Ministerios, Bloco 8-50 Andar Sala 518, 70.000 Brasilia, D.F.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bulgaria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Sofia (P. Ivanov, Z. Zahariev)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo Basis, Livestock Breeding Research Institute, Shumen (Dr. D. St. Polikhronov, Director; Dr. A. Alexis)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Nanking Agricultural College, Nanking (Professor Sieh Chen-Hsia)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kwangsi Agriculture College, Nanning, Kwangsi (Professor Wang Pei Chien</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Farm, Lu Hsu, Pinyang County, Kwasngsi Chang Autonomous Region</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Institute for Animal Science, Nanning, Kwangsi (Dr. Chou Chi-Sheng)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singchow Dairy Farm, Kwangtung Province</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jose Luis Pacheco, Director, Dept Formento, 8502 JAPDEVA, Puerto Limon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Egypt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ain Shams University, Kasr-EI-Zaafran, Abbasiyah, Cairo (M.A. El-Ashry, A.M. El-Serafy)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Production, College of Agriculture, Cairo University, Cairo (Dr. M.T. Ragab)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Alexandria, 22 Al-Gueish Avenue, Shatby, Alexandria (K. El-Shazly)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr. R. Dunkel, Herzeleidstrasse 39, 5330 Konigswinter 41, Bonn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. Dr. H. Fischer, Insitut fur Tropische Veterinarmedizin, Wilhelmstr. 15, 6300 Giessen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gesellschaft fur Agrarentwicklung (GAE), Meckenheimer Allee 113, 5300 Bonn 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hungary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Kovacs, Department of Animal Husbandry, Agricultural University, Deak F. -u16, 8361Keszthely  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Hyderabad, A.P. (Director of Research)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Husbandry Commissioner, Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Sciences, Director General, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Buffalo Breeding Farm, Sambalpua, PO: Sunbeda, Distt. Kerapur, Orissa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Frozen Semen Bank, Hessarghatta, Bangalore, Kamataka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Murrah Breeding Farm, Almadi, Tamil Nadu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Surti Buffalo Farm, Dhamrod, Gujarat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chief Superintendent, Govenment Livestock Farm, Hissar, Haryana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Chandra Sekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Mathura Campus, Mathura, U.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Co-ordinator, All India Buffalo Improvement Project, Natioal Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, (Dr. V. N. Tripathi)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director, Military Dairy Farm, Army Headquarters, Quatermaster, General Branch, DHQ PO New Delhi 11  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.B. Pant, University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, U.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government Livestock Farm, Anjora Distt: Durg, Madhya Pradesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gujarat Agricultural University, Reproductive Biology Research Unit, PO Anand Agricultural Institute, Anand, Gujarat  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haryana Agricultural University , Hissar, Haryana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Barcilly, V.P. (Dr. S.K. Ranjan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, 482004, M.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kaira District Cooperative Milk Producers Union Ltd., Anand, Gujarat (Dr. V. Kurien, Chairman)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Dairy Development Board, Anand, Gujarat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Dairy Research Institute (ICAR), Karnal 132002, Haryana (S.P. Arora, Dr. D. Sundaresan, Director)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab (Dr. J.S. Ichhponani, Dr. S.K. Misra)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwar Campus, Dharwar, Karnataka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Udaipur, Udaipur, Rajasthan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balai Inseminasi Buatan Lembang, Jawa Barat (Dr. R.D. Simangunsong)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Directorate of Animal Husbandry, Department of Agriculture, Jl Salemba Raya 16, Jakarta (Dr. Jaman Zailani)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pusat Penelitian den Pengambangan Ternak (Centre for Animal Research and Development), Bogor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iraq</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Rearing Station, Abu Ghraib, Baghdad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Production and Health Division, FAO,00100 Rome</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associazione Provinciale Allevatori, via Redentare, Caserta (Professore de Franciscis,Presidente)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto de Ricerche soll'Adattamento Bovini e dei Bufali, Ponticelli, Napoli (Director: Pro£ Lino Ferrara)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto Sperimentale per la Zootecnica, via Onofrio Panvino, Rome (Prof. A. Pilla)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto Sperimentale per la Zootecnice di Roma, via Salaria 31, 00016, Monterotondo Scalo (Dr. Augusto Romita)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ugo Jemma, Torre Lupara, 81050 Pastorano, near Caserta</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Shimuzu, The University of Tsukuba, Sakura-mura niihar gun ibaraki-ken 300-311</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Animal Husbandry Station, Kluang</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University Pertanian, Serdang, Selangor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Serdang, Selangor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Artificial Insemination Project, Tfipureshwar, Kathmandu (Dr. A.C. Gupta)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Division, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Kathmandu (Dr. N.D. Joshi)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">College of Animal Husbandry, Lahore (Dr. Mohammad Shafi Chaudhry)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Reproduction, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad (Dr. Rashid Ahmad Chaudhary)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Production Research Institute, Bahadurnagar District, Sahiwat, Punjab (Dr. S.K. Shah, Director)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Punjab Veterinary Research Institute, Lahore 13</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hugo Giraoud, Apartado 60-2745, El Dorado</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Primary Industry, ERAP, P.O. Box. 348, Lae (John H. Schottler)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sepik Plains Livestock Station, Ufimo via Wewak, E.S.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Science Department, Central Luzon State University, Muiloz, Nueva Ecija</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">College of Veterinary Medicine, University of the Philippines Systems, Diliman, Quezon City Dairy Development Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, Sta. Mesa, Metro Manila (Dr. Conrado A. Valdez)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dairy Training and Research Institute, University of the Philippines at Los Banos, College, Laguna 3720  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Science, University of the Philippines at Los Banos, College, Laguna 3720 (Dr. V. C. Momongon)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Documentation Center on Water Buffalo, University of the Philippines at Los Banos Library, College, Laguna 3720  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research, Livestock Research Division, Los Banos, Laguna 3732 (Dr. Alfonso N. Eusebio)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Portugal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Ross CockriII, 591 Vale do Lobo, Almansil, Algrave 8100</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Production and Health, Peradeniya (Dr. K. Balachandran)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">School of Veterinary Science, University of Sri Lanka, Peradenlya Dr. B.M.A.O. Perrera)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, P.O. Box 22-149, Taipei City</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Medicine, University of Dar es Salaam, Morogoro (M.L. Kyomo)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAFCO Farm, Ruvu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director, Livestock Development Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Dar es Salaam</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.M.J. Katyega, Director, Livestock Production Research Institute, Private Bag, Mpwapwa M.M. Oloufa, FAO, Morogoro  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kasetsart University, Department of Animal Science, Bangkok (Dr. Charan Chantalakhana) Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Henri Dunant Street, Bangkok 5 (Dr. Maneewan Kamonpatana)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Henri Dunant Road, Bangkok 10500  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Regional Office, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 2 (Dr. B. K. Soni)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of Livestock Development Project, Tha Phra, Khon Kaen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Buffalo Research and Training Center, Surin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trinidad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Steve Bennett, 61 Mucurapo Road, Port-of-Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. L. Corry, Director, Veterinary Research Services, P.O. Box 24, Entebbe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Mugerwa, Faculty of Agriculture, MaKerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. B. Begg, Resident Veterinary Surgeon, Howletts and Port Lympne Estates, Ltd., Port Lympne, Lympne, Kent CT21 4PD  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. N. Wilson, BOCM Silcock Ltd., Basing View, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2EQ</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wyland Cripe, Asst. Dean for Public Services, College of Veterinary Medicine, Box J-125, JHMHC, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Harrington, IRI Research Institute, Inc. One Rockefeller Plaza, New York, New York 10020 James Hentges, Department of Animal Science, Room 2104 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jack Howarth, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nels M. Konnerup, 609 East Iverson Road, Camano Island, Washington 98292</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. P. Leonards, P.O. Box 1094, Lake Charles, Louisiana 70602</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John K. Loosli, Department of Animal Science, Room 2103 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert E. McDowell, Department of Animal Science, Frank B. Morrison Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hugh Popenoe, International Programs in Agriculture, 3028 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">William R. Pritchard, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abelardo Ferrer D., Quinta Nueva Exparta, Avenida Jose Felix Rivas, San Bernardino, Caracas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix C</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANDREW HAY, President, Calvert-Peat, Inc., New York, New York (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Institute of Land Rehabilitation, Utah State University, Logan, Utah  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGLIARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director, Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PEDRO BARBOSA, Department of Entomology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FLETCHER L. BYROM, Chairman, Koppers Company, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON BROWN, Director, Resource Systems Institute, The East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DORIS GALLOWAY, Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, California  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY E. CARTER, Associate Administrator, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELIZABETH COLSON, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley, California  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BREWSTER C. DENNY, Dean, Graduate School of Public Affairs, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND I. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, ex-officio  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HERBERT I. FUSFELD, Director, Center for Science and Technology Policy, Graduate School of Public Administration, New York University, New York, New York (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARTIN GOLAND, President, Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LINCOLN GORDON, Senior Fellow, Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C. (member through September 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES P. GRANT, President, Overseas Development Council, Washington, D.C. (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, ax-officio  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE R. HERBERT, President, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM N. HUBBARD, JR., President, The Upjohn Company, Kalamazoo, Michigan (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT N. KREIDLER, Private Foundation Consultant, New York, New York  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RICHARD LASTER, Executive Vice President, General Foods Corporation, White Plains, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN LISTON, Director, Institute for Food Science &amp; Technology, College of Fisheries, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS F. MALONE, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, ex-officio  FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODNEY W. NICHOLS, Executive Vice President, Rockefeller University, New York, New York (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DANIEL A. OKUN, Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. RAY PARISER, Senior Research Scientist, Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAMES BRIAN QUINN, Amos Tuck School of Business Administration, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PRISCILLA C. REINING, Director, Project on Desertification, International Division, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C. (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. RICHARDSON, JR., Department of Horticulture, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, Rockefeller University, New York, New York  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. GUYFORD STEVER, Consultant, Washington, D.C.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Program Officer, Africa and the Middle East, International Agricultural Development Service, New York, New York  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VICTOR RABINOWITCH, Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Deputy Director  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN G. HURLEY, Deputy Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/b21wae/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/b21wae/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/b21wae/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">The Water Buffalo: New Prospects For An Underutilized Animal (1984) (b21wae)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Cattle</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">T-U-V-W-X-Y-Z</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">utilize the Water Buffalo more effectively</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/b22bue/b22bue.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/b22bue/b22bue.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/b22bue/b22bue.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,656 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea </TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Managing Tropical Animal Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First Printing, June 1983 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second Printing, May, 1985 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"><A NAME="Acknowledgements"></A></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of International Affairs </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Cooperation with the Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Bulolo, Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing  Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the Councils of  the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the  Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were  chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to the  procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the  National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute  of Medicine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Research Council was established by the National Academy of Sciences in  1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's  purposes of furthering knowledge and of advising the federal government. The Council  operates in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy under the  authority of its congressional charter of 1863, which establishes the Academy as a  private, nonprofit, self-governing membership corporation. The Council has become the  principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National  Academy of Engineering in the conduct of their services to the government, the public,  and the scientific and engineering communities. It is administered jointly by both  Academies and the Institute of Medicine. The National Academy of Engineering and the  Institute of Medicine were established in 1964 and 1970, respectively, under the charter  of the National Academy of Sciences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID) of the  Office of International Affairs addresses a range of issues arising from the ways in which  science and technology in developing countries can stimulate and complement the  complex processes of social and economic development. It oversees a broad program of  bilateral workshops with scientific organizations in developing countries and conducts  special studies. BOSTID's Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation publishes  topical reviews of technical processes and biological resources of potential importance to  developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been prepared by an ad hoc advisory panel of the Advisory Committee  on Technology I innovation, Board on Science and Technology for International  Development, Office of international Affairs, National Research Council. Program costs  for the study were provided by the Office of Technical Resources, Bureau for Asia,  Agency for International Development under Grant No. ASB-0249-SS-00-1026-00 and  the Office of the Science Advisor, Agency for International Development, under Grant  No DAN/5538-GSS- 1023-00.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First Printing, June 1983 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second Printing, May, 1985 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Panel_on_Butterfly_Farming_in_P"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Panel on Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT M. PYLE, Chairman, Lepidoptera Specialist Group, International  Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland,  Switzerland, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director, Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian  Institution, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, JR., Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING, Director, Florida State Museum, C;ainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOlS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, Yale University, New  Haven, Connecticut </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS, Head of Subdivision of Invertebrate Ecology,  Furzebrook Research Station, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Wareham,  Dorset, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University  of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS, Representative, The Asia Foundation, Taipei,  Taiwan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Contributors_"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Contributors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER CLARK, Manager, Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Bulolo </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CAROLE GABARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WASAM GARARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KAROL KISOKAU, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Waigani </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAVU KWAPENA, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and  Environment, Konedobu </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MIRO LAUFA, Crocodile Section, Department of Lands and Environment,  Konedobu </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEO NING, Division of Wildlife, East Sepik Province, Wewak </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODERICK ORARI, Butterfly farmer, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL PARSONS, Ecologist, Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Bulolo </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BLU RAIRI, Butterfly farmer, Maprik  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Countries </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. S. BROWN, JR., Department of Zoology, State University of Campinas, Sao  Paulo, Brazil </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. M. COLLINS, Co-compiler, Invertebrate Red Data Book, International Union  for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Cambridge, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WAYNE GAGNE, Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANGUS HUTTON, Garaina Farms, Gympie, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ASHLEY C. MORTON, Department of Biology, The University, Southampton,  England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRED PARKER, Kirwan, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* * *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Professional Associate, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Butterfly Study Director </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council Staff </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE REGES, Administrative Secretary </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Preface_"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly farming is a growing new industry in Papua New Guinea, and by  turning irdwings, mauve swallowtails, and other insects into a cash crop  villagers are both earning money and practicing sound wildlife conservation.  In this unique program butterfly farming is being used to complement the  preservation of species and of habitats. In balancing the utilization of  common butterflies with the protection of the most threatened species, Papua  New Guinea is providing a model for other countries, particularly those in the  tropics. The program demonstrates how village development can become an  integral part of conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel that produced this report convened in Papua New Guinea in  May 1981. Its purpose was to investigate the concepts underlying this  project and to assess their potential for application elsewhere. Panel members  met with staff of the government's Division of Wildlife in Port Moresby and  later visited butterfly farms in Popondetta and the insect trading agency in  Bulolo. The panel is grateful to Karol Kisokau, Navu Kwapena, and Miro  Laufa of the Division of Wildlife for arranging the itinerary in Papua New  Guinea and to Peter Clark and Michael Parsons for hosting the Bulolo and  Popondetta visits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report is one of the National Research Council series, Managing  Tropical Animal Resources. Current titles in the series are:*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal (  1981 ) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future  (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (1983)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea ( 1983)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These activities have been conducted under the auspices of the Advisory  Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research  Council (see page 29). The purpose of ACT}iS the assessment of  unconventional scientific advances that might prove especially applicable to  problems of developing countries. Since its founding in 1971, it has produced  about 30 reports covering subjects as diverse as ferrocement construction  materials, the winged bean (a high-protein tropical food crop), and techniques  to provide more water for arid lands. This study adds the dimension of  conservation and ecosystem protection to ACTI'S principal concerns of  promising but neglected resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACTI activities are supported largely by the U.S. Agency for International  Development (AID). Program costs for this study were supported by AID'S  Bureau for Asia, and staff costs by AID'S Office of the Science Advisor, which  also made possible the free distribution of this report.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"><A NAME="BM1_Introduction_and_Summary_"></A></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Introduction and Summary</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international demand for tropical butterflies is much greater than is  generally recognized. Each year millions of them are caught and sold  throughout the world. Many buyers are scientists engaged in research on  aspects of systematics, ecology, ethology, evolution, and conservation.  Others are individuals who like expensive curios that incorporate butterflies,  such as display cases, coffee tables, wall hangings, or other objects. But  increasingly, the fragile, iridescent creatures, mounted in plastic or glass, are  used to decorate less-expensive items such as purses, trays, platters, screens,  and other common objects in Europe, North America, and Japan. In addition,  amateur butterfly collecting, which reached a peak in Victorian times, is again becoming popular.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this has produced a strong and active market. The current trade is  estimated to be between US $10 and $20 million annually, and the demand is  rising.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remote regions of Papua New Guinea are benefiting from this burgeoning  interest in tropical insects, and several hundred villagers are rearing or  collecting butterflies, beetles, and other insects for export. The Papua New  Guinea government now considers insects a national resource, and it has  made butterfly farming part of the nation's village economic development. At Bulolo it has established an Insect Farming and Trading Agency (IFTA) to  handle the business details of a growing international trade. And Papua New  Guinea is the only country so far to specify insect conservation as a national  objective in its constitution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botanical research is the key to Papua New Guinea's butterfly farming  program. Local botanists and ecologists have identified the plants that the  various butterfly species use during their life cycle. The butterfly farmers  then build up their "livestock" by clearing small areas of ground  and planting leafy food plants for larvae, together with the nectar-producing  flowering plants that adult butterflies feed on. The combination of flowering  and leafy plants provides a complete habitat where butterflies find everything  they need to grow and reproduce. Therefore, most remain, and the farmer  retains his livestock without fences or walls.*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are among the most unusual farms in the world. Around their edges  are hibiscus and bougainvillea that attract the adult butterflies, whose  mouthparts are adapted for drinking nectar from flowers. And inside are leafy  plants, such as the strange Dutchman's pipe vine (Aristolochia tagala), on  which the caterpillars of several birdwing butterflies feed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The enriched butterfly habitat in the villager's garden attracts and holds a  breeding population that becomes a self-renewing resource. By varying the  plant species the farmer can even maintain colonies of different butterfly  species. And because insects are so prolific, some butterfly farmers are  beginning to have problems with overstocking and have had to shift larvae  from plant to plantrather like moving cattle from one field to the next as the  grazing runs out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic Development </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The IFTA program started in 1974 with fewer than 30 Papua New Guineans  from villages in two provinces. By 1978, more than 500 villagers in 10  provinces had been introduced to farming or collecting butterflies for export.  Since then, business has been increasing about 40 percent a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gram for gram, exotic butterflies are far more valuable than cattle. Prices  paid by dealers in Europe, North America, and Japan range from 30 cents for  individuals of common species to around $10 for the two birdwing species  whose export is allowed. A specimen of a rarer species (for example, a female  of the mauve swallowtail Graphium weiskei) may bring as much as $50.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project is still an embryonic activity; it is not large, as development  programs go. IFTA has only one professional staff person and two local  technicians to handle the distribution of specimens. The agency's goal is to  export between 5,000 and 10,000 specimens a month, from which the villages  can expect a return of $10,000 or more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency purchases butterflies from villagers and uses them to fill orders from overseas buyers. Colorful beetles, strange-looking stick and leaf insects, and some moths and cicadas are also caught in the wild and sent to Bulolo. The profits, less 25 percent, are returned to the villagers. At the time of the panel's visit, IFTA had received about 4,000 shipments of butterflies and other insects from the rural people and had paid out about US $180,000 to purchase them. In 1979, the average farmer or collector received about $37 per box of specimens. By 1980, this had risen to about $50 per box. In 1981 it was estimated that a diligent butterfly farmer could earn an annual income of about $1,200.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even so small an annual income is substantial in rural areas where the mean annual per capita income may be only $50. In many remote areas it is difficult to create income-producing opportunities because of illiteracy, dispersed population, and, in some cases, resistance to foreign ways.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through butterfly farming many rural Papua New Guineans are for the first time participating in a cash economy. The product is a highvalue, low-volume crop. It brings needed or supplementary income to the people of the predominantly rural areas. Compared with farming coffee, another possible industry in Papua New Guinea's rural regions, it requires far less effort or land, and it involves minimal costs to the producer. And where a few expatriate opportunists once made small fortunes exploiting Papua New Guinea's butterflies, the profits now go to the villagers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat loss is by far the most critical issue in butterfly conservation. If habitat changes, the animals must change, leave, or die. Usually they die, since alternative habitats are already occupied or too distant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly all the world's butterfly species have suffered diminished ranges, and an estimated half of the world's butterfly populations face threats from human development. From Britain to Bhutan, the insects' habitats have come under siege. In Europe, perhaps one-third of all butterfly species are threatened, owing chiefly to the reductions in their various habitats. In California, half-a-dozen coastal butterflies have been lost since the 1860s, and an equal number are now endangered. In Madagascar and Rwanda, swallowtails and some species that occur nowhere else are being sacrificed to the clearing of forests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The losses are much more than aesthetic, for many butterflies benefit people. They pollinate crops, are a major link in the food chain, and serve as sensitive indicators of ecological health.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A striking feature of the Papua New Guinea butterfly farming program is that it is designed to conserve and increase the species being traded. It is a pioneering conservation effort that has been endorsed by the Lepidoptera Specialist Group of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. The program helps relieve pressure on endangered populations, because for successful butterfly farms the villagers must retain - and even foster - a healthy wild population on or near their land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insect farming also helps preserve habitats because it leaves the bulk of the land intact and it helps landowners earn money without requiring them to cut down the rain forest as they would for timber or for cocoa, coffee, or oil palm plantations. Similarly, villagers can retain their traditional hunting grounds while cropping the insects that rely on these grounds for survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The existence of the butterfly farming project has served to focus attention on the status of all butterfly species. In 1968 this led to a law banning the taking of even a single specimen of the seven birdwing species threatened with extinction in Papua New Guinea. These large, brilliantly colored creatures can bring as much as $1,000 each in international trade, but there is a stiff fine in Papua New Guinea for even possessing one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enriching habitats with butterfly food plants (notably the Dutchman's pipe vine, Aristolochia tagala) has greatly increased the numbers of Papua New Guinea's two common birdwing species, Ornithoptera priamus and Troides oblongomaculatus. Now the country is taking on the challenge of increasing the seven endangered birdwing species that are protected and banned from trade. Already the IFTA staff has found that at least one of these rare species (Ornithoptera victoriae) is easily reared on the Dutchman's pipe vine. Farms are now being designed and sited with a view to building up the populations of this giant endangered species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclusions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At this stage, the importance of this pioneering activity lies not in its size, but in the new vistas it opens up for the use of tropical resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In farming butterflies, Papua New Guinea is showing that indigenous wildlife resources (especially those being depleted because of their commercial value) can contribute to economic development and that the farming of indigenous animals can be fitted smoothly into traditional village life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Providing employment in rural areas is a major problem of developing countries. And in a sense, butterflies are an "appropriate" livestock, particularly for remote areas of the tropics where other income-producing activities are difficult to establish or are harmful to traditional lifestyles and fragile environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterflies may seem unusual farm animals, but to villagers in the Papua New Guinea jungle it is cattle that are exotic. The villagers live in close contact with their local insects; invariably they know much about butterfly locations, behavior, habits, life cycle, and the food eaten by the caterpillars.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farming butterflies is proving a business to which villagers quickly adapt. Butterflies do not require the equipment or financing of a conventional farm; no capital is required, except for postage on the first shipment of specimens. Insect farming allows people to participate in the cash economy without causing disruptive changes in traditional village life. The villagers can work long and hard if they wish or they can put in only enough time to produce a little cash for necessities, leaving plenty of time for raising crops and other village activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often claimed that economic development is necessarily destructive to the environment and detrimental to conservation - that as rural societies develop, their natural surroundings must suffer. The Papua New Guinea butterfly farming project is an innovative program that demonstrates this need not be true.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The program also shows that where human needs are given attention, conservation can be successful. Elsewhere in the tropics, attempts to conserve habitat without considering the needs of the people who live nearby have often failed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In sum, the butterfly farming program demonstrates that certain natural resources can be used profitably in a way that protects the environment. The program offers a culturally appropriate use of the land; on a broad scale, it could become a force in preventing clear-felling of the forest for timber exports or the wholesale conversion of rain forest to cash-crop monocultures such as coconut, coffee, or oil palm. Most of Papua New Guinea is still covered by primary rain forest; exploiting the economic value of the insects that live there is helping safeguard this increasingly rare habitat, which is fast disappearing in most parts of the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species Conservation </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The knowledge gained from farming Papua New Guinea's butterflies has already contributed to relieving the threat of extinction from seven endangered species of birdwings. This experience could be replicated in other places where there are endangered butterfly species. Indeed, the program provides a model for nations that could profitably farm butterflies while protecting their threatened butterfly species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extension to Other Organisms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This project has a strategy and organizational structure that could well be applied to plants, such as rare orchids, and animals, such as crocodiles, that are endangered because of their commercial value. Indeed, using similar concepts of combining village income and conservation, the Papua New Guinea Division of Wildlife is farming crocodiles,* ruse deer, wallabies, and two native birds, the megapode and cassowary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through such husbandry practices, many species elsewhere might be saved from extinction, while providing income to the local people who traditionally have used the resource. Other countries should look with interest at the way Papua New Guinea is handling its wildlife enterprises. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM2_Butterfly_Status_and_Conserva"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Butterfly Status and Conservation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About 100,000-150,000 species of butterflies have been described; perhaps half that number remain to be discovered. Although there are important concentrations in the Arctic and temperate regions, most species are found in the tropics. There, the diversity of colors and forms is dazzling; every imaginable combination of hue and color is displayed. And many tropical butterflies are enriched with "structural" colors, which cause the wings to flash iridescently in the sun as they bend the light they reflect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although butterflies have long been admired and often depicted in art, they have been seriously studied only since the end of the seventeenth century. Linnaeus, in his Systema Naturae, placed the small number of butterflies then known in the single genus Papilio. Today that genus is restricted to the true swallowtails, and more than 700 genera of butterflies are recognized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Butterfly Trade</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Last century, as knowledge of butterflies grew and methods of preserving them improved, they become popular collectors' items. Wealthy naturalists such as Rothschild and LeMoult dispatched collectors to all parts of the world for specimens. Today the trade in butterflies is even more extensive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three major kinds of butterfly and insect trade. In one, large numbers of common species are collected in the wild and processed for use in ornamental objects such as coasters, mats, and lampshades. This is a low-value, high-volume industry that is both labor- and capital-intensive. It frequently uses "chipped" or slightly damaged butterflies. It often sells butterflies with paper bodies and only the wings of actual insects, which seem to be acceptable to a large part of the buying public.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Taiwanese butterfly trade is an example. It operates on a large scale. At least a dozen Taiwanese factories employ scores of workers to capture and process butterflies. Estimates of annual sales vary from 15 million to 500 million butterflies. Taiwanese butterfly wings pasted onto paper bodies with pig-bristle antennae are used in ornaments and household objects from wall hangings to clear-plastic toilet seats. The bodies are recycled as pig feed. Despite this massive trade, Taiwan's wild butterfly populations seem to be remaining steady.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Similar, though smaller, industries trafficking in common butterflies are found in Korea, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Brazil, Honduras, and several African nations. The famous blue morpho butterflies of the American tropics enter the trade at the rate of some 50 million per year. Nearly all of these are the brilliant iridescent males, and biologists believe the number sold could be doubled without harming the overall population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second type of trade involves higher value and lower volume. This produces a vastly different product from the paper-bodied butterflies bound for novelty stores. It is exemplified by the operation in Papua New Guinea where sales are to collectors, museums, and students, and the specimens are high-quality insects in good to perfect condition, usually bearing scientific data. Because of the relatively high value per specimen, this trade can be carried on by fewer individuals in a nonfactory setting, and it is well suited to village industry, provided there is supervision and a quality-control checkpoint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third type of butterfly trade is for high-quality, expensive ornamental items, such as glass cases, domes, wall mounts, or jewelry containing beautiful insects. Brazil, for example, has a thriving jewelry trade based on the iridescent blue morpho butterfly. This type of trade can also furnish high-paying outlets for village-farmed insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p08.png"></center><br>
+ Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In all three divisions of the butterfly trade, dealers fulfill an essential role. Few collectors and scientists can travel the world collecting their own specimens. Some dealers have established reputations for honesty, some have not. Exploitation of suppliers and customers alike has been rife. Few dealers are careful to attach accurate locality data to their specimens; some make serious mistakes in identifying them. (To combat this problem, British insect dealers have formed an association to monitor conservation-related activities and improve professional practice.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Generally, dealers supply specimens bred from the caterpillar or chrysalis and described as "ex pupa." Unless butterflies are caught immediately after emerging from the pupa the fragile wings tear and the scales detach to produce "worn" specimens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Taxonomy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Classifying butterflies is difficult. Their most obvious features, the color and pattern of the wings, vary greatly; individuals and populations of the same species often look quite different. This has led to the dubious naming of many species and subspecies. And the uncertainties it causes have led some biologists, especially those working in ecology and genetics, to name populations rather than species or subspecies. However, populations frequently evolve, and this introduces a further uncertainty. Much additional work on basic butterfly systematics is needed. The knowledge gained should contribute particularly to the conservation of endangered species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly conservation is still in an early state of development, bedeviled by scarce or incomplete information. The conservation status of even the most thoroughly studied butterfly species is known in only a few areas. The distribution and status of most species is essentially unknown, and proposals for conservation measures are largely based on guesswork. Nevertheless, some conservation programs have been enacted. Most have concentrated on designating endangered species and banning their collection.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The greatest threat to butterflies and other insects, however, is habitat alteration. On several continents some species have already become extinct or endangered when humans altered the special environment they require. The importance of protecting butterfly habitats should not be underrated. Many species are restricted to very small areas, particularly to individual islands (Corsica, Sardinia, Jamaica, Madagascar, Sumba, the Comoros, Fiji, the Solomon Islands, Manus, and the Duke of York Islands, for instance). Such species are vulnerable to extinction because nearly all island habitats are fragile and are changing rapidly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it is uncommon for insect species to be dangerously reduced merely by the capture of specimens, renewed commercial interest in butterflies gives rise to concern for their conservation. Most insects reproduce rapidly, and their high fecundity enables them to replace such losses in a generation or two - provided the basic environment has not been altered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But there are certain species of butterfly that reproduce slowly and are therefore more threatened by collection. The unusual birdwing butterflies of New Guinea, for example, produce only small broods. Moreover, these rare species command higher prices. Because this makes them particularly vulnerable, legislation to protect birdwing butterflies has been instituted in both parts of New Guinea - Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Accordingly, to save Queen Alexandra's birdwing (the largest and most threatened of the birdwings) from extinction, several wildlife management areas have been set up in Popondetta on Papua New Guinea's north coast. The government is also setting up refuges, administered by village councils, to preserve and protect other birdwing butterflies and wildlife resources. This habitat conservation is an important adjunct to the butterfly farming program. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM3_History_and_Government_Policy"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 History and Government Policy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soon after Europeans discovered New Guinea's remarkable insect fauna around the turn of the century, collectors began arriving, and they have been coming ever since. Many were reputable professional or amateur scientists, gathering modest numbers of specimens for study and for museums, including Papua New Guinea's own national collection. Others, however, were plunderers who carried away large numbers of rare butterflies, giving little or no compensation to the local people and showing no concern for survival of the species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1966 the Papua New Guinea government responded to excessive collecting by designating seven rare birdwing butterflies as protected species. It became illegal to collect these huge, colorful birdwings, and strong measures were instituted - fines for nationals, deportation of expatriates - to halt black market trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1960s and early 1970s commercial collecting of the other butterfly species continued piecemeal and unsupervised. Income was erratic, and expatriate dealers often paid their Papua New Guinean suppliers only a few cents for specimens that retailed for several hundred dollars in Europe and Japan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Insect Farming and Trading Agency</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When Papua New Guinea achieved independence in 1975, the new government decreed that only nationals should profit from the country's butterfly resource. Since that time only Papua New Guineans have been able to export butterfly specimens (nonprotected species) for profit. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1978, to guarantee Papua New Guineans fair prices and stable sales, a marketing agency was established. Its purpose was to protect the resource, to foster butterfly farming, and to ensure a high-quality export product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modest in its beginnings, the Insect Farming and Trading Agency (IFTA) was organized by Angus Hutton, a former tea planter and amateur lepidopterist. The business side of the agency was later developed by Peter Clark, who had worked with Hutton. Identification and production of food plants was advanced by Michael Parsons, Robert Pyle, and others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IFTA provides a market for those Papua New Guinea nationals who farm and collect butterflies and other insects. The agency allows them to obtain fair and fixed prices, maintains quality control, and ensures that current data accompanies all specimens. It also pools the insects from many sources and fills large orders from overseas dealers. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the butterflies IFTA exports, about 30 percent are from village farms and 70 percent are collected in the field. However, more than 50 percent of the revenue is made up of the farmed butterflies because of their better quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quality Control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency strives to sell only highest-quality insects; it rejects many butterflies as substandard. Most specimens are sold as named subspecies and to identify and name them requires much skill. Staff members have been specially trained to do this. (To a large extent, the area of origin, particularly in the case of the offshore islands, defines the subspecies concerned.) Locality data, usually consisting of village, province, and month and year of collecting or emergence, is affixed to all butterfly envelopes before they are pooled at the agency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IFTA stores its collection by species, in simple wooden boxes kept in cupboards lit from below (to lure potential pests away from the insects and to warm the cupboards and prevent mold). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marketing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency makes up orders and dispatches them (with the required export permits) to customers "on trust." Although this is open to abuse, most buyers pay promptly and the system is easy and convenient. Careful records are kept of all suppliers, customers, and species in stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the time of the panel's visit, about 80 percent of the agency's business consisted of responding to requests from dealers. However, less than 10 percent of the orders received from all sources could be filled.Some requests were too small and others too specialized; in some cases the agency simply didn't have the specimens on hand (for example, a request for all the subspecies of a given butterfly). Furthermore, the agency has neither the office staff nor space to cope with every order in a business whose volume is almost doubling every two years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Field Extension</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife extension officers periodically visit clients and new villages to sustain or develop enthusiasm for insect farming. They explain and demonstrate the procedures of butterfly farming and collecting and teach potential farmers how to recognize a valuable species in each of its life stages. Above all, they demonstrate how to prepare specimens for sale. This is because it is often difficult to convince farmers of the need for extreme care and delicacy in handling, and many inexperienced farmers send in bruised or hopelessly damaged specimens. Although about 500 villagers were farming butterflies at the time of the panel's visit, fewer than 50 were supplying good material regularly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These contacts are also important because the butterfly farmers easily become discouraged if no interest is shown in their work. In the Papua New Guinea countryside there is often little need for cash; people can obtain all their food, clothes, shelter, and resources from their gardens or from the bush. Money received from one shipment of butterflies may last a subsistence farmer for months, making it difficult for the agency to sustain his interest in providing regular shipments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency's extension officers have initiated a number of butterfly farming projects at primary, secondary, and vocational schools. These projects have proved most successful. Apart from the practical education they give students, they provide early insight into one of Papua New Guinea's most useful resources. Several vocational schools also provide training in mounting butterflies and beetles as souvenirs for tourists, as well as in the construction of hatching cages and solar driers. Beautiful wooden cabinets to hold butterflies have also been made by some teenage students.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Monitoring</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to teaching Papua New Guineans to collect and farm insects, IFTA promotes research both to conserve species and to make them available in quantity. Success has already been achieved in farming the common birdwing butterflies by planting large numbers of the Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia tagala) vines that they feed on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency's staff includes an ecologist, indicating the importance of the scientific basis for conservation in this project. The ecologist is at hand to conduct research on life histories, farming methods, and management measures for rare species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IFTA staff are now identifying new food plants that will permit more species to be farmed. Research into the life histories of many butterflies with economic potential is well under way, so that an increasing number of species will become "farmable" and will be available in future in perfect ex pupa condition. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sources of all specimens received by IFTA are recorded on a map so that a butterfly's range and rarity or abundance can be assessed and conservation measures implemented where necessary. In this way, even insects too damaged for sale at least have value to conservation efforts. All specimens of unusual scientific interest are lodged in the national insect collection for future study. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM4_Operating_a_Butterfly_Farm"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Operating a Butterfly Farm</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Planting the Farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key to farming butterflies is to establish a garden of the plants the various species need for their life cycles. The ideal farm area is about 0.2 hectares. This is spacious enough for growing food plants for adults and larvae and small enough to keep the plants watered, weeded, pruned, and generally well tended. Such a farm can contain about 500 vines, grown like bean plants on poles or shade trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to surround the site with a thick hedge of hibiscus, bougainvillea, ixora, poinsettia, or other nectar-bearing plants whose flowers attract adult butterflies and encourage them to remain in the area. The hedges also keep out pigs and other livestock that may damage the leafy plants inside the farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good way to start a farm is to establish it in a vegetable garden. (Papua New Guinea butterfly farmers often plant butterfly vines between their rows of sweet potato or tarot) By the time the vegetables are ready to harvest, the area already has some thriving butterfly food plants and probably some winged livestock as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most successful butterfly food plants in Papua New Guinea is Aristolochia tagala, a vine on which the larvae of more common birdwing butterflies feed. Another is Evodea - a food plant of the large blue ulysses swallowtail and many colorful weevils.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shade trees also can be food plants for butterflies other than birdwings and for beetles or weevils. Examples are species of Annona (such as soursop), Citrus (such as lemon), Cerbera, and Graptophyllum. Wallace's Longhorn Beetle feeds on breadfruit (Artocarpus communis). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, one area of the farm is kept aside for growing seeds or cuttings. (IFTA sells seed of some suitable species.) In this nursery the butterfly food plants are watered and cared for, and unhealthy ones are easily spotted and weeded out. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p16.png"></center><br>
+ Stylized diagram of a butterfly farm:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Hedge of hibiscus, ixora, and poinsettia to keep pigs out and provide nectar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B Fruits trees (such as lemon).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C The aristolochia vine grown on the branches of others trees (such as leucaena), to feed    caterpillar larvae.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D Nursery area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E A hut for tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Diagram courtesy IFTA, Bulolo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Life Cycle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, each butterfly species has a preferred food plant for its larvae. After the female has mated she searches for the correct plant and lays her eggs on or near it. In a few days the eggs hatch, and the young caterpillars usually eat their own eggshells and begin feeding on the softer leaves and shoots of the food plant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As they grow, the caterpillars shed their skins. Each molt is called an instar, and five instars occur before a larva is big enough to pupate. Pupation is a resting stage during which the adult butterfly develops inside the hard, protective chrysalis. For pupation the larva selects the underside of a stem or leaf to protect it from rain and predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After 10 days to 3 weeks, depending on the type of butterfly, the pupal case splits open and the adult insect emerges. This usually occurs before 9 o'clock in the morning. The freshly emerged adult then takes from 3 to 4 hours to expand and dry its wings before flying off to feed on nectar and to search for a mate to begin the life cycle once again. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harvesting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the farm is well established, pupae can be collected daily. Ideally, about 50 percent should be left or released. At least as many females as males should be released. Pupae that are too high to reach are usually left to emerge naturally and repopulate the farm. Others are left because they are not quite perfect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The farmer can usually see that emergence will occur on the next day, since the pupa becomes darker in color as the adult wing and body colors develop. He then plucks off the stem or leaf to which the pupa is attached. (The soft, new pupae are not touched because this damages the adult.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He pins the leaf to a board or puts it in a net or in a small cage. Often these are kept inside to protect the pupae against pests and large predators. However, some farmers construct small houses out of bush materials to hold pupae ready for hatching. Others keep their pupae in the open and count on being able to collect the adults before they have flown away.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Care is taken to protect the specimens from ants and rats. For example, the legs of the cage are placed in bowls of water to deter ants from climbing up. The pupae are sprayed with water 2-3 times a week to speed up the hatching process and to prevent them from drying out. (Only a light spray is used; otherwise the pupa develop mold.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pupae are best kept in a shady place so the butterflies will remain calm after hatching and will not flap and damage their wings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Processing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the newly emerged butterfly has completely dried its wings, it is carefully caught by the thorax and injected with a small amount of a killing agent such as ethyl acetate or boiling water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small butterflies are particularly easily damaged if handled, so they are placed for about 10 minutes in a killing jar containing cotton (cotton wool) soaked with a little ethyl acetate. A layer of cardboard is placed above the cotton so that the butterflies are not stained by the solvent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The farmer places the dead butterflies in paper envelopes, being careful at all times not to touch or damage the wings. The envelopes are easily made from grease-proof paper, which the agency supplies on request.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To ensure that the butterflies will not mold, they are placed on a black plastic tray and dried in the sun, in their papers, for about 4 days. During this time they are protected from pests such as ants, and the drying trays have a screen on top to prevent the envelopes from blowing away or from being rained on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once properly dried, the insects, still in their envelopes, are stored in boxes, preferably airtight to prevent condensation and molding. When enough specimens have been collected, the villager packs them carefully in strong cardboard boxes (which the agency also supplies) with cotton or kapok. A few naphthalene crystals are added to keep away pests, and the box is wrapped and sent to Bulolo. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM5_Application_to_Other_Nations"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">5 Application to Other Nations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the essence of the Papua New Guinea approach is the cultivation of food plants that the butterflies need to complete their life cycles. This is a process that could be replicated elsewhere, and the potential for butterfly farming exists in many countries. In fact, although Papua New Guinea is rich in butterfly species - some 700 of them - it is not unusually so. Other countries also have large numbers of species. There are, for instance 2,500 species known in Costa Rica.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are some 14,000 species of true butterflies in the world. Although there is possible competition, many countries have no overlap in species at all. As collectors and specialists usually want butterflies from many different parts of the world, the likely competition among countries exporting farmed or wild-caught butterflies is minimal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterflies are supplied to the trade from nearly every part of the world. But because they are most diverse in the tropics, it is likely that the best chance for success in farming them lies there. However, some temperate countries also have an abundance of particular species, and in Europe, the United States, and Japan, butterfly farming is already established on a small scale. This is mainly because many collectors like to rear their own material and they purchase eggs, caterpillars, or chrysalids instead of killed adults. Many dealers in these countries supply a few tropical species that are easy to rear, such as the orchard swallowtail (Papilio aegeus). However, this trade is generally low in volume and value, and temperate-zone butterfly farms are little more than a sideline to normal dealerships.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some general comments follow on the potential of butterfly farming in various parts of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Temperate regions of the Old World (Palaearctic Realm). East palaearctic species are in great demand internationally and obtainable with great difficulty. China, in particular, has species of both Parnassius and Papilio that might be farmed. However, all Parnassius species are montane to some degree and none has been farmed yet. Eurasian arctic satyrids, lesser fritillaries, and sulphurs are also in great commercial demand and could perhaps be farmed. Swallowtails are few and are frequently protected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tropical Africa and associated islands (Afrotropical Region). The potential for butterfly farming has not yet been considered in Africa, although the diversity of desirable species is great and the potential market extensive. This area has important swallowtails and Charaxes species (Nymphalidae), but so far as is known, no farming enterprises exist. Experimental or trial farms for butterflies are needed in different parts of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asian tropics (Oriental Realm). Silk moths, such as Bombyx mori, are commercially farmed in Asia, and butterfly farming would seem to be a natural extension of this. Many Asian butterflies are supplied to dealers, especially from Taiwan and the Philippines, but there is little farming. A very large trade originates in Malaysia, especially for Rajah Brooke's birdwing (Trogonoptera brookiana). Farming is reputed to take place, but most specimens are actually collected. Desirable species of swallowtails, including the black and gold birdwings (Troides species), occur throughout the region. Species belonging to the families Nymphalidae and Pieridae are good candidates for farming, as they are in much demand from dealers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Australia, New Guinea, and associated islands to the west (Australasian Realm). Australia is not rich in butterflies, but it has some important endemic species. At least one "farm" exists in Australia, but this appears to be an offshoot of a normal dealership, which rears a few local species to supply at early stages to collectors. Farming is to be encouraged here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Guinea's most coveted butterflies, which it shares with Irian Jaya, are the Ornithoptera birdwings. But almost equally desired by collectors and specialists are the Troides birdwings, concentrated to the west of New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Temperate regions of the Americas (Nearctic Realm). There is a considerable trade in New World butterflies from nearly every family (few Lycaenidae and Hesperiidae), but almost all are caught in the wild. There is a strong market for far-northern species (Boloria, Colias, Erebia, Oenesis). Farming these might be possible among Canadian and Alaskan Indian or Eskimo groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tropical regions of the Americas (Neotropical Realm). This is a likely area for the development of butterfly farming, particularly as its species are completely different from those of the tropics elsewhere. The Morpho and Agrias species of South America are much desired by collectors. It is possible that some of the highly prized morpho butterflies are already farmed (as the law, in fact, requires), but evidence is conflicting, and most biologists believe that the major supply of specimens is from wild populations. Other groups that lend themselves to farming include the swallowtails, nymphalids (including Agrias), and certain members of the family Satyridae. There are large fauna of Riodinidae and Lycaenidae that are potentially suitable for farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A dealer in preserved butterflies has recently set up business in the Dominican Republic, and butterfly farms have been established in Costa Rica.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· General. Butterflies in the family Riodinidae and, especially, Lycaenidae seem to be a neglected resource. Many species are relatively small but brightly colored. A major difficulty is that many Lycaenidae have to live with ants for part of their lives and this complicates their rearing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Parks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some regions with tourist industries are showing interest in establishing "butterfly zoos" or "butterfly jungles." These displays have live butterflies (usually farmed or reared) in artificial habitats resembling the natural ones. Some species, such as the orchard swallowtail (Papilio aegeus), respond well to such conditions. One British dealer has a "tropical jungle" in an enclosed environment in which both temperature and atmospheric pressure are regulated. A large British butterfly zoo has been established and a smaller one has been proposed. The New York Zoological Society is developing a butterfly component in its Wild Asia Hall at the Bronx Zoo, and San Francisco, Portland, Cincinnati, and Tokyo all have thriving insect zoos. Also, the Colombo Zoo in Sri Lanka has a live display and a successful program of butterfly rearing. Similar enterprise could be shown in other places with tourist industries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting a Butterfly Farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly farming is initially an ecological and botanical challenge. One must first observe, identify, and propagate the plants that the various species use for food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Success for butterfly farmers rests on their choosing commercially attractive species. Unfortunately, ecological details of the life histories of suitable species are known in only a few cases. The prospective farmer will be largely on his own and must first develop this information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the most desirable species are native to primary tropical forests, and they may need protection because of the rate at which their habitat is being destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any program to commercially exploit butterflies and other insects must either bypass the rarest, most restricted, and slowest reproducing species; farm them cautiously with a high percentage of adults released; or take them with the greatest of care. Further, there must be adequate habitat protection both in the natural state and in mixed land uses (rather than just agricultural croplands) to support the insects and furnish a continuing supply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some competition could occur if live butterflies were exported between countries and used to establish farming enterprises. In general, however, butterflies are easier to farm in their native habitats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Appendix_A"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A Selected Readings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carvalho, J. C. M., and O. H. H. Mielke. 1972. The trade of butterfly wings in Brazil and its effect upon survival of the species. Proceedings 19th International Congress of Entomology (Moscow) 1 :486-488.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fenner, T. L. 1976. Aspects of butterfly conservation in Papua New Guinea, Pp. 121-127 in Ecology and Conservation in Papua New Guinea, K. P. Lamb and J. L. Gressitt eds. Pamphlet 2. Wau Ecology Institute, Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parsons, M. n.d. Insect Farming and Trading Agency Farming Manual. Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Division of Wildlife, P.O. Box 129, Bulolo, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pyle, R. 1981. Butterflies: now you see them.... International Wildlife I I (1):4- 11.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pyle, R., M. Bentzien, and P. Opler. 1981. Insect conservation. Annual Review of Entomology 26:233-258.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pyle, R. M. and S. A. Hughes. 1978. Conservation and utilization of the insect resources of Papua New Guinea. Unpublished report, copies available from the author, see Research Contacts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Severinghaus, S. R. 1977. The butterfly industry and butterfly conservation in Taiwan. Atala 5(2):20-23.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unno, K. 1974. Taiwan's butterfly industry. Wildlife 16: 356-359.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vietmeyer, N. D. 1979. Butterfly ranching is taking wing in Papua New Guinea. Smithsonian 10(2):119-135. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Appendix_B"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix B</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Contacts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wayne Gagne, Bishop Museum, P.O. Box 6037, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96818 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angus Hutton, Garaina Farms, Scrubby Creek Road, Gympie 4570, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insect Farming and Trading Agency, P.O. Box 129, Bulolo, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea (Peter Clark, Manager; Michael Parsons, Ecologist)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Karol Kisokau, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Central Government Offices, Waigani, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navu Kwapena, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rudi Mattoni, 9620 Heather Road, Beverly Hills, California 90210, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Michael G. Morris, Chairman, Butterfly Specialist Group, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Furzebrook Research Station, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Wareham, Dorset BH20 5AS, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ashley C. Morton, Department of Biology, Building 44, The University, Southampton S09 5NH, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fred Parker, 717 Ross River Road, Kirwan, Queensland 4814, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert M. Pyle, Chairman, Monarch Project, Xerces Society, 369 Loop Road, Gray's River, Washington 98621, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheldon R. Severinghaus, Representative, The Asia Foundation, 42, Chien Kuo North Road, Taipei 104, Taiwan, Republic of China </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Appendix_C"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix C</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biographical Sketches of Panel Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director of the Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., is currently the Secretary-General of the International Union of Biological Sciences. He received his B.A. in 1961 from Miami University in Ohio, M.Sc. from The George Washington University in 1963, and his Ph.D. in 1966 from the University of London. His research interests are in comparative anatomy and phylogeny of flowering plants, commercial timbers, histology of monocotyledons, economic botany, and tropical biology. An internationally recognized expert on tropical plants, he has published extensively in these areas and on topics relating to science, technology, and development, especially in developing countries. Dr. Ayensu was co-chairman of the Panel on Under exploited Tropical Plants of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation and chairs and serves as a member of many international bodies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, JR., is Graduate Research Professor in the Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville. As Technical Director of the Caribbean Conservation Corporation, he has directed a seasonal research program at the breeding ground of the green turtle at Tortuguero, Costa Rica, since 1952, with continuous grants from the National Science Foundation from 1955 to 1980, and has carried out investigations of marine turtle ecology and navigation in various parts of the world. The author of numerous papers, articles, and books, he received the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal of the National Academy of Sciences for Handbook of Turtles and the John Burroughs Medal for The Windward Road. He is Research Associate of the American Museum of Natural History; Affiliate Curator of Natural Sciences, Florida State Museum; Chairman of the Marine Turtle Specialist Group of the Survival Service Commission, International Union for the Conservation of Nature; Honorary Consultant of the World Wildlife Fund; Fellow of the Linnean Society of London; Fellow of the American Fisheries Society; and a member of Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1973 he was awarded a gold medal from the World Wildlife Fund for the application of scientific findings to the conservation of marine turtles. In 1975 he received the Edward W. Browning Award for achievement in biological conservation. In 1978 Dr. Carr was awarded the Gold Medal of the New York Zoological Society for contributions to natural science and conservation; in 1978 he became Officer of the Order of the Golden Ark (The Netherlands).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING is the Director of the Florida State Museum, Gainesville. He received a B.S. in 1957 and an M.S. in 1961 from the University of Florida and a Ph.D. from 1966 from the University of Miami. His research interests are in wildlife conservation and habitat preservation, impact of international trade on wildlife populations, and ecology and behavior of reptile populations. He worked at the New York Zoological Society from 1967 to 1975. As an international wildlife consultant, Dr. King has received honors from the Dominican Republic, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, and from H.R.H. Prince Bernhard of The Netherlands. He has served on committees advising the State Department and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources on policies regarding the trade of crocodile skins, turtle products, and other wildlife materials. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOlS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry and Professor of Forest Genetics, Yale University, was Dean of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale from 1965 to 1975. He received a B.A. from Luxembourg College and a B.Sc.F. from the University of New Brunswick in 1950, an M.F. in ecology in 1951, and a Ph.D. in forest genetics from Yale in 1954. He is especially knowledgeable about francophone Africa and was chairman of the Sahel program of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development and a member of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation. From 1960 to 1965 he was research collaborator at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. In 1966 he was the recipient of the Award for Outstanding Achievement in Biological Research from the Society of American Foresters and in 1975 was Distinguished Professor (Fulbright-Hays Program) in Yugoslavia. Before joining the Yale faculty, he served as project leader in forest genetics for the U.S. Forest Service in Florida. He has served as a consultant to FAO, various foreign governments, and private forestry companies, and he has traveled extensively in the tropical countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS is head of the Furzebrook Research Station of the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (National Environment Research Council, U.K.). He received a B.A. in natural sciences (zoology) at the University of Cambridge of 1958, M.A. in 1962, and received his Ph.D. from London University in research on the integrated control of orchard pests. Dr. Morris worked at Monks Wood Experimental Station on the effects of grassland management on populations of invertebrates and developed a strong interest in community and applied ecology, particularly the conservation of insect populations. Recently he has become involved with problems of butterfly conservation and resource utilization. He is Secretary of the Joint Committee for the Conservation of British Insects, a Vice-Chairman of the Lepidoptera Specialist Group of lUCN'S Survival Commission, and Chairman of the Habitat and Species Protection Committee of SEL (Societal Europaea Lepidoptero-Logica). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH L. POPENOE is Professor of Soils, Agronomy, Botany, and Geography and Director of the Center for Tropical Agriculture and International Programs (Agriculture) at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. from the University of California at Davis in 1951 and his Ph.D. in soils from the University of Florida in 1960. His principal research interest has been in the area of tropical agriculture and land use. His early work on shifting cultivation is one of the major contributions to this sytem. He has traveled and worked in most of the countries in the tropical areas of Latin America, Asia, and Africa. He is past Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Escuela Agricola Panamericana in Honduras, Visiting Lecturer on Tropical Public Health at the Harvard School of Public Health, and a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Society of Agronomy, the America Geographical Society, and the International Soils Science Society. He is Chairman of the Advisory Committee for Technology Innovation and a member of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT MICHAEL PYLE, a writer and consulting lepidopterist based in Gray's River, Washington, has served since 1979 as Co-Compiler of the lUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book. In this capacity he is consultant to the Conservation Monitoring Centre in Cambridge, England. After receiving his B.S. and M.S. at the University of Washington, he took his Ph.D. through the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University in 1976. He worked for the Government of Papua New Guinea on the conservation and utilization of insect resources and then with the Nature Conservancy as Northwest Land Steward. A </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">former Fulbright Scholar to the United Kingdom, Dr. Pyle subsequently founded the Xerces Society for conservation of beneficial insects and their habitats. He has been chairman of IUCN'S Lepidoptera Specialist Group (Species Survival Commission) since 1976. His publications include the Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Butterflies. A comprehensive book on insect conservation in his next project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS received his Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1977 in natural resources management. He has worked on various wildlife research projects in Asia since 1964 and is representative for the Asia Foundation in Taiwan. He has published articles on butterfly conservation and wildlife industries in Taiwan, where he has been studying the butterfly and wildlife farming projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, staff officer for this study, is Professional Associate of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. A New Zealander with the Ph.D. in organic chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley, he now works on innovations in science that are important for developing countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Advisory_Committee_on_Technolog"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas (member through 1981) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L.GADEN,JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Native Plants, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (member through 1982) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Board_on_Science_and_Technology"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGLIARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAMUEL P. ASPER, Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BELL, Department of Population Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEONARD BERRY, Professor, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST J. BRISKEY, Dean, School of Agriculture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON S. BROWN, Director, Resources Systems Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. BURRIS, Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAUDIA JEAN CARR, Associate Professor, Conservation and Resource Studies, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATE FIELDS, Director, Developing Markets, Control Data Corporation, Minneapolis, Minnesota </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND J. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN HOWARD GIBBONS, Director, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM HUGHES, Director, Engineering Energy Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM A. W. KREBS, Vice President, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Acorn Park, Cambridge, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE 1. LYTHCOTT, University of Wisconsin, School of Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANICE E. PERLMAN, Executive Director, Committee for a New New York, New York City Partnership, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK C. ROBBINS, President, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER A. ROSENBLITH, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HERBERT SMUCKLER, Dean of International Studies and Programs, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GILBERT F. WHITE, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Assistant Dean for International Programs, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN C. HURLEY, Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Associate Director/Studies </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL P. GREENE, Associate Director/Research Grants </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<!--
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+</Section>
+-->
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/b22bue/metadata.xml
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--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/b22bue/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
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+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea (b22bue)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
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+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFRICA-CARIBBEAN-PACIFIC - EUROPEAN UNION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dossier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Communication and the media</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Press freedom, regarded as a fundamental human right, is also a key component in the democratization process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the help of experts in the field, we look at what various organizations are doing to combat censorship and promote a free press in ACP countries and elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We also highlight the new trend of donor support for projects aimed at promoting press freedom. These include, notably, provisions for the training of journalists. And as new means of communication, such as the World Wide Web, develop, we consider what is being done to prevent the opening up of a new divide - this time between the 'information rich' end the 'information poor'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the least-developed countries, Cape Verde is seen as a model of good governance and stable democracy. It is also admired for its perseverance in the struggle against the exigencies of history and climate. The country suffers from almost permanent drought and has virtually no regular supplies of fresh water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Its history has been punctuated by serious famines and while the people are no longer hungry, they still face formidable economic difficulties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde produces just 10% of what it consumes and its exports are one fifteenth of its imports. The one bright spot is in services, where it enjoys a positive trade balance. This sector (in particular, international transport and tourism), together with the country's cultural industries, offer the best hope for future development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Meeting point</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Robert M&eacute;nard, Director of 'Reporters sans fronti&egrave;res'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Combating attacks on press freedom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Reporters sans fronti&egrave;res' was founded in June 1985 in Montpellier where Robert M&eacute;nard was working as a journalist with Radio France. Now based in Paris, RSF has two main policy areas. In the first place it alerts international public opinion and the media to situations involving violations of press freedom (via publications such as 'RSF News letter' the Annual Report and specific books and reports). Secondly, RSF actively intervenes by sending letters of protest to official bodies and assisting victims. Last year RSF dealt with more than 350 cases involving the press throughout the world. The organisation's ambition, according to Mr M&eacute;nard, is to be a kind of Amnesty International in the press field. The interview began with Mr M&eacute;nard giving a detailed description of RSF's work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We do two things - we report violations of press freedom and help journalists who are the victims of such violations. Take the former Yugoslavia, for example. It would have been unthinkable to monitor what was going on in that war-torn country without, at the same time, helping the media who were victims of the repression. So we sent over lawyers to help in trials involving the press, helped the families of imprisoned journalists and gave general assistance to the media. In the case of Oslabodenje, the Sarajevo daily, this went on for four years. We did similar work in Rwanda where RSF helped the media to get back on its feet after the genocide. In Algeria at the moment we are involved in aiding  journalists who are obstructed when doing their work. We also give help in Europe - currently to refugee journalists in Belgium, France, Spain, Switzarland and Germany. That's basically what we do; reporting violations of press freedom and helping those who are the victims of it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you work with other organisations, for example the United Nations ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We work with various types of organisations. We have daily contact with other NGOs specialising in press freedom, such as Article 19 in London and the Committee for the Protection of Journalists in New York, to give just two examples. We also have contacts with NGOs involved in human rights issues in general and, above all, with Amnesty International.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then there are our links with international organisations and, first and foremost, with the UN system. RSF has submitted reports in response to requests from various organisations, ranging from the UN Committee for Human Rights to UNESCO. We also work with the Council of Europe and the Organisation of African Unity. But our closest  relationship is with the European Union, or two reasons; firstly because it is RSF's main financial backer and secondly Because the EU enables us to do three things. It has helped us set up and has Financed a vast network of correspondents in 130 different countries and, to my mind, this is the most important thing in terms of defending human rights and press freedom. We also publish reports, which we write in response to EU requests, on press freedom in one country or another and which are made available to the EU and European Parliament. Our third \ink comes in the form of assistance. We manage an aid fund to help where the press is in difficulties, and the money is provided by the Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-You have mentioned a network of correspondents which has been set up. How does it operate ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is a network of people who are in daily contact with RSF and who tip us off when a situation requiring our attention arises. Whenever there is a violation of press freedom in a country where the network operates, our correspondent lets us know - that's the first priority. Then, they make enquiries at our request. The third stage is to set up events. For example May 3 was World Press Freedom Day and, on that day, in about 20 countries in Africa, our correspondents organised events on the theme of press freedom. A fourth aspect of our correspondents' work is that they are often responsible on the ground for helping journalists in difficulty. They also help the media in general because we give them documents and supply them with information which they distribute in their particular country. Their task, therefore, is to alert us to a situation, meet our requirements for information and, on our behalf, physically to assist people on the ground, set up events and disseminate information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Are the correspondents all nationals of the countries in which they work ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. Also, about 90% of them are joumalists and they are all paid for what they do. Their relationship with us is clear-cut. It is very important for them to be paid because this means that   we can ask certain things of them. If you   work as a volunteer no-one can give you  a deadline to produce such and such a   document. In our case, we pay them to   do this work for RSF.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you choose countries where the situation is already problematic ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Unfortunately, problems exist in many countries. Less than half the countries in the world show any degree of respect for press freedom and that means we have a great deal of work. In addition, information arriving at RSF from the correspondents is distributed to other organisations. We have set up a system called Infex which is an electronic mailbox.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All RSF's information is put on a computerised system and immediately disseminated to all the organisations involved in the defence of human rights, and press freedom in particular.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So the technological revolution is a positive thing as far as you are concerned ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Absolutely. Both the Imais and Internet systems are unbelievably useful tools which have completely revolutionised our work. For example, RSF might protest about the situation in some country or other. Take China, for example - we regularly lodge protests against the lack of press freedom there. There are 17 journalists in jail, no freedom for the press and a great many problems. However, people in China are not aware of what we do and in order to get information they have to listen to international radio stations. On the Internet, RSF's services are available in French, English and Spanish and it is consulted by people the world over. It is thus one of their sources of information. Another example would be a case where we set up an operation and inundate a number of people in a particular country with faxes, in order to pass on the information. Modern technology enables us to break down the fortresses which totalitarian or dictatorial regimes attempt to construct around themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- RSF has just published its 1996 Report. What do you have to say regarding the current position of press freedom ? Has progress been made ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I would say two things. In the long term, the situation is improving. If you remember, 25 years ago, the regimes in half the countries in Latin America were dictatorships, communism dominated half of Europe and nearly all of Africa had single-party systems. Even in Europe, there were dictatorships - in Spain, Portugal and Greece. So we cannot deny that there has been progress. The problem is that, for three or four years now, there has been a noticeable rise in new threats to press freedom, and this is a great source of concern to us. Here I am thinking of the rise in power of fundamentalist movements, particularly religious fundamentalism. In a number of countries nowadays - the best example, or perhaps I should say the worst example, is Algeria - journalists are not only threatened by the state but are being killed by armed Islamic groups. The rise in religious fundamentalism is indeed a real danger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second type of threat confronting the press is the increased influence of mafia-type criminals. You will, of course, have heard about drug trafficking in places like Colombia or Peru. Nowadays, in some countries where communism has been overthrown, the big threat comes from these criminal gangs. Not so long ago in Russia, the star presenter on the main TV channel was killed because he got in the way of 'Mafia' interests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third threat comes from uncontrolled actions by groups fighting for autonomy or independence, like the Kurdish movement in Turkey (the PKK), and a number of separatist groups in India. The EU is no stranger to this either</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ETA poses a continual threat to the press, as do members of the FLNC in Corsica. It is only a few months since members of the latter group machine gunned a journalist's house. A fourth and new kind of threat, particularly in countries with a democratic system, comes from the rise of the extreme right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lastly, a point I draw particular attention to in our recent report is, in fact, a dual phenomenon. On the one hand there are states which pass laws under which any criticism is a crime and may lead to prosecution. An example of this is Egypt where the government has enacted a law which has led to charges being brought against some 60 journalists since summer 1995. On the other hand, there are states where justice simply does not operate and there is no will to make it function.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Last year, 51 journalists were killed and a number of others were attacked, but there has not been a single trial or conviction. It is a real culture of impunity. In some countries, the justice system either does not operate, or it is not independent. In such places, the authorities are reluctant to identify and prosecute those responsible for attacks on journalists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· RSFcurrently has project running in Rwanda, in collaboration with the EU. Could you tell us something about this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The EU is helping us to meet a wide range of needs in Rwanda, as well as in Burundi, where sadly, the situation is rather similar. In Rwanda, there are those who governed the country before the genocide and those in power at the moment. There was a specific problem there in that nearly half of Rwanda's journalists were killed during the genocide - 49 out of about 100. We had virtually to reconstruct the press system and the EU gave us the means to do this.The press currently has difficulties vis-&agrave;-vis the authorities but it is attempting to do its job.  in Burundi, where our work is of a more conventional type, we see continuing attacks on press freedom. There, RSF is trying to resist the pressure, again supported by the EU. In fact, thanks to the EU, we are helping a   number of countries' media to survive despite difficult conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another quite new problem is that before and during the genocide in Rwanda, the media were used as vehicles for disseminating hatred. They issued calls for people to kill their compatriots, in this instance the Tutsis, and the language they used was unbelievably violent. On Radio Mille Collines, presenters would say - and I quote; 'The graves are not full yet'. They would give out the addresses of people who had to be killed and when the murders had been carried out they would actually say, 'You killed them too quickly - you should have killed them more slowly to make them suffer more', or, 'You didn't kill the children, go back and kill the childreni. We actually have recordings of statements like this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In such a situation, journalists must be made to answer for what they have done and be brought to justice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has helped us conduct a number of surveys which will enable the international criminal court in The Hague to charge Rwandan journalists with complicity or incitement to genocide. We expect this to take place in the very near future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course in Rwanda, all that is in the past but the same thing is happening today in Burundi where there is a radio station called 'Radio Democracy' - what a joke! A number of journalists there are issuing calls for people to be killed and we have a copy of one of their newspapers whose front page offers a cash reward to anyone who kills such and such a person. This is not journalism. RSF has lodged complaints against these people and one of these 'journalists' has just been charged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We are doing three things in Rwanda and Burundi: denouncing violations of press freedom by the authorities, helping media victims and - something new - reporting what has come to be known as 'the media of hatred'. Unfortunately, this type of media is not restricted to Rwanda and Burundi. it is a phenomenon that we see in a number of African countries, in the former Yugoslavia, the Caucasus and the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East. Perhaps you are aware that the 50th anniversary of the Nuremberg trials has just passed ? But did you know that there were two journalists among the accused? The press has forgotten that journalists played a part in the rise of Nazism. RSF is pointing out that the same thing is happening today in many countries and we have to fight it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 'The EU is a  perfect partner</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Given what you have just said, should restrictions be placed on press freedom ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - This is a very complex subject. You have to remember that international texts, particularly the convention on civil and political rights, place restrictions on press freedom. Article 19, which defines press freedom, stipulates that there are certain limits to this and Article 20 forbids any dissemination of racist or antisemitic ideas and any incitements to violence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RSF has two things to say. First, governments which have signed the agreements must ensure they are observed. These set limits. Journalists are not above the law and they must be punished when they say certain things. So states must face up to their responsibilities and apply the treaties they have signed. Second, I feel that the international community, and Europe in particular - when it signs agreements or gives aid to third countries - should demand that they respect press freedom but clamp down on the media of hatred.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· RSF has just published a draft model legislation governing the press. In preparing this, were you influenced by your experience of the extremist media ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Perhaps we were influenced too much. I am my own worst critic. We sent a mission to Rwanda before the genocide but did not appreciate the full effects of the evil disseminated by the media of hatred, particularly Radio Mille </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collines. We underestimated the situation and are concerned at what is happening. We believe there must be express limits on press freedom and this draft framework law is one way of formulating such restrictions. It is not necessarily the best way of going about things, but our profession has to ask itself questions regarding the definition of press freedom and the limits we must not exceed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Are you satisfied with what the EU is doing in this area ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The EU is a perfect partner and has never exerted any pressure. With the Union, we are able to do things that would not be possible with individual Member-State government because the latter conduct foreign policy in defence of certain interests. Each country has its own cultural history linguistic links or links arising out of former colonial times which prevent it financing RSF's studies unconditionally. As far as our missions are concerned, RSF decides what it wants to do and we send our reports to the EU. They have also granted us a budget enabling us to give immediate aid to people in difficulty. This is the most positive action possible If the EU were not there, there would unfortunately be no-one else to finance an organisation like ours. 60% of our budget comes from the Union, 20%from various companies. We generate the remaining 20% ourselves through sales of books and contributions. Because the EU is a grouping of governments, the Commission has some room for manoeuvre. This is the only possible kind of support for organisations like RSF and, if it were not there, it would be the end for the people whom RSF supports.  interview by Dorothy Morrissey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ACP</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The economy of Cameroon: Better prospects but still a long way to go</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is an astonishing sight to behold during the rainy season. As you drive along the road from Yaound&eacute; to Bamenda, you come to a point where human habitation starts - and it then continues unbroken for more than 100 kiLom&eacute;tres. Just before Bafoussam, and as far as the eye can see, every patch of land is cultivated. Bananas, oranges, mangoes, sugarcane, cassava, palm trees, groundnuts and maize grow luxuriantly in open fields and in the front and back gardens of many houses. This route, of course, takes you mainly through the western part of Cameroon, home to the Bamilelr&eacute;s, recognised as one of the country's most enterprising and industrious ethnic groups. The population density here is 200 per km2 as opposed to 1 per km2 in the East.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The impact of this widespread farming, carried out by a large number of smallholders, is visible in the local markets, whether in Bafoussam, Mbouda or Bamenda. There, the stalls overflow with fruits and vegetables and prices are very low - a virtual paradise for the middlemen whose unmistakable presence is signalled by the significant number of trucks loading the produce for distribution throughout the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These scenes come as no surprise to the long-time observer of Cameroon's economy. The country achieved virtual self-sufficiency in food over 15 years ago. It is one of the few African countries to have been able to do this, thanks both to its physical  endowments and an early recognition of its agricultural vocation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon is often described as a microcosm of Africa, not just in terms of its make-up of English- and French speaking communities, but because it enjoys almost all the continent's climatic conditions. The south is equatorial, with two rainy seasons and two dry seasons of equal duration, the centre is Savannah country with one rainy season and one dry season, while the extreme north (part of the Sahel) is hot and dry. The country has a very good supply of rainfall - from 5000 mm annually in the southwest to around 600 mm near Lake Chad.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such varied climates favour the cultivation of a variety of crops. Timber is  produced mainly in the southern provinces while palm oil, tea, cocoa, coffee, rubber, timber and foodcrops are produced in the southwestern and western areas. The central and north provinces specialise in cattle and cotton production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concentration on agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon has, not surprisingly, concentrated on agriculture. Indeed the government has given top priority to the sector in all its development plans   since independence in 1960. It has been involved in the marketing of the main export crops and has provided subsidies to farmers in the form of low-priced fertilisers and pesticides for their cocoa, coffee, rubber, palm oil, etc. Almost three-quarters of the working population (the majority of whom are smallholders) are engaged in farming. And despite a low level of mechanisation, they are very efficient. The rate of growth in food outstrips the rate of population growth. Only a few largescale farmers or firms are involved in the production of cash crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until the early 1980s, when oil came into the picture, these large scalefarmers and firms amounted for more than 70% of export earnings, 40% of state revenue and 32% of the Gross Domestic Product. The plan initially was to use oil revenues to further boost and transform agriculture. However, the dramatic increase in the country's oil production, combined with much higher world petroleum prices during the first half of the 1980s, made the sector not only Cameroon's biggest export earner, but also, in a certain sense, a 'spoiler' for agriculture. Increased revenues enabled the government to maintain the level of prices paid to farmers, even though world prices had slumped to disastrous levels. This created distortions in the market. (Later, when the oil price slumped, and revenues dropped sharply, producer prices were also reduced, bringing them closer into line with international prices.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture's contribution to GDP declined steadily to around 21 % in 1985, rose to 27% in 1989 and has hovered around 30% ever since. The sector's share of export earnings has also fallen to about 40% of total exports by value.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite this, Cameroon's agriculture remains, comparatively, in a much better shape than that of most African countries. Indeed, it contributed in large measure to the country's reputation as one of Africa's economic successes in the 1980s. During that decade, growth averaged 8% per annum. However, the period was also marked by dramatic increases in oil revenues which induced  significant policy changes as well as leading to maladministration. The government paid less attention to taxation and customs duties as sources of income and turned a virtual blind eye to smuggling which harmed the manufacturing sector. The civil service, on the other hand, expanded beyond reason, a phenomenon that some have attributed to patronage by the ruling single party.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boom in public expenditure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Protected somewhat against fluctuations in earnings from export crops, by a strong but overvalued CFA franc, the government embarked on a wide range of capital expenditure and imports. Then, in 1987, international oil prices fell as dramatically as they had risen earlier in the decade. At the time, public spending was running at CFAF 8 billion - well above the CFAF 5.6bn the country actually earned. Revenues from oil continued their downward slide to CFAF4.5 bn in 1988, CFAF 2.8 bn in 1991 and CFAF 2.5 bn in 1994. 1995 saw a modest rise to CFAF 3 bn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1987 thus marked the beginning of a rapid deterioration in Cameroon's financial situation. In the period which followed, civil servants' salaries were unpaid for months, several of the country's foreign missions were left without resources and both domestic and foreign debts worsened. In 1993, the government owed commercial banks around CFAF 3.3bn. Its external debt stood at around $7.5bn with a service ratio of more than 25% of foreign exchange earnings. The devaluation of the CFA franc in January 1994 improved the internal debt situation significantly. In February, the government signed a letter of intent with the IMF after agreeing to a series of reforms which included, among other things, rationalising the banking and insurance sectors, raising revenue from non-oil sources, bringing inflation down and reducing the budget deficit. In return the IMF provided a stand-by loan equivalent to CFAF 1.4bn. However, the agreement was suspended just a few months later when the Fund reached the conclusion that the government lacked the will to carry the reforms through. The 1994/95 budget foresaw a deficit of 4.5% of GDP - well above the IMF's guideline of 1.5%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meanwhile the country's financial situation had become so critical that it could no longer service its debts, most notably, those it owed to the World Bank. France, which had traditionally been ready to come to the rescue, refused to bail Cameroon out and it finally dawned on the authorities that structural adjustment was unavoidable. When, in September 1995, talks resumed with the IMF, the commitment to adjustment was no longer in doubt. The government agreed, in addition to fiscal reforms, to liberalise trade in cocoa, coffee and timber, to prune the civil service and to privatise state enterprises which dominate the industrial sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commitment to reforms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since then the reform process has been in full swing. The first and most important task has been to improve the government's financial position. The civil service, which employs more than 175000 people, is gradually being reduced and salaries have been cut. Trade is also being liberalised and subsidies are being removed. The 1995/96 budget, unveiled in June last year, was welcomed by the IMF. It included, for the first time in a long while, increases in income tax and a widening of tax bands. A series of measures have also been introduced to combat tax evasion and fraud. External signs of wealth, water and electricity consumption, and telephone bills are now being used as means of assessing income tax.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Responsibility for the collection of customs duties has been removed from the Customs Department which was often accused in the past of corruption and inefficiency. The task has been given instead to a Swiss-based preshipment inspection company. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The donor community has responded positively. With French assistance, the government has been able to clear its outstanding debt to the World Bank. The IMF has provided a stand-by credit facility of $101 million in support of the adjustment programme for 1995/ 96 and debts to the Paris Club covering the same period have been rescheduled. In addition, now that Cameroon has been reclassified as a poor country, it is entitled to benefit from the terms of the Naples Agreement, which allow for up to 67% of debts to western govemments to be written off. A number of creditor nations have either forgiven the country its debts or have reduced them substantially. More loans have come from France and a number of other donors, including the World Bank and the European Community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EC is financing a series of projects within the framework of the adjustment programme, including the restructuring of the civil service and preparation of the ground for privatisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lately though, the donor community has been showing signs of disenchantment, following allegations of misuse of funds and perhaps even outright embezzlement. Last March, an IMF mission to Yaound&eacute; failed to obtain an adequate explanation concerning the allocation of certain sums. The result, at the time The Courier went to press, was that an IMF loan for settlement of Cameroon's debt to the African Development Bank was being held up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dealing with the negative social impact</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p07a.png"></center><br>
+ Figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sudden devaluation of the CFA franc in January 1994 halved Cameroon's purchasing power overnight. The government has since cut wages twice. The average salary of a top civil servant, which stood at around CFAF 300 000 before devaluation, is now less than CFAF 180 000 while the lowest paid government employees receive just CFAF 30 000. At the same time, prices, particularly of imported manufactured goods and inputs, have risen sharply. Increases of up to 150% have been  recorded. By way of example, the price of a baguette (french bread), which was only CFAF 80 in January 1994 had risen to CFAF 130 by March 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there is considerable hardship, Cameroonians are a great deal more fortunate than fellow Africans in many other countries undergoing a similar adjustment process. Staple food remains cheap and affordable to the vast majority, thanks to the continuing strength of agriculture. As a result, there are few, if any, cases of malnutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of donors, including China, Belgium and the EC, are concentrating on health and education with the specific aim of reducing the negative social impact of adjustment. The EC, for example, has a project designed to strengthen health provision at the grassroots. This entails rehabilitating  infrastructures (health centres and district hospitals in particular) and establishing medical supply centres in areas that are not covered by other donors. The project is governed by the principle of cost-recovery to ensure viability and sustainability. But one area where the donors cannot do much is in the field of job creation. There is growing unemployment and job prospects in the formal sector, at least in the short term, are not good.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In macro-economic terms, things are locking up slightly for Cameroon. After recording economic growth of 3% in 1994/95, the hope is for a 5% increase in 1995/96. However, Cameroon's main economic operators, grouped under the umbrella of GICAM (Groupement inter-patronal du Cameroun), expressed fears late last year   that the country would not achieve this level of growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon exports a variety of primary commodities, most of whose prices have recovered in recent years, and devaluation has had a positive impact on the country's balance of trade. Specifically, it has helped make exports more competitive and in 1994/ 95 the trade surplus was a healthy CFAF 349bn, almost double the CFAF 128bn recorded in the previous year. There was a noticeable slowdown in the export of timber in the latter half of last year and the qualities of coffee and cocoa being sold were not up to the usual standard, a situation that led to both crops being shunned in the world market. Bananas exported to France were also meeting stiffer competition from French Caribbean bananas. However, the fact that rubber production has risen by more than 10%, while aluminium output and sales have increased, should help Cameroon to record another positive trade balance when the figures are next published.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forestry sector, which has huge foreign-exchange earning and employment potential, is being rationalised as part of the current structural adjustment programme. The Canadian Agency for International Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(CAID) has a five-year project to conserve and regenerate some 30 000 hectares. In fact, half of Cameroon is covered by forest and less than 500 000 ha is currently being exploited. The objective is to ensure that forest resources are exploited in the future at a sustainable level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The private sector</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industry, which is still in its infancy, has been developed by the government since independence largely with a view to import-substitution, although with some gearing towards the regional market. It accounts for about 14% of GDP and is currently dominated by aluminium smelting. Although devaluation has lately improved the competitiveness of those enterprises that add value to locally available raw materials, the manufacturing sector as a whole faces two major challenges now that the government has accepted the idea that the economy is best driven by the private sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first relates to private investments, which have been sluggish  over the past ten years; a clear illustration of a lack of confidence in the economy. This was amply demonstrated when Cameroonians with funds abroad failed to repatriate them to take advantage of the CFAF devaluation as was widely expected. This phenomenon puts the whole privatisation exercise in jeopardy as it means that the government is more likely to have to rely on foreign entrepreneurs. The best the authorities can therefore expect in the short term, some observers say, is to convert those state enterprises that are not already joint-ventures into ones where private investors become the majority shareholders. Complete divestment will then take place gradually over a longer timescale. Overall, 150 state enterprises have been earmarked for sale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to Andr&eacute; Siaka, director of Cameroon's Brewery, who is also Chairman of GICAM, another reason for the lack of investment was high interest rates. These hovered around 20% for many years. Even now, after the reform of the banking sector, interest rates remain very high and there are no borrowers, he told The Courier. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donors again have been conscious of this and some of their interventions have reflected this concern. For example, Canada is providing funds for the establishment in Douala (the commercial capital) of a centre for the development of private enterprises. Meanwhile, the Chinese have promised to provide CFAF 7bn to enable a line of credit to be opened for small and medium sized enterprises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government itself is puting in place a number of incentives, according to Minister of Trade and Industry Eloundou Mani Pierre. The liberalisation of the economy and the reform of the customs regime in collaboration with UDEAC, to which Cameroon belongs, are part of these. Mr Mani told The Courier that with a population of under 12 million, Cameroun's most important market was Central Africa. He also, perhaps surprisingly, has high hopes for the new World Trade Aareement. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon meanwhile is reviewing its plan for the establishment of export processing zones with the help of its main donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also looking at other ways of attracting foreign investment, particularly in 'value-added' enterprises involved in the processing of locally available raw materials such as cotton, cocoa, coffee and timber.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social and political peace</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second, and by far the more serious challenge facing manufacturing, is the problem of large-scale smuggling by petty traders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evidence of this abounds in the booming central market of Douala, where goods of all kinds can be found at very reasonable prices. Ironically the measures which were being taken and judged to be relatively effective against smuggling in recent years have had to be abandoned under structural adjustment rules imposed on the government.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As Mr Siaka pointed out, petty traders dealing in smuggled goods put pressure on enterprises, 'because they do not pay tax', and threaten to render domestic manufacturing uncompetitive. It is also widely acknowledged, however, that the small-scale traders, who dominate the informal sector, provide job opportunities to Cameroonians, which is important at a time of economic austerity. Indeed petty trading has arguably been the safety-valve, helping to ease the social pressures brought about by structural adjustment, and thus preventing civil unrest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the extent to which that safety-valve can withstand the emerging political pressures is a different matter. Democratisation, understandably, was one of the conditions imposed by donors for assistance to Cameroon. After a series of elections - presidential, legislative and municipal - which were marred by violence and deaths, there are still doubts about the health of democracy in the country. Indeed, there are signs that tension is  mounting. And few would dispute that if Cameroon is to succeed economically, it needs both social peace and political stability. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Jacques Santer commends regional  initiative</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Alex Kremer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission President's visit to West Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union's commitment to regional development in sub-Saharan Africa is as strong as ever, but sustainable development can only come from Africa's own initiative. This was the message delivered by Jacques Santer, President of the European Commission, in his address to African heads of state at the UEMOA (Economic and Monetary Union of West Africa) summit in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, on May 10.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'I wish to emphasise from the start,' Mr Santer declared to the Presidents of Benin, Burkina Faso, C&ocirc;te d'lvoire, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo, 'that the European Commission and the European Parliament are both determined to make our partnership even more dynamic and in tune with today's rapidly changing world.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The presence of the Commission President at the UEMOA summit marks a milestone in the European Community's support for regional integration in the developing world. With its own Commission, Council of Ministers and Court of Justice, the UEMOA appears to be consciously  following the supranational model of regional integration pioneered by the European Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sequencing of UEMOA integration, however, is almost the reverse of the European model. Already linked by a single currency in the CFA franc, the West African Union's member states are now pressing ahead with plans for integration of their 'real' economies. The implementation timetable agreed in Ouagadougou covers freedom of establishment, free movement of capital, mutual macroeconomic monitoring and the first steps to customs union with the harmonisation of external tariffs and the lowering or removal of intra-regional barriers to trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President Santer indicated that the European Commission is keen to discuss how the European Development Fund (EDF) can support these initiatives. Such aid could take the form of technical assistance and training as well as direct budgetary support to mitigate the short-term costs of customs union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UEMOA is not, however, an aid project. Its member states have designed it to stand on its own feet financially from the start. A 'community solidarity levy' was due to come into effect on 1 July 1996. The money will be used for a structural fund programme beginning in late 1997, as well as to finance the Union's operating costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meeting with the President of Burkina Faso, Blaise Compaor&eacute;, Mr Santer said that it was particularly significant that his first official visit to Africa as President of the European</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission was to Ouagadougou. Not only was it a reaffirmation of the partnership between Africa and the EU, and a statement of the EU's willingness to support regional integration in the developing world. It was also a tribute to the determination of the people of Burkina Faso and other African countries to promote their own development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community is Burkina Faso's second largest donor, contributing 10% of total aid payments in 1994. Since 1991, the EC has committed an average of ECU 45 million each year to development cooperation with this country, rising to a peak of ECU 100m in 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Santer visited the EDF-financed road improvement site at Tougan, close to the frontier with Mali, and noted that intra-regional transport links were an essential complement to the legislative programme of the UEMOA. He concluded his tour of regional cooperation projects with a visit to a photovoltaic pumping system financed by the EC under its West African solar energy programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, on a more personal note, the Commission President was able to drop in on a project managed by the charity Chr&eacute;tiens pour le Sahel. Mr Santer worked for this Luxembourg-based organisation before starting his career in politics and he was visibly pleased to see that it was still going strong - supporting home-grown African initiatives with a little financial help from the European Community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.K. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA - moving with the times</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) was inaugurated 11 years ago in Ede, Prince Claus of the Netherlands - whose interest in development issues is well-known - attestded as guest of honour. On 19 April, he returned to take part in the official opening of the CTA's new building in neigh bouring Wageningen in the Dutch province of Gelderland. The siting of the purpose built premises is significant. The town of Wageningen has long been an important European centre for agricultural research and the Dutch, of course, are renowned for their commitment to cooperation with developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CTA may only have moved a short distance from its previous headquarters, but the Centre's 38-strong staff are also aware of the need to move with the times when it comes to fulfilling  their role in the field of agricultural information. This point was particularly emphasised by CTA Director, Dr. R.D. Cooke in his presentation at the opening ceremony. Recalling the Centre's main tasks (see box) Dr Cooke spoke of the 'changing horizons and challenges' which they faced, and he focused on four specific aspects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first of these is the big change taking place in national agricultural systems, with the state withdrawing more and more in favour of the private sector and NGOs. This is being accompanied by a trend towards decentralisation with the result that the CTA has many more potential partners to cater for and work with.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Global liberalisation has also had an effect on the kind of information being sought by the CTA's 'customers'. In the past, demand was almost exclusively for scientific or technical information, notably aimed at increasing productivity. Dr Cooke reported that while this remained important, there was now  an increasing interest in marketing and socio-economic aspects to facilitate decision-taking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It came as no surprise to hear the Director highlight the challenge posed by new technologies such as electronic networking and digital storage. The key point here, he stressed, was to find ways of adapting these to ACP needs and realities. 'In the next century,' he argued, 'the haves and the heve-nots will be defined by their access to information.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, Dr Cooke referred to the growing significance of regional linkages. He indicated that the CTA was locking at ways in which it could help its partners to devise regional development programmes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The declaration signalling the official opening of the building was made in the preceding presentation by E.F.C. Niehe who is Deputy DirectorGeneral for European Cooperation at the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In his speech, Mr Niehe emphasised the relevance of the CTA, pointing out that while the world food situation had improved, 'we are now on the threshold of structural food insecurity'. He also spoke in more general terms about the future of ACP-EU cooperation and acknowledged that 'partnership, sovereignty and equality had been somewhat neglected' by donors. However, he suggested that these concepts were now 'coming back'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the ACP side, the Swaziland ambassador, CS. Mamba,who is co-President of the Committee of Ambassadors, took up the theme of food shortages in sub-Saharan Africa and identified some of the difficulties encountered by African producers, particularly in respect of new technologies and marketing. He also referred to the environmental challenges facing ACP countries, especially in the Caribbean and Pacific. He was keen, however, to stress that the picture was 'not entirely negative'. Thus, for example, new technologies and methods had had a positive impact on grain production in Zimbabwe, horticulture in Kenya, and cocoa and coffee in West Africa. Mr Mamba echoed Dr Cooke in stressing the advantages of regional markets, and concluded with a firm statement of support for continuing ACP-EU cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'History,' he said, 'will show that the Lom&eacute; Convention played a central role in the momentum of development.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The final speaker was Steffen Smidt, Director-General for Development at the European Commission, who suggested that the CTA had played a pioneering role in developing a sectoral  approach at a time when the focus of development cooperation tended to be on individual projects. 'The Centre', he said, 'has become a well-respected international institution in the field of agricultural information.' The Director General focused on the need for ACP countries to develop their own capacities and on the gap that exists 'between potential and reality', because of capacity limitations. The Centre, he believed, could 'help bridge this gap.' Mr Smidt also reiterated a point made earlier that the information flow should not just be in one direction. 'Information from South to North is vital,' he argued, to ensure better targeting of programmes in future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the speeches, guests had an opportunity to learn more about the CTA's work by speaking to the Centre's personnel and visiting a special exhibition illustrating the nature and purpose of the Centre's activities. _</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer About the CTA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CIA's tasks are: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - to develop and provide services which improve access to information for agricultural and rural development ; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - to strengthen the Opacity of ACP countries to produce, acquire, exchange and utilise information in these areas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Programmes are organised around three principal themes: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strengthening information centres - designing strategies for improving agricultural information services; - promoting use of new information technologies; - providing training; - donating books. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Promoting contact and exchange of: experience among CTA's partners in rural development - seminars; - study visits. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Providing information on demand - publication s; - radio and audiovisual materials; - literature services for researchers; - Question and answer service. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(The address of the Technical Centre for Agriculture and Rural cooperation can be found in the CTA section towards the end of the white pages in   this issue.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bananas, Hamlet and the Windward IsIands</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Martin Dihm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What do the Windward Islands' banana industry and Hamlet have in common ? Both are intrigued by the same question: 'To be or not to be.' But unlike Hamlet, whose fete was decided rather quickly and tragically, the future of Windward Canibbean banana production is still open. And what is more, Windward producers have a distinct advantage over Hamlet. They can hire consultants to analyse their problem and come up with fresh solutions. That is what has happened. But before turning to the solutions, what have the problems been ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The four Windward Islands; Dominica, St Lucia, St Vincent and Grenada, have long enjoyed preferential market access to the UK. This first permitted the creation of the industry and then secured its survival, even with production costs that are much higher than those of other producers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A traumatic moment came when the European Community had to decide on a common market regime for bananas. Coming into effect in mid 1993 the regime maintained the principle of preferential access for traditional ACP producers. Nevertheless, it introduced a move towards greater market liberalisation. Fierce attacks on the regime by certain of the EU's trading partners have raised doubts about its viability. The system is due, in any case, to expire in 2002 when even further liberalisation seems likely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this could cause great difficulties for the Windward Islands which still depend substantially on banana exports to the EU. A decline in prices since mid-1993 and the appearance of new competitors in the previously protected UK market have further underlined the need for the Windwards to compete in a more liberal arena. The Islands commissioned a study, funded by the UK and the EC, into the competitiveness of their industry and on ways of improving its position. It was not the first study of this type, but earlier ones had had no real impact on the industry which had always been sufficiently protected to avoid swallowing the bitter pill of adjustment. This time, it was clear from the outset that action would have to be taken if the industry were to master the new situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The study provided a wealth of interesting insights and recommendations. The first big surprise - at least for outsiders - was the discovery that the industry was wasting considerable amounts each year through certain deficiencies in governance, management and production methods. The second theme of the study was the poor banana quality resulting from an inappropriate pricing system. In effect, price differences paid to farmers were not sufficient to reward extra attention to quality aspects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The study's recommendations pertaining to management, production and quality were all agreed in a meeting on 29 September 1995, which brought together the Prime Ministers, the EC and other donors. Prime Minister Mitchell of St Vincent labelled this chance for the industry to get its business right as 'the last train to San Fernando'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What has happened since then ? After some hesitation, the industry has indeed begun to 'take up arms against its sea of troubles' (to return to the Hamlet analogy). The EC, for its part, has taken the part of Horatio, the faithful friend. Its role is a delicate one though - for the EC has a lot of money available. Take, for example, the ECU 25m allocated to St Vincent in the 1994 STABEX exercise (roughly five times that  country's national indicative programme). How are such funds to be injected reasonably into the islands without undermining their own strength and sense of purpose in pursuing the right strategy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To answer this, one has to look at the actual requirements. Streamlining the banana industry is less a question of big infrastructure projects than of providing expertise to guide the necessary structural changes. It also means fewer people will be employed in the sector. Aid should, therefore, focus on technical assistance, promoting diversification, and social 'cushioning'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge, of course, remains considerable and the outcome will not be known for some time. But it is clear that the Windwards have taken bold steps in the right direction and that further steps are on the agenda. There is also little doubt that the islands small, sweet bananas can only be competitive in their market segment if they are produced and marketed professionally, and with dedication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So what could Hamlet have learnt from this experience ? In short - get sound analysis and fresh advice from outside - and then boldly implement. And stick close to your good old friend, Horatio! </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.D.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">British beef overshadows Development Council</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most recent meeting of the EC`s Development Council was one of the first to be hit by the non-cooperation policy adopted by the UK in protest at the export ban on British beef. The Overseas Development Minister, Linda Chalker, announced at the outset to her fellow ministers: 'I will not be able to agree today to the adoption of those texts... on which unanimity is required'. Britain is seeking agreement 'for a step-by-step lifting of the export ban', which was imposed after scientific evidence suggested a link between Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) - and its human 'equivalent', Creuzfeld Jakob Disease. Cases of BSE have been recorded across Europe, but the vast majority have been in the UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Texts which were approved included a regulation on refugees in non-Lom&eacute; developing countries. This makes available ECU 240 million over a four-year period (19961999) for longer term assistance to refugees and displaced persons - mainly in Asia and Latin America. Also agreed were two three-year programmes covering Aids control and environmental projects respectively. They will cover the period 1997-1999, and each has been allocated the sum of ECU 45m. In addition, ministers confirmed a regulation on the criteria for disbursing humanitarian aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the British stance meant that a number of important resolutions were blocked, including a text on mounting projects which link emergency, rehabilitation and longer-term aid. Rino Serri, Italy's Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs who presided the Council meeting, said that once adopted, this approach would represent a 'qualitative leap for the EU's development policy.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other resolutions awaiting approval relate to the strengthening of coordination between Member States, evaluation of the environmental impact of development policies, decentralised cooperation, and migration and development. Since good headway was made on these subjects despite the British attitude, the texts are expected  to be speedily agreed once the UK lifts its veto. Ministers also had an initial discussion on a paper presented by Commissioner Pinheiro on preventing conflicts in Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As is customary at these biannual meetings, several delegations raised points of particular national concern. Belgium, for example, is worried about the Commission's proposal which would finally establish the single market in chocolate products while leaving Member States the choice of adapting their legislation to allow a vegetable oil content of up to 5% in chocolate. Belgium feels that this approach could ultimately prove harmful to cacoa-producing countries and claims that it will be difficult to control the exact percentage of oil used. Sweden, meanwhile, wants action to reform the UN institutions while Italy is keen to increase public awareness of development policies. Finland emphasised the need for better coordination between the European Community and its Member States on environmentally sustainable projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Great Lakes region</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was backing for the June Round Table meeting on Rwanda organised by the UNDP, as well for the various diplomatic initiatives aimed at bringing stability to the Great Lakes region. On 27 May, the ministers dined  with Emma Bonino, the European Commissioner responsible for humanitarian issues, and with former US President, Jimmy Carter, who has played a major role in the search to find a solution to the region's problems. Others active in this effort include South Africa's Archbishop Tutu, and former Presidents Nyerere and Tour&eacute; of Tanzania and Mali respectively. Ministers also commended the efforts of the UN and the OAU.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Serri said there was a 'desperate need for a ceasefire' in Burundi and called for a 'speeding up of the peace process and full deployment of available humanitarian and development aid.' He told journalists it was vital for the EU to make special efforts to strengthen the judicial systems in Rwanda and Burundi - 'so that the justice system can work properly and identify those responsible for the genocide.' He pledged that 'substantial resources' would be made available once peace is secured. Ministers also called for a control of arms sales to the region, although they have no power to legislate in this area, which remains the preserve of the Member States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside the meeting place, Senegalese fishermen and NGOs joined forces to mount a protests against the effects of traditional EU fisheries agreements. These provide financial compensation to governments in exchange for access to their waters for EU vessels, but the protesters claim that they harm local fishing industries and disrupt food supplies. A significant number of agreements are due to come up for renewal later this year. NGOs are lobbying for a new and 'fairer' type of accord which provides for catch reductions, more selective fishing methods and the employment of locally-hired fishermen on EU boats. These proposals are all set out in a paper entitled 'The Fight for Fish: Towards Fair Fisheries Agreements,' published by Eurostep, a Brussels-based NGO. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Country report</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Cape Verde</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Making the best of history</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde has been shaped by the harmattan, the hot dry wind which blows from Africa, strong ocean currents and five hundred years of Portuguese colonialisation. Portugal has been a constant presence in the archipelago's history since the fifteenth century, when it granted the colonists who were to settle on the islands of Cape Verde a monopoly over the slave trade. The country became an interface between Africa, Europe and the Americas, at the centre of the triangle of trade in slaves, hardware and gold. The intermingling of black populations of every origin who  passed through the islands meant that the country was unable to present a united face against the colonialist culture. The colonists were therefore able to impose their own culture, with their fervent and proselytzing Catholicism becoming the principal ingredientin the mixture that is Cape Verde. Strong, scorching winds from the desert have shaped the islands' landscape and inhospitable ocean currents mean that approaches to the islands are difficult, their rocky cliff faces plunging into the sea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mythical Portuguese colonial oasis</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Up to the eighteenth century, Cape Verde was no more than a commercial centre for Portugal, its population at the end of that century barely exceeding 50,000, to be halved by the great drought between 1773-75. Other periods of drought regularly decimated the population and the arrival of new colonists and slaves did not offset such losses or compensate for the massive exodus which began in the early nineteenth century with the arrival of American whalers in search of crew members for their ships. Seven hundred thousand Cape Verdians currently live abroad, half of these in the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only four hundred thousand  have stayed in their own country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the beginning of the twentieth century, a period which signalled a turning point in the country's history, the population still numbered no more than 150 000. At the time, major sea voyages were being undertaken and Cape Verde's geographical location was highly valued. Mindelo, on the island of S&atilde;o Vicente in the north of the archipelago, developed as a coal-and-watersupply port for English vessels plying the route between India and the Americas, and England helped construct this port. However, Portugal's policy towards Cape Verde was double-edged. On the one hand, the islands were regarded as a natural extension of the home country, but as a competitor in terms of port activities. This led to Mindelo's slow development, although the trade in  skins, fishery produce, coffee and salt  could have made it a thriving centre. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mixing of races in Cape Verde has often been held up as, so-to-speak, 'humane colonisation', but this opinion is not corroborated by the under-developed state of the country at the time of independence and the fact that Portugal implemented food security measures to combat the ravages of catastrophic famines only when under pressure from public opinion, at the end of the first half of the twentieth century. The island's colonists had always used slave labour to produce food or fabrics which enabled them to purchase more slaves and it was only when the slave based economy began to decline, which   resulted in the impoverishment of the colonists, that a major grouping of free Blacks and rebel or emancipated slaves came into being. That is when the intermixing of races began. Therefore, before the abolition of slavery (18641869-1878), the vast majority of the black population of the island was free; both unmarried and married colonists would generally emancipate their children born of a secret relationship with female slaves. The aristocracy and white upper-middle classes continued to live a cloistered, aloof life and did not mix with other races. A second factor which would suggest that Portuguese colonisation of Cape Verde was sympathetic in outlook is the reputation of this small country's intellectuals; although colonisation created only a small intellectual elite which was the product of a single institution, the Mindelo College, opened in 1917. In a quote by Michel Lesourd, Deirdre Meintel refers to this phenomenon as the mythical 'cultural oasis'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A nation born of a middle class in tatters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through its contradictions, it was this black, mulatto and 'petty white' middle class which was to forge the mixed-race culture and national identity, caught between its own privileges and its aspirations of aristocracy, between its rejection of African culture (they sought a 'lusotropical' culture) and the need to find allies amongst the lower classes who retained African cultural values. In order to acquire the wealth and attributes of power, this middle class was to take over the lands vacated by the decline of the slavebased economy and which were often much improved by the former slaves (renamed 'tenant farmers' without a major change in their living conditions) preventing a major economic upheaval which could have put an end to this iniquitous system. Their wholesale appropriation of land explains why, today, there is a very high proportion of landless farmers in Cape Verde, seasonal agricultural workers who survive only thanks to the State's welfare system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This petty bourgeoisie was to give birth to growing awareness which would lead to calls for independence. Officially, Cape Verde was not a colony but a province, and its inhabitants in theory had the same rights or lack of rights as Portuguese citizens in Salazar's 'New State', where the right to vote depended on social and cultural status. In other Portuguese territories, members of the petty bourgeoisie held the rank of colonial administrators and, from their ranks, the pro-independence movements emerged. Such was the case of the PAIGC (Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde pro-lndependence Party), created by Amilcar Cabral, a symbolic figure in Africa's striuggles for independence and Cape Verde's national hero. He was assassinated in mysterious circumstances in Guinea-Conakry in 1973. His brother, Luiz Cabral, was to become president of Guinea-Bissau, and Aristides Pereira his successor as Party leader and Cape Verde's first president.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's uneventful transition to independence in July 1975 mirrored Portugalts Carnation Revolution and was quite unlike the fierce war entered into by Portugal in Mozambique and Angola. There was a clandestine struggle during which a number of combatants were imprisoned, but there was never any real guerilla warfare. The Portuguese governor remained at his post until he was replaced by an ambassador. The PAIGC was to govern both Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde until the coup d'&eacute;tat against Luiz Cabral in Guinea-Bissau in 1980, when it adopted the name of PAICV in Cape Verde, thereby signalling the end to any dream of a union between the two countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diplomatic ventures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new state pursued an even-handed diplomatic approach and accomplished the considerable diplomatic feat of remaining equidistant between the Cold wer's principal adversaries, adapting over time to all the changes which occurred on the world  scene. Post-independence, embassies were opened by the United States, China and the Soviet Union. Cape Verde, with its marxist leanings, maintained the former links created with apartheid South Africa by Portugal. The arrival in power of a liberal party had no effect on this diplomatic tightrope-walking act. It was South Africa which was to provide aid to build the international airport at Sal. Ironically, after the establishment of democracy in South Africa, it was at this very airport that President Mandela was to stress his desire for strengthened links with the archipelago. Latterly, Cape Verde has demonstrated this flexible in its recent decision to Join the group of, French-speaking countries whilst still regarding itself as a mouthpiece for the Portuguese-speaking world, enjoying a privileged relationship with Portugal, the Azores, Brazil and African countries where the official language is Portuguese. It is also a very active member of the CEDAO (Community of West-African States) and its President is currently chairman of the CILSS (Inter  national Commitee to Combat Drought). Cape Verde receives as much aid from China as from the US, from Russia and Sweden as from Cuba and Japan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This diplomacy is in keeping with the atypical 'Marxist' Party which first initiated it. With its interventionist approach to economics, its highly developed social policy which gives priority to education, health and combating unemployment through public welfare, this party could be regarded as a socialist party, yet it opted decisively for a market economy. Its single-party structure mirrored the example of would-be popular democracies, but it never set up a system of repression and terror: only one opposition member's death is said to have taken place in suspicious circumstances on the island of Santo Antao. The population was able to discuss politics at popular assemblies and held no fear of openly criticising the government and, in the case of the well-off, of displaying its wealth. A mudan&ccedil;a (change) was implemented calmly and collectedly by the PAICV when it was in power, sowing the seeds of its own downfall. With no pressure from street demonstrations and no insistent demands from political classes, the government of President Aristides Pereira and Prime Minister Pedro Pires adapted to the new situation created by the fall of the Berlin Wall. In early 1990, the PAICV gave up its privileged position as the single party and, one year later, at the legislative elections in January 1991 and presidential elections in February 1991, Africa witnessed the first democratic overthrow of a single-party government which had achieved independence. After the legislative elections, the PAICV, which had placed too great a reliance on being credited for its good governance, was silenced. The desire for change was too great and the position adopted by the Catholic church, anxious to punish a party which had dared to opt for a referendum on abortion, did the rest. President Aristides Pereira's personal prestige stood for little in the full face of this onslaught.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What change?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister Carlos Veiga, who had founded the MPD only eight months before his overwhelming success in the 1991 elections, became the new figurehead in Cape Verde politics. His power sharing with Antonio Mascarenhas Monteiro was again successful at the most recent elections (December 1995 and January 1996). Shortly before the poll, the MPD experienced a near-fatal split, but the new party which emerged, the PCD, had only one representative as against 50 (an absolute majority) for the MPD and 21 for the PAICV, which continued to exist. Three other parties taking part in the elections fell by the wayside and the polarisation of Cape Verde's politics into two camps locks set to continue. This is the second time that the MPD has surprised its opponents - this time, the political adversaries had attacked the MPD's attempt to curry favour, but the majority of the electorate, concentrated on the island of Santiago, continued to show their appreciation of the visible signs of modernisation in their lives and also the government's seductive politics, particularly in the ran-up to the elections. The country had also had a good harvest and, although this was unconnected with the MPD, that party could only benefit from it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite what MPD leaders might say, there has been no real ideological split, any political reorientation having been instigated in 1990 by the previous regime when it threw off its socialist trappings. Diplomacy remains  pragmatic and the new government's liberal rhetoric and social policy, particularly in the areas of education and health, has essentially been maintained. Suspension of the State's collective works programme, the symbol of the State's interventionist social policy, is only temporary, according to statements issued by the Prime Minister, counter to several rumours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More visible changes have taken place in the economy: partial liberalisation of the banking system; legislation relating to foreign investment; suspension of the requirement for preliminary import authorisation; despite the government's backtracking as regards certain basic products; privatisation of State assets, particularly in the hotel business, etc. Here, too, the PAICV government engineered the changes, but it can surely not be criticised for maintaining a delicate balance between the new demands of the global village and the social practices of a country which is very poor, but which is succeeding in putting an end to its poverty and creating a modest quality of life, but a secure one. Given its bleak geographical location, Cape Verde is simply  continuing to make the best of history. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The economy: too weak to worsen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The arrival in Praia on 30 April of a throng of IMF officials cannot have failed to cause the government some concern, despite its air of calm. Ministers repeated publicly that Cape Verde had already carried out its own programme of structural adjustments, that they were on the same wavelength as the Bretton Woods institutions, and that they could not, therefore, see any reason why any further adjustments  should be imposed upon them. Nevertheless, the fact that the Cape Verde escudo has had rather a bumpy ride since last year's elections, trading sometimes by as much as 15% under its official rate on the parallel market, caused a certain degree of anxiety within financial circles, with the banks taking action by freezing certain credit facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government insists that this situation has by no means arisen because of a sudden anxiety raised by opposition parties as to the effects of possible devaluation The truth is that there is a genuine structural imbalance caused by the trade deficit, a disequilibrium which is only being partially offset by official development assistance and the transfer of currency by Cape Verde emigres. As a percentage of the GDP, the overall budgetary deficit has tripled between 1993 and 1994 (increasing from 3.3% to 13.6%). For a country which could always be relied upon to pay its debts promptly, Cape Verde is now, for the first time, in arrears with its payments (see the 1995 report of the Bank of Portugal). The servicing of external debts represents 25.7% of goods and services exported - although these are relatvely small compared with neighbouring countries - the country's total outstanding debt is now nearing $200 million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although Cape Verde is one of the LDCs (least developed countries) with a total GNP of approximately $850 per capita, out of a total of 174 States, it actually ranks 123 in the Human Development Indicator Tables, which take into account various factors such as life expectancy, education, etc. Its position near the middle of these tables clearly shows that, although the country is poor, its affairs are nevertheless being managed fairly efficiently. Boasting an adult literacy rate of 66% and a life expectancy of 64.7 years, Cape Verde is well ahead of those countries at the bottom of the list, which include a number of its Sahelian neighbours. Efficient administration of the State and the absence of rampant corruption are further feathers in the nation's cap. These achievements have earned Cape Verde much esteem from its sponsors, which goes to explain the prudence of the Bretton Woods institutions and their relative sympathies towards the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unkind Mother Nature</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's history has been punctuated by great famines. Between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries the country suffered no less than 30 famines, with this century seeing some of the cruellest: 16 000 people died in 1903-1904, the death toll in 1921 was 17000, in 1941-43 it was 25000 and between 1946-48 famine claimed 20 000 lives - a figure which at the time represented 20% of the total population of the archipelago. After the last famine, the colonial authorities, under pressure from international opinion, adopted food programmes which made the country more able to cope with the consequences of subsequent droughts. The last great famine ended 50 years ago. The nation may no longer be hungry, but the factors which make its inhabitants' lives so difficult remain. The  main reason lies in the country's geography. Cape Verde has virtually no permanent springs and the topography of most of the islands, which are very mountainous, means that heavy rain simply runs down to the sea, the parched soil being unable to absorb it sufficiently. What is more, these downpours simultaneously wash away the little arable land that do" exist, thereby aggravating erosion. The whole situation is further worsened by the fact that the winter in this Sahelian region is very short. Despite huge efforts by successive governments, barely half the population has access to drinking water, with this figure barely reaching 25% in rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a population of less than 400 000, there are just not enough people to pull off the miracle of making such an unforgiving soil bear fruit. Hence, although providing 50% of all jobs, agriculture represents only 17% of the nation's gross domestic product and produces only 10% of food consumed locally. The mountainous islands that make up Cape Verde are like teeth jutting out of the sea, and with virtually no continental shelf to speak of, small scale fishing is extremely difficult. Even with industrial equipment such as that installed on board large trawlers, catches are small - so small in fact that the country's fisheries agreement with the European Commission brings it only one million ECU over three years, one tenth of the proportional amount earned by neighbouring Senegal. Fishing thus represents less than 4% of the GDP.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mere survival - a</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Herculean task</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Transport difficulties are another handicap for the economy. The sheer force of the harmattan, the strong ocean currents and the fog which often covers the region, make journeying by boat between the islands frequently hazardous. In addition, the volcanic relief of the islands makes them difficult to reach and means that there are very few locations that make suitable har  bours. construction is both complex and costly due to the steep rocky barriers that seal off deep valleys. Those roads which have been built under the FAIMO scheme (Highly Labour-lntensive Projects) have sometimes turned into real labours of Hercules, and many areas, especially those on sparsely-populated islands, remain completely cut-off. The use of aeroplanes only partly solves the problem. Although competitive, the prices charged by the national airline, TAICV, are still too high for the average inhabitant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not only does the soil on Cape Verde contain very little water, it has virtually no natural resources: a few stones, lime, pozzolana and a little salt. Within the manufacturing sector (which makes up less than 20% of the GDP), only the construction and civil engineering industries, representing more than 10% of the GDP, contribute in any significant way to the economy, thanks partly to the transfer of currency from emigres who invest in the construction  sector and works with wide public interest. These works, known as FAIMO schemes, have to some extent given this impoverished country a gloss that masks its poverty. Launched after Cape Verde gained its independence, they employ more than 25 000 people for up to ten months of the year in the construction of paved roads or in reafforestation projects, and ensure the survival of one hundred thousand people - over one quarter of the population. The workers are on the whole recruited from among farm labourers, with another large section of the workforce being made up of 'Solteiras' or 'single women', numerous in a country where the male population is constantly emigrating. Unfortunately, the liberal option adopted by the present government has cast some doubt as to whether these projects will continue and this year, for the first time, work ceased in April - three months ahead of the usual termination date. Yet the poor wages which these seasonal jobs pay (ECU 2 per day) are sometimes the only source of income for some families.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only the tertiary sector shows a healthy balance of trade, accounting for  more than 60% of the country's gross domestic production, with the biggest slice of the sector going to the hotel industry, followed by the transport industry. Although, overall, Cape Verde's balance of trade records a large deficit, the balance of trade for the services sector generally shows a profit, with the transport services provided by the international airport, Amilcar Cabral de Sal, alone accounting for 13% of exports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Barely 10% of commercial goods are domestically produced and this has at times fallen below 5%. Cape Verde is therefore genuinely dependent upon foreign aid. Official development assistance represents 27.8% of the GNP (1989 figures), having risen from 17.7% to 27.2% of the GNP between 1980 and 1986. Cape Verde also relies on a second source of income - its emigrant population. In 1990 the currency transfers of its emigres represented nearly 20% of the GNP. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The colonial heritage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributing too to the country's poverty are relatively low educational standards. In this area too, successive governments have continued their predecessors' efforts to improve standards of education. However, at the time the country achieved independence, it was in a deplorable state. The reputation of a small intellectual elite of Cape Verdians had, over several decades, led the world to believe that Portuguese colonial rule had been 'enlightened'. This was a mere illusion. It was not until 1917, when the Mindelo grammar school was founded, that the country was able to claim an educational establishment of any cultural sophistication. The Mindelo school was the first state school in the country and it was to provide the nation with its first batch of 'home-grown' intellectuals. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, the Church, which was in charge of all matters educational, had provided basic primary education; then, at the end of the last century, it opened two secondary schools with the purpose of training students for positions in government and the civil service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even so, the Mindelo school remained an exception until the middle of this century. In 1950, no more than 5000 children received primary education and no more than 400 went to secondary school. Thirty years earlier, the figure was slightly higher, but Salazar, with his retrograde ideologies, saw education as dangerous and threatening and trimmed the number of schools on the islands from 150 to 60. True, Cape Verde was undoubtedly in a better state than other Portuguese colonies, but, with an illiteracy rate of 80% at the beginning of the 1960s, its position was nevertheless far from enviable. It was not until independence that any real progress was made, with 60% of children attending primary school in 1989 (the average for LDCs is 54%). However, this figure is still well below the average for developing countries, which stands at 90%, and even now, only 13 % of children have access to secondary education. As for higher education, this is virtually only available abroad; in Europe, Brazil, USA and Cuba, in particular.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serious health problems still exist, exacerbated in particular by the scarcity of water. The cholera epidemic which has struck several African countries over the last two years has killed over 150 people in Cape Verde. The prevalence of AIDS exceeds the average for sub-Saharan Africa, with more than 2000 people being HIV positive and with some one hundred having developed the full-blown disease. According to official figures, 70 have died of the disease. The cholera epidemic which, unlike previous epidemics has affected towns much more than rural areas, is a sign of the deterioration of sanitary conditions in towns - particularly in Praia - affected by a lack of water, a dilapidated sewerage system and overcrowding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anchoring the country's economy in its culture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet, through all the doom and gloom, a small miracle is taking place in Cape Verde. Despite such a heavy burden of poverty, the country has, since gaining independence 20 years ago, managed to clamber up the league tables notably in the essential areas of health and education. Life expectancy at birth, which was only 52 years in 1950,  had increased in 1992 to 64.7 years, better than the average for developing countries and 13 years more than the average for sub-Saharan Africa. The infant mortality rate which stood at 110 per thousand in 1960, had dropped drastically to 50 per thousand by 1992, while virtually all children now receive essential vaccinations. Malaria is also now rare. In 1988 the GDP of Cape Verde amounted to only C.V.Esc 20 billion ($289 million), in other words, 6.9% of the GDP of Trinidad and Tobago, and 16.6% of that of Mauritius. But it is growing steadily. From 1980 to 1988, it grew by 6% per annum, compared with 3% per annum for the Sahel, and since 1980 the GDP per capita has doubled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The solution the nation's leaders should be seeking is greater integration in the global economy context by encouraging foreign investment. They do not need to create free zones but free enterprise, such as the shoe manufacturing concerns which, over the last two years, have contributed to achieving a considerable increase in exports. Various steps have been taken to attract investors, such as the adoption of the principle of tacit acceptance of applications for investment within 30 days. The Prime Minister, Carlos Veiga, and the 'Super-Minister' for Economic Coordination, Antonio Guelberto do Rosario, have highlighted the service, tourism and fishing industries as top government priorities. In order to develop these areas they intend to invest in infrastructures, with the aid, of course, of foreign backers. The modernisation of the port of S&atilde;o Vicente and of the international airport of Sal are currently underway, and the telecommunications project to link the islands by cable has also already been launched. The government's short-term plans also include the development of industries connected with the islands' culture. In the words of Mr Veiga: 'We in Cape Verde should develop our culture and use it as our anchor, to prevent our country drifting into oblivion. That way, our tiny country, which is fortunate enough to have a strong cultural identity, will be a Nation rather than a just a State'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.G. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with President Antonio Mascarenhas Monteiro</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A wealth of culture and a realistic approach to diplomacy: Cape Verde's two major assets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How the current government differ from the former administration which had Marxist leanings ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The two eras are distinct from each other in that, since 1990, the Cape Verde people have been able to choose a life of freedom and democracy. Before that, for the   first fifteen years after independence, there was a single-party system. So it is also valid to speak of a break - a break with the way in which institutions used to function at a political level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The single-party era does not seem to have been as strict as in other countries and the current regime appears to be continuing along the same lines in some areas. Was the former administration not, to some extent, responsible for initiating the change which has taken place ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No, that's something else entirely. I often say that we had a civilised single party, and I assume that is what you are referring to. However, it is not possible to speak of continuity when formerly we had a single party and now we have moved on to a system where there is freedom of expression and new parties can be set up. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Admittedly, the single party did initiate a change when it created the conditions necessary for the advent of democracy. It removed the infamous Article 4 from the constitution, which seates that the PAICV was the guiding force of society and the state. In fact, it was the PAICV which drew up the country's first electoral laws whereby we were elected. When I say 'we', I mean the party which is in power and also myself, President of the Republic. The single party thus opened the way to  democracy here: that much is undeniable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Am I also right in thinking that many of those who are in power today received their training in that single party ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - You are quite correct. When a change such as this comes about, one has to appreciate, and I do not wish to be elitist here, that it is the higher echelons of a party which lead the move towards change. Such people were there, working in the administration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Since politics gives direction to economic affairs, has there been a total turnaround in this sector, with a clear decision to opt for liberalisation and privatisation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Before 1990, we had a staterun economy. After that, the country's economy was opened up with a number of privatisations, fewer import restrictions, and so on. The word 'break' is also applicable in this area in that we now have a market economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Do you feel that the economy has really shaken off state control given that the govemment still manages important sectors, such as the price of raw materials ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That is necessary a market economy does not mean that the state is entirely absent. I am in favour of a market economy, but with state monitoring. As far as possible, the state has to correct the injustices which are necessarily generated by competition. This is not, as some would have it, ultraliberalism. The government is still entitled to monitor the economy, but the change has been greatest in terms of attitude, in terms of the way things are done.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Do you, like many leaders of developing countries, believe that the requirements set by international institutions as regards structure/ adjustment are too great ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We are not subject to compulsory adjustment - it is on a voluntary basis here. However, I do feel that adjustment, as implemented in Africa, sometimes has regrettable aspects. On occasion, it is asking a little too much to impose the same requirements on countries whose actual situations are very different. What is applicable to Nigeria is not necessarily suitable for S&atilde;o Tome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The 1992 constitution switched Cape Verde over from a presidential system to a parliamentary system. As President of the Republic, do you fee/ trapped by this constitution ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Cape Verde's constitution was never a presidential one. The system under which I was elected is effectively 'semi-presidential'. Admittedly, the constitution which was approved by Parliament in 1992 reduced the powers of the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President, particularly as regards the right to dissolve Parliament - which was unrestricted in the 1980 text. The revision was made to permit democratisation and ensure the proper functioning of the institutions, and it was therefore fairly wide-ranging. Now, in order to dissolve Parliament, the President has to have the support of the Council of the Republic, which means that his hands are tied to some extent. Previously, the President could also dismiss the government, without too many restrictions. I would say that the President's prerogatives have undergone a substantial reduction in comparison with those exceptional powers. As for the rest, things are as they were. In a semi-presidential regime as that envisaged by the 1980 constitution, the President has no executive role.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You seem to have chosen to play the role of 'wise man' Some observers think you give the Prime Minister too much leeway.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - They are wrong. The Prime Minister's post is conferred on him by the constitution. He is Head of Government and it is he who governs. I cannot govern in his place. What is true is that there is a great deal of ignorance - people do not restrict themselves to their own fields and attempt to teach lessons in subjects they are unfamiliar with. Germany has a parliamentary  regime like we do - what is the position of the President of the Republic in Germany? If you were to ask a Cape Verde intellectual for the name of the President of Germany, he would be unable to answer you. The parliamentary regime does not give the President of the Republic any powers to run the country. I do not know what the Prime Minister can have taken away from me because I have no power for him to take over. However, I would say that, here, the President of the Republic does have a fairly high profile, in spite of his reduced powers, because all the country's citizens know him. In terms of foreign policy, he plays a significant role in that he represents the country abroad. I attend international conferences like the Rio Summit, go to meetings of the OAU and sign international undertakings on behalf of my country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The President is also the guarantor of the new democracy, which observers seem to regard as well-established. But there still seem to be some bad habits. For instance, I have heard criticism of MPD power and of the fact that state  resources are made available to one party at election time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Look, this is criticism from the government's opponents - it is a normal state of affairs and happens everywhere. Any party, in any country, which has a parliamentary majority, can govern easily. This is possible, even when the majority is very small - and even in Europe. Look at Portugal when Cavaquo Silva was Prime Minister. There were people who said it was a PSD State. You will be familiar with France when Pompidou and even de Gaulle were in power, and Francis Mitterrand used to speak of a Gaullist state. As far as the election campaign is concerned, I am not aware of the government here having monopolised state resources and I don't believe this has happened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Another important factor involved in democracy is the press. Several journalists from the private media sector are awaiting a decision from you on a number of points - for example the lack of pubic support for the private press - in contrast to thestate-run press which has access to all that it needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - What decision are they waiting for ? Do they want me to decide in favour of resourcess being given to the private media ? I have already done that on a number of occasions. Recently, I had a meeting with the Prime Minister and I brought this matter up. He told me that it was something that was currently being considered. Sometimes, however, I get the impression that some of my critics want me to do the work of an opposition leader and to oppose the Government. That is not my job. I think that the President of the Republic, in a regime such as ours, ought to be a unifying force and not someone who foments political tension and instability. That is something I have always tried to avoid, but I do have sufficient courage to tell the government and the Prime Minister exactly what I think and I have actually dared to criticise them publicly several times. I am sole judge of the criticism I make, and I decide if it is appropriate and also when the time is right. Sometimes, people would have   me criticise the government according to a timetable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A number of journalists in the private sector are currently being prosecuted and these actions nearly all originate from sources close to the government Surely if they were actually acting unprofessionally, we would see legal actions from parts of society, such as business, and not just from the political class.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The reason for this is very simple. It is the political class that they vilify. I myself have been insulted on a number of occasions and, despite having put up with it for five years, I have not instigated any lawsuits. There was one case which was taken seriously by the Attorney General's office and there  were other cases when the Prime Minister was called a thief. I would ask you, is this a normal state of affairs ? Does freedom of the press mean that it can call a Minister or the Mayor of Praia a thief? Is that what is meant by democracy ? You have to be aware of the background to these court cases - and there are a good many of them, some dating from 1991. They are not designed to 'get at' any particular newspaper. The reason many of these cases have been brought is because serious insults of the kind we are talking about are a crime. That is true of even the most advanced democracies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In economic terms, Cape Verde does not appear too badly off. But some economic indicators do give rise to concern, notably the big gap between the export and import figures. How do you see your country's future when it no longer relies so much on international aid ? Do you believe in the dream of many of your fellow countrymen, that Cape Verde will be Africa's 'little dragon'?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Unlike some people, I have never spoken of becoming a dragon. I don't like this expression. I do believe that, despite our enormous problems - Cape Verde has few resources and we have been in the grip of drought for many years - it does have a number of assets. We are capable of making progress and I believe that there are a number of promising areas which have already been identified: for example, fisheries, tourism and even 'foreign' investment. We have to be optimistic about Cape Verde's future. We are in a difficult situation, everyone knows that, but we are a hard-working and courageous people and our prospects are good. The country will be able to forge ahead.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-On the diplomatic front, Cape Verde appears something of an expert at maintaining good relations with different regimes: for instance, with both Israel and the Arab countries, with China, and with South Africa before and after apartheid. How do you manage this ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - There is no magic formula. Since independence, Cape Verde has tried to adopt a realistic and pragmatic foreign policy. We are a small country with no great influence on the international scene and we have to be on good terms with everyone. That is the principle on which we base our foreign policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cape Verde and Guinea Bissau used to be fairly close - do you foresee any future rapprochement, perhaps in some form of federation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is difficult to say. I feel that there is already a degree of rapprochement in progress, particularly in economic terms. Recently, we signed a civil aviation cooperation agreement, and there are opportunities for similar achievements in the fisheries and shipping sectors as well. Relations between the Cape Verde and Guinea Bissau governments are excellent but, to my mind, the idea of our forming a federation is out of date. It would not be in our interests nor in those of Guinea Bissau. We do, however, intend to develop a closer economic relationship and our political relations are very good indeed. I would wager that our partners in Guinea Bissau would give you a similar analysis of the situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-In cultural terms, can it be said that your country has succeeded in becoming a multi-ethnic state ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The important thing is that the Cape Verde people should have their own identity; that there should be a specific Cape Verde culture. What I would say is that all the citizens of Cape Verde are proud of their culture and citizenship. This constitutes a great source of strength for a country such as ours which has major challenges to overcome. Our culture is also an asset in our country's development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview with Aristides Lima, leader of the Opposition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'The government owes its victory to abuse of the electoral system'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· As main leader of the Opposition, what are your views on the fact that the governing party has recently been reelected ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I believe the country's economy is in crisis. Growth rates are not very high, just like in the 1980s, for example, and there is a high level of structural imbalance. Unemployment has increased: in 1990, unemployment stood at approximately 25% and now it is 30%. There used to be 25 000 people who worked in what we call the high intensity labour sector and who had a job for about 10 months of the year. They were recently laid off early. Such jobs were part of a social programme which, amongst other things, enabled us to build roads. The prices of staple products, such as sugar, maize and rice, which were stable, have just gone up, and the price of cement, which was also controlled to promote economic growth, is no longer subject to the same control and I can foresee this giving rise to many problems in areas outside the towns and cities. In Praia, a 50-kg bag of cement used to cost 440 escudos and, although that price will stay more or less the same, on islands like Fogo, it will go up to about 660 escudos. This will generate problems for economic growth and a number of major projects in the tourism sector, for example, will suffer. The balance between exports and imports has also been adversely affected in that the level of coverage of imports by exports has fallen, despite announcements to the contrary made by the government.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· From 1993 to 1995, exports tripled in volume, if the government is to be believed. What are your thoughts on that ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The problem is that, in this country, some exports rely on the import of considerable amounts of raw materials. For example, in S&atilde;o Vicente, there is a shoe-manufacturing plant which gets its supplies of raw materials from abroad. The same applies to fishing and a number of fisheries products, such as anchovies, which are still canned in S&atilde;o Vicente but which have to be imported from Chile or elsewhere. This causes great problems when it comes to managing the country's foreign currency reserves, which have fallen markedly. In 1990, reserves provided over 6 months' coverage for imports, but now we have to operate in terms of weeks or even days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nevertheless, the government could say that it is not responsible for the economic picture you have just painted because the world economic situation is hitting all small countries harder.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No, the government is responsible, because it has been unable to implement the appropriate liberalization policy. For example, this should have been applied gradually to the trade sector, but the government rushed in and has now had to backtrack on goods which needed import authorization. What happened was that it lifted this authorization requirement but has now  had to bring it in once again. And another thing, the policy of liberalization has not been accompanied by very high levels of foreign investment and, in addition, the country's skilled workers feel marginalised, all of which goes to make the situation worse. As for structural adjustment, the government has always supported the idea of 'less State equals a better State', but, in practice, we have seen spending on the State's everyday activities go up and up. Civil service staff levels have now risen to about 12 000, compared with the former 10 000. However, increased spending is also a result of a not always equitable wages policy - the difference between the highest and lowest salaries is huge and, in some public bodies, one worker might be earning 15 times as much as another.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· According to the Minister for Economic Coordination, the currency is under pressure as a result of the Opposition's irresponsible scare tactics of announcing a future devaluation, leading to the stock-piling of currency and goods, a kind of artificial speculation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's a very good way of offloading one's responsibilities - the Opposition did no more than criticise the government's policy and point to the   facts of the situation. It was members of the government themselves who acknowledged the low levels of currency reserves and the State bank which suspended transfers abroad. The Minister would have people believe that the Opposition lacks any credibility so how could this same Opposition have any influence on peoples' behaviour? The problem is actually extremely basic: economic operators, society and foreigners are not really au fait with the country's real economic situation because the government does not issue information, which is one of our basic criticisms. Parliamentary representatives and political parties no longer receive the figures they need and the latter are sometimes forced to consult foreign sources or to rely on their personal links with people who are close to sources of information. I myself criticised the Prime Minister for adopting this attitude of regarding information as subversive. I asked the Prime Minister for a copy of the study on Cape Verde's economy by a Portuguese professor, which had been paid for with tax payers' money. I never received it. For our part, we hope that Cape Verde's partners will be able to recognise the true situation and persuade the government to act in a more equitable manner.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nonetheless the people cannot be too disappointed, because they reelected the government for another term.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That could be explained in many ways - the government controls information and therefore holds the reins of power. It controls television, radio, part of the print media, and the private-press sector is fairly weak, so it has been able to manipulate information and give people the idea that the country is on the right track. The government did do things to change peoples' lives, but it exaggerated its achievements using the State social communication means available to it. In fact, it did not achieve the major objectives it set itself: firstly its fight against unemployment - a failure. Balancing foreign economic relations - another failure. Balancing the domestic  economic situation: differences between our various islands have become more acute. In matters of health, Cape Verde made major advances when our party was in power and, although, to all intents and purposes, the health sector is just as good when compared with other African countries, it has, in fact, deteriorated. Diseases which had been eradicated from the country are returning, like malaria, for example, cholera, etc. Health services are concentrated in the capital city, Praia, and there is no decentralisation, which has negative effects on even links between carers and patients. Humanism shows the effects of a situation such as this, and it applies not only to health: there is an unfair distribution of State financial resources between the central government and local government. The State has been unable to reform local finances and has politicised transfers of funds to those districts which are closest to it. The government has also profited from the structural problems encountered in the working of our democracy. One of these structural problems is Parliament's weakness: it sits only three times a year and the representatives do not work full-time - they are sometimes employed by the administration which they are supposed to monitor. Democracy has a price and although savings can be made in other spheres, when one is  seeking good governance, one of the conditions for which is a strong, functional and effective Parliament, this is not possible. The weakness of the private-press sector is yet another problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-And are you continuing to work in the administration ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I am a 'full-time' parliamentary representative. There are now about 10 out of 79 representatives who work on a full-time basis. They are members of Parliament's office, chairmen of committees and parliamentary leaders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The government says that it inherited a serious state of affairs when it took over power from the PAICV.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is simply not true that the good life began with this government's accession to power. Here's a little history lesson: think back to colonial times. Admittedly, there were negative aspects to our time in power but you must remember that the PAICV did, in fact, leave in place the subjective.  physical basis for the new policy direction. When we achieved independence, Cape Verde had no ports or airports, apart from small-scale port facilities at S&atilde;o Vicente. We built the port at Praia, the port at Sal, the port at S&atilde;o Nicolau and a number of airports. The telecommunications system was also set up by the PAICV government and we implemented the initial educational reforms. In the 1980s, the GDP growth rate was 7%and the per capita income was one of the highest in Africa, more than $820.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The party in power describes the PAICV as marxist and non-democratic claiming that it was they, not the PAICV, who introduced democracy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That is nothing more than rhetoric, because all of the current governing party's members were in the PAICV - they were radicals, more marxist than anyone. Everyone knows that here, in Cape Verde, we had a pragmatic party, not a marxist party, although marxism was a source of ideas for many people. The idea was not to build socialism here. In those days, we had an open, not a centralised economy and all trade was private. We always had a market economy and to describe us as non-democratic is idle rhetoric. The PAICV's ideology has always been one of national liberation based on political and economic independence, with power vested in the people. This was a normal state of affairs during a national liberation struggle and, although it would be true to say that we were influenced by a certain single-party model which had gained widespread acceptance in Africa, the single party here could not be compared with any other. Both the PAIGC and later the PAICV attempted to force people into taking part in citizens' assemblies in order to put forward suggestions to the candidates. The current Prime Minister, Mr Veiga, for example, was put forward by a militants' assembly - he was on the PAICV's lists and they used to sit one beside the other on the benches in Parliament. The regime was, I suppose, slightly paternalistic but it was the people themselves who were really responsible for national liberation, it was they who had an idea of justice, patriotism, of being African, which explains the total commitment of Cape Verde's people to our party in the struggle for independence and also the good results we achieved when in power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Why, then, were you not re-elected ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The party had been in power for a long time, with the same president, the same prime minister, the same president of the national assembly and virtually all the same ministers. People were hungry for change because the ruling elite had been in place for so long. The international scene, also, did not favour the old single-party system. Another element, too, was the Church, which fought us over the question of abortion. Perhaps I should point out that, from the very beginning, a section of the Catholic church was not in favour of independence, but younger members of the clergy, with more sympathetic feelings towards the population, supported us and, thus, we changed peoples' attitudes. The Church in Africa is a phenomenon worthy of greater analysis, particularly in Cape Verde, where, I feel, the current government was able to take advantage of the Cape Verde peoples) essentially religious nature to criticise us and present us as an anticlerical party. In fact, the situation is quite different: most PAICV leaders and militants are Roman Catholics and some church" were damaged by opponents in an attempt to discredit the party. Another example of abuse of the electoral system, apart from taking advantage of the peoples' religious nature, is the country's poverty. During election campaigns, the government make it easier for people to obtain food, and it also creates more jobs, en masse, but these disappear again after the elections - precisely as is happening at the moment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· As it is governed at the moment, Cape Verde is regarded by other countries as a 'star pupil'. Surely this is another success for the government ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Cape Verde has always been regarded as a star pupil because, here, our society is fairly homogeneous and there are no major social or ethnic imbalances. However, in my opinion, the future depends on changes at a structural level and such changes cannot take place unless we have a functioning parliament and a strong private press. I cannot deny that the government has had some successes, but I also believe that the people will have an opportunity to judge how it keeps its promises.  interview by Hegei Gouger</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A portrait of towns and cities with atmosphere</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It suffices for an unruly little bird to escape</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For, suddenly, Fire to spark, Night to dissolve</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The walls of every prison to cave in</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the tidal-wave battering</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amassed, in its untamed heart,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By a tiny breathless bird.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Mario Fonseca in 'La Mer a tous les coupe')</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most cities in the Third World devote all their energy to mere survival and there are few imbued with the same atmosphere as Mindelo - the very air  appears to brim over with art and good taste, beauty and sensuality. Our guide to the city speaks slowly, measuring his words, his delivery not an indication that he is searching for a translation, although it could be interpreted as an affectation, but matching the modulation of the language which is closest to his heart: 'I believe the air in this city is imbued with hedonism. Here, we mix work and pleasure - today is a holiday, but I am working. However, my day is not so rigidly timetabled that I cannot do some work and, since you have invited me out for a drink, take some time off to accept'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antonio Firmino, director of the Craft Centre, continues to tell us about his favourite city in the same steady language, a dreamy look in his eyes and wearing a Che Guevara-style beret. The tale he tells is the story of a tiny country which has fallen in love with culture: the actual building housing the Craft Centre used to be a school, the 'Mindelo Technical College', founded in 1917, the first secular educational institution. It was to transform the city into a cultural haven. The story goes that a certain senator named Vera Cruz, who represented the island of S&atilde;o Vicente in the Portuguese Senate, wanted to establish Cape Verde's first college. His peers objected, arguing that Mindelo had no building worthy of housing an institution of such a high standing but</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vera Cruz straight away replied: 'So, why not use mine?'. Thus, he casually handed over his private residence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Art even in the fish market</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How many inhabitants are there in Mindelo? According to Antonio Firmino, 'Just me and my friends'. How right he is. It would be impossible not to become part of such a captivating place. And so a long journey began, which included the creation of Claridade, a review (and cultural movement) established in 1938 by Balthasar Lopes, a writer and essayist of world renown who was born in S&atilde;o Nicolau but taught in Mindelo, and other great artists who were to make up the country's literary and artistic roll of honour. Claridade was to be followed by Certeza which was also to influence the cultural elite. Although historians and other commentators feel that Claridade did no more than praise Cape Verde's 'latinity', rejecting its African side, artists are unanimous in regarding it as the cradle of Cape Verdian intellectual culture and the soil which was to nurture Mindelo and make it such an extraordinary little town. The impression is that everyone here is interested in art - the local authorities encourage and help sculptors in their creative activities all over the town, making it a living museum: here, there is a painting by Antonio Concei&ccedil;&auml;o and, over there, a huge flat sculpture of couples in languorous embraces, by Ro and Anildo, an illustration of the marvellous hedonism evoked by our host.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The same assured but delicate touch of these two artists can be seen in the lobby of Fishpackers, an anchovy- and tunapacking company, this time in the form of a celebration of fishermen. One of the finest examples of this type of art, which can be seen everywhere in the streets and public places, is the sequence of four huge decorative-tile frescoes in the fish market. When Bela Duarte showed them to us, it was such a delight to see how much at ease this famous artist was in the company of the staliholders, to whom both she and her work seemed so familiar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over and above this hedonistic atmosphere, there is, in Mindelo, an eclecticism which can be detected just as widely in other towns and cities, which means that you can talk about painting with the President of the Republic, dancing with a factory manager and decorative tiles with the man in the street. And the latter is literally 'in the street' - the inhabitants of S&atilde;o Vicente, the capital, derive immense pleasure from strolling in its squares and narrow streets, and around the port. A little stall, looking like a sugar loaf in the middle of one of the city's many squares, opposite a grand hotel, opens up in the early evening just like a flower, attracting hundreds of people to it who come to quench their thirst, to converse or woo, and to dance to the music escaping from the terrace of the Porto Grande Hotel, which has just reopened after being privatised and modernised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is as if a dress ball were taking place on two different levels, one in front of the other, dancing to the same music and with equal pleasure: above, in an enormous gallery open to the sky, elegant guests (who include a small gathering of government officials and pretty Brazilian actresses who are here to film television soaps) and, down in the square, the dancing promenaders, full of admiration, almost stimulating those above.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verdian nights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like all the island's intellectuals, Antonio Firmino has a number of different jobs. In addition to running the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Craft Centre, he teaches 'nautical' English to would-be sailors, is an amateur painter and musician (he plays and composes for his wife, who is a singer). His spare time is devoted to writing a column. The Craft Centre exhibits, amongst other things, a large number of tapestries, an art form much prized in Cape Verde. These admirable examples are by Ju&auml;n Fortes, Juamo Pento, and a good many others, in particular Bela Duarte, Tchal&ecirc; Figueira, Lucia Queiros and Miguel Figueira, Mindelo's top artistic foursome who appear to be  involved in everything, including the frescoes at the fish market. Bela, who showed us her studio, her house and the fish market, does not conceal the joy she derives from colour and allusion in her pictures, tapestries or decorative tiles, ranging from the most distant abstraction to an anecdotal figuration, using her native land with its doleful nuances, soft cries and romantic strength as raw  material. Above all, there is convivial artistic writing: 'Resistencia', which is at first sight a tapestry and then a patchwork of colour and sinuous lines. Scarcely has the artist begun to explain her work than everything becomes clear: this is a story, in threads and colours, about drought, representing roots, energy, space and struggle, all part of the Cape Verdian soul. She is also paying homage to those weavers of traditional African loincloth (badiu) from Cape Verde from whom today's artists inherited their technique.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So, where to meet Antonio's friends? To find them, look no further than the Cape Verdian nights (noite caboverdiana), those gatherings which take place everywhere and resemble both a nightclub and an artistic association, all those present sharing a fondness for Cape Verde mingled with nostalgia and yearning. One such place is the Piano Bar, which was closed on account of the departure of its owner Chico Serra, another notable in local society, who was accompanying a friend, C&eacute;saria Evora, in her attempt to conquer new lands. Mission accomplished, Chico Serra is back and will soon be open for business again, his club's atmosphere just as intimate and warm as before - just enough room for his piano, his musician friends and others who come to sample grog and music.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa nonetheless</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mario Fonseca also adores Mindelo but he would not agree that that wind-blown city has a monopoly on art and culture. He is from an island in the lee of the wind, from Praia, capital of the island of Santiago and of the country. In his opinion, it is the whole of Cape Verde which is bubbling with creativity and he will enchant you with his tales of Praia and its old colonial district, the 'Plateau', which still retains much of the nostalgic character to be seen in the now yellowing photographs taken 50 years ago when the city was not so sprawling and the ambience of Sucupira market was almost tangible. He will also tell you everything about the island of Santiago, with Cidade Velha, the ancient capital  which was too difficult to defend against repeated pirate attacks. It bowed to Praia's supremacy and, today, has an old-fashioned feeling, nestling within a cove around the ruins of its castle, and dominated by the fort which perches above a cliff face. The architecture owes much of its charm to the predominant Creole style which is vaguely reminiscent of Portugal, in every pastel shade. Cidade Velha's central square is caressed by a gentle breeze and groups of young people can always be seen lazing around the monument to the slaves. Time seems to stand still. The pretty little white church whose walls are decorated with sheaves of bougainvillaea, Santa Maria do Rosario, is the oldest on the island and, indeed, along the entire West African coast. It was built in 1460 and the white marble paving in the central nave conceals the final resting place of grandees from colonial times, their epitaphs erased over five hundred years by the soles and knees of penitents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The director of the INAC (National Cultural Institute), responsible for Praia National Museum (which is soon to open its doors), is Mario Alberto de Almeida Fonseca, who once taught French in Portugal; he is a former administrator who has worked in Mauritania and Turkey, a translator and also a former regional manager of the national airline. In addition he is a poet whose works have been translated into several languages, including Serbo-Croat and Russian. Above all, he is an amateur connoisseur of the art and artists of his country. As the INAC's director, he is responsible for cultural events, exhibitions, shows, publishing and also the compilation of an oral record of the country's history and the preparation of  a Creole dictionary. The INAC's work also involves a major history of Cape Verde, the first volume of which has already been published. He will show you the future National Museum's collection, moving from one painting to another, from an old photograph to an antique cimboa, a type of locally-manufactured violin from the 1 9th century, or to an old Massachusetts galleon, testament to the past explorations of his people. You will first of all discover the works of artists from Praia such as Mito and Kiki Lima, not on account of Fonseca's chauvinism but because he feels he has to 'convert' the visitor who may have left Mindelo with the impression that that city is Cape Verde's premier cultural centre. There is also the music from the island of Santiago - the funana, the batuque, the fina&ccedil;o - all more African than the languid style so influenced by the Portuguese fado of this island's musical groups (Fina&ccedil;on, Bulimundo, Tuvaroes, Kod&eacute; di Dona or the great traditional style singer Nha Inacia Gomes). Gomes is a 'women of the people' whose musical heritage consists of no more than local tradition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was she who 'reinvented' jazz and whom Alberto Fonseca admires a great deal. Cesaria Evora, moreover, is not the first musician to publicise Cape Verdian music abroad: Fina&ccedil;on or Kod&eacute; di Dona, for example, have captivated many music-lovers, particularly musicians, in Europe and America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Chamber and the stage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Daniel Brito is not from Mindelo either. He is from Sal but confesses to having to pay regular visits to Mindelo, to immerse himself in that city's hedonistic atmosphere. For three years he has been director of the National Cinematographic Institute which was established in 1967 and is currently exhibiting newfound dynamism on account of the 'production tax' (4% of the filming budget, paid to the Institute and generally converted into a holding, which the State supplements to make the sum up to slightly more than 10% in co-productions). There is also an agreement with Portugal which encourages co-productions between the two countries, thereby enabling Cape Verdian technicians to receive their training. Brito is working on a local video-film-production project (TV viewers are very fond of such things) and wants to set up a major production centre to be made available to lusophone African countries and, perhaps, others. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Daniel Spencer Brito is also Sal's parliamentary representative (10 000 inhabitants), musician, writer/composer and guitarist in his own group, Madrugada. His talents include the composition of morna and coladeira pieces, as well as jazz-rock. At the end of May, the MP was due to appear in his own production at the Cirque d'Hiver in Paris, as part of the lusophone music festival. You could say that he divides his time between the Institute, the Chamber and the stage; however, he is also involved in research into copyright protection in Cape Verde. Daniel (it would never occur to you to call him anything else, even five minutes after making his acquaintance) always gives the same advice to anyone wishing to discover Cape Verde, namely to get to know the atmosphere of a tocatinha, spontaneous jam sessions which take place at one location or another, usually even more intimate than the 'Cape Verdian nights'. By the way, I almost forgot - by training, Brito is a vet, having studied in Romania. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Cape Verd-EU Cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sponsors are delighted at the full use of aid</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's physical characteristics - its small size, the fact that its territory is scattered over a number of islands and islets, its Sahelian climate (continually rendering it vulnerable to drought), the arid nature of the soil and its low population (under five hundred  thousand inhabitants) - might explain its high levels of poverty and mean that, in order to survive and develop, it requires considerable amounts of foreign aid. However, it is the effort made by this small country to stabilise its economy and to gain maximum profit from foreign aid which has attracted special attention from sponsors. Last year the European Commission decided to increase its contribution to Cape Verde's National Indicative Programme, within the framework of the Lom&eacute; Convention (tome IV, first protocol 199-95, seventh EDF) by 7%, i.e. an extra ECU 1.7 million. Cape Verde had already put virtually all the ECU 23 million allocated to it to good use, an indication of the government's desire to use the aid granted to the full.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When realism is a luxury</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is difficult to imagine an island inhabited by 160 000 people - the island of S&atilde;o Vicente, where the country's second largest city, Mindelo, with its population of 70 000, is located - having no source of drinking water. In former times, water was shipped in from the neighbouring island of Santo Antao, but Mindelo now has a number of seawater desalination plants, most of these provided by Israel, which meet 100% of its supply needs. The supply of both water and electricity is managed by</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Electra, a publicly-owned company, which, within the framework of the EDF (European Development Fund), has received European Commission aid to increase its electricity-generating capacity. It has set up three wind pumps, of Danish manufacture, which alone supply 13% of the island's non-industrial requirements. Elsewhere, such solutions as sea-water desalination and wind pumps might appear to be unrealistic but, for 160 000 people with no indigenous supply, realism is sometimes a luxury.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the island of Santiago, which is home to Praia, the capital city, does have some natural water sources, these are far from sufficient for its needs. One of the projects recently financed by the European Union concerned improvements to water-distribution systems, water purity and rainwater drainage. Amongst other things, this work involves the recycling of waste water which the island cannot afford to let drain away. Cape Verde's Achilles' heel is definitely its lack of water, its strong point unquestionably the dynamic outlook of its population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has an office on Cape Verde where the work done at Praia (water distribution and purity, support for poorer districts of the capital threatened with overpopulation) is regarded as symbolic of the EU's desire to take account of both weaknesses and strengths and represents the overall intention behind Community aid to this country. Generally speaking, such aid is geared towards infrastructures (water and electricity production and distribution, urban development) on the one hand and education and health on the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Praia's historic old town, the 'Plateau', with its wealth of fine colonial and neo-classical architecture, risks losing many of its buildings which have been abandoned by their owners who lack the means to maintain them. Community aid has also been provided to help save this part of the country's heritage. Funds are insufficient to finance a complete restoration of the 'Plateau', but, following the example of the Cape Verde government, which has maintained administrative buildings in good condition, the Commission will probably assume responsibility for renovation of a superb nineteenth-century building, the 'Case Cor-de-Rosa'. The purpose of this project is two-fold; not only will the building be restored, but also it will become the core of a more general project to train professionals in building techniques and restoration and it will serve as an example to motivate future purchasers, institutions, businesses and individuals to preserve the historic old town.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Community has also funded a study into the preservation of the capital's historic old town, which has been used as a basis by Praia Town Council. A project is currently underway, costing 1 million ECU, to restore an islet. The principal aim of this project is to train Cape Verdian technicians. Other work in the field of training has induded the building of the Praia Technical College. The next phase of this project, worth almost ECU 1 million, will fund the supply of equipment and teacher training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Still within the context of the overall project to develop Praia city, an EDF programme worth ECU 1.3 million has been created for the development of a designated area as an industrial site. A rural electrification project in the area around Praia was, at the end of 1995, granted a budget of ECU 1.5 million and will benefit a population of 7500 people living in the three most densely populated rural centres on the island of Santiago. The technical side of the works will be entrusted to Electra, with the private sector being responsible for supplying equipment and monitoring the works. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's 'essence' as a resource</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's leaders regularly point to the richness, which they term the 'essence', of Cape Verde, contrasting this with the fact that their country is so poor. Indeed, despite limited resources, this country devotes a great deal of energy and ingenuity to 'cultivating' its culture. Two projects, financed within the framework of the National Indicative Programme and amounting to ECU 500 000, concern two feature-length films and will play a part in lessening the island's isolation by publicising its culture and people abroad. The first film, made during 1995 and entitled 'llh&eacute;u de Contenda', is the first fiction-based feature film to be made in Cape Verde and is the work of Leao Lopes, a director who has drawn his inspiration from the work of another Cape Verdian citizen, Teixeira de Sousa, and which centres on the history of Cape Verde and the birth of its national identity. The EDF contribution (approximately ECU 250 thousand) amounts to 14% of the total production cost. The film is currently being shown in a number of European countries. Virtually the same amount of  money has been set aside to fund another production, this time by a Portuguese director, Francisco Manso, based on a novel by a Cape Verdian author, Germano de Almeida, and entitled 'O Testamento do Sr. Napuceno', which was being filmed on the island of S&atilde;o Vicente at the time of our visit. 50% of the finance for this film comes from Portuguese producers, the other co-producers being French and Belgian.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Others EDF projects recently completed or being completed include one for improving roads on the islands of Santiago, S&atilde;o Nicolau and Maio (ECU 3 million) and a micro-project programme (ECU 1 million). In addition to funds from the EDF, Cape Verde has received further finance under the Lom&eacute; Convention, including ECU 700 000 within the context of the Stabex transfer schemes to offset loses in the banana-production sector during 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Design a micro climate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extemal food aid is essential in a country which cannot meet its own requirements and the Commission's most recent food-aid-budget contribution amounted to nearly ECU 2 million. Other special budget lines include funds provided under 'Human Rights and Democratisation in Developing Countries'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To an attentive foreign visitor, one of Cape Verde's most interesting achievements is the progress it has made in reforesting such an infertile soil. One of these reforested areas, covering 5000 hectares (1990-94) forms the basis of a regional project to disseminate knowhow accumulated in this sphere in Cape Verde. Training course. have enabled technicians and others involved in the reformtation of the Sahel countries to gain experience in methods which have proved succesful here. The production and distribution of teaching tools (books, posters, films, etc.) supplement the project. Since independence, Cape Verde has achieved a tenfold increase in the amount of land which is forested - admittedly there was little to start with, but since climatic conditions are so hostile this result can be regarded as a major accomplishment. There is even a hope that a micro-climate might form. On the island of Santiago, in some of these new green areas, wild duck which had long since disappeared have returned. It is nice to dream but the country cannot afford to rest on its laurels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 4 033 km2 Population: 390 000 (1990) Population density: 97 per km2 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population growth rate: 2.8 % (forecast for the period 19922000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Praia (pop. 75 000)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other main town: Mindelo (pop. 65 000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Languages: Portuguese, Creole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currency: Cape Verde Escudo (CVE). In May 1996,1 ECU was worth CVE 104 ($1 = CVE 83 approx.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government: Mixed presidential/parliamentary system. The President is not the head of the executive but he represents the country and is guarantor of national unity and the Constitution. Unicameral Parliament. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President: Antonio Mascarenhas Monteiro (elected in 1991 and reselected at the beginning of this year) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Carlos Veiga (since 1991) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Political parties represented in Parliament:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Movimento pare a Democracia (MPD)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Partido Africano pare a Independencia de Cabo Verde (PAICV)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Partido da Convergencia Democratica (PCD) - formed as a result of a break away from the MPD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Party representation in Parliament: MPD 50, PAICV 21, PCD 1 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1992 figures)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP: CVE 23.9 billion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP per capita: US $840</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Origin of GDP by sector: agriculture 13%, industry 17%, services 70% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Real GDP growth (estimate 1995): 4% Balance of payments: deficit of CVE 11.9 billion </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main trade partners: Portugal, Spain, Netherlands, Brazil. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual inflation rate: 9.1%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth: 64.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Infant mortality per 1000 live births: 56 Adult literacy: 66.4% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education (primary, secondary and tertiary): 59% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.536 (123rd out of 174) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: UNDP Human Development Report, 1995; Economic Intelligence Unit 1995; 'Etat et soci&eacute;t&eacute; aux iles du Cap Vert, by Michel Lesourd. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p32a.png"></center><br>
+ Figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Europe</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Lom&eacute; Convention in focus</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poll results and new brochure launched in Brussels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new poll of Europeans high lights a deficit of information about the European Community's development policies. A brochure just published on the Lom&eacute; Convention, available in all EU languages, seeks to fill some of the gaps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At a press conference on May 21, Development Commissioner, Joso de Deus Pinheiro, unveiled the findings of a survey commissioned from the Brussels consultancy, International Research Associates (INRA). The aim of the exercise was to sound out how Europeans perceive developing countries. The sample was 16 346 people, of 15 years and upwards, who were polled in the 15 Member States during December 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The survey shows that since 1991, helping the poor in the developing countries has slipped in the 'league' of issues of most concern to Europeans. The subject now ranks eighth in a table topped by the fight against unemployment. But the better news is that Europeans believe development of these regions should be the fourth most important priority for joint actions between Member States. This comes just below combating terrorism, environmental questions and defending Europe's economic interests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While 82% of Europeans are favourable to development cooperation, 12% are against. The degree of support varies, as one would expect, from one EU country to another. Interestingly, the survey shows that Member States facing an economic squeeze are the most reticent, irrespective of their past track record in development aid. In Belgium, only 65% are in favour while in</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Austria and France, the figures are 69% and 72% respectively. At the other end of the scale, Greece comes out top with 97% just ahead of Spain on 96% and Ireland on 91%. INRA's explanation for this variation is that it reflects the economic problems which are increasingly being felt in northern states of the Community. It is also worth pointing out that nations on EU's southern flank may be more convinced of the effectiveness of aid since they themselves are recipients of EC structural funds allocated to modernise the Union's disadvantaged regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But INRA's report also reveals some misconceptions about European development aid. These, says Commissioner Pinheiro, may be attributed to the lack of visibility of the relevant development policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">57% of those questioned believe that the bulk of the Community's assistance consists of emergency aid, rather than longer-term project support. The reverse is actually true. More people answer 'no' then 'yes' to the question: 'Does aid contribute to reducing poverty in developing countries'? And most consider that United Nations agencies (UNICEF, UNESCO etc.) do more in the  field of helping developing countries than the EC. Non-governmental organisations also have a high profile, with the EU Member States and Bretton Woods institutions (IMF and World Bank) trailing behind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other key findings from the poll - which Professor Pinheiro says will provide much food for thought in the coming months as thoughts turn to cooperation after Lom&eacute; IV - are highlighted in the box.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mid-term review and beyond</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Professor Pinheiro feels that some of results, which signal the need to tighten up on the management of development aid, have already been addressed in the mid-term review of the Lom&eacute; Convention which will come on stream from the beginning of 1997. The programming of the eighth European Development Fund (EDF) is already well under way and, with a view to increasing the effectiveness of aid, just 70% of resources earmarked for each ACP state will be allocated at the outset (for a three year period). An analysis of how the remainder should be spent will take place at the end of the three years. In addition, Professor Pinheiro indicated that a 'strategic' document was being drawn up on each of the 70 ACP states prior to allocation of funds. This was being done in 'permanent consultation with Member States and Commission delegations, in the interests of achieving a real synergy between the two.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More sweeping changes to the relationship are likely after the current</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some key findings from the INRA report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Aid must reach its intended destination and arrive where it is needed 93.2%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Aid must meet the needs of the local people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90.7%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The beneficiary state must raspect human rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">85.1%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Transparency, effective public management and the fight against  corruption are essential</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The beneficiary state must respect an overall development plan put forward by an  international aid organisation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">78.3%  plan  put  forward</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by an  internati onal  aid  organisa tion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Aid must be used to fund action by local NGOs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The beneficiary state must have a democratic system of government</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">59.3%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">56.0%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Convention expires at the turn of the century. Professor Pinheiro indicated that a first draft (green paper) on the possible shape of the ACP-KU relationship after 2000 will be published by the Commission by the end of the year. This, however, is likely to offer more questions than answers about future cooperation. 'I am not sure if we should keep the Lom&eacute; structure for every country, in the third millennium,' the Commissioner told the assembled journalists, highlighting the different levels of development now apparent between Lom&eacute; nations. Mauritius, now well on the way to becoming the 'Singapore' of Africa, was a case in point. He also pointed out the small island states of the Caribbean are at a very different stage of development from countries such as the Central African Republic or Burundi. He added that, in deciding what to do in future it would also be necessary to take stock of regional developments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Questions about Lom&eacute; answered</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the meantime, efforts are under way to boost the image of Community aid. With this in mind, the Information Unit of the Development Directorate-General has just published a brochure entitled 20 Questions and Answers about the Lom&eacute; Convention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides explaining in a nutshell what the Convention is, it answers some of the questions most frequently asked by sceptics about the benefits of development aid and trade preferences, highlighting the positive aspects for developing and developed economies alike. It points out, for example, that for every ECU 100 spent on aid, the Community recovers ECU 48 in the form of projects, supplies and technical assistance purchased from European companies!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The brochure provides a succinct explanation of how the Commission monitors aid to stop embezzlement and corruption. It highlights the right of the European Court of Auditors to check accounts of projects and fund transfers - and to investigate documents in the Lom&eacute; states, without the permission of the country concerned. Another precaution is that once a project is under way, financing is by banker's transfer. This involves a paper specifying that the holder of contract X, whose bank account number is Y. should be credited with Z amount of money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An explanation is given as to why the European Commission is involved in development aid when the Member States have their own bilateral development policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The brochure explains the advantages of EC assistance over bilateral arrangements and details how the Lom&eacute; system has been evolving in line with the increasing globalisation of the economy, in particular since the fall of the Berlin Wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It also contains some pocket statistics on official development assistance (ODA) flows which help to underline the message that the European Union (Community plus Member States) digs deeper into its pocket than its industrialised competitors in providing development aid. In 1994, the Community and its then 12 member states (excluding Austria, Sweden and Finland), contributed an average of 0.40% of their gross national product in ODA. The individual percentages varied from 1.03% in the case of Denmark to 0.20% in Italy. This compared with figures of 0.29% and 0.15% for Japan and the United States respectively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, total ODA from the Twelve reached $26.59 billion. Of this, $4.83 billion came from the European Community in its own right. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The content of chocolate</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Months of heated debate in the EU over the maximum allowable content of vegetable fats in chocolate have culminated in a Commission proposal for a revised Directive which, claim officials, should be to the taste of most interested parties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has proposed that the 'subsidiatity' principle should apply to the content of chocolate. This means leaving it to individual Member States to decide whether they will allow the use of vegetable oil - up to a maximum of 5% by weight - in their chocolate-making. The eight EU countries where this practice is currently prohibited  are free to modify their laws to take account of this 5% rule. The other cocoa butter and dry cocoa contents specified in the Directive - 18% and 35% respectively - may not be reduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The addition of up to 5% vegetable fats was authorised under Directive 73/241 for the UK, Ireland and Denmark when they first joined the EC. Other Member States who acceded later - Austria, Finland, Portugal and Sweden - also use these oils in chocolate production. The remaining EU countries have continued to prohibit the use of vegetable fats - and the sale of chocolate containing such fats. The result has been a partitioning of the EU market, in direct conflict with the Single Market principle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the proposal is approved by the Council and the Parliament, all 15 Member States will be free to decide whether vegetable oil can be used in making chocolate. Whatever their individual decisions, however, the barriers will come down, thus opening up the 'pure' chocolate markets to competition from less expensive varieties containing vegetable oil. Stricter labelling rules will also be introduced, with the precise nature of any substitute oils being clearly indicated. The simple mention 'vegetable oil' will no longer suffice. Martin Bangemann, the Commissioner responsible for industry, stressed the significance of revising the Directive in allowing  chocolate products to circulate freely throughout the KU. This, he argued, would be in the interests of consumers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Winners and losers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Traditional cocoa producers such as Cote d'lvoire, Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon are fearful that the proposal may prompt some of Europe's 'pure' chocolate countries to change their laws - and that they will lose trade as a result. On the other hand, sheanut exporters in Burkina Faso, Mali, Ghana, Togo and Benin are hoping for higher sales if the 5% rule is adopted by more EU countries. Sheanuts account for 20% of Burkinabe exports and 98% of these are used to make vegetable oil substitute for chocolate products. The sheanut price is just 10% of the cocoa bean price. The Commission calculates that the maximum saving a manufacturer could expect by substituting vegetable fat for cocoa butter is around 1.5% of the ax-factory price.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In weighing up what to do, the Commission also considered the objectives of the International Cocoa Organisation (ICCO). These include taking 'all practical measures to increase the cocoa consumption in their countries by eliminating or reducing all obstacles to the growth of consumption in cocoa.' The ICCO estimates that if the 5% rule is applied in the remaining eight states - Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain - it will lead to a reduction in cocoa butter usage of 36 000-50 000 tonnes, which amounts to a drop in demand for cocoa beans of between 88000 and 125000 tonnes. This represents between 9-12% of current consumption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some producers suggest that these estimates are too high since they assume that manufacturers will go for  almost full substitution, which is not necessarily seen as inevitable. In addition, there is a belief that overall demand for chocolate products may grow as a result of the legal change.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was not the view taken by NGOs who reacted promptly - and critically - to the Commission text. The Brussels NGO Liaison Committee issued a statement claiming that it would lead to a drop of between 6.25% and 12.5% in the main exporting countries' cocoa receipts - and an additional burden on the European Community's Stabex fund. But chocolate producers and others argue that this is speculative. The impact, they say, will depend on the legal response of the eight Member States, as well as on the reaction of manufacturers. There are signs that the latter may well stick to their traditional and distinctive methods. A spokesperson for the Belgian-based Cote d'Or/ Suchard, pointed out that the proposal had a long way to go before it was approved, and stressed that his company had no intention of changing their 'winning recipes which had served them well since 1883. At the same time, he admitted, vegetable oil could be useful in a more diversified range of chocolate products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The vegetable oil 'lobby' argues that the addition of vegetable fat makes chocolate easier to mould and less likely to melt in warm climates. And for those who fear the elimination of 'pure' chocolate from the market, they point to manufacturers in Britain, where vegetable oil has traditionally been used, who still exclude such fats from some of their brands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The proposal must now be debated by the Council and it is clear that the arguing is not over yet. But it is beginning to look as if the consumers may be the final arbiters. Through their purchasing habits, they are likely to be the ones who finally determine the winners and losers in the great chocolate debate. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Minority businesses in the UK</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In no country in Europe are ethnic minorities more organised than in the United Kingdom - though they are still not adequately organised, in the opinion of many, to pool their considerable resources together and overcome stereotypes, racism and unenployment. But this may  change if the morale engendered by a recent exhibition of minority businesses in the UK is anything to go by.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The statistics speak for themselves. There are 3.3 million Asians, Africans and Afro-Caribbeans in Britain, about 5% of the population (and the figure is projected to double in the next 25 years). They have six elected Members of Parliament - five Labour and one Conservative - as well as numerous personalities in the world of sports and the media. According to the 1994 Labour Force Survey, 48% of ethnic minorities are graduates or are in full time studies and 55% earn salaries well over &amp;15 000 (ECU 18 000) annually. They have a combined gross annual income estimated at f42 billion and an annual spending power of at least f26 ten.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past 15 years, ethnic minority-owned businesses have grown considerably. In the last two years alone, they were responsible for more than 30 000 new business concerns throughout the country, according to the Commission for Racial Equality (CRE). Although many are in the retail trade, the 10% or so involved in production or manufacturing are extremely dynamic,  particularly those connected with the clothing industry or operating franchises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are considerable differences between Asians on the one hand and Africans and Afro-Caribbeans on the other. The former are more business oriented and account for well over 80% of all ethnic enterprises. This success in business is often attributed to Asians' industriousness, but there is another crucial and often neglected factor: Asians have a stronger sense of group solidarity and patronage than Africans and Afro-Caribbeans. Whereas the former spend virtually all their earnings within their community, the latter (who are mainly Christians and are known to make greater efforts at integration into the British society) spend theirs in the society at large.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unemployment among the black population in general is 19% compared to 8% for whites (in London it is three times higher). They are much more likely to be turned down by employers even when they have better qualifications than their white counterparts. Often self-employment is the only way out. This explains why there has been a boom in business start-ups by ethnic minorities over the past two years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although several black profffsional associations have come into being in recent years, it has been clear for some time to black leaders that the community's energies are dispersed and that these needed to be harnessed for the benefit of ethnic minorities as a whole. Blacks clearly have political and business clout to be exploited.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The idea for an exhibition of black businesses in the United Kingdom was mooted by a black business couple who, were influenced by a similar event  held annually in the United States called 'Black Expo USA'. But the impetus came from the 'Race for Opportunity Campaign' launched in October last year by the Conservative Government through the Department of Trade and Industry. The campaign has so far seen more than 20 big British companies pledge to do business with ethnic minority enterprises. These include British Airways, British Gas, British Telecom, British Aerospace and several high-street banks and finance houses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Held at the Barbican Centre in London on 4 and 5 May, the exhibition was aimed at creating awareness among ethnic minorities of their potentialities, showing the opportunities available to them not only in the UK but also in Europe, and at promoting networking amongst their businessmen and women. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cross-party support</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The exhibition, which had a cross-party support, could not have come at a more favourable time. Both the Tory government and opposition Labour Party have expressed support for policies favourable to small and medium-sized enterprises, which means that there should be continuity in this area if Labour comes to power in the next general election.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was borne out by the enthusiasm with which the shadow minister for small business, Mrs Barbara Roche greeted the exhibition. To her, the event should be seen in the context of Labour's overall policy on small businesses. Speaking at one of the seminars which was run alongside the exhibition to discuss various aspects of minority business problems, Mrs Roche explained that there were three important reasons why her party was promoting small enterprises, especially those involved in exports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first was that large companies were downsizing, and job-creation towards the end of this century and into the next would be largely by small and medium-sized enterprises. The second was that small businesses were efficient distributors of wealth and the third was that they were good at innovation and using new technologies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because a large number of small businesses are folding, or are struggling to survive in the UK today (often as a result of late payment of bills by large companies), Mrs Roche said a Labour government would introduce a statutory limit of 30 days for the settlement of bills by large companies. The latter would then have to pay interest to small businesses for any late payments. Ethnic minority businesses, she also said, were part and parcel of Labour's strategy for economic growth and jobs in Britain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Barbican exhibition attracted more than 80 exhibitors mainly in retailing, finance, telecommunications, consultancy, arts and crafts, publishing, electronics and education. There were  very few exhibitors from the manufacturing sector (a disappointment considering the number of Asians in the clothing industry) and virtually none in engineering. Some of the big companies connected with the 'Race for Opportunity Campaign' like British Airways and British Gas, as well as the newly created government-backed Business Link, the Customs and Excise department, the Inland Revenue, the Army and the Metropolitan Police were there. Also present was Louis Farrakan's 'Nations of Islam', (not necessarily on a recruitment drive, though that must have been part of the game), but as a reminder of its campaign for greater self-reliance by the black community which culminated late last year in the 'Million-Man' march on Washington DC. Video tapes of the march and speeches by Farrakan and other black leaders in the United States were on sale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Difficulties</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The seminar run concurrently with the exhibition attracted many notable speakers, among them Members of Parliament, Keith Vaz, Bernie Grant and Barbara Roche and Commissioner Dr Zaka Khan of the Commission for Racial Equality. Jessie Boseman, vice-president of 'Black Expo USA, who was also scheduled to speak, did not turn up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was general agreement on the main factors inhibiting the growth of ethnic minority businesses, the most obvious being racism and  discimination. Ethnic businesspeople not only have difficulties obtaining public contracts, but they are often denied access to finance, market and even premises. Furthermore, they suffer from lack of management skills, networks and feedback. Dr Khan of the Commission for Racial Equality highlighted mounting racist attacks, mostly against Asianowned shops, which have claimed a number of lives in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Integration into mainstream economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is no longer a hidden fact that banks discriminate against black businesses. Surveys carried out by the NatWest and Midland banks have confirmed that fact. The latter though, it must be acknowledged, has a laudable Fellowship Programme, designed to encourage ethnic minority university students to take up careers in the Midland Bank on graduation. Lack of access to the market has effectively meant that black businesses have been left out of the mainstream of the British economy. Everyone agreed that it makes good economic sense to see them integrated into it. This was particularly   the position of both Barbara Roche and Zaka Khan. The question was: would it be possible ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some of the issues raised on the floor by businesspeople revealed that many were sceptical that racism and discrimination could be overcome in multiracial Britain. The Commission for Racial Equality symbolises the fight against these two evils and Dr Khan had a hard time defending its role. The CRE was criticised for constantly quoting statistics on improvements in the living conditions of ethnic minorities which, it was argued, were totally removed from reality. Despite this, Dr Khan remained upbeat. To him the future promises great things for ethnic minorities. He promised to look into the grievances aired by some businespeopie during the seminar. Barbara Roche, for her part, promised that a Labour government would encourage the banks to offer packages of assistance to small enterprises, in particular, black-owned ones. They would also ensure that local councils offered minority enterprises a share of local government contracts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greater self-reliance and global trade</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In view of the problems black businesspeople have had to contend with over the years, Bernie Grant, the Member of Parliament for Tottenham in North London, did not devote much time to the idea of integrating them into mainstream British economy. He felt that racism and discrimination were so prevalent that there was little chance of that happening. For him, the future for black businesspeople in Britain lay in greater self-reliance and entry into international trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a speech entitled 'political responsibility, and black import and export business', the M.P. set the Barbican exhibition in the context of the global economic situation - one where he said, 'the countries of the North are exploiting those of the South, in particular African countries.' Africa's heavy debts to the West should in fact be the other way round. He argued that the new world trade agreement, which  opens up the developing countries to competition, was unfair. 'This means that countries where minorities in the UK came from are going to have problems, and it is the duty of thee minorities to ensure that their countries have a fair deal,' he said. Mr Grant cited, by way of example, the EU's banana protocol under the Lom&eacute; Convention which gives preferential treatment to small Caribbean island producers and which is currently being 'unfairly' challenged by South American producers under the WTO rules. The role of multinationals, which are effectively acting es 'middleman', was, he believed, pernicious for developing countries. There was a need for black businessmen to step in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Minority enterprises in the UK do not exist in isolation from the rest of the world, he elaborated. They should seek to engage in international trade and take advantage of their connection with their countries of origin. To facilitate this, Mr Grant said that a group under his chairmanship had set up a Global Trade Centre in his constituency in North London with the aim of helping black and minority enterprises establish direct trade links with Africa, the Caribbean and black America. The Centre was already in contact with a number of African countries which have expressed interest in the idea. Such a link would not only ensure a better deal for African producers but also favour the growth of minority businesses across the world. This was, he confessed, 'a political agenda' designed to reduce the excessive profits of multinationals, if not put an end to their 'outright exploitation' of Africa and the Caribbean. Mrs Roche expressed support for the Centre for the role it could play in boosting British exports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UK minorities and the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European Union</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A self-confessed Eurosceptic, who would have preferred the UK to strengthen economic ties with the Commonwealth rather than with Europe, Mr Grant displayed an extraordinary understanding of the European</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Union's affairs. What worried him most about greater European integration, he said, was racism and the fact the UK job market, where black and ethnic minorities are already heavily disadvantaged, will be exposed to further competition from other Europeans most of whom speak several languages. However, he had no alternative but to support the Labour Party's line on Europe and work to secure the best advantage of British membership for ethnic minorities. He contrasted Tory 'divisions' on Europe with Labour's 'united' policy and condemned the British Government's attitude generally towards the Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development of the Union, Mr Grant said, was of great significance to black people. He was sure the Government's Immigration and Asylum bill, which had come up against strong opposition in the House of Lords, was aimed at harmonising immigration laws with other countries in the Union. The bill, if passed, will change the UK's visa regime and have serious implications for ethnic minorities and their businesses in Britain. He revealed that, with the support of ethnic minority members of the British Parliament, Bill Morris, the black General Secretary of the Transport and General Workers Union (the second biggest trade union in the UK) and other European trade union leaders, the Intergovernmental Conference was being lobbied for the inclusion of a stronger clause against racism in the Treaty of Rome. The aim, ultimately, is to see measures in line with the UK's laws against racism and discrimination enacted at the Union level. This would include the establishment of a European equivalent of the Commission for Racial Equality - with similar powers - so as to establish a level-playing field for ethnic minorities in competition for jobs and in business throughout Europe. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dossier</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Communication and the media</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Dossier coordinated by Debra Percival)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Press freedom is widely acknowledged as the cornerstone of democracy with a clamp-down anywhere in the world frequently interpreted as a sign of government repression. The rash of multi-party elections in African nations at the beginning of the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1990s brought new publications to news-stands. Many of these have since folded - often because of a lack of funds and sometimes because of government censorship.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many organisations are campaigning vigorously in the public eye for a free press in developing nations. These include Reporters Sans Frontieres, Article 19 and the International Federation of Joumalists - all of which are featured in this Dossier. The US-based Freedom House has also been monitoring the state of press freedom worldwide since 1979. In its recently published 1996 survey, it says that even today, only 22% of the world's population live in countries with a free press. 38% have a press sector that is 'partly free' while the description 'not free' is applied to the remaining 40%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are also regional organisations such as The Media Institute of Southern Africa (MISA), which are playing a part in keeping media issues to the fore. David Nthengwe, a researcher with MISA, highlights the fact that democratisation does not necessarily guarantee a free media or free expression more generally. He also draws attention to the difficulties faced by private and community organisations in obtaining adequate finance. These are  typical of the problems facing the media in many countries, both in the ACP group and elsewhere in the developing world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In seeking to tackle these issues, donors are showing increasing interest in backing media programmes with development finance (linked to democratisation and human rights). The European Union, UNESCO and a number of bilateral donors have expanded their activities in this area with a variety of projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One big change has been the rapid growth of the 'Information Superhighway'. This has prompted fears that the developing countries may fall further behind, although donors have indicated a willingness to help ensure this does not happen. One NGO closely monitoring the development of the Internet for the South is the PANOS Institute. Meanwhile, multilateral donors (notably the World Bank, through its INFODEV programme) are also becoming involved. A number of EU personalities lent their support to the development of the information society in the developing world, at a major conference staged in South Africa in May on the initiative of the country's Vice President, Thabo Mbeki. A work programme of projects was drawn up with the aim of making sure, in the words of European Commissioner, Martin Bangemann, that there is no divide between the 'information-poor' end the 'information-rich'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, although the world is undergoing an information revolution, the more traditional media (the press and above all, radio) will, for the foreseeable future, continue to have a central part in informing, educating and entertaining people in many developing  countries. It is important that those of us who increasingly communicate via our computer screens do not lose sight of this essential fact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this Dossier, we examine a number of the key issues affecting the media and highlight some innovative projects in this area - with the help of a series of experts. The subject has clearly moved higher up the development agenda, but there is still a long way to go, as the figures cited above show. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Aidan White of the IFJ</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Confronting the age-old problem</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the chance, 'governments would like to run and manipulate the media'. This is the view of Aidan White, General Secretary of the Brusselsbased International Federation of Journalists (IFJ), who says it is an 'ageold problem'. And the Federation, which has member organizations in 93 countries, works to prevent it from happening. It also provides a range of services to journalists throughout the world. We recently spoke to Mr White, who used to write for the British daily, The Guardian. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He began by outlining to us the Federation's key areas  of activity which include, in particular, the professional conditions in which journalists work and the defence of human rights. On the first of these, Mr White focused on the problem of economic pressures and difficult social conditions. 'We take a strong view that you can't have press freedom if journalists work in conditions of poverty or technical deprivation. It is a nonsense,' he stressed, 'to talk about a free press in a situation where journalists aren't paid, or if they are unable to function properly.' In seeking to tackle this, he spoke, in particular, of the 'need for independent organisations of journalists defending professional and social interests.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards human rights, the IFJ is active in the international community, working with bodies such as UNESCO and the UN Human Rights Commission. 'We are very interested in issues such as the legal environment in which journalists and the media operate, and are extremely active in the defence of physical safety.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr White went on to give more detailed information about the IFJ's work in Algeria, where many journalists have been killed in recent years. This country clearly has a bad international reputation and the General Secretary was anxious to offer a more balanced picture of the situation. 'In my view, there is a real malformation of Alaeria's  image in Europe and elsewhere. The view we get is of a paralysed society where nothing can function properly - a kind of international basket case. It is not like that. In Algeria, life continues. There is a form of democracy. There are a dozen newspapers which appear every day. The streets are full of traffic and people walking about. The reality is that there is a particularly horrifying and barbaric form of terrorism which is targeted against intellectuals including journalists. This means that the media has a terrible problem.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aidan White explained the strategy of the IFJ in seeking to confront this. 'We began by going to Algeria to investigate what was going on. Then we established an international office on the spot. This is a direct contact point of solidarity for local journalists and the local media. So we don't report Algeria through Paris. We don't see the need to go through some sort of middleman in order to find out what's going on in the country or have contact with Algerian journalists.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'And then we have two specific programmes which are very important', he continued. One involves providing humanitarian assistance to journalists and their families. The other is a series of practical activities in Algeria. Thus, for example, we are organising a round table on terrorism and information.' He pointed out that the Algerian government had resorted to the traditional method of press censorship in the face of ,the terrorist threat and stressed the 'need to counter this. 'We are also organising a practical seminar on personal safety, as well as one on professional social rights, the need for ethical standards and better social conditions.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The point, he emphasised was that events were being organised on the spot. Algeria may pose terrible difficulties 'but it doesn't mean we walk away from it.' The IFJ's emphasis was firmly on being a 'functional organisation working directly with the people who need help.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Funding and the EU link</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tuming to the issue of the IFJ's funding, Mr White explained how the core activities - his own salary and administrative costs - are paid for by the subscriptions of member organisations, which amount to roughly $1 million. On top of that, the Federation carries out projects with the EU and other donors. They also distribute funds, offering their expertise as a representative body to help other organisations that want to undertake work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asked in what way the EU could do more, the General Secretary stressed the political dimension. 'It should intervene,' he argued, 'to establish certain standards in international relations. We say, for instance, that political, economic and military cooperation with any state outside the Union should be based on a commitment to and respect for freedom of expression and opinion.' He underlined the 'responsibility' of the EU to take a stand against countries that locked up journalists, implicitly criticising those who argued that freedom of expression was very important but who then shelved the issue when economic relations were involved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He also urged a more proactive approach 'moving away from the strategy of counting bodies, complaining, and making reports about how bad the situation is' towards one based on comprehensive programmes of assistance. He described the IFJ's Media for Democracy programme in Africa as a 'first attempt' in that direction. Mr </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">White highlighted what he saw as a difficulty with existing projects. 'The problem is that the EU is confronted by all sorts of different NGOs who come and say: 'we have got this good project - give us support for it'. This is fine but it inevitably means that resources are spread very diffusely and often to no effect.' A lot of activities, he suggested, such as one-off seminars and conferences, were 'like fireworks in the night sky: they glow bright for a brief period and then they disappear.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He went on to plead for an integrated, comprehensive strategy. 'Until that exists, you will not be able to solve the fundamental problems facing journalists.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training and status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The discussion moved on to the subject of training. Perhaps surprisingly, Aidan White did not see this as an important priority in itself. As he explained: 'It's no use training journalists to be very high quality if they go off to work in a country where the legal environment does not allow them to function properly. And it's no use training them to be ethical if they go somewhere that is steeped in political or financial corruption, and where there is no culture which appreciates the media's role in democratic society.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With this in mind, he believes that training should be directly related to the strategic approach he referred to earlier. 'Yes, we need professional, well trained journalists, but it should be part of a range of programmes. And professional training is not just important for journalists. It should also be provided for managers, editors, advertisers... and perhaps even for politicians!'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The General Secretary noted that the status of journalists in most countries was quite high. They are seen as a filter for information 'coming from the government to the governed'. This was important, he thought, but 'tine real question is how the filter functions. On the one hand journalists have a relatively high status, and what they do is extremely important, but they work close to the political elites, which means they  are subject to pressure. They must retain their independent role, scrutinising and investigating what governments are doing.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the subject of access to information in developing countries, Aidan White observed that the situation is now better than it was ten years ago but pointed to the 'age-old problem of people in power wanting to control the media.' He gave the example of journalists in Indonesia, 'who really want to speak independently of the government, but who are being killed because they represent independent strands of opinion.' Overall, however, he believes the situation has been improving. 'This is partly due to changes in information technology. A government can no longer simply take a journalist out and beat him up. There are half a dozen press freedom organisations around the world watching for and reporting on such events.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a tendency in Europe to assume that 'everything in the garden is rosy' in terms of press freedom, and we were interested to hear what the Secretary General thought of this proposition. He was quick to offer a less complacent view. 'We have just issued a very strong statement against the EU about their secrecy policy,' he pointed out. 'You cannot claim the moral high ground for democracy in Africa or elsewhere if you have a system of secrecy in Europe which operates at the highest political level and which denies citizens access to information.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He was also concerned about the concentration of the media in enormous congLom&eacute;rates. This trend, he argued, 'is actually profoundly damaging to the culture of information.' He cited, in this context, the action of the Murdoch organisation 'in banning all news from his cable channels going into China.' Mr White continued: 'They banned the BBC and they banned news coverage in the Chinese language in order to make a business arrangement with the Beijing government. That sort of activity, in our view, is direct censorship from the heart of western democracy.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, Aidan White gave some more detailed information about the Media for Democracy programme in Africa which he described as 'ground-breaking.' The Federation has used it to develop key themes, including the coverage of elections. 'The real test of press freedom,' he continued, 'is at an election, because that is when the political pressure is toughest and the professional quality of journalism is exposed. For Africa, we developed a manual on election reporting and, interestingly, it has become the source document worldwide for election reporting.' He explained how it formed the basis for developing a text which is universal. This has been translated into various European languages, and Arabic, and has been employed in Poland, Romania, Albania and Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the first phase of the Media for Democracy programme, the Federation held a serf. of seminars and conferences on how the media covered elections. As Mr White stressed, this was a crucial time in Africa. Political change was taking place, multi-party democracy was being introduced and there was a need to clarify how elections operated and how they should be reported. 'People didn't have the experience. They wanted the information, and to discuss how things should be done.' The seminars covered aspects such as financial corruption, the organisation of journalists and the role of ethics. And what the IFJ found was that the same kind of things happen in Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique and South Africa - and indeed across the world. In the words of the Secretary General, 'they have an echo everywhere because, at its root, the problem is the same - those in power want to manipulate the media and use whatever pressures they can.' The lesson learnt from the IFJ's experience in Africa is that common solutions are also valid. Or as Aidan White put it, 'there is no part of the world that can't teach the rest of the world something.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.M. &amp; S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Freedom of expression: the first freedom</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Frances d'Souza</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frances d'Souza who is Executive Director of AROSE 19, a nom governmental organization which campaigns against censorship globally, explains why Freedom of Expression is for her the most important human right</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the absence of freedom of expression, it is almost impossible to protect other rights, including the right to life. Once governments can draw a cloak of secrecy round their actions and remain unaccountable, massive human rights violations can, and do, take place. For this reason alone, the right to free expression, specifically protected in international human rights treaties, must be considered a primary right. It is significant that one of the first indications of a government's intention to depart from democratic principles is when it increases its control over information, usually by gagging the media. At the one end of the spectrum, supposedly minor infringements of this fundamental right occur daily in western democracies; for example the abuse of national security laws to prevent publication of information which might embarrass the authorities. At the other end of the scale are regimes of terror which brutally suppress opposition, information and even the freedom to exercise religious beliefs. Without free speech and an independent media, it is easier for governments to employ propaganda to promote ethnic conflict, war and genocide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right to freedom of expression is formally protected in major international treaties including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* This text is an abridged version of a submission made by the author to a public hearing hosted by the European Parliament's Committee on Foreign Affairs, Security and Defence and the Sub-Committee on Human Rights and the Committee on Culture, Youth, Education and the Media, April 25, 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Political Rights (Article 19), and the European Convention on Human Rights (Article 10). It is also enshrined in many national constitutions, although this does not always guarantee its protection. Freedom of expression is something which applies even in countries which have not ratified the relevant international treaties. This is because the Universal Declaration is so widely accepted that its provisions now form part of customary international law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While it is generally agreed that freedom of expression is the cornerstone of democracy, international treaties permit certain restrictions. Unlike the American First Amendment rights which allow few, if any, checks on free speech, the international treaties aim for a balance between competing rights. Thus, for example, free speech may be limited where it impinges on the individual's right to privacy, or where it involves incitement to violence or hatred. Given that the permitted restrictions are necessarily broad, the limits of free speech are constantly being tested in national courts and in regional tribunals such as the European Commission and Court of Human Rights. In recent years, several landmark cases have helped define what restrictions may be imposed by governments and under what circumstances. In particular, it has been emphasised by the European Court that any restriction should 'pass' a threepart test; it should be prescribed by law (and thus not be arbitrarily imposed), it should be proportionate to the legitimate aims pursued, and it should be demonstrably necessary in a democratic society in order to protect the individual and/or the state.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Who censors what?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the rules governing restrictions on free speech, many justifications are still invoked by governments in suppressing information which may be inimical to their policies or interests. These include arguments in defence of national security or the 'public interest'. The mechanisms used to restrict the free flow of information range from subtle economic pressures, and devious methods of undermining political opponents and the independent media, to the enactment of restrictive press laws and rules for licensing journalists. In extreme cases, they may involve the illegal detention, torture and disappearance of journalists and others associated with the expression of independent views.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right of free speech may appear less important than, for example, freedom from torture or extrajudicial killing. It is also sometimes difficult to persuade the public that censorship, generally associated with banning obscene materials, is a bad thing! It requires a recognition of some of the fundamental principles of democracy to understand why censorship is so dangerous. Democracy implies that people can make choices about the issues that affect their lives, including what they wish to see, read, hear or discuss. While this may seem a luxurious freedom, mainly preoccupying the wealthy West, it is a comparatively short distance between state censorship of an offensive book to the silencing of political dissidents. And the distance between this and the use of violence to suppress opposition is even shorter. Censorship tends to grow rapidly from small beginnings. Allowing a government the power to deny people information, however trivial, not only leads to laws and procedures which can and will be used by those in authority against those with less authority. It also denies people the information they need to render their governments accountable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There have been some terrible examples of the role of censorship in recent years. We have seen it in the republics of the former Yugoslavia   where the media were manipulated for propaganda purposes. We have seen it in Rwanda where the government associated radio incited citizens to kill each other in the name of ethnic supremacy. And we have seen it in Iran which maintains the threat of murder against a citizen of another country because he wrote a book which displeased the authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are clear links between access to information (or rather the lack of it), and war. Democracy empowers people by increasing participation in decision-making at all levels. The poor, who are denied access to information on decisions which deeply affect their lives, are powerless and have no voice. They cannot influence the ruling elites whose interest in consolidating their own power and position may be served by initiating conflict.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is significant that of the 126 developing countries listed in the 1993 Human Development Report, wars were being waged in 30 and a further 33 were suffering severe civil conflicts. 55 of these 63 countries were to be found at the lower end of the Human Development Index which is an indicator of poverty. It is reasonably safe to assume that most people never welcome war. They may be coerced into supporting 'their' side in a conflict by their governments, using propaganda designed to whip up fear and extreme nationalist sentiment. If the majority had a democratic voice, they would undoubtedly object to war. But voices are silenced. Thus, the freedom to express one's views, to challenge government decisions and to insist upon political rather than violent solutions, are necessary aspects of democracy which can, and do, avert war.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">State-sponsored propaganda in Rwanda, as in the former Yugoslavia, succeeded because there were no ways of challenging it. One can conclude that it is impossible for a country to wage war in the absence of a compliant media willing to indulge in government propaganda. Governments needs civilians to fight wars for them and the media is needed to reinforce government policies and intentions at every turn. In a  totalitarian state where the expression of political views, let alone the possibility of political organisation is suppressed, one has to ask what other possibilities are open to a genuine political movement intent on introducing justice. All too often, terrorism and violence are the only perceived options available to communicate the need for change.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What NGOs can do</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work of human rights organizations has to become much more proactive and should be concerned with providing early warning and preventive action. Monitoring freedom of exprmsion, especially freedom of the press, offers an excellent context because it is widely recognised that would-be dictators always seek to silence people's voices through banning newspapers or other methods of censorship. One has to assume that when censorship begins in earnest, worse human rights abuses will follow and this should be the point for action. Had there been a greater international lobby for an independent media, for access to information and for participation in decision-making in the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Nigeria, Burma and many other countries, some of the gross violations which continue to occur, could have been prevented.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Censorship is the first instrument of a government intent on departing from democratic procedures. In this sense it is an early warning signal and at ARTICLE 19, we believe we have a special responsibility to understand better how democracy is destroyed through censorship and how we can alert the international community to act to prevent it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By way of conclusion, anything which can build strong and sound media infrastructures, at the earliest to pportunity, in transitional democracies, is both a gift and a great investment. A crusading press, prepared to separate fact from opinion and to verify its sources, can create a level playing field in which all sectors of society have a voice. This would preclude political control and manipulation for nationalistic power purposes. There is also a need to strengthen local monitoring groups which have the capacity to verify information. International organisations should amplify the voices of local organisations and bring them to the attention of the international community. It is only where there is a strong human rights culture in a given country, whether it has achieved democracy or not, that political changes can be seized upon and shaped into the democratic process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To achieve these objectives, NGOS need to work with governments which are obliged by international law to uphold fundamental rights. We need organisations such as the KU, the UN, ASEAN, and others, to insist on respect for human rights in their dealings with third countries. We also need the general public to be aware of what fundamental rights are, what are the consequences of infringement, and how they can, as individuals, successfully challenge restrictionss imposed on them by their governments. Above all, NGOS need to work with multilateral organisations to determine where slender resources can most fruitfully be targeted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.d'S.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Commission support for democratisation through the media</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Mark Leysen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amongst the many cooperation activities in which it is involved, the Lom&eacute; Convention covers cultural cooperation, which includes information and communication, yet European Development Fund support for the media in ACP countries is negligible. Although considerable and increasing amounts of aid are granted for the cinema in such countries, EU support for TV, radio and the printed media is small.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, for some years now, the Commission has provided considerable aid to the printed media and radio in ACP countries under its 'Support for democratisation and respect for human rights' budget, which heralds a new approach to media questions. The EDF does not participate in the vast majority of big communications projects in Africa, namely PANA (Panafrican News Agency), URTNA (African National Television and Radio Union, the African equivalent of the European Broadcasting Union), the Programme Exchange Centre, Afrovision, Cierro, etc. The reluctance of EU and ACP partners to embark on such media projects can be explained both by EDF procedures and by the worldwide political context including the situation in most African countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until recently, the media was a matter for the State in Africa. The 'New World Information and Communications Order', announced in the 1 970s, foresaw the participation of not only African citizens, but also of their governments in the world information highway. However, the democratic credentials of such governments were open to question - they controlled the printed media, radio, television and press agencies and any support for such media amounted to a strengthening of the State monopoly and this is why the EDF did not take part.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, aid to the independent media was impossible because such entities did not exist in most African countries and the authorities were not prepared to back a request for aid to the press which they regarded as contrary to their country's interests. If support for the media did exist, it was indirect and restricted to backing of means of communication servicing development projects: literacy campaigns, the fight against AIDS, increasing awareness of ecological problems, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was not until the advent of the democratisation movement and the support that Europe decided to grant to it that a media-aid strategy was to take root. As a kind of 'Fourth Estate', the media monitor executive power and report any abuse of it. In parallel, they play a key role in strengthening civil society by providing information (if not objective information, then at least information from many sources) on current political, social, economic and cultural issues and by providing a medium which offers an opportunity to speak out on matters of importance to society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Commission focuses its media support in five areas in agreement with representatives of African press and specialist European . organisations in this area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Freedom of expression It provides direct aid to national, regional and international organizations to defend freedom of expression, specifically financing monitoring, surveys and the reporting of any violation of press freedom (censorship, intimidation, arrests and arbitrary trials, etc.), and direct assistance to the media and any journalists who are victims of such attacks on press freedom. This direct aid is channelled to, inter alia, the activities of Reporters sans frontieres (see 'Interview with Mr Robert Menard', in this issue), 'Article XIX' and Index on Censorship, all organisations which operate like an Amnesty International for the press.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new independent press is often run by journalists who have had no journalistic training and the former State media often require being updated after many years of professional 'distortion' responding to 'his master's voice'. The Commission hence finances programmes offering training in basic journalistic techniques, election coverage; professional codes of ethics, etc. In this area, it is working with a number of European and African organizations, giving priority to long-term actions which are likely to spawn others and to programmes aimed at achieving a higher level of professionalism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid for vocational organizations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vocational organizations for journalists have a role to play in improving the profession's social standing, in strengthening its cohesion in the face of political division, in defending its interests and in coming to the aid of journalists who have been victims of repression. The Commission finances a vast 'Media for Democracy' programme conducted by the International Federation of Journalists and its affiliated regional and national organisations (see interview with Aidan White, in this issue). The programme aims to strengthen or create national and regional associations of journalists, but is also involved in more general actions to   increase the professional standing of the media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access to sources of information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A credible and responsible press requires sources of information which the new and financially precarious press cannot allow itself. The Commission supports the creation or updating of documentation centres, North/South  and South/South exchanges between publications and radio stations, access to international press agencies or photographic libraries, etc., being shared between several media bodies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legislative framework and code of ethics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not enough merely to guarantee freedom of expression in the   constitution. This principle must be embodied in all legislative and regulatory texts to prevent a journalist being prosecuted arbitrarily for 'defamation' or 'a breach of State security'. Moreover, to appear credible, the profession must observe a code of ethics. The Commission backs the drafting of press codes, codes of ethics and regulations to govern the air waves. It also backs the creation of press and air wave regulatory bodies as well as the provision of training in journalistic ethics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is obvious that the 'Democracy and Human Rights' budget cannot alone meet the needs of Africa's multi-faceted media scene. Moreover, although the media are a key element in any democratisation process, they are also much more than that - as a means of information and recreation, they have a role to play in the human development of society; as an instrument to create greater awareness, they can contribute to the strengthening of a civil society which is gradually taking charge; and as an economic sector in the full throes of development, they can make a contribution to the GDP and create jobs. All the more reason for national sponsors and the EDF to take more of an interest. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National television, victim of  democracy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than the other media, television in Africa is controlled by the State and serves, first and   fore most, to disse minat e news about the leade r and his govern ment. The state of equip ment depen ds on when it was suppl ied by a friend ly count ry from the North, and as it was almos t certai nly offere d to the count ry's leade rs 'as a perso nal gift', it usual ly consi sts of oversi zed equip ment which the nation al televis ion statio n canno t maint ain correc tly owing to a lack of resou rces. Whils t Europ e is movin g over to digita l Betac am and 1619 forma t, many Africa n TV statio ns are still opera ting with Umat ic and with mach ines that are impos sible to maint ain. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With such deriso ry mean s, nation al TV statio ns have to conte nd with unfair comp etition from the intern ationa l statio ns which, from their satell ites, are inund ating the contin ent with their broad casts . The worldbroad castin g chann els of Europ ean statio ns are receiv ed clearl y (CFI, TV5 Afriqu e, BBC World Telev ision, Deut sche Welle, etc.). The numb er of religio us statio ns (gene rally Islam ic) contin ues to increa se and comm ercial televi sion is develo ping apace - CN N, MTV, Cana l Horizo ns, M-Ne t and others can be picke d up just about every where and can thus cream off the best of a comm ercial mark et which is still virtual ly non-e xisten t and awaiti ng better days . </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The URTN A is unabl e to defen d the intere sts of its memb ers, prope rly and its initiat ives (which are, nevert heles s, lauda ble) are stagn ating: the -progr amme rexch ange centre in Nairob i does not excha nge very much at all and Afrovi sion, . the syste m for excha nging news betw een   nation al TV statio ns via satell ite, is strugg ling to Get off the aroun d. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Never theles s, Africa n TV statio ns do not lack talent or motiva tion and many of them are capab le of produ dng more qualit y progra mmes . What can be done to help them ? Firstly, a decis ion has to be made regar ding who is to be helpe d. Certa inly not intern ationa l TV statio ns' be they private or public, which have their own strate gy (comm ercial or politic al and produ ce televis ion progra mmes for impor t which make only a very margi nal contri bution to the expre ssion of Africa n talent . It would also be wrong to rely or, privati sation and comm ercial statio ns in order to obtain quali ty televis ion - t his much has been demo nstrat ed by the Europ ean exper ience . As for direct aid to nation al televis ion, this would mere ly reinfo rce the State mono poly over inform ation. Wha t is requir ed is greate r suppo rt for the transi tion of State televi sion into a genui ne public servic e. with the benef it of an indep enden t statut e and also true editor ial indep enden ce. Conse quent ly, as things curre ntly stand, aid for trainin g teievis ion' profes siona ls, suppo rt for qualit y progra mme produ ction and any aid aimed at draftin g a public -servic e televis ion Statu te, are usefu l forms of suppo rt which are neutra l with regard to State -medi a contro l. Any direct aid to nation al </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> televis ion statio ns in the form of   hardw are and equip ment shoul d be </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> subje ct to their conve rsion into an auton omou s public servic e. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Images of Africa in the Western media</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Geoff Mungham</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems difficult to find an African leader or African journalist who has not, at some time, been either fiercely critical or quietly despairing of the way in which the continent is depicted by the western media. Their grievances have come to form part of a now familiar litany. Claims are made that the reporting of Africa is now almost entirely in terms of what has been called a'coup, crisis and famine syndrome', and that the western media focus only on 'bad news' out of Africa and ignore the 'positive' achievements of many African countries. These criticisms go hand-in-hand with accusations that Africa cannot ' tell its own story, in its own way', because the global news market is dominated by powerful, westerr-owned corporations, who have their own agenda for reporting Africa. For many Africans, their continent is becoming increasingly invisible in the trade in global news. For them, Rupert Murdoch's cynical remark that 'the Third World sells no newspapers' would appear to have been uttered with Africa specifically in mind. Finally there are those Africans who are concerned about 'western cultural imperialism' undermining traditional African values and culture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How true are these claims? Is Africa becoming once again a dark continent; one largely excluded from the glare of western media coverage? Are some of the correctives suggested by different African leaders worse than the problems they are complaining about? And if Africa is in danger of becoming a 'disappearing world' for news, to what extent are many African countries themselves to blame?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To begin with, there is no doubt that African critics have a case. First and most obvious, is the undeniable brute fact that global news and information flows are dominated by a small number of multinational operators, nearly all of whom - especially since the end of the Cold War - are western owned and controlled. This is true of the great international news agencies, whether the traditional wire services like Reuters or Agence France-Press, or the newer global television news services represented by WTN and CNN, among others. The major clients for their output are western news organizations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, most African countries are in no position to mount a challenge to this world news order. The continent has recently been described as one of the 'least dynamic regions in the global economy, where buying power of consumers is low' and in which many countries are burdened with crippling debt payments. In the same vein, a 1991 World Bank report not only pointed to the increasing 'communications gap' between Africa and the developed world, but went on to suggest that most of the continent offered poor prospects for those wanting to invest in telecommunications projects. These are among the reasons why Africa scores so poorly in terms of putting in place viable national communications infrastructures, let alone being able to take on the global market leaders in securing a higher profile for Africa in the world's news rooms. The same factors also help explain why most African countries remain so dependent on western-controlled news sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This dependency is not simply a question of the easy availability of copy or other material from the western news agencies. Puri (a Tanzanian journalist and Managing Editor of Newslink Africa)  presents other reasons why African editors are interested in what's happening in the West. These include the links between many African countries and their former colonial rulers, the realities of global and economic relations and his claim that African editors often have little interest in other parts of the continent. As he puts it, '...a newspaper reader in Botswana, for example, is not much interested in reading detailed reports from Morocco.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, there is plenty of evidence to support the criticisms of the 'coup, crisis, famine' coverage. Examples are too numerous to cite here, but the following small selection is fairly representative of the broader picture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Introducing the findings of a 'Global News Agenda Survey', Malik and Anderson noted: 'For the rest of the world, Africa means coupe, and largescale killings (covered usually only in the first few days), almost ritualistic famine relief... and the occasional travelogues in the guise of saving something or other'. Similar claims were made by Okigho when he wrote that while CNN and other satellite organisations have 'revolutionised international news coverage', the most common images of Africa still depict internecine warfare (in Angola, Liberia, Somalia), pogroms in Rwanda, political violence in Sierra Leone and ethnic conflicts in Kenya and elsewhere in Africa. In contrast, says Okigho, the 'many positive developments' are routinely ignored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A limited review that I made of wire service copy from the main international news agencies during the week of 13-20 May 1996, produced findings that seemed to echo some of these complaints. In this period, hard news stories were concentrated on a handful of the 50 plus countries of Africa; Burundi, the Central African Republic (C.A.R.), Egypt, Liberia, Somalia, Sudan and South Africa - together with stories of alleged financial irregularities in the World Health Organisation in Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copy about Burundi dealt with ethnic violence and attacks inside Zaire   on Burundi by Hutu 'rebels'. Reports from the C.A.R. focused on an army mutiny, street battles and looting, but were angled on the mediating role of French troops (the C.A.R is a former French colony) and the fate of 100 Americans trapped in the capital, Bangui. Egypt was featured after its government accused Sudan of harbouring a 'vipers' nest of terrorists'. Out of Liberia came a torrent of wire copy about fighting in Monrovia along with assorted atrocity stories, but pinning the emphasis on the plight of foreign nationals (especially Britons and Americans) and the role being played by the USS Guam in air-lifting them to safety. Somalia rated a mention because of the release of two foreign aid workers (British and German) held by an unidentified 'rebel faction'. On South Africa, the wire services were fixed on further violence and killings in KwaZuluNatal, the result of ongoing struggles between rival supporters of the A.N.C and the Inkatha Freedom Party.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'agenda for Africa' sent out by the wire agencies, was replicated by  the menu offered by Reuters TV and APTV. For instance, on one day during the study period, the former was offering ten picture feeds; only one was from Africa (on the C.A.R.) while the rest included such compelling visuals as the British Queen's visit to the Chelsea Flower Show. For the fifteen picture feeds being touted by the APTV on a single day, one featured Africa ('news pictures to offer on the airlift by US marines'), which competed for the attention of western news rooms alongside visuals of a US woman who collected hubcaps (140 000 of them, no less!), Hugh Grant arriving by boat at the Cannes Film Festival, footage of the Monaco Grand Prix and a 'fun run' in Sarajevo (whether or not pictures are available, the idea of a 'fun-run' in Bosnia still seems a difficult concept to grasp) But what these studies show is not the whole picture about Africa which circulates in the West. Nor should they necessarily be used to support the usual criticisms about the performance of the western media in relation to the continent. In the first place, not all news  out of Africa fits into the syndrome the critics complain about. For example, a great deal of the coverage of South Africa has been 'positive' (if we trace the reporting of that country's transition to majority rule). So, too, have the moves towards multi-party politics in African states like Zimbabwe. Similarly, there is plenty of reporting of Africa's sporting successes (such as South Africa's Rugby World Cup triumph). Nor is the West unaware of the work of certain African musicians and film makers - indeed, it has been influenced by them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And even if 'positive' coverage is sometimes hard to find, the critics may still be missing some key points. The first is to do with western 'news values' or rather a failure to appreciate how they work - whether in relation to Africa or anywhere else. The staple diet of much of the global news flow is about 'bad news' and, in this respect, Africa prob  ably fares no worse or better than other parts of the developing world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, a more 'systematic' reporting of much of Africa is still difficult. My point here is about a lack of efficient and developed communication infrastructures, but also a reluctance by many African leaders to tolerate - let alone actively encourage - free and honest open reporting. Too many African journalists have been, and are being, harassed, imprisoned or killed by their own governments. Much of the media in Africa - especially the broadcast media - remains under state control. Newspapers that show a 'lack respect' for the ruling party are frequently shut down. These realities help explain why some of the maligned western media are turned to by those Africans who want something more than state propaganda from their newspapers or broadcasters. This is why the BBC World Service has come to enjoy such a high reputation in many parts of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Third, the attempts made by the African states to try and take on western dominance of global news and information flows, have been misjudged. Two failed initiatives in particular are worth mentioning in this context; the launch in 1983 of the Pan African News Agency (PANA) and the long-time obsession with setting up a 'New World Information Order' (NWIO).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the start, PANA has been dogged by financial and management problems. African governments owe $18 million, journalists have gone unpaid, lines have been disconnected and in 1992 a UNESCO-funded audit found evidence of financial mismanagement. The main source of information PANA traded in was material from the domestic news agencies of OAU member states. Since most of these are state-controlled, the 'news' they were offering was never likely to attract many western users. To try and give PANA a new lease of life, UNESCO are backing a rescue package, which would allow for private investors to be shareholders along with state-owned African national news agencies. But the pro  posed partnership funding is unlikely to work, especially in one-party states where the ruling groups have always been suspicious of any media not under their direct ownership.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The NWIO project has chased even more impossible dreams. Any attempt fundamentally to change the global news order was always going to be beyond countries with severe national communication 'deficits'. Most African countries, with weak and undercapitalised information infrastructures were never in a position to take on the market leaders in the global news business. In pursuit of the NWIO idea, endless international conferences were held, declarations passed and ritual attacks made on ' western media dominance'. Nothing came of it all. If the sense of frustration which kept the concept alive was understandable, less easy to grasp was why African leaders focused on the NWIO idea, while their own grassroots communication systems remained impoverished and under-resourced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most recent attempt to develop 'top-down' communications facilities in parts of Africa comes with the attempts to push satellite-delivered payTV on the continent. Among the 'players' here are Multi-Choice (which will be offered to subscribers in over 30 countries in sub-Saharan Africa), Canal Horizons (targeted on North Africa and Francophone West Africa) and Panafnet (also aimed at buyers in Francophone West Africa). Because these enterprises are subscription-based there will be a clear bias in take-up towards upperincome groups; and - certainly in the case of Multi-Choice - the output will have a 'strong UK/USA programming flavour'. It is hard to see how these initiatives will ever meet the real news and information needs of the vast majority of African consumers, who have limited spending power and are often deprived of the most basic communication tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As Hans Dieter Klee (former Head of the Africa Service of Deutsche Welle) has rightly argued, what Africa urgently needs is large-scale international media aid to help strengthen its own media. This aid should not be targeted at projects designed somehow to allow Africa to 'compete' with Western media congLom&eacute;rates. It should, instead, be aimed at building up diverse, viable and professional local and national media enterprises in African countries themselves. In this, the EU can play a leading role, working through the links established under the Lom&eacute; Convention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robust national communication structures in Africa will not, of course, alter the balance of global media power. They will be able to do little to stop the international news agencies reporting Africa in the way they have done in the past. And it will be a long time before most Africans becomes travellers on the 'information superhighway', since this, in essence, is an extension of existing computer and telephonic communications, which the continent lacks. But a vigorous local and national media, Africa-wide, would be good for Africa and the best barrier for resisting outside media influences. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6.M.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">References</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Okigho: 'National Images in the Age of the Information Super Highway </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African Perspectives', African Media Review, vol. 9,1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Malik and K. Anderson: 'TV: The Global New Agenda Survey', intermedia, January-February 1992. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Hicks 'North of the Limpopo', Cable and Satellite Europe, April 1996. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A message of hope on the Burundi airwaves</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Parliament may seem an unlikely launch pad for a radio station, but two members of this elected body, who are committed to a free and fair press as one of the cornerstones of democracy, have set up Radio Espoir (Radio Hope) in Burundi with backing of the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parliamentarians, Pierre Pradier (ERA-F) and Bernard Kouchner (PSE-F) are co-founders of Radio Espoir (Radio Umwizero, in Kirundi) which brings together a French association and a local Burundi radio station. Three expatriates are working on the Bujumbura-based project; an editor, a radio technician and an administrator. They have teamed up with local journalists who, for the moment, are providing their services free of charge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The station, which broadcasts in Kirundi, is targeted at an audience in the 15-25 age group. In a country with an 80% illiteracy rate, radio is the only way of reaching the population. 'The idea came to us in 1994, with Rwanda and Radio Libre des Mille Collines' says Pierre Pradier. 'If so much harm could be done with radio, then why equally could good not be achieved.' RLMC was the radio set up in July 1993 on the eve of the genocide in Rwanda. It became a mouthpiece  for the Akazu, a clan of Hutu extremists grouped around the then President's wife, Agathe Habyarimana, and it undermined the Arusha agreements by whipping up ethnic conflict in Rwanda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Pradier explains that Radio Hope journalists intentionally avoid speaking about Hutus and Tutsis. He also highlights the problems encountered in providing news coverage when local conditions are so difficult. As he points out; 'When you speak about the situation of a woman who has lost her husband in Burundi, you are talking politics.' Security considerations are important too while the MEP stresses that a proper analysis of events can only come with time: 'At the moment we are limited to reporting the facts. And it is only when the facts are verified that one can begin to interpret them.' The news items broadcast by the station rely on agency dispatches confirmed by a network of local people who call in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of such sensitivities and in an effort to find as much common ground as possible, the radio station gives music top billing. This has the added advantage of helping to attract listeners. It also offers general programmes on African roots, sport, culture and educational themes, in addition to its news items. It is currently broadcasting for six hours a day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pierre Pradier says he would like to see an end to the 'navel gazing' of Burundi's population. 'We want to show that peace is possible, by showing how it is progressing elsewhere: in Haiti, for example, where there is a legitimate President now, and amongst the Chiapas in Mexico.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But, like many fledgling stations, finding enough funds from donors to guarantee its future is a worry. The station's current ECHO grant runs out in September 1996. Indeed, the project, classified under emergency aid, was atypical for the humanitarian aid office. But Mr Pradier is hoping that continued support will come from one of the EU's budget lines. He believes that the Union is a particularly suitable donor because it tends to be less 'colonialistic' than some others. He also raises the possibility of seeking funds from private donors such as the Fondation de France. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking to the future of the station, Pierre Pradier argues that they cannot let the project 'drop' and hopes eventually to see it being handed over to local broadcasters, assuming 'they are people we can depend on'. The signs so far are encouraging. He would also like to see Radio Hope's programme content broadened to include game shows, with radios offered as prizes for the winners. As far as he is concerned, the more people who tune in, the better! _</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joint Assembly resolution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ACP/Ku Joint Assembly is pushing for EC institutions and Lom&eacute; signatories to be more supportive of media issues. A resolution on the role of communications media in the development and consolidation of democracy in ACP states. passed by the Assembly in March, contained the following points:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - freedom of expression and free communications and media are vital to the development of a democratic society;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - more ACP countries should give opposition parties access to the media' notably where this is controlled by the state;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - all candidates and political parties should be given access to the media in a 'balanced and fair manner'; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - laws which restrict press freedom and the electoral process should be repealed;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - any threat of physical attack against media organisations or their employees should be investigated by the authorities, with those responsible being brought to justice;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the media should be impartial, providing accurate information during elections, helping to educate the electorate, explaining the importance of elections, giving information on where, when and how to vote, and explaining the secret ballot;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - EU assistance for free and a fair elections - and a free media sector in ACP countries - should be increased. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Catholic radio in Southern Africa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Antonio Pacheco</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this abridged article, the author, who is a Portuguese journalist, gives details of two church-supported local radio projects in Southern Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the end of the 1980s, the Social Communication Department of IMBISA, the conference of Catholic bishops in Southern Africa (a kind of SADC for Roman Catholics) embarked on a local radio project. It had a two-pronged approach. First, it involved setting up a network of small community radio stations. The local population were involved, sharing responsibility for making programmes and broadcasting information and news about everyday life in the remotest places. In some cases, the programme content was retransmitted at a provincial or even national level. The second aspect was that it was supplemented by the creation of flexible and independent associations of journalists/presenters. They formed information agencies operating as a network to link up local radio stations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At that time, the main concern in Southern Africa was to rid South Africa of apartheid. There was also a desire to promote freedom of expression in Angola and Mozambique. Given that radio was (and still is) the most important means of communication in the region, the idea was to set up a regional network capable of overcoming all the constraints ranging from legal bans and restrictions on broadcasting to widespread illiteracy. The ultimate objective was to set up a Catholic radio station based in Swaziland. This project did not go ahead, however, because it was too expensive to finance and, above all, because it was dependent on the regional Catholic hierarchy. It proved difficult to reconcile the various ideological views and sensitivities of bishops in the various countries of the region. There was also a growing feeling amongst the Christian communities that the underlying need was not for a radio station which would be a vehicle for bishops' views, but rather a media system that served the people, offering recreation, training and information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio Pax</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another local radio project of interest, which is now up and running, involved reviving Radio Pax, the private Catholic radio station which made a significant contribution during the 1 960s to the struggle for a free Mozambique. The operation closed down in 1977 but the experience was not forgotten and 16 years later, the decision was made to bring the station back on air. Those behind the new project took advantage of the trend towards greater political openness in the country. Their aim was to offer a credible and informative alternative, which, they hoped, would be up and running in time for the elections scheduled for October 1994. A course was run between July and September 1994 which brought together young presenters chosen by small communities on the outskirts of Beira, Chimoio, Nampula, Quelimane and Maputo. The course involved honing the participants' presentation skills and providing practical training in technical subjects, and programme and information preparation. This was how the first association of young independent Christian journalists came into being.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For various reasons, including red-tape and customs regulations, the  new Radio Pax was unable to broadcast in the run-up to the general election. However, the young journalists, who received their training at various locations, were able to act as important independent sources of information. This was channelled to Maputo and used as backup for a number of international press officials and observers. The information relayed by the young presenters in the provinces made it possible to publish a newsletter which was circulated throughout the country, using fax, religious channels and a variety of other means.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio Pax is now in operation, although it faces major technical problems. It is based in a community centre in Inhamizua, 20 km from Beira. The station has already done important work in gathering information about local traditions, and has broadcast programmes aimed particularly at women and young people in suburban areas. The network also incorporates Mozambique's Radio Encontro, which broadcasts from Nampula in conjunction with the Anchilo training centre. There are plans for further local radio stations in Maputo in the south, Quelimane and Chimolo in the centre and Pemba in the north.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio Pax is managed entirely by the Association of Independent Young Christian Journalists in Beira. In terms of training, the current preoccupation is to teach the young people involved how to manage the small radio stations which have been made available to them, and to set up local self financing systems. Although equipment is important, what really counts in this project is the training of the presenters. Working in close collaboration with the community, it is they who are in the front linepromoting the inalienable right of free expression.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Voice of the Disabled in Chad!</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Mand Rya&iuml;ra Ngarara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Support Group for the Disabled in Chad (AEHPT) was set up in 1987 with the assistance of the International Christian Service for Peace (EIRENE), which has its headquarters in Germany. By coming together to form a group, disabled people hoped to take charge of their lives and break down the wall of silence that surrounds them. However, despite setting up various workshops (welding workshops, small printing works, musical groups) and publishing an information newsletter, entitled 'Perspectives'. the AEHPT has been unable to improve the image of disabled people within Chad society and has failed to  raise awareness that the work done by the disabled is not only of value, but deserves due recognition. From this status quo sprang the idea of broadcasting a national weekly radio programme called 'The Voice of the Disabled'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two reasons why radio was chosen as the communication medium: firstly, the very strong oral tradition of the country, together with the population's weak purchasing power, which make access to newspapers difficult, means that radio remains the most appropriate medium for reaching a wide audience; and secondly, radio programmes are not difficult to produce, since they do not require vast technical, financial or human resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Letting the disabled have their say</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially launched by the AEHPT, The Voice of the Disabled is now jointly produced and broadcast by four associations actively involved in defending the interests of those with disabilities. It is broadcast nationwide every Monday at peak listening times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The programme is not, however, aimed solely at those with disabilities but, on the contrary, seeks to increase awareness in Chad society as a whole. It also acts as a platform from which to urge the authorities to take concrete measures to help this section of the population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, more than a year after its launch, The Voice of the Disabled is enjoying tremendous success, with ever larger numbers of people, from all walks of life, tuning in. For the disabled themselves it provides a vast source of information, explaining the facts behind the causes of their disabilities and giving advice on how to prevent such disabilities and what can be done to treat them, and it keeps people informed about  what is happening within the various associations for the disabled, giving information about the activities, projects and special events that are taking place. As far as the rest of the population is concerned, The Voice of the Disabled has helped to raise the profile of disabled people in Chad. Slowly but surely, people's preconceptions are beginning to change and one of the programme's greatest achievements has been to eradicate gradually the negative image which people used to have of disabilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, the lamentable fact remains that this programme is broadcast solely in French, and this is why plans are now in the pipeline to broadcast The Voice of the Disabled in both Arabic and Sara - Chad's two national languages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.R.N. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">TV documentaries and development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Africa Express experiment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Richard Synge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'Africa Express' documentory series mounted by Channel4, an independent British TV station, has done more than just put a new slant on news provided by state-run African channels. it has also created jobs for African producers and reporters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Television viewers in Africa will soon get the chance to see documentaries on African current affairs and development topics which have hitherto only been seen on British TV sets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Channel Four's Africa Express programme has recently concluded its third series to much critical acclaim in Britain. it included items on a surprisingly diverse range of topics. One film showed how a cash-strapped Congolese prison saves money by sending its prisoners home one day in every month, and included lively interviews with the governor and the prisoners themselves as well as footage of the grim prison conditions. Others focused on the flourishing free currency market in Zaire, the spread of South Africa's 'shebeen' culture into the country's upmarket suburbs, political battles in Namibia over the rights to manage historic tourist sites and the Nigerian military government's blatant attempts to censor television reporting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The latest series supplemented the work of British film crews by incorporating several documentaries that were made entirely by African production teams. Special funding for this element of the Africa Express project came from the environmental television distribution agency TVE. As a result, Africa Express hired four African directors and used African-based crews to film half of the 24 films in the series.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other innovative part of the project was that the programmes are now becoming available to viewers in Africa at the lowest possible cost. To promote this concept of 'media feedback', TVE has been actively marketing the series to non-governmental organisations and facilitating arrangements for the distribution of the cassettes to African broadcasting stations, both state-owned and private.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'It is a way forward for us, because nothing like this has been done before,' says Raphael Tuju, a Kenyan film producer who runs a video resource centre in Nairobi, marketing documentaries to local broadcasting stations and the educational sector. 'There are too few opportunities for producers in African countries to break into the international networks. The subjects we cover are rarely of interest to the distribution companies, the differences in technology are too wide and getting wider, and there are not enough African producers who have reached the professional level to compete with their counterparts abroad.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peter Gill, who edited Africa Express for Channel Four, welcomed the opportunity to help promote the independent film industry in Africa. 'It was thoroughly stimulating,' he says, adding that one of the constant challenges was 'finding ways to bridge the gap between what is technically possible in Africa and the standards required for a European television production.' The four African directors hired for the series were two South Africans, Eddie Mbalo and Teddy Mattera, a Zimbabwean, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albert Chimedza, and a Namibian, Bridget Pickering. They all worked directly under Peter Gill's management and in contact with a producer in the field. Gill was impressed with the level of journalistic and technical expertise available in Africa and the dedication of the teams working in difficult situations. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even where the production teams were British, all the 24 films in the latest Africa Express series used African journalists and presenters. They researched and organised most of the films in advance of the actual shoot by the visiting film crews. Cameroonian journalist, Emmanual Wotany, played a prominent role in the films on Congo and Zaire. Kenyan reporter Joseph Warungu proposed and presented a film on the hazards of skin-bleaching in The Gambia. The presenter of the programme on Nigeria, Toyin Fane-Kayode, bravely challenged the censorship of the country's military regime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An all-African camera and sound team led by Lawrence Mbada and Mandla Mlambo was responsible for the four films in the series that were shot by the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC). In the extremely difficult conditions of Angola and Namibia, an experienced SABC cameraman was used. Here there was a need to ensure that the less experienced directors were not further challenged by having to work with an inexperienced crew.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For TVE's Robert Lamb, one of the main breakthroughs made by Africa Express was in the agreement of Channel Four to collaborate both with the SABC and with TVE itself, which insisted on the involvement and participation of African journalists, film-makers and technicians. He was impressed by the results and hopes that thee could be 'an even greater African involvement in another series, if one is commissioned.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The latest series was a success, being regularly watched by up to two million viewers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Channel Four granted broadcasting rights for the series in lowincome countries to TVE and Worldview International Foundation as well as the non-broadcast rights to TVE and its partners in the third world. These   agreements allow TVE to provide the tapes at nominal cost to a network of video resource centres, similar to that run by Raphael Tuju in Nairobi. Such centres seek to get development-oriented documentary films shown by the local broadcasting stations but survive by supplying the needs of schools, colleges, non-governmental organisations and other categories of 'multipliers'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most successful documentary centres is the Film Resource Unit (FRU) in Johannesburg. From its origins as a way of sharing bootlegged foreign films and TV programmes during the political repression of the 1980s, FRU is now a major distributor of educational and documentary films.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To overcome the inexperience of state-owned African broadcasting networks in showing programmes of developmental relevance to their societies, video resource centres have to provide their own sponsorship. 'It is difficult for us to compete with the likes of Coca Cola, which will sponsor programmes like soap operas,' says Raphael Tuju, 'but one way round this obstacle is to sponsor a programme and at the same time advertise our services. The business we generate this way usually means that we can at least break even.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Film-making capacity in Africa has been severely limited by most governments' domination of the broadcasting media and a deep and institutional reluctance to encourage independent local productions. The mainly government-owned television stations rarely have a policy to buy in locallymade programmes and tend to look to Britain, France or the US for outside material, which is often dumped on the market at low prices, making it an even harder challenge for local producers to generate the funds to make their own programmes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decline of the once-active film industry in Nigeria, in particular, means that in English-speaking Africa, the field is now dominated by South Africa and Zimbabwe. In French-speaking Africa, the continuation of subsidies  has kept an 'art house' tradition alive, especially in Senegal and Burkina Faso. In most of the continent, however, the only development-oriented programmes shown to the public tend to be made by the governments' own propaganda departments rather than by independent film-makers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where there is a lack of access  to local broadcasting media, African film-makers continue to experiment with making their own dramas and documentaries, showing their work on video in village halls and schools. 'At the grassroots, African film-making can be stimulated simply by consumer demand,' says Russel Honeyman, who publishes the African Film and TV Yearbook in Harare. 'But local products do not usually translate into international products. Film and television is a global industry and film-makers should not insist on being too parochial. There is room for greater international collaboration.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Based on the experience of the latest Africa Express series, TVE now plans to build on its achievements. In May 1996, it exhibited the series to the directors of African television stations at a conference in Windhoek, Namibia, and discussed arrangements for distribution of the cassettes. It is also planning to  participate in a workshop for French speaking West African nations in Senegal under a grant from the European Union's human rights division. The consultative process will continue with a meeting of the African video resource centre network at the end of 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TVE's Robert Lamb hopes that the success of Africa Express might encourage international funding agencies in Europe to take up the challenge of funding films made in Africa for African consumption. He doubts that Channel Four on its own would take such a risk. Constraints are, perhaps inevitably, imposed on TVE's concept by the fact that programmes produced for European audiences use a production and editorial structure that requires 'post production' in European capitals. 'Although we came out owning the rights to the programmes in Africa, Channel Four still had 80% of the control over the production and editorial decisions,' he acknowledges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert Lamb is fully aware of the challenges that lie ahead. 'National broadcasters are in a parlous financial position and are still, for the most part, stifled by government controls,' he notes. 'Africans who have received formal training rarely find the funds to apply their newly-acquired skills.' But Mr Lamb and his TVE organisation are convinced that there will be increasing demand for more programmes like Africa Express, as much from Africa itself as from European audiences. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.S. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Internet and the South</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Renaud de la Brosse</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, who works at the Panos Institute in Paris, reflects on the pros and cons of new information technology for countries in the South and on their chances of success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Internet has become such a craze amongst users in Third-World countries (researchers, teachers, businesses,, liberal professions, etc.) that it amply demonstrates that a real and genuine need is being met, despite adverse comments from its detractors. The rapid increase in the number of connections to the network in the North is mirrored by an exponential growth in the South. Africa is a good example of the possibilities offered by access to the global network whilst at the same time revealing the technical and financial restrictions facing countries in the South.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost all of Africa's 55 countries are today connected to the network, from South Africa, which has over 800.000 computers, to Uganda, which has just a few thousand. The importance of the Internet in Africa must be viewed less in terms of the number of computers (means of access to the Internet) and more in terms of the constant increase it represents in numbers of subscribers to the network. In the last six months alone, the number of subscribers increased by over 50%, whilst the increase in France, for example, was only 20%. Another telling figure is the number of host computers per 1.000 inhabitants, which rose by 147% in South Africa between 1994 and 1995 whereas the increase for Taiwan and Australia was 83% and 50%, respectively!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because it is under-supplied in communications equipment, Africa is starting out with a disadvantage compared with other continents. However, the recent G7 Conference on Information and Development, which took place in mid-May in Midrand in South Africa, brought together 40 countries and 18 intergovernmental organizations and made it possible 'to build a bridge between developed countries and developing countries' so that the latter are not excluded from the world of new information technologies. The benefit to be gained from the Net for the Black Continent lies in the fact that African surfers are anxious to break free  from their scientific, cultural or economic isolation which comes not only from relationships between Africa and the rest of the world, but often from relationships between regions and countries on the African continent itself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Precursors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As in Europe and the United States, scientists and researchers in Africa are the first to have understood the importance of the Net and there are now - in French speaking Africa - networks such as the Intertropical Computer Network, which groups together approximately 3000 surfers in 11 countries. The importance of the Internet for these researchers is manifold; in most countries, the education system is in grave crisis, essentially because of diminishing budget resources which for years, on account of structural adjustment measures, have been melting away. This explains the absence of libraries or documentation centres. The Internet is therefore becoming a stopgap measure, offering access to all current scientific production and giving African researchers the chance to publicise and gain recognition for their work outside their own continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interesting experiments in North/South cooperation are also being set up, with the French-speaking Agency for Higher Education and Research currently establishing what it calls a 'virtual French-speaking campus', a kind of vast library to which affiliated universities will be connected. The project is also justified in economic terms since, through the medium of electronic mail (e-mail), which goes hand in hand with the Internet, exchanges of information will be cheaper than by fax, for example, which costs at least five times as much for the same amount of information transmitted. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside the academic community, heads of African businesses are also launching themselves into cyberspace, particularly in the case of several hundred of them who have grouped together within a West-African Business Network. Internet's financial viability in the South is dependent on membership of African businesses and multinational companies established in Africa. The cost of subscription is still beyond the means of private individuals and only 'institutional' subscribers are currently able to guarantee payment in the short term.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A useful tool</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the possibilities on offer remain to be explored, so the Internet can therefore be an important medium for promoting African culture - Niger has set up a Web via which it is possible to visit its archaeological sites and Benin has just set up a server dedicated to voodoo. In general terms, there is the challenge of mastering content, in other words the African suffers should not restrict themselves to a  passive use (sleeking information from the North) but should, on the contrary, move progressively as players providing content and information. For the countries of the South, it is a matter of mastering information and preserving their culture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The range of possibilities offered by the Net is limitless. Its development in Africa or in the South in general does, however, run up against a number of obstacles, including those of both a technical and financial nature. The importance of the Internet lies in being able to transmit greater quantities of information more cheaply than by using other communications techniques. However, the required technology is expensive and therein lies the principal difference between the North and the South.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The infrastructure which would permit rapid, longterm expansion of the Internet is nowhere near being installed in Africa, just as in the other developing countries. The continent is still under-equipped in terms of telephone lines; according to a survey by the BDT (Telecommunications Development Office), the number of main telephone lines per 100 inhabitants is less than 0.5 in sub-Saharan Africa, and in terms of equipment providing access to the Net (computer, modem, etc.). In real terms, this makes access to the network much more expensive for a user in the South than for one in the North. All these imported electronic goods are much more expensive than in the West, and this is without taking account of the additional cost, in most African countries, imposed by tariff barriers on IT goods, which are regarded with great suspicion by the authorities who perceive them as a potential danger more than as essential development tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fear is that the remote transmission of data might pose a threat to less than democratic regimes. Under the pretext of 'the control of information-based wealth', a State may decide to interfere with the 'consent' or even 'suppress' a site for producing and exchanging information deemed contrary to its interests. Once more, the question of freedom of expression arises in different terms in the South and North. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Panos Institute</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Panos Institute is a non-profit-making association set up in 1988. Together with its counterparts in London and Washington, the Paris Panos Institute founded Panos International The Institute's aim is to strengthen, particularly in Africa, local expression and information capabilities. Within the context of sustainable and  better-shared development, it aims to promote the emergence of a more democratic culture and of more democratic debate. To this end, the Panos Institute runs two main programmes in west Africa from Paris and its branch offices (Senegal, Mali, Chad and Ghana).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The programme to support pluralism in matters of information, which has four major objectives: - to expand and consolidate the legal, institutional and statutory framework of pluralist-type information - to increase professionalism in the media - to give institutional support to authors in west Africa who promote pluralism in information - to contribute to the production and circulation of more diversified and more qualified information on certain priority topics such as the environment, human rights, management and prevention of conflict, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The migration and cooperation programme seeks to enhance the value of the contribution made by citizens from Third World countries residing in the rich nations to development in their countries of origin. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union, UNESCO and the ACCT, American foundations (Ford, Rockefeller) or German foundations, and bilateral cooperation agreements (Denmark, Netherlands, Norway, Germany, France) support the actions of the Panos Institute. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The press in Africa as a tool in the democratic  process</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Florence Win&eacute;ry</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although radio is 'king of the media' in Africa, the press is increasingly becoming an active player in the democratic process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This has been seen particularly over the last six years in the French-speaking African states where a burgeoning of political parties has been matched by the appearance of an unusually large number of  newspapers. In these countries, the press still requires rudimentary political stability - in contrast to English-speaking countries, where it has a much longer tradition and can nowadays be generally regarded as the 'Fourth Estate'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria is a good illustration of this. One need only cite the press campaigns mounted there to protest against the Federation's membership of the Islamic Conference Organisation in 1986, and more recently, the support given to Moshood Abiola. The vitality of the Nigerian press is something that deserves to be emphasised. Despite a series of measures over the years aimed at suppressing it (not exclusively by the military authorities) it is still much in evidence. There are demonstrations to support it, and it has 'gone underground' at times, continuing to publish clandestinely. The journalists' struggle intensified in June 1993, when it was recommended that they should exercise 'discretion and self-regulation'. In spite of the problems, the Nigerian press endeavours to remain a source of pressure in Nigeria's political and social arena.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Returning to the French-speaking media, we see that the pace of expansion varies considerably from one country to another. In Benin, for example, current discussions are centred  strongly on opening up the country's airwaves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Is a private press a partisan press?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is debatable whether the private press is truly independent. In the political sphere, it is often highly partisan while 'economic' independence - in the sense of access to the materials needed to produce a newspaper - is not always possible. Printing and distribution are often subject to monopolies which may constitute a form of disguised censorship for the publishers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initiatives aimed at setting up press associations in one form or another have been launched in an attempt to overcome these problems. This helps explain why the SEP (publishers' Society) was established. This group, which hopes to extend its activities throughout the region, is based in Benin where the democratisation process (and the proliferation of press titles) first begun. In many countries, media associations have already been formed covering specific areas such as radio, the press and publishing. There are plans for similar organisations in the field of television. Sometimes, they have printing facilities which are available to other private publications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The principal challenge facing a general information-based newspaper is that it should appear regularly and on time. The next stage, ideally, is for it to be able to increase its distribution. Initially, a number of newspapers only came out monthly or even every two months. After appearing regularly for several months - and thereby achieving  relative financial stability - they then moved to weekly publication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most countries, a new legal framework was also adopted, although the application of the legislation has often proved laborious. This is particularly true of the setting up of regulatory authorities. In Senegal, where the media was previously governed by a law passed in 1979 (and amended in 1986), new legislation was enacted at the beginning of 1996. The measure was prompted by concerns over ethical standards, a demand for a more 'responsible' approach, a desire to prevent monopolies developing, and fears of excessive foreign involvement. This year has also seen the implementation of media law amendments in Cote d'lvoire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The focus of the work of many newly-formed organisations has been the drawing up of a professional code of ethics, with a view to defining the basis of the journalist's profession. In Cote d'lvoire, the OLPED (Press Freedom and Professional Ethics Monitor) was created in September 1995 in Yamoussoukro at a seminar on journalists' responsibilities during elections. The OLPED is made up of 13 members representing publishers, civil society and the nation's journalists. Although the 'Monitor' has only moral authority, it has had considerable influence on journalists' professional consciences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The OLPED held weekly working sessions up to March 1996 and now meets every two months. One of its main achievements has been to define the criteria whereby a responsible attitude can be guaranteed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vigilance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The press can expect to be subject to rigorous supervision during an election campaign - as happened recently in Benin. Indeed, Benin's press has attracted special attention from various national institutions including, most notably, the NGO community. This interest resulted In the organisation of seminars on journalism during an election period, designed to avoid incitements to violence. The HAAC (Audi  ovisual and Communications High Authority), responsible for statutory control of the media in the run-up to and during the campaign, took part in these meetings which were aimed at increasing awareness and highlighting the heavy responsibility carried by the media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite a number of incidents during the campaign (which were immediately reported) and although the situation threatened to get out of hand while the country was obliged to wait for the publication of the results of the second round, the press conducted itself in a fairly moderate manner. It should be recalled that there was a great deal of apprehension in Benin before the results were announced with a widespread fear that violence might break out. These fears were given extensive coverage by the media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The HAAC proved to be central to the electoral process and, ultimately, the press was congratulated by most political leaders in Benin, and by those from abroad who were involved in organising and observing the poll, for the role that it played in the process. By and large, it concentrated on portraying popular expectations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During an election period, the print media is an essential vehicle of opinion and power, justifying the creation of special titles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, the private press is playing an increasingly important role in the democratic process and the question of its survival appears to have attracted more serious attention from the authorities. In Senegal, a subsidy has been granted to a number of newspapers, subject to certain conditions, and Mali set an example this year by establishing a private press aid fund, with Cote d'lvoire about to follow suit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The political context which has favoured this flourishing of the private press has had a marked influence on the way it has developed and on the editorial content of most journals - which is strongly focused on politics and 'national' issues. The press has barely had a chance to find its feet on the media scene and in the political process, and it has had to contend with huge  economic constraints. Low circulation figures are one key reason for its precarious position - newspapers are read only by an educated, urban minority. However, the press is now embarking on a new course, attempting to establish a loyal readership with a view to guaranteeing its long-term survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Independence and integrity ought, of course, to be the hallmark of journalism, although currently it is not  possible to say that the profession is dissociated entirely from political militancy. In the past, the press has played  a part in undermining the national consensus by promoting division and, on occasion, fomenting exclusion and confrontation. The issue today is whether the sector can now take its place in states governed by the rule of law, representing public opinion and helping to bring about a rapprochement of ideas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.M. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Benin's press on parole?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Richard Lawson T&egrave;vi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When President Mathieu K&eacute;rekou of Benin granted permission to set up private newspapers in his country, the result was an upsurge of new titles. The following article is written by a journalist who works on  one of these publications ('Tam-Tam Express'). He offers an assessment of the way the private press has developed in Benin, and in particular of the ethical and economic challenges it needs to overcome in the new democratic order.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1988, President K&eacute;r&eacute;kou's revolutionary regime authorised the setting-up of private newspapers in Benin. At the beginning, only a limited degree of freedom was granted to new publications but things have evolved quickly. 'La Gazette du Golfe' and 'Tam-Tam Express', the first independent weeklies to be set up (two years prior to the 1990 national conference), went beyond what the Marxist regime had in mind and effectively achieved press freedom in the face of opposition from the Ministry of Information and Propaganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalists took advantage of their initial limited freedom to publish reports about political and financial scandals and this, not surprisingly, gave a new lease of life to the media more generally in Benin. In particular, journalists from the national radio and television  channels were quick to switch their style of reporting, dispensing with the stereotyped formal language which had previously characterised the public-service media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meanwhile, several politically oriented publications came into being ('L'Opinion', 'La Recade', 'Le Canard du Golfe'). This development gave newfound dynamism to the emergence of a free and independent press in the crucial period prior to Benin's national conference, which was held in February 1990.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To date, 170 titles have been registered with the Ministry of the Interior, although barely half of these have been published more than five times. Some appeared only once and many have existed in name only. Publications which have had only a sporadic existence are legion and, in the years between 1991 and 1996, when political power alternated between Presidents Soglo and Kerekou, independent privatepress titles flourished. Unfortunately, they faced a number of problems - such as prohibitive paper and printing costs and poor distribution networks. The result was that many operators were financially ruined as a result of their decision to venture into this area of publication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currently, the Benin market has only 20 or so titles which appear on a   reasonably regular basis. For the most part, these are two-weekly and monthly publications which concentrate their activities in Cotonou. The audiovisual media are conspicuous by their absence, despite the provisions of the Constitution adopted in December 1990, which gave special powers to the HAAC (Audiovisual and Communications High Authority), particularly as regards guaranteeing 'press freedom' and 'opening up the audiovisual sector'. No one knows when this law will actually be implemented, but it does appear that the Benin Parliament, which sits in Porto Novo, has been giving more attention to this issue since General K&eacute;r&eacute;kou's accession to power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The relationship between the press and the state</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governmen/press relationships are not particularly healthy at the moment. The usual reflex of authorities in any country is to control or manipulate the press wherever possible. At the ORTB (Benin Broadcasting and Television Office), a branch of the public sector, journalists often complain of the pressures they face in processing information. The same is said at the national daily, 'La Nation'. Fortunately, such pressures have not always shaken the resolve of the professional journalists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The private press has a different problem. In this case, it is the newspaper proprietors who look to collaborate with the political parties. As one publishing editor has said, 'Our problem is more one of allegiance than of harassment'. Virtually all publications are political vehicles for one or other group - which makes nonsense of the code of ethics that is supposed to govern the profession. This phenomenon was most marked during the election period. All the titles that had been in 'hibernation' came to life again and new titles were born, only to disappear once the poll was over. This is also a reflection of the very meagre resources available to most private publishers. Those who do have sufficient means are usually quick to offer allegiance - for example to particular businesses - in order to position themselves more favourably from an economic  standpoint. Thus, some of the press rather overtly promotes particular economic interests. Others assiduously woo politicians and, in some cases, use blatant blackmailing techniques. In the latter situation, the 'market' operates on the basis that a file (sometimes assembled from a number of documents) will not be published if an endorsement is given or - what is worse - in return for hard cash. The justification for this shameful practice is that the market is highly restricted, sales of newspapers bring in very little income and advertising is non-existent but the newspaper has to keep going nonetheless. This situation also explains why defamation actions are frequently settled 'out of court' by the parties to the dispute.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A profession fraught with difficulties</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another explanation for the existence of blackmail is the lack of training. The majority of journalists working for private publications come into the profession for want of something better to do, after they have finished their university courses. One experienced journalist refers to these people as mere 'hirelings'. It is only once they have entered the profession that they learn the basics through joining journalists' associations and by receiving support from some of the bilateral-cooperation missions and foundations that are operating in Benin. The country does not, itself, have any colleges of journalism to speak of. Only recently, the national daily newspaper inaugurated a course for young journalists receiving their training on the country's various publications. This course will be spread over one year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young journalists working at the national agency, the Benin Press Agency, are trained by WANAD (the West-African National Agencies Development) centre, under the auspices of UNESCO, which is subregional in vocation. The 20 or so trainees have no clear idea of what awaits them when they finish their course - whether all, or just some of them, will be taken on full-time by the agency. Those who are not kept on at the end of their training period are likely to  swell the ranks of the 'hirelings' - who seem fated to remain at that level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new administration will have to tackle the more general question of aid to the press in order to give a fresh boost to the private sector. This has been facing a real struggle since the devaluation of the CFA franc. The effect of the devaluation was to increase the cost of all the inputs needed for publishing newspapers. A new initiative of the part of the authorities would make it possible to offer more work to journalists and to improve considerably the quality of work they produce. To quote the publisher of a private newspaper: 'The influence of money must be curbed. To do this, the state must grant genuine aid to the press so that the profession can be genuinely free and objective and thereby fulfil the important role it has to play in the consolidation of democracy'. R.L.T. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Current media in the English-speaking Caribbean</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Dr Marjan de Bruin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this abridged article, who leaches et the Caribbean institute of Media and Communication (CARIMAC) at the Mona (Jamaica) Campus of the University of the West Indies, focuses on some of the peculiarities of press and media development in small island Caribbean states.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The English-speaking</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean comprises thirteen independent nations that are members of Caricom (the Caribbean Community) and a few  remaining small dependent territories. The total population is about six million. In most of these countries, the majority of the population is of African descent although in Trinidad and Guyana, about half the people are of Asian (Indian) origin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sea, whose name unites the islands, is a serious barrier to communication and social interchange between them. it takes as long to go by plane from Barbados to Jamaica (1200 miles direct, but 2000 miles via Miami) as it takes to cross the Atlantic from Paris to New York (3600 miles) - and the latter journey is usually cheaper! And until fairly recently, telephone calls from neighbouring Caribbean countries without a common language were routed through London, Paris or Miami.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The distances make communications difficult. Mail can take weeks, telephone circuits are often overloaded and, in some countries, unscheduled power cuts often disrupt computer systems at the most inopportune moments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Communication and the media</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Caribbean has a strong oral tradition. This, together with poverty and an estimated general literacy rate of about 80%, makes radio the most popular medium. Recent studies show,  for instance, that 99% of Jamaican households reported having at least one radio at home. In Jamaica alone, three large national radio stations between them broadcast nine hours of prime time call-in radio.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In all Caribbean countries, alongside the mass media, 'alternative' medias play an important role in communication for social change. In some countries, the term simply connotes non mainstream operations. In others it refers to alternative formats which are found in the mainstream media. The term also represents the use of other communication behaviour - popular theatre, dance, music, oral history, story telling. It has been suggested that the increased use of alternative media and alternative uses of mainstream media are an indication of the audience's dissatisfaction with the mainstream mass media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most English-speaking Caribbean countries, the government owns some of the major mass media, especially electronic. Only recently has the private sector developed its own strongholds in radio and television. Print has always been an area of mainly private ownership. Only the larger countries have daily newspapers; morning or evening papers - although usually not more than two or three. In the smaller countries the press consists of weeklies, or bi-weeklies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government ownership</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ownership or control of media houses by governments is recognised as  a serious obstacle to true investigative journalism.The economies of all Caribbean countries are heavily dependent on tourism. Stories on environmental hazards and crises which might affect this essential source of income are subject to explicit or implicit (selfl censorship.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government ownership in some instances means policy discontinuity over time; each new regime imports its own set of administrators and sometimes even entire newsroom staffs. In other instances, where the same party has ruled for a long time, positions within the media are very stable because they are tied to political loyalty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Private ownership, however, does not mean an absence of potential pressure or political influences. In Trinidad &amp; Tobago, the country's oldest daily - The Trinidad Guardian - recently lost its Managing Director, its editor and six of its top editorial executives, after the owners - a supermarket chain - pressurised the editor to moderate criticisms of the country's new administration. The owners also tried to convince the managing director and editor to dismiss a columnist who was a disaffected and now hostile former member of the new ruling party. In apparent justification, the owners produced a document which suggested that it was the policy of the Guardian not to endanger the commercial prospects of its owners by injudicious criticism of the powers that be. Caribbean journalists attacked the Guardian ownership for what some saw as an attempt to turn a respected newspaper into the public relations arm of a commercial congLom&eacute;rate. Despite the protests, the Guardian's new editor, a veteran of forty years in journalism, argued that the proprietors had good reason to interfere with his predecessors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The region's oldest daily, The Jamaica Gleaner (established in 1834) went even further. In an editorial it said: 'In our view the owners have a right to oppose the way in which the judgment of the Editor and others is exercised. The right of the Guardian Board to query content cannot be questioned. It is impossible for a newspaper to be run   without the input of the Board of Governors.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small markets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most English-speaking Caribbean countries are relatively small in population as well as area. The number of media organizations is limited. The limited size of the market has important implications for the financial basis of the media, especially the part that is privately-owned. It limits the horizontal mobility of media workers - there are simply not that many options - and it makes the relationship between media and sources extremely vulnerable. There are not that many sources either. It also means that most Caribbean media houses have very limited resources. Many reporters have to cover a wide range of topics. Specialised reporting for instance on the environment, or health, is usually not feasible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the major problems in the Caribbean media is the high proportion of imported television programming. The region is geographically close to the United States and satellite broad  casting makes access to the Northern networks even easier. In the ten years from 1976 to 1986, the imported content of four large television stations in the region moved from an average of 78.5% to 87%. When the amount of imported content carried by the smaller stations was included, the average increased to 90% of all material televised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Privatisation and new technologies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several of the larger Caribbean countries have seen an explosive growth in the electronic media. Jamaica, which has a population of about 2.5 million living in some 620 000 households, and per capita GDP of $1563, has seen the number of radio stations grow from three to nine and TV stations from one two, in a period of just five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trinidad &amp; Tobago, with 1.2 million inhabitants in 300 000 households, and per capita GDP of $4049, went through a similar process, with seven new radio stations and two new, privately-owned TV stations being set up over the last five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbados, with a population of 260000 living in about 50000 households has long supported two daily newspapers. There are also two TV stations on the island, while viewers can receive television signals from neighbouring islands. This country has the highest per capita GDP in the region ($5562) after The Bahamas ($10,308).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One positive effect of this intensive growth is certainly to be found in the increased employment opportunities for broadcasters. In the past, journalists risked their careers if they disagreed with their employers. Now people have more options. However, increased competition in a relatively small market also enlarges the risk of commercialisation and a lowering of standards. One does not need to undertake in-depth research to discover that locally-produced television is scarce and not always of the highest standard. It is cheaper to buy foreign programming than to produce original content. Some   of the graduates of the Caribbean Institute of Media and Communication, who performed above average during their training and education in print journalism, can be seen sliding down the standards scale once they enter the mass media as working journalists. Similarly, the standards of newsrooms are not always high. In fairness to the professionals, it must be said that the decline in standards is partly due to the lack of resources in editorial departments. The major newsrooms in radio and television in Jamaica, still depend on typewriters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development of new technologies has contributed to two almost opposite movements. On the one hand, greater access to worldwide networks has widened horizons. On the other, the introduction of cable TV offers, at least in principle, the possibility for small-scale communication initiatives, such as community radio stations either for geographical communities or communities of interest (for example, people or groups interested in the environment).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Satellite dishes, VCRs and computers are breaking down traditional communication borders. In the Jamaican capital, Kingston, 28% of households have a dish and 21% a computer. The picture is very different just 20 miles away, in the neighbouring but rural parish of St Thomas, where the figures are just 1% and 2% respectively. New technologies are affordable for the happy few and are increasing the gap between the 'haves' and 'have-nots' of information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In all of these societies, computers sit uneasily in otherwise nondigital environments. The information that one works with is usually not computerised. Many records are still handwritten, with data kept on index cards. Computerisation is a costly process for which there is rarely a budget.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the hardware is available, it is easy to retrieve data from non Caribbean sources. At the same time, it is barely possible - at least at the moment - to tap into Caribbean data sources. There is no commercial Caribbean software. Page make-up and layout programmes, for instance, rely on  non-Caribbean electronic clip-art-images and symbols. It may simply be a matter of time before local products develop, but currently, the main constraints are to do with lack of funds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalism</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How is journalism faring in this environment ? The Caribbean context gives journalism a special professional profile. The small size of Caribbean societies has implications for the use of sources. Access is easier, but it also creates sharper dilemmas where loyalty is concerned: most sources are people you know personally and who know you. Anonymity is almost impossible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because the societies are so small, you will meet many of the same people in different roles on different occasions. The small scale of the market makes all enterprises in media and journalism very vulnerable to market forces: the withdrawal of one or two major advertisers would endanger the chances of survival of some media houses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The situation of the press is most marginal in the smaller countries. In Antigua (population 66000), radio and television are controlled either by the Government or by people with close links to those in power. One opposition paper, a trade union publication, has survived several legal assaults by the authorities over the years. The other, little more than a newsletter, has managed to survive into its second year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Grenada (population 91000), journalists complain about police harassment of reporters on duty, and in most of the smaller countries, journalists are uneasily aware of the continuing hostility of long-ruling political parties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The working environment of journalists in Caribbean media organisations is usually more modest compared to that of journalists in rich countries. There is less technology, smaller staffs and lower salaries. In the smaller Caribbean countries, it is not unusual for journalists to have to combine two jobs. Journalism alone cannot pay the bills.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a sharp difference between rich and poor in most developing countries. For large sections of the population, the big decisions will have nothing to do with buying a second or a third television set.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is more likely to be a simple matter of whether there is food on the table tonight. These different priorities obviously influence a journalist's agenda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In developing economies, this can create serious dilemmas for the journalists: if you know your story is likely to hurt the tourist industry - which happens to be the main national income earner of your country - will pursuing it be a waste of valuable time ? And how do you decide on the relevance of a scoop when people - some of whom are your friends - could lose their jobs ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.d.B.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Sources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hilary Brown (1995): American Media Impact on Jamaican Youth: The Cultural Dependency Thesis in 'Globalization, Communications and Caribbean identity', Edited by Hopeton S. Dunn, Kingston, Jamaica, lan Randle Publishers. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aggrey Brown and Roderick Sanatan !1987). Talking With Whom ? A Report a the State of the Media in the Caribbean. Caribbean Institute of Media and Communication (Carimac), Kingston, Jamaica. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aggrey Brown (1995). Caribbean Cultures and Mass Communication Technology: Re-examining the Cultural/ Dependency Thesis, in 'Globalization, Communications and Caribbean Identity'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Doctoring' the image</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With modern computer technology, it is now very easy for publishers (and film-makers) to dabble with reality. Whereas in the past, you could be reasonably sure that what you saw was a fair representation of what actually happened, today there is no such guarantee.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recently in the United Kingdom, one of the country's regional newspapers came in for criticism when it published a 'doctored' photograph of a well-known opposition politician. He was captured on  film at a social function sitting at a table with a glass of beer in front of him. By the time the paper's computer experts had finished with the photo, it looked as if he was drinking champagne ! When the story broke, the journal thought it expedient to issue an immediate apology. For while  this kind of misrepresentation may appear trivial, in the modern age, image is crucial for those who are involved in public life. Put simply, voters' are more likely to look kindly on beer-drinking politicians than on those whose favourite tipple is champagne.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was a similar case involving an advertisement issued by a well-known car manufacturer. For their publicity in Britain, the company used a landscape photo portraying a selection of their employees. In Poland, the same picture was used but black and Asian workers were no longer to be seen. Their places in the line-up were miraculously taken by people of Caucasian appearance. The advertisers' rather surprising explanation was that this had been a 'mistake'!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other recent victims of 'doctored' pictures or socalled 'photo collages' have included members of the European Parliament and a senior EC official, although these particular misrepresentations received very little publicity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Should consumers of printed or broadcast material be entitled to assume that images are never tampered with ? And if some doctoring is acceptable, where do you draw the line ? The answer to the first question is clearly no. There are certain situations where photo or film enhancement techniques are unobjectionable. We sometimes use them on The Courier cover pages to remove blemishes or fill in gaps which may detract from the main image. In fashion  advertising, it is common for the 'look' of the model to be altered. The aim here is to draw the reader's eye to the page so that their attention can then be focused on the product. More dramatic alterations may even be acceptable if it is evident to the reader that a change has been made. Satirical articles, for example, can sometimes be amusingly illustrated with obviously altered images.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where the practice is reprehensible is where the picture has been changed in a way that leads the reader to draw false conclusions about what he or she is observing. The  classic example of this is where the image of a person captured in one setting is placed against a different backdrop, without the reader being informed. This may be done to give either a more positive or a more negative impression (the latter approach is more usual) but in either case, it is dishonest. If a politician allows himself to be photographed on a Caribbean beach while on mission at the taxpayers' expense, even if he was only there during the lunch break for a quick dip, then he can't really complain. But if the picture was actually taken when he was on holiday in Majorca, and superimposed against a more exotic back  ground, then both the 'victim' and the reader are being cheated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There will always be borderline cases, but in principle, it ought to be possible to draw a reasonably clear distinction between 'right' and 'wrong' in this area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nonetheless, it is likely that distorted images will continue to be presented to us in the future. In pluralist societies, newspapers and broadcasters operate in a fiercely competitive environment and in theory, this should provide a deterrent. If one media organisation is found to have doctored images in a dishonest way, there will always be plenty of others willing to expose the misbehaviour.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In practice, however, the only real deterrent is the likelihood of a drop in circulation, or lower viewing figures. And while consumers may say they disapprove of journalistic dishonesty (whether in photographs or the written word), there is little evidence to suggest that they react by taking their custom elsewhere. Indeed, in some developed countries, the closer a journal sails to the wind, the more likely it is to enjoy a high circulation!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It used to be said that 'the camera never lies'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nowadays, we can't be so certain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Analysis</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Broadening the debate</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In issue 156 of The Courier, we announced the launch of a programme by the European Centre for Development Policy Management on the future of KU-ACP relations beyond Lom&eacute; IV. Here, we publish an abridged text supplied by the ECDPM reporting on progress.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After 20 years, the Lom&eacute; Convention is thought by some not to have lived up to expectations and now that East West rivalry is no longer an issue, many doubt its continued relevance. Questioning, as such, is no bad thing, provided it takes place in a fair and unbiased manner and is not used as a pretext to abandon the acquis  of more than 20 years of cooperation. This is the rationale behind a number of private and official initiatives to redefine KU-ACP cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Consultations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ECDPM's post-tome IV exercise has now been up and running for more than a year. Consultations have been held in more than 20 ACP countries, involving representatives from the private and non-governmental sectors, officials in the National Authorising Offices, EC delegations, regional organisations and research centres. A number of strong impressions have emerged from these interviews. In the first place, the initial comment of many NGOs and private sector representativ  was essentially 'what is in it for us ?'. This points to a lack of knowledge of the Convention in non-governmental circles and suggests that this complicated instrument is not entirely 'user-friendly'. Its government to government character was also criticised. There were calls for ACP-KU relations to be opened up to the private sector and civil society. In this context, experience with decentralised cooperation was seen as encouraging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, the benefits of the Lom&eacute; trade provisions were highlighted with fears being expressed about what would happen after the year 2000. It was felt that at a time when many ACPs  are undergoing structural adjustment, and the private sector is getting its act together, a clearer European commitment in this area would benefit both sides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Various actors from the private, NGO and research communities indicated a willingness to engage in debate on redefining mutual ACP-KU interests and on the design of a new cooperation contract. Some of them had an opportunity to present their views at an ECDPM conference on the future of KU-ACP relations held on 12-14 June.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear that the process of reflection is now firmly under way. At the institutional level, the Joint Assembly began as far back as February 1995, when it launched an action plan to revitalise KU-ACP cooperation. This year, it asked Senator Jean-Louis Firmin of Haiti to draw up a report on the future of the Lom&eacute; Convention. It also requested the Social Partners to tackle the issue at their next annual meeting in November 1996. On the European side, the Commission will present a Green Paper later this year while the ACPs are also studying the question. Last November, the ACP Council resolved that Heads of State should meet before the end of 1997 to agree on a joint position.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Obstacles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this activity suggests a real awareness of what is at stake. Many obstacles have to be overcome, however, if a new type of partnership is to emerge. The main pillars of Europe's commitment to the ACP countries - aid and trade - both appear under threat. It will be necessary to redefine mutual interests - beyond the negative interdependencies - so that they can serve as a basis for a more modern and effective partnership. Greater creativity  will also be required to find new forms of EU support on ACP trade issues that are compatible with World Trade Organisation obligations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An in-depth rethink of ACP-KU cooperation will significantly benefit from inputs by actors traditionally excluded from the discussions - who are anxious to participate in redefining cooperation ties. For instance, in Namibia, NGOs called for formal consultation mechanisms for non-governmental actors. Similarly, economic operators meeting in Trinidad in November called for a new Europe-Caribbean partnership. There should also be a role for applied research conducted in ACP centres. There is already a joint research project on the future of West Africa Europe relations and similar initiatives are being formulated elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The plea for a debate that is open to the key ACP actors should be taken on board by decision-makers and negotiators - and thus far, they have proved receptive. However, two conditions are needed to maintain this fruitful exchange. First, ACP stakeholders need to be able to base their views on full knowledge of the facts and issues. It is essential that the Convention's authors make a major effort to provide more and better information. The ECDPM is willing to play a part in this. Initiatives already under way include the development of EUFORIC - a Forum on the Internet for specialised information on European development cooperation - and the preparation of practical guides to the Lom&eacute; Convention. Enhanced access to information can help all partners move towards a real dialogue. Second, forms and channels for dialogue. need to be devised to ensure that an open debate is sustained beyond the initial reflections taking place within the EU and ACP groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ECDPM</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Re-compromising' development aid for the future</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Jos Jonckers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this article offers an academy critique of *e challenges facing the global system of development cooperation in the post-cold War era. He argues that the old compromises that have shaped development assistance since the Second World War have broken down and pleads for a radical re-think of the strategy in order to 'enable' fess affluent societies to gain from the advent of global 'free market democracy'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let us face it. International development early 50 years, the developed world has taken aid for granted. It no longer does. In real terms, it has started to give less. The expected 'peace dividend' has not materialised and scepticism is rising. Aid and solidarity are considered old-fashioned concepts. Progress and development, it is increasingly argued, must come from cooperation based on mutual interest and a businesslike approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid scepticism is at its highest in the USA. A conservative majority in Congress promotes radical 'winner' recipes and aid has been slashed. Slowly but surely, America is getting out of the development business. Lacking domestic support, the Clinton administration seeks to 'rescue' the country's aid programme by seeking more cooperation with other donors - particularly the KU, whose solidarity horizons do not yet stop at its own borders. But even here, horizons are shrinking. European aid to its immediate neighbours in the East and the southern Mediterranean basin has risen. Happy and prosperous neighbours suddenly seem more important than distant friends in need.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Has the end of the cold war marked the beginning of a cold world - where international solidarity is being dismantled together with the nuclear warheads ? Or could we be experiencing the beginning of a fundamental reshaping of international solidarity and aid between nations?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond altruism - self interest</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International aid has always involved a compromise within affluent society. People and nations are not normally disposed to give something away unless they receive something in return. Any attempt at understanding and reshaping the future of development aid must therefore start from the premise that those providing development aid do so as a result of a complex and evolving compromise between altruism and self-interest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Affluent countries are usually only interested in assisting poorer ones when the effect is to strengthen their international leadership, and in some way to enhance their security and material wellbeing. Looked at in this context, we must recognise that development aid, whatever its altruistic aims, will only exist if it also serves the legitimate, albeit more selfish agenda of the donor. It also means that the compromise which gives aid its rationale in affluent society changes over time: aid is regularly 'recompromised'. In secure and prosperous times, donors are  more inclined to forego self-interest and to cooperate in the interest of less affluent countries. In times of insecurity, the altruistic dimension is likely to diminish in importance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In colonial times, systematic aid flows first emerged as a result of a compromise between expansionist Northern governments and Christian society with its own 'colonizing' clergy. Decolonisation had the effect of increasing insecurity in most former colonial powers. In an attempt to safeguard the capital they had 'invested' in their overseas territories, following the latter's independence, they increasingly shaped aid with a view to 'buying' goodwill from the new rulers. This process, which 'recompromised' aid from a colonial into a neocolonial form, resulted in the secular, institutionalised arrangement now known as 'bilateral aid'. In addition, during the Cold War, Western aid was used increasingly as a device to stop the Third World joining the Second World (the communist bloc). The result was an aid system which was both more internationalised and more politicised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The next stage came with the end of the Cold War. Communism had joined colonialism and fascism in the dustbin of history. Affluent Western society had emerged as the winner. With it came the Western vision for stability, peace and progress: a world of sovereign nations, organised on the basis of democratic and capitalist market principles and committed to respect for each other's territory and for basic human rights. Today, capitalism has become the norm in most nation states. Long-time sceptics such as India, and even convinced opponents such as China and Vietnam, have embraced it. Democracy has not yet achieved the same coverage, but it is sailing forward under favourable conditions. Political pluralism is steadily being consolidated in much of East and Central Europe, while dictatorial regimes in Africa, Asia and Latin America are now the exception.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The effect of all of this has been a speedy erosion of the terms of the compromise on which development aid thrived for so long. In a rapidly globalis  ing,multi-polar world, the old approaches appear increasingly redundant. From this perspective, the current aid crisis is not surprising and is not necesarily a bad thing. Western affluent society is essentially trying to come to terms with the demystification of its development aid, as part of a process of reshaping it for the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three 'recompromising' strategies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As in the past, the recompromising process is influenced by both self-interest and altruism in affluent society. Three trends can be identified.. The first, which is the most idealistic, involves restoring altruism. This approach seeks to 'purge' aid of the perverse political and economic compromises and contradictions caused by decades of neocolonial and Cold-War self-interest. It has impacted on aid in several ways. First, it has given a significant boost to humanitarian aid - the most altruistic form - at the expense of development assistance. Second, it has led to a 'decentralisation' of aid - with more assistance being channelled through organisations such as NGOs, that have an 'uncompromised' altruistic profile. Third, it has led to a 'deconstruction' of development aid along idealistic-altruistic lines. 'Women in development', 'child health', 'environment'and 'poverty alleviation' are all examples of deconstructed labels around which aid is increasingly being structured and justified. Finally, it has prompted an 'intellectualisation' of development aid with the particular purpose of tightening its altruistic aims. For example, the Logical Framework Approach, the concept of 'sustainable development', the UNDP's Human Development Index and various experiments with more 'accountable' project management systems, have all essentially been devised as ways of encapsulating and supporting the altruistic intentions that lie behind aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second recompromising strategy, which may be summed up in the expression be businesslike, approaches development cooperation  much more skeptically. Aid, it is argued, only makes sense if it leads to real progress and development - and the prevailing view is that this is not happening. The approach is fueled by the obsession of trying to measure progress with the help of business tools such as 'output', 'impact', 'efficiency', 'rates of return' and so on. This has led to burgeoning aid 'evaluation'. It has also probably contributed to the discovery of aid failures which, in turn, has prompted growing criticism of aid agencies and operators. The businesslike strategy has gained further ground because of the failure of many countries to achieve any real progress in recent decades. Its advocates argue that the compromises which undermined aid's development impact in the past are inherently linked with its altruistic nature. The conclusion is that altruistic aid will seldom or never work. The strategy has impacted on aid in a number of ways being, for example, the major cause of so-called 'aid fatigue'. It has also prompted a search for ways to enhance cooperation for mutual benefit, indeed transforming the narrow, pre Cold War trade cooperation link with developing countries into a much broader and rapidly growing economic cooperation approach. Finally, it has sought to enhance aid's impact on the economic conditions and growth prospects of developing countries through more ambitious, structural-oriented forms of aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regionalism, the third major strategy, is linked to globalisation. Rooted in human survival psychology, this approach prompts nations in close proximity to form 'strategic' coalitions. In the post-Cold War era, development aid is one of the instruments used by affluent regions to strengthen their position in a 'globalising' environment. The strategy entails promoting 'open' regionalism elsewhere in the world and capitalising on this to create linkages and interactions which enhance their own influence or hegemony. From the point of view of the international political economy, this makes perfect sense. Having succeeded in making the 'world of nations' accept capitalism and democracy, it is through the consolidation   process of free market democracy in other countries and regions that powerful affluent nations will seek to gain maximum advantage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Need for a vision</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With this improved insight into the dynamics that have been reshaping development aid, is it now possible to go further and develop a more political vision of relations between affluent and less affluent nations in future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free market democracy, having endured the 'crises' of decolonisation, fascism and communism, has succeeded in promoting stability and peace within and between nations. Its main strength has probably been its crucial enabling function, with an increasing number of people and nations now in a position to 'earn' a better future. It appears that the model has the capacity to generate fairly equitable growth and progress, which is presumably why more and more countries are turning to it. As is so often the case, however, the strength of the system also contains the seeds of its weakness. Conceived as an 'enabling' mechanism, it results in the categorisation of those who fail to 'be enabled' as 'unable'. Marginalised because they cannot participate and perform in the   system, the excluded (whether individuals or states) are dubbed 'losers'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are seen as a burden and a threat by the 'winners'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The result is disparity in society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experience in most affluent nations suggests that despite the enabling environment created by free market democracy, up to a quarter of the population finds itself unable to perform effectively, and is marginalised as a result. Moreover, there seems to be an upward trend in the numbers affected by unemployment, underemployment and poverty. Disparity never occurs without some cost to society, which is a good reason why it ought to be minimised. The costs come mainly in the form of internal transfers earned (but foregone) by the active, 'winning' section of society. In more sociallyinspired, free market democracies, it is accepted that marginalisation resulting from the model's shortcomings must be minimised and/or adequately compensated for. In more conservative free market democracies, exclusion is seen more as a weakness of individuals than of the system. Compensatory transfers are generally kept to a minimum to induce people to 'break out' of their situation. But while such societies may save on 'empathetic' transfers, they will generally need to spend much more of their wealth defending against threats posed by growing disparity, such as crime, drug-trafficking and political extremism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The costs of disparity are political as well as financial. Genuine democracy is based on the participation of a representative majority of citizens. In affluent societies, however, a growing minority no longer participates. The real danger stems from the fact that this is highly skewed. It is the same, growing, marginalised minority that is 'unable' to participate which is also withdrawing from democratic involvement. The result is alienation from the political system and an erosion of democracy to the extent that its very survival may be threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is really at stake </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having conquered most of the world's nations, free market capitalism is now set to conquer the world of nations, helped by technological advances in communications, transport and computer technology. Economists have amply shown that the interdependence resulting from free international competition need not be detrimental. Indeed, because global capitalism ensures that ideas, initiatives and resources can be 'put to work' anywhere in the world - wherever they generate most profit - interdependence is usually seen as mutually beneficial. In essence, it confirms what might be called the global enabling effect of free-market capitalism. The basic thesis is that the adoption by less affluent nations of free market democracy should 'enable' many more of them to improve the lives of their people in the coming decades. The boost engendered by this 'enabling effect' will, in turn, help to sustain progress in the more affluent countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If this is the aim, then a new vision should progressively inspire future cooperation between the affluent and less affluent countries. The first concern should be to define 'purpose' and 'interest' much more in terms of system and process, than of output. What really matters is the 'enabling potential' of free market democracy in the specific context of the less affluent countries. How something is achieved and by whom should take precedence over what is achieved. The ultimate aim must be to ensure that free-market democracy 'takes root' in less affluent nations and is able to determine who does what and how.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A second major concern should be to maximise the 'enabling potential' of free market democracy for the most vulnerable sections of individual populations. As mentioned earlier, up to a quarter of the people in affluent societies are excluded. In poorer countries, the figure is much higher. If free market democracy fails to enable a significant proportion of this marginalised group, then it will not take root. And if the poor cannot be mobilised, the  growth that does occur will be highly skewed, leading to growing disparity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A third point is to ensure that the 'global enabling' effect of free market capitalism does not become the exclusive preserve of deregulated capital and the 'winners' who control it, leading to new forms of exploitation and disparity. The concern must be to find a way of directing the combined forces of 'capitalism without borders' and 'democracy within borders' in such a way that it leads to a genuinely better world in which the number of 'losers' is dropping and disparities are diminishing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A historic perspective</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is useful at this stage to take a look at the history of capitalism. Freemarket democracy delivered affluence to about a third of the global population over the last century mainly because of the 'accommodation' between labour and capital in an enabling environment created by 'Fordist' mass-production and consumption. A similar accommodation is now needed to enable global free market democracy to extend material wellbeing to the remaining two thirds of the (continually growing) world population, while at the same time sustaining it among the existing affluent third. It is no longer an accommodation between capitalists and workers that is required, however, but one between the affluent and the less affluent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fordism basically transformed the 'interdependent' stake of capital and labour in the economic pie, into a 'joint stake' - leading to the production of a larger pie. By analogy, what is needed today is to ensure that affluent and less affluent societies develop a joint stake in the production of a larger 'global pie' as a result of new technologies and more efficient, globalised modes of production. Attracting and sustaining capitalist investment in such modes will increasingly depend on demand and consumption structures which guarantee that poorer societies share with affluent ones the benefits of such global production systems. In the same way that a larger 'mess-produced pie' was dependent on higher and more   equitable mass consumption, so will a larger 'globally-produced pie' depend increasingly on higher and more equitable global consumption. In this context, the principal policy aim of development cooperation should be to ensure that growth resulting from globalisationis both enabling and disparity-reducing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The disabling effect of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'poor' competition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Driven by the powerful motive of capital accumulation, globalisation has the tendency to promote competition. In principle, this should be a good thing, but left unchanneled, it can have negative effects. One might draw an analogy between the conquering of the global market and the spread of water during a flood. The water always takes the easiest route, entering the most vulnerable areas first where it causes the most damage. Likewise, globalization, fueled by 'deregulated' capital, often tends to promote competition where it is easiest, but where it is not necessarily beneficial. This is the case, for example, in less affluent countries, where poverty is exploited to achieve what might be dubbed a 'poor' competitive advantage - in the sense that it is based on disparity, but also in that, far from 'enabling', it may actually have the opposite effect. Child labour, sex tourism, environmentally destructive tourism, tropical forms logging, the export of industrial pollution and misuse of intellectual property are all examples of 'disabling' competition resulting from global disparity. In a rapidly globalising world this is ultimately damaging to all concerned, which is why both affluent and less affluent nations have an interest in reducing the gap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All of this points to the need for a major redefinition of society's role in general and of aid in particular. During the colonial and Cold War periods, development cooperation was progressively uprooted and alienated from society. Serving an increasingly complex and non-transparent agenda, it became more and more a 'cockpit' affair, piloted by a small specialised crew - and it  found itself flying higher and higher above society. In short, affluent society lost touch with development cooperation and aid. Occasionally, the media intervened to 're-establish contact' but the result was that development aid usually only attracted mainstream public attention when things had gone terribly wrong.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning vision into action</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the aim is to have affluent and less affluent society working together to ensure that the latter adopts 'free market democracy'- and can adapt it in a way which benefits both - it is vital that the former be reconnected to the business of development cooperation. The affluent must be challenged to help transform their less affluent partners, in the interested and creative manner of a minority stakeholder. They must be ready to share the wealth of knowledge and experience generated in their own process of development. Representatives of all walks of affluent life should therefore be provided with greater opportunity for dialogue and cooperation with their less affluent counterparts. Increasingly easy and cheap communications and transport should facilitate this. This new form of stakeholdership will not happen, however, unless affluent society can be imbued with the new vision.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donors should actively support the process. Instead of spending most of their time and resources determining the scope and content of development cooperation, they should step down from their cockpit. Their new role should be as brokers and facilitators of cooperation. An initial priority must be to extol the vision itself. As this gathers momentum, they should then turn to 'brokering' it in practice - acting as a catalyst between the affluent and less affluent in order to facilitate 'enabling' cooperation between them. The development of an effective brokerage profile and methodology will probably entail important changes in the way that donors work. They need to move much closer to their  constituency, and to be made democratically accountable again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As mentioned earlier, the concept of enabling cooperation concentrates on who does what, and how. Essentially, therefore, it should be seeking to mobilise democratic and free market forces in less affluent societies. The advantage of working this way is that change and progress will be determined primarily from within the society in question - with cooperation as a source of encouragement. Such an approach also entails acceptance of the fact that the pace of progrms must be left much more to the enabling forces of the maturing democracies and free markets, however weak and imperfect these may still appear. Indeed, the central purpose of cooperation should be to help these fore" become stronger. To achieve this, cooperation will need to move away from an emphasis on engineering outputs to one which involves 'messaging' the system and process. And it is not just methodologies that need to be altered; there must also be a radical change in cooperation mentality. Thus, for example, donors should attempt to broker cooperation which is 'small but smart'. Advancing 'best practice' might be another creative way to pursue cooperation which is enabling. And while some output-related decision techniques can still be used, these must be creatively reshaped to support a more 'enabling' approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, this enabling vision entails an awareness of the imperfections of free-market democracy, combined with a conviction that it offers enormous potential for the less affluent countries of the world. 'Recompromising' development aid for the future will mean reshaping it to support a process of adoption and adaptation of free market democracy in less affluent countries which is highly 'enabling'. The result should be a system of international solidarity which is working for free-market democracy, rather than as a substitute for it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.J.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The effects of corruption on development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Dieter Frisch</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corruption - defined as 'the abuse of public power for personal ends' - has always existed. During recent decades, however, it has grown both in terms of geographic extent and intensity. Since the mid 1970s, it has infiltrated virtually every country in the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was hoped that the easing of political and economic restrictions that characterised the 1990s after the end of the Cold War would have gone some way to reducing this phenomenon. Through increased openness resulting from political pluralism and the freedom of the press, the process of democratisation should, under normal circumstances, mobilise efforts to overcome corruption. However, emergent democracies are still fragile and seem to find the task of tackling established self interests a formidable one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By reducing state intervention and therefore the opportunities for corruption, economic liberalisation should improve matters. In the short term, however, the opposite would appear to be true. Weakened state structures, a lack of appropriate legislation, powerlessness on the part of the judicial system to combat corruption, the pursuit of easy money - mistakenly perceived by some as being equivalent to a market economy - all these factors together contribute to aggravating the phenomenon, at least in the transitional stages. Such a state of affairs cannot fail to have some effect on those who are involved in and concerned by development issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Needless to say, corruption and its effects can be seen from a multitude of viewpoints. There is always the ethical angle - but how can we possibly presume to preach to countries of the South and East when bribery is just as rife in the North and when, as far as corruption within international economic relations is concerned, it is in fact, virtually by definition, the North who is the corrupter and the South and East who are the corrupted ? The only possible reply to such an argument - and one which is morally disputable even though economically valid - would be that the rich North can afford the luxury of wasting some of its wealth whereas in the case of developing countries, their sparse financial resources need to be used in the best way possible! Other lines of reasoning emphasise the distortions that corruption causes in the fair application of conditions of competition by penalising successful, yet honest, undertakings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major obstacle in the path of development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In my opinion, corruption should be approached from the point of view of the effects it has on development. I say this because long professional experience has taught me that corruption is one of the major obstacles to progress, and that its effects on development are disastrous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some people would no doubt counter this assertion with the 'cultural' argument whereby they would have us believe that, in certain cultures, corruption is quite normal and morally acceptable. Well I do not know of a single place on earth where growing rich through taking bribes is considered lawful or morally acceptable! I should like to quote Olusegun Obansanjo,  former President of Nigeria, on the subject: 'In the African concept of appreciation and hospitality, a gift is a token. It is not demanded. The value is in the spirit of the giving, not the material worth. The gift is made in the open for all to see, never in secret. Where the gift is excessive, it becomes an embarrassment, and is returned. If anything, corruption has perverted the positive aspects of this age-old tradition'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then there are the cynics - including renowned professors - who claim that corruption oils the wheels of progress and enables development to take place. In this respect again, and putting all ethical aspects aside, it would be worthwhile distinguishing between the small baksheesh which 'helps' certain administrative procedures along ('acceleration fees') and large-scale corruption which perverts the course of de  velopment. This does not of course mean that we should underestimate the destructive effects that even small-scale corruption can have on society!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet others have simply resigned themselves to the situation. For them, corruption is intrinsically linked to underdevelopment. As long as a person's normal income does not provide him with a decent living, the door will always be open to bribes. It is, therefore, through development that we should be attempting to eradicate corruption. Yet this argument is reminiscent of the debate on the population explosion. It is only through development, some say, that the problems of population growth will be resolved. But by then, the planet will be inexorably overpopulated! In my opinion, the same argument is just as valid as far as corruption is concerned. We simply cannot wait for it to be stamped out through development. (In any case, development is hardly a miracle cure: true, we have the examples of Singapore and Hong Kong where corruption is extremely uncommon, but we could also mention Italy, where it was precisely at the height of the country's development that corruption became the norm). We must act therefore, and without delay, focusing our efforts on eradicating large-scale corruption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If we analyse some of the effects that corruption has on development, the first thing we notice is that it increases the cost of goods and services, and not insignificantly either. Although a 5% reduction in the profit margin might, at a pinch, be absorbed by the supplier, corruption levels of 10% to 20%, which have become commonplace, will inevitably be reflected in the price and will, consequently, be paid for through the national or foreign (in the case of foreign aid) resources of a country. It is therefore the national economy that ultimately suffers the consequences of an unjustified surcharge on the goods or services, with the difference being pocketed by some government official or politician who has abused his power for his own personal gain. Given that such operations are generally financed by bank  loans or, in the case of foreign aid, by concessional loans, these surcharges inevitably bring about a proportionate increase in that country's debts. In fact it is now assumed that the exchange value of sums paid out in backhanders makes up a considerable proportion of the foreign debts of developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, the damaging effects of such practices do not stop there. The corrupt decision-maker may well be tempted to accept a substandard quality of service which will make his personal profit all the greater. Thus, with a road building project for example, complicity between government departments and contractors may result in corner-cutting with regard to agreed standards of quality so that the savings made may be shared out between the two parties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At their very worst, the disastrous effects of corruption mean that the conception of a project, and ultimately its very choice, are determined by corruption. As far as conception is concerned, a good example would be the purchase of a technology which is wholly unsuited to the particular needs of a country or the choice of a capital intensive project - more lucrative in terms of corruption - rather than a labour-intensive one which would nevertheless be far more beneficial to that nation's development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The absolute peak of perversion, however, is when the very choice of priorities - and therefore of projects - is determined by corruption. What we are referring to here are those situations in which the real development priorities of a country are neglected in favour of operations which generate the greatest personal gain for the decision-makers. At this point I would like to quote R&eacute;mi Godeau, writing in Jeune Afrique: 'These currency-guzzling abortive projects have become a graveyard of white elephants. Africa is littered with vast deserted motorways which are being eroded by the Savannah, with fully functional but empty factories which have been left to fall into ruin only a few years after they were opened, with railway lines which are now impassable  through a lack of maintenance, and with hydroelectric dams abandoned because they cost too much to run'. Let us pick up on the point about empty factories. These 'follies of development' are to be found in many developing countries and in Africa in particular. Some have never produced, others have failed to reach full production capacity while others still face such prohibitive costs that big state subsidies are needed to keep them going. If we follow the thread right back to the beginning we find, more often than not, that factories have been sold without ensuring real competition between suppliers. Admittedly, such projects usually have only private-sector backing (they are rarely financed through official aid), but the funding is nonetheless backed by state-controlled bodies. The existence of corruption in such cases must be more than mere presumption - what other reason could there be for making decisions which run so counter to the interests of development ? In his work 'Grand Corruption in Third World Development', George Moody-Stuart identified those areas which are especially vulnerable to corruption. These are most notably, the procurement of military and other   technically sophisticated equipment, and large-scale works (in other words, any major, capital-intensive project and any scheme where objective valuation and comparison is hampered because of the technical sophistication involved).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is worthwhile mentioning at this point that a country which borrows money to finance projects that do not satisfy its real needs, and which may indeed be considered economically futile or absurd, will see its debt burden increase - and not simply by the 10% to 20% that is used to fund 'backhanders'. The loss will ultimately be 100% if one views it in terms of the cost of the unproductive investment to the national economy. Discussions about the debts of developing countries rarely focus on the mechanisms which have produced these debts. Yet in most cases, they have become unserviceable on account of the ineffective use of overseas aid - the sort of bad management to which corruption contributes considerably.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is more, by deflecting the sparse resources which do exist towards non-priority or low-priority areas, corruption contributes to a large extent to ensuring that fundamental needs such as food, health and education, are not met. It is therefore one of the causes of under development and of poverty in general. Needless to say, official aid is often called upon to make good the deficit left by the irresponsible management of otherwise available resources. Is it any surprise if, in the long run, public opinion in the countries of the North begins to grow weary of bridging gaps which efficient management of resources should never have allowed to appear in the first place ? How are we to convince European taxpayers that it is they who need to provide the money to fund bush clinics in countries which put their funds in prestige projects, if not directly into Swiss bank accounts?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A vicious circle that must be broken</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effectively, we find ourselves in a 'catch-22'situation. Corruption is one of the causes of under development and poverty, yet poverty is in part responsible for its continuation. If a person cannot earn an honest living for himself and his family, then he is more or less forced into earning it by less honest means. Hence corruption is both the cause and the consequence of under development. In order to break the pattern we must therefore combat large-scale corruption inasmuch as it is a significant cause of underdevelopment and we must work gradually to eradicate the reasons for its propagation in society, and in particular to remedy the notorious lack of adequate income to ensure a decent standard of living.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general terms, we can say that corruption also kills off the spirit of development. Nothing is more destructive to a society than the pursuit of 'a fast and easy buck' which makes honest people who work hard appear naive or foolish. That is why, in the context of economic reforms under the heading of 'structural adjustment', it is vital that the model advocated be one of a market economy based on a sound framework of legislation and on an efficient state. It should not allow free rein to the sort of ruthless capitalism which is aimed at immediate profit at all costs. The example of certain transition countries in the East, where a market economy has become synonymous with the law of the jungle, the Mafia and corruption, really should make us stop and think.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the final analysis, an economy undermined by corruption has the effect of discouraging potential foreign investors and public donors. Yet if development is to succeed, countries have to be able to attract a flow of capital. As Serge Michailof put it: 'Success attracts money. Waste, failure and chaos drive it away'. And although investors are very keen to do business, with the exception of a few opportunists, they all look for host countries that have a stable and predictable climate. Entrepreneurs have been known to withdraw from certain African countries - which are nevertheless rich in resources - because of the constraints imposed on them by corruption on a scale which they considered to be unacceptable. As for public donors, they are increasingly reluctant to offer financial aid to those countries that manage their own resources poorly. It is precisely this failing which is one of the causes of what we now refer to as 'aid fatigue'. Financial aid institutions should go as far as suspending their cooperation in blatant cases of corruption and bad management, just as they do in cases of serious violation of human rights. Conversely, 'good governance' should be the determining factor when allocating aid, and it would appear that Article 5 of the revised Lom&eacute; IV Convention does in fact foresee such an approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, far from reserving the foregoing criticisms for countries of the South, I believe that the partners of the North have their part to play in the ravages wrought by corruption, be it only as a result of the inconsistencies between their development cooperation policies and their export promotion policies. Basing our assumptions on the principle that cooperation efforts are genuinely motivated by concerns for development - and I can attest that this is precisely the motivation behind the policies of the European Union, which I have served for a great many years - we should not forget that Western countries have a tendency to promote exports, by other means, without any consideration for the effects this has in terms of development. They thus contribute to the dishonest practices which we have been discussing. The fact that they tolerate, or even go as far as to encourage corruption as a means of promoting exports - restricting the application of the criminal law to acts committed on their own territory and allowing corruption to be taxdeductible under the heading of 'necessary expenses' - seems to me to be absolutely scandalous. In the AlortR too, the battle against the canker of international corruption is a formidable one. But it is a fight to which we are committed in the context of 'Transparency International' This NGO, which was created in 1993, makes its services available to any country which genuinely wishes to eradicate the scourge of corruption. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> D.F. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Close-up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">National park  restoration in Chad: luxury or necessity ?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Phllippe Dejace</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Terms like 'democracy' and 'sustainable development' are increasingly used to keep donors happy, and to present new development projects in the most favourable possible light. With this in mind, it is interesting to look at an example from 'the field' to see how genuine the commitment actually is. Adherence to these concepts has undoubtedly made a positive contribution to environmental protection, but there is also a negative side</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1989, the Zakouma National Park in south-east Chad has been undergoing restoration in a   programme supported by the KU. Devastated by a decade of conflict, this wildlife sanctuary of nearly 3000 square kiLom&eacute;tres was little more than a huge graveyard in 1986 when Pierre Pfeffer of the Paris Natural History Museum visited it and decided to campaign for its restoration. Today, this is recognised to have been a sensible decision. It is acknowledged that wildlife are better off when they have a reasonably large area in which to live, away from human activity. Aerial counts made in 1986, 1991 and 1995 confirm that animal numbers are on the increase in the park and that irreversible destruction has been averted. Currently, Zakouma is the only area effectively being protected in Chad. The other designated sites (one park and seven reservations) remain impoverished and in a state of near devastation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recognising the challenge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One should not be lulled into complacency. Even when a process involving local village communities is initiated, the low standard of living of the inhabitants, their educational level, and the progressive deterioration of vegetation around protected areas in  variably make the latter a tempting 'target'. In these circumstances, it is very hard to preserve their integrity. At Zakouma, a busy time lies ahead. The local people must be educated and informed as quickly as possible. This presents us with the first hurdle given the inadequacy of the education sector. The Ministry of Education is underfunded and with growing numbers of pupils in the system, it is virtually impossible to plan special programmes aimed at increasing awareness of this particular problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are other reasons why there should be short-term investment in this sector. There are good arguments for preserving a few control sites while the awareness programme is under way, since these will one day serve to illustrate what can be achieved. It is also much less difficult to preserve an area than to try to reconstitute it, once desertification has set in. The site is part of the national heritage whose value can only increase. Moreover, in most cases, the protected areas ensure the survival of fish stocks in lakes and rivers downstream and act as a reservoir for game: many of the animals which breed there provide food for the people living at the zone's edges. Even frequent wholesale slaughter of wildlife, as happens during a war, is reversible if the vegetation remains intact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the park is cut off from human activity (the area is flooded and therefore closed, to all intents and purpose, for four months of the year), it has an uncertain future. It faces pressure  from itinerant herdsmen and poachers, the latter tracking giraffe right up to the outskirts of Zakouma village, which is in the middle of the park. Although located in a wildlife reserve of 20 000 km2 - which is supposed to be a buffer zone - the park is not truly protected because human activity inside the reserve is not controlled. In the dry season, the park teems with wildlife. A clear density gradient has been identified with the animal population dropping as you move from the centre to the periphery. Indeed, only about a third of the 3000 km2 is intensively exploited by the wildlife which lives there - and even this area is relatively insecure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enclosure would give those who are keen to defend the park a grace period in which to set up long-term awareness strategies. Ironically, one danger results from the striking democratisation that has taken place in Chad. To win votes, some politicians have called for the bans applying to the park to be lifted. This approach has the potential to succeed because, owing to shortfalls in the education system, the electorate is insufficiently mature in political terms. Another factor is that traditional leaders, seeing their power progressively diminish, are inclined to 'revolt'. Thus, they may fail to intervene when stockmen deliberately invade the park, encouraged by demagogues in search of votes. When the grasslands are invaded by cattle, few wild animals can compete and they are forced to retreat to the central area of the park. Against this background of a need for urgent action, the Zakouma Park team is concentrating its awareness-raising efforts on traditional leaders and the administrative authorities - rather than on teaching schoolchildren about environmental protection (although such a campaign is also envisaged).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some argue that setting up a 'sustainable and participation-based development' strategy would make it possible to avoid the situation that now exists in Zakouma. The idea behind such a strategy - which clearly has its   attractions - is that man is perfectly capable of managing his native territory. All that is needed is for him to be granted land and to receive support for his initiatives. Many who espouse this approach continue to despatch teams to demonstrate that this is the ideal response. Unfortunately, in the particularly complicated case of managing the environment on the fringes of a national park, the local people are usually reluctant to make the investment. The more normal inclination is to reap a short-term profit from resources that are within reach. The inhabitants are also tired of the lectures they get from specialists who visit for just a few hours. The scope of the problem is such that expertise needs to be available on an ongoing basis. Considerable resources are also needed to ensure.that the effort is sustained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not easy to halt environmental destruction in a market economy which has overturned traditional values and gives priority to increasing personal wealth and consumption. A natural environment's potential for exploitation is always limited. Yet stock-rearing involves the use of animals 'selected' over thousands of years to take maximum advantage of the least scrap of vegetation. By contrast, a wild animal is much more selective and never ruins the environment it exploits. It may even be able to adapt its reproductive cycle to the available food resources! We are nowhere near this situation in domestic stockbreeding!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is where 'sustainable development', which sounds highly reassuring, appears at odds with reality. Beyond a certain threshold, one cannot avoid depleting the resource. If one is to adopt an approach that involves the population actively, one must acknowledge that their response may fall short of what is needed. Indeed, they may do things which provoke migration, and are thus damaging. Thus, for example, the opening-up of a water source may attract more nomadic herdsman, thereby undermining rather than enhancing the surrounding area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Awareness programme</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The single most significant step towards protecting the park would be to ease population pressure, but progress in this area is very limited. We can only wait for the birthrate to decrease; something which invariably happens as a country develops. But what will become of the national parks in the meantime ? In Zakouma, an eco-development team is currently listening to the villagers' claims. As elsewhere, an attempt is being made to gain time. Unfortunately, the current climate of transparency in Chad, which is one of the positive aspects of democratisation and should be a major asset, has not had much impact in this area. The awareness programme suffers from a serious lack of trained workers and when meetings are held, they usually turn into interminable discussions, simply increasing the level of frustration. On the other hand, a convincing discussion-leader can advance matters considerably and discussion is surely the right approach to adopt. Furthermore, the process must lead to concrete results. Otherwise, decisions taken may end up being postponed indefinitely because they conflict with the interests of political decision-makers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the difficulties, the Zakouma team is placing heavy reliance on this desire for transparency. Although the project's initial aims have essentially been to restore infrastructures and thereby promote an increase in wildlife, the addition of an ecodevelopment aspect and ecological monitoring has made it possible to create an important 'reservoir' of knowledge. A computerized map of the vegetation has been produced with the help of a microlight equipped with a GPS (satellite positioning) system. There have also been aerial inventories tracking the seasonal density and distribution of wildlife, as well as in-depth sociological surveys in the villages most hostile to the park's existence. This major database makes it possible to organise meetings, conferences and discussions to demonstrate that the park's contribution is greater than it seems. One big frustration for local people living on the  park's fringes concerns the redistribution of the income it generates. Looking first at tourism, Chad hardly qualifies as a major holiday destination and those who do visit the park are too few to make a significant contribution (the income raised barely covers the cost of replacing their bedlinen !)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One interesting conclusion has been drawn from studies of the animal distribution in the different seasons. It appears that when pressure from nomadic herdsman is at its strongest, during the dry season, the wildlife take refuge in the park and numbers multiply in safety. When the stockmen return northward, the wild animals then go beyond the park boundaries where they are hunted and eaten by villagers. This is surely a form of income redistribution! Moreover, many young fish in the park's only river (the bahr Salamat), take advantage of the flooding of the area during the rains. This releases huge volumes of nutrients back into the ecosystem. In the park, the fish are safe from the fishermen who work downstream and they can swim back to their spawning grounds. This guarantees the renewal of stocks depleted during the dry season. The level of fish stocks in Lake Iro - and probably in the River Chari as well - is thus linked to the existence of the Zakouma Park! When this version of income redistribution is explained, it often helps to convince traditional leaders who then use their influence to limit incursions by stockmen or poachers. However, a lot remains to be done because demographic pressure and standards of living both make it more difficult to get the message across.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We know that excessive human activity always results in environmental deterioration. Zakouma, although under pressure, has been 'spared' to some extent, and as such, it represents an important resource. But some see it as a luxury and it faces a suspended death sentence. If people stop regarding its conservation as something that is necessary, the sentence will end up being carried out. In my opinion, the most reliable way of guaranteeing its preservation would be to enclose it completely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.H.D. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Developing World</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">European NGOs look ahead at annual meeting in Brussels</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Agostino Ambrogetti</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 22nd annual General Assembly of European Development Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), and a thematic conference entitled 'A Europe open to the world', were held in Brussels from 18 - 20 April. Representatives of more than 800 NGOs attended, with the Assembly adopting 14 resolutions as well as issuing specific appeals on the European Union's Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) and on Lebanon. The Assembly renewed its approval of the development NGOs' 'Strategic Priorities', adopted the Work Plan for the 1996-98 period, and looked at the overall impact of the Lom&eacute; Convention with an eye to likely future developments. The subsequent Conference focused, among other things, on the issue of coherence between the EU's development cooperation and its other policies (notably trade and agriculture). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A general impression that emerged from the two events was that the NGO movement was attaching increasing importance to its role as advocate for the developing countries. A fundamental aspect of this is the ongoing dialogue that NGOs have with the European institutions, and the lobbying they carry out on policy issues. Commission representatives who spoke at the Assembly indicated their understanding and appreciation of this. For example, Development Commissioner, Jao de Deus Pinheiro, referred warmly to 'the very active role played by the NGO community in the debate on the mid-term revision of the Lom&eacute; Convention,' and acknowledged that the NGOs had mounted an 'important political lobby' in favour of increased funding for the next five-year period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commissioner was keen to emphasise the complementarily that existed between the European Commission and the NGO movement in support of emerging societies in the South. He also urged his audience to continue in their task of challenging the general apathy towards development cooperation. This, he said, entailed appealing directly to public opinion in order to influence political leaders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A similar tone was adopted by Bernard Ryelandt, who heads the unit responsible for cofinancing NGO projects in the Commission's development directorate-general (DG VIII) He spoke of the 'decisive' action of European NGOs in balancing other lobbies such as the agricultural one. This, he believed, had the effect of improving the coherence of EU policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Delegates from a number of countries set out their views on the advocacy issue, and what they saw as the growing NGO role in this area. Andy Rutherford from the United Kingdom said that he saw increased lobbying as necessary, complementing the work carried out in the field through development projects. He pointed out that Southern NGOs had themselves requested their Northern partners to pressurise European governments in the hope that the latter would adopt external policies more favourable to the developing world. Mr Rutherford also raised the thorny question of structural adjustment. The view that adjustment policies were not succeeding in eradicating poverty, had, he said, been acknowledged by the EU's Development Council in its resolution adopted in June 1995. With this in mind, the NGOs would be raising the issue with the World Bank and the IMF - where the EU Member States are among the most substantial contributors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guido Barbera, who headed the Italian delegation to the Assembly, took up this point, calling for more pressure to be exerted on the Bretton Woods institutions by European NGOs and indeed, by the European Commission itself. This was necessary, he believed, to promote coherent macroeconomic policies favouring the development of economic relationships with the less-developed countries. In more general terms, Mr Barbera applauded the growing NGO participation in the political arena, stating that this was both 'positive' and fundamental'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evaluation of the Liaison</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Committee's work</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A document was presented to the Conference by the NGDO-EU Liaison Committee containing an evaluation of its activities. The aim, in drawing up the document, was to 'review and critically assess the work and organization of the Committee, and evaluate whether it meets the expectations of its stake holders.' In order to do this, NGO members were consulted through questionnaires.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The evaluation revealed that support for the Liaison Committee as the representative umbrella organization of European NGOs remains strong, although there is widespread uncertainty about the future. This is reflected in the perception that the Committee has   gradually been losing momentum. There were also some doubts expressed about its representativeness. Large NGOs, it was noted, were able to spread their efforts across different networks. The fact that small NGOs tended not to be involved in the Committee emerged as one of the critical issues for discussion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attention was also focused on the alleged weakness of many national platforms (the documents containing proposals drawn up by the various national NGO assemblies) in representing the aspirations of their member organizations. This issue, and the question of voting on resolutions without debating the documents in question gave rise to controversy. Some delegates boycotted the vote while others submitted a written protest and there is clearly some demand for reforms designed to make the Assembly's procedures more democratic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General conditions of cm  financing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another highly topical subject on the Assembly's agenda was the proposed revision of the General Conditions for the Co-financing of NGO </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Projects in Developing Countries. Commission speakers who touched on this subject included Professor Pinheiro and Jacob Houtman who is a Director in DG VIII Both referred to the revision process that was currently under way, and emphasised the higher priority that would be attached to capacity building for Southern NGOs. This involves providing support to strengthen the organisational structure of the bodies in question, and to improve the skills of their staff in managing and implementing projects. Such an approach is now recognised as essential for the long-term sustainability of NGO activities. As Mr Houtman was keen to stress, the principles underpinning the KU-NGO relationship (recognition of NGO independence and specificity, freedom of initiative for European NGOs in cooperation with their Southern partners) would be safeguarded in the revised conditions. Other priorities to be set out in the conditions would include the promotion </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Notice at the site of a non governmental organisation in</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe devoted to improving agricultural productivity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Crucial to provide more institutional support for Southem</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGOs' of democracy and human rights through reinforced structures of civil society, and a greater emphasis on the fight against poverty, income-generating activities and social development programmes. With these objectives in mind, it was all the more crucial to provide more institutional support for Southern NGOs. They, unlike their Northern partners, had a permanent presence in society in the developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The revised general conditions would also reflect the new orientation which favours a long-term programme approach over the traditional project by-project method. This should lead to a reduced administrative burden, and benefit long-standing NGO partners who have demonstrated viable approaches in working with their Southern counterparts, as well as good management and accountability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'A Europe open to the world'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Conference which took place following the NGO General Assembly focused on assessing the coherence of different EU policies and on ways of achieving coherence where it might be lacking. As the title of the Conference suggests, the question which was never far from participants' minds was 'what sort of Europe is being created.' Is it a Europe which stands in solidarity with the South (and East), or is it one which retreats into its fortress, concerned only with its own prosperity ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the outset, EU policy - or rather its mode of implementation - came in for criticism. It was claimed, on the bask of the experience of both European and Southern NGOs, that the principles of development cooperation set out in the Maastricht Treaty (Title XVII) were not being applied universally and consistently. These principles include the sustainable economic and social development of developing countries, their integration into the world economy, the fight against poverty, and the development and consolidation of democracy, human rights and the rule of law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this connection, three specific discussion topics were selected: the EU's common foreign and security policy (CFSP), its common commercial and agriculture policies (CCP and CAP) and its immigration and asylum policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regarding the first of these, it was suggested that the EU's definition of 'security' tended to be viewed solely in terms of common defence, and that the concept of 'human security' drawn up by the UNDP had been neglected. The latter seeks to define the concept on a broader basis including aspects such as equitable and sustainable development, as well as human rights and democracy. The view was also expressed that a more firm and coordinated CFSP was needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the second topic - trade and agriculture - there was a strong feeling that the policies of the EU (and the USA) were heavily weighted in favour of 'home' producers and that this had the effect of undermining local production and food security in the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing countries. The Union was urged to remove the policy 'contradictions' that allowed this situation to arise bearing in mind the specificity and sensitivity of the food trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, several speakers were highly critical of what they viewed as negative trends in the approach to immigration and asylum adopted by the EU and its Member States, with increasingly strict rules being implemented. There were also calls for measures designed to integrate resident migrants into society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, integration may well be seen as the key message to have emerged from the NGOs' gathering. The call was for the people and governments of the European Union, acting in the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC), to integrate the needs of the rest of the world's people into their actions and programmes. The talk was of common values of human rights and solidarity, in both internal and external polices. And it was clear from the commitment of those who attended that the NGOs are determined to maintain and strengthen their role - as active partners in the development of the South, as advocates for the developing countries and perhaps indeed as keepers of the European conscience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Workshops</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As part of the proceedings of the NGO General Assembly, three workshops were organised dealing with specific themes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Workshop 1 was entitled Beyond Lom&eacute; IV. There was a general consensus among those taking part that the Convention's underlying philosophy helped to protect developing countries in today's global commercial environment. Without the Lom&eacute; system, it was felt that the ACP countries would have suffered even more from the deterioration in their terms of trade. With this in mind, the World Trade Organisation came in for criticism for its stance against regional preferential agreements (even if this does not apply to the least developed countries).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The major finding of Workshop 2, which dealt with Poverty in the North and the South, was that  poverty is the result of interactions at a global level - and is not 'nation specific'. It was therefore important to adopt a global approach in  seeking to tackle the causes of poverty, and to develop further North-South exchanges of experience for the benefit of both sides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third workshop was devoted to making the most of EU Presidencies. Here, the aim was to evaluate past experience of lobbying undertaken by the NGO community in those countries holding the EC Council Presidency, during the six-month period in question. The main recommendation to emerge was that more needed to be done in establishing contacts and exchanging information between the relevant national NGO communities. Such exchanges, it was felt, were needed before, during and after the six month Presidency period, in order to facilitate continuity of lobbying on key themes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resolutions </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Resolutions adopted by the NGO General Assembly, considerable emphasis was placed on human rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> issues, with texts being agreed on Nigeria, the peoples of the Western</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahara and the child sex 'industry'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade (in the widest sense of the word) also featured prominently. In addition to a general resolution on world trade, representatives passed motions on the arms trade, traffic in landmines and the production of the drug coca.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also adopted were resolutions on preventive diplomacy, cooperation with Cuba, the Euro-Mediterranean partnership and the 'deterioration' of the situation in the Great Lakes region of Africa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Africans seek bigger share of tourist dollar</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Godfrey Karoro</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe's government is under pressure to encourage greater African involvement in the predominantly white-run tourism industry, which is facing intense competition from neighbouring South Africa. 'Black participation in all sectors of tourism is a priority,' says Environment and Tourism Minister Chen Chimutengwende. 'Blacks have waited in the wings long enough,' he adds, 'and their entry on to centre stage is inevitable. The solution lies in nurturing black entrepreneurship and giving it the material and technical backup to ensure its growth.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only 38 of the country's 436 tour operators are indigenous, and most focus on provision of goods and services, particularly transport. African interest in the business was kindled last year when the government identified tourism as one of the sectors which could benefit from an international $74 million credit facility. This prompted enquiries from  about 500 potential entrepreneurs. Interest was heightened during the election campaign earlier this year, when President Mugabe's government made an issue of the continuing economic domination of the white community which constitutes  less than 1% of the country's 11 million population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Chimutengwende pledged support for greater black participation, but the government itself is under fire for not doing enough. 'We have a time-bomb and the government should do something about it quickly before it explodes,' says Colin Blythe-Wood, managing director of a tour company and chairman of the Zimbabwe Association of Tour and Safari Operators (ZATSO), referring to the black-white imbalance in the whole economy. 'We are indeed fortunate that this industry, which has perhaps the greatest potential in our economy, is still in its infancy,' he says. He argues that the government holds the trump card, through its ownership of vast tracts of land in national parks, forests and communal areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 1994 Zatso report identified more than 100 sites on state-owned land suitable for development by African tourism ventures. At least half, says Mr Blythe-Wood, were in areas of abundant wildlife, including the 'big five' - elephant, lion, rhinoceros, hippopotamus and buffalo. Other opportunities could be provided he suggests, if the National Park service got out of the accommodation business and concentrated on flora and fauna conservation. 'The government cannot be a referee and a player at the same time. It should sell off its shares in the Rainbow Tourism Group' - a wholly-owned government company which is the third largest operator in the tourism sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the industry's problems is that South Africa, too, has found tourism to be an unexpectedly good economic performer. Arrivals there rose by 50% in 1995, and a new government discussion document suggests that tourism could double its foreign exchange earnings by the year 2000 and triple its contribution to national income. South Africa's parks and beaches are well developed, but entrepreneurs are also fostering attractions such as Boer War battle sites and 'Road to Freedom' tours in which visitors have breakfast with former freedom fighters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fear is that South Africa will be the regional hub for visitors, siphonino off  most of the earnings, with</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe merely getting the overspill from short side-trips.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zatso chief executive, Elias Nyakuni, points out that South</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa is already using Zimbabwe's top attraction to lure visitors, urging them 'to come to South Africa to see the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Victoria Falls'! Efficient train, luxury bus and air services connect several South African cities to the Falls, which are on the Zimbabwe-Zambia border. Mr Nyakuni says that Zimbabwe  could also lose out if things go wrong in their southern neighbour. 'Violence in South Africa could deter people from coming to Zimbabwe.' He accuses the government of not taking marketing in Europe and North America sufficiently seriously. 'The 4-5% annual growth is, in essence, through word of mouth. We need to investt more in marketing.' He says that the Zimbabwe Council for Tourism is underfunded and that it operates 'without brochures or pamphlets.' Neverthelms,  with 1.25 million visitors last year spending $252m (up from 1.04m spending $203m in 1994) - tourism is a growth area in which black people could take a bigger share - and not just, as at present, as guides, drivers, mechanics and cooks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lovemore Chihota, who runs a booming Victoria Falls safari business, has shown the way. He admits that there is a lot of money to be made from tourism, but warns that careful preparation is needed, as well as determination, commitment and, a realisation that there are no quick returns. He also points to the need to have some equity. 'The promoter,' he stresses, 'must put his money where his mouth is.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> G.K.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Culture and society</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dak'Art 96</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most important exhibitions of African art, the Biennial Festival of Conternporary African Art, opened its doors to the public in Dakar, Senegal, on 8 May 1996. The 'Pan-African Art Exhibition', as it is still called, was being staged for the third time although it almost failed to take place at all, having been postponed several times over the last four years. All those who participated - from the artists who exhibited to the directors of art galleries and cultural  institions - were pleasantly surprised. The next edition of me Courier will include a more comprehensive account of the exhibition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President Abdou Diouf of Senegal inaugurated the event at the Daniel Sorano National Theatre in the company of a number of VlPs, including BartoLom&eacute; Amat Armengol who represented the European Commission. The Commission was Dak'Art 96's main financial partner providing support to the tune of CFAF 200 million (ECU 300 000 approx). The Biennial Festival aims to be a showcase for African artists allowing them to break into the international plastic arts market. Hitherto, this has remained relatively closed to them despite the general recognition that Africa has a contribution to make to the art world in this area. Mr Ousmane Sow Huchard, chairman of the Festival's scientific board, stressed that success lay first in stimulating the art market in Africa itself. He gave the example of his own country which had voted the so-called '1 % law', which stipulated the proportion of works of art that should be used to decorate all new public buildings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Festival's main exhibition, at the Ifan Museum of African Arts, was devoted to major trends in African sculpture. 42 artists selected by an international panel took part and, despite some criticism, their choice was a  judicious one. The same cannot be said, unfortunately, of the second major exhibition, at the National Art Gallery. This was devoted to contemporary Senegalese art and the skill involved in producing the exhibits was not of a consistently high standard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were also five individual exhibitions featuring artists chosen by internationally famous judges. These might be expected to have a dynamic effect in setting standards on the market. Zeribun Yempeta of Ethiopia offered a quite original style, working on a support of leather straps fastened to a trellis of fine strips of wood. He draws his inspiration from a combination of African design, Coptic and Greek influences, and ancient Egyptian art. Ethiopian painting was one of the major revelations of the 'Africa 95' exhibition in London last year and the Festival gave a further opportunity for such art to be displayed. Another display presented work by the Moroccan painter, Mohamed Kacimi, whose pictures have been hung in various exhibitions - although the term 'pictures' is not always appropriate to this artist's work. It is perhaps more fitting to say that he 'occupies space'. In Dakar, he covered three walls of a large room with 'rolling art'. His skill, particularly in monumental works, is to offer excitement and calm simultaneously, through the use of animated forms and soft, rhythmic harmonies. Ezrom Legae of South Africa, Moustapha Dime of Senegal and Pascale Martine Tayou of Cameroon were the three other artists granted individual exhibitions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the trends which came to the fore at Dak'Art was the use of alternative media and recycled material. The latter, in a sense, is the man in the street's legacy to art. Initially, recycling was used predominantly in the informal sector to produce utilitarian objects. The 'Biennial Festival Village' was set aside for informal sculptors, and in an open area beside the Village, both inside a marquee and outdoors, one of the most individually striking exhibitions was presented. This combined a variety of artistic forms ranging from painting to video, not to mention Adeagbo's unusual montages, including 'African artists and AIDS'. This had already been exhibited in a number of countries and was staged by the Revue Noire team in parallel with its 'AIDS' issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Festival included dozens of on-site exhibitions as well as all the 'fringe' presentations. The AIDS exhibition was one of the boldest but the display entitled 'Love' offered the greatest degree of unity and uniformity of design. Dak'Art 96 also made an attempt to integrate other forms of creativity such as dance, design and fashion. The latter two, for example, were presented at the Espace Vema, a fine metal structure where the creations of the Senegalese designer Claire Kane were in perfect harmony with the highly original furnishings. The European Union's prize for creativity, one of the Festival's four major prizes, was awarded to Vincent Namien, a designer from Cote d'lvoire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hege'Goueier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">On creativity... in Africa and elsewhere</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Alain Nicolas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this article is head curator and director of the Museum of African, Oceanic and Amerindian Arts in Marseilles. Here he offers his thoughts on the (partially unconscious) reluctance of the 'official' art world in the West - museums, critics and art historians - to accept contemporary African artists. Even now, they tend to be relegated to the sphere of 'alternative' art. However, he believes that the abundance of creative Africans, and the pressure they are exerting on the art world and market will, sooner or later, generate a 'new revolution' in the museums. This iswhat happened in the early20th century when traditional African art first arrived in the West. This article is linked to the dossier on African creativity published in our previous issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When I was asked to make this small contribution on African creativity, I was happy to oblige since, as a non-specialist, I am able to content myself with a few generalisations. I believe that there are still barriers, sometime not very visible, but nonetheless real, which have to be broken down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, writing just a few lines on creativity is a difficult exercise given the amount of literature on the subject and so many divergent opinions. So, what line should I adopt? About 15 years ago - in the wake of hordes of specialists in the humanities from sociology, psychology, ethnology, anthropology and so on - a rational approach, known as 'the anthropology of art', was at last proposed. The term 'rational' should be seen here in the context of the distinction between exact or 'hard' sciences such as mathematics, physics and astronomy, and the humanities, which are essentially inexact or 'soft' disciplines. And in brief, the West tends to take a scientific approach, relying on empirical evidence, even when it seeks to study such subjects as human creativity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Creativity obviously is to be found in many different spheres. It is needed in technology, it is fundamental to story-telling, it underpins all forms of social organisation and has a part to play in religion. Similarly, what we term 'art'  is one of the spheres of creative endeavour. The anthropology of art seeks to document artistic creativity and to analyse the conditions surrounding its expression in various cultures. This is a laudable enterprise insofar as art is regarded as another means of expression, used in one form or another by all human groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The creative function is universal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The basic postulate is that any society - and any individual - possesses creative potential which may be expressed in any way. The first thing to examine, therefore, is the context of choice. There are various modes of artistic expression ranging from music, poetry, prose and dance to architecture, painting and fashion. Some individuals or societies may have no choice, perhaps because of socio-economic constraints. Others may favour a particular mode of expression while nonetheless dabbling in more than one area. The expression of creativity is, therefore, like an identifying mark, claimed by the group or by the individual. The concept of 'style' now comes into play. The expression of one group is different from that of another and no two can ever be the same. Fundamental elements are at work in this materialisation of creativity. Some  are due to the natural environment. Thus, for example, a society located in a place where wood is abundant may favour sculpture. Others come from the group or individual themselves. And in the final analysis, it is the groups or individuals that decide what to portray (or not) on the basis of their own social norms and what they want to express.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These few limited thoughts should be supplemented by the observation that sculpture or the plastic arts more generally can also be examined from at least two angles: as a means of conveying information, and as a form of linguistic expression.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards the former, some have proposed analysing any work of art, from whatever culture, as a message. Analysis of the work therefore includes an examination of the conditions surrounding the production and transmission of the message. What message is broadcast ? How does it function ? What does the addressee gain from it? This approach is fine in hypothetical terms but does not allow one to go beyond theoretical and formal data, teaching us nothing about the content of the message under study. It refers back to the originator who holds the keys to the way in which it was sent and thus to its form and meaning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linguistically speaking, we assume that all expression through sculpture is a language and that the techniques for studying language can therefore be applied to the work of art. This approach is more rewarding because it brings us closer both to the sources and to the function of communication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Be that as it may, all methods involve knowledge of the group or of the individual (but also of the relationships between them) and thus of any organised knowledge. Art cannot be separated from perception. This is the position of the majority of scientists. Yet we are not completely certain of this. Briefly, we are led to imagine that art could be irreducible at a certain level. When we look at a sculpture or listen to a piece of music, aside from the emotional content which is at least   partly quantifiable, what are we able to understand about the culture which produced them ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having travelled widely throughout the world and kept my eyes open, without having become the 'observer-participant' which the ethnologist should be, I am certain that the same creative function can be seen everywhere, and it is not difficult to identify.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frequent visits to the world's museums and, perhaps above all, to their vaults, further reinforces the impression that constants do exist and are worthy of more and better investigation. Art, and more particularly the art of others, from other continents, is still the domain of a happy few.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are usually highly literate people, and are seldom activists expounding a cause.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contemporary African art must find its niche</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The above statements relate as much to contemporary art as to what we term 'traditional' art. How many of the world's museums really show contemporary art from Africa ? It is as if this sector were cut off from current cultural reality. This is despite the fact that each week, new artists, musicians, designers, painters, sculptors, dancers, film-makers, stylists and photographers emerge from Africa, to be 'recognised' in the West (if anyone knows what 'recognition' really means!). The museums are, in fact, confused by this burgeoning of talent because they have no idea how to manage it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has been said that contemporary African art is an urban phenomenon aimed at those living in towns and cities - and that it rebels against essentially rural, traditional art.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The argument is that the usual methods for analysing traditional art cannot be fully mobilised because 'urban civilisation' conforms to a set of universal norms (more or less), which are distinct from those studied by ethnologists. It would, therefore, be more appropriate to consider contemporary art in the context of sociology and aesthetics. This may be true, but it still comes down to a matter of observation. Confusion reigns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When we staged an exhibition in Marseilles by the Senegalese sculptor, Ousmane Sow, the first individual showing of his works came as a major shock to many people, including the specialists. I can remember the reactions of at least   two colleagues from museums of contemporary art. What they said was almost identical, and was along the following lines:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What's the name of this sculptor ? I am not familiar with him...</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. Do you like his work ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, I do, but what's his name ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. Ousmane Sow </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I don't know him. Astonishing! Where's he from ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. Senegal - he lives in Dakar. Are you interested in his sculptures ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but..</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. You can buy one of his works - he's not very expensive yet and it would be good for your museum. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The problem is he's African.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AN. I see... </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· His works are more your sphere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. But they don't have anything to do with traditional art which is what I have in my museum. Ousmane Sow is a contemporary artist, isn't he ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but he's African, and your museum is a museum of African art.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. You're correct, I would love to buy one of his works. But it would be the only example of contemporary art in my museum and would represent a change of policy for me. You wouldn't have anything by Ousmane Sow. And we would then be rivals! </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Critics, artists and art historians have begun discussing contemporary African art, more and more good reviews of it are being published, talks are being given and some major exhibitions have been mounted. There are pioneers and supporters in France, Germany and elsewhere, and there is even a great museum - Washington's Smithsonian - which took it on board several years  ago - but we still seem to be a long way from a commitment from most institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I hope this statement will soon be proved wrong. Institutions do not like taking risks. Either they create 'ghettos' ('let's set up a museum of contemporary African art'), or they set up committees to consider the subject. It is up to us to set our houses in order, but we must not be too naive. This is the art market, after</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although we tend to cling to this somewhat short-sighted administrative view that there should be different institutions depending on whether we are dealing with heritage or contemporary creativity, museums of contemporary art must integrate all the world's sculptural expression. If not, they will be in conflict with the above; postulate which claims that creative  potential is the same everywhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for so-called museums of anthropology and also a few rare museums such as the Museum of African, Oceanic and Amerindian Art in Marseilles, the systematic exhibition of contemporary art does generate a number of problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When I have wanted to do this in the past, I have been reminded of the 'museographic landscape' and advised to consult the authorities, to organise a major debate on the topic: who, what, where ? That is the rational approach, we are told. There is no great hurry!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, the recent arrival of African artists comes at a moment in our history when we are questioning the existence of our museums. When I say 'we', I mean the West in general.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So, what might happen ? Traditional African art caused an explosion in Western art and traditional art history at the very beginning of the 20th century, with the cubists and their research which led them to develop a passion for African sculpture. We are all aware of what we owe to Africa and its traditional artists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contemporary art from Africa is knocking on the closed door of Western museums, but the arrival of contemporary African artists and the pressure they exert on the art world and  market might trigger a new revolution in the museums, which are also the archives. Certainly, all the usual followers are ready to take up the cause, and that is how it should be. Let's be optimistic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The works of Ainsley Yearwood: Bombarded with colour</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Claude Smets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ainsley Yearwood is a Trinity dadian artist based in London. me Courier had the opportunity to meet him recently when an exhibition of his works was staged at his country's embassy in Brussels. Brought up in Trinidad, he moved to London to study fine arts at the Chelsea Art School. Feeling unable to express himself fully in this discipline, he ended up taking a degree in graphic design. Mr Yearwood is still based in the UK capital where, in addition to his work as a painter, he also designs costumes for the Notting Hill Carnival, a cousin of the famous Trinidad Carnival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The artist is fortunate to be able to live from his work. Besides the present exhibition which is touring Europe (Manchester, Brussels, Geneva and London), he has other works currently on show at three galleries in the US. He finds that the reaction of the American public is different from the European one. Americans, he believes, are more spontaneous and openminded. 'Europeans tend to stick more to things they already know; to which they are more accustomed.' The titles he gives to his art pieces are for him 'a basis for artistic conversation' with his audience. They express his emotions, feelings, and thoughts, but do not try to impose a specific interpretation of the painting on the viewer. Ainslie Yearwood dislikes the idea of being labelled or categorised - or as he describes it, 'to  be put into a box'. As such, he rebels against people who try to make him conform.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A world citizen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although Ainsley Yearwood recognises his African roots within Trinidadian society, he sees himself as 'a world citizen'. The influences in his paintings are many and varied - deriving from the multicultural background of Trinidad and Tobago, European art and graphic design, the memories of his own childhood and his recent experiences. 'I am like a sponge', he says. 'Everything influences me in my work... people, places and all that I see around me. They help me to view things from a different perspective.' These all then flow together to be visualised through his 'inner eye' (expressed, for example, by two blue dots in his work In the Company of Nature which represents the Grand Canyon). By paying particular attention to what he sees, his 'visual view' is transformed into an 'emotional view'. Thus, for example, his painting Evolution appears to be a landscape. A :loser look reveals that the rocks are in the shape of hands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The artist also uses symbols in dome of his work, as a personal means 'or him to express life. The butterfly :rapped in a jar, for example, in Love lost, is a symbol of the fragility of life. The glass of water in Soul of a Mother symbolises the way a child looks at the world as something exciting and new. he also draws strongly on the imagery of candles, inner eyes and doorways.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strong colours, strong emotions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What unifies Mr. Yearwood's work, is his use of colours. As he says, they are 'strong colours to express strong emotions'. In this, he has been inspired by his childhood in Trinidad which, in his own words, 'was an environment that constantly bombarded you with colour - from crystal to aquamarine, sapphire and emerald - a perpetual rainbow of red, yellow, green and blue'. One painting where colour is used to striking effect is Carnival Bacchanal. This depicts Trinidad's Carnival and reflects both the island's multicultural society and its vividness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ainsley Yearwood has also produced more surrealist and psycho-biographical works, under the influence of artists such as Salvador Dali and Francis Bacon. Emotions are revealed through the use of darker though still vivid colours. These works (such as Evolution, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Translucent State and Suspended in Limbo) show a fragmented self, stuck between past, present and future, looking for a way forward. They come in stark contrast to the brighter mood of paintings of island scenes - which are in a more African style - or of jazz musicians (such as Soul of a City or The Musician). According to the artist, this is being realistic. If he wants to paint life, he must show the different and contrasting emotions a human being experiences. 'You get up in the morning and you are feeling a little bit happy. You come home in the evening and you are feeling a little bit down. So emotions are continuously changing. If I said that I was always happy, that wouldn't be true.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As mentioned above, a number of Ainsley Yearwood's pieces portray jazz players. He enjoys going to New Orleans to listen to jazz bands and in Soul of a City he portrays one of the musicians. The title underlaines the importance of performers in a place like New Orleans - where indeed, they form an integral part of city life. In A Musical Love affair, the painter uses techniques learned as a graphic designer to help him express his feelings. By drawing graphic lines, the cello player and the instrument flow into one another. He explains: 'The cello player was not just playing the instrument. She was actually part of it. It is as if she were making love to the cello.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear from the foregoing that Mr. Yearwood's art is primarily visual. The onlooker is bombarded with strong colours - which are used, together with abstraction and symbolism, to express both optimistic and pessimistic feelings. The artist uses his multicultural background to great effect, drawing on influences from Trinidad, Africa and Europe, to create different modes of expression. These are the essential factors which make his paintings interesting and refreshing to look at.  c.s. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA-Bulletin</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Fairness on the livestock field of play</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Sarah Reynolds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the town of Thies one of Senegal's regional capitals, there is an abattoir where nothing goes to waste. Even the horns of cattle are sold for making carvings for sale to tourists while the tips of the horns are exported to Japan. In a rural area of Chad, small-scale livestock farmers are preserving meat by the age-old process of cutting it into strips and drying it in the sun. Careful attention to hygiene and quality control has resulted in a product so consistently good that it has found an export market as far away as Gabon. Livestock producers in sub-Saharan Africa are responding to market opportunities, not because they recognise the need to improve national food requirements, but in pursuit of profit. Therein lies the best chance for stimulating the livestock sector's production capacity. The challenge is to design policies that protect consumers without crushing entrepreneurial potential for producers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than half the population of sub-Saharan Africa is likely to be living in a town or city within the next 30 years. These city dwellers will have neither the skill, the time nor the space to raise livestock. There are indications on present trends that their demand for food of animal origin will increase. Where will they get it from ? Imported meat is more expensive than it used to be, largely as a result of the change in policies of the European Union. These have also affected the supply of low-cost milk powder and butter oil. Imports from countries outside the continent will  undoubtedly continue but intra-African   trade and local production will become   far more significant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has been estimated that the production of animal products in sub-Saharan Africa would have to increase by 4% per year to ensure an adequate supply of animal protein for the region's growing population, and to end the need for imports. This presents a major challenge to policy-makers. Already, the current pressure on land resources is causing conflict in some areas and the prospect of more people, more animals, and more strain on already inadequate resources, is perturbing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information vacuum  in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of value</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Decisions on how to achieve sustainable and yet more productive land-use, while at the same time ensuring fair access to resources for other interested users, cannot be soundly based if made in an information vacuum. It was in recognition of the lack of information about the livestock sector that the CTA organised and sponsored a seminar on Livestock development policies in the humid and sub-humid zones of sub-Saharan Africa. This was held in Abidjan, Cote d'lvoire on 5-9 February 1996. It was attended by participants from 17 countries within the region and by representatives from international institutions and from Europe. The objective was to contribute to the ongoing debate on policies aimed at bringing about sustainable livestock development while respecting natural resources in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of value</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effective planning of government action on issues such as import policy, provision of inputs and services, marketing and research priorities requires quantitative information on livestock production systems. Why is this information lacking when it is estimated that livestock products contribute about 25% of total agricultural GDP in subSaharan Africa? The livestock sector is too important to ignore and yet it is consistently undervalued. The reason is that economists and statisticians like to deal with a tangible unit that can be counted. Ideally, this should be a monetary unit but, failing that, it should at least be a unit that can be easily converted to money, such as the number of animals potentially available to the market. But if animals are used to sustain a traditional way of life, for people who do not have to pay before they can eat, it is difficult to put a monetary value on the food they consume. Similarly, if a herd of animals is sustained by forage that has no other use, on land that can be used for no other purpose, the cost of feeding cannot easily be measured in financial terms. Indeed producers have little to gain from allowing government   departments to acquire information about their assets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock owners have their own objectives when deciding whether and how to increase production. Livestock provide energy in the form of draught power, and dung for fuel or biogas. Their manure restores structure and fertility to the soil. Social prestige may be measured in the quantity and quality of the animals one possesses. For some livestock owners, their animals are their 'barking' system. They represent a deposit account for accumulated wealth and a current account when an animal is sold to raise cash. Indeed it may be impossible to obtain credit from an orthodox bank. There is an added advantage in that there are no interest charges to pay when you raise cash by selling your own animals as opposed to taking out a loan from a bank. It may be difficult to measure real production when animals are treated as a capital reserve. For example, an increase in meat prices, perhaps as a response to a change in economic policy, may result in a short-term reduction rather than increase, in the number of animals being marketed. This is because producers are able to maintain their income by selling fewer animals and can simultaneously  increase their breeding herds. Alternatively, there may be little incentive to producers to sell more animals if they have no use for the extra money they earn. It is of course true that more people are joining the cash economy as they become aware of the desirability of consumer goods, or of services such as schooling. Governments may aspire to design policies which will develop the livestock sector for the economic welfare of society as a whole, but if these policies ignore the objectives of livestock owners, they will fail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fair play</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a football match, the referee is there to see fair play. In the livestock sector, governments have to ensure fair play between the 'demand team' and the 'supply team', in other words the -consumers and the producers. Governments often make two mistakes. Either they help one team at the expense of the other, or else they join in the game themselves. The role of the authorities should be to make the rules that protect both teams from unfair or unsafe practices. For example, health and hygiene regulations must be in place, and  enforced, but not be so onerous that illegal and totally unregulated marketing channels are established.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Private traders have considerable power to manipulate markets if they collude to form cartels and prevent outsiders from entering their ring. Governments should ensure that this is not allowed to happen, that markets are open and that traders are free to operate provided that they observe health and hygiene regulations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Veterinary services</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most countries are no longer able to supply even minimum standards of veterinary support to their livestock producers. The efforts that have been made in recent years have been largely in the form of donor-funded projects where continuity is rarely guaranteed. The only viable alternative seems to be to transfer activities of this kind to service providers in the private sector. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work that they do under contract to the government, for example relating to the control of epidemic diseases, must be funded by government or other central agencies since cost-recovery from individual livestock owners is not feasible when participation has to be compulsory. The work that they do on behalf of individuals, or associations of livestock owners, should, however, be paid for by those who benefit directly from the increased productivity that should result - the farmers. The greatest difficulty lies in managing what will be a long and difficult transition period. The success of ventures to privatise veterinary services depends on whether the profession can deliver a decent living in the private sector, particularly in rural areas where the need is undoubtedly greatest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is in the rural areas that livestock production needs to be intensified. On the outskirts of Africa's major cities, intensive pig and poultry production is already being supported by commercial, joint venture capital. Dairy units, in which exotic, high performance cattle breeds are managed in a controlled environment, are producing fresh milk for cash-paying consumers in nearby towns and cities. Urban areas create the demand but it is the rural areas that need the development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal products are seasonal and prices fluctuate accordingly. However, consumers are more likely to develop the habit of using products that are consistently available at stable prices. Government intervention to stabilise  prices risks favouring the consumer at the expense of the producer. For example, if imports are used to counter temporarily high prices during periods of drought, then producers will receive less for their reduced output at the very time when they need support. The most effective policy of price stabilization is to encourage the adoption of production systems that are less vulnerable to seasonal changes. Processing achieves this to some degree and brings benefits to both producers and consumers. Furthermore, because animal products are perishable, and dangerous to human health when they deteriorate, processing extends storage life, and may even have an effect in improving food security.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most countries, the time of greatest food shortage is at the beginning of the rainy season. This is also the time when milk production soars because cattle have good feed; and yet much of that milk is wasted because there is more than required for home consumption. If that surplus milk can be fumed into cheese, potential customers in more distant markets may be reached. Provided that the product is acceptable to the consumer, cheese-making reduces wastage, diversifies the producer's source of income and may also provide employment, and therefore income, to those brought in to help with the production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A technology that has been exhaustively tested by FAO for its suitability for use in Africa is lactoperoxydase. This is an enzyme which extends by three hours the length of time before milk begins to curdle and clot. This effectively doubles the time available for milk to reach the cooling centre, and thereby extends the catchment areas for producers wishing to supply fresh milk to urban markets. The trials that have been conducted show that it is entirely safe. When milk is brought to rural collecting points, it is the responsibility of the cooling centre employee, not the farmer, to add the enzyme at the prescribed rate as the milk is transferred into cans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On current trends, it seems probable that there will be more than 20 capital cities in Africa that have a population of 10 million people by the year 2010. How many other cities and towns will have developed by that time ? There are so many people migrating to the urban areas, and they are doing so because the type of activities that ought to be taking place in the countryside do not exist. If the livestock industry, both primary production and processing, can be encouraged in rural areas, and if the infrastructure is in place to ensure that animal products, in whatever form, can reach urban markets, rural dwellers will find it more comfortable to stay where they are rather than going to the cities to look for jobs that do not exist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge for policy-makers is to deal even-handedly, not only in the interests of the livestock sector, but in the interests of other farmers, consumers, the national economy and the long-term sustainability of the nation's natural resources. For this task, reliable information, which is accessible to all countries within the region, is essential. The database structure of this information should be standardised so that it can form the basis of regional cooperation on trade and the sustainable use of land resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.R. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Couriers Mailbag</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WCL seeks a wider  expression views</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We refer to the article published by The Courier in issue no 156 (March-April 1996) entitled The changing face of trade unionism in Africa, which reflects the views of the ICFTU (AFRO) and OATUU.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We are surprised that you have not taken pains to solicit the views of the World Confederation of Labour (WCL) and its regional organisation, the Democratic Organisation of African Workers Trade Unions (DOAWTU) - which participated on the same footing as the two other trade union organisations at the ACP-KU Social Partners meeting in December last year. We strongly believe this omission on your part should be corrected in future in order to allow a wider expression of the views and stands of all representative trade unions in Africa on such important issues as structural adjustment programmes, the social clause, labour standards and working conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carlos L. Custer, Secretary-General, World Confederation of Labour, Brussels, Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linked destinies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The continuing dialogue between the ACP and EC Groups has exposed many mutual concerns about world affairs and has promoted a more complete understanding of the problems of both advanced and developing  nations. I am confident that in the future, we shall see further progress in our efforts to create a favourable financial climate for the resolution of our economic problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Global political and economic events have brought home to all of us how inextricably our social and economic destinies are linked. This is true of a whole range of subjects from human rights and political reform to economic development, conservation, health education and industrial promotion. None of these subjects can be put into independent boxes. We must seek more effective integration of our social and economic policies - both internally and internationally - if we are to serve the welfare of the people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I rejoice in your initiative in publishing The Courier. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teddyiniovo, International institute for Global Cooperation, Benin City, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scope for energy selfsufficiency</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">May I congratulate you on the new layout of The Courier, which is a great deal clearer and which you have instituted as a result of comments made by a number of your readers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I am surprised to discover that you have not said anything about the question of energy dependence in the Lom&eacute; Convention countries. Energy self sufficiency is an extremely important issue. ACP countries face a famine in this area which is rarely mentioned. Most are majors exporters of petroleum, which is  costly and absorbs a significant proportion of their foreign exchange earnings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Practically all the Lom&eacute; countries are in a position to produce alcohol from crops such as sugar cane and manioc without any negative impact on their food resources. These crops could be distilled to produce big-ethanol which is an excellent fuel. All that is needed - and it is a major challenge admittedly - is for production to be organised in each country, and for the required national and international financing to be set up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also required is the political will in these countries to overcome the various obstacles, including those lobbies who oppose this kind of production because they want petrol imports to be maintained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pierre Mariotte Consultant, Paris, France </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bibliography</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jean Monnet - 1888-1979  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Eric Roussel. Published by Fayard, Paris. 1996. 1004 pages. FFR 198.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jean Monnet was almost 91 years old when he died and, despite the fact that he had no higher education qualifications and at times did not hold any official post, his public role was legendary. From the very first page of his book, Eric Roussel stresses the fact that, from the moment Jean Monnet met the Prime Minister, Rene Viviani, in September 1914 until 9 May 1975, the day the Action Committee for a United States of Europe was dissolved, he worked constantly for the European cause.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He applied the same tireless enthusiasm to all his duties, in whatever sphere of activity he was involved - and these were many and varied. Despite his provincial origins, Jean Monnet was, among other things, a cognac merchant, an advocate of the Allied coordination effort during the First World War, Deputy Secretary General of the League of Nations (for a short time), a banker in America and China during the 1930s and in charge of the Victory Program in the USA in 1941. From 1947 to 1952, he was the first Commissioner-General of the Economic Plan in France. He and Robert Schuman were the architects of the famous Declaration of 9 May 1950 which was to form the basis of European construction. He went on to become the first President of the ECSC's High Authority and, until 1975, he was the driving force behind the Action Committee for a United States of Europe. And that is just to highlight his renowned roles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, Jean Monnet was both a visionary and a pragmatist, who was to become adviser to some of the greatest names of his day. General de Gaulle, another great visionary, albeit with a very different ideology, called him 'the inspiration' behind European integration, although such an accolade was not completely devoid of irony given that the two men could hardly be said to see eye to eye.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jean Monnet was a purveyor of new ideas, but also an eternal realist who never failed to recognise the importance of the status quo. Indeed, he could have stepped right out of the pages of a Paul Morand novel. And yet, despite the fact that he was held in the highest esteem by world political heavyweights (Clemenceau, Roosevelt, Churchill, Adenauer, de Gasperi, Brandt, Pompidou, John Kennedy, Henry Kissinger, Heath and Giscard d'Estaing, to name but a few), in his private life he was a simple man, of modest disposition - in fact a bourgeois in the best sense of the word.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 'workaholic', like many great men, Jean Monnet defied categorization. He has recently been described as 'a man of fringe ideologies who was nevertheless always at the centre of things'. During the latter part of his life, he settled comfortably into his role as 'rather' of Europe. His fundamental thoughts on that topic could be summed up in one line from the Declaration of 9 May 1950, (now a public holiday in the European institutions). 'Europe will not be built in a day, nor as a single structure, but will come about through concrete actions which, first and foremost, create a de facto solidarity'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Monnet, nationalism meant only war and, from 1942 onwards, he set his sights on preparing for the future, surrounding himself with a team of extraordinary talent - people such as Etienne Hirsch, Herve Alphand, Rene Mayer and Robert Marjolin. These men strove to find ways to avoid war between the countries of Western Europe, to define the objectives of European unification and to establish European institutions which would be equal to such a task.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eric Roussel is a journalist with an arts degree and a doctorate in law, and this is an outstanding work on the 'pragmatic visionary' that was Jean</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Monnet. The book is comprehensive, extremely well-written and impressively documented. Most notably, the author had access, for the first time, to the famous journal kept by Jean Monnet in which he recorded his countlles conversations with the key players and set out his own thoughts. Today, his dream of 'a united Europe complemented by a partnership with the United States' is still one of the big issues. And as the arguments rage, we should perhaps recall some other famous words from Jean Monnet's Memoires: 'We do not seek to form a coalition of States, we seek to unite men . </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alain Lacroix </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Le Choix de l'Europe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Opting for Europe)  by Laurent Cohen-Tanugi. Pub/ished by Fayard, Paris. 225 pages. FFR 110 - BFR 748.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Laurent Cohen-Tanugi successfully reminds us of the modernity of the European project; that there are aspects of it that are essential to our independence and our prosperity, to preserving our model of society and maintaining our influence on the international stage. By urging Europeans and European leaders to look to the future so as to be better able to manage the risks and seize the opportunities that it offers and, ultimately, to be in a better position to change things, he brings us all hope'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was how Jacques Delors described this book, and, basically, there you have it in a nutshell. It would, however, be worthwhile adding that 'opting for Europe' is not quite as simple as it sounds - a fact which has not escaped the attention of the author, who is a graduate of France's elite Ecole normale superieure and of the Harvard Law School. He is also a barrister and member of a renowned firm of international lawyers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the Treaty of Rome, European progress has very often come about because Member States have set themselves deadlines for achieving particular objectives. 1996 sees the opening of the Intergovernmental Conference, an event of major importance, which is expected to continue at least until the spring of 1997 (with parliamentary elections planned in several Member States in 1997 and 1998). Among the items on the agenda for the IGC is the need to adapt the European institutions - which in essence have hardly changed since 1958 - and to open up the way for the third phase of Economic and Monetary Union in 1999 for those States which have fulfilled the economic convergence criteria set out in the Maastricht Treaty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, besides the technical and financial problems involved, there are also differences between certain Member States about the political future of Europe. The author rightly stresses, in this respect, that the situation has become even more complex since the demise of the Soviet Union. In particular, some politicians support an expansion of the EU towards Central and Eastern Europe, so as to avoid strengthening European integration. The author believes that, broadly speaking, there are two distinct positions. On the one hand, there is the United Kingdom, which would be happy with a large free trade area guided by a 'Secretariat-Commission'and with flexible and relatively loose inter-State cooperation structures at a political level. On the other hand, there is Germany, which wants expansion of the Union towards the East as well, but also wants a swift and concrete consolidation of a common monetary and political 'hard core'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In his book, the author expresses his view that France will play a vital role in maintaining and advancing the essential elements that form the basis of the European enterprise. And he nails his own colours firmly to the mast as someone who hopes to see the continent moving towards some form of federal structure. As one observer commenting   on the work has noted, 'This little Bible, brimming with faith in the concept of a unified Europe, will be invaluable - even to the doubting Thomases among us'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publications received</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Et.... qu'en pensent les villageois? Projets de developpement durable et be veins de base b&eacute;n&eacute;ficiaires</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(But... what do the villagers think about it ? Sustainable development projects and basic needs of aid recipients)  by Myriam Bacquelaine. Published by Ured (Research, Education and Development Unit) of the K.U. Brussels (17, avenue de la Liberte, B- 1080 Brussels). 1995. 3Z2 pages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Les problemes du monde rural vus par les habitants - Portraits de villages de Haute-Guinee</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(me problems of rural life as seen by the inhabitants - Profiles of villages in Upper Guinea)  by Myriam Bacquelaine. Published by Ured (Research, Education and Development Unit) of the KU. Brussels (17, avenue de la Liberte, B- 1080 Brussels). 1995. 222 pages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, who has a PhD in educational sciences and is a researcher at Ured, has written these two works on the basis of a study she carried out on behalf of the European Commission in Guinea (Conakr,v). This aimed at identifying the most urgent priorities of village communities within the context of an environment restoration project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conclusion of the first book underlines research results which point to the adoption of a different approach to development at local level: one which respects the wishes of the recipients and which finally breaks free from western ethnocentrism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the second volume, the author presents the results of the survey conducted in the villages of Upper Guinea. Six villages with varying characteristics in terms of size, geographical location and administrative status are featured in more detail. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Informations pour le Developpement: Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Information on development: Agriculture)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Published by Ibiscus (ibis, rue du Havre, F-75008 Paris) and by the Agency for Cultural and Technical Cooperation. 1995. 271 pages. FFR 150.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than just an index, this publication is a useful working tool for anyone seeking reliable information about development in the agricultural sector. It includes a list of the main organisations specialising in agriculture in 40 French-speaking countries and a list of the principal places and means from which to obtain information (documentation centres, data banks, optical discs, CDs and on-line data services). There is also a selection of periodicals, a bibliographic section (with more than 300 references, including abstracts) and contributions by specialists relating to major topics connected with rural development: landownership systems, links between cash crops and food crops, agricultural funding, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda - Trois jour qui ont fait basculer l'histoire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Rwanda - Three days that shook history)  by Filip Reyntjens. Published by L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole-Polytechnique, F75005 Paris). Cahiers africains no. /6! 1995. 148 pages FFR 9O. ISBN 2-738437044.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although much has been written about the tragic events in Rwanda, this work examines an aspect of the story which is still largely a mystery: the brief period which began on 6 April with the missile attack on the presidential jet and ended on 9 April, when the 'caretaker government' was swam into office. According to the author, these 72 hours were of critical importance since it was during  this time that the country's killing machine was set in motion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Essentially based on eye-witnffs accounts, it is a tale which is far from complete. The book, however, does provide some hitherto undocumented information which allow us to delve deeper in search of the truth behind one of the darkest pages of recent human history.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Les refugies rwandais a Bukavu au Zaire - De nouveaux Palestiniens?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(The Rwandan refugees in Bukavu, Zaire - the new Palestinians ?)  by Philippe de Dorlodot Published by L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole-Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris) and by the Jeremie Group. 1995. 253 pages. FM 150. ISBN 2-7384-3698-6.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author has brought together various stories, appeals, communiques, analyses and thoughts to write this book about the crisis facing the Rwandan refugees. The accounts cover the period from April 1994 to October 1995 and relate to the situation in South Kivu, Zaire, where an already volatile position has been greatly exacerbated by the arrival of the refugees. The people living in the regional centres of Goma and Bukavu are having to live with the tragedy of gross overcrowding and all its consequences - environmental deterioration, price increases, general insecurity and the threat of war on the border between Rwanda and Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire now wants the refugees to leave as quickly as possible, but their return to Rwanda is still problematic. Rejected at every turn, are these Rwandan refugees set to become the new Palestinians? In the postscript to the work, Filip Reyntjens (the author of the book reviewed previously) states that 'These new refugees will not accept eternal exile. H voluntary repatriation is not possible, and if forced repatriation is unacceptable, the only way left open to them may be armed repatriation... The civil society of South Kivu... is well aware of this, and the international community would do well to listen to their cries of alarm... If  it does not, the tragic events of the past year will have been merely a prelude, with the worst still to come'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La tragedie rwandaise - Historique et Perspectives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(The Rwandan tragedy - historical background and future prospects)  by Emmanuel Nkunzumwami. Published by L'Harmaffan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1995. 480 pages. FFR 250. ISBN 2-7384-3697-8.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, a teiecommunications engineer and economist, was born and raised in Rwanda. He now lives in France and has had several articles about the situation in his country published. In this work, he seeks to Reconstruct the machine of central Rwandan power which first appeared in the eleventh century, seeking answers to questions such as: Who ruled the country and how? What alliances were forged and according to what criteria? What kinds of social structure existed and what forms did conflict take? He then goes on to describe the trauma of colonial rule which 'deliberately' fanned the flames of socio-ethnic conflict so that the people could be more easily controlled. From there, he takes us through the era of an 'independent' Rwanda under a dictatorial regime. Its power was progressively stripped away, initially under the pressure of internal calls for democracy, and then by the demands of Western aid donors. Finally, he recounts the events since April 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having given the historical background, the author examines the country's future prospects. He believes that the 'siege mentality' of the new government does nothing to induce the return of the 2 million refugees who shuffle back and forth across the border and who find themselves stuck between a 'rock and a hard place'. Finally, the author poses a straightforward question - but one which has yet to be answered: How can we rebuild a country that has witnessed genocide on such a scale ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">News round-up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In brief</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNCTAD Report on the least-developed countries (LDCs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to the annual report of UNCTAD (The UN Conference on Trade and Development), the 48 least developed countries of the planet, after several years of stagnation - and indeed, decline in some cases - enjoyed an average growth rate of 3% in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 1994-95. The figure was 4.6% for LDCs in Asia and 2.2% for those in Africa (33 out 48).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNCTAD says that the renewed grovvth rate for Africa's least developed nations is due to an increase in commodity prices, to improved political and social stability in certain countries and to economic reforms which have been implemented. If these favourable conditions are maintained, further modest progress can be anticipated for 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the positive impact of these factors on the development of countries, notably in Asia, UNCTAD believes that there is still a short-term danger that the world's weakest economies will suffer further marginalisation. It is pointed out, in this context, that the LDCs' share of total world trade - which stood at 1.7% in 1970 - had fallen to 0.4% for exports and 0.7% for imports, by 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the longer term it is thought that the LDCs, with their reliance on basic commodities for export receipts, may benefit from the globalization of their economies. This should happen notably through the regional trade agreements to which they are parties, alongside other developing countries. These regional markets, which are more attractive for investors, offer an opportunity for LDCs to try out their products and can, in time, help improve their competitiveness. In the  meantime, however, UNCTAD has noted that the immediate effects of the Uruguay Round have tended to be more negative, with reductions in the preferences enjoyed by LDCs in export markets and increases in the price of foodstuffs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, because they are dependent on official development aid (ODA) to finance investment, and even for their national budgets, LDCs are faced with possible further marginalisation as such aid flows are reduced. The figures show that, in terms of total resource flows, the amount of ODA provided by the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the OECD fell to 23% in 1994 from a figure of 27% a decade previously.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Likewise, the amount of aid, expressed as a proportion of the GDP of the donor countries, has been falling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNCTAD suggests a bolder policy as regards external debt - which, in 1994, amounted to 73% of the entire Gross Domestic Product of the LDCs. The organisation believes that the establishment of a new mechanism with sufficient resources to reduce multilateral indebtedness, combined with the expansion of existing mechanisms, could have the effect of reducing the overall debt burden to a more reasonable level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the subject of globalisation, UNCTAD argues that the international community should work to ensure that the LDCs' export markets do not become blocked by protectionist measures. It also believes that extensions to regional trade agreements, taking in the main industrialised countries, should not be allowed to have a damaging effect on the commercial interests of the LDCs. It points out that these countries have only limited scope for pursuing independent, national economic policies and that</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No agreement over banning landmines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Humanitarian organisations have expressed disappointment over the outcome of a recent United Nations conference, convened in Geneva to draw up a convention on 'Inhumane weapons). Both NGOs, and public agencies such as UNICEF, are particularly unhappy that state representatives at the meeting were unable to agree to an immediate and comprehensive ban on anti-personnel mines. These devices, which often lie hidden in the soil for many years, kill and maim thousands of civilians in current (and former) conflict areas across the globe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diplomats attending the Geneva conference were keen to emphasise what had been achieved. So-called 'dumb' mines, which do not self-destruct after a certain time will eventually be phased out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seif-destructing devices, which are still permitted under international law, will be subject to strict new standards, designed notably to ensure that they can be detected. And there will be new rules to ensure that minefieids are properly marked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Critics point out that signatories to the Convention will not be obliged to phase out 'dumb' mines immediately and that their use will remain legal for a further nine years after the agreement enters into force.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also an exception to the rule about marking the location of mines, 'where direct military action makes its impossible to comply' - a not uncommon circumstance in conflict situations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the Geneva Conference, a number of countries, including the United States, have announced their intention to reduce their stockpiles of mines. Few nations, however, seem willing to renounce their use altogether. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.  their governments have little choice but to adopt the prevailing market oriented approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Long-term food security</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A seminar on 'Long-Term Food Security Policies' was held in Brussels on 1-3 April at the initiative of the European Commission. The meeting, which was opened by Professor Pinheiro, Commissioner with responsibility for relations with the ACP countries, brought together about a hundred participants representing Member States, third countries, international organisations and major cooperation agencies. It was also attended by experts and researchers in the field of food security.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fulfilling a promise made by the Commission, the aim of the seminar was to clarify the long term strategic issues and take a closer look at food security policies with a view to preparing a European position for the World Food Summit scheduled for Rome in November under the auspices of the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community and its Member States are the world's main donors of food aid having spent ECU 1.089 billion on this in 1994. This amounted to 53% of the global total with the United States providing 44% and Japan 3%. Despite the large amounts being given, the FAO, the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the World Bank are all predicting that unless global food donations are boosted significantly, certain Asian and African countries will face an alarming food deficit by the beginning of the next century.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between 600 million and 800 million people are likely to be facing hunger by the year 2010 and the cereal needs  of the developing countries could well double between now and then.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This projected scenario coincides with a period of market difficulty. World stocks are low and grain prices have risen by 40% in just one year. Whether or not this is a portent of future food shortage, it has given rise to renewed debate on the ability of certain countries and regions of the world to supply themselves and the extent to which they will have to have recourse to the international markets. Closer attention is also being paid to the wider strategies that need to be implemented to ensure food security in the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If one looks at the issue solely in terms of increasing supply, the projections are gloomy. Experience shows that the 'right' of access to a sufficient food supply for each of the planet's inhabitants cannot be guaranteed whether through world economic growth, food self-sufficiency at the national level, or the international markets and trade liberalisation. There is, therefore, a need for food security policies, in the developing countries in particular, which act on the conditions of demand as well as supply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In his presentation opening the seminar, Commissioner Pinheiro stressed the fact that of the ECU 7 billion allocated by the EU for development cooperation last year, ECU 1 billion was in the form of food aid. He also noted that this aid 'category' had evolved over the last decade in the context of the search for food security and explained how the Commission, in revising the policy towards the end of 1994, had set out three essential aspects:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the use of food aid as a policy instrument designed to achieve longterm food security with the emphasis on local purchases and 'triangular' operations - thereby encouraging the growth of the agricultural sector in the developing countries: this entailed developing a new aid instrument in which funds are available to import basic food products (as a way of encouraging the private sector to  take a more active part in the economic life of those countries facing a structural food deficit);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the integration of aid instruments into the actual development efforts of the beneficiary countries;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - improved access for the people who suffer most from food shortages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Professor Pinheiro indicated that the Commission would shortly be presenting a communication on the strengthening of the link between development aid on the one hand and emergency, rehabilitation and food aid on the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He stressed the important role that food aid operations could play in preventing conflicts and easing social tensions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to the Commissioner, the challenge in this area have been clearly identified but he believes that additional thinking is needed, notably on the impact of events in China and the countries of the former Soviet Union, and on the effect of US and EC agricultural policies on the world markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, Professor Pinheiro expressed the view that food security was, above all, a national responsibility with all civil society actors having a role to play.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Citing the rise in the price of cereals during the second half of 1995 - which had prompted concerns about the availability of food aid and its impact on the balance of payments (notably in sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian sub-continent) - he gave an assurance that the Commission would remain vigilant about this. At the same time, he was concerned not to see a return to situations where aid in the form of straightforward transfers of food increased. These, he observed,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· had at least partly contributed to food costs, the destabilisation of local production and constraints on intra-regional trade. As such, they had set   back or undermined the reforms in this sector in the countries concerned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean rice exporters fear changes in OCT . rules</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guyana and Suriname, together with a number of Overseas Countries and Territories (OCTs), have expressed concern over the European Commission's recently announced intention to change the shape of its relations with the OCTs. In particular, they are worried that proposed new rules could harm their rice sales to the 15 European Union nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guyana currently exports 180 000 tonnes of rice (80% of its exports) to the KU. This is shipped initially to the Netherlands Antilles (Cura&ccedil;ao, Aruba and Bonaire) to be partially milled. It then enters the EU market duty-free by virtue of the Union's existing trade rules with the OCTs. But Caribbean exporters fear that this 'OCT route' could soon be blocked by changes currently being considered in Brussels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As already announced in issue no 157 of The Courier (May-June 1996), in the context of the mid-term review of the association with the OCTs, the Commission published a text on February 14 proposing some fine tuning to the trade preferences it grants to these territories. This has now gone forward to the Council of Ministers for decision. The Commission proposal is that while agricultural produce may continue being processed in the OCTs - and hence still benefit from the more relaxed rules - this should happen in future on a case-by-case basis, and only if priority is given to the least developed OCTs and the operations are economically justified.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, preferential arrangements do apply to direct rice exports from Guyana and Suriname to the KU, but it is argued that the levies are still too high to make the trade viable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to Yesu Persaud, who is Chairman of Guyana's Institute of Private Enterprise; 'it is only via the OCTs that we can export to the European Union.' Mr Persaud was speaking to journalists during a lobby visit to Brussels on April 16. He was accompanied by Charles P Kennard, Chairman of the Guyana Rice Development Board and David Jessop, director of the London-based Caribbean Council for Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Justifying the need for derange, some EU officials point to evidence that non-tome developing countries are 'abusing' the OCT rice route. Rice is a sensitive product for some EU nations such as Spain and Italy, who grow their own.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Persaud said that Guyana and Suriname were lobbying either for their own duty-free quota under the Lom&eacute; trade rules, or for 'a more reasonable levy'. At the same time, however, he indicated that the Caribbean rice growers were keen on keeping the route open via the Dutch and other OCTs (such as Montserrat and the Turks and Caicos) where major investments have been made on the  strength of the existing arrangements. A representative of the Turks and Caicos told reporters that his country earned half a million dollars a year from the trade, and that a new jetty had been built with British government support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guyana's rice exports have climbed from less than 39 000 tonnes in 1986 to more than 200 000 tonnes in 1995. And as Mr Persaud also stressed, the trade has done so well that Guyana is now investing in high-yielding varieties. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fight against locusts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fipronil, a recently developed pesticide, is said to be 10 times more effective than other products on the market in the control of locusts, according to representatives of the pharmaceutical giant, Rhone-Poulenc who organised a seminar on locust control </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Links between emergency, rehabilitation and development aid </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European commission has recently approved a communication </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> (COM(96) 153) which was due to be presented to the Development Council on 28 May. The document seeks to respond tO the challenge of I maintaining and improving the effectiveness of emergency aid  rehabilitation assistance and development cooperation with third countries - in the face of a wide variety of political, economic and social circumstances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Communication suggests ways of strengthening the links between the three types of aid within a strategic planning framework which includes intensified dialogue and political cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This initiative follows extensive consultations, both within the Commission (i_ service groups) and with representatives of numerous outside bodies (Member State experts, USAID, UN agencies, NGOs, academic institutions etc.). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the key phrase in the Communication may be 'strategy and global planning', emphasis is also placed on 'coordination' end 'opportunity'. This underlines a commitment to adapting procedures, where necessary, so that measures can be taken at the right time and the transition from emergency aid, to rehabilitation and subsequently to development cooperation can take place in the best possible conditions.  with the 70-member African, Caribbean and Pacific group. The event took place in Brussels in April.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new product, claims the company, fills a big gap that was left in the war against locust infestation when DDT was banned in 1986 (toxic residues from the chemical having been found to enter the food chain and damage the ecosystem).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is stated that Fipronil causes 99% mortality among locusts and gives complete protection for up to three weeks when applied in doses of six grammes per hectare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Its developers claim that it is three times cheaper than any other form of anti-locust pesticide used between 1987-1995, a calculation which includes the logistical costs involved in distributing the pesticide. It is said to be very effective in preventing locust infestations in countries in the Sahel that are particularly at risk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Sahel has some 250 acridian species. Of these, about 15, are known regularly to attack crops in large numbers, according to Michel Launois, who heads the French agricultural research body, CIRAD-GERDAT-PRIFAS.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the Brussels seminar, emphasis was placed on the need for donors to set aside more funds for the prevention of locust infestations. It was also stressed that locust control must be at a regional level because of the migratory nature of the species, and the link between locust control and food security was underlined.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CIRAD-GERDAT-PRIFAS has just published an educational cartoon strip entitled 'Les Dents du Ciel 11' (available from Cirad-Gerdat-Prifas, B.P. 5035, F34032 Montpellier Cedex 1). This is intended to explain to a wide audience the need for an integrated approach to locust control.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I New fishing agreement between Angola and the EU</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new fisheries agreement between Angola and the EU was initialled on 2 May. It is due to run for three years (as opposed to two years for the previous one) and should ensure greater stability and better programming of the Community fleet's fishing activities in Angolan waters. The EU will pay Angola the sum of ECU 13.35 million per annum in exchange for improved fishing rights for European fishermen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is worth noting that the agreement contains certain innovations. These concern, for example, the legal status of catches (which are given Community origin). This should help to avoid the kind of dispute that has arisen in the recent past. There is also the possibility of imposing an annual biological 'rest-period' for shrimp fishing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I African conference on consumer protection</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first African conference on consumer protection was held in Harare, Zimbabwe from 28 April to 2 May. This resulted from a joint initiative by the organization Consumers international and the United Nations, and it was supported financially by the European Commission. The latter was represented at the event by Mrs Emma Bonino, the Commissioner responsible for Consumer Policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The aim of the conference was to lay down the basis for a genuine consumer policy in Africa. Representatives of 45 African governments attended, together with officials from various regional and sub-regional organizations and delegates from a large number of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African consumer bodies. Coinciding with the tenth anniversary of the adoption by the UN of the guiding principles for the protection of consumers, the Conference offered an opportunity to track progress on the application of these principles in African countries. It also saw the adoption of 'model' legislation setting out the essential rights which should be guaranteed to consumers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In her speech, Mrs Bonino stressed the Commission's commitment to supporting the efforts of African governments and consumer organisations in seeking to establish, in a clear and pragmatic way, the link between consumption and development. Evidence of this commitment, she pointed out, was to be seen in her very presence at the conference. She also lent her support to the broad application of the UN's guiding principles in Africa. This would ensure that the health, security and economic rights of African consumers could be protected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the European Commissioner stressed that legislation, while important, was not enough in itself to tackle the fundamental problem - which was the satisfaction of basic needs. She appealed for global action in Africa deigned to break the vicious circle of poverty - based on voluntary action at all levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mrs Bonino added that the Commission would seek ways of supporting projects, in particular in the fields of food and health. This should assist citizens to meet their essential needs - with the opportunity to consume products which were different, 'local' and of better quality, and with risks to health and security minimised. The approach should avoid the exhaustion of scarce resources and respect nature. She indicated that an action plan would be drawn up by the Commission in collaboration with Consumers International. This, it was hoped, would allow financing of pilot programmes under a separate budget line which would be sought from the European Parliament for 1997. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE INSTITUTIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AT WORK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COMMON FOREIGN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> AND SECURITY POLICY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), the European Union has recently issued a number of statements, details of which are set out below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Towards national reconciliation in Angola</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 4 April 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Troika of the European Union Ambassadors in Luanda made a formal demarche with both the Government of Angola and UNITA in order to welcome the positive outcome of the Libreville Summit between the President of Angola, Jose Eduardo dos Santos, and the President of UNITA, Jonas Savimbi, and in particular their commitment to establish an integrated national army by June and the creation of an appropriate institutional structure, including the formation of a government of unity and national reconciliation by June/July. The Government and UNITA were encouraged to continue to refrain from military activity and hostile propaganda and to provide for free circulation of persons and goods as soon as possible. The EU Ambassadors underlined also the importance of securing human rights as well as transparency in financial management, economic stabilisation and reforms. Having recalled the terms of reference of the EU Joint Position adopted on 2 October, 1995, the Ambassadors underlined that the Union will continue to monitor, with the greatest attention, the development of the situation particularly as regards respect for the implementation of the calendar agreed in Libreville. Welcoming the recent steps taken by UNITA, the EU expressed concern at the slow pace of the quartering and disarming of UNITA troops and urged UNITA to proceed with its commitments, in full cooperation with UNAVEM ill. The EU encouraged the Government to continue the quartering of the rapid intervention police and the disengagement and pulling back of the FAA to the nearest barracks. The importance of disarming the civilian population was also emphasised. The EU also reiterated their call to the Government and UNITA to refrain from acquiring lethal material and to cooperate fully with the de-mining process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has reiterated its full support to the Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General, Maitre Blondin Beye, to the Joint Commission and to the United Nations Angola Verification Mission (UNAVEM).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia and Malta align themselves with this declaration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free elections in Sierra Leone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 4 April 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union welcomes the fact that presidential and parliamentary elections took place in Sierra Leone in a free and fair atmosphere and in fulfilment of the established timetable for the return to democracy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results reflect the will of the people of Sierra Leone to achieve a democratically elected civilian government despite attempts at intimidation by armed elements and the ongoing fighting in various parts of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU welcomes the peace talks between the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) and the Freetown authorities as well as the intention expressed by President Kabbah to meet Mr Sankoh at the earliest possible opportunity. The EU calls on all the parties to work for peace and national reconciliation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serious threat to peace process in Liberia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 11 April 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses its deep concern at the outbreak of fighting in Monrovia, which represents a serious threat to the peace process in Liberia. The EU is firmly convinced that the AbuJa agreement provides the right framework for resolving the crisis and calls upon the Council of State, the Liberian national transitional government and the Liberian factions to implement it, and to put the peace process back on track, in order to avoid further deterioration of the situation, and the violation of human rights. The EU condemns the loss of human life and the harassment of the civilian population and humanitarian workers. All parties concerned should prove their willingness to re-establish and maintain the ceasefire which represents the necessary prerequisite to disarmament and demobilization. The relevant measures and the necessary preparations can no longer be delayed. The EU asks the factions to return all weapons seized during the fighting to ECOMOG. The EU will base its attitude to Liberia on the concrete steps taken by all parties concerned to implement the Abuja agreement and bring the conflict to an end.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Treaty of Pelindaba on a nuclear weapon-free zone in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 12 April 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union welcomes the signature in Cairo on 11 April 1996 of the Pelindaba Treaty establishing the African Nuclear Weapon Free Zone. The Treaty is in line with the Decision on Principles and Objectives for Nuclear Non-Proliferation and Disarmament issued by the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference which   recognised that the creation of Nuclear Weapon Free Zones enhances global and regional peace and security.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU considers that Nuclear Weapon Free Zones are welcome complementary instruments to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, the universality of which the EU continues to promote.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Central and Eastern European countries associated with the EU and the associated countries Cyprus and Malta align themselves with this declaration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appeal for the 'boat people' of Liberia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 14 May 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses its deep concern at the grave humanitarian situation caused by the ongoing fighting in Monrovia and condemns the violence against the civilian population and the harassment of aid operations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While recognising the enormous efforts already made by neighbouring countries to assist the hundreds of thousands of existing Liberian refugees, the Council deplores the fact that the thousands of people crammed in precarious conditions on ships in the area are still in search of a friendly port.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It appeals on humanitarian grounds to the neighbouring countries to give at least temporary shelter to these victims of the fighting and affirms its own willingness to give humanitarian aid to cover their most urgent needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Council calls on all the Liberian factions to stop the fighting immediately and put the peace process back on track in order to avoid further suffering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VISITS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Prime Minister of Rwanda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Prime Minister of Rwanda, Pierre Celestin Rwigema, visited Brussels from 26 to 29 March in the course of a tour aimed at informing the main donors about the work undertaken by his government in recent months and about the policies which would be implemented in the future. He was accompanied by the Minister of Planning and the Minister for Rehabilitation. The Prime Minister was received by Commissioner Pinheiro, who is responsible for relations with the ACP countries and by Mrs Bonino, the Commission member in charge of humanitarian actions. He also spoke at meetings of the External Relations and Development Committees of the European Parliament. Professor Pinheiro took the opportunity to highlight to the Prime Minister his concerns about the current situation in Rwanda, reiterating the Commission's commitment to the country and its people. He also spoke of the need for the authorities to pursue policies and implement measures leading to the restoration of normality. He said it was essential to have a dialogue with the Rwandan refugees in neighbouring countries (there are now about 1.7 million) and to pursue the pacification process under the auspices of the United Nations and the Organisation of African Unity, with the involvement of all the heads of government in the Great Lakes region. Mr Rwigema's visit came at a crucial time for Rwanda. Even if the immediate crisis had passed, there was still a dire need for rehabilitation and development assistance, on top of the existing emergency aid programmes. The political situation remained delicate and the future was by no means secure, notwithstanding some encouraging signs of a progressive improvement as exemplified by the Tunis summit. The recent nomination of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aldo Ajello as the EU's special envoy to the Great Lakes region underlined the political and moral dimension of the EU's commitment to the peace process in this troubled part of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUPPORT FOR HUMAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RIGHTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently decided to provide the following financing for projects under the budget line 'Support for. democratisation and human rights'. Non-ACP countries </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central America: ECU 180.000 to support seven national and one regional fore aimed at providing training in the field of human rights for instructors. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central America: ECU 100.000 for a democracy consolidation training programme for 30 teams from various organisations in Nicaragua, Guatemala and El Salvador. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central America/Colombia: ECU 263.000 for a series of actions, notably in Colombia, involving the provision of information on human and citizens' rights. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil: ECU 190.000 for a project designed to boost the civil rights of black people in the country, through the training of judicial personnel and the strengthening of legislation against race discrimination. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil: ECU 145.000 for a training programme for magistrates, prosecutors and the police aimed at facilitating the uniform application of the law in the State of S&atilde;o Paulo. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil: ECU 290.000 for a training programme in the sphere of democratic municipal management, in the cities of Recife, Porto Alegre, Santos and Fortaleza. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala: ECU 308.000 for a project to collect and make available the case law of the Constitutional Court, and  to train officials and members of civil society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honduras: ECU 326.000 to support the National Human Rights Commission with a view to promoting such rights in the Departments of Comayagua and Olancho. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honduras: ECU 131.000 for an education programme dealing with civic and electoral issues and the rights of children. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexico: ECU 20.000 to support an initial Latin-American colloquium on the subject of the Ombudsman (in the face of the objectives and challenges of the region). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua: ECU 285.000 to support the social rehabilitation of minors in custody. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panama: ECU 125.000 for a training action in the field of the defence of human rights. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panama: ECU 250.000 to support a communication campaign designed to strengthen the image of the 'people's ombudsman'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela: ECU 160.000 to strengthen the institution of Justices of the Peace in the country's municipalities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela: ECU 100.000 ECU for a training and promotion action in the field of human rights and the strengthening of civil society. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EUROPEAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEVELOPMENT FUND</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following, where required, favourable opinions from the EDF Committee, the Commission has decided to provide grants and special loans from the 5th, 6th and 7th EDFs to finance the following operations (grants unless otherwise stated). Major projects and programmes are highlighted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic and social infrastructure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon: ECU 7.3 million for a programme aimed at protecting the urban boundary of the city of Kousseri from the encroachments of the Logone river, to improve sanitation and for the upgrading of an urban access route towards Chad. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 54 million for a transport infrastructure programme aimed at facilitating the social and economic development of the people living in the recisions in question (Western region, Brong Afaho, the Ashanti region). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 3.8 million for a human resource development programme designed to achieve better planning, management and implementation of development projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 1.9 million for a project to support the development of tourism. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 385 000 to extend the water supply system in the town of Mantola </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 13.5 million to upgrade the Ere-Kelo road </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade promotion/ structural adjustment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benin-Cameroon C&ocirc;te-d'lvoire-GhanaGuinea-Togo: ECU 1.99 million for a regional programme of trade activities and training with a view to relaunching the pineapple business in West and Central Africa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burkina Faso: ECU 180 000 for the construction of an 'export and creativity' pavilion at the Salon international de l'artisanat in Ouagadougou. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua-New Guinea: ECU 5.3 million for the fourth structural adjustment support programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madagascar: ECU 1.9 million for a rice irrigation project. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enterpris</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana: ECU 33.7 million from the Sysmin fund, to support the work of the BCL, Tati and FEB mining companies in the SelebiPhikwe region. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominican Republic: ECU 1.3 million to support the STD-HIV-AIDS prevention programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madagascar: ECU 1.9 million for a decentralised training project in favour of regional tourism operators. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tuvalu: ECU 300 000 for the rehabilitation of primary schools on the islands of Nukutetau and Nanumea. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Africa (Cameroon-Central African Republic-Congo-GabonEquatorial Guinea): ECU 16 million for phase 2 of the ECOFAC project (Conservation and rational utilisation of forest ecosystems in Central Africa). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Institutional support</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi: ECU 1 million towards a study aimed at allowing the government to implement its land reform policy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea: ECU 4.5 million for a study aimed at allowing the government to undertake proper planning in the area of water resources and irrigation. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miscellaneous</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacific region: ECU 4.9 million for a project designed to improve the efficiency and security at certain airports. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUMANITARIAN AID</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali: ECU 1 million towards the reintegration of some 200 000 Malians who fled to Algeria and Mauritania during the rebellions of the 1980s. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 317 000 for victims of the severe floods that struck the centre and south of the country recently. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria: ECU 850 000 to help fight the meningitis epidemic affecting seven provinces of the country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sierra Leone: ECU 700 000 in urgent food and medical assistance for some 250 000 refugees who fled to the areas around the towns of Bo and Kemena following the fighting. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 200 000 to help fight the meningitis epidemic. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 145 000 to help victims of the cholera epidemic and to assist in preventing its further spread (following the course of the Zaire river). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia: ECU 60 000 to help fight cholera in the municipality of Silvia, where some 40 000 are under threat due to a lack of drinking water and deficiencies in basic hygiene. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala: ECU 1.52 million to provide food aid and basic essentials to returnees from other parts of the country, and from Mexico, following years of civil war. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Armenia/Azerbaijan: ECU 11.57 million (ECU 4.07m for Armenia and ECU 7.5m for Azerbaijan), for food and medical assistance, targeted at the most vulnerable sections of the population, and for the provision of agricultural materials with a view to reducing progressively the dependence of the refugees, who are victims of the conflict in Nagomo-Karabakh.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caucasus-Georgia-Tadilkistan: ECU 3.2 million for food aid to be targeted at the most vulnerable sections of the population. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Georgia: ECU 7.43 million for victims of the internal conflict in this country where the loss of the Russian market has seriously undermined the rural economy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lebanon: ECU 600 000 for displaced people, to allow for the purchase of basic essentials including food, medicines, shelter and blankets. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afghanistan: ECU 600 000 for health infrastructures in the refugee camps   around Jalalabad, and for medical aid to refugees in the town of Herat. Indonesia: ECU 120 000 for toots and materials to construct shelters for the victims of the earthquake that struck in February. China (Tibetan nomads): ECU 550 000 for food aid, medicines and blankets for some 72 000 people living in the mountainous regions who have been badly hit by severe weather and a food shortage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AID </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p95a.png"></center><br>
+ The Commission has recently taken decisions to finance food aid as set out in the chart which follows: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Aknowlegments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa - Caribbean - Pacific - European Union</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Address: Postal address (mail only) 'The ACP-KU Courier' Commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 Brussels Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier office address (visitors) First floor Astrid Building 1, rue de Geneve Evere - Brussels Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publisher Steffen Smide commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 - BRUSSELS (Belgium) Tel. 00-32-2-299 11 11 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Publications</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assistant editors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeanne Remade</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associate assistant  editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joumalist:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Production Manager:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dorothy Morrissey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secretariat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carmela Peters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: 299-30~02</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Margriet Mahy-van der Werf</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/ec158e/metadata.xml
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--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/ec158e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
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+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">The Courier - NÂ°158 - July - August 1996 Dossier Communication and the media - Country report Cape Verde (ec158e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Communication, Information and Documentation|Communication, telecommunication, mass communication, mass media, film-making</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Development Periodicals and Magazines|The Courier ACP 1990 - 1996 Africa-Caribbean-Pacific - European Union</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">EC Courier</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">C-D-E</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">_textperiodicals_|The Courier</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
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--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/ec159e/ec159e.htm	(revision 21010)
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+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; The Courier - N°159 - Sept- Oct 1996 Dossier Investing in People Country Reports: Mali ; Western Samoa</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Courier - N°159 - Sept- Oct 1996 Dossier Investing in People Country Reports: Mali ; Western Samoa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFRICA-CARIBBEAN-PACIFIC - EUROPEAN-UNION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali, which used to be the centre of great appears hemmed in by its frontiers, colonisation having culminated in the break-up of the old 'French Sudan'. Following the marxist regime of Modibo Keita (the 'founder' of the nation) and the dictatorship of Mousse Traor&eacute;, Mali has discovered democracy. It is still one of the world's poorest countries but recent macro-economic trends are highly encouraging and there is a new dynamism. It seems that the ending of the Tuareg conflict has provoked a surge of optimism- even among ordinary citizens whose wallets have yet to feel the effects of an improving national economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacific island nations have a reputation for idyllic scenery and rich cultural traditions. Western Samoa has both of these assets in abundance, but it also faces many development challenges. With a population of just 165 000, the country has a limited local market, and it is a very long way from potential overseas customers. It is also susceptible to destructive tropical storms. Despite these constraints, there have been some promising signs of economic progress in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dossier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Investing in people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To say that investing in people makes economic sense is to state the obvious. But to what extent are the implications of this statement fully understood in the developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, in these days of constantly shifting development theories? We look at this subject in our Dossier. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acnowledgements</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa - Caribbean - Pacific - European Union</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Address: Postal address (mail only) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'The ACP-EU Courier' Commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1049 Brussels </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belgium </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier office address (visitors) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First floor Astrid Building 1, rue de Gen&egrave;ve </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evere - Brussels </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publisher Steffen Smidt </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission of the European communities </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">200, rue de la Loi </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1049 - BRUSSELS </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Belgium) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. 00-32-2-299 11 11 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Publications</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assistant editors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeanne Remacle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associate assistant editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalist:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Production Manager:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dorothy Morrissey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secretariat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carmela Peters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: 299-30-02</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Margriet Mahy-van der Werf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(299-30-12)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cower page:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cover photo by</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John and Penny Hubley</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Meeting points</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Ieremiah Tabai, Secretary General of the Forum Secretariat</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Pacific Forum: 'responding to the needs of the Member States'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although an accountant by training, leremiah Tabai has never had the opportunity to practise his profession, having pursued a successful political career instead since 1974. In 1978, he was annointed head of government in Kiribati and a year later he became his country's first President, when it achieved independence. He held this position for 12 years. In 1991, he took up the top post in one of the South Pacific's key regional bodies, the Forum Secretariat, which is based in Suva, Fiji. During a recent Courier visit to the region, we had the opportunity to interview the Secretary General. Our discussion was wide-ranging, covering issues such as the Forum Secretariat's role, the economic challenges facing the South Pacific, and the development of regional links with Australia, New Zealand and Asia. We began by asking Mr Tabai to outline the objectives of the organisation that he heads.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Like many other organisations in the region, the Forum was established essentially to try and assist the development process of the Member States. At the time it was set up, there was already an organisation in existence - the South Pacific Commission - which dates back to 1947. But there was a feeling that we needed an organisation that was not just restricted to economic issues; that could talk about other matters with a bearing on the development of the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the early years, when the organisation was called the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Cooperation (SPEC), the focus was heavily on trying to assist the trade and economic development of the member countries. Later, the name was changed to the Forum Secretariat and its role evolved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In what way ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It has evolved in seeking to respond to the needs of the Member States. It started as a very small bureau essentially dealing, as I said, with trade and economic issues. Subsequently, it moved into areas like energy, civil aviation, maritime questions and telecommunications. It also became more involved in political issues. We have a division which deals specifically with these.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1995 was a very important year in the history of the Forum. We had a review of the organisation, looking at ways we could perform better and taking account of the changes in the region and the world at large. The fundamental recommendation in the report which came out of that review was that the Secretariat should focus mainly in future on poliy-related issues, in the areas of trade and investment, economics and international relations. This report was discussed and endorsed at the last Forum in Madang, Papua New Guinea. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Does this mean, in practice, a withdrawal from project activity ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It may. The essential focus of the work will be providing policy advice to countries. Having said this, there should still be some project work. For instance, we will be engaged in a programme to provide assistance for importers, particularly in the small island countries. The idea is to help people- who may not be familiar with all the legal requirements-to learn how to get into the business. This will involve running a workshop and inviting people with expertise to pass on their knowledge. So even though the focus will be on policy issues, there will still be room for project-type activities where needed -so long as these fit in with the policy priorities. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mentioned the fact that the Forum now deals with political questions. Although the issue may now be seen as 'water under the bridge' to what extent was the Forum Secretariat involved in the diplomatic disagreement over French nuclear testing ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- We were very much involved from the beginning. In 1991, when the French testing was not underground but atmospheric, the region, at a Forum meeting, came out strongly in opposition to the tests. Right up to our last meeting in Madang, the subject was always a major item on the agenda, and we left France in no doubt as to the resolve of our region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the new President took the decision to resume testing after a gap of several years, I was in the group from the South Pacific that went to France to express our views to French ministers, face-to-face. Our team was led by the then Australian Foreign Minister, Gareth Evans, who was President of the Forum. And when the tests began again, the Chairman took a decision suspending the dialogue and partner status of France with the Forum. So, as you see, we have been heavily involved in the issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What resources does the Forum have at its disposal and where does the money come from ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- An important source of funds is our members' contributions. These tend to be used to cover the operational costs of the organisation. Then of course, there are the funds made available by our donors. The main ones are obviously Australia and New Zealand but there are many other countries and international organisations who provide assistance. The EU, of course, is an important partner. There was also a private donor who funded our conference centre.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How many people are employed in the Secretariat ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Around 80, all based here in Suva. Most of these are support staff.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is the current state of relations between the Forum Secretariat and the main donors ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I would say our relations are good. We have an extensive mechanism for consultation with the donors. Every two years, we invite them here for a dialogue. We talk about the key issues and discuss ways in which they can assist us. There is also usually a dialogue associated with the Forum (ministerial) meetings. In September this year, after the Forum meeting, we will have more discussions with our main partners such as the EU, Canada, France, Japan and the UK. I should mention too the close links we have with international organisations like the Asian Development Bank, the World Bank and the IMF.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I think it is fair to say that the Forum Secretariat is seen as a particularly important organisation in the region. That is why donors are quite keen to be seen assisting us in what we do.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are the key development issues facing the South Pacific nations ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Development is quite a difficult process for our region. There are various international reports (particularly from the World Bank) - that describe how we have fared over the last few years. If you compare our performance with the Caribbean countries, for example, you find that we have not done nearly so well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We face a number of problems. First, there is the fact that we are so small. Small communities find it much more difficult than large ones to achieve development. You need to have the market and the critical mass to do all the things that are needed and we lack these. A second, related point is that our countries are very isolated from the rest of the world. It is true that here in Fiji, there are quite good connections, but if you go to Tuvalu, Kiribati or Niue, you will soon discover how difficult it is to get out. And if you are so isolated in terms of communication, how can you hope to increase your exports ? How can you airfreight your fish to Japan when there is no aircraft available-or the one that is available is not fast enough to ensure that the product is still fresh when it arrives?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On this question, one of the things we are increasingly realising is the need to do more in terms of human resource development. We all recognise that, without an educated population and workforce, it is very hard to achieve the development that we are aiming for. To be fair, if you compare the literacy rates here with those of many other countries, say in Africa, they are not at all bad. Our literacy levels are quite high. But I think we have a long way to go in acquiring problem-solving skills of the type needed to compete internationally. We are now talking with the EU about how we can utilise funding from the second protocol of Lom&eacute; IV. And I suspect that human resource development will remain high on the agenda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is that view shared by the European side ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think so. l have a feeling that they will support it because it is so obvious. If you develop human skills, you are better placed when it comes to problem-solving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Going back to the key development issues, another point is the lack of natural resources. This is less of a difficulty for countries like Fiji or Papua New Guinea, but it certainly affects the small island states. It hardly needs saying that if you don't have the resources in the first place, it is much harder to develop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, I think there is a question of how the Pacific region can get a better return on the resources it does have. This theme of 'managing our resources' was discussed by the Forum in Brisbane two years ago. Fisheries is probably the most important area here. The question is how we can earn more from this than we are currently doing- and there is no easy answer. Likewise in the forestry sector. We have to ensure that logging is done on a sustainable basis. But we must also recognise that leaders of the Pacific nations are under pressure. On the one hand, they are trying to take a lona-term view. but they are also striving to tackle the immediate problems. In an ideal world, our region would obtain a far better return on our resources, and that is something that we have to work on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having said all this, I don't think one should be too pessimistic. This region is still a very good place to live in. That is clearly reflected in the number of visitors we get. The 'South Seas' still have a special connotation that draws people here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You effectively have two 'genera/' regional organisations, with overlapping memberships, covering the South Pacific -the Forum, and the South Pacifc Commission (SPC). Do you think there is room for bath ? Do you complement each other or is there a rivalry ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We have more than two regional organisations. We also have SPREP (South Pacifc Regional Environment Programme), the FFA (Forum Fisheries Agency)....</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but these are specialist bodies with distinct sectoral responsibilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, that's true. In answer to your question, my view is that we have no problem with things as they stand. I was very involved in the debate some years back on the question of what we called an SRO - a single regional organisation. There was a strong push to try and achieve an SRO. The subject was debated for a few years and, in the end, it was possible to resolve the question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mean it was resolved by the idea being abandoned ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I suppose it depends on the way you look at it. The outcome was a decision to leave the regional organisations as they are but with the establishment of a mechanism to ensure they work together more effectively. This mechanism is called SPOCC-the South Pacific Organisations Coordinating Committee. It is a meeting of heads of regional organisations which happens at least once a year. We talk about the issues that are common to our mandate and work out ways of doing things better. SPOCC has been operating for six or seven years now and I think it works fairly well. There is, after all, no conflict in our underlying objectives. So my answer here is no, I don't see any problem. I don't see any rivalry between us. It is a question of seeing how we can work together to achieve the goals that we share.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the European Union, the fundamental goal, set out in the Treaty, is to move towards 'ever-closer union' We have been doing this in fits and starts over the past 35 years. Do you see the Forum perhaps taking on a similar role here-as the focus for economic, and perhaps ultimately, political integration in the South Pacifc ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- I think it is too early to speculate. We already have a number of sub-groups in the region like the MSG, the Melanesian Spearhead Group, whose members are the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu and Fiji (admitted last year). Further north, we have the Micronesian grouping which brings together Nauru, Tuvalu, the Marshall Islands and Kiribati. These groups meet outside the Forum framework and they essentially have a common aim which is to work more closely together. I think they feel it is easier to do it at this level because they are closer to each other and have more in common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for the Forum Secretariat, you can never tell what may come in the future. On balance, however, I think at the moment that integration is a long way off. Having said this, you do sometimes hear people putting the idea forward. There is, for example, something called the CER system, which stands for 'closer economic relations' between Australia and New Zealand. There have been suggestions that it might be possible to enlarge this grouping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking at closer economic cooperation, and the general dismantling of trade barriers, we also need to recognise the growing importance of APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) for the region. We are trying strengthen our links with the APEC countries and in October, we will be establishing a trade office in Japan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mean a Forum Secretariat office ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, in Tokyo. We are also talking with the Chinese and will probably end up with an office in Beijing. This is all part of our attempt to integrate ourselves with the Asean region. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by Simon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mission statement of the Forum Secretariat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mission of the Forum Secretariat is to enhance the economic and social well being of the people of the South Pacific, in support of the efforts of the national governments. The Secretariat has particular responsibility to facilitate, develop and maintain cooperation and consultation between member governments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Secretariat must pursue its mission in accordance with the directives of the Forum and within its mandated areas of operation. it undertakes political and economic activities, regional in nature and complementary to the activities of the member governments. Its role requires it to act as the secretariat to the Forum and to disseminate the Forum's views, to coordinate activities with other regional institutions in particular through the SPOCC process, and to represent the Forum's interests intemationally, as required. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ACP</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Investment symposium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A success story for African mining</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The MIGA (Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency) symposium was held in Montreal from 22-24 May. It brought together some 40 African mining ministers, most of the important donor agencies and representatives of around 25 mining companies. MIGA, which is a specialised agency of the World Bank, promotes the flow of private investment to developing countries. It provides insurance against political risks and assists member countries in attracting foreign investment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The purpose of the symposium was to attract investors from all over the world in order to exploit the rich mining possibilities offered by many African states. Several of the countries that attended went to considerable effort to present themselves well, and it was evident that some are quickly learning what it takes to attract foreign investors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The climate for mining investment in most African states has improved tremendously over the last two to three years. Most countries have introduced new mining codes, clearly defining the rights and obligations of foreign investors. State-owned companies are also being privatised, taxation has been made more reasonable and institutions in the mining sector, such as geological surveys, are becoming more efficient.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this has led to a big increase in exploration for new deposits and a substantial increase in investment. At present, the activity is particularly heavy in West Africa, where many countries have very good gold potential. The European Community is contributing to this development in several ways. The biggest success so far has been the exploration campaign in Mali, funded under that country's Lom&eacute; National Indicative Programme (NIP), which led to the discovery of the Sadiola gold deposit. A world-class gold mine will be built here, bringing substantial benefits to the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank has also supported many African countries in their efforts to reform the legal and administrative framework for the mining industry. An important element, however, in attracting mining companies is the availability of good geological data. This is a very expensive activity, which does not bring immediate returns, if at all. So it is not appropriate to finance this through bank loans. The NlPs and SYSMIN Fund, on the other hand, are instruments that are well-suited to this kind of work. The Community has already financed a series of airborne geophysical surveys in Botswana and Namibia -to mention just two examples-and a new Sysmin project is currently being prepared for Burkina Faso.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission Unit responsible for Mining Cooperation and Sysmin (VIIIl.B.5) was represented at the symposium. Its main purpose for being there was to present the functioning of Sysmin and the Community's cooperation in the field of mining to ACP ministers, mining companies and other donor agencies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Current state of the mining sector</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mining sector is currently very active. Exploration in West Africa doubled between 1993 and 1995 and new mines are being opened all the time. A lot of this new activity is to be found in the gold sector. This is mainly due to the development of cheaper production methods combined with a much more positive investment climate in many African countries. A gold mine takes less time to reach the production stage than, for example, a copper mine, with the former being far less dependent on good infrastructure. Outside the gold sector, activity is much more subdued. While base-metal prices are at a reasonable level, the pay-back period is much longer and the lack of suitable infrastructure kills many projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For many countries, mining is a key area in the growth of the private sector. State-ownad mines are being privatised and the new mines that are being opened have little or no state participation. Foreign investors are bringing in the most up-to-date mining technologies and business methods, and they are faced with the need to train local people in technical and business skills. Supporting the mining sector is clearly an efficient way of supporting private sector development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SYSMIN's future role</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given that most metals are currently fetching quite high prices, it is probable that relatively few ACP countries will be eligible for SYSMIN assistance over the next two to three years. The viability of most existing mines is not thought to be under threat and they should continue to be profitable. Thus, countries that are heavily dependent on mining should not experience severe losses in export income, which in turn means that relatively few SYSMIN requests are expected during the period of Lom&eacute; IV's second financial protocol. At the same time, the financial allocation for SYSMIN has been increased from ECU 48Om to ECU 575m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When trying to attract new mining investors, it is essential for a country to have good geological information. Private companies are normally unwilling to undertake much general prospect ion, such as airborne geophysical surveys, because it is very expensive and, if they do, it is usually limited to very small areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, companies are tending to restrict their activities to areas for which general information is already available. These points were raised by several of the mining companies that attended the symposium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the present mining boom is not going to last for ever. Metal prices are volatile and, with the next downturn in the business cycle, a decline in metal prices will surely follow. So it is essential to prepare the basis for future mining activities by collecting general data. Given that a significant part of the SYSMIN allocation may remain unused because of a lack of requests, it would be worthwhile to consider whether a part could be reallocated to prepare general geological data for mining activities in the next century. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. B.-H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Joint Assembly to consider climate problem</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Hans van de Veen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Can the EU-ACP relationship be used to strengthen the dialogue between Europe and the main victims of climate change ? And can the Lom&eacute; Convention be one of the tools to promote climate protection measures, as well as the implementation of the Climate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Treaty? These questions will be considered in depth at a hearing on climate derange scheduled for the next ACP-EU Joint Assembly, to be held in the last week of September 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Periods of heavy rain have always been part of normal life in Fiji. But the latest rains were different, says counsellor Taina Tudau of the Fiji Embassy in Brussels. 'They were much more extreme than what we were used to, and caused heavy damage. Normally it took several days of heavy rain before the floods came up. This time, the water flooded the islands almost immediately the rain began to fall.' Mrs Tudau sees two main causes for the recent flooding. First, there is heavy deforestation on the islands, causing widespread erosion. But she is sure there was another reason for the recent damage: 'In the Pacific we know the local climate is changing. We see that the sea is rising. We are experiencing more extreme weather events. There can be no doubt that global warming is already going on.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji is a prominent member of the Alliance of Small Island States (Aosis), the group of 36 nations which feel particularly threatened by global warming. At the first Conference of Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, held in Berlin in March 1995, Aosis called for industrialised nations to reduce their C02 emissions by 20% by 2005 (based on 1990 levels). At the end of the conference, the 150 national delegations agreed to begin negotiations on targets for industrialised nations to cut emissions in the early years of the next century.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So intentions may be good, but in practice not much has been done yet. The EU, for its part, risks losing credibility if firm action is not taken soon. According to a recent Commission White Paper on energy policy, the use of energy within the Union will increase by 1% a year up to 2020. Failing 'any strong policy interventions', the paper says, emissions of carbon dioxide are likely to show a 'substantial increase' during this period. Says Fiji-counsellor Tudau: 'As small island states we know what's at stake, but there seems to be no feeling of urgency in the rest of the world. We really wonder how long it will take before there is a definite move towards reduction of greenhouse gases.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EU-ACP cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the Berlin conference, the ACP countries-led by Aosis but with support from most of the African states -took a constructive and moderate position in the G77. The position adopted by the EU could also be described as moderate, certainly compared to that of other OECD countries. Several observers have pointed to the fact that these two moderate approaches by important blocks within the Climate Convention negotiations offer possibilities for some form of cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'No doubt the EU represents the most progressive group of countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">within the OECD, although its position is far from sufficient', says Sible Schone, a representative of the World Wide Fund for Nature. 'Besides that, the EU has a special relationship with a large group of developing countries. Quite obviously it will be significant to get a dialogue started between the EU and the ACPs on the subject of climate change.' Currently, there is no such dialogue. 'At the moment we are not in a dialogue with ACP countries on climate change', says Bertil Heerink of the European Commission's Environment Directorate-General who is a member of the EU delegation to the climate negotiations. 'I'm convinced this will happen some day, but first we have to agree on our own goals and measures. I am sure developing countries want us to give priority to this too.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The special ACP subcommittee to deal with tropical timber, the environment and fisheries, formed after the signing of the revised Lom&eacute; IV, only recently started its work. With respect to the global warming issue, it is waiting for the Joint Assembly hearing, according to ambassador Michael King of Barbados, who is a committee member. 'The specific interests of the different regions have to be articulated there, and then some kind of sustained effort has to be initiated.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The unit for Sustainable Development and Natural Resources in the Development Directorate-General of the Commission (DG VIII) not at present dealing with the subject of climate change. Says Head of Unit, Amos Tincani: 'We have worked on biodiversity and desertification, and we want to do more on the specific environmental problems of small island states. But we have done nothing similar on climate change. This is partly because it is so much a global problem, but the main reason is we simply lack the people and the time to go into it.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assembly hearing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At its meeting in Windhoek in March this year, the Joint Assembly adopted a resolution which had been proposed by representatives of 13 small island states. This urged the EU to take the lead in combating climate change and the adverse effects thereof. More specifically, the Commission is being asked to update its climate change strategy for the period post-2000 and to achieve significant reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases over the coming decade and thereafter. The resolution riches on to call for extra assistance to ACP countries in the Caribbean, Pacific and Indian Ocean to help them improve their disaster preparedness. The Commission is also urged to accelerate the transfer of appropriate technologies and practices, to enable ACP states to develop coastal zone management strategies and to rehabilitate and protect areas stricken by drought and desertification as well as by hurricanes and floods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two representatives of the European Parliament, Maartje van Putter (PES) and Peter Liege (EPP), have been active on the situation of the small island states and climate change for several years. According to Mrs Van Putten, the main effect of the coming Assembly hearing should be to put extra pressure on the Commission to take its responsibility seriously. 'Talking about climate change,' she says, 'one should never forget who is to blame and who, therefore, must take decisive action. A European tax on energy or carbon dioxide would be an important first step, but no more than that.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides influencing the Commission's energy policy, Mrs Van Putten hopes the Assembly hearing will raise public awareness on the climate problem in those ACP countries which are not in the 'small island' category. 'If you are talking about rising sea levels, the African states with low-lying coastal zones face the same problems as the small island countries,' she points out. 'And they also face the problem of desertification and declining food production.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Integrating the climate dimension</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a recent briefing paperto the Commission, the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) concluded that, hitherto, the aid community (including the EU) had not incorporated measures on global warming into their strategic thinking on sustainable development. 'Indeed, the possibility of climate change has been considered of minor importance in comparison to other environmental concerns.' This is hardly surprising, says the London-based institute, as the climate issue has only recently been placed on the international agenda. Moreover, the long-term threat of global warming raises some difficult questions regarding priorities in circumstances where resources are limited. In other words: who wants to spend scarce funds on problems the full effects of which will probably not be felt for another 25 to 50 years? The best way forward, suggests the IIED, is to tackle the apparent conflict between shortterm development priorities and longterm climate protection, by 'integrating the climate dimension' rather than considering climate change as an issue in isolation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Technology transfer could be a central point, according to WWF's Sible Schone. 'Developing countries see technology transfer as a central theme in the Climate Convention, but the industrialised countries don't give enough weight to these There are a lot of paragraphs about technology transfer in the Convention as well as in Lom&eacute;. Now it's time to fill in these commitments.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strangely, there are hardly any Lom&eacute; projects currently under way in the field of energy efficiency. It is strange because experts have pointed to the large potential in developing countries for cost-effective energy improvement and energy conservation. Improved management could save at least 25% of the energy now being consumed. Quick realisation of this potential would significantly contribute to alleviating environmental &agrave;nd development problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Henri Martin, energy specialist in DG VIII, agrees a lot more could be done in this field, but he points out: 'We are dependent on requests. If you look at the wording of the Convention, everything has already been said. There are chapters on energy and technology transfer. The problem is that we don't get enough signals back from the ACP countries that these items are a priority for them. I'm afraid sustainable energy or energy efficiency is not high on the agenda of most countries.' Taina Tudau disagrees strongly: 'Our experience is that the projects that could make a difference and contribute to sustainable development, protection of the environment and local sustainable energy production, are found to be too small. It is the donor that sets the conditions for the projects, not us, the small island states.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New funding?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Can the EU build a credible policy linking climate and development cooperation, without reserving extra money? Not surprisingly, there is disagreement on this question. In Brussels, officials are inclined to point to possibilities that are already there but not being used. Amos Tincani, for instance, observes that 'there are budgets for this kind of problem under Lom&eacute;. We have provisions specially targeted for the islands'. He mentions regional budgets in particular: 'A lot can be started at the regional level which then trickles down to the national level. But after producing fine resolutions, everybody seems to forget the work still needs to be done. The idea is: 'oh yes, we can do it, provided it is with fresh money'. We say: a lot more can be done with existing budgets and instruments.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maartje van Putten, from the Parliament, says the discussion should not be 'dominated by southern demands for additional money'. She agrees that ACP countries could make better use of existing funds and possibilities, such as, for instance, the funds for intra ACP cooperation. But counsellor Tudau points to the fact that the Climate Convention urges industrialised countries to support the response of developing countries to climate problems through 'new and additional' money, besides the transfer of environmentally sound technologies and expertise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a financial mechanism built into the Climate Convention, which is administered by the Global Environmental Facility, to cover additional costs of appropriate measures. But much more could be done by the aid community, including the EU, according to Mrs Tudau. 'Most European countries will not succeed in stabilising, let alone reducing, their emissions. In reaction to this, as ACP countries we should say: European Union, you are not fulfilling your obligations. You have to try harder and you have to set extra money aside to compensate for the damage this is doing to us. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.v.d.V.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ACP-EU Council in Apia</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were no real surprises or unexpected developments at the ACP-EU Council meeting which took place in Apia, Western Samoa, on 27 and 28 June, 1996. The session was preceded by an ACP Council, which saw the adoption of three important decisions. The first of these was the appointment of a new ACP Secretary-6eneral, Mr Ng'andu P. Magande of Zambia. The post had been vacant for some time, following deadlock within the ACP Group over a successor to Berhane Ghebray (see issue 155 of The Courier, p.6). The ministers also agreed to hold a summit of ACP heads of government in Libreville, Gabon, during the second half of 1997. This meeting is expected to focus heavily on the future of ACPEU relations once the present Lom&eacute; Convention has expired.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the substantive area, the ACP Council adopted a resolution deploring the suspension of cooperation with Equatorial Guinea. Ministers urged the European Union to make use of the procedure in Article 366a of the revised Lom&eacute; Convention, and to set in train the consultation procedure envisaged in this provision.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This issue was raised again by the ACP side at the subsequent ACP-EU Council. This meeting, which was presided over by Mrs Toya (Italian Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs) and Mr Syamujaye (Zambia's Trade Minister) had a relatively light agenda. There was a discussion about the Commission proposal for a directive on the use of vegetable fats, other than cocoa fat, in chocolate (see issue 158 of The Courier, p.35). Somalia also featured in the debate, with representatives agreeing on the need to find ways of allowing this country to benefit from Lom&eacute; Convention provisions. The civil conflict in Somalia, and the absence of an effective central administration have prevented the deployment of regular development aid for many years, although significant amounts of emergency assistance have been and are still being provided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, the ACP-EU Council approved two reports drawn up by the development finance cooperation subcommittee and commodities sub-committee respectively. Representatives were able to reach a compromise on two outstanding points of contention in the resolution on development finance relating to tenders and the dissemination of the user's guide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note was taken of the number of countries that have so far lodged instruments of ratification for the revisad Lom&eacute; Convention (Mauritius agreement). At the time of the Apia meeting, only nine countries had ratified: seven on the ACP side (Barbados, Dominica, Equatorial Guinea, Jamaica, Malawi, Mauritius and Solomon Islands) and two EU Member States (Denmark and Sweden). Appeals were made for the contracting parties to speed up their ratification procedures so that the Eighth European Development Fund can come on stream as speedily as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The next ACP-EU Council meeting will take place in Luxembourg on 24 and 25 April 1997.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Western Samoa deserves a special mention for the warmth of their hospitality and the efficient way in which they organised the Council meeting. Delegates from all sides were keen to express their appreciation of the host country's efforts, which ensured the smooth running of the various meetings and gave the visitors a real taste of this Pacific country's unique culture. ed. S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New ACP Secretary-General</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ng`andu Peter Magande, is no stranger to the challenge of development at the grassroots. The new Secretary-General of the ACP Group, who was born in 1947, began his working career as a provincial development officer, planning and supervising projects in the Southern Province of his native Zambia. He is an economics graduate of the University of Zambia and also holds a master's degree in agricultural economics from Makerere university, Uganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From working in the field, he moved into government administration, rising to the position of Permanent Secretary-a post which he held in a number of ministries. Since the mid-1980s, he has had key jobs in a number of Zambian enterprises (including Managing Director of the Zambia National Commercial Bank) His most recent work has been on a project to develop private sector participation in agricultural input and produce marketing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Kenya's economy in the 1990s</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Elisabeth Pape</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya has enjoyed rare political stability since independence in 1963. It is one of the most famous holiday destinations in Africa, with abundant wildlife, fine beaches and stunning scenery. But despite having the most advanced economy in East Africa, it is still one of the world's poorest countries. Over 11 million Kenyans live below the poverty line. But better times may be ahead. The Government has embarked on an ambitious reform programme which promises to lay the foundations for strong growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The early 1990s marked the worst time in Kenyan history, in economic development terms. Real GDP growth dropped from 4.3% in 1990 to 2.1% in 1991 and was almost zero in 1992 and 1993. This poor performance was due to drought, structural rigidities, lack of monetary discipline, non-enforcement of banking regulations, and reduced donor assistance. While Kenya was used to receiving substantial foreign aid inflows, the present decade began with growing tensions between Government and donors. In the new post-Cold War atmosphere, the latter wanted to see political and economic reforms, and in November 1991 they decided to halt guick-disbursing aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Multi-party elections in December 1992 did not immediately restore relations with the donors, in particular as they were accompanied by a lack of fiscal and monetary discipline whose effects threatened economic ruin. Monetary expansion was fuelled, among other things, by discretionary exemptions to Banking Act provisions, which enabled over-borrowing by certain 'political' banks from the Central Bank. In early 1993, things came to a head. Foreign currency reserves were down to just a few weeks of imports, the banking system was on the verge of collapse, and consumer prices had shot up. Against this background, the Government went for a comprehensive, IMF-supported structural adjustment programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of far-reaching reforms were implemented with unprecedented speed. Exchange restrictions were removed, import licensing was ended, import procedures were made easier and tariffs were reduced. The export license requirement was also lifted and price controls were abolished. In March 1993, the Central Bank (CBK) began to tighten monetary policy. By issuing large amounts of treasury bills, it soaked up most of the excess liquidity which had been injected the previous year. There was also stricter bank supervision and a number of weak financial institutions were closed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Structural reforms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Government began structural reforms aimed at reducing its own role in the economy in favour of the private sector. The privatisation programme, begun in 1991, was accelerated. By the end of 1995, the authorities had divested more than half of the 211 non-strategic parastatals-though critics complained the process often lacked transparency. The Government also substantially reduced its fiscal deficit through, above all, an improved revenue policy. The deficit fell from 11.4% of GDP in 1992/93 to 2.5% in 1994/95. The number of civil servants was reduced, mainly through voluntary early retirement, so that, by the end of 1995, the service had been trimmed by more than 30 000 (10% of the payroll).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1995, the reform programme lost momentum as proponents of the old and the new systems locked horns. Vested interests stood in the way of more radical reforms. Temporary import bans on maize and sugar were reimposed, key parastatal reforms were delayed and expensive but economically dubious projects were approved outside normal budgetary procedures. These included an international airport in Eldoret, a presidential jet and an identity card project. These further delayed the resumption of balance of payments support by the Bretton Woods Institutions and contributed to the frustration of efforts to improve relations with donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The economic crisis peaked in early 1993 and the shilling was sharply devalued. The official rate went from about KSh 36 to the dollar at the end of 1992 to KSh 60 in April 1993. On the market, the currency was being traded at a premium of more than 30% and that continued until July-i.e. about two months after the removal of exchange restrictions. The market premium then started to decline and the two rates converged in mid-October when the shilling stood at 69 to the dollar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The high interest rate on treasury bills under the liberalised foreign exchange regime was the main reason behind strong currency inflows which began in October 1993. Other factors, whose exact impact is difficult to gauge, included capital flight from neighbouring crisis-torn countries, the international money laundering one normally finds in places with newly liberalised foreign exchange regimes, and a surplus in the current account position. The shilling then started to rise, despite the CBK's massive currency purchases which led to a build up of reserves to the equivalent of six months of imports. The appreciation continued up to October 1994: indeed, at one point, the shilling reached a high of 35 to the dollar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That was the turning point. Strong import demand, fuelled in particular by a surge in oil imports in the wake of petroleum market liberalisation, and an outflow of portfolio investments due to lower interest rates, weakened the currency. By mid-1995, after two sharp falls, it reached a rate of 56 to the dollar. Since then, it has been relatively stable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic recovery</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Real GDP grew by 3% in 1994 and an estimated 5% in 1995. Good weather certainly helped, but the economy also benefited from the Government's reforms. Agriculture, the mainstay, grew by 2.8% in 1994 and by more than 5% in 1995. This compares with negative growth rates in 1992-93, when the sector was hard hit by bad weather. Elsewhere, the trends were more mixed. Many producers for the local market were affected by trade liberalisation and, in 1994, by the strong shilling. The former created a highly competitive environment almost overnight-after years of cosy protectionism. For cloth manufacturers, the liberalisation of imports of second-hand clothing further aggravated the problem. In 1994, the clothing sector's output dropped 35%. Tourism, the main foreign exchange earner, fared quite well in volume terms in 1994 despite the strong shilling. But while turnover may have gone up, it is likely that many operators did not earn enough extra to cover their increased local currency costs. In 1995, visitor arrivals fell by 20% to the lowest figure since 1988. In consequence, tourism earnings fell by a quarter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As intended, liberalisation led to higher trade volumes. In 1994, exports ( + 16%) rose by more than imports ( + 13%) in value terms, but the position was reversed in 1995 when the latter jumped by 35% while the former were 14% lower. One good sign was that the highest import growth was in industrial supplies and machinery (60% up) but the fact that the deficit almost doubled to reach record levels was obviously a cause for concern.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major revolution has also taken place in trade flows. In 1994, for the first time, Uganda overtook the UK as the biggest importer of Kenyan goods. In the same year, the value of Kenya's exports to African countries moved ahead of its combined exports to Europe and North America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During 1994, the Nairobi Stock Exchange proved to be one of the worid's best-performing stock markets, the value of shares rising by 80%.1995 was disappointing, however. Although foreigners were allowed to invest for the first time, the index nonetheless fell by 25%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fighting inflation has been the CBK's main objective since 1993 and a tight monetary policy has brought the problem under control. Inflation dropped from 46% in 1993 to 29% in 1994 and to below 2% in 1995. Recently, however, an upward trend has bean observed. This follows a money supply increase far in excess of the expansion of economic activity, and is mainly due to a substitution of treasury bills for borrowing from the Central Bank since the end of 1994. If inflation is to remain within the 5% target for 1996-which already seemed highly unlikely by the middle of the year - the trend needs to be speedily reversed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially, the main way of mopping up excess liquidity was through the sale of treasury bills. When the sales began in March 1993, there was a huge liquidity overhang and high interest rates had to be offered to take money out of the market quickly. The rate earned on 90-day bills-which became the lead interest rate in the economy- rose from 17% to 80% between March and July 1993. It then declined steadily, reaching 18% at the end of 1994. This prompted an outflow of short-term capital, leading to currency depreciation and lower foreign reserves. Since mid 1995, treasury bill rates have been back above 20% and this seems to have stabilised the foreign exchange situation. It is generally believed that the high prevailing real interest rates are a major obstacle to investment and economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interest on domestic debt is still a big item in the state budget, although, the situation is much improved, thanks to the reduction in the stock of treasury bills and lower interest rates. In fiscal year 1993/94, interest payments on domestic debt alone swallowed one third of total gavernnnent expenditure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agriculture sector employs 70% of the total labour force and generates more than a quarter of Kenya's GDP. Much of industry is linked to agricultural processing, and tea, coffee and horticultural products are Kenya's major foreign exchange earners after tourism. The marketing of key farm products is dominated by large parastatals and cooperatives which are often run like parastatals. Most marketing organisations have been hard hit by the liberalisation, which brought both inefficiency and corruption to light. Tea growers have complained about improprieties at the Kenya Tea Development Authority. Imported sugar flooded the local market, often without paying import duties, leaving the mills with huge stocks. This, in turn, created severe cash flow problems. Most sugar farmers have not been paid for months. Kenya Cooperative Creameries was not able to pay farmers for milk deliveries for up to half a year, and could only start servicing the arrears when the Government came to its rescue with KSh 800 million in January 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Formidable challenges</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya's labour force, around 12.5 million in 1996, is growing at more than 4% a year. This means that at least half a million people enter the job market annually. The challenge of absorbing the new workers is formidable. Studies show that any strategy to deal with this must be based on three pillars: smallholder agriculture (to absorb most of the growth in the rural labour force), continuing substantial job creation in the informal sector, and high real GDP growth (+8% per year is needed to ensure that the modem sector absorbs a significant number of workers).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Informal sector employment has risen rapidly (up by 15-20% a year since 1991). By 1994, for the first time, there were more people working here than in the modern economy. The informal sector covers semi-organised and unregulated activities largely under taken by self-employed people or employers with just a few workers. Typically, they do not comply fully with tax, registration, and licensing rules, and this sometimes leads to conflict with the authorities. Workers are often paid below the minimum wage and have no social security. For many, the informal sector is, therefore, an 'employer' of last resort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is estimated that almost 50% of rural people and 30% of urban residents live in absolute poverty- unable to meet their minimum requirements for food and essential non-food items. While the percentage has remained fairly stable in recent decades, the increase in the number of 'absolute' poor is alarming. So too is the extent of the poverty: the gap between these people's minimum needs and their actual disposable income has reportedly increased over the last ten years. The bulk of the poor live in the central and western parts of the country, which have the best agricultural potential, the rich soils having always attracted settlers. For decades there was enough land to go around, but demographic trends have finally started to take their toll. The size of landholding has declined continuously, in many cases reaching levels which are no longer capable of sustaining a family.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There has been some progress in restructuring parastatals, but much remains to be done. The performance of key parastatals has been unsatisfactory by international standards and this has constrained growth. At Mombasa port, which is managed by the Kenya Ports Authority, handling charges are 50% higher than the global average, while container turnover is three times slower. Rail transport is unreliable, slow and more expensive than road haulage. The Kenya Power and Lighting Company has a shortage of generating capacity which means periodic power cuts. And intervention in the maize market by the National Cereals and Produce Board- at above-market prices-has prevented private sector involvement as well as placing a heavy burden on government finances. The Board has posted annual operating losses of between KSh 1.8bn and KSh 2.5bn each fiscal year since 1992/93.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corruption, misuse of funds, and the politics of patronage remain endemic and these clearly distort development. Elimination of corruption has been an aim of most reform programmes but it seems that the effect so far has only been to change its form. Trade liberalisation has killed cash cows such as import and foreign exchange licences, and the commercialisation of parastatals has stopped them from doing deals with cronies which were profitable only for the latter. But other forms of non-acceptable wealth accumulation have emerged. In the early 1990s, alleged exports of gold and diamonds are thought to have resulted in a loss of KSh 7 billion of public funds. Land grabbing has also become widespread. This either involves land being sold to individuals or companies with well-established political connections at well below market prices, or the purchase of land by public institutions from the same individuals or companies at inflated prices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After delays because of political differences, cooperation between the three states of the former East African Community (Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya) was revived in early 1996. The EAC Secretariat, based in Arusha, is headed by a Kenyan, Francis Muthaura, a former ambassador in Brussels. For the three countries, the new cooperation aims at facilitating movements of people, capital and trade within the region, and harmonisation of external tariffs and investment regulations. Currencies will be fully convertible. This revived cooperation is expected to have a major growth impact. The Nairobi Stock Exchange is currently assisting Kampala and Dar es Salaam to set up their own exchanges. And the NSE Chairman, Jimnah Mbaru, sees the future not only in a cross-listing of companies in the three places, but in a regional stock exchange.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy framework</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Policy Framework Paper (PFP) for 1996-1998, which was published in February ahead of the donors' Consultative Group (CG) Meeting, was highly applauded for both its content and form. The programme, which the media has dubbed 'the big push', promises finally to crack most of the 'hard nuts' of previous reform agendas, in particular in the parastatal and public sector. It also lays down measures aimed at supporting fiscal and monetary discipline through the next elections. These include cutting the budget deficit to 1.5 % of GDP by 1997/98, a tight monetary policy, and more autonomy for the Central Bank. In addition, it tackles some areas'that have emerged as avenues of corruption in recent years, such as the National Social Security Fund. While previous PFPs were highly confidential, this one was published, and the President appointed a Commission chaired by himself to oversee its implementation. These are seen as important steps in bridging the credibility gap which threatened to open up again in 1995. Donors are prepared to support the reform agenda and are eager to see it implemented speedily. Shortly after the positive outcome of the CG meeting, the IMF approved a three-year Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility programme for a total of $220m. The World Bank is expected to follow suit with a credit of $85m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An increasing number of donors, however, have pointed to the link between democratic governance/ human rights issues on the one hand, and aid and investment flows on the other. If Kenya is to meet its ambitious targets and turn into a newly-industrialising country by 2010, foreign inflows will be vital. The point was succinctly put by a delegate to the CG meeting. 'If its (the Government's) economic successes are matched by a commitment to democracy and human rights, Kenya may yet prove that surging economic growth is not just for Asian tigers, but for African lions, too.' The period leading up to the next general election will be the acid test. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.P. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Country report</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Mali : An omnipresent sense of history</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some countries have a strong folk memory. Despite its size, Mali appears hemmed in by its frontiers. For more than a thousand years, this state was a splendid empire, constantly spreading outward and reflecting the history of the African continent with its conquests and alliances, reversals of fortune and moments of glory. At its height, it extended from the Atlantic to the Sudanese border, from the south of Morocco to the north of Nigeria. Mali's history rests in the minds of its people rather than in any structures inherited from the past. This acts as an antidote to the 'amnesia' often brought on by colonisation, which has the effect of paralysing the future. Although poor, the country has a well-established sense of its place in the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A racial melting pot</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">`</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the eve of colonisation, Mali was known es 'west Sudan'. In 1924, the territory then known as 'French Sudan' was split up and small portions of the Malian nation were incorporated into the seven states bordering it-a move certainly not calculated to have a cohesive effect on the remnants of the old empire. Mali has long been a melting pot of races, ethnic groups and cultures. They have learned to live together- intermingling, sometimes forming unexpected alliances, and occasionally fighting one another. The result today is a potpourri where true racial or ethnic confrontation is difficult to imagine. The interplay of history and the mixing of ethnic groups, families and individuals, has created what one intellectual de scribed to us as 'the anti Rwanda vaccine'. Historical mythology offers, perhaps, further evidence of the fusion of cultures in this country. As in ancient Greece or Rome, to take European examples, each ethnic group and each Malian empire, was 'backed' by a host of gods, spirits and totems. In this nebulous world, where dreams beget history and where vastly differing ethnic groups can trace themselves back to a common ancestor, the result was a multiplicity of interrelationships. Under various names, the python totem belongs to many different peoples, including the Peal, Ma/inke and Sarakolle. A study of the migrations of the peoples who make up Mali also reveals a great many relationships - for example, between the Dogon, who are black, and the Shongoi; who are more half-caste. They regard one another as cousins, originating from Aswan in Egypt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malians appear to share a genuine sense of belonging in keeping with their shared culture. The 'people' of Mali came into being long before the state of the same name. The guerilla war fought in recent years by the Tuaregs (this is the English plural, Tuareg already being the plural form of Targul) against the Malian army, is often viewed abroad as a struggle between whites (or Arabs) and blacks. But this is an illusion. Although the Tuaregs are probably the only 'white' minority in the country, they are an integral ingredient in the melting pot. They are also known as 'Kel-Tamasheq' - those who speak Tamashek, which was originally the language of their Bella slaves. Like all the country's ethnic groups, they have dominated and have in turn been dominated. They have forged alliances with one another, and, more commonly, have united against Arab or Berber invasions. The relative absence of bitterness overall is probably due to the fact that each of Mali's peoples has had its era of glory and imperial dominance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali is lucky to have such knowledge of its history. For centuries, the most precise details have been collected by the griots. The same role has also been played by the many secret societies which have initiation periods lasting, in some cases, up to 50 years. They were, and sometimes still are, repositories for the secrets of history, magic, astrology and science, and also for the symbols of power-the religious objects and artefacts of the former emperors. There are written sources as well, something which is quite rare in Africa. These have been transcribed since the beginning of the millennium and, in recent decades, close collaboration between historians, griots and members of traditional societies has enabled a deeper knowledge to be gained of Mali's history.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A rich empire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asselar Man, discovered near Timbuktu in the centre of Mali, was a contemporary of Cro Magnon Man. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cave paintings from five thousand B.C. reveal similarities with those in Egypt and are probably the work of migrant populations from the east, who moved into Mali as the Sahara Desert expanded. Less reliable sources state that interbred populations of Jews and Egyptians under the command of an officer of the Pharaoh Dinga created the Soninke dynasty (originating from Aswan). These people probably laid the found ations of the first great Malian empire, that of Ouagadou. Other sources, equally unreliable, report that they were probably Judaeo-Syrians who arrived at the end of the third century A.D. and found a population already in place. What is more or less certain is that, during the first millennium, a Soninke dynasty was installed around the current frontier between Mauritania and Mali and that 40 princes ruled it in succession in the period prior to 750 A.D. Initially, these rulers were white but, with increasing intermarriage, their skins became darker and darker. To Arab chroniclers, Mali came to be known as Bafour or Bilad es-Soudan (the country of the blacks). At the beginning of the second millennium, the Ouagadou empire held sway over several kingdoms in the south, including the Nigerian delta and a number of Berber principalities. Documents dating from this period have replaced the name Ouagadou with that of Ghana, by analogy, perhaps, with the emperor's title. The empire was already very rich, the richest in the world according to an Arab chronicler who visited it in 970. A work by the writer A/ Bakri, which appeared a century later (1087) went into great detail about the empire's organisation-the system of matrilinear succession, the role of councils of dignitaries, and the capital, Koumbi (whose foundations were discovered in 1914 in southern Mauritania). This city was divided into two districts, one of these being the sacred, imperial city, home to the empire's python totem to which a young girl was sacrificed every year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A story of courage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The killing of the snake totem is the most significant myths in the country's history. The hero of the story is Amadou Sefedokete whose love for his beautiful fiancee Sia (who was about to be offered in sacrifice), prompted him to descend into the monster's lair and confront it. By killing the totem, he broke the thread of countless generations before him, who had carried out the ritual sacrifice. He is still remembered for this magnificent action, based on love and a sense of nobility, and he remains a subject for artists of all types. His brave action still causes young lovers in Africa to shudder in admiration. However, this act of deicide brought about a reversal of fortunes. The monster's seven heads, which the young hero is said to have cut off one after the other, are reputed to have been scattered to the four comers of the earth, thereby dispersing the empire's riches and leaving it penniless. The true story is more prosaic. Ghana's wealth was eyed greedily by the Arabs and Berbers who had long traded with it. The empire's resistance in the face of Islam gave Moroccan religious fanatics a pretext for organising a jihad. It was invaded by an army of 30000 devotees supported by forces from some of the empire's black vassal states. The 'holy war' began in 1042 ending 34 years later with the occupation of Koumbi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The occupation did not last long but was followed by internal clan wars which brought about the end of an era. Restoration came about at the end of the 72th century , in the small Sosso kingdom, south of Ouagadou (also set up by a small group of Sonink&eacute;). One of the minor kings called Soumangourou Diarasso dreamed of recreating Ghana's empire, and, in 1203, he succeeded in sacking the ancient capital of Koumbi in a move designed to establish his own dynasty. This was an important symbolic act and in the fierce war which followed, Soumangourou subjugated Mand&eacute;, a region which was overflowing with wealth. One of Africa's greatest heroes, Soundjata, rose up against him. He was supposedly the legitimate heir to the Mandingo throne, but was unable to walk, having been born an invalid of a deformed mother who had been married at the recommendation of the king's sorcerer. His young half-brother took his place on the throne and sent the paralysed prince into exile. At the age of 18, Soundjata decided to seize his own place in history and a 'giant' was thus bom. In 1235, his army fought that of the bloodthirsty Sosso monarch whom he himself is said to have cut down in an extraordinary battle. It was a fight which, according to the legends, saw the use of all types of weapon, including magic. Soundjata had forged a grand alliance in order to gain victory. Rather than reducing to vassalage the small kingdoms which had allied themselves with him, the new emperor decided to form them into a federation-although he wisely declared that from Niani (his capital), 'I shall see all'. His empire took the name of 'Mali' (the hippopotamus) on account of that animal's strength and mastery of bath water and land. For 20 years, the empire was to stretch as far as the Atlantic Ocean. Its structure, based on a number of warrior clans, craftsmen, freemen and marabous, is still characteristic of Mali and neighbouring countries today. The empire was rich in gold once again but also in terms of agricultural organisation with the development of cotton and groundout farming. Soundjata disappeared mysteriously in 1255, leaving a prosperous empire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Conquest' of America?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1285, there was a struggle for succession between two princes and a third, Prince Sakoura (a freed slave), took advantage of the quarrel to take power for himself. Sakoura expanded the empire by subjugating the Timbuktu Tuaregs and the Gao Shongoi: After his short reign, a genuine heir of Soundjata, Aboubakar II, ascended the throne. He had his eye on conquests over the seas and, according to the story, he set sail westwards leading a fleet of 2000 vessels. He was never seen again. However, recent studies favour the hypothesis that he was not lost at sea as had always been supposed' but did, in fact, reach the Americas. A series of ineffective monarchs succeeded this 'conqueror of the impossible', who preceded Christopher Columbus by 200 years, leaving little real impression on history other than the records of their exuberant behaviour. One of them, for example, went on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 with a reported retinue of 60 000 and distributed considerable amounts of gold to all the dignitaries he encountered in that holy place. These kings, however, are acknowledged as having preserved the empire's unity, guaranteeing order without repression and allowing wide religious, moral and sexual tolerance, even for married women. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kingdom centred on Gao dates back to at least the first millennium but it was usually a vassal of the Ouagadou empire and of Mali. One of its kings, Sonny Ali Ber (known as Sonny the Great), came to the throne in 1464, profiting from the decay of the Mali empire. His reign was marked by a bitter struggle against the Ul&eacute;mas of Timbuktu who, over a period of four centuries following the Almoravid conquest, had converted a large portion of the empire to Islam. The circumstances of Sonny's disappearance are uncertain, but he is thought to have drowned in 1492, the year when a certain Genoese navigator was to achieve the ancient goal of 'discovering' the Malian empire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sonny Ber's successor did not last long in the face of Islamic expansion. The new Askia dynasty was installed to lead the Shongoi empire, and this expanded with the annexation of Dahomey and part of Nigeria. However, a small part of the former Mali empire never passed under their rule. The Askia dynasty blew hot and cold in terms of religious fervour. Tyrannical at first, it later took a softer line. Under the reign of one monarch, the Gao court based in the university city of Timbuktu became a place of exceptional refinement-only to slide once again into a state of intolerance. One of the Askias, having destroyed the last symbols of the former Mali empire, the city of Niani, set upon his former Moroccan allies. Another emperor, Askia Daoud (1549-1582), turned out to be a fine administrator. He developed agriculture and set up a genuine bank in Gaol War with Morocco continued throughout his reign and beyond. In 1584, imperial force defeated 20 000 Moroccan soldiers, winning a victory which might have been decisive had it not been for internal dissent. This weakened the Askia side and enabled Morocco, with a band of Spanish mercenaries, to take over the empire, following a battle in April 1591. Success was due, above all on this occasion, to the firearms deployed by the winning side. Such weapons were unknown to the 45 000 Malian cavalry and infantry who were engaged. It also turned out to be a Pyrrhic victory. The occupying troops sent the great scholars from Timbuktu University to Morocco, where their peers took up their cause. Moreover, the foreign soldiers were won over by the easy life in Mali-and one of the first results of their presence was a big increase in the half-caste population. In 1612, the troops rejected the Moroccan command: the occupation was at an end and the last few Moroccans were later expelled from Timbuktu by the Tuaregs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black religious proselytism and colonisation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To each dog his day. In the 17th century, the Bambaras set up an empire around Segou, but the debauched lifestyle of several of the sovereigns and disapproval of the part they played in the slave trade proved to be their downfall. Once again, the history of the country was to be shaped by a slave- Ngolo Diarra-who founded his dynasty in 1766. He was able to restore a degree of prestige to the kingdom, but his efforts were undermined after his death. As a reaction, a proselytising Black Islam then began to evolve.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Massina became a theocratic state around the beginning of the 19th century, in common with other kingdoms which appeared at the same time. One of their most famous rulers, the conqueror El Hadj Oumar, was defeated by the troops of the French General Faidherbe who forced him to give up West Senegal. The days of Malian independence were now numbered. The courage of his successor only delayed the progress of French colonisation, which finally prevailed at the end of the century.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resistance fighters carried on the war from other points in the old empire, particularly from what is now Guinea. The country was dismantled by the colonial system and pacified, but the end of the Second World War and the return of African soldiers brought a renewed desire for independence. French Sudan became the rallying point for freedom fighters in the French colonies-the old dream of reunification was not dead and buried. In 1946, the Rassemblement Democratique Africain was set up, later to become the USRDA (Union soudanaise-Rassemblement democratique africain). In 1956, the future architect of Mali's independence, Modibo Keita, was appointed leader of the movement and elected to represent the 'Sudan' in the French Assembly. A 'Malian Federation' project was drawn up to include Dahomey (Benin), Upper Volta (Burkina Faso), Senegal and 'Sudan' (Mali). A constituent assembly of independence movement representatives was set up in 1959. However, the constitution adopted by the local Malian and Senegalese assemblies was rejected by the other two. The Federation now had only two members but was nonetheless proclaimed independent on 20 June 1960. In the event, the spirit of unity was lacking and, on the pretext of a rivalry between the two leaders (the 'Sudanese' Modibo Keita and the Senegalese Mamadou Dia), Senegal withdrew from the union in August. On 22 September 1960, the 'Sudan', now without an outlet to the sea, adopted one of the most prestigious names in its history: Mali.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new state was landlocked not only geographically but also, very soon, politically. Modibo Keita's socialist agenda prompted foreign investors to pull out, and the country was organised increasingly as a 'people's democracy'. Fortunately, the repression was not excessive but a sizeable proportion of the population disapproved of the system that had been chosen. Mali and Guinea still had modest aspirations to their old dream of unification. The founder of the Republic, Modibo Keita, was overthrown by a military coup on 19 November 1968. More than the break-up by colonisation, which left dreams of Sudan being reconstituted, this military putsch sounded the knell of the old empire. Mali became just another state whose colonial and post-colonial eras have been marked by a lack of success. Nevertheless, a sense of history is still omnipresent. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goueier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Three republics to create one democracy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is just something you have to get used to-in French-speaking Africa, virtually all countries have imitated France in assigning a number to each republic formed under a new constitution. At the time of its independence on 20 June 1960, Mali was a federation of two states; Senegal and the former 'French Sudan'. It was an alliance which failed after only a few weeks'existence end 'French Sudan' then adopted one of its most prestigious former names- Mali. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first regime, under Modibo Keita, became increasingly unpopular as its form of 'tropical' marxism caused it to become more and more isolated. One of its main shortcomings was its unrealistic five-year plans, none of which were ever implemented. Discontent became rife among various social groups. including the farmers who, opposed collectivisation and were adept at passive resistance which they employed to disrupt the supply of produce. The regime also modelled itself on the so-called 'people's democracies' in certain respects. For instance, it made a determined effort to improve education, health and social justice, while refraining from the more dictatorial excesses that often characterised such systems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially welcomed by some sections of the population, the November 1968 putsch, by Lieutenant Moussa Traore quickly fumed into dictatorship although it was to be more than 10 years before there were any significant anti-government protests. At the end of 1990, opponents of the regime openly set up organisations which claimed opposition-party status. One of these was ADEMA (the Alliance for Democracy in Mali), formed by the current President of the Republic, Alpha Oumar Konare. Marches calling for a multi-party state attracted the support of tens of thousands of people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The dictator then sought to neutralise the opposition, beginning with the Tuaregs in the north who had been waging a guerilla war. This conflict was viewed by many as the 'front line' in the people's struggle against dictatorship, and the Tuareg cause was supported by opposition movements. The government, which had for some time opted for 'soft' repression, now revealed its claws and in January 1991 it began to imprison student leaders. The streets were filled with armoured vehicles and the first death amongst the students brought condemnation. Repression reached its height on 22 March 1991, when several dozen students were killed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prior to this, in February 1991, Moussa Traore's UDPM (Democratic Union of the Malian People) came out in support of a multi-party system - a move which marked the beginning of the end of the regime. The day after the students were killed, a democracy coordination committee launched an appeal for a general strike, to last until the dictator was overthrown. This began on 26 March, and amounted, in effect, to a 'democratic' coup d'etat. Its instigator was Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Toure, who took charge of the transition to-tether with the democratic movements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The former dictator was arrested and put on trial for his crimes. He was later condemned to death but his sentence was recently commuted by President Konare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Tuareg guerilla war continued despite the government's conciliatory attitude. The new administration also had to deal with a number of social claims which had long been stifled by the dictatorship. However, popular support for the regime remained firm. The new constitution was adopted virtually unanimously in a January 1992 referendum and, a week later, ADEMA won the municipal elections, the first in a series of electoral victories for Alpha Oumar Konare. He went on to win the Presidential election (for the Third Republic) in April, with almost 70% of the vote. Meanwhile, negotiations with the Tuareg rebels resulted only in signatures on agreements which were not observed. The situation grew worse with the Ghanda Koy counter-offensive, but this in turn led to a seemingly viable accord between the Azawad Arab Islamic front, the most important guerilla movement, and the Malian government. Last March, President Konare presided over an enormous bonfire of weapons seized from the former guerilla fighters. The flames lit up the skies above Timbuktoo, the symbol par excellence of rapprochement between the peoples of Mali.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the beginning of January 1994, the regime suffered the effects of the devaluation of the CFA franc. Economic liberalisation had enabled Mali to improve its macroeconomic position, but social discontent, particularly in the towns and cities, demonstrated that the average citizen was continuing to suffer economic hardship. The President still enjoys considerable support, and political democracy is greatly appreciated. Obviously, the government cannot be blamed for all the difficulties facing the country. There is, for example, a lack of professionalism in the press. However, it could have given a lead in the case of the State media, which still studiously avoids criticising the government's actions. The administration has also been taken to task for its apparently lax attitude towards 'economic' misdemeanours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Next year will see a series of elections. The government views these with apprehension, although it has stolen a march over its rivals by signing a political accord with several small parties. Opposition is centred around the MPR (Patriotic Movement for Renewal), the revamped former party of the dictator Moussa Traore. This has undergone a 'facelift, and now seems to be regaining support. lts trump card is decentralisation. Its former leaders, who held total power for a quarter of a century, can take advantage of the network of contacts they built up. The US-ADA, the party of the Republic's founder, Modibo Keita, which until recently appeared to be the herald of change, seems lately to have restricted its role to that of arbiter. Surprises are in the offing, but one thing is certain: the Third Republic's constitution will remain the guarantee of democracy in Mali. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.G.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with Ali N. Diallo, President of the National Assembly</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mali, the army has learnt if from the past</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali's institutions were radically remodelled in the wake of the recent vote on decentralisation. This is aimed at allowing, among other things, a degree of autonomy for the north of the country-which is essential to guarantee national reconciliation. The sudden growth in the number of small towns and villages may result in some political surprises during the long e/ection campaign period which is due to begin early next year. The President of the National Assembly, Ali N. Diallo, finds himself in a pivotal position: his Adema (A/fiance for Democracy in Mali) party current/y holds a comfortable majority in Parliament. With democracy being consolidated in Mali, he must find this an exhilarating time. Our frst question touched on this</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is certainly an excellent time to be in Mali, but freedom is the most difficult of man's needs to satisfy. Our National Assembly has 12 parties and most people in our country are inspired by ideas based on tolerance and respect for the right to be different. The main concern of those of us who lead the party currently in the majority, is to question constantly whether we are necessarily always right. We have a comfortable majority-72 members out of 115-but this certainly doesn't mean that the National Assembly is just a rubber stamp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· There is, of course, another stumbling block when one has such a large majority, which is the possibility of internal divisions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, I would agree with you there. Mali's MPs have to realise that they came into this business after a three-stage process. First there was a popular uprising, then the army intervened to put an end to the bloodbath.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, we had the high level national conference to draft the constitution, the electoral code and the charter for the country's parties. MPs, therefore, must always bear in mind that, though they can claim legitimacy on the basis of the revolution, there is also a republican legitimacy they ought to respect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The second phase in the process was the intervention of the army-are you not a*aid that the 'Niger syndrome'will raise its ugly head in Mali, too ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Naturally, MPs have seen what happened in Niger and elsewhere, but fear is tempered here because officers in Mali's forces have also given a great deal of thought to the effects of military dictatorship. Democrats and republicans within the armed forces are very aware that only a minority of men in uniform profited to any degree from the previous regime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think that because Mali had what might be called a 'moderate' dictatorship, it is now in a better position than it would have been had the previous administration been more repressive ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Let me put it this way. The military dictatorship went through three different stages. During the first stage, just after the coup on 19 November 1968, the junta chose Mao Tse Tung as a model, hammering home the idea that power could be won by force of arms-and it was carried away by the popular acclaim it initially received. Subsequent popular resistance then took them by surprise. People wanted more freedom, but they also wanted to keep what they had gained in social matters. Army officers asked the protestors to abandon their action so that normal constitutional life could be resumed, but the trade unions had their own ideas. They advocated things which the people in power opposed. The ensuing repression was therefore fierce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was a second phase during which the military were at odds with one another over the leadership question. The popular view was that the country had fourteen different heads of state at that time. This went on until 28 February 1978 when there was a brief Iuli and they were tempted to return power to the civil authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then came the third phase when, despite appearances, poverty was on the increase. At first, Malians said that there were two 'IMFs' on the loose in Mali-the International Monetary Fund and the intimate circle surrounding the Moussa family. When the social foundation of the regime contracted, and all the country's business became concentrated in the hands of Moussa, his wife and her relations, the popular forces went on the offensive. This was a period of vociferous protest. Moussa Traore reacted with brutality: hence the 200 dead amongst the schoolchildren and students who were protesting- we will never know the exact number.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yet, the former regime could be said to have made the crucial economic choices which your government has continued with. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I wouldn't agree with that. There was a half-hearted discussion at the time about liberalising the economy but, in reality, bureaucracy got in the way. It is the economic laws voted in by ourselves which form the true basis of a liberal economy. However, if you really want to look to the past, I would say that it was the February 1967 accords signed between Mali and France, when we came back into the franc zone, which set the whole process rolling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Tuaregs and the government have just signed an agreement but the question of the north of the country is still a sensitive one. What are your views on this subject ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The problem in the north of Mali is extremely complex. First, the Malian nation is made up of a patchwork of minorities, the largest being the Ban Mana (Ed. 'Bambara' in the colonial vocabulary), but no ethnic group is larger than all the others put together. Second, all groups have, at one time or another, held supremacy. But the fact is that the peoples involved have all lived in the same area throughout history- they have shared joys and sorrows, and their blood has mingled on Malian soil. l would accept that the Malian nation is not as well consolidated as it should be, but it is arguably one of the most advanced in the sub-region in terms of its constitution-though I don't mean to sound chauvinistic here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anyway, the problem in the north of the country seems to me to be one of development. The various regions have not all developed at the same rate on account of climate differences. In addition, the dictatorship did not show any great respect for minorities - although it did not direct its actions solely against the Tuaregs, who resorted to arms. The Tuaregs exaggerated the mistreatment they had suffered because they were unfamiliar with what was happening in the rest of the country. In fact, Moussa Traore oppressed everyone: the French-style Jacobin state we inherited did not allow for regional differences. After independence, the regime redoubled its efforts to centralise the state. both because it was Jacobin in outlook and because of Modibo Keita's communist leanings. In 1959, the French forced the Tamashek (ea. 'Tuaregs') to secede-Max Lejeune and Houphouet Boigny were mixed up in all that. This was when oil was first discovered in Algeria and the war with Algeria had been in full swing since 1954. Modibo Keita set up the Malian Federation and declared in 1959 that, upon independence, he would withdraw all soldiers from the Algerian front. Since the Malian Federation was dismantled, Gao virtually became an Algerian willaya, a base camp for its fighters. Mali did not accept this. Moreover, Algeria, around the time it achieved independence, took retaliatory measures and sealed off its borders, mercilessly sending back huge numbers of refugees. It mobilised them through humiliation, telling them that they were the last members of the white race-the only ones to allow themselves to be under black rule.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· But when Ganda Koy's militia halted the Tuareg movement, they appeared to have been supported by the black population. Doesn't that also suggest a racist attitude ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I addressed the Tuaregs in October 1992, and pointed out that their wish to regard themselves as overlords and the other peoples in Mali as vassals who ought to pay tribute would provoke a general uprising, with the risk of a slide into civil war. I told several of the Tuareg chiefs seated around me the legend of Ouagadou- about the serpent of the well who each year demanded that the Soninke people should sacrifice an 18-year-old girl in its honour. Then the day came when a young man refused to accept the sacrifice of his fiancee. He went down into the monster's lair, watched by a horrified crowd who saw his recklessness as folly, and cut off the serpent's head. In the beginning, the Malian people's sympathies in fact lay with the rebellion. On 26 March, when the rebellion against the dictatorship took place, the president at the time, Konare, asked for all the Tuareg chiefs to be brought to him so that they could set up a transition body. He got a nasty surprise when the Tuaregs resorted to arms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Was the government, as rumoured, behind the Ganda Koy ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Not the government as such. To my mind, it would be wrong to applaud when one faction of the people one governs wants to exterminate another faction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It appears that some of the people are unhappy with the concessions that have been made to the Tuaregs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is a myth. The idea that we are frustrated because the Tuaregs were once our masters, is a story put about by Europe. The situation is quite the reverse. At the time of colonisation, they were unwilling to ream, like other nomads, such as the Peul people, for example. There were splits with them, of course, but no actual, all-out war. Forging a nation always requires tears, sweat and mourning. Those who return will find what they left broken or stolen and will want land which is less barren than that impoverished by the encroaching desert. However, those who stayed put in the face of rebel attacks had their houses smashed and their animals taken away. There will be problems when some Peals, for example, identify their cows which were stolen. We will have to negotiate, but I have confidence in the people. Just as they ended the war, they will be able to heal the wounds-of this I am sure. And the process has already started.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I gather that you continue to practice as a doctor, on top of your political duties. Is this to teach a moral lesson to your political colleagues ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I would say that it is more of a weakness, an inability to abandon a passion, even for supposedly good reasons. l am an 'internalist' and I have a passion for mechanisms. If you cure an infection and it returns, you have to look elsewhere to solve the problem. There are those in authority who spend money on trying to tackle problems without troubling to locate the cause. I would like to think that the analytical rigour of clinical science might also be put to good use in promoting understanding in politics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 1 240 190 km²</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 10 million</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population density: 8.15 per km²</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population growth rate: 3.1 % </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Bamako (pop.700 000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other main towns: S&eacute;gou (65 000), Mopti (52 000), Sikasso (50 000), Koutiala (37 000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Languages: French (official language), Bambara, Peul, Shongoi, Tamashek </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curreny: CFA franc. In July 1996,1 ECU was worth CFAF 647.5 ($1 = CFAF 515) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government: Mixed presidential and parliamentary system. Greater powers are due to be transferred to the regions after the next elections. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Head of State: Alpha Oumar Konar&eacute;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Ibrahim Boubacar Keita Political parties represented in Parliament: ADEMA (absolute majority). 'Opposition' - CNID, USRDA and numerous other smaller groupings. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p021.png"></center><br>
+ Map</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1993 figures unless otherwise stated) GDP: CFAF 753.8 billion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP per capita: $530</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Origin of GDP by sector: agriculture 42%, industry 11 %, services 47% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Real GDP growth: 2.4%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balance of payments: deficit of CFAF 84.1 billion (estimated) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main trade partners (% of total trade) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exports: Thailand (24.2%), Brazil (19.1%), Ireland (9.7%), Belgium/Luxembourg (9.7%) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Imports: C&ocirc;te d'lvoire (22.2%), France (14.5%), Senegal (9.7%), Hong Kong (4.6%)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main exports: cotton 40%, livestock 28%, gold 17.5%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual inflation rate: 3%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth: 46.2 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Infant mortalityper 1000 live births: 158 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult literacy: 28.4% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education (primary, secondary and tertiary): 16% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.223 (171st out of 174)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with Amadou Seydou Traor&eacute;, opposition leader and USRDA spokesman</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Macro-economic indicators tell you nothing about the distribution of the country's resources'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It cannot be easy to be in opposition when Parliament is dominated by a majority which is given a good press and is regarded abroad as a good pupil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We do not really find it a problem. If one is familiar with Mali's current situation, the people's views, reactions and judgments count for more than outside opinion, despite the fact the latter may seem important. However, we do take account of others' opinions. We are pleased to be able to speak to you-to express our ideas and points of view- so that outsiders can see that the USRDA offers a credible alternative for Mali. We feel quite secure in our current position because the principles and values we stand for are those closest to the Malian people. So we have no problem in being the opposition party. We are not the kind of hysterical opposition which resorts to foul means as well as fair ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Given that most Malian political trends stem from the revolutionary democratic movement, what are your party's special features ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Our party's origins are in the movement which dates from 26 March 1960-which itself grew out of an underground movement. The main component of this was the USRDA whose government was overthrown by a reactionary military putsch. Adema won the last elections, and we do not contest this fact despite a number of irregularities. Indeed, we supported the Adema government's initial actions. We were one of seven parties who regarded the Third Republic as our own offspring. Between 1992 and 1994, even when we faced grave difficulties and they were asking for suggestions, the government ignored our proposals. This happened, for example, at the time the World Bank threatened to pull out. As it functions at the moment, the government is not meeting the Malian people's basic aspirations. They want to see a change from the previous regime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are your essential criticisms of the way Adema works ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We are critical on a number of fronts. Looking at it first from an institutional standpoint, when the Malian people rejected the old regime, they wanted the existing set-up to be changed into a democratic one. The few institutions that have been established since then do not reflect this desire. They are virtually no different from what we had under the single-party system. True, we have an opposition party, but its views are ignored. Second, in terms of the management of democracy, a number of bodies, such as the State Commission on the public media, simply do not function. You have been in Mali for a week now, so you must have heard Adema spokesmen on the TV or radio. But you will never hear a member of the opposition. The space reserved for that -formerly an open forum for free political discussion-has been removed and the state-controlled TV and radio stations do not allow political parties to have a say. In the economic sphere, our approach is also completely different. We believe that support for the development of the private sector means that the state has to act as regulator. Economic development cannot simply be left to run its course as a kind of 'rat race'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Could you give us a few practical examples of what you describe as Use selling-off of the family jewels ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-With pleasure. Before the 26 March revolution, there was a general consensus that, in the process of privatisation, the state sector should be managed in a way that benefited the Malian economy. But the reality is that privatisation methods have not changed. They are no different from what they were in Moussa Traor&eacute;'s time. The electricity sector, for example, which has not yet really been privatised, is now managed by the Bouyges group of France. And it costs more, which will hardly help the country's economic development. The state airline has simply been absorbed by Air Afrique. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· If you were in power, how much economic scope do you think you would have, given the prevailing trend towards international liberalisation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I recognise that there is a dominant international lobby which has drawn up its own conditions, laws and principles. Even if one does not agree with this approach, one has to take it into account. However, it should be feasible to achieve privatisation in a different way. We know what we are talking about because we used to run this country. Indeed, we set up the national economy. Before 1960, there was no economic system to speak of. l am currently completing the text of a work which looks at our economic position at the time of independence. The plain fact is that we had nothing at the time of independence. There were only three pharmacists, fewer than ten doctors, and about ten people qualified to teach in our grammar schools-not much to write home about after 70 years of colonialism! After 1960, we had to set everything up from scratch. If you trace the history of every country in the world, whether under a monarchy or a republic, you see that the state has always made the first move in bringing about industrialisation, developing the maritime sector, and stimulating imports and exports. If you think about it, at the outset, the main manufactured activities were the domain of royalty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You claim that your party left a legacy, but some might say that the highly interventionist regime of your hero, Modibo Keita, who brought about independence, contained the seeds of Moussa Traore's dictatorship.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-These are just fairy stories. When a regime is overthrown by a coup d'etat, it always becomes the victim of systematic defamation campaigns in the press. We were maligned for 23 years with no right of reply and no right to issue a statement to set the record straight. In a way, we are talking today about a past which did not exist. You know the saying 'you are not only what you are but also what people say you are'. This reference to dictatorship is one of the most serious calumnies. But no matter what lies are told, something of the truth will always remain. If our regime had been dictatorial or inquisitorial, a coup d'etat would not have been possible. Before the 1968 coup, Modibo Keita was given a file by the security services warning him of the plot by Moussa Traore, and giving a list of his accomplices. He was advised to arrest the conspirators and put them on trial. His response was that he would not agree to a Malian citizen being deprived of his liberty without a scrap of evidence. I knew Keita very well. It will be a long time before we have another head of state with such democratic convictions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The ordinary people, the farmers, say that they did better under Traore, than under Keita.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, but it depends who you talk to. With Traore, there was an atmosphere of moral decline. We were free to plunder, steal and murder, but it was not real freedom. The farmers see it from a different perspective. However, l can still show you a copy of the 'Summary Report on the Seminar on Cooperation in the Rural Environment' which we drew up in 1968, just a few months before the coup d'etat. This highlighted the fact that socialism had not penetrated into the countryside during the seven or eight years we were in power. So you see our own self criticism appeared in a document published in May 1968. This demonstrates the fact that we were not complacent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is your view of the compliments the current government is receiving from many foreign observers, and the good marks it has been given in the macro-economic field by international institutions ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Good macro-economic results which are due to good management of public finances are beneficial for the country. However, such management must be accompanied by greater welfare and an improved standard of living for the people. There is no point hailing a GDP increase of 3-4% if more than 10% of the population does not have enough to eat. You have been through Bamako and other towns and cities and you have seen the construction sites and big buildings. But in their daily life, people are now more ill at ease. They have been disappointed by the Adema regime. The welfare of the ordinary citizen cannot be defined by reference to the personal wealth of someone who is having a seven-storey building put up. All of this new construction is reflected in the higher GDP. But the macro-economic indicators tell you nothing about the distribution of the country's resources-and the scales are currently tipped towards injustice. Those who are working are earning less but those who do not work are earning more. Embezzlement and corruption are currently worse than under Moussa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is the likelihood of a changeover of political power given that the opposition groups are at odds? The union between yourselves and Parena appears to have been suspended.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We are capable of winning the forthcoming elections without entering into an agreement with any other party. Having said this, we are the party to which most groupings in Mali are now turning and we are currently in the process of forming an alliance which will carry a great deal of weight. l am not one to speculate but I am sure that Parena's supporters will, in time, reach the same conclusions as ourselves regarding the timeliness and suitability of an alliance between us. We have contacts with a number of other parties but we do not want to form an electoral pact in the way one would make preparations for a coup-forming a group, ousting the regime and then shooting at each other! Moreover, it is important not to confuse change with restoration. There are those who advocate the restoration of Moussa's regime. Opposition of that kind would suit the current government very well because it would allow them to raise the spectre of our former dictator in the hope of attracting support from those who are frightened by such a pro spect. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by H.G.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The magnetism of the unfamiliar... but unexotic</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In West Africa, there is a dry, desert-like region which a river tried to bring under its sway. Instead of flowing seawards, the river's path went in the opposite direction to find this region, impulsively tracing a majestic loop of 2000 kiLom&eacute;tres before heading seawards. The Niger may not have provided an ideal site for Mali's major towns and villages, but it was considerate enough to form a major waterway between them which is navigable over almost its entire course. Its network of tributaries has resulted in the formation of large landlocked lakes whose waters are full of fish-a reminder of the times when the Sahara was one huge expanse of water. It has also resulted in the extraordinary Niger basin, a central delta area the size of Belgium, criss-crossed by lesser tributaries which reach into the smallest valleys. The river has created a diverse landscape which entices the visitor back. The land is steeped in history and if one wishes to learn its secrets, one has no choice but to study the empires of the past, forged it is said, by mythological deities and heros.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the dry season, visitors marvel at the beauty of the plains, which stretch as far as the eye can see. They will be tempted to return to view the waters that will cover them for just a few months during the rains. This is when the towns and villages appear as islands in the flooded landscape. Later in the seasonal cycle, Nature divests itself of its watery raiment and prepares to welcome the egrets, pink flamingos and all the other richly coloured birds which have flown in from afar. The cultural life of this region is also imbued with a rare richness, combining mystery and individuality. Mali has a distinctive character: it is accessible but not adulterated by frippery, welcoming but not taken over, affable but able to treat everyone as its equal. There is no need to make constant reference to the past which existed before colonial times-the past simply exists, eloquent in its tranquil humility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of Mali should logically begin in Bamako, the likely port of arrival. But if one immediately journeys to the towns and villages that were the cradles of empire, one is better able to appreciate this young capital, barely 250 years old, whose history owes much to its smaller forebears. We arrived in the evening and departed at dawn the next day. So Bamako was no more than a blur. The River Niger, still known as the Djoliba in the capital, is crossed by two long bridges which offer a view over the wild river banks. Most of the constructions are brand-new and some have a style borrowed from their thousandyear-old 'Sudanese' architectural heritage. It would have been more romantic to travel by river to the central part of the delta but, despite the welcoming nature of the Niger as it flows through Mali, it is difficult to navigate over the Sotuba rapids, between Bamako and Koulikoro approximately 50 km away. When the waters are in spate from July to December, it takes no more than two days to reach Segou, three to reach Mopti, five to reach Gao and an extra day to arrive in Timbuktu.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Segou, the rebel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Our first stop after Bamako is Koulikoro, the departure point for Niger cruises. After the unusual houses of the bazo fisherman on the banks of the river, as one leaves Bamako, it is the river itself which is a source of curiosity, transforming the voyage into a wonderful promenade through a forest abounding in game. Then there are the thatched, circular mud huts. Those without a roof are built on piles and are often ovens for preparing karite-nut oil whose bitter-sweet fragrance mingles with the fruity scent of the mango trees which line our route. In Koulikoro, every day is market day. The market spills out into the road and then shrinks back to allow vehicles to pass. It is also a centre for hunters and poachers who come here to seek customers. Above all, it is the centre for the guilds of masons who jealously guard the secrets of traditional Sudanese building skills. For the visitor who cares to linger, the griots will sing the praises of the old magician-king Soumangourou whose spirit has haunted this small town for eight-and-a-half centuries. When he was overthrown by the hero Soundjata, he just vanished into thin air-in the land of mystery that is Mali, great kings do not die, they simply disappear.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first 250 kiLom&eacute;tres of the river's course from Bamako are enchanting. One's first real encounter with Mali's past come at Segou-when the balanzans come into view. The charming, independent city is close by. Segou, the Bambara capital, did not form part of most of Mali's empires. Indeed, the word Bambara comes from 'Ban-Mane', which means 'those who reject a master'. There are 4444 + 1 balanzans to announce the city, all of which are numbered except the last one, which still guards its secret. The balanzans conceal another secret: during the dry season they are covered with leaves, which they lose during the winter. A curious traveller might arrive at Segou with memories of Maryse Conde's fine prose (Segou, Robert Laffont, France, 1984). Her work is an epic fresco of life at the court of the Bambara kingdom in the nineteenth century. The city itself stretches for eight kiLom&eacute;tres along the river bank, with a promenade high above the river on an embankment from where there is an uninterrupted view over the water to the horizon. The richly coloured fabrics of the washer women create a dreamlike atmosphere, giving an impression of the shimmering tunics worn by princes, and the women who swim in the river are not given to excessive prudishness, another reminder of the city's enduring rebellious nature. The charm and cleanliness of the town are striking, its administrative buildings stretching along a grand boulevard lined with modern structures. We see in their profiles, the traditional architectural styles as well as a variety of colours. The whole scene is shaded by gardens full of flowers. It is easy to forget that Segou has retained none of its former architectural wealth. This was all destroyed by the organisers of a jihad who sacked this city of infidels who had never been won over to Islam or, later, to Catholicism. The city walls and the regal courtyards are all gone, so what remains is jealously protected: the sceptre and regal symbols of King Diarra, the kingdom's treasures and its secrets. On Mondays, market day, it is possible to see people kneeling at the feet of an old man. He is the custodian of the town's remaining riches, but will never reveal where they are held. Oumar Santara, one of Segou's intellectuals, is attempting to gain an insight into these mysteries in order to protect them better because, he says, the pillage is still going on. Mali's cultural heritage is being ransacked by outsiders. In some villages on the opposite bank of the river, it is still possible to find 13th-century coins in the village squares.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trial marriage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly 500 kiLom&eacute;tres separate Segou from Mopti. Midway between the two is San, barely more than a large village. San is bathed by the waters of the Bani, a major tributary of the Niger which it flows into it at Mopti. In the market, fine cotton fabrics can be bought, as can the skills of the blacksmiths. Here, however, there is above all an air of secrecy. The town's inhabitants are members of the Bobo people. The name translates es 'stammering', 'mute' being implied. This is the town which holds the secrets of fatal poisons- cocktails of poisonous plants and snake venom. There are also unguents of all kinds to relieve pain, alleviate scarring, and so on. San has another reputation, that of handing out severe punishment to adulteresses. This seems paradoxical when one discovers that women here enjoy exceptional sexual freedom during adolescence and up to the time of their marriage, and even afterwards. They enter into a trial marriage for three or four years, during which time they are free to 'play the field'. At the end of this period, on the occasion of a feast, they reveal whether or not they will accept their 'provisional' husband. If not, the woman regains her freedom and can start all over again as many times as she wishes. If she decides to become the man's wife, she chooses some of her husband's friends with whom she may 'have a fling' for two weeks, the aim being that she thereby lays to rest her unmarried freedom. She will then swear an oath of fidelity to her husband which she breaks on pain of being cast out of society and even, it would appear, at the risk of losing her life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 1 2-kiLom&eacute;tre dyke, which seems to float on the water during the winter season, links Sevare, the crossroads of the major routes across Mali, to Mopti. Situated below water level, Mopti owes its existence to the embankments which protect it. The dyke offers a fine promenade which opens out onto the quayside of this bustling town. The streets are crowded and the settlement has a vitality and beauty, with coloured lights mirrored in the water. On land, the crowds drift in much the same way as the multitude of boats anchored in staggered rows along the riverbank. These stretch for hundreds of metres- as far as the eye can see. All this wealth of detail forms a tableau punctuated by the outlines of the slender fishing smacks (pirogues or dugout canoes). Despite their size, these vessels retain their uncluttered lines, always giving the impression that they are slicing through the water. The biggest of them are perhaps 50 metres long, carrying cargoes of up to 150 tonnes. This strange, animated scene, which resembles no other in the world, seems to have been staged as a way of reviving the buried images of the Mali of legend-provoking a memory of things unseen and prompting new sensations. Despite the fact that it is replete with Malian influences, Mopti did not develop until colonial times. Like Segou, it never really belonged to any of Mali's great empires, although it became their meeting point. It is a place where all the country's languages are spoken. Indeed, the word 'mopte' in Peal means 'place of assembly'. At Zigui's restaurant or in a cafe down by the port, one find groups of beribboned Tuareg artisans still with their belle servants (former slaves) in tow. One can watch the Peals, also followed by their servants, negotiating their deals. Some trade in gold jewellery, dogon or other ethnic sculptures. Others buy and sell the magnificent Segou carpets or cotton fabrics. Others still dabble in ancient archaeological artifacts (which it is forbidden to sell) and in sacred objects from all over the country. The town itself is an artifact: the apparent hotchpotch is regulated by an internal, almost natural organisation. The hundreds of boats, fishing smacks and other small craft are arranged along the river banks according to the goods they are importing. There is one place for fishing boats, another for furniture imports, and so on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mopti merits an overnight stay. In the curve of the great arc which forms the port, a soft light lingers on the congested river banks. It is not just the people who seem to tire of the day's hustle and bustle. The biggest boats with their gentle backwash, anchored in the mud until the next incoming tide, grow too lazy for their images to be reflected in the water and they seem to hold on to the last of the sun's glow, awaiting the first glimmers of moonlight</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Dogon region, poetry in stone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As one approaches Bandiagara, on the threshold of the cliff faces which bear the name of this town, the landscape changes. Most of Mali is flat, but here, we find ourselves in the high land. In fact, the altitude is only a few hundred metres, but the landscape is dominated by sheer and rugged rock faces. This is Dogon country where everything seems to be made of stone: the roads, houses and hills appear in matching tones of salmon pink. The inhabitants, too, seem to have been hewn from the very rock. At first glance, the landscape is unremarkable apart from the sight of all this rock, but as one's perception grows keener, shapes can be made out. At the foot of the slopes are caves that are still lived in. And in the most vertical part of the cliff faces, we can pick out regular, sculpted barrel shapes, combining to form an impressive design. These stone cylinders are the ancient dwellings of the Telems, a mysterious people who preceded the Dogons and were conquered by them. Nothing is known about their disappearance. Today, the cylinders are used as Dogon graves. Access is gained to them during funeral services, by means of a system of ropes. At the top of the cliff is Shanga, the beauty of the Dogon region. It stands atop a 400metre sheer drop which extends over a length of 200 kiLom&eacute;tres. Reaching Shanga from Bandiagara involves picking one's way through the rocky landscape and sliding over sandstone scree.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before the Europeans arrived to colonise the country, no one had succeeded in subjugating the Dogon region. Was it really ever under the sway of the colonists ? This region, whose beauty lies in its harshness, has no embellishments. And its language is as hard on the ears as the rock is underfoot. As everywhere, to feed themselves, the Dogons till the soil. But this must be carried on the backs of men and women over distances of several kiLom&eacute;tres and then deposited on the rock. Every onion bulb and every root pulled from this thin layer is a testament to the tenacity of humankind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Dogon region is like a magnet-it attracts pilgrims from afar who come to venerate El Hadj Oumar, the founder of the Islamic brotherhood of the African Tidjani-a military and religious leader whose life and disappearance are shrouded in mystery. It also attracts people because of the beauty of its works of art. Some of these, apparently of recent manufacture, are actually centuries old. For the custodians of the sacred objects, the interest of outsiders is viewed as a catastrophe. The artefacts are constantly pilfered and sometimes, their keepers commit suicide in their horror at such desecration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fine regalia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djenne translates as 'the beloved of the waters' and is surrounded by two strekhes of the Bani river. Thus, apart from a short time in the dry season, when the river can be forded, it is an island accessible only by boat. The town has always been a rival of Timbuktu, the 'daughter' of the desert. Before Mopti was created, Djenne was the country's meeting point. The town is dominated by its mosque which is a masterpiece of Sudanese architecture. This imposing clay structure has been a magnet for the faithful since the thirteenth century. It has always been rebuilt in the same style, each version scrupulously identical to the previous one. The most recent reconstruction dates from the early 1900s.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centre of the Malian empire, Djenne has retained all its finery, magnificence and prestige. It was annexed by the Shongoi empire at the end of the Middle Ages and its conquerors have always been seduced by the town's beauty. The mosque has been designated a World Heritage Site, and the entire town has protected status. For centuries, its architecture influenced other towns and cities in the Sahel and it continues to do so. The secrets of the knowledge and skills of its master masons are still jealously guarded, passed on only reluctantly to the initiated. The whole town is built around the mosque, revealing an interplay of balance and power. There are magnificent inner courtyards to which entry is gained through massive, ornate studded gates. The elaborate and finely carved windows, the intertwined leaves and scrolls of the arabesques and the moucharabies, all bear witness to the Moroccan influence. This has, however, been toned down and it now blends in with Djenne's indigenous forms of decoration and architecture. Whilst all Mali's former great towns and cities were known for their power and military glory, Djenne takes pride in having dispensed with brute force, its spirit protecting it from subjugation. All those who pass through take something of Djenne's spirit away with them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coca Cola kept at bay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Returning to the capital from where we started, we discover that it was colonisation that turned Bamako from a village into the large city that it is today. It inhabitants now number approximately one million. Although a city of recent origin, the site on which it is built dates back to the dawn of time. The hills overlooking the city are home to cave paintings and the underground tombs provide more evidence of a human presence dating from ancient times. There is then a gap of several thousand years in Bamako's history. In early colonial times, just two centuries ago, the village had no more than 700 inhabitants. Bamako began to be developed at the beginning of the 1900s and it is the only city in Mali to have a colonial atmosphere. It has not, however, lost out to change. The ministerial buildings at Koulouba hill, one of five dominating the city, or the Point G houses in the National Museum area, may not equal the beauty of Sudanese architecture, but they are elegant nonetheless. Their plain style is softened by their leafy gardens. The administrative buildings in the lower part of the city are often a fusion of colonial or modern styles and traditional architecture. These edifices are also made more attractive by fine gardens, which lend originality to the city. One of the most successful combinations is the great market, unfortunately in the process of restoration at the time of our visit and whose beautiful interior we were unable to appreciate. It is interior beauty which characterises this city in comparison with other African capitals. Despite its congestion and the density of its population, Bamako still has the atmosphere of a lively village. There is little of what one might term a 'social scene', but it is enough to be invited into the 'squares' or respectfully to visit the block-shaped houses which are still home to entire families and where discussion sessions (grins) last into the small hours. These sessions are enhanced with food and the omnipresent cup of tea. Bamako still prefers tea to imported beverages and to receive guests in the family home rather than joining in the social round in the hotel foyers so characteristic of major capital cities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For those hesitant to venture into the traditional life of Bamako (although they would be assured of a welcome), there are many restaurants which make a good attempt at recreating a homely atmosphere. One is not, however, required to take part in the conversations. Two restaurants (the Djenne and the Santoro), which have opened recently, allow one to enjoy the pleasures of art and history. They are part of a wider project to promote Malian art and set up an organisation for artists and craftsmen. They contain areas modelled on the refinement of former imperial furnishing, interior design and architecture, as well as exhibits by Mali's greatest artists. Their creator, Aminata Traore, is an intellectual, art connoisseur and international expert. In Dakar or Abidjan, patrons of such establishments would probably be expatriates with perhaps a few local dignitaries. But at the Santoro and Djenne, prices have been kept reasonably low (no account having been taken of the 50% devaluation in the CFA franc) and the art remains accessible to middle-class Malians. Thus, the spirit of the 'grins' is preserved. The preferred beverage is still a cup of fragrant tea or perhaps a glass of refreshing juice. Whisky will never replace tea, nor will Coca Cola replace fruit juices. Mali is not a country which rejects other people, but it resists cultural encroachment, preferring the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">familiar to the exotic. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Mali-EU cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roads and adjustment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Theo Hoorntje</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For 1990-95, ECU 151.7m was allocated (mainly in project aid) under the seventh EDF National Indicative Programme (NIP). This is equivalent to about 1.5% of Mali's GDP and 13% of its public-sector investment programme for the period in question. European funds from sources other than the NIP-emergency aid, Stabex, European Investment Bank (EIB) venture capital and resources from the structural adjustment facility- reached ECU 87.2m over the same five-year period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1995, support for the structural adjustment programme represented 5.4% of the balance of payments deficit and 7.8% of the budget deficit. Looking at all instruments together, the amount involved in financing decisions taken by the Commission last year was ECU 42m, with the disbursement figure rising to ECU 40m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The NlP's primary commitment level under the 7th EDF rose from 76% at the beginning of the financial year to 92% at the end, which means that virtually all available programmable resources are now allocated to projects and programmes. The secondary commitment level, which involves the conversion of proposals into concrete agreements and contracts, rose from 33% to 45% by the end of the financial year. Disbursement rates remain relatively low (32% of available resources).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Allocations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid is distributed to the various sectors, as follows:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Roads (29% of the total);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Support for structural adjustment (20%);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Rural development / Environment (1 4%);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Support for the private sector (12%);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Decentralisation (9%); </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Public health (9%); </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Water supplies (4%); </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Education/Culture (3%).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear that Community aid concentrates mainly on road infrastructures-covering both maintenance and the opening-up of remote regions. Support for structural adjustment, which comes second, is used to finance the State budget's current expenses, particular emphasis being placed on improvement of fiscal and customs income and greater efficiency in health-policy matters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In other areas, such as rural development, Community aid also makes an attempt to consolidate gains from previous actions, particularly through the development of rice growing and stock rearing, which should improve supplies to the domestic market and offer further export potential. As far as the environment is concerned, the aim is to contribute to the sustainable management of natural resources on the part of basic users, such as farmers, breeders, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The private sector is supported by actions in key areas and by a programme that was recently set up which involves directing resources through a financial institution (Credit Initiative SA). The objective is to promote lending to SMEs, which is in keeping with the general aim of achieving economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the context of administrative reform, priority is given to the decentralisation process which aims to promote the emergence of new local decision making centres (which should, in the long term, become key players in project development and implementation), and to give such decentralised bodies the means they require to fulfil these new public-sector missions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for health, Community aid has contributed to the PSPHR project financed by other donors. Its main focus is initially on infrastructures and on the policy relating to the supply of essential medicines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the water-supply sector, actions are aimed at strengthening village infrastructures, particularly in the Bankass and Koro areas. A solar-pump programme has also been set up in the Mopti and Koulikoro regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to a school reconstruction programme in the north of the country, the Commission has been able to support education and culture through a dozen or so film projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the general 'heading' of non-programmable resources, there have been a number of interventions. These include extra support for structural adjustment, Stabex transfers, deployment of the balance from the 5th EDF and EIB projects. Emergency aid has been deployed in the north of the country where, despite difficult conditions, programmes have been able to continue without interruption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, Community regional aid is helping to combat rinderpest, as well as being directed towards road maintenance, and the provision of training and information on environmental protection. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.H. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">NGOs finally achieve tangible results</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Catherine Beauraind and her five colleagues in the small team of foreigners and Malians, woke early. It had been a short night: our fault, since we had arrived at Bandiagara on the edge of the Niger valley much later than expected having taken the Sevare route. This is the gateway to the rocky Dogon region and travellers on the road occacionaliy fall victim to bandits-which probably made our hosts somewhat apprehensive about our late arrival. The people we had come to see are road builders, working without sophisticated equipment in a region of rocks and cliffs. They seem very youth froml, particularly those who have come from afar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are 'Progress Volunteers', the name given to the many young people who come to this very poor African country to offer their commitment and dynamism, if not perhaps their experience. On this particular morning, still feeling fatigued, Catherine was having to coordinate the departure of escorts for seasonal workers who were being dispatched to various locations. Their job is to ensure the upkeep of the rocky roads, and the equipment they use is rudimentary to say the least. The Bandiagara-Dourou stretch is maintained by the AFVP (French Association of Progress Volunteers) and is one in a long list of NGO projects. In 1995 alone, the European Commission supported over 50 NGO schemes, to the tune of ECU 1.5 million. Most EU countries and a number of others also have their own projects. On top of this, there is the emergency help provided by the European Commission Humanitarian Office (ECHO), which has just approved a grant of ECU 1 million for the north of Mali. Now that a peace accord has been signed between the government and the Tuareg rebels, this region is likely to see a huge influx of refugees returning to villages that are ill prepared to receive them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali is a least-developed nation and one of the most highly subsidised countries in terms of per capita aid, though recently, its political fortunes have been boosted by the democratisation process. And the efforts of the NGOs now seem to be paying off. The recent times of famine have faded in people's memories even in the Dogon region, where many families ate calabashes in desperation before succumbing to starvation. Mother nature is playing a part in the country's renewal: there has been ample rain over the last Many NGO projects are aimed at helping the population use its meagre resources to exploit the natural wealth of the River Niger and its tributaries. At Konna, for example, a striking village at the confluence of two rivers, the Regional Literacy and Self-Management Project is up and running. Financed, among others, by the European Development Fund, this is being implemented at a number of localities, and it has played a part in the renewal which can now be seen. Fresh coats of paint, repairs to houses, fewer starving children and the return of many migrants all underline this new vitality. Each of the 17 small cultivated areas in the village that are covered by the project (worked by about 60 people), receives no more aid than a motorised pump, a few cereals and a small amount of cash in the first year. A basic course in management is also provided. It is up to the villagers to use these resources to yield a profit. Results tend to be good, proof of success being the growing number of such schemes which are being set up without aid from the organisation. The project is now in its seventh year. It did experience one bad year-1992-when, despite bumper harvests, rice imports into Mali were excessive and prices dropped. The village has therefore made an attempt to diversify its crops. Its objective is to sell onions in Cote d'lvoire, where the inhabitants are very fond of this vegetable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most villages have been able to save money which was initially placed in banks and then invested elsewhere in the wake of devaluation's harsh lessons. Konna opted for purchasing livestock. In nearby Kotaka, surpluses partially funded the construction of an impressive mosque. Kotaka was one of the places most affected by the recent meningitis epidemic, but a hospital would probably have been too expensive. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Western Samoa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A new spirit of enterprise</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small countries with a limited resource base are frequently buffeted by economic forces over which they have no control. If you live in Western Samoa, however, you are likely to be preoccupied by forces of a different kind. For while most of the time, Mother Nature presents a benign face in this attractive and fertile Pacific state, every once in a while, she loses her temper.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical storms are an unavoidable reality in much of the Pacific and they breed a special form of resilience which should impress the inhabitants of more temperate climes. The people of Samoa, and other cyclone prone countries in the region, are adept at picking themselves up and, if necessary, starting all over again, once the winds have passed. But between 1989 and 1993, the Samoans' capacity for renewal was to be tested more than ever before. Like a plucky boxer facing a much stronger opponent, the country would just be struggling back to its feet when another hammer blow would send it reeling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The closest to a knock-out punch came in December 1991 in the shape of Cyclone Val-the worst storm to hit the islands in more than a century. This brought death and injury, as well as widespread economic devastation. The coconut and coffee trees on which the country depends for much of its export income were either swept away or stripped bare. Many homes were also destroyed and infrastructures were severely damaged. (The 1993 cyclone, although less powerful, caused further crop destruction.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the last five years, virtually all the damage has been repaired. Indeed, a great many facilities have been upgraded with plans for further improvements in the pipeline. To some extent, the credit for this remarkable recovery must be shared. Overseas donors played an important part in restoring key infrastructures while expatriate Samoans, whose remittances are an important 'invisible' earning for the country in normal times, also rallied round. But the key players, of course, were the people themselves, who rose to the challenge of reconstructing their country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, Western Samoa - which has a population of 165 000-is experiencing an economic mini-boom. Growth during 1996 is expected to be between 5% and 6% for the second consecutive year and there are encouraging signs of a new, home-grown entrepreneurial spirit. This is not to say that everything in the garden is rosy. The latest growth figures need to be set against the unavoidable recession caused by Cyclones Val and Ofa (which struck in 1990) and a mediocre economic performance throughout the 1980s. And while there is some evidence of diversification, the economy is still very narrowly based. There is also considerable room for improvements in health care and education provision. Doubts have been expressed, for example, as to the accuracy of the official literacy figures. Finally, there is a high level of dependence on foreign aid (the country's main donors are the Asian Development Bank, Japan, Australia and the European Community).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economists will tell you how notoriously difficult it is to express the wealth of a developing nation in statistical form. GDP figures can offer a pointer, but they do not present the whole picture as they take no account of the informal economy. Western Samoa provides a particularly good illustration. At US $950, the estimated per capita GDP is very low by Pacific standards. Yet there is clearly no starvation. A great deal of the food consumed by the Samoans simply does not 'show up' in the cash economy. The term subsistence agriculture seems peculiarly inappropriate here since locally available food sources are many and varied.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Similarly, many of the materials used to build the 'fares' (traditional houses) in the villages are obtained without recourse to builders' merchants. And when a Samoan wants a new house, he builds it himself-with the help of his family and neighbours. This involves skilled carpentry work-for which people would pay highly in industrialised societies - and which does not register either in the country's economic statistics. So it is clear that the basic GDP figures do not paint a complete picture. Nonetheless, they illustrate the relatively underdeveloped state of the formal economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking at exports, Western Samoa's traditional agricultural sector has gone through some rough times, for a variety of reasons. In the past, the mainstays were copra and coconut products (oil and cream), cocoa and tarot</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The storms destroyed or damaged many of the coconut and cocoa trees, wiping out exports for a number of years until new plantings could reach maturity. The market in food products derived from the coconut had been depressed in any case. One reason for this was negative publicity over the high cholesterol content of coconuts, although more recent research, suggesting that not all types of cholesterol are bad for you, has at least partly restored the reputation of this highly flexible crop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taro, which is Western Samoa's staple food crop, was exported in ever increasing quantities during the 1980s but the trade has suffered badly in recent years because of an outbreak of taro leaf blight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, Western Samoa's most important primary exports are, once again, coconut-based (oil and cream). With the new trees reaching maturity, production recommenced on a small scale towards the end of 1994. The following year saw a big jump in exports and the figures for 1996 are expected to - come close to pre-cyclone levels,The marketing situation has also improved as a result of privatisation. The old Copra Board, a parastatal with a reputation for inefficiency, was abolished in 1990, its assets being bought for a nominal sum by a Samoan businessman who has invested heavily in refurbishment. This has all been achieved despite continuing low prices for coconut products in the world markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cocoa takes longer to recover but harvesting of the first new crop is due to take place this year with the emphasis on a high value, fine tasting variety. A new chocolate factory (Wilex C.C.P. Ltd), also masterminded by a local entrepreneur, Eddie Wilson, has been built with assistance from the EU's Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) and a credit from the European Investment Bank (EIB) channelled through the Development Bank of Western Samoa (DBWS). This is a particularly significant venture since it aims to maximise added value before export. The factory is currently operating well below full capacity, awaiting the arrival of the first local crop, but there are high hopes for its long term success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other main crops exported are bananas and kava. The latter is a mild narcotic based on the root of the pepper plant, which is used in pharmaceutical preparations. It also has an important place in Samoan (and wider Pacific) culture, being drunk in diluted form on ceremonial occasions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a view to achieving further export diversification, a number of other agricultural/horticultural export possibilities have also been identified. These include asparagus, mangos and cut flowers. The most likely potential market for new tropical production is New Zealand-already the destination for more than half of Western Samoa's exports. However, this country has stringent health rules with rigorous controls on the import of plant and animal material. The understandable aim is to protect the local farming sector from diseases introduced from outside, but it creates an additional hurdle for potential exporters in the developing countries of the Pacific. In particular, Western Samoa needs to come to grips with the fruit fly problem, if it wishes to make inroads into the New Zealand market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Timber also once featured prominently in the trade statistics before declining at the end of the 1980s. There are hopes for a revival here with the authorities keen to encourage value added processing of wood products within the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite its obvious association with the sea, Western Samoa has never really gone in for commercial fishing. While the Exclusive Economic Zone is small by Pacific standards, the country being 'hemmed in' by other island nations and territories, it is still more than 40 times the land area. The government would particularly like to attract foreign investment in fish processing and canning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industry</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is probably unrealistic to expect a small and geographically isolated nation such as Western Samoa to develop a highly diversified industrial base but there have been one or two notable ventures which show signs of potential. The above-mentioned chocolate factory is one such. The country also has a highly successful brewery. It is not uncommon for developing nations to produce their own local beer but Western Samoa's Vailima brand has managed to break out successfully into the regional market, bringing in useful foreign exchange in the process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biggest industrial success story-dwarfing all other manufacturing ventures-has been the establishment of a factory by the Japanese company Yazaki to produce wire harnesses for cars. The business employs some 2500 people (mainly women) in a highly labour-intensive operation-and it makes a significant contribution to the trade balance. The value-added electrical components are re-exported for incorporation into cars sold mainly in Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The company was attracted by a number of factors including low labour costs in this non-unionised society, and the political stability of Western Samoa. Perhaps most important, however, were the incentives offered by the government. These went well beyond the usual tax holidays provided by developing countries to attract foreign investors. Indeed, it was the government that built the factory and the company was allowed to occupy it rent-free. Some observers have expressed concern at such largesse but the authorities are insistent that it was still a good deal. They point to the jobs that were created (a huge number by Samoan standards) at a time when many people's livelihoods were threatened by taro blight. They also argue that the profits of the operation are retained in Western Samoa, thereby helping to boost the wider economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Services</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The service sector offers perhaps the best potential for expansion of Western Samoa's formal economy. Top of the list here comes tourism (featured in a separate article), which has been expanding much faster than the underlying rate of economic growth. Despite the increase in both visitors and income, tourism is still underdeveloped. The government (supported by the opposition) believes that this is one field where Western Samoa definitely has a 'comparative advantage'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linked to tourism, of course, is the air transport business. Although it might still be possible to obtain passage on a merchant ship bound for the South Sea islands, the vast majority of visitors arrive by plane, and good air connections are obviously essential. The history of the country's national carrier, Polynesian Airlines, offers two object lessons. The first is how not to run an airline and the second, more recent and encouraging one, is how to grasp the nettle when the crisis finally breaks. In 1992, with tourism in mind, the government owned airline decided to expand its operations substantially. It leased three long-haul aircraft which it hoped to fill with visitors in search of a new tropical haven. The market research was clearly inadequate and the planes flew with many empty seats. Other aspects of the company's management proved deficient and there was a chronic lack of financial. Debts mounted at such a frightening rate that the budgetary position of the entire country was threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, the government took decisive action, bringing in Richard Gates, the experienced airline entrepreneur, who is credited with having turned Air New Zealand around. Relatively small airline businesses in the Pacific are not likely to make a.fortune for anyone, but with proper management, they should at least be able to break even and perhaps even turn in a small profit. This was not something that even the prodigious talents of Mr Gates could achieve, however, with the crushing burden of debt accumulated by Polynesian Airlines. So the government assumed responsibility for the debts and then gave the new manager a free hand, on the firm understanding that the taxpayer would not come to the rescue again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the airline side, the operation was drastically slimmed down. The leases on the large aircraft were terminated, staff 'down-sizing' took place and bath ticketing and financial management were tightened up. The positive impact of these measures was soon evident, with a small operating profit registered in 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Left with huge debts, the action of the authorities was equally impressive, although it entailed discomfort for most Western Samoans. In order to restore its own financial position, the government instituted 15% public expenditure cuts across the board. In macro-economic terms, it is generally acknowledged that this strong medicine was needed, but the social consequences were all too clear as well: reduced funds for health and education, and pressure on important capital investment budgets. Perhaps fortuitously for the country, the financial crisis caused by the Polynesian Airlines debacle coincided with the payment of a substantial Stabex payment from the European Community. The country's was eligible for Stabex funds because of the collapse in agricultural export receipts following the cyclones, and the money-which was directed mainly into infrastructure projects-could hardly have come at a better time. Meanwhile, the government has paid off a large portion of the airline's debt with the residue rescheduled for payment over a five-year period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government has taken a number of steps aimed at attracting offshore finance business to the country. Western Samoa now has a comprehensive legal framework governing such activities, including crucial provisions guaranteeing secrecy. Another vital factor in attracting offshore funds, which has already been mentioned, is political stability. There is even the suggestion that the country's time zone, which puts it almost a day behind Australia and New Zealand, might somehow be turned to its advantage in global financial dealings (although it is not clear how the benefit would be derived in otherwise legitimate transactions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The last three years have seen a big increase in company incorporations and there are now more than 2500 offshore companies (including 15 banks and eight insurance companies) registered. It is difficult to imagine Western Samoa ever challenging the likes of Liechtenstein, the Bahamas or Jersey in this market, given its geographical distance from the main industrialised nations, but even a successful 'niche' operation could bring some useful income to the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five years ago, when the Courier last covered Western Samoa, the emphasis was heavily on recent constitutional changes and most notably, the introduction of universal franchise. At the time, there was a lot of interest in how the traditional Samoan way of life (faa-Samoa) would be affected. This is based on the village structure and the matai system which vests considerable authority in family heads. There is also a strong attachment to the Christian faith, as exemplified by strict Sunday observance rules (also found in Tonga and other Pacific countries).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, the Samoans appear to have embraced their more 'westernised' system of government without any difficulty. Although everyone over 21 has a vote, one still has to be a matai to be eligible to stand for Parliament. In contrast to hierarchical structures elsewhere in the Pacific, however, the system here seems to be based largely on merit and it is not particularly exclusive (there are an estimated 19 000 matai). The matai, nonetheless, exercise considerable authority in village affairs, most notably over the use of customary land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In short, the change seems to have caused few problems because Western Samoa already had its own decentralised form of democracy. It was not a question of educating people about hitherto alien concepts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that change in Western Samoa is slow and progressive rather than sudden and violent, is recognised by most observers to be a good thing. An illustration of this evolutionary approach is the arrangement governing the position of Head of State. The post, which is held by His Highness Malietoa Tunamefili 11, currently appears to be a cross between a presidency and a monarchy. Under the 1962 independence constitution, two of the country's four paramount chiefs were given the position, to be held jointly, for life. With the death of Tupua Tamasese Meaole in 1963, the surviving incumbent became sole Head of State. There will be no automatic succession, however, and Parliament will decide who should have the post in future, with the term of office limited to five years. There is obviously a great deal of respect for the Head of State and his office among Western Samoans, although it should be stressed that his role is largely ceremonial, with political authority being vested in the elected government. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for party politics, there are two groupings represented in Parliament, the ruling Human Rights Protection Party and the opposition Samoa National Development Party. The party system is not particularly strong, however, being based more on personalities than ideology. Corruption is not seen to be a major problem although a major row did blow up recently over a critical report issued by the Auditor-General for 1994. This led to him being suspended and this issue had not yet been resolved at the time The Courier went to press.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa is not unique in having to adapt to a rapidly changing world. The phenomenon affects all societies, with modern communications technology increasingly breaking down the 'protection' that geographical isolation used to afford. In Westem Samoa, as elsewhere, there must be concern about the impact of this on the country's traditional way of life. Yet the indications are that this Pacific nation is managing the transition rather better than many other developing countries. The people seem to combine an unselfconscious pride in their traditions and cultural assets with a pragmatic welcoming of ideas from outside which help to improve their material wellbeing. The hope must be that this process can continue as we approach the third millennium. S'imon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Historical summary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to archaeological evidence, the islands of Samoa were first settled about 3000 years ago, after gradual migration within the Pacific from people originally from South East Asia. Samoa, it seems, was the cradle of the Polynesian culture, and settlers from there spread to other islands of Polynesia in the east, north and south.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first European to sight the group in 1722 was Jacob Roggeveen, and although there was intermittent contact between European sailing vessels and the islanders during the 18th century, more permanent contact was established with the arrival of the European missionaries in the early 1980s. They were soon followed by traders looking for copra, beche de mer, sandalwood and other products. Later, some of the trading firms, notably German, fumed to large-scale production of copra and other products such as cotton, cacao and rubber, which also led a corresponding increase in interest on the part of colonial powers. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1800s, the Samoan group became the focus of colonial rivalry between Great Britain, the USA and Germany, leading, in 1900, to the partitioning of the islands between Germany and the United States. The eastern part of the group came under American control and has remained so to this day, while Germany controlled the western islands. Britain received territorial concessions elsewhere in the Pacific. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the outbreak of World War I, New Zealand took over what had come to be known as German Samoa, and became the administrative power there under the League of Nations and later the United Nations until Western Samoa became the first Patific island nation to become an independent state in 1962.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Source: Government of Western Samoa. this text is taken from the information brochure prepared by the authorities for distribution to delegates at the recent ACP-EU Council of Ministers meeting). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dream ticket ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Depart Nuku'alofa-12.00, January l 2000 Arrive Apia - 14.00, December 37 1999</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People with cash to burn are often ready to spend surprising amounts of money in their pursuit of the unusual. Tonga has already recognised this as it begins preparing for the third millennium Lying just to the west of the International Dateline, it believes it will the first country to see the sun rise on the new millennium, although other Pacific territories have also made the claim. (For this purpose, we ignore the purists who point out that the third millennium will not actually begin until January 1, 2001.) Celebrations are planned and bookings are already being taken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Westem Samoa is obviously not in the running for this distinction since it is east of the dateline, but what this means is it will be the last nation in the world to say goodbye to the old millennium. This surely presents an opportunity for the local tourist industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And what about those intrepid voyagers who fancy greeting the year 2000 in Tonga and then 'seeing out' the old millennium 24 hours later in Samoa. If i were an airline manager, I would be examining the possibility of extra flights from Nuku'alofa on the big day. (Let's hope it's not a Sunday I)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">An interview with Tuilaepa Sailele Malielegaoi, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Economic future in tourism end manufacturing'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier visited Western Samoa at the end of June while the country was hosting the ACP-EU Council of Ministers meeting. At the time, veteran Prime Minister, Tofilau Eti Alesana, was recovering from an operation, and his duties were being carried out by his deputy, Tuilaepa Sailele Malielegaoi, who is also the Minister of Finance. Despite a hectic schedule, the Deputy Prime Minister kindly managed to find a slot for a keynote interview with The Courier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· There is growing evidence of a new economic dynamism in this island nation, which has managed to find its feet remarkably speedily after the destruction wrought by cyclones in 1989 and 1990. With this in mind, we began by asking the Minister about the economic prospects for the country ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think they are excellent. Our country suffered a major catastrophe as a result of the cyclones, coming, as they did, in two successive years. There was major damage to our infrastructure and forestry resources- coconuts and cocoa. At the time, we estimated the bill at more than $600m. But the rehabilitation of the infrastructure went ahead quickly, thanks to the major support provided by bodies like the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and of course, the European Union, not to mention the bilateral donor countries who answered our call for help. So in some ways, it was a blessing in disguise. We suffered badly, but with the assistance that came, we have been able to improve our roads and electricity supply, and the protection of our foreshore. It also encouraged us to embark on replanting to replace the trees-mainly cocoa and coconut -that had been destroyed. Last year, for the first time since the cyclones, our copra exports came back in strength. We have, at last, started to approach the pre-cyclone export levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are likely to be the key sectors for future economic activity ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We believe that the economic future of our country now lies more in tourism and in manufacturing industries. Dealing with the latter first, we have already succeeded in attracting some industries. The major investment so-far has come from Yazaki, a Japanese company that produces wire harnessing systems (electrical components) for vehicles. This employs almost 3000 people in Western Samoa. In fact, the company set up here before the cyclones and it did not take long for us to see the benefits. The value added equivalent provided by just that one plant is roughly equivalent to our total agricultural exports for last year. So you can see the importance of manufacturing industry for us. We have provided very generous incentives and have also allocated sufficient government land to provide space for factories.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other industry which is now in the forefront, in terms of foreign exchange earnings, is tourism. We now earn four times more from this sector than we do from agriculture-and agriculture is supposed to be the mainstay of our economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course, we mustn't reduce the priority that we give to agriculture. It is one area where we have the resources. More specifically, I think that we have great potential for beef production. If we should have another cyclone, the trees will be damaged but cattle should not be affected. So I think we should look more towards beef production and other forms of agricultural diversification. We do have some good commercial farming in place at the moment, but it is not enough. We need to do more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about the chocolate industry ? You have traditionally grown cocoa but you now also have a factory to process the raw material right up to the end product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is a direct result of our drive to promote more manufacturing - whether it is export-oriented or geared towards import substitution. The chocolate venture is a new one and I think there are good, prospects here as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important point is that we are moving back into growing the fine flavour variety of cocoa here. We used to be one of the 14 producers of fine flavoured cocoa in the world, and we got premium prices for it. But somehow, over the years, we switched to producing inferior quality bulk cocoa. We regretted doing that and are now switching back to the higher quality variety-which is just coming back into production following the cyclones. So here we have another potential area for exports. On the other hand, taro which used to be our major export prior to 1993 is facing difficulties. It is affected by a disease, the taro blight, which seems to be uncontrollable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Thinking in particular of the impact of tourism, are you concerned that an influx of foreign visitors might damage Western Samoa's unique and very special culture ? I see, for example, that you now have a 'McDonalds' restaurant in the centre of Apia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- No. I am not really concerned. In 1992, we set up our own tourism festival. This takes place in the first week of September and is quite clearly intended to be a feature event with an emphasis on promoting tourism. All the activities at the festival focus on the various aspects of our culture-the arts, the dances, the preparation of food, the singing and so on. It seems to me that our drive for tourism is actually helping to revive some of the cultural aspects that would otherwise have been dvina out. So I believe there is a complementarily between culture and tourism, so long as we ensure that the relationship between the two is maintained. I think this point is backed up, if you look at the growing popularity of ecotourism nowadays. This is very much concerned with preservation-of both the environment and of local cultures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In international circles, Western Samoa is deemed to be a least-developed country on account of its low GDP per head figures. Yet nobody is starving here and you appear to have a very 'rich' lifestyle, even if people don't have a great deal of cash in their pockets. Do you think the international classification is a fair one ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- I think the first point to emphasise is that a lot of the signs of development you see here are of recent origin. They date back only to 1992-93. Infrastructures have improved considerably over a very short time and this could well create a certain impression about the people's standard of living. On the other hand, it is true that our economy is not completely based on cash. And, of course, our earnings are in Tala which go a lot further here than their dollar equivalent in the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Presumably, it is to your benefit to be classified as an LDC because it gives you access to more sources of foreign funding ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I am happy to leave the classification to the experts. They are the ones who come and estimate our average per capita income, which is then used as the yardstick for placing a country in one or other category. I think it is ironic though, that if you go to a country like the USA, which is supposed to be very rich, you find beggars on the street. It certainly makes you wonder. Perhaps it is not really the statistical wealth of a country that is important, but its social system. And our social system here ensures that no-one goes hungry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· That leads on rather neatly to my next question. What do you think are the main social challenges that need to be tackled here ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We still have quite a lot of 'service care' needs in the villages that we need to attend to. That is why we have placed the highest priority on social services over the next five years. I am talking here in particular about health, education and water supplies. There are still a lot of villages that need to have piped water brought into the home. Education-wise, we have reasonable access, but we need to improve the teaching material that is available in the classes and upgrade the general level of village schooling. We need to dissuade families from moving to the capital in the belief that they can get better education for their children here. So we still have a lot of work to do to ensure that the primary schools in the villages are upgraded. It is not simply a question of ensuring that competent teachers are available, but also as I say, providing good teaching materials and laboratory equipment for science subjects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· All of this obviously needs to be paid for, which entails healthy government finances. You recently had a serious problem over the debts run up by Air Polynesia, and you took very stringent measures to tackle this which resulted in expenditure cuts. What do the figures look like today ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-They are OK. We are running a budget deficit which means we have to borrow both overseas and locally, but we try to keep the deficit at a reasonable level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What has been the effect of introducing the Value Added Goods and Services Sales Tax (VAGST) ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It has helped enormously. Of course, in order to sell the idea, we had to reduce other taxes and duties. As you know, there is an international trend towards removing customs duties and shifting revenue-raising in the direction of consumption taxes. Customs levies, which are the traditional source of revenue are diminishing. So what we have done is to lay the foundation for the eventual shift in our revenue base. Also, we promised to cut income taxes even more-from 38% to 25% within two years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Has this measure been implemented yet ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-No, it is due to be introduced in 1998.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Finally, I would like to turn to a constitutional question. Western Samoa introduced universal franchise some five or six years ago, but you still have a system in which only matai (family heads) are entitled to stand as candidates in elections. Do you envisage any further changes to the system ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I cannot really see that we will ever change again. The Constitution stipulates that our government is based on Samoan traditions and Christian principles. When we introduced universal suffrage, we were applying something that had always been there in any case. Samoans have always taken part in the process of choosing their leaders and voting is simply another way of doing this. The only difference is that we would arrive at a decision by getting together through our village structures and talking, whereas your system involves marking a ballot. So the change was quite in accordance with our customs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let me say something about the way villages choose their matai. When there is a question of succession, everyone has a right to take part in the process. There is no age limit. So in that sense, you could argue that we are more advanced. And we always had female matai, even before the arrival of the Europeans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this respect, I believe we are quite different from Fiji and Tonga. In Tonga, the dividing line is quite clear. If you are born a noble, you remain a noble and if you are born a commoner, you will always be a commoner. It is the same in Fiji. There, you are automatically a ratu K your father was one. By contrast, here in Samoa, my son cannot automatically succeed to my title. So to become a matai, a person has to earn it, and to put his case at the family meeting which is convened to choose a successor. Usually, the person chosen is the one who displays the best leadership qualities. I think I should also point out that becoming a matai is not that difficult. If you want to be one, you inform the family and if they think you have matured sufficiently, you will generally get the position and then become eligible to be a parliamentary candidate. It is typical that when a family sees a fellow has matured, he becomes a matai.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 2934 km² (Exclusive Economic Zone of 130 000 km²)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 165000</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population density: 57 per kiLom&eacute;tres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Apia (situated on the island of Upolu)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National language: Samoan (English is the business language)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currency: Tala (WS$) made up of 100 sene. In June 1996, 1 ECU was worth approximately WS$ 3. (US$1 = WS$ 2.3)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">System of government: A unicameral constitutional democracy with strong traditional elements. The current Head of State is one of the country's four paramount chiefs, and he holds the office for life. Thereafter, the Fono (Legislative Assembly) will elect the Head of State for five-year terms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is universal franchise (introduced in 1991) but in order to be a Parliamentary candidate, one has to be a matai (family head). Western Samoa is said to have about 19000 matai. The minimum voting age is 21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Head of State: HH Malietoa Tanumafili II</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Tofilau Eti Alesana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main political parties: Human Rights Protection Party (HRPP), Samoa National Development Party (SNDP)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Party representation in Parliament: HRPP 35, SNDP 11, Independent 3. (The HRPP total includes 11 members elected as independents in the April 1996 election who subsequently joined the governing party).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p038.png"></center><br>
+ Map</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy (1995 figures unless otherwise stated)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual GDP per capita: approx US$ 950</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP growth rate: 7%. The target for 1996 is 34%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Principal exports: coconut oil (WS $8m), coconut cream (WS $4.8m), copra (WS $2.2m).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balance of payments: exports - WS $21.7m, imports - WS $228.1m. 'Invisible' earnings, officially described as 'net foreign earnings' amounted to WS $171m, leaving a current amount deficit of WS $36.8m in 1995 (20%lower than the previous year). The main 'invisibles' are private transfers (remittances from Western Samoans living abroad), tourism, income from services and the value added trade of the Yazaki electrical components firm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inflation rate (end 1995): 1 %. Inflation tends to fluctuate a great deal. The figure for 1994 was 18.4%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government budget (projected for 1996/97): revenue WS $288.4m, expenditure WS $312.7m, deficit WS $24.3m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Accumulated government debt: WS$ 389 m</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth (1993): 67.8 years</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult literacy (1993): 98% (A UNESCO report in 1994 suggested that real literacy levels were significantly below those indicated in official figures) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education: all levels from age 6-23: 74%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.700 (88th out of 174) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Marketing a tropical idyIl</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Folasaito Joe Annandale and his wife Tui are the brains behind Western Samoa's latest tourist facility- the Sinalei Reef Resort, which has just opened on the beautiful south coast of Upolu island. They are among a growing number of Samoan entrepreneurs who are injecting new dynamism into the country's economy although they are somewhat unusual in the tourist trade. With the notable exception of the famous 'Aggie Grey's Hotel' in Apia, tourist accommodation in Western Samoa has tended to be the preserve of foreign investors, including some of the major international hotel chains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At first sight, it is surprising to discover how underdeveloped the tourism sector is in Western Samoa. Tour operators may be inclined to use the phrase 'tropical paradise' a little too freely but this island nation certainly seems to meet most of the essential criteria. It has the obligatory golden beaches fringed with palm trees, extensive coral reefs and striking mountain scenery overlaid with lush vegetation. The vivid colours leave a particularly strong impression. Greens predominate but there are also many copper-leafed trees and bushes, and an abundance of red, orange and yellow flowers. Western Samoa can also offer a number of special features which are important in marketing terms. There is, of course, the legendary hospitality of the Samoans and their distinctive and vibrant traditions. This must be one of the most musically 'literate' populations in the world, a talent which is reflected in the numerous choirs/dance groups. The harmonies are impressive and the traditional dances are both expressive and entertaining. There is also the unique 'fare' architecture which is a particular source of fascination to outsiders, not to mention the Robert Louis Stevenson connection. The famous author spent the last four years of his life in Western Samoa and the house where he lived- which used to be the Head of State's residence - has recently been converted into a museum.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Good prospects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The potential for expanding tourism is something that has not escaped the government. In today's highly competitive free-market world, countries are being urged to exploit their 'comparative advantage' and the Western Samoan authorities recognise that this sector offers some of the best prospects for future growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like most other economic activities, the tourist trade was badly hit as a result of cyclone devastation in 1989 and 1990. However, visitor numbers have increased substantially since then. Indeed, looking at year on year earnings, the tourist sector is performing better than any other area of the economy. In 1994, income was WS$.58 million (50 000 + visitors). The following year, it reached WS$.78m and there are hopes that it could top WS$.100m in 1996. Of course, no-one in Samoa is talking about 'mass' tourism. The country is too far from the main industrialised nations to be able to offer traditional package holidays (perhaps fortunately !), and too small to absorb the cultural and environmental impact without lasting damage. Having said this, the market can be divided into two very distinct portions. At one end of the scale are the low spending 'back-packers'-often taking advantage of relatively cheap 'round the world' airline tickets to stop off and sample the pleasures of Western Samoa. These tourists may not spend very much on a daily basis but they are reasonably significant from a financial standpoint because they tend to stay for quite lengthy periods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the other end, you find the high-spending, 'exclusive' customer willing to pay for high quality accommodation and catering. Perhaps not surprisingly, the Government is more interested in attracting the latter, which is why they are keen to encourage investors such as the Annandales.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier spoke to Joe Annandale about his business strategy when we recently visited the country. The Sinalei Reef Resort, which has received EIB loan financing channelled through the Development Bank of Western Samoa, has just 20 rooms (including four suites) giving it a capacity of less than 50. Customers will be offered a tropical idyll and a chance to escape completely from the pressures of modern living. The long term aim, according to Mr Annandale, is to entice Europeans in general and Germans in particular. The latter, it is said, have a preference for environmentally-friendly, 'escapist' vacations and, of course, there is a historical link between Germany and Western Samoa. Until a European clientele can be built up, the focus will be on attracting guests from Australia and New Zealand. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Culture clash?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there is no question of Western Samoa being swamped by visitors from overseas, even a modest increase in tourist numbers is bound to have an impact in this country of just 165000 inhabitants. On the negative side, the Samoan system of customary (village) land ownership sometimes appears at odds with entrepreneurship founded on individual ownership of property and resources. In the early stages, Joe and Tui Annandale encountered local difficulties-including squatters-when they bought the land to develop the resort. The usual arrangement is for overseas tourism operators to lease customary land, a process which may involve protracted and ultimately fruitless negotiations with the matai (village heads) who have traditionally used the land for other purposes. Of course, the clash between traditional land tenure systems and 'modern' capitalism is not restricted to tourist ventures-as mining operators in Papua New Guinea have discovered. But while one understands the frustrations for developers, who may find themselves embroiled in complex and interminable land disputes, we should also recognise the concerns of local people who see a possible threat to their way of life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the positive side, new tourism developments mean jobs and trading opportunities. In the building of the Sinalei Resort, the Annandales drew heavily on local labour, employing 35 people from the neighbourhood. As Mr Annandale pointed out, this was essential for a complex designed to fit in with the local environment. The Samoans have always built their own houses and only they had the required carpentry skills. The resort also employs 35 regular staff for catering, housekeeping etc. and again, the majority are local people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, there is one criticism often levelled against tourist ventures which certainly does not apply at the Sinalei Reef (or other Samoan hotels). This is that most of the food and drink consumed by visitors is imported. The Annandales make a point of purchasing their fish, meat and fruit locally, thereby ensuring that some of the financial benefits of their venture flow back to their own community: in short, a happy combination of astute public relations and good economics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with opposition leader Tupua Tamasese Efi</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Revive the agricultural base'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tupua Tamasese Efi a former Prime Minister of Western Samoa, is leader of the opposition Samoa National Development Party which won 11 of the 49 seats in the parliamentary elections held in April 1996. In this interview, he outlines his own and his party's views on some of the key political and economic issues in his country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In what ways does your party offer a different agenda from that of the governing HRPP ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think the differences are mainly of emphasis. The present government tends to focus on law-making and exploiting the country's least developed status. Our focus would be more on developing our indigenous agricultural industries. If you scrutinise the economic picture in Samoa, you will find that there has been a very substantial decline in agricultural exports in the last fifteen years. Our economy, if you can call it that, is increasingly sustained by largesse-the donations that we get from overseas. This has complicated our situation. Our relative economic independence has been sabotaged to a point where, suddenly, we are getting a proletariat. That might be unavoidable in a lot of places, but it doesn't have to happen in a small country like ours which has self-sustaining village units, and a potentially secure agricultural base supported by products like cocoa, copra and bananas. If you look at what is happening today, you see that, all of a sudden, we have a new class of under-privileged people with absolutely no income at all. And the tragedy is that it has happened without anyone really noticing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So our emphasis is to try and revive our agricultural base, and to seek out exports. In the past, our economy was sustained by cocoa and copra exports, and a lot of our food was sold to New Zealand. Now, you find that there are hardly any exports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So your focus would be more on boosting the traditional aspects of the Samoan economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Not necessarily traditional. Our party is not bound to cocoa, or copra or whatever. But we are committed to improving our agriculture. It matters little whether it is traditional or other crops. But we need to break back into the New Zealand market. This is the best place to aim for. Australia has its own tropical sector and nothing that we can produce is needed by them. New Zealand is different. One of the biggest challenges we have to overcome in getting back into that market is our fruit fly problem. It would seem sensible for us to channel substantial resources into overcoming this hurdle so that we can sell to New Zealand again. There is a tremendous potential market-and not just for copra. There are also products such as flowers, and a whole number of other possibilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Given what you have just said,what emphasis would you place on sectors like manufacturing and tourism ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think that tourism is an obvious way to go and this is where we are in agreement with the government. Of course, you will have heard of the debacle of the Air Polynesia finances. When you compare the losses that were run up with our foreign exchange reserves you get some idea of how enormous the problem was. It was a situation that went badly awry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This issue aside, we agree that we need to get into tourism-but it must be within reason. Part of the explanation for people gravitating towards tourism is that they see it as the only available avenue-or at least the most visible way of making money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another economic point I want to raise concerns debt. Loans can be a quick fix, but when your whole economy is tied to indebtedness, you are creating something that is built on sand. You end 'A potentially secure agricultural base' up acquiring more and more capital items that are totally unrelated to your present or likely future resources. This is one of the most destructive things that can happen to a society, and it is very clearly happening here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have a rich and vibrant living culture here in Western Samoa. Are you concerned that globalisation could ultimately pose a threat to this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-No, I am not worried. You have to accept it as a natural development. The things that are distinctive in our culture have to find their place in adapting to the new realities. There is no point putting your head in the sand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Turning to political aspects, you now have universal franchise, but you still have to be a matai to be eligible to stand for Parliament Does your party have any plans to change this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Some years ago, we had a constitutional convention which led to changes in the system. Attached to that was a provision requiring a further constitutional convention to be convened in 20 or 25 years (I can't remember the exact period). So we are committed to that. We have to sit down and look at the overall picture. We have gone a long way in terms of universal franchise and it is possible that we need to go even further.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But if one takes the United Kingdom as a model, I think the important lesson is that you should 'make haste slowly'. The genius of the Westminster model is that it involves careful evolution. I hope that this tradition will be followed by our country. The constitution, as it was put together some 30 or 40 years ago, has served its purpose very well but there are quite a few anomalies appearing now.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is your view about regional cooperation in the South Pacific What future do you see in working together with the other countries of the region- perhaps presenting a more united front to the outside world ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-There is a lot of sense in the SAS approach-I am referring here to the Scandinavian countries getting together to form an airline. It is sensible to take a common stand where we have a common interest. But there are obviously intricacies resulting from historical, economic and social factors. At the moment I am reading a book on lain Macleod, the British Conservative statesman. His experience in the failed attempt to form a federation in the Caribbean is very revealing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When you enter a common endeavour, there is always the pull of your own particular interests. And there can be a suspicion that the 'bigger boys' will use the others to promote their own interests. A lot of this may be perception rather than reality. Also, traditional rivalries can intrude. Sometimes you need to fall flat on your face before you Let me give you an example from the world of rugby. It took Rupert Murdoch to get Fiji, Tonga and Western Samoa to realise that our fates are intertwined. He has come in with a commercial package that has taken over the entire rugby scene in the region- with a heavy emphasis on Australia and New Zealand-and this has hit us in a big way. For example, we find ourselves being cut out of traditional rugby tours. There is no point in us trying to claim that we are self-sufficient in this area. The big lesson is that we need to cooperate a lot more with the Tongans and Fijians in order to make an impact on the wider rugby scene._ </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Western Samoa-EU cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Focus on utilities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Mylanwy van de Velde</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa's cooperation with the European Community began in 1975 with its accession to the Lom&eacute; Convention. From the start, the sector to benefit most from programmable funds (ECU 4.6 m under Lom&eacute; I and ECU 6m under Lom&eacute; II) was the energy sector, with the financing of the Samasoni Hydroelectric Scheme in the late 1970s and the Sauniatu Hydropower Scheme in the early 1980s.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In parallel, a programme of 260 microprojects was funded involving the development of poultry and pig farming, and fisheries, covering 96 villages on the main islands of Upolu and Savai'i. A further ECU 890 000 was allocated to the Western Samoa Development Bank, in the form of a credit line, to increase the Bank's lending capacity. In addition, at a time when copra exports were still considerable, the Community financed storage and handling facilities for coconut oil and copra pellets (ECU 900 000).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On top of programmable aid, Western Samoa received 12 Stabex transfers totalling ECU 9.3m for export losses on copra, wood, bananas and cocoa in the period 1975-84.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Lom&eacute; III, the development of the country's substantial hydroelectric power potential continued, and Western Samoa began to make considerable steps towards self-sufficiency in energy needs. While in 1980 some 78% of the electricity generated came from diesel plants, by 1986 this percentage had dropped to 26%. The volume of petroleum imports for electricity generation dropped to 36% in the period 1982-86. With the building of the Afulilo Hydropower Plant (Lom&eacute; III and IV), these volumes have decreased further, with positive benefits in terms of foreign exchange savings. The scheme (which was co-funded by the Asian Development Bank, the EIB, the World Bank and the Western Samoa Electric Power Corporation) involved the construction of a 10 million cubic metre reservoir, a penstock, a powerhouse, and the installation of mechanical equipment and transmission lines, and has contributed substantially to the quality of electricity supply on the island of Upolu.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p043.png"></center><br>
+ Community aid to Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Additional work has been done with Lom&eacute; IV funds to address the question of rural water supply: a water master plan and design study for a number of rural areas have been completed, and a public awareness programme on the rational use of water resources has been designed for implemention at such time as planned infrastructural work goes ahead.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, an ECU 1 m microprojects programme has been initiated with the aim of financing the renovation of infrastructure for rural communities in the fields of water supply, health, education, tourism, agriculture and fisheries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stabex payments under Lom&eacute; 111 (1985-1989) and Lom&eacute; IV (1990-1994) amounted to ECU 11.1 m and ECU 5.7m respectively. These were paid to compensate for losses in coconut oil and copra products, especially, but also for losses on exports of cocoa beans and of wood in the rough.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the above grant aid, the EIB has provided a total of some ECU 9m in risk capital in the years since 1981, the bulk of which was used in connection with the Sauniatu and Afulilo Hydropower Schemes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further total of ECU 660 896 has been allocated in emergency aid to Western Samoa, in 1983 after a serious fire on Savai'i, and in 1990 and 1991 after the disastrous cyclones Ofa and Val.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Programming of the next tranche of EC funding under the eighth EDF has still to be completed, but the indications are that prominence will be given to extending and upgrading the water supply network. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.v.d.V.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new health-centre for Tafua</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sight that greeted the people of Tafua when they emerged from shelter in 1990, following the passage of Ccyclone Ofa,was one of complete devastation. The tropical storm had been one of the worst in living memory and this village community on the island of Savai'i, together with many others in the Samoas, found themselves having to start almost from scratch. Homes had been swept away' crops destroyed and much of the essential infrastructure Iay in ruins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a testament to the resilience and determination of the people in these communities that there are few signs today of the havoc wrought by the winds just six years ago. In some places, rows of dead trees still stand in silent witness to the power of Mother Nature, although the scene is softened : by the new crops and lush vegetation growing beneath. But the villagers have rebuilt their houses and, with some help from outside, they have been able to re-establish i the essential community facilities as well. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through its micro-projects programme, the EC was able to offer a helping hand in the task of reconstruction. For the modest sum of just ECU 10 000, Tafua now has a new community health clinic adjacent to the site of the old one which was swept away by Ofa. In keeping with the rules of the scheme, the villagers were obliged to contribute 25% of the cost-which they provided in kind, in the shape of the labour for rebuilding the clinic. The Courier visited Tafua in June and was shownaround the facility by Nurse Agata Leuelu who provides primary health care for the 600 villagers. We also met local Methodist minister, the Rev. Siaosi Selesele, who explained how the people had taken shelter in the neighbouring school when the storm reached Samoa. It turned out to be the right choice as it was one of very few structures left standing in the neighbourhood. Villagers are obviously hoping that there won't be another 'Ofa' for a very long time' but if and when the next big wind does strike, the new ctinic-which has been built to withstand a lot more strain-should hopefully be able to weather the storm. In the meantime, it provides an important service in the delivery of health care to the people of the area. The European Community has also provided micro-project funding to help rebuild the health clinic at Taga on Savai'i. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dossier</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Investing in people</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Dossier coordinated by Augustine Oyowe)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Previous editions of The Courier have dealt, separately and at length, with various aspects of human resource development, especially in the context of recent dossiers on population and social development, education and training, public health, women, and poverty. Our current dossier looks at the issue from the investment perspective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To say that investing in people makes economic sense is to state the obvious. But to what extent are the implications of this statement fully understood in the developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa in these days of constantly shifting development theories?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Labour or 'human capital' has long been recognised as a key factor of economic growth. As opposed to sustainable human development, which places human beings at the centre of economic activities (the recipient of the fruits of economic progess), 'human capital' places them at the beginning of the process. The difference of approach is thus evident even though the objective is the same. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Investing in people is a concept which simultaneously combines 'human welfare' with the 'human capital' approach at the beginning of the economic development process. It encompasses nutrition, health and education, and should, under the right investment climate or conditions, enable any investor, whether State or individual, to reap an adequate return .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After three decades of considerable efforts at investment in health and education by sub-Saharan African countries, the returns in terms of standards of living, economic grovvth and rate of development have been extremely disappointing. The conclusion which can be drawn is that the conditions necessary for adequate returns on these investments have been absent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colonial legacy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sub-Saharan Africa inherited from the colonial regimes, infrastructures in health delivery and education that were not only alien to its culture and traditions, but also totally inadequate for nation building. It is a well known fact that in 1960, there were no more than 1200 university graduates in Capital redefined</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important when thinking of investnent in human resources to understand the real concept of capital. Below is an extract of a definition given by Stefan de Vylder (taken from his UNDP discussion paper: 'Sustainable Human Development and Macroeconomics strategic links and implications' . </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A child in the North is born wealthy. His or her share of the capital accumulated by earlier generations is worth a fortune. The higher wages and salaries in the North, compared with those in the South, largely reflect differences in endowment of the country, rather than of the individual. The fact that, for example, a nurse in Germany earns 30 times more than one in Bangladesh or Zambia has little to do with individual differences in training or skills; the higher salaries in the North simply reflect the higher dividend on the capital bestowed from the past. Part of this wealth or heritage is easily visible: factories, roads, schools hospitals, universities, telecommunications, and other infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, there are other, less tangible, forms of capital that constitute a crucial complement to physical and infrastructural capital; parliamentary democracy, a free press, respect for human rights' norms for social interaction, systems of rapid dissemination of new ideas, trade unions and a myriad of other large or small social organisations, a judiciary system which, by and large, defends law and justice, and other institutions. This latter form of capital may be called institutional or social capital. It is also highly unevenly distributed in the world, with large differences both between the North and the South and within individual countries of the North as well as in the South the region as a whole. Indeed, some countries had no graduates at all and in others, they could be counted on the fingers of one hand. In what was effectively a race against time, African leaders understandably responded by investing massively in human resource development. This was made possible partly by small, but steady rates of economic growth and partly by sustained foreign assistance. Between 1960 and 1980, sub-Saharan African governments consistently allocated high proportions of their annual budgets to health and education. Households and individuals made similar efforts (accounting for nearly 75% of all spending on health). They made sacrifices and gave a high premium to the education of their children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results were tangible and very significant. By the late 1980s, sub-Saharan Africa was producing over 70 000 graduates a year. Major cities had hospitals and health centres and the rural areas, clinics and dispensaries. Amid a general improvement in nutrition and health-care delivery, the incidence of infectious disease, and maternal and infant mortality were considerably reduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite these achievements, the approach to manpower building by the post-independent African leaders was, to say the least, haphazard. As a result, a number of problems, such as the appropriateness of school curricula, under staffing and the long-term budget implications of recurrent expenditures, were overlooked (although reform efforts have since been attempted in some countries with varying degrees of success).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The consequences were felt in the 1980s when Africa's economic crisis was only just beginning. Health and school infrastructures deteriorated for lack of maintenance. There were shortages of qualified teachers and teaching materials leading to falls in educational standards as well as in primary school enrolments. And health systems failed for lack of personnel and drugs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The situation has worsened as the continent's economic crisis has deepened-a crisis characterised by huge budget deficits, high inflation rates, sluggish growth rates and a heavy debt burden. Structural adjustment programmes (SAPs), introduced in response to this, have only served to undermine further the gains made in human resource development. SAPs have been aimed mainly at macroeconomic stabilisation, deregulation and privatisation of state enterprises, and the social sectors have lost out in the process. Subsidies on basic commodities, especially food, have been removed, civil servants and employees of state enterprises have been made redundant and cost-recovery has become the standard practice in medical services. These measures have all combined to produce a level of poverty never before seen in the region, a situation which has adversely affected nutritional standards, provoked malnutrition in many countries and reduced resistance generally to infectious diseases. Because of the rise in unemployment, large sections of the educated population have been rendered unproductive, a waste of several years investment by both the state and the individuals in question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appropriateness of skills</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although sub-Saharan Africa produced a large number of graduates before the economic crisis began, few had the kinds of skills needed for industry and agriculture. The evidence of this lies in the unsuccessful attempts by some governments in the late 1970s to indigenise executive positions, most of which required high levels of technological knowledge or experience. The 1980s saw a dramatic increase in the number of foreign technical assistants working on the continent and, paradoxically, in the number of qualified African professionals leaving, mainly for Western Europe, the United States and Canada.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International technical assistance to, or cooperation with, subSaharan Africa has intensified. Organisations such as the World Bank, IMF, UNDP, UNCTAD, UNESCO, European Union and Commonwealth are all involved in one form or another. The effectiveness of this assistance varies, however. This dossier features articles on the work of three of these bodies (the Commonwealth, UNDP and VNESCO). The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation was set up more than 25 years ago to mobilise Commonwealth skills to meet the needs of member states as required. The UNDP's TOKTEN programme is designed to reduce the negative impact of the brain drain by getting highly qualified developing country expatriates to contribute their skills to the development of their home countries without necessarily having to return permanently. Finally, UNESCO's university twinning programme is designed as a mechanism for the rapid transfer of technology and sharing of knowledge. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While international assistance or cooperation is indispensable, it is surely no substitute for Africa's own efforts at human resource development. Three years ago, Edward Jaycox, then World Bank Vice-President for the Africa Region, announced what appeared to be a change of policy at the annual conference of the African-American Institute in Washington DC. He said that the Bank would no longer pay for foreign technical assistants to help resolve African economic problems but would instead help African governments build their own capacity. Although the Bank has traditionally had enormous influence on development thinking and policy worldwide, the apparent policy change does not appear to have influenced other donors. Nor, indeed, is there any evidence that the Bank itself is implementing it vigorously. The number of foreign experts being sent to Africa continues to grow. There were over 100 000 in 1988.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rationality of investing in people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the negative social impact, ten years of structural adjustment have not produced the sought-after stabilisation or the economic growth that was initally anticipated. Even the World Bank and IMF, who spearheaded the structural adjustment idea, have admitted that it has flaws and the need for a new approach to sub-Saharan Africa's economic problems could hardly be more urgent. In the Dossier, Giovanni Andreas Cornia argues for a new focus for structural adjustment, based on restoring adequate levels of public spending on health, education, social welfare and water supplies, so as to enable sub-Saharan Africa to restore and develop its human resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evidence of the impact of a healthy and educated population on economic growth and development abound. Studies on the economies of the East Asian 'tigers' have all concluded that big investments in education in the late 1950s and 1960s were largely responsible for the rapid growth they have experienced in recent years. Malaysia, although a latecomer, appears to be following in the footsteps of its neighbours. After nearly two decades of investment in human resource development, and the introduction of a foreign investment policy which requires some technology transfer, the Government now predicts Malaysia will achieve 'fully developed' status by 2016-twenty years from now.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A relatively well-educated workforce and a certain amount of physical capital or natural resources are all a country needs to succeed economically. Sub-Saharan Africa has sufficient natural resources as is often pointed out. The other side of the equation-a relatively well-educated workforce-is missing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sub-Saharan Africa lags behind other regions in human resource development for a complex variety of reasons. The natural and political environment are not conducive to the delivery of social services: low population density and weak transport infrastructures make such delivery expensive and the achievement of economies of scale impossible. The region's climate favours a variety of diseases (such as malaria and sleeping sickness) and many areas have little or no access to natural water sources. Political instability and weak institutions also continue to cast a long shadow. Although these constraints are long-term, appropriate policy measures could reduce their negative impact significantly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giovanni Cornia analyses the distributive effects of appropriate health care, nutrition and education on economic growth. He suggests ways of making rational use of available resources for maximum returns and of mobilising funds through taxation, foreign aid and other sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an age of increasing globalisation, where technology is more easily transferable across borders, a healthy and educated population is essential, not only for the absorption and use of new technology but also for meaningful participation in international trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is insufficient, however, to have an educated workforce. Sub Saharan Africa must acquire the institutional and managerial capacity to make the right decisions, both in the public and private sectors. This is essential in the quest to eliminate poverty, achieve sustained and sustainable economic growth and ensure a realistic integration of the region into the global economy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A much needed new focus for SAPs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Giovanni Andrea Cornia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two decades, a clear consensus, supported by a growing amount of empirical evidence, has emerged on the growth and distributive effects of appropriate health care, nutrition and education, and on the rationality of investing in human resources to promote development in low-income economies, and in sub-Saharan Africa in particular. It is now clear that public and private rates of return on investment in primary and secondary education are substantially greater than those in most industrial sectors. Similarly, it is now well demonstrated that nutritional interventions in favour of workers at low levels of food intake has a very large impact on labour productivity. Also, provision of simple but adequate nutrition and health care at an early age has been shown to spare substantially greater health outlays over the longer term. While the number of these examples can be multiplied, the lesson is overwhelmingly clear: investing in people is a sound development policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the same two decades, a broad political consensus has also emerged on the need to establish realistic targets in these areas and mobilise adequate resources to achieve them. The latter decade, however, has also been characterised by a widespread and acute recession which has reached its lowest point in the African continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While there has been a general recognition of the link between the deterioration of the social sector and Africa's economic decline, the interpretations of the causes of this decline and how best to address them vary considerably.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1980s also witnessed the advent of structural adjustment, an approach aiming at revitalising economies affected by severe crises and which calls, amongst other things, for a reduction in public spending, including on social services. With sharp falls in revenues, it was argued, African governments could no longer afford to provide health and education free of charge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments were to encourage instead the role of the private sector (since competition between state, private and non-governmental agencies fosters efficiency and enhances quality) and make households bear a greater share of the cost of publicly provided social services (as-it was alleged-households had a strong 'willingness to pay' for better quality health care and education).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a debate characterised by an overwhelming concern for expenditure reduction, little thought was given to protecting the provision and effectiveness of basic health care and education for all. Nor was sufficient attention paid to the mobilisation of additional revenue through taxation, foreign aid or other measures Even the introduction of rationalisation measures, which would have allowed for use and preservation of limited resources, received scant attention. During this period, public policies often ignored a number of well-known public finance arguments concerning market failures, externalities, natural monopolies, etc. typical of basic health and education. It was all too often forgotten, for instance, that the market systematically undersupplies 'quasi-public goods' like education, safe water, immunisation and collective infrastructure (i.e. goods which produce benefits not only for consumers but also for society as a whole); that incomplete or non-existent markets alone are unable to provide complete insurance coverage against the risks of sickness and disability; that the free play of market forces can generate levels of poverty that are socially unacceptable, and that competition among many small providers does not allow for the realisation of the economies of scale which only the public sector can realise because of its size, administrative infrastructure and revenue raising ability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greater and better government involvement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this paper, I will attempt to point out the main distortions in the social sector in sub-Saharan Africa and the major reforms, part of an alternative policy paradigm to the standard approach focusing on large expenditure reductions. My main line of argument is for more efficient and renewed but, in most cases, greater rather than less government involvement. I do not deny the important role of communities, nongovernmental bodies and private providers of social services, but the retreat of the state, which has been underway for several years in most of Africa, is palpably wrong: it may be a good survival strategy, it is definitely not a good development strategy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any approach to revitalisation of the social sector in Africa must aim at increasing both the quality and the relevance of services to the life, health and productivity of the population; enhancing efficiency; reducing distributive biases in the use of public expenditure, and improving the flow of both public and private resources to the social sector. These sets of measures are briefly discussed here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raising relevance, reducing unit costs and enhancing quality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two basic initiatives are essential to the achievement of this goal. Firstly, it is necessary to adapt the content of services to the demands placed on the child, the adolescent and the family by the external environment. Secondly, in doing so, it is necessary to provide minimum resources, particularly recurrent inputs, for every unit of service offered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Much can be done to improve the relevance of education in Africa. A key element in this is the wider use of African languages in the educational system. Admittedly such a step would probably encounter obstacles, but the results of pilot projects in the continent and experiences in several English speaking countries have been encouraging. The use of African languages should be expanded throughout primary and at least part of secondary schooling. And the curriculum of basic education should include basic health science, agriculture, food and nutrition, basic technological science, ecology and environmental studies as well as reading, writing, arithmetic, history, geography and elementary civics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While responding more appropriately to the life and developmental needs of children and adolescents, these measures offer the potential to improve substantially the cost effectiveness of the educational system by reducing the number of drop-outs and repeaters, particularly if the measures are accompanied by school-based nutritional support programmes and by steps to ensure a steady, if basic, supply of teaching materials such as books, chalk, slates, pens, exercise books and so on. Minimum expenditures for the latter, estimated at $5-10 per child per year, have been shown to have a profound impact on the quality and attractiveness of education.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving the relevance and quality of African secondary and higher education will require an increase in the number of courses in science, engineering, agronomy, management and other fields. Given the limited success of vocational training and yet the profound need for this type of education, a more flexible approach may be appropriate. Business associations and ministries of labour, rather than ministries of education, for example, could organise the type of vocational training that responds more closely to labour market conditions. Much needs to be done to gear university research to local and national needs. Rather than maintaining the model of independent residential universities, faculties could interact more with and rely upon local institutions and non-governmental organisations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the health sector, a more vigorous approach is necessary to implement the 'Health for All' strategy. In particular, more attention must be paid to the quality of the training imparted to village health workers, the provision of minimum supplies of essential drugs, adequate supervision, the mobilisation of communities and the strengthening of family planning services in the first tier of the primary health care pyramid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greater efforts are needed to contain unit costs through the mobilisation of community resources (such as materials and time) and the introduction of 'product standards' and 'production techniques' more in line with local factor endowments. With respect to capital expenditure, one major source of potential savings is the substitution of imported materials with local ones in the construction of schools, clinics and other public health facilities. Through this approach, capital costs per student could be more than halved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In health care, savings are also possible, in some cases, in wages and other recurrent expenditures. The potential for savings through increased efficiency in the procurement, management, storage, distribution and prescription of pharmaceuticals is substantial. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And there is a need for more carefully articulated manpower policies, with recognition of the cost implications of alternative skill mixes. Many tasks carried out by senior professionals can be performed by auxiliary personnel. In this regard, there is substantial scope for the application of nominal fees as a tool to guide demand for health care and thus increase efficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Similar considerations are valid in the education sector. Despite considerable declines during the 1980s in both French-speaking and Eastern and Southern Africa, teacher salaries in the late 1980s were still considerably higher than per capita GNP in several countries. While a cutback may be possible in some countries, reductions below the 'efficiency wage' should be avoided as they affect the quality of teaching.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are, of course, other approaches to reducing unit costs such as using teachers trained on crash courses and- paid salaries lower than that of fully trained ones, multi shift education to increase teaching hours, multigrade classes to increase class sizes and the creation of regional training centres with donor support. In addition, in most of sub-Saharan Africa, all university students receive fellowships to cover living expenses while at school. In many cases these fellowships represent a substantial proportion of total unit costs at the tertiary level. They add, in effect, to the regressive nature of educational subsidies and should be suppressed for all except for those who are least able to pay.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Substantial improvements in the distribution of benefits of public expenditure could be obtained through its restructuring towards basic services which benefit the poor more than they do the rich. This would mean, typically, the reallocation of part of the expenditure on hospitals to primary health care activities and part of the expenditure on universities to primary education. It would also mean that a greater share of investments in water supply and sanitation should be assigned to rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Correcting existing misallocation, however, is not simple, as capital and labour resources are only partially mobile. This is particularly true of capital expenditure which has already been invested in physical infrastructure. Inter sect oral reallocation is easier for recurrent expenditure, particularly when budgets are expanding, and it can lead to the achievement of more efficient and distributive gains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government subsidies need to be improved through effective targeting on 'merit goods' (such as food and shelter). Targeting is distributionally and administratively more effective when it is accomplished according to some objective criteria such as geography (the poorest areas), type of commodity ( low quality foods not consumed by the rich), easily identifiable population group (like pregnant women, young children, children in elementary school in poor areas, etc.) or season. It is less effective when carried out by means-testing or by targeting individuals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decentralisation of health care and education in the African context is likely to improve the geographical distribution of services. Poor communications and transport systems, population dispersion and the fact that the supervision of personnel, resource distribution and operations is easier at lower levels of administration, are all arguments in favour of such decentralisation. Nonetheless, where it means loss of control over the implementation of national policies (in curriculum development, manpower training, drug procurement and so forth) and excessive additional financial burdens on households and communities, decentralisation is potentially damaging. This was the experience of Kenya when the purchase of drugs was decentralised at the district level. It subsequently had to reverse this policy because of the problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing the flow of resources to basic social services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the considerable scope for protecting and, in some cases, expanding the delivery of cost-effective and high-impact social services, even during periods of declining resources, there are limits to what can be achieved through the measures discussed above, particularly in countries where the share in GDP of public health and education expenditure is already low. Indeed in most African countries, the flow of resources to these sectors must be vastly increased. The options available include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Increasing the share of government expenditure on key social services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Top priority should be given to a radical restructuring of government expenditure involving the shifting of resources towards those sectors with high social rates of return. Expenditure on defence can be cut substantially, while subsidies to chronically lossmaking public and private enterprises and interest payments on debt (the relief effect on foreign-debt interest payments of current provisions is utterly inadequate) should be reduced. If realistic expenditure restructuring like that proposed here were implemented, 1015% of overall public spending in many countries could be redirected to social activities with high rates of return. One half to two-thirds of these savings could be allocated to health care, nutrition, training, education and welfare, thus raising the share of these activities to about 30-35% of total expenditure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Increasing taxation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between the late 1970s and the mid-1980s, the average tax to GDP ratio for sub-Saharan Africa fell from 18% to 16-17%. (Only recently are there signs of recovery, but these are confined to only a few countries). This resulted mainly from the recession affecting the region and from the limited priority attached to revenue collection in most adjustment programmes implemented during the first part of the 1980s. In these 'first generation' programmes, the stabilisation of deficits was achieved mainly by cutting expenditure and raising excise duties. Increases in income taxes and progressive indirect taxes were far less frequent and land and property taxes were almost never introduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While taking effect rapidly, the measures implemented led to excessive drops in public expenditure on 'quasi public goods' and have had a regressive distributive impact. It is now widely recognised that a more active tax policy is needed. Such a policy should aim at improving revenue generation and enhancing the efficiency and equity of the overall tax system. This would permit a controlled rise in specific 'socially efficient' public expenditures, particularly basic health, primary and secondary education and public infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the 1980s, a number of countries, including Burkina Faso, Kenya, Malawi and Zimbabwe, initiated efforts to reform their tax systems. While the choice of optimal tax instruments has depended on specific country conditions, a few general principles of tax reform apply to all countries. First, colonial type tax systems emphasising the taxation of exports (and to some extent, of imports) should evolve towards systems which focus on income taxes, progressive and efficient indirect taxes and increases in the prices of such public utilities as telephone and electricity which benefit mainly the wealthier sections of society. Second, purchases of goods and services consumed by the poorest should be exempted from indirect taxes. Third, efforts should not concentrate on raising marginal tax rates but rather on broadening the tax base by reducing tax evasion and tax elusion, and fourth a low, uniform and broad-based tax on wealth (such as on land or other assets) should be introduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A non-distortionary and equitably-spread increase in the tax ratio equivalent to 2-3% of GPD is technically feasible in a good number of African countries and would by itself add to the real flow of resources to health care and education by about 15%, even assuming no growth and no shift in priorities towards the social sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Introducing 'earmarked' taxes or raising local ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The flow of tax resources to the social sector could be augmented more readily if the new tax revenue thus generated, or at least part of it, were directly earmarked for specific health and education activities (for which there are guarantees that tax money is spent efficiently), or if these taxes were raised directly by district and provincial authorities, who are usually entrusted with responsibility for social services at the local level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Mobilising additional resources from households and communities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In sub-Saharan Africa, as in most other developing regions, households have long borne a substantial share of the national expenditure on health, education, water supply and so on by contributing resources (in kind, cash and time) for the construction of health and education facilities, covering direct and indirect costs (transport uniforms, fees, drugs etc.) associated with the provision of public services and making payments to private providers. Despite these already considerable contributions, user charges have been introduced or raised on a large scale in recent years in many countries to alleviate the burden on public expenditure imposed by the economic crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, while the small but significant contribution of user charges to health and education budgets should be acknowledged, the negative effects of the indiscriminate application of these charges should also be emphasised. Indeed, in many African countries the need for health care, education and other social services rarely coincides with the ability to pay. The implementation of user charges can have adverse effects in three ways. First, it may lead to a contraction in the demand for services. Second, in the health sector, it tends to discourage the use of preventive services for which potential patients may not see an immediate relevance (such as ante natal care and immunisation). Third, it may adversely affect a household's ability to meet other basic needs, such as the purchase of food, particularly if fees are charged simultaneously for health, education and other services and if the household's income declines. In addition to these problems, there is little evidence that the revenue from user charges is actually reinvested to improve the quality or expand the coverage of local services, as those who promote user charges argue. Despite recent attempts at keeping a share of the user fees at the local level (e.g. at the collecting facilities), in most cases revenue merely flows to the public treasury. Moreover, user charges usually generate a relatively small proportion of the total operating cost of the health care sector, with gross yields at around 5%. If the costs of fee collection are included, the yields are lower and, in some cases, negative.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, health care, education and the provision of water include different types of services, some clearly geared to the needs of the poor and others catering more for middle and upper-income groups. While user charges are not well suited to primary education, disease control programmes, basic curative services and communal water supply, the same cannot be said of university education and other 'income elastic' services. For the latter, cost recovery measures would be advisable, although subsidised access for the deserving poor must be assured. For the intermediate category, which includes most curative health services and secondary education, selective cost-recovery measures might be desirable, with low income individuals exempted or charged only a nominal fee.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While direct user fees (levied on patients at the moment of their treatment) are problematic from several perspectives, there are other indirect ways to mobilise resources from communities (generally before episodes of illness), such as various kinds of prepayment schemes, health insurance, lotteries, mutual funds and the sale of produce from community fields, in addition to their contributions in kind. These schemes have two main features which are attractive for health-care: they shift the moment of payment, so that individuals are not burdened with relatively more significant expenditure at the time of illness, and they spread the burden of costs (e.g. for drugs) over a larger group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Increasing the volume of international aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There has been a considerable shift in official development assistance (ODA) in favour of Africa over the past two decades. Africa's share in total ODA rose from 19.4% in 1975/6 to 25.1% in 1980/1, and to 34.2% in 1988/9. However, the share assigned to human resource development has dropped, while- debt-service obligations have often absorbed a growing share of ODA. Greater flows are therefore needed. In the late 1980s, the World Bank estimated that additional annual aid of about $1 billion was required during the 1990s to halt social retrogression and ensure reasonable progress. But this flow of aid has not materialised on any appreciable scale. Indeed the trend in the 1990s has been towards an absolute decline in aid flows. The simplest and the most cost-effective way to effect such aid transfer would be through debt relief, although some increases in ODA are needed. Improvement in the quality of aid, including substantial shifts to programme aid, greater participation in the financing of recurrent costs and more focus on primary health care and education and on rural water supply are also required.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What role for NGOs and private providers?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While private providers, including church missions, have always been important in Africa, much of the market oriented literature tends to be very optimistic about the scope for expanding private services in order to replace government ones. Although a multiplicity of providers is desirable (and frequently unavoidable), there are several reasons why such optimism should be tempered. First, private sector services in Africa are typically concentrated in urban areas, and because of their cost, cater for upper-income groups. Although non-governmental providers (especially missions) are often located in rural areas, and they generally provide valuable services, they are seldom able to guarantee extensive coverage and in some cases may duplicate government services. Second, private providers are not without costs to governments; they often receive subsidies or preferential treatment in the allocation of foreign exchange and typically offer higher salaries and better working conditions which draw manpower away from the public sector. In Zambia, for instance, a teacher in a primary school run by the Consolidated Copper Mines can earn more than a lecturer at the University of Zambia. In countries with extremely limited numbers of doctors, certified nurses, qualified teachers and so on, greater privatisation would exacerbate the 'brain drain' from the public to the private sector and the undersupply of 'quasi public goods' for the majority, leading to harmful social differentiation. Third, quality is not necessarily an important incentive in the private sector in developing countries. The view that private institutions in health care and education are more efficient tends to be based largely on analyses in developed countries. Fourth, the growing pressure for pluralism in social service provision often gives scant attention to the problems of central coordination and planning and the development of an adequate 'regulatory framework' for private sector activities. While playing an important complementary role, the private sector and, to a lesser extent, the NGO sector, are thus affected by important objective limitations. Indeed, ironically, their proper functioning and social utility depends crucially on the existence of a stronger, not weaker, state able to regulate, coordinate and ensure that basic social services are provided - possibly through a multitude of public, NGO and private providers-to all citizens of a nation. G.A.C</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Capacity building for management and development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Franklyn Lisk</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development experience of much of sub-Saharan Africa in past decades provides ample illustration of the importance of capacity building in the development process. The importance is related to the ability to manage economic and social processes, including the analysis and formulation of policy options, for attaining development objectives such as employment generation and poverty reduction. The consequences of failures in domestic economic management, compounded by the effects of a prolonged economic crisis in the region have, inter alla, contributed to high and rising levels of open unemployment and underemployment, declining per Capita incomes and real wages, and an increase in the incidence and intensity of poverty in a number of African countries. The persistence of these adverse consequences, which represent a serious threat to economic growth and sustainable development, are somehow linked-either as a cause or an effect -to weaknesses and instability in the institutional framework for management and public administration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem of weak institutional and general capacity for management in Africa today can be traced to the colonial legacy. This left many countries in the region, at the time of independence, with insufficient institutional and human capacity to cope with the transition from colony to independent sovereign state, particularly with respect to the responsibility for economic management. More specifically, this related to the unequal and disadvantageous manner of Africa's incorporation into the international economic system in the late 1950s and the early 1960s. Lack of technological know-how, inadequate infrastructure and limited investment resources compounded the immediate post-independence problem of weak institutional capacity, and left many African countries highly vulnerable to external shocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was extremely difficult for the majority of African countries to break out of the old 'protected' colonial production and trade systems and rapidly to diversify their economies in line with the requirements of participating effectively in a competitive world economy. Since independence, institutional and human capacity for management in many African countries has not grown fast enough to keep up with the requirements of changing socioeconomic circumstances at the national level and to face the challenge of increasing globalisation. Critical skill shortages in public administration and private sector management in Africa can hardly be addressed in the context of the current economic crisis. The consequences of this crisis can be seen, for example, in underfunded and poorly equipped training and management development institutions, and in low-paid and demoralised civil services. At the same time, the 'brain drain' from the continent, partly as a consequence of poor pay and career prospects, has further undermined capacity in Africa. The interaction of foreign donors and African governments has not always served the interest of capacity building. It has been admitted, even by the World Bank that 'aid has done much less than one might have hoped to reduce poverty (in Africa)'. There is now more or less a consensus in the international donor community that expatriate technical assistance does not and cannot solve all kinds of development problems in the region. Far from solving problems, the imposition of foreign technical assistance has, in some cases, become a destructive force which undermines the development of domestic capacity that is critical to solving local development problems. Where donor assistance is inappropriate in terms of project concept and design, or there is a mismatch between design and domestic implementation and management capacity, technical assistance could end up becoming part of the problem rather than the solution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conceptual issues</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before examining the requirements for institutional capacity building in developing countries, and particularly African countries, it is necessary to clarify salient issues pertaining to the concept. Broadly speaking, capacity building in a development context refers to a comprehensive process which includes the ability to identify constraints and to plan and manage development. The process usually involves the development of human resources and institutions, and a supportive policy environment. Ideally, it aims at improving on existing capabilities and resources and using them efficiently to achieve sustainable economic and social development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Narrowing the concept to focus on institution-building, the emphasis will be on the development of particular institutions, their human and material resources, their organisational management and their administrative capacities. More specifically, the aim of institutional capacity building is to improve significantly the outputs and impacts of institutions concerned with economic management, public administration (including project management), enterprise development and so on-in both the public and private sectors. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is obvious that relevant development-oriented institutions within an economy can exert a decisive influence on economic growth and employment prospects, and indeed on the attainment of sustainable economic and social development. From a macro standpoint,planning and similar development institutions are required for better management of the economy including, more crucially, the ability to mobilise, allocate and utilise human and material resources in an efficient and productive manner. At the micro level, human and institutional capacity is critical to sound project management and public administration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The framework</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The general situation in Africa today suggests that capacity building is required in relation to the following priority areas:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- good governance, to ensure stability;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-economic management, to maximise resource mobilisation and promote sustainable development;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- human resource development, to support employment creation and income generation, and reduce poverty;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- science and technology, to increase the efficiency of the population and facilitate infrastructural development;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-enterprise development, to enhance the critical role of the private sector in overall development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The degree of emphasis given to each of the above in a given context would vary according to the level and complexity of existing human and institutional capacities, the economic and financial means to support capacity, the relative roles of the public and private sectors, and the degree of involvement of civil society in the decision-making process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The policy context for institutional capacity building should be multi-sectoral and flexible, but coherent in relation to the desired objectives of development. This is to ensure that the process of capacity building is adaptable to changing circumstances-an issue that is particularly relevant in the context of countries undertaking structural adjustment and economic reform programmes when there is a need effectively to nurture and utilise local skills and to mobilise investment resources efficiently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the light of the development challenge facing African countries, the process of capacity building in the region requires, above all, appropriate and adequate human and institutional capabilities to plan and manage economic and social development processes. These capabilities should include the means of assessing the achievements and impact of capacity building on poverty reduction, employment creation, etc. Existing public sector institutions for development planning and management could provide the operational framework for national capacity building, but the process should also include the participation of diverse social forces, the private sector and non-governmental institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regarding the role of external donors and technical assistance agencies, the approach should be based on the concept of 'partners in development', which implies consultation and dialogue between donor and recipient on all aspects of project planning, design and implementation- with project 'ownership' resting with national authorities. Technical assistance from foreign donors should therefore go mainly towards developing the necessary domestic capacity, rather than contributing to the undermining of existing or potential capacity. Furthermore, assistance provided by external donors should be directed towards the building of capacity for promoting regional economic cooperation and integration through support for the development of viable African regional and sub-regional development organisations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Support initiatives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The issue of domestic capacity building in Africa has more recently been the focus of attention by the international community as a whole. Indeed, the former World Bank vice-president for Africa, Edward Jaycox, has described 'capacity building' es the 'missing link in African development' which is 'critical to the development effort (of the region) and the chances of success'. UN agencies, spearheaded by the UNDP, have been active in promoting capacity building as a major requirement for attaining sustainable development. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1991, the UNDP Governing Council took a decision which resulted in the development of guidelines covering assistance to governments in the formulation and implementation of national capacity building strategies relating to all stages of the project cycle in the developing countries. The decision coincided with the introduction of the 'programme approach' by the UNDP which emphasised the centrality of national development programmes as the hub for the integration of UN technical assistance activities with national efforts. Emphasis on the use of national skills in the development process was consolidated within the general operational framework for 'national execution', which implied that overall responsibility for management of UN operational activities and accountability remained with the government and other national institutions and beneficiaries who 'owned' these activities. Under these new arrangements, a high priority was thus placed on the strengthening and sustaining of development management and administrative capacities on a long-term basis as an integral part of UNDP technical assistance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank's interest in capacity building in Africa has been more closely linked to the need for administrative and technical capacity at the national level to carry out policy analysis and economic management in the context of on-going structural adjustment and economic reform programmes. In a trailblazing address to the African American Institute Conference in 1993, Mr Jaycox came out strongly in favour of a new approach to lending to African countries which gave top priority to the development of critical human and institutional capacity. He admitted that the Bank's $4 billion a year lending programme in sub-Saharan Africa had not had the desired impact on development in the region because not enough attention had been paid to national capacity in the past. He went on to criticise the international donor community and financial institutions, including the World Bank itself, for designing and carrying out technical assistance activities which not only fail to solve problems but end up undermining the development of capacity in Africa. Mr Jaycox accordingly pledged to give direct support to capacity building in the Bank's lending programmes, mainly through human resource development and the creation of a 'demand for professionalism in Africa.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNDP, the African Development Bank and the World Bank, collaborated in the early 1990s to set up the 'African Capacity Building Foundation' (ACBF), based in Harare, Zimbabwe, with initial seed money of about $30 million and another $70 million attracted from bilateral donors and African governments themselves. The fund is to be used by the Foundation to support capacity building in Africa through training and institution building. Particular attention will be paid to the rehabilitation and strengthening of selected research and training institutions to meet the challenge of indigenous capacity building. Another initiative set up with foreign donors and African support, the Africa Research Consortium in Nairobi, is a good example of collaboration at regional level that is contributing to capacity building in the critical area of economic policy analysis and management. Similarly, the African Development Bank helped establish the African Business Round table which promotes entrepreneurship and enterprise development based on African ownership and control.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Role of the ILO</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For well over three decades the ILO, as part of its technical cooperation programme in Africa, has been involved in a wide range of management development, productivity and institution building initiatives at both national and regional levels. This is consistent with the need to strengthen African training institutions to play a crucial role in providing development managers with the necessary skills to analyse and formulate policy options and manage public and private enterprises efficiently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most successful initiatives undertaken by the ILO, in collaboration with the UNDP and the Economic Development Institute (EDI) of the World Bank, is the UNEDIL programme for strengthening management training in Africa. Since its inception in 1987, the UNEDIL programme has proven to be a worthwhile initiative in institutional capacity building in the management field. Support for the programme has also come from national and regional management development institutes (MDIs) in Africa, regional and sub-regional organisations such as SADC and the Commonwealth Secretariat, and major bilateral donors such as USAID, CIDA, NORAD, the Netherlands and France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from aiming at strengthening institutional capacity, the UNEDIL programme has been instrumental in fostering networking among African development institutes and promoting professional contacts and the exchange of experience. One outcome of the programme has been the revival of three subregional MDI associations which enjoy the direct support of UNEDIL and serve as focal points for UNEDIL's subregional networking arrangements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Networking on a subregional basis has made it possible to optimise the use of scarce resources and talents, and this has helped to increase managerial capacity in the region as a whole. Collaboration has also permitted an exchange of experience among African institutions, and has brought together expertise both from within Africa and from outside to assist in the development of managerial capacity across the continent. This fits in with the goals of technical cooperation in general, and of South-South cooperation in particular. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.L. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The role of international academic cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing demands and diminishing resources in higher education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Professor Dumitru Chitoran</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As we approach the end of the millennium, higher education world-wide finds itself in a paradoxical situation. On the one hand, it is witnessing unprecedented growth. Enrolments are on the increase and so are the expectations placed on it by society. The correlation between investment in higher education and research, and the level of social, economic and cultural development of nations is well-established and is gaining increasing ground at a time when all development has become knowledge-intensive. On the other hand, higher education is in a state of crisis in practically all countries of the world, under the pressure of serious financial constraints. It has to compete for public funds with many other sectors and very often it is among the first to undergo severe cuts. These cuts have reached a dramatic threshold in the developing countries. As a result, the gap between the developing and the developed countries with regard to higher learning and research is wider than ever and it continues to grow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inter-university cooperation has emerged as a major tool for the support of higher education in the developing countries and as a flexible mechanism for the rapid transfer and sharing of knowledge, channelled via university links and exchanges. As emphasised in the Policy Paper for Change and Development in Higher Education issued by UNESCO in 1995, 'the most pressing need for international cooperation in higher education is to reverse the process of decline of institutions in the developing countries, particularly in the least developed.' The internationalisation of higher education has advanced steadily, reinforced by current processes of economic and political integration and facilitated by the steady advances in information and communication technologies. But, as indicated in the UNESCO World Education Report (1993), it is increasingly subject to the competitive laws of the market. Universities have been urged to develop an entrepreneurial, commercial attitude and to regard international cooperation mainly as a source of additional income. Fees for foreign students have risen considerably in many countries. As a result, academic mobility is becoming more North-North and less South-North or South-South. The benefits of study abroad, of exchanges, networking and access to data are recognised, but the costs involved render them increasingly a privilege, restricted to those who can afford it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An innovative programme</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO's response to these trends was the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme, launched in 1991. While serving as an instrument to foster overall inter-university cooperation, it was aimed at giving a clear direction and goal, namely to support higher education in the developing countries. It was meant to mark a return to the spirit of international academic solidarity, through twinning, networking and other linking arrangements among universities. The programme was also designed as an innovative form for the rapid transfer of knowledge, and for institutional development in higher education, including the establishment of transnational centres for advanced studies and research, as a means of redressing the widening knowledge gap between industrially developed and developing countries. One other aim of the Programme was to alleviate the negative effects of the brain drain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme has seen steady and dynamic development from the very beginning, and has emerged as the major thrust of UNESCO's action in the field of higher education. The favoured institutional framework for carrying out activities is a UNESCO Chair. The programme's activities are extremely diverse. They include the appointment of visiting professors, provision of scholarships and fellowships, facilitating of staff and student exchanges and undertaking of joint research. The 'chairs' are typical of basic units of research and training, with a strong international dimension, since either the chairholder, or some of the professors or researchers associated with its programme come from abroad. Other projects involve complex inter university networks, varying in size from three to more than 50 institutions. Within networks, certain institutions serve as focal points, responsible for initiating activities and securing broad participation in their execution. Also included are cooperation programmes established by UNESCO with major university associations and networks in order to carry out UNITWIN-related activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, there are 163 established UNESCO Chairs (a further 84 are under consideration) and 34 largescale networks (18 more are being developed). A total of over 750 teachers, researchers and other support staff are involved in their activities. It is estimated that 350 courses (mainly at the graduate level), attended by more than 7500 students, were organised by the established UNESCO Chairs during the 1992-1996 period. Also, 120 seminars, training workshops, symposia and colloquia were staged over the same period, attended by more than 6000 participants. Some 580 academics from developing countries spent short periods of time at partner universities in the developed countries to upgrade their training. In addition, 355 scholarships have been granted to students and young academics from developing nations within the framework of the Programme. Research has been encouraged through 240 projects (mainly joint ones) resulting, according to progress reports received so far, in the publication of 55 volumes, some 100 published articles and over 150 monographs and progress reports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ACPs in the programme</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A large number of these projects (UNESCO Chairs and networks) concern ACP countries. Africa has been given top priority. Over 30 of the established Chairs are located there and 18 more are under consideration for subSaharan Africa, in order to reinforce the contribution of the programme to the development of higher education in this region. In addition, certain projects located at institutions in Europe and North America carry on activities which are designed to support African universities. A few examples illustrate this. Starting from its bilateral links with several African universities, the University of Utrecht proposed developing these into a broader, multilateral project under the umbrella of UNITWIN. For this purpose, it joined forces with three other European institutions: the University of Lund in Sweden, the Ruhr University in Bochum, Germany and the University of Porto in Portugal. The result was the establishment of the Utrecht/Southern Africa/UNITWIN (USU) network. It includes, at its southern pole, the universities of Harare, Maputo, Namibia, and Western Cape, where UNESCO Chairs have been established in different fields. The aim is to develop each of them into (sub)regional centres of advanced study and research. This is well under way in the case of the UNESCO Chair in Mathematics and Science Education at Western Cape University in South Africa. A first step was to link its activities to those of the MESA (Mathematics Education in South Africa) project, a cooperation project between the Utrecht-Freundenthal Institute for Mathematics Education and the University of the Western Cape. A school for Science and Maths Education is to be established at the University of Western Cape.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another large scale project is the Network of African Teacher Training Institutions, built around a UNESCO Chair at the Ecole Normale Superieure in Dakar. This is designed to serve as a regional centre for postgraduate training and research in the field of education. After several years preparation, activities were launched in 1995. The strength of networking is illustrated by a number of other linking arrangements in support of African higher education institutions. These include the network initiated by the NATURA Group of European universities in the field of agriculture, the ORBICOM Network in the field of Communication, which is a global network but pays particular attention to the needs of African universities, and the UNESCO/John Hopkins University Networking and Partnership in Adolescent Youth Health and Development. The last-mentioned focuses on HlV/AIDS-related research, and includes institutions such as Addis Ababa and Makerere Universities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agreement signed by UNESCO with the Association of African Universities (AAU) within the framework of UNITWIN provides for support of the latter's staff development and management programme. A UNESCO Chair in Educational Management and Administration is to be established. It will function on a rotating basis at several universities in South Africa, Botswana and Malawi. There are also a number of 'tailor-made' chairs which respond to more specific needs of institutions, notably to develop training and research capabilities in areas such as human rights, democray and peace (at the Universities of Namibia, Addis Ababa and Fianarantsoa in Madagascar), or in the field of Water Resources and Water Culture (at the Universities of Malawi and Omdurman in Sudan). In the latter field, an interesting example is the UNESCO Chair established at the University of Nice, which, although located in France, carries out its activities in Mauritania and has produced the most comprehensive study so far on water resource management in that country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The programme has also made a good start in the Pacific and the Caribbean, even if achievements there are on a more modest scale. There are already 22 established chairs with 14 more under consideration. They cover a wide spectrum of priority fields, including the sustainable use of rain forest resources at the University of Guyana, higher education management and information technology at the University of Havana in Cuba, educational sciences in Fiji, and the use of drugs in Chulalongkorn University in Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO works closely with the University of the South Pacific and the University of the West Indies, with which it has established four UNESCO Chairs. Moreover, it has signed a cooperation agreement, in the framework of UNITWIN, with the Commonwealth Secretariat and the Association of Commonwealth Universities for activities in both regions. There is great potential for the further development of the Chairs programme in the Pacific and Caribbean, given the existence of the two regional universities mentioned above and the strong interest of universities in a number of developed countries (such as Australia, Canada, Japan and Spain) in supporting the programme. It appears to be particularly well suited for the systems of higher education in the two regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Funding</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cost of international cooperation in higher education has risen steadily and this is currently one of the major obstacles preventing the full use of the potential of academic links. New information and communication technologies help reduce costs, but universities in the least-developed countries would first need considerable investment in order to procure and maintain the necessary equipment. That is why UNESCO has based the Chairs programme on funding principles aimed at lowering costs and sharing them in a genuine spirit of academic solidarity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the outset, UNESCO made it very clear that, since it was not a funding agency, it could not, by itself, assume the financial burden of such an ambitious programme, involving several hundred institutions and thousands of university teachers, researchers and students. However, it decided to make a commitment by providing some initial funds. Rough estimates indicate that, over the 1992-1995 period, UNESCO has contributed some $2.5 million (from its Regular and Participation Programmes, Fellowship Bank and Funds-in-Trust) to the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme. At the same time, it has pressed for increased international development aid for higher education, particularly from the developed countries, and from international organisations, including the UN specialised agencies. A strong case is made for the benefit of pooling resources and for involving directly the higher education institutions themselves </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNITWIN-based projects, including UNESCO Chairs, are usually initiated through the direct contributions of UNESCO (the range is generally between $15 000 and $25 000 per individual project). This is meant to help prepare and launch projects and to secure further funding from other sources. The institutions themselves must include allocations for the respective projects in their own budgets and request their appropriate national authorities to make contributions. This applies equally to universities in the developing countries, however poor their resources may be. It serves to indicate that the project in question is indeed seen as a priority by them and by their national authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experience of the UNITWIN funding formula so far gives cause for cautious optimism. Many projects have been able to secure funds by having recourse to the various sources mentioned above. Thus, the Utrecht/ Southern Africa/UNITWIN Project received a first UNESCO allocation of $50 000 in 1993, in order to launch its activities. The fact that it concerned a large-scale project (a network of eight universities, with four chairs established at four African universities and one at the University of Utrecht) explains the larger UNESCO allocation. This was followed by a second allocation of $70 000 in 1994 for the actual implementation of activities in Africa. The UNESCO seed money led to additional funding-$600 000 annually, for the 1992-1995 period, from various Dutch donors (mainly the Ministry of Development Cooperation, through NUFFIC) and from the European Union, and $450 000 from the University of Utrecht budget, including the total cost for the functioning of the UNESCO Chair on African Studies established at that university. The other three European universities participating in the network (Bochum, Lund and Porto) have also made contributions and are now looking for donor funding in their countries. It is important to mention that the four African universities belonging to the network have also allocated funds from their own budgets to the UNITWIN projects and are actively seeking additional resources from aid and development programmes established for their countries by various donor agencies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It can be fairly argued that in terms of cost-effectiveness, efficiency and the ability to generate funding from various sources, UNITWIN compares favourably with existing cooperation schemes in higher education and research. But it is still too early to conclude that the Chairs Programme can continue and develop further on the basis of the present funding arrangements. The needs are arguably too big for the institutions and individuals involved, who may find themselves in a perpetual search for funds. An evaluation of the programme is under way and this will be submitted to the Member States for their decision. UNESCO is hoping that its efforts to revive academic solidarity, and its campaign in favour of higher education in the developing countries will receive the support of the international community. More than ever before, these countries need to develop their capacity for advanced training and research in order to achieve self sustainable development. The academic community has already indicated its willingness to join forces with UNESCO in this undertaking. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Brain drain : Colossal loss of investments for developing countries</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a highly qualified professional chooses to leave his own country for another, he does so for one or several legitimate political or economic reasons: peace and security for himself and his family, job satisfaction, better pay and conditions. a higher standard of living, etc. Throughout history, countries and centres of academic excellence which offer these attractions have received the largest numbers of professional migrants and these have, in turn, made substantial contributions, not only to the economic growth of their host countries, but also to the scientific and technological advancement of humanity. The wave of German scientists who moved to the United States after the Second World war, and their discoveries and inventions, come readily to mind. On a global level, therefore, the free movement and interaction of highly skilled people is a positive thing. But the costs to the home countries of losing their professionals is incalculable-in terms of both development opportunities and loss of investment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whereas Western Europe was the main loser, especially to the United States, up until the 1960s, the developing countries have emerged in recent years as the biggest suppliers of qualified professionals to the industrialised world as a whole. Today there are more than a million and a half skilled expatriates from the developing countries settled in Western Europe, the USA, Japan and Canada. The USA's educational system and its research institutions are heavily dependent on them. These migrant professionals contribute in no small way to increasing the disparities between the world's rich and poor nations. And it is the developing countries that need them most.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa, which has serious shortages of manpower, has been worst hit. It is said to have lost 60 000 professionals (doctors, university lecturers, engineers, surveyors, etc) between 1985 and 1990 and to have been losing an average of 20 000 annually ever since.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are more than 21 000 Nigerian doctors practising in the United States alone. Meanwhile, Nigeria's own health system suffers a cruel lack of medical practitioners. 60% of all Ghanaian doctors trained locally in the 1980s have left the country, according to the UNDP's 1992 Human Development Report, while, in Sudan, 17% of doctors and dentists, 20% of university lecturers, 30% of engineers and 45% of surveyors have gone to work abroad.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it is difficult to calculate the cost of an expatriate professional in terms of the nutrition, health care and education provided by households and the State, it is clear developing countries are losing colossal amounts of investment annually to the developed countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The US Congressional Research Service, for example, computed in 197172 that the USA gained $20 000 annually on each skilled migrant from the developing countries. If this rather conservative amount is extrapolated for Africa, then the continent lost more than $1.2 billion of investment between 1985 and 1990 on the 60 000 or so African professionals who emigrated during that period. Much closer perhaps to the truth today would be the estimate made by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), using 1979 prices, which put a cash value of $184 000 on each African professional migrant (and this only for those between the ages of 25 and 35).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, expatriate remittances, particularly from skilled workers who earn higher salaries than the average migrant, constitute an important source of funds for development in their home countries. Throughout Africa, households are being maintained by remittances from relatives working abroad. Also, fine buildings are being put up and small-scale projects are financed in villages and cities across the continent with funds sent from overseas. But taken together, these will never be large enough to compensate Africa for the loss of investment suffered as a result of the 'brain drain'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serious flaw in international cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The migration of highly qualified professionals from the developing countries is an extremely complex problem which presents the international community with a major dilemma. First, the 'brain drain' cannot be stopped by force nor can it be legislated against. It is linked to fundamental human rights- the right of individuals to move from one country to another, although the exercise of that right is governed by the immigration policies of individual countries. Second, it is fundamentally a national problem which can only be resolved at the national level by providing enough incentives for qualified nationals to remain at home. Third, some industrialised countries like the USA and Canada, have historically operated liberal immigration policies. Even European states, whose immigration policies tend to be more restrictive, have a good number of third world professionals, but there are over a million in the USA and Canada. It is arguable whether, under the circumstances, the liberalisation of the international labour market under the World Trade Organisation, as is being suggested (even by some developing countries), will actually be in Africa's interests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The reasons for Africa's brain drain problem are legion and easily identifiable, being both structural and economic. The most often cited cause is the continent's school curricula which many see as still largely modelled on the systems of the former colonial masters. This, it is argued, has led to the production of graduates in disciplines that have little or no relevance to the socio-cultural and economic milieux of the continent. This is a highly debatable assertion, given the large numbers of the technical assistants currently working in Africa who are products of the educational systems of the former colonial powers-at least some of whom are having a positive impact on the continent's development. This, however, must not distract from the fact that African higher schools systems are illequipped to produce the right skills for Africa's development needs. Because of shortages of both science equipment and teachers, the system instructs the vast majority of pupils in arts rather than in science and technology-and it is the latter which hold the key to economic growth and development. Thus, there is overproduction of graduates in areas where there are few employment opportunities. This results in high levels of migration, even, paradoxically among the few trained scientists because of the absence of an environment conducive to full professional expression and satisfaction. It is not uncommon for things as simple as electricity and water supply to provide reasons for emigration. Examples abound of frustrated African scientists who have had their experimental work of several years destroyed overnight through power failures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Powerful factors in the brain drain include Africa's poor rates of economic growth over the past 30 years (worsened by structural adjustment measures which have resulted in dramatic falls in living standards) and political instability (disturbances in Nigeria and Zaire, civil war in Liberia, Sierra Leone and Somalia etc). Thousands of qualified professionals have been forced unwillingly into exile, and the majority of those left behind, in these times of serious economic crisis, are engaged in unskilled pursuits-in petty trading and taxi driving-far removed from their professional training. The loss of investment associated with this situation cannot be underestimated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sub-Saharan Africa is in the paradoxical situation today of having large numbers of graduates in various disciplines -from medicine and engineering to architecture and accountancy-who have either emigrated or are simply unemployed, while it hosts a large army of foreign technical assistants. Indeed, Africa receives more advice per capita than any other continent. In 1988, there were more than 80 000 technical assistants, and today the figure is well over 100 000. These experts are believed to cost donors a total of $4bn annually to maintain, a figure which represents nearly 35% of Africa's total official development aid. This situation reveals a serious flaw in the operation of international development cooperation. Would it not be more efficient and cost effective to employ qualified African expatriates in the place of many of these foreign technical experts. The former, after all, have both linguistic and cultural links with the continent. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has a programme in this area which points to a possible way forward. The article on that programme, TOKTEN, follows. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Brain gain' : A cost - effective UNDP programme</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the scale of the brain drain problem facing the developing countries, the UNDP's Transfer of Knowledge Through Expatriate Nationals (TOKTEN) project may not amount to much, but it has proved, in its 19 years of existence, to be a cost-effective way of getting highly qualified expatriates from the developing countries to contribute to the development of their countries of origin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It all started in Turkey in 1977 by pure accident. A Turkish mineral expert in Alberta, Canada, was asked by a compatriot if he would be kind enough to come over to Turkey and explain his innovative coal cleaning process to the staff and students of his old university in Ankara-the Middle East Technical University. He expressed his interest in the project. Soon afterwards he was contacted by the UNDP which offered to fund part of his trip to Ankara. The expert spent one month in Turkey giving a series of seminars, not only at the Middle East Technical University, but also at the Istanbul and Dokuz Eylul Universities. During these lectures, he made recommendations on resolving Turkey's specific coal utilisation problems. His impact was immense and such that the UNDP was inspired to set up the TOKTEN project along similar lines to help developing countries gain from the knowledge of their expatriate professionals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The system is simple. Member States of the United Nations can apply to join the project. The latter is administered in each country by a National Working Commitee (NWC) which is made up of representatives from the government, local organisations, the private sector and the UNDP. Institutions of that country (government ministries and agencies, private and public sector enterprises, universities, research and development institutions, hospitals, etc) can apply for assistance in a variety of areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Applications are processed by the NWC and recruitment of experts is usually in one or more of the following ways:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> through consultants with lists of experts recognised by the Government as having extensive contacts within their expatriate communities;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> through embassies and missions, alumni associations and research institutions;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> through prominent members of the country's expatriate community who identify and alert other high level expatriates of the opportunities to return home and serve their countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the Working Committee chooses a consultant, an offer of assignment is made. The beneficiary organisation and the consultant will then determine the timing of the mission and inform the UNDP.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOKTEN assignments last between one and three months depending on the ability of the consultant and the needs of the beneficiary'. They are not meant to be highly remunerative. Consultants are only entitled to round trip economy fare tickets (by the most direct route) and a daily subsistence allowance at the prevailing UN rate. The costs are paid out of the beneficiary country's 'Indicative Planning Figure'(IPF) which is the amount of assistance the UNDP makes available to a developing country over a five-year programming cycle. Health insurance cover and accommodation is not provided. Usually these are the responsibilities of the beneficiary government or organisation. The salaries of the consultants during their absence are paid by their affiliated employers whose agreement is often necessary for the projects to go ahead.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOKTEN consultants are thus not motivated by money but by a genuine desire (with a modicum of patriotism) to contribute to the development of their countries of origin to which they retain strong cultural and linguistic ties. And their impact on the ground is usually immediate and measurable. Pressures are not put on volunteers to return permanently to their countries, although many have chosen to do so since the programme began in 1977.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The system is not only low-cost and cost-effective. It covers a great variety of specialised fields and enables programmes to be implemented with speed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conditions for success</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A UNDP assessment of the programme in 1987, ten years after it began, concluded that regular monitoring of its operation had enabled information garnered to be applied to increase its effectiveness. It had been found, for example, that short-term expatriate consultancies were especially beneficial when the problem tackled was specific and the consultant selected was of international standing, when both the requesting organisation and the expatriate were well prepared in advance, and when the initial mission was followed up by a series of measures, often including a return visit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 1992, 35 countries were participating in the programme and over 3800 consultancies had been run. Since then, the number of countries has increased dramatically to 51 and con</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">sultancies to 5000. In 1994 and 1995 alone, 28 countries reported over 700 consultancies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has also become clear that, whereas the main recipient institutions have been government agencies, science and technology research institutions, universities and organisations, the private sector is increasingly showing interest in the programme. The number of female specialists is also increasing: in 1991, 40 consultants were women and last year this figure rose to over 100.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, the ACP countries participating in the programme are; Benin, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Dominica, Ethiopia, Fiji, Guinea, Guyana, Haiti, Liberia, Nigeria, Sao Tome &amp; Principe, Sierra Leone, St Lucia, Trinidad &amp; Tobago and Uganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Success stories include a highly skilled Guyanese medical practitioner in the United States who returned home after 17 years to assume the post of minister of health. He had been sent to oversee the introduction of certain aspects of health care such as preventive medicine (immunisation, general child care and nutrition), treatment of trauma (victims of accidents and violence etc) and the establishment and management of the physical facilities for emergency patients. During his stint, his recommendation on the upgrading of the emergency room facilities was rapidly implemented and this contributed significantly to improving patient care. Another story involved a Guinean banker who, after a consultancy stint in Guinea, abandoned a lucrative job in France to return home permanently to work at the Central Bank of Guinea, helping to set up a new loan system for commercial imprt and export businesses. Guinea, in fact, has been one of the greatest beneficiaries of the TOKTEN programme with numerous consultancies involving the University of Conakry, covering more than 20 disciplines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For very small sums the programme is ensuring that developing countries which have invested enormously in the education of their expatriate nationals have a return, at least, in the form of the knowledge they oquired.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Mobilising Commonwealth skills for Commonwealth development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The role of the Commonwealth in the economic and social progress of its member states is neither widely known nor widely publicised. Yet for over 25 years, the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation (CFTC) has made significant contributions to the efforts of its developing member countries to accelerate the pace of their economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The recognition by the Commonwealth that people are its greatest resource forms the basis of its approach to development assistance-providing, in the short term, specialist technical skills which are either not available or are in short supply to governments to enable them to fill key positions in areas as diverse as export and industrial promotion, high-level economic and legal services etc, and in the longer term, a wide range of training programmes in areas that are crucial for economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation is funded by voluntary financial contributions from member governments which, as has just been mentioned, can also draw on it according to their needs and priorities. As a pioneer of technical cooperation between developing countries, the Fund recruits its experts from these countries and encourages South/South cooperation. It is thus not uncommon to see West Africans serving, on short-term contracts, as legal officers in remote Pacifc island states or Sri Lankans or Indians advising on new agricultural techniques in Africa. The Fund is administered by four separate divisions within the Commonwealth Secretariat: the management and training division; the general technical assistance division; the export and industrial development division, and the economic and legal advisory services division. In 1994-95 the CFTC's financial resources stood at around f23.6 million (ECU 30m).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human resource development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly one-third of the CFTC's budget is spent on human resource development, helping enhance people's skills through a mix of training workshops, study visits and individual attachments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some 4000 training fellowships were awarded in 1993-95 to enhance technical skills. These were given to middle and senior professional, technical and administrative managers to study at some of the Commonwealth's best institutions or to take up work attachments (63% of training takes place in less-developed countries).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Fund also enables universities and other institutions to become centres of excellence and upgrade the tuition they offer by appointing academic and technical specialists. In 1993-95, for example, it helped five universities in Africa and the Caribbean to run applied Masters courses through collaboration with other Commonwealth universities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the CFTC is usually able to meet only 60% of the requests it receives for specialised training, its programmes are held on a regional and pan-Commonwealth basis to maximise impact, especially in topics such as administrative reform, financial management and strategic planning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Fund's training priorities include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- first and foremost, identifying needs (consultants are sent to countries to examine their development plans and help them to prioritise training needs).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- providing education and training in key areas that reflect CFTC concerns such as well-managed economic and financial reform by government, sustainable development, participation of women and application of technology.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- ensuring an integrated package of consultancy, advice and training to help managers in government, and public and private sector enterprises to coordinate and manage reforms and restructuring.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- organising policy workshops and seminars that bring together senior government officials, executives and academics from Commonwealth countries to pool experiences, learn examples of best practice, discuss problems and reflect on emerging issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- giving support to institutions to offer new and specialised education and training programmes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- providing technical and vocational training under the Commonwealth Industrial Training and Experience Programme (between 1993 and 1995, workshops were held in hospital equipment repairs, railway repairs and maintenance and computer-assisted manufacturing).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- providing training in information systems, new technologies and environmental issues (governments are helped to develop management information systems and apply information technology). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-setting up programmes for women with a particular focus on entrepreneurs and community managers (among other initiatives, the CFTC is helping three African universities develop specialised programmes in entrepreneurship for women in non-traditional sectors).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-coordinating wider linkages among professional networks to facilitate exchanges of information and examples of best practice (the CFTC recently helped to set up the Commonwealth Association for Public Administration and Management to assist in improving public service performance and in raising ethical standards).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Expertise on tap</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shortage of skills is one of the biggest stumbling-blocks facing countries trying to raise the living standards of their people. Providing experts accounts for about one-third of the CFTC's budget.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because its assistance is relatively small and carefully targeted, it avoids the potential waste associated with larger scale projects and poor technical planning. In 1993-95, the cost both of a typical long-term expert and an average project was around £50 000 (ECU 62 000) a year. Experts can be in place within three or four weeks of project approval.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the same period, over 200 long- and short-term experts were provided to 43 developing Commonwealth countries, six dependent territories and 18 regional organisations. The expertise requested is extremely diverse, from hydrography and agroforestry to tourism, statistics, legal affairs, health, social planning and computer science.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assignments for short-term experts can range from a few days to six months. Their role is advisory, helping governments to introduce new systems or technologies. Long-term experts stay usually from six months to two years; others may stay up to four years. Experts assist in the development and implementation of policies or in the provision of managerial skills and the training of counterpart staff to take over in due course. Some long-term experts are trainers in specialist fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CFTC makes every effort to appoint women experts. In 1993-95, they made up 13% of experts that were sent to the field. These included a consultant anaesthetist in Ghana, an agricultural economist in Mozambique, an information specialist in Barbados, a fisheries development officer in Papua New Guinea and an environmental lawyer in Seychelles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A scheme to allow suitably qualified and experienced people to volunteer as short-term experts for a maximum of three months was launched in mid-1995. The scheme draws on experts from the Commonwealth who are willing to give their services on a voluntary basis to developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entrepreneurs come first</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In its help to small businesses, the CFTC focuses on those who manage the businesses and identify new entrepreneurial talent. Most assistance is given to small states, especially in the Pacific. The programme has three phases: the first relates to 'surveys of opportunity' which is aimed at identifying suitable entrepreneurs, investment opportunities and potential for expansion as well as specific problems. Next comes 'workshops on entrepreneurship development' during which business owners and operators are helped to think creatively, to become more aware of opportunities that are available and to act strategically when planning expansion. And the last are what we call 'business clinics' in which one-to-one counselling is provided to an entrepreneur at his or her business. This personal support has proved very successful in helping individual entrepreneurs to become more efficient and competitive and, by implication, adapt to changing world economic conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing exports</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CFTC has pioneered the use of Contact-Promotion programmes and 'Buyer-Seller Meets' forums to help small exporters. These forums allow company representatives, often from small Commonwealth countries, to display their wares and meet prospective buyers from other countries. CFTC consultants plan these activities well ahead, short listing producers that are likely to succeed, identifying suitable foreign markets and advising on redesigning of products. Sometimes exporters and factory staff also receive training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CFTC funds a special 'export development programme' for women entrepreneurs. This includes detailed country studies of women engaged in exporting as well as sales promotions abroad. Studies of this type have recently been conducted in Cyprus, Sri Lanka and Zambia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are helped, under the programme, to adapt their handicrafts for export, improve their manufacturing techniques and undertake sales missions abroad. Training is also given in export marketing, product development, costing and pricing. If necessary, changes to government policy are recommended. In 1994, the assistance given to Ghanaian women to develop markets for their basket ware and handicrafts is estimated to have helped generate sales worth US$3.1 million (ECU 2.4m). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">EU's investments in education and training in the ACP states</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Digby Swift</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community's investments in human resource development-health, nutrition and education-in ACP states have regularly been covered in the pages of this magazine whether in the context of dosiers or of country resorts. Here we present a brief description of how the EU's policy in education and training evolved under the Yaounde and Lom&eacute; Convemntions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Educating all the people. This is not just a slogan. In a poor, underdeveloped country, there may be some short-term gains from supplying high quality education and training to an elite few. But, as the 'Asian Miracle' has proved, major long-term gains in development and wealth are possible only if the entire population possesses a reasonable level of education.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Now for the problem. For many countries, notably those of sub-Saharan Africa, a large proportion of school age children receive no education at all. Of those who do attend school, many receive little benefit from their education because of the very low quality of provision. Only a small minority reach secondary education. And yet a higher proportion than ever of national budgets is now going to the education sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem is urgent because of the time it will take to resolve. Even if we could wave a magic wand to provide all children with a good primary education, it would take a decade to see the benefits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How is European aid helping to tackle this problem? What have been the guiding principles of European aid to education in the past? And why is the problem still acute in, for example, subSaharan Africa, despite decades of investment in aid to education ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid mirrors developments</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid to education has mirrored developments in the education sectors of the countries concerned. For example, the low-income countries of Africa, which account for 73% of Africa's population, have seen a rapid expansion in their education systems followed by a collapse of funding. This has resulted in a serious decline in standards of provision. European aid, which began by providing piecemeal assistance to infrastructure and manpower, shifted to a 'project approach' to tackle these emerging problems and is now moving towards a coordinated sectoral approach to help tackle the reform of whole education systems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From 1970 to 1980, the number of pupils enrolling in the primary schools of developing countries more than doubled, and the numbers in secondary and tertiary education quadrupled. Even relative to the increasing population, there was a 90% increase in the proportion of primary-aged children in school, and a large increase in the proportion of girls. This growth was accompanied by a doubling of government budgetary resources made available to education.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the massive general economic decline between 1980 and 1985, the money made available for education from the public purse fell by 40%, yet the education systems continued to grow. The result was that teachers' salaries plummeted, and funds for non-salary recurrent costs such as teaching materials and maintenance virtually dried up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1985, the financial situation has somewhat improved and funding is now at an all-time high. Nevertheless, for many African states, the education sector is in a state of crisis. Buildings are crumbling and inadequate; teachers are untrained or undertrained and often absent because of low incentives and weak supervision. There are few books and other teaching materials. Consequently, many pupils leave school virtually illiterate and innumerate. Moreover, because of the low quality of instruction and increasing costs to parents, many parents are no longer bothering to send children to school even when places are available. Primary enrolment fell by around 10% between 1990 and 1992. Thus in many countries, a fundamental reform of the sector is seen as the only way forward.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evolution of aid</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the early days of European aid, education and training were seen as suppliers of manpower for countries to modernise their economies. The priority themes of the 1970 Yaounde Convention for European Community aid were industrialisation, regional cooperation and international trade. Community support to education and training focused on the construction of colleges and university faculties to serve industrialisation and regional cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1975 Lom&eacute; I Convention referred specifically to 'the establishment of regional institutions of advanced technology, in the context of training programmes to enable nationals to participate fully in economic development'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1980 Lom&eacute; II Convention introduced multiannual training programmes, and support in the form of training awards and courses/seminars; experts and instructors; teaching equipment; collaboration between training or research establishments and universities. The emphasis was still on vocational training for other sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A significant proportion of European bilateral aid to education and training took the form of European teachers for secondary schools, colleges and universities. These helped to cover the shortage of locally trained teachers, whilst educating an elite able to fill senior and middle positions in the public and private sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 1985, problems were becoming all too apparent within the education systems being supported. As in other sectors, there was increased emphasis on the 'project approach' towards tackling these problems. Thus the Lom&eacute; Ill Convention includes support to education and training 'in the form of integrated programmes aimed at a well defined objective'. This could include, for example, 'assisting the ACP States' own efforts to restructure their educational establishments and systems and to update curricula, methods and technology employed, in order to step up the effectiveness and cut back the cost of all types of training'. A concern for under-represented groups, particularly women, was also becoming explicit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 1990, the concept of investing in people through education and training had moved high on the donor agenda, and alongside it, a growing concern for sectoral reform. According to the 1989 Lom&eacute; IV Convention, 'Cooperation shall be aimed at supporting development in the ACP States, a process centred on man himself and rooted in each people's culture. It shall back up the policies and measures adopted by those States to enhance their human resources, increase their own creative capacities and promote their cultural identities. Cooperation shall also encourage participation by the population in the design and execution of development operations.' In a chapter entitled Operations to enhance the value of human resources, a section on Education and Training refers to supporting the ACP State's efforts to 'reform their basic education institutions and systems, in particular by providing overall primary education coverage and adjusting imported systems as well as building them into development strategies'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1980s and early 1990s, European states and the Community joined the World Bank in support of structural adjustment. In a 1991 communication to the European Development Council, the Commission stated that it 'will give absolute priority to the social dimension of adjustment, in particular ensuring that the health and education sectors are adequately covered, in conjunction with sectoral reforms introduced or planned in these two areas.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balancing this concern for system reform has been a growing appreciation of the importance of decentralised cooperation. An example is the cost-sharing microprojects for grassroots development first introduced in Lom&eacute; I with explicit mention of support to primary schools. Another example is the need to support the activities of nongovernmental organisations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new policy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two events in the early 1990s have had a profound impact on European support for education and training. The first was the World Conference on Education for All: Meeting the Basic Learning Needs held in Jomtien in 1990. This emphasised the need for universal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">primary education and adult literacy to be firmly placed on the political agenda, and has resulted in a profound swing of donor support away from higher education and towards primary education. The second important event was the 1992 Treaty of European Union which requires the coordination of Member States' policy and operations, particularly in the social sectors. Guidelines are contained in the 1994 Council Resolution on support to education and training in developing countries in which 'the Council emphasises that education, in particular basic education, is a fundamental right'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to the Resolution, 'the priority for the Community and the Member States must be both to maximise access to education within the limits of the resources available and to ensure that the quality of education provided is suited to the needs of the majority of students. 'This is to be achieved through 'a balanced, programme-based strategy, tailored to the specific circumstances of the individual developing country', with pride of place accorded to basic education. It should provide 'support to the developing countries' own policies and efforts', not acting as a substitute for local initiative, and should involve better integration of action under structural adjustment with education sector priorities and aid activities. The Council also recommends a special emphasis on coordination in a number of pilot countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the outset, Community aid to education and training in African, Caribbean and Pacific countries has been in response to requests from the ACP states with an emphasis on ownership of the resulting programme by those states. What the new policy introduces into this process is a dialogue between government and all donors on needs, priorities and approaches set in the context of the education sector as a whole. Only through such a comprehensive approach can developing countries and European states reach a true partnership in realising the education and training needs of all citizens on which the future of their countries so crucially depends. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.S.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Analysis</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">EU-ACP relations : Building for tomorrow</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Kenneth Karl</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1989 saw the end of the Yalta inspired twin-superpower dominance. Nations had to examine their priorities in their desire for integration in an international environment in which geostrategic and economic realignment would be unavoidable. The philosophy which had served as a basis and reference point for North/South relations throughout the Cold War period is now being called into question and necessary adjustments in ideas have been triggered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Lom&eacute; Convention, which governs the development-cooperation relationship between the EU and the 70 ACP countries, is a unique North/South cooperation agreement on account of its contractual nature, its durability, the funds it allocates and the fact that it provides for a permanent dialogue. But it is also now at a decisive point in its history.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Those who regard the Convention as out-of-date and in need of renovation, and those more radical critics who believe that it no longer serves any useful purpose and must be phased out, both argue that a new direction is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Beyond all the criticism formulated against this system, the fundamental question remains as to whether the Lom&eacute; Convention will be able, given the necessary changes, to carry on after its fourth version expires.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The years between now and the end of the century will, naturally, see the application of the revised Lom&eacute; IV, including the substantial improvements made to it. However, this same period must also be used to prepare the ground for ACP/KU development cooperation in the future, whatever form it might take.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shortly after his nomination as European Commissioner for relations with the ACP countries and South Africa, Professor Pinheiro commented, realistically, that the ACP countries are no longer 'in fashion'. The change of emphasis can be seen clearly if one looks at the EU's burgeoning relations with its eastern neighbours from the former Communist bloc (illustrated by the wide range of European programmes now benefiting these countries). One might also cite the strengthening of ties with countries in the Mediterranean basin. Economic and security concerns underpin this development, but it undoubtedly reduces the significance which was once accorded to the ACP states.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, the economic objectives of virtually all EU countries, as they seek to reduce budget deficits and deal with increasing internal social problems inevitably put pressure on the amount of development aid being granted to the Third World.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This situation is, of course, not restricted to the European Union - which in fact remains the world's main contributor of official development aid. At the instigation of a Republican dominated Congress, the United States is planning much more swingeing cuts in its contribution, both to certain international agencies and to certain regions (including Africa).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This undeniable cutback in public development aid has been offset in recent years by net increases in private capital flows, but the geographical distribution is highly skewed. Only a few of the poorest developing countries have benefited from the trend, the main 'winners' being the emerging states of Asia. These include countries such as China, India and Indonesia which, it is worth noting in passing, do not have particularly good human rights records, in the sense that the term is understood in Europe. Despite the fact that ACP countries have identified potential for attracting foreign investment, they have not actually benefited from this change in resource flows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this climate, with official development aid in inaeasingly short supply, innovative methods for making optimum use of the available resources must be devised within the context of the Lom&eacute; Convention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On current indications, it is quite possible that in the year 2000, the Lom&eacute; Convention will be filed away in the archives. ACP/KU relations will certainly have to be more in step with recent developments on the international scene. The initial reasons for the establishment of a cooperative relationship between Europe and the ACPs, following the signature of the Rome Treaty, are now outmoded. As Paul Valery has commented: 'One of the worst mental aberrations is to think that things can survive when the reasons for their existence have gone'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So, what type of development cooperation should the countries of the European Union and their ACP partners aim for in the future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alternative trends</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has stated that it is in favour of a globalisation of aid within an innovative framework. One of the first questions to be asked is whether uniform cooperation with regions whose monolithic character is being increasingly called into question is still desirable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Variable geometry in development cooperation relations is increasingly being seen as the trend to be followed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If this option is chosen, there is a risk of the following scenario being created: The EU's relationship with the Caribbean could become diluted within its relationship with Latin-American countries and links with the Pacific countries could become confused with economic relations with Asia. What would then become of Africa, the continent needing most attention on account of the wide range of its difficulties and its increasing marginalisation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1990, the United Nations General Assembly, aware of the African question, adopted a new agenda on development in Africa, thus making that continent its number-one priority. Europe, on the other hand, must not simply focus on Africa but must invent new modes of action which are more concrete and more effective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secondly, recent trends imply greater conditionality. This has been taken on board not just by EU Member States. A number of multilateral aid agencies have also included it in their strategy. The OECD's Development Aid Committee believes that future relationships between North and South will be greatly influenced by conditionality and, indeed, the Organisation goes so far as to advocate this approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, conditionality in terms of development is a strategic element which must be handled with extreme caution. If cooperation, whether today or in the future, is to be based on conditionality, then it can only be rendered effective if aid recipients (both governments and the governed) are genuinely committed to the idea. They must be convinced, in a climate of resource-scarcity, than the approach is motivated above all by a desire for greater success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union thus has a vital role to play, making full use of its advantages in terms of dialogue and consultation in order to prevent conditionality being perceived as a condescending mechanism. Thereby, it can help to prevent conditionality from generating the well-known perverse effects of 'tied' aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course, conditionality raises the thorny question of national sovereignty, but it is important to observe that modern international relations have moved on, both de jure and de facto, from a concept of absolute sovereignty to one of relative sovereignty. This is illustrated by the trend towards humanitarian intervention as a right, the requirements of the Bretton Woods institutions, supranationality in certain regional international organisations, and the very fact of world economic interdependence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This does not mean that the developing states should sell off their sovereignty to the highest bidder but that conditionality should be the subject of negotiation. Donors must be more flexible in their demands and thereby give the country in question such room to manoeuvre as is necessary for programmes to succeed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thirdly, development of the private sector appears now to be approved by all parties. Since independence, the State has been omnipresent and omnipotent in most productive areas of ACP economies. Given the failures of the public sector, private enterprise is now being called in to help. Its development is one of the sector specific policies which will and must receive most support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development of the private sector must permit better distribution of the fruits of the growth that it generates and promote integration of the ACP countries into the market economy. There can be no question of pitting private enterprise against the public sector, because any Manichean approach in this sphere might prove to be risky. It is important also to stress that free market development cannot take place overnight and that it is subject to inescapable macro and microeconomic preconditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, the birth and expansion of a dynamic private sector depends on the politico-economic fabric. This includes reliable financial bodies, functioning financial intermediation, adequate infrastructures, technical qualifications and training, a suitable legal/ regulatory framework, institutions to support private businesses, the channelling of the informal sector and a public sector which is prepared to play fair, aware of its regulatory role. These, in short, are the necessary ingredients for the adjustment of the private sector to permit the development of a true enterprise culture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development of a harmonious private sector will make it possible more easily to achieve the transformation and export objectives required by international competitiveness. It should, therefore, help to counteract the erosion of commercial preferences generated by the Uruguay Round. The latter's time limits should, in any case, be extended, because it seems clear that the ACP countries will be unable to fulfil their obligations by the end of the moratorium obtained by the EU during the negotiations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The notion of compensating for inequality that is found in international development law, implies the adoption of a normative system to counteract the weak trading position of developing countries vis-a-vis their competitors in the North. But in recent times, this idea has been losing ground and it is unlikely to cut much ice with the WTO authorities. Legal equality in a situation where there is structural inequality is not, in fact, equitable, and it is therefore necessary to find some other way of mitigating the adverse effects, looking at it in a global context.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Promotion of domestic and foreign investment should be better supported. People talk of the 'risk/ country' threshold that deters foreign investors. It may be that this can be measured objectively by looking at economic and other indicators, but even if this is not possible, it clearly exists as a psychological barrier. This is a problem for many ACP countries and it needs to be crossed, using measures which tackle the many obstacles to investment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Changing the culture of development cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides all the technical aspects, one could argue that the shortcomings of the Lom&eacute; Convention stem also from the perceptions of those involved in development cooperation. In short, it is the actual concept and culture of development aid which must be changed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the European side, the colonial legacy has conditioned attitudes, imprinting on them a dominant patemalism which is prejudicial to the aim of development. This European concept of cooperation must be overturned. Moreover, development cooperation must not be seen as the art of the possible but as the art of making possible what is strictly necessary, by virtue of genuine negotiation with the countries which have resolved to move forward.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, it is desirable to have a better developed policy of informing European public opinion about development cooperation. An effort is needed to counter false impressions, such as the one left by the French journalist who wrote: 'Official development aid is like taking money from the poor in rich countries to give it to the rich in poor countries'. Better information is needed to ensure that the public can decide such matters for itself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coordinating the Union's policies with those of the Member States now presents an enormous challenge. The political obstacles are huge and development cooperation may well suffer as a result of them if the objectives of coordination, coherence and complementarity contained in the Maastricht Treaty are not achieved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for the ACP countries, success in their economic development depends on many factors, cooperation being only one of them. Many political leaders in these nations have too often described cooperation with the North as the only way in which they can develop. In fact, this should be seen as nothing more than an additional factor - supporting the national effort and a genuine desire for development. It is pure fantasy to believe that development can be set in motion solely on the basis of an external impetus. To succeed, it must come from within a country. This is why future cooperation between the EU and the ACP countries must progress towards reinforcing the aptitude of the latter to devise, master and control their own development process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the future, the ACP countries must propose concrete and responsible solutions to their partners, doing so by means of the dialogue system. They must also promote development based on participation, particularly with the involvement of young people and women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that the ACPs can offer a credible prospectus for development must be acknowledged. It is undoubtedly a challenge, but it can successfully be overcome if a climate of stability, security and confidence is created, matched by an unambiguous political will.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In KU/ACP relations, programmes must include the long-term vision necessary for sustainable development. Too often in the past, the strategy has been aimed at an immediate and ostentatious result. Successful development in the future will depend crucially on a change in such attitudes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.K. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let us know what you think</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The debate about the future of cooperation between the European Union and the ACP states is now beginning to gash' pace. Last year, we established the 'Analysis' section in The Courier to report on this debate-and give readers an opportunity to express their own views on the subject.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The response so far has been encouraging, but it has come mainly from the European side. We are keen to receive contributions from ACP readers as well. If you have you own ideas or opinions about what should happen after Lom&eacute; IV expires, why not put them on paper and send them to us. Our address is on the inside front cover of the magazine. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The view of civil society on the future after Lom&eacute; IV</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was the subject of a conference which took place in Maastricht from 12-14 June, under the auspices of the European Centre for Development Policy Management (ECDPM). It brought together participants from ACP countries and Europe, including representatives of civil society (NGOs, the private sector, etc.). Four major topics were addressed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How can a new KU/ACP commercial relationship be constructed ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was agreement that some form of preferential trade regime should continue after 2000. Some participants stressed the need to Promote 'fair trade', which would contribute not only to growth but also to development. The impact of individual trade preferences is not always clear-cut, but obviously there cannot be a single solution covering all problems in all ACP countries. An analysis of negative constraints demonstrated the difficulties involved in reconciling the rules of the Lom&eacute; Convention and those of the World Trade Organisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How can the private sector become involved in development ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most important aspect of this topic is knowing how to create a favourable and business-friendly environment which will enable the private sector to play its part-and the role the European Union could play in this process. The private sector was defined as both formal and informal, encompassing large, medium and small enterprises, whether local or foreign. The importance of a strong local private sector in guaranteeing long-term stability was particularly emphasised. In this respect, the view was expressed that the role of the state and its relationship with the European Commission should be redefined. There was also a call for time to be set aside time for effective dialogue, and to create the space for a partnership between the public and private sectors. It was felt that the role of Economic and Social Councils should be expanded and specified more clearly. As for the specific issue of privatisation, the point was made that this should not be seen as a panacea and that it should be approached on a country-by-country basis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards current instruments, it was noted that their objective is essentially to meet public-sector requirements. The role of the Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) attracted some criticism. Speakers felt that the private sector should be more involved in the preparation and implementation of cooperation programmes with the European Community. Direct financial support to the private sector was seen as desirable, including backing from the European Investment Bank.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What partnership ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The partnership concept was seen to have been eroded over the past two decades, with the pretext of efficiency resulting in a more paternalistic approach. Mechanisms needed to be found to enable EU priorities and the prerogatives of ACP countries to be reconciled. Reference was made to the political nature of the origin of the partnership and the need to find a new political raison d'etre for this type of relationship. The problems of cohesion within the ACP group and its relations with the EU were also raised, and there was a discussion about the possibility of giving the Convention a regional character-although a number of speakers expressed reservations about this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the European side, two lacunae emerged, namely coordination between donors, and consistency between Lom&eacute; and other Community policies (including relationships with the Bretton Woods institutions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the principle of partnership, some participants were keen to stress the motives of solidarity and common interest that lay behind cooperation. It was not simply a matter of 'negative' interdependence. The appropriateness of the term 'partnership' was questioned, if this was only to mean financial and technical cooperation. The politicisation of Lom&eacute; appears to be on the agenda, involving a move from the current partnership to a genuine 'contractual approach' through political dialogue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for the role of partnership in cooperation policy management, it was felt essential that civil society and the private sector be involved. There was also a discussion of the debt problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How can financial and technical cooperation be improved ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As usual, reference was made to the need to simplify and differentiate management of Lom&eacute; Convention instruments, particularly in the context of the programming process. As regards the role of non-state actors, a cautious approach was recommended. Finally, new instruments were called for to prevent conflict.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Conclusions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This conference, coming after several others of the same type, was characterised essentially by private sector and NGO calls for greater participation in Community cooperation policy. Moreover, the need for 'politicisation' of the Lom&eacute; policy, shifting from purely financial and technical aid to a genuine cooperation contract, seems to have attracted the support of all participants. These questions are sure to figure in the 'Green Paper' on 'tome after 2000', which the European Commission plans to publish before the end of 1996. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Democratising democracy'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 6 and 7 June, the Belgian Par/iament hosted a UN seminar on 'me future of international development cooperation: new communication challenges' 'Democratising Democracy' was the succinct, journalistic way in which one of the speakers at the meeting summed up his solution to the problem of underdevelop meet. He was Jean-Bertrand Aristide, former President of Haiti, who observed that democracy, as advocated by the developed world, and increasingly accepted by developing countries, does not prevent the latter's slide into even greater poverty. The Courier had the opportunity to interview Mr Aristide. We began by asking him whether his statement implied that democracy is failing in a world striving to 'globalise' it J-B.A.-The word democracy comes from the Greek words 'demos', meaning people and 'kratein', meaning to govern. In other words, it signifies government of the people, for the people by the people-but if we take a look at the world today, the impression we get is that not all so-called democratic governments are in fact what they purport to be. Hence the need to 'democratise democracy', so as to create a situation in which all citizens can help set governments on a course towards such a model.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concepts usually generate conflict and, therefore, when speaking of revolution, democracy or globalisation, it is necessary to be au fait with the subject matter so as not to become involved in a dialogue of the deaf. In the specific case of globalisation, my opinion is that this has a tendency to make what is an already precarious situation even more unbalanced. Concepts cannot be applied everywhere without thought being given to their harmful consequences. This does not mean to say that we should give up completely. It's one thing to speak of the globalisation of peace, as if an ineluctable need existed to promote peace on a world scale, but I'm not sure that everyone would define the globalisation of peace in the same way as I do.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Could we turn now to your own country, Haiti. How do you view the future of democracy there, bearing in mind the economic circumstances ? At the seminar, you mentioned several factors which demonstrate democracy's *agility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Democracy is indeed fragile. 1% of Haiti's population owns 48% of the country's wealth and it is estimated that about 65% of the working population is employed in agriculture as against 5.1% in the 'industrial' sector. But is this really the true picture ? Reality for most people is poverty-unacceptable and sub-human poverty. A man needs work to earn his daily crust by the sweat of his brow, but unemployment has reached catastrophic proportions. When people are unable to earn their living, there is little point in discussing the positive influence of democracy. What is needed is for those with a great deal of wealth and those with less wealth to talk to each other; a dialogue between the private and public sectors, so that we can head off futile conflicts and devote all our efforts to economic growth coupled with human development. I do believe that this is possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yet, the rich are so rich and the poor so poor. Is it not fantasy to think that the gulf which separates them, and their mutual mistrust, can simply be set aside so that genuine dialogue can take place ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is one of the challenges we have faced ever since 1960 and, although we have not yet reaped the harvest of this process, we have to carry on. It's not too late. We just have to approach the subject logically and with all the facts to hand, and we must have the intelligence to be patient. If we continue with dialogue, we will achieve real results. Only the citizens of Haiti can play a part in Haiti's development-this is not a task for outsiders. We, on the other hand, have to be more receptive to international cooperation, while maintaining mutual respect and dignity. But what we also need is for our own people to act together in order to enhance our own growth. This is not to say that geopolitical reality can be disregarded. Other countries have to be taken into account, but, as a starting point, we have to consider Haiti's human and material resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Thereisdialogueata world level, but there are rules to be applied. I am thinking, here, of free competition. Haiti has to play by the rules, just like any other country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Since we gained independence, our history has seen a succession of coups d'etat and people have been over-eager in brandishing weapons to solve economic, political or social problems. Now that democracy has been restored in Haiti, weapons are not the solution to our problems-I cannot stress this enough. What we need is for those with money to sit down and negotiate with those who have none: for the government to get people round the table and devise a common plan to accommodate all interested parties- looking at both the nation's interests and the interests of investors. I do believe that it is possible to achieve this. We have, in fact, already begun to prepare the ground. I am not basing my words, here, on pure theory, but am speaking from experience. In concrete terms, we have to transcend class and racial differences to recognise that Haitian men and women, regardless of their colour and the country they might live in outside Haiti, regardless of their nationality, even, are still part of Haiti's indigenous population. The way must be kept open for dignified and balanced cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The other point you mentioned today was that there can be no development without the effective involvement of the population. Are you not leaving yourself open to accusations of having socialist or even communist tendencies ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-As I have just said, we have to be scientific in our approach and check our facts over and over again. I fail to see how anyone can claim to be working towards peace without looking at poverty which is the greatest threat to social cohesion. Of course, there are those who would deny this assertion, and that is their right. However, rational analysis of the situation can help us alleviate poverty and promote security. It needs to be underlined that security is also one of the essential factors in economics. The UN Security Council is called in to prevent or resolve conflicts. To my mind, we should also be talking about an economic security council to deal with the economic realities. The deeper one plunges into poverty, the greater one's feelings of insecurity-the two always go hand in hand. And insecurity can crop up anywhere in the world. Nor is it a question of charity. It is a real, rational question which must sharpen our awareness, stimulate our common sense and set us on a course to protect the world by alleviating poverty. That, at least, is one approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, you have to recognise that politics is essentially a question of power while economics is influenced by interests. Everyone uses the means at their disposal to defend their personal interests and we know perfectly well that there are no free gifts. The so-called developed countries allocate just 0.3% of their GDP to development aid, yet we are losing our tropical forests at the rate of the area of a football pitch every second. In Haiti, forests now cover only a small area of the country. But in the final analysis, environmental catastrophe threatens us all, rich and poor alike, even if certain countries do not face specific ecological risks. We either deal with it as reasonable people, or we close our eyes to the 'cause and effect' realities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but are we reasonable people ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The crisis of ethics is indeed a reality and a great many values are now being called into question. These days, we have to love in order to prove we are not contradicting ourselves. If we believe in God, we might call this love 'God', just as we might call it 'justice'. It all depends on your philosophy, religion or beliefs. If I feel love, I cannot be indifferent to the situation of victims of injustice, both in Haiti and elsewhere. If a man is humiliated, crushed, exploited or marginalised, then 1, too, am humiliated, crushed and marginalised. It is love which makes us fight for justice everywhere. Either one is a demagogue revelling in big words or one is sincere and ready to die so that another might live-this brings immortality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· One final question. You were speaking just now of insecurity and economics. Is there a link, here, with one of your most recent decisions, the abolition of Haiti's army ? Could you tell us how you were able to pull off this 'coup'? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- I am perfectly happy to answer such an important question and would like to be able to give a clear and direct reply. But given that the struggle is still going on, I don't think I should go into too much detail. A decision was made. The Haitian people opted to rid themselves of the army. Supporting their democratic wish, it was our job to help bring about this dissolution. The army, it is worth recalling, had about 7000 men, absorbed 40% of the national budget-and had killed many of our compatriots. We have had to be logical and patient in achieving this goal, bearing in mind that the guarantors of the agreement which led to my return had their own views, which were different from ours. We also needed courage and wisdom and, above all, the determination of the people. My motto has always been that it is better to fail with the people than to succeed without them, and in this we did not fail. Our task now is not to bask in our own glory but to continue the work of structuring the police force, to prevent it becoming another army. To achieve this, we have to make steady progress and use sound judgment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Close-up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Growing rice at high altitude in Burundi</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Jean-Pierre Tilquin and Miguel Amado</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This tiny country tucked away at the heart of Africa has, as is well known, been convulsed over the last three years by an acute socio-political crisis. The tragic consequences have included loss of human life, damage to the economic and social infrastructure, and a movement of refugees to neighbouring countries. Burundi, already one of the most densely populated nations in Africa, also has high population growth. It could be argued that it is only thanks to the hard work and perseverance of the farmers (admittedly, 90% of the population) that the country manages to keep going at all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture in Burundi follows traditional lines and is based on a farming system divided between food crops for consumption by the farmer and his family, and cash crops (mainly coffee, tea and cotton). Although at the beginning of the decade the crops grown for food were sufficient to meet the population's needs, today demographic pressures are forcing farmers to increase food-crop production. It is these pressures that have prompted them to descend into the marshlands which cover approximately 110 000 hectares (8% of cultivable land in Burundi). These marshes are flooded during the rainy season and so allow rice to be cultivated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population growth has also meant that fields cannot be left fallow for long periods. This has resulted in more intensive use of marginal land and an increase in forest clearing. Such practices exacerbate erosion of cultivated areas. The loss of organic matter and nutrients leads to reduced soil fertility and lower yields. Although rainfall in Burundi is high, the soil is only moderately fertile, because of factors such as acidity, aluminium toxicity, and phosphorus immobilisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While 20% of land suitable for cultivation is currently given over to growing dry beans-a staple in the Burundi diet - various factors now point towards farming the low-lying marshlands, with a particular emphasis on rice. This is one way of increasing the useful agricultural surface area of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The events of 1993 (democratic elections, followed by the assassination of President Ndadaye), have created a period of instability which has been highly damaging for the country's agriculture. Some people lost their property and livelihood, and are only now slowly re-establishing themselves. The environment has also suffered as a result of the sheer numbers of displaced people. They occupy areas, both urban and rural, which were completely unprepared for the flood of people. it is estimated that 50 000 hectares of forest have been destroyed as a result-with devastating consequences for the country's ecosystem. What is more, the rate of demographic growth has led to overfarming and to a reduction in the average surface area of farms (to 0.7 ha per household).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice-a crop for the future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Against this background, the prospect of farming low-lying marshland offers some hope for the people of Burundi. In fact, the marshy valleys have long been used to grow beans, maize and sweet potatoes during the long dry season for later consumption during the short dry season. This practice, which was environmentally sound, provided a regular harvest, but also ensured the preservation of the marshlands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The practice of growing rice during the rainy season, followed by a crop of maize and beans during the dry season, is a form of integrated agriculture. It should be economically viable and environmentally sustainable while ensuring product quality, delivering a good yield, limiting any risks involved and allowing a high degree of social integration. These are the criteria which need to be examined in determining whether high-altitude rice cultivation in Burundi succeeds or fails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice crops have been grown in this region, on the shores of Lake Tanganyika and in the Ruzizi valley (altitude 800 m), for more than 200 years, having been introduced by successive migrations of people travelling along the old slave route from Zanzibar. Certain varieties, known as 'pandabilima' (which in Swahili means 'he who climbs the mountain') can be grown on land up to a height of 1300 metres. They cannot, however, be planted on the higher central plateau because low temperatures at night render them completely infertile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not surprising that the new scheme to grow rice at high altitudes was greeted with interest. Indeed, it became almost a craze among farmers -to the extent that in 1990, rice crops covered more than 20 000 ha of Burundi. The area planted with rice fell subsequently, and in some regions the crop disappeared altogether. This was due largely to the appearance of the fungal 'rice blast disease', which can wipe out an entire crop, and to inadequate planning and misguided husbandry. The extensive planting of only one variety left the crop particularly vulnerable and once the disease did take hold, it was virtually impossible to eradicate. Needless to say, in a country where access to pesticides is non-existent, the introduction of a new crop cannot be based on a single variety; if it is to establish itself successfully, varietal diversification is vital. We should point out here that attempts were made in 1984 to improve varietal diversification </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">in the framework of the EU's Scientific and Technical Programme run by DG XII of the Commission. At that time, it was necessary to familiarise farmers with the techniques for growing the new crop and this aspect of the programme was funded by the EDF, in particular through three integrated projects. These related to agriculture and pastoral forestry and were initiated during 198889 in three provinces of Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Without going into the technical details of the programme, it suffices to say that growing rice at high altitude in the tropics differs from rice-growing in temperate regions. The low night-time temperatures characteristic of high altitudes mean that the crop is subject to constant stress. In temperate regions, the stress caused by cold weather is a problem only at the beginning and end of the growing cycle. As for selection methods, rice varieties have been produced that are resistant to rice blast disease - which remains the main problem. Also, by mixing the varieties grown, the farmers have created a wide diversity which offers a stable basis for a sustainable crop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Transformation of an ecosystem</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the viewpoint of development aid specialists, turning marshland into cultivable land means draining it (digging a ditch and fitting pipes). But this leaves the land open to erosion, causes silting in rivers and ultimately leading to desertification. By changing water levels in a region and disturbing the thermal equilibrium, marshlands cease to be marshlands. The method may have been justifiable before rice growing became possible. Indeed, it was employed in the natural marshlands of Buyenzi by some experts who specialised in upland rice. But it also resulted in large-scale destruction of one ricevariety-Yunnan 3-by rice blast disease in 1990.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development projects which set themselves spectacular objectives can involve major alterations to the landscape. More often than not, these need to be rectified later. Thus, when it was decided to cultivate vast expanses of papyrus, the plants were moderately successful only thanks to constant artificial assistance. Put simply, the land could not sustain the crop on its own. In the process, the marshes were turned into floating peat bogs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The option chosen here was to adapt the small valleys for rice cultivation and teach the farmers the relevant techniques. Together with their families, they have eagerly embarked on the work needed to prepare the terrain for cultivation, although there are still some land tenure issues that need resolving. (Some people have refused to commit themselves to marshland reclamation projects as long as the land does not belong to them). It should be stressed that growing rice along a strip of water is an option which is in harmony with environmental needs. It promotes percolation of the water, thereby restoring underground water levels and preventing pollutants from being washed down towards the Nile or Zaire basins. It is therefore in keeping with global strategies for conserving resources and ensuring sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the marshlands, farmers traditionally plant beans and maize in banked-up beds during the dry season (from June to November). By skilfully selecting and growing different bean varieties, the farmer can stagger his crops and thereby ensure a continuous harvest from September until the time the maize is harvested. The marshes are then left fallow during the heavy rains which reach their peak in April. A rice variety which can be harvested in six months could thus be fitted in during this perriod with out disturbing the traditional hill-farming work schedule.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since farmers on the high plateaux had not traditionally grown rice, it was necessary to teach them the techniques needed to produce a successful crop. They were also informed of the benefits that improvements such as dykes, water supply pipes and drainage pipes could have on crop productivity. They have since applied this knowledge in their cultivation. During the dry season, without disrupting the infrastructures on which their rice cultivation is based, they have rebuilt banked-up beds and grown the traditional bean and maize crop. The system has been in place for about ten years and no drop in yield has been recorded. The yield averages 4.5 t/ha for rice, 1 t/ha for beans and 0.4 t/ha for maize-figures which are quite remarkable when compared with the yields of crops grown on the hills in acid soil with increasing levels of aluminium toxicity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By alternating two different farming systems, the problem of weeds -and therefore hoeing-and of pests is greatly limited. The extensive mixing of the soil that takes place accelerates the recycling of biogenic material-and the marshlands stay as marshlands!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manageable land development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three main types of marshy valley, each requiring specific programmes. The first consists of valleys lying above 1400 m with a rainfall in excess of 1500 mm. These areas are characterised by a clay soil, are constantly fed with water (with a high iron content) from the mountains, and are often very rich in organic matter. They require drainage using ditches and filtration channels, with changes of gradient so that the mountain water tables can be tapped and the water levels controlled. This is important to prevent a build-up of ferrous toxicity in the soil, which is extremely harmful to rice. A farming system involving paddy fields and banked-up beds can be accommodated perfectly in these types of valleys. Then there are the valleys lying between 800 and 1400 m with a rainfall of between 1100 and 1500 mm. These are known as 'dambos' in Swahili, and they extend from Northern Kenya right down to Southern Zimbabwe. Strewn with giant termite nests, the land here is well-suited to rice cultivation as long as water levels are carefully controlled. All the available water needs to be harnessed via filtration canals dug into the hillside. These allow the paddies to be irrigated speedily and, during the dry season, they can also be used to irrigate between the rows of ridgeplanted crops. It would, however, be very difficult to irrigate the entire valley during the dry season and so it is pointless digging a drainage ditch. The third and final type consists of small alluvial plains tucked away between the hills and stretching along the escarpments. Here, the level of soil fertility is determined by the heavy erosion resulting from farming on burnt land, and the practice of setting fire to the hills in order to 'regenerate' pastures. To grow rice in such locations, a filtration canal needs to be dug into the hillside, into which water then collects from the water table. The paddy fields also need to be terraced. These alluvial plains lend themselves perfectly to a farming system in which paddy fields are alternated with banked-up beds. All these land-adaptation schemes can be easily implemented and maintained by the farmers themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A sociological revolution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although rice grows quickly, it is highly labour-intensive. Thus, when</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">the young rice plants need to be planted out-which happens to coincide with the end-of-year school holidays-the whole family takes part. What is more, rice has become extremely important in sociological terms: reserved in days gone by for special occasions, it now forms part of the nation's staple diet, being mixed together with beans and dressed with palm oil and tomato sauce. The rice harvest is also a time for merrymaking and festivities which go on for the best part of a week.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice cultivation has also engendered a vital sense of solidarity among farmers as far as sharing water is concerned, and rice-growing cooperatives have been a runaway success. These enable farming operations to be synchronised and running costs to be reduced, in particular by reducing the number of bird scarers needed. The crop, furthermore, can be harvested when fully ripe. On individual plots, farmers usually only allow the rice to mature to 75% before harvest for fear of theft. Finally, the cooperative helps to ensure that infrastructures such as drains and canals are properly maintained and that water supply installations are treated with respect. Each cooperative is run by a representative appointed by the group of farmers. These supervisors are then responsible for organising all operations: choosing and storing seed for the following season's crops, getting information about new varieties, consulting each other and pointing out any problems they may have to those in charge of research and advisory services. The area allotted to each cooperative depends on the number of households in the group and also takes into account the area available, with 10 ares per family being the usual maximum for planted-up paddy fields. Cooperatives may range in size from 5 to 25 families.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cooperatives like this are just the beginning. Networks of rural organisations, in which the farmers club together to buy equipment and fertilisers, need to be developed on a larger scale and they could provide a springboard for the development of the secondary sector, which is vital to the development of the country as a whole.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We would do well to recall that the cassava mills which have been so successful in Burundi and which still run today without any 'technical assistance' had equally humble beginnings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It must be acknowledged that the people who migrated to this 'wild frontier' of rice cultivation in Burundi also introduced into these regions diseases such as bilharzia and malaria (the mosquitoes carrying the parasite were transported in the luggage of people travelling from the capital to the provinces). Despite this, rice cultivation at high altitude has proved a veritable lifesaver for Burundi. In the year that the FAO plans to stage a summit on famine, it is appropriate to highlight the important role of rice-growing in the food production strategy of this country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until recently, Burundi ensured that it had enough to feed its people through a delicate balancing act between growing food crops, leaving land fallow and rearing livestock which produced manure. At present, however, increased agricultural production is only possible by increasing the surface area of the country under cultivation-at the expense of fallow land and livestock farming. Such a move risks reducing soil fertility and could lead to the substitution of crops of high nutritional value, such as beans, with higher yield crops such as cassava or sweet potatoes which suck the subsoil dry of minerals and nutrients.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In short, traditional farming methods in Burundi are arguably now out of balance and the situation is getting worse. This may, indeed, be a root cause of the ethnic crisis. A systematic policy of re-establishing marshlands and organising rural communities around high-altitude rice cultivation would allow the country to look ahead with optimism to the next 20 years. Suitable varieties are currently available and the altitudes at which rice can be grown have been pushed back in Burundi as far as 1700 m. What is now needed is the funds! </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J-P.T. &amp; M.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Developing world</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Freedom of expression: the heartbeat of democracy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A view from UNESCO.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The article which follows is an abridged version of a text compiled by Carlos Amaldo, who heads UNESCO's research into communication and the free flow of information. Mr Arnaldo highlights some of the main aspects of the UN agency's support for the development of a free press in the African, Caribbean and Pacific regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution passed by the ACP/KU Joint Assembly in March 1996 in Windhoek, Namibia, reflected the spirit of many of UNESCO's communication programmes in these regions. Echoing the principal tenets of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the resolution declares: 'freedom of expression is a precondition for holding free and fair elections'; 'the monopoly of information media is a barrier to the development of democracy,'; 'there is a need to create a climate in which all part)" can participate fully in political life.' It further holds: 'communication media must not only inform the electorate in an impartial and objective manner' but also; 'freedom of expression and the existence of free communications media are vital preconditions for the development of a democratic society.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution was timely, responding to a need to remind political leaders, as well as civic society, of the relation between free communication media and truly democratic practices. Just five years ago, on 3 May 1991,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African journalists and media adopted the Windhoek Declaration at the UN/ UNESCO seminar on promoting an independent and pluralistic African press. Likewise, journalists and media practitioners of each major region adopted the Declarations of Alma Ata (October 1992), Santiago (May 1994) and Sana'a (January 1996), all of which affirmed the unwavering belief of professional communicators in freedom of expression, press freedom, independence and pluralism of the media, and the contribution of such freedoms to democratic processes. At their 28th General Conference, UNESCO Member States further declared that, 'press freedom is an essential component of any democracy.' All these declarations contain action programmes to strengthen press freedom in these regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning to look at some practical initiatives, a media project entitled 'Independent Press in Africa', which was put in place after the signing of the Windhoek declaration, soon attracted the interest of a number of donors (Italy, USA, France). Under this project, the International Programme for the Development of Communication (IPDC) organised four sets of courses for journalists in 1994. In April 1995, IPDC arranged a multi-theme workshop for 33 English-speaking journalists and editors from Central and West Africa on marketing, distribution techniques, managing mass media enterprises in Africa, new communication technologies, journalism and ethical issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are now plans afoot to study the situation of the press in Mauritius, Madagascar and Comoros, and to publish several handbooks about press enterprises. Efforts will also be made to attract increased donor contributions so that the successes achieved by these initial training activities can be strengthened and shared with other regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further example of positive action in support of the media is the work of MISA (the Media Institute of Southern Africa-featured in more detail in the following article). This organisation has been receiving UNESCO support since 1994 under a funding arrangement with the Danish International Development Agency. The project seeks to strengthen links among the region's independent media so as to enhance the free flow of information. It also aims to boost cooperation and information-sharing with similar groups in developing and developed countries worldwide, to strengthen the ability of the region's independent media to stand on its own feet and to improve professional standards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MlSA, which was set up in 1992, has been monitoring and safeguarding press freedom in the region, facilitated by an electronic network for distribution of information on press freedom issues. It has mounted seminars and training workshops for professional journalists on computer-aided design, strategic financial management, journalism ethics and advertising management. MISA's campaigning material includes a bi-monthly magazine, Free Press: the Media Magazine of Southern Africa and a booklet, So this is Democray, which is a compilation of its 'action alerts' curing 1994 and 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another UNESCO initiative is the 'Communication and Good Governance in West and Central African Countries' project, supported by Germany. This aims to strengthen the human and technical capacity of the media in these regions so that they can make a contribution to good governance. The three year project is to be implemented in 10 countries - Benin, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Sao Tome &amp; Principe and Togo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Together with other institutions such as legislatures, the judiciary and civic organisations, media bodies like MISA have a useful role to play. They can enhance transparency and accountability by systematic analysis and reporting of government programmes, policies and pledges, and by encouraging public discussions which help people to make informed decisions about public issues and about how their leaders discharge the power vested in them. Fulfilment of these functions requires access to the media, and qualified, well-trained practitioners who can effectively use the media for information, education and communication on good governance issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning our attention now to the Caribbean, the question of media freedom recently came to the fore in Trinidad and Tobago when 13 editors and journalists on The Guardian lost their jobs following publication of a number of controversial articles (some reports said they 'constructively resigned'). The events cast a shadow over the famous Carnival. Indeed, as one journalist put it, the Carnival quickly ceded to the 'sacrificial rites' of Holy Week. Six of the paper's youngest reporters were among those who lost their jobs-but out of the furore, a new newspaper was born.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 'Comparative Study of Media Laws in the CARICOM countries' by Ainsley Sahai, commissioned earlier by UNESCO, became a reference in the debates that followed. The study highlighted that all Caribbean countries guaranteed freedom of expression in their national constitutions. Indeed, Trinidad and Tobago's constitution explicitly guarantees press freedom as well. The Media Association of Trinidad and Tobago (MATT) organised two meetings. The first of these, on 10 April 1996, was a public forum on issues of press freedom. Although a full cross-section of society was not present, and not all the issues at stake were fully debated, it was nevertheless a start. Those who took the floor came from many sectors of society -women, the unemployed, workers, community organisations and at least three different religious groups. About a quarter of those who contributed spoke as individuals. While many criticised the press for errors in reporting, all confirmed the need to uphold a free press vis-a-vis both political pressures and economic and financial interests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The public gave strong support to MATT and demanded that the forum be replicated in other parts of the country. It was the first time that the public had been given the opportunity to speak out on these issues. It was not so much the content of the discussion which counted, but the very fact that the event took place, bringing the media closer to its 'customers'. The meeting gave the public an opportunity to put over their own perceptions of press freedom, impartial reporting and the strengthening of democratic processes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two days later, with support from UNESCO, the Media Association staged a journalists' symposium, moderated by George John, consulting editor at The Guardian. David de Caires, publisher of Guyana's Stabroek News was invited by MATT as an external consultant. Drawing on past and more recent examples of uneasy relations between a free press and governments, Mr de Caires concluded with a headlinehitting statement; the relations of the press with government should not be too cosy, the press must maintain its adversarial position.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many journalists took the floor to stress Trinidad and Tobago's constitutional guarantees for both freedom of expression and press freedom. They also stressed the need to safeguard editorial independence, not only in the printed press, but also in broadcasting, and urged the repeal of 'antiquated' libel laws-a point also made in the Sahai study. The preparation of a Freedom of Information Act was strongly urged to ensure access to public information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These events appear to have strengthened the resolve of the jobless journalists. They grouped together to set up a new weekly newspaper, called The Independent. The new publication focuses on investigative articles, comment and reviews. In addition, a monthly called The Formatt was launched by MATT to disseminate specialised news on press freedom issues and to provide print support for future public fore. Both newspapers brought out their first editions in early May amidst the celebrations of World Press Freedom Day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacific</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Pacific, issues of freedom of expression and press freedom are no less salient, although a key issue for practitioners there is the modernisation of infrastructures. This is needed to ensure that this vast island region does not find itself in the slow lane of the information highway.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The computerisation of radio newsrooms, in places such as the Cook Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, Solomon Islands and Tonga, is a priority. The Cook Islands already has a fully computerised newspaper operation. Indeed, this is the first newspaper in the Pacific with the capacity to transmit photographs from various parts of the country to the newsroom electronically by phone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Considerable concern has been expressed about the inadequacy of national television programming. There is a need for the people of the Pacific to see themselves and their culture, and not just the imported fare distributed by most international TV services. With UNESCO support, women media producers from seven island countries were able to meet to work out ways of cooperating on a series of television documentaries that they themselves produced and exchanged within the region. Preparations are now under way for the annual evaluation and awarding of prizes at the end of 1996. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A.A. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Campaigning for free expression in the SADC region</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by David Nthengwe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Media Institute of Southern Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Officially launched in September 1992, the role of the Media Institute of Southern Africa is primarily that of coordinator, facilitator and communicator in the promotion of media freedom and diversity, (as envisaged in the 1991 Windhoek Declaration). MISA operates in 11 of the 1 2 SADC countries and is currently investigating setting up a chapter in the twelfth-Mauritius- which joined the Community 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chapters are serviced by a regional secretariat based in the Namibian capital, Windhoek. The secretariat is accountable to a policy-making governing council of elected representatives from each national chapter, while funding for MISA and its projects is channeled through the MISA Education and Production Trust, overseen by a board of independent trustees. The organisation is currently almost entirely donor-funded, with UNESCO, NORAD, SIDA, the KU, the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, IBIS, and the Australian and German governments being the main contributors. Other income is generated through the sale of subscriptions to MISA publications and services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Institute's main work is in the field of advocacy; highlighting violations of media freedom and free expression, and exploring ways of ensuring that these fundamental freedoms become entrenched throughout Southern Africa. In 1994, MISA became a member of the International Freedom of Expression Exchange (IFEX) network in a bid to increase international awareness of media freedom violations in Southern Africa. Membership of IFEX has enabled MISA to distribute as well as receive information on media freedom issues in a quick and relatively cheap way via the Internet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Action alerts'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994 and 1995, MISA issued via IFEX and its own electronic mail network, the MISANET (see below), more than 190 'action alerts' relating to media freedom infringements in Southern Africa, and effective campaigns against some of these violations have resulted. In August 1994, Lesotho journalist, Rabuka Chalatse, was shot by soldiers while covering a demonstration. An alert issued by MISA triggered a swift response, and within 24 hours, funds had been raised to pay for emergency treatment which saved the young journalist's leg. In November 1995, Angolan freelance journalist, Mario Paiva, had his life threatened by people who, it was alleged, were state security agents. MlSA's alert prompted protest from throughout the world, and resulted in several governments offering Paiva sanctuary in their embassies in Angola. The threat against the journalist was subsequently lifted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MlSA's advocacy work has also shown that democratisation does not necessarily result in guaranteed media freedom and free expression. In Zambia, for example, which had a multi-party election in 1991, arcane laws inherited from previous regimes have been used against the private media in particular, and free expression, in general. As this article was being written, Fred M'membe, the Editor-in-Chief of Zambia's privately-owned daily 'The Post', and two of his colleagues, were starting an indefinite prison term for contempt of Parliament. The sentence was passed not by a court of law, but by the Speaker, under legislation inherited from British colonial rule. Their 'crime' was to comment on criticism made in Parliament of a Supreme Court decision which declared unconstitutional, laws requiring anyone wishing to stage a demonstration to obtain police permission first.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five months prior to his arrest, M'membe received the MISA Press Freedom Award, which is presented annually to individuals or institutions considered to have made an outstanding contribution to the advancement of media freedom in Southern Africa. M'membe was the third recipient of the award.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free flow of information essential</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the Windhoek Declaration points out, 'the establishment, maintenance and fostering of an independent, pluralistic and free press' is essential to economic development, as well as for the growth of democracy. Accordingly, MISA argues that the free flow of information is vital to the development process. Effective communication within SADC-a 'development community'- has been hampered by the region's poor postal and telecommunications services. MISA considers that these logistical barriers to the free flow of information are a form of censorship. In a bid to break through the information voids which have kept Southern African media workers and their audiences isolated from each other for so long, it has made particular use of advances in information technology, including, most notably, the Internet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two years, MISA has been linking member organisations up to electronic mail (e-mail). This allows members throughout the region to exchange news, photographs and other information. To date, 25 MISA member organisations are linked to this network, called the MISANET, although further growth has been hampered by members' unfamiliarity with e-mail, and the lack of local technicians to train people and provide user support. Nonetheless, computerised communications have proved to be an appropriate technology, and development of the MISANET remains a top priority. By making some services available to non-MISA subscribers, MISA also intends to generate income and thus reduce its current dependency on donor funding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Focus on training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coordination of training and material support to independent media is another area where MISA looks to develop media freedom and diversity. The region's independent media sometimes operates in politically and economically hostile environments. Its survival-and thus the sustenance and growth of media diversity-hinges on these organisations becoming highly professional, well-managed concerns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Working through training institutions based primarily in the region, MISA coordinates workshops and other training programmes aimed at improving the skills of media workers, particularly in the fields of management and finance. Workshops in strategic and financial management, project management, advertising, marketing, sales and subscription management, ethics, subediting, and computerised design were staged during 1994 and 1995. For 1996, training is scheduled in economic reporting, project management, photography, advertising sales, circulation and sales management, computer-aided design, developing world and financial and strategic management. Instruction will also be provided to media workers without formal training. Meanwhile, research is to be carried out into setting up a media ombudsman for Southern Africa, printing press initiatives, media training needs, and the difficulties faced by women media workers in the region. The last-mentioned is in line with MlSA's policy of encouraging gender awareness and equality within the Southern African media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Private and community-based media organisations face constant problems securing adequate finance. As businesses, they often do not qualify for donor support, while banks are reluctant to lend them money. Therefore, MISA is looking to set up of a Media Development Fund to which independent media can apply for loans, credit guarantees and grants. A study is currently being conducted into the feasibility of such a fund, which MISA hopes to have up-andrunning by early 1997.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Broadcasting in Southern Africa is still largely state-controlled. Moves by some of the region's governments to 'deregulate' broadcasting have been erratic, and many private broadcasting licenses granted in the process have gone to organisations or individuals closely linked to the authorities. MISA is now drawing up a policy aimed at seeking the effective liberalisation of broadcasting legislation covering public, private and community broadcasting throughout the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As part of this process, MISA will, this year, stage a conference on broadcasting and community media, to coincide with its Annual General Meeting-which has become one of the largest gatherings of media workers on the African continent. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.N.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Volunteers show their worth</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Thomas M. Neufing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volunteers have become a major component in international development efforts. They make up a significant proportion of the total human resources available for development cooperation (up to a fifth of the skilled international personnel serving in developing countries). In the early days, volunteer service was strongly influenced by the idea of oneway technical assistance. Specialists, mainly from the North, served in developing nations where their expertise was desperately needed but not yet found among local citizens. Much has changed since.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the US Peace Corps, the UN Volunteers Programme (UNV) ranks as the second largest volunteer-sendina agency with some 4000 professionals in the field every year. Its universality and internationality is reflected in the high number of UNV specialists (74%) who come from developing countries. The scope and size of the international volunteer contribution to development cooperation (notably areas such as HIV/AIDS and the environment), has increased significantly over the years as a result of the changing development challenge. The re-thinking of the role of technical cooperation is equally central to the volunteer debate and this has led to much greater flexibility in the ways in which volunteer services are provided. The important role volunteers can play in peace building efforts with a long-term development dimension, complementary to humanitarian relief, is increasingly being recognised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Working with rather than for people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the UNV's 25th anniversary, and the relocation of its headquarters to Bonn this summer, it is an appropriate time both to assess and to acknowledge the contribution made by these volunteers. Since the programme began in 1971, some 14 000 professionals have dedicated a period of their lives to serve as a UNV. The programme is administered by UNDP, and is therefore intimately linked to its structures, particularly in the field. Regarding community-based initiatives, the comparative advantage of UNVs is that of working with rather than for people over an extended period, thus facilitating their initiatives. The experience of many development agencies shows that in promoting socio-economic change at the village level, the type of person needed is one who-through long-term commitment and sensitivity -can learn as much from local partners as offer advice to them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International volunteers are engaged mainly in rural development tasks. Those working through specialised NGOs such as the Red Cross, and Medecins Sans Frontieres have proved to be highly effective agents, supporting governments faced with disaster situations. In the case of UNV, the value of using volunteer specialists from other developing nations, as a way of encouraging technical cooperation amongst developing countries, is particularly recognised. Most volunteers- perhaps two-thirds - serve in least developed and small island countries. And about three-quarters serve in rural areas, working mostly in programmes of agricultural and community development, health, education and the supply of basic services. Since the end of the Cold War, a growing number have been deployed in emergency relief, refugee and rehabilitation programmes. UNVs make up 10% of the UN's civilian component in Cambodia; 4096 of the field staff of the World Food Programme and almost 100% of outreach workers attached to the UN Mission in Guatemala. UNVs are increasingly involved in human rights promotion, the organisation of elections and conflict resolution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a consensus among the main international humanitarian and development actors that their programmes should be mutually supportive. For example, development efforts must respond to humanitarian crises by remaining on the scene and supporting immediate needs, as well as aiding in the prevention of crises which are known to be looming. Emergency humanitarian assistance should also pave the way for longer term development by viewing the immediacy of the moment through the lens of future sustainable rehabilitation. Both sets of activities should, ideally, be launched and implemented in tandem with local bodies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">External assistance efforts must include strengthening local capacity to cope with problems. Empowerment strategies which inform, educate and facilitate the people's own vision of peaceful and sustainable living environments (including respect for human rights) are fundamental to the future of communities coping in the aftermath of crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Relief, rehabilitation and development?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNV programme has been active in exploring the efficacy of volunteer support to communities in crisis in order to bridge the gap between immediate needs and longer term developmental goals. In 1994, the UNV held its 4th Special Consultation, entitled, Between Crisis and Development - Volunteer Roles and UNV's Contribution. At this event, donor governments, UN agencies and cooperating partners from civil society had an indepth discussion of the issues surrounding volunteer efforts, and the complementary nature of emergency interventions and follow-up measures. The participants reconfirmed the need for local capacity building. They also affirmed the usefulness of the UN Volunteer contribution in crisis prevention, emergency rehabilitation and 'building bridges' to sustainable development. The work of UNVs in preventive action and promoting post-conflict development was highlighted. There has been a significant increase in demand for specialist volunteer services in all types of crisis. These may be economic, natural or man-made, but they all have in common the need to provide essential relief and rehabilitation services for basic survival (to refugees and resident populations). In many countries, disasters and internal strife have put so much pressure on essential public services that the longterm capacity of the people to recover may be threatened. Governments in developing countries and donors both believe it is fully justified to use volunteer specialists to help provide such services during the adjustment period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Mixed' teams</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The contribution of both international and national volunteers is often essential to link immediate relief efforts to future long-term development. National volunteers-people working in their own countries within the UN framework-complement the international approach by providing the key grassroots perspective. UN Volunteers who speak local languages, live and work in remote communities, are familiar with community structures and are known to local leaders, play a key part in facilitating preventive action and providing follow-up in the aftermath of a crisis. UNV specialists are well-placed to build effective partnerships with national and local actors. In the last two years, some 2000 UN Volunteers have worked in various parts of the world in prevention and preparedness, peacekeeping, electoral support, human rights, rehabilitation and reconstruction, and humanitarian relief.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi offers an example of an initiative designed to stem a crisis through local capacity-building. The UNV is financing a project there which supports the mediation and dialogue efforts of the UN Secretary General's Special Representative (SRSG) through the recruitment of UNV peace advisers and conflict resolution facilitators. This project is being run successfully out of the SRSG's office, extending public awareness of the reconciliation process. It includes use of the mass media to promote understanding, and brings local actors together to work for peaceful solutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tasks undertaken by UN volunteers all fit into the spectrum which has 'crisis' et one end end 'development' at the other. The work, moreover, is undertaken in partnership-with civil society (NGOs and community-based organisations), government departments, UN agencies and regional international organisations (such as the KU).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through efforts that aim to link relief, rehabilitation and development, new productive partnerships are emerging to enhance coherence, coordination and complementarily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The growth of professionalism</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30 years ago, the typical profile of an international volunteer was that of a generalist graduate from an industrialised country seeking first-time experience abroad before settling down to a career. Over time, the governments of developing countries made clear their need for practical and often specialised skills aimed at giving them the ability to manage their own programmes. They increasingly expressed impatience at hosting untrained volunteers. Professionalism became the key word. Unfortunately, the word 'volunteer' is still a source of confusion: it is often equated with 'amateur'. This is a perception that now needs to be corrected. The personnel sent out by most agencies that supply volunteers are likely to be in their thirties, with post-graduate qualifications and several years' practical experience in their fields. The typical UNV specialist is an example par excel/ence of this trend: 39 years of age, holding a Master's degree and with more than ten years of experience in a particular discipline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was not just the dedication, but also the professionalism of the hundreds of UN Volunteers serving in Mozambique that impressed Aldo Ajello, the former UN Special Representative in Mozambique (now EU Special Envoy for the Great Lakes Region). 'If I were to run another mission,' he said, 'I would ask immediately for volunteers.' In terms of monitoring-which was vital in building up the trust and confidence needed to ensure the election results were accepted-'UNV electoral officers were our only real presence and they proved to be extremely professional.' ~ T.N. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Study by the World Wide Fund for Nature</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Structural adiustment, the environment, and sustainable development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by David Reed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 29 May, David Reed of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) was in Brussels to present the results of a study undertaken by the WWF, with the support of the European Commission, the longterm consequences of structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) on the environment and the use of nature/ resources. Conclusions were drawn from nine country case studies from Cameroon, Mall Tanzania, Zambia, El Salvador, Jamaica, Venezuela, Vietnam and Pakistan. We publish here an abridged version of Mr Reed's general presentation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAPs, often implemented at the instigation of the international financial institutions, have responded to the pervasive economic problems of the 1980s and to profound changes in the economy in recent decades. The programmes have generally been successful in improving macroeconomic indicators in developing countries. The marketorientation of economies has been increased through liberalised trade and capital flows, privatisation, reductions in regulation and price setting, and cuts in government budgets and programmes. For most developing countries, these changes were essential to economic recovery and adjustment to the new global marketplace.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable development in the social, economic, and environmental sense, has, however, been ignored in SAPs. Many reform programmes have been accompanied by increases in poverty and unemployment, worsening income distribution, and the collapse of social services, environmental protection and state institutional capacities. These immediate costs of adjustment inhibit countries' long-term ability to expand productivity and employment opportunities, as natural resources are exploited indiscriminately to meet short-term needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environmental impacts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The environmental effects of structural adjustment vary from country to country depending on the specific components of the reform package, the structure of the economy, and the implementation process. The WWF's country case studies reveal particular mechanisms through which structural adjustment has altered resource-use patterns. Some more general patterns also emerge from the studies. Everywhere, cuts in government institutions and funding have reduced the state's capacity to facilitate the transition process, to compensate for market failures, and to provide for long-term and social sustainability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many reforms associated with structural adjustment have the potential to improve both environmental and economic outcomes. However, the failure to implement complementary environmental policies or strengthen institutions and regulations, has created a very mixed environmental record. Increases in poverty, greater production incentives, and the loss of government regulatory capacity, have all aggravated patterns of poor resource use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extractive and agricultural economies generally increased production in response to greater exposure to global markets. Without proper policies in place, this increase has put a strain on fragile ecosystems. Environmental pressures include increased land degradation and deforestation for agriculture, livestock and timber production; increased production of non-renewables without long-term investment of the proceeds or environmental safeguards; and increased pollution and damage to the ecosystem from unregulated tourism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The burden of fiscal retrenchment and price changes under structural adjustment have fallen most heavily on the poor, particularly women. The strong association between poverty and environmental degradation has been revealed, as efforts to maintain livelihoods have led to deforestation, land degradation, overhunting and other pressures on endangered species, as well as the unmanaged extraction of nonrenewable resources. Increasing poverty and unemployment associated with adjustment has also added to population pressures in urban areas with insufficient infrastructure exacerbating problems of pollution, disease and congestion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The implications of disregarding the environmental and social impact of adjustment are examined in the various case studies. Structural adjustment has been sustained by the promise that market-orientation and export-led - growth will raise living standards. Evidence from the studies, however, strongly suggests that long-term productive capacity is being destroyed by short-term exploitation of natural resources. Not only environmental but also economic and social sustainability are threatened by the loss of environmental goods and services. Drawing down natural capital has been encouraged by government policies that promote exports and open resources up to international markets. And the process is accelerated by the growing population of poor and unemployed who rely on natural resources for survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recommendations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following its study, the WWF offers a series of recommendations to reduce the environmental costs of structural adjustment and economic integration, and to reorient structural adjustment aims towards sustainable development. Most urgently, environmental issues must be integrated into structural economic reforms - environmental assessments must become part of the programmes. A strategic vision of the role that natural resources and environmental goods and services could play in the transformation of developing economies is essential to designing appropriate strategies. Efforts to industrialise economies must include consideration of the environmental implications. Social services and environmental institutions must be maintained during the adjustment process to prevent increases in poverty and environmental degradation that have both short-term and long-term consequences for development. Essential services include credit and marketing support to small farmers, income-generating opportunities for women, food-assistance programmes, and promotion of distributional equity. The state's role in providing services which neither the private sector nor civil society can provide, must be maintained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the great variety in economic structures and in the capacity of markets and civil society among developing countries, adjustment strategies and government roles must be tailored to each case. Everywhere, countries must implement national institutional reforms for environmental management. Civil society must be strengthened to allow participation in the adjustment process. International financial institutions promoting and designing SAPs must reform their policies and approaches to implementation in the light of the clear evidence that macroeconomic reforms are having a profound effect on the environment and on the possibilities for sustainable development. Continuing failure to correct these problems on a national level accentuates the concern for addressing issues of sustainability on a global level. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.R. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Culture and society</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Why a Biennial Festival of Contemporary African Art?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dak'Art 96</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first World Festival of Negro Art, held in 1966, was essentially a political exercise. In the post-independence period, it was felt necessary to show the world that the people of Africa (both the continent and the diaspora), had a rich culture which had long been suppressed. The festival - which has never been repeated-is viewed with a great deal of nostalgia by supporters of modern African art and black intellectuals. The better, brighter future, which seemed at the time to be just over the horizon, never quite lived up to expectation. Even before financing problems had surfaced, the festival's fate had already been sealed by petty political rivalries and a greedy pursuit of the limelight. Years later, attempts to relaunch the event met with a lukewarm reception. It was already the beginning of the end as far as ideologies were concerned. In complete contrast, Dak'Art 96 (Dakar, 915 May 1996) set its sights firmly on the market place, nowadays the yardstick by which all success is measured. Its goals were simple: to break into the art market and overcome the generally held prejudice that contemporary African art lacks modernity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An international market for African art does exist, but it concerns itself solely with ancient art- and Africa itself profits little from such trade. Indeed, it would be more accurate to speak of plundering than of trade. The seminar, organised last year by the Terveuren Museum in Brussels on the looting of African works of art, revealed the true extent of the phenomenon. Despite the fact that pirated works fetch considerable sums on the black market, contemporary African artists are faced with a 'Catch-22' situation. Major galleries in Europe, America and Japan do not exhibit their work because African art is ignored by the leading art periodicals; and their work never appears in these publications because it is never exhibited. One reason for the fact that African art is not put on show is that virtually no funds are allocated by international institutions to sponsor exhibitions by the artists in question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many third-world governments do not dare, are unwilling or are unable to include culture on their list of priorities within international cooperation agreements. One exception is Burkina Faso which now boasts a cinema industry as a result. Senegal is trying to follow in its footsteps. But there are not many places in Africa where artists are promoted for the quality of their creative output. The majority of initiatives have, in fact, been on a voluntary basis. The magazine Revue Noire is one of the most significant examples of this approach. A group of aficionados of contemporary African art - indeed with a passion for art pure and simple, whether African or European-decided to try and break the vicious circle. They looked at two options: the establishment of an art gallery of worldwide renown or of an equally prestigious arts publication, and came down in favour of the latter. Thus Revue Noire was born. However, its success was generally given very slim odds: it was seen as too glossy, too expensive and too intellectual. The sub-text here of course, is that a publication about African art had no right to be glossy, expensive or intellectual, especially since the money could have been used for something far more 'useful' to the development of these countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Others, such as Marie-Claire Mwanza from l'Espace Alizes in Brussels, have attacked the problem from a different angle-by exhibiting contemporary African art. Prior to her initiative, there was not a single gallery in Brussels that specialised in this sector of the market, and there are still none that figure on the shopping lists of the world's great collectors. Whatever the price set for a contemporary African work, it is generally perceived as being too high. The contrast with the prices demanded for works by even the youngest European or American artists, even for their very first exhibitions, speaks volumes. African art is too expensive in relation to what exactly ? The answer is in relation to the status accorded to it, which is of course determined by the art world. In other words, a big fat zero if one considers the fact that African art is never exhibited.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thanks to Revue Noire, African art has been brought to the major galleries of the Western world. Similar projects have been launched or are in the process of being launched in various countries of the West, such as the magazine NKA in Brooklyn, for example. Exhibition organisers, museums, galleries and those looking to stage art festivals now know on whose door to knock, and the last few months have proved extremely promising. The Guggenheim Museum in New York is currently hosting a major exhibition of African art, and Africa 95, held in London, was swiftly followed by Copenhagen 96. The Guggenheim Museum, moreover, is in a completely different league to the Museum of African and Oceanic Art in Paris or the Museum of Central Africa in Tervueren, Belgium (formerly the Colonial Museum)-it is one of the world's most prestigious temples of modern art. What is more, London's Africa 95, which was so disparaged by African art specialists, who considered it nothing more than a meeting place for traders, did, whether we like it or not, act as a significant catalyst. And what about pirated works of art, such as those plundered from the Niger Valley ? These have found a 'home' in public as well as private collections, pointing to a real need to 'clean out the Augean stables'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few African artists are beginning to get themselves known within 'the market', but there are still not enough of them. It was with great foresight that the organisers of Dak'Art placed these artists at the top of their invitation list. Another shrewd move was to invite the art market's arbiters of taste to select those African artists who should present solo exhibitions, and to ask celebrated art critics and collectors to form part of the international panel of judges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is probably true to say that Africa has rarely known such a dynamic period of creativity which places it at the forefront of global aesthetic trends. The aim of the Biennial Festival was to underline this fact beyond any doubt. Among those artists who are currently in a position to break into the market, the Senegalese sculptor, Ousmane Sow, probably heads the list. Paradoxically, however, Ousmane Sow's work was not presented at Dakar although he himself was there, his tall, striking figure standing out from the crowd. Despite the fact that he lent his support to Dak'Art 96 and that the opening gala was partly dedicated to him with the magnificent film of Beatrice Soule, Ousmane Sow resolutely refused to display his own work. He has no wish to take part in gatherings of 'African artists'. He is an artist and he is African, but he is not an 'African artist'. 'A Japanese artist is a contemporary artist in this universal world', he argues, 'so why should I allow myself to be pigeon-holed in a ghetto ?' No matter how satisfied and pleased champions of contemporary African art may be with the organisation behind the Biennial Festival, they cannot deny that Ousmane Sow has a point. Having said this, there is no contradiction here, but rather a complementary vision. Sow's stance and the idea behind Dak'Art are part of a two-pronged attack, to borrow a military term. The organisers of the Biennial and Sow himself doubtless saw it in this way, and decided to join forces.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each time Beatrice Soule tackles the work of an artist, she explores it in a very unusual way, reinventing the arts documentary. Her films are reminiscent of the music of Nino Rota in Fe//ini's films, Rota subjugating himself to the service of the director's work, sublimating his own originality through this extreme humility. It is impossible to picture the images of Federico Fellini without Rota's haunting music. Beatrice Soule saw in Sow's work a love affair between an artist and his sculpture, coming up with the idea of placing Sow's sculptures in the savannah and imagining the intimate interaction between Africa's natural world, which is at the heart of the artist's inspiration, and his works, which the natural world is able to absorb back into itself. The result of this juxtaposition is that the physical work of art is eclipsed by sheer creative force and spirit. The genius behind the work becomes the work, merges with it and is reincarnated in it. The one thing that Soule did not film was Ousmane Sow himself, her images concentrating solely on the creative act. It would be illusory to attempt to explain a Beatrice Soule film, especially this film. When she unveils how the artist tames physical matter, reinventing materials in order to create a work of art, technique simply recedes into the background, becoming blurred and intangible. Whereas others would have adopted a scientific or factual approach, her camera perceives the abstract aspects of the piece-and its gestation. The film was due to be broadcast on the international FrancoGerman arts channel Arte. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If Ousmane Sow's sculptures are characterised by their gigantic proportions, then those of Georges Adeagbo, a Beninois artist whose name is also beginning to be heard in the commercial art establishment, are characterised by their 'fugacity'. Adeagbo's artistic constructions are as fleeting as puffs of smoke, like voodoo symbols scratched out in the sand. His art is symbolic and ephemeral. Once one of his works has been exhibited, all that remains of it is a hollow shell which he has to reinvent over and over again. Adeagbo constructs ideas, using a host of assorted materials which he painstakingly selects over months, even years. Yet despite the meticulous care with which they are put together, as far as the artist is concerned, the materials per se are of no importance. He could convey exactly the same idea using other elements. An Adeagbo piece is not merely a pile of objects. It is neither conceptual art, nor scrap art. It consists rather of 'installations' which rise and spread outwards. Sometimes, he uses specially constructed sculptures. At other times he employs everyday objects- shoes, saucepans, stones, spectacles or footballs. He also works with written material; manuscripts, parchment, pieces of newspaper and books, portraying the written word as both a creative force and a deceptive screen. Adeagbo himself is a man of few words. Perpetually crouched on the ground, he constructs, modifies, touches and observes his creations. Why should these constructions remind us so much of paintings? They are as much a pile of objects as a painting is an accumulation of layers of paint. It is by forgetting the paint that we are able to admire the picture and it is by looking beyond the materials used by Adeagbo that his work truly reveals itself. Indeed, it is a sign of his genius as an artist that the materials never intrude upon our contemplation of his work. In Dakar, Adeagbo's work was shown in the AIDS exhibition organised by Revue Noire. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another artist who took part in the AIDS exhibition, and whose art could well be the impetus behind the new universal aesthetic, the avant-garde (if such a concept has a meaning), is Pascale Marthine Tayou from Cameroon. He was given the honour of presenting one of the five solo exhibitions. Tayou was sponsored by Yakuyi Kawagushi, the curator of the Setagaya Museum in Tokyo, who exhibited his work at the forum organised within the overall framework of the exhibition. While the term 'installation' may best describe the works of Georges Adeagbo's, Tayou's work falls unquestionably under the heading of sculpture. This is despite the fact that the two artists use virtually identical materials. Tayou sculpts from wood, covering his pieces with all manner of manufactured and salvaged objects such as shoes, nails, plastic bags and enormous condoms, or with natural objects such as bits of roots and stones. He then paints the arrangement. The work is dense, unyielding and mesmerising, often etching itself into the onlooker's mind. His sculpture lacks heavy ornamentation, yet its starkness has a rich quality, the theme encompassed by a jumble of material standing out clearly, like the outline of a silhouette. Take his work 'Fight against AIDS'. The piece consists of a wooden frame in the shape of figure-of-eight, with each horizontal line doubled, defining a key element in a tragic body with bulging eyes and a Pere Ubu belly. In contrast to this suffocatingly tragic figure, the brightly-coloured shoes of a Harlequin with a faded costume offer a comical note.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were other creators who could well ruffle a few feathers in the art market that ultimately makes or breaks an artist: Tamsir Dia of Cote d'lvoire (whose screaming figures are reminiscent of Munch), Cheikh Niass of Senegal, Mathilde Moro of Cote d'lvoire and Abdoulaye Konate of Mali. The last mentioned was honoured with the highest award of the festival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A decision was taken that Dak'Art 96 should encompass other areas of creativity, such as music, design and fashion, in addition to the visual arts. At the gala evening held to inaugurate the Festival, there was a fashion show choreographed in the manner of a ballet. The staging of this can only be described as mawkish. The audience were treated neither to a real performance, nor to a good fashion show. The second fashion spot, which was supposed to present an overview of African design, was also quite pitiful. If the event's organisers decide to keep these parallel areas of creativity in the Festival, then their decision will be solely thanks to the success of the International Design Exhibition. Apart from two or three 'exotic' pieces, this was generally of a very high standard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community's choice in awarding the prize for creativity to a designer, Vincent Amian Namien from the Cote d'lvoire, was particularly revealing. This artist strips everything down to its bare essentials, creating a line that is so purified as to leave only the quintessence of form. Thus, he creates a chair that is nothing more than a perfect metal triangle, with four boards and four metal wires-and yet offers perfect comfort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Claire Kane, a fashion designer of Franco-Senegalese descent, had the verve to go it alone and show her collection at the prestigious Salon of Design. Her clothes are characterised by the rejection of all superfluous detail, achieving a fluid line that stylises movement. Following an aesthetic code that has been decanted from the melting pot of the collective costume heritage of the entire continent, Claire Kane is directly involved in the creation of her designs, from the weaving of the cloth to the last finishing touches. In fact, she admits that her true passion is fabric rather than fashion, her favourite material being woven pagne. She often uses silk-screen printing to introduce pattern. She then adds words to the patterns in her designs and, abracadabra, one would think that this is the way it has always been done in Africa. A subtle modernity, combining both past and future, seems to be a recurring motif in African creativity. International artists, still few in number, travel from Dakar to be dressed by her.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If, in the future, the Festival's organisers decide to concentrate solety on the visual arts, this would come as no surprise. On the other hand, it would also make sense to continue to include design and fashion. A country's cultural heritage should be considered one of its raw materials and a source of economic wealth, and unimaginative accountants may have to resign themselves to this fact. Herein lies a possible answer to the question: 'why hold a Biennial Festival of Contemporary African Art?'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegei Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acting against AIDS</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Robert Rowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many ways of raising money to fight AlDS have been tried, but one of the most unusual must surely be the approach taken by an official of the European Commission. Robert Rowe, who until last year was an assistant editor on The Courier, put on a oneman show in Brussels and then rook it to the other side of the world to raise money for a voluntary organisation working on AIDS prevention and care in Malaysia. Here is his story of fighting the virus with the power of the theatre.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'By the year 2000, South-East Asia will be host to the majority of the world's AIDS cases.' So runs a stark prediction from the World Health Organisation, quoted in a recent paper from a grouping of NGOs affiliated to the Malaysian AIDS Foundation. It goes on to predict that 'the region faces a potential HIV spread of titanic proportions.' In Thailand, a country with a large population and a sad reputation for prostitution, the HIV threat was recognised relatively early and effective public awareness campaigns have successfully reversed the rise in the incidence of infection. But in neighbouring Malaysia, where stricter religious and social attitudes have inhibited wide public discussion of the disease and its methods of transmission, over 13000 people were HIV-positive at the last count-and that is just the figure derived from the small percentage of the population who have been tested. Activists say the true number is certainly higher and it is growing every day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first cases of HIV in Malaysia were found among intravenous drug users and sex workers, and one of the earliest organisations to begin working with people engaged in these high-risk activities was Pink Triangle. This is a voluntary, non-profit-making body which started up in 1987 by setting up AIDS prevention and support programmes for and with the general public and the gay community. Its name, in fact, refers to the pink triangle badge which men sent to concentration camps in Nazi Germany for homosexuality were made to wear. The group has always depended heavily on volunteers to plan and carry out its programmes, which now also involve running a support group for people with HIV or AIDS and a street outreach programme and drop-in centre providing AIDS information, basic medical care, temporary shelter and food for sex workers, injecting drug users and transsexuals. The centre can also provide legal referrals for members of these groups summonsed to appear in court. For the general public, talks, workshops and poster and photo exhibitions are held in schools, hospitals, factories, youth and corporate organisations and other NGOs. Pink Triangle trains its volunteers, too, to provide counselling and information about AIDS and sexuality to anyone who calls up on a confidential telephone line.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work is serious and vital, but the atmosphere is far from gloomy in Pink Triangle's premises in a lively part of the Malaysian capital, Kuala Lumpur. Though funding comes from several sources at home and abroad, including the European Union, the organisation still has to generate a lot of its own money, and one successful method they have used is to put on imaginative events where fund-raising can be combined with an opportunity to raise public awareness. Last December, for example, they marked the week surrounding World AIDS Day with a string of shows, dance parties, talk-ins and street activities called Pinkfest '95. In venues all over the town, and on television and radio, well-known personalities joined a hundred of Pink Triangle's own speakers and performers to provide education without moralising. The aim was to personalise the issue of AIDS by showing how anyone could be at risk, but at the same time dealing in facts, not fear. Thousands of attractively designed and very frank leaflets and posters put across the virus-busting message in catchy graphics and pithy phrases in several languages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I happened to be in Kuala Lumpur around New Year and saw a video of some of the Pinkfest highlights which set me thinking how admirable an impression of solidarity and self-help the anti-AIDS struggle in Malaysia conveys, and to wondering whether, back in Brussels, it might not be possible for us in Europe to do something to help. It particularly impressed and touched me that while Pink Triangle delivers its message to every single member of Malaysian society, it makes quite clear, even by its name, that it has a special care for some of that society's most downtrodden members, people for whom no one else had ever ventured to speak. Public silence, opprobrium and ridicule make it especially hard to get the safe-sex message through to gay men, especially the young, to transsexuals and sex workers, and as long as there is no cure the only way of containing the spread of infection is by education- and by changing social attitudes. The many women whose husbands or partners are careless about infection also stand to benefit from greater openness and more factual information. But organising all this takes money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It happens that among the multinational English-speaking expatriate community in Brussels there is a thriving amateur theatre scene-in fact they say that if two British people found themselves on an otherwise deserted island, one would immediately put on a play for the other, and the same seems to hold true of the Irish and the North Americans. However, it was less certain that anyone apart from me would want to exert themselves, for the many weeks required to stage a production, on behalf of an AIDS charity in a remote Asian country, so l decided to go ahead by myself and perform a one-man comedy. The play was Brief Lives; it has nothing whatever to do with AIDS, but in its day it was a huge success in London and New York. Adapted in the 1960s by the British actor Patrick Garland from the dusty old memoirs of a real historical figure, John Aubrey, it depicts a day in the life of this 1 7th-century English scientist, historian and wit. As he potters about, an extremely old man, in a garret full of manuscripts and curios, he reminisces about his contemporaries in hilarious and touching vignettes, the potted biographies which give the play its name. Aubrey died in penury, but the picture he gives of a vanished age is now reckoned to be the equal of the record we find in the diary of the better-known Samuel Pepys.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also a great deal funnier, and when I showed the script to various friends I was astounded and moved to discover how many of them wanted to be involved in the project. Eventually we put together a team headed by the director, Anne Wilkinson, a music impresario married to a coal expert from the European Commission, with production, design, stage management, lighting, sound effects, costume, music and offstage voices-not to mention publicity and box office-provided by other friends from the European institutions or the private sector. The five performances were given in June in a small theatre just adapted from a pottery workshop, and altogether the Brussels showing made a profit of some 110 000 Belgian francs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We had expected just to send this donation to Pink Triangle through the post, but to our immense pleasure they said they would like to see not just the money but, if possible, the play too. By ingenious compression the designer, Burt Baum, managed to cut the essentials of the set down to three sheets painted to give a three-dimensional effect, we put the voices and music on cassette, rolled up the costume tightly and worked out that the whole play, thus reduced, could be got into one suitcase. There is a little theatre company in the Pacific ACP state of Vanuatu called Wan Smol (One Small) Bag which actually gave me this idea. So off I went to Kuala Lumpur with this bag, and did the play another five times there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The staging in Malaysia was done by an adventurous outfit called Instant Cafe Theatre. This young company has a reputation for pushing forward the boundaries of public discussion with topical plays and supports Pink Triangle's aims and work. Brief Lives was well outside their usual repertoire, as well as being spoken in the English of 300 years ago. My worry was that bringing such a Western and Eurocentric entertainment might be resented as cultural imperialism in a country with three great and fascinating cultures of its own, Malay, Chinese and Indian, each with its own style of drama. But it turned out there was a local tradition of amateur dramatics in English, particularly Shakespeare, and that English is the usual lingua franca for speakers of different Asian languages. What went down unexpectedly well was the depiction of an old man nearing death and reviewing the best moments of his life; as the character puts it in the play, 'When a boy, I did always love to converse with old men, as living histories,' and Maiaysians have a particular regard and affection for the elderly. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I came away from Kuala Lumpur with many charming memories: the unfailing, sweet-natured enthusiasm of the audience; the relief on the first night as I stood on stage in a floor-length costume of three layers, designed to suggest London in midwinter rather than to cope with the equatorial heat of the Malay peninsula, and realised that the stage was air conditioned. The night when this air conditioning blew out a vital candle on the stage, and a man in the front row lent me his highly un-17th-century lighter to get my clay pipe going. The Chinese friend who gave me a genuine antique opium pipe to add to John Aubrey's collection of exotic curios. The delicious succession of Asian chicken dishes which the stage manager produced for me to eat on stage, cooked in very un-English coconut milk or glazed with rice wine. The work permit which specified I could perform as an artiste but must not 'sit out' or dance with the audience! The theatre's resident singer asking if she could add the play's Elizabethan theme song, with lute accompaniment, to her repertoire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taking this play to another continent was a fascinating cultural experience for me as a European, and I hope for the audiences too it was something more than just a painless way of being relieved of money in a deserving cause. At any rate the theatre asked if they could have another play soon, one in which Malaysian actors could be incorporated as well. As for Pink Triangle, some of its leading lights were packing their bags to go to Vancouver for this year's International AIDS Conference, but before they left it was a pleasure to hand over the proceeds of the whole venture and to hear that the organisation will use the money to develop a drop-in centre for people approaching them in person for the first time. Some first-timers are understandably timid about coming to the unfamiliar (and clearly signposted) premises for help or information, and a private space where they can talk in confidence is something Pink Triangle has always wanted to provide but could never find the funds for, as the project or programme money they get from their regular donors is invariably tied to what outsiders might think were more urgent priorities. It is not only the headline grabbing schemes which have useful effects: a quietly welcoming space where someone can be himself or herself may do more to dispel an individual's fear and ignorance than publicly visible campaigning, especially where religious and social pressures against certain types of nonconformity are strong. In fighting HIV/AIDS, we must try whatever works. And empowerment must begin with the self. It was a great privilege to be welcomed in like any other volunteer wanting to help bring about a necessary change. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.R. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA-Bulletin</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Earthen architecture</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials, techniques and knowledge at the service of new architectural applications</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Hugo Houben and Hubert Guilland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major building material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The importance - both in quantity and quality- of unbaked earth constructions in the world is very little known. Believed to be of ancient origin, (it is associated with the early civilisations of the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Indus and Huang He), nowadays, earth is not usually regarded as a major building material. This is despite the fact that it continues to leave an undeniable and distinctive imprint on the architectural landscapes, both rural and urban, of many countries. Unbaked earth is still, in fact, a major building material, being used extensively by people to erect homes and other buildings. Although sites of human occupation have seen constant regeneration with the passage of time, unbaked earth construction has persisted. Excavated from the soil itself, and moulded by the hand of man (or trampled by beasts of burden), the result is a building material which is used in all forms of construction-from simple huts and modest homes, to farm buildings, large houses, urban blocks, religious edifices, castles and palaces. The skills employed are based on knowledge acquired and refined over a long period of time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A contemporary building material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the use of earth in so called 'advanced' countries has declined in the 40 years since the end of the Second World War, in the developing countries it has continued unabated. In the former, the industrialisation of construction and other sweeping changes have rendered obsolete ancient techniques based on the use of local skills and materials, and on mutual help within communities. In the latter, various factors have dictated the continuing use of locally available solutions, materials and knowledge. These include shortages of processed materials (which are costly in both foreign currency and imported energy terms), the widening of the development 'gap', the accumulation of debt contracted within the international monetary system and the survival of local life-styles in which people are accustomed to coming to get her for mutual help for survival. In these countries, which have no industrial means, and which are to be found in various latitudes across the world, earth remains the main-if not the only- building material. Do these circumstances mean that it is a poor material, fashioned using outmoded techniques and unsuitable for promoting the development which is so necessary? The answer to this question is a clear 'no'. On the contrary, the materials and techniques involved are generally of a high standard. They can ensure true architectural quality, allowing communities to continue creating their private or public living environments, and to integrate their buildings into a coherent framework of self-generated development which makes the most of the resources available, both human and material. In fact, scientific and architectural research into earth as a building material, and on related building techniques, has made considerable progress in recent decades. Combined with investments made by industrialists and construction companies, the result is that we now have a wide range of properly mastered production procedures and technical solutions available. These offer great flexibility in meeting a wide range of possible applications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Making a mark on world architecture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recent global surveys, although partial (covering about 30% of the world's housing), have given us an indication of how extensively earth is used in construction. In developing countries alone, 50% of the rural population and 20% of those living in urban areas are believed to be concerned. The figures, which are drawn from the combined data of statistical surveys in various areas, and from bibliographical information, almost certainly underestimate the true position. They show, for example, that 60% of the housing in Peru is in moulded bricks or rammed earth. 83% of the houses in Kigali, the capital of Rwanda, are made of earth. More than 70%of India's housing stock is constructed out of moulded earth bricks or using successive layers of earth, and these buildings provide shelter for nearly six hundred million people. In France, many rural dwellings are built from unbaked earth and one finds, for instance, that in the Dauphine region, up to 90% of the buildings in certain villages are made out of rammed 'pise' earth. Finally, in California, there were estimated to be almost 200 000 'adobe' (sun-dried earth brick) dwellings by 1980 and the use of this material was growing at the rate of 30% a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Closer examination reveals that the whole world bears the indelible stamp of earthen architecture. Earth is used in Africa-in humble shelters built on leased land and in the great granaries of the continent. It is found in the palaces of the Hausa emirs of Nigeria, the ksours and kasbahs of Morocco and the mosques of Mali. In the Middle East, you come auoss it in the tightly-packed neighbourhoods of Ispahan and Iran, the fortified dwellings of Najran in Saudi Arabia, the multi-storey earth blocks of Shibam and the valley of the Hadramaut in Yemen. In Europe, there are the mouded brick farms of Aquitaine and the baroque and neo-classical castles of the Saone valley. And bringing in other parts of the world, we might mention the pueblos of the New Mexico Indians, and the houses built by the Hakkas in the Chinese province of Fujian, laid out in their characteristic concentric circles. The use of unbaked earth in building may be seen as a vestige of past history, but it is actually a living framework for history in the making.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Realistic uses for the future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Confronted with the energy crisis of the 1970s, oil-dependent industrialised countries were forced to look again at tried and tested technical solutions which were now proving to be too 'energy-greedy'. The building sector did not escape this reappraisal and the search began for ways of reducing energy consumption both at source (covering the production and use of building materials) and further down the production chain (maintenance). Research on biomass and solar energy ran in parallel with experiments to update traditional materials and to attempt to rationalise the production process. Earth again became a focus of interest, with government institutions supporting a considerable amount of new research and experimentation. This covered applications in both the industrialised world and in developing countries, research for the latter being undertaken in the context of bilateral or multilateral cooperation. With the threat to the ecological balance posed by pollution, degradation and the plundering of natural areas, this interest in developing materials and techniques that are inherently friendly to the environment has not lessened. In many places, people are becoming increasingly involved in controlling and managing their living environment. The field has been opened up by qualitative research, a new awareness of the available options and an increase in leisure time. With techniques now at hand that are easy to use and economical, a greater measure of (partial or complete) selfhelp building is now possible. The USA, Australia and Germany all encourage new forms of intervention in building which give greater responsibility to the occupier in the creation of his living environment. Viewed from this perspective, earth as a building material has definite advantages and plays an important role.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In developing countries, burdened by debt and confronted by an urgent need to build on a scale unprecedented in history, imported materials, techniques and energy are largely inaccessible to the majority of people, and their use may contribute to promoting 'bad' development. Building with earth emerges as an efficient shortterm way of producing houses or public buildings such as schools, which are both economical and of high quality (being culturally and climatically suitable). Decision-makers in these countries are well aware of this and have mobilised 'upstream' feasibility studies in their education and public housing programmes. The research covers local resources and knowledge, and the use of labour intensive techniques that generate employment and enable the population gradually to become 'monetarised'. The days of costly experimentation, often with no practical result, are now over. A new confidence in the resources that are available must be encouraged. There needs to be an increase in building completions and those who built them need more training. Today, this is happening in Mexico (850 earthen houses recently built in the state of Zacatecas) and in Burkina Faso (6000 school classrooms constructed by 1995.) No fewer than forty million homes will have to be built between now and the year 2000 for the urban population of Africa alone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies show that for most of the people involved, there is no choice but to employ local materials, most often earth. One can thus predict that at least 20% of urban and pert-urban housing in African countries (about eight million units), will be built in earth over the next ten years, at a rate of eight hundred thousand units per year. If demand from rural areas is added to this, one gets some idea of the scale of the task facing decision-makers and builders. The use of earth and other locally available materials is unavoidable, and should be encouraged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environmental advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is particularly important to enumerate the many advantages of building in unbaked earth from the point of view of the environment. This issue, one of the contemporary problems facing society, is increasingly moving centre-stage, and in the future, it is sure to play a greater part in political, economic, social and cultural strategies linked to the planning and improvement of the quality of life. Here we refer to the concept of the environment in the widest sense of the word, ecological, economic, technical, health-wise and psychological, cultural and human.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the ecological environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In terms of pollution and degradation, unbaked earth offers a highly positive picture:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not contribute to the deforestation which results, for example, from the use of organic resources for firing baked earth materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not consume any nonrenewable energy (oil, gas, etc.) at source for the processing and production of materials, or further down the production line in their application. This is in sharp contrast to the production of cement, lime and other conventional binding materials, and steel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- By exploiting strata on construction sites, it allows a considerable saving in energy for the transport of materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not contribute to a degradation of the landscape as does the extraction of minerals and ores which hollows out hillsides and creates open cast sites. A great deal of the earth excavated in the course of large public works (notably roads and motorways) can be recycled and used in building (allowing very easy decentralised distribution).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not contribute to the diminution of resources of aggregates such as gravel and sand, excavated either from quarries or from water courses, in insular sites or lagoons. The latter can endanger the ecological balance of these natural environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It uses very little water which is essential for the life of the people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It produces no industrial or chemical waste and has the additional advantage of being almost entirely recyclable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the economic environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It is often comparable in cost with, or indeed more economic than competing technologies and requires no major financial mobilisation for its generally light production infrastructure. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It guarantees rapid amortisement thresholds for bankable investments thanks to its low infrastructure requirements for usable production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It contribution to local flexibility, being readily susceptible to a decentralised approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Throughout the production process, it creates employment and monetary added-value which can be injected for development purposes into other sectors of the economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- By allowing savings in energy and foreign currency, it contributes at the macro and micro economic levels of the building sector, to a considerable reduction in developing countries' debt and to the balance of payments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the technical environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It has thermophysical and hydric properties (good conductivity, energy retention capacity, thermal differential, delayed temperature differences etc.) which help ensure comfortable temperatures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It normally only requires simple production and application tools (moulds, presses, light shuttering, normal masonry tools, etc.) which are widely accessible to masons and self-help builders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of health and the psychological environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Not only non-polluting in its use, it also guarantees the absence of harmful effects in the context of daily life (no gaseous emissions or other toxic chemical components, radioactive emissions etc.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It contributes to psychological wellbeing by the architectural exploitation of its inherent characteristics; these include the surface texture, colour, form and luminosity of the material. It thus makes an active contribution to the beauty of the living environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the cultural and human environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It maintains the traditional architecture heritage of the area in question through the use of local materials and thus plays a part in the respect for, as well as the survival and updating of, cultural, architectural and urban environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It allows local populations to take charge of the production of their built environment and thus contributes to the expression of the democratic rights of all to control their living environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future of earth on the move</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In her work entitled 'A Fate Worse than Debt' (Penguin Books, 1988), the famous political commentator, Susan George, analysed the debt situation of developing countries and attempted to determine the basis for a positive resolution of the problem. Her approach focused in particular on solutions involving repayment in creative values or 'in kind' rather than in strictly monetary means. At the end of her analysis, she put forward eleven potential solutions to allow this repayment in kind and to launch a coherent approach for the development of less advanced societies. One of these recommendations was that it would be necessary to develop 'the study and survey (and if necessary the improvement) of local building techniques, in particular earth architecture ('pise' or 'banco').' Ms George argued that new buildings, particularly public ones, should be constructed using these techniques.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear that various solutions are being considered for the future: one in which building with earth, using a wide range of local techniques, will have a new technological, social, cultural, ecological, economic and political role of paramount importance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Various methods of utilisation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The technical, constructional and architectural possibilities of earth are very extensive. The study of popular traditions and of traditional knowledge throughout the world has enabled some 18 different methods of utilisation of the material to be identified, each in itself capable of being applied in a wide variety of ways. This wide construction potential has enabled the building of modest shelters, village houses, urban blocks, religious edifices and palaces. This is not to say that other traditional materials do not have an important role, but the sheer diversity and flexibility of earthen architecture probably cannot be equalled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As was indicated earlier, the use of earth as a building material has given rise to numerous applications using a wide variety of production and construction techniques. Some of these techniques are still used in traditional construction many countries, some have been abandoned, while others have only recently been the subject of developmental experimentation. It is worth noting that there is a register of the principal techniques, mainly associated with processes using moulds, shuttering and direct shaping. The six most widely used techniques are: 'adobe', 'rammed earth', 'straw clay', 'wattle and daub', 'cob' and 'compressed blocks'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these six, three (wattle and daub, straw clay, and cob), are highly traditional, while the others (adobe, rammed earth and compressed earth blocks) have recently been the subject of spectacular evolution linked to the modernisation of production machinery and methods of application. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p094.png"></center><br>
+ The use of earth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The couriers mailbag</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plea for African solidarity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thank you sincerely for your report on the second plenary of the Global Coalition for Africa which appeared in the March-April 1996 edition. As a 'displaced' Liberian, I would like to comment on some of the issues reported in the article.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First, I hope that Africans recognise and appreciate all that former President Jimmy Carter has done and continues to do for our beloved continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, I support the view of Ms Johnson-Sirleaf and President Afwerki of Eritrea that we, as Africans, must invest in ourselves and in productive endeavours in our own countries. However, given the number of civil wars, that have resulted in displacement of our peoples and migration of the labour force, it is imperative that we also begin to think of and recognise each other as Africans first - and only then as members of whatever ethnic group we belong to. As a Liberian with professional qualifications who relocated to Ghana in 1992, I met with opposition and resentment because of my nationality and sex. I subsequently went to the Caribbean where my acceptance as an African was easier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When there is a population movement, the psychological impact associated with feelings of rejection and intimidation is severe. Sub-Saharan Africa will never develop or reach its fullest potential until we begin to think and act as a united, yet diverse group of people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I agree that it is important to develop our homelands first, but in the case of Liberia, Burundi or Rwanda, where no one seems to understand the concept of peace or the idea of having a future, it is crucial that the displaced be respected and accepted as fellow Africans. It would be even better if we were afforded the opportunity to integrate and assimilate into society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ciata A. Bishop, Grand Cayman.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What about Guinea-Bissau ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I am a student from Guinea-Bissau reading international law and political science at the Social Science University in Toulouse. I have also been a faithful Courier reader for more than seven years. In the March-April issue of 1996, you published an article on fisheries by Anthony Acheampong entitled 'A vital food source in West Africa'. You gave the figures for fish production in 16 West African countries-but did not mention my native country! I should point out that Guinea-Bissau consumes and exports a great deal of fish, and the product is an important source of foreign exchange to the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.J. Alves d'Almada, Toulouse, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Media and democracy in Southern Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I refer to the article with the above title by Francis Caas which appeared in issue no. 154 of The Courier (November-December). I enjoyed reading the text which examined the emergence of a free press due to the advent of political liberalisation in the Southern African region. However, I wish to make a correction as to what I think is a misrepresentation of fact. The author said, and I quote: 'The installation of a democratic regime in 1994 (in Malawi) enabled the MBC to begin broadcasting in all languages spoken in the country'. This is not actually correct although the Malawi Broadcasting Corporation, apart from broadcasting in English and Chechewa, has since introduced Tumbuka on the radio. I felt it was important to put the record straight on this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Disher G.DJ. Pindani Lecturer in Public Administration, Chancellor College, Zomba, Malawi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corrigenda </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In issue no 157, a number of 'author' footnotes were inadvertently omitted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pascal Dotchevi, author of 'Togo: the victory of the taxi. bikes' (p.11) is a journalist on Kpakpa Desenchante, a satirical weekly published in Lom&eacute; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Piritta Sorsa, author of 'Banking and securities' (p.13) works at the IMF office in Geneva.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yves Delafon, author of 'Developing consultancy work in the ACP countries' (p.15) is the director of a consultancy and President of the Federation of External Trade Associations in Provence/ Cote d'Azur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N'Gone Fall, author of 'Fashion; Out of Africa.. the breath of inspiration' (p.53) is a journalist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also in issue 157, some errors appeared in the article entitled 'Sparks fly in Namibia'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the introductory section it was stated that secret harlots were held on resolutions relating to Nigeria, Niger and Sudan. This should have read Nigeria, Niger and Equatorial Guinea; a resolution on Sudan was passed by normal, open vote procedure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the heading 'The future of Lom&eacute;' the ACP Generai Rapporteur vvas refered to as Mr Firmin, which is the forename. The General Rapporteur's surname is Mr Jean-Louis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the fifth paragraph under the same heading, there was a reference to Helena Torres Couto. This should have read Mr Jose Manuel Torres Couto. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bibliography</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L'Afrique est-elle protectionniste- Les chemins buissonniers de la liberation exterieure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Is Africa protectionist ? Greater economic freedom via the maze)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Beatrice Hibou. Karthala Publications (22-24, boulevard Arago, F-75013 Paris). 1996. 334 pp. ISBN 286537-633-8.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This volume offers a clearsighted analysis of the foreign trade policies of African states, fraud, smuggling and the way in which the franc zone operates, giving a definitive, reformulated account of structural adjustment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In her approach, the author is critical of both the liberal political economy and the new trends (the 'new political economy' end the neoinstitutionalist trends) which perpetuate the division between the economy and society. She refers to K Polanyi for whom Man's social relationships include economics and in whose opinion the economic system is managed as a function of non-economic motives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From this starting point, Beatrice Hibou demonstrates the part played by the unexpected and the unintentional in economic policies as they currently exist, revealing that coherence in foreign-trade policies on the part of African countries is not an economic priority but a socio-political one. In this connection, she shows that structural adjustment programmes have been unsuccessful in making any real impact on protectionist practices, at least in terms of their political and historical bases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After an overview of (legal or illegal) foreign-trade practices in contemporary Africa, protectionism is clearly alive and well, although much less widely applied and effective than about a decade ago. The reduction in the State's legal powers has meant increased freedom for 'informal networks', various types of dispensation, and an increase in fraud and smuggling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the basis of Jean-Francois Bayart's opinion, dating from 1989, the author suggests that the explanation is to be found in the specific nature of Africa's economic history, which is one of independent means, a lack of production and management of dependency without the way in which it operates being affected. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Reality of Aid</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Independent review of international aid. Pub.: J. Randel and T. German. Earthscan Publications Ltd. (120, Pentonville Road, UK London N1 9JN). 1996. 244 pp. ISBN 1 85383 292 8.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Reality of Aid (now an annual publication) compiled by two NGOs; Eurostep and ICVA, aims to highlight the extent to which donor aid helps developing nations, looking beyond the official publications of governments, banks and inter-governmental bodies. It contains a useful critique of the European Union's various aid policies and the respective bilateral policies of each of its 15 member states, as well as those of other Western nations like Australia, New Zealand, Switzerland and the United States. This year's review highlights, in particular, the need to mount more projects to alleviate poverty, despite aid commitments becoming more scarce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It says, for example, 'Too much aid is being squandered by governments on projects which have more to do with commercial and political advantage than poverty eradication. Rigorous evaluation needs to identify those programmes which can make an impact -and aid must increasingly be directed only to these areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International aid to developing nations has fallen off over the years. In 1994, members of the OECD's Development Assistance Committee-21 of the world's richest countries-allowed their aid to fall to just 0.3 % of GNP, the lowest level for more than 20 years. The review stresses the need for donors to address in particular; policy coherence (environment, agriculture and consumption policies are all linked to poverty), the effectiveness of aid, the failure thus far to invest in people and the fact that the amount of assistance going to health and education is stagnating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The review also features analytical case studies of various donor activities in selected developing nations (India, Fiji, Cambodia, Peru, Zimbabwe) and looks at Western assistance to post communist countries in transition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A chapter on the European Union's current development policies, edited by Mirjam van Reisen, a Brussels-based Eurostep researcher, criticises the lack of coherence of EU aid with its Member States bilateral programmes-an issue which is likely to come more to the fore as other European nations join the Union in the next millennium. Ms van Reisen also claims that there are too few staff running the EU's development policies and suggests, in particular, that there is a lack of expertise in the social and poverty areas. She stresses the importance for the EU's political leaders of giving more political clout to the EU's development policies at the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC), which is currently engaged in revising the EU's treaties. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">News round-up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">In brief</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trafficking of women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European Commissioner for immigration policy and legal affairs, Anita Gradin, will set to work with fellow Commissioners over the coming months to draw up a European Union action programme to clamp down on the trafficking of women which she describes as, 'the modern slave trade'. This comes hot on the heels of the Vienna European conference on trafficking of women, held on June 10 and 11, which was co-hosted by the European Commission, the Austrian government and the International Organisation for Migration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ms Gradin told journalists on June 12: 'I will put forward to the Council and the European Parliament a communication on the trafficking in women for sexual exploitation. This will cover migration policy, police and judicial cooperation, and social aspects to support and protect the victims. It will also consider European relations with the source countries, where the women are recruited.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Vienna conference highlighted the need for cooperation between Member States and third countrie from which women are lured into prostitution in Western Europe. Recommendations, which are expected to be part of the EU policy, include setting up central national units in each Member State to exchange information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commissioner told the participants in Vienna: 'The slave trade in women is growing, a slave-trade that aims at sexual exploitation. No part of the world seems to be free from this degrading treatment of women. Women are bought and sold like cattle or commodities. They are deprived of their rights and their dignity. And the direction of the trade is the same all over-it is women from poor conditions that are forced into a deplorable life by men in richer countries.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">She cited a typical case of one woman from the Dominican Republic from the book 'Stolen Lives' by Sietske Altinks: 'One day I went to visit a friend who was going to discuss job opportunities in Europe. I went with her and met a schoolteacher who knew somebody called Juan who could get me a job in the Netherlands. When I went to see him, his associates told me that I would easily find employment in a beauty parlour.' She ended up in prostitution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ms Gradin continued: 'The consequences for the women are dreadful. Often, they find themselves deprived of their freedom to move and decide for themselves; they are often locked up and subjected to violence and sexual exploitation. And should they be able to free themselves, they are regarded as illegal residents and expelled.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Aid for development in the field of communication</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A seminar was held under the auspices of the United Nations in the Belgian Parliament on 6 and 7 June, on 'the future of international development cooperation: new challenges for communication'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union was represented at the event, among others, by Colette Flesch and Steffen Smidt, the directors general respectively of DG X and DG VlII of the Commission. Mrs Flesch gave a presentation at the opening session in which she highlighted the various communication approaches adopted by the European Community in its efforts to counter what appears to be a growing lack of interest in development aid on the continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Smidt, who spoke in the second session of the seminar, began his presentation with an anecdote, citing a text displayed at the entrance to a Federal building in Washington. This states: 'Taxes are what we pay to have a civilised society'. Paraphrasing this sentiment, the Director-General argued that, 'development assistance is what we pay to have a civilised European Union.' The question, he went on to pose, was whether we were paying enough ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of the participants painted a discouraging picture of the situation facing the world's poorest countries in a world of advanced communications and increasing globalisation. Almost all were pessimistic about the impact of the socalled 'information super highways' on the least-developed nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most striking interventions came from Mabbub Ul Haq, the former Finance Minister of Pakistan, who spoke just after Mr Smidt in the plenary meeting, as well as at one of the discussion workshops. Mr Ul Haq urged the creation of a UN Economic Security Council, arguing that the main risk of global conflagration lies in the disparity that exists between rich and poor, now that the dangers associated with the Cold War have receded. One of the most acute issues under discussion was the growing challenge to the received wisdom that technical assistance is essential for consolidating national capacities. The evidence of 40 years of technical assistance would suggest otherwise (with 95% of funds set aside for this purpose going to foreign experts). Indeed, it was argued that those countries receiving most technical assistance per capita, had 'benefited' least from the system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In his second contribution, Mr Ul Haq painted a somewhat more encouraging picture, pointing out that the shaky 0.3% share of GNP allocated to development aid by the industrialised countries had achieved miracles in terms of increased life expectancy (up by 17 years) and the doubling of school enrolments in the countries of the South.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Round one of the South Africa-EU talks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa gave no immediate response to the European Union's proposals for a bilateral trade agreement at the first round of high level negotiations in Brussels on June 20. The talks were headed by Dr L. T Links who is South Africa's new Ambassador in Brussels and for the KU, by the Director General for Development, Steffen Smidt. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most difficult subject to negotiate will be future terms of access for South Africa's farm produce. The European mandate, which was agreed by EU Member States on March 25, foresees the exclusion of 39% of South Africa's farm produce currently sold to the EU from the planned free trade area. Applying World Trade Organisation (WTO) rules, the EU wants a scaled dismantling of barriers to trade in both farm and manufactured goods over a 10-year period, with a maximum of 12 years for a few highly sensitive items. But the EU has agreed to 'asymmetry' whereby, in some areas, it will open up its market to South Africa at a faster pace than vice versa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abdul Minty, deputy Director General at the Foreign Affairs Department in Pretoria, who is one of ,the chief negotiators, explained that South Africa had not yet responded to the terms because it is still consulting internally with the National Economic Development and Labour Council and with its partners of the Southern African Customs Union (Botswana, Swaziland, Namibia and Lesotho). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During a recent visit to Brussels, South Africa's former agriculture minister, Dr Kraai van Niekerk and his deputy, Mrs Thoko Didiza, told reporters that as it stood, the EU's mandate was 'anti-developmental'. Dr van Niekerk said he would like to see citrus fruit, in particular, removed from the list of exclusions. He also sought to dispel the fears of some EU Member States who wish to omit a larger proportion of South Africa's farm produce from the FTA, for fear of competition with equivalent EU produce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr van Niekerk stressed the 'complementary' nature of South Africa's farm production. He pointed out that his country's growing season was at the opposite time of year to that of the EU and noted that South Africa's output of farm produce could only increase by about 2%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EU spokesman, Joao Vale de Almeida, said that progress had been made during the Brussels talks on aspects of South Africa's 'tome protocol'. This is aimed at giving South Africa certain benefits from the Lom&eacute; Convention- some eligibility for South African companies to tender for Lom&eacute; contracts and the partial extension of the Lom&eacute; rules of origin to South African exports. It was originally planned that the Lom&eacute; protocol should be implemented at the same time as a bilateral trade accord, (on January 1 1997). Mr Vale de Almeida spelt out that although it would not be technically and legally impossible for the Lom&eacute; protocol to come on stream without the bilateral pact, it would be more practical if the two could be implemented at the same time. A second round of talks is expected to take place in the autumn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Echo Media Awards</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 29 June, the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO) launched a Television and Radio awards scheme to reward high-quality coverage of humanitarian affairs. Prizes will go to programmes produced or co-produced by independent production companies and/or broadcasting stations in the 15 EU countries which have been transmitted in a Member State on terrestrial or satellite television or radio between January 1 1995 and September 1 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Judging by a panel made up of NGOs, environmentalists, politicians and the media will be in six categories:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People on the move-a television documentary on the humanitarian consequences of sudden or forced population movements; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the minds of the people-a TV documentary on the psychological trauma in crisis situations; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forgotten conflicts-TV coverage of a long-running crisis forgotten by the mainstream; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vulnerable groups-TV coverage of the hazards encountered by women, children and the elderly in rebuilding their lives; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Broadcast commitment-to a radio or TV station for consistent, high-quality coverage of humanitarian issues; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio award-for the most incisive and analytical coverage of an emergency or humanitarian crisis. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Announcing the scheme, EC Commissioner, Emma Bonino, said: 'These awards give us an opportunity to acknowledge the vital role that broadcasters play in raising awareness of the issues at stake in imaginative, accurate and moving ways. They also serve to remind us of some of the basic European values such as solidarity and humanitarianism that have sometimes been eclipsed by barrages of headlines about mad cows and fish wars.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entries for this inaugural year must be submitted by September 19, 1996. Details can be obtained from: Mandy Duncan-Smith, Media Natura (UK), tel: (44 171) 240 4936 fax: (44171) 240 2291 E-mail: medianatura@gn.apc.org</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Posters featuring contemporary Bantu art</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the framework of its cooperation programme with the Commission, CICIBA (Centre international des civilisations bantu-B.P. 770-Libreville- Gabon) has recently launched a series of large format reproductions featuring contemporary Bantu art. Thirteen works have been chosen, displaying a representative selection of art forms-painting, sculpture, engraving and moulded leather. The posters, more than 5000 of which have been printed in quadrichromic colour, have a 40 x 60 format. They are also available as postcards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The artists featured are Marcela Costa (Angola), Assouambo (Cameroon), Daikou (Central African Republic), Mouanga Nkodia (Congo), Abdou Moeou (Comoros), Pambou Boulaz (Gabon), Jose Menan (Equatorial Guinea), Protais Hakizimfura (Rwanda), Protasio Pina (Sao Tome &amp; Principe), Silu Kinanga and Munyenz Tshibangu (Zaire) and Mulenga Chafilwa (Zambia).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CICIBA has also put together a similar series on ancient Bantu art. The fourth bi-annual exhibition of contemporary Bantu art, which has received some support from the European Commission, was due to be staged in Luanda (Angola) during July and August.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Links between technology and society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For more than 50 years, technological innovation has been regarded by many writers in the field as the motor of economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, with rapid developments in the media sector and the emergence of 'information super-highways', the whole world is talking about the emergence of a new society dominated by 'smart' technology linked with research and creativity. This trend gives rise to many questions. Will the information be made available to all, and if so, when ? Will it lead to a change in North-South relations? Can we imagine what a world of 'tale-working', 'tale-education' and video on demand will be like ? What will the cost of all this be? Will biotechnology rescue the world or be the cause of its downfall ? What will the consequences be for the environment ? And in a globalised world, what standards and norms will be used ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In short, what is the real nature of the relationship between technology and society; between science and humankind ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fifteen universities of the EEA (European Economic Area) from Oslo to the Basque country and from London to Athens (taking in Roskilde, Maastricht, Louvainla-Neuve, Namur, Strasbourg, Lausanne, Sienna, Bari, Madrid, Valencia and Lisbon), have come together to offer a multidisciplinary course focusing on these key questions. During the first term, classes in theory and seminars are offered (in the local language of the institution) by experts from the academic world and the public and private sectors. Visits are also planned to multinational companies and laboratories. For the second half of the course, the students gain a wider European dimension by 'changing' university (with grants from the Socrates programme). The bulk of their time at this stage will be spent preparing a research dissertation in English on a topic which fits in with the specialisation of the host institution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For further information on the ESST</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">programme, contact:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. E Lints (UCL-Belgium)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. (32) 01047.82.60</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. T. Nguyen (FUNDP-Belgium)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. (32) 081-72.49.09</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The institutions at work</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Common foreign and security policy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), the European Union has recently issued a number of statements, details of which are set out below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antipersonnel mines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 13 May 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the closure of the Review Conference of the States Parties to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, the European Union recalls that it has, in recent years, redoubled its efforts to combat the severe consequences caused to civilians by the indiscriminate use of land mines, in particular anti-personnel mines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The KU, which adopted joint action in May 1995 in order to reconfirm its commitment to the objective of an overall strengthening of Protocol 11 of the CCW, considers that the achievements of the Review Conference (such as the extension of the scope of Protocol II; the strengthening of restrictions on the use of mines; the new and immediate prohibitions regarding transfers; the provisions on technological cooperation and assistance; the regular review mechanism, etc), taken together, are significant steps forward, both in terms of the land mines protocol itself and of the development of international humanitarian law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The KU, however, underlines that the resuits of the Review Conference fall short of its expectations and of some of the goals set out in its joint action. In particular, the EU should have liked an effective and binding verification mechanism and no periods of deferral of compliance, or at least much shorter ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is convinced that the conclusion of this Review Conference is only the beginning of a challenging process which requires constant and widespread efforts and persistence in order to fully achieve its basic humanitarian objectives. The EU will continue to seek solutions to the problems caused by antipersonnel land mines and will strive towards the goal of their eventual elimination as stated in UN Resolution 50/70 (O). In the meantime, the Member States of the EU will seek early ratification of the amended Protocol II, as well as of the new Protocol IV on blinding laser weapons, and will take urgent steps to ensure their compliance with all the provisions of these two protocols pending their entry into force.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU will also continue to make active efforts with a view to achieving universal adherence to the CCW, since its objectives can only be effectively attained through implementation of its provisions by the widest number of states and parties to conflicts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Furthermore, the EU recalls its determination to pursue its contribution to the international mine clearance efforts. The EU has already contributed to the UN Voluntary Trust Fund, financing, in particular, projects in Angola and Mozambique as well as in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. In addition, the EU will consider the possibility of conducting specific demining actions and will continue to seek to that effect the contribution of the WEU to the elaboration and implementation of such actions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Central and Eastern European countries associated with the EU (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania and Slovakia) and the associated countries Cyprus and Malta, as well as the EFTA country members of the EEA, Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway, align themselves with this statement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Great Lakes region and the situation in Burundi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 24 June 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU's objectives and priorities with regard to the Great Lakes region are to secure peace, to consolidate the process of national reconciliation in the countries concerned, to facilitate a return to normal democratic life, in particular by restoring the rule of law, and to encourage economic and social recovery.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aware as it is of the close links between the various political, economic and humanitarian problems in the region and of the serious risk of destabilisation which remains, the EU would emphasise the need for a comprehensive approach and a regional dimension in the search for lasting solutions to the crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It considers that the presence of over a million and a half refugees in the region constitutes a major factor of destabilisation and that their return to their countries of origin in safety and with dignity is essential if peace is to be restored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It appeals to the Heads of State who signed the Cairo and Tunis Declarations to comply with the undertakings they gave, so as in particular to stop trafficking in arms and the training of the various militia and armed groups which serve only to increase insecurity in the region. It would point to United Nations Resolution 1053 in this regard and also the measures in the plan of action adopted by the Bujumbura Conference (12 to 17 February 1995) for the prevention of subversive activities in countries of asylum. The EU also emphasises the importance of deploying United Nations observers in airports and at frontiers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is increasingly concerned at the deteriorating political and human rights situation in Burundi and at the increase in violence. The persistent clashes, spreading over different parts of the country, and the killings and atrocities committed against the civilian population could well involve Burundi in a spiral of permanent conflict.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU strongly condemns all recourse to violence, which will never bring about a solution to the country's problems, and appeals to all the factions in the country to begin negotiating a resolution of their differences and to agree on an immediate, general cessation of violence. It supports the initiatives taken by the United Nations and the Organisation of African Unity to restore peace, as well as former President Nyerere's current efforts in this area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It fervently hopes that the talks taking place will result in a national dialogue open to all factions within the country. It also expresses its support for the ongoing efforts made by various bodies and eminent figures such as former Presidents Carter and Toure, and Archbishop Tutu.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU would point out that it too has taken initiatives aimed at resolving the crisis and recently appointed a special envoy for the Great Lakes region, Mr Aldo Ajello, to assist the current efforts of the United Nations, the Organisation of African Unity and other bodies and individuals, and specifically to lend support to the organisation of a regional conference under the joint aegis of the UN and the OAU to examine and resolve the deep-rooted causes of the crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU remains convinced that such a conference must be convened as soon as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reiterates that it is prepared to assist with specific measures to promote peace and reconciliation in Burundi, in particular the organisation of a national dialogue, support for action to promote human rights and the restoring of the rule of law. It is furthermore willing to continue funding the presence of OAU observers and United Nations human rights observers in the country. It is also prepared to help with the economic and social recovery of Burundi as soon as political and security conditions allow rehabilitation programmes to be set up in the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: progressive restoration of aid</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 28 June 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union takes note of the fact that the regime in Niger has announced the results of the country's constitutional referendum and has lifted the state of emergency and the ban on political parties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU takes the view that Niger has thus met the conditions set out by the Council on 13 May 1996 for the progressive restoration of cooperation. In the first instance, this will take the form of: -support for the electoral process; -aid for structural adjustment which, at present, needs to be focused exclusively on the most pressing needs in the social sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Council will continue to follow closely the situation in Niger, in particular as regards the preparation and conduct of the presidential and legislative elections.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arusha summit on Burundi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 5 July 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recalling its declaration of 25 June 1996, the European Union congratulates President Mkapa on the organisation of the Arusha regional summit, which has produced constructive proposals on the conflict in Burundi. It expresses appreciation for the untiring efforts of former President Nyerere and reiterates its support for his peace initiative.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU encourages the region's Heads of State and the Organisation of African Unity to commit themselves resolutely to supporting and giving substance to the Arusha recommendations and to contribute to the restoration of security in Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU expects the President and the Prime Minister of Burundi to fulfil the undertakings they gave at the Summit to overcome the crisis in Burundi and, with the help of the countries of the region, to put an end to the violence which is destroying the people of Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU calls on all the political forces of Burundi to seek a political solution and to give a favourable reception to regional initiatives to restore peace to their country. It calls the attention of all the parties to the conflict in Burundi to the fact that it condemns all forms of violence and that it will not recognise a government that has taken power by force of arms. Only peace, a peace consolidated at regional level, can guarantee the security of all and lay the foundations for economic and social development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is prepared to support the realisation of the Arusha objectives with a view to restoring peace and security in Burundi. It reiterates its readiness to help Burundi in its economic and social recovery when political and security conditions make it possible to begin its rehabilitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reiterates the need to convene the Conference on Peace, Security and Stability in the Great Lakes Region under the joint aegis of the United Nations and the OAU.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: support for the OAU Resolution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 15 July 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recalling its previous Declarations and Common Position on Burundi and, in particular, the Declarations of 25 June 1996 and 5 July 1996, the European Union warmly welcomes the Resolution on Burundi adopted by the Organisation of African Unity's Assembly of Heads of State and Government in Yaounde on 8 -10 July 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Union particularly welcomes the reaffirmation by the OAU of its support for the Mwanza Peace Talks under the facilitation of former President Nyerere and its encouragement to him to continue with his efforts based on and incorporating the principles of sustainable democracy and security for all the people of Burundi and an all-inclusive negotiation process. The Union reiterates its appreciation of the untiring efforts of former President Nyerere and its support for his peace initiative in this context.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The declaration in the Resolution of the OAU's full support for the outcome of the Arusha Summit of 25 June 1996, especially the acceptance of the request by the Government of Burundi for security assistance in order to complement and reinforce the Mwanza peace talks, as well as creating conducive security conditions for all parties to freely participate in the Mwanza process is also welcomed by the Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reaffirms its willingness to support the realisation of the Arusha objectives with a view to restoring peace and security in Burundi. It remains ready to help Burundi in its economic and social recovery when political and security conditions make it possible to begin its rehabilitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Visits</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The President of Haiti</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The President of the Republic of Haiti, Rene Preval, visited the Commission on 11 June. He met with President Jacques Santer, Commissioner Joao de Deus Pinheiro (responsible for relations with the ACP States) and Commissioner Emma Bonino (responsible for humanitarian aid).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President Preval thanked the European Union for all the support it had provided both for the restoration of democracy in Haiti and for the country's economic development. He spoke in particular of the discussions that are currently under way with the Bretton Woods institutions aimed at restoring Haiti's economy. The President indicated that an economic recovery programme would need balance of payments support to the tune of $119m during 1996, as well as assistance for a range of economic sectors amounting to a billion dollars over a three-year period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For his part, Professor Pinheiro expressed satisfaction at being able to welcome the President at a time when the democratic process in Haiti was functioning normally and institutional consolidation was taking place. In a statement to the press, he said it was an appropriate moment 'to evaluate our cooperation and to strengthen it in a way that will contribute to economic and social development' in Haiti. He added that it was essential for the Haitian people to recognise that democracy was worthwhile. Professor Pinheiro also welcomed the normalisation of relations between Haiti and its neighbour, the Dominican Republic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The President of the Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The newly-elected President of the Dominican Republic, Leonel Fernandez Reyna, had a working session at the Commission on 15 and 16 July.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This trip to Brussels was the President's first overseas visit in his new capacity, following his election on 30 June. Indeed, he had not yet formally assumed office at the time of his visit. His inauguration was due to take place on 16 August and the President-elect extended an invitation to the Commission to attend the ceremony. Mr Fernandez Reyna's subsequent itinerary included visits to Spain, France and the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Support for human rights</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently approved the financing of the following projects under the budget line 'Human Rights and Democracy in the Developing Countries):</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea: ECU 120 000 for a project aimed at actively involving members of the National Assembly in the institution's functioning, and in the democratisation process taking place in the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: ECU 72 000 for a human rights training programme in schools in both urban and rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria: ECU 118 000 for a human -rights training programme to be run in educational establishments and through itinerant projects in regions lacking education infrastructures. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji: ECU 119 000 for a project to support a non-partisan, multi-ethnic civic forum, aimed at contributing to the achievement of a consensus among various social groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal: ECU 59 112 to safeguard texts which are essential to the preservation of Tibetan culture. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal: ECU 30196 for the archiving of slides and photographs depicting art objects in order to preserve the culture and traditional techniques of Tibet. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines: ECU 61 750 for a mission to identify the areas in which strategies for human rights and democracy could lead to positive and lasting changes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sri Lanka: ECU 84 314 for a programme of information in the field of promoting equal opportunities and non-discrimination </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Aid for rehabilitation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently decided to finance the following projects in developing countries affected by serious civil disturbances or natural disasters:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: ECU 847 000 for an integrated programme covering the rehabilitation of agriculture and basic infrastructures, training in demining, hygiene and self sustaining development in Kipungo. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: ECU 185 000 for the rehabilitation of basic infrastructures (water, health, education and housing) In the province of Luanda. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea: ECU 353 947 to support the rehabilitation and development of basic </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">health care services in the south-west of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea: ECU 575 197 for the rehabilitation of water supplies and community development in the town of Hagaz. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 515.685 for the rehabilitation of primary care and water supplies in the Warder area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 455 630 to help the rehabilitation of repatriated people and displaced persons in the Borena area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 308 475 for the rehabilitation of health care and water supplies in the Hararghe area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 848 000 for a programme of support to upgrade medical infrastructures. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 590 000 to consolidate the water sector and rehabilitate livestock infrastructures in Maputo and Gaza provinces. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 500 000 for the second phase of a programme to help reestablish and reintegrate displaced people in Milange. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 241 259 for a project designed to revitalise livestock producer groups, make available essential veterinary products and support cattle production in the landward prefecture of Kigali. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 411 751 to provide professional training in primary health care. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 805 475 for an environment rehabilitation project in the prefecture of Kibungo. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 437 622 for the rehabilitation of primary schools in the southwest of the country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 94 650 to train laboratory technicians. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 626 439 for the rehabilitation of wells and water points in the Nugal region. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 423 687 for the creation of enterprises involved in making bricks and earth blocks in order to assist in the rehabilitation of rural habitats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 1 491 117 for a tree-planting project around the Virungas National Park as part of a rehabilitation programme directed at Rwanda's immediate neighbours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 213 536 for operational and methodological support for rural development projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 645 120 for technical assistance in the follow-up and evaluation of rehabilitation projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 551980 for a programme to rehabilitate schools and provide support for the education sector. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">European development fund</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following, where required, favourable opinions from the EDF Committee, the Commission has decided to provide grants and special loans from the 5th, 6th and 7th EDFs to finance the following operations (grants unless otherwise stated). Major projects and programmes are highlighted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic and social infrastructure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi: ECU 1.9 million for the rehabilitation and construction of customs facilities. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 11 million for resurfacing and improvements to the runway at Lusaka international Airport. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji ECU 1.8 million for the rebuilding of three bridges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade promotion/ structural adjustment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Member states of SADC (Southern Africa), ECOWAS (West Africa) and ECOCAS (Central Africa): ECU 500 000 for a follow-up pilot project relating to industrial fore in different sectors. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana: ECU 1.9 million for a tourism development programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djibouti: ECU 4.1 million to support the 1996-97 structural adjustment programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Netherlands Antilles/Aruba: ECU 5 million for a tourism promotion programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture/ rural development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madagascar: ECU 1.9 million to support professional organisations in the field of rural credit. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swaziland: ECU 1.4 million to build a bridge at Maphobeni, to facilitate rural development in this area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swaziland: ECU 1.5 million to improve the storage and commercialisation of maize. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benin: ECU 700 000 to enhance the security of blood supplies in the Oueme, Mono and Atlantique departments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education/training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana: ECU 15 million for a training programme directed at SMEs, independent operators and the unemployed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 1.05 million for a programme designed to strengthen training and research capacity in the economic field. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Member states of IGAD (Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, Uganda): ECU 1.9 million for a training programme for the commercialisation of cereals. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lesotho: ECU 1.3 million for a community reforestation programme in the Lesotho Highlands. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Institutional support</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djibouti: ECU 250 000 to provide technical support for the computerisation of the National Bank's accounting system. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: ECU 1.8 million to support the electoral process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 1.7 million for an assistance programme for the National Authorising </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Officer covering the management of funds allocated by the European Community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 1.5 million for the first phase of a tourism development programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cariforum countries-Antigua &amp; Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, Bahamas, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, St Kitts &amp; Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent &amp; the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad &amp; Tobago): ECU 725 000 in technical assistance for the programming unit of the Cariforum General Secretariat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miscellaneous</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All ACPs: ECU 5 million to strengthen fisheries management and biodiversity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 1.5 million for a pilot project in the field of decentralised cooperation. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 12.5 million for a community development programme in the battle against poverty. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 47 million for the second rehabilitation programme. The focus will be on productive activities (livestock, agriculture and fisheries), the social sectors (health, water, sanitation systems and education), the private sector (revenue generation, job creation, SMEs), the public sector (training, establishment of institutions), demobilisation, and the integration of former combatants </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 1.6 million for a programme to combat poverty including, in particular, the provision of credit to micro-enterprises. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 2 million to support the integration of displaced people in Kasai. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">European investment bank</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa: A loan of ECU 56 million for Eskom, the public electricity company, for the modemisation of part of its electricity distribution network.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Humanitarian aid</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: ECU 14 million for a global assistance programme covering food and medical aid, the distribution of equipment and demining operations. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 500 000 for the distribution of essential food products and to meet the special nutritional needs of children in the north of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cote d'lvoire: ECU 340 000 to help combat cholera and yellow fever among refugees from Liberia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 140 000 towards the setting up of a camp for 'boat people' arriving from Liberia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea: ECU 160000 for the distribution of food to refugees from Liberia and Sierra Leone. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Senegal: ECU 250 000 towards the fight against cholera, notably in the town of Touba.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sierra Leone: ECU 4.2 million for food and emergency medical aid (to combat cholera) for people displaced by the civil war. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 1.5 million for a measles vaccination programme and for medical and food aid for victims of the internal conflict. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Sudan: ECU 13 million to finance ECHO flights, and for food, medical aid and the provision of water supplies, for civilian victims of the conflict, notably in Khartoum and its environs and in the refugee camps in the north of Uganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non - ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua: ECU 1.5 million for medicines, essential provisions, drinking water supply equipment and training actions in the area of epidemic prevention. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru: ECU 800 000 for shelters and medical assistance to people in the process of reestablishing their homes having fled from the violence that has occurred over the past ten years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ex-Yugoslavia: ECU 102 million for various emergency operations. The breakdown of this aid, by country, is as follows: Bosnia-Herzegovina-ECU 77.45 million; Croatia-ECU 11.95 million; Serbia-Montenegro-ECU 12,6 million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Russian Federation: ECU 900 000 for street children in St Petersburg and homeless people in Moscow. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afghanistan: ECU 7 million for a coordinated aid programme covering public health measures, the provision of drinking water, hygiene and refuse collection. The aid will be directed both at the people of Kabul and at other provinces of the country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kirghizistan: ECU 3.6 million for the purchase and distribution of food. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tadilkistan: ECU 8.9 million for a food and medical programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangladesh: ECU 300 000 to help victims of the tropical storm that struck in the middle of May. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Food aid</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: 15 000 tonnes of cereals, 2000 tonnes of oils and 3000 tonnes of beans amounting to a total value of ECU 20.075 million. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/ec159e/metadata.xml
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--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/ec159e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
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+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">The Courier - NÂ°159 - Sept- Oct 1996 Dossier Investing in People Country Reports: Mali ; Western Samoa (ec159e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Society, Culture, Community, Woman, Youth, Population|Social sciences, sociology (works comprising several subgroups) incl. participatory research and training</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Development Periodicals and Magazines|The Courier ACP 1990 - 1996 Africa-Caribbean-Pacific - European Union</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">EC Courier</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">C-D-E</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">_textperiodicals_|The Courier</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/ec160e/ec160e.htm
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--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/ec160e/ec160e.htm	(revision 21010)
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+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; The Courier - N°160 - Nov - Dec 1996 - Dossier Habitat - Country reports: Fiji , Tonga</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Courier - N°160 - Nov - Dec 1996 - Dossier Habitat - Country reports: Fiji , Tonga</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa - Caribbean - Pacific - European Union </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country reports</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji is home to people of a variety of cultures but it would not be accurate to describe this Pacific island country as a 'melting pot'. Politics here are dominated by the difficult relationship between indigenous Fijians and the descendants of indentured Indian labourers brought in to work the sugar cane fields. We look at how this situation affects the economy -  which everyone acknowledges has considerable potential, and examine the prospects for ethnic rapprochement as the nation begins a 'great debase' on the future shape of its Constitution. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga appears like a haven of tranquility in a turbulent world. A society which respects hierarchies and is strongly attached to 'traditional values', it is also one of the few remaining places with a hereditary ruler who wields substantial power. But outside influences cannot be ignored altogether and nations everywhere are having to adapt to living in the 'global village'. Our report focuses on the possible consequences of this for the 'Friendly Islands' as the new millenium approaches. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dossier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of 'habitat' conjures up different things to different people - from the right to a roof over one's head to the way in which we manage the flora and fauna of the planet. In our dossier, we consider the legacy of the United Nations 'Habitat' Conference held in Istanbul earlier this year. We also highlight some of the initiatives being taken to improve the quality of people's living environment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgements</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier: Africa  - Caribbean - Pacific - European union</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Address: Postal address (mail only) 'The ACP-EU Courier' Commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 Brussels Belgium </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier office address (visitors) First floor Astrid Building 1, rue de Geneve Evere- Brussels Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publisher Steffen Smidt commission of the European communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 - Brussels (Belgium) Tel. 00-32-2-299 1111 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Publications</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assistant editors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeanne Remacle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associate assistant editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalist:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Production Manager:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dorothy Morrissey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secretariat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carmela Peters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: 299-30-02</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Margriet Mahy-van der Werf (299-30-1 2)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Meeting point</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Jacques Bugnicourt, Executive Secretary of Enda Tiers Monde</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main development battle must be fought in the towns and cities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Founded in 1972, Enda Tiers Monde ('Enda' stands for 'environment and development') is one of the few large international NGOs to be based in a developing country. It has a presence in a number of states in Africa, Latin America and Asia and has been concentrating its efforts on towns and cities, in the belief that this is where deprived populations can be best assisted. Jacques Bugnicourt, who is Enda's Executive Secretary, has some strong views about what needs to be done to tackle the problem of urban deprivation. When we interviewed him at the Enda headquarters in Dakar, Senegal, we began by asking him about the history of the organisation that he heads.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - When we launched Enda, I am not sure that we had any particular goal in mind. You would have to go back to the end of the 1950s, with the war in Indochina, the approaching conflict in Algeria, the independence of countries in Africa and the last-ditch struggles of the colonial powers, notably France. It was in Paris that links were forged between activists from many Third-World countries - in particular, we all took part in the street demonstrations mounted by people from the French colonies. There were some very strong groupings like the Federation of Students from Black Africa, and its equivalents set up by students from the Maghreb, Latin America and Asia. Ten years later, in the 1970s, we could see that the independence experiment was turning sour and the hopes we vested in the actions of determined and brilliant people had come to nothing. The United Nations was becoming increasingly bureaucratic. Some of our friends and colleagues who had government posts had their hands tied, while others were in prison and were equally powerless. In addition, the communists were disappointed at not being able to apply their doctrine to local conditions. Some did, in fact, manage to achieve small-scale results locally when working at the grass-roots, but by and large, their efforts were not successful. I came to Dakar, where I taught in a United Nations institute.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A lot of people had theories. But you cannot take up the battle for the poor without the poor themselves, or for those under the yoke of colonial rule without the participation of the subjugated population. To begin with, you have to appreciate the diversity of the various peoples in developing countries, and be aware of their daily life and struggle. Cesaire wrote that you had to ask questions about the soil, about cities, about men and about the sun. Later, once you have done this, you can act.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We need to dismantle the barriers. There can be no agronomy without economics, and no economics without sociology. If you are talking about jobs in Senegal, you also must talk about jobs in Mali and Guinea - treat Africa as a whole. Another thing is that you have to stand up for yourself and not allow yourself to be manipulated by people from the developed countries. One of the major problems we have noticed is that part of Africa's elite is out of touch with the general population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are the underlying reasons for the foundation of Enda. Nowadays, it is a non-profit-making international organisation working with various communities - an 'INGO', if you like, with the 'I' standing for 'international'. We have bases almost everywhere in the Third World, from Ho Chi Minh City to La Paz.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is each section of Enda independent, then ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. We took the view that there was a danger of becoming too centralised and acting like a small-scale UNICEF or UNESCO, so we decided to guard our independence very carefully. We opted for the widest-ranging autonomy possible. This has its drawbacks of course, but these are far outweighed by the advantages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mention drawbacks. Would it be true to say that the original enthusiasm which greeted the creation of Enda has fallen off somewhat ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's something we are always concerned about. It is not structures which maintain cohesion, but the sharing of goals and the channelling of our actions towards the common good.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the various sections get together, we find that we have a great many things in common. But there is no good reason why those of us in Dakar should try to influence the way people work in working-class districts in Santo Domingo, for example, where they are trying to tackle problems like AIDS and unemployment. We simply tell them what we are doing here and vice versa. If you want to serve the people, you have to have a decentralised set-up. It would be wrong to deal with a problem centrally, and to do so would be against our instincts. Most of us have no particular liking for institutions. An institution must be of service in the battle, not the other way round.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How do you guarantee cohesion in practice ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It costs a great deal to travel of course, but we do have a lot of joint programmes. For example, the cities programme includes people from Bogota, Santo Domingo, Rabat, Dakar, Ho Chi Minh City and Bombay, all working together. They meet from time to time and, when they do, it is to get down to practical work. Together, their work is, say, three-quarters practical and one quarter reflective. Nevertheless, there is ongoing tension, particularly in the relationship between overall policy and local demands. Another conflict arises between grass-roots action and reflection.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The impression one gets is that you yourself are the 'cement' between the various groups which make up Enda. Could this not be seen as a weakness which may make things difficult in the future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's what other people say, not what I think. I try to make my presence useful and those who come after me will do the same. What really holds us together is our belief in what we are doing. It is not a question of adhering to some kind of 'monolithic' faith. We simply believe that we can be of use, recognising that there are many limitations. Let me give you a practical example. If someone involved in recycling in Bogota were to meet up with someone from a poor district in Dakar who works at the rubbish tip, they would have a great deal in common and would find it useful to compare their problems and consider practical ways of solving them together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are your most important activities in Senegal ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - By far the most important is the one covering the city of Dakar. As well as being a focus for the country itself, Dakar is a metropolitan centre for the entire sub-region, with influence over Bamako, Conakry, Bissau and perhaps even Praia in Cape Verde and Nouakchott in Mauritania. What happens here has repercussions in all those cities. I do not want to sound too dramatic, but the decisive factor in our destiny will be the fate of young people and the poor in the major cities. Two-thirds of these people are facing chronic problems. Those under twenty make up more than half the population and their lives are continuing to spiral down into poverty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enda should obviously be operating in those areas where it can be of most use. And in the context of towns and cities, we have completely reviewed our strategy. For some years we gave priority to the countryside. For a long time, in fact, we believed that rural development would permit a much improved urbanisation process. There was even the view that people in developed countries would not object to paying a little more for agricultural produce, because they could be certain that the money was going to those who actually grew the cotton, groundnuts, cocoa or whatever.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the last fifteen years or so, though, we have come round to the view that our actions must be directed principally at towns and cities. We found initially that there were some interesting projects involving small groups - working to improve the position of children or banding together in cooperative savings ventures. It was good, long-term work which gave results. But that is all out of date now. We have to speak in terms of much larger numbers  -  tens of thousands and not tens or hundreds. Otherwise, there is no chance of making a real difference. That is why we have considerably altered our strategy. Three years ago, approximately two thousand children were able to go to holiday camps. Most of these holidays were paid for by companies, but fewer than 10% of the beneficiaries were genuinely poor. Last year, no fewer than 10 000 children were sent away on five days' holiday -  to the coast near Dakar. Enda was involved in this programme working with 200 local cultural and sports associations. The idea was to give the children the chance to splash about in the sea, but also to use African resources to help them become full citizens and learn that our diversity is the source of our wealth. There are at least 100 000 children living in misery and many of them could end up joining the ranks of the street children. If you can give these youngsters five days holiday plus a bit of follow-up, you allow friendships to be built. It offers a brief escape from everyday reality. It may not be paradise, but it is something tangible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another example is the tontines that have been formed into a federation. We currently have nineteen thousand women participating in these and if you bear the large family sizes in mind - there are perhaps ten people in every family - that represents a lot of people. The women pay into the tontines and the money is used, not just for the security of their immediate family, but also to help young people set themselves up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then there is rubbish collection. Enda runs its own scheme but there are also a number of groups that have turned rubbish collection into a profession. The young people collect the rubbish and recycle it. There are about 50 000 people in the biggest district where we are involved in rubbish collection. There are also some young people in that district who are engaged in water recycling and although it only involves supplying about a hundred people at the moment, I believe this scheme will grow. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We also organise schools and are currently involved in making films for schools on the subjects of the environment, hygiene and solidarity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Enda has just opened an 'eco-centre'. If I understand it correctly, this is a showcase to promote a horizontal link between Enda's various activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That is right. We want it to be a place of passage, meeting, exhibition, permeation and redistribution. We hope people will feel comfortable there, and that it will be a tool symbolising a new way of working. So the centre offers an experience, but we also want it to be used to promote activity. A variety of events have been organised there simultaneously - recently for example, a meeting of shoe-shiners, a gathering of teachers from a long-standing educational centre, an exhibition for the Biennial Festival of Contemporary African Art, and a local-community meeting about setting up a small production facility. Two days earlier, there was a preliminary holiday-camp meeting where the instructors got together to look at the best available teaching methods designed to make children more aware of the importance of solidarity. We believe that solidarity is essential in tackling problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So the centre has a multitude of uses, all of which contribute to the vitality of the local economy. You have to understand the crucial importance of the local economy. It responds to all the basic needs of the poorest people, who want to live their lives just like the rest of us.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You talk of depending on the local (what some would call the informal) economy to live - or at least survive. But this sector is not viewed with enthusiasm by the international authorities ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Their policy is based on domination and fear: fear of those who accumulate assets. To see these hordes of people in the developing countries frightens them. It's a bit like the horror of the wealthy classes at the end of the nineteenth century when faced with a working class which dared to aspire to wealth. They will give to charity but are not prepared to make a long-term investment. The lack of support for the local economy stems from the fact that foreign aid is geared, first and foremost, towards major projects or emergency aid. Four or five years ago, the UN conducted a survey in 10 towns and cities in West Africa, but the results were not published because they showed that the average rate of growth of the local economy was 7.5%. So, you see, we are far from just muddling along. Great things could be achieved if only there were a change in attitude. It also requires a change of terminology. How can one justify the use of the word 'informal' and, worse still, treat the work of the poorest people and fraudulent activities under the same heading. Fraud may be formal or informal. Knowing African society as I do, I am aware that fraud is statistically more widespread amongst the prosperous and highly respected. So we must not cast stones at the little man selling socks who has no trading licence because he cannot afford one, or at the woman who sets up a stall at a school entrance without complying with the law which requires a recent certificate stating that she does not have tuberculosis. What is the bottom line here ? Must we respect the law or the people who want to live without being thieves, beggars or prostitutes ? It is unacceptable for force to lie with the law and for the majority to be cast into wretchedness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Senegal, there used to be fixed prices for milk. The World Bank protested, declaring that this was a restriction on free competition. Now we have to pay much more and many people can no longer afford to give their children-milk every day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To put it in perspective, Senegal's economy is about the same size as that of the city of Bordeaux. So we must use all the available potential. Highly qualified managers should do their job looking after the high-tech sectors. But, at the same time, we should not be driving out the poor people who are just trying to eke out a living. The informal sector creates services for a very small investment, and people also require services. Economic policy must allow society to walk on two legs, not just one. What that means is that we need a great deal of flexibility, and perhaps a complete review of the law. Contraceptive implants have to be licensed so that there are no more back-street abortions. And it must be possible for girls to attend school even if they do not have a proper birth certificate - why should they be excluded from education for want of a piece of paper. It should be possible to trade with a simple one-day ticket which people should be able to buy in post offices or cinemas. What would be wrong with that? And we should have a moratorium on a number of regulations. We need to wage war on the destitution that we are suffering and that means taking decisive measure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ACP</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Joint Assembly begins discussions on future ACP-EU relations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the agenda was, as usual, heavily laden with a variety of long-standing issues ranging from regional cooperation, fisheries, the cocoa content of chocolate and bananas to the situation in several ACP states (in particular Rwanda and Burundi), the future of ACP-EU relations was at the forefront of discussions at the ACP-EU Joint Assembly, which was held in Luxembourg from 23-26 September 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Opened in the presence of the Grand Duke and Grand Duchess of Luxembourg, the Assembly's general attitude was not one of speculation as to whether or not the European Union would abandon the ACP states when the Lom&eacute; IV Convention expires in the year 2000 - a feeling that was rife shortly after the signing of the revised version in Mauritius in November 1995. Instead, it was one of positive thinking and of exploring the kind of agreement that would succeed it. 'There is no question of the European Union getting out of a relationship which took decades to build', Luxembourg's Prime Minister Jean-Claude Junker, told participants in his welcoming address.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As pessimism gives way to guarded optimism, ACP-EU parliamentarians have taken an important initiative, even before the Commission's Green Paper is published, in what is bound to be a long and passionate debate. A special summit of ACP Heads of State is planned for Gabon later in 1997 to discuss the issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Options for the future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A general report, introduced by Mr Firmin Jean-Louis (Haiti), provided the main platform for the Joint Assembly's deliberation. Although presented too late for representatives to have the opportunity to examine it in detail, the exchange of views on the floor was wide-ranging and reflected the report's content to a considerable degree.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report encapsulates all the ideas that have emerged so far in various fore. It analyses framework options for future ACP-EU relations  -  bilateral, regional and multilateral - and raises pertinent questions and concerns. Noting that international cooperation is increasingly dictated by economic and security considerations, and that North-South solidarity is, as a result, being pushed to the background, it regrets the fact that certain EU member states appear to indicate a preference for bilateral over multilateral cooperation. The author of the report warns that this trend would not only diminish the credibility of the Union but also its international influence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any instrument of cooperation, the report says, should take into account the different levels of development among ACP states as well as the regional vocation of many others. Its objective must be poverty eradication, sustainable economic and social development, and the harmonious integration of the ACP states into the global economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It recognises the need to secure the support of European public opinion which is largely unconvinced that EU aid to ACP states has been effective over the past 20 years. Not enough publicity; it says, has been given to its positive aspects. The report goes on to warn that solidarity and development are at stake and that the debate on the future of ACP-EU relations should not be left to politicians and technocrats. It should also involve wider civil society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Joint Assembly debate, the commitment of EU political leaders to the development of the ACP states was often called into question. Francis Wurtz (EUL-F) summed it up when he said there were worrying signs that the EU intends to downgrade its relationship with the ACP states - signs which go back to the negotiations on the Lom&eacute; IV second financial protocol, when several countries refused to increase their contributions to the 8th EDF. The EU draft budget for 1997, which he said revealed a substantial reduction in the funds allocated to the developing countries outside the Mediterranean region, provided further evidence of this. 'We must be vigilant,' he told his colleagues, 'and must not allow the Lom&eacute; Convention to be revised downwards.' Mr Wurtz agreed that greater efforts were needed to create awareness and mobilise European opinion in favour of development. The European public should know that EU development policy was not based on charity but on self-interest. 'Without Africa developing, Europe has little chance of maintaining growth in the long run.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lord Plumb (EPP-UK), the European Co-President of the Joint Assembly, admitted that it would not be easy to influence European public opinion. 'One of the roles of the Joint Assemby,' he said, however, 'must be to ensure that the peoples of Europe have confidence in the progress being made by the countries of the South. We must all help in this task of confidence-building.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Glenys Kinnock (PES-UK) urged that there should be as much participation as possible in the ongoing dialogue over future ACP-EU relations in order to bridge what she saw as 'the gap between rhetoric and reality.' Equity, she argued, should be the main objective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP Co-President, Sir John Kaputin (Papua New Guinea), said there was no doubt that the EU was forging closer ties with the former Eastern bloc countries at the expense of the ACPs. He pointed out, however, that the Lom&eacute; Convention had always encouraged a 'forward-looking' approach and argued that whatever succeeded the current ACP-EU relationship should be 'the most important' agreement ever.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The representative from Barbados, Dr Richard Cheltenham, was of the opinion that whatever the outcome of the discussions, efforts were needed to avoid 'chaos'. There should, for example, be no immediate abandonment of the trade preferences that ACP states had acquired. Transformation must be gradual to enable them to adjust and restructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European Commissioner, Professor Pinheiro, chose, first of all, to underline the importance of the role of 'the state and civil society' in development. He indicated that he saw this as growing more and more in importance. This was reflected in the agreement signed in Mauritius -  an agreement which seeks to encourage the consolidation of democracy, the rule of law, good governance and transparency, and which emphasises decentralised cooperation and the role of the private sector. the Commissioner spoke about the current programming exercise, reminding the Assembly that resources were being allocated in two tranches in accordance with the provisions of the revised Convention, to take account of each ACP state's development strategy and the objectives and priorities of the Community's development policy. He revealed that only 16 ACP countries and two EU Member States had ratified the revised Convention and urged those that have not done so to accelerate the process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He welcomed the Joint Assembly's initiative in debating future ACP-EU relations. The Commission's Green Paper, he told representatives, will be published in November. He was, therefore, not in a position to enter into detailed discussions with members on the subject at this stage. He stressed, nonetheless, that the document 'will not be a blueprint for future EU strategy towards the ACP countries. It will be a discussion paper.' there were a number of key questions that needed to be addressed regarding strategy, the scope of future relations and the use of the traditional instruments of aid and trade. 'This is not to say that we should start afresh', he argued. 'We should build on what has been achieved so far, and adapt where necessary.' Professor Pinheiro was certain that whatever the outcome of the discussions, there were a number of 'unchallengeable principles' on which ACP-EU relations should continue to be based. These were: partnership, ownership by ACP countries of their development policies, security in terms of EU support and predictability of relations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New areas of concern</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This session of the Joint Assembly saw the emergence of two new areas of concern: urban development, and the effects of climate change on small island states. An initial report on the former was presented by the rapporteur, Daby Diagne (Senegal). It did not give rise to much debate. The report emphasises the pivotal role towns play in economic development and urges the Community to adopt an integrated policy on urban development (See our interview with Mr Daigne in the Dossier). The latter was the subject of a full morning hearing, involving a panel of ACP-EU experts who are closely involved with the problem. They warned of the threat posed by global warming to the survival, and even existence, of many islands in the Caribbean and the Pacific. The emission of greenhouse gases, the Assembly was told, has reached levels never before experienced (see the article which follows). Representatives agreed on the need to integrate climate change considerations into sustainable development strategies. A Working Group on the issue was set up with Karin Junker (PES-G) as general rapporteur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cocoa and babanas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was no avoiding the intractable problems of cocoa and bananas. On cocoa, opinions were divided as usual. There were those who felt that the Commission's proposed new directive allowing chocolate to contain vegetable oils (up to 5% of total volume) in place of cocoa butter, was reasonable. The proposal also involves a labelling system to ensure that the exact contents of the product are clearly indicated Advocates of this strategy argued that it would not only widen consumer choice but would also promote the export of shea-butter and other vegetable oils which a number of ACP countries produce. Opponents were worried that if implemented, the directive could lead to a big fall in cocoa exports and a commensurate loss of earnings for ACP cocoa producers. Magda Aelvoet (Greens-B) argued in favour of maintaining the status quo, saying that this was preferable to what was being put forward in the draft directive. She warned that the Commission propose' would almost certainly result in everyone (cocoa producers, shea-butter producers and consumers) losing out. There was no guarantee that menu facturers would choose shea-butter given that they would be free to use whatever vegetable oils they liked She was certain they would go for the cheapest substitute or even for synthetic products. Accordingly, Mrs Aelvoet proposed a 'freeze' on all proposals. This view was reflected in the resolution passed by the Assembly, which called on the Council to reject the proposed directive. It also requested the sever member countries which currently authorise the use of vegetable oil to comply gradually with the existing directive  -  which bans their use altogether.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banana issue proved even thornier. There is a dispute at the World Trade Organisation, where the Lom&eacute; Protocol is being challenged by the United States and Latin American banana producers. Mrs Kinnock expressed anger at the fact that the arbitration panel set up by the WTO is made UP of three countries known to advocate free trade. The panel, she said, is chaired by Hong Kong - which the Organisation told her was representing the 'developing countries!' The general feeling among representatives was that the odds were stacked against the European Union and the ACPs. The Assembly passed a resolution asking the Union to stand firm in defence of the banana regime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Democracy, human rights, peace and security</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty-seven questions were addressed to the Council of Ministers and a further 28 to the Commission. More than a third of these dealt with issues relating to emergency relief operations, democracy, human rights, peace and security  -  recurring themes throughout the four-day meeting. The emphasis, in this context, was on Burundi, Rwanda, Liberia and Nigeria, all of which were considered individually under the agenda item 'the situation in ACP states'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the detailed answers given by Commissioner Pinheiro to questions on Burundi and Rwanda, the Assembly had a long session with Aldo Ajello, the EU's Special Representative to the Great Lakes. The discussion focused on efforts to restore democracy and legitimate government in Burundi, national reconciliation, and the repatriation of refugees from neighbouring countries to both Burundi and Rwanda. Mr Ajello gave members a comprehensive picture of the complex political and humanitarian situation in the region. He spoke of the sanctions imposed on Burundi by neighbouring countries and the efforts of the former Tanzania President, Julius Nyerere, to bring about dialogue and a just political settlement in Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria was again in the dock. Its representative, Dada Olisa, acting Charge d'affaires at the Embassy in Brussels, gave an account of what he considered was the progress made by the Abacha regime on human rights and democracy since the Joint Assembly met in Windhoek last March. He mentioned the repeal of the decree under which Ken Saro-Wiwa and other minority activists were executed, the release of detainees and the transitional programme for a return to democracy by 1998. He pleaded for the Assembly's understanding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">His explanation cut no ice with any of the seven political groupings in the European Parliament, who came together to present a compromise draft resolution on Nigeria. They wish to see all political prisoners released immediately, and the restoration of civil and political rights, as well as a democratically elected civilian government, by the end of 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution on Nigeria was again passed by secret ballot - the very last act of the session. It calls, among other things, for a total arms embargo (preventing the trade in future but also covering existing supply agreements) and for the financial assets of the Nigerian government and of members of the country's ruling councils (and of their families), to be frozen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution does not differ very much from the previous one. Mrs Junker, Johanna Maij-Weggen (EPP-NL) and Mrs Kinnock all expressed disappointment that the EU Council had failed to implement this fully. However, by repeating the demand for sanctions, they said, the Assembly was sending a very strong message to the Council that it was determined to see Nigeria return to democracy as quickly as possible. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Alarm bells sound on small island states</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Climate change</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A morning session of the ACP-EU Joint Assembly was devoted to a public hearing on the effects of climate change on small island states. It was appropriate that the issue should be brought to the attention of the Assembly by Maartje van Putten (PESNL). Representing a country much of which lies below sea-level. she is familiar with the devastating effects of sea flooding. At the hearing, which was very well attended, a panel of invited ACP-EU experts was on hand to enlighten the audience on the extent of the problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although global warning has been on the international agenda for more than 10 years, the seriousness of the threat it poses to the survival of small island states is only now beginning to be taken seriously - and it might already be too late, if some of the most apocalyptic scientific predictions are to be believed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is now growing evidence that global warming is taking place. In recent years, we have experienced more extreme weather conditions - heatwaves, floods and increasingly destructive tropical storms - while there are signs that icecaps are melting and sea levels rising. The increasing incidence of malaria in Africa has been linked to these changes. And it is all happening because of the influence our style of living is having on the planet - in particular the huge emissions of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane, from our factories, vehicles and so on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That the public hearing attracted a large audience was not only a reflection of the interest the problem is now commanding. It also symbolised the mounting international pressure for reductions in CO2 levels in the atmosphere, and for the adoption of more realistic strategies of sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel of experts comprised Dr Leonard Nurse, Manager of the Coastal Conservation Project in Barbados, Donald Stewart, Acting Director of the South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme (SPREP), Dr Robert Watson, Senior Scientific Adviser at the Environment Department of the World Bank and Chairman of the second Working Group of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and Neroni Slade, Vice-Chairman of the Association of Small Island States (AOSIS) and AOSIS Coordinator on Climate Change. A separate workshop on climate change was also organised on the same afternoon outside the formal Joint Assembly setting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to Dr Nurse, current estimates based on most reliable models, suggest sea level is rising at the rate of 5mm a year (the 'range of uncertainty' is between 2mm and 9mm). This is two to five times the rate experienced in the last 100 years. This rise is expected to continue beyond the year 2100 even if greenhouse gases are stabilised. The implications for small island states, particularly the low-lying ones, would be severe. 'Atolls such as Tokelau, Marshall Islands, Tuvalu and the Maldives could possibly disappear', he said. 'Major population displacement would be experienced in Micronesia, Palau, Nauru, French Polynesia, the Cook Islands and Tonga.' Meanwhile, small islands with extensive coastal plains and limited upland areas such as Barbados, the Bahamas and Antigua, 'would be highly vulnerable to social and economic disruptions', as major cities, ports and tourist facilities, industries, freshwater sources, fertile agricultural lands and even coral reefs are destroyed by typhoons and cyclones, or washed away in floods. 'Given the limitations of climate models,' Dr Nurse said, 'it is not possible to state with certainty at this stage whether there will be a change in the behaviour of tropical storms and hurricanes. However, it is highly probable that an increase in the frequency and intensity of these phenomena could occur in a 'warmer world'. One study, he claims, predicts tropical storms would have a potential destructive force at least twice what they have today.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr Watson, similarly, struck a pessimistic note when he said that the potential for irreversible damage was great. He agreed with Dr Nurse that even if we took measures now to reduce CO2 emissions, stabilisation of the situation will take centuries. He pleaded for climate change to be taken into consideration 'in our everyday decisions.' Governments must not wait for cause and effect to be established before taking action. 'It is,' he said, 'economically feasible to reduce CO2' by introducing appropriate policy measures: looking at supply of and demand for energy, resorting to new and renewable energy sources, nuclear power, etc. and ensuring more efficient land management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The question of 'burden-sharing' in the reduction of emissions between the industrialised world and the developing countries was debated at length. It was noted, for example, that small islands states are responsible for a very small proportion of the emissions, yet they bear the brunt of the consequences. There was a general consensus that burden-sharing should be based on equity and justice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It should be noted that the Alliance of Small Island States (which was formed during the Second World Climate Conference in 1990) has called on the industrialised world to achieve a 20% reduction in their greenhouse gas emissions by the year 2005 (The 'Toronto objective'). This, it hopes, would bring CO2 in the atmosphere down to 1990 levels. Whether this is realistic is debatable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, a number of strategy options are being closely examined by the European Commision and the Council with a view to adopting Community-wide measures to reduce emissions significantly by 2005-2010. Member States have made phasing-out proposals with targets of 5-10% by 2005, 15-20% by 2020 and 50% by 2030. This works out at an average reduction of 196 2% annually from the year 2000.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several parliamentarians wanted to know what the Commission, in particular, had done and will do to help small ACP island states overcome the effects of climate change. It was soon discovered during the discussion that a number of African countries were equally concerned. A Commission representative referred the Assembly to the provisions in the Convention which covered global warming and the special problems of island states. Although there is no specific reference to climate change, the Commission had dealt and would continue to deal with the issue in the broader context of its environmental action. Studies, projects and programmes are being implemented in the Caribbean and Indian Ocean in particular. Furthermore, DG VIII has drawn up internal briefing papers aimed at making departments aware of the issues of climate change and the environment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Country reports</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Fiji</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Political stability is the key to economic success</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most of the ACP states featured in our Country Reports, the vital issues are usually economic and social ones. How is a nation with a poor natural resource base to achieve lasting development ? What can be done to improve the skills of the people? How can a vibrant private sector be created ? Can better health care be delivered and how should it be paid for? Some of these questions might well be valid for Fiji but the visiting journalist soon discovers that they are all secondary issues. For this is a country whose political system itself dominates the agenda. The fundamental issue here is the relationship between the indigenous people of Fiji and the descendants of indentured Indian labourers brought in by the British between 1879 and 1916 to work in the sugar cane fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji, in fact, is home to people of a variety of cultures. On the indigenous side, the majority are Melanesians but there are also some Polynesians (living on the island of Rotuma). The country even plays host to Banabans, from Kiribati, who were displaced from their homes on Ocean Island to make way for the phosphate diggers. They hold a freehold to the island of Rabi and enjoy a special self-governing status. And while the Indians form the bulk of the non-indigenous population, there are also small Chinese and European communities as well as a number of inhabitants of mixed race.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite this diversity, it would be inappropriate to describe Fiji as a melting pot. Ever since the rapid expansion of the Indian population, official policy has tended to accentuate the divisions. In the early days, it was the British who were responsible for this, although one has to be careful to avoid value judgments. The colonial administrators, it seems, were aware of the tensions that would arise by bringing in large numbers of people of a different culture, language and religion. Their eventual response was to provide guarantees for the local population, notably as regards land rights. The effect was to preserve the traditional land tenure system which was based on villages and families. At the time, it seemed a logical thing to do, but several generations on, the country now has a settled population of Indian origin (43% of the total) who have limited opportunities to own land - even though many of them work on it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the economy has developed, each of the two main communities has found itself 'specialising' in different fields. For example, cane farmers and retailers tend to be of Indian origin while the public service has traditionally attracted more native Fijians. Significantly, the army is almost exclusively filled by indigenous people - a crucial factor in the 1987 military coup.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the political front, as Fiji moved towards independence, the idea of providing separate representation for each ethnic group also took hold. The independence constitution of 1970 reflected this with the two main communities being given parity (22 seats each) in the House of Representatives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shattered illusion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there was no real assimilation between 1970 and 1987, Fiji was seen by many as a model of a successful multiracial society. It was only when the country got its first Indian-dominated administration (sustained in power by a smaller native Fijian party) that this illusion was shattered. There was a military coup led by Lieutenant-Colonel Sitiveni Rabuka, who is now the elected Prime Minister,. Shortly thereafter, Fiji became a republic (Queen Elizabeth was formerly Head of State) and in 1990, a new Constitution was adopted giving political primacy to the indigenous Fijians. Needless to say, it was a time of greatly heightened communal tension.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1987 coup and the events that followed have been well covered elsewhere (including our previous Country Report which was published in 1991). It suffices to say here that while the last few years have been a lot less turbulent, tensions remain. In 1997, the country must adopt a new set of constitutional proposals and a big debate is currently under way about the shape of the system of government for the 21st century. This subject is covered in a later article and also features prominently in our interviews with the Prime Minister and Opposition Leader.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main focus of this article is therefore on economic and social aspects although, as one soon discovers, this frequently leads us back to the ethnic question. This is particularly the case when one considers the overall economic performance of the country. Fiji is not poor by developing nation standards and it has enjoyed modest growth during 1995 and 1996, but there is a widespread view that it could be doing a great deal better were it not for the political uncertainties. The problem is summed up by the Economic Intelligence Unit in its Fiji Country Report for the first quarter of 1996: 'Political instability will continue to deter investment, other than that on highly favourable tax terms.' In other words, Fiji is paying a high economic price for its internal difficulties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General unease about the future and, in particular, the outcome of the constitutional review process is compounded by specific concerns over land tenure. The long-term leases granted to (mainly Indian) farmers are approaching their end and the government must soon decide what it should do next. Will any of the sugar cane farmers be evicted and if so, how many ? What alternative arrangements will be made for them? These questions remained to be answered when The Courier visited Fiji in July although, as our keynote interviews show, the subject was clearly exercising the minds of the politicians.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A long-term strategy for agriculture?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The way in which the land question is dealt with will have a crucial impact on the sugar industry - still the country's most important product in terms of its contribution to GDP and the jobs that it generates (see the article entitled 'Sugar definitely has a future'). With other uncertainties facing this sector - in particular, the process of global liberalisation - there is a growing recognition of the need for a long-term strategy. The government has a two-pronged approach  -  improving efficiency within the sector and diversifying into other agricultural products. To learn more about this, we spoke to Luke Ratuvuki, who is the Permanent Secretary for Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Ratuvuki began by stressing the scope for increasing the sugar yield per hectare by as much as 75% (and by even more with irrigation). If productivity could be boosted on this scale, Fiji sugar would be in a much better position to compete in open world markets. He admitted, however, that the country would still face a struggle in maintaining market share and, looking ahead ten years, foresaw a slimmed down industry providing high quality sugar with more of a focus on niche markets. This inevitably meant looking at other agricultural products as possible long-term substitutes. The coconut (or as the Permanent Secretary dubbed it, 'the tree of life') is traditionally grown here and seems poised to enjoy a new lease of life following a period of decline. Fiji has also picked up the taro trade at the expense of Western Samoa, which is affected by taro blight, while there are significant exports of ginger to Australia, New Zealand, Canada and Europe. Mr Ratuvuki spoke enthusiastically about branching out into other areas such as pawpaws, mangoes, bananas and aubergines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji has potential for growth in a range of non-agricultural sectors, but farming is sure to play a vital part in the economy for many years to come. Currently, sugar represents almost three quarters of all crops by value (excluding subsistence growing) and the Fijians are only too aware that this makes the country particularly vulnerable to external shocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other primary sectors are all present in Fiji, albeit on a more modest scale. There is some deep-sea fishing backed by Asian investors. This provides useful employment although perhaps not the best possible financial return to the country. As one would expect in a nation of three hundred islands, there is also extensive artisanal and subsistence fishing in the inshore areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forestry sector divides into two parts: artificial softwood plantations which are said to be managed sustainably and the naturally growing hardwoods. As regards the latter, the EU is helping with a mapping project. Although Asian loggers do not operate in Fiji, there is considerable land clearance taking place, leading to problems of erosion and silting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prospects for mining</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gold is the main mineral being exploited with important deposits around Vatukoula. The sector has had its ups and downs but the Emperor Gold Mining Company has now embarked on an expansion project aimed at raising production from the current level of about 4000 kilos per annum to 6000 kilos by the year 2000. A huge copper and gold mine is also planned for Namosi, some 35 km from Suva. Other minerals discovered but not exploited include bauxite, iron, lead, zinc, phosphates and marble. Mining currently makes a modest contribution to overall GDP but represents an important component in the export earnings figures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With one key exception, manufacturing is on a fairly small scale with an emphasis on staple items (butter, beer, soft drinks, paint, soap etc.) for the local market. The exception is the garment industry which provides some 20% of the country's export income and a considerable amount of employment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The investments in garment manufacturing and mining have been important in jobs terms and in improving the trade figures, but there are those who criticise the fact that the government appears to derive little revenue from the operations. The exact fiscal benefits are not easy to determine, prompting some observers to suggest that official secrecy should be eased (see the article on the Constitutional Review later in this Country Report).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the service sector, long-term growth is foreseen in the key area of tourism. The number of holidaymakers choosing Fiji dipped sharply at the time of the coup, illustrating the importance of political stability in attracting visitors. Tourist arrivals bounced back once Fiji's internal difficulties had receded from the international headlines. The politicians must be hoping that nothing will occur during the current period of constitutional discussion and negotiation to put Fiji back on the front pages. It is worth mentioning here that Fiji's national carrier, Air Pacific, is an example of a relatively rare bird - an airline that makes money ! According to journalist Avin Rahish, writing in the July 1996 issue of The Review (the news and business magazine of Fiji): 'It is one of the few government investments that is profitable on its own.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If tourism is a success story, there is something of a shadow over the financial services sector, which is more extensive here than in most developing countries. The reason is the collapse last year of the National Bank of Fiji with losses of US$ 142m (equivalent to 10% of the annual GDP). The authorities were accused of a failure in supervision and the taxpayers have had to pick up some of the bill. More serious, however, is the undermining of confidence in the system and it will take time for this to be restored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social challenges</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a middle-income country, Fiji has relatively favourable social indicators in the areas of health and education. Medical facilities are provided by the government but it is said that the public health system is not as good as it once was. This is attributed, among other things, to the emigration of highly qualified staff in the aftermath of the events of 1987. Nonetheless, the country does have 27 hospitals and one doctor for approximately every 1900 people. At 72 years, life expectancy is high compared to the ACP average.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The education sector is well-developed with more than 800 primary and secondary schools (for a population of less than 800 000) and 41 technical or vocational institutions. As a result, primary school enrolment is close to 100% while the 1986 census revealed that 60% of 15-year olds were still in education. On the other hand, there are concerns over the proportion of teachers lacking qualifications, notably in the primary school system. In practice, there is considerable racial segregation at both primary and secondary levels, although there is no official policy to this effect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Educationally, the jewel in the crown is almost certainly the University of the South Pacific whose main campus is in Suva. This regional institution, which has departments in a number of other countries of the South Pacific, draws students from various island nations. Dr Vijay Naidu, who is the USP's Pro-Vice Chancellor, outlined some of the special features of this unique university which has to cater for a highly dispersed population. Like traditional tertiary institutions, it provides a wide range of degree programmes on campus, catering for 3500 students. It has a further 9000 who are being educated using the 'distance mode'. Distance learning is organised through centres in each of the participating countries. Students can attend these centres from time to time but much of their work is done through radio and telephone linkages and, increasingly nowadays, by e-mail and satellite communications. The University, Dr Naidu stressed, also provides continuing education at non-degree level 'in everything from computing to basket-weaving'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the health sector, the USP suffered a loss of highly qualified staff after 1987  -  and not just among employees of Indian origin. As the Pro-Vice Chancellor pointed out, the coup created 'a new sense of insecurity' all round and teachers who decided to emigrate were quickly accepted in Australia and New Zealand. The loss has been particularly serious in the scientific disciplines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90% of the USP's recurrent expenditure is covered by member government contributions with the remainder coming from Australia and New Zealand. For capital investments, there is heavy reliance on external donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In both of Fiji's main ethnic communities, a strong commitment to the family ensures that there is relatively little absolute poverty although things may be changing as the country become more urbanised. It is rare to see beggars in the streets in the South Pacific but Suva, sadly, has a number of these.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall picture is of a country with very considerable potential in both human and natural resource terms which needs to overcome a number of challenges to secure a more prosperous future. Some of these challenges - adapting to the world of free markets, tackling bureaucratic impediments, bringing development to rural villages, improving the infrastructure, and so on - are familiar to all developing countries. The single most important constraint, however, is the big ethnic divide, and the political uncertainty which flows from this. And this is something which can only be solved by the people of Fiji themselves. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with Prime Minister Sitiveni Rabuka</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'The last ten years have been very educational for me'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is almost ten years since Sitiveni Rabuka led the military coup which toppled the newly-electerl coalition government The stormy events of 1987 are long gast end Fiji has returned to more peaceful ways, but the country is arguably not yet at peace with itself. Major-General Rabuka is now the erected Prime Minister, having led the SVT to victory at the polls in 1992 and 1994. But the gulf between the native Fijians end citizens of Indian descent remains -  indeed, it is institutionalised in a political system which ensures a parliamentary majority for the former. A constitutional review is currently under way end a new text must tee adopted by July 1997. For both sides, the stakes are high. In this interview, Prime Minister Rabuka speaks frankly about the crucial issues facing Fiji as the nation gears up for the great constitutional debate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji also faces some formidable economic challenges and we began by asking the Prime Minister about these.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The main challenge is the one that everybody faces: achieving an acceptable rate of growth to ensure job creation and address the unemployment problem. We also want to improve the standard of living of the people, to upgrade our infrastructure, and to develop both the urban and rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What sectors do you see as offering the best hope for future growth ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  We are looking particularly at tourism and the agro-based industries. In the international sphere, we are aiming to boost trade, particularly with our traditional trading partners, Australia and New Zealand, and with new partners that we are trying to cultivate in Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We are very grateful for the Lom&eacute; Convention and the various arrangements associated with it - particularly as regards access to the EU market for our sugar products. Although it would be desirable for us not to have to rely on preferential pricing for sugar, for the moment, there is no alternative. And while we are looking for alternatives and seeking to diversify our economy, we will need that system to remain in place. We would like to continue the dialogue to ensure that this happens. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the area of trade, as I say, our focus is on Australia and New Zealand, and the regional trade agreement that the Pacific island territories have with them. This agreement is currently under review. One important aspect is the clause governing the rules of origin. If we can convince Australia and New Zealand to reduce the local input requirement from 50% to 35%, then we won't need any aid from them. The effect will be to secure existing jobs and, indeed, to increase employment, particularly in the garment industry. At the moment, most of the textiles we import for further processing come from Australia. Because of the market we have to sell to, it is very good quality material. This means the costs are high, in comparison with the local input needed to turn it into finished products, and this makes it difficult for us to get up to the required 50%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If we don't get that reduction, things could go in the opposite direction. Manufacturers might relocate and we could be facing jobs losses. You have to remember that we are competing with Asian producers who have very low wage costs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is this proposal for a reduction in the local input requirement on the agenda with the Australians and New Zealanders ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The review actually excludes the clause on the rules of origin. Having said this, we have effectively raised the calculation of our local input in negotiations on a series of other points. On paper, the 50% figure is unchanged but in fact, there has been a reduction of about 5%, thus giving us a little margin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· On the sugar issue you said you were hopeful that some form of preferential access to the EU market would be maintained. Isn't there a concern that this may not last beyond the year 2000, particularly given the increasingly liberal world trading system ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, and we are looking at that. We should be gearing ourselves up for what happens at the end of the current Lom&eacute; agreement. It remains to be seen whether, with the WTO and the new trends, the curtain will suddenly be brought down on 1 January 2000, or whether there will be a grace period in which we are given time to consolidate our diversification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The other big issue in the sugar sector concerns the impending expiry of the land leases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That is a local issue and a very important one. It has high priority on our government agenda. We are currently talking to the landowners and lessees, explaining what will happen. The legislation (the Agricultural Landlord and Tenant Act) makes no provision for further extensions to the leases, which are now nearing their end. Do we need a new act or should we amend the present law to allow extensions beyond the 50 years originally allowed for ? And if we are to do that, what happens to the compensation provisions? At the moment, these are viewed in a rather one-sided way. The emphasis is on the situation where the landlord compensates the tenant for improvements made to the land. But the rules also provide for compensation in the other direction where the value has been reduced. This may be due to constant cultivation over 50 years. What if the owner wants to return the land to its original use, planting taro, yams or cassava, as his father may have done fifty years ago, and finds he can no longer do so ? There has to be a balancing act here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hopefully, most of the land will be leased again under a new agreement or under an amendment to the existing law - because we will need to continue sugar production. It is also worth noting that some sugar farmers are beginning to diversify into other crops, both subsistence and commercial.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What arrangements do you envisage for those farmers who do not have their leases renewed ? Will they be relocated ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Right now, we are looking at the use of state land. There are two basic categories here - what used to be known as 'Crown Land under Schedule A' and 'Crown Land under Schedule B'. Schedule A covers the land not claimed by anybody during the Commission that was set up to determine the ownership of land in the very early colonial years. Schedule B is land that belonged to a community or landholding unit that has since died out: in other words, where there is no surviving member of the land-owning unit. So we have those parcels of land available. My party's policy is to restore land to the traditional owners where possible, but in those cases where you cannot identify the original owners, there will be land available for resettlement - although resettlement is perhaps not a very good term to use. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It is somewhat emotive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It implies taking a person, family or community from somewhere and planting them somewhere else -  and I hope we can avoid that. On the other hand, if you look at what people are doing nowadays, everybody's relocating. People are always resettling, moving away from home and setting up elsewhere. In this case it is perhaps a necessity, in the sense that the legislation has caught up with us. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can I turn now to the sensitive issue of the constitution. This is another area where decision day is looming. You currently have a constitutional review under way with the Commission's report due out soon. What do you think will emerge from this process over the next 12-18 months ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I don't feel that the constitutional issue is a sensitive one and do not think anyone should feel restrained in asking questions about it. It reflects the reality of the situation in Fiji. There is a requirement that the 1990 Constitution be reviewed and we have a Review Commission chaired by Sir Paul Reeves. He is a very capable man who is a former Governor-General of New Zealand and a very eminent constitutional lawyer. Assisting him, we have two party nominees - one from the main Fijian party and one nominated jointly by the Indian parties in Parliament. I have total confidence in that Commission. I believe they will come up with very objective observations and recommendations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let me explain the timetable to you. The report is expected by the end of August. It will be presented first to the President and then to me for submission to Cabinet. I envisage it being tabled in Parliament towards the end of September. We cannot debate it until three months have elapsed from the date it was tabled - which takes us to the end of the year. A lot of work will be needed during the first half of 1997. The Joint Parliamentary Select Committee, made up of members of both the upper and lower houses, will have to work on the report and try and build consensus on the various issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given that the house is racially divided, and the possibility that a premature discussion on the floor of the house may raise the temperature, I would prefer not to have a full parliamentary sitting in the early part of next year. Instead, we should go into committee and deal with it there. And then when we are satisfied that the issues can be brought out into the open, we will debate them fully in Parliament. As soon as we start talking next year, the legislative craftsmen should begin their work. On the basis of this programme, I believe we can meet the deadline to the day, promulgating a new Constitution which has been accepted by both houses on 25 July 1997. So I am very hopeful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Without prejudging the final outcome, do you envisage a move away from strict communal separation ? I am thinking here, in particular, of the separate voting lists ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think there may be provision for some cross-communal voting. There was something like this in the 1970 Constitution which had both communal and national rolls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about the longer term. Do you foresee a political system developing in Fiji where ethnic origin is irrelevant -  perhaps a 'right-left' divide, if that is still a meaningful concept ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I am not bold enough to say that that will happen. I have seen the darkest side of Fijian nationalism. I have seen the fear that was in the Indian population in 1987. But if we move too quickly to remove the racial safeguards that are in the Constitution, we may run the risk of prolonging the bad relationship between the races that we now have. So I would say we should proceed very cautiously and let the natural healing process take its course. We also need to look beyond the Constitution at aspects such as our education system and enhancing the ability of the Fijians to compete.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I believe the education system is also very divided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Some schools are reserved for Fijians although, slowly, there are Indians from families close to the schools who are beginning to enter them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think that this is a promising sign for the future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think so. I went to a purely Fijian school and when I came out of that, everything was Fijian for me. I went straight into the army which is another Fijian-dominated institution. It was not planned that way. It is just the way it happened. My tolerance level of other races was very low. But you cannot expect somebody who gets to this level of leadership to have a low racial tolerance level. I must admit that the last ten years have been very, very educational for me - very good for my own being. I consider what I used to think before and the way I used to feel before. I have never been threatened by an Indian, but I had always been in Fijian 'safe' areas - a Fijian school and then in the army. But since coming out of that sort of cocoon, I have managed very well to accept that I have to compete with them, I have to look after them, and I have to devise policies and programmes that will be good for them as well as being good for us.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· One final question. Do you envisage Fiji seeking to rejoin the Commonwealth in the near future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think seeking is the wrong word. We will do what we feel is good for Fiji and its people. The people of Fiji are those who are here now but it will include some of those who have moved on looking for greener pastures and who are willing to come back. We were not expelled from the Commonwealth; our membership lapsed. It is up to the Commonwealth to say whether they are prepared to reconsider our member ship. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 18 272 km². Fiji has two main islands (Viti Levu and Vanua Levu) and about 300 smaller ones. It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of approximately 1.3 million km²). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 790 000</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population density: 43 per kilometre² </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Suva (situated on the island of Viti Levu) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main languaqes: English, Bauan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(main Fijian language)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currency: Fiji dollar (F$). In June 1996, 1 ECU was worth approximately F$ 1.80. (US$1 = F$ 1.40) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p15.png"></center><br>
+ Fiji</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">System of government: A bicameral parliamentary system consisting of an appointed Senate and an elected House of Representatives. The President is a non-executive head of state chosen by the Great Council of Chiefs. The President appoints the Prime Minister. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the Constitution, adopted in 1990, the Parliament is divided along racial lines. The Senate has 34 members, 24 of whom are indigenous Fijians. In the 70-member House of Representatives, 37 seats are reserved for native Fijians, 27 for Indo-Fijians, 5 for 'general voters' (other ethnic groups) and 1 for Rotuma Island (whose inhabitants are Polynesian). The 1990 Constitution provides for a review within seven years and discussions are currently under way with a view to amending the Constitution by the 1997 deadline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President: Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Major General Sitiveni Rabuka </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main political parties: Soqosoqo ni Vakavulewa ni Taukei (SVT - Fijian), National Federation Party (NFP  -  Indian), Fiji Labour Party (FLP - Indian),  Fijian Association (FA - Fijian), General Voters Party (GVP).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Party representation in Parliament (1994 election result): SVT 31, NFP 20, FLP 7, FA 5, GVP 4, Others 3. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP: (1995) F$ 2.85 billion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual GDP per capita: approx US$ 2600 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP growth rate (1995): 2.2% (2.9% predicted for 1996) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Principal exports (1994): Sugar (US$ 182m), Garments (US$ 96m), Gold (US$ 43m), Fish (US$ 38m), Timber (US$ 21 m) Main trading partners (in order of importance):</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exports - Australia, UK, USA, Japan, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Imports - Australia, New Zealand, USA, Japan, Singapore.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade balance (1994): exports - US$ 547m, imports - US$ 826, deficit - US$ 279m. The current account figures also usually reveal a deficit but this is much smaller due to tourism earnings and official transfers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inflation rate (1995): 2.2%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government budget (1996): revenue -  F$ 759m, expenditure  -  F$ 851 m, deficit - F$92 (about 3.5% of GDP) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forma/sector employment: 98 112 (out of a total economically active population of about 265 000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth (1993): 71.6 years </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult literacy (1993): 90.6%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education: all levels from age 6-23: 79% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.853 (47th out of 174) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: Economic Intelligence Unit, UNDP Human Development Report, 1996, EC Commission. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">An interview with opposition leader Jai Ram Reddy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'We need to move to a more racially neutral system'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji is not unique in having a political system that is heavily influenced by racial or communel issues In places as diverse as Northern Ireland, Belgium, Guyana and Trinidad - not to mention many parts of Africa - people vote for parties which claim to represent the particular ethnic, religious or linguistic group to which they belong. Where Fiji is different, however, is in having a Constitution that gives primacy to one particular community. Since the 1987 coup, native Fijians have held the upper hand with a guaranteed majority in Parliament and a firm grip on the levers or power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1990 Constitution, adopted when communal feelings were still running high, contained a requirement for a constitutional review within seven years. When The Courier visited Fiji (July 19961 the work of a three-member Commission appointed to carry out the review and make recormmendations was nearing completion. All sides seem to accept the need for reforms designed to help bridge the sharp racial divide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The big question is how radical these reforms are likely to be. We sought the views of Jai Ram Reddy, the leader of the opposition National Federation Party (NFP) which has the support of most of the country's Indian (Indo-Fijian) community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You are the first opposition leader I have met who cannot, constitutionally, become Prime Minister. How do you feel about that ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is something that rankles with me - the mere thought that I am not equal with my fellow citizens of other races. I think that's generally the way the Indians feel here. All the constraints and limitations, the denial of basic human rights, are the source of a great deal of unhappiness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You talk about basic human rights. Obviously, the political aspects are very important but I get the impression that, in other respects, this is a fairly free and easy society: there is free expression, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, but free expression is only one aspect of human rights. The fact is that discrimination based on race is widespread and institutionalised. About 45% of the population is Indo-Fijian but you will find they are not fairly represented in the higher levels of the public service. At the Permanent Secretary level, there is definitely a government policy to have a limited number of Indians - and there are hardly any in the more crucial ministries. The same is true of managerial positions throughout the public sector. In the statutory bodies and major public undertakings, there is a deliberate policy of excluding Indians. So we are very much a marginalised community in the public sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wouldn't it be true to say that Indians have quite a lot of economic power ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No, I don't agree. There is a tendency for people who come here, end for some people in Fiji, to project this image of Indians controlling the economy. It is a fallacy. It all boils down to how you define economic power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let's take natural resources. The land, and therefore the forests, are almost exclusively owned and controlled by native Fijians. Even in the corporate sector, the largest business undertaking is the manufacture of sugar, and 80% of the shares are owned by the government. The Indians don't own this industry. They are the small sugar cane producers working on ten-acre plots. And who controls banking and insurance ? Certainly not the Indians. Most of the financial services companies are foreign-owned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The area where the Indians are most visible is in the retail sector. But those little shops you see in the towns are small family businesses. The shopkeepers work up to 15 hours a day, and you will discover that many of them do not even own their premises; they are tenants. So the idea that Indians control the economy is a bit of a myth. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Constitution, and in particular the system of racial differentiation for voting and holding certain offices, is obviously a key issue for you. With the Constitution currently under review, what is your party's policy in this area ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The first elections under the current Constitution took place in 1992 and we took part in them under protest. We made clear that our participation should not be construed as acceptance of the system. Indeed, the sole issue on which we campaigned was our rejection of the Constitution. But we accepted the fact that we needed to get into the system as it was, and to try and create an environment where there would be widespread appreciation that it had to change. The 1990 text, in fact, laid down that it had to be reviewed by the seventh anniversary of its promulgation. I think the architects of the Constitution realised themselves that it was deficient. And we laid great emphasis on the need for dialogue; a general recognition that the country would be much better off with everybody working together and that there was nothing to be gained by oppressing or marginalising a community. And that is the kind of environment we have tried to create.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Constitutional review will shortly be published. What do you hope will come out of that exercise ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I am reasonably optimistic. I think the environment is more favourable now and there is a general recognition that the system has to change. I am sure you will get confirmation of this when you talk to the government side. We need to move away from this very polarised, compartmentalised political system to a more racially neutral one. I think views may diverge as to how far we should go. That will be the contentious issue. But I believe we will make progress.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I certainly think we will get a good report from the Constitutional Review Commission. One of our fears, when we started on this journey, was whether it would be independent and be given fair terms of reference. Largely because of the cooperative and accommodating attitude that we ourselves adopted, and to which the government responded, we were able to get a Commission that was well-balanced. We are very fortunate to have Sir Paul Reeves, a former Governor-General of New Zealand. His independence is taken for granted. The Commission also has one nominee from the indigenous side and one from the Indo-Fijian side. So we certainly expect a good report. There is already a kind of acceptance I think on all sides that political parties need to prepare themselves for a more multiracial approach to governance in the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· On this point, I see that the SVT (the governing party) is looking at the idea of opening up its membership to other groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think there will be many nonnative Fijians interested in joining ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Not straight away but at least it is a beginning. It is an acceptance that they can't remain racially exclusive. If, for example, the Commission recommends a move toward a racially neutral system - at least for a certain number of seats - then it would be important for the SVT to have non-Fijians in their party.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can I turn to economic issues, which I presume cannot be divorced altogether from political ones ? There is a lot of discussion about the future of the sugar industry which is tied in with the question of renewing the land leases This is an issue which is due to be resolved soon. How concerned are you about the impending decision on the leases ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - This is something that concerns us very deeply. As you correctly observe, you can't separate the political and economic aspects. The two are very closely interlinked here - perhaps more so than in other countries - because of the land situation. The bulk of Indian peasant farmers, both within and outside the sugar industry, are on leases that will begin to expire next year. If these are not renewed, the problem will not just be an economic one but an enormous human one. What do we do with these people who all belong to a particular racial group. It really boils down to our very survival. Despite the growth in the towns, the bulk of the people are still rurally based. They are small subsistence farmers, living in the country areas with no more than 10 or 12 acres to cultivate. So the social implications of non-renewal in terms of poverty, dispossession and hardship are enormous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· But how real is the concern ? Surely, the overwhelming economic logic is for the leases to be renewed. After all the land is being put to productive use at the moment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Yes, but unfortunately, when you have a communal dimension to the problem, logic does not always prevail. If you think about it, there was no logic in the events of 1987. The trouble is that every issue here has a racial twist. After the coup, communal sentiments were aroused and sharpened. There was a prolonged period of anti-lndian propaganda and in that environment of anger, a highly racial constitution was adopted. There were people in positions of influence openly advocating non-renewal, threatening to take all the land back. Now they need to undo all this and it will not be easy, given the enormous strength of feeling that has been aroused. Having said this, I believe that we are now in the process of restoring sanity to our public life. It is also beginning to dawn on everybody that the sugar industry is vital for Fiji and it will continue to be so for some years to come.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I have heard that view expressed on all sides, but I wonder if people are sufficiently aware of the implications of global liberalisation. It has been suggested that this will make sugar increasingly unviable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think a lot of people are unaware of the implications, because there has been very little public education in this field. But amongst those 'in the know', there is certainly an appreciation. I am a member of the Parliamentary Select Committee on Sugar and we were recently addressed by the head of the marketing company and the head of the Sugar Commission. At that level, there is an awareness, but if you speak to the average farmer who has been growing and selling sugar for many years, he will probably assume that life will just go on as before.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Isn't it true to say that sugar depends heavily on the Lom&eacute; Convention arrangement with the European Community ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Very much so. In my view, the sugar industry is run so inefficiently that but for the huge subsidy we get from the European Community, it would not be viable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Presumably, this means that measures must be taken to improve efficiency ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, absolutely. But the first issue to resolve is the land question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is no point talking to the farmers about efficiency  -  asking them to improve their husbandry and focus on sugar content rather than the quantity of cane produced - when they don't know if they will have land to cultivate after next year. So you see all other issues have become completely subsidiary to the tenure question. At the moment, we are in a limbo. The government and the people urgently need to resolve this problem. Then we can put it behind us and address the other concerns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Are there any other economic sectors which you feel offer promise for the future of the country ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Any growth outside of tourism will, I think, have to be centred on the agricultural sector. We need more agro-based industries and more diversification. We could grow a lot of other crops here - mangoes for example. We also need to improve extension services to farmers, and make an aggressive effort to identify markets. The farmers will grow the crops but they must be sure that somebody will buy them. Every year, for example, we have a glut of tomatoes - so many that they can't even give them away in the markets. This kind of problem kills the incentive to produce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is obviously heavy state involvement in the running of agriculture. Do you see scope for more privatisation or 'corporatisation' in line with global trends ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think that growth, even in the agricultural sector has to be private-sector driven. At the same time, you have got to create the right environment and infrastructure for this to happen. Unfortunately, it keeps coming back to this question of land. If big investors, for instance, want to come here and invest in agriculture, they need to know what sort of tenure they are going to get and whether they can buy the freehold. I am sure there are people, particularly now from the Asian region, who would be interested in investing in agriculture, but the land problem is a big constraint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do you think Fiji will rejoin the Commonwealth at any point ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Well, we hope so. You know we are all very strongly in favour of rejoining. One of the things that I personally feel very strongly about is the unfortunate severance of our link with the Queen. I don't know, constitutionally, whether it can be restored. Obviously, there are difficulties in that area, but I think a large majority of ordinary people in this country would like at least to see Fiji back in the Commonwealth. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Seeking a lasting constitutional settlement</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When The Courier visited Fiji in July, the report of the Constitutional Review Commission headed by Sir Paul Reeves (former Governor-General of New Zealand) had not yet been completed  -  and what it would contain was a major topic of speculation. As readers will see from the interview we publish with the Prime Minister and Opposition Leader, the impartiality of the three-member Commission was not in question  -  at least within the political mainstream on both the native Fijian and Indian sides. Nonetheless, there were doubts about whether a consensus could be found. For the Indo-Fijians, a scaling down of the 'racial' features in the Constitution was seen as a prerequisite. Yet the ruling SVT, in its own submissions to the Commission, had effectively supported the status quo. In view of this apparently unbridgeable gulf, could the compilers of the Report come up with recommendations capable of forming the basis for a lasting constitutional settlement ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The long-awaited Report was formally transmitted to President Ratu Mara on 6 September and a few days later, it was tabled to a joint session of the Senate and the House of Representatives. It now falls to a joint select committee of the two Houses to thrash out a new set of constitutional proposals. These will be presented to Parliament for debate and decision in the first half of next year with a view to meeting the July 1997 deadline foreseen in the 1990 Constitution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Report of the Review Commission is lengthy (almost 800 pages) and contains no fewer than 697 separate recommendations. The key ones, however, relate to the system for electing members of the House of Representatives. Currently, separate electoral lists based on race are used to fill all 70 seats (37 native Fijians, 27 Indo-Fijians, 1 Rotuman and 5 'General Electors', covering all other races). It was widely expected that the Commission would propose a mixture of 'reserve' seats and 'open' ones, with the latter, as their name implies, being chosen by the whole electorate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">45 'open' seats proposed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is precisely what they have done - but the suggested breakdown may have come as a surprise to some. The proposal is for 45 open seats (15 three-member constituencies) and 25 single-member 'reserve seats (12 native Fijian, 10 Indo-Fijian, 1 Rotuman and 2 'General Electors'). If adopted, the new system would no longer legally guarantee a majority for people of Fijian origin in the country's legislature. What would happen in practice would depend on a number of factors including the nature of the voting system in the three member open constituencies, the willingness of people to cast their ballots across the ethnic divide and the actual turnout of voters from the different communities. It should be pointed out, however, that native Fijians now constitute half the population, large numbers of Indians having emigrated over the past nine years. So long as communal voting patterns persist, this will presumably be reflected in the Parliamentary arithmetic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also proposed that the bulk of the 35-member Senate (Bose e Cake) should be made up of elected representatives of Fiji's provinces. In the field of local government, it is suggested that the present system based on villages and provinces, which applies only to native Fijians, might be replaced by an arrangement applicable to all races. In this context, the rote of the Council of Chiefs (Bose Levu Vakaturaga) would be reduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the sections of the Report relating to representation are bound to attract most attention, the Commission also put forward a series of other proposals aimed at improving the governance of Fiji. One idea, which appears designed to alter the political culture, is for the 'Official Secrets Act' to be replaced by a 'Freedom of Information Act'. The presumption of secrecy would be replaced by a rule that official information should be accessible to the public except where there is good reason to withhold it. In a similar vein, the Report recommends an 'integrity code' to govern the behaviour of holders of public office.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initial reactions to the outcome of the Commission's work were mixed. Key players, including the President, Prime Minister and opposition spokespersons broadly welcomed the Report but more nationalistic elements were quick to reject it and one group even mounted a ceremonial burning of the document.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is obvious that a great many more words will be exchanged - and some of them will no doubt be heated  - in the coming months. It is difficult to see how everyone can be 'brought on board' but the hope must be that a compromise can be crafted that is acceptable to the majority on both sides of the communal divide. The people of this Pacific island nation are well aware that prosperity and stability go hand in hand. The single most important achievement in ensuring stability for the longer term would be to secure a satisfactory settlement of the constitutional issue. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Sugar definitely has a future'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was the key sentiment expressed by Isimeli Bose, Fiji's Trade Minister, when he spoke to The Courier earlier this year. Mr Bose insisted that 'no matter what anybody says, sugar will be the backbone of this country's economy for years to come.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When we discussed Fiji's current economic situation and future prospects with the Minister, it was not surprising that sugar should have featured so prominently. The sector faces a difficult future for both internal and external reasons. At home, the long-term leases granted to the farmers (mainly Fiji Indians) under the Agricultural Landlord and Tenant Act are due to expire over the next few years. No provision was made for their renewal and the resulting uncertainty has provoked widespread concern, not least among the leaseholders themselves. The external 'threat' comes from new international trade rules administered by the World Trade Organisation. At present, Fiji's sugar industry is heavily dependent on the preferential access to the EU market which was granted under the Lom&eacute; Sugar Protocol. No one is quite sure what will happen when Lom&eacute; IV expires at the turn of the century but it is clear that the stakes are high.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Bose was quick to acknowledge the importance of ending the uncertainty facing the sugar farmers. 'But the real challenge', he said, 'is to ensure the maintenance of our markets for sugar.' He was aware of the encroachment of global trade liberalisation but stressed that the industry's leaders and the government were 'doing the work now and planning for the future.' At the same time, the authorities are clearly hoping that the European Union will be able to continue with some form of preferential arrangement after the year 2000, if only to buy time so that the industry can adapt and farmers can diversify.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the subject of trade diversification, Mr Bose pointed out that 'the field is very limited'. He continued; 'However, since 1988, we have seen garment production picking up from very humble beginnings. By 1995, we had about F$185 million-worth of exports in this area.' He also spoke enthusiastically about the government policy of encouraging manufacturing in tax-free factories and zones. 'This developed well between 1989 and 1992 and then there was something of a slowdown.' Tax-free factories have been established in a number of locations and the first real tax-free zone is now being set up in Kalabo. Mr Bose indicated that EU assistance was being provided in this area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Privatisation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Our conversation then turned to the changing economic role of governments - throughout the world, they are withdrawing from active involvement in industrial and commercial operations. We asked how far this process had occurred in Fiji and, in particular, whether there was a privatisation policy. The Minister replied in the affirmative, pointing out that government departments 'do not usually make very good businesspeople.' The policy, therefore, was to 'corporatise' and 'privatise', although the process is still in its early stages. The Trade and Commerce Ministry has a public enterprise unit which is responsible for drawing up a policy framework for the government. In 1995, Mr Bose explained, a public enterprise bill was presented to Parliament, 'but there were so many concerns expressed to the previous Minister that it was referred to a select committee -  which, in fact was chaired by me before I took up my present poet.' The committee had now completed its work and the Minister indicated that the issue would go back to Parliament in September.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the legislative delay, Mr Bose was keen to stress that his department was already working on individual programmes. The post and telecoms business, for example, had just gone through another stage towards privatisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is, of course, an important distinction between 'corporatisation' and 'privatisation' - the former implies staying within the state sector but at arms-length from the administration. This point was acknowledged by our interviewee who explained that the approach was a step-by-step one. The first stage was to reorganise a department along commercial lines. Corporatisation came next 'and then finally you have privatisation by disposing of shares.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He stressed that the most important aim was to ensure an element of competition wherever possible. 'There is no point simply moving from a government monopoly to a private monopoly', he insisted, 'although obviously, there are utilities like water, electricity and even telephones where this may not be easy.' The minister concluded; 'Where they are natural monopolies, we will regulate them.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Our final topic of discussion was the possibility of regional integration in the Pacific.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How far had the South Pacific countries gone in this direction and did the Minister think there was a need for closer economic cooperation? Mr Bose replied that he thought economic integration was a good thing. He pointed to a document on his desk containing a draft proposal for a bilateral trade agreement with Papua New Guinea. 'We will soon be holding negotiations with them, and have also just signed an agreement with Tonga.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The focus on bilateral trade arrangements at this stage suggests that the region still has some way to go on the regional integration path.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the Minister nonetheless insisted that it was something 'that can and will happen'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Our daily bread - courtesy of a remarkable Fijian businesswoman</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How can a businesswomen succeed in Fiji's patriarchal society? Mere Samisoni, the entrepreneur behind the 'Hotbread Kitchen' gave us an appropriate answer when she said 'I roll with it', although the pun was probably unintentional In fact, it is difficult to imagine this dynamic lady being pushed around. Anybody who manages to build up a chain of bakeries from scratch, capturing 35% of the country's urban consumer market in the process, must have a lot of determination. At the same time, Mrs Samisoni displays a strong sense of social commitment. She believes in community values, advocates group decision-making and consensus, and even describes the tax system as 'reasonably fair'. In short, she contradicts the widely-held view propagated by lurid American TV series, that a dogeat-dog attitude is needed for business success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, Mrs Samisoni started out with the idea of working with one of the caring professions. Trained in nursing administration in Australia and New Zealand, she returned to Fiji only to find that there were no openings available. That was when she decided to go into the private sector, establishing 'Samisoni Enterprises'. And over the years, she has succeeded in building up one of the largest bread-making operations in the country. The Hotbread Kitchen operation is highly decentralised with the bread being baked in different locations for sale through the company's local outlets. Her business is also the first Fijian one to franchise out its operations. And having already won a big chunk of the urban market, she is now looking to expand operations in the rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Samisoni Enterprises, of course, is not simply a bread-making operation. The company now offers a line of 62 separate bakery products, with some local adaptations to suit varying tastes. It employs some 275 staff with perhaps another 50 working in the related franchise operations. And the business had an important breakthrough when it won the contract for 'MacDonalds' in Nadi. With branches of the famous hamburger chain likely to open in other parts of Fiji, this could be the start of something big. In fact, there is even a suggestion that Fiji could be used to source Macdonalds' operations in New Zealand, the rolls (or buns, as the Americans like to call them) being exported frozen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Constant quality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Mrs Samisoni, the key to a successful and profitable operation is 'constant quality' and unfailing attention to customer service. As she puts its, 'if you let quality slip just once, you can end up losing customers for a very long time.' Baking is a labour-intensive business and she is keen to stress the importance of developing people's abilities - in particular, the human relaitons skills of those who deal direct with the customer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As if running a business wasn't enough, Mere Samisoni is also busy completing a Masters in Business Administration (MBA) at the University of the South Pacific, with a thesis on indigenous business. From what we discovered, speaking to this remarkable Fijian entrepreneur, she should have been helping to teach the course! </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Viti Levu - island of contrasts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anyone from overseas who is travelling to the Fijian capital, Suva, will soon discover that the country's largest island is a very diverse place. Roughly circular in shape, Viti Levu provides more than half of Fiji's total land area and is home to about three-quarters of the population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The journey to Suva on the south-east coast will almost certainly involve transiting through Nadi International Airport (pronounced Nandi) which is situated in the west. This is the country's only major international gateway and while it is ideal for tourists heading for the resort hotels, it is less convenient for business travellers whose destination is Suva. Their journey has to be completed either by road (which takes several hours) or on one of the small commuter planes which ply regularly between Nadi and Nausori (itself a half-hour drive from the capital).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biggest surprise to those who are unfamiliar with the country is that the west and the south-east have very different weather patterns. When your aircraft lands at Nadi, the chances are high that the sun will be shining. On reaching Suva, you are more likely to encounter rain. This part of the country enjoys - if that is the correct term - a micro-climate which is good for tropical vegetation but less appealing to human beings. The 'blame' for locating the Fijian capital in such a spot is said (not too seriously) to lie with the country's former colonial rulers. According to the story, a British envoy visited Suva on one of its rare sunny days and, on the strength of this, designated it as the seat of administration. The British can hardly deny their involvement since it was in 1882, during the early years of colonial rule, that the capital moved from Levuka (situated on the much smaller island of Ovalau). But the key reason was almost certainly the fact that Suva, with its large bay, could be developed as a port. Whatever the explanation, one must have some sympathy with the foreign diplomats who keep a raincoat or umbrella to hand at all times, and yet are viewed with envy back home because they have a 'paradise' posting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To be fair, Suva has attributes other than its weather which make it an interesting place. It has, for example, some very attractive architecture, both local and colonial. The views across the bay can be dramatic - and, in this respect, the rolling cloud formations may actually enhance the picture. And the centre of the city buzzes with activity (except on Sunday because of the Sabbatarian influence).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The population of the greater Suva area is about 160 000. This may not be enormous, but it is the largest concentration of humanity to be found between Hawaii and Australia. In some ways, it is the 'capital' of the South Pacific - a point which is underlined by the fact that the Forum Secretariat is based here. It is also the site of the University of the South Pacific's main campus. The local population is mainly ethnic Fijian but there are Indo-Fijians as well as citizens of Chinese and European extraction. Add to this the diplomatic corps, foreign businesspeople and students from other parts of the region, and you get a very cosmopolitan mix. This is reflected in the variety of cuisines available in the local restaurants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The western part of Viti Levu is also cosmopolitan but in a very different way, with a stronger Indian influence and, of course, a constantly changing tourist population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of the island's inhabitants live a relatively short distance from the sea. Thus, in demographic terms, Viti Levu is like a doughnut with a thick layer of humanity around the edge and a hole in the middle. The analogy may not be entirely apt since the 'hole' is, in fact, a spectacular mountainous area. This makes the road that runs round the island a key arterial route. Meanwhile, those who choose to fly from Nadi to Suva, assuming they are not of a nervous disosition, can enjoy the experience of travelling below the height of the surrounding peaks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The few people who do occupy the central region live in traditional Fijian villages and have a lifestyle far removed from either the town dwellers or the sugar cane farmers. Its size may be little more than ten thousand square kiLom&eacute;tres but Viti Levu is truly an island of contrasts. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Fiji-EU cooperation: comprehensive package</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Ernst Kroner</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji was a signatory of the first Lom&eacute; Convention in 1975 and, to date, the country has been allocated some ECU 190m in EU development cooperation funds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting with a relatively modest ECU 9.9m under Lom&eacute; I, the national indicative programme rose to ECU 13m under the following Convention. Without neglecting rural development (feeder roads in Vanua Levu), under Lom&eacute; I most of the resources were devoted to transport infrastructure (a main road on Vanua Levu). Under Lom&eacute; 11, cooperation concentrated clearly on agriculture and rural development, in particular by means of the funding of microprojects, with infrastructural programmes (the extension of the Vanua Levu road, social infrastructure) taking second place. Under this Convention, a new field of action was also addressed: trade development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tax free zone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade development was addressed further under Lom&eacute; III (6th EDF, ECU 20m, of which ECU 5m in special loans), with support given to an Investment and Trade Development Programme. The longer-term objective of the project was to widen the economic base of Fiji and to create employment. The more immediate objective was the i establishment of a Tax Free Zone near Suva. In order to promote this scheme and to secure markets for exporting the goods which would eventually be produced, the project included a programme of trade and investment promotion to be implemented by the Fiji Trade and Investment Board. Due to problems linked with identifying an appropriate site, the project, which had been given the go-ahead in 1990, only came on stream in 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural and agricultural development continued to be one of the main sectors of cooperation, with the funding of three major projects. The first was a coconut rehabilitation and development project, situated on the island of Taveuni, which aimed at improving the productivity of coconut plantations through the introduction and multiplication of high yield hybrids. The project also provided for the establishment of a 30 hectare coconut nursery centre, which was expected to finance itself through the sales of seedlings. EC support for this project ended in 1992, since when the scheme has been taken over by the Government. A second project (a large-scale microprogramme divided into two sub-programmes) aimed on the one hand at the construction of access roads to facilitate the development of cocoa plantations, and on the other at the introduction and development of pineapple plantations in Vanua Levu. The first component was closed after disappointing results. The second component, however, produced very interesting and promising results, which will, however, need private and governmental support in order to become sustainable. A rural electrification project involving 28 rural electrification schemes and the supply and installation of a small power plant is still ongoing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing human resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Lom&eacute; III, the formerly prominent transport infrastructure sector lost some importance. The Kubulau Peninsula road project on Vanua Levu brought to an end the work started under previous Conventions. This road, which filled the last gap in the circuminsular road, was opened on in July 1994. Lom&eacute; III also saw the beginning of human resources development as a new theme of cooperation, with Technical Assistance funded for the logging school. This area, embodying strong links with forestry and environmental issues, has been further developed under Lom&eacute; IV with the reconstruction of the school burnt down in 1993, and the enlargement of the training and education provided to what now constitutes a Forest Training Centre.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The national indicative programme relating to the first protocol of Lom&eacute; IV (7th EDF, ECU 22m in grant aid) identifies rural development and social infrastructure as the sectors of concentration to which 65% of resources are to be devoted. The remaining 35% will be used for non-focal activities, including trade and services, tourism, cultural cooperation, training and technical cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Building bridges</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, it was only following the very destructive cyclone Kina in January 1993 that cooperation activities could start in the form of the rebuilding of four bridges either severely damaged or completely destroyed by the post-cyclone floods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Work on two smaller bridges of major importance to Viti Levu (Korovou and Vunidawa, ECU 1.135m) was started in 1994 by the Public Works Department and completed in January 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Financing Agreement for the two major bridges (ECU 10.24m) was signed in June 1994 and provides for the rebuilding of the bridges of Ba and Sigatoka. These form part of the main road around the island of Viti Levu and are therefore vital for the movement of people and goods on Fiji's main island. The new bridges, 190 and 182 metres long respectively, will be two-lane, and will provide for footpaths and utilities. To enable the traffic to by-pass the often congested towns of Ba and Sigatoka, new sites for both bridges have been chosen, which also call for the building of new approach roads. Building works were under way in early 1996 and completion is expected by April 1997.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non programmable aid for Fiji has been considerable over the years. While Stabex transfers for losses on coconut oil (totalling ECU 5.4m under Lom&eacute; I - Lom&eacute; III) came to a halt under Lom&eacute; IV (because levels of exports fell below the required dependency threshold), emergency aid (total ECU 9.5m) has continued, unfortunately, to be needed. Time and again the islands have been hit by cyclones (the most recent occasion being in January 1993, when the EU made available ECU 1 m for food rations following cyclone Kina).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, a significant feature of EU-Fiji cooperation was the credits provided by the European Investment Bank. It was very active under Lom&eacute; I to Lom&eacute; III, providing loans from its own resources to a total value of ECU 87.5m with a further ECU 6.1 m allocated in risk capital. Loans went to the energy sector (hydropower scheme), industry (wood processing) and services (telecommunications, sea and air transport). Considerable interest rate subsidies (totalling ECU 14.1m) have also been made available under the various EDFs in support of these loans. More recently, the EIB has financed an aircraft maintenance centre (1991) and a telecommunications project (1995).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over and above financial cooperation, Fiji benefits from the second largest quota (165348 tonnes per annum) under the Sugar Protocol annexed to the Lom&eacute; Conventions. This covers some 45% of its total sugar exports. The yearly benefit from this provision is estimated at between ECU 45m and ECU 55m - in other words, only slightly less than the total of all programme aid granted since Lom&eacute; I (ECU 64.9m). About two-thirds of these benefits reach the farmers, so that the EU subsidises every sugar smallholder, on average, to the extent of some ECU 1500 a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recently, Fiji's quota under the Sugar Protocol was increased by 881 tonnes, as a result of the reallocation of the shortfall of deliveries by Barbados. Furthermore, Fiji benefits from an annual special tariff quota to the tune of some 30 000 tonnes up to the year 2001.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industrial development and external trade have been supported by the relaxation of the rules of origin for exports to the EU of canned tuna to the extent of 500 tonnes a year from 1993 to 1996. A similar arrangement, applicable for certain quantities of garments up the end of 1993 was recently extended to the end of 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji's main exports to the EU (sugar, fish and garments) - and the resulting surplus in its trade relations with the EU - are consequently highly dependent upon the continuity of these preferences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Support for tourism</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the field of services, and specifically in tourism, the EU - through its support of the Tourism Council of the South Pacific - has contributed to the fact that every sixth tourist or so arriving in Fiji comes from a member country of the Union. Tourism being by far Fiji's most important source of foreign exchange earnings, receipts from European tourists amount at present to some ECU 30m, and are greater than those from the export of fish and fish products</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taking the Sugar Protocol into consideration, the EU is by far the most important of Fiji's development partners, followed by Australia. The country also benefits from bilateral cooperation arrangements with EU Member States (UK, France, Germany). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Tonga</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Hoping to maintain harmony</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'None of the most civilised nations have ever exceeded these islanders in the great order and regularity maintained on every occasion, in ready and submissive compliance with the commands of their chiefs, and the perfect harmony that subsists among all ranks.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These were the words of Captain Cook who visited the Tonga archipelago several times on his voyages around the world in the eighteenth century. The famous explorer was obviously impressed by the social organisation of this island nation and, although it is more than two centuries since he undertook his Pacific voyages, many of his observations hold true today. Talk of submissive compliance may no longer be appropriate, but in contrast to the turbulence of much of the outside world, Tonga certainly ranks as a peaceful society, which is respectful of hierarchies and strongly attached to 'traditional values'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The reference to harmony is particularly apposite, as The Courier discovered when we visited Tonga earlier this year. It was fortunate that our trip coincided with the King's birthday celebrations and we had the opportunity to enjoy the superb choral music which plays a central part in many important ceremonies here. Like their Polynesian cousins in Western Samoa (featured in our last issue), the Tongans seem to have a natural flair for music and a talent for spontaneous harmony. The question is whether these 'Friendly Islands' - a name they certainly deserve  -  can maintain their reputation for social harmony into the third millenium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In order to answer this, one has to identify where discordant notes could creep in. The biggest challenge appears to come from the process of globalisation. New technologies, particularly in the field of communications, are rapidly breaking down barriers. The tide of the international economic system, with its emphasis on mass production, con sumerism and free trade, is lapping at the islands' shores And political systems everywhere are under pressure to con form to a 'democratic' model which some would argue places the individual above the community. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course, external influences can be both positive and negative Cultural exchanges can be enriching, and new ideas and techniques may offer opportunities for improving the quality of life. The key is to adapt without undermining the social fabric. And in Tonga, as in other countries, a harmonious future will ultimately depend on the way the country evolves both politically and economically.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking first at the current political set-up in Tonga, one cannot fault the use of the term constitutional monarchy which is the preferred description locally. It is important, however, to recognise that the constitution - which dates back to 1875 - gives considerable power to the monarchy. There is a measure of democracy in that all adults over 21 have a vote, but they only elect nine of the 30 Members of Parliament A further nine are chosen by the country's 30+ nobles while the twelve Cabinet Ministers, who sit in the House ex officio are nominated by the King. Tonga may' be small (it has fewer than 100 000 inhabitants) but it nonetheless attract: the interest of political scientists as one of the few remaining states with a hereditary ruler who wields substantial power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Critics of the system view it as an anachronism, although their emphasis is on reform rather than revolutionary change. Defenders argue that the arrangement works well in a small, homogenous nation which values its unique culture and traditions (even if the constitution contains many 'British' elements). The latter also point, with some justification, to the attitude of the population. There are dissenting voices but the majority appears to be happy with the existing set-up, thereby lending it democratic legitimacy  -  at least indirectly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There may not, at present, be any overwhelming demand for constitutional reform but things can change. In particular, a people's view of their political system and how it might evolve is likely to be influenced by the prevailing economic conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic outlook</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga's economy is not exactly booming with the most recent estimates suggesting a 2% GDP drop in 1995-96. Several of the traditional problems faced by developing countries are to be found writ large here. The local market is not just small but tiny by global standards, and this makes it exceptionally difficult to achieve economies of scale. There is heavy demand for imported manufactured items and few viable export opportunities to balance the equation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The education system compares favourably with those of other developing nations but the pool is so small that Tonga inevitably suffers from human resource shortages. This is exacerbated by a steady 'brain drain'. Qualified Tongans, who may already have experienced life abroad at college or university, are tempted by a range of attractions including higher salaries, better housing and more extensive career prospects. The skills shortage is particularly severe in the medical profession. In a recent issue of Matangi Tonga (the 'national news magazine'), it was reported that the country would only have one anaesthetist by 1997 - with a local doctor observing wryly that there was no need for one since the main hospital's only specialist surgeon had recently left to take up a post abroad.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it would be better for Tonga to retain its qualified people, the fact that the country 'exports' labour does have its positive side. Tongans have a strong sense of family and community, and overseas workers send significant amounts of money back home. This injection of 'foreign' funds boosts the local economy and reduces the overall balance of payments deficit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture is by far the most important economic sector, with most crops being grown for local consumption. The islands benefit from a fertile soil and a tropical climate, allowing the cultivation of a wide variety of fruit and vegetables. All land is vested in the Crown, with estates allocated to the nobles. By law, each adult male is also supposed to be allotted three hectares although there is not enough land to go round. Despite this difficulty, which means that some people do not receive their allocation, the result is that most Tongans are involved in farming. The advantage of the arrangement is that it guarantees a living for the bulk of the population even if their cash income is low. On the other hand, it is obviously a feudal system which favours the upper echelons of Tongan society. In addition, it tends to hinder the development of larger units which could benefit from economies of scale. While anxious to make farming more efficient (and export-oriented), the government currently has no plans to introduce land reform.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In export terms, the main crop is squash (pumpkins). Production increased dramatically in the early 1990s when a market niche was identified in Japan and it soon became the country's biggest foreign exchange-earner. More recently, income has been depressed, with overproduction in 1994 leading to a drop in prices, and poor rainfall the following year reducing yields. The November export figures for the last three years (November is the month when squash deliveries peak) illustrate the extent of Tonga's reliance on this single product. In November 1993, the country's overall export income was T$15m - more than half of the annual total. Twelve months later, the figure had dropped to T$9m and last year, it fell below T$6m. When The Courier visited Tonga, the authorities were talking about limiting the amount of squash exported to Japan this year to 15 000 tonnes, in the hope of maintaining premium prices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government is also acutely aware of the risks of mono-dependence and is looking for other outlets for its agricultural produce. Demand for copra, Tonga's traditional export, has apparently been reviving, but the price has not been high enough to attract local farmers back into the market. Other crops sold abroad include vanilla, cocoa, coffee, black pepper and ginger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One farmer who is doing his bit in the quest for export diversification is Masao Soakai, a former general manager of the Copra Board. He is now the managing director of a company that specialises in the import and export of produce. This energetic 73 year-old gave us a guided tour of the plots he had rented. He cultivates an astonishing range of different crops which include potatoes (for Fiji), cassava, taro, yams, carrots, broccoli, cauliflowers, strawberries, bananas and capsicums. He also rears cattle and pigs (a Tongan tradition). Masao Soakai stresses the importance of rotation in maintaining yields and believes strongly in planting for the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other sectors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wherever you happen to be in Tonga, the Pacific Ocean is never far away. Evidence of the country's maritime tradition can be found in accounts of the appropriately named William Mariner (see box article on this page). But while, in the past, Tongan vessels sailed far and wide, and the country has a huge exclusive economic zone (EEZ), the fishing industry is relatively undeveloped. The sector generates about 5% of GDP. A project sponsored jointly by the FAO and the UNDP revealed that there was considerable scope for expansion, both in the inshore and reef zones and in the deep sea area. The main species which could be exploited commercially are albacore, skipjack and yellowfin tuna. Tonga has received assistance to develop its fisheries from the USA and Japan, and the government has offered tax advantages in the hope of promoting investment, but there is still a long way to go before the country realises its full potential in this area. Hitherto, the country has not licensed foreign vessels to fish in its waters but there is talk of this policy changing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tourism could also generate a lot more income although it currently faces a number of infrastructural and practical constraints. The government is committed to expanding the sector but Mrs Papiloa Bloomlield Foliaki, the owner and manager of Nuku'alofa's third largest hotel (the 'Friendly Islander') feels that a lot more could be done. She pointed out to The Courier that a healthy tourist sector would provide employment as well as stimulating new business for food producers, builders and craft industries. She focused, in particular, on deficiencies in training and marketing, and suggested that some of the resources allocated to agriculture might be better spent in tackling these.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga's natural assets make it a 'dream' location for visitors looking for a complete change of scene - particularly if they happen to be keen on sailing, snorkelling or scuba diving. The problem is that the country is so far off the beaten track that it is expensive to get to (some would see this as an advantage in deterring mass tourism). Nothing much can be done to change this but it does mean that they have to aim at the upper end of the market. This requires top quality accommodation  -  of which there is a distinct shortage at the moment. As regards marketing, Mrs Foliaki was hopeful that the recent formation of a hotel association would enable the Tongan tourist industry to raise its profile abroad. Despite her optimism - echoed by all those we spoke to in official circles - the latest figures for visitor arrivals show a downturn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the manufacturing sector, the story is, sadly, one of long term decline. Clothing production ceased in 1994 and the output of leather items has been falling. There are very few industrial activities in which Tonga has a comparative advantage (whether actual, or potential) and this is something which is recognised locally. There may be some scope for adding value to agricultural products through processing but it is unlikely that industry will take off in a big way in the foreseeable future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sale of passports (see the interview with Prime Minister Baron Vaea) is an issue which attracted publicity - not all of it favourable - some years ago, when the government launched the TPPP (Tonga Protected Person's Passport). This was designed to be a travel document which did not confer the right of residence in the country. The authorities adopted the scheme with an eye firmly on Hong Kong, a British colony which is due to be transferred to China in 1997. Some passports were sold but the project never really took off as the immigration authorities of other countries refused to accept the document. Now there are suggestions that the idea may be revived, although this time involving normal passports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The foregoing survey of Tonga's economy does not paint a particularly happy picture but it should be stressed that there is very little real poverty in the islands. In many ways, the informal economy is more important, and subsistence agriculture and fishing ensure that people do not go hungry. With their traditional family structures and strong attachment to the Christian faith, the Tongans have not yet encountered many of the social problems associated with more consumption-oriented societies. But to paraphrase a famous saying, 'no nation is an island' nowadays - even if it happens to be surrounded by water! In an era of increasing globalisation, the key question is how to manage change. Let us hope that the people of Tonga can find the right answer. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview, Prime Minister Baron Vaea</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Constrained by our geography'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No-one can accuse Tonga's Prime Minister of being a starry-yed optimist. As the following interview reveals, Baron Vaea, who heads a twelve-member ministerial team, is refreshingly honest about the economic difficulties facing his small island country. The Courier interviewed him in July, at his office in Nuku'alofa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have suffered a GDP drop and a general slowdown of activity in recent years. What is the government doing to restore the situation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is true that the economy has been declining. The main cause is the excessive demand from the private sector for imports from New Zealand and Australia, combined with diminishing exports. Our exports fell when the price of copra dropped. Another problem is New Zealand's quarantine rules. New Zealand is very particular on quarantine against insects, notably fruit flies, which may damage their own export trade. We have endeavoured to balance this out by selling squash to Japan and indeed, it has been a saviour as far as our economy is concerned. Squash is something our farmers know how to grow. Of course, the market goes up and down. Recently, we made the mistake of over-producing and quite a lot of the crop could not be sold abroad. I think our farmers are now realising this, and that they have to plant according to the quota that we ourselves have imposed. Tourism is another important area although levels of room occupancy are very dependent</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">on the economic situation in other countries. Then there are passport sales.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is this something you are still doing ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, but it has been hit by technical difficulties. A number of Hong Kong Chinese bought our Tongan Protected Persons Passport (TPPP) in the hope that they could travel. The immigration authorities in other countries decided they would not accept the document so this source of income dried up. We have changed to national passports which people can use to travel. We are hoping to revive this in order to suit the conditions of the Hong Kong people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is this being done on the assumption that the people who purchase such a passport would not ultimately settle here ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. The main reason people in Hong Kong want a passport is to keep open the option of leaving after the changeover.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Has this policy prompted any criticism from other countries ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No. The main problem is the Chinese themselves who are due to take over Hong Kong next year. It is possible that they will not recognise these passports. We are planning to have discussions with the Chinese on this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Going back to the agricultural sector, are you not putting too many eggs in one basket in focusing so heavily on squash. What efforts are you making to diversify ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We have just signed a trade agreement with Fiji. They are such a close neighbour yet we have had virtually no trade with them. This should change with the agreement, to the benefit of our economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What products are we talking about here ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Mainly vegetables, particularly those that are favoured by the Indian community, such as chills and spices. A trade mission has just returned from Fiji where they picked up a number of orders. The representative of a group of growers also recently returned from Japan. He took a sample of dried pawpaw, a crop which is popular with the Japanese, and apparently received an excellent response. This is an area which is promising.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key issue, however, is the amount of space available in the aeroplane. You can't ask everyone to grow pawpaw when the airline tells us that they can only take eight tonnes at a time. Only a limited number of farmers can be involved, so that we can continue to supply the tonnage that the airline can handle. We will encourage the rest of the farmers to concentrate on other products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is your policy regarding foreign investment ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We encourage overseas investors to engage in activities that local people are not involved in. Land leases are available for anything they want to do which fits in with this policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga has an extremely limited manufacturing sector and there appears to have been a long-term decline. What prospects are there for reversing this trend ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - For many years, the policy of the government has been to encourage exports. We have had entrepreneurs here who have exported things like woollen garments, small boats, horse saddles and so on - but it didn't last. The sad fact is that hardy anything is exported from Tonga. The main reason is that we are constrained by our geography. We are so far away from the main markets. The raw materials have to be brought in and by the time the article is finished, there is no way that it can compete in price terms. This has always been our problem. We are always looking for new markets but it is not easy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A second limitation is the private sector in Tonga. This is weak in terms of technology, marketing and product quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about further processing of local products - perhaps value-added agricultural activity ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, this is something that we would hope to do, though the same kinds of problem arise. People don't set up the processing plant because they say there isn't enough local cultivation to make it worthwhile. And the farmers don't grow the crop because they say there is no market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So it is 'chicken and egg' situation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. The result is that people only grow for home consumption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I should mention here that there are other resources we have yet to exploit, notably in our waters. We have reserved these for ourselves and do not allow foreign fishing vessels. So we are trying to recover resources from the sea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also the possibility of drilling for oil. Research ships operating in the Pacific have found a limited number of locations where it would be worth looking for oil reserves and two of them are in our waters. We have been publicising this with a view to encouraging further exploration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· This would presumably involve drilling licences for oil multinationals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. Some companies have done this in the past although only on a small scale. The answer we got from the oil companies is that they are interested in exploitation - but not now because of the low oil price. When the price goes up, I think we may attract interest again but that is clearly only a long term possibility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A lot of young Tongans leave the islands to work overseas. What is the explanation for this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is true that a high percentage of our population migrates. These are people in search of a better life, who seek to reap the benefits of their abilities by working overseas. They can have a nice house and get a good education for their children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I should stress that we have a good education system here but there is a heavy emphasis on gaining qualifications in order to get into the civil service. Where we are lacking is in the field of technical education. We have some facilities of course - an Institute of Science and Technology and a Marine Institute to train people to go to sea. This is very much in its infancy and we hope it will help for the future. But even some who have gone through this system end up looking for jobs overseas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Turning to political issues, you have a monarchy here which is still very powerful. Do you anticipate any changes in the system ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - There has been some public pressure for change. I don't think people want a radical upheaval but there is a feeling in certain quarters that the present system could be improved upon. As you probably know, Parliament has nine members elected by the people and a further nine selected by the 28 nobles from among their own number. The third component is the government -  12 ministers who are appointed by the King. It has been suggested that qualified people who don't presently sit in Parliament should be there to help deal with the economy. One idea is to change the Constitution so that whole population elects 30 members. The King would then choose his ministers from these 30.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Has this idea made any headway ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  No, not so far. We are maintaining the old system. The proposal has been aired but it hasn't been passed in the House. There are a lot of people, I think, who prefer the present system because they feel the monarchy works for the benefit of all the people. Would a new team necessarily stick to this principle? There must be a danger that they would tend to favour just one section of the population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can you comment, finally, on Tonga' relations with its partners in development cooperation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - As you know, we have good relations with the EU through the Lom&eacute; Convention. We also have strong bilateral links with Australia and New Zealand which have been giving us assistance. But I think we have to face up to the fact that the aid cannot continue. The UK, for example, used to provide us with our judges. That has been taken over by Australia and New Zealand -  but for how long ? I think it is bound to be phased out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So we will continue to have relations with our partners, but we need to recognise that they are concentrating their efforts now and adapt accordingly. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 669 km². Tonga has about 170 small islands and four main island groups (Tongatapu, Ha'apai, Vava'u and the Niuas). It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of approximately 700 000 km,). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Nuku'alofa (situated on Tongatapu) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 99 000 (1994 census) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population density: 149 per kilometre² </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth (1992): 68 years Official languages: Tongan and English Currency: Pa'anga (T$) made up of 100 seniti. The currency is pegged to the Australian dollar. In September 1996, 1 ECU was worth T$ 1.57 (US$1 T$ 1.22)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p32.png"></center><br>
+ Tonga</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Polities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">System of government: Constitutional monarchy based on the Constitution promulgated in 1875. Considerable powers remain vested in the King. The Parliament has 31 members  -  the Speaker, 12 ministers (including the Governors of Vava'u and Ha'apai) who are appointed by the King, 9 nobles chosen by the 33 members of the nobility and 9 People's Representatives elected by universal suffrage. There are no political parties although there has been talk of setting up a 'people's Party'. The twelve cabinet ministers hold office until they reach retirement age.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Head of State: King Taufa'ahau Tupou IV</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Baron Vaea of Houma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy (estimated 1995 figures unless otherwise stated) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual GDP per capita: approx US $1900</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP growth rate: -2% (1995/96)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Principal exports: squash, vanilla, manufactured goods and fish. In the early 1990s, squash accounted for more than half the country's total export income. In 1995, however, the harvest was affected by drought and exports dropped significantly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balance of payments: A trade deficit of US $38.8m (exports  -  US $18.3m, imports  -  US $57.1 m). The current account deficit is much smaller thanks to 'invisible' earnings, notably from tourism and remittances from Tongans living overseas. Inflation rate (April 1995): 4.5%. Total external debt: T$ 44m (1993)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: Tonga in Profile (on the Internet -  http: 11l www. netstorage. com/kami/ tonga) Economic Intelligence Unit Country Report 1996. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with peoples representative, Teisina Fuko</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'There is much more political awareness'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People's representative, Teisina Fuko offers an alternative view</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While Tonga has no political parties, and the main levers of power remain in the hands of the monarch, it would be a mistake to conclude that there is no questioning of the status quo in this small Pacific kingdom. As The Courier discovered on its recent visit, Tongans are happy to speak openly about their political system and to criticise (or praise) aspects of it me local media may not be particularly extensive but it nonetheless allowe for different viewpoints to be expressed, including criticism of the authorities. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Those who advocate political reforms in Tonga face something of an uphill struggle. There is no overwhelming demand for change and although the lever of popular support for the current system is not easy to judge, there appears to be widespread acquiescence  -  which effectively amounts to the same thing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, the focus of 'opposition' has tended to be within the ranks of the people's representatives who sit in Parliament We spoke to one of these elected members, Teisina Fuko, who comes from the Ha'apai island group and began by asking how democratic the thought the system was.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I would say about 50%. Up until the 1970s, the system was very traditional but we now seem to be westernising quite quickly. People are returning from overseas with different ideas and this is having an impact on the way we are governed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think you will ultimately have a Parliament whose members are all elected by universal franchise ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I would say it is more certain now than ever before. There is much more political awareness. We see it in the schools, where children are being taught to think independently. There are also the new economic trends -  commercialisation and the focus on foreign earnings which imply the need for modernisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You sound quite enthusiastic about the 'westernisation' process. Are you not concerned about the possible negative aspects in terms of the survival of your traditional culture ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think we have to strike a balance. We mustn't go to extremes. Our culture and traditions are important but there are new things we need to take on board and some old habits we should drop. Take business opportunities: we have to be more democratic in this area. If one group has all the power then they will tend to favour their friends which isn't necessarily efficient. What it boils down to is a lack of checks and balances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the present economic difficulties, I also think we need to move quite quickly. I recently wrote an article arguing that the King should transfer his power to appoint ministers to the people. Ministers should be elected so that they can be accountable to the taxpayer. We are a close-knit family here and there is no question of getting rid of the monarchy. But we need to sit down and hammer out a compromise which will allow us to improve our economy and make it more competitive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let me give you a practical example. Defence is now third on our list of priorities. That doesn't make sense to me. We would be better spending the money on economic development. We also need to boost the private sector so it can create jobs, instead of tying its hands. At present, 50% of our revenue goes on paying civil servants. What for 7 It may create employment, but it is not productive. So the government has to be minimised. Having said this, there are some positive signs. I am glad, for example, to see new blood being brought into the ministerial team.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Parliament is currently composed of three groups - twelve ministers, nine nobles and nine people's representatives. On paper, that suggests that no group can dominate ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Yes, but the ministers and nobles often work together and we are  outvoted. It is difficult to imagine the nobles saying 'no' to the King although, to be fair, they do sometimes abstain and some of them recognise the need for certain reforms to the system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Turning to the economy, which areas do you think offer the best development prospects ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-  Tonga's potential lies in fishing. We are an island nation that has always depended on the resources of the sea and we have the necessary labour force. What the people need is the know-how  -  advanced technologies to develop this sector. We also have to set up credit programmes so that people can invest in boats and equipment. I believe we should spend a lot more on fishing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately the government does not take the same view. It has put a lot of resources into small industries, airlines and so on. Yet the reality is that these sectors are in decline. Manufacturing has fallen and so have agricultural exports. Fishing is the only sector that is expanding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about the prospects for agriculture ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think we have reached the limit in this sector. There is very little scope for expansion. I also believe we should be concentrating on what we can produce to use locally. There is very little more we can do in terms of commercial exploitation. Tonga is somewhat overcrowded and we cannot use too many chemicals because the water table is so low.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· One local issue, which presumably has economic implications, concerns the possible expulsion of foreigners who have been here for a certain amount of time. Apparently, the decision has been taken not to renew certain residence permits. What is your view on this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think Tonga should encourage skilled people who are here to stay. We should use make use of their skills, particularly where they have expertise that is lacking locally. At the same time, there are some people here who just came for a visit and ended up staying without doing anything very productive. There are also a number who came after the coup in Fiji and I think we should give them some leeway.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the whole, I don't think it is a big problem. Tonga has traditionally been very liberal in the application of its immigration law. We have never been colonised so we tend not to have a suspicion of foreigners. And whatever we do must be in accordance with the law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Could you sum up your vision for the future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  You only need to look around you to see that we have a youthful population here: a lot of young people who need to be catered for. We are investing heavily in education which I think is good but we need to do more to adapt to the changing world. We were peaceful in the past because most Tongans were on roughly the same level in terms of wealth. Now the poor are getting poorer while the rich get richer. This could lead to an increase in social tensions. With a more democratic system, we should be able to close the gap and work for a peaceful and more prosperous future. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Seeking business overseas</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Minister outlines economic strategy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the policy of appointing Ministers for life - or at least until retirement age - is maintained, then Dr Giulio Masasso Tu'ikolongahau Paunga can look forward to a long career in the Tonga Cabinet. At just 32, he has recently been been given the job of Minister for Labour, Commerce and Industries (with responsibility also for tourism). He may be relatively young, but the new minister has impressive academic credentials. He took a master's degree in Japan (in Japanese) and as we soon discovered, he has some new ideas about how to achieve economic development in his country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr Masasso's portfolio covers a wide range of economic activities and we began by asking what he thought the main focus of his work would be. He identified three areas  -  agriculture, which is the single most important sector; fisheries which has potential for growth; and tourism. He would also like to see more manufacturing, particularly for export, but acknowledged that the current prospects in this area were very limited.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking first at agricultural production for export, we noted that a significant change had taken place over the last decade. Coconut-related products had been largely replaced by squash, a 'gap' in the Japanese market having been identified when other sources of supply were not available. Tonga may have been the first to spot the opportunity but was there not a danger that other countries might 'muscle in'? The government was 'very aware of this danger', said the Minister and was trying very hard to diversify its export products. He mentioned vanilla, papaya, beans and, in particular, carrots. The last-mentioned crop grows well in the islands and there is apparently a growing taste for carrot juice in Japan. A list of products with export potential, which could be grown successfully in Tonga, had been drawn up in cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture, and Dr Masasso's department would be actively seeking new business overseas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government is obviously interested in developing trade with Japan and other countries in Asia, but the Minister felt that New Zealand and Australia were likely to remain the principal markets for Tongan farm products in the future. He was looking forward to easier access to New Zealand once new quarantine facilities had been set up at the international airport on Tongatapu. This, he said, should allow for a larger throughput of export crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efficiency, of course, is the key to winning and keeping overseas customers. With this in mind, our discussion turned to the land tenure system. The allocation (at least in theory) of parcels of land to all male Tongans discourages the development of larger farms or plantations. Was this the most effective way of exploiting the country's fertile lands? Dr Masasso acknowledged that the system hampered efficiency but stressed that the question was a very sensitive one. The right to cultivate a plot of land is deeply rooted in Tongan culture, and radical changes to the property laws are not on the agenda. As the Minister put it; 'We are trying to maximise our efficiency under the present system of land tenure.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning to tourism, Dr Masasso observed that 'this has been the most stable industry over the past ten years,' bringing an average of T$ 12 million into the country every year. In looking at possible growth, however, he stressed the need to take account of the environmental and cultural impact. 'Tonga is a very small country, and it would not be right to build too many hotels and related facilities. It might be possible, but the long-term effects would be a little too much for the country.' Dr Masasso said he favoured tourism which has 'e closer relationship with people -  a cultural exchange, targeting people who really wish to understand our country.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fishing is a sector which appears to have huge potential given the size of Tonga's exclusive economic zone. Dr Masasso explained how Japanese assistance was being used in a boat building scheme designed to produce vessels that local people could afford. He also spoke enthusiastically of the research that had been carried out to determine the nature and size of the fish stocks. He recognised, however, that while most of Tonga's fishing was inshore, there was scope for a great deal more revenue from deep-sea fishing. In this connection, negotiations were underway with the United States, Taiwan and Japan, to allow vessels from these nations to fish in Tongan waters. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conversation then moved on to the more general issue of entrepreneurship and the role of the state in the economy. The Minister indicated that the government believed in privatisation but stressed that this was not simply 'because other countries are doing ft.' The main issue at this stage, he said, was to create a sufficiently large pool of well-trained people to take over activities currently run by the authorities. 'The government wishes it didn't need to get involved but we are a small developing nation, and to get things started, you need capital and know-how  - which locals sometimes don't have access to.' In these circumstances, the state had to activate projects which could later be privatised once the necessary skills had been built up. Another 'major strategy' was to develop a much closer relationship between the Ministry and the private sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This led us into a discussion about Tonga's attitude to foreign investors who might also be in a position to supply capital and know-how. The authorities had recently threatened that a number of residence permits would not be renewed. Was this not a disincentive to potential overseas investors ? Dr Masasso was keen to offer clarification. 'The media makes it look as if Tonga doesn't like investors but they have misinterpeted the situation. He insisted; 'we want the foreign investment here and are encouraging it in those areas where locals cannot get involved.' Defending the actions of the immigration authorities, the Minister stressed that what they were doing was normal practice. 'Those who stay here illegally and do not extend their visa have to be deported.' The action, he argued, was not directed against foreign investors and indeed, the latter should be encouraged by the government's commitment to upholding the law.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Tonga-EU cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing the Vava'u islands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Myfanwy van de Velde</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EC-Tonga cooperation began in 1975 with the first Lom&eacute; Convention, soon after Tonga gained full independence in 1970. Grant aid totalling ECU 19.8m (Lom&eacute; I - Lom&eacute; IV) has been allocated to the country during its 20-year membership of the Convention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Lom&eacute; I, funds were directed principally towards two main projects: the construction of the wharf at Neiafu, Vava'u, and funding for the Ministry of Works to procure road maintenance equipment and build schools, rural health centres and small wharves at Ha'apai and Vava'u. Remaining funds were used to finance studies involving dredging, trade promotion and designs for Vava'u and Faua fisheries harbours. The EIB also financed a line of credit of ECU 130 000, under Lom&eacute; I, to the Tonga Development Bank.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lom&eacute; II funds focused on the fisheries sector, and on initiating works relating to the upgrading of the Vava'u airport. There were also projects in the fisheries sector, aimed at encouraging fishermen to undertake commercial fishing to meet local demand. To this end, the Faua Fisheries Harbour for small boats was built, and marketing and cold storage facilities were provided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By the time Lom&eacute; III funds came on stream, Tonga had adopted a regional development approach with regard to its various island groups. The aim was to have a coherent development programme taking account of the specific constraints and potential of each. The Vava'u group of islands became identified as the focal area for the use of EC assistance, and Lom&eacute; III resources (ECU 6.5m in grants and ECU 0.5m in the form of risk capital to be managed by the EIB) as well as Lom&eacute; IV funds (ECU 6m and ECU 1 m respectively) have duly focused on its development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Located in the north of the Kingdom, Vava'u is the second group of islands both in terms of population (16 000) and land area. With an abundance of natural resources, the group is thought to have greater potential for agriculture and tourism than other parts of the Kingdom. However, this potential was largely untapped at the time Lom&eacute; III was initiated. This was due to a variety of constraining factors including relatively low productivity, undeveloped marketing infrastructures, substantial import levels and poor distribution of utilities and other public services. One particular constraint preventing the development of tourism was limited access caused by a lack of transport infrastructures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two main projects aimed at addressing these problems have been implemented. The first, costing ECU 1.24m, involved completing the upgrading of the local airport at Lupepau'u (begun under Lom&eacute; II). In addition to runway improvements, a new terminal building was provided, complete with safety and navigational equipment. Passengers began using the new facilities in early 1995. The second project, entitled the 'Vava'u Development Programme', was allocated the sum of ECU 5m. This money is being used to pay for a series of activities including road upgrading, the provision of photovoltaic equipment for household energy needs and the supply of equipment for vocational training colleges. New buildings being funded include health clinics, a market and an agricultural quarantine building. The funds also cover the cost of establishing the Vava'u Development Unit as the monitoring and implementing agency for the programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Programme continues under Lom&eacute; IV, with about 85% of programmable resources for Tonga (approximately ECU 5m) set aside for activities in the focal area. Funds will be directed towards developing the Neiafu urban area, in recognition of the need to upgrade access and services in the commercial centre of Vava'u. The projects envisaged include upgrading the town centre and urban roads, port improvements, and measures to increase the capacity and improve the distribution of piped and rain water to households. In addition, a multi-annual micro-projects programme will lead to the construction of jetties on the inhabited outer islands of Vava'u, thereby improving access to Neiafu which is the main centre of the archipelago.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the above grant aid, Tonga has received funds in the form of Stabex transfers for losses in export earnings in respect of coconut products, bananas and vanilla. It also received emergency aid in 1977, following an earthquake, and in 1982 following Hurricane Isaac.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EIB interventions have contributed to the share capital of the Tonga Development Bank and have increased the Bank's lending capacity to small and medium-sized enterprises. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Switching on the Iights</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uelingatoni Tevita Vaea (known as 'T' to his friends), proved to be a mine of information for The Courier, when we visited the Vava'u island group in northern Tonga recently. 'T' is a Tongan engineer who returned to his native land from Australia to work as assistant project manager in the Vava'u Development Unit. His help was particularly useful during the highlight of our visit - a traditional celebratory feast laid on by the villagers of Nuapapu. This is one of Vava'u's inhabited outer islands and the celebration was staged to mark the installation of solar powered lighting, courtesy of Lom&eacute; Convention funds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nuapapu is one of a number of outlying villages to receive solar installations under the Vava'u Development Programme. In all, some 350 homes have been wired up. Units attached to individual buildings collect the power and convert it into electricity which is stored in a battery. When night falls, the lights can then be switched on. Although the bulk of the installation costs are covered by the project, each participating household is required to pay a lump sum to have a unit fitted. They are also contracted to pay a modest amount each month towards maintenance of the system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It may all seem rather prosaic to those of us accustomed to electrical power at the flick of a switch, but for the people of the villages in the Vava'u group, the project is little short of revolutionary. For centuries, their daily rhythm has been governed largely by the rising and setting of the sun. The only 'artificial' light available after darkness came from fuel-burning (and more recently, battery) torches or lamps  - enough perhaps to reveal a path or highlight the position of an object, but certainly not to read or do intricate work with one's hands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The formal 'switching on' ceremony was performed by the Dutch Ambassador, Mr van Thessen and Jonathan Rodwell, who is the European Commission's resident advisor in Tonga. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was preceded by a courtesy visit to the village chief and the above-mentioned feast, which gave the European visitors an authentic and memorable taste of traditional Tongan hospitality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The food was brought from all quarters of the village on long rectangular trays covered with leaves. Each was laden with food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fare was predominantly local: the famous roast pigs featured prominently along with fish, chicken, bananas, coconuts and a variety of root and tuber vegetables.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were also some 'imported' items: the corned beef which is so popular here, some packets of crisps to add colour to the guest 'table' and boiled sweets woven into garlands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The trays were laid end to end, stretching perhaps 20 metres and woven mats were placed all around. Having received our garlands of flowers, we were invited to sit down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The feast was interspersed by various speeches and 'T' helped out with a translation and explanation of the proceedings. We began with a prayer in Tongan, delivered by the local minister. This was followed by a speech of welcome and thanks by the matapule (spokesman) of the village chief.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High ranking people in Tonga always have a matapule to speak on their behalf on such occasions. Ambassador van Thessen and Mr Rodwell then replied on behalf of the guests, (in English, with consecutive translation provided).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They expressed thanks to the people of Nuapapu for their hospitality and wished them success with their new electric lighting. There was then a short discourse by the District Officer followed by a closing prayer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">References to all this speechmaking could leave a false impression that this was a formal and stilted affair.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact the reverse was very much the case: the mood was relaxed throughout and there is no doubt that the villagers know how to enjoy themselves. Music was supplied by a group of men playing a variety of instruments and the women joined in the festivities with what appeared to be spontaneous bursts of dancing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were also special solo dances performed by two young ladies whose bodies had been smeared with coconut oil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As tradition dictates, once their performances (involving highly expressive hand and finger movements) were complete, the audience expressed their appreciation by slapping banknotes on the oily exposed surfaces of the dancers' bodies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The light was fading as the feast ended and we moved to the brief 'lighting up' ceremony, carried out to the accompaniment of applause.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guests (including the staff of the Vava'u Development Unit who have guided the project through its various stages) then took their leave of this hospitable community and set off by boat on the return journey to Neiafu. As the vessel drew away from the shore, we were able to look up and see, for the first time, the twinkling lights of Nuapapu. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dossier</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Habitat</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Livable cities and rural rights</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Dossier coordinated by Debra Percival and  Claude Smets)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United Nations Conference, Habitat 11, on human settlements (Istanbul, June 3-14 1996) exposed the Herculean task of addressing the problems of ever-growing cities and called for 'shelter for all.' The special contribution of civil society in making cities more liveable was acknowledged at the conference - but the big question is, who will foot the bill ? The meeting also spoke of improving dwellings in rural areas to keep people on the land and halt the mass exodus to the cities. But the right to remain and prosper from one's habitat can be at odds with outside pressures for environmental conservation. The dossier looks at some of the issues raised by the conference, and the wider significance of 'Habitat II' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second UN gathering on the theme of 'habitat', staged two decades after the first conference in Vancouver, took place against a backdrop of rapid and alarming urban growth. In 1900, one person in ten lived in a city. By 1948, the ratio was three in ten and by the year 2000 half the world's population are expected to be urban dwellers. 25 years after that, the figure is expected to have climbed to 60%. Africa is the region that currently has the highest rate of urban growth. In 1950, it had only one city with a population of one million. By the end of this decade there could be 60 cities of this size, according to UN figures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The focus on human settlements and liveable cities inevitably meant that Habitat II covered some of the same ground as other UN conferences convened during the 1990s to explore the big issues facing mankind: the 1992 'Earth Summit' on environmental matters in Rio de Janeiro, the 1994 Population Conference in Cairo, the 1995 Social Summit in Copenhagen and the 1995 Women's Conference in Beijing. Issues common to all the agendas included rapid population growth, environmental degradation, access to clean water, poor sanitation, lack of infrastructures, and women's issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rallying calls of Habitat II, set out in the Conference's conclusions, were 'shelter for all' and 'sustainable human settlements in an urbanising world.' The Nairobi-based Centre for Human Settlements is to be the focus for the follow-up. But as delegates dispersed, one of the pressing questions was where the money will come from to meet the host of agreed objectives -  which include clean water with improved technology, conservation and protection of the environment, and better health and education. In this dossier, European Commission officials from the Development Directorate General, who attended the conference, reflect on Istanbul and its likely followup.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whereas in the past, cities were associated with economic development, innovation and the diffusion of new ideas, nowadays they conjure up the vision of urban poverty, environmental degradation, poor sanitation and a host of health hazards. Urbanisation is the direct consequence of rapid population growth, according to the 1993 Human Development Report. In 1965, agriculture provided 77% of employment in developing countries and represented more than 41 % of Gross Domestic Product. By 1985, this sector was contributing a lot less to GDP but was still providing 72% of all employment. So a large number of people continue to depend on agriculture although its share of the global economy is declining. In these circumstances, it not surprising that many of the world's poorest people are migrating to cities - the annual estimate is 20-30 million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The dossier looks, in particular, at the environmental cost of rampant urbanisation and at the problems of city living for more vulnerable groups such as women. They are often among the poorest urban dwellers and can fall victim to exploitation and crime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paradoxically, poor people in cities are becoming even poorer as economies improve. Additional pressures on these marginalised groups living in cities are neatly summed up by Jeremy Seabrook, author of 'In the Cities of the South.' In a recent article for Gemini news agency: 'Tougher Struggle for Survival in the Concrete Jungle,' he writes; 'As the pace of development quickens, with high economic growth and increased migration to urban areas, land price in most big cities have soared. Poor people are being increasingly removed from their hoary" - by mysterious fires, explosions and 'accidents'. Meanwhile, the urban poor's ability to mobilise and achieve has been used against them. The capacity of people to create homes and secure local communities has been used as a justification for the withdrawal of government services.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He continues: 'As inequalities become more glaring, enclaves of prosperity are sealed off from the slums by checkpoints, guards and fences - like frontiers to another country. Despite this, people are still flocking to the city  -  often refugees from intensifying, industrialised agriculture and.. megaprojects in the countryside...' Mr Seabrook points out that without decent jobs, they fall prey to sub-contractors, who exploit them, offering them low pay and demanding that they work long hours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Civil society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the cities of many developing nations, 'civil society' is taking a lead, with projects to bridge the gap between the 'haves' end the 'have note'. Numerous participants at the Istanbul conference applauded the urban programmes undertaken by various elements of civil society, which include NGOs, community groups and individuals. Their significance was recognised in Istanbul, where their voice came through loud and clear. Nigerian journalist, Paul Okunlola, writing in this dossier notes a move towards 'bottom up' projects in Lagos as a result of the tough times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agostinho Jardim Gon&ccedil;alves, the President of the NGO-EU Liaison Committee, was particularly pleased at the input of civil society to the conference's committees and conclusions. The debate, he said, had not just been about the macroeconomic aspects. Instead, it had come 'within the reach of the populations themselves.' The people, he argued, were both victims of the anomalies of inhumane settlement and the key players in efforts to construct a humane, dignified habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeremy Seabrook describes some of the inspiring international initiatives undertaken by civil society. Examples include the Society for the Promotion of Area Resource Centres (SPARC) in Bombay, which works with pavement dwellers; the Association of Basic Needs (ARBAN), and 'Health for All' in Dhaka; the Eddie Guazon Foundation in Manila, which seeks to protect the poor against private interests; and the Foundation for Women, which is trying to tackle the trafficking of girls for Bangkok's brothels. But Mr Seabrook also warns against overestimating the strengths of popular organisation. As he points out: 'They require an enabling and positive framework, which the free market can never provide. Government intervention, of a more benign and positive kind than hitherto, is vital if people are to help themselves. As it is, too often they are forced to struggle against the people elected to govern them.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chair of the Habitat Conference, Wally N'Dow, emphasised local solutions. The conference, he said, 'recognised the changing global patterns of life' and that solutions must be found at the local level. 'National governments and international agencies', he argued, were not in a position to solve massive urban problems or to pay to put them right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were a number of donor pledges at the conference. The European Union countries, for example, reiterated their long-standing commitment to provide 0.7% of GNP for development by the year 2000  -  though many of the 15 member states are still well short of this target.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One scheme which has attracted the particular interest of donors is South Africa's Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP). To a considerable extent, the success of President Mandela's government is likely to be judged on the success of this programme. It aims, among other things, to improve health, education, housing and sanitation and as such, it mirrors many of the 'Habitat II' goals. Launched in 1994, it is the centrepiece of the South African government's efforts to create a more democratic, prosperous, non-racial and non-sexist society. In the dossier, we look at the RDP's objectives, how it is faring and what sort of support the EU is giving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond the city, the dossier looks at what is happening to some rural dwellers who have not taken flight to the city. Although, largely focused on the city, Habitat II acknowledged the importance of urban and rural linkages in its conclusions: 'Rural and urban settlements are interdependent... governments must work to extend adequate infrastructure and opportunities to rural areas to increase their attractiveness and thereby minimise... migration.' There was mention too of the need for more jobs and housing for rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But in some rural areas, the inhabitants have found themselves in dispute with conservationists. The latter seek to protect wildlife and the rural habitat by setting up national parks - a solution which is not necessarily in the interests of local people struggling to maintain their livelihood. We take a look at such dilemmas and the possible solutions being developed so that rural dwellers can continue to make the most of their habitat. This rural struggle, where solutions are also being called for at a local level, is not unlike the battle being waged for a better quality of life in the cities. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Towards a global concept of urban development - an interview with Daby Diagne</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deputy mayor of the city of Louga, Daby Diagne is also President of the Finance Committee of Senegal's National Assembly, General Secretary of the Association of Mayors of Senegal and President of the World Federation of United Cities. He is the ACP-EU Joint Assembly's General Rapporteur on urban development and The Courier had the opportunity to interview him in September at the Assembly's meeting in Luxembourg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have just submitted an initial report on urban development to the Joint Assembly. In it, you recommend that the Community adopt a specific and consistent global policy in this field, notwithstanding the fact that successive Lom&eacute; Conventions have contained a number of significant provisions relating to the subject. What is the reasoning behind your recommendation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - There are several reasons. First, there is the fact that, in the past, cities were often viewed solely in terms of infrastructures and sectors. Experience shows that this approach is not effective. Specialists are increasingly opting for a more global 'city' concept. The Commission must therefore adapt itself to the new situation. It is true that it has financed infrastructures and launched health and clean-up programmes, but the problem is that this has been done in a somewhat unsystematic way without being linked to long-term regional development or a zonal policy. There is now an increasing need for an integrated regional development approach. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think ACP countries are aware of the importance of cities ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That's another question altogether. Obviously, the ACP countries are in the process of changing their views on this subject and a number have appointed ministers to look after urban affairs. The reality of city life has to be taken into account. The rate of urban growth in the ACPs far exceeds that in other parts of the world and it is in the towns and cities that one sees the most glaring instances of poverty and under-development. People have therefore been forced to take the 'city' phenomenon into account in the ACP countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The political will must exist for a policy to be successful. Do the ACP countries have a genuine will to implement an urban policy ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I don't think it is possible to speak of a uniform trend in all ACP states. However, in certain regions - for example in West Africa, which I know well - a municipal culture is beginning to take shape. There is a growing political will, which is illustrated by the discussions on decentralisation, and people are increasingly recognising that central government cannot do everything by itself. One can find regional development and planning policies designed to create the fabric of mediumsized cities. Not everyone has them but it is something we are seeing more and more of.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· ACP countries face complex challenges and there are people who say that the actions of the European Community are too dispersed owing to the number of sectors it is involved in. Doesn't your recommendation simply add to this problem ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - On the contrary. I regard my recommendation as being pro-integration and therefore pro-globalisation  - which is not the complete opposite of a sectoral, diversified approach. I believe it would allow the Union's activities in certain fields to be better interlinked. I am thinking here of water, health, clean-up operations and infrastructures  - all of which are major problems for society. Naturally, a more global concept will require greater dedication, and if there are additional resources, so much the better, but, in my view, the situation could be improved even with what we currently have available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The rate of urbanisation in Africa is higher than elsewhere and the living conditions of city dwellers - particularly those in the shanty towns  -  are becoming increasingly difficult in terms of health, education, environment and so on. What, in your opinion, would be the optimum strategy for reversing the decline, at least in the short-term ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - First of all, I think we have to make a distinction here. Let's take the actual rate of urbanisation. Contrary to what is generally thought, this is lower than in the rest of the world. In other words, Africa has fewer towns and cities than the rest of the world. It is the rate of growth in the urban population that is higher. Populations are becoming increasingly concentrated in the cities, with the drift of people from the countryside. In addition, the phenomenon is being fed by demographic trends. You ask me if there is anything we can do to halt this. There are actions that can be taken to restore some balance. For example, we could make investments in the rural environment to keep people in the countryside, and we could implement suitable agricultural policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But we must not labour under too many illusions, because life in towns and cities will be an inevitable characteristic of the next century. Economists and urban planners have been considering the phenomenon for a long time now - perhaps 30 or 40 years. It is  something that cannot be halted, because it is a fact of civilisation. So, what should we do? Above all, we should devote our efforts to regional development, achieving a balanced distribution of human resources, and a more equitable exploitation of natural resources. Power has to be decentralised so that people do not abandon their roots but face up to local challenges. And we have to implement urban policies which are satisfactory in terms of investment, management and popular participation. In simple terms, urbanisation has to be managed. We cannot hope to reverse the trend overnight, particularly in the case of a continent like Africa where everything happens quickly. Africa is enormous and its population has not yet reached its maximum levels. We have to take all this into account.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We must acknowledge that scientific progress and improvements in the field of health have contributed to population growth, and a reduction in mortality rates. This means that urban civilisation is a reality that we have to manage. There is a risk of uncontrolled growth in urban centres. When infrastructures are lacking, when there is no water, when hygiene cannot be guaranteed and when there is no work, a country's security is threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have mentioned democracy end the decentralisation of government This also requires adequate financial resources. Where do you think the ACP countries will find the money to implement decentralisation strategies ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Democracy involves a search for freedom - freedom of opinion and expression, independent of material or financial problems. The problem with decentralisation lies in administrative method. It is not purely a matter of money. In the first instance, it is a question of choosing the right approach. It has been demonstrated that without any extra resources, one can still act differently by delegating and decentralising. And success is much more likely because the people are involved in the process. Admittedly, it requires an internal reallocation of resources. A proportion of everything that was formerly centralised has to be allocated to development and to basic needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To answer your question more directly, there is a great deal of talk of this alternative method of governing. It is inspiring new hope and a thirst for something better. It is even being viewed as an 'ideal' solution - which it cannot be entirely. However, by decentralising human and economic resources, and by allowing people to participate, hope can be inspired at local level. This should make for better administration and support, which is an improvement in itself. Of course, this may make people more demanding. Will it satisfy their requirements? As I have already said, internal resources will have to be reallocated, but resources must also come from outside. One cannot make an allout effort for decentralisation without doing something to improve international cooperation. This cooperation, however, must be adaptable, and the state must retain its pre-eminent position and its role as guarantor and arbiter. But in addition, local communities should have access to international cooperation either directly or indirectly through their organisations, municipal structures and so on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In this context, what role do you see for international organisations - not just in terms of financial resources, but also of human resources ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think what we now need to do is build up a pool of skills in each municipal area. The developed countries have experience in this field. We have to take their processes as a model without necessarily copying their experience. This is something which will be discussed. Secondly, in the context of relationships between towns and cities, I believe it is possible to make access to experts more flexible and that this can take place very quickly, with the provision of training and fairly basic technology transfers. General training is also extremely important. In order to build up a pool of skills in towns and cities, local government must form a dynamic, management-oriented team. The approach has to be one of business-like management and objectives have to be targeted using private-sector methods, although public-service requirements always have to be borne in mind. A great deal, therefore, can be done at international level, in terms of support for networks of associations and committees of locally elected representatives, enabling them to discuss matters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We could, for example, carry out a comparative study of legislation in a particular area, thereby gaining access to other types of experience. Internationally, aid can be given to associations to help them buy equipment and attain a degree of freedom of manoeuvre vis-&agrave;-vis the authorities. In the field of decentralised cooperation, the international community can help elected representatives to implement their projects through partnerships, conducting studies, and providing personnel. Cooperation is possible in all spheres -  implementation, management, financing and so on. I believe that a new type of cooperation will gradually come into being. It is not a question of creating 'white elephants', but rather small and medium-scale projects which are of genuine use to the population. And I am not talking here about acts of charity, such as the donation of medicines, but sustainable projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Habitat II: taking stock</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Christian Cure'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future of towns and cities is not what it was. In the 20 years between the first United Nations conference on human settlements (1976) and Habitat II which took place in Istanbul in June 1996, the situation has changed a good deal. The significance of urbanisation  - and its irreversible nature -  are now acknowledged, as is the powerlessness of the authorities to deal single handedly with the complex phenomena which result The author of this article points out that civil society has suddenly broken into a field hitherto the preserve of official agencies and qualified experts, claiming a 'right to the city' based on research into more equitable development models.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vancouver to Istanbul: two symbols for two eras</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vancouver was the 1976 host of the first conference on human settlements organised by the United Nations. At that time, the UN was celebrating 30 years of existence and Vancouver, a model of urban development and modernity, provided inspiration for the developers and experts needed to plan the cities of the future. 'Appropriate technologies' heralded the possibility of mass-produced, cheap housing for everyone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty years later, the UN chose Istanbul as the host city for the Habitat II conference on human settlements, forcing us to face up to a quite different situation: uncontrollable urban growth (400 000 migrants arrive there every year), social and environmental problems, and intercultural and political tensions (amply illustrated by the Turkish politicians' inability to form a government at the very time the Conference was taking place). In brief, Istanbul presents us with the usual list of problems facing most of the world's major cities - and those of developing countries in particular.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Against this backdrop, the international community  -  180 countries, 500 local dignitaries, a few thousand professionals and even some ordinary citizens - came together from 3 to 14 June to discuss a 'settlement action plan'. This document, which had been in preparation for two years, contains 183 articles. It sets out a series of goals, principles and undertakings as well as providing an action plan for cities, the initial results of which should begin to be seen by the year 2001.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The preparatory committee selected two basic topics for discussion: securing adequate shelter for all, a basic but nonetheless controversial theme; and sustainable urban development The latter encompasses housing, demographic factors, infrastructure, services, the environment, transport, energy, social and economic development, the future of underprivileged groups and combating exclusion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cycle initiated at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 (followed by the Copenhagen, Beijing and Cairo meetings) was continued by Habitat II. Two major handicaps had to be overcome - 'conference fatigue' (with the resulting fact that there were fewer delegates than anticipated) and ensuring that what had been accomplished at earlier conferences was not undermined. Given that the subject of the meeting was human settlements, it was inevitable that sensitive issues already debated at previous summits, relating to the environment and social aspects, would keep recurring.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Civil society as an active force</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of conclusions arose from the official sessions (hearings, dialogues and various forums) which took place over the two weeks of the conference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First, Habitat II represented a recognition of the fact of urbanisation. In the past, there was a tendency on the part of the international community to play down, or even ignore, the phenomenon of urban growth and this was reflected in the meagre resources allocated to this area by donors. Today, the issue is better understood than it was 10 or 20 years ago, and it is acknowledged that the growth trend is unstoppable. Statistical studies and a set of 'urban indicators' drawn up for Habitat II confirm the scale of the problem. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, the Istanbul summit was a lesson in modesty. The obvious powerlessness of public authorities to deal single-handedly with the challenge of burgeoning towns and cities is recognised. The result was an understanding that a more pragmatic view is needed -  one which pays more attention to the complexities of urbanisation, to the wide variety of possible responses and, above all, to the multi-faceted nature of the players involved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Conference therefore became a genuine forum for debate. One of its most significant aspects was the emergence of 'civil society' as an active force. Hitherto, the field has largely been the preserve of official agencies and qualified experts. For the first time in a UN forum, local authorities, community leaders, private sector representatives and other dynamic forces in civil society were invited to give their views and take part in discussion groups. Whereas in the past, the debate was dominated by macroeconomic and technical questions, in Istanbul, the political and social aspects were given prominence as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The effect of this was to improve the quality of the debate. The outlines of a new relationship between governments and civil society (NGOs, ordinary citizens and popular urban groups) were defined - with the local authorities slotting in somewhere in the middle. And there was a particular focus on the question of dimension or scale: what should be the basis for urban democracy and citizenship. Both of these are seen as essential if one is to have successful and sustainable urban development policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A right to the city?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first stage of the analysis is to look at urban life from a macroeconomic standpoint. Urban growth is determined by the evolution of the world economic system and, in particular, by the globalisation of markets. This has generated increased competition, including competition between cities themselves. Since the end of the 1980s, cities have been responsible for between 50% and 80% of the GDP of most countries. In other words, they represent more than mere links in the global economy; they are, in fact, pivotal points.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hence the principles which broadly underpin the Habitat 11 programme. In fundamental terms, public policies must promote the capital, housing, property and employment markets, with a view to improving the efficiency of urban management (living conditions, infrastructures, services, environment, etc.). This is not just desirable in human terms but also essential if urban productivity is to be improved. Many decision-makers at the meeting agreed that privatisation of services, partnerships involving the authorities, the community and the private sector, and decentralisation were all part and parcel of a new standard for good local governance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Representatives of 'social' interests, on the other hand, were successful in focusing the debate on fundamental rights and principles, including individual and social rights. Indeed, these issues dominated the Conference and gave rise to the most difficult negotiations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were prolonged talks, for example, on the central issue of the right to a roof over one's head. The outcome was a commitment by governments to promote 'the full and progressive acceptance of the right to adequate shelter'. The NGOs had been hoping for a more clear-cut undertaking. Questions relating to the status of vulnerable groups, women's rights and their equal access to land, and protection against eviction, were also the subject of heated exchanges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps the most important step forward, however, was the success of civil society representatives in sowing the seeds of a new idea - the 'right to the city'. This concept has been devised on the basis of research into more equitable and soundly-based development models to which local authorities are increasingly giving practical support. Thousands of individual experiences and issues were highlighted in Istanbul by NGOs and community groups. Thus, there is a mass of evidence that populations are capable of responding through local initiatives and of taking responsibility for improving their living and housing conditions. If this 'resource' is to be exploited to the full, urban politicians must develop a deeper understanding of the scale of micro-territories and local societies within cities. They also need to promote and coordinate their decision-making in a way which involves consulting and involving the local populations. In the modern era, this is the key to ensuring social cohesion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond Istanbul</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There may have been a lot of new thinking on the basic principles, but there was no reference to financial undertakings in the Habitat 11 programme. On the latter issue, the international community was highly circumspect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank took the initiative, announcing the launch of an 'urban compact', involving an additional $15 billion in loans for urban projects over the next five years. It also revealed that it would triple its aid to NGOs involved in the urban environment. Recent World Bank estimates suggest that just 0.2% to 0.5% of a country's GDP would need to be set aside for the poor to gain access to basic urban services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards monitoring, the NGOs and local authorities won the right to sit on the Human Settlements Committee which will be responsible for implementing the habitat programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most important points to emerge from Istanbul, however, were that local authorities were given both formal recognition, and a major practical role - in keeping with their current responsibilities. The habitat programme is, in fact, a powerful call for decentralisation and increased local autonomy, its action plan being built on the implicit principles of 'subsidiarily' and 'proximity'. To a large extent, the successful implementation of the programme will depend on the mobilisation of municipal politicians and officials - and on the policies they adopt at local level. The agenda for cities in the 21 st century that was adopted at the Rio Summit must now be fleshed out and become the future reference for action by local authorities, NGOs and citizens' associations. Finally, the importance of decentralised cooperation and the role of local councils in international cooperation have been reconfirmed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Local authorities and their international organisations decided to form a worldwide coordinating group to continue structured dialogue with the international community and to guarantee that the Istanbul resolutions are followed up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some people predicted that Habitat 11 would be 'the revenge of the cities'. To quote P. Maragall, chairman of the Committee of the Regions, the conference at least provided the opportunity to build, and to give a wider audience to 'the voice of the United Cities within the United Nations'. That itself is a major step forward. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'A house to call my own'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tackling violence against women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Rosemary Okello</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this article is a journalist with the Nairobi-based Women's Feature Service (WFS) She contends that the Habitat 11 conference skirted around some of the issues affecting women city dwellers in Africa, such es violence and sexual abuse. Improving their lives, she argues, starts with a roof over their heads</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lofty ideals set during this year's UN Conference on Human Settlements in Istanbul meant little to African women like Catherine Kaberu. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As she recalls the misery of living on the streets of Nairobi, she is just happy now to have a safe, secure room for her family. 'I thought by running away from home and coming to Nairobi, I would find a better life" says Ms Kaberu. Instead, the streets became her home and her life was defined by the fear of violence against her. Her two children were born during that difficult period, following rapes. She cannot identify their father. There are an estimated 30 000 street people in Nairobi and Catherine Kaberu says that all street women and girls are regularly abused.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Every day we had to look for a place to sleep and we bribed the watchmen to guard us.' Often it was the same watchmen, employed to guard office blocks in the city's central district, who took advantage of the women's desperate situation. Not even age could protect them says 63-year old Felista Nyambura, herself a veteran of the streets. 'I suffered all manner of humiliation,' she states, referring to ten years spent on the streets with her seven children. 'The watchmen would rape me if I refused to give in to them - after they had offered me a place to sleep for the night with my children. I am just so happy to be off the streets. I will never go back,' she states firmly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The confidence of the two women comes from their new security as owners of simple one-roomed houses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Having a house to call my own is the most important thing that ever happened to me,' says Ms Nyambura as she explains how she ended up on the street after the piece of land her husband left in their rural home was taken over by her in-laws.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The two women are part of a group of 114 who have benefited from the Urban Destitute Programme, a project of the African Housing Fund which is involved in participatory community development with the homeless women of Nairobi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Catalina Trujillo, the 'Women in Development' coordinator for the Habitat conference stresses: 'If a woman's place is in the house, we had better make sure she owns it.' These sentiments were supported in Istanbul by the conference Secretary General, Wally N'Dow: He stated: 'By conviction, by analysis and even by instinct, women's rights to ownership and inheritance of property is right. If Habitat II... does not also contribute to social progress by addressing some of the issues like property rights for women, then it will have failed.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the women of-Africa in particular, the most important thing that should have come out of Istanbul was an affirmation of their right to own and inherit property, and to security.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These issues affect most African women regardless of their status and they were presented to ministers concerned with shelter and settlements when they met in Johannesburg last year to prepare an African agenda for the Istanbul meeting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most African countries accept the theoretical premise that women must have access to land, credit and inheritance, and recognise that certain types of violence are targeted primarily at women. South Africa's President Mandela affirmed: 'When we talk about people-centred development, we should understand that the involvement of women is often the difference between success and failure.' Yet in reality, customary law and insensitivity to gender concerns continue to predominate. Unfortunately, when the African ministers adopted their declaration, the point on the "unencumbered access of women to credit and land ownership' appeared in only 20th place. And while forced evictions were highlighted in Istanbul, violence against women did not feature at all among the 'key priorities'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet in parts of Africa these are major concerns affecting women every day. 'In South Africa, a women is raped every 83 seconds and in some areas, a girl can expect to be raped four times in her life,' says Emelda Boikanyo of the Johannesburg-based Women's Health Project. Idah Matou remembers how one Sunday morning in 1992, five men stormed into her shop in Alexandria township. They seized the day's earnings and anything else they could carry away before raping her 1 5-year old daughter. A few weeks earlier, they had called to demand protection money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Violence in the home is also a growing problem. Mmatshilo Motsei, Director of Agisanang Domestic Abuse Prevention and Training, an NGO based in Alexandria, South Africa, says the problem is so pervasive, 'it must be raised as a national concern.' Habitat II turned a deaf ear on these women's concerns. This was not their forum. Shawna Tropp of the NGO Women's Caucus criticised those attending the conference who claimed that it was not about women but cities. 'Women live in cities,' she says and adds: 'By and large, human settlements are still very much seen in terms of bricks and mortar'. She calls for greater understanding of the role played by women, usually in an unpaid capacity, in the management of communities. 'Everything begins with having a house in a secure neighbourhood where the dignity of women is protected.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Megacities</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The megacity personifies human misery for many in developing nations. As agglomerations proliferate in the twenty-first century, the United Nations Population Fund's 1996 report - The State of the World Population  -  considers how one might go about remedying the ills of city dwelling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNFPA's figures for urban growth make worrying reading. Over half the world's people will live in cities within ten years (3.3 billion out of a total of 6.59 billion). Between 1970 and 2020, the urban population will have risen by more than two billion - and 93% of these will be in developing nations. These increases will add to the strain of an estimated 600 million people already living in urban areas of developing nations without the resources to meet their basic housing and health needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Back in 1950, New York was the only city with more than 10 million inhabitants. Today, there are 14 in this category. Tokyo, which is home to 26.5 million people, is the largest. And by 2015, many others are expected to join the megacity 'club'  -  Djakarta (Indonesia), Karachi (Pakistan), Dhaka (Bangladesh), Delhi (India), Tianjin (China), Manila (Philippines), Cairo (Egypt), Istanbul (Turkey), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Lahore (Pakistan), Hyderabad (India), Bangkok (Thailand), Lima (Peru), Teheran (Iran) and Kinshasa (Zaire).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the majority of the world's people will be living in cities by 2005, it will take a little longer for the 50% threshold to be crossed in the less developed regions. However, this is expected to happen before 2015. Looking specifically at Africa, the current estimates reveal significant regional variations. In Southern Africa the rate of urbanisation is 48%. The figures for North, West, Central and East Africa are 45%, 36%, 33% and 21 % respectively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Expanding populations are likely to add to the widely reported list of horrors emanating from cities that are bursting at their seams. Problems include the collapse of basic services such as water and waste management, escalating social conflict, millions of urban children open to labour exploitation, sexual exploitation, environmental degradation, traffic congestion and environmental hazards such as increased air pollution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, the UNFPA report acknowledges that cities are also 'concentrations of human creativity and the highest form of social organisation'. It continues: 'Cities provide capital, labour and markets for entrepreneurs and innovators at all levels of economic activity'. Indeed, between 60% and 80% of developing countries' GNP is generated by their major conurbations. Social transformation occurs at a faster pace in urban areas. Thus, health indicators tend to be better, literacy is higher and there is more social mobility. And there are more opportunities for women. The city presents fewer obstacles for women's education and female city dwellers are less likely to be constrained by traditions which may stifle their creativity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But harnessing this potential is no easy task. The final chapter of the UNFPA report, entitled 'Policies, strategies and issues for improving cities', argues that urban dwellers in developing nations have been badly affected by structural adjustment policies. These have resulted in the elimination of subsidies on food and other commodities, increases in school fees and job losses in the public sector. Cities will also be required to adapt to the 'mass global experience in decentralisation' involving the shifting of local decisions from central government to municipal authorities, parastatal bodies and the private sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p48.png"></center><br>
+ Regional distribution of urban population</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women - a priority</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report stresses the importance of improving education and health, with a particular focus on women. As Dr Nafis Sadik, who is Executive Director of the UNFPA, observes; 'If urban centres are to be made liveable, and the quality of life of the poorer members of society is to be improved, women should be given the chance to play their role in the process.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report reiterates the specific targets for improving the lives of women that were drawn up by the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development held in Cairo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the field of education, these include 100% primary school enrolment (for both girls and boys) by 2015, improving access for girls and women to secondary, tertiary and vocational education, and closing the gender gap in the primary and secondary sectors by 2005.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other goals include a progressive reduction in infant and maternal mortality, making reproductive health services accessible to all through the primary health care system by 2015, greatly improved provision for family planning (allowing couples to make free and informed decisions on the number, spacing and timing of births) and providing better protection against sexually transmitted diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The State of the World Population Report concludes: 'A successful urban future depends, as much as anything else, on engaging all members of the community - especially women and the poor  -  in a constructive political process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There will have to be partnerships struck between governments, nongovernmental organisations, the private sector, and local and community organisations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And global urbanisation will require that the international community  -  governments, NGOs and international institutions - act to exploit the potential of cities to improve the lives of the world's people and to establish the foundations of sustainable development in the 21st century.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Lagos under stress</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Paul Okunlola</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a present population of some 7.5 million, the new millenium will propel Lagos to megacity status. The United Nations Population Fund predicts that 24 million people will live in the city by 2015, making it the third most populous conurbation on the globe. Whilst the donor community has supported urban projects in the past, tough times mean more reliance on 'bottom up' schemes backed by N60s and community-based groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When it began to rain in the small hours of Thursday 18 July 1996, residents of Lagos -  Nigeria's largest city and economic nerve centre -  merely stirred in their slumber. The gentle, but persistent showers, didn't rank among the heaviest downpours experienced by this coastal city, which gets rain on average for eight months in every year. Nor are Lagosians unfamiliar with spells of rain lasting up to seven days without break.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But by the time of the early morning 'rush hour', the traffic-laden streets of metropolitan Lagos were being swept with rampaging floods. Until well after noon, the city's social and economic life was at a standstill. Already difficult road conditions were rendered impossible for motorists, marooned at the wheel for hours. Exhausted school children eventually made it back home after spending the better part of the day in traffic. Crowds of commuters waited interminably at bus-stops for vehicles that never came.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The economic toll was expected to be heavy, with offices in both government and the private sector remaining empty all day. Commercial activities were put on hold as shops remained shuttered until well after noon. The communications network and electricity supply to key areas of the city were shut down for hours, to protect equipment. One state government official commented: 'It has never been so bad.' By the time the water receded and life had returned to normal, both government engineers and private sector consultants were in agreement: the main reasons for the flooding were illegal development along the natural courses of inner-city waterways, and the reduced drainage capacity of the overdeveloped metropolitan area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exploding metropolis</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both the flood itself, and the acknowledgement of the human limitations of the city officials, illustrate the frustrations that have attended the management of this exploding metropolis over the last three decades. In the months leading up to the July flooding, a major controversy erupted over plans to landfill the inland Kuramo lake in the highbrow Victoria Island district and develop it as a housing estate. This pitted state government officials and a firm of developers on the one hand, against a motley band of citizens groups, non-governmental organisations and concerned environmentalists on the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The unusual strength of local feeling against the project reflects growing fears that the island itself could be submerged. Five years ago, this was thought to be a remote prospect but today it is seen as a real threat, given the increasing frequency of flooding incidents and ocean surges along the coastal area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More and more people are arguing that there is a correlation between the growing frequency of flooding incidents and the massive sandfilling activity that has taken place over the years. The Kuramo issue remains contentious but it is just one example of the wider dilemma facing the city's development planners. They have the daunting task of providing for legions of migrants to Lagos - whose swelling numbers are placing great stress on the failing infrastructure. The problem may be particularly acute in the Nigeria's largest city, but it reflects a wider trend of urbanisation in the country over the past half century, as the overall population has increased.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1921, Nigeria had just 18.7 million inhabitants. Current estimates put the population in the region of 103.5 million. And the growth in the proportion of urban dwellers has been equally dramatic. In 1931, fewer than 7% of the people lived in urban centres. The figure had risen to 10% by 1952,19% by 1963, 33% by 1984, and 42% at the last count, in 1991. Current figures suggest that there are now seven Nigerian cities with more than a million inhabitants and no fewer than 78 whose population exceeds 100 000.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The changing structure of the country's human settlement profile has been linked to broader economic and social changes. The situation has been exacerbated by the economic depression of the last two decades. Analysts have noted a trend of declining primary production in such areas as agriculture, mining, quarrying and exploitation of natural resources. This has resulted in greater attention being paid to secondary and tertiary economic activities -  which are generally city-based. The figures illustrate the dramatic nature of the change that has taken place. In 1952, the ratio of primary to secondary/ tertiary economic activity, as measured in Nigeria's GDP, was 68:32. Four decades later, the ratio was 38:62.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to World Bank consultant, Prof. Akin Mabogunje, the trend is exemplified by the expansion of a whole range of activities located in urban centres -  large, medium and small-scale enterprises in manufacturing and construction, utilities, transport and communications systems, wholesale and retail outlets, hotels, restaurants, finance and insurance companies, and estate agencies. Then there is the whole range of government activity. Until 1991, Nigeria's huge federal bureaucracy was located in Lagos, operating alongside a state administration and some 15 local authorities. Add to this the major docks and airports of Lagos, and you get an urbanisation phenomenon which has, to say the least, been intimidating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lagos, which only occupies 0.4% of the country's land area, gains an extra 300 000 inhabitants every year on top of its natural growth rate. That the city is a 'pole of attraction' is hardly surprising. It is clearly the economic nucleus of the country, reputed to account for about 57% of total value added in manufacturing and about 40% of the nation's most highly skilled manpower.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Urban toll</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The costs have also been high. Professor Poju Onibokun, a human settlements expert, enumerates these: grossly inadequate housing and infrastructure with millions dwelling in slums; social amenities under enormous pressure with a shortage of schools and poor health facilities; endemic crime and juvenile delinquency; the breakdown of traditional values, family cohesiveness and community spirit. The capacity of law enforcement institutions is also increasingly hampered by technological and resource limitations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these ills, the shortage of housing and lack of infrastructure are seen as the most acute. This is borne out by a recent World Bank study which notes that:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the quality of life and living conditions have deteriorated;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - economic production has plunged;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the inadequate provision of infrastructural services has negatively affected the operations of most private sector investors, who now need to spend between 22% and 25% of their capital outlay on providing their own infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over 90% of the city's housing is provided by the private sector. But this has been handicapped in recent times by spiralling development costs and a general shortage of funds. New private housing has consisted largely of thousands of individual units, built mainly in areas of existing large scale developments. The authorities have made their own efforts to plug the gap and over the last 15 years, no fewer than 6000 hectares of marshland have been sandfilled and reclaimed in six separate development schemes (some of which have proved controversial). The Land Use Act of 1978 vested all urban land in the state authorities, although the administration of the legislation has not always proved satisfactory.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public transport is another problem for Lagos residents. There is no integrated system of mass transport and the sector is essentially made up of hundreds of privately operated buses and a dwindling taxi fleet. Massive currency devaluations have meant that the purchase price of new vehicles has rocketed. Maintenance costs for the increasingly dilapidated fleet have also spiralled. As a result, the system is stretched to beyond its capacity and it is the commuters who bear the brunt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public sector spending obviously has an important part to play in maintaining urban structures. The downturn in international aid flows has, therefore, had a visible impact with decline in infrastructure provision and maintenance, leading to a less favourable operating environment for private investors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, Lagos has been a notable beneficiary of urban support programmes with multi-million dollar schemes for water supply, storm water drainage, and infrastructure. Most of these have been World Bank-led but the support of the European Union and its Member States in this area is also considered crucial.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the positive side, adversity has proved a catalyst for greater community-based and NGO activity in environmental and human settlement issues over the last decade. This is a fresh approach, based on 'bottom-up' strategies, which should open up muchneeded new avenues to urban management in Nigeria more generally and in Lagos in particular. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A Eurocrat in Istanbul</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Gilles Fontaine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, a specialist in urban development, offers us his thoughts on the Istanbul conference. This event, he believes, was a landmark in the collective process of raising awareness which was begun at the Rio Conference on the environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14 June 1996 - last day of Habitat II</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Night fell a long time ago. A feeling of hope permeates the hall. Most of the work is completed but there are still disputes over a few paragraphs of the text of the Habitat 11 Agenda. Some delegates have not slept for two days and they can be seen standing around, afraid they might fall asleep. The sense of fatigue increases further when, at midnight, the symbolic 'stopping of the clocks' (to permit a successful outcome of the final negotiations) is announced over the PA system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At two in the morning, the wait has become almost unreal. It is virtually unimaginable that the Conference should come to nothing, after two years of intense work. Since Wednesday evening, the general atmosphere has been almost euphoric. Agreement has been reached on all the essential points within the allotted time and the Conference is already being heralded as another success story. All that remains to be done is to finalise the 'Istanbul Declaration', a four-page policy text broadly summarising the work of the Conference. The Conference would finally close about two hours later, amid general relief - but why the impasse?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breaking new ground... and remaining steadfast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some problems arose where they were least expected! To everyone's surprise, 'informal' working sub-groups had to be set up to discuss nuclear testing and anti-personnel mines! These themes were a far cry from the Habitat Agenda, but this sort of thing inevitably happens at major international conferences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other stumbling blocks appeared without any real warning, when some delegates attempted to renegotiate the conclusions of the Beijing and Cairo conferences. The negotiators had to stand firm on two counts. The hard-won recognition of women's rights needed to be defended all over again. And, more importantly, the attempt in Istanbul to reopen the debate on everything that had been gained at previous conferences had to be avoided. The European Union's negotiators took an aggressive stance on both these issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that so much negotiating effort is expended is a good illustration of the political significance governments attach to the topics debated on such occasions. A conference may be seen as resembling the proverbial half-bottle of water  - some regard it as half empty and others as half full. One's viewpoint depends on one's expectations  -  and much disappointment is caused by a misunderstanding of how such conferences operate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meeting the delegates</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although I am no anthropologist, I think I was able to identify three major groups of participants. First, there were the 'negotiators', who have built up a common language from conference to conference. I was surprised at the extent to which reference was constantly made, in the negotiating groups, to the 'Languages' of Rio, Copenhagen or Beijing. This is not just a question of vocabulary or syntax, but represents a genuine revolution in thought at international level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second group, to which I myself belonged, was made up of national and international officials. These are the people who, to a greater or lesser extent, prepare the conference. They then attend it and, ideally, write a mission report on returning to their offices (bemoaning the fact that few people will read their words of wisdom !)'These delegates tend to offer the harshest judgments. A common refrain is: 'We have long argument about words in parenthesis in a huge document that no one will ever read!'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third group, which nowadays is the largest, consists of representatives of so-called civil society. Since Rio, every United Nations conference has seen the parallel organisation of an NGO Forum, and the latter's influence has constantly increased. At Beijing, the authorities banished the NGO Forum to a site 60 km from the capital, but Istanbul welcomed it with open arms on the same footing as the 'Cities Summit' and the meetings of researchers and industrialists. A more fundamental development was the invitation to NGOs and local authorities to take an active part in the working groups and at meetings. This was a 'first' in international conference history and I was struck by the motivation and competence of many of the participants, as well as by the ease with which they have adapted to the information society. Gone are the days when addresses are exchanged on scraps of paper, accompanied by the ritual 'We must keep in touch!'. These days, your business card must include your Internet Email address. Contacts are organised through networks connected to databases, and people swap CD ROMs with each other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What did Habitat II achieve?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'official' end most visible result of the Conference was obviously the adoption of the Habitat Agenda - the final fruit of long hours of work within the national committees set up for the occasion. This document, over a hundred pages in length, contains a 'World Action Plan', accompanied by the 'Istanbul Declaration'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is not so well-publicised is the fact that many countries  -  including a number of ACPs  -  took the opportunity to publish their own national reports containing individual action plans. The amount of preparation that went into these reports revealed a high degree of motivation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having looked at them more closely since, I have gained a somewhat better understanding of the months of work put in tens of thousands of people across the world. This reassures me that the majority of state participants will monitor the Habitat 11 follow-up very closely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One has to recognise that the mere adoption of a text, however significant it may be, cannot be regarded as a magic formula which will change the face of the world overnight. To the impatient among us who want everything straight away, and to unrepentant sceptics, I would say this. In environmental matters there are two major periods in our recent history - the period before Rio and the period after Rio. The Rio meeting, and each subsequent conference, have been milestones in a long, coherent process of collective reflection and growing awareness. Istanbul did, in fact, keep its promises: the right to adequate shelter is now recognised internationally as the fundamental right of every human being.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The exploding city</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Stephane Yerasimos</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Istanbul. Ten million inhabitants - with double that number expected in 20 years time. Financial irregularities, a chaotic house-building sector, a lack of infrastructure and rampant speculation. One needed to look no further than the host city to find the key issues facing the Habitat Conference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Istanbul is a city steeped in history. It is also one of the Third World's biggest conurbations. Over the last 16 centuries, it has been the capital of two great empires - the Byzantine and the Ottoman - resulting in a rich legacy of monuments and a historic centre on a par with that of Rome. From the Middle Ages to the beginning of the modern era, it was regarded as Europe's largest city. On the eve of the Second World War, it had a population of one million, but that figure has now multiplied tenfold. Almost half of its ten million inhabitants are living on a knife edge, and many are in 'illegal' housing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first big transformation of the city came in the middle of the 19th century when the Ottoman authorities opted for westernisation and embarked on an extensive management programme. By the time the Empire collapsed in 1922, much of the ancient fabric - and traditional housing -  of the city had already been lost. Under the new republic, the capital was transferred to Ankara, and the authorities stepped up their efforts at modernisation. In 1937, Ataturk gave Frenchman Henri Prost, a city planner who had helped preserve the old centres of a number of Moroccan towns, the job of devising major public works in the heart of the old city. The infrastructure was also updated and taken together, these works (which were completed during the 1950s) transformed the old walled city and its ancient suburbs (Galata and Uskudar) into a modern aggLom&eacute;ration, interspersed with ancient monuments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mass immigration</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike the colonial powers who attempted to preserve the traditional character of old city centres around the Mediterranean rim and in the rest of the Islamic world, the desire of successive Turkish governments to modernise the country resulted in the disappearance of most of Istanbul's ancient fabric, and the city no longer has a compact area of old districts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The transformation of the city centre was matched, after the Second World War, by an explosion of building on the outskirts - a phenomenon characteristic of Third World countries. Improved sanitation and hygiene standards led to a natural population increase of between 2.5% and 3% per year. Meanwhile, the modernisation of agricultural practices caused a mass rural exodus. Marginalised in both economic and social terms. the people who flooded into Istanbul soon over whelmed the resident population. Today, the bulk of the people living in the city have rural origins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new residents began by occupying the edges of the old quarters and taking over the open spaces which remained after the ravages of an earlier fire. They then began to settle in ever-increasing circles around Istanbul, establishing the first gecekondu districts (groups of huts constructed overnight). These have been incorrectly described as shanty towns. In fact, most buildings are permanent structures and they rapidly develop into multi-storey dwellings. Most of the land on which these illegal buildings have sprung up was originally privately owned. But the elected multi-party government in power at the time was quick to spot the electoral possibilities in these areas. Each district was a reservoir of potential voters and, on the eve of each election, the parties in power would distribute property titles to the illegal occupants. They, in turn hastened to consolidate and increase their assets. This explains the emergence of increasingly densely populated districts without infrastructure during the 1950s and early 1960s</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industrialisation, and the arrival in the city of people who used to be rural landowners (driven out by the new market economy) later created a demand for housing which the normal market was unable to meet. This has given rise to a new phenomenon of urban marginalisation, involving the illegal division of land into plots. The system involves the purchase of agricultural properties by developers and speculative builders. These are divided into small plots and resold, quite legally, to purchasers  -  who then build unauthorised structures in contravention of the normal planning rules. Often, benefiting from political alliances, the developers take control of these districts and 'convert' the votes of the people living there into cash, in return for urban investments. This enables them to consolidate their power and increase the value of their remaining stock of plots.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An uncontrolled population increase</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, a third phenomenon, linked to the growth of a middle class, began to occur in the mid-1980s, when building cooperatives came into being. Their predecessors were the corporate associations which grouped together public officials (beginning with the army and the police). These developed into ad-hoc associations enabling a group of developers to tap people's savings, thereby dispensing with the need for loans in a country where chronic inflation makes credit prohibitive. Several thousands of dwellings are often constructed at the same time, in the form of tightly packed, multiple-occupancy blocks. The requirements of multi-storey construction mean that these buildings are of acceptable quality, but the related infrastructures are sorely lacking. Entire districts are built 'in the wilds' without any infrastructural investment by the developers or local authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The city is continuing to expand, without reference to any development plan. The fifteen or so major urban schemes drawn up since the 1950s have all remained in desk drawers and the only significant construction work has been on roads (notably bridges and ring roads). These generate further uncontrolled population increases on the outskirts of the city.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the natural rate of demographic growth is slowly declining - it has just dropped to under 2% per year -  the most recent census (in 1990) reveals that Turkey now has more people living in its cities than in its rural areas. Yet the statistics also show that half of the country's people are still involved in agriculture. Given the continuing natural growth, and the fact that in semi-industrialised countries, the rural population tends to settle at around a third or even just a quarter of the total, we can assume that the drift to towns and cities will continue for the next 30 or 40 years. This trend will affect all Turkish towns and cities, be they large, small or medium-sized. But Greater Istanbul, where the majority of the country's economic and social activity is concentrated, is set to experience a doubling of its population within the next twenty-five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dilemma for urban planners</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem caused by demographic changes is exacerbated by economic constraints. For a number of years now, Turkey has suffered a high (albeit stable) inflation rate of about 70% per year. This situation discourages investment in industry, and makes people take refuge in ownership of land that they can build on. Land has thus become the target of speculation by people in all social classes. Against this background, it is virtually impossible to regulate the use of land  - something which must be at the heart of any urban-development programme. An alternative is to discuss the possibility of developing a social consensus involving a more liberal approach to property speculation, recgnising that land is a source of revenue at all levels. This might entail releasing central and local authorities from any responsibility to provide services or other infrastructural investment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the present circumstances, however, any scheme to redevelop Istanbul effectively would seem doomed to failure. The only intervention which might succeed would be at the 'cleaning-up' stage - coming in after the construction of the dwellings under the conditions described above. It is only once the new inhabitants' dream of having a roof over their heads is realised that they come face to face with the harsh daily realities of living in a self-built city of nearly ten million people. They may then be prepared to make some sacrifices in order to improve their living conditions. The moment when harsh reality replaces emotion, is the only time the urban planner has the slightest chance of being listened to. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Adequate housing in the EU: rights and realities</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Misia Coghlan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are 2.7 million homeless people in the European Union and many millions more are badly housed. But the EU is said to be lagging in taking measures to provide adequate housing - one of the internationally recognised human rights. An expert from a leading campaign group for the homeless explains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the weeks and months leading up to the Second United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II), much argument and debate centred around the existence of the right to adequate housing. The legal basis of this right was challenged by a handful of delegates and the arguments continued right through the Conference itself. The outcome is that the final Declaration includes a reaffirmation of states to a 'commitment to the full and progressive realisation of the right to adequate housing as provided for in the international instruments.' (see first box)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The political impact of Habitat II as the culmination of the recent series of UN Conferences has been disappointing. The Istanbul Conference was originally heralded with the catch-phrase 'housing for all'. In the course of the preparatory process, this was watered-down to become 'shelter for all' and, as has been seen, the wording of the final Declaration simply refers to existing international commitments and allows for the 'full and progressive realisation of the right.' This of course begs the question of how such a right was ever supposed to have been achieved other than 'progressively' and how meaningful such a commitment can be in the absence of parallel undertakings as to implementation and enforcement. In short, very little has been achieved in progressing international commitment to the realisation of the right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right to adequate housing has in fact been recognised for some time now by the Member States of the European Union, all of whom have ratified the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (the most important legal basis of housing rights found in international law). Under article 11(1), the parties to the Covenant recognise, 'the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family, including adequate food, clothing and housing...'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of 'adequacy', it is generally acknowledged, is determined at least in part by social, economic, cultural and climatic factors. Adequate housing can be understood as including the following components: legal security of tenure, affordability, habitability, accessibility, location and availability of services, materials, facilities and infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It hardly needs pointing out that commitments in international law, whether legally binding or not, remain statements of intent and are of limited practical use unless accompanied by a comprehensive legislative framework in domestic law which will secure both the access to the right as well as providing enforcement mechanisms. What, then, is the reality ? Has the right to adequate housing been enacted into national legislation and, most importantly, is the right actually being respected across the European Union?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Realities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FEANTSA, the European Federation of National Associations Working with the Homeless, has been conducting the European Observatory on Homelessness with the support of the European Commission since 1991. FEANTSA's research findings have increasingly demonstrated both the extent and the gravity of the housing crisis in Europe: in what is one of the wealthiest subregions of the world, a large and growing group of the population is being excluded from adequate housing. (see box on next page)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, FEANTSA's 1995 transnational research report (Home/essness in the European Union) has found that the right to housing does not exist in any Member State as a legally enforceable claim. Although the right is recognised in the constitution of several Member States, this remains a statement of intent and does not create any entitlement. Other Member States have adopted a different approach - housing legislation in the United Kingdom, for example, does create an obligation on the local authorities to provide housing for those homeless people assessed to be in priority need and found to be unintentionally homeless. There is no sign of convergence in the ways EU Member States address the right to housing and housing exclusion in their national legislation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right to housing is not addressed in EU legislation as a legal principle and Member States have exclusive competence to deal with housing issues themselves. There is thus no overall European housing policy, nor is there yet any European policy on homelessness. FEANTSA has, however, identified common trends throughout Europe which have contributed to the escalation of homelessness and the lack of adequate housing provision.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall European trend has been an increased reliance on the competitive market to meet all housing needs, with an unwillingness on the part of government to commit public resources to assist lower income groups, who are therefore confronted with the limited choice available to them on the open housing market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The supply of housing has been undergoing change throughout Europe. In all countries, owner-occupation is on the increase, with tax relief generally being offered as an incentive. The private rented sector, on the other hand, has continued to decline. Social housing has generally suffered from cuts in funding. The result is that there is a shortfall in the supply of affordable housing for rent and rents have become correspondingly higher. It is clear that the competitive housing market cannot and will not meet the needs of the increasing numbers of people without the resources to afford market rents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The type of housing required has also changed: demographic trends have meant that households are getting smaller but more numerous - thus, there is a need for more but smaller dwellings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem has been exacerbated by the lack of an overall strategy either at European level or, indeed, often at national level, to meet the realities of structural changes on the labour market. Indeed, in some countries, the increase in long-term unemployment has been accompanied by an erosion of social protection systems. Faced with escalating demand for longterm welfare assistance, the authorities have often responded by tightening up on eligibility criteria in an attempt to cut or limit benefit payments, with shortterm palliative measures to deal with emergency cases. Thus, increasing numbers of people living on or under the poverty threshold, coupled with the deregulation of the housing market, have led to severe housing stress and increased vulnerability to homelessness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finland sets an example</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finland is one EU country tackling the housing problem. In 1987, the International Year of the Homeless, the Finnish government announced its intention to eliminate homelessness. At that time, the number of homeless people was put at close to 20 000. The programme for the development of housing set the objective of making 18 000 homes available for the homeless over a period of five years. Special funds were set aside in the national budget to permit the local authorities and other organisations to purchase housing for the homeless. State loans for the construction of housing for rent were made available to municipalities with a large homeless population. In under ten years, the number of homeless people in Finland has been reduced to half what it was in the mid-1980s. Finland now enjoys a comprehensive system of carefully targeted housing supply, housing subsidies, benefits and allowances and housing is seen as an integral part of a multi-dimensional strategy to combat poverty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For one in twenty citizens of the European Union, the criteria which, as a whole, constitute adequate housing remain inaccessible. Yet at Istanbul, the EU voiced its determination to make an important and constructive contribution to the implementation of the Habitat objectives. This included an acknowledgement that increased attention should be paid to people living in poverty and that appropriate action should be taken by governments at all levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European housing ministers were due to meet informally in Dublin, on 24 and 25 October of this year, specifically to tackle the question of 'housing for socially excluded people'. The time has come to devise and implement coherent strategies to prevent housing exclusion for low income groups. The market has neither the ethics nor the long-term planning capacity to do this; it remains the responsibility of the state. It can only be hoped that the housing ministers will recognise this and agree on the necessity of protecting housing as a product and as a service from the competitive market, at least for vulnerable groups. The housing ministers have been holding informal meetings since 1989. This year's meeting provides the opportunity, particularly in the light of the Habitat II debate, to exchange information on effective measures to help low income groups access and maintain a home. The result should be the drafting of a number of concrete goals to be achieved within a realistic time-scale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Homelessness in Europe is not on the scale seen in other regions of the world - with the development and reinforcement of effective preventive policies, based on proven and cost-effective welfare models existing in some Member States, the housing crisis can still be contained. In short, where there is a political will, there is a way. Europe has the potential to serve as a model of good practice to the rest of the world and should do so, more especially in the light of all that was - and wasn't  - achieved at Istanbul. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">References</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Is the European Union Housing its Poor ? Dragana Avramov, Catherine Parmentier and Brian Harvey, FEANTSA, Brussels 1995 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Homelessness in the European Union, Dragana Avramov, FEANTSA, Brussels 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Invisible Hand of the Housing Market, Dragana Avramov, FEANTSA, Brussels 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Cities of the Third World</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Francis Cass</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In ten or so years' time, more than half the world's population will be living in built-up areas and, according to UN figures, by 2025 nearly two thirds of us will live in towns and cities. This is not a complete surprise -  over the last few decades, the ratio of city dwellers to rural people has consistently moved in 'favour' of the former. In 1950, 29% of people were city dwellers. Since 1985, the urban population has exceeded 40% of the global total.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, we are witnessing an acceleration in demographic growth, especially in developing countries. Of the 2.6 billion people who currently live in towns, 1.6 billion live in the world's least developed regions. By 2025, the urban population of the Third World will have risen to 3.2 billion, out of a global urban population of just over 4 billion. On the basis of these figures, it is estimated that the number of urban dwellers in developing countries is increasing by approximately 150 000 people each day! In Cape Town in South Africa, for example, as in many towns and cities of the Third World, this demographic explosion can actually be seen happening. All you need to do is drive regularly along the N2 motor way  - which passes through the shanty towns of Khayelitsha and Guguletu -  to see how, week by week, the makeshift dwellings are spreading - gradually expanding to every available plot of land. The same scene is repeated in all of Africa's large towns. In Cot&eacute; d'lvoire, the population of Abidjan rises by 400 inhabitants a day on average. In Gabarone, the capital of Botswana, whose population was barely 3000 at the time of independence in the 1960s, the population is increasing by 18% each year and today 160 000 people live there. Such growth is often accompanied by widespread indifference on the part of local authorities. Such indifference is due, in particular, to a shortage of financial resources, but it also reflects an absence of political will to do anything to tackle the problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Demography and poverty</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The demographic explosion which has taken place in the urban areas of developing countries is due to three main factors: natural population growth, rural emigration to towns and cities, and (less importantly) the redefinition of the administrative boundaries of built-up areas. The first two factors are equally to 'blame' but in future, it is predicted that rural depopulation in Africa will become the single most important element in urban population growth. This will be especially true of countries where there is rampant rural poverty. In this context, we need to recognise other circumstances, such as famine, desertification, a shortage of cultivable land and conflicts, which serve to exacerbate the phenomenon. If people living in the countryside decide to migrate to towns, it is because they are looking for a better life and hope to improve their standard of living. Few succeed. According to a World Bank study, 50% of people in abject poverty will be living in urban areas by the year 2000.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The effects that urban poverty has on the environment are often dramatic. The reverse is also true. A damaged environment constitutes a daily hazard for town and city dwellers, in particular the most destitute. The precarious nature of their living conditions means that only in extremely rare cases are these people able to guard against the degeneration of their immediate surroundings. Driven to the outer limits of the towns - where even basic infrastructures such as sewers and the collection of household waste are often lacking, the poorest sections of society are left to fend for themselves. Local authorities have neither the means nor (often) the inclination to do anything to help them. Even those who are comfortably off and who can afford to give part of their income to safeguard their immediate environment (thereby protecting themselves to some extent) cannot escape the consequences of more general ecological problems such as air pollution and the contamination of water supplies. Living in a modern house in a well-to-do district is simply not enough. It is not possible to shield oneself completely from the problems created by environmental destruction. For example, even an unofficial rubbish tip, located several kilometres away from a residential area, can have disastrous effects on groundwater - meaning that sooner or later, the quality of the drinking water will suffer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Towns gasping for water...</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, the vast majority of Third World towns are facing a series of ecological problems which directly or indirectly, affect the lives of their inhabitants. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), 220 million city dwellers have no access to drinking water and 420 million have no latrines. It does not take much to imagine the potentially catastrophic health consequences of such a situation - in which people are forced to drink and irrigate their land with water from contaminated sources. The WHO has estimated that three million children died during 1993 as a direct result of diarrhoea, and that nearly two million of these victims had consumed drinking water contaminated with faecal matter. In developing countries, 90% of waste water is poured, completely untreated, into rivers, lakes and coastal waters. Again, one can easily imagine the impact on marine flora and fauna, and on the health of those who eat the products fished from these waters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">...and gasp for breath</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As far as air quality is concerned, the WHO intimates that more than a billion city dwellers throughout the world breathe highly polluted air. For the most part, this pollution is generated by industry and motor vehicles. A small improvement has been recorded in the urban areas of developed countries, but air quality in the towns and cities of the South has deteriorated considerably during recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many reasons for this. First, there has been an increase in industrial activity, mainly concentrated around towns and cities. This is a result of economic development, but also of the fact that many factories - including some with the worst pollution records  - have relocated from the North to the South, where legislation governing emissions is less stringent. Second, in contrast to the trends seen in developed countries - where cars are usually well-maintained, (running on unleaded petrol and rarely more than five years old) motor vehicles in the Third World -  whose numbers are increasing significantly  -  are frequently old, badly maintained and run on leaded fuel. According to the World Bank, 95% of the lead polluting the air in the towns and cities of developing countries comes from vehicles which run on leaded petrol and studies carried out on the subject have revealed concentrations of up to 1.5 microgrammes of lead per cubic metre of air. In North America and Europe the concentration varies between 0.2 and 0.8 microgrammes per cubic metre.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another problem facing towns and cities in the southern hemisphere arises from the enormous amounts of waste they produce and from the fact that they have few treatment facilities. In many cases, the rubbish is not even collected and is left to accumulate into the piles which can often be seen on the edges of shanty towns. This accumulation of refuse encourages the proliferation of certain diseases and poses a real threat to the health of residents both nearby and further away. In addition to this ordinary, everyday waste, the countries of the Third World have to deal with problems generated by toxic waste  - not just their own, but also that which is 'exported' there by industrialised countries. Needless to say, the towns which actually have the means and facilities needed to treat this highly polluting waste are few and far between.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linking development with environmental protection</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While environmental problems have a direct impact on human health and on the natural world, they also entail huge economic costs. The effect of pollution on human health translates into ever-increasing health costs and a decline in productivity. And it is not only city dwellers who suffer the consequences of a deteriorating urban environment. Depending on their size, the degree of industrial activity and population concentration, towns and cities pollute and destroy areas well beyond their own administrative boundaries. They swallow up enormous amounts of natural resources, suck their hinterlands dry and spit out 'what is left'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nowadays, there is an increasing global consensus over the need to tackle these growing problems rapidly. This was seen clearly at the Habitat II Conference in Istanbul. Most cities of the southern hemisphere urgently need to get to grips with their numerous ecological problems - the alternative is to sink further into chaos. In a similar vein, it has become obvious that some sort of balance must be found between economic development and safeguarding the environment - and that considerable investments are needed to achieve this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solutions do exist. Recycling projects, for example, could provide jobs for large numbers of town and city dwellers, as well as cleaning up the environment. Governments of industrialised nations should take the necessary steps to ensure that their toxic waste does not end up in the rubbish dumps of the countries of the South. Authorities in urban areas in the Third World should set aside more of their budgets to help the most underprivileged sections of their populations, so that they can manage their own environment. Local authorities should also respond more efficiently to the basic needs of impoverished districts, not least by building roads and sewer systems, by ensuring that rubbish is collected and by guaranteeing all people access to drinking water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Last but not least, a concerted effort - especially a concerted financial effort - should be made by decision-makers at the local, national and international levels. We need to recognise that environmental damage is a phenomenon which rarely confines itself to the local level. Sooner or later, it becomes a problem for all of us. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When conservation is at odds with the local population</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Hendrik Smets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The clash between the interests of people living on the edges of the Zakouma National Park in Chad and the authorities' attempts at conservation illustrates the situation facing many other nature reserves in Africa. This article argues in favour of a form of eco-development to suit everyone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the Zakouma National Park (PNZ) WAS officially set up in 1963 (it had been at the planning stage since 1956), the area it covered meant that local people had to be moved -  but the promised compensation was never paid. During the second phase of the PNZ's relaunch, financed by the European Development Fund (EDF), a perimeter path following the 1963 boundaries was marked out, but local villagers opposed this, regarding it as an extension of the Park's area. Subsequently, they rejected a move to build a dispensary in a village located at the edge of the park on the pretext that such a structure would again constitute an extension to the reserve's land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conflict between the itinerant stockbreeders of the region and the authorities has simmered for many years. The latter have shrunk from enforcing the 1963 law on transhumance corridors which applies to the fringes of the national park. Under this law, it is prohibited (in principle) to gather wood, hunt for game, fish, or gather honey and other natural produce. The result is a tendency among locals to view the PNZ as an adversary rather than a potential partner in development. Safari tourism is developing too slowly and is not leading to sufficient benefits for example, from a craft industry, or more general redevelopment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the second phase of the project was at the planning stage, its organisers recognised that, in order to guarantee the park's future, support had to be given to the people living on its edges. A high-level 'cooperation committee' was therefore proposed. The membership of this committee, which would sit in N'Djamena, was to include ministers, directors-general, park authorities and Commission representatives. Unfortunately it has not yet been brought into operation. By contrast, the local authorities and park management have been able to set up their own committee which met for the first time in January 1996. This body has helped to tackle some of the most sensitive problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second phase also saw the implementation of a series of microprojects. - school renovations, a dispensary, a bridge, the sinking of wells, a dam, a mill and a nursery. But these were set up without preliminary study, and no arrangements were made to sound out the views of the local people, or the form of development they would like promoted. Understandably, local hostility was encountered and the projects cannot, in any real sense, be viewed as offshoots of the wider PNZ scheme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project has not been extended to a third phase. Because of this, there is a risk that the capital invested -  and the positive results that have been achieved - could be lost altogether. Should any donor choose to 'pick up the baton' in future, they will need to recognise the key imperative of creating a symbiotic relationship between the park and the local population. To do this, there must be an awareness-raising effort, undertaken in parallel with any eco-development programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the first instance, a higher profile should be given to institutional issues. In particular, the cooperation committee in N'Djamena must be able to act, where necessary, as an appeal or arbitration chamber to deal with any disputes which cannot be resolved by the local authorities' committee. The latter, of course, would continue to meet on a regular basis to discuss any problems encountered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, there should be campaigns to disseminate information and train local people who are in daily contact with the park's environment. The aim here would be to make them progressively more accountable for conservation and the exploitation of natural resources (cutting wood, gathering produce, hunting, fishing, and so on). They must also gain a better understanding of the effects of poaching and desertification. Above all, such campaigns should seek to convince the people of the benefits they stand to gain from the park, if they continue to respect its integrity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this context, some lessons might be drawn from a regional project dating from April 1987 (which was never fully implemented). This was aimed at halting the advance of the desert in the northern Central African Republic and southern Chad. The component of the project which is of interest to the present discussion was its programme to increase public awareness  -  which involved training organisers, preparing and disseminating information (posters, videos, films), organising information tours and giving support to the Training and Environmental Information Programme of the CILSS (Inter-State Committee to Combat Drought in the Sahel), of which Chad is a member.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One could also learn something from the approach adopted by the Manda National Park which is situated 270 km from Zakouma. This has 'volunteer villagers' appointed by the chiefs of the four cantons making up the park zone, who know the territory well. The volunteers take part in information, awareness and monitoring operations alongside national park and animal reserve employees. Dressed in pale olivegreen uniforms, they cycle between the villages and encampments, providing a link between the villagers and officials in N'Djamena. They have an invaluable role in convincing village people of the advantages of cooperating in the development of the park and its surrounding areas. And the cost of a volunteer is just CFAF 5 000 (ECU 7.5) per month.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eco-development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Returning to the PNZ, it is true that a small proportion of the population already benefits from the park's existence. Wages are paid to the patrols, and the permanent and seasonal workforce, while micro-projects have been set up. The park pays traders, artisans, farmers and stockbreeders for certain services and there are some tourists. But the bulk of the population does not see these advantages having been largely excluded up to now.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any future eco-development programme should therefore aim at reducing pressure on the park in order to guarantee its long-term integrity. This would obviously need to be preceded by a clear definition of the action to be undertaken, but in the meantime, it might be useful to offer a few guidelines. The programme should include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - a series of flanking or support activities providing infrastructure and equipment, such as a dispensary, a school, paths, wells and carts;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - a food-security programme providing for the conservation of agricultural areas, as well as measures to prevent erosion and safeguard harvests (cereal banks, stores, gardens, agro-forestry systems and pest control);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a project to promote natural resources such as fisheries, gum arable, honey, and straw fodder;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a wood/energy management programme providing improved hearths and brick ovens, and the organised gathering and use of supplies;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- development of the craft industry and training of tourist guides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If, in a third phase, an awareness and eco-development programme could be successfully implemented, the Zakouma National Park should be able to look forward to a brighter future. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A new 'eco-centre' in West Africa: Two Presidents amid the dust</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In April, on the eve of the International Conference on Human Settlements, the first West-African eco-centre ('Ecopole`) was opened in Dakar. It was set up by Enda, one of the few international non-governmental organisations of significant size based in a developing country. The 'eco' refers to two things - the economic life of the ordinary people and the ecological aspect of the centre. One of the most memorable images of the opening ceremonies was the sight of two Presidents  -  Abdou Diouf of Senegal and his Malian counterpart, Alpha Oumar Konare  -  striding through the dust in a working-class district of the Senegalese capital. For supporters of the 'Ecopole', the event epitomised the fight back of the popular urban economy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The dust which settled on the Presidents' fine clothes was that of the Rail district, so called on account of the railway which cut through it in former times. Built in an old, disused factory, the airy, clean 'eco-complex' adds a touch of style to this semi-industrial, semi-shanty town district. The old buildings were redeveloped with the help of members of some two hundred cultural and sports associations, working in partnership with the NGO. They used recycling techniques of which they are past masters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The complex had, in fact, been in operation for some time prior to its formal inauguration, but the ceremony  -  which attracted the interest of international press agencies - provided an opportunity to publicise the venture. Since its formation in 1972, Enda has been working to give a higher profile to the 'popular' economy (they eschew the term 'informal') in Senegal and elsewhere. The NGO has focused, in particular, on trying to encourage those involved in the popular economy to collaborate more closely and integrate their activities, as well as on boosting awareness of what is happening in similar communities elsewhere. The opening of the 'Ecopole' provided a showcase for the achievements of the popular economy in West Africa, as well as a forum for dialogue. And it now has the seal of approval of two Heads of State, not to mention other VlPs who made supportive statements at the opening.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The popular economy fights back</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the inaugural ceremony, the former sheds - now converted into airy vaults clustered around a central structure - hosted a major presentation of the popular economy in a series of exhibitions. It is a kind of 'eco-museum' with pride of place going to recycling. Exhibits ranged from 'fabrics' made of old plastic bags crocheted together, to toy sports cars fashioned from wire and tin cans. And the reaction to the exhibition went beyond the usual, somewhat condescending appreciation of 'the skill of these people'. There were, of course, some curios of interest to tourists such as the aforementioned children's toys, small metal suitcases and papier-mache boxes. But there were also works of art, masks and sculptures, which captured something of the nature of this 'recycling culture'. Indeed, international art critics at the Biennal Festival of Contemporary African Art, taking place in Dakar, were talking of a new artistic trend, also seen in the work of artists from other regions, based on reclamation. This, of course, begs the question: 'Has art not always been based on reclamation?'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interesting though the subject may be, the artistic and aesthetic qualities of the fruits of recycling are of only secondary importance when one is dealing with everyday objects. The important thing is for deprived populations to use what means they have to survive and to improve the quality of their lives. Tourists may choose to buy decorative and unusual objects on the reclamation market, but more significantly, families can obtain essential items such as kitchen utensils, ploughing implements, carpentry tools and stoves  - all cast from vehicle wheels and bits of scrap metal. They are made using small forges and furnaces the size of a large saucepan, or cut from otherwise unusable pieces of metal sheet. The craftsmen can also supply somewhat more sophisticated equipment: ploughs, brick-moulding machines or soldering irons. One of the exhibitions staged at the 'eco-centre' was a co-production with the Quebec Museum of Civilisation and the Canadian Embassy in Senegal, which had previously toured Canada and four African countries. Entitled 'Africa's ingenuity', it covered a wide variety of styles, ranging from the utilitarian to the artistic. It will, in due course, form the eco-museum's centrepiece. Another temporary exhibition was called 'Antuka: Kinshasa, the art of living in the city', and this paid homage to the Zairean capital - a place which, of necessity, has become one of the 'capitals' of resourcefulness. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jet engines and donkeys</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One hopes that the two Heads of State found time to admire the jet engine constructed by a young Zairean from nothing but reclaimed materials: parts taken from cars, mopeds and unwanted metal sheet. And it works -  not on an aircraft, naturally, but on the bench. This engine is now a legend. Its constructor has apparently already been spotted by a European head-hunting company and offered a job in France. This is part of the 'fight-back' referred to by Enda officials, in which some recognition is finally being given to the economies of the world's poorest populations. During his visit, the President of Senegal issued a plea for greater integration of the informal sector into the overall economic fabric. His remarks were revealing: the West-African 'Ecopole', as its name implies, covers an entire region, and assumption of responsibility by the local people for the shanty towns and poorer districts has lifted a significant burden from central government.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another example of this trend is found in the Malian capital, Bamako, where a hundred or so local community associations have banded together to take over full responsibility for the collection of domestic waste. This organisation, whose initial efforts were ridiculed, is now fully operational. One wonders whether the authorities in other cities have heard about Bamako's scheme. What about Port-au-Prince in Haiti, for example, where they are struggling with mountains of rubbish which they cannot deal with owing to a lack of resources ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since their inception, economic interest groupings (ElGs) such as the one in Bamako have helped bridge the gap between the 'formal' and 'informal' economies. They rely on collaboration and their enterprise is exemplary. At the outset, the inhabitants of poor districts, acting on the initiative of the ElGs, expressed the desire to improve their neighbourhoods by organising refuse collection. They used whatever means were available - which in most cases meant donkeys and carts. In more central districts, delivery tricycles were employed for collection. Specially constructed, tipper-style carts, each costing CFAF 200 000 (ECU 300) have since been brought into service. The price of a donkey, by contrast, is about CFAF 50 000 (ECU 75). The animals and equipment belong to the ElGs and are looked after and maintained by them, with carters receiving a monthly income and social security benefits. A number of groups were set up eight years ago, promoted by young technicians, academics, architects and economists. Those who benefit are known as 'subscribers', with each family paying a contribution towards the service. Managing equipment and collecting contributions both require a well-structured administrative department, but the administrators are not confined to their offices. As employees of the business, they see nothing wrong in lending a hand and assisting the carters. In short, it is an enterprise based on a whole new approach. The contribution made by families varies according to the EIG and the district in question, but it is generally set at around CFAF 750 (ECU 1.2) per family per month. The price of the service may be up to twice this sum in the so called 'quartier des Blancs' (the 'white' district). In theory, the state ought to be subsidising the ElGs, but in practice, this does not happen. The authorities do not even fulfil the task allocated to them under agreements signed with the ElGs, which is to transport the refuse from temporary dumps to a final site. According to local people, the problem is not that the local authorities do not have the trucks available for the task. The vehicles, they allege, are used instead for the officials' own private purposes. The ElGs are forced to plug the gap as far as possible. At present, they appear to be the only ones taking any interest in waste recycling, aware as they are of the risk to the environment posed by permanent dumping grounds, and of the specific danger that the water table will be polluted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A modern concept of the 'informal' economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'informal' economy is increasingly becoming the norm. According to an Enda survey, 90% of businesspeople in Senegal started out in the informal sector. The conclusion would seem to be that the necessary training for dealing with current conditions is not to be found in the formal education system. The popular economy is not out of step with the modern economy as some would claim. Indeed, one could argue that it is the modern economy, as adapted to today's conditions. The increasing involvement of ordinary people in the economic circuit, which they enter via parallel routes, should also guarantee the continuation of Africa's experiment with democracy. We have seen attempts by former dictators to backtrack in this respect. They cite as evidence, the failure of technicians trained abroad - the 'darlings' of the West who, they claim, are at the beck and call of international institutions. But a return to the past, as exemplified by the regime of Nicephore Soglo, strikes fear into many people. Their response is to generate productivity, social cohesion and political stability through the popular economy, by way of compensation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is suggested that small-scale traders, who distribute hardware from south-east Asia, constitute an obstacle to the development of local production. But there is a confusion here between cause and effect. In fact, the popular economy appears more as a response to the lack of consumer goods. The problem lies with the so-called 'major' local entrepreneurs who favour the import/ export business over production, and with the banks that prefer to focus on larger businesses (influenced by anonymous officials or major economic interests) and have no time for small-scale operators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Rail district in Dakar has a long history. It is overpopulated, having been settled by workers and artisans, and their influx made it the most expensive poor district. It is a place where the rents, for even the humblest hut without water or electricity, accounted for most of the inhabitants' meagre income. This situation led to the appearance of squatters who built their own shacks on waste ground. For these people, the threat of eviction loomed constantly like a sword of Damocles. The district is also home to a large number of maids and other household employees. Two thousand of these people (from Rail and other parts of the city) set up their own friendly society to which they pay regular contributions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a world which has always teemed with good ideas: artisans recycling materials, blacksmiths working at the forge and so on. In this sense, nothing much has changed, but the big difference now is that the people have organised themselves. In so doing, they have been able to provide training for adults and children in makeshift schools, and to purchase and renovate old huts  - having extracted a guarantee from officials that such moves would not be opposed. Nowadays, those who live in the district no longer pay rent. However, it will only be possible to measure the true success of the Rail district when there is no longer a need for an organisation like Enda to ensure that it operates effectively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some years ago, a former sailor, who always dreamed of being a teacher, set up his own school in the main street which runs through the district. He worked on the pavement and in the car park in front of a furniture store, teaching children in the morning before the offices opened and adults in the evening after they had closed. Enda recently offered him a few pieces of furniture, but for many years, he received no help other than a few pieces of chalk, worn-down pencils and the remains of exercise books from his 'colleagues' in regular education. This is a man who has to supply his pupils not just with teaching materials but also sometimes with food. This year, with his voice catching in his throat, he told us that one of his former 'street pupils' is going to college. How can the learned economists calculate the value of this devoted 'academic'? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The RDP challenge</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Professor Willie Esterhuyse</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cornerstone of South Africa's Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) announced by President Nelson Mandela on May 24 1994, shortly after taking office, is people-centred development with an accent on modern infrastructure, health, education, housing and sanitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lessons have already been learnt from teething troubles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The RDP is the government's response to the massive socio-economic needs of the bulk of the South African population. It is foremost a strategic framework aimed at human development and restructuring the country's economy. It involves housing projects and programmes to improve the socioeconomic infrastructure covering clean water, electricity, public works, schools, urban renewal and primary health care. Empowerment programmes have been developed, for example; micro and small businesses, support for emergent farmers and skills training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the main achievements of the RDP has been to sensitise South Africans to the plight of the poor. Apartheid, amongst other things, succeeded in keeping this out of sight, effectively locking the poor out of the system. A veil of ignorance prevailed among the privileged class. The RDP tore away the veil and has led to a willingness to participate in development and reconstruction programmes, especially in private sector circles. It is succeeding in prioritising South Africa's socio-economic challenges, as well as mobilising funding and organising a common and sustainable approach. Its most important achievement to date is probably the idea of partnerships in development between the state, private sector institutions and non-governmental organisations. Through the RDP, South Africans have accepted that they will have to 'run with the development ball'. They are also aware that the state cannot go it alone, nor should it act as a 'super' development agency. Thus, a very high premium is put on involving the private sector and other actors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Problems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But many problems have already been encountered. Unfortunately, the RDP was seen by some as a quick-fix solution to South Africa's socio-economic difficulties. Expectations over delivery were too high. Red tape and a growing bureaucracy stifled the initiative early on. Frustrations among the poor quickly surfaced. Many of those who wanted to participate, and applied for RDP funding, were unable to develop viable business plans - a strict requirement to get funds. The launch of projects was further complicated by the absence, at one stage, of legitimate local and governmental structures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But important lessons were learnt from the initial phases, in particular the need to involve people on the ground from day one - starting with the identification of needs, the design of a specific project and its execution. It was accepted that process is more decisive than the product. A second lesson was that a separate RDP office, with its own Ministry, complicated matters as far as delivery was concerned, tending to centralise development. This led to the announcement by President Mandela on March 28 1996 that the RDP office would be closed down. RDP programmes were thereafter integrated into the main budget administered by functional government agencies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another very important lesson was that socio-economic development and reconstruction had to go hand in hand with a dynamic macro-economic strategy - made public earlier this year. It was realised that one cannot have good projects in a bad policy environment - to quote a World Bank report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, it is generally accepted that the RDP, on its own, cannot launch South Africa on a road to sustainable and vigorous economic growth. We needed a twin-track approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Progress</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The RDP has notched up a number of successes. The provision of clean water to rural and urban communities has gone a long way under the leadership of Minister Kadar Asmal -  highlighting the fact that leadership strengthened by solid management, does make a difference. The electrification programme for low-income households, involving the parastatal, Eskom (Electricity Supply Commission), is another success story. The same goes for the Presidential projects, such as free health care for expectant mothers and infants, and some of the nutrition programmes. But the provision of housing for low-income groups has been less successful than anticipated. Rent and services boycotts, as well as unemployment, are some of the reasons for slow progress. Job creation is another problem area. It is envisaged that visible progress in these areas will emerge in the course of next year. Establishing a culture of learning is another great challenge. A restructuring of the educational system is underway, but progress is restricted by severe financial constraints.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Implementation of the RDP, the best strategic framework for socioeconomic development South Africa has ever had, will be a long process. Courage and sustainability are key issues. How to lead and manage expectations, without undermining hope, is a great challenge. The meaningful involvement of donors is another issue. Joint ventures between donors, the private sector, government agencies and communities are happening. Most of these, having been carefully negotiated and executed, are already making a significant difference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But spectacular progress should not be expected. Development, reconstruction, and growth of the kind that South Africa needs, will take time. However, the lessons and achievements of the past two years have put South Africa in an excellent position to change the country's socio-economic environment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Targeting South Africa's poor</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Christine Thompson</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The provision of basic amenities for the urban and rural poor rank high on the agenda of the EU's aid policy towards South Africa. In this respect, European cooperation has been tailored to fit with the government's own Reconstruction and Development Programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Programme for Reconstruction and Development (EPRD) is the name of the current EU development assistance package to South Africa and it seeks to help improve living conditions for all South Africans. The programme earmarks ECU 125 million a year until 1999. It has evolved from the so-called 'positive measures' programme launched in 1985 to help counter the negative effects of sanctions and to help the victims of apartheid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under a Declaration of Intent drawn up with Minister Jay Naidoo, then at the helm of South Africa's Reconstruction and Development Programme, it was decided that EU aid should be channelled to the key sectors of education and training, health, rural development, water supply, urban development, economic cooperation, trade and investment promotion, and the promotion of good governance and democracy. In each of these areas, the EU actively encourages a partnership effort between governmental structures and NGOs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.5 million homes wanted</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over 60% of South Africa's population is urbanised. The apartheid government's restrictions on home ownership in urban areas for the past four decades resulted in a housing backlog estimated at 2.5 million units, with demand growing by 200 000 units per year. Estimates vary, but approximately seven million people are believed to be living in informal settlements throughout South Africa on land occupied both legally and illegally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improved housing and sanitation are seen as priority areas in urban and rural development. Between 1991 and 1996, the EU has funded 18 projects in the urban development sector valued at approximately R303.1 m (ECU 52m). The Urban Sector Network (USN) and the Cato Manor Development Programme are typical.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is providing the USN with a total of R26.2m (ECU 4.5m) between 1995 and 1998. The USN is a national network of nine affiliate NGOs, and its aim is to improve living conditions for the urban poor. The beneficiaries of the programme are city dwellers earning less than R2000 (ECU 344) a month and there is a particular emphasis on households with monthly incomes of under R800 (ECU 137) a month.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through integrated, community-based development, the USN and its affiliates provide technical support and service provision to urban development projects, focusing on housing, local government transformation, skills transfer, project planning, facilitation, information dissemination, education and training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Cato Manor Development Programme received funding in 1995, also for a three year period. The EU has contributed R117.6m (ECU 20.2m) to the project. Cato Manor, an area in Natal near Durban, was the location of the largest forced resettlement scheme implemented under apartheid. Today, it is the first area targeted for integrated housing in a former white township.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall objective of the programme is to improve living conditions through a policy that strengthens the delivery system for infrastructure and housing. The programme anticipates providing the community with primary and secondary schools, sports fields, community halls, libraries and a community health centre. Access to housing finance will be improved and opportunities for income generation provided through a vocational training centre and small-scale industry workshops. In addition, provision is being made to improve management and general policy-making capabilities. By continuing to fund such projects, the EU is working with the South African government to improve the living conditions of the urban and rural poor. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Guardians of Eden'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Theatre for Africa, a performing group from Southern Africa, went on tour this autumn to put across the message that the exploitation of Africa's fauna should remain in the hands of rural communities. They did this with a powerful mix of words, dance, mime and song, in a play entitled Guardians of Eden '. The Courier met the author and cast on the Brussels leg of their tour. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The setting for the Brussels' performance was the 'Grand Place' (Grote Markt). With its ornate mediaeval architecture, this famous square in the centre of the Belgian capital could hardly have been more removed from the theme of the play - which is about conservation and development problems in Africa and empowering rural people to manage, use and benefit from the wildlife around them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The play was commissioned by the Southern Africa Sustainable Use Specialist Group (SASUSG) and the idea was that it should reach as many people as possible in the run-up to the World Conservation Congress planned for Montreal in October 1996. South African writer and former economist, Nicolas Ellenbogen, travelled throughout Southern Africa to recruit the all-African cast. Many examples of cultural imperialism leading to the destruction of habitat, highlighted in the production, were actually encountered by Mr Ellenbogen as he travelled through the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The play opens with a spirit medium summoning representatives from villages in several African countries to discuss the threat to their survival. The actors display their athletic skills performing mimes of the abundant wildlife with simple props, as the history of Africa is recalled from the dinosaurs to the present day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A parable is then told. An old chief informs his three sons that to prosper in the 21st century, the village must change. He instructs them to return a year later with ideas for prosperity, which will be discussed in an indaba (debate). Each chooses a different path. The wheeling and dealing first son seeks out quick fix schemes with NGOs and various city authorities. The second son learns from the difficulties of city life and comes up with a blend of simple wisdom and new ideas. The third spends his time in beer halls -  and his revelry provokes roars of laughter throughout the performance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arriving back in his village after almost a year has elapsed, the second son finds that his older brother returned several months earlier to implement his money raising projects. Enjoying the cash benefits of the scheme, the men of the village do not want to hold an indaba. They are forced to do so by the women and Midzimu - the old chief. The audience is then asked to vote and there is a unanimous show of hands for the second son who symbolises the sustainable use of natural resources. The dissolute third son, meanwhile, is eaten by a crocodile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivory ban fury</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the message goes out to developers and donors to respect rural autonomy, the play also raises serious questions for Europe's politicians. The frequent appearance of the destructive elephant, in the course of the play, allows Mr Ellenbogen to vent his anger at the ivory import ban imposed by many European states. 'I am furious about the ban', be told The Courier, 'as it is having a profound effect on the daily needs of the people.' He rejects the argument that it helps conservation, insisting that; 'with a stroke of a pen, you reduced the value of the elephant.' The playwrite argues that local people need to see wildlife as economically and socially valuable. Otherwise, they will adopt new forms of land use which will result in the extinction of the species. He also draws attention to the growing black market in ivory in Southern Africa since the ban was introduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'token' South African - symbolically played by the only woman in the cast - is given a 'rough time as the baby of Africa', says Ellenbogen. The play also contains numerous swipes at the donor community which frequently gives grants, without, it is said, any respect for local traditions. The Swiss doctoral student researching the potential for producing goat's cheese in Africa exits the stage squealing after asking a goat herder what he does with his animals. 'We slit their throats', is his reply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guardians of Eden was first launched at the Grahamstown Arts Festival in South Africa in July. It was performed in Zimbabwe and Kenya, and won a prize at the Edinburgh Festival 'Fringe' in August. From there, it moved to Frankfurt and Geneva before reaching Brussels. It was due to be performed in Antwerp, London and several American cities before a final staging at the Montreal Congress in October.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The play is in English and the languages of Southern Africa, but Nicolas Ellenbogen believes it can be readily understood by his multinational audiences. For him, the message - that local people must have the power to manage their own wildlife on their own land - needs no translating. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Analysis</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Europeans and development cooperation: there are opportunities too!</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Stelios Christopoulos</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If politicians in Europe see jobs as their primary concern, it is probably because the citizens regard unemployment as their most serious problem. In the Europe of the Fifteen, the average unemployment rate was about 10% in 1985 dropping to 7.5% in 1990. By 1994, it had risen to a record high of more than 11%. By contrast, unemployment in the United States fell below 6.5% in 1994 and the figures for 1995 reveal a continuing downward trend. In Japan, the proportion of people without work remained below 3% in 1994. Assuming there is no change in current trends, the most recent demographic projections suggest that there will be 70 million people over the age of 65 in the EU by the year 2020, out of a total population of 348 million. This is 18 million more than there are today. The proportion of over-65s is, thus, projected to rise from 15% at present to 20% in less than 25 years. These two elements  -  an ageing population and ongoing structural unemployment - clearly reveal that European society lacks a degree of dynamism compared with its competitors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an attempt to address this problem, albeit partially, the President of the European Commission, Jacques Santer, launched a European employment pact in April 1996. There are three underlying reasons for this initiative -  Europe's endemic unemployment, the need to reestablish a climate of confidence as a prerequisite for renewed investment and consumption, and the need to fit the creation of the single currency into an overall economic strategy aimed at increasing growth, competitiveness and employment in Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'I'm young, help me find a job', is the heartfelt plea of many of young Europeans. But what chance is there that their cry for help will be answered in a difficult global environment?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We have seen the globalisation of strategic relationships in a range of key areas including the environment, the management of energy resources, health, demography and security. The trend has been accelerated by rapid technical progress in the fields of transport and telecommunications. This process has not taken the big multinational companies by surprise - they were already free of the constraints of sovereignty or space, and were quick to globalise their structures. These enterprises have become more competitive by taking advantage, wherever possible, of the most favourable production conditions, particularly regarding raw materials and employment conditions. More spectacular still has been the growth of international trade: in 1990, the volume of world trade was 11.5 times as great as it had been 40 years earlier. During the same period, global production only increased fivefold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What this means nowadays is that employment in the EU Member States is directly affected (and some would say threatened) by the world situation. Productivity and growth conditions in Europe are no longer sufficient to ensure full employment. Competition from developing countries, with their low wage bills and undervalued currencies, is too great for countries in the EU. Their position is not the same as that of the multinational companies. They do not have the structures to deal with swiftly evolving events, nor are they capable of controlling the process of globalisation. This is demonstrated, inter alia, by their inability to respond to the financial speculation which turns capital away from productive investment. Today, for example, for every US dollar in circulation, there are at least 30 dollars which are the product of financial speculation. This is not money from productive work by any particular person, but money which is the product of a financial 'virtual reality' and which is usually reinvested in financial speculation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Countries are beginning to realise the need to pool their national skills and cooperate at a regional level, in order to enhance their business competitiveness and take on the challenges of the globalised trading system. But the level of integration implied by this strategic choice must be sufficiently comprehensive if it is to make up for the reduced capability of countries to respond on an individual basis. This process of regionalisation may well be a prerequisite for regulating the world economy in such areas as exchange parities and financial speculation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And what of Europe in particular? Despite having a head-start on other regional groupings (such Asean, Nafta and Mercosur), the situation is not too rosy. Owing to the lack of a full internal market, Europe is unable to compete on equal terms with the United States or Japan. The internal market still comes up against blocks in important areas, as evidenced by problems over the European employment pact. And there are a number of other defects which make the internal market insufficiently competitive in the context of globalisation. It is true that a more coherent environment has been created for European companies, with common regulations and rules of competition enabling them to distribute their goods and services among the EU's consumers. But despite the appearance of a domestic, or single, market, it is one which is devoid of a genuine internal policy in keeping with its size. This is what distinguishes it from the internal markets of the United States or Japan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The explanation for the disparity may lie in the fact that the most recent moves towards the single market, through 'Single Act', date from 1987. This was before the upheavals which so decisively signalled the globalisation trend. Despite the criticisms sometimes levelled at it, it is a genuine single market which is largely open to the outside world (with only a few exceptions, notably as regards the Common Agricultural Policy, where it is recognised that there is a need for progressive adaptation). But there is still no single currency, nor is there a genuine common commercial and economic policy. The EU is unable to react to change at world level in the same way as its competitors. The common customs tariff, together with protective measures such as the anti-dumping regulations, are still not sufficient to solve all the Union's problems. What is needed on top of this is an active common policy component.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet, as the European employment pact makes clear, the EU holds a trump card in an increasingly interdependent world. The proviso is that it must speak with one voice, enforce multilateral rules and open up new markets for itself, because, as the document points out 'exports create jobs...'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, the developing world received 37% of global direct foreign investment ($84 billion) as against less than 20% at the beginning of the 1980s (the flow of foreign exchange is regarded nowadays as the principal factor influencing development). This is a spectacular increase but the resources are not 'fairly' distributed from the point of view of either the investing countries or the recipients. For example, southeast Asia is currently the world's most dynamic region. Yet, not to put too fine a point on it, it is virtually ignored by European investors. Only 3% of European overseas investment is directed towards this zone. Likewise, Europe's market share in the region is no more than 5%. The US has invested between two and three times more in south-east Asia while Japanese investment is four times higher.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, sub-Saharan Africa attracted just 0.8% of direct foreign investment ($1.8 billion). And there is no evidence that Europeans have invested more than the Japanese or Americans in this region. This is despite the highly optimistic outlook for the situation in Africa offered by the late Ron Brown, the former US Trade Secretary. On returning from a tour of Africa with American businesspeople in February 1994, he remarked that major opportunities were opening up in that continent, with spectacular returns on investments  - at the time, the best in the world. His regret was that so few people were aware of the situation. Undoubtedly more significant still was the declaration made in Washington before his departure for Africa to the effect that the United States would no longer leave African markets exclusively to the former colonial powers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So although others are beginning to explore the possibilities offered by Africa, Europe is still sceptical. A similar scepticism prevailed during the 1960s when it was assumed that the lot of south-east Asia would be famine, and few development prospects. Given the historical links between Europe and Africa, the geographical proximity of the two continents, and the pressing problems faced by the 'old' continent vis-&agrave;-vis its competitors, such an attitude appears difficult to explain. In the years since the former European colonies in Africa gained independence - and despite the creation of an institutional cooperation framework (the Lom&eacute; Convention, which many regard as a model of development cooperation)  -  many Europeans clearly no longer wish to be involved in Africa. The explanation for this lack of interest may be the difficult conditions within African countries -  obstacles preventing access to markets, the lack of liberalisation or political instability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But this analysis in not entirely convincing. More ACP countries are democracies than ever before in the post-independence era. As for Africa - a much-debated ACP region  -  it is wrong to talk purely in terms of internal conflict, famines or the AIDS epidemic. There are countries in this continent with growth rates of between 5% and 6%, and several examples of where European companies have successfully penetrated local markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need to highlight the existence of genuine business opportunities in ACP countries and to make the European public aware of development aid success stories, were among the main conclusions to come out of the first meeting of a television delegates' network, organised by the European Commission's Development Directorate-General on 31 January 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any European company chairman interested in expanding into an ACP country - thereby enlarging the company's market and enhancing its competitiveness - is likely to acknowledge the possibilities, if offered back-up from the EU or from national governments. But they will then probably point to the complications which remain -  and with some justification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With this in mind, it is worth reiterating the fact that specialised institutions exist for facilitating contact with the ACP countries. In 1995, for example, the Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) was involved in 367 projects, assisting, free of charge, in the expansion or rehabilitation of industrial companies in ACP countries, in partnership with European business. Although the number of such projects is constantly increasing (190 in 1993,229 in 1994), it is still a long way short of what is needed. But it should be stressed that the CDl's approach, which involves promoting the creation of networks, appears to work. The establishment OF ACP contact networks in ACP countries makes it easier to identify potential areas for involvement and to prepare better for European institutional and sectoral networks. There are several successful projects which have led to the creation or safeguarding of jobs in Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also in 1995, the European Investment Bank (EIB) granted ECU 430 million in loans to businesses in various sectors in 29 ACP countries. This includes an increase in the Bank's activity in Africa over previous years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What, then, of the effect of Europe's development cooperation policies on the European market ? According to the most conservative estimates, for every ECU 100 granted in aid, the Community 'gets back' ECU 48 in the form of jobs, supplies and technical assistance. This figure does not take account of additional 'secondary' business generated by, for example, the supply of spare parts or the provision of technical advice. This business can be quite significant given the degree of penetration achieved by European companies in the markets of many developing countries. Nor does the estimate include any new business opportunities directly arising from the links established between the companies involved in aid projects and the recipient countries. Thus, it is clear that when a project is set up, it may well have extra beneficial effects for Europe through additional flows of goods and services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'return' on aid is even greater in Member States' individual bilateral programmes. For example, tied aid from countries such as Belgium, Italy and the United Kingdom leads to a payback of more than 70%. Another point is that as Europe's industrial rules are harmonised, the success of a single European company in penetrating a particular developing country market may pave the way for companies in other EU Member States, thus benefiting the Union as a whole. Tied aid creates favourable conditions for setting up European companies and for placing European goods and services in other markets. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the return on aid may be described as satisfactory, the same is not true of the number of companies that benefit or of the actual turnover involved. One wonders whether this weakness is due to a lack of information about existing resources and facilities, or whether there still a lack of confidence about countries which, despite the progress they have made, are still politically unstable and therefore unpredictable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One might also wonder whether the time is right for investment. Our answer would be that, even though financial speculation is currently governed by global economic considerations, which prevent productive targeting of capital, this situation cannot last. There is a worldwide move to rectify the situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We all need to be aware that time is no longer on our side. In many sectors, European companies still have a competitive edge over businesses from third countries, owing to their degree of specialisation and technological expertise. But if they are to survive, they must take on a worldwide dimension. In particular, they should pay attention to the comparative advantage that they have in the ACP countries on account of their special skills, historic links, geographical location and, above all, the institutional connections between these developing nations and the 'old' continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although problems do exist and although both European and ACP bureaucracy can sometimes discourage private operators from exploring the potential of the developing world (and more particularly the ACP region), they should not give up. Europe's challenge is to help them to exploit this potential whilst not raising false hopes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nothing can take the place of the shared experience and confidence which arises spontaneously in full knowledge of the facts. In this regard, we feel, there is still much to be done. In both Europe and the ACP countries, one way to succeed is to increase the number of networks representing industrial, economic and financial interests at various levels, and to assist them in identifying opportunities more effectively. This would help to create a new dynamism and renewed vigour in Europe. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Close - up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Eritrea: the start of a renaissance ?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Courier's issue of July-August 1994, we published a country report on Eritrea. This country became independent in 1993 after almost 30 years of fighting which had bled the county white. Loss of human life, displaced persons, socio-economic disruption and environmental damage have been Eritrea's sad fate in recent times. However, there has now been peace for three years and the Eritrean people are attempting to pick up the threads. Alfonso Artico, a freelance journalist who recently travelled to Eritrea, now offers us a few on-the-spot impressions of his trip, focusing on some current projects which offer hope to this sorely afflicted people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fisheries at Massawa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The port of Massawa is located on the Red Sea, whose blue waters are teeming with fish. In 1986, the European Union suggested that it would be a suitable place for fisheries development. At the time, the city was a maze of back streets, baking in the sun. Few could have predicted the fate that would befall it five years later. For in 1991, war came to Massawa and 80% of the city was destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Italians, it is said, have 'always' been here, and they once had great plans for the city. Together with Assab, further to the south, Massawa was to be a key point of access to the sea, and a potential launch pad for the, country's struggling economy. The colonial days are long past but, when the Eritrean Popular Liberation Army took over the country after the recent war, the Italians came back to help tackle an immense task. The city, by then, was little more than a pile of rubble.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Help also came from somewhat further afield, in the shape of Professor Seichi Etoh, a Japanese specialist in marine biology. He had made a study of the city in 1989 and he chose to return in 1992 to help in fisheries development. At the outset, his working methods disconcerted the Eritreans who were used to a slightly more relaxed attitude to labour, under the hot sun and eternally blue sky.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Armed with the experience of working in Kenya and a number of other developing countries, Professor Etoh arrived in Massawa and installed himself in a house looking over the sea. After a period of adaptation, to gain his bearings, he took up his new challenge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge in question is a fisheries project whose main funders are the UNDP, Japan, Italy and the African Development Bank. A total of $7 million has been committed with payments spread over a five-year period. The project began operating in January 1993.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main problem at the outset was one of skills and qualifications. Important posts were often filled by high-ranking former solders, whose administrative skills were less than satisfactory. Conversely, those with the right qualifications - some of whom were criticised for spending the war years in the lecture theatres of European universities  -  had problems finding work. This was particularly true in the closed and conservative world of the fisherman. After a few teething troubles, Etoh was able to announce that he had the confidence of the government, and his efforts rapidly bore fruit thereafter. He set about reorganising the fishermen's cooperative - a task which entailed overcoming the reluctance of members to adopt new practices. He also arranged for the construction of jetties where vessels could take on supplies. Fish were to be unloaded at one spot, and their diesel tanks would be refilled at a different location. The cost of diesel is 1.41 birr (ECU 0.17) per litre. The fishermen's cooperative, which has 440 members, has 35 000 birr (ECU 4000) in its funds. It is also making repayments on a 1.8 million-birr (ECU 200 000) loan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'In the beginning, there was frenzied activity, which some regarded as chaos', Seichi Etoh recalls. However, in less than two years, the jetties have been completed and the ice plants -  essential for preserving the fish - are running flat out. Now they are producing eight tonnes of ice a day. The daily catch is about two tonnes of fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The real revolution occurred when Seichi Etoh decided to try and organise cooperatives for women, who represent 25% of the workforce in the production chain. He followed up with an even more radical scheme, offering them paid work in the relatively unrewarding but essential field of ship maintainance and repair. This freed the fishermen, most of whom had no remunerative activity outside the fishing season (November to March), to seek work elsewhere during the other seven months of the year. Eritrea, a country where women's potential has not traditionally been acknowledged (or tapped) had never seen the like before. Nowadays, of the 200 who fish out of Massawa, 50 are women who have formed their own organisation - and they generate a considerable profit. They have even opened up a fish restaurant!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall standard of living has increased considerably. This year, fisheries-related production has risen 120% compared with 1995. And the port is doing reasonably well in quality terms. Using the international scale, which ranks the catches from 0 to 10, the quality of fish landings by the Massawa fishermen is rated 6 overall - as against 8 for Japan. 5 for China and 6.5 for Europe. The local market has expanded as a result of efforts to modify local eating habits. People have been taught to grill fish instead of frying it in expensive (and somewhat unhealthy) oil. The message - 'eat grilled fish' - is going out daily on national radio, and women are going into the schools and villages to teach this 'latest' cooking technique.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The local market may be important, but the main target for the increased production is Ethiopia. With the purchase of four refrigerated lorries, it is now possible to transport fish products over long distances. Another important customer is Italy, which currently takes about a third of the total production. Seichi Etoh is hopeful that, following this example, new markets can be found in other parts of Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The success of the Massawa project has exceeded all expectations and, although he downplays the achievement with typical oriental modesty, it is clear that Etoh's bet has paid off. The fishermen have come to understand the advantages to be gained in reorganisation and maintaining their 'tools' of production. And as anticipated, the bulk of the profit from the project is going back to the fishermen. The government has taken care not to cream off too much for itself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other projects are now under way. Etoh is attempting to persuade the fishermen to give up their wooden craft in favour of ferro-cement vessels but after centuries of doing things in a certain way, it will take more than a few months for the new plans to be adopted. The monthly meetings with representatives from the cooperatives are stormy and animated. However, two vessels are already being built, on the assumption that a practical demonstration is worth far more than a long speech. The 60 people working directly on the project are awaiting the outcome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This change has become necessary owing to the cost of wood - which is one of the reasons why the fishermen have grown progressively poorer. Timber prices have been rising sharply for some years, particularly in Dubia, the regional centre of the wood trade. The war, in the meantime, sent incomes spiralling downwards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Overall, the Eritrean fishing fleet has 500 vessels, all made of wood, of which 250 have Massawa as their home port. In previous years, the wood (known as tengi in Eritrean) came from Ethiopia. But this country is facing ecological problems and fishermen have been forced to search elsewhere for building and maintenance materials for their unstable and costly vessels (a 13-metre boat requires 8 m³ of wood). Etoh explains that the new boats, while slower, glide more easily over the water on account of their stability. However, the first attempts at change have not been easy. Indeed, things got so bad that Etoh went on holiday 'for longer than expected', he said, though he took advantage of the break to visit Singapore and buy Chinese tricycles  -  which can now be seen in the streets of Massawa. The reign of the bicycle with a simple wicker basket which could carry just 20 kilos is over. Now, each tricycle can deliver 100 kg of fresh fish, packed in ice. All in all, the programme is running smoothly. Etoh has only to check it from time to time. After all this labour, will the smiling Japanese professor be taking a well-earned rest? 'Probably not,' he says, adding 'I am currently thinking about a chain of restaurants. Fish restaurants of course !'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An unusual 'bank'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The road leading to Gersteti village is so beautiful that it takes your breath away. Multicoloured birds fly lazily above the vehicle carrying the journalists and humanitarian aid workers - who are deep in discussion about the kind of world they wish to create. However, there is a switch in the conversation once they reach the Seraye plateaux. Their attention is drawn to the fields which stretch as far as the eye can see. It doesn't take long to discover that demand for land here far outweighs supply. The situation, which is already critical, has not been helped by the influx of refugees returning from neighbouring countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the war ended in 1991, everyone's prime concern was to relaunch an agricultural sector ruined by 28 years of combat. Farmers and farming communities, the lifeblood of the countryside, had been mobilised to fight on the front line. In 1990, agricultural production was at such a low level that the word 'negligible' featured prominently in the Ministry of Agriculture's statistics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oxfam, which first came to Eritrea in 1978, has been running an unusual project on the Seraye plateaux. Located to the south of Asmara, the capital, this region is the second most densely populated part of the country. Five districts containing 65 villages and 17000 families, were chosen for the project  -  on account of their low rainfall and the fact that it is difficult, and in some cases, impossible, to cultivate the exhausted soil. Local communities, village leaders and politicians all understood that only full-scale collaboration could prevent a food-supply disaster in the province. An organisation was therefore created: the villagers elected 13 representatives (12 men and one woman) and began by setting up a seed bank. There was a severe shortage of seed materials in this devastated country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project got off the ground in November 1995 and is set to run for three years. Its objective is simple: to guarantee self-sufficiency in seeds and to provide a reserve during hard times. The 'Seed Bank Committee' has also given training to 40 farmers in seed conservation, terracing and basic agricultural economics. Two wells have been sunk, but these are insufficient for the 40 square kiLom&eacute;tres that require irrigation. Oxfam is putting up the money for the various initiatives while the local community is providing the labour force. It is worth noting that a bag of averagequality cement costs 35 birrs (ECU4), equivalent to one third of a worker's monthly wage. Fourteen different varieties of seed have been stored in sheds - which the locals visit to obtain their supplies. The purchase of 230 quintals of local seeds and the donation of 70 quintals from elsewhere have started the programme off. Next year, Individual farmers will have to repay this 'loan' in kind, with a 10% 'interest payment', also in the form of seeds. The surplus generated will be retained by the bank as a resource to be drawn upon, if necessary, when times are hard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The local community was quick to understand the advantages to be gained from this system. They were all too aware of the low productivity of their land and up to then, were powerless to resolve the situation. The possibility of falling back on traditional resources to offset production difficulties no longer existed. And the skills they had acquired over the generations were now insufficient, given the poor condition of the soil. In these circumstances, one can well understand their enthusiasm when they saw that 100 kg of seeds per hectare yielded a harvest six times larger than previously. Other elements which contributed to a progressive improvement in conditions were the sinking of new wells, a reduced influx of refugees from Sudan, and a slow but appreciable improvement in the country's general economic situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As well as being involved in this project, Oxfam is an active member of Acord, an NGO association which extends cash loans at rates much lower than those demanded by the banks. (Acord's rate is 12% per annum with a minimum repayment of 5 birrs per month). Targeted mainly at the most deprived sections of the population, the loans enable the poor to set up small businesses or, more commonly, to purchase agricultural implements, repair irrigation channels and buy cattle. Once again, a village committee manages the transactions. The scheme has brought renewed hope to the most deprived groups. Individual loans have been available since 1994 and the association currently has 163 clients. The total amount lent so far is 878 000 birrs (ECU 110 000).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The combined effects of these programmes - seed banks and preferential loans - are already visible. It would take months to visit all the farms and fields, workshops and stores, where men and women have invested their energies and hopes. Seraye province now produces a third of Eritrea's cereals, a telling illustration of the fact that one does not need billions of dollars for development and humanitarian aid for the work to be effective. In the final analysis, a country's wealth lies in its citizens. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An up-to-date printing plant</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As one strolls down Liberation Avenue, which cuts the city of Asmara in two, one might be forgiven for thinking that 28 years of war have already been forgotten. Surveying the multi-coloured neon signs of the shops, it certainly appears as if the country has turned the corner and the wounds are healing rapidly. One building whose restrained frontage stands outs in sharp contrast is the Adulis printing-works. Adulis was the name of a semi-mythical city founded by the Greeks on the Red Sea in the third millennium before Christ. 'But there is nothing insubstantial about this place', comments Mohamad Shiffa Osman, with a smile. He is one of three expert typesetters who went on a training course in Belgium earlier this year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The Adulis printing works has its own particular memories of the Eritrean people's struggle for independence. As far back as the 1960s, when the first shots were being fired, the resistance recognised that their fighters and the civil population both had to have access to information. However, it was not until the 1980s that a true propaganda structure came into being. During the war, the Eritrean People's Liberation Army ran a clandestine ministry of information. In Eritrea and elsewhere, this became the channel for conveying practical information, and providing the latest news from the front. It was also used to transmit personal messages, which were delivered to the heart of areas occupied by the Ethiopian Army. 'Our presses were hidden in caves, up in the mountains, and everything was run on generators', Mohamed remembers. The initial amateur approach was quickly replaced by a more professional one. 'We did have professional printers working for us, but it was mainly self-taught comrades'. On-the job apprenticeships had to be fitted in between bouts of fighting!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'At the time of liberation, in 1991, we set about restoring this printing works, which was founded in 1896 by the Italians', Mohamed explained as he gave us a guided tour of the works. The effort put into relaunching this essential activity soon bore fruit. Within the year, the printing operation was running at a profit - indeed it had a virtual monopoly of printing in the country. The presses were brought down from the mountains on the backs of camels and then taken to Asmara by truck. 'You see this Aurelia 48?', asks Mohamed, pointing to a machine. 'Well, it was up in the north, hidden away in a village'. Throughout our visit, Mohamed draws attention to equipment from an earlier age  -  candidates for the museum which are still in operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some items have their own story to tell, like the press donated years ago by Oxfam which still churns out thousands of sheets every day. During the war, it was taken from cave to cave, following the army's advance as it conquered new terrain. Most of the Adulis machines, however, were already there, when the decision was taken to restart the operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The initial budget for the works was a tidy five million birr (ECU 620 000). Today, Adulis has an annual turnover of 20 million birr. Monthly salaries range from 400 birr (ECU 50) for maintenance staff to 1800 birr (ECU 225) for the director, Michael G. Bakhli. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The printing works also acts as a testing ground for workers' social progress. According to Mohamed and the director, the 350 or so people employed at the works benefit from exceptional social cover. If a worker falls ill, his wage is guaranteed for one month, then it drops to 50% in the second month and stops altogether at the end of the third. if a woman is pregnant, she has to take a month's statutory leave and is granted a further two months on full pay. In the event of dismissal, an employee receives two months' wages, although this latter arrangement is gradually changing to one month's wages for each year of service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Far from resting on the laurels of their success, the Adulis works' directors have appealed for assistance. In order to be at the cutting edge of technology and to have the resources to break into new markets, they need to supplement their knowledge. Therefore, three 'volunteers' spent the three months from January to March this year working in Belgian companies, to the satisfaction of everyone, both hosts and visitors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Mohamed's gaze, the walls of the workshop have been brightened up with posters which provide a splash of colour. Although the noise from the presses often drowns out conversation, you cannot escape the feeling of hope here. It is like a breath of fresh air, and one leaves with the strong impression of a country that is rising from the ashes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Developing world</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ECHO fine-tunes disaster preparedness strategy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Eva Kaluzynska</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a cyclone strikes in the Caribbean, beware of giant flying razorblades - airborne sheets of corrugated iron that kill and maim unsuspecting victims every time. 'The use of galvanised iron sheeting for roofing is extremely dangerous in cyclone-prone areas,' says Professor Debarati Guha-Sapir, Director of the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) at the Universite Catholique de Louvain. 'We know this, and we need to encourage the use of lighter materials, such as thatching, which doesn't kill if it flies off in a gale,' she adds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That is the kind of issue facing people exposed to unavoidable natural disasters  -  in the Caribbean's case, every year. In 1995, there were 27 tropical storms in the region. CRED has been in the vanguard of monitoring natural disasters and in coming up with solutions to the problems they create since it was set up in 1973. Now it is assisting the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO) in developing its new Disaster Prevention, Mitigation and Preparedness Programme (DIPECHO) to cover the next two years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1994, ECHO has spent almost ECU 7 million on 50 disaster prevention operations, at both national and regional levels. Now, instead of just responding to requests for funding from non-governmental organisations, international organisations and governments, ECHO has decided to fine-tune its strategy. It will concentrate its efforts on specific regions known to be particularly vulnerable and prone to natural disasters. We may not know exactly when disasters will strike, but we certainly know where to expect them. The regions selected at present are: the Caribbean, Central America, South East Asia and Bangladesh.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All of them are exposed to repeated emergencies. All of them have a struggle to develop when their efforts are disrupted so frequently. They cannot just pick up where they left off. Loss of life and property is just the most visible aspect of what happens when disaster strikes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The infrastructure, such as it is, takes a hammering. Road and rail links are severed. Communications, electricity and water supplies break down. Add loss of health care and sanitation, and you get populations exceedingly vulnerable to epidemics. Add loss of education facilites, and a vicious spiral of poverty sets in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An expert in emergency aid cites the sad example of the Aetas, a tribal group that used to live a secluded life on the remote slopes of Mount Pinatubo, the volcano that erupted spectacularly in 1991 in the Philippines. Though the volcano was known to be menacingly active, the Aetas were not evacuated and resettled in time. They fled in panic as disaster struck, to the plains, where they faced a deadly, invisible enemy: measles, a disease to which they had never been exposed. Measles claimed more victims than the volcano itself did in the months that followed. They could have been resettled earlier. And they could have been immunised years before, but weren't.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It's easy to be wise after the event. DlPECHO aims to encourage action before it's too late. The idea behind ECHO's new policy is to take each region, and to identify its hazards and capacity for dealing with disasters. This will help to pinpoint the gaps. Then it will draw up Action Plans that slot into the wider picture of potential development in each case.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DIPECHO projects will involve training personnel in the regions affected to handle disasters, and to strengthen the institutions that can contribute to effective prevention, preparedness and mitigation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some of the solutions are ingenious, low-cost, low-tech ideas. Take, for instance, the use of light, widely-available, inexpensive materials for roofing in earthquake or cyclone-prone zones - an idea poorer countries could adapt from wealthy Japan's experience. Or the construction of safe, raised 'islands' that will stay above the waterline amid flooding in Bangladesh to offer shelter. Or adapting drainage, and changing cropping patterns in Andhra Pradesh, India, to mitigate the effects of cyclones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In earthquake-prone Central America, protecting roads and bridges, or building schools less prone to collapse is very important. Using the radio or even neighbourhood watch systems to sound the alarm when disaster is imminent can make a big difference to its impact in terms of injuries. Drilling all at risk, from school-age up, to know what to expect and to know what to do is vital.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DIPECHO did not include Africa in its first selection of regions for Action Plans. This is not to underestimate the gravity or scale of the disasters experienced there, says Professor Guha-Sapir: 'Floods, drought and famine are very frequent events there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are often killers.' Overexploitation of scarce resources and political turmoil compound situations that lead to disasters which seem less dramatic than a volcano eruption, but are no less far-reaching in impact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The instability in many of the areas worst affected means that African countries lack the institutions needed to prepare for disasters in an organised way, she says. 'There are limits on ECHO's ability to intervene. It's unrealistic to expect the kind of grassroots, technical preparedness we are talking about in the current situation.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ECHO's Jean-Claude Heyraud sums up the new policy: 'As far as preventing, mitigating and preparing for catastrophes goes, the new proactive approach reflects the importance ECHO attaches to this type of action. The DIPECHO programme meets the growing need to evaluate risks in order to reduce loss of life and damage to property. If and when emergency aid is needed, preparation and prevention can help to reduce the scale and cost of such actions.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Culture and society</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">African reflections</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Seydou Sarr</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third Festival of African Cinema was held in Brussels on 15-22 June. For one week, film-goers in the Belgian capital filled the auditoria of the Palais des Beaux-Arts, where they discovered new images of an alternative Africa. And as always, when the time came to assess how the Festival had gone, professionals and organisers alike were left pondering the problems facing the African film industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Organised for the first time in 1994, on the initiative of Diaspora Productions, the Festival had a number of objectives, including that of bringing Africa's finest films to wider public notice. The initiative stemmed from two observations. In the first place, the European public's opinion of Africa is based on what it sees on television -  and that image is of a continent so ravaged by famine, misery and strife that it is incapable of progress. Second, from a professional standpoint, there is no effective distribution network in Belgium for African films. Samba Traore by Burkina Faso's Idrissa Ouedraogo and Hyenes by the Senegalese Djibril Diop Mambety were two rare exceptions in succeeding in getting on to the circuit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A forum for reflection</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In setting up film-industry meetings, the organisers of the Brussels Festival wanted the event to be a forum for reflection on the problems facing African cinema. In the 40 years it has existed, there has undoubtedly been some progress. It is even possible to speak of genuine mastery of images and cinematographic language. But there are also many problems -  involving production and distribution, a lack of official support, a shortage of private capital and limited access to international markets. At home, meanwhile, African firms face fierce competition from multi-million dollar productions coming out of the USA, Europe and Asia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe has traditionally offered the only feasible route for those seeking technical and financial resources. The principal donors are the European Union, the ACCT (Cultural and Technical Corporation Agency) and the French Ministry of Cooperation. There are, of course, many instances of African directors producing films without taking this route, but these ventures usually have smaller budgets, and insufficient funds to devote to promotion (press releases, trailers etc). As regards distribution in Belgium, directors face an additional difficulty - they have to take the language issue into account (particularly when films are shown in Flanders).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African professionals are looking at various ways of solving these problems, including the possibility of coproduction with European operators. For some years now, public and private bodies have also been considering the idea of establishing combined co-production teams in a form of partnership, as a way of supporting African cinema. This topic has been on the agenda of other African film festivals (notably in Amiens) and it came up for discussion in Brussels as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A colloquium on the subject of ACP/Europe co-production was staged on the fringe of the Brussels event. This served to highlight a number of successful experiments in North/South collaboration. One example was the Cape Verdian film Ilheu de Contenda, by Leao Lopes which was made with support from a Belgian production company, Saga Films. This film was screened at the Festival. It also gave an opportunity to discuss a range of other topics. African journalists accredited to the Festival were given the task of drafting a resolution whose conclusions will be submitted to various contributors including FEPACI (the Pan-African Federation of Film-Makers), the European Union, producers and other donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was general agreement that a coherent legal framework for organising relationships between directors and producers, on the basis of mutual trust, was badly needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Positive results</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is worth making a brief assessment of the efforts made by the organisers of the Brussels Festival to offer an improved programme. The showing of shorts at the beginning of a performance is undoubtedly a formula they should employ again. These works are a specialised genre which give young directors the chance to present their first work. The bulk of the shorts that were screened this year were in the form of 'documentaries' based on fiction - but with one foot in the real world. They dealt with people's lives, their daily concerns, and a variety of social phenomena. Thus, we were presented with films dealing with Aids, urban delinquency, the role of women in society and so on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another positive point the organisers should concentrate on is the space resewed for English and Portuguese-language films. There were eight performances in this category including four feature films in English and two in Portuguese. A further worthwhile element was the space allocated to African women (from Nigeria, Kenya, Zimbabwe and Burkina Faso) who have chosen to use the cinema as a means of expression.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diaspora Productions' managers are said to be reasonably satisfied with the way the Festival went. They hope it can continue to be held at the Palais des Beaux-Arts, since they see this as one way of liberating African cultural events from the Afro-Brussels 'ghetto' where they have often been held. They are also keen, in future years, for African films to be shown in Brussels cinemas while the Festival is under way. If this happens, film-goers in Brussels will have the pleasure, from next year, of seeing quality works in their usual cinemas. The timing is appropriate since the 1997 Brussels event will follow the Ouagadougou Festival (Fespaco) which traditionally sees the launch of a number of new films.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Family meeting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The organisers chose to close the 1996 Festival with a fashion parade which gave Pathe 'O, the designer from Cot&eacute; d'Ivoire, the chance to present his collection to the Brussels audience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the fringes of the Festival, there was also a musical offering in the shape of the Toure Kunda brothers who came to lend their support to filmmakers and other African artistes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are those who would argue that the Brussels Festival has now entered the category of a 'not-to-bemissed' event. Every year, it attracts significant numbers of film-makers from Africa and the diaspora, even when they have no current projects or films to present. There was a real family atmosphere in the corridors of the Palais des Beaux-Arts, due in no doubt to the absence of competition. From the outset, the Diaspora Productions team chose to stage an event at which prizes were not awarded, thereby promoting reflection and contact with the public. It is generally agreed that the Brussels Festival offers a rare opportunity for film-makers to meet and discuss their productions and projects in a relaxed atmosphere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The credit for this, in the view of many of the participants, lies with Pape Mbaye Sene, one of the guiding lights of the event, who has also been dubbed the 'high priest' of African cinema. It has, in fact, been suggested tongue-in-cheek that 'in Brussels, they award a Pape, not an Oscar'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'We make films... but we do not exist!' - interview with Souleymane Cisse</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future of African cinema seen through the eyes of the Malian film maker, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In April, The Courier had the opportunity of meeting Souleymane Cisse, one of Africa's most celebrated film-makers, who has won several awards at major international film festivals. His films, such as Yeelen, which was awarded the Prix du Jury in Cannes in 1987 (the first African film to receive such a prestigious accolade), Waati, which was entered at the same festival, and Finye, have already become classics. Cisse is not just a director, he also produces his own films. In 1972, he impressed international critics by single-handedly producing a short film of exceptionally high quality Cinq jours d'une vie -  which won an award at the Carthage Film Festival. By relying, above all, on his own limited resources, combined with a powerful determination to develop and promote Africa's film industry, Souleymane Cisse has an implied but powerful message for the entire African continent. When he went on stage at the Palais des Festivals in 1987 to receive his award for Yeelen, he said that he was accepting it on behalf of all those who did not have the opportunity to speak for themselves. In particular, he dedicated the film to all the South African technicians who had worked together with him on the project. His has made spirited efforts to boost the African film industry and it was in this context that he helped set up the 'Union of African cinema and audiovisual producers and entrepreneurs' last March. This organisation aims to encourage African countries (especially in West Africa), to take the necessary political decisions to ensure the survival and grouwth of African cinema. When we spoke to Souleymane Cisse, our discussion ranged far and wide. We began by asking the film director whether African art gets the recognition it deserves in Europe? He seemed surprised at the question but then, without hesitation, proceeded to explain his own approach - with the emphasis on the political rather than the aesthetic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The recognition that African art gets in the West has more to do with politics than aesthetic discernment. Such recognition evolves from the spirit of Africa's relations with the other continents, a spirit which is often devoid of all honesty. We stand at the threshold of the 21st century. We should be looking to develop ways of communicating with each other and finding common ground. We should be able to look each other in the eye. When, for example, people in France debate whether or not the Louvre should have a gallery of African art, it begs the question, 'who is asking for what ?'. When some people wonder whether or not African art really is art, they are asking themselves a pointless question. African art is. Nothing more, nothing less. In any case, the West has some highly contradictory views as far as the whole idea of art in Africa is concerned. On the one hand they dispute the fact that the culture of the Ancient Egyptians was, in essence, an African one, and yet on the other hand the characters of Ancient Egypt - in films for example - are always portrayed as dark-skinned. African art is the 'in' thing at the moment, despite the current tendency to belittle Africa. They think that today's Black Americans and Afro-Caribbeans can be made to forget their African roots, but that just will not happen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Generally speaking, do you think that African politicians should devote time and energy to this battle to defend African culture when their countries face such insurmountable material problems ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Once they have gained power, the obsessive preoccupation of our politicians has been to concentrate on economic policies, neglecting their countries' cultural needs. But without a deeply-rooted culture, you cannot discuss matters on equal terms with representatives of other nations. In their heart of hearts, they will not respect you fully. There have been two or three countries which have tried to combine economic development with cultural development - I'm thinking of Guinea under Sekou Toure, Mali under Modibo Keita and Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah, but in one way or another, all three have been thwarted, for their perceptiveness. I am not now commenting on, or necessarily agreeing with, their domestic policies, but rather with the broad vision they shared for Africa as a whole. The fact that Europe is currently in the process of forging the European Union will be an instrumental force in the opening up of other regions of the globe. It was Europe, after all, which divided much of the world into English speakers, French speakers, Portuguese speakers, Spanish speakers and so on. Now that Europeans are themselves seeking to unite their countries, how could they possibly object to a similar union in Africa - for the sake of its cultural identity. This idea of a United Europe is, therefore, a welcome one. What is more, I believe that the issue has already been tackled within relations between the European Union and ACP countries. Not only is Africa the continent closest to Europe; it is in helping to develop the African continent that Europe has most to gain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The cultural aspect has already been incorporated into Lom&eacute; IV, but it seems that ACP countries do not attach as much importance as they should to such matters when drawing up their lists of priorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Many of the politicians in charge of these countries themselves lack any sort of culture. Alternatively, stripped of their own culture, they flaunt that of a foreign land. They say that health care is a priority, that food is a priority, but cultural needs do not figure on their list. Yet culture forms part of an urgent need. You'll see - as soon as any sort of cultural development takes place in a country, or wherever a country already has a viable, thriving culture, its economy will also flourish; of that there is no doubt. A nation which has a highly developed culture will always be able to stand on its own two feet economically. Take, for example, the nations of the former Soviet Union  - their economies may be unstable at the moment. It's only natural that they have to start from scratch, but as long as they manage to hold on to their cultures, they will pull through. These countries will not lag behind as Africa has done.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It costs money to operate a film industry. Have you found that your reputation as a director has made the financial side of things any easier for you ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I don't honestly think much has changed in the way we finance our films. Perhaps I should only speak for myself, but I do not believe it is any easier for me than it is for young filmmakers. Mali has no film production facilities, so we are all in the same boat. That is why we organised a colloquium in March this year, aimed at getting a picture of the exact state of West Africa's film industry. What we learned was that it is in pretty bad state. We make films but, in a certain sense, we don't really exist as a film industry. I would dearly like my works to be screened, for example, in Mali, Guinea and Senegal, but that is not possible because the distribution and screening networks are no longer there. Even the most liberal Western countries have passed laws to promote and protect their local film industries, so why don't we do the same ? I cannot make films in the United States without first going through various unions and other professional associations. In France, I cannot distribute my films the way I want, and if I want to make a film, I have to make it through French producers. If people come to work here, they should have to use national producers. The relevant laws were drawn up three or four years ago, but they still haven't been passed. We want all those involved in the film industry to have the opportunity to be true professionals. There should be assistance available to modernise projection rooms and theatres. We are currently in the process of setting up the 'Union of African cinema and audiovisual producers and entrepreneurs' which should help to persuade governments to take our requests into account.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Isn't African cinema also a victim of television ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The problem in Mali is a very simple one. We live in a country where people like to get out and about. The cinema is somewhere they can do that quite easily. So people use it as a place where they can meet up in the evening, just as they like to congregate around the fire to sing and dance. So why are our cinemas empty ? Because when people do go to the cinema, they cannot see the screen properly or they cannot hear the soundtrack, or they are uncomfortable sitting on broken and rickety chairs. If you can provide a suitable and comfortable environment for them, people will start going to the cinema again. That doesn't mean that television doesn't have its place, but people like to go out. This is especially the case with our open air cinemas, which are the perfect places for people to come together, have a chat, enjoy each other's company and relax. A nice auditorium, a good film, and you'll see how the queues will form. All we need to do is upgrade the auditoria, re-equip the projection rooms, overhaul the sound systems, put new chairs in - just a few basic comforts. When people go out to the cinema, it's because they want to escape from their humdrum routine for a while, to dream and unwind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African governments should do what they can to enable people to relax and enjoy themselves like this. Going to the cinema is like going to school. People go there to learn something - whether consciously or subconsciously - and to see something different. We really must get rid of this purely commercial vision of the cinema, especially in Africa. It should, first and foremost, be a cultural experience, and only subsequently a commercial exercise. But we also need to be realistic. When helping those involved in promoting the film industry, the government should lay down a precise set of conditions, specifying how and when the loans should be repaid and requiring something in return for their subsidies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So you think that if the Ministries of Culture in African countries were given greater powers, they would be in a position to carry out this task ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is not something solely for the Ministry of Culture. This is the type of approach which should be adopted by the state as a whole, in each country. For example, the government should provide a support fund for the film industry and certain other branches of the arts. Even if they were increased substantially, the meagre budgets allocated to the Ministry of Culture in our countries would still represent paltry sums. In Africa, the department of culture is at the bottom of everybody's list.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· But if you look at the number of African films that have been shown in recent years at Cannes and other international festivals, surely one can afford to be a little more optimistic than you are ? More and more young African filmmakers are releasing films.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - True, but as I said earlier, no progress has been made as far as film production is concerned. In that respect, contrary to what people may think, we are still at square one. Young filmmakers are put off and, as more and more avenues are closed to them, they gradually lose their fighting spirit. A film director has no choice but to be his own producer, his own manager - to do everything himself in fact. The result is that he becomes a jack of all trades and a master of none. During our recent colloquium, we decided to set up smallscale facilities which will deal solely with film production and where young people can go and use their services, thus leaving them free to channel their energies into actually directing their films. In the same way, we intend to set up other structures which will deal exclusively with other aspects of the cinema industry. The goal we have set ourselves is that of fostering professionalism in the West African film industry. Maybe then our governments will listen to us.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think there is any difference between African countries as far as opportunities are concerned ? For example, Burkina Faso would appear to be the cinema capital of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, and no. More often than not, it is African film-makers who have chosen Burkina Faso to stage events connected with the cinema industry because it is a landlocked country. This is what has made it the film capital of Africa, not any deliberate move on the part of the politicians. Having said this, the government in Burkina Faso is also making great efforts, despite its limited resources. But each country has its own potential. We must stop trying to tear this continent apart.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mentioned the former President of your own country, Modibo Keita, as one of those far-sighted enough to appreciate the importance of nurturing African culture. Where does Mali stand at the moment in terms of strengthening its own cultural heritage identity ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - After independence, in the years from 1960 to 1968, there was a time when young people would get together and become involved in various biennial art festivals. We had a series of events which encouraged a kind of a 'cultural vision' nationwide. They were so successful that other countries were soon following our example. After the coup in 1968, however, everything fell apart. In the following 23 years there was a total cultural vacuum, in which young people felt completely disorientated, despite superficial attempts to relaunch the festivals. We are now only just trying to rediscover our cultural roots after a long period of upheaval. What we in Mali do have working in our favour, is the fact that our country is a harmonious patchwork of different peoples, all living together without the slightest trace of bitterness or hatred. We are lucky here because our rulers rarely tried to manipulate our ethnic loyalties to set one group against another. A Malian, irrespective of his roots, will always rejoice in the success of his fellow countrymen, whatever tribe they happen to belong to. We owe our good fortune to a heritage in which our peoples have always respected one another - even when they have faced each other as enemies. It is only as a result of this historic mutual respect that we can now speak of a Malian culture where each individual group of people has its own idiosyncrasies, its own customs, is sensitive towards other cultures and actually rejoices in their differences. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA Bulletin</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA and the promotion of rural development through book distribution</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of CTA's tasks is to provide information on request to researchers, extension workers, planners, farmers' organisations, trainers and information specialists involved in agricultural development in ACP states. In addition to requested publications, CTA also distributes publications on its own initiative to its target groups. These publications, some 550 titles, are also supplied free of charge and consist of books published by CTA, co-published, or purchased specially because of their relevance. In 1995, almost 65 000 books were posted to ACP countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The people who receive the publications to some extent select themselves, because they write to CTA with requests for information. They find out about its existence through attending CTA seminars held in ACP countries or in Europe, or through seeing copies of Spore (CTA's bi-monthly bulletin in English, French and Portuguese which goes to around 50 000 addresses and is seen by many more), or by word of mouth. Over the years, CTA has built up a mailing list of 42 500 addresses of people and organisations active in some way in agriculture and rural development. Of the total, 37 800 are in ACP countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But there are questions. Are our books getting to those who need them and is the targeting accurate enough? And, most importantly, is this the best way of doing things ? For CTA does not - and cannot - satisfy the total demand for books on agriculture and rural development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is the best way?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the number of addresses on the mailing list, many more people could in theory still be added. Should CTA even try to satisfy this demand ? The publications are free and, if CTA increased its coverage of the demand, it might in some countries hold back the development of local bookselling with a consequent detrimental effect on local publishing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The majority of those now on the mailing list are 'individuals' rather than institutions, libraries, documentation centres, associations, organisations, etc. On the face of it, more people could be reached by sending CTA publications to groups rather than to individuals, but it's not always clear who is an individual in the sense of information not being shared with others. Some individuals are teachers, some are extension agents, some receive publications on behalf of a cooperative, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the importance of information - the driving force behind development  -  CTA has been investigating and giving support to technical publishing and book distribution in Africa over the last few years and is currently examining its own policy on book distribution over the ACP countries as a whole. Part of the context for this policy re-appraisal is the state of bookselling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Difficulty of book distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Everyone involved in the books business in and for the ACP countries knows that getting books where you want them to go, book distribution, is not straightforward. The reasons for the difficulty are not straightforward either. One development officer remarked of Papua New Guinea that the lack of books outside the capital, Port Moresby, couldn't simply be explained by lack of roads, because in the most out of the way places you could be sure of finding Coca Cola. Is it, then, that the Coca Cola company has superior marketing and distribution arrangements ? Probably so, but it is the nature of the two products which also determines how far they get. Traders will more readily take goods which they know they will be able to sell easily and the immediate satisfaction given by cigarettes or Coca Cola tends to put them before books in the list of priorities for purchase.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the ACP countries where CTA sends books and information, many have under-developed road and rail networks while the postal facilities provide a reliable service only to a relatively small part of the country. The local book publishing and bookselling industries are often themselves developing. Potential readers often cannot afford to buy the books and consequently book distribution is the weak link in the chain from writing and publishing a book to selling it. If books can't be sold, new ones can't be published, for the investment finance for a new publishing project has to come from somewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Africa, the lack of a strong local book sector was attributed in part to the traditional oral culture of the continent which left little need for reading. The majority of students would read in order to pass their exams, after which they hardly sought books again to buy or to read.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main books distributed were therefore textbooks for schools, colleges and for higher education. As long as these were distributed through booksellers, a forum still existed for displaying and raising interest in other books.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Booksellers could also function as sources and conduits of information about the variety of books in print and of their interest to particular groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This development was stunted because of the low purchasing power of many people, lack of foreign exchange (except in the CFA franc states), high cost of importing (either books or the raw materials, print machinery and spare parts to manufacture books) and, consequentially, shortage and lack of variety of locally-published books.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, in some countries the state intervened in school book publishing and supply (for example in Tanzania), so that the bread and butter of the bookselling business disappeared.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Booksellers then either diversified their stock so that they became bookseller-stationers or worse - books came after groceries, footballs, hats, etc., or the booksellers ceased trading in books or closed down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The publishing-distribution chain in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Book distribution is part of a chain of activities in the book sector which depend on each other and support each other. The chain starts with an idea for a book which may come from an author or from potential readers who make known their needs and it ends with the published books being bought. The lack of a good book distribution infrastructure in Africa is linked to the lack of a wide variety of books from a good number of publishers and the lack of a market for the books.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At least until South Africa became a democracy, Nigeria probably had the most active publishing industry in Africa with a high level of publishing professionalism. In such a huge country this may not be surprising: there is a large market, state administrations with urban headquarters, and a variety of arrangements for publishing and distributing books. But publishers suffer from a scarcity of investment funds, with high costs of borrowing, which affects their ability to keep books in print and to start new publishing projects. Relatively few technical books are published locally because of the risks when compared with, for example, publishing school textbooks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In such a vast country, the state of book distribution varies from place to place, with cities and large towns obviously having a greater variety of books available for sale than small towns and rural areas. Small traders carry books to the latter; they do not take orders and the books they carry are those that they can get hold of which they think will sell. Would-be readers are frustrated unless they or their friends visit a city. Mail order is not a possibility because the domestic postal service is not trusted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the urban areas, where there are booksellers, an indeterminate number of potential readers cannot afford to buy books, especially those that have been imported. Book piracy is a consequence of this. Booksellers' sales have declined, their turnover has been reduced as has their ability to stay in business. Some institutions in the country buy direct from publishers or from overseas suppliers rather than from booksellers, which further damages them. Booksellers buy books from publishers in small quantities for a fast turn-round which affects publishers' ability to build up investment funds for the next publishing project or for a large reprint with its possibility of reducing unit book costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not to say that technical books are totally unavailable from Nigerian booksellers, but it is clear that only specialised outlets which know their book-buying customers well can risk stocking some of them. Rural dwellers have no chance of buying them without making a big effort in time and money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In contrast, Senegal has a less developed publishing and bookselling industry than Nigeria, with about a dozen professional publishers and a small network of booksellers, mostly in Dakar and the larger towns in the regions. The most important publishing opportunities in Senegal are in the field of primary school textbooks - where there is competition both within the country, with publishers from other developing states, and from the North. Senegal being a lot smaller than Nigeria, there is only room for one textbook, and primary school book production is not therefore the mainstay of local publishers. The publisher which used to supply all primary and secondary school textbooks for the Ministry of National Education is an exception and is still probably dependent upon educational publishing for its turnover. Few technical books are published; as with books for higher education, they are imported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The network of booksellers has been decreasing and it is difficult to make a living just by selling books without the back-up of other products to sell. Thus there are bookseller-stationers, bookseller-grocers, kiosks and street sellers, especially of secondhand books. Booksellers tend to order titles in small quantities because they cannot risk being left with unsold stock which ties up their capital. They order little and often. Most school textbooks are distributed through the Ministry of National Education, but booksellers still sell a variety of textbooks, some official and approved and some not. Before the devaluation of the CFA franc, booksellers ordered more from abroad. These books have now doubled in price, making them unaffordable, with a consequent opportunity opened for local publishers to fill a gap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from the professional publishers, various sorts of publications are being produced and distributed by literacy and post-literacy organisations and a delegated literacy ministry. Some organisations promote literacy for its own sake, while others use the attainment of literacy as the means through which development can spread in rural areas. The publications concern rural development, agriculture, health and nutrition, and rural democracy, amongst others. There is a good variety of different titles and a good supply of cheap and affordable books. Some are sold through booksellers, but most people buy them when they take their literacy courses, while small traders carry them up-country to sell and buy more copies from the publishers with the proceeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Book aid schemes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A whole literature exists on book aid schemes. Briefly, book aid comes in two forms, one using the local book sector and the other not to any great extent. The British Government's Educational Low Prices Books Scheme (sadly scheduled to end, at least in its present form, in April 1997) and the French Government's Programme Plus both use the local bookselling industry to make available standard tertiary textbooks and others at subsidised rates. Not all students could afford to buy them, but the two schemes nonetheless promote bookselling and commercial life within ACP countries and beyond. To some extent they safeguard the continuation of fore where up-to-date books can be seen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CTA's books aid scheme does not use the local book sector in terms of book distribution, although cooperation in co-publishing is beginning. The FAO, in distributing publications to ACP and other developing countries, is similar. Books supplied under multilateral and bilateral agencies' projects have tended to sidestep the local book sector, although this has been changing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with food aid, the question to be answered is whether continuing the aid prolongs the condition ? Or does the analogy with food aid break down in certain circumstances because books are different ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving book distribution in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Various efforts are being made to improve book markets for African publishers. For example, the African Books Collective, based in Oxford, UK, markets and sells both anglophone and francophone African publishers' selected books in the North and also to other African countries. It is often easier for publishers in the North to sell their books in Africa than it is for African publishers to sell their books across frontiers and in the continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publishers Associations have been formed in about a dozen countries with APNET, the African Publishers' Network, celebrating its fourth year as a continental association. CTA supported APNET in the production of the first catalogue of agricultural books published by African publishers. Very recently, an Africa-wide booksellers association has been created.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CTA and future book distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since CTA started distributing books on agriculture and rural development, publishing and bookselling activities in many ACP countries have multiplied and the context has changed somewhat. As noted at CTA's Montpellier conference in 1995, there is now much information and many documents going from North to South, suited to the planners, research workers and extension agents who process the information and pass it down to the small-scale farmers. Rather, a two-way information route would be more efficient, between farmers who have information to offer as well as information needs and information providers. The growth in requests to CTA for publications from co-operatives and farmer associations and from non-academic libraries and documentation units is evidence that the publications distribution service is fulfilling a need. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Couriers mailbag</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earthen architecture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I read your article on 'Earthen Architecture', published by the CTA Bulletin in the September-October 1996 issue of The Courier (n° 159) with a great deal of interest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The article presents such traditional products as rammed earth and adobe which have been used by man since time immemorial as witnessed by constructions and monuments to be found in the countries cited by the authors of the article, as well as industrial products such as the compressed earth block (CEB), which have provoked much interest in many parts of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The authors also demonstrate that the use of the compressed earth block has a distinct advantage in that it valorises local raw materials, encourages the setting up of local enterprises and creates employment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard, I would particularly wish to inform you that the Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) has, for the last ten years, been working on the industrial development of the CEB sector through support to ACP promoters at various levels:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - diagnostic studies of projects and setting-up of production units;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - search for EU technical partners who have economically advantageous technologies and are ready to transfer their know-how;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- training of enterprise personnel in CEB production and in the utilisation of this product;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- support in the manufacturing of brick presses such as is currently the case in Nigeria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some 100 small and mediumsized enterprises and non-governmental organisations in ACP countries involved in the CEB sector have benefited from direct CDI assistance. This assistance has, notably, led to the improved technical and economic performance of these enterprises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond support to projects, the CDI in collaboration with CRATerre actively participates in the industrial promotion of this technology. The Centre recently disseminated 2000 copies of a technical guide entitled 'CEB: Production Equipment' throughout the ACP countries. An exhibition on the compressed earth block and its application took place during the Industrial Mining Forum held in Lusaka, Zambia, in December 1994. Similar exhibitions were held during the Matconstruct Forum (Libreville, Gabon, October 1995) and at the Industrial Partnership event (Bordeaux, France, February 1995). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The standardisation of the compressed earth block is a prerequisite for the development of this sector. The Centre therefore organised a workshop on this topic in Yaounde in 1996 as a follow-up to the Matconstruct Forum. This seminar brought together some 40 ACP and EU participants to discuss the 'CEB: Standardisation' guide currently being prepared by CRATerre for publication in December 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main objective of the guide is to encourage ACP promoters to manufacture products in conformity with accepted norms and thus facilitate CEB integration in the industrial construction market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efforts made by the CDI, in collaboration with CRATerre, to develop the CEB sector deserve to be better known. We would therefore look forward to an opportunity to present the Centre's activities in this sector in a future issue of me Courier. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surendra Sharma, Director, Centre for the Development of Industry,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brussels, Belgium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Map insets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thank-you for your informative magazine. I wish you all the best in your endeavours to improve me Courier further. May I suggest that in the Country Report profiles, you include an inset map of the region highlighting the country in question for those readers who may not be familiar with the area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andrew Frederick Meya, Kampala, Uganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of readers have raised this point with us since we have rearranged the cover pages and transferred the ACP and Europe 'regional' maps to the inside back cover. In future, we will endeavour to ensure that there is a cross-reference to this page in the Country Report profile. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bibliography</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publications received</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La politique etrangere du Cameroun (Cameroon's foreign policy) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Narcisse Mouelle Kombi. Pub. L'Harmattan, Collection «Points de vue» (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1996. 238 pp. ISBN 2-73843701-X.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon belongs to the zone formerly called the 'Third World' which is nowadays labelled the 'South'. This region of great diversity currently faces major socio-economic and political conflict, and receives 'multiform' and 'tied' aid from the developed countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This does not, however, prevent it from having a degree of freedom of action in diplomatic terms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, who is a specialist in international law, believes that as a player on the world scene, Cameroon puts its foreign-policy skills to good advantage and has acquired a certain respect in international relations and in global institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He argues that Yaounde is attempting to implement a realistic and pragmatic foreign policy, reflecting its own sovereign status and the imperatives of development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, the country is endeavouring to implement the changes forced upon it by modern circumstances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Le developpement institutionnel - Les organisations a l'epreuve de la specificite et de la concurrence (Institutional development - Organisations based on specificity and competition) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Arturo Israel. Translated from the English by Alain Claisse. Pub. L'Harmattan (5-7, me de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1996. 235 pp. 140 FF. ISBN 2-73844322-2.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A graduate of the University of Chile and the London School of Economics, the author has devoted most of his career (particularly within the World Bank) to examining the problems of economic and social development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He has been one of the pioneers of institutional development, a field which is nowadays seen as essential to all development strategies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He argues that institutional development requires not bureaucratisation but the promotion and recognition of two principles in both public and private organisations. These are competition and specificity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The former induces those involved to improve the quality of their work, whilst forcing them to listen to the 'consumer'. The latter involves qualifications, specialisation and a precise definition of objectives, tasks, resources and results.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After a critical review of assessment reports produced over a 15-year period by the World Bank in the field of institutional development, Arturo Israel tells us why such development is one of the keys to success in development projects. He demonstrates that a good project being implemented in an unfavourable institutional environment has little chance of achieving positive long-term effects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La justice internationale face au drame rwandais (International justice confronted by the Rwandan crisis) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the direction of Jean-Fran&ccedil;oise Dupaquier, with William Bourdon, Pierre-Serge Heger, Frederic Mutagwera, Fran,cois-Xavier Nsanzuwera, Rakiya Omaar, William A. Schabas and Anne-Marie Swartenbroekx. Pub. Karthala (22-24, boulevard Arago, F-75013, Paris). 1996. 248 pp. FF 130. BF. 715. ISBN 2-86537-662-1.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is two years since the genocide and political massacres which resulted in the death of a million people in Rwanda. In this work, the authors describe and analyse the progress made in various legal proceedings in Rwanda itself, in the international arena and in the jurisdictions of Belgium, France, Canada and Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some countries have been slow and apparently reluctant to fulfil their international obligations and this has resulted in disappointment and impatience on the part of the victims' families, jurists and human rights activists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the example of the Nuremberg trials, the authors suggest there are good grounds for concluding that international human rights have become less important over the last 50 years. This work allows one to reach a considered opinion. Modern legal instruments provide for the punishment of those responsible for the appalling tragedy in Rwanda. These instruments could be seen as a significant advance in the recognition of human rights by the international community. But what is missing at the moment is the political will (and public pressure) to implement them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Methodologies d'analyse de la mortalite des enfants - Applications au Cameroun (Analytical methodologies in child mortality as applied to Cameroon) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Amadou Noumbissi. Pub. Braylant-Academia (25, Grand Rue, B-134B Louvainla-Neuve) and L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1996. 305 pp. ISBN 2-87209389-3 (Academia-Braylant) and ISBN 2-7384-3722-2 (L'Harmattan).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Child mortality, always very high in sub-Saharan Africa, varies according to social class, habitat and region. The identification of the social, economic and cultural factors which influence the survival of children depends on the quality of data, and on the relevance of the indicators and statistical models used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the aid of specific examples, this work attempts to demonstrate the origin of a number of sources of bias in so-called classical approaches and the distortion of the truth which a poor choice or detrimental manipulation of statistical models can give rise to.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A teacher and researcher at the Demographic Institute of the Catholic University of Louvain (Belgium), the author proposes methods to take account of the interdependence and synergy which exist between the factors which affect the risk of mortality. He applies these methods to the data gained in two national surveys which were carried out in Cameroon in 1978 and 1991.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Revue Region et Developpement (Region and Development Journal)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pub. L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F75005 Paris). 1995. 238 pp. ISBN 2-7384-4125-4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This half-yearly journal, first launched in 1995, deals with the various socio-economic aspects of regional development. The second issue contains articles which may be of interest to our readers, including: 'Regionalisation, globalisation and polarisation of the world economy: is there room for developing countries?', and 'Housing models in developing countries'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Structural adjustment and ethnicity in Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Eghosa E. Osaghae. Pub. The Nordic Africa Institute (P.O. Box 1703, S-751 47 Uppsala, Sweden). 1995. 66 pp. ISBN 91-7106373-0.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author is a lecturer who heads the politics department at the University of Transkei in South Africa. A significant conclusion from his study, undertaken at the Nordic Africa Institute, is that from the ethnic standpoint, the implementation of structural adjustment (with its corollary of reduced state involvement in public life), has had positive effects in Nigeria. This contrasts with the usual perception of the structural adjustment process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The migration experience in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collection prepared under the direction of Jonathan Baker and Tade Akin Aina. Pub. The Nordic Africa Institute (P.O. Box 1703, S-751 47 Uppsala, Sweden). 1995. 353 pp. ISBN-91-7106366-8.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This volume aims to take stock of migration in Africa. The causes of the phenomenon are varied and complex, and the authors have chosen an approach which illustrates the diversity of the theories, and methodological and analytical trends involved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The book offers an empirical assessment of migration in contemporary Africa, focusing particularly on the problem of women migrants. Migration is an important element in the wider development equation and this work fills a gap in the literature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Challenges to the Nation-State in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collection prepared under the direction of Adebayo O. Olukoshi and Liisa Laakso. Pub. The Nordic Africa Institute (P.O. Box 1703, S-751 47 Uppsala, Sweden) in collaboration with the Institute of Development Studies, University of Helsinki. 1996. 213 pp. ISBN 91-7106381-1.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge confronting the nation state in contemporary Africa are of great interest to specialists attempting to understand how deconstruction and recomposition of the political identity of populations affects the post-colonial unitarian project. The studies offered in this volume show that this process has often taken ethno-regionalist, religious or separatist forms -  reinforced by economic crisis and the negative effects of structural adjustment, not to mention the legacy of years of political authoritarianism and exclusion dating from the colonial period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The authors believe that in order to promote national unity and a sense of citizenship in Africa, priority should be given, inter alia, to more representative forms of government, power-sharing and decentralisation, multi-party elections, the reinvention of the post-colonial social contract and cultural autonomy for minority groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agenda for Africa's economic renewal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collection prepared under the direction of Benno Ndulu and Nicolas van de Walle. Pub. Overseas Department Council (1875 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 1012, Washington, DC 20009, USA). 1996. 246 pp. ISBN 1-56000900-4.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For 20 years, sub-Saharan Africa has been experiencing a severe economic crisis. Growth has been stagnant and the result has been reduced living standards for much of the population, and ever-increasing pressure on the continent's political structures. Structural adjustment, advocated by international organisations in an attempt to restore growth in Africa, has not had the anticipated results and has given rise to a number of disputes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this book, 10 African, US and European experts attempt to look beyond the immediate horizon and identify strategies which could be implemented to give renewed vigour to the African economy. They analyse the choices which should be made in key areas such as agriculture, trade and industry, the role of the state and the social sectors. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">News round - up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">In brief</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World congress against the sexual exploitation of children</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first international congress dealing with the problem of the sexual exploitation of children for profit was held in Stockholm from 27 to 31 August. The initiative for the meeting came from ECPAT (End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism), working in collaboration with the Swedish government, the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and a group of NGOs supporting the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The congress was attended by government representatives from most of the UN countries, participants from various international and regional organisations (including the UN Centre for Human Rights, the International Labour Organisation, the World Health Organisation, UNESCO, UNHCR and Interpol), NGOs, health professionals and media representatives from across the globe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The aim of the congress was to draw the international community's attention to the issue of the sexual exploitation of children and to promote the development of national plans to tackle all forms of abuse in this area. It focused particularly on three aspects: child prostitution, the 'trade' in children for sexual purposes, and child pornography.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there are a number of legal instruments which refer to these problems, the key one for the purposes of the Stockholm meeting was the Convention on the Rights of the Child. In Article 34 of this multilateral treaty, which has been ratified by 186 countries, the signatory states commit themselves to protect children against all forms of exploitation and violence of a sexual nature. For the purposes of the Convention, a child is defined as any human being less than 18 years old, except where the age of majority is lower than 18 in the relevant local legislation (Article 1).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The committee that was responsible for planning the Congress drew up documents on a number of themes including: the revision and application of laws; psycho-social prevention; tourism and child prostitution; those who engage in abuse; hygiene and health; the role of the media; child pornography; education; and human values. These subjects were all examined by working groups during the two-day session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The congress was addressed by Anita Gradin, Member of the European Commission with responsibility for internal and judicial affairs, and matters relating to immigration. She took the opportunity to underline the point that the traffic in women and children was international. Organised crime, she said, lay at the heart of the 'trade' and it was closely linked to a whole range of other criminal activities. She cited, in this context, kidnapping, forging of documents, 'false' marriages and adoptions, clandestine immigration, violence and forced labour. these, in turn were associated with the drug trade, extortion and murder. The conclusion was that a global action plan and more international cooperation were needed. Ms Gradin acknowledged that existing arrangements had been successful in exposing the existence of paedophile networks but she was convinced that international cooperation should be strengthened further, and that organisations such as Interpol and Europol would be called upon to play a bigger part in the future. The European Commissioner went on to declare that a commitment to the protection of children ought to be a priority. The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child - which is now eight years old -  should not merely tee 'adopted' by all countries. It should, rather, be applied in full and integrated into the legislation of every nation. There was no point, she suggested, in enacting new laws, if the existing ones were not being implemented and the financial resources had not been provided. Ms Gradin reaffirmed the European Commission's commitment to the fight against the exploitation of children. This would be reflected in communications to be drawn up by the Commission for presentation to the Council of Ministers and European Parliament, on the following subjects:  - the treatment of women (on the basis of the recommendations made by the Vienna Conference on this subject, which was held in June 1996);  - sex tourism, notably in certain countries in Asia and Latin America;  - actions designed to eliminate paedophile rings and child pornography networks which make use of new information technologies such as the Internet. During the congress, the Belgian Minister of Foreign Affairs announced that his country would be launching an initiative at the EC's Justice and Internal Affairs Council meeting scheduled for 26 and 27 September. They would be proposing common action designed to strengthen police and judicial cooperation in the fight against the sexual exploitation of children for profit. He believed that it should be possible to take measures both within the framework of the Europol Convention, and by means of new and specific cooperation instruments. The culmination of the Stockholm congress was the adoption of a declaration and an action plan. These foresee strengthened cooperation and coordination among local and national authorities, and a series of measures to protect children, prevent abuse and provide rehabilitation. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1997: European year against racism </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a resolution adopted on 23 July, the Council of Ministers formally designated 1997 as the European year against racism. The aims, set out in the resolution, include:  - highlighting the threat posed by racism, xenophobia and antisemitism, in terms of both respect for fundamental rights, and in ensuring the economic and social cohesion of the European Community;  - encouraging reflection and discussion of the measures needed to tackle racism, xenophobia and antisemitism in Europe;  - promoting a sharing of experiences, best practice, and effective strategies drawn up at the local, national and European levels;  - disseminating information on the aforementioned best practice and strategies amongst those most closely involved in the fight against racism, xenophobia and antisemitism, with a view to enhancing the effectiveness of their actions in this area;  - highlighting the advantages of integration policies implemented at the national level, in particular in the fields of employment, education, training and housing;  - taking account, wherever possible, of the experiences of victims of racism, xenophobia and antisemitism, and promoting the participation of these people in society. ECU 6 million will be spent on a series of activities designed to help achieve these objectives during the 'year against racism'. A logo and slogan will be devised, and seminars and conferences will be staged with the aim of strengthening international cooperation (themes will include the role of education in eliminating racism, ways of establishing dialogue, and establishing mutual respect between different communities living in towns and cities). Documents and audiovisual material will be distributed, and an effort will be made to get the message across in the media. There will also be action to encourage information exchanges on best practice, and to increase public awareness of the issue. Prizes will be awarded to media organisations which safeguard the quality of the information they put out and which seek to promote tolerance. A specific effort will be made to counter the racist propaganda now appearing on the Internet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WTO banana challenge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union has set out its legal defence of duty-free preferences for African and Caribbean banana producing countries that are members of the Fourth Lom&eacute; Convention. This took place in September at an initial hearing of a World Trade Organisation (WTO) panel  - convened at the request of a number of competing banana producer nations. African and Caribbean states were permitted to voice their opinion as third part)" in the case, despite an objection from the United States. The EU's banana market arrangements  - notably Protocol 5 of the Lom&eacute; Convention, which sanctions duty-free access  - have twice before come under attack in the Geneva body. Two earlier hearings in the WTO's forerunner, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), concerned the EU's previous state-to-state regime, and the new single market arrangements which have been in operation since July 1993. The present panel was set up at the request of four Latin American banana producer nations - Ecuador, Honduras, Mexico and Guatemala - together with the United States which is arguing that its domestic banana companies are losing out. The complainants jointly claim that the tariff quota for Latin American nations, the core of regulation 404/93 establishing the EU regime, discriminates against them. They also challenge the licensing arrangements of the so-called 'framework agreement' made under the GATT framework in 1994 with four Latin American nations (Colombia, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Venezuela). In return for a bigger share of the EU market, these four agreed to refrain from further challenges in the WTO against the EU's banana arrangements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel is expected to give its verdict in March 1997. The hearings are taking place behind closed doors, but it is understood that EU and ACP nations can count on the support of Japan - which currently imposes its own quotas on imports of other items and does not want to be challenged for these - and that of India which wants to show solidarity with the ACP countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Speaking in Geneva, Cot&eacute; d'lvoire's Commodities Minister, Alain Gauze, stressed the heavy dependence of many African and Caribbean states on banana growing. 90% of Dominica's commodity exports are bananas and the crop accounts for 70% of its export receipts and 25% of its Gross Domestic Product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One ACP representative in Brussels described the task ahead es 'convincing them (the panel) that the banana regime and regulation 404/93 are required to fulfil the obligations of the EU under the Lom&eacute; Convention and the subsequent waiver.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The waiver to which he referred was accorded by GATT to the Lom&eacute; Convention's various non-reciprocal trade preferences in 1994, but it is up for renewal at the end of the year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has already put in a request for its extension until February 29, 2000, coinciding with the expiry date of Lom&eacute; IV.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The WTO was expected to rule on the renewal of the waiver in mid-October ahead of the panel's decision. If the renewal of the waiver were to be disallowed, the EU and ACP 'defendants' at the panel could find themselves on shaky legal ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the meantime, the EU has fixed its 1996 tariff quota, allowing a maximum of 2.553 million tonnes of Latin American bananas to be imported into the Union with a tariff of ECU 75 per tonne.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further quota of 72 440 tonnes has been allocated to this region following tropical storms Iris, Luis et Marilyn. The damage caused by these storms led to the suspension of supplies of bananas from several Caribbean islands. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EU banana production is expected to reach 750 000 tonnes in 1996, while preferential imports from the African and Caribbean members of the ACP group have been fixed at 680 000 tonnes. According to latest predictions, the total consumption of this fruit in the European Union in 1996 will be 4030440 tonnes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade and labour standards</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ahead of the first ministerial meeting of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) to be held in December in Singapore, the European Commission has published a discussion paper (COM (96) 402 final) on whether labour standards should be linked to trade - which could mean sanctions for nations which do not comply with globally recognised labour clauses. What is at stake is to draw up globally recognised criteria and implement them without accusations of protectionism from some developing nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At an informal meeting of EU trade ministers in Dublin on September 18, EC Trade Commissioner, Sir Leon Brittan, said that, in supporting an international code, the European Union had no intention of damaging the competitive advantage of developing nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many Asian countries, who view the move of the EU and of other industrialised nations as veiled protectionism, do not even want the subject broached at the Singapore meeting. However, mention was made of the link between trade and internationally recognised labour standards in the conclusions of the Uruguay Round of GATT in Marrakesh in 1994, which requested that the WTO do more work on this issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The recent Commission paper advances the reasons for an international code: 'Workers in certain sectors in particular perceive that their jobs are under threat from imports from countries which allow unfair or unacceptable working practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These concerns cannot be ignored and should be addressed by the world trading system. Otherwise the perception will be - wrongly - that trade liberalisation is the problem and not the solution to the challenge to all societies to create a higher standard of living for all their citizens.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It further makes the point that such a policy is in line with others such as the promotion of democracy, respect for human rights and adherence to the rule of law. The EU has always upheld the view that there is a positive correlation between social progress, economic growth and trade liberalisation. According to the paper: 'There is no question of imposing on developing countries the higher wage levels and better working conditions which pertain in the industrialised world. Nor is this an action designed to re-erect new barriers to trade under cover of a social agenda.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU and international bodies are already looking at the kind of global criteria that might be adopted. A report of the International Labour Organisation (ILO), published in 1994, as well as the conclusions of the 1995 World Social Summit in Copenhagen, both suggest that freedom of association, collective bargaining, prohibition of forced labour and the elimination of child labour are top of the list.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A report entitled: 'Trade, Employment and Labour Standards - a study of core workers' rights and international trade', produced this year by the Paris-based Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), looks at the options in depth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeff Atkinson, trade policy advisor for the NGO, Oxfam UK, suggests that initial negotiations should be limited to matters covered in ILO Conventions 87 and 98. The former deals with freedom of association and protection of the right to organise, while the latter is on the right to organise and collective bargaining. He argues that other Conventions, covering such matters as the right to equal renumeration for men and women workers, freedom from discrimination and the abolition of forced labour, depend on the first two. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A notable omission from Jeff Atkinson's list is ILO Convention 138 on child labour. He does not feel that this Convention adequately addresses the issue. While international concern has focused on the most abusive forms of child labour such as slavery and prostitution, he points out not all child labour is so grossly abusive. Some forms can bring in money for food and shelter, which would otherwise not be available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He argues that if conditions are right, employment (say on a family farm or business) can contribute positively to a child's development, by providing an informal learning environment in which social and physical skills can develop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'To tackle the symptoms, for example by banning child labour, without addressing the underlying cause is likely to be counterproductive', says Mr Atkinson. He argues that it might induce children to seek illegal work in order to survive, or alternatively that they may end up becoming destitute.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some bodies are already trying to enforce improved standards. Although the ILO cannot implement sanctions, if an ILO member fails to comply with Conventions, a dialogue can be instituted with the defaulting country. It is also running an extensive public campaign against child labour and is assisting the development of social labelling for goods produced which fully respect ILO Conventions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under its new Generalised System of Preferences (GSP), the EU can remove some trade preferences if goods imported from non-Lom&eacute; developing nations are found to have been made with forced or slave labour. And from January 1, 1998, extra preferences can be given to countries which so request and comply with Conventions 87, 98 and 138. But if the enforcement of a socalled 'Social Clause' does reach the WTO level, some voices are already calling for joint monitoring involving the WTO and that long-time champion of human rights, the ILO. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1996 UNCTAD Report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A slow world growth rate is revealed in this year's annual report of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), published in September. The global economy expanded by only 2.4% in 1995 compared with a 2.8% increase in 1994. And production is below what it could be, says the report. On the whole, developing nations achieved higher growth rates than their industrialised counterparts in 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1996, world growth is expected to slow further although there will still be 'star performers' in some regions, and particularly slow movers in others. Asia is the continent currently doing best and China has the fastest expanding economy - despite this having slackened in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1995, Africa recorded higher growth than Latin America, according to the Rubens Ricupero, UNCTAD Secretary General. It also managed the first real increase in average per capita income for a long time. This was partly due to commodity prices picking up - they rose 10% on average.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But not such good news for the continent was a drop in private capital flows, notably direct investment. And the growth rate was highly variable across Africa. In some countries it was above 5% but in others, the economic situation was hit badly by political and armed conflicts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meanwhile, drought led to lower production in the Sahel. The prospects for 1996 are uncertain according to the report. It noted that even countries whose economies have expanded during 1995 and 1996 will need another ten concurrent years of good economic results to get back to the per capita income they enjoyed 20 years ago.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report highlights the tremendous difficulties facing many of the heavily-indebted, least developed nations. This is despite the fact that a number of donors have recently written off substantial amounts of some countries' public debts while the Paris Club has rescheduled repayments from other nations. Even if the new arrangements are followed through, UNCTAD is predicting that debt will remain a major burden for many countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One worrying factor is the weight of their multilateral debt and bilateral obligations to creditors other than the Paris Club. Multilateral institutions have implemented a number of measures, but these are of very limited scope. The UNCTAD Secretary General is encouraging multilateral creditors in particular, to put more muscle behind their debt relief plans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The authors of the report are also recommending the establishment of an agency, within UNCTAD itself, to help developing nations achieve trade diversification and industrialisation strategies for economic growth. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seminar on NGOs and government relations in humanitarian emergencies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The British Council is organising an international seminar on the above subject in Oxford, UK, from 12-17 December 1996. The main themes to be covered at the meeting will include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the actors in humanitarian assistance;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - funder and donor policy;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- government sovereignty;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- rights and obligations of intervention;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the role of the beneficiary;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- conflicts of interest and areas of cooperation between donor NGOs and host governments, and;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- accountability and evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information can be obtained from the Marketing Manager, International Seminars, The British Council, 1 Beaumont Place, GB-Oxford, OX1 2PJ.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. (44) 1B65 316 636, Fax. (44) 1865 57368.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E-mail: International. Seminar@britcoun.org </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The institutions at work</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COMMON FOREIGN AND SECURITY POLICY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), the European Union has recently issued a number of statements, details of which are set out below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: condemnation of the massacre on 19 July</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 23 July 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses grave concern at the deteriorating situation in Burundi especially at the killing of civilians and other gross violations of human rights which continue to be perpetrated in that country. It vehemently condemns the massacre of civilians in the Bugendana camp for displaced persons on 19 July last and deplores the expulsions of Rwandan refugees against their will. This massacre, following as it does those at Gishubi, Kivyuka, Teza, Mutoyi, Songa and Kamenge, represents a new stage in the vortex of violence, action and reaction putting Burundi at risk of being drawn ever further into a full civil war, the effects of which would be catastrophic for the people of Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU calls on all Burundians to turn away from violence and move singlemindedly along the road to a peaceful and negotiated solution of their problems. It would point to the undertakings given on 25 June 1996 at Arusha during the Summit of Heads of State of the region in favour of dialogue open to all sectors of Burundi's population together with provision of the security measures needed to create the conditions for such dialogue. It would also point out that these undertakings were given formal backing by the Heads of State and Government of the entire continent of Africa when they met from 8 to 10 July at Yaounde under the aegis of the Organisation for African Unity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU believes that only compliance with the undertakings given at Arusha and their swift implementation can restore a climate of confidence and prevent Burundi becoming embroiled in a generalised conflict. As it has already stressed in the Council's statement of 15 and 16 July, the EU reiterates that it is prepared to assist in pursuit of the Arusha objectives in order to restore peace and security in Burundi and it supports the efforts of former President Nyerere and the countries of the region to achieve this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: appeal for reconciliation following the coup d'Etat </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 26 July 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union shares the deep concern of the Secretary General of the United Nations, and others, about yesterday's military coup in Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU urges all sides to avoid recourse to violence and to take all steps to resolve the crisis by exclusively peaceful means.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU believes that the main immediate priority is the humanitarian situation. There must be no further loss of life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An immediate beginning of a national debate is essential, leading to a real process of national reconciliation, founded on democracy and security for all sections of society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard, the EU commends the efforts of former President Nyerere and regional leaders to broker an all-inclusive, negotiated settlement in Burundi, in peaceful conditions, and urges them to examine the possibility of continuing their efforts in this respect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reiterates its firm commitment to the re-establishment of peace in Burundi. The Union is following developments in the country closely, in active consultation with partners in the UN, with the OAU and others, towards the goal of restoring peace and security in Burundi. The EU Special Envoy, Mr Ajello, who is in the region, is actively assisting in this process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: doubts about the first round election results</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 1 August 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses deep concern about the way in which the first round of the presidential elections in Niger on 7-8 July was conducted. In particular, it deplores the decision taken by the Niger authorities to dissolve the independent national electoral commission during the voting process and to replace it with an alternative body. It is the view of the EU that this decision, by the Niger authorities, casts serious doubts on the credibility of the election results. It requests the Niger authorities to explain this decision and why observers found it impossible to assist in gathering and collating the election results.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU urges the Niger authorities, in dealing with the critical situation which has resulted from their decision, to respect fully the fundamental freedoms of movement, expression and association of the Niger people. It attaches great importance to the restoration of all civil rights.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU will examine, in the light of recent developments, its policies of economic and development cooperation with the Niger authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU calls for the full restoration of democratic civilian government in Niger through transparent processes. Free and fair elections will be crucial in this respect. The EU will continue to follow the situation in Niger closely and in particular the preparation, holding and transparency of the forthcoming legislative elections on 22 September. Iceland, the Central European countries associated with the EU and the associated countries Cyprus and Malta align themselves with this declaration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swaziland: revision of the Constitution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 6 August 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union welcomes the announcement by King Mswati III of the names of the new Prime Minister of Swaziland and of the Constitutional Review Commission and is pleased that its membership represents all shades of political opinion in Swaziland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU wishes to encourage all members of the Constitutional Review Commission to participate fully in its work and expresses confidence that their endeavours will bring about the adoption of a draft democratic constitution acceptable to the people of Swaziland as a whole. It hopes that the Commission will pursue its task energetically and is ready to offer appropriate assistance to the Commission if it so wishes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: appeal for talks and reconciliation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 19 August 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recalling its declarations of 25 June and 5, 15, 23 and 26 July 1996, the European Union reiterates its deep concern about the situation in Burundi. It urges all sides to refrain from violence and to commit themselves to, and work actively towards, a negotiated and peaceful resolution of the crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU wishes to express its support for the regional leaders, the Organisation of African Unity and the former President of Tanzania, Mr Julius Nyerere, in the efforts which they have been making to assist Burundi to overcome peacefully the grave crisis which it is experiencing, and encourages them to continue their efforts to facilitate the search for a political solution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU considers it essential for a dialogue to be organised without delay, bringing together all of Burundi's political forces without exception, including representatives of civil society, in order to negotiate a democratic, institutional consensus ensuring security for all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is convinced that national reconciliation and civil peace in Burundi can be restored on a lasting basis only through the participation of all sections of society in the principal institutions and bodies of the State.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU urges all sides in Burundi to call an immediate halt to the violence and respect the safety of all Burundians.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It reaffirms its willingness to support Burundi's recovery efforts, once the necessary national reconciliation is embarked upon with all the resolve required.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AID FOR REHABILITATION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of the 'European Programme for Reconstruction and Development in South Africa', the Commission has recently decided on financing for the following ten projects:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 19.2 million for a development programme covering the management of the public service;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 17.2 million for technical assistance to the Ministry of Education;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 16 million for a support programme for Parliament;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 15 million for the electrification of rural schools;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 9 million to support the reform process in the police services of the Eastern Cape province;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 8.9 million for a financing and investment development programme for SMEs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 5 million for a programme of rural water supply and sanitation projects to be implemented </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by the NGO Mvula Trust; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 4.3 million to support the trade union movement;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 2.3 million for the 'Soul City 1996' project designed to make full use of the mass media to promote health and development issues;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 1.9 million to support the 'Truth and National Reconciliation Commission'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EUROPEAN DEVELOPMENT FUND</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following, where required, favourable opinions from the EDF Committee, the Commission has decided to provide grants and special loans from the 5th, 6th and 7th EDFs to finance the following operations (grants unless otherwise stated). Major projects and programmes are highlighted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic and social infrastructure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burkina Faso: ECU 4.125 million for studies relating to certain road infrastructures. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritius: ECU 9 million for an irrigation programme in the northern plains. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominica: ECU 1.65 million towards the establishment of refuse treatments systems.  Trade promotion/ structural adjustment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cot&eacute; d'lvoire: ECU 25.5 million to , support the structural adjustment programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lesotho: ECU 8.6 million for the fourth structural adjustment programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture/rural development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia-Kenya-Uganda: ECU 20 million for a programme to coordinate national activities aimed at achieving sustainable rural development in the region (notably involving the fight against the Tsetse fly)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education/training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean region: ECU 5.9 million towards a post-secondary education training programme in the countries of the OECS (Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States - Antigua &amp; Barbuda, British Virgin Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St Kitts &amp; Nevis, St Lucia, St. Vincent &amp; the Grenadines). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi: ECU 4.4 million for a social/ participatory programme in the forestry sector as part of the implementation of a national forestry policy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Institutional support</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SADC member states: ECU 1.7 million to support the SADC (Southern African Development Community) secretariat in order to strengthen the SADC-EU regional programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UEMOA (West Africa Economic and Monetary Union): ECU 12 million to support the regional integration process in the member states (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cot&eacute; d'lvoire, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 1.5 million for a support programme for the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EUROPEAN INVESTMENT  BANK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the first half of 1996, the Bank has provided the following loans from its own resources or in the form of risk capital:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa/Madagascar: ECU 30 million for ASECNA (I'Agence pour la securite de la navigation aerienne en Afrique et a Madagascar) for the renewal and modernisation of air safety equipment. Botswana: ECU 6.6 million to the Botswana Power Corporation to help increase electricity-generating capacity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burkina Faso: ECU 6 million to SOFITEX (Societe burkinabe des fibres textiles) for the renewal and extension of its cotton ginneries facility. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali: ECU 5.3 million to the Societe Energie du Mali for the financing of the Balingue thermal power station. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritania: ECU 2 million to SNIM (Societe rationale industrielle et miniere) for the setting up and operation of a mechanical workshop. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritania: ECU 1.4 million to the Societe arabe du fer et de l'acier (Arab iron and steel company) for the construction of a foundry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 500 000 to Grafites de Ancuabe for the exploitation of a graphite mine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 2 million to the Zambia Venture Capital Fund, set up to subscribe for minority equity stakes in SMEs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jamaica: ECU 40 million to Telecommunications of Jamaica Ltd for expansion and modernisation of the domestic and international telecommunications network. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">British Virgin Islands: ECU 600 000 to the government for the design and feasibility study of the main airport at Beef Island, Tortola. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga: ECU 3.7 million to the Tonga Telecommunications Commission for the development of the country's domestic telecommunications network.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUMANITARIAN AID</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 5 million for the purchase and distribution of vegetable oils and cereals to refugees living in the country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 420 000 for emergency medical assistance in the fight against cholera in the Mandera region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 1.9 million for emergency food aid to the victims of the continuing factional fighting. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudan: ECU 2.5 million for the purchase and distribution of maize in a transit camp close to the capital (154 000 people) and in the south of the country (1 million people), and for the distribution of sorghum to Ethiopian and Eritrean refugees in the east (200 000 people). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 150 000 to help tackle the cholera epidemic. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 10 million for a programme to counter malnutrition and improve basic health care, in particular for women and children in isolated locations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Montserrat: ECU 380 000 to help evacuees in the wake of the recent volcanic eruption. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia: ECU 1 million for people displaced as a result of drug terrorism and the fighting that has been taking peace between government forces and guerillas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Costa Rica: ECU 400 000 for the victims of Hurricane Cesar. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala: ECU 220 000 to train teachers in order to improve education among repatriated communities in the department of Alta Verapaz. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua: ECU 440 000 to improve conditions for the social and economic reintegration of uprooted populations (people who have been repatriated, displaced or demobilised) in the department of Rio San Juan. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Caucasus: ECU 4.18 million for civilian victims of the war in Chechnya and for refugees in Ossetia and Dagestan. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iraq: ECU 9 million for food aid, medical provisions, rehabilitation of drinking water systems, sanitary equipment and educational material to assist 3 million people in the north and centre of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yemen: ECU 150 000 for flood victims. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cambodia: ECU 290 000 for a programme to construct and distribute artificial limbs to land-mine victims. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand (Burmese refugees): ECU 220 000 for 'Mon' refugees from Burma (Myanmar) who have fled the violence in their country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand (Burmese refugees): ECU 500 000 for medical aid in favour of 'Karen' refugees from Burma (Myanmar). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AID</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently decided to allocate the following aid: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p90.png"></center><br>
+Table</P>
+
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/ec160e/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/ec160e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/ec160e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">The Courier - NÂ°160 - Nov - Dec 1996 - Dossier Habitat - Country reports: Fiji , Tonga (ec160e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Settlements, Housing, Building - Infrastructure Construction (Roads etc)|Settlements and housing: general works incl. low- cost housing, planning techniques, surveying, etc.</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Development Periodicals and Magazines|The Courier ACP 1990 - 1996 Africa-Caribbean-Pacific - European Union</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">EC Courier</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">C-D-E</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">_textperiodicals_|The Courier</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/fb33fe/fb33fe.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/fb33fe/fb33fe.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/fb33fe/fb33fe.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,890 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Farming snails 1: Learning about snails; Building a pen; Food and shelter plants</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Farming snails 1: Learning about snails; Building a pen; Food and shelter plants</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rome 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P-69</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISBN 92-5-102396-4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&copy; FAO 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Did you know that many kinds of snails are good to eat?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Snail meat tastes good and it is also good for you. If you have snail meat to eat, it will help to keep you and your family strong and healthy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p60a.png"></center><br>
+ Family kept strong and healthy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. If you want to have snails to eat you can get them in different ways.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Many people gather wild snails that live nearby. Sometimes you can buy snails at the market or from people who gather them to sell to others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. You can also raise your own snails. This is called snail farming. Today, a great many people all over the world farm snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. If you farm your own snails, you will always have a supply of fresh snail meat whenever you want it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Then, if your family is not too big and you grow more snails than you need to eat, you can sell what you do not use to your neighbours or at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61a.png"></center><br>
+ Selling snails at the market</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. With more food to eat and the money you get by selling snails, you and your family can live better.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. However, if your family is big you will need to grow many more snails if you are going to have enough to eat and to sell at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61b.png"></center><br>
+ You need to grow more snails if your family is big</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">What do you need to start?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You will need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> enough snails to start your snail farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61c.png"></center><br>
+ Snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> a place near your house with the right kind of soil and the right amount of water for snails to live and grow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61d.png"></center><br>
+ A place near your house</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the kinds of plants that snails need for food and shelter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the materials to build a pen for the snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p62a.png"></center><br>
+ Plants that snails need; The materials to build a pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. If you have or can get all of these things, you can raise snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Learning about snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. To farm snails is not hard; however, it is quite different from keeping chickens or ducks or from growing crops such as maize, rice, cassava or groundnuts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12. Since farming snails is so different from other kinds of farming, you will have to learn a lot of new things.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">13. One way to learn about snails so that you will be able to farm them is to watch the wild snails that live near you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p62b.png"></center><br>
+ Watch the wild snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14. Try to see how they live, how they move and where they go, what plants they like best and what they eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15. You can learn many things by watching wild snails that will help you later if you decide to start a snail farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p63a.png"></center><br>
+ Wild snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">16. Another way to learn about snails is to ask an older farmer who knows a lot about your area. If there are people near you who gather snails to sell to others, they may be able to help you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">17. In the next part of this booklet, you will begin to learn some things that you need to know to farm snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">What kind of snails can you farm?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">18. The kind of snails that you can farm are snails that live on land, and there are many kinds of land snails that are good to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">19. However, some kinds of land snails are not good to eat and they may even make you very, very sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20. So, you must be very careful when you choose snails to farm. If you are not sure that a snail is good to eat, do not use it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p63b.png"></center><br>
+ Do not use snail unless you are sure it is good to eat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">21. Now look at the drawings on pages 8 to 11 and you will see four kinds of good snails that live in different places.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">22. You may be able to find one of these kinds of snails where you live. Notice that two of them are small and two of them are large.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">23. The smaller kinds of snails, shown on pages 8 and 9, can often be found in places where part of the year is warm and part of the year is cold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">24. The larger kinds of snails, shown on pages 10 and 11, can often be found in places where it is warm all year round.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64a.png"></center><br>
+ Helix pomatia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of small snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can be found in places where part of the year is warm and part of the year is cold</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 weighs from 15 to 25 grams and measures from 40 to 50 millimetres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 has a strong shell which is pale brown and off- white</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in two to three years if it is well fed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from 30 to 50 eggs each growing season</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64b.png"></center><br>
+ Helix Pomatia - 30 to 50 small eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64c.png"></center><br>
+ Helix aspersa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of small snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can often be found in places where part of the year is warm and part of the year is cold</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 weighs from 4 to 20 grams and measures from 30 to 45 millimetres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 has a weak shell with broken stripes which are light brown to black</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in one year if it is well fed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from 40 to 170 eggs one to three times each growing season</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64d.png"></center><br>
+ Helix aspersa - 40 to 170 small eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65a.png"></center><br>
+ Achatina achatina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of large snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can often be found in places where it is warm all year round</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 weighs from 150 to 200 grams or more and measures from 90 to 130 millimetres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 has a very strong brown shell</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in two years if it is well fed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from 100 to 300 eggs one to two times each growing season</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65b.png"></center><br>
+ Achatina achatina - 100 to 300 small eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65c.png"></center><br>
+ Archchatina marginata</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of large snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can often be found in places where it is warm all year round</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 weighs from 150 to 200 grams or more and measures from 90 to 130 millimetres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 has a very strong brown shell</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in two years if it is well fed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from five to ten eggs four to eight times each growing season</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65d.png"></center><br>
+ Archchatina marginata - five to ten large eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">25. If you cannot get one of these snails, you may be able to get others very much like them where you live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">26. There are many other kinds of good snails. There may even be several kinds of good snails that are eaten where you live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">27. If snails are eaten where you live, you can farm one of these. Then you will be sure that it is good to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Where can you get snails?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">28. When you are ready to get snails, perhaps you can get them by gathering wild snails that live near you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p66a.png"></center><br>
+ Gathering wild snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">29. Perhaps you can buy them from people who gather wild snails to sell to others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p66b.png"></center><br>
+ Buying from one who gathers wild snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30. You may even be able to buy them from another snail farmer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p66c.png"></center><br>
+ Buying from another snail farmer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Never term snails that you buy at the market. Snails at the market may have been washed, kept too cold or hurt and they may die soon.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Where can you farm snails?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">31. A good place for a snail farm is one where there already are snails. If there already are snails, you will know that the soil and the water in the soil are right for snails to live and grow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">32. However, if there are no snails near where you live it does not mean that you cannot raise snails there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">33. If you have the right kind of soil with the right amount of water, you can bring good snails from another place to start your snail farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The soil and the water in the soil</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">34. Soil is important for snails. Part of the time they live on the soil and part of the time they live in the soil, and to live well, snails need good soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p67a.png"></center><br>
+ Snail on the soil; Snail in the soil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">35. When snails are not on the soil or in the soil, they are on plants which grow in the soil. So, the soil must also be good for the kinds of plants that snails need.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p67b.png"></center><br>
+ Snail on plant</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">36. When snails are in the soil, they are resting or laying their eggs. If the soil has the right amount of water, snails will live well, the eggs they lay will hatch well and the baby snails will come out of the soil easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">37. Snails cannot live in hard soil such as heavy clay soils. When heavy clay soil is too dry, snails cannot dig into it to rest and lay their eggs. When heavy clay is too wet, snails and the eggs they lay may die.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">38. Snails cannot live in loose soil such as soils that have a lot of sand. Sandy soils do not hold enough water for snail eggs to hatch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">39. The drawings on the next page show how a snail digs a hole, lays its eggs, closes the hole and how the baby snails come out when they have hatched.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">40. Snails need calcium from the soil to make their shells. All snails grow better and have stronger shells when there is a lot of calcium in the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">41. So, if you are going to farm snails, you must have a good medium soil that has neither too much clay nor too much sand. It must also have enough calcium and the right amount of water for your snails to live and grow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you have a garden, you can easily tell if your soll is good for snails. If your green leafy vegetables grow well, snails will also grow well in the same kind of soil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68a.png"></center><br>
+ Snails will grow well in a garden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 snail digging a hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68b.png"></center><br>
+ 1 snail digging a hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 laying the eggs and closing the hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68c.png"></center><br>
+ Snail laying eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 baby snails hatching and coming out of the hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68d.png"></center><br>
+ Baby snails hatching and coming out of the hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Plants for food and plants for shelter</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">42. Snails need plants for both food and sheller. Most kinds of snails use several kinds for food and several other kinds for shelter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p69a.png"></center><br>
+ Plants for food and plants for shelter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">43. They may also use different plants for food and shelter at different times of the year. Sometimes during the growing season snails eat and find shelter on the same plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">44. Snails usually hide on shelter plants during the day when it is dry and move to food plants to eat at night or early in the morning when they are wet with dew. However, sometimes snails do eat during the day after it has rained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">45. If you live in a place which has a season when plants do not grow, snails will dig into the soil to rest and they do not eat then.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">46. During the growing season snails will eat a lot and grow very fast if they have food plants that they like.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">47. So, before you begin you will have to find out exactly what plants they like to eat. To do this you will have to watch snails at night when they eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p69b.png"></center><br>
+ See what snails eat at night</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">48. You can tell that snails are eating when you see their heads moving as they scrape food into their mouths. You can also tell when a snail has been eating by the holes it makes in the leaves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p69c.png"></center><br>
+ Snail on leaf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">49. You will also have to find out what plants they like for shelter. To do this you will have to watch snails during the day when they rest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p70a.png"></center><br>
+ See where snails rest during the day</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50. It is often difficult to find snails on shelter plants because they are hiding. So, you will have to look very carefully.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p70b.png"></center><br>
+ Snails are hiding on shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">51. In addition to the food plants, there are many other kinds of foods that you can put into a pen for your snails to eat. You will learn about these foods and when you should use them in the next booklet in this series.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dew and rain</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">52. Dew at night in the growing season helps the plants to grow and makes the leaves and the ground wet so that snails can move about.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">53. Rain in the growing season also helps the plants to grow and it cleans the plants of dust and the dirt that snails leave when they move about. The dirt that snails leave may make them sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">54. So, it is very important that the food and shelter plants are wet and clean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">55. When the leaves are wet, snails move easily, eat more and grow well. When the leaves are dry, snails move very little, or not at all, and they grow poorly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p70c.png"></center><br>
+ Wet leaves are good for snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">56. When it rains and the plants are clean, the snails will be healthy. When it does not rain and the plants are dirty, the snails may get sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">57. Dew and rain also keep the ground moist so that the snails can move easily and dig into it to rest and to lay their eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">58. In the next booklet, you will be told how to wet the leaves of plants and moisten the ground when it is too dry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Land that is wet</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">59. Land that is very wet, low land that does not drain well or land that floods in the rainy season is not good for snail farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p71a.png"></center><br>
+ Low, wet land is bad for snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Wind</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60. Wind during the growing season is bad because it dries the dew and dries out the snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p71b.png"></center><br>
+ Wind is bad for snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">61. If you decide to farm snails, try to keep them in a place that is protected from the wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p71c.png"></center><br>
+ Snails should be farmed in a place protected from the wind</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Where do you keep snails when you farm them?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">62. If you decide to farm snails you must keep them in a pen. Snails kept in a well- built pen will not get away easily and you can watch them and take care of them well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">63. After the first year you will need at least two pens. If you decide to farm more snails you may want even more pens. You will learn how to use two or more pens in the next booklet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p72a.png"></center><br>
+ Two pens the second year</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">64. In each pen you can give your snails the right kinds of plants for them to eat and to use as shelter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">65. In each pen you can put the food and shelter plants near each other so that the snails can move easily from one to the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">66. Each pen you build must also keep the snails safe from their enemies. Snails have many enemies. You must be careful to protect them from</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> mice and rats</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> shrews and moles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> walking insects that live on the ground such as ants and beetles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> slugs and other snails that eat snail meat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> birds that eat snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> frogs and toads</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> thieves</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p72b.png"></center><br>
+ Protect them from
+</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">67. A snail pen can be small or large depending on how many snails you want to raise. However, when you first begin, start with a small pen. You will need fewer materials. It will be easier to take care of.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">68. In addition, with a small pen you will need fewer snails to begin. When you know more about raising snails, you can build a bigger pen and get more snails to raise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">69. A good size for a pen is 5 x 5 metres. Later in this booklet you will learn how to build a small pen of this size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How many snails will you need when you first begin?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70. If you are using small snails like those you have seen on pages 8 and 9 in this booklet, you will need more snails to begin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">71. If you are using large snails like those you have seen on pages 10 and 11 in this booklet, you will need fewer snails to begin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">72. With a pen of 5 x 5 metres (25 square metres) you will need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 150 snails if you use the small kind (6 for each square metre)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 25 snails if you use the large kind (1 for each square metre).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p73a.png"></center><br>
+ 150 small snails; 25 large snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How much snail meat can you expect to get?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">73. The amount of snail meat that you will get from small snails will be about the same as what you would get from large snails. This is because you will use many more small snails than large snails and the meat will be about equal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">74. With one 5 x 5 metre pen you will get 12 to 13 kilograms of snail meat each year and with two 5 x 5 metre pens you will get 24 to 26 kilograms each year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p73b.png"></center><br>
+ 12 to 13 kilograms each year; 24 to 26 kilograms each year</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Now you must decide</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">75. In the first part of this booklet you have learned many things about snails and farming snails. You have learned</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> why it is good to farm snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> what you need to farm snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> what kinds of snails you can farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> how to find plants near you that are good for food and shelter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> what kind of soil and how much water in the soil snails need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> where to keep snails and how many you need to start</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">76. You may also have been able to learn a lot about snails by watching the wild snails near where you live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">77. An old farmer may have told you what he knows about snails. Someone who gathers snails to sell to others or another snail farmer may have helped you to learn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">78. So, now that you know a lot about snails it is time to decide if you would like to start your own snail farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">79. If you would like to begin you will learn exactly what to do in the rest of this booklet and in the next booklet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How to begin</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Choose a place on your land to put your snail farm</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">80. Try to choose a place that is close to your house. That way you will be able to watch your snails, protect them from their enemies and take care of them easily</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p74a.png"></center><br>
+ Close to your house</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">81. In Items 34 to 41 you were told that to farm snails you must have the right kind of soil with the right amount of water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">82. Remember, if green leafy vegetables grow well in your soil, snails will also grow well in the same kind of soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p74b.png"></center><br>
+ If your garden grows well, so will your snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">83. In Items 59 to 61 you were told that low, wet land and wind are bad for snails. So, avoid low, wet places and try to put your snail farm where it is protected from the wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p75a.png"></center><br>
+ Avoid low, wet land; Find a place protected from wind</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">84. In Item 63 you were told that after the first year you will need at least two pens and later you may want even more. In Item 69 you were told that it is best to start with a small pen of 5 x 5 metres.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">85. So, try to find a place where you can put at least two or three 5 x 5 metre pens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p75b.png"></center><br>
+ two or three 5 x 5 metre pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Clean the site and prepare the ground</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">86. Clean the site and prepare the ground a little before the growing season so that you can build the pen in time to plant the food and shelter plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">87. First, mark out a square of 8 x 8 metres on the place that you have chosen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p75c.png"></center><br>
+ Mark and clear the 8 x 8 metre square</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">88. That way, with a pen of 5 x 5 metres in the centre of the square, you will have a path of 1.5 metres all the way around it (see Item 92). If you have enough land, the path can be even wider.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">89. Clear the square of trees, bushes grass, creeping grass and weeds. Take away all of the roots and the big stones that you can.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p76a.png"></center><br>
+ Take away roots and big stones</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90. Spread the plant material that you have cleaned evenly on the ground and cover the whole square. If there is not enough, bring more plant material from another place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p76b.png"></center><br>
+ Cover the square with plant materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">91. When the plant material is dry, burn it. This will kill the insects, the weed seeds and the roots of creeping grass, and rid the ground of mice, rats and shrews.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p76c.png"></center><br>
+ Burn the plant materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insecticides and poisons can also be used to rid your pen of insects, mice, rats and other enemies of snails. However, if you use them, do not use them by yourself because they are very dangerous. Ask someone who knows how to use them, such as your extension agent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">92. Now mark out a smaller square of 5 x 5 metres inside the big square. This is for your first snail pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p77a.png"></center><br>
+ Mark the 5 x 5 metre square</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">93. Dig the ground in the smaller square to a depth of 20 centimetres and turn it over well. As you dig, remove any rubbish or roots that you find.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p77b.png"></center><br>
+ Dig in the ground</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">94. While you are digging, if you see any more insects or any of the enemies of snails, bring more dry plant material and burn the ground again. To farm snails, the area must be free of insects, mice, rats and other enemies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">95. When you have finished digging, the ground in the 5 x 5 metre square should be as smooth and well worked as it would be if you were planting a vegetable garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p77c.png"></center><br>
+ The 5 x 5 metre square should be smooth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">96. However, do not use any fertilizer, animal manure or compost as you might with a vegetable garden. Fertilizers may burn the snails and animal manure or compost may bring in insects and weed seeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Building a pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">97. Build a pen for your snails as soon as you can after you have burned the plant material. This is to keep other insects, mice, rats or shrews from getting into your pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">98. A snail pen is a simple fenced- in area and you can build a fence using</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> corrugated sheet metal or plastic sheets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> woven plant material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> woven plant material with chicken wire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p78a.png"></center><br>
+ Materials for fence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using corrugated sheet metal or plastic sheets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">99. A fence of corrugated sheet metal or plastic sheets makes the best pen for snails because it keeps out their enemies very well. However, sheet metal or plastic costs a lot of money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p78b.png"></center><br>
+ A fence of corrugated sheet metal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">100. If you are going to build a pen using corrugated metal or plastic, you must build it in such a way that the enemies of snails cannot get in between the sheets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using woven plant material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">101. To save money, you can build a fence of woven plant material such as split bamboo. If the woven material is tight, it will keep out enough of enemies for you to farm snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79a.png"></center><br>
+ Woven material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using woven plant material with chicken wire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">102. If you can get fine- mesh chicken wire, you can improve a fence that is made of woven material.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79b.png"></center><br>
+ Chicken wire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">103. To do this, first make the fence of chicken wire and then cover it with woven material.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79c.png"></center><br>
+ First use chicken wire then cover it with woven material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">104. The chicken wire will keep out rats and other small animals. The woven plant material will keep most of the insects out and keep the snails in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79d.png"></center><br>
+ Keep out small animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With any kind of pen animals such as rats may get in, and this is especially true with pens made only of woven plant material. So, you must always watch for rats and other animals and keep them out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to build the fence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">105. Build the fence as you would any fence, by driving posts into the ground. Use posts 1.40 metres long. When the posts are in place they should be 1.00 metre above and 0.40 metre below the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p80a.png"></center><br>
+ Drive posts into the ground</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">106. Whatever material you use for the fence of your pen, it should be buried 0.40 metre below the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">107. If you are using woven material you will have to change the bottom of the fence when it rots.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">108. This can be done more easily by making the woven material in two parts, one for the top and one for the bottom. When the bottom part rots, you can change it without having to change the whole fence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p80b.png"></center><br>
+ Attach top parts first; attach bottom parts second</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keeping your snails in the pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">109. Many of your snails may crawl over the fence and get out of the pen. If you build a flap on the inside at the top of the fence, it will be more difficult for your snails to get out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">110. However, even with a flap some snails may get out, and for this reason many snail farmers put two flaps on their fence. With two flaps they find that fewer snails get out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p81a.png"></center><br>
+ With two flaps, your snails will not easily crawl out of the pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you make your pen using galvanized sheet metal, you will not need flaps. Snails will not crawl on galvanized sheet metal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">111. The drawings show you how to build a 5 x 5 metre pen using woven plant material, with and without chicken wire and how to build flaps to keep your snails in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p81b.png"></center><br>
+ How to build a 5 x 5 metre small pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 if you are using woven material only, attach it as you were told to do in Item 108</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82a.png"></center><br>
+ Attach woven material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 If you are using chicken wire and woven material, attach the chicken wire first and then the woven material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82b.png"></center><br>
+ Attach the chicken material first</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 be sure that the fence cover goes all the way to the bottom of the 0.40- m trench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82c.png"></center><br>
+ 0.40- m trench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6 fill in the trench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82d.png"></center><br>
+ Fill in the trench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7 attach the flaps to the inside of the pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: use woven material 0.25 m wide for the flaps</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8 first attach the bottom flap using heavy cord</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p83a.png"></center><br>
+ Use heavy cord</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9 then attach the top flap</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Plant the food and shelter plants</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">112. You have already been told that you should clean and prepare the site and build your snail pen in time for the planting season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">113. If it has been only a short time since you dug the ground and worked the soil in your pen, you can begin to plant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">114. If it has been a long time, dig and work the soil again before you plant. However, as you were told in Item 96, do not use fertilizer, animal manure or compost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">115. Now you can begin to plant the food and shelter plants. Remember that you should use</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> plants that grow well where you live</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> plants that last a long time</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> plants that snails like</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">116. The drawings, show you two ways to plant food and shelter plants in a 5 x 5 metre pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">117. On pages 50 to 55 you will see some food and shelter plants that snails are known to like. Look at them carefully. Perhaps you can find some of them where you live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two ways plant food and shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 if your shelter plants are small, plant your pen like this</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84a.png"></center><br>
+ Mark three places for small shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 plant the shelter plants first and then plant the food plants all around the shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84b.png"></center><br>
+ First plant the shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 if your shelter plants are large, plant your pen like this</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84c.png"></center><br>
+ Mark only one place for large shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 plant the shelter plants first and then plant the food plants all around the shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84d.png"></center><br>
+ Leave a path inside the fence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RAMPE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p85a.png"></center><br>
+ Some plants for food</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rape is one of many kinds of smooth- leaved cabbage. It grows from seed and lasts a number of months. Rape is the best food plant for Helix snails (see pages 8 and 9 in this booklet). Many of the other kinds of smooth- leaved cabbage also make good food plants for snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p85b.png"></center><br>
+ Rape</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFRICAN SPINACH (Amaranthus)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This green leafy vegetable is a good food plant for young Achatina and Archachatina snails. However, if you plant African spinach for your snails, they will need other kinds of food plants as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p85c.png"></center><br>
+ African spinach</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PAPAYA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You have already been told that snails can be given food to eat other than the food plants that you have planted in the pen (see also Items 175 to 179 in the next booklet). The tender green leaves and cut- up fruit of the papaya tree are very good for Achatina and Archachatina snails. However, the papaya should not be planted inside the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p86a.png"></center><br>
+ Papaya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HORSE- RADISH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Horse- radish is a good food and shelter plant for young Helix snails. However, when they are older they will need other kinds of food plants as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p86b.png"></center><br>
+ Horse- Radish</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEAF BEET</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leaf beet grows well from seed and lives for one year. It can be used with He/ix snails for both food and for shelter. As a food plant alone it is not the best and you will have to give your snails other food plants as well. However, as a shelter plant it is very good for Helix snails. These snails lay eggs under the beet plants and find shelter around the roots in cold weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p86c.png"></center><br>
+ Leaf Beet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BURDOCK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burdock grows from seed and lives for more than a year. It grows very slowly and you should plant it as soon as you can so that it can grow big enough for your snails. However, once it has grown it makes a good food and shelter plant for almost any kind of snail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p87a.png"></center><br>
+ Burdock</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BANANA and LOOFAH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banana and loofah plants together provide both food and shelter for Achatina and Archachatina snails. Ripe bananas can be cut up and fed to the snails and they can use the loofah plant for food and for shelter. However, your snails will need other food plants as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p87b.png"></center><br>
+ Banana and Loofah</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PLANTAGO</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plantago grows well from seed and lasts about two years. It is the best shelter plant for Helix snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p87c.png"></center><br>
+ Plantago</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ASPARAGUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asparagus lives for many years and it is a good shelter plant for young Achatina and Archachatina snails. However, it is not good for older snails because they are too heavy for asparagus plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When are the plants big enough for food and for shelter?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">118. The food plants must be big enough to feed your snails and the shelter plants tall enough to cover them and to protect them from the sun.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">119. Depending on the kind of snails that you are raising, most plants will be big enough after they have been growing for about five to six weeks or when they have reached a height of 10 to 20 centimetres.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p88a.png"></center><br>
+ Plants will grow to a height of 10 to 20 cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">120. When you are sure that the plants are big enough to provide food and shelter, you can begin to collect the snails and put them into the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">121. In Booklet No. 34, Farming snails 2, you will learn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> how to choose good snails and how to put them in the pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> how to take care of your snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when and how to harvest snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> how to prepare snails for cooking</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">122. You will also be told some things that you can do to improve your snail farm so that later when you have more experience you can raise more and better snails.</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/fb33fe/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/fb33fe/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/fb33fe/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Farming snails 1: Learning about snails; Building a pen; Food and shelter plants (fb33fe)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Agriculture and Food Processing|Better Farming series of FAO and INADES - 46 booklets</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Settlements, Housing, Building - Infrastructure Construction (Roads etc)|Settlements and housing: general works incl. low- cost housing, planning techniques, surveying, etc.</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">FAO Better Farming series</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">F-G-H-I-J-K</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/fb34fe/fb34fe.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/fb34fe/fb34fe.htm	(revision 21010)
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@@ -0,0 +1,672 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Farming snails 2: Choosing snails; Care and harvesting; Further improvement</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Farming snails 2: Choosing snails; Care and harvesting; Further improvement</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rome 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P-69</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISBN 92-5-102397-2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&copy; FAO 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first twenty- six volumes in FAO's Better Farming Series were based on the Cours d'apprentissage agricole prepared in C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire by the Institut africain de d&eacute;veloppement &eacute;conomique et social for use by extension workers. Later volumes, beginning with No. 27, have been prepared by FAO for use in agricultural development at the farm and family level. The approach has deliberately been a general one, the intention being to constitute basic prototype outlines to be modified or expanded in each area according to local conditions of agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the booklets deal with specific crops and techniques, while others are intended to give the farmer more general information which can help him to understand why he does what he does, so that he will be able to do it better. Booklets No. 33 and 34 were added to the series owing to a growing interest in small- scale snail farming for food and profit in many countries where FAO's Better Farming Series is widely used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adaptations of the series, or of individual volumes in it, have been published in Amharic, Arabic, Bengali, Creole, Hindi, Igala, Indonesian, Kiswahili, Malagasy, SiSwati, Thai and Turkish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Requests for permission to issue this manual in other languages and to adapt it according to local climatic and ecological conditions are welcomed. They should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Choosing your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">123. All of the snails that you choose for your pen must be of the same kind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p093a.png"></center><br>
+ All of the snails that you farm must be the same kind</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">124. You may have found one of the kinds of snails shown on pages 8 to 11 in the last booklet living in your area. You may also have found a different kind of snail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">125. Now you must learn to choose the beat of the kinds of snails that you have found. When you first begin you will need fully grown snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">126. Remember, that all snails are both male and female and all snails lay eggs. So, when you are looking for snails, you can choose any one that is fully grown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">127. You can tell that a snail is fully grown because it has a lip on the mouth of its shell. The drawings below show two fully grown snails with lips.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p094a.png"></center><br>
+ Snails which fill and which does not fill their cells</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">128. Look at the drawings again. Notice that although both snails are fully grown, one of them fills its shell and one of them does not.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">129. The snail that does not fill its shell may be sick or it may have lost its water because of dry weather. This snail may not grow well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">130. Choose only snails that fill their shells. Snails that fill their shells will usually grow well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">131. Choose snails that have good, strong shells. Strong shells protect snails from their enemies, and snails with strong shells sell better at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">132. Choose the largest of the fully grown snails that you can find from the kind of snail that you are going to farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p094b.png"></center><br>
+ Choose the largest snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">133. The larger snails of any kind of snail will be better and healthier and lay more eggs than a snail that is smaller.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">134. In addition, the eggs of large, healthy snails hatch better and the baby snails grow bigger and faster.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">135. Later, when you have more experience in choosing snails, you will learn just how large a fully grown snail should be. You will also learn the different colours of the kind of snail that you are farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">136. Then you can choose snails that are the same size and colour that you want your baby snails to be.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As you collect your snails, handle them very gently and put them carefully into a container such as a basket so that you can carry them to the pen without hurting them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p095a.png"></center><br>
+ Handle your snails carefully</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Putting your snails in the pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">137. Just before you put your snails in the pen, take out all the grass, the creeping grass and the weeds that may have grown while the food and shelter plants were growing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p095b.png"></center><br>
+ Take out all grass, creeping grass and weeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">138. Never put snails in a pen in the morning or during the day when the sun is hot. Always put them in the evening when it is cool. This is when they begin to move about and to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p095c.png"></center><br>
+ Always put snacks in the pen in the evening</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">139. If there is no dew and leaves of the plants and the ground are dry, wet them. Items 160 to 165 in this booklet will tell you how.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p096a.png"></center><br>
+ Wet the plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">140. When you put snails in the pen, put an equal number of them in four different places.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">141. In the last booklet you were told that for a 5 x 5 metre pen you would need 150 snails if you use the small kind, and 25 snails if you use the large kind. So, if you need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 150 snails, put 35 to 40 snails in four places</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 25 snails, put 6 snails in three places and 7 snails in one place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">142. The arrows in the drawing at the top of the next page will show you where to put snails in a 5 x 5 metre pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p096b.png"></center><br>
+ Where to put the snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When you put snails in a pen, never put them near the fence or in a corner of the fence. If you put them near the fence it is easier for them to get out than it is if you put them near the centre of the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p096c.png"></center><br>
+ Do not put snails in the corner or near the fence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">143. The morning after you have put your snails in the pen, look to see that they have all moved. If any of them have not moved, put them under shelter plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">144. If any snails die, take them out and put in the same number of new snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p097a.png"></center><br>
+ Take out the dead snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">145. At first your snails will try to crawl out of the pen. During this time, go around the pen each morning and put them back.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">146. After about two weeks your snails will become used to their new home and most of them will not try to crawl out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">147. However, it is a good idea, even after the first two weeks, to check from time to time and put back any of the snails that may have got out of the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When to take out the fully grown snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">148. When you see a lot of baby snails in your pen, you will no longer need to keep the fully grown snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">149. So, take out all of the fully grown snails that you first put into your pen. You can either eat them or sell them at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p097b.png"></center><br>
+ Take out all fully grown snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">150. Now, with only the baby snails left, the food plants in the pen will be more likely to last until the baby snails are big enough to harvest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">151. Later in this booklet, you will be told when the baby snails are big enough to harvest and how to harvest them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Taking care of your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">152. After you have put your snails in their pen, watch them carefully to see that they are eating well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">153. If you have given them enough of the right kinds of food plants, they will eat a lot and you will have very little to do for them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">154. However, here are some things that you must do</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> wet the plants and moisten the ground</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> take care of the plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> take away the weeds and the creeping grass</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></DIR>
+
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Wet the food and shelter plants and moisten the ground</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">155. You have already been told that the leaves of the food and shelter plants must be wet and clean and that the ground must be moist (see Items 52 to 58 in the last booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">156. If there is too lime dew and not enough rainfall during the time when the plants and the snails are growing, you will have to water the plants and the ground yourself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">157. If it is dry, you should water the plants and the ground at least every second day. However, if it is very dry, you may have to water them every day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">158. Never water in the morning or during the day when the sun is hot. Always water in the evening at about sunset.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">159. If you water when the sun is hot, the snails will begin to move away from the shelter plants and the hot sun may kill them before they can find shelter again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">160. An easy way to wet the plants and moisten the ground is by hand. First fill a bucket with water and wrap a piece of cloth around your hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p098a.png"></center><br>
+ Wrap a cloth around your hand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">161. Then, dip your hand with the cloth into the bucket of water and gently splash the plants and the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p099a.png"></center><br>
+ Gently splash plants and ground</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">162. Continue to splash the plants and the ground gently until you have watered the whole pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">163. When you have finished, the leaves of the plants should be wet and the ground should be moist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">164. You can tell when the plants are wet enough and the ground is moist enough when you can see your snails moving about easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p099b.png"></center><br>
+ Snails move about easily</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">165. Remember: the soil must be moist and not wet in order for snail eggs to hatch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You have already been told that if you live in a place that has a dry season when the plants do not grow, snails dig into the ground to rest. Never water at this time or your snails may come out of the ground when they should not.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Tend the food and shelter plants</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">166. Watch all of your plants to see that they are growing well and that they do not get too tall or too thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">167. Plants that are too tall or thick stop the dew from reaching the leaves and stop the rain from washing away the dust and the dirt that snails leave when they move about.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">168. If you see that the plants are not being wet or washed by dew or rain, cut them back.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p101a.png"></center><br>
+ Cut back the plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Take away the weeds and creeping grass</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">169. After your snails are in their pen you must be sure to take away all weeds and especially creeping grass as soon as you see them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">170. Creeping grass grows very fast and so thick that it can kill the food and shelter plants. If this happens, your snails will have no food and no place to find shelter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">171. Taking away weeds and creeping grass when snails are in the pen is very difficult. So, you must be very careful not to hurt them or step on them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">172. If the weeds and creeping grass get too thick, it may be better to move the snails before you take weeds and creeping grass away (see Item 183 in this booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">173. Keep the path around the pen clear of weeds, grass and creeping grass. This will help to keep weed seeds and unwanted plants out of the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p101b.png"></center><br>
+ Keep the path clean</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">174. If the path is clean, insects will be less likely to cross it to get into the pen and you will be able to see signs of mice, rats and shrews.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Feeding your snails other kinds of food</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">175. There are a number of reasons for giving your snails other kinds of food. Here are a few</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when you have not planted the right kinds of food plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when you have too many snails for the number of food plants that you have planted</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when most of the food plants in the pen have been eaten by the snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">176. If you decide for any of these reasons that you must give your snails other kinds of food, here are some foods that snails like to eat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the outside leaves of vegetables such as cabbage or cauliflower</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the tops of vegetables such as carrots or beets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> ripe banana fruit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> most waste fruit and vegetables</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> cut- up papaya, melon or squash</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p102a.png"></center><br>
+ Food snails eat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">177. There are many other foods that snails like to eat. If you have some food that you think might be good, try it with your snails and see if they like it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">178. If your snails are not eating their food plants well, you also can try some others. Cut pieces from the plant that you want to try and put them in the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">179. If you see that your snails like the new food plants better, you can use these plants when you build the second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Building the second pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">180. In the last booklet you were told that to farm snails you will need at least two pens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p103a.png"></center><br>
+ Two pens needed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">181 . With two pens you can move your snails from one pen to the other to get rid of any enemies that may have got in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">182. You can also move your snails to dig the ground and work the soil so that they can dig into the soil to rest and can lay their eggs easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">183. With two pens you can move your snails from one pen to the other if the weeds and creeping grass get too thick to take away with snails in the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">184. You can also plant new food plants when the old ones have been eaten. When you are moving the snails, you can get rid of any of them that have not grown well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When to build the second pen and how to build it</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">185. Build your second pen a little before the growing season and exactly one year after you built the first pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">186. Begin just as you did before, by cleaning and preparing the ground (see Items 86 to 96 in the last booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">187. However, if you put your second pen near your first pen, be very careful when you burn the plant material not to burn your first pen or harm the snails in it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">188. For this reason it is best to leave an open space of at least 3 metres between your first and second pens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p103b.png"></center><br>
+ Be very carefull when you burn the plant material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">189. Now you are ready to build the second 5 x 5 metre pen and to plant the food and shelter plants (see Items 97 to 117 in the last booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Putting snails in your second pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">190. When the plants in your second pen have grown big enough to provide food and shelter, you can put in the snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p104a.png"></center><br>
+ When the plants are grown, you can bring the snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">191. If the snails in your first pen have grown well, you can use some of them for your second pen. So, collect the right number of the biggest and best snails from your first pen to put in your second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">192. If the snails in your first pen have not grown well, you will have to begin again with new fully grown snails for your second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">193. Remember, with your first pen you put in 150 snails if you used the small kind and 25 snails if you used the large kind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">194. However, different snails lay different amounts of eggs. So with your second pen you may want to change the number of snails that you put in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">195. If there were too many baby snails for the food plants in your first pen, put fewer fully grown snails in your second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">196. If there were too few baby snails for the food plants in your first pen, put more fully grown snails in your second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">197. If you are not sure how many snails to use, it is best to continue to put in 150 if you use small snails and 25 if you use large snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p104b.png"></center><br>
+ 25 Large snails; 150 small snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">198. Later, when you have learned more about the kind of snails that you are using and how many baby snails they have, you will be better able to judge just how many fully grown snails that you should use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do not forget to take out all of the fully grown snails that you have put in after you see a lot of baby snails in your second pen (see Items 148 to 151 in this booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Harvesting your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When to harvest your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">199. If your snails have grown well, some of them will be big enough to harvest about one year after you have first put snails in the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">200. If you need any snails to put in another pen, collect them first. So, choose the right number (see Items 193 to 198 in this booklet) of the biggest and best snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">201. Carefully put these snails into a container so that you can carry them to the other pen without hurting them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p105a.png"></center><br>
+ Put snails into a container</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">202. Now you are ready to harvest the rest of your biggest snails. Remember, the best way to harvest is a few snails at a time when you want some to eat or to sell at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">203. However, harvest all of the snails by the end of the second year so that you can plant the pen in time for the next growing season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How to harvest your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">204. Harvesting snails is done by hand. It is often hard work to find them because they may be hiding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p105b.png"></center><br>
+ Harvesting snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">205. The easiest time to find the snails is when the plants are wet, after it has rained or at night when there is dew and they are moving about or eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">206. You can also put out some of the food that snails like and when they come to eat it, you can collect them easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p105c.png"></center><br>
+ Put out some food</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">207. When you are harvesting, handle your snails carefully and put them into a container such as a box or basket or a net sack. However, do not put more than 10 kilograms in a container or you may hurt them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106a.png"></center><br>
+ Put snails in a container</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">What to do with the snails you harvest</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">208. If you are going to sell the snails, you can carry them to the market in containers like the ones above. However, you must be very careful not to hurt them or break their shells.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">209. Remember, snails with clean shells and well- cared- for snails will sell better at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">210. If you want to keep the snails for you and your family to eat later, you can store them alive in containers filled with material such as sawdust or chopped maize husks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">211. That way you can keep them for as long as six to eight weeks before you use them. The drawings below show you how to store snails this way.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 a box is a good container to store snails in</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106b.png"></center><br>
+ A box</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 cover the bottom of the box with about 5 cm of sawdust or chopped maize husks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106c.png"></center><br>
+ Cover the bottom of the box with sawdust</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 carefully put in a layer of snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 cover the snails with about 3 cm of sawdust or chopped maize husks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106d.png"></center><br>
+ Cover the snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 continue to do this until the box is full</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: be sure that the top layer of snails is covered</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preparing snails for cooking</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">212. Before snails can be used you must be sure that there is no food in them. They must be clean inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">213. Snails that have been stored in a container (see Items 210 and 211 in this booklet) for more than four days will have no food left in them. They are clean inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">214. However, snails which have just been taken from the pen have been eating and are usually full of food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">215. So, before you can use them you must wait for them to become clean inside. To do this you need only to keep them from eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">216. Put them in a container where they can get no food but plenty of air. You can use a covered basket or a net sack.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p107a.png"></center><br>
+ Use a covered basket or a net sack</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">217. Put the basket or sack in a cool place away from the sun. After four days the snails will be clean inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p107b.png"></center><br>
+ Put the container away from sun</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">218. All snails must be washed and boiled just before cooking them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">219. First, put them in clean, cool water with a little salt and vinegar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p107c.png"></center><br>
+ Put them in clean water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">220. After a short time the water will begin 10 turn white and you will know that the snails are being washed inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">221. When the water is very white, take the snails out and empty out the old water. Then put them again in clean, cool water with a little salt and vinegar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p108a.png"></center><br>
+ Empty out dirty water; wash snails again</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">222. Continue to wash them this way until the water no longer turns white. Then you will know that the snails are completely washed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">223. Now put the snails in boiling water, again with salt and vinegar, and boil them at least five minutes. The snails are now ready to be cooked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p108b.png"></center><br>
+ Boil snails with salt and vinegar for five minutes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Snail meat can be cooked like any meat or it can be cut into pieces and added to a stew or vegetables. If snails are eaten where you live, there will be many ways to cook them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Further improvement</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">224. After you have been farming snails using two pens for some time, you may find that you and your family could eat or sell more snails if you had them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">225. You can raise more snails by building another pen. You can either build another 5 x 5 metre pen or you can build a still bigger pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">226. You can also raise more snails by taking better care of the snails that you have. If you take better care of your snails, year after year they will become bigger, healthier and stronger and produce more baby snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Building the third pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">227. Perhaps the most important thing that you can do to improve your snail farm is to build a third pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p109a.png"></center><br>
+ Build a third pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">228. Up until now, using only two pens, you have had to use both of them all of the time so that you could take fully grown snails from one after you had harvested the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p109b.png"></center><br>
+ Using two pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">229. Today, farmers know that it is not good to grow the same crops in the same place all of the time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">230. This is also true if you grow the same food and shelter plants in the same pen all of the time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">231. However, if you plant vegetables in one of your three pens for a year, the vegetables will grow well because of the snail manure in the soil. Afterwards, your food and shelter plants will also grow better because the soil has had a rest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">232. Also, if you raise snails in the same place all of the time, the sicknesses that they may get would do more harm year after year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">233. So, if you plant something else for a year or two and then start with snails again, they will be less likely to get sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">234. The diagram below shows you how to improve a snail farm by planting a vegetable garden in each pen from to time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p110a.png"></center><br>
+ Diagram</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Building a bigger pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">235. You may want to build a still bigger pen for your third pen so you can grow many more snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">236. If you build a 5 x 10 metre pen, you can grow two times as many snails. If you build a 10 x 10 metre pen, you can grow four times as many snails as you did in a 5 x 5 metre pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p110b.png"></center><br>
+ Pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">237. However, building a bigger pen is a lot more work and you will need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> more land</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> more materials to build it</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> more food and shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> more fully grown snails to begin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">238. You must also be sure that you and your family have enough time to take care of a bigger pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">239. If you do decide to build a bigger pen, build it exactly the same way that you built your first 5 x 5 metre pen (see pages 43 to 46 in the last booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p111a.png"></center><br>
+ Building a bigger pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Taking better care of your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">240. The better you understand the snails that you are farming, the better you can take care of them. So, you should always watch them and learn as much as you can.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">241. When you have learned the exact kinds of food plants that your snails like to eat, you will see that they grow well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">242. Then, if you always choose the biggest and best snails each time you begin, you will improve the quality of the snails that you are farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">243. So, with bigger and better snails and with more pens or bigger pens, you will be able to raise many more snails to eat or to sell and you arid your family will be able to live better.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p111b.png"></center><br>
+ Your family will be able to live better</P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/fb34fe/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/fb34fe/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/fb34fe/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Farming snails 2: Choosing snails; Care and harvesting; Further improvement (fb34fe)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Agriculture and Food Processing|Better Farming series of FAO and INADES - 46 booklets</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Settlements, Housing, Building - Infrastructure Construction (Roads etc)|Settlements and housing: general works incl. low- cost housing, planning techniques, surveying, etc.</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">FAO Better Farming series</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">F-G-H-I-J-K</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">farm snails</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/in02we/in02we.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/in02we/in02we.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/in02we/in02we.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,404 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Sustainable Energy News - No</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Sustainable Energy News - No. 2 September 1993</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISSN 0908-4134</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newsletter for the International Network for Sustainable Energy - INforSE </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgements</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable Energy News</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Published by: INforSE </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c/o OVE · The Danish Organization for Renewable Energy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Willemoesgade 14</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DK-2100 Kobenhavn 0, Denmark Ph: +45-3142 9091</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: +45-3142 9095</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E-mail: ove@pns.apc.org</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editors:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ann Vikkelso, OVE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gunnar Boye Olesen, OVE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rene Karottki, Forum for Energy and Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Technical Editor: Lars Yde, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Folkecenter for Renewable Energy P.O.Box 208, DK-7760 Hurup Thy Ph: +45-9795 6600, Fax: +45-9795 6565</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deadline for next issue: 29.11.93 Next issue: December 1993 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The newsletter is quarterly. Contributions are welcomed. Feel free to use the information you find in Sustainable Energy News.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual subscription rate: US$ 15 Sustainable Energy News will be distributed free of charge to NGOs as long as possible. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Supported by: Forum for Energy and Development. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INforSE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Network for Sustainable Energy is a worldwide NGO network formed at Global Forum in Rio, June 1992.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INforSE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 2059,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DK - 1013 Copenhagen K</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional Contacts:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stephen Karekezi, FOOD, Kenya Youba Sokona, ENDA, Senegal Raymond Myles, AFPRO, India Benjamin Gertes, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Emil Bedi, FAE - SZOPK, Slovakia Gunnar Olesen, OVE, Denmark Martin Prieto, REDES, Uruguay Emilio Rovere, IED, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nancy Hirsh, ECC, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Join the INforSE Network !</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The International Network for Sustainable Energy is open to membership for NGOs interested in sustainable energy development. INforSE is based on the NGO energy strategy "Sustainable Energy Development - towards a world strategy" Membership is free of charge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If your organization wishes to become member of INforSE and support the NGO energy strategy, please send a request to INforSE, c/o OVE, Willemoesgade 14, 2100 Copenhagen 0, Denmark. Then you will receive a copy of the NGO energy strategy and other INforSE papers including the membership application form and enter the mailing list of this newsletter. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Editorial: Creating Dynamics in Sustainable Development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The period after the UNCED meetings in Rio in 1992 has been dominated by the lack of commitment of industrialized countries for a sustainable development. In USA the Clinton-Gore administration was defeated concerning a modest energy/CO2 tax. The European Community followed the US and is not imposing any energy/CO2 tax.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strong lobbies of industry, the established energy sector and others succeeded in suppressing proposals of taxation of fossil and nuclear fuels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conclusion is, that at the moment other means than taxation must be key measures for imposing a sustainable energy development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The political measures, which shall be put into action now, must be of "positive nature" in a political sense. Sustainable energy development must be combined with other subjects, which the people (voters) are paying attention to. Then there is a chance of starting a positive political dynamic in the direction of sustainable development. Such a "positive measure" can be job-creation. Job-creation and unemployment has a very high priority in the political discussions in the industrialized countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As an example could be mentioned, that if support for unemployed people is used to support sustainable energy measures, this could create many jobs and at the same time give a more sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the developing countries the combination of sustainable energy development and development of the local economy must be stressed. In the development programs must be included strong elements of the combination of local economy and sustainable energy development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In order to contribute to a global political process of a sustainable energy development, the secretariat of INFORSE is preparing proposals for a campaign in 1994 concerning 'job-creation, local economic development and sustainable energy development." Discussions of this as an INFORSE-campaign will be a major subject of the meeting of INFORSE coordinators and contact persons in October.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hans Bjerregaard, Chairman</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Danish Organization for Renewable Energy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">INforSE Organizing</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secretariat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new facilities of the INforSE secretariat is now in place, and funding for the secretariat, this newsletter and a number of activities is secured for the coming year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the old address is still working, the new, easy INforSE address is:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INFORSE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 2059</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1013 Copenhagen K</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Denmark</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ph: +45-3142 9091/3312 1307</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: +45-3142 9095/3312 1308</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E-maii: inforse@pns.apc.org</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New European Coordinator</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the second European lNforSE meeting in July, Emil Bedi from Slovak Nature Protection Society - Foundation for Alternative Energy (SZOPK - FAE) was elected as new coordinator for INforSE Europe, replacing Adam Gula.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new coordinators address is:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Att. Emil Bedi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SZOPK - FAE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gorkeho 6 811 01 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bratislava</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Slovakia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ph: +42-7-364665</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: +42-7-313968</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same meeting Gunnar Olesen was re-elected as European coordinator for another year. Adam Gula continues to be active in INforSE as the representative of Polish Ecological Club.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INforSE action plans under preparation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While coordinators and contact persons are preparing INforSE action plans for their region, a general action plan for INforSE is also under preparation for the coming year. The plan will be discussed at the INforSE contact persons meeting in Denmark, October 10-15. Major points for consideration in the plan will be the energy and employment campaign mentioned at page 3, and the development of INforSE.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African regional meeting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The regional meeting for Eastern and Southern Africa will take place in Nairobi, Kenya in January 1994. Mumbua Munywoki, Foundation for Woodstove Dissemination will organize the meeting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asian/Pacific Regional Meeting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The regional meeting for Eastern Asia and Pacific is proposed lo be combined with a Conference on Sustainable Energy Development in January or February 1994. The venue could be Vietnam, as the Vietnamese Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment has shown interest for such an event. Benjamin Gertes, Philippines Center for Appropriate Technology and Training will organize the event.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional Meeting in India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The regional meeting for Central and Western Asia is proposed to be combined with a 3 day Workshop to Promote Sustainable Renewable Programs through NGOs. The venue will be New Delhi, India and the tentative dates are April/May 1994. Raymond Myles, AFPRO will organize the event.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional Meeting in Latin America</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The regional meeting for Latin America will take place in Rio de Janeiro at October 19, 1993. It will be organized in conjunction with a Brazilian energy week. Emilio Rovere, IED (Instituto de Ecologia e Desenvolvimente), will organize the event.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Regional News - Africa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional Meeting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Foundation for Woodstove Dissemination plans a regional INforSE meeting for Eastern and Southern Africa in Nairobi, January, 1994. This meeting will be the official launching of INforSe in the Eastern and Southern part of Africa: Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Mauritius, Rwanda and Burundi. For the agenda of the meeting the following topics are proposed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Discussion of the NGO energy strategy behind INforSE with feedbacks from NGOs in the region. From this discussion it is envisaged that detailed activities will be listed for the coordinators. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Proposals for national activities including the formation of lists of NGOs working for sustainable energy projects in each country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Formation of manufacturers association for renewable energy and efficiency in Eastern Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Proposals for national sustainable energy workshops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information by Mumbua Munywoki, FOOD, P.O.Box 30979, Nairobi, Kenya. Ph: +254-2-566032, fax: +254-2-561464/740524</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African Energy Charter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Foundation for Woodstove Dissemination is preparing an African Energy Charter together with African Energy Policy Research Network (AFRE-PREN). The Charter will be based on the book "Energy Options for Africa, Environmentally Sustainable Alternatives". It will be quite different from the inter-govemmental (European) Energy Charter that hardly recognizes the need for a sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African Renewable Energy Seminar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Youba Sokona from ENDA's energy program proposes a 4 week seminar in Dakar, Senegal for dissemination and follow-up of renewable energy technologies for rural African areas. The seminar will cover African energy problems, socio-economic aspects of renewable energy dissemination, financing, analyzing and evaluating of projects, sizing of renewable energy technologies and planning of renewable energy technology dissemination programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information by Youba Sokona, ENDA, B.P. 3370, Dakar, Senegal. Ph: +221-22 5983/2496, fax: +221-22 2696. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Regional News - Asia</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional workshop in New Delhi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In India, AFPRO (Action for Food Production) is planning a three days regional event "Workshop to Promote Sustainable Renewable Energy Programs through NGOs" in New Delhi, April/May 1994. The workshop will be organized in cooperation with INforSE and incorporate a regional INforSE meeting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Background</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1979 AFPRO decided to promote biogas as one of its main activities, and in the following years it organized a network of 75 grassroots voluntary organizations (NGVOs) and equipped them to construct biogas plants. Today these NGVOs have constructed 75,000 biogas plants and have a capacity of constructing 10,000 new plants/year. In addition AFPRO has been involved in the promotion of other renewable energy technologies such as energy plantations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFPRO in partnership with its network of 75 NGVOs would like to promote sustainable development and reduce the atmospheric build up of CO2. However, a lot of spadework would be necessary for this, and a concept for Integrated Sustainable Area Development Approach (INSADA) has been discussed for a year as follow-up to the Rio conferences UNCED and Global Forum, June 1992. In this context AFPRO wishes to organize a three day regional workshop in New Delhi in collaboration with INforSE.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The workshop</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The purpose of the workshop is to prepare a strategy and a plan for promoting sustainable rural development through dissemination of renewable energy technologies with special reference to carbon offset with decentralized grassroots initiatives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is planned to make a workshop with 40-60 representatives of NGVOs and other organizations from India and 5-10 representatives from Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Pakistan and maybe other neighboring countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information: Raymond Myles, AFPRO, 25/lA, Institutional Area, Pankha Road, "D" Block Janakpuri, New Delhi - 110058, India. Ph: +9111-555 541215413/3652, fax: +91-115500343, telex 31-65899 AFRO IN.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia Pacific Conference and Exhibition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benjamin Gertes, Philippine Center of Appropriate Technology and Training (PCATT) in cooperation with INforSE is planning a Conference on Sustainable Energy Development and Exhibition of Renewable Energy Products from the Asia Pacific Region in January or February 1994. The conference is planned as a 4 day event for about 20 people. A proposed venue is Hanoi, Vietnam.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information: Benjamin Gertes, PCATT, 224 D Silang Street, Batangas City, Philippines 4200. Ph: +63-43 723 1155, fax: +63-2-815 0276 c/o Daqna).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human rights campaign on Narmada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since March '93 when the World Bank funding for the Sardar Sarovar Project stopped, no check has been on the Indian government which has paid scant regard to the rights of the tribals affected by the dam. To ensure that the government does not violate these with impunity, Indian NGOs and human rights groups got together to launch a human rights campaign on Narmada. Several observer teams have visited the Valley to report on the situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The observer teams have recorded continuing public resistance against the removal of the villages that will be submerged. The residents are divided roughly in half between those who will not move and continue to resist the project, and those who will move if they are offered appropriate land elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For those who will move there are several problems: the new land offered by the government is less fertile, the inhabitants from one village will be scattered over several places, and some people have not been offered new land at all when their villages were submerged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excerpt from Development Alternatives, August 1993, New Delhi, India.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boom of Windfarms in Southern India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the state Tamil Nadu in Southern India the government have decided to encourage private development of windfarms, which now leads to a boom in windpower installation. The state support includes loans, five year tax-holidays for profits from windfarms, and the possibility for companies that  have windturbines to feed their electricity into the grid at the windfarm site and withdraw the electricity from the grid at the site of the company.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, Tamil Nadu has 25 MW installed windpower capacity of which 7.5 MW is in windparks run by private firms. The State Government projects an increase to 150 MW windpower. A loan of 200 mill US$ from the World Bank is likely to come through for further development of Tamil Nadu's windpower projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The windpower development has pushed the land-prices sky- high in the relatively small areas in Tamil Nadu with especially high winds and good grid-connection. In some areas land-prices have raised 10-20 times within the last 5 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From Down to Earth, April 1993.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large hydro potential difficult to utilize.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small-scale hydro power has a number of benefits: it is clean, available in rural areas that are difficult to electrify otherwise, can often be installed with little impact on the environment and has in India alone an estimated potential of 5,000 MW. Now it is also supported in some pads of India by rural electrification schemes, that are backed by loans from Global Environmental Facility. In spite of all this the installed micro-hydro capacity in India is only 25 MW, and a plan for construction of additional 255 MW capacity is facing a number of difficulties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major problem is that villagers are disenchanted with micro-hydro plants because the supply meets only the lighting needs, and often only parts of the year, because the plants are designed for average water flow giving shortages of electricity in the dry season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In certain cases villagers have refused to have hydro-power installed. As one villager in the state Uttar Pradesh in Northern India explained: "We see how difficult it is for neighboring villages to get uninterrupted power. Why should we take such a connection."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other problems in Uttar Pradesh are that villagers expect to get electricity at the same price as from the highly subsidized power system of the Uttar Pradesh State Electricity Board, and it has been difficult to find investors and project developers that could install micro-hydro systems. To this can be added that the electricity authority has promised electricity for cooking and heating, which is not possible with the standard-installation with 150W power/household, and that villagers are requested to pay a connection-fee also in periods where the electricity is absent or unreliable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In spite of its many problems, hydro-power has given substantial benefits for villages in Uttar Pradesh and other areas of the Himalaya Foothills for use in farming, weaving, studying a.o. And with appropriate use, adequate involving of end-users and not trying to cover all cooking and heating needs, micro-hydropower can improve the life- conditions for many rural people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From Down to Earth, August 1993.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ISES 2000</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Solar Energy Society (ISES) presented a new, more political strategy named ISES 2000 at its world conference in Budapest in August. Headed by the new ISES Chairman Michael Nicklas, ISES will combine its classical research orientation with more emphasis on political strategies. They will focus on providing national and international decision makers with up-to-date information on renewable energy. They feel that lack of information is currently an important limitation to renewable energy's potential impact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISES also plan a new structure with more emphasis on regional offices and a NGO Renewable Energy Summit in March 1994 in New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information by ISES 2000 Contact, Michael Nicklas, Innovative Design Inc. 850 West Morgan Street, Raleigh, North Carolina 27603, USA. Ph: +1-919-832 6303, fax: +1-919832 3339.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Regional News - Europe</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INforSE Europe Meeting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By the end of the European NGO energy seminar at Folkecenter for Renewable Energy in Denmark, the 2nd meeting of the European INforSE region was held at July 17. At this event the basis for an action plan for INforSE Europe was set, there was a call for bylaws for INforSE - Europe and coordinators were elected for the coming year. At the meeting 14 of the 38 European member- organizations were represented. Next INforSE Europe meeting will be in Germany on July 9, 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Action Plan for INforSE Europe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Based on the discussion at the regional meeting the European INforSE coordinators have elaborated an action plan for the coming year. The action plan will be the basis for action of INforSE Europe; but will not limit member-organizations in taking INforSE initiatives when relevant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Monitor International Financing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INforSE - Europe will evaluate the two Global Environmental Facility (GEE) projects in Europe and evaluate energy projects financed by other financial institutions (as World Bank and European Bank for Reconstruction and Development - EBRD) when requested by INforSE members.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Follow EC policy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INforSE - Europe will monitor and eventually make inputs to energy related EC policy, including, energy/ CO2 tax, Internal Energy Market, ALTENER (renewable energy strategy program), SAVE (energy efficiency strategy program), PHARE (support for projects in Central and Eastern Europe) and TACIS (support for projects in former USSR). Monitoring of EC Policy will be done in cooperation with groups in the European Parliament.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strategy building</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INforSE Europe will cooperate with other parts of lNforSE for the formulation of sustainable energy strategies, that can combine the necessary transition to a sustainable energy system with solving of other urgent problems of the societies, for instance unemployment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information and networking</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INforSE Europe will examine to improve and manage a clearinghouse activity through the existing newsletter and contact list. (Contact to members, different energy related bodies, research centers etc). For the fulfilment of these activities INforSE Europe seeks funding for its own activities and for small grants to member-organizations in Central and Eastern Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally INforSE Europe aims at being a registered, independent organization with own bylaws.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nuclear threat in Armenia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After two years blockade and a severe energy crisis the Government of Armenia has decided to reopen the Metstamor nuclear power plant that has been shut down for four years, because it is build in an earthquake zone. The plan  is to start the reactors quite fast, and not follow a two years start up procedure recommended by IAEA and FRAMATOM (French Nuclear Power Company).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information: Samuel Shahinian and Victoria A. Ter- Nikogossian, Armenian Parliament, Marshal Begramian Ave. 19, Yerevan, 375095, Republic of Armenia. Ph: +7-8852588545, fax +7- 8852-270816.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EBRD funds for nuclear power plants ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) has approved funding of the large aluminum smelter in Ziar nad Hronum in Slovakia, which will sharply increase the electricity consumption of Slovakia. To meet this demand EBRD is now considering an application from the Slovak government for financing of the 880 MW Mohovce nuclear power plant with two Soviet-type VVER 440 reactors without confinement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The physical construction of these reactors is almost finished; but with a proposed new control system from Siemens in Germany the final price will roughly be twice the original budget. This leaves half the investment, more than 500,000,000 US$, still to be made.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to estimates from SZOPK in Bratislava other solutions will be safer and cheaper than finishing Mochovce as nuclear power plant. One solution is a high-efficiency gas-fired power plant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EBRD is now evaluating the funding - proposal, reports from this will be finished by the end '93. A final decision from EBRD can be expected in Spring 1994. According to Tim Murphy from EBRD they would welcome alternative proposals to solve Slovakia's energy problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EBRD also plans to spend 24 million ECU on the dangerous Kosloudy nuclear power plant in Bulgaria in order to keep the oldest of its 6 reactors running for a few years. It will also finance to bring the two most modern reactors back on line by 1997, provided Bulgaria close reactors 1 and 2 in spring 1997 and reactors 3 and 4 by the end of 1998. This plan should allow time to bring on line two pumped storage hydro schemes and three power stations using waste heat from factories, but the finance for these projects are not secured.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Safe Energy, no. 96, August/Scptember 1993.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Regional News - Northern America</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sun Day 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In USA the large Sun Day Campaign is planning a coordinated effort for renewable energy with more than 50 local events at April 24, 1994. The local events will be supplemented with campaigns for "pro-solar" legislation at federal level in USA and for elimination of federal subsidies for nuclear power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable Energy Budget 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About 30 NGOs have drafted their proposal for the budget of US Department of Energy for 1995. In the proposal is a 600 million US dollars increase of the programs for renewable energy and efficiency, and more than 700 million US dollars cuts of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion programs as well as reductions in some of the fossil fuel programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grassroots Media Network</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than 200 NGOs in USA have signed up to participate in a grassroots media network being coordinated by the Communications Consortium to periodically co-release studies on energy efficiency and renewable energy issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information: Communications Consortium, Washington DC. Ph: +1202-682 1270, fax: +1-202-682 2154.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York Solar Coalition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York Solar Coalition will hold its Second Renewable Energy Conference October 15-16. It will give special attention to renewables and environment, energy and architecture, financial and marketing strategies, energy and transportation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information by Jim Hurt, ph: +1-212-861 0100, fax: +1-212-861 0101.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable Transportation and Solar and Electric Vehicle Symposium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At October 21 -23 in Boston, USA. The event will have sessions on transportation planning, legislation and incentives for electric vehicles, advanced electric vehicle technologies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P>Further information: North East Sustainable Energy Association, ph: +1413-774 6051, fax: +1-413-774 6053.</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/in02we/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/in02we/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/in02we/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Sustainable Energy News - No. 2 September 1993 (in02we)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Development Periodicals and Magazines|Sustainable Energy Newsletters of the INFORSE network</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">Inforse</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">Q-R-S</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/in03we/in03we.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/in03we/in03we.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/in03we/in03we.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,884 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Sustainable Energy News - No</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Sustainable Energy News - No. 3 December 1993</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISSN 0908-4134</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newsletter for the International Network for Sustainable Energy - INforSE </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgements</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable Energy News</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Published by: INforSE </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 2059, DK - 1013 Copenhagen K in cooperation with</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OVE - The Danish Organization for Renewable Energy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Willemoesgade 14</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DK-2100 Kobenhavn 0, Denmark Ph: +45-3142 9091, fax: +45-3142 9095 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E-mail: oveOpas.apc.org</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editors:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ann Vikkelso, OVE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gunnar Boye Olesen, OVE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rene Karottki, Forum for Energy and Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Technical Editor: Lars Yde, Folkecenter for Renewable Energy P.O.Box 208, DK-7760 Hurup Thy Ph: +45-9795 6600, Fax: +45-9795 6565 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deadline for next issue: 28.2.94</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Next issue: March 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The newsletter is quarterly. Contributions are welcomed. Feel free to use the information you find in Sustainable Energy News.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual subscription rate: US$ 15 Sustainable Energy News will be distributed free of charge to NGOs as long as possible. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Supported by: Forum for Energy and Development. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INforSE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Network for Sustainable Energy is a worldwide NGO network formed at Global Forum in Rio, June 1992.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional Contacts:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stephen Karekezi, FOOD, Kenya Youba Sokona, ENDA, Senegal Raymond Myles, AFPRO, India Benjamin Gertes, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Emil Bedi, FAE - SZOPK, Slovakia Gunnar Olesen, OVE, Denmark Martin Prieto, REDES, Uruguay Emilio Rovere, IED, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nancy Hirsh, ECC, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Write to Sustainable Energy News</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Successes and failures of sustainable energy developments, strategies, dissemination projects, new developments of marketable technologies, political efforts on the sustainable energy scene, NGO-activities for sustainable energy. Sustainable Energy News welcomes input on all these subjects, from news about small NGOs up to evaluations of the latest World Bank financed projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We prefer contributions of 1/2 - 1 page A4 to keep the publication as a newsletter; but longer articles can also be used. Illustrations to the articles are very welcomed. Costs related to accepted articles can be covered upon request.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable Energy News is printed in 1800 copies of which 1100 are distributed via mail, while the rest is used by the INforSE coordinators at seminars etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This issue includes Sustainable Energy Contact List - Europe. For European readers and those having interest in European affairs the coming issues will contain Sustainable Energy News - Europe. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Editorial: Clinton's Slow Progress on Energy Policy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We hoped for a parting of the seas. But even a bright, young and vibrant Democratic president and his environmentally aware vice president cannot produce miracles in their first year in office. The deeply entrenched bureaucratic system is too big and unwieldy to move quickly or with ease. Moreover, corporate control of U.S. energy policy has been the norm for decades. Shaking free from the grip presents one of the toughest challenges to the Clinton Administration. President Clinton is, however, beginning to make some progress toward more sustainable energy policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In his first eleven months, President Clinton has emphasized the need for a shift in U.S. energy priorities away from fossil fuels and nuclear power to expanded renewable energy and energy efficient technologies. While these messages have set the course, aggressive policy proposals have been slow to follow. Instead, bland strategies have come forward that rely on voluntary industry participation, market signals for consumers and business, and a "lead by example" effort to reduce energy consumption within the federal government itself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President Clinton's Earth Day speech on April 22, 1993 outlined a broad array of initiatives to kick off his environmental policy agenda. Central to this list was Clinton's commitment to develop a climate change plan to comply with the international global warming treaty signed by President Bush at the Earth Summit in 1992 in Brazil. Clinton pledged to cut emissions of greenhouse gases to their 1990 levels by the year 2000 and to continue the downward trend thereafter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This announcement began a six-month process to develop a national plan to achieve the President's goal. However, after many months of substantive and voluminous input to the administration, environmentalists were disappointed to find that the final plan relies heavily on voluntary greenhouse gas reductions by industry and will barely make a dent in the CO2 emissions from transportation - responsible for one-third of the global warming gases in the U.S.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the environmental community registered near-unanimous disappointment with the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Climate Change Plan, industry gave across-theboard support. Central to the environmental communities effort on follow-up from the Plan is to put teeth into the President's personal vehicle fuels efficiency which will be developed over the course of the coming year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two critical issues lie immediately ahead. The proposed Department of Energy (DOE) budget for the Fiscal Year 1995 provides the new Clinton DOE with an opportunity to shift funding from heavily subsidized nuclear power and fossil fuels to the previously underfunded research, development and commercialization of renewable energy and energy efficient technologies. The magnitude of the shift Clinton proposes to Congress will become another barometer of the President's commitment to positive changes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Next will be implementation of the initiative to reduce energy consumption within the federal government, the nation's largest energy consumer. The early pomp and circumstance has yet to produce concrete programs that provide building managers with the necessary incentives and knowledge. Environmentalists are offering technical assistance and public relations support, but are expecting more progress in the next six months than has been seen to date.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the slow start, there remains reason for optimism about the future. Clinton has turned the corner in the development of a more sustainable U.S. energy policy and it is up to the grassroots activists in conjunction with the public interest community, both in the U.S. and abroad, to push the large bureaucratic system down the street. We will not be alone in this endeavor however, as President Clinton and Vice President Gore have surrounded themselves with talented political and senior staff who believe in a sustainable energy policy built upon a foundation of renewable energy and energy efficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Margaret Morgan-Hubbard, Executive Director, Environmental Action Foundation, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">INforSE Update</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the last issue of Sustainable Energy News, the first coordinating meeting of INforSE has taken place, preparations for an INforSE campaign have come a long way, and regional activities are planned in all regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coordinating Meeting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first coordinating meeting of INforSE was held at October 10-15, in Denmark. 8 coordinators/contact-persons from all regions had their first opportunity to make a truly worldwide planning of INforSE activities. During the meeting it was decided to launch a global Campaign on Sustainable Energy and Social Development (see later), and a number of guidelines and common activities were discussed. High priority was given to develop the full regional structure of INforSE in the coming 3 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the meeting Gunnar Olesen (OVE) and Rene Karottki (Forum for Energy and Development) were approved as INforSE secretaries. The technical assistance available to INforSE was presented by Folkecenter for Renewable Energy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During their stay in Denmark the coordinators &amp; contact-persons had time for meetings with the Danish Ministers of Energy and Environment as well as for meetings with a number of energy and development NGOs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The next coordinating meeting is proposed to be in Washington or Nairobi, Fall 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Action Plan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the coordinating meeting an INforSE action plan was developed for the coming year. It consists of:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· regional action plans</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· INforSE campaign on sustainable energy and social development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· membership campaigns aiming at finding at least one member organization in every country</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· development of a Sustainable Energy Contact List with NGOs and other important actors involved in sustainable energy development in all parts of the world. The European part of the list is issued with this newsletter, while the list for the other regions will be issued in Summer 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· maintaining a dialogue with international organizations such as UN, World Bank, European Community and others, concerning promotion of concrete INforSE activities|projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· establishment of an INforSE Award</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guidelines for Membership</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A general guideline for INforSE membership was developed at the coordinating meeting:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Eligible for membership are international, national and local independent organizations. All interested organizations will be granted associate membership and will receive the INforSE newsletter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Core members of INforSE are organizations that are approved as core members by their respective INforSE-region and that will support in their words and actions the energy strategy behind INforSE: "Sustainable Energy Development, - Towards a World Strategy."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures for membership, approval of members and eventual expelling of members are decided on regional level. Earlier approved members will be regarded as core members.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Individuals can subscribe to the INforSE newsletter (Suet. Energy News) and will be advised to join an appropriate member organization. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Regional News - Africa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eastern African INforSE Meeting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Eastern (and Southern) Africa INforSE Meeting is scheduled to take place in Nairobi, January 15-16,1994. It will be a 2 day meeting which will be the beginning of INforSE activities in the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There will be a display of different renewable energy technologies. Participants will elaborate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· a directory of NGOs and distributors of sustainable energy technologies in Africa,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· national level workshops for exchange of information and sharing of experiences,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· follow-up programs on country activities based on "Sustainable Energy Development - Towards a World Strategy".</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The participants will mainly be from Uganda, Tanzania, Ghana, Rwanda and Kenya. Limited support for INforSE organizations will be available for travel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More information: FWD, att. Mumbua Munywoki, P.O. Box 30979, Nairobi, Kenya, ph -254-2-566 032, fax -2542-740 524.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Action Plan &amp; Meeting for INforSE Western Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ENDA-Energie, the Western African contact point for INforSE, has proposed an action plan with the following four main activities:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· a regional INforSE meeting in February 21-25, 1994 in Palmarin (150 km from Dakar), Senegal. The meeting will bring together NGOs working on dissemination activities for renewable energy technologies; but it will be open to other organizations as well. The participants will be informed about INforSE and sustainable energy strategies. Another activity of the meeting will be to make proposals for the international INforSE Campaign on Sustainable Energy and Social Development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· elaborating a catalogue of all NGOs and other organizations active in the sustainable energy development in Western Africa. As there are no focal points for INforSE in Northern or Central Africa the list will, in principle, cover all french-speaking countries in Africa. Because of the limited number of active organizations in this field the list will include NGOs, governmental research institutions, national associations for promotion of renewable energy, and if possible manufacturers and suppliers of renewable energy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· planning a workshop on dissemination and follow-up of renewable energy technologies for the Rural African Environment. The idea is to organize a 4 week workshop for NGOs, both for experienced NGOs and for new groups in this field.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· enlarging the newsletter "Foyers am&eacute;lior&eacute;s" (Improved cookstoves) to cover sustainable energy issues more generally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For more information and inputs to contact list &amp; strategy, contact: ENDA - Energie, att. Masse Lo &amp; Youba Sokona, B.P.3370, Dakar, Senegal, ph+221-22 598312496, fax+221-22 2695, telex 51 456 ENDA TM SG.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two INforSE Regions in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The two African contact-persons of INforSE have made a preliminary decision of dividing African INforSE activities into two regions, referred to as Eastern Africa and Western Africa. The Western African Region will have French as working language while the Eastern African Region will use English. NGOs from English speaking countries in Western Africa (as Ghana) and French speaking countries in Eastern Africa (as Rwanda) will have the opportunity to chose which region to join.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solar Success in Rural Senegal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the last few years ENDA-Energie has had a small but remarkable success with solar cells for rural electrification. The group has disseminated a simple, independent system for rural households, consisting of a solar cell module, a battery, 4 lamps of 15 W and a 12 Volt power outlet for radio, TV, etc. The dissemination included training of the end-users and establishment of local maintenance systems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even though solar cells are expensive the prospects for this kind of rural electrification is good because it fits well to the needs in villages of Senegal. Now more than 1500 houses are equipped with this system in Senegal and this number is growing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More information: ENDA (address above)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Biogas Plant in Dar Es Salaam</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Construction of a central biogas plant has been decided for Dar es Salaam. It will treat 160 tons/day of organic waste from food industry and a vegetable market. The biogas from the plant will be used for combined heat and power production. The heat will be used for a public bathing facility. The plant will also produce a sludge that will be used as fertilizer in the agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The plant is based on Danish technology and the investment of about 4 mill. US$ will be financed by GEF (Global Environmental Facility) and DANIDA (Danish International Development Agency)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From: Aalborg Stiftstidende, Denmark</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Protest against Batoka Dam</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Zambezi River Authority and the Zambia-Zambezi joint utility are proposing a 1600 MW hydro power plant, just 30 km downstream of the Victoria Falls. Environmentalists as well as the local villagers protest against the dam, that will flood a large area including the homes of at least 3,000 people. Major protests come from Zambian Committee of the international Council of Monuments and Sites (Icomos), from National Heritage Conservation Commission, and from Chief Mukuni and his Toka-Leya people. Icomos is now lobbying the World Bank to withdraw its funding for the dam.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From: African Business, Nov. '93.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Regional News - Asia</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional Workshop and INforSE meeting in New Delhi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The planned 4-day workshop, to develop a strategy for promoting rural energy for socio-economic development through NGOs, will be combined with the start-up of INforSE activities in the Central Asia Region. The workshop and meeting is organized by AFPRO (Action for Food Production) and scheduled for April/May 1994. Limited support for travel expenses will be available for INforSE organizations from the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information: Raymond Myles, AFPRO, 25/1A, Institutional Area, Pankha Road, "D" Block Janakpuri, New Delhi - 110058, ph -91-11-555 5412/5413/3652, fax -91- 11 -5500343, telex 31-65899 AFRO IN.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Workshop, Exhibition and INforSE Meeting in Hanoi, Vietnam</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The "Workshop on Sustainable Energy and Exhibition of Renewable Energy Products", February 22-25, 1994 in Hanoi, Vietnam will also give room for the first regional meeting of INforSE Asia Pacific. The events are organized by PCATT (Philippine Center For Appropriate Technology &amp; Training). Limited support for travel expenses will be available for INforSE organizations from the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information by: Benjamin Gertes, PCATT, 224D Silang Street, Batangas City, Philippines 4200, ph -63-43-7231155.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippine Solar Dryers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Philippines solar dryers have showed an ability to raise the value of agricultural products, thus giving increased income and livelihood opportunities to farmers and village dwellers. To increase the use of solar dryers PCATT is conducting two courses on Food Processing Through Solar Dryers at December 6-10, 1993. The courses are made for NGOs in the Batangas province. In one of the courses the topic will be the use of solar dryers for production of dried fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PCATT is designing a new combined dryer using solar heat as the main heat source; supplemented with wood or biogas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information: PCATT (address above)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Bank Loan to Indian Power Sector</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Indian government has asked the World Bank for a loan to finance the construction of coal fired power plants with a total capacity of over 16.000 MW over the next decade. The first part of the loan is now approved, while the remaining parts will be approved within the coming half year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to the US-based Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) India can have the same power available for just half the cost if will invest in energy efficiency and demand side management rather than in new supply. They base their view on an Indian Power Sector Assessment, in which a report deals with energy efficiency; made by U.S.A.I.D., the Indian "National Productivity Council" and other Indian government agencies. This report concludes that if little more than half the cost-effective energy efficiency and conservation measures it identifies in the Indian power sector were persued until 2005, peak generating requirements would be reduced 22,000-36,000 MW in India.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information: EDF, att. Todd Goldman, 1875 Connecticut Ave. N.W. 10th Fl. Washington DC 20009, USA, ph -1-202-387 3500, fax -1-202234 6049.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solar Thermal Power for India?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Indian Ministry of Non-coventional Energy Sources (MNES) have proposed a 35 MW solar thermal power plant near Jodhpur in Rajasthan. The proposal is to use the Luz technology, that is working successfully in California. However, a system with this technology at Gwalpahari, Heryana in India has not been successful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the Luz technology is the cheapest technology for direct conversion of solar rays into electricity, it is still more costly than other power plants based on fossil fuels, wind or biomass. So it is questionable if India can afford such a high-cost technology with its development problems and power shortages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the major reasons for the proposal is according to MNES officials the promise of easy money from the Global Environment Facility. The is no technological breakthrough, that could make the technology economical viable in India.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are, however, technological breakthroughs on the way for the solar thermal technologies. According to the Australian prof. David R. Mills the technology can be improved by better design, a combination with biomass or natural gas, and in the long run with better absorber surfaces. Beside this a production in India might be cheaper than the present production in Israel/USA. But these improvements of the technology are apparently not integrated in the proposed project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: Down to Earth Oct 15, 1993 &amp; Proffessor David R. Mills, University of Sidney / ISES, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simple Proposals for Solar Distillation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Ryan Foundation is proposing simple household destillers, using seawater and heated by solar energy and waste-heat as a solution to drinking-water problems. The foundation have developed and field-tested a number of solar stills. One of its proposal is a "RYFO Rice Pot Still" that placed as lid of a rice-pot can produce about 3 glasses of clean water during 30 min. cooking on a wood-stove.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The foundation has published a 60 pages booklet "Survival By Sea-Water" (available for US$ 5), and a number of hand-ous explaining their different proposals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information: Ryan Foundation,8 West Mada Street, Srinagar Colony, Madras - 600 105 India, ph 2351993 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Failure of a renewable energy project</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The collapse of the "Urjagram" in Brahampur village near Roorkee in Uttar Pradesh (UP), India is an example of a well-intentioned plan going wrong.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UP Council of Science and Technology approved Urjagram status for Brahampur with 120 households in 1982. In the following years Alternate Hydro Energy Centre (AHEC) of Roorkee University set up a renewable energy supply system consisting of a biogas plant, two windmills, a solar-operated water pump and TV set, and 10 solar street lamps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the village had been electrified aleready, the villagers were unwilling to switch from electricity to alternative energy. Sushil Giri from Brahampur says "A few households began to use biogas; but within two months, the biogas supply became eratic and its users had to revert to fuelwood and dung cakes."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1984 the state Non-conventional Energy Development Agency (NEDA) took over the project, and then the situation further deteriorated. In 1989 AHEC was given Rs 50,000 to reactivate the complex, but the repaired system was not restarted because the villagers had stopped supplying material for the biogas plant. Gautam Singh of the village explains "We stopped providing the "gobar" because first, the gas supply was unreliable and inadequate; second, food cooked on the gas had an unpleasant taste, and third, whenever we could not supply the required amount of gobar, we had to pay for the shortfall - which was bad business".</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Later NEDA bought gobar from neighbouring villages and supplied gas to about 12 users in the village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The authorites, apparently irked at the villagers "non-cooperation", removed the solar street lamps and other equipment, including the solar TV set, which was popular in the village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The district development project director Bhagwat Singh insists on that the project failed because it was set up where it was not wanted: "The project could have yielded better results in a non-electrified village starved of fuelwood and fodder." Apparently the initiators of the project forgot that the participation of beneficinaries is essential for any development project to succeed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meanwhile the project has been handed over to the Governmental polytechnic in Roorkee, and is given an additional Rs. 50,000 for restoration. The village have asked to take over the project, even though some villagers warn that unless they are assured of regular technical inputs and are trained to run the complex, the effort may fail again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Down to Earth, Sept.15, 1993 (article by S.Kumar, Brahampur)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">World Coal Use Levels Off</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After four decades of nearly uninterrupted growth, the world coal consumption is no longer growing. From 1990 to 1991 it fell 1.4% and the preliminary data for 1992 show another 0.3% reduction. Economic contraction in Eastern Europe and a modest, worldwide recession are the primary reasons for the drop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coal use is falling quickly in the former Soviet Union. It dropped 18% from '88 to '91 and further declines are likely as inefficient coal-fueled factories are closed down and replaced with more efficient plants, mainly fueled by natural gas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Now the largest consumer of coal is China, that gets 75% of its (commercial) energy from coal. It has plans for a 40% increase in coal use within 8 years. However, extensive lung and crop damage, tied to the country's heavy dependence on coal, are threatening these plans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From Vital Signs 1993 and World Watch vol. 6, no.6 Nov-Dec. 1993.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="i393p07.png"></center><br>
+ Ryan Foundation Rice Pot Still</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Regional News- Europe</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INforSE- Europe bylaws under preparation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Based on a decision from the last regional meeting, the INforSE coordinators are now working on the first draft of the INforSE Europe bylaws. This is done in order to register INforSE as a legal body. The draft, that sums up the decisions of the first two regional meetings, will be sent for comments to all European INforSE organizations in December. A second draft will then be sent for comments in February '94, and hopefully a final version can be sent for approval in March '94.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INforSE Campaign in Europe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Europe the INforSE campaign "Sustainable Energy and Social Development" will tee organized in cooperation with BUND (Friends of the Earth Germany) and Climate Network Europe. It will focus on the grave unemployment problems of Europe, and will explore the possibilities for transferring "passive" funds as unemployment wages into "active" investments into job creation in sustainable energy development. For the campaign INforSE Europe hopes to collect as much information as possible from NGOs on the links between sustainable energy and job creation. Proposals are welcome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGO Demands for CO2/Energy Tax</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Climate Network Europe and a large number of national NGOs try to persuade the EC leaders to finally agree on a common CO2/energy tax minimum combined with a common EC ratification of the Climate Convention. The issue has been discussed among EC Ministers of Energy, Environment and Finance without result. The issue is still on the EC-ministers agenda for coming negotiations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information: Climate Network, 44 rue de Taciturne, 1040 Bruxelles, ph -32-2-231 01 80, fax -32-2230 57 13, email gn.canron</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European Energy and Environment Park in Leipzig Region</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under this title is running a non-profit project for developing market-oriented solutions for a better environment and higher energy efficiency. The project is formed as a cooperation between municipalities in the area, the district of Leipzig and private companies and company organizations. A main priority of the project is to work with local manufacturers to create jobs locally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the main activities of the project is in the village of Lutschena (3000 inhabitants) that has been chosen as a model village for CO2-reductions. Here energy audits are carried out to identify all cost-effective energy savings. The results of this will be used for a computer-program for quick assessment of energy saving potentials in Eastern German buildings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project also promotes solar systems for hot water, as well as straw and wood-chip boilers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information: Jaffrey H. Michel, EUP, Karl-Liebknecht-Strasse 145, 0-7030 Leipzig, ph -49-341-399 2475, fax-49-341-311310.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VAT Revenue for Energy Savings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Kingdom has finally decided to put VAT (Value Added Tax) on energy. During the VAT discussions Neighbourhood Energy Action (NEA) launched a campaign for resuming 100 mill. £ of the revenue to the poorer consumers in the form of energy efficiency programs. This could for instance be done through NEA's own Home Energy efficiency Scheme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the state budget was published, November 30, it showed that the government has decided to use 35 mill.£ of the VAT revenue for energy efficiency measures for the poorest consumers. While this is less than NEA demanded the decision will lead to a doubling of the public funding for these programs. Of the total VAT revenue 40% will be resumed to social welfare and energy efficiency support programs for the poorest consumers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information: NEA, St. Andrews House, 90-92 Pilgrim Street, Nescastle upon Tyne, NE1 6SG, ph -91-261 5677, fax -91-261 6496.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environmentally Clean Energetics (GNTPR)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under this title the Russian Ministry of Science and Technical Development is carrying out a research program for renewable energy and other "new" energy technologies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the backgrounds for the program is that the capital investments of exploration and development of new oil and gas fields will increase substantially (expected 2-3 times in constant prices), because the most efficient fields are quickly depleting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The program states that the "country's economy is possible only on the base of the nuclear energy and coal", and the major parts of the program are also devoted to "clean coal" and "safe nuclear energy".</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participation in the projects is open for foreign companies and organizations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Program includes projects in seven main directions: safe nuclear power, clean (coal) thermal power, nontraditional energetics (renewables), fuel of the future (gas, peat a.o.), radioactive waste, hydrogen technology and coal-water technology. The scope of each project is generally 3 or 6 years except the nuclear power projects, which are for 10 years during 1990-2000. Half of the R&amp;D cost is planned to be covered by the Program budget.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: "Environmentally Clean Energetics" ,Ministry of Science and Technical Progress of the Russian Federation, Moscow 1993.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Energy Strategies and Information - European NGO Seminar '94</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fifth yearly European Seminar on Sustainable Energy Development will take place in Deister, Germany at July 4-8. It will be followed by the annual INforSE Europe meeting on July 9. This seminar will be organized by Energie- und Umweltzentrum am Deister e.V. near Hannover in Germany, in cooperation with INforSE Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The seminar will include lectures, workshops and excursions, and also a market place for energy projects. There will be technical workshops about solar energy, low energy housing and co-generation plants, but also workshops about questions like strategies for energy and education. Besides there should be enough time and room for talks building up contacts among the participants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Energie-und Umweltzentrum am Deister</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">is a self managed project with 33 people. It has been working for more than 13 years in the areas of: renewable energies, energy saving, ecological building and environmental conservation. It is financed by working on education, organizing exhibitions, making consultancy and having two smaller companies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The place is located 30 km south of Hannover. The participants of the seminar will live and work in a new low energy guest house. The center has 18.000 m2 of land, an old, restored main house with offices and many examples of insulation systems, solar collector systems, water saving technology, rain water collectors, reed bed sewage systems and an organic grown garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For further information contact Marlies Ante, Energie- und Umweltzentrum am Deister e.V., 31832 Springe, Germany, ph. +49-5044-380 or-1880, fax +49-5044-4640.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prospects for Renewable Energy in the United Kingdom, November 1993.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Marc Groves-Raines. Ecogen, UK The British Government announced in October new contracts for renewable energy projects in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Although the announcement has been significantly delayed, the likelihood is that the orders will be oversubscribed (particularly wind energy) as more and more companies are interested in developing renewables. The orders are expected to be for approximately 300400 MW (Declared Net Capacity*). The orders will include separate "bands" for wind power, hydro, landfill gas, municipal and industrial waste, energy crops and agricultural and industrial wastes. With the future in mind, the Minister for Energy has also mentioned the possibility of a fourth and fifth order in 1995, to come into effect in 1996, and in 1997, to come into effect in 1998; these orders may not, however, necessarily cover the same technology bands. The Government has also indicated that it will work towards 1500 MW (DNC) by the year 2000</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is the first time that renewable energy projects in Scotland and Northern Ireland (the windiest parts of the country) have been able to tender for contracts. Projects will be awarded 15 years contracts at prices which are yet to be determined but which will enable capital costs to be paid over the contract period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Declared Net Capacity takes account of the actual output from a renewable energy scheme. For instance, a wind farm, due to fluctuation in wind speeds, does not operate at full capacity all the time - a turbine with a name plate capacity of, say, 100 kW is equivalent to about 43 kW Declared Net Capacity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGO Roundtable on CO2/Energy Tax</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An NGO-proposal for an international CO2/energy tax minimum is now being prepared by an NGO Roundtable of Western European NGOs. The result will be a proposal for EC or for a group of "progressive countries", defined as Holland, Germany, Switzerland, Denmark and Sweden. The proposal will follow the EC-Commission's proposal of a 10$/barrel tax + current EC-minimum energy taxation + VAT. It will follow this proposal with a 50/50 division between CO2 and energy tax for carbon fuels; but will demand full tax on nuclear energy and total exemption for local renewable energy sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The proposal will be used by the participating NGOs as a demand for the first step of environmental taxation on energy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information by Liesbeth Bakker, Center for Energy Conservation and Environmental Technology, Oude Delft 180, 2611 HH Delft, Holland, ph -31-15-150150, fax -31-15-150151. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Regional News - Latin America</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazilian NGO Energy Roundtable</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the Brazilien Energy Conference 1993 in Rio de Janeiro an NGO energy roundtable was held on October 22. About 30 persons attended the meeting, they were mainly NGO-representatives. During the roundtable the following was presented:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· criticism of the Brazilian nuclear energy policy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· the need for increasing support to the development of new and renewable energy sources in Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· information on INforSE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The creation of a Brazilian INforSE Network was discussed. As the main result a number of Brazilian NGOs want to participate in INforSE. It was agreed that the launching of INforSE Latin America will take place in April 1994, in Brasilia, during the ELAN/I;LEA network meeting. This meeting will be organized by IED (INforSE coordinating organization in Brazil) and ABRASCA (organizer of ELAN/FLEA meeting).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meeting and Action Plan for INforSE Latin America</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The proposed activities for INforSE Latin America are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· to prepare and hold a regional workshop of Latin America. The workshop will be held in April 1994, preparations will take place December - March. The participation of a limited number of INforSE representatives will be supported by INforSE.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· to hold national/subregional workshops for establishment of the formal constitution of national/subregional networks, for discussion and approval of national/subregional sustainable energy strategies, and for design of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGO training programmes and public outreach programmes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The proposed objectives for INforSE Latin America's coming activities are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· to make a survey of the activities already being undertaken by Latin American NGOs in the energy field</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· to prepare a Sustainable Energy Development Strategy for Latin America</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· to increase the capacity of the Latin American NGOs for developing sustainable energy development programmes and projects and for disseminating sustainable energy technologies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· to create public awareness of key energy/environment/development issues. (Based on proposal from Emilio &amp; Ana Lucia La Rovere, ED, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Regional News - North America</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sun Day 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Sun Day Campaign 1994, with more than 50 local events planned for April 24, is interested in contacts to groups and organizations that will make their own activities on April 24 or that will join the already planned activities (mainly in USA).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information: Sun Day Campaign, att. Ken Bossong, 315 Circle Avenue #2, Takoma Park, Maryland 20912, ph &amp; fax -1-301-270 2258.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Last Nuclear Battle in USA?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While private U.S. power utilities have stopped investment in new nuclear plants, there is still one utility in USA which is planning new nuclear capacity: The federally owned "Tennessee Valley Authority"(TVA).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50 years ago, TVA brought the gift of electricity to countless small rural communities in Tennessee Valley. Today its policy of stimulating demand and its obsession with capacity building has brought the Federal Administration's great experiment to its knees. A total of 17 nuclear power plants were originally on the TVA's drawing boards. To date, five of these plants have actually been completed. However, all five power plants have been plagued by safety violations, shutdowns and more than a million dollars in Nuclear Regulatory Commission fines. Today four new plants are under construction and two of the previously shut down plants are undergoing extensive repairs to be brought back on line. The price for this nuclear experiment? A growing debt for TVA of 25 billion $, currently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In spite of TVA's plans for nuclear power plants the company has so much excess electric generation capacity already, that it does not need a construction program at all. If TVA is allowed to continue to build nuclear power plants, the escalating costs from these unnecessary plants will raise electricity prices sky-high in the Tennessee Valley with adverse economic effects for the whole area. In the end the federal government may have to bail out TVA, increasing the national debt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The continuing of TVA's nuclear program is dependent on the Federal Government. TVA is governed by a three-person Board of Directors appointed by the President. There is no public utility commission empowered to oversee TVA. In the Reagan period its previous conservation program was slashed and it started the completion of its remaining incomplete nuclear reactors. The work on these reactors is still going on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To change the course of TVA, the Environmental Action Foundation, the Tennessee Valley Energy Reform Coalition (TVERC) and other groups have joined forces in a campaign to convince the Clinton Administration to halt TVA's nuclear program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information: Environmental Action, att. Margaret Morgan-Hubbard, 6930 Carroll Ave. 6th Floor, Takoma Park, Maryland 20912, USA, ph-1 -301-8911100, fax-1-301-891 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A New Nuclear Power Plant in Brazil?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Emilio L&egrave;bre La Rovere., IED Institute for Ecology and Development, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The recent decision of the Brazilian Government to invest in the completion of a second nuclear power reactor is raising controversy in the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The technical and economic performance record of Angra I, the first commercial plant built at the site of Angra dos Reis (on the seashore between Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo), is very poor. Its operation has repeatedly been stopped due to technical problems. The average load factor of the reactor during its nine years of operation barely reachese 24 per cent. Arecent radioactive leakage of nuclear fuel elements will demand expensive repair, adding to an already too costly investment of US$ 3.5 billion for 657 MW of installed capacity (more than the double of the hydropower marginal cost).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FURNAS, the utility in charge of the construction of Angra II, the second nuclear reactor at the same site, alleges that this project is much better than the first one. It will be the first 1300 MW reactor built under the agreement of eight such plants signed with Germany in 1975. But the construction of Angra II alone lasts for more than 15 years now, being constantly delayed because of technical difficulties and mainly due to the lack of financial resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paradoxically, this is also the main case for its conclusion according to FURNAS who claims that US$ 4.7 billion have already been invested in the plant and US$ 1.4 billion will be enough to finish it. Even assuming this the final economical result will not be very bright. But now it is argued that with "only" US$ 1.4 billion remaining to be invested, the marginal cost of completing the plant is cheaper than any other power generation alternative.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The German partners have recently decided to supply additional loans to assist the completion of the plant, which turned to be the crucial factor behind the Brazilian Government decision of pursuing its construction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, US$ 578 million still have to be invested by FURNAS, and it will not be easy to get the needed financial resources to conclude Angra II without further delays.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, the official figures of investments needed to finish the construction of the plant can well be underestimated. A recent report by Greenpeace shows that different governmental sources have continuously underestimated the cost, which was first announced to be US$ 1.5 billion, until reaching the present figure of US$ 6 billion (in constant US$ of 1992).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides its doubtful economic attractiveness, the Angra II project also suffers from the old shortcomings of nuclear fission reactors, aggravated in the Brazilian case: the hazardous nuclear wastes generated by Angra I are kept for the moment in a pool next to the reactor, waiting for a satisfactory disposal technology which is still not available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within this context, Brazilian ecologists are demanding the elaboration of an environmental impact assessment study of the project which should include a comparison with alternative possibilities of power generation, e.g. the natural gas resources available offshore. A similar solution was given to Midland nuclear plant in the USA which was converted to use natural gas when its construction was at about the same stage as Angra II (70 per cent done).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand the nuclear lobby is trying to push through the immediate signature of the loan contract with the German funding institutions to prevent any possibility of stopping the construction of the nuclear reactor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGO-Cooperation Needed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This case provides a good opportunity of engaging a concrete debate within INforSE, as the German responsibility in the matter can not be denied. A joint initiative of Brazilian and German members of INforSE could strengthen the possibilities of a wider democratic discussion prior to the making of a final decision about this project. (shortened by the editors)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boycott of Siemens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than 70 organizations in Germany and Austria are asking the German and Austrian consumers to boycott all Siemems products untill the company withdraws from its nuclear activities. Siemens has a central role in German nuclear technology, and in the in German attempts to export nuclear technology to East and South.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More information: Koordinationskreis Siemens-Kampagne, Postfach 610285, 10924 Berlin, Germany, fax-2291822. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">PV-Wind Electric Hybrid System for Stand Alone Application</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Lars Yde, Folkecenter for Renewable Energy, Denmark</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is an old clich&eacute; that solar and wind energy are complementing each other well under the Danish seasonal conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In winter, when there is much wind, room heating is needed while in summer with much sun domestic hot water is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A closer analysis will show, however that a windturbine, which can cover the heat demand in winter easily, can cover the demand for domestic hot water in summer. In addition to that it will be economically more advantageous to use the electricity produced by the windturbine for electric purposes instead of for heat because electricity has approx. the double value per kWh.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The combination of solar-wind is more interesting in the so-called off-grid electricity systems. These are self-supplying plants which are not coupled to the public electricity grid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A photo-voltaic plant has a relatively high production in summer and a relatively small production in winter. This means that an off-grid system will either result in a heavy over-production in summer or should be equipped with a seasonal storage. Both solutions will be very expensive (See fig. 1). A windpower supply has serious problems in summer when periods with no wind may occur up to 2 weeks (see fig. 2). The combination of solar-wind is therefore evident (see fig. 3).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The question is, what the proportion between the solar and wind plant should be? Can the hybrid plant compete with a pure solar or wind plant?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Design considerations for Danish climate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A photo-voltaic plant has a production per month varying between 18% in January and 100% in July (see fig. 1). The windpower plant produces 55% in July and 100% in January (see fig.2).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="i393p12.png"></center><br>
+ Fig.1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Now we shall compare 3 different plants giving the same annual production. The key figures for 1 m² plant is stated in the table above. That is 1 m solar cell panel and 1 m² swept area for the windturbine which is a FC4000 ( 1,5 kW, 0 4 m windturbine, 12 m tower). Mean wind speed = 4 m/s. The following three plants are compared:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="i393p13.png"></center><br>
+ Fig.1, 2, 3, 4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The 1st plant is a pure photo-voltaic plant with a battery storage capacity of 6 months (Fig. 1).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The 2nd plant is a pure windpower plant with a battery storage capacity of 2 weeks (Fig. 2).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The 3rd plant is a hybrid plant with battery storage capacity of 2 days (Fig. 3).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For an annual production of 300 kWh the following plant sizes are needed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1) 3 m² photo-voltaic plant</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2) 1.5 m² windpower plant 2 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3) 1 m photo-voltaic plant + 1 m windpower plant An annual production / consumption of 300 kWh evenly distribution throughout the year corresponds to approx. 0.8 kWh per day. Therefore the 3 plants need the following storage capacities:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1) 6 months == 144.0 kWh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2) 2 weeks == 11.2 "</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3) 2 days == 1.6 "</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The total costs of the plants are calculated with the following prices:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Photo-voltaic plant: 8,000 DKK/m² Windturbine: 3,600 DKK/m² Battery storage: 1,500 DKK/kWh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The total costs of the plants are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1) 3x8,000 + 144x1,500 = 234,000 DKK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2) 1.5x3,600 + 11.2x1,500 = 22,200 DKK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3) 1x8,000 + 1x3,600 + 1.6x1,500 = 13,700 DKK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The numbers show that the cost of the 1st and 2nd plant are dominated by the prices of the battery storage, while the cost of the 3rd plant is dominated by the windturbine and the photo-voltaic plant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If we take a look on the operation expenditures the advantage of the hybrid plant is getting even more evident.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A battery storage has a limited lifetime. For instance 2,000 cycles for 50% discharging for stationary battery. A battery of 1 kWh will therefore have a life capacity (lifetime) of 2,000x0.50x1 kWh = 1,000 kWh. After 2,000 cycles the battery will still function but at reduced capacity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The price for the battery is, as mentioned above, approx. 1,500 DKK which gives a storage price of approx. 1.50 DKK per kWh. Therefore it is quite evident that storage of electricity is something that, as far as it is possible, has to be avoided. This is done best by letting the wind and the sun work together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large Development Potentials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stand-alone operation of small plants as a real energy supply is a field which is neither especially developed nor immediately comparable with other electricity supplying units. Such a plant has a long row of applications such as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Self - supplying of grid - independent buildings in industrialized countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· House - / farm - / village - plant in remote areas, in 3rd world countries and at refugee camps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Electric water pumping and ordinary electricity supplying.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So there are great potentials for development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the obstacles of spreading the utilization of stand-alone solar cell plants is the large demand for storage due to the solar cells being in operation in day hours only and, except for the countries around the Equator, it gives full output in the summer months only.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Denmark the operation of windpower is spread over the whole day, and the greatest output is in the winter. In the countries near the Equator the windpower is either fairly evenly distributed over the whole day or peaks at sunrise and sunset.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In any case, co-operation between photo-voltaic and windpower will extend the operation time of the plant over the day and over the year. By this a levelling of the output of the plant will take place by means of which the storage demand is reduced considerably.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Therefore it can be expected that a photo-voltaic/windpower plant will be a favourable type of plant. The development and experience that have already been achieved with stand-alone operation of small windturbines make a good basis for a contribution in this field. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Events</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">January 15-16, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional INforSE meeting for Eastern and Southern Africa, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Mumbua Munywoki, FOOD, P.O.Box 30979, Nairobi, Kenya. ph: +254-2-566032, fax: +254-2-740524</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">January 20, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20th Anniversary Conference - UK-ISES, London</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Technical conference on renewable energy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Jenniy Gregory, ph: +44-736730073, fax: +44-736-730820.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">February 21-25, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional INforSE meting for Western Africa, Palmarin, Senegal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: ENDA - Energie, att. Masse Lo &amp; Youba Sokona, B.P.3370, Dakar, Senegal, ph+221-22 5983/2496, fax+221-22 2695, telex 51 456 ENDA TM SG, email: energy@endadakar.gn.apc.org</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">February 22-25, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional INforSE meeting for Asia Pacific, Hanoi, Vietnam together with Conference on Sustainable Energy Development and Exhibition of Renewable Energy Products from the Asia Pacific Region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Benjamin Gertes, PCATT, 224 D Silang Street, Batangas City, Philippines 4200. ph: +63-43 723 1155, fax: +63-2-815 0276 (c/o Daqna).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">March 9-10, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Electricity in Europe '94: The Increasingly Competitive European Electricity Market, London, UK. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conference. Info: International Centre for Business Information Ltd, 2nd Floor, Market Towers, l Nine Elms Lane, London SW8 5NQ, UK, ph+44-71-344 3830, fax+44-71-344 3860</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">April, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional INforSE meeting for Latin America, Brasilia, Brazil together with workshop and ELAN-network meeting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INfo: IED, att. Emilio &amp; Ana Lucia La Rovere, c/o Universidad Federal de Rio de Janeiro, Bloco C, Sala 211, C.P. 68565, Ilha de Fundao, 21945 Rio de Janeiro - RJ, Brazil. ph-55-21-270 9995, fax -55-21-290 6626.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">April 5-8, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Global Climate Change: Science, Policy and Mitigation Strategies, Arizona, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conference. Info: Dr. C.V.Mathai, Arizona Public Service Company. P.O.Box 53999, M/S 9366. Phoenix, AZ 85072, USA. ph: +1-6022503569, fax: +1-602-2508313.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">April 11-15, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: WIP, Sylvensteinstrasse 2, D81369 Munchen. ph: +49-897201232, fax: +49-89-7201291.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">April 24, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sun Day 1994, USA coordinated campaign with more than 50 events in USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">April/May 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional INforSE Meeting for Central Asia, New Delhi, India together with Workshop to Promote Sustainable Renewable Energy Programs through NGOs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Raymond Myles, AFPRO, 25/1A, Inst. Area, Pankha Road, "D" Block Janakpuri, New Delhi - 110058, India. ph: +91-11-5555412, fax: +9111-5500343.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">April 20 - May 6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGO Islands Forum, Barbados</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parallel with UN-conference on small islands sustainable development. Theme on appropriate technology, exhibition on renewable energy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Barbados Env. Association, P.O. Box 132, Bridgetown, Barbados, W.I., fax-809-427 0619.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">June 2-5, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Towards the world governing of the environment, Venice, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: ICEF Mr A. Postiglione, Corte Suprema di Cassazione, Piazza Cavour 1, 00193 Rome Italy ph: +39- 66868597, fax: +39-6-683000783.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">June 21-25, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Energy Visions, Basel, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Exhibition for New Technology and Services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Beat Loffler, Schweitzer Mustermesse in Basel, CH-4021 Basel, ph: 61-6862020, fax: 616912024.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">July 4-8, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European NGO Energy Seminar, Deister, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Marlies Ante, Energie- und Umweltszentrum am Deister, 3257 Springe 3. ph: +49-5044-380/1880, fax: +49-5044-4640.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">July 9, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional INforSE Meeting for Europe, Deister, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Gunnar Boye Olesen, OVE, Willemaesgade 14, 2100 Copenhagen 0. Ph: +45-3142 9091, fax: +45-3142 9095, e-mail: ove@pns.apc.org.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">September 11-16, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Renewable Energy Congress, jointly with ISES Europe, Reading, UK </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Climate Change - Energy and Environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Prof. Sayigh, University of Reading, Dep. of Engineering, ph: +44734-318588, fax: +44-734-313835.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">September 22-23, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia Energy Efficiency Conference with parallel exhibition ENEX-Asia '94, Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">info: Ms Irene Low, Reed Exhibition Pte Ltd: I Maritime Square # 12-01, World Trade Center Singapore 0409. ph: +65-271-1013, fax: +65-2744666.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">October 1-5, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parellel activities to IMF/World Bank meeting, Madrid, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: A Hernandez, Aedenat, C/Campomanes 13, 28013 Madrid. Ph: +341-5411071, fax: +34-1-5717108.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">October 24-27, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Third International Conference on Power Quality: End-Use Applications and Perspectives, Amsterdam, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: mr Teus de Zwart, KEMA Transmission &amp; Distribution, P.O.Box 9035 ET ARNHEM, The Netherlands. ph: +31-85-566093, fax: +31-85-513683.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">November 16-18, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Energy - Innovation - Revolution, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5th International Festival of Films on Energy Lausanne.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: FIFEL, p.o.box 88, CH-1000 Lausanne 9. Switzerland. ph: +93 213129069, fax: 93-21-3201019 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Unplugged</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Ann Vikkelso, OVE, Denmark</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La Barthe, a small community in Southern France, has decided to disconnect from the public power grid, in order to avoid using nuclear power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La Barthe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a sunny summer day in the Pyrenees. La Barthe celebrates its summer festival, with local musicians performing, theater and lots of people visiting from the area. But it is not only passive entertainment. They are also promoting their ideas of a sustainable life-style to all the visitors. There are guided tours around the farm, demonstration of husbandry (working with animals), and an anti-nuclear - pro renewables and energy efficiency exhibition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About 10 persons live and work at the farm La Barthe. They are doing organic farming. They are using oxen, mules and horses for most of the heavy physical work (animal husbandry) and have very little machinery at the farm. They are growing vegetables and herbs. The herbs are dried and some of them are used for oils. There is also a bakery at La Barthe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Renewable Energy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La Barthe gets nearly all its energy from renewable sources. Exceptions are a small share of the electricity that is still delivered from the public grid, and using petrol for the vehicles. They are using wood for heating and for the oven in the bakery. There is a lot of waste wood in the area, so there is no problem with getting enough big-fuel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Electricity is produced by a 1 kW windturbine and two 55 W photovoltaic panels. The electricity is stored in a battery storage, ideally with a capacity of 10 kWh (800Ah*12V), but presently lower. The current storage capacity is too low to enable the community to disconnect from the public power grid yet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For drying of the herbs there is built a simple air solar collector outside the drying house. Air is heated in the solar collector and blown directly into the drying boxes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Pyrenees is good for the combination of wind and solar energy or electricity production. Its a mountain area with an average windspeed of 4-5 m/s. There are no longer periods without wind and the area is sunny.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No Public</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">75% of French electricity is produced at nuclear power plants. The French energy system is very centralized, all is owned by Electricite de France. It is not possible for any independent energy producers, as wind turbine cooperatives or small cogeneration plants to get connected and sell electricity through the public grid at any reasonable price. In order not to use nuclear power, the only choice the individual consumer has, is to get disconnected from the grid and build up a stand alone system, just as La Barthe is now doing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Books</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wind Power for Home &amp; Business</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is a new book from one of the "grand old men" in windpower in USA. It tells "all you need to know" if you want to install a small-or medium sized windturbine in USA. Also a valuable book outside USA. Contains description of technology, applications, siting, how to buy or build, connection to utility, installation, maintenance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Include lists of manufacturers &amp; contacts, plus a worldwide overview of wind resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poul Gipe, Chelsea Green Publishing Company, P.O. Box 130, Route 113, Post Mills, Vermont 05058-0130, USA, 413 pages, 35 $</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where the Wind Blows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wind energy, Windfarms. 24 pages, 3.50 £, 1993</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solar Water Heating - A DIY Guide 24 pages, £ 3.95, 1993 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tapping The Sun - A Solar Water Heating Guide</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">16 pages, £ 1.95, 1993</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Save Energy Save Money - A Guide to Energy Conservation in the Home 32 pages, £ 2.95, 1993 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four new English books with overviews of major renewable energy technologies, that we all can use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centre for Alternative Technology Publications, Macynlileth, Powys, SY20 9AZ, UK, ph -44-654 702400, fax -44-654 702782 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Join the INforSE Campaign on Sustainable Energy and Social Development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Gunnar Boye Olesen, INforSE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the INforSE coordinating meeting in Denmark in October '93 the participants supported the launching of an INforSE campaign "Sustainable Energy and Social Development". It was agreed that the campaign should include as many regions as possible. Major issues will be energy and job-creation, income-generation and social development. The campaign will consist of regional activities and general activities including input to the World Summit on Social Development '95.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Present Plans</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The presently planned campaign activities are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· regional studies on sustainable energy and social development. The studies will describe the specific conditions, experience and priorities of each region, as well as polilical priorities from NGOs. Currently a study of the Danish/European situation is undertaken by Aalborg University Center, Denmark. Forum for Energy &amp; Development will seek funding for studies in developing countries. The regional INforSE coordinators will play central roles in the developments of the regional studies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· an international campaign paper highlighting sustainable energy perspectives, success-stories and proposed policies. The paper will be based on the regional studies and will be elaborated in April-July 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· International Workshop (see below)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· regional campaign activities following the workshop</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· coordinated input to the World Summit on Social Development, Copenhagen, March 1995. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Workshop</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The major coordination of the campaign will be made at the "International workshop for Sustainable Energy and Social Development", which is planned to be one week in August 1994, in Denmark. The workshop will be a forum for exchange of experiences and for the development of inputs to the World Summit '95. It will give room for in-depth discussions of the nexus between social development and sustainable energy. During the workshop an action plan will be elaborated for the following campaign activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The participants will be representatives of INforSE organizations active in the campaign and other organizations and individuals with proven experience related to a sustainable. decentralized energy development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Invitation to Join the Campaign</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All NGOs working for a sustainable energy development are invited to join the campaign by giving their inputs to the regional strategies and/or take part in the campaign activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More and more NGOs are working on the links between sustainable development and job/livelihood creation. This campaign will join the forces of many NGOs that are exploring these links in theory and in practice in their campaigns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P>If your NGO wants to join the campaign please inform your regional coordinator or the INforSE secretariat in Denmark. that will pass the letter to the coordinator. Express your interests, plans and current activities regarding the campaign-issue. Inputs to the regional studies are also mostly welcome.</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/in03we/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/in03we/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/in03we/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Sustainable Energy News - No. 3 December 1993 (in03we)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Development Periodicals and Magazines|Sustainable Energy Newsletters of the INFORSE network</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">Inforse</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">Q-R-S</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/in04we/in04we.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/in04we/in04we.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/in04we/in04we.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1060 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Sustainable Energy News - No</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Sustainable Energy News - No. 4 March 1994</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISSN 0908-4134</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newsletter for the International Network for Sustainable Energy - INforSE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Sustainable Energy News</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Published by: l INforSE </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 2059,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DK - 1013 Copenhagen K in cooperation with</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OVE - The Danish Organization for Renewable Energy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Willemoesgade 14</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DK-2100 Kobenhavn 0</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ph: +45-31429091, fax: -31429095 E-mail: ove@pns.apc.org</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editors:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ann Vikkelso, Gunnar Olesen, Judit Szoleczky, OVE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rene Karottki, Forum for Energy and Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Technical Editor: Lars Yde, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Folkecenter for Renewable Energy P.O.Box 208, DK-7760 Hurup Thy Ph: +45-97956600, Fax:-9795656</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Drawings: Katia Ibanez</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deadline for next issue: 25.5.94</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Next issue: June 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The newsletter is quarterly. Contributions are welcomed. Feel free to use the information you find in Sustainable Energy News.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual subscription rate: US$ 15 Sustainable Energy News will be distributed free of charge to NGOs as long as possible. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Supported by: Forum for Energy and Development. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INforSE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Network for Sustainable Energy is a worldwide NGO network formed at Global Forum in Rio, June 1992.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional Contacts:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stephen Karekezi, FOOD, Kenya Youba Sokona, ENDA, Senegal Raymond Myles, AFPRO, India Benjamin Gertes, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Emil Bedi, FAE- SZOPK, Slovakia Gunnar Olesen, OVE, Denmark Martin Prieto, REDES, Uruguay Emilio Rovere, IED, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nancy Hirsh, ECC, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Join the INforSE Network !</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INforSE is open to membership for independent organizations. All interested organizations will be granted associate membership and will receive this newsletter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Core members of INforSE are organizations that are approved by their respective INforSE region and that will support in their words and actions the energy strategy behind INforSE, Sustainable Energy Development - Towards a World Strategy. Core members have voting rights at regional meetings. Procedures for membership are decided on regional level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do not hesitate to contact INforSE regarding membership for your organization. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Editorial: energy and jobs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Against Underdevelopment in Latin America</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small scale renewable energy projects have an important potential to foster an environmentally sound economic and social development of Latin American counties, specially in rural areas. The availability of energy for productive activities can help to create jobs and support local economic growth leading to an improvement of overall quality of life. This is badly needed in the country and in urban surroundings, where low income populations are concentrated. Millions of people fall under this category due to the skew income distribution pattern throughout the Latin American continent. Their situation further deteriorated during the eighties (a lost decade in the region) due to the economic recession. The widening extension of famine and malnutrition has become a source of increasing concern. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Brazil, non governmental organizations started a nation-wide campaign of solidarity with starving people. This spread to encompass a large number of initiatives through creation of local committees in neighbourhoods and institutions including state-owned and private companies. Besides trying to provide some immediate relief to the poor through food donations, the campaign is also aimed to handle the roots of the problem setting the goal of increasing employment opportunities. A positive synergy between this campaign and the launching of a Sustainable Energy Strategy could then be explored. It will demand a deeper involvement of NGOs with actual demonstration of appropriate energy technologies in the field, which is still lacking in Brazil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course the successful launching of a Sustainable Energy Strategy in Latin America will still largely depend on the support obtained from governmental energy policies. The present situation in this respect has considerably worsened since the seventies, when important efforts were directed towards the technological development of new and renewable energy sources. Due to the dropping of oil prices and to the financial difficulties faced by all governments in the region, renewable energy research and development budgets were squeezed. In contrast, nuclear power is still actively supported in some countries of the Latin American continent. (See news in the last issue of SEN about a new nuclear power plant in Brazil).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These issues will be addressed in the Latin American Regional Meeting scheduled to take place next April in Brasilia. It will be held simultaneously with the IV FLEA/ELAN in order to gather the NGOs already involved in the anti-nuclear movement. An expected outcome of the meeting is a Working Plan to support a Sustainable Energy Strategy in Latin America linked with a Campaign for Employment Generation, in the framework of INforSE activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Emilio L. La Rovere IED and COPPE/UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Greeca</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Global Renewable Energy and Ecology Centres for Action held its first meeting on March 7-12, 1994 at Folkecenter for Renewable Energy (FC) in Denmark. 5 organizations from five different countries - China, India, Cuba, Tanzania and Denmark - formed the consortium GREECA. Preben Maegaard from FC was elected as chairman for 3 years. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GREECA activities will include: exchange of experts, practical technology transfer, training and promotion. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Regional News - Africa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional INforSE meeting in Eastern Africa, March 22</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first meeting of INforSE Eastern Africa will be held at March 22, 1994 in Nairobi, Kenya, following the African Energy Initiative Seminar. The Agenda of the INforSE meeting will include: discussion of the NGO strategy Sustainable Energy Development Towards a World Strategy, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· proposed national activities as compilation of a directory of NGOs involved in sustainable energy projects and a directory of energy efficiency and renewable energy technology distributors and manufacturers,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· a proposal for establishment of an Association of Energy Efficient and Renewable Energy Technology Distributors in Eastern and Southern Africa, national level workshops that enhance information exchange and share experiences on sustainable energy activities,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Campaign on Sustainable Energy and Social Development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: FOOD, att. Mumbua Munywoki &amp; Stephen Karekezi, P.O.Box 30979, Nairobi, Kenya, ph: +254-2566032, fax: +254-2-561464.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Success for fuel efficient  cookstoves in Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of energy efficient wood and charcoal stoves in use in Eastern Africa is rapidly increasing to decrease the consumption of woodfuel and to increase the standard of living. A well known success is the charcoal stove Kenya Ceramic Jiko - KCJ (presented in Soft Energy Worldwide, May 1992), which is now used in millions of homes in Eastern Africa. The introduction of Kuni Mbili Jiko (Swahili for stove using two pieces of firewood) from 1984 was another revolutionary idea. The Kuni Mbili design is a bridge between the conventional three-stone fire and the KCJ. It is easy to light, portable, less smoky, and consumes less firewood (saves 30%). It will easily burn all available biomass including maize cobs and stalks, twigs and cow dung.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beside households, kitchens at institutions have a large potential for increased efficiency in their use of woodfuel. In 1980 woodfuel accounted for 84% of total energy consumed in commercial and public institutions in Kenya, and the amount is growing. One of the leading NGOs in Kenya, KENGO (Kenya Energy and Environmental NGOs), has developed a large, efficient stove for institutional use, KENGO Institutional Jiko (KU). If such a stove is introduced in 550 schools, wood consumption equivalent to about 4500 acres of forest could be saved annually. The response to the KIJ is very encouraging. Now institutions all over Kenya have these stoves and the demand is increasing. Well over 3000 institutional stoves have been installed already. The KIJ is a reliable and fast cooking stove that can cater for 50- 100 people. It can keep food warm for over 8 hours and gives a smoke-free, cool kitchen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KENGO is developing new types of efficient stoves and other renewable energy technologies. More information: KENGO, P.O.Box</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">48197, Nairobi, Kenya, ph:+254-2-749747/48281. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: KENGO makes Cooking Easier, Alice Wafula, Environment Times, November  1993, Nairobi, Kenya.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than 1000 solar homes in Senegal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Senegal the majority of the population lives in the country and has little scope of being connected to a central grid in a foreseeable future. This is the background for the dissemination of solar home systems by the Projet Senegalo-Allemand d'Energie Solaire. The project has disseminated more than 1000 solar home systems in Senegal, mainly for lighting. Based on`previous experience the project has developed a solar home system that is appropriate for rural households in Senegal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The typical solar home system consists of a panel, a battery, a control system, 4 incandescent 10W lamps and an electric outlet for 6/12 Volt. incandescent lamps were chosen for the project instead of fluorescent lamps that gives considerable more light; but they are 10 times as expensive as incandescent lamps and not easily available. The 4 lamps can be switched on for 4 hours each, after days with normal sunlight; this is usually sufficient. The number of lamps was chosen to correspond to the number of wifes (4) that one man can have according to Islam, the major religion in Senegal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Local associations are involved in the introduction of the solar home systems, and the systems are usually financed by revolving fund, managed by the associations. They also have a role in the necessary maintenance of the solar home systems, and in maintaining information about the systems and their use. In each association there are two or three technicians with sufficient skills and with access to spare parts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Senegalese state has exempted photovoltaic equipment from VAT and import duties. This is done because of the importance of solar home systems and other photovoltaic applications increasing the living conditions for the rural population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Projet Senegalo-Allemand d'Energie Solaire. Le Systeme Photovoltaic Familial. Masse Lo and others, Dakar 1993. Report is available from ENDA, B.P.3370 Dakar, Senegal. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Regional News - Asia</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional Workshop and INforSE meeting in New Delhi, May 18-21,1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The start-up of INforSE activities in the Central Asia Region will be a 4-days workshop to develop a strategy for promoting rural energy for socioeconomic development through NGOs. It will be combined with the first INforSE meeting in this region. The workshop and meeting is organized by AFPRO (Action for Food Production). Limited support for travel expenses will be available for INforSE organizations from the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information: Raymond Myles, AFPRO, 25/l A, Institutional Area, Pankha Road, "D" Block Janakpuri, New Delhi - 220058, ph: +91 -115500343, telex 31-65899 AFPRO IN.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional INforSE workshop in Hanoi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The previous announced INforSE workshop in Hanoi, Vietnam is now set to April 25-28, 1994. It will be the founding meeting of INforSE Asia-Pacific Region. The objectives of the workshop are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· to assess status and future directions of sustainable energy development among NGOs,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· to diagnose problems and constraints as well as identify opportunities and potentials for promoting sustainable energy development both at the national and grassroots level,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· to formulate strategies for job/employment creation by implementing sustainable energy,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· to enhance-cooperation, linkages and sharing of expertise and knowledge on sustainable energy among countries in the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The expected outputs of the workshop are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· a draft of a common framework for sustainable energy development appropriate for the Asia-Pacific region,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· a list of regional and country strategies for promoting job/employment creation through sustainable energy development,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· a catalogue of NGOs and other organizations concerned with sustainable energy development in the Asia-Pacific region. The venue of the workshop is the National Info- &amp; Documentation Center for Science &amp; Technology, 24 Ly Thuong Kiet, Hanoi, Vietnam (contact Mr. Nguyen Van Khanh). Parallel with the workshop there will be an exhibition with sustainable energy products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limited support for travel expenses will be available for INforSE organizations from the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information by: Benjamin Gertes, PCATT, 224D Silang Street, Batangas City, Philippines 4200, ph: +63-43-7231155.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Local INforSE meetings at the Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A series of workshops on renewable energy and sustainable energy development was held in Manila and Batangas City during March 1-5, 1994. The workshops were attended by representatives from a number of Philippine INforSE organizations. Parts of the workshops were used to discuss INforSE and to make preparations for the regional workshop and INforSE meeting in April.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information: Benjamin Gertes (address above)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable Energy Networking in China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until recently INforSE has not had any formal contact to China with its 1/5 of the world population and a remarkable development of renewable energy. The lack of contacts is mainly due to the structure in China, where sustainable energy solutions are not driven by NGOs in the way that can be seen in many other countries. Currently no Chinese organization has supported the sustainable energy strategy that INforSE is based upon.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This situation is now changing. The Asian Pacific coordinator Benjamin Gertes has visited a number of Chinese research and development centers, where he found a widespread interest in more cooperation with INforSE. A large number of contacts were made and professor Qi Wenhu was appointed as contact person.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides Qi Wenhu, George Chan is working as Chinese contact person for INforSE. He is widely known for his work with biogas and integrated farming systems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact persons in China: Qi Wenhu </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CISNAR (Committee for Integrated Survey of Natural Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11 Nanzhanguan Nanli Beijing 10026, China ph: +86-1-491 7296 fax: +86-1-491 4230</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">George L. Chan c/o Chan Sew Sen P.O.Box 98442</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hong Kong fax: c/o prof. Zhong Gongfu +86-20776 5006</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Narmada Dam - broken promises</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Around New Year the news about the Narmada Dam in India looked promising. On December 31, the Narmada Control Authority was forced to announce that it was not going to close the sluice gates at the foot of the dam, because the Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Ministry of Social </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Welfare stated that the conditions on resettlement and the environment had not been fulfilled. Nevertheless work on plugging sluices at the foot of the half-completed dam began on Wednesday, February 23. The Indian Government had assured the World Bank and its shareholder governments that the sluices would not be shut before June 1994. No warning was given either to the hundreds of families upstream whose farmlands will be permanently flooded, nor to the hundreds of thousands downstream whose drinking water supplies will be cut off for weeks while the river backs up to the height of the next set of sluices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information: Lori Udall, International Rivers Network, Washington DC. Phone: +1-202-466 8191. Fax: +1-202-466 8189.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peoples' Forum 2001 in Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In November 1993, Peoples' Forum 2001, Japan was established to follow up the Agenda agreed at Global Forum'92 in Rio. They held the first symposium in February 1994 supported by many NGOs. The DERG (Decentralized Energy Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Group) took initiative to a sub-conference on energy and set up an international information service window. (Dai Nakajima, DERG)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Support for PV in Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) will now give a subsidy of 50% for solar cells on individual houses. The maximum subsidy will be 2.7 million yen, allowing 50% subsidy for a 3 kW PV plant. It is quite unusual that subsidies from Japanese national budget is paid directly to consumers as they will be in this case.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Sustainble Energy Progressing into Development Projects</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Erik Graff, CARE Denmark</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As follow up to the Rio Conference, Danish environment, energy and development organizations want to add an energy component to their developing projects. They have joined the Forum for Energy and Development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In November 1993, CARE Danmark has carried out the first Forum supported study of the energy consumption and the possibilities of adding fuel savings and sustainable energy solutions to an on-going project in the outlying Mustang district in Nepal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As an example the study has established time consumption for fuel wood collection, wood consumption, consumer patterns and habits etc. in the project area. The time consumption for fuel wood collection is today 8-16 hours each time per household, dependent on distance to the forest. 20 years ago the time consumption was only about 25% of this. As an average each household collects about 40 kg of wood each time about 130 times a year. Therefore a reduced fuel wood consumption will also cause that the time saved can be used for more productive purposes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The study proves that it is possible to reduce the wood consumption by fuel saving initiatives and by utilizing sustainable energy sources in the area such as sun, water and wind. The suggestions include among others the following low- technological solutions: Improved clay stoves supplied with smoke pipes, pressure cookers, hay-boxes and solar box cookers, tightening of houses and putting in window glass, and passive solar heating. Furthermore solar water heaters for public bathing houses in the villages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results of the study is now available in a draft report containing suggestions at 4 levels of ambition together with calculations of costs and benefits of the objects at each level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devastation of the environment and following deterioration of the resource basis of the populations in developing countries is a global problem, which cannot be solved solely by agricultural and tree-planting activities. Therefore energy savings and utilization of sustainable energy must be subjects of future activities for the development agencies on line with other activities. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Regional News- Europe</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INforSE Europe Meeting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coming regional meeting in Europe will be July 9, 1994 at Energie-und Umweltzentrun am Deister near Hannover in Germany. On the agenda will be a new action plan for INforSE Europe, discussions about future common actions by sustainable energy NGOs in Eastern and Western Europe and an evaluation of the past year. An important point will be a discussion of the European part of the INforSE campaign.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The INforSE meeting will take place immediately after the European Sustainable Energy NGO Seminar, July 4-8, also at Energie- und Umweltzentrum am Deister.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information: OVE, att. Gunnar Boye Olesen, Willemoesgade 14, 2100 Kobenhavn 0, ph: +45-3142 9091, fax: +45-3142 9095.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INforSE Europe Campaign</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European part of the INforSE campaign will focus on energy and employment. Basically, the first steps of transition to a sustainable energy system will create employment and economic activity that can be financed by reduced use of fossil fuels, besides it has environmental benefits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Europe, the new campaign for a job-creating sustainable energy development will set focus on activities that can be started with public money made available from reduced social security and unemployment expenditures, and multiplied by private investments. With the right selection of measures, such a strategy can reduce unemployment without increases in the public expenses simply by a smaller change in public expenses and a larger activation of private capital. These measures can include raising the efficiency in domestic energy use (improving of homes, better energy control systems), utilization of solar heat in active and passive systems, energy efficiency improvements in commercial and industrial sector, a shift to more efficient transport systems, as well as the creation of whole new business sectors for sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The campaign will be coordinated with plans on environment and employment from WWF, Friends of the Earth, Climate Action Network, BUND, etc. It will produce inputs to the global INforSE campaign, presented in last issue of Sustainable Energy News.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Western Europe an important result of these joint efforts will be an environmental employment plan that can be seen as an alternative to the EU-Commission Whitebook on employment from December 1993 Delor's Plan. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Eastern Europe the campaign will focus on sustainable energy solutions for economies in transition, highlighting successful experiences in the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The campaign will be presented at the BUND environmental fair in Freiburg, Germany in June, and at different occasions in the autumn of 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All European INforSE organizations have received a more detailed description of the campaign. For more information and cooperation on the campaign, please contact INforSE Europe, att. Gunnar Olesen, Willemoesgade 14, 2100 Copenhagen 0, Denmark, ph: +45- 3142 9091, fax: +453142 9095 or c/o SZOPK-FAE, att. Emil Bedi, Gorkeho 6,81101 Bratislava, Slovakia, ph/fax: +42-7-36 46 65.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">US invests in Temelin NPP</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Last year the Czech government made a contract with the American company Westinghouse about completion of Temelin Nuclear Power Plant. On January 27 the American Export/lmport Bank gave preliminary approval for the needed credit guarantee, and they have sent an application for the credit guarantee to finance Temelin to the US congress. The US congress will probably take a decision during March '94.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The construction of Temelin NPP was started during the communist era. Temelin will be a hybrid of Soviet and US design that is completely untested, and will have a high risk of accident. The power generated from the plant is not needed. There are great possibilities for energy efficiency in the Czech Republic. There is also an unused potential for hydropower as well as utilization of other renewable energy sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All the time there has been a strong local and international opposition to the plans of finishing Temelin, but there has never been any public hearings or discussions about the project in the Czech parliament. European environmental groups have fought the plans of completion for years. Right now the struggle continues, especially in the USA, to stop the dying Western nuclear industry from expanding their activities to Central and Eastern Europe in order to survive. Join the campaign in the US or this summer in the Czech Republic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More information on Temelin nuclear power plant issue on the e-mail conference: gn.nuclear or energy.nuclear or at Hnuti DUHA, Jakubskenam. 7, 60200 Brno, Czech Republic, ph: +42-5-42210438, fax: +42-542210347.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CADDET Center for Renewable Energy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The IEA's Center for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies (CADDET) has set up a new unit to focus on renewable energy. The original CADDET is operated by NOVEM in the Netherlands. The CADDET Center for Renewable Energy will be operated by the Energy Technology Support Unit (ETSU) at Harwell in Britain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Energy..in Demand)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Campaign Against Windfarms in Wales</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the main environmental groups in Wales, The Campaign for the Protection of Rural Wales, reversed its earlier stance and is now opposing all new plans for windfarms. The Campaign is urging a moratorium on new windfarms until substantial results have been achieved through conservation and energy-saving measures. The group feels that the subsidy for renewable energy would be more valuable if used for conservation measures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Energy..in Demand)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Renewable Energy Share Increased in Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The renewable energy share, including hydro, of total German electricity production increased 1% 1990-92 to 4.3% in 1992. Neverthetess the hydropower has a share of 80%, the non- hydro renewables are gaining ground. Electricity production from non-hydro renewables in Germany:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=309>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1990</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1992</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solar</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.6 GWh</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.4 GWh</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biomass</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">220 GWh</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">295 GWh</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wind</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">43 GWh</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">275 GWh</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Energy..in Demand)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biodiesel Plant in Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The world's largest biodiesel plant, with a capacity of 80,000 tonnes per year, opened in Livomo, Italy in the end of 1993. It will be supplied by soya, rapeseed and sunflowers. The biodiesel fuel will be sold throughout Europe. (Energy..in Demand)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Regional News - Latin America</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin American INforSE meeting in June</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The founding meeting of INforSE Latin America is postponed till the last week of June to coincide with the ELAN/FLEA meeting (Latin American Anti Nuclear and Alternative Energy Network). Limited support is available for INforSE member organizations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program and further information: IED, att. Emilio Rovere, c/o Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Bloco C, Sala 211, C.P. 68565, Ilha do Fundao' ,21945 Rio de Janeiro - RJ, Brazil, ph: +55-21-2709995/9662, fax: +5521-290 6626.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Renewable Energy Campaign in Uruguay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REDES, one of the regional focal points of INforSE and the Uruguayan part of Friends of the Earth, is now planning a renewable energy campaign for Uruguay. The campaign will be carried through in cooperation with other NGOs including cooperative organizations. Major elements in the campaign will be:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· construction of a permanent exhibition of sustainable energy solutions in the REDES Eco-Comunidad (an ecological village project), production of brochures and other publications in order to systematize existing information and new results,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· a test station for solar collectors for water heating at the Uruguayan market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information: REDES, att. Martin Prieto, Avenida Millan 4113, Montevideo, Uruguay, ph: +598-2-356265, fax: +598-2-381640, e-mail: redesur@ chasque.apc.org</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Windturbines and hydropower in Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Inter-American Development Bank and European Investment Bank will give loans with a total of USD 515 mill. for the power sector in Costa Rica. The loans will fund the construction of a 177 MW hydropower plant in the Reventazon River basin and a 20 MW wind power project in Tejona near Lake Arenal. The wind turbine park will be the first of its kind in Central America. Other uses of the loan will be network construction and an energy conservation program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Inter American Development Bank newsletter, Jan-Feb. 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hydropower in Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Inter-American Development Bank will provide a loan of USD 500 mill., the largest in the Banks history, to the construction of a 2,160 MW hydro power plant in the eastern Venezuelan state of Guayana on the Caroni river. The project with a total cost of USD 2.13 billion includes financing for 13 projects to minimize adverse environmental effects of the works. The project also supports the government's electrical sector reform program to establish a regulatory framework and a pricing policy to encourage more efficient use of energy resources. Source: Inter-American Development Bank newsletter Jan-Feb. 1994. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Regional News - North America</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable Energy Budget</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">US NGOs and the SunDay Campaign have released their proposal for a Sustainable Energy Budget for the US Department of Energy (DOE) for the Fiscal Year 1995. The proposal is a result of more than 6 months work by more than 30 national environmental, business, utility and state government organizations. It recommends an increase of USD 491 mill. of DOE's energy efficiency program and USD 320 mill. of its renewable energy program, leading to almost a doubling of these programs. Besides, cuts of USD 1230 mill. from nuclear and selected fossil fuels programs is proposed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The proposal was presented in November '93 as the beginning of a grassroots campaign to press the members of US Congress to formally endorse a shift in funding priorities in the DOE budget. The campaign is running during the current US federal budget discussions. A copy of the Sustainable Energy Budget can be ordered from Sun Day Campaign, 315 Circle Avenue, #2, Takoma Park, Maryland 20912-4836, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sun Day 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than 200 organizations are now planning a celebration of renewable energy and energy efficiency Sunday, April 24. Sun Day 1994 will feature one-day educational activities as fairs, conferences and exhibitions as well as activites, that have a longer-term impact such as announcing changes in governmental policies, building codes, and initiation of energy policy reviews by corporate and government decision makers. The campaign is striving to be broad-based and includes electric utilities, renewable energy trade associations, and associations representing government interests. The campaign has 3 primary objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· education of the public, media and decision makers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· showcase the programs and technologies being sponsered by the participating organizations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· encourage new public and private initiatives to expand further the use of renewable energy and energy efficient technologies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The activities are coordinated by Sun Day Campaign (address above).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Energy Fast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earth Day Energy Fast ask all persons (as well institutions and business) to cut back or eliminate energy use - by incorporating energy conservation techniques into their routines - from Earth Day April 22 through the following Sunday April 24. 6 categories, targeted for specific energy reduction goals, in terms of programs and simple things individuals can do, have been carefully chosen. Some of the categories are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Transportation: Use Mass Transit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Climate control: Reduce Temperature Settings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Lighting: Retrofit with Green (low-energy) bulbs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Water: Conserve</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Earth Day Energy Fast, 1002 112 N. Sweetzer Ave. West Hollywood, California 90069, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tehachapi Wind Fair</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Organizers of the third Tehachapi Wind Fair have annouced an expanded program for the popular event May 21-22 at Mountain Valley Airport (a popular sailplane center), Tehachapi, California. The event will include a fair of windturbines, solar panels and electric vehicles, bus tours and a hike to wind turbine parks, kite flying and a playground where the children for instance can slid down a wind turbine blade. The Fair is part of SunDay 1994. Contact: Kern Wind Energy Association, att. Paul Gipe, P.O.Box 277, Tehachapi, California 93581, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">US Climate Action Network</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Develops Resource Library</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you are trying to get more information about global warming issues, from energy to economics or science, USCAN might help you from their new information resource library and clearinghouse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Andrew Gettelman, US CAN, 1350 New York Av., N.W., #300, Washington DC 20005, fax: +1-202783 5917, e-mail: uscan@igc.apc.org.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Climate Plans for Cities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In November 1993 Portland in Oregon was the first US municipality to adopt a comprehensive global warming strategy. In December Minneapolis and Saint Paul in Minnesota and Dade County in Florida folleowed. Everybody are with these plans embarking on new municipal policies to reduce energy wasted in power plants, buildings and transport, leading to a 20% overall reduction in CO2 emissions from 1988 to 2005 or 2010.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Implementation of these plans will require significant political commitment locally. The tranportation sector, for instance, requires challenging remedies if patterns of auto dependency are to change. American cities use up to five times more energy per capita than European communities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A key objective of the Minneapolis plan is a 20-25% reduction of energy used in residential and commercial buildings. Implementation of this will cut the municipality's budget deficit and keep more jobs in the local economy by creating jobs in the construction sector locally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These plans are among 12 plans conceived around the world as models for urban centers by the Urban CO2 Reduction Project, sponsered by the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Hotline, January 1994, US Climate Action Network.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Renewable Energy Education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solar Energy International (SKI) is organising an International Renewable Energy Education Program (IREEP) in the summer 1994. The 12 weeks program consists of hands-on how-to workshops on solar, wind and water power technologies, including a workshop on International Project Development focusing on methods of participatory planning and the issues of woman in development. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The educational program will be held in the small community of Carbondale, Colorado in the heart of the Rocky Mountains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: SKI - ph: +1-303-963 8855, fax: +1-303-963 8866. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">World Bank Energy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Gunnar Boye Olesen, OVE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1992, the World Bank has adopted a new energy policy based on two policy papers Energy Efficiency and Conservation in the Developed World and The World Banks Role in the Electric Power Sector. These policy papers call for loans to be based on integrated energy strategies (Integrated Resource Planning), institutional capacity building, economic pricing and regulatory reform targeting improved end-use efficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the energy policy papers of the World Bank are substantially improved, a new evaluation of the  World Bank's lending practices in the power sector does not show a correlation between the policies and the actual lending practices. The study made by Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) and Natural Resource Defense Council (NDRC)  shows that in the power sector the loans under preparation during the first 6 months of 1993, totalling over USD 7 billions, do not comply with the Bank's new policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The study shows that the Bank fails to implement its own policy in all areas studied, except for pricing, where the Bank intends to enforce its policy. The Bank staff has no requirement or incentive to operationalize the policy which they have only applied selectively. Of the 46 loans reviewed only two loans will comply with the Banks new energy policy: one loan to the Polish Power Grid Company and one to the Government of Colombia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Background</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Historically, the World Bank has not provided many loans for energy efficiency, while the general power sector lending has often had serious environmental and social impacts. As an example Bank projects of the Industry and Energy Department are currently displacing over 380,000 people (according to a recent World Bank document The Bank-Wide Resettlement Review: Mid-term Progress Report, August, 1993).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the 1980's only one percent of the Bank's energy lending was for end-use efficiency, and about half of these funds had to be reprogrammed to other use due to project problems. One major problem was that the potential industrial investors were unwilling to borrow money for energy efficiency improvements. They prefered to borrow money for production expansions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another way of supporting energy efficiency is the Bank's calls for removal of subsidies for energy. The Bank regularly includes conditions on its loans, requiring electricity pricing reform. This condition has, however, in many cases not been enforced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides this, the Bank has attempted to improve end-use efficiency through units with earmarked funding from donor countries. An example is the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) that has conducted many assessments and pre-feasibility studies in developing countries. Yet, these hundreds of recommandations were not implemented. Proposed end-use energy efficiency investments were generally not included in subsequent Bank loans. Another such unit is the Asia Alternative Energy Unit (ASTAE), which is located on the loan-making side of the Bank, providing it with greater opportunity to interact with the loan-making staff than ESMAP, which is located on the policy side of the Bank.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Strategy &amp; Practice</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Energy Policy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In October 1992 the World Bank's Executive Board approved the two above mentioned policy papers. The two papers call for an end to business as usual, and state that the Bank's energy loans will only be provided to those countries that have undertaken certain energy reforms. For example, the papers call for borrowers to increase the price of electricity to its long-run marginal cost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The more significant observation of the new policy arise from the understanding that marginal costpricing and general capability improvements alone are insufficient to achive implementation of end-use energy efficiency. A new policy, introduced with the papers, is that energy loans should be based on or support energy strategies that consider both demandand supply-side resources. Another new policy is that the Bank will give high-level, in-country visibility to strengthen end-use energy efficiency institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report of EDF and NRDC states: If executed and if the (World) Bank more affectively enforces its pricing and regulatory reforms, these new energy policies could be the single most important factor in driving increased levels of investment in end-use energy efficiency in developing countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Good Examples</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the 46 loans evaluated by EDF and NRDC only the two described below are in reasonable agreement with the new World Bank Energy Policy. As local NGOs will know, these projects are in no way perfect; but they are the best World Bank financed projects in this respect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank has played an active role in helping Poland to improve its power sector. The Bank has pushed forward to support energy efficiency in several sectors, despite the current oversupply of electricity. The Bank provides direct finance for end-use efficiency within the current Heat Supply Restructuring and Conservation Project. This will also be done in the proposed Katowice District Heating Project, evaluated by EDF and NRDC.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Components in these loans make it possible to provide small loans to costumers for insulation and improved metering, which allow costumers to realize the savings. Such investments have an estimated pay-back period of 5 years. In the future all loans to Polish Power sector will be based on Integrated Resource Planning (IRP), including an upcoming USD 800 mill. loan, that has an IRP component.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Colombia, the World Bank is planning a loan for private sector energy development. The loan is planned as USD 15 mill. technical assistance loan, followed by a larger investment loan. The technical assistance loan will seek to strengthen the pricing, regulatory and environmental framework for the power sector as a needed pre-condition for investment. It will also include a Demand Side Management (DSM) component including efficiency standards, building codes and a pilot DSM program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Power Failure, EDF &amp; NRDC, February, 1994. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mixed Governmental Support for Energy Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Energy Policies of IEA Countries, 1992 Review, for the first time, published public sectors budgets for energy conservation between 1990 and 1992. The budgets do not include utility or research programs. Some includes state or regional programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The total IEA (International Energy Agency) budgets for energy conservation fluctuated with large swings with no discernible trend in the last three years:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=211>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1990</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USD</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="49%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1,726 million</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1991</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USD</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="49%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1,962 million</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1992</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USD</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="49%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1,862 mi11ion</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The IEA report states that the overall increase contrasts with the declining emphasis and funding levels for energy efficiency during the latter part of the 1980s, when governments began to bring expenditures more into line with revenue and decrease energy efficiency spending as world energy prices declined. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The budgets of the IEA countries also demonstrate a wide variation in rates of annual growth between 1990 and 1992. Seven of the countries report a decline in funding between 1990 and 1992. The per capita expenditures also show the significant difference in effort for the selected countries. Three countries - Germany, the Netherlands and Norway - are by far the highest spenders on energy conservation, while many others spend less than one dollar per person.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Funding level - a reliable indicator? The level of funding is considered as an indicator of countries' commitment given to energy conservation serving both energy and environmental policy objectives. However, it can be a poor indicator of interest and support, since many programs - standards, regulations, voluntary actions, - require fairly low expenditure. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Energy Intensity Ratios show no difference!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The energy intensity of a country (total primary energy supply per unit of GDP) is a frequently criticised, but still widely used yardstick for efficiency improvements. However, the numbers do not show direct correlation between government spending and energy intensity. There are almost no changes in the counties' energy intensity ratios from 1990 to 1992. The yearly $11 per capita spent on energy conservation was far from making significant changes in the energy intensity. More efforts are needed to cut this ratio down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Energy ... in Demand 19 rue Paul Feval, 75018 Paris, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Publications</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After UNCED'93, Proposals for Sustainable Energy Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A review of energy reports and activities related to the Earth Summit. Analysis of policy measures. Proposals for an Energy Section of an Earth Charter and Action Program, new UN Sustainable Energy Agency, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Szoleczky, et.al., Energy Group, Physics Dep., Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Lyngby, fax: +45 45 931669, 113 pages, USD 15, 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Power Failure - A Review of the World Bank's Implementation of its New Energy Policy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDF, 257 Park Ave. South, New York, NY10010. 76 pages, USD 10, 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WB and IMF information pack</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Third World First, 217 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1XG, UK. Tel: +44-865245678; fax: +44865-200179.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A New Power Base: Renewable Energy Policies for the Nineties and Beyond </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kozloff, WRI Publications P.O. Box 4852, Hampden St, Baltimore, MD 21211, USA.196 p. USD 29.95,1993.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Integrated Resource Planning, Making electricity work in Europe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prepared for Greenpeace International. Woolf, The Assoc. for the Conservation of Energy, 9 Sherlock Mews, London W1M 3RH, UK. 155 p. 1993.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European Directory of Energy Efficient Building, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">James &amp; James Science Publ.,5 Castle Rd, London NW1 8PR. ph: +44-71Z843833, fax: +44-71-2843737.344 p.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Independent NGO Evaluations of National Plans for Climate Change Mitigation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First Review, Co-ordinated by Climate Action Network. CNE, rue de Taciturne 46, B-1040 Brussels, Feb. 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Elfin News Electric Utility Production Cost &amp; Financial Model, Computer Progr. EDF, Rockridge Market Hall, 5655 College Av., Oakland, CA 94618 USA. Ph: +1510-6588008, fax: +1-510-6580630. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Periodicals </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hot Line</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">US Climate Action Network, 1350 New York Ave. NW #300, Washington DC 20005 USA, fax:+l-202-7835917.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UN Climate Change Bulletin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quarterly. Information Unit on Climate Change (IUCC), UNEP, CP 256, 1219 Chatelaine, Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VATIS, Value-Added Technology Information Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Update on Non-Conventional Energy, Asian and Pacific Centre for Transfer of Technology, Adjoining Technology Bhawan, P.O. Box 4575, New Delhi 110016, India. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Electricity Production Technologies for Rural Development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Jozef Viglasky, Technical University in Zvolen, Slovakia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Renewable energy sources are the most promissing for rural development from many points of view. They allow economic growth with environmental concerns and energy security without a significant increase in cost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic Considerations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most frequent question is: How much does any renewable energy plant cost per kW installed power? This question is a little wrong. Its answer can only be used for information in the first step, because there is no such thing as a standard system or normal equipment cost, and this parameter is not enough for a final decision. It must also be taken into account that the cost of many components vary little with the size of the energy system. Anyway the average cost per kWpower of production capacity can be listed as*:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=281>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Photovoltaic</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8,000 USD/kW</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wind</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2,000 USD/kW</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biogas</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1,500 USD/kW</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biomass</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1,400 USD/kW</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial Standaard,Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thus, from a general point of view biomass energy can be recommended. The introduction of small-scale biomass fueled engine systems as a new electricity source or as replacement for diesel and petrol driven power units seems highly attractive for small industries in rural areas as well as villages. Most promissing is systems for wood industries with a need for electricity and a continous output of residue products as wood chips, saw dust and bark.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic Analysis of Wood-gas Utilization</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conversion of stationary diesel engines to run on wood-gas is one of the most important potential uses for shaft-power. The example analysed is a comparison between a conventional 30 kW diesel unit and an imported complete gasifier and engine unit. This example is chosen, because it is most feasible to replace the similar diesel/petrol systems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By using wood-gas in rural area of tropical countries with a good wood supply, it is possible to save 12-50% of the costs compared to generating electricity by a diesel engine, table 2. Thus, a wood-gasifier engine system is an excellent investment. In most countries it can be locally manufactured and reduce import of costly fuel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perspectives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wood gas for electricity production has been found to be promising especially in rural areas and on tropical islands where fossil fuels are extremely expensive and high vegetation growth generates enough biomas for a gasifier system. By changing from a conventional diesel engine a net saving of 35% of the costs can be achieved. Gasification characteristics of tropical wood are not well enough known, and need to be explored. Promising results from use of gasifiers in Philippines, Brazil, etc. have been reported, so we can suppose there will be a very little risk for failure by increasing use of biomass-fuel. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Events</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">April 1-8, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training course on RE, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For youth, with the aim to start up new activities on energy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Viktor Jonsson, Godemansg.3 B, 417 06 Goteborg, Sweden. Tel/fax: +46-31-514-215.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">April 5-8, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Global Climate Change: Science, Policy and Mitigation Strategies, Arizona, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conference. Info: Dr. C.V.Mathai, Arizona Public Service Company. P.O.Box 53999, M/S 9366. Phoenix, AZ 85072, USA. ph: +1-6022503569, fax: +1-602-2508313.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">April 11-15, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: WIP, Sylvensteinstrasse 2, D81369 Munchen. ph: +49-897201232, fax: +49-89-7201291.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">April 18-22, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World after Chernobyl, Minsk, Belarus </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Belarussian Charible Fund "For the Children of Chernobyl", ph: +70172-341215, fax: +7-0172-343458.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">April 22, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earth Day</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">April 22-24, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISES NGO Roundtable, Greece</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Jenniy Gregory, ph: +44-734730073, fax: +44-734-730820.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">April 24, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sun Day 1994, USA coordinated campaign with more than 50 events in USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">April 25-28, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional INforSE meeting for Asia Pacific, Hanoi, Vietnam together with Conference on Sustainable Energy Development and Exhibition of RE Products from the Region. Info: Benjamin Gertes, PCATT, 224 D Silang Street, Batangas City, Philippines 4200. ph: +63-43 723 1155, fax: +63-2- 815 0276 (c/o Daqna).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">April 26, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chernobyl Day</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">April 20-May 6, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGO Islands Forum, Barbados</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parallel with UN-conference. Theme on appropriate technology, exhibition on renewable energy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Barbados Env. Association, P.O. Box 132, Bridgetown, Barbados, W.l., fax-809-427 0619.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">May 9-11, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1st Motor Biofuels European Forum, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Ademe, 22 rue Alsace-Lorraine, 45 000 Orleans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">May 15, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Climate Alliance Action Day</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: J Matikainen, Climate Alliance Action Days, Fredrikinkatu 63 A 8, 00100 Helsinki, Finland. Tel: +358-0694-42-33; fax: +358-0-694-17-86.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">May 16-19, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Birds in the sky, fish in the water and uranium in the ground, Brussels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shadow conference to Uranium Institute meeting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info:For Mother Earth. Ph: +32-92333268, fax: +32-9-2334924, e-mail: motherearth@gn.apc.org.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">May 18-21, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional INforSE Meeting for Central Asia, New Delhi, India  together with Workshop to Promote RE Programs through NGOs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: R Myles, AFPRO, 25/1A, Inst. Area, Pankha Road, "D" Block Janakpuri, New Delhi 110058, India. ph: +91-11-5555412, fax: 91-11-5500343.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">May 24-27, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Conf. on Sustainable Cities &amp; Towns, Aalborg, Denmark Info: ICLEI, ph: +49-761-368920, fax: +49-761-36260. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">May-July, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Renewable Energy Education Program, Colorado</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: SKI - ph: +1-303-963 8855, fax: +1-303-963 8866.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">June, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional INforSE meeting for Latin America, Brasilia, Brazil  together with workshop and ELAN-network meeting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INfo: IED, Emilio Rovere, c/o UFRJ, Bloco C, Sala 211, C.P.68565, Ilha de Fundao, 21945 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. ph: +55-21-2709995, fax: -2906626.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">June 2-5, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Towards the world governing of the environment, Venice, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: ICEF Mr A. Postiglione, ph: +396-6868597, fax: +39-6-683000783.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">June 9-11, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Energy Efficiency through retrofitting, St. Petersburg, Russia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exhibition and conference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Norvac, ph: +47-22-601390, fax: +47-22-693650.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">June 20-22, 1994 Solar '94, Cuba </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Int. workshop on solar and wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Dr. Oscar Oramas Oliva. Ph: +537-62-6606, fax: +537-33- 8054, email: (alternex) driacc@ceniai.cu.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">June 21-25, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Energy Visions, Basel, Switzerland International Exhibition. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Beat Loffler, ph: 61-6862020, fax: 61 6912024.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">June 23-24, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enuren '94, Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Energy urban renewal: policies and technologies. Info: ICIE, ph: +39-68845848, fax: +39-6-8550250.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">June 23-27, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oko '94, Freiburg, Germany Environmental Exhibition. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: BUND, ph: +49-761-885950, fax: +49-761-8859590.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">June 27-July 1, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Conference on Biomass for Energy, Development and the Environment, Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: as Solar '94.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">June-July, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clean Energy Brigades, Czech Rep. Info: Hnuti Duha. Ph: 42-5-42210438; fax: 42-5-42210347. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">July 4-8, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European NGO Energy Seminar, Deister, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Marlies Ante, Energie- und Umweltszentrum am Deister, 3257 Springe 3, Germany. Ph: +49-5044380/1880, fax: +49-5044- 4640. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">July 9, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regional INforSE Meeting for Europe, Deister, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Gunnar Boye Olesen, OVE, Ph: +45-3142 9091, fax: +45-3142 9095. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">July 20-August 3, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bike demonstration for 400 young people to promote an alternative environment, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: JMA, Oudegracht 42, 3511 AR Utrecht, the Netherlands. Ph: +31-30316566; fax: +31-30-343-986.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">August 1-21, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ecotopia, Romania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: EYFA, Postbus 92066, NL-1090 Amsterdam. Ph/fax: +31-20-6657743.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">September 11-16, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Renewable Energy Congress, (with ISES Europe), Reading, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Climate Change - Energy and Environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Prof. Sayigh, University of Reading, Dep. of Engineering, ph: +44-734318588, fax: +44-734-313835.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">September 22-23, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia Energy Efficiency Conference &amp; ENEX-Asia '94, Singapore </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">info: Ms Irene Low, Reed Exhibition Pte Ltd: 1 Maritime Square # 12-01, World Trade Center Singapore 0409. ph: +65-271-1013, fax: +65-274 4666.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">September 26-27, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environmental Protection in Developing Countries, Pakistan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Int'l conference and exposition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: K. Fazal, 146-N, LCCHS, Lahore Cantt, Pakistan. Fax: +92- 425722147/6369502.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">October 1-5, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parellel activities to IMF/World Bank meeting, Madrid, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: A Hernandez, Aedenat, C/Campomanes 13, 28013 Madrid. Ph: +341-5411071, fax: +34-1-5717108.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">October 24-27, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Third International Conference on Power Quality: End-Use Applications and Perspectives, Amsterdam, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: mr Teus de Zwart, KEMA Transmission &amp; Distribution, P.O.Box 9035 ET ARNHEM, The Netherlands. ph: +31- 85-566093, fax: +31-85-513683.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">November 8-10, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Energy Efficiency Business Week '94, Praha, Czech Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: SEVEn, ph: +42-2-24247552, fax: +42-2-24247597.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">November 16-18, 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Energy · Innovatton - Revolution, Swiserland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5th International Festival of Films on Energy Lausanne.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: FIFEL, p.o.box 88, CH-1000 Lausanne 9. Switzerland. ph: +93 213129069, fax: 93-21-3201019</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">January 12-October 12, 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Walk Across Europe for a Nuclear Free World 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: For Mother Earth, Rosanne Mitchell, Zilverhof 19, 9000 Gent, Belgium. Ph: +32-9-2333268, fax: +32-92334924, e-mail: motherearth@gn. apc.org or Mark Stansbery, 1101 Bryden Road, Columbus, Ohio 43205, USA. Ph: +1-614-2539255, e-mail: walk @ igc.apc.org.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">June 3-7, 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Energex '96, Beijing, China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 6th International Energy Conference and Exposition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Info: Meng Xiangan, China Solar Energy Society, 3 Huayuan Road, Beijing 100083, China. Ph: +86-1-2017009, fax: +86-1-2012880.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Sustainable Energy Contacts - Europe update</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Austria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Global 2000</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Umweltschutzorganization</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Flurschatzstr. 12, 1120 Vienna</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ph: +43-1-8125730</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: +43-1-8125728</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Czech Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Children of the Earth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ph: +42-2-3117075</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EkoWatt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ph: +42-2-24812420</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: +42-2-66710248</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greenpeace Czech Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Att. Jan Winch</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hnuti DUHA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ph: +42-5-42210438/42212847</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: +42-5-42210347</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E-m.: org.hduha@ecn.gn.apc.org</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NlKA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ph: +42-2-257541/-257549 #212</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: +42-2-254136</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SEVEn · The Energy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efficiency Center</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ph: +42-2-24247552</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: +42-2-24247597</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E-m.:HrebecJan~ecn.gn.apc.org</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stop Nuclear Energy in the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">East Europesn Zone SNEEEZ</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ph: +42-5-42210438/42212847</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: +42-5-42210347</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E-mail: sneeez@gn.apc.org</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Veronica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ph: +42-5-42210561</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WISE- Brno, World Information Service on Energy c/o Hnuti DUHA Att. Erikk Piper E-mail: erikk@ecn.gn.apc.org l wisebmo@ecn... </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BUND</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 300251, 53182 Bonn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Att. Onno Poppinga Energiezentrum - Jugendwerkstat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ph: +49-5662-9497-0</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: +49-s662-9497-49</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fordergesellechaft fur angepasste Techniken in der Dritten Welt Gmbh. FAKT MO: INforSE. Gansheidestr. 43, 70184 Stuttgart Att. Manfred Rottjes Ph: +49-711-2109518 Fax: +49-711-2109555 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zentrum fur Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoo-Forschung Baden-W&ugrave;rttemberg ZSW Solar, hydrogen energy research Center. Non profit foundation Postfach 80 1149, 70511 Stuttgart Att. Helmut Bohnisch Ph: +49-711-7870211 Fax: +49-711-7870100 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Working Group on Development Techniques Int. NGO. Non profit, gives free advice on the use of RE, mainly in developing countries. University of Twente, RO. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede Att. B. Schulte Ph: +31-53-892845 Fax: +31-53-357042 E-mail: WOT@P58.F810.N280. Z2.FIDONET.ORG </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Polski Klub Ekologizny - Mazovian Branch PKE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Polish Ecological Club.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Krzywickiego 9/7010, 02-078</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Warszawa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Att. Zbigniew M. Karaczun</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ph: +48- -439041 #1316,-494766</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: +48- -471581</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Romania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prietenii Pamintului</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earth Friends. Local. NGO. 20 members. Founded 1991. Practical project, anti-nuclear and energy saving earnpaigns, environmental education. MO: INforSE qtr. Siderurgistilor, bloc SD 4A, ap.12, 6200 Galati</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Att. Ion Constantin Zamfir Ph/fax: +40-93-457381</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Russia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ecocenter GAIA Local NGO. Environmental coordination center for Kola region. Contact to environmental groups, Exchange of information, actions, seminars, log-term projects,ete. Box 109, 183012 Murmansk 12 Att. Sergey Shuvalov Ph: +7-815-3-16290 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Slovakia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greenpeace Slovakia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PO Box 58, 81499 Bratislava I</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Att. Lubika Trubiniova</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ph/fax: +42-7-313 968</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ukraine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IO Chemobyl Union</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Att. Vladimir Shovkoshitny</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ph: +7-044-2968695</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: +7-044-2968469</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greenpeace - Energy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Campaign</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Att. Antony Froggett</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ph: +44-71-3545100</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: +44-71-6960014</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Climate Negotiations - the temperature  is rising</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Ren&eacute; Karottki and Rasmus Gade</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another round of negotiations on the International Climate Convention was carried out in Geneva in February, 1994. There is still a great difference in opinions between the countries on how to solve the climate problems. The problems are complex and many concerns must be taken into consideration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a fact that the major criminals are the industry of the Western world. Though the Western countries hesitate, when it comes to reducing domestic CO2 emissions to the atmosphere, the climate problem is now recognized as such by more and more people. The Greenpeace newsletter Climate News says that the insurance industry now acknowledge the links between climate change and economic interests. In Barbados, venue for the UN Conference on Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States in April 1994, climate changes have already had a bad effect on the insurance market. These islands play an important role in the discussions, because they are indicators of changes in the global climate. The small islands may actually vanish from the face of the earth, if the sea level increases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instead of reducing domestic CO2 emissions, part of the Western countries want to buy themselves free, for instance by planting trees or making investments in 3rd world countries, e.g. in the energy sector. This is the socalled Joint implementation. Most 3rd world countries resist this. They fear that these investments will benefit Western interests rather than solving problems of the 3rd world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P>The Chinese, big CO2 polluters themselves, fear for the consequences of tough CO2 demands - the demands may come back to them as a boomerang. Oil producing countries led by Saudi Arabia do all they can to stop the Western countries from reducing their oil consumption, because this means less oil export for them.</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/in04we/metadata.xml
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--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/in04we/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/in04we/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Sustainable Energy News - No. 4 March 1994 (in04we)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Development Periodicals and Magazines|Sustainable Energy Newsletters of the INFORSE network</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">Inforse</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">Q-R-S</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/m0002e/m0002e.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/m0002e/m0002e.htm	(revision 21010)
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+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Programming and Training for Small Farm Grain Storage</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Programming and Training for Small Farm Grain Storage</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PREPARED BY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARE J. LINDBLAD </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PEACE CORPS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INFORMATION COLLECTION AND EXCHANGE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MANUAL NO. M-2B</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SEPTEMBER 1978</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARCH 1981</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SEPTEMBER 1982</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">September 1983</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INFORMATION COLLECTION &amp; EXCHANGE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps' Information Collection &amp; Exchange (ICE) makes available the strategies and technologies developed by Peace Corps Volunteers, their coworkers, and their counterparts to development organizations and workers who might find them useful. ICE collects and reviews training guides, curricula, lesson plans' project reports, manuals, and other Peace Corps-generated materials developed in the field. Some materials are reprinted "as is"; others provide a source of field-based information for the production of manuals or for research in particular program areas. Materials that you submit to ICE become part of the Peace Corps' larger contribution to development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information about ICE publications and services is available through</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=460>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">The Peace Corps Internet Web Site address: </P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">http://www.peacecorps.gov</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">Please note the new Peace Corps Mailing Address from July 1998 on is:</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">ICE/ Peace Corps</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">1111 20th Street N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">Washington, DC 20526</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Add your experience to the ICE Resource Center. Send your materials to us so that we can share them with other development workers. Your technical insights serve as the basis for the generation of ICE manuals, reprints, and training materials. They also ensure that ICE is providing the most up-to-date, innovative problem solving techniques and information available to you and your fellow development workers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Table of contents</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Acknowledgments</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives of this handbook</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Part I. Grain storage project programming</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            A. Grain storage project goals and objectives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            B. Assessing local interest in postharvest methods improvement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            C. Investigating local storage conditions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            D. Developing a strategy for volunteer involvement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            E. Determining program support needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            F. Integration of storage project activities with rural development efforts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            G. Local and International Programming and Training Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Part II. Grain storage project training</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            H. Determining training needs and priorities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            I. The role of grain and grain storage in the world food supply</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            J. The movement of grain from harvest to consumer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            K. The physical properties of grain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            L. Moisture and its measurement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            M. Factors which threaten good preservation of grain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            N. Grain drying</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            O. Insects and their control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            P. Rodents and their control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            Q. Recognition of storage problems in the field</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            R. Design and field testing of improved storage technologies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">            S. Extension of improved storage technologies</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appendix A - Peace corps Costa Rica grain storage project report</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author wishes to express special thanks to Jay Gould for assistance in planning the Handbook to Kenton Harris, Robert Morris, and Peter Shaw for their editing assistance; to Whett Reed, Paul Jankura, Lee Jennings, Margot Aronson, and Jimmie White for their suggestions and ideas. Also, specie' thanks are extended to the American Association of Cereal Chemists and Kenton Harris For permission to use materials from their publications in various sections of the Handbook.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Objectives of this handbook</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Traditional farming methods are based on centuries of experience and trial and errors Traditional farmers generally make effective, if not ingenious, use of the resources available co them in storing their grain. There are widely varied methods of grain storage at the subsistence and traditional farm level. Some methods are more successful than others, with relatively high losses in some areas and relatively low losses in others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This Handbook is designed to aid Volunteers in identifying storage problems and devising solutions to them. Often, the improvement of traditional storage methods will entail the introduction of new or non-local materials, along with new methods and concepts for their use. This introduction of new resources, concepts and behaviors requires not only technical competence, but also cultural awareness and sensitivity to the needs, attitudes and priorities of the farmer. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The approach of this Handbooks to technological innovation is based on the concept of Appropriate Technology, favoring technologies based on the local needs and resources of the farmer. This approach will generally be based on innovations which are inexpensive and labor intensive and which favor an improvement rather than replacement of the technology presently in use. Thus, the introduction or non-local or imported materials should be kept a. a minimum. There will be circumstances in which significant departures from traditional storage methods will offer the best practical avenue for improvement of storage conditions. However, this can only be determined after other, less complex, radical, or costly alternatives have been found impractical. <U>The emphasis for ail innovations should be on simplicity, practicality, and local resources. </P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This Handbook is designed for use by Peace Corps agricultural programmers, trainers, and Volunteers. It provides guidance and technical resources for:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Identifying farm-level storage projects as primary and secondary Volunteer activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Defining project goals and objectives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Defining the Volunteer Job.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Defining needs for pre- and in-service training and Volunteer self-instruction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Planning and conducting training sessions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Locating technical resource organizations to aid in the support of storage project planning programming and training, and ongoing activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because there are significant variations from country to country and even within countries in agricultural, economic, political, climatic, and cultural factors as well as in the level of Volunteer skills, general guidelines and information in this Handbook will require local adaptation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because there is considerable overlap in the technical materials required for programming and training of grain storage projects, there are references in sections of the Handbook to other sections as well as references to the Peace Corps/VITA <U>Small Farm Grain Storage Manual</U> and other supplementary technical resources. The technical materials presented in this Handbook, when used in conjunction with the aforementioned manual and <U>Handling and Storage of Food Grains in Topical and Subtropical Areas</U> are sufficiently complete for the needs of Peace Corps programming and training. The use of local expertise will certainly improve quality of technical information and expertise to support Volunteer training and activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This Handbook is specifically designed for use in programming and training generalist Volunteers</U>. Generalist Volunteers have effectively worked in the area of small farm grain storage in several countries and have been instrumental both in developing and popularizing improved storage methods at the farm level and in building local government interest and commitment to this area of agricultural development. That is not to say that generalists are the only Volunteers recommended for grain storage projects. But they are certainly capable of working in this area if they are programmed into projects for which they have been trained in appropriate skills and in which they are provided with technical supervision. The quality and competence <U>of generalist Volunteer development activities depends directly on the quality and competence of the training and technical support .</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Knowledge of and the use of all available technical resources are critical to the success of Volunteer activities, particularly in the case of generalist Volunteers. Potential sources of technical expertise and information available through worldwide organizations are listed in Section G. Local and International Programming and Training Resources. These are valuable resources of which Volunteers, trainers, and programmers are strongly encouraged to take full advantage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part I. Grain storage project programming</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A. Grain storage project goals and objectives</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grain storage program conception and objectives will vary from country to country and within each country according to such criteria as the storage needs and problems encountered, the type of local technical support available, whether the  is a part- or full-time Volunteer activity, and so forth. However, there are basic objectives which will be present in every grain storage program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Essentially Volunteers will promote storage methods which:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Preserve the quantity of the harvest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Maintain its quality (food value).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Result in tine highest possible sale value for whatever grain is sold or traded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each of these objectives is compatible with the orders, requiring the same kind of precautions on tee part of the farmer. The farmer's ability and desire to pursue the three objectives will depend or. a variety of factors including cultural influences, labor and cash resources available to allocate to storage, the climatic hospitality of the storage environment, and access to local resources such as insecticides , market transport, market price information, and the like.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The single most common activity of Volunteers in any type of storage project will be in the application and instruction of basic storage principles. Every training effort should include the following basic subject areas:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Maintenance of storage hygiene.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Control of grain moisture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Specific control of grain pests, i.e., insects, rodents and birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volunteers involved in grain storage projects may work with individual farmers or farm cooperatives, family members responsible for storing grain, rural school students, extension agents, etc. The same basic storage principles and storage objectives will be common to whatever level of involvement Volunteers may pursue,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">B. Assessing local interest in postharvest methods improvement</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volunteer involvement in postharvest grain storage projects will often depend on the level of government interest and commitment to this area of development. It has not often been recognized that postharvest problems are within the realm of the agricultural extension service or that reducing postharvest losses is a potential solution to the problem of increasing the food supply. In countries where postharvest concerns are not a high priority, the first task may be to alert government officials to their importance. Lack of interest should not necessarily be assumed to be an accurate indicator of the local importance of grain storage problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some initial areas of investigation to determine government interest include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1) Is there a government organization or office specifically devoted to postharvest research. or extension? This role has recently been undertaken by plant protection offices in many agricultural ministries whose principal interests are with preharvest concerns such as in-field plant diseases and in-field bird, rodent, and insect infestations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(2) Has the government made any efforts in postharvest grain loss reduction through educational programs for insecticide use, storage loss assessment, or improved drying or storage design research?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(3) What is the comparative importance of local development efforts in postharvest versus production areas? (e.g., in terms of budge-, training, personnel, research, etc.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(4) What training do extension agents receive in grain storage principles, improved drying and storage methods, and insecticide use?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(5) Do civil servants in agricultural extension or research believe that improved grain storage would increase the food supply? Do they feel that storage losses are significant? What do they think can or should be done about the problems?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(6) Is there an annual grain market price fluctuation, notably with high market prices occurring just before each new harvest? How does this affect farmer's storage practices?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(7) Do farmers think that they lose a lot or grain during storage, crying, or transport? Have they tried different ways to reduce the losses? Do they know of ways to reduce the losses?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">C. Investigating local storage conditions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The programming of Peace Corps Volunteers into primary or secondary grain storage activities will require some prior investigation into the nature of local storage practices and problems. This activity can rely in part on the experiences and opinions of rural development Volunteers already in the field. However, some time needs to be spent in field investigations in order to gain an understanding of the specific problems Volunteers might address and the activities in which they could be involved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Full-time (as opposed to part-time) storage programs will require much more investigation and might justify a special programming mission. Appendix A is a report of a recent programming mission for Peace Corps/Costa Rica. This may serve as a model for program development where there is not similar local expertise available for program investigation and planning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In circumstances where volunteers are to be trained in a variety of rural development areas, much of the actual program development will be done by the individual Volunteers once they arrive on site. The following 11st of questions will be helpful in orienting the programmer, trainer, and Volunteer in identifying what potential there is for change or improvement of local postharvest practices. This list is not all-inclusive but could easily be adapted to a wide variety of climatic, cultural, and agricultural conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LOCAL POSTHARVEST CONDITIONS SURVEY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1) What are the methods of storage for the grains grown in your area: are they stored on the head or cob, threshed, or partially threshed; in mud or thatch bins, sacks, or clay jars; near the home, or in the field; in permanent stores or ones rebuilt each year?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(2) Are there different qualities of grain recognized by the farmers? Are they stored separately? Is the lowest quality consumed first or sold first, etc.?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(3) What are the drying practices? How is the harvest date determined? How do farmers know if their grain is dry enough to store? Are heads separated from the stalk at harvest, or dried on the stalk? Are they dried in the field or around the home? Are any measures taken during drying to protect against rodents? Birds? Insects? Do farmers think there are important losses which occur between harvest and storage? If there are differences in local drying practices, how does a farmer choose one method as opposed to another?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(4) Are there differences between present drying and storage practices and older, traditional methods? What are they? Why do farmers think the changes have come about?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(5) What losses, if any, are seen by the farmers and extension agents as being important, e.g., rodents, birds, insects, spillage or transport losses? If possible, rank as to importance for farmer, extension agent. What is your evaluation?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(6) What role do women have in harvesting, drying, and storing grain? Are there tasks performed by women which men are not permitted to do, or vice versa? Do the women think there is a problem of grain loss and why? When, if at all does the grain become he partial or sole responsibility of the women?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(7) What kind of protective measures do farmers use against drying and storage losses, such as mixing sand or local plants with stored grain, smoking it above the cooking fire, re-drying, etc.? Are there any special efforts to keep rats or mice out of the storage container? What about protection from theft?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(8) Do farmers know about modern insecticides for grain storage, if and where they can be purchased, how much they cost? How do they know which insecticides to use on grain and the proper dosages? Are package directions followed?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(9) How do market prices vary to accommodate differences in grain quality? Is grain measured by bulk measure or by weight?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(10) How many types of grain do farmers store? Are they stored separately? whv? Approximately how much was put in storage at harvest this year? Last year?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(11) Do the farmers normally sell any of their grain? Or do they buy and how much? Is there a seasonal price variation? Could anything be done to take fuller advantage of the seasonal price fluctuation to increase farmers' grain sale profits?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(12) Do farmers ever store their grain together? Are there village or cooperative fields, storage or selling practices?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Section Q. Recognizing Storage Problems in the Field, gives some ideas for the use of this survey approach and the kind of conclusions which might be drawn to develop storage methods to ameliorate the problems revealed by the survey.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">D. Developing a strategy for volunteer involvement</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are four basic types of Volunteer postharvest project activities regardless of whether the Volunteers are working full or part-time in grain storage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. <U>Pre-extension investigation </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Volunteer investigates farmers, storage and drying practices, the variations, innovations, apparent success and shortcomings of each, and farmers' attitudes toward both postharvest losses and innovation. Investigation results will be used to plan storage improvements and extension programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. <U>Pre-extension improved storage method design and trial demonstration</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following the identification of popular storage methods and their apparent advantages and disadvantages, Volunteers begin to: closely observe the Present methods and compare them to performance after a few simple improvements; assess the practicality of new or improved methods of drying and storage, e.g., solar dryers, metal bins, improved cribs, insecticides, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. <U>General extension</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a specific method drying, storing, or processing has been identified as advantageous in terms of cost, practicality, and farmer acceptance, Volunteers plan and execute program extension involving:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the development of materials such as posters, radio spots, 'air exhibits, farm-level storage demonstrations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- agricultural extension agent training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- development of materials delivery networks, such as materials transport organizations, insecticide ordering and supply networks, and credit programs for grain bin construction or grain purchase credit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. <U>Grain storage and marketing cooperatives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where there is potential for farmers cooperatives for storing and marketing individually or cooperatively produced grain, Volunteers assist in: warehouse or bin construction, teaching proper bulk storage methods, teaching cooperative members the operation of the storage scheme and purchasing regulations, setting up record keeping systems, and promoting the formation of new storage arc/or marketing cooperatives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section includes job descriptions which give examples or these four basic types of storage projects. The activities in these different project types could be carried on simultaneously, evolve during the Volunteer term or service or evolve over the course of several years, depending on the time available for Volunteer involvement, the advancement of host country interest, and the progress of the project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Peace Corps/VITA <U>Small Farm Grain Storage Manual</U>, Appendix E, "Working Paper on the Volunteer Role in Grain Storage," presents a practical discussion of problem assessment, storage method trial demonstration, financial considerations for program support, and extension strategies. It provides useful ideas for to programme, trainer, or Volunteer who is developing a postharvest project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appendix A is the report of a recent grain storage programing mssisn for Peace Corps/Costa Rica, which may serve as model for similar programming missions elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOB DESCRIPTION-PRE-EXTENSION INVESTIGATION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Volunteer will:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Survey storage practices of representative or typical local farmers to determine storage and drying methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Maintain accurate records of all observations, following the predetermined techniques and format.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Investigate the variations in local storage and drying methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Identify areas of storage loss by interview, obsession, and storage sampling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Identify insect pests and the levels or infestation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Determine cultural influences and labor divisions in grain storage and handling with particular note to the role of women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Identify availability and cost or storage support materials such as insecticides, cement, metal roofing, new and used sacks, tar, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Determine average storage capacities and relative proportions or grain for home consumption and marketing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Investigate market price fluctuations and their influence on grain storage and marketing decisions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Identify farmers with interest to experiment with improved storage methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. Plan potential improved storage design trials, comparing improved storage methods to local unimproved methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOB DESCRIPTION--PRE-EXTENSION STORAGE METHOD DESIGN AND TRIAL DEMONSTRATION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The primary role of Volunteer is to gather quantifiable data on traditional and improved storage methods in order to identify the most appropriate. The Volunteer will:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Construct or select for observation five models of each method to be assessed, e.g., basket and above cooking-fire storage; sealed gourd storage; unimproved crib storage; unimproved mud bin storage; crib with improved rat guard and insecticide treatment; and mortar-sealed mud bin storage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Seek out, read, and review available reports from regional storage regear-A and extension projects to assure the use of the most up-to-date information in the design and testing of local storage methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Use knowledge or storage principles in the design of improved storage structures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Design and construct improved storage bins and dryers and alter existing storage structures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Make regular, periodic observations of the level and type of insect infestation, the moisture content, and the general storage quality including evidence of rodent entry and depredation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Draw samples from storage bins for analysis of typical storage quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Teach and supervise the application of fumigant and contact insecticides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Discuss with farmers and extension agents their attitudes and perceptions of the storage methods under observation, with particular emphasis on each method's feasibility, cost, practicality, labor requirements, and performance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Keep accurate records of all observations and measurements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOB DESCRIPTION--GRAIN STORAGE EXTENSION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Volunteer will:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Meet with farmers on an individual and group basis to discuss the Possibility of improved storage methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Teach extension workers and farmers the basic principles of storage, i.e., moisture and pest control and sanitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Assist farmers in the construction of new bins or dryers or the adaptation of existing storage structures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Select farmers to operate model sires.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Organize farmers visits to model storage sites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Closely monitor model sites to assure roper use arc maintenance of storage quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Develop visual aids and demonstration techniques in local language for use in schools; develop radio spots also in the local language.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Develop simple posters to explain proper use of insecticides, weed control around bins, use of rat guards, etc. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Give presentations to local school classes in basic storage principles and explain potential improvements over traditional storage methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Assist in the selection of farmer recipients for storage construction credit funds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOB DESCRIPTION--FARMER COOPERATIVE STORAGE AND MARKETING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Volunteer will:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Identify existing farmer cooperatives with an interest in and sufficient capital to construct and maintain a storage warehouse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Explain criteria for government or other grain buying credit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Assist in the procurement and organization or transport of necessary construction materials and storage supplies such as metal roofing, cement, gravel, reinforcing rod, moisture meter, scales, burlap bags, and wood for construction of storage pallets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Supervise warehouse construction to assure maintenance of quality standards and proper installation of rat proofing, moisture barriers, loading ramps, and adequate sealing of doors and air vents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Train warehouse and cooperative managers in proper warehousing techniques including record keeping, storage hygiene, insecticide use, bag labeling and sampling techniques , stacking, and inspection.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Supervise the organization of market transport schedules.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Organize the transport of neighboring farmers to existing cooperative warehouse sites to discuss warehouse operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Develop simple posters explaining to farmer members the use of scales and credit payment schedules to build a common trust and understanding of the grain purchase and credit payment system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Periodically review proper storage techniques with area warehouse personnel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Periodically inspect the warehouses to insure proper stacking, hygiene, and repair of storage pallets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. Insure timely ordering and procurement of insecticide supplies for each storage season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12. Establish and maintain grain market price records to assist area cooperatives in locating the highest price markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">E. Determining program support needs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The determination of program support needs, following the procedure set forth in <U>Peace Corps Training Guidelines: The Program and Training Loop and a Systematic Approach to Training</U>, can be broken down to tour steps:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Fiscal Preconditions , i. e. , finances needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Material Preconditions including whatever supplies, foals, equipment, and materials are necessary for the program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Personnel Preconditions including the supervisory, counterpart, and support personnel needed by the Volunteer program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Attitudinal Preconditions required in the client population and government support agencies to foster acceptance of program activities and initiatives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following preconditions checklist is provided as an example for a grain storage ore-extension program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAMPLE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PRECONDITIONS CHECKLIST GRAIN STORAGE PRE-EXTENSION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Task</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Gather quantifiable data on traditional and improved storage methods presently in use to identify the most appropriate methods.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Access to farmers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Farmer interest</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Portable moisture meter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Laboratory master moisture meter *See Section L</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Portable scale</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Cooperation of lab personnel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Insect identification chart</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Sample collection bottles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Record book and evaluation forms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Bicycle or motor bike, access to repairs for transport, host country purchase and maintenance of transport</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Teach and supervise insecticide application in trial bins .</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Cooperative extension agents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Cooperative farmers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Support of Grain Protection Bureau to order and transport insecticides</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Supply of insecticides</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Insecticide duster</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Hand sprayer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Burlap bags</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Posters and instructional materials</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Construct improved storage bins and solar dryer or trial demonstration.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Accessible, cooperative farmers willing to share costs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Cement, sand, gravel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Plastic sheeting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Transport for above</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Shovel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Cement trowel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Hammer and nails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Wooden cement forms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Wood saw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Tape measure</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">F. Integration of storage project activities with rural development efforts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volunteers may become involved in grain storage projects on an individual or group basis and as a full- or party-time activity. Many full-time projects will probably be initiated as party-time activities through the interest and involvement of individual Volunteers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The increasing emphasis on programming for "Basic Human. Needs" clearly includes grain storage as a priority area of development. As detailed in other sections of this Handbook, improvement of grain storage practices is one method for increasing the food supply. Increased production is interrelated to and inseparable from it. Therefore, Volunteers working in increased grain or food product on projects should integrate some aspect of grain. storage (whether that be extension, informal fact finding, field trials, extension agent training, etc.) into their work. They could do so during the non-growing season when there is no grain cultivation. In preparation for such work, Volunteers should be adequately exposed to the problems of grain storage in pre- or in-service training. Likewise, Volunteers primarily involved in grain storage might also integrate improved cultivation activities into their work role.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Furthermore, some rural Volunteer teachers could incorporate basic lessons on improved storage into their class presentations, possibly demonstrating with school gardens or fields. Storage activities could then become more full-time during the summer months. General community development Volunteers might begin storage activities by conducting an informal survey of local storage methods, farmers' attitudes, and apparent storage problems and needs. (Ideas for this type of survey are presented in Section C, "Investigating Local Storage Conditions.") The resulting information could be used as a basis for preliminary extension or field trial efforts. It could also be shared with other interested rural Volunteers or become the subject of an in-service session for grain storage training and project development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">G. Local and International Programming and Training Resources</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access to tic-to-date, practical technical information and assistance is vital to the success of Volunteer efforts. Often there are excellent resources available locally with which the Volunteer should become familiar before seeking outside assistance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Local sources of Information and Technical Expertise include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Farmers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Extension agents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Extension training centers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Agricultural research centers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Voluntary organizations involved in agriculture or nutrition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Missionaries involved in agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Agricultural departments of a university or college</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Postharvest or plant protection bureaus</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Local offices of international development organizations such as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- United Nations Development Program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Bi-lateral aid organizations such as USAID, CIDA, FAC, SIDA, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The Peace Corps library and files</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International sources of Information and Technical Expertise</U> generally require more waiting time and possible communications delays if there is not a local office, but the potential benefits make it well worth the effort. The Volunteer should make requests as specific as possible, giving accurate details of the local conditions and the problem being addressed. International sources include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.  The Tropical Stored Products Centre</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical Products Institute</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London Road</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Slough SL3 7HL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berks, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TSPC is one of the oldest and most respected sources or technical expertise and information on post-harvest issues In the international development community. Technical experts from TSPC are stationed throughout much of the British Commonwealth. Requests for response to technical questions can be made to the above address. In addition, two very useful development-oriented publications a-e available from TSPC with should be subscribed to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- <U>Tropical Stored Products Information</U>, a bulletin which includes reviews or recent storage developments worldwide and reports of related research and extension work. The cost is 31.25 including mailing . (N.B. There is no charge to official bodies in developing countries.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- <U>Tropical Storage Abstracts</U>, with selection of recent abstracts relevant to the storage of durable agricultural produce in the tropics. The cost is with £30 including mailing. (Again the e no charge to official bodies in developing countries.) Actual copies of the abstracted articles are not available through. TSPC although names and addresses of the authors are furnished.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both publications are available on request to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Editor, Tropical Stored Products Information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TSPC</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TPI</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London Road</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Slough SL3 7HL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berks, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You may also be put on the permanent mailing list upon request.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. International agricultural research institutes have a variety of resources available, some more involved in postharvest concerns than others. They include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> IRRI (International Rice Research Institute)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. O. Box 933</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Londres 40,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexico 6, D. F.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1-11-256 Bequmpet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hyderabad 500 016 Andra Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> African Rural Storage Centre</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(IITA) International Institute of Tropical Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PMB 5320 Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The African Rural Storage Centre has undertaken research and training in small farm grain storage since 1973. Extensive research has been conducted on traditional and modified open storage cribs, and there are ongoing performance trials or various common insecticides. Short two- to ten-day training sessions are regularly conducted for regional agricultural personnel. Several Peace Corps storage training/orientation sessions have been held a. ARSC. Arrangements for housing are available. Technical assistance is available to any African country, with an emphasis on West Africa to the Sahel. A regular newsletter and technical reprints are soon to be available. Information on all research and training is available on request.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. VITA Volunteers In Technical Assistance) 3706 Rhode Island Avenue Mt. Rainier, Maryland 20822 U.S.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VITA has a large number of technical Volunteer experts who respond to requests for technical information by mail. Peace Corps Volunteer requests for assistance should be sent to I.C.E. at the Peace Corps address below.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Peace Corps Office of Programming and Training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coordination</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D. C. 20525 U.S.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This office has available to it specialists in agricultural programming and training who can, if the need warrants, travel on in-country programming missions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. L.I.F.E. (League for International Food Education)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1126 - 16th Street, N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washinston, C. C. 20036</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.I.F.E. specializes in postharvest grain loss assessment and assessment training. It is also involved in supplying Technical expertise in general nutrition-related areas of development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Asian Productivity Organization</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aoyama Dai-ichi Mansions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4-14, Akassaka 8-chome</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Dr. N. S. Agrawal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Irrigration</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kirishi Bhavan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Delhi I, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both 6 and 7 above have extensive contact with long-standing, regional improved grain storage research training, and extension programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part II. Grain storage project training</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">H. Determining training needs and priorities</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Part II of this Handbook incensed 12 separate "raining subject areas which may be utilized in-a storage program training session or in Volunteer self-instruction. Although nor all or these areas will be necessary for each storage program, at least a brief review of each section is recommended. Training emphasis will naturally e placed on the most crucial skill and information areas and their learning difficulty. This ranking of training need areas is derived from the Volunteer Task Analysis as set forth in <U>Peace Corps Training Guidelines: The Program and Training Loop and a Systematic Approach to Training</U>. Each separate task is rated according to three scales:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=224>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Degree of Importance</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extremely</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">1</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moderately</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marginal</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Frequency of Performance </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Daily</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">1</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Daily to Weekly</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weekly to Monthly</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Occasional</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">4</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seldom</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Learning Difficulty</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extremely</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">1</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Very</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moderately</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Easy</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">4</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Those tasks with the lowest total score will require the most intense training exposure. The following example of a Volunteer Task Analysis shows how training needs might be ranked for a grain storage pre-extension program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUGGESTED VOLUNTEER TASK ANALYSIS GRAIN STORAGE PRE-EXTENSION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=668>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Degree of Importance</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frequency</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Learning Difficulty</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Technical</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. <U>Data Gathering</U>Volunteer will:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Visit farmers to identify various storage and drying methods.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Determine labor requirements and division of labor for construction, maintenance and use of storage and drying methods encountered</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Draw random samples from drying and storage.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Take moisture measurements of grain samples.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Identify insect types and levels of infestation.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Classify rodent control measures.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Rate importance of rodent damage to drying and storage.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Select farmers to cooperate in supervision of later demonstration trials.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">II. <U>Insecticide Demonstration Trials-</U>-Volunteer will:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Teach farmers and extension agents proper dosages and application techniques for insecticides.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Supervise the application of insecticides for trial demonstrations.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Keep records of insect-infestation levels over a duration trials.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Draw samples from trial bins.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Reduce sample size through sample quartering technique.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Identify infesting insects in trials.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Deliver insecticides to extension agents.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4h</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Organize farmer group visits to demonstration trials.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Discuss application, dosages, and costs with farmers.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Assure prompt and timely repeat treatments.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Identify problem areas in farmer and extension comprehension of dosage rates and application techniques.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Design and develop instructional materials for extension agents and farmers</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Plan and conduct one-day extension agent training courses.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">III. <U>Improved Storage Demonstration Trials</U>--Volunteer will;</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Select farmers from the initial survey who are interested in having storage demonstration trials on their own farms.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Identify three variables to test and demonstrate such as the use of insecticides, rat guards, improved shading, grain cleaning, bin disinfecting, etc.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Arrange purchase and transport of necessary materials to demonstration trial sites.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Visit and monitor trials on a bi-monthly basis, recording moisture levels and infestation levels.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Arrange area farmer group visits to demonstration sites.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Initiate instructional discussions between Farmers, visiting farmers and extension agents.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Calculate expenses and labor require meets of improved storage castrations.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IV. Skill Transfer--Volunteer will:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Do task analysis for jobs of counter-carts and clients.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Establish learning objectives for counterparts and clients.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Accurately determine skill and attitude levels of counterparts and clients.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Design learning activities which promote the achievement of established objectives.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Design and apply interim and post-evaluation devices to determine progress and success in achieving the objectives set. When necessary, modify/improve objectives and/or instruction.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Design and conduct field evaluation to determine both relevancy of task analysis and training efficiency.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V. Cross-Cultural</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Problem Solving--Volunteer will:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Solve problems in terms of self, other people, the physical and cultural environments. This involves:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="2%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">a) identifying needs and values of others</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="2%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">b) identifying his/her own needs and values</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="2%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c) perceiving the cultural and physical environment--its potential and limitations-accurately, i.e., as perceived by the majority of people living in that environment</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="2%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">d) using a systematic approach to problem solving.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Communication--volunteer will:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Set realistic goals that are consistent with physical and cultural environments.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Use a systematic approach to communication/skill transfer (see above).</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Employ a communication process that effectively accounts for and is sensitive to both what he/she transmit to others and what they transmit to him/her verbally and non-verbally.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Goal Settings--Volunteer will:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Set realistic goals that satisfy own physical and emotional needs and which are consistent with the physical and cultural environment.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VI. <U>Language</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Usage/Manipulation--Volunteer will, with increasing proficiency:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Master pronunciation so that speech is Intelligible to native speakers.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Engage in polite conversation on a variety of subjects including:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="2%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">a) greetings and "openers"</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="2%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">b) living site/conditions, family members, marital status</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="2%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c) offering and receiving of drinks, rood</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="2%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">d) weather, time, health, food likes/dislikes, colors, numbers.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="62%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Discuss job-related subjects such as:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="2%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">a) type of storage and drying methods used</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="2%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">b) farmer attitudes toward losses</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="2%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c) labor divisions and demands</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="2%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">d) storage costs</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="2%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">e) improved storage principles.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">I. The role of grain and grain storage in the world food supply</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Major Subject Areas</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Relative dietary importance of Grain in developing countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Present and future demand for grain in local and regional food supply</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The postharvest segment of the local food supply pipeline</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training Objectives</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be able to discuss with farmers, extension agents, students, or village leaders the importance of postharvest conditions in improving tine quality and quantity or the local and regional food supply</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Resources</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- FAO <U>Handling and Storage or Food Grains in Tropical and, Subtropical Areas</U>, Sections 1 and 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Chapters I-III, Post Harvest Loss Assessment Methods, American Association of Cereal Chemists, 1978. Available from 3340 Pilot Knob Road, St. Paul, Minnesota 55121, U.S.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Statistics on local grain production, Importation, and exportation (by region)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Examples of grain and grain products common in local diet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Training Exercises</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Plan and prepare one meal with no grain, grain-derived, or grain-fed products</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Plan and prepare one meal with only grain and grain-derived products</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food storage, the setting aside and preservation of food for later use, is one of the major technological innovations that has enabled humanity to migrate to large cities and nontropical climates where food does not crow all year long Grain is one or nature's most easily preserved and nutritious food sources and has become the basic food staple for much of humankind. According to FAO, the diet in developing countries is comprised of 30 to 70% cereals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The balance between food needs and the food supply has always been tenuous and has become even more important today, due largely to rapid population growth. We know that the world population will demand more and more grain in the years to come. Increased grain supplies can be provided in two ways: 1) by increases in production through the use of improved needs, fertilizers, machines and greater land cultivation, as well as the reduction of insect and disease problems before the harvest; and 2) through the reduction of postharvest waste and loss. Past development programs aimed solely at increased production 'nave made only limited prores toward increasing the food supply; integrated programs to reduce postharvest losses have been much less common. For only recently has the problem of Food supply been perceived as bearing two interrelated parts: production and postharvest storage and distribution. Storage is thus a vital link in the food supply the world over whether grain is stored in underground pits, in grain elevators, or on the rafters above cooking fires.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development of some new varieties of rice and maize have had some interesting and unexpected effects on the food supply. Some new high-yielding or early-maturing varieties made it possible to increase production through double cropping. However, inclement weather during the new, earlier harvesting period has created new grain drying problems requiring new drying technologies to avoid consequent moisture-related losses. Furthermore, some of the new varieties of grain have either less insect-resistant seed coats or loose husks, opening the grain to potentially devastating insect attack. These new problems in the postharvest segment of the food supply clearly demonstrate the inseparable interrelationship of the two parts of this system. As a result, development organizations are continuing to find that it is of questionable value to encourage increased production without attention to postharvest considerations, particularly where postharvest losses are known to be significant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">J. The movement of grain from harvest to consumer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Major Subject Areas</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Major local postharvest stages including harvest, drying, transport, storage, shelling, processing and marketing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Relative importance of postharvest pipeline losses at various stages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Basic concepts of grain loss assessment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training Objectives</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be able to outline the major stages of the local postharvest pipeline and will know the relative quantities of grain stored and marketed by local farmers and the quantity of national grain imports and exports</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will demonstrate in-depth understanding local postharvest stages including harvest, drying, transport, storage, grinding, preparation, etc., including approximate dates, labor requirements, and grain. prices at harvest and pre-harvest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Resources</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- L.I.F.E./AACC Post Harvest Grain Loss Assessment Manual, Preface, Chapter i, II C. Available on request from L.I.F.E., 1126 - 16th Street, N. W., Room 404, Washington, D. C. 20036, U.S.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Graphic illustration or chart of local grain pipeline, each stage labeled with total percent of grain which passes through that point, e.g., 25% marketed, 14% milled, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Training Exercises</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Visit major local pipeline stage sites and follow with research to determine quantitative flow in individual stages of the pipeline for development of above-mentioned local pipeline chart</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Compile a list of 1) all products and bi-products manufactured from local grain and 2) local grain exports</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Spend a day at different grain markets to trace origin and destination of grain in each market</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All grain consumed in a country is either grown there or imported. All grain must move to consumers (urban and rural) through what can be visualized as a pipeline composed of many reservoirs and interconnecting pipes. The structure or the pipeline can be very simple if most farmers consume all of their grain and sell none. Or, it can be very complex, including producers, wholesalers, retailers, processors, distributors, urban consumers , and the many phases of transport between these different groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The storage conditions in each section or the grain pipeline may differ widely, and leaks (losses) can and usually do occur in each. section of tine pipeline. Economically, it ekes sense to find and reduce the biggest leaks in the pipeline to obtain the highest returns. However, cultural, political, and climatic influences may not always favor such a strategy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In developing countries there the traditional small farmer produces the majority of the total grain harvest, it is common for as much as 80% of the small farm produced grain to remain on the farm or in rural areas. Consequently, that part of the pipeline is strategically the most Important in terms of potential increases in the food supply. For this reason! focus on grain storage at the small farm level can often be the most promising and practical approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">K. The physical properties of grain</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Major Subject Areas</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Three grain carts: pericarp, embryo, endosperm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Bi-products of grain respiration and their effect on storage quality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Control methods to retard grain respiration</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Relative humidity and equilibrium moisture content</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Moisture movement in stored grain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training Objectives</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be able to explain to farmers and extension agents the three parts of grain and their role in nutrition and grain germination</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be able to explain to extension agents grain respiration, its bi-products, and the environmental factors which retard or promote it</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will understand principles of equilibrium moisture content and will commit to memory the predicted local equilibrium moisture content for grain at time of harvest and at predominantly dry and wet season temperatures and humidity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be able to explain to farmers and extension agents what causes moisture movement in grain bins and why stored grain should be shaded</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Resources</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Peace Corps/<U>VITA Small Farm Grain Storage, Sections 2, 3</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- FAO <U>Handling and Storage of Food Grains in Tropical and Sub troptical Areas,</U> Section 4, Appendix H</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Training Exercises</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Take hygrometer and temperature readings during two hour intervals throughout the day to demonstrate relationship of temperature and relative humidity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Seal two samples of moist grain in separate jars placing one in a cool and the other in a warm environment to observe the collection of moisture over several days</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because the physical properties of grain play a vital role in its vulnerability and storage losses, a brief study of grain's physical structure and properties will give a clearer unders-anding of the major factors which cause such losses and the methods of their prevention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grain kernels are actually living organisms. If grain is to be used for planting, it must be kept alive. In addition, living grain resists storage deterioration better than dead grain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All cereal grains--maize, rice, sorghum, wheat, barley, e.c.- actually fruit or the grass family Graminae. The structure of each type or grain is basically the same. The grain Kernel consists of three parts:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The seed coat, or pericarp</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The seed germ, or embryo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The food storage reservoir, or endosperms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pericarp (seed coat) is waxy and acts as the grain's natural deterrent against the movement in or out of insects, mold, and moisture. The embryo (seed germ) extends up from the tip cap (the end of the kernel which was attached to the adult plant). The tip cap has many tiny pathways which connect to the embryo and the endosperm above it. Water passes easily through these pathways, causing the germination of the seed. The embryo, which will become the living plant, is readily destroyed by molds which attack moist grain. This destruction kills the seed so that it can no longer be used for planting. The endosperm (stored food of the seed) forms the largest part of the seed, about 80% in most grains. It is the largest source of the grain's food value for humans. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like other living organisms, grain undergoes life processes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People breathe oxygen from the air and take nutrients from the food they eat in order to nourish their bodies and grow. Similarly, stored grain must maintain its life processes by taking in oxygen and converting the stored food in its endosperm to energy. This process is called respiration. Though the chemical reactions are rather complex, suffice to say here that when it is cool and dry, grain is dormant. This means that while life continues, biological activity is minimal, and there is no sprouting or growth. Nevertheless, the grain continues to slowly take in oxygen to convert its stored food into almost imperceptible quantities of moisture, heat, and carbon dioxide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two actors will serve to speed up the respiration process of grain: moisture and heat. Planting grain in favorable conditions of warm, moist soil will rapidly increase its respiration level, causing sprouting and growth in a matter of days. Grain moisture in fact influences respiration and grain deterioration more than grain temperature; an increase in moisture causes greater increases in respiration rates and comparable increases in grain temperature. The respiration rate of grain can be retarded by forced or natural aeration or by artificially cooling it, a process which in non-temperate climates is generally expensive and impractical. Reducing the moisture content of grain and cooling through natural aeration are generally more practical ways of reducing grain respiration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The moisture content of grain will vary according to the climate in which it is grown and stored. Specifically, moisture content after maturity depends upon the relative humidity of the surrounding air. Relative humidity means the amount of moisture actually in the air compared to the maximum amount of moisture the air would hold at that temperature if it were saturated. Because warm air will hold more moisture than cool air, an increase in air temperature during the hot dry season, at midday, or in artificial dryers, will also lower its relative humidity. Air with a low relative humidity moving through high moisture content grain will cause the latter to give up moisture to the air. Warm the air and it does an even better job. This principle is used in the drying of grain. Conversely, grain may absorb moisture in the presence of air with high relative humidity. The equilibrium moisture content is the point at which the moisture content of the grain and air stabilize.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Different grains have varying equilibrium moisture contents at a different relative humidity. Research has determined that the maximum moisture for safe storage is the equilibrium moisture content for grain in climatic conditions with air at 70% relative humidity and a temperature of 27°C. A chart for various grain equilibrium moisture contents is found in FAO Handling and Storage of Grains in Tropical and Subtropical Areas, Section 4, page 53.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If grain is sealed in a closed container, such as a metal bin, the grain will reach an equilibrium moisture content with the air in the bin. Because there is relatively much more actual weight of moisture in grain than in air, it takes a great deal of air to appreciably increase the moisture content of grain. Thus, the air in a sealed bin quickly gives up its available moisture or picks up the little moisture available in the air and comes into equilibrium with the grain. Grain exposed to open air would come into contact with much increased quantities of air, thereby acquiring or losing much more moisture before coming into equilibrium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If grain is not stored in a sealed container, e.g., in open cribs or hanging from the limb or a tree, its moisture content will continue to change in seeking equilibrium with the changing environmental conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The respiration of grain releases heat, moisture, and carbon dioxide. The heat and moisture in turn further increase respiration, potentially causing a spiraling effect. Because both mold and insects reproduce more rapidly in conditions of warmth and moisture, maintaining low levels of grain respiration and consequently the reduction of grain moisture is a major component of safe storage procedures. In addition, both mold and insects produce heat and moisture through their life processes, further adding to the potential heat and moisture build-up. This phenomenon can cause serious pockets of heated, moray, and insectinfested grain. We will look at this problem in more detail in Section M' "Factors which Threaten the Good Preservation of Grain."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">L. Moisture and its measurement</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Major Subject Areas</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Traditional non-mechanical methods of moisture measurement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Mathematical formulation for moisture calculation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Moisture removal methods of moisture measurements</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Electric moisture measurement methods</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training Objectives</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will identify and become proficient in use or local traditional moisture measurement methods</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be able to use at least one method of local non-mecanical moisture measurement with maximum error of 2% safe storage level</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be familiar with use and maintenance of locally available moisture meters for field and laboratory use</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will learn location of all publicly available moisture meters in his/her area</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Resources</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Peace Corps/<U>VITA Small Farm Grain Storage</U>, Section 3, Appendix B</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- FAO <U>Handling and Storage of Food Grains in Tropical and Subtropical Areas</U>, Section 4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Portable and laboratory moisture meters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Training Exercises</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Take moisture readings of grain at graduated moisture levels to become familiarized with operation of moisture meter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- compare results to laboratory meter, sealing and labeling samples for transport</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- read-repair manual and make trial adjustments to calibrate portable moisture meter with laboratory meter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Make non-mechanical estimate of grain moisture content using teeth, thumbnail, etc., and learn to gauge various critical moisture contents, checking against readings of moisture meter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">* * *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even though the reduction of moisture in grain is probably the single most important factor in its safe storage, there is no minimal fixed limit below which grain may be safely stored for any given period of time. Remember that a large insect infestation can produce moisture-related problems in spite of controlled temperature and adequate drying. The following table shows the <U>approximate </U>moisture content or up to one year's safe storage at 27°C and 70% relative humidity. Generally, above these limits moisture alone will cause deterioration; at or below these limits, it is possible to avoid moisture-induced losses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=451>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grain Type</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maximum Moisture Content for One Year (or less) Storage at 70% relative humidity and 27°C</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wheat</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">13.5°</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maize</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">13.5%</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paddy Rice</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">15.0%</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Milled Rice</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">13.0%</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sorghum</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">13.5%</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Millet</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">16.0%</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beans</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">15.0%</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cow Peas</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">15.0%</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1970, p. 53, <U>Handling and Storage of Food Grains in Tropical and Subtropical Areas.</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The measurement of moisture is clearly vital to safe grain storage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Traditional Non-Mechanical Moisture Measurement</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indigenous farmers have always had their own methods for measuring the amount of moisture in grain. Some of these methods provide a fairly reliable estimate of the grain's suitability for safe storage. These methods involve pressing the grain with the thumbnail, crushing it between the fingers, biting it, rattling a number of grains in a tin, smelling or shaking a handful, or plunging a hand which fingers extended intro a large quantity of the grain (such as a sack). Wet or dam? grain is soft, gives a dull sound, smells, and prevents penetration of the hand up to the forearm. With experience, one can do a fair job or judging whether or not the grain is suitable for storage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Often, such local methods for determining moisture content are adequate to insure safe storage and should be used as often as possible. Mechanized moisture measurement techniques are considerably more costly, but they allow one to cut closer to the trouble line.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other methods available for measuring moisture can he divided into these suitable for the laboratory or for the field Laboratory methods are considerably more accurate, but seldom practical under field conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moisture Removal Methods of Moisture Measurement</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Very briefly, the two most common of these methods for moisture measurement are oven-drying and distillation, Both methods are most commonly found in laboratories due to the complexity and fragility of the required equipment. In both methods the grain is first weighed on a very accurate scale. The sample is then ground into a fine powder and either heated in a special oven or in a special oil. Heating the grain causes the moisture to evaporate. If the oven method is used, the grain is again weighed, and the percentage moisture content can be calculated by the following formula: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"><IMG SRC="Image596.gif" WIDTH=384 HEIGHT=45></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The distillation method traps the evaporated water and condenses it into a graduated cylinder. The same formula can then be used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Electric Moisture Measurement Methods</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These methods rely on a piece of equipment called a moisture meter. These are commonly found at processing installations and warehouses, but they are generally too expensive and delicate for use by small farmers in developing countries. For this reason, their use is often restricted to extension agents. The most common and practical moisture meter for field use is the capacitance type. It measures the moisture of a given weight of grain. by gassing a current of electricity through it to gauge the conductivity which varies according to the type of grain and its moisture content. The reading of the meter is calculated on a scale with adjustments for grain temperature and type. Because capacitance moisture meters are liable to give false ratings if the sample to be tested is wet on the surface, the grain should be held in a closed container for 24 hours before testing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resistance moisture meters may be of two types, using either a compression cell or a probe. In the compression cell method, a sample is compressed and the electrical resistance measured or a scale calibrated in percentage moisture content. Temperature correction is required. The probe method is less accurate but is useful where rapid evaluation of the approximate moisture content, of a large, already bagged quantity of grain is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, the simplest and most accurate method of moisture measurement involves the use of non-iodized table salt and works on the principle of equilibrium moisture content. Its use is limited to determine whether maize has a moisture content of or less than 15%, the maximum for safe storage of bagged maize. Consequently, it is not useful where closed system storage is in use. A small tightly sealed bottle of approximately 100 ml is filled about three-quarters full of maize grain. About 5-10 teaspoons of free-running dry table salt are added, and the bottle is closed and shaken for a few minutes. (If necessary the salt may be dried in an even or heated can.) If the salt sticks to the inside of the bottle, the maize is above 15% moisture content. If it does not stick, the maize will be below 15% moisture content. This method is found to be accurate in measuring the 10 level within a 0.5% margin of error. It is more accurate than most other field moisture meters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information on specific types and brands of moisture meters can be found in the Peace Corps/VITA <U>Small Farm Grain Storage Manual</U>. Price and manufacturer's address are included. Generally, the use of moisture meters by Peace Corps Volunteers will only be necessary where careful observations are being made of local and improved storage performance and where artificial dryers are being tested and newly introduced. Moisture meters are rather delicate and should be transported with minimum exposure to shock and dust. Meters should be calibrated at least every six months, more often when they are used heavily, and especially when they are frequently transported. They can be calibrated by selecting several samples of grain at different moisture contents, measuring the moisture contents with a known accurate meter, probably to be found in a grain laboratory, sealing the samples in separate labeled jars and later compared to the moisture meter being calibrated. A variety of moisture contents should be checked, preferably at the level safe for storage for the grain in question, and 2% higher and lower than that level. Each moisture meter should some with instructions for re-calibration adjustments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">M. Factors which threaten good preservation of grain</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Major Subject Areas</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The interrelationship of moisture, meat, insects, and mold in grain storage and grain loss</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Mold growth, its effect on storage and its control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Insects, their effect on storage and their control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Rodents, their effect on storage and their control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Grain heating, its causes and effects on the storage environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Moisture, its movement and role in the storage environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Grain conditions and its role in the storage environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training Objectives</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be able to discuss with farmers and extension agents the interrelationship of moisture, heat, insects, and meld in grain storage and grain loss</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be able to discuss and demonstrate specific methods which are or could be locally used to control moisture, heating, and mold growth (more specific information on insects, rodents, and grain drying is presented in Sections O, P and Q. respectively)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Resources</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- FAO <U>Handling and Storage of Food Grains in Tropical and Subtropical Areas</U>, Section 4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Grain samples with heat; insect; mold; and rodent-related losses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Training Exercises</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Visit farm storage sites to identify five major storage threats:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- ask farmers what they think are the major threats to the storage of their grain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Present in local language summary of the interrelationship of moisture, heat, insects, and mold in grain storage and grain loss</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grain can be stored safely anywhere In the world for more than 30 years with very little reduction of its nutritional value if three factors can be controlled. These three factors are moisture, heat, and pests. The relative significance of these factors varies according to climate. Heat, for example, is not a grain storage problem during the winter in Canada. Similarly, insects cause fewer problems in dry climates than in tropical ones. Safe storage practices basically entail manipulation or the environment to guard against storage threats. This can be accomplished through sealing dried grain in a moisture-proof kin, using insecticides, storing grain in cool, shaded areas, etc. Some forms of environmental manipulation will be more practical and effective than others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specifically, the principle causes of grain loss in storage area:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Excessive moisture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Heat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Insects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Mold</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Rodents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These causes a-e often interrelated and occur whether the grain is stored in small baskets on a farm or in huge warehouses in a major urban center. The basic principles involved in controlling and preventing storage losses are the same regardless of the quantity being stored. This Handbook deals only with control measures which are the most practical and available for use by the small farmer in the developing world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Losses due to mold and insects are frequently interrelated, generally the most damaging to grain, and the most difficult to control.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mold Growth, the Effect on Storage and Its Control</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microscopic mold spores (technically-called fungi) are present on all grain kernels. When moisture content is too high (usually 14% or more) and the temperature is above 22°C, meld spores will germinate. The growing molds send out tiny thread-like roots (called hyphae) and produce a mass of new spores in a very short time. These hyphae pierce the seed coat especially at the vulnerable seed tip can, to feed off the embryo and the stored food of the endosperm. The molds will kill the seed germ and consume its stored food. Molds can penetrate very easily into damaged or broken kernels, which are unprotected by the waxy seed coat. Therefore, care should be exercised in shelling, threshing, and handling the grain to avoid its breaking or cracking. Moreover, although they do not greatly increase the moisture content or grain, molds produce a considerable amount or heat which can further promote the deterioration of stored grains by fostering additional insect and mold growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An obvious loss in quantity of the grain does not occur in the early stages of mold development, and reduction in quality is not immediately noticed. However, serious damage may rapidly occur in grains invaded by molds if they are not dealt with quickly. Molds produce chemical substances (called enzymes) which break down the grain and destroy the ability of seeds to germinate and produce new plants. They also cause both discoloration of the embryos and reduction in embryonic nutritional value. In the later stages of mold growth, the grain's stored carbobvdrates and proteins are consumed, resulting in its loss of weight. Molds also cause chemical changes in the grains, which further reduces the food value and changes the taste of the grain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries there is crowing concern about aflatoxins, chemicals produced by certain mold growth. Detection of aflatoxins requires very sophisticated laboratory procedures. Aflatoxins have been found to be highly carcinogenic. The most reliable way to avoid aflatoxin contamination is through drying of grain immediately after harvest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insects, Their Effect on Storage and Their Control</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insects feed on the stored nutrients of the grain and like molds, their metabolic processes produce heat and carbon dioxide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The added moisture and heat make the grain a more favorable environment for the development of even larger numbers of insects and the growth of mold. The optimum grain moisture for insect multiplication is about 14-17% but insects will grow and slowly multiplication at moisture contents as low as Generally, insects do not reproduce in large numbers in grain that is below 11% moisture content. Most insects will go dormant or die in grain with 9% or less moisture content.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Temperatures also influence the growth of insects, which tend to die or migrate when temperatures are higher than 40°C. Because it is often costly or impractical to dry grain below 11% moisture content or to heat it above 40°C, chemical or indigenous insecticides are often used to prevent infestations. Details on the use of insecticides are presented in Handbook Section O, "Insects and Their Control. "</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents, Their Effect on the Storage Environment and Their Control</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rats and mice eat large amounts of stored produce arc often spoil uneaten remains. Characteristically, rodent damage can be easily detected in shelled maize which has the embryo eaten our, or in cob maize which is gnawed away to the base of the endosperm. Smaller grains are often totally consumed, carried away, or broken into many small pieces. Flakes of material partially eaten are indicative of mouse damage. Hairs, droppings, and tainted odors are common in rodent-damaged grains, reducing not the quantity of the produce, but its quality. On the world export market some countries refuse such contaminated produce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The practical prevention of grain loss due to rodents involves:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The use of storage bin construction materials that are impervious to the gnawing of rats and mice--metal, concrete, burnt mud bricks, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The provision of conical metal rat guards fixed to the storage structure leg supports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The use of chemical rat poisons or mechanical traps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grain Heating, Its Causes, and Its Effects on the Storage Environment</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grain is a good insulator, meaning that heat produced by mold growth, insects, and grain respiration tends to build up and concentrate in the grain mass. This build-up can result in what is called "a hot spot;" (See Figure A) As insects tend to migrate away from high temperatures, hot soot formation may actually spread infestation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p049.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE A </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spoilage of grain due to temperature differences, movement of moisture, and localized development of fungi and insects. "Hot spot" formation may occur at any location in the grain mass. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1970, p. 64, <U>Handling and Storage of Food Grains in tropical and Subtropical Areas</U>.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heat produced by mold growth will increase until the molds are killed at temperatures of 50°C or more. at this point, bacteria and fermentation (souring) will continue to produce beat, and temperatures may exceed 80°C. These extremely high temperatures usually cause darkening of the entire grain kernel. Grain deterioration caused by the large amounts of heat produced by molds (and insects to a lesser extent) reduces the quality of the grain not only for food and feed use but also for industrial purposes of alcohol and starch production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moisture, Its Movement and Role in the Storage Environment</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Well-dried and insect-free grain can keep for a considerable length of time if the conditions under which the grain is stored do not change. Unfortunately, such conditions can change as a result or temperature fluctuation in the atmosphere outside the storage container.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even when there is equal or uniform grain moisture distribution in storage, uneaten temperatures in the grain mass (caused by the sun's heating of the bin walls) may cause moisture to migrate from one part of a bin to another. Internal moisture migration decreases grain moisture in one place and increases it in another. This frequently leads to mold-caused spoilage and insect growth in the high moisture areas. Understanding this externally caused process of moisture migration in the stored grain requires an examination of the actual influence of temperatures outside the storage bin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In temperate climates, grains are placed in storage at relatively high temperatures. As the average air temperature outside the grain storage bin decreases with the changing of seasons, the walls of the storage bin are cooled, lowering the temperature of the grain and the air near the bin walls. When air is cooled, its density increases. Cool air has a lower volume and a greater weight than warm air. Since it is heavier, it tends to move down along the bin walls toward the bottom of the bin. This movement of cool air to the bottom of the storage bin causes the displacement of the warmer air that had been there. This warm air moves up through the center of the grain mass to the top of the bin near the central area of its <U>cool </U>surface. (See Figure B)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Changing The temperature of air changes the amount of water it can hold. Thus the warm air rising through the bin carries moisture which will condense at the upper surface of the bins as its temperature is lowered by this cooler grain. The cooler, descending air will then be warmed by the grain, causing it to pick up moisture from the grain when it again goes through the center of the bin, depositing the moisture at the top c, the stored grain when it is cooled once again. (See Figure B) This circular movement of air currents may deposit enough moisture at the top of the bin to promote mold and insect development and consequent spoilage if no countermeasures are taken. Once the molds and insects get started, they can spread to other parts of the grain mass.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the warmer seasons, the opposite situation may occur: outside air temperatures are higher than temperatures in the storage bin. The air near the bin wall is thus warmed and rises along the walls. The displaced cool air at the top of the bin moves down through the center of the grain mass. Moisture carried by the rising heated air will again be deposited near the too surface of the stored grain because moisture condensation is caused by the cooling of the air moving down through. the cool rain mass.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This process of air and moisture movement caused be external changes of temperature is most evident where there are large grain masses and large seasonal temperature changes</U>. However, it may occur also in situations where day-night temperature changes are great, particularly in non-shaded metal bins whose walls are good conductors of heat. Generally, this process does not occur in smaller bins. However, even in small metal bins of 3-5 tons, external heating may cause some moisture migration, build-up, and consequent grain deterioration if the bins are unshared. Thus all closed bins should be shaded, particularly those made of metal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grain Condition and Its Role in the Storage Environment</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The condition of grain at the beginning of the storage period affects the length of time grain can be safely stored. In addition to a favorable moisture and temperature environment, mold and insects require a readily available food supply. A sound, hard, seed coat helps keep molds and insects from easy access to the stored food of the grain. Sound kernels have better storage resistance than those that are cracked or broken. The presence of foreign material such as straw, weed seeds, and dust also contributes to the development of mold and insects. Straw and, to a greater extent, dust are particularly hydroscopic; that is, they tend to take up and retain moisture. Consequently, excessive dust and straw in storage may provide an environment conducive to the initial build-up of mold. Thus, grain cracking and breakage should be minimized in shelling, and all grain should be winnowed or sifted to remove chaff and dust before storage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p052.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE B</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moisture movement within bulk of grain due to differences between outside air temperature and the temperature of the stored grain. Left, outside air temperature below grain temperature; right, outside air temperature above grain temperature .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Dr. Henry Barre, Professor Emeritus, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">N. Grain drying</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Major Subject Areas</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Moisture content at grain maturity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Crying methods (artificial, solar, and field drying)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Maximum safe drying temperatures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training Objectives</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be familiar with local drying methods and be able to discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of each to farmers and extension agents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be familiar with farms and able to discuss with farmers and extension agents the results of any local or relevant regional research on improved dryer design and performance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be able to build and operate suitable dryer models for farmer extension</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Resources</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Peace Corps/VITA <U>Small Farm, Grain Storage Manual</U>, Sections 4 and 5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- FAO <U>Handling and Storage or Food Grains in Tropical and Subtropical Areas</U>, Section 6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Moisture meter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Thermometer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Solar dryer construction materials and tools</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Local research reports on improved drying methods</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Training Exercises</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Build a solar dryer and monitor grain drying with thermometer, moisture meter, and non-mechanical moisture testing methods</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Compare natural drying methods and their drying rates to improved solar drying during simultaneous operation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Dry samples of grain at increasing temperatures! then plant grain samples separately to observe effect on grain germination potential</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Use the same homogeneous bulk of grain to obtain each drying sample and plant one control which has not beer. artificially dried</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">* * *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The amount of drying required to prepare grain or safe storage depends upon its moisture content at the time of harvest. Grain drying practices also depend upon other considerations including the kind of grain, the method of harvest, the wee-her at the time of harvest, and labor availability during harvest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general, grain is fully mature at about 33% moisture fire content, at which point the growth process ends. The end of the growth process can be observed when the grain plant turns brown and dies. Generally, grain is harvested in tropical climates very soon after maturity to make way for the next corp. Harvesting and threshing of grain usually occurs when the moisture content of the grain is higher than is safe for closed storage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Windowing (i.e., drying in stacks or bundles) and field drying freshly harvested grain for even a few days with only a few hours of sunshine each day will remove large quantities of water. Field observations in tropical areas have shown that approximately ten days of field drying reduces the moisture content of grain from 35% to 24%. Such steps as field drying and shelling also greatly' reduce the time and cost involved in artificial drying, if it is to be used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Generally, the limitations to field drying are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Rodents and birds which consume and destroy large quantities of the grain. Insect infestation can set started in the unprotected grain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Rain and sun heating of the grain which cause grain deterioration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The relative humidity in some areas which is not low enough to permit thorough drying for safe shelled or bulk storage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Close-following rainy season, which forces rapid clearing of the field to prepare for the next planting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Drying Temperature</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Drying temperatures have a significant effect on grain quality. The maximum grain temperature advised during drying depends on: 1) the intended use of the grain, 2) the moisture content of the grain, and 3) the type of grain. For example, to assure a standard density of plants per hectare, grain used for planting needs to have a high germination potential. Because high drying temperatures kill 'the seed, air temperatures for drying seed grain must not exceed 40°C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excessively high grain temperature in maize and rice will cause increased kernel cracking, breakage, and discoloration and lead to a lowered food and market value of the grain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The baking and milling qualities of grain are seriously reduced by excessive drying temperatures. Fortunately, grain to be used for such purposes can withstand higher temperatures than seed grain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maximum permissible recommended drying temperatures depend also upon the use for which the grain is intended. Examples are seven in the table below. These are broadly recognized values not exclusively appropriate to all areas or varieties. Experience may indicate that temperatures in excess of these may be used satisfactorily. Initially, however, the temperatures listed are recommended. Minimum temperatures are always recommended when quality is a factor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHALLOW LAYER DRYER OPERATING TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=494>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Produce and Intended Use</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">Recommended drying temperature °C</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grain to be used for live stock feed</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">74</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grain for human consumption</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">57</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grain for milling and manufacturing</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">60</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seed grain or brewery grain</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">43</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice for human consumption</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">43</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beans for human consumption</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">35</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1936, p. 71, Handling and Storage of Food Grains in Tropical and Subtropical Areas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Drying Methods</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grain drying methods which are practical for use by small farmers are field drying, natural ventilation, sun drying, and artificial, heated-air drying.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Field drying should be used to the maximum extent possible. The rate of drying of crops in the field largely depends on the atmospheric air conditions (temperature, relative humidity, wind, rain, etc.). Because of field losses due to dropping, spillage, rodents, birds, insects, anticipated rain and thievery, farmers may be obliged to gather the grain before it has been well-dried in the field. Where there are two growing seasons, the second following closely after the first, the early crop must often be harvested immediately at maturity to permit clearing the fields in preparation for the second.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other drying practices, such as windowing and sun drying may be used to great advantage depending upon weather conditions and cropping patterns. However, they require much additional time and labor compared to direct harvest methods. Sun drying on mats, hard-packed earth, or other flat surfaces is commonly used in many countries. Because birds and other animals must be pretented from consuming the grain being dried, sun drying requires constant attention to assure good grain quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Open storage cribs designed to provide good natural ventilation are used traditionally when it is desirable to harvest food grains too moist for closed storage, or when artificial drying is not available or practical. It is especially common for the storage of unshelled maize on the cob. During the dry season, such storage may provide sufficient drying for shelling and later enclosed storage of the maize. Long-term open crib storage (more than 6-8 months) is seldom practical because such naturally ventilated structures in tropical regions offer little protection against infestation by insects and rodents or from rain and damp air during prolonged humid periods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heated-air drying systems consist of a drying bin to hold the grain through which heated (low relative humidity! air is passed, rapidly drying the grain. The use of these dryers is generally restricted to larger cooperatives due to limitations such as high cost of construction and maintenance. The fuel for heating the air (petrol, firewood, maize cobs, rice hulls) also adds to the cost further reducing the practicality of this system for individual farmers. However, this method can be used regardless of climatic considerations (rainfall or humidity); moreover, it is very fast compared to natural drying methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">O. Insects and their control</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Major Subject Areas</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Sources of insect infestation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Basic insect biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Identification of major insect pests</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Selection of insect control methods</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Non-chemical and traditional insect control methods</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Control with chemical insecticides</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training Objectives</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be able to demonstrate and discuss insect infestation sources to farmers and extension agents as support for the deinfestation of bins and equipment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be able to identify on observation the major local insect species</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be familiar with the life stages of the insect, and be able to identify the adult stages or major local species</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be familiar with and able to identify and evaluate all local insect control methods which do not rely on modern insecticides</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be familiar with major locally available insecticides and know which are or are not suitable for grain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be able to recommend to farmers and extension agents the use of chemical insecticides, including dosages and application methods</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will know the safety precautions for the application of all locally available insecticides For use with grains as well as first aid procedures for the treatment of insecticide poisoning</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Resources </P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Peace Corps/VITA Small Farm Grain Storage Manual, Section 6, Part 1; Appendix C; Sect on 7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- FAO Grain Storage and Handling in Tropical and Subtropical Areas, Sections 4, 5, 8 , and Appendix C</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Degesch Principal Storage Pests, a color insect identification chart available from: Degesch D-6000 Frankfurt (Main) 1, Postfach 2644, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Regulations for local insecticide use</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- List of all locally available insecticides and their suggested application and dosage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- List of government and private insecticide outlets and prices</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Field Exercises</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Visit selected local farmers to practice insect identification and infestation level determination techniques:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- remove samples from all accessible parts of store, (i.e., top, bottom, sides) examining samples to determine type of infestation and desirability and type of treatment required</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- observe and discuss local insect control methods with farmers to determine farmer awareness and interest</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Visit area grain markets for similar insect identification and infestation level determination</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Practice the application of all local insect control methods</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Develop posters and simple instruction booklet for insect control methods extension</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Visit grain warehouse or dock storage to examine and practice bulk insect control methods</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insects represent one of the most prevalent and destructive causes of stored grain loss. In order to most effectively control them, a basic understanding of their physical characteristics and biology is required. Such information permits the correct use of insecticides as well as ocher more simple and less potentially dangerous insect control methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The choice of insecticides must reflect practical and economic considerations as well as an awareness of their Potential dangers to the environment and to both the people using them and those who will eat the grain. <U>Insecticides are poisons, some more dangerous than others. They are commonly misused, especially in developing countries, sometimes with tragic results. Such tragedies are avoidable through education</U>. Because insecticides are often so vital to the success of a grain storage effort, it is critical that Peace Corps Volunteers know their proper use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Source of Infestation</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grain may become infested in a number of ways. In many graingrowing regions, infestation ,tarts in the field before the crops are harvested. This is particularly true when the rice weevil and other insects are abundant in the field at harvest or where loosely constructed 'arm storage permits insects to move from stores to the fields or from unused grain bags back and forth to fields and nearby stores. Insects are generally more or a problem in tropical climates where they wait out the non-growing season in loose grain in the fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to field infestation, there are several other important sources of infestation of stored grain. Grain is customarily stored in the same bins, sacks, or warehouses year after year. The cracks and crevices of wooden bins, For example, fill with dust and broken grain and afford places of concealment for insects. If these containers are never cleaned, insects later emerge in enormous numbers. Thus fresh grain quickly becomes infested.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uninfected grain should not be placed for storage or shipment in sacks previously used for grain storage unless they have been insect-sterilized by heat or fumigation</U>. Sacks may be heattreated by boiling; sunning is also partially effective. On a thatch, sod or clay roof, it may be relatively ineffective. On a hot metal roof, it may be 100% effective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In any discussion of controlling insects in grain, we need to recognize that the insects The are dealing with exist all over the world in other food and foodstuffs, in food refuse and in nature unrelated to people's grains and foods. These existed in nature long before there were stored grains. <U>Because insects exist outside of stored grain, sanitation on and the use of tight storage bins are extremely important factors in their control in grain stores</U>. Unless each storage site is cleaned, the insects will be there waiting. Unless it is closed tightly, the insects will move in, and the grain will require repeated inspections and probably treatments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insect Biology</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many control procedures available. Before selecting the best possible technique, an understanding of insects and the relation of controls to biological factors is essential. Insect control consists of a combination of many interrelated factors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the tropics beetles and moths are generally the most common insect pests causing losses and deterioration to stored food grains; in some areas termites and ants may also be a significant problem. Among the insects which live in stored food rains, a few begin their attack several weeks before harvest. There are other species which are unable to attack until the crop is almost dry or during the postharvest field drying period. As drying advances, certain of the insect pests are eliminated because there is no longer enough moisture available to support their needs. Insects do not breed successfully in an environment where the relative humidity is maintained at less than 40% or with temperatures below 10°C. As the temperature and humidity conditions diverge from the optimum, the time taken to develop from egg to adult increases, and the number of eggs laid become fewer. Some species tolerate the high humidity conditions with which fungi are associated, principally because they are mold feeders or require that the produce be decomposed by mold development in order to be suitable for them to eat. Most species do not tolerate prolonged temperatures above 42°C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insects have six legs. They have a hard outer skeleton or skin called the cuticle. The body is divided into three distinct regions: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. In adult insects the head has mouth parts for biting and sucking, large compound eyes, and two antennae or feelers. The thorax carries the three pairs of legs and usually two pairs of wings. The abdomen contains part of the food canal and the reproductive organs. The adult insect lays eggs loosely in food, cements them onto food grains, or bores a small hole with its mouth parts in which an egg is securely laid. The egg develops and hatches a small worm-like larva, which is unlike the adult. The larva feeds, cut in order to grow, it must cast or shed its skin in a process called molting. This process of feeding and molting continues until the larva has reached its maximum seize. At this stage it stops feeding and may form an other shell or in the case of moths spin a shelter or cocoon in which it changes shape and becomes a pupa. The pupa, which may look like a folded-together adult insect, remains immobile and does not feed; it develops into tine fully formed adult insect which will push or bite its way out of the covering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since it is very difficult to see the eggs or the very young larvae of insect pests, and since they do not lave large holes in the grain, the farmer may assume that grains and kernels are uninfested. <U>However, the presence or a few adult insects walking on or flying over stacks or bulks of produce usually indicates that there are many more insects inside one bulk of grain.</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under good conditions insects breed very quickly, the life cycle from egg to adult being completed in a few weeks and each female insect laying a large number of eggs. Under ideal temperatures and humidity (28°C and 65-80% relative humidity) and with adequate food, a pair of flour beetles is theoretically capable of increasing to millions in six months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Identification of Major Insect Pests</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With some careful practice, Volunteers can learn to identify the most common insect pests. Local entomologists or plant storage protection officers are likely sources of information and instruction. The Peace Corps/VITA <U>Small Farm Grain Storage Manual </U>has black and white pictures of common grain insect pests; and both the Degesch color insect chart and the FAO <U>Handling and Storage of Food Grains in Tropical and Subtropical Areas</U> may be helpful for Volunteers who wish more detailed information. For identification purposes it is best to place dark-colored insects on a light surface such as a piece of white paper.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selection of Insect Control Methods</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The selection of a control method is influenced by many factors:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Temperature</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Moisture </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Type of storage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Type of insect</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Length of storage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Price of grain and insect control.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Temperature</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As already stated, insect pests of stored grain have certain temperature and moisture requirements which directly affect their proliferation as well as their ability to damage grain and resist chemical control. As a group, grain-damaging insects are mostly subtropical origin and do not hibernate. They have developed little resistance to low temperatures so that in cool areas they are rarely abundant enough to cause serious damage to stored grain. Temperatures there are not immediately lethal indirectly do cause the death of many insects by rendering them inactive and preventing them from feeding. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While each species has its own low temperature dormancy level, most of the grain insects slow down appreciably below 15°C. This also means that the uptake of fumigants or other protectants is slowed, and higher dosages are required. Moreover, the insects will move back into cracks and crevices and became less active.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 10°C, while the insects are not technically dormant, activity is further depressed and mating and egg-laying usually stop. At 5°C true dormancy occurs. However, mites continue to be active down to 5°C if the moisture level is favorable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Subject to certain upper limits, the rate of development and reproduction of all grain-infesting insects increases with rising temperatures. A grain temperature of 21°C is considered to be favorable for insects. At 21°C or higher, severe damage to stored grain from insects may be expected whereas below 16°C serious damage is not likely to occur. Temperatures above 35°C shorten the adult life span and are unfavorable for the reproduction of most graininfesting insects. Temperatures above 38°C cause the death of some insect pests, and temperatures of 60°C kill them all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moisture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grain moisture is an Important factor in the life of insect pests because they depend on their food supply for the moisture needed to carry on their life processes. Up to a certain point, increasing the grain moisture favors a rapid increase in the number of insects. Beyond that point, microorganisms take over and destroy them, except the fungus feeders. At the point that microorganisms the over, the affected grain is totally destroyed as well. If the moisture content of the grain is low, the water required for carrying on vital life e processes must be obtained by breaking down the food reserves in the fatty tissues of the insect's body.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moisture requirements differ with different species of insects. Weevils are unable to reproduce in grain with a moisture content below 9%, and the adults soon die. Adult rice weevils normally survive for only one week in 3% moisture, wheat at 29°C; at 9% moisture, about 70% die by- three weeks and few live for more than seven.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Type of Storage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Storage types can be broken down to closed and open storage systems. Sealed gourds, metal bins, barrels, underground its, and some mud bins are examples of closed systems. Open systems are generally more varied including thatch baskets, open piles, bunches hanging from trees, and piles above cooking fires. Note that closed systems are not necessarily hermetic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Closed systems keep insects already infesting the grain from escaping and keep insects outside the storage container from entering. Open systems permit the movement of insects in and out of the stored grain. Open systems are most common in areas of high humidity where grain does not dry naturally to levels low enough to permit closed system storage without danger of mold growth and rot.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Closed systems permit the use of both fumigants and contact insecticides while open systems can only be treated with contact insecticides unless they are enclosed with some type of gas-tight envelope such as a plastic tarp, which permits fumigation. <U>Fumigation of open storage systems without the use of some form of gas-tight envelope is not only ineffective in killing insects in the grain but also can be lethal to people and animals.</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insect Type</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The type of insect pest infesting a bulk of grain will sometimes determine the type of control method to be used. In general, fumigation and airtight storage is effective against all types of grain-infesting insects. The Angoumois grain moth, because it can only penetrate some 10 cm into the grain mass, can be controlled by a surface spraying or dusting with a contact insecticide. The insecticide information sheets in the Peace Corps,/VITA <U>Small Farm Grain Storage Manual </U>gives details of the insects controlled by some of the most common insecticides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Length or Storage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grain which farmers intend to store for only a few weeks or even up to three or four months may not require any form of insect control other than the standard measures of cleaning the grain containers and good sanitation measures around the storage sites. Local farmers often know how long grain can e stored without insecticides before major infestation build-up. This is often the time when farmers decide to sell their grain, passing the impending infestation problems on to someone else. Ideally, to reduce insect-caused grain losses throughout the entire pipeline, insect control measures should be applied to ail stored grain when it is first put into storage. However, this is not always in the economic interest of the farmer. If grain is to be sotored by the farmer for three months or more, insect control measures such as the use of insecticides or airtight storage are generally required from the time the grain goes into storage. Grain is treated far more effectively when it is first put into storage than after the infestation level has built up during the first few months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Price of Grain and Insect Control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The economics of insect control are difficult to accurately calculate due to the difficulty of projecting the estimated grain and financial tosses due to expected insect infestation. On the other hand, the cost of one or repeated treatments per ton of grain, including labor expenses, can be readily calculated. This cost may then be compared to the equivalent quantity of grain of the same value. Farmers will often find this to be the most persuasive argument in favor of insect control, as the cost of insecticide per ton may be very favorable. It is certainly worth comparing the cost of various alternative insecticides ides to insure that farmers are using the most economical chemical, keeping in mind the relative effectiveness of each chemical.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insect Control Measures</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except for the mixing of clean grain with infested grain or the presence of nearby materials literally crawling with insects, infestations usually start at a comparatively low level. Even under favorable temperature and moisture conditions, a second generation of insects takes about a month to become active and start multiplying. <U>The essence of preventing insect-caused losses to grains is to prevent the infestation from the start</U>. Note, however, that complete exclusion is almost impossible in most countries today.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Good Housekeeping</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sanitation on the farm in dryers and silos will do much to prevent infestation and to reduce losses. <U>It is essential that clean, insect-free, and weatherproof storage be provided from the very beginning and that nearby sources of infestation be eliminated.</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concrete bins and metal bins with tight seams are readily cleaned. Wooden bins or loose metal sheathing around sacked grain need to be cleaned as thoroughly as possible and then sprayed with an appropriate insecticide. Refer co one Peace Corps/VITA <U>Small Farm Grain Storage Manual</U> for information on insecticides for the treatment of storage sites and bulk grain. When cleaning and before spraying or dusting! remove all waste grain and feedstuffs. Be sure to clean out any machinery no matter how simple or complicated. Remove all residue from the premises, use it for feed or burn or fumigate it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dockage, which includes chaff, broken stems, husks, grain dust, and other impurities, greatly encourages the development of insects in stored grain. Dockage also tends to absorb and retain moisture and prevent aeration. Thus, it must be screened or sifted out before storage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Making the Storage Container Weathertight</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any holes in the roof should be repaired to prevent rain from entering. Windows, vents, and evacuation shoots should be provided with means for closing during periods of rain or designed to prevent rain from entering. Doors should likewise be protected. Good drainage should be provided around the exterior of the building, away from the storage container, particularly at the joint between the walls and the floor to prevent seepage from beneath the floor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Areas surrounding storage facilities should be maintained free of accumulated debris, grain and grain product residues, and equipment. This should be a part of the routine housekeeping program. <U>Furthermore, at least one meter around the entire storage facility should be kept free of vegetation. Such measures will also help control rat infestation</U>.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bags should preferably be stored up off the floor on wooden supports or be hung from the ceiling or roof. They too need to be cleaned and treated with insecticide before use. The Peace Corps /VITA <U>Small Farm Grain Storage e Manual</U> gives details on the construction or sack storage pallets. <U>Sanitation in a warehouse means stacking sacks 60 cm away from the walls so that inspections and cleanings can go around the entire bulk of grain and so that fumigation tarps ran be properly sealed.</U> Sanitation in warehouse storage means cleaning floors whenever a lot is moved and before another is stored in its place. It means a constant cleaning and policing of the building and of the surrounding area so that the problems due to insects from nearby residues and debris will be kept to a minimum.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insecticide Treatment of Storage Facilities and Grounds</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insecticide treatment of storage facilities and grounds will be of little help in insect control unless the areas are first cleaned so that the chemicals can reach the structures and grounds themselves. Walls and other structures covered with dust and debris can be treated with pesticide chemicals only by applying them in excessive amounts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insecticides can be brought into contact with insects in two ways. First, insecticide sprays or dusts may be mixed with grain or applied to room areas and surfaces such as walls, floors, etc. The insects walk over the surface and thus contact the insecticide. This type of application is commonly referred to as residual spraying or dusting, especially if the specific contact insecticide used remains effective for a long period of time. Secondly, an insecticide may be released into the atmosphere as a gas. This method is referred to as fumigation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many insecticides are available though relatively few are safe for use on stored grain and it is important that the appropriate ones be used. This is true not only from the standpoint of effectiveness in controlling the insects, but also from the standpoint of human safety. <U>All pesticide chemicals are potentially dangerous, especially those related to food product storage</U>. Therefore, the least hazardous chemical should be chosen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Residual insecticides are commonly available in two forms: liquids and dusts. The dusts may be in the form of powders, either directly applied to surfaces or mixed with water and sprayed on. The liquids are usually diluted with water or highly refined oils for application. They are generally applied by either hand-operated pressure sprayers or motor-drive pump units. For vertical surfaces they should be diluted to the point when the lieu d would begin to run down the vertical surface. On horizontal surfaces the spray should not from puddles or pools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In treatment of storage facilities such as bins and warehouses and the surrounding areas, the following materials and procedures are recommended.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pesticide Chemicals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1) 1/2 ricer 57% malathion emulsifiable concentrate in 16 liters of water, or</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2) 1 liter 25% methoxychlor emulsifiable concentrate in 8 liters of water, or</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3) 1-1/3 liters of 6% pyrethrin with 60% piperonyl butoxide in 16 liters of water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1) Spray 8 liters of diluted insecticide per 100 square meters of surface area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2) Spray the inside of cleaned walls of building to at least a height of 2 to 2-1/2 meters, or higher if easily reached with the sprayer. This is especially important if walls are rough-textured or have numerous cracks or joints in them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3) Spray cleaned floors of storage areas giving special attention to the areas along wall-floor junctures and cracks of joints in the floors which may harbor insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4) Spraying on the exterior of the building should include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">a) the grounds, to a distance of about 2 meters from the building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">b) the pillars (or supports), if the building is raised off the ground, and an area of a few feet around the underside or the floor at the support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c) the entire underside of raised wooden or concrete (if in poor repair) floors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frequency of Treatment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1) Metal bins with caulked seams can be cleaned so as to leave almost no food or insect residues. Spraying with malathion or methoxyclor about two weeks to prior placing new grain crop in the bins should be sufficient treatment <U>for the structure</U>. From then on, watch the grain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2) Wood, mud, or thatch bin cleaning is more difficult and is often less complete. Spraying of the bin with malathion or methoxychlor should be accomplished each time before the bin is filled with grain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3) Warehouses should have walls, floors, and overhead areas thoroughly sprayed once each year prior to receiving the new crop. <U>In addition, whenever stacks of grain are fumigated, the floor and mall areas surrounding the stacks should be sorayed immediately prior to fumigation</U>. When the fumigation tarp is removed, insects harbored in and on the walls and floor will otherwise cause reinfestation problems. Whenever a storage bag or area is emoptied, the area should be thoroughly cleaned and sprayed using an appropriate insecticide be ore an,, other grain is stored in the area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insecticide Treatment of Bags (Sacks)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major problem in many regions is the handling of grain, feeds, and cereals in used bags. All woven bags, whether burlap Or polypropylene, will harbor insects. Plastic bags will be less of a problem than burlap, but they too hold grain debris between and among the fibers, in the weave, and at the seams, where insects live and feed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is impossible to clean burlap or polypropylene bags. When they are employed for grain, they should be treated with insecticides to kill the grain insects harbored in them. While it is true that grain insects can be killed by exposure to 60°C for ten minutes, real care is required to attain and maintain this temperature by the usual sun-heating procedures. In many rural areas a fairly good job is done by spreading used bags as well as grain in the sun on roofs, parched land, or patios, but usually not all insects are destroyed. In addition, some of them are merely driven into the soil or into the buildings under the roofs and remain in the area as a potential reinfestation problem. Consequently, the only completely reliable treatment for woven bags is by means of pesticide treatment or boiling the bags in water. Boiling has the possible disadvantage of weakening certain types of burlap or plastic weave bags. A few sacks should be pretested to determine any negative effects of the boiling before treating large lots of used bags.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-Chemical and Traditional Insect Control Methods</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are a variety of traditional methods to control insects in stored grain, including sunning, tine mixture of certain crushed or ground plants wit. the grain the mixture of sand or wood ash, smoking grain over cooking fires, storage in airtight containers, and the storage of unthreshed grain with the insect protectant husk left on. The Tropical Stored Products Centre in Britain has done extensive investigations into the use or such methods and is an excellent resource. Specific subject requests for information should be addressed to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical Stored Products Centre</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical Products Institute</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London Road</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Slough, Berks SL3 7HL, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Peace Corps/VI-- <U>Small Farm Grain Storage Manual</U> gives more detail in the use of the above traditional storage methods in Section 6, Part 1. Additional details may be found in Section. 8 of the FAO <U>Handling and Storage of Food Grains in Tropical and Subtropical Areas</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The function or various traditional insect control methods is not always clearly understood due to the unknown properties of the wide variety or local plants which may be mixed with stored grain. There is also a distinction between methods which actually kill insects and those which inhibit infestation by driving insects out of the grain or making it difficult for insects to attack the grain. Methods which actually kill the insects are generally preferable although infestation inhibitors should not be overlooked or discounted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sunning grain kills some insects and drives others out of it. A 9% moisture content or less in grain (i.e., in very well-dried grain) will kill most insects or cause dormancy due to lack of adequate moisture for reproduction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mixture of certain local plants in ground, crushed or powdered form functions as an insecticide and/or an insect inhibitor. Others, though traditionally used, may have little appreciable effect. Research needs to be done in this area as it is conceivable that effective insecticides can be derived from these traditionally used plants. (It is suggested that the Peace Corps Volunteer actually try out the method in some grain kept under his/her control before recommending 'or general use.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mixture of sand or wood ash with grain acts as both an insecticide and an insect inhibitor. The sharp edges of the sand or wood ash scratches the waxy coating of the insect's body causing it to lose moisture and dehydrate. This method is only effective as an insecticide when used with dry grain at 9-10% moisture content or less. If used in more moist grain, the sand and wood ash function as inhibitors by filling the inter-granular spaces in the grain bulk, and slowing the movement of insects from one grain to another.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The smoking of grain stored above cooking fires is effective through the continual drying and heating of the grain, which are both insecticidal and insect-inhibiting. The smoke itself may be insecticidal in very heavy concentrations though more likely it is simply an insect inhibitor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many forms of airtight containers, though they are traditionally rather small and often restricted to seed storage. Gourds- may be sealed with tar or resin. In some regions -he use of oil drums and kerosene tins is becoming increasingly more common as a form of airtight storage. Some underground pits may be airtight as well. Airtight containers are insecticidal, killing off all insects through gradual asphyxiation. The build-up of carbon dioxide and the depletion of oxygen is a gradual process which will depend on the number of insects in the grain, the grain moisture content and its respiration level, and the volume of the container not filled with grain. Generally, the asphyxiation of insects will occur after about four months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The storage of unthreshed grain is common for both maize and rice, where the natural protection of the husk offers insect inhibiting advantages. Neither maize or rice husks completely shut out insect infestations although they are significantly more effective than storing husked grain without insecticide. The development of new maize varieties which have looser husks has brought about new storage difficulties as insects find much easier access to the grain kernels through the more penetrable husks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insect Control with Chemical Insecticides</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many chemical insecticides which effectively kill insects. However, there are relatively few which are safe for use on stored grain or in association with any food product. As discussed earlier there are contact insecticides which may be in the form of liquids or dusts diluted before application, dusts applied directly, and fumigant gases. <U>The number of insecticides which are locally available may-be large and varied though those which are suitable for grain storage will be much more limited</U>. Insecticides not intended for use on food products are commonly missed in grain storage. Volunteers may and that this is a major local problem requiring immediate attention. The insecticide information sheets in Section 6 or the Peace Corps/ VITA <U>Small Farm Grain Storage Manual</U> gives application dosages, trade names and insects controlled by seven of the most common insecticides recommended for use in stored grain, in grain storage equipment, and in storage buildings and surrounding areas. Details are provided for a much wider variety of insecticides in Appendix C of the same manual. When in doubt as to the recommended dosage, application method, or safety of any insecticide, contact the local government office in charge of plant protection or grain storage. Do not rely solely on the judgment of private insecticide outlet salespersons as they may be misinformed or inclined to provide information which would increase their insecticide sales. <U>Insecticides should always be clearly labeled witch dosage and application as well as their composition. Insecticide containers should never be reused for any the of food storage or preparation or water vessel</U>. Insecticide dosages should e carefully respected, keeping in mind that increasing the dosage may not only be costly, but also dangerous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instructions for dusting, spraying, and admixing insecticides and for grain fumigation are included in the Peace Corps/VITA <U>Small Farm Grain Storage Manual</U>. Precautions for the treatment of poisin victims should he included in instructions to extension workers, farmers, and Volunteers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">P. Rodents and their control</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Major Subject Areas </P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Principal rat species</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Rodent food consumption needs and patterns</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Basic rodent biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Rodent-proofing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Rodent poisoning</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Rode-trapping</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Rodent fumigation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training Objectives</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be able to identify local rodent species</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be aware or basic rodent biology and be able to convincingly discuss the rationale for control of rodent rood supply as the most successful Long-range rodent control measure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be aware of trapping procedures and be able to demonstrate the use of locally available traps</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be completely familiar with locally available brands and types of rodenticide, their prices, distributors, application dosages, and hazards</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be able to supervise rodenticide application and be fully aware of dangers and limitations inherent in rodent poisoning methods</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Resources</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Peace Corps/VITA <U>Small Farm Grain Storage Manual</U>, Section 6, Part 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- FAO <U>Handling and Storage of Food Grains in Tropical and Subtropical Areas</U>, Section 9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Rat and mouse traps available locally</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Rodenticides available locally</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Rodent fumigation equipment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Living or dead rodent specimens of common local species</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Training Exercises</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Visit farm storage sites to identify rodent runs and infestation levels:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Discuss rodent infestation and control methods with farmers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Practice use of traps, rodent-proofing, poisoning, and fumigation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">* * *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In spite of rodent control efforts dating to biblical times, even today the rat population in. any area is roughly equivalent to that of humans. The genus <U>Rattus</U> has 570 named forms--more than any other genus of mammals. The Norway rat (<U>Rattus norvegicus</U>), the roof or black rat (Rattus rattus), and the house mouse (<U>Mus musculus</U>) cause the most extensive damage. Economic losses cue to rodents are so large and so widespread that they defy precise estimation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents will gnaw through almost any object in their path to obtain food or shelter and to wear their incisors, which grow continuously--about 10 cm per year in the Norway rat. Damage varies from place to place and year to year and fluctuates with changes in rodent populations. An eruption of rats occurred in the Philippines during 1952-54 resulting in a reported 200 to 2000 rats per hectare. Losses totaled upwards of 90% of the rice and 20 to 80% of the maize crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rats eat about 10% of their body weight in food each day and contaminate a great deal more with their droppings and urine' rendering grain unfit for human consumption. It is impossible and undesirable to make a distinction between storage rodents and those in the total environment. They move in and out of humans' immediate ecology. This resiliency is precisely what makes them such formidable enemies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodent Biology</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Preventing losses to or contamination of stored food grains by rodents depends upon four factors: environmental distribution; the pressures of the population; migration and transportation into controlled areas; and population dynamics and biology. The life of the average rat or mouse is fairly short, and the young mature rapidly. The gestation period-or the Norway and roof rats is 22 days, and that of the house mouse is 13 days on the average. Female rats and mice can mate within 48 hours after they nave borne young. If a female is nursing young and is also pregnant, birth or the new litter may be delayed by as much as a week.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large litters are the rule though frequently some of the newborn are killed and eaten. Disturbance of the nest by other rodents may cause litter destruction either by the mother or by the invaders. If the nest is disturbed, the mother may move the young, which reduces their survival rate. For about three weeks, the young depend entirely upon the matter for food. They begin to take solid food in the middle of the third week. They can then live away from the mother if necessary. Reproduction can occur at the age of two to three months. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are daily patterns of activity among rats and mice. When food is abundant, the rat shows the greatest activity during the first half of the night, becoming most active at or shortly after dusk. This activity continues until about midnight. The house mouse has a similar pattern of nocturnal activity, and has a second, lower activity peak starting well after midnight and lasting until dawn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rats and mice often carefully avoid strange objects, even strange food. This reaction is the basis for many beliefs about the "wily" and "intelligent" rat. Rats may avoid a new food for several days, and when they do begin to eat it, they may do so only in small quantities. If such amounts contain a sublethal dose of a poison that only makes a rat sick, the avoidance reaction is strengthened. This is the biological basis for prebaiting with unpoisoned bait before poison is added.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roof rats and the house mouse are notoriously good climbers. They can climb any vertical surface where they can get toenail holds. Rats can reach 30 cm up a wall. They can also do a standing high jump of almost 60 cm, and with a running start and a bounce can clear nearly a meter. Therefore, allowing for a safety factor, the clear distance for rat guards should be a meter. The house mouse can do a running jump of 60 cm. Rats and mice are good swimmers and can pass through drains/ under water, and through sewers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents will nest in any safe spot close to food and water. The Norway rat is- a good burrowed; the roof rat prefers the upper reaches of structures. Mice will burrow or not, depending upon the nesting availability. -Rats can tunnel down two meters in soft earth. Rats digging underground along a wall will keep close to the wall, unless they meet an obstruction. The constriction or a horizontal lip underground extending out from the wall will force them to give up and stop their digging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents will eat almost anything, but no have decided preferences. They like meat, grain, grain products, eggs, and potatoes. Rodents have an excellent sense of touch through their face whiskers and longer guard hairs over the body. Vision is not as well developed as is that of humans, and they a are color blind. They have a keen sense of smell, recognizing other rats, rats of the opposite sex, and strange rats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Peace Corps/VITA <U>Small Farm. Grain Storage Manual</U>, Section 6, Part 2, gives details on species variations with diagrams of the Norway rat, the roof rat, and the house mouse. A diagram for the identification of rodent droppings is also included.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since rats and mice generally occupy only a limited area, they may use the same pathway many times. Outdoors or on earthen floors, these runways may appear as clean-swept, well-packed paths 5 to 8 cm wide. In dusty areas, runways may consist of tracings made in dust by gassing rats or mice. In many areas, rats and mice leave daring smears or marks from the natural oils and dirt on their bodies when robbing against objects. Mice runs may otherwise be difficult to locate because they are small and often very faint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodent-Proofing</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rodent-proofing of each individual structure or bin presents its individual problems. Rodent-proofing should be custom designed for each structure. First, the exterior of those parts of the structure accessible to rodents must be constructed of materials resistant to the gnawing of rodents, and all openings must be either permanently closed or protected with tightly fitting doors or with screens of 1 cm mesh or less. Generally, the cost of rodent-proofing will amount to less than the loss caused by rodents during a single year. Details and diagrams on the installation of rodent guards for grain cribs- are presented in the Peace Corps/VITA <U>Small Farm Grain Storage Manual</U>.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodent Poisoning</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a lack of consensus among experts as to the recommended poison and bait. Rat poisons come in two general forms: single-feeding dosage poisons and multiple-feeding anticoagulants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baits are selected for rat preference as well as ether factors. Liquid baits arc useful where The normal sources of water for rodents are either limited or wholly absent, sometimes with the addition or no- more than 10% sugar to the water to improve acceptance. Of the solid baits, mast baits are generally better accepted than dry ones. But moist baits may spoil 1 quickly in hot weather, making it advantageous to use dry baits such as a cereal with sugar and an animal or vegetable tat added. To prevent rats from dragging poisoned bait off to other areas of the store, thereby contaminating clean grain, the bait should be finely pulverized. The Peace Corps/VITA <U>Small Farm Grain Storage Manual</U> gives details on the placement of Baiting stations and the selection and dosages of various common rodenticides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodent Trapping</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodent traps are recommended to avoid the danger of poisoned baits, to avoid the odor of dead rats, and to eliminate bait-shy rats. Traps can be rather costly and require careful placement and management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most commonly used traps are the snap trap and the steel trap. Snap traps, sometimes called wood traps or breakback traps, have a flat base. They kill by means of heavy wire, actuated by a spring released by a trigger. Steel traps have a platform to trigger and two steel jaws which are snapped together by means of a single, flat spring. Steel traps with approximately 9 cm jaws are effective 'or rats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Usually the catch in any type of trap will be best the first night, provided the traps are carefully placed. If a rat is caught in each trap the first night, not enough traps have been placed. Because rats quickly become trap shy, trap location should be changed frequently. Traps require servicing at least daily and should have fresh bait. Many persons believe that the trapper must wear gloves when handling traps to avoid leaving human odors, but these odors do not deter rats, which live in close association with humans. It is also unnecessary to wash, boil, or sterilize traps to remove the odor of previously caught rats. Snap traps may be used unbaited if the bait pan is enlarged to provide a platform on which rats may step to release the trigger. It can be enlarged by fastening a 3 cm piece of fly screen or cardboard securely to the trap trigger or bait retainer. The trigger must be placed directly in rat runs since there is no bait to lure rats. Boards, boxes, or other obstructions should be placed beside or immediately behind such rats to guide rats into them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+<DIR>
+
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodent Fumigation</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+</DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fumigation is an excellent means of quickly eliminating rodents in a sealed building, the hold of a ship, a boxcar, grain elevator or sealed bin. However, the use of fumigants is extremely dangerous and even the least hazardous ones should be used only by trained workers. The fumigants most commonly used are hydrogen cyanide, methyl bromide, and phosphine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gassing of burrows is used as a supplementary measure for killing rodents. It should not be attempted by untrained operators. Calcium cyanide dust can be blown into a burrow system. It is not, however, effective in extremely dry ground because some moisture is needed to convert the dust to gas. The nearby ground should be observed closely for escaping dust from other holes in the burrow system. These holes should be quickly closed to prevent the escape of either gas or rodents. Burrows may be reopened by rats shortly after the'., have been gassed. This represents either a failure of the gassing operation or a new rodent infestation and indicates a need for treatment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Q. Recognition of storage problems in the field</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Major Subject Areas</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Sources of information and informants to reveal storage problems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Use of survey and interview for information gathering</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Responses to storage problems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training Objectives</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will know the possible sources of local and region information and informants for grain storage problems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be able to conduct informal storage surveys with individual farmers and analyze observations and responses for likely grain loose points and potential prevention measures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be familiar with the control methods traditionally used by local farmers to educe problems due to heating, mold, insects, rodents, theft, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Resources</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reports from local or relevant regional research and extension projects for storage loss assessment and storage method design and field trials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- FAO <U>Handling and Storage of Food Grains in Tropical and Subtropical Areas</U>, Section 1, Appendix A</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Post Harvest Loss Assessment Methods, Chapter III (AACC publication available from 5340 Pilot Knob Road, St. Paul, Minnesota 55121, U.S.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Training Exercises</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Conduct surrey interview with other trainees in local language, then with selected farmers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Take specific examples of problems cited by farmers and list all possible solutions with critical assessment as to probable viability, practicality, cost, and likelihood of farmer acceptance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Too often traditional or peasant farmers have been assumed to be basically ignorant, at the mercy of an often unfriendly environment, and generally in need of modern, mechanized technology. Fortunately, development specialists are coming to appreciate both. the great wealth of knowledge and intelligence, of farmers and the idea that traditional farming and storage methods may be logical, may scientific, and efficient in terms of available resources and environmental conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the initial recognition that farmers are probably making relatively effective use of the resources at their disposal, the development worker or Volunteer who wishes to fuel? improve local farm level storage methods must be a careful observer and design ? recommend changes with deliberate attention to their practicality, feasibility, and general appropriateness. Simple, inexpensive alterations or modifications are likely to be more easily accepted and adapted than more involved, complex or expensive ores. Finally, any charges must obviously respect basic storage principles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are four principal sources of identification of storage problems upon which the innovative Volunteer may expand:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. The storage method survey presented in Section D of this Handbook can be used as a guide to identify local postharvest conditions, storage and drying methods, and potential problem areas which the Volunteer might address. Remember that many questions and answers already exist in the area you are improving. Seek out local thinking comparing the ideas of innovative farmers and extension agents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. The results of local research for the design of improved harvesting, drying, storage, or processing methods can be an indication of locally recognized postharvest problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Past or ongoing extension efforts may have identified improvements which can be expanded upon.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. The non-availability of storage resources can identify storage problems as well as Volunteer projects. Access to insecticides, cement, wire screening, credit, favorable markets, etc., necessarily determine the range of a farmer's choices regarding postharvest methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use of Survey</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The use of a storage survey such as is presented in Section D will help to reveal specific storage problems in addition to other important social, cultural, and behavioral factors such as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Farmers recognition of storage problems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The resources farmers- have at their disposal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The degree of farmer sophistication in understanding storage problems and storage principles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The level of farmer concern for specific storage problems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The degree of farmer awareness of storage quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The observations and questions recommended in the survey are general and applicable to a wide range of postharvest conditions. As the Volunteer gains experience and understanding of local storage methods and farmer attitudes, more specific questions and questioning approaches will be identified. The following guidelines are recommended for use of the survey:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Be straightforward in stating they the purpose of the interview or visit is to identify storage problems encountered by farmers in an effort to develop a project to help alleviate those problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Farmers may be reticent to discuss certain details concerning their stored grain. It may be best to avoid any specific questions as to the quantity of the total harvest or sale prices if farmers are concerned about the effect it might have on their taxes, jealousy from other farmers, theft, etc. The volunteer should attempt to detect such reticence on the farmers part and will need to tailor the questions and approach of the survey to assure that the informants feel free in sharing accurate information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. The survey will probably be most useful if conducted in an informal interview or discussion rather than as a set of ordered questions read from a form. The Volunteer may find it helpful to take brief notes, but should probably avoid recording responses on a form.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Get a varied sampling of all types of farmers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Farmers may want advice immediately after sharing their storage problems with the Volunteer. This is understandable, and is probably best in terms of the results of the survey if farmers feel they are getting something useful in return or as a result of the time they spend in responding to the Volunteers questions. If there are reasonably certain improvements which can be recommended, do not hesitate to make suggestions. If that is not the case, promise a follow-up visit. Then do just that, making another visit some weeks later. Even if no specific recommendations can be made at the time, farmers are likely, to be more impressed and cooperative with a Volunteer who cares enough to honor a promise to visit again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. If you do not know the correct answer to questions farmers may ask, do not be afraid to say so. Promise to look into the matter and then follow up with another the visit, even if your response still does not answer the question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Response to Storage Problems</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the Volunteer interviews and observes a number of farmers, certain storage problems may begin to appear with regularity. They will often be inter-elated and not that easily resolved. he most important information in designing a solution to a storage problems comes from the farmer's responses. What have they tried? What works? What doesn't work? Why?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following is cited as an example of a "worst case" of interrelated conditions which a Volunteer might find:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Farmers have serious problems with insect and mold losses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Grain drying would eliminate mold problems and reduce insect attack, but firewood and fossil fuels for dryer heating are prohibitively expensive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Sunning of grain is difficult because of the labor required to move grain under shelter during the unpredictable rains at hardest time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Grain could be left to dry longer in the fields before harvest except that birds cause heavy losses and require harvesting at the earliest possible date.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Insecticides are not in ready supply and those that have been tried leave an unacceptable taste on the grain or become ineffective after three months, requiring emptying the storage bins for re-treatment at a time when there are high labor demands for glowing and preparing the fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At first glance this set of interrelated problems does not have any immediately promising solution, and indeed there will be situations in which the Volunteer may be obliged to conclude that the farmers are doing their best under the circumstances. But be ore that conclusion can be realistically made, ail viable options should be examined. The following is a list of common storage problems and possible, though not exhaustive, potential solutions. Neither the problems nor the possible solutions are listed in any order of priority or frequency of occurrence. Remember that some problems are unsolvable because or overriding social, economic or technical reasons.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Storage Problem.</B></U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Solution.</B></U></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pre-harvest losses due to birds, monkeys, cattle, pigs, theft' etc.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- hardiest at earliest possible date, attending to consequent drying problems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- use people (children) to stay in the fields to chase away pests</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- establish cooperative agreement among farmers to fence, the, or herd cattle, pros, goats, etc.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pre-harvest and field drying losses due to rodents</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- (remember that rodent clubbing, poisoning, or trapping in The field is impractical except in the cases of huge population invasions)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- harvest and bring grain in from field at earliest possible date</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- build field-drying platforms with rat guards</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pre-harvest and transport losses due to shattering (notably certain bean and rice varieties become very fragile and fall from the stalk or pod when dry, blown by wind, or jostled during hardest and transport)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- plant other less shatter-prone varieties</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- harvest as soon as possible</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- seal gaps, joints, or holes in transport baskets, carts, sacks, etc., to reduce spillage losses in transport</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wind blows down stalks, and rats and rot cause losses</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-harvest as early as possible</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- plant varieties with shorter stalks, or more solid root structure</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Labor required to harvest or transport from field necessitates leaving grain in field for a long period, exposing grain to pest animals and insect pests</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- organize farmers for cooperative harvesting and transport</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- mechanize harvest and/or transport</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- use carts pulled by humans, animals or Small engines to transport in bulk (may require cooperative ownership or credit purchase)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- build temporary or long-term storage structures in the field</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cost of firewood or fossil fuels too extensive for use in grain drying</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- use natural or improved solar drying</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- improve efficiency of dryer fuel consumption with blowers reduced air flow obstructions, increase height of flue, etc. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- burn husks or cobs as alternative fuel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- use open storage method permitting increased moisture content for safe storage</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cost of dryer construction and/or operation too expensive for individual farmer</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- use less expensive local materials for dryer construction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- cooperative dryer ownership</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- work with government on price incentives for lower moisture content in grain marketing</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sun-drying difficult due to labor requirements for turning grain or moving under shelter during rains</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- dry in thinner layers , reducing need for turning</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- dry on black or dark surfaces</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- use rakes (simple local manufacture) to turn grain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- use covers to shelter drying grain at night and during rains</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contamination during sun-drying by wandering animals, dust, pebbles, etc.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- carefully sweep drying surface before use</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- pen animals during drying</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- hard pack dirt drying floor build</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- slightly inclined concrete drying patios (incline for rain evacuation) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- sift, winnow, or screen grain after drying</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thatch, wood, or special skills becoming too expensive for dryer storage construction</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- cooperative construction/ ownership</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- redesign or treat stricture to reduce repair or reconstruction frequency</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- replace expensive renewable materials (ex. metal roof, brick leg supports, mortar lining of mud bins, etc.)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bulk grain storage desirable, but bulk shelling too labor demanding/existence</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- hand-held or hand-operated shellers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- cooperative mechanized shelling</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- gradual shelling and bulk storage</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shelling causes grain cracking and breakage with consequent insect and mold attack and price reduction</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- redesign shelling mechanism for reduced grain damage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- properly adjust shelling equipment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- experiment with other varieties less prone to breakage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- shell at higher or lower moisture</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodent losses in storage</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- install rodent-proofing, e.g., rat guards, impermeable wall construction with mortar layer, fired bricks, wire screening, broken glass or stone layer in wall or floor, metal guards around filling or emptying spouts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- clear debris and grass from around bin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- clean up general village situation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- rodent-proof sources of water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- rodent traps or poisons (remember limitations of both)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insect losses in storage</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- dry grain more thoroughly</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- select only non-infested ears for storage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- clean and disinfect bin and equipment before storage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- seal against insect entry</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- use insecticides</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- treat with insecticides earlier or more frequently</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- use new insecticide if there is resistance to present product</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- regular sun-drying to destroy or drive out infestations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- store above cooking fires</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New varieties more susceptible to insect attack</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- sell new variety harvest as early as possible</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- try other varieties</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- further breeding improvements</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- see insect control solutions</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Termites or rotting destroy wooden support frame of bin requiring expense of frequent repair, replacement</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- treat wood with creosote, oil, insecticide, encase in concrete footings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- set supports on stone foundations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- use concrete or brick support posts</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Market prices too low at harvest</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- organize storage cooperatives for later sale</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- organize cooperative transport to better markets</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grinding or processing removes large percentage of grain food value</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- properly adjust grinders, polishers, etc. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- encourage processes which use whole grain products</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- develop and encourage new food preparations which incorporate previously unused processing bi-products</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Molding and not losses on bin floor</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- control bin floor moisture permeation from soil by elevation, coal tar or plastic liners, etc.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">R. Design and field testing of improved storage technologies</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Major Subject Areas</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Concept of Appropriate Technology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Guidelines for design of appropriate improved storage technologies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Guidelines for field research trials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training Objective</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be able to make recommendations for basic design improvements of local postharvest methods and structures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be able to set up and monitor field research trials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be able to select farmers . respected in the village who will be cooperative for field research trials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Resources</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- <U>Peace Corps Information Collection and Exchange References on Appropriate Technology</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Peace Corps/VITA <U>Small Farm Grain Storage Manual</U>, Sections 4, 5, 6, 7; Appendices D, E</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- L.I.F.E./AACC <U>Post Harvest Grain Loss Assessment Manual</U>, available on request from L.I.F.E. , 1126 - 16th Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. 20036</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- <U>Small is Beautiful, Economics as If People Mattered</U>, E. Schumacher, available through the Office of Programming and Training Coordination, Peace Corps, 806 Connecticut Avenue, N. W., Washington, D. C. 20525</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reports of or visits to local or regional storage design and research trials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Training Exercises</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Plan field research trials with three different improvements and one traditional control with three duplications of each example. Plan all materials necessary, their delivery, tools required, agreements necessary with farmers, and time and type of observations to be made.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Successful change or local-storage methods will depend large on the degree to which the program or effort relies and builds on local skills and knowledge, utilizes local resources, and responds to local needs and goals As one of the countless examples of locally adapted technology, American prairie farmers used sod to build their homes, even though masonry bricks would have been more durable. But bricks were either not easily available or more expensive, so The sod houses were cheaper and easier to guild and maintain. Closer to our subject, although subsistence farmers might get better results from chemical insecticides, mixing sand with stored grain may be preferable as it is simpler and less expensive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This general approach to technological innovation has recently been given a popularly accepted name by the late Ernest Schumacher of Britain. It is called Appropriate Technology (A.T.). A.T. is defined in many, and sometimes conflicting ways, though for the purposes of this Handbook, A.T. refers to technologies which are derived from the needs, goals, knowledge, and resources of the client population. (in this case, the small subsistence farmer). Because labor is often more plentiful and cheaper than mechanization, labor-intensive solutions are common to A.T. Schumacher's book, <U>Small is Beautiful, Economics as If People Mattered</U>, is a useful information resource for this section of the Handbook.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Volunteers working in poor or isolated rural areas should quickly recognize the logic of client-oriented technology and employ the basic concepts of A.T. in their work, even with-out a formal understanding of it. Large storage development projects in the past too often have not used the A.T. approach. Inappropriateness explains the numerous examples of massive, imported, modern storage bins which have been abandoned or never us-cd. The question of large centralized storage installations as opposed to on-farm storage should be examined from the A.T. viewpoint in determining whether expertise and cash resources presently exist to use and maintain, large, modern installations. Railroad and transport infrastructures must exist to bring large quantities of grain to central storage locations. In fact, farmers may be able to store and handle grain themselves at a lower cost, higher efficiency, and with lower losses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under any climatic conditions, the major dangers to safe storage can be controlled by employing a variety of often highly mechanized and sophisticated, though not necessarily appropriate, technologies. However, farmers' non-acceptance of "modern'' storage bins or grain dryers results in no improvement in grain storage conditions. Among the most common reasons for farmer non-acceptance of new storage technologies are that the new methods a simply do not function properly in the local climate, are too expensive, too difficult to repair and use or are in conflict with local cultural practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education and extension can change cultural values and practices and teach farmers how to adopt and use new storage methods although this may be a long and slow process. However, before education and extension can begin effectively, the basic design and feasibility of the new method must be carefully examined. The important point here is the development project planner and extension worker have the responsibility to recognize and effectively deal with these technology design and transfer problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before a new storage method can be advocated for farmer adoption, its technical, economic and cultural viability must be verified along with the ability of the extension/educational system to successfully introduce it. To increase the likelihood of successful adoption, careful, systematic, applied research is required to explore all possible approaches. But research in the lahoratory or on the research farm cannot replace actual on-farm trials. Such field trials, however, must be repeat-c if the multitude of social, technical, economic, and cultural factors are to be clearly understood and dealt with. They are not necessarily complex nor do they necessarily require advanced technical expertise. In fact, available resources may dictate that they make do with meager technical support and resources. The following guidelines are recommended for improved storage method design and for the conduct of field research trials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guidelines for the Design of Improved Storage Technologies</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Technical Viability</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Above all other considerations, improved storage technologies must function properly under local conditions. Guarantees from foreign manufacturers may have no relationship to the reality of a farmer's environmental conditions of intense heat, torrential rains, dust storms, etc. If field tests are properly conducted, technical viability should be readily apparent. For example, airtight storage is not an approximate technology. Unless the container is and stays airtight, insect control just will not happen. Does grain actually dry or stay dry? Does the insecticide lose its effectiveness over time? Does the rat guard actually stop rats? Is the plastic liner easily, pierced by sharp objects or rodents? Does moisture seep up through the "moisture-proof" barrier? These situations may sound unlikely; yet they are not.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cost</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cost of improvements must be compared to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. The realistic grain value saved as a direct result of the improved technology, and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. The cost of the old technology and the realistic value of the losses inherent in that technology.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A very basic calculation of the cost of any technology includes the initial materials cost, projected repair expenses, projected total depreciation, and labor costs by the farmer or hired help. Labor costs may-be difficult to evaluate if the farmer does the work him/herself. In this case, the most useful evaluation of tine required labor may come directly from the farmer who has had actual experience with both technologies in question. He/she will likely consider not only the time and effort required, but the competing labor demands, the storage quality outcome, and the labor requirements for repair and use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some technologies may be viable in terms of the value of grain saved, but inappropriate for the average farmer. At times, projects may opt to deal with above-average income farmers for the simple reason that little significant improvement can be brought to the level of the average farmer. Such projects should be very carefully reviewed as they may have long-range ramifications on the economics of a whole area, possibly increasing land ownership by the wealthy, increasing the number of landless poor, and encouraging their immigration to urban areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Practicality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The access and dependability of material supplies need careful examination. For example, what happens during fuel shortage if dryer fuel is needed to avoid a mold problem? The increased dependence on imported materials and resultant foreign cash flow may not be advantageous to a developing nation. However, imports may have their own unique problems in regularity of supply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New skills required in the construction, use, and maintenance of a technology may have a major effect on its practicality. In the time you will be available, can farmers or skilled trades persons learn the necessary skills, enabling independent, unsupervised operation? If not, increasing acceptance or the technology will create greater and greater demands or extension support. Can farmers or skilled tradespersons read and understand printed instructions for construction, operation, and maintenance?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cultural Considerations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Established labor patterns</U>--If men tend to harvest while women and children transport, dry, shell, grind, and store grain, labor patterns (and potential changes in ownership) need to be known and accounted for in the design of new technologies. If women score, the bins need to be designed so that women can use them, including special design factors for height and weight considerations. Labor requirements during construction. and use need to be accounted for. Specifically, how much and whose actual labor is required? What else must be accomplished at the same time? What will take priority?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cultural and religious beliefs</U>--These can be very complex and difficult to learn and appreciate by an outsider who may have very different belief systems. The following general areas need attention:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Status--Does grain, its visibility, quantity, quality, or manner of storage add or detract from a farmer's status?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Religion--Does grain or its products play a role in the farmer's religion? Is it sacred, or is its possession considered to be a temporary condition bestowed by a divine force? Are losses to rodents, birds, etc., considered as the farmer's contribution to the life around him?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Family--Is grain needed as gifts to needy family or friends, for weddings, funerals, and the like? Does a visible grain bin invite less fortunate to request aid? Will this influence how much the farmer will want to store or the desired visibility of the bin?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Theft--Is it a problem? Will new storage methods help to prevent it? Will they encourage it?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Food taste and texture--Do improved technologies, which cause changes in grain and grain product texture and coned. taste, cause it to be unacceptable? Some insecticides may cause problems, as may new drying processes. Field testing will reveal such dietary acceptance problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guidelines for Conducting Field Research Trials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insure minimal farmer risk</U>--Farmers should be asked to test only new methods which are reasonably certain of success. Abysmal failures set very bad precedents and make poor advertising for a new project. If new methods under consideration have a very uncertain chance of success, the trials should be conducted in the Volunteer's backyard or on a research farm, where failure will not risk heavy losses by the farmer or give bad publicity to the project. However, this sheltered testing environment can never replace actual farm trials. Farmers should be insured against unforeseen losses due to possible failure of the new technology either by replacing the lost grain or paying its cash value. Any costs of the trial technology should be paid partly or in full by the farmer. Caution needs to be exercised, to assure that farmers in the area do no' come to think that the new silo, dryer, etc., is always going to be handed out as a gift.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Repeat</U>--A single design trial is seldom enough even though trial extension efforts may begin while design trials continue. Climatic conditions, as well as insect and rodent infestations, may vary from year to year. One farmer may be have very differently from others, making it necessary to run trials with a variety of farmers: old and young, wealthy and poor, those located near cities, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Run trials in the real farm milieu</U>--Research farms and Volunteers' yards are not typical farm conditions. The sooner farmers learn and perform certain tasks involved with the technology in the context of the trials, the more likely the results are going to reflect real problems or shortfalls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compare with traditional methods</U>--Ideally this should be done by observing both technologies in operation by the same farmer. Compare weight losses from the beginning of the storage period to the end. Volume losses are much more difficult to assign meaningful values to.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assign cash values</U>--Assign a realistic value to the cost of each technology and its components! to the grain losses or savings due to each.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Be aware of cultural variables</U>--Farmers who are chosen to participate in research trials must be cooperative and follow instructions . Furthermore, they should be representative or the average farmer population. This may be difficult to achieve if only the most innovative farmers are willing to cooperate. Ideally, trial farmers should be well-respected in their village or area so that results will be trusted by neighboring farmers and so that their example and recommendations will be respected and followed. Trial farmers may be so eager to cooperate that they cover up problems just to please the Volunteer or trial supervisor .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">S. Extension of improved storage technologies</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Major Subject Areas</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Common extension service shortfalls</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Farm visitation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Demonstration</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Indirect extension methods</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Training yourself out of a jab</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training Objectives</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be familiar with local extension hierarchy and location or local field extension agents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Volunteer will be familiary with all past extension efforts in local small farm grain storage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Resources</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Peace Corps/VITA <U>Small Farm Grain Storage Manual</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Peace Corps, <U>The Photo Novel: A Tool for Development</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- <U>Agricultural Extension: The Training and Visit System</U>, Daniel Benor and James Q. Harrison, World Bank, 1977, available on request from the World Bank, 1818 H Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. 20433 or any regional office.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- <U>Educational Tours, A Guide for Extension and village Workers</U>, Extension Service, USDA/USAID 1974, available through Information Collection and Exchange (I.C.E.), Peace Corps, Washington, D. C. 20525.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- <U>Farm and Home Visits. A Guide for Extension and Village Workers</U>, Extension Service, USDA/USAID 1974, available through Information Collection and Exchange (I.C.E.), Peace Corps, Washington, D. C. 20525.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- <U>Using Visuals in Agricultural Extension Programs</U>, United States International Cooperation Admlministration, available through ICE, Peace Corps, Washington, D. C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training Exercises</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Practice a farm visitation with emphasis on gaining farmer's trust and interest</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Make a clan for and map out farm visitation schedule</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Design posters to advertise the various potentials of improved storage methods</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Plan a 2-4 minute radio spot to advertise some form of improved storage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Investigate possibility of presenting a booth or demonstration at the next area agricultural fair</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Visit the agriculture extension training center and build a storage model there for use in training extension agents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural extension is the term used to refer to the process of education and encouragement of beavers to adopt new or improved farming methods. Though it is a vital link in agricultural development programs, the extension service in developing countries is often both inadequate and ineffective. The most common reasons for this are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Insufficient number and mobility of extension agents to reach numbers of farmers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Inadequate training of extension agents and insufficient contact with updating of technologies and information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Low status of extension workers, low pay, and lack of respect by farmers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Duplication of services with several branches or offices having overlapping authority and duties</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Use of extension agents for non-extension activities such as census taking, farm data gathering, materials supply, credit management, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For an extension effort to be successful in motivating farmers to improve their farming practices, there must be some clear incentive for the farmer. The most common and successful incentive is increased profits, whether as a result of increased production, reduced losses, or reduced labor requirements. If improved storage methods are to be widely adopted, farmers need to be convinced that there is a clear practical advantage to the new methods. Extension efforts need to be planned with that goal in mind. Answers to the following questions car. help shape the planning of an extension strategy:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What exactly are the changes the farmer will be encouraged to make?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What are the advantages to the farmer?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What new cash investments will be necessary? What is the expected rate of return on the new investment?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What credit is available for the project? Is it adequate? Who can qualify?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What new or additional resources will be needed, e.g., mud bricks, cement, rat guards, insecticides, etc.?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How will these additional supplies or resources he delivered to the farmer?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Which member of the family will be primarily responsible for making the decision to change from present methods?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Who will be responsible for the labor requited to construct, use, and maintain the new method?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What new skills or knowledge are required by the new method?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What kind of training will be needed by the extension agents? What training do they presently receive? What continuing information and supervision will be needed by extension agents and by farmers?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appealing to a Wide Range of Farmers</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rather than promoting one standard procedure which may be too demanding for small or poor farmers and inadequate for larger farmers, a variety of possible recommendations suitable to the varying resources and abilities of area farmers should be presented. Ideally, farmers would be encouraged to begin with small changes and, as those grove successful, adopt more expensive or complex changes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farm Visitation</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farm visitations should be scheduled on a frequent and regular basis, such as twice monthly on a specific day of the week. This allows farmers to schedule their work around extension visits. The regularity also helps to build familiarity and trust. Too often farmers are visited only 3-4 times a year and have little opportunity to establish a friendly relationship with extension agents. As a result, 'hey learn very little from the visits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rather than attempting to reach all of the farmers in any given area, a limited number should be chosen either on a group Or individual basis. If the farmers in the extension programme carefully chosen, they will serve as communications links with the rest of the farmers in the area. Farmers chosen to participate in the extension program should be representative of the total farm population, varying in age, family size, farm size, wealth, education, etc. If only the most progressive farmers are included in the extension program, average farmers may not identify with them or follow their example. The selection of participant farmers could be discussed with village leaders or elders. Farmers who are chosen should agree to explain recommendations to neighboring farmers, allow them to visit their farms, and be willing to answer their questions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Demonstration</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The single most effective method of convincing farmers _to adopt new storage methods is by demonstration. It is, therefore, often the most effective extension technique, particularly when a demonstration is set up to insure that a large number of farmers can see it, hear it explained, and discuss it among themselves. Demonstration sites should be carefully chosen to allow for adequate supervision, easy access, and high visibility. School gardens, public lands near market places or rural clinics, etc., make highly visible locations. However, when the demonstration involves the construction of a permanent structure, extra care needs to be exercised in planning to allow for long-range supervision and use. Abandoned silos or dryers do not make good publicity when funds or interest to keep them in proper use and maintenance run out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Learning from Farmers through Extension</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The reactions of farmers to extension demonstrations and their success or failure can be very useful in further improving the extension strategy and he storage me hod itself. Farmers should be encouraged to react to the ideas and methods presented and every possible effort should be made to accommodate their suggestions and criticisms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indirect Extension Methods</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are a number of indirect ways of communicating with farmers to convince them that new techniques are worth a try most common of such methods involves the use of agricultural fairs and demonstrations, radio programs and announcements, posters, newsletters, and advertisements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Peace Corps publication, <U>The Photo Novel: A Tool or Development</U> gives details on the use of photographs which tell how to demonstrate a new idea or method. If has proven to be a very successful extension method in some countries in Latin America. Where resources are limited, the idea might be used in single-page flyers or posters. Also, the Peace Corps/VITA <U>Small Farm Grain Storage Manual</U> has a varies) of illustrations and subject-specific farmers training guidelines which may grove useful with some local adaptation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using Radio as an Extension Tool</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio spots, informative talks and farmer interviews can be very useful in reaching large numbers of farmers and extended farm families in urban areas who may convey the new ideas to relatives in rural areas. Radio spots and informative talks should usually not be longer than five minutes and should best be scheduled for broadcast during farmers' non-working hours. Radio spots of longer than five minutes are very difficult to keep interesting enough to maintain the interest of the listeners. Farmer interviews should not be longer than ten minutes and can be very useful in publicizing the results of demonstration trials. The following are general guidelines for planning and broadcasting radio extension programs:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Keep the program lively and interesting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Summarize the points to be presented at the beginning and several times during the program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Identify the subject to be discussed, tell why it is a problem, what can be-done about it, the results which can be expected</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Rehearse the program until the materials are really familiar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Use the name and location of farmers who have successfully used the new method</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Give and repeat contact addresses for further information or follow-up</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Advertise the program well ahead or time through radio, posters, newspapers and direct extension contact</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training Yourself Out of A Job</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps philosophy encourages Volunteers to consciously train themselves out of a job. If a Volunteer ends his/her service before training a local counterpart in the work done by the Volunteer, chances are poor that this role will eve be failed by a local person. Further training and supervisory inputs would again be necessary. The goal of training local counterparts in all of a Volunteer's work roles is far from easily attained. Ask a few experienced Volunteers how successful they were. Development and change is usually a very gradual process even though general goals may be very clear and widely accepted, such as reducing grain losses to increase the food supply. Real progress in development hinges on the communication and teaching of new skills and knowledge so that local people are able to take more control over their own lives, planning and innovating as their needs and priorities direct.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix A - Peace corps Costa Rica grain storage project report</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Submitted to Juan Coward, Costa Rica Associate Peace Corps Director/Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prepared by The League for International Food Education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=347>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.I.F.E.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Team Members:</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Theodore Granovsky, Texas A&amp;M University</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carl Lindblad, Consultant, Washington, D. C.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert Morris, Consultant, Washington, D. C.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BACKGROUND</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Costa Rican Consejo National de Produccion or (CNP) placed a request through Juan Coward of Peace Corps Costa Rica for the recruitment, training and placement of eight volunteers to work in a new small farm storage project. The CNP is a Costa Rican government organization responsible for the purchase, storage, and resale of basic grains produced in Costa Rica (maize, rice, millet and beans). The general CNP goal for the requested PCV's is to assist small farmers in improving their grain. drying and storage practices such that better quality grain will be sold to the CNP and the farmers in turn will receive higher vices for their grain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The League for International Food Education (L.I.F.E.) is a Washington, D.C. based, non-profit organization funded primarily through the Office of Nutrition, Development Support Bureau, USAID. L.I.F.E. is a consortium of nine U.S. scientific and professional organizations united together to provide information and assistance in solving technical problems in nutrition, food technology and child feeding programs in developing countries. The attached brochure* gives more details of L.I.F.E. and its functions. One of L.I.F.E.'s projects, funded through USAID, is to develop and test an internationally acceptable methodology for assessing post-harvest grain losses. As such, the L.I.F.E. Grain Loss Project has been in active cooperation and communication with all major development organizations working in this area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Not attached; may be obtained from L.I.F.E., 1126 - 16th Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr. Coward, who visited Washington, D. C. in January, 1978, requested a briefing from L.I.F.E. on available technical assistance resources for the programming, training and ongoing technical supervision of the CNP-requested PCV's. During the three days of his contacts with L.I.F.E. and through subsequent communications, arrangements were made to secure a mission to Costa Rica by a team of L.I.F.E. Grain Loss Project consultants. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The L.I.F.E. team spent April 22-29, 1978, in-country to accomplish the following three objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Set forth proposed activities and job descriptions for the requested PCV's.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Outline Volunteer recruitment criteria and training needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Outline the various technical assistance needs of the project and relevant resource organizations which could be called upon to respond to these technical assistance needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The L.I.F.E. team traveled to two regions in Costa Rica: Pacifico Sur, on the southern roast near the Panama border; and Pacifico Norte, somewhat inland in the area of the city of San Carlos. These are two of the five possible areas where volunteer placement is under consideration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both areas have high rainfall and two major cropping seasons In Pacifico Sur, most farmers contacted were recent "colonists" who had been given government-sponsored credit for the purchase and cultivation of abandoned banana plantation land. These farmers are challenged by cultivation and storage in a climate and area often unfamiliar to them. In both areas, the crops under consideration were principally maize and beans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Drying and storage methods consist of a variety of traditional and more modern techniques. Drying is done largely in the field before harvest and particularly in the case of beans, solar drying is done on canvas tarpolins before and at irregular intervals during the storage period. Storage of maize takes place principally in covered wooden bins in or near the home, or in open weave bags under the shelter of the home roof. Beans are stored shelled, often with pulverized plant and pod material mixed in for insect control, and placed in open weave bags. Less frequently beans are stored in metal 55-gallon drums which can be sealed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In both areas visited, post-harvest loss prevention can be broken down to the following general, though not all inclusive, categories:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Field standing losses due to birds, rodents and other animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Inadequate pre-storage drying with resultant losses due to fungi and insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Insect, rodent, and fungi losses during storage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PROJECT DESCRIPTION</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall purpose of this project is to involve eight PCV's in identifying: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Local, small farmer grain storage problems (principally maize with lesser emphasis on beans and rice).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Appropriate, practical storage methods which reduce post-harvest losses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Extension of these improved storage methods to area small farmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Secondary volunteer activities will be in the extension of improved basic grain cultivation procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PROJECT JUSTIFICATION</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project plan set forth in this report and the consequent technical approach is based on the following factors:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. There exists a variety of small farmer post-harvest drying and storage practices in areas visited. Some of these methods appear to be more successful in loss prevention than others-.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Particularly in areas where newly-settled "colonists" comprise much of the small farmer population , locally evolved, relatively successful post-harvest practices are not well known to the "colonists." Observation and rudimentary analysis of the varied methods utilized in any area will point to which, if any, of the local methods prevent losses most satisfactorily. This measure of success is not solely technical. It must include practical cultural and economic considerations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Various appropriate post-harvest technologies exist which are not currently known or used in the areas visited. Such technologies should be carefully considered and systematically tested for practical and technical viability in the areas served by volunteers. Those "improved" and local technologies which are most successful in loss prevention should be cautiously introduced to small farmers through a carefully planned and monitored extension effort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Ongoing observation of technology test-trials and extension efforts will serve to continually refine and improve both the post-harvest technologies and the extension mechanism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PROJECT OBJECTIVES</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Months 1-6:</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Survey 75-100 local small farmers selected at random from plotting map using the CIGRAS* model for random selection and survey qestionnaire in order to identify progressive farmers, common drying and storage methods. Collect insects encountered from 50 small farm storage sites. Insect specimens will be sent to CIGRAS for identification. Volunteers will, as a secondary activity, advise on basic grains cultivation practices with contacted farmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Grain and Seed Research Centre of the University of Costa Rica.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Months 6 - 12: </P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Participate in in-service training session for planning and initiation of demonstration and extension presentations on improved drying and storage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Set up drying and storage demonstration sites in the volunteer's region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Take moisture content samples from grain at doubling , at harvest, after drying and at monthly intervals during storage from five progressive farmers and five nonprogressive farmers. Samples will be sent to CIGRAS for analysis- of aflatoxin presence. Samples will he replaced with grain supplied by the CNP.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Make a collection of grains damaged by birds, rodents, insects and fungi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Months 12 - 18:</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Continue 3 and 5 above taking moisture samples.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Further refine and continue demonstrations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Place five metal bins of 800-1000 kg capacity with progressive farmers (bins to be manufactured in San Jose).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Supervise improved grain drying and fumigation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Experiment with cheaper and/or more effective drying tarps, experiment with darkened staining or drying patios, etc. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Month 14</U>: Participate in two-three day seminar to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Reviews and evaluate activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Identify most effective appropriate storage technologies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Develop two-year plan for continued storage activities in present locale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Write job description and make two-year plan for PCV's in new areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Evaluate potential for-local manufacture of appropriate storage technology, including metal bins, drying and other relevant equipment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Months 18-24:</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Develop extension materials with L.I.F.E. coordination for area-wide dissemination.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Continue refinement and demonstration of improved storage practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RECRUITMENT CRITERIA</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainees should have some Spanish background (0+/1 minimum) with farm background (4-H, FFA or direct farming experience) and/or agricultural training at high school or post-high school level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TRAINING</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pre-Service</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. <U>(Five days) Basic grain cultivation practices</U> to include planting, fertilization, cu.; fertilization, seed certification and improved and local grain varieties. Visit to CIGRAS with introduction to grain storage principles and practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. <U>Two days Basic grain storage principles</U> including interrelationship and control of moisture content, insects, rats, mice, and birds, mold and fungi. visit to CNP for presentation and discussion of project objectives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. <U>(One day) Damage identification techniques</U> for rodent, bird, insect add fungi losses. i. (One-two days) Use of post-harvest survey questionnaire including random sampling and random selection of farmers, random grain sample selection and transport, and principles and use of moisture meters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. <U>(Two-three days) Review of common Costa Rican harvest, drying and storage practices</U>, including doubling, above fire storage, wooden bins, drying traps, drying patios, insecticides available and the common and/or proper use, insect identification with second field visit to CIGARS laboratory.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. <U>(One-half day) Principles and philosophy of appropriate technology</U>, including cost, construction, maintenance, utility and cultural factors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In-Service Training (end of first six months</U>)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Review storage principles, i.e., relative humidity, moisture, migration, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Review of common drying practices taken from survey.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Review of common storage practices as per survey.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Plan demonstrations of most successful practices suitable to individual PCV sites as revealed through evaluation of parts 2 and 3.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Discussion of application of Appropriate Technology Principles to encourage PCV's to think of design needs for cost, practicality, etc., where new technologies are proposed. Is it practical? Can farmers procure, use, maintain after PCV involvement?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Discussion of demonstration methods and techniques and common demonstration problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Review of function of moisture meter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Review of random sampling techniques.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Discuss collection and mounting techniques for pest damaged corn ears and beans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Explain and discuss sample selection techniques from ten farm sites and sample transportation logistics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. Discuss insecticide use an, groper dosage and possible extension methods to encourage proper insecticide use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14-Month Training Session.</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Test for knowledge of proper use of insecticides and dosages (fumigant and contact insecticides).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Plan further appropriate technology experiments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Plan logistics of five metal bin placement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Review, accomplishments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Develop and discuss a two-year PCV plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Write job descriptions for next croup of PCV's</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SITE SELECTION</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each PCV should be placed within one day's travel to at least one other storage PCV in order to facilitate collaboration and shared learning during the project's early evolution. This strong recommendation is given with acceptance of the desirability of placing individual PCV's far enough from each other to foster an independent volunteer experience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A PCV site should be carefully investigated in or near at least one of the more isolated Indian tribes. The information and experience derived from these indigenous cultures should be very enlightening in identifying and assessing the various forms of traditionally evolved storage methods. These methods should be carefully studied for potential generalization in other parts of Costa Rica, particularly where newly-arrived "colonists" are unfamiliar with local climate, local storage problems and locally available methods of addressing those problems in drying and storing grain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Peace Corps Costa Rica Grain Storage Project has available to it a wide variety of technical assistance sources. These should be fully utilized on an ongoing basis, but particularly in the early evolution of the project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The various technical assistance sources available locally include, among others, the Consejo National de Production (CNP), the Grain and Seed Research Center of the University of Costa Rica (CIGRAS), and the Center for Human Potential (CHP). Other non-local technical assistance resources include L.I.F.E. and the Group for Assistance on Grain Storage (GASGA) which is composed or United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization, English, French, Canadian, Belgian, Australian and American member institutions. GASGA assistance through any of its member organizations can be requested through the secretariat at the Tropical Stored Products Institute, Tropical Stored Products Centre, London Road, Slough, Berks SL3 7HL, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.I.F.E. assistance can be requested at 1120 - 16th Street, N.W. , Room 404, Washington, D. C. 20036. The L.I.F.E. Grain Loss Project considers this Peace Corps Grain Storage Project to be one of important potential and, as such, encourages any further utilization or its resources in the project's further development and evolution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once staging and pre-service training have taken place, one possible alternative to maintain active communication with and utilization of the technical ass stance sources could be achieved be; appointing or electing one PCV as the Technical Assistance Liaison. The PCV with the most extensive and relevant agricultural experience would likely be the tees_ choice here. However, commitment, interest, social skills and communication logistics should also be considered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SOURCES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural Extension: The Training and Visit System,"</U> Daniel Benor and James Q. Harrison, World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1977.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Handling and Storage of Food Grains in Tropical and Subtropical Areas</U>, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome 1970.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenton Harris, unpublished articles, drawn liberally from in Section O. "Insects and Their Control," with gratitude for permission granted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Training Guidelines: The Program and Training Loop and a Systematic Approach to Training</U>, Peace Corps, Washington, D.C., 1973.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Post-Harvest Grain Loss Assessment Methods</U>, American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minnesota, 1973.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small Farm Grain Storage Manual</U>, Carl Lindblad and Laurel Druben, Peace Corps, Washington, D.C., 1976.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Storage of Cereal Grains and Their Products</U>, American Association or Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minnesota, 1978, drawn liberally from in Handbook Section P. "Rodents and Their Control," with gratitude for permission granted.</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/m0002e/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/m0002e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/m0002e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Programming and Training for Small Farm Grain Storage (m0002e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Agriculture and Food Processing|Storage and packaging of agricultural products, Post-Harvest management</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">Peace Corps</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">L-M-N-O-P</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">store grains in a small farm setting</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/m0006e/m0006e.htm
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--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/m0006e/m0006e.htm	(revision 21010)
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@@ -0,0 +1,6994 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC2&gt;&gt; Self - help construction of 1 - story buildings</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Self - Help construction of 1-story buildings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INFORMATION COLLECTION &amp; EXCHANGE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M0006</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">written by</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peter Gallant</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">illustrated by</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nancy Bergau</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">edited by</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jim Seaton</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peter Hunt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps' Information Collection &amp; Exchange (ICE) was established so that the strategies and technologies developed by Peace Corps Volunteers, their co workers, and their counterparts could be made available to the wide range of development organizations and individual workers who might find them useful. Training guides, curricula, lesson plans, project reports, manuals and other Peace Corps generated materials developed in the field are collected and reviewed. Some are reprinted "as is"; others provide a source of field based information for the production of manuals or for research in particular program areas. Materials that you submit to ICE thus become part of the Peace Corps' larger contribution to development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information about ICE publications and services is available through</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=460>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">The Peace Corps Internet Web Site address: </P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">http://www.peacecorps.gov</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">Please note the new Peace Corps Mailing Address from July 1998 on is:</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">ICE/ Peace Corps</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">1111 20th Street N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">Washington, DC 20526</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">USA</P>
+</FONT><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Add your experience to the ICE Resource Center. Send your materials to us so that we can share them with others working in the development field. Your technical insights serve as the basis for the generation of ICE manuals, reprints, and training materials, and also ensure that ICE is providing the most up-to-date, innovative problem solving techniques and information available to you and your fellow development workers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">About this manual</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Self-Help Construction of 1-Story Buildings is the sixth in a series of publications being prepared by the United States Peace Corps. These publications combine the practical field experience and technical expertise of Peace Corps volunteers in areas in which development workers have special difficulties finding useful resource materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PEACE CORPS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1961 Peace Corps Volunteers have worked at the grass roots level in countries around the world in program areas such as agriculture, public health, and education. Before beginning their two-year assignments, Volunteers are given training in cross-cultural, technical, and language skills. This training helps them to live and work closely with the people of their host countries. It helps them, too, to approach development problems with new ideas that make use of locally available resources and are appropriate to the local cultures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recently Peace Corps established an Information Collection &amp; Exchange so that these ideas developed during service in the field could be made available to the wide range of development workers who might find them useful. Materials from the field are now being collected, reviewed, and classified in the Information Collection &amp; Exchange system. The most useful materials will be shared. The Information Collection &amp; Exchange provides an important source of field-based research materials for the production of how-to manuals such as Self - Help Construction of Story Buildings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE AUTHORS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pete Gallant served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in Liberia for three years. During that time he worked on and supervised a variety of projects involving the construction of 1-story schools, roads, and bridges in rural areas. Mr. Gallant holds a Bachelor of Arts degree in Political Science from St. Joseph College; he is now working with the U.S. Department of State.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peter Hunt worked for several years in the audio-visual and training departments of Save the Children Federation where he worked on materials to help field workers promote community directed construction projects. He is now a free-lance video producer and develops video- and print-based training materials for national and international organizations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jim Seaton is Co-Director of Communications Development Service (CDS), an independent organization that provides field training for development workers. He specializes in designing materials and informal educational experiences that help community members focus on their own knowledge, experience, and human resources as the basis for self-development. Mr. Seaton is currently developing training workshops in nutrition planning for several countries to help government staff respond effectively to community initiatives in integrated rural development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nancy Bergau, the graphic artist for this manual, served with the Peace Corps as a graphic design consultant to the National Broadcast Training Centre and TV Pendidikan (Educational TV), both in Malaysia. Before joining Communications Development Service to work on this manual, she also worked as art director for a multimedia public health education program. Ms. Bergau has extensive professional experience with the full range of graphics and audiovisual production. Her illustrations proved invaluable in shaping the manual's text and in making the more complex technical details easier to explain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OTHER CONTRIBUTORS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many thanks are due here to a number of people who aided the preparation of this manual:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Henry Baker, Director, Santa Cruz City Department of Parks and Recreation, Santa Cruz, California.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Steve Bender, Consultant. Program Director, Rice University Center for Community Design and Research, Houston, Texas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tom Callaway, Director, Division of Technology and Documentation, Office of International Affairs, Department of Housing and Urban Development, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earl Kessler, Self-Help Construction Advisor, Foundation for Cooperative Housing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Special notes of thanks are due to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brenda Gates, for her continued support as Project Director of the Peace Corps Program and Training Journal Manual Series.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Karen Seaton, Communications Development Service, for her lay-out work end production assistance with this manual.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This manual has been designed to help field workers with little or no construction experience assist a community or family to</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> plan and design a 1-story community building (such as a school or health clinic) or home that fits their present and future needs,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> assess the advantages or disadvantages of locally available construction materials,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> draw and understand their own construction plans; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> successfully complete construction according to their own plans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p001a.png"></center><br>
+ Floor plan: View of a building from above</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p001b.png"></center><br>
+ Side view of the same building</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The aim is to present the construction process in three basic steps:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1) first, exploring the needs of the people who will use a building and arriving at a basic design that will fill as many of those needs as possible; the basic design includes decisions about the number and size of rooms, the arrangement of the rooms, the major construction materials that will be used, and the choice of a site for the building;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2) second, working out a detailed, written construction plan for each part of the structure, from the foundation to the roof;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3) third, actually constructing the building according to plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In its technical sections, the manual focuses on basic principles of construction with materials that are low-cost, available in many parts of the world, and easy to work with. In any given locale or climate, different materials (or combinations of materials) will be available-or suitable. But understanding the construction principles covered here should help the field worker work with self-help groups to adapt the specific step-by-step suggestions to whatever materials are available to them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No book could hope to cover all design and construction problems or situations. This manual presents some of the most widely used innovations in local materials and design. But in many cases, field workers and communities will need to adapt these ideas to conditions at the project site. The Peace Corps Information Collection &amp; Exchange hopes to incorporate such local adaptations in future supplements to this manual!. Any comments, suggestions, or new ideas are most welcome. Please send information about your construction project's experience to the address on page (v).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One final note: the essentials of the construction process are well within the understanding and skills of community groups. But the field worker should always have one or more advisers in mind who can be contacted if problems arise during construction. In any project, no matter how simple, unforeseen difficulties or special conditions may pose problems that this manual does not cover. We have tried to indicate those areas, especially during the planning of a construction project, in which assistance from someone experienced in local construction problems may be needed. In addition, the bibliography at the end of the manual lists other valuable sources of more detailed information in Appendix 7.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A note on the development process and construction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Few things can inspire a community or family more than seeing and using a building that they have built together. In fact, getting a community to cooperate on a simple construction project is one of the best ways to help them start tackling their difficult development problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But not all construction projects are effective. In thousands of communities all over the world, schools, clinics, and homes have been built for people and then never used, because the design of the building was unacceptable to the people, because the community could not afford to operate it and felt no sense of ownership, or because the building didn't fit the community's priorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When thinking about a construction project, therefore, the field worker should remember that the immediate improvements he/she hopes will result from a new building are less important than the community's participation in planning, budgeting, constructing, and then using a new building itself. The experience of working together on a project can lead to increased interest and confidence in further community-managed development efforts. But simply watching while a building is planned and built by others can seriously hurt community confidence and provoke hostility to development efforts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The community or family must be (and must recognize themselves as) the key actors in all stages of a construction project. But the field worker still has a crucial role to play in the process. The field worker can function:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1) as an initiator of the project, a non-formal educator, and a catalyst for decision-making. Where traditional approaches or solutions are not serving community members well enough, the field worker can help them explore and define their own needs/solutions from a new problem-solving view-point. There are organizations in almost all countries that provide information and training in techniques that promote this exploration process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2) as a planning assistant. Once a community has decided to build a home, school, or clinic, the field worker can provide valuable information and assistance to help them design the building, purchase and assemble materials, and organize the construction process. This manual is designed to provide basic technical information the field worker needs to help a community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3) as a project fund-raiser. Community groups have limited access to the funds needed for small local projects. The field worker generally has much greater knowledge of, and contact with, government, private, and international agencies that could support a community project. The Information Collection and Exchange publishes a manual, Resources for Development Agents that may be useful for field workers trying to get technical or financial help. The manual talks about analyzing resource needs and gives names and addresses of organizations that provide those resources. For a copy, write to: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Information Collection &amp; Exchange </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Avenue, N. W. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D. C. 20525 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U. S. A. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, Peace Corps Partnership Program can be a source of funds to support small community construction projects. Grants of $1,000 to $5,000 are made to communities that have initiated their own project, plan to use volunteer labor, and donate 25% of all materials. For information and application forms, write to Director, Peace Corps Partnership Program, at the address above.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUCCESS OR FAILURE?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the decision to build has been made, the field worker's main concern should be to ensure that the community's self-help efforts succeed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Success depends on several factors:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Those who will ultimately use the building should be actively involved in every stage of the project---from conception to planning to construction: their needs, desires, and budgetary restraints should be decisive in all planning issues; and the project must depend on their desire to pursue it. The field worker should never be the actual leader of the project. He/she should provide assistance, not direction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The building plans should be simple, and affordable. As far as possible, the construction materials should be locally available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The completed building must be useful: it should have adequate space for its intended use and it must be comfortable, healthful, and attractive. Space for future additions or needs should be planned for.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How to use this manual</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISCUSSION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the most part, this manual presents information that anyone planning a simple construction project needs to have. By reading each section thoroughly in sequence, field workers can prepare themselves to assist community groups that need technical assistance. The sections can also be referred to individually at any time specific information is needed during construction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILLUSTRATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are illustrations throughout the book designed to make the process easier to visualize. Field workers will find that using these illustrations with the community/family will help these groups understand the field workers' suggestions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PLANNING EXERCISES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Section 3: Basic Planning and Design, there are suggested exercises with paper cut-outs that a family or community group can work on together in order to design the size of each room they need, and the floor-plan (the arrangement of the rooms) of the building. These are most effective when the field worker is present to help the group explore their needs thoroughly and to help them prepare the cut-outs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">What this manual will talk about</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basic Planning and Design</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To have a reasonable chance of success, any construction project must be carefully designed to ensure that the completed building:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* can be built with the budget and resources available;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* will fill more of the present needs of those who will use it;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* is designed and placed with future needs in mind without abandoning the original structure (for example, if more space will be needed two years from now, can it be added on the present site?).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CAN THE PROJECT BE BUILT WITH THE BUDGET AND RESOURCES AVAILABLE?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five things affect a self-help group's ability to complete a construction project:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> availability of construction materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> money</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> time</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> labor (for construction and maintenance)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> organization</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Availability of Construction Materials. There are many different construction materials available. Depending on local conditions such as climate and supply, each one is suitable for different parts of a building. Each has advantages and disadvantages in terms of suitability, cost, time, labor, and durability. A family or community should understand the basic characteristics of all available materials in order to make the best possible choices to fill their needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Money is needed in construction projects to buy and transport any materials that are not available near the construction site. Costs can be significantly reduced by using locally available materials. In most areas, almost the entire building can be built from these supplies. However, care must be taken to choose materials that are durable and safe. Materials for some parts of the building, especially the foundation, may be worth purchasing, even if financing is difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Time. Different construction materials require different amounts of time to prepare and assemble. Some can only be used in certain seasons. Thus the choice of materials, building design, and schedule of work, all depend on how much time is available for construction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Labor. Different materials require very different amounts and kinds of work. Some parts of a structure--especially certain roof designs -require many more people than others, or people with different skills. So, the number of people who can work on a project, their level of skill, and the time they can devote to the project must be considered while planning construction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Organization. Even the simplest building has many different parts, such as foundation, floor, walls, doors, windows, and roof. These must often be built in a certain order (for example, the walls usually can't be built before the foundation). In addition, each part may be made from several materials that must be put together carefully and in a precise order. For work to go smoothly, the builders must be able to organize the project: to estimate in advance what materials will be needed, how much of each will be needed, and to bring the correct supplies to the site at the right time. Many projects fail because a vital material is not ordered in time and all work must stop until it arrives--sometimes too long a wait for work to begin again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILL THE BUILDING FILL MORE OF THE PRESENT NEEDS OF THOSE WHO WILL USE IT?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All buildings should be durable, healthful, and comfortable. In addition, other considerations should be kept in mind by a community or family designing a building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A community planning a clinic or school must consider many different needs. For example, a clinic would have to have space for treating patients, for people to wait before they are treated, and perhaps space for one or more people to stay overnight while recuperating. These would be the primary needs. However, the community might also desire to use the clinic for educational purposes: health education, for example, or nutrition classes. The most effective design would depend on all the planned uses of the building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A family needs to plan enough space for all family members. The family must decide how many rooms they need, what kinds (dining, sleeping, etc.) and what size. Other needs may include ease of movement, storage space, privacy, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IS THE BUILDING DESIGNED WITH FUTURE NEEDS IN MIND?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Present needs may change soon:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> there may be many more students in the school 3 years from now; or the community may start holding meetings in the school next year;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> a doctor may move into the community and need living space near the clinic;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> a family may grow and need more room.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Future needs like these can be difficult to fill if the building is constructed next to something (like a river or road) that will block future construction; or if it is designed in a way that makes additions impossible. The easiest way to ensure that a building will be useful throughout its lifetime is to anticipate future needs and plan so that they can be filled easily by adding to the present design whenever they arise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SITE SELECTION AND POSITION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to a building's design, where it's located (the site) and which direction it faces (the position) are crucial to its success. Four factors must be considered in choosing the best site and position:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*location: Will a school, for example, be relatively easy for all students to reach? Can construction materials be brought to the site easily?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*terrain: Is the land hilly or flat? hard or soft? well-drained or marshy? subject to earthquake? All these factors affect building design, safety, and comfort;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Size of the plot: Is there enough land for the building? Is there room for future additions to the building?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Climate: The temperature, prevailing winds, and rainfall all affect the comfort and healthfulness of a building. And the position of a building is crucial in helping to control the environment inside the building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Detailed Planning and Directions for Construction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p008.png"></center><br>
+ Detailed planning and directions for construction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buildings have 4 basic parts:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> footing and foundation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> floor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> walls, doors, and windows</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> roof</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Section 2 of the manual contains the information needed to draw plans for each of these parts. Section 3 contains step-by-step guides for the actual construction: that is, how to work from written plans to complete a structure that will last a long time and require a minimum of maintenance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p009.png"></center><br>
+ Foundation </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOUNDATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The foundation of a building provides a level base for the structure to stand on. It must be strong enough for the building that sits on it; it must be level and plumb (straight up and down); and it must be secure from damage by water, frost, settling earth, and earthquakes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FLOORS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Floors provide a secure, level, and comfortable surface for everything inside a building. They must be far enough above ground level to remain dry, easy to keep clean, non-slippery, and level (so that objects do not roll or slide).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALLS, DOORS, AND WINDOWS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Walls provide privacy and shelter from the elements. They also hold up the roof. They must be thick enough to protect the inside from heat or cold, strong enough to support the roof and withstand wind pressure, and high enough so that people can stand comfortably without hitting their heads on the ceiling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Doors and windows provide light and ventilation. In addition, doors (or doorways) allow people to move in and out of the building and between rooms. They must be designed to allow only as much light, air, cold, and heat as desired into the building; at the same time, they must keep insects, dirt, and rain outside and provide privacy when closed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROOF</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The roof protects a building from rain, snow, wind, cold or heat, and insects. It must be designed to withstand wind pressure, and the weight of anything that might fall on it. In addition, care must be taken to ensure that community members will be able to build the roof (the parts cannot be too heavy to lift).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p010.png"></center><br>
+ Latrines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latrines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latrines are important to good health because they can eliminate diseases spread through human excrement. They should be included in the planning of any public building or home. Special rules apply to their location, position, and construction. See Section 5, page 189.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earthquakes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earthquakes place severe stresses on buildings. But there are many methods of construction, principles of design, and materials that can help a building withstand tremors--at least long enough to allow occupants to escape safely. Most of these earthquake-resistant techniques cost nothing at all, or are very inexpensive. Builders in earthquake zones can and should use these techniques even when their budget is limited. See Section 6, page 195.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Basic planning and design</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before construction can begin--or detailed plans for construction can be drawn--the builders need to consider three basic planning and design questions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p012a.png"></center><br>
+ Site and position</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SITE AND POSITION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> What land will the building be constructed on?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Where on this site will the building be placed?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p012b.png"></center><br>
+ Size, shape and floor plans</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SIZE, SHAPE, AND FLOOR PLANS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> How many rooms will the family or community need?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> What size will each room be?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> How will each room be placed in relation to the others (that is, what will the floor plan be)?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> What shape will the building be? Round? Rectangular? Some other shape?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> How high will the ceiling be?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Where will doors and windows be?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p013.png"></center><br>
+ Construction materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> What will the foundation and floor be made of?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> What will the walls, windows, and doors be made of?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> What will the roof be made of?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are a number of simple guidelines that anyone planning a building can follow in answering these questions. But it is important to treat them as guidelines and not as hard and fast rules. There are rarely any "right" answers. Those who will use the building must be prepared to find compromises between their needs and budget on the one hand, and the limitations of local climate, soil, geology, and construction materials on the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section of the manual is designed to help the field worker and community member(s) work together step-by-step to answer the three basic planning questions above for schools, health clinics, and homes. By following the process suggested, the builder will end up with an accurate picture of what his or her building will be like.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Site and position</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Families and communities need to decide carefully where they will build. They need to know their building's:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> SITE The plot of land the building will be on; where will the land be? what will its boundaries be? how big will it be?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> POSITION The exact position of the building on the site; which way will the building face? how far will it be from each of the site's boundaries?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taken together, site and position are just as important as, if not more important than, how well the building is constructed. They can determine a building's safety, usefulness, and durability. In addition, a well-chosen site can significantly cut the cost of construction and maintenance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How big should the site be?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the very least, the site must be big enough for the building being planned plus at least some room around the building for the storage of construction materials during the construction. Generally, about 2 meters along each side of the building is the minimum builders will need. In urban areas, extra land may be required for health, safety, transportation, or other needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p014.png"></center><br>
+ How big should the site be?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major note of caution here: a site can only be truly adequate if it leaves enough room for present and future needs beyond the space taken by the main building being planned. These needs will be different for different types of buildings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are some of the things planners might want to leave space for:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schools</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a shaded outside area for assemblies, lunches, outdoor classes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- recreation area for sports, play</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- future classrooms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- other additions such as offices, library, theatre, school garden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- compost pile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- livestock/poultry pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- two or more latrines at least 17 meters from water supply</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- cistern/well</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- lodging for teachers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- storage for school and maintenance supplies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health Clinics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- future additions for extra reception and treatment rooms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- cooking area for patients who must stay in clinic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- latrines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- well</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- lodging for health workers/ doctors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- separate building for maternity care and recuperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p015.png"></center><br>
+ Plan of schools and health clinics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Homes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- outdoor latrine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- garden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- livestock/poultry pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- future additions to the home</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- well</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of these needs may appear farfetched to the family or community when they first plan their building project. However. the field worker should urge them to allow room for as much future expansion as possible. It is always easier to add to a present building and site than to start over again because there is no room at the first site.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even in cases where the family or community cannot afford a large enough site for all future needs, they con consider what land next to their site might be obtained for later expansion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p016.png"></center><br>
+ Consider other conditions at the site </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the actual size of the site, planners need to consider other conditions at the site that might block future expansions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> rivers, streams</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> heavy forest or bush</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> unsuitable land (such as marsh)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> roads, markets, existing buildings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whether these obstacles are on the projected site itself, or on the land next to it, care should be taken that they will not block the builders' present or future needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How accessible, and how private should the site be?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A building can only be easy to build and easy to use if the site is accessible; that is, if it is conveniently close to other people and places in the community and if it can be approached easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, a building can only be comfortable for those who use it if the site provides enough privacy to satisfy their needs. Privacy can also be important for health: for example, dirt, dust, and smells can cause serious problems if a building is too close to a heavily travelled road.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because the need for accessibility often conflicts with the need for privacy, planners often have to compromise between them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are the major considerations that may have to be balanced:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access for Construction. Unless the materials for construction are available on the site itself, some or all of them will have to be brought to the site in large amounts. Generally, this means the site should be near a road, or in an area where a road to the site can be built. In addition, there must be space on the site to store materials during construction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access for Use. To serve its purpose well a building must be easy for people and supplies to get to. For different kinds of buildings different considerations should be kept in mind. For example: Schools should be</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- within reasonable travel distance (by foot and/ or vehicle);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- close to clean water;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- close to fuel supplies in cold climates;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clinics should be</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- centrally located so that the community can reach them easily;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- close to clean water and fuel supplies;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- next to a roadway suitable for vehicles;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Homes should be</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- close to clean water for cooking and washing;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- close to neighbors;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- close to fuel supplies;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- close to the family's fields or other places where the family earns income;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- close to markets;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- close to community facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Privacy, Comfort, Health, and Safety. All building sites should be:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- away from rivers and streams heavily infested with mosquitoes, or other sources of disease;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- away from forest, bush, or jungle (all these cut off breezes, are dangerous in case of fire, and provide homes for snakes, rats, ants, and other pests);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- away from major roads and other sources of noise, dust, dirt, distraction, smells (this is especially important for schools and clinics);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- away from flood-prone areas;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- away from fault lines in earthquake areas (see section on earthquake areas, page 195.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">What kind of soil should the site be on?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Possibly the most important consideration in choosing any site is that the soil must be able to support any building(s) erected on it. Almost any ground can be built on (or over), but the nature of the site chosen will affect the simplicity or complexity of the foundation, the cost of construction in labor and money, and the durability of the building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Rocky soil provides the strongest support for a building, usually much more than is necessary for a 1-story building. But while it is extremely stable, it can be very hard to excavate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Hard-packed clay is generally the best soil for 1-story buildings: strong, but easy to work with.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Sand and gravel are usually acceptable soils for 1-story construction. They can support about half as much weight as clay, but they are subject to shifting or slipping, especially if the site is not on level ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Soft black soil, drained marshland, and "made" earth (fill that has been collected and packed) are satisfactory soils for construction. However, buildings constructed on these soils should be built on concrete foundations, or on raised platforms. In addition, buildings on these soft soils should be made with the lightest suitable materials available. Black topsoil contains decayed organic matter that makes it soft, especially when moist. In areas where such soil goes more than 30-45 cms. deep, it must be removed before construction can begin. Otherwise it will almost certainly shift under the foundation and lead to wall cracks or collapse of the building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each type of soil has very definite limits to the weight it will support. Generally speaking, 1-story buildings will be well within those limits except in the case of buildings with rock walls on the weaker soils.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a tentative site has been selected, it's a good idea to double check that the soil at the site will support the planned building safely. Quite often this can be done simply by looking at similar nearby buildings (2 or more years old) on the same kind of soil. If they show signs of uneven settling such as cracks in the walls or foundations, the side of the new building may have to be dug out and filled with firmer soil, or another site may have to be selected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p018.png"></center><br>
+ Double check that the soil at the site will support the planned building</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In cases where there are no similar buildings nearby, or no similar soils, an estimate of the planned building's weight per square meter should be made and compared with the weight-bearing capacity of the site. Detailed directions for calculating the weight of a building, plus a guide to the weight-bearing capacity of various soils will be found in Appendix 1.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost as important as the type of soil at the site is the uniformity of the soil. If the ground at the site contains a mixture of different soils, it must be dug out and filled in until it is uniform in order to provide a stable support for any building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the ground at the site cannot be made uniform, or if the weight of the planned building will be close to the weight-bearing capacity of the site, it may be necessary to use reinforced concrete in the foundation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How well is the site drained?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the weight the site can support, builders need to consider how well the land is drained. Water seepage can destroy even the strongest foundation if it is not controlled or planned for. Wet or damp floors can make a building uncomfortable and unhealthful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whenever possible, marshland or any ground that lies underwater for extended periods of time should be avoided for construction purposes. In some areas, people have developed methods for construction on stilts because they have no access to dry land, or because they depend on access to the water for economic support. Buildings in these areas should be made of light materials and should be replaced often.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Low-lying land, and land that may be exposed to short-term flooding is also less than desirable for construction purposes. When there is no choice, however, this kind of land can sometimes be improved by digging a trench about 25 cms. wide and 10-15 cms. deep around those sides of the building site that won't drain. These trenches should lead far enough from the planned position of the building to keep water from rising to the foundation depth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p019.png"></center><br>
+ Drainage trench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the dark topsoil in low-lying areas is more than 30-45 cms. deep, every effort to find a different site should be made, since removing this topsoil for a firm foundation will be expensive and can make effective drainage much more difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High, dry ground is usually the best for building sites since it is not subject to the ill-effects of water seepage. However, ground can be too high. Planners need to avoid or guard against these dangers:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> if the ground is also hilly, the excavation needed to produce a level area for the foundation may be too difficult or expensive;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> if there are heavy rainfalls, rapid drainage may cause erosion, ground slippage, or landslides that can cause a building to collapse or can bury it; in most cases, a retaining wall and carefully planted trees can solve these problems, but both alternatives can be expensive;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> if high ground is exposed to high winds or storms, the building may be in danger of collapse, or it may lose its roof.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ideal site for any building is on dry soil safe from flooding and sheltered against ground slippage, strong winds, and storms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How should the building be placed on its site?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After selecting a site, the builder needs to decide where on the site the building or buildings planned will be. The position that is chosen should ideally:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> be far enough back from the site boundaries for privacy and comfort</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> leave room for future additions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> leave sufficient room for storage of construction materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> allow the windows and outside doors to face as close to north and south as prevailing winds will allow (see the section on windows and doors, page 52)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> be as level as possible</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> be as dry and strong as possible</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> be away from forest, brush, or jungle area on the site</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> conform to all local legal regulations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></DIR>
+
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Summary of factors affecting site selection</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most important factors community groups and families should consider in choosing a site for their building are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> whether the soil will support the weight of the building;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> whether the site is drained well-enough to prevent water damage;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> whether the site is large enough to accommodate their immediate and future needs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> whether the site is easily accessible for construction and use of the building;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> whether the site is comfortable, safe, and healthful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most cases, builders have to compromise between these concerns. Choosing the best site among several less-than-ideal possibilities is often difficult and complex. It is always best to get experienced advice, whenever there is any doubt. Contractors, engineers, or architects in the area can help make the options clear, especially in terms of cost and labor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One Final Caution. In many areas, local regulations will influence what can be built, where it can be built, and how it can be built. Building and zoning codes, permits, licenses, and accepted practices vary widely from country to country and locality to locality. To avoid wasted or illegal effort, the field worker should help family or community members learn their restrictions and obligations during the basic planning and design process. This should always be done before settling on a definite site for construction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Size, shape, and floor plan</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Schools</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Generally, the smaller a building, the less it will cost to build. So the first aim of any community group planning a new building should be to decide what their minimim space needs are. If they can afford more than the minimum, it will be easy to add room before construction plans are final.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small community schools are generally simple to design. For indoor classrooms, plan a minimum of 1.3 square meters per student.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, in a 1-room school for 30 students (the most that should be planned for in one class), you would need about 30 x 1.3 = 39 square meters for seating. Add to this about 2 meters in front for a chalkboard and teacher's desk/table.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p022.png"></center><br>
+ Classroom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Classrooms for fewer students can be smaller as long as there is about 1.3 square meters per student for seating and about 2 meters across the front for the teacher. However, if the community can afford it, it is a good idea to build every classroom at least 5 x 8 meters. The extra space will come in handy for exhibits, special projects, and extra students if class size increases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It more storage and/or office space is required, add it on the end of the school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p023a.png"></center><br>
+ Storage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If there will be more than 1 teacher, the plans should include one room for each teacher and his/ her students. The additional classrooms can be added as needed next to the first.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the community plans to use the school as a public meeting room, thought should be given to making the first classroom larger than needed to accommodate large adult groups. Or, a large assembly room might be built specially for the purpose and attached to the class for use as a theatre.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many communities, especially in the tropics will want to plan a shaded porch for use in very hot weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p023b.png"></center><br>
+ The first classroom large</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Don't forget to plan for latrines and a water supply on the school grounds (see section on latrines for special rules that apply to the location and number of latrines).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If needed or desired, thought should be given to space for a school garden, lodging for teachers, and sports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here is one possible site plan including these features:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p024.png"></center><br>
+ School</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Health clinics</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health clinics usually require more advance planning than schools to fill a community's needs well, because separate rooms are needed for the reception and treatment of patients, care of patients who must sleep in the clinic, and space for office and supplies. In addition, latrines should be included in the plans for any clinic (see separate section on latrines for detailed planning).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p025a.png"></center><br>
+ Plan for a small health station</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is a floor plan for a small health station, with 3 rooms and 2 inside walls, measuring 7 X 5 meters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A more complete clinic might be twice the size, 7 X 10 meters. To reduce noise that may disturb in-patients, and to reduce the possibility of infection, patient rooms should be as far as possible from treatment rooms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p025b.png"></center><br>
+ Complete clinic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A desirable addition to one of these clinics would be a midwife station in a separate structure on the same site.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Midwife stations permit special care for mothers and babies during and after delivery, without exposing them to infection from clinic patients.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here is a possible plan for a midwife station.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p026a.png"></center><br>
+ Midwife station</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is a SITE plan for a complete health clinic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p026b.png"></center><br>
+ Site plan for a complete health clinic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Homes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In normal times, housing projects are more difficult to organize than community projects such as schools and health clinics. But after a disaster, such as an earthquake or flood, many people are in urgent need of new homes---at a time when they may be least able to afford construction or to think carefully about their new home's design without help. As a result, many agencies providing disaster relief have tried to design and build new homes for people ---only to find that the new homes stand empty because people don't like them. This problem can be avoided if field workers use the ideas suggested in this section to help families plan their own homes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with schools and clinics, the smaller a house, the less it will usually cost to build.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p027.png"></center><br>
+ The smaller house</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are some guidelines to help a family decide what their minimum needs are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The plans for a house should clearly show where each of the family's basic activities will take place. Even the smallest home must have adequate space, either inside or outside, for the family to sleep, cook, eat, and move around in comfort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> In addition, the family should consider including space in its plans for a latrine and a shower. Latrines are especially important for every family's health. They can be designed as part of the main house itself. But there are several advantages to building latrines as separate structures on the same plot of land. For example, an outdoor latrine can be moved easily when it fills up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Other activities a family may wish to plan space for include laundry, prayer, and private space.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> When cost is a critical problem, a family can save money by using rooms to serve more than one purpose: for example, a single room can provide living and eating quarters by day, and sleeping space by night.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following questionnaire can be used to help a family determine what kind of space they need and how many rooms they need to build.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p028.png"></center><br>
+ Questionnaire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p029.png"></center><br>
+ Questionnaire - continue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Check over your answers to these questions. The information you've listed should help you decide exactly how many and what kind of rooms/spaces you need to plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">What size will each room be?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To be useful and comfortable, a room must be large enough and properly shaped for its function. For example, a bedroom must be long enough for a person to lie down in and wide enough so he or she can get out of bed and in and out of the room easily. A latrine, on the other hand, only needs to be large enough for a person to sit or squat (unless people also plan to dress or wash in the same area).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best way to make sure that a room will be large enough is to decide how large it would have to be for the largest adult likely to use or visit the home. Then the room will be comfortable for everyone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">[Note: Often the proper size and shape of a room is determined more by traditional requirements and social patterns than by physical comfort. Field workers must be sensitive to the community's needs and priorities and should explore them thoroughly with the family.]</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are some guides for a "human" measuring unit:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Most adults will be less than 2 meters tall;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- An adult usually needs 2/3 meter from side to nice and from front to back in order to move around; and about 1 meter, or nearly half his/her height to sit down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p030.png"></center><br>
+ Human measuring</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Using measuring units to help the family plan its own room sizes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A family's interest and confidence in a building project will be much greater if they are able to envision and plan their home's rooms themselves. A first and very important way the field worker can help them do this is to visit other homes in their community with them and question them carefully about their reactions. Some questions a family might want to ask include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Do we want our rooms to be larger or smaller than these? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Would we like them to be the same or a different shape?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> How do we feel about rooms with more than one purpose (for example, sleeping, dining, and living)?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Are the rooms we have seen easy to move around in, or difficult?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Is working in the kitchen or laundry space easy, or does it take a lot of walking back and forth?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Do family members get in each other's way when moving from room to room? Where and why? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the family is familiar with a number of different possible designs, they will need to put the actual size and arrangement of rooms in their new home on paper.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An easy way to help them get started is to give the family pieces of paper representing the "human" measuring unit. Using 12 cm. for 1 adult length is the most convenient scale since 1/2 adult is an even 6 cm. and 1/3 adult is 4 cm. The family will need pieces for:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* the length and width of an adult standing or lying down;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* the length and width of an adult sitting;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* the space an adult needs from side to side in order to walk or work comfortably. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* any furniture they have or special space needs (for example, in countries with cold climates, space may be needed for chamberpots in the bedrooms so people don't have to go out at night).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p031.png"></center><br>
+ Width for walking space</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remember that the pieces must be proportional to one another so that they can be used to get an accurate picture of the space needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTE: Extra copies of the planning pieces for use with a community group are provided in Appendix 8.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p032.png"></center><br>
+ A family</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A family can design its own rooms by gathering pieces it needs for any room and then arranging them into a square rectangle, or circle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, a family planning a bedroom for a couple and one child would need:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 2 pieces of an adult length and width for the couple's sleeping area;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 1 piece œ-length x œ-length for the child's sleeping area;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 1 piece œ-length x œ-length for an adult to sit;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 1 strip the width of an adult for clothing or storage;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 2 strips the width of an adult for each parent to walk around their bed(s), and to walk to the baby's bed;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> extra pieces for large furniture or other needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the pieces are gathered, the family should try to put them together so they form a room-shape. There are many combinations possible for any room, so people should be encouraged to experiment with as many arrangements as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p033a.png"></center><br>
+ Alternatives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When all the pieces have been placed together, a line should be drawn around them. This line represents the complete room</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the shape of the room is irregular, the field worker should help the family make adjustments until it is a simple shape.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p033b.png"></center><br>
+ Final choice</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Space can be added to complete a square, rectangle, or circle. Some of the space in walking areas can be carefully reduced by up to 1/3.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To find out what the dimensions of the final room should be, first calculate the number of adult lengths along the sides of the room.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then the family, or the field worker, if necessary, should multiply the number of adult lengths by 2 meters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p034.png"></center><br>
+ Dimensions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The answer will equal the actual dimension of the wall in meters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EXAMPLE: Calculation of Dimensions of Rectangular Room Above</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Width:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">œ adult length </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">œ adult length </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">œ adult length</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1œ adult lengths x 2 meters = 3m</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Length:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 adult length </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2/3 adult length </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1/3 adult length</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 adult lengths x 2 meters = 4m</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room Dimensions: 3 meters x 4 meters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are some additional measures that may be useful in deciding what pieces the family must use in planning kitchens (or outdoor cooking areas), and dining areas:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Work space in kitchens, especially counter space should be about 1/2 adult wide. Anything wider will be hard to reach across;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Space for fuel in kitchens should be about 1/2 adult long by 1/2 adult wide;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Dining space for each person (that is, space for the person to sit and space in front of him or her to eat) should be about 1/2 adult wide and 3/4 adult long.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p035.png"></center><br>
+ Combination kitchen - dining</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let's look at how the "human measuring unit" can be used to plan several rooms. These suggested plans may be useful if a family has problems picturing what they can do with the "pieces" for a room. ( Note: the field worker may want to adapt these illustrations if the furniture shown here is not relevant to the local area)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p036a.png"></center><br>
+ Side view</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p036b.png"></center><br>
+ This is how the room might look.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p037.png"></center><br>
+ Bedroom for two adults</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p038.png"></center><br>
+ Dining/family room</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kitchens may be inside or outside, but in either case, they must be big enough to store all utensils and food away from animals, and to provide working space; at the same time, they should be small enough so that everything can be reached easily without many trips between supplies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shelves and cupboards save floor space. In places where the kitchen is primarily for storage and most of the cooking is done outside, the kitchen can be smaller.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p039a.png"></center><br>
+ Kitchens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latrines can be small: 1 m. X 1 m. However, if they are built longer, they will be easier to clean and to move around in. (See the separate section on latrines, page 188 for more details).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p039b.png"></center><br>
+ Door opens in for privacy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bathrooms require room to shower or bathe, to dry oneself, and to get dressed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p040a.png"></center><br>
+ Bathrooms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A verandah, or porch, is really a room with 2 or 3 sides open to the air. It should be big enough to be comfortable for social gatherings, family, prayers, or other meetings; this means at least one adult wide and one adult long (longer for large groups), so that there will be room to sit or lie down, and to walk around anyone using the room.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p040b.png"></center><br>
+ Verandah</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Helping the family draw its own floor plan</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the number and size of rooms needed have been determined, the next step is to decide how they should be put together to form the house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The easiest way to do this is to draw a picture of how the rooms would look from above if the roof were removed. Since it shows how the floor-space in the home will be divided among the rooms, such a picture is called the floor plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One thing to keep in mind when designing a floor plan is to keep the shape of the building as compact and simple as possible. Odd shapes and sharp angles are more difficult and more expensive to build than either rectangles and squares! Curves are also expensive except when bamboo, or similar materials are used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As in planning room size, the family's interest and confidence in a building project will be greater if family members participate in the drawing of their own floor plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p041.png"></center><br>
+ Discussed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The field worker can help them draw the plan by giving them scale model pieces of paper or cardboard representing the rooms they have planned and helping them arrange the pieces in several different "floor plans".</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each possible floor plan should be discussed at length in order to determine how well it will fit the needs of the family.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a final decision has been reached, the arrangement of the room-pieces can be copied on a single sheet of paper. This paper then becomes the floor plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Drawing the floor plan of a house</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are some step-by-step examples of how the floor plan for a small family's house might be developed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sample Plan #1: House for a couple with no more than 1 child</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good way to start a floor plan is to place the piece for the main bedroom (the room where the heads of the family will sleep) in the center of a sheet of paper.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For a couple with no children, this might be the bedroom suggested on page 37. This size has the advantage that a first child could be easily accommodated without cramping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To this bedroom might be added a kitchen and a living/dining area (both kitchen and dining area are shown indoors here; if either or both will be outdoors, the space required may be very different).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At this point doors have not been shown in the illustration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p042.png"></center><br>
+ House for a couple with no more than 1 child</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The home could be built on this plan. But any of several changes or additions to complete the square are possible. If grandparents or aunts and uncles are part of the family, they may require the main bedroom; in which case, a second bedroom would be needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a nuclear family, a shower can be added, along with some storage or laundry space to complete the square:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p043a.png"></center><br>
+ Storage/laundry</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Or, the same space can be used as a porch:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p043b.png"></center><br>
+ A porch</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, a latrine should be planned near the house, preferably where it will be sheltered from public view,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p044a.png"></center><br>
+ Latrine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sample Plan #2: House for a couple with no more than 1 child.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A less expensive alternative for the same couple would be to build a single bed/living-dining room using a screen to separate the two areas instead of a wall:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p044b.png"></center><br>
+ House for a couple with no more than 1 child.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sample Plan #3: House for a Small Extended Family or A Couple With 2-3 Children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To design the floor plan for a slightly larger family, all the planner needs to do is add a new bedroom to the smaller homes shown in Plans#1 and #2.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, the verandah in Plan #1 could easily be remodeled as a bedroom for two children or an aunt and uncle:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p045a.png"></center><br>
+ House for a Small Extended Family or A Couple With 2-3 Children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plan #1 could also accommodate a new room either next to the dining room, the first bedroom, or the shower:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p045b.png"></center><br>
+ The first bedroom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Plan #2, the original bedroom can be converted into a room for two children or grandparents, and a second, smaller room for the parents could be added on the other side of the kitchen area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p046a.png"></center><br>
+ New plan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sample Plan #4: House for a family of 4 or 5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here's another plan for a family of 4 or 5 that could be added to if the family continued to grow:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p046b.png"></center><br>
+ House for a family of 4 or 5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some Points to Remember About Floor Plans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The kitchen and dining areas should always be next to each other so that food can be carried easily from one to the other. If dining will be outside, the kitchen should have an outside door.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> In countries where privacy is important, each bedroom should be planned with separate access to baths and/or indoor latrines, so people won't have to pass through someone else's bedroom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> In many countries, standard floor plans for various size homes are available from the government or local architects and engineers. But check to be sure that these plans are appropriate for lower income family needs!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> A good way to find out what makes a good floor plan is to explore homes in the local area and copy or adapt successful ideas. Such a survey can be especially helpful in planning so that family members will not get in each other's way when moving about the house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Doors, windows, and ceilings in all buildings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Where will inside doors be placed?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No floor plan is complete until it shows where the inside doors between rooms will be placed and how people will move from room to room. (For outside doors, see the guidelines for windows and special notes on page 65.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inside doors should be designed to:</P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">provide easy movement between rooms;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">provide privacy (if desired).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Easy Movement depends primarily on the size of the doors. They should be one adult high, or 2 meters, and at least 75 to 100 cm. wide for all rooms except bathrooms, which can have narrower doors, 60 to 75 cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One other factor that can affect ease of movement is how close doors are to other parts of the house. Doors should be placed so that they don't interfere with other doors, open windows, or major pieces of furniture (such as beds).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p048.png"></center><br>
+ Doors and windows</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Privacy depends on how much of a room can be seen through the doorway. There is no problem when the door is closed. However, it is often desirable to leave the door open for air circulation. Privacy can still be maintained if the door is placed properly and opens in the right direction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chart on the following page shows the right and wrong ways to place doors in a room.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Door Placement. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Doors should be placed--and hinged--so that as little as possible of the inside of the room is seen when the door is open.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p049a.png"></center><br>
+ INCORRECT: No privacy because passersby can see into room.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p049b.png"></center><br>
+ CORRECT: View is blocked by door, although it is left open for circulation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Doors are shown in floor plans by drawing a line representing the door in the open position.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are some examples of how doors might be shown in the floor plans we've already seen:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p050.png"></center><br>
+ Some examples of doors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How high will the ceiling be?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ceilings must be high enough so that people can stand up comfortably. The best rule to follow is to keep the ceiling about 1/3 meter above the doors, or about 2 1/3 meters high.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If ceiling lights or fans are planned, then add about 2/3 more meters to make the ceiling at least 3 meters high.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p051a.png"></center><br>
+ Height if fan or lights are to be in building</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In tropical areas, higher ceilings are significantly more comfortable if they are ventilated to allow heat to escape. Buildings with unventilated high ceilings tend to be very uncomfortable because heat collects in the space above doors and windows, making it difficult to keep the rooms cool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Avoid high ceilings in cold weather areas: they make rooms harder to heat because the warm air from people, fireplaces, or heaters rises to the ceiling where it cools off before it can warm up the living area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p051b.png"></center><br>
+ Hot air collects and is trapped near ceiling</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Where will windows and outside doors be placed? how will they be designed, and what size will they be?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most windows do the following things, in varying degrees:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- they aid the circulation of air in the building;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- they provide light (and warmth, in the daytime);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- they provide a view of the outside (and they also allow outsiders to see in).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, windows can do the following things, or fail to do them:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- protect from too much wind, rain, heat, and glare;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- help keep the house cool;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- ventilate enough to control mildew and molds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best size, design, and placement of windows for any building depends on how much light, heat, and wind is desired inside. So the most important consideration in planning windows is the climate. Generally, the best way to design windows is to survey the windows in nearby buildings and use ideas that have worked well in local conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But there are some general guidelines the field worker can follow in advising a community group or family. Here are two typical climates and what you would want to achieve in each:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=446>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Climate</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Windows should be designed to:</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- avoid heat from the sun;</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- protect inside of the building from rain and insects;</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- take advantage of any breeze day or night.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Desert</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- avoid heat from the sun;</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- protect inside of the building from dust;</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- protect inside of the building from wind, especially at night.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Windows in a tropical climate</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Avoid Heat from the Sun. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two things can be done to avoid too much heat from the sun:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* windows can be placed so they face away from the mid-morning and mid-afternoon sun:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- near the equator, windows facing north or south will absorb the least heat;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- north of the equator, windows facing northeast and southwest will absorb the least heat;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- south of the equator, windows facing the northwest and southeast will absorb the least heat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p053.png"></center><br>
+ Avoid heat from the sun</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Windows can be shaded:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- with full or partial shades built around the outside of the building;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p054a.png"></center><br>
+ Partially shaded windows</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p054b.png"></center><br>
+ Shaded windows with side protectors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- with the overhang of a roof; (the overhang should be half the height of the wall)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- by a porch; a porch serves as an open air, shaded area for rest, dining, and social gathering while at the same time protecting the windows and building from the sun.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p054c.png"></center><br>
+ Overhang and porch</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p055.png"></center><br>
+ Inner courtyard and tree</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- by designing them as thick self-shading walls;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- by a shaded inner courtyard;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- or by trees or other plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Protecting the inside of the building from rain and insects</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best protections against bad weather and insects are outdoor shutters and screens. Shutters and screens can both help protect the building from animals and thieves</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A variety of shutter designs can be used alone or in combination. The best combination in the tropics is usually a mesh screen (for insects) with a glass, wood, or well-made bamboo or reed shutter (for rain). The illustrations on this page and the next show several shutter and screen designs, along with their uses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p056a.png"></center><br>
+ Mesh screen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mesh Screen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> lets in some light, heat, cold and dust</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> keeps out insects, some light and some breeze </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p056b.png"></center><br>
+ Glass</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Glass</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> lets in light and heat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when closed, keeps out cold, wind, rain, dust, and insects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p056c.png"></center><br>
+ Fixed screen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fixed Screen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> lets in some light, fresh air, heat breeze, and insects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> keeps out some light, glare, sun</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p057a.png"></center><br>
+ Reed screen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reed Screen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> woven pattern slides over at night</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> lets in some light, heat, cold, and insects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p057b.png"></center><br>
+ Solid wood</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solid Wood </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> lets in heat, light</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> keeps out some light, cold, wind, rain, and when closed, dust and insects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p057c.png"></center><br>
+ Louvered</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Louvered </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> lets in some of everything</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when closed, keeps out wind, rain, dust, and insects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p057d.png"></center><br>
+ Double - door shutter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Double-door Shutter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when open lets in everything</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when closed, keeps out everything</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Take advantage of any breeze</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For noticeable circulation, there must be windows on more than one wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The building should be placed so that the windows face into light breezes, but away from harsh winds, and also away from the midmorning/mid-afternoon sun.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p058a.png"></center><br>
+ INCORRECT: Breeze can't pass through building</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p058b.png"></center><br>
+ CORRECT: Breeze passes freely through building</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are six situations showing how buildings in the tropics should be placed depending on the direction of prevailing winds and the position relative to the equator.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NORTH OF EQUATOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northeast or Southwest Winds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Windows face North and South to catch breeze and avoid sun as much as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All Other Winds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Windows face Northwest and Southeast to avoid sun and catch breeze as much as possible</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p059a.png"></center><br>
+ North of equator</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NEAR EQUATOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Due East or West Winds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Windows face North and South as much as possible to avoid sun, but they catch breezes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All Other Winds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Windows face North and South to avoid sun, and catch breeze.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p059b.png"></center><br>
+ Near equator</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SOUTH OF EQUATOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northwest or Southeast Winds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Windows face North and South to catch breeze and avoid sun as much as possible</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All Other Winds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Windows face Northeast and Southwest to avoid sun and catch breeze as much as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p059c.png"></center><br>
+ South of equator</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another way to increase circulation is to use as many windows as possible. But bear in mind that: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- building windows can be costly in labor as well as materials;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- walls facing mid-morning or afternoon sun should not have more than one window per room (so as to reduce heat from the sun).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p060a.png"></center><br>
+ Another way to increase circulation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The size of windows also affects circulation because larger windows allow more air in and out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Again, some cautions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the larger the window, the more expensive it will be to build;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- since there most likely will be times when the windows must be closed with shutters, they should not be much bigger than about 1 X 1 1/3 meters. Anything larger may put too much of a strain on the hinges and make the windows difficult to open and close;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- large windows offer less protection against thieves or animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p060b.png"></center><br>
+ Large windows offer less protection</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One final consideration in getting the most circulation possible is the height of the windows. Most windows in tropical areas should cover the upper half of the wall so that any breeze will be felt around the head and shoulders. A few additional windows covering the lower half of the wall, especially in sleeping areas, will further increase circulation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Construction will be much simpler later if the tops of windows are kept level with the top of the door (about 2 meters). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p061.png"></center><br>
+ Windows level with door</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To sum up, a good plan for a building in a tropical climate would have:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- windows facing away from the mid-morning and mid-afternoon sun;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- shades, overhanging roofs, or a verandah;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- several windows, placed opposite each other so wind can flow through the building (but no more than one on walls facing mid-morning and mid-afternoon sun);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- large windows covering as much of the upper half of the walls as possible plus a few windows in the lower half of the walls, especially in sleeping areas, (make sure they are not too large or heavy to open and close easily)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- screens to keep out insects, and shutters that can be closed to keep out rain, wind, dust, animals, and thieves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Windows in a desert-like climate</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Avoid Heat from the Sun.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The same rules apply to windows in desert-like areas as apply  to windows in tropical areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Windows should be placed to avoid direct sun in the mid-morning and mid-afternoon.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buildings in desert-like areas are often built around open courtyards shaded by trees and the walls of the building itself, so that windows open onto cooler air (the same idea is used in tropical areas, too, but less often).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p062a.png"></center><br>
+ Windows should be placed to avoid direct sun</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buildings can also be placed close together so that each shades the walls and windows of the building next to it. This may block some breezes, but since winds in the desert tend to be hot and uncomfortable, it isn't so important to keep buildings open in them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p062b.png"></center><br>
+ Buildings shade each other</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Windows in desert areas can also be protected from the sun's heat by designing them as openings in thick, self-shading walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p063a.png"></center><br>
+ Sun shines on outside wall but little heat &amp; light enter building</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Protect Windows from Uncomfortable Winds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since some desert winds are hot and uncomfortable, people want to be protected from them rather than exposed to them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, a building with no circulation at all would be uncomfortable and unhealthful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best way to protect against uncomfortable wind without cutting circulation entirely is to plan small windows opposite each other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p063b.png"></center><br>
+ Small windows</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Protect Windows from Dust and Glare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many areas, the ground tends to be dusty. In addition, because it is often bare and light in color, it reflects sunlight in strong glare that can be very uncomfortable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both dust and glare can be effectively guarded against by placing small windows high up from the floor. This prevents most of the dust picked up by winds from getting in, and blocks all the glare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p064.png"></center><br>
+ Protect Windows from Dust and Glare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To sum up again, a good plan for a building in a desert-like climate would have:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- windows and doors facing away from mid-morning and mid-afternoon sun;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- small, deep-set windows to protect against hot winds and direct light;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- windows placed high to protect against glare and dust.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p065.png"></center><br>
+ Protect against glare and dust.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Exterior doors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like windows, exterior doors should be designed with climate in mind:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> they should be placed to avoid heat from the sun;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> they should be shaded from rain if they open outward, or they should be designed to open inward (otherwise weather will spoil the wood or bamboo and cause the door to twist, warp, or rot);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> generally it is worth the expense to shade doors so they can be opened outward since this is safer in emergencies such as fire or earthquake, and increases the amount of useful space in the building;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> in earthquake areas, outside doors should be placed close to the center of the wall's length (see the separate section on earthquakes (page 196).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Construction materials</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schools, clinics, and homes can be built out of an almost endless number of materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The proper choice of materials depends on almost as many considerations, including: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the climate: some materials cannot withstand large rainfalls;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the part of the building (floors, walls, roof, etc.): some parts need to be stronger than others;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the builder's budget: some materials are much more expensive than others for original </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">construction, maintenance and future additions;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the number of people working on the construction: some materials require many more people than others;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the amount of time available for construction: some materials take months to prepare properly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For any application, there are usually several materials to choose from that will be within the budget, time, and labor limits of the builders. Whenever there is a choice, the most important consideration is what materials (and equipment) are available at or near the site. Local materials are almost always less expensive, more acceptable to the people who will use the building, and more familiar to those doing the construction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section is designed to review basic information about the most common materials that small rural communities are likely to find nearby. Detailed directions in the use of these materials will be found in later sections covering the actual construction process (pages 115-180),</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But once builders know the major characteristics of the materials discussed here, a brief survey of what is locally available will usually be enough to decide what to use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Rammed earth (mud, pise) and adobe blocks</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rammed earth is a combination of sand, silt and clay that when properly pressed and dried is suitable for walls in dry climates. (wet climates, too, when protected with lime plaster.) If the sand, silt, and clay are locally available, rammed earth and adobe blocks are two of the least expensive materials to use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basically, the ingredients are mixed with water in this ratio by volume:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 50 to 80% sand (the most important);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> up to 30% clay;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 15% silt (extremely fine-ground rock).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The amount of water needed varies considerably and must be determined by making several tests. There should be enough to make a mud that holds its shape but can still be molded,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the ingredients are mixed thoroughly, they are pounded with a thin pole into a portable mold (form) 2/3 to 1 meter high until they are packed solid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mixture is then allowed to cure (dry) thoroughly. When one section is ready, the mold is removed and used to form the next section</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p067.png"></center><br>
+ Rammed earth form</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adobe bricks are individual solid blocks made from the same mixture of ingredients as rammed earth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A simple form - or mold - is used to shape the bricks, which must be dry for at least a month before use. Because of the drying time needed, adobe bricks can only be used where there is a long season of hot dry weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p068.png"></center><br>
+ Adobe form</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Construction with either rammed earth or adobe is inexpensive and highly labor intensive. This makes both materials especially good in low-income communities that can contribute volunteer labor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rammed earth and adobe should never be used underground for foundations, since underground moisture will eventually weaken them. Both materials are excellent for walls, however, and can withstand rainfall if protected with lime plaster,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In earthquake areas, rammed earth and walls must be reinforced with wood, wire, or bamboo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, rammed earth and adobe structures cannot support heavy roof loads without strong wood or iron reinforcement. Light roof materials, such as thatch or bamboo, are the best to use with either rammed earth or adobe brick walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Wood</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wood is one of the most versatile and durable construction materials. It is easy to work with and can be used to build almost any part of a structure. Due to deforestation of many countries, however, wood is too scarce and expensive for use by most low-income communities as their main construction material. Field workers in countries like Thailand or Malaysia where wood is still plentiful may wish to consult one of the many excellent books describing wood frame construction listed in Appendix 7.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the long-term, projects to re-plant forest areas as a replenishable source of wood for construction (and fuel) are highly desirable. But most communities now will only be able to afford wood as a secondary material for:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> roofs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> doors and door frames; shutters, windows, and window frames;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> porch railings and posts;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> wall reinforcements (especially in earthquake areas)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> forms for poured concrete, blocks, temporary frames and braces, and scaffolding for roof construction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best timbers to use are generally those that are hard and have some resistance to decay, rot, and termite attack, such as: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+<DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Lignum vitae (West Indies) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Honduran Mahogany </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- West African Odum and Okan denya </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Asian rosewood and teak. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+</DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some softer woods, such as Eucalyptus Pine, are also quite good. When in doubt, a survey of nearby buildings may help to determine which local timbers have proven successful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bamboo</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bamboo is an excellent material for almost any part of a building except the foundation. Where available it is usually very inexpensive. Its light weight makes it very easy to work with-generally easier than wood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bamboo must be used with care, however, because it cannot support great loads or excessive dampness or rain. Because it decays in water, it cannot be used underground for a foundation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since construction with bamboo is very different from construction with other materials, it is covered in a separate section beginning on page 181.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Stone and rock</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Piles of stone and rock can be used to make strong foundations and walls, especially if used with a cement-based mortar to hold them firmly together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stone and rock have several disadvantages, however:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> if not locally abundant, they are expensive to obtain;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> walls made with rock or stone have many uneven surfaces. Filling in the large cavities in order to made inside walls smooth is time consuming and expensive;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> walls of rock/stone must be thicker than cement block walls if they are to be equally strong;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> building to precise measurements is difficult or impossible; builders planning to use rock/stone should plan slightly larger rooms and construction sites to ensure that the finished building will be large enough.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p070.png"></center><br>
+ Stone and rock</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Cement and materials made with cement</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cement is an adhesive material that "bonds" or glues objects such as rocks or grains of sand together so that they form a strong permanent piece. A useful cement can be made locally from finely ground limestone. But commercial cements also contain silica, alumunum, and iron oxide. These materials ensure that the mixture will contain a variety of grain sizes. The more different grain sizes there are' the stronger the cement will be.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its bonding action, cement is used as an ingredient in many construction materials including:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> mortars</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> concrete</P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- poured</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- reinforced</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> blocks</P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- concrete blocks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- sand-cement (sand-crate) blocks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- stabilized earth blocks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+</DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each of these materials is discussed below.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Generally, cement is used two ways:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- as an ingredient in mortars, (pastes used to bond bricks, blocks, or stones, and to plaster walls);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- as an ingredient in concrete.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Mortars</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mortar is a general term for any mixture of cement with sand and either lime or clay. The ingredients are mixed in varying proportions with water to form a paste that can be used:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- to bond bricks, blocks, or rocks;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- as a wall finish (plaster, stucco).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tables in Appendix 5 give recommended proportions for different mortar uses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p071.png"></center><br>
+ Mortars</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Concrete</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concrete is a mixture of sand, gravel, and water that is held together and given strength by cement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The strongest concrete has particles ranging from very fine sand to gravel of 3.75 meters across. Some builders and manufacturers refer to the sand as fine aggregate, and the gravel as coarse aggregate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before concrete can be poured, wood forms must be carefully built to hold it in the exact size and shape desired. When the formwork is ready, plain wet concrete is mixed, poured in the forms, and allowed to cure (dry) for a few days to a few weeks (depending on the weather and type of construction!.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plain poured concrete can be used to build:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> foundation footings (pads of concrete that distribute a building's weight over a wide surface);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> blocks for foundations and walls;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> floors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The proportions of cement, sand, and gravel vary according to the planned use of the concrete. But these proportions are always referred to in the same way by builders. For example, a formula often used for foundations, 1:2Œ:3, means concrete composed of 1 part cement, 2Œ parts sand, and 3 parts gravel. A builder using this formula would need 2Œ wheelbarrows of sand and 3 wheelbarrows of gravel for every wheelbarrow of cement. In addition, he/she would need approximately 23 liters of water to be added to the mixture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Reinforced concrete</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reinforced concrete combines two materials with opposite characteristics:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> plain, poured concrete: resists downward pressure (compression), but will not bend; it cracks instead;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> iron rods: will bend (they have tension strength), but they will buckle under compression,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reinforced concrete is prepared and handled as plain concrete is, except that an iron rod, or a series of rods, is fastened inside the form before the concrete mixture is poured in. (In some cases, bamboo stalks can be used for reinforcement in place of iron rods. See page 188).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p072.png"></center><br>
+ Concrete alone is not strong enough</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reinforcing concrete either with iron or bamboo is fairly easy and can multiply the strength of the concrete 2 to 5 times in:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p073.png"></center><br>
+ Reinforcing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Blocks</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A variety of blocks can be made by combining cement with other ingredients. All these blocks are useful for foundations and walls and can be produced locally if the proper ingredients are available. They can either be made by hand or with a simple press. A press is generally more efficient and produces a stronger, more tightly-packed block than can be made by hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whether made by hand or press, the blocks can be solid or hollow, depending on the mold chosen. Hollow blocks use considerably less material, reduce weight, and improve insulation. They are not as strong as solid blocks. But in sections of a building where additional strength is required, the hollow parts can easily be filled with poured concrete or other reinforcing materials. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TWO BASIC BLOCK-MAKING PROCEDURES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p074a.png"></center><br>
+ By hand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By hand:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">#1 Gather and Mix Ingredients</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">#2 Pour Mixture in a Mold</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">#3 Pack Mixture Tightly in Mold with Shovel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">#4 Add More Mixture and Pack Again</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">#5 Remove Mold</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">#6 Cure (Dry)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p074b.png"></center><br>
+ By hand - press</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Hand-press.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">#1 Gather and Mix Ingredients </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">#2 Pour Mixture in a Mold </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">#3 Pack Mixture Tightly in Mold with Press </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">#4 Add More and Pack Again </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">#5 Eject Block from Press </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">#6 Cure (Dry)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Concrete blocks</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concrete blocks are excellent for foundations and walls. They are made from a mixture of 1 part cement, 2 parts sand and 4 parts gravel. As manufactured commercially they:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> are usually among the strongest blocks available (in fact, they are stronger than necessary for 1-story buildings);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> have excellent insulating qualities;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> are the most uniform blocks (important for accurate, durable construction).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, they are by far the most expensive block a community could use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concrete blocks can be made locally if limestone (or commercial cement) sand, and gravel are available in large quantities near the site. The process is simple, but timeconsuming. Generally, the blocks must be made about a month before they can be used for construction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p075.png"></center><br>
+ Concrete blocks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Sand - cement blocks (sandcrete)</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sand-cement blocks are strong blocks made of 1 part cement to 6-8 parts sand. They cannot be used to support roof loads without some reinforcement, but are more than adequate for 1-story buildings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the high proportion of sand needed, sand-cement blocks are only practical for construction where there is a lot of sand (sand-cement blocks are not generally made commercially). But if the sand is available, sandcrete block-making is a quick and efficient process. Sandcrete blocks only take 12 days to cure (dry), less than half the time required for concrete blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Stabilized earth blocks</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are blocks in which clay soil, rather than sand, is mixed with either cement or lime. The amounts of cement and soil needed for a good mixture can only be determined by testing how much the soil shrinks when dried (the procedure is simple and can be followed easily by any community group).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The blocks are formed in the same way as sand-cement blocks and can be used for all the same purposes. They are especially suited for low-cost construction in areas where sand is not available in large-enough quantities for sandcrete. However, great care must be taken to keep organic material out of the clay soil used in the mixture. Otherwise the mixture will not form a strong bond. (This too can be done with a simple test of local soil samples. See page 146).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stabilized earth blocks can be used after only 8 days of curing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p076.png"></center><br>
+ Stabilized earth blocks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Summary</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In surveying locally available materials, it is useful to keep in mind that:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> adobe brick is best for dry, hot areas but needs a rock or concrete foundation and protection against rain;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> rammed earth walls, though made of the same ingredients as adobe brick walls are not as strong or as permanent;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> stone and rock are good but require more heavy, hard work than other construction materials;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> sand-cement blocks are strong and easy to make, but they require cement and a lot of sand;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> stabilized earth blocks are cheaper than sand-cement blocks and about as strong; but care must be taken to see that the right mix of soils is available in the area;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> concrete blocks are good but very expensive if purchased commercially; they can be produced locally but take a month to prepare;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> plain poured concrete is a strong and versatile material especially suited to foundation footings, foundation walls, and floors; it can be made inexpensively in most communities if limestone or commercial cement is available;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> reinforced concrete is the strongest, longest-lasting material of all (especially in wet and stormy climates and earthquake areas). But it is very expensive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></DIR>
+
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Detailed planning for construction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the size and floor plan of a new building have been decided on along with its site and position; and after a preliminary assessment of the construction materials that may be used has been made, the next crucial step is to develop detailed written plans (or blueprints) to guide each part of the construction. These plans must answer several questions about each part of the building from the ground up:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOUNDATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> How deep in the ground must the foundation be set?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> How thick must it be?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> How high must it be?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> What will the foundation be made of? Will it be reinforced?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FLOORS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Will the floor be made of cement or packed earth?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> How much should it be raised above the level of surrounding ground?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> How thick should it be?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALLS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> What will the walls be made of?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> How thick should they be? Should they be reinforced?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> How will window and door frames be made and exactly where will they be placed in each wall?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROOFS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> What will the roof be made of?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Will it be flat, set at an angle, or set at several angles?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of these questions are interrelated. For example, the design of the foundation depends in part, on the weight of the walls and roof it must support; and the design of the walls and roof depends, in turn, on the foundation. Thus, in order to plan the construction effectively, the builder must be able to make some basic decisions about either the foundation or the walls and roof before determining all their exact specifications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When in doubt about a detail of the construction plans, the field worker or community member may want to seek advice from an experienced local contractor. In most cases, however, construction plans can be drawn successfully for simple 1-story buildings by anyone following the suggestions in this manual.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This part of the manual is designed to help the field worker or community member,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> first, to understand key methods/principles of construction and key technical characteristics of basic materials;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> second, to proceed step-by-step to consider how these principles and characteristics should influence their basic design; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> third, to actually draw his/her own detailed construction plans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></DIR>
+
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Planning foundations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the walls of a building are built directly on the ground surface, the weight of the building will soon press them into the earth. This causes the building to sag, crack, or leak.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Foundations are strong platforms built below ground level, where they won't sink. A building with a foundation can "stand" securely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p082.png"></center><br>
+ Planning foundations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The foundation of a well-constructed building does several things:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> it provides a level platform for the building to stand on;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> it helps protect the building if earth tremors, strong winds or rains shake the structure;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> it keeps out water and dampness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here's a list of things the foundation must NOT do;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> sag;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> dissolve (or rot) by water erosion;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> crack from stress at a certain point;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> slip on uneven ground</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> buckle under pressure of water in the ground (this is called "scouring");</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> collapse from the weight of the building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Foundations for 1-story structures generally consist of two parts: a footing, and a foundation wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The footing should be a pad of concrete resting in a level trench dug under the position of all walls that will support the roof.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The foundation wall is a solid wall attached to the footing and rising to ground level at the point where the ground is highest under the building. The foundation wall can be made of many different materials. Each material must be planned for in a different way.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: There are other foundation designs such as pier and beam, or post and beam that communities with access to heavy wood beams might wish to use. See Appendix 7 for reference materials that discuss these designs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Footings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All foundations should have a concrete footing. The concrete can be poured directly into the foundation trench, or into wooden forms in the trench. In either case, the bottom of the trench must be level and the sides of the trench or of the wooden forms must be square: that is, they must be exactly vertical, at 90° to the trench bottom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p083.png"></center><br>
+ Footing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The depth of the trench in which the footing rests depends on:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> what the foundation wall is made of; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the stability and strength of the soil; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the frost line (this only applies in areas where temperatures drop below freezing in winter; the frost line is the maximum depth to which soil freezes locally); </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the unevenness and/or slope of the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The width and thickness of the footing depend on what material the foundation wall is made of.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Foundation walls</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The foundation walls can be made of rock, or they can be made of blocks of concrete, sand-cement, or stabilized earth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All of these materials are strong enough to support the walls and roof of most 1-story buildings. The choice depends on what materials are available, the builders' budget, and whether or not earthquakes or severe weather conditions will require reinforcement in the foundation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p084.png"></center><br>
+ Foundation walls</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rock Foundation Walls. A rock foundation wall is built by setting stones that are 20 to 40 cm. long in mortar. The rocks must be cleaned so that no rocks remain on them. All the spaces between the rocks must be filled with mortar (these spaces are called "joints"). In addition, and most important, they must be laid so they overlap. If a straight line can be drawn between the rocks from the top to the bottom of the wall, a crack will develop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rock foundations are the least expensive to build. However, they require a large number of rocks, and it is difficult to clean, level, and overlap the rocks properly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the building position is on rocky ground, or on dry, well-packed clay soil, the footing for a rock foundation wall should be 4 to 8 cm. thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In less stable soils, such as sand, or gravel, the footing should be at least 10 cm. thick. In soft black soil, drained marshland, and made earth, the footing should be reinforced and should be 10 cm. thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In rocky or hard-packed clay soil, rock foundation walls need only be 30 cm. deep. In other soils, they should be at least 45 cm. deep.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rock foundation walls should be at least 30 cm. thick, and they will be much more stable if they are flared at the base to 45 cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Block Foundation Walls. Whether built of concrete, sand-cement, or stabilized earth, block foundation walls are made by laying level rows of blocks on concrete footings until the wall reaches the planned height of the floor.  Each row of blocks, called a course, is joined by mortar, as are the ends of each block.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Block foundations cost more to build than rock foundation walls (except in areas where the rock must be transported over large distances), but block foundation walls can be put up faster, and they are easier to build well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p085.png"></center><br>
+ Block foundation walls</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In rock or firm clay soil, a block foundation should be 45 to 60 cm. deep. In less stable soil, a block foundation should NOT be used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The width and thickness of the footing depend on the size of the blocks being used. In general:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the footing should be as thick as the blocks are wide;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the footing should be 3 times as wide as the blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p086a.png"></center><br>
+ The footing should be 3 times as wide as the blocks. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frost Line. The frost line is the depth to which the ground in any area freezes in the winter. In climates with freezing temperatures, the footing must be entirely below the frost line.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The table below gives suggested depths to be safely below the frost line in different climates:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p086b.png"></center><br>
+ Frost line</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lowest Temperature in Winter, Degrees Celsius</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Safe Minimum Depth for Top of Footing</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">-1°</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">45cm.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">-5°</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">75cm.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">-11°</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">90cm.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">-18°</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">1.05m.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">-22°</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">1.20m.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">-28°</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">1.30m.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sloping Ground. If a building is built at an angle on a slope, it will tend to slide downhill, causing the foundation and walls to slip and/or crack. Thus if the ground under a building slopes or is uneven, the trenches for the foundation footing must be completely levelled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p087a.png"></center><br>
+ Sloping ground</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the ground slopes sharply, it may be easier, or necessary, to "step" the trenches. When block foundation walls are planned, it's important to make each step the height of one or two courses of blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p087b.png"></center><br>
+ Important to make each step the height of one or two courses of blocks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Deciding upon the materials and dimensions for foundations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general, the best way to decide what the foundation walls will be made of is to choose the least expensive and most easily accessible material.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the choice has been made between rock and blocks, the depth of the trenches and the dimensions of the footing and foundation wall may be approximately determined by using the figures outlined on pages 85-86.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to remember, however, that these preliminary figures are only approximate guidelines. Any number of local conditions can make a deeper, stronger foundation advisable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the best ways to determine whether preliminary foundation plans are safe is to compare them with the foundation structures of buildings in the local area. The field worker or community member should ask:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> How deep are the foundations of buildings that have cracked walls or other signs of weakness?  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> How deep are the foundations of buildings that have lasted well?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> How wide and thick are the foundation footings and walls of weak buildings? Of strong buildings?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> What are the foundations of weak buildings made of? What are the foundations of strong buildings made of?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If preliminary plans for the foundation are similar to those of strong buildings built nearby on the same kind of soil in the local area, they should be safe to use. If the preliminary plans are similar to those of weak buildings they should be strengthened before the start of construction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Drawing final foundation plane</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the materials and dimensions of the foundation have been planned, the last step before construction of the foundation can begin is to draw a final foundation plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p088.png"></center><br>
+ Drawing final foundation plane</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The plan should include two simple drawings:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a scale drawing of the footing and foundation wall as they would look in a cross-section;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a scale drawing of the footing and foundation wall measurements as they would look if seen from above.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both these drawings are simple to produce with a ruler. Step-by-step instructions will be found in Appendix 2.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p089.png"></center><br>
+ A scale drawing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Planning floors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To be comfortable and safe, the floor of a building must be:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> dry; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> level; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> smooth, but not slippery: movement should not be obstructed by holes or bumps, but the surface should not become slippery when wet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most important of these is keeping the floor dry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many climates, the ground under a building will be damp, even in periods between rainfall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In areas of heavy rainfall, if the floor is at or close to ground level, water will come in under the doors and damage the floor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For both these reasons, the floor of all buildings in areas where there is heavy rainfall should be raised at least 20 to 30 cm. above ground level to protect it from moisture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best way to do this is with "dry fill." Dry fill is a layer of any material that will not hold water. Typical materials used for dry fill include: small stones, broken bricks, clumps of hard earth, and gravel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p090.png"></center><br>
+ Keeping the floor dry</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Types of floors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two basic types of floors will be discussed in this manual: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> hard-packed earth floors, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> concrete. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In areas with large local wood supplies, wood floors are also good.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARD-PACKED EARTH FLOORS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hard-packed earth floors are much less expensive than concrete. They are adequate in dry climates, but can be uncomfortable and unhealthy in wet climates or low-lying areas, even when ample dry-fill is used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earth floors must be made from hard earth taken from below ground level. Soft topsoil, or any soil containing organic material will not pack well enough. The hard earth should be placed above the dry fill in a tightly-packed layer 10-15 cm. deep.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONCRETE FLOORS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concrete floors cost more than hard-packed earth. They are also stronger and much better-suited to wet climates and low-lying areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A concrete floor is made simply by pouring a layer of concrete over the dry fill. (Hard laterite is the best kind of fill for a concrete floor.) The best thickness of the concrete layer depends on the planned use of the floor (see table on right).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p091.png"></center><br>
+ Concrete floor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=386>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">Suggested Thicknesses of Concrete Floors</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="71%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Purpose of floor</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thickness cm. </B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="71%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">house, clinic, school</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10 </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="71%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">garage (for vehicles)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12.5 </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="71%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">farm storage (heavy equipment)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In locations where the ground is very unstable or uneven, or in earthquake zones, a concrete floor might need reinforcement for flexibility and additional strength.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estimating the Amount of Concrete Needed for a Floor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To determine whether the builder can afford a concrete floor, and to be sure of buying enough materials without buying too much, the field worker or community member(s) should make an estimate of how much concrete will be needed. Step-by-step instructions for the calculations needed will be found in Appendix 3.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Planning walls, windows, and doors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A complete, detailed plan for the construction of a building's walls (both exterior and interior) would include descriptions of:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the material they'll be made of;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> their height;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> their length;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> their thickness</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the exact placement of windows, doors;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the construction techniques to be used, especially around doors and windows, and where any two walls meet;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the use of reinforcement (if any) to help the building withstand the stress of very soft ground, high winds, or earthquakes;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> an estimate of the amounts of materials needed for construction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The basic plan and design of the walls developed earlier should already specify many of these features, especially the materials the outer walls will be made of, their dimensions, and the exact placement of doors and windows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, especially when blocks or bricks will be used for the walls, some changes may have to be made before construction can begin. To avoid expensive mistakes or problems during construction, a detailed construction plan of the walls should be prepared.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Wall height and length</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the walls will be made of rammed earth, stone, concrete, bamboo, or any other material other than block or bricks, the height and length of the walls should be exactly as planned in the basic wall design.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, when using blocks of any kind (adobe, sand-cement, cement, etc.) it may not be possible to build a wall exactly the height and length Planned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, if the blocks used will measure 12 cm. high, a wall could be 2.88 meters (24 blocks) high or 3 meters (25 blocks) high; but it couldn't be 2.96 meters high unless one layer of blocks was cut in half, and this is difficult to do. In the same way, if the blocks used will measure 40 cm. long, a wall could be 7.20 meters (18 blocks) long or 7.60 meters (19 blocks) long; but it couldn't be 7.35 meters long unless one block in each layer of the wall were cut 5 cm. short.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p093.png"></center><br>
+ Wall height and length</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Construction is much easier, and much less expensive if the height and length of block walls are adjusted so that they can be made from a whole number of blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To determine how much the height and length of the walls needs to be adjusted (if at all) simply follow these steps:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 1: D vice the planned height of the wall by the height of one block. If the answer is a whole number, the wall can be built as planned without any adjustment. The result of the division will equal the number of layers (courses) of block needed to reach that height.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Example: The planned height of the walls is 2.88 meters (288 cm.); using 12 cm. high blocks:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">288 ÷ 12 = 24 courses of blocks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the answer is a whole number plus a remainder, compare the remainder with the height of one block and round off to the nearest whole block.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Example: If the planned height of the walls is 290cm. high, using 12 cm. high blocks:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">290 ÷ 12 = 24 whole courses + a remainder of 2 cm,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The remainder of 2 cm. is less than 1/2 of 12 cm. (the height of one block), so round the height  of the walls down to 24 blocks high.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Example: If the planned height of the walls is 295cm., using 12 cm. high blocks:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">295 ÷ 12 = 24 whole courses + a remainder of 7 cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The remainder of 7 cm. is more than 1/2 of 12 cm., so round the height of the walls up to 13 blocks high.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 2: The procedure for adjusting the length of a block wall is similar to the procedure outlined above for adjusting the height: divide the planned length of the wall by the length of one block. If the answer is a whole number, with no remainder, the wall can be built as planned without any adjustment. The result of the division will equal the number of blocks needed to reach that length.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Example: If the planned length of the wall is 7.2 meters (720 cm.), using 40 cm. long blocks:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">720 ÷ 40 = 18 blocks long</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the answer is a whole number plus a remainder, compare the remainder with the length of one block and round up or down to the nearest whole number of blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Wall thickness</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The thickness of a wall depends on three things:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> whether the wall is exterior or interior: interior walls usually do not support the weight of the roof and can therefore be thinner; interior walls also play a less important role in insulating the building from heat and cold;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> what the wall is made of: walls made of stronger materials can be thinner than walls made of weaker materials;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the climate: buildings in desert-like climates need thicker walls, while buildings in tropical climates need thinner walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The table below suggests minimum thicknesses for different kinds of walls. The figures given should be adequate for most 1-story buildings (up to 5 m. X 9 m.). However, if there is any doubt about the load-bearing capacity of the walls in a special design, advice from an experienced local contractor should be sought.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=3>
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">SUGGESTED WALL THICKNESS FOR DIFFERENT MATERIALS</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="67%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Material</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exterior Wall</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interior Wall</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="67%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rammed Earth</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">37.5-45 cm.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">37.5-45 cm.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="67%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adobe Brick</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30 cm.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30 cm.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="67%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poured Concrete (not reinforced)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12.5-20 cm.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12.5-20 cm.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="67%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poured Concrete (reinforced)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12.5 cm.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12.5 cm.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="67%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stone</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30-37.5 cm.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">25 cm.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="67%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Block (sand-cement, stabilized earth, cement)  </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20 cm.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10-15 cm.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Placement of doors and windows</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with the height and length of walls, the exact placement and size of windows and doors may have to be adjusted to make construction easier. No adjustments need to be made when the walls will be made of rammed earth, stone, concrete, bamboo, or any other material other than block or brick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, when using blocks of any kind (adobe, sand-cement, cement, etc.) the size and placement of windows and doors should be planned so as to make them even with the courses of blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADJUSTING THE SIZE OF WINDOWS, DOORS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The procedure for adjusting the height and width of the space for windows and doors is exactly the same as the procedure for adjusting the height and length of a wall. Simply think of the windows and doors as though they were walls to be built with blocks. Then, following the procedure described on pages 93-94, increase or decrease the height and length of the windows/doors as necessary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, suppose a window is planned so that it will begin 135 cm. from the bottom of a wall made of 10 cm. high x 20 cm. thick x 40 cm. long blocks. 135 cm. would be 13œ layers (courses) of blocks high. So rather than cut a whole layer of blocks to fit the window height, it is much easier either to raise or lower the window 5 cm. so it will start 130 cm. (13 courses) or 140 cm. (14 courses) from the bottom of the wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p096a.png"></center><br>
+ Planned location</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Construction details for doors, windows, and interior walls</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOOR AND WINDOW FRAMES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The construction plan for walls should show how the door and window frames will be attached to the walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Window and door frames are made of wood (5 cm. thick wood is best) to fit the exact size of the wall opening. The frames are permanently attached to the walls, and then the windows and doors are attached to the frames.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p096b.png"></center><br>
+ Door and window frames</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frames that are nailed right to the masonry or concrete of the wall are the best for preventing drafts and leaks. But they may also be attached to the wall by placing wooden slats in the mortar joints and nailing the frame to the slats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LINTELS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lintels are short beams that should always be used to support the wall over an opening for a door or window. Lintels are usually as thick as the wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In rammed earth or adobe brick walls, the lintels may be made of 5 cm. thick wood beams. They should extend past the window or door opening about 20% of their length, or a minimum of 20 cm. on each side.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p097.png"></center><br>
+ Lintels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In walls made from any other material, except bamboo, the lintel should be made of reinforced concrete (use two steel bars for reinforcement). Construction will be much easier if the lintels are "precast": that is, made in advance and then placed in the wall like a brick. (For bamboo, see the section on bamboo construction, page 181). In block walls the lintels should overlap the opening œ the length of a block on either side of the frame.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INTERIOR WALLS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interior, or "partition" walls do not support the weight of the roof, as the exterior walls do. Thus they are often thinner than the outer walls, or made of a different material completely. However, they must be attached to the outer walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This can be done after the outer walls have been built. But it is usually better and easier to build all the walls at the same time. This is especially true when the walls will be made of blocks or bricks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wall construction plan should include a diagram showing how the partition walls will be attached to the outer walls</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REINFORCEMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In areas where buildings are exposed to stresses such as high winds, severe storms, freezing temperatures, and high humidity, walls should be reinforced. Effective reinforcement will increase the life of any building significantly. Often it enables the builder to construct thinner walls and save money on materials. In earthquake areas, walls MUST be reinforced. (See the section on construction in earthquake zones for special reinforcement techniques not shown here' page 195).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p098.png"></center><br>
+ Interior walls and reinforcement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rammed earth and stone walls are very difficult to reinforce effectively. Block walls can be reinforced in several ways:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> steel rods can be run along the horizontal joints of the wall; the rods should be 1 to 1.25 cm. thick; where they overlap, the overlap should be at least 25 cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> barbed wire is an effective reinforcer: it is run, like the steel rods, along the top of each course of brick;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p099a.png"></center><br>
+ Barbed wire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> if hollow blocks are used, the holes in the corner blocks can be used to run steel rods from the foundation up to the roof; then the holes can be filled with concrete:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p099b.png"></center><br>
+ Reinforcement bars</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> a "ring beam" can be run around the top of the walls: this is usually a 15 cm. thick band of concrete with 2 steel rods that runs continuously (without seams) around all four walls. Ring beams are mandatory in earthquake areas. (See page 200).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p100a.png"></center><br>
+ Ring beam</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poured concrete walls are often reinforced; the exact thickness and arrangement of the reinforcement bars should be determined by an experienced local builder, but this is the method most commonly used:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Steel rods ranging from 1-2 cm. are arranged horizontally and vertically, 10-20 cm. apart. They are fastened to each other by lightweight flexible wire and are wired in place temporarily until the concrete is poured.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concrete that has been reinforced has from 2 to 5 times the strength of unreinforced concrete. This means that, for example, a 10 cm. thick reinforced concrete wall will be as strong as an unreinforced wall twice as thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p100b.png"></center><br>
+ Poured concrete wall</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ESTIMATING MATERIALS NEEDED TO BUILD WALLS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before construction can begin, the builder needs to estimate how much of each of the materials to be used will be needed so that all the supplies can be purchased or assembled in time. Details of the calculations involved will be found in Appendix 4.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Planning roofs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the basic design and construction plans for the foundation, floor, and walls are complete, the field worker and community member(s) should consider what kind of roof the building should have and how it will be constructed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several kinds of roofs. Each can be made of different materials, and each has advantages and disadvantages, depending on the climate, the builders' budget, the availability of materials, and the ease of construction. To make a good decision about the kind of roof to be used, the builder needs to know:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the basic roof styles; their advantages and disadvantages for the local climate and environment;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the kinds of materials suitable for each roof style;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> how to design and build each roof style.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></DIR>
+
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Roof styles and their functions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All roofs provide protection from the elements: sun, rain, wind, dust, heat, cold, and animals and insects. But each different kind of roof protects against some things better than others. In addition the different roof styles vary in their durability and ease of construction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p101.png"></center><br>
+ Shed roof - flat roof</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are four basic roof styles:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> flat: the roof simply lies flat across the top of the building's walls;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> shed: the roof is built at a slight angle, generally from 10-30°.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> gable or double-pitched: the roof forms a triangle over the building. Gable roofs are a combination of two shed roofs, each starting from the opposite sides of the building with the same angle or pitch, hence, "double-pitched";</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> hipped: hipped roofs are gable roofs that have been pitched on the ends of the building as well as the sides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p102a.png"></center><br>
+ Hipped roof - gable roof</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FLAT ROOFS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Flat roofs are generally the most difficult to build and the least suitable of roof styles, especially in buildings wider than 4-5 m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are some of their principal disadvantages:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> because they are flat they tend to sag in the middle unless given very strong support: the most common forms of support, wooden or reinforced concrete beams, must be heavy to be strong; as a result they are difficult to lift into place; reinforced concrete or heavy wood columns may also be used to support flat roofs. However, columns reduce usable space inside the building;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> flat roofs tend to hold snow or rain; this increases the weight on the beams and walls and leads to leaks and warping;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> flat roofs tend to lift in wind and must be securely tied to the building; in areas with severe storms, flat roofs are dangerous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p102b.png"></center><br>
+ Flat roof</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The only advantage of flat roofs is that they can provide extra living space above buildings in dry, desert-like areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHED ROOFS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shed roofs are generally easier to support than flat roofs. They are usually the least expensive and the easiest style of roof to build.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their pitch (angle), they shed water easily and are particularly good in warm. rainy climates with no snow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shed roofs are slightly less subject to wind pressure than flat roofs. However, in stormy areas they must still be very securely tied down to the walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GABLE ROOFS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gable roofs use more materials, require more care in design, and are more expensive than shed roofs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, they can be built over large areas (buildings over 10 m. wide) without heavy beam or column support because they are made of relatively light materials and are extremely strong.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gable roofs are much less affected by wind than flat or shed roofs and are therefore better-suited to areas with strong storms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p103.png"></center><br>
+ Shed roofs - gable roofs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, gable roofs provide excellent insulation against heat and cold. In areas with cold nights or seasons, the triangle formed by the double pitch above the ceiling helps hold the heat in at night. In very hot areas, gable roofs that are ventilated have the opposite effect: they pass heat out of the building quickly, thus helping to keep it cool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general, gable roofs are the best, and most adaptable style whenever they are within the builder's budget.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HIPPED ROOFS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hipped roofs provide more protection against wind on the ends of a building than do gable roofs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p104.png"></center><br>
+ Hipped roofs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But this is their only advantage over the other roof styles. Hipped roofs are harder to design, harder to construct and use more materials than any other roof style.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Roof materials</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roof materials fall into two categories: those that are used for the frame and support, and those that are used as the roof covering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WOOD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wood is the most common material used for roof frames and supports because it is strong and easy to work with. When the covering material will be heavy (tile, for example), wood may be the only practical material for the frame and support of the roof.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One caution: before planning to build a wood frame, or to use wood beams for roof-support, make sure that wood is available in sufficient quantity and size. Wood beams must be at least 5 x 15 cm., and wood used in frame construction should be at least 5 x 10 cm. To estimate the quantities of wood needed for any roof design, see pages 107-114 on roof construction plans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BAMBOO</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bamboo is an excellent frame material, especially where resistance to wind and earthquake are important concerns. It is light, flexible, and strong.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where large species of bamboo are available, they can be cut to make tiles for a roof covering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chief disadvantages of bamboo are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> it cannot be easily nailed: most connections are made by tying section together with wire, thongs, or hemp lashings;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> it tends to rot when exposed to dampness or rain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p105.png"></center><br>
+ Bamboo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MUD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mud is the least expensive roof covering, but it has serious disadvantages: it is very heavy; it tends to develop cracks that cause leaks, and it requires very frequent repairs to prevent collapse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TILE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tile roof coverings are also very heavy. The materials and labor involved make tile very expensive. Tile roofs should not be used in earthquake zones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REINFORCED CONCRETE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of roof is seldom needed on small buildings. If it is required, an engineer must be consulted on its design.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p106.png"></center><br>
+ Reinforced concrete</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CORRUGATED METAL OR ASBESTOS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corrugated iron, aluminum, zinc and asbestos sheets have several advantages as roof coverings:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> they are very light; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> they are easy to use on shed or gable roofs; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> they are usually leak-free; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> they are relatively fireproof; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> aluminum sheets are rust-free.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, they have some disadvantages, especially on flat roofs:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> they are cold in winter and hot in the summer; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> they rust (except for asbestos and aluminum); </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> they are noisy during rain; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> they tend to tear away easily during heavy storms or wind; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> asbestos has been identified as a possible cause of cancer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THATCH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thatch is an effective and inexpensive covering for wood or bamboo frames. It is light. In addition, it provides better insulation against heat and it is quieter than metal. However, thatch will not last as long as other roof coverings, especially in wet climates. It is also easily infested by animals and insects unless treated with an effective insecticide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Construction details for roofs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FLAT ROOFS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Flat roofs are built in three major steps:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 1: Placement of the beams across the width of the building: Wood beams should be about 5cm x 15cm. If bamboo is used beams should be made from the thickest stalks available. For heavy materials such as tile. place the beams at least every 0.6 - 1.0 m. For lighter covering materials, the beams can be slightly further apart if desired. Each beam should be as long as the building is wide plus the length of overhang on both sides of the building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p107.png"></center><br>
+ Flat roofs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 2: Place purlins across the beams: Purlins are horizontal pieces of a roof frame that support either the roof covering material (in flat and shed roofs), or the pitched rafters (in a gabled or tripped roof). Each purlin should be as long as the building plus the length of overhang on both ends of the building</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 3: Cover the roof with the planned covering material, tying, bolting, nailing, or lashing it securely to the purling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHED ROOFS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shed roofs can be built in two ways. Either way, the beams for support can be both thinner and further apart than for flat roofs:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> If one wall going the length of the building is higher than the other, the shed roof can be built with beam supports like flat roofs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> A much stronger shed roof can be built if the building walls are level. Beams are laid across the walls. Then pitched rafters made of 5 x 10 cm. wood planks are supported at an angle by four struts. Finally, the purlins are attached as in the flat roof and the covering material is tied to the purling:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p108a.png"></center><br>
+ Simple beam supported shed roof</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p108b.png"></center><br>
+ Truss supported shed roof</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GABLE (DOUBLE-PITCHED) ROOFS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gable roofs are supported by light weight wood, bamboo, or steel structures called trusses. Basically trusses are triangular shapes strengthened by struts that help distribute the weight of the roof and the force of wind, rain, snow, and earthquake evenly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The illustrations on this page and the next show how trusses are used and identify their key parts. See the glossary on the next page for definitions of each part.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p109a.png"></center><br>
+ Struts that help distribute the weight of the roof</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p109b.png"></center><br>
+ Gable roof: with purlins attached to trusses, and using end walls as truss supports</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p110.png"></center><br>
+ Roofs and trusses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GLOSSARY OF TERMS FOR GABLED ROOFS AND TRUSSES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Cross </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tie: Abeam placed horizontally across the width of the building and tied to the walls on each end. The cross tie is the bottom part of a truss-triangle.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Eave:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The part of a roof that overhangs the wall.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Purlin:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Horizontal beams that tie the trusses together. (Not shown)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Rafter:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Either of the angled parts of the truss.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Rafter Batten: </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A short beam that joins the top of the rafters in a truss.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Rafter Bracket: </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A short beam that supports the rafter when there is a large overhang.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Ridge:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The top point of the truss (also called the apex).</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Splice:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A section in a rafter where two long pieces of wood are joined together with nails and a short piece of wood.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Strut:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any short beam attached to the cross tie and rafters of the truss and used to provide strength.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Truss:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of several triangular support-structures used to hold up a gabled roof.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. Wall Plate: </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The part of the wall to which the roof frame is attached.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sample Truss Plans</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following pages show the plans for two different trusses for a gabled roof.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first plan is for roofs on buildings 6 to 9.6 meters wide (20-32 feet in U.S. measurements). The second plan is for buildings up to 6 meters wide (18 feet in U.S. measurements). In either case, the trusses should be placed 2 meters apart.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The charts accompanying each plan indicate the length of each part of the truss for any given building width.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: The charts were originally prepared in U.S. measures. Field workers in areas using metric measures should try to find similar charts and plans in their local area, since standard lengths may not be comparable. If metric charts are unavailable, the charts printed here may be used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112.png"></center><br>
+ Truss plan for buildings 6 - 9.6 meters wide</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p113.png"></center><br>
+ Construction details for truss on building 6 - 9.6 meters wide</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p114.png"></center><br>
+ Truss plan for buildings up to 6 meters wide</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Directions for construction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the construction plans for the entire building are complete, construction can begin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section is designed to help the field worker and community member(s) organize their work to make the construction process flow smoothly, and to provide step-by-step directions for the critical parts of construction that are common to all buildings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The material is divided into six parts:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> SETTING OUT (LAYING OUT)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> FOUNDATION FOOTINGS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> FOUNDATION WALLS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> FLOORS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> WALLS, WINDOWS, AND DOORS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> ROOFS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></DIR>
+
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Setting out (laying out)</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In order to begin digging the trenches required for a building's foundation, the builder must first transfer the lines and measurements indicated on his or her foundation plan to the building site. That is, the exact length, width, depth, and position of the foundation trenches must be marked on the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This movement from the plan to the actual site is called setting out. It is probably the most critical step in the entire construction process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p116.png"></center><br>
+ Floor plan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A building that is set out accurately will be:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> level: no part of the floor or foundation higher than another;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> square: walls parallel and the same length;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p117a.png"></center><br>
+ Level</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> plumb: straight up and down, not leaning to one side or the other</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p117b.png"></center><br>
+ Plumb</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A building that is set out carelessly will be difficult or impossible to construct according to plan. As a result, the finished structure may be expensive to maintain and unhealthful. So it is important to take special care when setting out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three major steps to setting out:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Orientation of the building on the site;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Marking a simple outline of the building's foundation on the ground;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Placing "batter boards" around the foundation outline and marking the position of inside walls, doors, and windows on the boards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tools shown on this page are needed to set out a building so that it will be level, square, and accurately measured.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p118a.png"></center><br>
+ Tape measure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p118b.png"></center><br>
+ Plumb bob</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Orientation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The orientation of a building is the direction its front walls face: north, east, south, west or something in between.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To mark the orientation on the site, first find north. This is easiest with a compass. But if no compass is available, finding north is still fairly simple.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The builder should stand at the building position so that his/her right arm points at the spot where the sun rose in the morning while the left arm points to where the sun set the last night. In this position the builder will be facing north.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Standing in the same position, if the builder moves his/her arms so they form a straight line to the sides, they will be pointing due west (left arm) and east (right arm).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the main compass points have been established, use a stick to mark out the shape and position of the building. Add about 2 meters to the dimensions of the building on all sides: the extra space will be needed for supplies and work space during construction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Next, clear the ground inside this area of trees, shrubs, and loose plant growth. If the topsoil is loose, clear away the top 15cm or so to get down to hard earth: loose soil will not support a building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p119.png"></center><br>
+ Approximate building site</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If clearing the land at the position outlined proves too difficult, or if it would require felling trees that are desired for their shade or beauty, consider moving the building a short distance before clearing the land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Marking the foundation outline</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The next step is to mark the outline of the foundation on the site using string and pegs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three measures are very important:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* the length of each wall must be marked exactly;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* the string must be exactly level;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* the corners must be square: exactly 90°</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The length of each wall is easy to set out on level ground. Simply measure it with a tape measure, making sure to pull the measure tight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the site is on uneven ground, care must be taken to measure the length of the wall along a level line: following the slope of the ground will throw off the measurements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p120.png"></center><br>
+ Marking the foundation outline</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To prevent errors, begin at the highest end of the first wall's length and attach the string to a peg planted at the end-point. Set a new peg every 2 meters to prevent the string from sagging, and test to make sure the string is level by using a plumb bob and mason's square as shown: when the plumb bob stops swinging it will be plumb (straight up and down); the string will be exactly level when it is a 90° to the bob string.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Repeat this process until the length of string set out is equal to the planned length of the first wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p121a.png"></center><br>
+ Plumb bob</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the ground is sloped very steeply, it may be easier and more accurate to measure the wall's length in steps or stages. To do this run a new length of string from the bottom of every second peg (that is, every 4 meters). Test with a plumb bob to be sure that every peg is straight up and down. In addition, to be sure there are no gaps or overlaps in the measurement of each new stage, plant a small block with a circle on it right next to every other peg: then in measuring the next stage (or step) along the wall, hold the tape measure to the point in the circle that marks the end of the last stage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p121b.png"></center><br>
+ Marking block</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the first wall has been set out, the second wall should be set out at right angles to it (90°). There are several ways to make sure that this angle, and the angles between all the walls set out are square:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> A mason's square is good for distances up to 3 meters. Use it to get started, but don't use it to check the entire outline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> One of the easiest and most accurate methods of checking large distances for squareness is to compare the diagonals. Simply measure the diagonal lines from opposite corners of the foundation. When they are exactly equal in length, all the angles will be 90°. On uneven ground, be sure to use the tape measure along a level line'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> If measuring the diagonals is inconvenient, or if the building is not a simple rectangle, another method is the 3-4-5 calculation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the wall on one side of a right angle is 3 units long and the wall on the other side is 4 units long, a line drawn between their ends will always be 5 units long. Here's how to use this rule to test whether the angle between two walls is square: Along the string set out for one wall, measure and mark off 1.5 meters (3 x .5m). Then, along the string set out for the second wall, measure and mark off 2 meters (4 x .5m). Next, measure and cut a piece of string 2.5 meters long (5 x .5m) and hold its ends to the points marked off along each wall. When the 2.5 meter string just touches both marks with no slack left over, the angle between the two wall strings will be exactly square. If the 2.5 meter string is too short or long, adjust either one of the wall strings until it fits exactly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p122.png"></center><br>
+ Mark</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARKING THE INSIDE FOUNDATION LINES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the outside walls of the foundation have been set out with pegs and string, the next step is to set out a second set of lines to mark the inside of the foundation walls. Use the same procedures to keep them level, accurate in length, and square.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The easiest way to begin is to measure the width of the foundation wall and mark it along the strings set out for two opposite walls. Then set out a string between these two points and fasten the ends with pegs. Use a plumb bob to be sure each peg is directly beneath the outside foundation line.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Next, repeat this process for each of the remaining walls. Place a peg at every point where the new lines cross: these are the inside corners of the foundation walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p123a.png"></center><br>
+ Width of foundation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Batter boards</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Batter boards are like a single rail fence placed around the building position. They should be placed after the foundation lines have been set out and before any digging for construction begins. Batter boards are essential for two reasons:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> They provide permanent reference points for the position of the foundation walls: these will be needed once the string markings have been removed during construction;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> They can be used to measure and mark off the exact position of doors, windows, and floors, thus making it much easier to build the walls accurately.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To be useful, batter boards must be exactly level and should be set about 1 meter back from the string marking the outside foundation line.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p123b.png"></center><br>
+ Batter boards</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PLACING BATTER BOARDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To place batter boards around the building postion, first find the highest point on the site about 1 meter outside the outer foundation line and place a wooden stake firmly in the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nail the first board to this stake so that the top of the board is at least as high as the top of the foundation walls will be. Since the foundation walls must be as high as the floor, this will be at least 20-3Ocm. above the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Next, place a second stake 2 meters from the first and 1 meter outside the outer foundation line. When this stake is secure, nail the other end of the first batter board to it, taking care that the batter board is level. Nail a second board to this same stake and repeat the process of placing new stakes, levelling, and nailing the boards, until the batter boards form a fence that goes completely around the building position.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p124.png"></center><br>
+ Placing batter boards</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HOW TO LEVEL BATTER BOARDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A commercially made "spirit level" is the easiest levelling device to use. Place it on the surface - in this case the top edge of the batter board - and keep adjusting the height of the board at the opposite end until the bubble is in the center.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When joining boards at stakes, place the level over the seam of the board to maintain a continuous level line.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An additional check on level can be made at the corners: use an extra board to provide a surface for the level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another method is to use a water level: this is a clear plastic hose that is filled with water, Adjust the first end of the hose to a known level mark. When the other end of the hose is placed at the next stake, the water inside will be at the same level as at the first end. To prevent spillage the ends may be plugged until the hose is in position, But all plugs must be removed to get an accurate measurement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p125.png"></center><br>
+ How to level batter boards</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TRANSFERRING MARKS TO BATTER BOARDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the batter boards are complete, all the measurements shown on the written foundation plans should be marked on the boards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First, transfer the foundation lines marked by the strings set out earlier: run a string from one board to the opposite board directly over each foundation line. Use a plumb bob to make sure this new string is over the corner pegs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Next, place nails or saw cuts in the tops of the boards where they intersect the strings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good system is to use different marks for the foundation lines than those to be used for other important measures such as wall lines and the positions of doors and windows. For example, use small notches cut with a saw to indicate the foundation lines. Then use nails to indicate the wall lines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the foundation lines and wall lines have been marked on the batter boards, the builder is ready to start digging the foundation trenches. Note: the digging will be easier if the strings are left in place until the trenches have been well started.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p126.png"></center><br>
+ Transferring marks to batter boards</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Construction of foundation footings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Digging the foundation trench</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before the concrete footing can be poured, the builder must dig a trench for it. The depth of the trench depends on characteristics of the site and building that should have been determined in the basic planning stage (see pages 82-88),</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, the width of the trench, and the care with which it must be dug depend on whether the concrete footing will be poured directly in the trench or into wooden forms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TRENCHES FOR FOOTINGS POURED WITHOUT FORMS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When wooden forms will not be used, the trenches must be dug very carefully:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the walls of the trench must be plumb (straight up and down);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the earth forming the trench walls and bottom must be very firm so that there is no danger of the trench crumbling when the concrete is poured;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the earth must be removed carefully so that the earth at the bottom of the trench is smooth, clear of all trash or debris, and undisturbed (undisturbed means that the earth has not been moved, loosened, or dislodged by the digging);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the bottom of the trench must be absolutely level: 6-8 measurements with a straight board and level should be made along the length of the trench to be certain of the level;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the trench must be exactly as wide as the concrete footing;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the trench must be free of standing water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p127.png"></center><br>
+ Undisturbed earth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TRENCHES FOR FOOTINGS POURED WITH FORMS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is much more common to use wooden forms when pouring the concrete footing because the ground at building sites is rarely hard enough to stay in place when the concrete is poured directly in the trench.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the trenches for non-form footings, trenches in which forms will be used must be level at the bottom, and hard. The earth at the bottom must also be left smooth, clear of debris, and undisturbed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, there is no need to make the side walls of the trench plumb. The only requirement is that the trench be 30-45 centimeters wider than the footing will be, so that there will be room in the trench for the wooden forms and work space for the builders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A FINAL NOTE ON DIGGING TRENCHES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When digging the trenches, any loose soil, or soil with organic material should be shovelled outside the foundation lines and discarded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hard earth that is dug up should be spread evenly inside the foundation lines: it will be very useful as part of the fill under the floor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p128.png"></center><br>
+ Hard earth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Formwork for Footings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The formwork should be made of boards measuring about 5cm x 15cm or 5cm x 30cm. The boards should be supported by 5cm x 10cm braces called studs. Allow about twice the width of the footing between the studs (but never more than 1.3 - 1,6 meters); the formwork must be strong because concrete weighs 2.5 metric tons per cubic meter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p129.png"></center><br>
+ Formwork for footings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the joints and corners of the formwork must be tight: neither the concrete, nor the water should be able to leak out. If water leaks out it will weaken the mixture;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the walls of the forms must be exactly plumb (straight up and down), and the tops of the forms must be level: any inaccuracies will weaken the foundation;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> small boards, called spacers, should be nailed to the tops of the formwork to keep the sides of the forms from leaning toward each other before the concrete is poured;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the formwork should be built so that it may be removed easily without damage: most forms can be re-used;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> if part of the footing will be visible and the builder would like its surface to be smooth, the boards of the formwork must also be smooth: any irregularities in the wood - burrs, bends, chips, and so on - will leave an impression in the concrete.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FORMWORK FOR A STEPPED FOUNDATION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The formwork for a stepped foundation is constructed in the same manner described above. However, if the walls will be made of block or brick, the height of each step of the footing must be equal to the height of the blocks used, or to a whole number multiple of their height. For example, if the blocks used in the foundation are 20cm high,: then the steps must be 20cm or 40cm or 60cm high, and so on. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p130.png"></center><br>
+ Height equals 1 blocks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Making the concrete for foundation footings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To prepare a strong, durable concrete mixture, the builder must:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> select, prepare, and store the ingredients (cement, sand, gravel) properly;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> use proportions of these ingredients that are suitable for his or her purpose;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> mix the ingredients properly with each other and with water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SELECTING INGREDIENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commercial cement most commonly used for 1-story buildings is Portland cement. It is available from most manufacturers. Portland cement, and most locally made limestone cements, can be stored for up to 6 months in a cool, shaded, dry , area. If the cement has hard lumps that are difficult to break or crumble, don't use it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In humid tropical areas, or areas with heavy rainfall, it may be advisable to purchase "hydrophobic" cement, since this kind of cement can be stored in damp conditions for long periods of time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sand is possibly the most important ingredient in the concrete mix, since it provides most of the plasticity: that is, it makes the mixture easy to work with. There should never be more than 3 parts sand for every 1 part cement. Too little sand in a mixture may result in shrinkage cracks when the concrete dries; too much sand will produce a harsh mortar that will be difficult to work with and may lead to leaks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Never use sand from the ocean: the grains in ocean sand are too uniform in size and will not make a useful concrete. Any other source of sand is fine. But it is crucial that the sand used be clean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To test whether sand is clean enough to be used:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> put 5cm of sand in a jar and  fill the jar with water:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> hake the jar vigorously for 1 minute and let it stand for 1 hour. The layer of dirt that settles on top of the sand should be less than 6mm thick. If it is more, wash the sand or find other sand (but again, do not use ocean sand).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p131.png"></center><br>
+ Sand used be clean</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gravel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gravel adds strength to concrete because it increases the range of grain sizes in the mixture. Generally it is also the easiest ingredient to find and prepare locally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gravel should be clean, and should range in size from 6-18mm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MIXING THE BEST PROPORTIONS OF INGREDIENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concrete mixture required for a foundation footing may be very different from the mixture needed for concrete used for another purpose.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, the average mixture for foundation footings is 1:2 3/4: 4 (that is, 1 part cement, 2 3/4 parts sand, and 4 parts gravel). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But a typical mixture for fence posts is 1:1:1œ. The higher proportions of sand and gravel in the footing mixture provide maximum strength and resistance to water. Since fence posts do not need to be as strong or as water resistant as footings, they can be made of a weaker and less expensive mixture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 4 in Appendix 5 recommends average mixtures for different uses of concrete. Following these recommendations will assure builders that their concrete will be well-suited to their needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MIXING PROCEDURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mixing Area</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concrete should be mixed on a flat surface that will not absorb water. Mix it on a wooden platform about 2 meters by 2 meters. Or, mix it on a cement-sand platform.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cement-sand platforms must be made a week before concrete can be mixed on them. To build a platform, mix cement and sand on the ground in a 1:6 ratio, cement to sand. Add water, and spread the mixture in a circle about 2 meters in diameter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p132.png"></center><br>
+ Mixing area</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Choosing A Measuring Unit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the dry ingredients of concrete, cement, sand, and gravel, are mixed by volume, the easiest way to be sure that the proportions are right is to decide on a standard measuring unit such as a box or wheelbarrow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the unit is chosen, simply fill it to the appropriate level with each ingredient in turn. For example, to make the recommended mix for foundation footings, 1:2 3/4; 4, for each unit of cement, add 2 3/4 units of sand, and 4 units of -travel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Generally, the easiest measuringunit to use is a gauge box or wheelbarrow that holds 1 bag of cement. The box or wheelbarrow should be approximately 40cm x 40cm x 40cm. Note: to avoid confusion, once the size of the measuring unit has been chosen, do not use different size boxes or wheelbarrows on the site for any purpose.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When using a box:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the box should have handles on both sides for easy lifting by two people;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> if the materials are close enough to the platform so that they do not have to be carried, it is easier to use a bottomless box: set the box directly on the mixing platform and fill it to measure; then, lift it up to empty the ingredients into the mixture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p133.png"></center><br>
+ Gauge box</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mixing the Ingredients</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ingredients in concrete should always be mixed in the same order:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FIRST, spread the correct amount of sand on the platform with a shovel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SECOND, dump the required amount of cement on the sand, and mix the sand and cement until the color of the pile is uniform: there should be no streaks of color.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THIRD, add the required amount of gravel and mix it with the sand and cement until the gravel is thoroughly distributed and there are no streaks of color.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOURTH, hollow out a hole in the center of the mix. Add water slowly, pushing the ingredients toward the center while turning them over with a shovel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p134.png"></center><br>
+ Mixing ingredients</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good test for the correct amount of water is to walk on the mixture:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> if you sink to your ankles or higher, there is too much water;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> if you sink about 5-6cm, you have the right mixture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p135a.png"></center><br>
+ Too much water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The correct amount of water is important because too much or too little will weaken the mixture:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- if there is too little water, air spaces (weak spots) will form in the concrete;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- if there is too much water, a cement-water paste will rise to the surface, weakening the mixture underneath.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Pouring concrete for foundation footings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fresh concrete mix has to be carried to the footing trench in water-tight containers such as wheelbarrows: no water should seep out of the mixture:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p135b.png"></center><br>
+ The mix</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the mix should be poured within 45 minutes of mixing;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> avoid bumps during transport from the mixing area to the site: vibration will cause the aggregates (sand and gravel) to separate from the mixture;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> it is best to let the mix flow into the trench; do not drop it ; into place or the sand and gravel may begin separating from the mixture;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> once in place, the concrete should be worked up and down with a shovel, rod, or spading tool to break air pockets;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> footings up to 30cm deep can be poured all at once; deeper footings should be poured in layers 15-30cm deep at a time;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> once started, the pouring must be continuous: concrete that has started to set cannot be disturbed;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> if you must stop pouring at the end of a day, place a vertical stop at the end of the poured section;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when pouring is resumed, roughen the edge of the old section and paint it with a cement-water paste before applying fresh concrete. (Use a stick or any sharp object to roughen the old section).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p136.png"></center><br>
+ Temporary stop</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Curing concrete footings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The strength and water-tightness of concrete improve with age. Proper "curing. is important to get the aging process started well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As concrete hardens, the water in the mix gradually evaporates. ' Prolonging that process increases the strength and water-tightness of concrete.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Immediately after the concrete has set, put a wet covering over it. The covering may be made with wet burlap bags, or a thin layer of wet sand, or wet straw. The covering should be sprinkled with water 2 or 3 times a day for at least 7 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p137a.png"></center><br>
+ Hooked ends</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Reinforced footings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reinforced concrete footings require the same formwork as unreinforced footings (see page 129). Steel rods are attached to the form before pouring. The rods should be made of steel about 9mm in diameter. They must be clear abd free of rust.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p137b.png"></center><br>
+ Plain round bar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When placing the rods:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Use steel wire to hold them in place 2.5-5cm above the bottom of the trench, and 5-7.5cm from the sides of the forms. Temporary wood supports may be used while the steel wire is being tied in place, but they must be removed before pouring concrete.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Plain round bars must be hooked at the ends; deformed bars (bars with curved ridges along their surface) can be left straight since their ridges will hold the concrete firmly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The ends of bars should be spliced (overlapped) for a length at least 30 times the diameter of the rods. For example, 9mm rods should overlap for 2.7 meters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The rods must be completely surrounded by concrete, and the concrete and steel must be fully and tightly bonded to work properly; any exposed steel will rust through, and this will weaken the steel and destroy the bond.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The recommended concrete mixture for reinforced foundation footings is 1:2œ:4.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Footings may also be reinforced with bamboo. See the separate section on Bamboo, page 188.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Construction of the foundation walls</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the foundation footing is complete, construction of the foundation walls can begin. The foundation walls may be made of concrete, or any of the blocks made with cement (Sand-Cement, Stabilized Earth). Adobe blocks should never be used for a foundation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The foundation walls should be built so that the top of the foundation is exactly level with the floor height (at least 1030cm above the ground at the highest point on the building site)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Concrete foundation walls</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MIXTURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best concrete mixture for foundation walls has the same proportions as the concrete for footings: 1:2 3/4 :4.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FORMWORK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best formwork to use for concrete foundation walls is re-usable unit formwork. Since each "unit" can be used over and over again, the cost of the wood for the formwork can be shared by an entire community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p139.png"></center><br>
+ Formwork</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Typical form units are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 2.5 meters long;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> either 60cm or 120cm high, depending on the height of the foundation walls;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> made of boards about 2.5cm x 15cm;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> supported by braces about 5cm x 10cm;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> bolted together, not nailed (Bolts make the units much easier to assemble and disassemble. They also make the forms tighter.).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before concrete is poured, the walls of each unit should be kept apart by 2.5cm x 10cm spreaders. Spreaders can be removed as the concrete is poured, since the concrete weighs enough to keep the forms apart.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the concrete is poured the walls of the unit should be held together by 5cm x 10cm spacers. Spacers and spreaders should be placed at 1.5 meter intervals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POURING CONCRETE FOR FOUNDATION WALLS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concrete for foundation walls should be mixed just as the concrete for footings (see pages 130-135), It should then be poured in layers 15-30 centimeters deep. Pour the first layer for all the walls before going on to the second layer. All the foundation walls should be built up together, rather than one wall at a time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If possible, it is best to complete all the foundation walls in one day's pouring: this will avoid seams in the concrete.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If it is necessary to stop before completion of the walls, the top surface of the last layer poured should be roughened by scratching it with a stick or placing large pebbles that project out of the surface. This will provide a good "grip" for the fresh concrete when the pouring resumes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CURING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In warm weather, the forms can be removed after 3 days: in cold weather, leave them on at least a week and preferably 10 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with footings, cover the surfaces of all concrete foundation walls for at least a week with wet sand, straw, or burlap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Block foundation walls</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Construction of a block foundation wall requires 3 basic steps: . Making the blocks; . Laying the blocks; . Finishing the Mortar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Making blocks</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three types of block suitable for foundation walls: concrete blocks, sand-cement blocks, and stabilized earth blocks (not adobe). Each requires different procedures and ingredients.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MAKING CONCRETE BLOCKS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ingredients</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ingredients required for concrete blocks are cement, sand, and gravel in a 1:2:4 mix. The concrete is mixed using the method described on page 132-136.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most common nominal size of concrete blocks is 20cm x 20cm x 40cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p140.png"></center><br>
+ Block mold</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The nominal size of a block is the actual size of the block + the thickness of mortar in which it will be set. Planning for 5mm of mortar between blocks, this means the actual size of the most common concrete block is 19.5cm x 19.5cm x 39.5cm. Thus, the forms used for these blocks should measure 19.5cm x 19.5cm x 39.5cm on the inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forms should be made of wood 2.5cm thick, with removable cores (or dowels) to create holes in the block.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mixture should have enough water to make the mix plastic but not watery. The mix is placed in the form and hand-spaded or vibrated mechanically to remove air pockets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the mix is spaded, the forms should not be removed for at least 12 hours (or 2-3 days in cold weather). If the mix is vibrated mechanically, the forms may be removed 30 seconds after vibration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cores should be removed first: tap them gently and pull them out slowly. Then slowly remove the outside form. Avoid breaking the corners and edges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The blocks should be kept damp for 7-10 days and should be sheltered from wind and sun for 28 days before use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MAKING SAND-CEMENT BLOCKS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ingredients</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The usual mixture of cement-to-sand for sand-cement blocks is 1:6. A mixture of 1:8 can be used for block walls that will not carry roof loads, but this is not sufficient for foundation walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best sand is clean river-bed sand composed of many different size particles. If it is dirty, the sand should be washed, or sifted through a fine screen (4-5mm square), since dirt will weaken the blocks. Do not use ocean sand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p141.png"></center><br>
+ Ingredients</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mixing Site</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The site for making sand-cement blocks should be flat and shaded: if the blocks rest on an uneven surface, they will crack before they harden; and direct sun will dry blocks out before they can cure properly. If the mixing site must be in the open sun, the blocks should be moved to a flat, shaded area for curing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mixing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following the mixing procedure for concrete (page 132), measure out the proportion of sand and then mix the cement in thoroughly. Add clean water in the center of the pile and turn the ingredients over at least 3 times until all streaks disappear and the mixture is even. The mix should have the consistency of concrete: wet. but not watery.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Molding Sand-Cement Blocks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sand-cement blocks may be molded by hand or with a simple hand-press. Blocks made by press are generally stronger and more durable. But blocks made by either method are acceptable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hand Molding. If a commercially made mold is not available, a mold' can be made out of 2.5-5cm lumber in the dimensions desired. Typically, these blocks are:</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=236>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Actual SIZE, cm</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nominal SIZE,</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">19.5 x 19.5 x 39.5</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20 x 20 x 40</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14.5 x 19.5 x 29.5</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15 x 20 x 30</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9.5 x 19.5 x 29.5</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10 x 20 x 30</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p142a.png"></center><br>
+ Retainer plate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the molds of the correct size have been built, shovel the wet mixture into the mold and shake the mold to settle the contents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then re-fill the mold slightly over the top and pack the mixture down with a spade or shovel. Scrape any excess off after packing thoroughly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p142b.png"></center><br>
+ Pack with mix</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Next, carry the full mold to the curing area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turn it upside down gently, and place it a few centimeters away from any previous blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then, lift the mold off: first the core;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p143a.png"></center><br>
+ First the core</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">then, the casing. Repeat the process until enough blocks have been made. Using several molds simultaneously will greatly speed the process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p143b.png"></center><br>
+ Using several molds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Molding With A Hand Press. There are several types of hand press available for making strong sandcement blocks. Cinva-Ram and TekBlock presses are the most common, but any similar press will work as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three basic steps in the operation of most hand presses:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> loading the mold box;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p144a.png"></center><br>
+ Loading the mold box</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> compressing the mix;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p144b.png"></center><br>
+ Compressing the mix</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> ejecting the block.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p144c.png"></center><br>
+ Ejecting the block</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With any hand press, it is a good idea to make a few test blocks before starting production in order to determine the correct amount of mix needed to make a strong block.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curing Sand-Cement Blocks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sand-cement blocks should be sprinkled with water after they have set for about 12 hours. They should be dampened at least once a day for 5 days. They should not be laid up in a wall for at least 12 days after being molded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MAKING STABILIZED EARTH BLOCKS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ingredients and Soil Selection</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The selection of a suitable soil for mixture with cement is crucial in making strong stabilized earth blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are, roughly, 5 kinds of soil:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> gravel - rock ranging from 5mm to 7.5cm;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> sand - rock particles 5mm and smaller;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> silt - very finely ground rock, spongy when wet, but not sticky; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> clay - very fine grained earth, sticky when wet, hard when dry; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> organic soils - spongy, stringy appearance, odor of decaying, wet wood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best natural soil for stabilized earth blocks is sandy clay. As with plain concrete, the strongest blocks have a combination of fine, medium, and coarse particles. Earth that has only one particle size, or has mostly organic and/or coarse particles is unacceptable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p145.png"></center><br>
+ Stabilized earth block form</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Testing Soil Acceptability</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To determine whether local soil can be used to make stabilized earth blocks, use the following test, called the "jar test":</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Fill a glass jar about 1/3 full of soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Add water to the 2/3 mark.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Shake vigorously for 1 minute.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Let the jar set for an hour. When the soil has settled there should be 3-4 distinct layers in the jar. If there are not, reject the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p146a.png"></center><br>
+ Testing soil acceptability</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deciding How Much Cement to Mix With the Soil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once an acceptable soil has been found, you need to determine how much cement to mix with it to make strong stabilized earth blocks. This can be done easily with a "shrinkage test":</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Make a box 4cm deep, 4cm wide, and 60cm long. Grease or oil the insides thoroughly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Fill the box with damp, but not muddy, soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Pack the soil with a shovel or spade, especially at the corners.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Level the surface with a straight edge or ruler.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Place the box in the sun for 3 days, or in the shade for 7 days, and protect it from rain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The soil should shrink and develop 3 or 4 cracks. If 6 or more cracks appear, or if the dried soil arches out of the box, reject the soil. It will not make good blocks. As long as there are less than 6 cracks and the soil lies flat in the box, measure the shrinkage by tapping the box and sliding the soil to one end:</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=427>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the shrinkage is: </B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">use a cement: soil ratio of: </B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 cm or less</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1-15</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 cm to 2cm</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1-12</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2cm to 4cm</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1-10</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4cm to 5cm</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1- 9</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">more than 5cm</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">reject the soil, or add sand and repeat the test</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p146b.png"></center><br>
+ Measure shrinkage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mixing the Ingredients</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once a suitable soil has been selected, it should be screened through a wire mesh with holes no larger than 5mm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the soil has been screened, measure out the proportions of earth, cement, and any sand to be added.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On a platform or other flat area, mix the ingredients thoroughly as for concrete.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Add water slowly with a watering can until the mixture is moist but not muddy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p147a.png"></center><br>
+ Mixing the ingredients</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To test whether you have added the correct amount of water, squeeze a handful of the wet mix into a ball:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> If it can be broken in two without crumbling and without leaving moisture in the hand, the amount of water is correct.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> If the mixture crumbles, it is too dry. Add more water and repeat the test.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> If the mixture leaves moisture in your hand, it is too wet. Compress the mixture and allow the excess water to run off. It is best to test the mixture frequently to avoid getting it too wet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p147b.png"></center><br>
+ Test</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curing Stabilized Earth Blocks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The moisture in stabilized earth blocks should be eliminated slowly, under cover, with the blocks protected from sun and rain. For the first 3-4 days the blocks should be separated in single rows, never stacked upon each other. They should be sprinkled lightly with water twice a day for this initial period. After 4 days, the blocks may be stacked up to 10 layers high in a pyramid fashion with a little space between each brick. On the 8th day, bricks may be laid up in a wall where they will continue to cure and gain full strength in about 30 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Laying block foundations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the footing has been poured and has cured for about a-week, and the blocks have been made, construction of the foundation wall can begin. All block foundation walls, whether concrete, sand-cement, or stabilized earth, are laid the same way.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First, stack a number of blocks at intervals along each wall line so that a supply is always at hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Next, lay out the planned number of blocks for the first row (course) on or alongside the footing and check to see how well they fit the length of the wall. Very small adjustments in the length of a wall (under 7.5cm over the length of the whole wall) may be made by increasing the size of mortar joints between every 5th or 6th block. For example, if 8 joints are made 1cm instead of œcm the wall length will be increased 4cm without cutting any blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To give the wall strength, the courses (rows of blocks) must be staggered so that the bond between any two blocks rests over the middle of the block beneath them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To stagger the courses, turn one corner block on the first course so its "head" faces out. Then, on the next course, turn the block at the opposite corner head out. Continue alternating between courses in this way.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p148a.png"></center><br>
+ First course</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p148b.png"></center><br>
+ Staggered bond</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To ensure that the blocks are laid in a straight line, run a string from corner to corner along each wall. For outside walls, attach the string to the batter boards; for inside walls, attach it to a nail hammered between two courses of blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the string sags, as it is likely to do over a distance, support it with a piece of paper that is weighted with a small rock. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use the string as a guide, laying each block up to but not touching the line. The string can be moved up later for each new course of blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the string is in place for the first course, you are ready to prepare the mortar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The recommended mix for mortar to lay blocks is 1:3, 1 part cement to 3 parts sand. Mix these ingredients with each other and with water as concrete is mixed (see page 132).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the dry season, it helps to sprinkle the blocks with water before they are laid in mortar. This prevents them from absorbing too much water from the mortar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To lay the first course of blocks, use a trowel to spread out a full bed of mortar about 1.25cm thick on the footing. To prevent the mortar from drying out before blocks are laid in it, spread only enough for 4 or 5 blocks at a time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using the batter board lines as guides, position the first block the corner block - very carefully: an error here will cause problems that are hard to correct.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the corner block is positioned, tap it down firmly - do not pound until it is solidly bedded in the mortar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p149a.png"></center><br>
+ Paper weighted with rock</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p149b.png"></center><br>
+ Bed of mortar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butter the ends of each new block to bond the vertical joints between blocks. Press each new block against the previous one until a solid mortar joint about 15cm wide is formed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keep trowelling of the bed to a minimum: it will draw water out of the mortar mix, weakening the bonds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p150a.png"></center><br>
+ Buttered</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any excess mortar that squeezes out between blocks should be scraped off. It can be re-used if it has not dried out. Once mortar dries out it must be discarded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After every 3 or 4 blocks are laid, check the course with a level. If it is not level, remove the blocks, add mortar, and lay them again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p150b.png"></center><br>
+ Scrape excess</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the entire first course of blocks is down, build up the corners at least 4 or 5 courses up, or all the way to the top. This will give you something to attach the guide string to for the upper courses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use a story pole to check the height of each course, and to check that all corners are going up evenly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p150c.png"></center><br>
+ Story pole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Finishing the mortar</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the mortar has set, but before it has begun to harden, use a bent round bar called a "jointer" to "tool" each joint: run the bar along each horizontal joint, pressing against the mortar firmly. This action will seal the joints, help weatherproof the mortar, and improve the appearance of the foundation wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cure the mortar by sprinkling the wall with water or brushing water on with a broom once a day for 2 or 3 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Rock foundation walls</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rock footings and foundations consist of two parts: a concrete base 5-7.5cm thick, and a rock-and-mortar wall. The procedure for laying both the base and the wall is nearly the same as the procedure for concrete footings and block walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FIRST, dig the trenches. The bottom 7.5-10 centimeters of the trench will serve as the formwork for the concrete base, so the sides and bottom of the trench should be clear and level. As with any concrete footing, care should be taken not to disturb the earth on the bottom of the trench.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SECOND, gather the rocks. This can be done while the trenches are being dug. The rocks should be 20-40cm long on average. Larger rocks tend to be better because they will use up less mortar. The rocks must be clean, so use water and/or a stiff brush to remove all crusted dirt from their surfaces.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p151.png"></center><br>
+ Rock foundation walls</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THIRD, pour the concrete. Use the procedure for pouring concrete footings without forms as a guide for this step (pages 127 and 135). Use a concrete mix of 1:2 3/4 :4. Let the concrete cure for 2 to 3 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOURTH, lay the rocks. Tie a string to the batter boards as a guide for laying the rocks. Use a mortar mix of 1 part cement to 3 parts sand. Spread a mortar bed about 1.25-2.0cm thick on top of the concrete base. Position the rocks and tap them into place as if they were blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p152a.png"></center><br>
+ Mixture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mortar all the joints between the rocks; the outside surfaces of the walls don't have to be flush, but the joints should be compact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Be certain to lap all the joints (that is, stagger the rocks) to prevent a straight-line crack from developing.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> If possible, alternate the direction of the "corner" rocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Finish the exterior mortar joints in the wall with a jointer to strengthen the joints and help waterproof the mortar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Keep the top surface of the rock foundation wall as level as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p152b.png"></center><br>
+ Walls</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Construction of floors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the foundation walls are complete, but before starting the regular walls, a floor should be started, level with the top of the foundation walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Earth floors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earth floors are easy to build. For drainage, simply place a layer of dry fill inside the area bounded by the foundation. The fill can be made of any material that will not hold water, such as gravel, rock, broken brick, or rubble. The top of the dry fill layer should be about 5cm below the top of the foundation walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fill will be packed down as people walk over it during the rest of the construction process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the walls are complete, add a 10-15cm deep layer of hard earth and pack it down either with a shovel, or by walking on it. When the hard earth is well-packed, wet it down slightly, and sweep it out to complete the floor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p153.png"></center><br>
+ Earth floors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Concrete floors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FILL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like earth floors, concrete floors need a level of dry fill underneath for protection against ground moisture. Dump the fill inside the foundation walls so that it will be packed down by rain and people walking over it during construction of the walls. The fill should be composed of two layers: a bottom layer of dry fill: rock, gravel, broken brick, or rubble; and a top layer of hard earth. If dampness in the area is excessive, a 5-7 cm. layer of sand with a sheet of plastic (or other waterproof material on top) should be laid between the dry fill and hard earth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The top of the hard earth should be about 1P cm. below the top of the foundation walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p154.png"></center><br>
+ Concrete floors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PREPARING TO POUR THE CONCRETE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concrete floors can be poured at two stages in the construction process:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> after the foundation walls are complete, but before the walls are put up;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> after the walls have been put up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is an advantage to the second alternative: since the floor and walls will very likely settle at different rates, the floor may develop cracks if it is connected to the walls. Another advantage is that the walls and doors provide easy protection for the floor while it is curing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the fill has been in place some time, check that the hard earth is at the correct level--about 10 cm. below the top of the foundation walls. If it has settled, add more hard earth and pack it down hard. Wet it and then pound it with the end of a steel rod.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use a straight edge and a level to check that the surface is reasonably level before the concrete is poured.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pound 6 or 8 wood stakes (about 5 x 10 cm.) into the fill so that their tops will be even with the level of the finished floor (the same as the top of the foundation walls). These stakes will guide you during the pouring, but they must be removed before the concrete settles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p155.png"></center><br>
+ Check level</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POURING THE CONCRETE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best concrete mixture for floors is a 1:2œ:3 mixture (1 part cement: 2œ parts send: 3 parts gravel). Mix the cement as described on pages 132-135.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then, begin pouring in the corner farthest from where you will finish and work back toward a door so you can get out without walking on the fresh concrete. Pour the concrete at the full thickness-10 cm - don't layer it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the area covered grows, begin to level the concrete off with a "screed"--a board about 5 x 10 cm and several feet long that is swept across the surface to keep the mix even with the tops of the guide-stakes.,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p156.png"></center><br>
+ Pouring the concrete</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then, before the concrete sets:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. remove the guide-stakes and fill their holes with concrete,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. tap any pieces of gravel and rock that stick out above the surface into the, concrete and smooth the surface over.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using thin boards to kneel on or walk across the surface without marring the fresh concrete, "finish" the floor by sweeping a trowel or wooden "float" across the surface. A rectangular float is best--approximately 15 x 25 cm. The sweeping action will bring a smooth cement-water paste to the surface of the floor. Be careful not to bring up too much water: if water collects in small pools, the surface of the concrete will be too weak when dry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the floor has started to harden, but while it is still workable, sweep the surface with a broom. This will give a rough texture to the finished floor and create a safe, non-slip, surface.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the floor is finished and is left to cure, close the doors and windows to keep children and animals from walking on the surface.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The floor should cure for at least 4 days, and preferably 10. Keep the surface moist by sprinkling frequently Since so much area is exposed, the concrete can easily dry out too quickly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Construction of walls, windows, and doors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the foundation walls are complete, construction of the walls, windows, and doors can begin. This part of the manual covers two kinds of wall construction:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Block or Brick Walls, and </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Rammed Earth Walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></DIR>
+
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Block and brick walls</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Making the blocks or bricks</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BLOCKS WITH CEMENT CONTENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The procedure for making concrete, sand-cement, and stabilized earth blocks is discussed earlier on pages 140-148. For walls made of these materials, build a mold for blocks œ the length of a full-size block: the I-length blocks will make the framing of windows and doors considerably easier (see below).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADOBE BRICKS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adobe bricks are made from clay and sand. Where available, silt (very fine particle material) will increase the range of particle sizes and strengthen the mixture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The proportions of these materials can vary considerably. But a good mixture to begin with would include: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 6 parts sand, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 2œ parts clay, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 1œ parts silt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adding straw or chopped grass will always strengthen the bricks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Make some test bricks and then adjust the proportions as necessary. Some things to keep in mind while experimenting with different proportions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- silt should never be more than 15% of the mixture;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- A healthy amount of sand is necessary to keep the clay from shrinking. On the other hand, too much sand makes the mixture watery and weakens the bricks as they dry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mixing Materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use a mixing platform as for mortar or concrete (page 132) Measure out and mix the proportions and add water slowly: if the mud is too wet it will slump gradually while it dries outside the mold. No large stones or lumps can be left in the mixture, but stones up to 1.5 cm are all right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p158a.png"></center><br>
+ Mixing materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Molds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most common adobe brick has a nominal size of 10 x 15 x 30 cm. It is made with a bottomless mold with actual inside dimensions of 9 x14 x29 cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use hard wood for the mold. It may be easier, after some experience, to line the mold with a strip of sheet metal. Molds for several bricks at a time are easy to make and increase the efficiency of brick production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like blocks with cement content, adobe bricks cannot be broken neatly into halves or quarters. So, for framing windows and door jambs, it's best to make a halflength mold as well as several regular molds (see window framing below, page 162)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p158b.png"></center><br>
+ Molds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Molding Adobe Bricks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bricks can be made on flat, level ground, but using a table is often faster and easier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Place a clean mold (dipped in water) near the edge of the table.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fill it with mud, being sure to pack the corners. The mud, like mortar, should be workable but not sloppy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clear any excess mud off the mold, but don't make the surface too smooth--the brick will adhere to the mortar better if it has a rough contour.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Slide the mold briskly off the edge of the table and carry it in a vertical position to the drying site.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p159a.png"></center><br>
+ Figure </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gently place the mold on flat ground, close to the last brick made. Let it sit for a few moments, then lift the mold up slowly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rinse the mold off thoroughly (in a barrel of water) before making another brick with it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p159b.png"></center><br>
+ Lift slowly</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bricks must be dry before they can be used; if they dry in the wall they will shrink and ruin the mortar bonds. The bricks should dry in the sun for about 30 days. For the first week or so, the bricks should be protected from rain. Sheet metal provides a good protective cover. After the first week they can be safely exposed to light rainfall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turn each brick over every 5 or 6 days to assure even drying.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Note on Mortar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adobe bricks are generally laid with mortar made from the some mix as the bricks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Laying blocks and bricks</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The basic laying procedure for block and brick walls is the same for all types of block and brick and is identical to the procedure for block foundation walls (see pages 148-151),</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The top surface of the foundation, or of the previous course, should be covered with a bed of mortar. Apply the mortar only on the edges of hollow bricks. Cover the entire surface of solid blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Butter each new block or brick on its ends either before or after it is placed. Again, butter only the edges of hollow blocks; butter the entire head of solid blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Use string to guide the placement of each new block or brick in a straight line. Position the blocks or bricks up to but not touching the string. Press and tape each one firmly into place so that the mortar joint is 11.25cm thick. Do not pound the block in place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> After every 2-3 blocks or bricks check the course for level and plumb. Remove and re-mortar any blocks that are out of line.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p160.png"></center><br>
+ Buttered before</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BOND ARRANGEMENTS FOR BLOCK AND BRICK WALLS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are important differences between the bonds that should be used with blocks and the bonds for adobe bricks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p161a.png"></center><br>
+ Line up to but not touching</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bonds for BLOCKS With Cement Content</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main bond for blocks with cement content is the staggered arrangement used in block foundation walls. This simple bond is easily continued through corners by alternating the direction of each corner block ( see page 148 for details).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p161b.png"></center><br>
+ Bonds for blocks with cement content</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When working with blocks, the intersection of exterior and interior walls is treated much like a corner.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p161c.png"></center><br>
+ Walls is treated much like a corner</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When framing windows and doors, the blocks next to the opening must be half-size in every other course: hence the great advantage of using a half-size mold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p162a.png"></center><br>
+ Half blocks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bonds for Bricks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In any given course, adobe bricks can be laid so that they are stretchers (that is, placed end-to-end), or headers (placed side-to-side).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The corners of brick walls should be built up just as they are for block walls, using stretchers and alternating the direction of corner bricks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p162b.png"></center><br>
+ Bonds for bricks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But after the corners are built up, different bonds may be used for the length of the walls. The bonds used most frequently are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> for bricks with a cement content, headers for the first course and then every 6th course, with stretchers in between;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> for adobe bricks, headers for the first course and then every 4th course, with stretchers in between.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Headers should never come closer than 60cm to corners. Walls shorter than 2 meters (for example porch walls and half walls) should not have headers at all. When beginning a course of headers, start with a Œ brick: otherwise the bonds over the rest of the wall will not be properly staggered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p163a.png"></center><br>
+ Build up corner first as for blocks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Double Brick Walls</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bricks used in exterior walls may have to be doubled to provide adequate thickness. Double brick walls are laid with alternate courses of headers and stretchers, beginning with stretchers. The illustrations below show how to handle (a) the length of the walls, (b) corners, and (c) the intersection of exterior and interior walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p163b.png"></center><br>
+ Double brick walls</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Framing windows and doors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Windows and doors in block and brick walls must be planned so their heights are coordinated with the size of the block or brick used (see pages 95-96),</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All windows and doors consist of 3 basic parts: the head, the sill, and the jamb. In addition, there must be a lintel above the opening to support the blocks or bricks over the open space.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRAMING WINDOWS AND DOORS IN BLOCK WALLS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In block walls, the lintels should be made of reinforced concrete. There should also be a concrete sir-1 about 7cm thick under</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">the wood sill of the frame.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frames (heads, jambs, and sills) should be wood, usually 2.5cm x 15cm hardwood lumber in block walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To build the space for a window or door in a block wall, follow these steps:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p164a.png"></center><br>
+ Framing windows and doors in block walls</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lintel </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Make a mold for the reinforced concrete lintel. The mold should be as wide as the wall, as deep as the height of 1 block, and 1œ times as long as the window or door is wide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Fix 2 reinforcement rods in the mold and pour a 1:2:4 concrete mixture. Remove the mold and cure the lintel as you would a concrete footing (see page 136).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p164b.png"></center><br>
+ Lintel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Sill</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Make a mold for the concrete sill. The mold should be as wide as the wall, about 7cm deep, and as long as the window or door is wide. Then, pour a 1:2:4 concrete mixture and cure it just as the lintel was cured.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Prepare the surface of the wall where the sill will be placed by spreading a bed of mortar on the blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Put the sill in place and press it down firmly until the mortar joint is the same thickness as the joints between courses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Immediately check for level and adjust, if necessary, by forcing one end down. If the sill is not level after this, take it off add mortar. and repeat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Frame (2.5cm x 15cm hardwood)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Place the wooden frame on the concrete sill and hold it in position with temporary braces.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Continue laying blocks on either side of the window: the wall must go up evenly on both sides or it will go out of plumb.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Attach the frame to the wall with mortar and with nails hammered into the masonry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. At the top of the opening, lay the pre-cast lintel like a block:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> if the walls are more than 75cm thick, allow a few hours for the courses below to harden before placing the lintel;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> apply mortar to the blocks or bricks at both ends of the lintel and adjust for the same joint thickness;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> check for level and adjust.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p165.png"></center><br>
+ The sill</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRAMING WINDOWS AND DOORS IN ADOBE BRICK WALLS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adobe brick walls require wood lintels and sills that serve as the head and base of the frame.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The easiest method is to make the lintel and sill equal to the height of the brick used (usually 10cm) so you do not have to cut or make bricks in half-heights.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the wall reaches window height or at floor level for a door - place the frame in position on a bed of mortar and support it with braces. The jambs of the frame should be 5cm thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Check for level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lay the next course or two of bricks and check again for level and plumb. At this point, the wall on each side of the frame will exert enough pressure to keep it in position.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before laying bricks over the lintel, support the lintel with a temporary 5cm x 10cm or 10cm x 10cm post, called a mullion. The mullion should remain in place until construction of the wall is complete.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p166.png"></center><br>
+ Framing windows and doors in adobe brick walls</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Roof preparation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Near the top of the wall, preparations must be made for attaching, and providing support for, the roof.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two basic kinds of preparation: wall plates and ring beams. They are built and used in the same way on all block and brick walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALL PLATES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wall plates are solid, continuous wood beams (usually 5cm x 15cm) that connect the exterior walls of a building along their tops and anchor the roof to the walls. They are essential in all buildings except bamboo structures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p167a.png"></center><br>
+ Wall plates</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wall plate can be held in place with 3 devices:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> a good mortar bed, as thick as the horizontal joints in the rest of the structure;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> steel straps (bale iron wire) anchored 1-3 courses below the top of the wall (at least 20cm); place the straps in the appropriate mortar joint every I-1 meter;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> bolts anchored 1-2 blocks or bricks below the top of the wall every 2 meters:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> with small bricks, the bolts can be anchored with a thin metal plate (called a retainer plate) between mortar joints; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> with hollow blocks of whatever size, the bolts can be placed in a core and the core filled with concrete (1:2:4 mix).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p167b.png"></center><br>
+ Bolt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corner joints of the wall plate may be fastened either with lap joints or batten joints. Battens are slightly stronger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p168a.png"></center><br>
+ Batten joint with bale iron straps</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RING BEAMS (ALSO CALLED TIE BEAMS)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A ring beam is a continuous reinforced concrete beam poured in place at the top of concrete block walls only.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ring beams help the walls resist the outward-spreading pressure from the roof, provide extra reinforcement in earthquake areas, and provide a solid base on which to attach the wall plate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p168b.png"></center><br>
+ Ring beams</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ring beams are poured in place, so formwork must be attached to the sides of the walls already up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The beam should be about 15cm deep and exactly as wide as the wall. It should also be reinforced with 2 steel rods 1-1œcm in diameter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Follow the guidelines for concrete formwork on page 129 and use a 1:2:4 mixture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To avoid any seams, ring beams must be poured in one continuous operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p169.png"></center><br>
+ Ring beams must be poured in one continuos operation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Rammed earth walls</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rammed earth walls are built in layers by packing a damp earth mixture into temporary forms, allowing each layer to dry slightly, and then moving the forms to repeat the process until the walls are as high as planned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Earth mixture</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The earth used should be basically the same mixture used for adobe bricks (page 157). However, the proportions of ingredients are not as critical. Large amounts of straw added to the mixture will increase the strength of rammed earth walls significantly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only a little water should be added to the earth until it is firm and damp (not muddy).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If a suitable grade of earth can be found, properly damp (after the rainy season), it can be brought directly to the building site and used as-is, or with straw added.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Forms</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most manageable size for the forms is 45cm deep by 2 meters long and 37.5-45cm wide, depending on the wall thickness planned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forms should be closed on 3 sides: the open side is placed against the previous section of wall. There can't be any spreaders or supports inside the form, so the form's strength comes from battens on the outside held in place with iron straps at the top and flat iron bars at the bottom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two special forms should be built for corner sections with alternate long and short sides. These "corner" forms are held together with interlocking iron pins in addition to the strapped battens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Procedure</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rammed earth is not very easy to mold or shape once in place, so planning beforehand is essential.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First, mount the formwork on the foundation wall, using iron straps or wire around the battens. Check the form for level and plumb.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Place 10cm of earth in the form and pack it down solidly with a small rod about 4cm in diameter. Use quick, short strokes. The corners must be especially wellpacked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As much as possible, avoid shaking or vibrating the wall since this tends to loosen the earth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Add more earth and ram it down until there is a firmly packed layer 30cm deep. Scrape lines about {cm deep in the top surface to give the section some additional "grip".</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p170.png"></center><br>
+ Forms and procedure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wait at least an hour before removing the form and starting a new section above the first.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the earth on top of an old layer has become dry, sprinkle it lightly to dampen it before putting new earth on top of it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Overlap the corners by alternating short and long legs. This will greatly increase the strength of the walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rammed earth walls can be reinforced. Run a steel band around the entire building just above the door and window level. A second band can be run just below the roof if desired.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To guide the steel band around corners, drive pegs about 20cm long into the rammed earth before removing the form.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Framing windows and doors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Windows and doors are framed according to the same basic procedure followed with adobe brick walls (see pages 164-165). Use wooden sills and lintels about 5cm thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First, place the sill in the proper place and press it into the top of the damp earth. Check for level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Next, place the frame, including the combination head-lintel on the sill, and brace it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then place forms on either side of the frame and build the walls up on both sides, checking the frame frequently for plumb.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, before building above the lintel, support it with a temporary brace.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p171.png"></center><br>
+ Reverse mold for each course</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Roof preparation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To mount a wood wall plate on the top of a rammed earth wall, place steel rods in the wall about I-1 meter below the top of the wall. Then wrap iron straps around the wall plate and fasten both ends of each strap to the steel rods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p172a.png"></center><br>
+ Roof preparation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Construction of roofs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a good idea to coat all wood and bamboo roof materials with an anti-termite solution-such as carbonyl, Xylophene, or Creosote.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In areas with very strong winds or storms, it may be advisable to have an experienced local contractor check the roof plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Flat roofs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To build a flat roof, simply follow the steps below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Place the beams across the top of the walls every I-1 meter and lash them securely to the wall-plate with iron straps or staples. Avoid nails through the beams since they may split the wood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> On the ground, construct the purlins out of sections of 5cm x 10cm wood. Purlin sections should be spliced together, as shown, with the longer piece over the shorter piece. Take care that splices will not be directly over a beam once the purlin is in place. Each completed purlin should be lifted into place and lashed with iron straps to each beam.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Finally, the roof covering should be attached to the purling. Follow local custom when using materials such as thatch, mud, or tile. Avoid corrugated metal for flat roofs: the metal sheets make buildings very uncomfortable in hot climates and tend to rip off easily in wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p172b.png"></center><br>
+ Flat roofs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p173a.png"></center><br>
+ The longer piece over the shorter piece</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Shed roofs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simple, beam-supported shed roofs for buildings where one wall is built higher than the other are constructed according to the same procedure for flat roofs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p173b.png"></center><br>
+ One wall is higher</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For truss-supported shed roofs, follow these steps:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 1. Place beams across the top of the walls as for flat roofs. However, these beams may be further apart, up to 1.3-1.4 meters, depending on the roof dovering to be used (closer for heavier materials, further for lighter materials). The beams must be as long as the distance between the two walls they will rest on + the overhang planned on each alto.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 2. On the ground, measure and mark off the outline of the truss.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 3. Cut and loosely assemble all the wood sections needed for one truss: the rafter, plus 4 struts. Put stakes firmly in the ground to hold those places in .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p174.png"></center><br>
+ Steep 1,2,3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 4. Fasten the pieces of the truss together, either by bolting or nailing them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whether bolts or nails are used as fasteners, the joints may be made either by overlapping pieces; or, by using single or double plates (separate pieces of wood) to hold the truss members together; or, by splicing. When splicing, use iron straps to reinforce the joint further.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p175.png"></center><br>
+ Double plates</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until a truss has been built for each beam in the roof.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 6. To position the trusses and attach purlins and roof material, follow the instructions for gable roofs below.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Gable roofs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To construct a gable roof, follow the steps below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 1. With a tape measure, mark off the outline of the truss -- the distance from the rafters to the tie beam, from the struts to the tie beam, and so on -- on the ground. Loosely organize the pieces for the first truss along the lines marked and hammer stakes in the ground to hold each member in place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 2. Check the measurements of the pieces on the ground against the plans and make any needed adjustments; then make sure the stakes are firmly in the ground and won't move.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 3. Assemble the truss with permanent connections as for shed roof trusses using the connections indicated on page 175.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 4. As each truss is assembled, put it up by pushing it over the wall flat, and then raising the point of the truss with a long pole. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 5. Put the end trusses first, bracing them from the ground. Then run a string from apex to apex and align the other trusses with the string.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p176.png"></center><br>
+ Gable roof with end walls as truss supports</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 6. Hold the trusses in place with temporary purlins nailed to each one. Then tie the rafters down to the wall plate with bolts or iron straps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p177a.png"></center><br>
+ Iron strap</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 7. Next, construct the purlins on the ground, rather than on the roof. Stagger the joints in the purlins to avoid sagging in one section of the roof. Be sure that no joints are placed directly over a truss beam: too many nails will split the lumber of the truss.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p177b.png"></center><br>
+ Purlin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 8. Attach the purlins to the trusses, starting 20cm from the top of each one. The position of each purlin should be marked in advance by running a string from end-truss to end-truss and placing a nail at the purlin-point on each truss (the nail will keep the purlins from sliding until they have been attached by bolts or iron straps).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p177c.png"></center><br>
+ Effective length of sheet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For local roof-covering materials such as tile, mud, or thatch, space the purlins according to local practice. For sheet metal, use the following formula:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where x = Space between purling,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">y = Length of metal sheets, and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10cm = the length each sheet will overlap the one beneath It</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">X = [Y - 10cm]/2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Example: If 200cm sheeting will be used, the formula would then yield: 200cm - 10cm ÷ 2 = 190cm ÷ 2 = 95cm between each purlin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p178.png"></center><br>
+ Crown</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 9. Attach the roof-covering material. Again, follow local practice for local materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corrugated sheets should be attached with specially galvanized large-headed nails through the tops of the curves, not in the valleys, of each sheet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nail the sheets through alternate rises wherever the sheets overlap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nail them every third rise in the middle of the sheets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The nailing should begin at the bottom of the end of the roof farthest from the prevailing wind to minimize wind and rain that will blow between the sheets. For example, if the winds come mostly from the east, begin at the lowest part of the western end of the building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stagger corrugated metal covering so that each row of sheets covers the joints of the row beneath. Take care also to stagger the nails so they do not form a straight line along any purlin. Such a straight line might split the purlin underneath.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Patch any small holes in the metal with "Masticon" or a gummed metal tape called "Flashband".</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 10. Build a crown to cover the top of the roof by cutting metal sheets lengthwise into 3 parts, pounding each part flat, bending it over the ridge of the roof, and nailing it to the metal sheets and purling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p179.png"></center><br>
+ Build a crown to cover</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Construction with bamboo</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BAMBOO</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bamboo is an excellent building material for several reasons:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> it has a very high strength-to-weight ratio -- very sturdy for such a light-weight material;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> it is easily handled, with little waste and no bark to remove;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> it adapts to a variety of uses; a few bamboo plants in the backyard will provide enough bamboo for a fence, a pigpen, extra rooms, or a house;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> after construction, bamboo can be used for other income-generating crafts such as baskets, mats, and so on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About the only parts of a building that cannot be made from bamboo are fireplaces and chimneys. However, bamboo is rarely used as the only construction material for a whole building. Usually it is combined with other materials: wood, clay, lime, cement, iron, palm leaves, thatch, and so on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many bamboo species. They differ in thickness, strength, flexibility, and resistance to insects and decay. Each is useful in only a few parts of a building. For example, a species that makes good supporting columns cannot be used to make screen matting for a window. The general characteristics of different species are discussed below. But when in doubt about a specific bamboo supply, the best thing to do is check local practice and/or seek advice from a local contractor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p182.png"></center><br>
+ Uneven dimensions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To balance its advantages, bamboo has many drawbacks as a construction material:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Uneven Dimensions. It is usually necessary to have a large supply in order to weed out pieces that are too thin, too crooked, broken, or otherwise useless.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Uneven surfaces. Variations in the diameter of the shaft (called a culm), in the prominence of the nodes, and in the rate of tapering at the end of the culm all make certain applications difficult. On the other hand, long culms can often be cut up and the tips used for one purpose while the shafts are used for another.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Brittleness. In almost all cases bamboo cannot be nailed. Most bonds are made with wire or hemp lashings. A few thick-walled species can be bored to insert pegs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Low durability. Bamboo is susceptible to insects (especially beetles and termites) and to rot. Both insect decay and rot can be chemically retarded, and some species are more resistant than others. But even in the best cases, bamboo cannot last much more than 5 years in weight-bearing parts of a building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p183a.png"></center><br>
+ Wire/hemp lashing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bamboo for foundations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bamboo is basically an above-ground material. Unless it is treated with a preservative, it will last only 2-3 years underground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, bamboo will serve as a supporting post: for a house on stilts, for example. Use the largest diameter culms (at least 1220cm) with closely spaced nodes for stiffness. If only smaller shafts are available, they can be bound into columns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p183b.png"></center><br>
+ Bamboo for foundations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bamboo for frames</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In earthquake areas, bamboo's flexibility makes it a good choice for construction of a frame for floors, walls, and roofs. Such a frame may then be finished by weaving bamboo to form the solid parts of the building, or by using other materials such as clay, mud, or thatch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use only whole culms. Cut off and discard the upper, tapered ends of each culm so that all shafts used will have uniform thickness and strength.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The design of a bamboo frame is simple:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Begin with corner posts firmly planted in the corners set out at the site. Next, attach joists (horizontal culms that will support the floor and roof). Then attach studs (vertical culms that will form the wall frame).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p184a.png"></center><br>
+ Attach studs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since bamboo cannot be cut to make perfectly measured joints, the shafts must be lashed with vines, bark' or wire. The only cut that can be made is a notch or cradle-like cut that can be used at the upper end of posts to support a horizontal piece.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p184b.png"></center><br>
+ Cradle cut</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bamboo for floors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The culm of certain species can be split open and flattened out, making a "board". Among other uses, these boards can be laid directly on a hard earth surface to make a floor. Clay is the best soil for this purpose. It should be evenly graded (for proper drainage) before the boards are pounded into place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p185a.png"></center><br>
+ Bamboo boards made by splitting large culm as shown</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another type of bamboo floor is raised 1.5-2 meters so that the space underneath may be used for storage of equipment or animals. Thick culms are used as column supports; thinner culms are flattened for the floor; and woven mats are used as floor covering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p185b.png"></center><br>
+ Another type of bamboo floor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bamboo for walls</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are two common ways to use bamboo for walls:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Wide bamboo shafts are lashed horizontally to both sides of vertical hardwood posts. Occasionally thick bamboo posts are used instead of hardwood posts. The spaces between the bamboo shafts may be filled with mud, mud and stones, thatch, or more bamboo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p186a.png"></center><br>
+ The spaces between the bamboo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Sprung Strip Construction. Vertical bamboo shafts are woven around three horizontal poles. The frame is then covered with plaster on one or both sides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p186b.png"></center><br>
+ The frame is covered with plaster</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Partitions may be made exactly as walls are but with lighter, portable frames. Use the lightest species available. Crack and flatten the shafts; then weave them into mats that can be suspended.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bamboo for doors and windows</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For practical reasons, doors and windows are kept to a minimum in bamboo housing. Doors tend to be made of:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> wood; or,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> bamboo matting woven on a bamboo frame; or,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> bamboo "bars" put up in a gate-like fashion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p187a.png"></center><br>
+ Bamboo for doors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Windows are usually unscreened and covered with bamboo matting or a palm leaf. They can also be made out of a row of shafts tightly pressed and bound together by pieces of wood: this kind of window, when raised, acts as a shade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p187b.png"></center><br>
+ Bamboo for windows</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bamboo for roofs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bamboo is used for the frame of the roof. The roof covering can be of several materials:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> grass thatch;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> corrugated metal or asbestos;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> tile;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> bamboo tiles made from halved culms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></DIR>
+
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bamboo reinforcement of concrete</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bamboo can be used to increase the strength of concrete by 2 to 3 times. To be effective, the shafts must be "seasoned" - dried out and shrunk for a month or more and then split in half.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The placement of the shafts is the same as the placement of iron reinforcement rods (see the section on reinforcing concrete, page 137).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preservation of bamboo</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following simple steps will lengthen the useful life of bamboo:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Cut the shafts at the base and store them upright in clumps in a dry, sheltered place. Never store bamboo out in the open or expose it to rain or dampness: it may rot or be eaten by insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Dust the ends of each shaft with a mixture of 1:20 DDT to talc (or other, safer insecticides where available and effective).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Use pegs to keep the ends off the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> After 4-8 weeks of drying, trim all twigs and leaves off the shafts and dust the newly cut surfaces.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></DIR>
+
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Latrines</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latrines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latrines are vital for community health. They keep local water used for drinking or growing crops free from diseases spread through human feces; and they discourage transmission of diseases by flies that breed in excrement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many areas, community acceptance of latrines as an integral part of any home, school, or clinic project may be more important than any other construction ideas in this manual.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basically, a latrine consists of: a pit dug in the ground for the storage of excrement; a base built over the nit with a small hole in it so that a person can stand over the pit; and a shelter to provide privacy, protect against weather, and to keep flies from breeding in the pit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p190a.png"></center><br>
+ Latrines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Location of latrines</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two principal requirements should govern the choice of a latrine's location:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* It should be close enough to the school, clinic, or home to be reached easily; but far enough away to keep the main building free of odors and potential contamination. 30 meters is the distance recommended by many experts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* It should be situated so that it will not contaminate ground or surface water that may enter springs, wells, or fields. Satisfying this requirement can sometimes be complex.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p190b.png"></center><br>
+ Location of latrines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most important considerations to keep in mind are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the latrine should be high enough so it will not be flooded during the rainy season;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the latrine should be downhill from any nearby wells or springs; if this is impossible - of if the land is flat - the latrine must be at least 15 meters away from wells or springs (7.5 meters in sandy soil);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> in regions with fissured rocks or limestone foundations (which can carry pollution great distances), get expert advice!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Pit</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the chosen location, begin by digging a pit, either round or square, about 1 meter across, and from 1-3 meters deep. The table below shows recommended depths for a latrine for a family of 5. The same depths may be used for latrines in public buildings such as schools or clinics provided there will be 1 latrine for every 15 people who use the building regularly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the table, "wet pit type" refers to pits which penetrate the water table in the ground and are constantly wet. "Dry pit type" refers to pits that are 3 meters or more above the highest underground water level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the soil is soft and tends to cave in during the digging, line the pit with stone, brick, wood, or bamboo to keep the sides of the pit strong. Even when the soil is firm, it's a good idea to line the upper few feet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p191.png"></center><br>
+ Recommended depths for holes with 1 square meter area</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Base</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The base is essentially a foundation for the floor. It also helps to prevent hookworm larvae and burrowing rodents from entering the pit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best materials for the base are concrete from a 1:2:3 mixture, or stabilized earth with 5-6% cement content. Heavy hewn logs treated for insect resistance may also be used as shown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p192a.png"></center><br>
+ Base</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Floor</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following construction of the base, a mound of hard-packed earth or dry fill should be built up until it is level with the top of the base (at least 15cm above ground level), and it covers the floor area planned for the shelter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Above this mound must be placed a floor with a built-in hole about 40cm long and 12-18cm wide. Do not make the hole wider than 18cm or children may fall through it!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The shape of the hole can vary according to local preference. Two common shapes are shown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p192b.png"></center><br>
+ Shapes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The floor may be built of several materials. Reinforced concrete is best. Build a form about 100cm x 100cm and 6cm deep. Then cut a piece of wood 6cm high and the size and shape of the hole desired. This piece will act as the mold for the hole in the concrete slab. If you slope its sides slightly instead of making them straight up and down, it will be easier to remove from the concrete after the concrete has set.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Place the wood piece inside the 100cm x 100cm form where you want the hole to be. Then place reinforcement rods (bamboo or iron) in a grid across the formwork.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mix, pour and cure the concrete as you would for any concrete floor (see pages 154-156), After curing, place the concrete slab over the mound and base so that the hole is centered over the pit opening.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p193a.png"></center><br>
+ Place the wood piece</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other materials appropriate for building latrine floors include reinforced brick mortar, wood, and logs with earth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It may be desirable to add raised foot rests, approximately 30cm long and 10cm wide as shown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, a simple wood cover can greatly reduce odors and keep flies away from the pit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p193b.png"></center><br>
+ Other materials appropriate for building latrine floors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Shelter</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The latrine shelter serves several purposes:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> protection from wind and rain;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> privacy;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> protection of the pit from direct light (darkness keeps flies and other disease-carrying insects and rodents from breeding in the pit).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general, the shelter should be about 1 meter wide, 1.5 meters long, and 1.5 meters high.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It should have a shed roof with a large overhang [about 60l00cm). The roof should be 10-15cm above the walls for ventilation to diffuse any odors which might build up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If acceptable socially, it is beat to cut all vegetation within 2 meters of the shelter, especially if food is grown nearby. This will prevent contamination of the ground surface resulting from any possible misuse of the latrine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The illustrations above show two types of latrine shelter. The actual construction of latrine shelters follows the normal procedures for any building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One final note: The latrine design described in this manual is only one of the many possible designs. See the sources listed in the bibliography (page 227) for information on other designs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p194.png"></center><br>
+ Shelter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Construction in earthquake areas</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Construction in earthquake areas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In areas where earthquakes or tremors are likely, there are a number of ways to reduce the danger of structural damage and to increase the safety of those who use a building. Special care should be taken in:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the selection and preparation of the site and the building position;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the selection of building materials;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the use of special techniques for reinforcing foundations, floors, walls, and roofs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></DIR>
+
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Selection and preparation of the site</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the simplest precautions against earthquake destruction is to choose a site as far as possible from the fault line. The fault line is the line along which two blocks of earth meet and slide against each other. Earthquakes occur when two such blocks of earth move suddenly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In areas where a serious earthquake has occurred recently, people near the fault line will know where it is. Fault lines may also be found by looking for places where geological formations such as dry river beds or veins of rock appear to have suddenly split and shifted. The location of such shifts will be on the fault line.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p196.png"></center><br>
+ Selection and preparation of the site</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other suggestions for the selection of a site in earthquake areas include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Flat terrain is best; avoid sharply sloping ground if possible; ground slippage occurs most often on hills.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- If the land has some slope to it, level the entire site around the building so that the foundation and walls are the same height throughout. Stepped foundations and walls of unequal height are less stable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Do not build on "filled-in" earth: it can't be as stable as ground that has settled naturally over time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Align the building so that its length is parallel to the nearest fault line. This will help the structure go "with" and not "against" a tremor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Choose a site as far from other buildings as possible. The minimum distance between 1story structures should be equal to their height.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- If a new building must be built less than the minimum distance from another building, any separation is better than none. Never interconnect the walls of two buildings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Use rectangular or circular shapes for buildings in earthquake areas. Avoid "L-shaped" buildings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p197.png"></center><br>
+ Foundation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p198.png"></center><br>
+ Any separation is better than none</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Selection of building materials</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Generally, the safest materials in earthquake areas are the lightest and most flexible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In foundations concrete footings reinforced with iron or bamboo, and concrete or block foundation walls are good. Avoid rock foundation walls because the large amounts of mortar used to bind the rocks are easily weakened in earthquakes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For walls, where climate permits, bamboo and wood are the best because their flexibility keeps them from cracking or collapsing, and because they are less dangerous if they do fall. Walls made from bricks or blocks of any material are fine but should be made as light and as thin as possible. Rammed earth walls and rock walls are unstable and dangerous in earthquakes: they should be avoided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roofe are safest when made of bamboos and grasses (thatch). Woodbeam supported roofs are also fine, provided the material they support is light, such as shingles or corrugated metal. Adobe and tile roofs should be avoided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Reinforcement of buildings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many ways of reinforcing buildings to resist earthquakes. The most important and least expensive techniques are listed here. But if earthquakes are a major problem in the local area, the field worker or community should consult experienced local contractors for advice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All of the techniques listed here can help save a building in an earthquake, whether they are used alone or in any combination. They cannot guarantee that a building will survive a severe earthquake intact. But even in the worst case, they will give people more time to get outside safely, before the building collapses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To strengthen foundations and floors, reinforce them with bamboo or iron rods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To strengthen walls:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> place windows and doors on opposite walls;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> place inside doors as close to the middle of interior walls as possible;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> place timber posts at the ends of interior walls (see the section on window and door frames, page 96, for details of construction);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p199a.png"></center><br>
+ Post</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> mount exterior doors so they open to the outside (this permits faster escape during a quake);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> allow at least 1 meter of wall space between openings and corners;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p199b.png"></center><br>
+ Mount exterior doors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> connect all walls with interlocking wooden beams at the tops of the walls, and preferably at the floor and lintel levels too;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> reinforce wooden frame walls with cross-supports;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p200a.png"></center><br>
+ Wooden cross supports</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> use a 'tight" bond between brick or block courses; too much mortar will weaken the wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p200b.png"></center><br>
+ No use too much mortar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendices</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Calculations to check whether a proposed site will support a building</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If there is doubt whether the soil at a proposed site will support a building (see page 18) it may be necessary to estimate both the weight of the planned building and the weight-bearing capacity of the soil. This section contains step-by-step directions and tables for both these estimates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IMPORTANT NOTE: The weight of a planned building cannot be estimated until the builders have decided:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> its size and shape;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> what its walls will be made of and how thick they will be;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> what kind of roof it will have.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CALCULATING A BUILDING'S WEIGHT PER SQUARE METER</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several calculations must be made to estimate a building's weight per square meter. For the purposes of estimation, figure that:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Equation 1.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weight per square meter = [ weight of longest wall (kg) + weight of roof supported by longest wall (kg) ] / length of longest wall (m) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To find the weight per square meter, therefore, the planner first needs to determine each of the three items on the right side of Equation 1. Follow these steps:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 1. Enter the planned length of the longest wall in Equation 1:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Equation 1.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image597.gif" WIDTH=680 HEIGHT=45></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 2. Calculate the weight of the longest wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Equation 1.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image598.gif" WIDTH=669 HEIGHT=45></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) Use the following equation to determine the weight of the longest wall:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Equation 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image599.gif" WIDTH=617 HEIGHT=21></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> (b) Use Table A to find the weight per sq. meter for every centimeter of wall thickness of the material with which the building's walls will be built.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=424>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">Table A</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">wall material</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">kg/sq. meter per centimeter wall thickness</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">concrete block</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">stabilized earth</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">125</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">sand-cement block</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">75</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">adobe</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">125</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">stone/rock</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">150</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(c) Multiply the number you find in Table A by the thickness of the building's walls. The result will </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">be the weight of 1 sq. meter of wall; enter it in the correct place in Equation 2:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Equation 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image600.gif" WIDTH=617 HEIGHT=21></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> (d) Next, multiply the length of the longest wall in meters by its height. The answer will be the number of sq. meters in the wall. Enter this figure in the correct place in Equation </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Equation 2 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image601.gif" WIDTH=617 HEIGHT=21></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(e) Compute the weight of the longest wall based on the figures you have entered in Equation 2 in steps 2(c) and 2(d).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 3. Estimate the weight of the roof supported by the longest wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Equation 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image602.gif" WIDTH=670 HEIGHT=45></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) Use the following equation to estimate the weight of the roof supported by the longest wall:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Equation3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image603.gif" WIDTH=678 HEIGHT=21></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b) Use Table 8 to find the estimated weight of the roof per sq. meter. If you are in doubt about the roof-style planned, use the figure on the table for flat roofs. Enter the figure you find in Table B in Equation 3:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=232>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">Table B</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roof style</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="63%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roof load per sq. m</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">pitched</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="63%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">170 kg</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">flat</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="63%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">190 kg  </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Equation 3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weight of roof supported by longest wall = weight of roof per sq. meter × number of sq. meters in roof </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(c) Next, multiply the length of the roof by its width. If the roof has not been planned yet, assume that it will be 1 meter longer and 1 meter wider than the building. The answer will be the number of square meters in the roof. Enter this figure in the correct place in Equation 3:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Equation 3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image604.gif" WIDTH=678 HEIGHT=21></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(d) Compute the weight of roof supported by the longest wall using the figures you have entered in Equation 3 in steps 3(b) and 3(c).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 4. Enter the figures you calculated in steps 1, ate), and 3(c) in Equation 1, and calculate the weight of the building per square meter:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Equation 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image605.gif" WIDTH=818 HEIGHT=45></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 5. Finally, compare the building's weight per square meter with the weight - bearing capacity of the soil at the site indicated in Table C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=464>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">Table C</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Type of soil</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weight-bearing capacity (kg/sq.m)</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soft, black, drained marsh, or "fill"</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4,900 - 10,000</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gravel, sand</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">29,400</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hard - packed clay</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">58,800</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rock</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">156,000 </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p206.png"></center><br>
+ Weight per square meter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAMPLE CALCULATION OF A BUILDING'S WEIGHT PER SQUARE METER</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here is a step-by-step sample of how the weight of a building would be estimated, following the procedure outlined on pages 202-205.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assume that the building pictured above is planned to be 7.5 meters long and 2.4 meters high along its longest wall; assume also that the walls will be made of 20cm thick sand-cement blocks, and that the roof will be 8.7 meters long and 3 meters wide, with a pitched design. If the site selected for the building is soft, dark soil that can support 4,900 kg/sq. meter, can the building be constructed as planned?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are the calculations:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Equation 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weight per square meter = [ weight of longest wall (kg) + weight of roof supported by longest wall (kg) ] / length of longest wall  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 1. Enter the length of the longest wall in Equation 1:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Equation 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image606.gif" WIDTH=670 HEIGHT=41></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 2. Calculate the weight of the longest wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) Use Equation 2:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image607.gif" WIDTH=617 HEIGHT=21></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b) Use Table A, page 203, to find the wall's weight per square meter for every centimeter of wall thickness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The building's walls will be made of sand-cement blocks which Table A says weigh 75 kg/aq. meter for every centimeter of wall thickness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(c) Multiply the figure you find in Table A by the thickness of the building's walls. The result will be the weight of 1 square meter of wall. Enter this answer in the correct place in Equation 2.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sand-cement blocks that will be used will be 20cm thick. So a wall made of these blocks will weigh 75 kg/sq. meter x 20cm thick = 1500 kg/square meter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entering this answer in Equation 2:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image608.gif" WIDTH=552 HEIGHT=21></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(d) Multiply the length of the longest wall in meters by its height and enter the result in the correct place in Equation 2.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The longest wall of the building will be 7.5 meters long and 2.4 meters high. 7.5 x 2.4 = 18 square meters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entering this answer in Equation 2:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image609.gif" WIDTH=408 HEIGHT=21></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(e) Compute the weight of the longest wall based on the figures you have entered in Equation 2 in steps 2(c) and 2(d).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1500 kg/sq. meter x 18 sq. meters = 27,000 kg. Entering this result in Equation 1:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image610.gif" WIDTH=562 HEIGHT=41></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 3. Estimate the weight of the roof supported by the longest wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) Use Equation 3:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Equation 3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image611.gif" WIDTH=660 HEIGHT=21></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b) Use Table B. page 204, to find the estimated weight of the roof per square meter. Enter this figure in the correct place in Equation 3.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The roof is planned with a pitched roof that Table B says will weigh about 170 kg/sq. meter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entering this answer in Equation 3:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image612.gif" WIDTH=596 HEIGHT=21></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(c) Multiply the length of the roof by its height to find the number of square meters of roof space planned. Enter this figure In the correct place in Equation 3.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The roof is planned to be 3 meters wide and 8.7 meters long. am x 8.7m = 26.1 square meters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entering this answer in Equation 3:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image613.gif" WIDTH=550 HEIGHT=21></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(d) Compute the weight of roof supported by the longest wall using the figures you have entered in Equation 3 in steps 3(b) and 3(c).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">170 kg/sq. meter x 26.1 sq. meters = 4,437 kg. Entering this result in Equation 1:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image614.gif" WIDTH=329 HEIGHT=41></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 4. Calculate the weight of the building per square meter, using the figures you calculated in steps 1, 2(e), and 3(c) and Equation 1.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image615.gif" WIDTH=386 HEIGHT=41></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The building will weigh approximately 4,191 kg/sq. meter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 5. Compare the building's estimated weight/square meter with the weight-bearing capacity of the soil at the site. Use Table C, page 205.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to Table C, the weight-bearing capacity of the soft, dark soil at this site is 4,900 kg/sq. meter. Since this building will weigh only 4,191 kg/sq. meter, the building can be built safely at this site.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To determine whether the soil at any proposed site will support a planned building, all the builder needs to do is substitute the figures for his/her building and site in the step-by-step equations on pages 202-205, as shown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Step-by-step directions for drawing foundation plans</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two kinds of drawings are important aids to help the field worker and community members visualize their foundation plans and check their progress during construction:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> a cross-section view of the footing and foundation wall; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> a view from above of the footing and foundation wall measurements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a community group is ready to begin construction of the foundation, it's a good idea to help them build a small demonstration section of footing and foundation wall that they can use along with these drawings to check their progress. The demonstration section will help everyone see what they have planned to do; at the same time, it will give them practice in the construction techniques and skills they must use on the actual foundation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DRAWING A CROSS-SECTION VIEW OF THE FOUNDATION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Drawing a cross-section view of the foundation is simple. Here are examples of a cross-section for a rock foundation and for a block foundation wall. Both drawings show concrete footings as well:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p210.png"></center><br>
+ Rock foundation wall</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DRAWING FOOTING AND FOUNDATION MEASUREMENTS (VIEW FROM ABOVE)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Drawing the foundation measurements as they would look from above is also simple.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are step-by-step instructions for drawing the foundation measurements of a sample building:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Draw a solid line representing the outside dimensions of the walls of the building, This line will also represent the outside dimensions of the foundation wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p211a.png"></center><br>
+ Outside wall</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Draw a second solid line inside the first one to represent the inside dimensions of the building's walls. This line will also represent the inside dimensions of the foundation wall. The space between the two lines should be exactly the width of the planned walls to scale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p211b.png"></center><br>
+ The space between the two lines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Subtract the width of the wall from the planned width of the foundation footing. Divide the remainder in two and convert the answer into the scale dimension being used in the drawing. This figure represents the distance between the inner side of the wall and the inner side of the foundation footing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Draw a dotted line inside the drawing of the walls. This line represents the inner dimension of the footing. The space between it and the inside solid line (step #2) should be exactly the distance calculated in step #3.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p212a.png"></center><br>
+ Inside edge of footing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Draw a dotted line outside the drawing of the walls. This line represents the outer dimension of the footing. The space between it and the outside solid line (step #1) should be exactly the distance calculated in step #3.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p212b.png"></center><br>
+ With of footing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. On either side of the drawing's length, add a solid line exactly as long as the longest wall (that is, the longest outer solid line).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. On either side of the drawing's width, add a solid line exactly as long as the longest wall (that is, the longest outer solid line).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p213a.png"></center><br>
+ Length and weight</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Place a mark along each line from steps #6-7 wherever the outer wall turns a corner. Indicate the actual length of each straight section of wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p213b.png"></center><br>
+ Place a mark along each line</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Outside the lines drawn in steps #6-7, draw two more solid lines exactly as long as the length and width of the outer dotted line. Mark these lines to indicate the actual length of each straight section of foundation footing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Underneath the completed drawing, write down what the footing and foundation wall will be made of and their cross-section dimensions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. The completed drawing is an actual scale drawing showing the trenches that must be dug for the footing and the dimensions of the foundation walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p214.png"></center><br>
+ Complet foundation plans</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Estimating the amount of concrete needed for a floor</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To estimate the amount of concrete needed for a floor, use the following equation and table:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Equation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image616.gif" WIDTH=657 HEIGHT=21></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table. SUGGESTED THICKNESS OF CONCRETE FLOORS</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=328>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="66%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Purpose of Floor</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thickness (m)</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="66%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">School, Clinic, House</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.100</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="66%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Garage (for vehicles)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.125</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="66%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farm storage (heavy equipment)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.150</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 1. Find the thickness of the concrete layer that should be used for your building in the table, Enter this figure in the Equation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 2, Multiply the length of your building by its width to find out what floor space it will have. Enter this figure in the Equation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image617.gif" WIDTH=657 HEIGHT=21></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 2. Multiply the length of your building by its width to find out what floor space it will have. Enter this figure in the Equation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cubic meters of concrete needed for floor = thickness of concrete layer (m) x floor area (sq. meters)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p215.png"></center><br>
+ Figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In cases where the building will not be a simple rectangle, the total floor area can be determined by multiplying the length and width of each separate room and then adding the areas of all rooms together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sample Calculation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=325>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Floor area Room 1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 2m x 2.0m</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 4.0 sq. m </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Floor area Room 2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1m x 1.5m</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1.5 sq. m </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Floor area Room 3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1m x 1.0m</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1.0 sq. m </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Floor Area</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 6.5 sq. m</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In round buildings, the floor area will be the radius of the building squared times 3.14. The radius is the distance from the outside of a circle to its center.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sample Calculation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=320>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Floor Area</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="73%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= Radius (2m) x Radius (2m) x 3.14</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="73%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 4 sq. meters x 3.14</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="73%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 12.56 sq. meters</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p216.png"></center><br>
+ Calculation area</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 3. Enter the answers you found in steps 1 and 2 in the Equation and multiply them. The answer will represent the number of cubic meters of concrete that must be purchased or made for the floor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sample Calculation (using figures for round clinic shown above)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cubic meters of concrete needed for floor</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= thickness of concrete layer (m) × floor area (sq. meters )</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= .10m x 12.56 sq. meters</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1.256 cubic meters</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Estimating materials needed to build walls</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section gives step-by-step directions for calculating the materials needed to build three types of wall: poured concrete, rammed earth, and brick/block.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POURED CONCRETE AND RAMMED EARTH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To determine how much poured concrete or rammed earth he/she needs, the builder must calculate how many cubic meters of material it will take to "fill" the wall space.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use the following equation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Equation .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cubic meters of  material needed for one wall = thickness of wall (meters) × wall area (sq. meters)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p217.png"></center><br>
+ Poured concrete / rammed earth form </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 1. Decide how thick the wall will be (see page 34 for a discussion of what to consider when planning wall thickness}. Enter this figure in the correct part of the equation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 2. Calculate the wall area in square meters by multiplying the wall's length by its width.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 3. Multiply the answers you found in steps 1 and 2. The result will be the cubic meters of concrete or rammed earth you will need to build that one wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 4. Repeat steps 1 through 3 for each wall of the building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 5. Add the cubic meters of concrete or rammed earth needed for all the walls of the building. The result will be the total number of cubic meters of concrete or rammed earth you will need for the building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calculating Bags of Cement Needed for a Concrete Wall</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Builders who plan to purchase the cement for their concrete need to know how many sacks or bags of cement to buy. Once you have determined how many cubic meters of concrete you will need, finding the number of bags of cement is easy: just look the answer up in Table 3, in Appendix 4 (page 222). To use the table, first, find the concrete mixture you plan to use. In the case of walls, the mixture would be 1:2 3/4 :4 The table will then tell you how many cubic meters of concrete you will get from one sack of cement. Divide the number of cubic meters of concrete you plan to use by the amount you would get from one sack. The answer will be the number of sacks of cement you need to purchase.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calculating Wheelbarrowsful of Rammed Earth or Concrete Needed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many builders want to know how many wheelbarrows full of concrete or rammed earth they must bring to the construction site for wall construction: this information gives them an idea of how much work will be involved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of wheelbarrowsful needed can be estimated by following these steps:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Build a form exactly 1 cubic meter in size and count how many wheelbarrowsful of rammed earth or concrete it takes to fill the form.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Multiply this number by the total cubic meters of material that are needed for construction (from Step 5, page 216). Your answer will tell you how many wheelbarrowsful are needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BLOCK AND BRICK WALLS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To estimate the number of blocks or bricks needed to build a wall, follow these steps:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 1. Calculate the wall area in square meters by multiplying the wall's length by its width.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 2. Note down the nominal size of the block face. The nominal face of a block is the height and length of the block surface visible in the wall after the block is laid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p218.png"></center><br>
+ Block and brick walls</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 3. Use the table below to find how many blocks or bricks of the size you plan to use are needed to build 1 square meter of wall surface.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF BLOCKS OR BRICKS REQUIRED TO BUILLD 1 SQUARE METER WALL SURFACE</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=437>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">Nominal Size of Face (cm)</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="57%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">Number of Blocks or Bricks Needed</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">7,5 x 20</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="57%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">65</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">10.0 x 30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="57%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">32,5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">13.25 x 30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="57%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">25</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">15,0 x 30 </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="57%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">22</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">20,0 x 30 </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="57%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">16,5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">15,0 x 40 </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="57%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">16,5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">20.0 x 40 </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="57%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">12,5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">15,0 x 60 </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="57%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">11</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 4. Multiply the number you found in the table by the number of square meters of wall surface you found in step 1, The result will be the approximative number of blocks or bricks needed to build the wall,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sample Calculation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How many blocks would it take to build a wall with 17 square meters surface area using blocks with a nominal face 15cm x 30cm?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The table shows that 22 15cm x 30cm blocks are needed to build 1 square meter of wall area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">17 sq. meters x 22 blocks/sq. meter = 374 blocks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP 5. Repeat steps 1 through 4 for each wall of the building and add the results. The total will represent the number of blocks or bricks you must buy or make for the walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: Any estimate of the number of blocks/bricks needed for a building's walls arrived at through this method will include extra blocks, since the space taken by window and door openings is treated as though it were filled in with blocks. Generally it is a good idea to buy or make these extra blocks. This will give you a margin of error for wasted or broken blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calculating Mortar Quantities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The amount of mortar needed to bond the blocks/bricks for a building depends on the number of blocks/bricks and their size. To calculate the amount of mortar needed for lam thick mortar joints, follow these steps:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Divide the number of blocks needed for the building by 100, For example, if the building requires 1,536 blocks, 1536 . 100 = 15.36.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Use the table below to find the cubic meters of mortar needed to lay 100 blocks. For example, if the nominal size of the blocks used will be 10cm x 20cm x 40cm, .073 cubic meters of mortar would be needed to lay every 100 blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Multiply the answers found in the above steps. For example, if 1,536 blocks of nominal size 10cm x 20cm x 40cm are needed for a building's walls, multiply 15.36 x .073. 15.36 x .073 = 1.12 cubic meters of mortar. Table 7 in Appendix 5 (page 224) may be used to determine how much cement, lime, and sand you will need to make the mortar required for any building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">QUANTITIES OF MORTAR REQUIRED TO LAY 100 BLOCKS/BRICKS (Mortar for Joints 1cm Thick Including 25% Allowance for Waste)</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=413>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">Nominal Size of Blocks/Bricks (cm)</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">Cubic Meters of Mortar</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">10 x 13,25 x 30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">.053</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">15 x 13,25 x 30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">.053</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">20 x 13,25 x 30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">.067</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">10 x 15 x 30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">.065</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">15 x 15 x 30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">.065</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">20 x 15 x 30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">.070</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">10 x 20 x 30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">.061</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">15 x 20 x 30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">.061</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">20 x 20 x 30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">.076</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">10 x 20 x 40</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">.073</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">15 x 20 x 40</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">.073</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">20 x 20 x 40</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">.092</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">25 x 20 x 40</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">.092</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">30 x 20 x 40</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">.092</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">15 x 15 x 60</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">.092</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">20 x 15 x 60</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">.115</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">25 x 15 x 60</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">.115</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">30 x 15 x 60</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">.115</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Reference tables for concrete construction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TABLE 1</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=432>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recommended</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="55%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thickness of Concrete Slabs (cm)</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basement floors for dwellings</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="55%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">10</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porch floors</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="55%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">10-12.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stock barn floors</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="55%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">12.5-15</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry house floors</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="55%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">10</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hog house floors</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="55%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">10</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Milk house floors</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="55%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">10</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Granary floors</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="55%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">12.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Implement shed floors</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="55%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">15</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tile floor bases</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="55%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">6.25</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TABLE 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quantities of Materials Required to Build One Cubic Meter of Concrete (for Aggregates 2.5 Centimeters or Less)</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=557>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mixtures</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barrels of Cement</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cubic Meters of Sand</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cubic Meters of Stone</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1:1œ</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3.56</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.40</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.60</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1:2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3.23</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.36</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.73</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1:2œ</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.90</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.33</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.81</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1:3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.64</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.89</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1Œ:2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3.04</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.43</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.68</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1œ:3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.44</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.42</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.84</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:13/4:2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.75</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.54</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.62</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1 3/4:2œ</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.64</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.51</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.67</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1: 1 3/4:2 3/4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.44</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.47</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.80</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2:3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.24</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.50</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.77</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2:3œ</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.07</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.48</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.83</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2:4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.95</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.44</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.88</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2:5</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.73</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.39</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">97</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 :2Œ:2œ</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.32</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.59</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.65</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 :2Œ:3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.18</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.55</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.74</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 :2Œ:4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.91</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.48</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.86</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2Œ:5</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.68</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.42</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.94</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2œ:3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.11</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.59</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.71</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 :2œ:3œ</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.98</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.56</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.78</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2œ:4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.82</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.51</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.82</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2œ:4Œ</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.82</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.48</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.87</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2œ:5</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.62</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.46</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.91</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2 3/4 ;4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.74</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.54</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.79</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:3:4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.66</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.56</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.75</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:3:5</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.49</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.51</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.84</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:3:6</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.36</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.46</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.92</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TABLE 3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volume of Concrete Construction per Sack of Cement (for Aggregates Not Larger than 2.5 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centimeters) </P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">Concrete Mixtures</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">Cubic Meters of Concrete Per Sack of Cement</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">Concrete Mixtures</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">Cubic Meters of Concrete Per Sack of Cement</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1:1œ</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.07</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2œ:2œ</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.10</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1:2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.08</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2Œ:3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.12</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1:2œ</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.09</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2Œ:4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.13</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1:3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.10</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2Œ:5</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.15</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1Œ:2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.08</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2œ:3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.12</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1œ:3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.10</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2œ:3œ</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.13</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1 3/4:2Œ</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.10</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2œ:4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.14</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1 Ÿ:2Œ</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.10</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2œ:4œ</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.15</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1 3/4:2 3/4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.10</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2œ:5a</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.15</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2:3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.11</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2:3/4:4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.14</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2:3œ</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.12</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:3:4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.14</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2:4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.13</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:3:5</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.17</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2:5</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.14</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:3:6</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.18</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TABLE 4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suitable Mixtures for Various Concrete Construction Projects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=336>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="61%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concrete Mixture</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="61%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Floors</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="61%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. One Course</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1 3/4:4</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="61%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. Heavy Duty, One Course</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1:2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="61%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. Farm Buildings</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2Œ:3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="61%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Foundation Walls and Footings</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2 3/4:4</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="61%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basement Walls</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2Œ:4</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="61%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanks</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2:3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="61%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fence Posts</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:1:1œ</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="61%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Retaining Walls</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2:3œ</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="61%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barnyard Pavements</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:3:5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="61%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lintels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2:4</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="61%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beam Filling</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:3:4</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="61%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Silo Pits</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2Œ:3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="61%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Steps</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1:2Œ:3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TABLE 5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Approximate Number of Bricks Required to  Build 10 Square Meters of Exterior Wall  Surface</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Mortar joints 1.25cm thick)</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wall Thickness (cm)</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="75%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=4>
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">(Nominal) Size of Brick (cm)</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6.5 x 10 x 20</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7.5 x 10 x 20</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10 x 10 x 20</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5.6 x 9.4 x 20</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">730</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">650</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">485</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">665</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1455</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1300</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">970</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1330</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2075</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1950</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1455</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1995</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">40</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2910</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2600</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1940</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2660</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TABLE 6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mortar Required to Lay 1000 Bricks With 1.25cm Mortar Joints (10% Allowance for Waste Included)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOMINAL SIZE OF BRICK: 10cm x 6.5cm x 20cm  10cm x 7.5cm x 20cm 10cm x 10cm x 20m</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALL THICKNESS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=384>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10cm*</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.32 cu. meters</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.33 cu. meters</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.36 cu. meters</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20cm</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.42 cu. meters</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.44 cu. meters</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.50 cu. meters</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30cm**</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.45 cu. meters</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.47 cu. meters</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.55 cu. meters</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Figures for 10cm thick walls include mortar for bed and end Joints only.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Figures for 20cm and 30cm thick walls include bed and end joint mortar plus mortar for the vertical joints needed in double brick walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TABLE 7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials Required To Make 0,10 Cubic Meters of Mortar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mortar Mixtures By Volume 1 part cement</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50kg Sacks of Cement</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">25kg Sacks of Hydrated Lime or Clay Mortar</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Cubic Meters of Sand</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">œ part clay mortar</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9.79</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4.11</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.75</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 parts sand</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 part cement</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Œ part hydrated lime</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7.93</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.33</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.64</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 parts sand</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 part cement</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 part hydrated lime</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4.23</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.89</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.69</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6 parts sand</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 part masonry cement</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8.73</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.68</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 parts sand</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Metric measurements used in this manual and their U.S. equivalents</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LENGTH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 meter (m) = 39.37 inches = 3.28 feet = 1.31 yards</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 centimeter (cm) = 0.01 meters = 0.3937 inches</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 foot = 0.3048 meters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 yard = 0.9144 meters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 inch = 2.54 centimeters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 square meter = 10.76 square feet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(sq. m)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 square foot = 0.3048 sg. Meters = 929 sq. centimeters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VOLUME</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 cubic meter = 1.308 cubic yards</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(cu. m)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 cubic yard = 0.7646 cu. meters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WEIGHT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2046 pounds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 pound = 0.4536 kilograms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Sources of further information</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTE: Wherever possible, the address through which copies of the following sources may be obtained has been listed. Several manuals are unpublished material that may only be found in Peace Corps files. Questions about these materials should be sent to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20525</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BAMBOO:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. McClure, F.A., Bamboo as a Building Material. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Foreign Agriculture Service, 1970. Write to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dept. of Housing and Urban Affairs </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Division of International Affairs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20410 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. United Nations Dept. of Economic and Social Affairs. The Use of Bamboo and Reeds in Building Construction. Publication ST/SOA/113. Refer to sales # E.72.IV.3 and write to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Nations Sales Section</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, New York USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION AND REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Brann, Donald R. Concrete Work Simplified, Revised Edition, Directions Simplified, Inc., 1971. Write to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Directions Simplified, Inc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Easi-Build Pattern Co., Inc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">529 North State Road</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briarcliff Manor, New York 10510 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Dalzell, James Ralph and Gilbert Townsend. Concrete Block Construction for Home and Farm. American Technical Society, Chicago, 1957. Write to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American Technical Society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5608 Stony Island Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicago, Illinois 60637 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Davies, John Duncan. Structural Concrete. MacMillan and Co., New York, 1964. Write to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Riverside, New Jersey 08075 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Gibson, J. Herbert. Concrete Design and Construction. American Technical Society, Chicago, 1951. Write to same address as #4 on page 226.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Putnam, Robert. Concrete Block Construction, 3rd Edition. American Technical Society, Chicago, 1973. Write to same address as #4 on page 226.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Randall, Frank A. Jr. and William C. Panarese. Concrete Masonry Handbook. Portland Cement Association, 1976. Write to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Portland Cement Association</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Old Orchard Road</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Skokie, Illinois 60076 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Waddell, Joseph J. Concrete Construction Handbook, 2nd Edition, McGraw Hill Co., New York, 1974. Write to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McGraw Hill Book Co.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1221 Avenue of the Americas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, New York 10036 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Winter, George. Design of Concrete Structures, 8th Edition. McGraw Hill Co., New York 1972. Write to same address as #9 above.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOUNDATIONS AND FOUNDATION DESIGNS:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. Brann, Donald R. Forms, Footings, Foundations, Framing. Directions Simplified, Inc., 1974. Write to same address as #3, page 226.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12. Carson, Arthur Brinton. Foundation Construction. McGraw Hill Co., New York, 1965. Write to same address as #9 above.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">13. Chellis, Robert Dunning. Pile Foundations, 2nd Edition. McGraw Hill Co., New York, 1961. Write to same address as #9 above.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14. Ulrey, Harry R. Carpenters and Builders Library: Layouts, Foundations, Framing. Theodore Audel &amp; Co., Indiannapolis, 1974. Write to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bobb-Merrill Co. Inc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4300 West 62nd Street</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indiannapolis, Indiana 46268 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BLOCK AND BRICK CONSTRUCTION {MASONRY):</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15. Boudreau, Eugene H. Making the Adobe Brick. Fifth-Street Press, New York, 1971. Write to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bookworks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Random House, Inc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">457 Hahn Road</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Westminster, Maryland 21157 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">16. Busch, Lawrence. Construction With Pressed Earth Block (Togo). Peace Corps: write to address on top of page 226.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">17. Dalzell, J. Ralph. Simplified Masonry Planning and Building. McGraw Hill, New York, 1953. Write to same address as #9 above.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">18. Dixon, Michael. Field Manual for Production of Bricks in a Rural Area (Pakistan). Peace Corps: write to address on top of page 226.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">19. Frankly, Lee. The Masonry House: Step-by-Step Construction in Tile and Brick. Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, New York, 1950. No address available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20. Ray, J. Edgar. Revised by Harold V. Johnson. The Art of Bricklaying. Charles A. Bennett Co., 1971. Write to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles A. Bennett Co., Inc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">809 West Detweiller Drive</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peoria, Illinois 61614 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">21. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Building With Adobe and Stabilized Earth Blocks. Dept. of Agriculture Leaflet No. 2535. Write to U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Independence Avenue, Washington, D.C. N.W. USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WOOD-FRAME CONSTRUCTION:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">22. Anderson, Leroy Oscar. How to Build a Wood-Frame House. Dover Press, 1973. (Reissue of the revised 1970 Edition of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Handbook No. 73, originally pulbished by Government Printing Office under the title of Wood-Frame House Construction.) Write to same address as #21 above, or to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dover Publications, Inc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">180 Varick Streeet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, New York 10014 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">23. Anderson, Leroy Oscar. Low-Cost Wood Homes for Rural America: Construction Manual. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Handbook No. 364. Write to same address as #21 above.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">24. Blackburn, Graham. Illustrated Housebuilding. Overlook Press, 1974. Write to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Overlook Press</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c/o Viking Press</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">625 Madison Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, New York 10022 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">25. Brann, Donald R. How to Build an Addition. Directions Simplified, Inc., 1975. Write to same address as #3, page 226.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LATRINES:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">26. Karlin, Barry. Thailand's Water-Seal Privy Program: A Procedural and Technical Review. U.S.O.M., Korat, Thailand. Write to the Peace Corps at the address on top of page 226, or to the author at:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American Public Health Association</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1015 18th Street, N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">27. Wagner, Edmund G. and J.N. Lanoix. Excreta Disposal for Rural Areas and Small Communities. World Health Organization, Geneva, 1958. Write to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Q Corporation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">49 Sheridan Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albany New York, 12210</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF SELF-HELP CONSTRUCTION GROUPS:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">28. Peace Corps (Jamaica). Manual for Supervising Self-Help Home Construction with Stablilized Earth Blocks. Write to address on top of page 226.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">29. Warner, Jack R. Handbook of Construction: Peace Corps Training Manual. Longmans Green and Co., London. Write to address on top of page 226.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ESTIMATING CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND COSTS:.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30. Cooper, F. Building Construction Estimating. McGraw Hill Co., 1959. Write to same address as #9 on page 227.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GENERAL CONSTRUCTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">31. Alcock, A.E.S. and Richards. How to Build: Setting Out. Longmans Co., London, 1960. Write to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Longmans, Inc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">19 West 44th Street</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suite 1012</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, New York 10036 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">32. East Pakistan (Bangladesh) Public Works. Building Design Manual. Dacca, 1965. Write to address on top of page 226.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">33. Fullerton, Richard L. Building Construction in Warm Climates, Volumes 1 and 2. Oxford Tropical Handbooks, Oxford University Press, London, 1967. Write to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oxford University Press, Inc. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">200 Madison Avenue </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, New York 10016 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">34. Intermediate Technology Group. Intermediate Technology Series: Manual on Building Construction. Parnell House, London. Write to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Intermediate Technology Group </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parnell House </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London, ENGLAND</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">35. Peace Corps (Togo). Construction Handbook: In-Country Training. Peace Corps, 1974. Write to address on top of page 226.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">36. Ulrey, Harry F. Carpenters and Builders Library: Tools, Steel Square, Joinery. Theodore Audel &amp; Co., Indiannapolis, 1974. Write to same address as #14, page 227.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">37. U.S. Dept. of Housing and Urban Development, Office of International Affairs. Como Fabricar Una Casa Usanda. Tecnica Ayuda Propia. Government Printing Office, 1974. Write to same address as #1, page 226, or to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Government Printing Office </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">North Capitol Street, N.W. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">''Human measuring pieces'' for designing room size and floor plan</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p231.png"></center><br>
+ Human measuring pieces</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p233.png"></center><br>
+ Human measuring pieces - continue 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p235.png"></center><br>
+ Human measuring pieces - continue 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p237.png"></center><br>
+ Planning pieces</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/m0006e/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/m0006e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/m0006e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Self - Help construction of 1-story buildings (m0006e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Settlements, Housing, Building - Infrastructure Construction (Roads etc)|Building and construction (building components, construction techniques)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">Peace Corps</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">Q-R-S</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">plan and construct a sanitary health centre or small hospital</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/m0007e/m0007e.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/m0007e/m0007e.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/m0007e/m0007e.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,10318 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Teaching conservation in developing nations</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Teaching conservation in developing nations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prepared by </P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Judith Brace</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">and</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralph R. White </B>and <B>Stephen C. Bass</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Illustrated by</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anne Brace</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">with special display illustrations by</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kathleen R. Rafferty</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A cooperative project, sponsored jointly by Peace Corps</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">and the National Audubon Society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manual M0007</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1977</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INFORMATION COLLECTION &amp; EXCHANGE</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps' Information Collection &amp; Exchange (ICE) was established so that the strategies and technologies developed by Peace Corps Volunteers, their co-workers, and their counterparts could be made available to the wide range of development organization and individual workers who might find them useful. Training guides, curricula, lesson plans, project reports, manuals and other Peace Corps-generated materials developed in the field are collected and reviewed. Some are reprinted "as is"; others provide a source of field based information for the production of manuals or for research in particular program areas. Materials that you submit to the Information Collection &amp; Exchange thus become part of the Peace Corps' larger contribution to development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information about ICE publications and services is available through:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=460>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">The Peace Corps Internet Web Site address: </P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">http://www.peacecorps.gov</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">Please note the new Peace Corps Mailing Address from July 1998 on is:</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">ICE/ Peace Corps</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">1111 20th Street N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">Washington, DC 20526</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">USA</P>
+</FONT><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Add your experience to the ICE Resource Center. Send materials that you've prepared so that we can share them with others working in the development field. Your technical insights serve as the basis for the generation of ICE manuals, reprints and resource packets, and also ensure that ICE is providing the most updated, innovative problem-solving techniques and information available to you and your fellow development workers.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Contents</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About this manual...</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reply form...</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Foreword</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Introduction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chapter 1: The self-contained conservation education center</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Planning</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The building</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Landscaping</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The nature trail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation demonstration area</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outdoor exhibits</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exhibits</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Signs and labels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conservation education center in shared facilities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source materials - Chapter 1</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chapter 2: Conservation education in a school</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A school conservation education outline</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 1. First Year: Looking at Your Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 2. Second Year: Change in the Natural World</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 3. Third Yeah: How Environment Differ</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 4. Fourth Yeah: Talking Care of Natural Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 5. Fifth Year: Use of Natural Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 6. Sixth Year: Responsibility for Environmental Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation science fair</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source materials - Chapter 2</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chapter 3: Conservation education in a health center</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sanitation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source material - Chapter 3</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chapter 4: Conservation education in an agricultural extension center</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Erosion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Erosion control methods</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Results of erosion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Control of nutrient loss</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source materials - Chapter 4</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chapter 5: Conservation education in a community center</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cooperative programs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leadership training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The community environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source materials - Chapter 5</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appendix A: Exhibit and study materials</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Visitor participation exhibits</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested exhibits</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collections for exhibit and study</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Visual aids for exhibits</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Display poster - Life pyramid/food chain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Introduction to concepts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concepts about the ecosystem</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concepts about populations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population poster</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concepts about water, soil and air</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies about soil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies about water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies about the sun's energy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies about plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source materials - Appendix A</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appendix B: Nature Trails</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Purpose of a Natural Trail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Characteristic of a Nature Trail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Constructing a nature trail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Features proposed for labeling and explanation along a nature trail in South East Asia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source materials - Appendix B</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appendix C: Landscaping</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggestions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compost</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Transplanting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to select and collect seeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Growing seeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested site plan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source materials - Appendix C</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appendix D: Signs, labels and guides</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Signs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Labels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guides</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A suggested nature trail guide for Guatopo national park, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source materials - Appendix D</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appendix E: Public facilities</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rest stops</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Picnic areas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latrine facilities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A calabash washstand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parking</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source materials - Appendix E</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appendix F: Live animals</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The collection</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aquariums</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 1. A freshwater aquarium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 2. A marine aquarium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Terrariums</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earthworms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cardboard insect box</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mammal cages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An outdoor bird attraction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source materials - Appendix F</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appendix G: Endangered species</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A school program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A community program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered animals of selected countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source materials - Appendix G</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected organizations concerned with conservation education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected environmental research centers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Glossary</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">About this manual...</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teaching Conservation in Developing Nations </U>is a how-to manual. It is designed as a working tool for Peace Corps Volunteers and other development workers: the suggestions which have been presented for conservation education activities or centers can be adapted as appropriate to any job or setting. The purpose of the manual is to help Volunteers and others to incorporate conservation education into their day-to-day community activities, and to suggest resources for those who choose to become more deeply involved in any aspect of environmental education.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Preparation of <U>Teaching Conservation in Developing Nations </U>has been a cooperative project sponsored jointly by the Peace Corps and the National Audubon Society. The publication was initially undertaken by Ralph R. White and Stephen C. Bass for the National Audubon Society. Mr. White, while a Peace Corps Volunteer in Thailand, was instrumental in the development of a Nature Education and Wildlife Center for the Royal Thai Forestry Department. He subsequently worked at the National Audubon Society with Mr. Bass, naturalist/planner, and Kathleen R. Rafferty, cartographer/illustrator, to adapt his experience for other centers in developing nations. Their original document was then submitted to the Peace Corps information Collection and Exchange, which undertook to expand and adapt it for broader use, with the assistance of writer/editor Judith Brace and illustrator Anne Brace.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teaching Conservation in Developing Nations is the seventh manual in the "Appropriate Technologies for Development" series being published by the Peace Corps. Since 1961 Peace corps Volunteers have worked at the grassroots level in countries around the world in program areas such as agriculture, public health, and education. Before beginning their two-year assignments, Volunteers are given training in cross cultural, technical and language skills. This training helps them to live and work closely with the people of their host countries. It helps them to live and work closely with the people of their host countries. It helps them, too, to approach development problems with new ideas that make use of locally available resources and that are appropriate to the local cultures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recently the Peace Corps established an information Collection and Exchange so that these ideas developed during service in the field could be made available to the wide range of development workers who might find them useful. Materials from the field are now being collected, reviewed, and classified in the information Collection and Exchange system. The most useful materials are being shared as widely as possible. The information Collection and Exchange provides an important source of field-based research materials for the production of ''Appropriate Technologies for Development" manuals such as <U>Teaching Conservation in Developing Nations.</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note to the Reader</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Due to the high demand for this publication, it has been reprinted without revision (e.g., selected organizations). Updates to the manual are now in progress.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - May 1997</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributors...</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Judith Brace, co-author of <U>Teaching Conservation in Developing Nations</U>, has written and edited a variety of reports and articles on conservation, environmental planning, and urban affairs. She has also conducted research projects in comparative education in several developing nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralph R. White served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in Thailand, where he worked with the Royal Thai Forestry Department. He subsequently worked at the National Audubon Society, and co-authored the manual, based on his experiences in Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stephen C. Bass, who helped to research and co-author the manual, has served as a naturalist/planner for the National Audubon Society Nature Center Planning Division.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anne Brace, who provided the illustrations for the manual, is currently studying at Scripps College, Claremont, California. Ms. Brace has provided illustrations for a variety of publications; her most recent work is in the field of animation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kathleen R. Rafferty, who prepared the special display illustrations for the manual, is a cartographer for the National Audubon Society Nature Center Planning Division.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many thanks are also due to Brian Bedell and William J. Manly of the National Audubon Society, James A. Sherburne of the Smithsonian institute, and Richard A. Saunier of the inter-American Development Bank, for their technical review of materials in this publication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Reply form...</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For your convenience, a reply form has been provided on the following page. Please send it in and let us know how the manual has helped or can be made more useful. If the reply form is missing from the manual, just write your comments, suggestions, descriptions of problems, etc., on a piece of paper and send them to: CONSERVATION EDUCATION; Peace Corps information Collection and Exchange; 806 Conn. Ave.; Washington D.C. 20525; U.S.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PLEASE RETURN THIS FORM</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTE TO THE USER: This manual was published because the Peace Corps and the National Audubon Society wish to help in an area of growing worldwide interest. In order to provide the most effective help, the preparers of the manual need to know how it is being Used, or how you feel it could better serve your needs. Please fill in the following form and return it to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teaching Conservation in Developing Nations</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps/ICE, 8th Floor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1990 K Street, NW</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, DC 20526 U.S.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WHEN WE RECEIVE THIS FORM, WE WILL AUTOMATICALLY PLACE YOUR NAME ON A MAILING LIST SO THAT YOU WILL RECEIVE:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Updates and/or additions and corrections to the manual, as they become available; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Notice of other publications which may be of interest to you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you have questions on the material presented in the manual, or if you run into problems implementing the suggestions offered here, please note them in the space provided. Use additional paper if you have to, in order to be as specific as you can about the problem. Wherever possible, we will try to provide you with or direct you to an answer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=313>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="67%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Date</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">___________</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="67%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Your name</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>___________</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="67%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Your company or agency, if any</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>___________</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="67%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Your address</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>___________</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. How did you find out about the Peace Corps/National Audubon Society <U>Teaching Conservation in Developing Nations </U>manual? How did you get your copy?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Which parts of the manual have you found most useful? Least useful? Why?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Did you find the manual easy to read, too simple or too complex, complete or incomplete?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. How has this manual helped your work? What have you done to apply the information?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Can you recommend additional information which you feel should be included in a new edition of the manual?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. What were your successes using the manual or implementing any of the suggestions? Problems? Please describe completely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Do you have other recommendations?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Privacy Act Notice</U>: Furnishing the information requested herein is completely voluntary. It is requested under authorities contained in the Peace Corps Act (22USC 2501 et seq.). The only uses which will be made of this information are as follows: 1) For management purposes involving the format of future issues of this publication; 2) For incorporation in a mailing list for this and other similar publications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Foreword</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The natural resources of any country---its land, its rivers, its forests, and the like---are crucial to supplying the population with such basic necessities as food, water, and energy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, human activities, particularly in the sectors of agriculture and forestry, often involve the destruction of these resources. Clearing of land for grazing and crop production, when followed by over-grazing oh improper agricultural practices, leads to a never-ending need to clear more, and often less stable, land. Such overutilization and deforestation of land (especially if combined with a rapid increase in human population and the demands that accompany such an increase) destroys the ecosystems necessary to human survival, silting up rivers, destroying watersheds, rendering soil unproductive, and ultimately leading to famine and the spread of disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This does not mean that land should not be developed to meet basic human needs. What it does mean, however, is that there is an immediate need to balance planning for development with conservation practices. Reforestation, rotational grazing, management of domestic herds, watershed management, development of alternative protein and renewable energy sources, improvement of sanitation, and wildlife management are a few of the ways in which natural resources can be used wisely or restored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before people will accept any of these methods as necessary, however, they must have an awareness of the environment and an understanding </I>of the <I>reasons for conservation of natural resources. This manual, it is hoped, will provide Peace Corps Volunteers and other field workers with </I>ideas, <I>activities, and resources for incorporating conservation education into their day-to-day community activities. For awareness and </I>understanding stimulated by conservation education <I>can lead to interest, participation, and, </I>hopefully, <I>action on </I>the part of people who <I>are becoming more and more dependent upon </I>the <I>sound use of their own natural resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">James A. Sherburne</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program Manager</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smithsonian/Peace Corps Environmental Program</P>
+</I><B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People will not preserve and protect a natural environment which they do not understand or respect. When people learn about the relationship of all forms of life to each other and to the earth, they begin to have a responsible attitude toward natural resources and their wise use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The goal of conservation education is to lead the public through a series of steps about nature, land and natural resources. These are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- awareness</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- understanding</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- respect</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- responsibility</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- action</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The purpose of this manual is to show that conservation education can be presented in a variety of ways and in a variety of situations, and that there is no single method of presentation. The ideas which are presented here are to stimulate your own ideas which will relate to your own situation. It is generally easier if you have a physical setting such as a government building, a school, a community or other local center in which to present an on-going conservation education program by means of pictures and posters, exhibits and collections, films and discussions. This manual has been structured around this kind of setting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The manual begins with a Chapter dealing with a self-contained conservation education center in order to give you the broadest possible range of ideas that could be used in presenting conservation education. Although you may not be planning this sort of center, as you read the Chapter look for general ideas which you could use in other ways. The Chapters which follow tell of ways in which a conservation education program can be incorporated into your activities if you are working in a school, a health center, an agricultural extension center or other community services. Again, as you read these Chapters, look for ideas you can use. The Appendices help you to carry out specific suggestions which are presented in the Chapters; at the end of the manual there is a list of places which can provide you with further information, and a Glossary of the environmental words used in the manual.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do not</U> feel that it is necessary to have a formal setting in order to educate people about their environment. If you are a community leader, or a health or agricultural extension worker who visits several communities, you will find that many of the ideas presented in the manual can be <U>adapted </U>for informal presentation in your situation. If you are a school teacher, use the portions of the school conservation education program (Chapter 2) that are suitable to the needs of your school's community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is important is to start people thinking about how to improve their own lives by improving their natural environment. In addition to the ideas suggested in this manual, you might prepare a short daily message to be presented on the local radio to encourage people to start thinking about the practice of erosion control as a means to reduce crop loss (see Chapter 4). Or you might prepare a short weekly feature in the newspaper to tell which local animals are endangered, and why (see Appendix G).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All of these are ways to help you develop your community's interest and responsibility toward the environment. If you can bring an understanding of environmental interdependence to Just one area of community life, you have made a contribution to conservation as a whole.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Chapter 1: The self-contained conservation education center</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A full-scale conservation education center consists of an interpretive building for visitors and an area of natural land with a trail for nature study.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The advantage of a full-scale conservation education center is that the entire facility can be planned around the directly visible and accessible characteristics of the local environment. Indoor exhibits explain and expand on what is seen out-of-doors. The outdoor trail demonstrates in a natural setting the interaction of the grasses, flowers, trees, fish, birds, insects, reptiles, mammals and geological features found there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of conservation education center aims for a complete presentation of the local environment and will include concepts which reflect the various specialized relationships of the region. If, for example, lack of water is a major environmental factor, study can focus on the inter-related effect this has on the soil, on the adaptation of plant and animal life, and on health and food problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p003.png"></center><br>
+ Conservation Center</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Planning</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you are planning a full-scale conservation education center, you are probably working with a government agency and will have the technical assistance as well as financial support necessary for this major effort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The land selected for use by the conservation education center will probably be part of an existing reserve of government land. If possible, considerations in the selection of the center's site should include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. ease of access by visitors;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. variety of land features: water, open space, wooded area, land formations;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. variety of wildlife population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A desirable minimum site size for a full-scale center is 10 hectares. If a conservation education center is being considered within a city's limits, and a site this large is not to be found, it may be possible to use several smaller sites with each section assigned a different conservation education use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Your site layout should be the result of careful preliminary planning to determine the kind of facilities you will offer. Will you be visited by school classes, by people in buses or cars, by hikers or picnickers? Will the nature trail be for general study only or will you want to include additional smaller trails which study a single feature, such as geology?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In its broadest form, a conservation education center could include not only the interpretive building and trail, but also a small-scale farm or natural resources management area where government technicians could demonstrate effective conservation practices for agriculture, such as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=372>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil conservation practices</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compost pile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest management practices</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crop storage</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reforestation</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Well with pump or windlass</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small vegetable garden</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smoke house</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pond for fish cultivation</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bee hive</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once you have decided what the conservation education center will provide for its visitors, you can then make a site plan to place each facility in the most desirable spot.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Nature Trail (See Appendix B. Nature Trails) should link the most interesting natural features of the site.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Interpretive Building should be located at the point of departure and return of the nature trail loop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Picnic, Latrine and Parking facilities (see Appendix E, Public Facilities) should be located near the interpretive building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wherever facilities are provided, make it a point to do as little damage to the site as possible. Plan carefully to avoid cutting trees, to avoid excess earth-moving, to avoid unnecessary destruction of ground cover. Practice conservation techniques to reduce erosion, such as re-channeling water drainage, filling depressions with stones or gravel, rebuilding worn-away banks and planting ground cover.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The building</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In planning the building you must decide what kind of indoor facilities you will be able to offer. The basic need is for an interpretive room where the exhibits are located. The interpretive space should be large enough that you can use it for a group meeting room, or for showing slides or films, if these are available from a government service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wall space can be Used for graphics, posters and hanging exhibits; counter tops can hold collections, aquariums or terrariums. Cabinets can provide storage for alternate exhibits and materials which might be loaned to schools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Will you be able to provide office space for the center's staff? Can you provide a small laboratory for staff use and student training? Can you provide a small library where conservation books, magazines, photographs and other resources could be made available to the public? Can you provide a workshop for preparation of exhibit and interpretive materials? Can you provide indoor toilet facilities?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A simple layout such as the one suggested in Figure 1 can be adapted according to your program and resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The building materials should be chosen to blend with the surroundings. A building which clashes with the environment does not demonstrate the basic conservation point that people are a part of nature and should work in harmony with it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Construction information for concrete and bamboo is available in the <U>Village Technology Handbook</U>, or <U>Bamboo as a Building Material </U>(see Chapter Sources).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p006.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Landscaping</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The landscaping of the conservation education center (see Appendix C, Landscaping) should be a careful effort to develop methods and plant materials which visitors can adapt for their own uses. In a region of few plant materials, landscaping may mean that you will work with rocks and gravel to achieve an attractive visual effect. Pots or cans of flowering plants or vegetables may be an effective substitute for ground plantings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where there are abundant local plant materials, make a selection based on foliage shapes and textures, leaf and flower colors, height or density. Variety and contrast are important elements in any setting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The quality of the soil you have to work with is important to your success in landscaping. The soil can need improvement for its texture or for its fertility. Generally speaking, you can tell yourself if it is too sandy, if it is all clay, or if it lacks topsoil. An addition of decomposed organic matter (which you can make in a compost pile) will benefit the soil quality. To check on the fertility of the soil, it is advisable to have a soil sample analyzed by a government agricultural agency, to see what minerals are lacking, and which fertilizers can be added to correct the lack.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The nature trail</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Nature Trail (See Appendix B. Nature Trails) of the conservation education center provides the most effective tool for teaching environmental relationships. Through direct contact with the natural setting, and with the help of carefully planned interpretive labels and guides, the visitor will be able to understand the living process which can be seen, touched and heard along the trail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When there is enough space and the habitat is suitable, trails which specialize in the interpretation of one aspect of the environment (geology, wildlife, plant life) can be planned as side loops off the main trail. Other possible ideas for trails are discussed in Appendix B.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remember that the signs which you provide for the nature trail are to give guidance and direction, and the <I>labels </I>are to do the interpretive work. Each label should be planned so as to stress the <I>relationship </I>of the interpreted feature with another aspect of the environment. (See Appendix D, Signs &amp; Labels).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p008.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An alternative to the system of labeling trailside features is to provide a printed guide. Features along the trail are identified with a number; the corresponding number in the guide tells about this feature. Sample trail guides are provided in Appendix B and Appendix D.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p009.png"></center><br>
+ Nature Trail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Conservation demonstration area</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A conservation education center is an ideal place to demonstrate techniques to improve environmental conditions in your region. If space and technical personnel are available, an area where visitors can see how to plant and improve crops, make compost piles, store crops, cultivate fish, etc., can be of great benefit. Peace Corps Manuals for a number of possible projects are listed in the Chapter Sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The planning and layout of such an area should be incorporated in the initial conservation education center planning, to assure the best land use both initially and for future development. Consult with regional technical specialists to identify special conservation problems of the area which would benefit from a demonstration project of this sort. Be flexible, innovative and responsive to cooperative efforts, because benefits to people from the total environment is the goal of any conservation program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Outdoor exhibits</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can take advantage of an outdoor area to provide a number of outdoor exhibits which can be entirely separate from the nature trail. Exhibits of this sort will provide additional variety and interest to your conservation education program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You may want to consider:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- A pool for fish, turtles, frogs or waterplants if there is a small stream which could be dammed;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p010.png"></center><br>
+ Pool</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a medicinal plant garden featuring local herbs which are medicinally useful;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a bird bath;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a soil profile made by exposing the side of a bank, or digging a pit, to show the various layers of soil;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a rock collection of large rocks labelled as to their type, or simply grouped for their color or shape;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a tree-ring exhibit with two pieces of a large tree trunk:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. a sectional slice, sanded and waterproofed with varnish or an oil sealer, can be labeled to tell about the growth rings. Each ring represents a year - the outer ring is the most recent. Dry years have narrower rings than wet ones. Please note that in tropical regions, rings are not an accurate measurement of age.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. A split section lengthwise of the tree trunk, treated in the same way, can be placed next to the slice to show how the grain of the wood is caused by the yearly growth rings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- A grass demonstration in which a plot of ground is seeded to show various grasses for erosion control.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Exhibits</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(See Appendix A, Exhibits &amp; Study Materials)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The purpose of the exhibits in a conservation education center is to explain, describe and interpret the natural world outside the center. No exhibit or series of exhibits has to be permanent. Just as the natural world is constantly changing, the exhibits which explain this world should change. This means that expensive and elaborate permanent exhibits are not needed. What is important is the appropriateness of the exhibit to the local conditions and the clarity with which each condition is explained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charts, posters, maps, collections, specimens, small animal exhibits and visitor participation exhibits can all be done in a simple, clear fashion and organized so that each one reinforces the relationships you are trying to demonstrate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A method of changing exhibits which you might consider is that of providing progressively more detailed information as your visitors become more informed about exhibit subjects. For example, the initial food cycle concept to begin with in conservation education is that of the "food chain" (see Appendix A). As your visitors' understanding of this concept grows, you can present new exhibit material which will demonstrate that the food chain is actually a "food web" that there are generally several consumers at each stage of the cycle, and that there is a "web" of inter-relationships among the eater and the eaten.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are some suggested themes around which to organize your exhibits:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a food chain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the role of predators</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- relation of plants and animals to their environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- life in a pond</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- life in a forest</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- life in the desert</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- importance of wetlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the make-up of soil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- important rocks and minerals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- geological history</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- wind and water erosion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- how a plant grows</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- seeds and seedlings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- parasitism (both plant and animal)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- water and air pollution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To provide guidance as you plan the center's exhibits, you will find suggestions for using some of these themes in exhibits, collections and study materials, in Appendix A. As you survey the situation in your own region, you will know what suggestions can be used, which need to be adapted, and which are not applicable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is essential that your conservation education program be directly related to the visitor's environment. Broad general themes or problems which exist in another part of the world are not part of the step-by-step development of a <I>basic </I>understanding which you are trying to achieve.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Appendix F you will find suggestions for various ways to keep live animals that you might exhibit in your conservation education center. Although live animals can provide a good deal of variety and interest to your exhibits, remember that even the smallest insects need attentive care for effective presentation. You must have clean, well-fed and healthy specimens for visitor viewing, otherwise your conservation message is defeated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p012.png"></center><br>
+ Pet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Signs and labels</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Signs at the conservation education center (see Appendix D, Signs, Labels and Guides) will inform the visitor as to places, directions, distances, facilities and regulations. Interpretive needs are usually filled by labels, but a larger sign might identify an unusual tree or other unique feature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The labels for your exhibits should do two things: (1) identify the object and (2) give the visitors information and an explanation about the object. Identification of an object is short and simple, but how much information and explanation you provide about an object should depend on the visitors' needs. You may feel that some labels should give a good deal of information. In that case, be sure that other labels give just a little information. You do not want to tire visitors by giving them more information than they can absorb. Their experience in the conservation education center should be not only educational, but pleasant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The conservation education center in shared facilities</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A conservation education center which is given space in an already existing park (or other governmental) building will be basically an exhibits center. It may be possible, however, if park land is available, to develop some outdoor exhibits, or even a nature trail (Appendix B). Since the indoor exhibits should reflect what is seen outdoors, it would be ideal if the planning for both could be done at the same time. However, if there is resistance to using any land for conservation education purposes, plan your exhibit space to interpret the environmental conditions which are plainly visible outdoors for all to see.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Your exhibits could explain erosion problems, the status of area wildlife, water pollution, the area's plant life, etc. As your center develops and gains acceptance, it may be possible to proceed with a program of labelling interesting and related features found in the park land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EXHIBITS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The space which you are provided for a conservation education center will determine the extent of your exhibits. Do not crowd your space by trying to demonstrate more ideas than there is room for. It is much better to announce changing exhibits and to feature only a few exhibits at a time. Since exhibits which feature living plants, insects or other animals may not last too long, they make excellent short-term exhibits. (For further discussion of exhibits, and Appendix A and F).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COOPERATION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you are sharing space with a government agency which is itself involved in conservation, such as wildlife management, forest management, agriculture, fisheries, etc., you have a wonderful source of exhibit ideas, exhibit materials, and possibly of exhibits themselves. Try to develop joint programs in which you might interpret the work the agency is doing, for exhibit in the center. You may be able to develop a speakers' program to provide experts to discuss a specific problem or idea with a school or community group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LANDSCAPING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the building in which the conservation education center is located has no landscaping, you may be able, in cooperation with the building director, to develop a plan to demonstrate landscaping ideas. This might be an extensive long range planting of trees, shrubs and ground cover, or it might be only a seasonal placement of containers of flowering plants. (See Appendix C, Landscaping.) Remember that an improvement in our visual environment is one of the benefits of conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SIGNS AND LABELS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In order to encourage visitors to come to the conservation education center which shares a building, you will want to put a sign directing visitors at the entrance to the building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(For further discussion of signs, and for labelling, and Appendix D, Signs, Labels and Guides.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Source materials - Chapter 1</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adobe construction methods</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">California Extension Service Manual 19</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of California</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural Experiment Station &amp; Extension Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berkeley, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bamboo as a building material</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Housing &amp; Urban Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of International Affairs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington. D.C. 20410, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Building construction in warm climates</U>, vol. 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.L. Fullerton</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oxford University Press</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ely House</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London W. 1, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Building with adobe and stabilized earth blocks</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leaflet No. 535</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural Research Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hyattsville, Md. 20782, USA </P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excreta disposal for rural areas and small communities</U><SUP>1</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Health Organization</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geneva, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Freshwater fish Pond culture and management</U><SUP>2</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Peace Corps/VITA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program &amp; Training Journal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manual series number 1B</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VITA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3706 Rhode Island Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mt. Rainier, Md. 20822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Handbook for building homes of earth</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Housing &amp; Urban Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of International Affairs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20410, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Low cost windmills for developing nations</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VITA publication 20E</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3706 Rhode Island Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mt. Rainier, Md. 20822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manual of outdoor conservation education</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nature Center Planning Division</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Audubon Society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">950 3rd Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, New York, 10022, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manual of outdoor interpretation</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nature Centers Division</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Audubon Society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">950 3rd Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, New York, 10022, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Para que criar abejas</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in English)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vecinos mundiales</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volumen 5 - numero 4S</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5116 North Portland Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Planning a nature center</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nature Center Planning Division</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Audubon Society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">950 3rd Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, New York 10022, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Reforestation in arid lands<SUP>2</P>
+</U></SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Peace Corps/VITA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program &amp; Training Journal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manual series number 5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VITA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3706 Rhode Island Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mt. Rainier, Maryland 20822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Small farm grain storage</U><SUP>2</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Peace Corps/VITA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program &amp; Training Journal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manual series number 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VITA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3706 Rhode island Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mt. Rainier, Maryland 20822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trail planning &amp; layout</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nature Center Planning Division</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Audubon Society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">950 3rd Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, New York., 10022 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Why raise bees</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Neighbors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volume 5 - number 4E</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5116 North Portland Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wood preservation</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest Products Laboratory</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D. C. 20250, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Village technology handbook</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VITA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3706 Rhode island Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mt. Rainier, Maryland 20822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</SUP>WHO publications available from:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Q Corporation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">49 Sheridan Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albany, New York 12210, USA</P>
+<SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</SUP>Multiple copies available from:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Technical Information Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5285 Port Royal Road</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Springfield, Virginia 22161, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Available to Peace Corps Volunteers from:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room M-1214</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20525, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">**Single copies available to individuals and non-profit organizations working in the Third World from the above address</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Chapter 2: Conservation education in a school</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the basic function of a conservation education center is to educate people about the close relationships among all living and non-living things in our ecosystem, a school is a natural center for this function.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Depending on the size and level of the school, a program of more or less detailed environmental and conservation education can be developed from materials in this section and in Appendix A, C &amp; F. and from sources listed in the Chapter Sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the students develop their understanding, they carry conservation concepts to the rest of the community, and the experiments they perform, the information they gather, the collections they make can become a community resource as a Conservation Science Fair.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because the students are beginning to learn and understand conservation concepts at an early age, they will, as they grow older, be ready to accept more complex aspects of these concepts. The more completely a person understands the concepts, the better use he/she can make of his/ her resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p019.png"></center><br>
+ Education in school</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The teacher who wishes to introduce environmental and conservation studies to his students does not have to be an ecologist, or even a science teacher. The teacher needs only guidance, a willingness to think about what he/she sees in the environment, and enthusiasm to discover how these things are related.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A school program of conservation education can be developed, starting with simple goals of observation and awareness in the first year Studies in each subsequent year will build more detailed understanding of what has gone before.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An outline for a school conservation program is included here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A school conservation education outline</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">First Year: Looking at Your Environment</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To develop an awareness of the immediate natural environment; plants, animals, rocks, air, water and soil found at school or in the community;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To develop an awareness of change in the natural world: how sizes, shapes, colors, sounds, smells, textures, and animal activities vary with the seasons;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To understand some of the interrelationships among soil, plants, animals, people, water, and air;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To learn how people depend on soil, water, plants, animals, people, water, and air;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To learn how people can make their environment cleaner, more healthful, and more beautiful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Things to Talk About</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What plants and animals are found at school, in the neighborhood, or in the community? Include weeds, rats, domestic animals, fish, birds, insects, earthworms, and ants. How do they affect people? How do people affect them? Begin to learn about classifying by grouping similar things.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How do the changes in seasons affect plants in the area? Animals? Soil? Water? People? What are some of the different sounds you hear on your way to school? In the town? In the fields?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What kinds of rocks and soils are found in your neighborhood? How do people use soil? How do plants and animals depend on soil? Do plants grow better in some soils than in others? How is the soil affected by plants, animals, and people?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- In what ways do plants and animals in your community depend on one another? What plants and animals do you depend on for food, shelter, and clothing? How do plants and animals depend on you?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- In what ways do plants, animals, and people depend on sunshine and rain? For what purposes do we use water at school? At home? In the town? On a farm? How are water and air affected by plants, animals, people, and soil? What happens to rain when it falls on the soil? On roads?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Do we need to take care of soil, water, plants, animals and air? Why? What are some things you can do to make your community cleaner, more healthful, and more beautiful?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Things to Do</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Take a walk around the school site and neighborhood, or to a vacant lot or nearby park and make a list of things observed. Afterwards draw pictures or tell stories about some of the things seen on the walk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Collect samples of soil from three different locations and examine them for differences in color and texture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Build a balanced aquarium or terrarium to learn how plants and animals depend on each other, Make a windowsill garden to learn how plants grow and how to take care of them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Collect seeds or leaves for a classroom display; compare their sizes, shapes and textures. Show in the display how seeds might travel from one location to another.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Take a walk in the rain to observe how rain strikes the soil, road, grass and trees; how soil moves with surface water; how raindrops cling to leaves; and how leaves slow the force of raindrops and help protect the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Plan and carry out cleanup and planting projects on the school site or in the community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(See Appendix A, C &amp; F for further suggestions and information)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Second Year: Change in the Natural World</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To increase awareness of change, variety, similarities, and interrelationships within the natural environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To develop an awareness of people as a part of the natural world and their role in changing the environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To learn how rocks are continually being changed into soil; how soils differ; how soil is moved; and how soil can be conserved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To understand how the life of a plant or animal is affected by its environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To understand how animals depend directly or indirectly on food from green plants for energy and growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To learn more about how people depend on each other and on soil, water, plants. animals and air.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Things to Talk About</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What kinds of food and clothing do we get from wildlife, domesticated animals, and plants?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How do animals such as mammals, birds, fish and insects help people?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What objects do you use everyday? Classify them as coming from animals, plants, or minerals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Discuss how your everyday activities affect natural resources. How do you make use of soil, trees, shrubs, flowers. water, domesticated animals, and wildlife?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How is soil made? What are the effects of wind, water, and plants on rocks? Do animals live in the soil? Are air and water found in the soil?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Discuss the differences and similarities in sand, clay, and silt. How do they compare with soil from a good garden? What makes plants grow better in good garden soil?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What natural forces move soil? Why should we conserve soil? How do plants help hold the soil in place?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Name places where soil is washing away in your area, and discuss some ways to prevent soil washing away.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How does the appearance of trees, flowers, water, insects, birds, wildlife, and domesticated animals change with the seasons?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How do wild animals store food? How do people store food?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Compare plants and animals living in your community with those in the ocean, in a pond, in a desert and in a forest. How are they similar? How are they different?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How do green plants make their own food from water, air, sunlight and minerals from the soil? Can animals and people make their own food from these raw materials? Trace some foods eaten by animals and people to green plants and the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How do people who live in cities and towns depend on farmers? How do farmers depend on people in cities and towns? Discuss some kinds of work done by people as they make use of natural resources to produce food, shelter, and clothing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Things to Do</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Keep a weekly record during the school year of changes in a tree, a vacant lot, or an area of the school yard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Collect different kinds of leaves. What do they have in common? How are they different? Match the leaves with the trees they come from, and sketch the shape of different trees. What happens to the leaves left on-the ground?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Make some "soil" by rubbing soft stones or bricks together. Compare this material with soil from the school yard and discuss what changes take place as the rock particles become soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Demonstrate that soil contains water, air and living organisms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Find an area near the school where water or wind has moved the soil. Develop a project showing how to keep the soil in place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Take a walk on a windy day to observe how wind moves clouds, leaves, seeds and soil. Show how grass and shrubs keep soil from blowing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Show how plants depend on soil, water, air, and light.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Make murals and sketches to show how items you use every day come from the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Visit someone in your community that uses natural resources in processing or making products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Measure the amount of sediment in a jar of water taken from a stream immediately after a rainstorm, and measure the amount of sediment in water taken from the same stream a week after the rainstorm. Allow the water to stand at least 24 hours before measuring and comparing the amounts of sediment found in each jar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- List ways people protect their natural resources and ways people use them carelessly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(See Appendix A, C &amp; F for further suggestions and information).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Third Yeah: How Environment Differ</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To understand how one natural environment differs from another natural environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To learn how living things adapt to different environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To understand how available natural resources influence the way people live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To understand how people change the environment as they Use natural resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To learn about different conservation practices and to understand the need for them in taking care of natural resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Things to Talk About</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What is an environment? What are some of the natural factors that limit plant and animal life in your community?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How is your environment different from the environment in which a bird lives? a fish? a cactus?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Name some of the physical characteristics of plants and animals that enable them to adapt to different environments. How have people learned to adapt to different environments? Why can some animals live in several different environments?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Why are most towns and cities located along rivers or near lakes? Where does your community get its water supply?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- In what ways are farmland, grazing land, forests, wildlife and minerals important to your community?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Discuss the different purposes for which soil is used in the city and in rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- In what forms have you seen water? What causes water to change form, and how do the different forms affect human activities?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How are plants, animals, soil and water affected when people use large areas of land for houses or roads, or urban development?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Where does soil go when water washes it off unprotected areas?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What is sediment? How does sediment in rivers and lakes affect fish and wildlife? The water you use every day?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What are some conservation practices used by farmers or others in your community to prevent soil from washing into rivers and lakes?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Things to Do</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Select a plant or an animal found on the school site; explain what it needs for survival and how the environment meets its needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Visit a nearby park, wooded area, or pond. List the plants and animals that are the same as, and those that are different from, the ones found on the school grounds. Explain the physical characteristics of the plants and animals that enable them to live where they do. Examine the soils in each place. Describe how different soils affect the plants and animals living in each area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Build a balanced aquarium or terrarium and then change one element at a time to determine the effect on the environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Draw the main characteristics of forest, grassland, and desert environments; describe how they differ from each other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Study a soil profile in a road cut or excavation site. Identify the surface soil, subsoil, and parent material. Describe the differences in color and texture of the three layers. (See page 118)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Conduct an experiment to find out if soil particles are all the same size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Compare the water running off a bare slope with water flowing from a grass-covered slope during a gentle rain. Collect a jar of water from both areas and compare the amount of sediment in each.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Visit a farm where conservation practices are used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Start a school garden with different kinds of plants. Learn how to manage soil and water resources to encourage the growth of these plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Keep a daily weather chart for a month. Draw pictures of the cloud formations most likely to produce rain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- List the products made from natural resources in your community and how and where they are used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Make a study of the school grounds and plan a conservation project to improve the environment for plants, animals, and people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(See Appendix A, C &amp; F for further suggestions and information).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Fourth Yeah: Talking Care of Natural Resources</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To understand the inorganic and organic cycles within the natural environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To learn more about the ways resources are changed through use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To understand the water cycle and how people in different environments manage water resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To understand some of the relationships among natural resources within a watershed, and how the protection and management of watersheds affect the quality of the environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To learn how conservation practices can help people improve their environment, and to understand some of the choices they must make in applying such practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Things to Talk About</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What is a food chain? A food pyramid? Why does it take 1000 kilos of plant plankton to produce 10 kilos of commercial fish that can produce a weight gain of 1 kilo in a person?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How are producers, consumers, and decomposers related?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Is soil a renewable natural resource? How does soil develop? How do decomposers help return organic matter to the soil? Name some materials that do not decompose readily. Explain some methods people might use to recycle these materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What are the sources of oxygen on earth? In how many ways do people use oxygen?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What is a watershed? Does the way the land is used in the watershed affect water in small streams? In rivers?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What happens to water when it falls on the road? Rooftops? Soil? 'What determines how much water runs off and how much soaks into the soil? How do the different kinds and amounts of plant cover help water soak into the soil?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What happens to water once it enters the soil? Why is ground water important to plants and to people?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How does the amount of soil that washes off unprotected land into streams, rivers and lakes affect your water supply?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Trace the history of natural resource use in your watershed and community. What plants and animals were once found there? What new plants and animals have been introduced?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What things should be considered when deciding how the water resources in your watershed are managed? What choices must be made? What different kinds of conservation practices might be used? Which ones are needed in your community?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Things to Do</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Show in a diagram, beginning with the soil, several food pyramids having at least three levels. Draw a food chain with people in it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Study the plants and animals on and near the school site, in the outdoor classroom, in a vacant lot, in a nearby field, in the woods or in a pond. How do the plants and animals differ in one area from those in another? How are they similar? How have people changed these areas? Discuss how plants or animals have adapted to the environment in these areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Write or tell stories about some of the ways people have either improved or harmed the environment for living things, or how your environment has changed because of people's influence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Make a mural of the water cycle and show what happens to rain when it falls to earth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Visit a cutover or burned-over forest, or a building site, where topsoil is being washed away. Determine how the sediment-filled water drains to a stream and what effect it may have on your water supply and on the people and towns farther downstream.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Where does your water come from? Can you visit the source? Is the water filtered, chemically treated or boiled before it is used?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Draw a map of your watershed showing where conservation practices are needed and where they have been applied.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Show the different rates at which water soaks into three different kinds of soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Demonstrate how slopes and hills affect the way water runs off the land. Show some of the ways the water can be slowed down as it runs off a slope. Show how a hard rain splashes soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(See Appendix A, C &amp; F for further suggestions and information).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Fifth Year: Use of Natural Resources</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To become aware of the way decisions about use of resources and energy by people affect the natural environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To understand how the environment influences our way of life and the kind of work we do.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To understand some of the effects of natural and man-made changes in the environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To understand how natural resources contribute to the industrial development of a nation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To understand how social and economic factors influence use and management of soil, water, air, plants, animals, and minerals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To learn how people plan and take action to conserve natural resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Things to Talk About</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How are living things changed as their environment changes? What are some examples of living things that could not adapt to their changing environment? In what ways did people bring about these changes?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How do people use science and technology in adapting to the environment? Have scientific (including medical) discoveries changed your environment? How?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What role has the environment played in influencing the way of life for a tribe of nomads? a fishing village? a farming community? your community?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How do droughts, floods, fire, soil erosion, water and air pollution, the construction of roads and cities affect plants? animals? people?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What is the relation of population growth to the quality of your environment?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What is the effect on people, animals, and plants when natural resources are abused, exhausted, or improved? What happens to the economy? to society?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Name as many sources of energy as you can.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How is the price of grain affected by factors in the environment?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What should people know about resource potentials and problems in their area? What are some of the laws that affect use and management of natural resources in your community? Why are these laws necessary?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How can you help improve your environment?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Things to do</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Interview older people in your community to learn about changes in the local environment during their lifetime. Include such things as changes in number of people, land use changes, scientific and technological discoveries, and changes in transportation systems. What effect has each of these changes had on soil, water, animals and people?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Locate an area in which natural resources have deteriorated. Form small student groups to prepare reports detailing conservation needs. Outline a plan of action for improving the area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Select a resource problem area on the school site or nearby, and carry out a project, including application of a specific conservation practice, to improve the area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Make a chart of the natural resources of your country, and what they are used for.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(See Appendix A, C &amp; F for further suggestions and information).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Sixth Year: Responsibility for Environmental Conservation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To understand our responsibilities for use and management of our environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To develop additional understandings of natural resources needed to apply conservation practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To learn how the natural environment serves as inspiration for creative art: painting, music, storytelling, and poetry, and how natural resources contribute to the production of materials used in painting, sculpture, and other art forms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To learn what your community is doing to the environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To learn what government agencies are doing to help protect and conserve natural resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To understand the need to use ecological principles as guides for conservation action.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Things to Talk About</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What characteristics do people share with other living things? How does our ability to plan and achieve objectives make us different from other living creatures?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What changes caused by people's use of resources have had or continue to have a detrimental effect on your environment? What changes have a beneficial effect?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What are people's responsibilities to other living things as we make use of resources?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How do resources contribute to the social and economic development of your country? of the world?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Do the decisions on resource use in your community affect your country? What conservation practices can be used in your community to improve the resources needed by your country?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How might natural resources serve as themes in painting, music, dance, writing or other creative work? What natural resources are used in the creation of art? What art materials are made from natural resources?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What are the conservation and environmental problems of your community? What treatments are needed? Why?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What kinds of sewage and solid waste disposal are used in your community? What effects do these methods have on underground water supplies? on public health? on environmental quality? Do these methods contribute to water or air pollution?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Things to Do</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Locate an eroding area on the school site or nearby, and determine the probable cause or causes of the erosion. Design and carry out a plan to control the erosion and to prevent similar problems in the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- List how the family of each student in your class makes use of natural resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Make a map of your community to show the boundaries of several watersheds, and to show how these watersheds form the drainage basin of a river.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Visit artists in your community to learn how they use natural resources as inspiration for their works.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Think of songs which show how music can interpret the environment. Write a song that describes some aspect of the natural environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Compile a list of government agencies with conservation and resources management responsibilities. Contact a conservation office in government or a university to find out what conservation measures they are taking which might affect your community. Can you help in any way?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Visit a state park, forest, wildlife refuge, or farm; report on the resource management objectives and procedures used to achieve them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Make a conservation inventory of your community. Determine alternative solutions for several of the problems observed. Make sketches when collecting information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Develop an outdoor classroom for your school. Select an area with many different learning opportunities. Inventory the existing vegetation, boulders, streams, and special areas that could be used for learning. What kinds of information on soil and water conservation are needed? Make a guidebook for younger classes to use,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Design a conservation oriented science fair. Develop projects and estimate the time needed to prepare them so that all projects will be ready for the fair.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Construct a simple, functioning habitat containing at least three different plants and two different animals. Make and record observations daily for a month.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(See Appendix A, C &amp; F for further suggestions and information).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adapted with permission from the U.S. Soil Conservation Service publication "An Outline for Teaching Conservation in Elementary Schools".</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Conservation science fair</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A science fair is a gathering together for public display of a school's scientific studies, presented on charts, graphs, posters, in exhibits, experiments and collections, for the purpose of communicating information. When the theme of the fair is <I>Conservation, </I>then those informational charts and graphs, experiments and collections all deal with the many aspects of conservation which the students have investigated. Since there are many ways conservation techniques can improve community life, a conservation science fair can be a valuable opportunity to demonstrate ideas which can be adapted for individual application.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You will find subjects for display at a conservation science fair in the outline for school study beginning in Appendix A, Exhibits and Study Materials; in Appendix C, Landscaping; and in Appendix C, Live Animals. See also Chapter Sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The subjects that you chose as projects for a conservation science fair should be those which are most directly related to the local conditions This will make the fair more interesting and understandable to its visitors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before beginning a project for the fair, you should know what you want to demonstrate; then plan the project for that purpose. When the project is ready for display, be sure it is carefully and effectively labelled to give all the information you want to communicate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Source materials - Chapter 2</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation science fair projects</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil Conservation Society of America</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7515 N. E. Ankeny Road</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ankeny, Iowa 50021, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L'Enseignement de la nutrition &agrave; l'&eacute;cole<SUP>1</P>
+</U></SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in English and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Etudes de nutrition de la FAO #25</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food &amp; Agricultural Organization of the United Nations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">available from FAO agents world-wide; or Distribution &amp; Sales Section FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environmental education activities manuals</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environmental Education Program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">School of Natural Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Michigan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environmental education</U>, an annoted bibliography of selected materials and services</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smithsonian institution - Peace Corps Environmental Program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20560, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Glossary of environmental terms. Spanish-English, English-Spanish</U><SUP>2</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Peace Corps information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program &amp; Training Journal, Reprint series #17</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room M-1214</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Avenue N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20525, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Manual didactico: Huertos escolares y nutricion</U><SUP>2</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Peace Corps information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program &amp; Training Journal, Reprint series #18</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room M-1214</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Avenue N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D. C. 20525, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nosotros y la naturaleza: Guia </U>para <U>professores, Guia para estudiantes</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Servicio Nacional de Aprendizaje</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Division Agropecuaria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Region de Neiva</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outline for teaching conservation in elementary schools </U>(PA-268)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil Conservation Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C, 20250, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People and their environment </U>(8 guides)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teachers Curriculum Guide to Conservation Education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.G. Furguson Publishing Co.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6 N. Michigan Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicago, Illinois 60602, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil &amp; water conservation in Barbados</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4-H Division Extension Services</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ministry of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbados</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teacher's guide to minigardens</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Science Study Aid #2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural Research Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Hyattsville,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maryland, 20782, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The teaching of rural science in tropical primary schools</U><SUP>1</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO publication</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paris 7, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teaching soil &amp; conservation: A classroom &amp; field guide </U>(PA-341)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil Conservation Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20250, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environmental Education Office</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20250 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(materials related to environmental education)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Martin County Schools</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environmental Studies Center</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2900 N.E. Indian River Drive</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jensen Beach, Florida 33457</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(primary school manuals for ocean-related environmental studies)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Audubon Society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">950 3rd Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, New York, 10022, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(many kinds of environmental materials available)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Wildlife Federation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1412 16th Street N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20036 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(many kinds of environmental materials available including "Ranger Rick's Nature Magazine", "Environmental Discovery Units")</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil Conservation Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education information Office</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20240 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(materials related to conservation, including "Soil Conservation" monthly magazine)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</SUP>English editions of UN and FAO publications available from:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNIPUB</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 433</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murray Hills Station</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, New York 10016, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</SUP>Multiple copies available from: National Technical information </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5285 Port Royal Road</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Springfield, Virginia 22161, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Available to Peace Corps Volunteers from:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room M-1214</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Avenue N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20525, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">**Single copies available to individuals and non-profit organizations working in the Third World from the above address</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Chapter 3: Conservation education in a health center</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All living things, together with all non-living things, form our ecosystem. People are a part of the ecosystem; people are a natural resource; since conservation is concerned with the care of natural resources, people must take care of themselves as well as the rest of their environment. Health care is conservation too'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many parts of the world the major problems of health are malnutrition and diseases carried by insects and parasites. These are environmental problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An environment in which there is improper or insufficient food is usually the result of poor agricultural production, poor soil, poor food storage methods, and lack of knowledge about nutrition. An environment which supports a disease-carrying insect cycle, such as the mosquito/malaria cycle, or the tsetse fly/sleeping sickness cycle, is a bad environment for people. An environment which supports the unchecked growth of bacteria is a bad one for people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People can change the environment to improve the soil, agricultural production and nutrition, to break the cycle of disease carriers, or slow the growth and spread of bacteria, if they understand the problem and learn what steps to take.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A health center provides medical care for its community. It should also provide health education. Just as conservation education shows the relationship between all things in an environment, health education can show the relationship between health problems and the local environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To establish a health conservation education program in your community health center, you will need to identify those health problems which are most directly related to your own environment, and which are caused by such things as poor sanitation, erosion or crop destruction, or insect carriers. Choose one of these problems at a time, if your center is small, as a demonstration and education project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Nutrition</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results of malnutrition on a nation's development cannot be ignored. When a large portion of the population is unable to realize its potential due to improper physical development or disease caused by poor diet, the loss to the nation is great. The periods of infancy and childhood require sizeable resources from both the family and the nation in terms of food and health care. When a child dies in adolescence, his/her use of those resources is totally lost. If he/she does not have a reasonably long or useful working life, again the food and health care used in his development will not be fully repaid, and the nation is losing a valuable natural resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Health Organization believes that protein calorie deficiency is the greatest public health problem in the world today. A health center conservation project that could be developed in cooperation with an agricultural agency would demonstrate how to develop better soil, how to choose an acceptable protein-rich plant food to grow, and how to prepare it for eating. (Protein-rich soybeans might be a possible crop to introduce). You will need a piece of land for a demonstration garden (see Appendix C for growing information and Chapter 5 for agricultural information).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If other kinds of diet deficiencies are an important problem in your area, a demonstration garden could grow those plant foods which would eliminate the deficiencies. You would have to work with the agricultural agent to identify which plants would grow well, and would also be culturally acceptable to these garden demonstrations. If the climate is suitable, papaya trees could be introduced to provide an easily grown source of vitamins A and C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another possibility might be the introduction of fish culture through a program following the Peace Corps/VITA manual, <U>Freshwater Fish Pond Culture and Management </U>Fish are an important protein-rich food and to grow fish in ponds is a more certain way of supplying fish for food than trying to catch fish from lakes, rivers or streams.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition education can be supported through the schools where children can learn the basic principles of good nutrition. They could grow fresh vegetables or fruits in a school demonstration garden, which they could take home to eat. A government-sponsored food program might be available to provide school children with a nutritionally balanced meal each day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If floods or erosion are a frequent cause of crop loss in your area, you should encourage efforts in flood and erosion control by farmers, with help from agricultural agents, which would improve the local food supply. (See Chapter 5).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where food supplies are threatened by loss during preservation and storage, improvement such as that detailed in the Peace Corps/VITA manual, <U>Small Farm Grain Storage</U> (see Chapter Sources), should be actively encouraged and supported by cooperative efforts with agricultural agents. Proper storage can reduce grain loss from 33% to 3% thus making an increased quantity of food available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In urban areas, nutritional problems are intensified by the fact that consumer goods compete for whatever money is earned, and often the family diet loses out in this competition. An approach to this problem could be to illustrate, by using a flannelgraph story in the health center, that the balanced nutritious diet improves weight, muscular strength, endurance, and capacity to work as well as resistance to disease All of these qualities would tend to increase a person's ability to compete successfully in his/her environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p039.png"></center><br>
+ <I>Flannelghaph demonstration</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps you could locate some land within the urban area which could be transformed into a community garden for supplementary food needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The health center should actively promote food cultivation as a health conservation measure. The health center must be the leader in suggesting and developing ideas to improve the community's nutrition. For an excellent book on the subject, see <U>Learning Better Nutrition </U>by Jean Ritchie/FAO (See Chapter Sources).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Sanitation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sanitation is the planning and application of measures to maintain a healthy environment. These measures should apply to water supply, sewage and garbage disposal, and control of disease-carrying insects and animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WATER SUPPLY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A community's water supply may come from a ground water well, a spring, a stream, a river or a lake. Unless there is a community-wide water purification system, whatever water there is should be considered to be a potential source of infection and parasites, because human or animal feces or urine, or other untreated sewage, often infect the supply. Therefore, water should be disinfected by each user. The most effective method of preventing water-carried infection and parasites is to boil the water hard for at least ten minutes. This kills bacteria and parasite eggs in the water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water purification can be done on a community-wide basis by adding chlorine or iodine to a water storage area. These methods are discussed in the Village Technology Handbook by VITA (See Chapter Sources).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A health center should be concerned with educating a community to develop a clean water source. This would involve educating people to (1) build and use latrines, not the river or lake; (2) put their garbage in compost piles not in or near the water supply; (3) not bathe in the water supply; (4) keep domestic animals out of the water supply; (5) Use erosion control techniques to keep topsoil from washing into the water supply. Other local sources of water contamination should be studied and remedied.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SEWAGE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sewage is the term used for human wastes. Sewage can be properly disposed of by use of latrines. Latrines can be built for each family, or one or several can be built for the community as a whole. A family is likely to keep its latrine clean, and is likely to use it; too often no one feels personal responsibility for keeping the community latrine clean or in good repair. Where possible, you should encourage people to build family rather than community latrines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pit Latrines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A pit latrine is basically a hand-dug hole in the ground, covered with a slab, preferably of concrete, either for squatting or with a seat. A shelter is built around it. Human wastes are isolated and stored in the pit latrine, so that no harmful bacteria or parasites can be passed on from the wastes to new hosts. In the pit, the wastes decompose, first into odorous ammonia products, then into nitrites and nitrates. This decomposition process generally kills the majority of harmful organisms. An exception is the hookworm's eggs which remain alive for up to five months in wet. sandy soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p041.png"></center><br>
+ Pit Latrines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hookworm larvae can climb up pit walls and survive on a cracked wooden or earth floor, and once there, they can be picked up by bare feet. It is highly recommended that a concrete slab provide the cover for the pit and that it be effectively and frequently flushed with water. Flies are common carriers of disease organisms found in feces. They crawl and feed on this material, which sticks to the flies' bodies, and which later to the flies' bodies, and which later may be deposited on human food, either directly or through the fly's feces. For this reason, it is important to try to discourage flies in a latrine. The best way to do this is to plan a well-ventilated, dark shelter, since flies do not like darkness, Use fine-mesh screening to cover openings if it is available. A 10% surface layer (2.5 cm) of borax has been found to discourage flies. Use of insecticides has been found to develop a fly population resistant to insecticide control. A cover for the nit opening in strongly suggested.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A health center should provide help and information about latrine building. The most complete source of information and directions is <U>Excreta Disposal for Rural and Small Communities</U>, published by WHO, portions of which appear in <U>Village Technology Handbook</U> by VITA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You should build a pit latrine at an easy distance from the home so as not to discourage its use. It should be down-hill from any ground water supply, in a dry, well-drained area, above flood level. Around the latrine, clear an area 2 m wide of all vegetation and debris, to discourage shelter for animals and insects. This may be done gradually, to gain acceptance of a latrine in a spot where the surrounding vegetation was formerly used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since each geographical area will have certain taboos about the collection and disposal of human waste, you will have to identify these before developing an acceptable solution. Privacy and the separation of the sexes may be important considerations. (Also see Appendix E).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GARBAGE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Garbage is basically food waste, but can also include other unwanted materials such as paper, cans, bottles. The more a community consumes, the more garbage to be disposed of.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From a conservation standpoint, food wastes should be returned to the soil as a compost material. This adds both nutrients and organic materials to the soil which will increase its fertility. See Appendix C, for information on making a compost pile. A compost pile can be a family or a community project. If there is space available outside a health center, a demonstration compost pile can be built with organic wastes from the community members. When the compost is ready for garden use, it can form the basis for a demonstration garden, or can be divided among the community members for their own garden use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-organic wastes such as metals or glass should be disposed of in a single community site, a large pit for example, to keep the community clean and free from litter. If possible, the disposal area should be visually separated from the community, either by distance or by a screen of plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Health</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A health center should also be concerned with the personal hygiene of its community members. It is hard to teach that there is danger from something which cannot be seen with one's own eyes. However, many of the health problems which affect people are invisible, either because the destructive organisms in the environment are too small to see without a microscope, or because the problems develop inside the body.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The health center should develop an education program which teaches the relationship of cleanliness to health. The washing of hands with soap and water before handling food; bathing to keep the body free from harmful bacteria; wearing sandals or shoes to prevent penetration of parasites through the soles of the feet; keeping the home swept and aired to discourage insect or bacteria breeding places; keeping farm animals out of the home, should all be part of a program to up-grade the health of the community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An effective method of demonstrating insect or parasitic-carried health problems might be to illustrate the cycle on a flannelgraph or flipchart. Two suggestions follow:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hookworm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hookworm is one of a number of nematodes, which is found in tropical and subtropical climates, and which lives as a bloodsucking parasite in the intestines of man.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1) the larvae of the hookworm live in moist soil which is contaminated by human feces. (2) They penetrate exposed skin, usually the soles of bare feet, and are carried by the blood stream (3) to the lungs, where they cause coughing, (4) are raised into the mouth with bloody mucous and are then swallowed (They can also be swallowed in polluted water.) (5) they then travel to the intestine where they attach themselves with "hooks" and feed on the body's blood supply. (6) A female hookworm can discharge 30,000 eggs a day into the human feces, (7) which will then further contaminate the soil and more people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a result of the loss of blood to an infestation of hookworm, a person will suffer anemia, abdominal pain, diarrhea and weakness which will make him/her susceptible to other diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In explaining this cycle of the hookworm, you can show that if a latrine is used, the soil will not be contaminated with hookworm eggs; if shoes or sandals are worn, the larvae cannot enter the soles of the foot; if water is boiled, live hookworm larvae will not be swallowed. If a person has bloody mucous, he should go to the health center to be treated with drugs which will kill the hookworms. Each of these actions will break the hookworm's life cycle, and will help to destroy it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p043.png"></center><br>
+ A Situation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schistosomiasis Cycle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p044.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 3 (NOTE: NOT TO SCALE)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schistosomiasis</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is a parasitic disease caused by blood flukes, and is found in Asia, Africa, the West Indies, South America, and some Pacific islands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1) the eggs of the blood fluke are found in water, deposited there from urine and feces of infested humans. (2) The eggs hatch and penetrate the feet of snails where (3) they develop into a new form and are discharged into the water. (4) The larvae are then free-swimming until they come into contact with persons who work in, who bathe in, swim in, or otherwise come into contact with the infested water. (The larvae can also be swallowed in polluted water). (5) The larvae penetrate the person's skin and are carried through the blood stream to the bowel, bladder, liver, genitals, lungs, spinal chord and other tissues where they attach themselves. (6) The larvae develop into mature flukes which rob these tissues of the blood they need. (7) Eggs of the mature fluke are passed out in the feces and urine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The disease results in general weakening and eventual death.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In explaining this cycle of the blood fluke, you can show that if a latrine is used, the water will not become contaminated with blood fluke eggs. If people do not bathe in infested waters, or do not do irrigation work without rubber boots, or do not drink untreated water, the fluke larvae will not enter their bodies. Each of these actions will break the blood fluke's life cycle, and will help to destroy it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the hookworm or the blood fluke are not health problems in your area, then perhaps you can identify another disease which is carried in a similar fashion, and whose cycle could be broken by improving the environmental conditions of the human population of your area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents not only destroy food crops and stored grain, they also carry fleas which in turn carry diseases. Certain rat fleas carry typhus and bubonic plague, and fleas also transmit several species of tapeworm. There are chemical methods to control such rodents as rats and mice. You can also alter their environment, which will discourage or reduce their population. Keep your community free from trash, litter and debris where rodents can hide and nest. Make your grain storage rodent-proof as illustrated in the Peace Corps manual, <U>Small Farm Grain Storage</U>. Most especially, encourage the protection of the predators of rats and mice. These may be birds such as hawks and owls, or they may be any of a large number of harmless snakes. You should learn to identify which snakes are beneficial and not harmful to people. The health center might display pictures of those birds and snakes which help eliminate rodents, or you might be able to keep a harmless, helpful snake as an education aid (see Appendix F. Live Animals). Encourage people to see the snake as a friend by explaining what he eats, by showing with pictures how he is different from harmful snakes, and by generally developing an atmosphere of trust toward the animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The health center's decision to develop or support a program to educate the community in some aspect of environmental health, should be based on what the specific problems of your area are. Perhaps instead of disease or nutrition, it is the mental health of the community which is suffering from the stress of a crowded and competitive urban environment. Perhaps air pollution is severe enough to cause lung or skin damage, and needs to be explained. The community should be alerted to those aspects of its environment which can cause harm to its members, and should be shown how to improve their health by making beneficial changes in the environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Source material - Chapter 3</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almanac of rural living<SUP>1</P>
+</U></SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harvey C. Neese</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N &amp; N Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 332</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Troy, Idaho 83871, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Conseils de sant&eacute; &agrave; la famille africaine</U><SUP>2</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Peace Corps information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program &amp; Graining Journal, Reprint series #21</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room M-1214</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Avenue N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20525, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developpons la consomation de proteins</U><SUP>3</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in English &amp; Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Nutritional Studies series Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations available from FAO agents world-wide; or Distribution &amp; Sales Section, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donde no hay doctor</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Werner</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editorial Pax-Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Libreria Carlos Cesarman, S.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calle Rep. Argentine #9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Educacion alimentaria en la escuela primaria</U><SUP>3</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in French &amp; English)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Nutrition Studies series #25</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations available from FAO agents world-wide; or Distribution &amp; Sales Section, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eliminemos la rata</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in English)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vecinos mundiales</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volumen 6 - numero 35</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5116 North Portland Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Engineering measures for control of schistosomiasis</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of Health</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bureau of Technical Assistance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agency for international Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20523, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excreta disposal for rural areas &amp; small communities</U><SUP>4</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Health Organization</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geneva, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Freshwater fish </U>p<U>ond culture &amp; mana</U>g<U>ement</U><SUP>5</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Peace Corps/VITA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program &amp; Training Journal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manual series number 1B</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VITA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3706 Rhode island Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mt. Rainier, Md. 20822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Handbook of tropical &amp; subtropical horticulture</U><SUP>1</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in French &amp; Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture Technical Services Desk</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agency for international Development available from the AID office of U.S. Embassies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Health education: A study unit on fecal-borne diseases and </U>parasites</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Peace Corps Information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program &amp; Training Journal Reprint series #1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room M-1214</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Avenue N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20525, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Health training resource material for Peace Corps Volunteers</U><SUP>2</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Peace Corps Information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program &amp; Training Journal Reprint series #3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room M-1214</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">804 Connecticut Avenue N.W</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D. C. 20525, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human nutrition in tropical Africa</U><SUP>3</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Nutritional Studies series</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations available from FAO agents world-wide; or Distribution &amp; Sales Section, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Infant nutrition in tropics &amp; sub-tropics</U><SUP>4</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Derrick Jelliffe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WHO publication</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geneva, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Le lait et les produits laitiers dans la nutrition humaine</U><SUP>3</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in Spanish and English)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Nutrition Studies series #</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations available from FAO agents world-wide; or Distribution &amp; Sales Section, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Learning better nutrition</U><SUP>3</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Nutritional studies series #20</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jean Ritchie/Food &amp; Agriculture Organization of the United Nations available from FAO agents world-wide; or Distribution &amp; Sales Section FAO, Via delle Term di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La leche y los productos lacteos en la nutricion</U><SUP>3</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in French and English)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Nutrition Studies series #27</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations available from FAO agents world-wide; or Distribution &amp; Sales Section, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let's get rid of rats</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Neighbors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volume 6 - Number 3E</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5116 North Portland Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Manual didactico: Huertos escolares y nutricion</U><SUP>2</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Peace Corps Information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program &amp; Training Journal Reprint series #18</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room M-1214</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Avenue N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D. C. 20525, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mejor salud mediante esfuerzo comunal</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in English)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vecinos mundiales</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volumen 8 - numero 1S</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5116 North Portland Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutricion infantil en los </U>paises<U> en desarrollo</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Derrick Jelliffe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editorial Limusa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arcos de Belen 75</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexico 1, D. F., Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sewage lagoons for developing countries</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ideas &amp; Methods Exchange #62</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AID/HUD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of International Affairs Department of Housing and Urban Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D. C. 2041 0, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Small farm grain storage</U><SUP>2</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Peace Corps/VITA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program &amp; Graining Journal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manual Series number 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VITA 3706</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rhode Island Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mt. Rainier, Md. 20822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solar cooker construction manual</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in French &amp; Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VITA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3706 Rhode Island Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mt. Rainier, Md. 20822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village technology handbook</U><SUP>1</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3706 Rhode island Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mt. Rainier, Md. 20822, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water supply for rural areas and small communities</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Health Organization</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geneva, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(See also Source Materials for Chapter 4)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</SUP>Up to five copies available to Peace Corps libraries from:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room M-1214</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Avenue N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D. C, 20535, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</SUP>Multiple copies available from:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Technical Information Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5285 Port Royal Road</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Springfield, Va. 22161, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3</SUP>English editions of UN and FAO publications available from:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNIPUB</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. O. Box 433</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murray Hills Station</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, New York, 10016, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</SUP>WHO publications available from:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Q Corporation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">49 Sheridan Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albany, New York 12210, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Available to Peace Corps Volunteers from:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room M-1214</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Avenue N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20525, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Single copies available to individuals and non-profit organizations working in the Third World, from the above address.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Chapter 4: Conservation education in an agricultural extension center</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation education began, historically, as <I>soil</I> conservation to improve agricultural techniques and crops. Although now, as we know, conservation deals with all things in our environment, the conservation of soil is more essential than ever to produce healthy, nutritious crops for a rapidly growing world population, and to produce timber and other cash crops for economic benefits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A government agricultural service is established, often together with a forestry service, to identify, analyze and solve the problems of agricultural development of a region. Besides dealing with the raising of livestock, many of these problems deal with identifying the chemical properties of the soil such as its pH factor (is the soil acid, neutral or alkaline) and the nutrients the soil has or lacks, the kinds of crops best suited for the soil and climate, and how to irrigate, grow, store and market crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If a community does not have an agricultural center, conservation education concepts can be brought to the community by visiting agricultural extension workers. Either alone or in cooperation with the school or the health center (or visiting health worker), the agricultural worker can develop a program to improve the community's diet and its food-producing environment. (See also Chapters 2,3 and 5).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Soil conservation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The purpose of soil conservation is to slow the loss of topsoil by wind and water erosion, and to prevent the loss of nutrients by erosion and crop-growing practices These two problems together are called <I>soil deterioration</I>. At the agricultural extension center you should make a major effort not only to advise the community how to improve its agricultural techniques, but to explain why there are problems of soil deterioration, how they developed and how they affect all things living in that environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Erosion</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water erosion always removes soil downward from its original site, perhaps all the way to the ocean floor, while wind erosion may move soil in any direction. These are both natural processes, but they can be accelerated when people disturb the surface of the earth by such things as crop cultivation, forest cutting, overgrazing, road construction, etc. Nearly every semi-arid area in the world with cultivation or long established grazing patterns, and every tropical and subtropical hilly region with established human settlements feels the effects of accelerated erosion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TYPES OF WATER EROSION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheet erosion </I>is the removal of a thin, even layer of topsoil from the entire surface of an area which has been prepared for seeding or was recently seeded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rill erosion </I>occurs during heavy rains when the flowing water cuts small channels into the soil and the water runoff is concentrated in them, carrying away large quantities of soil and nutrients. This will often happen between down-hill rows of cultivation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gully erosion </I>occurs when the water runoff is great enough and the soil soft enough to cut large V or U-shaped trenches which are repeatedly enlarged and deepened by water action. Because of the great physical changes this produces on the land, this is the most serious kind of water erosion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p054a.png"></center><br>
+ GULLIES FORMED BY WATER EROSION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p054b.png"></center><br>
+ WIND EROSION - soil particles being blown by wind </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WIND EROSION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of erosion is particularly common in arid areas of the world where there is little vegetation to break the wind or hold the soil in place. The wind picks up the surface of the soil and moves it from place to place. Large quantities of soil can be moved in this way. Sandy soils are more likely to be blown, as in sand storms, but if a silt or clay soil has been broken up, the fine particles can be carried by the wind for hundreds of miles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Erosion control methods</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Prepare the soil and plant the crops on the contours of the land, not at angles to it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Keep the land covered with a crop or ground cover at all times, if possible, to hold the soil against wind and water erosion, and to increase the water absorbed into the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. If possible, keep the remains of the old crop on the surface of the soil to hold the soil in place and break the wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. To slow the downhill force of water, build terraces with gentle grades around the hill contours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p055.png"></center><br>
+ Erosion Control: Planting along the contours of the land</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Sand dunes which are moved by wind action can be stopped by plantings of grasses on the windward side. When the grasses are established, further Plantings can be tried.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Rows of wind resistant trees can be planted in an area of strong winds, between or at the edge of fields, to reduce the wind's force on the soil surface.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Timber cutting should be done selectively so as to leave a large number of trees standing to hold the soil in place. Cut trees should be replaced with seedling trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Results of erosion</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An area of high erosion with little vegetation to absorb and hold water will drain water off; communities downstream will receive a high volume of water all at once - perhaps a flood - followed by a low volume of water or none at all. If the area upstream were able to absorb and hold the water for more gradual release into the streams and rivers, communities downstream would receive a more uniform volume of water over a longer period of time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other results from erosion can be seen in the rivers downstream from eroding watersheds: surface soil is deposited in increasing amounts on river beds, causing navigation channels to fill and eventually changing the course of the rivers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serious social consequences result from soil erosion. As a result of the loss of the most productive soil layers, income and nutritive value of crops decline and the community fails to reach its full potential for productivity and vitality. Falling income as a result of soil deterioration means that a farmer has less money to spend on his farm problems, and his family's nutrition - and thus its health - will suffer. In communities where this has happened, short life expectancy and nutritional and other diseases are common. This type of community represents a drain on a nation's resources, whereas if it were able to improve its nutritional and agricultural deficiencies, it could be contributing to the nation's resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where people and nature cause erosion to change the environment by cutting a forest, filling a stream with silt, overgrazing of open lands or cultivating crops in an inappropriate manner - all the wildlife of the region will suffer. If their habitat can no longer provide them with the necessary food and shelter, they will have to find a new habitat, or die. Each animal has a special position in the area's food chain, and if it leaves the region or dies out, all other animals which depend on it will suffer. Often wildlife (mammal, reptile, bird or fish) is a source of food for a human community; this food source will disappear as its habitat disappears.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Control of nutrient loss</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The loss of nutrients occurs both when nutrient-rich soil is lost through erosion, and when crops use up the nutrients as they grow. If nutrients are not returned to the soil by rotation of the types of crops, or by the addition of organic or chemical fertilizer, the crops which are grown will become increasingly small and less nutritious.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Erosion control</I> is the first step to take to avoid the loss of such nutrients as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, the primary or macronutrients, and calcium, magnesium and sulfur, the secondary nutrients, which are found in the nutrient-rich topsoil. The ideal way to provide erosion control is to keep the land completely covered with a crop, as in pasture fields, so that no soil is exposed. Where wind erosion is a problem, it will help to lay a straw mulch over the cultivated soil surface. Where water erosion is a problem, farmers should plow fields on the contour of the land. Alternating rows of different crops on the contour are helpful in water erosion control.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crops rotation, </I>in which a succession of different crops is planted on the same land, is a good way to reduce or replace nutrient loss. Plant roots absorb nutrients from the soil, aided by water and root extension. Each plant crop has different nutritional requirements and when a single crop, such as corn, is planted year after year, it eventually uses up all the supply of its required nutrient which the soil held.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The farmer can replace lost nitrogen by including a legume crop such as beans, peanuts, alfalfa or clover in his rotation, The extensive root system of these legumes contains nodules of nitrogen which enters the soil. Additional organic benefits occur when the top growth (green manure) is plowed back into the soil. If the farmer follows a legume crop with such good cash crops as corn, potatoes, cotton or sugar beets, they will do well, because they need nitrogen for good growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fertilizing </I>will also improve the yield of a farmer's crop and the nutrition of his food. Fertilizer can be organic (from decaying living matter) or chemical. Decomposing organic matter has the added benefit of holding soil particles together during the decomposing process to make a soil which resists water erosion. Organic fertilizers can be animal manures, compost green manures (the un-needed green part of a crop), and other left-over crop materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chemical fertilizers such as ammonium Phosphate, ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulfate and potash can be added, based on the crop, the soil analysis, the climate and the available equipment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Methods of fertilizing include spreading fertilizer over the soil surface, placing it with each seed, placing it along the length of a seed row, and plowing it into the soil. In arid areas, plowing the fertilizer deeply into the soil is recommended because fertilizers need moisture to be effective. If the fertilizer is on the dry surface of the soil the plant roots cannot absorb its nutrients.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The farmer should provide, through the use of fertilizer, additional nutrients to the crop-growing soil to improve the quality of the nutrition of his crops, because as we have seen in the Health Center Chapter (Chapter 3), nutritional deficiencies are a serious problem everywhere in the world. By helping to improve the agricultural process, an agricultural extension center is improving the health of the community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil improvements are not the only ways in which a community's nutrition can be improved. An agricultural extension center can develop a program to introduce such small and easily raised animals as chickens or rabbits to provide animal protein in the local diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the community has a health center, a cooperative effort should be made with it to develop these and other methods to improve nutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An education program in cooperation with the local school could teach the children the basic principles of soil conservation and habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They could be shown how to make soil and habitat studies (see Appendix A) which could then be displayed in the agricultural extension center. They could help to landscape the community with plant materials provided by the center, or grown under its direction. They could undertake a small reforestation project (see Chapter Sources) or they could make a model garden using principles of soil conservation, as a community demonstration project (see Appendix C and Chapter Sources).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p058.png"></center><br>
+ Agricultural action</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Source materials - Chapter 4</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aprendiendo a criar conejos</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in English)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vecinos Mundiales</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volumen 8 - numero 2S</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5116 North Portland Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Okla. 73112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Better Farming Series</U><SUP>1</SUP> (8 titles dealing with plants and soil)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations available from FAO agents world-wide; or Distribution 5 Sales Section, FAO, Via delle Terme de Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commercial rabbit raising</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture Handbook No. 309</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural Research Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hyattsville, Md. 20782, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contour ditches help conserve our soil</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Neighbors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volume 6 - number 2E</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5116 North Portland Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Okla. 73112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cria de ganado en granjas pequenas</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural Bulletin #2224</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agency for International Development available from the AID office of U.S. Embassies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cria y explotacion del guajolote</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circular DAGEM #35</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Departamento de Divulgacion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Direccion de Agricultura 7 Ganaderia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Independencia 401 Pte </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toluca, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La crianza de peces en estangues</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in English)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vecinos Mundiales</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volumen 5 - numero 2S</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5116 North Portland Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Okla. 73112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farm implements for arid &amp; tropical regions</U><SUP>1</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Agricultural Development Paper #91</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">available from FAO agents world-wide; or Distribution &amp; Sales Section, FAO, Via delle Terme de Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Freshwater fish pond culture &amp; management</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Peace Corps/VITA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program 5 Training Journal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manual series number 1B</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VITA 3806</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rhode island Ave</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mt. Rainier, Md. 20822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Guide for field crops in tropics and sub-tropics</U><SUP>2</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Peace Corps information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program &amp; Training Journal Reprint series #10</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room M- 1214</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Ave. N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20525, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Improved practices in corn production - A guide for Peace Corps Volunteers</U><SUP>2</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Peace Corps Information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program &amp; Training Journal Reprint series #7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room M-1214</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Ave. N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20525, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Irrigation principles &amp; practices</U><SUP>2</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Peace Corps Information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program &amp; Training Journal Reprint series #5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room M-1214</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Ave. N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D. C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Learn to raise rabbits</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Neighbors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volume 3 - number 2E</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5116 North Portland Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Okla. 73112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marketing eggs &amp; poultry</U><SUP>1</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in French &amp; Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marketing Guide #4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations available from FAO agents world-wide; or Distribution &amp; Sales Section, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Pesticides</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Resource Packet #3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room M-1214</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Ave. N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D. C. 20525, USA</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plantacion de arboles frutales</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circular DAGEM #34</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Departamento de Divulgacion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Direccion de Agricultura 7 Ganaderia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Independencia 401 Pte</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toluca, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plantas necesitan tierra fertil</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in English)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vecinos mundiales</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volumen 6 - numero 15</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5116 North Portland Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Okla. 73112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Produzca su propia fruta</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in English)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vecinos mundiales</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volumen 7 - numero 15</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5116 North Portland Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Okla. 73112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Reforestation in arid lands</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Peace Corps/VITA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program &amp; Training Journal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manual series number 5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VITA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3706 Rhode Island Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mt. Rainier, Md. 20822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smaller farmlands can yield more</U><SUP>1</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in French &amp; Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Food Problems #6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations available from FAO agents world-wide; or Distribution &amp; Sales section, FAO, Via delle Terme de Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Soil. crops &amp; fertilizer use</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Peace Corps information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program &amp; Training Journal, Reprint Series #8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room M-1214</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Ave. N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20525, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil &amp; water conservation in Barbados</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4-H Division Extension Services</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ministry of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbados</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sols argileux fonc&eacute;s des r&eacute;gions tropicales</U><SUP>1</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in English &amp; Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Agricultural Development Paper #83</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations available from FAO agents world-wide; or Distribution &amp; Sales Section, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100, Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil Conservation Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20250</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publications :</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation &amp; the water cycle, A1B-326</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Controlling erosion on construction sites, A1B-347</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Facts about wind erosion &amp; dust storms on the Great Plains, L-394</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grass makes its own food, A1B-223</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Know your soil, A1B-267</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More wildlife through soil &amp; water conservation, AB-175</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sediment: it's filling harbors, lakes &amp; roadside ditches, A1B-325</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teaching soil &amp; water conservation: A classroom &amp; field guide, PA-341</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil erosion: The work of uncontrolled water, A1B-260</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is a farm conservation plan? PA-629</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is a watershed? PA-420</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Windbreaks for conservation, A1B-339</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</SUP>English editions of UN &amp; FAO publications available from:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNIPUB</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 433</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murray Hills Station</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, N.Y. 10016, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2</SUP>Multiple copies available from:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Technical Information Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5285 Port Royal Road</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Springfield, Va. 22161, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Available to Peace Corps Volunteers from:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room M-1214</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Age, N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20525, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">**Single copies available to individuals and non-profit organizations working in the Third World, from the above address</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Chapter 5: Conservation education in a community center</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A community center is an excellent place to provide conservation education. The specific problems of the area which your community center may be trying to deal with. such as improvements in health, nutrition, agricultural production, sanitation and marketable resources, can frequently be treated from an environmental point of view. When you identify the relationships between the problem and the environment, you can begin to solve the problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If your community center provides the only public service in the community, perhaps you and your community members could decide together on an environmental program which would be of community-wide interest and benefit. You should then invite government extension teachers and workers in conservation areas such as sanitation, nutrition, health, forestry, agriculture or wildlife conservation to visit your community and to suggest ways of developing your chosen program,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If government extension workers are not available, then you may find appropriate ideas for programs in this manual. For suggestions about health and agriculture programs see Chapters 3 and 4, and Appendix C. If your community center is working with the local school, or is in fact the adult education school, the school conservation program in Chapter 2 can be used, or adapted for use in either situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you feel that the community is not aware enough of the value of wildlife to the region, Chapter 1 and Appendix A &amp; F may give you ideas on how to introduce ideas related to this subject. Perhaps the community is unaware of the variety of its plant or animal life, or the rareness of some of these living things. Your community center could undertake an identification or protection program (Appendix G) which would involve community members,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Cooperative programs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If there are other public service centers in your community, the community center might plan and coordinate programs which are environmentally related. You might bring the nutritional health worker and the agricultural extension worker together on a program to develop a community garden or a small animal raising project. You might bring the sanitation worker and the health worker together to provide water purification education, or to develop a latrine-building program. You could plan a program of cooperation between the school and any of the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- forestry worker</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- wildlife ranger</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- health worker</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- agricultural extension agent</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- sanitation worker</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- home economics extension worker</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggest that the school children develop exhibits (see Appendix A and Chapter 2) based on their studies and investigations, and provide display space for them in the community center. Use the community center for a conservation science fair which will be a school project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Leadership training</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important aspect of any community effort which you undertake, either alone, or in cooperation with an extension worker or other public service center, is the development of local leadership among men, women, and young people, since leadership is necessary for effective community action. You should select people to work with you in planning and developing your programs. who have concern for their community and its members, and who have hope and interest in their future. These people should then be given the responsibility to carry out a part or all of a program, with guidance and direction available when necessary from you or the specialists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The community environment</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Your community center can start a project to make the community a more attractive environment. Plants and flowers can be grown and placed around the center building, or elsewhere in the community as a demonstration project. Members of the community can be encouraged to grow similar plants or flowers for their homes. Try to obtain native plant or flower seeds from a government agriculture service or collect them from wild plants and flowers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggestions in Appendix C may help you to make or improve an existing garden or park where space is available. You might provide space in a community garden for adult games, as well as climbing materials for children such as rocks or logs. A feature such as a bird bath (Appendix F) might also be considered to add interest to a garden space.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- A community tree-planting project could be planned if you can get seedling tree donations and instructions for care from the government agricultural agent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- You can encourage the community to look at the beauty of its environment by providing for a rest stop in an attractive place (Appendix E).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- You might propose a community or school project to provide a number of litter cans to be placed around the community. Empty oil or kerosene cans can be cleaned, painted, decorated, or lettered with a message Part of the project must be the continued collection of litter from the cans, and its dumping in a planned disposal place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Projects which visibly improve the quality of your community's environment will encourage those same qualities which are necessary for conservation action at any level: <I>awareness, understanding, respect and responsibility.</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p067.png"></center><br>
+ Community tree-planting project</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Source materials - Chapter 5</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Audio-visual aids for cooperative education &amp; training</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in French &amp; Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Agricultural Development Paper #86</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations available from FAO agents world-wide; or Distribution &amp; Sales Section FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Better health through community effort</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Neighbors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volume 8 - number 1E</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5116 North Portland Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Okla. 75112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guide for extension training</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in French &amp; Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations available from FAO agents world-wide; or Distribution &amp; Sales Section, FAO, Via delle Terme de Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mejor salud mediante esfuerzo comunal</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in English)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vecinos Mundiales</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volumen 8- numero 15</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5116 North Portland Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Okla. 73112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Neighbors around the world work to improve home &amp; community</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Neighbors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volume 8 - number 4E</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5116 North Portland Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Okla. 73112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Podemos proveer mas aqua</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(also available in English)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vecinos Mundiales</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volumen 5 - numero 15</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5116 North Portland Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Okla 73112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix A: Exhibit and study materials</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The exhibits of a conservation center are chiefly devoted to explaining and interpreting what is taking place outdoors in your particular region. The exhibits should be specific, interpretive and built around a concept or theme. Such devices as charts, posters, maps, collections, specimens and models can be used to provide instruction and guidance to the visitors who come to the center.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this Appendix you will find a number of suggestions for exhibit models, collections, visual aids, conservation concepts, and conservation studies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You may pick and choose among these things according to your needs, and materials available to you and your budget, but bear in mind that substitution and adaptation of these suggestions should always be considered and is encouraged</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Visitor participation exhibits</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exhibit: <I>Relationships in Nature</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This revolving-wheel display directly involves the visitor in the discovery of natural relationships. By turning the wheel he/she can point an arrow at one of seven illustrations. At the base of the arrow a reading window will reveal a card which tells about the illustration. For example, when a visitor turns the arrow to the illustration of the sun, he/she will read that "the sun provides the heat and light needed by all living things". As he/she moves the arrow to other illustrations, more relationships will be described through the reading window.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p070.png"></center><br>
+ Relationships in nature</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Illustrations</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. the sun</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. grain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. insect</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. frog</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. snake</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. hawk</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. dead bird</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. insect</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Text for cards</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. The sun provides the heat and light needed by all living things.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Plants use sunlight, water and soil to grow. plant leaves give oxygen and water to the air.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 Most insects are plant eaters. Some of them help to return dead plant material to the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Frogs and toads are insect eaters. There would be many more insects without insect eaters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Snakes eat frogs and toads. Snakes will live where there are frogs to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Hawks hunt for snakes and other small animals. Since hawks can fly, their hunting area is very large.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. When an animal like this bird dies, its body is used by other animals, or it returns to the soil to enrich it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Grain grows better and stronger in soil rich in nutrients.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. People need good plentiful grain to be strong and healthy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p071.png"></center><br>
+ Illustrations for revolving wheel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p072.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p073.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Figure 6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p074a.png"></center><br>
+ Details</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p074b.png"></center><br>
+ Detail of circle and window</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 board of medium plywood 100 cm x 100 cm OR heavy cardboard 100 cm x 100 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 board of medium plywood 100 cm x 125 cm OR heavy cardboard 100 cm x 125 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 strong bolt 5.5 cm with nut</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 6 washers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 arched door handle OR 1 wooden knob</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 or 2 screws</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- small nails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- assorted enamel paints</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 9 white cards 5 cm x 10 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Take board 100 cm x 100 cm and cut out a 70  cm circle from the corner.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Cut arrow 5 cm x 50 cm from extra wood from 100 cm x 100 cm board.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Cut display title strip 80 cm x 5 cm from extra wood from 100 cm x 100 cm board. (Title can also be lettered directly on base after base is painted.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Paint the various parts: the base board, 100 cm x 125 cm might be dark green, the circle a lighter green, the arrow red.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Transfer outline drawings to the base board as shown in Fig. S. Use black ink outline, or paint in natural colors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Type or print text on cards. Nail or glue cards on base, directly opposite the corresponding illustration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Cut a 5 cm x 10 cm reading window in the circle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Drill a hole for the bolt through the center of the arrow, the center of the circle and the center of the board.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Attach the handle or knob to the arrow with screws.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Nail the arrow with small-nails to the circle so that the base of the arrow is directly above the reading window.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. Pass the bolt through the arrow and circle, place washer(s) between the circle and the base; pass the bolt through the base; add washer(s) and the nut. Test the turning of the circle. Add washers till it turns easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exhibit: <I>What Makes Soil</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This exhibit is a peep-hole box. By looking in the various peepholes, the visitor will see a series of pictures of the animals which work to make soil on and beneath the surface. The exhibit tries to reproduce a cross-section of the soil by this technique. The box has descriptive "wings" which contain information about the three levels of soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Illustrations </U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Top level: Millipede, Fungi, Beetle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle level: Earthworm, Mole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bottom level: Water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p076.png"></center><br>
+ Picture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Figure 7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p077a.png"></center><br>
+ MILLIPEDE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p077b.png"></center><br>
+ BEETLE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p077c.png"></center><br>
+ FUNGI</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Figure 8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p078a.png"></center><br>
+ WORM</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p078b.png"></center><br>
+ MOLE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 2 plywood boards 100 cm x 150 cm OR 2 heavy cardboard sheets 100 cm x 150 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 4 plywood boards 50 cm x 100 cm OR 4 heavy cardboard sheets 50 cm x 100 cm </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-1 plywood board 50 cm x 150 cm OR 1 heavy cardboard sheet 50 cm x 150 cm </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 6 bamboo tubes 25 cm long, 2.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-3 cm diameter </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 12 wood blocks 5 cm x 5 cm x 10 cm </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 6 panes of glass*, frosted or covered with a thin coat of white paint, 20 cm x 20 cm </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 24 corner braces to hold glass </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 4 medium hinges </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 2 hooks and eyes </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- enamel paint (optional): small amounts of grey, reddish brown, brown; tan for entire box</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Alternatives to the glass panes, especially if you are using cardboard could be:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Translucent polyethelene sheet, cut to size </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Transparent polyethelene sheet made translucent by rubbing with fine sandpaper </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Thin white paper </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- White cloth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The illustrations could be transferred and inked directly onto these materials, which could be taped over the openings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure:</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Measure and cut square holes 19.5 cm x 19.5 cm in one board 100 cm x 150 cm as in Figure 9. This will be the back panel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Place the other 100 cm x 150 cm board under the back panel, and mark the position for the viewing holes on the front panel so that they will be in the middle of each rear square.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Cut or drill the holes for the viewing tubes in the front panel; attach the wooden blocks at top and bottom of holes to support tubes; place tubes in position so that they point directly at each corresponding glass.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Assemble the box and paint tan (optional).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Letter the information on Figure 10 onto the fold-out wings and attach them to the box with hinges. Attach hooks &amp; eyes to keep wings in position.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p080.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Figure 10</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p081a.png"></center><br>
+ VIEW OF OUTSIDE OF REAR PANEL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p081b.png"></center><br>
+ VIEW OF INSIDE DISPLAY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p081c.png"></center><br>
+ SIDE - REAR VIEW</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p082a.png"></center><br>
+ Rain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Glue paper drawings of illustrations with their names, to the panes of glass; attach panes to rear panel with corner braces: top level: Millipede, Fungi, Beetle middle level: Earthworm, Mole bottom level: Water (use illustration of raindrops).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Place box at a window where light will shine through rear panel openings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exhibit: Hidden Uses of a Forest</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The purpose of this exhibit is to show the varied environmental benefits from a forest. This exhibit consists of a large picture of forest trees on a board. Hidden under lift-up panels are written a number of benefits the environment receives from a forest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 medium plywood board 75 cm x 100 cm OR heavy cardboard 75 cm x 100 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 7 medium plywood covers 5 cm x 10 cm OR 7 cardboard covers 5 cm x 10 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 sign strip 5 cm x 60 cm, plywood OR sign lettered onto cardboard</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 sign strip 10 cm x 30 cm, plywood OR sign lettered onto cardboard</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 14 lengths of leather lacing, 15 cm each OR 14 lengths of string, 15 cm each</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- paint: green (leaves), brown (trunks and ground), blue (water) light blue (sky) black (roots, signs), yellow (sun), white</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 7 white cards, 5 cm x 10 cm for text under covers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: 1 plywood board 90 cm x 100 cm is sufficient for all parts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Using a grid enlarge Fig. 11 onto the 75 cm x 100 cm board.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Drill 3 mm holes in the 7 covers and the main board as shown in Figure 11 and below.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p082b.png"></center><br>
+ Main board</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p082c.png"></center><br>
+ Cover</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p083.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 11</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Paint the board picture as indicated under "paint" above.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Type or print text on cards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Paint the covers:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A = White</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B = Brown/Blue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C = Yellow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D = </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brown/White</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E = Brown</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F = Yellow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G = Brown</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Paint text on signs (black paint).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Paint black question mark (?) and letter on covers as in Figure 11.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Glue or nail signs to main board as in Figure 11.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Attach covers to main board by weaving the lacing or string through the drilled holes and tying a knot at the back as shown above.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Glue text cards under covers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Text</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A = MAKES OXYGEN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B = HOLDS MOISTURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C = MAKES ANIMAL FOOD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D = SHADES THE GROUND</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E = MAKES NEW SOIL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F = MAKES ANIMAL HOMES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G = HOLDS THE SOIL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 cm x 60 cm sign strip = HIDDEN USES OF A FOREST</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10 cm x 30 cm sign strip = FORESTS GIVE MORE THAN JUST LUMBER</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exhibit: <I>Why Do We Need Trees on Hillsides?</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This exhibit shows how trees hold rainwater by using a tilt-board on which nails suggest trees and marbles suggest rain water. When the board is tipped the visitor sees that where there are many nails (trees) the flow of rainwater (marbles) is slowed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials Needed</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 plywood board 65 cm x 109 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 2 pieces of wood 2 cm x 2 cm x 5 cm (part D)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 triangular block of wood 15 cm x 15 cm x 40 cm long</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 100 nails 5 cm long OR 100 slender sticks of wood or bamboo 6 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 12-15 marbles OR cowrie shells, round stones, round beans</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- green enamel paint</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Optional: brown paint sheet of glass or plastic to cover top)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Cut a piece of plywood 50 cm x 75 cm for the main board.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. From the remaining piece of plywood cut:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">part A - 3 strips 5 cm x 75 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">part B - 2 strips 5 cm x 50 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">part C - 2 strips 2 cm x 42 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">part E - 1 piece 20 cm x 50 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Attach A and B at the board's sides with nails to form an edge around the board, and to divide it up the middle. See Figure 12.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Attach the two strip C on the bottom of the board to form parallel strips, then nail part D, the 2 cm x 2 cm x 5 cm wood pieces at each end so the board will stay on the triangle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Label end board (part E) with text and nail into place, as in Fig. 12.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Hammer many nails approximately 1 cm into one side of the divider and only a few nails on the other side.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Figure 12</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WHY DO WE NEED TREE ON HILLSIDES?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p086a.png"></center><br>
+ SIDE ELEVATION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p086b.png"></center><br>
+ TOP VIEW</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p086c.png"></center><br>
+ BOTTOM VIEW</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p086d.png"></center><br>
+ BASE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Paint the board green.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Optional: Add streaks of brown paint to the side with few nails to look like rain washing soil away. Glue balls of cotton colored green to the nails to look more like trees; Cover the top of the board with glass or plastic to protect marbles and keep out dust.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Place the tilt-board on the triangle, on a surface approximately 75 cm high.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Text for end board:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TREES HOLD WATER ON HILLSIDES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marbles = Water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nails = Trees</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Text for questions </U>to be placed (on cards) next to exhibit:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- IF THE WATER RUNS OFF QUICKLY DOES IT CARRY AWAY TOPSOIL AND LEAVE DEEP GULLIES?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- IF THE WATER SINKS INTO THE GROUND DOES IT HELP KEEP THE SPRINGS RUNNING AND THE WELLS FULL?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- TREES ON SLOPES ACT AS SMALL DAMS. HAVE YOU EVER NOTICED THE WAY SOIL WASHING DOWNHILL IS CAUGHT BY TREE TRUNKS?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other ways to make the board tilt</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Use two v-notched blocks, 10 cm high, in each of which pivots a section of bamboo nailed to a piece of wood secured to the bottom of the main board.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p087a.png"></center><br>
+ SIDE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p087b.png"></center><br>
+ FRONT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Nail 4 cm x 4 cm angle brackets, with the corners facing up, to an 8 cm x 10 cm wood block 40 cm long. Place tilt-board groove (part C) over angle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p088a.png"></center><br>
+ SIDE</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Onto an 8 cm x 10 cm x 40 cm block of wood, nail off-center a piece 2 cm x 2 cm x 40 cm. Against this piece lean a length 2 cm x 4 cm x 40 cm and nail also to the block. Place tilt board groove (Part C) over angle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p088b.png"></center><br>
+ SIDE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exhibit: <I>Animal Skin Guessing Game</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is a battery-powered game board in which the visitor tries to match an animal skin sample (which he can touch) to a picture of the appropriate animal. This is done by touching battery charged wires to the metal bolt placed next to the skin sample and the metal bolt placed next to the correct picture of the animal. When the wires touch the correctly matched bolts, a small light bulb will turn on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can use these directions to develop any kind of matching game.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p089a.png"></center><br>
+ FRONT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p089b.png"></center><br>
+ BACK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 wooden board 60 cm x 80 cm (painted, whitewashed if desired) OR 1 heavy cardboard 60 cm x 80 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 8 wooden squares 15 cm x 15 cm OR 8 heavy cardboard squares 15 cm x 15 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 4 animal skin samples</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 4 pictures of animals corresponding to skins (sketches, photographs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 8 heavy metal bolts and nuts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 24 metal washers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 6 meters (approx.) electrical wiring</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- flashlight with batteries, light bulb</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 2 screw hooks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- paint, varnish, whitewash (optional)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- screws (optional)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- glue or wire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a drill</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Prepare wood or cardboard as necessary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Glue or wire prepared skin samples to 4 of the 15 cm x 15 cm squares.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Glue pictures of animals to 4 of the 15 cm x 15 cm squares.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Screw (wood) or glue (cardboard) the four skin samples down one side of the board as illustrated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Screw (wood) or glue (cardboard) the four animal pictures down the other side of the board. <U>Be sure the pictures are not in the same order as the </U>skins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Drill holes for bolts next to each skin sample and picture, as illustrated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Place a bolt and washer through each hole on the front of the board.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8, Place 2 washers, then a nut on each bolt at the back of the board.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Draw a line on the back of the board from the bolt of each skin sample to the bolt of its matching animal picture. Measure the length of each line.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Cut a length of electrical wire, plus 5 cm for each of these four measurements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. Peel back 2.5 cm of the rubber coating on each end of each of the four lengths of electrical wire, to leave metal wire bare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12. Following the drawn lines on the back of the board, wrap the exposed end of the wire between the washers of each corresponding bolt (see back view illustration).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">13. Take approximately 90 cm of electrical wire and wrap 2.5 cm of bare wire on the metal spring at the base of the flashlight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14. Take approximately 90 cm of electrical wire and wrap 2.5 cm of bare wire on the metal sheath of the light bulb.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15. Hang the flashlight with wire on 2 screw hooks at the bottom of the board.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">16. Take the free ends of the 2 flashlight wires and touch one to each of a wired pair of bolts The light bulb will go on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: You can assemble flashlight parts batteries, lightbulb wire spring -tightly in a wooden box to give the same result.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p091a.png"></center><br>
+ Pieces of flashlight assembled in a wooden box</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p091b.png"></center><br>
+ Old flashlight</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Suggested exhibits</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exhibit: <I>Bird Beaks</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This exhibit is designed to show the relationship between a bird's beak and the food that he eats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p092.png"></center><br>
+ Ways Birds Gather Food</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This exhibit can also be displayed horizontally on the board.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=350>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested types of beaks:</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adaptation for:</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Hooked</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">tearing prey</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Short, thick, strong</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">cracking seeds</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 Broad, shovel-like</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">scooping and straining</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Awl-like</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">boring in wood</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Crossed</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">extracting cone seeds</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Slender, fine</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">extracting nectar</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7 Long, stout</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Catching marine life</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Slender, sensitive</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">probing in mud or water</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Short, wide, weak</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">catching insects</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Pointed, bristly</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">catching insects</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Plywood board 75 cm x 150 cm (painted, varnished, if desired) OR 1 cardboard 75 cm x 150 cm OR 1 flannelboard 75 cm x 150 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: For horizontal use, two boards 75 cm x 75 cm can be used and hinged together with hinges, leather or cloth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 16 wooden squares 10 cm x 10 cm (painted or varnished, if desired) OR 16 cardboard squares 10 cm x 10 cm OR 16 paper squares 10 cm x 10 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 8 pictures of bird beaks (sketches or photographs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 8 samples of food eaten by the 8 birds OR pictures of food eaten by the 8 birds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- glue or paste</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- screws (optional)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- wire (optional)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- paint/varnish (optional)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Prepare wood, cardboard or flannel board as necessary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Glue bird beak pictures to 8 of the 10 cm x 10 cm squares. (Varnish if desired)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Glue pictures of wire samples of the birds' food to 8 of the 10 cm x 10 cm squares.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Label 8 of the 5 cm x 10 cm rectangles with the use adaptation of the beaks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Label 8 of the 5 cm x 10 cm rectangles with the beak descriptions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Attach squares and rectangles to board, as illustrated, with screws for wood, with glue for cardboard or paper.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Notes:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of exhibit can be adapted for kinds of teeth and food, skin coverings and camouflage, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of information can be adapted to a batter-powered electric game</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p094.png"></center><br>
+ Example of beaks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exhibit: <I>Live Animal Exhibits</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">See Appendix F for suggestions for housing and displaying live animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exhibit: <I>Plant Exhibit - A Terrarium</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A terrarium for plants is generally a small closed habitat in which a number of moisture-loving plants have been planted in a glass container with a close-fitting cover. The moisture which the plants get from their soil and give off through their leaves, is captured in the closed container and falls back onto the soil. Watering, therefore, is not needed often. If the terrarium becomes too moist and fungus begins to grow, the cover is removed for a day or two until the excess moisture evaporates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(See also Appendix F. Terrariums).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials Needed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- A glass container with a close-fitting cover (Large jar, glass bowl with sheet of glass for cover, glass box</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- A soil mixture of fine gravel and rich soil or fine leaf mold. Some crushed charcoal can be added to the mixture (optional).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- A selection of moisture-loving plants such as ferns, mosses, venus flytrap, or others from your area. (The number and size of your plants will depend on the size of the container.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Put 5 cm or more of soil on the container bottom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. If the container is large, push the soil into hills and valleys.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Plant the plants you have selected. First plant those with long roots, then ferns, and last the mosses on the surface.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Sprinkle everything with water until the terrarium is moist but not soggy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Cover tightly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Place away from direct sunlight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p095.png"></center><br>
+ A Terrarium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Collections for exhibit and study</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collections of living and non-living things from your area can be a very effective way to show the variety of your environment. They can be used as exhibits or as school study projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Visitors who look at the collection and read its interpretive labels receive a lot of specialized information assembled in one place. For example, they may see the many kinds of insects that share the environment; they learn what these insects eat, and what eats them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The students who do the assembling of a collection learn even more. They learn the exact habitat of the specimen, how to preserve it, and how to label it with the information that is important about it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remember that collections made in a region should always remain there for the benefit and education of others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggestions for a number of collections are included here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insect Collections</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insect collections can be the most successful because of the great variety and distribution that exists in the insect and arachnid (spider and scorpion) world. They are relatively easy to catch, kill and display. To make an insect collection you will need:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a collecting net</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a jar with a screw top</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- absorbent cotton</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- carbon tetrachloride (cleaning fluid)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- long (non-rusting) straight pins</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- paper strips</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- box, cardboard sheets, heavy cards</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- mothballs or crystals of paradichloride of benzene</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed for a collecting net</U>:</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 75-85 cm sturdy wire (for ring) OR 2 wire coat hangers OR 75-85 cm flexible bamboo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 75 cm stick (for handle) OR 7 5 cm bamboo pole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- mosquito netting 60 cm x 70 cm approx. (for bag) OR nylon neeting OR light cloth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- needle and thread (to sew bag) fine wire (to attach ring to pole) OR raffia OR string</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Make a ring of the wire, coat hangers or bamboo, and wire or tie the ring closed. (If you are using coat hangers, wire or tie them together. If you are using bamboo, wrap another strip of flexible bamboo around it to make it stronger.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p097a.png"></center><br>
+ Coat hangers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p097b.png"></center><br>
+ Bamboo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Attach stick or pole to the ring by tying it with wire, raffia, string or flexible bamboo, (This is easier if you have notched the stick 3 cm from the end you are attaching to the ring.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Cut the cloth as shown and sew it along the cut side, into a bag.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p097c.png"></center><br>
+ Stick with notch</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p097d.png"></center><br>
+ Mosquito netting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Sew the bag top over the ring very securely. Check for any place not sewn tightly and sew again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p098a.png"></center><br>
+ Loop Stitch</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p098b.png"></center><br>
+ Insect Net</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Practice swinging the net and twisting your wrist to close off the top of the net until you can do it quickly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed </U>for an Insect-killing Jar:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 wide-mouthed jar with a tight cover</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a large piece of absorbent cotton</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a circle of cardboard 2 cm larger than the diameter of the jar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- carbon tetrachloride (cleaning fluid)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure:</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Place cotton on bottom of jar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Cut into the cardboard about 2.5 cm toward the center at intervals around the circle of cardboard. Punch several holes in the cardboard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Fold down the cut edges of the cardboard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Place the cardboard in the jar over the cotton.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. When you are ready to collect insects soak the cotton with carbon tetrachloride.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p098c.png"></center><br>
+ Cardboard</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p098d.png"></center><br>
+ Jar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When you have caught an insect in your net, shake him to the tip of the bag and quickly close the insect and the tip of the net in the jar. When the insect is stunned, remove him from the net and drop him in the jar and cover it tightly. The insect should be dead in about 15 minutes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed </U>to dry insects:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- long, non-rusting pins</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- strips of paper 1 cm wide (for winged insects)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 3 pieces of cardboard approx. 10 cm x 15 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Make a drying board by gluing the three pieces of cardboard as illustrated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p099.png"></center><br>
+ Drying board</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Place insect so its body lies in the slot.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Push a pin through the insect's thorax (top section of the body).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. If it is a winged insect, lay a strip of paper over each set of wings and pin the strips to the cardboard, so that the wings will dry flat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. If it is a non-winged insect, arrange the legs and pincers neatly in an appropriate position.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. When the insect is dry (the length of time depends on the climate) use the pin in the thorax to lift the insect off the drying board.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. It can now be mounted on a mounting card, or in a box (such as a cigar box, biscuit tin) lined with cardboard to push the insects' pins into.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Make a label identifying each of your insects (also the date and place of capture if you like).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You may have a problem with live insects eating your specimens. To prevent this, place mothballs or crystals of paradichloride of benzene in your display box. You may also keep all display boxes on a table whose legs stand on small cans in larger cans of oil, disinfectant, or water with a layer of oil on top. This will prevent ants and other insects from climbing the table legs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p100.png"></center><br>
+ Table modified</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggestions for insect collections:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. A general collection of insects found in the area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. A collection of all butterflies (or all spiders, or all beetles) found in the area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. A collection of different stages in the life of an insect: egg, caterpillar, cocoon, butterfly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. A collection of insects with what they eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plant Collections</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plants offer the opportunity to study the close relationship of sun to the soil and to plant growth. Even in the dryest regions this can be shown by observing the water storage capabilities of the relatively few plants. Where plant growth is heavy and varied, collections can be most successful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Make a collection of all tree leaves in your area and label them. Do the same for low-growing shrubs, climbing vines. (Labels can give the name and the kind of growing condition each plant prefers).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Make a collection of the wild flowers in your area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Make a collection of the flower, seed, fruit and leaf of some trees in your area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Make a collection of seeds from various plants (grasses, fruits) that you eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Make a collection of the epiphytes and/or parasites (see Glossary) in your area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Make a collection of plants used for medicine in your area, and label them with their uses. Consult with local medical personnel for suggestions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggestions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To press leaves or flowers flat, place them in layers in many thicknesses of newspaper (or blotters, or other soft absorbent material) and weight them down with boards and stones, or some other flat weight, until completely dry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Mount them with a drop of glue on cards or card board. Label them with their name and special information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Group similar plant types together as you mount them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bird Collections</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collections about birds should be done carefully so as not to endanger your local bird population. Nests should not be collected until you see that birds are no longer using it. Eggs should not be removed from nests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Make a nest collection. Study the nests closely to see what they are made of. Do insects live in the nests? Identify the bird builder, and label the nests with the name of the bird and where it was built.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Make a feather collection from dropped feathers. Identify the birds they come from.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Although egg collections are always interesting, they mean that birds were prevented from hatching. However, sometimes you can find broken egg shells which have been pushed out of the nest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Draw pictures of birds in your area with a picture of the food each eats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Study the bird beak types and list the birds in your area with each type of beak, and what it eats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Have several people "collect" bird calls. Each one can learn one different bird call.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rock <I>Collections</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You may collect rocks for their color or interesting patterns, or you may try to identify what kind they are. Crack stones open to see a fresh surface, or to see if there are crystals inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three main groups of rocks, based on how they were formed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Igneous, formed by heat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">granite - grey or red speckled</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">basalt - greenish black, solidified lava</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">obsidian - black, green or brown volcanic glass</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">scoria - black, red, grey,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">cinder-like</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">pumice - white, grey, porous</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Sedimentary, formed by great pressure of water-deposited sediment:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">limestone - whitish, may contain fossils; is often cave material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">sandstone - red or grey, contains sand particles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">shale- grey, black, red, soft layered and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">clay-like</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">conglomerate - pebbles bound together</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Metamorphic, formed by pressure <U>and </U>heat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">gneiss - granite changed by pressure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">marble - limestone changed by heat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">quartzite - sandstone changed by heat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">slate - shale changed by heat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small rocks can be glued to cards, cardboard, or into boxes for display. Make labels which tell something about them. Larger rocks can be labeled and used on a nature trail, in a garden, or for individual exhibit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Collections</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collections for animal study (mammals, reptiles, amphibians) are more difficult than other kinds because of the size and perishability of animals. Useful collections, however, can be made.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You should also be aware that in your area, a collection of this sort may present problems of a culturally sensitive nature. This is something which you will have to verify before beginning this kind of collection.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Collect bones, antlers or skulls which you find in wild areas. Bones can be cleaned with an old toothbrush, bleach and hydrogen peroxide. Try to identify the animal the bones come from. Try to identify the part of the body the bones come from. Try to feel the same bone in your own body.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. The sea shore may provide you with a good shellfish collection. You can easily remove the animal if it is still inside, by boiling the shell. Soft bodied sea animals can be preserved in a 10% formalin solution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. You may be able to find the skins which snakes have shed as they grow larger, for a collection.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Roadsides may provide dead animals which have been hit by vehicles. You can use these specimens to stuff, for skeletal study, or for fur/skin samples. Skins which have been scraped clean of all tissue can be rubbed with salt, or salt and lemon juice as preservatives. In the tropics, a skeleton can be cleaned by ants and beetles. Place it away from human habitation where it can be discovered by an ant colony. It will soon be perfectly clean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If specimen bottles are available, mammals can be preserved in 70% alcohol or a 4% formalin solution (one part formalin to 25 parts water).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frogs, toads, salamanders and smooth-skinned lizards can be preserved in jars full of a 6% formalin solution (one part formalin to 16 parts water). Other lizards can be preserved in a 10% formalin solution (one part formalin to 10 parts water).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Visual aids for exhibits</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A visual aid is any of a variety of graphic materials used to help communicate an idea visually. Visual aids can be used anywhere to present information of use and interest to many people in a simple and attractive manner.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of visual aids are described here. They can be used to help present any ideas you may want to adapt from this manual.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another kind of visual aid is drama. Presentation by live players, or by shadow, hand, or finger puppets, are often immensely successful in communicating new ideas to both children and adults, You may wish to consider drama as an educational tool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enlarging</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To enlarge graphic material such as a picture or map for visual aid purposes, follow the steps outlined here, and study the illustration on P. 105).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. With a pencil and ruler, draw a measured grid (2 cm for example) over the picture or map you want to enarge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Make a transparent grid which can be used again and again, by drawing a measured grid with a dark marking pen on a sheet of clear plastic. Lay this over the picture to be enlarged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Make a transparent grid by marking off a measured grid with a stylus or knife on a sheet of wax paper. Lay this over the picture to be enlarged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Number the squares across the top and down one side of the picture to be enlarged, or on your transparent grid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Take a sheet of paper the size you want the enlarged picture to be.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. If you want the enlarged picture three times larger than the original, draw, with a pencil, a measured grid three times larger than the grid on the original. For example, a 2 cm grid on the original would be increased to 6 cm (2 cm x 3 cm) on the larger paper.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Number the squares across and down as before.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Place the grid paper next to the grid picture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Starting with any square on the grid paper, draw into that square what is in the corresponding square on the grid picture. (Use pencil so you can erase mistakes).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Work around the whole picture until you return to the starting point.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Check to see that you have included all details you wish to reproduce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Retrace your enlarged drawing with ink, crayon, paint, as desired.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. Erase the grid lines, if desired.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p105.png"></center><br>
+ Method to enlarging</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paste</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A simple paste can be made by using one part flour to 3/4 part water. Dissolve some salt or boric acid in the water before adding the flour, to discourage insects from eating the glued materials (optional). Mix until smooth, with no lumps. Keep in a tightly covered jar. (You can also use one part flour to one part water for a more liquid paste).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cooked Paste</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use 1/2 part flour to 2 parts water. Add water slowly to flour, mixing till smooth with no lumps. Cook over gentle fire until it becomes clear and thick. Keep in a tightly covered jar. Cooked paste will keep longer than uncooked paste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pocked Charts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This visual aid is good for any activity where you need to classify, match or put items in sequence. The students or visitors can manipulate the drawings, numbers, or words written on the cards. Pocket charts can be made in either of the two ways described below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.1. Take a large piece of poster board or </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">cardboard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Cut strips of paper (thinner than cardboard) at least 5 cm wide and the same width as the board.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Fold these strips in half lengthwise, into a v-shape.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. With the folded edge toward the bottom of the board, tape, staple or paste (see above) half of the strip to the board 10 cm from the top, (The fold should be at the bottom of the strip.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Tape, staple or paste the open ends of the v-shaped strip to the edges of the board, forming a long pocket.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Repeat strips at 15 cm intervals down the board.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Cut cards from paper, approximately 10 cm x 13 cm. Remember when you are planning the card that about 2.5 cm at the bottom of the card will be in the pocket.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p107a.png"></center><br>
+ Pocked Charts No. 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. 1. Take a large sheet of poster board (or heavy paper) which can be folded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Draw a solid line across the board 15 cm from the top.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Five centimeters 5 cm below the solid line draw a dotted line across the board.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Continue marking in the same way down the length of the paper.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p107b.png"></center><br>
+ Pocked Charts No. 2.1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Fold the paper along the dotted lines, and place the dotted edge against the solid line directly above it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Fold it tightly and secure the fold at the edges with staples or glue. These folds form the pockets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Cut cards from paper, approximately 10 cm x 13 cm. Remember when you are planning the card that about 2.5 cm at the bottom of the card will be in the pocket.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p108.png"></center><br>
+ Pocked Charts No. 2.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Flannel Board</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A flannel board is a visual aid which utilizes a stiff board covered with a piece of flannel (or other material with a rough surface) and a number of paper figures which have had sand or sandpaper pasted to one side. The sand or sandpaper will stick lightly to the rough surface of the flannel, so that you can place your figures anywhere on the board just by pressing them against the surface. The figures can be pulled off and rearranged equally easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed </U>for board:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 stiff board (wood, cardboard, etc.) any size desired</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 piece of flannel (or other rough-surfaced material) large enough to cover the board plus 5 extra centimeters on each side.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- staples, tacks or paste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Cover the board with the material and turn it over.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Fold the extra material onto the back and staple, tack or paste it tightly to the back of the board,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed for figures:</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- figures cut from white or colored paper OR photographs or drawings pasted onto paper</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- paste</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- sand or small pieces of sandpaper (2 per figure)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Spread paste on back of figures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. While paste is wet, sprinkle sand over the paste. OR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Paste a piece of sandpaper at the top and at the bottom of each figure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p109.png"></center><br>
+ Flannel board</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Flip Chart</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A flip chart is basically a series of stiff boards with simple pictures, arranged in sequential order so that they tell a story. In a conservation center a flip chart might illustrate a food chain, the stages of development of a butterfly or a tadpole, or it might tell the story of the cycle of a disease which is prevalent in the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 4 or more stiff boards (posterboard, cardboard, etc) approximately 50 cm x 70 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- illustrations cut from magazines (optional)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- wire or string or raffia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 4 or more thin transparent plastic sheets (optional)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Arrange illustrations to tell your story and paste them on boards. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Draw your story illustrations directly on the boards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Cover each board with a plastic sheet (optional)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Punch a hole in the top left and top right corner of each board, 3 cm from each edge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Tie a wire, string or raffia through all the holes on the left side. Do the same on the right side. Make the loop large enough so that each board can be turned (flipped) over and behind the following board.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p110.png"></center><br>
+ Flip Chart</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Display poster - Life pyramid/food chain</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Life Pyramid illustrated here can be used as a poster to explain how a food chain works.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the base of the pyramid are the plants which need only sun and soil to grow. Plants are the "producers."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many kinds of insects are plant-eaters. The grasshoppers shown here are called "first order consumers" because they feed directly on the "producers."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Higher up the pyramid are frogs ("second order consumers") who eat the grasshoppers. Notice that there are more grasshoppers than frogs, This is because one frog will eat many insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frogs, which eat the grasshoppers, are in turn eaten by snakes, who are the "third order consumers". Again, one snake will eat (consume) several frogs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the top of this pyramid is the hawk. He represents the "fourth order consumer", a meat eater (of snakes, in this illustration) who generally is not eaten by another animal,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Think of other food chains, Think of food chains which overlap each other. Overlapping food chains are <U>food </U>webs. Think about what would happen if there is an increase or decrease in one of the levels of the food chain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 13</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction to concepts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The world we live in is a world of interdependence. Animals and plants live together because they need each other. People are part of this system because we depend on plants and animals to live. We depend on non-living things like the sun and soil and water to grow our plants. We depend on the animals that eat plants to give us meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People must take care of all the things that we depend on so that they can continue to give us what we need. This care is called conservation. We must conserve our ecosystem. All living and nonliving things acting together make our ecosystem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If we understand what makes our ecosystem work, we will be able to conserve it better.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p113.png"></center><br>
+ Relationships between concepts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Concepts about the ecosystem</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. The amount of air, water and land on earth is fixed. There will never be any more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. The sun is the basic source (of energy) of all life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Plants capture sunlight and use it to make the food and oxygen that animals/people need to live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Some animals eat plants. Some animals eat plant-eating animals. Some animals eat both plants and animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Any group of individuals of the same species in a certain place at a given moment is a <I>population</I>; there can be a mouse population, a banana tree population, a human population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. All plant populations, animal populations and non-living things, interacting with each other in a given area form an <I>ecosystem</I>.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. There are <I>cycles </I>in an ecosystem such as the food cycle (food chain), water cycle, the soil cycle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Natural disaster, such as flood, drought and fire can damage the ecosystem. People can damage the ecosystem by pollution, fire, land stripping, over-hunting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p114.png"></center><br>
+ Ecosystem</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Concepts about populations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A pair of field mice can produce 6 baby mice 17 times a year. The young are soon ready to raise their own families. In just a few months, two mice could become millions. So why aren't we overrun with mice? The answer to that question comes from biologists who study POPULATIONS of living things, What does the word "population" mean? It usually means the number of people living in a certain place at a certain time. For example, in 1970, there were about 3.5 billion people living on the earth. That was the world's human population. But the term "population" can also be applied to other living things - the number of mice in a meadow, of ducks on a pond, of trees in a forest, or fish in a lake.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each kind of living thing, or species, has a natural ability to increase its numbers. This ability is called its <I>biotic potential</I>. You can think of this as its "power to multiply." Large animals, such as elephants, condors and humans, have a low biotic potential. They produce just a few young during a lifetime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many smaller animals and most plants have a high biotic potential. A tree may produce thousands of seeds a year. Insects and frogs lay hundreds of eggs. An oyster may release 100 million eggs. Any species of animal with a high biotic potential could cover the earth in a short time. But we are not overrun with mice, frogs or flies. Something keeps these animals from overrunning the earth. This something is the <I>environment </I>- the things that make up the animals' surroundings. Many animals are eaten by other animals. Others die of disease. Some die because of bad weather. Many die from lack of food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When food, space or mates are scarce, there is often <I>competition </I>among animals. You may have seen animals fighting over food or mates. Over a period of time, those who are not successful either die or do not reproduce. You may see tree seedlings on the forest floor competing with each other for sunlight, minerals and water. Only a few will survive to become adult trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some animal populations stop growing even when the animals have plenty of food and are safe from enemies. In populations of mammals such as mice, their numbers may stop increasing when the animals feel crowded. Scientists have observed laboratory mice crowded in small cages. The crowding seems to produce a nervous conditions called <I>stress</I>. The stress causes changes within the mammals' bodies. The mammals produce fewer young. Their behavior also changes. They may kill or neglect the young. They may attack one another...The big difference between people and mice or oysters is that people discovered ways of avoiding some of these natural controls. People have killed or chased away large predators that once preyed on them. Today they have discovered medicines that cure deadly diseases. Most important, they have learned to greatly increase their food supply through farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By controlling their environment, people have caused a population explosion that is now helping to create new problems. People are polluting the environment in which they and all animals and plants must live. They are now finding it hard to produce enough food to keep up with population growth. People are beginning to see that the earth's resources are limited...</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reprinted from RANGER RICK'S NATURE MAGAZINE, April 1973</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by permission of the National Wildlife Federation,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&copy; 1973</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Population poster</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p116.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 14</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p117.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 15</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Concepts about water, soil and air</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Water on earth evaporates into the air, collects into clouds, and returns as rain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clouds form and rain falls most often where there are lakes, oceans and rivers whose water evaporates. Plants also provide evaporation. They take moisture from the soil with their roots. The moisture rises through the plant and evaporates through the leaves into the air. Rain returns it to the soil. There is more rain where many plants grow, and many plants can grow where there is rain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p118a.png"></center><br>
+ Clouds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. SOIL is made up of three main layers. The deepest layer is the "parent" layer of rock. Above that is a layer of rock which is in the process of breaking up by water and mineral action. Rain water seeps into cracks carrying minerals from the surface of the water, freezes and expands, which breaks the rocks. Above this is a thinner layer of soil and fine gravel which is the <I>topsoil</I>. The surface of the topsoil is often covered with a layer of humus. Humus is the mixture of decaying organic matter (dead leaves, trees, insects, animals) which enriches the topsoil with nutrients. Rain water, earthworms, insects and burrowing animals help to mix the humus into the topsoil. If the thin topsoil is not held in place with plant roots, it can be washed away by water, or blown away by wind. This is called <I>erosion. </I>Surface rocks are broken down by slow stages. Lichens start to grow on the face of the rocks, then mosses. Their roots begin to push tiny bits of rock loose from the surface and to make cracks where wind-blown soil can accumulate. As small plants begin to grow in these cracks, their roots widen the cracks. At each stage the rock is pushed, and blown, and worn by water into smaller and smaller pieces.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p118b.png"></center><br>
+ Soil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Our AIR is a special combination of gases which all living things need to live. About 78% of the air in our atmosphere is nitrogen gas and about 21% is oxygen gas. The remaining one percent is made up of small amounts of other gases, of which carbon dioxide is the most important. When our air contains smoke, chemicals like pesticides, and car exhaust fumes, it is harmful for us to breathe it. A wind may blow these harmful things away from us, but they stay in the air. Plants give off a continuous supply of oxygen for our air.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p119.png"></center><br>
+ Air</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Studies about soil</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Collect samples of soil from different places in your area and put them in separate containers. Try to get samples of soil containing sand, clay, gravel, loam, humus, etc. Examine the soil closely; feel it; see what it is made of.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Remove both ends of as many tin cans (or hollow lengths of wide bamboo) as you have soil samples for. Tie cloth over one end and fill each to within 8 cm of the top with a different soil. Place a dish under each can. Pour measured amounts of water into each can until the water begins to run through. See which kind of soil holds the most water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Plant a bean or other fast-growing seed in each type of soil sample. Water each the same amount and give the same amount of light. See in which soil the seed sprouts first. Then see in which soil the seed continues to grow best.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Soil contains air. Put some soil in a jar (or other glass container) and slowly pour water over it. Air bubbles will rise from the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p120.png"></center><br>
+ When water is poured over soil, air-bubbles are formed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Soil usually contains some water. Place some freshly dug soil in a screw-top jar upside down in the sun. You should see water condensation forming if the soil has any water in it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. To see how soil is formed by broken and disintegrating rocks:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">a. Heat some rocks in a fire till very hot. Pour cold water over them. The rocks should crack or break as they do naturally with changes of temperature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">b. Find soft rocks such as limestone, sandstone or shale. Using a hard stone or hammer, crush them into small particles. (Wrap them in a piece of cloth to prevent flying rock particles.) These rocks would eventually break up through natural action, but much more slowly than by hammering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c. Take a field trip to search for rocks on which lichen is growing (the first step of decomposition), moss is growing (the second step), plants or small trees are growing (the next step). Feel how the lichen makes the rock surface sandy. See where the moss roots have taken hold. See how plant roots can make a crack larger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p121.png"></center><br>
+ Moss growing on stone.</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SOIL EROSION STUDIES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed for two soil study boxes:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 6 pieces of wood 12 cm x 40 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 2 pieces of wood 13 cm x 13 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 2 piece of fine screen 14 cm x 14 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 piece of bamboo 40 cm long by 15 cm diameter with a node at one end</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 2 pieces of fine screen 18 cm x 18 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Take 3 pieces of wood 12 cm x 40 cm and nail them together lengthwise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Add one piece 13 cm x 13 cm to one open end.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Attach one piece of screening to the other end,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Split the bamboo in half lengthwise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Clean out any center nodes,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Attach wire screening to the open ends.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p122a.png"></center><br>
+ Two soil study boxes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Make a sprinkling can by punching holes in the bottom of a large can with a hammer and small nail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p122b.png"></center><br>
+ Sprinkling can</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Fill one box with loose soil, the other with tightly packed soil. Tilt the boxes so the screened ends are lower, and place containers under the lower ends to catch run-off water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p123a.png"></center><br>
+ Sprinkle with water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sprinkle with water from the sprinkling can and watch to see which soil washes away most, and what the water that is collected looks like.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Smooth loosely-packed soil in each box and in one box make three or four grooves in the surface with a stick, running the length of the box; in the other, make grooves across the box every 6-8 cm, Tilt the boxes before;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p123b.png"></center><br>
+ BOXES-FROM ABOVE</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sprinkle each box heavily with the sprinkling can. Note how water flowing downhill follows the grooves and makes them deeper. Note how grooves cut against the flow of water helps keep the soil from washing away. Note how much soil was washed from each box into the catch containers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Sprinkle loosely-packed soil in each tilted box with water until the water washes its own grooves into the soil. With little sticks and stones, block the grooves at intervals and sprinkle again. How do obstacles help prevent erosion?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. In one box, seed the surface generously with some grass or other ground-cover seed. Give the box water and light for the seeds to grow. When the grass is thick and about 2.6 cm high, tilt the box it is in, and the second box which has just soil, as before.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p124.png"></center><br>
+ Sprinkle heavily with the sprinkling can</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sprinkle heavily with the sprinkling can. Note how the grass prevents the water from moving the soil down and into the catch container. (A piece of sod placed on the soil in one box could demonstrate this also.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A class project could be to locate a place in the community where water erosion has taken place. Plan and carry out ways which could prevent further erosion; plan ways to up-grade or restore the soil (such as filling with gravel or stones, channeling the water in another direction, planting ground cover).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Studies about water</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. <I>Water evaporation </I>- how water gets into the air</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">a. Place some water over a fire in a container, preferably with a spout. Otherwise, cover a pot with a glazed or metal cover. When the water is boiling, note the condensed water coming from the spout in a cloud. Place a lighted candle in the steam. What happens? Why? If you are using covered pot, move the cover a little bit to the side. See the cloud of condensed water rush out. Rub your fingers together in the cloud (but not too close to the pot or you will be burned). What do you feel? What is happening to the water? Where does it go?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">b. Take a piece of cloth and wet it. Hang it up. Where does the water go?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c. Place a clear plastic bag (with no holes) over a leaf of a house or garden plant and tie the bag around the stem. Observe it a few hours later. There should be condensation on the bag. Where does it come from? How does water get in the air from plants?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p125a.png"></center><br>
+ Water evaporation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. <I>Water condensation </I>- how water comes out of the air: Moisture condenses on cool surfaces.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">a. If you heated water for evaporation in a container with a glazed or metal cover, lift the lid and turn it over. What do you see? The hot water evaporates and rises till it touches the cooler surface of the lid and changes into drops of water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">b. Take two glasses, the mouth of one smaller than the base of the other. Heat water almost to boiling. Fill 1/2 of the glass with the small mouth. Rotate the glass so as to wet the sides up to the rim. Put very cold water in the other glass and place it on top of the glass with hot water. Water will evaporate from the hot water, condense against the cool bottom of the upper glass, and fall as drops back into the evaporating water. This is a miniature water cycle. On the earth, warmer air rises when it meets colder air, condenses and falls back to earth as rain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p125b.png"></center><br>
+ Water condensation - Picture 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p126a.png"></center><br>
+ Water condensation - Picture 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c. Observe a cold beverage can or glass of liquid with ice in it. The moisture on the sides is caused by condensation when the air meets a cold surface. Water is all around us in the air.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. <I>Filtered water</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water is often clouded with dirt, algae and other foreign matter. While it is necessary to boil water to remove the invisible impurities in it, filtering will remove the visible impurities. To make a demonstration filter, take an unpainted clay pot with a 1 cm hole in the bottom. Plug the hole with some absorbent cotton. Add a few inches of sand or sand alternated with a layer of powdered charcoal. Fill the rest of the pot with muddy water (made by mixing water with a little soil). Or take cloudy water from a pond or lake. Place the pot over a glass or jar to catch the filtered water that drips out. Why is it no longer cloudy?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p126b.png"></center><br>
+ Filtered water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. A Solar Still</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 plastic sheet 1.8 meters x 1.8 meters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a bucket (or other container)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a stone (approximately 10 cm in diameter)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a plastic tube 1.5 meters long (optional)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a shovel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Pick a sunny spot and dig a cone-shaped hole 50 cm deep and 90 cm across the top.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Put the collecting container in the center of the hole.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Place the tube in the container and along the side of the hole and out the top.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Stretch the plastic sheet over the hole and weight the edges down with the dirt you dug from the hole.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Place the stone in the middle of the sheet so that the sheet hangs down to within 15 cm of the container.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Be sure the sheet does not touch the sides of the hole at any point.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Secure the edges of the sheet with more dirt. Wait several hours (preferably overnight).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Suck on the tube. You should get water through it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p127.png"></center><br>
+ A Solar Still</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The solar still works on sun power. The heat of the sun evaporates moisture from the soil. The moisture condenses on the plastic sheet and runs down the sheet to the lowest point under the rock and drips into the container. All but the driest soil contains some water which can be collected this way. Try this experiment on a beach near the ocean. You will collect fresh water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Studies about the sun's energy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Make drainage holes in two small containers and fill with soil. Plant two bean seeds in each. Give the two containers equal water and light. If two seeds sprout in each container, carefully pull out the smaller one so that there is a single strong seedling in each container. When the seedlings are 8-10 cm tall, move one container into a completely dark place, and continue to water it as the other. What happens after a few days? What does the seedling need to be healthy? Can the seedling recover if given sunlight again? Do all plants need direct sun? (NO) Do all plants need light? (YES)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. List the foods that people usually eat in your region. Identify the foods that come from plants. Identify the foods that come from animals which eat plants. Identify the foods that come from animals which eat other animals, or both plants and animals, Why do we need the sun for our food?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Identify the food that various animals eat. Examples:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=547>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">worms</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">plants (leaves, decaying matter)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">crickets</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">plants</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">spiders</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">animals (insects)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">frogs</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">animals (insects)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">fish</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">plants (algae) eaten by some, animals (insects or other fish) eaten by others</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">turtles</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">plants and animals (insects)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">chickens</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">plants (seeds), animals (insects)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">parakeets</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">plants (seeds, fruit)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">rabbits</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">plants</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">cows</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">plants (grass, leaves)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">vultures</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">animals (carrion)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">tigers</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="86%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">animals</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Make a food chain on the animals in your region. Show how the sun's energy is at the beginning of the chain (cycle).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Studies about plants</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. <I>Grow roots from different parts of plants:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Put a layer of sand 5 cm deep in a box about 40 cm long. Water it thoroughly and put it out of direct sunlight. Plant some of the following in the sand:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- different bulbs buried with the root end down</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- an onion with the root end in the sand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a section of potato with the "eye"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a cut from a geranium stem</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a section of sugar cane stem with its joint buried in the sand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a section of bamboo with its joint buried in the sand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a large bean seed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After a period of root-growing, pull up the plant and examine the roots. Can you see how roots hold soil in place as a protection against erosion?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p129a.png"></center><br>
+ Root</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Grow leaves from different parts of plants:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">a. Take a carrot, beet, turnip, radish or other root plant with top leaves. Cut away all but a small portion of the top of the root and remove old leaves. Put the top in a shallow dish with water and some pebbles for support. New leaves will begin to form and grow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p129b.png"></center><br>
+ A plant with top leaves</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">b. Remove the top of a pineapple with all the leaves and put it in a dish of shallow water. The leaves will continue to grow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Grow a plant from a seed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Push three toothpicks or matches into an avocado pit around the middle and place the flat (less pointed) end in a jar or glass of water. Be very patient. After a long while roots will begin to grow, then a stem and leaves. When the plant is well formed it can be potted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p130.png"></center><br>
+ A plant from a seed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Study a fruit-bearing plant:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Identify a plant whose flowers turn to fruit. Follow the process through the whole cycle. Watch the buds and see which insects or animals eat them. How many buds will live to flower? When the flowers open see which insects come for nectar; watch how the pollen is collected on the insect as it goes from flower to flower, This is the pollinating process which will give mature seeds. As the flower dies, watch the development of the fruit as it grows. See which animals come to eat the fruit. How many ripe fruits will be left from all the buds which were once growing?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Study a plants parasite:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">See if you can identify a plant parasite. A parasite is a plant that attaches itself to another plant and then takes its food from the other plant. Parasites are most frequently fungi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Study an epiphyte:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Epiphytes are often confused with parasites because they grow on other plants. An epiphyte is a plant which finds a perch on a tree in order to be closer to the source of light. They are often rooted in moss or debris on another plant surface. Orchids, air plants and ferns are often found living high up on another plant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Source materials - Appendix A</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Directions for preserving mammals for museum study,</U> information Leaflet #380</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smithsonian Institution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Natural History Building 398</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20560, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manual of outdoor conservation education</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Audubon Society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nature Center Planning Division</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">950 3rd Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, N. Y. 10022, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nosotros y la naturaleza: Guia para profesores, Guia para estudiantes</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Servicio Nacional de Aprendizaje</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Division Agropecuaria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Region de Neiva</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Columbia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One hundred science experiments for everyone</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Doubleday &amp; Co., Inc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Garden City, N.Y., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outline for teaching conservation in elementary school</U>, PA-268</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil Conservation Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20250, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Planning a nature center</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Audubon Society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nature Center Planning Division</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">950 3rd Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, N.Y., 10022, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teacher's guide to minigardens</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Science Study Aid #2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural Research Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hyattsville, Md. 20782, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix B: Nature Trails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A nature trail is a short planned walkway through a natural area in which interesting and important natural or historic features are pointed out to the visitor and explained by a guide or by interpretive signs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The planning of a trail must include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- an inventory of the land to find the most interesting features;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- concern for the public it is to serve, to give both beauty and safety;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- an understanding of the education it is to provide; what to label and why.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A conservation center can start with only one trail: a general conservation trail, which may include shorter specialized connected loop trails for soil study, forest study, wildlife study, etc. (see Fig. 16).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The self-guiding trail is one where the visitor is helped by labels which point out features of environmental interest, and which together cover the broad characteristics of the area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Later, if it is possible, a second, informal trail for walking and hiking can be added (while future trails might be planned for special uses such as horses, bicycles, handicapped persons). The longer walking and hiking trail is for the visitor who wishes to go a longer distance without specific interpretive guidance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Purpose of a Natural Trail</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A nature trail is the basic teaching tool in outdoor education. Its purpose is to provide a controlled natural experience for visitors to enjoy, where they will be shown, by simple signs, the trees, smaller plants, geology, natural communities, the native animals that live in the area, and how these are related to people, to each other, and to other resources. The trail allows visitors to move through the natural area without disrupting the environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The trail objectives are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- <I>education </I>- In an exciting setting the visitors can see, feel, smell and hear living examples of the natural history of their region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- <I>interpretation </I>- Signs and labels help visitors to see interdependence between living things and their environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- <I>conservation </I>- The trail can show how conservation techniques and solutions to local problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Characteristic of a Nature Trail</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. A nature trail is short (700m to 1.3 km). it should take from 30 minutes to one hour to walk. Visitors will be walking slowly, reading the interpretive materials at each stop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. A nature trail is constructed in the general shape of a loop; that is, it begins and ends at the same place, usually at the conservation center building. It should have a one-way direction which follows the interpretive plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. A nature trail has signs or labels that explain something about features of the trail. Sometimes these labels have all the information written directly on them; sometimes the information is printed in a guide with numbers that correspond to numbered posts along the trail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. A nature trail is inviting. There must be a clear beginning with a wide section of smooth trail and a large identifying sign which points the way. It should be wide enough for two people to walk side-by-side, and dense vegetation should not form a wall at the sides of the trail. A rest stop is desirable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. A nature trail is easy to walk. There should not be any steep climbs, muddy places, rocks to climb over, or other obstacles. Visitors in street clothes should be able to walk the trail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. A nature trail is clean. A litter can with a sign ("Place Litter Here") should be placed at the entrance of the trail and at rest stops, and the trail should be kept free from litter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. A nature trail is well-maintained. Signs of wear must be corrected immediately to avoid major repairs later. Vegetation may have to be cut back from the trail regularly, and the trail should be inspected frequently for damage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p135.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 16 - SAMPLE NATURE CENTER TRAIL LAYOUT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Constructing a nature trail</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where to Put a Nature Trail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Study what the land is like for about one square kilometer or more around the conservation center. Walk through all the land and follow any paths or trails which may exist. Make a list of all the interesting natural or historic features. (See the list of suggested items to feature at the end of this section). Mark these features on a simple hand-drawn map and arrange the trail contour to coincide roughly with them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Mark all features that might be included on the trail with strips of bright ribbon, yarn, cloth or plastic. Connect the items with string to create a rough trail design.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Walk this rough trail to see approximately how long it will take. Remember that the visitors will walk slowly and will spend time reading the labels at each stop. Re-arrange the way the string runs in order to get the best trail layout.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note that nature trails are different from usual trails in that they go to places not normally visited by local residents. For this reason, it is generally best to cut an entirely new trail rather than to put together pieces of old trails. Having a separate nature trail eliminates confusion with old or unmarked trails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to Build the Nature Trail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Clear the walking area of all obstacles on the trail (roots, stumps, rocks, etc.) and cut back over-hanging branches to a height of 2.5m. Leave any cleared items which could have interpretive use alongside the trail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p136.png"></center><br>
+ How to Build the Nature Trail - Example 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Cut the trail wide enough for two people to walk side-by-side. (This should be about 1.3m). Be sure visitors will have safe footing. Where clearing exposes erosion problems, control measures should be taken such as planting a ground cover, or filling a depression with gravel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Make the trail with curves. The purpose is not to reach the next stop as quickly as possible, but to learn about the area. A winding trail gives visitors a sense of discovery. A straight stretch in the trail should not be more than 25 meters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Plan each stop so it is out of sight of the others. If visitors see the next stop, they tend to hurry to it rather than observing their surroundings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Clear an area around each label or numbered marker so that visitors can gather around if a teacher or guide has comments to make.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Avoid trails that double back. While curves are good, do not make them so sharp that they double back on themselves in a sharp "5" pattern. Visitors will cut new paths that destroy natural vegetation and contribute to erosion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Avoid steep and tiring trails in hilly or mountainous areas; careful planning is necessary so as not to discourage walkers. If there are short sections of steep trails, a series of steps can make walking easier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p137.png"></center><br>
+ How to Build the Nature Trail - Example 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. The trail must drain well. In places where the ground is hilly, the trail should slope a little to the downhill side so that water will run off, rather than down, the trail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p138a.png"></center><br>
+ TRAIL ON HILLSIDE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Place drains across the trails where water collects or crosses the trail during a rain. (Dig a shallow trench and line it with small stones, or use small logs a few inches apart to make a water channel, and fasten them down with wooden pegs).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. In damp areas such as near a marsh, or stream bed, raise the trail with additional soil or build a raised walkway. A split log or bamboo crossing may be used for a small wet spot. Stepping stones are not good because they become slippery. Building a raised trail is extra work, but a wet, muddy trail will probably not be used at all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p138b.png"></center><br>
+ Shallow trench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. In sandy or marshy situations, to avoid disturbing the area, a raised wooden or bamboo walkway should be provided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p139a.png"></center><br>
+ Wooden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. Where the trail may erode, or where walking would be difficult, you can cover the trail surface with any of the following, if available: pine needles, wood chips, sawdust, shredded bark, sand. These make good walking surfaces and will not cut shoes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12. Where there is a nice view, a beautiful tree, or other special feature, clear a rest spot for a simple bench.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p139b.png"></center><br>
+ Simple bench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public Facilities </I>(See Appendix E for instructions)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The public facilities you provide at a Nature Trail depend on your budget, the numbers of visitors you expect, and the facilities that exist near-by. You may only need one or two rest stops, or you may need to provide a picnic area or a public toilet near the nature trail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To give visitors a place to enjoy the beauties of the trail, try to provide a <I>rest stop </I>where there is a view, an ancient tree, or an interesting rock formation, for example. A bench of native stone or wood, or a seat cut into a rock, can provide a place to admire these things and rest for a tired walker.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p140a.png"></center><br>
+ Rest stop</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you are going to provide <I>picnic facilities </I>at a nature trail, it is a good idea to place them in an attractive area near the entrance to the trail. This way food and waste can be kept in one easy-to-clean place. The picnic area can be very simple: just cleared ground, shaded by trees or woven branches; it can include logs or rocks to sit on; or it can have tables with benches. This depends on the natural materials available and the cultural habits of the visitors. If they are likely to make a fire, provide a safe place for one. In every case, provide enough garbage cans, each one with a sign ("Please put garbage here"), and empty them frequently to avoid odors and animal and insect scavengers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p140b.png"></center><br>
+ Picnic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Allow 8 picas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Margin to bind</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When there are no other near-by <I>latrine facilities </I>and visitor use is heavy, a latrine should be provided so that pollution of the site does not occur. It should be located near, but not at, the trail entrance. Building materials for the latrine shelter should blend with the surroundings. (See Appendix E, Public Facilities).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trail Signs, Labels and Guides </I>(See Appendix D for instructions)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. The trail will need a <I>trail entrance sign </I>to give the visitor an idea of what is ahead. It could indicate:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a map of the trail with its length in meters or kilometers;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the location of special attractions on the trail;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- regulations ("please stay on the trail`', "do not disturb plants or animals").</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p141a.png"></center><br>
+ Nature trail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p141b.png"></center><br>
+ Regulation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You will also need signs where two trails meet, to give distances or the direction to follow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Features on the trail need labels to tell names, characteristics, relationships, habitat, or historical background. Labels must be:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- accurate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- interesting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- short</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- easy to read and understand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lettered label should be mounted on simple stakes at the trailside. A label could also be tied to a branch, with raffia or string, of a tree, shrub, or vine being identified. Care must be taken not to damage the surroundings with labels, Nailing a label directly to a tree, for example, would allow insects or bacteria to enter the tree through the nail holes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Visitors can immediately spot the feature which is being identified if you mark both the feature and its label with a dot of colored paint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p142a.png"></center><br>
+ Wild Grape</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. You may choose a printed guide to interpret the trail rather than labels. Make these guides available at the start of the trail in a covered box, to be returned to the box when visitors have finished walking the trail. The items described in the guide would be numbered to correspond in sequence with numbered markers on the trail. Pictures, drawings or diagrams can accompany the text, to help the visitor. About 15 to 20 items are enough for interpretation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One or more sheets of letter paper can be mimeographed, folded or stapled to make booklets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p142b.png"></center><br>
+ Mimeograph</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sample guides are included in this Appendix and in Appendix D.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Trails may include some of the following features for identification and labelling:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- historic features such as an abandoned mill or farm building, a bridge, dam, mine or site of earlier civilization;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a grassy area - the way plants are adapted to sun;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a brush area - new plants moving into area that was open;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a sandy area - how poor soil has few plants, how plants hold sand in place;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- deep forest - layers of vegetation, young and old trees;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a rotting log - making new soil, home for insects, animals and fungi;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a rock with lichens - breaking rock down into new soil;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- leaves rotting on forest floor -making new soil, homes for insects and animals;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the favorite plant of one insect -eating plant's leaves, laying eggs on plant;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- vines - how they climb, how animals use them;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a cave - how it was formed, home for animal, earlier humans;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a salt lick - value to animals, use to poachers;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a rock outcrop - animal homes, kind of rock, how it was formed;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- stream bed - water life: plants, insects, fish, erosion;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- bee, wasp, ant or termite nest - how it is made, community work;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- desert plants - who lives on them, who eats them;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- feeding areas - do footprints tell which animals come?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a road or trail cut - the soil profile can be seen;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- nests in trees - animal or bird?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a hole in the ground - is it a home?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- roots around an exposed rock - how the plant seed grew there;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- roots in loose soil - how they hold the soil together;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- spring - how water collects underground;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a bump on a tree (burl) - why did it form? its effect on the tree;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a bent tree trunk - how sunlight forms growth;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a hollow tree - what happened? Who uses it?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- leaf size - adaptation to light;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a parasite plant - how it kills;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- buttress roots - how tree adapts to shallow soil;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- thorns on bushes and seeds- protection, transportation;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- ferns and mosses - where they grow and why;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- air plants/orchids - where they grow and why;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- cacti - where they grow and why.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Features proposed for labeling and explanation along a nature trail in South East Asia</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main <I>Trail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>open field</I>) In sun-filled areas like this, the plants have to deal with special problems: too much light, periods with too little water and, often, poor soil. Pick a blade of grass. Examine it. The size of the leaf is small so moisture will evaporate out slowly. The roots are a thick mass of fibers that can grip the hard soil, but they don't go very deep. They get their moisture mostly from rain and dew.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>beginning of forest</I>) Bigger plants like trees will slowly invade a field of bushes. They grow taller and make shade. This means that plants which love sunlight must slowly die and new plants that like more shade move in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>any place with good view of different layer in forest</I>) Look around you and up in the air. Notice how the forest is made of several different layers. High above, the branches of the big trees weave together to form a canopy. Beneath these, we see a sparse layer of trees trying to grow up through the canopy. Lower down there is a layer of shrubs and small trees. Below that is a layer of small plants like ferns and seedlings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>strangler fig thee</I>) This is a fig tree. It grows around another tree. its leaves shade out the sun until finally the other tree dies. Sometimes the original tree will rot away and the "trunk" of the fig tree will then be hollow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(rest stop) (Any </I>pretty place about halfway through the trail, especially good on top of a hill where people will want to stop anyway. Provide a log or a bench to sit on.) This is a good place to rest a minute. Sit and be absolutely quiet. Can you hear nature around you? The birds singing? The insects buzzing? The wind blowing?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>a bent tree</I>) As the tree grows, it twists and turns to reach as much light as possible. This tree may have started growing toward a hole in the forest canopy. At some point a new hole with more light opened up and the tree changed directions. Why might a hole in the canopy occur?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>a bump on a tree</I>) The lump on this tree is called a burl. It is caused by a virus infection. It does not kill the tree but it results in a malformation. The growth rings of the tree take on interesting shapes and the wood is used in tables, bowls and pipes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>treetops</I>) High above your head, the branches of the tallest trees lace together to form another world. Trees bloom and fruit there, and animals live out their lives without touching the earth. Can you catch a glimpse of the happenings in that other world?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>thee stump) </I>This tree stump is decaying. It is becoming soil again. This process returns the energy that it used as a growing tree. Mosses and fungi are breaking it down on the outside. Ants, beetles and other insects are doing the same thing on the inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>young trees in a clearing</I>) As the old trees die, holes develop in the forest canopy and new spots of sunlight reach the forest floor. Here seeds sprout and new trees begin to take the old ones' places. The forest will regenerate itself, but if people destroy it, a tropical forest like this takes hundreds of years to grow again. The forestry department is protecting this land for your children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>shady area with big-leaved plants</I>) Plants are adapted to where they live. Usually big, thin or lacy leaves are for shady places because they allow the plant to catch as much sun as possible. They will not dry out because their environment is cool and moist. A fern is an example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>patch of abandoned farmland</I>) The soil was too thin for good farming here and the land was abandoned. The forest is returning in stages. First grasses, then thick brush, third low, thin jungle, and after many years, there will be tall, thick jungle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(buttress roots) </I>Wide roots like these help to balance the tree. The roots cannot go deeply into the ground because it is hard clay just under the surface and all the nutrients are in the top two inches. The wide flanges give the trunk a wider base of support. Otherwise the weight of the trunk would tip and the roots would be pulled out of the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>cave</I>) This cave may have been formed many years ago when water slowly dissolved away some of the limestone in the earth. Some time later the surface of the earth changed, causing the cave to dry out and be revealed. Now it is a home for bats, snakes and other creatures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>a very tangled, dense area of vegetation</I>) More kinds of plants and animals live in a tropical jungle than any place else in the world. Notice how dense the plant life is. A mixture of many things living together makes a stable environment, because of the natural control all the species have on one another.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>rattan palm</I>) This rattan palm sends out long runners covered with thorns. They hook on to passing animals. They pull the runner to a new place where it can touch the earth and start another plant far away from the competition of the first.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil Loop:</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>clump of pretty bushes</I>) Good soil allows plants to grow plentifully. It is a thin layer, however, and easily destroyed. Plants like these would soon die in a hot dry soil without water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>rotting log</I>) As this tree trunk rots, it builds up a soft, spongy layer of soil, called humus. This holds rainwater and provides food for other plants and insects. How does the rotting log feel? How does the ground nearby feel?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>rock with lichens</I>) What looks like drops of paint on this rock is actually a combination of plants called lichens. They can live under very severe conditions, like on bare rock. They help to make soil by dissolving some of the rock into fine sand. Feel the rock around the lichen. Car you feel a sandy texture?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>place with many leaves on the forest floor</I>) Leaves collect and rot, making new soil, just as the tree trunk did. Animal droppings and dead animals also add to the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>a water spring</I>) Rain soaks into the ground until it reaches a layer of rock which holds it. That water slowly moves underground until it comes out at springs or into rivers. If the soft topsoil is missing, the rain is not soaked up, but runs off. The water table underground is not replenished if the rain doesn't soak through the soil. The springs will then dry up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>erosion site on a trail or hillside</I>) Water is a powerful force. Can you see what it has done to the soil here? Compare this place to a protected place with plants. In a place with forest cover, the grid of roots holds the soft topsoil while the leaves slow the speed of the raindrops' fall. Shade keeps the ground from getting dry and hard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>deep cut into a hillside where a trail or road was built, where soil levels are visible</I>) Soil is found in layers. The top one is rich with plant food, the others are not. In the tropics the hot, wet weather makes things decay quickly, but topsoil does not build up because the food is utilized again by plants almost immediately.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest Loop:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(very large tree</I>) Trees are the oldest living things on earth. Some can be over 4000 years old. They give many good things besides lumber - like good soil, clean air, and homes for wildlife.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>a clearing oh break in the forest where the sky is visible</I>) Look at the leaves of the trees above. Each one is helping you. Leaves produce oxygen which you breathe. They also take away carbon dioxide (which you breathe out) and other poisonous gases. Where does it smell the best -in the middle of the city or here? The leaves release moisture into the air, helping to form new clouds; they shade the ground and air, keeping them cool and comfortable. Think for a moment. Where is it cooler? Here or in the city?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(roots on a rock) </I>Just as the roots of this tree have encircled this rock, so they are holding the soil below it. Small roots weave a mat that traps the soil in tiny pockets. This protects the topsoil which is light, from the force of rainwater. If the forest is cut or burned, the roots no longer hold the soil, and in a short time the rich topsoil is washed away by rain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>tiny stream</I>) Forests help with the water supply. The leaves release moisture into the air, helping to form new rain clouds, while water in the spongy ground moves downhill slowly to emerge in springs and streams.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>leaves on the ground</I>) Leaves fall all the time, but especially in the dry season when the trees don't want to lose moisture through their leaves. These leaves rot quickly in the rainy season, and help make new soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>tree with hole in trunk</I>) Trees provide a nesting place for animals to raise their young, to store their food, and to escape from their enemies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife Loop:</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(rock ledge with animal hole</I>) Under the large rock in front of you is a former animal home. The occupant may have moved away because so many people looked into it. See what a dry place he chose.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(tangled mass of bushes on edge of large clearing</I>) The edges of forests often produce as much or more food and shelter for wildlife as the deep forest itself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(dead tree on ground</I>) A dead tree is a home for a great variety of things as it decomposes. Under the bark there are beetles and termites. Millipedes eat the decaying wood; centipedes hunt for other insects to eat. inside, perhaps a mouse, a weasel or a porcupine has dug out a den. The home territory of a wild animal is usually a place where it can easily find food and shelter - perhaps a patch of grass, a whole pond, or a fallen tree like this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>a salt lick</I>) Just as you like salt on your food, so animals like and need certain minerals in their diet. Water deep in the ground rises to the surface carrying dissolved minerals which are deposited there. Look in the mud around you and see how many kinds of animal tracks you can identify.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>clear streamside</I>) The water here is cool and clear. You may see some fish. Compare this to any of the streams outside the park. Is the color the same? Just as some animals need a forest where the canopy is complete, so certain fish, snails and insects need streams where the water is clean. The forest and its soil filter the water and keep it clean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(<I>large tree that has food for animals in month when most visitors come) </I>In the month of _______ this tree has much fruit which is eaten by (name some animals, birds). This also attracts animals which eat the fruit-eaters. All these animals help the tree in return by spreading the seeds and fertilizing the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Source materials - Appendix B</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fox path: nature trail guide</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Wildlife Federation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Laurel Ridge Conservation Education Center</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8925 Leesburg Pike</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vienna, Virginia 22180, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manual of outdoor interpretation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Audubon Society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nature Center Planning Division</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">950 3rd Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, N.Y. 10022, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail quarters: self-guiding trail booklet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Wildlife Federation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Laurel Ridge Conservation Education Center</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8925 Leesburg Pike</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vienna, Virginia 22180, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Rapidos del Chanleufu: Sendero de historia natural (Chilean trail guide)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACTION AF/AS, M-401</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20525, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trail planning &amp; layout</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Audubon Society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nature Center Planning Division</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">950 3rd Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, N.Y. 10022, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Single copies available to Peace Corps volunteers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix C: Landscaping</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Landscaping means working with LAND, PLANTS, WATER, and SPACE to improve your outdoor surroundings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The improvement will show in the quality of the soil and the air, as well as in the pleasure the landscaped area gives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Landscaping even the smallest plot of ground will give you the chance to demonstrate conservation practices because you will be protecting and restoring the land and preventing its neglect and destruction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, since you will be working only with materials available in the area, you will provide an example for local residents to follow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results of landscaping are often not seen for several years. Remember that trees and shrubs take time to grow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Landscaping requires advance planning:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Draw an outline plan of the land to be landscaped. Include natural features such as trees, shrubs, rocks, paths, walls, water, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Examine the soil to determine fertility, water content, texture and type (clay, sand, silt).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. If the soil needs organic matter to make it more fertile, or to loosen its texture, start a compost pile so you can add compost to the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Consult with the local agricultural agent for help in making a list of plants (grasses, flowers, shrubs, trees) which are native and grow well in the area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Using the outline plan (#1), work out a detailed landscape plan to locate where and what kind of trees, shrubs and flowers will be planted, and where benches, walks, or play equipment will be placed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Find out if there are plants or seeds available from a local nursery or agriculture station. Collect-seeds of identified plants, and locate small shrubs and trees which might be transplanted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only when you have done this planning should you begin the actual work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Suggestions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Keep your plan simple and reasonable, both in design and plant material.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- If grass is impossible to grow, sand, small gravel, or a vine-like ground cover might be substituted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- If flowers don't grow well in the soil, try growing them in pots or tin cans in composted soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- If trees won't grow, or while you wait for them to grow enough to give shade, build some sun shelters over a bench.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p152.png"></center><br>
+ Table</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Try to choose plants which will provide food and shelter for birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Try to include a bird bath (basin of water) or pond for wildlife.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Use an arrangement of rocks or logs for children's play.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- If you have no land at all, try growing flowers and vegetables in cans, pots, planter boxes as a demonstration project. These can be grouped attractively at doors, on stairs, window ledges and porches.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Any or all of these things can be school conservation projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- See related publications and information sources in the Source sections.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Compost</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compost is a kind of fertilizer made from a variety of organic materials which have fermented or decomposed in a compost pile. The reason for making a compost pile is to make good use of all garbage, manures, vegetable waste and ashes, returning them to the soil to enrich it, and to help plants grow better.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A small compost pile should be cone-shaped so that rain will run off rather than into the pile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A large compost pile should be long and narrow to make mixing easy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A large compost pile can also be made in a pit. A pit bottom needs a drainage channel for water to escape.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to Make a Compost Pile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Choose a permanent spot to build the pile away from homes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Start the pile with a mixed layer of organic material such as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">soft leaves</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">garbage (no plastic, metal or glass)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">grass cuttings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">rice husks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">straw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">seed pods</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">paper</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">banana skins</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Build up this layer approximately 30 cm high.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Put a layer of animal manure (pig, chicken, cow, horse or goat) on top of the first layer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Sprinkle ashes and lime on the manure, and water if the pile is dry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Add a thin layer of sand, fine soil or mud.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Repeat these layers of plant material, manure, ashes and lime, and soil, until the pile is about 1.5m high and 1.5m wide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. The pile should never become dry or the decomposition process stops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Turn the pile every three weeks with a shovel for about three months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. If odor is a problem, a small amount of acid phosphate can be sprinkled on the pile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. Use the pile in three months. It will have decayed and shrunk to about 1/10 of its original size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p154.png"></center><br>
+ Structure compost</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is now a faster way to make the compost ready to use as fertilizer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Make the same 1.5m x 1.5m pile of plant material, manure, and lime. This time, however, use more household garbage and animal manure. (Animal manure supplies nitrogen, an element used by plants during the decay process. A good compost mixture is about 1 shovelful of manure to 30 shovelsful of the other organic materials).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Mix the material well. Then cut all of it into small pieces, using a shovel, machete, scythe, etc. The pieces should be about 3 to 5 cm long. Cutting the material speeds the rotting process. (If animal manure is hard to get, add some inorganic fertilizer containing nitrogen to the compost pile).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Turn the pile every few days. Use a shovel to keep it well-mixed. Compost piles can get too hot in the middle if they are not turned and mixed. Put a stick into the middle of the pile. Leave the stick in the pile for 3 minutes, and then pull it out. If the stick is hot, dry, or smelly, the pile must be turned so that the inside of the pile is now on the outside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Keep the pile moist, but not wet. Protect it from the rain. Pig urine can be used to keep the pile moist, and helps add nitrogen to the pile. A compost pile made in this way will be ready for use in only three weeks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p155a.png"></center><br>
+ Compost</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Transplanting</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The transplanting of wild plants is generally unsuccessful. It is usually too hard for the plants to adjust to new soil and light conditions, and they die. However, if you decide to try to transplant wild plants, follow these steps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Plants should be transplanted when they are dormant, such as just before the cold season, in spring before new growth, or before the rainy season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- When digging up plant specimens, have a piece of burlap or plastic sheet ready to receive the roots and attached soil, and water, to keep the root ball moist. Dig the plant up with a spading fork so as not to cut the roots. The small feeding roots are more important than the large ones, which should be cut back to encourage new root growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p155b.png"></center><br>
+ Plastic sheet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Replant the plant immediately in a hole l/3 deeper and l/3 wider than the root spread. A cool, cloudy day is best for transplanting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p156.png"></center><br>
+ Replant</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Put topsoil or topsoil mixed with compost at the bottom of the hole before putting in the plant. If the soil does not have good drainage, a layer of gravel should be placed on the bottom, then topsoil or the mixture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. The old soil line on the plant should determine how much topsoil goes in the hole bottom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Place the root ball of the plant in the hole, gently spreading the roots out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Fill in the hole with more of the same soil or mixture. It should be very firmly packed so that there are no air holes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Do not fill the hole quite to the ground level; leave a depression to catch and hold water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Pile compost around the base of the plant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Water the plant daily for a week while it adjusts to the change.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. If the area is windy or the plant delicate, place a stick which is taller than the plant in the hole before planting the plant. Tie the plant to the stick with a piece of plant material such as raffia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How to select and collect seeds</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whether you are going to collect flower, shrub, or tree seeds, the basic methods apply to each.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Select adult plants which are healthy, strong, free from disease or insect infestation, from which to collect seeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Collect the seeds during the time of seed production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Select species which grow in the same kind of environment as that in which the seedlings will be planted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Select mature seeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Select seeds which are of the same color, size and shape.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Be certain that the seeds are free from disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Dry the seeds well before storing them. Those seeds which are naturally moist or sticky should be washed well before drying.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Do not mix seed of different plants. Put them in jars or envelopes, labeling each by name, date and plant location.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. If needed, a dust insecticide such as Malathion can be mixed with the seeds to control insect pests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Keep the seeds in a cool, dry place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Growing seeds</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seeds planted directly in the earth</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fine, small seeds should be covered with just a thin layer of soil which has first been turned over, mixed with compost, if needed, and raked to a fine texture. Lightly press the seeded earth with a board to make it firm. So that the seeds don't dry out, they should be gently watered in the late afternoons. (Use a can with small holes punched in the bottom with a hammer and small nail).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p157a.png"></center><br>
+ Can with small holes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For larger seeds, plant them two or three times as deep as they are wide, pushing them into the soil, or placing them in an open row, then covering them over with the soil. Keep the earth moist. When seedlings are several centimeters high, pull out the weaker ones to leave the stronger ones more room to grow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p157b.png"></center><br>
+ Larger seeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ground Cover</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ground cover of the variety recommended by the local agriculture agent should be sprinkled generously over soil which has been turned over, mixed with compost if needed, and raked firm. Press seed into the soil with a board. The seeds should then be gently watered and protected from birds with a thin layer of straw or similar material. Seeded ground should not be walked on until the ground cover is growing well. Bare spots can be re-seeded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seeds for Transplanting:</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seeds of flowers, vegetables, shrubs and trees can be germinated for planting later in a permanent location. All these seeds can be started in pans, pots, and boxes, to give them special care, because they may not be strong enough after germination to survive open conditions in the earth. Seeds may germinate in a few weeks, or take as long as several months. Be patient.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prepare a soil of 1/2 sand, 1/2 soft rich soil (or compost). Place the soil in a container which has good drainage at the bottom, provided by gravel or pieces of broken pots. Plant the seeds as described above. Screen the top of the container with lattice, bamboo matting, a sheet of plastic or paper, so that the soil does not receive direct sun and dry out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p158a.png"></center><br>
+ Container</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You need to keep seeds warm, moist and shaded, but not so moist or shaded that the seeds rot.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the seeds have germinated and seedlings are several centimeters tall (4-6 cm), you can transplant them into individual containers whose soil is 3/4 of the former soil and 1/4 soil from where it will be permanently planted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p158b.png"></center><br>
+ Transplanting into individual containers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Suggested site plan</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the seedlings are tall, strong and healthy (10 cm or more), they can be placed in their planned location.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p159.png"></center><br>
+ Landscape Plan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Source materials - Appendix C</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Composting</U><SUP>1</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Health Organization</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geneva, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Home propagation of ornamental trees and shrubs</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Home &amp; Garden Bulletin #80</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of Information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20250, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nosotros y la naturaleza: Guia para profesores; Guia para estudiantes </P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Servicio Nacional de Aprendizaje</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Division Agropecuaria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Region de Neiva</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Columbia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Planning a nature center</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Audubon Society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nature Center Planning Division</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">950 3rd Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, N.Y. 10022, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Reforestation in arid lands</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps/VITA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program &amp; Training Journal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manual series number 5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VITA 3706</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rhode Island</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ave. Mt. Rainier, Md. 20822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suburban &amp; farm vegetable gardens</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Home &amp; Garden Bulletin #9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20250, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</SUP>WHO publications available from:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Q Corporation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">49 Sheridan Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albany, New York 12210, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Available to Peace Corps Volunteers from: Peace Corps information Collection &amp; Exchange Room M- 1214 806 Connecticut Ave. N.W. Washington, D.C. 20525, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix D: Signs, labels and guides</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Signs, labels and guides are your most important means of communication with conservation center visitors. They carry the information you want to share with visitors about the environment and their part in it. To communicate well, your information must be accurate, simple, clear and attractive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To be accurate, simple and clear, you have to know your area well, understand what the environmental problems are, and most important, you must decide what the purpose of your conservation center is. Perhaps it is for general education only, or perhaps it is to encourage a change in farming or health habits. When you understand your purpose, you can plan signs, labels and guides to help you achieve it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To be attractive, your signs, labels, and guides should be neat, similar in design and in the materials used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Signs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SIGNS </I>have three purposes:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- to inform (direction, distance, facilities)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- to interpret (explanation, names of natural features)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- to notify (regulations, warnings)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The use of information and interpretation signs may seem to be similar, but there is an important difference. An information sign direct the visitor while an interpretive sign explain what the visitor is seeing or hearing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Signs are used at the conservation center to direct the visitor to it, to identify it and to give information about it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p161.png"></center><br>
+ Sign 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On a nature trail, signs give direction, distances and regulations or warnings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p162a.png"></center><br>
+ Sign 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p162b.png"></center><br>
+ Sign 3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Signs and their supports should be of natural materials of the region, such as wood, bamboo or stone, to blend with the environment. The style of lettering should be the same for each sign. Signs should be varnished to protect them from rain, humidity, sun, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following suggestions for making trail signs can be adapted to your needs and to local supplies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Select good quality dry wood (or other suitable material).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Cut wood into desired sizes, depending on the amount of lettering or art work planned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Sand the flat sides and edges until smooth, if you are using wood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Apply undercoat enamel (or varnish) to sides and edges. Dry and apply another coat of enamel or varnish. Smooth with fine steel wool or sandpaper.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Trace letter pattern. Ink or paint the letters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. When letters are dry, apply two coats of waterproof varnish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Prepare your sign posts by soaking them at least 48 hours, completely, or that part which will be in the ground plus 15 cm above ground, with 100% creosote, or 50% creosote and 50% used crankcase oil, or 100% used crankcase oil, as a general preservative. (Used crankcase oil may contain chemicals which are harmful to cattle). Pentachlorophenol is used as a water repellant solution, and can be mixed (5%) with used crankcase oil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Place your sign posts in well-drained holes by digging the holes an additional 25 cm deeper than post bottoms will be. Fill with 25 cm of gravel, then bury posts at the desired depth and apply the treatment preservative around the base.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Mount the sign with screws on posts. A center post mount 5 cm x 5 cm is good for small signs; a hanging post is good for larger signs (use screw hooks in a 10 cm x 10 cm post).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An alternate method of lettering is to trace a letter pattern on cut, sanded wood, then cut out the letters with gouging tools to a shallow depth (.3 cm). The cut-out letters can then be painted a contrasting color (white paint on dark wood). A good way is to put the paint into a plastic bottle with a screw-top spout and squeeze the paint into the letters. When the paint is dry, apply two coats of waterproof varnish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p163a.png"></center><br>
+ Sign 4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p163b.png"></center><br>
+ Sign 5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Labels</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Labels </I>are usually smaller than signs. They do most of the interpretive work in exhibits and displays, and on the nature trail. The main reason for a label is to identify an object. The label should also tell the visitor something about the nature of the object, or how it affects the visitor's life. A label is best when it is short and simple. Too much information on the labels will discourage the visitor so that he or she may not read them at all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Planning the labels is part of the exhibit or trail planning, and should not come after the exhibit or trail is finished. This way you will be thinking of what you want to say and how to show it at the same time. If you have a great deal to say and show, it is better to plan more than one short alternating exhibit or trail program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good label will be:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- accurate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- interesting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- short</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- easy to read and understand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p164a.png"></center><br>
+ Example of a good label</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Labels can be made of paper, plastic, masonite, wood, plywood, sheet metal, cardboard, paper baggage tags. Labels can be backed by wood, metal or plastic to be mounted or be seen better. Materials which could be torn, bent or broken can be glued to wooden blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lettering on the labels can be inked or painted by hand or stencil, or press-on letters, or a typewriter can be used. The writing should be neat, clear printing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paper labels should be waterproofed after they are lettered. To do this, melt some white wax or paraffin in a large can (coffee can, dry milk can); dip the label in the wax to cover it completely; dry. (Be careful: melted wax can cause bad burns).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p164b.png"></center><br>
+ Dip market baggage tags in hot paraffin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nature trail labels can be mounted on simple stakes at the trailside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For indoor use, in special cases where a newspaper clipping, magazine article or photograph needs special protection, a picture frame or plastic lamination, if available, might be considered.</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Guides</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guides </I>are printed sheets used to provide detailed information about specific points along a self-guided nature trail. (See Appendix B). A guide should be considered only if you have access to a duplicating machine. It can be a useful means to give additional or seasonal information about your conservation center. Drawings or charts can be included, as well as suggestions for further study or action.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The easiest form for a guide is to print both sides of one or more sheets of letter paper, two columns to a side, then fold or staple them to make a simple booklet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p165.png"></center><br>
+ Guide</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A printed guide can be loaned for use while the visitor is using the conservation center; it can be sold for a small fee to help cover expenses, or it can be given away, if your budget permits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A nature trail guide, planned for Venezuela, is included here. It was intended that appropriate sketches accompany the guide. (See Appendix B for proposed features for a nature trail in Southeast Asia).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A suggested nature trail guide for Guatopo national park, Venezuela</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Welcome to Guatopo National Park. Soon you will find and be introduced to some of the beauties of the forest and discover the parts they play in the <I>rain forest community</I>.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Your discoveries along the 700 meter trail will be aided by this guide. The numbers on the stakes along the trail correspond to the numbers in the leaflet. The trail will return you to this place in about 40 minutes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So that your experience on the trail will be as pleasant and interesting as possible - for you and those who follow - please observe the following regulations:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Stay on the established trails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Use the proper receptacles for garbage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Do not disturb, molest, kill or remove any plant or animal. All plant and animal life is protected by law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. These trees represent a whole <I>community </I>of plants. They are involved in a struggle for survival. Many different kinds of trees evolved in the <I>competition </I>for minerals, water, sunlight and space. How many do you see?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How is the Matapalo making a place for itself? Note its white, trunk-like roots to the left and look up to see how it is growing over and strangling the Puin tree.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Air plants </I>sit on the trunks and branches of trees. They collect nourishment that falls from the air, and so they are <I>not </I>parasites. How does the shape of their leaves help them catch water and falling debris like dead leaves and insects? Who might visit their water pools? Insects? Tree frogs? Hummingbirds? and who else?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What other plants are growing on the trunk of the Puin tree?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. The stream creates an <I>opening </I>that breaks the dense vegetative cover of the forest, allowing the sunlight to penetrate, Sun-loving plants found here may be different from the shade-tolerant species in the forest. Why?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do you see the skirt of vegetation that seems to flow from the treetops to the ground, covering the edge of the wood? Why do you think this happens?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few of the common plants that can be seen here are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trees: </P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yagrumo - a favorite meal of the sloth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mulato - with its delicate leaves</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Urape - the butterfly leaf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ground Plants:</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cariaquito - a member of the mint family with its square stem </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Platanillo - a bird of paradise flower</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. This <I>tree fern </I>is a living fossil - a living record of the earliest evolved form of tree. Various types of giant ferns were widespread over the earth during one geologic period. Then, with climatic changes through time, their success became limited to specific geographic areas. What is special about the climate in Guatopo that allows us to find the tree fern growing here?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The climatic changes also encouraged some tree forms to evolve and specialize. This continuing process of evolution results in the infinite variety of plant sizes, shapes, textures, and colors. Look around for some plants that look similar. Find some that are very different.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some plants developed special aids for seed dispersal, protection and getting along in extreme climatic conditions. Consider, for instance, different seed shapes and how they travel away from the mother plant. Carried by the wind? Stuck to the fur of a passing animal? Deposited in excrement? Or dropped from the beak of a bird, perhaps?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Are the two thorny palm trees to your immediate right the same species?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thorns may serve as <I>protection. </I>What kinds of animals might eat the berries of the Macanilla palm tree if it did not have thorns? The animals which eat the fruits determine how far the seeds may be carried. How does this affect the tree's pattern of distribution?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. We have noticed a variety of plants. Some, like air plants, ferns, lichens, and mosses can live on the trunks of trees and on rocks. But what makes up a whole forest?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trees? shrubs? ground plants? vines? Of course, all of these. Look at these as different levels in a cross-section. How does each layer benefit from its position? Which layer seems to prefer shade? Why do lower leaves seem to be larger? What do vines and lianas do to satisfy their need for water and full sunlight?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatopo has yet another group of plants. Here in the rain forest there is enough humidity to support an abundance of air plants and orchids.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. The homes of these two insects are commonly seen in the forest, They play different but equally important parts in the breakdown and recycling of minerals. Who are they? Ants and Termites,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both live in societies organized for efficient harvesting and reproduction. Do you know how to identify the worker ants from the guards?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leafcutter ants gather a variety of green leaves. The leaves are used to prepare a recipe in which a fungus is cultivated. This fungus is their only food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The termites are organized into groups of reproducers, workers and soldiers. What do they eat?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In what ways are their homes different? What animals may eat them? What animals may move into their abandoned homes?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Root shapes, too, can be found in variety. They serve to support the tree and to absorb water and minerals. As a growing part of the tree, they also need to breathe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roots have different shapes depending on the kind of tree, and wind, soil, and growing conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What conditions may have contributed to the elevated roots of the Yagrumo tree?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. We can learn curious, delightful and useful things about our environment. How good a detective you are depends on how well you use your senses - sight. smell, hearing, and touch. Forest plants can be good clues. Some like wet places -others grow only in dry areas. We call these <I>indicators. </I>What might the Casupo plants on your right indicate about their micro-environment?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plants can also be clues to history. If they are seen in areas where they are not native, we can suspect that the plant was introduced by people, often for decorative or agricultural purposes. Can you find an introduced plant nearby?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. The forest is a hive of activity. Everything living, breathing, growing. But the dead and dying things play an equally important role.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Minerals are the money of the forest, They are concentrated in the growing vegetation as money is in the bank. But how then are the minerals in one plant recycled -that is, made available to new plants? What breaks them down into simpler parts?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many helpers speed the decomposition of fallen leaves, and dead plants and animals. Which animals help break down these materials into the simpler parts? Vultures? Termites? Worms?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mushrooms, bacteria and other soil organisms complete the process of reducing the leaf litter, wood, and animal matter to humus. The thin, dark, top layer of the ground is the mineral-rich humus. This enriches the soil. Like the bank teller, it holds some of the mineral-money ready for exchange.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water carries the minerals from one place to another. With rain, the humus minerals dissolve and filter into the soil. In this way, borrowed minerals are released again into the forest community. Again available to the growing plants and the animals that eat them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leaf litter and humus also help the soil to absorb and hold rainfall, and protect it from <I>erosion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Examine the humus. Feel and smell its richness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Stop and listen a moment. There are many different sounds. Why are some pleasing and others annoying?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How do animals communicate in a dense forest where it may be difficult to see one another?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. The soil has structure. How many layers can you see? We have seen the leaf litter covering, and the humus or organic matter. Beneath this lies what is called the A layer, occupied by most of the living roots. Therefore, water and minerals for plants are provided by this top layer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If water is not absorbed by plants, it, along with some of the dissolved minerals it carries, will leach out and be deposited in the B layer. Therefore, the soil of this zone will be more colorful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The C layer is defined as the non-living parent material from which new soil base will be made.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How would you define soil? What is it a mixture of? It is a mixture of decomposing organic matter, parent inorganic material, air, water and living organisms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The process of soil building is slow. It takes about 500 years to produce 2.5 cm of topsoil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Erosion </I>washes away in hours what took centuries to build. The roots of forest plants help hold the soil in place. And this soil can then hold more water for steady release into the streams. What happens to the soil and the waterflow in deforested areas?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. Where do the animals of the forest live? Some sleep in nests on branches or in the hollows of trees. Others in dense ground vegetation, or even in the cracks in rocks. What do we have here? These burrows in the cliff to the left and also along the descending bank on your right are of many shapes and sizes. Which animals could live here? Armadillo? Rodents? Lizards? Snakes? Jacamars? Crabs? Whip scorpions?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the stream is approached quietly, especially in the early morning or evening, you may see some wildlife. Many animal tracks have been seen here, including deer. Look around a bit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12. Why do animals come to the stream? Because water, like food and shelter, is one of the basic necessities of life for them as well as for people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In and around streams lives a special <I>community</I>. Feel the rocks in the stream. Slippery rocks are an indication of microscopic plant life, phytoplankton. This is food for snails and some insects that spend their early life in the water, like the dragon fly, caddis fly and black fly larvae.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food is <I>fuel</I>. Fuel is <I>energy</I>. Each hungry animal is a link in the <I>food chain </I>- both the eater and the eaten. Some eat only plants; others eat only other animals; while some eat both plants and animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Who lives around the stream to eat the insect larvae and adults? And who, then, may we expect nearby to prey on the crabs, frogs, fish, and birds? Which insects are flying around now? How do they fit into the food chain? Dragon flies, for example, eat other insects, including mosquitos !</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the wild animals, we too are dependent on the stream flow. Where does the city water come from? What kind of land holds water best and releases it in an even flow?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">13. What are some of the forest interactions that can be noticed from this point? What story could you tell about this tree and the vines around it?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14. These roots of the Jobo tree are very different from others we have seen. How do they help the tree and the soil at the same time? What could be a cause for their shape and length? Feel their texture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15. Both plants and animals have defenses against being eaten. One of these is a chemical toxin in the yellow and orange milkweed flowers often seen blooming in open fields. The Monarch butterflies incorporate this distasteful toxin into their bodies when they feed on the nectar of the milkweed flower. Their would-be predators soon learn that they are NOT a tasty meal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The grassy state of this open field is maintained by the intervention of people. If left undisturbed for a few years, which plants might occupy the field? After these sun-loving species have colonized the area, imagine how this space might look.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The place where two habitats meet is called the edge. More animals may be found in this zone because they benefit from what both habitats offer - often food from one area and cover from the one next door. We are on an edge. What are the two habitats? Where else have we seen an edge today?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Why is this an open field? Are there any clues of historical information?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">16. This log of Cuji may be called a Mother Log because it hosts a plant nursery. Notice how there are many different plants, including tree seedlings, growing on it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the moist, dense rain forest, plants need a space to start growing. A log or fallen tree such as this provided the opportunity by creating an opening of light in addition to space. How does this process both encourage growth and speed up decomposition?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">17. Did you guess that this field was once the site of a sugar mill? Marker 15 is beside the ruins of the aquaduct which brought water from the stream to power the trapiche.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concentrations of people now live in cities and towns: away from the sources of running water to power small machinery, and for washing and drinking; away from the source of wood for fuel and building materials; away from the source of wild animals and plants for food; away from an intimate daily dependence on nature for our survival. How do we meet these needs today? What are some of the complicated problems of our lifestyle today?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Measures can be taken to ensure the <I>wise management and use of our resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How can you Help:- Prevent forest fires and encourage reforestation projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Follow hunting laws; hunt only when and where permitted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Remember that litter is a sign of waste. Waste and litter are signs of negative use of natural resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Insist on moderate and appropriate use of wood, water, fuel and minerals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Can you think of some other ways in which we can apply our technology to preserve our environment?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Text prepared by Basha Goldstein. Peace Corps Volunteer, Venezuela.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Source materials - Appendix D</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Durable rustic wooden signboards</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest Service Res. Paper</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20250</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Planning a nature center</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Audubon Society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nature Center Planning Division</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">950 3rd Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, N.Y. 10022, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Reforestation in arid lands</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Peace Corps/VITA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program &amp; Training Journal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manual series number 5 (wood preservatives, pages 49-50)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3706 Rhode island Ave.,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mt. Rainier, Md. 20822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trail planning &amp; layout</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Audubon Society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nature Center Planning Division</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">950 3rd Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, N.Y. 10022, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wood </U>p<U>reservation</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forestry Products Laboratory</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20250</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Available to Peace Corps Volunteers from:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Information Collection &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room M-1214</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.W. Washington, D.C. 20525, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">**Single copies available to individuals and non-profit organizations working in the Third World, from the above address.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix E: Public facilities</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To provide public facilities at a conservation center is a courtesy for visitors. The facilities help them to enjoy the natural setting more fully. Facilities show your concern for the proper use of the center.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A public facility can be as simple as a <I>litter can </I>placed in a spot where visitors might need it, to a complete picnic area. In each case, your aim should be to make the community environment more pleasant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p173a.png"></center><br>
+ Litter can</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Rest stops</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A rest stop with a bench at places of special attraction invites the visitor to pause and notice the attraction. This could be on a nature trail, in the garden of a community center, or a playground. Appreciation of the beauty of our surroundings is a major step in understanding the need for conserving them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A rest stop would consist of a cleared area of smooth ground where there is an attractive feature for the visitor to enjoy. On this clearing you can provide a place for one to three visitor to sit. Possible seats might be large smooth rocks, logs either on their side or on end, or a simple bench, built from local materials: a board screwed to two support logs, a board placed across two supports made from stones cemented together or cinvaram blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p173b.png"></center><br>
+ Rest Stop</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For visitor safety, the bench must be sturdy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You may want to add a litter can if littering is a problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You may want to make a descriptive sign to tell why the feature there is special.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You may need a railing if there is a drop, and danger of a visitor falling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Picnic areas</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A picnic area shows that you are interested in the visitors' needs, and it politely tells the visitor that it is the place he or she should use. This way other natural areas will be protected from heavy use and litter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A picnic area should be near the entrance to a conservation center, a nature trail or a park, where visitors can see it and get to it easily from their transportation. A picnic area should be inviting:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- well planned, in an attractive location; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- sheltered from sun, frequent rains or wind; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- always clean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the number of visitors is few, one or two tables and seats will be enough. When there are more visitors you will need more tables; you may also need a rain shelter with table and seats. You should plan picnic facilities which reflect the way visitors are likely to sit and arrange their meal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clear the ground of obstacles, but leave large shrubs and trees to give privacy and shelter. Place tables and seats at spots where the view is most attractive. The table and seats can be very simple: large flat rocks arranged carefully could be both table and seats; you could sink sections of log upright into the ground for table and seats:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p174.png"></center><br>
+ Picnic Area</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Or a table could be built of split logs or plans:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p175a.png"></center><br>
+ Table built of split</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If visitors would be likely to build a cooking fire, provide a safe place for a fire such as the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p175b.png"></center><br>
+ Cooking fire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- cross section of large metal drum (25 cm wide) OR length of sheet metal 25 cm x 150-180 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- sand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- gravel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- stones</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. In a cleared area dig a smooth shallow pit 15 cm deep and the same diameter as the metal ring.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Place the ring in the pit with the rim 10 cm above the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Fill in the outside edge with dirt to make a tight fit and to slope the earth outward from the ring to the ground level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Cover the bottom of the pit with 5 cm of sand and put a few large stones in it to hold a cooking pot.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Place gravel or stones around the outside edge for a distance of 30 cm to reduce the danger of spreading fire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Gather and pile dry firewood near the fire pit so that visitors will not cut or break living plants and trees for this purpose.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p176.png"></center><br>
+ Cross section of large metal drum</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Latrine facilities</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When there are no other near-by latrine facilities, and visitor use is heavy, a latrine and wash stand should be provided so that pollution of the area does not occur. It should be located near, but not at the building, trail or picnic area entrance. Building materials should blend with the surroundings. (See also Chapter 3)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pit Latrine Construction Procedures:</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Choose a site: The pit latrine should be located at least thirty meters away from the building. It should be at least thirty meters away from any well, spring, or water source. It should be downhill from any water sources. Clear an area of 2m around the site.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Dig the pit: The pit should be rectangular in shape. It should be 60 cm x 140 cm by 2.5m deep. It is suggested that the pit be lined with stone, brick, or other hard material to prevent caving in of the pit. At least the top 1 meter should be lined in this way.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Construct a base: Around the edge of the pit build a base of brick, cement, clay, or other hard durable material, on which the floor slab will rest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Construct a floor slab: the floor slab may be built of tightly fitting wooden boards, with any holes or cracks filled with clay or cement. However, for heavy use, a cement slab floor is longer lasting and easier to keep clean. The slab should have raised foot rests approximately 11 cm x 18 cm, and an opening approximately 38 cm long and 18 cm wide. The distance between the rear edge of the opening and the wall of the shelter should be between 10 cm and 18 cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p177.png"></center><br>
+ Pit Latrine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Build a cover for the opening: The cover may be built of wood, of a rectangular shape to completely cover the opening between the foot rests. Attach a pole of approximately 50 cm in length for easy handling. (Place a sign or picture poster on the latrine door encouraging use of the cover).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p178.png"></center><br>
+ Cover for opening</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Build a foundation mound: A mound is built with earth excavated from the pit from the ground level to the level of the slab flooring to protect the pit and its base from surface run-off water. It should extend 50 cm beyond the slab in all directions. It should be very tightly packed down to make it sturdy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Construct a shelter: For privacy and protection for the latrine, construct a shelter of materials most readily available in the community: wood, bamboo, palm or grass thatch, brick or adobe, mud, or sheet metal. It should fit the dimensions of the floor. The roof should have a large overhang to protect the mound from rain, and the roof should slope down from a height of 2 meters at the door. Openings of 10-15 cm at the top of the walls will provide ventilation. These can be screened to discourage flies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. The latrine should be kept clean and in good repair at all times. If it is not kept clean it will not be used. Daily or more frequent maintenance may be required.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(If this latrine will have more than one hole, each extra hole will add 140 cm to the length dimension).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Figure 17</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p179.png"></center><br>
+ THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A PIT LATRINE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since visitors to the conservation center will be handling many of the exhibits and displays, you will want them to have clean hands. You should provide water outside the latrine shelter for washing hands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If your conservation center is part of another facility, such as an agricultural or health center, you should encourage clean hands by providing a washstand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To hold your water supply, provide a large <I>covered </I>container such as a metal or plastic drum or clay pot. Provide a small can or pot for dipping out the water, and a bowl to wash in. A suggested washstand follows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A calabash washstand</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 large calabash bowl 25-30 cm diameter 10- l 5 cm deep OR 1 similar size enamel, plastic or metal bowl</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 small calabash bowl 10-15 cm diameter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 3 strong sticks of equal thickness 1m to 1.15m long OR 3 similar size bamboo stakes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 3 meters (approx.) raffia OR 3 meters string or tie vine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p180a.png"></center><br>
+ Large calabash bowl</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p180b.png"></center><br>
+ Small calabash bowl</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tools Needed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- awl OR drill</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- knife</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p181a.png"></center><br>
+ Stick of wood</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p181b.png"></center><br>
+ Awl</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p181c.png"></center><br>
+ Knife</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Hold the sticks crossed together in a tripod position.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Have a second person put the bowl on the tripod.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. The higher the cross-point of the sticks, the higher the bowl will sit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. When the bowl is at the height you want, mark the sticks at-the place where they cross.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Hold the sticks together upright and wrap raffia or string several times around the place where you marked them, and tie securely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Spread the sticks apart at their cross-point and tie over, under and around to hold them firmly apart.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Make three drain holes in the bottom of the small calabash.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Make three holes near the edge of the small calabash, 1/3 of the diameter apart, for raffia ties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Tie the small bowl to the tripod legs beneath the cross-point, with raffia ties. This will be a soap holder.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Push the ends of the sticks into the ground where the washstand will be located and place the bowl on the tripod.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p182.png"></center><br>
+ Calabash washstand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Parking</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need for visitor parking space at a conservation center building, or nature trail, should be based on how visitors will be traveling: by foot, bicycle, bus or private car. When parking for private transportation will be provided, you can plan a space which is near the building, the nature trail and the picnic area (maximum distance 90 meters, minimum 30 meters). The parking area should provide approximately 5m x 2m for each car and 3.5m x 10.5 cm for each bus you plan for. Set aside a corner of the area especially for bicycle parking: a rack or hanging hooks could be considered. The area should have a good entrance and exit so that traffic moves freely. The area should be cleared of small obstacles such as stones, shrubs, logs and branches. Large rocks should be left, as well as trees which will provide shade and hold the soil. Cut low branches which would interfere with traffic. The surface can be just smoothed and packed earth, or for heavy use it could be crushed stone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As in any case where there will be disruption of the earth's surface, the layout for a parking area should be done first on paper, on which special features of the land are noted, and which you will consider in your planning. Avoid the causes of erosion by working against a slope rather than with it. Leave as much plant material as you can to hold the soil in place, and to keep down dust,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Source materials - Appendix E</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excreta disposal for rural areas and small communities</U><SUP>1</P>
+</SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Hearth Organization</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geneva, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Planning a nature center</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Audubon Society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nature Center Planning Division</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">950 3rd Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, N.Y. 10022, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*<U>Village technology handbook</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VITA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3706 Rhode Island Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mt. Rainier, Md. 20822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Up to 5 copies available to Peace Corps Libraries from: Peace Corps information Collection &amp; Exchange Room M-1214 806 Connecticut Avenue N.W. Washington, D.C. 2O525, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<SUP><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</SUP>WHO publications available from:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Q Corporation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">49 Sheridan Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albany, New York 12210, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix F: Live animals</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A conservation center can be the home of a number of small, local animals. It is a rewarding experience for visitors to realize that the fish, spider or frog that they see everyday, leads an interesting and busy life in which food, air, sun and water are as important as in the visitors' own lives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a school setting, over a period of time, children can learn about life cycles by watching the development of a butterfly from its beginning as a tiny egg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collecting specimens for observation can be a good lesson in understanding habitats. The animal life of the seashore, for example, is rich and interesting in its adaptation to changing water levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild mammals and birds require more care and food than reptiles or insects, are subject to disease, and do not adapt well to captivity. If you feel it is important to keep a mammal, try one like a mouse or other small local mammal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The collection</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can begin a live animal collection with only a small bottle terrarium with a few insects. As your interest and knowledge grows, you can add more species. Your animals should be given clean, comfortable homes such as in a terrarium, acquarium or cage, and you must be able to provide the right kind of habitat and food for each animal. You will be able to do this by careful observation of the animal in its own habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first thing to do in making a collection is to make a survey of the easy-to-care-for animal inhabitants of your area; insects, amphibians, reptiles, water dwellers, and then decide which you would like to collect. Make a container to reproduce the environment the animal lives in, including sticks, rocks, leaves, gravel, sand, and plants. When the animal's home is ready, you can go collecting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Allow 11 picas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Margin to bind</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- plastic containers, such as a bucket, for sea watch collecting</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p186a.png"></center><br>
+ Plastic containers</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p186b.png"></center><br>
+ <I>- a smaller all-purpose net</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a piece of screen for screening small water animals (optional)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p186c.png"></center><br>
+<I> Hold the screen in your hands like this</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a box (wooden Oh cardboard) with cover</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What you will need</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p187a.png"></center><br>
+ <I>- an insect net</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- glass containers with covers which have holes for air</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p187b.png"></center><br>
+ Glass 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p187c.png"></center><br>
+ Glass 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p187d.png"></center><br>
+ Glass 3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed </U>to make a NET</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: An all-purpose net can be made with the same construction method as an insect net. (See pages 97 &amp; 98 for illustrations).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 75-85 cm sturdy wire (for ring) OR 2 wire coat hangers OR 75-85 flexible bamboo </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 75 cm stick (for handle) OR 75 cm bamboo pole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- mosquito netting 60 cm x 70 cm approximately (for bag) OR nylon netting OR light cloth </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- needle and thread (to sew bag)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- fine wire (to attach ring to pole) OR raffia OR string</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Make a ring of the wire, coathangers or bamboo and wire or tie it closed. (If you are using coat hangers, wire or tie them together. If you are using bamboo, wrap another strip of flexible bamboo around it to make it stronger).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Attach stick or pole to the ring by tying it with wire, raffia, string or flexible bamboo. (this is easier if you have notched the stick 3 cm from the end you are attaching to the ring).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Cut the cloth as shown for the net you are making, and sew it along the cut side, into a bag. (60 cm long for an insect net, 35 cm long for an all-purpose net).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Sew the bag top over the ring very securely. Check for any places not sewn tightly and sew again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Aquariums</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An aquarium is a container for the water habitat for fresh or sea water animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To make this water habitat you will need a glass container. If you cannot obtain a ready-made aquarium, perhaps you can find a large glass jar or bottle, a glass battery jar, or a pyrex pan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p189.png"></center><br>
+ Simple aquariums in jars and pans</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The size of your collection will depend on the size of the container.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Your aquarium should be carefully washed in lots of clean water (soap or detergents would be harmful to the animals you will put in it). Then let your container sit full of clean water for several days for the water to absorb any remaining impurities. Pour this water out. Place the container in a permanent location where it will get at least two hours of direct sun (morning or afternoon) each day, and begin to reproduce the habitat of the animals you have decided to collect. In collecting animals for an aquarium, remember that you cannot keep animals from different habitats in the same aquarium. Your aquarium must reproduce only one habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To collect animals for your aquarium you will need a net for scooping animals out of water, a piece of screen for screening very small animals out of the water (optional), a fine meshed basket with a handle attached to scoop animals out of the water (optional), and glass or plastic containers to hold the animals in their water. A non-metalic tray would be helpful for sorting and choosing the animals you will keep. Any animal that you don't want should be returned to the water. Remember the size of your container as you are collecting. For a small container, several small animals are more interesting than one large one. Do not over-populate your container space; if you want variety you can change your collection frequently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A freshwater aquarium</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Cover the bottom of the container with well washed soil from the animal's habitat if you will be growing water plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Cover the soil with 2-3 cm of well-washed gravel from the animal's habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Cover the gravel with 1-2 cm well washed sand if there is any in the animal's habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p190a.png"></center><br>
+ A freshwater aquarium - Stage 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p190b.png"></center><br>
+ A freshwater aquarium - Stage 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p190c.png"></center><br>
+ A freshwater aquarium - Stage 3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Cover the sand with a piece of newspaper and pour the water (see #5) into the container, then lift the paper off carefully. This way the sand and gravel won't be disturbed by the water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. The water should be clean water from the animal's habitat. However, if you use tap water, let it stand in a clean plastic or glass container for several days to allow any harmful gases to escape.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Carefully collect plants with their roots from the animal's habitat and carry them to the container in a bucket or jar of water so that they don't dry out. Wash them carefully in water several times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Plant the plants in the container by pushing the roots down into the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. You can plant 1 or 2 plants for every 2 litres of water. The plants are necessary to provide oxygen for the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p191a.png"></center><br>
+ A freshwater aquarium - Stage 4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. When the plants are established (in about a week) you are ready to collect your animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. If it is possible, before you put the animals into the containers, float the collecting jar with the animals in it, in the container, until the two waters are the same temperature. This will avoid temperature shock to the animals when you add them to the container.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p191b.png"></center><br>
+ A freshwater aquarium - Stage 5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some fresh water habitats for collecting are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a stream with water plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a lake or pond with water plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a rocky lake or pond with no plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a pond with sandy bottom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a pond with muddy bottom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some possible inhabitants of a fresh water aquarium are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- small fish</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- tadpoles and salamanders (good for small jars, starting with the eggs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- crayfish (good for large jars or pyrex pan; need rock to climb out of water)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- leeches</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- snails (clean shells with old toothbrush before putting in aquarium)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- water insects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fresh water animals will eat a variety of things: algae growing in the water, the water plants, tadpole eggs, chopped earthworms, chopped snails, chopped fish meat, and each other. You will have to experiment to find the right combinations. Remove uneaten food so it does not rot in the water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FISH POPULATION</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The amount of water needed for fish in an aquarium is approximately 3/4 litre water for each centimeter of fish. An aquarium which holds 50 liters of water could hold:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></I></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=309>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">25 </I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="73%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 cm fish </I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">or</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="73%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10 </I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="73%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 cm fish </I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">or</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="73%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10 </I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="73%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 cm fish and 30 1 cm fish</I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A marine aquarium</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Cover the bottom of the container with 4-5 cm of clean beach sand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. If you are planning to have animals from a tidal pool, provide a ramp (a piece of wood or rock) where they can spend some time out of water, as they would at low tide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Collect your animals, green seaweed, brown seaweed and sea water at one time. Put them in non-metalic containers. Include a few seaweed-covered stones. Do your collecting at low tide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Place a newspaper over the sand in the container while you are pouring in the sea water, then lift it off carefully.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Add the seaweed and the stones, then the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some salt water habitats for collecting are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- tidal pool of a rocky shore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- tidal pool of a sandy shore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- tidal pool of a mud flat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- open sea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some possible inhabitants of a marine aquarium:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- small sea fish</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- starfish crabs, including hermit crabs mussels, clams</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- sea snails sea urchins</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- shrimp</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals will eat algae, sea plants, tiny floating animals, small pieces of chopped meat such as earthworms, fish or clams, and each other. Remove uneaten food so it does not rot.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Your sea aquarium will lose water through evaporation. You can replace this with an equal amount of fresh water. Mark the high-water line on the container, and re-fill only to this level as the water evaporates. The amount of salt in the water will remain about the same.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You should provide a good supply of green seaweed to give oxygen to the aquarium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remember to keep the water temperature as close as you can to that of the sea. If the animals get too warm, they will die.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animals which have climbed out of the water (as they would be out of the water during low tide) may have to be moved back into the water after a couple of hours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p194.png"></center><br>
+ A marine aquarium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Terrariums</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A terrarium is a container for a land habitat. It can be just a plant habitat (see Appendix A), or it can include the animals which live in that kind of plant habitat. A terrarium can hold a desert habitat, a forest-type habitat, or a swamp habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Depending on the kind of habitat that you will collect, a terrarium might hold some of the following kinds of animals:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reptiles</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">snakes (harmless)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">lizards</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">turtles &amp; tortoises</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amphibians</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">frogs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">toads</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">salamanders</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insects and Spiders</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">crickets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">praying</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">mantises</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">grasshoppers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">caterpillars</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">centipedes (harmless)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">millipedes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">spiders (harmless)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A terrarium container can be a large glass jar, or you can build a glass box. Both methods are shown. (You can also use an aquarium).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed </U>for a glass box Terrarium:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 metal tray, a sheet of metal or a board approximately 35 cm x 50 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1/2 kilo plaster of paris</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 2 pieces of glass 30 cm x 45 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 2 pieces of glass 30 cm x 30 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 piece of glass 31 cm x 46 cm for the top OR 1 piece fine wire screen 35 cm x 50 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 large can or other disposable container (for mixing plaster of paris)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 roll adhesive or plastic tape 4 cm wide</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Lay the four pieces of glass out flat, the 30 cm sides together, leaving about 3 cm between them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Cut four pieces of tape 30 cm long and press the pieces of tape along the sides A, B &amp; C of the glass.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p195.png"></center><br>
+ Four pieces of tape</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. hid the glass inward carefully and tape the last corner D together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Mix plaster of paris with water in a large can until it is a smooth thick mixture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Pour the mixture quickly (it dries very fast) on to the metal sheet and smooth it evenly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Gently and quickly press the taped glass into the mixture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p196.png"></center><br>
+ Glass into the mixture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Let the mixture harden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If plaster of paris is not available, you might be able to sink the glass into sand or gravel in a flat box, making sure that the glass touches the base continuously, so that animals cannot crawl under it. Another alternative might be to use waterproof tape to fix the glass sides onto a base. This would not be as sturdy, and tape would probably need frequent replacement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed </U>for a Jar Terrarium:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 clean 4-litre glass jar with a large opening and lid (or wire mesh)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 box about 3 cm x 30 cm x 18 cm (a shoe box)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1/4 kilo plaster of paris</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 large can or other disposable container (for mixing plaster of paris)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Mix plaster of paris with water in a large can until it is smooth and thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Pour mixture quickly into the box and place the Jar on its side in the plaster mixture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Dry till hard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p197a.png"></center><br>
+ Jar Terrarium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If plaster of paris is not available, you can make a small terrarium habitat with the jar standing upright.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To mate your terrarium container into a Desert-type habitat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Put a layer of soil on the bottom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Cover the soil with a deep layer of clean (washed and dried) sand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Plant one or two desert plants in the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Place a small dish (or other container) for water in the sand, which can be removed for cleaning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Place clean rocks carefully so as to give shelter for an animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Cover the terrarium with wire screening.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Hold the screening down with stones if necessary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Desert snakes, lizards, tortoises or insects are the kinds of animals you can keep in this terrarium. Snakes like live food, and depending on the type, will eat insects, earthworms, frogs or mice. They may also eat eggs or small bits of meat. A snake will not eat every day. However, if it does not eat at all, you should let it go. Lizards are meat and insect eaters; a few are plant eaters. Identify an animal's food needs <I>before </I>you decide to collect and keep it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p197b.png"></center><br>
+ DESERT TERRARIUM</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To make your terrarium container into a Forest-type habitat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Cover the bottom of your container with a mixture of gravel, charcoal (optional) and soil. This will give air and drainage, and nutrients for the plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Plant forest-type plants, ferns, mosses, in the soil to the same depth that they were growing in their original habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Place a removable water dish in one corner. If the animal needs to swim, the water container should be large enough for this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Place stones, sticks or small branches to provide climbing and shelter for animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Water the soil by sprinkling it, so that it will retain moisture. It should not be soggy with water, however.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Cover the top with glass if it's a box type. If it's a Jar type, make air holes in the lid and screw it onto the jar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. If the terrarium becomes too moist and mold starts to grow, raise the glass top or open the lid for a day or two until the excess moisture has evaporated. Tie a piece of cloth over the opening to prevent the animals' escape while the top is open.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This can be the habitat for insects, spiders, frogs, salamanders, and turtles, for example. Spiders eat insects which they have caught, and the insects will often be plant-eaters. Frogs and toads eat flies and earthworms. Some turtles will eat both plants and worms. Be sure you can find food for your animals before you collect them,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p198.png"></center><br>
+ FOREST TERRARIUM</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Ants</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A large glass jar will make a fine home for an ant colony. You should choose only ants which are not dangerous, and which live in the soil. To make an ant colony, you will need a queen, workers, and some eggs. To find them, dig into a small ant nest. The queen is larger and shinier than the others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Fill a jar with soil from the area of the ant nest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Put in the queen, workers and eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Place a wet sponge on the top of the soil to provide moisture, Wet it whenever it dries out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Cover the top of the jar tightly with fine mesh wire so no ants can escape.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Wrap the jar with black paper. This way the ants will make their tunnels against the sides of the jar. Remove the paper only to observe the ants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Feed the ants bits of earthworm, flies, live aphids, scraps of rice, leaves, a drop of honey, until you know what food they prefer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p199.png"></center><br>
+ Ant Colony in Jar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Earthworms</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can make an earthworm colony in a large jar, just as you do for ants. Earthworms live in and eat decaying plant matter. That is the habitat you will find them in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Fill a jar with a mixture of sand, leaf mold and rich topsoil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Put in several small earthworms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Keep the soil moist so that the worms can burrow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Wrap the jar with black paper. This way the earthworms will tunnel against the sides of the jar, and can then be seen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p200.png"></center><br>
+ WRAP JAR IN BLACK PAPER</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Cover the jar with fine mesh wire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Feed the worms by putting fresh leaves, dead leaves, bits of discarded vegetables, pieces of grass into the jar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Add worms as you find them, but do not let the jar get too crowded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. These worms can be a food supply for other animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Cardboard insect box</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For short-term insect study, you may want to build a simple cardboard container. Because it will not be waterproof, YOU will use containers (any kind of low-sided can, pot, dish, calabash) filled with moist soil into which you can stick cut branches, flowers, moss, or other plant material, rather than putting soil directly on the box bottom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p201.png"></center><br>
+ Cardboard insect box</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 1 cardboard box (any size) with at least five sturdy sides</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- transparent paper, plastic, glass, cloth netting, or wire screening</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- glue or adhesive tape</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- scissors and knife</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. If the box has all six sides, cut a large rectangle in one side, for a window.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Glue or tape transparent paper, plastic, glass, cloth or screen over the window.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. If the box has only five sides, glue or tape transparent paper, plastic, glass, cloth or screen over the sixth side.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Make a large door by cutting three sides of a rectangle through one side of the box, and bending along the fourth side. Glue or tape a piece of cardboard on the door for a handle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. If you have used cloth for your window, the box will have enough air. If you used other material, you may need to punch air holes in the box with a nail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Place a piece of paper on the bottom to make cleaning the box easier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Place containers of moist soil with branches, flowers, etc. on the bottom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Place a small rock or log on the bottom and add insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9 Keep the soil moist, replace the plant material when necessary, and keep the box clean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Mammal cages</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can keep a small mammal in a glass box with a wire top, like the one made for a terrarium or you can make a wood and screen box type. Another cage type would be made of small bamboo slats tied together to make sides, floor and top. Whichever you use, there must be a dish for water, a climbing branch, a small nest box or hollow log to hide in. Old newspapers, wood chips or straw should be provided for nesting material.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This wood and screen cage has a removable top, and should be large enough for two mouse-sized animals. It can be increased or reduced in size depending on your animal. Sizes of wood strips are approximate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 8 pieces of wood 2 cm x 5 cm x55 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 8 pieces of wood 2 cm x 5 cm x35 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 8 pieces of wood 2 cm x 5 cm x 25 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 4 pieces of wood 2 cm x 3 cm 3 28 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 2 pieces of wire screen 40 cm x 60 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 2 pieces of wire screen 30 cm x 60 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 2 pieces of wire screen 30 cm x 40 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- nails &amp; hammer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. For the top:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 pieces of wood 2 cm x 5 cm x 55 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 pieces of wood 2 cm x 5 cm x 35 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 piece of wire screen 60 cm x 40 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">nail the four pieces of wood together as shown, and attach the wire screen with small nails pounded in and hammered sideways to lie over the screen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p202.png"></center><br>
+ Nail the four pieces of wood together</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. For the bottom: proceed as for the top.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. For the front:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 pieces of wood 2 cm x 5 cm x 55 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 pieces of wood 2 cm x 5 cm x 35 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 piece of wire screen 60 cm x 30 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">nail the four pieces of wood together as shown, and attach the wire screen with small nails pounded in and hammered sideways to lie over the screen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. For the back: proceed as for the front</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. For <U>each </U>side:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 pieces of wood 2 cm x 5 cm x 35 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 pieces of wood 2 cm x 5 cm x 25 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 piece of wire screen 30 cm x 40 cm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">nail the four pieces of wood together as before, and attach the wire screen with small nails pounded in and hammered sideways to lie over the screen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Nail the two completed sides to the completed front and back.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Nail the bottom to the sides, front and back as shown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p203.png"></center><br>
+ Nail the bottom to the sides, front and back</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Nail a piece of wood 2 cm x 3 cm 3 28 cm in <I>each </I>corner for bracing and support</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p204a.png"></center><br>
+ Nail a piece of wood in each corner for bracing and support</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Lay top on completed cage. It could be hinged on, if desired.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p204b.png"></center><br>
+ The Cage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">An outdoor bird attraction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it is not recommended that you keep wild birds at your conservation center, you can attract them to live near-by if you provide the kinds of vines, shrubs and trees which give them shelter and food. An added attraction can be a bird bath. Since most birds love to bathe, you could provide a bath near a favorite tree or shrub. A calabash washstand as shown in Appendix E, would make a very good bird bath.* Since dripping water makes a bird bath even more attractive, hang a large can of water with a hole punched in the bottom, from a branch over the bath. Keep the bath clean and the can filled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* A shallow wide bowl should be used</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p205.png"></center><br>
+ Outdoor Bird Attraction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Source materials - Appendix F</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miniature environment: an environmental education guidebook</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Interior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bureau of Outdoor Recreation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Division of Information, Room 4241</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20240, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One hundred science experiments for everyone</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Doubleday &amp; Co., Inc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Garden City, N.Y., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ranger Rick's Nature Magazine </U>(monthly)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Wildlife Federation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1412 16th Street N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20036, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix G: Endangered species</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We share our environment with other living things. A balanced and healthy environment should have many different species living together in interdependence. Many species in the world today are in danger of disappearing because their numbers have been reduced_ by hunting, by loss of their habitat, or by an environmental change in their food chain - to where they can no longer reproduce efficiently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is of benefit to the total environment to maintain and encourage these endangered species, for when something goes wrong in the natural order, it can affect us all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, jungle cats have become rare in many places. The rats which the cats used to eat have multiplied now that their natural enemies are gone. In their search for food the rats now invade villages, carrying disease to the inhabitants and eating their crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important element in conservation education is <U>awareness. </U>In order for a community to be concerned about the endangered species of the area, people must know something about these species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A school program</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A school program to study a local endangered animal could be a very effective way to begin to develop community awareness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggestions for study</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Choose an endangered animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Make poster pictures of it to display in the community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Study the food chain of the animal,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Identify changes in the local environment which affected the animal's habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. List as many reasons as you can for the animal's disappearance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Make up guessing games about the endangered animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Build a battery-powered guessing game to match relationships in the endangered animal's habitat, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Invite a wildlife technician to the school or the community center to talk about endangered species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Find and follow a suggestion on the "Action Treatment" list which is appropriate for you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A community program</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (ICUN) has proposed conservation measures to promote the survival of endangered and threatened species. <I>(Endangered </I>species are close to disappearing; <I>threatened </I>species are likely to become endangered). These measures, called "Action Treatment", are included here in order for you to determine if any would be possible for you to undertake as part of a community conservation program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Action Treatment</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. <U>Fact-finding:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1) To make a brief status survey to determine the status of the species and the current threats to its survival;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(2) To make a longer ecological study to identify the species' requirements, the factors limiting its population growth, and the relationship between the species and local human population;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(3) To ascertain the legal and enforcement situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. <U>Action proposed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) To prompt new legislation;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b) To improve law enforcement;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(c) To improve the legal situation in any other way</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(2) To acquire land as a reserve;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(3) To promote the formation by a Government or other appropriate agency of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) A National Park;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b) A Nature Preserve.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(4) To establish the research station to study the fauna, flora and ecology of the region;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(5) To establish a research foundation possibly within an existing organization (such as a university) which will focus scientific attention on the species concerned;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(6) To create a continuing scientific presence by any other means;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(7) To promote a program of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) Captive propagation;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b) Translocation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(8) To offer bounties for successful rearing of young (chiefly applicable to birds).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(9) To control:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) Feral animal species;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b) Introduced animal species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(10) To increase food supply or living space.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. <U>Use of influence:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1) To exert influence by persuading someone of importance to write:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) A personal letter;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b) An official letter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(2) To send a high level mission to confer with the heads of Governments or Ministers concerned;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(3) To promote a local meeting on the subject;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(4) To promote a resolution or recommendation at a Conference;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(5) To secure recognition in high places by some other means.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. <U>Publicity:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1) To promote a publicity campaign;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(2) To propose the adoption by a group (e.g. city, school) of:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) The species;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b) The project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(3) To promote a program of long-term education.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Funding:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1) To promote a World Wildlife Fund project;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(2) To seek financial aid from an individual or organization which may be linked with the species or project;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(3) To get help in kind from industry or commerce;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(4) To obtain the services of people able to give practical help.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Red Data Book </U>of the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Union for</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation of Nature and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Natural Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Endangered animals of selected countries</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afghanistan</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wolf</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian Tiger</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caspian tiger</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Snow Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asiatic cheetah</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bactian deer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Markhor</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kabul markhor</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Straight horned markhor</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheer pheasant</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Asian grey monitor</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bahrain</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arabian gazelle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South arabian leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dugong</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belize</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant anteater</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ocelot</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jaguar</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central American caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morelet's crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benin</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Olive colobus</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chimpanzee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brown hyena</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lechwe</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buff-headed marmoset</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Golden lion tamarin</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Golden-headed tamarin</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Golden-rumped tamarin</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goeldi's marmoset</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">White-nosed saki</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bald uakar</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Red uakari</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black-headed uakari</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wooly spider monkey</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant anteater</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small-eared dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maned sloth</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant armadillo</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazilian three-banded armadillo</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thin-spined porcupine</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maned wolf</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bush dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La Plata otter</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant otter</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ocelot</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jaguar</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean Manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amazonian manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marsh deer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Red-rumped ant thrush</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baer's cardinal</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Red-billed curassow</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arran turtle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Terecay turtle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spectacled caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paraguay caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Broad-nosed caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwarf caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smooth-fronted caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Queimada Island bothrops</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chimpanzee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gorilla</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon clawless otter</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kupe Mt. Bush shrike</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grey-necked rock-fowl</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African slender-snouted</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African dwarf crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Amphibia:</I></U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goliath frog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central African Republic</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chimpanzee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gorilla</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Square-lipped rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheetah</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African wild ass</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scimitar horned oryx</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Addax</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Slender horned gazelle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile Crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chile</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chinchilla</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marine otter</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern river Otter</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Juan Fernandez fur seal</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vicuna</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Andean huemul</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">North Andean huemul</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cotton-topped tamarin</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black-headed uakari</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant anteater</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant armadillo</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small eared dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bush dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spectacled bear</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant otter</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ocelot</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jaguar</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amazonian manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mountain tapir</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central American tapir</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barred tinamou</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andean eared grebe</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pygmy swift</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Red-eyed cowbird</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South American red-lined</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">turtle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arran turtle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Magdalena River Turtle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Terecay turtle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spectacled caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rio Apaporis caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central American caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwarf caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smooth-fronted caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Orinoco crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Costa Rica</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant anteater</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ocelot</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jaguar</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central American tapir</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cocos Island finch</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cocos island mangrove cuckoo</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cocos Island flycatcher</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cocos island yellow warbler</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quetzal</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central American caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Amphibia:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Golden toad</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominican Republic</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals: </I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haitian solenodon</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cuvier's hutia</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominican hutia</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hispaniola least pauraque</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rhinoceros iguana</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ricord's ground iguana</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ecuador</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant armadillo</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small-eared dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bush dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spectacled bear</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spectacled caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwarf caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smooth-fronted caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El Salvador</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant anteater</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ocelot</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central American tapir</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central American caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern simian fox</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheetah</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dugong</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African wild ass</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grevy's zebra</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tora hartebeest</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beira antelope</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dibatag</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Walia ibex</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mountain nyala</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African lammergeyer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teita falcon</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">White-winged dove</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turaco</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scarce swift</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile Crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dugong</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji iguana</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji snake, Ogmodon</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gabon</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chimpanzee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gorilla</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gambia</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western giant eland</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African slender-snouted</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Olive colobus</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chimpanzee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">White-necked rock-fowl</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African slender-snouted</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant anteater</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ocelot</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central American tapir</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quetzal</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant pied-billed grebe</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Horned guan</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Golden-cheeked warbler</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central American caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morelet's crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chiapan beaded lizard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honduras</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant anteater</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ocelot</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jaguar</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central American tapir</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Bipeds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Golden-cheeked warbler</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central American caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morelet's crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lion-tailed macaque</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John's langur</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Golden langur</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Snub-nosed langur</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assam rabbit</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indus dolphin</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wolf</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asiatic wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sloth bear</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malabar large spotted civit</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clouded leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asiatic tiger</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Snow leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asian elephant</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dugong</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian wild ass</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Great Indian rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sumatran rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pygmy hog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swamp deer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manipur brow-antlered deer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kashmir stag (hangul)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asiatic buffalo</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaur</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild yak</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Himalayan musk deer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nilgiri tahr</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Markhor</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">White-winged wood duck</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheer pheasant</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">White-eared pheasant</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sclater's monal</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blyth's tragopan</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western tragopan</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siberian white crane</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Great Indian bustard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">River terrapin</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marsh crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estaurine crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gavial</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian python</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yellow monitor</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iran</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wolf</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baluchistan bear</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anatolian leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caspian tiger</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asiatic cheetah</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dugong</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asiatic wild ass</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Persian fallow deer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marsh crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivory Coast</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Olive colobus</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chimpanzee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pygmy hippopotamus</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jentink's duiker</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African slender-snouted crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African dwarf crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jamaica</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mummify: </I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jamaican hutia</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Beach: </I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jamaican black rail</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered </I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Repotted: American crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jamaican boa</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cayman island iguana</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grand Cayman iguana</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mandate: </I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tana River mangabey</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tana River red colobus</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheetah</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dugong</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grevy's zebra</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hunter's hartebeest</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African lammergeyer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teita falcon</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mrs. Morden's owlet</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scarce swift</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pancake tortoise</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Korea</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals: </I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wolf</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asiatic wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siberian tiger</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amur leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds: </I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chinese egret</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Japanese white stork</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tristam's woodpecker</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lesotho</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheetah</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African lammergeyer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles: </I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liberia</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Olive colobus</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chimpanzee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pygmy hippopotamus</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jentink's duiker</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African slender-snouted</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African dwarf crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheetah</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Repotted:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Orangutan</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four-striped ground squirrel</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asiatic wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clouded leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indochinese tiger</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asian elephant</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dugong</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M al Ryan tapir</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sumatran rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asiatic buffalo</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaur</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">White-winged wood duck</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysian peacock pheasant</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rufous-headed robin</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rueck's blue fly-catcher</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">River terrapin</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estuarine crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siamese crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Flase gavial</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheetah</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile Crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritania</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mediterranean monk seal</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scimitar horned oryx</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Addax</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rio de Oro dame gazelle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritius</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritian flying fox</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritius kestrel</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritius pink pigeon</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritius ring-necked parakeet</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritius cuckoo-shrike</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritius olivaceous bulbul</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritius fody</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coq de bois</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serpent Island gecko</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Round Island day gecko</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Macabe Forest Skink</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Round Island skink</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Round island boa</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodriguez day gecko</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morocco</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbary macaque</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbary hyena</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbary leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheetah</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morocco Dorcas Gazelle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cuvier's gazelle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohrr gazelle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mediterranean monk seal</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Waldrapp</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spanish imperial eagle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wolf</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asiatic wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sloth bear</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clouded leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian tiger</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asian elephant</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pygmy hog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Great Indian rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Himalayan musk deer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swamp deer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asiatic buffalo</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaur</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild Yak</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheer pheasant</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian python</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant anteater</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ocelot</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jaguar</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central American tapir</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Golden-cheecked warbler</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua grackle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central American caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicer</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scimitar horned oryx</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Addax</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Slender horned gazelle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African slender-snouted</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chimpanzee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gorilla</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon clawless otter</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheetah</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pygmy hippopotamus</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African slender-snouted</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African dwarf crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oman</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Arabian leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dugong</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arabian oryx</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arabian gazelle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arabian tahr</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paraguay</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant anteater</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant armadillo</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greater pichiciego</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maned wolf</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bush dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La Plata otter</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant otter</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ocelot</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marsh deer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paraguay caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Broad-nosed caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaco broad- nosed caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mindanao gymnure</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gugong</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calamian deer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asiatic buffalo</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraw</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Monkey-eating eagle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Palawan peacock pheasant</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mindoro imperial pigeon</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant seeps owl</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Koch's pitta</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abu black shame</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ashy ground thrush</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Repotted:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mindoro crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estuarine crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sail-fin lizard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammoth:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gorilla</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mountain gorilla</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African slender-snouted</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Senegal</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chimpanzee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western giant eland</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African slender-snouted</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African dwarf crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seychelles</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seychelles kestrel</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seychelles turtle dove</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seychelles vase parrot</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seychelles owl</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seychelles magpie robin</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seychelles warbler</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seychelles black paradise</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seychelles black paradise flycatcher</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seychelles white eye</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seychelles fodi</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Repotted:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seychelle islands stink</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Amphibia:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seychelle islands frog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seychelle Islands tree frog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sierra Leone</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammoth:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Olive colobus</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chimpanzee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pygmy hippopotamus</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jentink's duiker</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African slender-snouted crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile Crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African dwarf crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solomon islands</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dugong</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estuarine crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swaziland</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammoth:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheetah</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Repotted:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile Crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pileated gibbon</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asiatic wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clouded leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indochinese tiger</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asian elephant</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ma 1 Ryan tapir</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Javan rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sumatran rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fea's muntjac</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand brow-antlered deer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asiatic buffalo</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaur</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant ibis</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">White-winged wood duck</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">River terrapin</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siamese crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">False gavial</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burmese python</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Togo</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Olive colobus</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chimpanzee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African slender-snouted</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tunisia</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Marmots:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbary hyena</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbary leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbary deer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morocco Dorcas gazelle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cuvier's gazelle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Slender horned gazelle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mediterranean monk seal</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles: </I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Upper Volta</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scimitar horned oryx</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles: African slender-snouted crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black-headed uakari</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant anteater</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant armadillo</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sectacled bear</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small-eared dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant otter</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ocelot</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jaguar</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amazonian manatee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mountain tapir</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barred tinamou</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pygmy swift</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South American red-lined turtle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arran turtle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Terecay turtle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sectacled caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central American caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwarf Caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smooth-fronted caiman</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Orinoco crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aruba island rattle snake</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yemen</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Arabian leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dugong</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arabian gazelle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds: </I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African lammergeyer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Mammals:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chimpanzee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pygmy chimpanzee</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gorilla</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mountain gorilla</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African wild dog</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopard</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern square-lipped rhinoceros</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lechwe</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Birds: </I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graver's cuckoo shrike</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered Reptiles:</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African slender-snouted crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nile crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African dwarf crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Congo dwarf crocodile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Figure 18</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p225a.png"></center><br>
+ ORANGUTAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p225b.png"></center><br>
+ CHIMPANZEE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p225c.png"></center><br>
+ CROCODILE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Figure 19</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p226a.png"></center><br>
+ LEOPARD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p226b.png"></center><br>
+ OCELOT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Figure 20</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p227a.png"></center><br>
+ TAPIR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p227b.png"></center><br>
+ GIANT ANTEATER</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Figure 21</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p228a.png"></center><br>
+ ASIATIC BUFFALO</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p228b.png"></center><br>
+ RHINOCEROS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Figure 22</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p229a.png"></center><br>
+ PARAKEET</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p229b.png"></center><br>
+ EAGLE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Source materials - Appendix G</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered species of the United States</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Wildlife Federation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1412 16th Street N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D. C. 20036, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest interpreter's primer on wildlife</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20036, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">List of foreign endangered &amp; threatened species</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Wildlife Federation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1412 16th Street N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20036, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Red Book of the international Union for Conservation of Nature &amp; Natural Resources</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1110 Morges</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Selected organizations concerned with conservation education</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smithsonian-Peace Corps Environmental Program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smithsonian Institution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20560, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(may be able to indicate in-country environmentalist Peace Corps Volunteers for information sources)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Information &amp; Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room M-1214</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">806 Connecticut Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.W. Washington, D.C. 20525, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American Public Health Association</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1015 18th Street N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20036, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean Conservation News, published by</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean Conservation Association</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Savannah Lodge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Garrison</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbados</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation Foundation 1717</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Massachusetts Ave., N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20036, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ecology Council of America</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room 2200, 99 Park Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, N.Y. 10016, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Institute of Tropical Forestry</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Puerto Rico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box AQ</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rio Piedras</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Puerto Rico 00928</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Audubon Society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education Services</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">950 3rd Ave.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, N.Y., 10022, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Wildlife Federation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1412 16th Street N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20036</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(publish <U>Conservation Directory </U>listing international, regional, national, interstate organizations, commissions &amp; citizens groups)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Wildlife Federation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Laurel Ridge Conservation Education Center</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8925 Leesburg Pike</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vienna, Virginia 22180, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil Conservation Society of America</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7515 N.E. Ankeny Rd.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ankeny, Iowa 50021, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Division of Information &amp; Education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20250, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil Conservation Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20240, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Interior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Park Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of Environmental Interpretation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20240, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Virgin Islands Conservation Society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. O. Box 4187</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">St. Thomas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Virgin Islands 00801</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Nations Environmental Program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ecosystems Natural Resource Division</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 30552</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Selected environmental research centers</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LATIN AMERICA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=518>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Instituto Brasileiro de Desenvolvimento Florestal<BR>
+Palacio do Desenvolvimento 13° andar<BR>
+70000 Brasilia, D.F.<BR>
+Brasil</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Forest Products Laboratory <BR>
+Universidade Federal de Brasilia<BR>
+Brasilia, D.F.<BR>
+Brasil</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Universidade Federal do Parana<BR>
+Facultade de Florestas<BR>
+Faixa Postal 2959<BR>
+80000 Curitiba, Paran<BR>
+Brasil</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Universidade Federal de Vicosa<BR>
+Caixa Postal 328<BR>
+Vicosa, Minas Gerais<BR>
+Brasil</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Aracruz Florestal S.A.</P>
+<P>Rua Professor Lobo 1128<BR>
+Aracruz, Esprito Santo<BR>
+Brasil</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Escola Superior de Florestas<BR>
+Universidade Federal de Vicosa<BR>
+36579 Vicosa<BR>
+Minas Gerais<BR>
+Brasil</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chile:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Universidad Austral de Chile<BR>
+Facultad de Ingenieria Forestal<BR>
+Instituto de Tecnologia e Industrias de la Madera<BR>
+Casilla 567<BR>
+Valdivia<BR>
+Chile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Instituto Forestal<BR>
+Casilla 3085<BR>
+Santiago<BR>
+Chile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>FAO Regional Office for Latin America<BR>
+Scientific and Agricultural Information Service<BR>
+Providencia 871<BR>
+Casilla 10095<BR>
+Santiago<BR>
+Chile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Facultad de Ciencias Forestales<BR>
+Universidad de Chile<BR>
+Santa Rosa, Paradero 321/2<BR>
+Fundo Antumapu<BR>
+Santiago<BR>
+Chile</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Columbia:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Corporacion Nacional de Investigacion y Fomento Forestal<BR>
+Gerente General del Instituto de Desarrollo de los Recursos Naturales Renovables INDERENA<BR>
+Ministerio de Agricultura<BR>
+Bogota<BR>
+Columbia</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Instituto de Investigaciones y Proyectos Forestales y Madereros<BR>
+Universidad Distrital<BR>
+Bogota<BR>
+Columbia</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Instituto de Desarrollo de los Recursos Naturales Renovables<BR>
+Avenida Caracas No. 25 A 66<BR>
+Bogota<BR>
+Columbia</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Facultad de Ciencias Agricolas<BR>
+Departamento de Recursos Forestales<BR>
+Universidad Nacional de Colombia<BR>
+Apartado Aereo 568<BR>
+Medellin<BR>
+Columbia</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Costa Rica:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Centro Agronomico Tropical de Investigacion y Ensenanza (CATIE)<BR>
+Departamento de Ciencias Forestales<BR>
+Turrialba<BR>
+Costa Rica</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominican<BR>
+Republic:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Museo Nacional de Historia Natural<BR>
+Calle Cesar Nicolas Penson<BR>
+Santo Domingo<BR>
+Republica Dominicana</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ecuador:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Centro de Investigacion<BR>
+Ministerio de Agricultura 7 Ganaderia<BR>
+Quito<BR>
+Ecuador</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Seccion de Vida Silvestre<BR>
+Parques Naturales<BR>
+Ministerio de Agricultura<BR>
+Quito<BR>
+Ecuador</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El Salvador:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Departamento Forestal<BR>
+Direccion de Recursos Naturales<BR>
+Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia<BR>
+San Salvador<BR>
+El Salvador</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Instituto Nacional Forestal<BR>
+10-44 3 Ave., Zona 1<BR>
+Guatemala City<BR>
+Guatemala</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honduras:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Gerente General<BR>
+Corporacion Hondurena para el Desarrollo Forestal<BR>
+Tegucigalpa<BR>
+Honduras</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Director de Recursos Naturales Renovables<BR>
+Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia<BR>
+Managua<BR>
+Nicaragua</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>CATASTRO e Inventario Recursos Naturales<BR>
+Apartado 2355<BR>
+Managua<BR>
+Nicaragua</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paraguay:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Instituto Nacional de Recnologia y Normalizacion<BR>
+Avenida General Artigas y General Roa<BR>
+Casilla de Correo 967<BR>
+Asuncion<BR>
+Paraguay</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Division of National Parks and Wildlife<BR>
+Department of Forestry<BR>
+E. Patria 4OP, Tacuari 493<BR>
+Asuncion<BR>
+Paraguay</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Facultad de Ciencias Forestales<BR>
+Universidad de los Andes<BR>
+Apartado No. 305<BR>
+Merida<BR>
+Venezuela</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Instituto Forestal Latinoamericano<BR>
+Apartado 36<BR>
+Merida<BR>
+Venezuela</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>ANFORES<BR>
+Asociacion Nacional de Forestadores de Arboles Maderables<BR>
+Salom Estado Yaracuy S.A.<BR>
+Venezuela</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFRICA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=532>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benin:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Eaux et Forets<BR>
+P.B. 11<BR>
+Tangvieta<BR>
+Benin</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Department of Wildlife and National Parks<BR>
+P.O. Box 131<BR>
+Gaborone<BR>
+Botswana</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Office National de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique ONAREST<BR>
+Institut de la Recherche Forestiere<BR>
+c/o Directeur des Eaux et Forets<BR>
+Ministere de l'Agriculture<BR>
+Yaounde<BR>
+Cameroon</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Ecole de Faune<BR>
+B. P. Box 271<BR>
+Garoua<BR>
+Cameroon<BR>
+(sponsors wildlife education clubs)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Centre Technique Forestier Tropical<BR>
+Centre du Chad<BR>
+Fort Lamy<BR>
+Chad</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>CBLT (Arid Basin Commission)<BR>
+Forestry Division<BR>
+B. P. 727<BR>
+N'Djamena<BR>
+Chad</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>The General Manager<BR>
+State Forest Development Agency<BR>
+P. O. Box 1034<BR>
+Addis Ababa<BR>
+Ethiopia</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gabon:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Centre Technique Forestier Tropical (CTFT)<BR>
+B.P. 149<BR>
+Libreville<BR>
+Gabon</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Forest Products Research Institute<BR>
+University P.O. Box 63<BR>
+Kumasi<BR>
+Ghana</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>The Chief Conservator of Forests Forestry<BR>
+Department Ministry of Lands and Mineral Resources<BR>
+P.O. Box 527<BR>
+Accra<BR>
+Ghana</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivory Coast:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Centre Technique Forestier Tropical (CTFT)<BR>
+B.P. 8033<BR>
+Abidjan<BR>
+Ivory Coast</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Institut Francais du Cafe et du Cacao<BR>
+Centre de Recherches<BR>
+B.P. 1827<BR>
+Abidjan<BR>
+Ivory Coast</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Department of National Parks<BR>
+Ministry for Protection of Nature<BR>
+Abidjan<BR>
+Ivory Coast</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>East African Agriculture and Forestry<BR>
+Research Organization<BR>
+P.O. Box 30128<BR>
+Nairobi<BR>
+Kenya</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Kenya Forestry Department<BR>
+Conservancy of Research Services<BR>
+P.O. Box 74<BR>
+Kikuyu<BR>
+Kenya</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Wildlife Clubs of Kenya Association<BR>
+P.O. Box 20658<BR>
+Nairobi<BR>
+Kenya</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>The Directory of Forestry<BR>
+P.O. Box 30048<BR>
+Capital City<BR>
+Lilongwe 3<BR>
+Malawi</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Forest Research Institute<BR>
+P.O. Box 270<BR>
+Zomba<BR>
+Malawi</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Environmental Education Unit<BR>
+Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources<BR>
+Box 30134<BR>
+Lilongwe 3<BR>
+Malawi</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morocco:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Station de Recherches Forestieres<BR>
+B. P. 763<BR>
+Rabat-Agdal<BR>
+Maroc</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Forestry and Environmental Information Center<BR>
+Sahel Zone<BR>
+B. P. 537<BR>
+Niamey<BR>
+Niger</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Eaux et Forets<BR>
+Ministere de l'Agriculture<BR>
+Tahoua<BR>
+Niger</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Conservator of Forests<BR>
+Ministry of Animal and Forest Resources<BR>
+Private Mail Bag #3022<BR>
+Kano<BR>
+Nigeria</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Institute for Agricultural Research<BR>
+Ahmadu Bello University<BR>
+Samuaru, Zaria<BR>
+Northern Nigeria</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Federal Department of Forest Research<BR>
+P. M. B. 5054<BR>
+Ibadan<BR>
+Nigeria</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Department of Forest Resources Management<BR>
+University of Ibadan<BR>
+Ibadan<BR>
+Nigeria</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Science<BR>
+Department of Forestry<BR>
+University of Ibadan<BR>
+Ibadan<BR>
+Nigeria</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Senegal:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Centre National de Recherches Forestieres<BR>
+B.P. 2312<BR>
+Dakar<BR>
+Senegal</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tunisia:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Institut National de Recherches Forestieres<BR>
+Route de la Soukra<BR>
+B.P. 2 Ariana<BR>
+Tunisia</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Upper Volta:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Centre Technique Forestier Tropical<BR>
+Centre de la Haute Volta<BR>
+Ouagadougou<BR>
+Upper Volta</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Departement de Sylviculture<BR>
+Faculte d/Agronomie<BR>
+B. P. 30 Yangambi<BR>
+Sous Region de la Thsopo<BR>
+Zaire</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2>
+<P>NEAR EAST AND ASIA</P>
+</FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=397>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Curriculum Development Unit<BR>
+Ministry of Education<BR>
+P.O. Box 1094<BR>
+Suva<BR>
+Fiji</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Forest Research Institute and Colleges<BR>
+P.O. New Forest<BR>
+Dist. Debra Dun Uttar Pradesh<BR>
+India</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Conservator of Forests<BR>
+Department of Forests<BR>
+U. P. Lucknow<BR>
+India</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Government of Andhra Pradesh,<BR>
+Forest Department<BR>
+Office of the State Silviculturist<BR>
+Andhra Pradesh<BR>
+Hyderabad 500004<BR>
+India</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Department of Forestry<BR>
+Office of the Chief Conservator of Forests<BR>
+Orissa at P.O. Cuttack<BR>
+India</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Mysore State Forest Department<BR>
+Office of the Chief Conservator of Forests<BR>
+Mysore Bangalore<BR>
+India</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Forest Resources Survey<BR>
+1464 Ravi Shanker Market<BR>
+S. T. T. Nagar, M. P.<BR>
+Bhopal-6<BR>
+India</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Forest Products Research Institute<BR>
+Jalan Gunung Batu<BR>
+Bogor<BR>
+Indonesia</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Faculty of Forestry<BR>
+Agricultural University Bogor<BR>
+Baranangsiang - Bogor<BR>
+Indonesia</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iran:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>College of Natural Resources<BR>
+University of Teheran<BR>
+Karadj<BR>
+Iran</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Ministry of Agriculture and National Resource<BR>
+Forest and Range Experiment Station<BR>
+179 Pahlavi Avenue<BR>
+Teheran<BR>
+Iran</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Korea:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Forest Research Institute<BR>
+c/o The Director-General<BR>
+Office of Forestry<BR>
+111 Hapdong<BR>
+Sudaemoon- Ku<BR>
+Seoul<BR>
+Korea</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Forest Research Institute<BR>
+Kepong<BR>
+Selangor<BR>
+Malaysia</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Research Branch, Forest Department<BR>
+P.O. Box 1407<BR>
+Sandakan, Sabah<BR>
+Malaysia</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Office of the Conservator of Forests<BR>
+Department of Forestry<BR>
+Badruddin Road<BR>
+Kuching, Sarawak<BR>
+Malaysia</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Sabah Forest Department<BR>
+P.O. Box 311<BR>
+Sandakan, Sabah<BR>
+Malaysia</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Micronesia:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Micronesian Mariculture Demonstration Center<BR>
+P.O. Box 359<BR>
+Koror, Palau<BR>
+Western Caroline Islands 96940<BR>
+Micronesia</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Office<BR>
+Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry<BR>
+Kathmandu<BR>
+Nepal</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Forest and Forest Products Research Center<BR>
+c/o The Director<BR>
+Bureau of Forestry<BR>
+Department of Natural Resources<BR>
+P.O. Box 2069<BR>
+Manila<BR>
+Philippines</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>College of Forestry<BR>
+University of the Philippines at Los Banos<BR>
+College, Laguna<BR>
+Philippines</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Forest Research Institute<BR>
+College, Laguna 3720<BR>
+Philippines</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Royal Forest Department<BR>
+Paholyothin Road<BR>
+Bankok - 9<BR>
+Thailand</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="23%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="77%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P>Wildlife Conservation Division<BR>
+Royal Thai Forestry Department<BR>
+c/o Provincial Forestry Office<BR>
+Uthai Thani<BR>
+Thailand</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Glossary</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These definitions are related to environment and conservation and are not necessarily the only definitions for the w<I>ords </I>included highs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACCELERATED EROSION</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Erosion which is speeded up by human activities</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AMPHIBIAN</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cold-blooded vertebrate which begins life in the water and develops air-breathing lungs: frog, salamander, toad, etc.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANNUAL</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A plant which grows only one year or one season</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AQUARIUM</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A water-filled container in which aquatic plants and animals are kept</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOTIC POTENTIAL</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The natural capacity of an organism to reproduce and survive</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BREED</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To produce young</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BRUSH</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A thick growth of bushes or shrubs</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BURROW</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An animal's hole or tunnel dug in the ground, such as by a mole or rabbit</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CAGE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An enclosure to hold animals in captivity, with wire or bars on at least one side for air and light</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARNIVORE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An animal which is mainly flesh-eating;</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">also an insectivorous plant</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARRION</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dead and decaying flesh</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COMMODITY</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Different kinds of animals and plants living together in a reasonably orderly manner</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COMPOST</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A mixture of decaying organic matter such as leaves and manure, used as fertilizer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONCEPT</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An idea or understanding developed from knowledge and observation</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONDENSATION</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water changing from a gaseous vapor to a liquid state</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSERVATION</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The preservation of natural resources from loss, waste and harm</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSUMER</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A living thing which obtains food from other organisms</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONTOUR</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The outline shape of the land</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CRUSTACEA</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A class of water animals (arthropods) which includes lobster, crayfish, shrimp and crab</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYCLE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A periodically repeated sequence of events</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEBRIS</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The remains of something broken down or destroyed</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DECAY</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Destruction of organic matter by the action of bacteria and fungi. Also: decompose, rot</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ECOLOGY</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The study of relationships of living things (organisms) to one another and to their environment</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ECOSYSTEM</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">interaction of a community with its physical environment</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ENDANGERED SPECIES</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A wild animal or plant population whose survival is threatened by predation, disease, people or changing ecological conditions</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ENERGY</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ability to do work vital power</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ENVIRONMENT</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The external surroundings that affect plants and animals: the air, land and water where they live</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EPIPHYTE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A plant which grows nonparasitically on another plant or structure, whose nutrients are taken mainly from the air ; also air plant</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EROSION</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The removal of topsoil by the action of water, wind, ice, earth movement</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EVAPORATION</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The loss of water from its liquid form into the air as vapor</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EXCRETA</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Waste matter of an animal, such as urine or feces, excreted from the body</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EXPLOITATION</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The use, often excessive, of natural resources</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FECES</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solid animal wastes eliminated through the intestinal tract</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FERAL</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A formerly domestic animal which lives as a wild animal (often predatory)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FERTILIZER</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An organic or chemical material such as manure, nitrogen or phosphorous, added to the soil to increase its fertility</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FERTILITY</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capacity of the soil to provide sufficient plant nutrients and to produce abundantly; also the ability of an organism to reproduce</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The substance which provides the energy required by living organisms</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD CHAIN</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The series of feeding relationships in a community beginning with the plants and ending with the largest carnivores</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD WEB</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All the possible feeding relationships(food chains) in an ecosystem</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FUNGI</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plant organisms including yeasts, molds, mushrooms, which are present in organic decomposition</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GERMINATION</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sprouting of a plant seed</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GRAZING</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The act of animals feeding on growing grass or other plants of the land</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GREEN MANURE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Growing plant material plowed into the soil to increase its fertility</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The area where a plant or animal lives and finds its food</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HERBICIDE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A chemical which destroys plant growth</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HOST</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An organism on or in which a parasite lives</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUMUS</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rich layer of decomposed organic material in the soil which provides nutrients for the soil and increases its ability to retain water</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INSECT</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of numerous invertebrate animals having three pairs of legs, a three-segment body and often two pairs of wings</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INSECTICIDE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A chemical which is used to kill insects</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LANDSCAPING</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improvement of the land by shaping and planting, for aesthetic and conservation purposes</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LARVA</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An independent, but immature, stage of an organism, hatched from an egg, which will undergo further metamorphosis to become adult</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LATRINE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A toilet facility which concentrates excrete in one place for sanitary purposes</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEACHING</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The process of a substance such as a mineral, being dissolved and carried away by water action through the soil (percolation)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LITTER</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Waste materials such as paper, glass, cans, discarded at random by people in their environment; also the decomposing organic materials on the surface of the soil</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LARVA</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil consisting of a mixture of sand, silt and clay and organic matter</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MAMMAL</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A vertebrate which is warm-blooded, has hair or fur, and produces milk for its young which are born alive</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MANURE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal excrete which is used as fertilizer to enrich the soil</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARINE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of, or pertaining to, the sea</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MATURE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fully grown and developed</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">METAMORPHOSIS</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Undergoing change, or a series of changes in the course of development</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICRO-ORGANISM</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A living organism too small to be seen without a microscope</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MINERAL</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A natural inorganic substance, of a specific chemical composition, found mainly in the earth</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MULCH</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A protective covering such as compost, leaves, or shredded bark, placed around plants to prevent moisture loss</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATURAL RESOURCES</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The minerals, water, plants and animals</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">which occur naturally in the environment and which are the source of potential or realized value to society; often classified as renewable such as timber, cattle or food crops, and non-renewable such as copper, phosphate, gas or oil</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATURE TRAIL</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A planned path through a natural area for the observation of natural features such as animal or plant life</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NURSERY</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A place where plants are grown for transplanting, experimentation or sale</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NUTRIENT</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Something that provides nourishment; the nutritive value in an organism's food</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NUTRITION</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The process of providing nourishment through food; the study of nutrients to improve the quality of nourishment to increase health and energy</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ORGANIC</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of, or derived from, living organisms</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ORGANISM</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any living thing capable of life functions of its own</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OXYGEN</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gas in the earth's atmosphere, essential to animal and plant life</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PARASITE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An organism which lives in or on a host organism of a different species; the host is usually harmed</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PERENNIAL</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A plant with a lifetime of more than two years</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PHOTOSYNTHESIS</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The process by which green plants absorb the sun's light energy and convert it into chemical (food) energy</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PHYSIOLOGICAL</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of, or pertaining to, all the vital functions of an organism</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PIT</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A relatively deep hole in the ground, usually man-made</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POLLINATION</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The process by which a flowers pollen reaches the stigma (tip of the pistil) of the flower and fertilizes it. Common pollinating agents are flying insects and wind</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POLLUTION</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anything added to the environment which accumulates in sufficient quantity to be undesirable</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POPULATION</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A group of plants or animals of the same kind living in the same area</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PRECIPITATION</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Drops of water (or ice) which have condensed from vapor in the atmosphere and fall to the earth's surface as rain (or snow)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PREDATOR</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An animal that preys on another animal</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PREY</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An animal which becomes the food for another animal; to kill and eat</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RECREATION</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Voluntary use of one's free time to refresh the mind or body</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRODUCTION</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The process by which a species produces new organisms of the same species</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPTILE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A vertebrate which is cold-blooded, has dry, scaly skin, and whose young usually develop in eggs, such as a snake, lizard, turtle</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESOURCES</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anything that people take from their environment</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SANITATION</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The use of measures to provide healthy environmental conditions</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SEDIMENT</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil particles that are carried in or settle under water</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SEEDLING</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The young plant that develops shortly after germination of a seed</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SEQUENCE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An orderly progression of events, one thing following after another</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SEWAGE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Accumulated liquid and solid wastes</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHRUB</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A low-growing woody perennial plant with several stems</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SILT</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Very fine soil material carried by water or deposited by water (siltation)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SOD</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A section of grass-covered soil which is held together by the grass roots</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SOIL</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Top layer of the earth's surface in which plant life grows</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SOIL PROFILE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A vertical section of soil shows the layers (horizons) and the parent material</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SOIL TEXTURE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The composition of a soil, determined by the percentage of sand, silt and clay it contains</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SPECIES</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A group of organisms which breed naturally with each other and produce fertile young</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SPECIMEN</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A representative individual of a group, selected for testing, examination or display</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STRESS</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A condition of physical or emotional strain which disrupts the normal functional balance of an organism</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TERRARIUM</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An enclosed container in which small plants and/or animals such as insects or lizards are kept</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TERRITORY</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An area of land; any area an animal defends as its home</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THORAX</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The middle segment of the body of an arthropod (insect)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">URINE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liquid animal waste, excreted from the body</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VERTEBRATE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An animal with a backbone</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WATERSHED</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A region of land which drains all water into a river, river system of body of water</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILD AREA</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A region of land which has been left</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">in a natural condition, without development; also called wilderness area</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILDLIFE</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild animals living in their natural young The newly-born or babies of a species</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">YOUNG</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The newly-born or babies of a species</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/m0007e/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/m0007e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/m0007e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Teaching conservation in developing nations (m0007e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Ecology, Biodiversity, Natural resources, Environment, Waste Disposal|Resources conservation, environmental protection, biodiversity|Biodiversity conservation</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Education and Training|Environmental education, Global education, Psychological and assertiveness education, Non-formal education etc</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">Peace Corps</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">T-U-V-W-X-Y-Z</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">teach conservation in developing countries</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/ng04se/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/ng04se/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/ng04se/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">41st Session of the Commission on the Status of Women (ng04se)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Society, Culture, Community, Woman, Youth, Population|Women, gender and development, women&apos;s organizations</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">NGLS</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">A-B</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/ng04se/ng04se.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/ng04se/ng04se.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/ng04se/ng04se.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,264 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; 41st Session of the Commission on the Status of Women</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">41st Session of the Commission on the Status of Women</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Nations Non-Governmental Liaison Service </P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serving the UN system and NGO community for 22 years</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">41st Session of the Commission on the Status of Women</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) held its 41st session at UN headquarters in New York from 10-21 March 1997. The commission, which followed a timetable for considering the 12 critical areas of concern outlined in the Fourth World Conference on Women's Platform for Action, focused on and roviewed four of them. The areas, which are interrelated and interdependent, are education and training of women, women and the economy, women in power and decision making, and women and the environment. The commission used an interactive panel and dialogue session format to follow up on emerging issues defined in a series of recent expert group meetings. It was able to reach consensus on "agreed conclusions" for each of the four thematic areas of concern.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conclusions, which seek to define the scope of identified problems, contain recommendations for governments, civil society and the UN and its specialized agencies on possible measures to address such problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chairperson of the 41st CSW was Sharon Brennen-Haylock (Bahamas). Vice-chairpersons were Zakia Amara Bouaziz (Tunisia), Karin Stoltenberg (Norway) and Ljudmila Boskova (Bulgaria). Sweeya Santipitkas (Thailand) served as rapporteur. Ms. Brennen-Haylock stated that the format had enabled governments to arrive at a variety of concrete suggestions to move the platform forward in each area. The commission's vice-chairs, each of whom moderated a panel discussion, also expressed support for the format and noted that statements were more candid than those of the usual general debate. The agreed conclusions that emerged during the process will the forwarded for adoption to the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), which meets in Geneva from 30 June-25 July 1997.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also meeting during the 41st session of the commission was the second round of the Open-Ended Working Group on the Elaboration of a Draft Optional Protocol to the Convention to Eliminate All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). Aloisia Woergetter (Austria) served as chairperson of the working group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participating countries agreed on the need for a communications procedure for individual complaints, as well as an enquiry procedure that would give the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women access to a state party in a situation of gross and systematic violation of human rights. The Open-Ended Working Group on the Elaboration of a Draft Optional Protocol to the CEDAW will continue its work during the 42nd and 43rd sessions of the CSW, contingent on approval of the requisite funding by the next session of the UN General Assembly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Outcomes of the 41st session of the commission</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BUREAU/COMMISSION ON THE STATUS OF WOMEN MEMBERS FOR 1997</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 45 members of the commission are elected to four-year terms on the following basis: 13 from African states, 11 from Asian states, four from Eastern European states, nine from Latin American and Caribbean states, and eight from Western European and other states.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1997 membership of the commission is: Angola, Bahamas, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, China, Congo, Costa Rica, Cyprus, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Ethiopia, France, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Guinea, India, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Kenya, Lebanon, Libya, Malaysia, Mali, Mexico, Morocco, Namibia, Norway, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation, Slovakia, Swaziland, Thailand, Togo, Tunisia, United Kingdom and United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agreed Conclusions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women and the Economy The commission stated that economic policies and structural adjustment programmes, including liberalization policies encompassing privatization, financial and trade policies, should be formulated and monitored in a gender-sensitive way with input from the women most impacted by those policies. Governments were urged to enhance the capacity of women to influence and to make economic decisions as paid workers, managers, employers, elected officials, members of NGOs and unions, producers, household managers and consumers. Governments were also advised to ensure that women's rights, particularly those of rural women and women living in poverty, are promoted through equal access to economic resources, including land, property rights, right to inheritance, and credit and traditional savings schemes, such as women's banks and cooperatives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over initial objections raised by the European Union (EU), NGOs successfully advocated for the incorporation of language stating that women's unpaid work should be measured and valued. The International Women Count Network highlighted the fact that such language is in line with the language of the Beijing platform for action, as well as the Nairobi Forward-Looking Strategies. The network coordinated a massive effort whereby women from all over the EU region sent faxes to their governments expressing concern over their position on this issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women and the Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agreed conclusions on women and the environment refer to the need to mainstream gender concerns throughout UN approaches to the environment, particularly during the UN General Assembly (GA) Special Session review of Agenda 21, to take place in June 1997. This was reaffirmed by NGOs and representatives of the UN and its specialized agencies attending an Earth Councilsponsored meeting held in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) during the CSW. The meeting was held to identify areas of concern for discussion at the Agenda 21 review. NGOs at the CSW advocated for language in the final text that highlights the need for the GA Special Session review of Agenda 21 to recognize women not only as a "major group," but as actors working together with men toward the goal of a sustainable society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A key subject of debate at the CSW was a provision in the women and environment section related to inheritance rights of women. According to the chair, contention was due to the different legal interpretations of "equal access to inheritance" versus "equal right to inheritance." The Beijing platform for action makes references to equal access to inheritance, and many delegations at CSW found "right to inheritance" unacceptable. Some countries wanted to retain the exact Beijing language, although a number of others insisted that there be specific reference to the stage of implementation of the original language. The commission, after breaking into "informal informal consultations" several times, finally reached consensus. Informal informal consultations take place when the chair disbands formal negotiations in order to allow governments to caucus on their own or to meet in small informal groups. When the agreed language was read out during the formal session, it contained the wording "in the process of the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action, it is recognized that, women should be accorded full and equal rights to own land and other properties, inter alia, through inheritance." However, on Zambia's insistence debate was reopened, since the words "it is recognized" had not been agreed to in the informal informal consultations. The words were deleted "in the spirit of compromise," and the consensus language adopted. Governments were urged to continue to take the necessary steps to ensure women's equal access to, and control over, natural resources, land and other forms of property, credit, information and new technologies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women in Power and Decision Making</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the terms of the agreed conclusions, the commission recommended the establishment of training programmes in campaigns, fund-raising and parliamentary procedures to encourage the election of women to public office. Governments were asked to support research, including a gender-impact assessment of electoral systems, and identify measures that would counter the under-representation of women in decision making and reverse the downward trend of women in parliaments worldwide. The commission also focused on the need of governments, institutions and NGOs to actively facilitate women's participation at all levels of power and decision making, including programmes to encourage the participation of women at the grassroots level, the use of quotas to ensure women's participation in formal political institutions, and programmes to prepare the girl-child for participation in decision-making structures. The SecretaryGeneral was encouraged to appoint a woman to the proposed new position of Deputy Secretary-General of the UN. In addition, human rights NGOs advocated for the appointment of a woman as High Commissioner of Human Rights.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education and Training of Women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agreed conclusions recommend that governments, international bodies, donors and NGOs make special efforts to achieve the benchmarks set in the Beijing platform for action for universal access to basic education, and to provide assistance for the implementation of those goals. The commission also said it is necessary to mobilize additional funds to enable girls and women, and boys and men, on an equal basis, to complete their education. Also incorporated into the agreed conclusions were references to promoting life-long learning for women, and recommendations to governments to include reference to educational programmes in their national action plans, as agreed in the platform for action. Donor governments were recommended to commit 0.7% of their gross national product to official development assistance, with 20% spent on social development programmes that integrate gender, including education.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Key recommendations on the issue of education and training also emerged at the panel discussion and NGOsponsored forums held during the CSW. These included the promotion of information technology to produce literacy and post-literacy education materials relevant to women in local communities, and means for creating effective links between formal and non-formal education sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Actions Taken</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the agreed conclusions, the commission adopted eight resolutions and two decisions. Expressing serious concern about the unabating traffic in women and girl children, the commission called upon governments to take appropriate measures to prevent misuse by traffickers of economic activities such as the development of tourism and the export of labour; to criminalize trafficking in women and girls in all its forms; and to condemn and penalize offenders involved, including intermediaries, whether their offense was committed in their own or in a foreign country. The resolution calls on governments to allocate resources to provide comprehensive programmes designed to rehabilitate victims of trafficking into society. The resolution also calls for speeding up implementation of the platform for action by governments of countries of origin, transit and destination, and regional and international organizations, by considering the ratification and enforcement of international conventions on trafficking in persons and on slavery. Finally, it calls on governments to take appropriate measures to address the root factors that encourage trafficking for prostitution and other forms of commercialized sex, forced marriages and forced labour.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the terms of a resolution concerning violence against women migrant workers, the commission encouraged member states to consider signing and ratifying or acceding to the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families. A resolution on the release of women and children taken hostage in armed conflicts condemned violent acts in contravention of international humanitarian law against civilian women and children in areas of armed conflict, and it called for an effective response to such acts, including the immediate release of women and children taken hostage and/or imprisoned in armed conflicts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A resolution on older women, human rights and development recommended that the commission ensure that the contributions and needs of women of all ages, including those of older women, are taken into account in its deliberations, and that the preparations for the International Year of Older Persons include a gender perspective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By a vote of 38, with one against (the United States) and three abstentions (Congo, Lebanon and Norway), the commission approved and submitted to ECOSOC a resolution on Palestinian women. The resolution reaffirms that the Israeli occupation remains a major obstacle for Palestinian women with regard to their advancement, selfreliance and integration in the development planning of their society. It stresses the commission's support for the Middle East peace process and the need for full implementation of the agreements already reached between the parties. Under the terms of the resolution, the council would call upon Israel to facilitate the return of all refugees and displaced Palestinian women and children to their homes and properties in the occupied Palestinian territory, in compliance with relevant UN resolutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commission also adopted a resolution on "mainstreaming a gender perspective into all policies and programmes in the UN system." The text, which will be included in the commission's report as the chairperson's text, recognizes that gender focal points are essential to the success of such a programme, and it calls on the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights to "ensure that the equal status of all human rights of all women and girl children are integrated in UN system-wide activities."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A text submitted by the chairperson on the follow up to the agreed conclusions 1996/1 of ECOSOC was also adopted. Under its terms, the commission welcomed the agreed conclusions on the coordination of the UN system activities for poverty eradication and informed the council of the measures it will adopt in order to implement those conclusions. Considerable lobbying by women's human rights NGOs ensured references to the integration of a gender perspective into human rights activities and programmes, including preparations for the five-year review of the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action adopted at the 1993 World Conference on Human Rights, and the commemoration of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights next year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commission also considered the Secretary-General's report on mainstreaming a gender perspective within the UN system. The report states that the second session of the Inter-agency Standing Committee on Women and Gender Equality of the Administrative Committee on Coordination (ACC), which met in New York from 5-6 March 1997, has identified performance indicators and developed tools for mainstreaming and monitoring the platform for action and the system wide medium-term plan for the advancement of women (1996-2001). The system wide medium-term plan, which incorporates comprehensive and integrated mainstreaming as a major goal, contains indicative plans for joint activities and cooperation by the United Nations system as a whole. Linkages and partnerships with networks of nongovernmental organizations and exchange of substantive information, as well as support for non-governmental organization involvement in follow up to the Fourth World Conference on Women, will be enhanced and strengthened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A decision taken by the commission recommended that ECOSOC ensure that there is no overlap in the future between the sessions of the functional commissions engaged in follow up to UN conferences. A second decision took note of the proposed programme of work of the Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW) for the biennium 1998-1999 and stated that sufficient resources should be made available to DAW so that it can effectively provide substantive support to the Special Advisor to the Secretary-General on Gender Issues and the Advancement of Women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Draft Optional Protocol to the CEDAW</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major breakthrough that took place during the CSW was the agreement to include an inquiry procedure in the draft optional protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). This would enable the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women to request states parties to the protocol to explain and remedy complaints about serious violations of women's rights. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women is the treaty monitoring body for the CEDAW. It examines compliance with the convention's provisions by states parties and is composed of 23 independent experts. The chair of the Working Group, Aloisia Woergetter (Austria), noted that a large majority of participating governments were in favour of the optional protocol and an immense momentum had been created. She described this as "remarkable," and observed that such support had not been considered possible in the past. She said she hoped that the working group would finish its work by next year, which is a symbolic year for human rights since it will mark the 50th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the first five year review of the outcome of the World Conference on Human Rights.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGOs lobbied strenuously during the session. Twelve NGOs and one inter-governmental organization, the Council of Europe, contributed suggestions for substantive amendments and legal rationales for the establishment of the inquiry procedure. Women in Law and Development (Africa), the International Human Rights Law Group (USA) and Stree Adhar Kendra (India) were among the NGOs that intervened with comments during the session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women is the basic legal framework for the human rights of women. The convention is acceded to or ratified by 156 nations and signed by others. It represents the commitment of the international community to this framework, both as a means of identifying persistent forms of discrimination against women and inequality, and as a guide to steps designed to abolish practices and traditions detrimental to the enjoyment of women's rights. The monitoring mechanism set out in article 18 of the convention plays a critical role in implementation by states parties of the obligations set out in the treaty. In addition, the communications mechanism of the CSW provides useful information on the effects of gender discrimination on the lives of women. At the close of the CSW, Angela King, Special Advisor to the Secretary-General on Gender Issues and the Advancement of Women, pointed out that while both these mechanisms are invaluable, "experience provided by existing individual petition procedures shows that they contribute significantly to the implementation of human rights standards." She said the optional protocol would introduce the right of petition, and it is for this purpose that the 1993 World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna called on the CSW and the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women to examine the possibility of introducing the right of petition through the preparation of an optional protocol to the convention. Governments at the Fourth World Conference on Women further pledged to support the process toward the formulation of a petition protocol, so that it could enter into force as soon as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commission considered the report of the SecretaryGeneral on a comparative summary of existing communication and inquiry procedures and practices under international human rights instruments, and under the Charter of the UN (E/CN.6/1997/4). The report addresses concerns over the issue of possible overlap or duplication between any optional protocol and other existing human rights mechanisms. It says that rather than overlapping with, or duplicating other UN human rights procedures, an optional protocol to the convention would be a welcome addition to the existing implementation mechanisms that exist within the UN system. The report also states that an optional protocol would provide a clear benchmark of the international community's commitment to the enforcement of genderspecific human rights standards. The report, which contains the views of 21 governments, one intergovernmental organization and 12 NGOs, expresses support for the speedy conclusion of the work on the optional protocol, its subsequent adoption, and its entry into force. These views point to the fact that the existence of the protocol will not only put the convention on an equal footing with other human rights instruments, but it will also lead to an enhanced understanding of the obligations of the convention and provide assistance to states parties as they seek to apply these at the national level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UN has four major human rights treaties that provide for the competence of the supervisory body to receive and consider communications alleging violations of protected rights. They are the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in its first Optional Protocol; article 14 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination; article 22 of the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment; and article 77 of the International Convention on the Protection of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families. Beyond these mechanisms, the Commission on the Status of Women and the Commission on Human Rights under specific procedures are authorized to appoint working groups from among their members to consider communications attesting to injustice and discriminatory practices against women. However, the chair of the working group noted that out of hundreds of complaints the first Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights has dealt with so far, only ten complaints have concerned equality between men and women. All other human rights instruments that have foreseen complaint procedures have not dealt with violations of women's rights. In her opinion this showed that women do not appear to have access to other human rights instruments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the conclusion of the session, the chairperson reported that the protocol will contain both an inquiry procedure, which would allow the committee to investigate systemic abuses of states' obligations to protect women from discrimination, and an individual complaint procedure. The working group has not yet agreed on whether there will be a complaints procedure for organizations such as NGOs, or whether there will be an option that is similar to a classaction suit as a substitute for the optional protocol's complaint procedure. Differences centred around the nature of the organizations, and whether they would include political groups, trade unions, or those dealing solely with gender-based violence. The right of organizations to complain received strong support from the Philippines, the Netherlands, Denmark and Italy, among others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the terms of a resolution adopted by the commission, the mandate of the Open-Ended Working Group on the Elaboration of a Draft Optional Protocol to the CEDAW was renewed so that it can continue its work during the 42nd and 43rd sessions of the CSW. The commission also adopted the report of the working group on its work during the justconcluded session. Under its terms, the Secretary-General is requested to submit to the CSW's 42nd session a report containing an annotated comparison of the draft optional protocol and the proposed amendments thereto with the provisions of existing international human rights instruments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CSW panels</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panel sessions held during the first week of the 41st session provided a forum for an exchange of views among governments, UN experts and NGOs on emerging issues, successful strategies, and areas of continuing concern in each thematic area. They also discussed possible ways to move forward the implementation of the Beijing platform for action. The sharing of perspectives and subsequent recommendations enhanced government discussions and contributed to the agreed conclusions and resolutions adopted during the 41st commission.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The strategic objectives discussed by the panel on Women and Environment, facilitated by the chair of the CSW and convened on 11 March 1997, were to: involve women actively in environmental decision-making at all levels; integrate gender concerns and perspectives in policies and programmes for sustainable development; and strengthen or establish mechanisms at national, regional and international levels to assess the impact of development and environmental policies on women. During the discussions, participants stressed the importance of avoiding a simplistic view of women as victims or saviours of the environment. They also acknowledged the need to empower women to incorporate sound environmental practices into their activities, and apply a gender perspective in the allocation of funds for the environment, and the importance of equal access to resources. The panel concluded that effective implementation of gender-sensitive policies in the environment sector requires development of quantitative and qualitative indicators, review of legislation and reallocation of resources, and commitment at all levels of decision making. Participants included government nominees Sirpa Peitikainen (Finland), Economist and former Minister of Environment; Dr. Christina Amoako-Nuama (Ghana), Minister for Environment, Science and Technology; expert group meeting representative Rachel Kyte (UK), International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Brussels; NGO representative Khawar Mumtaz, Coordinator, Shirkat Gab Women's Resource Centre (Pakistan); and UN system expert Nitin Desai, Under-Secretary-General for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel on Women and the Economy, facilitated by commission vice-chair Karin Stoltenberg, was convened on 11 March 1997. Speakers stressed that antidiscrimination laws, changes in corporate practices and introduction of teaching aids for gender equality would go a long way in promoting women's access to economic decision making. They also said that cuts in basic services tend to affect women the most, and structural adjustment programmer should be gendersensitive. The panel noted that economic policies are not gender neutral, and it is wrong to consider them so. The panel underscored the need to improve women's ability to make household economic decisions, put a value on women's unpaid work, ensure equal pay for work of equal value, and raise the status of part-time work. Participants included government nominees Mihye Roh (-Republic of Korea), Vice President of the Korean Women's Development Institute; Ambassador Akmaral Kh. Arystanbekova (Kazakhstan); expert group meeting representative Donna Dillon Manning (USA), Vice President of New Ventures, Catalyst; NGO representative Mamounata Ciss&eacute; (Burkina Faso), General Secretary of the Organisation Nationale des Syndicats Libres; and UN system expert Lin Leam Lim, Labour Market Policies Branch, International Labour Office (ILO).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel on Women in Power and Decision Making, moderated by commission vice-chair Ljudmila Boskova, was convened on 12 March. Participants reconfirmed that stereotypes, tradition and strong competition within political parties represent some of the main barriers to women's participation in decision making. They stressed the need for a legal procedure to surmount such barriers, as well as adopting an equal gender status law and a parity threshold. They said such a threshold would mandate that there would be no less than 30%-40% and no more than 60%-70% of either sex in elected positions. Panel speakers, while warning of the dangers of sweeping generalizations about women and peace, said governments should encourage women leaders to enter the processes of good offices, mediation and decision making. Efforts to enhance women's role in early-warning initiatives, and the necessity of creating links between women in leadership positions and women at the grassroots level, were also underscored. Participants included government nominees Billie Miller (Barbados), Deputy Prime Minister of Foreign Affairs, Tourism and International Transport; Professor Zofia Kuratowska (Poland), Deputy Speaker, Senate; Paloma Duran y Lalguna (Spain), Professor at the Faculty of Legal Sciences, Jaume I University; expert group meeting representative Eugenia Piza Lopez (Mexico) of International Alert; NGO representative Faiza Kefi, member of the Tunisian National Assembly and President of the Inter-Parliamentary Union Coordinating Committee of Women Parliamentarians.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A panel on Education and Training of Women, facilitated by commission Vice-Chair Zakia Amara Bouaziz was convened on 14 March. Speakers discussing the feminization of unemployment noted that the trend could be avoided by educating women to adapt to new conditions in the labour market, and providing special services for women with children of pre-school age and/or with handicapped children. Some of the factors identified by the panel as responsible for the high dropout rate of girls from school included early marriage, pregnancy, sexual harassment and a heavy work load at home. Speakers suggested the provision of free basic education and scholarships as some of the means to counter high drop-out rates. Participants included Valentina Ivanovna Matvienko (Russian Federation) Director of the Foreign Ministry Department for Links with the Subjects of Federation, Parliament, Public and Political Organizations; Irene de la Caridad Rivera Ferreiro (Cuba), Deputy Minister of the Ministry of Education; expert group meeting representative Swarna Jayaweera (Sri Lanka), Coordinator, Centre for Women's Research; NGO representative Celia Eccher (Uruguay), International Council for Adult Education; and UN system expert Aicha Bah Diallo, Director of Basic Education at the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Expert groups</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Division for the Advancement of Women, which serves as the secretariat for the commission, in cooperation with other relevant agencies, also convened expert group meetings in advance of the 41st session on each of the critical areas of concern. The meeting focused on issues that had not previously received specific attention, or that required further exploration in the light of the Beijing platform for action. The Women and Education Expert Group, which met from 2-6 December 1996 in Turin (Italy), focused on vocational training and lifelong learning. The Expert Group on Women and the Economy, held from 11-15 November 1996 in Boston (USA) discussed three categories of the economically-active female population: women as employees, women as entrepreneurs, and women as economic decision makers. Participants noted that women are virtually absent from economic decision making, including the formulation of policies for poverty eradication, structural adjustment programmes, and loans and grants. The Expert Group on Women's Roles in Power and DecisionMaking, held from 7-11 October 1996 in Santo Domingo (Dominican Republic), highlighted the "glass ceiling" for women in government administration, as well as the on-going relegation of women to the more "social" ministries. The Expert Group on Women and the Environment, which met from 18-22 November 1996 in Santo Domingo (Dominican Republic) focused on the links between population, environment and sustainable development from a gender perspective. Participants emphasized the role of women as actors in relation to environmental issues, and the need to increase women's participation in decision making.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">NGO participation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGOs attended meetings of the commission and the parallel working group on the elaboration of a draft optional protocol to the CEDAW. In addition to NGOs in consultative/roster status, special arrangements were made allowing NGOs accredited to the Fourth World Conference on Women to be eligible to attend the 41st session. NGOs were also permitted to attend informal consultations, subject to the availability of seating. NGOs with consultative status were able to submit short written statements for distribution through the secretary of the commission, and three to five speaking slots were made available for NGOs to participate in panel dialogues. (Preference was given to those speaking on behalf of a number of organizations or a caucus.) A small conference room at headquarters was reserved for NGOs to hold caucuses and workshops, and computers were set up for their use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than 300 NGOs contributed to the commission's work through panel discussions, lobbying governments and participating in caucus meetings and dialogues. Evening dialogues co-sponsored by DAW and some NGOs provided government delegates and NGOs with the opportunity to hear and exchange views in a less formal environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An international group of human rights NGOs convened an informational meeting on 14 March on women's rights and the International Criminal Court (ICC) to ensure that the court effectively redresses international human rights violations, particularly crimes against women. Efforts to raise concerns about how violations of women's rights will be condemned, investigated and prosecuted by the court were discussed; the violations include rape, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy and other sexual violence. The National Council for Research on Women, in cooperation with DAW and the International Women's Tribune Centre, convened a dialogue on 13 March on Women, Education and Training. Participants discussed how to bring a critical mass of women into educational leadership positions; successful examples of governments and NGOs investing in lifelong learning opportunities for women and girls; progress being made in the development of non-gender-biased curricula and teaching materials; and strategies for expanding access for women and girls to education and opportunities in science and technology.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Women's Linkage Caucus met twice during the proceedings to coordinate NGO advocacy efforts and propose amendments to texts under discussion in all four of the UN commissions, which were meeting simultaneously. They are the Commission on Population and Development, Commission for Social Development, an intercessional meeting of the Commission on Sustainable Development, and the CSW. The caucus also worked to highlight the need to integrate gender into all the UN commissions, including the upcoming UN General Assembly Special Session to review implementation of Agenda 21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Women's Linkage Caucus called on members of the Commission on the Status of Women to act as a strong "women's lobby" to influence the process and substance of every UN conference follow-up process at the local national and international levels, so that gender mainstreaming and gender balance become a reality. The caucus asked the CSW to begin by requesting heads of state and UN member states to make a series of commitments at the GA special session, including commitments to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- recognize women not only as a "major group" of the Rio Agenda 21, but also as significant agents for local and global change, so that compartmentalized approaches give way to genuine integration of gender in sustainable development;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- expand efforts to eliminate negative effects on developing countries by reconciling WTO rule-making and global trade practices with the post-Rio agenda;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- work for international codes of conduct for corporations, especially to enforce compliance with ILO agreements, protect the rights of workers in developing countries and prevent gender-based and economic exploitation of labour by transnational corporations;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- support an international negotiation process on new financial. instruments, such as a tax on speculative capital transactions, to reduce market instability and generate resources for social sectors;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- address the impact of globalization and privatization on achieving the goal of universal access to water by the year 2000 and initiate an intergovernmental plan to overcome the obstacles to reach this important goal in the Beijing platform for action and other UN conference agreements; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- make a major debt cancellation announcement at the special session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Promise kept, promise broken? Survey</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Women's Environment and Development Organization (WEDO) convened a dialogue on 10 March between representatives of the UN, governments and NGOs on Women's Perspectives on the Environment and Sustainable Development, in the context of the UN's fifth-year review of the Earth Summit. After the dialogue, WEDO launched a survey of governments on national action plans to implement the Beijing platform. The survey entitled Promise Kept, Promise Broken? received 102 responses from around the world, including three regional responses for the KU, the Caribbean Community and the Commonwealth Nations. The survey found that in the 17 months since the Beijing conference, 65 nations, or one-third of UN member states, have drawn up actual plans, while 18 others have prepared drafts. Respondents from NGOs in 53 countries said their governments are moving forward in drafting national action plans, and seven are stalled by adverse economic conditions or lack of implementation mechanisms and/or resources. Eight countries were reported to lack a plan altogether with no steps being taken to draft one, and five were reported to have taken "regressive steps." Members of the CSW bureau, who praised the survey during the commission meeting, noted that only 25 governments have submitted their strategies or action plans for implementation of the Beijing results to the secretariat in compliance with GA resolution 50/203 of 22 December 1995. A preliminary analysis of completed and draft national plans received by the UN secretariat found that few covered all the critical areas of concern. The DAW reports that the national plans tend to focus on a select number of areas or issues; they are most often poverty, participation in decision making, education, economy, health, violence and human rights. Few provide the specific benchmarks and timetables that were part of the Beijing platform, although some governments have designated priorities. Most plans provide for a combination of legislative actions, including reform of discriminatory laws, as well as targeted projects in specific areas for particular groups of women or in particular geographic areas. Several plans indicate that resources to carry out the Beijing platform will be increased or sought in future national budgets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Women's Environment and Development Organization, 355 Lexington Avenue, 3rd Floor, New York NY 10017, USA, telephone +1-212/973 0325, fax +1212/973 0335, e-mail &lt;wedo@igc.apc.org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Womens eyes on the world bank</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the Fourth World Conference on Women, NGOs from around the world established a global campaign to monitor the World Bank's progress in meeting the goals of the Beijing platform for action and the commitment to transforming the bank to meet women's needs. The campaign has four primary goals: increase the participation of grassroots women in economic policy making; institutionalize a gender perspective in the bank's policies and programmes; increase bank investments in women's health services, education, agriculture, land ownership, employment and financial services to ensure greater access to control over these key resources by the poor, especially women; and increase the number and racial and ethnic diversity of women in senior management positions within the bank.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The campaign is working to build knowledge and skills within the women's movement to understand the role of international financial institutions and to advocate on macroeconomic issues through popular education and media drives; build coalitions with existing NGO alliances and campaigns to ensure that a gender perspective is integrated into ongoing NGO advocacy efforts on the bank; monitor bank projects and policies to determine their impacts on women, particularly poor women; lobby officials from the bank incountry and at bank headquarters in Washington DC, including the bank's recently-established NGO External Gender Consultative Group; propose concrete alternatives for sustainable, equitable development that challenges gender bias in bank-promoted policies; and link grassroots women's groups, NGOs and researchers working on bank reform and other international macro-economic issues worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The campaign is now forming an international steering committee, with the majority of its members to be made up of organizations from borrower countries. Organizers hope that the campaign will be in a position to raise the necessary resources to hold regional and/or international strategy and coordination meetings, and to support on-going work of the national and regional campaign chapters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: in North America, Lydia Williams, OXFAM America, 87 Mozart Street, Boston MA 02130, USA, fax + 1202/783 8 739; in Caribbean, Hazel Brown, Caribbean Policy Development Centre (CPDC), telephone +809/627 5792; in Africa, Yassin Fall, Association of African Women for Research and Development, BP 3304, Dakar, Senegal, telephone/fax +221/202462; in Latin America, Laura Frade, National Coordination of Women's NGOs in Mexico, telephone/fax +52-145/60078. To receive economic literacy materials in English, French or Spanish, contact WEDO (see above), fax: + 1-212/9 73 0335.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Womenwatch internet site launched</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Division for the Advancement of Women of the Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development (DPCSD), United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) and the International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW) have pooled efforts and resources to create a joint space on the Internet on the advancement and empowerment of women. "WomenWatch," a gateway to UN information and data on women worldwide and an electronic forum on global women's issues, was launched on International Women's Day, 8 March 1997, as part of the follow up to the Beijing conference. The site provides up-todate information on UN work on behalf of women, and on the global agenda for improving their status. It is designed as a contribution to the outreach programmes of its collaborating partners to expand networking and streamline access to information, as recommended by tine' Beijing Platform for Action.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Internet site is accessible through the World Wide Web at http.//www.un.org/womenwatch and by e-mail &lt;womenwatch@un.org&gt; and the gopher &lt;gopher://gopher.un.org&gt;. The new web sites for DAW (http.//www.un.org/dpcsd/daw), UNIFEM (http://www.unifem.undp.org) and INSTRAW (http.//www.un.org/instraw) will be linked through Women Watch. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Background</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission on the Status of Women was created in 1946 as a subsidiary body of ECOSOC with the aim of supporting the equality goals of the UN Charter. The commission first met in 1947 with 15 members and has been expanded to include 45 members; each is elected to fouryear terms. It monitors the situation of women worldwide; promotes women's rights in all societies; makes recommendations on issues affecting women; and suggests policy goals for UN member states. The commission, which is empowered to receive complaints on violations of the rights of individual women or groups of women, formulates guidelines on actions to improve women's status in the economic, political and social fields. It is currently the central monitoring body of implementation of the platform for action adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing (China) in 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The platform reaffirms that the human rights of women and the girl child are inalienable, integral and an indivisible part of universal human rights. It reviews progress since the 1985 World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the UN Decade for Women, which adopted the Nairobi Forward-Looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women to the Year 2000. The platform also establishes the priority actions to be carried out over the next five years, and it identifies 12 critical areas of concern in depth: poverty, education, health, violence against women, armed conflict, economic structures, power sharing and.decision making, mechanisms to promote the advancement of women, human rights, the media, the environment, and the girl child.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Future thematik issues</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1998 thematic issues before the commission, in accordance with the multi-year work programme, will be: violence against women, women and armed conflict, human rights of women, and the girl child. The 1999 thematic issues will be women and health, and institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONTACTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UN Division for the Advancement of Women Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development (DPCSD)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 UN Plaza</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, NY 10017</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Telephone +1-212/963 8034.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax +1-212/963 3463</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E-mail address &lt;daw@un.org&gt;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For copies of the Secretary-General's report on thematic issues before the commission (E/CN.6/1997/3), which contains recommendations made by the expert groups, contact NGLS, Room FF346, United Nations, New York NY 10017, USA, telephone +1-212/963 3125, fax +1-212/963 8712, email &lt;ngls@undp.org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The E&amp;D File is produced by the United Nations Non-Governmental Liaison Service (NGLS) for NGOs and others interested in the institutions, policies and activities of the UN system and is not an official record. For more information or additional copies contact NGLS, Palais des Nations, CH-1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland, fax +41-22/788 7366, e-mail &lt;ngls@unctad.org&gt; or NGLS, Room FF346, United Nations, New York NY 1001 7, USA, fax +1-212/963 8712, e-mail &lt;ngls@igc.apc.org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Printed on recycled paper</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
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+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">NGO Dialogue Sessions at the Fifth Session of the CSD (ng05ne)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Sustainable Development, International cooperation, Projects; NGO, Organizations, Poverty and Hunger Alleviation, Basic Human Needs|Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in general, self- help organizations (their role in development). </Metadata>
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+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; NGO Dialogue Sessions at the Fifth Session of the CSD</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">NGO Dialogue Sessions at the Fifth Session of the CSD</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Nations Non-Governmental Liaison Service/ NGLS</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serving the UN system and NGO community for 22 years</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">NGO Dialogue sessions at the fifth session of the CSD</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fifth session of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD-5) was held in New York from 11-18 April 1997. The session, which functioned as a preparatory meeting for the upcoming 19th Special Session of the UN General Assembly to review and appraise the implementation of Agenda 21 (UNGASS), included as a part of its official programme a series of dialogue sessions between governments and representatives of the nine major groups identified by Agenda 21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sessions were organized to increase direct interaction between the CSD and major groups, so that the five-year review benefits fully from the perspectives, experiences, challenges and priorities of those involved in implementing the measures called for by the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil). Four main questions were addressed in the discussions: What are the lessons learned by the major group during the first phase of Agenda 21 implementations What are the priorities of the major group for the next phase? What challenges does the major group wish to make to other major group sectors, UN bodies and governments regarding future sustainable development efforts? and Which issues, in the view of the major group, should be priority issues for the CSD to focus on in the next phase?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results of the sessions are included in the official CSD-5 report submission to the special session of the UN General Assembly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Children and youth</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The dialogue session on youth, held 11 April, was chaired by CSD vice-chair Ambassador John Ashe (Antigua and Barbuda) and facilitated by Danijela Zunec of Rescue Mission Croatia and Peter Wilson of Global Kids Jamaica/USA. Speakers included representatives from Rescue Mission-Planet Earth; Canadian Environmental Network-Youth Caucus; Latin American Youth Network (REJULADS); Q2000; Playfair! Europe; International Youth and Student Movement for the United Nations; Action for Solidarity, Equality, Environment and Development (ASEED)-Europe; ASEED-Japan; ASEEDAustralia; Students Partnership Worldwide; and Global Kids, Jamaica/USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Speakers described youth efforts to raise awareness, strengthen bilateral partnerships, improve the environment and address social problems. Activities cited included educational seminars, local fundraising drives, scientific research projects, the development of youth networks and the preparation of reports on sustainability indicators, such as Mission Made Possible, Future Watch, and The Children's Version of Agenda 21. Priority issues highlighted by participants included peer education, participation in decision making, gender balance, human rights, poverty, poor working conditions for youth, homelessness and marginalization (particularly of indigenous youth).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Obstacles to the implementation of Agenda 21 cited by youth participants included limited access to information and decision making, political corruption, gender inequities and consumerism. Speakers questioned the low government attendance at the dialogue session itself, and noted that it reflected some of the problems youth face in getting governments to listen to them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the ensuing discussion with governments, the Belgian delegate responded that low attendance reflected the simultaneous scheduling of meetings rather than a lack of interest, while the representative from Hungary noted that since some of the young panellists might become government representatives themselves, they should remember the empty seats to ensure sure they are not empty in the future. Tanzania called on panellists to be more demanding of governments and urged them to secure media coverage for their presentations. The United Kingdom advised panellists to encourage youth to demonstrate sustainable lifestyles. The Philippines noted that children and youth are the target of those who want to promote unsustainable consumption patterns. Uganda raised the importance of micro-financing with regard to financial and economic issues. The International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) noted the serious problem of child labour in some, countries and asked the youth representatives to take up this issue. Panellists agreed with the importance of micro-financing and highlighted various forms of effective education. They emphasized the need for activities at the grassroots level, and increased access to information. They called on governments to allocate funds in such a way as to reflect the size of the youth constituency, which is 50% of the world's population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Youth Challenges and Recommendations to the CSD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Recognize that young people have much to offer and allow them to exercise their skills for sustainable development efforts with the United Nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Encourage governments to supply funding for youth activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Establish a CSD youth consultancy programme (a pilot effort in this area in 1996 has enabled young people to participate directly in commission activities and enhance their global network).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Include youth in international fore and promote attention to youth concerns and contributions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Encourage countries to include youth representatives in national delegations to the CSD.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Work to allow young people access to information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Promote innovative forms of education and creative ways to involve youth in decision-making processes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Scientific and technological communities</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ambassador John Ashe also chaired the scientific and technological communities session held on 11 April. It was facilitated by Julia Marton-Lefevre, Executive Director of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU). Speakers included representatives of Partner Programmes on Environmental Science; Third World Academy of Sciences; Committee on Science and Technology in Developing Countries; World Federation of Engineering Organizations; Global Change System for Analysis, Research and Training; Committee for the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme; and International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The post-Rio activities described by speakers included the World Climate Research Programme, which aims at improving prediction of the physical climate; the International Geosphere Biosphere Programme, which investigates the effects of global change on ecosystems; the Diversitas Programme, which coordinates research into biodiversity issues; and the International Human Dimensions of Global Change Programme to enhance understanding of the social and economic driving forces behind global change, as well as the impacts of and responses to that change. Panellists noted that many scientific organizations are focusing on capacity building because of the need for local solutions and the engagement of local expertise in addressing sustainability challenges. The organizations have also been developing advisory support roundtables and partnerships with other major groups, such as business and industry, to cultivate relationships.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Obstacles to implementation of Agenda 21 cited by speakers mainly addressed the lack of funding for research in areas of sustainable development, an unwillingness or difficulty in working together or sharing knowledge, a shortage of scientists in developing countries, and difficulties of gaining access to decision-making processes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the ensuing discussion, the United States and Indonesia agreed on the importance of improving public understanding of sustainable development and the scientific knowledge needed for it. The Czech Republic observed a lack of information in the media, and Ghana noted the difficulty in understanding some of the information that is disseminated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Japan highlighted the importance of links between the scientific community and government, and the Philippines drew attention to the importance of links between the scientific community and private sector research and development. The United Kingdom asked about best and worst practice issues, and Malaysia raised questions about the efficiency of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Science and Technology Challenges and Recommendations to the CSD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Encourage support for basic science education and research for environment and development issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Assist developing countries in national scientific capacity building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Support coordination within the scientific community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Raise public awareness of scientific and technological issues related to sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Package scientific information so that it is understandable and accessible by ordinary citizens as well as policy makers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Facilitate dialogue between scientists and decision makers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Compile and disseminate information on lessons learned in science and technology.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Improve relationships between the scientific community and the media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Give greater attention to research and development activities in the private sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Create direct dialogue opportunities between the CSD and representatives of the scientific community on specific topical areas of sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Women</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CSD vice-chair Ambassador Monika Linn-Locher (Switzerland) chaired the women's dialogue session on 14 April, which was facilitated by Bella Abzug, President of the Women's Environment and Development Organization (WEDO). Speakers included representatives from the Central and Eastern European Network for Sustainable Consumption and Production, Poland; Country Women's Association of Nigeria; Movement for Nuclear Safety, Russia; NGO Campaign for the Earth International, Canada; Perzent Center of Karakalpaskstan; the Rede de Defesa da Especie Humana (REDEH), Brazil; Red Thread, Guyana; and Women, Food and Agriculture Working Group, Via Campesina, United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Speakers in the dialogue session noted that women cannot be considered merely a major group, since they are represented in and reflect all of the nine major groups defined in Agenda 21, and have served as catalysts for environmental and democratic activism across class, race ethnicity and coalition lines. Speakers said that thanks to women's efforts, there is a principle on women in the Rio declaration, a chapter on women and over 170 references to women mainstreamed throughout Agenda 21, and they have also ensured a gender analysis in the process and documents of other international conferences, particularly the Beijing platform for action. However, speakers said five years after Rio and two years after Beijing, women still comprise the majority of the poor, the landless and the underfed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Speakers described a number of relevant initiatives by and for women at the international level, including the Women's Caucus of NGOs, which enabled women to participate in intergovernmental negotiations on an on-going basis; the Beijing conference, where women drew attention to poverty and its effects on the lives of women in particular; and the Microcredit Summit held in Washington DC in 1997, which highlighted the importance of providing credit to poor women. (Summit participants committed to providing US$21.7 billion in microcredit to poor people by the year 2005.) Panellists also highlighted the importance of local Agenda 21 efforts in strengthening mechanisms by which women are integrated in decision-making processes and are helping to alter unsustainable production and consumption patterns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Obstacles to implementing Agenda 21 cited by speakers included the inequities and prejudices that confront women, such as lack of representation, inadequate access to credit, poverty, and the negative impacts of trade and debt-related issues. For example, they noted that although women make up over 50% of the world's population, they constitute far less than the same ratio in government posts throughout the world; barriers to land ownership by women not only stifle their prospects for financial independence but create disincentives for following sustainable practices; trade imbalances and debt crises contribute to poverty-related problems; and the growing emphasis on food as a commodity and on agro-business has negative effects regarding sustainable agriculture and world food security, which has important implications for women farmers as well as for the well-being of women and children in general.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the ensuing discussion, Peru identified poverty as the main obstacle to achieving the goals outlined in Beijing and urged countries to promote capacity building for women and provide special attention to women in indigenous communities. The Philippines described efforts to mainstream women's concerns into its policy decisions; and Australia, Bangladesh, the Netherlands and Switzerland all noted progress in micro-financing programmes for women. Sweden stressed the issue of women in agricultural production, and the Netherlands addressed women and trade in export-driven, monoculture economies along with Cuba, which also described hostile food policies and their relation to food insecurity. Australia noted the linkages between transboundary movements of hazardous material and women's health problems. Norway and Sweden stressed the importance of addressing the role of both women and men when formulating gender policy, and Finland suggested that the conclusions reached during the recent Commission on the Status of Women should be incorporated into the CSD-5 decisions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women's Challenges and Recommendations for the CSD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Ensure full and equal participation in decision making at every level in all social, political and economic areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Commit the necessary resources and establish timebound targets for integrating women fully into the development of policies, institutions, mechanisms, implementation and evaluation of all future plans for sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Ensure that women's reproductive and productive contributions are measured, valuated and integrated into national accounts and in the calculation of national wealth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Disaggregate by gender all data collected at the national and international levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Develop and integrate gender indicators in the systems of monitoring sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Enforce compliance with International Labour Organization (ILO) agreements to prevent gender-based economic exploitation by transnational corporations (TNCs).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Make major debt cancellation announcements at UNGASS, as it is a critical centerpiece of the Rio formula, and explain to the public the relationship of debt cancellation to stemming environmental degradation and ending the cycle of poverty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Identify industrial hotspots and prepare a plan to clean these areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Regulate commercial advertising and identify instruments to combat its negative effects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Ensure that on-going negotiations on the multilateral agreement on investment will equally address the rights and responsibilities of corporations in sustainable development processes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Establish a mechanism within the commission to monitor and guide the actions of the World Trade Organization.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Earmark 1% of all funding dispersed via the World Bank, regional development banks and other international financial institutions to support rural women, who make up the. main share of the world's 1.3 billion poor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Support appropriate and gender-fair education, health, recreation, childcare and other infrastructural systems designed by and for rural communities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Promote "sustainable agriculture" rather than "agricultural sustainability."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Affirm and pledge to reach the Microcredit Summit goal of raising US$21.7 billion to ensure that 100 million of the world's poorest women and their families receive credit for self-employment by the year 2005.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Remove legislative, policy, administrative and customary barriers to women's equal rights to natural resources, including access to and control over land (and other forms of property), credit, inheritance, information and new technology.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Strengthen the reporting requirements by governments to the commission and improve links with other relevant bodies of the Economic and Social Council, such as the Commission on the Status of Women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Review and address the impact on women of public and private sector genetic research, bioprospecting, biotrade, and biotechnology policies and programmes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Strengthen the role of women in efforts to implement Agenda 21. In doing this, the commission should examine examples where efforts to increase participation have been successful and disseminate this information widely. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Workers and trade unions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CSD vice-chair Ambassador Bagher Asadi (Iran) chaired the trade unions dialogue session held on 14 April. The session was facilitated by Clayola Brown, Union of Needletrades, Industrial and Textile Employees (UNITE), the United States. Speakers included representatives from UNITE; Central Unica dos Trabalhadores, Brazil; Graphical Workers' Union, Sweden; Canadian Labor Congress; Mine, Geological and Oil Workers, Czech Republic; Laborers' International Union, US; Zimbabwe Council of Trade Unions; Indian National Trade Union Congress; Worker Education and Environment, ACTRAV/ILO Project; the Swedish Confederation of Professional Employees; Trades Union Congress; and the Bangladesh Independent Garment Workers Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of "collective engagement" was the focus of trade union presentations, as well as their response to the trends of hunger, ill-health, illiteracy, unemployment, industrial accidents and social tensions, which have increased since the Rio conference. Collective engagement is the process through which workers learn and grow by working together to recognize problems and fashion solutions in a cooperative, collaborative and mutually selfdirecting way. It aims to harness the energies of workers and other members of society in transforming ideas about sustainable development into action.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Speakers described projects directed at poverty alleviation, holistic approaches to adopting ecologically-friendly practices, progressive standards of chemical labelling, ecological consciousness-raising, monitoring, enforcement of codes of conduct, information dissemination, recommendations for sustainable development indicators, and preparation of training materials explaining ILO conventions and labour standards. They argued that workplaces and workers are key to changing not only patterns of production, but also unsustainable forms of consumption. Speakers said this is constantly illustrated by situations where involvement of unions proved to be the crucial ingredient to achieving tangible progress, not just in the workplace but nationally, regionally and in the community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Foremost among the obstacles to implementing Agenda 21 described by speakers is the lack of workers' rights, particularly the freedom to associate. The Agenda 21 provisions for capacity building and the harmonization of classification and labelling of chemicals were also cited by speakers as areas that have not been effectively implemented. They urged governments to overcome what they described as the deficit of years of unsustainable patterns, with emphasis on arresting such crises as global warming and climate change.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the ensuing discussion, several governments asked about the applicability of the EcoManagement and Auditing Scheme (EMAS) in developing countries, and the relationship between EMAS and ISO 14,000, which is the International Standards Office list of basic, voluntary industrial standards from an environmental perspective. The Netherlands warned against reliance on market forces, and the US welcomed the concept of collective engagement. Ecuador called for national systems of regulation to ensure health and environmental protection, particularly in view of the growing importance of informal economies and the absence of mechanisms to deal with sustainability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Workers and Trade Union Challenges and Recommendations to the CSD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Put the workplace at the top of the sustainable development agenda, especially for changes to production and consumption patterns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Recognize the role that trade unions can play in furthering sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Encourage cooperation among employers, workers and governments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Support ILO initiatives and work to integrate ILO programmes and sustainable development activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Encourage governments to develop workplace linkages to national reporting and monitoring systems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Encourage governments to include trade union representatives in decision making regarding sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Support making eco-management and audit practices compulsory, open to the public and independently validated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Urge governments to support NGOs and trade unions in ecolabelling programmes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Encourage environmental education at all levels in the school system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Ensure adherence to safety, health, environment and child labour laws in producer countries and promote the use of codes of conduct in implementing sustainable development initiatives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Indigenous peoples</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CSD vice-chair Dr. Czeslaw Wieckowski (Poland) chaired the Indigenous Peoples' dialogue session held on 15 April. The session was facilitated by Raja Devashish Roy of the Chakma Peoples, Bangladesh Indigenous and Hill Peoples Association for Advancement. Speakers included representatives from the Quechua People, Ecuador; Kuna People, Panama (International Alliance of Indigenous and Tribal Peoples of the Tropical Forests); Nuuk People, Greenland (Inuit Circumpolar Conference); Maori People, New Zealand (Maori Congress); Ogoni People, Nigeria (National Youth Council of Ogoni People); Kankanacy People, the Philippines (Asian Indigenous Women's Network); and Qucchua People, US (International Indian Treaty Council).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Speakers said that the co-chairs' text failed to reflect the lack of progress on critical issues of concern to Indigenous Peoples. They stressed, among other things, the need for political empowerment, self-determination, and control over natural resources; the problems of poverty, homelessness and unemployment; recognition of indigenous political institutions, ancestral lands and intellectual property rights; and mechanisms for participation in decision making beyond what they described as tokenism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the described activities undertaken by Indigenous Peoples groups since the Rio conference are the application of sustainable practices in everyday life; contributions to the Draft UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples; legal actions against unsustainable mining practices and against patenting of human genes; and support of the forest, biodiversity and intellectual and cultural property rights forums. Speakers stated that Agenda 21 itself fails to adequately address the needs of Indigenous Peoples. For example, they said the concept of territories does not appear in the Forestry Principles; there is little reference to Indigenous Peoples in the Arctic region or to the negative impact of mining or damming activities on indigenous communities; and Agenda 21 generally portrays Indigenous Peoples and their traditional practices as objects of research for commercialization.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ensuing discussion illustrated the difference of experience and perspective among some governments and Indigenous Peoples, with governments for the most part defending their own national policies vis-&agrave;-vis indigenous complaints. For example, Canada and the US both expressed support for Indigenous Peoples, but disagreed with concerns raised by speakers and NGOs in the audience regarding unsustainable mining and damming practices affecting indigenous communities. Peru cited the numerous problems its Indigenous Peoples face and highlighted drug trafficking, civil strife, environmental degradation and migration, although indigenous groups said the government had neglected to address the root causes of such problems. Nigeria, responding to a description of the situation of the Ogoni people, said that the Ogoni are considered an ethnic group rather than an Indigenous People.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indigenous Peoples' Challenges and Recommendations to the CSD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The international community should recognize Indigenous Peoples as Peoples and not as NGOs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The UN should establish a permanent forum for Indigenous Peoples.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Forest policy fora at all levels must establish mechanisms to ensure equal and full participation of Indigenous Peoples and other forest-dependent people in decision making.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The scope of the UN Voluntary Fund for Indigenous Peoples should be expanded so as to enable greater participation by Indigenous Peoples representatives in the full range of UN activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The UN should improve dissemination of information to Indigenous Peoples.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The international community should address issues concerning biological diversity, such as biotechnology, bioprospecting, and the Human Genome Diversity Project. Institutions and conventions dealing with these issues must allow for participation of Indigenous Peoples. A Biosafety Protocol under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) should be speedily accepted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indigenous Peoples requested the CSD to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Promote the immediate adoption of the Draft UN Declaration on the Rights of the Indigenous Peoples in its current form.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Examine impacts of globalization, the WTO and regional agreements on intellectual property rights, such as the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) on indigenous communities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Review activities of transnational corporations, especially extractive industries such as mining and timber, and examine the effects of these businesses on Indigenous Peoples. Methods of conflict resolution should be among the issues considered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Promote dialogue between indigenous, non-indigenous groups and governments-at international, national and local levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Participate in the workshop regarding a UN Permanent Forum for Indigenous Peoples, to be held in Chile in June 1997. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">NGOs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr. Wieckowski also chaired the NGO dialogue session held on 15 April. The session was facilitated by Roberto Bissio of Instituto del Tercer Mundo. Speakers included representatives from the Environmental Liaison Center International (ELCI); Association of Small Farmers of the Pacific Coast, Costa Rica; Country Women's Association of Nigeria; Friends of the Earth International; Environmental Justice Networking Forum, South Africa; Third World Network, Malaysia; the Latin American Network on Forests;. and Consumers International.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Speakers noted the increasingly important role NGOs have played in efforts to advance sustainable development in the five years since Rio, and they highlighted efforts and discussed Agenda 21 implementation at the local, national and regional levels. They also made recommendations for the CSD to undertake in the next five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Obstacles cited included ingrained production and consumption patterns, lack of access to decision making, trade liberalization, low political will to address sustainable development issues, and lack of resources. ELCI presented its report on Grassroots Reflections on Agenda 21, which concludes that government performance in implementing Agenda 21 and the Rio agreements was low and focused on symptoms of environmental problems, instead of underlying causes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the ensuing discussion, a number of governments gave accounts of their efforts to consult with NGOs and take their perspectives into account in advance preparation of their positions. Ways and means mentioned to enhance the participation of civil society and NGOs included preconsultations, debriefing sessions, Local Agenda 21s, and the establishment of national committees on sustainable development. Japan highlighted the importance of local municipalities in monitoring, inspecting and enforcing to adhere to environmental standards. Australia proposed granting official status to NGO reports to the CSF), and requiring governments to respond to these reports (such a mechanism is already in place under the Commission on Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child). Bolivia and the Philippines stressed the collaborative ways in which their national reports have been produced with the active participation of major group organizations. The US noted that it placed "the highest priority on consulting with civil society" in the formulation of its national report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Rio +5 Forum, held in Rio de Janeiro from 13-19 March 1997, was the culmination of a one-year process designed to assess progress (or lack of progress) since the Rio Summit. The forum's recommendations, which are posted on the Earth Council's web site (see below), focused on strengthening local, national, regional . and global initiatives. The Earth Council has developed a number of new programmes to follow up the outcomes of Rio+5. The council will work to strengthen national Councils for Sustainable Development (NCSDs), especially through helping to improve the institutional frameworks for these bodies, their participatory processes and networking capacities with other NCSDs around the world. The council also plans to establish a Knowledge Resource Facility, which will support sustainable development initiatives by highlighting and sharing practical experience with implementation. An Earth Charter Benchmark Draft will be the subject of widespread consultation and will be promoted with NCSDs, integrated into curriculum design, incorporated into the teachings of religious and spiritual groups, and used as a basis for the design and development of an alternative dispute resolution mechanism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Earth Council, PO Box 323-1001, San Jose, Costa Rica, telephone +506/223 3418, fax +506/255 2197, web site (www.ecouncil.ac.cr).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGO Challenges and Recommendations to the CSD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Encourage dialogue at local and national levels as well as the international level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Incorporate trade and environment, trade and development and the intersection of trade, environment and development into Agenda 21 initiatives and into the future work of the CSD.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Establish a sub-commission or panel on trade and sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Initiate dialogue with the WTO and its Committee on Trade and Environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Initiate a new round of commodity agreements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Facilitate a sustainable development and equity review of WTO agreements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Initiate a review of the WTO Agriculture Agreement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Take up the issue of intellectual property rights and sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Investigate the impacts of liberalization on sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Urge the special session to adopt a resolution urging states and organizations to implement proposed activities drafted during the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Establish a sub-commission on corporate accountability. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Local authorities</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ambassador Bagher Asadi chaired the dialogue session on local authorities, held on 16 April. The session was facilitated by Jean-Pierre Elong Mbassi, World Assembly of Cities and Local Authorities Coordination (WACLAC), and Jeb Brugman of the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Speakers included representatives from the World Assembly of Cities and Local Authorities Coordination; Dubai Municipality; Policy Committee, Corporation of London in the UK; City of Marrakesh, Morocco; Barcelona, Spain; Cajamarca Municipality/Association of Peruvian Municipalities; Leicester City Council, UK; and ICLEI.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than 1800 local authorities from 64 countries have established Local Agenda 21 processes and are working to reorganize themselves and change mindsets and practices in order to become more effective agents for sustainable development. Speakers described "green space" programmes, increased public transport, air quality improvements, privatization of water and sanitation departments, and housing programmes. They also highlighted partnerships between local authorities internationally, decentralization and local governance, and the progress of the Local Agenda 21 movement. They proposed that the CSD focus on the human settlements sector and the Habitat Agenda; application of Agenda 21 principles by TNCs; capacity building; harmonization of policies between different levels of government; initiatives to improve coordination of agencies; and developing local authority networks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Obstacles to implementing Agenda 21 include insufficient resources and policies that promote unsustainable practices, such as absence of integrated transportation policies and unsustainable energy policies, lack of tax raising powers, and poor enforcement of environmental laws. Panellists called for enhanced local-national partnerships, capacity building, attention to Agenda 21 and Habitat II objectives, and information networks. One panellist called for the need to coordinate programmes such as the Global Environment Facility (GEE) and Capacity 21 with Local Agenda 21 initiatives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the ensuing discussion, NGOs in the audience pointed out that many grassroots and local community groups are not fully recognized by local authorities as instrumental in promoting and working for Local Agenda 21. The Netherlands said that the challenge for sustainability lies in the world's cities, and France said that local authorities should aim to assist the UN rather than asking for assistance from it. The US suggested that local authority proposals do not pay adequate attention to public participation in local Agenda 21 implementation, and it stressed the importance of engaging the private sector. Several delegates described sustainable development pilot projects in their own countries. Australia noted that, as part of its contribution to UNGASS, it would be hosting a conference on Pathways to Sustainability from 1-5 June, which will showcase local initiatives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Local Authorities' Challenges and Recommendations to the CSD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Local Agenda 21 programmes should be actively encouraged in each country, particularly through establishment of Local Agenda 21 national campaigns in partnership with local authority associations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The CSD should establish global targets to encourage Local Agenda 21 campaigns, and to review and address obstacles to Local Agenda 21 initiatives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The international community should provide an enabling environment that encourages subnational and local authorities (with investments from public and private sources) to extend and increase efficiency of water supply and sanitation services, especially in fast-growing urban areas and poor rural communities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Trends toward decentralization of government to local levels should be recognized, and support should be given to local authorities to assist in implementation of their new governance and service provision responsibilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Other proposals requested the CSD to commission a study that examines barriers to local Agenda 21 implementation, especially those erected and maintained by national governments. Barriers may concern transportation, energy, tax policies, subsidies and poor enforcement of regulations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Farmers</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ambassador Monika Linn-Locher chaired the farmers dialogue session held on 16 April. The session, one of the most dynamic, was facilitated by Linda Elswick of the World Sustainable Agriculture Association (WSAA) of the United States. Speakers included representatives from the Federation of Swedish Farmers; Danish Farmers' Union; National Farmers' Union of Canada; Zambian Women in Agriculture; Union Nacional de Agricultores y Ganaderos of Nicaragua; New Brunswick Federation of Agriculture of Canada; Center for Citizens Initiative, Moscow (Russian Federation); and the Karnataka State Farmers Association of India.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Speakers noted that issues concerning food and agriculture uniquely transform the abstract concept of sustainable development into something tangible and meaningful to all people. They cited their own awareness of environmental responsibilities to society, and how they are increasingly addressing the environmental impacts of their practices as well as identifying and carrying out solutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Activities toward implementation of Agenda 21 that have been undertaken since the Rio conference include land tenure reforms; agricultural cooperatives; rural banks and rural women's services to create a supportive economic and social framework for sustainable agriculture; and the initiation of eco-audits and codes of good farm practices, including the establishment of standards for pesticide and fertilizer use, animal manure, water quality, energy consumption and research.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Obstacles emphasized by panellists included lack of land tenure, trade policies and attitudes towards biodiversity. Low net farm income was also highlighted as an obstacle, since it forces farmers to consider short-term profits over long-term effects of their activities on the environment. Poor prospects have also driven young people away from farming, resulting in an ageing farming population in developed countries and the feminization of agriculture in developing countries. The WTO was criticized for what speakers described as its watershed of adverse effects on farmers. They pointed out that the global market is determining what is produced, who is producing it, and who has control over what is produced. Speakers said this usurps the place of instruments for ensuring food security and moves decision making outside of public institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panellists also highlighted the fact that there is no legally binding international agreement protecting farmers' rights in the face of Biodiversity erosion resulting from agricultural monoculture. They called on the CSD to harmonize its policy with the Convention on Biodiversity, where farmers' rights are recognized, and to modify those agreements that do not support farmers' rights. They also called for the removal of agriculture from the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the WTO, the elimination of Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs), and the rejection of the biotrade initiative proposed by the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was lively discussion among speakers, governments, and farmers from the audience. Topics of interventions included balancing the need to feed people with reducing the impacts of agriculture on the environment, the value of organic farming as a strategy for achieving sustainable development, the impacts of technology development on farmers, and trade-related issues. NGOs in the audience noted references in the Beijing platform to organic farming, and how these references stress linkages between health and agriculture. Others said the CSD failed to mention the 1996 Leipzig International Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources, as well as efforts of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and initiatives under the Convention on Biological Diversity relevant to agriculture. Germany asked how farmers, especially in developing countries, reconciled their roles as business people and "guardians of the earth."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farmers' Challenges and Recommendations to the CSD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The international community should take a more comprehensive approach to food security by involving representatives from all sectors of society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Farmers' organizations should be included in national delegations attending meetings that discuss issues related to the agricultural sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Increased interaction between the UN and WTO is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The CSD should facilitate approval of the Global Plan of Action and the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources as a protocol to the Convention on Biodiversity. This requires immediate finalization of the revision to the international undertaking as a protocol to the Convention on Biodiversity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- There is a need to review, assess and if necessary modify existing national legislation and international agreements concerning intellectual property rights, land tenure and seed legislation (also post-WTO legislation) to ensure that they support and do not run counter to farmers' rights and the overarching objectives of the CBD.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The WTO review process in 1999-2000 should lead to removal of agriculture from the Uruguay Round Agreement and to the elimination of TRIPs in agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- There should be a moratorium on bioprospecting activities as well as on the release of genetically-modified plant varieties and organisms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Developed countries and agribusinesses should provide compensation for the developing country knowledge and resources they have used for many years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The CSD should promote the establishment of a permanent working group on farmers' rights, biodiversity and sustainable agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- An international convention to address farmers' rights and sustainable agriculture issues would help to build accountability within the structure of international law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The CSD should arrange for consultative status for farmers as a major group by the time of the special session of the General Assembly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Farmers' organizations, especially those from the developing countries and in countries in transition, should be supported and strengthened to become effective partners in policy design and implementation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Public research on sustainable farming practices, improved cropping methods and extension services should be increased at all levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Business and industry</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ambassador John Ashe chaired the dialogue session on business and industry held on 18 April. The session was facilitated by Maria Cattaui of the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) and Bjorn Stigson of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD). Speakers included representatives from the Xerox Corporation; EnviroServ; Scudder, Stevens and Clark; Tokyo Electric Power Company; British Petroleum Company; Aracruz Cellulose; WBCSD; Dow Chemical; and Grupo IMSA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Speakers noted that the business community has made</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">some progress toward sustainable development since the Rio conference, and they cited examples from the reports Signals of Change by WBCSD and Implementation of the ICC Business Charter for Sustainable Development by ICC. The business charter was launched shortly before the Rio Summit and adopted by 2500 companies worldwide. Speakers emphasized a change of direction from the 1970s and 1980s, when efforts focused on pollution cleanup and end-of-pipe measures, to a systems approach to environmental management, developing partnerships with government and stakeholders, and corporate responsibility throughout the product life-cycle. However, they acknowledged that business and industry are still in the early stage of their "green revolution" and still need to engage small and mediumsized enterprises (SMEs), especially those in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Obstacles to implementation of Agenda 21 cited by panellists include difficulties in engaging SMEs and polices, and taxes and subsidies that promote unsustainable practices. Speakers suggested that unnecessary regulations can hinder the efforts of businesses to promote sustainable development, and economic, social and legal frameworks often work against sustainability. They strongly recommended that governments provide incentives for sustainability and remove disincentives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the ensuing dialogue session, Belgium addressed the difficulty in reconciling industry's preference for voluntary initiatives with the need to have consistency in government policies and environmental standards. A panellist suggested that big businesses should assist small businesses in adhering to internationally-harmonized standards, rather than negotiating lower standards for developing countries. The US called attention to local participation, and Peru emphasized consumer awareness. China said SME practices are often harmful to the environment, and panellists responded that big businesses need to support SME efforts to promote sustainable development. Governments from the Pacific region asked about the efforts of companies to forestall action on climate change, and suggested that in acting to protect their short-term profits they are challenging scientific findings regarding global warming. France acknowledged the trend toward business-to-business technology transfers, as well as the role that governments play in providing incentives for such activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGOs who witnessed the shelving of the long-anticipated Code of Conduct for TNCs in 1992 have been eager to see the "report card" on the promises of increasingly responsible self-regulation and adherence to voluntary codes. They questioned panellists about companies that act responsibly in some places, especially where it is legally required, and irresponsibly in others. They asked what tools are available to the public to determine whether a company's claims to responsible behaviour are valid or not just greenwash" or ecopropaganda; how to judge whether or not the 2500 companies signing the business charter have complied with their own agreements if companies are not required to validate their compliance; what is needed beyond continued persuasion and education to deal with companies that refuse to act responsibly, or whose economic survival is dependent upon unsustainable practices or products; and clarification about the role and responsibility of governments to ensure that such companies are accountable to society and the communities where they operate. Many NGOs felt this is especially important in light of the Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI), being negotiated by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), which increases corporate rights and influence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Business and Indushy Challenges and Recommendations to the CSD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Capitalize on the ability of governments to change and adapt quickly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Minimize regulations by developing a minimal parallel regulatory system based on performance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Help to motivate and introduce voluntary systems that encourage responsibility for products throughout their life cycles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Examine whether taxes and subsidies promote unsustainable behaviour, and change policies accordingly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Move from income- to consumption-based taxes over a sufficiently long period of time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Get prices right so that products reflect their full environmental costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Re-examine the measure of gross domestic product (GDP) and consider supplementing it with a net-GDP measure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Promote stakeholder outreach and involvement regarding the role of business in promoting sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Synthesis session</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ambassador Bagher Asadi chaired the final synthesis session held on 18 April. The session provided a summary of views expressed during the week, and it made further recommendations for future CSD sessions. Speakers included representatives from each major group: Global Kids of the United States for youth; ICSU for the scientific and technological communities; REDEH and WEDO for women; ICFTU for workers and trade unions; for Indigenous Peoples, the Maori Congress; Instituto del Tercer Mundo for NGOs; ICLEI for local authorities; IFAP for farmers; and ICC and WBCSD for business and industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Speakers said that the sessions were a useful first step toward further sharing of views on problems and solutions, as well as building greater consensus around Agenda 21 objectives. Several speakers expressed disappointment with the low attendance of governments in the sessions. Government statements generally expressed appreciation for the dialogue sessions, particularly in showing the progress made through major group activities in the first five years of Agenda 21 implementahon.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Questions and proposals for future dialogue sessions included: focus dialogue sessions on specific thematic issues; encourage a more interactive format; schedule dialogue sessions outside negotiating hours to ensure higher participation of government delegations; involve other sectors of society, such as artists, writers and religious communities; ensure more participation from developing countries; enable dialogue between the major groups in a systematic way in order to find balanced approaches to the costs, benefits and risks involved in sustainable development; and encourage use of the dialogue sessions model in other bodies of the UN system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Zehra Aydin, UN Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development (DPCSD), United Nations, New York NY 10017, USA, telephone +1-212/963 5708, fax +1212/963 9248, web site (http://un.org/dpcsd).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The E&amp;D File is produced by the United Nations Non-Governmental Liaison Service (NGLS) for NGOs and others interested in the institutions, policies and activities of the UN system and is not an official record. For more information or additional copies contact NGLS, Palais des Nations, CH-1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland, fax +41-22/788 7366, e-mail &lt;ngls@unctad.org&gt; or NGLS, Room FF346, United Nations, New York NY 1001 7, USA, fax +1-212/963 8712, e-mail &lt;ngls@igc.apc.org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Printed on recycled paper</P></FONT>
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+</Section>
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+</Section>
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+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Go Between 64, June-July 1997</TITLE>
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+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNITED NATIONS NON-GOVERNMENTAL LIASON SERVICE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serving the UN system and NGO community for 22 years</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
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+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SG speaks on development, UN reform</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 7 April UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan told a ministerial conference of the Movement of Non-Aligned Notions that the surest foundation for peace, stability and security is economic and social development. At the conference, held in New Delhi (India), Mr. Annan said the commitment to development is one of the "guiding beacons" of the United Nations. "Peace-keeping and peace-making may catch the headlines," he said, "but in terms of resources, and in terms of the changes made in people's lives, the development work of the United Nations is far more significant."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr. Annan said that while the eradication of poverty and securing development are the responsibilities of individual states, the United Nations system has a key conceptual and promotional role to ploy. The ultimate abjective-securing the development of developing countries-remains the same. "But we need to re-examine constantly the means of attaining that objective," according to Mr. Annan. "We need to ensure that our approach to development takes full account of the economic, politico! and technological realities of our times especially the role of the private sector and of civil society."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The SG noted that this is the way in which he is approaching the question of reform of the United Nations development system: to make it sensitive to the concerns of developing countries; capable of mobilizing political support; able to enhance its capacity far data gathering and analysis and norm-setting; and, above oil, to make it able to provide assistance at the country level efficiently and cost-effectively. Mr. Annan added that any cast-savings in the larger reform effort should be ploughed back into tangible development activities by the United Nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Over the years," concluded Mr. Annan, "development activities have suffered from an accretion of mandates, considerable overlap in responsibilities and wasteful duplication of effort. Reform aims to achieve better focus and clarity through greater integration at Headquarters and even mare so at the country level. The new arrangements, including a strengthened resident coordinator position and country team system, should bolster support for sustainable development, particularly in Africa and small island developing states."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable development commision meets </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fifth session of the UN Commission an Sustainable Development (CSD-5) met at UN headquarters from 8-25 April to complete preparations far Earth Summit +5, the UN General Assembly special session that will review and appraise implementation of Agenda 21. The special session, also known as UNGASS, will be held in New York from 23-27 June.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CSD-5, which focused an drafting a text for the special session, began with a high-level segment and review of reports from its Ad Hoc Intersessional Working Group and the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests. Delegates continued their deliberations to identify emerging priority sectoral issues, such as freshwater; energy/atmosphere and forests; and cross-sectoral issues, such as poverty eradication and changing consumption and production patterns. Some were concerned that the three weeks of negotiating time at CSD-5 would not be sufficient because of a large number of amendments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two drafting groups and several informal groups met late into the night during the final week, and delegates were able to reach agreement an much of the text. Notable areas of debate were left pending for consideration at UNGASS; these include whether to proceed with a convention on forests and how to balance financial resource language, and the draft political statement generated during consultations held by CSD-5 choir Mostafa Tolba (Egypt) and vice-chair Monika Linn Locher (Switzerland). The statement will be presented for signature by heads of state and government who will attend the special session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UN Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) and US-based Columbia University have agreed to jointly create the United Nations Habitat Project at Columbia's School of International and Public Affairs. The project is designed to help solve growing urban problems now common to almost all countries. The project, a direct result of the Second United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat 11), will emphasize research and training and it will aim to unite scholars and public officials worldwide. Under the agreement Columbia University will lead a global academic effort to accomplish the goals of the Habitat conference. The university will serve as the intemational centre far research, training and information on innovative approaches to urban problems. It will also train local elected officials around the world and create a network of ten major universities to participate in the project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An innovative feature of the CSD-5 was a series of dialogue sessions among governments and the nine major groups identified during the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) process. The sessions were convened in parallel with negotiations an the text to be adopted by UNGASS (see E&amp;D File, vol. III, no. 14).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the CSD-5 proceedings, the General Assembly plenary met on 18 April and decided to allow NGOs to address the plenary of a special session of the GA for the first time. While rules and procedures exist concerning on-going NGO consultations with ECOSOC and its subsidiary bodies, unique arrangements have to be mode to enable NGOs to participate in General Assembly special sessions. Under the terms of the GA decision, "Major groups, as identified in Agenda 21 and represented by non-governmental organizations with consultative status with the Economic and Social Council and on the roster, will be invited to participate in the plenary meeting of the nineteenth special session of the General Assembly in the debate on an overall review and appraisal of the implementation of Agenda 21." A further paragraph states that "arrangements concerning the participation of representatives of such major groups in the nineteenth special session of the General Assembly will in no way create o precedent for other special sessions of the Assembly." </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission on human rights 53RD session</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 12 June, UN Secretary -General Kofi Annan appointed Irish President Mary Robinson as the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights. Her seven-year term as President of Ireland does not end until 2 December. The appointment has to be confirmed by the General Assembly. Mr. Annan said he would shortly appoint a deputy from a developing country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 10 March the Commission on Human Rights convened its 53rd session in Geneva with aver 2300 participants, including 53 member states, 92 observer states, 41 UN, inter-governmental and other observer delegations, and 1105 representatives of 203 NGOs. The commission concluded its deliberations after six weeks by adapting 78 resolutions (63 by consensus and 15 after voting) and 26 decisions (25 by consensus and one after voting). The session was opened by Jose Ayala-Lasso, High Commissioner for Human Rights, who on his last day in office on 14 March, again addressed the commission in a farewell statement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commission, despite a certain polarization and after long and intense negotiations, succeeded in adopting by consensus substantive resolutions on the right to development, a World Conference on Racism to be convened no later than the year 2001, strengthening of the HE/CHR (High Commissioner and Centre for Human Rights), rights of the child, and the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A resolution on the situation of human rights in China did not come to a vote, as in previous years. Instead a no-action motion on the measure was adopted by a roll-call vote of 27 in favour and 17 opposed, with nine abstaining. It was the seventh time a draft resolution had been tabled an China none has ever been approved by the commission.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among other measures an specific situations around the world, the commission decided to appoint o special rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Nigeria, citing concern at what it called widespread abuse of citizens, lack of judicial safeguards, and an absence of progress on announced democratic reforms. The commission else replaced a special rapporteur on Rwanda with a special representative, who will advise the country on improving human rights. The mandate of the special rapporteur on the situation in Burundi was extended for another year. In addition, a working group was established an the rights of migrant workers, and the Secretary-General was asked to send a mission to Guatemala at the end of 1997 to review implementation of the peace accords signed there last December.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commission's reform and the rationalization of its work and agenda will be informally discussed in the course of the year by the group of "Friends of the Chairman." The commission succeeded in "lightening" its agenda by deciding to consider resolutions on some issues every two years. The Cuban-led proposal on "revitalizing" the commission through the creation of an open-ended working group to discuss reform issues was deferred until the next session of the commission.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In his closing statement, Mr. R. Zacklin, Officer-in-Charge of the HE/CHR in Geneva pending the appointment of a new High Commissioner for Human Rights, focused on the importance of the commission's next session; 1998 is the 50th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which coincides with the first five-year review of the implementation of the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action. The commission decided to permanently reschedule its annual meetings far March/April of every yearthe next session will be held from 16 March-24 April 1998.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Helga Klein, HC/CHR, Palais des Notions, CH-1211 Geneva 10 Switzerland, telephone +41-22/917 3955, fax +4 1-22/917 0099.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Who world health report </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cancer, heart disease and other chronic conditions, which already kill aver 24 million people a year, will impose increasing burdens of suffering and disability an hundreds of millions of others, the World Health Organization (WHO) has warned in its annual report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Health Report 1997: Conquering Suffering, Enriching Humanity says the number of cancer cases is expected to at least double in most countries during the next 25 years. By the year 2005, there will be a 33% rise in lung cancers in women, and a 40% increase in prostrate cancers in men in European Union countries alone. Heart disease and stroke will also became mare common in poorer countries. Globally, diabetes cases will mare than double by 2025, and there will be a huge rise in same mental disorders, such as Alzheimers disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report says tobacco-related deaths, primarily from lung cancer and circulatory disease, already amount to three million a year, or 6% of total deaths. "If the trends of increasing consumption in many countries continues," it warns, "the epidemic has many decodes to run, and will surely be judged by future generations to hove been one of the greatest health tragedies that has ever occurred in the history of mankind."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report discusses priorities for action that are intended to improve humankinds ability to prevent, treat, rehabilitate and, where possible, cure major noncommunicable diseases and reduce the suffering and disability that they cause. The priorities include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> integration of disease-specific interventions in both physical and mental health into a comprehensive chronic disease control package;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> fuller application of existing cost-effective methods of disease detection and management;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> on intensified campaign to encourage healthy lifestyles;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> public policies in support of disease prevention programmes;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> acceleration of research into new drugs and vaccines, and into genetic determinants of chronic diseases; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> alleviation of pain, reduction of suffering and provision of palliative core for those who cannot be cured.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report was launched on the opening day of the 50th World health Assembly, which closed in Geneva on 14 May after adopting a working programme budget of US$842.7 million for 19981999. Representatives of 191 WH0 member states will gather again in Geneva in May 1998 for a milestone session in the history of the organization. High on the agenda will be its 50th anniversary, adaption of the global health policy for the 21st century, and election of a Director-General. During this year's assembly, Dr. Hiroshi Naksjima, current Director-General, announced he is leaving after two terms in office.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Thomson Prentice, health Communications and Public Relations, WHO, 20 avenue Appia, OH-121 1 Geneva 27, Switzerland, +41-22/791 4224, fax +41-22/791 4870 e-mail &lt;prentice@who ch&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO info-ethics congress</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy makers, scholars and professionals from 45 countries expressed concern over the rapidly-widening information gap between rich and poor countries during the First International Congress on Ethical, Legal and Societal Aspects of Digital information, held in Monaco.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The congress, held by the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESC0) on 10-12 March, dealt with diverse ethical issues posed by the information revolution. Participants debated three brood themes. accessing digital information, preserving digital information and records, and preparing societies for the multimedia environment. "In Botswana there are only 3.1 telephone lines available for every 100 people....We wonder whether the global information revolution will ever come to this region of the world at all," said Kay Raseroka of the University of Botswana. Klaus Brunnstein of the University of Hamburg (Germany) warned about the risks of the info-society. "information infrastructures are insecure and unsafe," he I said, citing o recent computer raid on an International bank, which netted US$400,000.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many participants drew attention to the lock of cultural and linguistic diversity on the Internet and noted that more than a 6000 languages are spoken in the world, yet over 70% of ! cyber-information is in English. "We must develop automatic translation programmes," suggested Sylvain Zongo of Network Burkinabe in Burkina Faso.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, information highways and technologies are moved by the marker economy, according to Henrikas Yushkiovitshus, UNESC0 Assistant DirectorGeneral for Communication information and Informatics. "We are not against that, but we connot leave all development in this domain to market forces alone and risk the marginalization of 'non-profit' areas, such as education, science and culture."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Montvillos, Programme Specialist, Sector for Communication, information and Informatics, Division of Information and Informatics, UNESCO, 7 place de Fontenoy, F-75700 Paris, France, telephone +331/45 68 45 03, fax +33-1/45 68 55 83. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United Nations Non-Governmental Liaison Service (UN-NGLS) office in New York has moved The new address is::</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UN-NGLS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Room FF-346</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Notions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, NY </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10017</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">telephone + 1-212/963 3125(same) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">fax + 1-212/963 8712 (same) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">e-mail &lt;ngls@nywork2undp.org&gt;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Working group on informatics meets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Portuguese National Youth Council has offered to host the Third World Youth Forum in conjunction with the World Conference of Ministers for Youth, to be held in 1998 in Lisbon.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A meeting in New York in February, which was held to evaluate the 1996 World Youth Forum concluded that the forum should not only discuss United Nations youth work, but should provide a global platform for young people and international organizations, including those not part of the UN system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Working Group on Informatics held its first formal meeting of the year on 24 April at UN headquarters in New York. Its choir, Ambassador Ahmad Kamal (Pakistan), reported on the achievements of the group aimed at employing modern information technologies for the benefit of the UN and its member states. The group also heard a statement by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, who stressed the importance of equitable access of developed and developing countries to the benefits of communications and information technology.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Established by the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) in 1995, the working group was asked to ensure, within existing resources, easy, economical, uncomplicated and unhindered access for member states, inter alia through their permanent missions, to the computerized databases and information systems of the UN.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to Ambassador Kamal the technical subgroup established by the Working group has expanded the number of missions connected through the United Notions i Development Programme (UNDP) server from 70 to 140. Another 14 missions use the facility through a server other than UNDP. By the end of June, every mission in New York I will be connected, and by the end of the year every mission in Geneva and Vienna will be connected. Since June 1996 more than 1000 persons hove been trained on a variety of electronic facilities and techniques, as port of the Spring Training Programme run by the UN secretariat, including personnel of more than 30 missions. To date, 25 missions hove created their own web pages; 23 are hosted by UNDP.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UN web page is regularly accessed by a large number of missions and foreign ministries in capital cities, due to efforts of the Department of Public Information (DPI), Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development (DPCSD) and other UN departments to post information in a systematic and reliable manner. To date, the site is consulted more than one million times a week, up from about 200,000 times a week in June 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Japan says that contrary to some reports, it will continue to support the UN Industrial Development Organization, based in Austria. 'The Government of Japan will continue to support UNIDO, together with other like minded Member States, as long as its reform process is being carried out, " according to the Permanent Mission of Japan in Vienna.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resolutions and decisions from 1946 to the present of the Security Council, UN General Assembly (GA), ECOSOC, and the Trusteeship Council are now available on the UN Optical Disk System (ODS) in all six official languages. Connectivity has also been established between the ODS and the UN web site. The facility has 162 users in the missions and 89 users in governments of the member states. Due to a dramatic increase in the usage of the ODS, a password system for the missions has been set up to limit access, which might otherwise clog the system. The hotly-debated question of whether or not NGOs will be able to access the ODS free ofcharge has yet to be decided. The current annual subscription rate is US$1150, which NGOs say is prohibitively high, particularly for NGOs in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILO report on globalization</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Germany's effort; to meet the Maastricht criteria, which requires public debt to be less than 3%, means rut; in the 1997 German aid budget The primary impact will be on multilateral funding, which will fall by 7.7%. Funding for NGOs will also suffer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Director-General of the International Labour Organization (ILO) has urged the ILO's 174 member states to examine sweeping new measures designed to ensure that "social progress" and "humane conditions" proceed along with trade liberalizations in the globalizing world economy. Social progress is "indispensable to the consolidation of the multilateral system," said Michel Hansenne in The ILO Standard Setting and Globalization-Report of the Director-General, adding that while the globalization of the world economy can be Nan unequalled factor of progress and peace, it cannot be left to its own devices." The liberalization of trade, he told the International Labour Conference on 23 April, "must go hand-in-hand with social progress" and "there must be evidence that its promises are not vain or illusory."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report discusses fears about the potentially negative social consequences resulting from "the infatuation with globalization, the obsession with competitiveness and the casting aside of values." It sets out a vision of a revitalized system of international labour standards, which encompasses a universal respect for fundamental human rights in the workplace; and a declaration to be adapted in 1998, which complements the ILO constitution by providing for strengthened supervisory mechanisms to promote these principles and monitor universal compliance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report calls for regular publication of progress reports by the ILO on the efforts made in each country to translate the economic development resulting from liberalization of trade into genuine social progress. It calls for, among other measures, the introduction of a voluntary, global system of "social labelling" to guarantee that internationally-traded goods are produced under humane conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report also outlines proposals aimed at strengthening the relevance and efficiency of future ILO standards through a more judicious choice of subjects for international legislation, the introduction of an overall evaluation procedure, and a more systematic use of the whole range of tools available under the ILO constitution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: ILO Publications, ILO, 4 route des Morillons CH-1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland, telephone +41-22/799 7301, fax +41-22/7799 8578, web site (http://www. ilo. org).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industrial development board meets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A special session of the UNIDO's Industrial Development Board met in Vienna (Austria) from 21-25 April-to discuss the future of the UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). Fifty-two of the 53 members of the board participated in the meeting, joined by 45 observers from UNIDO member states.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the session UNIDO Director-General Mauricio de Maria y Campos announced that he will not seek to be re-elected for a second term, due to what he described as insufficient support and long-term commitment from some member states to the organization. He emphasized his readiness to serve in a dedicated and committed manner until the end of his term. The British government has given notice of its intention to withdraw from UNIDO, and one year ago the US announced it will no longer support the organization. A final British decision on its membership of UNIDO will be taken by 31 December (see Go Between 62).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the session, the-European Union sold UNIDO's recent reforms are "more impressive than that of many other UN bodies which are in equal need of reform." In addition, at the 1 2th Ministerial Conference of the Movement of the Nan-Aligned Countries, foreign ministers from 113 countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America said UNIDO's future as a specialized agency is vital to the promotion of industrial development in developing countries. In the final declaration of the meeting, held in New Delhi (India), the ministers called an developed countries that have announced their withdrawal from UNIDO to reconsider. The ministers also asked all member states to "renew their commitment to industrial development cooperation and to a stronger, more viable UNIDO in the spirit of global partnership and mutual benefit."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A working group will present points of agreement on UNIDO's focus and budget for the next biennium during the board's regular session, which meets from 23-27 June. UNIDO sold its future activities will focus on investment promotion technology transfer, cleaner and sustainable industrial development, capacity and institution building for competitiveness, small and medium-sized industries development and agro-related industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact Doris Hribernigg, NGO Coordinator, External Relations Service, UNIDO, Vienna International Centre, PO Box 300, A-1400 Vienna, Austria, telephone +43-1/21131 5376, fax +431/21131 6837, e-rnail&lt;dhribernigg@unido.org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The International Institute for Labour Studies (IILS) of the International Labour Organization held a meeting from 20-21 May on Overcoming Social Exclusion: The ILO Contribution. Social exclusion is the term now used by many academics to describe an analytical framework that situates poverty as one of a number of factors in determining people's ability to play an active part in social, economic, cultural and political decision making. The IILS conference concluded a research project, co-financed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), aimed at strengthening poverty eradication strategies and promoting social integration at the local, national and international levels. The IILS has published six empirical studies on social exclusion (in India, Peru, Russia, Tanzania, Thailand, and Yemen), as well as several related studies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Speakers at. the meeting included government officials, academics, trade unionists, employers' organizations and many of the ILO's technical cooperation and policy programme staff.. They outlined key ideas behind the concept of social exclusion and painted to ways in which the analysis is taking concrete shape in ILO initiatives. Speakers also discussed the impact of globalization on social exclusion, particularly in the areas of communications and changing economic production and distribution patterns; the failure of social safety nets to address social exclusion, even where they provide material relief for beneficiaries; and the central importance of employment for ensuring material, social and politico! inclusion. Participants' comments; which also pointed to possible areas for IILS research, highlighted themes including the need for ILO to reshape its governance structure to reflect the realities of a rapidly changing world economy, and new concepts of democratization that are more participatory and inclusive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A representative of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) stressed the importance of ensuring workers a voice in economic decision making, if the policies shaping globalization and liberalization are to evenly distribute the benefits of trade. He added that a state's relationship with non-state actors is a critical indicator of the state's commitment to overcoming social exclusion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Jose Figueiredo, IILS, PO Box 6, CH1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland, telephone +4122/799 61 19, fax +47-22/788 0950, e-mail &lt;figueiredo@ilo.org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission on crime prevention initiatives </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A strongly-worded text in which the UN General Assembly would urge states to move decisively against corruption of public officials and in international trade was among international initiatives approved by the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice. The commission met from 28 April-9 May in Vienna (Austria).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An anti corruption text-a joint Costa Rican and United States initiative-calls an states to outlaw offences such as bribery of public officials, conflict of interest, vote buying and other corrupt practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The exploitation of children, smuggling of migrants, trafficking in stolen vehicles and environmental crime were the subject of several other measures, which if adopted by the GA, are intended to deal a crippling blow to organized crime. During debate on these questions, country after country committed itself to combating transnational crime as a "common enemy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Significant progress was also mode on two related issues: the question of elaborating a draft convention covering forms of organized tronsnational crime not already sanctioned in other international treaties and a text by which developing countries and those in transition to market economies would be encouraged to incorporate action against transnational crime in their development efforts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The growing use of handguns and other firearms in crime suicide and accidents prompted a resolution on firearm regulation. In it the commission urged states to consider regulatory approaches to civilian owned firearms, which would cover their storage, transport, licensing, import and export, as well as penalties far their misuse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 40-member commission was established by the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) in 1992. It replaces the Committee on (rime Prevention and Control as the major United Nations body providing policy guidance to the organization's crime control programme, which consists of the Vienna-based Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Division and a network of affiliated regional and interregional institutes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commission's recommendations will be taken up at ECOSOC's next substantive session, to be held in Geneva from 30 June-25 July.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO reports on its restructuring </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) says on-going reforms have resulted in a "radically changed" organization, which is slimmed down and re-focused. A report on Reforming FAO-The Challenge of World Food Security, notes that the reforms are bringing about "the most significant restructuring since FAO's founding to decentralize operations, streamline procedures and reduce costs."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report says that of a total of 4185 posts, FAO cut 456 between 1994 and mid-1996: 563 pasts were eliminated at its headquarters and 63 in country offices, while 170 posts were added to strengthen field work. These and other changes, including a US$2.5 million a year reduction in travel costs, fewer and shorter meetings, and less publications have already lead to savings of around US$25 million a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to the report, the reforms have helped sharpened FAO's focus by giving priority to food security, raising the issue teethe top of the international agenda through the World Food Summit, and by creating a combination of special programmes. FAO set up the Special Programme for Food Security to increase food production in the poorest countries and to make conditions better for poor farming families. To complement the work of the special programme, the Emergency Prevention System for Transboundary Animal and Plant Pests and Diseases was launched. FAO reforms also include creation of the - Department of Sustainable Development and the Women and Population Division. Operation units in the Agriculture, Social and Economic, Fisheries and Forestry Departments were transferred to the new Technical Cooperation Department.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In April the UN Environment Program me an d Hungary in augurated a Global Resource Information Database (GRID) Centre in Budapest. GRID-Budapest, which is port of 0 UNEP programme to help strengthen cooperative gbbol environmental assessment, will contribute to international data exchanges and will work to streamline national en vironmental in formation management and reporting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through a worldwide network of collaborating centres, UNEP-GRID facilitates, the generation and dissemination of key statistical and geographically-referenced data sets, as well as information products focusing on environmental and natural resource issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Operational since 1985 GRID assists UNEP and its partners by contributing scientific data and information as a basis for derision making on environmental issues of in ternational significance .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Taka Hiraishi Assistant Executive Director, Environment Information Network Unit, Departament of Environment Information Assessment, UNEP, PO Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya, telephone +2542/623231, fax +254-2/623943, e-mail &lt;taka.hiraishi@unep.org&gt;, web site (htlp://www.gridbp.meh.hu).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On "Take Our Daughters to Work Day, " observed at United Notions headquaters in New York on 24 April, all staff, delegation members and accredited media were invited to bring to work girls from nine to 15 years of age. Take Our Daughters to Work Day, which was observed officially at UN headquarters for the first time last year, was launched in 1993 by the Ms. Foundation for Women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the UN, the girls participated in small group discussions with female delegates journalists and Secretariat staff from various occupational groups. They spent the rest of the, day in the office of their parents or mentors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The day is designed to give girls on opportunity to develop a sense of their own potential by working alongside adult mentors, see for themselves what women accomplish in the world, and strengthen their belief in the promise and importance of education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"The reform programme," said FAO Director General Jacques Diouf, "has broadened FAO's links embracing the private sector and non-governmental organizations, leading to the creation of the Unit for Cooperation with the Private Sector and NGOs, which will expand contacts with associations and companies and develop prototype cooperative projects. It is also developing policy guidelines and a plan to increase cooperation with NGOs. FAO has strengthened links between the existing Investment Centire Division and international, regional and national financial institutions." He noted that the reforms are being implemented within the constraints of FAO's budget cuts-the organization's 1996-1997 biennium budget is US$650 million, down from US$673.1 in 1 994-1 995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Un narcotics commission sets agenda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Philippines has become the 65th UN member state to pay its 1997 dues in full to the organization in the amount of US$639,047. On the some dote lost year, 70 member status hod paid their duns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Representatives of 108 governments have set a far-reaching agenda for an international meeting on the global drug problem, to take place in June 1998 as a special session of the General Assembly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During a two-day preparatory session in Vienna (Austria) in March, the Commission on Narcotic Drugs, which was requested by the GA to make arrangements for the session, decided that the 1998 meeting will focus on four major issues:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the growing trend toward abuse of synthetic stimulants, such as speed and ecstasy;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> proposals for tighter controls over the chemicals used in producing illicit drugs (precursors);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> efforts to combat money laundering; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> ways to promote international cooperation in law enforcement and court proceedings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the special GA session, governments are expected to reaffirm their commitment to existing international drug control treaties and to issue a declaration on agreed principles for reducing demand for illicit drugs. The meeting will also discuss eradication of illegal crops and alternative development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Member states have agreed to consult informally in Vienna in July and October on money foundering, judicial cooperation, precursors, stimulants and alternative development. They plan to meet again in December to assess progress. The commission will hold a further preparatory session in Vienna in February 1998.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNFPA study on population assistance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shortfalls in promised assistance to developing countries will result in at least 120 million additional unwanted pregnancies, 49 million abortions, five million deaths of infants and young children, and 65 000 maternal deaths aver the period 1995-2000. These are among the preliminary conclusions of a study, prepared by the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) for its executive board on Meeting the Goals of the ICPD: Consequences of Resource Shortfalls up to the Year 2000.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The study uses estimates of annual resource needs adopted by the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) and considers the likely impact if these goals are not met.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It says that while developing countries continue to increase allocations for reproductive health, international assistance has stagnated in the past year, heightening concern that' donors may not meet their one-third share of the US$17 billion required in the year 2000.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Our study shows that developing countries have increased their spending on reproductive health in line with the ICPD recommendations, UNFPA Executive Director Dr.- Nafis Sadik said. "But the ICPD goals can be reached only if all countries do their part. We must count on donor countries to meet the commitments they made in Cairo. If they do not, millions of women, and their children, will suffer needlessly."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ICPD adopted a 20-year programme of action that focuses on individual well-being and rights, including the right to choose when to have children, as key to achieving sustainable development. As part of a comprehensive effort to improve women's status, education and health, the plan aims for universal access to quality reproductive health care, including voluntary family planning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments agreed that developing countries should cover two-thirds of the costs of a package of basic reproductive health and family planning services, prevention of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS, and related research data and policy analysis. Funds needed for these will rise to US$17 billion per year in 2000, and to US$21.7 billion in the year 2015. In 1995, the latest year for which data are available, developing countries spent around US$7.5 billion on such programmes. International assistance in the form of grants and loans, contributed another US$2 billion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to the study, donor spending, including World Bank loans, increased by 40% in 1994 and by the same percentage in 1995. But this momentum appears to have stopped, and 1996 showed little or no increase. To reach the agreed target of US$5.7 billion, donor assistance must increase by 23% each year until 2000.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact:Hugh O'Haire, UNFPA, 220 E. 42nd Street, New York NY 10017, USA, telephone +1212/297 5022, fax +1-212/557 6416, e-mod &lt;ohaire@unfpa.org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult education conference meets in july</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A series of meetings have ended in Asia, Africa, Latin America, Arab states and Europe, with their results to be presented to the Fifth International Conference on Adult Education (CONFINTEA). The conference, to take place in Hamburg (Germany) from 14-18 July, will bring together over 1500 adult education specialists, government representatives, NGOS and officials from UN-agencies (see Go Between 61). It will produce a declaration on adult reaming, in the form of a bread policy manifesto, and an agenda for the future with detailed proposals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The theme of the conference will be Adult Learning A Key for the Twenty-First Century. A workshop on women will discuss ways of combating constraints to female education and participation, and it will examine progress in implementing the Fourth World Conference on Women Platform for Action Conference participants will also discuss issues such as minorities, indigenous peoples, the media, groups with special needs, the economics of adult learning, health promotion, population policies, and fostering democracy and international cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A roundtable on the world of work, which will link CONFINTEA via satellite with speakers and an audience in Detroit (US) and Windsor (Canada), will be broadcast live on television in some areas. In addition, a session on democracy and adult education will link Hamburg with Cape Town (South Africa), and another on literacy will link up with an audience in New Delhi (India).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conference is a UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) event, with the involvement of other UN and multilateral bodies, such as the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) International Labour Office, UN Development Programme (UNDP), World Bank and the Organization far Economic Co operation and Development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: UNESCO Institute for Education, CONFINTEA '97 Feldbrunnenstrasse 58, D-20 148 Hamburg, Germany telephone +49-40/448 0410, fax +49-40/410 7723, e-mail &lt;uie@unesco. org&gt;, web site (hthp://www.education.unesco.org/educnews/confintea). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Revision of world urbanization prospects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Around 46% of the world's population are urban dwellers, but .this figure is expected to rise to half the world's population by the year 2006, according to the 1996 Revision of World Urbanization Prospects. The revision updates estimates and projections of urban, rural and city populations. These figures, which are the standard and consistent set used by the United Nations system and the international community, are updated every two years by the UN's Population Division.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The study, which incorporates new information from the 1990 census round, reveals a slower pace of urbanization than previously expected. Over three-fifths of the world's population will be urban by 2030, which is five years later than anticipated. Tokyo is currently the largest urban agglomeration in the world, with 27.2 million residents in 1 996-more then one and a half times as large as the world's second largest, Mexico City, with- 16.9 million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By mid-1996, 75% of the population in more developed regions lived in urban areas, while only 38% were urban dwellers in the less developed regions. In the same year, a total of 2.6 billion people lived in urban areas around the world, including 1.8 billion in the less developed regions. The world urban population grew at a rate of 2.4% per annum between 1990 and 1995, which is more than three times that of rural populations (0.7% per annum). As a result, urban areas absorbed 59 million additional persons each year, compared with 22 million for rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The urban growth rate in less developed regions reached 3.4% per annum during 1990-1995, compared with only 0.7% in mare developed regions. In 1996, 36% of the population lived in urban areas in Africa and Asia respectively, while almost three out of every four persons were urban dwellers in Europe, North America and Latin America and the Caribbean. In Oceania in 1996, seven of every ten people lived in cities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Projections show that by 2030, a little more than eight of every ten people will live in cities in the more developed regions, while 57% of the population in less developed regions will be urban dwellers. By the same time, less than half of the population in the least developed countries will be urban dwellers. A little more than one of every two Africans or two Asians will live in cities. Mare than eight of every ten Latin Americans, Europeans and North Americans will be urban dwellers, and three of every four Oceanians will live in cities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Nancy (hen, Population Division, Deportment for Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis (DESIPA), United Notions, New York NY 10017, USA telephone +1-212/963 3210, fax +1-212/963 2147.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WMO statement on global climate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The year 1996 was the eighth warmest on record since 1860, and the 18th consecutive year with positive global temperature anomalies, according to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). In its annual statement on the status of the global climate, WMO says heavy precipitation affecting many parts of the world was the most predominant feature of 1996 especially in southern Europe parts of northern Africa and the Middle East. It warns that the ozone hole over the Antarctic is "just as prominent as it has been in recent years, with significant ozone depletion over the northern hemisphere-especially in Europe, the Arctic and north-eastern Atlantic Oceans during the January-March period." The statement is based on continuous observations made over land and ocean by the national meteorological and hydrological services of WMO member countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Information Public Affairs Office, WMO, 41 av. Giuseppe-/Motto, 1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland, telephone +4122/730 8315, fax +41-22/733 2829, e-mail&lt;gorre-dale_e@gateway.wmo.ch&gt;, home page (http://www. wmo. ch/web/wcphtml/wcdmp. html).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United Kingdom has announced its intention to rejoin the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization after a 12-year absence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohamed T. El-Ashry has been reappointed Chief Executive Officer/Chairperson of the Global Environment Facility for another three years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eighteen fellowships have been awarded to candidates from developing countries by the UN Fellowship Programme in International law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1997 fellowship programme, faking place in The Hague (Netherlands) in July and August, August, aims to enable qualified professionals from developing countries and countries in socioeconomic transition, to acquire additional knowledge about international law and the legal work of the United Nations and its associated bodies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To qualify for fellowships, candidates should be law graduates with practical experience in the field of international low, acquired by working for a public or private organization or a university. Eligible participants should be from 24 to 40 years old.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Isabel Hubert</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Programme Coordinator</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UN Institute far Training and </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Palais des Nations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CH-1211 Geneva 10</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">telephone +41-2Z/798 5050</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">fax +41-22/733 1383</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In March Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBO) began its task of establishing an unprecedented global verification regime to monitor compliance with the treaty, which the UN General Assembly adopted last September .The new organization will be located in Vienna (Austria).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In order to bridge the period until entry into force of the treaty, states signatories hove set up a preparatory commission to arrange for a monitoring system. It will include a network of 321 seismic, hydroacoustic, infrasound and radionuclide stations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The system, known as the International Monitoring System is intended to verify that no nuclear tests are being conducted in the atmosphere, under ground or under water On-site inspections are also anticipated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IFAD board approves new projects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Executive Board of the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) has approved ten new rural development projects worth a total of US$482.57 million. The projects are designed to help eradicate rural poverty in Bangladesh, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Honduras, India, Lebanon, Madagascar and Uganda. The board, which ended its 60th session in Rome on 29 April, also approved projects for the first time in the former Soviet Republics of Georgia and Azerbaijan. IFAD will provide loons of US$127.6 million in support of the projects and to the benefit of some 424,000 poor rural families.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Georgia's Agricultural Development Project, to which IFAD will provide a loon of US$6.5 million, will assist the government in transferring commercially-viable assets and activities in agriculture, agro-industries, form supplies and production and marketing systems to the private sector. The Republic of Azerbaijan's Form Privatisation Project, to which IFAD will contribute US$9.3 million, will provide support for privatization of agricultural fond and irrigation and drainage systems. It will also support participatory community development and income-generating activities for women and the landless.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Taysir Mustafa, Media Relations Coordinator, IFAD, Via del Seratico 107, 100142 Rome, Italy, telephone +39-6/5459 2034, fax +39-6/519 3328, e-mail &lt;t.mustafa@ifad.org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WTO report on world trade</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The volume of world merchandise bode increased by 4% in 1996, slightly less than half the rote recorded in 1995, after two years of unusually strong growth in world bode volume, according to the World Trade Organization's (WT0) first report on bode developments in 1996. The report, which also discusses the outlook for the current year, says the growth rote of world merchandise production was marginally slower for the second consecutive year, but remained well above the roses recorded in the first four years of the 1 990s. A modest increase in bode growth is expected this year, based largely on the projected recovery of economic growth and bode in Western Europe and Asia, and continued high growth in Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report says growth in bode volume remained at least twice as forge as gross domestic product (GDP) growth in North America, Latin America and Western Europe, while in the transition economies, bode growth was above the world average despite a further contraction of output. In value terms, world merchandise exports passed the US$5000 billion mark for the first time, increasing 4% to US$5100 billion. And for the first time since 1990, the value of Africa's exports and imports expanded more rapidly than total world bode, largely on the basis of increased fuel exports. Latin America and the Middle East recorded merchandise export and import growth of 10% or more in value terms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is little data available on the performance of the least developed countries (LDCs). The report says that the indicators available suggest LDCs were negatively affected by price declines for many of their traditional exports, particularly cotton, coffee and copper. However, oil-exporting LDCs benefited from the oil price increase in 1996. Overall, African LDCs (where figures are available) increased the dollar value of their bode exports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The full report is on the WT0 web site (http://www.wto.org). The WTO Annual Report, to be published in November, will contain a more detailed analysis of bode developments in 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World development indicators</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank has published a new report entitled 1997 World Development Indicators, which crows on the expertise of dozens of international organizations along with statistics from over 200 economies, to offer a comprehensive picture of the state of the world. The report "starts from the premise that development is about the quality of life," sold World Bank President James Wolfensohn. "It places people and poverty reduction first, at the centre of the development agenda where they belong."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report includes statistics on people, including population, life expectancy and infant mortality; economic overviews on emerging economies and smaller developing ones; markets and technology, including the number of computers per every 1000 people in developed and developing countries; and statistics on the environment, such as safe drinking water and energy consumption per capita.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Phil Hay, World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington Dc 20433, USA, telephone +1-202/473 1796, fax + 1-202/522 2632, e-mail &lt;phay@worldbank. org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weapons convention enters into force</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan sold the banning of chemical weapons is a "momentous act of peace" during his opening remarks at the First Conference of the States Parties to the Chemical Weapons Convention, which began on 6 May in The Hague (Netherlands). "We are witnessing today on historic event," sold Mr. Annan. "An entire category of weapons of mass destruction has been banned by the Chemical Weapons Convention. One hundred and sixty-five notions hove signed the treaty, and more still are planning to join. Eighty-eight countries hove ratified the convention and more still are preparing to do so."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction entered into force on 29 April. It will create on international norm prohibiting the development, production and acquisition of chemical weapons. The convention will also lead to the destruction of chemical weapon stockpiles and establish stringent verification measures. It requires states parties to report the location of chemical weapons storage sites and the location and characteristics of chemical weapons production and research facilities. It also prohibits bode in certain chemicals with countries not party to the treaty. The convention took the international community almost 30 years to negotiate and another five to win the requisite number of ratifications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 28 April Mr. Annan welcomed action by the.United States Senate, which voted one day earlier to approve the convention. Mr. Annan sold the "potential of this significant agreement to strengthen international peace and security depends on the degree of universality it achieves." He said he looks forward, therefore, to formal ratification of the convention by other states that hove not yet done so.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Anil Wadhwa or Chantal de Haas, Media and Public Affairs Branch, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Loon van Meerdervoort 51, 2517 AE The Hague, Netherlands, telephone +31-20/376 1700, fax +3170/360 0944, web site (http://www.opcw.nl). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seminar on 1997 world employment strategies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A seminar on 1997 World Employment Strategies, which took place on 2 June in New York, addressed themes including policies for encouraging employment growth, promoting and maintaining high levels of employment, employment strategies for Latin America, and global barriers to employment. The seminar was organized by the UN Deportment for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development (DPCSD).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: John Langmore, Director, Division for Social Policy and Development, DPCSD, United Notions, New York NY 10017, USA, telephone +1212/963 5855, fax +1-212/963 3062.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United Kingdom has announced it will ban the import, export, transfer and manufacture of on/ipersonnel landmines and will phase out its storks. UK Prime Minister Tony Blair told the House of Commons in May shot, We will in addition make sure that we bon the bode through the United Kingdom of all such landmines. They hove done enormous carnage often to wholly innocent civilians including children, and the sooner that Britain gives a hod in this the better It is the right and the civilized thing to do. "</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">UN - NGO news</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Global diversity forum meets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The application of biodiversity indicators and forgets was the subject of a forum of UN headquarters attended by more than 85 scientific, technical and policy experts prior to the fifth session of the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) The sixth Global Biodiversity Forum, held from 3-4 April, emphasized the use of forgets and indicators as tools to support implementation of Agenda 21 and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forum, whose co-sponsors included the UN Environment Programme, World Wide Fund for Nature and the World Resources Institute, concentrated on national reports required under the CBD and the (SD. Participants representing 25 governments, several NGOs, intergovernmental organizations and indigenous groups, also discussed the possibility of developing a core set of biodiversity indicators that could be used in the national reports. The forum's recommendations include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> economic and social indicators should be complemented by "natural capital" indicators;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> a process should be launched under the CBD to elaborate a universal core set of biodiversity indicators;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> international bodies should work with governments to harmonize biodiversity information for use in monitoring, reporting and other implementation activities;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> a significant new global initiative in the applied biological sciences is needed to mobilize support and stimulate coordinated, interdisciplinary approaches, consensus-building ground a biodiversity science agenda, and wider application of existing scientific knowledge; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> networking institutions, including the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the Biodiversity Action Network (BIONET), should be coiled upon to help develop on international network to provide practitioners involved in the preparation of national reports and in biodiversity monitoring with the opportunity to shore and exchange information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Sheldon Cohen, BIONET, 1400 16th Street NW,Suite 502, Washington DC 20036, USA, telephone +1-202/547 8902, fax +1-202/265 0222, e-mail&lt;bionet@igc.apc.org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WTO-NGO Meeting on trade and environment </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The secretariat of the World Trade Organization organized a symposium on bode, the environment and sustainable development from 20-21 May in Geneva. Over 70 representatives of environment, development and consumer NGOs, as well as individual businesses and business associations, met with government delegates and the WTO secretariat Panel speakers discussed globalization, bode and sustainable development; synergies between bode liberalization and the environment; the relationship between multilateral environmental agreements and the WTO; the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) as it affects environmental issues, market access; tariff and non-tariff measures and the environment; and relations between the WTO and NGOs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">James Gustave Speth has been reappointed as Administrator of the UN Development programme (UNDP).Mr. Speth, who begins his second term on 16 July has been UNDP Administrator since June 1993. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In May the UNDP Executive Board approved "UNDP 2001 " change proposals which were presented by Mr. Speth. The board signalled its support for the move to further decentralize UNDP resources and authority to the field by 1999.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The informal symposium was the third meeting the secretariat responsible for environmental issues at the WTO has organized for NGOs. It was the first time a significant dialogue has token place between government delegates on the WTO's Committee on Trade and Environment (GTE) and non-stote actors. The symposium provided the chance for a frank exchange of views on the agenda items under discussion at the GTE, which is one of the committees NGOs hove monitored closely since the WTO was established in 1995. NGOs hove been coiling for greater access to WTO proceedings and argue that even though the WTO is careful to confine its work to trade-related issues, this is now leading it into areas where the role of other international organizations and of civil society hove to be token into account if the WTO is to produce credible results. These areas include investment and intellectual property rights, as well as environmental regulation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, Assistant Administrator of UNDP and Director of its Regional Bureau for Africa since 1992, has resigned in order to run for President of Liberia. Her replacement has yet to be announced</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia, Canada and the Netherlands provided funding for participation of developing country NGOs. Some panel speakers, noting the importance of NGO contributions, urged other governments to consider doing likewise. NGOs sold governments should invest in NGO capacity building on trade-related issues in the South and documents should be derestricted more quickly. They sold some documents should not be restricted at oil, especially if NGOs are to do more advocacy at the national level, as coiled for by WTO member states Some speakers observed a growing trust and dialogue between NGOs and WTO delegates, which they sold is essential to ensure good bode rules. They also coiled for a more permanent mechanism to facilitate NGO consultations with the WTO .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Peter Pedersen, External Relations Division, WTO, 154 rue de Lousanne, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland, telephone +41-22/739 5848, fax +41-22/739 5777, e-mail &lt;peter.pedersen@wto.org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 1 July Richard Butler, former Australian Permanent Representative to the UN in New York, took in New York, took up his duties as Executive Chairman of the UN Special Commission on Iraqi Disarmament.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South NGO capacity building</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Around 40 representatives of NGOs and foundations in the South, Europe and the United States, as well as bilateral donors and UN agencies, met on 23 May to discuss the merits of establishing on international working group on capacity building for Southern NGOs. The meeting, held at World Bank headquarters in Washington DC, was organized in response to growing donor interest in supporting this kind of work, and because Southern NGOs are increasingly frustrated with the kinds of capacity-building support available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern NGO participants sold that in addition to narrow, traditional forms of support for more efficient project and financial management, emerging needs in new areas need to be addressed, including institutional development, developing partnerships and regional networking, research and policy advocacy, harnessing new information technologies, and creating a sustainable resource base. In addition, capacity building should include consideration of the national and international policy and legal frameworks in which Southern NGOs operate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The objectives of the proposed international working group on capacity building for Southern NGOs include: to promote learning, shoring and reflection on capacity-building needs of Southern NGOs; encourage a supportive, harmonized response by the donor community; improve the quality and impact of capacity-building initiatives; and provide a forum in which Southern NGOs con articulate their experiences and needs in this area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After intense discussion, the meeting agreed to establish on interim steering committee and secretariat, whose principal tasks are to undertake further consultations and organize a second, wider meeting on the subject in about nine months, to be held probably in Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Rajesh Tandon, Interim Secretariat, Society for Participatory Research in Asia, 42 Tughlakabad Institutional Ares, New Delhi 110062, India, telephone +91-11/698 9559, fax +91-11/698 0183, e-mail &lt;prio@sdalt.ernet.in&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African and arab parliamentarians forum</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seventy-five porliamentarians from 31 African and Arab states gathered in Cape Town (South Africa) from 1-4 May to launch the Forum of African and Arab Parliamentarians on Population and Development (FAAPPD). The United Notions Population Fund (UNFPA) sponsored the first inaugural conference, which was attended by Hirofumi Ando, UNFPA Deputy Executive Director, representatives of the Asian Forum of Parliamentarians on Population and Development, and the International Planned Parenthood Federation (Africa Region), among others. The forum will serve as a platform for African and Arab parliamentarians to exchange views on how parliamentarians in the region con contribute to their countries' population and development changes. The conference adopted FAAPPD's constitution, elected on executive committee, and adopted 0 declaration urging African and Arab parliamentarians to act as agents for sustainable development in the region. The FAAPPD executive committee will meet in Dakar (Senegal) in September 1997 to decide on the location of the FAAPPD secretariat and approve a work programme and budget.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Lavu Mulimba, FAAPPD Consultant, c/o UNFPA Representative, PO Box 31966, Lusaka, Zambia, telephone +260-1/250800, fax +2601/254421, e-mail &lt;kemal. mustafa@unfpo. zm&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Desertification convention meeting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resumed session of the tenth Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee for a Convention to Combat Desertification (INCD-10) is scheduled from 18-22 August in Geneva. The first Conference of the Parties (GOP-1 ) is scheduled for 29 September-10 October in Rome. The International NGO Network on Desertification (RIOD) will facilitate an NGO forum in Rome from 29 September-10 October. The forum is designed to bring together NGOs during a parallel event to the Convention to Combat Desertification GOP-1.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Sylvia Jampies, ((D Secretariat, Geneva Executive Centre 11-13 chemin des Anemones, CH-1219 Geneva, . Switzerland, telephone +4122/979 9410, fax +4122,/979 9030, email&lt;sjampies@unccd.ch&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Baudouine Kamatari, Global Focal Point of RIOD, Environmental Liaison Centre International (ELCI), PO Box 72461, Nairobi, Kenya, telephone +254-2/56 20 15, fax +254-2/56 2175, e-mail&lt;bkamatari@elci.sasa.unep.no&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panel discussion on oceans</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the occasion of the seventh meeting of States Parties to the Convention on the Law of the Sea, the Africa-Asia Legal Consultative Committee and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) organized a panel discussion on the oceans and law of the sea agenda item of the UN General Assembly. The panel, held in New York on 22 May also discussed the role of meetings of the 116 States Parties to the Law of the Sea in relation to the GA's work; coordination among the many international and regional bodies dealing with oceans; the role of the Commission on Sustainable Development, and the involvement of NGOs. Speakers included representatives of the International Oceans Institute, Greenpeace International, International Union for the Conservation of Nature, and the Office of Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. The briefing was attended by member states, NGO representatives and members of the UN secretariat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The representative of New Zealand said that the Law of the Sea agenda item at the 51st GA has been broadened to include oceans, in addition to the Law of the Sea. Previously, oceans-related items were dealt with separately in the Second (Economic and Financial) Committee, which also deals with environmental issues. A wide range of UN agencies and bodies also address oceans issues. The representative encouraged participants to comment on the functioning of the ocean-related agenda item in the GA, and to make suggestions for improvement. She warned that interested NGOs will find it difficult to continue their work on oceans issues because of lack of arrangements for NGO participation in the work of the General Assembly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The International Oceans Institute proposed expanded treatment of the subject through an eightweek Global Oceans Forum. Greenpeace International stressed the important role of the Commission on Sustainable Development, which in 1996 recommended on-going priority consideration of oceans issues in the commission. Other speakers stressed the importance of regional decision-making bodies in oceans questions, and they called for- better integration of the regional level into oceans work at the international level. A number of governments praised the Secretary- General's report, but they sold it would be more useful to their preparations for the GA if it were issued well in advance of the debate. Suggestions were also made to hold the debate well in advance of adoption of the resolution on the item.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participants said they felt the briefing was a positive contribution to their work, and they suggested similar briefings be organized during the General Assembly discussion on oceans and the Law of the Sea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: United Notions Division for Ocean Affairs and the Low of the Sea, Office of Legal Affairs, United Notions, New York NY 10017, USA, telephone +1-212/963 3968, fax +1-212/963 5847.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briefing on East Timor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jose Ramos-Horta, co-recipient with Bishop Carlos Ximenes Belo of the Nobel Peace Prize this year gave a briefing at UN headquarters on 12 March on the state of affairs in East Timor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr. Ramos-Horta, who has been working in the international arena on the situation in East Timor since leaving his homeland in 1975, noted what he called a number of recent advances in international pressure. He underscored the importance of NGO advocacy efforts at the national level, as well as NGO work to raise international public awareness about the situation and struggle of the East Timorese.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He also outlined his peace plan for the region which involves a three-phase process that could take up to 12 years to complete. Phase one would focus on humanitarian issues, including releasing political prisoners, reducing the numbers of Indonesian troops, and halting the Indonesian takeover of East Timorese land. Phase two would involve undertaking elections for a Territory Assembly, with all political parties being legalized, including those advocating independence for East Timor. Phase three would involve a UN-supervised referendum on the three options provided for in UN General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV) of 15 December 1960: independence, free association (with the colonial power Portugal) or integration with another independent state (Indonesia).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The General Assembly of European Development NGOS, meeting in Brussels (Belgium) on 11-12 April, requested the UN Secretary-General to promote the establishment of a permanent United Nations presence in East Timor" "in order to ensure the safety of the Timorese and to make preparations for the holding of a referendum an the political status of the territory." The assembly also called upon UN member states to give a positive response to the European Parliament's resolutions to stop arms sales to Indonesia as fang as it "does not allow the people of East Timor to exercise their right to self-determination." The assembly said it supports the principle of humanitarian and development aid for East Timor from the European Union, channelled directly through Timorese organizations, which it said would help "reduce the suffering of the population under an illegal occupation, and contribute towards strengthening this population's own capacities."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UN has appealed for US$324.5 million to meet the emergency humanitarian needs of over 1.4 million refugees internally displaced persons and returnees in the Great Lakes . region of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The appeal, prepared by United Notions agencies and NGOs operational in the region rovers the period January to December 1997 It is designed to address the emergency humanitarian needs of 460 000 internally displaced people and refugees in the Democratic Repubic of Congo (formerly Zaire) 615 000 in Burundi 326 000 in Tanzania and 33,000 in Uganda and Zambia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of military and civilian police personnel serving on United Notions peace-keeping operations has reached almost 24,000 according to the Department of Public Information (DPI) of the United Notions. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A fact sheet, prepared by DPI in consultation with the Deportment of Peace-keeping Operations, says that as of 30 April 1997, 23,074 military and civilian police personnel were serving on 17 UN peace-keeping operations ground the world Seventy-one countries contributed staff to those missions. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The total cost of running peace-keeping operations between 1 July 1996 and 30 April 1997 was USS1.3 billion. Since the beginning of UN peace-keeping operations in 1948, there hove been 1503 fatalities involving military, civilian,international and local personnel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United Nations has appointed Jamsheed A. Marker as the Secretary- General's Special Representative far East Timor: Mr. Marker was formerly Ambassador of Pakistan to the UN.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Jamsheed A. Marker, Special Representative for East Timor, Department of Political Affairs, Room S-3235E, United Notions, New York NY 10017, USA, fax +1-212/963 1395. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WFPHA congress on health planned</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The world is undergoing tremendous change, which affects every aspect of human health and well-being. As the 21st century approaches, it is imperative to carefully consider the impact-either positive or adverse-of these changes on the health of the world's people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The eighth International Congress of the World Federation of Public Health Associations (WFPHA), to be held in Arushao (Tanzania) from 12 17 October, will bring together actors in public health from ground the world to discuss these impacts. The congress, entitled Health in Transition: Opportunities and Challenges, will also aim to identify measures that are essential for improving global health during the 21st century. Participants will discuss issues including:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> health policies and the strategy of Health-for AII through primary health care;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> population issues and demographic trends;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> environmental and occupation health</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> social, economic and political determinants of health;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the role of community, NGOs and grassroots organizations, and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> gender, race and ethnic perspectives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The congress, hosted by the Tanzania Public Health Association, is co-sponsored by the World Health Organization (WHO), UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the UN Population Fund (UNFPA). WFPHA is an international NGO composed of multi-disciplinary public health associations representing 55 countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: National Congress Organizing Committee, c/o Tanzania Public Health Association, PO Box 7785, Dar es Sallam, Tanzania, telephone +255-51/36236 or 151371, fax +255-51/30660 or 31864, e-mail &lt;tpha@tan. healthnet; org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environmental performance of companies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) have signed a memorandum of understanding to work together to help improve environmental performance in companies in developing countries. Through their collaboration, UNDP and WBCSD will aim to assist developing country industries attain higher levels of environmental performance and improved environmental management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WBCSD will provide experts from within its members to companies in developing countries that want specialist support to improve their environmental performance. WBCSD membership, which includes a cross-section of 125 leading international companies aiming for high environmental standards, has a regional network of 15 national business councils located in the developing world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Christine Elleboode, Communications Manager, WBCSD, 160 route de Florissant, OH1231 Conches Switzerland, telephone +41-22/839 3141, fax +41-22/839 3181, e-mail &lt;info@wbcsd.ch&gt;, web site (http://www. wbcsd ch).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">NGO news</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information about the European Year Against Racism can now be found online at the web site http://www.europeanyear1997.org</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGO follow up to food summit discussed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About 40 NGO participants gathered in Geneva from 1-4 May to discuss follow up to the World Food Summit, held in November 1996 in Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meeting, organized by Food First Information Action Network (FIAN) of Germany and the World Association for Nutrition and Human Rights (WANAHR) of Norway, brought together NGOs from around the world. Also participating were officials from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the UN Centre for Human Rights, and experts from the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participants focused on the possibility of developing a code of conduct on the right to food. The code would be aimed at guiding government actions but would also address the role of business and civil society in securing people's right to food. NGOs at the meeting said the code is a useful strategy, but only as one element in their follow up to the summit. They said although the code would be hard to enforce, it would be useful as a way to bring together policies that could inform national legislation and other national and international strategies to strengthen the commitment to the right to adequate food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The code is based on the summit's plan of action objective 7.4, which calls on governments to "clarify the content of the right to adequate food and the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger, as stated in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights." The primary responsibility for this work is given to UN High Commissioner for Human Rights and the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other NGO on-going and possible follow-up strategies discussed at the meeting included a legally binding convention on the right to food security; strengthening existing guidelines for reporting on the right to adequate food at the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; planning advocacy strategies before the next round of multilateral trade folks on agriculture, due in 1999 at the World Trade Organization; and looking at national legislation and actions to combat food insecurity. There was also some discussion about linking with existing work on the impact of structural adjustment programmes. NGOs also discussed how to prepare their input to the November meeting of the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which is planning to prepare an interpretative note on the right to adequate food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: FIAN International Secretariat, PO Box 102243, D-6 9012 Heidelberg, Germany, telephone +49-6221/830620, fax +49-6221/830545, e-mail &lt;fian-is@oln. comlink. apc. org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Globalization and development roundtable</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Globalization, linked to liberalization and institutionalized in the World Trade Organization (WTO), has been left unchecked and has resulted in uneven development that benefits a few and marginalizes a great many. This process should not be made into a prescriptive norm for countries to abide by.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These were the general views that emerged during a recent roundtable on Globalization, Sustainable Development and the South. The roundtable was held in New York by the Malaysia-based Third World Network and the Group of 77. Participants said the UN Commission on Sustainable Development and the General Assembly special session in June should address globalization as a central issue. They also said there should be commitment to examine this process from the perspective of sustainable development in order to move it away from narrow commercial or notional interests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Third World Network, 228 Macalister Rood, 10400 Penang, Malaysia, telephone +604/229 3511, fax +60-4/226 4505, e-mod &lt;twn@igc.apc.org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CCIC holds annual general meeting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Canadian Council for International Cooperation (CCIC) held its annual general meeting from 22-24 May in Ottawa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CCIC President and Chief Executive Officer Betty Plewes introduced a ten-point agenda for poverty eradication, known as the In Common programme. It has emerged from the work of the CCIC Task Force on Building Public Support for</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In dedication to Paulo Freire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paulo Freire, a pioneer in linking literacy with social justice issues, died on 3 May at the age of 75 in Sao Paulo (Brazil). Freire was best known for his theory of "conscientization" in education, which links people's illiteracy-to their lock of consciousness of their oppression as a long term strategy for transformation, empowerment and liberation. The theory, which helped to bring popular education to communities with high illiteracy roses, achieved its greatest impact in the 1960s and 1970s. In Brazil, it grew from an education trend to a forge political movement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Freire was the author of over 25 books on educational themes including Pedagogy of the Oppressed, which was translated into several languages and received international acclaim. During his 16 years in exile from his native Brazil after the 1964 military coup, Freire worked in Geneva for the World Council of Churches and at the University of Geneva. In 1986 he received the UNESCO Education for Peace Prize for his literacy campaigns throughout the world, especially in Africa. Among his legacies is the Instituto Paulo Freire (founded in 1992 with offices in 18 countries), which is dedicated to investigating and disseminating educational cultural and communication themes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable Human Development, set up in 1995. The initiative seeks to create more public policy space; inject a sense of urgency into public response to global issues, while maintaining a longterm perspective; build synergy between the diverse policy and engagement activities of the international sector, contribute to the public's ability to see the "big picture" through a policy framework bringing together different strands of international policy concerns; link policy and advocacy activities; strengthen NGO strategies and capacities to engage and mobilize Canadians by experimenting with new methods, such as public deliberation and best practices; respond to public concern to "make a difference" by helping to identify possible choices and actions; and compose an appropriate division of labour between the CCIC secretariat and members to ensure that the council's work complements member activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Representatives from over 70 organizations contributed ideas on the policy framework for the programme, and strategies to engage the domestic NGO sector and other adore. Ms. Plewes said the programme is organized ground a platform called An Agenda for Poverty Eradication, since "poverty eradication is a prerequisite for sustainable human development," and "conditions that sustain poverty are a human creation." She said people acing alone and even in concert cannot ensure the end of poverty. "It requires government action through fair tax policies, the building of social safety nets and investment in people. Government alone cannot change the values and behaviours that perpetuate poverty. And the private sector has an important role to play."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: CCIC, 7 Nicholas Street, Suite 300, Ottawa, Ontario KIN 7B7, Canada, telephone +1613/241 7007, fax +1-613/241 5302.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 23 May the Canadian Council for International Cooperation presented its annual International Cooperation award, which recognizes voluntary sector initiatives and selects recipients on the basis of their demonstrated commitment to sustainable human development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Global Citizenship category award went to the Montreal Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA), for its Hands Up trainers' guide on children's rights, published in English, French and Spanish..</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Peacebuilding category award went to the Sierra Club of British Columbia, in partnership with the Salvadoran Centre for Appropiate Technology, for Project GAIA, which includes the establishment of 0 "Forest of Reconciliation" in the Guazapa region outside San Salvador.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joel McClellan (US) has appointed Executive Secretary of the Steering Committee for Humanitarian Response, a group of forge humanitarian NGOs in Geneva. Mr. McClellan has NGO field experience, including emergencies and over ten years experience in representation work with UN humanitarian agencies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rob van Drimmelen has been appointed General Secretary of APRODEV in Brussels, the network of development NGOs related to the Protestant, Anglican and Orthodox churches. He replaces Martin Bax, who retires in August.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Building canadian democracy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A group of Canadian national organizations and coalitions representing much of Canada's charitable and voluntary sector have joined forces to strengthen legislative and regulatory frameworks to support their work. According to the Canadian Council for International Cooperation (CCIC), which serves as the representative of the NGO community within the coalition, the initiative's aim is to halt competition among the groups for policy dialogue time with the federal government, help redefine the roles and relationships of both the voluntary sector and the federal government, and combine forces in the voluntary sector to achieve the organizations' similar goals. The group has already achieved concrete results in meetings with the Canadian Finance and Revenue Ministers and secured positive changes in tax laws related to charitable organizations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Every year six million Canadians dedicate time to voluntary work, according to the group, which amounts to None billion hours of responsible citizenship." Some 70,000 charitable organizations are registered in Canada, with revenues estimated in 1993 at 86.5 billion Canadian dollars or 13% of Canada's GDP, and the voluntary work force employs some 9% of Canada's overall work force. Government is the main source of revenue for voluntary organizations, from which registered Canadian charities receive 56% of their revenue. However during the past decade the group says such funding has been cut, at the same time government has increased expectations of the voluntary sector to deliver services. The group says this has resulted in a "precarious balancing ad that risks undermining the very nature of Canadian society" and its democratic values of tolerance, compassion and civic participation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among other things, the group is working toward inclusion in the government budget of statements on a "social well-being index," which will draw attention to how social capital complements the performance of the market; the launch of a national youth service; and changes so that voluntary sector representatives can participate in public policy decision making the same way that business and union representatives do. Other areas of work include developing mechanisms for dialogue with the federal government, defining and regulating charitable activity, and enhancing voluntary sector accountability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Notional Voluntary Organizations, c/o CCIC, 1 Nicholas Street, Suite 300, Ottawa, Ontario KIN 7B7, Canada, telephone +1-613/238 1591.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGOS meet on mental health</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first general meeting of the NGO Committee on Mental Health was held on 8 May at UN headquarters in collaboration with the World Health Organization (WHO) and the UN Department of Public Information (DPI). A statement by Dr. J.A. Costa e Silva, Director of the Division of Mental Health and Prevention of Substance Abuse, announced WHO's "best practice" programme. Entitled "Nations for Mental Health," the programme will explore and demonstrate the most effective ways of implementing techniques and strategies for mental health care and mental health promotion, as an integral part of international development work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr. Leon Eisenberg of Harvard University stressed the interconnectedness of health problems and underlying social conditions, such as war, poverty and discrimination. Noting that mental health has deteriorated worldwide, in contrast to basic health, he discussed key clinical initiatives to upgrade the quality of mental health services; systematic efforts to assess the global burden of alcohol and drug abuse; coordinated efforts to improve national gender policies, interdict violence toward women and empower them; and broad initiatives to control the causes and consequences of violence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The primary aim of the committee, which was established by the Board of the Conference of NonGovernmental Organizations in Consultative Status with ECOSOC (CONGO) in January 1996, is to promote psychological well-being, work toward improvement of mental health care services, and advocate and educate about preventing mental illness. The committee, chaired by Nancy Wallace of the World Federation for Mental Health, is working with the UN and its specialized agencies to ensure the inclusion of mental health issues within a broader context of concerns, such as vulnerable populations, human rights, poverty, violence, the environment, and substance abuse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Regional news</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uganda will become the first country to receive debt relief under the Heavily indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) debt initiative (see Go Between 60). The relief will reduce the country's debt by US$338 million in net present value (NPV) terms. The HIPC debt initiative, which was agreed to at the annual meeting of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in September 1996 (see page 25), seeks to reduce the debt burden of poor. countries to sustainable levels and release resources for programmes that reduce poverty and promote growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The relief package, which represents 19% of Uganda's overall debt burden, will be delivered in April 1998, subject to Uganda continuing its strong programme of reform and social development. The World Bank will provide a portion of the relief in advance by making grants of US$75 million over the next year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Richard Kaijuka, Uganda's Minister of Planning and Economic Development, welcomed the package. "This debt relief," he said, "will help us put more resources into our National Poverty Eradication Plan, especially President Museveni's recent initiative for universal primary education, providing basic health care and improved nutrition to ourpeople, and the overall enhancement of rural development."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, some NGOs such as Oxfam and the European NGO Network on Debt and Development (EURODAD), have raised concerns that the debt initiative should have forgiven a much greater share of Uganda's debt and should be implemented more quickly. According to Oxfam the one year delay will cost Uganda some US$193 million in lost debt relief, which is twice its education budget, despite the fan that the country has been implementing structural adjustment programmes for ten years. The World Bank, which refutes the US$193 million figure, says the debt servicing cost to Uganda over the next year (roughly US$30 million) will be covered by the planned US$75 million in International Development Association (IDA) grants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a conference hosted by the UN's Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) in Addis Ababa at the beginning of April, a number of African finance ministers called for quick and more flexible application of the HIPC initiative to the growing number of potential HIPC beneficiaries in Africa who face debt levels far in excess of their servicing capacity. They also voiced their concerns at the stringent conditionality and eligibility criteria of the initiative and the methods used to calculate the level of debt relief needed to reach debt sustainability. Without flexibility, the initiative could end up "like the mountain that gave birth to a mouse," said ECA Executive Secretary K.Y. Amoako.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">33<SUP>rd</SUP> Session of organization of African Unity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In June heads of state and government attending the 33rd session of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) summit adopted two decisions that stress the concerns among African leaders-for issues related to sustainable development in Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a decision on support and encouragement from Africa and the OAU for the UN Development Programme (UNDP), the summit called upon member states "to continue to support fully UNDP and other agencies' operational activities in Africa particularly within the framework of the United Nations Decade for the Elimination of Poverty, the United Nations Special Initiative for Africa, the UN New Agenda for Africa and the Cairo Declaration for Economic and Social Development of Africa." In a decision dealing with the UN system-wide Initiative on Africa, the summit urged member states "to implement the Initiative by assuming, in a concerted manner, their share of responsibility."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This summit was also the opportunity for the heads of state and government to formally launch the African Economic Community (AEC), which is aimed at realizing continental economic integration and gradually creating a common market. The summit called for increased trade and cooperation among member states as Africa moves toward eradicating the worse aspects of poverty, hunger and disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kofi Annan, UN Secretary- General, told participants that he was "proud of the close cooperation between the OAU and the United Nations, especially that a new era is now in prospect, Africa's third wave." He urged Africa's leaders to "make this third wave one of lasting peace, based on democracy, human rights and sustainable development. Mr. Annan sold that "finally the success of the third wave hinges on instituting sustainable development throughout Africa and the United Nations is committed to playing its full part in the struggle for sustainable development."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contort: Zaharia Fellah, UNDP,1 UN Plaza, New York NY 10017, USA, telephone +1-212/906 5305, fax +1-212/906 5364.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAC on conflict and governance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At its high level meeting on 5-6 May, Development Assistance Committee (DAC) ministers and senior officials endorsed a new set of guidelines on conflict, peace and development cooperation on the threshold of the 21st century. Following a recommendation in 1996, most DAC members have introduced, or are introducing, specific anticorruption measures in aid procurement practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meeting also gave new attention to work to help integrate poor countries, including those in Africa, into globalized trade and investment systems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meeting examined implications of the Multilateral Agreement on Investment and emphasized the importance of DAC input into wider OECD work on the linkages between the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and non-OECD countries. At the meeting, a five year progress assessment on cooperation for sustainable development was released in advance of the June special session of the UN General Assembly to review implementation of Agenda 21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact; Roberto Bensky, OECD 2 rue Andre Pascal, F-75775 Paris Cedex 16, France, fax 331/45 24 16 50, web site (http://www.oecd.org/dac)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Senior officials of ministries of local government, local government leaders and NGOs of 15 Asian countries met on 5-8 May in Islamabad (Pakistan) far a Roundtable on Good Local Government and Sustainable Development (Asian Region). The roundtable was sponsored by, among others, the government of Pakistan and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roundtable discussions resulted in suggested actions for local government capacity-building programmes at the country and regional levels. Recommendations focused on issues such as good governance, financial arrangements, community empowerment, education and training, partnerships, networking and communication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five UN agencies have agreed to work together to strengthen primary education in India, particularly for girls and children from disadvantaged communities. The cooperating agencies are: the UN Development Progremme (UNDP), UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) UN Children's Fund (UNICEF), the UN Population Fund (UNFPA), and the International Labour Organization tag).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The joint effort will aim to increase community participation in school management, improve teacher and student performance, raise awareness of children's rights, and increase student attendance. The initial working budget is expected to be US$20 million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United States may reorganize 25 foreign affair community by merging two independent foreign affair agencies into the State Department, and aligning a third more closely with it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the Clinton administration's plan, which must be approved by Congress, the US Information Agency (USIA) and the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA) will become port of the State Department.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The US Agency for International Development (USAID), while remaining independent, will be more closely tied to State. Its director will report to the Secretary of State, instead of to the President as under current low. The plan would take two years to be fully implemented.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participants also called for making local government mare open and accessible with participatory perspective planning, participatory budgeting, and more public awareness. They said education and training for local government capacity building should be comprehensive and inclusive of local administrators, elected officials, and central government and local communities, including the private sector. Education and training should also be oriented toward marginalized groups, such as the poor and women, in order to enhance their opportunities to participate in local decision making.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Dolgor Solongo, UN Deportment for Development Support and Management Services, Room DC1-932, 1 UN Plaza, New York NY 10017, USA, telephone +1-272/963 4684, fax + 1212/963 2916, e mod &lt;solongo@un.org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forum on southern Africa ends</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United States says it will contribute US$81 million to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in response to 25 emergency appeal for 1997. The funds will be used in ICRC's humanitarian assistance programmes ground the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A three-day Regional Forum on Poverty Eradication in Southern Africa ended on 15 May by adopting the Windhoek Declaration and Pragramme of Action on Poverty Eradication. The forum, organized by several United Nations Information (entree in the region in consultation with local partners, was attended by 150 delegates from NGOs and community-based organizations, regional and international organizations, and representatives of the governments of Angela, Botswana, Malawi, Namibia and Zambia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Windhoek declaration calls attention to problems afflicting the southern African region, such as mounting income disparities, inadequate and unaffordable education, high illiteracy rates, poor health conditions, and increasing organized crime and violence against women and children. It also calls attention to the plight of refugees in the region, asylum seekers and economic migrants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forum's programme of action appeals to governments to assume primary responsibility for reviewing and creating poor-friendly polices and environments in the areas of health, agriculture, education, housing, land and food security. It says meaningful community involvement should be promoted in the design and implementation of these. policies, and funds for programme implementation should be. allocated to non-governmental and community-based organizations. Other recommendations of the programme of action include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> governments should formulate strategies for the regulation of bilateral multilateral foreign aid and decentralize political and administrative power to the local level;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> poverty eradication should be elevated to top regional focus in southern Africa's public and private media; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the private sector, NGOs and external partners should be enlisted in efforts to alleviate poverty. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: United Nations Information Centre, Private Bag 13351, Windhoek, Namibia, telephone +264-61/233034, fax +264-61/233036.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clothing code of contact agreement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A coalition of clothing and shoe industry representatives, . consumer groups, labour organizations and NGOs have announced their agreement on a code of conduct designed to uphold workers' rights in the United States and overseas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The code of conduct, which participating businesses have adopted voluntarily and will require their contractors. to adopt; includes:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> a prohibition against child labour;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> a guaranteed minimum wage or prevailing industry wage; and.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> a cap on mandatory overtime and other basic workplace rules.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">US President Bill Clinton, who announced the agreement on 14 April, said it "will improve the lives of millions of garment workers around the world. Human rights and labour rights must be part of the basic framework under which all businesses compete."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parties to the agreement include companies such as Nike Phillips-Van Heusen and Reebok, as well as the International Labor Rights Fund and the Lawyers Committee for Human Rights. The agreement provides for independent external -monitors to conduct reviews of company policies and practices, bath within the United States and internationally. It also provides for an internal monitoring system, so that each company can ensure that the code of conduct is enforced in its own facilities, as well as those of its contractors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the next few months participants said they plan to form on association to recruit new members and develop a mechanism or "seal of approval" label for products, so that consumers can know which companies abide by the code.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact; US Information Service, 11 route de Pregny, (H-1292 Geneva, Switzerland, telephone +41-22/749 4358, fax +41-22/749 4314, Web - site (http://www.usia.gov/).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conference on sustainable development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over 400 participants from 22 countries and 15 international organizations reviewed progress on implementation of sustainable development principles in economies in transition at a meeting in Minsk (Belarus). The International Conference on Sustainable Development of the Countries with Economies in Transition, held from 16-18 April, was attended by economic and environmental ministers, and officials of governments and international organizations. During presentations they emphasized the importance of economic reforms, promoting market and integrating economic, social and environmental policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Notwithstanding the numerous difficulties that countries with economies in transition are facing today," said a conference statement, "needs were apparent for a continuous shift to sustainable development to resolve socioeconomic problems, satisfy the needs of current and future generations and to protect the environment in pursuance of the principles of the declaration and the provisions of Agenda 21 adopted at the United Notions Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro. Efforts in that direction would contribute to the attainment of a further goof, namely the integration of economies in transition into the world economy."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conference was organized by the government of Belarus and the UN Development Programme (UNDP), Deportment for Development Support and Management Services, Economic Commission for Europe (ECE), and Denmark's Ministry of Environment and Energy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Kaj Berlund, Director, Environment Division, ECE, Palais des Nations, CH-1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland, telephone +41-22/917 2370, fax +41-22/917 0107.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNDCP project in central Asia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new project in three Central Asian countries, developed in consultation with the UN International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP), aims to step up control of illegal drug trafficking along the smuggling routes connecting the northern region of Afghanistan with Russia and Eastern Europe. The subregional low enforcement project, launched in May, is designed to strengthen interdiction capacities through cross-border cooperation among the low enforcement agencies of Kyrgyzston, Tojikistan and Uzbekistan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The three republics are in the middle of a newly-expanding trafficking route linking Afghan opium producers to Russian and East European markets. The project focuses on the trafficking route leading from Khorogh (Tajikistan) to Osh (Kyrgyzstan). The route is over 1500 kilometres long and records a traffic of more than 2000 trucks per month. It is widely believed to be the most commonly-used way to smuggle a forge portion of the opium produced in Afghanistan, estimated of over 2400 metric tons annually. UNDCP says escalating illicit traffic in the region endangers local people's health and odds to the politico!, economic and social instability there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project, budgeted at ground US$2 million, aims to support cross-border cooperation between low enforcement agencies of the neighbouring provinces of the three countries, strengthen the drug control capacity of border posts, and improve telecommunications facilities. The project is the first to be implemented under a memorandum of understanding signed a year ago on 4 May 1996 between UNDCP and five Central Asian countries: Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Signs of vitality in african investment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan has appointed James Baker 111 his personal envoy to the Western Sahara. Mr. Baker former US Secretary of State, has been asked to help settle differences between Morocco and the Frente POLISARIO over the former Spanish territory in the Sahara. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Foreign direct investment (FDI) flows to Africa are moving into service industries, particularly in manufacturing and the finance and insurance sectors, and leaving behind a traditional concentration on the region's primary commodities. These are some of the conclusions of a report from the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) on World Investment Directory on Africa, which surveys 53 African countries. The report says the liberalization of investment and bode regimes is also responsible for a new phenomenon: the emergence of African transnational corporations (TNCs).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African TNCs are based in, among other countries, South Africa, Morocco and Zambia. Although they remain relatively rare and small in size, with on outward FDI stock of US$25 billion in 1994, the report says this "shows that there are firms in Africa that con be competitive internationally, not only through bode but also through production in foreign markets."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FDI flows to Africa, although still modest in absolute terms (US$4.5 billion in 1996), are responsible for a significant shore of gross domestic capital formation and gross domestic product (GDP). Foreign direct investment represents 4 8% of capital formation-which is approaching levels recorded in Asia and Western Europe-and 10% of GDP, compared with about 13% in other ports of the world. However, overall volumes of FDI for Africa remain low. Between 1991 and 1995, Africa attracted only 5% of total FDI flows to developing countries and 2% of world FDI flows. Moreover FDI remains concentrated in just a handful of countries. Nigeria and Egypt accounted for over half of FDI into Africa during the first half of the 1 990s, and Morocco was the third largest recipient during the some period. Africa's least developed countries (LDCs) are worse off. They received less than one-fish of total inflows to the continent during the lost two decodes, of which two-thirds went to Angola for the oil industry and to Liberia for shipping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report says one noteworthy development is the interest South East Asian countries are beginning to show in Africa, mainly South Africa. For example, a Malaysian state-owned company has announced that it will spend US$436 million to purchase a controlling stoke in a forge South African oil refinery. Asian investors hove also shown on interest in South Africa's neighbouring countries, such as Botswana, from where they con produce at low costs and export to South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Karl P Sauvant, Chief, Research and Policy Analysis Branch, Division on Investment, Technology and Enterprise Development, UNCTAD, Palais des Notions, CH-1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland, telephone +41-22/907 5707, fax +41-22/907 0194, e-mail &lt;karl.sauvant@unctad.org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For a copy of the report, contact: UN Publications, 2 UN Plaza, Room DC2-853, New York NY 10017, USA, fax +1-212/963 3489, e-mail &lt;publication@un.org&gt; or UN Publications, Palais des Notions, OH-1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland, fax +41-22/9170027, web site (http.//www.un.org).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Call glowing for end to female genital mutilation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In April the heads of three UN agencies appealed to the international community to support efforts aimed at eliminating female genital mutilation (FGM) In addition, an international survey by the Netherlands has shed new light on FGM, which is estimated to be practised on between 85-130 million girls and women. And women from East Africa, participating in on NGO-organized seminar, hove also rolled for on end to FGM.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The three UN heads, Ms. Carol Bellamy of the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF), Dr. Hiroshi Nakajima of the World Health Organization (WHO), and Dr. Nafis Sadik of the UN Population Fund (UNFPA), also unveiled a joint plan to bring about a major decline in FGM in ten years, and completely eliminate the practice within three generations. According to the agreement, teams will assist governments in developing and implementing clear national policies for the abolition of female genital mutilation, including (where appropriate) the enactment of legislation to prohibit it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"The elimination of this unsafe and unjustifiable traditional practice, based on misconceptions and myths," they said, "will improve considerably the health status of millions of women and children in the developing world, particularly in African countries. It will also become a major contribution to the promotion of human rights and gender equity."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The three agencies plan to emphasize a multidisciplinary approach and teamwork both within the countries where FGM is practised as well as at the regional and global levels. This teamwork will bring together; governments, political and religious institutions, international organizations, NGOs and funding agencies in their efforts. The basis for cooperation at country level will be national "interagency teams" supported by international organizations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Our joint plan provides the crucial momentum to once and far all eliminate FGM, a dangerous and potentially life threatening procedure that affects millions of girls each year," sold Carol Bellamy. "Progress has been mode recently with groundbreaking legislation to stop this practice in countries such as Cameroon, Egypt and Burkina Faso. We must keep the pressure up everywhere to ensure that every girl's right to a safe and healthy life is fully protected."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is Female Genital Mutilation? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WHO estimates the number of girls and women ground the world who have been subjected to female genital mutilation at over 130 million, with a further two million girls annually at risk. A report by the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs estimates that between 85-115 million girls and women have been affected. According to the Netherlands report Visions and Discussions on Genital Mutilation of Girls: An International Survey, FGM involves removing some or all of a woman's genitalia, in the severest form of FGM, all external sexual organs are cut away, leaving just a small opening for urine and menstrual fluid to pass through. Apart from the immediate fear and pain associated with the practice, consequences can include prolonged bleeding, infection, infertility and death.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Netherlands report says FGM is practised in about 20 countries in Africa, several countries around the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, in the Eastem Mediterranean, and by some ethnic groups in Australia, India Indonesia, Malaysia and Pakistan. According to the report, only six countries-Central African Republic, Egypt, Ghana, Guinea, Sudan and the United States-specifically refer to genital mutilation in their regulations and lows. WHO says most of the girls and women subjected to FGM live in 28 African countries, "although some live in Asia and the Middle East. They are also found in Europe, Australia, Canada and the United States among immigrants from these countries."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WHO says the age at which FGM is performed varies from region to region. It is performed on infants a few days old, female children and adolescents, and even occasionally on mature women. In general, most girls are mutilated between the ages of four and twelve. FGM is normally performed by traditional practitioners with crude instruments, such as knives, razors, blades and broken gloss, usually without anaesthetics. Among more affluent sectors of society, it may be performed in a health core facility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Consequences of FGM </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The health consequences of FGM depend on the type and severity of the procedure performed, the skills of the practitioner, the cleanliness of tools and the environment, and the physical condition of the girl or woman concerned. "The practice of FGM often leads to complications, according to WHO. "Short term complications include severe pain, shock, haemorrhage, urine retention, ulceration of the genital region and injury to adjacent tissue. Haemorrhage and infection can cause death. Long-term complications include cysts and abscesses, excessive score, painful sexual intercourse, urinary tract infection, infertility and childbirth complications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">East african women feeders call for end to FGM </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A call to end the traditional practices that hurt women and girls, such as FGM, was issued by women from East Africa attending a fiveday seminar in Ethiopia from 31 March-4 April. The seminar was sponsored by the Lutheran World Federation, in collaboration with the Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participants in the Seminar on Harmful Traditional Practices discussed raising awareness and developing a strategy to eradicate FGM, early childhood marriage, body markings, removal of baby teeth and food taboos, among other things. They urged global mutual support to stop traditional practices that harm the lives of mothers and children, and they called on churches to recommend that governments pass lows against female genital mutilation. Participants also asked churches to integrate teachings on harmful traditional practices and equality of all human beings into their education curricula; find alternative income generating activities for practitioners of FGM; and collaborate with other social agencies in the struggle against harmful traditional practices. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Igor Rozov, Health Communications and Public Relations, World Health Organization (WHO), 20 avenue Appia, CH-1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland, telephone +4122/791 2532, fax+41-22/791 4858, web site (hthp://www.who.ch).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the Netherlands report, contact: JMW Spreeuwenberg, Women and Development Division, Social and Institutional Development Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, PO Box 20061, 2500 EB The Hague, Netherlands telephone +31-70/348 6472, fax +31-20/348 4883.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the East African seminar, contact: Musimbi Kanyoro, Office for Women in Church and Society, Lutheran World Federation, PO Box 2100, CH-121 1 Geneva 2, Switzerland, telephone+41-22/791 6439, fax +41-22/791 6401, email&lt;mka@wcc-coe.org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">UNFPA publishes the of world population 1997</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaps and failures in reproductive health rare, combined with widespread discrimination and violence against women, amount to a massive violation of human rights, according to The State of World Population 1997 report, published by the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). Go Between summarizes the report's findings and recommendations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To enable individuals to exercise their sexual and reproductive rights, the report stresses the need for gender equality and increased investment in education and primary health care. The report says these rights-are key to women's empowerment, and "are also critical to the economic and social life of communities, nations and the world."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of Denying Sexual and Reproductive Rights </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report documents the effects of denying sexual and-reproductive rights. These include, among other things:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 585,000 women die each year from pregnancy-related causes;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-there are about 200,000 maternal deaths per year because of the lack or failure of contraceptive services</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-70,000 women die each year as a result of unsafe abortions (many of which could be avoided if safe and effective means of contraception were freely available); and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-120 million women have undergone some form of female genital mutilation, and another two million are at risk each year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproductive Rights, Health Needs and Development </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"The international community has agreed repeatedly that reproductive health is a right for both women and men," said Dr. Nafis Sadik, UNFPA Executive Director. "The challenge now is to make this right a reality for every individual." The first chapter of the report highlights the relevant guarantees in the UN Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, among other covenants and conventions. Reproductive and sexual rights are also implied by long-established human rights to life and survival; liberty and personal security, equal treatment; education, information, development, and the highest attainable standard of health. The chapter also describes relevant agreements reached at the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) and at the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women to protect reproductive and sexual health. A growing number of countries are also incorporating sexual and reproductive rights into their constitutions, legal codes and institutional procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second chapter of the report examines the burden of poor health related to reproduction and sexuality. It also address a number of the major causes and some of the solutions, including reproductive health services. Chapter three addresses the sexual and reproductive health needs of adolescents, rights in marriage and childbearing, violence against women-in the home, in the streets, and in war or natural disasters-and trafficking in girls and women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chapter four deals with sustainable development, defined by, among other things, a better quality of life for all people, regardless of gender. "This implies a development agenda," says the report, "that focuses directly on meeting the needs and hopes of individual men, women and children. Empowering people to escape from poverty and accelerate overall development will require the recognition of exercise of their basic rights."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recommendations </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fifth chapter of the report calls for greater attention to human rights, especially the promotion of gender equality and women's empowerment. This requires legal reforms, better enforcement of existing laws, new procedures to document violations, education about human rights, and alliances among institutions concerned with rights. International assistance programmes should also give greater priority to human rights goofs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To combat poverty, which prevents the exercise of sexual and reproductive rights, the report advocates increasing women's access to credit and economic resources. It stresses the value of both general education and specific education on sexual and reproductive health and calls for greater investment in primary health care, particularly for sexual and reproductive health. It says health services should be restructured to focus on the reproductive and sexual health needs of clients, including under-served groups, such as the poor, women, rural dwellers, adolescents, indigenous people, the disabled, migrants and refugees. It calls for the use of new guidelines, standards of conduct and evaluation methods, and it says NGOs and the private sector should help design, implement and monitor programmes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Implementing the ICPD Progromme of Action </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The State of World Population 1997 contains a special section based on reports from UNFPA field offices. It describes national implementation of. the ICPD Programme of Action, such as revisions of population and development policies and related institutions, legal and constitutional reforms to protect women's rights and promote gender equality; and reorganization of health services to address the full range of reproductive health concerns. The report notes that while many developing countries have made important progress, many others suffer from a shortage of funds and trained personnel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many countries where national population policies were in place before the Cairo conference hove modified them to embrace the ICPD approach. This group includes countries such as Indonesia, Jamaica, Kenya, Lesotho, the Marshall Islands, St. Lucia and Zambia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of governments that had no formal population policy in 1994 have since formulated comprehensive policies reflecting the Cairo agreements, or are in the process of doing so. They include Botswana, Cambodia, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Mongolia, Nicaragua, Namibia, South Africa, Syria, Uganda and Zimbabwe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report says evidence shows developing countries are prepared to commit the resources needed to meet the goofs of the lCPD. The question remains whether richer nations are prepared to do the same, since annual global expenditures are still well below half the US$17 billion that ICPD estimated will be required in 2000. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: UNFPA, 220 East 42nd Street, New York NY 10017, USA, telephone +1-.212/297 5026,fax +1212/557 6416, e-mail &lt;ryan@unfpa.org&gt;, web site (www.unfpa.org/swp97e/toc.html).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">UNDP says ending extreme poverty possible</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Human Development Report 1997, published by the UN Development Programme (UNDP), says much of the world's population has benefited from major advances in economic opportunity sod human well-being. The report argues that given unprecedented progress in human and economic development over the past 50 years, eradicating extreme poverty at the beginning of the 21st century is a feasible, affordable goal. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report, which focuses on poverty, provides an extensive overview of global poverty trends; an assessment of the scale of today's poverty problems worldwide; priorities for tackling poverty at the country level, and a global agenda for supportive anion. The report's human development index ranks countries according to a composite index of life expectancy, educational attainment and a decent standard of living.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report says that gains in economic opportunity and human well being in the developing world have covered as much distance in the past 30 years as the industrialized world did in a century. "The dramatic record of poverty reduction in the 20th century shows that we should raise our sights, not downsize our vision for human development," said Richard Jolly, Special Adviser to the UNDP Administrator and principal coordinator of the report. "Extreme poverty could be banished from the globe within one or two decades. A score of countries are on track to do this, including some of the largest, like China, and some of the most dynamic, like Chile, Malaysia, Mauritius and the Republic of Korea."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some Positive Achievements </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report says income poverty rates for roughly half the developing world hove been reduced by 25% or more in just 20 years. China and another 14 countries, with populations that add up to more than 1.6 billion people, have halved the proportion of their people in income poverty in less than 20 years. Also, human poverty rates have been reduced in over 100 developing countries, and key indicators of human development have advanced strongly over the past few decades. For example, since 1960 in little more than a generation, child death rates in developing countries hove been more than halved. Life expectancy has increased by more than a third, and malnutrition rates have declined by almost one third. The proportion of children in primary school has risen from less than half to more than three fourths, and the share of rural families with access to safe water has risen from barely one tenth to about threefourths.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By the end of the 20th century, some three to four billion of the world's total population of 5.7 billion will have experienced substantial improvements in their standard of living, and about four to five billion will hove access to basic education and health.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not all have benefited</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, the report warns that not everyone has benefited from these achievements. Women and children are particularly affected by poverty-not only do women make a smaller income than men, but they are more constrained by their reproductive and household responsibilities. They also have less access to fond, credit and employment opportunities, which con help them and their children escape poverty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also, many of the poorest and least developed countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere hove gained much less than the developing countries as a group. South Asia has the most people affected by poverty, and it has the largest number of people in income poverty-over 500 million. Sub-Saharan Africa has the greatest incidence of poverty and the most rapid growth in poverty-about 220 million people are in income poverty. In Latin America human poverty is less pervasive than income poverty, but both are still growing and income poverty affects 110 million people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The countries of Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States hove seen the greatest deterioration in the post decode, from four million people below the income poverty line in 1987-1988, to 120 million today, or about one fourth of the total population. And three new global pressures are creating and recreating poverty: violent conflicts, HlV/AIDS and environmental degradation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recommendations The report, which recognizes that each notion needs to adopt its own prescription for reducing poverty, identifies six priorities for action. They are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> initiate people-centred policies that give individuals, households and communities expanded access to economic, social, political, environmental and personal assets;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> work toward gender equality, both as on end and as a means to eradicate poverty;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> focus on pro-poor growth in the approximately 100 countries from the developing world, Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States where growth has been foiling;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> improve the management of globalization, including better bode policies and fair terms for poor countries to enter markets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> create a politico! environment so that poor people and poor communities con be heard, rather than suppressed and oppressed; and take special action to prevent economic reversal, such as peace building efforts in war-torn countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The additional cost of achieving basic social services for all in developing countries is estimated at about US$40 billion a year over the next ten years. This sum is less than 0.2% of world income of US$25 trillion. The amount needed to close the gap between the annual income of poor people and the minimum income at which they would no longer be poor is estimated at another US$40 billion a year. Thus, providing universal access to basic social services and transfers to alleviate income poverty would cost about US$80 billion, which is less than the combined net worth of the seven richest men in the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"The [report's] most important massage," sold UNDP Administrator James Gustave Speth, "is that poverty is no longer inevitable. The world has the material and natural resources, the know-how and the people to make a poverty-free world a reality in less than a generation. This is not woolly idealism but a practical and operationally achievable goal." </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact Division of Public Affairs, UNDP, 1 UN Plaza, New York NY 10077, USA, telephone +1-212/906 5000, fax +1212/906 5001, e mad &lt;hq@undp.org&gt; or UNDP, Geneva Executive Centre, 11-13 chemin des Anemones, CH-1219 Chatelaine, Switzerland, telephone +41-22/979 9537, fax +4122/979 9001.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Children at risk in central and eastern Europe, Warns UNICEF</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the "green shoots of economic recovery" push upwards across Central Europe and parts of South Easterrn Europe and the Baltics the social crisis for vulnerable children remains unchecked, according to a report from the International third Development Center of the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF). Go Between summarizes the findings of Children at Risk in Central and Eastern Europe: Perils and Promises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report warns about the plight of children in public care, as well as children at risk in families and the community. It also discusses ways of preventing risks, especially the potential role of family support policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Children at Risk in Public Core There are currently about one million children in public care across the 18 countries monitored in the report. Most of these children are living in largescale institutions, such as infant homes, orphanages, homes for the disabled and hospitals. Care in these institutions at the beginning of the economic and political transition period carried major risks for children, including high death rates, a downward spiral of disabilities, emotional harm, and the withering of family ties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"With the exception of a very few countries in Central Europe," says the report "numerous difficulties-e.g. divided ministerial responsibilities, dwindling financial resources, uneven support for reforms-have inhibited any major improvements in institutional care or a shift to more humane placement options." And in some countries, such as Moldova, Georgia and Armenia, the public child protection system has virtually collapsed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Children born during the recent transition years face a higher, rather than reduced risk, of entering public care. Since 1989, in ten out of the 14 countries of Central and Eastern Europe in which data are available, the rates of infants and toddlers living in institutional care have actually risen. In eight of the countries, the rates of children aged 0-3 years placed in infant homes have gone up substantially: between 35%-45% in Romania, Russia and Latvia, and by as much as 75% in Estonia. "The persistence of greater vulnerability far children and families in countries that have shown economic growth over the last few years is a clear warning that many types of childhood risk will riot vanish with economic recovery," says the report. It says only Hungary, despite its somewhat disappointing economic record, has been able to avoid higher institutionalization or fostering rates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Children at Risk in Families and the Community </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The increasing rates of children in public care is also an outcome-and thus a barometer-of the higher risks many children face in families and the community during the transition years. Many families with children have had to cope with a devastating deterioration in their material conditions. "Clearly the main-but not only-risk factors that have emerged most dramatically are poverty and social dislocations," says the report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While in Central and South Eastern Europe unemployment and losses in family benefits have especially penalized families with children, in the countries of the former Soviet Union child poverty is increasingly associated with sky-rocketing wage inequality and increases in the number and share of single- parent households. Although most families find ways to manage with the increased hardships, coping strategies may heighten risks for children. In Poland, nearly one in ten 7-9 year olds were left without adult supervision for more than two hours per day in the mid-1990s, a several fold increase over the beginning of the decade. And some countries show evidence of growing child maltreatment, including use of child labour.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Children exposed to war, and those forced to leave their homes because of armed conflicts in the region, are among those most exposed to risk in the countries surveyed. Thousands of children have been killed and millions more have suffered severe hardship which has left many of them traumatized. For example in the beginning of 1996 in Georgia, although hostilities ended several years ago, there were 268,000 persons registered as refugees or internally displaced-one-third of them were below the age of 16. Of these almost 90,000 virtually homeless children, about i 700 had disabilities and nearly 8000 were homeless.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, the main killer of parents over the transition period has not been war. "Rather," says the report, Nit has been the silent accumulation of factors like poor nutrition, alcoholism, smoking, stress in the workplace and at home, less safety in the streets, less protection from the cold and infectious diseases, and so on." In fact, crude mortality rates have increased in 15 of the 18 countries monitored in the report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other risks for children include higher family-breakdown ratios, increases in the proportion of births to unmarried mothers, and increased divorce rates. Health and education risks for children have also increased, since parents can no longer count on universal public health and education systems to screen and check for potential child health and educational problems with the same effectiveness and coverage as before. Drinking and smoking trends among young people have not improved, and the mortality rate among adolescents due to accidents, poisoning and violence has increased in many of the countries. The transition has also witnessed a marked growth in the incidence of infectious diseases, such as diphtheria and tuberculosis, commonly referred to as "diseases of poverty."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Preventing Risks </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reforms to family and child programmes can only be effective if more proactive support is made available. "This necessitates," says the report, "the development of a full new infrastructure of family support which has at its core flexible social services that can respond within a wide continuum of need for low- to high-intensity-care." However, professional social work and care personnel will not be enough. Social services need to develop in a coordinated way with the health, education and juvenile justice systems, and the "voice of the child" needs to be better heard in this process. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National and local governments must also forge new partnerships with each other, and with the voluntary and private sectors, in order to address threats of risks. "A fresh approach to social policies," concludes the report, "can achieve more than saving the children most at risk: it is an investment for the future of all the children who are to harvest the new shoots now breaking ground in the countries covered in this report." </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contact: Cincia lusco-Bruschi International Child Development Centre, UNICEF, Piazzo Santissima Annunziata 12,I-50122Florenre, Italy telephone +3955/234 5258, fax +3055/244817.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">General assembly subgroup on NGOs resumes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After a two-month hiatus, the General Assembly's subgroup on NGOs reconvened in New York on 25 April. It met again on 5 May, this time in an open meeting with NGOs and GA President Razali Ismail (Malaysia) in attendance. Go Between summarizes discussions at the meeting and the status of the subgroup.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"If the NGOs are here today [an 5 May], it is only because they should have been here from Day One " said Ambassador Ahmad Kamal (Pakistan), chair of the subgroup, "and the GA President is here only because the working group has not been able to deliver anything."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GA President Razali expressed his astonishment and dismay at what he called the subgroup's lack of progress, and he said that the subgroup faces disbanding if it does not swiftly prove capable of reaching some kind of agreement on the participation of NGOs in the UN. "I don't think you really know where you are going," he said. He challenged the subgroup to "prove me wrong" and pointed out that in the General Assembly, the same governments had created little fuss over making arrangements for NGOs to participate at the highest levels of the UN during the upcoming Special Session of the UN General Assembly to review and appraise the implementation of Agenda 21, which will involve heads of state and government.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"The question of NGO participation has become a political football in this group," he continued, "and that plays into the hands of governments who don't want anything to happen with NGOs.&quot;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Background: ECOSOC Decision 297 and Interpretative Statement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ambassador Kamal chairs the subgroup, whose parent body is the open ended General Assembly Working Group on the Strengthening of the UN System (WGUNS). The subgroup was set up on 23 January 1997 in response to decision 1996/297 of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), which recommended that the General Assembly "examine, at its fifty-first session, the question of the participation of non governmental organizations in all areas of the work of the United Nations." At the time of adoption, a number of governments, especially the United States and the Russian Federation, expressed concern about the implications of such a recommendation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Consensus was reached only through the addition of an interpretive statement, read into the record by the President of ECOSOC, which says the recommendation "falls within the competence of the General Assembly as set forth in Article 10 of the United Nations Charter." Article 10 specifies that, "The General Assembly may discuss any questions or any matters within the scope of the present Charter or relating to the powers and functions of any organs provided for in the present Charter, and, except as provided in Article 12, may make recommendations to the Members of the United Nations or to the Security Council or to both on any such questions or matters."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Article 12 sets limits on what may be acted upon by the General Assembly as follows: "While the Security Council is exercising in respect of any dispute or situation the functions assigned to it in the present Charter, the General Assembly shall not make any recommendation with regard to that dispute or situation unless the Security Council so requests."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status of Work in the Subgroup As of 5 May and after over ten meetings in a six month period, the subgroup was still grappling with the intractable question of its mandate and programme of work. Governments' interpretations of the interpretive statement differed so widely that it was impossible to define the subgroup's scope of work. In addition, what many described as the acrimony and mutual mistrust surrounding attempts to define the mandate made achieving a spirit of compromise increasingly difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem surfaced early on during the process of establishing the subgroup, when the United States and the European Union interpreted the statement to mean that the subgroup should examine the participation of NGOs in the plenary and six main committees of the UN General Assembly only. (As a concession, they allowed consideration of participation of NGOs in special sessions of the General Assembly.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Joint Coordination Council of the Group of 77 and NonAligned Movement (JCC viewed this position as a retreat on the agreement reached in ECOSOC decision 1996/297. According to the JCC, all areas of the work of the UN meant throughout the entire UN system. Therefore, to deal with the shifting interpretations, the JCC insisted on spelling out the mandate in detail before work could begin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"The one side wants an iron-clad guarantee that we will not address anything beyond the GA and its main committees," observed the subgroup chair, "and the other side wants an ironclad guarantee that we will address everything. I cannot deliver either one." The representative of Mexico said that all committees should be discussed, and Nit is perfectly conceivable that we may decide that some bodies, particularly those with limited membership, will not be appropriate areas for NGO participation. But nothing should be precluded from consideration." Concurring delegations included Canada, Brazil and Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGO Views</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGOs, who hove expressed frustration with the delay, pressed governments to begin work immediately. Throughout this process, NGOs have been interacting formally and informally with member states. On 30 April, the Conference of NGOs in Consultative Status with ECOSOC (CONGO) organized a day-long briefing on the question of NGO participation, with the participation of Ambassador Kamal, Under-Secretary-General Gillian Sorenson and reform coordinator Maurice Strong, as well as 0 number of NGOs. They addressed on audience of representatives of NGOs, governments and the UN secretariat and agencies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-governmental organizations hope that they will now be able to attend future sessions of the subgroup. In addition, governments say they are eager to hear from NGOs that do no, have permanent representation at UN headquarters in New York, Geneva or Vienna on the wide-ranging and complex questions surrounding NGO participation in "all areas of the work of the JN." </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">UN working group meets on Security Council reform</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall process of United Nations reform is being undertaken in many areas, including the Security Council. Go Between summarizes recent meetings of the Open-Ended Working Group on the Question of Equitable Representation On and Increase in the Membership of the Security Council and Other Matters Related to the Security Council.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Much attention has been focused on the meetings held in March, April and May by the open-ended working group. On 20 March GA President Razali Ismail (Malaysia), choir, presented the first comprehensive text to the group containing concrete recommendations on issues such as the number of seats by which the council should be expanded, both in the permanent and nonpermanent categories; the basis on which they should be selected; and what decision-making powers they should hove, including the question of the veto. The text also contained proposals to improve transparency in the functioning of the council and a timeframe, with final action to be token as early as the first quarter of 1998.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">States hove not come to agreement on these issues, and some, particularly members of the non-aligned movement, hove protested about being bound by a timeframe. The proposals mode by President Razali helped to move the work of the working group and the deliberations of the member states to more concrete positions on Security Council reform. Reactions to the proposals hove clarified the differences in the positions of the member states on, among other things, the size of expansion of the Security Council, how permanent seats would be distributed, the use of the veto, and the nature of regional representation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Representation on the Council </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two interventions by Singapore during the working group meeting in May focused on attitudes of the current five Permanent Members of the Security Council (P-5) to the reform process, and questioned whether the P-5 was sincere about council reform. Singapore's strongly-worded interventions recoiled that France is the only permanent member to hove expressed a clear statement of support for developing countries to be included in on enlarged permanent category, together with Germany and Japan. Singapore invited the other permanent members (United States, the United Kingdom, Russia and Chino) to state, preferably in writing, their support for permanent membership with full powers for developing countries. Members of this working group," sold the representative of Singapore, "deserve the courtesy of clarity."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participants in the working group meeting also showed on interest in regional representation of permanent seats on the council. Chile sold that President Razali's text indicates that three of the five new permanent seats will be assigned to developing countries. These will be the three geographic regions of Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa and Asia, with one country from each region. However, the new seats will be assigned to countries from specific regions, not to the regions themselves. "This distinction is on important one Chile stated, "in that the proposal creates a false impression of regionalism." Other countries raised the question of whether such on arrangement would apply only to the developing regions, or to the two proposed industrialized states seats as well (widely assumed to be Germany and Japan).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a concluding address to the working group on 9 May 1997, President Razali summarized the status of negotiations. With regard to the Security Council's size, he coiled for a convergence on a figure greater than 21 and not more than 26. He noted that the argument put forth mainly by the P-5, that 20 or 21 would lead to efficiency and that any number beyond that would hove the opposite effect, hod been challenged. "The question con be asked ."he sold, "whether efficiency of decision making is merely a function of the time required to arrive of them, or whether it is also a function of enhanced legitimacy of authority by rectifying the imbalance of representation. Similarly, is the concern over numbers beyond 21 about efficiency, or is it about having to deal with different equations of voting alliances in a reformed Council?" With regard to expansion in both permanent and non-permanent categories, he noted that this hod been endorsed by the majority of governments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Question of Veto Power </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With regard to decision making, the veto was intensely scrutinized, with some countries against giving veto power to new permanent members. Others support the immediate eradication of the veto itself. In the opinion of President Razali, the session demonstrated that many countries would not accept differences or discrimination between the P-5 and the incoming permanent members. If there is no way of curtailing or eliminating the veto, President Razali noted, nit is argued that new permanent members must hove the some rights."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Transparency and Democratization </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concerning enhancement of transparency and democratization in the working methods and procedures of the council, President Razali noted that with the exception of the veto issue, there were no serious contradictions and it was recognized that working procedures were of on evolving nature, so that legislating working procedures for the council would be difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the question of regional representation, President Razali noted that Africa has developed its own process for regional representation within the continent, although this process is not necessarily "for export" to other regions. He stated that it is recognized that regional seats are a way of overcoming the problem of choosing only one representative, and that the region may evolve its own method of choice before the matter is token to the GA. However, he cautioned that questions hove yet to be asked concerning how rotation and the pursuit of sovereign equality con be reconciled with criteria such as contributions to the UN and commitment to international norms. As Go Between goes to press, the working group was scheduled to convene in mid-June in New York to continue its examination of these issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Background on Overall Process of UN Reform</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UN Secretary- General's reform process is being pursued by Maurice Strong in his capacity as Executive Coordinator for UN Reform (see Go Between 63). The intergovernmental process for UN reform is being carried out primarily in five working groups of the UN General Assembly. The Secretary- General's "track two" long-term and strategic issues are expected to be announced in July, and some results from the working groups are anticipated by the end of the 51 st session of the GA in September.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Security Council humanitarian assistance issues</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 21 May the UN Security Council held a debate on protection for humanitarian assistance to refugees and others in conflict situations. Representatives of member states and humanitarian agencies railed for strategies to protect humanitarian staff, while also addressing the underlying causes of conflicts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Discussion at the meeting centred on the difficulty of providing international military support for humanitarian assistance operations while ensuring that humanitarian workers are perceived as impartial.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Challenges Facing Humanitarian Actors </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yasushi Akashi, UN Emergency Relief Coordinator and Under Secretary General for Humanitarian Affairs, said the most compelling and problematic challenge facing humanitarian actors in contemporary conflict zones is the difficulty of providing assistance in abusive and hostile environments, where civilians are directly targeted and the work of relief agencies deliberately obstructed. He noted that the international community, when redefining "protection needs," is in effect redefining "threats to international peace" as set out in the UN Charter. He acknowledged a growing recognition that "security" concerns first the well-being of people, which is as important as ' the security of states. He also said the concept of sovereignty is fundamentally linked to the ability of states to respect and safeguard the security of their own citizens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soren Jessen-Petersen, Director of the New York Liaison Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) stressed the shortfalls in international responses to humanitarian crises. He noted that despite efforts of humanitarian agencies, millions of forcibly-displaced persons are currently neither protected nor assisted. He said increasingly politicized and militarized refugee populations are being created by conflicts that generate massive and rapid refugee movements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr. Jessen Petersen stressed that far more could be achieved in such situations if early political and security initiatives were executed alongside humanitarian responses. He cited three conditions that are indispensable for creating the "humanitarian paced" needed for UNHCR operations: staff security, unrestricted access to people in need, and respect for the impartiality and integrity of humanitarian operations. He also said that the Security Council could play an important role by:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> setting the indispensable political parameters for humanitarian action;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> exercising diplomatic pressure when necessary;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> considering military protection of humanitarian operations; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> recognizing situations in which humanitarian operations might be suspended because of the total disregard for humanitarian space.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Protecting Humanitarian Staff </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stephen Lewis, Deputy Executive Director of the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF), stated that the international community must find better ways to protect humanitarian staff and suggested the use of military force, if necessary. He underscored the importance of integrating humanitarian concerns regarding children in armed conflict into the peace keeping and demobilization mandates issued by the Security Council.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peter Kung of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) cautioned against the expanding military dimension of international humanitarian operations. He sold armed escorts could compromise the non-political and impartial character of humanitarian workers. The ICRC's position is that armed intervention should be aimed at securing an environment for humanitarian action, and the provision of humanitarian assistance should not be linked to progress in political negotiations or political objectives. Instead, it should take place in parallel with a political process aimed at addressing underlying causes of the conflict and achieving a political settlement. Mr. Kung said humanitarian assistance should not become a tool designed to mask the absence of resolve to take appropriate political action or to compensate for the inadequacy of such political action.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several delegations urged the council to provide for the security of aid workers at the some time that it authorizes humanitarian operations. They said conflicting parties should be held to the letter of international humanitarian law, and those legal regimes should be backed up by the threat of targeted sanctions, military engagement and international criminal prosecution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The representative of Chile said' the safety of humanitarian workers in the field should be at the centre of the council's attention, since international humanitarian agencies and NGOs are often the only international actors to be found in conflict areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Related Issues Sweden and Canada urged the creation of a "rapid deployment" capability to assist in separating military groups from bona fide refugees. This problem was raised by the representative of Rwanda, who said the crisis in Zaire could have been averted if the international community had disarmed the perpetrators of genocide who were widely believed to have taken over refugee camps in Goma. France and several other delegations expressed regret that the council had not authorized the dispatch of humanitarian/peace keeping operations to eastern Zaire late last year. Guinea-Bissau noted what it called an international "double standard" on authorizing humanitarian operations in Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The representative of the United States said the UN cannot send peace- keepers into every emergency and added that the presence of armed forces can complicate the delivery of humanitarian assistance. The United Kingdom also cautioned against the provision of protection for humanitarian assistance without the consent of warring parties, since the assistance can be interpreted as a political act that might alter the balance of forces.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China felt that humanitarian activities should be undertaken only by relevant departments and agencies of the UN, and it said that the Security Council ' should concern itself with the settlement of political and security-related issues. Cuba felt that military forces are being deployed to intervene in local conflicts under the pretext of humanitarian assistance. Japan stated that council -mandated humanitarian operations should have clearly-defined and realistic terms of reference. India urged the council to address the root causes of refugee flows, and it noted that most conflicts have their origins in poverty, lock of development and intolerance. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Spring meetings of the World Bank and IMF</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund (IMF) concluded their week-tong annual spring meetings on 29 April in Washington DC. Go Between summarizes the major discussions and outcomes of the meetings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The IMF's Interim Committee, which met on 28 April, was chaired by Finance Minister Philippe Maystadt (Belgium). Major issues considered by finance ministers and central bank governors at the meeting included: global economic prospects and recent adaptations of IMF surveillance of the policies of its member countries in response to the globalization of financial markets; a proposal to amend the IMF Articles of Agreement to give the IMF a mandate to promote capital account liberalization; the status of the eleventh general review of the IMF quotas, a special "equity" allocation of special drawing rights (SDRs); financing to continue the IMF's enhanced structural adjustment facility (ESAF), which is the IMF's confessional financing facility for poor countries engaged in growth-oriented macroeconomic and structural adjustment; and the associated IMF-World Bank debt initiative (see page 14) to reduce the external debt burden of heavily indebted poor countries (HlPCs).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank/lMF Development Committee, which met the following day under the chairmanship of Finance Minister Mohamed Kabbaj (Morocco) discussed proposals to strengthen support for development cooperation, including ways to enhance effective use of declining flows of official development assistance; progress in implementing the HIPC initiative; resources for the bank's Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and ways to facilitate private involvement in infrastructure. The meeting of ministers of the intergovernmental Group of 24 (G 24) developing countries met on 27 April and was chaired by Antonio Casas Gonzalez, President of the Central Bank of Venezuela. The Group of 10 (G 1 0) industrialized countries, which met on 28 April, was chaired by Gerrit Zalm, Finance Minister of the Netherlands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liberalization of Capital Markets </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IMF Managing Director Michel Camdessus told a press conference that, "What you have here under paragraph 7, dealing with the liberalization of capital accounts, is history. We have now the mandate to add to our Articles of Agreement the 'unwritten' chapter in Bretton Woods." Paragraph 7 of the Interim Committee communiqu&eacute; affirms that the liberalization of capital account transactions offers substantial economic benefits to the world economy, and it recognizes the fund as "uniquely placed to promote the orderly liberalization of capital movements." Therefore, committee members agreed that the Articles of Agreement should be amended "to make the promotion of capital account liberalization a specific purpose of the Fund and to give it appropriate jurisdiction over capital movements."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G-24 ministers underscored the importance of reaching consensus an the need for flexibility an a wide variety of issues including a clear and workable definition of capital account transactions to be covered under such on amendment, the advantages of permanent price-based controls; consideration of restrictions introduced for prudential reasons; the need for flexibility to impose restrictions under specific circumstances, and the confidence that IMF assistance would be available to members facing volatile capital flows. To reflect these concerns, the Interim Committee communiqu&eacute; stresses that, "The scope of such jurisdiction [over capital movements] would need to be carefully defined and sufficient flexibility should be allowed through transitional provisions and approval policies." Specific recommendations on key elements of an amendment will be considered at the time of the committee's next meeting in September in Hong Kong.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IMF Surveillance/Banking Supervision </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The monetary and financial sector features centrally in the concept of surveillance, which refers to the IMF's responsibility for on-going review of its members' policies. The Interim Committee supported the IMF's heightened attention to banking and financial sector problems and emphasized the importance of close collaboration with the World Bank and other international organizations and groups. The Interim Committee, in support of increased transparency of IMF surveillance, welcomed the IMF Board of Governors' decision to allow the release, on a voluntary basis, of press information notices following Article IV consultations with individual IMF member countries. These notices will consist of two parts: a factual background section and an assessment corresponding to the summing up of the board's discussion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ouota Increase sod "Equity Allocation" of SDRs </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Interim Committee made little progress on the Eleventh General Review of Quotas including proposals far expanding the IMF's capital base and its overdraft facility for central banks. The Managing Director's proposal is to increase the US$200 billion capital base against which it lends money, as well as each country's share of paid-in capital, which are known as quotas. According to the fund, consideration of a quota increase is driven by recognition that the IMF requires sufficient liquidity over the medium term to cope with potentially large-scale crises in a globalized monetary system. The committee also discussed, but failed to agree on, plans for a new allocation of. special drawing rights, an international reserve asset created by the fund.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initiative on Partnership for Capacity Building in Africa The committee welcomed an initiative by African governments concerning effective institutions and sustainable transfer of skills, including fostering local ownership. The ministers, stressing the importance of a better enabling environment for private investment, also emphasized the need for adequate Official development assistance (ODA) and noted that rising private capital flows cannot fully substitute for ODA in terms of promoting growth and alleviating poverty. The G-24 endorsed the recommendation to set up a Trust Fund far Capacity Building and to mainstream capacity building within the bank's operational procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WTO-World Bank Agreement </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 28 April World Bank President James Wolfensohn and World Trade Organization (WTO) Director-General Renato Ruggiero signed a formal agreement of cooperation to provide a basis far the two organizations to "coordinate their efforts to further integrate developing countries into the global economy." G 24 ministers welcomed the agreement and called for early implementation of market access measures for developing country exports, strengthening of WTO technical assistance pragrammes, and full implementation of the Marrakesh decisions taken at the adoption of results of the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information is available on the IMF and World Bank home pages at (http://www.imf.org) and (http://www.worldbank.org/). To subscribe to the IMF Survey, contact: Publication Services, IMF Box XS700, Washington DC 20431, USA, telephone +1-202/623 7430, fax +1-202/623 7201, e-mail &lt;publications@imf.org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Publications and online</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Implementing 21:NGO Experiences from Around the World</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This collection of NGO contributions, published by NGLS, highlights dimensions of Agenda 21 implementation at the local level that might not otherwise be captured by international dialogue. In their articles, contributors describe NGO projects and other activities focused on UNCED follow up, and how UNCED's new approach to sustainable development affected thinking, programmes and strategies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from: NGLS (see address on front page)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Conferences: Developing Priorities for the 21st Century</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This edition of the UN Briefing Papers series provides a comprehensive picture of the central role that the UN is playing in helping to realize the global agenda on development, which was forged by member states at each of the UN major conferences between 1990 and 1996. ".</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from: UN Publications, 2 UN Plaza, Room DC2 853, New York NY 10017 USA, fax +1-212/963 3489, e-mail &lt;publications@un.org&gt; or UN Publications, Palais des Notions, CH 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland, fax +41-22/917 0027, web site (http://www.un.org).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Critical Issues for Women in the World of Work: Actions to Overcome Obstacles to Equality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This book, published by the International Labour Organization (ILO), identifies the key labour-related recommendations mode at the international level relevant to ILO's work in the protection and advancement of women workers. The conferences covered include the Fourth World Conference on Women, the World Summit for Social Development, the International Conference on Population and Development, and the International Conference on Human Rights. The book also contains a chapter on implementation and follow-up of these recommendations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from: Office of the Special Adviser on Women Workers' Questions, IL0, 4 route des Morillons, CH-1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland, fax +41-22/79BB6B5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Partnership with Non-Government Organizations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This booklet, published by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), provides NGOs with general information about I FAD. It explains IFAD's background mandate, objectives and activities, and it illustrates ways in which IFAD and NGOs hove collaborated on specific projects and programmes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from: IFAD, Via del Serafico 107, 1-00142 Rome, Italy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ecodesign: A Promising Approach to Sustainable Production and Consumption </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This manual is designed to provide companies with a step-by-step approach to ecodesign. The manual, written jointly by the UN Environment Programme, Rathenau Instituut and the Delft University of Technology, introduces ecodesign for companies and design consultancies interested in product development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from SMI (Distribution Services) Ltd. P0 Box 119, Stevenage, Hertfordshire SG1 4TP UK, fax +44-1438/748844.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social Change and Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This book discusses the social consequences of protected area schemes and conservation policies. Drawing on case studies worldwide, it critically reviews current trends in protected area management and shows how local people hove been affected. The book argues for a thorough overhaul of conservation thinking and practice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from: UN Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD), Palais des Nation, CH-1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland, fax +4122/740 0791.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Signals of Change: Business Progress Towards Sustainable Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report written by member companies of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, gives on overview of progress since the 1992 Earth Summit. The report aims to dispel the claim that sustainable development has lisle relevance to business. It also contains WBDSD's views on the future for business and other sectors, NGOs and local communities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from: Addison Holmes WBCSD, 160 route de Florissant, CH1231 Conches Switzerland, fax +41-22/839 3131, e-mail &lt;info@wbcsd.ch&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Company of Partners: Business, Environmental Groups and Sustainable Development Post-Rio</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This book, published to coincide with the fifth anniversary of the Earth. Summit, focuses on the emergence of business-environmental group partnerships, and gives examples of business people and environmentalists who are working together to find solutions to environmental, social and economic problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from: The Policy Press, University of Bristol, Rodney Lodge, Grange Rood, Bristol BS8 4EA, UK, fax +44 117/973 7308, e-mail &lt;tpp@bris.ac.uk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGOS, States and Donors Too Close for Comfort?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This book studies the way in which NGO state donor relationships hove changed the role NGOs play in development. The book concludes that there is much evidence to show that NGOs are getting closer to donors and governments, and more distort from the poor and disempowered whom they seek to assist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from: Macmillan Press Ltd. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6X$ UK, fax +44-1256/479476.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-Governmental Organisations: Guidelines for Good Policy and Practice</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This book provides practical guidance to efforts throughout the Common wealth to improve the effectiveness of NGOs and generate greater cooperation between governmental and non-governmental organizations. It describes what NGOs are and what they do in the world to day, and sets out guidelines to improve their impact and effectiveness</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from: The Commonwealth Foundation, Malborough House, Poll Mall, London SW1Y5HY, UK, fax +44-171/839 8157.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reaching Out: A Training Manual for Skills in Communication</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This manual which covers the skills required by social activists to communicate, is divided into five parts: oral interaction, written interaction, research, reaching the media and advocacy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from: Consumer Unity and Trust Society, 3-B Carmac Street, Calcutta 700016, India, fax +91-33/297665, e-mail &lt;cuts@fwbbs.com&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Striking a Balance: A Guide to Enhancing the Effectiveness of Non-Governmental Organisations in International Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At a time of rapid. global change, NGOs involved in international development (NGDOs) are confronted with demands to simultaneously increase the score of their impact, diversify their activities, and improve their performance. This book by Alan Fowler provides a practical guide to how NGDOs con better respond to these expectations, and it provides a useful analysis of the future of NGOs and the current aid system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from: Earthscan Publications, 120 Pentonville Rood, London N1 9JN, UK telephone +44171/278 0433, fax +44-171/278 1 142, e-mail &lt;earthinfo@earthscan. co. uk&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oxfam Publications Gender in Development Organisations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Promoting awareness of women's marginalization demands more than on equal opportunities policy, according to this book. It crows together the experience of organizations working to promote women's full participantion in the development process and looks at obstacles to this goof.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Trade Trap: Poverty and the Global Commodity Markets This book provides on overview of the problems faced by countries that depend on the export of primary commodities, such as coffee and cocoa. It examines the effects of rapid bode liberalization on the livelihoods and natural environments of poor communities and recommends ways in which bode could be regulated to protect their rights. The book also contains a chapter on the outcome of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) and the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from: Oxfam, c/o BEBC, P0 Box 1496, Parkstone, Dorset BH1 3YD, UK, fax +44 1202/715556.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Thousand and One Paths to Empowerment: Coping Strategies of Poor Urban Women in Tunisia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This book describes the strategies used by urban women living in difficult economic and social circumstances. The first part consists of descriptions of the lives of these women, told in their own words. The second is a content analysis and shows how adverse economic circumstances con lead to a shift in gender roles and to a process of empowerment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from: Environnement et developpement du monde probe (ENDA Inter-Arabe) 6 rue Imam Tarmadi, Ksar Said II, 2009 Tunis Tunisia, fax +216-1/582783.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resource Park for Conflict Transformation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This resource pock aims to improve the way people and organizations deal with violent social and political conflict, by increasing their knowledge of conflict and developing their skills in conflict prevention and resolution. The resource pock is available in English and French and will be published in Russian, Spanish and Portuguese.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from: International Alert, 1 Glyn Street, London SE11 5HT, UK, fax +44-171/793 7975, e-mail&lt;intlolert@gn.opr.org&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RRN Newsletter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Relief and Rehabilitation Network (RRN) newsletter features articles, news items, conference reports and information an training courses and publications. Published three times a year, the newsletter is also available on the RRN web site (http:/www.oneworld.org/odi/index.html).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from: RRN Administrator, Relief and Rehabilitation Network, Overseas Development Institute Portland House, Stag Place, London SW1E 5DP, UK, fax +44-171/393 1699, e-mail&lt;rrn@odi.org.uk&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Guide 1997/98</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Guide is a global reference book, which provides analysis from the point of view of Southern countries. Its country listings give detailed profiles, key statistics and indicators with supporting charts, diagrams and maps, as well as sections on major topical global issues. The guide is produced by the Third World Institute in Uruguay, in collaboration with development and campaigning organizations throughout the South.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from: Oxfam, c/o BEBC, PO Box 1496, Parkstone, Dorset BH12 3YD, UK, fax +44-1202/715556.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liaison South</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This newsletter is part of a project to increase Southern NGOs involvement in decentralizing European Union cooperation (EUDC). It provides information on the implications of EU-DC on Southern NGOs, and identifies guidelines and mechanisms for implementing decentralized cooperation, based on examples of successful and failed experiments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from: Debjani Das, NGDO-EU Liaison Committee, 10 Square Ambiorix, B-1000 Brussels, Belgium, fax +32-2/732 1934 or 735 0951, email &lt;ddas@clong.be&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bridges</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This newsletter, published by the Society for International Development (SID), aims to bring SID members closer together by providing the latest information on SID activities worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Available from: The Society for International Development, 207 Via Paninsperna, 1-00184 Rome, Italy, fax +39-6/487 2170, e-mail &lt;s.i.d.@agora.stm.it&gt;.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">InterArction Web Site</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This site contains latest news from, and direct links to, over l SO relief, development and refugee agencies and almost 100 web sites. It keeps track of relevant key legislation in the United States, upcoming hearings and meetings, and NGO polity statements. The site also features Monday Development, the InterAction newsletter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The site ton be accessed at http://www.interaction.org</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO's Tolerance Programme Documents Available an Web Site</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) web site now includes information about its tolerance programme, including relevant UN and UNESCO resolutions and the Declaration of the Principles on Tolerance and Follow-up Plan of Action in French, English and Spanish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The site ton be accessed at http.//www.unesco.org/tolerance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Transnational Foundation for Peace and Future Research Web Site</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This web site offers information, links and guides to peace research, conflict resolution, Yugoslav and Georgian affairs, and global media. It also captains a complete list of the foundation's publications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The web site ton be accessed at http://www.transnational.org</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Forum Foundation Network Web Site</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This web site is for and about NGOs in Central and Eastern Europe. It includes an amine library and discussion lists, as well as links to sources of information, a calendar of events and job opportunities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The web site con be accessed at hthp://www.ngonet.org</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Calendar</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ECOSOC/GENERAL ASSEMBLY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), substantive session, 30 June-25 July, Geneva</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 52nd UN General Assembly, 16 September-December, New York</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Climate Change Convention</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Conference of the Parties, 3rd session, 1-12 December, Kyoto</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Convention on Biological Diversity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Latin American and the Caribbean Regional Meeting on the Clearing-House Mechanism, July (tentative), Montreal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 3rd Meeting of the Subsidiary Body of Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice, 1-5 September, Montreal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Workshop on the Implementation of Article 8j (Traditional Knowledge), 10-14 November (tentative), venue to be determined</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Convention to Combat Desertification</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 10th resumed session, 18-22 August, Geneva</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Conference of the Parties, 1st meeting, 29 September-10 October, Rome</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Global Environment Facility</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 1st meeting of the GEF Assembly, New Delhi, April 1998</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Seabed Authority</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 3rd session of the assembly, 2nd port, 18-29 August, Kingston</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Montreal Protocol on Ozone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Meeting of the Parties, Montreal, 8-18 September</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUMAN RIGHTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Commission on Human Rights, Subcommission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, Working Group on Indigenous Populations, 1 5th session, 28 July-1 August, Geneva</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TRADE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> High Level Meeting on Integrated Initiatives on LDGs' Trade Development, 27-28 October, Geneva</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Commission on Investment, Technology and Related Financial Issues, 2nd session, 29 September-3 October, Geneva</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Trade and Development Board, 44th session, 13-24 October, Geneva</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WOMEN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), 7-27 July, NEW York</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=480>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ECOSOC</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="83%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic and Social Council of the United Nations</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GA </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="83%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Nations General Assembly</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LDC </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="83%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Least Developed Country</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="83%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNCED </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="83%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Nations Conference on Environment and Development</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Guest editorial UNIDO</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauricio de MARIA y Campos</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director GENERAL, UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION (UNIDO)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Links Between NGOs and Industrial Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNIDO and NGOs constitute a complementary and powerful force aiming at the achievement of their common objectives in promoting and assisting industrialization The contribution of industrial and business associations and chambers of commerce and cooperatives to industrial development are equally important as the contribution of development NGOs, technical and professional associations, trade and consumer unions, public interest groups, research and development institutions, foundations and universities. Strengthened collaboration with NGOs could thus provide the opportunity to overcome old constraints in development assistance and facilitate the change towards a more people-centred and self-reliant approach to industrial development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cooperative and innovative approaches between the public and private sector are key factors among the answers to the formidable recent changes in the world economy and their implications for industrial development. The trend of civil society's increasing importance in the development process is the response to peoples growing aspirations for enhanced participation and of the fundamental changes in the political, economic and social environment of developing countries and countries with economies in transition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The democratization process in these countries has been accompanied by state disengagement, price and trade liberalization and privatization, thus leading to a shift away from the public sector towards the private sector. While private sector-led development, deregulation of many economies and liberalization of trade and investment flows have been set in motion and have brought about significant increases in global production, other facts such as increasing development disparities, growing unemployment and widespread poverty still remain. A large number of developing countries, especially African, have not yet been able to reap the benefits of integration into the global economy, and industrial development for them is still far from being a self-sustained and sustainable process. International support continues to be critically required if the two essential ingredients of sustainable development are to be realized, namely social sustainability-through employment creation and poverty alleviation-and environmental sustainability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the light of these developments, the relationships between multilateral organizations, governments and NGOs are undergoing profound change and the need to increase partnerships in a more participatory, decentralized; complementary and non-dominating way is undeniable. Focus on specific issues, strong commitment and flexible institutional arrangements enable NGOs to transcend national boundaries to establish strategic alliances with groups and individuals. Mechanisms aimed at creating further opportunities to enter into and support policy dialogue between intergovernmental organizations, such as UNIDO and Member States and NGOs, need to be further strengthened through regular and substantive exchange of views and enhanced networking. UNIDO responds to this need through the organization of NGO forums to draw on the experience and views of NGOs in order to ensure their inputs at the planning stage of policy formulation and evaluation. The first forum for NGOs in 1995 under the theme of cleaner industrial production was a first step in establishing a solid framework for collaboration in the environmental field and has led to several follow-up activities, such as meetings at the national level jointly organized with NGOs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGO involvement in UNIDO programmes and projects at the country level ensures a full, coherent and realistic understanding and appreciation of the problems related to industrial development and allows UNIDO to respond more adequately to client needs and to specific situations. This participatory approach is achieved through the promotion of partnership and subcontracting arrangements, the implementation of projects concentrating on capacity-building for NGOs and training programmes. Networking with NGOs also helps to generate a broad-based participation of people and high level of awareness on sustainable development issues at the country level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The private sector is a fundamental player in industrial development, including the promotion of micro, small- and medium-sized industries (SMls). NGOs, especially small industry and business associations, play an important role in SMI development by organizing joint services and providing facilities, by improving access to services in areas of management, marketing, technology, training and finance, and by representing SMl's interest in policy and regulatory matters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Institutional capacities need to be created, such as regulatory measures in the environmental field and industrial extension seances relating to technology, and industry-specific training in the case of human resources development. Especially in developing countries with private sectors lacking an effective institutional framework and large informal industrial economies, building capacity within NGOs is an area of priority for international and national partnerships. NGO contributions are increasingly recognized, but parallely expected to provide high quality, reliability and accountability while being more solution-oriented. The successful implementation of jointly developed activities-in objectively verifiable terms-has also become the basis for further cooperation and the mobilization of resources. In this context greater involvement of NGOs in developing, implementing and evaluating industrial policies, programmes and projects appears essential.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The only viable long-term solution to the twin issues of unemployment and poverty lies in the building up of competitive productive capacities, whether at the micro-business or at the large industry levels. From all historical evidence, industry plays a pivotal role in advancing technology, increasing productivity, nurturing entrepreneurship and generating a broad range of critical skills-all of which converge to. increase a country's standard of living.</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/pcs01e/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/pcs01e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/pcs01e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Marine fisheries case studies (pcs01e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Fishery and Aquaculture|Fishing techniques and equipment</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">Peace Corps</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">L-M-N-O-P</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">learn from past marine fisheries case studies from the Peace Corps</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/pcs01e/pcs01e.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/pcs01e/pcs01e.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/pcs01e/pcs01e.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1934 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC2&gt;&gt; Marine fisheries case studies</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Marine fisheries case studies</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARILYN S. CHAKROFF AND RANDOM DuBOIS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Contents</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Acknowledgements (I)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Introduction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About the Authors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Acknowledgments (II)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Past Peace Corps Activity in Marine Fisheries</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia and the Pacific</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin America and the Caribbean</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. The Case Studies</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chile Case Study</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El Salvador Case Study</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines Case Study</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Togo Case Study</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa Case Study</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Future of Peace Corps Marine Fisheries Programs</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Factors That Determine Success</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Planning for the Future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Task Analysis: Village-level Marine Fisheries Development Programs</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apendices</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appendix A: Limitations of Data</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appendix B: List of All Past Peace Corps Marine Fisheries Projects</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bibliography</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgements (I)</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This publication was produced for Peace Corps by TransCentury Corporation, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Information Collection and Exchange </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Case Studies C 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">March 1981</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">April 1982</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARINE FISHERIES PROGRAMMING GUIDE October, 1980</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prepared for the Peace Corps by TransCentury Corporation under Contract No. 79-043-1029</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=460>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">The Peace Corps Internet Web Site address: </P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">http://www.peacecorps.gov</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">Please note the new Peace Corps Mailing Address from July 1998 on is:</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">ICE/ Peace Corps</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">1111 20th Street N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">Washington, DC 20526</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marine Fisheries Programmes Guide</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This guide was developed to aid Peace Corps country staff members who are interested in programming marine fisheries projects. Although marine fisheries projects are not new to Peace Corps, today's Peace Corps staff members may not be aware of the history of marine fisheries efforts in their country. For this reason, Chapter 1 outlines all past marine fisheries projects initiated by Peace Corps, based upon information available in Peace Corps/Washington files and communication from country staff members. Although more written information may be available, Chapter 1 does</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">provide the staff member with enough information to locate and interview host country government officials who may remember the specific project and its results. With this kind of information, staff members will be able to plan future marine fisheries projects that avoid the mistakes made in the past.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chapter 2 looks at specific case studies of five countries, giving a more in-depth review of the problems and successes of past marine fisheries projects. Much of the information obtained for these case studies is the result of personal communication with RPCVs who served in those projects, and thus these studies reflect their perceptions and views.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chapter 3 builds on the preceeding chapters by outlining general criteria for success of future Peace Corps marine fisheries programming, and outlines the types of projects that can utilize skilltrained volunteers. It includes a task analysis for village-level fisheries development that lists the skills needed for various aspects of such a program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is hoped that the information in this guide can be coupled with technical programming and training assistance and support to develop relevant Peace Corps marine fisheries projects for the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">About the Authors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marilyn S. Chakroff, the senior author, has been working in and writing about fisheries for eight years. She is the author of Freshwater Fish Pond Culture and Management as well as various technical reports, evaluations, pamphlets, and brochures, and wrote the script for the film, Techniques in Induced Spawning. Ms. Chakroff works as a free-lance environmental and fisheries consultant, and her clients have included the Peace Corps, Volunteers in Technical Assistance, the Library of Congress, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Agency for International Development, and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. As a Peace Corps volunteer in the Philippines, Ms. Chakroff worked as a fisheries biologist and researcher. She holds a Bachelor of Science degree in Biology, and a Master of Science degree in Environmental Communications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Random DuBois has worked in marine science for nine years. He conducted research on topics varying from assessing the environmental impacts of oil exploration in Alaskan waters to the feasibility of offshore sandmining in the Virgin Islands. As a Peace Corps volunteer in Chile, Mr. Dubois investigated the Chilean abalone and worked with Peace Corps staff to redefine the country's fisheries programs. Mr. Dubois presently works for the Island Resources Foundation, U.S. Virgin Islands. He holds a Bachelor of Arts degree in Biology, and Master of Science degrees in Oceanography and Marine Affairs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments (II)</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with any report of this nature, many people have contributed to the final document. Thanks are due especially to the returned Peace Corps volunteers who were contacted for information, and to the staffs of the ACTION library, the Office of Programming and Training Coordination, ICE, and Country</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Desk Units at Peace Corps Washington.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, we are especially grateful to Val Mezainis, Peace Corps Fisheries Program Specialist, without whose support and continuing interest the project would not have been conceived or completed. We are grateful also to Paul Chakroff, Chief of TransCentury's Natural Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Division, for his guidance and coordination throughout the writing and research of this document. Among the other people who contributed to this report thanks are given to Pamela Ball, TransCentury Program Associate, and David Carey, returned PCV, for their patience and long hours spent telephoning volunteers and to Esther Perry and Rose Burgess for the care they have taken in the lay-out and typing of this manuscript. Finally, thanks are due to all the reviewers at Peace Corps and TransCentury who freely gave of their time to make this a more useful document.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1. Past Peace Corps Activity in Marine Fisheries</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Peace Corps has been involved in marine fisheries development since 1962, beginning with its first fisheries program in Togo. During the 18 years since, Peace Corps has worked in over 45 marine fisheries projects in 29 countries. Some of these projects have been successful, while others were considered failures. All of these projects reflected the prevailing Peace Corps philosophy at the time, with early projects focused on teaching new fishing techniques and demonstrating new types of fishing gear to small coastal fisherman, while later projects involved highly skilled volunteers conducting research and teaching at universities. With Peace Corps' current focus on basic human needs, fisheries development continues as an area where volunteers can make significant contributions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although Peace Corps has a long history of marine fisheries activity, there has not been one single source of information about such Peace Corps projects. To remedy this situation, Peace Corps has undertaken an inventory and analysis of all past Peace Corps efforts in marine fisheries. This inventory lists marine fisheries activities in Peace Corps countries around the world, giving a short description when such information was available. By identifying past successes and failures in marine fisheries, it is hoped that the inventory will benefit future Peace Corps planning and programing in the marine fisheries field</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following inventory lists marine fisheries projects and programs by country and by region. Appendix B lists the projects in tabular form, while information used to compile the inventory is listed in the bibliography.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Africa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps first entered Kenya in 1965 with a program emphasizing secondary education. Though PC/Kenya provided assistance in marine fisheries, participation was largely through individual placements usually in a teaching capacity such as museum assignments and a lectureship at the University of Nairobi. In the period 1972 to 1977, there were four Peace Corps Volunteers (PCVs) teaching and conducting research in various aspects of marine biology and mariculture through the Smithsonian/ Peace Corps Environmental Program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research species were the native prawn and spiny lobster. These projects lasted through 1978 and were considered a limited success. At present emphasis in fisheries is directed towards freshwater fish culture extension programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritius</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the period 1972 to 1976, PC/Mauritius participated in two projects related to marine fisheries. Through the Department of Fisheries three to five volunteers conducted research in the basic biology of the native oyster and shrimp and manipulation of environmental parameters to enhance their respective growth rates. Recruitment of these volunteers was aided by the Smithsonian Institute. A second project, designated the Rodrigues Project, provided volunteer assistance to the fishermen's cooperatives. Activities included the construction of salting and drying stations. The PC/Mauritius program was terminated at the request of the government of Mauritius in 1976.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morocco</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between the years 1966 and 1973 PC/Morocco placed 255 volunteers in agricultural and fisheries projects though marine fisheries participation was minor. From 1971 to 1973 two PCV's recruited by the Smithsonian Institution were placed with the Ministry of Agriculture. Their activities were concentrated in the area of basic research on marine fish and shellfish. At the end of FY 1977 a few volunteers continued to be involved in marine biology research though this participation was described a waste of talent due to the over qualifications of the volunteers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Senegal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PC/Senegal participated in a pilot fishing cooperative during the years 1968 to 1971. Though the project was considered a mild success, the reasons for its success were not documented and the project was not continued.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sierra Leone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PC/Sierra Leone's involvement in marine fisheries has been minor and less than successful. In 1964 five volunteers arrived to work on Sherbo Island off the mainland. Their objective was to work with outboard motor maintenance and repair. The effort was considered a failure as they discovered that, with the exception of 12 fishermen, all the islanders were rice farmers. The project was ill-conceived and the PCVs either terminated or transferred to new positions. There is some evidence that PC/Sierra Leone again became involved in the sector with the placement of two to three volunteers with the Division of Fisheries during the years 197273. The placements requested were a boat builder and a marine engineer. As in other African countries, by 1977 PC/Sierra Leone began to move into the area of pond fisheries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Togo was the first country in which Peace Corps attempted to initiate a marine fisheries development program. In the first PC group of volunteers to arrive in Togo in 1962, eight of the 47 were designated for a marine fisheries project and had previous commercial fishing experience. The general objective of their placement was to work with coastal fishermen to improve existing and introduce new fishing techniques and technology. By 1963 only three volunteers remained in the marine fisheries area. This attrition was largely attributed to poor programming and lack of job definition. A similar fate was suffered by the second generation of PCV's, attributed this time to "washouts" and conflicts with the local FAO fisheries expert. As a result of these experiences, PC/Togo began to concentrate its effort in freshwater fisheries in 1966.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Asia and the Pacific</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between the years 1970-73 Fiji placed 15 volunteers in agriculture and fishery projects. In 1970 four PCVs worked to establish small fishery units before a phase out in 1971. Other areas of involvement were diesel engine maintenance and repair, and fish preparation, storage and marketing strategies. During these years the Smithscnian Institution recruited actively for volunteers in the research area, principally for increasing production of lagoons and estuaries and development of the skipjack tuna resource. These efforts were maintained through FY 1975 before what appeared to be a gradual phasing out occurred. At present there are one or two PCVs working primarily in the area of outboard motor maintenance and repair and boat construction. Though undocumented, it may be that lack of adequate in-country support structures prevented optimal results.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iran</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps was invited to Iran in 1962. Projects at that time were in agriculture, education and health. A change in focus first occurred in 1968 upon the recognition by the Iranian government of pollution and living resource depletion in the Caspian Sea. Between 1968 and 1973, 10 volunteers were involved in a project designed to develop and introduce new research methodologies, improve research capabilities and develop and implement management programs for commercial fishing. This program was later broadened in scope and maintained an average of five to eight volunteers working in the Ministry of Agriculture and Department of Environmental Conservation. The PC/Iran program was terminated in 1976. The Smithsonian Institution recruited for several of the Peace Corps positions in Iran.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volunteers have assisted in fisheries in Malaysia since 1963. Between 1963 and 1973 eight volunteers worked in fisheries research and development though it is not clear if this was solely oriented towards marine fisheries. The most significant accomplishment during this period was a two-volume cost/ earnings survey of Malaysian trawl fisheries by five PCVs serving from 1968 - 1970. This survey was utilized for policy planning by the Malaysian government. It appears an attempt was made for PC/Malaysia involvement with generalist volunteers to participate in the organization of multipurpose fisheries cooperatives. As this effort was in a subsector of agriculture and community development, no specific numbers were obtained. In 1972 Malaysia requested PCVs to assist in the development and expansion of offshore fisheries. PC declined to fill the requests due to the urgent need for other programs and jobs. In 1976 a fisherman as an individual placement served as an instructor aboard a trawler for practical training of students. At present there are two functioning projects. The Sabah fisheries development project placed five PCVs in FY 1977 to assist the Fisheries Department of Sabah in areas of fish culture, lobster fishing and oyster and seaweed culture. Three more volunteers were budgeted for FY 1979. The second project indicates that PC/ Malaysia is moving away from marine fisheries to fish culture. With only one volunteer currently working in the program, nine were projected to be working in FY 1979. Currently PC/Malaysia is surveying the potential for involvement in marine fisheries in Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Micronesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps involvement in the Trust Territories resulted in varying degrees of success and failure in regards to marine fisheries development. Between 1966 and 1972, 53 PCVs served in a fish marketing project. This project was joined by a second in 1967 concerned with research on commercial fish species. That program involved 23 PCVs between the year of initiation and 1973. A third program focusing on fishery cooperative assistance was initiated in 1968. This program divided 15 PCVs among the Islands of Truk Ponape and Palau. volunteers Despite these efforts, an evaluation in 1973 described the fisheries program as one of the worst in the Trust Territories largely as a result of lack of support structures working to properly utilize the PCV skills. Since that time the trend has been Currently, for PC/Micronesia to confine itself to special placements in pilot programs. At present PC/ Micronesia is operating with at least three PCVs in the marine fisheries sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Though the agreement between PC/ Philippines and the Department of d Agriculture and Natural Resources took place in 1971 it was not until 1973 that host agencies requested</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">volunteers to work in the field of marine fisheries. As all PC/ Philippines fishery programs grew and diversified, activities in the marine sector expanded to include research, mariculture and fisheries extension. In 1975 - 1976 there were 25 PCVs working in fisheries of which six were in fisheries research and seven in fisheries regional planning. As a result of the Philippines Expanded Production Program additional PCVs were requested in FY 1976. In regards to research, the increased number of PCVs were recruited to work with the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR), as well as other government and university entities. Highly skilled PCVs were requested including oceanographers and planktologists. Fisheries planners also were requested to work with the Plan and Program Unit of BFAR to be placed throughout the geographical regions of the country. In addition to these, in FY 1972 recruitment in the marine fisheries area expanded to industrial and municipal fisheries (engineers) as well as oceanographers and marine biologists. In 1978 PC/Philippines initiated its first in-country technical training program involing 39 trainees designated to work in fisheries development. Marine research continues to be a component of the fisheries development project though it remains small compared to the freshwater fishery component. The Smithsonian has been involved in at least seven PCV placements in various aspects of marine fisheries. The marine fisheries projects in the Philippines have been judged to be effective largely due to excellent host country support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solomon Islands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1977, there have been several small programs in the marine fisheries field in the Solomon Islands. Four volunteers are working in programs to expand local marine products gathering and consumption and to organize fish sales locally for cash income. Volunteers and their counterparts have organized groups of fishermen to provide a continuing supply of fish to a subdistrict center, and have developed a system to deliver ice to villages, store fish, pick up and transport fish to the center and sell them locally from a fish market. In one other program, a volunteer and his counterpart have been working at the country's only turtle sanctuary in tagging and culturing turtles and developing a system for educating local people in conservation and wise use of turtle stocks. Two additional volunteers recruited by the Smithsonian Institution have been working on a UNDP bait fish development scheme to support large scale production of bait fish for the tuna fleets. More volunteers are expected in marine fisheries projects in 1980.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first PC/Tonga involvement in marine fisheries ended in 1972 after 10 months when the volunteers were evacuated because of medical problems. Nevertheless the turtle project with which they were involved was considered a success. From 1972 through 1975 there was only one PCV working in marine fisheries. In FY 1974 their were two PCV's participating in fisheries development/cooperatives The Smithsonian also participated in recruitment efforts for PC/ Tonga placing two PCVs in oyster mariculture and marine extension activities. At present there are two volunteers involved in expanding the fisheries development cooperatives with the assistance of a grant through the Foundation for the Peoples of the South Pacif A third volunteer has successfully launched a Marine Parks Reserve Program and is training two rangers. The fourth volunteer is involved in fisheries research, identifying locally caught fish, assessing the economics of bottom fishing, and developing an industry to smoke popular fish to increase their market potential.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PC/Western Samoa first entered into marine fisheries development in 1970. Four projects were identified for recruitment: fisheries association development, turtle research, skipjack tuna development and prototype ferroconcrete boat building. Levels of PCV input were projected to increase from four in 1971 to ten by 1974. Though it is not clear what evolved in each individual project, PC involvement continued with enough success to introduce a new village level fisheries program in FY 1975. PCVs trained in marine mechanics worked with local fishermen in the repair and maintenance of outboard engines. These programs continued through FY 1977 with apparent success though since that time it appears efforts have been directed more toward freshwater fisheries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Latin America and the Caribbean</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belize</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps involvement in fisheries was never major in Belize, usually occurring as a component of other programs such as food supply or rural development. With the exception of the involvement of two volunteers in 1962/63 with a previously established lobster cooperative, no other direct Peace Corps involvement in fisheries occurred during the 1960's. A second period of activity occurred in the early 1970's with individual placements in the agricultural omnibus program as it related to fishing cooperatives. In addition, PCVs have worked in research designed to increase exports of conch and other living marine resources. This research included studies in the field biology and dynamics of reef fish. This area was recruited for by the Smithsonian Institution. Two explanations have been offered for lack of PC/Belize participation in marine fisheries. One suggests that the presence of other international organizations working in the sector precluded significant PC contributions. The second maintains that the Belize government has never placed a high priority on requesting volunteer support in fisheries. At present, there are indications PC/Belize is focusing more on freshwater fisheries development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Though PC has been in Brazil since 1962 it did not become involved with the Supervision of Fisheries Development (SUDEPE) until 1966. This Brazilian agency was created to stimulate the development of the fishing industry and provide assistance to small fishermen. PC first became active in the sector with five volunteer pilot projects designed to assist the small fishermen through development of fishing colonies followed by cooperatives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Activities included medical help, outboard motor maintenance repair and boat building. This pilot group was followed by a group of 32 volunteers who were to work in the states of Guanabara and Rio. At the end of 1968 there were 27 volunteers working at 14 sites. The project continued to grow with 32 active PCV's placed in the states of Rio, Espirto Santo, and Minas Gerias. Seventeen others were projected to work in Pirapona and Minas Gerias in 1970. The fisheries cooperative project was joined by the Santa Catarina fisheries project in 1972. In that project PCV's were engaged to conduct research in shrimp culture, train counterparts and participate in fishery extension activities. In addition to these activities, individual placements were recruited for research in the area of marine pollution at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte. From the mid1970's Peace Corps activity appeared to go into decline as the 1976-77 country Management Plan no longer cited recruitment figures for the marine fishery sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central American Fisheries Program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In response to widespread malnutrition, unemployment, and under-and irrational exploitation of living marine resources, the Central American Economic Council (CEC), composed of Panama, Honduras, E1 Salvador, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua, requested help from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. In 1966, the CEC created a Department of Fisheries (CCDP) composed of national fisheries department representatives from each country to act as the counterpart to FAO. The goal of this union was to improve methods of production, harvesting, processing and marketing, solve nutrition problems, and promote growth of commercial fishing industries. Recognition by FAO and the countries involved of Peace Corps' previous experience in Central America resulted in a formal request for Peace Corps participation. Separate requests were made by each national fishery agency for groups of PCV,s to work in some aspect of the host country's fishery sector. The project began operating in 1965 and was designed to terminate in mid-1971 when the CCDP would replace FAO. PC involvement ran from 1968 through the scheduled termination date. Two cycles of PCVs arrived in their respective countries during that time period. Whereas the PC staff and the first group of PCV's had little knowledge of what to expect, the second group was more selectively placed in sites with greater potential. The initial regional effort amounted to approximately 45 volunteers in six countries in all aspects of the fishing sector. There has been a great deal of documentation of the overall project and the concept of developing fisheries on a regional basis. The program was not considered a success and degenerated to a series of six separate projects. This has been attributed in varying degrees to: poor PC programming; failure to define FAO, PC, and host country ~ roles; ineffective training; inadequate incountry staff and inadequate support by host country agencies. Peace Corps continued its involvement in marine fisheries development after FAO's withdrawal only when so requested by the host country. Individual PC projects under the Central American Fisheries Program in Panama, Honduras, E1 Salvador, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua are discussed under those country headings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chile was one of the first countries where marine fishery development was recognized as a priority and actively pursued by Peace Corps. PC/Chile involvement was initiated by two volunteers placed between 1961 and 1966 with INACAP, a technical training institute. After this period the program grew and in 1968 an agreement was reached between the Ministry of Agriculture and PC/Chile to recruit 10 marine biologists to work with the agency in basic research and expansion of the fishery industry. The marine fishery development project continued to expand and by 1973 between 75 and 100 volunteers had served in the program. Despite the large numbers and longevity of the program, it has been defined as a limited success because of a failure to reach the poor due to such factors as lack of technical expertise, lack of in-country support, weak economic conditions, lack of staff expertise, and improper or lack of preparation before PCV arrival. All PC/Chile programs were cut radically or terminated during 1972-74. By 1974, individual placement volunteers with special skills, often recruited through the Smithsonian/Peace Corps program, again were being utilized by PC/Chile. By 1978 placement came full cycle as the placement of highly skilled individuals was supplanted by a greater effort to work in fishery extension. At present PC/Chile involvement in marine fisheries is being phased out due to several reasons including: volunteer frustrations expressed in recommendations not to be replaced long and record in marine fisheries, and the recognition of other areas of documented success which more easily justifies PC/Chile participation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The PC/Colombia program was so large and wide ranging one must assume it came in contact with marine fisheries at one time or another. Unfortunately, the only documentation encountered that supports this assumption outlines minor efforts with fishing communities in the large cooperative project in Colombia. These efforts were made in the mid-1960s to assist cooperatives along the Pacific Coast in the Departments of Choco and Valle. The only other documentation of PC/Colombia participation in the sector indicates that a few volunteers worked in salt water fish research in 1973 and another volunteer was involved in ornamental fish research on the north coast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Preceding the Central American Fisheries Program there appears to have been no involvement in marine fisheries by PC/Costa Rica. In 1969 PC/Costa Rica participated in a cooperative program with the objective of providing business expertise to a wide diversity of sectors including fishing cooperatives. In response to a request from Costa Rica six volunteers were placed as a result of the regional fisheries project. Two volunteers worked with the university while the rest worked in the field. Due to many of the problems cited common to the regional project as a whole, the program was not a success and was not continued. By the early 1970's emphasis was placed on freshwater fish culture and this continues to the present.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PC/Dominican Republic's first experience with marine fisheries was less than successful. In a program initiated in 1964, 11 trainees were recruited as fishermen to work with the local fishing communities. Of the 11, four left during training, two terminated prior to completion of service, and two transferred into freshwater fisheries projects. The various reasons offered for the project's demise were poor planning, careless selection, weak training and failure to involve the community. One favorable aspect of the project was the introduction of small outboard motors in the fishing community of Sanchez. After this initial effort in the sector, there appeared to be no other activity until the early 1970's when a small program in conjunction with IDECOOP was considered. In 1975, three PCVs were placed to organize a model pilot fishing cooperative to assist fishermen in processing, preserving and marketing their products. This program appears to be continuing to the present with five volunteers involved in coops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eastern Caribbean</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The only documentation of placement in marine fisheries was a boat builder recruited for Antigua in 1976.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ecuador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The only reported involvement of PC/Ecuador in marine fisheries was the placement of one volunteer with the national fisheries agency in 1974. At that time it was suggested Peace Corps could provide technical assistance in commercial fishing techniques. There is no evidence that this suggestion was acted on at any level of significance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Though PC has been involved in E1 Salvador since 1962 it was not until seven volunteers arrived to work with the Ministry of Economy in connection with the regional fisheries project that PC/ET Salvador became involved in marine fisheries. The primary tasks of three PCVs were to work with a newlyformed fish cooperative and demonstrate new fishing gear. This was considered a pilot fish coop and the cooperative/coop sharing programs. Honduras' response to the regional fisheries program was to request 10 volunteers to participate in a coop/fisheries development project situated at five sites. The requests were filled and volunteers placed and the project generally was considered a successful one. This was attributed to the placement of qualified volunteers, strong staff capabilities and a supportive host country agency. One project that continued from this initial effort was the north coast fishing project with five PCVs working in it from 1970 to 1973. The overall objectives were to improve fishing techniques and raise food production. Programs of this type continued with the Department of Renewable Resources in Honduras through the 1970's but appear to have been replaced by freshwater fishery projects in 19781979.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jamaica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PC/Jamaica's only involvement in marine fisheries took place in the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">middle to late 1960's. The primary purpose of placement of the five to six volunteers in the cooperatives program was to introduce the use of fiberglass boats and motors designed to replace the traditional cottonwood canoes. This, it was hoped, would allow the fishermen to fish beyond the coral reefs. This project continued into 1968 with the participation of seven volunteers. There were no further evaluations to determine the fate of the project though PC/Jamaica activity ln cooperatives was documented into the early 1970s. At present PC/Jamaica activity appears to be focused on inland fish pond culture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marine fisheries has never been a priority in Nicaragua with PC effort directed to the artisinal fisherman of Lake Nicaragua. The six volunteers trained for the Central American Fisheries Program arrived to find the in-country fisheries division abolished. They were reassigned to INFONAC (Department of Fisheries) but found it more oriented to the lake research project. There appears to be no future for PC involvement in marine fisheries in Nicaragua.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps was involved in fishing cooperatives in Panama as early as 1966. The level of involvement averaged three to five volunteers until the start of the Central American Fisheries Program. Ten PCVs were assigned to Panama including five generalists, a fishing technician, a biologist, a market analyst, and a food processor. The program was considered the most successful in the six countries. This success was attributed to clear objectives, adequate support, qualified volunteers, and a reasonably developed fishing industry. Two major projects consisted of working in the Chorrillo fishing cooperatives and working in general artisan fishing development at five sites in Panama. The programs were cancelled with the termination of Peace Corps/Panama in the early 1970s.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Though Peace Corps first entered Peru in 1962 it was not until 1965 that PC/Peru embarked on a program of cooperative assistance. Between 1965 and 1973 140 volunteers worked in the cooperatives project. The emphasis was on general rural and urban cooperative development and documentation of specific fishery cooperative efforts was found. Negotiations were in progress with the Ministry of Fisheries for PC/ Peru participation in marine fisheries when all PC activities were terminated by the Ministry of Foreign Relations. Direct PC/Peru activity in fisheries prior to termination appeared to be limited to a few freshwater hatchery</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2. The Case Studies</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marine fisheries projects require several kinds of support to be successful. When such support is available, projects have a greater chance of success. When such support is not available, projects may not succeed as well or may fail to meet the objectives set for the project. In order to determine whether and how to continue to work in marine fisheries development, the Peace Corps chose five countries from the inventory in Chapter I for case study. The five case studies detailed here were chosen to illustrate the kinds of factors that influence the success of marine fisheries development projects. The projects within each country were evaluated to discover their strengths and weaknesses in the hope that future programs and plans will benefit from the evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Chile Case Study</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p021.png"></center><br>
+ Image</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Weil, Thomas E. et.al. 1969. Area Handbook for Chile. Foreign Area Studies, The American University, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chile is a long, thin country that stretches 2,650 miles from its northern borders with Bolivia and Peru to the southern tip of South America along the Pacific Ocean. Only 110 miles wide on the average, Chile encompasses landscapes and climates that vary from desert where no rainfall has ever been recorded, to tundra inhabited only by penguins. Santiago, the capital city founded by the Spanish in 1541, is located in Chile's central valley. A Spanish colony for three centuries, Chile fought for her independence along with her neighbors, and by 1823 was a free, united country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chile is one of the most sophisticated countries in South America, with a literacy rate of over 90% and a labor force that contains large numbers of highlytrained professionals. Mining of copper, iron, and nitrates accounts for more than 80% of Chile's export earnings, while agriculture accounts for only 10%. Traditionally, agriculture in Chile consisted of a small number of very large farms. Eighty percent of the viable land was taken up by only 7% of the country's farms. Since 1972, land reform has been breaking up large farms into smaller parcels worked by farm families. However, due to a lack of investment and inadequate mechanization, these small farms do not produce as much as the larger farms did previously. As a result, Chile imports much of its food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although very developed in some ways, today Chile still has 2 to 3 million people who live in extreme poverty. Services for the poor recently have been reduced or eliminated in an effort to decrease inflation, and as result, malnutrition, unemployment and poverty-related diseases are on the rise. Recognizing these problems, Chile began requesting Peace Corps volunteers to work in agriculture programs in 1962. Volunteers first began working with fishermen in 1964.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fisheries in Chile: An Overwiew</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chile had a very highly developed commercial fishing industry, and fishing for such species as tuna, mackerel, flounder, swordfish, bluefish, and king crab was important to the economy in the 1960's. One of Chile's major exports was the anchovy, or anchoveta, which was ground up and sold as fish meal and used in animal feed. High anchovy yields were attributed to the presence of cold, nutrient-rich waters along the shore. These productive waters, a result of coastal upwelling, were driven by prevailing southerly winds along the Chilean and Peruvian coastline. The anchovy catch in Chile, however, was unpredictable due to a phenomenon called "E1 Nino." This phenomenon was created by a change in wind direction to a northerly wind which resulted in displacement of the colder waters by warmer, nutrient poor water. Anchovy populations were reduced either by migration to the preferred colder waters or by direct kill. Chile's commercial species were subject to unpredictable changes such as El Nino, and as a result, fishermen would overfish traditional grounds when fish were available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of Chile's fishing, however, was still done by small fishermen working just off the coast in small boats up to 30 feet in length. The fishermen were encouraged to belong to the fishing cooperatives, and in 1966 Chile had 38 legally-operating cooperatives along the coast. Each cooperative had from 10 to 30 boats, called faluchos, equipped with either marine diesel motors or sails. Fishermen who were members of cooperatives handed over their catch to the cooperative, which sold the fish in the public market or directly to a client at the dock. The cooperative thus effectively eliminated the middleman,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">and ensured a better profit to the fishermen. Most fishermen also needed help in fishing techniques and methods, and the cooperatives needed assistance in accounting and other basic management skills. Commercial fishermen needed more information on the biology of important fish species and other marine resources. Two volunteers worked with fishing cooperatives from 1964 to 1966, and as a result of their successes, Chile requested its first group of marine fisheries volunteers from the Peace Corps in 1966.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Involvement with Chilean Fisheries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first group of marine fisheries volunteers for Chile was recruited by Peace Corps late in 1966. This group of 19 volunteers was trained at the University of New Mexico and at Humboldt State College in California, where they received intensive training in fisheries and in the operation of Chilean fishing cooperatives. The volunteers had little background or experience in fishing, although several had degrees in accounting or business. The volunteers were requested by the Instituto de Desarrollo Agropecuario (INDAP), the country's agricultural development agency, although they were to be assigned to individual cooperatives and were responsible to the cooperatives rather than to INDAP.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Peace Corps contracted with Humboldt State College to provide technical services to these volunteers once they were in the field. This included providing a technical consultant stationed in Chile. This consultant was a returned Peace Corps volunteer who had experience in rural areas and could communicate easily with Chilean government officials. He worked as a technical Peace Corps staff person for the entire two-year period that this group was incountry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prior to each volunteer's arrival at their sites, INDAP sent a letter to each cooperative explaining who the volunteer was, what he was expected to do, and what the Peace Corps objectives were. The Peace Corps also informed cooperatives of the volunteers' arrival through site visits by the Humboldt State representative. Although nearly every cooperative was expecting a volunteer, their reception varied greatly. Some volunteers were met by their cooperative leaders, introduced to all coop members, and given a place to stay, while others had to go find the coop representative by themselves. In general, volunteers were wellreceived and cooperative members looked forward to working with them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each volunteer was given a letter of introduction from INDAP's Central Office in Santiago to their field representatives in the area of each cooperative. There was some confusion among the volunteers as to which division of INDAP they were supposed to work with. The original Peace Corps agreement had been with INDAP's Subdivision de Asistencia Cooperativa, which provided cooperative assistance to both agricultural and fishing cooperatives. Another section, the Division de Asistencia Tecnica y Crediticia, provided financial and technical aid to cooperative members. The Subdivision only had two full-time and two part time field representatives, while the Division had between eight and twelve field representatives with whom volunteers had more contact. Both sections felt they should be the only ones working with volunteers. However, since the Subdivision had requested the volunteers, they were responsible to that agency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another problem that surfaced resulted from the fact that INDAP only recently had been given responsibility for fishing cooperatives. As a result, no formal plan existed for the development of fishing cooperatives or for utilization of the volunteers. Other agencies in Chile were working with fishing communities as well, such as the Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), the Institute for Fisheries Development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volunteers often worked with several fisheries agencies and found themselves torn between them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In each of their cooperatives, volunteers gained acceptance at first simply by going fishing with cooperative members. Most volunteers were able to gain the confidence of coop members and found it easy to move into discussions about the coop, participate in coop meetings, and make suggestions to solve some of their problems. Volunteers were able to establish new cooperative business filing systems, teach new fishing skills, train cooperative members in accounting and basic management skills, and create a greater sense of unity among members. Volunteers developed a simple manual on accounting, slide shows and other educational aids for fishermen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most volunteers felt that their success depended greatly upon their ability to communicate in Spanish. Those who were fluent had less difficulty working with cooperatives than those who had trouble speaking. During the two-year tour, four volunteers left the country, and three changed their job sites. Volunteers with technical backgrounds felt that people with community development training were needed to work on fishing communities as a whole, while volunteers with community development training believed more technical volunteers were needed. However, for the most part all of these volunteers were considered to be successful, and INDAP anticipated using more volunteers in fishing cooperatives. There is some evidence that over 60 volunteers participated in INDAP's cooperative program during a seven year period, but little information is available to describe the program or its results.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Second Group Volunteers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A second group of marine fisheries volunteers was requested in 1968 by the Institute for Fisheries Development (IFOP) to act as samplers gathering data in seaports on the catch of commercial and artisanal fishermen. Peace Corps recruited 16 volunteers for IFOP in 1969. This group of volunteers was trained at the University of Washington in fish marketing, fish processing, statistical techniques used in Chile, classification of Chilean fishes, use of fish gear in commercial fisheries, fish management, and the microbiology of fish spoilage. When this program was planned, Peace Corps didn't know if marine biologists with the necessary skills would be available, so their Job descriptions were very vague. At the end of recruiting, however, it was clear that the volunteers were highly skilled, so the job descriptions were rewritten for more technical positions within IFOP. These volunteers were switched from mere data-gathering to active research. However, this switch did not occur until two months of training already had taken place training which was no longer relevant to the jobs the volunteers would have.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When these volunteers arrived in September of 1969, they were assigned to the Natural Resources Division of IFOP. This division consisted of four sections biology, stock assessment and assistance, shellfish, and distribution and abundance. Within each section, volunteers were treated as employees of IFOP, responsible to the Chilean in charge. Volunteers worked with Chilean scientists on projects such as research on the life history and abundance of commercially important mollusks, crustacea and fish; population dynamics of important commercial fish species; and special research related to the degrees of each volunteer. Volunteers also worked on the development of a computer program to inprovo the analysis of catch statistics for IFOP.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This project had several problems, however, because it was not well defined from the beginning. Volunteers often found themselves assigned to projects that did not exist, or which had no funding for equipment. Local supervisors were not consulted about volunteers nor even told of the volunteers' arrival. Four volunteers assigned to IFOP moved to universities where they got support to do research on the use of algae for fertilizer, and the biology and life history of halce, a common Chilean fish. Volunteers also had trouble working with Chilean scientists because of differing attitudes towards research. The volunteers were considered by the Chileans to be cold, unemotional people, an attribute that is not favorable in Chilean eyes, while the volunteers found Chilean scientists to have a different educational focus and a lack of interest in their research. Thus there was animosity between volunteers and their counterparts. This was exacerbated by the fact that many volunteers felt they were taking jobs away from qualified Chilean professionals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Support from Peace Corps also appeared inadequate. The only Peace Corps staff person with an interest in fisheries projects, the Humboldt State College representative, left the country one month after this group of volunteers arrived, and there was no one to take his place. Volunteers felt that Peace Corps was responsible for their inappropriate training, their lack of jobs and support from IFOP, and felt that Peace Corps had given them misleading information about the status of research in Chile. In general, these volunteers were dissatisfied, but even so were able to contribute to the scientific development of Chilean fisheries. Apparently IFOP felt volunteers had made valuable contributions because they requested six more volunteers to work in the Technology Division in 1970.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Third Group of Volunteers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1970 IFOP became more interested in the use of fish and fish products to provide the necessary protein in people's diets. They requested volunteers to work in nutrition, food science, microbiology, and chemical engineering. Their objectives were to increase the utilization of products of the fishing industry, promote export of fish products, create new sources of employment, and train Chileans in food science and technology, nutrition, and microbiology of foods. The volunteers were to work as part of teams doing research in IFOP laboratories. These teams were to achieve the IFOP objectives by improving existing fish products, methods and techniques of fish processing; developing new products and increasing quality and variety of food produced in Chile; lowering production costs and initiating quality control; and promoting the fish products industry. It is not clear if these volunteers were recruited and sent to Chile. However, there are detailed job descriptions available that indicate the positions were given much thought. Presumably volunteers with these skills were found and placed in these fields</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volunteers with Special Skills</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting with the highly-skilled marine biologists recruited for IFOP in 1969, Chile began requesting volunteers with special skills for assignment in a variety of research and fisheries development programs. By 1974, Peace Corps was providing individual placement volunteers who had technical backgrounds for work in the development of regional seafood marketing cooperatives, fisheries education, and marine ecology research. Most of these volunteers had no technical training since they were recruited for specialized positions, but all received language and some crosscultural training prior to their placement. For example, one volunteer who arrived in 1974 had a degree in business administration. He was assigned to a cooperative which had been taken over by the Government of Chile because of its poor management. The cooperative was owned by one family, and they were exploiting the cooperative members to make a profit for themselves. The volunteer worked with the coop to improve seafood distribution and general coop administration. After one year, he transferred to a university to teach fishery marketing. His support came from Peace Corps and the university, but he clearly was responsible for most of his own supervision. This volunteer developed fisheries newsletters for cooperatives and the commercial fishing industry, and produced a radio program on Chile's fishery resources. He was considered a successful volunteer although his original job was not well defined and he found his job after the first did not work out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another volunteer who arrived during this same period had a degree in marine biology and was requested to serve as a professor at the Catholic University in Valparaiso. This volunteer taught courses in aquaculture and ecological sampling techniques, and did some research. He had a counterpart who left three months after he arrived to do graduate work in France. The only support he received was from the university, but due to political troubles even that was often curtailed. This volunteer felt that he was replacing a qualified Chilean professional, and recommended that Peace Corps not place any more volunteers at the university.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1975, the first Smithsonian/ Peace Corps volunteers arrived in Chile. One volunteer, a marine biologist with six years of experience, went to the University of Chile, where he taught ecology, marine biology, ecological sampling techniques, statistics, and tidal organisms identification and ecology. This volunteer also collected data on a local clam, the taca. During the second year at the university he worked on the taca exclusively, investigating spawning, raising, and culturing of the clam. He was supported in these activities by the Smithsonian coordinator and by the Peace Corps, especially by a Chilean staff member in Santiago who kept interest in fisheries programs alive. He also received some support from the university, and had good, hardworking counterparts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another Smithsonian volunteer with a degree in oceanography worked jointly for the the University of the North and Catholic University. For the University of the North the volunteer initiated studies in the development of a locally-produced antifoulant paint. This project was too ambitious an undertaking and was not adequately supported by the university. For the Catholic University the volunteer obtained information for developing a resource management plan for a local shellfish, the loco. This volunteer had a couterpart and received some equipment from the university, as well as support from a private institution, the Chile Foundation. This project was considered a success due to the greater resources available through the Catholic University. However, at this volunteer's recommendation, no more volunteers were sent to work at the university. Like volunteers before him, he felt that he was replacing qualified Chilean professionals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1976, two more volunteers arrived in Chile, one to work on an oil spill in Punta Arenas, and another to work with a Catholic University in southern Chile. The volunteer who worked on the oil spill received support from the Patagonian Institute and the Shell Oil Company, and published two papers in the Institute's Journal on the oil spill and its effects. Although the Institute requested more volunteers after this volunteer completed his tour of duty, Peace Corps decided not to recruit any more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The volunteer assigned to the Catholic University in southern Chile had degrees in biology and marine science, and had been in the US Navy. He taught courses in general ecology, and conducted laboratory sessions. He worked with Chileans to design several courses and lab exercises. He also did research on using kelp for agricultural purposes, the ecology of kelp beds, and a review of artisan fishing methods, equipment, and species of fish caught. This volunteer did not receive much support from the University or Peace Corps; however, he felt that he was successful in teaching and that he left behind several good courses for future Chilean students.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four more Smithsonian volunteers were recruited for Chile in 1977. These volunteers were supposed to work in fisheries extension with cooperatives in small coastal villages, but each ended up doing research and education of cooperative members. One volunteer was supposed to help a cooperative improve their fishing techniques, but he discovered that they were already overfishing the area, and needed more capital investment in the coop instead. Later on he worked for a university and wrote a booklet on the fish species in the area, including the common local name, scientific name, English equivalent, and classification. The booklet was written for the use of coops and industry, and was published by the university. This volunteer and the others in the group felt that they were taking jobs away from qualified professionals, and that Peace Corps expected them to work as community developers rather than, or in addition to, their primary jobs as fisheries biologists. Few had the training or interest to do so as they considered themselves scientists first and extensionists second. However, by 1979 the Peace Corps began to focus its activities on meeting basic human needs, and Chile again requested volunteers to work in fishing villages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps' New Fisheries Program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In response to a request from Chile's new fishery agency, the Servicio Nacional de Pesca (SNP), the Peace Corps recruited 17 volunteers to work in poor fishing villages, called caletas. These volunteers were trained in community development theory and practice as well as fishing gear, methods, and business skills. Both the Peace Corps and the SNP hope that this program will eliminate some of the problems that volunteers and Chileans had with previous Peace Corps activities. For example, one common complaint was that volunteers felt they were just replacing qualified professionals. Very few Chileans with higher education are willing to live and work in caletas, which are among the poorest sectors of Chlle; thus volunteers are providing technical help where no other help would be available. Another problem that highly-skilled volunteers had in earlier programs was the lack of support for their research studies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps is trying to eliminate this problem by recruiting volunteers who are more interested in personal development than professional advancement. All of these factors are being considered by Peace Corps in determining the future of fisheries activities in Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evaluation of the Project</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Peace Corps marine fisheries projects in Chile have been evaluated formally three times, in 1968, 1970, and 1979. Each evaluation has had a different attitude towards the type of work in which Peace Corps was involved, primarily because during those years the philosophy of Peace Corps changed greatly. In the 1968 evaluation, individual volunteers were evaluated for their successes in fishing cooperatives and the general concensus was that volunteers had been successful in helping cooperative members, and teaching new fishing skills. These volunteers were supported both by Peace Corps and by their host country agency, INDAP. However, this evaluation stated that cooperatives in Chile have problems that volunteers cannot help with, and that the future of Peace Corps programs in fishing cooperatives does not look promising.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1970 evaluation, on the other hand, dealt with the problems that specialist volunteers had in Chile. The evaluation stated that this program of highly-trained volunteers seemed to be repeating the same mistakes made in other specialist Peace Corps programs. These mistakes included a lack of communication concerning their program with lower levels of host country agency personnel, and the resulting lack of financial and technical support; inappropriate training by Peace corps and selection of volunteers unable or unwilling to work in unstructured, ambiguous situations; a lack of good advance information about the nature of each volunteer's job that hindered their self preparation; a lack of good crosscultural training to help American scientists understand the attitudes towards research of their Chilean counterparts. The evaluator sums the program up by stating that these volunteers were "... highly specialized scientists and their talent is useless when locked into an unproductive job situation."* The volunteers in this program were recruited to do good, sound, scientific research and they were frustrated by the situations in which they found themselves. Volunteers also felt that Peace Corps should do more investigating of assignments before recruiting volunteers to avoid such situations in the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 1979, Peace Corps had begun to focus on community development rather than scientific research, and the evaluation done that year reflects this. In this evaluation volunteers in fisheries extension and fisheries development were evaluated as to their effectiveness in reaching the poor. The evaluation stated that volunteers placed in caletas were unprepared and unwilling to live and work in caletas full-time, and that they had not received any community development training. It was as a result of this evaluation, based on interviews held early in the year, that a new program began in July that focused on community development programs rather than fisheries development. This 1979 evaluation also stated that several projects undertaken by volunteers had been tried in the 1960's with little success, but that neither volunteers nor staff seemed aware of previous failures. The evaluation concludes with recommendations that Peace Corps should phase out all fisheries volunteers who were not living directly in caletas and that fisheries volunteers should be placed with nongovernmental organizations capable</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">of giving them the necessary support; that volunteers should be trained in community development; and that studies should be done on certain cooperatives which seem to be exploiting both cooperative members and volunteers to see if Peace Corps should continue to be involved. All of these recommendations seem to have been followed in the development of the fisheries extension program that began in July 1979. It appears that Peace Corps will reexamine its involvement in fisheries in Chile when this program is completed and at that time decide wheter to continue in this field.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Successes and Failures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marine fisheries projects in Chile have been influenced by several factors. When these factors were present, the project succeeded; when they were absent or in short supply, projects did not do as well. These factors include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The support of host country agencies that requested volunteers had a major impact on individual projects. For example, in the cooperatives program with INDAP, cooperatives were informed of the volunteers) arrival and welcomed them. In the program with IFOP, local supervisors were neither consulted on the need for volunteers, nor informed of their arrival. Volunteers working with universities found that support varied, but in all of these projects volunteers questioned the need for highly-skilled specialists. They felt resentment from .counterparts when they took a research job that a trained Chilean could do.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Peace Corps support varied with the projects as well. The cooperatives project had technical and field support from the representative of Humboldt State College, while the IFOP group had no such support. Volunteers placed individually had little support from Peace Corps, primarily, they felt, because Peace Corps had no technical people on the staff who could understand their problems and support needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Volunteers who worked with local fishermen were accepted based upon their technical skills and their ability to communicate in Spanish, and after initial trial periods, most volunteers felt they were trusted by their cooperative members. Volunteers who worked in more skilled positions were uncomfortable because they felt they were taking jobs away from trained and qualified Chilean professionals. Scientist volunteers were frustrated also by the difference in attitude towards research of the Chilean scientists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Volunteers with training in marine fisheries were not given additional training that would enable them to operate more effectively in their communities, while those with community development skills felt that more technically skilled volunteers were needed. Peace Corps itself changed radically over the years, and much of its original expertise in community development was lost. Even when Peace Corps wanted to work such theories into training, volunteers did not feel it was adequate for their needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In all of these projects there is an undercurrent which points out a problem that Peace Corps in Chile has had since the beginning of its involvement in marine fisheries. Chile is a fairly developed country with a large commercial fishing industry, and it places priority on scientific research to improve the commercial catch. Historically there has been little interest in artisanal fishermen in Chile. Peace Corps, however, began its projects in Chile by focusing on small coastal fishermen. As projects progressed, Chile asked for more technically-skilled volunteers and Peace Corps tried to comply. Volunteers recruited for these new technical positions had more problems with support and had different expectations of their Peace Crops experience than less technical volunteers; they were frustrated and recommended that Peace Corps not place volunteers in such positions. As a result, Peace Carps has found itself out of tune with both volunteer and host country demands. Today Peace Corps feels that the best approach is working directly with people in their villages, but such assistance will have to be approved by the government. As a result, the future of Peace Corps' involvement in marine fisheries in Chile is uncertain at best.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">El Salvador Case Study</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El Salvador, the smallest country in Central America, is bordered by the Pacific Ocean on the south, Guatemala on the east, and Honduras on the north and west. Located in the western half of the country on the central plain, the capital city of San Salvador is linked to the rest of the country by highways and railroads. A Spanish colony until 1821, El Salvador became part of the United Provinces of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p037.png"></center><br>
+ Image</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Blutstein, Howard I., et. al. 1971. Area Handbook for El Salvador.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Foreign Areas Studies, The American University, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central America in 1823. El Salvador has been independent since 1838.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El Salvador has a per capita income of only US $314 (1974). Nearly half of the population is engaged in agriculture, although only 32% of the total land area supports crops. Most farmers are engaged in subsistence agriculture, producing beans, rice, and corn; coffee, cotton, and sugar are grown for export. Because so little of El Salvador's land is arable, much of the country's food must be imported. Among El Salvador's major problems is a high rate of population growth; the country has the second highest density in the Western Hemisphere. Other problems include poor housing, inadequate medical care, illiteracy, and malnutrition resulting from a lack of protein in the diet. The government of El Salvador first requested Peace Corps assistance in agriculture programs in 1962; marine fisheries volunteers were requested six years later.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fisheries in EI Salvador: An Overview</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El Salvador has three good ports along a 160-mile Pacific coastline and for many years has supported a commercial shrimp fishery. Most shrimp produced is exported and never reaches the domestic market. However, during the 1960's most fishing in El Salvador was done on a subsistence level. Fish caught by fishermen were used primarily by their families; what fish were left over were sold in local markets. The fishermen of El Salvador were independent, illiterate, and for the most part, distrustful of the government even when offering aid. Fish processing consisted of smoking and drying fish; very often fish were not even gutted first. As a result, most fish sold at market were of very poor quality. Although there were good fishery resources off the coast, few fishermen had the proper equipment or boats large enough to fish in deeper waters far from shore. Fishermen had no history of cooperative action, and even though the government promoted the development of fishermen's associations, few fishermen became members. When the government tried to promote gutting and icing of fish to improve the quality of fish reaching the market, people refused to buy them. Most people believed that fishermen only gutted and iced fish when they were about to go bad.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recognizing these problems, El Salvador became part of a regional fisheries development program funded by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations in 1965. The goals of this program were to improve the methods of production, harvesting, processing, and marketing of fisheries resources, solve nutritional problems, and promote the growth of commercial fishing industries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Central American Regional Fisheries L)evelopment Project</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Early in the 1960's the Central American Economic Council (CEC), composed of El Salvador, Panama, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Honduras, and Nicaragua, requested help from the United Nations in response to widespread malnutrition, unemployment, and under and irrational exploitation of their living marine resources. In 1965 the Food and Agriculture Organization took up this request and designed the Central American Regional Fisheries Development Project. In 1966 the CEC created a Department of Fisheries (CCDP), composed of representatives from each country's national fishery agency, to serve as a counterpart to the FAO. The FAO and the six countries involved recognized the need for trained field staff to work with local fishermen, but such people were not readily available in any of these countries. The FAO suggested that perhaps Peace Corps might participate, and each country made a formal request to Peace Corps for assistance. As a result, Peace Corps recruited and trained 45 volunteers who were placed in six countries to</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">work in various aspects of each country's fishery sector. El Salvador requested five volunteers to work with the Seccion de Pesca y Caza Maritima, the fisheries agency attached to the Ministry of Economics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Involvement with El Salvadorean Fisheries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1967, the first Peace Corps group to work in the Central American Regional Fisheries Development Project was recruited and trained at Peace Corps' Puerto Rico Training Center and in Miami and St. Petersburg, Florida. The volunteers in this group had little experience in fisheries, although a few had biology degrees and had worked in some aspects of fisheries. They received training in the use of fishing gear such as gill nets, lobster traps, snapper reels, and long lines, and language and training. Training was fraught with difficulties due in part to bad weather which prevented much actual fishing, poor organization which resulted in speakers who did not show up, and the uncertainty until near the end of the training program of where each individual volunteer was to be placed. The training program, the first to be done on a regional rather than countryspecific basis, was not considered to be a success even by the program's coordinator Nevertheless, in December 1968 five volunteers arrived in El Salvador to begin work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One volunteer, a marine biologist, was assigned to an FAO research vessel to do oceanographic research. This volunteer worked on board the SAGITARIO in the Pacific off El Salvador's coast. He collected and classified Central American fish species as part of a study with the University of Costa Rica. He also surveyed the spiny lobster fishery of El Salvador, and experimented with raft culture of mussels. Although nominally assigned to the Seccion de Pesca y Caza Maritima, this volunteer was directly supervised by the FAO.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three volunteers were assigned to coastal fishing villages to help form and administer cooperatives, improve methods of fishing, processing, and preserving fish, and provide other technical support to local fishermen. These volunteers worked in La Libertad, La Union,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">and Acajutla along the coast. The fifth volunteer! a gear specialist, also was assigned to La Libertad to introduce new fishing gear and techniques to the fishermen in the cooperative. Although all of these volunteers were assigned to the Seccion as well, most of their support and technical assistance was received from the Peace Corps and FAO.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Government of El Salvador had chosen La Libertad as a "pilot project" site, and from the beginning most support and interest was shown to the cooperative and the two volunteers there. Fishermen in La Libertad had had bad experiences with cooperatives in the past, and although 60 fishermen were listed as members only 18 were active. The majority of the fishermen could not read or write, had few resources, and saw no reason to be part of a cooperative. There were no community organizers among them, and most preferred to remain independent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The two volunteers began their work by conducting a survey of their area to determine the number of fishermen and boats, types of gear used, species and numbers of fish caught, how fish were marketed and the type of processing that was done. They began to work with fishermen, introducing new fishing gear such as monofilament gill nets, lobster traps, pargo and shark longlines, single hook lines and trammel nets. As the fishermen saw the usefulness of these new types of gear, more interest in the cooperative developed. The Seccion de Pesca y Caza Maritima donated a boat and motor to the cooperative, and the gear specialist volunteer received a grant from the U.S. Agency for International Development that enabled him to purchase two more boats and motors. With this equipment, the cooperative members began to catch larger amounts of fish and the cooperative began to make some money. More fishermen joined the cooperative. It began to function more efficiently and capital was built up to be used for collective purpose  C</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the cooperative grew, the cooperative specialist volunteer assigned to La Libertad organized it more efficiently, trained cooperative members in cooperative functions, established a bookkeeping system, and began to explore markets for the catch. Both volunteers promoted the smoking, salting and icing of fish, and by the end of their two years, construction had begun on an ice room and ice box in the cooperative building to store the catch until it was marketed. By the end of 1970, the cooperative at La Libertad had grown to 190 members, and its capital had grown from US $120 to US $12,000. By all accounts, this project was a success and the volunteers were able to see positive change during their stay.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cooperative volunteers assigned to Acajutla and La Union also undertook surveys of their respective sites including number of fishermen and boats, types of gear used, and fishery catch statistics. The volunteer in Acajutla worked with lobster traps and a 50-hook longline for red snapper, and was able to get some interest in forming a cooperative started among the local fishermen. He was able to interest local businessmen in financing some experiments in fishing gear as well. The volunteer in La Union worked on modifying the local fishing boat, the cayuco, to enable it to be sailed farther from shore where fish were more plentiful. He added an outrigger, centerboard, and tiller, and taught fishermen new sailing techniques. The volunteer did not have experience in boat building and although the boat was large enough to handle modern gear and large catches, it was poorly designed and inadequately powered. However, the volunteer was able to stimulate local interest in boat design. He also introduced the use of clam rakes to local fishermen. Both of these volunteers received very little support from the government and as a result, their projects were not considered successful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All of the volunteers in this group participated in an FAO fisheries marketing survey in El Salvador, and were supervised by technical experts of the FAO in certain aspects of their work. Volunteers were assigned to the Seccion de Pesca y Caza Maritima but, except for the volunteers stationed at La Libertad, received little direction or material support from this fishery agency. The Peace Corps also had a regional director for this project who traveled from site to site advising volunteers and providing technical help. Volunteers thus received support and direction from the FAO and the Peace Corps, but little from their host country agency. As a result, there was much confusion over which agency ultimately was responsible for the volunteers. This issue was resolved eventually with a decision by Peace Corps that volunteers were responsible first to the Seccion, since that agency had made the original request for volunteers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another problem that surfaced during this time was the different ideas the FAO and the Seccion had about the role of volunteers. The FAO wanted volunteers to act as technical staff members, doing research on the development of large-scale commercial fisheries in E1 Salvador, while the Seccion wanted volunteers to supplement their technical abilities and work in small coastal villages with artisanal fishermen. This problem was resolved in favor of the Seccion, and when a second group of volunteers was requested by El Salvador to work in the Central American Regional Fisheries Development Project, it was clear from the start that they would be responsible only to the Seccion de Pesca v Caza Maritima.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Second Group of Volunteers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps again recruited volunteers for the Central American Regional Fisheries Development Project, of which four were assigned to El Salvador. The volunteers had backgrounds in biology and received technical, language, and cross cultural training in Puerto Rico and in Miami, Florida. This group was given instruction on fish marketing, cooperative structure and functions, boat engine maintenance and repair, and in construction of handlines, traps, cast nets, gill nets, and net mending. These four volunteers arrived in El Salvador in late 1970.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One volunteer was assigned to work as a marine biologist with the Seccion de Pesca y Caza Maritima in carrying out biological studies on El Salvador's marine resources to help guarantee their rational utilization. The volunteer participated in studies on the ecology of lobster, cultivation of mussels in the La Union-E1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamarindo area, migration of post larval shrimp, and collected and classified different marine animals for inclusion in a newly-created museum. Part of his work included advising the government on fishery administration policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three volunteers were assigned to work as fishery extension agents to improve artisanal fishing techniques, improve existing cooperatives and organize new ones, and provide education in cooperation administration and management for cooperative members. One of these volunteers worked with a fishing cooperative that was formed in Acajutla helping to define and administer initial cooperative projects. The other two volunteers were assigned to La Libertad where they were to provide technical assistance on fishing gear and methods, provide education to cooperative members, introduce proper methods of processing, transporting, and marketing of fresh fish, and assist in the organization of other fishing cooperatives nearby.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the volunteers assigned to La Libertad set up an accounting system and trained three cooperative members in bookkeeping skills. He was able to convince them of the need to hire an accountant to manage the finances of the cooperative. He worked with fishermen, teaching the use of gill nets, but only five members were using gill nets by the time the volunteer left. However, faith in the cooperative continued to grow, and more fishermen were willing to work through the cooperative to market fish. When the two volunteers arrived 90% of the boats were owned privately by fishermen; by the time they left, over 60% of the boats were owned by the cooperative. Support for these volunteers came from the Peace Corps and FAO; the Seccion's representative in the field felt threatened by volunteers and did not cooperate with them even though the Director of the Seccion was favorable towards volunteer activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1971 FAO assistance to the Central American Regional Fisheries Development Program was completed, and FAO pulled out of fisheries development. Peace Corps was asked to continue its support to El Salvador, however, and a third group of volunteers was recruited as part of a larger program for El Salvador's rural development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Third Group of Volunteers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Peace Corps recruited three volunteers for El Salvador in 1973. Two of the volunteers had degrees in fisheries biology, while one had a doctorate in zoology. The volunteers received language, cross cultural, and a little technical training prior to their arrival in country. Two volunteers were assigned to work with the cooperatives in La Libertad and E1 Tamarindo (La Union), and the third worked as a university professor, teaching biology to students and training them in research methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The volunteer assigned to La Libertad was told to introduce whatever the cooperative needed, but the volunteer's background did not prepare him to give the kind of help the cooperative required at this stage of its development. They needed someone to help with marketing and fish processing, and this volunteer had no training in either subject. He left the cooperative after nine months and began an independent project on shrimp research. He arranged to go out fishing with a private shrimp fleet and conduct studies on shrimp populations. In the course of this work, the volunteer began to document a problem with overfishing in one shrimp area; he also found a new shrimp area that had not been fished before. Although he wished to complete a year's study of the area that was being overfished, the government asked him to work on the new area, so his research was never finished. He did have a counterpart, however, and was able to train him in scientific techniques. This volunteer felt his project was a success because he was able to get research started that was important to the development of a commercial fishery.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The volunteer assigned to the El Tamarindo fishing cooperative helped to set up the business and accounting system for the cooperative, but that job only took eight months. Although he retained an interest in the cooperative for the rest of his tour, the volunteer began doing research in oyster culture. He developed a methodology for the research and trained five technicians in identifying larval forms of oysters and conducting field studies, and helped them identify studies of their own. This project had support from the Ministry of Agriculture which had taken over the fisheries project, and from the U.S. Agency for International Development, which provided U.S. $1,000 for the research. Peace Corps did not support this project at all. Because this research was going so well, the FAO offered to give the U.S. $8,000 to continue the research and Peace Corps recruited another marine fisheries volunteer to continue with this volunteer's work. However, the new volunteer lost interest and changed to a public health project. No other volunteers with a background in marine fisheries were available at that time, so the project stopped.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these three volunteers, the only one who felt he had been placed in a position commensurate with his abilities was the university professor. He was treated as a professional, and taught students and did research as he would in any university. Although there were some problems with other professors in the university, in general this volunteer was very pleased with his Peace Corps experience. Apparently so was the university; they asked him to stay as a full staff member at the completion of his tour and he did so. Throughout his tour this volunteer was given support by the university. He also felt that his Peace Corps training in language was excellent; he taught all his courses in Spanish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After this group of volunteers, Peace Corps recruited several more in marine fisheries to work on individual projects, including assistance to new fishing cooperatives organized on the model of the cooperative in La Libertad. However, El Salvador's focus shifted to the development of freshwater fisheries in 1977 and most volunteers at this time are involved with freshwater fish culture, particularly of tilapia species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evaluation of the Project</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because the Central American Regional Fisheries Development Project was a pilot project for the Peace Corps, it was subjected to a series of evaluation reports beginning in 1969. The major statement made in all of these evaluations is that there was never a clear understanding among Peace Corps, FAO, and the national fishery agencies of each country involved over which agency was responsible for the volunteers. The volunteers spent much of their time trying to figure this out for themselves, and thereby wasted time that could have been used more productively. One evaluation makes the point that the national fishery agencies were pressured into taking volunteers by the FAO, and that they did not understand why volunteers were there nor what it was they were supposed to do. Peace Corps itself was led to believe that FAO would provide financial and material support for the volunteers, and was very surprised when such support was not forthcoming. In El Salvador, the Peace Corps Director believed that support should not come from Peace Corps, but from the agency to which the volunteers were assigned. As a result, volunteers who were supposed to demonstrate new fishing gear often had no gear to work with until FAO or the Seccion de Pesca y Caza Maritima was able to give it to them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other evaluations make the point that training received by volunteers did not prepare them adequately for their roles, especially those working with cooperatives. Volunteers with biology backgrounds needed more understanding of the functions of cooperatives, accounting methods, and fish marketing and processing. Peace Corps is criticized also for failing to prepare adequate volunteer job descriptions, with the result that of three volunteers in the last group, two changed jobs within the first year. However, the marine fisheries projects in El Salvador usually are considered to be successful both by Peace Corps and by the volunteers themselves. Volunteers were able to make a difference in the development of fishing cooperatives and introduce new fishing gear and methods to artisanal fishermen along the Pacific coast of El Salvador.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Successes end Failures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the Central American Regional Fisheries Development Project failed to work on a regional basis, individual projects within El Salvador were successful. The reasons behind both successes and failures in El Salvador marine fisheries projects include these:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Although Peace Corps failed to get a clear understanding of which agency was to be responsible for the volunteers, they did provide a regional coordinator who gave technical direction and supervision to volunteers who were caught in the confusion. This coordinator worked with Peace Corps staff in El Salvador to ensure that volunteers were supported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The FAO, more interested in research for commercial fisheries, nevertheless supported volunteers working in artisanal fisheries when it became clear that that was the role the Seccion and Peace Corps had in mind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Even though the Seccion may have been pressured into accepting volunteers, it was able to impose some of its own priorities on the project, placing five volunteers in its pilot site of La Libertad. These volunteers all received excellent support from the agency and the results justify that support. However, volunteers at other sites were more or less ignored by the Seccion, and they had few lasting successes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The first group of volunteers had little background in marine fisheries, and their training was not adequate to prepare them for their jobs. The support they received in the field, however, enabled them to overcome this deficiency (except for volunteers placed in areas not given priority by the government). The second group of volunteers benefitted from the first group's experience; they were placed in sites that had priority standing with the government, even though most support still went to La Iibertad.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Volunteers were able to begin research in several marine species that could provide food for Salvadoreans. They trained counterparts in the use of simple scientific techniques and left several projects in their hands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Artisanal fishermen were distrustful of volunteers at first because they were associated with a government agency. Volunteers were able to change some attitudes and gain the interest of local fishermen by becoming part of their community. This led to involvement of fishermen in fishing cooperatives. Volunteers also received good language training which they felt helped them to communicate at all levels in El Salvador.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear from the discussion of these projects that much of the success of a project in El Salvador depends upon the amount and kind of support given to volunteers. Those with good support from the government were able to do more than those who received only passing interest. It should be remembered that those projects that received the most aid were the projects given priority by the government. Even without much support, however, individual volunteers were able to do research, train counterparts, and contribute to the development of new food resources for the country. The original purposes of these projects were to promote the growth of commercial fisheries, improve production, harvesting, processing, and marketing, and solve nutritional problems in El Salvador. Volunteers were successful in moving the country towards these goals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Philippines Case Study</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p051.png"></center><br>
+ Image</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Vreeland, Nena et. al. 1976. Area Handbook for the Philippines. Foreign Area Studies The American University, Washington, DC.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Philippines, an archipelago of over 7,100 islands, is located along the southeastern rim of Asia between the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean. A tropical country, the Philippines has a uniform temperature year-round, with rainfall adequate for most agricultural needs. Quezon City, the country's capital, is located on Luzon, the largest and most populated island. Claimed by Magellan for Spain in 1521, the Philippines remained a Spanish colony for nearly three hundred years. With the end of the Spanish-American War, the country came under American rule. The Philippines finally gained its independence in 1946, although it retains close ties to the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Philippines is a fairly developed country in comparison with many other developing countries and supports an industrial complex that includes mining, manufacturing, and construction. Industrial production accounts for 35% of the country's gross national product. Agriculture, for both domestic and export markets, accounts for only 10%. Most agriculture is done by small farmers who produce rice, corn, and vegetables for family use; however, such cash crops as sugar, coconuts, and tobacco are grown for export. Over half of the population is engaged in agriculture of some kind, and 70% of all cultivated land is planted in food crops. Most small farmers in the Philippines subsist on a diet of rice, vegetables, and fish, with few other protein foods eaten except on special occasions. As a result, there are problems with malnutrition and diet-related diseases, especially among young children. This is exacerbated by the high rate of population growth in the Philippines. In recent years, the Philippine government has sponsored programs in rice and corn production, with the result that for the first time the country was marginally selfsufficient in rice production in 1977. However, the lack of protein in most</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Filipinos' diets continues to be a problem, and the country is trying to close this gap by promoting both inland and marine fisheries development. The Peace Corps was invited to help in fisheries development in 1971.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fisheries in the Philippines: An Overview</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the Philippines has a coastline of over 10,000 miles, in 1971 there had been almost no development of marine fisheries on a commercial scale. Most fishermen went out to sea in small, dugout canoes equipped with outriggers, called bancas, and were able to catch only enough fish for their families' needs with a few left over to sell at the market. The Philippines had an estimated 600,000 small-scale fishermen who were fishing with bancas, 80% of which were not motorized. Fishermen continued to use traditional methods and equipment, even when they were aware of newer techniques, because little credit was available to help them purchase new fishing gear, and fishermen did not qualify for what credit was available. Few fishermen belonged to cooperatives, and fewer still had access to extension services or marketing facilities. The Philippines did have a fairly developed brackishwater fish pond industry, in which fry caught along the shore were raised to marketable size in fish ponds. However, such fish ponds were only available to those with some capital to invest, and most small scale fishermen did not participate in that kind of development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recognizing the need to get more protein to the people, in 1971 the Philippine government's National Food and Agriculture Council and the Philippine Fisheries Commission began a program to promote fish pond development throughout the country. Peace Corps was invited to participate in this program, and the first group of fisheries volunteers arrived later that year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps lnvolvement with Philippines Fisheries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first group of fisheries volunteers arrived in 1971 to work at government fish farms to produce fingerlings that would be distributed to small farmers for their backyard fish ponds. These six volunteers worked for the Philippine Fisheries Commission, an agency of the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources. In 1972 a second group of fisheries volunteers was requested to work both in fingerling production and in bracklshwater extension. These 27 volunteers were trained in the Philippines, receiving technical language, and cross cultural training at three different sites. During their two years in the country, the Commission was elevated to a bureau, the Bureau of Fisheries. Due to the success of the first two groups, the Bureau requested a third group of volunteers to work in brackish water extension. This group, including 19 volunteers, many of whom had advanced training in fisheries biology, arrived in 1973. Shortly thereafter the Bureau changed its name to the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) under the ministry of Natural Resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although none of these three fisheries groups were assigned to work with marine fisheries, individual volunteers did get involved with marine resources. For example, one volunteer from the second group worked with seaweed production, while another did research on eels. A volunteer from the third group began a research project in mussel culture in a sheltered bay off the island of Panay. However, it wasn't until the arrival of the fourth group later in 1973 that any volunteers were directly assigned to marine fisheries work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The four volunteers in the fourth group were the first volunteers to be assigned to the Marine Fishery Biology Division and the results of their work were useful in developing and improving on-going research projects. These volunteers also helped BFAR identify other research needs, and by the middle of their tours, 17 other research positions were being requested from the Peace Corps. Only one of these volunteers, however, was</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">actively involved in marine research. This volunteer was assigned to investigate oyster culture in a bay near Manila. His objectives were to investigate the feeding habits of oysters, compare the production of oysters by different methods, compare the growth rates of oysters in natural beds and under controlled conditions, and investigate the seasonal fluctuations of the planktonic food of oysters in the bay. The success of his research project led to the request for another group of volunteers, including one assigned to do marine research.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fifth group of fisheries volunteers consisted of 11 volunteers; two in research, three in fisheries planning, and six in extension. Only one volunteer worked in a marine environment. This volunteer was assigned to work with a private organization, the Filipinas Foundation, helping them do research on the culture of shrimp. She did research on feeds, growth in controlled environments,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">and other research requested by the Foundation. With the completion of these studies, the Foundation began production, and the volunteer was replaced by a Filipino. The volunteer then moved into freshwater research with the National Pollution Control Commission for the remainder of her tour.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The next group of fisheries volunteers arrived in 1975. This group included three marine fisheries volunteers, of which one worked with fishermen to continue the mussel project begun by a previous volunteer, and one did research on developing a shark fishery. The mussel project, originally funded by a local municipality, had expanded to become a model mussel farm under the auspices of BFAR. The volunteer assigned to the farm served as the liaison between the municipality and BFAR, and worked on marketing of the cultured mussels. The second volunteer worked with local fishermen to develop a spiny dogfish shark fishery to provide income to subsistence fishermen in Mindanao.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As part of this project, a private boat company donated a fiberglass dory to the volunteer to enable him to go out and survey dogfish shark populations to determine if such a fishery was feasible. This volunteer was able to complete his research, leaving behind a report describing the use of long bottom lines for shark fishing, a key to identifying sharks for commercial purposes, and a description of four species of sharks and their possible uses. As a result of his research, subsistence fishermen in the area have been fishing successfully for sharks and thus have a new source of income.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the volunteers was assigned directly to the BFAR Research Division at the Central Office in Manila with the job of identifying all the fish eggs and larvae in marine plankton samples taken by BFAR biologists on their research ship. The Bureau had selected 13 marine areas around the country that were thought to be important nursery areas for commercial fish species, and was trying to identify which species were important in which areas. The Bureau hoped to quantify the fisheries potential for these areas prior to promoting the development of a large-scale fishing industry offshore. The volunteer also worked with BFAR biologists to re-orient the project and standardize sampling methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another volunteer submitted a research proposal on coral reefs in the Philippines as a special project to the Director of BFAR with the objectives of determining the extent of reef areas and their contribution to the fisheries resources of the Philippines. This volunteer worked on generating baseline ecological research data to support measures to preserve important reef areas. This project was funded by BFAR and received support from the Smithsonian Institution in the form of literature. The project leadership for the coral reef project was given to the volunteers, and they completed a survey and submitted the data generated to the Research Division.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The First Marine Fisheries Group</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources continued to request fisheries volunteers for a variety of positions, primarily for areas where lack of trained manpower was evident. In 1976 the BFAR began to develop programs in marine fisheries, designed both to identify marine resources and to protect valuable fishery areas. As part of this program BFAR requested another fisheries group, which was to include marine fisheries volunteers. The seventh fisheries group arrived in 1976, and in this group there were volunteers with degrees in biological oceanography, ecology, natural resources management, and marine science. Out of the group of 24 volunteers seven were assigned originally to marine research, while the remainder were involved with inland fisheries extension and research. The marine fisheries volunteers received language, cross-cultural, and technical training. During their training program they were introduced to the different groups involved with marine research in the Philippines, and were given an orientation by BFAR staff on the marine research program goals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the marine fisheries volunteers was assigned to BFAR's Central Office in Manila along with a previously-assigned PCV to work in the hydrobiological survey in the 13 regions of the country as an assistant team leader. He also assisted in managing the operations of the Metro Manila Aquarium at the Philippine Village, and on the coral reef project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two volunteers were assigned to the Marine Sciences Center, University of the Philippines as a result of the Center's request for marine biologists. Both PCVs were assigned primarily to the Coral Reef Survey Project; one was directly responsible to the Center in Manila and the other PCV was assigned to the Marine Station in Cebu City. One of these PCVs and a volunteer assigned to extension wrote a joint proposal to start a mussel culture and research project under the Blue Revolution Program in Tayabas Bay off Luzon. The volunteers constructed mussel plots and planted the mussel seeds. With the help of the Center's laboratories these two volunteers were able to begin production of mussels after a baseline survey on population density. On their recommendation, BFAR hired a recently graduated Filipina to work with them. When they left, she became the project leader and another volunteer was assigned to the project as technical advisor. This project was considered a great success by everyone connected with it, and it received good support from local people as well as the University and BFAR staff. The volunteer assigned to the Marine Science Center at the University of the Philippines also created a research library to help with this and the coral reef project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another volunteer was assigned as a marine fisheries researcher at the District Fisheries Office in Puerto Princesa, Palawan. He submitted a research proposal to do a biological survey of commercially important species of Honda Bay with the final objective of determining the future fishing potential in the bay. This volunteer was given the authority to hire two junior biologists to assist him in this project. As an offshoot of this project, BFAR funded the publication of ''Philippine Shore Fishes of the Western Sulu."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another volunteer in this group was assigned to do tuna research on the island of Mindanao. The volunteer was given an unused fisheries station to set up as an office and was allowed to select his own co-worker, a college graduate from a local university.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The objective of this project was to survey the tuna catch, methods of capture, and effectiveness of capture methods, and to develop charts showing yearly populations and migrations of tuna in the area. The project was funded by BFAR, although halfway through additional funding was received from the Philippine Council on Agricultural Research. Eventually the volunteer was able to recruit eight more staff members from other BFAR offices to work on this project. The volunteer wrote a paper on the tuna industry and made recommendations for future improvements. Another volunteer was assigned to this project at the end of this volunteer's tour as a technical assistant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other volunteers in this first marine research group worked on an artificial reef project proposed by a volunteer and supported by the Marine Sciences Center, the U.S. Navy and Air Force, and the U.S. Agency for International Development. Working with local fishermen, the volunteer who proposed this project was able to build four artificial reefs offshore of a small coastal village to help improve the fisheries resources of the area. He was able to develop a library for the village as well. Other volunteers in the group worked on oyster culture, coral reef research, and fisheries education of fishermen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volunteers Continue in Marine Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1977 another group of fisheries volunteers arrived in the Philippines, of which five were assigned to marine fisheries research. These volunteers had degrees and experience in marine biology, and received technical training in aquaculture as well as language and cross-cultural training. Two of these volunteers were assigned to an island in the Cebu region, one to do research on the rabbitfish, and the other to develop a seaweed demonstration farm. The volunteers were supported by BFAR funding, although they did not at first have any counterparts. The volunteer working on rabbitfish did general ecological research on the different species of rabbitfish in the area, selected the species that grew best, and was able to spawn and grow the fish in cages suspended in the ocean. Eventually a local fisherman was hired and trained to take over this project as BFAR project leader. The volunteer working on the seaweed farm was able to start the first seaweed project in the region for BFAR. Both volunteers felt their projects were successful because they were oriented to providing immediate results that could be used by local people to improve their situations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1977 a small group of volunteers were recruited to work as fisheries educators, and in 1978 another marine research group arrived. This latest group of researchers is working as municipal fisheries extensionists, mariculture extensionists, fishery products technologists, ice plant technicians, and statisticians. Most of these projects provide services to the subsistence fishermen, including improving processing and marketing facilities, providing technical support, increasing their incomes, and improving the level of information about marine resources of the Philippines. Peace Corps anticipates that volunteers will continue to be recruited for marine fisheries projects in the Philippines at least through 1982.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evaluation of the Project</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although most of the fisheries projects in the Philippines have not been evaluated formally by the Peace Corps, it is generally understood that these projects are among the most successful that Peace Crops has ever had. Marine fisheries projects, however, are fairly new and there have been some problems in orgainization and management of marine projects within the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources. Technical staff of BFAR have participated in the training and job placement of volunteers recruited for extension and fingerling production since the first group arrived in 1971. Techniques for training marine volunteers had never been used before. With the success of programs for self-sufficiency in rice and corn from the so-called "Green Revolution", the Philippine government launched a new program called the "Blue Revolution" designed to reach self-sufficiency in fish production. Thus, there was plenty of money for projects, especially those investigating the potential for commercial fisheries, and support from BFAR was very good. The Peace Corps/Philippines Country Management Plan for 1977 makes the following statement: "... self sufficiency in fish production is high in the priority list of the Philippine Government. The only main drawback of PC/P involvement in this effort is our inability to supply the required number of volunteers. Nevertheless, the program is making a significant contribution to the Philippine effort, enjoys the full support of the HCAs (host country agencies) concerned, and affords the volunteers the opportunity to relate with Filipinos in various areas and from all walks of life. Hence, it now ranks as the top priority program of Peace Corps|Philippines."*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout Peace Corps lnvolvement with fisheries there has been excellent support from the Director of the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, and from his central and regional office staff. Most volunteers have stayed for their full two-year tours, while many have extended for a third year to complete their work. Credit for the success of fisheries projects has been due also to the Peace Corps' fisheries program managers who have worked closely with the Bureau and with volunteers in the field. In summary, volunteers have been able to increase fish production, improve the level of knowledge about marine resources, introduce cultivation of new food resources, and train Filipino counterparts in scientific techniques. Both the Peace Corps and the Philippine Government consider marine fisheries projects worthwhile and plan to continue working together in this field.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Successes and Failures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The marine fisheries projects in the Philippines, though very new and still in a trial period, have had success due to several factors, including these:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources gave support to all volunteers in terms of good planning of projects, good job placement, funding for volunteers' projects, equipment and materials and counterparts. When counterparts were not available volunteers were given the authority to hire and train their own. Many of these counterparts then became project leaders after the volunteers left. In the past volunteers spent a good deal of time preparing project proposals for funding: however, this has been changing and new volunteers are able to move right in to work on a project that has been funded before their arrival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Support from the Peace Corps has been excellent as well. The Peace Corps' fisheries program manager served as liaison between volunteers and BFAR, worked with BFAR planners to develop new projects, visited volunteers at their sites, and provided technical support in terms of literature for volunteers in the field. Since 1973 there have been three different program managers, but all have been able to continue this support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> All volunteers in the marine fisheries projects have been trained in the Philippines. Even though most of their training was in language and cross-cultural studies, volunteers were able to see how fisheries in the country operated, and most felt prepared to begin their work within a short time. Most educated Filipinos speak English very well, and all scientific work is done in English, so volunteers did not have problems with language. However, most volunteers learned local dialects as well in order to communicate with local fishermen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Filipinos in general are very receptive to Americans. Volunteers were always accepted and found it easy to make friends and socialize. However, there were some misunderstandings between volunteers and co-workers over scientific practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In summary, most marine fisheries projects in the Philippines have been successful and have contributed to the health and well-being of Filipinos. Fisheries projects are a top priority for the Government of the Philippines and, rightly so, for the Peace Corps as well. Future projects will utilize skill trained volunteers who will provide assistance to small fishermen by improving traditional fishing techniques, forming cooperatives for better marketing of fish, and providing technical advice through extension services to help increase their income and provide more fish for the diets of all Filipinos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Togo Case Study</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Togo, the smallest French speaking nation in Africa, stretches</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p063.png"></center><br>
+ Image</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Togo Official Standard Names Gazette No. 98, United States Board on Geographic Names, 1966.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">360 miles north to south between Benin (Dahomey) on the east and Ghana on the west, and is bordered by Upper Volta to the north. Lome, the capital and largest city, is located along the 35-mile-long coastline bordering Africa's Gulf of Guinea. At one time a German colony, Togo became a French protectorate after World War I, and finally was granted its independence on April 27, 1960.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Togo is a very poor country; in 1962 the average per capita income was only US $80. Today Togo is considered by the U.S. Congress to be one of the 49 countries most in need of development assistance. Togo's biggest problems relate to a lack of capital to finance development, and include inadequate medical care and facilities, poor housing and environmental sanitation, and illiteracy. The biggest problem, however, is the lack of adequate protein in the diet and the resulting malnutrition. These problems 1 are exacerbate by the high rate of population growth. As a result of these problems, in 1962 Togo began to consider improving several aspects of agriculture, including fisheries, and invited the Peace Corps to participate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fisheries in Togo: An Overview</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although Togo has a coastline and therefore access to the sea, the country does not have a history of involvement with marine fisheries. Togo's coast is primarily a low, smooth sandy beach, broken by occasional marshy creeks and mangrove swamps. The port at Lome, built by the Germans in the last century, is the only major facility available for large ships. Most coastal fishermen in 1962 were using small boats or canoes called pirogues, which were carved out of a single tree. Pirogues were heavy, difficult to handle, fairly unstable and often capsized in the heavy surf that characterizes Togo's shoreline. Fishermen would row these boats out and cast their nets in areas close to shore. Most fishermen were able to catch only enough fish to feed their families, but sometimes a few fish were left over to sell at market. Although there were good fishery resources in the deeper waters off the coast, most small fishermen could not go out that far to fish. Often commercial fleets of other nations would trawl within sight of shore, and sometimes these trawlers would dock in Togolese ports and sell the fish they caught in Togolese waters at prices that undercut the small fishermen. The Togolese government recognized the need to improve the fishing methods of coastal fishermen in order to allow them to take more fish and sell them at lower prices, both to provide more income for fishermen and to provide protein at a price more people could afford. Because Togo lacked the expertise and the financing necessary to develop their coastal fisheries, the Togolese government asked for assistance from the Peace Corps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Involvement with Togo Fisheries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Upon the request of the Togolese government, in 1962 the Peace Corps recruited eight volunteers from the Gloucester, Massachusetts area of New England. All of these volunteers had some commercial marine fishing experience. For example, one volunteer had spent 15 years in a Federal government agency designing fishing methods and equipment, while others had gone out on commercial fishing vessels as crew members. Together with 39 other volunteers who would be teaching English in Togolese schools, these volunteers went through a training period at Howard University in Washington, D.C. The volunteers were taught French, the official national language of Togo, and given a minimal amount of information on the culture of the country. The marine fisheries volunteers were not given any technical training since it was assumed that they already had the necessary experience for their jobs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Upon their arrival in Togo, the eight marine fisheries volunteers were divided into three groups, each of which had a different site location and different objectives. Four volunteers were assigned to the coastal town of Anecho to engage in the general improvement of the fishing techniques and gear used by coastal fishermen. Two volunteers were assigned to the town of Togoville to concentrate on demonstrating trap fishing and the use of gill nets. Two others were assigned to Dapango in northern Togo on a long-range project to develop inland fisheries. All eight volunteers were assigned to work through the Togolese Fisheries Service, the Service des P&eacute;che, an agency of the Ministry of Agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The two volunteers assigned to inland fisheries development had difficulties from the beginning since they had experience and training in marine fisheries rather than freshwater fisheries. However, they attempted to apply their knowledge of fishing equipment and methods to the freshwater situation and had some success. In the course of their work they discovered that the French had tried to introduce fish culture in ponds during the 1950's, and had built four fish stations, which were abandoned when the French left. These volunteers began working with these stations, but could not do very much since they had no real understanding of the principles of fish culture and freshwater fish species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the first year of the project, the six volunteers assigned to work with coastal fishermen attempted to teach the Togolese basic equipment maintenance such as how to mend nets and rig tackle, and new fishing techniques including how to make cages and traps for lobsters, and how to use a gill net. One volunteer, noticing that fishermen used too much energy pulling and dragging their pirogues up onto the beach, introduced the use of rollers under the boats. All were able to introduce the use of nylon nets and plastic corks and other synthetic fishing gear. The equipment used was provided by the Peace Corps and by private commercial manufacturers who gave large discounts and occasional donations for this program. Support from the Service des P&ccedil;che was minimal; the agency was very new, understaffed, with few people trained in fisheries biology, and was not able to provide either material goods or trained counterparts for the volunteers. The request for marine fisheries volunteers had not come from the Service, and it was not convinced of the n</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2>eed for such projects. One volunteer worked with a fisheries expert from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations who was assigned to the Service des P&#281;che. The Togolese government, however, did provide housing for the volunteers.</P>
+</FONT><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several volunteers tried to promote the use of outboard engines to enable the fishermen to 1) get farther out to where fish were more plentiful, 2) spend less time and energy fishing for an equal amount of fish or increase the catch per unit effort and 3) have leisure time during which they could be taught other techniques and methods to improve the catch or decrease the amount of time spent fishing. However, this didn't work for several reasons:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pirogues often capsized, wetting the engines which required dismantling the engines, drying and reassembling them. Few fishermen had the abilities or interest to take on such a job.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Outboard motors and gasoline were very expensive, especially when the majority of fishermen had no cash income. Credit systems to provide engines and fuel were not available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The use of motors cut down on time spent fishing, but did not increase the catch. Time is the one thing that most fishermen had, so decreasing the time spent fishing was not an advantage to the fishermen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After several attempts, the volunteers involved in outboard engines gave up on this aspect of their work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the volunteers were there, they often saw Russian trawlers fishing in Togo's offshore waters. Several times the Russians unloaded boxed, iced fish and sold them in the markets, where they were able to undersell local fishermen. Volunteers realized that, in order to compete with other commercial fishermen, the Togolese would have to get involved in commercial fisheries development. Through an arrangement made by the Peace Corps, the volunteers were provided with a large purse seine that needed repair. With the local fishermen, the volunteers repaired the net and made arrangements with the captain of a Dahomeyan trawler to go out and fish with the net. The volunteers had two purposes in mind: to convince coastal fishermen that there were plenty of fish offshore and that the use of modern equipment and methods and larger boats would enable fishermen to catch large amounts of fish and thereby change their </FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2>way of life. Although it is not clear what happened, it appears that the volunteers and the fishermen never went out to fish with the purse seine. Volunteers recommended that Peace Corps provide a smaller trawler to the Togolese service des P&#281;che to conti</FONT><FONT SIZE=2>nue this work, but Peace Corps never pursued this idea because the German government had just bought two larger trawlers as part of an FAO program in Togo. The volunteers then gave up this project too.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Out of the original eight volunteers, five terminated and left Togo before their two-year tour of duty was completed. Only one volunteer stayed along the coast working with the coastal fishermen, teaching them to make lobster traps and catch crayfish, which they sold to the wives of the diplomatic corps in Lome. The two others moved into the development of inland fisheries. (Whether these are the same two originally assigned to inland f isheries development is not clear.) In discussions of this project it is called a disaster, since the marine fisheries component failed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, the volunteers associated with the project did not consider it a failure, since they were able to introduce new techniques such as the use and maintenance of gill nets, lobster traps, and the use of rollers to bring boats up onto the shore. But the Togolese government's main goal, to increase the amount of protein in people's diets, was not met.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evaluation of the Project</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This project was one of the Peace Corps' first technical assistance projects, and as such was given a lot of publicity. In an evaluation* done in 1963 while the volunteers were still in Togo, the evaluator made this statement: "The Togo fishing project is unquestionably the most overpublicized Peace Corps activity anywhere in the world. More nonsense has been written about these 'hardy New Englanders' and, as the volunteers themselves are quick to point out, 'No one yet has asked us the key question ... Are we catching more fish?' The answer, regrettably, is 'No."' After this project, the Government of Togo again requested fisheries volunteers, but this time they were all to work in inland fisheries. This second group of volunteers was sent to drought-parched central Togo where the lack of protein in the local diets was most critical. But these volunteers were not trained in fish culture either, and most felt unable to do their jobs. The Togolese did not support the effort to develop fish culture stations. When individual volunteers were able to begin producing fish at an old, abandoned fish station they finally were convinced that it had possibilities. As of 1966, Togo requested 15 volunteers to work primarily in fish culture, extension, and the building of dams for water supply for fish ponds and for domestic uses. However, by 1968 it was clear that the Togolese government was not supporting the fish culture efforts, and no further programming in fisheries projects of any kind was done. In 1970 the Service des Pe~che requested a marine biologist to assist their freshwater fisheries project but it does not appear that this request was filled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Successes and Failures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This project as a whole was considered a failure from Peace Corps' perspective, and from the point of view of the Togolese government's goals. Several points can be made that help to identify what went wrong with the project:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Although the Togolese government requested these volunteers for a marine fisheries project, the Service des P&#281;che did not </FONT><FONT SIZE=2>fully support it from its inception. The Service did not give support of any kind to the volunteers, and was not convinced of the need for their help.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The Peace Corps volunteers were given little understanding of the situation in Togo, and were not supported by Peace Corps when they tried to change their job focus, although they did receive support in terms of money and equipment. Volunteers were trained in French, and although most educated people did speak French, they found that coastal and upland fishermen are more comfortable speaking a local language, of which the volunteers had no knowledge. In addition, there was no technical advisor assigned to the Peace Corps staff, so volunteers often went to the FAO fisheries advisor for help on technical matters. The FAO advisor ended up using the volunteers for FAO projects rather than Peace Corps projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The target population of the marine fisheries volunteers, the coastal fishermen, had not asked to be given help, viewed the fisheries volunteers with the skepticism reserved for "white men", and did not feel the need to reduce the time spent in fishing, which was their major occupation. They also regarded the volunteers as guests, to the extent that they would not allow the volunteers to help with the rowing when they went out to fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Volunteers did have money and equipment from the Peace Corps and from FAO, but doing the job they wanted to do required even larger amounts of money and a boat. Such support, however, was not going to be available to fishermen after the volunteers left.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite these problems, some volunteers were able to transfer knowledge about fishing gear and methods to the coastal fishermen. However, the major goal -- to provide more fish and therefore increase the amount of protein in local diets -- was not met.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Western Samoa Case Study</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p071a.png"></center><br>
+ Image</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p071b.png"></center><br>
+ Image</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Fox, James W. and Kenneth B. Cumberland. 1962. Western Samoa. Whitcombe &amp; Tombs, Ltd. Christchurch, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa, a group of nine volcanic islands ringed by coral reefs, is located in the South Pacific northeast of New Zealand. Only the largest islands are inhabited -Upolu, Savai' i, Apolima, and Manono. Apia, the capital city located on Upolu, is home to one-fourth of the country's population. Western Samoa was a German colony prior to World War I. At rhe end of the war, the country was mandated to New Zealand by the League of Nations. Although Samoans had been participating in self-government since 1954, the country did not receive its independence from New Zealand until January 1, 1962.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa is a politically stable parliamentary democracy, and has few problems with malnutrition or extreme poverty. Most villagers are engaged in subsistence agriculture, although a few large plantations produce copra, cocoa, and bananas for export. The soil of Western Samoa is volcanic but not very fertile; as a result, much of the country's food must be imported. Because most of Western Samoa's foreign exchange earnings are from three export crops, the country is very dependent upon fluctuations in the world prices for these products. The fluctuations coupled with the cost of importing basic food stuff result in a large balance of trade deficit. The Western Samoan government, recognizing the need to reduce this dependence on imported food and decrease the deficit, requested Peace Corps assistance in developing the agricultural and fisheries potential of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fisheries in Western Samoa: An Overview</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surrounded by water, the Western Samoans always have been associated with the sea and its resources. Samoans are full-blooded Polynesians, and they have a great pride in the fishing and navigation skills of their ancestors who originally migrated to these islands. Over the centuries, however, the Samoans have lost the skills and knowledge needed to fish in the open sea, and by the 1960's most fishing was done from canoes and catamarans in the lagoons behind the barrier reefs that surround the islands. Much of this fishing was done on a subsistence level with only a few fish reaching the marketplace. However, as the population grew, more and more people came to depend upon fish for the protein in their diets. As a result, the lagoons were being overfished. Fishermen tried to go out beyond the barrier reefs to fish, but their boats and fishing methods had been developed for the calmer, shallower waters of the lagoon, not for the open Sell. Other countries, particularly Japan, were fishing in the deeper waters off Western Samoa's shores and getting large catches, which they processed and sold back to the Samoans in cans. There is a skipjack tuna fishery just offshore that experts believe would allow an annual harvest of 150,000 tons of fish without seriously depleting the population. Western Samoa's government, recognizing the need to reestablish the local fishery capability and to develop a new commercial fishery, set up a Fisheries Division within the Department of Agriculture in 1970. This new Division requested the assistance of the Peace Corps in planning programs for municipal and commercial fisheries development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Involvement with Western Samoan Fisheries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1970, one volunteer was present at the signing ceremony that created the Fisheries Division. He worked with the new Director in setting up programs. The first program they set up was an outboard engine repair training school to teach repair and maintenance to local fishermen. The (,Government Of Western Samoa previously had introduced outboard motors to fishermen, but few had an understanding of the need for proper maintenance, and many engines had fallen into disrepair. Fishermen had spent many hours trying to fix engines, and time lost in repair or paddling their boats home meant fewer fish were caught. The Fisheries Division hoped that fishermen trained at this school would return to their villages and teach others to maintain their engines. The school was wellliked by fishermen, partly because it included a repair shop which had tools not usually accessible to villagers. A second school was started later on in another location to continue this training. Most of the support for the school was given from the Fisheries Division and from international donor organizations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second program that the volunteer and the Director were interested in was the development of a fishing craft that could go out into the open seas to fish. After some research the volunteer found a design that looked promising: a fishing craft used in the islands in the 1880's but forgotten during this century. Called the "alia", this boat was larger than local canoes but more stable. Using village labor and locally available materials, the volunteer supervised the building of several alias, and equipped them with outboard engines. These boats were a great success, and proved to be very useful in the open sea. Fishermen were receptive to the reintroduction of the alia, especially because it was one of their own traditional designs, and not imposed upon them from the outside. This project also was given support from the Fisheries Division in terms of materials and financing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Based upon these successes, in 1971 the Fisheries Division requested volunteers to work in four projects: the development of fisheries associations in local villages to help in marketing of increased fish catches, the establishment of a turtle hatchery and farm, the development of a skipjack tuna fishery, and the development of a prototype ferrocement boat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Second Volunteer Group</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Upon receiving the Western Samoan government's request, Peace Corps recruited three volunteers in 1971. All three had either experience or education in marine biology. For example, one volunteer with a degree in marine fisheries biology also had five years of experience in deep sea cruises at an oceanographic institution. As a result, the volunteers received no technical training, but they did receive language and cross-cultural training prior to their arrival incountry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two of these volunteers worked in the development of fisheries associations, training local fishermen in new fishing methods and the use of improved fishing equipment. They also taught repair and maintenance of outboard engines. Apparently at this time volunteers also built the first ferrocement boat in the South Pacific; however, it is not clear if this boat was appropriate for Western Samoa, nor if the boat was ever used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third volunteer was assigned to design and build a turtle hatchery. Samoans eat the eggs and adults of two species of sea turtles which breed on remote beaches in the islands. The turtles eaten are the green and the hawks bill, both of which are endangered species. Exploitation of these turtles was further endangering their existence, so the Western Samoan government devised a plan to both protect turtles and increase their productivity. The Fisheries Division wanted to build a hatchery where eggs collected on the breeding grounds could be hatched safely, and the baby turtles returned to the beach and released into the sea. The government also hoped that, after doing research on the turtles' life cycles and food habits, it would be possible to farm these turtles on a commercial basis, thus providing the local people with another way to generate income.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The volunteer working on the turtle hatchery idea studied turtle populations to determine their locations, abundance, and food requirements, then designed and built a hatchery with funding from the Fisheries Division, a British fisheries office, and the Foundation for the Peoples of the South Pacific. The hatchery operated as a conservation hatchery -- turtle eggs were collected, hatched, and baby turtles were released into the sea. The volunteer also conducted classes, made a movie, and had radio programs that dealt with the need for conservation of sea turtles. However, the Fisheries Division was not very interested in conservation, as such -- they were more concerned with the possibilities of future commercial production, and did not support this phase of the volunteers work. Little material or technical support was given to this project by the Peace Corps, although they did sponsor a meeting with fisheries volunteers and government officials to discuss problems. When the volunteer left, the hatchery was operating well. Encouraged with this success, the Fisheries Division requested another volunteer to work on the next phase of this project, a turtle farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Turtle Farm Project</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1972 a volunteer was recruited to conduct the feasibility study on establishing a turtle farm. This volunteer and a Samoan counterpart explored turtle breeding grounds and identified possible food sources for sea turtles. In the course of this work, the volunteer and his counterpart went diving beyond the barrier reef. The volunteer was attacked and killed by a shark, and the project was halted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two years later Peace Corps recruited another volunteer to continue this work. This volunteer had a degree in marine biology, and did research before his arrival on sea turtles. He discovered that the green turtle, the turtle they wanted to farm, was herbivorous and would not do well under the prevailing conditions. Conditions were more favorable for the production of the hawks bill, a carnivorous species. However, after three months of study the volunteer concluded that farming of this sea turtle would not be possible because the cost of its food was prohibitive. He recommended that Western Samoa look towards other fishery resources for commercial ventures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Baitfish Project</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the turtle farm study, this volunteer began exploring the possibility of producing bait to support the development of a commercial skipjack tuna fishery. Live bait was needed for tuna and many other fish species found in Samoan waters, and the bait fisll available at that time was too fragile and in short supply. The volunteer designed a technical facility for production of bait fish and requested help from the Peace Corps and from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. With the help of an interested Peace Corps staff member, he wrote a project paper and received US $1,000 from Peace Corps in Washington to build his facility; some funding also was received from FAO. After one year of work, he was able to get a lease from the government on a one-acre site. The volunteer did not receive any other material support from the Fisheries Division, although he did have a counterpart who left for Japan soon after the volunteer arrived for a training course in deep sea trawling. Finally, the volunteer was able to set up the baitfish hatchery, test it, and begin operation. The project was a success, as evidenced by the fact that three years after the volunteer left, the facility had expanded to two acres of ponds, had a road and electricity, and was run by several well-trained Samoans. 'the government fishing vessel used the baitfish produced and was able to increase catches substantially.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The village-level Fisheries Extension Program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The next group of volunteers were requested in 1975 to work in the Village-Level Fisheries Extension Program. With previous experience In mechanics or education in commercial marine fisheries, this group of volunteers was trained in outboard engine repair and maintenance, language, and cross-cultural studies in Hawaii. Originally a group of nine, four left during the first year. Of the remaining five, four worked in demonstration teams as part of the Village-Level Fisheries Extension Program, while one volunteer was assigned to supervise the turtle hatchery begun by a volunteer in 1971.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The efforts of the village level Fisheries Extension Program were directed into three main phases: maintenance of outboard engines, methodology of harvesting fish, and marketing. Working with Samoan counterparts, the volunteers in this program went from village to village helping train local fishermen in all aspects of engine maintenance and fishing methods. Several of the volunteers worked closely with the baitfish facility set up by a previous volunteer in conducting fishing trials to determine the usefulness of live bait. As a result of the collective work of this group and the baitfish facility, more fish reached the markets than ever before. During the first 18 months this group of volunteers was in the country, the importation of canned fish into Western Samoa dropped significantly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This increase in the total fish catch prompted the FAO to develop a marketing scheme to utilize the catch, and several volunteers participated in the scheme. The FAO requested the help of additional volunteers and offered to put up US $500,000 to continue the development of this new commercial fishery. The four volunteers involved recommended that Peace Corps comply with this request. However, with the end of their tours in 1977, these were no further requests from the Fisheries Division. Peace Corpst Western Samoa files indicate that the volunteers and the Fisheries Division felt the need for the fisheries extension project had diminished since the two major workshops were operating successfully and sufficient numbers of village fishermen had learned minor repair and maintenance. In addition, Japan was providing volunteers and aid to the project, thus nullifying the need for continued Peace Corps presence. Since 1977 no marine fisheries volunteers have been requested, although there is some interest in freshwater fisheries at present.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evaluation of the Project</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an evaluation* done in 1976, the Peace Corps evaluator states that two outboard engine repair stations had been set up and were training Samoans, and that volunteers assigned to the outlying districts were training local fishermen to maintain and operate their engines more efficiently. The evaluation stated that, as a result of these efforts, volunteer assistance would end since there were now trained local people to continue this work. The evaluation further stated that fisheries demonstration teams showing new fishing methods and equipment were established and successful, and that as a result of these efforts there were substantially increased fish catches, although it remained to be seen if this was a permanent change. The evaluation stated that throughout this project there was little support or coordination from the Fisheries Division, possibly because the Director was only an "acting" officer. Most of the support for all of the marine fisheries projects came from outside agencies including the FAO, the South Pacific Commission, the .Japanese Overseas Cooperation Volunteers, and the Peace Corps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Successes and Failures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Overall the Peace Corps marine fisheries projects in Western Samoa are considered successful in that the government's original goals -to reduce the amount of food imported and develop a commercial fishery were achieved. Individual volunteers also felt that their projects were successful. Factors that may have led to this success include these:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Although the Fisheries Division was very new and did not have the staff capabilities or funding to provide direct supervision and trained counterparts to all volunteers, the Division did provide support in terms of well-planned programs with definitive objectives, good job sites, free housing and boats and outboard engines. As the programs developed, the Division increased its support to volunteers, including counterparts with fisheries training and some financing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Most of the Peace Corps volunteers were chosen for their experience in mechanics or educational background in marine fisheries. The volunteers were given excellent technical, cross cultural, and language training; those on demonstration teams regularly conversed even with each other in Samoan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> In the beginning of the program, Peace Corps did not provide any technical support for the marine fisheries volunteers, but as the program developed, a staff member became very interested in all of the projects and was instrumental in getting some of them started. The staff member also served as the liaison between volunteers and the other international organizations that were involved in fisheries development in Western Samoa. According to the volunteers, when the staff member left the country, no one else picked up the marine projects and they simply died.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> In each of these projects, volunteers were used to provide assistance and training to Samoans. As the Samoans became proficient in these tasks, Peace Corps began pulling out. Both the Peace Corps staff and the volunteers felt that the volunteers had literally "worked themselves out of a job" and that Peace Corps assistance was no longer needed in the marine fisheries field.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The Samoan people had a long history of involvement with fisheries, and were very proud, independent and nationalistic. They were willing to work with the volunteers for their own betterment, and learned quickly. Volunteers often lived in fishing villages and went on all-night fishing trips with local fishermen to demonstrate techniques and equipment. As a result,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">volunteers were accepted and trusted by Samoans. The volunteers themselves felt this was due in part to the fact that they were able to communicate with the Samoans in their own language.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The volunteers felt that there were some failures in their projects. One failure was the inability of several volunteers to convince the Fisheries Division of the need for conservation education in Western Samoa, particularly concerning the two endangered turtle species. There is some question also as to the long-term success of these projects. Although the importation of fish did go down during the first 18 months of the Village-Level Fisheries Extension Program it was not known if this was due to volunteer activities or to some other cause. However, the development of outboard engine repair schools and the improvement of fishing techniques did help Western Samoa to develop a commercial fishery. Thus, the marine fisheries projects in Western Samoa were successful in meeting the original goals of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3. Future of Peace Corps Marine Fisheries Programs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each of the five case studies in Chapter II concluded with a section called Successes alla Failures. In these summaries, points were brought out to illustrate why some projects were successful and others were not. Although each project was different depending upon the given conditions, it is clear that the same kinds of factors influenced each marine fisheries project. Future Peace (corps involvement in marine fisheries program; will depend also upon these factors and on others unique to individual countries. This chapter examines each factor identified in the case studies both to aid in the evaluation of current Peace Corps efforts in marine fisheries and in the planning of future marine fisheries programs. It is hoped that programmers in the field and planners of future Peace Corps programs will benefit from the evaluation of those factors found to be critical to the success of past Peace Corns marine fisheries programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Factors That Determine Success</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the factors that determine the success of Peace CCorps programs in marine fisheries are the amount and kind of support given to projects and volunteers from the Peace Corps and the host country government, the qualifications and training of the volunteers, the receptivity of host country people to volunteers and the project, and the previous involvement of host country agencies and local people in marine fisheries. These and other factors influence marine fisheries programs to such an extent that in many cases, the factors become criteria for determining whether or not Peace Corps should he involved with the program. The following factors should be considered both in the planning of future marine fisheries efforts and in evaluating current Peace Corps programs in the field.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Support from the Host Country</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first criterion to be considered in deciding whether or not Peace Corps should be involved in marine fisheries projects should be the extent of commitment to the project by the host country government. If projects are seen as top priority by the government, it is more likely that money will be allocated for the projects, volunteers will be supported by the agency to which they are assigned, counterparts will be provided, and the necessary materials and equipment will be provided. Part of this commitment should be in planning programs that volunteers will be working in with Peace Corps assistance, identifying the types of positions that volunteers can fill, and ensuring that they are wanted and expected by local staff people. If the country believes the project is important this support will be forthcoming; if not, perhaps Peace Corps should reconsider their involvement in the project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Support from the Peace Corps</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second consideration for involvement in marine fisheries is the amount of commitment that Peace Corps gives to the project. Peace Corps support starts at the planning stage when staff members meet with host country agency staff to identify possible positions for volunteers in marine fisheries projects, and goes on to the recruitment and training stages of the project. Peace Corps should be as honest as possible about the qualifications of volunteers that they will be able to get, and make sure the host country is aware of this when they request volunteers. Peace Corps overseas staff members should formulate task analyses based on visits to potential volunteer sites so that volunteers will receive appropriate training for specific jobs. Peace Corps should give potential volunteers a clear picture of the situation in the country regarding the level of technical information needed, exact job descriptions, and amount of support to be expected. Once in training, volunteers should be given technical training that is specific to their job placements. ()One point that stands out in all of these case studies is that when a local] Peace (Corps staff member had responsibility for the marine projects and had some technical understanding, projects went much more smoothly. In the same vein, Peace Corps should utilize technical resource people such as consultants or returned fisheries volunteers to plan and evaluate marine fisheries projects in the field. Peace Corps also should be careful not to place volunteers in positions that take jobs away from qualified host country professionals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Qualifications and Expectations of Volunteers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, volunteers were recruited for specific projects and those with certain skills were selected for community-type work while others were selected for technical work. Volunteers with advanced degrees in the sciences expected to do work; that was scientifically useful, and expected to have al] the necessary support in terms of equipment and funding, to do good research. In some cases volunteers with specialized academic degrees selected by Peace Corps were more concerned with professional advancement in the scientific community than with the traditional Peace Corps experience. When the necessary professional support was not available, many volunteers became frustrated and left. On the other hand, volunteers who had general backgrounds and were trained in fisheries skills felt out of their depth when faced with situations they had not been told about in training. Volunteers who were not trained in community development theory and methods were resentful when Peace Corps expected them to become involved in their communities outside of their jobs, and even when they tried they had few successes. Peace Corps needs to have clear objectives for volunteers and make sure they understand those objectives. Peace Corps should select volunteers for marine fisheries projects based upon their flexibility and their ability to work in unstructured, ambiguous situations. Volunteers also should have experience or training in community development as well as the appropriate technical skills.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Receptivity of Host Country Nationals to Volunteers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each country reacts differently to working with Pence Corps, and in many cases such reactions have little to do with the work volunteers do. Local customs and politics can have an important bearing on the potential success of a Peace Corps project and should be considered in project selection and design, and in volunteer recruitment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">History of Host Country's Involvement with Fisheries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The last point to consider when thinking, about potential marine fisheries projects is the amount and nature of experience the country has had in the field. Countries that have no history of involvement with marine fisheries, even though receptive to such projects, will have few staff people who can support a project and give direction to volunteers. For example, in Western Samoa the Fisheries Division was set Up with the help of a volunteer, but for many years it was not able to give the necessary amounts of support to volunteers because it did not have the funding or staff capabilities to do so. Countries that have had some experience in fisheries may have attitudes towards marine fisheries that were formed by their previous exposure that could influence a project. Fishermen in El Salvador, for example, were not receptive to volunteers at first because they had had bad experiences with cooperatives. Peace Corps should be aware of these attitudes and make sure that projects take such attitudes into account in the planning stages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Planning for the Future</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the above discussion of marine fisheries projects, and given the current Peace Corps emphasis on basic human needs, future effort in the marine fisheries area appears to have the most promise in small scale, village-level marine fisheries development programs. Geared towards assisting the artisanal fishermen of coastal areas, such programs would involve volunteers in all aspects of fisheries development including applied fisheries research. To provide a guide for Peace Corps planners, programmers, and trainers this chapter includes the following detailed task; analysis for village level marine fisheries development programs. The task analysis breaks down the tasks that volunteers in such programs would be expected to perform to fulfill the objectives of individual countries and the Peace Corps. It also outlines an inventory of skills around which Peace Corps hoses to develop skill training models in tile 1980's, All marine fisheries development workers should be able to perform some combination of the following tasks depending upon their skill training, education, experience, their assignment, the country's development goals, and the status of artisanal fishing in their area. Other tasks may be added as needed that are specific to the particular host country under consideration and to the training needs of individual volunteers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Task Analysis: Village-level Marine Fisheries Development Programs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each marine fisheries program will have general goals and expectations of the volunteers involved. In village-level marine fisheries development programs, volunteers will be expected to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Establish and maintain good personal and working relationships with host country supervisors, coworkers, and local fishermen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Become familiar with the policies, plans, and program goals of their host country agencies and gain an understanding of how their projects fit into national programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Become familiar with the status of marine fisheries development in their areas, and identify problems, concerns, and expectations for their own projects with their supervisors and co-workers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Establish objectives and a program of work to accomplish those objectives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Develop productive working relationships with people in all agencies that may have an influence upon or could contribute to their project, including local leaders, universities, government agencies, international agencies, and the private sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Identify all the resources in the local area and in their host country agencies and others that may be available to their projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Adhere to the rules, regulations, and policies of their host country agencies, and conduct themselves as full working members of their agencies with all the responsibilities thus conveyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specific tasks that volunteers will be expected to perform in village-level marine fisheries development programs can be divided into the following subjects: fisheries methodology and fishing gear, fisheries research, fish handling, fish marketing and cooperatives, and fisheries education.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fishing Methodology and Fishing Gear</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Study existing fishing methods, gear, vessels, and fish species utilized by local fishermen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Study and determine extent of fishery resources presently utilized, their abundance, and identify possible ways to increase catch of desirable fish and shellfish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Evaluate traditional fishing vessels and other boat designs to determine value of introducing new boats or modifying existing ones for better fishing gear.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Develop new methods or modify existing fishing methods to increase fish catch per unit effort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Introduce new gear and demonstrate its use, construction, and repair. Gear and new fishing methods that might be introduced include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Line fishing - hand lines, long lines, floating lines, trolling</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trap fishing - fish pots and traps, shell fish pots and traps</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Encircling gear - purse seines, beach seines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Net fishing - dip or lift nets, gill or trange nets, trammel nets for fish and lobster</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dredge and trawl fishing, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> shellfish dredges, Boston trawl for fish and shrimp</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Introduce outboard and inboard engines and teach proper mounting of engines, operation, repair and maintenance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Teach fishing safety procedures such as boat handling and equipment to take for emergencies - paddles or oars, a light, food, and water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fisheries Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Survey and collect data on local fish and shellfish species presently being utilized and identify potential fishery resources not presently utilized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Evaluate inshore and offshore environments for their potential for protecting and promoting important fish and shellfish species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Identify the distribution and relative abundance of important fish and shellfish species, to determine the need for resource management and conservation programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Study the life history and identify the different life stages of important fish and shellfish species to determine the appropriateness of different fishing methods and gear and the need for moratoria on fishing at certain times of the year or in certain spawning areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Teach counterparts and local fishermen the importance of resource management and conservation and help them determine how best to manage their own local fishery resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fish Handling</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Study existing methods of fish handling, preservation, and processing and identify local preferences as to size, condition of fish sold, and freshness of fish desired.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Identify the types of fish processing and preservation available to local people and their reactions to each type.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Introduce new methods of fish preservation that use locally available materials and skills.. Such methods could include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Salting - either between layers of salt, or in a brine solution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smoking - in small quantities for household use</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Drying - cheapest, uses sunlight and little else, but fish must be gutted</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Icing - maintains freshness of fish over short periods of time from boat to market, but requires ice plants (electricity)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Explore the possibility of processing fish on an industrial scale, such as canning and freezing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Teach general health practices with regard to fish preservation and handling, including quality control and sanitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fish Marketing and Cooperatives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Study current fish marketing methods, location of markets, availability of transportation from docking areas to markets, and methods of fish distribution (by fishermen themselves? by middlemen who buy at the dock?).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Identify other marketing methods that may be possible in the local area and locate potential markets for fish that have not been utilized previously.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Locate and determine need for credit and financing to inprove present marketing methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Help fishermen develop associations or cooperat</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2>ives if none are in operation &#321;or fish marketing and financing for new gear and boats.</P>
+</FONT><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Provide assistance in administration, bookkeeping, and accounting for associations and cooperatives, and educate cooperative members in such activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Collect data on fish sold, prices obtained, size preferred, quality of fish when sold, types of fish eaten, and other statistical information to determine where improvements are most needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Prepare feasibility studies for new markets and design new facilities for marketing needs such as ice plants and storage areas in cooperative buildings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Identify local businesses and buisnessmen who are interested in either financing marketing facilities or in buying fish directly from fishermen and who can provide technical help to fishermen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fisheries Education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Conduct nonformal fisheries education of counterparts, coworkers, and local fishermen in all of the above fields when undertaking the appropriate activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Utilize local resources to promote eating, of fish through audiovisual and written materials such as films and posters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Give talks to school children about the fishery resources of their area and the importance of protecting fish now so that there will be fish in the future .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Work with health and nutrition volunteers in developing new ways to cook fish and introducing new fishery resources to local people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Develop an awareness of fisheries resources locally through newsletters, radio programs, and other types of information exchange.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Where feasible, work with local fisheries technical schools and colleges to give practical, hands-on fishing experience to students. Allow local fishermen to demonstrate and lecture on new gear and methods and let them answer questions from students.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Apendices</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix A: Limitations of Data</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of the background information used in developing the material presented in the case studies was found in Peace Corps files, including those of the ()office of Programming and Training Coordination, country desk officers, and the ACTION Library. Some materials were received from returned Peace Corps volunteers involved in those projects studied as well. Most of the statements male in evaluating success and failure of Peace Corps marine fisheries projects came from Peace Corps evaluations; however, some statements made are based upon the perceptions of returned volunteers themselves, especially when no formal evaluations were ever made. Perceptions change over time, and most volunteers contacted agreed that they were perhaps remembering only the very good or very bad aspects of their tours. Thus these case studies should not be considered as the final verdict in any case, but as the perceptions of evaluators, programmers, trainers, staff, and volunteers involved in marine fisheries projects. There were also gaps in the data that could not be filled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Data from returned volunteers was gathered through telephone conversations and letters. Volunteers were asked questions to start their thinking about projects, some of which occurred 18 years ago. Others merely talked about projects, giving their own views with little prompting from the researchers. A sample questionnaire used for this purpose follows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Questions for Marine Fisheries RPCVs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. flow many volunteers were in your project? At the beginning? At the end of two years?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. What pre-Peace Corps education, training and experience in marine fisheries did you have?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. What training did you have prior to placement in-country?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. What was your primary job as a volunteer? Your secondary job?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Did your project have clearly defined objectives? Did you know what these were?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. What were the objectives of the project? Were PC objectives the same as those of the host country?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Was there support for the project? From PC? From the host country government? What kind of support:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">a. counterparts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">b. place to work</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c. money</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">d. transportation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">e. housing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">f. equipment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">g. supervision and direction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. If not working for the government, who provided support and guidance for your project?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Where did you live? Work? Within what radius of your living quarters/work place did you travel or work purposes? [low far did you travel from your living quarters to your place of work? Did your living arrangement influence your job performance?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Did you complete your project? Why did you and other volunteers in your program leave the project:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">a. normal termination</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">b. medical reasons</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c. personal reasons</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">d. project deficiencies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">e. other problems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. Did you perceive problems during the course of the project? If so, did you make recommendations to the Peace Corps? To the host country government?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12. Were such recommendations acted upon? Did such actions improve the situation? Why or why not?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">13. Did you have enough to do? Was your job dependent upon outside support?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14. In your opinion, did the project fulfill original objectives of PC? Of the host country government? Why or why not? How?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15. If not, what were the problems?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">a. no need for project as defined</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">b. personal problems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c. medical problems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">d. unavoidable "chance" problems (i.e.. political)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">e. lack of support - money, equipment, trained counterparts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">f. lack of receptivity on part of target audience (fishermen, farmers, etc.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">g. inability of volunteer to communicate - language, cross-cultural issues, technically unqualified, personality problems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">h. other problems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">16. What was your group's feelings about continuing the project in your country? In another country? What is your feeling about this?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">17. Do you consider the project successful? What do you mean by successful? If not, under what circumstances could the project have been successful?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">18. Is the project still going on? If not, why do you think it stopped?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">19. Any further comments on training, abilities of volunteers to do the job, support from PC, host country, private donor organizations, other volunteers, and evaluations of PC projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20. Can you suggest other people in your program who should be contacted for information?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix B: List of All Past Peace Corps Marine Fisheries Projects</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p097.png"></center><br>
+ Table</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p098.png"></center><br>
+ Table</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia and the Pacific</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p099.png"></center><br>
+ Table</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p100.png"></center><br>
+ Table</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p101a.png"></center><br>
+ Table</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin America and the Caribbean</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p101b.png"></center><br>
+ Table</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p102.png"></center><br>
+ Table</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p103.png"></center><br>
+ Table</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p104.png"></center><br>
+ Table</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bibliography</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General References</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Action, 1977. Annual Report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banerjee, T., 1976. Food for all mankind: Think Fish. P.C. Fisheries Program. Office of Policy and Planning Evaluation U.S.P.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banerjee, T., 1977. P.C. Evaluation Summaries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sanerjee, T., 1978. Summary and analysis of P.C. related evaluations conducted during FY 1977.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roy, D., 1968. Peace Corps and coops in Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sherberne, J., 1976. Examples of natural resources and environmental projects Smithsonian -- P.C. Environmental Program 1972-76.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smithsonian Institution - Peace Corps Environmental Program Questionnaire Summary, 1/1977.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smithsonian Institution - Peace Corps Environmental Program Questionnaire Summary, 7/1977.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps, 1962. U.S. Peace Corps project brochures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps, 1968. Training Manual: Agriculture extension.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps, 1964. Peace Corps in NANEAP recruiting brochure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps, 1969. Peace Corps in Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps, 1969. U.S. Peace Corps; Joint Program Review.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps, 1973. Peace Corps Operations Report FY 1973.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps, 1973. U.S. Peace Corns project reports by country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps, 1973. Peace Corps and the Environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps, 1963. Peace Corps projects in Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps, 1974. Peace Corps Annual Operations Report FY 1974.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps, 1975. Peace Corps Annual Operations Report FY 1975.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps, 1975. African Regional management plan FY 1976-77.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps, 1975. Latin American Regional Management Plan. FY 1975-1977.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps, 1976. Proceedings Second Directors Conference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">References by Region and Country</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFRICA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clemens, R.P.. 170. A review of the P.C. fisheries programs in West Camerroon and India.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hall C.B.. 1972. A special report on the inland fisheries section of the Dept. of Agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Cameroon. 1968. Careroon program memorandum. 1968-71</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Cameroon. 1969. Cameroon Dept. of Agriculture: Fisheries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C,./Cameroon. 1972. Coonerative and credit union training, program for West Cameroon.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dahomey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Dahomey 1967. Dahomy Program Summary 1967-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Dahomey Program Memorandum.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Ethiopia. 1966. Ethiopia program memorandum. 1966-70.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Ethiopia. 1969. The U.S.P.C. in Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Ethiopia. 1974. P.C.. Ethiopia incountry training report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gabon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hishmeh M., F.B. Williams and P. Smith. 1977. Gabon country evaluate .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Gabon. 1967. Gabon Program Summary 1967-72.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sternin, J. and .T. [latch. 1976. Gambia Country Evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boyle, N., P. Blohny and C. Helfer. 1976. Ghana country evaluation. U.S.P.C./Ghana. 1967. Ghana Program ram Summary I!.S.P.C./Ghana Prop,ram Memorandum.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Guinea. 1966. Guinea 1966. Guinea program memorandum</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1966-70.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Guinea. 1966. Guinea program summary 196(-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivory Coast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Ivory ('Coast. 1967. I.C. Program summary 1967-72.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Ivory Coast. 1968. I.C. Program Memorandum 1968</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C. /Ivory ('Coast. 1971. I.C. Country Plan 1971-73.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gardner, IT. Personal Comunication. P.C. Kenya desk: officer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Office of Policy and Planning, Evaluation 1976. Peace Corp/Kenya country evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Kenya. 1966. Kenya Program summary 1966-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Kenva. ]968. Kenya Program Memorandum.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Kenya. 1979. Kenya Country Management Plan PY 1980.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liberia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Office of Policy and Planning Evaluation 1976. P.C. Liberia evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Liberia. 1966. Liberia Pro;,ram Summary 1966-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Liberia. l968. Liberia Program memorandum.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Liberia. 197$. Liberia Country Management Plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Liberia. 1979. Liberia Country Management Plan FY 1980.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Mauritius</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swanson, C. Personal communication, recruiting desk officer,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./NANEAP.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Mauritius. 1968. "Where cane is King"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Mauritius. 1971. Mauritius Country Plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Morocco</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Morocco. 1967. Morocco Program Sumary 1967-72.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Morocco. 1968. Morocco Program Memorandum. l968-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Morocco. 1970. Morocco Country Plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weber, F., D. Garner, and R. Gardner. 1976. Morocco Country Program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Nigeria. 1964. P.C. Nigerian project</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Nigeria. 1965. Report from the Ag/Rd conference in the Nigeria XIII.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Nigeria 1967. Nigeria Program Summary 1967-72.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Senegal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Senegal. 1966. Senegal Program Memorandum. 1966-70).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U. S.P.C./Senegal. 1968. Senegal Program Memorandum. 1966-70)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Senegal. 1968 Senegal Program summary. 1968-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*denotes Peace Corps involvement in marine Fisheries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seychelles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country Director Personal Communication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Nigeria. 1964. P.C. Nigerian Project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Sierra Leone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McGuire, R.C,. 1964. Sierra Leone Overseas evaluatlon.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Sierra Leone. 1965. Sierra Leone Program Memorandum 1966-70.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Sierra Leone. 1966. Sierra Leone Program summary ]966-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Sierra Leone. 1968. Sierra Leone Program summary 1968-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Sierra Leone. 1971. Sierra Leone Country Plan 1971-74.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Sierra Leone. 1978. Sierra Leone Country Management Plan 1978.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./.Sierra Leone. 1979. Sierra Leone Country Management Plan FY 1980.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Somalia. 1966. Somalia Program Memorandum 1966-70. U.S.P.C./Snmalia. 1967. Somalia Program Summary 1967-70. U.S.P.C./Somalia. 1968. Somalia Program Memorandum.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Tanzania. 1968. Tanzania Program Memorandum 1968-70. U.S.P.C./Tanzania. 1968. Tanzania Program Summary. 1968-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Togo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cook, P.S. 1963. Togo evaluation report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gelman, D. 1962. Tng,o evaluation report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hapgood D. 1965. Overseas evaluation Togo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leiberg. L., J.W. ?McCallum and P. Smith 1977.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Togo Country Program Evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Togo. 1966 Togo 1st Fisheries Conference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Togo. 1966. Togo Program Summary ]966-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Togo. 1966. Togo Program Memorandum 1966-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Togo. 1968. Togo Program Memorandun.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C-/Togo. 197(h Togo Country Plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tunisia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burnes, Hishnell, and P. Smith 1977. PC/Tunisia Country Program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Tunisia. 1966. Tunisia Country Momorandum 1966-70.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Tunisia. 1970. Tunisia Country Plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Tunisia. The Peace Corps and Tunisia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ASIA AND THE PACIFIC</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Fiji</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schuiener, F.U. Fiji: A case study of fisheries development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Fiji. 1968. Fiji program memorandum 1968-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Fiji. 1970. Fiji country plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Fiji. 1972. Fiji country plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Fiji. 1977. Fiji country management plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Fiji. 1978. Fiji country management plan FY 1980.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./India. 1961. The P.C. in India.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./India. 1969. P.C. India fisheries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./India. 1977. U.S.P.C./Action in fisheries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Iran</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basile, M.I. 1975. Iran 50. An evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Iran. Peace Corps Iran Agriculture notebook.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Iran. 1967. Iran Project Summary 1967-72.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Iran. 1968. Iran Project Summary 1968-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Iran. 1976. P.C. Iran Country Plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Korea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Korea. 1972. Korea Country Plan 1972-75.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hashim, M.Y. 1971. Evaluation of the P.C./Malaysian agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Malaysia. 1966. Malaysia Program Summary 1966-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C.lMalaysia. 1967. Malaysia Program Review. 1967-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Malaysia. 1967. Malaysia Program Summary 1967-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Malaysia. 1970. Malaysia agriculture training program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Malaysia. 1972. Malaysia Country Plan 1972-75.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C.lMalaysia. 1977. Malaysia Country Management Plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Malaysia. 1978. Malaysia Country Management Plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Office of Policy and Planning Education. 1976.Malaysia Country Program Evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malta</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jennings, H.L.. 1971. Evaluation visit of Malta.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Micronesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Broody, M., M. Carroll, and N. McKittenick. 1968. Micronesia evaluation report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Micronesia. 1966. Training program for PCV's to serve in Micronesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Micronesia. 1968. Micronesia Program Summary 1968-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Micronesia. 1970. Micronesia Country Plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Micronesia. 1971. Micronesia Country Plan 1971-74.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Micronesia. 1972. Micronesia Country Plan 1972-75.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Micronesia. 1973. Micronesia program evaluation survey team final report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banerjee, T., J.E. Hubert, H.E. Demarest, and J.A. Atchoe 1978. A suggested guideline for fisheries programming and training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Philippines. 1966. Philippines Program Summary 1966-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Philippines. 1967. Philippines Program Summary 1967-72.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Philippines. 1967. Action P.C. Program Memorandum Philippines 1967-70.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Philippines. 1968. PC/Philippines PPBS 1968-73.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Philippines. 1970. PC/Philippines Country Plan 1970-73.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Philippines. 1972. Philippines 69: Fingerling production and extension.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Philippines. 1973. Philippines 65. P.C. pond fisheries extension program midtraining report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Philippines. 1974. Philippines 67: U.S.P.C. Fisheries research program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Philippines. 1974. U.S.P.C. Philippines orientation development program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Philippines. 1977. Philippines Country Management Plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Philippines. 1980. Philippines Country Management Plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilson, W. Personal Communication. P.C. Country Desk Officer/ Philippines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Thailand. 1966. Thailand Program Summary 1966-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Thailand. 1967. Thailand Program Summary 1967-72.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Thailand. 1967. Thailand Program Memorandum 1967-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Thailand. 1969. Thailand Program Memorandum 1969-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Thailand. 1976. P.C. Program Background for FY 1976-77.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Thailand. 1976. Thailand country management plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Thailand. 1977. Thailand country management plan. 1973-78.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Thailand. 1979. Thailand country management plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Tonga</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Tonga. 1972. Tonga Country Management Plan. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Tonga. 1975. Tonga Country Management Plan 1975-77. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Tonga. 1977. Tonga Country Management Plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1966 Turkey Program Memorandum 1966-70.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Turkey. 1968. Turkey Program Memorandum.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./Office of Policy and Planning Evaluation. 1976. W. Samoa Country Program Evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./W. Samoa. 1968. W. Samoa Program Summary 1968-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./W. Samoa. 1968. W. Samoa Program Memorandum.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./W. Samoa. 197]. W. Samoa Country Plan 1971-74.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S.P.C./W. Samoa. 1977. W. Samoa Country Plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Belize (British Honduras)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Elwell, R.P. 1963. B.H. Overseas Evaluation. Leeth, lI.A. 1977. PC/Belize evaluation McDonald, J. 1967. B.H. Overseas Education. McGill, D. 1970. B.H. Overseas Education. U.S. Peace Corps/Belize. 1966. Program memorandum 1966-70. U.S. Peace Corps/Belize. 1966. Program summary 1966-71. U.S. Peace Corps/Belize. 1967. Peace Corps helps to build a nation. U.S. Peace Corps/Belize. 1967. Country Report British Honduras. U.S. Peace Corps/Belize. 1967. Program Summary 1967-72. U.S. Peace Corps/Belize. 1968. Program Memorandum. U.S. Peace Corps/Belize. 1970. Belize: A 3 year country plan. U.S. Peace Corps/Belize. 1975. Country management plan FY 1976. U.S. Peace Corps/Belize. 1974. Country management plan FY 1980.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curry, Charles. Personal communication Brazil Desk Officer. U.S. P.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Brazil. 1967. Brazil Program summary 1967-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Brazil. 1967. Brazil Program summary 1967-72.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Brazil. 1968. Brazil Program memorandum 1968-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Brazil. 1968. PC/Rio de Janerio program memorandum 1968-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Brazil. 1968. SUDEP fishing cooperative.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Brazil. 1970. Country plan of ACTION.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Brazil. 1970. P.C. program memorandum for agriculture and rural development programs in northeast Brazil 1970-72.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Brazil. 1973. Country management plan FY 1974.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Brazil. 1973. Country management plan project.summary FY 1974.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Brazil. Working with fishermen in Brazil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Chile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arensberg, W. and V. Miller. 1979. Peace Corps/Chile Country Program Evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arensberg, W., 1.. Hanscom and A. Randall. 1968. Chile overseas evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berdegue, J.. 1979. Chile fisheries program: Overseas Evaluation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crino, A. Personal Communication. Program Coordination PC/Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curry, C. Personal communication. Chile desk officer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Humboldt State College. 1967. Chile Fishing cooperatives program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/ChiLe. 1966. Program Summary 1966-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Chile. 1966. Program memorandum 1966-70.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Chile. 1968. Program memorandum 1968-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Chile. 1975. Country management plan. FY 1976.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Chile. 1969. Country management plan. FY 1980.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Central American Fisheries Program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hughes, P. Observations on the P.C. Central American Fisheries project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joy, R. 1970. Overseas evaluation: Central American Fisheries Development program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mayan, E. 1970. A report on the recruiting effort for the P.C. Central American Fisheries Program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moe, N. 1964. A report on the Central American Fisheries Project after 7 months in the field.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moe, N. 1971. Reflections of 2 1/2 years with the Peace Corps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps ]970. Central American Regional Fisheries Development project training syllabus.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beausoliedy, J. 1976. P.C. Colombia Country program evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tatge, E.W. and J. Phillips. 1967. Overseas evaluation: Co-op programs in Colombia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Colombia. 1966. Colombia Program Memorandum 1966-70.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Colombia. 1967. Colombia Program Summary 1966-74.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Colombia. 1968. Colombia Program Memorandum.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Colombia. 1964. Colombia agriculture program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Colombia. 1970. Colombia country plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Colombia. 1974. Colombia country management plan.FY 1980.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hatch, J.K. and T. Bethure. 1975. PC/Costa Rica Country Program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Costa Rica. 1966. C.R. Program Memorandum 1966-70.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Costa Rica. 1967. C.R. Program Summary 1967-72.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Costa Rica. 1970. C.R. Country plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Costa Rica. 1976. C.R. Country management plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Costa Rica. 1976. C.R. Country management plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Costa Rica. 1972. C.R. Country management plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Costa Rica. 1978. C.R. Country management plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jacops, D.V. and P. Hardberger. 1966. D. Republic overseas evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meharr, G., 1975. D. Republic Evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Walz, T. 1965. Overseas evaluation/D. Republic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Warren, B.J. Personal Communication. Former PC/DR staff.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Dominican Republic. 1967. Program memorandum.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Dominican Republic. 1970. D.R. Country plan 1970-74.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Dominican Republic. 1976. D.R. Country management program FY 76-77.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Dominican Republic. 1974. D.R. Country management program FY $0-$1.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> *Eastern Caribbean</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sterin, J. 1976. P.C. East Caribbean country program evaluation. U.S. P.C./Eastern Caribbean. 1967. E.C. Program summary 1967-77. U.S. P.C./Eastern Caribbean. 1968. E.C. Program memorandum. U.S. P.C./Eastern Caribbean. 1970. E.C. Country plan, Vol. 1-3. U.S. P.C./Eastern Caribbean. 1975. E.C. Country management plan. U.S. P.C./Eastern Caribbean. 1976. E.C. Country management plan. U.S. P.C./Eastern Caribbean. E.C.: An overview.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Ecuador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arensberg, W. 1967. Overseas evaluation/Ecuador.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bair, J. 1967. Guayaquil regional development plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bennett, M.H. and J.J. Rosenblum 1965. Overseas evaluation/Ecuador.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haverstock, M. 1964. The P.C. Program in Ecuador.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leeth, J.A. 1977. P.C. Ecuador Country Program Evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reynolds, M.R. 1962. Overseas evaluation/Ecuador.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Ecuador 1967. Ecuador Program Summary 1967-72.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Ecuador 1968. Ecuador Program Memorandum. 1968-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Ecuador 1970. Ecuador Country plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Ecuador 1971. Ecuador and P.C. programming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Ecuador 1974. Ecuador Management plan FY 1980.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leeth, J.A. t977. PC/ET Salvador country program evaluation. Reed, E. 1969. E1 Salvador Overseas Evaluation. Walker, D. 1970. Fisheries sector review/E1 Salvador. U.S. Peace Corps/E1 Salvador. 1966. E.S. program summary 1966-71. U.S. Peace Corps/E1 Salvador. 1966. E.S. program memorandum 1966-70. U.S. Peace Corps/E1 Salvador. 1970. E.S. country plan. U.S. Peace Corps/E1 Salvador. 1974. E.S. country management plan. U.S. Peace Corps/E1 Salvador. 1979. E.S. country management plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> *Guatemala </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham, C., P. Tobia and J. Roberts. 1977. U.S. P.C./Guatemala country program evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/&amp;uatemala. 1966. Guatemala program summary 1966-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Guatemala. 1966. PCV's in Guatemala.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Guatemala. 1967. G. program summary 1967-72.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Guatemala. 1968. G. program memorandum.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Guatemala. 1970. PC/Guatemala country plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Guatemala. 1976. PC/Guatemala management plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Guatemala. 1976. PC/Guatemala management plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Guatemala. 1977. U.S. P.C. in Guatemala.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Peace Corps/Guatemala. 1979. PC/Guatemala Country Development Review.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Honduras</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joy, R. and J. Berdegue. 1970. Overseas evaluation/Honduras.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LaHoud, J. and K. Lehman. 1969. Honduras: Country evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Honduras. 1966. Honduras Program memorandum 1966-70.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Honduras. 1967. Honduras: PCD-Coop/TECH 6-68 Project research.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Honduras. 1968. H. joint review.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Honduras. 1968. H. Program memorandum.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Honduras. 1970. PC/Honduras country plan 1970-76.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Honduras. 1972. PC/Honduras country plan 1972-75.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Honduras. 1975. Honduras country management plan FY 1976.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Honduras. 1979. Honduras country management plan FY 1980.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Jamaica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anderson, A. 1967. Jamaica overseas evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lipez, R. 1968. Jamaica overseas evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Jamaica. 1966.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Jamaica. 1966. Jamaica program summaries 1966-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Jamaica. 1967. Jamaica program summaries 1967-72.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Jamaica. 1968. Jamaica program summaries 1968-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./.Jamaica. 1973. Jamaica country management plan FY 1979.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Jamaica. 1979. Jamaica country management plan FY 1980.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Nicaragua</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Nicaragua. 1971. PC|Nicaragua country plan 1971-74.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Nicaragua. 1975. PC/Nicaragua country management plan. FY 1976.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Nicaragua. 1974. PC/Nicaragua country management plan. FY 1980.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Office of Policy and Planning Evaluation. 1977. PC/</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua country plan evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rosenblum, J.J. 1966. Panama program memorandum 1966-70.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Panama. 1966. Panama program memorandum 1966-70.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Panama. 1966. Panama program summary 1966-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Panama. 1967. Panama program summary 1967-72.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Panama. 1968. Panama program summary 1968-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Peru. 1966. Peru program memorandum 1966-70. U.S. P.C./Peru. 1967. Peru program summary 1967-72. U.S. P.C./Peru. 1968. Peru program memorandum 1968-71. U.S. P.C./Peru. 1969. Peru cooperation program. U.S. P.C./Peru. 1971. Peru country plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uruguay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Uruguay. 1966. Uruguay program summary 1966-71. U.S. P.C./Uruguay. 1967. Uruguay program memorandum. U.S. P.C./Uruguay. 1970. Uruguay country plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. P.C./Venezuela. 1966. Venezuela program summary 1966-70. U.S. P.C./Venezuela. 1967. Venezuela program summary 1967-72. U.S. P.C./Venezuela. 1968. Terminal report COR-Ag adviser. U.S. P.C./Venezuela. 1964. Venezuela program memorandum. U.S. P.C./Venezuela. 1974. Venezuela country management plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1961 when the Peace Corps was created, more than 80,000 U.S. citizens have served as Volunteers in developing countries, living and working among the people of the Third World as colleagues and co-workers. Today 6000 PCVs are involved in programs designed to help strengthen local capacity to address such fundamental concerns as food production, water supply, energy development, nutrition and health education and reforestation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps overseas offices :</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BELIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.P. Box 487</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belize City</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BENIN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 971</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cotonou</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BOTSWANA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 93</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaborone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BURUNDI</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C/o American</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Embassy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bujumbura</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CAMEROON</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 817</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaounde</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CENTRAL AFRICAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPUBLIC</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 1080</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangui</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COSTA RICA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apartado Postal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1266 San .Jose </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMINICAN REPUBLIC</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apartado Postal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1412</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Santo Domingo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EASTERN CARRIBBEAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Including: Antigua,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbados, Grenada,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Montserrat, St.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kitts-Nevis , St.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lucia, St. Vincent,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominica "Erie</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Court" Bishops</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Court Hill</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O.. Box 696-C</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bridgetown, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbados</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ECUADOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Casilla 635-A</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quito</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FIJI</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O Box 1094</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suva</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GABON</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 2098</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Libreville</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GAMBIA,The</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 582</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banjul</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GHANA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 5796</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Accra (North)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GUATEMALA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6a Avenida 1-46</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zona 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAITI</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c/o American</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Embassy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Port-au-Prince</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HONDURAS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apartado Postal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C-51</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tegucigalpa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMAICA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9 Musgrave </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kingston 10</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KENYA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 30518</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nairobi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LESOTHO</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 554</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maseru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIBERIA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 707</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Monrovia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MA LAWI</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lilongwe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MALAYSIA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">77 Jalan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raja Muda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kuala Lumpur</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MALI</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.P. 85</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bamako</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MAURITANIA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 222</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nouakchott</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICRONESIA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kolonia,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ponape 96941</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MOROCCO</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1, Zanquat </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benzerte</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NEPAL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 613</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kathmandu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NIGER</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 10537</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niamey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PAPUA NEW GUINEA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 1790</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boroko</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PARAGUAY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brasil 293</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Esq. Mariscal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estigarribia)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asuncion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PHILIPPINES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 7013</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manila 3129</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RWANDA c/o American Embassy Kigali</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SENEGAL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 254</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dakar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SEYCHELLES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 697</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Victoria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SIERRA LEONE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Private Mail </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bag</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SOLOMON ISLANDS P.O. 80x 547 Honiara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SRI LANKA 50/5 Siripa Road Colombo 5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SWAZILAND</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 362</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mbabane</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TANZANIA Box 9123 Benzerte Dar es Salaam</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THAILAND</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">242 Rajvithi Rd.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amphur Dusit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok 10300</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOGO</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 3194</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lome</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONGA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 247</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nuku'Alofa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TUNISIA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8P 96</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1002 Tunis </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belvedere</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UPPER VOLTA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 537-Samandin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ouagadougou</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WESTERN SAMOA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 880</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">YEMEN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. BOX 1151</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sanala, Yemen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arab Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ZAIRE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 597</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kinshasa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/r0039e/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/r0039e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/r0039e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Homemaking handbook for village workers in many countries (r0039e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Industry, Manufacture and Services|Small- scale industry, handicraft, home industry</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">Peace Corps</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">F-G-H-I-J-K</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">start beneficent home-making programs for woman and village workers</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/r0039e/r0039e.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/r0039e/r0039e.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/r0039e/r0039e.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,9299 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Homemaking handbook for village workers in many countries</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Homemaking handbook for village workers in many countries</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Information</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INFORMATION COLLECTION &amp; EXCHANGE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRINT NO. R-39</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps' Information Collection &amp; Exchange (ICE) was established so that the strategies and technologies developed by Peace Corps Volunteers, their co-workers, and their counterparts could be made available to the wide range of development organizations and individual workers who might find them useful. Training guides, curricula, lesson plans, project reports, manuals and other Peace Corps-generated materials developed in the field are collected and reviewed. Some are reprinted "as is"; others provide a source of field based information for the production of manuals or for research in particular program areas. Materials that you  submit to the Information Collection &amp; Exchange thus become part of the Peace Corps' larger contribution to development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information about ICE publications and services is available through:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=460>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">The Peace Corps Internet Web Site address: </P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">http://www.peacecorps.gov</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">Please note the new Peace Corps Mailing Address from July 1998 on is:</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">ICE/ Peace Corps</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">1111 20th Street N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">Washington, DC 20526</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">USA</P>
+</FONT><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Add your experience to the ICE Resource Center. Send materials that you've prepared so that we can share them with others working in the development field. Your technical insights serve as the basis for the generation of ICE manuals, reprints and resource packets, and also ensure that ICE is providing the most updated, innovative problem-solving techniques and information available to you and your fellow development workers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HOMEMAKING HANDBOOK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EXTENSION SERVICE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IN COOPERATION WITH AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PEACE CORPS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INFORMATION COLLECTION AND EXCHANGE </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRINT R39 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARCH 1981</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SEPTEMBER 1981</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Foreword</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This handbook is a guide for the village level worker. It can also serve as a teaching aid and text to teachers of village level workers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is intended for use by personnel in home economics extension, community development, home economics classroom teaching, health education, and other programs involving home and family life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The material in this handbook was obtained from many countries around the world, and many people contributed to it from their personal knowledge and experience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We especially acknowledge the assistance of Sue Taylor Murry in compiling the contributions of authorities in several fields. Particular appreciation is due Jeannette Dean, Assistant State Home Economics Leader, Illinois Extension Service; and Margaret Power, Nutritionist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appreciation is also expressed to staff members of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare; the Agricultural Research Service and the Extension Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture; the Agency for International Development; and other expert consultants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Material was also adapted from the published works of the following authorities: Dr. Mary E. Keister, Research Associate in the Institute of Child and Family Development of the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, formerly Home Economics Officer, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome; Elsa Haglund, formerly Home Economist with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; Dr. Derrick B. Jelliffe, Director, Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute, University of the West Indies, Jamaica; and Dr. Michael Latham, Professor of International Nutrition, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, formerly Medical officer 1/c, Nutrition Unit, Ministry of Health, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The <I>Homemaking Handbook </I>is a companion volume to <I>Homemaking Around the World</I>, which has been neither revised nor replaced. The principal purpose for printing <I>Homemaking Around the World </I>in 1958 was to help start home economics extension programs. It has been reprinted and is still available. However, the village level worker needs a publication such as this <I>Homemaking Handbook </I>for additional information on both home economics subject matter and methods of working with rural families.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This <I>Handbook </I>was produced by the Extension Service in cooperation with the Office of Agriculture and Fisheries, Technical Assistance Bureau, Agency for International Development. Most of the photographs were taken in the field by AID, FAO, and UNICEF staff.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Helen A. Strow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extension Specialist, International</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extension Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Section I - How you begin</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p010a.jpg"></center><br>
+ Village women perform many tasks that help build nations 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p010b.jpg"></center><br>
+ Village women perform many tasks that help build nations 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p010c.jpg"></center><br>
+ Village women perform many tasks that help build nations 3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p010d.jpg"></center><br>
+ Village women perform many tasks that help build nations 4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p010e.jpg"></center><br>
+ Village women perform many tasks that help build nations 5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Village women help build nations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p011.jpg"></center><br>
+ Village women help building nations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"If you educate a man, you educate an individual; if you educate a woman, you educate a family." This old proverb is still true today. A woman may not always attend a village meeting with her husband, but her influence goes with him. This influence can change a village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Never before have social and economic changes affecting the home and family been so strong both in the smallest rural villages and in large cities. To prepare families to meet these changes, home economics programs are becoming an integral part of development plans in most countries. These include home economics teaching in schools and informal extension and community development programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The homemaker's role in national development is often overlooked. Improved agricultural production is basic to both economic and social development and here the wives of farmers have great influence. In many countries, women do much work on the farm. In some countries, the all-important food crops are almost entirely the women's responsibility. Gardens, livestock, and chickens are usually under their care.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women often market the farm crops and are the traders in the family. It is often the woman who is first willing to try improved farming methods. Her interest and attitude, plus her labor, help to determine what the production will be on a farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, a housewife learned her homemaking skills from her mother. Each generation lived much like the preceding one. Now her job is bigger. Changing times make improved living conditions possible, and she wants better living for her family. She thinks of plenty of good food, improved housing, and better health for her family, better care and education for her children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As families move from subsistence farming to a cash economy, they increasingly become consumers. As consumer goods become more plentiful and varied, women must manage money and make choices. They thus influence the growth and expansion of industries dealing with food, clothing, housing, furnishings, household equipment, and other products used in the home. With continued education, women increasingly demand more and better consumer goods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health, too, is an important factor in economic development. The woman is responsible for the health and well-being of her family. She determines whether or not the family lives in a clean house and practices sanitation. Whether her babies live or die depends upon the care she gives them. She plans and cooks the food to help her children grow strong. And she sees that they are taught to be honest and respect other people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments are beginning to recognize that helping the family and the home helps the nation. They recognize that good homes, happy families, and educated children are basic to a great nation. They are becoming aware that village women are helping to build a firmer base for their country's progress.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The material in this handbook is drawn from many countries around the world. It applies to all countries that are developing programs to improve the homes, health, and family life of rural people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">You are a village worker</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p013.jpg"></center><br>
+ New crop varieties that increase production may not be used by families unless the women accept them. This Vietnamese home agent shows village women that the new IR-8 rice makes more and tastes as good as the old, when cooked a new way.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Much of every nation's strength is in its rural citizens. Yet in many countries, rural people are still the greatest underdeveloped resource. Villages and the families who live in them make up a large and important part of your country too.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You are an important person. You work with village people. You bring ideas, knowledge, and encouragement. You help them learn how to make their lives better. You are their teacher and friend. In your hands lies much of their future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You are creating an image of home economics that takes it beyond simple homemaking skills. You are helping to develop your country's most valuable resource-people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You have been chosen for this important job because:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You are dedicated to your work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You like, understand, and get along with village people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You make friends easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have a pleasing personality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You keep your promises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You are punctual.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You are willing to work hard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You will not be working alone. You are part of a team. The other members are those men and women, top officials and other workers like yourself, concerned with agriculture, health, education, and better living for the rural people of their country. All must work together. They must be dedicated to helping rural people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The village people are on this team also. Without their cooperation and friendship, nothing can be accomplished. Change must take place in the minds and hearts of the village people themselves before it can be effective and lasting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Things happen because somebody has an idea. Maybe a village leader has the idea. Or it may be a woman who finds a way to save time. Sometimes it will be an idea that you have "planted" in the minds of the people. Later they may think it was their idea. This is what you want them to think.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Your job is highly rewarding and carries great responsibility and challenge. Your feet may be weary at the end of each day, but you see the results of your work in healthier, happier children, better houses, green gardens along the roadside, sanitary wells, and village women who become leaders. You come back to your own house with gladness in you: heart. The smile on your face shows the inner joy you feel in helping other women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Beginning your work</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p014.jpg"></center><br>
+ A village chief in United Arab Republic welcomed the home economics worker as soon as she arrived. He brought his wife to greet her too.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"How is a home economics program started ? How do I begin my work and where?" Everyone who starts a new program asks these questions. This is natural.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Home economics programs have been successfully started in remote villages as well as in highly developed urban centers all over the world. The rule of first learning to know the people applies to starting a program in a village or in a larger area. The people include your co-workers and leaders as well as the people of the village or area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Your first visits to the village</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When you have completed your training and are ready for your first visit to the village where you are to work, you will already have some information and general ideas about the village. Your supervisor or a co-worker will most likely go with you and introduce you to the village chief and other village leaders. Others you will wish to meet are extension coworkers, community development workers, health personnel, religious leaders, school teachers, and shopkeepers, etc. Explain your work so these leaders will understand what a homemaking program is, why their village needs one, and how it can help solve some basic problems. Ask them about the village, its people, and their problems. In time you will gradually get answers to such questions as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How big is the village?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How many families live there and how much distance does the village cover ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is the average size of families ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How many children attend the village school?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How much education do the adults have ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What crops and livestock are grown ? Are they sold or raised for home use? What is the average family income ? What part do the women play in agriculture? For example, how much work do they do in the fields and with the animals ? Do they help market the crops and livestock? Are there small rural industries and crafts in the area through which the village people can add to their income ? What are they? How much time do women spend on difent chores such as getting water and fuel, planting crops, etc. ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What are the road conditions leading in and out of the village? How do the village people get to town ? How do they get their farm products to market? Where do the people get their water? What are major health problems? What is the infant death rate?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What clubs or organizations are there in the village? What social and educational programs are being conducted by the government or by private agencies ? How much do the women take part? What is the illiteracy rate among women in your particular village? Most of the world's illiterates are women. In some countries, 80 to 90 percent of all women cannot read. What is the women's overall influence on matters of general concern to the village ? What problems do the leaders see as the most pressing and urgent for the village?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Showing keen interest in the people of the village and expressing your desire to work with them and their leaders can help you to be accepted in the village. You will learn much about the people as you begin to know and work with their leaders. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Generally, one of the official leaders will introduce you to village women and, if you are going to live in the village, help you find a place to live. Learn all you can about the people and the village before you start visiting the families themselves. Then you will be able to understand and appreciate their way of life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Before I go to a new village," says a young woman from Turkey, "I get some general ideas from the agricultural agent. For example, he will tell me much about the people, the crops they raise, and how interested they are in new ideas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"The first thing I do when I visit the village is call on the village president. He takes me to call on his wife or arranges for me to visit her. I call on the teachers if there is a school and on the nurse if they have one. I tell them who I am, what my job is, and why I have come to the village. Then I ask them many questions. I ask the teacher about the children and their parents and I ask the nurse about the health of the people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"I tell the president of the village that I want to visit some families because I want them to know me before I teach them. So then I visit families and I meet them as friends. They must love me and believe in me if I am to teach them. If there are 100 families in the village, I try to visit at least 15. I try to select homes that are different. I talk with the women about their own family needs and problems and I observe, too. I try to learn, for example:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How many rooms are in most houses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How many are used for sleeping</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How many people are in the family</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Where the kitchens are located</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How the cooking is done</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What kind of fuel is used</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· If there is a toilet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Where it is located</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What kind of furniture the family has</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· If they have chickens or animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What foods they grow for their own use</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What methods they use to preserve food</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What their basic diet is</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How often they eat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Where the family gets water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· If the house has electricity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What they think are their chief health problems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How many of their children have died and at what age</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important that I learn which of the women in the village are leaders. Each night when I go back to my office, I record what I have observed."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Greek village worker says that on her visit to get acquainted, "After I have talked to the mayor of the village, I walk to the village well. I always find women there drawing water and can chat with them while I help them draw the water. This way I find out what is happening in the village before I start on my round of individual visits."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new worker in a village in Laos stopped by a woman weaving a beautiful piece of silk on a crude loom. She asked the woman to show her how she developed the pattern. Soon the woman went inside her house and brought out all her pieces of woven silk. As the village worker expressed sincere admiration for the woman's handiwork, a bond of mutual respect was developing. As women come to know and trust you, they will begin to talk about their problems and the things they feel they need.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">It takes time</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It takes time to get to know people. Remember, you are a stranger. They must get to know you well. If you do not live in the village, you may have to visit it many times before the villagers learn to trust you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries, the central government may be in fairly close touch with its citizens and effective in teaching new ideas and starting social change. In others, people view government as nothing but a policeman or tax-collecting agency that gives little in return. As a result, they may be suspicious of government programs, including the homemaking program. Through your own dedication and faithful work, you can help build confidence in government programs where such confidence is lacking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some villages, the people are not used to having strangers, particularly women, coming to work. They may not trust you. You will have to answer many questions about yourself such as, "Are you married? How many children do you have ?", etc. Be sure to answer questions so they know you are the kind of person they want to have working in their village with them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To work effectively with the people, you will need to know how they think. You may find customs and practices in the village where you work very strange and different from those where you grew up. There are many things you will need to study and understand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Learning how to interpret what you hear and see is important. Many mistakes are made by judging a situation too quickly. This is a good time to be looking for good practices that you can later use as examples.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Record your observations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beginning with your first visits to a village, use some kind of form to record your observations. Select a few things to observe at a time. Do not try to learn everything at once.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suppose you want to learn about the foods people grow for themselves. Do they have a garden? What vegetables are in it? What food crops do they grow in the field? Make a simple chart on which you can write down what you learn at each home. A garden observation form might be like the one at the end of this chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After you visit the family, see their garden, and talk with them about their foods, fill in your form. Do not fill it in while you are with the family. Wait until you have left the village. Filling in a form or writing things down can make the family suspicious and more reluctant to give you information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Working with people to bring about change</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As you learn about the people and the village, you begin to see what changes the people should make to have a better living. But what changes do <I>they </I>wish to make? What are their greatest problems ? What problems do they recognize ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You may see children who do not have enough food to eat, babies who are sick, houses that are not clean, flies and mosquitoes everywhere, women carrying water from the river because the village has no well, and many other problems and things that need to be done. You want to help the people solve such problems as these. But they may not even recognize some of these as problems because they have always lived with them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Part of your job as a village worker is to help people recognize these bad conditions as problems and create a desire to change. Often when people seem not to care or want to improve, it is not because they are lazy or shiftless, but rather because of poor health, little or no income, lack of hope, or lack of knowledge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Your work is education outside of school. Education is a change in attitudes, knowledge, and skills. Children go to school because their parents send them or because laws require children to attend school. Out-of-school or informal education is voluntary. People come to meetings only when they want to come. They learn only when they have a reason to learn. They change only when they desire to change The way you work with people is very important in making them want to change.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Often it is more important to change the way people think about what they do than to change what they do. They must know why certain things are problems. For example, they should know that polluted water causes illness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They need to know how to change the bad conditions. For example, they will need to know how to get a safe water supply for the village, how to dig a well, how to install a pump, etc. As they learn, their skills will improve.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are some principles of working with people to help them bring about change:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Find out why village people do things the way they do and work within the culture of the village.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to observe and try to learn why people do things the way they do before suggesting changes. There may be good reasons behind them, or there may be superstitions or traditions that make people resist changes. You are better able to help people change if you know why they don't want to.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p017.jpg"></center><br>
+ Once you have been accepted in the village, try to get to know whole families as this village worker is doing in United Arab Republic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The members of every society have certain practices and beliefs which they consider the most important and valuable things in life. These values have been safeguarded and carried through generations. They cannot be ignored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The values </I>in one village may differ greatly from those of another. For example, what other people do or think is so very important in some villages that a woman will hesitate to make a change unless it is accepted by all. She may say, "I like what you say, but the people in the village are against this change and I cannot go against the village." In other villages, individual initiative is important and a person feels free to act on his own judgment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The customs </I>village people have followed for many generations often direct what is done at the time of marriage, birth, death, sickness, and many other times. Find out what these are so you will not offend the villagers accidentally by doing the wrong thing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some of these customs make a heavy burden for the family. For example, some families go deeply in debt to pay for marriages. If you can help them keep the debt as small as possible or save a little money each year to be ready for it, you will aid them greatly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Religion, local beliefs, prejudices, and taboos </I>are generally very strong and greatly affect what people do and their attitudes toward changes. For example, many people have religious beliefs or taboos about eating meat. It is hard to increase the amount of meat people eat until you understand these beliefs. There are usually many beliefs about health: what causes sickness and what makes a person well. Learn all you can about the beliefs, prejudices, and taboos people hold important before you try to change their habits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Learn religious customs in the village. Discuss your work with the local religious leaders and gain their confidence. Their support is very important. You will find they are interested in more than the spiritual needs of the village. They would like to see people have better homes and better health. They will understand your job.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Respect village people and treat them as equals.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gain their confidence. Remember, natural intelligence is as plentiful among rural people as among any other group. Education or lack of it is no measure of ability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village people have as much practical good sense and good judgment as other people. They have many skills. They have practical experience. They have moral strength. They have much to teach you as well as to learn from you. Listen to them. Be interested in what they want to show you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People will ask you many questions. You cannot possibly know all the answers. Learn to say, "I don't know, but I will find out and let you know." Then be sure to do it. Village people do not respect or trust a person who pretends to know, but they are willing to wait for you to get the answer. When you make a promise, you must keep it. The people must trust you to like you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Start where the people are with problems they recognize.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In certain isolated areas of Puerto Rico, it has long been the custom to scatter a few vegetable seeds about the area near the house. A wise home economist trying to help these people improve their diets did not start by suggesting a well-fenced garden with neat rows of vegetables. She showed them how to plant one whole row of a yellow vegetable they liked so they would have a good supply of this vegetable. She then made a small garden near the house she lives in. Later, after they had all seen her garden with seeds planted in rows, she began to suggest they try her way of growing vegetables.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In visiting a village in Turkey one summer, the home economics extension worker found the villagers talking about how many of the babies were sick. She offered to help the women. Even though it was a time when the women were all working in the fields, the mayor of the village said he would bring them in to attend a meeting if the worker would teach the women how to keep the babies from getting sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In another village the women wanted to learn to read and write, and the village worker agreed to teach them. However, she also saw the great need for improving diets and sanitation. So, as she taught them to read and write, she made sure that the first sentences they learned were on cleanliness and nutritious foods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women may ask you to teach them to knit or embroider. You may think they should first learn how to feed the family better, or be interested in getting a well for the village. However, while they learn to knit, you can talk about the things all women talk about when they are together-what to cook for the evening meal, why the baby cries so much, the price of rice in the market, the husband who cannot do very much work because he tires easily, the little boy who wants to go to school but can't because there is no money to buy clothes for him. You can also demonstrate improved practices they need to learn, for example, how to make a simple clothes closet. By teaching them both what they want to learn and what they need to learn, you can help them see larger problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Learn all you can about each problem</I>. Talk to the people, visit in their homes, and discuss things with their leaders to collect information about the village and its problems. Some of the things needed will take more money, materials, and know-how than the people now have. Get as much information and as many facts as you can so you will be ready to help the people when you and they start planning what to do.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plan WITH the people and not FOR them</I>. Remember, the village belongs to the people and they must help decide what to do. Do not talk about what you think are their most pressing problems. Let them tell you what they need and want. Begin with these.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only when the people themselves help to plan and carry out a program will they feel it is theirs. Work with them so that whatever is planned or done becomes a part of their thinking. As the ideas you plant in their minds grow, people begin to think of them as their own and want to do something about them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People who study their own problems and help to work out solutions are much more likely to help carry out the program. Even in the least developed communities, letting the people share in planning and doing helps them build confidence in themselves and be proud of their own accomplishments. It helps to develop leadership. When the people help at each step, a program has a much better chance to succeed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Help people see the need to change.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village people have lived the way they do for hundreds of years. They may not even recognize some of their problems as problems because they have always lived with them. They often continue this way because no one has shown them a better way.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Part of your job is to help them recognize their problems and get them to want to solve them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, they may have always lived in houses without windows, and they feel no need for them. It may take time to persuade them that they would be healthier if the sun could enter their houses each day and the air circulate at night as they sleep. It may take time to get them to want windows enough to get them. A well-planned group discussion is one of the best ways to start people thinking about their larger and more important problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Help people help themselves.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often easier to say "I'll do it for you", but this does not help people gain confidence in themselves. When the women in an Indian village wanted their village worker to buy cloth for them, she said, "Which one of you can go to the bazaar with me ? I will be glad to go along and help you, but you must make the selection." This took longer but it helped the women learn and grow. Only by participating can people practice their own skills and abilities so they are able to make responsible decisions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In another village, the women had seen the smokeless stove the village worker had in her house and began to want one like it. She told them what they  would need to make it and where to get the materials. Then she said, "I will show you how to build the stove and help you build the first one. Everyone can help build it and then you will all know how to build your own stoves."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People working together turn an idea into action and achievement. The village leaders know that they need a well, and you know it. You know that a well costs a lot of money. The people in the village must want a well so much that they will work together to get it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Find leaders in the village and help them to be teachers too.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By finding and training leaders to teach their neighbors what they have learned, you will give many people a chance to learn in a short time. Developing people is your main objective. Discovering the people who will accept responsibility and serve as leaders in the village program is one of the best ways to help them prepare for larger leadership roles. When you, the people, and their leaders all decide exactly what is needed or wanted, it becomes a goal to work for. Be sure it is something they can actually carry out so they will not be disappointed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Work with the whole family.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Often parents can be reached through the children. Both boys and girls in the family need to learn many of the same things their mothers are taught. The husband is interested in better living for his family. His understanding and cooperation in the homemaking program can mean much toward its success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Families differ greatly in different societies. In some villages, families are patriarchal. The man is head of the household and makes the decisions. Women may have little or no status there. This may affect the respect for your opinions and your work. In other societies, families may be strongly matriarchal with the mother or grandmother having more influence than the men. The status of the family or individuals within the family may be based on wealth, ownership of land, education, age, or some other standard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How do families live ? This includes their diets, housing, work, habits, family relationships, and economic situation. Find out if any special studies or surveys of family living conditions have been made which you might add to your own observations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Use many different methods of teaching and reaching people.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research has shown that using nine or ten different methods in carrying out a project brings better results than using only one or two methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One good way to inspire and teach is by example. Many people will watch you and the way you live. They will see and respect your simple dress, your pride in your work, and your willingness to help others. Your house is the same type as theirs, but it is clean and attractive. It teaches more than any words you can say. If you store your food on shelves and in containers, the women will be quick to see and do the same thing. They will watch to see what you eat and how you cook it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modern methods of communication now reach even remote villages in many countries. You may find people listening to radios. Some agency may be using mobile units with loudspeakers to get information to the people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides these, however, every society has another system of communication. Women talk together as they work in the field, do their washing, or come to the well for water. Men talk as they gather in coffee houses or market places. Information is passed from person to person at funerals, fairs, and religious festivals. News may be posted on bulletin boards or a village writer or storyteller may pass it along. Learn how news and information is best communicated in each village where you work. Know the customs and purposes of social gatherings, how much families visit each other's homes, and what the social groupings are in the village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Sample home garden observation form</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=646>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="70%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Name of Family ____</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Date Visited_____</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do they have a garden? </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">YES__ </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NO__</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=3>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If so, where is it located?____</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=3>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About what size?____</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=3>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How is it watered? ____</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Is compost used? </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">YES __ </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NO__</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Is commercial fertilizer used? </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">YES__ </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NO__</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Is garden well cultivated? </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">YES__ </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NO__</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vegetables growing:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beans __</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carrots__</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tomatoes__</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Okra__</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spinach__</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cabbage__</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lettuce__</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corn__</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Others__</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food crops for family use growing in field:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cereal Grains__ </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Root crops__</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice__</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yams__</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wheat__</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cassava__</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corn__</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Others__</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Others__</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">You need support-the homemaking program needs support</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How many times have you said, "I need your help. I need your support!" No matter what we do or where we are, we need the help and support of those around us.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A homemaking program needs the support of many different people. As a village worker, what you are trying to do must be understood both by those who provide the funds and by every family with whom you work. It must also be understood by religious, educational, and business leaders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You must constantly explain the need for a home economics program if it is to succeed in improving the living conditions of the people. Even where homemaking or home economics programs have existed a long time, many people still do not understand the scope of a program dealing with the home and the family. Some think homemaking, mothercraft, or home economics programs involve only simple skills in cooking, sewing, laundry, and housecleaning. Others think of them in terms of frills and fancy work. You are the one who must make the true meaning clear.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The home economics program needs to show results people can see</I>. Because many people do not understand what home economics is or how it helps families, try to get village women interested in projects that show results. These include growing a garden, improving the poultry flock, making a smokeless stove, or carrying out a "healthy baby" campaign. Progress like this catches attention and helps to convince people of the value of your work. When people can see and hear about actual changes and improvement families are making, they will recognize the special kind of assistance home economics offers for bettering home living and village life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">At the national level</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You need the enthusiastic and active support of influential people. This means more than just approval. Top government officials must see the need for educating girls and women to become better mothers and homemakers. They must know about the program, be willing to talk about it, and provide money for this purpose.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a national official takes part in a special homemaking program out in a small village, he not only does something for the people in the village, but the experience does something for him! After participating, he is more likely to give the program the kind of active and enthusiastic support you need.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Korea Reports</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An Achievement Day held in a village near Seoul was a most successful effort in winning national support for home economics work in Korea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specialists from the national extension staff had helped the local village worker teach several families how to improve their kitchens. This included building new stoves, getting a safe water supply, adding dish storage, and whitewashing walls. The recognition event was well publicized. The Minister of Agriculture and several members of the National Assembly were invited and came. The Extension Director and several home agents from each province also attended so they could duplicate the event in their own provinces the following year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The program began with a showing of men's and women's improved work clothes and children's play clothes. After the usual courtesy speeches, the officials toured homes where the kitchen improvements had been made. The small children of the village demonstrated the games they had learned in their community play school sponsored by the village home improvement club.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was a most successful event. The National Assembly voted to double the number of home agents and provide two demonstration villages in each district.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From Kenya</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the Deputy Director of Agriculture visited another country and observed their Department of Agriculture's program for farm women, he enthusiastically requested a home economics adviser to help start and develop a home economics program in Kenya.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Kenya, the farm woman is also a farmer. Women extension workers were accepted at once because they were trained in agriculture as well as home economics. They came into the Ministry of Agriculture as dual-purpose field workers. The addition of women was gradual and they were readily accepted at the national, provincial, and village levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An interesting and encouraging reaction is the keen interest taken by the men. In 1965, 578 out of 3,000 home economics demonstrations and classes conducted at the 12 farmer training centers were for men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">At the provincial level</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Provincial administrators and leaders are closer to the people than leaders at the national level. Therefore, they often feel keener interest in them and greater pride in their accomplishments. They may not control the money, but the kind and amount of support you get at the provincial level can mean the difference between success and failure. Help these leaders and officials know and understand your program. Get them into the village to see for themselves the results of your work. Have them participate at meetings and homemaking events in your area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p023.jpg"></center><br>
+ The agricultural chief (second from left) of Vietnam's Bien Hoa Province teaches village workers how to plant sorghum.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">At the village level</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The village program needs to fit into the government's goals for the country and for agriculture</I>. For example. if the national government is trying to get all farm families to produce enough food to feed themselves, you can help village people see this need and interest them in producing food for their own use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The people you work with must believe in you and think of you as their friend. They must feel you need them to help plan and carry out a program for their benefit. You do. Without their support you cannot carry out a program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The headman or chief of a village must have confidence in you. He must fully understand what you do. In many places, the headman feels great responsibility for the welfare of his village. Convince him you are working with him to reach his goals for the people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are other people of influence in the village - the religious leader, the teacher, and the natural leaders that others go to for help or advice. It is important to win support from all these people. They can and will help you in many ways if they like you, believe in you, and feel that you really want to help them. Give them a chance!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">People who are willing to help</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the best ways to get support from any person is to ask him or her to take some responsibility or do something, even if it is only a small deed. Involve leaders in collecting facts and studying problems. Women in high positions will often help analyze basic problems concerning the family and suggest possible solutions. At every level, you need people who are willing to give their time and work to help further the program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many influential people in towns and cities are willing to support a rural homemaking program. They can often bring such national problems as rural sanitation, rural housing, infant mortality, etc., to the attention of national and provincial officials. They need to know what is being done about such problems and what they can do to interest government ministries in them. Business men and women such as bankers, merchants, and heads of organizations can help tremendously if you get them interested.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p024.jpg"></center><br>
+ A village worker in Ghana got the village chiefs' support by showing them what she planned to teach the women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Your Co-Workers</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At whatever level you work, you need the support of those who work with you. The mutual support, mutual respect, and mutual assistance that agricultural and home economics extension workers give each other is one reason for their success. Your co-workers can be your strongest allies. Cultivate them!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Agencies and Organizations</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Every country has government and private agencies and organizations concerned with rural welfare. The problems and opportunities in rural areas are interwoven and inseparable. Programs concerned with them often overlap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the groups trying to solve these problems work together, sharing help and resources, avoiding duplication, and lessening competition, the program of each can develop. The support you win from other agencies and organizations strengthens your program. There is more than enough for all to do.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Working with other agencies and organizations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Programs dealing with the home and family differ from country to country in the way they are organized and operate. They are even given different names such as home economics, home science, homemaking, home craft, mothercraft, etc. But they all are trying to improve home and family life and develop people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many countries, the Ministry or Department of Agriculture conducts a home economics program as a part of the Agricultural Extension Service. The Ministry of Education generally includes home economics in its school program and may also provide home economics education for adults. In some countries, the Ministry of Social Affairs conducts community development programs. Part of this is work with the family and home. Many home economics programs are also supported and carried out by business organizations and other private groups. Other agencies such as Public Health, Literacy, Social Welfare, etc., are concerned with certain phases of family welfare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No matter which agency you may be working in, you should know about all such programs that are operating in your area and work with them. Such cooperation can be of mutual advantage. They can help you and you can show them the special kind of assistance home economics offers in helping families improve their living conditions and develop into more useful citizens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Agricultural agencies</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural development is concerned not only with increasing and improving the production of crops and livestock, but also with developing rural families and improving rural living conditions. Agriculture and rural home economics are a joint program in many areas. The problems of rural living are so closely tied to agriculture that these two fields of education are natural "partners." Often local men and women extension workers have their offices together or near each other and work successfully as a team.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A constant exchange of knowledge, information, and ideas between agricultural and home economics workers can bring swifter progress in both fields. The Ministry of Agriculture is concerned with many phases of home living. For instance, specialists in horticulture, poultry, dairying, etc., can render valuable assistance to a home food program. Some ministries have agricultural schools which are important resources in home economics work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most countries, very few improved agricultural measures are completely within either the husband or wife's sphere of work. Most improvements recommended by both agricultural and home economics workers require the full acceptance of both husband and wife before they can be adopted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The homemaker's influence operates in many of the agricultural programs introduced to villages For example, land consolidation might, at first, seem strictly to concern the men of the village. They settle all the arrangements and what is done would seem to rest solely with them. But experience has proven otherwise. Often farmers are opposed to consolidation. But if the women are convinced of its benefits to their families, they may very well get their husbands to make this change.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Agricultural credit programs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One big need of many village families is fair and reasonable credit. Many families are never free of debt because interest rates are so high they cannot hope to pay back the amount they borrow. In some areas, many rural families are almost the slaves of money lenders. You can help them find the agencies that will lend money to buy land, implements, animals, fertilizer, and seed at fair interest rates. In some places, these credit agencies also lend money for home improvements. In an agricultural credit program, the homemaker must understand the use of credit so she will cooperate in repaying the loan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Cooperatives</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some villages, the people will be very much interested in cooperatives of various kinds. Women are often active members of cooperatives that sell homemade products such as craft articles, fresh vegetables, flowers, and home-baked or preserved foods. They may also set up their own cooperatives. Agricultural cooperatives in many places supply seed and fertilizer. They might also provide the seeds needed for a garden project or the supplies needed in a home improvement program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Learn about the cooperatives in your area and how they function so that you can better inform families and help them make the best use of the advantages cooperatives offer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The ministry of education</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most villages need more and better schools. In some countries boys are sent to school, but girls must stay home and work. Both need education. Many families now are anxious to have schools in their villages so all children can attend. Work with <I>parents and village officials </I>for better schools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You should also work with <I>village school teachers</I>. They know the children, their parents, and the village leaders. The teacher can help you with many projects by having the children take part in them. The success of the youth work part of your homemaking program will depend in large measure upon the cooperation you get from schools. School garden projects, for example, offer a fine basis of cooperative effort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Classroom teachers often seek your help in teaching home economics subjects such as nutrition, child care, clothing, etc. Close working relationships will benefit both of you. There are many opportunities for such cooperation. It is specially important to work with any <I>home economics teachers </I>in schools in your area. You should have a common understanding of families' needs and the best ways to meet them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Working with universities and other educational institutions </I>offering home economics is equally important. You can tell these teachers and trainers about family needs and problems, and keep them aware of the type of training needed by the young women who will be going into extension and other homemaking programs in rural areas. You may help them set up inservice training program where you and other working home economists can go for refresher training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here's a good example. Officials of agriculture and education in the Western Province of Kenya cooperatively planned a week's training in home economics extension for school teachers at the Bukura farmer training center. The course was planned and conducted by the two home extension workers. It was intended to help teachers strengthen their teaching of nutrition, cookery, child care, and the production of food for home use. Special emphasis was placed on nutrition and vegetable planting in connection with the school garden program. In addition, these four training sessions served to strengthen the cooperative ties between the agricultural and educational programs in the province.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Research agencies</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need for home economics research is gaining recognition as homemaking programs develop. Countries are recognizing that, without research, it is difficult to have a sound homemaking program based on facts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries, surveys have been undertaken on family living problems. Some countries have nutrition institutes carrying out important research. In others, agricultural institutes study certain problems affecting family living. Some college and university home economics departments have begun research activities. Much basic research is helpful to any country regardless of where it is done-such as information on pasteurization, food preservation methods, simple health practices, housing, dietary patterns, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to using research information in your work, you may also be able to tell researchers about practical problems in your area that need answers. Rural home economists are in a position to know the most pressing needs of rural families and how practical research can help meet these needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Public health</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major part of rural homemaking work has health implications. The activities of public health doctors, nurses, sanitarians, and other health workers all touch home and family life. Extension and community development workers, homemaking teachers, and public health workers are finding new ways to work together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Often, you may begin your work in a village by visiting the nurse to talk over family health problems, or by attending health clinics to talk with the mothers there. Nurses receive much help by attending special training given to home economics workers, particularly in the field of nutrition. You benefit by attending health classes in baby care, first aid, or home care of the sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some areas, the rural sanitarian promotes the building of approved latrines or water supplies and the home economist provides much of the educational follow-up needed to make the program successful. Close coordination with all public health work in rural areas is of great importance in your homemaking programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The institute of nutrition</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many countries have an institute of nutrition. Because poor nutrition is often one of a country's major problems, governments provide these special facilities with well-trained personnel to conduct nutrition research, give training, and develop educational materials for nutritionists, dietitians, home economists, and others whose program includes nutrition. If there is a nutrition institute in your country, you should know about its work and find out how you can use its resources to do a better job in your own nutrition work with families.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Community development and social welfare</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries, community development projects are administered by the Ministry of Social Affairs or Public Welfare, and homemaking education is carried on through this ministry. Even if homemaking programs are not a direct part of this ministry, it still has many resources that can help you. Generally these ministries have specialists in community or group organization, case work techniques, and other fields who can help train local home economics workers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Often home economists and social workers deal with the same families. They need to work very closely together for the good of the people and their programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Literacy programs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Literacy classes provide a good opportunity for you to know the people better and influence their progress toward improved living. As adults learn to read, they can also learn to be better farmers and better homemakers. If their reading material deals with everyday problems and contains information on simple improved practices for the farm and home, adults are likely to be more interested. This can help them learn faster and understand better. You may have the chance to help prepare reading material on homemaking and to teach the class on occasion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">International organizations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many important international agencies have programs closely related to the home and the family. You will want to know about these agencies and learn the services they offer in your particular area. They have much material and helpful information because they operate in many different countries and have broad experience to draw upon.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United. Nations </I>has very active and excellent nutrition and home economics programs, as well as agricultural programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNICEF is largely concerned with work with children and mothers. It carries on educational work and provides medicines, foods, and other important things.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Health Organization </I>is concerned with national and regional problems of health. Trained staff in many countries help governments conduct research and carry out effective health measures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Foundations </I>such as the Ford Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation, conduct health programs. In some countries, foundations support home economics programs in colleges and schools and, in addition, employ home economists to lead adult homemaking programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Religious and voluntary agencies</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Find out which of these have programs in your area. They are excellent resources for certain kinds of help you may need in your work. Agencies and organizations concerned with the family can contribute greatly to improving village life. If you and these workers know each other well and work together, the people you serve will benefit. In this way, you can help the people in the village make the best use of all resources available to them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p028.jpg"></center><br>
+ The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations is trying to develop an improved hybrid of Japanese and Indian rice varieties in the research project in Cuttak, India. Success will result in greatly improved crop yields and improved nutrition for the people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Section II - What you will teach</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Food and nutrition</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p030.jpg"></center><br>
+ Before you can begin to help solve nutrition problems, you must learn about the people, their beliefs, and the foods they eat. In a meeting such as this in Costa Rica, the women can talk about their food problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No one likes to be hungry. Food not only keeps us from being hungry, it helps us to grow, feel well, and be happy. But many people are hungry, unhappy, and sick because they do not have enough or the right kinds of food. Often they do not know this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask yourself what connection there is between the health problems of the village people, the food they eat, and their food habits and customs. On page 31 are several health problems which may have something to do with food and nutrition. You can use them to start discussion about problems in your area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before you attempt to improve the nutrition of the village people, you must be able to recognize food and nutrition problems in your area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are additional questions to help you learn more about food problems and eating practices:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What foods do the people mostly live on? What is their basic diet? Could it be better ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What vegetables, grains, and root crops do they grow for home use ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do they produce any meat, milk, or eggs for the family to eat? If so, how much? Can they produce enough for their family needs ? What do they need to produce more ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What foods do they buy?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How do agricultural practices in the area affect their diets?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are some of the foods that people believe are harmful, unclean, or sacred ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What symptoms of poor nutrition have you observed among children in the village ? Among adults ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How long do mothers nurse their babies?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· At what age are weaning foods given to the baby?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What foods besides breast milk are given to the infant when he is 8 months old?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How many young children, when they are no longer breast fed, die each year?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do the people know that some of their health problems may come from not having enough of the right kinds of food?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of your most important jobs is to help people understand that what they eat affects their health. You will also teach them what they can do to have better food, better health, and therefore, a better life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=753>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Talk About</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. An infant is sickly and cries a lot because he is hungry, and the mother thinks she does not have enough breast milk.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What mothers eat during their pregnancy and also while they are breast feeding the baby. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What foods besides breast milk he was given before he was weaned.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. After weaning, the child loses weight, has diarrhea, and gets a "pot belly".</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What foods he is fed now. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How foods are prepared for babies and young children. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What sanitation practices are used.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important for you to teach mothers that by the time a child is 8 months old he needs solid foods as well as milk. The solid foods that are given to the child should include eggs,</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">meat, cereals, vegetables, and fruits. These are the foods that will help the child grow strong and happy. It is important for the nursing mother to eat these foods too.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. After a child starts to school, he does poorly in his studies and does not want to play because he is always tired. </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Whether the child is fed in the morning before he starts off to school. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Whether he has a midday meal or must wait to eat until he gets home after school. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Whether he is perhaps too tired to make the effort.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Children need to eat often. They need three good meals every day. In between these three meals they may want extra food. At these</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">times a mother should give them fruits or vegetables to eat instead of sweets.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. People lack the energy to work hard and they tire easily. They are often cross and irritable. You often see people with rough, dull skin and sores that heal slowly.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The kinds of staple foods the people eat. Are they starchy plants only or do they also use cereal grains ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How much meat, fish, eggs, milk, cheese, and pulses they eat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How often are vegetables and fruits eaten. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How much water is used in cooking, then thrown away. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Whether foods are stored a long time and in such a way that they do not keep well. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do they have variety in their diet ?</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. People run out of their own home-produced food before the next harvest.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What foods they grow for their own family use. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Whether they plan to grow their food needs for the entire year. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How they store their food. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How much is destroyed by rats and insects and by rotting. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Whether they grow and store enough to last if they didn't lose any of it.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The story of Samuel and Mary</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p032.png"></center><br>
+ Samuel and Mary</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Samuel and Mary lived in a village many miles from the city. They had 8 acres of ground. Two of these were not cleared. The land was quite fertile. They grew maize, cassava, and a few beans. During the rainy season, they collected greens. They had a banana tree and a coconut tree. They kept a few chickens which scratched the earth around the house for their food. Mary sometimes fed them bits of leftover food and the coconut leavings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life was easy. The crops grew and they usually had enough food. Sometimes, near the very beginning of a growing season, they would run out of maize. Then Samuel would sell the beans so they could buy maize to last until the harvest. They always had cassava because it was so easy to grow and store.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Samuel and Mary had two children. Peter was 8 years old. Rosa was 3. Peter went to a school 2 miles away. He walked both ways every day. Sometimes he was sick. Then he stayed home.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One day the teacher asked Samuel and Mary to come to a meeting at the school so they could talk about the health of their children and how they were getting along in school. She also asked Miss Ramero, the village Extension worker, to come and help with the meeting. The day of the meeting, Samuel and Mary walked to the school with Rosa and Peter. They found other parents there, too. Many of them were neighbors and friends.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The teacher talked about how the children were doing in school. She said many of them seemed too tired to do good work. It was hard for them to learn because they sometimes fell asleep and they did not seem to want to think about their school work. Many were often absent because they were sick and got behind in their work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miss Ramero then explained that children need not be sick so often. They should be lively and interested in all that goes on about them. They should not tire so easily, and fall asleep. Miss Ramero thought many of these children were not healthy. They were not growing and learning as much as they would if they were healthy. This could be because they were not getting the kind of food they needed for good health. This was a surprise to Samuel and Mary. They thought some children, like Peter, were naturally sleepy much of the time and often sick. They thought he would grow out of it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The parents talked about their younger children too. Rosa was irritable and cried a lot. She often had stomach upsets and sores on her legs which took a long time to heal. Was she as healthy as she should be? Then they talked about how many babies in the village died each year and how many had stomachs that were too big. Mary said she herself felt tired much of the time and that she had lost two babies. She asked what could be done. She wanted her children to grow well and be healthy and strong. Samuel said he did not like to spend money on school fees if his son was not learning. He suggested having another meeting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peter's teacher said she would arrange for the local health officer and the village Extension worker to come to another parents' meeting the following Saturday to talk more about the children's health.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This story shows how parents were helped to become aware of some of the food and health problems of their children. There are probably similar problems in the area in which you work. These problems could be directly related to the food that is produced and used there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Your government is concerned</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Your government, like many others around the world. has plans for national growth and development. Governments are greatly concerned about food and nutrition because they know that underfed people cannot do the work necessary to develop a country. Poorly fed people are often sick. Then they require government help, instead of supporting themselves and adding to the country's economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Good food does not cure or prevent all diseases, but <I>all of us need good food for good health, both physical and mental.</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A serious food situation exists in the world today. Many countries already have more people than they can feed, and populations are growing. In some countries, distribution is a problem. By the year 2000 A.D., there will be twice as many people in the world as there are now. Unless more food is grown, distributed, and wisely used there will be more and more hunger and even starvation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem is not only a lack of food but a lack of knowledge about nutrition. This means food in the amount and of the kind needed to develop a strong healthy body, keep it well, and provide energy for work and play. Your responsibility is to bring food and nutrition knowledge to village people so they can improve their own situation. The problem will be solved in the home and on the farm. In today's world, probably no field of knowledge has more to contribute to the betterment of life than food and nutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A village food and nutrition program should teach:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· what foods the body needs and why</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· the special food needs of various family members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· home production, preservation, and storage of a year-round supply of good food</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· how to buy what cannot be produced</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· how to prepare foods so the quality is not wasted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This chapter includes basic principles of good nutrition and how to teach them. It will deal mostly with what every mother should know about feeding her children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Find out what your country is doing about its food and nutrition situation. By knowing what various agencies and ministries are trying to accomplish, you can apply their specific recommendations to the information in this chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask the Agriculture Department or Ministry:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. What the long range plans for agricultural development are in your country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. What plans the ministry has to improve the food and nutrition resources of your country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. What food crops are recommended in your area, what cash crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. What animals and poultry could be grown for home use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. If the ministry has a list of publications you could get to help you learn about food production, including gardens, crops, and livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask the Ministry of Health, the Nutrition Institute, or University Department of Home Economics:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. If nutritional surveys are being carried out in your country. If so, have any been completed ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. What recommendations they can give you on improving the nutritional health of people in your area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 If they have health education material which would help you teach about nutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Your local agricultural or health worker may also be able to answer some questions. You will find many sources to help you work on food and nutrition. You will also want to learn about the many organizations that help countries improve their food and nutrition situation. These include United Nations organizations such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), Freedom from Hunger, Food for Peace, and the Agency for International Development (AID).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p034a.jpg"></center><br>
+ When lack of food or ignorance causes malnutrition, everyone suffers. But children suffer most 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p034b.jpg"></center><br>
+ When lack of food or ignorance causes malnutrition, everyone suffers. But children suffer most 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p034c.jpg"></center><br>
+ When lack of food or ignorance causes malnutrition, everyone suffers. But children suffer most 3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p034d.jpg"></center><br>
+ When lack of food or ignorance causes malnutrition, everyone suffers. But children suffer most 4</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p034e.jpg"></center><br>
+ When lack of food or ignorance causes malnutrition, everyone suffers. But children suffer most 5</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">What is nutrition?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition is the food you eat and how your body uses it. Good food practices lead to good nutrition. When people do not have enough food, they are called <I>undernourished</I>. When they do not have the right kind of food, they are called <I>malnourished</I>.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food is the material out of which our bodies are built. We eat food to live, to grow, to stay healthy, and to get energy for work and play. Food gives us a sense of security. Even our attitude toward life is influenced by the food we eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For good nutrition the body needs more than a full stomach</I>. It needs different kinds of food for building and full growth and repair, for protection against disease, and for energy. Without a good variety of foods, the body will not work properly. A person will become tired and sick. He may even die.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How food is used by the body</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The food you eat goes to the stomach, then to the small intestine. Digestion of some food begins in the mouth, so it is important to chew food well. Digestion means food is broken down to a form the body can take into the blood through the walls of the small intestine. The blood then takes it to all parts of the body. There it is used in three ways:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. To build and repair the body.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. To keep the body functioning properly and help it resist disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. To provide warmth, energy, and strength for work and play.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The part of the food the body cannot use is passed off as waste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To help teach the difference between good nutrition and poor nutrition, continue with the story of Samuel and Mary. You will recall Peter's teacher asked the village health officer and Extension worker to come to another parents' meeting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the parents were all together, the teacher said, "Last week, we talked about the problem some of the children have in school because they are tired and often sick. They are not growing or learning as much as they should. They do not seem healthy. Today, Mr. Omoko, the local health officer, is here to explain how a healthy child should look and act. Perhaps if we know what we could expect of our children, we will know more about our problem."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr. Omoko talked for some time about the way a child grows from birth to adulthood. Much of what he said is in the section on child care in this book.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then he said, "I understand that your children are not learning as well as the teacher feels they could. You are wondering if this could be because of poor health.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Children of school age should keep growing. Their bones should be straight and strong. They should have a good record of attending school. They should not often be absent due to sickness. Healthy children are bright-eyed, alert, and interested in learning. They should not tire easily, either from games or from studying. Their hair should be shiny, their skin clear and smooth, their muscles firm. They should have a glowing, handsome appearance. If they get cut or burned, these wounds should heal quickly and smoothly."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Samuel thought about the broken leg Peter had last year, about how long it took to heal. Even now, Peter's left leg did not seem as strong as his right leg. He said, "But why aren't our children as healthy as they should be?"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr. Omoko replied that a healthy body needed proper materials to grow right and stay healthy. These materials are the food we eat. He continued, "It is not possible to build a strong healthy body without enough of the right kinds of food any more than it is possible to build a strong house without good materials."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Look at these two houses:</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p035.png"></center><br>
+ Houses </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One house is made of good materials. It has a strong frame to support it. It has a tight roof to protect it against rain. It has a good heating system with fuel to keep it warm and cook meals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other house is made of poor materials. The frame is weak and in poor condition. The roof leaks. There is no way to heat it. It has not been kept in good repair. The floor has holes in it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is the same with animals. Look at these chickens:</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p036a.png"></center><br>
+ Chickens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A healthy animal needs proper food to build it strong, protect it against disease, and give energy for its activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The thin chicken is from the same brood as the healthy one, but it did not have a good diet. It has not grown. Its feathers are poor. It is sick and has no energy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So it is with people.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p036b.png"></center><br>
+ Children</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A healthy child needs proper food to build a strong body and keep it running well. He needs food to provide energy for work and play.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One child has not had proper food to build a healthy body. She is unhappy and does poor work in school. (Add other symptoms you notice among your villagers.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A healthy adult needs proper food to keep his body in good repair. He needs food to help protect him against disease. He needs food to provide energy for work. (Add other signs of good nutrition.)</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p036c.png"></center><br>
+ People</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of these women has not had proper food. She is thin and looks older than she should. She is sick, tired, and irritable. (Add other symptoms of poor nutrition common in your area.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Long before a person shows severe signs of poor nutrition, he may feel tired or depressed. His skin may be dry and rough. His hair may be dull and lifeless. Children may have frequent colds or a constant runny nose, or be seriously sick with common childhood diseases. A person may feel cross and nervous and lose interest in things around him. He may bruise easily or break bones often. His cuts may take a long time to heal. These are all signs that he may not be getting all the good food he needs to be healthy and vigorous."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"But what do you mean? We usually have enough to keep us from being hungry and it is good food," protested another father.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miss Ramero, the village Extension worker, said, "You are quite right. It is good food. It tastes good; we enjoy it. But is it good enough to build strong bodies and help us feel well? Perhaps something is missing. Perhaps we need to talk about what is meant by 'good food'. Then we can learn if your children are getting what they need to build and keep healthy bodies."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miss Ramero offered to meet with the parents to talk more about what is good food and their children's need for it. The parents were eager to learn if this could be the reason their children were sick and not doing well in school. They agreed to meet each Saturday until they found out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miss Ramero asked who would find a meeting room and have it ready for each meeting. Samuel volunteered to do this. She also asked who would go around the village and get more parents to come. Mary offered to go.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What the parents learned in these meetings is given in this chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They learned much about "good food" and how important it is. They spent many weeks talking with the health officer, the village Extension worker, and the teacher about these things.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">What kinds of food do we need for good nutrition?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Our bodies need many materials which are called <I>nutrients </I>for full growth and health. Each has a specific use in the body and all are in the food we eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most foods contain more than one nutrient. But no single food contains all the nutrients in the amounts we need. That takes many kinds and combinations of foods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some kinds of food help build and repair the body. Some keen the parts of the body working well and help it resist disease. Some foods furnish more energy than others. Because of these differences, we can group foods together according to what they do. This makes it easier to learn about them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The names and functions of the nutrients are technical. They may confuse village people. You do not have to talk about nutrients or use technical terms in your work with families. However, the brief outline given here will help <I>you </I>to better understand the principles of food and nutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p037.png"></center><br>
+ Food</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Foods that help to build the body</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The body cannot build firm flesh, good red blood, and strong muscles unless it gets enough good building foods. These are called <I>proteins</I>.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Proteins are found in milk, eggs, meat, fish, nuts, seeds, and legumes such as pulses or grams. They are also present in smaller amounts in whole grain cereals and to a still lesser degree in some vegetables and fruits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In your work with families, remember to use the names of the foods. Talk about milk, eggs, and meat without calling them "proteins".</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both children and adults need building foods. Even after a person stops growing at about 20 years of age, building foods help keep his body in good repair. Animal foods furnish the most complete building and repair materials for the body. Families should try to have some animal food each day. This is especially important for children and pregnant or nursing mothers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The shortage of protein foods is one of the greatest problems in many countries. Children may have serious diseases if they do not get enough protein and also enough food. Two of these diseases are called kwashiorkor and marasmus. If children do not get enough of the right kinds of protein they may not be able to learn well as they should.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some areas where there is a protein shortage, high protein foods such as CSM (cornsoya-milk) and Incaparina are being developed to improve the diet for children. These are generally meal or flour made from fish, legumes, cereals, and other protein sources. Such foods will greatly improve diets low in protein and are particularly valuable as weaning foods for the young child. <I>Multi-purpose food </I>is another high protein product made from soybeans. Find out from. your ministry if such products are available in your country and how they can be obtained and used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Milk and milk products </I>are important foods for everybody at every age, but especially for growing children. Cows and goats supply most of the milk in the world, but milk from other animals is used in some countries. In some areas milk is not a customary food. And in many countries where it is acceptable, it is not easily available. If this is the case in your area, find out if milk production is possible. If so, try very hard to promote the production, care, and use of milk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p038.jpg"></center><br>
+ This young Honduran boy is fortunate that he has milk to help him grow a strong body. Most children enjoy milk as much as he does if they have it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bring raw milk from any animal just to boiling, then take it off the heat at once. This makes it safe for drinking. Cool it as soon as possible, and keep it cold. Do not add water to milk. This only makes the milk weaker and does not add more building value. Also, if the water is not safe, it makes the milk unsafe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many people buy milk when they cannot produce it. Milk is sold in many forms. Milk direct from the animal is <I>raw, whole milk</I>. When the cream is taken off, what is left is called <I>skimmed milk</I>. Pasteurized <I>milk </I>has been heated and does not need to be boiled at home if it is kept covered in the dairy container. It is safe to drink. <I>Dried whole milk powder </I>is suitable for babies and children if it is properly prepared with safe water or cooked with other foods. <I>Dried skimmed milk powder </I>is inexpensive and is a good source of protein, but the whole milk powder is better, especially for babies and children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evaporated milk </I>has about half of the water removed and is suitable for babies and children. It contains fat as well as milk solids. <I>Condensed milk </I>has some water taken out and sugar added. It is not a good food for infants. When you add the water to the condensed milk so that the baby will drink it, the mixture does not give the baby the building foods he needs. The baby may get full and fat, but he will not grow as strong as he should. <I>Cheese </I>should be made from whole or skimmed milk. It may be soft or hard. Curds are a soft cheese. Cheese is a good building food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is difficult to plan a good diet for children and adults without using some form of milk. In areas where there is not enough milk, try to get people to use more of other building foods such as fish, meat, pulses, cereals and dark green leafy vegetables. It is a good idea to add powdered milk to many foods when preparing them. It can be added to eggs, vegetables, rice, cereals, sauces, and bread dough.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meat </I>can come from any animal, bird, or fish normally eaten. These include cattle, goats, sheep, camels, pigs, rabbits, chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, wild game, fish, and shell fish. Reptiles, rodents or insects such as locusts, bees, and grasshoppers are used for food in some areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lean part of meat is the building food, not the fat or bone. All parts of the animal normally eaten contain protein. This includes the kidneys, liver, heart, brains, stomach, lungs, and also animal blood, which is used for food in some areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because meat doesn't keep well in warm climates without refrigeration and because it is expensive to buy, many people eat meat only occasionally. For this reason, you should try to get families to produce and use such animal foods as milk, poultry, eggs, fish, and rabbits. Then there will not be as much of a problem storing and keeping the food as there is when a large animal is slaughtered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eggs </I>have the same building value as meat. Chickens are our most common source of eggs, but eggs from birds other than chickens, such as turkeys, ducks, geese, and guineas, as well as from fish and reptiles are all good building foods. All these eggs should be well cooked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legumes, nuts, and seeds </I>are plant foods which contain proteins. Legumes may also be called pulses or grams. They include many kinds of dried beans such as soybeans, black beans, kidney beans, and broad beans; dried peas such as cowpeas, pigeon peas, and chickpeas, and lentils. Learn the kinds of dried beans and peas used in your area. The soybean is especially good because it contains up to 40 percent protein. In many areas, the government strongly encourages people to grow and eat soybeans to improve their diets. Groundnuts or peanuts are also important legumes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All edible nuts contain some protein. Know those available in your area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seeds include: lotus seeds, ginkgo seeds, pumpkin seeds, sesame seeds, sunflower seeds, squash seeds, cashew seeds, and calabash tree seeds as well as many others. Seeds are often used for their oil. "Press cakes", the part of the seed left after the oil is pressed out, contain protein. These "press cakes" are good food for animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coconut is not included in this list. While the meat contains a little building material, it is used mainly for the oil it contains. The coconut "milk" is refreshing and tastes good, but it is not a protein food and doesn't help the body grow strong.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teach people to cook legumes and seeds with rice, wheat, corn, millet, or other cereal grains. If they use these every day with even a small amount of dry milk powder, fresh milk, or other animal foods added, they can greatly improve their diets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p039.png"></center><br>
+ Legumes and Seeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Foods that provide much energy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Foods that provide lots of energy are called <I>fats and carbohydrates</I>. If people do not get enough of these, other foods more valuable for building and repair will be used for the energy the body needs and their building value will be wasted. When people eat too much of these foods they become fat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carbohydrates are sugar and starch. These are mainly found in cereals, starchy plants, sugar, molasses, honey, etc. Many other foods also contain some carbohydrate. In many countries, cereals and starchy plants make up the greater part of the people's diet. They are often referred to as "the staples in the diets of the masses."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cereals </I>are grains such as maize, wheat, rice, barley, oats, sorghum, and millet. They are easy to grow and not expensive to buy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The bran and germ of these grains also have some building and protective values. The bran covers the kernel, and the germ is the part that sprouts and grows when planted. When the bran and germ are left in, the cereal is a better food. Yellow maize is more nutritious than white maize. Rice has a hard outer crust over the bran layer. This crust must be removed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p040.png"></center><br>
+ When a woman pounds her own grain as this woman is doing, she can make sure her family gets all the food value that is in it. The bran and germ contain important nutrients that should not be thrown away.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries, wheat flour, bread, maize meal, and rice are enriched before they are sold. This means that protective values have been added. Ask your Ministry of Agriculture or Nutrition Institute about enriching in your country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whole grain rice and wheat are sometimes steamed or boiled and then sundried. This makes them easier to pound or grind. Prepared in this way, rice is called <I>parboiled </I>and wheat is called <I>bulgur</I>. Bulgur wheat keeps better than plain wheat flour. Parboiled rice is a much better food than the white polished rice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many families prepare their own cereal grains at home by pounding, grinding, or cracking. They often wash or sift away the bran and germ, leaving only the white starchy part of the grain which has much less building and protective value. Where any bran or germ is left in, the flour or meal is darker in color. Some people do not like it as well. Try to teach people to like and use the darker flour and meal made from the whole grain. It is much better for them. Try to get them not to wash the grains or sift out the bran. Millet, barley, rye, sorghum, and other grains are generally used without removing the bran and germ, so the problem of white or dark flour does not arise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starchy roots, tubers and fruits </I>include such foods as plantains, breadfruit, cassava (manioc), taro, white yam, yellow yam, sweetpotato, and white potato. Most of these have very little protein. When used as the main part of the diet, these foods do not have enough protein and may cause the diseases of poor diet. Oftentimes, young children weaned from the breast and fed mainly on cassava, taro or plantain, develop kwashiorkor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starchy fruits and vegetables are easy to grow and are generally found in abundance. They are not expensive to buy and they are filling, but other building and protective foods should always be a part of each person's daily food. This is very important. Otherwise malnutrition results.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sugars </I>have only energy value. Too many sweets can spoil a person's appetite for foods with more food value. Sugar is digested quickly. That is why a sweet drink, such as sugary tea or coffee in the morning, seems to "pick you up" and give you more energy. But sugar is also used up quickly. You may soon feel tired and hungry again. Too much sugar or other sweets can help to bring about tooth decay.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fats </I>come from animals, plants, and seeds. They are more expensive and often less available than cereals or starchy plants. Fats are important in the diet. They not only provide energy but also help the body use the protective value of some foods, especially dark leafy greens and deep yellow vegetables. They also contain fatty acids the body needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some fats like red palm oil, other plant oils, butter, ghee, cream, and fish liver oil contain protective value too. Other fats, like meat drippings, fat meat, and lard have no protective or building value in them. In some countries, margarine made from vegetable oils may have protective values added. It is then called <I>fortified margarine</I>. Many people do not eat enough fats because they are expensive. It is a good idea to include some fats, especially those with protective qualities, in each meal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p041.png"></center><br>
+ Vegetable</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Foods that keep the body working properly and help it resist disease</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Protective nutrients called <I>minerals and vitamins </I>are important for growth, resistance against disease, and proper body functioning. There are many minerals and vitamins. Each has a specific name and a specific job in the body. Some are found in so many foods they are not a nutritional problem. All fruits and vegetables have minerals and vitamins. Some contain more than others and therefore add more to a balanced diet. A varied diet will likely provide all that are needed, but the foods must be prepared so that the vitamins are not wasted. The following vitamins and minerals need special attention to be sure foods with them are included in the diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iron </I>is needed along with protein to build blood. Lack of enough iron is a leading cause of ill health in many parts of the world. Iron-rich foods include eggs, green leafy vegetables, many whole grain cereals, legumes, and meat. The internal organs of animals such as liver, heart, and kidneys are especially rich sources of iron.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calcium </I>is necessary for building bones and teeth. It is especially needed during growth. Milk is one of the best sources of calcium. Certain green leafy vegetables and pulses are also good sources of calcium. Calcium in the diet can be increased by using limewater to prepare food or using fish with edible bones. Red millet, sesame seeds, and molasses also contain some calcium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iodine </I>in food is needed for the thyroid gland in the front of the throat. When the person does not get enough iodine, this gland grows big and is called a goiter. In certain areas where goiter is common, iodine is added to salt. Fish from the sea and most vegetables grown near the sea are sources of iodine. Iodine is present in the soil. The amount found in vegetables and fruits depends on how much is in the soil where they are grown. Where there is enough iodine in the soil, there is generally no problem of goiter. If a person has swelling in the front of the lower throat, he should go to a doctor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vitamin A </I>is needed for growth, normal eyesight, and healthy skin and body surfaces. It is found in some fats. Butter and cream are especially rich sources. This is one reason that safe, whole milk rather than skim milk is recommended for growing children. Other fats and oils may have vitamin A added to them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A substance called <I>carotene </I>changes to vitamin A in the body. Carotene is found in the dark green leafy vegetables and deep yellow fruits and vegetables. Sometimes these are grouped together and called the "Yellows and Greens". Red palm oil is also a good source of vitamin A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dark green leaves are better than light green or white. Some of the more commonly grown greens are: spinach, chard, kale, collards, broccoli, mustard, amaranth, cassava leaves, sweetpotato leaves, and beet and turnip tops. It takes little ground and not much work to keep a patch of greens growing around the house. In most areas, they can be grown year round Many greens, good for eating, grow wild. They have just as much food value as the greens from the garden, and they vary the diet. Trees and bushes with edible leaves such as the drumstick tree are found in some areas. All greens are best when freshly picked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some deep yellow fruits and vegetables are mango, papaya, cantaloupe, carrots, yellow yams, and winter squash. Find out which ones grow in your area. Red palm oil is also a good source of carotene.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to use foods rich in vitamin A or carotene at least once a day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vitamin C </I>is needed for healthy gums, skin, and body tissues. It is found in many fruits and some vegetables. Citrus fruits such as oranges, tangerines, lemons, limes, and grapefruit are very good sources of vitamin C. Other good sources of vitamin C are guavas, strawberries, rambutan, tomatoes, papaya, mangoes, pawpaw, cabbage, other leafy greens, and white potatoes. A person who eats some of these fruits and vegetables every day can be reasonably sure of getting enough vitamin C. Find out which ones grow or could be grown in your area. Include the ones that grow wild. Teach your people to include a good variety of them in their diets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The juice of any fruit has the same protective values as the fruit it comes from. The same is true of vegetable juices. Teach your people to use fresh fruit and fresh fruit juices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vitamin D </I>is needed for the body to use calcium. It is very important in the growth of teeth and the bones of the body. Too little vitamin D causes rickets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vitamin D is found in some foods like cod liver or other fish liver oils. This is why they are often given to children. This is a good thing to do. People who get lots of sunlight all year long are not likely to lack vitamin D. Sunlight changes a substance in a person's skin into vitamin D.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thiamine, riboflavin</I>, and <I>niacin </I>are members of the vitamin B family. They help with steady nerves, normal appetite, good digestion, a good attitude (morale), and a healthy skin. Most foods do not furnish very large amounts of these vitamins. But using a variety of foods each day will help assure getting enough of them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other vitamins and minerals needed in lesser amounts for proper functioning of the body are also found in fruits and vegetables as well as other foods. A balanced and varied diet will likely provide all that are needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Food needs vary</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All people need the same nutrients, but in varying amounts throughout life. The amounts are influenced by age, activity, size, sex, health, and climate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Age</I>-For their size, children need more food than adults. This is because they need extra food to grow and develop, and also because healthy children are so active. From weaning to 6 years old, children grow very rapidly. They are not getting breast milk and are too young to get food for themselves. They need extra special care to see that they get large amounts of building foods. During the many years when boys and girls are growing into men and women, many things are happening to their bodies. Some boys and girls grow very fast. They need extra food. As people get older, they stop growing and become less active. They need less food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Activity</I>-The harder and longer a person works or plays, the more energy food he needs. A person who works in the field all day needs more food than one who sits and talks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Size</I>-The larger a person, the more food he needs unless he is too fat, or too thin. Then his food needs are based on what he should weigh.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sex</I>-Because men are often bigger than women, and because they often do heavier work, they generally require a little more food than women, especially energy foods. But a small man who does very little physical work will not need as much food as a larger woman who works in the fields all day. Both men and women need the same kinds of food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pregnant women and nursing mothers need extra building and protective foods. Women generally need more iron than men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Climate</I>-People in hot tropical countries need somewhat less food than people in colder climates. This is because the body needs more energy food to keep warm in cold climates. People are also less active in hot climates. Therefore, they need less food than more active people in cool climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">State of Health</I>-Sick people need food to rebuild their bodies. In the acute (severe) state of their illness, they may not be able to eat much but water or sugar water. As soon as possible though, give them a good diet to rebuild their bodies and help them get well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Food needs for adults</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All adults need building, protective, and energy foods. Your country may have a general food plan that would be suitable for you to use. Or you may need to get help in developing one that fits the food habits and resources of the people you work with.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The foods in the chart below, taken every day, would be a satisfactory diet for the average adult man of the Kenya coast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this plan, energy value comes largely from the rice, coconut, and oil; building value mainly from fish and beans plus some from amaranth; and protective value from amaranth and mango.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regular use of milk, cheese, and curds is encouraged in some food plans because these foods help build and keep bones strong. In some places, these foods are not easily available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the basic food is bananas, cassava, potatoes, or other starchy food, then larger amounts of legumes, pulses, grams, meat, fish, eggs, or milk are needed than when cereals are the basic food.</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=554>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food group</B></I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amount per day</B></I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whole grain or lightly milled cereals, starchy foods including roots</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice, lightly milled and parboiled </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">18 ounces</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legumes (pulses, grams)</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beans</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 ounces</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meat, fish, eggs</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fish</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 ounces</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dark green leafy vegetables</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amaranth</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 ounces</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other vegetables and fruit, especially those for vitamin C</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mango</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 ounces</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fats, oils, fatty foods</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coconut</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 ounces</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oil</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">œ ounce</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Special food needs of pregnant and nursing women</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good diet for the mother  helps her have a healthy infant and stay healthy  herself. If she is poorly fed, she will be weak  and have a weak baby. Some of these  babies may die be fore they are born or soon  afterwards. Eating properly means better health for  the mother and her children. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A pregnant or nursing woman  needs extra building materials to build a  strong baby. If the baby cannot get these from  the food his mother eats, then he will get  them from his mother's tissues and bones, In  this way, her body may become  weakened. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of great importance during this  period are <I>milk, eggs, meat, fish</I>, and  <I>legumes </I>(pulses, grams). <I>Extra </I>amounts of dark  green leafy vegetables and vegetables and fruits for vitamins A and C are needed for their protective value. Cereals, fats, and oils may also need to be increased, particularly during breast feeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mother may fear that the baby will grow too big and she will get fat if she eats well during pregnancy. Neither she nor the baby will get too big if she eats the right amounts of the right kinds of food. It is when she eats too much starchy food, fats, and sugars that she or the baby may get too big. One good way of knowing if she is getting too big, too fast, is by going to a prenatal clinic where her weight will be checked regularly. The doctor will talk to her about her diet and weight gain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p044.png"></center><br>
+ The government of Nigeria considers breast feeding so important that it has designed this special poster to encourage mothers to breastfeed their babies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Food needs for infants</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Breast milk</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mother's milk is one of the best foods for the baby. Talk to mothers about nursing the baby for at least one year. In some areas where there is not enough of the right kind of food, it is a good idea for the mother to nurse her baby for 2 years if it is possible. Breast-fed babies usually grow well if the mother is eating well. They are not sick as often as babies who cannot be breast fed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good way to protect infants from severe malnutrition that may leave life-long effects is to give them breast milk. The mother who breast feeds her baby until he is old enough to be weaned gives him a good start in life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast milk alone, if there is enough, will supply a baby's food needs for the first 5 or 6 months of his life. Sometimes in hot weather, a baby needs more water than he gets in breast feeding. Be sure the water is boiled at least 10 minutes. It can be put in a clean covered container to cool and be fed to the baby with a spoon once or twice during the day. Babies who do not get enough sunshine may also need some fish liver oil to help make their bones strong. Your health department can tell you how mothers can get this oil and how they should give it to their babies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast milk is safe because there is no danger from germs as there may be if the baby is fed from a bottle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast milk contains a substance which protects the baby against infectious diseases during his early months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast feeding is valuable because the baby is cuddled and feels warm and secure when he is held. He feels loved and happy when he is fed this way. It is the perfect beginning for a happy, contented life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bottle feeding</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If for some reason the mother does not have enough milk for the baby during his first 6 months, she may have to give him milk in another way. In many countries, feeding cups are available. These are easier to keep clean than bottles and nipples. Therefore, they are safer to use. If a mother must use a bottle, she must be given proper instructions from a hospital or health clinic on mixing the milk and caring for the bottles. It is very important to keep all cups and bottles very clean or the baby may get sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Starting other foods</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By the time a baby is 6 months old, he needs more food than his mother's milk can give him. About this time, he should be given other soft foods such as grain cereals, eggs, vegetables and fruits to add to the mother's milk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p045.jpg"></center><br>
+ When a baby is several months old, he should be taught to eat from a spoon as this Nigerian baby is. Then he will learn to eat and enjoy other body-building foods so he will not stop growing when he is weaned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These foods should be fed with a little spoon. This is more sanitary and much better to use than the mother's fingers. The time for starting to give the baby the new foods depends on how well the baby is growing and if the mother has enough milk to satisfy him. If the mother takes her baby to a doctor or clinic to be checked, she will usually be-told when to start other foods. The baby should continue to get his regular breast feedings as well as these other foods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eating should be a happy time for the baby; do not force a baby to eat. A baby will generally let his mother know when he gets hungry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It takes time to teach a baby to take other foods, and he has to be fed slowly. Give the baby one new food at a time to let him get used to the flavor and feel of the food. At first, just give him a taste on the end of the spoon. Do not be surprised if he spits it out or turns his head away. It is a normal thing for babies to do. He will soon learn, after a few tries, that he likes most of the foods that you offer him. If he continues to spit out a food after several tastes, discontinue it for a while and try a different food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important that he likes his food and is happy when he eats. The first year it is better to feed him before or after the rest of the family has eaten. Then the mother can give him all her attention and he will not be distracted by the noise and movement when the family is eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following examples of daily feeding plans may help you teach mothers how to add different foods one at a time to their babies' diets. Note that at least one building food, one protective food, and one energy food is given at every meal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=3>
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At about 6 months</B></I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Upon waking</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast feed</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="42%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morning</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porridge made with milk. (When baby becomes used to porridge, start feeding papaya, orange or other fruit juice.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast feed</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="42%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afternoon</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mashed banana with boiled milk Breast feed</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="42%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Early evening</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porridge made with milk </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast feed</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="42%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=3>
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between 7 and 8 months</B></I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Upon waking</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast feed</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="42%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morning</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porridge made with milk and mashed hardboiled egg </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mashed papaya or fruit juice such as mango, orange, pawpaw </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast feed</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="42%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afternoon</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">White or sweetpotato mashed with boiled milk </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ripe banana mashed with boiled milk </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast feed</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="42%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Early evening</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porridge made with milk </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mashed vegetable </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast feed</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="42%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=3>
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between 8 and 9 months</B></I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plan I</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="42%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plan II</I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Upon waking</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast feed</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="42%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast feed</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morning</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porridge with milk </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mashed papaya </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boiled milk from a cup </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast feed</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="42%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porridge made with milk </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Orange juice or other fruit juice </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boiled milk from a cup </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast feed</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afternoon</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porridge made with milk </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mashed banana with milk </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boiled milk from a cup </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast feed</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="42%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mashed sweetpotato </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mashed vegetable </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mashed and scraped cooked fish </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boiled milk from a cup </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast feed</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Early evening</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mashed potato with boiled egg </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mashed vegetable </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boiled milk from a cup </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast feed</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="42%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porridge with milk and mashed pulses Mashed papaya </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boiled milk from a cup </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breast feed</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p047.jpg"></center><br>
+ Red Cross health educators use a flannelgraph to teach mothers in Uganda the proper way to prepare a nutritious diet for weaning babies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You may wish to use a flannelgraph or display real foods to teach mothers what their babies should be eating in addition to breast milk at (1) about 6 months old, (2) about 7 or 8 months, and (3) 1 year old.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the baby gets older, he can start to eat other building and protective foods. These include well-cooked and mashed pulses without skins; hardboiled eggs; well-cooked and mashed liver or chicken; mashed vegetables from the cooking pot; green leafy vegetables cut very fine, cooked, and mashed; soup; and fruits such as mango, guava, and pawpaw, peeled and mashed fine with no seeds or hard pieces. At about 1 year of age, the baby can eat some foods from family meals. He can eat cereal, for example, as it is cooked for his older brothers and sisters. His food will still need to be mashed or chopped very fine until he has more teeth and can chew well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preparing and handling foods for the baby</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Foods given to the baby must be very clean. The baby's dishes should be boiled and kept separate from other dishes. It is very easy for a baby to get diarrhea or stomach upset from dirty food or dishes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a mother first starts to give her baby other foods, she should sit him on her lap and feed him from a sanitary spoon. The baby will soon learn to eat from a spoon and drink from a cup. Let the baby try to feed himself from a small spoon or cup as soon as he seems to want to. Most small children eat better when they take at least part of their food by themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The foods given to babies must be soft and easily digested</I>, so they will not cause the baby stomach trouble. Animal milk, eggs, meat, fish, pulses, and cereals are important foods for a baby. They help him grow and develop. Remember, <I>always boil raw animal milk</I>.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A soft porridge or gruel made from a whole grain cereal and milk is a good soft food to start the baby on. A mother may feel that the whiter the porridge, gruel, or pap she prepares, the better food she is making for her baby and the better mother her husband and neighbors think she is. Explain that a darker porridge has more food value than the white pap or gruel. Show her how to prepare cereals for porridge without washing the whole grains after pounding them. This way she will not pour off all the good building materials in the water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Think of suitable foods for babies that are available in your area. Treat each family and each infant individually, but always base the diet on the many things you have learned about the many kinds of food that children and adults need to grow or to keep strong. Foods cooked for the family may be given to the baby if a small portion is taken out for him before the strong spices are added. This food could then be strained, mashed, or cut into small pieces to make it easy for the baby to eat. It is much easier for the mother to give the baby the food from the family pot and it is much better for the baby because he will eat many different kinds of foods. When the baby eats many kinds of foods, he will get the many things that help him grow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p048.png"></center><br>
+ Homemade Sieve</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Homemade Sieve</I>-Running food through a sieve removes any lumps or hard pieces, and makes it fine and soft. This is good for an infant or sick child. Most families have a sieve. If not, they can make one easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use a 2-lb. tin can or one that is an easy size to handle. Be sure the rim is smooth with no sharp edges. Clean and wash the can thoroughly. Punch 20 to 30 holes in the bottom with a medium size nail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Weaning</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weaning means (1) getting the baby accustomed to foods besides breast milk, and (2) stopping breast feeding. Weaning extends from the time the baby is solely breast fed until he is eating a good mixed diet which entirely replaces breast milk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The length of time the mother continues to breast feed her baby varies considerably. Many doctors recommend breast feeding for one year and even for 2 years if it is possible and needed. This insures that the baby will get vital building materials he needs. However, after the first 5 or 6 months breast milk alone will not provide the child with all it needs for growth. Where no other milk is available, prolonged breast feeding is necessary for the baby's growth and quite often for his survival. However, the <I>mother </I>must eat a good diet with enough building foods if she is to make milk for 2 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can prepare a baby for weaning by starting with small amounts of boiled animal milk from a cup. Animal milk is the best substitute for breast milk. Gradually increase the amount until the baby is taking it at every meal. Taking the baby off the breast completely must be done gradually. This usually takes several weeks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, the baby should never be weaned from the breast to a bottle. It is not necessary and bottles and rubber teats are hard to clean. Germs which can make the baby ill are found in unclean bottles and rubber teats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A wise procedure is to stop the midday breast feeding first. After 2 or 3 weeks, stop the second one during the morning, then later the evening breast feeding. After 2 or 3 more weeks, stop the early morning breast feeding. Weaning gradually this way is not only good for the baby, it is also much more comfortable for the mother because her breasts do not get so full and the amount of milk she makes is gradually reduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some mothers put a bitter powder on their nipples or send the baby away to his grandparents when they want to stop nursing the baby. This is very bad for the baby. He is unhappy and cries and feels unwanted. He may even stop eating altogether and become ill. It is much better to keep the baby with his mother and let him gradually get used to milk from a cup and continue to get the other foods he has been taking. Then both the baby and the mother are happier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the mother has been following a good feeding plan, the baby will already be getting other building foods when she begins to stop breast feedings. He will be used to them. If he continues to get them, his growth will not slow down when he is weaned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries, special "weaning" foods are available. Ask your health department if any such food is available and recommended in your country. If so, encourage mothers to use it. It is made especially for the needs of babies, Use the weaning foods as recommended by your health department.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Food needs from weaning to 6 years</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A child of this age is often called a toddler or preschool child. A child this age often becomes the most poorly nourished member of the family. He often is not given the attention he got as a baby, and he is still too young to care for himself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The importance of animal foods for everyone has been mentioned several times. The toddler often does not get his fair share of milk, meat, eggs, fish, and pulses. This may be because they are not plentiful or because parents do not understand that the child needs these foods for growth and health. They may think that milk causes diarrhea. Help them understand that it is the improper care of milk which causes germs to grow in the milk. These germs cause the diarrhea, not the milk itself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Building foods (proteins) are very important to a child of this age because he is no longer getting his mother's milk. The quality of building food for a toddler (or anyone else) can be improved by a combination of foods at the same meal. If a family has both maize and beans, for example, it is far better to eat some maize and some beans at each meal rather than to eat maize for several days and then beans for several days. Combinations of foods should have both filling foods and protein foods; for example, cereals or tubers with milk, eggs, meat, fish, pulses or cheese. Here are some examples of mixtures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Maize with pigeon peas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Banana cooked with beans and served with wheat bread</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Baked sweetpotato served with lentils and a dark green vegetable</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Porridge made from two different cereals and served with sauce made of cowpeas and tomatoes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Groundnut soup with potatoes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p050.jpg"></center><br>
+ Children will eat better if they learn to feed themselves. This Indian mother is encouraging her child in his efforts to learn to drink from a glass.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the mother has powdered milk, she can stir it into the food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a young child is not given enough milk, meat, fish, eggs, pulses, and cereals, he does not grow normally. He is more likely to get colds, coughs, and stomach upsets, as well as to get very ill from any childhood diseases he catches. He may be cross and lose interest in playing. He may get weak and become sick. Kwashiorkor and marasmus may show up in children of this age who do not eat enough protein.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remind mothers that from weaning to 6 years old is one of the most important times in a child's life and can be one of the most dangerous from the standpoint of health.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The young child is growing rapidly and needs more building foods <I>for his size </I>than adults. The building foods are eggs, milk, cheese, meat, fish, pulses, and groundnuts. The young child cannot eat much food at one time and so he needs more frequent meals than adults.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In families that use roots and tubers as the main food, it is very important that the child have one or more foods from the building group at each meal. He should have dark green leafy vegetables and a deep yellow fruit or vegetable, and fruits such as orange, mango, papaya, etc. Whole grain cereals are better than starchy plants in the child's diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The young child has few teeth so he requires soft food. He can begin to eat some adult foods, but they need to be cut into very small pieces.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Properly feeding a toddler requires time, but he needs the love and personal attention of his mother for both his spirit and body. He requires clean food and clean utensils to prevent infection and protect him from hookworm, diarrhea, and other diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These foods are not suitable for babies and young children.</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Strong seasonings and spices such as hot peppers and curry powder. Take the baby's food out of the cooking pot before spices and seasonings are added or cook it separately.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Foods with skins such as pulses and maize, unless they are cooked very well and put through a sieve.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Fish with bones, except small fish whose bones can be cooked soft and mashed very fine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Candy, which is bad for teeth and spoils the baby's appetite for the other foods which his body needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Beer and other alcoholic drinks which can make the baby feel dizzy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Food needs of school age children</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After a child starts to school, it may be harder for him to get the food he needs to grow, develop, and learn well in school. He often has to leave home before breakfast is ready in the morning and walk a considerable distance to reach school. If he gets no meal at school and returns late in the afternoon for his first and only meal of the day, it is almost impossible for him to get enough of the right foods. It is of great importance that he have some food before going to school and some food while he is at school. If no hot breakfast is available, the child can eat some fruit, bread, cold cooked potatoes, or even leftover porridge so that he will not tire so easily and will feel more like doing his school work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The School Lunch</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">School lunch programs are increasing in many countries. The ideal is a school that serves a good midday meal to the children. In some places children get milk at school, either free or at a small cost. A program such as this makes sure that all school children will have this valuable building food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some countries may provide other foods as well to improve the diets of growing children. In some areas where the government does not provide lunches, mothers may want to organize a lunch for the children at school. The families of the students could pay for this either in cash or by contributing food. Mothers could take turns cooking the food or they could hire someone to do the cooking. Providing such a meal is a good way to make sure that all the children in your area have good food at midday.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p052.jpg"></center><br>
+ A school lunch is popular the world over.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Carrying Food to School</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If a child must carry his lunch to school, it should be as nutritious as possible. The kind of food he can take will depend on what is locally available. It should be wrapped and packed to keep it clean and make it easy to carry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meat or foods that spoil quickly in warm weather should not be included unless they can be kept cool at school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many different kinds of food can be carried to school: maize with beans or peas; pilaf with a sauce of chickpeas and powdered milk; tortilla spread with sauce of pulses with powdered milk; sweetpotato roasted in its skin; hardboiled eggs; cold well-cooked dried or smoked fish or meat; oranges, papaya, bananas, or other fruit; tomatoes; roasted groundnuts; sour milk carried in a gourd; and bread. It is a good idea to take more than one kind of food. Cooked food could be wrapped in a banana leaf. A little basket lined with a clean leaf could serve as a lunch basket.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No doubt you can think of many other foods children can carry to school. Be sure they contain both building and energy values.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If children are given money to buy lunch from shops or venders, teach them to buy foods that will keep them healthy. What foods can these children choose from if they buy? Which foods will help them follow the rules of good eating ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giving a school child a good diet every day is one way parents can help their children learn and do well in school. Teachers can do very little with children who are tired, dull, and listless from not getting enough of the right kinds of foods. How well a child learns in school is the responsibility of his parents as well as his teacher.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Food needs during adolescence</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adolescence is from the time of puberty until 20 years of age. It is a period of rapid growth and development for both boys and girls. It is, therefore, a time when they need large amounts of food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boys and girls who are active in play or do heavy work may need much more energy food than adults. Because they are still growing, they need more building foods. Their need for protective foods is about the same or even higher than for adults.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Food needs of sick people</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a sick person is being cared for at home, he should be given good food in an easy-to-digest form as soon as he can take it. Both sickness and injury weaken the body and use up some of the materials in it. It takes extra building, protective, and energy foods to repair the damage, and make the body strong again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the case of a fever or diarrhea, boiled water with perhaps a little sugar added may be all the sick person can take the first day. By the next day, a well-cooked gruel of finely pounded cereal, boiled milk, and sugar can be tried three times a day. Also give orange or fruit juices with a little sugar added. Boiled water should be continued. As the ill person gets better, add other soft foods in addition to the gruel, boiled water and juices. These could be soft-cooked eggs, soft fish without hard bones, tender chicken or other meat, soup with some mashed vegetables and pulses, papaya, rice, and other soft, well-cooked cereal foods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frequent small meals are better than large meals. The body will make better use of the food. Eating six times a day is not too often. Remember, a well-fed person will recover faster from any sickness or injury.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Food habits and their influence in nutrition</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All people have their likes, dislikes, and beliefs about food. Individuals are influenced by what their friends and those around them eat. In some areas, it is the custom to eat certain protein-rich foods such as insects, snakes, and dogs. These are all beneficial. Many old customs such as drinking animal blood, feeding red millet to new mothers, soaking grain in limewater, drinking sour milk instead of fresh, using wild fruits and vegetables, and sprouting legumes before cooking them make for good diets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, certain beliefs and customs about food are very bad. You need to try to change beliefs such as that women will not be able to have children if they eat eggs, or that a child who drinks goat's milk will grow to look like a goat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We all enjoy eating foods we ate as we were growing up-foods that our mothers and grandmothers used to prepare. They make us feel happy and safe. Familiar foods, familiar seasonings, and foods cooked in familiar ways give pleasure to eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Developing good eating patterns</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving nutrition does not mean changing all the food customs and habits of people. But they need to be taught how to improve their eating patterns so they will have the kind of daily diet they need for good health and to enjoy their food, too.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many countries have developed food guides, based on the habits of their people, to help them establish good eating patterns. These guides generally group together foods that add the same things to the diet. They emphasize foods that are often not used enough. Find out if your country has a food guide and, if so, how you can use it in your work. Some guides suggest the amounts to use daily from each group. All food guides encourage the use of many foods. The more different kinds of food people eat, the better chance they have to get all the nutrients they need.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let us look at Puerto Rico as an example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Puerto Rico has a nutrition committee representing various agencies and groups concerned with food and nutrition. This committee worked out a guide called <I>A Basic Food Pattern for Puerto Rico</I>. The committee agreed that almost all Puerto Ricans eat rice and beans, starchy fruits such as plantain and green bananas, codfish, lard, sugar, and coffee. Most families have something more, but those foods are the only ones the committee could be sure almost everybody had every day. These form the basic diet. Although it is good as far as it goes, other foods are needed to meet the body's need for good health. The food guide was developed to emphasize the foods that are generally not eaten often enough. Puerto Rico used the term "Yellows and Greens" because they wanted to emphasize the deep yellow fruits such as papaya and mango along with the dark green leafy vegetables. A chart was made as shown:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p054.png"></center><br>
+ Flannelgraph</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A flannelgraph has been made from the chart. The circle is cut into five pieces. Each piece can be used as a separate lesson. This food guide flannelgraph is used to teach nutrition throughout Puerto Rico.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Learn the facts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You will need to learn their food habits and customs before you can help people develop good food patterns. Review with them what they have learned about the kinds of food the body needs. To help them see what kind of eating patterns they have, ask the following questions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is the main food you eat?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you use whole grain cereals and flours? How often? More than one kind?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you use cereal foods more often than starchy plants ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What building foods do you eat regularly with the staple foods? Do you use building foods three times each day?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you use pulses, seeds, or nuts? Which ones ? How often ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you use meat, fish, eggs, poultry? How often ? How much ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you use milk of any kind? How often? How much ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What fruits and vegetables do you use? How often? How much?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you use leafy greens regularly? Yellow vegetables ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you use oranges, papaya, mango, and other deep yellow fruits every day?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their answers to these questions will tell you whether or not they are eating a good variety of food Show the people what they can do to improve their basic diet. They should regularly eat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· More than one kind of cereal grain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· More than one kind of legume (pulses, grams) .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Whole grain or undermilled cereal foods rather than the refined, white grain products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Staple foods in combination with building and protective foods. For example, they should cook cereal foods with dry skim milk or add some meat, fish, pulses, or vegetables to rice, cassava, or other staple.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· More leafy greens or small whole fish if milk is not available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The "Yellows and Greens" (both vegetables and fruits).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Handling food</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The way food is handled influences the nutrients it has, its safety, appearance, and taste</I>. Handling means everything that happens to food while it is being grown, processed, stored, and prepared for eating. In some areas, at least one-third of all the food produced is lost by poor harvesting, and loss from insects, rats and spoilage or faulty handling in the home.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Good farming increases the amount and the quality of the food produced. For example, good soil and the right kind of fertilizer can improve the amount and flavor of crops. If insecticides are needed and are used, the farmer must learn how to use them in the right way so that the food will be safe to eat. Many insecticides are poisonous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The way food is processed influences its body building value. Highly milled cereals contain smaller amounts of some nutrients than whole grain undermilled cereals. Enriching highly milled foods by adding vitamins, iron, and possibly calcium during processing increases their nutritive value. Dried skimmed milk has the fat removed in processing; it does not have vitamins A and D. Dried whole milk powder does have the fat and vitamins A and D. The water is removed from both types of powdered milk. However, some factories may add vitamins A and D to dried skimmed milk to improve its nutritive value.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The nutrients may be partially lost in food stored for long periods, especially when it has not been properly stored. Milk or other perishable foods such as leftovers, kept for even a short time, can easily become contaminated with bacteria and cause illness unless they are properly stored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The way food is cooked greatly influences its taste and appearance as well as its food value.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Certain foods cause illness. There are poisonous plants such as some toadstools and berries. Some kinds of cassava also have a toxic skin and juice which should not be eaten.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the foods we have talked about do not <I>in themselves </I>cause illness. Quite the opposite: the foods we have talked about are needed to build strong, healthy bodies. It is when foods become spoiled or contaminated with bacteria or parasites that they cause illness. Proper handling, preparation, and storage of food will prevent illness from contaminated food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Principles of food preparation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following these rules in handling and preparing food will help keep it safe, make it taste better, and preserve the food values it contains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=706>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MILK:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="74%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keep milk in a clean container with a tight cover. Store in a cold place. Always boil raw milk before using it. Use boiled water to mix milk powder</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MEAT:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="74%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cook all meat, poultry, and fish thoroughly to make sure any germs they contain are destroyed.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EGGS:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="74%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cook eggs slowly over low heat. Do not eat raw eggs as they may contain germs. Cooking them well will destroy these germs.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PULSES:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="74%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wash pulses quickly once. Cover them with water and let them soak for several hours or overnight. Cook them until they are tender in the same water in which they were soaked. Add salt, if you wish, after the pulses are cooked. Do not throw away the water in which the pulses were soaked or cooked. It contains useful food values.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GREENS:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="74%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tender green leaves should be prepared immediately after they are picked. Look them over carefully to remove any bugs or insects that may be on them. Wash them quickly twice in clean water. Cook them gently in a very small amount of water with a little oil, fat or milk added. Keep a cover on the pan and stir or shake the greens occasionally to keep them from burning. Tear leaves that are not so tender into small pieces before cooking them. Cook them only until they are tender, not until they are soggy. Any water that is left in the pot contains part of the protective value of the greens. Use this water for soups, stews, sauces or for drinking. Never throw it away. Do not use soda in cooking greens. It de stroys some of the protective value.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OTHER VEGETABLES:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="74%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">suggested above. Teach mothers not to throw away the water they cook their peas, beans, and other vegetables in. By adding it to soup, curries, etc., they can improve the nutrition of their children. Some vegetables turnips, and tomatoes may be enjoyed most when they are eaten raw. They should be washed well in safe water such as carrots, </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRUITS:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="74%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some fruits are best eaten raw. Some protective value is destroyed in cooking, but of course cooked fruits are nice for variety. Fruit jams and preserves are cooked so long that much of their protective value is destroyed.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAT:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="74%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do not burn fat. Burning makes it harder to digest.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RICE OR MILLET:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="74%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wash the grain quickly just one time in a small amount of water to remove any dirt. Every time the rice is washed, it loses some of its food value. Pick out small stones and other dirt. When cooking, use only as much water as the rice or millet will absorb when it is done. Add salt as desired.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HOME POUNDED CEREALS:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="74%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wash cereal grains(maize, wheat, etc.) before pounding them. After the grains are pounded, use only the amount of water needed for soaking or cooking. The water in which they are soaked or cooked has food value in it. Use it in soup or to cook other foods. Cook cereals thoroughly to make them easy to digest. Maize can be soaked over night and cooked whole without pounding. It must be pounded or well mashed if it is fed to young children.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STARCHY PLANTS:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="74%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wash potatoes well and cook them with their skins on. Eat the skins or peel the potatoes after cooking. If the skins of starchy plants must be removed before cooking, peel them as thinly as possible. The skin of the potato and right under the skin contain more of the vitamins and minerals. All starchy plants and roots need to be cooked well done.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CASSAVA:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="74%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peel before cooking. Some kinds may need to be cooked done.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Teaching food and nutrition</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You will have to use many different methods and approaches to teach good nutrition to village people. As you begin your teaching. remember to start with the basic diet of the people and gradually show them how they can improve this diet. It is easier to improve existing food habits than to change their customs completely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Talk to the people. Learn how they think about their problems. A home visit is always a good way to learn about an individual family and its particular problems. Group meetings give you a chance to discuss general village problems and develop awareness of those that are common but unrecognized. In group discussions, use posters and exhibits of different kinds of foods to create interest. Method and result demonstrations will make your teaching more interesting and helpful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the best ways is to tell people a story about a family very much like their own, such as the example on Samuel and Mary given in this chapter. You may want to adapt this story to your own local situation or use one of your own in a group meeting. You can adapt it to role playing or to a puppet show. Use familiar names and change the situation so it suits your area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You might also use some of these suggested demonstrations to teach your village women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">I. Preparing foods for children</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mothers are more likely to feed their babies and young children some of the recommended foods if they have been shown how to prepare them and have tasted them. You might prepare enough food for the mothers to taste. Some mothers will probably bring their babies and young children with them. You can show how to feed them, using some of the food prepared. Such demonstrations will let you show how to wash, boil, and care for the baby's and child's dishes. Let the mothers help throughout the demonstration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can also show how to prepare a good school lunch. Show not only the kinds of food and how to fix them, but also how to pack them for a child to carry to school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have each member of the group bring a lunch suitable for a child to carry to school. Discuss the lunches. Do they contain building and protective foods ? What staple do they have? Are they packed to keen clean?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p058.jpg"></center><br>
+ These parents know the value of a good diet for a young child. They watch with interest as a home economics worker in El Salvador shows how to prepare food for toddlers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Demonstrations on Suitable Foods for Infants, Toddlers, and Young Children</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to Prepare</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Key Points to Explain</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.<I> Boiled Milk</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bring a small amount of whole milk to the boiling point. Stir it so that it does not burn. Remove it from the fire. Put a clean cover over it and let it cool.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All raw milk must be boiled before it is given to the baby. Start feeding the baby boiled milk from a clean spoon until the baby is used to the taste. Then start using a cup.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. <I>Porridge With Milk</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mix Œ cup of whole cereal flour and 1 cup whole milk. If powdered milk is used, add one measure of milk powder to 4 measures of water. Mix so there are no lumps. Boil or simmer the mixture gently for 20 minutes, stirring to keep it from burning.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any cereal grain can be used. Using whole cereal flour with milk gives both building and energy foods. Never use white flour and water to make a baby's porridge. Cereal helps to satisfy the baby's appetite. Start with just a taste of porridge and gradually increase the amount until he is able to take 1/2 cup at a feeding. Be sure the porridge is not lumpy. Babies do not like lumpy foods. Adding an egg, fruit or vegetables gives the porridge more of the food values babies and young children need.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. <I>Fruit Mush </P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wash fruit well in safe water. Peel and mash it to a fine pulp with a clean fork. If fruits like apples, peaches, apricots, and pears are grown in the area and used, they may be softer and more easily mashed if they are cooked first.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fruit must be well ripened. All are protective foods and have energy value. Add a little boiled milk or milk powder to banana or papaya. You can add orange juice to an avocado. Start with only one or two teaspoons and gradually increase the amount to 1/3 cup at each feeding. Be sure there are no stringy parts or seeds in the fruit. Remember, fruits shipped in from other countries will cost more and likely will not have the food value of fruits grown right at home or in the area.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. <I>Fruit Juice</I> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wash any ripe fruit in safe water. Cut it with a clean knife. Squeeze out the juice or crush the fruit through a sieve. Remove seeds and any hard parts that may have gotten into the juice.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Start with one teaspoon of juice at a feeding and gradually increase the amount until the baby takes the juice of an entire fruit. Any fruit juice has protective value. Lemon and lime juice are good' but they are very sour and may be mixed with a little boiled, cooled water and sugar before they are given to the baby.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. <I>Eggs</I> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hard cook or soft cook eggs. Then mash them in a clean dish. Add a spoonful or two to porridge, mashed banana, or green vegetables.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eggs are easily digested and an excellent building food. Start with one or two teaspoons and increase until the child eats a whole egg. A fresh egg beaten into porridge is an excellent food for the toddler. Start with egg yolk first for the young child.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6.<I> Meat-Fish-Chicken</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scrape a piece of lean, raw beef with a spoon or knife. Scrape off only the tender, red meat. Gently boil it for 5 minutes in a small amount of safe water. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cook fish in a little water until it is thoroughly tender. Be sure there are no bones. Mash the fish until it is very fine and soft. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Choose the tender part of chicken to prepare for the baby. Cook it in water until it is very tender and then mash it very fine or rub it through a sieve. Mix it with chicken broth to feed to the baby.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are excellent building foods and good for the baby if they are prepared properly. All meat must be thoroughly cooked to kill any parasites which are present. Be sure all meat is free of bones and fine enough so the baby will not choke. Meats can be cooked with a few vegetables and mashed together. Small fish like sardines or sprats can be cooked and mashed or sieved with the bones left in because the bones are very soft. Sieved meat, fish, and chicken can be added to porridge or gruel. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do not throw away the water in which the meat, fish or chicken is cooked. It contains many things that are good for children and adults too. Be sure to use this cooking water in the next meal or it may spoil.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. <I>Liver</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boil a small piece of beef, sheep, or chicken liver for 10 minutes in just enough clean water to cover. Chop the liver and rub it through a sieve, or mash it to a pulp in the water it was cooked in.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liver is an excellent building food and good for babies. It is easily prepared. It should be thoroughly cooked to kill all parasites, but not so long that it becomes tough.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. <I>Pulses</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wash pulses once in clean water. Soak them for several hours in enough clean water to cover. Boil them in the same water until they are very soft. Remove the skins. Use only pulses from which the skins can be removed. Mash or sieve pulses and add a little boiled milk or milk powder and pot liquid.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pulses are an inexpensive building food. They are especially good when mixed with even a small amount of milk or milk powder. Mixed with porridge, they make an excellent meal.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9.<I> Green Vegetables and Starchy Plants</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carrots, tender greens, green beans, green peas, white potatoes, sweetpotatoes, etc., should be washed in clean water. Cut them into fine pieces and boil them in just enough water to cover them until they are very tender. Mash them to a fine pulp or sieve them in the cooking water. Each of these may be cooked separately. Two or more can also be cooked, mashed, and fed together.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These foods may be brought to the demonstration by mothers. The greens must be very tender. They will mash better if they are finely chopped with a knife first. A cooked egg makes an excellent combination with greens. Potatoes or cooking banana may be used at the evening meal in place of porridge. Vegetables should be served with both noon and evening meals. Dark green leafy and yellow vegetables are especially important.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. <I>Soup</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cook clean vegetables, cereal grains, starchy plants, pulses, or meat until they are very tender in safe water or in broth made by boiling bones. Mash them well and mix them with the broth.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="50%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soup made from these foods makes an excellent meal for a growing child. Broth made by boiling bones in water is not a building food. It is a nice-tasting water that is good to cook these foods in. Any meat scraped from the bones and added to the soup has building value.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">II. Plan and prepare three meals for one day.</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By planning and actually preparing the meals for one day with your people, you can teach them the principles of meal planning and food preparation much better than if you just talk about it. Plan together a whole day's menu. Use a variety of the local foods available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prepare the meals at three different times. Select the place and see that all materials and utensils you will need are ready to use. Outline the steps you will use in preparing the meal. Emphasize sanitation in food preparation, such as washing hands, using safe water to wash vegetables and fruits, clean cooking utensils and dishes, and clean working surfaces. When the meal is cooked, serve it to a make-believe family. Include a father, nursing mother, infant of 8 months, a 4-year-old child, and a teenage boy. Some of the group can pretend they are members of the family.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let the women help with each step in preparing and serving the meals. You will find this outline helpful after you and your women have decided on the foods to prepare for each meal. Work out the key points to emphasize in each step. It is very important to plan the meals you demonstrate with the women themselves, using foods available in your area. The following may serve as useful guides:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Morning Menu</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porridge prepared with whole maize meal, millet flour, and milk powder</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papaya with lemon juice</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Milk and tea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Steps in Preparing the Meal:</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Wash your hands with soap and rinse away all the soap with safe water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Mix together maize meal, millet flour, and dry milk powder. Add enough cool, clean water to make a smooth paste. Stir this into boiling water. Cook and stir the porridge for 20 minutes. Be sure it is not lumpy. Add lemon and sugar to taste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Wash and cut papaya into pieces for each member of the family. Add lemon if it is desired Mash a piece of papaya for the baby. 4. Pour the milk for drinking into a clean pot. Bring it to the boiling point, and allow it to cool in the same container with a cover on it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Brew the tea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Emphasize sanitation practices and food values in each step of the meal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Key Points to Emphasize:</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. The menu follows a good eating pattern with building, protective, and energy foods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Foods selected taste good together-papaya and porridge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Use whole maize meal. It is less expensive and adds more food value than white maize meal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Millet flour adds food value to a maize porridge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Milk powder in the porridge makes the porridge a better building food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Milk included for children to drink; milk or else tea or coffee with a lot of milk in it for the nursing mother (Tea or coffee alone is not a food.) Sugar and milk in tea and coffee add food value.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. A ripe papaya with deep yellow color has more protective value than an unripe one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Midday Menu</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice-home pounded</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lean meat or fish with onions and tomatoes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greens (kind available in area)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boiled milk for children and nursing mother</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tea or coffee</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evening Menu</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stiff porridge </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- prepared with powdered milk and any whole grain cereal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeon peas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- (or other legume) with onion, potato, and tomato added. Also other vegetables if desired.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mixed ripe fruits-papaya, pineapple, banana.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">III. Serving the meals</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Select those who will pretend to be the members of the family from the group. Serve the meal as is customary in your area. Sitting around a table is a convenient way to eat. It is above the floor and a table is easy to clean. If you do not use a table, spread a clean cloth on the floor or choose a clean, grassy place outside. In cultures where the whole family eats together, let your demonstration show the father's place, nursing mother's place, a place for a child of four, for an infant, and for a teenage boy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It <I>might </I>look like this so the father could share in serving the children, and the mother could be near the cooking area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p062.png"></center><br>
+ Cooking Area</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Key Points to Emphasize in Serving</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. It is good for children to have special places to sit at a meal and to know they can expect good meals there regularly. It gives a child a safe feeling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Give special attention to how to feed a baby, a toddler, and other children unable to feed themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Other suggestions for teaching nutrition</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Send simple printed sheets with information on food and nutrition home to mothers with schoolchildren.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Visit good home gardens, especially those growing dark green leafy and deep yellow vegetables. Discuss the value of such gardens in improving diets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Use puppets and filmstrips to instruct women about good diets and local foods which would enrich diets. You might tell a part of the story of Samuel and Mary each time you visit a village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Make wide use of flannelgraph method demonstrations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Arrange attractive displays of foods which should be included each day in the diet of: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1) Pregnant and nursing mothers. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(2) Children of different ages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Whenever possible, use real foods as teaching aids.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Work with mothers who have children in the hospital. Many children who go to the hospital for malnutrition are cured and discharged without their mothers ever being shown how to feed them properly to avoid malnutrition in the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Help to carry out a program of food and nutrition education: (1) in the schools, (2) in literacy classes, (3) in farmers' training centers, (4) in village council meetings, and (5) in other organized groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Growing food at home</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best way for rural people to have good diets is to grow their own food. As you teach people the place each kind of food has in their diet, also teach them how to produce more of it for their own use. In most areas, families can grow enough foods from each group we have discussed to have a good diet. As you help families grow their own food, consider the following questions: Is the best possible kind of seed being used in planting? Is the land being prepared, fertilized, cultivated, and watered as well as it could be to grow the best food possible? Are several different kinds of <I>pulses, cereals, vegetables, and fruits </I>grown to give variety and a year-round supply? Can storage facilities keep a year-round supply safe from weevils, insects, rats, and mice, etc. ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Could the production of <I>milk and meat </I>be increased by better management, better feed, preventing disease, or upgrading the stock ? Animals that are not productive might be used as food for the family and replaced by younger animals of improved stock. It is a waste of feed and pasture to keep a nonproductive animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Could <I>poultry and egg </I>production be increased in your village by vaccinating birds to prevent disease, improving housing of birds, or culling unproductive birds?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Could <I>fish </I>eating be increased in your village by using, or importing into your area, fish flour and dried fish ? These are  relatively inexpensive sources of good quality building food. Could villagers establish fish ponds or stock local rivers and lakes with fish to produce a fresh supply ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We come back to the story of Samuel and Mary to show how much a family can do to supply its own food needs by planning ahead and improving farming and storage methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From all that had been said in the meetings, Samuel through that perhaps he could make better use of his land and grow more food for his family. He decided to ask the agricultural officer to help him.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Samuel had 8 acres of land, you remember. The soil was quite good. The agricultural officer said it was "better than some but not as fertile as the best." He said Samuel could do much to improve it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Samuel listed in his mind the foods he had learned his family needed. They would need about seven bags of cereal grain. That would be enough for the family, plus some for guests plus a little extra in case of spoilage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Samuel knew how much land it took to grow six bags of maize and one bag of millet. If it had been measured, it would have come to about 1 acre for the maize and 1/2 acre for the millet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Samuel planned to put the pulses in the same field as the maize, so he allowed a bit more space for the combined maize-pulse crop. He planned on one bag of pulses. He planted three different kinds: beans, pigeon peas, and some groundnuts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Samuel planned a space not quite as big for a cow and his few goats. It would have measured about 1-2/3 acres. Samuel planned another space, about the same size as the millet field, for root vegetables. He fenced off a section by the stream so Mary could grow green vegetables and tomatoes the year round.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These food crops, the house, and the space for the chickens took up about half the farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agricultural officer said that part of the land should be left to rest (fallow). Next year it could be used and another section left to "rest". It was good for the soil to rest. Samuel planted a soil-building crop on this section. He planned to plow the crop under later to enrich the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But Samuel knew he needed to grow something to sell. Then he would have cash for school fees, for fertilizer for next year, for clothes, and for the food he was not able to produce. Perhaps he would need to buy other foods too if the season was too dry. Therefore, he planned to plant some pyrethrum, a cash crop which does well in his country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Samuel planted the crops as he had planned. The growing season was good that year. Samuel took the agricultural officer's advice and used fertilizer. He and Mary weeded the fields so the crops had plenty of nourishment from the soil. Samuel helped Mary with the vegetable garden. They learned from the agricultural officer and the village worker what fertilizer to use and how to plant vegetables. They had fresh tomatoes, leafy greens, carrots, beans, cabbage, and other vegetables most of the year. Mary said growing these vegetables herself helped her use more and prepare better meals for her family.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At harvest, Samuel got four extra bags of maize and half a bag of millet and pulses more than he had planned. You see, he had not counted on the results of fertilizer and proper weeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He was pleased indeed! He sold all the pyrethrum and four bags of maize. He put money in the local bank and kept out enough cash to buy a new fruit tree, some cloth so Mary could make new dresses for herself and Rosa, and new shirts and pants for himself and Peter. Best of all, he bought a new, shiny roof for his house. He had money in the bank for meat, perhaps some fruits and vegetables if needed, fat, and extra food items. He had a cow for milk and pulses and cereals in the store. He also had money put away for school fees and fertilizer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life seemed very good indeed. Because of what they had learned, they were eating better than ever before. Peter was doing good work in school and he was ever so much livlier. Rosa was so active and so bright now that Mary had to keep an eye on her almost every minute. Samuel and Mary both felt better. They did not tire so easily. Samuel started planning to clear more land to enlarge his farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They got along fine until the dry season was nearly over. Mary realized the maize and beans were nearly gone and would not last until the next crop. She found that rats were eating the maize and weevils were destroying the beans. Samuel had to use some of the money he had put in the bank to buy maize and beans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This angered Samuel and he asked himself, "Why should I work hard and follow good farming methods to feed the rats and weevils?"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the help of the local Extension agriculturist, Samuel rebuilt his grain store. He put it up high on legs and put strong metal shields around the legs so the rats could not climb there. To make it even safer from rats, he put wire around the outside of the store. He learned how to use a safe insecticide to control weevils in his beans. Samuel and Mary learned how useless it is to work hard to produce good food for themselves and their children and then let the rats and weevils destroy it. It is just as useless to grow other foods if they spoil or rot before they can be used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But Samuel and Mary learned. Because they planned ahead, improved their farming and storage met hods, and improved their eating practices, the whole family feels better and is happier.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p064.png"></center><br>
+ Samuel and Mary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other families can learn also. Families in your area can increase and improve the food they grow and improve their diets by learning more about the foods they need and how to prepare them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can use this part of the story of Samuel and Mary to show how much a family can do to supply their own food needs. You can also use the story to show why families need to plan for cash to buy foods they cannot produce, as well as other things like school fees, fertilizer, clothes, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Your agriculturist can help you</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village workers like yourself will face widely different situations in helping to bring about livestock and poultry improvement. You will need much information to make recommendations to families. The local agriculturists, extension agents, or vocational agriculture teachers in your area can help you. There are specialists in the Ministry of Agriculture or in your agricultural college to whom you can also turn for information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GROWING FOOD AT HOME</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p065a.jpg"></center><br>
+ BOLIVIA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p065b.jpg"></center><br>
+ KENYA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p065c.jpg"></center><br>
+ VENEZUELA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p065d.jpg"></center><br>
+ KENYA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p065e.jpg"></center><br>
+ SURINAM</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p065f.jpg"></center><br>
+ TAIWAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p065g.jpg"></center><br>
+ VENEZUELA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Talk the situation over with the people</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Every family interested in raising livestock or poultry should make its own decisions about growing them. Discuss the following questions with them as you start a livestock or poultry improvement program:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What will the family's aim be: to have more meat, milk, and eggs for themselves to eat, to sell some for extra cash income, or a combination of these ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can they grow enough feed or must they buy some?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What experience have they had with livestock and poultry ? What kinds and how many of each do they now have ? What size herd or flock can they care for?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is the climate good for the kinds they want to raise ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What building materials are available for housing ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are the chief hazards to overcome?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is the best way to begin ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p066.jpg"></center><br>
+ When visiting a woman who is growing a good crop like this local spinach in Kenya, you can point out the many ways it can be used to add food value to the family's diet. It would also make a good place for a tour group to visit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Home gardens</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None of your work is more important than encouraging families to grow good gardens for as long as the weather permits. You will find much help within your country for doing this. People in most areas already know how to grow vegetables and small fruits suitable to the climate and soil. Collect the literature already available in your country and use it in your teaching.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Help your people want to grow better gardens. As you work with village leaders and families, relate the growing of vegetables and small fruits to their program for better living. A good vegetable supply, for example, is a part of any work with foods and nutrition. These vegetables can come from good home gardens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Help them understand how growing fruits and vegetables for the family not only will help them eat better and improve their health, but also will save money. Farm families often value the extra cash they get from selling food they produce more than they value the food for themselves. Try to get them to see this is a big mistake. When families grow gardens, they need less money to buy food. Fruits and vegetables used fresh from the garden generally taste better than those you buy. They are also more nutritious.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Families everywhere generally try to grow some vegetables if they have even a small piece of land. However, many of them only scatter a few seeds here and there. The few vegetables this method produces add little to the family's food supply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Try to get families to save some land around the house or in the field to grow food for themselves. Help them make gardening a family affair. Garden projects are very popular with club boys and girls throughout the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p067.jpg"></center><br>
+ Children generally like to work in the garden if they are shown how and given encouragement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Planning and getting ready</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deciding on the kind of garden you want, where you will put it, what you will grow, and getting everything ready before the actual work should be started is important to having a good garden. Here are some suggestions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Decide where to put the garden.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The garden will be a valuable piece of land. It deserves the best location possible. Some families may not have a choice. They must make the best of whatever land is available. When there is some choice of location, consider these things in deciding where to put the garden:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. <I>Nearness to water</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is an important consideration. Gardens must have water. When there is not enough rain, they must be irrigated or watered by hand. Therefore, they should be located near a permanent water supply such as stream, well, dam, or other source, especially in areas that have dry seasons.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. <I>Nearness to the house or compound</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gardens need some care almost every day. When they are near the house, it is easier to give them this constant care and easier to protect them from thieves. When they are located far from the house, they are often neglected. Then the family is disappointed because they do not get the amount of vegetables they expect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. <I>In the sum</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Growing vegetables need sun. Do not locate the garden too near trees that will shade it. Tree roots also take food and water from the soil around them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. <I>In good soil</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A deep, rich loam, a mixture of sand, humus, and clay soils, is often the most fertile. This is the best kind of soil for vegetables. Remember, it takes good soil to grow good vegetables.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. <I>Lay of the land</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A steep slope does not make a good garden location. The seeds and plants along with the soil and fertilizer may wash away. The land at the bottom of such a slope may become too damp or wet for best growth. Gentle slopes with good drainage are best. If only a steep slope is available, plant across the slope, rather than up and down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plan the size of the garden.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The size will depend on the:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. amount of space available</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. number of people to be fed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. number of people to work in the garden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. ability of the workers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. kind of soil available this affects the distance between rows and between plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. kinds of vegetables to be grown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If people have never made a garden before, it is best for them to begin with a small garden and enlarge it year by year. Some people make the mistake of having a larger plot than they will take care of. A small plot, well looked after and managed, is better than a large plot which is neglected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Decide on the kinds and amounts of vegetables needed.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Consider the number of people in the family and the vegetables they like. For good nutrition, remember the special need for leafy greens and for dark green and deep yellow vegetables. Most families like a lot of tomatoes and need to plan for them. In many countries, families have plenty of starchy plants such as potatoes and yams. Where this is the case, the space in the garden would be better used for vegetables needed to improve the diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Families should decide which vegetables they will plant several crops of during a growing season and also which ones they want to grow enough of to dry and store. Lowland areas may be more favorable for warm season crops and higher altitudes for cool season crops. Encourage families to try a few new vegetables each year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They should choose vegetables from each of these groups:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">a. The leafy vegetables-beet tops, cabbage, collards, mustard, chard, spinach, and turnip tops. Local wild greens of high food value, such as amaranth, may be worth a place in the garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">b. The root vegetables-beets, carrots, turnips, potatoes, sweet potatoes, and yams.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c. The fruit vegetables-tomatoes, eggplant, okra, peppers, squash, sweet corn, garden peas, chickpeas, table varieties of cowpeas, and beans. Beans may be grown for green snap beans or shelled beans. Lima and kidney beans are especially good for shelling. They may be used fresh or dried.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fruits should be grown if there is enough space. Some of the smaller fruits, such as grapes, may be grown in a large garden. If the garden is small, fruits may be grown nearby, perhaps in the yard around the house. The fruits may grow on vines, bushes grown singly or as a hedge, or trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are a few examples:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">a. Vines-grapes, chayote, granadilla</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">b. Bushes-many kinds of berries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c. Trees-apple, peach, pear, avocado, guava, mango, papaya, sapote, orange, grapefruit, lemon.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There will be many others that grow in your area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Choose the seeds.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buy the best seeds available. If possible, get a new improved, disease-resistant variety that grows in the area. They usually produce better. Consider the need for both early and late varieties. Be sure families have enough seed for the number of crops they plan of each vegetable. Get seed well before planting time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plan when to plant.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Knowing the best planting date for each kind and variety of vegetable is important. Study the rainy and dry seasons to learn which months will be best suited for vegetable crops. Some vegetables require a lot of water and will not grow well in the dry season. On the other hand, some vegetables may not grow well during a rainy season if the rains are heavy. Ask your local agriculturist to help you learn the best months for planting various vegetables.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Make a garden plan.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Families should make a rough sketch of how their garden will be laid out, how the seed beds will be arranged, the kind of seeds to be planted in each, and where the paths will be. By planting the same vegetable at different times, they can have fresh vegetables for many months. For example, they could plant two or three rows of beans or sweet corn every 3 or 4 weeks. The garden plan should show these repeated plantings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p069.png"></center><br>
+ Getting Garden Tools Ready</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Getting garden tools ready</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only a few tools are needed to make a good garden. The kind of tools used will vary. In most villages, a farmer will have one or two basic hand tools with which he does most of his farm work. He will also probably use these for gardening. Get tools ready before they are needed. Garden work is easier when tools are sharp and clean. They should not be left lying around. The following are useful garden tools:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">a. Machete or ax to clear brush</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">b. Mattock for digging out stones or large roots</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c. Spade to turn the soil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">d. Spading fork to turn soil, handle manure and compost, and harvest root crops</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">e. Rake for leveling soil and removing stones and trash</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">f. Cord and stakes to mark off rows</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">g. Trowel for transplanting seedlings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">h. Sprayer or duster for insecticides</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">i. Hoe for cultivating, weeding, and opening row.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Be sure to teach families the following rules on tool use and care. Keep tools in good condition. Clean them after each use to prevent rust. Keep cutting tools sharp. Keep wooden handles tight, clean, and smooth. Mend or replace broken handles immediately. Store tools in a dry place. Grease or oil tools before storing them to prevent rust. Clean and dry sprayers and dusters after each use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use tools safely to avoid injuring yourself and fellow gardeners. Do not leave sharp tools on the ground where they can be stepped on. Tools are not toys. Even small children can help in the garden, but you must watch them carefully when they are using sharp tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preparing the garden site</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This should be done at least 4 to 6 weeks before planting time. First, <I>clear the site </I>of trees and bushes. Dig out the roots and stumps and burn or haul them away from the plot. Clear away all stones, trash, and rubbish. This helps to keep down insects. Dig out any grass on the site and put it on the compost pile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fence the garden plot </I>to keep out chickens, goats, cattle, rabbits, and other animals. It is a great waste of effort to let animals destroy vegetables that families have worked hard to grow. Wire, mesh, bamboo, or other durable local materials can be used for fencing. Thornless cactus, hibiscus, sisal, or other plants that will grow into strong hedges can be used to make an inexpensive living fence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prepare the ground</I>. Carefully and thoroughly working the soil before planting makes it easier for the young seedlings to come up and start toward strong, healthy growth. It also makes later cultivation and weed control easier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Work the soil when it is moist but not wet. When it is not possible to plow the ground, spade or thoroughly turn it with a fork to a depth of about 10 inches. Break up all clods and make the soil loose, fine, and crumbly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use animal manure, compost, green manure, or some of each to make the soil rich so that it will grow more and better vegetables. Mix in the manure or compost well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal manure </I>from chickens, cows, goats, sheep, or hogs is good. It should be well rotted because fresh manure is likely to injure the plants. Use about 1 pound of manure per square foot of garden area. Use only about one-fourth this much chicken manure. Spread manure over the ground before digging or plowing. <I>Never </I>use human waste on a garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p070.jpg"></center><br>
+ This garden in Kenya has been fenced with dead brush to keep out cows and other animals. When using plant materials for fencing, choose things that cattle or other livestock don't eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It can spread disease. If animal manure is scarce, it is especially important to have a good supply of compost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compost </I>is made from plant and animal waste common in nearly all countries. This is called organic matter because it comes from living things. Compost is one of the best and cheapest ways of providing fertilizer for the garden. It also helps keep the soil the right texture to work easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leaves, grass clippings, sugarcane, chopped corn cobs, cotton or tobacco stalks, paddy husk or rice straw, vegetable and fruit peelings, animal bedding, and garbage all make good compost. Some good top soil with wood ashes or lime and a little animal manure mixed with these wastes makes compost a better fertilizer. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compost may be made in a trench or pit, or it may be made in a pile or heap on top of the ground. When it is made on top of the ground, make a little pen or fence around it to keep it from getting scattered. A good size for either a pit or a heap is about 2-œ to 3 feet deep, 4 feet wide, and 6 feet long.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Start by putting a 6-to-8-inch layer of leaves, stalks, or other plant material on the bottom. On top of this put a layer of animal manure or complete chemical fertilizer. Cover this layer with well-pulverized soil mixed with wood ashes or lime to a depth of about 2 inches. Wet each layer evenly with water. Continue building up layers of refuse, manure, and soil, one on top of the other, until the pile is 2-œ to 3 feet high. Keep the pile moist, but not wet. Keep the sides of the pile higher than the center so water will not run off.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After about 3 weeks, turn the heap with a fork or spade. Turn it again after another 5 weeks. This makes the heap decompose evenly. In 3 to 4 months, the compost can be used on the garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any compost materials can be worked into the soil when the garden is plowed or spaded. They can also be used as a surface mulch during the growing season and worked into the soil the next time it is plowed or spaded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p070.png"></center><br>
+ The sides of a compost pile should be slanted toward the center and the top should be slightly hollowed. This catches and holds water to speed decay.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p071.jpg"></center><br>
+ A farm family in Kenya made this compost heap after attending a demonstration by the home extension worker.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green Manure</I>. In warm climates, it is difficult to keep enough organic matter in the soil. Many good gardeners plant a field crop such as crotalaria, clover, vetch, rye, or millet on the garden plot. Crops such as these should be turned under while they are still green and not yet mature. This must be done several weeks before vegetables are again planted to allow them to decay. Ask your agriculturist which are the best green manure crops for your area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commercial fertilizers </I>will improve the soil even when manure and compost are used. A complete fertilizer contains nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium. The percentage of each of these in a fertilizer is always given in that order. For example, a 5-10-5 fertilizer means 5 percent of it is nitrogen, 10 percent is phosphorous, and 5 percent is potassium. Commercial fertilizer helps plants grow. Use about Œ-pound of 5-10-5 per 8 square feet of ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fertilizer is used most efficiently when it is banded under the seed. To do this, open the furrow 2 to 3 inches deeper than seeding depth. Spread 1/8-pound of fertilizer per 60 feet of row. Cover the fertilizer to seeding depth, then lightly firm the soil by walking down the row or with the back of a hoe. Place the seed and cover it as usual. Then firm the soil again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Planting the seeds</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some vegetable seeds can be sown "in the open". This means directly in the garden. Others will need to be sown in specially prepared seed boxes or nurseries. Partly grown plants are later transplanted to the garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the garden</I>. Vegetables that can be planted directly in the garden include beans, carrots, cucumbers, okra, squashes, beets, radishes, turnips, and potatoes. These seeds can be sown in raised beds, ridges, or hills that are about 8 or 10 inches high if excess rain or poor drainage is a problem. In areas where the rainfall is light and drainage good, they may be sown in flat beds or rows spaced 3 to 4 feet apart.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A convenient size for a garden bed is 3 or 4 feet wide and 10 to 20 feet long, depending on the size of the garden. Work up the seed beds when the soil is moist. It is generally best to lay out beds, whether they are raised or flat, on the contour. This means across the slope. This helps prevent rain from washing the soil away and also helps hold water during the dry season. Level the beds with a rake, break up any clods, and make the soil fine and smooth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plant seeds in straight rows. This makes it easier to plant, care for, and harvest crops. Mix a little fine sand with very small seeds like carrot or lettuce so they will not be planted too thickly. Cover them lightly with soil. Plant larger seeds in furrows 1 to 1-œ inches deep. Sprinkle seeds with water each evening until they come up. Plant each kind of vegetable by itself. For example, plant rows of beans in one place and rows of squash in another. When raises beds are used for small seeds, plant one kind in one part of the bed and another kind in the other part.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In seed boxes or nurseries</I>. Families can grow their own plants for transplanting by sowing seeds in boxes. However, if there is a good nursery nearby, it is often cheaper and easier to buy healthy plants of varieties that grow well in the area. Plants recommended for transplanting include tomatoes, onions, cabbage, eggplant, sweet and hot peppers, cauliflower, collards, etc. There may be others in your area. If families decide to grow their own plants, be sure they sow the seeds early enough to give the plants time to grow before they set them in the garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p072a.jpg"></center><br>
+ Girls in Honduras use stakes and string to lay out their garden in straight rows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p072b.jpg"></center><br>
+ Seedlings with their first true leaves are ready for transplanting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p072c.jpg"></center><br>
+ Hanging baskets of earth are used as seed boxes in India. This prevents the young seedlings from being washed away by heavy rains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seed Boxes </I>or trays can be made from what is available. Shallow wooden boxes are ideal. Trays can be made of bamboo or pieces of metal roofing. Calabashes, gourds, or broken pots can also be used. Whatever kind of container is used, it should be at least 4 to 6 inches deep and have holes in the bottom to let extra water drain off.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Add a little fine manure or 2 to 3 teaspoons of fertilizer for each square foot of soil and mix it in thoroughly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Fill the box to œ-inch from the top with a good loam soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Make the soil fine, firm, and level on top so that it is very smooth for the tiny seeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Water the box so the soil is damp but not wet. Setting the box in water is a good way to water a seed box.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Make shallow grooves about 3 inches apart. Sow the seed in the grooves and cover them lightly with fine soil. Firm the soil gently with your hand or a flat board. Keep the boxes covered with a piece of burlap or paper until the seedlings first appear.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Place the boxes on a firm support and protect them from animals. Place them where they will get some sun but not the hot midday sun. Uncover them as soon as the seed starts to sprout. This will prevent tall, weak, spindly plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Water often enough to keep the soil damp but not wet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. After the plants start growing, they may need to be thinned or spread further apart in other flats before they are transplanted into the garden. This gives them enough room to grow strong and healthy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Transplanting</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where the rainfall is heavy, plants should be transplanted to raised beds. Prepare these beds the same as for sowing seeds. Plan to set plants in the late afternoon or in cloudy weather. Water the seedlings in the seed box, then remove them carefully with as much dirt on the roots as possible. Make a hole in the garden bed large enough and deep enough to put the roots into without damaging them. Set the plants in the ground as quickly as possible to keep them from wilting. Gently press the earth around the roots to cover them completely so the plant will stand up. After setting the plant, water it. Do not put water in the hole before setting the plant. Using a starter solution to water plants gets them off to a good start. This can be made by using 4 tablespoons of fertilizer to 1 gallon of water or 1 cup of animal manure and œ-cup of wood ashes to a gallon of water. Use about 1 cup of starter solution for each plant. Shade plants and dust insecticide around them to keep cutworms and crickets from cutting off the young plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Caring for the garden</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Watering</I>. This is the hardest work in growing vegetables during the dry season. If enough water is available, the best and easiest way is to run water through the furrows the length of the row until the soil around the vegetables is wet. If this is not practical, put water directly on the bed or around the plants. It is important to use enough so the water sinks at least 5 or 6 inches into the soil. On beds that are 4 feet wide, three kerosene tins or 12 gallons of water should be used for every 4 feet of length.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good heavy watering twice a week after the plants have started growing well is better than just a light sprinkling every day. Watering should only be done in the late afternoon. The sun dries up the water and bakes the ground hard if plants are watered during the day. It is easy to make a watering vessel from a kerosene tin or calabash by punching small holes in the bottom. Then you can put the water on gently so the plants are not damaged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mulching</I>. Mulch can be any material such as dried grass or straw placed on top of the soil around and between plants. It helps to keep the soil from drying out and makes the best use of water. A good mulch also helps keep the soil cool and keeps down the weeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feeding</I>. Plants should be fertilized once or twice, sometimes three times, during the growing season. This gives rapid growth with high production of good quality crops. The fertilizer can be put between the rows, near but not touching the plants. This is called sidedressing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p074a.jpg"></center><br>
+ These boys in Honduras are leaving enough room between their transplanted seedlings so the full-grown plants will not be crowded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p074b.jpg"></center><br>
+ School gardens such as this in Sudan not only teach students how to grow vegetables, but also supplement the school lunch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p074c.jpg"></center><br>
+ These schoolgirls in the Ivory Coast are thoroughly soaking the ground around the plants. If only the surface is wet, the roots will come up and the plants will be more easily damaged by dry weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because nitrogen stimulates plant growth, it is usually the only one used. Nitrate of soda is the form commonly used for sidedressing. Use 1/2 to 1 pound per 10 square feet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weeding</I>. Weeds use water and plant food that are needed for the vegetables. Weeds also make it easier for insects and disease to increase. It is a waste of work already done to let weeds take over in your garden. They can be pulled up by hand or dug up with a hoe. You can also prevent them from growing by using a good mulch. Children enjoy gardening and can be taught to do the weeding, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoeing</I>. Keeping the- soil loose and open helps to save water. Frequent and regular hoeing can greatly increase the yield of vegetables. The first hoeing should be done soon after the plants are up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Controlling insects and disease</I>. When plants are strong and healthy they resist disease and insects better than when they are spindly and weak.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many pests attack vegetable plants while they are growing and there are many ways of controlling them. The first and most important is to destroy their breeding places. Be sure the garden is free of weeds, trash, brush, etc. Bugs and worms can be controlled if they are picked off by hand early in the morning and late in the afternoon and killed. Insecticides and fungicides also control insects and disease. Your local authorities can tell you how to use them. Find out from your agricultural workers which plant diseases and pests give trouble in your area and what is recommended for controlling them. Keep all insecticides away from children and use them with care. Some are safer than others. Be sure that you follow the directions for using insecticides and wash all vegetables before eating them. Eating vegetables that have insecticides on them can be harmful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Harvesting</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When to gather vegetables is a very important part of good gardening. Many people let vegetables get too ripe before harvesting them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vegetables should be eaten while they are young and tender. They taste better and many of them have more protective food value then than they do when they get too mature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vegetables like beans, peas, okra, and lettuce should be gathered every day or two. Vegetables should not be allowed to stand after gathering. When they become wilted or dried out, they are not as good. All vegetables should be cooked, eaten, or preserved in some way as soon after harvesting as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">School gardens</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many rural schools have a school garden not only to teach the children how to grow vegetables, but also to get them interested in eating vegetables. School gardens can furnish vegetables for the school lunch program. Subjects such as nutrition, science, and arithmetic can be related to the garden and made more interesting for the children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A school garden can also influence the children to start a garden at home. As a village worker, you may be asked to help with important school projects of many kinds. Often this includes helping with a school garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Teaching gardening</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good way to teach gardening is through <I>method demonstrations</I>. But before giving a demonstration, be sure that the practice meets a real need and interest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A demonstration on compost making provides an excellent opportunity to involve the people by asking them to help make the compost pile. Discuss compost while you work. Try to get favorable opinions from the group, and interest in making a compost pile. Try to get some of them to volunteer to make one when they return home.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good result demonstration can also be carried out with a family that is making a compost pile, particularly if they record the time they spend with it, the cost if any, and the increased value of vegetables produced. It should be located in a place where neighbors can observe it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other method demonstrations you could give include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. How to make seed beds, ridges, and furrows on the contour.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. How to transplant tomato or cabbage plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. How to sidedress plants with manure or nitrate of soda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. How to make seed boxes and plant seeds in them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. How to make a hand duster for putting insecticide on plants. (Punch holes in the metal top of glass jar or tie cheesecloth over a can or jar.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. How to irrigate a garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. How to select vegetables while they are young and tender.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Result demonstrations</I>, such as growing a new variety or using improved cultivation methods, and <I>garden tours </I>are other excellent ways to teach good gardening.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The family poultry flock</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are important to many village families. In your area there are probably chickens running loose, picking up whatever they can find to eat and laying only what eggs they can produce on the food they get. Such chickens contribute little to the food supply. Growing improved chickens for family use is one of the best ways to get more of the animal protein most village people need so badly in their diets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good poultry program can make a major improvement in the diets and health of people in your area. Even a small flock of 15 to 30 laying hens with good feed and good care can supply a family with fresh eggs and some meat during most of the year. They can have fresh meat when they want it without the problem of a large quantity on hand at one time as there is when a larger animal is butchered. Too often, villagers who keep poultry think only of selling the eggs and chickens for a little extra cash income. They do not realize the value of the meat and eggs to their health.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The family poultry flock is generally the responsibility of the homemaker and the children. Boys and girls like poultry projects in their club work. This is a good way to get them interested in eating more eggs and chickens as well as a way for them to make some money for themselves. Most of your educational work, then, may be with the women and children. However, the help and interest of the men is necessary if poultry is to become an accepted part of the family food program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Getting started</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several different ways to start improving flocks. Many village workers have felt their best chance to bring about desired changes is in the improvement of native stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native chickens are generally hardier than other breeds and they are used to conditions on the farm. A family can upgrade their present flock and have more meat and eggs from the same number of birds by using a good cockerel, better feed, and better care. The local agriculturist can tell you how to secure improved cockerels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p076.jpg"></center><br>
+ A heavy breed like this can provide both meat and eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, if people wish to get rid of their native stock and make a fresh start with another breed, or if they are just starting to raise chickens, they must first decide on the breed they want. Many improved breeds are good for both meat and eggs and, therefore, are desirable for a family flock. Such breeds include Rhode Island Reds, Plymouth Rocks, and New Hampshires. Leghorns are good layers and eat less feed, but do not provide as much meat as the larger breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After deciding on the breed, families might wish to buy second-year layers from a commercial poultry grower if there is one in your area. These are hens that have laid for a year or more. The commercial poultry man wants to replace them with younger birds. He generally is willing to sell these second-year hens at a very reasonable cost. They should be better layers than ordinary chickens. They are from healthy stock and have most likely been vaccinated against disease. When they stop laying, they will provide meat for the family. Your agriculturist can help you make such arrangements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To know how many second-year layers to buy, the family must decide how many eggs they can use in a day. Multiply this number by 2œ. For example, if the family can use 10 eggs a day, they probably will want to start with 25 layers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another way to start a small flock is to buy day-old chicks and raise them with a homemade brooder. A brooder is a device for keeping chicks warm and raising them without the care of a hen. A fireless homemade brooder can be made out of a box. Bore holes in it for ventilation and line it with gunny sacks or other heavy material to keep the chicks warm. Put the chicks in the box at night and keep it in a safe warm place. They can be let out in the daytime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Hatching and brooding with hens</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The simplest way to produce chickens for home use is by setting carefully selected, fertile eggs under a broody hen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The broody hen is usually set on a straw nest in a box about 18 inches square. Place the nest where the hen will not be disturbed and put 13 to 15 fertile eggs in it. Watch the nest because hens sometimes abandon the eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The broody hen must be free of lice all through the hatching and brooding period. She should have access to feed and water all the time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About 24 hours after the chicks hatch, take them from the nest and put them in a brood coop with the hen. The simplest coop is the A-type, but a box coop as shown in the illustration is also good. Second-hand boxes may easily be made over into brood coops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hen stays in the coop while the chicks are free to come and go. They need exercise and sunlight. The coop should be moved occasionally so the chicks will have clean dry ground to roam on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Feeding</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Good feed is essential if chickens are to be healthy and produce well. Chickens need building, protective, and energy foods the same as people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baby chicks need finely ground or mashed feed 4 or 5 times a day. One good food can be prepared by hard boiling an infertile egg, chopping it very fine, shell and all, and mixing it with the same amount of bread crumbs, boiled rice, or other starchy plant. Very fine rice bran can also be used. This will feed about 25 baby chicks for a day. Keep finely cut green food and sanitary drinking water before the chicks at all times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p077.png"></center><br>
+ Any family can make this simple poultry equipment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p078.jpg"></center><br>
+ Guards across poultry feeding troughs prevent hens from throwing feed out and wasting it. A U.S. farmer bought the feeder in front and made the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As chicks get older, they can begin to eat the same feed as the laying flock. One laying hen needs about Œ-pound or 2/3-cup of feed a day. For 25 hens about 6-Œ pounds or a little over 4 quarts are needed each day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many people give only corn to their chickens. But corn by itself does not have enough building material for the hen to produce eggs. Roasted soybeans and groundnuts can be added to corn to make a good ration. These should never be fed raw. Yellow corn is better than white corn. Other grains such as oats, barley, millet, and sorghum also make good feed if additional protein such as fish meal, sesame meal, groundnut cake, or maize gluten meal is added. Rice bran or rice polishings is used to feed chickens in some areas. If any family has a surplus of milk, this is an excellent food for chickens. Vegetable peelings and the green tops of vegetables also make good feed. Cook potato peelings before feeding them to chickens. Fresh kitchen scraps also can be fed. Never give chickens any spoiled food, especially meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens need plenty of green feed. Letting chickens range on pasture grass is a good practice if they are not bothered by predatory animals. Range birds benefit from exercise and sunlight. With the green feed, they need less other feed. Some farmers plant a patch of rye, alfalfa, or other such crop to provide green feed. This is especially needed if chickens are confined.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens eating whole grains need grit such as sand or "pea" gravel to grind the grain to make it digestible. Birds on range pick up plenty of gravel. Laying hens need calcium to make egg shells. This can be supplied by feeding oyster shell, mussel shell, or other suitable fish shells. These must be crushed fine for chickens to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens need plenty of water. Be sure it is clean, safe water. Twenty-five layers will drink 2 to 2œ gallons of water a day. Keep water available in clean containers at all times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p078.png"></center><br>
+ Bottle waterer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Housing</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Every family that has chickens needs some kind of a house for them because:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Chickens need to be protected from heat, cold, rain, and wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It will help protect them from hawks, owls, crows, foxes, weasels, rats, skunks, and other such animals that destroy them. Chickens can be locked in the poultry house at night to help prevent stealing by chicken thieves and let out in the morning to range.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Eggs laid in nests provided in poultry houses are easier to find and collect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Suitable roosts can be built in a poultry house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The roost poles, walls, and floors of a chicken house can be disinfected to aid in controlling lice and mites. Ask your agriculturist about good disinfectants to use and how to use them <I>safely</I>.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A poultry house can be used for brooding young chickens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keep the poultry house clean and do not place it too close to the house in which the family lives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p079a.jpg"></center><br>
+ This woman in Thailand has enough chickens to provide eggs both for home use and also for sale. The hens are kept in a raised cage of bamboo slats which let their droppings fall through. This makes it easy to remove the manure. The slatted sides of the cage save grain by keeping the hens out of the feeder. A strong fence around the cage area keeps out dogs and other animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p079b.jpg"></center><br>
+ Where weather is more severe, an enclosed poultry house such as this one in the U.S. may be needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p079c.jpg"></center><br>
+ This chickenhouse in Basutoland has been built in the traditional round shape. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No one type of poultry house is best. Local conditions and the materials available will determine the best kind. A square or rectangular house is usually most satisfactory. A flock of 25 hens would need a house about 10 feet long and 6 feet wide. It should be about 6 feet high in front and 5 feet at the back. The house can be built of adobe, bamboo, lumber, or other local materials. The number of openings and ventilation will depend on the climate. The house should have some shade to help keep it cool in hot weather. A thatched roof would make the house more comfortable in both summer and winter than a roof of metal. The poultry house floor may be concrete, boards, or dirt. Make the poultry house ratproof by using wire or metal over all openings. Cover the floor of the house with a good litter. This may be cut or chopped straw or dried grass, ground corn cobs, tobacco stems, or other dry material that takes up moisture. Add fresh litter once or twice a month. Change the litter before putting new birds in the house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The poultry house should contain roosts, nests, feed hoppers, and water containers. Put roost poles at the back of the house, 2 or 3 feet above the floor and 10 or 12 inches apart. Make a pit under the roosts to catch droppings. The pit must be cleaned often. Spread droppings and litter on the garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Along one wall build a nest for every four or five hens. Make each nest about 14 inches wide, 14 inches high, and 12 inches deep.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Rats and mice</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rats and mice are among the worst enemies of poultry. They kill young chickens, destroy eggs, eat or contaminate poultry feed, and damage poultry houses and equipment. They spread disease and parasites. Losses from rats and mice in a farm-size flock are usually very great but often go unnoticed because the losses are gradual. A ratproof poultry house is one of the best ways to guard against these pests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Get rid of rat and mouse breeding and hiding places. Clean out trash and dumps of any kind. Do not let garbage collect anywhere. Provide ratproof storage for all food and feed around the house or farm. Use rat poison. Follow the directions carefully and keep poison away from children and domestic animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Disease and parasites</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens get sick easily. Some of the most common diseases of poultry include: croup or a cold, Newcastle disease, and coccidiosis. When chickens have a watery discharge from the eyes and nose, do not eat well, become droopy, have pale combs and wattles, or their droppings have a bad odor or become bloody, you should advise the family to isolate the sick birds at once and get help from an agriculturist or veterinarian.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parasites such as lice, mites, ticks, and chiggers are a constant problem. They lower production of both meat and eggs by sucking blood from chickens. They also carry disease germs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prevention is the best way to deal with poultry diseases and parasites. Sanitation is essential. The following measures can help prevent loss from disease and parasites:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Provide clean, fresh feed and pure water every day. If water is contaminated, use a sanitizer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keep the poultry house clean and dry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Clean feeders and waterers two or three times a week.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keep chickens on clean ground away from the house and out of the yard where the family lives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Remove any sick chicken from the flock. It is usually best to kill a sick chicken and burn or bury the carcass completely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· For lice, mites, and ticks, treat roost poles, chicken houses, and litter with disinfectants. Ask your agriculturist which disinfectants are available and which you should recommend.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p081.jpg"></center><br>
+ Vaccination is another method of preventing many poultry diseases. This Thai veterinarian is vaccinating chickens against Newcastle disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Eggs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gather eggs twice a day. If eggs are allowed to stay in the nests or on the floor all day some may be accidentally broken and the hens will eat them. From this they may develop the bad habit of breaking eggs for food. Clean dirty eggs. Any cracked or soiled eggs should be thoroughly cooked before eating. Encourage the family to eat some of their eggs instead of selling all they produce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Culling means taking hens that have stopped laying out of the flock. When hens have stopped laying they should be culled out, killed, and eaten if they are healthy and in good condition. You can tell if hens are laying by examining them carefully. In a good layer the abdomen is soft and deep, the vent is large and moist, and the comb and wattles are bright red. The best time for culling is the late summer or early fall. It is easier to tell the good layers from the poor ones then. However, it is wisest to cull the flock when the family can use the meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p082a.jpg"></center><br>
+ The pubic bones of a nonlayer are close together. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p082b.jpg"></center><br>
+ The pubic bones of a layer are wide apart.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p082c.jpg"></center><br>
+ The pubic bones and keel of a nonlayer are close together. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p082d.jpg"></center><br>
+ The pubic bones and keel of a layer are wide apart.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p083a.jpg"></center><br>
+ A chicken's comb can help you tell whether or not a hen is laying. The high producer is on the right and the nonlayer is on the left.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Suggested method demonstrations on poultry</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. You may want help from an agriculturist when you demonstrate how to make such equipment as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Feeders</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Waterers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Brooders</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Brood coops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Show how to select eggs and prepare a nest for setting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Show how to cull layers from non-layers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Show how to prepare feed for baby chicks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Show how to slaughter and dress chickens for cooking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Show how to cook or barbecue chickens properly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p083b.jpg"></center><br>
+ This Home Improvement Club member in Vietnam learned in her club meeting how to house, feed, and care for her small flock of poultry. Her family will eat better balanced meals as a result of her efforts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Milk goats</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p084a.png"></center><br>
+ Goat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goat's milk is a good food for the whole family. It compares well with cow's milk in food value. In some areas, goat's milk is preferred. It is good for drinking, cooking, and making cheese. Goat's milk is easy to digest. For this reason, babies, invalids, and others who cannot take cow's milk often thrive on goat's milk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Feeding and housing</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many farmers do not have enough land for a cow or cannot afford one. They can still provide milk for their families by keeping milk goats. Goats can be kept where it is impossible to keep a cow. Goats are browsing animals. They will eat feed that otherwise would be wasted. They like leaves, twigs, and even brush. They can help clear land of brush and small trees. Be sure farmers protect valuable fruit or shade trees and shrubs. Goats will eat them too. Goats do well in hilly, mountainous country that will not support other kinds of livestock. However, they will produce more milk if they are kept on good pasture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best feed for goats is pasture or hay of alfalfa, red clover, soybean, or millet mixed with other grasses. Rye or wheat make good spring or fall pasture. A goat needs about œ-acre of good pasture during a grazing season of 5 or 6 months. Overstocking ruins pasture and makes it easier for a goat to get internal parasites. Goats like early-cut hay that is half legume and half grass. Feeding oats, rye, or soybean or linseed meal along with hay or pasture will produce more milk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When root crops are available they are good feed for goats. Goats especially like beets, turnips, and carrots. When a female goat is pregnant or fresh, she should be fed about 1œ to 2 quarts of grain a day plus good pasture. One quart of oats and œ quart of corn, or 2 quarts of oats make a good daily grain ration. Do not feed only corn to goats. Females that are not pregnant and not milking do not need grain. They can get along on hay, pasture, and root crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats need salt every day. They must be able to get water at all times. In hot weather they need shade. Do not let goats near surfaces that are painted with lead-based paints. They may eat the paint and be poisoned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are natural climbers. They will climb on low buildings and machinery unless they are tethered or enclosed in a tight fence. To tether a goat, you need a good stake with a light chain attached. Place the stake firmly in the ground and fasten the other end of the chain to a leather strap around the goat's neck. A goat should be tethered in a good pasture and moved several times a day. See that there is good, clean water within her reach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats do not need any special kind of housing. Any well-built barn or shed that is clean, dry and free from drafts will do. Goats can get along without bedding if none is available. Goats may get foot rot. Trimming hoofs carefully and regularly and keeping pens dry will help control foot rot.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p084b.png"></center><br>
+ This is the way a well-trimmed goat foot should look from the side and bottom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p085a.jpg"></center><br>
+ In many families such as this Indonesian one, a goat is both a family pet and a source of milk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Milking</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dairy goats produce best on a regular schedule of feeding and milking. Heavy-producing does may need to be milked three times a day for a short time after freshening, but twice a day milking is usually enough. Be gentle with does. Whenever possible, the same person should milk a doe at the same time and place every day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good milk goat will give from 1 to 1œ quarts of milk a day for about 10 months a year. If goat's milk is properly produced and handled, it should have no disagreeable odor or flavor. Bad odor and "off" flavor usually come from dirt or hair that has gotten into the milk. This can also happen if the goat eats strong-flavored foods such as onions, cabbage, etc., or if a buck is kept in with the milking does.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p085b.jpg"></center><br>
+ A milking stand such as this one in Indonesia helps keep the goat from moving around and kicking over the milk pan. It also helps keep dirt from getting into the milk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are very clean and healthy animals. They are particular in their eating habits. They rarely ever have tuberculosis. This is a strong point in favor of goat's milk. However, they do sometimes have other diseases that can be transmitted in their milk. So it's safest to always boil goat's milk before drinking it or giving it to babies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Milk the goat under as clean conditions as possible:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wash the goat's udder before milking her. Milk the first stream or two from each teat into a small cup. The openings in each teat may contain foreign matter that will affect the taste of the milk. Throw this first milk away with the garbage. Do not throw it on ground the goat may lie on. If a goat has a disease called mastitis, her udder may become hard and produce much less milk. If milk from an infected half gets on the other half or on the udder of another goat, the disease can spread. Goats with mastitis cannot give enough milk to help a family be better nourished.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Be sure the milker's hands are clean and dry. Do not let them come in contact with the milk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Clip the hair on the goat's udder and flanks often to prevent it from falling into the milk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Use a clean, seamless, tin pail for milking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Use a milking stand. It is easier and helps to keep milk clean. (See illustration).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Strain milk through a clean, finely-woven cloth which has been boiled, or a sanitary wire strainer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wash utensils first in cold water, then in hot water and soap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Use boiling water to sterilize all milk utensils.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cool fresh milk as fast as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p086a.png"></center><br>
+ An improved milking stand like this one keeps a goat off the ground while you milk her. This helps keep the milk clean, stop the spread of disease, and make it easier for you. If one like this is not available, a milking stand can be made of hard-packed earth, large rocks, or a sturdy table.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p086b.png"></center><br>
+ Milking stand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For selecting and breeding milk goats and raising the kids, consult your agriculturist. In most areas, you will be able to get a female goat bred. This saves the expense of keeping a buck. It does not pay to keep a buck for one or two does.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats and kids provide meat in many areas of the world. The skins when properly tanned make valuable leather. This may be another source of income for the family.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p086.jpg"></center><br>
+ A youth club in Ecuador has a club buck to improve the herds of members. The entire community will benefit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Rabbits</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbit meat is popular in many areas. It is very white and fine grained and has a mild flavor. It is nutritious and tastes good. Since rabbits are small, when they are butchered there is not more fresh meat than the family can easily care for at one time. In warm climates, this is especially important because of the difficulty of preserving meat. Rabbits do not take as much feed as larger animals. They breed and grow quickly and can fill a great need for meat, particularly in areas where there is a shortage of protein.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p087.jpg"></center><br>
+ Rabbits will eat many kinds of greens including vegetable trimmings, carrot tops, and weeds you pull from the garden. TAIWAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p088.png"></center><br>
+ Rabbit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbit manure is good for the garden and should be collected to use as fertilizer. It is easy to work it into the soil. There will be less loss of fertilizing elements if the manure is used in a compost pile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A family can quickly learn how to grow rabbits. Usually it is best to begin on a small scale with one already-bred female rabbit, called a doe, or a pair, a female and a male. Boys and girls in club work have found rabbit projects a fine way to make money or furnish meat for the family.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Good meat rabbits are generally medium in size, rather short, compact, medium to fine-boned, broad and well covered with flesh. Wide heads and short necks go with good meat types. The does should be selected if possible from large litters because the tendency to produce large litters is inherited. Rabbit skins, if properly cared for, have some market value. The wool from Angora rabbits can usually be sold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Feeds and feeding</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits require mostly plant foods. Fresh grass, good-tasting weeds, vegetables, and root crops make good feed. Do not feed rabbits cabbage, kale, or any strong-flavored plants. These greatly affect the flavor of rabbit meat. Such root crops as carrots, potatoes, turnips, and beets are especially valuable foods during the months when there is little green feed. At all times rabbits need some legume hay, such as alfalfa, soybean, clover, peanut, and kudzu. The hay should be green, leafy, and fine-stemmed. It should also be free from mildew or mold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also important are grains like oats, barley, rye, and the grain sorghums. These may be fed whole or milled. Soybean, peanut, or linseed meal also should be added to the diets to make sure rabbits get enough protein foods. This is especially important for mother rabbits nursing their young. Regularity in feeding is more important than the number of feedings. Rabbits eat more at night than during the day, especially in warm weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fresh clean water is of the utmost importance, particularly during . the hot summer months. An average doe and her litter will consume at least a gallon of water every day. Rabbits also need salt. Put small amounts of salt in the feed or where the animals can nibble on it at will.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Management and equipment</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are extremely sensitive to unclean surroundings. Therefore, strict sanitation practices must be followed if rabbits are to grow well and be healthy and strong. Remove manure, soiled bedding, and spoiled food daily. Wash water crocks and feed troughs often in hot, soapy water. Rinse them in clean water and dry them in the sun.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are easily frightened and should be handled with care and gentleness. Rabbit shelters or pens should be enclosed so dogs and other animals cannot get to them. Keep cats and dogs away from rabbit food and bedding. Otherwise the rabbits may get tapeworms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits should never be lifted by the ears or legs. This may injure them. To lift and carry a rabbit, grasp the skin over the shoulders with one hand. Place the other hand under the animal's rump to support its weight. If the rabbit struggles and scratches, hold it snugly under one arm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A rabbit hutch or shelter can be made of wood, bamboo, or other available material. Provide individual hutches for grown rabbits. A hutch 2 feet high, 2-1/2 feet wide, and 4 to 5 feet long is desirable so that a doe and her litter may have about 10 square feet of floor space. A wire floor through which the droppings may fall is best because it can easily be  kept clean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p089a.png"></center><br>
+ Construction details for a nail-keg nest box.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p089b.png"></center><br>
+ Construction details for a wooden nest box.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p089.jpg"></center><br>
+ Grown rabbits will fight if they are kept in the same hutch. The litter can be kept with the doe until they are half grown. These hutches in Haiti provide the space needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to have a nest for the mother rabbit. This can be a basket or box kept in the hutch. Nest boxes should be large enough to prevent crowding and small enough to keep the young together. Clean and disinfect nest boxes before using them again. Ask your agriculturist for more information on breeding rabbits and raising the young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gnawing wood is natural for rabbits. Protect wooden parts of the hutch by placing wire mesh on the inside of the frame when you build it. Use strips of tin to protect exposed wooden edges. Treating the wood with creosote protects it as long as the scent and taste last. Placing twigs or pieces of soft wood in the hutch protects it to some extent. Rabbits may chew these instead of the hutch. Rabbits that have access to good-quality hay and are being fed some fresh green feed or root crops are less likely to gnaw on their hutches.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are very sensitive to hot weather. Rabbit hutches should be placed where there is shade during the hot Dart of the day, but where they will get some sunlight during the cooler hours. Good air circulation is necessary, but rabbits should not be kept in strong drafts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Move rabbits that seem to be suffering from the heat to a quiet well-ventilated place. Give them a damp sack to lie on. Wetting the tops of the hutches and the floors of the houses on a hot day will lower the temperature. Do not wet the rabbits themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If grown rabbits are kept out of drafts, cold weather will not bother them much. Young litters need nest boxes and enough bedding to keep them warm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Rabbit meat and its use</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. To kill a rabbit, hit it on the head to knock it unconscious. Then stick its throat with a sharp pointed instrument so it bleeds well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Then skin it. Be very careful not to let the hairs of the skin touch the meat. Any objectionable odor associated with rabbits comes from the hair.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Wash all the blood off the carcass with clean water. Then remove the "insides" by splitting the animal down the front. Wash and clean the inside thoroughly. Some people like to rub the carcass all over with a cut piece of lime or lemon to help remove any wild flavor the meat may have.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Cut the meat into serving pieces. There are many ways of cooking and serving rabbit meat. Here are two ways:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Roll the pieces of meat in flour with salt and pepper. Fry them slowly in fat until they are tender.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Brown pieces in fat, then add water and vegetables such as tomatoes, carrots, onions, and potatoes with salt, pepper, and any other desired seasoning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p090.jpg"></center><br>
+ These are easy-to-build hutches and nest boxes. Nest boxes can also be made out of clay or pottery</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Food storage and preservation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p091.png"></center><br>
+ Food protection</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To keep from wasting food and to have it clean and safe, people must take care of it properly in their homes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Foods can be spoiled by bacteria, molds, parasites, insects, rodents, warm air, freezing temperatures, light, and too little or too much moisture. Some foods may look and taste all right but still be bad to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bacteria </I>are living things so small you can't see them. Many are harmful. Food is unsafe when bacteria that cause disease have gotten into it. Food can carry typhoid, botulism, tuberculosis, diphtheria, and salmonellosis. People may carry disease bacteria in their bodies and still appear healthy. When they handle food, the bacteria may get on the food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Molds </I>can be harmful. They grow where it is damp. If meat, cheese, or bread get mold on the outside, cut away the moldy part. The rest can be eaten. Throw away moldy canned food and foods that have gone soft from spoilage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parasites </I>such as tapeworm and trichina live in meat animals. The tiny eggs of these parasites are found in the lean part of meat. They are waiting to complete their development in the human body or some other place. Cook meat thoroughly to destroy these parasites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is danger in eating uncooked meat even though it has been salted and smoked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insects and rodents not only destroy foods, they leave dangerous bacteria on them. The "fly specks" often found on food or dishes may have disease germs and eggs of dangerous parasites on them. Store food and dishes in a way to prevent this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Temperature </I>affects food. Foods ripen and spoil more quickly in warm air. Freezing can ruin the texture and flavor of some foods. For example, frozen potatoes are watery and have an unpleasant flavor. They are safe to eat though they do not look nice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moisture </I>is needed to keep green leafy vegetables fresh. But too much moisture or dampness can cause foods to mold. Crackers and cookies lose their crispness when the air is moist unless they are in an airtight container. Soggy crackers or cookies are safe to eat, but may taste better if they are dried out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Taking care of food in the home</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Different kinds of food must be cared for in different ways. Certain foods are very perishable and spoil quickly in a warm climate or when kept in a warm place. It is important to destroy spoiled foods as soon as they are found.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food generally shows when it is spoiled. Look for these signs:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· slime on the outside of meat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· bad odors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· sour taste in bland foods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fresh meat, poultry, fish, and other seafoods </I>spoil very easily and quickly. They should not be kept more than a few hours in warm, damp weather. To store them, wipe off any dirt, wrap the food loosely in clean cloth or paper, and keep it in the coldest place you can find. Extra care must be taken with poultry because it often has the germ that causes a fever sickness. This germ grows very fast in a warm place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moist leftover cooked foods</I>, especially those prepared with milk, eggs, meat, or fish, spoil easily. They should be cooled quickly, put in covered containers, stored in a cold place, and used at the next meal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Milk </I>must be stored in clean, covered containers in the coldest place possible. Boiling milk not only makes its safe to drink but helps it keep longer. <I>Store butter and cheese </I>in a cold, clean place. Dried <I>milk powder </I>will keep for several months, but should be kept dry and well covered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eggs </I>should be stored in a cold, dry place. Remove any cracked eggs and use them first. Cook them well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fresh fruits and vegetables </I>should be stored in a cool place with good air circulation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bread, cake, and cookies </I>must be stored in a tightly covered tin box or some other suitable container with a tight cover. Keep them in a dry place off the floor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p092a.jpg"></center><br>
+ These two iceless coolers help keep perishable foods from spoiling so rapidly. They both work on the principle of evaporation. The one on the left was built by two</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p092b.jpg"></center><br>
+ Nigerian extension workers. Water from the pan on top seeps down the burlap sides. The one on the right is made of pottery and was developed in India.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Keeping foods for a long time</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For good nutrition, people must eat well all year, not only during the growing season or for a few months after harvest, but every day of the year. This means some food should be preserved and stored for use when it is out of season. Some form of food preservation and storage is almost universal. It is a subject in which there is great interest and generally great need for improvement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The way foods are stored is important</B>. A good storage area is well ventilated, cool, dry, and free of rodents and insects It is clean and neat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food can be stored in the kitchen in cupboards, on open shelves, in a food safe, or in a closet with shelves. Cellars, caves, and outdoor pits are used in some areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p093a.jpg"></center><br>
+ In Nigeria, farmers have reduced loss of grain by using improved maize dryers. When the grain is dry they store it in rat and insect-proof silos 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p093b.jpg"></center><br>
+ In Nigeria, farmers have reduced loss of grain by using improved maize dryers. When the grain is dry they store it in rat and insect-proof silos 2</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Storing grains, pulses, and nuts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p093.png"></center><br>
+ Raising grain storage off the ground and using a cover to protect it from rain helps save grain. Metal shields on the legs protect this storage against rodents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Storing grains, nuts, and pulses in the house where the family lives is generally not a good practice. There is not enough room and it is hard to control insects and rodents. In many areas, these crops are kept in special grain storehouses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Learn how families store them in your area. How many families have a special storehouse or bin for such crops? How many store them in the house where they live? What kind of containers do they put the grain in, such as sacks or clay pots? How much of each crop is destroyed every year by rats, mice, weevils, and other pests? Do they use any insecticide or poison to get rid of them? What do the people think about such food losses?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You will probably find that those who are most successful in storing these crops:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keep their grains, pulses, and nuts in a special storehouse or bin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keep rats and mice out of the storage area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Use insecticides to keep down weevils.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Clean the storehouse thoroughly before a new crop is stored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Dry grains and pulses thoroughly to keep down molds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keep the storage place as dry and cool as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Store good quality grains-not broken or damaged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is good to use storage methods that people in your area have found successful. Keep this in mind as you suggest improved storage methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prepare the storehouse for each new harvest</B>. Even one weevil-infested bean or grain of maize left over from last season can start weevil damage in the new grain. The storage area, including every corner and crack, should be cleaned thoroughly each year before the new crop is put in. Then it should be dusted well with an insecticide recommended by your agricultural department.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remind villagers to follow the instructions carefully. The insecticide will probably be a strong powder and should not be used on the grain itself. Many insecticides can make people ill if they are on food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Make the store house ratproof by using metal and strong fine wire. Remember, mice can get in through the smallest openings. Page 93 shows two kinds of good grain storage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prepare the new crop</B>. <I>Cereal grains </I>such as maize, rice, millet, sorghum, wheat, barley, oats, and rye should be cleaned as well as possible. They must be dry. They can be packed in <I>clean</I>, suitable containers such as strong, closely woven bags, tight boxes with covers, or clay pots with covers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some areas a safe, mild weevil control powder is mixed with the grain. It is not the same one used in the cracks and corners of the storage area. Ask your agricultural department about such powder and be sure villagers follow the instructions carefully.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pulses, peas, beans, etc</I>., should be picked as soon as they are completely ripe and spread in a warm <I>dry </I>place until they are dried out. They can then be shelled and stored in bags or other containers. Treat them with the mild powder as suggested for cereal grains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some homemakers hang small bags of peas and beans in the kitchen where the heat and smoke from the fire help keep out weevils. Also to help keep out weevils, peas and beans that are <I>not </I>being saved for planting can be placed in a pan and heated slowly in an oven until they are too hot to touch. They should not be overheated or allowed to burn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groundnuts </I>should be left inside their shells until they are needed for food. They should be picked when they are mature and spread on drying trays in the sun. When they are thoroughly dried, they can be packed in bags with some of the <I>mild </I>powder as instructed by your agriculturist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preserving and storing fruits and vegetables</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chapter on gardening points out the value of growing fresh fruits and vegetables as much of the year as the climate permits. Fruits and vegetables fresh from the garden taste much better than those that have been preserved or stored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, it is not always possible to have a continuous supply of these essential foods. For this reason, some method of keeping them when they are out of season is important. Various methods of preserving and storing include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· storing in the field</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· storing in a cool, dark place such as a cellar, pit, or cave</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· drying</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· salting and brining</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· bottling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Field storage</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Certain greens such as collards, kale, leaf mustard, and some others will stand quite a lot of cold and frost. In some areas, they will stay green in the garden for a long time. Root vegetables such as carrots, sweetpotatoes, cassava, beets, celery, kohlrabi, and turnips can often be left in the ground and used as they are needed. How long they can be kept without being dug will depend on the amount of rain, drainage conditions, etc. With too much rain they would rot quickly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A cool, dark place</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dry onions, pumpkins, cabbages, and root crops such as potatoes, yams, carrots, beets, turnips and others can also be kept in a cool, dark place. Some of these, especially potatoes, will sprout quickly in warm areas. To retard sprouting, cover the vegetables with sand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Various types of storage can be built for fruits and vegetables. They should be:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· cool and with little or no light</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· slightly damp so vegetables will not dry out</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· ventilated to carry off odors and to help regulate the temperature and amount of dampness</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· insulated-the walls and ceilings should be protected with straw or other material to keep too much moisture from forming and dropping onto the vegetables and also to help regulate the temperature</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· well drained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Your agriculturist can help you with recommendations and instructions on building storage facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Drying</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vegetables and fruits may be dried in the sun in warm, sunny climates, but not in rainy or damp weather. It is a suitable way of preserving such vegetables as green leaves, cabbages, green beans, green maize, potatoes, sweetpotatoes, pumpkin, cassava, and carrots, and such fruits as apples, peaches, apricots, figs, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To dry fruits and vegetables:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Wash the food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Cut it up if it is big.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Steam it until it is thoroughly hot.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Spread the food on a clean surface in direct sunlight until it is brittle and dry. Foods can also be dried on racks over a kitchen stove or they may be dried in an oven.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Protect the food from dust, dirt, and flies by covering it with thin, loosely woven, clean cloth or wire screen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p095.jpg"></center><br>
+ In Iran, a successful drying program helps families have a more varied diet. Here the specialist trains village workers in the steps to follow for proper drying. She is showing them how to make racks that will keep the food clean while it is drying and make a better product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHART OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR HOME DRYING OF SOME FRUITS AND VEGETABLES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=757>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PREPARATION</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEAMING TIME</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DRYING TIME</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spinach and other green leaves</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Select young, tender leaves. Wash. See that the leaves are not doubled over when they are placed on trays. Cut large leaves crosswise into several pieces to hasten drying.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Steam 4 minutes or until thoroughly wilted.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dry until the leaves are brittle.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tomatoes</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Select tomatoes of good color. Dip them in boiling water to loosen the skins. Chill them in cold water. Peel. Cut them into pieces not over Ÿ" square. Cut small tomatoes in half.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No steaming.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dry until the pieces are leathery.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green chili or peppers</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use full-grown, bright green pods. Peel and split the pod, remove the seeds.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No steaming.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dry until the peppers are crisp, brittle, and a medium-green color.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cabbage</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remove the outer leaves. Cut the head in quarters. Remove the core. Cut the quarters into shreds about 1/8" thick.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Steam 5-6 minutes until wilted.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dry until the shreds are tough or brittle.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green peas</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Select young, tender peas. Shell.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Steam them immediately for 10 minutes.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dry until the peas are hard and wrinkled. They will shatter when hit with a hammer.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green beans</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remove bad pods. Wash the good pods and remove the strings. Split the pods lengthwise.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Steam the pods 15-20 minutes.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dry until the pods are brittle.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green maize</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Select tender maize. Husk.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Steam 5-15 minutes or until the milk is set. The maize can be cut from the cob or dried on the cob.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dry until the kernels are brittle.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carrots</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Select crisp, tender carrots. Wash, Trim off the roots and tops. Peel. Cut into slices or strips about 1/8" thick.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Steam 8-10 minutes.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dry until the strips are tough and leathery.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berries</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Look the berries over; remove bad ones. Wash.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Steam 1/2-l minute.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dry until the berries are hard. Test by crushing a few to be sure all the moisture is removed.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The steaming helps to retain the protective value in these foods and gives them a better color and flavor. It also reduces the time needed for soaking the vegetables before cooking them later. Tomatoes, onions, and green and red peppers do not need to be steamed, but otherwise the process is the same.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When they are drying food in the sun, remind villagers to keep racks off the ground and away from animals. The food needs to be turned two or three times each day so it will dry as quickly as possible. Drying will take several days. Test for dryness by squeezing some of the food in your hand. There should be no apparent moisture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a good idea to keep the dried food in a large container for 8 to 10 days before packing it into small containers or bags. If bags are used, seal them in a large container to keep out air and insects. Store them in a clean, dry, dark, cool place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All dried vegetables should be soaked in water before cooking to reduce cooking time. Use just enough water to cover them, and use the same water for cooking. It will contain the protective values of the food. Dry green maize should be rinsed quickly in cold water and put to soak for several hours in a small amount of water. It should be cooked slowly in the same water. Add more water as it is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Canning</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of problems must be met before home canning is practical, safe or even possible in many countries. One is the lack of suitable canning containers and equipment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Canned foods must be sealed airtight and free of germs if the food is to be safe. Almost all foods must be heated to a very high temperature if they are to be safe after canning. This requires a pressure canner in which steam under pressure produces a much higher temperature than boiling does. The high temperature kills the germs. It is important to remember that for home canned meats and vegetables to be safe they need to be cooked again until hot all the way through before they are eaten.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Often, even if glass jars with tops that seal are available, they are not the kind to withstand high temperatures. In some countries, the cost of glass jars and tin cans is so great that most village families cannot afford them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As you think about the need to preserve food in your area and the possibilities of canning, discuss the problem with your agriculturalists. Are glass jars or tin cans manufactured anywhere in your country? If so, are they suitable for use in a pressure canner? Does the quality need improvement? What are the possibilities of manufacturing glass jars or tin cans for sale at a price practical for the average village family?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even if containers are available, the average village home is not equipped for home canning. Could small community canning centers be developed where equipment could be used cooperatively and the canning be done under supervision ? Are pressure canners available at a practical cost?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Are there commercial plants in your area that can either fruits or vegetables? If so, a visit to such a plant would be useful. You will need to study and investigate all phases of canning before making any attempt to introduce this method of preserving foods in the average village. In some areas, canning may not be feasible for many years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bottling fruit juices</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is a practical method of preserving fruit juices and fruit purees used in many areas. Wine bottles or soft drink bottles are available in most countries and are within the means of most families. New caps for such bottles must be purchased, but they are not expensive. A small mechanical capping machine is also necessary. Families might join together to buy a capping machine to seal the bottles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water <I>bath canner</I>-For bottling juices and purees a water bath canner is needed. This can be any large metal container. It must be deep enough to have an inch or two of water over the tops of the bottles. It must have a cover and a rack to fit in the bottom. The bottles must not touch the bottom or they will break. The rack can be either wood or wire. A water bath container should have a loose-fitting cover on it during the processing time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p098a.jpg"></center><br>
+ Lack of low-cost containers that could be properly sterilized and sealed was a major problem that had to be solved before Pakistan and Greece could start food preservation programs 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p098b.jpg"></center><br>
+ Lack of low-cost containers that could be properly sterilized and sealed was a major problem that had to be solved before Pakistan and Greece could start food preservation programs 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Select ripe firm fruits such as grapes, berries of all kinds, cherries, etc. Clean the fruit of any trash such as leaves, small sticks, insects, etc., and then wash it in safe water. Heat the fruit slowly to a simmering temperature without water. Simmer it until the fruit is soft. Strain the juice through clean cheesecloth or other thinly woven cloth which has been boiled for 10 minutes. Add sugar if desired-1 cup to a gallon of juice. Reheat juice to boiling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wash the bottles and caps with soap in clean hot water and rinse them well. Then put the washed bottles and caps in a container, cover them with hot water and boil them for 2 to 3 minutes. Fill the hot bottles with hot juice to within 2 inches of the top. Place the cap on and seal the bottle with a mechanical bottle capper. Place the filled bottles in a container of boiling water so that water covers the bottles. Keep the water boiling 5 minutes. Remove the bottles, cool them, and store them in a dark, cool place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prepare fruit purees by running washed fruits through a sieve or food mill. Heat the puree to boiling. Add sugar to taste. Fill hot bottles with hot puree to within 3 inches of the top. Place the caps on and seal the bottles. Process them in boiling water that comes over the top of the bottles for 10 minutes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bottling tomato juice or tomato puree</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use ripe juicy tomatoes. Wash them well. Remove the stem ends and any bad spots. Then cut them into pieces, leaving the skin on. Simmer the pieces until they are soft. Put the pulp through a strainer or sieve. Add 1 teaspoon of salt to each quart of juice or puree. Reheat it to boiling. Fill bottles with the hot juice or puree. Leave 2 inches from the top for juice and 3 inches for puree. Put caps on and seal. Process the bottles in boiling water for 10 minutes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Salting or brining vegetables</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p099.png"></center><br>
+ Salting and brining are good methods to use in preserving foods in either warm or cool countries. It was a popular method in the early food preservation programs in the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vegetables preserved by salting or brining are very popular in some areas. People like their flavor. Sauerkraut, made by salting cabbage, is well known and widely used in many countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Salting or brining may be a practical method of preserving vegetables in your area and one which you will want to recommend. The process is not difficult. It is inexpensive and requires little equipment. The vegetables preserved in this way retain a fair amount of vitamins and most of their other food values. Vegetables properly preserved with salt or salt and vinegar will keep for many months in a cool climate. They will keep a much shorter time in a warm climate unless they can be sealed and heat processed when the brining is finished.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For any method of preserving vegetables to be practical there should be a surplus, more vegetables than the family can eat when they are in season. Remember, in areas where there is a year-round growing season, having a continuous supply of fresh vegetables in the family garden is better than preserving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before trying to teach salting or brining, study any methods of preserving vegetables already being used in your area. Are people now salting or brining vegetables? If so, are they successful? Is the product of good quality? Do families like vegetables preserved this way? Do they fit into their food patterns? Do some methods give better results than others ? Do families grow enough vegetables to have a surplus for preserving? Can they get the salt? In some countries salt is expensive. Do they have large containers suitable for salting? Could you yourself try two or three vegetables, using the different methods of salting and brining, before you try to show how they are done? You will want to be thoroughly familiar with these methods and the results before you start teaching them to others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Equipment and Supplies Needed</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Containers such as crocks, glazed pots, or kegs or pails of hard wood. If containers of soft wood are used, the food will likely have the taste and odor of the wood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Cover-may be a solid lid made from hard wood, a latticed wood cover, or a heavy plate-whatever cover is used must fit inside the container so that it can be weighted down to keep the vegetables under the brine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Weight-can be a clean stone or brick which should be covered with melted wax, or a glass jar filled with water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Clean white cloth or clean leaves such as cabbage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Wooden spoons, a sharp knife, and measuring cup.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Pure salt and household vinegar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Scales for weighing (when possible).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three methods of salt preservation are described in this handbook. Certain vegetables like peas, corn, and lima beans contain considerable starch. They require more salt than vegetables like cabbage or turnips. Adding vinegar to the brine for some vegetables insures a better product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several different vegetables are listed under each method. This does not mean that those vegetables would be mixed together for salting or brining. Each would be processed separately. For a few vegetables there is a choice of methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For fuller instructions and additional information on salting and brining, you may wish to refer to <I>Homemaking Around the World</I>.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Observe these precautions for good results:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Follow directions carefully.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Weigh salt and vegetables if scales are available. If not, measure both salt and vegetables as accurately as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Use clean, fine salt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Use only clean, safe water for washing vegetables and making brine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Be sure containers and all equipment are thoroughly clean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. See that brine covers the vegetables at all times to prevent the top layer from spoiling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Keep the top of the brine free from scum and insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Boil all salted or brined vegetables except those pickled in vinegar for 15 minutes before eating to prevent any danger from botulism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Method I. For Light Dry Salting</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vegetables </I>for which this method is recommended: cabbage, turnips, rutabagas, and tender snap beans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Preparing</I>: Wash all vegetables thoroughly in safe water. If you are using <I>cabbage</I>, remove the outer leaves and core, and then shred the rest with a sharp knife or cut with a cabbage cutter. If using <I>snap beans</I>, cut off the ends and break the rest into short lengths. Scald the beans in boiling water for 5 minutes. Cool them quickly. If using <I>turnips or rutabagas</I>, trim them well and shred or slice thinly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Salting and Packing</I>: For each 10 lbs. of <I>cabbage, turnips, or rutabagas</I>, allow Œ-lb. or Ÿ-cup of salt. Mix the salt well with the shredded vegetable. For each 10 lbs. of <I>snap beans</I>, allow œ-lb or 1-œ cups of salt and 8 ozs. or 15 tablespoons of vinegar. Mix the salt thoroughly into the beans, then add the vinegar and mix again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pack the vegetable firmly into the container. Lay a clean white cloth or clean leaves over the top of the mixture to completely cover it. Then place a fitted cover of hard wood or a thick plate over the cloth or leaves, and weight it down with a stone or other suitable weight. Tie another clean cloth over the top of the container to keep insects out. Set the container in the coolest place possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a short time water will be drawn from the vegetable by the salt. It will form a brine that will rise above the cover. Every day or so take a look at the brining process. When the brine begins to get low, more will need to be added. It is very important to keep the vegetable well covered with brine at all times, otherwise the top layer will spoil. Make more brine by dissolving 1 tablespoon salt to 1 quart of safe water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The salted vegetable will soon start bubbling. This means fermentation has started. Soon a white scum will form on top. This should be removed every day so. Lift off the weights and the cover of cloth and leaves. Carefully remove the scum with a spoon or cup so that it does not get mixed with the brine. Wash the cloth or leaves and the weights in safe water, add more brine if needed, and weight the vegetable down again. It will take about 2 weeks for the bubbling to stop. Then it is likely the fermentation is over. The vegetable then is cured and can be used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It should be cooked for 15 minutes before eating. To keep cured vegetables for a longer time, repack them into smaller containers that can be sealed. These then are heat processed in a boiling water bath 25 minutes for pint containers and 30 minutes for quarts. If it is not possible to heat process the cured vegetables, keep the container in as cool a place as possible, and keep the scum removed until the product is entirely used up. Remember if the weather is warm, a cured vegetable may only keep a short time unless it is heat processed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Method II. For Heavier Dry Salting</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vegetables</I>: Corn, shelled peas, shelled lima beans, celery, okra.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Preparing</I>: Select fresh tender vegetables of good quality. If you are using <I>corn</I>, remove the husks and silks. Boil it 10 minutes to set the milk. Cut the kernels from the cob, but not too close. If using <I>peas or lima beans</I>, shell and scald them in boiling water for 5 minutes. Cool them quickly. If using <I>celery or okra</I>, wash the vegetables in safe water. Cut them crosswise into short lengths. Scald celery in boiling water for 5 minutes and cool it quickly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Salting and Packing</I>: Use 1 lb. or 3 cups of salt for each 5 lbs. of vegetables. Mix the vegetable well with salt. Pack it firmly into the container, cover with a clean cloth or clean leaves, and weight down following the directions in Method I. Be sure to watch the process and keep the brine over the top of the vegetable. To make additional brine for these vegetables, use 7/8-cup of salt to 1 quart of safe water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fermentation may continue with these vegetables for a month. Repacking and processing in hot water is not necessary because of the heavy salting. These vegetables will be quite salty when finished and will likely need to be drained and soaked in water overnight before cooking. However, the salted vegetable might be added directly to unsalted soup stock without soaking. Use Œ-lb. of salted vegetable to 2 qts. of soup. All these vegetables should be cooked at least 15 minutes before eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Method III. Weak Brine Plus Vinegar</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vegetables</I>: Beets, carrots, cauliflower, snap beans, turnips, beet tops, mustard greens, and turnip greens. Note that snap beans and turnips can also be preserved by Method I.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Preparing</I>: Select tender good quality vegetables. Wash well in safe water. If you are using <I>carrots or beets</I>, trim the tops. Leave the carrots whole without slicing or cutting. <I>Snap beans </I>can be cut into pieces or left whole. Scald them in boiling water for 5 minutes. Cool them quickly. <I>Cauliflower </I>should be cut in pieces. <I>Greens </I>must be washed several times to remove grit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brining and Packing</I>: Pack the vegetables firmly in clean containers. Cover them with a clean cloth or leaves and weight down as outlined in Method I Then pour over them a brine made by dissolving Ÿ-cup of salt in 1 gallon of safe water and 1 cup of vinegar. Be sure the brine comes up over the weighted cover. Store the containers in a cool place. Watch and remove scum as it forms. Add more brine when needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fermentation period is about 10 days or 2 weeks. Vegetables preserved this way will keep longer if they can be repacked in smaller containers, sealed, and processed in boiling water as outlined in Method I.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before cooking for table use they need only to be rinsed with water. They will not need soaking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Child care</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p102.jpg"></center><br>
+ Child</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not hard to get parents, government officials, or agencies interested in something that affects the well-being of children. For example, in one small village it was a miracle if a child survived his second year. The village chief told the new village worker, "you are welcome to work with the women if you teach them how to keep our children alive." Her program started right there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost everything you teach in home economics affects children. Bring children and their needs into every subject you teach: food and nutrition, sanitation, home improvement, home management, gardening, clothing, and so on. Consider child care as part of a total program for improved living.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even the best teaching on child care cannot do much good unless the home and community become healthful places to rear children. If houses have no windows, if they are hot, damp, and unsanitary, if there are no latrines, if water for the family is unsafe and scarce, if there are flies and mosquitoes everywhere, then you can not accomplish much by teaching mothers better ways of caring for their children. Under such poor living conditions, they would have a hard time putting the principles of child care you are teaching into practice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many people are helping to teach child care: health workers, doctors, trained midwives, sanitarians, social welfare workers, and school teachers. Working together, you and these people can have a better and broader program than any one person or group can have working alone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This chapter tries to highlight some of the most important things about caring for babies and children. Adapt methods to your area. Every country has much material on this subject: books, pamphlets, posters, films, and many other teaching aids based on local needs and resources. You should learn what these are and where they may be obtained. Get them for your own use. Two other booklets you should have are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. <I>Care for Your Baby</I>-FES-AID Sanitation Series #9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. <I>Child Care</I>-by Dr. Mary Elizabeth Keister, FAO.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Getting ready for the new baby</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Help women who are pregnant understand how important it is for them to do certain things before their baby comes. A pregnant woman must think first of her own health. The surest way for her to have a healthy baby is to be healthy herself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If possible, a woman should go to a doctor, trained midwife, health center, or dispensary as soon as she knows she is going to have a baby. They will check her health, tell her how to take care of herself, help her plan for the baby's delivery, and teach her how to take care of the baby.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can help teach village mothers many things about taking care of themselves while they are pregnant. One of the most important things a pregnant woman can do is to eat the <I>right foods</I>. This will help her stay well and have a strong baby. It will also prepare her body to make milk to feed the baby. (See page 43 )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p103.png"></center><br>
+ A healthy baby like this one in Basutoland is the dream of every mother.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pregnant women should be very certain they also <I>get plenty of rest, sleep, and exercise</I>. Encourage pregnant women to rest when they are tired during the day, and to get plenty of sleep at night. Lying down for a while each day helps keep a pregnant woman from getting too tired. If she cannot lie down, suggest that she sit with her feet up for a few minutes at least once a day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pregnant women need moderate exercise. They can keep on with most of the things they usually do. However, if possible, they should <I>avoid lifting, pushing, or pulling heavy things</I>. Doing their normal work around the house or taking a walk each day is enough.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A pregnant woman should <I>keep her body clean</I>. A clean skin is important to good health. Washing her body every day, or as often as possible, will make her feel more comfortable and look more attractive. The little pores or holes in the skin can do their work better if dirt and sweat are washed away every day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the seventh month of pregnancy, she should take a little extra time to wash her breasts well. A small amount of liquid comes out of the nipples at this time. If it dries in the tiny wrinkles in the skin, the skin will crack and become sore. Germs can enter the cracks and cause infection. The woman can help prevent soreness and cracking by rubbing cocoa butter or a mild oil on her nipples.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not only the pregnant mother, but also the whole family should be extra careful to <I>avoid disease </I>at this time. The health center, the doctor, or visiting nurse can provide immunizations or medication to protect the family against disease or worm infestation. It is important for the new baby to be born in a healthy family.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teach women to <I>keep themselves as comfortable as possible</I>. A few small discomforts are normal during pregnancy, but women can be more comfortable if they know what causes these discomforts and how to relieve them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a baby grows in size within the mother's body, it crowds some of the organs that lie near it. It presses on the bladder that lies below the womb and makes the mother feel she needs to pass urine more often. She should not reduce the amount of liquid she drinks unless her doctor tells her to. She will keep in better health if she continues to drink 6-8 cups of liquid (water, tea, coffee, or milk) each day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If her bowels do not move regularly, she may be helped by eating more fruits and vegetables. Pregnant women should not take strong medicines to make their bowels move or get rid of worms unless the doctor tells them to.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sometimes a pregnant woman's legs feel very tired and heavy. It may be because the baby is pressing on the blood vessels. This slows down the flow of blood from the mother's legs. This is another reason why lying down for a few minutes several times a day with her legs propped up higher than her body helps relieve discomfort. If a pregnant woman has swollen legs or hands, she should see a doctor if at all possible. One important thing she can do to help get rid of the swelling is stop adding salt to the food she eats and to stop eating foods that taste salty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the first few months of pregnancy, some women feel sick at their stomachs early in the morning when they first get up. After the first 3 months, the body gets used to the changes of pregnancy and morning sickness disappears. Pregnant women can often avoid nausea if they eat a small amount of dry food before getting out of bed. If a woman feels sick, suggest that she not drink anything for an hour or until her stomach feels all right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Later during pregnancy many women have a hot feeling in their throat or stomach after eating. If this happens, suggest that the woman eat less at each meal, but eat more often and avoid spicy foods. When a woman is pregnant, her stomach has less room in which to work. She will be more comfortable if she puts smaller amounts of food in it at mealtime and if she sits and walks around for about an hour before lying down to sleep or rest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A pregnant woman's back may ache at times, especially during the second half of her pregnancy. Flat shoes and a wide band of cloth snugly tied or pinned around her body where the baby is growing will help hold the baby and her back. When she is lying down, a small pillow or folded cloth under the lower part of her back may make her more comfortable. You might also suggest that she ask someone to give her back a good rubbing now and then.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is very important that pregnant women <I>report unusual problems at once</I>. Teach village women to recognize when something is wrong. They should go to the health center, if possible, and tell the doctor or nurse about it. Many problems can be corrected before they harm the mother's health or her baby's.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are some of the unusual problems pregnant women should watch out for and report to a doctor or nurse:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· swelling of hands, face, legs, or feet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· dizzy feeling</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· spots before the eyes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· a very bad headache that doesn't go away</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· a sudden gain of weight (clothes and rings feel tight)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· vomiting day after day</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· only a small amount of urine each day</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· pain when passing urine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· chills and fever </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· blood or other fluid coming from the birth canal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If bleeding continues from the birth canal, it may be a sign that a miscarriage is starting. A miscarriage occurs when the baby is born before the fifth month of pregnancy. It is still too small to live outside the mother's body. A miscarriage can sometimes be prevented by complete rest in bed. If bleeding occurs, advise the woman to save the discharge, go to bed, and be examined by a doctor or trained midwife at once, if possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Prepare a good home for the baby</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good home for a baby is one where he is wanted, and the whole family is glad he is coming. A good home is also one where everything is clean and ready for him. Here are some things a village woman can do to prepare a good home:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keep the house and its surroundings extra clean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Arrange to have clean, safe water for all the family to drink and to bathe the baby in every day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Prepare a clean, comfortable bed for herself and one for the baby.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Brush and air the mattress or pad.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wash sheets and blankets with soap and water and hang them in the sun to dry. Fold and store them in a clean place until time for the baby to arrive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Have clean clothes ready for herself and the new baby.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p105.png"></center><br>
+ Prepare a good home for the baby</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When getting ready for a new baby and after he arrives, it is important for the mother and father to give some extra attention and love to their other children. Sometimes, older children may feel they are no longer loved because the baby needs so much of the parents' time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Clothes for the baby</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A mother should plan to have enough baby clothes to keep the baby clean and dry at all times. Baby clothes should be loose and full so the baby can move his arms and legs freely. They should be made of soft, lightweight material that is easy to wash. Babies often spit up on their clothing. Choose baby clothing that is cool or warm as needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shirts and gowns with openings are the easiest kind to put on small babies. Garments that tie are easier to handle than those that button. Clothing with a drawstring around the neck is dangerous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Diapers</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p106.png"></center><br>
+ Diapers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries, babies wear diapers or nappies. In other areas, pads are placed under the baby's bottom. Remind mothers to change a diaper or pad as soon as it becomes wet or soiled. She should prepare enough to keep the baby dry and clean at all times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diapers and pads need special care in washing. Show mothers how to soak wet or soiled diapers or pads in a pail of cold water until they can be washed. Some vinegar can be added to the water as it will help stop bad smells. The pail should be covered to keep out flies. Leaves, cardboard, cloth, or any other material available can be used for a cover.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diapers and pads should be washed in hot water with mild soap. Remind her to be sure she rinses all the soap out. Strong soap or soap left in diapers will make the baby's skin sore. After washing, diapers should be hung in the sun to dry if possible. Otherwise they need to be boiled frequently. Sun or heat help to kill germs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A place for the baby to sleep</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The newborn baby should have his own place to sleep. When a baby sleeps with his mother or some other grownup, he may get smothered or catch any illness or disease the adult may have. However, a mother may want the baby in her bed at night to keep him warm, protect him from rats, or make it easier to nurse him. She should put him in his own bed as soon as she thinks it advisable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baby's bed may be a crib, basket, or cloth-lined, padded box. It should be kept off the floor or ground so it will not get damp or dusty. It must be protected from animals and insects. If mothers use a crib, they should be sure the bars are close enough together so that the baby cannot get his head caught between them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bedding</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before her baby arrives, each mother should have:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A firm <I>mattress or pad </I>to put in the bottom of a baby's bed. You can show her how to make one from local materials such as corn husks or dried grasses cut up very fine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kapok, sometimes called silk-cotton, trees grow in many countries. When the seeds have been removed (pulled out by hand), kapok makes an excellent filler for a baby's mattress.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Put the filling in a bag. Make a cover for the mattress from heavy, washable material. Remind her to keep it clean and change the filling when it gets soiled or starts to smell. A folded clean blanket makes a good pad that can be easily washed. It is not good to use a pillow for a pad because it is too soft to provide firm support for a baby's back.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Waterproof material </I>to protect the mattress or pad. Rubber, plastic, or soft, smooth leaves such as banana may be used under the baby to protect the mattress. The baby's skin should never touch the waterproof covering because he may get sores on his skin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Sheets </I>for the bed should be made from some washable cotton material. A mother should have enough sheets to keep the bed clean and dry at all times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Blankets </I>are needed to keep the baby warm in cool weather. They can be cotton or wool, depending on the weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Mosquito netting </I>to cover the baby's bed if the windows and door of the house are not covered with screens. Insects can carry disease. They will also make a baby very uncomfortable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Plan for delivery</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If her baby will be delivered at home, a pregnant woman should:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Make a large waterproof pad to protect her mattress from being soiled during delivery. Pads can be made from rubber, plastic, large leaves, rush matting, or newspaper. She should cover the pad with a clean cloth if it can't be washed with soap and water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Prepare 12 rags about 45 centimeters or 18 inches square. They should be washed in soap and water, hung in the sun to dry, then folded and stored in a clean place. She will wear these until the bleeding stops after the baby is born.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Arrange with the doctor or a trained midwife for her delivery.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baby beds take many forms around the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p107a.jpg"></center><br>
+ COLOMBIA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p107b.jpg"></center><br>
+ INDIA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p107c.jpg"></center><br>
+ ISRAEL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If her baby will be delivered in a maternity center, she should:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Make arrangements with the center ahead of time, if possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Take clean clothes for herself and the baby.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a maternity center, a pregnant woman will have proper assistance and her baby can be given expert care in the first hours and days after birth. This is an important time for both the mother and the baby.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A woman will know when her baby is starting to be born. The process is called labor, and it usually begins with mild cramps or pains in the lower back or lower part of the stomach. As time passes, these cramps happen more often, get harder, and come at regular intervals. Sometimes the bag of water around the baby breaks during labor and there is either a sudden gush or a steady leak of water from the birth canal. Remind pregnant women that they should be sure to let the doctor or midwife know when this happens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p108.jpg"></center><br>
+ Midwives in Afghanistan receive special training in delivering and caring for babies and mothers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Midwives</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The care a mother and her baby receive during delivery is of great importance to the health and wellbeing of both. If the pregnant woman will use a midwife, help her select one who has received good training. Most countries now have extensive programs for training midwives. Generally it is no longer necessary to use one who is not trained. A trained midwife will:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· wash her hands well before touching any materials to be used during delivery and before delivering the baby.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· cut the cord with a clean instrument which she has boiled just before using.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· cover the cord stump with a clean, dry cloth, and nothing else.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· put silver nitrate drops or penicillin ointment on the baby's eyes within an hour after it is born.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· get help from a doctor if there are problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">After the baby arrives</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Feeding</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A baby should be kept clean, comfortable, and contented and he will grow steadily and gradually. The one thing that does more than anything else to keep a baby healthy, happy, and growing well during his first year is to be nursed at the breast. Mother's milk is exactly right for a baby's needs. A baby finds comfort and feels safe when he is held in his mother's arms for nursing. The mother must eat well herself to make enough milk for the baby.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sunshine helps babies grow strong bones. In some parts of the world, babies always wear so much heavy clothing that they get the direct rays of the sun only on their faces. In other countries, especially in the tropics, babies are always kept in the shade. These babies may need some fish liver oil or vitamin D to help make their bones strong. Refer mothers to your health department to learn how to get any special vitamins their babies need.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bathing the baby</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Babies should be bathed every day to keep them clean and comfortable. Just before feeding is a good time. Warn mothers to use only safe water for baby's bath. Have them boil it for at least 10 minutes and let it cool before using it. Everything that is used for the bath should be thoroughly clean. Mothers should wash their own hands before starting to bathe the baby. They should use a clean soft cloth and mild soap to wash the baby and a clean soft towel to dry him.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teach them to pay special attention to the baby's face, hands, and buttocks. Show them how to wash all the creases and between the fingers and toes. Remind them to bathe the baby in a warm place out of drafts. The baby should not be put in a tub until his navel is healed. He may be sponged off with warm, clean water for the first few weeks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p109.jpg"></center><br>
+ This mother in Sierra Leone knows how to hold her baby so he feels secure while he is being bathed. When she holds him in this manner he cannot slide from her hands while he is soapy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Sleep</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A very young baby sleeps most of the day and night. His bedding and clothing should be clean, dry, and suitable for the weather. Until a baby is able to turn over by himself, he needs to have someone change his position in bed from time to time. This is less tiring for the baby and more interesting. He also has more chances to learn to use his body.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A baby sleeps better when he is not disturbed. This means, for example, when he is not in someone's arms or lap or tied to a person's back. The baby should be put to sleep in a place where he can stretch and play when he wakes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Health care</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Babies should be taken to the doctor or clinic for regular examinations. The doctor will tell a mother how often to bring her baby to see him. This is the best way for her to be sure the baby is growing normally and learn how to care for him. The doctor will treat any disease or injury a baby may have and give him injections to protect him from some of the serious diseases. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Everything that touches a baby should be kept clean-his food, water, dishes, clothing, and bedding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A baby should have plenty of fresh air and sunshine, but he should not get sunburned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Babies need protection from flies, mosquitoes, and other insects. These carry diseases. Sick people should stay away from babies. If the baby's mother is sick or has a cold, she should keep her face away from his and not breathe on him. This will help prevent her from giving the cold to the baby. If she is very sick, someone else should care for the baby. The mother will get well faster too if she can rest while she is sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">As a child grows</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taking care of a baby and watching him grow and develop can be a delight. Getting him off to a good start toward a healthy, happy, useful life gives much satisfaction and joy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All children need to feel loved, wanted, and safe</I>. Usually a child's own family, his mother and father, possibly with the help of an older brother or sister, or grandparent, are the people best suited to care for him. A child cared for away from his home may need extra attention to feel safe and secure. Of course, a child should always be treated kindly but firmly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even when a baby is only a few days old, he needs love as much as he needs food. He should be cuddled when he is fed. Talk to him. A baby enjoys being talked to and he learns to talk by imitating what he hears. Both his parents and his brothers and sisters should show that they love him by patting him and playing with him not only when he is crying but also at other times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p110.jpg"></center><br>
+ There is no doubt that this baby in Basutoland knows that he is loved and wanted. Tender loving care helps a baby grow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a baby plays, he uses his eyes, mouth, hands, and whole body. Let him have many chances to play and give him things to play with. The best toys for a baby or small child are large, round, or blunt objects that cannot break and that can be washed. He should be able to hold them easily. They should be safe for him to chew on. If the toys or objects are a bright color, he will see them more easily, especially when he is very young. Small, sharp, pointed, or breakable playthings should not be given to a child. Keep toys clean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How a baby grows and develops</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A healthy baby grows every day. He grows heavier and taller. He becomes more skilled in the use of his whole body. You will also notice that he becomes more interested in making sounds. He sees and begins to notice people and things around him.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p111.jpg"></center><br>
+ This Indian village worker helps the women check on the growth and development of their babies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not all babies grow and develop at the same rate. Some grow and develop fast. Some grow large. Others grow slowly and never become very large. The following is about the order a baby learns to do things:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Makes sounds and cries as soon as he is born.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Begins to look at mother or other familiar person and smile at about 2 to 3 months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Begins to gurgle and coo and hold up his head at about 3 to 4 months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Reaches for and tries to grab an object, laughs out loud, and babbles at about 4 months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Sits up with support at about 6 months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Sits alone and plays with toys, putting everything in his mouth; back, arms and legs become stronger at about 8 months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crawls or hitches along to get across the floor, pulls himself up to standing position, and tries to stand alone at 9 to 10 months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tries to walk holding to someone's hand -  learns a few words-legs, arms, back, and brain much more developed (about 1 year).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Begins teething-sometimes at 6 months, sometimes at 1 year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Walks alone and explores everything around-picks up objects-learns more words-laughs and enjoys all members of the family-mind and body developing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Works at being a real member of the family (between first and second year).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People can help a baby grow and develop by:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Holding bright things for his eye to follow and for him to try to reach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Holding, cuddling, talking, and playing with him.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Putting him on his stomach to play and look around.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Letting him sit up on their lap or a clean mat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Propping him up with pillows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Giving him clean, safe things to handle, play with, and suck on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Giving him a clean, clear space to crawl in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Holding both his hands while he toddles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Making the house safe for him to explore, talking to him, letting him try to feed himself, giving him lots of praise and loving attention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The second year</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All over the world too many babies become sick and often die during their second year. Why? It is because this is the time a baby is weaned from his mother's breast. Often the food he is given is not sanitary and also does not give him enough nourishment. Whether the baby lives and becomes strong and healthy after he is weaned depends almost entirely on how his mother feeds him. See page 49 on how to feed a child of this age.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remind mothers that having everything very clean is just as important for this little toddler as it is for the infant-food, dishes, water, clothing, bedding, and his body. Children should not sit or lie directly on the ground without a shirt and pair of pants for protection. They can get diseases from the dirt. Shoes or sandals help protect their feet from picking up infections from the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is the time to begin training a child to use the pot or latrine and to begin teaching him good habits of eating, sleeping, and cleanliness, such as washing his hands before handling food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The years before school</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sometimes children from 2 to 5 years old are neglected by their parents. They are no longer considered babies, but they are not ready for school. Children this age are not old enough to look after themselves. They often do not get the attention the children in school get. But these years are highly important to the health and future development of every child.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parents want their children to do well in school. The best way they can help each child is to give him a strong, healthy body. Food continues to be of great importance. See page 51. These are the years when children have the usual childhood diseases. They need plenty of the right foods to help them resist these diseases and to rebuild their bodies after illness. During this time, children are also growing fast. They are very active, running and playing. They need foods for energy and body building at this time too.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parents should take special care to continue training the young child in good habits of eating, sleeping, and cleanliness before he starts to school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p113a.jpg"></center><br>
+ Governments find it hard to reach pre-school children with good nutrition programs. Honduras is expanding its services to this age group at health centers, feeding centers, and nursery schools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p113b.jpg"></center><br>
+ Pre-school children are fortunate if there is a local nursery school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Children need firm treatment. Love them and treat them kindly, but be firm, too. Parents should show the child clearly what they want him to do and then see that he does it. If they want him to learn to obey, they must be sure to follow through to see that he obeys. Parents should never let a child feel it doesn't matter whether he obeys or not. This may happen if they threaten a child with punishment and then fail to carry it out. Constant threatening makes it harder to train children to obey. Children respond to reasoning, kindness, and love much quicker than they do to threats of punishment Remind parents to praise the child when he does well. Then he will want to do well again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Prevent accidents</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most small children are very active and curious about the world around them. They learn about many things by feeling them and tasting them. Because they do not understand which things will hurt them and which will not, parents must be careful to keep harmful objects such as knives, scissors, arrows, pointed sticks, and broken glass out of their reach. They can cause painful cuts and even make a child blind if they strike his eyes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little children like to taste everything and cannot tell what tastes good or bad. Medicines, soaps, household cleaners, bug killers, kerosene, acids, and lye can poison or burn a child if he touches or swallows them. All of these things should be kept in a high cupboard or locked in a box or cabinet where the child cannot get them. The same care should be taken with all poisons or chemicals used in farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until he learns about the dangers of fire, road traffic, deep water, etc., a child should always be carefully watched by a responsible adult or older child to keep him from being burned, drowned, or run over. They must keep him at a safe distance or provide protection from open fires, ovens, hot water, firecrackers, pools, drainage canals, and open wells.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Children must play</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p114.png"></center><br>
+ Children must play</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Play helps children's bodies grow. It also helps develop their minds and teaches them to get along with other children and with adults. Time spent in play is time spent learning many important things. Children learn from playing as well as from working.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Play is one of the chief ways children use their curiosity and learn to invent and create. Play helps them develop their own individuality and find interests that will be useful to them when they grow up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important for a child to have toys. Toys need not cost much money. A child can learn from simple things his father or mother can make for him. Building blocks, a cart with wooden wheels, and stuffed dolls or animals made from cloth scraps are examples. All toys should be washable and kept clean in case a small child puts them in his mouth. Toys should be too big for a child to swallow and strong enough so he cannot pull off small parts of them to put in his mouth, nose, or ear. Children put everything in their mouths so it is better not to paint the toys since many paints have lead in them. Lead is poisonous and hard to get out of the body.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is good for every child to have some possessions of his own. It teaches him to take care of things and to respect the possessions of others. Learning to take care of their own playthings teaches children responsibility. This is important to their success in school and through life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As children get a little older, they learn to play with anything available, such as sand, shells, sticks, leaves, etc. They also invent their own games. Play helps to make children more ready for school. When they play, they are learning by themselves about the real things which they will later read about in books.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parents and older children should take a little time each day to play with the small children, talk and sing to them, and take an interest in what they are doing. Parents can tell pleasant stories to their children and help them learn to sing little simple songs. They should not tell children stories that scare them, and should answer a child's questions in a kind, intelligent way. Remember: playing is growing, learning, and preparing for school. Playing is for every day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p115a.jpg"></center><br>
+ Children in India and Puerto Rico are the same. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p115b.jpg"></center><br>
+ They play with whatever is available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When children go to school</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Children need the help of their parents and the whole family if they are to like school and do well in their studies. The mother and father must take an interest in what their children are learning in school and help them in every way they can. Children need praise for studying hard and parents should, if possible, arrange a quiet place for their children to study. Homework for school is as important as any other work in the house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p115c.jpg"></center><br>
+ These third-grade children in Afghanistan are alert and eager to learn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Sleep</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like younger children, children going to school not only need lots of sleep, but they need restful sleep. What helps a child to sleep well?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· a little cot or small bed all his own when this is possible. He should not sleep with grownups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· clean bedding and a good firm mattress or pad.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· if needed, a net to protect against insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· fresh air circulating around his bed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· a quiet place away from noise, loud voices, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· exercise in the fresh air and a nourishing meal before going to bed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· light covering for cool weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· loose and dry clothing for sleep.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Clothes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clean. neat clothing and a clean body give the school child self-confidence. Children should not be sent to school in dirty or torn clothes. If he has clean clothes that he feels proud of, it will be easier to get the child to wash or take a bath so he will be clean all over before he goes to school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Encourage mothers to choose cotton materials that can easily be washed for their children's school clothes. School clothes should be simple, not fancy. They should be comfortable and suitable for play and sports as well as for the schoolroom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Keeping children well</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mothers should watch their children for any signs of sickness. If a child feels hot, looks pale or flushed, does not want to eat or play, vomits, or has a bad cough and cold, she should seek help. The doctor or nurse can help you teach mothers the danger signs of illness and what to do.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A mother should keep a sick child quiet and away from other children. She should not force him to eat, but perhaps try to give him a little boiled water. She should not give a baby or child any medicine unless it is recommended by the doctor or health nurse. If the child becomes worse after several hours or overnight, she should go to the health center or dispensary right away and carefully follow the advice they give her.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Make a good home life for children</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Children learn from what they hear and see around them every day. Parents should realize that children watch everything they do and imitate them. Children want to be like the people they like and admire. Parents should set a good example. If parents want their children to behave well, they must tell them and show them what they expect. If they say "please" and "thank you", the children soon will copy them. When parents quarrel, children quarrel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not good for children to live in noise, disorder, and unpleasantness. Children do best where family members are kind and pleasant with each other, where parents show interest in their children's growth and learning, and have regular times for eating and sleeping. It is good for children to have a place to keep their clothes, toys, books, and personal belongings. Then they know where to find them and learn to be responsible for them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Activities and visual aids</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use or adapt these examples in your teaching to make learning more interesting in classes for parents. Refer to the "Food and Nutrition" chapter for suggestions on foods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Getting ready for the baby</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Give demonstrations on:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) How to prepare a simple, inexpensive meal that meets the food needs of a pregnant woman.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b) How to prepare clean utensils for storing boiled water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Use a flannelgraph to show the needs of a pregnant woman: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">good diet, rest, exercise, and regular visits to a health center.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Use films, filmstrips, slides, or posters when you discuss: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">sanitation in and around the house. cleaning the house and surroundings. immunizations and preventing disease. food for healthful growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Have mothers list things in their houses and yards that might cause sickness or accidents to babies and children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Invite a health nurse or doctor to talk with mothers about why they should visit the health center regularly for checkups before and after the baby comes, and what health services are available for mothers and children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Exhibit and discuss: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">clothes needed for a new baby. equipment needed for bathing the baby.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Show prospective parents how to make baby beds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">II. After the baby arrives</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Give demonstrations on:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) Bathing a baby-include boiling and cooling water, preparing needed equipment and supplies, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b)  Washing, drying, and caring for a baby's diapers and other clothing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Use a flannelgraph, posters, or films to show:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) Importance of breast feeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b) Kind of diet nursing mothers need. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(c) How a baby grows and develops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Invite four or five mothers with healthy babies of different ages to bring them to a meeting. For example, a baby 2 months old, a baby of 5 to 6 months, a baby 8 to 9 months, and a baby a year old. Point out differences in the stage of development each has reached. You might make a record or photograph of each child and, 6 months later, have them bring the same babies again to see the changes that have taken place in each.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Show how to make suitable toys for infants (such as a rattle from a gourd) and how to provide things to attract their attention (hanging a bright-colored cloth, feathers, or ribbon over the baby's bed for him to watch. )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">III. Baby's second year</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Give demonstrations on:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) Preparing foods for the baby who is being weaned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b) How to feed the baby with a spoon or give him milk from a cup.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Use puppets to show the mother of a healthy baby talking to the mother of a baby who became sick and weak after he was weaned. Have her tell what foods a baby needs after he has been taken off the breast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Give demonstrations and use visuals to show how to guard a toddler from danger. Arrange a display of things that are dangerous to the child such as kerosene, medicines, sprays, knives, nails, pins, etc., and that must be kept out of reach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Show how to make simple safe toys such as spools, blocks, small boxes, beanbags, and stuffed animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Set up an exhibit of safe, easy-to-make toys.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IV. The years before school</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Display the different kinds of foods a child needs each day to grow and be healthy. Include energy, building, and protective foods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Demonstrate how to prepare a nourishing meal for a pre-school child.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Use posters, flashcards, film, or filmstrips to show children practicing such good health habits as eating a variety of foods, sleeping long hours, keeping hair, eyes, nails, and teeth clean, washing hands before eating and after going to the toilet, and taking a bath.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Invite a primary teacher or school principal to tell mothers and fathers how they can prepare their children for school and what the children should be learning before they start to school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V. When children go to school</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Give demonstrations on:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) Preparing a good nourishing meal for a child to eat before he starts off to school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b) Preparing a simple, nutritious lunch for the child to carry to school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Let mothers act out a play or skit about two families with children in school. Let one be a family in which parents do not help or encourage children in their schoolwork and the other one where the parents pay careful attention to the child's need for food, clothing, rest, play, and study. Try to bring out the difference in the interest and progress the children in the two families make in their schoolwork.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Invite teachers to your meetings to talk to parents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Arrange for a group of parents to visit the school to learn more about the school program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Exhibit a bedroom with a part screened off that a school child can claim for his own. Show a small homemade bed and homemade storage for a child's clothes and personal belongings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Demonstrate how a well-lighted study area for a school child can be arranged in a village home.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Invite health officials to teach mothers how to recognize that a child is sick and what simple remedies and first aid treatments they can use for accidents and minor illnesses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Arrange skits and plays to show:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) Two families, one quarrelsome, noisy, and disorderly; the other calm, happy, and well organized. The skit should show how children react in each type of home.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b) A family in which parents are not firm with the children, let them disobey at certain times, and at other times threaten to punish them and then don't do it. Try to show in the skit the effect lack of discipline has on the children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Health</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many people have never known what it is like to feel well and be healthy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a person does not feel like eating, cannot work, or has a severe pain, he may take medicine, see a doctor, or go to a hospital. He knows he is sick. Serious sickness is a big problem and often a big expense to the family. But many people have sicknesses such as malaria, dysentery, parasites, and malnutrition that they have lived with all their lives. They do not realize they are sick or know they can do something about it. All over the world people need to understand what good health is and what they can do to make themselves, their families, and their entire village healthier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People need to understand that their everyday living habits have a great influence on their health. These include what they eat, how they cook and wash dishes. the kind of water they drink, and whether or not they keep themselves clean and live in a clean house with clean surroundings. They need to learn what sanitation has to do with good health.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Health is a national problem</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many people thought to be lazy and shiftless actually are sick and do not have enough energy to work. Their thinking is dulled because they are in poor physical condition. They do not make productive citizens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most governments now consider health as one of the first and major problems to deal with in national development. They know healthy citizens will be happier, able to work better, more energetic, and more alert. They will be better citizens, better villagers, and better parents. Most countries have many kinds of health programs. Find out about those in your country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Health Organization (WHO) was formed within the United Nations to deal with health problems that are important to people in all parts of the world. WHO has many different kinds of programs. Find out what work this organization is doing your country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also learn what health resources are available in your area; where the clinics, health centers, and hospitals are located; who the doctors, nurses, licensed midwives, sanitarians, and health education workers in your area are and where they are located; and what kinds of health programs are carried on in the schools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Health is your job</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As you work and talk with the people in the village, you will see and hear about their health problems almost every day. This will give you a chance to help them better understand what causes many of these problems and what they can do. Much of the work you do in the village will be related directly or indirectly to improving the health of the people. You will want to work closely with all the other people doing health work in your area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some village workers have made a mistake by overlooking the "medicine man" or "witch doctor". While these men are not professionally trained and may not have reliable knowledge about health, it is wise to recognize their influence on the people who go to them. Some village workers have worked successfully through these medicine men, teaching them and giving them correct information on the kinds of health problems they deal with.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to remember that the medicine man cares about the people in the village where he works and that he is always trying to help them. You may be able to help him do a better job by telling him what is in this chapter of your handbook or by letting him read it if he can. Another way you might help him is by letting him assist you with some of your demonstrations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Safe drinking water</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most important ways you can help village people improve their health is by helping them to get and use safe water. Safe water is free from germs that cause typhoid fever, dysentery, cholera, infectious hepatitis, and other diseases. Even though water may look clear and clean, it can have disease germs in it. You cannot tell if water is safe by looking at it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How many people in your village get their water from an open well, an irrigation ditch, a river, or a stream ? Water from such unsafe sources will most likely be full of disease germs because people put human excrete in them. Human excrete always has germs in it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Consult your local health officers about ways to help people get a safe water supply. A sanitary well to supply water for a number of families or the whole village is probably the best way. This can be one of your most important improvement projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless water comes from a source which has been tested and found safe, boiling is the surest way to make it safe. Boil water for at least 10 minutes. Store it in a clean, covered container. Always use boiled water for drinking, washing fruits and vegetables to be eaten raw, mixing with powdered milk, making ice, and brushing teeth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each member of the family should have his own drinking cup. These can easily be made from a tin can, gourd, or coconut shell if cups are not available. Separate cups help prevent the spread of germs from one person to another.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p120.jpg"></center><br>
+ This worker in Thailand is demonstrating how to boil water to make it safe for drinking. She is checking to see that it is really boiling before she starts to count time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Disposal of wastes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wastes include trash, garbage, used water, human excrete, and animal wastes. Garbage and trash left around the home are food for flies, roaches, mice, and rats. These insects and rodents often carry disease germs from one person to another. These germs may cause diseases like typhoid fever, dysentery, murine typhus fever, ratbite fever, food poisoning, and cholera.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It may be hard to convince villagers how important cleanliness is to their health. However, keeping the house and yard clean is one of the best ways families can protect themselves against these diseases. Disposing of wastes safely is one of the first steps in having a clean house and clean surroundings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teach families never to let garbage, trash, or wastes of any kind pile up in or around the home. Help them to understand that when every house and yard in the community is kept clean, everyone benefits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human waste or night soil </I>is very dangerous. It always carries disease germs. Diseases that human waste can spread include hookworm, typhoid fever, dysentery, cholera schistosomiasis (bilharzia), infectious hepatitis (liver disease), roundworm, and many others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Night soil should never be used on the garden. People should never touch it with their hands. There is no known way to treat night soil at home to make it safe. It is responsible for much of the hookworm people have. Both children and adults should always wear shoes if they come in contact with night soil because hookworm enters the body through the feet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most villages, the safest and cheapest way to dispose of human waste is the sanitary latrine. In most countries, the health department has sanitary inspectors working in rural areas. Ask the sanitary inspector from your health department to help you get people to build sanitary latrines. He can help you choose suitable locations. He will also know the best kinds of inexpensive material available and how to build the latrines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p121.png"></center><br>
+ This bamboo latrine has a raised doorway to make it harder for snakes and other vermin to get inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p121a.jpg"></center><br>
+ Garbage containers can be made of many easily available materials. This homemaker in Puerto Rico has made one of an old nail keg. She has put a tight-fitting lid on it to keep out flies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p121b.jpg"></center><br>
+ Newly made sanitary latrine base slabs are ready for distribution to villagers in Nicaragua. These slabs are placed over a pit and a seat box is fitted over the opening. Wooden covers are placed over the seat opening when the latrine is not in use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Garbage </I>consists of food wastes such as peelings, scraps, and bones. Every family should collect its garbage in a container with a tight-fitting cover. Use garbage as feed for farm animals such as pigs, chickens, and goats, bury it, or use it for fertilizer. To use garbage for fertilizer, empty it into a pit or trench, sprinkle a thin coat of lime over it, and then cover it with about 10 inches of dirt to keep flies and animals out. Leave it buried 2 to 3 months before using. The lime helps make the garbage become better fertilizer to use in your garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trash </I>such as tin cans, old bottles, rusty nails, broken dishes. old rags, paper, dead brush, and other rubbish provides breeding places for rats. Stagnant puddles and anything that holds water can be a breeding place for mosquitoes. Families should keep trash separate from garbage. Get rid of it regularly. Don't let it pile up. Burn all that can be burned Trash like broken dishes, glass, tin cans, etc. should be buried. Put trash in a container with a tight-fitting cover until it can be burned or buried. This will help keep it away from insects and animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal wastes </I>inside or around a house make it dirty looking and unsanitary. These wastes also contain disease germs and they attract flies. Animal manure makes good fertilizer. It should not be allowed to pile up around the house or in areas where animals are kept. It is much more sanitary to have a special yard or lot away from the house for chickens and farm animals. Wastes in or around the house from pets such as cats and dogs should be cleaned up or covered over and not allowed to stand to attract flies and other insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p122.png"></center><br>
+ A homemade fly trap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Household pests</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches, bedbugs, fleas, lice, ants, scorpions, rats, and mice are some of the worst household pests. No one wants them around. They bite and make a person uncomfortable. They carry disease germs. Malaria, yellow fever, and filariasis are diseases carried by different kinds of mosquitoes. Rats and mice are very destructive. They eat food and feed that the family and animals need. All of these dangerous pests live and breed in dark, dirty, and damp places. They like places where garbage, trash, and filth pile up and where there is stagnant water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first step in getting rid of pests is to get the whole village to recognize the danger and want to control them. Most of these pests go from one house to another. One family's efforts may not be very effective if the family next door does nothing. It takes community action with people working together. Every family in the village must keep its own house and yard clean and sanitary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health and other government officials can be most helpful in carrying out a village or communitywide program on pest control. They often put on mosquito control campaigns or spray all the houses in a village against mosquitoes and other insects. They can advise you on the use of insecticides for controlling and getting rid of pests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insecticides are now commonly used in most areas. There are many different kinds. Some come in spray form and some in dust form. Some are better for certain pests than others. Your health officials can tell you the best kind for each pest. Insecticides must be used with care because they are poisonous to people and animals. They should always be kept out of reach of children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Personal cleanliness</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Good personal appearance, good health, and a happy pleasant personality will help people to be well liked and respected in the village. To look well and feel comfortable and happy, a person must keep his body clean, wear clean clothing, sleep in a clean bed, and live in a clean house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For good personal cleanliness each person should:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bathe every day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Brush his teeth with safe water when he gets up mornings and before going to bed. When possible, brushing after each meal is a good practice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keep his hair and scalp clean by washing hair as often as necessary to keep it clean and attractive. For many people, this is 10 days to 2 weeks. Oily hair will need to be washed more often.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Comb and brush his hair every day with his own brush and comb that no one else uses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wash his hands with soap often-<I>before </I>eating, <I>before </I>starting to prepare meals or handle food, dishes, or cooking utensils, <I>before </I>handling the baby, or <I>after </I>touching a sick person. He should wash his hands <I>after </I>each time he goes to the latrine, handles animals, does any farm work, or coughs or sneezes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Have his own towel that no one else uses and wipe his hands dry every time he washes them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keep fingernails clean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Take good care of his feet. They perspire. Keep them dry. Wash them before going to bed and oftener if needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wear clean clothes-underwear and top clothes. Dirty clothes can carry disease germs and attract body lice. Sleep in clean clothes and in a clean bed. Do not sleep in underwear worn during the day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wash sheets, blankets, quilts, and mattress covers often.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Use special care during menstruation. Bathe often in warm water. Wear sanitary pads and change them often to avoid bad odor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Live in a clean place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p123a.jpg"></center><br>
+ Waste water left lying the ground attracts insects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p123b.jpg"></center><br>
+ The people of this Nigerian village smoothed the street and built a concrete drain down the middle to carry water to a soak pit at the edge of the village. Before this was done (above), the uneven ground made walking difficult. Now (below), the women have a place to pour their wash water. Also notice the half-door of the house on the right. This helps keep the animals out of the house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p124.png"></center><br>
+ Personal cleanliness</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Immunization</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Protection against certain serious diseases can be given by immunization. This is done with vaccines which are injected into the body. A vaccine for one disease will not protect you from another disease. Sometimes mixtures of vaccines are given in one injection to protect against two or more different diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All children and adults should be immunized against certain serious diseases if the vaccines are available. For children, many of the immunizations can be started in the first months of life. At the present time, vaccines have been developed for polio, smallpox, diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus, measles, typhoid fever, cholera, yellow fever, and tuberculosis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p124.jpg"></center><br>
+ A child needs more than amulets to be protected from disease. This one also visits the health center regularly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sometimes, as noted below, the person will suffer from fever, headache, a tired feeling, and fussiness (in children) after having injections. This discomfort will go away in a day or two after the injection. It is worth suffering this discomfort to avoid bad illness or even death from the diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a person gets an injection, he should ask the doctor what kind of reaction he might get from it. If he gets this reaction, the person should stay in bed, drink plenty of fluids such as water, fruit juices, or milk, and eat his normal diet. He can also take aspirin. The doctor, nurse, or druggist can say how much aspirin to take. The very uncomfortable person should see a doctor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smallpox </I>is a very serious disease that causes many deaths, disfiguring scars, and blindness among people of all ages in many parts of the world. A person who has smallpox gets a rash on his body that turns into ugly blisters. This disease causes a person to have pain in his head, back, and stomach. Vaccination is a sure way to keep from getting smallpox. Many health departments have vaccinators who visit villages every year to vaccinate the people. Or, people can ask for a smallpox vaccination from their nearest health center or dispensary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vaccination is usually given by making small pricks on the arm and placing a small amount of vaccine on it. The site of the vaccine will become red and itchy, form a blister, and then a scab. This will fall off and leave a small scar. There may also be slight fever for a few days. It may take up to 4 weeks from the time the vaccine is given until the scab falls off. The arm should be kept clean and dry during this time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In countries where smallpox still occurs, children should be vaccinated at about the age of 3 months and again at about 18 months. In some countries, the health department recommends that adults and children should be revaccinated every year Ask your health center or vaccinator what is recommended where you live. In many countries, governments are trying to get rid of smallpox completely by vaccinating the entire population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p125.jpg"></center><br>
+ This village worker in Pakistan has been trained to give immunizations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Measles </I>is a childhood disease which can be very serious. In some countries, it causes many deaths and disability among children. This disease shows itself in a rash on the body and causes a person to have fever, sore throat, and a swollen sore neck under the jaws. A vaccine is now available to keep the child from getting measles. This vaccine should be given to the child when he is 9 months old. If this is not possible, he should have the vaccine as soon as possible after he is 9 months old and before his sixth birthday. This is because most children get measles before they are 6 years old. Only one injection is required to protect the child against measles. It does not have to be repeated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some children may get fever about a week after taking the injection. A few of these children will also have a mild rash on the body, headache, and fussiness a few days after the fever starts. These reactions may last for a few days. They will then go away.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the health center or dispensary in your area provides measles vaccine, tell the mothers about it. They may also be able to get the measles vaccine from teams of health workers that come to the village. Ask your health department about this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diphtheria, whooping cough, and tetanus </I>are serious diseases that can attack children. Adults can also suffer from diphtheria and tetanus. A person who has diphtheria has a very sore throat, a swollen and painful neck, and sometimes has trouble breathing. With whooping cough, a child has fever and a very bad, noisy, and choking kind of cough. Tetanus causes a person's jaws and neck to feel tight and causes the body to become stiff. To prevent diphtheria and tetanus, a vaccine called DPT is given to children up to 5 years of age. After this age, a vaccine for diphtheria and tetanus called DT is given. These vaccines are examples of immunizations for more than one disease that can be given in one injection. Your health center, hospital, or dispensary will tell you if they are available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The child may have some soreness and swelling of the arm where the injection was given. He may also have some fever and fussiness. These reactions may come within a day or two after the shot.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Polio</I>, also called poliomyelitis or infantile paralysis, can cripple arms and legs or cause death. The muscles of a person who has polio feel weak to him. Sometimes he cannot move at all. Not much can be done after someone has polio, but it can be prevented. Two vaccines have been developed. The Salk vaccine is given in injection. The Sabin vaccine is given by mouth. Both keep people from getting polio. Your health department can tell you if polio vaccine is available and how you can get it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yellow fever </I>is carried to man by the bite of a special mosquito called <I>Aedes aegypti</I>. It is a very serious disease, but it can be prevented by injections of yellow fever vaccine. A person who is sick with this disease has fever, headache, and vomiting. Sometimes, the whites of his eyes look yellow. If you live in an area where there is yellow fever, ask your health department about immunizations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cholera </I>causes many deaths and much suffering every year in some parts of the world. A person who has this disease vomits, has a great many watery stools, and becomes very weak. The best way to prevent the spread of cholera is by keeping your body clean, getting rid of body wastes in a safe way, drinking safe water and milk, eating cooked food, and keeping a clean home and yard. Cholera shots are also available in some countries. They help keep people from getting cholera. The injection is given in the arm and may cause some soreness and, in some cases, a slight fever. You should check with your health department to find out if these injections are recommended in your area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Typhoid fever </I>is a common disease in many countries. It causes severe sickness and often death. This disease causes a person to be tired and feel very bad. He will have a very high fever and severe cramps in his intestines. The best way to keep from getting typhoid fever is to always drink safe water and milk, get rid of body wastes in a safe way, keep home and yard clean, get rid of flies, and keep your body clean, especially the hands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Typhoid vaccine injections give protection against typhoid fever. Ask your health department if it is available and if it is recommended where you live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tuberculosis </I>is a serious catching disease which is still a big problem in many countries. It causes long periods of sickness and disability and many deaths. Most often, the disease affects the lungs. It can also attack the skin, glands, bones and joints, intestines, and other organs. In the early stages of tuberculosis, the person may not even know he has it because he does not feel sick. Later, though, the person develops a cough, feels very tired, has night sweats, and somethimes coughs up blood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To keep from spreading this disease, people should always cover their mouths when they cough. They should not spit on the ground or floor because tuberculosis germs are coughed or spit out by a person who has the disease. People with chronic coughs should see a doctor and get treatment. If people know someone with a chronic cough, they should be careful that he does not cough or breathe in their faces.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teach the people in your village to always boil milk before drinking it, unless it is pasteurized milk. Milk from tubercular cows will have tuberculosis germs in it. Boiling for 16 minutes will kill these germs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other ways they can keep from getting this disease are: always eat enough clean, safe, and the right kinds of food to stay strong; keep home and yard clean; keep clothes and body clean; get rid of flies; and try not to sleep in the same room with anyone who has tuberculosis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A vaccine called BCG is available in many countries through the health department. This vaccine will help protect the person against tuberculosis. It is generally given in one injection to babies and children. After he gives the injection, the doctor must check the person later to be sure the vaccination did its work. You should ask your health department if BCG is available in your area and how you can get it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The health department may also give chest X-rays. These are used to help find people who have tuberculosis so they can get medical treatment and be cured. Ask your health department about this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Family planning</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People everywhere want to have a better way of life. They want better housing, food, and clothing; education for their children; medicines and hospital care when they are sick; and jobs where they can earn enough money to take care of their families.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments are making great efforts to raise the standards of living of their people. They are trying to bring more and better services to the people. These include hospitals, health centers, schools, housing, roads, electricity, water, and many others. But the number of people is growing so fast that many governments do not have enough money and resources to give the people the services they want and need.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Families are faced with the same problem. They often do not have enough money to buy the things they need. Every new baby makes it harder. More food, more clothing, more living space, more money, and more medicines are needed. Usually, the family gets poorer as it gets larger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many mothers and fathers also realize that having too many children harms the health of the mother. She becomes weak and may even die. When mothers have many babies close together, the babies may be weak and small or they get sick easily. The mother's body needs rest between babies to become strong again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sometimes, the overburdened mother is unable to carry the baby long enough, then she has a miscarriage. This means the baby comes before it is ready to be born and, therefore, it does not live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sometimes women, especially if they have had many babies and feel very sick and tired, will use unsafe ways of forcing a miscarriage to get rid of the baby starting inside of them. This is called an abortion. Abortions can be very dangerous to the mother when they are not done by a good doctor. The doctor can do it safely, but other people cannot, and so many women die. In many areas, abortions are not allowed because this is seen as destroying life after it has begun. It is much wiser to prevent a pregnancy than to try to stop it once it has started.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parents are beginning to want smaller families so they can enjoy a better life. They realize that it is no longer necessary to have many children so a few will live. Many more babies and young children live now because of better living conditions. Many are saved by immunizations that protect them from diseases such as smallpox, measles, polio, diphtheria, tetanus, and whooping cough. Others are saved because mothers can take them to child health clinics and health centers for regular care. Safe water and safe disposal of human wastes are now available to many communities. These have also made life much safer, especially for babies and young children who often died from diarrhea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p128.jpg"></center><br>
+ The government of India is concerned that population will grow faster than the food supply. In an attempt to provide a better life for all its people, it has introduced family planning institutes. This health worker is showing village women one way to control the size of their families.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is "birth control''? </I>Birth control is a way to keep life from beginning. Most people know that nature requires the sperm from the man to combine with the egg the woman produces. This combination travels down into the womb where it starts growing to form a baby. Birth control methods stop the egg and sperm from uniting and starting a new baby.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many different recommended methods of birth control which do not endanger the health of the parents. However, using a method regularly is important. Using a method only once in a while does not work even if it is a good method.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many governments have started new programs to help people learn how to have only the number of children they want. Family planning programs give information and help through hospitals, health centers, maternal and child health centers, and even through village shopkeepers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To learn about the birth control methods recommended and used in your country, go to a health center or family planning clinic. Here you can get the information and materials you need to show and explain the services the clinic gives to people. Find out what family planning services are available in your area. Encourage the people to use these services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You may be able to arrange for a family planning worker or a nurse from the health center to come to your village to meet with parents. Ask them to discuss and explain birth control methods and how parents can get help in planning their families. Or, you may arrange for a group of parents to visit the family planning clinic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can also help parents understand the importance of having smaller families and the number of babies they want. In this way, the birth of every new baby can be a joyous event because the parents want the baby and are prepared to take care of it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good time to talk to women about birth control is just before they get married or just after they have had a baby.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">First aid</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a person is injured, a family member or other person may have to give some emergency care immediately. If it is a serious injury, a doctor should be called as soon as possible. Here are some things you can teach villagers to do in the meantime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small cuts</I>. Wash a small cut, scratch, or insect bite with soap and clean water. Cover it with a bandage. If you do not have a bandage, cover the cut with a clean cloth and tie or tape it over the cut.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keep cuts or sores covered so that flies and dirt cannot carry germs to them. If redness and soreness appear, show them to a doctor or a dispensary worker.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Major wounds or cuts</I>. If a person has a large wound or cut:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Call a doctor immediately or take him to the nearest hospital or dispensary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Stop the bleeding promptly. To do this, press directly on the bleeding part with a clean cloth. If you do not have a clean cloth, use your bare, clean hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Place finely woven clean cloth next to the wound and tie or pin it into place. Raise a wounded arm or leg to help stop the bleeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Give the injured person plain water to drink if he feels thirsty. The water should not be hot or cold. If the wound is in the chest or abdomen, if he is unconscious or partly conscious, or if he is sick to his stomach, the injured person should not drink at all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keep the patient lying down and quiet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Protect the patient by covering him lightly with a blanket if it is cool or cold. Do not apply heat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burns</I>. If a person's skin is burned, he may get reddening, blisters, or damage underneath the skin. When you give first aid for serious burns, try to lessen the pain and shock and prevent infection. To do this:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wash your hands well with soap and water before handling the injured person.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cut the clothing from the burned area rather than taking it off. This will avoid further injury to the burned area by pressure or brushing against the burn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cover the burned area with a clean dry cloth wrapped lightly around the burn five or six times. This relieves the pain and protects the skin from dirt and germs. Do not break blisters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· If the burn covers a large area, wrap a clean sheet or towel around it in addition to the dry clean cloth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· If the burn is serious and covers a large part of the body, keep the person lying down. If the hand is burned, raise it above the level of the body and place pillows under it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Severely burned patients need fluids. If the injured person can not get to a doctor within half an hour, give him a half glass of water containing salt and soda every 15 minutes. If the injured person is a child (up to 12 years old), give him one quarter of a glass of the salt-soda water every 15 minutes. Put Œ teaspoon of salt and 1/8 teaspoon of baking soda in a liter (quart) of clean safe water to make the mixture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Take a severely burned person to a hospital or dispensary as soon as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Snakebite</I>. If a person is bitten by a poisonous snake from the group called pit vipers, he will feel immediate pain and swelling around the part where the snake poison entered the skin. The skin in the affected part will change color.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the bite is by one of the group of snakes that include the cobra, coral snake, and their relatives, there may be slight burning pain and swelling at the wound, nausea, vomiting, dimness of vision, and sweating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The bite of a nonpoisonous snake gives little pain and very little swelling. If the snake is nonpoisonous, first aid is the same as for ordinary wounds (see section on first aid for small cuts).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If a person is bitten by a poisonous snake and you have a snakebite kit, carefully follow the instructions given in the kit. If you do not have a snakebite kit follow these first aid measures <I>within an hour </I>after the victim was bitten:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Have the victim lie completely still. He must not walk or move around.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tie a band or narrow piece of cloth firmly 2 to 4 inches above the bite if it is on the arm or leg. If the band is properly adjusted, there will be some oozing of blood from the wound. It should not be tight enough to stop the blood flow to the arm or leg. Move the band away from the place of the bite if the swelling spreads away from the wound on the arm or leg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Sterilize a knife blade with a flame and make small cuts in the skin. Try to make the cuts into the place where the snake poison went into the skin. Cross cuts, about ),6-inch long (like this x), may be made at each fang mark. Make shallow cuts. Beware of cutting muscles and nerves of the fingers, hands, or wrist because they lie very close to the skin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Suck with your mouth at the crosscut area. The poison is not a stomach poison, but you should rinse the fluid from your mouth. Continue suction for an hour or more. Do not suck from the crosscut area with your mouth if you have an open sore or cut on your lips or in your mouth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Put ice water or ice on the wound if possible when you rest from giving suction. This will give some relief from pain and may slow the absorption of the poison into the body.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· If the victim stops breathing, give him mouth-to-mouth artificial respiration at once. (See section below on how to use this method. )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Take the victim to the nearest hospital or clinic as soon as possible. In moving the victim, keep him lying down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p130.png"></center><br>
+ Foot</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Artificial respiration</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Certain accidents and illness sometimes cause a person to stop breathing even though he is still alive. In these cases, artificial respiration may save his life. It causes air to flow into and out of the lungs when natural breathing stops. If you are not sure if a person is breathing, place your hands on his sides just above the waist. If he is breathing, you will usually be able to feel the movement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Artificial respiration must be started promptly after normal breathing stops. Most persons will die within 6 minutes or less after breathing stops unless they are given artificial respiration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mouth-to-mouth method is the best method of artificial respiration. It is used for all unconscious and non-breathing victims of drowning, electric shock, smoke or gas poisoning, drug or chemical poisoning, injuries to the chest, head, neck, and abdomen, convulsions, and choking or strangling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Place the victim on his back immediately.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Quickly clear his mouth and throat. If there is food or other material in the mouth, wipe it out quickly with your fingers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. With one hand grasp the victim's chin. Place your other hand on top of his head and tilt the head backward.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Place the thumb of one hand between the victim's jaws. Grasp the lower teeth and pull the jaw forward. Pinch the nostrils closed with the thumb and index finger of your other hand. Never let the victim's chin sag. Always keep his head tilted back.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Take a deep breath and place your mouth over the victim's mouth. Keep your mouth open wide while you breathe out deeply into the victim's lungs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. As soon as you see his chest rise, remove your mouth so that the air can come out of his lungs. Repeat steps 5 and 6 every 5 seconds until the victim breathes naturally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For infants or small children, cover both the mouth and nose with your mouth. Blow with small puffs of air from your cheeks. Puff into the child's lungs every 3 seconds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p131.jpg"></center><br>
+ A Red Cross worker in Zambia teaches mouth-to-mouth resuscitation to village workers who will then teach it to the people in their villages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p131.png"></center><br>
+ Artificial respiration</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Your first breath into the victim will let you know if there is anything blocking his throat. If there is, the chest will not rise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you cannot remove the obstruction with your fingers, quickly place the victim on his side. Then give him a sharp blow on his back between the shoulder blades to free the material in the throat. With a small child, hold him by the ankles with his head down. Give him two or three sharp pats between the shoulder blades. This will generally free the object in his throat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Sickness in the home</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Often, village people may get sick and be cared for by their family in their home. Teach them the following ways to help the sick person get well and prevent others from getting sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Serve clean food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Serve safe, clean water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bathe the patient once a day in clean water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wash hands in clean water before and after caring for the sick person.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· If possible, keep patient away from other members of the family if the illness is catching.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keep all medicine in a clean place out of the reach of children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keep the room of the sick person clean and tidy, and have plenty of fresh air in the room.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dishes that are used by the sick person should be washed with soap and hot water and kept separate from dishes the rest of the family use. The bedding the sick person uses should be washed with soap and hot water and dried in the sun, if possible. Put his bedding in the sun to air between washings. The sick person's bedding should always be clean and dry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the sick person can move in bed, he should move to different positions in the bed often. If he cannot move himself, a family member should move him to a different position at least four times a day. The family member should rub his back at least twice a day. This care will help keep good blood circulation and prevent sores from developing on his skin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the sick person cannot leave his bed to use the latrine, keep a container in his room that he can use in bed or beside his bed. This can be a bottle or a pot or pail with a wooden seat on it. A shallow pan can be used to slide under the sick person if he cannot get out of bed. Keep these containers covered and empty the contents of the bottle or pan into the latrine after use. To clean these containers, first rinse them with cold water and then wash with hot soapy water. Rinse them and place them in the sun to dry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A sick person may have disease germs in any material he coughs up. He should cough into a paper or into a tin or gourd that has some sand or dry leaves in it. Keep the container covered and burn or bury the contents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the person is seriously sick, he should be taken to the nearest dispensary or hospital to see a doctor. If the person is too sick to walk, he can be carried in a chair, on a board, or on a blanket stretched between two sticks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Teaching health care</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health practices can be made a part of your teaching on almost any subject. Think of ways to emphasize safe and healthful ways of doing everyday tasks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout your work in the village you will need to keep emphasizing these basic measures so often mentioned in this chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Always drink safe, clean water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Eat clean, nourishing food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keep your home and surroundings clean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keep your body and clothes clean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keep all food in covered containers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keep garbage in a covered container until it can be fed to animals or buried.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Burn or bury all trash. Do not leave it lying around or let it pile up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keep chickens and animals out of the house, from under the house, and out of the yard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Work together to get rid of pests such as flies, mosquitoes, mice, and rats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Destroy breeding places of insects and other pests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do not allow water to collect or stand anywhere around the house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Use a sanitary latrine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Use insecticides on the advice of government officials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Get protection against certain diseases by having immunization shots that are available where you live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Give the sick person good care at home to help him get well and avoid spreading his sickness to other people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· If a person is injured, give him good first aid until he can get treatment from a doctor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Use birth control methods to have the number of children you want.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Good health is a personal, family, and community responsibility. This responsibility can be put into practice when the people accept the idea that good health is important to them; when they understand how to get it; and when they see good results from new health practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p133.jpg"></center><br>
+ Greek village workers attend a short course in home nursing. The bed has been raised on blocks to make it easier for the person caring for the patient. Other equipment can be improvised to make home nursing easier and the sick person more comfortable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conducting campaigns</I>. Many villages use a "clean up" campaign as a way of getting interest and involving all the people in:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keeping cleaner houses and yards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Avoiding diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Making the village a better place to live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can use campaigns to teach many other health practices. For instance, "Drink Safe Water" or "Safe Water for Our Village" are slogans around which you could start a campaign on improving the water supply for a village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health materials</I>. Your Ministry of Health will have good materials on health problems in your country. The United States/AID Mission generally located in your capital city will have, or can get for you, a series of simple Extension bulletins on sanitation. These were written especially for use in developing countries. They not only contain basic information on sanitation, but they also suggest many kinds of demonstrations to use in your teaching.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These bulletins are the FES-AID Sanitation Series:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Drink Safe Water, #1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to Wash Your Clothes, #2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Personal Cleanliness, #3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wash Dishes Right, #4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Get Rid of Household Pests, #5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dispose of Wastes, #6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Storing Food at Home, #7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prepare and Serve Safe Meals, #8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Care for Your Baby, #9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Make Your Own Soap, #10</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Demonstrations</I>. There are many practices that need to be demonstrated before people can really understand how to do them. You can show how to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wash and bandage a small cut on a finger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Apply pressure and bandage for serious bleeding from the arm or leg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wrap the skin of a seriously burned person.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Treat snakebite. Show where to make cuts in the skin and how to apply suction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Sterilize a knife.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Perform artificial respiration. Practice on a student. Then have students practice on each other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bathe the patient in bed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Store medicines out of reach of children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Make a stretcher.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Make and care for an excrete container for the bedridden patient.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Prepare a container for a sick person to cough into.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Make containers for garbage and trash.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Build a sanitary latrine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Get the people interested in immunizations by arranging for a group visit to the local health center, dispensary, hospital, or other health facility where they can learn what services are available and what immunizations are recommended. If a visit is not possible, arrange for a person from a nearby health facility to come to your village and explain about immunizations that are available and how the people can get them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Set an example</I>. If you live in the village or close to the people, remember that you can give good examples of healthful living by practicing the things you teach the people. For example, when people see that you boil your own drinking water, have a well-kept sanitary toilet, and a neat, clean house and yard, they know you are sincere and your teaching is good.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you are in the village often, you will probably have to give first aid at times. Be sure you know what to do in an emergency. Use these accidents to teach both first aid and safety precautions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Housing and home improvement</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a person points with pride to the house he lives in and says, "This is my home", you can be sure it is more than just a house. The word "home" is precious to most people. Home is something in the hearts of those who live in a house. Home is the place where members of a family find companionship, where they share love, joy, and sorrow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A house is not a home until people live in it. It does not take a large, expensive house to make a good home. However, the kind of house and its surroundings can have a great influence on the people who live in it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poor construction, lack of light and ventilation, crowded sleeping quarters, and unsanitary conditions do not contribute to health and satisfactory living. In houses with too few rooms, there is no privacy. If too many people sleep together, it is easy for disease to spread. Children cannot get the extra sleep they need if they share a room with adults who stay up late. Because of lack of storage facilities, personal belongings are kept anywhere. Children have little chance to learn to respect the property of others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Better housing concerns many</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments around the world want families to have good houses. They know that poor people-both urban and rural-suffer from poor housing. Every country has some kind of project to improve housing. Often other groups such as private industry, estates, housing cooperatives, and building societies are also helping to improve housing for those in need. Learn what is being done in your area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Every country has housing experts who have devised useful methods for building houses suited to the climate, the needs, and the economic resources of the people who are to live in them. Before you start a home improvement project, learn where the housing specialists in your area are located and what their program is. Find out what kind of help you can get from them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Where to start</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Your first job may be to convince yourself that any home can be improved regardless of how little the family has. You may also have to remind yourself that any family, if they are given some help, will want a better place to live-more convenient, more comfortable, more healthful, and more enjoyable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As you work in the village, you may not talk about home improvement as such. But this will not stop you from planting many good ideas on making the home a better place as you talk about other projects. For example, while you are teaching how to dry fruits and vegetables, point out the need for light and ventilation in the kitchen. When you talk about the body's need for good food, also explain the body's need for clean air, sunshine, and sanitary living conditions. Point out the need for clean walls and floors, a good place to sleep, and proper food storage in your discussions of good health.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even on your first visit to a family, you can encourage home improvement by finding and praising something good they have already done such as a beautiful grapevine planted against a whitewashed wall, a shelf to hold a lovely copper vessel, an embroidered hanging that is like no other in the village, a woven mat made into a screen to give more privacy, or a well-thatched roof that gives coolness as it protects from the rain. Most families have something of which they are proud. Praising this can lead them to desire further comfort, beauty, or convenience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To meet the basic needs of a family, every house should:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. <I>Provide shelter</I>. That is-keep out rain and protect the family from heat and cold. This means the roof, walls, floor, and foundation should be in good repair.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. <I>Protect the health of the family</I>. This includes sleeping space to prevent overcrowding, windows and doors for light and air, sanitary facilities, drainage, and ways to keep animals out of the house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. <I>Be a safe place</I>. This means steps and walkways in good condition, nothing lying around to trip on or fall over, and no sharp corners, nails, broken glass, tin cans, or other safety hazards in or around the house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. <I>Have some beauty</I>. This can be added by painting, whitewashing, planting flowers and shrubs, and keeping the house and yard clean and neat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To provide for the safety and security of family members, certain basic things are needed. Think of the things the family does daily and once in a while.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The house or the area around it should provide for:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Preparing and cooking food. This includes cleaning up afterward.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Sleeping space for all members of the family.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Bathing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Resting, visiting with friends, relaxing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Washing clothes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Storing food, cooking and serving utensils, clothing, bedding, and other equipment that is not in use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Sanitary disposal of garbage and human excreta.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. A safe and easy to reach water supply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Better housing must always be a family concern. Even with all that is being done by governments, the job is so great that many families must still improve their own houses. Many of these cannot build or buy new houses. Therefore, improving and repairing the old house is important.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In every village there will be some families who have made good homes for themselves. There will also be those who are existing in very poor homes. Study the good ones. There may be features you can recommend to improve housing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Usually these changes can be made by the villager and his family. In housing, as in other subjects, be careful that you do not inspire changes impossible for the family to make because of lack of money or labor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As you get to know people and learn their values, or what they want in life, you will probably change some of your own ideas about home improvement. You may be seeing for the first time the beauty there is in order, cleanliness, and lack of clutter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Many different kinds of repairs and improvements</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In every country, houses have been repaired and improved by simple methods. There is much experience to draw from. You may wish to consider some of the following in your area:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The foundation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many houses are built on poor or no foundations and they begin to sag. The foundation should be of strong, durable material, preferably stone or concrete. Often only corner stones or corner blocks are used. The foundation of an old house can be repaired or improved so that the house sits more solidly and more nearly level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The roof and walls</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do the houses have good roofs? If not, what is the best way to improve them? They may need to be patched or repaired. In some cases, a new roof may be needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roofs of thatch, grass, or bamboo go bad rapidly and soon begin to leak. They should be kept in good repair. Such roofs may need replacing about every 3 years. A thatched roof must be thick enough to keep the rain out and protect the house from the sun. It needs to slant enough so that rainwater easily runs off. Thatched roofs are a real fire risk but keep the house cool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roof materials that reflect the sun's rays and are poor conductors of heat will help to keep the house cool. Metal roofs are safer from the danger of fire, but they make the house warmer than many other materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A gutter pipe of bamboo or metal can be fitted around the roof to collect the water and carry it to a tank or where there is good drainage. This helps to protect the house and keeps puddles from forming in the yard. Collecting rainwater can be of great help to the home maker if water is scarce or a distance from the house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p137a.jpg"></center><br>
+ On the home improvement worker's advice, this family in Ecuador repaired the cracks in the walls of their home before they put on a new coat of plaster.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p137b.jpg"></center><br>
+ These Pakistani home economists are completing a home improvement project by colorwashing the walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p137c.jpg"></center><br>
+ Good walls are vital to home improvement. Workers in Colombia show one method of making blocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p137.png"></center><br>
+ Cinva Ram</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Are the walls of houses in the village in good condition ? Do they need repair ? If so, what is the best way to improve them? There are ways to make improved mud or clay plaster for walls. By adding a little cement, cow dung, or straw, villagers can make mud walls that do not crack so easily. Many families completely remove the old cracked mud plaster, replaster the walls both inside and out, and then whitewash or paint them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many areas, houses are built of handmade mud bricks which have been dried in the sun. These are more durable than mud-plastered walls. Now a simple brickmaking machine called Cinva Ram is being used in many parts of the world. It makes bricks of earth mixed with a little cement or lime and water. They are pressed very hard and firm by the machine and then dried. Houses made of these bricks are more durable than those built of handmade bricks. Mud or brick houses can be very attractive when they are painted a pretty color or whitewashed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask your housing specialist about this machine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Windows and doors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Houses must have light and air to be comfortable. It is hard to work in a dark house. Houses with no light or air are often damp and mold grows very easily. Rodents and insects like dark, damp places.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When there are windows in opposite walls, the air makes a breeze through the house. Also, having one or more windows reach to the ceiling helps to take out hot air more quickly. In many areas, windows are covered with netting or screen wire to keep out flies and mosquitoes. In Taiwan, where the houses are built solidly of brick, windows have been added in the roof by removing a few tiles and substituting glass.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Doors should be large enough to take furniture in and out. Usually a door at the front of the house and one at the back are more convenient for the family. They save time and extra walking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Steps</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Are steps and walkways leading into the house safe? Are they solid and in good repair? Many home accidents happen because a step is broken or loose or too narrow or too steep.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Floors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Floors should always be smooth and without cracks. In many homes, the floors are of earth. Often these become uneven and dangerous to walk on. They are hard to clean and care for. A dirt floor can be made level and hard by mixing a little cement or wood ashes with the dirt. At the end of this chapter is a recipe for using wood ashes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wood floors wear well, but they may need repair in time. When a board warps or cracks, it can be dangerous. Bad boards can be removed and replaced with good ones. They are easier to clean if the wood is finished in some way. Your housing specialist can help you learn how best to improve wood floors in your area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concrete floors last well if they are properly made. Many times, however, not enough cement is used in making a concrete floor and it soon cracks and needs repair.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Keeping animals out of and from under the house</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some villages animals roam at will. You may find pigs, dogs, chickens, or goats wandering in and out of the houses. It is hard to have a clean, healthful house with animals in it. Screen doors that can be kept shut are good for keeping out animals as well as flies and other insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many families cannot afford screen doors, but have solved the problem of animals in the house by building a kind of gate for the lower half of the door. This can be closed to keep out the animals but still allow the air to get into the house. People may also build a lattice fence or fasten wire around the lower part of their houses to keep animals from getting under the house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Improving the kitchen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many respects the cooking area is the most important part of the house, yet it is often the poorest. How many houses in your area have a nice looking and comfortable living room to which company is invited, but a dark, poorly equipped, and unsanitary kitchen where the housewife has to prepare meals for the family?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Home improvement often begins with kitchen improvement. Gathering, preparing, and cooking food for the family means much work on the part of homemakers everywhere. Many women must also work in the fields, do all the family wash, carry water, get the fuel, and look after the children. With all this work to do, a woman needs a convenient and well-equipped cooking area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kitchen should have light and air. The walls should be a light color, the floor easy to clean. It should be a pleasant place to work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This does not mean a kitchen must be costly. Very simple and cheap equipment and furniture can make a good cooking place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What does a woman need in her kitchen ? </I>Help homemakers think through the jobs they do in their own kitchens and list what they need to work with. A kitchen needs:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Something to cook on</I>. This could vary from a small open fire between three stones to a modern cook stove.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Something to cook in</I>. The kinds of pots, pans, and utensils needed will depend on the kinds of food cooked, methods of cooking, family meal patterns, and kinds of vessels available in the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Containers to prepare food in</I>. Metal, wood, or enamel bowls, gourds, calabashes, crocks, pails, etc., are needed for mixing or preparing foods. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p139.jpg"></center><br>
+ The kitchen of this Fiji home has been greatly improved. The homemaker is happy with her window, improved stove, fireless cooker, basket for drying fuel, and shelves and wall pocket to hold utensils.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A place to store things</I>. Cooking utensils, dishes, and food all need to be stored near the place where they will be used. Brooms, mops, and other cleaning materials and equipment need a place. A knife rack and wall pegs can be used for hanging small equipment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A smooth surface to work on</I>. This could be a table, a counter top, a strong box or packing case, or a shelf attached to the wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Containers for storing water unless there is running water</I>. There should be a covered sanitary container for drinking water and pails or other vessels for water for other purposes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A place to wash dishes</I>. Dishpans and a dish drain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A covered container to collect garbage in.</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A place to sit</I>. A stool, chair, or keg. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p140a.jpg"></center><br>
+ Racks and pegs to hold dishes and utensils and a wooden cover for the water container make this Nicaraguan kitchen much more sanitary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p140b.jpg"></center><br>
+ Women in many countries still cook over three stones and an open fire like these women in Sierra Leone. It is backbreaking work that often results in poor eyesight because of the smoke.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The cooking stove</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many women still cook on three stones over an open fire or on a charcoal pot on the ground or floor. While stooping or squatting to cook may be comfortable for some women, for many others it is tiresome and a waste of energy. An open fire is always a hazard. Children are often burned by an open fire, and a woman's clothing can easily catch fire while she is cooking. The smoke from an open fire is harmful to the eyes. An open fire also wastes fuel. Much of the heat is lost in the air and does not help cook the food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good cooking stove should help a woman prepare better meals and reduce fire danger. Before you try to show a new and better stove, give thought and study to the methods women are now using and learn how they feel about them. For example, what is their fuel? What kind of cooking do they do most? Boiling? Frying ? Baking ? What utensils do they use on the stove? Do they use an oven in the yard to bake bread or do they join other women to bake in a common oven ? If a woman cooks over an open fire inside, how does she feel about the smoke? Does she dry fish or other food with the smoke ? Does she think the smoke helps to drive insects out of the house? Is the kind of heat she uses for cooking also used to help keep the house warm?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improved smokeless stoves take many forms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p141a.jpg"></center><br>
+ GHANA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p141b.jpg"></center><br>
+ GUATEMALA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p141c.jpg"></center><br>
+ BRAZIL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p141d.jpg"></center><br>
+ INDIA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As you begin to learn food patterns and habits, note the differences in the stoves women use as well as in the ways they cook. As you visit families and talk with village leaders, you may find stoves that are new or different. Examine these to find their good points. Look for stoves suited to the needs of the people who use them and that do not use too much fuel. This will give you a basis for advising women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Consider the kind of fuel families can get most easily and its cost. Charcoal, wood, oil, gas, and cow dung are commonly used fuels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The smokeless stove</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A smokeless stove directs smoke away from the woman's eyes, saves fuel, and can be made of native clay. This stove made of mud burns wood, coal, or charcoal. The earth may crack at first, but a few layers of fine red clay mixed with cow dung will help to prevent cracking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some of the advantages of this stove are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. It gives good heat and also saves fuel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. It is made mostly with earth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. It is simple to build. The average villager can learn to make it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Women generally like its shape and the way it operates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remember, if a smokeless stove is not made correctly, it may not draw well. The opening to the chimney should always be larger than the opening to the firebox. This allows all the air that gets into the firebox to go out through the chimney. It is desirable but not essential that some type of closure be put on the firebox. There must be enough draft to draw well and a good damper to control the draft. The eyes or cooking holes must be covered at all times. The stove will work better if the outlet at the top of the chimney is higher than the highest part of the house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You may have an engineer or village potter who could help develop a smokeless stove suited to Your area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p142a.jpg"></center><br>
+ Adding a door to the firebox of an improved stove saves fuel. This Taiwanese girl has covered the inside of her wooden door with tin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Ovens</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p142b.jpg"></center><br>
+ Beehive ovens are used in many countries. This woman in Haiti has pulled the fire out and is putting the bread in. Note the heavy wooden door she uses to cover the opening.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An oven is a great asset to the housewife. Modern stoves are often fitted with ovens. Separate ovens which can be placed over a fire or over oil or gas burners are fairly cheap. Directions for making an oil can oven are given at the end of this chapter. An oven can be improvised by lining a wooden box and its cover with galvanized iron. Put a pot with live coals on the bottom and place the baking pans on rods inserted through the sides of the box above the pot. Close the door tightly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A fireless cooker</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where fuel is scarce a fireless cooker can help. A fireless cooker is a small container that fits into a larger container with enough space between the two so that some material can be packed around it. This material might be sawdust, hay, straw, ground cork, wool, cotton, or finely cut-up paper. The large container can be a small barrel, basket, wood box, or kerosene can, but it must have a cover. The smaller inside container can be a tin can or pail with a tight fitting lid. It must be large enough to hold a heating stone and the cooking pot.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The food to be cooked should be put in a regular cooking pot, brought to a boil, and cooked 4 or 5 minutes on the stove or over a fire before it is placed on top of the hot stone or brick in the fireless cooker. The packing material holds the heat inside to complete the cooking. It is especially good for foods that take a long time to cook. If you teach some skilled man in the village the principle of a fireless cooker, he may come up with a plan for a better one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p143a.jpg"></center><br>
+ A village worker from Fiji demonstrates the use of the hot box. This one is made of plaited palm leaves and insulated with coconut fiber.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p143b.jpg"></center><br>
+ This Korean woman is showing her neighbor that this work surface in her kitchen is the correct height for the fob to be done there. She also points out how she has improved her storage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Work surfaces</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A woman preparing meals must have a place to work on. Work surfaces must provide room to prepare food for cooking and also to wash dishes and clean up after the meal is over. Many women also use the kitchen work surface for ironing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This work surface can be a table, a strong box, or a counter top. It may have shelves and drawers built above or below it. Sometimes women use a shelf to work on and some women may even work on the floor or ground. Kitchen work surfaces should be up off the floor or ground to keep food and utensils clean. The height of the work surface should suit the woman who is to use it. The average height is 32 to 35 inches.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Work surfaces should be smooth and easy to clean. Hard wood is a good material. It should have several coats of vegetable oil to protect the wood but it should not be painted. If soft wood is used, a covering of sheet metal, linoleum, or oilcloth will protect the wood and make it easier to clean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sometimes a folding wall table can provide extra work space in a small kitchen. This is a wide board attached to the wall with hinges so it can be lowered for work and folded up when it is not in use. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p144a.jpg"></center><br>
+ This folding wall table in Puerto Rico serves as a door to the cupboard between meals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Storing equipment</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kitchen or cooking area needs room to store:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Pots, pans, and all cooking utensils and equipment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Food, including drinking water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Dishes and utensils used for eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"A place for everything and everything in its place" is a good saying to teach women as you help them plan storage in their kitchens. The most important thing is to plan so the food and untensils can be kept clean and safe from rodents, insects, and dust.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It makes work easier if dishpans and cleaning supplies are stored on shelves near the space used for washing up. If there are other shelves or cupboards underneath a work surface, store pots, pans, and larger equipment on them. Small equipment can be hung on hooks inside cupboard doors or kept in drawers. Dishes and glassware are best stored on the shelves of a closed or curtained cupboard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Storage can be made at little or no cost, especially where wooden boxes are available. At first, women may feel that handling hammers and saws is not their work. Soon, however, they will be enjoying the activity, like the group of Brazilian women in the picture below.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p144b.jpg"></center><br>
+ Storing equipment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cupboards may hang on the wall, sit on a table, or stand on the floor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shelves may also be used to store some utensils. Spoons and other equipment can be hung from hooks put in the under side.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simple racks for hanging spoons, knives, ladles, etc., can be made of wood, leather thongs, woven grasses, bamboo, or other available materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p145a.jpg"></center><br>
+ Attractive cupboards can be made of bamboo where it is plentiful. These Thailand workers show drawer, shelf and sink space in a kitchen unit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p145b.jpg"></center><br>
+ PERU</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p145c.jpg"></center><br>
+ PHILIPPINES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Your imagination is your only limit in creating storage. For ideas of more things to make and further directions, see:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sanitation Series #7-<I>Storing Food at Home</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ideas for South Pacific Kitchens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simple Home Mechanics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Housing and Home Improvement in the Caribbean</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While you are helping women to make storage equipment for their cooking areas, you will have many chances to teach them how to care for their food and utensils in a sanitary way and why this is important.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Storing food</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most families store some food in the kitchen in cupboards, on open shelves, or in a closet with shelves. Sometimes a small separate room next to the kitchen, called a pantry, is used for storing food. Also, in some parts of the world, cellars, caves, and outdoor pits are used for food storage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any place where food is stored should be:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· well ventilated</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· cool</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· free of rats, mice, and insects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· clean and neat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some foods are quite perishable. These include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· fresh meat, fish, and poultry</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· some fresh fruits and vegetables</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· milk, butter, margarine, and cream</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· left-over cooked foods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In warm climates, it is best to use such foods quickly rather than store them. Teach village women to buy only the amount of perishable foods that they can use before there is any danger of spoilage. All perishable foods should be kept as cool as possible until they are used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For keeping foods cool</I>, an iceless cooler is used in many places. It is made of a wooden frame covered with burlap or other coarse material. It stands in a container of water and has a pan of water set on top. The water is drawn into the burlap. As it evaporates, the temperature drops. If the cooler is placed in a shady place where the wind blows, evaporation will be faster and the temperature lower. For directions, see Sanitation Series #7-page 12  - "The Iceless Refrigerator."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another simple cooler can be made using a basket for a base. Directions for this are also given in <I>Storing Food at Home</I>.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For storing root vegetables and some fruits</I>, a simple cupboard can be made of a wooden box with shelves and a door of chicken wire so air can circulate. A small safe with fine mesh wire on three sides will provide good air circulation and can be used for short storage of foods that spoil easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For storing leafy vegetables </I>such as spinach and lettuce, which need to be kept cool and damp, use a wooden nail keg lined with a thin layer of cement. Put a little water in the bottom of the keg. Place the vegetables in a cloth or plastic bag and hang them on a small hook screwed into the cover of the nail keg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For storing dry foods </I>such as flour, sugar, etc., use containers with tight fitting covers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For storing food for a short time </I>in an open container, make a food cover out of mosquito netting over a wood or metal frame.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p146.png"></center><br>
+ For storing food for a long time </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p146.jpg"></center><br>
+ A Korean woman has made a food cover to protect leftover food. She also has a screened cupboard where she can keep food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dishwashing area</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The village woman needs a clean space to wash dishes, cooking pans, spoons, knives, etc In most cases, this will mean a surface raised off the ground. She may use the same table or work surface where she prepares food. Or she may have a special place for washing her dishes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In several African countries, women have made a table at which they stand to wash dishes. It has a top of bamboo. They use it over a soak pit so that water falling through the bamboo top drains away in the soak pit. Directions for making this table are given in Home Improvement Series #1.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Taiwan many families have-made sinks from cement and brick. Directions for making such a sink are given at the end of this chapter. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p147a.jpg"></center><br>
+ A dish-drying rack like the one these Brazilian girls have made helps dishes dry faster and keeps them sanitary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p147b.jpg"></center><br>
+ TANZANIA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p147c.jpg"></center><br>
+ In the Philippines a sink is made of an oil tin. A bamboo reed is used for the pipe. This sink can be used to wash vegetables and other foods as well as dishes. Or, it can be used as a place to pour water after washing the dishes. The bamboo pipe leads into a soak pit in the ground so waste water is drained away from the house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The eating area</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People follow different eating customs in different parts of the world. In some places, they simply put food from the cooking pot into eating bowls and sit down to eat wherever they can. In other countries, families sit down around a table and eat together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some homes, there is room to eat in the kitchen and the family may like to eat there. In modest homes, one room often serves as both a living room and a place for eating meals. In hot climates, it may be more comfortable to eat outside the house. A shelter or porch may provide a place. When members of the family sit together at meals, they can enjoy each other's company. The mother can watch what the children eat and how they eat and train them in table manners.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For a family to sit down and eat together, they will need a table. If this is low, the family may sit on the floor or on low stools. Or the table may be high enough to use chairs, benches, or stools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A table can be made of lumber, bamboo, or metal. Chairs or stools can be made of the same materials. Wooden boxes and small barrels can also be used to make stools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The top of the table should be easy to clean. If a cover is used on the table, it should be of material that can easily be washed or wiped clean. When the family is ready to gather around it to eat, the table should be clean and look nice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The sleeping area</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This portion of the house is very important. The average person spends about one-third of his time sleeping. Unbroken sleep is needed each night if a person is to feel good the next day. For this reason, each person needs a safe, clean place in which to sleep.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Beds</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each person should have a comfortable bed. Many families do not have enough beds for every member of the family or enough space. One solution is to make a nest of beds. Since each bed is a different height, they can be stored under one another during the day. This takes up less space in the house and makes a place to sit during the day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p148.png"></center><br>
+ Beds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p148a.jpg"></center><br>
+ This nest of beds has been slipcovered. With a pillow at the back it makes a couch for daytime use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p148b.jpg"></center><br>
+ This attractive folding bed used in India can be folded and stored against a wall during the day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p149.jpg"></center><br>
+ A mattress such as the one this Bolivian girl made of corn husks makes a good firm bed that is comfortable to sleep on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Mattresses</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In hot climates, a mat may be spread over the bed to sleep on. In many countries people like to sleep on a mattress.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the United States and countries where cotton is grown, mattresses are stuffed with cotton. In some countries, as in Brazil, corn shucks are used. In others, rice or wheat straw, wild hay, or banana or palm leaves are used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Directions for making a mattress of cotton are given in Home Improvement Series #5. These directions can be adapted for use with other stuffings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When corn shucks are used, they should be dipped in hot water, then shredded into small strips by a small hand paddle with short nails in it. The tough top part of the shucks is then cut off with a sharp knife and the filling is ready to put in the tick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Baby's bed</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A baby needs a separate bed in which to sleep. He should not sleep with any one because he may smother.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Latin America, women make a hanging bed of canvas or other firm cloth. Directions for making this bed are given in Sanitation Series #9.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In other countries comfortable beds for babies are made of local baskets or built of wooden boxes. See the chapter on Child Care, for pictures of these beds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Ventilation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To feel refreshed and to lessen the danger of catching disease, people need fresh air while they sleep. In some places, people think that night air is dangerous. You may need to find out what the people think about this before you advise ways to increase the fresh air in poorly ventilated homes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Partitions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People who live in one-room houses often want to learn how to make partitions to separate the sleeping area from the remainder of the house. Partitions or room dividers can be made high enough to give privacy and still have enough space at the top for air to circulate freely. A sturdy movable screen, preferably one that folds up and can be moved during the day, is used in many small houses. Directions for making wall partitions are given at the end of this chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Storage for clothing and bedding</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the sleeping area or other suitable place in the house, there should be a special place protected from dust and insects where people can hang or store clothes that are not used every day. A closet may be built into a room or a simple one made of boxes or scrap lumber. It may be only a curtained-off space where clothing can be hung on hangers and kept in shape for wearing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suitable storage is needed for:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Underwear</I>. Drawers or shelves make the most convenient place for keeping clean underwear. It should be neatly folded when it is not being worn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Out-of-season clothes</I>. Clothes that are not being worn regularly can be stored on shelves, in a cupboard, or in a box.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p150.jpg"></center><br>
+ Apple crates are being used in many Iranian homes as kitchen shelves and as clothes and linen closets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bedding</I>. Sheets, pillow cases, etc., that are used regularly are best stored on shelves where they can be easily reached. Quilts, blankets, extra pillows, etc., that may be needed only at certain times can be stored in boxes, on shelves, in trunks, or in cupboards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Never overlook the importance of storage space. It is impossible to keep a neat, orderly house without a place to keep things that are not being used. Every house can have some storage. Many kinds can be made by families themselves at little cost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bathing facilities</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the convenience and safety of the family, bathing facilities in or near the house are desirable. In some places people bathe in the river. This can be dangerous as river water is often polluted. If river water is used for bathing in the home, it should be boiled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some families screen a private place in the yard with sacking or bamboo and bathe outside the house. Other families provide a small private area, no more than 3 or 4 feet square, inside the house. In either space, a common method of bathing is to pour water over the body-or improvise a homemade shower. A plan and description of an improvised shower is given at the end of this chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The bathing space can have a floor of concrete or wood slats, but it must have good drainage. A wash basin placed at convenient height and within easy reach should also be available with water and soap for washing the face and hands. Such an arrangement off the kitchen or near the back of the house will give people a place to wash up when coming from the fields or the toilet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p150.png"></center><br>
+ This is a cutaway view of a Philippine family's bathing area. The waste water drains into a soak pit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some villages community bathhouses are used. Cleanliness in these is extremely important because they are used by many people. If you are working in such a village, learn the customs regarding bathhouse use. Later, when you are well accepted, you may want to encourage a community project to maintain high sanitary standards in the bathhouse if it seems to need it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p151.jpg"></center><br>
+ Solar water heaters in Japan catch rainwater from the roof and hold it for the sun to heat. It is then piped into the home.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The living area</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People need a place where they can sit down and rest, where they can talk among themselves or with guests, where they can meditate or read. They also need a place to sit and mend garments, do hand sewing, or knit. A living room where the family can meet for common activities helps to develop a cooperative spirit among family members.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Various rooms of the house may be- used- for more than one purpose. The living room may also be used for sleeping: Outside the house in the yard under a tree may be a more pleasant place to entertain a guest or relax than inside the house. A woman may prefer to sit and do her mending on a porch. The dining area is frequently combined with the living area. In cold countries, the large kitchen with its stove may be the most inviting place in the house to sit and talk. The climate, customs, and needs of the family will influence the kind of living area needed and the place they will most enjoy for their moments of relaxation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The amount and kind of furniture and furnishings for a living area will differ greatly according to what the individual family likes and can afford. But most families need and want:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Something to sit on. This may be chairs, stools, a bed that doubles as a sofa in the daytime, a bench, or a clean mat spread on the floor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. A table on which to place refreshments, books, or other things.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Light to make the room cheerful and inviting. Also to provide light for anyone doing handwork, reading, writing, or studying.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Something to add beauty-such as pictures, curtains, gay looking pillows, a growing plant, or fresh flowers. Beauty is added when the walls are made pleasing and attractive by painting or papering. Light colors on the walls make the room seem not only lighter but also larger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Furniture may be made of local materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p152a.jpg"></center><br>
+ ECUADOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p152b.jpg"></center><br>
+ PUERTO RICO</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p152c.jpg"></center><br>
+ PANAMA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p152d.jpg"></center><br>
+ ZAMBIA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many areas, you may be able to make chairs and tables of local materials, such as scrap lumber, barrels and boxes, bamboo, or tree branches. When you use small branches of trees, you may need to lace them together with a strong grass or other fiber rather than nail them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Building materials</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kind of materials used to build a house, as well as its design and size, varies from country to country and from family to family. A house should be built so it can be enlarged if necessary. Consider what materials people can get, how much they cost, and how well they will last when deciding what type of house to build or what to use to repair or improve a house. The following are commonly used materials:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bamboo</I>-In many countries, bamboo is used to build or repair any part of a house except a fireplace or chimney. Because of its beauty and strength, village workers seeking a cheap building material often turn to bamboo. Different kinds of bamboo are suitable for different uses. Villagers or an agriculturist may be able to show you the best kind for a particular use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wood</I>-Where wood is plentiful, it is often used to build the entire house. In other places, it may be used only for the frame, or for shingles for the roof. Houses of wood are generally painted to protect the wood. A pleasing color of paint adds beauty to the house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wattle and daub</I>-Usually this means a mixture of mud, clay, straw, or cow dung used as a plaster for the walls of a house of sticks, bamboo, or cane.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grass and thatch</I>-Many different grasses and leaves are used in building. Learn which ones in your area are suitable. Some fibers can make strong houses when they are properly handled and used. The leaves or fronds of coconut can be made into an excellent roofing material by weaving the leaves to make a slat. These slats are placed so they overlap. They can be made waterproof and they are very durable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concrete</I>-This is the most suitable material for the foundation of the house. Reinforced concrete blocks are generally cheap and widely used for building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brick, tile, and stone</I>-These last a long time but in some areas they are expensive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adobe brick</I>-These are made of mud, clay, and straw or cow dung and generally dried in the sun. They are used widely in dry climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aluminum or galvanized iron</I>-These are being used more often than before, especially for roofing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How to make an earth floor hard</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed:</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ashes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">earth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">shovel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">wire strainer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">trowel or heavy board</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ruler </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instructions:</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Prick the earth floor, moisten, and level it. (If the floor has holes, fill them with pieces of rock or earth.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Evenly apply a œ-inch thick coat of a well-strained mixture of 2 parts earth, 1 part ashes, and enough water to hold them together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Smooth the mixture with a trowel or straight board.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Let this coat dry for at least 2 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Evenly apply œ-inch thick coat of a mixture of 2 parts ashes and 1 part earth. (These are the reverse amounts of ashes and earth used in the base layer.) They should be mixed with just enough water to make a very thick paste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Smooth and level this second coat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Let dry for at least 3 days. Do not use the floor during this time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Special instructions:</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Strain the ashes and earth well to remove all rocks, coals, or other materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Mix the ashes and earth very thoroughly and slowly add just enough water to make a paste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. When sweeping the finished floor, add a little water so that the mixture will not "dust off" but become harder.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. It is best to finish one-half of the floor before starting the other part.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. If the floor cracks, go over it with the second mixture. Fill in the openings and smooth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p154.jpg"></center><br>
+ These women in Zambia are improving their floor with an application of mud and ashes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Oil can ovens</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Use With Charcoal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials Needed</I>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two 5-gallon oil or similar cans</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One or two ordinary cans to provide "tin" for shelf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One light iron rod 20 inches long</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two pairs of light hinges</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About 2 dozen small stove bolts about 1/8" x 1". long or same number of soft rivets ii: cans are riveted together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bricks for base (number depends on size)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sand (optional) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tools Required:</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Measure-ruler or tape</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharp nail to scratch lines on can and make holes for bolts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tin snips or old heavy scissors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heavy knife to start cuts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hammer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Screw driver</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pliers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Metal bar or similar item about 8 inches long with square corner</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Directions:</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This oven is designed so cans may be joined with either bolts or rivets without solder.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cut the corners carefully as shown in the drawing. Material from this cut provides the doors. If this-is not done correctly, the material may- require patching or more material must be secured from other cans. Cut the cans on corners away from the vertical seam of the can. This avoids having the seam in the material to be used for the door.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leave a 1-inch edge around the sides of the can to provide room for bolting and to reinforce the finished oven. Turn back œ-inch on the edges of the sheet metal (tin) around the door opening and on the doors. Hammer them flat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The latch can be made of "tin" folded to form at least three thicknesses of metal and flattened. Bend it as indicated. Bolt the pieces together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Make a shelf out of the metal from an ordinary can, as shown in the diagram. Bolt or rivet it to the back of the oven after the sides have been put together. Make a hole in either side of the oven. Slide the iron rod through one hole, pass it through the roll at the front of the shelf, and slide it out the other hole.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some ovens have the original can bottoms left in place. About an inch of dry, clean sand is placed in the oven. This becomes heated and in turn heats the oven. Others have open bottoms so that heat from the charcoal fire goes directly into the oven; The ovens with the sand probably maintain a more even temperature. If an oven is made this the bottom can be cut out later if-the open type-oven is desired. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the oven is not steady, it may be weighted down with several stones. If a greater heat is desired, some of the burning charcoal may be placed on top of the oven so that it will be heated from both the top and the bottom. In cooking some types of foods, it may be desirable to unscrew and open the little holes through which the oil was originally poured. This will create a draft. Experiment with local foods to find the best methods of using this oven.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thoroughly clean the oven before use. It should be heated up at least once and allowed to cool before it is used for baking. Oil will burn off and the fumes would taint any food being baked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This oven is being used successfully in a number of countries. Baking and roasting are quite effective with this simple and inexpensive appliance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p155.png"></center><br>
+ Details of oven constructed of 2-5 gallon oil cans</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p155.jpg"></center><br>
+ Ovens can also be made from one oil can. The one being used by this Iranian woman works on the same principle as the two-can oven.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p156.jpg"></center><br>
+ A Taiwan family built a cement sink to improve their kitchen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How to make a cement sink</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tools and materials needed:</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tools can be found in any rural home. They include a water pail, dipper, saw, knife, wooden boxes, and a sifter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The materials needed are bricks, cement, sand, small stones, old or new #8 steel wire, a bamboo tube, and rubber hose.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remove sticks and other material from the sand. Sift the stones to get only the smaller ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Steps:</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mix 4 parts of sand, 2 parts of cement, and 1 part of stones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p156a.png"></center><br>
+ Cement 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The stones supplement the cement and reduce the cost. The proportions of materials can be changed a little. If more cement is added, the surface of the sink will appear more smooth and durable, but it will cost more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The amount of water to be added depends on the dampness of the sand and stones. If the sand and stones are very wet, add just a little water. If they are very dry, add more water. It is best to add water gradually. Mix well. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p156b.png"></center><br>
+ Cement 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use a trowel to mix the sand, stones, and cement. It is easier to mix if you use a large but shallow pail. If no pail is available, you can mix the materials on the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Draw the size and shape of the sink you need on a large piece of paper. Then put bricks on the lines. Usually a sink is about 60 cm. long, 35 cm. wide, and 12 cm. deep.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p156c.png"></center><br>
+ Cement 3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use a bamboo tube about 3 cm. in diameter and 10 cm. long as a mold for the sink outlet. Pour the cement mixture around the bamboo tube and inside the brick frame.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p157a.png"></center><br>
+ Cement 4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use the trowel to make the cement surface even. Be sure to make every part firm and even. The cement should be about 2 cm. thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cut the steel wire into pieces the length of the sink and lay them on the cement surface. This strengthens the bottom of the sink.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p157b.png"></center><br>
+ Cement 5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Add one more layer of cement mixture on top of the steel wire. Make it even and smooth. This is the bottom of the sink. Have the area near the outlet lower than the rest of the sink so that the waste water can drain out more easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wet the bricks thoroughly, then place them on the smooth cement surface along the outside brick frame. Connect the brick ends with a mixture of 1 part of cement and 2 parts of sand with water. Use no small stones for this. This frame makes the sides of the sink.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p157c.png"></center><br>
+ Cement 6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Now carefully remove the outside bricks you used to outline the size and shape of the sink. Do not disturb the bricks on the cement layer or the sink is apt to leak.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p157d.png"></center><br>
+ Cement 7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Again wet the bricks you are using to make the sides. Then cover both the inside and outside of the sink with a mixture made of 1 part of cement and 2 parts of sand. Be sure to make the surface as smooth as possible. Remember, you must wet the bricks first to make the cement stick on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p157e.png"></center><br>
+ Cement 8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Now, the sink is complete. Cover it with a piece of thick paper, a piece of damp burlap, or a wooden board so that the sink does not dry directly under the sun. It is best to let it dry slowly for 4 or 5 days. If it is good drying weather, sprinkle the sink with water several times. If the sink dries too fast, the cement may crack. This would cause the sink to leak. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p158a.png"></center><br>
+ Cement 9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the sink is well dried, take it to the kitchen. Place it on a wooden or brick support made for this purpose Then connect the outlet of the sink to the drainage with a piece of rubber hose or bamboo tube. Then the waste water will go out through the hose, and the floor of the kitchen will be kept dry all the time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p158b.png"></center><br>
+ Cement 10</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Place the sink at a comfortable working height. To determine the best height, the homemaker should stand straight with her arms by her side. The palms of hands should touch the inside of the bottom of the sink. If the sink is too high or low, she is apt to get tired easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How to make wall partitions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials needed: </P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">gunny sacks </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">cement </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">lime </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">powdered glue </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">water </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">pail </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">handsaw </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">nails ( 1" long) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">hammer </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">strainer </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">pieces of wood (any desired length) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">brush </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">sticks to stir mixture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p158c.png"></center><br>
+ Wall partitions</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instructions:</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Measure the length and height of the desired partition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Decide whether it will have a door-to which side it will open and its size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. According to these measurements, cut 4 pieces of wood (œ" or Ÿ" thick by 1" or 2" wide) for the frame of the partition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Nail the frame together. Use lap joints. ( See diagram. )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Open the gunny sacks. Sew enough of them together to make a piece big enough to cover the frame.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Nail the sacks to the frame.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. If you want the wall to be finished on both sides, make another frame and nail it over the first one on the other side of the gunny sacks. (See diagram.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. In order to stretch the gunny sacks out well, place pieces of wood in the middle of a large partition. Place these pieces of wood on both sides of the sacks like the rest of the frame.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Nail the partition in its proper place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Mix together 1œ parts of lime, 1 part of cement, and œ part of powdered glue. Strain the mixture. Stir the mixture and add 2 parts of water, little by little. If necessary, add more water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. Paint the sacks on both sides with the lime mixture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12. Always remember to stir the mixture while you are using it. Prepare only enough mixture to use immediately. The mixture is ruined when it hardens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">13. Paint the wood frame and the limed gunny sacks if you wish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">An improvised shower</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A simple shower can be made from an ordinary can.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remove half of the top of the can. Punch several small holes on the other side, a little below the top.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attach a wire handle at the top and a hook at the bottom (on the opposite side from the small holes).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fasten a strong cord to the handle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When using the shower, lift the can to a suitable height by tying the cord around a strong tree branch or bar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let the cord run through the hook.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pull the end of the cord enough so that the water may pour through the small holes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p159a.png"></center><br>
+ Improvised shower 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p159b.png"></center><br>
+ Improvised shower 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p159c.png"></center><br>
+ Improvised shower 3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Housekeeping and home management</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A village woman has much work to do both inside and outside her house. As you see the many jobs she has to do each day, you will want to help her plan ahead, manage her time and money, and find easier and better ways of doing her work. Every homemaker would like to do her work in a simple, easy, quick, and safe way if she knew how. She needs to learn how to do each job as efficiently and as well as she can. Improved work methods will help her save time and be less tired at the end of a day. Housekeeping and home management also help determine the kind of home life a family has. A well-kept, well-run house makes a more pleasant home and better living for all members of the family.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What are some of the important jobs in keeping a house and managing the affairs of the home ? They include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· keeping the house and surroundings clean</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· making beds or storing the sleeping equipment when it is not in use</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· cooking and serving meals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· washing dishes and disposing of garbage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· keeping things easy to find and out of the way</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· washing, ironing, sewing, and mending clothes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· taking care of children</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· buying food, clothing, and other things for the house and family</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· simple home repairs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· whatever else is needed to keep the family well and happy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The average homemaker dislikes some of these jobs more than others. Some she finds hard to do. Others are easy. Finding what makes the women's work hard will help you suggest changes to make it easier. To decide which jobs and activities most need to be improved and simplified, help the homemaker look for:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Jobs that give trouble</I>. Maybe her wash place is so far from the house that she gets tired walking to and from it</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Jobs that cause other work to wait</I>. Maybe the days she goes to market her evening meal is late.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Jobs that always make her feel rushed</I>. Does she feel in a hurry when she starts to cook or go to market?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Jobs that are especially hard, dirty, unpleasant, or tiresome </I>such as carrying water, washing clothes, cleaning the latrine, or caring for the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Jobs that are poorly done</I>. The clothes may not be clean after they are washed, the floor may still be dirty after it is swept, the dishes may be greasy after they are washed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Poor use of energy</I>. How does she lift or carry heavy loads? Does she stoop over a pan on the ground to wash clothes, stand at a table, or squat?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Poor use of equipment</I>. She may use a broom with a handle that is too short or she may try to dig in the soil when it is too hard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Why a clean house is important</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To help the women with whom you work understand the need for good housekeeping, discuss with them what makes a house seem inviting and pleasant. Help them to see that it first must be clean and orderly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Emphasize also that a pleasant and inviting home has some beauty both inside and outside. A house whitewashed or painted a pleasing color seems more attractive than a drab, unpainted one. Suitable colors on the inside walls and in furnishings such as seat covers and curtains, pretty pictures on the walls, fresh flowers in the house and yard-all these things add beauty to the house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p160.png"></center><br>
+ House</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Keeping the house and surroundings clean</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anyone coming to the house usually comes into the living room first. Whatever is done to beautify the home is generally done here. The rest of the house may be neglected. The bedroom and kitchen are often disorderly and dirty and the backyard may be littered with trash and rubbish. The real test of a good housekeeper is the cleanliness and tidiness of her kitchen, the sleeping rooms, and backyard as well as the living room and front yard that company sees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clean surroundings are as important as a clean house. A clean, well-kept yard, both front and back, brightened with pretty flowers and shrubbery, and fenced to keep the animals out adds value and beauty to the home. A neat, clean porch provided with a comfortable chair or bench helps to welcome family and friends. No matter how fine or how small and humble a house is, keeping it and its surroundings clean and tidy will go far toward making it an attractive home.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p161.png"></center><br>
+ Keeping the house and surroundings clean</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Why have a clean house ?</I> A clean house:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· makes the homemaker proud of her home</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· makes the family feel good</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· helps keep the family healthy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· helps things last longer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· smells better</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· sets a good example for children</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· helps the neighbors have respect for the family</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· is enjoyed by children and their friends.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is a clean house ? </I>A clean house has:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· floors with no dirt, garbage, grease, or trash on them</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· walls and ceilings without cobwebs or dust</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· furniture without dust, crumbs, or grease</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· beds that are made up with clean bedding, or bedding or mats stored neatly</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· clothes washed, ironed, and put away</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· dishes washed and put away after each meal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· all food covered</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· food wiped off table, chairs, and benches after each meal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· all kitchen equipment, pots, and pans without grease, food, or dust on them</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· no bugs or flies inside the house</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· no pigs, chickens, goats, sheep, or cows in the house</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· no trash inside or around the house</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· a neat yard, porch, and steps</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· a clean toilet-whether it's inside the house or outdoors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A house is easier to clean and safer:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· when things that should be put away are not left lying around</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· when the house is kept in good repair</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· when everyone does his part</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· when a mat or scraper is kept near the door to wipe feet and shoes on</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· when some cleaning is done every day</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· when you have good cleaning tools or equipment. These include a broom, scrub mop, dry mop, bucket or tin pail, cloths or rags, soap, scouring powder, hot water, a box or basket for waste and dirt, and one to hold the cleaning things.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How to have a well-kept house</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All parts of the house should have constant care and attention. Some cleaning jobs need to be done every day, some need to be done only once a week, and others need to be done only now and then. The following suggestions may help you teach good housekeeping practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The walls</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use a broom with a cloth tied around it or a long handled brush. Dust down the walls and remove cobwebs. If walls are painted or whitewashed, remove fingerprints, grease spots, or any other dirt or stain using a clean wet rag with a little soap. Now and then walls may need washing all over. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p162.png"></center><br>
+ The walls</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cracks or holes in walls or damage caused by termites or mice should be repaired promptly. Keeping the walls of all rooms painted in light colors brightens them and makes them seem cleaner. Once or twice a year it may be necessary to repaint or whitewash walls to freshen them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The floors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Floors need to be swept, dusted, or scrubbed every day, depending on the kind of material they are made of. <I>Earth floors </I>should be hard and must be kept dry. Be sure there is enough drainage around the house so water cannot seep in to make the floors wet or damp. It is important to keep earth floors free from cracks. Occasionally they need to be releveled and then plastered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concrete floors are hard to clean. They may need to be scrubbed or have grease spots and stains washed up every day. At least they should be swept every day. Once a week they will need a thorough scrubbing with a hard brush and soap and water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wood floors should be swept or dusted with a dry mop daily. Anything that is spilled should be wiped up immediately. In sweeping, be careful that the wind does not scatter the dust or trash again. Sweep the dust and dirt into a pile, take it up in a dustpan, and dispose of it immediately. Do not sweep trash from the house into the yard. Plain wood floors may need scrubbing now and then with a stiff brush, warm water, and soap or powder. Scrub only a small area at a time and rinse to get off all the soap. Dry the floor thoroughly with dry cloths or mop. Do not let water soak into wood. It makes it splinter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linoleum on the floor should be washed with a mop or cloth using warm water with powder or soap, and then rinsed and allowed to dry. How often linoleum floors are washed will depend on the use they have. Linoleum in the kitchen, for example, will need washing more often than in the bedroom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The windows</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If a house has glass windows, these need to be kept clean and shiny by washing and polishing. Using œ cup of vinegar to 1 gallon of water is a good way to wash windows. Dry and polish them with clean cloth or paper. If there are screens, they need to be brushed or dusted often.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The bed rooms</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bedrooms, or wherever members of the family sleep, are often the most neglected rooms in the house. For healthful sleep it is important that sleeping rooms be cleaned every day and kept neat and tidy. Children should be taught to take care of their own sleeping space. It takes only a few minutes each day to look after the beds and sleeping areas of the house. Here is a good routine to follow every day:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Make the bed. Smooth the covers into place Plump the pillow and put it into place. Last, put on the bedspread if you use one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Smooth the top of the bed so there are no wrinkles or lumps. See that the spread hangs evenly and that the bed looks neat and tidy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· If mats are used, roll or fold them neatly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Sweep the floor if it needs it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· If there are floor mats, shake them outdoors and replace them on clean floors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tidy any tables, dressers, or chests in the room.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· See that all clothing and belongings are put in their proper place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· If kerosene lamps are used, clean and refill them if they need it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Leave the room clean, tidy, and inviting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once a week give the bedroom extra attention. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Change bedding. Bedding used next to the body should be washed every week.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Inspect the mattress and bed frame to be sure there are no bugs or insects. If any are found, immediately use insecticides or whatever remedy is available to get rid of them. If there are any rips or tears in the mattress, mend them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Give floors extra cleaning. Move furniture and clean underneath it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Dust all furniture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p163.png"></center><br>
+ The bedrooms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Now and then or every 3 or 4 weeks:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Put all bedding, including mattresses and sleeping pads, in the sun for several hours. This freshens them and makes them more sanitary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Wash the bedspread if it needs it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Wipe down the walls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Wash the curtains and clean the windows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Storage places for clothes and bedding</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These will include closets, cupboards, shelves, drawers, boxes, and other places where clothes and bedding are stored. Keep them neat and tidy at all times. Keep clothing either folded or hung carefully. Keep sheets, pillow cases, and unused other bedding clean, folded, and put away. All storage places for clothing and bedding must be kept clean and dry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Every now and then, empty storage places and check for mold, moths, mice, and other vermin, etc. Clean closets and spray them with disinfectant. Air clothing and bedding before putting them back.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bath facilities</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tubs for bathing, wash basins, and shower stalls should be cleaned immediately after a person uses them. A thorough cleaning with scouring powder or fine sand is needed. Put wet towels out in the sun to dry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The living room</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clean, dust, and tidy this room every day. Take out any mats or rugs and shake or dust them. Clean the floor with a dust mop or wet mop. Dust the furniture, hang up any clothing, put in fresh flowers. Tidy the room to make it look pleasing and inviting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If meals are eaten in the living room, clear the table of all food and dishes as soon as the meal is over. Then wipe the table top with a clean, moist cloth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once a week give it extra cleaning. Clean spots from the walls, woodwork, and furniture. Give the floors extra attention. Move the furniture and clean underneath. Now and then wipe down the walls and wash the windows, curtains, slipcovers, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The kitchen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Special attention needs to be given to the kitchen. Unsanitary conditions in the kitchen can lead to sickness and poor health.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After each meal:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Cover and put away any leftover food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Wash the dishes, pots, and pans. When they are dry, put them away in closed cupboards or shelves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Clean the stove, sink, and dishpans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Sweep the floor, empty the garbage, and tidy the kitchen. Once week give the kitchen a thorough cleaning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wash and straighten the cupboards, shelves, tables, and stove. Scrub the floor and clean the garbage can.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dishwashing</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food tastes better and is safer when dishes are not greasy or do not have stale food sticking to them. Everybody enjoys food more from dishes that are clean and dry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p164.png"></center><br>
+ Dishwashing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not many people like to wash dishes, but they might not mind it if they used an orderly and labor -saving system. To wash dishes right:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Wash your hands first.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Get the dishes ready. Put away all usable food. Scrape food scraps and grease onto leaves or paper and put them in a garbage can. Stack the dishes on the dish-washing table.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Use two pans, one for washing and the other for rinsing, plenty of hot water (cold water does not get dishes clean), soap or powder, a pan or rack for draining, and a brush, dishmop, or clean cloth to wash with.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Wash with soap all the dishes from which you eat and drink and serve food. Wash them in water as hot as your hands can stand. Then put them in the rinse pan. Wash glasses and cups first, then knives, forks and spoons, then the dishes, and last of all the pots and pans. If sand is used to scrub pans, be careful not to scratch the metal or pottery.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Rinse the dishes by pouring boiling water over them. Use a wooden spoon, tongs, or a stick to lift the dishes out of the hot water. Drain them and let them dry in the air. Air drying, if the dishes are protected from flies and dirt, is better than drying them with a towel. If towels are used, be sure they are clean. Rinse the pots and pans and turn them upside down to dry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Put the clean dishes, pots, and pans in a closed cupboard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Wash and dry the dishpans, drain racks, and sink.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Washing clothes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Doing the laundry for a family requires much energy and time. Not only is it a tiresome job, but where and how the washing is done greatly affects the health of the woman who does it as well as her whole family. Washing in rivers, streams, ponds, swamps, and ditches is unsafe because this kind of water may carry many kinds of disease germs. If safe water is available, use that. If not, it is a good idea to use boiled water. Hot water helps get clothes cleaner also.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p165a.jpg"></center><br>
+ Like this woman in Haiti, women in many countries have no place to wash their clothes but in the river.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p165b.jpg"></center><br>
+ These Turkish women have a tub deep enough so the plunger can be used without lifting it out of the water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p165c.jpg"></center><br>
+ This Korean washing machine is a standard model. The deluxe model has a lid, handles, and a drain cock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p165d.jpg"></center><br>
+ A woman in Brazil shows how to use a washboard. The board was made from the handles of worn-out brooms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p165e.jpg"></center><br>
+ Another type of plunger is being shown by this Korean club member. To use the plunger, she puts it in a tub of water as deep as the plunger case.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p166.png"></center><br>
+ When you use a line such as this made of twisted grasses or ropes, it is not necessary to use clothespins. If two ropes are twisted together and drawn tightly, the tips of the garments can be put in the twists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clothes should be washed in a container such as a tub, washing machine, basin, or pail. A good method is to use two tubs on a firm bench, high enough so the woman can use a washboard or plunger without much stooping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most women use the kind of soap they find in the market. Some women save money by making their own soap. Get the dirt out by rubbing clothes on a washboard or with the hands or by using a plunger or washing machine, not by beating them on a rock or with a stick. Hot water removes dirt better than cold water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wash white clothes first, then colored clothes. Rinse the clothes until they are free of soap. Hang them up to dry. If you use a fence, wall, or clothesline to dry them on, be sure it is clean. A clothesline can be made of grass, rope, or wire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Ironing</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ironing board or table should be well padded. Ironing kills germs and makes storing clothes easier. Clothes look nicer when they are ironed. Some clothing such as cotton pants, slips, etc., and bedding such as sheets, pillowcases, and spreads can be folded without ironing. This saves much time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Disposing of wastes and controlling household pests</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are an important part of having a clean house. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Give the yard and surroundings daily attention. Keep tin cans, trash, and rubbish picked up each day. Fill up or drain any pools of water that may have formed. Once a week give both the front and back yards and their surroundings a thorough cleaning. Cut the grass if it needs it. Scrub the inside walls, seat, and floor of the latrine with soap, water, and a disinfectant. Keeping the inside of the latrine painted or whitewashed is a good thing to do. Sprinkle lime in the latrine to stop odors and keep bugs away. If there is a back porch or steps to the house, scrub them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Management in the home</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management in the home is as important as management on the farm. What do we mean by management ? For example, a farmer must not only do all the physical work of growing crops and livestock, but also think about what crops and livestock he should raise, the best time to plant, and what tools he needs. He must plan on how much labor and money he will need, how much money he will make, and how he can save.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So it is with running a house. The woman must think about what jobs she has to do, how and when to do them, what she needs to work with, how much time she needs to do housework, and how much time she can spend in the field or doing other work. She needs to think of how much money she can spend to run the home and whether she can economize on some things so she will have more money to spend on others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For a village woman, management in the home means running a house, looking after a family, guiding and directing home and family affairs, and using what she has to get as much as possible of what she and her family want.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The things that people have to help them get what they want are called "<I>resources</I>". We all have resources that might be better managed. They are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Time</I>-Everyone has the same amount of time in a day, but each of us uses our time differently. Some people take twice as long to do a job as it would take another person to do exactly the same thing. How we manage our time affects the amount of work we can accomplish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Energy</I>-All of us are born with different amounts of physical energy. Our health, the way we feel, and our attitude toward work all affect the amount of energy we have and what we can accomplish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Skill or know-how</I>-Almost everyone has some skills. We all know how to do something. Some people have many more skills than others. Skills can be learned. They can be developed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Knowledge</I>-This is the information or understanding we have. We can improve our knowledge by study, by learning from others, and by experience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ability</I>-This means how good we are at doing things. Nearly everyone has some ability. The ability to think through problems and make intelligent decisions is very important in good management. Ability can be developed through practice and experience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attitude</I>-This is the way we look at things. Our attitudes are often determined by the knowledge we have and by our own personal feelings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Material goods</I>-These include the things we own such as land, our house, furniture, clothes, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Money</I>-This is the amount of money we have and do not owe to someone else.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Community facilities</I>-Nearly every village or community has facilities that all of the people can use. These include health, agricultural and home economics services, schools, parks, and playgrounds. Some may have a community building or center.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Families can live better without more money if they use all of the resources they now have in better ways. How can they do this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Plan and organize housework</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any homemaker, after thinking through all the jobs she has to do every day, can judge about how long it takes for each. If she plans to do a few of her weekly jobs each day, she can avoid having too much housework in one day. Then she will know how to plan for other work such as gardening or work in the fields. Here is an example of the way she might plan her weekly jobs. Each family will need to make its own plan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1st day-Collect and sort clothes, bedding, and other things that need washing. Do any mending needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2nd day-Wash the clothes, and hang them to dry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3rd day-Iron the clothes, fold them and put them away.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4th day-Give the bedrooms an extra cleaning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5th day-Give the kitchen, including the cupboards, a thorough cleaning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6th day-Give the living room and yard an extra cleaning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some women find pleasure in housework. Others find drudgery. Often drudgery comes from wasted time and energy. A homemaker must make every motion count. She must think about her work and plan how she can save time and energy. Time and energy can be used to save money and often spending a little money can save both time and energy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fit jobs together so each will take a minimum of time and labor. For example, when a woman is taking peelings to the pigs or to the compost heap, she can stop by the garden on the way back and gather vegetables. To keep the house clean and attractive, give the children the care they need, and have time for work outside the home requires careful planning and organization.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Arrange equipment and work space</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first step in making housework easier is to arrange things in the houe to save steps and work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Keep all equipment and materials as near as possible to the places where they will be used. For example, keep fuel near the stove, water and food supplies near where food is being prepared, and cooking pots and pans near the working area where they can easily be reached without extra steps or stooping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Arrange cupboards so that it is easy to find things in them. Keep dishes and supplies within easy reach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Arrange tables, work counters, the stove, the sink, and the shelf or stand where water is kept, close to each other so that a meal can be prepared with as few steps as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Arrange and keep laundry equipment, tubs, washboards, etc., as near as possible to the place where the washing will be done.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p168.jpg"></center><br>
+ This L-shaped kitchen is conveniently arranged for the Filipino homemaker. The covered water storage and rice bin are very near to the preparation and cooking area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Use good body positions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A woman should sit to work when she can-sitting takes less energy than standing. Equipment and materials should be close by so she does not have to jump up. Such jobs as preparing vegetables, cleaning fish, ironing, etc., can easily be done sitting down. A comfortable chair and a board on the lap makes it easier to work while sitting down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p169a.png"></center><br>
+ Use good body positions 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is more convenient to stand when cooking, washing dishes, cleaning, etc. When you stand straight, you don't get too tired. Standing on a cement or hard floor puts a strain on the feet and may cause back pain. Standing on a small mat or rug will lessen fatigue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some women squat or sit on the ground to work. Because they are used to such a position, it may not be uncomfortable or tiring. However, standing and bending to the ground to work is hard on the back and very tiring. When lifting something from the ground or a low surface, squat, don't bend over to get the object. When you do this, as you stand up, your legs help do the lifting instead of making your back and arm muscles do it all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p169b.png"></center><br>
+ Use good body positions 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Have work surfaces and shelves the right height</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How high work surfaces need to be depends on the height of the woman who uses them. Kitchen tables, shelves, counter tops, the sink, and cook stove should. be made so that the homemaker does not have to bend or raise her arms too high while she works. A good work surface height for a woman 5 feet 5 inches tall would be about 34 inches. A woman this tall could also reach a shelf about 72 inches high without standing on her toes or stretching. Reaching for things on shelves that are too high adds to the strain of housework.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Work surfaces that are too high or too low bring on fatigue and require more energy than those of correct height. All stoves and cabinets should be built with toe space underneath so the woman can stand close enough to them to be comfortable while she is working.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Homemakers should do as little stooping as possible; it makes them tired. Stooping to get something from a bottom shelf takes 11 times as much energy as to get it from a shelf without stooping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Keep from getting too tired</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teach women to plan their work to allow short rest periods in the morning and afternoon. They should plan their day so they do not do all the heavy jobs one after the other. Do a heavy job, then a light job.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are other good work habits you should teach. For example, teach people to work where the light is good; working in dark rooms is tiring and hard to do.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women should <I>let their families </I>help with all the housework. Let them help to plan and give them a choice of the jobs they do. Children, both boys and girls, should be taught how to work in the house. They should learn to keep their own belongings in order, hang up their clothes, put away playthings and books, make their own beds, and carry their own dishes to the dishwashing table after meals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Good home management provides for the development for each family member. Every child deserves a chance to develop into the finest person possible. Wise home management can help to insure that chance. When children are taught how to do household jobs the right way, it makes them feel they are contributing and gives them pride in sharing and doing their work well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Use money wisely</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most village families feel that they have so little money there is no point in talking about how to use it. They think they buy only what is absolutely necessary and there is no money left over to buy things they would like to have. There is truth in this. Village families generally do have very little money. But no matter how little they have, you can help them use it better.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are some ways families can save and make better use of the money they have:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Growing more food for home use</I>, instead of buying it, helps them to have money for other things.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Taking care of what they have </I>saves money. For example, much food is destroyed by rats, mice, other vermin, insects, etc., because of poor storage. Food is often wasted in the garden or field be cause it is not taken care of. Poor laundry methods, such as beating clothes on a rock, cause clothes to wear out. There are many other wasteful practices around the average home that the family does not even recognize.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Learning to sew and making their own clothes </I>saves money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Better buying practices</I>. Women often buy the cheapest goods on the market. This may be false economy. For example, a cheap, sleazy piece of dress material may fade and wear out in a short time. It will not be worth what it cost. Planning ahead to save a little extra money so they could buy a better quality that would last longer would be a better use of their money. Peddlers often go from door to door selling cheap goods. Women are often attracted by a gaudy color or the salesmanship of the peddler and buy something they do not need. Help them figure out how much they spend a week for food, fuel, soap, and other supplies and how they can buy more economically.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Talking over money matters </I>with the whole family. When members of a family talk about what they need, what they want, and how much money they have to spend, then decide together what they will buy, they make better use of the money. Every member of the family is happier because he feels he has had a share in deciding how the money will be used. Often, the homemaker wants something for the house, the farmer wants a new tool on the farm, and each child wants something. When a family plans together how to use their money, they develop responsibility and understanding of money matters on the part of each family member. This promotes unselfishness-thinking about other people's needs and wants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p170.png"></center><br>
+ The family plans together</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Homemakers in every country have ideas on economy. You could collect these ideas, pass them on to other homemakers, and help them to be economy-minded in little things as well as larger ones. For example, you might suggest saving boxes for storage, or making tin cans into something useful such as graters, measuring cups, etc. Remember, preventing waste is one of the best economy practices to emphasize with homemakers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are other money matters to consider. As economic and industrial changes come to your country, household activities will be affected. If, for example, wood is now used as fuel, it may become scarce. Oil may be more economical than wood. With the increased need for farmers to grow more food, cow dung may become more important as fertilizer than fuel. This can affect the cost of fuel for the family cooking. Roads and public buses may make it possible for family members to ride to work instead of walking. Bus fare takes money. Can you help families meet these changes through better management?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government touches the economic interest of the family by laws it makes, such as tax laws regarding deeds, mortgages, and notes. There are inheritance laws and laws about wills. You should learn abut these so that you can help families understand them. They all affect the family and their business matters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remember as you work with families that good home management means that house and family activities are managed so that family members can grow, work, and develop as individuals with a sense of responsibility toward their family and community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Clothing</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the beginning of time, women have been conscious of how they look. Personal beauty is very important, especially to women and girls. The poorest woman or the ugliest little girl in the village wants to look nice and she knows how much pretty clothes can contribute to her appearance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is one reason you may find, as you start home economics work in a new village, that the only thing the women seem interested in learning is how to sew, knit, crochet, or embroider. This is directly related to their desire to look their best or have some touch of beauty in their home. It is a normal human desire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We must never overlook the effect of clothes on personality and attitudes of people. When a person feels that he is well dressed and looks nice, he has more confidence in himself, is more "outgoing", and participates better. People who feel they are not well dressed and do not look nice tend to shy away from others. They appear timid and uninterested.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are conscious of style, kind of fabric, and color in their clothes, and they want "dress up" clothes for social occasions. Young girls want to learn to sew so they can have more clothes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Creating a blouse or knitting a sweater for a child may provide the self expression women want. You may find a woman who already knows how to do fancy work, but does not know the first thing about making a baby dress or a shirt for her little boy or her husband.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also, many women want to learn to sew for practical reasons, such as to save money. In most villages, incomes are low and hiring a tailor costs money. Women who learn to make clothes for their families have more money to spend for other family needs. Some women want to learn to sew for others and increase the family income.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even though you may see other problems that seem more pressing or of greater importance, you may be justified in starting a home economics program by teaching women and girls to sew, or even to knit. This follows the basic extension principle of beginning where people are with what they feel they need. If, however, you never do more than teach them to sew, you fail to fully use your opportunity. Through their interest in sewing, you can teach much more than how to cut a garment and make seams. Sewing offers many opportunities to get women interested in other basic problems that they may not have recognized. You can go from sewing to teaching other badly needed topics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Why people dress as they do</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most countries have well-established habits of dress. These have come about over many years or even over centuries and are closely associated with tradition and well-fixed social values. Such values are not to be treated lightly. There may be good reasons for people's choice of clothing. For example, vivid colors such as bright red, green, or yellow may not be your idea of the most suitable color for field work in the hot sun. But, bright colors may satisfy an inner need of the person who wears them, and may be a relief from the drabness all around. Bright colors may give a <I>lift </I>to the wearer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You should understand customs and traditions about the way people dress and respect them as you work with families on their clothing problems. This does not mean you should not try to bring about desirable changes in clothing. Often work clothes are not comfortable. You may help show both men and women that they can work better in different kinds of clothes. With many families the problem is simply having enough clothes to keep them comfortable in cold, heat, wind, or rain, or when they work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Before you begin a clothing program</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before you start a clothing program, there are a number of things you need to know and understand. Some of these are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. What kind of clothing each member of the family wears for work and for special occasions. Observe clothing wherever you see people: at home, in the field, in the market, at the festival, etc. It will help if you record your observations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Who buys clothes for the family. The father? The mother? Both? Are clothes bought in the village market or in town? Does a salesman go from door to door selling ready -made garments or yard goods ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. How garments are made. How many women make clothes for their families? How many buy most of the clothes already made ? How many hire someone else, such as the tailor in the market, to make the family's clothes ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. How clothing is laundered. Is it washed by hand or on a board or is it beaten with a paddle or on rocks? Are clothes dried on a clothesline or on the grass ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. How clothing is cared for in the home. Do people hang garments on a nail or peg, or do they use clothes hangers? Do they keep clothes in a closet or covered with a curtain ? Do they store out-of-season clothes in a box or trunk ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. How much clothing needs repair. Do children's clothes have tears or holes in them? Are fasteners or buttons torn off? Do men's work clothes need patches, or are the collars turned on shirts ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. What fabrics, thread, buttons, needles, etc., are sold in the local market?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. What sewing equipment the women have. Do they have needles, pins, shears, or scissors ? Do they have sewing machines? If so, how are they operated-by hand or by foot?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. If patterns of any kind are available in the market or nearby town.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How are your own sewing skills?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do you, yourself, know the simple, basic skills you will need to teach women sewing? For example, do you know the basic stitches needed in sewing by hand-how to baste, make a running stitch, back stitch ? Do you know how to make different kinds of seams? Can you cut and put on a facing? Do you know how to measure to make a pattern or fit a garment? Can you put on a patch and darn a hole so that it looks neat? Do you know how to thread a sewing machine? Adjust the tension? Fill the bobbin ? Oil the machine ? Can you tell the lengthwise threads of a piece of material from the crosswise? You must be sure of your own skills before you start to teach sewing. If you are not sure, ask your supervisor for help and then practice until you know them well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Some problems in home sewing</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. <I>Lack of sewing equipment </I>is probably the greatest problem. Women may not be able to buy sewing machines. They are expensive, especially those that are electric or operated by a foot pedal. In some areas, sewing machines are small and have a wheel with a crank that is turned by hand. Villagers sometimes join together and buy a sewing machine cooperatively. Then they work out a plan so that homemakers can take turns using it. When no sewing machines are available, you will need to plan a program based on hand sewing. Individual families often do not have needles, shears, or other small equipment. These, too, can be purchased cooperatively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. <I>Lack of patterns</I>. In many areas there are no readymade patterns of any kind available. Basic patterns can be made at home by taking body measurements and using these to draw a pattern. Some village workers teach women to rip apart an old garment, such as a blouse, shirt, or pants, and cut a pattern from it. Once you have a basic pattern, it can be pinned together on the person and made smaller or larger to fit the individual figure. However, often the lack of paper for homemade patterns is also a problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. <I>Village tailors </I>sometimes are afraid that teaching village women to sew will threaten their business. They consider making clothes a man's job. They charge considerable amounts for their sewing and make their living in this way. However, their trade is usually not hurt when village women learn to sew.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Making new garments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Selecting suitable materials</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important part of learning to make a new garment is learning how to buy the material wisely. Local markets may be the only place the village family has to buy cloth to make clothes. You may find a great variety of fabrics in them. You may find, for example, that for the same price there may be some firmly woven pieces that will wear well and others that are loosely woven. You may find materials made not only of familiar fibers such as cotton, but also some of the manmade fibers like rayon, etc. The village woman may not know how to wash and iron these materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You may want to buy small pieces of material as samples so you can teach the women what to look for to get the most value for their money. First show how, for the same amount of money, a woman can buy a good quality fabric that will wear well and be attractive or one of poor quality that will fade or shrink. Show how some pull out of shape or wear out quickly and how to look for closely woven materials that are strong and will wear well. You can show them how to look for printed designs that are placed straight on the threads of the cloth. Teach them the difference between cottons and other fibers. Wash some of the samples to show those that fade and those that do not.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In other words, you can teach the village women to be better consumers through a sewing project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p174.jpg"></center><br>
+ A Woman's Club in Tanzania is meeting for a lesson on making children's clothing. While the women are practicing their newly learned skills, the village worker is discussing the growth and development of a healthy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Begin with something easy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many places, it will be wise to start sewing lessons by teaching the women to sew by hand. This will not eliminate those who do not have machines they can use. Any garment involves some hand sewing. By patching a garment, they can learn to baste and make small hemming stitches they will use often if they continue to sew. Beginning this way will give the women a chance to develop simple skills they will need later. Holding a small needle and guiding it through cloth may be hard for the women to learn if they have not done it before.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a West African country where evenings get cool enough for babies to need wraps, the home economist began by teaching the women to make a baby's jacket. The women were able to buy the 3/4 yard of cotton flannel needed for this garment, needle, and thread. By making this garment, the women learned to baste and make running stitches, hemming stitches, and french seams. All work was done by hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A pattern for such a jacket is given below. It is simple to make. To use the diagram, enlarge the squares to 2 inches across and transfer the markings to your full-size pattern.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p175.png"></center><br>
+ Begin with something easy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Place the pattern on a lengthwise fold of the material with the center back on the fold. The pattern allows for a 5/8-inch seam. Baste the underarm seam and try the garment on the baby. Adjust it as is needed. Sew the underarm seam with small running stitches. Make a french seam.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baste the edges of the sleeves, bottom of the jacket, the center front opening, and around the neck. Then hem them with small stitches. Use a small hem. If embroidery thread is available, the edges can be blanket stitched over the hems for trimming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Make ties of the same material and attach them to the front opening at the neck.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In another village the women began their sewing by making a blouse. They used a straight piece of cloth, folded it in the middle, cut a hole in the neck, and sewed up the sides, allowing for the armholes. The neck and armholes had to be faced and the bottom of the blouse hemmed. This simple blouse was quickly made and the women were pleased with their success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p176.jpg"></center><br>
+ KOREA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Panties for a small girl</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Korea, a pattern has been developed for making a pair of panties for a little girl from 1/3 yard of 36-inch material. Here is how it's done:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Select a cotton material that is soft and can be washed easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Mark the material into three equal parts and cut it as indicated below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p176a.png"></center><br>
+ Panties for a small girl 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Stitch the two "A" parts together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p176b.png"></center><br>
+ Panties for a small girl 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Fold as marked by dotted lines on the diagram.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Stitch the "X" seams together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p176c.png"></center><br>
+ Panties for a small girl 3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Stitch seam "C".</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Spread the seam open. Fold the points back on the garment as shown below. Stitch near the edge to reinforce the crotch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p176d.png"></center><br>
+ Panties for a small girl 4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Hem the legs and top.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Insert elastic or a drawstring in the waistband.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p176e.png"></center><br>
+ Panties for a small girl 5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Little girl's dress</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The easy pattern given here will make a simple, yet comfortable dress for a 4- or 5-year-old girl in a warm climate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To use the diagram, enlarge the squares to 3 inches across and transfer the markings to your full-size pattern. The pattern allows for seams on center front, center back, sides, shoulders, and for the hem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After cutting the front and back of the dress, lay the top of both pattern pieces on the cloth again to make facings for the top of the dress. Make the facing come 1 inch below the armhole. Place the pattern on the lengthwise thread of the material as you did in cutting the dress.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To Make Dress:</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Sew the side seams.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Sew the back seam to within 5 inches of the neckline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Sew the side seams of facings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Lay the right side of the facings on the right side of the dress with armholes and neck matching.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Sew around the armholes, neck, and along the edges of the opening in the back of the dress.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Trim this seam and clip it to make the facings lie flat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Turn the facings to the wrong side.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Sew the shoulder seams of the dress.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Sew the shoulder seams of the facings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Make ties for fastening the dress.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. Attach the ties to both sides of the back neck opening.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p177.png"></center><br>
+ To make dress</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can easily adapt this pattern. By straightening the side and cutting it off at the waist, you can add a gathered skirt. If this is done, extend the back opening to below the waist and substitute button holes or other fasteners for the ties on the original pattern.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Boys' pants</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Burma, the women asked a home economist to help them make pants that would fit their small sons. She quickly found their chief problem. They were cutting the front and back the same length' allowing the boy no room to sit down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Nepalese home economist developed a pattern for boys' pants that is easy to follow. See <I>How To Make Boys' Pants</I>, an AID publication, for directions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p178.jpg"></center><br>
+ In Turkey where it is cool, long pants are preferred. These, like the others, can be made of sturdy material with strong seams and still be attractive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p178.png"></center><br>
+ Boys' pants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Women's underwear</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many countries, patterns for women's underwear suited to their traditional outer garments have been developed. For instance, India has a long slip comfortable to wear under a sari.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instructions for making a brassiere are often requested. A simple brassiere pattern designed in Turkey is given below.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkish village workers leave their basic training center with this pattern and many others in three different sizes. The middle size of each is made up into a garment. The women can try on the sample garment. If it fits, they use the middle size pattern. If it is too small, they use the larger. If it is too large, they turn to the smaller. With the aid of their village worker, they can make any additional adjustments needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to make a brassiere</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enlarge the pattern as directed. Place the brassiere pattern on the material with the line marked "lengthwise thread of material" carefully on the straight lengthwise threads. This will make the center back seam on the bias. If the garment is to fit, this is important. See the illustration below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p179.png"></center><br>
+ Women's underwear</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pattern allows for seams of Œ inch. The brassiere is made double so all seams are on the inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cut out the main part of the brassiere four times. This will give a left and a right side for the outside and the same for the lining. Cut out the other two pieces twice. This brassiere ties in the front with two ties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sew the center back seam. Press it open.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sew the dart seams. Press them open.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Repeat these steps for the lining.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fold the strap lengthwise through the center with the right sides together. Sew Œ inch from the edge. Turn the strap right side out. Baste along the edges to make the straps flat. Pin one end of each strap to the outside of the brassiere at the place marked on the pattern. Baste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Put the lining over the outside of the brassiere with the seams on the outside. Match the seams. Baste all the way around the outside. Sew Œ inch from the edge all the way around except for about 5 inches on the bottom. Remove the basting and turn the brassiere right side out through the 5-inch open space. Press and baste around the edge. Make two ties and attach them to the front opening. Try it on and adjust the straps to the proper length.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Aprons</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aprons are easy to make and help to keep a dress clean. It is easier to wash an apron than a dress. An apron will also help hold a free-flowing garment in place so that it is safer working over an open fire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A home economist in India developed the sari apron which follows the graceful folds of the sari. Aprons could also be designed to blend with the type of dress worn in other countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Korea, the basket apron is well liked by rural women. It serves to protect the dress from soil when worn open. When the drawstring around the edge is drawn up, it makes a basket to carry fruit or vegetables.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p180.png"></center><br>
+ Aprons</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Care of the sewing machine</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The design of sewing machines and their parts varies greatly between brands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To get the best result from a sewing machine, it must be given proper care. This consists mainly of cleaning and oiling it, and keeping it covered when it is not being used. How often it needs oiling depends on how much it is used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before cleaning the machine, remove the needle to avoid the danger of sewing into your finger while you are cleaning it. Then remove the thread, the bobbin, the case (if this is removable), the thread plate, and the face plate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For ordinary cleaning, carefully wiping the parts is enough. Put a drop of oil in every hole, wipe off the excess oil, and stitch on a piece of flannel or other absorbent material to soak up extra oil. Only after this should you sew on the machine. Otherwise your new cloth will be spoiled with oil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before starting to sew, make a trial stitch on a double thickness of the material. Judge the sample on the following points:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Is the stitch the right length for the material used ? Coarse material requires a long stitch, and finer material, a short stitch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Is the thread the right type for the material? For fine material, use fine thread. On coarser material, it is better to use coarse thread.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Is the needle the correct size? Fine material requires thin needles. If you use a thick needle for stitching fine material, it will leave large holes. These will spoil the appearance of the garment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Do the stitches look the same on the right and the wrong side of the cloth? If your machine is stitching correctly, the upper side and the lower side of the stitching will both look alike. The upper and lower threads will pull evenly when you draw them away from you under the presser foot of the machine. If loops of thread form on the underside of the stitching, either your machine is not threaded correctly or the upper tension is too loose. Adjust the machine until your test swatch looks right. Then start sewing on the garment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p181.png"></center><br>
+ The parts of a sewing machine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Teaching other topics along with sewing</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While women are sewing, you have many chances to teach related topics such as personal cleanliness, sanitation, and care of clothing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Sanitation </I>is a natural companion for a sewing project. Everyone needs clean hands when they sew if they are to end up with a clean garment. The habit of washing hands before sewing can easily be expanded to include washing hands before handling food, eating, and handling the baby.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A village worker in Nigeria always starts a sewing class by having everyone wash her hands. The women in the compounds where she works got so used to this that they always set a calabash and a jug of water out when she came. She also helped them to see that a clean place was needed to work. Soon they learned to clean up the compound to be ready for a sewing lesson.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Personal cleanliness</I>. If you are teaching the women to make dresses for their babies, bathe the baby before the dress is tried on because "a clean new dress goes on a clean baby." The same idea can be carried over with adults. A new dress makes any of us want to look our best. This means we want clean, neatly combed hair and a clean body. There will be many places to teach personal care and cleanliness in connection with sewing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>How to wash, iron, and press garments </I>to keep them looking new and fresh fits into sewing classes. Demonstrations and discussions on how to launder clothing and improve laundry practices can easily be worked in with sewing. Many women do not know that frequent washing, properly done, makes clothes last longer because it removes perspiration and different kinds of stains that injure the material.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many women do not have an ironing board and some may not even have a table they can use. You can show how a plain plank can be padded and covered for pressing and ironing. Many women do not realize how frequent pressing improves the looks of a garment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Mending and repair </I>of clothing may be a starting place for a clothing program because it is thrifty and requires no cash outlay. In many villages, it is easy to find children with torn or worn garments. To the great surprise of one village worker, the first thing the women asked her was how to mend. She taught them how to sew a patch on a child's dress so it was not noticeable. She also showed them how to add gay and interesting patches on the outside of garments as a sort of decoration, and how to darn worn places.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Where and how clothes are kept </I>when they are not being worn has much to do with how they look and how long they last. Often garments are just hung on a nail or peg in the wall. This can cause holes or a bulge where the nail or peg touches the garment. Women and girls can learn to make clothes hangers of bamboo, tree branches, or other available material. Use a hook of wire or a cord made of twisted grass to hang them by. Painting hangers in gay colors adds to their attractiveness. Making clothes hangers is a good project for a girl's club.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p182.png"></center><br>
+ Mending and repair</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p182a.jpg"></center><br>
+ This worker in Kenya is stressing to village women the importance of patching a garment when a small hole first appears.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p182b.jpg"></center><br>
+ Iranian 4-H girls make dress protectors as part of their clothing project. A simple cotton bag makes it easier to keep clothing clean. The cotton bag is also washable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clothes closets protect clothes from dust and dirt and are easy to make out of wood crates or boxes covered with a curtain of inexpensive material.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Mildew </I>injures clothes and makes a stain that is hard to get out. It is caused by molds that grow in damp, warm, and poorly aired places. Teach women the importance of airing clothes in the sun and storing them so air can circulate well around garments and shoes. Demonstrate how to remove mildew stains by mixing lemon juice and salt, spreading it over the stains, and then putting the garment in the sun to bleach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Moths and other insects </I>are very destructive to clothing, especially woolen clothes. They eat holes and cause clothes to wear out much sooner. Before woolens are stored, they should be washed, sunned, and sprayed with a good insecticide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While women are sewing by hand, talk about some of the above problems. Some village workers who find women prefer sewing to any other subject have the first hour of a meeting or class on some other needed subject that the women are not particularly enthusiastic about, such as nutrition, gardening, or housecleaning. Then they let them sew the second hour.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One village worker planned a short demonstration on food preparation or nutrition about midway through the sewing class. She specialized in showing how to improve the babies' food. Soon the women were talking about wanting more help with feeding their babies. Other village workers have tried having a week of sewing and the next week lessons on another subject. In Vietnam, the village worker began to take small squares of cotton, thread, and needles with her to pass out to the women. While the women practiced new stitches she had taught them, she talked with them about care of their babies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p183.jpg"></center><br>
+ A man in Ecuador is proud of the closet he made. When the curtains are pulled across the front, the clothing is protected from dust.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Section III - How you will teach</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Planning and developing a village program</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You have learned to know the people of the village and how they live. You have already helped some of them with simple problems. You have given some demonstrations and talked over village problems with the people. Now you begin to think what your program will be. Planning ahead to know what to do, when to do it, and how it should be done is essential in any kind of work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You may ask, "Why do I need a planned program ?"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A planned program is the picture or "map" of your work. If you start walking down a road, you need to know where you are going and how you will get there. There may be other roads branching off. You need to know which one to follow. A planned program is your guide to help you and the people you work with get where you want to go.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p187.png"></center><br>
+ Map</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first requirement in bringing about change is for two or more people to agree there is a problem and that something should be done about it. If these people live in the village, they are "insiders". Sometimes the people who agree there is a problem are from the state or national government or from a health agency. Then they are considered "outsiders".</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three kinds of people help to solve every problem</B>. <I>Starters </I>are the people (insiders or outsiders) who first see a problem and feel that something should be done about it. They are willing to start something. <I>Approvers </I>are the known leaders, those whose approval is essential to successful action. When these people say an idea is good and that something should be done, the people of the village tend to accept their opinion. There may be one or several approvers. They may be outsiders such as public officials, or even more important, insiders such as village chiefs. <I>Spreaders </I>are the people who take the idea to all the people of the village. They sell the idea and help people see the problem and what they can do about it. These are village people (insiders).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spreaders may use several methods to get many people to know about the problem. They pass on information. They get the people to talk about problems and the ways to solve them. If there has been an emergency, they remind the villagers that they can keep it from happening again. They help arrange for demonstrations that show what to do about the problem. They may help plan a tour to a village that has solved a similar problem. If people complain and argue about new ideas, the spreaders help them to understand and want to help.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People can do all of this talking and planning and still not solve the problem. This can happen even if everyone agrees that something should be done. The people must decide that they will do something about the problem. It is a promise that they make to themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Steps in planning a program</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The people must participate in each step. They need to decide just what they <I>want to accomplish</I>, what their targets are. What, exactly, do they want to have when they finish the project (a good, deep well, for example) ? What should this include (a suitable location, the right kind of drilling or digging, a tight safe top, a way to get water to the surface, etc.) ? How will it change the lives of the people, (safe, clean water, easier to get to the surface, enough water to last all year, etc.) ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the people have agreed on their goals, they must decide <I>how they are going to reach them</I>. Sometimes it is harder for people to agree on how to do something than to decide to do it. Sometimes each person thinks his way is better. The leaders may need help in deciding what will happen if they do it one way and what will happen if they do it another way. Which will be better for the people? Does one cost more than the other? They must decide which is the better way for their village at this time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Next the village leaders must make a plan. This plan will have many parts. They will need a time schedule. What should be done first, and what comes next ? How much time do they need for each job so that each will be done at the right time?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The planning group must know what the situation is now, and what, if anything, has happened in the village in the past. Did the people try to do this in the past and fail? Are they against the idea now? Are they afraid to try again? Is the need greater now than it was before ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The planners must find out what is needed to do the job, who can do it, how much it will cost, and many other things. They must find the time, the people, the money, the equipment, and anything else that is needed. The village people must always know what ii happening and be asked to help in every way they can. They need to understand, agree, and want to help.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village people often look to and need someone to be responsible for and lead a project. They may form an organization. They might turn to the local government. These people will need your advice and help on their project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, the people must start the work</I>. For some jobs workers will need special skills and equipment. Other jobs can be done by village people. There will be many things to do. People will be needed to help plan and make arrangements, and sometimes to explain. People, work animals, and equipment will be needed to do the work, and money will be needed to pay for it. Everybody must feel that he has a chance to help. Help group leaders find the best place for each person to work on the task he knows the most about. Keep working until the job is done and the problem is solved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Planning never ends</B>. Each time a project or part of the program is completed, look back over what has been done just to be sure that things are going as they should. This is called <I>evaluation</I>. How well did we do? Did the plans work? Why did we succeed or Why did we fail? What should we be doing now? What do we do next? If we made mistakes, can we keep from making them again ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you wait until the job is done to ask these questions, it may be too late to change. At the end, ask yourself all of these questions again. Did you really get the job done? The last question is: "What do we do next to make our village better?" Each time a plan succeeds, you are ready to move on to something else.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Kinds of programs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The same program will not fit all the people in the village</I>. Village people are not all alike. They differ in age, schooling, the way they earn a living, the amount of money they have, whether they own or rent their land, their religion, the size of their family, the groups to which they belong, the people they choose as neighbors and friends, and maybe even in their nationality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All people have goals, hopes, standards, and values. People want to be happy. They want good health. They want to feel that they are successful. They like to be recognized and appreciated. They want to rear their children to be successful at getting along with people and in earning a living.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet people differ in their kinds of goals and standards. The young do not have the same goals or ideas as older people. Those who live in small villages have different ideas from those who live in large villages or near cities. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Include different kinds of projects in the village program</I>. Not all people in the village will want or need the same kind of help. Some people may want a village school. Others may think a well is the most important need. Still others may want a health center more than anything else. Many women will want to know how to feed a growing, hungry family to keep them healthy. Young mothers will want information on caring for babies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People visit with and help one another. They go to the same meetings, exhibitions, festivals, market days, and other community events. They meet along the road. They generally do what their friends do. You should not ask them to do something that will bring disapproval or ridicule from their friends and neighbors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People want to belong to their own natural community made up of people who associate together and share the same customs and traditions. It is where they feel they belong. A natural group or community may have a lot of influence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A village may have several natural communities. The people in one end of the village may not associate with the people in the other end or even know them very well. Young people are not always at ease with older folks nor are they attracted to the same kind of programs. The 15- to 16-year-olds do not mix well with the 10- to 11-year-olds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Learn these natural communities. You will find it easier and better to work with the people in them as a group. They will be likely to need and want the same things.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Help the leaders of different groups to plan, work for, and get what they need. And help them get the most out of what they already have. Sometimes it may take a long time, but you can help them see how to work on one step at a time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Encourage various groups in the village to work together on their common problems such as better schools, improved roads, more health services, a sanitary water supply, and better houses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example</I>, as you have been getting acquainted in village X, you have seen much evidence of poor health. The people have talked about:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How tired they are all the time</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The number of people who are sick</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Babies that die soon after they are weaned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You have observed or learned from the people that:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Fifteen young children in the village died last year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Many children are thin and small and many have big bellies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The people live mostly on rice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Few families have chickens, pigs, rabbits, or goats for food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· There is a year-round growing season, but few families grow vegetables.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The only milk they have is what they buy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· There is some fruit in the market, but it is expensive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You have talked with leaders in the village about the problem of illness, fatigue, and deaths of young children. They show interest in doing something about it. You ask a group of the leaders and a few parents to meet to discuss the problem and ways to solve it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In your meetings, you lead the people to discuss why this problem exists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What do these things mean? </I>Young children are not getting enough of the right kinds of food after they are weaned. Some people do not know that they need different kinds of foods. In some families, the women know how to cook just a few things. Many do not know how to prepare food for young children. Most families don't know how to raise vegetables.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You and these leaders decide </I>that there are not enough of the foods needed for good health, and the villagers do not know about these foods. <I>What are the obstacles</I>, habits, and attitudes that now keep people from growing green and yellow vegetables? For example:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· no knowledge, information, or experience</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· no suitable seed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· trouble with insects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· not enough water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· do not realize value to health</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· no real interest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You discuss what could be done</I>. Could the village have more milk, meat, and eggs if the people knew how important these are?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Set up some long-range goals</I>. It may take 5 years to reach all of them. Some of the goals might be for all families in the village to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· grow enough vegetables and fruits for home use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· keep goats for milk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· raise chickens or rabbits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· grow more and better feed for animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also set up some goals for this year</I>. These might be for:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· every family to grow some leafy green and yellow vegetables.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· every family to understand how good food improves health.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· women and girls to learn how to prepare foods for young children. Decide what must be done to accomplish the goals for this year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p190.jpg"></center><br>
+ You will use the same procedure you use with adults when you plan a youth program with the young people of a village. This extension worker in Kenya is showing the officers of a 4-K Club how to develop their program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Example I-One way to write up a plan of action</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goals: To have every family in village grow some green leafy and yellow vegetables. To have every family in village understand value of these vegetables in the diet and how to grow them.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=612>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What to do</B></I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Who will do it</B></I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Be sure seed, fertilizer, and insecticide are available in the village.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village worker</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Talk with village leaders about the need for families to grow and eat green leafy and yellow vegetables.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village worker</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Invite everybody to general meeting.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village leaders</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) Exhibit green leafy and yellow vegetables suitable for the area.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Write down names so each person will know just what his responsibility is.)</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b) Discuss the value of these vegetables in diets and how to save money by growing them.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village worker with help of local leaders (names)</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(c) Demonstrate the preparation of one vegetable.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village worker</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(d) At the meeting, ask who will agree to grow at least one yellow and one leafy green vegetable this year.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village worker and garden leaders</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Plan and carry out a result demonstration on growing green leafy and yellow vegetables.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected family in village</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Select the demonstration family and plan each step of the demonstration with them.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village worker and garden leader</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Conduct method demonstrations for the people of the village in the demonstration garden at appropriate times on:</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village worker and demonstration family</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) How to prepare the land and plant seeds.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b) How to cultivate, spray, and control insects.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(c) How to harvest vegetables.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Hold a general meeting at demonstration garden for people to see results.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village worker and demonstration family</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Exhibit some of the vegetables.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All people who have grown some in the demonstration</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Have a series of demonstrations showing how to prepare different vegetables for both children and adults.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village worker and garden leader</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Make posters to remind people of what vegetables can do for them.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village worker or garden leader</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="69%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Give a series of radio talks about the importance of eating green and yellow vegetables, how to raise them and how to prepare them.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village worker; family who conducted the result demonstration</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to do it</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plan with village leaders how you will interest the people in raising and eating green leafy and yellow vegetables.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Select a family that has been a good cooperator to carry out a result demonstration. Plan carefully with this family.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plan the steps of all method demonstrations to be held in the demonstration garden. Involve the demonstration family in helping with the demonstrations on planting, cultivating, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Complete all steps in the result demonstration and plan for the general meeting to see the results.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keep a record of what you did and of the result. Did you make any mistakes ? How many people grew green leafy and yellow vegetables ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Study your record to see if you can do a better job next time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When to do it</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Start now. It will take time to make the plans, demonstrate and grow the crop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Who will be helped by the plan</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Everybody in the village who raises the vegetables and eats them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to measure the value of what you have done</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How many families grew enough green leafy and yellow vegetables to make a contribution to their diet?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How much seed was used ? What was the average cost per family? How much fertilizer was used? How much did it cost? How much would it cost to buy these vegetables in the market ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How many families are likely to continue raising these vegetables?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goals to have: </P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Every family grow some green leafy and yellow vegetables.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Every family understand the value of these vegetables and how to prepare them.</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=801>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is to be taught </B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Who</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to measure or evaluate results</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Why we need to eat green leafy and yellow vegetables</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Illustrated lecture</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village worker</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">February and March</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meeting hall</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Number attending meeting and interest shown</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exhibit </B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village worker</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Store window</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Comments on exhibits</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Talk to individuals</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leader</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In homes, on streets, in markets</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Number of individuals talked to</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Kind of seeds Where to get them How to prepare seedbeds</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Method demonstration and discussion</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village worker with assistance of leader</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">March</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the garden of family willing to serve as demonstrator</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Number attending demonstration </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Questions asked Interest shown</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. How to cultivate and control insects</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Method demonstration</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Garden leader</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First of May</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In garden</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Number attending demonstration </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Number who have planted green and yellow vegetables recommended</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. How and when to gather vegetables and how to cook them to save food value</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Method demonstration, discussion</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village worker and garden leader</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">June</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At home of demonstrator</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Number attending</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exhibit</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village worker Leader Demonstrator</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Last of June</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In market</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Review what has been learned-Evaluation and planning for next year</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Group meeting with discussion</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village worker Agriculturalist Leader</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">July</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meeting hall</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How many families participated-Average no. of vegetables planted per family - How many cooked and ate vegetables? How many will agree to plant these kinds of vegetables next year? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How many people benefited ?</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Local leaders are important</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Who are leaders?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anyone in the village or community may possibly be a leader. A person is a leader when his ideas or actions influence others or he helps to get things done that the people want. In every village there are people with some knowledge and experience. When other people in the group use these abilities, the people who have them are put in a leadership position.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this book's chapter on "Food and Nutrition," you will find the story of Samuel and Mary. Samuel and Mary are leaders. In the story on page 32, Samuel <I>suggested </I>they have another meeting. When Samuel made this suggestion, he was using initiative. He wanted something done. He wanted to learn more. Mary <I>said </I>she wanted her children to grow up well and strong. Like Samuel, Mary was thinking. She was expressing her interest in the health of her children. By speaking out and showing her own interest, she was influencing the thinking of the others in the group. Later Samuel <I>asked</I>, "If our children are not healthy, why is this?" Here again, Samuel's question no doubt made others in the group wonder why their own children were not healthy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miss Ramero asked if someone would come early the next Saturday to get chairs and have the meeting room ready. Samuel <I>volunteered </I>to do this. Miss Ramero also asked who would go around the village to get more people to come to the meeting. Mary said she would. In these very simple ways, Mary and Samuel were influencing other people's thinking. They were getting them interested in finding out more about their own children's health. They were accepting responsibility. They agreed to have the meeting place ready and get more people to come to the next meeting. They were beginning to show leadership possibilities. With encouragement and help from the village worker, Samuel and Mary developed into useful leaders in their village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As another example, let us take Mrs. Hudan, a member of the homemakers' club in the village. She grows beautiful tomatoes, but no one else in the village has much success with tomatoes. The other women in the club want to learn how Mrs. Hudan grows tomatoes. She was asked to tell the club what she did. She was timid at first. It was hard for her to talk to the group, but she explained as best she could. They then asked if she would show and teach them how to grow tomatoes. The village worker helped Mrs. Hudan demonstrate each step. She was later invited to nearby villages to tell about her way of growing tomatoes. The village worker taught Mrs. Hudan more about tomatoes and helped her prepare for each demonstration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mrs. Hudan had experience, knowledge, and ability in growing tomatoes. Her club and the clubs in other villages used these abilities. As the village worker trained and helped her, she gained more confidence in herself. People began coming to see her tomatoes and ask her questions about gardening. Soon she was trying out new vegetables and talking to the club about the need for good gardens. Mrs. Hudan developed into a garden leader in the village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Why leaders are important</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One basic purpose of extension education is to develop people. The extension way of working with people not only gives them information and shows them how to do things, it also gives them responsibilities and chances to use their talents and abilities in ways that help them grow in what they can do. Extension and community development work help people become leaders and more useful and influential citizens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Local leaders can help you in many ways as you work in the village. You are just one person. You cannot reach everybody. You cannot do all the work that needs to be done. You need people in the village who have the respect of the other villagers and are willing to give some time and effort to help you in your work. Leaders can help other villagers understand the work you are doing. They can help you teach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Involve the local leaders in planning. With their knowledge of the problems and the way people feel and think, they will make a valuable contribution. Every village is a better community when local leaders help to plan and work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Often you will find young people who are interested in helping and want to learn. Give special attention to them. It is good for boys and girls to be given leadership responsibilities in their club or in school. Soon they will be men and women and called upon to accept larger responsibilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People trust local leaders and may work with them more quickly than they will with you. Local leaders understand village problems and know what has happened before you came. Every group has leaders. Even among animals and birds, leadership is recognized. In some way, an elephant becomes a leader of the herd or a certain wolf rises to leadership within the pack. Notice a flock of birds or wild geese flying in formation. One bird will be the leader. Leadership from the group is both natural and needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p195.jpg"></center><br>
+ Liberian 4-H Club members conduct their own meetings. This gives them an opportunity to develop leadership and take responsibility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Kinds of local leaders</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Local leaders fall into two main groups:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1) <I>Official Leaders</I>-generally thought of as the formal leaders. These include such people as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The village chief or headman</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Political appointees</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Governmental officials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· School teachers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Religious leaders</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Heads of organizations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of these leaders are paid for the work they do. They have authority. Often they are influential and can really help you in your work. Many times programs fail because these formal leaders were not consulted in the beginning. When you discuss any project or program with them and get their interest and support, you are more likely to succeed. Consult these formal leaders often and ask their help.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(2) <I>Natural Leaders</I>-informal or volunteer leaders. They have no official authority and they do not receive money for their work. They come from the people and often have more real influence than the official leaders. The natural leader is one people like and respect, in whom they have confidence, and to whom they turn when they need help. Natural leaders sometimes do not know they are leaders. They are just willing to help whenever they can. A natural leader is not always the best farmer or the homemaker with the finest house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important that informal leaders come from different social groupings in the village. A landlord's wife is not necessarily the best leader for a tenant's wife. A merchant or a shopkeeper could do much to get acceptance of the program. A young mother may be a better leader for other young mothers than an older woman. She would take a more active interest in a program for children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How to find informal or natural leaders</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first step in finding leaders is to believe in the people of the village and their capacity to become leaders. It is important to recognize that village people have the ability to make wise decisions based on the information they have and the situation they are in. Whether or not they are poor or have little education is no measure of their ability to learn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask several villagers questions such as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Who would be good to help plan and arrange a meeting for the women of the village ?"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Who would be good to help plan and set up a demonstration garden?"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"If you were thinking of buying a piece of land or opening up a little shop, who would you go to for advice?"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The names you hear most often in answer to questions such as these are likely to be the people of influence and the natural leaders in the village. Persons that others turn to for help and advice or speak of with real affection usually have the respect and confidence of their neighbors and are potential leaders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main requirements for a good leader are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wholesome influence, setting a good example for others</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Desire to learn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Willingness to work</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Being glad to help people, to lend a hand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Being fair, honest, and dependable</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Liking people and believing in them, having friends among different groups, rich and poor, young and old</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Being humble, never bossy or arrogant</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Having the respect and confidence of people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Being interested in trying new things, wanting change</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Being interested in and willing to discuss important village problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You may not find obvious enthusiasm or people expressing a desire to help others. On the other hand, any evidence of interest, friendliness, willingness to work, or hearing a person's name used often by neighbors may be your key to a potential leader.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Discovering leaders who might be against your work can be as important as finding favorable leaders. If you know unfavorable ones, give them special attention to try to win their support and change their efforts from working against you to working with you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How leaders are selected for specific jobs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leaders can't be "leaders" in name only. They must be leaders of something or for some purpose. Leadership means having responsibilities and this means a leader must be depended upon for certain specific kinds of jobs or work. One good way to select a leader for a specific job is to let the group choose the person they think would be best for the particular kind of leadership responsibility their group needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, the members of a club generally elect the person they think is best suited to be president of the club. The members of a committee often select the person they wish to serve as chairman. A group of women may select one member they think would do the best job as a clothing leader.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A second way to select leaders is to appoint them. You, the president of the club, or another official may appoint or ask a person to be a leader for a specific job.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A third way is to let people volunteer. If the best person is too shy to volunteer, you may need to appoint her if the group does not choose her. All of these ways are good. It is probably wise to use each way sometimes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">What kinds of help can leaders give?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many, many ways leaders can help you and the program. Ask them for special kinds of help or give them specific jobs to do. The following are examples of the help leaders can give:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Bring people to meetings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Arrange for and find meetings places.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Help you reach more people by showing and telling others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Help people in the village know you and gain confidence in you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Give general information about the program and help interpret it to the people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Help identify problems in the village and decide the best ways to solve these problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Help plan and organize programs and village activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Give simple demonstrations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Conduct meetings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Lead youth groups and various individual projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. Interest others in becoming leaders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12. Help neighbors learn skills.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">13. Share information with neighbors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14. Serve as officer in an organization or chairman of a committee.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Different kinds of leadership ability are needed to carry out the different jobs outlined above. Some people have one kind and some another. The different types are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Special know-how leadership</I>-having some special skill, know-how, or interest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Teaching leadership</I>-having ability to show or teach others what they themselves learn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Organizational leadership</I>-having ability to lead and guide an organized group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· <I>Opinion, advisory, and influence leadership  </I>- having the confidence and respect of others so their opinion and advice is asked for and their approval is wanted on important matters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p197.jpg"></center><br>
+ This village woman in Liberia shares the information she learned the day before from her home economics worker with the other women in her village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Leaders grow</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leaders grow in many ways as they are trained and given chances to help with your program. They grow or develop in understanding, in the things they can do, in how much they can do, in doing what they undertake better, and in their attitude and interest towards their own homes and the problems in the village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ladder below shows how a person may start by accepting small simple responsibilities and move up to larger and more responsible jobs until he becomes president of his group or a member  of the village council.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p197.png"></center><br>
+ Leadership Ladder</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first thing a leader does must be simple enough to be a success. A little success goes a long way toward bringing more success. Leadership is growth. It is gradual and continuous. It develops step-by-step. The important thing is to begin involving people in small ways that start them up the ladder of greater participation and leadership.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People agree to take leadership jobs for different reasons. Some want to help other people. Some feel they have a responsibility. Some feel it is a good way for them to learn. Many people who like to work with boys and girls will agree to be a youth club leader when they would not lead an adult group. For whatever reason they become leaders, if they are to be successful and remain interested, they must be trained and they must be recognized and thanked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Training leaders</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A leader cannot do what she does not know how to do. It is a mistake to ask or expect a leader to do something without preparing or training her for it. In fairness to her, you should prepare her for even the simplest job she agrees to do, such as getting a room ready for a meeting. She needs to be shown and told how the chairs and tables should be arranged, the room cleaned, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leader training is continuous and will cover different things depending on each leader's needs. Training for specific jobs should include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Subject matter or what to teach-for example, how to grow tomatoes or feed a baby.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. How to teach-how to give a demonstration, make and use visuals, lead a discussion, make a home visit, preside at meetings, and appear before groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. How to explain and get people to understand what extension and other village programs are.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. How to work with people-both adults and boys and girls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carefully teach leaders each fob step-by-step. Have them practice until you are sure they can do the job. This helps the leaders succeed in what they do and helps to make the program successful. Leaders themselves and their neighbors will know whether or not they do a good job. If they are ashamed, they will not want to try again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can train leaders by:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Individual visits to the leader's home to discuss and teach her how to do the particular job she is asked to do.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Leader training meetings or schools for groups of leaders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Providing chances for leaders to observe other leaders in action.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Involving leaders in planning and helping with leader training meetings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Preparing guides for them to use in teaching (see example at end of this chapter, page 201).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All these ways are needed. Work out a training plan to prepare every leader for his or her job. Let leaders help plan their training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training in leadership development is far more than just how to do a job or how to be good at something. Training should include discussion of questions such as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What are the characteristics of a good leader ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is the meaning of "responsibility" for the leader ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How should a leader work with people?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How does a leader use initiative without being "bossy".</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How does she interest people in trying new methods and ideas?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How can she overcome resistance to new ideas and programs ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What are the characteristics of a good program ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Good training avoids difficulties. Local leaders may give wrong information to others if they themselves lack knowledge and know-how. They may want to do all the work themselves and not share their duties if they do not understand the value of sharing. Other people in the village can become jealous if you do not teach leaders how to work with people without becoming "bossy". Giving many people the opportunity to work as leaders can help overcome jealousy and the feeling that you have favorites. Make it easy for the leader to learn. Make it easy for her to lead by giving her good training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p199a.jpg"></center><br>
+ An adult leader in Guyana teaches an older club member how to give a demonstration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p199b.jpg"></center><br>
+ A Thai extension worker teaches local leaders better ways to make clothes. They will later show these newer methods to other women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Community or extension advisory councils are used by many village workers. Organizing various kinds of leaders into an advisory council is an excellent way for them to learn to work together and to develop leadership. Such a group can help develop and carry out a program in the village. An advisory council will give you many training opportunities. Through training, you help to develop the attitudes of leaders and how they think about their village and its problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Recognizing and thanking leaders</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leaders must feel their work is appreciated. We all like recognition and good leaders need to be given some special attention. One of the best kinds of recognition is encouragement, praise for doing a good job, and a heartfelt "thank-you." This can come, not only from you, but also from one of the village officials at a public meeting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Special attention and training can be given by taking leaders on tours or visits to other villages, government stations, public health centers, libraries, schools, etc. If the village has a newspaper of any kind or a board where news items are posted, you can publicize some special work a leader has done. Tell public officials about their work. Give them a chance to meet interesting visitors who come to the village. Sometimes a certificate or ribbon or even a small gift is given to leaders in appreciation for their services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Making leaders feel they have an important part in planning and carrying out a program in the village is one of the finest kinds of recognition you can give them. Ask often for their advice. Treat each leader as an important person by remembering the small thoughtful things that make a person feel she or he is appreciated. You can write a personal letter at the end of the season to thank each leader and congratulate her for her assistance and the good results it has brought. Always give leaders the credit for what they do. You stay in the background.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Your own leadership qualities</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, you must ask, "What kind of a leader am I ? How good am I in training leaders to help me? How much time do I spend with the leaders? How long does a leader stay a leader? If many leaders say after a short time that they no longer want to help, what is wrong? Have I been a good leader for other leaders ?"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Always keep in mind that, as a professional leader, you are a leader of leaders. To train others for leadership, be a good example of it yourself. The leaders will want to become like you. We teach others to lead by being good leaders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The boss drives his men; the leader coaches them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The boss depends upon authority; the leader on good will.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The boss inspires fear; the leader inspires enthusiasm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The boss says "I"; the leader says "We".</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The boss assigns the tasks; the leader sets the pace.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The boss says "Get here on time"; the leader gets there ahead of time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The boss fixes the blame for the breakdown; the leader fixes the breakdown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The boss knows how it is done; the leader shows how.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The boss makes work a drudgery; the leader makes it a game.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The boss says "Go"; the leader says "Let's go."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Leader's guide for demonstration meeting on drink safe water</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prepare for meeting-Ahead of time</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Notify people of the day, time, and place where the demonstration will be given.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Talk with your village worker and health officials to learn all you can about:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Where people in the village get water for drinking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What kinds of sickness in the village may come from unsafe water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What makes water safe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What should safe water be used for.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Day of demonstration</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Get ready what you need for the demonstration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Container for water before boiling</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Clean cloth and clean vessel for straining water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Pot for boiling water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Clean covered vessel for storing water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wood or other fuel for fire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Practice your demonstration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Check the meeting place to see if there are enough seats, light, and ventilation for people to be comfortable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Arrange chairs and your demonstration equipment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conduct meeting and give demonstration</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Opening the meeting:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Welcome the people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Explain your job as leader.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Explain where your information comes from.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Discuss the importance of using safe water in the home.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Talk, ask questions, and get people to talk about:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is meant by safe water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Where people in the village get their water for household use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What diseases or illness may come from using unsafe water-especially for babies and young children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Explain how water can be made safe by boiling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Discuss the need to use safe water for:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Drinking</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Mixing powdered milk</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bathing baby</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Washing dishes, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wash your hands with soap. Explain that this is always necessary before working with drinking water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Give the demonstration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Important steps</B></I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Points to emphasize</B></I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Into clean utensil.</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) Strain the water.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use a clean cloth.</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Straining will not make water safer but will remove dirt and make it look-cleaner. May need to strain several times.</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b) Boil the water.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boil it for 10 minutes to make it safe. Wait until the water starts to boil to begin counting time.</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(c) Cool the water.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let the water cool in the pot used for boiling or other clean containers. Cover it with a clean cloth.</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(d) Prepare the container to store water in.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wash it in hot soapy water. Rinse it with safe water.</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(e) Pour water slowly into container.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pouring water from one container to another adds air and makes boiled water taste better.</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="48%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(f ) Cover and store water for using.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Summarize:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Go over the important points again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Ask for questions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Find out how many will agree to start boiling water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Plan for your next meeting.</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Teaching methods</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a teacher, your main job is to help people learn and put what they learn into practice. The old saying, "If the learner hasn't learned, the teacher hasn't taught," calls attention to the importance of good teaching. A good teacher finds ways to give information and new ideas so people will want to learn and will get satisfaction from learning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most teaching methods are one of three types-<I>individual, group, or mass methods</I>. How effective you are in getting people to accept new ideas and make needed changes will depend in large measure on the teaching methods you use and the way you use them. You should know and use many different methods. Studies have shown that when several different methods are used more people are convinced to change. Choose the ones you use to suit the people, what they want to learn, their ages, their education, and the customs in their village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No matter which methods you use, certain steps in planning and organizing your teaching will increase learning. To be a successful teacher of adults, you will need to plan activities to call the thing to be learned to the attention of the people. By keeping their attention on the problem and using different methods of teaching, you develop their interest and arouse their desire to learn. As they are given more information and learn the skills needed to solve a particular problem, they become convinced they should make the suggested changes and improvements, and they act.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The steps in teaching</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP I. <I>Getting the attention of the learner</B>.</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village families are not always aware of some of their most pressing problems or how these problems can be solved. For example, in some villages the food grains grown for home use are generally stored in sacks and kept in the house. Much of it is destroyed by rats and mice, so the families do not have enough to last until the next harvest. Begin your teaching by getting <I>attention </I>to this problem. Help them realize their grain is being wasted by rats and mice and that they can save their grain if they store it in a better way. To do this, visit homes to talk about the problem, put up posters, and set up an exhibit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p203.png"></center><br>
+ Steps in learning</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP II. <I>Getting the learner's interest.</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You notice that people are looking at the posters and exhibits. They start asking questions. You tell them about families in another village who had the same problem and what they did to solve it. They are beginning to show <I>interest</I>.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP III. <I>Arousing the learner's desire for information.</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As you visit homes and meet with people, they want to know more about keeping their grain away from the rats and mice. You show them a film on how to store grain at home to protect it from rodents and insects. You show them metal cans and tell them about making ratproof storage bins. They ask about the cost of materials. They want to know how they can kill rats, mice, and insects. You have made them want to learn. They are saying they would like to do something to keep their grain from being wasted. They now have a <I>desire </I>to try a different storage method if it will help them to have more grain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP IV. <I>Convincing the learners to act.</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The people are sure that much of their grain is being wasted, but they aren't quite ready to spend the money to buy materials for better storage. Have them put some grain in a pan beside where the grain is stored. If they do not use any from the pan for the family, they can see how quickly it disappears. The rats and mice eat it. Now they are <I>convinced </I>that much of their grain is being wasted. They are ready to try a different method of storage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP V. <I>Teaching the learners what to do.</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before people can act they must know what to do and how to do it. They must learn the skills needed to make the improvement. You now give them more information and show them how to make ratproof storage bins, control insects in grains, and keep down rodents. You tell them where they can get the materials. You give them more information on costs. You get them to agree to try one of the recommended storage methods. You have made it easy for them to <I>act</I>.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP VI. <I>Making certain the learners receive satisfaction from their action.</P>
+</B></I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As you visit families to check on their progress in improving storage methods and controlling insects and rodents, you find they are pleased because their grain does not seem to disappear as fast as before. They realize they will have more grain and not need to buy so much. You know they are receiving <I>satisfaction </I>through this improved storage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If learning of any kind is to occur, the learner must go through these six steps. Remember them in your teaching!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Individual teaching methods</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You will probably start your work in a village with individuals because you will still be getting acquainted. You will be talking with individual women in their homes, on the road, in the market, or wherever you meet them. As you talk with a woman, you will often see a chance to show her how to do something in a better way than she is now doing it. You want to help her. You will be demonstrating as you show and tell her why the new way is better than the old way.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Home and farm visits.</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Visiting a woman in her home or where she is working in the field is one of the most effective methods of teaching if it is done well. It is effective because you are helping the woman in the natural setting of her activities. You can help her apply her new knowledge at once to do some everyday activity in a better way. You can correct mistakes at once. It is a flattering method because it shows the village woman that you thought enough of her to visit her in her home or where she worked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To be effective, a home visit must be planned. A home visit is not just casually calling on a family. You go for a purpose. Don't go unless you have a reason.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many reasons for making home visits. Your first visits will be to get information and to get acquainted. Others will be to give information or in answer to a request for help. Still others may be to ask a woman to serve as a leader or help with a meeting, or to follow up on a new practice you have taught. There are many other reasons for making a home visit. The important thing it to know the purpose for each visit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You must prepare for home visits just as you would get ready to teach a class. Prepare for the purpose you have selected and also prepare for emergencies. It often helps to have extras to show a woman. For example, one village worker carries a basket in which she has several things to show the women. In this way, she gets attention and rouses their interest. If she is teaching the women to make loose comfortable clothing for the baby, she may have a baby's shirt in her basket. If she is teaching the youth club girls how to make a blouse, she will carry a sample blouse to show the mothers. She may take a small sample shelf homemakers can add to their kitchen walls or an improved cooking utensil they can buy in the market. She tries to have something new and different from time to time to show the women. In this way she continues to hold their interest and they begin to want some of the things she shows them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Make the visit pleasant. Remember that you are a guest. Be friendly and sympathetic. Always find something to praise. Every family has some pride. Start the conversation about the family and its activities. Call the members of the family by name. Be a good listener and close observer. Be interested in what the family members have to say. Try to get the confidence of the family, then be sure that you always respect their confidence in you. Keep everything you learn about the family confidential. Remember your reason for being there. Before you leave, be sure that you and the family understand each other and that you all understand any plans you have made for the future. Writing down such action is a good way to help you and the family remember. Be sure you show your appreciation for the opportunity to visit the home and know the family.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is generally not wise to make written notes while you are at the home, unless it is something that you and the family have agreed together to do. Stop along the road and write down the things you want to remember from the visit. A family record like that shown can be most helpful. Think about the visit while you remember the details clearly. How do you feel about it ? Were you able to do what you planned ? What did you accomplish ? How do you think the people feel about your visit? Were they really enthusiastic or just courteous? What would you do differently if you could do it again ? What did you learn that will help you when you visit another family ? When you ask yourself these questions, you are evaluating your visit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p205.jpg"></center><br>
+ A home economics extension agent in Taiwan visits village women to show them home improvements they can make.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The last part of the visit is the follow-up. If you promised to send any materials or information, do it promptly. If there is to be a meeting in the area, send the family an invitation. If you promised to make another visit, do so at the time you and the family planned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FARM AND HOME VISIT RECORD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Name___ Address___ Date___</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Family Members ___ Ages___</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. The Visit:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. What I planned to do.___</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. What I accomplished.___</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. What the family agreed to do.___</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. What I promised to do for follow-up. ___</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">II. The Situation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Special Problems___</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Special Interests___</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">III. Materials or information promised:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">___</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IV. Proposed date of next visit:</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">___</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p207.png"></center><br>
+ Village workers in many nations stop to visit with women wherever they are. It is a good chance to remind them of meetings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Casual village visits</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Visits with women in the market, in the field where they are working, at the well when they are getting water, or along a stream where they may be washing clothes will be similar to a home visit. In these places, however, there will usually be more than one woman and the visit will not be as intimate as when you go to a home and talk with one homemaker alone. This kind of visit can be very effective for getting information, talking about a coming meeting, and discussing problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You will learn very quickly where you can find groups of women in or near a village. You can then plan to use visits at this location for particular purposes. Because the women will often be occupied, you may need to make such visits brief, although at times the women may welcome an interesting interruption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plan for such visits, carry them out, record, and follow up just as you do for home visits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Office calls</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sometimes the village people will come to you for information or help. If you have an office or demonstration room, they can come there. If not, they may come to your home. These visits are called office calls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office calls are important. The woman who seeks you out and asks for help is usually ready to learn. The people will not come if they do not believe you can help them. Show them you are glad they came and that you want to help them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As soon as you can, set a time and place where the people can come to you. Let them know when you will be there. For example, you could plan to stay in the office or in your home one morning or afternoon a week for people to visit you. Encourage them to come to you with their problems. If you have an office or demonstration room where women can come, you can use posters and exhibits to give additional information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Make your visitors welcome. Be friendly. Answer all questions courteously, no matter how unrelated they may seem or how busy you are. When people come to see you, take time to give them the information they ask for.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the visitor leaves your office or demonstration room, record her name, the purpose of her visit, the help you gave, any follow-up you promised, and other information you find helpful. Just as in the home visit, you must not repeat confidential information about the family.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p207.jpg"></center><br>
+ A village woman in United Arab Republic visits the demonstration room to get help with a problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p208.jpg"></center><br>
+ A village woman in Kenya is planting spinach under the supervision of her extension agent. Her neighbors have been invited to watch and will come back again to see the results of this demonstration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Result demonstrations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The result demonstration is one of your very best teaching methods. It proves that a new way of doing something can be better than the old way. For example, you are recommending the use of fertilizer to grow more and better tomatoes. Select one family and get their cooperation in growing tomatoes to be used as a demonstration. With your help and supervision they could mark off one patch of ground on which to try the fertilizer. Show them each step in planting and fertilizing the tomatoes. On another piece of ground nearby, exactly the same size, they could use the old method. They and their neighbors could watch the growth of the tomatoes in both. They could see how many more tomatoes came from the patch that was fertilized. They would believe what they saw. Next season many people would use the new method.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is called a "result demonstration" because everybody can see the result of it. It takes time and the steps must be followed carefully. Somebody must write down what is done from day to day, exactly how many tomatoes came from each patch, how much they weighed, and whether the tomatoes in one patch were better than those in the other. Result demonstrations can be used to teach many kinds of improvements. An improved kitchen or smokeless stove makes an effective result demonstration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sometimes there is no way to show the old and new ways side by side. Then you must help the people remember how it was before. This would be true of mosquito control after the mosquitoes are gone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A result demonstration not only teaches the individual family, but others as well. You work with one family, planning and helping them to carry out the demonstration. But you try to have as many people as possible see the result and learn from it. You may want to take groups of people to see it. You can use the results for exhibits, posters, and other teaching methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Letters</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Personal letters are of two types. One is the letter you write in answer to a letter you receive. Letters of this type will usually be to answer a request for information. Answer these requests at once. Give correct and full information. Make your letter neat and attractive. Your letter is a part of you. Make it picture you as a friendly, reliable person who gives sound information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You may write a second kind of letter to a few selected individuals. You may send these letters to say you appreciate a person's leadership or to ask a natural leader to help with some project. It may be satisfying to the village chief to know you seek his cooperation or to a homemaker to have you especially invite her to a meeting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A woman likes to receive a letter written to her personally. Even in a society where few adults read, the woman who receives your letter will find someone to read it to her. A letter sent home with a schoolchild to a parent who doesn't read can be very effective. The child takes pleasure in reading the letter to the parent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Personal letters can be costly in time and money. Probably you will limit yourself to sending only a few. Find out, if you can, if your letters are received and understood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Group teaching methods</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Individual methods are effective, and people like the personal attention. As a result they may encourage you to continue them when you could use other methods. As soon as you feel you can gather people together, you should do as much teaching as possible to groups. Keep in mind that your objective is to teach many people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Method demonstrations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is one of the best extension methods. Along with farm and home visits and result demonstrations, it will be one you can depend on to bring results. A method demonstration is <I>showing how </I>to do something. Don't just <I>tell </I>anyone how to do something when you can show her how. If you think over your program you will see many places to demonstrate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You will use this system over and over. You can show a woman in her home how to do some simple housekeeping skill or you can stand before a large group and demonstrate how to prepare a meal. You are demonstrating in both cases. You are <I>showing how </I>to do something. At the same time, you are <I>telling why </I>you do it. Try to show how so clearly that anyone watching you can do it also.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If your program is aimed at improving diets in the village, demonstrate how to plant a garden to raise much needed food, how to cultivate to keep the weeds down, how to spray to control insects, how to select the best vegetables for family use, and how to prepare the vegetables. In a program on smokeless stoves, your demonstrations could include how to select the place for the new stove, how to build a smokeless stove, how to use the new stove, and how to care for the stove.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Method demonstrations have many advantages. People can see, hear, discuss, and take part in a method demonstration. This makes them learn more completely than if they just sit and listen to a lecture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Demonstrations can be given anyplace that is convenient and comfortable. This may be a public meeting place, a school, a home, the market place, in a field, or under a tree. Select a place suited to the subject being taught. If you are teaching how to plant a garden, give the demonstration in a garden. If you are showing how to whitewash a wall, the best place will be a family's house or a room in a home or some other building. A food preparation demonstration can be given anyplace you can put a clean table and people can see. This may be in a home, at a clinic, at a dispensary, or even in the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p210.jpg"></center><br>
+ A local worker in Basutoland shows the village women how to prepare food to save its nutritive value. One advantage of a method demonstration is that women can ask all the questions they want.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Select the right demonstration. It is important that you select a practice that will be good for the people in the area. The demonstration you choose should:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Teach a sound practice-something you know is right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Have a wide application-be usable to many people in many ways.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Be timely-for example, treating seed for disease is useful only when it is done just before planting time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Be given with available equipment-don't demonstrate how to can fruits when people have no jars or cans. Don't show how to use a sprayer if the farmers can't get one. Don't use kinds of pots and pans in a cooking demonstration that the women don't use at home.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A simple demonstration that shows a small improvement over the method now being used may be of greater value than a long demonstration of a more difficult practice that people may be afraid of.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plan carefully. Good demonstrations don't just happen, they are carefully planned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p211.jpg"></center><br>
+ A village woman in Turkey washes clothes using a new method her extension worker has just shown her.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before you give a demonstration:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Think about your total program and what skills you will need to teach as a part of it. For example, plan weeks ahead to demonstrate using vegetables from the garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Plan when and where you will give your demonstration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Plan publicity to reach the people you want to attend your demonstration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Make posters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Talk with key people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Ask village leaders to tell others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Use the wall newspaper or bulletin board if there is either.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Plan your demonstration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Outline it step-by-step. This is your framework.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· List the key points-These are the things that must be done at each step if that step is to be successful. For example, in <I>cooking cereal</I>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step </P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Add cereal to water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Key Points</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water must be boiling. Stir continuously.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Assemble your equipment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Practice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Practice is very important if you are to give a successful demonstration. Even the most experienced demonstrator practices before appearing in front of an audience. Practice exactly the way you plan to give your demonstration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before the audience comes on the day you give the demonstration:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Arrange your equipment and supplies neatly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Check all equipment to be sure it works properly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Be sure your audience will be comfortable and able to see and hear every step of your demonstration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Demonstration</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Introduction.</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the need for this demonstration. Keep it short and clear.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Demonstrate.</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Make it look easy so people will want to try it. Be enthusiastic. Be yourself. Talk to your audience. Look at them as much as you can while you work. Never talk with your back to your audience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Be sure the people understand you. Speak loud and clear so everybody can hear. If you use new words, explain what they mean. Follow your outline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Encourage questions.</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Answer them sincerely and tactfully. Ask some of your audience to help you as often as you can. This gives them a chance to take part. Ask some to demonstrate back to you some of the steps that may be difficult. This helps them learn. Repeat a step if people don't seem to understand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Summarize.</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Review the important steps and key points briefly at the end of your demonstration. Tell the people where they can get materials and equipment if anything is new.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hand out any materials. Make clear what you will do next and what you expect from the people. If this demonstration is one of a series, tell them when and where the next one will be given.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Tours</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p212.jpg"></center><br>
+ A homemaker in Paraguay proudly points out the features of her new stove. Being hostess to a tour makes a woman feel proud of her accomplishments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A tour is a planned trip by a group to see results or situations related to specific problems. You can use tours to show villagers a new practice in use. For example, four or five families may have planted gardens the way you recommended. When these are growing well and show the advantages of the new practice, a tour to show these gardens to many people will help spread the use of the practice. A kitchen tour may show new smokeless stoves in use, or a rice-growing tour may visit a number of fields where a new variety of rice is being grown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People like tours. They like to see what someone else is doing. Tours are the natural companions of result demonstrations. Often a group tours completed result demonstrations. For example, they may visit a crop at harvest time so that people can see the extra yield due to use of an improved practice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like all other methods, a tour must be well planned to bring results. Decide on the purpose of the tour and plan it as a part of your year's work. Select the places to be visited, plan your route, and work out a time schedule. Decide where the group will assemble and publicize the time and date. Help each family that will be visited prepare to tell about their project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When your group has assembled, explain the purpose of this tour, what they are to see, the places they will visit, and the importance of keeping together. At each stop, the host family should first be introduced. They then guide the group around and explain what they have done. There should be time for questions and answers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the end of the tour, review what was seen and how it was done. Then give the people a chance to talk about how they may apply what they have observed and to ask questions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Meetings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can hold many kinds of meetings in a village. Some things can best be taught in small groups and others are good for large meetings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A general meeting is good for teaching something of importance to many people. You can teach subject matter and answer questions. The people can take part in a general meeting, too.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lecturing is one of the commonest methods used for teaching in a meeting and, alone, it is one of the poorest. When you lecture, you hope people learn from just hearing you say something. If you can also give them a chance to see and take part, you make learning much easier. Visual aids also make meetings more interesting. These will be discussed more fully later.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good meeting is carefully planned. Outline your talk if you plan to give a lecture. Then think how you can emphasize each point visually.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Show actual objects whenever possible. If you are talking about how much rice rodents eat, show bags with holes chewed in them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Draw simple sketches on chalkboard. You might compare the number of bags of rice the farmer harvests, the number he and his family eat, and the number the rats and insects destroy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Use flip charts. You may prepare flip charts ahead of time to illustrate important points about the loss of rice to rodents and insects and turn the pages as you talk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Make a series of posters. Each poster should illustrate only one point so it will be simple and easy to understand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Use flashcards to tell a story.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Use a flannelgraph. With this you can combine pictures or drawings to emphasize points you want to make as you talk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Show pictures or a filmstrip of how some body else has already used the practice and succeeded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You will think of other ways to illustrate your teaching. Remember it takes time to prepare these materials. They must be carefully planned to fit what you want the people to remember. You may find people in the village who can help you make visual aids. They will be pleased to have a part in your meeting and in turn make their neighbors more interested in the project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Involve the people</I>. This will make meetings more interesting. Here are some ways to have people participate:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Have a farmer or village woman report on a successful project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Have a group act out some activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Use songs to reinforce teaching. In Sierra Leone, women put the key points of a meeting to music. They all sing them together. This helps make learning easy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use discussion</I>. People like to talk. First the group may listen to you discuss something new. Then they may talk about it, giving their ideas. In a group discussion, each person listens to the ideas of others even if he does not like them. He has a chance to say what he thinks, too. You may lead the discussion at first. After the people have some practice, let some of them take turns leading discussions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To plan and lead a good discussion, prepare for it. Study the problem you are going to talk about. Think about it and about the people. Get all the reference material you can find. Have pictures, charts, and other aids.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Make the group comfortable</I>. People think better if they are comfortable. Find a good meeting place. Set a time that suits people and start and end the meeting on time. Know the names of the people who come.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seat the group in a circle</I>. Be sure that each person can see the faces of the others. Keep the meeting friendly. Give everybody a chance to talk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let the people tell what the problem is</I>. If they do not agree about the problem, try to ask the kinds of questions that will help them understand and agree. Your job is to find out what they think, not tell them what you think.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Discourage speechmaking</I>. There may be a person in the group who wants to talk all of the time. This may spoil the meeting for the other people and keep them from talking. One way to stop him is to say, "Let's hear what somebody else thinks about the idea."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Help all to take part</I>. Sometimes the best thinking is done by people who are too shy to talk. Ask questions that will get them to talk. Show that you think their answers are good. Never laugh at anybody's ideas. Group discussion is a big conversation. The leader keeps it moving but does not drive it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guide the discussion to group action</I>. Help the people decide what they want to do and plan how they will do it. This may be the hardest part. It is easier to talk about the problem than to decide what to do about it. It is easier to talk than to do what is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Help the group find technical information and help</I>. Sometimes the problem will be so big that the villagers will need help from outside. You may have to help them understand that they need this kind of help. Then they will be willing to ask for it. It is important that they get the habit of learning all about a problem before deciding what they will try to do. At times, you will need to help them think back over what they have said so they do not forget anything important.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p214.jpg"></center><br>
+ At a meeting of a women's club in Tanzania, the women learn better methods of food preparation. The village worker not only tells them, but uses the utensils they have to show them how to do it. She also lists her main points on a blackboard to help the women remember.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Women's clubs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Someone has said, "There is no greater force than woman's force, one it has been organized." Women's organizations of many kinds exist around the world. In most countries rural women as well as city women have organized groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many kinds of organizations to which both men and women belong. Farm organizations, for example, often include both men and women. In some areas, women are members of village councils, extension advisory committees, and other community organizations. Generally, both boys and girls belong to youth clubs where they work together on different kinds of projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural homemakers' clubs are developing rapidly in many areas. Women want to learn how to have better homes and a better living. These homemakers' clubs not only provide a systematic way of teaching women, they can be very influential in getting things done. The cooperative spirit developed through club work provides an excellent opportunity to teach that "we", the women of the village, are responsible citizens, and, working as a group and with our husbands, can provide for many of our own needs and desires.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a group of people form themselves into an organization, it means they are beginning to recognize the value of working together to get what they want. An organized group of responsible citizens can stir a whole village to action.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Songs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village people like to sing and dance. In every village there will be somebody who can sing and make up words to go with the music. Ask these people to make up songs about the subjects you want to make popular. The words to a song may be a story of what happens when people do what is right and what is wrong. They may sing the story to a tune they already know. It is easy for villagers to learn the words even if they cannot read.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lesson is learned best if the song is about just one thing. You may need to explain what the song is about before it is sung. If there are questions or if the people want to talk about it after the song, give them plenty of time. They will want to talk about the meaning of the song.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is a way to show that working and learning can be fun. Songs might be sung about:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The village that didn't have a well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sick children who became healthy when they got enough good food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The village boy who went to school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The house with a new window.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Drama</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Drama is not as common in the village as song, but it does entertain and teach. You can include several people in a drama, maybe even some from another village. Most people like to act. They like to play the part of someone else.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It may not be easy to find people who can write the drama. The village teacher may be able to help or he may know people in the village who can do it. Sometimes you can find copies of one-act plays that you can change to fit what you want to teach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any open space with a little raised ground or platform is a good place to use for a drama. The village carpenter can make a simple stage. Or you may use school benches to hold up a stage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the drama at a time when village people can come. If you let everybody know about it, you should have a large crowd. Talk about the reason for the program before the drama begins and between the acts. At the end of the show, answer questions and explain anything that the people did not understand. Let them talk about it. Thank the people who took part in the show.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Role Playing</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Role playing is an informal play. Group members imagine a situation. Then they act out what people would do in the situation. This might be used to show how different people feel about a problem and what they are likely to think should be done.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Too much advance coaching or rehearsing is likely to deaden the performance. The role players might meet once to figure out what points they should try to put across. They decide which characters will best dramatize the issue, assign the parts, try a quick test-run to get the feel of it, and let it go at that. Audiences like spontaneity and the players' imaginations will work better if given a free reign. By semi-experiencing a situation, the actors understand and feel it more completely. So do the people who watch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Role playing should never go on for a long time, and it should be followed by a group discussion of how people felt and acted, why, and what the issues really were. Never use it in controversial issues where feelings might be hurt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Puppet Plans</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Puppetry is especially suited to villagers. It amuses all people. It is an inexpensive art that can be easily learned. Even crudely made puppets, when played with a lively sense of drama, can keep the audience interested. Puppets can teach homemaking, health, agriculture, or literacy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several kinds of puppets. The glove or hand puppet is the simplest to make and the easiest to use. It is like a three-fingered glove. The first finger is inserted inside the head to move it. The middle finger and thumb fit into the arms of the puppet and move them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p216.jpg"></center><br>
+ A puppet show draws large crowds. Puppets can be used to teach lessons in many subjects. This one in India is on family planning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The puppet's dress covers your hand and forearm. One person can operate two puppets at a time, one on each hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For an effective puppet play, choose the lesson you want to teach. Write down the most important things you want people to remember. Do not try to teach too many things in one show.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use a story to illustrate the points you selected. The story must have dramatic value. The lesson you want to teach should be the most dramatic part of the show-victory, loss, joy, and sorrow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Choose characters that stand out. Then emphasize their main characteristics. The bad must be very bad. The good must be very good.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have no silent pauses. Keep the dialogue clean-cut and lively. Have short speeches and short scenes with lots of action. The amount of action will depend on the skill with which you handle the puppets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even if the play is a tragedy, bring in some wit and humor at fitting moments. Music, songs, or short poems can be repeated at intervals to drive the lesson home and to help the audience remember it. Use everyday people and familiar situations in the play.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Take the audience into your confidence. Do not try to preach. They will not listen. They have come to be entertained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Mass teaching methods</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mass teaching methods reach many people. In using individual or group methods, you have personal contact with the people you are teaching. In mass methods, you do not have this direct contact, but these methods can make your other work more effective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use mass methods to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Repeat your message to those you have contacted personally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Interest people in a new way of doing something or a new program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tell the public about your program. Many people can get to know you through mass methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Leaflets</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A leaflet can help you teach a special skill or kind of knowledge. It may be a single sheet of paper, printed and folded. It usually tells about just one job or one small problem. You may use leaflets that somebody else has written or you may write your own. They should be very simple, with short sentences and short paragraphs. Use drawings and pictures that are easy to understand. Be very sure that your instructions are exactly right before you give them to the villagers. Practice writing your leaflets so they can be used in literacy programs where people are just learning to read. Men and women will be more interested in learning to read something they want to know than in reading books that were written for children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p217.jpg"></center><br>
+ Leaflets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Circular letters</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A circular letter is duplicated so copies may be sent to many people who want the same information. For example, you may want to tell them about something new that will help to control mosquitoes. You want them to know about this very soon, so you send each family a copy of the letter. Even if some of them cannot read the letter, they will find somebody to read it to them. The best circular letters are short, simple, and written about just one thing or idea. Be sure that what you have written is easy to understand. If you do not have a machine to make copies of your letter, ask the village teacher to help you. He might let students copy your letter and give copies to the villagers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Newspapers</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newspapers can be a great help in getting information to people. You can write about the demonstrations you want people to see or about new ideas that village people are trying. You can tell about meetings that you and village leaders are planning. Many of your stories will tell how to do something. Talk about what some local villager did and how he succeeded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Wall newspapers and bulletin boards</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In every village there are places where people meet their friends and talk. These are good places to put wall newspapers. The people who can read will read to others. Then they will talk about the idea or the plan for the meeting. When they go home, they will tell their families and neighbors. Your idea spreads through the village very fast. When the people come to the meeting, they have thought about your idea and are ready to listen. They are also ready to talk. Sometimes village workers work together to write a wall newspaper. Be sure that you put it where many people will see it and where it is safe from wind and rain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p218a.png"></center><br>
+ Wall Newspapers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bulletin boards can be mounted in your office, in the demonstration room, beside the well, near the market, or any place where women gather. Outdoor bulletin boards should be protected with a small roof or some kind of cover. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p218.jpg"></center><br>
+ A protected bulletin board like this one in Korea is a good place to put a wall newspaper, notices of meetings, new bulletins, posters, and anything else that would be of interest to the women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Radio</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many villages people meet to listen to the radio. If you have a radio, have it where the people can come and listen each day. They may meet at the same time each day. After the program is finished, they will probably talk about what they heard. They often learn about somebody outside the village who can help them or of something another village did well. Sometimes you yourself may be invited to be on a radio program. This will please the people of your village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p218b.png"></center><br>
+ Radio</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Television</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries, television is becoming a mass teaching method that can reach into I many villages. People meet to watch television as they do to hear radio programs. Then they discuss the program. The audience has the ad vantage of being able to see as well as hear. If the program is well presented, they can under stand quickly and will be interested in trying the new idea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p219.png"></center><br>
+ Television</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Fairs, exhibitions, and festivals</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Everybody likes to go to fairs, exhibitions, and festivals. Although the people may think of them as entertainment, you will find many ways to teach at the same time. This is a good place for an exhibit which will attract people as they walk by.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A fair or exhibition is also a good place for demonstrations. Villagers who are skillful might demonstrate for you. Their neighbors will be more impressed by their demonstrations than by yours if they do them well. It is possible that the results of some result demonstrations could be brought for exhibit. Anything that people may "try out" for themselves will be of great interest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p219a.jpg"></center><br>
+ Women in Colombia visit an exhibit of a model kitchen and discuss the improvements with their friends.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p219b.jpg"></center><br>
+ Public judging is a good educational technique for you to use at fairs and exhibitions. People can hear you explain why a product is of good quality or poor and, at the same time, can see the product itself. INDIA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Campaigns</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many problems are village-wide and cannot be solved by individual families working alone, for example, mosquito control, village water supply, etc. Everybody in the village must help, so a campaign is needed. In a campaign, you use every teaching method you can to arouse interest, involve everybody, and get action.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An educational campaign is an attempt to get many people to use one or more recommended practices that will help solve a particular problem. However, not all problems are adapted to the use of a campaign. A problem selected for a campaign must be one that many people recognize as important.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A campaign should deal with only one problem at a time. It is best to emphasize one important practice that will do a lot to solve the problem. The practice selected should be one the people will accept. A well-planned campaign does not try to teach more than people can learn at one time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A campaign is an intense effort for a limited time. To have a successful campaign you must:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Plan your campaign carefully with village leaders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Decide what you wish to accomplish. Set the goals so everybody can understand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Decide how to involve the people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Plan the activities and methods you will use, such as demonstrations, tours, radios, home visits, a fair, exhibits, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Plan who is to do each method.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Plan a schedule of events.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Set a starting and ending date.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Plan for any materials and supplies needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Choose a recognized problem that is important to a large number of people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Offer a solution the people can and will accept.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Emphasize one idea at a time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Begin the campaign on the date set. Open the campaign with some kind of dramatic meeting to explain the problem and the goals. Make it fun for everyone as well as a learning experience. The program might also include other activities to attract interest and attention such as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A parade of young people with campaign banners.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A film or filmstrip. Often the Ministry of Health or Agriculture has films suitable for this kind of meeting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Some songs about the subject of the campaign.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A skit on what to do.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Carry out all activities as planned. Keep the interest and attention of the village focused on your campaign. Demonstrate the practices you are recommending, for example:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Burying night soil in pits and dusting the pits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Whitewashing walls of houses. This demonstration might be followed by a contest on whitewashing houses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Building latrines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Make follow-up visits to encourage families and publicize individual success stories.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. End the campaign dramatically. Set a definite time to end the campaign. Feature the final day so the people can share the satisfaction of completing the project. This is a good time to report results to the people. This day, like the starting day, is a time to invite an important person. Dinners, picnics, or rallies will encourage all the people who took part in the campaign to come and rejoice in its success. This is an occasion to recognize community leaders for their work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Evaluate your results. Ask yourself these questions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What changes did you expect in knowledge, attitudes, and skills?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What evidence do you have that the changes were made?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Who is carrying out the practices recommended in the campaign?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use several ways to collect information from the people, such as personal interviews on farm and home visits, a show of hands at meetings, and questionnaires. Try to find out not only the number of families who adopted the recommended practices, but which campaign methods worked best. Ask the leaders and members of the campaign committee for their opinions on the effectiveness of the campaign and for suggestions on how to improve future campaigns. This will help you to avoid making the same mistakes in future campaigns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following campaigns have been successful in various countries:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=234>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Better Rice</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Healthy Chicks</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clean Up</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grow More</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaria Control</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vegetables</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improved Kitchen</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Healthy Baby</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Floors</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improved Stoves</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Community centers</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many rural villages, finding a place large enough for people to meet is often a problem. The school is sometimes used as a village hall or general meeting place. But the school building is occupied for much of the year, and generally there is no other suitable place. It is better to have a special place where village groups know they can come any time to meet together. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The step-by-step development of a community center in one village shows how to begin where the people are and lead them forward to new concepts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this small rural community, incomes were low and living conditions were about the same as in other communities in the area. The local village home economics worker had been working in the community for about a year and she knew every home. She had taught the women individually in their own kitchens and in groups under the trees. She had organized a girls' club which now met regularly and had secured the interest and cooperation of the people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the women continued to come together to learn, they became interested in organizing a club. This was a new experience for them. Meetings were held in the yards, for hardly a home was large enough for an inside meeting, and there were no chairs to sit on. The school could not often be used for daytime meetings because there was no space when school was in session. They began to wonder if they could get a place where they might meet together regularly more easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They asked the advice and help of their husbands and the local agriculturist and held a joint meeting in the school building to see what could be done. Some of the group knew of two or three houses in which no one was living. One of the larger vacant houses had one rather large room and two smaller rooms. The owner agreed that the community could use the building for 5 years, rent free, in exchange for making needed repairs The house needed much work before it could be used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The committee that had contacted the owner suggested raising money to buy some of the material needed to fix the house. The women's club sponsored a festival. Other committees, including the boys and girls, helped plan and arrange for the festival. It was quite a success. With the money they raised and the labor they donated, the villagers put the house in a usable condition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The women's club thought it would be helpful if the house served not only as a village center or village hall but also as a demonstration The women and girls made much of the furniture. The men and boys helped with the car-house with furnishings suitable for their own homes and within their own means. The men also liked this idea. Accordingly, every piece of furniture was made by the people themselves. pentry and borrowed a fence-making machine from a nearby large plantation owner to make the wire fence around the yard. The men improved the road to the center.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the center was finished, the kitchen demonstrated a well-built stove, simple homemade cupboards, shelves, and work space. The light, airy bedroom showed a homemade bed and a mattress of corn shucks, a baby bed, a simple wardrobe, and a dressing table made of wooden boxes. The living room furniture included a homemade sofa with corn shuck mattress which could be used for both sitting and sleeping, a simple homemade chair, wall shelves, and a table with bamboo legs. All the furniture was painted and made attractive. The furnishings were of durable and inexpensive materials, but they were colorful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A sanitary toilet, protected water supply, clean and attractive yard with grass and flowers, and a vegetable garden in which plants and seedlings were grown for distribution to the people were important parts of the total demonstration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The center became a busy place. In addition to the women's and girls' clubs, other village organizations held their meetings in it. Demonstrations were given and classes conducted for women and girls, farmers, and school boys and girls. Because of the great need for furniture in village homes, popular classes in carpentry taught young and old to make the furniture they admired in the center. Baby beds, dressing tables, and good corn shuck mattresses were made by the dozen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Homemakers would drop by to use the community sewing machine which the women's club had raised money to buy. A farmer would come to help his wife or son or daughter with a piece of furniture they were making. A club boy or girl might come by late in the afternoon to get some plants to set out in his home garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A pre-school program was begun at the center From 30 to 40 children came each morning for about 2 hours. They were given milk provided by the Ministry of Health. They were taught simple health practices and how to do for themselves and play together. Often the local doctor or public health nurse gave examinations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mothers volunteered their services each morning to help the home economics worker prepare the food and care for the children. In this way, they learned food preparation, sanitation, better care for their children, and the values and satisfaction of participating in a community enterprise. It was easy to get their cooperation and help in work which benefited their children. It was the first community work for most of them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the village workers were making individual farm and home visits, the center was kept open by a club member. The women's club took responsibility for upkeep of the center and equipment and asked help from the other village people. This center provided not only a place where group activities could be conducted, but also a chance to develop community interest and a feeling of belonging. It also demonstrated how people could work together to do things for the benefit of all, that no one person or family was able to do alone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This established meeting place, where the people of the village knew they were welcome to come to work, learn, plan, and carry out their plans, became an important addition to the village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Teaching AIDS</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some people will come to a meeting just to hear you talk. Many others will stay at home unless you do something to make the meeting more interesting. Those who do come will learn more easily and remember more if you have something for them to see as you talk. There are many kinds of <I>visual aids </I>for you to use. You can make many of them yourself. There are posters, photographs, pictures, flannel-graphs, flip charts, flashcards, bulletin boards, filmstrips, and slides. You may think of others. Remember that a poor visual aid is worse than none at all. It must be large enough for the audience to see it well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village people can help you do these, and it will please them to be asked. If you have a chalkboard or blackboard, you can write on it as you and your audience talk about their problems. This is a way to help everybody remember the important points as you talk. All of these things help people to understand and remember what you want them to learn. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p223a.jpg"></center><br>
+ The village workers in Liberia are teaching village women the foods they should eat to be healthy. The use of real foods makes learning easier for the women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Real objects</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use real objects in your teaching whenever possible. If you are talking about foods needed for health, show the real foods. Women will remember better if you hold up a bunch of spinach than if you use a picture of greens. If you are discussing tomato diseases, show diseased tomatoes and good tomatoes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p223b.jpg"></center><br>
+ Portugal uses a mobile unit that contains an improved kitchen. With this kitchen-on-wheels they can reach women in even the more isolated areas 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p223c.jpg"></center><br>
+ Portugal uses a mobile unit that contains an improved kitchen. With this kitchen-on-wheels they can reach women in even the more isolated areas 2</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Samples and specimens</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are usually real objects treated and mounted in a special way to keep them. For example, weeds, insects, seeds, and diseased plants or leaves may be mounted on cardboard, kept in jars, etc., so you can show them to people. Showing villagers the life cycle of boll worms may help them recognize the pest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Models</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Models are small replicas of real objects. You may want to use a model when the real object would be too large to move about. For example, you might use a model of an improved stove or a house to show how a recommended change would look.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Photographs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Photographs can show the people you work with taking part in extension activities. Good photographs of village activities can be a real aid to teaching. Photographs can show how something was before a result demonstration was carried on. If a picture is taken before and then after improvements are made to a house in the village, people can compare them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each photograph should illustrate one point only. It should be large enough for a group to see when you hold it up in front of them. Photographs can also be used on a bulletin board or in an exhibit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Blackboards</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A blackboard or chalkboard is an effective visual aid when it is used properly. It is not expensive. It has a surface on which you may write with chalk. Green or black paint makes the best surface on which to write with white or colored chalk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can make a chalkboard from a piece of plywood 30 by 40 inches. In an emergency you can use cardboard or carton material. Paint this board with special chalkboard paint. You can make this chalkboard paint by using 1 to 1œ parts of kerosene, 1 part of varnish, and 1 part of lamp black. Stir in enough powdered pumice to make the painted surface slightly gritty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you want to carry the board from one place to another, make it in two pieces and put hinges in the middle. Fasten a small piece of wood to the inside of the fold. Slide it across the open board to keep it open.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use a chalkboard to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Summarize.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Draw pictures or diagrams.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Write out directions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Develop a lecture point-by-point to help answer questions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plan ahead how you will use the chalkboard. If you plan to make a drawing or diagram, practice so you can do it quickly in front of your audience. Keep drawings or diagrams simple.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stand so your audience can see what you have put on the blackboard. Do not talk as you write because your back will be to the audience. After you write, turn around and go on with the discussion. Don't crowd words on the board. They are too hard to read.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Flannelgraphs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A flannelgraph can add color and variety to your teaching. It will help you most when people in your audience cannot read. It is also a big help to village people who help you as leaders and teach other people. This can be important if you have information that must go to many people very rapidly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To make a good flannelgraph, you need a piece of cotton flannel with thick nap. A piece 30 to 40 inches should be large enough. Stretch the flannel tightly over a smooth board that is slightly smaller than the flannel. Fasten the edges of the flannel to the back side of the board.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other materials may be used in place of flannel. Burlap, a wool blanket, a thick towel, wool rugs, or almost any cloth covered with small fibers that stick out will work very well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p225a.jpg"></center><br>
+ This Brazilian worker is using a model of an improved clothesline to teach village women. The model is easily carried from place to place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p225b.jpg"></center><br>
+ An agent in Paraguay teaches how to draft men's pants by drawing a sketch on the blackboard and outlining the steps. This makes it easy for all the women to follow instructions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p226a.jpg"></center><br>
+ A flannelgraph has the advantage of flexibility and gives the group members a chance to take part. A Burmese worker makes her meeting more interesting by using one to show the three kinds of food that should be eaten in addition to rice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p226b.jpg"></center><br>
+ In some countries workers are given sets of flannelgraph figures like this book from Kenya.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p226c.jpg"></center><br>
+ Flashcards like this set from India can be used to tell a story to small groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pieces of flannel, felt, or sandpaper will stick on the flannel. Just press the pieces against the flannel on the board. They will stay until you take them away. If you paste scraps of flannel or sandpaper to the backs of photographs, other pictures, or papers, they will stick to the flannel on the board. Flannelgraph pieces will stay on better if the board is tipped back slightly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To prepare a flannelgraph story, place the title of your story in large letters at the top of the flannelgraph. For example, CHILDREN NEED A GOOD DIET TO BE HEALTHY. Then prepare your story in drawings, photographs, or printed pictures. Cut these from their paper background and paste pieces of flannel or sandpaper on their backs. Medium or coarse grain sandpaper is better than the fine grain. Keep the story simple. The pictures should be big and bold. Arrange the pieces in the order you will place them on the board. Number them on the back. Each picture and the words you use with it should tell one step of your story. The flannelgraph is good for a "build-up" story. You can keep your audience wondering how the story will end until you put the last piece on the flannel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Flashcards</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Flashcards can be a series of pictures that tell a story. They help if some people in your audience cannot read. Your story might be that "Babies Need Safe Water to Drink." Or it could explain the steps of mosquito control or show how to clean dishes. Almost any simple lesson can be taught with flashcards. If most of the people can read, you may want a few words on each card along with the picture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Flashcards should be used in small groups, not more than 30 people. The cards should be large enough for everybody to see. For 30 people they should be 22 by 28 inches in size. Use simple line drawings, cartoons, or photographs illustrating local situations on the cards. They should apply to the village in which you are working. The pictures should be in black and white, or have plenty of color if you can get it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keep the number of flashcards for one story down to 10 or 12. If there are too many cards the story is long and the people become tired. Study your talk and pick out the main ideas that you want the villagers to remember. Make one picture for each idea that you want to stand out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You must know your story very well and know just what you want to say with each card. Use simple words that the village people know best. Use the names of village people when you can. Hold the cards against your body, not up in the air. Turn your body from one side to the other, so everybody can see. As you tell your story, point to important objects in the picture. Be sure your hand does not cover the card. Enjoy telling your story. You will if you know it well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stack the cards in order. As you finish with each card, slip it behind the others. They will then be in order for the next time. As you become skilled in telling your story, let the people have a part in it. If somebody is good at telling it, let him take the cards and use them with other groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Flip charts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A flip chart is a stack of large sheets of plain paper fastened together at the top. Write on them with a crayon before your meeting. Be sure you write large enough for the audience to see. Use each page to tell one part of your story. As you finish with a page, turn or flip it over so the next page may be seen. At the end of your story, turn the pages back and the chart is ready to use again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You may also use the flip chart as you would a chalkboard Write on it with crayon or charcoal as you talk to your audience. If there is a wall to fasten them on, you can tear the sheets from the flip chart so the audience can see all of them at one time. In this way, the flip chart is better than a chalkboard, which must be erased when it is full. At the close of the meeting, you can pick up the sheets in order and have them to read later.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Films</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People who will not attend any kind of meeting will go to see films. For this reason, films are a good way to get people interested. Good films help you give facts in an interesting way and show new ways to do things in a short time. Because everybody can understand something from the pictures, they help teach people who cannot read. You will want to make a short talk before showing the picture. Explain the reason for the meeting and the picture. After the picture, give the people a chance to ask questions and talk about the picture. The most effective films are those that show problems, customs, and ways of living that are familiar to the people who see them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Filmstrips and slides</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A filmstrip is a series of still pictures on one roll of film. They may tell a story or they may explain the steps of an improved practice. To show filmstrips you must have a filmstrip projector. Some projectors do not need electricity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is a good way to teach because the machines are simple to operate. You can hold a picture on the screen as long as you need to talk about it. Filmstrips have another advantage. You can show a complete process, like growing rice, in one short meeting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you have a camera, you can take pictures of good ways to do things right in your own village and have them made into a filmstrip. This is not expensive. The people like these pictures very much because they or their neighbors may be in them and they show familiar scenes. They can take part in the discussion about them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some filmstrip projectors have an attachment for showing slides. There are also special slide projectors that are easy to operate. You can use slides almost as you do filmstrips. The difference is that slides are single pictures, usually in color. Each slide is mounted in a cardboard frame. The newest automatic cameras now available in many places make taking good color pictures almost a certainty. However, color film is expensive, so you need to practice until you know what makes a good picture for a slide talk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Exhibits</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exhibits can be used many places. Large ones can be set up at the agricultural fair. You can put a small exhibit in your office or demonstration room. Look for other places in the village where you can set up an exhibit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Often a storekeeper is glad to have an exhibit in his window. It attracts attention to his store. In one country, a village worker was loaned a window in a building on a main street. She kept an interesting exhibit in it all the time, changing it frequently. Another was given a corner in the Farmer's Cooperative building. The agricultural officer helped her build a permanent display frame. She used this way to tell the farmers about the women's program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can use an exhibit to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Get attention. It must seem to say "Stop! Look!"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Arouse curiosity and hold attention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Create a desire to know more about the subject.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Convince the people that something can be done.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Tell a simple story at a glance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To have a good exhibit you will need to decide:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. <I>Who </I>is your audience? Who do you want to reach with your exhibit?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. <I>Why </I>are you exhibiting? What is your goal ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. <I>What </I>will you exhibit? What subject?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. <I>Where </I>will you show the exhibit?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. <I>How </I>will you make the exhibit ? What will be its design and what will you use?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good exhibit has one central idea. It may tell a story. But it should be simple, attractive, uncluttered, and easy to understand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Posters</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A poster will help get people interested so they will come to your meeting, but it cannot teach very much by itself. It will help remind people when the meeting will be held and where to come. A poster is also good to remind people to carry out a recommended practice such as using well water, not river water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p229a.jpg"></center><br>
+ A 4-S member in Guatemala uses a flip chart she has made to summarize her demonstration. This helps her remember all the steps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p229b.jpg"></center><br>
+ People enjoy watching films and slides. In Costa Rica, a worker combines pleasure with education by using a film to show steps in an improved agricultural practice. At the end of the film, the people discuss the new practice. This may be the most important part of the evening.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p230.jpg"></center><br>
+ Posters cost less than large photographs and they are just as effective with groups. This worker in Iran uses a poster to help summarize a meeting on selecting and preparing vegetables for a balanced diet. This helps the women relate the demonstration to their total food needs. She has extra copies she will give to the women to use in teaching their neighbors. The women may also put them up in their kitchens for their own use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A poster should be read at a glance. Your poster should have just one idea: for example, to kill flies. Use just a few simple words so people will get the idea quickly. Make it big so it is easy to see. The words and pictures should not be crowded together. Place it where it will be seen by the intended audience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Demonstration animals</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animals can be used effectively to teach nutrition. When people can see the effects of certain foods on the growth and development of animals, they will be impressed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals used in teaching must not cost much, be easy to care for and handle, and come from healthy stock. Small rapid-growing animals are best as they respond quickly to changes in diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals should be attractive enough to have popular appeal. They should not, however, be the types commonly kept as pets. This tends to arouse too much sympathy for the badly fed ones. Different animals are prized in different cultures. In some countries, rats would be considered disgusting but guinea pigs, rabbits, or chicks would be acceptable. If rats are acceptable, they are extremely suitable as they are small, grow rapidly, and their food requirements resemble those of people. White rats can often be obtained from local biological laboratories.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You will need at least two rats to show the results of the experimental diet and two to be fed the normal diet for comparison. Try to get a male and female in each pair. You may be recommending the addition of dry skim milk to the diet of small children. Feed one pair of rats the regular food a child receives. The other two can be fed the same diet with the milk added. Soon the people will see a difference in their development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can make rat cages of wire screening. One village worker carried two guinea pigs with her from village to village and took them to meetings where people could see the difference in their growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Museums</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A museum can provide a permanent place for you to keep your teaching aids and reference materials. Village people can come to look whenever it is convenient for them. A school, an agricultural extension office, a health center, or a church may be able to provide a room for this purpose. At first, you may need only enough wall space for a few display shelves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries, museums like this are called "collections". They may contain models, preserved specimens, living plants or animals, graphs, charts, photographs, and other visual aids.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Conversion tables</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U. S. Measure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=607>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=4>
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weight-Avoirdupois</B></I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 ounce</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 28.3495 grams</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">16 ounces</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 pound</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 453.59 grams</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2,000 pounds</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 ton</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 907.18 kilograms</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=4>
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liquid Measure</B></I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 fluid ounce</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 29.573 milliliters</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8 fluid ounces</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 cup</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 0.2366 liter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 cups</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 pint</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 0.4732 liter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 pints</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 quart</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 0.9463 liter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 quarts</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 gallon</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 3.7853 liters</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">British Imperial gallon (4 Imperial quarts)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 4.546 liters</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=4>
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dry Measure</B></I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 pint</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 33.60 cu. in.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 0.5505 liter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 pints</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 quart</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1.1012 liters</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8 quarts</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 peck</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 8.8096 liters</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 pecks</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 bushel</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 35.2383 liters</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 British dry quart</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1.032 U.S. dry quarts</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=4>
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cubic Measure</B></I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 cubic inch</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 16.387 cubic centimeters</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1,728 cubic in.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 cu. Ft</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> = 0.0283 cubic meter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">16 cubic feet</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="45%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 cord foot (for measuring firewood)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8 cord feet</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 cord</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 3.625 cubic meters</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=4>
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linear Measure</B></I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 inch</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 2.54 centimeters</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12 inches</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 foot</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 0.3048 meter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 feet</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 yard</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 0.9144 meter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5,280 feet</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 mile</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1,609.3 meters</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=4>
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Square Measure</B></I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 square inch</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 6.452 square centimeters</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">144 square inches</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 square ft.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 929 square centimeters</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9 square feet</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 sq. yard</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 0.8361 square meter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">43,560 sq. ft.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 acre</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 0.4047 hectare</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">640 acres</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 sq. mile</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 259 hectares</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 2.59 square kilometers</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Metric System </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=670>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=4>
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weight</B></I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10 grams</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 0.8527 ounce</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 kilogram</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 2.2046 pounds</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 metric ton</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 2,204.6 pounds</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=4>
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capacity Measure</B></I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 centiliter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= .338 fluid ounce</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 liter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1.0567 liquid quarts or 0.9081 dry quart</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 decaliter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 2.64 gallons or 0.284 bushel</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 kiloliter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 264.18 gallons or 35.316 cubic feet</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=4>
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volume Measure</B></I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 cubic centimeter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 milliliter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= .06102 cubic inch</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 cubic meter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 36.314 cubic feet</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=4>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(the unit is called a <I>stere</I> in measuring firewood)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=4>
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linear Measure</B></I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 centimeter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 0.3937 inch</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 meter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 39.37 inches</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 3.28 feet</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 kilometer</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 0.621 mile</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=4>
+<B><I><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Square Measure</B></I></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 square centimeter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 0.16499 square inch</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 square meter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 centiare</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1,549.9 sq. in. or 1.196 sq. yds.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 sq. hectometer</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 1 hectare</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 2.471 acres</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 sq. kilometer</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 100 hectares</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">= 0.386 square mile</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bibliography</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OFFICE OF INTERNATIONAL EXTENSION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federal Extension Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Agriculture Washington, D. C. 20250, U.S.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extension Development Around the World-Guidelines for Building Extension Organizations and Programs</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural Youth Clubs Around the World-A Handbook for Developing Programs</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guide for Village Workers-Extension Methods</I>, ESC-562</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Issued by Government of India, Ministry of Food and Agriculture and the Community Projects Administration, in cooperation with Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Reprinted by Federal Extension Service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Method Series</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seeing Is BELIEVING-How to Conduct a Result Demonstration</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Showing How-The Demonstration Teaching Method</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farm and Home Visits </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Educational Tours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Educational Campaigns</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Result Demonstrations - Guide and Checklist</I>, FES ER&amp;T-154 (9-61)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Role Playing-A Teaching Method</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clean House Series, Packet C</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Posture in Housework</I>, PA-186</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to Teach Sewing Machine Use and Care </I>PA-701</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using Visuals in Agricultural Extension Programs</I>, ESC-561</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Published by International Cooperation Administration; reprinted by Federal Extension Service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Make Those Ideas Stick With the Flannelgraph</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Published by the Scientific Service, Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences, GAS, as part of the Agricultural and Home Economics Information Services to the US/AID Operations Missions in Latin America. Reprinted by Federal Extension Service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Home Improvement Series</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soak Pit with Dishwashing Table</I>, No. 1 </P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to Make a Baby's Play Pen</I>, No. 2 </P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Make a Calabash Washstand</I>, No. 3</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Making a Cotton Mattress</I>, No. 4 </P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Low Cost Beds Made at Home</I>, No. 5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sanitation Series </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Drink Safe Water</I>, No. 1 </P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to Wash Your Clothes</I>, No. 2 </P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Personal Cleanliness</I>, No. 3 </P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wash Dishes Right</I>, No. 4 </P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Get Rid of Household Pests</I>, No. 5 </P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dispose of Wastes</I>, No. 6 </P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Storing Food at Home</I>, No. 7 </P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prepare and Serve Meals</I>, No. 8</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Care for Your Baby</I>, No. 9 </P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Make Your Own Soap</I>, No. 10</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Home Curing Fish-A Guide for Extension and Village Workers in Many Countries</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sun Dry Your Fruits and Vegetables</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Home Canning of Vegetables by Salting or Brining</I>, FES ER&amp;T-95 (4-58)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information adapted from Farmers Bulletin 1932 by Mrs. Nazifa Dajani, Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Reprinted by Federal Extension Service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simple Home Mechanics</I>, FES ER&amp;T-234 (1263)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Published by the University of Puerto Rico. Reprinted by Federal Extension Service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Housing and Home Improvement in the Caribbean</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Elsa Haglund, FAO Home Economist. Reprinted by Federal Extension Service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extension Teaching Methods</I>, Circular 495</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experience with Human Factors in Agricultural Areas of the World</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Six Keys to Evaluating Extension Work</I>, PA-371</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conserving the Nutritive Values in Foods</I>, Home and Garden Bulletin 90</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Composition of Foods Used in Far Eastern Countries</I>, Agriculture Handbook 34</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Storing Perishable Foods in the Home</I>, Home and Garden Bulletin 78</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some Fruits and Nuts from the Tropics</I>, Miscellaneous Publication 801</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vegetable Gardening in the Tropics</I>, Circular 32</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Family Chicken Flock for Appalachia</I>, Leaflet 541</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raising Livestock on Small Farms</I>, Farmers Bulletin 2224</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raising Rabbits</I>, Farmers Bulletin 2131</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Dairy Goat for Home Milk Production</I>, Leaflet 538</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE BUREAU </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of Agriculture and Fisheries </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Agency for International Development Washington, D.C. 20523, U.S.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Child Nutrition in Developing Countries</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Derrick B. Jelliffe, M.D., Department of Pediatrics and Child Care, Makerere Medical School, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food for Peace Around the World-Manual for Leaders in Community Feeding Programs</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village Technology Handbook</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to Make Boys' Pants</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jessie M. Taylor, Home Economics Extension Advisor, US/AID Mission to Nepal, and Sybil Bates, Home Economics Extension Advisor, US/AID Mission to Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Handbook of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Horticulture</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ernest Mortensen and Ervin T. Bullard</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some Points for Consideration of Technicians Working with Villagers</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arthur F. Roper</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teaching Guide in Poultry Management</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oleen Hess, Vocational Educationist (Agriculture), AID, and Roque C. Pacariem, Supervisor of Agricultural Education, Bureau of Public Schools, Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SOCIAL AND REHABILITATION SERVICE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Children's Bureau</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20201, U.S.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prenatal Care, Publication </I>No. 4</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Infant Care, Publication </I>No. 8</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Your Child from 1 to 6</I>, Publication No. 30</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health Education of the Tropical Mother in Feeding Her Young Child</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Derrick B. Jelliffe, M.D., Department of Pediatrics and Child Care, and F. John Bennette, Senior Lecturer, Department of Preventive Medicine, Makerere Medical School, Kampala, Uganda. Reprinted by Children's Bureau.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NUTRITION PROGRAM</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Center for Chronic Disease Control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health Services and Mental Health Administration</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public Health Service</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9000 Rockville Pike</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bethesda, Maryland 20014, U.S.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food Composition Table for Use in Africa</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE INSTITUTE OF NUTRITION OF CENTRAL AMERICA AND PANAMA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apartado Postal No. 11-88</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala City, Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food Composition Table for Use in Latin America</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publications may be obtained from the local sales agents or Distribution and Sales Section, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100, Rome Italy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Child Care-A Hand book for Village Workers and Leaders</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. E. Keister, Research Associate, Institute of Child and Family Development, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, N.C., U.S.A.; formerly Home Economics Officer, FAO</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Visual Aids in Nutrition Education-A Guide to Their Preparation and Use</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alan C. Holmes, FAO Consultant</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Our Foods-A Handbook for Educationists in West Africa</I>, H. and M. Dupin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Nutrition in Tropical Africa</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Michael Latham, Professor of International Nutrition, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., U.S.A.; formerly Medical Officer 1/c, Nutrition Unit, Ministry of Health, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry Keeping in Tropical Areas</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Werner Thomann, Poultry Production Specialist, Animal Production and Health Division</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Food Problems</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Protein at the Heart of the World Food Problem</I>, No. 5</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice-Grain of Life</I>, No. 6</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The State of World Fisheries</I>, No. 7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Freedom From Hunger</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition and Working Efficiency</I>, No. 5</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education and Training in Nutrition</I>, No. 6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Food Program Studies</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food Aid and Education</I>, No. 6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Nutritional Studies</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice and Rice Diets</I>, No. 1</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maize and Maize Diets-A Nutritional Survey</I>, No. 9</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calorie Requirements</I>, No. 15</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legumes in Human Nutrition</I>, No. 19</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. R Aykroyo and Joyce Doughty, Department of Human Nutrition, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Great Britain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Learning Better Nutrition-A Second Study of Approaches and Techniques</I>, No. 20</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. A. S. Ritchie, Department of Human Nutrition, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Great Britain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calcium Requirements</I>, No. 30</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Protein Requirements</I>, No. 37</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Requirements of Vitamin A, Thiamine, Riboflavin, and Niacin</I>, No. 41</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miscellaneous</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Encouraging the Use of Protein-Rich Foods</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Fridthjof, Food Promotion Expert, Nutrition Division</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RED CROSS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copies of Red Cross publications may be obtained by requesting them through your local Red Cross.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Home Nursing Textbook</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nursing Services, American National Red Cross</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First Aid Textbook</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American National Red Cross</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1971 0-388-108</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GPO 884-447</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1961 when the Peace Corps was created, more than 80,000 U.S. citizens have served as Volunteers in developing countries, living and working among the people of the Third World as colleagues and coworkers. Today 6000 PCVs are involved in programs designed to help strengthen local capacity to address such fundamental concerns as food production, water supply, energy development, nutrition and health education and reforestation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loret Miller Ruppe, Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Everett Alvarez, Jr. Deputy Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Richard B. Abell, Director, Office of Programming and Training Coordination</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps overseas offices:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BELIZE</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 487</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belize City</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BENIN</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 971</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cotonou</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BOTSWANA</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 93</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaborone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CAMEROON</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 817</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaounde</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8P 1080</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangui</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHILE</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Casilla 2.7-D</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Santiago</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COSTA RICA</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apartado Postal 1266</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Jose</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMINICAN REPUBLIC</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apartado Postal 1414</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Santo Domingo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EASTERN CARRIBBEAN</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Including: Antigua Barbados, Grenada, Montserrat, St.. Kitts-Nevis, St .Lucia, St . Vincent, Dominica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Erin Court"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bishops Court Hill</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 696-C</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bridgetown, Barbados</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ECUADOR</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Casilla 635-A</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quito</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FIJI</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 1094</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suva</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GABON</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8P 2098</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Libreville</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GAMBIA, The</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 582</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banjul</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GHANA</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 57 96</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Accra (North)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GUATEMALA</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6a Avenida 1-46</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zona 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HONDURAS</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apartado Postal C-51</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tegucigalpa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMAICA</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9 Musgrove Avenue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kingston 10</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KENYA</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 30518</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nairobi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LESOTHO</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 554</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maseru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIBERIA</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 707</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Monrovia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MALAWI</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 208</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lilongwe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MALAYSIA</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">177 Jalan Raja Muda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kuala Lumpur</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MALI</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 85</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bamako</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MAURITANIA</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 222</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nouakehott</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICRONESIA</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 336</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saipan, Mariana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Islands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MOROCCO</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1, Rue Benzerte</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NEPAL</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 613</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kathmandu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NIGER</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 10537</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niamey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OMAN</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 966</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PAPUA NEW GUINEA</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c/o American Embassy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Port Moresby</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PARAGUAY </P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c/o American Embassy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asuncion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PHILIPPINES </P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 7013 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manila</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RWANDA </P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">c/o American Embassy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kigali </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SENEGAL</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 2 54</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dakar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SEYCHELLES</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 564</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Victoria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SIERRA LEONE</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Private Mail Bag</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Freetown</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SOLOMON ISLANDS</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 547</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honiara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SWAZILAND</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 362</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mbabane</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TANZANIA</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 9123</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dar as Salaam</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THAILAND</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">42 Sol Somprasong 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Petchburi Road</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok 4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOGO</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 3194</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lome</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONGA</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 147</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nuku'Alofa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TUNISIA</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8, Ave. Louis</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Braille</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tunis</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UPPER VOLTA</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 537-Samandin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ouagadougou</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WESTERN SAMOA </P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 880 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">YEMEN</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.O. Box 1151</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sana'a</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ZAIRE</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BP 697</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kinshasa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/r0087e/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/r0087e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/r0087e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Income generation and money management: training women as entrepreneurs (r0087e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Industry, Manufacture and Services|Small- scale industry, handicraft, home industry</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Society, Culture, Community, Woman, Youth, Population|Women, gender and development, women&apos;s organizations</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">Peace Corps</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">F-G-H-I-J-K</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">train woman to become entrepreneurs</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/r0087e/r0087e.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/r0087e/r0087e.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/r0087e/r0087e.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,2145 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Income generation and money management: training women as entrepreneurs</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Income generation and money management: training women as entrepreneurs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Sheila Reed</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Information</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cover and Illustrations by </P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sherilyn Paris</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Volunteer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Originally </I>Titled: Income Generation and Money Management: How to Train Gambian Women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reprinted by</P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information Collection and Exchange</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">March 1994</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R0087</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INFORMATION COLLECTION &amp; EXCHANGE</P>
+</B></U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps' Information Collection &amp; Exchange (ICE) was established so that the strategies and technologies developed by Peace Corps Volunteers, their co-workers and their counterparts could be made available to the wide range of development organizations and individual workers who might find them useful. Training guides, curricula, lesson plans, project reports, manuals and other Peace Corps-generated materials developed in the field are collected and reviewed. Some are reprinted "as is"; others provide a source of field based information for the production of manuals or for research in particular program areas. Materials that you submit to ICE thus become part of the Peace Corps' larger contribution to development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information about ICE publications and services is available through:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=460>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">The Peace Corps Internet Web Site address: </P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">http://www.peacecorps.gov</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">Please note the new Peace Corps Mailing Address from July 1998 on is:</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">ICE/ Peace Corps</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">1111 20th Street N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">Washington, DC 20526</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">USA</P>
+</FONT><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Add your experience to the ICE Resource Center. Send materials that you have prepared so that we can share them with others working in the development field. Your technical insights serve as the basis for the generation of ICE manuals, reprints, and resource packets, and also ensure that ICE is" providing the most up-to-date, innovative problem solving techniques and information available to you and your fellow development workers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Forward</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Women in Development" has been a prime focus of Peace Corps/The Gambia since 1985 and continues to be an important and integral part of all our projects and programs. Peace Corps volunteers in The Gambia have recorded the heavy workloads of village women and recognize the importance of helping them to ease this burden by improving their quality of life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like most African women, Gambian women rank among the poorest in the world, and are often the main and sometimes the only providers for their families. They prepare food, fetch water, raise children, and gather fuel, while at the same time producing over 70 percent of the food grown in The Gambia. Yet despite their great productivity, women have the least access to resources such as credit, agricultural inputs, or labor saving devices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1989, Peace Corps/The Gambia's newly formed WID committee accepted the challenge of preparing volunteers in each sector to assist the women they live and work with in improving their standard of living, thus becoming more acceptable as a vital key to development in The Gambia. They chose to do this by sponsoring a workshop on Money Management for volunteers and their counterparts, of which this manual is the product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Helping the women to earn more money and manage it more efficiently was thought to be an initial and effective way to begin. Therefore, the following pages have been designed to assist volunteers in their efforts to train village women in some basic money management skills. Community development workers, men and women village leaders, NGOs, PVOs and others who work with Gambian women might also find the manual useful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The production of this manual represents an important step in our efforts to improve the quality of life for the Gambian woman. We hope it will inspire others to develop additional materials to help achieve this goal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Special acknowledgment goes to Sheila Reed for her skillful talent in planning, facilitating and coordinating the first successful Peace corps Women In Development workshop and manual in The Gambia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lacey O'Neal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps/The Gambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The workshop which inspired this manual took place on July 3-5, 1989. It addressed the needs of Peace Corps/The Gambia volunteers who are helping village women develop income generating projects. This publication may prove useful to you if you are developing a local marketing project or simply if you wish to conduct training sessions on the separate subjects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The manual alas to assist you to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B></U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Use special techniques that you as facilitator of a group training activity can employ with adult learners.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Deal with the cultural and practical problems that women face in controlling their finances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Focus on the type of project that will most benefit the women in your village by using basic principles of marketing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Think about ways to improve quality of locally made products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Develop and conduct teaching sessions on numeracy and bookkeeping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WAYS AND MEANS:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The goal of this manual is to provide field workers with practical means that can be used directly and immediately for conducting training sessions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This will be done by:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Presenting concepts on the key subjects of:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE ROLE OF THE FACILITATOR IN ADULT LEARNING PROBLEMS WOMEN FACE IN CONTROLLING THEIR FINANCES PROJECT DEVELOPMENT AND MARKETING QUALITY CONTROL NUMERACY AND BOOKKEEPING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Offering suggested session plans for training which are simple and can be easily replicated in village settings. These session plans are developed especially for illiterate participants. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course, you, as the facilitator will be confronted with unique situations in your village setting and will have to rely on your common sense and creativity in developing your sessions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACKNOWLEDGMENTS</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This manual is a result of a group effort. I would like to especially thank Lacey O'Neal and the members of the volunteer Women In Development (WID) Committee for assessing needs in the field, assistance in planning and conducting the workshop and for their continuing support and enthusiasm for this project throughout. WID Committee members Bayard Lyons, Andre Burman, Nicky Rawson, Michael Berndt, Sherilyn Paris and Mary Lou Alexander, provided valuable assistance with detailed notes taken during the workshop sessions. I also extend my appreciation to the GARD Project for their support in the production of this manual.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Special recognition and thanks go to Sherilyn Paris for her artistic contributions and the considerable time and energy she expended on layout, editing and production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I wish to express my sincere appreciation to the invited facilitators whose expertise appears on the pages <I>of </I>this manual:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Ted Hazard, Technical Assistant to Management Development Institute (MDI), The Gambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Sam Cole, Language Instructor, Peace Corps, The Gambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Ms. Ndey oley Jobe, Manager, Gambian Artisans Marketing Cooperative (GAMCO)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Ms. Aminatta N'Gum, Magistrate and Board Member of Gambian Women's Finance Corporation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, I would like to thank the workshop participants for their quality input to the workshop, which helped confirm mutual desires to further the women's position in The Gambia. Their names appear on the session plans that they developed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps/The Gambia would greatly welcome any comments regarding this manual.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheila Reed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The role of the facilitator in adult learning.</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to <U>Webster's Third New International Dictionary </U>(Merriam Co., 1981), the word <B>"facilitate" </B>means: "to make easier or less difficult; free from difficulty or impediment."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Why is the term <B>"facilitator" often </B>used in relation to adult education or training instead of <B>"teacher"?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Note: In this publication, "facilitator" and "trainer" are used synonymously as are "adult learner", "participant", and "trainee")</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To find the answer, let us explore the differences between academic education such as we all experienced in high school or even in college, and "adult learning".</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=460>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="51%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADULT LEARNING</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="49%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACADEMIC LEARNING</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="51%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Stems from personal desire or need to learn.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="49%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Is usually compulsory.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="51%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Subject matter tends to be practical.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="49%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Subject matter is often factual/theoretical.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="51%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Learning from direct participation.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="49%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Learning from memorization.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="51%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Casual environment.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="49%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Structured environment.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="51%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Learn by interaction and experience sharing with other adults.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="49%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Learn by listening to authority figure/teacher.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What are the IMPLICATIONS of the characteristics of adult learning for facilitators?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Facilitators and trainees are PEERS and can trade ideas openly and fairly. Thus the trainees need to be encouraged to learn through PARTICIPATION and EXCHANGE.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. The content of the training sessions should address the NEEDS of the trainees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Training session plans should be FLEXIBLE and allow for informal exchange of ideas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Training sessions should have immediate PRACTICAL APPLICATION that can be demonstrated by use of practical exercises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. The facilitator only ASSISTS in the training process by making the settling CONDUCTIVE TO LEARNING.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It may help to keep in mind the following illustration of the Experiential Learning Cycle, or the way WE AS ADULTS are most likely to learn. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOW, with some theory behind you, COMES THE HARD PART. You have to plan what you are going to do to facilitate learning among your adult trainees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p04.png"></center><br>
+ Diagrame</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IT IS MOST IMPORTANT TO IDENTIFY NEEDS AND OBJECTIVES!!!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Example:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. IDENTIFY THE CLIENT: (This should come easily if you are familiar with your community.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ten women from Keneba who wish to start income generating projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. IDENTIFY THE NEEDS: (This will be more difficult and can be accomplished by means of a needs assessment. An illiterate's needs can be extracted from oral interviews which are then compiled in a written form. It may also be possible to have an expert on a particular subject come to the village and assess the needs, but remember, adults learn best from their own perceived needs.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They need to know how to market their products and account for their money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. IDENTIFY THE OBJECTIVES: (Identifying what the learner will achieve from the training is tricky but essential to keep you on track. See the section on WRITING SESSION PLANS for more information about objectives.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The women will be able to: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">a. explain some principles of marketing and quality control. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">b. keep their accounts in written numerical form.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TRY TO PUT EVERYTHING IN WRITING!!!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WHY?????</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">**It becomes a permanent record of the development of the activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">**It can be referred to at a later time for analysis by yourself and others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">**It may be used for developing similar programs .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lets may be used to answer questions about why the program worked or didn't work (evaluation).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let's discuss some of the ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS that make up a training session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p05a.png"></center><br>
+ TRY TO PUT EVERYTHING IN WRITING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Presentation techniques</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two specific styles of presentation that a facilitator can use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. The <B>DIRECTIVE</B> style involves LECTURING or presentation of facts to the participants and may include question/answer periods. It is an academic approach in which the facilitator is the expert.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. The <B>FACILITATIVE </B>style involves obtaining FEEDBACK or responses from the participants. since it must address the unpredictable comments/reactions of individuals, it requires FLEXIBILITY.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From our discussion regarding characteristics of adult learners, you will probably deduce that the directive style, though necessary at times, would be the least effective and thus least used technique of presentation. <U>DIRECTIVE IS DULL!!!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We will focus on the facilitative style, by which a myriad of exciting ways to facilitate learning become available. FACILITATIVE IS FUN!!!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p05b.png"></center><br>
+ Presentation techniques</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following are some presentation techniques that can be used during a training session as practical exercises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VISUAL DISPLAYS</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Visual aids normally used in education include chalk boards, pictures drawings, props, firma or videos. A flipchart is useful in adult education as participant responses can be written down and displayed around the room. It may be possible to use pictures or sketches for illiterates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p06a.png"></center><br>
+</U><B> </B>VISUAL DISPLAYS</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BRAINSTORMING</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brainstorming involves flushing out ideas by examining every possible alternative. It can be done in a group or individually but ultimately the ideas should be shared.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p06b.png"></center><br>
+ BRAINSTORMING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLE PLAY OR ROLE REVERSAL</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participants gain experience by assuming the role of others. As much as possible role plays should simulate a real situation. Generally, role plays have a high impact on the learner.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p06c.png"></center><br>
+ ROLE PLAY OR ROLE REVERSAL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SKIT</P>
+</B></U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The skit is a play with already determined script that should lead to an easy conclusion by the learners. Usually the facilitators are the actors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p06d.png"></center><br>
+ SKIT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CASE STUDY</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A situation that identifies problem areas is presented to the learners. It is usually written down so the details are at hand. Solutions to the problems can be discussed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p06e.png"></center><br>
+ CASE STUDY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PANEL PRESENTATION</P>
+</B></U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A group of experts are brought in to discuss problems in front of the participants. For example, if you are having trouble convincing women of the necessity for bank accounts, you could have several village women with accounts come and speak on the subject.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p06f.png"></center><br>
+ PANEL PRESENTATION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AUDIO AIDS</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Audio aide include music, song, repetition and story telling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p07a.png"></center><br>
+ AUDIO AIDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OTHERS</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other presentation techniques include game playing, interviews, field tripe, demonstration of an activity or participation in the activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p07b.png"></center><br>
+ OTHERS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Making feedback useful</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WHAT IS FEEDBACK?</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feedback, as it is used in an educational context, generally means an expression of the views or perception of one person regarding what another person says, does or asks. Feedback is delivered by the observer (or audience) to the presenter (or actor) and it is generally requested by the presenter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feedback is an essential element of any training session. Aside from letting the facilitator know how her/his session is progressing, it allows the learners to express themselves. The potential exists for feedback to (a) not be taken seriously by the facilitator, who may be looking for specific answers, or, (b) become disruptive and even get totally out of hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is up to the facilitator to guide the tone of the session by channelling feedback in the right direction. Adult learners usually instinctively feel that this is the facilitator's responsibility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Here are some <B>SUGGESTIONS:</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Accept the comment made even if it is not the answer you are looking for. You may discourage people from participating if you ignore their comments. If you disagree with the comment, and the issue is important, perhaps you could ask for clarification and stimulate discussion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. If it is a useful comment, repeat it and ask the participant for clarification or elaborate on it yourself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Always be polite in accepting feedback. Encourage politeness among the participants in responding to each other's comments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Give credit for good feedback.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Look for non-verbal feedback. Keep in mind, however, that gestures and expressions can mean different things in different cultures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Always show respect for another person' E point of view. Remember that adults usually have strong opinions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. If the feedback is getting off the track, remind the participants of the subject under discussion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. In responding to the feedback, take the age of the person and level of education into consideration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Refer to feedback made at different times in the training sessions. You may say "This brings us back to the comments Amie made earlier." This gives a sense of continuity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. If feedback is negative or critical, ask for constructive alternatives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Logistical considerations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conducting any training session there will always be logistical considerations. It is most advantageous to have all logistical matters planned well ahead of time. Even then, something is bound to go wrong!!!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remember that logistical problems can overshadow training goals. For instance if you plan to train women in money management at a time of day when they should be at the market, you have defeated the purpose. Or, if it is scheduled around a mealtime, the women may be distracted by hunger, or may not come at all because of cooking duties in the compound.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are some of the <B>MAJOR ASPECTS OF LOGISTICAL PLANNING</B>. use the following as a checklist to see if you have planned well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Location for training and adequacy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Number of participants -- Not too l large/not too small.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Facilitator/a -- Availability and qualifications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Resources available (budget). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Supplies </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Schedule/timing. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Session content. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Audio/visual aide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Date/time of year (practical?). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. Travel time and expenses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. Transportation for participants and facilitators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12. Food or coffee/tea breaks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Special considerations for illiterate participants in a village environment</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are at least two notable constraints that a facilitator working with illiterate participants in a village must face:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. No written materials may be used, except perhaps numbers .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. It may be more difficult to create a setting conducive to learning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some <B>SUGGESTIONS</B> for dealing with these constraints are as follows </P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Use REPETITION to reinforce key concepts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Make the training sessions shorter to avoid presenting too much material.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Use a translator if unsure of local vernacular.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Use simple language instead of technical words.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Try to seclude the group from disturbances so that participants may focus on the subject.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Encourage feedback and give great consideration to each person's response.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Include small details of daily life in the presentation techniques so that participants feel at home, and can relate better to the material.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. If available use posters, props (vegetables, animals, gourds), costumes, or local instruments in the demonstrations, skits, role plays, or presentations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. Plan the timing carefully and in full consideration of the life-styles of the people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p09.png"></center><br>
+ Special considerations for illiterate participants in a village environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Evaluation and follow-up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS of any type of education are evaluation and follow-up. Without these aspects, it is difficult to know whether or not the teaching/training was effective and led to improvement in the lives of the participants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EVALUATION</B> </U>of the training session can be done by means of written questionnaires or oral surveys. The evaluation should be completed by the facilitator as well as the participants and any observers. Questions center around the session contents, presentation techniques and perhaps logistical considerations. The results should always be written down to document successes and to save yourself and others from repeating mistakes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOLLOW-UP</B> </U>on long term results of the training can be done in several ways:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Observe participants and see if they are putting their training to use in their every day lives. If not, try to find out why.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Question participants about use of their training. Question supervisors or observers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Continue training sessions so that participants can build on what they know. Repeat and improve training sessions that you feel did not make an impact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p10.png"></center><br>
+ ILLUSTRATION OF THE TRAINING CYCLE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Writing session plans</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The session plan should contain these components: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. TOPIC </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. TARGET GROUP </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. DURATION OF THE SESSION </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. PROCEDURES </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. PRACTICAL EXERCISE </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. PREPARATION AND SUPPLIES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOPIC AND TARGET GROUP<I>:</B> </I></U>The topic of your session will depend on the needs of your target group. It is useful to document the nature of the target group for others who may use the session plan. It is also useful to indicate the ideal number of participants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DURATION OF THE SESSION:</B></U> In general, a topic should be contained a session that is <U>two hours long or less</U>. A broad topic area may be summarized or broken down into components to be covered in separate sessions. It is very important to REHEARSE and TIME the session based on the completed session plan and include blocks of time for discussion and for completing the practical exercise. It may help to write a time limit for each step in the procedure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES: </B></U>The objectives help the facilitator and participants to focus on the intent of the session. The participants should ALWAYS be aware of the objectives of the training session. Therefore, the objectives should be read or explained at the beginning of the session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GENERAL RULES for writing behavioral objectives are as follows:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. The objective should contain an action verb and describe what the participant will be able to do at the end of a session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. The effect should always be measurable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. The participants are always the subject of the <I>sentence .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INCORRECTLY WRITTEN: "The effects of accurate bookkeeping will be appreciated." (The participant is not the <U>subject </U>of the sentence. <U>Appreciation </U>is difficult or impossible to measure.}</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CORRECTLY WRITTEN: ''The participants will be able to use a simple bookkeeping ledger designed for illiterates." (This sentence gives very <U>specific information </U>about what the participant will be able to do and <U>success can be measured </U>by observing the use of the ledger.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PROCEDURES: </B></U>One way of describing the procedures to be used in achieving the objectives is to list them as STEPS. The procedures are not always fully detailed but may serve more as a guide for the facilitator. If, for instance, a lecture is to be delivered, it may be written out on an attached page.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PRACTICAL EXERCISE: </B></U>As discussed before, adults learn by practical experience and wish to put into practice what they learn as soon as possible. It IS very useful to incorporate a practical exercise in the session as a means to achieve an objective or to reinforce learning. The practical exercise should be a CREATIVE and, if possible, FUN part of the session. <U>It should involve some type of diversion in which people get up and move, change their focus</U>, <U>and are encouraged to use their minds and participate </U>.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PREPARATION AND SUPPLIES: </B></U>of course, one cannot prepare for a session or collect supplies while the session is in progress. Therefore, for the session to go smoothly, ADVANCE PLANNING must take place. It is useful to write this information in the plan so that nothing is forgotten and so other facilitators who use the plan will anticipate these needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session plan (Working as a team)</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOPIC: </B></U>Working as a Team</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TARGET GROUP: </B></U>Twelve illiterate women from Brikama NDing village who wish to start a cooperative vegetable patch as an income generating project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DURATION OF SESSION:</B> </U>75 minutes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OBJECTIVES: </B></U>The participants will be able to :</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Discuss some of the benefits of working in a group and relate it to the vegetable gardening project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. DISCUSS some of the problems of working in a group and suggest solutions to the problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PROCEDURES:</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1 Facilitator explains that working in a group is different than working by one's self and asks the participants to give reasons why. Two posters are displayed in front of the room: one with a drawing of a single woman gardening and one with many women working in a large garden plot. Some comparisons that should be brought out are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=356>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by yourself</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">in a group</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">only your own opinion</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">many other opinions</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">do all tasks</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">task sharing</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">your own money</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">sharing the money</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">if sick, business stops</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">others help you</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">one market stand</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">many market stands</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="53%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">buy own tools</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">tools can be shared</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2 The facilitator asks the women what they would consider advantageous about working in a group. Points to be brought out are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. The tools, tasks and responsibility are all shared.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. The potential for production and marketing increases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Women can support each other in the community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. It may be easier for groups to get loans for business.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3 The facilitator asks what disadvantages there are to working in groups and how the group members might solve the problem. Possible problems ens solutions include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. The group members may disagree.</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solution</U>: Vote on issues. Discuss problems together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Some group members may do less work than others. </P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solution</U>: Discuss the problems at a meeting; the women who work less receive less income.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Who will manage the money for the group? </P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solution</U>: Elect a bookkeeper who reports to the group; All group members learn numeracy and bookkeeping and take turns with the books; each women takes a share of the vegetables and sells them individually, keeping some money and paying dues to the cooperative.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4 Practical exercise: Building squares. The women divide into three groups. Each group member has to make a square from the pieces of paper put in the middle of the group. The rules of the game are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. There can be no verbal communication or non-verbal communication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. If you don't want a piece, put it back in the middle and look for another piece.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. The exercise is over when each person has made a square.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The facilitator goes around and may help certain members.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5 The facilitator asks the women to describe their feelings when they were trying to make the squares. Responses may include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. It was hard not to ask for a piece and hard not to tell someone what they were doing wrong.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. It would have gone a lot faster if they could have discussed it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Each person had to make her own but also had to be sure everyone else made a square.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The facilitator emphasizes that cooperation and communication are very important when working as a group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PREPARATION AND SUPPLIES:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Two poster boards or newsprint with drawings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Cardboard or stiff paper cut into squares (total of twelve of the same size) and then cut into two or three pieces (Note: You may wish to have an uncut square in the middle of each group as an example.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Squares will have to be properly organized before the exercise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Practical Exercise courtesy of Ted Hazard, MDI</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Problems women face in controlling their finances</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The aim of any training program is to enable the participants to use information and skills gained, IN THE REAL WORLD.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B></U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To view training objectives in a realistic manner, one must take into consideration the obstacles that women may face outside the training environment. Impediments exist in every society that prevent individuals from achieving their objectives. Examples would be shortage of educational opportunities, inadequacies in economic structures, inferiority/superiority of certain groups or prevalence of harmful traditional beliefs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We all seek to improve and develop the potentials of individuals and societies. Progress IS being made, but radical changes are not likely to happen overnight. One thing appears certain, however, if problems are not discussed, there is little hope to effect change. The approach to take may be to face the problems openly and work toward solutions with sensitivity and diplomacy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What are some of the common problems women face in controlling their finances?</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Illiteracy or semi-literacy </P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Example: The woman is afraid to open a bank account or apply for a loan because of all the paper work involved and embarrassment over not being able to sign her name.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Lack of numerary </P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Example: A woman cannot keep even simple books and is losing income.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Lack of management skills </P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Example: A woman, under pressures from family and friends, gives or loans all her profits away.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Lack of knowledge about marketing and quality control </P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Example: A woman produces ten shirts designed for tourists and finds that they do not sell because they are poorly sewn.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Lack of control over decision making in a male-oriented society </P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Example: Money from a woman's business is automatically handed over to her husband, unless she is able to hide it.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Lack of knowledge about investings and saving money </P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Example: Rather than risk keeping money under the bed, a woman uses it to buy a sheep, some gold jewelry and a new dress. Unfortunately, the sheep contracts a disease and dies the Jewelry is stolen and the dress is used and can't be sold.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What are some possible solutions?</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let's take a careful look at the nature of the problems and try to determine what is at the root of them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the exception of #5, a major factor seems to be <B>LACK OF EDUCATION</B>. A contributing cause to problem #5 may be that due to a woman's lack of education, the man must make the decisions, even though it was her male forbearer who decided she should not be educated!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We may seek to stop the vicious circle by offering opportunities to EDUCATE/TRAIN WOMEN in matters of business. Attitude changes often occur as a result of education. Cultural changes occur with attitude changes. There are thousands of examples in history.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Now focus again on the problems. You probably realize that even with education, the existing systems may not always permit change. A woman from the countryside may have a difficult time opening a bank account or applying for a loan because the nearest bank is a three hour bus ride away. In the same vein, even if a woman could learn management skills and numeracy, she may not have the capital to start her business. Because the needed mechanisms may not be in place, <B>ALTERNATIVES RUST BE SOUGHT</B>.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People with problems that are difficult to solve often seek EDUCATION and ALTERNATIVES. Through training programs, people can find information and develop skills. Following this section are summaries of the comments made by a panel composed of professionals who are working to solve problems by offering alternatives to present situations. You may be able to recommend their programs to women in your village. In any case, you may wish to discuss problems with the women and come up with some solutions that are workable for them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p16.png"></center><br>
+ Figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Summary of panel presentation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The workshop concluded with presentations by community agencies regarding their programs to assist women. The following agency representatives participated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">**Mr. B. G. Bell, Managing Director, Standard Chartered Bank, Banjul.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">**Ms. Amira Jagne, Association of Gambian Entrepreneurs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">**Ms. Cumba Marenah Women's Bureau, The Gambia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">**Ms. Fatou Banta Camara, Save the Children, USA, The Gambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">**Mr. G. V. Ramamurthy, FAO and Central Bank of The Gambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">**MB. Aminatta N'Gum, Gambian Women's Finance Corporation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">**Mr. Jean Francois Le Grand, Centre International de Developpement et de Recherche, Ministry of Agriculture, The Gambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following are summaries of the presentations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Standard Chartered Bank: </B>The bank does not offer programs just for women, however, it is prepared to cosponsor the Gambian Women's Finance Corporation (GWFC) loan program for women. The agreement has not yet been signed but is expected to be soon. Details on the savings and loans programs regularly offered by the bank follow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Savings Accounts: A minimum of 150 Dalasi are required to open an account. The interest rate is 12 1/2 % and is applied twice per year. It is available to anyone who can meet the minimum deposit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loans: There are two types of loans: overdraft and fixed. The overdraft loan occurs with overdrafts on a current, or checking, account. Interest is very high and is charged on a daily basis. The fixed loan has the following characteristics:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* A viability study is conducted on each application.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The interest rates are very high (23 1/2%).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Regular monthly payments must be made</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* It is basically infeasible for business because a very high profit margin would be required to make payments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* It is most often used to purchase a car or house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Association of Gambian Entrepeneurs: </B>This newly formed association (1987 ) alms to train small business people in numeracy and literacy and advise them about obtaining loans. In the future, it hopes to have loans available for members on a revolving basis. It la not specifically for women but many members are women. Membership fees are 120 Dalasl initially and 7 Dalasi per month.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women's Bureau: </B>All of the projects are targeted for women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loans: Each women's group that la assisted must have a savings account to qualify for a loan. There are two loan 'schemes', the revolving loan and the labor saving loan. The revolving loan scheme is government funded and has been operating since 1976. It is available for women to start small businesses or to expand existing businesses. The second type of loan covers purchase of labor saving devices such as milling machines, animals for traction and tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice, garden and woodlot projects: The Women's Bureau holds workshops on improved techniques for agriculture and on management skills.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Save the Children: </B>Save the Children offers limited short term loans on a seasonal basis, mainly to support gardening projects. Save the Children operates primarily on the North Bank in select target areas. The groundrules for obtaining a loan are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The woman must enroll in a literacy class and make progress before being eligible for a loan. * The woman must open a savings account to be eligible. * The loan is applied for through a village development committee which becomes the guarantor of the loan. * The interest rate is 8%. The total fund is Dalasi 50,000.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Bank: </B>The Central Bank does not provide service to the public but supports other financial institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gambian women's Finance Corporation: </B>The GWFC is about to embark on a project to provide loans for women who wish to develop income generating projects. Small loans of Dalasi 1000 are available from a revolving fund to individuals or groups. The application can be made directly to GWFC. The two mayor requirements for this type of loan are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Membership in GWFC (Dalasi 100 per individual or group) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Submission of a project plan to GWFC which indicates a developmental orientation (Garden projects fit this description).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centre International de Development et de Recherche:</B> This organization, founded by the French, operates a project termed "Jahally-Pacharr self managed village banks". It is a result or offshoot of the Jahally-Pacharr small holders <I>f </I>arming project and is a two year program with the following objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Study of the technical, economical, financial and social feasibility conditions of a regional network of village banks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Creation of a small number of pilot village banks which collect local savings and redistribute them inside the village as individual or collective credit and without the injection <I>of </I>any external funds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Six banks representing four major ethnic groups have been or will be opened. The first two banks established have a successful record of savings and loans and seem to meet the needs of the villagers. The project will be evaluated at the end of 1989.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BRIEFS ON SAVINGS AND LOANS FOR WOMEN IN THE GAMBIA</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following points were made by the panel presenters regarding the importance of the role of women in development of The Gambia, their need for access to banking institutions for savings and loans and the potential that exists for that access.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Women constitute the main labor force in the agricultural sector in The Gambia. Because of this, they have a crucial role to play in the Economic Recovery Program undertaken by the Government of The Gambia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* It is essential, in view of the needs for development in The Gambia, that women's level of skills in agriculture and business be raised and that they take a more active role in decision making. Development organizations in the country have a special responsibility to broaden women's opportunities by organizing women's groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The majority of rural savings are tied up in property such as livestock, jewelry, grain and household goods. This method of saving presents risks but there are few alternatives. At present, the banking structure is mainly located in the urban areas, making accessibility difficult for the rural woman. In addition, it is more difficult for women to offer security for a loan as they are not traditionally landowners. For these reasons, commercial banks should focus on expanding into rural areas and offering special services for illiterate and women clients. Banking organizations will benefit from loans to women because traditionally women are better credit risks and save money more frequently than men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* A step in the right direction is being implemented by Gambian Women's Finance Corporation in coordination with Standard Chartered Bank. This agreement will allow small and medium loans to women with income generating projects who do not have the customary forms of security. The project is still in the development phase in regard to identification of viable women's group projects and subsequent training of the women in management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Several other alternatives exist or are on the horizon. The Gambia Cooperative Union is developing a village branch lending strategy. Several NGOs, such as Save The Children USA and Action Aid offer informal savings and loan programs. The Indigenous Business Advisory Service extends credit and training to small entrepreneurs. The Jahally-Pacharr small holder project is attempting a pilot village banking scheme. The Women's Bureau offers loans particularly for labor saving devices. The Association of Gambian Entrepreneurs will offer loans in the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Taken in part from a summary prepared by G. V. Ramamurthy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session plan (Problems women have in saving their money)</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOPIC:</B> </U>Problems Women Have in Saving Their Money</P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TARGET GROUP: </B></U>Women with income generating projects</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DURATION: </B></U>75 minutes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OBJECTIVES: </B></U>The participants will be able to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Discuss the reasons why saving money may be difficult for women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Discuss at least three reasons why saving money is important.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Suggest a safe and reliable way that money can be saved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PROCEDURES:</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1 </B>The facilitator explains the objectives of the session. Then a skit is presented by the facilitator and three assistants. Fatou is a shopkeeper and she is sitting in her shop. One by one she is visited by her friend Kassa, another friend and then her daughter. At the end, Kassa returns to visit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fatou: Good morning Kassa, how are you? Did you notice my new dress? Look, look at the gold I have bought. Isn't it beautiful?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kassa: It is beautiful but aren't you afraid that someone will take it?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fatou: No I will give it to my daughter. She has lots of gold because I want her to have it for the future. I have to put my money somewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kassa: But why don't you put your money in the bank. Then it would be safe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fatou: No, I don't trust the banks. I have my own ways. Anyway, it is too far away.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kassa: All right, have it your way. Good-bye, see you later.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Friend: Good morning Fatou. I have a favor to ask. You always have money on hand and I need some money to buy a sheep. My daughter Just had a baby.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fatou: But I don't have much money today. I have a sheep though. I bought it for an investment. I guess you could take it if you are desperate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Friend: I am truly desperate. I beg you to help me, you are my friend. I will pay you the cost of one sheep.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fatou: Well, all right. But this is a lose for me because I have fed the sheep and was going to sell it at a profit for Tobaski.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Friend: Thank you, good-bye.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Daughter: (Appears, crying.) Oh, Mother.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fatou: My daughter, what has happened?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Daughter: A terrible thing has happened. Oh, you will be so angry, but it was not my fault.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fatou: What? Tell me!!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Daughter: That terrible man, Bobo, lied to me. He said that he would send me a ticket to join him in America and that we would be married. I gave him my gold before he went and he sold it for the money. And now, he has written to say that he could not find a job and his money is gone. Now I am stuck here and my gold is gone. He will probably never come back. (crying)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fatou: ( Hording her head and moaning.) My daughter, I told you to save the gold until you were older. Now it is gone and it cost so much money. We can never get the money back. Oh, my poor daughter, you are suffering. Go away and rest. Oh, dear, here comes Kassa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kassa: What is wrong Fatou? You look upset.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fatou: My sheep is gone, my gold is gone. I have nothing to show for my year of business. You may be right. I should put the money in the bank. Then no one can ask me for it and no one can deceive my daughter to get her gold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kassa: Yes. It is not that hard to open an account. I will help you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2</B> The facilitator asks the participants to discuss reasons why saving money was difficult for Fatou. Some points to be brought out are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. There are traditional ways of saving such as buying gold or sheep that are not secure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Friends and relatives often ask for loans and sometimes the money isn't paid back.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Women enjoy buying clothes but the clothes have no value after they are worn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. It is not often easy to put money into a bank as there are few in the villages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3 </B>The facilitator asks the participants to list some reasons why saving money is advantageous. Some reasons: in case of emergency; to expand business; for the future when it may be hard to work; to save for a large purchase; to keep money from thieves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4 </B>The facilitator asks the participants to suggest ways to save money that would be safe. The facilitator should encourage discussion and demonstrate ways that traditional methods may not work. Two safe ways to save may include savings accounts in banks or alternative banking schemes. Discuss the pros and cons of using extra money for reinvestment in business. (A follow-up training session should be offered that describes possibilities for banking and the procedure for opening a bank account.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PREPARATION AND SUPPLIES : </B></U>The skit should be rehearsed ahead of time. Props may include a table for the shop, a cash box, fake gold and a sheep.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Session Plan Courtesy of Workshop Team: Fatou Banja Camara, Andre Burman, Isatou Dea Sawaneh, Meline Hydra, Jim Mongold, Mary Lou Alexander, Kassa Sanneh.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session plan (Improving the financial situations of women)</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOPIC:</B> </U>Improving the Financial Situations of Women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TARGET GROUP: </B></U>Women with income generating projects (It is recommended that the participants have previous training in marketing, quality control, numeracy and bookkeeping and have received information on opening a savings account and applying for a loan.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DURATION: </B></U>Two hours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OBJECTIVES: </B></U>The participants will be able to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Discuss some common problems that women have in improving their financial situations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Suggest some solutions to these problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PROCEDURES:</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1 </B>The facilitator tells the participants that they are going to discuss some of the problems that women face in trying to improve their financial situations. An easy way to do this may be to take a look at some situations that may occur and come up with some solutions to the problems by brainstorming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2 </B>The facilitator reads the case studies and each one is discussed. The facilitator records all of the responses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Case #1: A woman and her co-wife raise rice and vegetables. Their husband has a job but does not use any of the money for food and allows the wives very little support money. The rice and vegetables all go into feeding the family. The co-wives would like to start an income generating project for selling vegetables to raise extra cash. What should they do?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Possible responses: The co-wives may:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Meet with the husband and tell him their plan and he may approve.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Find some extra land and increase their output of rice and vegetables.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Join a gardening cooperative and share the land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Try to use labor saving devices to improve output such as animal traction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Acquaint the husband with women who have successful businesses so he may see the advantages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Not solve the problem because they are responsible for providing food and cannot spare more time for labor and cannot get more land since the men control it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Case #2: A woman collects fish from her fisherman husband, dries and smokes it and sells it in the local market. How may she improve her business?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Possible responses: The woman may:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Agree with her husband that she could sell more fish and he would provide it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Involve family members to help in the labor and marketing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Sell at another market on a different day of the week.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Form a cooperative with other local women so that labor could be shared in smoking and drying.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Sell to an organization which exports dried fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Reinvest her profits to buy more drying racks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Apply for a bank loan to help her expand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Improve her money management skills by learning numerary and bookkeeping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Case #3: A woman owns a small shop but never sees an improvement in her business. What could she be doing wrong?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Possible responses: Is she:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Keeping records that may show her where she is losing money?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Doing anything to promote her business such as putting out a sign, offering special prices, offering good quality, keeping the shop clean, being polite to customers, taking special orders?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Keeping an inventory of her stock so she can tell if anything has been stolen?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Careful about giving loans and discounts to friends and family members?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ensuring that loans are repaid?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Setting some goals for her business so that she can measure progress? Using her profits in a wise manner by perhaps making sound reinvestment in the business?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Able to get a loan to make some significant improvements or expand the business?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Keeping her money in a savings account so she can accumulate funds?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Located in a good spot or are her competitors taking away her business?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3 The facilitator reads the responses back to the participants. Do the women think some of the solutions will work?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PREPARATION AND SUPPLIES: </B></U>Paper and pen for note taking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Case Studies Courtesy of Aminatta N'Gum, GWFC</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Session Plan Courtesy of Workshop Team: Haddy Njie Bah, Michael Berndt, Beverly Wiaczek, Hatab Colley, Neene Luckett, Susan Hayes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Focusing on the intent of your project</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let's focus on the basic premise of the income generating project and the thought process that goes into developing and re-evaluating one. When facing doubts in the midst of developing a project with women, return to the reasons for which you got involved in the first place. It may help if you write these down. The things you write down may be the product of a brainstorming session between you and the women or perhaps between you and other volunteers or counterparts. The following are some questions asked of the participants of the workshop, and their responses. These may help you in developing and re-evaluating your own project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. What is an income generating project?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Something that can make a profit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- A planned and continuous activity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- An activity that will change the living conditions of the people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- An activity that will generate cash</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Why should women be involved in income generating projects?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To achieve financial independence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To enable them to purchase luxuries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To increase their status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To improve the health of their families</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To learn money management skills</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To use their talents in marketing and production</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To improve their general standard of living</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- For social interaction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To improve the village economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To be able to trade their goods/services for other goods/services</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3.</B> <B>What types of projects do women engage in?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gardening</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Batik and tie-dyed cloth for clothing and decoration</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Soap making</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Making pomade (hair oil)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Raising poultry for meat and eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Fish processing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Food preparation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Sheep rearing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Weaving</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Pottery making</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Sales of household items</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Raising and processing sesame seed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Hairdressing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Sewing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Housekeeping</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Traditional healing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Traditional birth attendants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. What kind of projects could women be involved in but usually aren't?</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Cloth making</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Fruit drying</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Growing cotton</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Driving a taxi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Construction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Owning a bitiko (shop)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. What are the advantages for women to work together in a community based project?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The needed skills can be taught to the entire group by a facilitator and information can be shared.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The women may be able to pool resources and ideas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Loans are now available for community based projects for women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The women can offer each other support in the community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Women, as a group, may have more political power than an individual.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. What are the disadvantages of working as a group?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- There will be varying degrees of cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Women working in a group may not have as much incentive as those who have their own business.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- women may become protective of their own business interests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Principles of marketing</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WHAT IS MARKETING?</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marketing is the process of:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Determining consumer demand for a product or service;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Motivating its sale;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distributing it to the consumer AT A PROFIT !!!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are five essential elements of marketing:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. PRODUCT DESIGN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. MARKET RESEARCH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. PRICING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. PROMOTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The thought process that goes into marketing can best be illustrated by examples of situations that might exist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p28.png"></center><br>
+ PRINCIPLES OF MARKETING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PRODUCT DESIGN</B> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The objective of product design would of course be to select qualities that will appeal to the consumer. That means that you must have your consumer's needs in mind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CASE STUDY: </B>You are a shopkeeper and have both tourists and Gambians coming to your shop to buy clothing. Design a woman's shirt made from batik material for each market</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Characteristics of a shirt made for Gambian women:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Should have no sleeves or short sleeves for the hot weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Should be loose fitting to allow circulation underneath.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Can have very simple seam lines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Bright colors are preferred.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Embroidery around the collar is preferred.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A shirt made for tourist women:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. May have either short or long sleeves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. May be more tailored in a modern stylish manner.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Should be sewn with care and have finished seams.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. More subtle colors are preferred.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Plain collars are preferred.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONCLUSION: The shirts produced and sold successfully to tourists may look completely different from the shirts Gambians like to buy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Different Brent clients have different needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARKET RESEARCH</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CASE STUDY: </B>You wish to open a restaurant in your town. What are some of the things you will need to consider?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. What type of restaurant will you open? Will it serve local or European food; meals or snacks? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Will your restaurant have competition? If so, how successful is the competitor? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Where do you plan to locate the restaurant? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Who do you anticipate to be your clients? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Where will you buy your supplies?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggestion: If you are unsure of your market, you may wish to conduct an informal survey by questioning the proposed clients or your friends. Estimate how many people you can expect to buy your product or service. If still in doubt, plan to start small and build the business.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PRICING</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CASE STUDY: </B>You wish to open a business that produces tie-dyed fabric by the yard. What factors do you need to consider in determining a price per yard?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. What are the costs of the basic raw materials?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. What is the coat of labor?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. What are the transport coats for purchasing supplies and attending to other business matters?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. What is the cost of the basic tools and supplies, and the cost of replacing the tools over time?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. What is the products value on the local market? What does the competition charge per yard?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. What sort of coat saving measures can you think of that will lower your production costs? Can you make a business deal such as exchanging tie-dyed cloth for a needed service?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. How do you figure a profit margin? [Answer: The suggested range for profit is between 10-20 percent of cost of the product, including labor.]</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION </P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CASE STUDY: </B>You are talented at designing Gambian style jewelry but you need an outlet to sell it. You try to find out where the clients are likely to be and discover that the local tourist market attracts both Gambians and tourists who are interested in jewelry. What are some of the possibilities for you to market the jewelry?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Buy a stall in the market and set up your-own business.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Go around the markets with your products and sell them to other shop owners.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Walk around the streets and show people the jewelry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Contact the tour operators and arrange a showing for the tourists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Sell to the local artisans' cooperative.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Sell to your friends and relatives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PROMOTION/SELLING</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CASE STUDY:</B> You have opened a bakery and offer fresh baked goods dally. How can you promote your business and increase your clientele?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Publicize by putting a sign board outside the bakery, and maybe a few around town.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Paint your establishment and keep it clean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Produce good quality products that clients will tell others about.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Encourage customers through your friends and family.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. Offer pleasant service when customers come to the shop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Offer free samples of baked goods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Donate baked goods for a community celebration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. Put day-old items on sale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Market information needs checklist</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE MARKET: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is the market size by value and volume, and what are the trends?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is the market structure (breakdown by customer type, geography, distribution methods)?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Who are their competitors; what are their market shares and volumes?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CUSTOMERS:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Who are they; What is their profile?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Why do they buy the products?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">YOUR PRODUCTS AND SERVICES: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Are they getting dated?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Is the quality right for your market?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Could you add products to complement existing (or planned) ones?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Which products?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How important is service, fast delivery, back-up facilities, etc., as part of your total product?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Is your packaging good enough?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PRICES:</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What are current price levels and trends in the market?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How should you set your prices?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Should you set different prices to different customers?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PLACE/DISTRIBUTION:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is the best distribution system for you?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where should you locate your premises?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where are the premises of existing competitors located?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do you know all the potential distribution outlets for your products, and are you in them?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Which incentives work best with your distribution?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PROMOTION/SELLING: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is the best way to promote your company and its products?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How much should you spend to do this?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do you know who your target audience is and how to reach it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Should you have brochures and point of sale material?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How often should you call on customers?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What are the best sales appeals for your customers?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Courtesy of Ted Hazard. MDI</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Business plan summary</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAME________________________________DATE____________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MEMBERSHIP (current number of members and the skills they possess. Expansion plane?)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PRODUCT/SERVICE ( Briefly describe the product you hope to make and/or the service you hope to provide.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PREMISES (Description; location; whether rented or purchased; amount of rental; repairs needed? etc.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CUSTOMERS (Describe the people to whom you hope to sell.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COMPETITORS (Outline your main competitors.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PRODUCTION ( Where goods are to be produced; briefly describe the production process, including materials required.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVISORS?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SALES FORECASTS (How much do you hope to sell during the first year? If possible, quote quantity and cash value of sales. )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PRICING (Briefly outline your "price structure" and how this was worked out.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SALES/DISTRIBUTION (How do you intend distributing products to customers, e.g. shop, market stall, bus stop, direct selling from workshop, taxi, etc.?)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVERTISING AND PROMOTION (Describe the methods whereby you hope to promote the business and its products.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COSTS (Estimate these costs under the following headings:) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(a) Premises _________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(b) Equipment ________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(c) Stocks ___________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(d) Transportation _____________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(e) Other. ____________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SOURCES OF FINANCE (Where's this cash coming from!?!)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INCOME (What "profit" do you hope to earn in the first year, and how much do you intend paying your members?)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TRAINING REQUIREMENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">__________________________________________________________________</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Courtesy of Ted Hazard, MDI</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session plan (Feasibility of marketing dried fruit)</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOPIC: </B></U>Feasibility of Marketing Dried Fruit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TARGET GROUP: </B></U>Ten women who would like to start an income generating project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DURATION: </B></U>2 hours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OBJECTIVES: </B></U>The participants will be able to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Answer the questions on the business plan summary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Determine if the venture will be profitable based on their analysis of the summary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PROCEDURES:</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1 </B>The facilitator explains the objectives of the session and asks the women to give answers to the questions which will be recorded by the facilitator. Many of the answers will be predictions or estimates but will help the group to decide if the venture is worth undertaking. (Use "market information needs checklist" and "business plan summary" on pages 32-34.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2 </B>The facilitator reads back the answers to the questions one by one and calls for additional feedback. Each participant should give her opinion of the feasibility of selling the dried fruit. If enough information is not available on which to base a decision, the following possibilities exist:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Conduct a market survey or a second more comprehensive survey to determine market potential.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Produce a small quantity of the fruit and test the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Think of ways to cut production costs and keep prices low.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Increase the market potential by promoting the product, offering special services such as door to door sales and selling in other markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PREPARATION AND SUPPLIES: </B></U>If possible, a market survey should be conducted prior to this session. Costs of producing the dried fruit and profit margin should be calculated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Allow enough paper to record all responses to the survey and checklist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Bring a calculator.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Quality control</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The subject of quality control is a sensitive one in that no one likes to tell anyone else that their product is inferior. Yet, those products often go unsold with a loss to the producer. You will not do anyone a favor by overlooking poor quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another issue of quality control involves personal preference particularly in relation to artistic productions. For instance, a consumer may prefer the material put last into the dye bath which comes out very subtle in color although this may be considered the lowest quality of tie dye by some experts. The consumer will be the final Judge of quality or desirability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quality in products such as baked goods or vegetables is easy to determine by use of sight, taste and smell. Products made by an individual using her/his artistic or creative skills are much harder to judge in terms of quality because highly variable factors of personal thought, taste and feelings come into play. We will focus here on training sessions that involve controlling the quality of materials and workmanship insofar as those factors can be dealt with in a group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Local artisan groups feel that a great deal of competition exists between artisans in the market and that sometimes trade secrets are jealously guarded. The following session plans may help to communicate the ideas behind quality control without singling out an individual's product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p36.png"></center><br>
+ Quality control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GAMBIAN ARTISAN'S MARKETING COOPERATIVE GUIDELINES FOR CRAFT PRODUCTION</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Items made of wood:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Statues should have flat bases and not wobble.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Work should follow the grain of the wood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- All tools should be sharpened before and during use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Finishing with sandpaper should not cross the wood grain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Filling holes with glue or sawdust is not desirable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Items made for kitchen or table should be treated with vegetable oil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Surface decoration should be avoided unless it is functional.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Natural waxing is preferred to shoe polish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Variation in types of tools would produce greater refinement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Note: Simple machine tools such as a bandsaw and a lathe would revolutionize wood work in The Gambia and save raw materials.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leatherwork:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The raw material should be cured and free of blemish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Any color pigment should be even and not patchy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The thickness of the leather should be even but pared on the edges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Sewing and binding should be tight with no loose ends.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Note: Innovation and product development may expand the market for leather crafts,)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ceramics:</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pottery making is done on a very limited scale mainly near clay deposits. Firing is at low temperature and results in fragility. Some fuel efficient cooking stoves have been produced from local clay.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gourds and Calabashes:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gourds are used for utensils or musical instruments. For kitchen use, the gourds and calabashes should be treated to be safe for food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jewelry:</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The reputation of the craftsman is the only guide to quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Textiles:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stamp print -</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The wooden stamps used for stamp prints wear out with use and should be replaced for a clear even print.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Wax should be carefully applied and not dripped on the fabric.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The image on the stamp should harmonize with any woven pattern in the cloth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Batik pictures -</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Avoid lifeless repeats of images.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Drawings should be practiced before being committed to the waxing and dying process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tie and dye cloth -</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The cloth should be examined for holes from cutting threads with scissors or use of thread which is too thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Woven cloth -</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Examine for empty spaces where threads were not interwoven.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ready made garments -</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Ensure that all seams are straight and threads have been trimmed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Courtesy of Ms. Nday Oley Jobe, GAMCO Manager</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session plan (Factors involved in quality control)</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOPIC: </B></U>Factors Involved in Quality Control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TARGET GROUP: </B></U>Women working together on an income generating project with tie dye fabric.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DURATION: </B></U>75 minutes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OBJECTIVES: </B></U>The participants will be able to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Explain some of the factors that may affect quality in a product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Relate this information to the product that they produce to sell.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PROCEDURES:</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1 </B>The facilitator tells the participants that in the production of a product there are many factors that are the choice of the producer. These choices will affect the characteristics, or quality of the final product. The facilitator asks the women to mention some of those factors. Possible answers include type of tools to be used, quality of materials, amount of labor, design of product, type of client the product is made for, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2 </B>Practical exercise: The facilitator asks the participants to divide into four groups. The facilitator passes out four boxes that have been created out of cardboard, one to each group. S/he tells the participants that each group has a box that was created differently. The group is to discuss the box and determine how good the quality of the box is and why. The facilitator walks around to each group to answer questions. The discussion should last 10 to 15 minutes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3 </B>The facilitator asks a representative from each group to show the box and tell the rest of the women what that group's opinion of the quality was. The facilitator asks the women which of the four boxes they feel is of the highest quality and why. The answers should indicate that the highest quality box is the best-design, is made from the best materials and has been carefully made. This box would probably cost the most to make and will bring the highest price. Very few people would consider buying the low quality boxes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4 </B>The facilitator asks the women to think about the tie dye and discuss factors that would affect the quality. Answers should include quality of the fabric to be dyed, quality of dye and the number of times a dye bath is used, the complexity of the tie, the neatness with which the work is done and the number of colors used. The facilitator asks the women to discuss whether or not improving quality will help their business.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PREPARATION AND SUPPLIES: </B></U>Create four boxes from cardboard using very poor workmanship and materials for the poorest quality with two of intermediate quality and one of distinctive workmanship for the best quality. Include varying amounts of details and decorations to illustrate the factors affecting quality control.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Session Plan courtesy of Workshop Team: Ellen Yama Moore, Sherilyn Paris, Pam Jeans, Amie Nyang, Lamin Sonko, Sating Jobarteh, Bayard Lyons.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session plan (Quality control in marketing items of artistic creation)</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOPIC: </B></U>Quality Control in Marketing Items of Artistic Creation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TARGET GROUP: </B></U>Women artisans with income generating projects (The women should have some previous training in marketing.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DURATION: </B></U>2 hours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OBJECTIVES: </B></U>The participants will be able to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Compare crafted items and try to determine those of better quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Discuss the effect of quality on marketability of the product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PROCEDURES:</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1 </B>The facilitator explains the objectives of the session and introduces a guest speaker from GAMCO (Gambian Artisans Marketing cooperative) who will display examples of wood carving, leather work, tie dye, batik and clothing. There is a poor quality and good quality example of each. The guest speaker might briefly describe the functions of GAMCO.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2 </B>The participants divide into five groups and each group is given two examples of the same type of product to evaluate. The participants are given 10 minutes to discuss the quality of the products among themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3 </B>The facilitator asks each group to display the products and give reasons why one is a higher quality product. (See GAMCO Guidelines on pages 37-38.) The GAMCO representative then presents additional information about controlling quality and asks for questions. The following questions should be discussed: Is it possible that some customers would prefer a product such as batik or tie-dye that was judged to be of lesser quality?; and, Does higher quality always sell the best?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4</B> The facilitator asks the participants to discuss some marketing strategies related to quality control. The following points should be brought out:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. If the artisan is undecided about what level of quality to produce, she may conduct a marketing survey first to determine to whom and where the product might sell.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. The artisan may make a few products and see how they sell before making others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. She may put items of lower quality on sale or charge different prices for different quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. She may decide to take orders only and make exactly what a customer wants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. She may decide to make something of different quality than her competitors to appeal to a different market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5 The facilitator asks the participants to summarize the major points of the session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PREPARATION AND SUPPLIES: </B></U>Invite a speaker from GAMCO or another speaker who would be considered an authority on quality to come to the session. If there is no local GAMCO representative, someone from the Bakau center often travels to visit artisans. If a speaker is not available, artistic creations from a market which were not made by the participants may be used for the exercise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Numeracy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What WE KNOW:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B></U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Illiterate women may mismanage money because of their inability to write the figures down on a permanent record.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Illiterate women know how to count and do simple mathematics in their own languages mentally and/or verbally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TEACHING NUMERACY:</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Requires PATIENCE and LOTS OF REPETITION!!!!!!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But!!! CAN BE ACHIEVED IN A REASONABLE AMOUNT OF TEACHING TIME.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP ONE</P>
+</B><I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CREATE NUMERACY CARDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cards are teaching aids which contain a number from zero to nine and the corresponding number of drawn figures. Following are examples of numeracy cards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p43.png"></center><br>
+ Examples of numeracy cards</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some <B>RECOMMENDATIONS</B> about the cards:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. The facilitator's cards should be large enough for the group to see and should be made on very sturdy cardboard or other material that will stand up to rugged use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. The participants should make their own sets of cards, using paper if cardboard is not available or even by drawing on the ground in their compounds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. The facilitator may wish to make the cards like flash cards, with the numbers on one side and the figures on the other. The participants' cards should probably be made this way.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP TWO</P>
+</B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CREATE EXERCISE BOARDS AND CARDS</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Using the same sturdy material, make: a plus sign card, a minus sign card. and an equal sign card</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Make a counting board with numbers in small squares in sequence but with some numbers missing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Make subtraction and addition flash cards with problems on the front and answers on the back.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p44a.png"></center><br>
+ EXERCISE BOARDS AND CARDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP THREE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PROCEDURES FOR TEACHING NUMERACY</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A group NO LARGER THAN FIVE participants would be ideal for retention and participation, however, a larger group may be unavoidable. The participants should sit in a semicircle facing the facilitator</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Speaking in the local language and using the numeracy cards, begin with zero and acquaint the participants with the association between the written numbers and the number of figures. The conversation may go like this:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Facilitator (F): This is a zero. It represents nothing or no value. Binta, what is this figure (point to 0)? (Put the card in front of her and let her trace the zero with her finger). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participant (P): That is a zero. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F: What does it represent? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P: It represents nothing or no value.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(The facilitator goes around to each participant and asks the same questions.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F: This is a one. It represents one unit or one item, in this case I have drawn a tomato. Fatou, please tell me what the one represents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P: It means there is one tomato.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F: This is a two. There are two tomatoes, one, two.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mariama, what is this number?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p44b.png"></center><br>
+ Teaching numerarcy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The procedure is repeated with each number being shown to each participant. Each participant should REPEAT the number, TRACE it with her finger and then COUNT the symbols on the card.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TIME: </U>Experts say that the numbers from zero to nine can be identified by illiterate participants after three hours of drilling. It is most feasible to hold sessions for one hour per day for three consecutive days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sessions should include use of flashcards or other practical exercises for counting to nine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP FOUR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WRITING NUMBERS</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Number writing can be a challenge for illiterates who are not accustomed to handling writing instruments. Try to take yourself back in time and recall how you learned to write.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. A paper with examples and a writing instrument are given to each participant. The numbers should be large enough to copy easily and there should be adequate apace between them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. The hand may need to be initially guided in order to form the shapes correctly. The wrists will probably be stiff.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Allow plenty of time for practice. The practice sheets may contain smaller sized numbers for the second practice session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p45.png"></center><br>
+ Writing numbers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP FIVE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COUNTING, ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These concepts in numeracy again require <U>EXPLANATION </U>plus PRACTICE.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEN K NYAAR  NYET  NYENENT  JIROM  JIROM BENA  JIROM NYAAR  JIROM NYENENT  FUKA  FUKA AK BENA  FUKA AK NYAAR  FUKA AK NYET  FUKA AK NYENENT  FUKA AK JIROM  FUKA AK JIROM  BENA  FUKA AK JIROM NYAAR FUKA AK JIROM NYENENT NYAAR FUKA NYAAR FU AK BENA  NYAAR FUKA AK</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COUNTING:</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Explain the number ten where zero has a value.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Explain that one ten unit plus one more equals 11, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Use the counting board and ask participants to fill in the missing numbers. Use small items such as matchsticks or stones that can be divided into groups of ten. Hatch the number of items with a written number.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Practice writing numbers starting with ten.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KILlNG FULA  SAABA  NAANI LULU  WOORD WOOROWULA SEYI  KONONID TANG  TANG NING KILING TANG NING FULA  TANG NING SAABA  TANG NING TANG NING LULU  TANG HING WOORO TANG NING WOORD  WULA TANG NING SEYI  TANG NING KONONTO  MUWANG</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</I><B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADDITION*:</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Explain the plus and equal signs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Begin by adding single units.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Then add numbers such as 14 + 15 or 13 + 11 that do not involve carrying a number.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 Explain how to carry numbers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">**PLUS": MANDINKA (aping), WOLOF (ak)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Equal'': MANDINKA (a keta/le mu), WOLOF (mu neka/neka na) i.e. MANDINKA (kiling <U>aning </U>fula, <U>a keta </U>samba/ kiling <U>aning </U>fula, saaba le mu)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WOLOF ( bena <U>ak </U>nyaar <U>mu neka </U>nyeta/ bena <U>ak </U>nyaar <U>neka na </U>nyeta)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FULA I YE KILING BONDI JEE, A TUTA KILING  TANG, NING I YE SAABA BONDI JEE, A BE DASA LA WOORONULA  WOORO, NING I YE NAANI BONDI JEE FULA BE TU LA  TANG NING SAABA, I YE LULU BONDI JEE, A BE DASA LA SEYI KARAN GO BETEYAA TA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUBTRACTION*:</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Explain the minus sign.*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Explain subtraction of units.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Explain simple subtraction without borrowing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Explain borrowing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">*"Minus": MANDINKA (i ye . . . bondi jee), WOLOF ( nga gal nai si)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Equal": MANDINKA (a tuta/a be tu la/a dasata/a be dasa la), WOLOF (dinna des, moi des) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">i.e. MANDINKA (saaba, <U>i ye </U>fula <U>bondi jee,</U> <U>a tuta </U>kiling)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WOLOF ( nyeta <U>nga gal nai si </U>nyaar, <U>dinna des </U>bena/nyeta <U>nga gai nai si </U>nyaar, bena <U>moi des)</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Suggested Methods to Avoid Participant Boredom and Frustration</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B></U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. If there are too many participants, the first person asked to repeat a number may become restless by the time you reach the last student. The safest method is to limit class size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. You may wish to vary the ways to look at numbers by using objects as well as drawn figures and by simulating situations from every day life, thus alleviating some of the boredom that can result from repetition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Faster learning adults may become bored if slower learners take a lot of time. The slower learners may become frustrated. The solution may be to arrange a special session for slower learners.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Plan your sessions around behavioral objectives and tell the participants at the beginning of each session what you plan to achieve.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p47.png"></center><br>
+ Suggested Methods to Avoid Participant Boredom and Frustration</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session plan (Practical exercises in addition and subtraction)</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOPIC: </B></U>Practical Exercises in Addition and Subtraction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TARGET GROUP: </B></U>Women learning numeracy (Prior sessions in writing numbers, counting, addition and subtraction are essential.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DURATION: </B></U>75 minutes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OBJECTIVES: </B></U>The participants will be able to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Relate training in addition and subtraction to a market situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PROCEDURES:</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1 </B>The facilitator and two assistants set up three shops for role play. The numbers involved are written down on separate papers. The participants must do the arithmetic on their own paper. Each participant plays the role of the customer at each shop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">#1 A variety of vegetables are displayed. The customer comes with a head of cabbage to trade for some vegetables. The cabbage is worth 15 dalasi. The prices of the vegetables she wishes to buy are 14, 12, 7, 6, 21 and 13 dalasi. How much does she owe?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">#2 Yardage of material is displayed. The participant wishes to buy 12 yards of material. She needs three yards of one color at 13 dalasi per yard; two yards of another at 14 dalasi per yard; three yards of another at 16 dalasi per yard and four yards of another at 17 dalasi per yard. A 12 dalasi discount is given on the deal. How much does she owe?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">#3 A shopkeeper is in the shop. The customer has come to settle some debts and loans. The shopkeeper once lent the customer 200 Dalasi. The customer paid back part of it, 85 dalasi, but took some goods from the shop worth 38 dalasi which she did not pay for. The shopkeeper then took a sheep worth 145 dalasi from the customer. Who owes who money?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2 </B>Using the paper that calculations were done on, the participants are asked to figure out how much money they spent that day at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3 </B>Using a blackboard or newsprint, the facilitator reviews all the calculations and asks for questions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PREPARATION AND SUPPLIES: </B></U>The "shops" should be set up far enough apart to permit interaction without disturbing other "shoppers". Numbers representing the prices to be calculated should be located at each shop and shown to the participants who copy them down on their own paper.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paper, pencils, props for the shops such as vegetables, material and tables, blackboard and chalk or newsprint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bookkeeping</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bookkeeping </B>involves using a system for recording financial or business transactions in books of accounts, or ledgers. There are many different types of formats for ledgers and many different purposes for their use. In designing a format appropriate for a certain group of participants, it is probably wisest to first identify their needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A very simple bookkeeping ledger can be designed with the following components:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Column for date.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Columns to describe types of transactions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Credit and debit columns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Column for the balance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two ways that the columns can be labeled:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. With symbols or pictures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. With words from the local language that the women learn to recognize (this may work well with semi-literates or l those who are engaged in literacy training).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Examples of column headings for simple bookkeeping ledgers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MANDINKA: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">tilo</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">meng keta/sang/waafi</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">meng bota</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">meng naata</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">meng veto</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WOLOF: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">bisbi</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">li heo/jenda/jaii </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">li gaina </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">li nyo</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">li des</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p50.png"></center><br>
+ ENGLISH with symbols:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teaching bookkeeping, like numeracy, requires <U>REPETITION </U>and <U>PRACTICE </U>.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teaching bookkeeping successfully requires <U>FOLLOW-UP</U>.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Are the bookkeeping ledgers useful to the women or should they be redesigned?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. What does the ledger represent in terms of long term money management? What information does it provide that will help women improve their financial positions? Some ledgers show starting and ending balances, such as a daily cash flow. Other ledgers can be designed to show profit made from each item sold, monthly or yearly profit, inventory, etc.. Some women will need to keep several different types of ledgers for their businesses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTE:</B> A very effective way to open a session on bookkeeping is to stage a skit that depicts the problems a woman in business may have if she does not write numbers down. This may encourage the participants to discuss their record keeping needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session plan (Why is bookkeeping useful?)</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOPIC: </B></U>Why is Bookkeeping Useful?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TARGET GROUP: </B></U>Women with income generating projects</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DURATION : </B></U>75 Minutes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OBJECTIVES: </B></U>The participants will be able to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Identify several problems that occur when financial transactions are not put into a permanent record.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Discuss some ways that keeping records may help them in their businesses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Suggest several possible designs for ledgers that they would find useful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PROCEDURES: </P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1 </B>The facilitator explains the objectives of the session. Then the facilitator and three assistants put on a skit. The scene is a small shop where the woman proprietor sits at a table. In front of her are some goods for sale and a box for cash. One by one two shoppers and the proprietor's son stop by the shop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First shopper (FS): Good morning Isatou, how are you? I came to see if you have any Omo?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Isatou: (To herself: This person owes me some money from a long time ago. I wish I could remember how much it was.) Good morning, my friend, certainly I do, but first you should pay me what you owe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FS: But Isatou, I paid you a few days afterward. Don't you remember? It was at a party at our fiend's house.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Isatou: No I can't remember, I don't think you paid me.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FS: You insult me, I always pay my debts. It was at a christening party and I was wearing a red dress I bought from you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Isatou: Oh dear! Now I remember! I'm so sorry. Here is your Omo. Good-bye. (To herself: How embarrassing. I hope she will not be angry.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second shopper (ss): Good Morning Isatou, how are you?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Isatou: I am fine. Come and see all the nice things I just got in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SS: wonderful! I will take a pair of shoes, this hair oil and two meters of that cloth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Isatou: Very good. That will be 92 dalasi plus 37 dalasi plus 34 dalasi. But I will give you a discount so it comes out to be 165 dalasi.</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SS: But that price is more than the first price of the three.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Isatou: No you are wrong. Look, 92 + 37 + 34 equals 171 and I am taking off six dalasi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SS: When I add it on this paper, I get 161, so the price should be 155.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Isatou: (Looking at the paper and not really understanding, laughs nervously.) Oh dear you must be right. Well I am very tired today, you know. So sorry, my friend. Here is your change. Please come back soon. (Shaking her head, says to herself:) Oh dear, she may never come back.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Isatou: Oh hello, my son, did you do the business I asked?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Son: Yes Mother. I got what you wanted and here is your change.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Isatou: OK, now I have had a lot of sales today, so I want to see how much I made. There is now 700 dalasi in the box and I gave some to you and also used some to buy lunch. Let's see I sold a few jars of hair oil and many little things.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Son: But Mother, how much did you have in the box when you came to the shop this morning? Didn't you count it?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Isatou: Well I counted it last night but I can't remember exactly. That doesn't matter, I just need to know what I sold, but not everyone paid the same amount for the same item because of the discounts. Oh dear, oh well, I am very tired today, tomorrow will be better!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2 </B>The facilitator asks the women to discuss some problems that Isatou had because she did not write the numbers down. Some points to be made are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Isatou forgot the amount of the debt owed by the First Shopper and also that the debt had been repaid. It was embarrassing for Isatou.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Isatou added the group of numbers incorrectly and was about to overcharge. She did not understand the numbers that the Second Shopper wrote on the paper and wasn't sure they were correct.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Isatou could not account for the money that went in and out of her till box during the day. She forgot how much she started out with and what she charged for some items.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3 </B>The facilitator asks the participants to discuss how writing the numbers down may help them to manage their money. Some points to be brought out are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. You can write down your debts and loans and make a check mark when they have been repaid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. You could write down the price paid for each item and how much it sold for to determine your profit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. You can keep track of the money in your till so you will know if any has been stolen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. You could make an inventory of your shop by drawing a picture of an item and the number you have in stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. You could look at the dates to tell times of the year when business is good, and when certain transactions took place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4 </B>The facilitator asks the participants to determine which kind of records they would find most useful. In the next training session, the group will make some bookkeeping ledgers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PREPARATION AND MATERIALS: </B></U>Props for the skit including the till box, some shop items, a table or two chairs, a pencil and paper, some dalasi or fake money. The skit should be rehearsed prior to the session but can include a lot of impromptu overacting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Skit Idea courtesy of Sam Cole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session plan (Making a simple bookkeeping ledger)</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOPIC: </B></U>Making a Simple Bookkeeping Ledger</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TARGET GROUP: </B></U>Women with vegetable gardening projects (Background: The women are interested in knowing how much they will earn per month from their gardens. They take in different amounts each day and often forget the amounts in a few days. They want to subtract the cost of their tools and seeds and see how much they make for their labor. The women are illiterate but have been trained in numeracy.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DURATION: </B></U>Two hours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OBJECTIVES: </B></U>The participants will be able to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Prepare and use a simple accounting ledger that will allow them to determine a total monthly income made from selling vegetables.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Prepare and use a ledger that allows them to record the costs of the garden supplies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Discuss how the accounts might help them in their businesses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PROCEDURES:</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</U><B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1</B> The facilitator explains the objectives of the session. The women sit near a writing surface. Each participant has two pieces of paper or an exercise book, a writing instrument and a tool that can be used to make straight lines. The facilitator asks for suggestions for the symbols that may be put at the top of each column. S/he draws them on a black board or large sheet of paper, or has a participant draw them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sample ledger should only have lines and words on it, so that the women can see where to make the lines, but can come up with their own ideas about the symbols (thus they would probably remember them better). The sample ledger could look like this: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">tilo</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">meng sang/weafi</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">meng bota </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">meng naata</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">meng veto</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The day of the week will be represented by a number. The women may agree that Monday is the first market day and Sunday is the last so Monday will be day 1 and Sunday, day 7.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The women may agree that they will take ten dalasi in change everyday and that it will not be counted with the sales. Only the sales will be recorded. Symbols will be drawn for the type of vegetable and a whole vegetable will represent one kilo or one pile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2</B> The facilitator asks the participants to prepare a form for recording sales. The participants make the form by drawing columns and labeling the top, based on the sample form and the symbols agreed upon by the group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3 </B>The<B> </B>facilitator asks the participants to practice filling in the forms using some made up numbers for one week of sales. Each participant will require individual attention by the facilitator to check figures and answer questions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4 </B>The use of the forms is discussed. Some points to be brought out are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. The women will know what the intake is per week or per month or per year by adding up the numbers. They will also know what kind of vegetables sell the best.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. After the supplies are paid for, they will know how much they receive for their labor. If the job pays very poorly, they may decide to take up another occupation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. The exercise may inspire the women to take account of where the money earned is spent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PREPARATION AND SUPPLIES: </B></U>Exercise books, pencils and straight edge. Poster board or newsprint for demonstration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Session Plan Courtesy of Workshop Team: Amie Jarju, Jean Herron, Amira Jagne, Mark Mariotti, Nicky Rawson, Baboucar Dibba.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following are the Project Summaries of three income generating projects that volunteers carried out with women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KUNTAYA KRAFTS PROJECT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In March 1988, Lang Fafa Dampha, a Community Development Assistant in Kuntaya approached me with the proposition of doing an income generating project with the Women's group of that village. They wished to make local handicrafts. I agreed to seek Special Projects Assistance (SPA) funding for the project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In June, Lang and I purchased the first supplies for soap making, tie-dye and sewing with hand-operated machines. The women were to dye cloth, cut it up and sew it back together to make patchwork quilt bedsheets to sell in the tourist markets. They would also make soap and sew clothing to be sold in the local market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Already possessing basic skills in tie-dying, the women participated in a 3 day training session overseen by skilled handicraftsmen from Community Development. Included in the training were sessions on tie-dying, sewing with machines, soap making, and the importance of savings and keeping track of funds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were many ups and downs, as with starting any kind of business. We had problems with quality control and giving long term credit and then not having any money left to buy supplies to make more quilts. But the soap making, a steady source of income year round, slowly brought their holdings up to enough for buying more supplies and for opening a bank account, which was finally done-at the end of March, 1989.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the women were neither literate nor numerate, it was necessary to find someone to help them with basic bookkeeping. They found a female secondary school graduate to help with the record keeping. The brother of the leader and a male primary school teacher were also writing down transactions, in Arabic and English, respectively, resulting in 3 accounting books.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I closed the project by making Adam Loum the Project Manager. Although the project is financially complete, it is still necessary to have someone oversee its continuation. Adam is now responsible to make sure the women continue dying cloth and possibly get more established in the tourist market. She will also encourage the women to use the sewing machines more (they are still not confident in their own abilities).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LISA PALM</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Volunteer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WOMEN'S GARDEN PROJECT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gardening in The Gambia over the past five years has expanded exponentially, but gardening techniques have not. Neither spacing of plants nor the proper application of natural or chemical fertilizers has been properly explained. Together with the nursery worker, Maline Hydra, and my counterpart, Saikou Sonko, we decided that the needs of the women must be addressed. To give more women an opportunity to have vegetable gardens and to try to improve techniques, we opened up one hectare of our nursery.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty-six women from the village met and chose a president, a vice president, a treasurer and two police to run the garden project. They also decided on the following list of rules and guidelines for the garden project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Each woman would receive a 6m x 9m plot. Seeds for onions, cabbage and tomatoes would be made available for purchase.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Under our supervision 3.1m x 3m of each of the above plots would be used for experimentation with various fertilizers. The soil of one plot was mixed with compost, the soil of another plot was mixed with manure, and the soil of a third was mixed with chemical fertilizer. All plots were measured for proper spacing. Onions were 3 inches apart, cabbages were 18 inches apart, and the tomatoes were 24 inches apart.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. The remainder of their plots (2.9m x 6m) was free to garden as they wished.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The women also decided on two separate funds. For the first fund each woman agreed to pay to the treasurer 3 Dalasi a week until enough money was accumulated to reimburse me for a loan I took out to buy seeds. The second fund, a revolving fund, was a 20 Dalasi post harvest payment for the purchase of vegetable seeds for the coming year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems that one can talk until his voice is gone and the people here will nod in acceptance but take no action to implement your advice. It was not until they actually witnessed the benefits of fertilizer and proper spacing on their gardens that they found value in my advise. My satisfaction came when visiting nearby gardens, I found several women utilizing the new techniques in their garden plots.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Overall the program was successful but there were some financial problems. The first fund, my reimbursement, was completed, but the revolving fund was never generated. Even though their skills in gardening have been upgraded their potential for profit making has been greatly hindered by their ignorance of money management. Before one begins an income generating project in the future I would first consider training those involved in money management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mike Grebeck</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Volunteer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WOMAN'S AGRICULTURAL SUPPLY STORE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In July, 1988, representatives from FAO came to visit me in Bakindik, Lower Niumi. They were looking for individuals to become part of a program to privatize the selling of fertilizer gardening equipment and seeds. They were especially interested in working with women, which made me think of my friend Gass Saine. since 1986, Gass has been operating a small condiments and vegetable stand in Bakindik. Although she is neither literate nor numerate, she is bright, energetic, well-respected in the community, and an excellent businesswoman.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gass found a building for the business. And she did an informal market survey to estimate the amount of supplies she would need.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gass and I bought 150 bags of fertilizer, watering cans, ropes, buckets and seeds with a total of Dalasi 17,000, advanced by FAO. FAO would charge Gass 1% a month in repayment, to commence on a certain date. With my assistance, Gass opened a savings account in Banjul, in anticipation of sales and not wanting to keep large amounts of money in her home.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gass's business was very well received in the community. In October, 1988, Gass hired a sales assistant whose salary would come from FAO. His main responsibility is to advise Gass on a loan scheme in which women's groups receive advances in seed and gardening supplies, in stages. In turn, they should follow recommended gardening practices and pay back their loans. Once the initial loans of seeds are paid, Gass gives the women further loans, in the form of watering cans, rakes, and buckets. This second loan creates incentive for the women to pay the first loan as they are in need of gardening supplies. In addition to this loan scheme, she is travelling to 15 surrounding villages to promote seed sales to women's groups and school garden projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gass, handicapped by illiteracy and innumeracy, finds bookkeeping and following her bank account difficult. Fortunately, save the Children Fund, USA recently started a numeracy/literacy class in her area, which she attends regularly. Also, her new husband has been helping her with record keeping and running the store when she is away.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The major drawback to the FAO program is that it might be switched over into government hands, causing interest to jump to 25% per annum. Gass would be forced to charge higher prices for her goods and her current loan schemes would have to be curtailed since she would have less financial flexibility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Judith Wilcox</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Volunteer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Suggested references</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TEACHING NUMERACY AND LITERACY:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gambia Cooperative Union, Learner's Workbook one, 1989.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jatta, Sidia S. and Omar Camara, <U>Ali Nga N Na Kango Karang</U>, Save the Children USA, The Gambia Field office, P.O. Box 828, Banjul, The Gambia, October, 1988</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jatta, Sidia S. and Omar Camara, <U>Na Nu Janga Sunu Laaka,</U> Save the Children, USA, Banjul, The Gambia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jatta, Sidia S. and Omar Camara, <U>Njanngen Demngal Amen (Heal Pulaar),</U> Save the Children USA, Banjul, The Gambia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-Formal Education Services Unit, <U>Numeracy Workbook</U>, Ministry of Education, Banjul, The Gambia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-Formal Education Services Unit, <U>Number Book: Functional Numeracy for a Rural Setting</U>, Ministry of Education, Banjul, The Gambia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PROJECTS FOR WOMEN:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cole, Lawalley, <U>The Participation of Gambian Women in the Fishing Industry</U>, December, 1988.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fritz, Heidi L., <U>How to Work with Women's Groups</U>, Peace Corps, Ecuador.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geneva Group, <U>How to Run a small Development Project,</U> Intermediate Technology Publications, London, England, 1986.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Henderson, Helen K., Women in Development Project Advisement <U>Report for The Gambia Mixed Farming and Resource Management Project</U>, Consortium for International Development, USAID.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Women's Tribune Center, <U>Women and Small Business</U>, United Nations, New York, November 1985.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Janssen, E., <U>"My Name Has No Value, It Is Merely There", The Significance of the Jahally-Pacharr Rice Irrigation Project in The Gambia for the Socio-Economic Position for Women</U>, catholic University Nijmegen, The Netherlands, November 1988.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John, Ken B., A Study on Women, Credit and Agricultural <U>Production in The Gambia</U>, Department of Planning, Ministry of Agriculture, The Gambia, 1988.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kindervatter, Suzanne, <U>Women Working Together</U>, OEF International, Washington, DC, 1983.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kindervatter, Suzanne, ea., <U>Doin</U>q <U>a Feasibility Study: Training Activities for Starting and Revising a Small Business</U>, OEF International, Washington, DC, 1987.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mannah, Baboucar, Training Workshop on Reaching Women Farmers in <U>Agricultural Extension More Effectively</U>, Department of Agricultural Services, December 1988.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mulwa, Francis W., <U>Participation of the Grassroots in Rural Development</U>, in "Development: Seeds of Change", 1987.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O'Connell, Mary, <U>Learning from the Third World: New Model for </U>Financing Self-Employment, in: The Neighborhood Works, July-August, 1986.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps, Reports from Forum 85, Nairobi, Kenya, July 10-19, 1985.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Press, Robert M., <U>Credit where it's due: African Women Get </U>a <U>Chance At a Better Life</U>, The Christian Science Monitor, December 30, 1988.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sivard, Ruth L., <U>Women...A World Survey</U>, World Priorities, Washington DC, 1985.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starkey, Jacqui and Maryanne Dulansey, <U>Crafts Projects for Women: Good Development or Not?</U>, Peace Corps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Svendsen, Dian S and Sujatha Wijetilleke, <U>Training Activities for Group Building, Health and Income Generation</U>, Women's Bureau of Sri Lanka, Overseas Education Fund, Washington DC, 1983.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Nations, <U>Appropriate Technology for African Women</U>, 1978.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wanyande, Peter, "Women's Groups in Participatory Development", <U>Development: Seeds of Change</U>, 1987:2/3.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">** Many of these publications can be found in the Peace Corps/The Gambia WID library.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/t0021e/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/t0021e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/t0021e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Basic techniques of blacksmithing: A Manual for Trainers (t0021e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Industry, Manufacture and Services|Metal industry|Forging and blacksmithing</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">Peace Corps</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">A-B</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">make many useful tools using basic techniques of blacksmithing</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/t0021e/t0021e.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/t0021e/t0021e.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/t0021e/t0021e.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,4001 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Basic techniques of blacksmithing: A Manual for Trainers</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Basic techniques of blacksmithing: A Manual for Trainers</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by</P>
+<I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Farallones Institute Rural Center and CHP Inter national, Inc. in collaboration with the </P>
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peace Corps Energy Project/ OPTC</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=460>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">The Peace Corps Internet Web Site address: </P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">http://www.peacecorps.gov</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">Please note the new Peace Corps Mailing Address from July 1998 on is:</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">ICE/ Peace Corps</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">1111 20th Street N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">Washington, DC 20526</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">USA</P>
+</FONT><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Information</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contract #282-1003</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">August, 1982</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributors:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pete Watson</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Michael Wilburn. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ada Jo Mann</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andrew Atkeison</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marsha D. F. Wilburn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mary Ana Conn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This training manual represents one component of a pilot training program in Blacksmithing/Agricultural Tools undertaken by the Farallones Institute and CHP International, Inc. It has been completed in accordance with the terms of Peace Corps Contract #282-1003.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We believe that our involvement has produced a valuable and adaptable learning tool. However, the manual must continue to be tested, evaluated, and modified in order to reflect changing needs and circumstances. It is our hope that you will contribute to that process, and that you will help make the manual more appropriate and useful during future training programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you have observations or suggestions about the contents, methods, or approach included in the manual, please contact the authors at the Farallones Institute or CHP International, Inc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We are grateful to the following individuals for their contributions to the development of this manual:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Howard Raik</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ilios Aditya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leanne Clement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We also thank the many kind people who have contributed by giving us permission to use materials they have developed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Special thanks are extended to the members of the Farallones community for their continued support, endurance, and patience during the evolution of this project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, perhaps our most important acknowledgment should go to the Peace Corps trainees who have come to learn and, in turn, to teach. It is with them that we have shared our dreams and values. We hope that the tools and techniques they have chosen will serve the world kindly and well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This manual is a guide for trainers who are helping Peace Corps Volunteers to acquire basic blacksmithing skills. The training is designed to give Volunteers a knowledge of metals and metalworking that will help them support rural communities in their efforts to produce tools for agriculture and cottage industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An equally important goal of <U>Basic Techniques of Blacksmithing</U> is to equip training participants with the skills and knowledge which will help them foster the community development process. Community development is a process that begins when people take an active role in their own education. It is a creative process, challenging members of a group to use their combined talents, resources and ingenuity to identify needs and find appropriate, sustainable ways to meet them. Trainers can contribute to this process by helping others learn from, support and build upon existing blacksmithing technologies. They can help by making training a model of the activity which constitutes community development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout the training, workshop participants are encouraged to take a full and active role in their own education, and to make decisions that will affect them and the people with whom they work and live. They are urged to cooperate with others, and to identify and use the talents and resources available within the group; they practice skill; that help motivate people, instill within them a sense of self-confidence, and involve them in the process of their own education. The emphasis placed on developing and reinforcing these skills reflects Peace Corps' belief that technical expertise is valuable only when it is applied in balance with other qualities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This approach to training is based on the principles of non-formal education, and is designed to strike a balance between structured learning and independent discovery. By using the sessions, resources and methods suggested in this program, trainers will provide Volunteers with a working knowledge of blacksmithing, as well as skills for developing that knowledge in a meaningful way.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The program offers training in the development of skills and techniques related to basic blacksmithing, including an attempt to familiarize Peace Corps Volunteers with the capabilities of existing local forges in the production of appropriate agricultural tools. The tool designs and skills are selected to be as consistent as possible with the realities of rural areas in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The program is divided into twenty sessions which occur over a six-day period. Each session consists of a series of activities designed to meet specific training objectives. The objectives of each session are interrelated with fundamental themes which illustrate the connection and interdependence between technology and other aspects of community development. The program themes are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Development and Transfer of Technical Competence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Principles and Techniques of Non-Formal Education and Adult Learning</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Methods and Approaches to Problem-Solving</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Development Issues</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Cross-Cultural Perspectives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The Process of Assessment and Evaluation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The manual is designed to be responsive to a variety of training situations. Modification and adaptation of the materials is encouraged. However, it is essential to the effectiveness of the training to maintain the integrated nature of the sessions by providing an adequate balance of emphasis among the various themes. This will enable participants to build upon and apply new knowledge in a way that is ordered and meaningful within the context of community development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following guidelines have been developed as an aid in transforming this manual into an effective, dynamic training program:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Planning and Preparation</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many steps that need to occur before the training actually begins. These include defining the scope and approach of the training, identifying staff requirements, locating and establishing a site, and gathering necessary resources and materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Defining the scope and approach of the training:</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sessions are designed to accomodate a maximum of twelve participants. If there are more than twelve, some modification of the design of activities will have to occur. The participants should be individuals whose current work in agriculture, rural or community development, or vocational education could be enhanced by a knowledge of basic blacksmithing techniques.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since blacksmithing involves mastering and becoming comfortable with a core of basic concepts and techniques through repeated practice and honing of skills, this manual is designed to provide participants with exposure to and practice in those basic concepts. The first technical session is designed to provide an overview of the major concepts involved and lay the groundwork for the remainder of the program. Each succeeding session requires the use of skills practiced in prior sessions and introduces one to three new techniques. In this manner, it is intended that participants will complete the program with sufficient skills to enable them to understand and maximize the capabilities of local forges in the production of simple agricultural tools; to set up their own small forge facility; and to continue practicing their blacksmithing skills by adapting and modifying them to suit the needs of the communities in which they are working.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Identifying staff and trainers:</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The specific number of staff should depend on the particular training situation. As a minimal requirement, there should be at least one primary technical trainer and one training coordinator for each twelve participants. The primary technical trainer should be an experienced, capable blacksmith with experience working in developing countries. He/she should have skill in making many types of hand tools using available scrap steel and should be comfortable with the principles of non-formal education, adult learning and integrated training. The training coordinator should have a working knowledge of blacksmithing and experience delivering integrated, participatory training programs. He/she should take the primary role in logistical coordination, facilitation, and helping participants assess their progress and evaluate the program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It would also be beneficial to have an assistant technical trainer that is a native of the country in which the training is being held. The assistant should be an experienced local blacksmith who has had some prior experience working in cross-cultural situations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Locating and establishing a site:</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The training program should be located in or near an area that has some ongoing metal work activity, and in a place where a supply of scrap steel is available. It should be in a center of commerce where materials can be purchased and transported easily. It is best to choose a site that includes adequate space to set up six or seven working forges. The training should be held in or near an area where local blacksmiths are working. The rental of space in an existing blacksmith shop, vocational school or outbuilding would be ideal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Gathering necessary resources and materials:</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In order for participants to have the opportunity to practice basic blacksmithing skills, it will be necessary to set up a minimum of six (preferably seven) complete forge stations. Ideally, this will require approximately:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7 forges and bellows or blowers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 anvils and stands or stumps</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 swage block (or equivalent)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 mounted vices</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 grinders (motorized, electrical if possible)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7 (1,500 gr.) 3-lb. cross-or straight-peen hammers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7 (2,000 gr.) 4-lb. cross-or straight-peen hammers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7 10-lb. cross-or straight-peen hammers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7 pairs large vice grips</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7 pairs flat tongs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7 prs. round or V-nose tongs (1/2" - 5/8")</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7 prs. pick-up tongs (3/8")</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7 hot cuts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7 cold cuts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 hack saws with 6 extra blades (18 teeth per inch)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7 5-gal. quench buckets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 quench buckets + lids (filled with recycled motor oil)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7 pieces of abrasive stone (e.g., carborundum)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the most part, the exact amount of materials necessary will vary with each training situation. Be certain that there are enough materials available before the program begins. It is estimated that there should be on hand approximately:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 7 files</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- fuel to supply forges for five days</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 4 hand-held wire brushes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- supply of flux and brass scrap steel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- variety of leaf springs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- assorted coil springs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 60' of œ". round bar or rebar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 40' of 3/8" round bar or rebar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 50' of 5/8" round bar or rebar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a collection of miscellaneous</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- several axles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- bricks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It can be expected that many of the tools and much of the equipment needed for this program will be difficult to obtain in the country where the training is being held. In order to ensure that sufficient resources be available, it is recommended that the trainers bring some of the equipment with them and that they arrive at least two weeks before the training is scheduled to begin. They should make every effort to acquire locally available items, using as guides the materials and equipment lists included here. If some of the suggested items are not available or are not appropriate for use by local blacksmiths, ingenuity should be used to find comparable substitutes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they are not essential to the implementation of the program, a copy of one or both of the following books should be distributed to each participant as texts:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Modern Blacksmith</U>, by Alexander Weygers</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Edge of the Anvil: A Resource Book for the Blacksmith</U>, by Jack Andrews</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conducting the Training</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Included here is a list of some considerations that are essential to remember in carrying out the program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>The training program is designed to provide the basic skills necessary to support local blacksmiths</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blacksmithing is a centuries-old craft, technology and livelihood. As farming and rural industries develop, the role of the blacksmith in community life takes on its significance. Families need hoes, axes, and machetes. The carpenter, mason and leathermaker all demand specialized tools. Farmers with draft animals ask for prows, cultivators, and hardware for their yokes and harnesses. For the blacksmith in developing countries, the production of these tools and implements involves many complex difficulties, including standardization of equipment, uncontrolled marketing, scarcity of spare parts, shortages of raw materials, and the unavailability of technical information and educational opportunities for refining skills. This program has been designed to provide participants with the basic knowledge and skills necessary to help local blacksmiths work to overcome these difficulties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Blacksmithing is a skill which requires much practice to develop</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it is explicitly brought out in several sessions, the trainer should continually stress that it is virtually impossible to emerge from a six-day training program as an expert blacksmith.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blacksmithing is a craft which requires years of hard work, practice, and dedication to develop. Participants should realize that in many cultures, the exclusiveness of the craft has created a mysterious aura of awe and supersition around the metal-working trades.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Safety precautions cannot be over-stressed</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a blacksmith shop, the opportunity for serious injury is limitless. Extreme care should be taken throughout the program to stress the importance of taking necessary safety precautions. A good general rule is that all metal should be considered too hot to touch until proven otherwise. Potential hazards can be compounded in an environment in which many inexperienced individuals are working in close proximity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Working in teams has multiple objectives</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the program, participants will work in teams at forge stations. This enables them to help one another with many of the practices which require strenuous activity and/or more than one pair of hands. It insures that each participant will have ample opportunity to practice each of the basic techniques demonstrated. And, it provides a forum for practicing the kinds of communication skills necessary to transfer skills to others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Most basic Blacksmithing skills can only be acquired through careful observation followed by supervised practice</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In each of the sessions which call for a demonstration of a particular technique, every effort should be made to ensure that participants thoroughly understand the concepts and procedures involved. Write essential procedures on newsprint whenever necessary. Make demonstrations as clear as possible by explaining each procedure carefully and repeating whenever necessary. Following demonstrations, ask participants to review the procedures and to clarify any doubts or confusions which may exist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Flexibility, endurance, and patience are key requirements for blacksmithing</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The participants should be advised of the likelihood of spending long, strenuous hours tending their forges and practicing their skills. Blacksmithing does not lend itself well to structured, specified blocks of time. The times suggested to complete each session are approximations. Participants may complete some activities early while running overtime on others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>The experimental learning cycle is an essential part of training</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important that people have the opportunity to learn, examine, generalize about and apply new knowledge. Try to follow the experiential learning loop as often as possible, and encourage the participants to be aware of the process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Scheduled breaks between sessions are essential</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although 10 to 15 minutes is suggested, more time may be needed, depending on the training circumstances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using the Manual</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the keys to the success of the training program lies in thoroughly understanding and effectively using the manual. Included below are some guidelines and explanations designed to help in using the manual.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>The Program Calendar</U> indicates the overall design of the program and recommended sequence of sessions. Use it as a reference in developing a specific schedule which meets the needs of the particular training situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Sessions</U> follow a consistent format. (See the "Sample Session Format" on Page vii for a detailed description,) Be certain to read sessions thoroughly. There are often several purposes to each session; for example, the activities may be designed to meet a technical objective, and at the same time, provide participants with practice in group problem-solving or communication skills. It is important to understand the multi-tiered design of each session before presenting it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Attachments</U> follow each session and are usually intended for distribution to the participants. Each attachment is letter-coded as to the session with which it is associated. It is important to make copies of attachments in advance so that they can be distributed during the session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>The Bibliography</U> includes the reference material, texts, and suggested resources used in developing this program. It can be copied and distributed to participants as the basis for further research in blacksmithing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAMPLE SESSION FORMAT</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 4, Day 1 (Each session is numbered sequentially and coded by day.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FORGE INTRODUCTION</U> (<U>Title</U> indicates subject area being presented.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: (<U>Total Time</U> gives approximate time needed to carry cut the session.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 hours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives: (<U>Objectives</U> tell what is expected of participants and what the session should accomplish.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify and define the basic components of a forge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To practice using basic blacksmithing tools</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To light, maintain and shut down a forge fire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To make a forge poker/rake and eye</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss forging practices of local blacksmiths</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources: (<U>Resources</U> include all attachments and other suggested references.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 4-A, "Color/Heat Chart"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 4-8, "Traditional and Rural Forges"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Andrews, pages 17-21 and 42-46</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Weygers, pages 20-23 and 94-96</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: (<U>Materials</U> refers to suggested supplies and tools needed for the session. For some sessions, special tools are listed to provide focus and emphasis.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Approximately 30-36 feet of œ inch mild steel round bar. newsprint, and felt-tip pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Preparation for this session will involve writing on newsprint an outline of the procedures involved in making a forge poker/rake (see Step 6).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures: (<U>Procedures</U> consist of steps to be followed in order to meet objectives. Each step is given an approximate time.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute Attachment 4-A, "Color/Heat Chart" and Attachment 4-B, "Traditional and Rural Forges. and briefly explain the session objectives and procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain that the Attachments will be discussed in more detail later in the session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Post and briefly define the list of tools and forge components that will be used in making a forge poker/rake.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Post the following list on newsprint in two columns as indicated below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Trainer Notes </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Appear throughout the session and serve to clarify and explain a procedure, provide information and suggest options.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Training program calendar</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAY 1</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAY 2</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAY 3</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.M.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 1:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharing Perceptions of the Training Program: an Ice-Breaker</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 5:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Properties of Metals</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 9:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eye Hook and Link: Technology Transfer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 2:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assessing Group Resources</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 6:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forging a Blacksmith's Cold Chisel</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 3:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Defining Expectations of the Training Program</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 10:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forging Rings</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.M.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 4:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forge Introduction</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 7: Forging a Blacksmith's Hot Punch</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 11:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Welding Practices: Forge Brazing</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 8:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heat Treating</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 12:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Open Workshop/Mid Program Review</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAY 4</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAY 5</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAY 6</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.M.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 13:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bellows and Forge Design</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 16:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forging a Cross-Peen Hammer</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 18:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forging Straight Tongs</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 14:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forging en African Tang-Type Axe</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.M.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 15:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Case-Hardened African Field Hoe with Collar</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 17:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forging Cutting Tools: The Wrapped-Handle Knife</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 19:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program Evaluation </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 20:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Open Workshop/Clean-up</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Day 1</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 1. Sharing perceptions of the training program: An ice breaker</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 1 hour, 15 minutes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To get to know one another and to encourage communication</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To set the climate for active participation during the training program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources: Attachment 1-A, "Coat of Arms''</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: Pens or pencils</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An alternative activity for getting acquainted goes as follows:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Convene the group in the blacksmith workshop area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask participants to browse around for a moment and find a tool or object which they would like to make, and which symbolizes something about their</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- personality/character</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- work</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- background</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- aspirations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The trainer should also choose an appropriate object.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* When everyone has made a selection and has had a few moments to reflect, introduce yourself and explain why you selected your object (using humor to help create a relaxed climate).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Then, moving around the shop, have the participants introduce themselves and share their reasons for selecting their particular tool.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute copies of Attachment 1A, "Coat of Arms" and explain the exercise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the object of the exercise is to draw a symbolic "coat of arms" which will help us begin to get acquainted or find out something new about each other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the participants will draw a symbol or picture in each of the corresponding spaces on the coat of arms that answers one of a series of questions.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Referring to the list in the Trainer Notes below, read each question in order, allowing time for people to draw their symbol before moving to the next question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Suggested questions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How do you feel right now?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What were you doing a week ago today?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What do you hope to get out of this training?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What can you offer this training?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Draw your-own "coat of arms" while the group does theirs. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After everyone has finished drawing his/her coat of arms, share your coat of arms by explaining the meaning of each of your four drawings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Encourage an open climate by explaining your drawings in a relaxed and humorous manner. Also, make your presentation brief to set the pace of the activity. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (30-45 minutes) Have each participant explain the meaning of his/her coat of arms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (5 minutes) After all of the drawings have been presented, facilitate a brief discussion of some of the similarities and differences which seem to exist in the group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attachment 1-A</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p03.png"></center><br>
+ Coat of arms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 2. Assessing group resources</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 1 hour, 30 minutes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify the skills, knowledge, and experience of participants and trainers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss ways in which the group's skills and knowledge can be used in this program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: Newsprint and felt-tip pens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures: Step 1. (5 minutes) Review the objectives and procedures For the session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask the participants to briefly discuss the value of a group resource assessment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Draw on the participants' experiences in working with artisans in small-scale development projects. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3 (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the group brainstorm a list of interview questions which could help assess the participants'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">skills, knowledge and experience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To provide focus during the brainstorm, post the key points to be included in the interview: skills, knowledge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The resulting questions should be consolidated or pared down so that the list does not exceed 4-5 open-ended questions the will stimulate conversation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* In this session, the emphasis is not only on those skills, etc. which relate directly to Blacksmithing, but on any resources one might have which would help the group. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the interview format.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* If the training group is a small one, an option to the written reports would be to have the pairs interview each other, reconvene the groups, and ask each participant to describe his/her partner. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (60 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants carry out the interview procedure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the group and facilitate a short discussion of the participants' overall impressions of the resources that exist within the group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the discussion, point out a number of the identified skills which are particularly useful/necessary in blacksmithing (e.g., carpentry, construction, auto/farm mechanics, welding). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 3. Defining expectations of the training program</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 1 hour, 15 minutes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To review the schedule and content of the program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To define and clarify expectations that the participants have of the training program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To compare and contrast individual expectations with those of the program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Introduction to the Manual, pp. i-ii.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* "Conducting the Training," pp. iv-vi, from the Introduction to the Manual.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Training Schedule</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: Newsprint and felt-tip pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briefly outline the session's objectives and activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute copies of the three resources. Have the participants read them carefully, then ask for questions, clarifications or discussion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain that the training philosophy and methodology and the section on conducting the training provide an orientation to the basic program goals and guidelines, while the training schedule presents a day-by-day description of the training. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (15 minutes) Have the participants form small groups and discuss their expectations of the program. Ask each group to list on newsprint and post their three most important expectations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* As they develop their lists, participants should be encouraged to consider their needs and desires, as well as constraints in scheduling and programming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* If the training group is small, you may wish to remain together and make a master list of participants' expectations. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (25 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the large group and review each expectation for clarity, understanding, and feasibility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Identify which expectations will be met directly, those that will be touched upon, those which could be addressed with some schedule changes, and those, given the practical limitations of the program, which may not be met.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Wherever possible, point out specific sessions in the Training Schedule which deal directly with the group's expectations. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclude the session by facilitating a discussion centered around the following questions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Were any of your expectations changed by this activity?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Is there anything that you have heard about the training program that has not been discussed?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Do you think the program will meet your needs?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 4. Forge introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 4 hours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify and define the basic components of a forge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To practice using basic blacksmithing tools</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To light, maintain and shut down a forge fire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To make a forge poker/rake and eye</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss forging practices of local blacksmiths</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 4-A, "Color/Heat Chart"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 4-B, "Traditional and Rural Forges"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Andrews, pages 17-21 and 42-46</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Weygers, pages 20-23 and 94-96</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: Approximately 30-36 feet of œ inch mild steel round bar, newsprint, and felt-tip pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Preparation for this session will involve writing on newsprint an outline of the procedures involved in making a forge poker/rake (see Step 6). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute Attachment 4-A, "Color/Heat Chart" and Attachment 4-B, "Traditional and Rural Forges" and briefly explain the session objectives and procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain that the Attachments will be discussed in more detail later in the session. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Post and briefly define the list of tools and forge components that will be used in making a forge poker/rake.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Post the following list on newsprint in two columns as indicated below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forge Components</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hearth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Firebox and Cleanout</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blower</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chimney and Hood</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quench Bucket</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charcoal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forge Tools</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anvil and Stand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Firetools: Poker/Rake, Shovel Sprinkler</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion by asking participants to look around the demonstration forge area and point out each of the items listed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask participants to explain the importance of the positioning of each of the various forge components. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask participants to discuss and define the function of each item on the posted list. .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Have participants explain the relationship between each item on the list and the following basic functions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- fire maintenance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- smoke removal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- clinker removal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- ash removal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- positioning of work during heating</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Demonstrate the proper techniques for lighting a forge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* During the demonstration, it is important to explain the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- essential safety precautions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- type of fuel used</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- alternative fuels (i.e., coal or propane)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- proper use of bellows or blower</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- proper building and banking of fire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- allowing forge bowl to heat</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants form work teams of two and light the forges at each of their work stations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulate among the stations and provide assistance whenever necessary. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the group and briefly outline the procedures involved in making a forge poker/rake.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Post on newsprint the following outline:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- position cutting plate on anvil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- cold cut 3' length of œ&quot; round bar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- place material in fire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- bring material to proper heat for mild steel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- hammer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- bend an eye</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- flatten end</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (25 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Demonstrate the procedures and techniques involved in making a forge poker/rake.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Remind participants of the importance of carefully observing each step in the process and taking note of any procedures which may appear confusing or too fast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To the extent possible, as the work progresses, provide brief explanations of each essential technique and point out transitions from one step to the next by referring participants to the posted outline. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 8. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using the posted outline as a guide, ask participants to review and explain the techniques which they observed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Remind participants of the demonstration format discussed earlier in the day (see Session 3, "Defining Expectations: An Introduction to Training") and stress that it is important to begin to sharpen their observation skills.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* In reviewing the heating of mild steel to the proper temperature, refer participants to Attachment 4-A, "Color/Heat Chart" and explain that this chart will be used later as a guide in hardening steel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Before proceeding to the next step, it is important to be certain that all the participants understand each of the techniques demonstrated as well as the necessary safety precautions involved in handling the hot metal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Encourage participants to ask questions and seek clarifications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* If necessary, repeat some or all of the techniques until participants are satisfied that they are ready to begin work at their stations. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 9. (65 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have participants return to their work stations and make a forge poker/rake.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* It can be expected that a few of the work teams will finish their pokers in 15-20 minutes. If this occurs, encourage teams to make another poker/rake such that each participant has the opportunity to practice and become comfortable with the techniques involved. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 10. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As each team finishes their poker/rake, have them shut down their fires.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Each team will be completing their work at slightly different times. Briefly explain and demonstrate the proper procedures for shutting down a fire to the first team that finishes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask that they provide assistance to the next team that finishes. Continue in this manner such that each team has the opportunity to help another shut down a fire. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 11. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the group and ask participants to identify and discuss any difficulties which they experienced during the forging activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion by asking how each difficulty was resolved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the basic techniques used in bending and forming the eye of the poker/rake will be used in Session 9 on Day 3 to make eye hooks and links and ask participants to identify examples of potential uses for eye hooks and links. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 12. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask participants to discuss how the techniques used in this activity compare with techniques that they have seen used by local blacksmiths in their work sites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Refer participants to Attachment 4-B, "Traditional and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural Forges" and stimulate discussion by asking:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How are the tools and forges used by local blacksmiths different from those used here in the training? Why?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Are the techniques used by local blacksmiths more efficient? Less efficient? How?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What are some cultural and economic factors which determine the techniques used by local blacksmiths? </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 13. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclude by asking participants to summarize the basic blacksmithing techniques used during the session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Some important points to include in the summary are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- fire building</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- fire maintenance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- air flow control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- safety precautions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- heating steel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- color/temperature ratio</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- drawing out</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- spreading/peening</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- making eyes/links</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- bending metal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- proper use of tools</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- local blacksmithing techniques</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- fire shut-down</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- uses of eyes and links</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the basic techniques and tools introduced during this session will provide a framework upon which to build throughout the training program. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attachment 4-A</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COLOR/HEAT CHART</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=252>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F°</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heat Colors</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C°</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2500</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">white</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1371</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2400</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">light yellow</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1316</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2300</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1260</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2200</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">yellow</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1204</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2100</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1149</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2000</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">yellow orange</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1093</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1900</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1038</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1800</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">light orange</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">982</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1700</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">927</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1600</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">medium orange</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">871</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1500</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">816</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1400</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">medium cherry</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">760</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1300</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">704</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1200</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">dark cherry</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">649</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1100</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">593</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1000</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="52%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">black heat</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">538</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=252>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F°</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="75%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Color Patina</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">610</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="75%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">light blue</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">590</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="75%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">dark blue</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">570</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="75%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">blue</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">550</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="75%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">dark purple</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">540</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="75%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">purple</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">520</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="75%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">brownish purple (peacock)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">510</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="75%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">dark brown</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">500</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="75%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">bronze</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">490</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="75%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">dark straw</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">470</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="75%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">light straw</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">450</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="75%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">yellow</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">440</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="75%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">light yellow</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attachment 4-B</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TRADITIONAL AND RURAL FORGES</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p15.png"></center><br>
+ Traditional shop</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p16a.png"></center><br>
+ Rural shop</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p16b.png"></center><br>
+ Hand-powered production shop</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Day 2</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 5. Properties of metals</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 1 hour</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To determine the type/grade of available junk steel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss the properties and characteristics of various grades of steel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify potential uses of available steel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 5-A, "Identifying and Testing Scrap Metal"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Andrews, "Carbon Content of Steel for Different Uses," page 127</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Weygers, "Steel for Blacksmith," page 15</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A variety of junk steel salvaged from wrecked autos and rail cars; e.g., leaf springs, coil springs,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">axles, torsion bars, linkage rods, push rods, valves, rail tie, plate, rail spikes, rail section, side or</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">bed plate from rail car, sill from rail car, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the objectives and distribute Attachment 5-A, "Identifying and Testing Scrap Metal." Ask the group to read it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Select a piece of junk steel and demonstrate how to identify its type and properties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Note and discuss the significance of color, weight, surface finish, sound when dropped, and flexibility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Have the participants discuss the junk items' previous use and postulate the type of steel of which it is made.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Describe and perform the spark and quench tests to further verify the type of steel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Based on the reading, the tests, and the previous use of the item, ask the group to discuss its composition (% of carbon) and qualities (hardness and elasticity).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain how heating, forging, and heat treating affect the characteristics of different steels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the three types of steel. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have participants divide into four groups and select, identify, and describe the properties of an item of junk steel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the groups should follow the same identification procedure as done by the trainer until they are fairly certain of the type of steel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stress that not all of the testing methods necessarily have to be used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Assist groups who may be having difficulty. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the groups and have them report on their junk item.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If a group's conclusion is inaccurate, discuss their identification process in order to pinpoint where they went wrong. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have participants examine the chart on Page 4 of the Attachment and identify potential uses of the scrap items listed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask the group to focus on those items most available in their areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the chart can serve as a resource in the future for identifying possible sources of material. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attachment 5-A</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IDENTIFYING AND TESTING SCRAP METAL</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Identification</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A variety of unknown types of steel are encountered when working with scrap metal. Several simple tests exist which the blacksmith may use to identify these unknowns. Because of logistics, it may not be possible to perform all of the tests, but with one or two of these tests and some experience, one can learn to recognize useful metal at a glance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several types of "steel" that (for the most part) we will <U>not</U> be dealing with in the context of these classes. They are: cast steel, cast iron, high alley steels, and stainless steel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other common metals found in scrap that we will not deal with are copper and aluminum; we will use brass for brazing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The types of steel that we are looking for may be divided, for the sake of simplicity, into three categories: low carbon, medium carbon, and high carbon steel. The percentage of carbon present determines the major properties (i.e., hardness, fusibility, toughness). Only the medium and high carbon steel; are temperable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Low Carbon</U>: contains about .05-.30% carbon and of the three, because of the relative low cost of production, it is used extensively. Some sources of low carbon scrap are car bodies, some types of rebar, old nails, bolts, panels on railroad cars, railroad spikes, some types of angle iron, rolled pipe, some types of wire, nails, straps, hinges, tanks, drums, etc. It is manufactured in rolled bars, and the most common ones are round, flat or square bars of Œ - 1". It is NOT temperable but may be forge welded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Medium Carbon</U>: contains roughly .30-.60% carbon. It is a harder material (harder to work and harder to find), and may be tempered. It is the most available temperable scrap metal. Some sources are springs, axles, torsion bars, gearshift bars, shock absorber bars, and, in general, anything that must stand up to a higher degree of stress and strain. It will not bend easily like mild steel. It is also used where tempering is required (e.g., auto/truck axles, auto/rail car springs, leaf springs, steering columns).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High Carbon</U>: contains roughly .60-1.5% carbon, and usually has an alloy present. It is much harder than medium carbon, but is available in scrap sometimes as old pneumatic drill bits, old bulldozer blades, milling cutters, metal saws, cutting dies, threading dies, and files.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Testing</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spark Test: Hold a piece of the material in question against a high-speed grinder and closely observe the sparks given off. Generally, the brighter and more explosive the spark, the greater the carbon content of the steel in question. Try known pieces and study their relationships.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sound Test: If the piece is small enough, lightly toss it onto a concrete floor or stone. Listen for the sound, and compare the sound to known pieces.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cold Chisel Test: Using a sharp cold chisel and light blows, attempt to cut the beginning of a curl from the material in question, noticing the following points:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Does the material cut easily or does it resist?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- If it resists, does it nick the chisel blade?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Again, compare a known material with the piece in question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">File Test</U>: This test is fairly self-explanatory. Using a file, test the surface for hardness. This also reveals the color of unoxidized metal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hardening Test</U>: Take the piece in question and heat its tip to light cherry or dark orange and quench it in water. Test it with a file, and note:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Does the file slide over it like glass?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Do the teeth bite slightly, or is there no difference between the hardened part and the rest of the piece?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Again, if in question, test against a known piece.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Previous Use</U>: One of the most important clues in determining the type of steel in question (whether tempered or not) is to be found in its previous use. If a piece of steel would have needed to be exceptionally tough, tempered, and/or abrasive-resistant to perform Its function (e.g., torsion bar, spring, pneumatic bit), then we can assume with greater certainty that it is some type of medium to high carbon steel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TEMPER TEST</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If an untested spring is to be used for tool making, it is advisable and practical to perform the temper test.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p21.png"></center><br>
+ Temper test</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Flatten evenly a 4" section.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perform the water quench (heat reserve method) on the end, quenching before the colors run the entire length of the piece.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strike with hammer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Critical color is determined by where the break occurs in relation to the patina. Tools from this spring should then be tempered at the color/temperature prior to the critical color.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SCRAP METAL IDENTIFICATION - A. Atkeison</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=753>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="RIGHT">TEST</P>
+<P>METAL</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COLOR</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SOUND</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BENDING</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MAGNETISM</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SPARK</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FILE</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COLD CHISEL</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PREVIOUS USE (EXAMPLES)</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALUMINUM</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">silver, oxidizes white</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">high-pitched ringing</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">varies</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">non-magnetic</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">none</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">easily &amp; clogs teeth</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">easily</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">non-ferrous (cans, roofing)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STAINLESS STEEL</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">silver, does not oxidize</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">tough</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">both magnetic. &amp; non-mag. types</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">smoothly</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COPPER</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">soft reddish orange</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">bends easily</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CAST IRON</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">no ring; thin pieces break when dropped</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">brittle, will not bend</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">magnetic</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">dull red lines</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">easily</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">chips</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">evidence of mold</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CAST STEEL</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">files, but is tougher than cast iron</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">evidence of mold</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LOW CARBON STEEL</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">easily</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">bright reddish, non-explosive</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">files</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MED. CARBON STEEL</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">very difficult to impossible</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">bright, semi-explosive</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">files</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HIGH CARBON STEEL</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">does not bend</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">very bright, explosive</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">difficult</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BRASS</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 6. Forging a blacksmith's cold chisel</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 3 hours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify and discuss different types of chisels and steels suitable for making chisels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To practice uncoiling an automobile spring</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To hot-cut steel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To make a cold chisel blank</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To use a grinding wheel and practice grinding techniques</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacPherson, "The Cold Chisel"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weygers, pages 45 and 59</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: Automobile coil spring, 112" to 5/8" diameter (1Œ cm) (each team should have one coil spring available at their station), several types of chisels, woodworking, metalworking, stoneworking, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The chisels distributed in Step 2 should be assembled in advance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The procedure for making the cold chisel should be prepared on newsprint and ready to post in Step 9. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the objectives and outline the procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Identify and pass out several different types of chisels. Ask participants to try to determine the uses, properties, and forging methods of each one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Have the group compare the shape and design of the chisels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* If possible, invite the group to experiment cutting with the chisels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Discuss the significance of the angle of bevel in cutting edges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask participants to speculate on the type of steel and temper of the various chisels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Also ask participants to give examples of how they have used one or more of the chisels in their work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Describe some potential dangers in chisel use, e.g., chipping the blade, striking hand with hammer. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask the group to refer to the list of scrap metals from the last session and identify which ones would be most suitable for chisel-making.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Display a cold chisel and ask the participants to explain its properties and uses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Refer the group to Session 4 when they used a cold chisel to cut round bar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Have them discuss other potential uses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Based on the chisel's function, ask the group to determine its carbon content and temper. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Light your forge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* If coal is used as a fuel, demonstrate how to build a fire using coke remaining from the first fire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* If possible, ask one member of the group to review the steps involved in lighting the forge and have another assist you. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heat and uncoil two linear feet of bar from an automobile spring.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Emphasize to the group:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* the correct positioning of the coil spring in the fire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* the periodic turning of the spring to prevent burning</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* the banking of the fire around the spring</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* the importance of even heating</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* the proper use and type of tongs for holding the spring</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain to participants how to determine the length of bar necessary to forge a chisel, to determine the point, and to hot-cut the bar accordingly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Be sure to point out:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* that the spring should be cut most of the way through, then broken, to avoid damaging the hammer on the hardy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* that the hardy should be removed from the anvil when finished</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* safety hazards involved in the process (i.e., hot foot) </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 8. (25 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have participants go to their assigned stations and ask each team to light the forge, heat and uncoil the available spring, and hot-cut the straightened bar to be used for the chisel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To make sure all participants understand the task, ask for a volunteer to repeat the steps. Also, ask if there are any questions before beginning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* During the work, circulate among the stations providing input when necessary and encouraging appropriate hammering and accurate blows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Be sure to point out any hazardous practices. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 9. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reassemble the participants around your station, and explain the steps involved in making a chisel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Point out what you expect to accomplish during each heat and mention that they can expect to accomplish less for each heat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Have the steps outlined and posted on newsprint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The following steps may be included on the list:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- forge stock into eight-sided octagonal bar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- forge main bevel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- grind cutting edge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- chamfer striking end</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 10. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Demonstrate the forging of the cold chisel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Refer to each step as you work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Before you grind the demonstration chisel, point out injuries which can occur from improper grinding practices (i.e., the importance of wearing safety glasses). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 11. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the demonstration, review the steps with the group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask if there are any more questions before the group makes their chisels. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 12. (1 hour, 15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have participants return to their stations and forge, grind and chamfer the cold chisels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Again, circulate among the stations, giving input regarding hammering techniques, safety, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Have teams who finish early assist others in the final steps of grinding and chamfering. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 13. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the large group and ask the participants to identify and discuss problems encountered while making their chisels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 14. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclude the session by explaining to the group that they will temper their chisels during Session 8, "Heat Treating."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briefly mention that the chisels are incomplete until annealed and tempered; two processes which will be discussed in depth during Session 8. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 7. Forging: a blacksmith's hot punch</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 2 hours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify and discuss different types of punches and their functions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To make a blacksmith's hot punch</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Andrews, page 52.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: 10 - 15 automobile coil springs (6" length and 3/4" to 5/8" in diameter), and a variety of punching tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The punching tools distributed in Step 2 should be assembled in advance. They should include at least two types of hand-held blacksmith's hot punch, several cold punches, drifts, mandrels, an awl, nail sets, and center punches. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the session objectives and briefly outline the procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute among the participants a variety of punching tools used by crafts people and discuss their uses and properties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate a discussion of each tool by asking:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What are some potential uses for this punch?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What can be determined regarding the qualities of the steel from which this tool is made?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What are some scrap steels from which this tool could be made?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Which of these punches are used by local crafts people at your work sites? </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Focus the discussion on the hand-held blacksmith's hot punch and ask participants to identify how it is used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some important uses of the punches which should be mentioned include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* piercing sheet metal (cold)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* center punching to mark stock</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* driving out old rivets, shafts, etc</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* hot punching</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* drifting (enlarging) holes</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briefly explain the procedures involved in making a blacksmith's hot punch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Be brief in your explanation and be sure to mention the importance of making the hot punch long enough to allow holding it while maintaining a safe distance from the heat of the piece being punched.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Point out and explain the parallels which exist between the procedures for making a hot punch and those involved in making a cold chisel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the punch blanks will be annealed and tempered in the next session, along with their cold chisels. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Demonstrate the techniques involved in making a hot punch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Before beginning the demonstration, remind participants that they should observe carefully and note any procedures which appear confusing and may need to be clarified later.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* During the demonstration, focus your explanation on identifying transitions from one major step to the next. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants review and explain the procedures and techniques which they observed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Before proceeding to the next step in this session, be certain that all the participants have had the opportunity to clarify the procedures such that they are ready to begin working at their stations. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (50 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have participants form their work teams and practice making a hot punch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Circulate among the groups making suggestions, providing assistance, and pointing out safety precautions and examples of good hammering posture. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 8. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the group and ask participants to discuss and share among themselves any technical difficulties which they encountered and what they did to overcome them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 8. Heat treating</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 2 hours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To define and discuss the terms hardening, annealing, and tempering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To anneal steel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To temper steel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To evaluate the problem-solving techniques used by the work teams.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 8-A, "Water and Oil Quenching"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Andrews, pages 49-53</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Weyger, pages 36-37</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Weyger, back cover</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: Chisels and punches made during Sessions 6 and 7; a piece of coil spring for demonstration of tempering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the session objectives and briefly outline the procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute Attachment 8-A, "Water and Oil Quenching" and ask participants to define and discuss the terms annealing, hardening and tempering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion by having participants describe common techniques used by local blacksmiths to harden steel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* In defining the terms be certain that the following key points are discussed: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the method of water-quenching in hardening and tempering</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the method of oil-quenching in hardening and tempering</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the concept of correct hardening temperature</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- degrees of hardness</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the importance of annealing before hardening to relieve built-up stresses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* If available, distribute among the participants examples of tools which have been tempered and annealed and have them explain why it is important to harden certain tools. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using a punch and chisel blanks made during the previous sessions, demonstrate the proper techniques involved in annealing and tempering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Before beginning the demonstration, briefly describe the procedures to be followed and remind participants to observe carefully. During the demonstration, mention and point out the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- that annealing is a slow process which can take 20-30 minutes in some cases</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- that the tempering area should not be windy since this causes scaling</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- that the fire should be clean and free of clinkers and other debris</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- that oxidation can be minimized by maintaining a low, steady air blast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- that care must be taken not to burn cutting edges while heating the stock</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- signs and causes of steel stress and over-heating</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Following the demonstration, take a few minutes to ask participants to review and clarify the important techniques which they observed. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (45 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants go to their work stations and anneal and temper the punches and chisels which they made in Sessions 6 and 7.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulate among the teams and provide assistance and guidance whenever necessary. However, it can be assumed that, at this point, the participants have become more comfortable with the forge environment. It is important to begin to limit interventions by the trainer to situations involving potential safety hazards and/or situations in which participants are involved in fruitless pursuits which will prevent successful completion of the task. In this manner, by encouraging as much independent experimentation as possible, the participants are given the opportunity to creatively solve their own problems. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the group and ask participants to discuss and share among themselves any difficulties which they encountered and what they did to overcome them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Explain that they will be annealing and tempering other tools during the week to strengthen their skills. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants discuss the problem-solving techniques used in their work teams up to this point.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Briefly explain that in order to transfer the skills which they acquire during this training, participants will, most likely, be communicating and working cooperatively with a local blacksmith.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion and dialogue among the participants by asking the following questions: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What are some examples of situations in which it was difficult for your team to work effectively?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What was done to help solve these problems and move on?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What factors served to inhibit effective problem-solving?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What can be done in the future to improve your team's ability to work more effectively and cooperatively?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To what extent does the work team design of this training reflect the situation of working with a local blacksmith at your sites? </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attachment 8-A</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WATER AND OIL QUENCHING</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p34a.png"></center><br>
+ Water quenching</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WATER QUENCHING (Heat Reserve Method)</U> - After bringing 3" of the blade end of the piece up to heat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- quench only the tip (1œ") leaving the next 2" or so unquenched.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- move the piece up and down œ" in water rapidly to prevent forming a fracture zone where heat contacts water. Maintain this until the heat glow has diminished to a dull cherry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Remove the piece from quench and briskly polish the blade surface with an abrasive. Hold the piece with blade upward and observe the color patina as the heat from reserve moves toward the edge. When the desired color reaches the edge, then quench quickly with a swirling motion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p34b.png"></center><br>
+ Oil quenching</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OIL QUENCHING</U> - After bringing 2" of the blade end up to heat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- with a swirling motion, plunge completely in oil quench bucket, holding the lid nearby in case of an oil flash. If the oil flashes, pull tongs out of the way and snuff fire with tight-fitting lid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- After the piece has been quenched in oil and is cool to the touch, polish and draw color patina over a propane flame or in a forge, using a metal plate with a hole cut in it (or fire bricks) to direct heat to the piece.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Day 3</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 9. Eye hook and link: technology transfer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 3 hours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To make an eye hook</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To make a lap joint link</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To practice techniques used in transferring blacksmithing skills to local blacksmiths</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Andrews, pages 54-57.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: Newsprint, felt-tip pens, approximately 25-30' of 1/2" coil spring or round bar; 25-30' of 3/8"-5/16" round bar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Steps 7-9 of this session involve having the participants role-play local blacksmiths. An effective option to this role-play situation would be to invite a few local blacksmiths to observe the demonstrations and ask questions, make comments, etc. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the session objectives and briefly outline the procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants form their work teams and uncoil and cut two 12" lengths of coil spring.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Circulate among the teams and offer advice and assistance whenever necessary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* It is important to allow participants to work as independently as possible so that they can practice and sharpen their skills. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the group and demonstrate the proper techniques and procedures for making an eye hook and lap link.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Before beginning the demonstration, briefly explain the procedures to be followed and remind participants to observe carefully.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* During the demonstration, mention and point out the following important techniques:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- calculating materials necessary for eye hook and link</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- forging a small eye by wrapping it around bar stock</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- tapering the hook end</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- bending of hook end to complete eye</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- forging of lap joints on link stock</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- bending of stock into link</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Following the demonstration, take a few minutes to ask participants to review and clarify the techniques which they observed. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Divide the work teams into two groups and explain that Group #1 will make eye hooks while Group #2 will be making lap joint links.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain that each team in Group #1 should make one eye hook using one piece of straightened spring (or œ" round bar) and that each team in Group #2 should make one lap link using one piece of 3/8" or 5/16" round bar or spring. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (40 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the teams work on their eye hooks or links.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Offer guidance whenever necessary and point out any potentially | I unsafe practices which may occur. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the group and ask participants to identify and discuss factors which should be considered when planning to communicate technical skills and new forging practices to local blacksmiths.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Write their responses on posted newsprint</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion and participation by asking:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What kinds of communication aids would be appropriate for local blacksmiths (i.e., models, prototypes, pictures, etc.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What techniques could be used to stimulate the interest, cooperation, and participation of local blacksmiths?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What techniques could be used to overcome cultural barriers which may exist between local blacksmiths and foreign development workers?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How could local traders and farmers benefit from an availability of rings, hooks, or links? </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the procedures and roles for the demonstration activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that Group #1 will present a demonstration of the proper procedures for making an eye hook while Group #2 observes and takes the role of local blacksmiths. Then, Group #2 will demonstrate the proper method of making an overlap link while Group #1 observes and role-plays local blacksmiths.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Point out that each demonstration should last approximately 20 minutes and should include time for questions from the observers. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 8. (15 minutes) Have the participants form the two groups and prepare for their demonstrations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the groups are working, circulate among them and remind them | of the factors which they identified in Step 6. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 9. (45 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have each group present their demonstration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During each demonstration, it is important that the trainer take the role of a local blacksmith and that he/she set the climate and tone of the role-play situation by asking questions which relate to the list of factors discussed in Step 6. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 19. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask the participants to discuss each demonstration and evaluate its effectiveness as a means of transferring skills to local blacksmiths.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stimulate discussion by asking:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What aspects of the demonstrations were particularly effective? Why?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How could those aspects of the demonstrations which seemed ineffective be improved?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Which techniques seemed easy to demonstrate? Why?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Which techniques seemed difficult to demonstrate? Why? </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 10. Forging rings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 1 hour</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To practice cold-cutting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To forge rings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: Approximately 20-25' of 3/8"-5/16" mild steel round bar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the session objectives and briefly outline the procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain that the rings forged during this session will be used to practice brazing in Session 11. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants divide into their work teams and cold-cut two 10" lengths of 1/2"- round bar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* As the teams are working, provide assistance when necessary by reminding them of the cold-cutting techniques demonstrated in Session 4.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Again, stress the importance of the proper use of the cold cutter and cutting plate to protect the face of the anvil. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the group and demonstrate the proper techniques involved in forging a ring and lap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* During the demonstration, point out the following techniques:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- heating of stock to proper color/temperature forming of lap</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- hammering</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- use of anvil horn to form ring</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- determining the proper length of the stock</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Have them identify and discuss those techniques which are common to the making of an eye hook or link. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4 (30 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have participants return to their work stations and forge two rings per team.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Provide assistance and suggestions whenever necessary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* As teams finish forging their rings, have them assist others who may be experiencing difficulty. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the group and ask participants to discuss and share among themselves any difficulties they experienced and how they overcame them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 11. Welding practices: forge brazing</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 1œ hours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify and discuss various types of welding processes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss welding processes used by local blacksmiths</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To forge braze rings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: Forged rings from Session 10, flux, brass rods, an assortment of examples of various types of welds, electric arc, gas forge, flux spoon, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prior to this session, it will be necessary to assemble and prepare for distribution a collection of examples of various types of welds (see Trainer Notes, Step 2). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briefly explain the session objectives and ask participants to define welding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Also, explain that brazing and soldering are welding methods that require the use of a third metal as a binder. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute examples of various types of welds and ask the participants to describe the methods used in each case and to discuss why one method may be preferable to another.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Among the examples distributed, be certain to include demonstration samples of forge welding, gas and electric welding, brazing and soldering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* In discussing each type of weld, ask participants who have had experience with welding to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- identify and name the type of weld</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- describe the process involved and the equipment necessary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- give examples of how and where each type is most often used:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- discuss fluxes, bonding metals and temperatures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- explain why one type of weld may be preferable to another</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Describe various kinds of joints (i.e., lap,, but, vee) </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask participants to describe forge welding and brazing processes they have seen local blacksmiths use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Some questions to stimulate discussion include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What similarities/differences exist between processes used by local blacksmiths and those discussed here?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What cultural and/or economic factors influence the welding practices of local blacksmiths? </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain that forge brazing is the type of welding which will be practiced during this session and ask participants to discuss its potential use by local blacksmiths.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Remind participants of the discussion from the previous steps and have them describe and explain why braze welding could be a viable technique for local blacksmiths.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask them to identify some local uses for braze welds (e.g., repairing). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Demonstrate the procedures involved in braze welding a ring.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* During the demonstration, it is important to point out and explain the following techniques:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- cleaning of joint with wire brush after heating and before fluxing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- proper control of heat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- placement of flux</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- use of the flux spoon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- placement and handling of brass rod</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- testing the weld for strength</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- determining when brazing heat has been reached</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- results of over-heating</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Before proceeding to the next step, be certain that participants understand the procedures and techniques involved. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (25 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants go to their work stations and forge braze the lap rings that they made in the previous session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Provide assistance and suggestions whenever necessary. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the group and have them discuss the brazing activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Have work groups describe any difficulties which they experienced and share ideas about ways to overcome them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Depending on the amount of time remaining in the session, it may also be useful to demonstrate how forge brazing can be used to repair a broken tool or implement. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 12. Open workshop: mid-program review</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 2œ hours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To assess levels of skills acquisition at this point in the training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To evaluate the effectiveness of the training design and implementation to date</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To work independently at forges</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To finish incompleted projects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To practice basic blacksmithing skills</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: Newsprint, felt-tip pens, assorted scrap steel, round bar, flux, brass rods, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Prior to this session, it will be necessary to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- write on newsprint a list of the basic blacksmithing techniques practiced up to this point in the training (see Step 2)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- assemble an ample supply of the equipment and materials necessary to practice these techniques (see Step 4). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the session objectives and outline the procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Remind participants that this is the mid-point of the training and that it is useful to spend time reflecting upon and evaluating the effectiveness of the program to date.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that participants should take this opportunity to suggest ways in which the program could be improved so as to take better advantage of the days remaining. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask participants to briefly review and describe the basic blacksmithing techniques which have been practiced up to this point in the training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Post on newsprint a list of basic techniques practiced to date, including:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- fire building</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- fire maintenance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- safety procedures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- heating</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- hammering</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- drawing out</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- cutting (hot and cold)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- bending</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- upsetting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- punching</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- grinding</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- tempering</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- measuring</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- annealing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- proper use of tools</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- brazing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Referring to the posted list, ask the following questions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- With which skills do you feel most comfortable? Why?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Which skills do you feel you would like to practice more? Why?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that these techniques will continue to be used and practiced during the remainder of the program and encourage those participants that are comfortable with certain techniques to offer assistance to others who are not. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask participants to discuss and evaluate the effectiveness of the program design and implementation to date.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion by asking:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Do you feel that the training has been effective in bringing out the issues and complexities involved in working with local blacksmiths? Why?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What training techniques has the trainer used that have been particularly helpful?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What could the trainer do to improve his/her training techniques?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Which sessions have been effective, ineffective - why?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What are some things that the participants could do to improve the effectiveness of the training?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Encourage participants to be specific in their responses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Record on newsprint some of their suggestions and explain how they can be implemented during the remainder of program. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (1 hour, 45 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have participants use the remainder of the day to work independently at their forges, finishing projects and/or practicing techniques with which they may not yet feel comfortable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Allow participants the opportunity to finish projects or practice skills and techniques of their choosing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Circulate among the groups. Help to locate materials. Offer assistance whenever necessary, being careful not to intervene to the point of inhibiting the freedom of experimentation and/or independent problem-solving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* For those participants experiencing particular difficulty with certain techniques, it may be useful to repeat some of the basic demonstrations done earlier in the training. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Day 4</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 13. Bellows and forge design</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 50 minutes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To list and describe design criteria for a forge and bellows</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To evaluate forge and bellows designs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss the feasibility of introducing new forge and bellows designs to local blacksmiths</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 13-A, "The Japanese Style Box Blower"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 13-B, "How to Build a Blacksmith's Blower"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 13-C, "Lorena Forge Design"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 13-D, "Forge Pump Designs"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: Newsprint and felt-tip pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the session objectives and briefly outline the procedures. -</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain that the design and construction of a bellows and forge will be only briefly discussed during this training since the design of this equipment is extremely relative to and dependent upon the needs, desires and resources of local blacksmiths. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants list and describe the design criteria for a bellows and forge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Write their responses on posted newsprint according to the example below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Design Criteria</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bellows</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ease of pumping</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">durability</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">control of air blast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forge</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">evenness of heat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">heat holding capacity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">low cost</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Assist participants in developing the lists by providing a few examples and asking the following questions: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Do the forges and bellows used here at the training meet the criteria? If so, how?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Do the forges and bellows used by local blacksmiths meet these criteria?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- If not, how might they be improved?</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute Attachment 13-A, "The Japanese Style Box Blower,'' Attachment 13-D, "How to Build a</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blacksmith's Blower," Attachment 13-C, "Lorena Forge Design," Attachment 13-D, "Forgo Pump Designs," and ask participants to review them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have participants discuss the feasibility of introducing new forge or bellows designs to local blacksmiths.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some questions for discussion include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Do the designs outlined in the Attachments offer any advantages over traditional types of forges and bellows? How?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Do the new designs meet the criteria developed earlier in the session?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What difficulties might you encounter in attempting to construct one of the new designs at a local blacksmith shop? </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclude the session by asking one of the participants to briefly summarize the major factors which should be considered in designing a forge and bellows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caution participants against making recommendations regarding forge or bellows innovations without taking time to thoroughly consider the needs, desires and resources of local blacksmiths. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attachment 13-A</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p49a.png"></center><br>
+ The Chinese/Japanese style box blower</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This traditional blower has been used in China and Japan for hundreds of years. It may be constructed in varying sizes. It is used in large lever-powered applications for foundries. Medium sizes (12"x18"x30") are used for forges and small versions are used for home cooking fire blowers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blowers may be made from almost any kind of scrap planks, if well-sealed around seams and cracks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The inner slide chamber should be smooth and preferably waxed or varnished.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The two air inlet valves should be made of fairly heavy leather, and the hinge for the air exit flapper valve should be centered carefully. The bevel-cut on the side should align for a good seal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a good idea to leave the top accessible by not sealing it with glue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p49b.png"></center><br>
+ Box blower</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attachment 13-B</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HOW TO BUILD A BLACKSMITH'S BELLOWS</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Allen R. Inversin, Appropriate Tech. Development Unit, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p50.png"></center><br>
+ Blacksmith's bellows</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BACKGROUND</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The idea for this bellows came from the time-tested, valved, teardrop shaped design which has been in use since about the fourth century. However, as leather is not readily available in Papua New Guinea, a slightly modified version was designed using the inner tube of car tires which can be obtained anywhere in the country. The bellows cost very little to build and require no special skills for construction. It provides a continuous blast of air to the forge, which is more than sufficient to fabricate machetes, chisels, chains, hinges, spikes, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MATERIALS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Two normal-size car tire inner tubes in good condition and one tube to cut up,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Four 1-2 cm. boards, each about œ m. square, of plywood or narrow boards laminated together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Wooden strips around 2x5 cm., totalling about 6 m. in length.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Used steel pipe, 2-3 cm. in diameter, length 6 m. or more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Sheet metal or used steel banding straps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Four metal rods about 5 mm. in diameter and 10 cm. long.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nails, about 2 and 4 cm. long.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USE OF THE BELLOWS</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they are easy to use, the bellows should be stroked in a particular way to prevent the user from becoming unduly tired. Two points should be kept in mind:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Rather than making quick, short strokes, make smooth, full ones starting with the lower board all the way down, and stroke to compress the lower inner tube almost completely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The air reservoir (upper tube) should never be fully extended. If a greater air flow is needed to increase the fire temperature, place weights (pieces of iron, stones, etc.) on the upper board to obtain desired heat. Only stroke fast enough to keep the upper tube partially full at all times. A full stroke every 5-10 seconds should be sufficient; stroking any faster produces more sweat than heat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attachment 13-C</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LORENA STOVE DESIGN</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p51a.png"></center><br>
+ Lorena stove design</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lorena is a rammed-earth technique that uses a moist combination of screened sand and clay. The sand/ clay mixture is applied in layers and pounded and compacted into molds. The primary advantages of Lorena mix include its low cost, general availability, and good heat-holding capacity. For a complete explanation of the techniques involved in working with Lorena mix, send for a copy of <U>Lorena Stoves</U>, by Ianto Evans and Michael Boutette, from Volunteers in Asia Press, Box 4543, Stanford, California 94305 USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p51b.png"></center><br>
+ Bottom Blast Forge; Side Blast Forge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attachment 13-D</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FORGE PUMP DESIGNS</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p52a.png"></center><br>
+ Fan-type forge pumps</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p52b.png"></center><br>
+ Double-acting piston forge pump</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 14. Forging an African tang-type axe</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 3 hours, 10 minutes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To make an African axe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To build endurance by working heavy metal in several consecutive heats</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources: Attachment 14-A, "African Tang-Type Axe"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: One section of leaf spring (car), Œ&quot; thick per station; prototype axe with handle; several branches of wood suitable for handles (see Step 13).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briefly explain the objectives and pass a prototype axe among participants for observation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask the group to identify the metal source and components of the axe, and list on newsprint the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">steps involved in its production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Be sure the following components of the axe are mentioned in the discussion:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- cutting edge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- tang</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- handle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Participants, at this point in the training, have 1 earned and used most of the techniques involved in making an axe. As they identify the steps involved, assist only at points where new techniques are being introduced; e.g., forming the tang. Their list should include the following steps:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- hot-cut the leaf spring</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- upset the blade end</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- partially fuller the stock</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- draw out the tang</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- cut the stock</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- finish forging the wedge tang</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- grind the blade</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- anneal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- temper</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- make a handle and burn the axe head into the burl on the end of the handle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- quench immediately to prevent over-burning of the tang</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Mention that in a more industrialized situation, the axe surface would be finished using a flatter, but for training purposes, this is not necessary. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute Attachment 14-A, and ask participants to refer to it as they watch the trainer's demonstrations and during their forging process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain to the group that since axe forging entails considerable labor, only one axe will be made per team. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Discuss the leaf spring as a source metal and demonstrate how to hot cut it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask for a volunteer from the group to test the leaf spring for hardness and discuss its properties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Have the group discuss the local availability of leaf spring and suggest alternative materials for axe-making. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the teams go to their stations and hot-cut their leaf springs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain and demonstrate the upsetting of the work-piece and peening of the axe head.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Be sure to discuss the following points:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* proper techniques for using cross- and straight-peen hammers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* use of quick, light blows to keep the heat in the metal, to allow longer workability and to reduce bending. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (30 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the teams upset the blades and draw-out the tangs on their axe heads.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Circulate among the stations providing assistance when requested.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Pay particular attention to participants' hand hold on hammers, force of blow, quickness and posture. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 8. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Demonstrate how to finish the axe surface and forge the wedge tang.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While forging the wedge tang, mention the danger of burning the small tang in the forge. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 9. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have participants finish and forge the wedge tang.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assist any teams who appear to be experiencing difficulty. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 10. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the teams complete the forging process, have the participants, as a group, identify problems encountered in each step and discuss possible solutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To provide structure to the discussion, chart their responses in the following manner on newsprint: </P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=583>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Problem</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Avoid By</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Correct By</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">upsetting etc.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bending, folding etc</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">light, quick hammer blows etc.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">corrective, quick straightening etc.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 11. (25 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the teams grind and temper their axes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 12. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briefly discuss the handle of the axe and demonstrate how to align and mount the axe head.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Have the group identify suitable wood types for making handles and discuss shaping techniques.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain the significance of the burl on the end in keeping the handle from splitting and adding weight to the axe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Mention that axes may be soaked in mud to keep handles from splitting and to keep the axe head secure. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 13 (30 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have participants find suitable wood for handle-making, form the handles, and mount their axe heads.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* If appropriate wood types are available in the vicinity, ask the teams to explore the area and find branches from which to form the handles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* If wood is sparse, provide the group with several pieces of raw material from which to choose. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attachment 14-A</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEP BY STEP ILLUSTRATION OF <U>AXE-MAKING PROCEDURES</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African Tang-Type Axe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p57a.png"></center><br>
+ 1. Material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p57b.png"></center><br>
+ 2. Upsetting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p57c.png"></center><br>
+ 3. Spreading</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p57d.png"></center><br>
+ 4. Drawing Out Edge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p57e.png"></center><br>
+ 5. Drawing Out Tang</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p57f.png"></center><br>
+ 6. Mounting Handle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 15. Case-hardened African field hoe with collar</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 4 hours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To forge a field hoe with collar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss case hardening as an alternative to tempering</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To case harden a field hoe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To examine difficulties encountered by local blacksmiths in making agricultural tools</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 15-A, "African Field Hoe"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Andrews, pages 119-122.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: One completed field hoe, one piece of field hoe material ready for swaging, one field hoe ready for case hardening, carburizing agent, approximately 20 square feet of 1/8" mild steel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Preparation for this session will involve:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- completing one prototype field hoe (see Step 2)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- completing one hoe up to the point of fullering (see Step 4)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- completing one hoe such that it is ready to be case hardened (see Step 7) </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the session objectives and briefly outline the procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain that there are many different designs of field hoes which vary greatly from country to country. The design used in this session is meant to provide participants with the basic steps involved in making a hoe and may not necessarily be appropriate to their work sites. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute Attachment 15-A, "African Field Hoe." Pass around a sample field hoe and ask that participants examine it carefully and think about the procedures involved in forging it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Point out that the procedures illustrated in the attachment can serve as a guide. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask participants to describe the steps involved in making the hoe, and point out any new techniques which they have not yet seen demonstrated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that they have already practiced most of the techniques necessary to make the hoe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Some of the techniques with which the participants will be experimenting are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- cutting the stock to proper size (10"x5")</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- hot cutting indentations for the collar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- forming the blade of the hoe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- forming the collar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- using a drift or mandrel as a tapered fuller</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- swaging and wrapping the collar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- rounding edges and dressing the blade</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* During the discussion, it can be assumed that participants will identify the swaging of the workpieces as a new technique which they have not yet practiced. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (10 minutes) Briefly explain and demonstrate the process of swaging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* For the demonstration, use a workpiece which has been pre-cut and taken to the point of swaging the collar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Be sure to point out and explain proper use of swages and fullers and several applications of the processes. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (2 hours)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants form their work teams and make a field hoe up to the point of case hardening.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Circulate among the work teams and provide assistance whenever necessary. Be careful to allow participants the maximum opportunity to work among themselves and creatively seek ways of overcoming difficulties they may be experiencing. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the group and have participants discuss case hardening as a viable alternative to tempering for local blacksmiths.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask participants to identify some of the factors which make it difficult for local blacksmiths to temper steel. Mention such factors as the unavailability of temperable steel stock (other than leaf springs) and the time and heat required to draw out leaf springs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that their hoes are made of 1/8" mild steel which cannot be tempered. The hoes can, however, be hardened by putting a hard coat or "case" on the outside of the steel. This process is called "case hardening."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Briefly describe the process of the molecular migration of carbon into steel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask the participants to describe how case hardening can be a desirable alternative to tempering. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Demonstrate the proper procedures and techniques for case hardening a field hoe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Include in the demonstration such techniques as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- proper use, mixture, and placement of carburizing agents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- bringing material to critical temperature</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- construction-of the case</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Briefly describe alternative carburizing agents (wood, charcoal, animal bone, leather, etc.) and mention other methods of case hardening. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 8. (35 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants return to their stations and case harden their hoes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Provide assistance whenever necessary. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 9. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the group and have them discuss any technical difficulties which they encountered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stimulate discussion and a sharing of experiences by asking:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Which techniques seemed easy to perform? Why?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Which seemed difficult? Why? </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 10. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclude by asking participants to discuss the difficulties encountered by a local blacksmith in making agricultural tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The following questions can serve as a guide in focusing the discussion:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What problems did you encounter in attempting to make the hoe based on the instructions given?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How are these difficulties similar to those faced by local blacksmiths when they are asked to make an agricultural tool?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What could a blacksmith or his/her assistant do to help reduce these problems?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Mention that in the next session, participants will be asked to make a cross-peen hammer based on a set of instructions and that they should bear in wind the key points of this discussion during that activity. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attachment 15-A</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFRICAN FIELD HOE</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p62.png"></center><br>
+ Select and cut materials</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SELECT AND CUT MATERIALS</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lightweight, durable field hoes can be forged from heavy gauge sheet metal. Car bodies, truck panels, and some tank containers (water heaters, propane tanks) are potential sources of this type of metal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To make an all-purpose field hoe, begin by cutting a piece of 1/16" mild steel (sheet metal or other) into a rectangle 10" x 5". If the metal is not flat, flatten it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FULLER THE STOCK</U> (optional)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When leaf spring or other heavy metal is used, the stock must be fullered. Bring the stock to forging heat and notch it at the point where the blade material separates from the collar (socket) material.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In order to make the notches, use a set of top and bottom fullers. The set may consist of:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1) handled top fuller, anvil-held bottom fuller (hardy)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2) two cast iron or steel pipes (the bottom pipe can rest on the ground or be held in a vice)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3) swage-block bottom fuller (turn the swage block on its side and use the built-in fuller), handheld top fuller (pipe or handled)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p63.png"></center><br>
+ Cut the blade corners; spread the blade, taper the blade; round the blade</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CUT THE BLADE CORNERS</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heat the end of the blade and cut off the corners. This will make it easy to give the blade a rounded nose later (Step 5).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SPREAD THE BLADE, TAPER THE BLADE</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bring the blade to forging heat and begin to draw the nose into a taper. Direct hammer blows so that the metal spreads and forms a curved blade, and the blade thickness graduates from 1/16" to 1/32" from back to front.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROUND THE BLADE</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heat the blade and bring the edge to finished roundness. Hold the blade at right angles to the anvil and hammer the uppermost edge; if the metal has been uniformly heated, both top and bottom edges will be worked with each hammer stroke. (The action of the hammer strike will be equal to a reactive "strike" by the anvil.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p64.png"></center><br>
+ Sink the blade; form the collar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SINK THE BLADE</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bring the blade to forging heat and lay it ever a mold having the desired curve. Use a wide ball-peen hammer to "sink" the blade into the mold. The mold can be pre-made by pounding a finished blade into hard earth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An alternative method for bending the blade is to hammer it over a form (anvil, car bumper, earthen mound, etc.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FORM THE COLLAR</U> (socket)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Form. the collar by heating the socket material and hammering it around the horn of the anvil (7A). Finish it by closing it around a bick horn or other tapered object similar to a hoe handle (7B).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p65.png"></center><br>
+ Select a handle; mount the handle</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SELECT A HANDLE</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Choose a hardwood with the desired thickness and shape and hew it into a handle. Tree forks make excellent handles because they have tight, twisted grain. Taper the shaft so it slides into the collar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MOUNT THE HANDLE</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Place the shaft into the collar. Set it by tapping the heel of the handle on a rock or log.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The blade can be taken off the handle by tapping the shaft against any hard surface.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Day 5</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 16. Forging a Cross-peen hammer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 4 hours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss types of scrap steel suitable for making hammers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To forge a cross-peen hammer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify and discuss the forging of other types of tools that may be made from a hammer head blank</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 16-A, "Forging a Cross-Peen Hammer"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Andrews, pages 78-82</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: Examples of scrap steel suitable for hammer-making; e.g., car, truck and rail axles, rail car springs, etc. (see Steps 1 and 2); one section of truck or car axle (half-section between gearbox and wheel) per station; a prototype hammer blank finished to the point of dressing and tempering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briefly explain the objectives and draw the group's attention to the display of scrap metal for hammer-making.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask participants to explore the assortment, to identify each item, and to discuss why the scraps are appropriate for making hammers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Have the group refer to the scrap pieces' previous uses and describe the steel grades and properties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask participants:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Have they seen these and other scrap pieces used for hammer making in local forges?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- If axles are not used in local hammer forging, what type of material is?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- If hammers are made from material other than axles, are they case-hardened? </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute Attachment 16-A, "Hammer Illustrations" and discuss the procedure of forging a cross-peen hammer. Show an example of a hammer forged from an axle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain to the group that, using the illustrations in the attachment as a guide, they will cut off one end of an axle and forge their hammers to the point of grinding or dressing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stress that, as no step-by-step demonstrations will be given until grinding and tempering, it is essential to carefully study each illustration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Have the participants study the pictures one-by-one, and describe the process depicted in each.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Mention that each step in the process may take several heats to accomplish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Briefly demonstrate the striking technique on a piece of scrap axle and have several in the group try it with you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Point out any important details which they have missed, and ask for questions and clarifications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Encourage the participants to rely as much as possible on the illustrations, their own experience, and the skills and knowledge of others in the group while working through the activity. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (2 hours)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants forge the hammers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Check in with each team periodically but offer assistance only when necessary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Help the groups identify errors or incorrect techniques by referring them to the illustrations and discussion during Step 3. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the hammers are forged, demonstrate grinding or dressing techniques using the unfinished prototype.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Emphasize that:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Edges on both peens should be rounded and smooth so that no marks will be left on the work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Faces should be as polished as possible. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (60 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the teams dress and anneal their hammers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Describe the tempering process for the hammers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the hammers will continue annealing through lunch and early afternoon. By the end of the next session, they will be ready for tempering and time will be provided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Also mention that participants may wish to make handles and mount their hammers during free time or open shop. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 8. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When all the groups have finished, facilitate a brief discussion on the experience of learning to forge a hammer using drawings as a guide rather than demonstrations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stimulate response by posing these questions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Did the participants find out most of the vital information before or during the forging activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* How were problems resolved? By asking the trainer for help? By observing others in the group? Through trial and error?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Does the group understand the process and feel comfortable with the skills involved in hammer-making? If not, why not? </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 9. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask participants to identify and discuss the forming of other tools which may be made from a hammer blank.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Have the group scan the tools in the forge area for ideas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask them to give examples of other tools they have seen used at their worksites which may be formed from the hammer blank. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attachment 16-A<U> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FORGING A CROSS-PEEN HAMMER</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p69a.png"></center><br>
+ Forging a cross-peen hammer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p69b.png"></center><br>
+ Direction of hammer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Direction of hammer blows should be at 45° angles to the anvil and away from each other for safety.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 17. Forging cutting tools: the wrapped-handle knife</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 4 hours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To practice basic blacksmithing skills involved in making common agricultural cutting tools</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To make a wrapped-handle knife</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To practice working effectively in groups</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identity and use techniques for the dissemination of blacksmithing skills</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss the feasibility of producing agricultural cutting tools in local forges</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources: Andrews, pages 91-93.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: Newsprint, felt-tip pens, one 3/16" piece of leaf spring steel per participant (10"x1-1/3"), assorted examples of scrap steel suitable for making knives or machetes, one 30" strip of 3/4" innertube per participant, two or three examples of completed, locally-made, wrapped-handle and tang-type knives (and machetes, if possible).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prior to this session, an effort should be made to make or purchase two or three examples of locally-forges knives and machetes (see Step 2). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the session objectives and outline the procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the techniques involved in making machetes and other chopping or cutting tools are essentially the same as those involved in making a knife. Variations which exist relate primarily to the length of time needed to forge and the complications encountered in tempering a longer cutting edge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Point out that the knife to be made during this session will provide participants with practice in the basic skills necessary to experiment further at their work sites with designs of other locally appropriate and acceptable cutting tools. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute among the group one wrapped-handle knife and one tang-type knife, and ask participants to examine them carefully.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If examples of machetes are available, distribute them also.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants identify and discuss the procedures and techniques involved in making the knives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some points which should be mentioned include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- making a template</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- type of steel used</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- shape of the tang</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- proper heating of steel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- forming the tang</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- cutting the materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- forming the blade</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- annealing the blade</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- tempering (oil vs. water)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- sharpening</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- grinding</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* As participants correctly identify the procedures involved, list them on posted newsprint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Provide assistance by adding and explaining any new procedures or variations of old techniques which may be involved. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the list is complete, ask participants to identify those procedures or techniques which they would like to see demonstrated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Refer to the posted list and circle their responses. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Introduce and explain the guidelines for the knife-making activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the teams should work among themselves with minimal dependence on the trainer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Point out that the making of the knife involves using many of the basic skills practiced earlier in the training, and will also serve as an opportunity:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- to practice working effectively in groups</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- to use techniques involved in sharing blacksmithing skills with others, and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- to simulate the condition of working at their sites with local blacksmiths.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Remind participants of the importance of using the posted list of procedures as a guide while they are working. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (2 hours, 15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants form their work teams and make wrapped-handle knives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Throughout the activity, encourage teams to seek advice and solutions from their fellow participants as an alternative to relying on trainer interventions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Observe carefully and offer assistance as teams approach those procedures and techniques which were identified as needing demonstration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* If some of the teams do not complete their knives in the time allotted, explain that time will be provided for the completion of unfinished projects on Day 6. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the group finishes, ask participants to discuss the feasibility of producing knives, machetes, and other similar cutting tools in local forges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion by asking:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What locally available materials would be most suitable for making quality cutting tools?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What are the procedural differences between making a knife and making a machete?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How long would it take a skilled blacksmith to make a quality machete? Knife?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How much would the blacksmith have to charge for the tool?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How does this compare with factory made models? </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 8. (40 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have participants return to the hammers which they forged during the morning activity and perform the tempering process,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Day 6</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 18. Forging straight tongs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 4 hours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify different types of tongs and their uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To make a pair of blacksmith's straight tongs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To make a rivet using a heading plate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss techniques for modifying the straight tongs into specialized tongs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify other types of tools which may be made using the basic tong procedure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 18-A, "Tools for Many Trades"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Weygers, pages 65-66</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Andrews, pages 82-84</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: Variety of blacksmith's tongs for display; four 12"-14" lengths of 1/2" or 5/8" round bar (mild steel) per participant for practice; two 12" lengths of 1/2" or 5/8" round bar (mild or high carbon) per participant; one 1" length of 1/4" rivet per participant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the session objectives and draw the group's attention to the display of tongs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Select a pair of straight tongs and ask participants to identify the components/parts of the tool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The jaws, handles, shoulder, offset bend, and hinge-pin should be mentioned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that tongs may be made in several acceptable ways and that today they will experiment with one. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the group explore the assortment of tongs and discuss the uses of each type.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Have participants refer back to previous sessions and describe how they used some of the tongs during forging activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stress the relationship between the specific jaw shapes and the size and shape of materials they are meant to hold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain the variety of steels which may be used in tong-making and the advantages and disadvantages of each.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Invite participants to experiment picking up and holding various round and square bars with different tongs. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Demonstrate how to form the jaws and shoulder (hinge facet) of the tongs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Emphasize the following aspects as you work:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- forming of jaws</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- setting of shoulder</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- forming of shoulder</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- drawing out of handles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- making both blanks identical</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* During the demonstration, repeat your motions several times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask the group if they have any questions before working on their own. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (60 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have participants practice forming jaws and shoulders using the 10" lengths of bar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that two of the bars are provided for practice only and that they will be using the other bars to make the tongs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Have the group practice the jaws and shoulders over and over again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Move around the stations, and assist participants who are having difficulty with the new techniques. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the participants feel they have practiced enough, have them form jaws and shoulders on the other lengths of bar which will be further worked into tongs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Demonstrate punching the shoulder, making the rivet, and riveting the tongs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Emphasize how to avoid damaging the already finished shoulder.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 8. (40 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask the group to punch, make the rivets, and rivet their tongs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 9. (25 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Demonstrate how to align the jaws and adjust handles for use as straight tongs, and have participants do the same to complete their tongs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 10. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Discuss the various specialized tongs which can be formed by reshaping the jaws of the straight tongs. Demonstrate one or more types.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that no time is available right now for participants to experiment with different types of tong jaws, but that they may do so during open shop in the afternoon.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Encourage questions during the discussion. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 11. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask participants to identify other tools which could be formed using the basic tong forging procedure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask the group to think of other riveted tools (e.g., pliers, clippers, nippers, snips, etc.).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Briefly mention any significant deviations from the procedure where applicable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain steel grade requirements for the tools identified. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 12. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have participants share any difficulties encountered while forging the tongs and ask for volunteers from the group to explain or demonstrate how they might be avoided/corrected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 13. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute Attachment 18A, "Tools for Many Trades" and discuss the illustrations briefly with the group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the tools illustrated on the page are only a few of the many and varied pieces which can be crafted by a skilled blacksmith. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attachment 18-A</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOOLS FOR MANY TRADES</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p78.png"></center><br>
+ Tools for many trades</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 19. Program evaluation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 2 hours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Object yes:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To evaluate the effectiveness of the training program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify ways in which future blacksmith training programs can be improved</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: Newsprint and felt-tip pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (10 minute;)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Review and explain the session objectives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that evaluation through feedback from participants can serve as the basis for improving future blacksmith training programs. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (25 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants divide into groups of 3 or 4 and record on newsprint their observations regarding the effectiveness of the training program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Approximately five minutes before the end of the time allotted for this step, circulate among the groups, remind them of the time remaining and ask that they post their observations and suggestions when they are finished. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the group reconvene and occupy the chairs in the outer semi-circle. Explain the "Fishbowl" activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p80.png"></center></P>
+
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask if anyone has had experience with this activity. If so, ask them to help you with the explanation. Your explanation should include the following points:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Only three people at a time will be in the inner semi-circle,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The role of each of the three people will be to discuss and respond to the posted observations and examine the feasibility of the suggestions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The role of those in the outer semi-circle will be to observe and listen without speaking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- When someone from the outer circle wants to enter the discussion, a person from the discussion group should leave and join the observers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The reason for using the fishbowl structure is to provide a comfortable format for discussion and to encourage constructive feedback and suggestions. Therefore, it is important that people feel free to express their thoughts without fear of reprisal. People should be encouraged to enter the discussion and to exchange places with one another when they have something to say. It is a good idea to have at least one member of the training staff in the discussion group at all times. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Just before the discussion, ask one of the participants to scan the lists and point out any commonalities and parallels among the observations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* This quick identification will help provide order and avoid repetition once the discussion begins. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (50 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask that three volunteers move to the inner semicircle and initiate the activity by responding to one of the observations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Summarize the observations and suggestions for improvement that resulted from the fishbowl discussion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stress those observations which seem most generally agreed upon by the group and most feasible in terms of future implementation. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thank the group for their participation in this activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Briefly mention that the remaining two hours of the day will be devoted to an open workshop period and a general shop clean-up. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session: 20. Open workshop/clean-up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time: 2 hours</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To finish incomplete projects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To review and practice basic blacksmithing skills</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To practice new blacksmithing skills of special interest</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To clean up the workshop area</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials: Brushes, brooms, rakes, shovels, buckets, assorted scrap steel, round bar, leaf springs, sheet metal, coil springs, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* In this session, participants should be provided with access to all available workshop tools and stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Some preparation may be necessary to effectively carry out Step 4 (see Trainer Notes). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briefly explain the purpose and procedures of the open workshop period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the purpose of the open workshop is to provide participants with opportunities to:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- complete any unfinished projects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- practice techniques which they find difficult to apply, or do not fully understand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- refine techniques</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- forge a tool or piece of hardware of special interest</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Mention that the last thirty minutes of this session will be used to clean up the workshop area. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (1 hour, 20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants work independently at their forges to finish projects or practice skills of their choice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Circulate among the work stations. Help to locate materials. Offer assistance whenever necessary, being careful not to intervene to the point of inhibiting the freedom of experimentation and/or independent problem-solving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* For those participants experiencing particular difficulty with certain techniques, it may be useful to repeat some of the basic demonstrations done earlier in the training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Any additional or special interest forging techniques can also be demonstrated at this time. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (30 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask participants to assist in cleaning up the workshop area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In order to complete the clean-up efficiently and cooperatively, all participants and trainers should participate. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thank the group for their participation and cooperation throughout the program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In consideration of the strenuousness and intensity of the training program, it is recommended that a party be held immediately following the shop clean-up. Defining specific objectives, times, resources, and procedures for the party activity should be left to the discretion of participants and trainers. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bibliography</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We suggest that the following texts be purchased in sufficient quantities for distribution to all participants:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andrews, Jack - <U>Edge of the Anvil - A Resource Book for the Blacksmith</U>. Rodale Press, 33 E. Minor St., Emmaus, PA 18049 USA, or Diamond Forge, 1482 Maple Ave., Pauli, PA 19301 USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weygers, Alexander - <U>The Modern Blacksmith</U>. Van Nastrand Reinhold Co., 135-50th St., New York, NY 10020 USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">................................................................................................................................................</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following text is an important resource that should be on hand for all trainers:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacPherson, George - <U>First Steps in Village Mechanization</U>. Tanzania Publishing House, Box 2138, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">................................................................................................................................................</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These publications are recommended as general resource materials:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berg, Liv; Nimpuno, K.; Van Zwanberg, R. - <U>Toward Village Industry</U>. Intermediate Technology Publications, Ltd., 9 King St., London, WC2E, 8 HN, United Kingdom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centre d'Etude et d'Experimentation du Machinisme Agricole Tropical(CEEMAT) - <U>Aide-memoire de Moniteur de Culture Attelee</U>. Parc de Tourvoie, 92160 Anthony, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evans, Ianto; and Boutette, Michael - <U>Lorena Stoves</U>. Volunteers in Asia Press, Box 4543, Stanford, CA 94305 USA, July, 1981.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">French Ministry of Cooperation - <U>Manuel de Culture Avec Traction Animale</U>, "Techniques Rurales en Afrique" series. 20 Rue Monsieur, 75700 Paris, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inversin, Allen R. - "How to Build a Blacksmith's Bellows." Appropriate Technology Development Unit, Lae, Papua New Guinea, from "Appropriate Technology," Vol. 6, No. 4.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inversin, Allen R. - <U>A Blacksmith's Bellows</U>. South Pacific Appropriate Technology Foundation, Box 6937, Boroko, Papua New Guinea, December, 1977.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thornburn, Craig - <U>Teknologi Kampungan: A Collection of Indigenous Indonesian Technologies</U>. Volunteers in Asia Press, Box 4543, Stanford, CA 94305 USA, June, 1982.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE FARALLONES INSTITUTE RURAL CENTER</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15290 Coleman Valley Road</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Occidental, CA 95465</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(707) 874-3060</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Farallones Institute is a non-profit organization active in the development of appropriate community technologies, with an emphasis on renewable sources of energy and food systems. Areas of expertise include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- design and implementation of training programs, with a focus on experiential learning and the acquisition of integrated skills</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- development of educational materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- resource gathering and information sharing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- design, use and evaluation of small-scale technologies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- study trips to rural China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- consulting services</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHP INTERNATIONAL, INC.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1010 West Lake Street</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oak Park, IL 60301</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(312) 848-9650</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHP International, Inc. is a consulting firm specializing in the design, management and evaluation of international training programs. It develops and conducts technical, cross-cultural and language programs in Latin America, Asia, and Africa. In addition) CHP International, Inc. leads staff development workshops in the techniques necessary to effectively implement competency based and experiential training programs.</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/t0022e/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/t0022e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/t0022e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Small scale charcoal making: A manual for trainers (t0022e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Energy , Renewable energies, Household energy|Wood and charcoal (incl. kilns and activated charcoal)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">Peace Corps</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">Q-R-S</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">make charcoal on a small scale level</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/t0022e/t0022e.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/t0022e/t0022e.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/t0022e/t0022e.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,5757 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Small scale charcoal making: A manual for trainers</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Small scale charcoal making: A manual for trainers</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Produced by:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Farallones Institute Rural Center and CHP International, Inc. in collaboration with</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Peace Corps Energy Project/OPTC</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contract #282-1003</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">July 1982</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributors:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ed Karch</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Michael Wilburn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marsha D. F. Wilburn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Michael Boutette</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=460>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER">The Peace Corps Internet Web Site address: </P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">http://www.peacecorps.gov</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">Please note the new Peace Corps Mailing Address from July 1998 on is:</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">ICE/ Peace Corps</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">1111 20th Street N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">Washington, DC 20526</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Table of contents</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Preface</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Acknowledgments</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Introduction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session format</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training program calendar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Day 1</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 1: Sharing perceptions of the training program: An ice-breaker</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 1. Attachment 1-A: Coat of arms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 2: Assessing group resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 3: Defining expectations of the training program</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 4: Introduction to the carbonization process</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 1. Attachment 4A: Sensory analysis guidance sheet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 2. Attachment 4B: The carbonization process</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 3. Attachment 4C: Sample comparison of charcoal and brands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 5: Assessing available wood resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 6: Fire and food: The dynamics of traditional cooking</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 1. Attachment 6A: Traditional cooking discussion questions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 2. Attachment 6B: Fundamental means of heat transfer</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Day 2</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 7: Wood resource management</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 1. Attachment 7A: Fuelwood production in traditional farming systems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 2. Attachment 7B: Why is it so difficult to grow fuelwood?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 3. Attachment 7C: Definitions of major wood sources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 8: The problem of fuelwood scarcity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 1. Attachment 8A: The other energy crisis: Firewood</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 2. Attachment 8B: Direct energy efficiency of charcoal production</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 3. Attachment 8C: How the more expensive fuel can be cheaper to use!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 4. Attachment 8D: How the more expensive fuel can be cheaper to buy!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 5. Attachment 8E: World charcoal use fact sheet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 9: Introduction to kiln construction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 1. Attachment 9A: Common kiln types</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 2. Attachment 9B: Basic principles of kiln design</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 10: Kiln design</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 11: Kiln construction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 12: Nightwatch: Monitoring and extraction</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Day 3</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 13: Review and re-design of kilns</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 14: Construction and testing of second kiln</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Day 4</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 15: Introduction to presentations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 16: Kiln application and innovation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 1. Attachment 16A: Design situations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 2. Attachment 16B: Realities of making charcoal</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Day 5</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 17: Presentations of kilns</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 18: Briquetting: A problem-solving activity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 1. Attachment 18A: Simple techniques for basic bio-fuels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 2. Attachment 18B: Briquetting as a cottage industry: A case study</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 3. Attachment 18C: Bamako briquettes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 4. Attachment 18D: Binders for charcoal briquettes</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Day 6</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 19: Evaluating charcoal yields</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 1. Attachment 19A: Elementary calculation of moisture content</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 2. Attachment 19B: Energy potential of raw wood</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 3. Attachment 19C: Charcoal yield worksheet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 20: Program evaluation</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bibliography</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This training manual represents one component of a pilot training program in Charcoal Production undertaken by the Farallones Institute and CHP International, Inc. It has been completed in accordance with the terms of Peace Corps Contract #282-1003.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We believe that our involvement has produced a valuable and adaptable learning tool. However, the manual must continue to be tested, evaluated and modified in order to reflect changing needs and circumstances. It is our hope that you will contribute to that process, and that you will help make the manual more appropriate and useful during future training programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you have observations or suggestions about the contents, methods or approach included in the manual, please contact the authors at the Farallones Institute or CHP International, Inc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There have been many valuable sources of support during the development of this manual. It is only with the help of many people that we have been able to document the various tools and techniques that we have chosen to use in training people to go gently and lightly into the lives of others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We are grateful to the following individuals for their contributions the development of this manual:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ada Jo Mann</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Howard Raik</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ilios Aditya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kevin Stewart</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leanne Clement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andrew Atkeison</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although we cannot mention them all by name, we also thank the many kind people who have contributed by giving us permission to use materials they have developed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Special thanks are extended to the members of the Farallones community for their continued support, endurance and patience during the evolution of this project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, perhaps our most important acknowledgment should go to the Peace Corps trainees who have come to learn and, in turn, to teach. It is with them that we have shared our dreams and values. We hope that the tools and techniques they have chosen will serve the world kindly and well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basic to the purpose of this training manual is the belief that the process of community development begins when people take an active role in their own education and continues as they identify not only their needs but also the resources, abilities and methods that will help them make decisions and address their problems in ways that are both sustainable and locally appropriate. This belief reaffirms what most of the world's villagers already know inherently: that culture, social systems, politics, religion, economics, and ecology are all threads in the same fabric of community life; and that technology exists only as a tool, a loom upon which all other threads are woven.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important focus of this training program is the recognition that technical expertise is significant and useful only when it is applied in balance with other abilities. It is of little value for a person to be technically competent without the ability to work cooperatively with others and motivate them toward a more self-reliant and healthy life. For this reason, it is essential that Peace Corps Volunteers develop a variety of complementary skills, knowledge and attitudes that will serve to weave together the many threads of community development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The training program outlined in this manual emphasizes the parallels which exist between training and Peace Corps service. Throughout the program, participants are encouraged to take a full and active role in their own education and to make decisions that will affect them and the people with whom they work and live. They are urged to cooperate with others, to identify and use the talents and resources that are available, and to practice skills that help motivate people, instill within them a sense of self-confidence, and involve them in the process of their own education.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The training program offers skills training in all stages of the development of technologies related to small-scale charcoal production, including the design, construction, operation, maintenance, repair, and evaluation of prototype kilns. The kiln designs are selected to be as consistent as possible with the realities of rural areas in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The program is divided into twenty sessions which occur over a six-day period. Each session consists of a series of activities designed to meet specific training objectives. The objectives of each session are inter-related and linked through association with a number of fundamental themes. These themes serve to guide and shape the development of the skills and qualities necessary during Peace Corps service. Together, the themes illustrate the connection and interdependence between technology and other aspects of community development. The program themes are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Development and Transfer of Technical Competence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Principles and Techniques of Non-Formal Education and Adult Learning</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Methods and Approaches to Problem-Solving</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Development Issues</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Cross-Cultural Perspectives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The Process of Assessment and Evaluation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Manual is designed to be responsive to a variety of training situations. Modification and adaptation of the materials is encouraged. However, it is essential to the effectiveness of the training to maintain the integrated nature of the sessions by providing an adequate balance of emphasis among the various themes. This will enable participants to build upon and apply new knowledge in a way that is ordered and meaningful within the context of community development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following guidelines have been developed as an aid in transforming this manual into an effective, dynamic training program:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Planning and Preparation</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many steps that need to occur before the training actually begins. These include defining the scope and approach of the training, identifying staff requirements, locating and establishing a site, and gathering necessary resources and materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Defining the scope and approach of the training</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to carefully read through the entire manual in order to develop an understanding of the overall design and approach of the training program. Sessions are designed to accommodate a maximum of twenty participants. If there are significantly more than twenty participants, some modification of the design of session activities will be necessary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Identifying staff and trainers</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The specific number of staff should depend on the particular training situation. As a minimal requirement, there should be at least one primary trainer and one assistant for each twelve participants. The primary trainer should have considerable practical and theoretical experience in charcoal production in developing countries and should be experienced and comfortable with the principles of non-formal education, adult learning, and integrated training. The assistant trainer should be a native of the country in which the training is held and should be experienced in the practical aspects of small-scale charcoal production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Locating and establishing a site</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is best to choose a site that is conducive to experiential learning. It should include adequate room for people to build five to ten miniature kilns, work in small groups, and, if possible, be outdoors during much of the program. There should be a classroom or indoor meeting facilities at the site. It is useful for the training to be held in or near a forest area where local charcoal makers are working.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Gathering necessary resources and materials</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the most part, materials and resources will vary with each training situation. Each session includes a recommended list of materials. Be certain that there are enough materials, tools, and other supplies available before the program begins. If some of the suggested items are not available, use ingenuity to find comparable substitutes.;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conducting the Training</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Included here is a list of some considerations that are important to remember in carrying out the program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Think small. The miniaturization of kilos is essential to a six-day training program</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The entire process of carbonization must be reduced to a miniature scale in order to bring the process to within the scope of a six-day program. Through miniaturization, all the concepts and principles of carbonization can be demonstrated and practiced using a variety of kiln designs. In order for miniaturization to be successful, it is important to reduce the size of all components and materials proportionately. As an example, a full-size traditional kiln measuring 1 meter x 1 meter x 2 meters using wood that is 1 meter long and 20 cm. in diameter would be reduced to a model kiln, 10 cm. x 10 cm. x 20 cm. Wood used in the kilns should be approximately 2 cm. in diameter and 10 cm. in length. Construction and maintenance of miniatures follow exactly the same procedures as with full-scale kilns. Metal kilns such as the Mark V can be constructed from 20 liter buckets or cans. Using the miniaturization technique, carbonization time for each kiln is reduced to 8 to 10 hours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Warning! Charcoal production is a destructive process</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it is explicitly brought out in several sessions, the potential ecological impact of charcoal production should be continually reinforced throughout the training. In view of the growing world fuelwood scarcity, and considering that the conversion of wood to charcoal results in 50-80% gross energy loss, charcoal production can, in certain situations, be detrimental to the long-term interests and needs of people everywhere. Stress a general rule for volunteers, that if charcoal is already being made in an area, then working to improve yields can be appropriate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If wood is in excess and is rotting or being burned, charcoal can be appropriate. But if charcoal is not being used and wood is being burned on open fires, then working to introduce fuel-efficient wood-burning stoves is more appropriate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Flexibility and patience are two key requirements for charcoal making</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The participants should be advised of the likelihood of spending lunchtime, suppertime, and late-night hours tending their smoldering kilns. The process of carbonization does not lend itself well to a structured, specified block of time. The type, age, and moisture content of available wood, weather conditions, and kiln design are all variables that can affect completion time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>The experiential learning cycle is an essential part of training:</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important that people have the opportunity to learn, examine, generalize about and apply new knowledge. Try to follow the experiential learning loop as often as possible, and encourage the participants to be aware of the process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Small groups often make learning easier and more lasting</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is helpful to limit the size of groups to three, four or five people. Groups may be formed on the basis of regional or country assignments, skill levels, individual preference, or other criteria established by the staff and participants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>A variety of educational techniques is most effective</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiment with role-plays, skits, panel discussions, brainstorming and other non-conventional methods. Encourage people to use their creativity, and to examine which methods have the potential to be useful in community work. As you facilitate sessions, involve people and try to use techniques that others can learn. Remember that as you teach, you will learn. Share your knowledge and motivate others to do the same.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>As the program continues, participants become more responsible for the design and implementation of sessions</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a good idea to include people as facilitators in selected activities and sessions. As the participants develop skills and self-confidence, they take an increased responsibility for their own education. Urge people to take an active role in facilitating, planning and evaluating a variety of learning experiences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Scheduled breaks between sessions are essential</U>:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although 10-15 minutes is suggested, more time may be needed, depending on the training circumstances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using the Manual</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the keys to the success of the training program lies in thoroughly understanding and effectively using the manual. Included below are some guidelines and explanations designed to help in using the manual.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>The Program Calendar</U> indicates the overall design of the program and recommended sequence of sessions. Use it as a reference in developing a specific schedule which meets the needs of the particular training situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Sessions</U> follow a consistent format. (See the "Sample Session Format" on Page vi, for a detailed description.) Be certain to read sessions thoroughly. There are often several purposes to each session. For example, the activities may be designed to meet a technical objective, and at the same time, to provide participants with practice in group problem-solving or communication skills. It is important to understand the multi-tiered design of each session before presenting it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>Attachments</U> follow each session and are usually intended for distribution to the participants. Each attachment is letter-coded as to the session with which it is associated. It is important to make copies of attachments in advance so that they can be distributed during the session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* <U>The Bibliography</U> includes the reference material, texts, and suggested resources used in developing this program. It can be copied and distributed to participants as the basis for further research in charcoal production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session format</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each Session is numbered sequentially and coded by day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session Title</U> indicates subject area presented.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time</U> gives approximate time needed to carry out the session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives</U> tell what is expected of participants and what the session should accomplish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources</U> include all attachments and other suggested references.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials</U> refers to suggested supplies and tools needed for the session</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures</U> consist of steps to be followed in order to meet objectives. Each step is given an approximate time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Appear throughout the session and serve to clarify and explain a procedure, provide background information, and suggest options.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Training program calendar</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=697>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="6%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAY 1</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAY 2</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAY 3</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAY 4</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAY 5</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAY 6</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="6%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.M.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 1: "Sharing Perceptions of the Training Program: an Ice-Breaker"</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 7: Wood Resource Management</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">x</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 15: Introduction to Presentations</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 17: Presentations of Kilns</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 19: Evaluating Charcoal Yields</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="6%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 2: Assessing Group Resources</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 8: The Problem of Fuelwood Scarcity</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 20: Program Evaluation</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="6%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 3: Defining Expectations of the Training Program</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="6%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.M.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 4: Introduction to Carbonization</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 9: Introduction to Kiln Construction</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 13: Review and Redesign of Kilns</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 16: Kiln Application and Innovation</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 18: Briquetting: A Problem Solving Activity</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">x</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="6%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 5: Assessing Wood Resources</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 10: Kiln Design</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 14: Construction and Testing of Second Kiln</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="6%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 6: Fire and Food: Dynamics of Traditional Cooking</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 11: Kiln Construction</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="6%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Session 12: Nightwatch - Monitoring and Extraction</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Day 1</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 1: Sharing perceptions of the training program: An ice-breaker</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=583>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="84%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 hour, 15 minutes</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="84%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To get to know one another and to encourage communication</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="84%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To set the climate for active participation during the training program</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="84%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attachment 1-A, "Coat of Arms"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="84%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pens or pencils.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="84%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This activity is designed to help 15 or fewer participants become better acquainted. If the group is larger and there is a need for learning names, a "name game" should be played first. One game that has been successfully used is as follows:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Trainer begins by giving his/her name preceded or followed by a word which</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- describes how the trainer is feeling at that moment, and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- begins with the same first letter of his/her name (for example, "Mike Motivated" or "Nancy Nervous").</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Moving clockwise around the room, each participant then takes a turn at repeating all the preceding names and describers and adds his/her name to the growing list.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The game ends when all participants have added their names and have tried to repeat the list.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute copies of Attachment 1-A, "Coat of Arms" and explain the exercise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the object of the exercise is to draw a symbolic/"coat of arms" which will help us begin to get acquainted or find out something new about each other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the participants will draw a symbol or picture in each of the corresponding spaces on the coat of arms that answers one of a series of questions.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Referring to the list in the Trainer Notes below, read each question in order, allowing time for people to draw their symbol before moving to the next question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Suggested questions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How do you feel right now?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What were you doing a week ago today?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What do you hope to get out of this training?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What can you offer this training?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Draw your own "coat of arms" while the group does theirs.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. ( 5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After everyone has finished drawing his/her coat of arms, share your coat of arms by explaining the meaning of each of your four drawings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Encourage an open climate by explaining your drawings in a relaxed and humorous manner. Also, make your presentation brief to set the pace of the activity.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (30-45 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have each participant explain the meaning of his/her coat of arms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After all of the drawings have been presented, facilitate a brief discussion of some of the similarities and differences which seem to exist in the group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 1-A: Coat of arms</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p003.png"></center><br>
+</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 2: Assessing group resources</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 hour, 30 minutes</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify the skills, knowledge, and experience of participants and trainers</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss ways in which the group's skills and knowledge can be used in this program</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newsprint and felt-tip pens.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Review the objectives and procedures for the session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask the participants to briefly discuss the value of a group resource assessment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Draw on the participants' experiences in working with a variety of people in small-scale development projects.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3 (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the group brainstorm a list of interview questions which could help assess the participants' skills, knowledge and experience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To provide focus during the brainstorm, post the key points to be included in the interview: skills, knowledge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The resulting questions should be consolidated or pared down so that the list does not exceed 4-5 open-ended questions the will stimulate conversation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* In this session, the emphasis is not only on those skills, etc. which relate directly to charcoal-making, but on any resources one might have which would help the group.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Post and explain the interview format.</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Interview Format</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1 (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Find someone in the group whom you don't know well and move to a comfortable location.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2 (30 minutes/15 minutes per person)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview one another using the list of questions as guidelines. Jot down brief notes as conversation proceeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3 (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On a clean sheet of paper, write legibly and in paragraph form the information you have gathered from your partner.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4 (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Share the interview sheets with your partner and make any modifications or additions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5 (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Post the sheets on the wall and walk around the room scanning the other interview reports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* If the training group is a small one, an option to the written reports would be to have the pairs interview each other, reconvene the groups, and ask each participant to describe his/her partner.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (60 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants carry out the interview procedure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the group and facilitate a short discussion of the participants' overall impressions of the resources that exist within the group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the discussion, point out a number of the identified skills which are particularly useful/necessary to the process of making charcoal.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 3: Defining expectations of the training program</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 hour, 15 minutes</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To review the schedule and content of the program</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To define and clarify expectations that the participants have of the training program</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To compare and contrast individual expectations with those of the program.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* "Training Philosophy and Methodology," pp. i-ii, from Introduction to the Manual.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* "Conducting the Training," pp. iii-iv, from Introduction to the Manual.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Training Schedule</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newsprint and felt-tip pens.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briefly outline the session's objectives and activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute copies of the three resources. Have the participants read them carefully, then ask for questions, clarifications, or discussion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain that the "Training Philosophy and Methodology" and "Conducting the Training" provide an orientation to the overall program goals and design, while the Training Schedule presents a day-by-day description of training.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants form small groups and discuss their expectations of the program. Ask each group to list on newsprint and post their three most important expectations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* If the training group is small, you may wish to remain together and make a master list of participants' expectations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (25 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the large group and review each expectation for clarity, understanding, and feasibility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Identify which expectations will be met directly, those that will be touched upon, those which could be addressed with some schedule changes, and those, given the practical limitations of the program, which may not be met. Identify resources which trainees can use to meet their own needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Wherever possible, point out specific sessions in the Training Schedule which deal directly with the group's expectations.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclude the session by facilitating a discussion centered around the following questions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Were any of your expectations changed by this activity?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Is there anything that you have heard about the training program that has not been discussed?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Do you think the program will meet your needs?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 4: Introduction to the carbonization process</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 hours</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss basic fire safety procedures</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify the components of an acceptable kiln site</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To practice sensory analysis of the carbonization process</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To examine and disassemble a sample kiln</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To examine and compare types of charcoal</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 4-A: "Sensory Analysis Guidance Sheet"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 4-B: "The Carbonization Process"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 4-C: "Sample Comparison of Charcoal and Brands"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pencils or pens, sample miniatire kiln, assorted samples of charcoal, newsprint and felt-tip pen, 3 or 4 large forks and spoons.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* This session requires considerable preparation time. It will be necessary to set up a functioning miniature kiln in advance, such that it will be ready to pull during this session. A traditional, rectangular kiln is recommended for this activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The kiln site needs to be prepared such that the necessary fire prevention measures are in effect (i.e., clearing the site of all grass and brush, setting up a fire line, etc )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The assortment of charcoal samples used in this session should be selected on the basis of varying wood species and should include a few sample brands.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the session objectives and briefly outline the procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briefly explain fire safety procedures on and around the kiln site.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Mention the following points during your explanation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the importance of clearing an area of grass and brush</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the construction of a protective fire line</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the importance of continually monitoring kilns as they burn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Encourage discussion and questions from among the participants.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute Attachment 4-A, "Sensory Analysis Guidance Sheet," and ask participants to complete Section A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Mention that this initial recording of observations is designed to familiarize participants with their surroundings and help them begin to sharpen their observation skills.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that in completing sections of the "Sensory Analysis Guidance Sheet", participants should write down their observations by concentrating on each of the five senses identified in the left hand column of the page.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have participants share and discuss their observations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The following list includes some of the most important observations to be discussed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- season of the year</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- size of kiln site area</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- slope of the land</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- proximity of wood supply</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- facilities for transporting charcoal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- proximity of labor supply</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- nearby activities that may be disturbed by charcoal making</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- wind direction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* For each key observation mentioned, stimulate discussion by asking participants to explain its importance as a factor in choosing an acceptable kiln site.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask participants to begin to examine the sample miniature kiln by completing Section B of the "Sensory Analysis Guidance Sheet."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mention that in making charcoal, the use of the senses is the most common method for gauging the progression of the carbonization reaction. Observation skills through the use of the five senses (i.e., smell, touch, sight, taste, and hearing) should be sharpened through continual practice.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have participants share and discuss their observations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The following list includes some of the most important observations which should be discussed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- amount of smoke</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- color of the smoke</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- kiln size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- kiln shape</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- materials of which the kiln is made</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- cracking or popping sounds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the presence of condensates</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- temperature of kiln and smoke</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- signs of moisture and condensation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* For each key observation mentioned, stimulate discussion by asking participants to explain what it might indicate regarding the design of the kiln and/or the carbonization process going on inside.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask participants to carefully and slowly disassemble the kiln and record their observations in Section C of the "Sensory Analysis Guidance Sheet."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Distribute the large forks and spoons to be used as tools in pulling the kiln.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The participants should be encouraged to disassemble the kiln in their own fashion, as long as there is no excessive danger of fire or personal injury.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The focus of the activity is on sharpening the use of the senses. not necessarily on demonstrating the proper kiln</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 8. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have participants share and discuss their observations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask participants to point out similarities and differences among their observations at this point and those that they had prior to disassembling the kiln.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* For each key observation mentioned, stimulate discussion by asking participants to explain what it might indicate regarding the design of the kiln, the carbonization process, and the type of charcoal found inside. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 9. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute and explain Attachment 4-B, "The Carbonization Process."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that this Attachment provides a brief overview of the carbonization process and is meant to serve as a technical summary of the concepts discussed up to this Point.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Encourage questions and comments among the participants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask participants to review it carefully prior to beginning Session Nine, "Introduction to Kiln Construction." </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 10. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute samples of different types of charcoal and brands to each participant and ask them to examine and compare them using their sensory perceptions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 11. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute Attachment 4-C, "Sample Comparison of Charcoal and Brands" and have participants discuss their observations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Some of the most important observations which should be discussed include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- differences between charcoal and brands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- color</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- weight</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- moisture content</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- fracturing characteristics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* For each key observation mentioned, stimulate discussion by asking participants to explain what it might indicate regarding the type of wood used, the carbonization process involved, the type kiln used, the potential uses for the charcoal, and its relative efficiency. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 12. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclude the session by reviewing the objectives and asking participants to summarize ways in which the senses play a role in charcoal making.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 4A: Sensory analysis guidance sheet</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SENSE SUBJECT</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Section A: KILN SITE(Surroundings)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Section B: FUNCTIONING SAMPLE KILN (Undisturbed)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Section C: DISASSEMBLED KILN</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sight</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Location</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shape</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Color</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hearing</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smell</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taste</U></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="19%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<U><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Touch</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Texture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moisture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Temperature</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Density</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="24%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="30%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 4B: The carbonization process</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Elements of the Combustion Phase</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p014a.png"></center><br>
+ Combustion phase</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=250>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Temperature:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ambient to 600°</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="41%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Products:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="59%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">carbon dioxide, water</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Elements of the Dehydration Phase</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p014b.png"></center><br>
+ Dehydration phase</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=252>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Temperature:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="60%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">100-120°</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Products:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="60%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">water</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Elements of the Exothermic Phase</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p015a.png"></center><br>
+ Exothermic Phase</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Elements of the Cooling Process</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p015b.png"></center><br>
+ Cooling Process</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 4C: Sample comparison of charcoal and brands</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=451>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARCOAL</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">QUALITY</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOT CHARCOAL</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Drier</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moisture</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wetter</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lighter</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Density</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heavier</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Color</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not quite black</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smoother</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Texture</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rougher</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brittle (weaker)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strength</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resilient (stronger)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost none</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Odor</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Definite, pungent</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apparently none</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coating</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apparently on surface</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High-pitched resonance (metallic ringing)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sound</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lower-pitched resonance ("clunking")</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smoother</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fracture</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rougher</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even texture, often shiny</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surface of break</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uneven texture from place to place, usually dull</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black through to center</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Color</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gradations in color visible</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Better</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cleanness</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worse</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More visible</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Growth rings</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Less visible</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More open</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pores</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More filled</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 5: Assessing available wood resources</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 hours</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify locally available tree species</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss the characteristics of charcoal produced from local species</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To gather and cut the wood to be used during the training program</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Machetes, approx. 15 - 20 buckets or baskets (20 liter capacity), saws and pruning shears (if available).</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* This session should be held at the kiln construction site.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Considerable preparation will be necessary for this session. It will be necessary to investigate the forests surrounding the kiln site and lay out a trail along which a supply of dry, green and rotten wood is available for cutting. The trail should be short enough to be walked in 5-10 minutes. It should be circular, such that it begins and ends at the kiln site.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* It is recommended that you invite a local villager to participate in this session by helping to identify local tree species, their common names, and their uses (see Step 2). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the session objectives and briefly review the procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Invite the participants on a tour of the forest area surrounding the kiln construction site along a pre-established trail and begin identifying local tree species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* As you are walking, ask participants to point out examples of common, local tree species. Stimulate discussion by asking the following questions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What are the distinguishing characteristics of this species?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What is its common name?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Is it a common variety in your worksite?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What are the most common uses of this species in your worksite?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* In discussing the distinguishing characteristics of each species, be sure to emphasize the importance of leaf patterns, bark, and seeds in classifying trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Also, during the tour, be sure to point out any particularly accessible sources of wood to be gathered during the next activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* End the tour by returning to the kiln construction site. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the guidelines and procedures for the wood gathering activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the wood gathered during this activity will be used in the kiln construction activities on Days 2, 3 and 4 of the program. Point out that participants will be making charcoal from a variety of types of wood; therefore, it will be important to gather more than one kind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Mention that, since participants will be working with miniature kilns all the wood that is gathered should range in sizes up to two centimeters in diameter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that wood should be cut into manageable lengths and carried or dragged back to the kiln construction site. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the specific quantities, varieties, and types of wood that should be gathered and ask participants to determine the most effective method of collecting it in the time available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the training program will require the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 8 buckets (20 1.) of 4 varieties of dry wood</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 4 buckets (20 1.) of 2 varieties of green wood</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- 2 buckets (20 1.) of any variety of rotten wood</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute machetes, saws, and pruning shears to each group, and have them proceed with the wood gathering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Before the groups disperse, identify a member of each group that is familiar with the use of the tools and ask him/her to demonstrate their proper use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* As the groups are working, provide suggestions and guidance as needed. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When all the wood is gathered, have the groups begin to cut it into the proper lengths.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Demonstrate the proper length by cutting a few pieces in lengths of between 30 and 35 centimeters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* This work should be done in the shade with groups sitting or kneeling in a circle within easy listening distance of one another. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have a representative from each group explain the type of wood with which they are working and discuss its potential for use in charcoal making.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask the groups to remain at their work sites, but to stop cutting wood during this discussion. The noise of the saws and the movement can be distracting and would inhibit conversation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion and dialogue among the participants by asking the following questions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What is the relative density of the wood that you are cutting?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What effects, if any, might the wood's density have in determining the kind of charcoal it would produce?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How is this wood most commonly used in your work site?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Do you think that people would use it for making charcoal? </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 8. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants complete their wood cutting activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Encourage the groups to continue to informally discuss wood species that are common in their work sites and their potential for use in making charcoal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* As groups finish, distribute the storage buckets and explain that it is important to keep all the different types of wood in separate buckets. Each bucket should be labelled (i.e., oak, dry; or Gmelina, green, etc.), for ease of reference later in the program. Green wood should be sealed and protected from the air to prevent drying. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 9. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclude by briefly reviewing the session and explaining that fuelwood use and management will be discussed in more detail in Session 7, "Wood Resource Management" on Day 2.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 6: Fire and food: The dynamics of traditional cooking</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 hour</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To prepare a meal using traditional methods</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To compare the use of firewood and charcoal in meal preparation</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To define and discuss the principles of heat transfer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 6-A, "Traditional Cooking Discussion Questions"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 6-B, "Fundamental Means of Heat Transfer"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pens or pencils, assorted traditional pots and utensils for cooking and eating, a traditional charcoal cooker, all necessary ingredients for a traditional meal, machetes, a supply of charcoal, a supply of firewood, kindling, matches.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* An option to the meal preparation is to have the participants prepare a hot beverage such as tea or coffee using the open fire and charcoal cooker. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Present the objectives and briefly outline the session procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute and explain Attachment 6-A, "Traditional Cooking Discussion Questions."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain that the questions are designed to provide a focus during the cooking acitivy. Encourage participants to discuss among themselves some of the issues raised by the questions as they are preparing their meal. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants form two groups and prepare two types of traditional cooking fires.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask one group to prepare a traditional open fire using rocks to support the pots and firewood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Have the other groups prepare a charcoal fire using the traditional charcoal cooker.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Identify those individuals in each group that have had experience with traditional methods of cooking and ask them to assist others in starting the fires. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the groups and explain the procedures for preparing the meal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Point out available pots, utensils, and ingredients for the meal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the meal will consist of two basic dishes selected on the basis of their traditional acceptability, ease of preparation, and combined nutritional value. Each work group will prepare one dish using the fire that they have built. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (30 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants form their work groups and prepare the meal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Identify those individuals in each group that have had experience in preparing similar dishes and ask them to assist others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Circulate among the groups and provide assistance and suggestions when needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Throughout the activity, stimulate discussion by calling participants' attention to relevant points from the list of "Discussion Questions." </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have supper.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* As they are eating, encourage participants to informally discuss and share their experiences with the fires. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the groups. Distribute Attachment 6-B, "Fundamental Means of Heat Transfer" and discuss the three types of heat transfer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask the participants to define radiation, conduction, and convection.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Encourage participants to refer to their Discussion Questions and illustrate their definitions with examples from their experience with the traditional cooking activity. Ask for examples of where radiant, conductive, and convective heat transfers occurred during the meal preparation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Briefly discuss ways of slowing down unwanted heat transfer. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 8. (15 minutes) Have the participants compare the charcoal cooker with the open fire in terms of efficiency and ease of preparation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate the discussion by asking the following questions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Which fire seemed to use more fuel? Why?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Which fire was easiest to manage and maintain? Why?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Encourage participants to refer to the "Discussion Questions" and illustrate their responses with examples from their experience with the cooking activity. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 9. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclude the session by explaining that the complexities involved in determining the relative efficiency of charcoal and firewood will be discussed in more detail in Session 8, "The Problem of Fuelwood Scarcity."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Before dispersing, ask participants to clean up the work area and thoroughly extinguish all fires. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 6A: Traditional cooking discussion questions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Design</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What are the major design features of your fire (or charcoal cooker (i.e., draft system, smoke control, baffles, flues, chimneys, construction material, etc.)?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting the Fire</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What problems did you encounter in starting the fire?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How long did it take for your fire to heat up?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Was there much smoke?</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Preparing the Meal</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How often did you need to add fuel?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Did the fire stay lit?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Was there much heat loss?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Did the pots fit well over the fire?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Once heated, did the dishes hold their heat?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Was there much smoke?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the Meal</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Was your fuel source easy to handle?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Was there much work involved in preparing the fuel for use?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How long did your fire hold its heat after the meal was prepared?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How much fuel did you use?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 6B: Fundamental means of heat transfer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p026a.png"></center><br>
+ Conduction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p026b.png"></center><br>
+ Radiation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p026c.png"></center><br>
+ Convection</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p026d.png"></center><br>
+ It is possible that all three may occur at once.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Day 2</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 7: Wood resource management</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=542>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="84%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 hours</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="84%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To list and discuss possible wood sources for carbonization</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="84%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss principles of wood resource management</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="84%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To describe how wood sources can be utilized for making charcoal</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="84%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 7-A, "Fuelwood Production in Traditional Farming Systems"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="84%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 7-B, "Why is it so Difficult to Grow Fuelwood?"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="84%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 7-C, "Definitions of Major Wood Sources"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="84%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newsprint and felt-tip pens</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Prior to this session, prepare on newsprint the following three-column, chart outline: </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wood Sources</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Type of Charcoal</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Use</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the objectives and briefly outline the session procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Post the chart outline and have the participants brainstorm a list of possible wood sources for use in making charcoal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Record their responses in the left-hand column of the chart.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Some major sources which could be listed include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- plantations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- woodlots</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- mill scrap</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- logging waste</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- natural forests</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- agricultural fallow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- land use conversion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- agro-forestry</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (30 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute Attachment 7-A, "Fuelwood Production in Traditional Farming Systems," Attachment 7-B, "Why is it so Difficult to Grow Fuelwood?", and Attachment 7 - C, "Definitions of Major Wood Sources" and allow time for reading.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask the participants to identify and discuss some of the major difficulties involved in the management of each of the wood sources listed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stress the importance of citing examples based on their experiences at their work sites and/or based on the issues and examples in the reading material.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion and the sharing of personal experiences by asking the following questions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How are wood resources managed at your work site?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What are some of the cultural and economic factors which influence wood resource management at your work site?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What possibilities exist at your work site for better utilization of available wood resources? (i.e., salvage operations, agro-forestry, etc.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What can you do to help people manage their wood resources? </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask participants to identify and discuss the types of charcoal which could be produced from each of the sources listed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* List their responses in the middle column of the posted newsprint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion by reminding participants of the relationship between wood density and charcoal density discussed during the wood gathering activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask participants to explain the effects of kiln design on the type of charcoal produced. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For each type of charcoal listed, have participants determine whether it would be best for home or industrial use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Record their responses in the third column of the posted newsprint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate responses and discussion by identifying ideal characteristics of home and industrial use charcoal. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using the completed chart as a reference, ask participants to give specific examples of how wood sources available at their work sites may be utilized in making charcoal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 7A: Fuelwood production in traditional farming systems</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Ben Salem and Tran van Nao</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Ben Salem and Tran van Nao are members of the FAO Forestry Department. This article is taken from a paper they prepared for the United Nations Conference on New and Renewable Sources of Energy, Nairobi; August, 1981.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The history of fuelwood in the developing world illustrates the dependence of rural communities on forests and trees. Over time, there has been a build-up of fuelwood shortages, with new problems continually arising for rural people in meeting their daily fuelwood requirements. At the same time, environments, under conditions of scarcity, have deteriorated. Should these trends continue, in certain parts of the world the very survival of populations will be in jeopardy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The reasons for the existence of this situation are well documented. Growing population pressure has usually been recognized as the most important single factor. But whatever the relationship between the trend in human population and increasing fuelwood shortages and environmental deterioration, it must be noted that the relationships among rural forestry, traditional farming activity and the role and potential of rural forestry have for a long time been neglected or ignored. Not only could forestry provide sufficient fuel and other goods and services essential to rural populations, but it could also contribute to stabilizing the foundations of food production systems and to stopping or reversing the impoverishment of the rural environment 35 a whole.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Traditional Farming</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Across the world there are fuelwood shortages in precisely those areas that are under the most agricultural pressure. These include all the arid and semi-arid regions under tropical, subtropical and Mediterranean climates, as well as some wetter zones with high population density. The most important features of these areas are the vulnerability of the wood resources and the risk involved in exploiting them because of soil fragility and climatic fluctuations. For both economic and social reasons, the only available energy source for the rural, and part of the urban, populations is organic material, especially wood and charcoal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Traditional farming systems have often succeeded in integrating activities and in providing a reliable and sustained supply of wood for local needs. A brief description of some of the traditional farming systems illustrates the potential efficiency of rural forestry in a wide range of environments, ranging from the humid to the arid regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Traditional Home Gardens</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout Southesast Asia (Malaysia, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Viet Nam, Thailand), on fertile lowlands with high rainfall, traditional home gardens are of fundamental importance in feeding whole populations. In this system, the multi-layered vegetation of the tropics is formed of trees useful to man in providing year-round fruit, food, fodder and fuelwood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fuelwood is obtained from pruning, from bamboo and Sesbania wood, and from coconut leaves and shells. For a family of five persons, fuelwood requirements can be met by six coconut palms more than five years old. The traditional home gardens have helped to maintain soil fertility and to provide a reliable source of fuelwood. It has been reported that in East Java, 63 percent of all fuelwood was obtained from farmyards; and that in centeral Java, 49 to 81 percent of all fuelwood came from home gardens. The production in one watershed in central Java was estimated at between 7 and 9 m3/ha/year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Combretum-Rice System</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Southeast Asia, in areas with an annual rainfall varying from 1,500 to 2,000 mm over five to six months, the Combretum-rice system is common. Farming activities consist mainly of rice cropping, which is done in the rainy season, but trees have always been planted in conjunction with rice production. Rice fields are demarcated in the form of squares of 1 hectare each by small dikes which are planted with two rows of Combretum quadrangular. Sometimes Calophyllum insophyllum is planted on large dikes to produce seeds from which oil is extracted and used for lighting. Combretum is managed under a coppice system with a rotation of five to six years. This means that each year farmers cut between one fifth and one sixth of the total length of their dikes. Fuelwood production from the first cutting is estimated at between 0.6 and 1.0 m3 per 400 linear metres per year. In the second and third rotations, this production may double.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bush-Fallow Systems</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are adaptations of the shifting cultivation which occurs extensively in Africa, Asia and Latin America among subsistence farmers to reconstitute soil fertility and to supply rural people with fuelwood, fodder and minor forest products. A number of bush-fallow systems are of particular interest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gum arabic tree-fallow system has long been used in regenerating soil fertility over large areas, particularly in Kordofan and Dar fur provinces and parts of the Blue Nile and Kanala provinces in the Sudan. In this system, crops are grown and gum is produced in a well-defined rotation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Kurdistan and in the Zagros mountains of Iran, the local people use a system which involves the exploitation of natural scrub and bush for fuel. After exploitation, the land is plowed and cultivated with barley. Then, after only one crop is harvested, it is left to fallow for three to five years to allow the natural vegetation to re-establish itself. Total fuelwood production from the vegetated part may be estimated at 15 to 25 m3 for the fallow period of about five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In southern Iran, farmers practicing irrigated agriculture deliberately plant crops of Tamarix spp. around their fields to protect vegetable crops. When the land is abandoned after the well water becomes salty, they plant tamarisk trees to reduce soil salinity before moving to another piece of land. This, in addition to fuelwood, produces sticks for their vegetable crops. After three to four years, the trees are dug up and both roots and aerial parts are used for fuelwood. On the basis of 200 trees/ha. between 4.7 and 6.5 m3 of fuelwood could be collected after four years, in addition to between 0.8 and 1.2 m3 of roots.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legume-Tree Food Crops</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This system has been used over a considerable area in semiarid ecosystems where soil fertility and moisture availability are limiting factors to food crops. Dwellers in these zones encourage the regeneration and growing of the trees to maintain soil fertility and to produce fodder and fuelwood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shade-Tree Industrial Crops</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Use of shade trees for industrial crops (coffee, cacao, pepper and tea) is well documented. In Sri Lanka, Clyricida spp. provide live support stakes for pepper vines or shade trees for tea plantations. An appropriate pruning operation can yield a limited amount of fuelwood each year. Although this yield may be small on a hectare basis, the potential contribution is large in view of the total area devoted to combination tea and pepper plantations in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trees planted in shelterbelts and windbreaks to improve local microclimates and to enhance the quantity and quality of crop yields are used in the agriculture of many countries as environmentally effective hedges. Apart from its effect on crop production, the system also provides cash crops and a substantial amount of fuelwood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other examples of rural forestry could also be cited. All show a variety of forestry practices and successful adaptations to meet fuelwood requirements. There are, however, a number of features which distinguish them from classical plantation forestry. First, fuelwood products in farming communities are from a variety of ligneous material and come from a wide range of woody species. Farmers will often plant not one but several species, often multipurpose species, to cover a variety of specific economic and ecological needs. Another important characteristic in fuelwood production is the selection and planting of only those species that provide food, fodder or income directly, or assist in the production and sustenance of these items by maintaining and improving soil fertility. In the subsistence economies, fuelwood was often regarded in the past as a by-product of the efforts to produce enough food for the family.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A third feature of farming communities is their relatively low consumption of fuelwood. Subsistence farmers have traditionally kept their fuelwood requirements in harmony with their actual needs. The practices described above suggest that under such conditions, where land is not scarce and where peasant communities are able to produce their own food and to integrate trees into their land-use systems, immediate and long-term requirements for fuelwood can be ensured. For a number of decades, however, this system has been under increasing pressure from a number of separate and related causes originating not so much in technical factors as in the land-use system itself. Early attempts to improve subsistence agricultural systems emphasized annual cash crops. The extensive cultivation required by such crops reduced the tree cover and exhausted soil fertility. Trees no longer improved soil fertility through nutrient recycling and humus supply, so commercial fertilizers had to be used. Although they were partly successful, they increased farmer dependence. Another factor was the intensification of livestock grazing without due regard to fodder production, which led to greater pressure on available woody resources and to the shrinkage of woody grazing grounds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the advance of large rural settlements and the expansion of cities, fuelwood, which used to be a free commodity, entered the market and was traded not only for cooking and heating purposes but also for a variety of artisanal and industrial uses such as brick and lime making, tanning, ceramics and pottery, brewing and food additives. This resulted in a rapid decline of fuelwood resources. Peasant communities found themselves with rising shortages which forced them to search farther and farther afield in order to meet their needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential and Limits of Rural Forestry</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The previous discussion strongly implies that rural forestry is the most natural solution to the problem of fuel in the rural areas, and the' trees and forest vegetation can be integrated in the traditional land-use system in a variety of ways. Finally, it clearly demonstrates that such integration is not mere coincidence but the result of well-thought-out systems designed to improve subsistence food production and to control land degradation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These conclusions have important policy implications in relation to fuelwood production. They suggest a need to re-examine past plantation models, which have been based essentially on intervention in the forest domain and in the so-called wastelands. A concept of forestry is required which will spread across the whole spectrum of land management. The agricultural sector, for instance, ought to include forest trees. Here, their role would be to support agricultural production, diversify income and control land degradation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between 2 and 5 percent of agricultural land can be opened up for tree plantations according to various tree-planting patterns without any loss to agricultural production. This could have a great impact on the basic problems of food and land amelioration while providing the necessary fuelwood in the rural sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The implementation of this policy will require a program to improve and/or introduce traditional forestry in agricultural communities. It will require the development of a number of technical solutions associated with the integration of tree growing and farming. It will also require that forestry that is now largely production-oriented must become oriented as well to agricultural improvement. Fuelwood and fodder production would then become the two most important products. This would require a much more intimate knowledge of the tree species best adapted to the region and the people, but it would not eliminate the need for developing, through genetic selection, fast-growing strains of local and exotic species which are relatively unaffected by local pests, diseases and biotic factors. Nor would it eliminate the need for developing silvicultural systems adapted to different levels of rural production systems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Socio-Economic Framework</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before we can expect any success in the implementation of such a program, the previous socio-economic framework, which has brought about the over-exploitation of trees on agricultural lands, will need to be fully understood. What will readily work in one region, for example, will not work in others. In some areas, trees and shrubs could be introduced without upsetting the local economy because of large holdings or because of the existence of intensive agriculture. In other areas, this would not be possible because land holdings are too small and people are dependent on them for food. In uplands with small farming communities, trees could not be introduced without assistance to those now dependent on plant cover for part, if not all, of their livelihood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If traditional forestry practices are to become an integral part of rural planning, farmers will have to be the object of special information campaigns and will have to be trained in tree planting and management. This can be done either individually or collectively. First of all, the political authorities will have to recognize that this integration of forestry and agriculture is becoming more urgent all the time because of the combination of increasing population and shortage of wood for man's most basic needs, especially fuel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matching the trees to the appropriate systems of agriculture - some examples</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=706>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">System wherein the species is found (or associated with)</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fuelwood</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Timber</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Light farm wood</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other uses</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Method of propagation</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual rainfall and climatic/soils conditions</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. <I>Acacia arabica</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Windbreaks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shade trees</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bush-fallow</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">xx</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">x</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pods as fodder</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Direct seeding on mounds, strip or line</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alluvial or loamy soil; moist conditions</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. <I>Albizia falcataria</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shade trees</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regular planting in farm forestry</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">xx</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">xx</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">x</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Direct seeding or seedlings raised in nursery</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wide range of soils but prefer loamy soil and good rainfall</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. <I>Bamboo</I> (several spp.)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Live fencing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regular plantations in farm forestry</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Around houses</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">x</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">x</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">xx</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raw material for cottage industries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shoots for food</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rarely from seeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shoot cuttings</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loamy or clayey soil; moderate to high rainfall</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. <I>Calophyllum inophyllum</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shade trees for amenity (roadsides, around houses, public gardens)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">xx</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burning oil</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seedlings to be raised in nursery</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loamy/clayey soil; moderate to very moist conditions</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. <I>Cassia siamea</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shade trees in plantations</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">xx</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">x</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Direct sowing of seed in lines</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heavy rainfall (poor growth in dry climate)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. <I>Casuarina equisetifolia</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agri-forestry systems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Windbreaks</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">xx</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">xx</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">x</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tannin bark</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seedlings raised in nursery. Planting (1.5 to 2 m spacing) or if too close early thinning needed</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sandy soil; stand rainfall between 800 and 5 000 mm</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. <I>Combretum quadrangulare</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice field dikes</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">xx</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">x</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Medicine</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seedlings raised in nursery. Direct seeding possible</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loamy soil; slower growth on sandy soil; average rainfall 1500-2000 mm over 5/6 months</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. <I>Cordia alliodora</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agri-forestry systems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shade trees in coffee plantations</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">xx</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">x</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Direct seeding (mixing success). Seedlings from nursery - wide spacing (unless early thinning). Natural regeneration good</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moist, well-drained sites; rainfall 1500-2000 mm</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. <I>Gliricidia</I> spp.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shade trees in plantations or as living stakes</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">x</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">x</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Direct seeding or stumps</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alluvial or clayey soil; high rainfall or moist conditions</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. <I>Grevillea robusta</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shade trees in tea and coffee plantations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roadside trees</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">xx</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seedlings from nursery</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sandy soils; 700 to 1500 mm summer rainfall</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. <I>Leucaena glauca</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Windbreaks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shade trees</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Planting around houses</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">xx</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">x</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fodder</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green manure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitrogen fixing</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Direct seeding or cuttings</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Neutral or alkaline soils; poor growth on acidic soil; rainfall 600-1700 mm</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12. <I>Morus Indica (M. alba)</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regular plantations for silkworm raising</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Irrigated roadside or canal planting</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">x</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">x</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fruit leaves for silkworm raising</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Direct seeding or branch cuttings</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Light sandy soil. Moderate to high rainfall 600-1700 mm</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">13. <I>Pithecolobieum saman</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shade/amenity trees</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">xx</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">x</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fodder</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Medicine</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Direct seeding or seedlings from nursery</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clayey or loamy soil; high rainfall; moist conditions</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14. <I>Prosopis</I> spp.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plantations for fuelwood</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bush-fallow</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">xx</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">x</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="12%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fodder</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Direct seeding (if irrigated or stump planting</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="20%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=1><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dry soil, not excesive moisture; grows on rocky and saline soils</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 7B: Why is it so difficult to grow fuelwood?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raymond Noronha</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raymond Noronha is a sociologist on the staff of the World Bank.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For a large part of the world's population, wood is the main source of energy for cooking, heating and all kinds of local manufacturing. But the forests that produce this wood are under increasingly heavy pressure. This gives impetus to the necessity of looking to village woodlots as one of the most important means of dealing with the wood-energy crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two basic assumptions should be made: first, that the techniques of establishing woodlots are well known; second, that trees serve a variety of human needs and are one of the cheapest sources of energy. If there is no dispute about these assumptions, why is it that village woodlots are not springing up all over the countryside in the developing countries where they are so badly needed? The reasons are not technological, but social and political.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Examples of both successful and unsuccessful woodlot programs are few, and relatively recent: China, the Republic of Korea, India (Gujaret), Tanzania and Niger. However, all of these have been subjected to intensive scrutiny.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over a period of 30 years, from 1949 to 1978, the forest area of China increased by 72 million hectares, representing 12.7 percent of the land area. The main cause of this increase was the mass mobilization of rural communities. National targets were set and then translated into specific goals for districts, brigades and communities. The revolutionary spirit pervading the program, as in all other Chinese programs, called for rebuilding and renewal. The organization for this purpose already existed; the division of tasks was prescribed uniformly throughout the nation and implemented by a hierarchy of officials and cadres.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Republic of Korea</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Korean example, which has been more highly touted than the Chinese as a model for other developing countries, seems more dramatic. Until 1973, all efforts at controlling forest degradation had failed, and seedlings planted by foresters were cut within six months of planting. Since the villagers traditionally regarded forest land as a free source of fuelwood, the result was a loss of forests around communities and the increasing use of leaves, grass, rice straw, maize stover and other agricultural residues for fuel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Republic of Korea embarked on a four-fold program in 1973 which involved the strengthening of the Forest Department, the passing of the new Forest Law, and the launching of an extension and public information campaign. This gave encouragement to the planting of trees, to conservation measures and to enforcement of the new law. The prohibition of leaf-raking and removal of grass litter within forest areas was enforced and a national reforestation scheme was started to create fuelwood plantations in every village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India (Gujarat)</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The story in Gujarat is slightly different. By 1969, it was realized that the reserved State forest areas were dwindling through constant incursions by the rural population for their fuel, fodder, and building-pole needs. Further, the rural population was increasingly compelled to use agricultural residues and dung for fuel, thereby affecting agricultural returns. The two principles used by the Forest Department in trying to reverse this trend were, first, to provide a demonstration effect--to show people that trees could be grown with profit and for comparatively quick returns; and second, to conduct an extensive public information campaign. In implementing the former, the Government was induced to hand over responsibility for road and canal sides to the Forest Department, which planted trees there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the program of planting on government lands and encouraging individual tree-planting could be described as a runaway success, the village woodlot program is lagging. Starting in 1974, the Forest Department decided to get village panchayats, or locally elected bodies, involved in reforestation on village commons. The approach differs significantly from that of the Republic of Korea. The Department requests the village to set aside a portion of its lands for reforestation and undertakes all the work of establishment, maintenance and protection. These are now called "supervised" village plantations. At harvest, the village receives half of the net sale proceeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, there are self-help village plantations where the Forest Department provides only free seedlings and technical assistance. To date, there are only 2,500 supervised, and about 70 self-help village plantations, representing about 14 percent of the villages in the State. Although Forest Department officials plan to increase their efforts to convince more panchayats to undertake community woodlot plantations, it would appear that their efforts will not be as successful as in the promotion of individual forestry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village woodlots in Tanzania have also not been entirely a success. The program, however, is relatively recent, having begun only in 1975. The organization and process of decision-making closely parallel those of the Republic of Korea. The basic unit, in an ujamaa village, is the village assembly which elects a council and a leader who is also the party secretary. In addition to working their own plots, villagers have to provide communal labor. Program formulation originates at the village level and then proceeds to the ward, division, district and region. At the village level, the village adviser, who is also the manager, is a government-appointed official. This framework allows for planning and decision-making directly at the village level. Although there is an inter-linking of government and elected personnel at every level up to the regional, together with provision for participation by the people, the village woodlot program has yet to achieve anything like the success of the Korean and Chinese programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even less of a success was the effort to establish 500 hectares of village woodlots in Niger under a World Bank project. "As fast as the trees were planted," said one observer, "the village people either pulled them out or allowed uncontrolled grazing to take place." Of another village woodlot program in Niger, this one funded by CIDA, it was said that "effective local participation in reforestation has been throttled by an exclusive reliance...on a community woodlot system ill-suited in the socio-political context to serve as a vehicle for reforestation efforts..."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="CENTER">Social Factors</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What are the reasons for the successes and failures of the programs described above? Are there any principles to be extracted from them that can be usefully applied to future village woodlot projects, or is each case, as is sometimes suggested, unique, with no possibility of relating the experiences of one project to another?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First, the Korean village is homogenous; it is not segmented by caste or tribal affiliations. Though disparities in wealth exist, they are not great. There is, therefore, a relative equality among all villagers. Second, as in the Chinese program, there is government commitment to the establishment of village plantations. This commitment takes the form of budgetary assistance, technical expertise, public education and law enforcement. It is not difficult, in these circumstances, to "convince" the landowner to part with his forest land for a return of 10 percent of the proceeds from growing trees. It is also not difficult to persuade the villager to perform his share of community duties when failure to do so would incur penalties enforceable by his village peers. Third, the "Samaeul Udong" movement, which worked in other spheres of village activity, was successfully integrated into the reforestation movement. Fourth, the organizational format reaches down to the village and provides a forum for expression, even though needs and projects are finally determined at the country level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gujarat presents an interesting contrast in that while individual planting has expanded, village woodlots lag. Why is this so? Based on my recent visits there and to Uttar Pradesh, I can try to offer some reasons. First, the Indian village, unlike the Korean, is heterogeneous. There is a mosaic of casts which associate only on well-recognized traditional occasions such as temple festivals. On a few other occasions, such as weddings, some castes do act in common, but only within a traditionally defined role. There is no tradition of communal action for such projects as growing trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In one village where community woodlots did take hold, dynamic leadership was responsible. A trusted panchayat chairman started by planting trees on his own land and then convinced the villagers that they, too, should have their own woodlot. Why did he decide on a self-help scheme rather than one in which the Forest Department would do everything for him? "Because," he said, "I refuse to pay the Department 50 percent of the profits for work on our land which is, in any event an overpayment." Where did he get funds, since his panchayat was poor? "People trust me. When I need money I approach rich villagers who give me anything I ask for."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A second key factor for village woodlots is the availability of land. There must be enough agricultural land for the local community. The village commons should be large enough so that villagers do not feel that reserving land for forestry will affect their other needs, particularly grazing. Also, the area set aside should be large enough for the harvest to meet the needs of all villagers. The percentage of villages capable of satisfying all of these conditions is small.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Third, governmental support for the program is essential. In Gujarat, while there is complete support for the forestry program, support does not appear to be as wholehearted for the village community woodlot program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A fourth point is that Gujarat, like the Republic of Korea, has made the transition from individual initiators to a flexible organization that retains the spirit of the initiator with the addition of an extension network which reaches down to the village. Sociologically, it might be said to have made the transition from charismatic leadership to bureaucracy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fifth, labor for plantations and maintenance continues to be a problem, since there is little available locally and most has to be supplied by migrant tribes. Local workers are usually tied to contractors or bound by social and economic ties to landowners who are reluctant to free them during agricultural seasons (when many of the forestry operations are carried out).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sixth, there is a problem of distribution which will soon have to be faced. It is unlikely that special preference will be given to the poorest sections of the village population. More likely, all villagers will share equally in the harvest if the village panchayat decides to distribute the fuelwood. Even more likely, however, is that the harvest will be sold and the proceeds applied to other priority needs determined by the panchayat. In this sense, village woodlots may fail to achieve their goal of alleviating the villagers' fuelwood needs and reducing their present dependence upon agricultural residues and dung as fuel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Tanzania, although the organizational pattern bears a close resemblance to the Korean one, the problems in establishing village woodlots are similar to those of Gujarat. Tanzania is a nation with tribal affiliations that hinder common action for 3 nontraditional activity like forestry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The complex land-tenure system in Tanzania prevents allocation of land for forestry. The abolition of freehold land in 1963 and the vesting of land in the State mean that the farmer sees his holding as temporary: he is not convinced that he will reap the benefits of tree crops eight to ten years after planting. At the same time, villagers are unwilling to set aside lands which, despite nationalization, are still believed to belong to certain groups and which are therefore utilized and inherited according to traditional systems of tenure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another problem is that the villagers are willing to use only hardwoods for fuel. They will not take wood from industrial plantations because they believe it burns too quickly. Nor will they accept charcoal from softwood, despite the fact that its effective caloric value per unit weight is the same as that of hardwood, the cost of production identical, and the price only half that of hardwood charcoal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to John Spears, who is responsible for forestry at the World Bank, the reason why the World Bank project in Niger failed to achieve its target of establishing 500 hectares of village woodlots was because villagers "had not been involved in formulating the project and because they perceived the village woodlot area as a traditional ground." But numerous other factors were involved. Collective action was lacking. Self-help projects were generally imposed by government officials without local participation. Community schemes required interdependence and not everyone could be counted on to do his share of the work. The returns from community woodlots were too small to encourage, participation. There was a great deal of emigration during the agricultural off-season, placing a burden on a few to maintain and protect village plantations. Few villagers believed that wood would be distributed free at harvest; they felt that the Government or some rich villagers would get all the benefits. Since all the inputs were provided free of cost by the Government, the villagers did not identify with the project; moreover, the free provision of inputs reinforced their belief that it was a government project of which they would not share the benefits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="CENTER">Effective Village Forestry</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government Commitment</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If afforestation programs are to succeed, there must first be a commitment on the part of the government. This commitment must be expressed in three ways: giving priority to afforestation, budgetary support, and the provision of staff. Where any of these three is lacking, afforestation programs falter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are major historical and socio-political constraints to making this commitment. Historically, the major emphasis of governments has been on feeding their populations and, where possible, developing a surplus for export. In pursuit of this goal, they have consistently supported the settlement of people in forested areas. There has been little attempt at conservation of timber resources, largely because these were considered more than adequate until the last two decades.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Planning bodies that influence economic development in developing countries are not staffed with foresters; they are flooded with economists, administrators, the occasional sociologist or anthropologist, and agriculturists. In these disciplines, forestry plays a minor role because fuelwood, for instance, and its use by the majority of the rural population do not enter into national accounting systems since so little of it is bought. The urban population, with which planners come into contact on a more regular basis, uses charcoal, wood (which "mysteriously" appears from the countryside), kerosene, gas and electricity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Related to this is the official view of the role of a forestry department in countries where this does, in fact, exist. The forestry department has had to preserve the country's forest resources and to extract commercial species of timber. The forester's main qualification was his knowledge of tree species. His contacts with people were meant to be limited to a few poachers and some more affluent hunters. With increasing population and the hunger for land, he has fought a losing battle to maintain his domain. If there is to be change, therefore, forestry departments must have enhanced status. Training should include courses in practical sociology and extension techniques in an effort to eliminate the idea that forestry is concerned only with the preservation and reforestation of reserved forest areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To many governments of developing countries, the cry for investment in fuelwood resources is a step backward in the pursuit of progress. For generations now, developing countries have been told that bigger is better, that electric central heating is more progressive than fuelwood stoves, that diesels are better than coal-fired railway engines, and that cars are better than horse-drawn carriages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Transition</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The spread of new ideas and methods is usually the result of an individual, or a few individuals, trying out new ways of dealing with familiar problems. It is understandable that the richer farmer with more land should be among the first to join such programs. Who else can afford the risks? Furthermore, he is often an opinion leader in his milieu. But for a program to spread and attain national dimensions, a growing organization is needed, one which retains the spirit of the initiators and yet reaches down to the lowest village levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This process of transition is one of the most difficult--for rules can kill. It is a transition that has been felicitously described as a learning process in three stages: learning to be effective; learning to be efficient; and maturity through learning to expand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Involving People</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Villagers have to understand a government's program before they can be expected to involve themselves in it. What, then, does involving the people mean? There are four basic principles: an acceptance of the validity of local views; the incorporation into organizational design of local participation in program formulation and decision-making; explanation of the program as a method of solving, or alleviating, the problems of the community; and obtaining community consent to the program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Understanding</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To involve the people means that they must be understood: their perceptions, their priorities, their socio-cultural framework, their economic needs. To the environmentalist outsider, forest depredation may mean the loss of valuable forest resources; to the villager concerned with his daily necessities and with little ability to control his future, it may mean new agricultural land, a residence and fuelwood to cook his meals. He may regard lower returns from the land, increased erosion and floods as the result not of his own doings, but as a consequence of natural forces beyond his control. To reach the villager, then, it is necessary to understand his "worldview."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also the time horizon in forestry projects to be considered. Trees, unlike wheat, rice or maize, take years to mature. Even a fast-growing species needs about five years before the first cutting. Returns, therefore, are delayed. To ask a farmer, or a village, to set aside land which will yield fruit only in years to come is a difficult task.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The role of women in forestry is just beginning to be appreciated and analyzed. There are too few women involved in the design of forestry programs who could contact local women. But local socio-cultural attitudes often do not permit open involvement of women in development programs. Time will resolve both these problems, but right now, there should be an acceptance of the principle that as a matter of course, women should be involved in forestry programs, both as designers and as implementers. They should not be thought of simply as gatherers of fuelwood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Design</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For village woodlots to succeed, the choice of an organization and in-depth knowledge of the village by itself will not suffice. To involve the villager, one must offer him a program that he understands and which caters to his needs. There must be a method in the incentives offered to encourage participation. Does the proffered species-mix provide him with trees that he knows and uses? If he decides that the trees intended to be grown as fuelwood are not suitable, they will be rejected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Implementation</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Few existing programs address the problems of implementation of a village woodlot program such as maintenance or the question of distribution of the harvest. These are contractual obligations which must be settled at the outset.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most analysts remark that maintenance of woodlots is one of the intractable problems. It is here that the difference between the self-help villages of the Republic of Korea and the supervised villages of Gujarat, is most evident. In the former, it is the villagers who maintain their woodlot, but in the latter, labor is generally hired by the Forest Department. Except in a few cases, this labor comes from outside the village. Only when the villagers are responsible for its maintenance will they believe that it really is their woodlot.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A similarly difficult problem is that of distribution of the harvest, a problem again solved only in the Republic of Korea. In Gujarat, the few plantations that reached maturity created a debate over whether the harvest should be shared locally or sold for a profit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In short, village priorities are not necessarily the same as those of outsiders, who might want to give preference to the poor or vice versa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many reforestation programs only deal with the supply side of the fuelwood equation. Few attempt to alter the demand aspects. Probably this is because current fuelwood programs only meet a fraction of existing minimum requirements. Nevertheless, unless there is a changed philosophy toward fuelwood use, supply will never catch up with demand. Some programs have attempted to introduce conservation methods through, for example, the construction of improved stoves. The only program that appears to have been successful is the introduction of the "Lorena" stove in Guatemala. In Africa, the same stove had limited success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agencies dealing with international development in many parts of the world are planning to increase their support of renewable energy resources, and village woodlots are fundamental. However, the problems that affect the acceptance or rejection of woodlots transcend the technological and are essentially socio-cultural, economic and locally political. What it all boils down to is the willingness to understand people and to put that understanding into the design and the running of programs, wherever they may be.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 7C: Definitions of major wood sources</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following list represents a basic summary of some important aspects of managing various wood resource systems:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The management of <U>natural forests</U> involves sustaining their output without damaging the growing stock through either even or uneven aged management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- <U>Plantations</U> are usually even aged, but can provide yields of different sizes and types of material over a long period of time (i.e., through thinnings for bean poles, firewood, fence posts, etc.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Collective and/or individual <U>wood lots</U> can be managed as plantations or natural forests. They are often mismanaged as a result of communal politics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- <U>Mill scraps</U>, <U>logging waste</U> and <U>land conversion</U> are all sources resulting from other ongoing forestry operations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- <U>Agricultural fallow</U> provides a supply of wood when trees and brush which have been planted in a planned, rotational cropping system or which have naturally seeded at the end of a cropping cycle are cut to prepare for the next crop cycle. It is not generally thought of as a potential source for charcoal and is usually burned in the fields for its value as fertilizer. It should be noted, however, that the burning process and resultant soil damage usually negate any real benefit to the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- <U>Agro-Forestry</U> involves the integrated management of a land area for both food and fuelwood crops. Charcoal can be one of the resulting products. Management may be individual or collective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 8: The problem of fuelwood scarcity</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=576>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 hours</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify and discuss the causes and effects of the world fuelwood problem</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss the role of charcoal production in the problem</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify possible solutions to the world fuelwood problem</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 8-A: "The Other Energy Crisis: Firewood"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 8-B: "Direct Energy Efficiency of Charcoal Production"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 8-C: "How the More Expensive Fuel Can Be Cheaper to Use"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 8-D: "How the More Expensive Fuel Can Be Cheaper to Buy"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 8-E: "World Charcoal Use Fact Sheet"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newsprint, felt-tip pens (optional: screen and film projector).</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* As an option to use of the "Worldwatch Paper No. 1", it is recommended that the Film, "Firewood: The Other Energy Crisis", be shown. The film is an effective and stimulating means of presenting the world fuelwood scarcity problem. The "Worldwatch Paper No. 1" deals with essentially the same issues as the film and is identified as a resource due to an understanding of the difficulty of acquiring films for use outside the United States. However, every effort should be made to acquire the film prior to the training program. It can be ordered through:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dick Young Productions Ltd.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">118 Riverside Drive</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York, NY 10024</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(212) 787-8954</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Review and explain the session objectives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (25 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute Attachment 8-A, "Worldwatch Paper No. 1" and allow participants time to read it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask the participants to identify some of the causes and effects of the world fuelwood crisis brought out in the reading material (or film).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* List their responses on posted newsprint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Some of the major causes and effects which should be mentioned include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- population</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- land converted to agricultural use</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- changing weather patterns</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- overgrazing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- changes in eating habits</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- displacement of people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- urbanization</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- erosion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- use of dung</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- lower crop yields</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- lower water tables</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- use of forests for lumber</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- flooding</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- silting of rivers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- crime</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- lack of money</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- attitude of defeatism</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- destruction of animal habitats</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion by having the group describe ways in which the causes and effects are interrelated (i.e., increased population leads to increased land conversion, which leads to destruction of animal habitats, less available fuelwood, shifting to urban areas, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask individuals to give examples of fuelwood scarcity situations at their work sites. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute and explain Attachment 8-B, "Direct Energy Efficiency of Charcoal Production."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that this Attachment is designed to illustrate that charcoal production results in a direct loss of energy potential, even when using improved techniques. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute Attachment 8-C, "How the More Expensive Fuel Can Be Cheaper to Use", and Attachment 8-D, "How the More Expensive Fuel Can Be Cheaper to Buy", and ask participants to identify reasons why individuals would choose to use charcoal in spite of its apparent inefficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Record their responses on posted newsprint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The following points should be noted and discussed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- smokeless</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- easy to sell, store, measure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- charcoal stoves are inexpensive, efficient, and portable</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- industrial demand for charcoal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- ease of transporting and shipping due to reduction of weight and bulk</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute and discuss Attachment 8-E, "World Charcoal Use Fact Sheet."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask participants to describe the charcoal use and control situation in the country where the training is being provided. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have participants identify and discuss possible solutions to the world fuelwood crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Record their responses on posted newsprint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Some important possible solutions include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- more efficient charcoal production methods</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- improved wood resource management</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- improved designs of charcoal cookers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- improved designs for wood-burning stoves</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- use of retained heat cookers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- population control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- further development of other energy sources (i.e., biogas, solar, etc.) </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 8A: The other energy crisis: Firewood</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Erick Eckholm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Watch Paper 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">September, 1975</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwindling reserves of petroleum and artful tampering with its distribution are the stuff of which headlines are made. Yet for more than a third of the world's people, the real energy crisis is a daily scramble to find the wood they need to cook dinner. Their search for wood, once a simple chore and now, as forests recede, a day's labor in some places, has been strangely neglected by diplomats, economists, and the media. But the Firewood crisis will be making news--one way or another--for the rest of the century.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While chemists devise ever more sophisticated uses for wood, including cellophane and rayon, at least half of all the timber cut in the world still fulfills its original role for humans--as fuel for cooking and, in colder mountain regions, a source of warmth. Nine-tenths of the people in most poor countries today depend on firewood as their chief source of fuel. And all too often, the growth in human population is outpacing the growth of new trees - not surprising when the average user burns as much as a ton of firewood a year. The results are soaring wood prices, a growing drain on incomes and physical energies in order to satisfy basic fuel needs, a costly diversion of animal manures to cooking food rather than producing it, and an ecologically disastrous spread of treeless landscapes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The firewood crisis is probably most acute today in the countries of the densely populated Indian subcontinent, and in the semi-arid stretches of central Africa fringing the Sahara Desert, though it plagues many other regions as well. In Latin America, for example, the scarcity of wood and charcoal is a problem throughout most of the Andean region, Central America, and the Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An Economic Burden</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As firewood prices rise, so does the economic burden on the urban poor. One typical morning on the outskirts of Kathmandu, Nepal's capital city, I watched a steady flow of people--men and women, children and the very old--trudge into the city with heavy, neatly chopped and stacked loads of wood on their hacks. I asked my taxi driver how much their loads, for which they had walked severe' hours into the surrounding hills, would sell for. "Oh, wood a very expensive item!" he exclaimed without hesitation. Wood prices are a primary topic of conversation in Kathmandu these days. "That load costs 20 rupees now. Two years ago, it sold for six or seven rupees." This 300 percent rise in the price of fuel wood has in part been prompted by the escalating cost of imported kerosene, the principle alternative energy source for the poor. But firewood prices have risen mush faster than kerosene prices, also reflecting the growing difficulty with which wood is procured. It now costs as much to run a Kathmandu household on wood as on kerosene.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The costs of firewood and charcoal are climbing throughout most of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Those who can, pay the price, and thus, must forego consumption of other essential goods. Wood is simply accepted as one of the major expenses of living. In Niamey, Niger, deep in the drought-plagued Sahel in West Africa, the average manual laborer's family now spends nearly one-fourth of its income on firewood. In Ouagadougou, Upper Volta, the portion is 20 to 30 percent. Those who can't pay so much may send their children, or hike themselves, out into the surrounding countryside to forage-if enough trees are within a reasonable walking distance. Otherwise, they may scrounge about the town for twigs, garbage, or anything burnable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not in the cities but in rural villages that most people in the affected countries live, and where most firewood is burned. The rural landless poor in parts of India and Pakistan are now facing a new squeeze on their meager incomes. Until now, they have generally been able to gather wood for free among the trees scattered through farmlands, but as wood prices in the towns rise, landlords naturally see an advantage in carting available timber into the nearest town to sell rather than giving it to the nearby laborers. While this commercialization of firewood raises the hope that entrepreneurs will see advantage in planting trees to develop a sustainable, labor-intensive business, so far a depletion of woodlands has been the more common result. And the rural poor, with little or no cash to spare, are in deep trouble in either case.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the farmland trees and the scrubby woodlands of unfarmed areas being depleted by these pressures, both the needy and the entrepreneurs are forced to poach for fuel wood in the legally protected ecologically and economically essential national forest reserves. The gravity of the poaching problem in India has been reflected in the formation of special mobile guard-squads and mobile courts to try captured offenders, but law enforcement measures have little effect in such an untenable situation. Acute firewood scarcity has undermined administrative control even in China, where trees on commune plantations are sometimes surreptitiously uprooted for fuel almost as soon as they are planted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trees are becoming scarce in the most unlikely places. In some of the most remote villages in the world, deep in the once heavily forested Himalayan foothills of Nepal, journeying cut to gather firewood and fodder is now an <U>entire day's task</U>. Just one generation ago, the same expedition required no more than an hour or two.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ecological Consequences</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because those directly suffering its consequences are mostly illiterate and wood shortages lack the photogenic visibility of famine, the wood crisis has not provoked much world attention. In a way, there is little point in calling this a world problem, for fuel wood scarcity, unlike oil scarcity, is always localized in its apparent dimensions. Economics seldom permit fuel wood to be carried or trucked more than a few hundred miles from where it grows, let alone the many thousands of miles traversed by the modern barrel of oil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, however, the consequences of firewood scarcity are seldom limited to the economic burden placed on the poor of a particular locality. The accelerating degradation of woodlands throughout Africa, Asia, and Latin America, caused in part by fuel gathering, lies at the heart of what will likely be the most profound ecological challenge of the late twentieth century. On a global basis, an ecological threat to human well-being far more insidious and intractable than the industrial pollution of cur air and water-which has preempted thinking on environmental quality--is the undermining of the productivity of the land itself through soil erosion, increasingly severe flooding, creeping deserts, and declining soil fertility. All these problems are accentuated by deforestation, which is spreading as lands are cleared for agriculture and as rising populations continue their search for firewood. Rainwater falling on tree-covered land tends to soak into the ground rather than rush off; erosion and flooding are thus reduced, and more water seeps into valuable underground pools and spring sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dangerous Substitutes</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Indian subcontinent, the most pernicious result of firewood scarcity is probably not the destruction of tree cover itself, but the alternative to which a good share of the people in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh have been forced. A visitor to almost any village in the subcontinent is greeted by omnipresent pyramids of hand-molded dung patties drying in the sun. In many areas, these dung cakes have been the only source of fuel for generations, but now, by necessity, their use is spreading further. Between 300 and 400 million tons of wet dung--which shrinks to 60 to 80 million tons when dried --are annually burned for fuel in India alone, robbing farmland of badly needed nutrients and organic matter. The plant nutrients wasted annually in this fashion in India equal more than a third of the country's chemical fertilizer use. Looking only at this direct economic cost, it is easy to see why the country's National Commission on Agriculture recently declared that "the use of cow dung as a source of non-commercial fuel is virtually a crime."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even more important than the loss of agricultural nutrients is the damage done to soil structure and quality through the failure to return manure to the fields. Organic materials--humus and soil organisms which live in it--play an essential role in preserving the soil structure and fertility needed for productive farming. Organic matter holds the soil in place when rain falls and wind blows, and reduces the wasteful, polluting runoff of chemical nutrients where they are applied, thus increasing the efficiency of their use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peasants in the uplands of South Korea have found another, equally destructive, way to cope with the timber shortage. A United Nations forestry team visiting the country in the late '960's found not only live tree branches, shrubs, seedlings, and grasses being cut for fuel; many hillsides were raked clean of all leaves, litter and burnable materials. Raking in this fashion, to meet needs for home fuel and farm compost, robs the soil of both a protective cover and organic matter, and the practice as cited by the UN experts as "one of the principal causes of soil erosion in Korea." Firewood scarcity similarly impairs productivity in Eastern Nigeria, where the Tiv people have been forced to uproot crop residues after the harvest for use as fuel. traditionally, the dead stalks and 'eaves have been left to enrich the soil and hold down erosion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Closing Circle</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The increasing time required to gather firewood in many mountain villages of Nepal is leading to what the kingdom's agricultural officials fear most of all. For, once procuring wood takes too long to be worth the trouble, some farmers start to use cow dung, which was formerly applied with great care to the fields, as cooking fuel. As this departure from tradition spreads, the fertility of the hills, already declining due to soil erosion, will fall sharply. In the more inaccessible spots, there is no economic possibility whatsoever of replacing the manure with chemical fertilizers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And so the circle starts to close in Nepal, a circle long completed in parts of India. As wood scarcity forces farmers to burn more dung for fuel, and to apply less to their fields, falling food output will necessitate the clearing of ever larger, ever steeper tracts of forest - intensifying the erosion and landslide hazards. Even Nepal's key economic planning body, the National Planning Commission, now says that if present trends continue, a "semi-desert type of ecology in the hilly regions" will be created.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Though most dramatically apparent in Nepal, this same cluster of phenomena threatens the future habitability of the entire stretch of Himalayan foothills, from Afghanistan through northern Pakistan, India, and Nepal to Burma. And the negative consequences by no means stop at the base of the hills. When soil washes away, it must relocate somewhere, and the rising load of silt carried by Asia's rivers is choking up expensive reservoirs and irrigation works. Most threatening of all to food production prospects on the Indian subcontinent, where nearly one in every five human beings lives, is a rise in the frequency and severity of flooding in Pakistan, India, and possibly Bangladesh, the result of denuded watersheds off which rainfall rushes quickly, and of the excessive load of sediment from upstream that builds up river beds, reducing their capacity to channel water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Firewood scarcity, then, is intimately linked to the food problem facing many countries in two ways. Deforestation and the diversion of manures to use as fuel are sabotaging the land's ability to produce food. Meanwhile, as an Indian official put it, "Even if we somehow grow enough food for our people in the year 2000, how in the world will they cook it?"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Renewable Resource</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The firewood crisis is in some ways more, and in others less, intractable than the energy crisis of the industrialized world. Resource scarcity can usually be attacked from either and, through the conservation of demand or the expansion of supply. The world contraction in demand for oil in, 1974 and early 1975, for example, helped to ease temporarily the conditions of shortage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the firewood needs of the developing countries cannot be massively reduced in this fashion. The energy system of the truly poor contains no easily trimmable fat such as four to five thousand pound private automobiles represent. Furthermore, a global recession does little to dampen the demand for firewood as it temporarily has in the case of oil. The unfortunate truth is that the amount of wood burned in a particular country is almost completely determined by the number of people who need to use it. In the absence of suitable alternative energy sources, future firewood needs in these countries will be determined largely by population growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even if demographers are surprised by quick progress in slowing population growth over the next few decades, the demand for basic resources like firewood will still push many countries to their limits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fortunately trees, unlike oil, are a renewable resource when properly managed. The logical immediate response to the firewood shortage, one that will have many incidental ecological benefits, is to plant more trees in plantations, on farms, along roads, in shelter belts, and on unused land throughout the rural areas of the poor countries. For many regions, fast-growing tree varieties are available that can be culled for firewood inside of a decade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept is simple, but its implementation is not. Governments in nearly all the wood-short countries have had tree planting programs for some time--for several decades in some cases. National forestry departments in particular have often been aware of the need to boost the supply of wood products and the need to preserve forests for a habitable environment. But several problems have plagued these programs from the beginning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One is the sheer magnitude of the need for wood, and the scale of the growth in demand. Population growth, which surprised many with its acceleration in the post-war era, has swallowed the moderate tree planting efforts of many countries, rendering their impact almost negligible. Wood-producing programs will have to be undertaken on a far greater scale than most governments presently conceive if a real dent is to be made in the problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem of scale is closely linked to a second major obstacle to meeting this crisis: the perennial question of political priorities and decision-making time-frames. What with elections to win, wars to fight, dams to build, and hungry mouths to feed, it is hard for any politician to concentrate funds and attention on a problem so diffuse and seemingly long-term in nature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Political, Cultural, and Administrative Tangles</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even when the political will is there and the funds are allocated, implementing a large-scale reforestation campaign is an unexpectedly complex and difficult process. Planting millions of trees and successfully nurturing them to maturity is not a technical, clearly boundaried task like building a dam or a chemical fertilizer plant. Tree planting projects almost always become deeply enmeshed in the political, cultural, and administrative tangles of a rural locality; they touch upon and are influenced by, the daily living habits of many people, and they frequently end in failure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of the regions with too few trees also have too many cattle, sheep, and goats. Where rangelands are badly overgrazed, the leaves of a young sapling present an appetizing temptation to a foraging animal. Marauding livestock are prime destroyers of tree planting projects throughout the less developed world. To be successful, then, reforestation efforts often require a formidable administrative effort to protect the plants for years--not to mention the monitoring of timber harvesting and replanting activities once the trees reach maturity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village politics can undermine a program as well. An incident from Ethiopia a few years back presents an extreme case, but its lessons are plain. A rural reforestation program was initiated as a public works scheme to help control erosion and supply local wood needs. The planting jobs were given to the local poor, mostly landless, laborers who badly needed the low wages they could earn in the planting program. Seedlings were distributed, planting commenced, and all seemed to be going well--until the overseers journeyed out to check the progress. They found that in many areas, the seedlings had been planted upside down! The laborers, of course, well knew the difference between roots and branches; they also knew that given the feudal land-tenure system in which they were living, most of the benefits of the planting would flow one way or another into the hands of their lords. They were not anxious to work efficiently for substandard wages on a project that brought them few personal returns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In country after country, the same lesson has been learned: tree planting programs are most successful when a majority of the local community is deeply involved in planning and implementation, and clearly perceives its self-interest in success. With wider community participation, the control of grazing patterns can be built into the program from the beginning, and a motivated community will protect its own project and provide labor at little or no cost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alternative Fuels</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whatever the success of tree planting projects, the wider substitution of other energy sources where wood is now being used would, if feasible, contribute greatly to a solution of the firewood problem. A shift from wood-burning stoves to those running on natural gas, coal, or electricity has indeed been the dominant global trend in the last century and a half.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Events of the last two years, of course, have abruptly altered energy use trends and prospects everywhere. The most widely overlooked impact of the fivefold increase in oil prices, an impact drowned out by the economic distress caused for oil-importing countries, is the fact that what had beer, the most feasible substitute for firewood, kerosene, has now been pulled even farther out of reach of the world poor than it already was.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a sensibly organized world, taking into account the total picture of energy, ecology, and food, the of distribution picture would look far different. The long-term interest in preserving the productive capacity of the earth and in maximizing welfare for the greatest number of people might argue for lower prices and a rapid increase, not a halt, in the adoption of kerosene and natural gas in the homes of the poor over the next two decades. This, in turn, would be viable for a reasonable time period only if the waste and comparatively frivolous uses of energy in the industrial countries, which are depleting petroleum reserves so quickly, were cut sharply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fossil fuels are rot the only alternate energy source being contemplated, and over the long term, many of these using firewood, like everyone else, will have to turn in other directions. Nothing, for example, would be better than a dirt-cheap device for cocking dinner in the evening with solar energy collected earlier in the day. But actually developing such a stove and introducing it to hundreds of millions of the world's most tradition-bound and penniless families is another story.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian scientists have pioneered for decades with an ideal sounding device that breaks down manures and other organic wastes into methane gas for cooking and a rich compost for the farm. Over eight thousand of these big-gas plants, as they are called, are now being used in India. Without a substantial reduction in cost, however, they will only slowly infiltrate the hundreds of thousands of rural villages where the fuel problem is growing. Additionally, as the plants are adopted, those too poor to own cattle could be left worse off than ever, denied traditional access to dung but unable to afford big-gas. Still, it is scientific progress with relatively simple, small-scale devices like solar cookers and big-gas plants that will likely provide the fuel source of the future in most poor countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In terms of energy, Nepal is luckier than many countries in one respect. The steep slopes and surging rivers that cause so many environmental problems also make Nepal one of the few remaining countries with a large untapped hydroelectric potential. Exploitation of this resource will be expensive and slow, but would relieve some of the pressures being placed on forests by the larger towns of Nepal and northern India. On the other hand, cheap electricity will only partly reduce firewood demands, since the electrification of isolated villages in the rugged Himalayas may never be economically feasible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Back to the Basics</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Firewood scarcity will undoubtedly influence governmental perceptions of the population problem in, the years ahead. It spotlights the urgency of slowing population growth through action on several fronts: making family planning services universally available, encouraging the liberation of women from traditional roles, meeting the basic social needs such as rudimentary health care, adequate nutrition and literacy that are usually associated with reduced fertility, and re-orienting social and economic incentives to promote smaller families.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The firewood crisis, like many other resource problems, is alto forcing governments and analysts back to the basics of man's relationship with the land--back to concerns lost sight of in an age of macro-economic models and technological optimism. Awareness is spreading that the simple energy needs of the world's poorest third are unlikely ever to be met by nuclear power plants, any more than their minimum food needs will be met by huge synthetic-protein factories.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Firewood scarcity and its attendant ecological hazards have brought the attitude of people toward trees into sharp focus. In his essay, "Buddhist Economics," E. F. Schumacher praises the practical as well as esoteric wisdom in the Buddha's teaching that his followers should plant and nurse a tree every few years. Unfortunately, this ethical heritage has been largely lost, even in the predominantly Buddhist societies of Southeast Asia. In fact, most societies today lack an ethic of environmental cooperation, an ethic not of conservation for its own sake, but of human survival amid ecological systems heading toward collapse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This will have to change, and fast. The inexorable growth in the demand for firewood calls for tree planting efforts on a scale more massive than most bureaucrats have ever even contemplated, much less planned for. The suicidal deforestation of Africa, Asia, and Latin America must somehow be slowed and reversed. Deteriorating ecological systems have a logic of their own; the damage often builds quietly and unseen for many years, until one day the system collapses with lethal vengeance. Ask anyone who lived in Oklahoma in 1934, or Chad in 1975.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERIK P. ECKHOLM is a Senior Researcher with "Worldwatch Institute. Formerly an Associate Fellow at the Overseas Development Council, he is the co-author of <U>By Bread Alone</U> and author of the forthcoming bock, <U>Losing Ground: Environmental Stress and World Food Prospects</U> (W. W. Norton, 1975).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This paper is adapted from the author's book, Losing Ground... and may be partially reproduced with acknowledgement to "Worldwatch Institute. The views expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily represent those of "Worldwatch Institute, its directors, officers, or staff.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 8B: Direct energy efficiency of charcoal production</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Traditional Methods</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">99% of all the charcoal produced in developing countries is made using traditional methods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improved Methods</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">through more efficient kiln designs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p056.png"></center><br>
+ Direct energy efficiency</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 8C: How the more expensive fuel can be cheaper to use!</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- For Example: Yaound&eacute;, September, 1981</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p057.png"></center><br>
+ Chart</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 8D: How the more expensive fuel can be cheaper to buy!</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- A reasonable hypothetical example (after D.E. Earl, 1975)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assume that 1 Gcal (10<SUP>9</SUP> calories) of wood energy sells for #1 (one unit currency) at the wood and charcoal production site.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further, assume that charcoal sells there at #4 per Gcal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p058.png"></center><br>
+ Graph</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Now, let us say that transportation rates are set at #15 per 100 km. for each metric tonne of the load.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thus, for charcoal, a tonne of which contains 7.5 Gcal, this works out to #2/Gcal per 100 km.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But, for air-dry wood, which requires about two tonnes to contain the same energy, the transportation rate becomes #4/Gcal per 100 km.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Therefore, at distances greater than 150 km from the production site (in this case), the energy available from burning charcoal is <U>cheaper</U> than that from burning wood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 8E: World charcoal use fact sheet</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* CHARCOAL USE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES occurs primarily in urban areas where people's energy needs are great and available sources of wood are often great distances away.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* IN CASES WHERE FUEL MUST BE TRANSPORTED more than 50 - SO kilometers, it is more efficient to convert wood into charcoal. The reduced weight and bulk of charcoal make it possible to transport more potential energy at a cheaper price than transporting firewood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* URBAN AREAS ARE DEMANDING CHARCOAL because it can be made available more cheaply than firewood and is easier to handle in congested urban areas. This demand strains available wood resources in rural areas and increases many of the fuelwood-related problems of rural people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* THIS CONFLICT OF INTERESTS AND NEEDS between urban and rural peoples has resulted in a variety of governmental attempts to control charcoal production throughout the world. For example:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the government of Gambia has passed laws which prohibit all types of charcoal production;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Kenya has established permit requirements which make it almost impossible to legally produce charcoal; and at the same time,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Senegal has placed price controls on charcoal and consequently encouraged its demand and use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 9: Introduction to kiln construction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=514>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="83%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">45 minutes</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="83%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To list past experiences with and/or knowledge of kiln types</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="83%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify and explain major design features of common kiln types</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="83%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 9-A: "Common Kiln Types"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="83%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 9-B: "Basic Principles of Kiln Design"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="83%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newsprint and felt-tip pens</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the session objectives and briefly review the procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (10 minutes) Have the participants form groups of 3-5 and record on newsprint their past experiences and/or knowledge of kiln types.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that each group should list or sketch kiln types they have seen or heard about.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Have each group post their lists when they have finished. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute Attachment 9-A, "Common Kiln Types," and Attachment 9-B, "Basic Principles of Kiln Design, and allow time for participants to review them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask participants to volunteer to identify and explain the basic design features of each of the kiln types illustrated on Attachment 9-A, "Common Kiln Types."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion by asking each volunteer to identify parallels which exist between the kiln types on the Attachment and those listed by the groups in the previous activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Record on posted newsprint important design features as they are discussed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Essential design features and considerations which should be discussed include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- heat transfer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- draft systems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- sizes of kilns</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- temperature cycles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- kiln volume/capacity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- front process</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- cost of kiln</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- ease of operation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- cultural acceptability</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- portability</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- basic design</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- construction materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- efficiency</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- labor required</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclude by asking one of the participants to briefly summarize the essential design features of kilns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Mention that the considerations discussed in this session can provide the context for the next session on kiln design.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the term "kiln" is used to refer to charcoal production methods in general, including retorts. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 9A: Common kiln types</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p062a.png"></center><br>
+ Traditional rectangular kiln</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p062b.png"></center><br>
+ Pit kiln</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p063a.png"></center><br>
+ Portable metal kiln</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p063b.png"></center><br>
+ Mixed kiln</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p064a.png"></center><br>
+ Casamance kiln</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p064b.png"></center><br>
+ Continuous kiln</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p064c.png"></center><br>
+ Oil drum kiln</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 9B: Basic principles of kiln design</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IDEALIZED RECTANGULAR EARTH-COVERED KILNS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p065.png"></center><br>
+ Comparison of sizes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p066a.png"></center><br>
+ Basis design features for a charcoal kiln</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p066b.png"></center><br>
+ Basic design features for a charcoal retort</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p067a.png"></center><br>
+ Illustrations of the front process during carbonization</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TYPES OF DRAFT SYSTEMS IN A CHARCOAL KILN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p067b.png"></center><br>
+ a) Rectangular earth-covered kiln</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p067c.png"></center><br>
+ b) Large portable metal kiln</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p068a.png"></center><br>
+ Approximate fraction of kiln's bulk volume filled with charge during run</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p068b.png"></center><br>
+ Average atmosphere temperature in a working charcoal kiln for a complete operational cycle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 10: Kiln design</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=593>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 hour, 15 minutes</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To develop a complete kiln design plan</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To present and discuss kiln designs with others in the group</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newsprint, felt-tip pens, pencils or pens, paper.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briefly explain the session objectives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outline the procedures for developing kiln designs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that participants will divide into groups of three or four and develop, in writing, a kiln design plan which includes the following components:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a list of design criteria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a list of necessary materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a list of necessary tools</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- an estimated cost</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a sketch or drawing of the design</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stress the importance of beginning the design process by identifying design criteria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Suggest that one way to develop a design is to have each member of the work group sketch as many kiln designs as possible on notebook paper, then choose one sketch which best meets the group's criteria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Remind participants that they will have only two hours to construct and fire their kilns, so the designs should not be too complex or difficult to construct. Also, mention that on Day 3, there will be ample opportunity to modify and re-design the kilns based on the experience of this first run.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Point out that each group will present and explain its design when they are finished. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (25 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants form their work groups and develop their kiln design plans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Circulate among the groups and offer assistance and suggestions. Be careful not to force your ideas on them. Offer support and encouragement in the form of suggestions. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (30 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the groups and have them present their design plans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* As each group is presenting its design, ask other participants to provide suggestions for improving feasibility, completeness and/or simplicity. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briefly review the session and explain that in the next session, participants will construct, load, and fire the kilns they have designed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 11: Kiln construction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 hours</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To construct miniature kilns based on design plans</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To load, fire, and seal miniature kilns</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss problem-solving techniques used by work groups during the design and construction activities.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A sample kiln (for demonstration purposes).</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Machetes, saws and pruning shears (if available), wood for making charcoal (see Session 5), hoes, shovels, large forks and spoons, assorted sizes and lengths of metal pipe, tin cans, 20 liter buckets, assorted metal working tools, wire, sheet metal, 20 liter cans, 1 square meter of clay, 1 square meter of sand, several large buckets of water, a supply of succulent, green organic matter.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* This list includes those materials considered essential in carrying out the activities involved in constructing, loading, firing, monitoring and extracting the kilns. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* This session will require preparation. It will be necessary to construct a sample, miniature kiln to serve as a basis for demonstrating, loading, and firing. (See Steps 3 and 6). It is recommended that this sample kiln be a CASAMANCE type, since it represents a basic variation of the traditional kiln and employs all the basic design features of a charcoal kiln.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The kiln site should be made ready by having all the necessary construction equipment available, and by making sure the appropriate fire precaution measures have been taken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To save time later in the evening, it is suggested that the materials and resources for the nightwatch activity (see Session 12) be brought to the kiln site as well. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briefly explain the objectives of the session and outline the procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (30 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants form their work groups and construct miniature kilns based on the design plans developed in the previous session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that "construction" involves gathering the necessary materials and setting up the kiln site to the point of being ready to fire the kilns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Keep in touch with how the groups are proceeding, taking time to offer suggestions, demonstrate the proper use of tools, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask each group to advise you when they are ready to load their kilos. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the work groups have completed construction of their kilns, demonstrate proper loading and covering techniques on the sample kiln.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* As you are loading the sample kiln, it is important to demonstrate and explain the following techniques:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- wood placement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- filling and packing to minimize internal air drafts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- construction of firing point</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- covering with earth and vegetation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion by asking participants to explain the relation of each technique to heat transfer and draft principles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask that two or three of the participants volunteer to help you complete the loading and covering of the sample kiln. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the work groups return to their kiln sites and complete the loading and covering of their kilns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulate among the work groups and offer suggestions and guidance when necessary. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask the work groups to gather around the sample kiln and observe as you demonstrate proper firing techniques.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Take a few minutes at this time to review the basic fire precaution procedures explained in Session 4, "Introduction to Carbonization."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* In demonstrating firing techniques, be sure to stress the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the use for coals from an external fire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- packing coals into firing chamber</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- high smoke volume as signal to seal kilns</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion by asking participants to explain the relation of each technique to such principles as heat transfer draft, and fire safety. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the work groups return to their kiln sites and fire their kilns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* As one group completes the firing of their kiln, have them provide assistance to any other groups that may be experiencing difficulties. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When all the kilns are fired and burning, reconvene the group and discuss the problem-solving techniques used by each work group during the design and construction processes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask participants to give examples of some of the difficulties they have experienced as development workers in working with groups and communicating new technical concepts to host country individuals. Ask them to compare these examples to experiences they had working with their work group during the design and construction activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion by asking the following questions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Was there a particular pattern to the problem-solving techniques used by your group?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What was the most challenging phase of the afternoon's activities for your group?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Do you think there would be similar problems in working with host country individuals? If not, how would they be different?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What could be done to improve your working styles with one, another? With host country individuals? </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 8. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclude the session by reminding participants that the kiln activities will be continuing into the night.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that burning kilns must be continually monitored and that night vigils are a common aspect of the life of a charcoal maker. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 12: Nightwatch: Monitoring and extraction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8 hours (approximately)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify signs which indicate that kilns are functioning properly</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify signs which indicate that kilns are functioning poorly</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To repair malfunctioning kilns</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss the potential health and safety hazards associated with kilns</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To extract a kiln</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify grades of charcoal</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(see "Materials" for "Kiln Construction", Session 11) as desired--tents, sleeping bags, mosquito repellent, candles, lanterns, flashlights, ingredients and utensils for preparing a meal, coffee, tea, music.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The nightwatch activity will continue until the kilns have been extracted. It is estimated that firing the kilns at 6 PM will allow them to be ready for extraction at approximately 1 or 2 AM.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* An appropriate informal atmosphere should be established for this activity. It is recommended:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- that participants set up protection from the elements (i.e., tents, sleeping bags, mosquito repellent)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- that there is an ample supply of light sources (i.e., flashlights, lanterns, candles, etc.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- that a dinner be prepared on an open fire or using charcoal cookers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- that there be coffee or tea, and music available for the later hours when enthusiasm and energy may be waning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* This session is designed to allow for considerable latitude in timing and execution, depending on individual trainer styles and the needs of the participants. It is recommended that the trainer remain sensitive to the group's need for both rest and stimulation. For example:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Part 1, "Monitoring and Trouble-Shooting" should occur in an ongoing fashion as problems or indications arise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Part 2, "Health and Safety Factors" can occur at a time when the group seems to need some stimulation (perhaps late in the night).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Part 3, "Kiln Extraction" will need to occur as a final activity whenever the kilns are ready to be disassembled. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PART 1: MONITORING AND TROUBLE-SHOOTING</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="84%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Continuous throughout the 8-hour period.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulate among the kiln sites and discuss examples of kilns which appear to be functioning well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Invite participants to gather around the kiln and explain why it seems to be functioning well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion and dialogue by asking:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How do we know that this kiln is functioning well?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What indications are present?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What is happening inside the kiln?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* For each kiln, it is important to discuss:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- movement of the front</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the draft system</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- color, smell, and volume of smoke</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulate among the kiln sites and discuss examples of kilns which appear to be functioning poorly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Invite participants to gather around the kiln and explain why it seems to be functioning poorly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion and participation by asking:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How do we know this kiln is functioning poorly?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What indications are present?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What can be done to repair it?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Some common malfunctions which should be discussed include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- poor draft</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- holes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- fires dying out</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- irregular front progression</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* It is important that each work group take the necessary steps to repair their kilns. Offer suggestions whenever necessary, but try to rely heavily on the group's problem-solving abilities. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PART 2: HEALTH AND SAFETY FACTORS</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="84%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 hour (approximately)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (45 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guide the participants on a tour of each kiln and discuss the potential health and safety dangers of each design.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Mention that, to some degree, all kilns are potentially dangerous, both to those who build them and to by-standers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion by asking the following questions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What are some of the most dangerous aspects of this design?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Who might be most affected by these dangers? (i.e., animals, by-standers, the charcoal makers, etc.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What could be done to diminish the potential health and safety hazards represented by this kiln?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Some common health and safety factors to be discussed include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- smoke inhalation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- open vents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- burns from hot metal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- sides caving in</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclude the tour by asking the participants to summarize the major health hazards associated with kilns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PART 3: CHARCOAL EXTRACTION</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="84%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 hours (approximately)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1 (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the first kiln appears ready to pull, invite the participants to gather around it and discuss signs which indicate that the kilns should be disassembled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion and participation by asking:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How do we know this kiln is ready to pull?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What indications are present?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Some common indications which should be discussed include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- completion of front progression</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- cooling of the kiln</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- absence or reduction of smoke</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- coals visible through vents</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briefly explain the basic procedures for charcoal extraction and answer questions from the group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Include the following points in your explanation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- clear an area around the kiln that is large enough to spread the charcoal without stacking it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Open the kiln, one small section at a time, and extract the charcoal by pulling it into the cleared area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Watch for burning coals and extinguish them with loose soil. (Be careful not to bury the charcoal.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Keep the pulling and dragging of the charcoal to a minimum since it fragments easily when hot.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Stack charcoal in concentric windrows after it has cooled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Leave paths between each windrow to prevent walking on the charcoal and to act as firebreaks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The design of some metal kilns requires that all the charcoal be removed at once. In these cases it may be necessary to open the kilns and cool them with a spray of water before disassembling. This should be done only in special circumstances since wetting the charcoal reduces its quality. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask the work group to pull their kilns while the other participants observe the process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Offer suggestions and advice whenever necessary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Remind the group that they are working with miniatures and that the larger scale of full-sized kilos would necessitate a strict adherence to the basic extraction procedures. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As each layer is being extracted from the kiln, identify and discuss the various grades of charcoal found in the kiln.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion by asking:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Approximately what percent of the wood is completely carbonized?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What happened to cause some of the wood to only partially carbonize?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Some important points which should be brought out in this discussion include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the importance of re-covering earth kilns</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the causes of ash spots</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the causes of brands</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (60 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask the participants to return to their work groups and pull their kilns when the carbonization is complete.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Each of the kilns will be ready to be disassembled at different times. If the work groups seem to be getting extremely tired, it is recommended that they go ahead and extract the charcoal, even though all the wood inside may not be completely carbonized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that on the next afternoon, there will be a review of the entire kiln construction activity and that ample time will be provided for participants to examine their charcoal and ask questions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Before dispersing for the night, make sure that charcoal is stacked appropriately for cooling and that there is no danger of fire from any of the disassembled kilns. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Day 3</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 13: Review and re-design of kilns</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1œ hours</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To review the kiln construction activities from the previous day</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To develop a modified kiln design</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To evaluate the effectiveness of problem-solving techniques used by work groups.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newsprint, felt-tip pens, pencils or pens, notebook paper.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* This session requires some preparation. Write on newsprint the "Outline of the Design Process" in Step 2, and the "Outline of the Re-design Process" in Step 4. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the objectives of the session and briefly outline the procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the purpose of the first objective is to allow participants the opportunity to clarify, summarize and assess the kiln design and construction activities from the previous night. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Post and explain a basic overview of the design process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that this list represents a general step-by-step outline of the design process that can be applied to any technical device. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask participants to give an example for each step in the design process from their experience designing their kilos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask participants to identify the examples, record them on the posted newsprint beside each corresponding step in the design process outline. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Post and explain a basic overview of the re-design process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Post the following list on newsprint:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evaluate Results (based on criteria)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modify Criteria (if necessary)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Re-Design</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Re-Construct</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Re-Test</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Point out that no design is complete until it has been tested and re-tested and that every new design requires re-design and re-construction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the remainder of this day and all of tomorrow will be devoted to carrying out the steps involved in the re-design process. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (40 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants form their original work groups and develop a modified design of their kilns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that each work group should evaluate the results of their kiln in view of their original criteria and any additional factors of which they are now aware.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask that each group prepare a modified criteria list and a new design drawing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Suggest that new designs include such considerations as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- improved health and safety precautions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- more attention to factors blocking/enhancing cultural acceptability</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- improvements in ease of construction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- increased efficiency</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- more effective firing systems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- emphasis on use of specific wood types to produce desired density of charcoal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- improvements in draft system to ensure more even heating and front movement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- specific applicability to their work sites</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- more ease of unloading and cooling charcoal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- availability of construction materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Circulate among the groups and provide any necessary suggestions for improving feasibility, completeness, and simplicity of the new designs. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the work groups and ask participants if there are any final technical points to be clarified before moving into the construction and testing of the new kiln designs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Any specific technical issues or facts which were not adequately reviewed and stressed as a result of the re-design work should be clarified at this point. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclude by asking participants to briefly evaluate the effectiveness of the problem-solving techniques used by their work groups to this point.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion and dialogue among the participants by asking the following questions:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Do you feel that your group's ability to work together to solve problems has improved? How?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What recommendations would you make to improve the effectiveness of your work group? </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 14: Construction and testing of second kiln</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=583>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12œ hours (approximately)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To construct a modified, second kiln</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To test a modified, second kiln</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To practice working independently</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(See Materials listed for Session 11, "Kiln Construction")</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Preparation required for this session involves:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- setting up the materials necessary for constructing, loading, firing, covering, monitoring, and extracting a second set of miniature kilns; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- preparing on newsprint an outline of the schedule for Days 3 and 4 (see Step 2). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the session objectives and briefly review the procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the time for constructing. loading, covering, firing, monitoring, and extracting the second kiln will vary according to the relative efficiency of the designs developed during the previous session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stress that constructing a second, improved kiln is an opportunity for independent work, creative problem-solving, and the application of charcoal making principles learned to date.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Clarify that the trainer's role during this period will be to keep in touch with the work groups, demonstrate the use of tools and equipment, make suggestions, and answer questions as needed. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Post, explain and finalize the schedule for Days 3 and 4.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=4>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Post the following schedule outline on newsprint</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P>Day 3</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P>Monitoring trouble-shooting</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P>Day 4</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P>AM</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P>Firing</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P>Introduction to Presentations (œ hour)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P>PM</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P>Construction</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P> Kiln Application &amp; Innovation (1 hour)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="7%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="16%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P>Loading</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="34%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="43%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P>Extracting (cooling)</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=4>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* It is important to point out that the work groups should effectively prioritize their time so their kilns will be covered and ready to fire in the time remaining on Day 3.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* If one or more of the groups has not completed its kiln up to the point of firing by the end of Day 3, explain that they may choose to either continue working or leave the work until the following day. The key factor in deciding which option to choose is that the kilns should be fired by no later than 8:30 AM on Day 4 to allow for sufficient burn time before extraction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the majority of Day 4 will be for independent work in firing, monitoring, and extracting the second kilns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask the participants to determine the specific times that they would like for Session 15, "Introduction to Presentations" and Session 16, "Kiln Application and Innovation" to occur. Explain that approximately œ hour will be needed for Session 15, and that approximately 1Œ hours will be needed for Session 16. Recommend that Session 15 occur early in the day so as to allow ample opportunity to think about and plan the presentations on Day 5.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (12 hours)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants form their work groups and begin working.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Remind participants that they will be working independently for the remainder of Days 3 and 4.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Throughout the construction and testing period, occasionally remind participants of how many hours remain and what tasks are left to be accomplished. Encourage participants to focus on essential tasks and to divide them among group members to help speed up the process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Fire precautions are an essential aspect of any kiln operation. Keep in touch with each work group and point out, whenever necessary, any potential fire hazards. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Day 4</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 15: Introduction to presentations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30 minutes</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss the objectives and format of tomorrow's session, "Presentation of Kilns."</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify what information should be included in the presentations.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newsprint and felt-tip pens.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This introduction should occur early in the morning on Day 4 to allow the participant sample preparation time for their presentations scheduled for Day 5. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Present the session's objectives and give an overview of tomorrow's session, "Presentation of Kilns."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The participants may be given the option of asking the rest of the group to role-play, during their presentation, a particular audience-type (e.g., traditional charcoal-makers, in-country counterparts, or forestry extensionists). By allowing the participants freedom in defining their audience, you increase the potential for variety and creativity in the presentations. If any role-plays are done, be sure the roles and situations are explained beforehand. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask the group to develop a list of essential information to be included in each presentation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If their list appears too lengthy and ambitious for short presentations, suggest where it may be pared down. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask the group if any further clarifications are needed. Conclude by stressing the value of using a variety of communication techniques and creating a climate of group participation during the presentations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 16: Kiln application and innovation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 hour, 15 minutes</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To apply experience in kiln design and fuelwood use in a variety of situations</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss socio-economic factors which affect the feasibility and acceptability of kiln types</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 15-A, "Design Situations"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 16-B, "Realities of Making Charcoal"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As determined by participants.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* This session is designed to give participants an opportunity to adapt and apply their knowledge and experience in charcoal production to actual situations. These situations may be modified to make them more country- or project-specific.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The entire activity can be done at the work site to accomodate on-going kiln surveillance. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the objectives and procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask the participants to form 4 groups and give each group one of the situations from Attachment 16-A, "Design Situations." Explain the task as described in the Trainer Notes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Based on the information given in the situations and the participants' experience, each group should choose and/or design one or more kilns which would be best suited for use in that situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* In addition to kiln selection, each group should assess fuelwood practices and the overall process of charcoal production as described in the situation and decide how other improvements, if any, could be made.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Each group will present their kiln designs and recommendations to the large group. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the design groups work through the situations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The situations are purposefully sketchy to allow for maximum creativity from participants. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (25 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the groups and ask each one to describe the case and present their recommendations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After each presentation, allow a few minutes for questions and comments from the group. If necessary call the group's attention to any particularly appropriate designs which have been overlooked. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Facilitate a short discussion of the socioeconomic factors which need to be considered in charcoal-making situations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask the participants to give examples of any successes or failures in charcoal-making they have heard of or seen in their communities or regions. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute copies of Attachment 16-B, "Realities of Making Charcoal" and ask the group to review it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain that the information provided in this Attachment is meant to serve as reference material and that it should be read thoroughly prior to Session 19, "Evaluating Charcoal Yields" on Day 6. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 16A: Design situations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Situation 1</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Small sawmill on the outskirts of a medium-sized town.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Mill-ends, slab and sawdust and stockpiled first and later burned. Some of the lumber is occasionally purchased by employees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Some capital is available for general improvements and repairs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Mill labor force includes skilled and unskilled workers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Variety of "junk" items on the premises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Mill tool shop has welding equipment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Situation 2</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Fuel wood plantation in a sparsely-populated area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Cleared land is planted on a 10-year rotation. Some tracts are ready for harvest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Additional natural forest is being cleared with large equipment (Caterpillars, etc.). To facilitate immediate planting, large amounts of ungraded material from the clearing process are quickly wind-rowed and burned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Some capital is available for improvements and repairs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Heavy equipment available (e.g., Caterpillars, graders, front-end loaders, trucks, chainsaws, etc.).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Situation 3</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Independent charcoal-maker who works in the area around his village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Money earned from charcoal accounts for 95% of his family income.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Markets his product in a large town 150 km. away.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Transportation costs drastically reduce his profit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Tools are old and few.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Situation 4</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Traditional farmer in a populated, rural area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* From clearing his bush fallow to plant, he has a sudden and large surplus of wood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Almost all his labor time is spent tending his farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Owns a few, basic agricultural tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 16B: Realities of making charcoal</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by H. E. Booth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. E. Booth is an authority on charcoal production. This article was edited from an FAO paper he prepared for the United Nations Conference on New and Renewable Sources of Energy, Nairobi, August, 1981, and reprinted from UNASYLVA, Vol. 33, No. 13, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The portable steel charcoal kiln consists of two cylindrical steel shells, a conical lid and four chimneys. It has been tried extensively in charcoal production throughout the world for many years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under suitable conditions, this kiln will make good charcoal. There are a number of examples in the developed world where it has been used successfully for many years producing charcoal on a fairly small scale. In the developing world, however, where these kilns have been tried, it is usually found that after a period of time, there is a reversion to traditional methods such as the earth pit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meanwhile, the various kinds of brick kilns have continued to produce more and more charcoal in the developing world. This may seem surprising when it is considered that the steel kiln appeared in Europe in its present form more than 50 years ago. The reason for its failure in the developing world is that is requires certain specific conditions which either are not present or can be provided only in uneconomic ways. In Europe, on the other hand, these conditions are available, and thus the steel kiln continues to play a useful part in charcoal production. Briefly, these conditions are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- A high-price charcoal market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Ready availability of cheap steel and corresponding fabrication and repair facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Ready availability of transport facilities, i.e., roads and vehicles and the means to process and carry small quantities of timber and charcoal in scattered locations using a mobile, highly skilled work force.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- No shortage of investment and operating capital.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The typical situation in a developing country is rather different. There, the traditional method of making charcoal is to carbonize the wood in pits dug in the ground or on the side of a hill, or to cover a pile of firewood with mud and earth--the so-called earth-clamp, or "parva". In most cases, charcoal making is carried out by people without any access to investment capital. Such capital is indispensable; although it can, if necessary, be on a low level, involving people whose technological experience is limited.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A higher level of technology is available from portable steel kilns or from kilns made of bricks and set in mud mortar. While brick kilns are not mobile, they can readily be dismantled and rebuilt. In either case, there has to be a transfer of technology. The imported steel kiln has the advantage of making a whole kiln available instantly, but it requires back-up maintenance such as steel-plate welding and heavy sheet-metal working capability. These are usually quite beyond the local charcoal makers and have to be provided on a state or cooperative level, usually as a loss operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brick kilns must therefore be built. Building them is a comparatively new technique requiring a supply of bricks or the ability to make simple direct-fired bricks from a sandy clay. Given these prerequisites, maintenance of brick kilns is very simple. They are virtually immune to damage from local overheating, unlike steel kilns. The only maintenance normally needed is the pouring on of mud slurry to seal cracks. Furthermore, when the kilns must be moved, say a few kilometers away, they are simply dismantled and the bricks re-assembled at the new site. However, brick kilns should be used only in cases where frequent relocations are not to be expected and where wood can be transported to the kiln.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some type of brick kilns have no steel at all, merely mud and bricks. Others, such as the Brazilian type, have a ring of fencing wires to provide tensile reinforcement at the base of the cupola roof. The brick kiln is much larger than the steel one and hence, produces ten to twenty times more charcoal at a single burn. The brick kiln has doors, a fact that makes loading and unloading simple, since wheelbarrows, carts and sometimes conveyor rolls can be used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The steel kiln requires the wood the charcoal to be loaded and unloaded over the top rim of the bottom section of the unit, a laborious and dusty undertaking. The wood first has to be reduced to block form, typically not bigger than 30 x 10 x 10 cm. Hence, chainsaws and complex block-splitting machines are needed to make wood preparation practical. By contrast, both earth pits and clamps and brick kilns can utilize large logs of up to 50 cm. diameter and 1 to 2 meters in length. Typically, the wood is simply cut into billets about 1.8 meters lone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two problems affect the steel kiln in particular. First, since air leaks occur easily at the ground line, hot spots can crop up during a burn, leading to buckling and collapse of sections of the shell. This problem is reduced, but not eliminated, where the kiln is made of more costly heat-resisting steel. Hot spots also occur with brick kilns, but they do not damage the kiln itself. The second special problem of steel kilns arises from its low insulation value. The action of rain and wind can cause the kiln walls to become too cold. This slows down the exothermic decomposition of the wood near them and results in an excessive production of party carbonized wood known as "brands." Brick kilns, because of their greater size and better insulation, are less susceptible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, it should always be borne in mind that the burning stage is only one small, though essential, step in charcoal production. The more important steps are the harvesting and transport of the fuelwood, and the delivery and distribution to market of the finished charcoal. The imported steel kiln gives an illusion of instant charcoal availability which tends to blur the vision of administrators and officials taking a good hard look at the real problems affecting charcoal supply in a developing country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL KILNS COMPARED TO OTHER TYPES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FACTOR</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PORTABLE STEEL KILN</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EARTH PIT</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BRICK KILN</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cost in place ready to run (US$)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5,000</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- -</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1,000-2,500</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Internal volume (m<SUP>3</SUP>)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6.5</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8-30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50-130</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cycle time (days)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3-4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20-30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9-25</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maintenance</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">skilled with workshop</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">simple</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">simple</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mobility</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">yes</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">yes</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">demolish and rebuild</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life (years)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.5-4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- -</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8-10</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charcoal quality</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">good</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">fair</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">good</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Typical yield (percent weight basis)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ease of burning</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">simple</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">difficult simple</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maximum size of fuelwood (cm.)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30 x 5 x 5</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">no limit</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">200 x 30 x 30</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Performance in rainy climate</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">good</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">poor</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">good</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ability to tolerate "hot spot" and accidents</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">poor</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">fair</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">good</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Day 5</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 17: Presentations of kilns</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 hours</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To present the completed kilos and results of the kiln runs * To practice communicating technical concepts and information effectively</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As determined by the work groups</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedure:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Review the objectives and format.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Remind the groups of the time limit and ask one of the participants to serve as timekeeper to prevent "run-overs." </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (1 hour, 45 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the groups give their presentations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* At the end of each presentation, allow a few minutes for feedback on the effectiveness of each. Ask the group to comment on:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- clarity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- sequence and variety</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- techniques which promoted/inhibited group participation and learning</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- ways to improve</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (10 minutes) After the final presentation, briefly discuss with the group any problems they have encountered in conveying technical concepts and ideas in a cross-cultural context.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 18: Briquetting: A problem-solving activity</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 hours</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify the advantages and disadvantages of briquetting</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To discuss the feasibility of small-scale briquetting</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To make briquettes</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To practice group problem-solving</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources;</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 18-A, "Simple Techniques for Bio-Fuels"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 18-B, "Briquetting as a Cottage Industry: A Case Study"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 18-C, "Bamako Briquettes"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 18-D, "Binders for Charcoal Briquettes"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charcoal from the training kilns; mortar and pestle, two rocks, commercial grinder, etc., for powdering charcoal; binders (see Attachment 18-D "Binders for Charcoal Briquettes"); fire, water, pots, and containers for cooking and mixing; materials for construction of briquetting presses (see Attachments "Bamako Briquettes" and "Simple Techniques for Basic Bio-Fuels"); tools for construction of the presses.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Listed above are a number of possible materials for making, briquettes. To encourage resourcefulness and creativity, only items which can be obtained locally should be provided for the activity. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the objectives and briefly outline the procedures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute and have the participants read the Attachment 18-A, "Simple Techniques for Bio-Fuels"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask the group to brainstorm a list of the possible advantages and disadvantages of charcoal briquettes based on the information in the article and their experience. Record their responses on newsprint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some advantages and disadvantages include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P>Advantages</P>
+</U>
+<P>- can be made from agricultural "wastes", e.g., powdery dust from kilns, small brush, coffee husks, peanut shells</P>
+<P>- can be made from soft woods unsuitable for regular charcoal</P>
+<P>- 30-40% extended burning time from increased density</P>
+<P>- slower, steadier heat release from increased density</P>
+<P>- easier to calculate amount of heat in a given number of briquettes</P>
+<P>- more energy per weight and bulk in transport</P>
+<P>- easy to sell in small, standard lots</P>
+<P>- custom design by mixing types of wood and additives</P>
+
+<U><P>Disadvantages</P>
+</U>
+<P>- more expensive</P>
+<P>- manufacture requires more time, steps, and equipment</P>
+<P>- greater potential for increased costs and/or price-fixing by distributors</P>
+<P>- requires "big business" skills and techniques in production and marketing, e.g., stockpiling, distributing, etc.</P>
+<P>- usually dependent on specialized market</P>
+<P>- high potential as export product; technology could be abused, resulting in greater fuelwood shortages</P>
+<P>- briquettes are a new and unfamiliar fuel form to many people</P>
+<P>- certain binders may be culturally rejected</P>
+<P>- binder may a food source</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- depending on the binder, briquette may need curing or baking</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute Attachment 18-B, "Briquetting as a Cottage Industry: A Case Study", and discuss the feasibility of village-level briquette manufacture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute Attachment 18-C, "Bamako Briquettes" and Attachment 18-D, "Binders for Charcoal Briquettes" and outline the briquette-making activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The participants will form small work groups and make briquettes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The activity is one of problem-solving. Each group will have to design a method for crushing the charcoal, to select and prepare a binder, construct a press, and combine all the parts to make a finished product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The work groups will need to organize themselves efficiently to perform all of the tasks in the required time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The two resource attachments describe the procedures involved in briquette-making. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (2 hours, 35 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the work groups make briquettes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Move from group to group, providing input as requested, but avoid directing the problem-solving task. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (30 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reconvene the participants, and ask each group to demonstrate their briquetting method and discuss its workability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stimulate discussion by asking the groups to describe:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- how they approached the task.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- what problems were encountered with the grinder, binder, press, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- how the problems were solved</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- any suggestions for improving the method</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- potential application of the method at their sites</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 18A: Simple techniques for basic bio-fuels</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Jacek Janczak</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jacek Janczak is a Polish engineer. He wrote this article originally as an FAO study for the United Nations Conference on New and Renewable Sources of Energy, Nairobi, August 1981.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simple fuel technologies for developing countries are based on available resources and the "do it yourself" principle. While the tools for processing fuel may be manufactured locally, what is needed is a well-organized demonstration and training program covering large areas of these countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although simple processing increases the heat value of big-residues considerably, every kind of fuel calls for a specific type of stove or furnace to provide optimal combustion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briquetting</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Neither wood nor agricultural wastes such as wood dust, sawdust and coffee husks can be burned directly in domestic stoves. They burn with difficulty, produce considerable smoke and are unsuitable for cooking. The same is true of charcoal dust.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the best methods of handling such residues is by the agglomeration of small particles into briquettes. There are two principal methods of briquetting, with or without a binder. Doing without the binder is more convenient, but it requires sophisticated and costly presses and drying equipment, and is energy-intensive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briquetting with a binder such as tar, pitch or asphalt calls for high-pressure industrial processes to produce briquettes from hard coal, coke dust and, to a lesser extent, coal dust. Such processes are also sophisticated and expensive, and while they are not appropriate for villages, they might be very useful for central or local government projects, especially in countries having an abundance of wood and agricultural waste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For rural populations, the most suitable briquetting methods are those which are based on available waste and building materials. The manufacturing should be done in locally made hand-operated presses. The hand-made briquette is held together mainly by the binding material. Depending upon local availability, the most suitable organic combustible materials for binding are resin, tar, animal manure, sewage mud (sludge), and fish waste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If combustible binding materials are not available or the waste needs a stronger binding material as, for instance, in the case of charcoal dust, then it is necessary to apply non-combustible binders such as slime, clay or mud.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the non-combustible binder lowers the heat value of the briquette and increases the ash content, it does make possible the use of materials which otherwise would be valueless as fuel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Presses</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Design varies from the simplest, technologically primitive home-made hand-presses to very advanced automatic units. Below is a simple hand-press which can be manufactured by any village smith. The lower arm of the press is fixed to a wooden board. The pressure ranges from about 50 to 100 kg. per briquette, or 5 to 15 kg./cm.<SUP>2</SUP>. The briquettes produced are spherically shaped, preventing the fracture of edges which is a weak point in home-made briquettes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The materials used are soaked newspaper or any waste paper. The addition of-wood ash makes the balls harder and prolongs combustion. The briquettes are pressed into balls of about 5 cm. in diameter, and the weight of a dry briquette is about 30 9. The size of a briquette may vary, but larger balls are more difficult to press. The cost of making one press would entail 3 to 4 man-hours and 1 to 2 kg. of iron. The working time can be considerably reduced if a number of presses are manufactured together and work is well organized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p100.png"></center><br>
+ Simple briquetting press</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another press which has been developed and tested consists of a square container in which waste is pressed by a screw similar to that in a wine press. Pressure is up to 2 tons per briquette or about 40 kg./cm.<SUP>2</SUP>. The rate of production, however, is slower than with the lever press.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Good results have been obtained by adapting these presses for bricks or earth blocks. They are now well known in developing countries under such names as "Cinva-Ram," "Terstaram," and "Combustaram."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Europe during World War I, screw-type briquette presses worked on the same principle as meat-cutting machines. They produced a continuous briquette mass for cutting into sections. The screw press has much lower pressure than the piston press and consequently has limited application for waste which is easily convertible into briquettes resistant to crumbling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advanced industrial presses for wood and agricultural waste exert much higher pressures, ranging from 1,000 to 1,200 kg./cm.<SUP>2</SUP>. At these pressures, the temperature is very high. Both high temperatures and high pressure destroy the elasticity of the wood, making it possible to form the briquettes without a binder.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Waste Preparation</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first operation, common to all briquette-making processes, is the chopping and/or grinding of combustible waste. In simple village technology, where the materials to be prepared are branches, twigs and straw, the best tool for chopping is a hatchet or broad axe. For production on a large scale, different tools are required such as the straw chopper commonly used by European farmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second operation is the drying of the main combustible ingredients. In a simple technology, drying should be performed without the use of fuel. The only real option, therefore, is natural drying in well-ventilaged places protected from rain. Such drying takes a long time, so the basic ingredients for briquetting should be prepared well in advance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Third comes the mixing of various kinds of waste and binding materials in order to produce the optimum consistency and heat value. If used motor oil is available, it may be added to the waste, but, although it increases the heat value of the briquettes, it makes them crumbly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fourth operation is compressing the briquettes, and the fifth is drying them in open air, under shelter. Depending upon the binding material and drying conditions, it will take between a few and several months to produce dry briquettes. Drying significantly increases the heat value of the briquettes and thus saves fuel. They should therefore be produced well in advance of intended use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Types of fuel</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experience has shown that the successful implementation of new technical projects depends on socio-cultural, historical and economic factors as well as on purely technical ones. Many projects involving obvious technical improvements have failed because the non-technical factors were neglected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When starting a new project, preliminary work on organization and research is essential before proceeding with technical design. The most effective way of achieving success is to assess the situation from several viewpoints.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the basis of this inquiry, targets for the promotion of new fuels should be established. Costly and time-consuming surveys are not necessary. The environmental aspects should also be taken into consideration, because the combustion of biomass waste in stoves eliminates one of the important elements in the ecological chain. Under normal conditions, biomass waste is recirculated to the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If this delicate equilibrium is broken, the consequences may be observed in decreasing productivity of the soil and, in extreme conditions, in its desertification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Owing to the interdependence of fuel and stoves, it is recommended that stove and fuel improvement programs be undertaken concurrently. A combined program might consist of improvements to existing stove designs and fuel types to suit local cooking practices, and the design and construction of new stove models, together with the introduction of new types of fuel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New briquettes should be tested. This is the only way to collect and compare the technical data of the various options available locally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Field testing should be applied, both to develop or improve new fuels and to analyze their heat values. Groups of people from different backgrounds could be organized to investigate, promote, and later use the fuels in their households on an experimental basis. They should be invited to carry out further investigation on the composition of locally available biomass waste for briquetting and binding materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most developing countries, there are considerable quantities of biomass waste which could be processed by means of agglomeration and densification. The best results are usually achieved if several kinds of material are mixed with a binder. The heat value of well-dried, compressed big-fuel waste is similar to that of fuelwood. However, the uncontrolled use of biomass waste could have adverse ecological consequences on the soil, such as reduced fertility. Careful evaluation of how much and which biomass can be used as fuel in specific regions should be undertaken and monitored by competent officials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 1. Ignition temperatures of solid materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=329>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Material</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ignition temperature (°C)</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lignite dust</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">150-170</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hard coal dust</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">150-220</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coke from lignite coal</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">300-400</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coke from hard coal</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">350-700</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graphite</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">700-850</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charcoal (soft)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">250-300</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charcoal (hard)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">300-450</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peat</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">200-450</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paper</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">300</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="46%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wood dust</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="54%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">315-460</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Author's measurements</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2. Net heat value of firewoods</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=559>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heat value</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seasoned</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specific weight of dry wood</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">kcal/kg</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">kg/dm<SUP>3</B></SUP></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pine <I>(Pinus)</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 658</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 870</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.49</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weymouth pine <I>(Pinus strobus)</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 876</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 055</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.37</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Birch <I>(Betula)</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 658</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 869</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.61</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spruce <I>(Pices)</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 622</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 589</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.43</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Larch <I>(Larix)</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 597</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 818</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.55</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fir <I>(Ables)</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 559</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 785</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.41</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Locust <I>(Robinia)</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 527</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 760</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.73</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beech <I>(Fagus)</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 478</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 705</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.69</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linden <I>(Tilla)</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 474</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 713</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.49</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Elm <I>(Ulmus)</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 419</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 810</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.64</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oak <I>(Ouercus)</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 329</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 742</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.65</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ash <I>(Fraxinus)</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 329</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 593</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.68</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alder <I>(Ainus)</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 288</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 555</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.49</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sycamore <I>(Acer pseudoplatanus)</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 245</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 845</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.59</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="39%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black poplar <I>(Populus nigra)</I></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 205</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 518</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.41</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: T. Wojciechowski, Nouka e drawnie, PWRIL, 1961</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 3. Materials used for the manufacture of briquettes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paper waste</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Municipal waste</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wood waste</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coconut fibre</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tundra dust</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cotton waste</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sawdust</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Straw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groundnut shells</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hazelnut shells</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Olive-oil residue</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sugar cane</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bark</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice husks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sunflower husks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leather waste</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hemp</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Used motor-oil (as an additive to solids)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shrubs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fish waste</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food processing waste</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 4. Comparison of sample bio-fuels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Composition</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gross heat value</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Humidity</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ash</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Net heat value</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Comment</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">kcal/kg</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Percent</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">kcal/kg</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dry beech wood</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 554</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8.0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.3</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 224</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Type of wood rarely available in poor rural areas</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green birch wood</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 308</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">42.9</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.25</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 889</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Type of wood commonly found in poor rural areas of developing countries</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Waster-paper balls (made from soaked newspaper)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 143</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6.9</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.9</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 825</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Made by hand; burn better if wood ash is added</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briquettes made of 30-45% charcoal dust 30-45% chopped twigs 15-20% manure</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 626</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">32.2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 408</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Comparable to medium-quality hard coal; high ash content probably from sand</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briquettes made of 25% charcoal dust 25% straw 30% chopped twigs 20% manure</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 397</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7.2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">13.7</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 109</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lower percentage of charcoal dust reduces heat output</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briquettes made of 50% straw 50% cow manure</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 898</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5.4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9.5</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 599</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feasible everywhere, but has high manure content - and manure is better used for fertilizer</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briquettes made of 40% straw 40% sawdust 20% manure</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3561</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9.2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14.0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 266</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Needs careful drying because os sawdust</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Briquettes made from charcoal dust with clay as binder</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="9%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3064</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="14%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="8%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">975</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High mineral content lowers heat value and creates much ash</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 18B: Briquetting as a cottage industry: A case study</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A national corporation was set up by an African country to manage a natural forest using the income from forest products to finance its management operations. The forest chosen for management had been degraded over the years by grazing and wild fire. The surrounding villages had historically been given free use of this land which was now declared reserved forest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the major products available from this forest was charcoal. The corporation used earth kilns for production and the yields were good. The labor force was recruited locally allowing some return to the surrounding villages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After a few weeks of production, it was discovered that about 10% of the charcoal was remaining behind in the soil after carbonization. The small particles could be recovered by flotation, but were too fine to be sold on the domestic market. The corporation decided to set up a briquetting operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Preliminary investigation uncovered two options for setting up the operation. The corporation could import both equipment and resin binder from Europe and produce briquettes "in-house." Or, they could set up the production as a local cottage industry using village labor, tree gums gathered from the area, and simple techniques which would produce briquettes comparable in quality and cost to the in-house briquettes. It was also found that the briquetting work would fit into the local agricultural work-schedule and provide another source of income to the villages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The corporation decided to make the briquetting a cottage industry. They designated charcoal recovery areas for each village, provided basic training, and bought the finished briquettes from the villagers at a mutually agreed-upon price.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The final result was a saving of investment capital by the corporation and a firmly established local industry. The cooperative effort was then expanded into different fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 18C: Bamako briquettes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This technique was developed at the request of Peace Corps Mali to transform millet stalks into an easily transportable energy source. The best use of most agricultural waste is to return it to the soil, but if this is not technologically or socially possible, most agricultural waste can be carbonised or used directly for fuel, preferably in improved cooking stoves. Carbonising reduces the bulk of the fuel, preserves fuel from insects and fungus, facilitates storage, and provides a smokeless fuel for use in densely populated areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Bamako tests, millet stalks were carbonised in an oil drum kiln. This takes 2 to 3 hours of labor per day. The resulting charcoal is-fluffy and fiberous and is easy to form into briquettes. The charcoal is lightly pounded to reduce bulk, and non-carbonised pieces are then picked out. The powder is placed in a container of 20 to 40 liters and binder is added.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The binders used in Bamako were gum arabic and clay. Due to the fiberous nature of the charcoal produced from millet stalks, briquettes using no binder at all were also successfully produced, but they break down from rough handling and disintegrate more rapidly when burning. Using clay only produced a briquette with sustained heating properties, but is was hard to keep going and left a ceramic residue which blocked heat from below. Gum arabic binder produced a briquette which held together well and was quite satisfactory. Gum arabic with a small amount of clay produced the best briquette. The addition of clay extended the burning time and gave a denser briquette. The binder was prepared by dissolving gum arabic in water and adding it to the charcoal, along with enough clay and water to make the mixture rather stiff. Inch and a half plactic pipe was used to form the briquettes by jabbing the pipe up and down in the mix until the pipe was forced full of the mixture. The pipe was then removed and held at a slight angle to the ground. A push rod of slightly smaller diameter was inserted to push out the mix. The actual maneuver is more like holding the mix with the push rod and sliding the pipe off of the mix. This can be done directly on the ground or on mats, and should be exposed to the sun. The resulting long sausage can be left to partially dry if necessary. If the mix is correct, it can immediately be broken into small segments on 2 to 3 cm. thickness and each briquette placed on its side to dry. In Bamako, during May, the briquettes were sufficiently sun dried in two days to burn well and were easily handled without breaking. One batch was caught in a heavy rain after one day of drying but remained stable, even though they required an additional two days of drying. None of the briquettes gave off objectional odors when burned and user acceptance was good.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 18D: Binders for charcoal briquettes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A binder is simply something which holds the charcoal briquette together while it is being moved about or while it is burning. Briquettes can be made without binder if the charcoal itself is of a fluffy nature, as in some types of charcoal made from agricultural wastes. But, these briquettes will tend to fall apart as burning takes place, and they certainly won't stand up to rough handling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adhesiveness is the most basic and important quality to look for in a binder. However, some of the most adhesive binders may be uneconomical or unacceptable to the user. Some possible binders are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">tar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">starch</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">plant resins</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">commercially prepared resins</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">clay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">animal manure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">fish waste</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">molasses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the US, the most commonly used binder is starch. In southern Senegal, the smell of burning starch is objectionable to the people and a local tree gum has been found that is acceptable. Clay will act as a binder, but the powdery residue blocks the passage of radiant heat, and much of the heating value of the charcoal is lost. Briquettes prepared with tar or molasses have to be heat-treated to drive off the volatiles that have been added.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the binder, a carrier is needed to make a good mixture with the powdered charcoal. As this is usually water, the binder should tee wafer soluble, or at least emulsifiable in the case of oil-based binders. Some binders, such as fish waste or starch, will require precooking to make them sticky.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The usual formula for a briquette mix using starch is 100 kilograms of charcoal, 5 to 7 kilograms of starch, and 30 to 35 kilograms of water. Starch can be obtained from roots or grains, preferably those which do not serve as a source of food. Crush or grind the grain or root and wash the starch from the crushed residue. The starch is contained in the wash water and will settle to the bottom. If you catch a sample of the wash water in a clear glass container before the starch has had a chance to settle, you can calculate the necessary amount of water needed to cook and mix the starch. Measure the starch depth and multiply by 3.407. That is where the top of the water column should be. Water can then be added to or removed from the main container in like proportion. These proportions will give a mixture of starch and water that will gelatinize without becoming too thick. It should then be heated to 65°C, at which point it will thicken and can be mixed with the charcoal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Day 6</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 19: Evaluating charcoal yields</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 hours</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To determine the moisture content of wood</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To calculate the yield of a kiln</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newsprint, felt-tip pens, pencils or pens, notebook paper, sample pieces of wood of varying moisture contents.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources:</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 19-A, "Elementary Calculation of Moisture Content"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 19-B, "Energy Potential of Raw Wood"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Attachment 19-C, "Charcoal Yield Worksheet"</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Prior to this session, it will be necessary to gather several pieces of wood from among common local varieties and calculate their moisture content. Number the samples and record their exact moisture contents on a sheet of paper. (See Step 4)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Also, it will be necessary to create and solve two hypothetical yield calculation problems. (See Step 8) </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Explain the session objectives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask participants to briefly review and explain factors to be considered in evaluating different types of kilns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Remind participants of the factors mentioned in the article, "Realities of Making Charcoal" and of the criteria lists which were developed in their design plans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Some factors which should be mentioned include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- user needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- labor requirements</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- capital requirements</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- carbonization time</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- kiln capacity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- portability</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- durability</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- availability of construction materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- ease of operation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- yield</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Point out that "yield" calculations are an important way of determining the specific energy efficiency of a particular kiln design. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask participants to identify some of the variables which should be considered in calculating yield.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that yield calculation essentially involves comparing the amount of potential energy going into a kiln in the form of wood to the amount of energy potential coming out in the form of charcoal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion by asking:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What variables must be considered in determining the energy potential of raw wood?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What variables should be considered in determining the energy potential of charcoal?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Some important variables which should be highlighted include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- moisture content of raw wood</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- weight of raw wood</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- brands found in kiln</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- moisture content of charcoal</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute the samples of raw wood and have participants estimate the moisture content of each sample.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Record their estimates on newsprint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Point out that different wood species have different densities, so weight alone may not indicate moisture content. The feel and smell of the wood are often more reliable indicators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* A game can be made of this activity by offering a prize to the participant who most accurately guesses the actual moisture content of a particular sample. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reveal the real, calculated moisture content of each sample by writing it on the newsprint beside their estimates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute Attachment 19-A, "Elementary Calculation of Moisture Content" and Attachment 19-B, "Energy Potential of Raw Wood" and practice calculating moisture content.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Allow participants time to look over the attachments and ask questions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that the oven-dry weight of a quantity of wood can be determined by baking random samples at below 212° centigrade until stable weight is obtained (usually overnight).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Identify individuals among the participants that are familiar with calculating moisture content and ask them to help others in the group to work a few sample problems using hypothetical weight figures. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribute and explain Attachment 19-C, "Charcoal Yield Worksheet."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain the basic formula outlined on the attachment by working through the sample problem on newsprint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Mention that the moisture content of the charcoal is assumed to be negligible unless it has been wetted by rain or during the extraction process. If necessary, the moisture content of the charcoal can be determined by baking random samples. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 8. (20 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask participants to practice solving two hypothetical yield problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Write two hypothetical problems on newsprint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask those participants who work out the problems early to help others in the group who may be experiencing difficulty. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 9. (15 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclude by asking participants to discuss examples of ways in which yield calculations could be helpful at their work sites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stimulate discussion by asking:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- What difficulties would you encounter in collecting yield data at your work site?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How could these difficulties be overcome?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Why is accurate yield data important? </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 19A: Elementary calculation of moisture content</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In forestry it is customarily given as a percent fraction on a DRY basis:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p111a.png"></center><br>
+ DRY basis</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beware that we customarily think in terms of "percent of a total," in this case giving a WET basis figure which is <U>NOT</U> generally used:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p111b.png"></center><br>
+ WET basis</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 19B: Energy potential of raw wood</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raw Wood Charged</P>
+</U><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Air-dry wood</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Partially dry wood</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wet wood</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">25% m.c.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50% m.c.</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">100% m.c.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fig. 1</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fig. 2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fig. 3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. 25 kg</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.5 kg</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.0 kg</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4850 kcal</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4700 kcal</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4400 kcal</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD WIDTH=84 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ranking</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=180 VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP"></TD>
+<TD></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH=84 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Very Good</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=180 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fig. 4</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fig. 5</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fig. 6</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH=84 VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH=180 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.35 kg. 35% yield</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.30 kg. 2250 kcal</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0. 24 kg. 1800 kcal</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH=84 VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH=180 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2625 kcal 54% of</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30% yield</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">24% yield</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH=84 VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH=180 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">energy initially recoverable</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">48% e.i.r.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">41 % e.i.r.</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH=84 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adequate</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=180 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fig. 7</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fig. 8</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fig. 9</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH=84 VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH=180 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0. 25 kg. 1875 kcal</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.20 kg. 1500 kcal</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.15 kg. 1200 kcal</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH=84 VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH=180 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">25% yield</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20% yield</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">16% yield</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH=84 VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH=180 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">39% e.i.r.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">32% e.i.r.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">27% e.i.r.</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH=84 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Very Bad</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=180 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fig. 10</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fig. 11</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fig. 12</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH=84 VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH=180 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.15 kg. 1125 kcal</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.10 kg. 750 kcal</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.08 kg. 600 kcal</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH=84 VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH=180 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15% yield</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10% yield</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8% yield</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH=84 VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH=180 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">23% e.i.r.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15% e.i.r.</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH=147 VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14% e.i.r.</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fig. 2 Energy Available from Raw Wood and from the Charcoal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Produced from It with Respect to Moisture Content and Efficiency of Carbonization</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112a.png"></center><br>
+ Fig. 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112b.png"></center><br>
+ Fig. 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112c.png"></center><br>
+ Fig. 3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112d.png"></center><br>
+ Fig. 4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112e.png"></center><br>
+ Fig. 5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112f.png"></center><br>
+ Fig. 6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112g.png"></center><br>
+ Fig. 7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112h.png"></center><br>
+ Fig. 8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112i.png"></center><br>
+ Fig. 9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112j.png"></center><br>
+ Fig. 10</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112k.png"></center><br>
+ Fig. 11</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112l.png"></center><br>
+ Fig. 12</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Attachment 19C: Charcoal yield worksheet</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The basic formula for determining yield is:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><IMG SRC="Image718.gif" WIDTH=494 HEIGHT=44></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brands may be of two types: wet and oven-dry. Brand content of 2% or more by volume is an immediate indication of kiln inefficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are essentially four options in accounting for brands in yield calculations:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1) Subtract wet brands from wet wood, then calculate oven-dry wood weight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2) Subtract dry brands after calculation of oven-dry wood weight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3) Do both of the above.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4) Ignore the brands in the calculation and list x% yield with x% of brands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Option #3 is generally considered to be most accurate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=348>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="73%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sample Problem:</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Work Space</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="73%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><U><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">875</U> kilos of charcoal</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="73%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><U><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">100</U> steres of wood at 350 kg. per stere</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="73%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><U><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8</U> kilos of wet brands</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="73%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><U><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4</U> kilos of dry brands</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="73%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><U><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20%</U> moisture content (ODB)</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Session 20: Program evaluation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE CELLSPACING=0 BORDER=0 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=569>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total Time:</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 hours</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Objectives:</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To evaluate the effectiveness of the training program</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* To identify ways in which future charcoal training programs can be improved</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials:</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="85%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newsprint and felt-tip pens</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Procedures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 1. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Review and explain the session objectives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Remind the participants of the design principles which were discussed during the session on re-design of kilns (Session 13, Day 3). Point out that the principles of testing, evaluation and re-design also apply to the development of effective training programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Explain that evaluation through feedback from participants can serve as the basis for improving future charcoal training programs. </B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 2. (25 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the participants divide into groups of 3 or 4 and record on newsprint their observations regarding the effectiveness of the training program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask that each group list three aspects of the program which were particularly effective and three aspects which were particularly ineffective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* For each ineffective aspect of the program, ask that participants suggest ways in which it could be improved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Encourage participants to be as specific as possible and to consider all aspects of the program (i.e., sequence of sessions, content of sessions, trainer techniques, etc.).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* If possible, the trainers should join the small groups and participate in the activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* While the small groups are working, arrange chairs in a semicircle at the front of the room so that three people can face and speak to one another while reading the posted observations and suggestions. Arrange a second row of chairs around the first three. The configuration should look like this:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p115.png"></center><br>
+ Row of chairs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Approximately five minutes before the end of the time allotted for this step, circulate among the groups, remind them of the time remaining and ask that they post their observations and suggestions when they are finished. </B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 3. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Have the group reconvene and occupy the chairs the outer semi-circle. Explain the "Fishbowl" activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Ask if anyone has had experience with this activity. If so, ask them to help you with the explanation. Your explanation should include the following points:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Only three people at a time will be in the inner semi circle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The role of each of the three people will be to discuss and respond to the posted observations and examine the feasibility of the suggestions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The role of those in the outer semi-circle will be to observe and listen without speaking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- When someone from the outer circle wants to enter the discussion, a person from the discussion group should leave and join the observers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* The reason for using the fishbowl structure is to provide a comfortable format for discussion and to encourage constructive feedback and suggestions. Therefore, it is important that people feel free to express their thoughts without fear of reprisal. People should be encouraged to enter the discussion and to exchange places with one another when they have something to say. It is a good idea to have at least one member of the training staff in the discussion group at all times. </B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 4. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Just before the discussion, ask one of the participants to scan the lists and point out any commonalities and parallels among the observations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* This quick identification will help provide order and avoid repetition once the discussion begins. </B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 5. (50 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ask that three volunteers move to the inner semicircle and initiate the activity by responding to one of the observations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 6. (10 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Summarize the observations and suggestions for improvement that resulted from the fishbowl discussion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* Stress those observations which seem most generally agreed upon by the group and most feasible in terms of future implementation. </B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Step 7. (5 minutes)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thank the group for their participation in this activity and in the training program.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></B></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trainer Notes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* It is suggested that a barbeque be held immediately following this final session. Participants and staff could then have the opportunity to prepare a meal using charcoal produced during the program. </B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bibliography</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We suggest that the following texts be purchased in sufficient quantities for distribution to all participants:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Booth, H. E.: "Realities of Making Charcoal." UNASYLVA, Vol. 33, No. 131, FAO, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eckholm, Erik: <U>The Other Energy Crisis: Firewood</U>. World Watch Institute, Washington, DC, 1975.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Janczak, Jacek: "Simple Techniques for Basic Bio-fuels." UNASYLVA, Vol. 33, No. 131, FAO, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Noronha, Raymond: "Why is it So Difficult to Crow Fuelwood? UNASYLVA, Vol. 33, No. 131, FAO, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Salem, Ben B.: "Fuelwood Production in Traditional Farming Systems." and Tran van Nao UNASYLVA, Vol. 33, No. 131, FAO, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following resources are effective for reference:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earl, D. E.: <U>Charcoal, an Andre Mayer Fellowship Report</U>. FAO, Rome, Italy, 1974.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The only general charcoal publication in print. Emphasis is on the Mark V portable steel kiln.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earl, D. E.: <U>Forest Energy and Economic Development</U>. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1975.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An overview of forest energy and its role in economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEVRES: <U>The Socio-Economic Context of Fuelwood Use in Small Rural Communities</U>. Agency for International Development, Washington DC, 1980.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Labor Organization: <U>Charcoal Making for Small Scale Enterprises</U>. Geneva, 1975.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Published in simple language for small scale producers in developing countries. Also covers the small business aspects of charcoal making. Emphasis is on metal kilns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Academy of Sciences: <U>Firewood Crops</U>. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1980.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Description of shrub and tree species For energy production, including carbonization possibilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">US Forest Service: <U>Charcoal Production, Marketing and Use</U>. Washington, DC, Forest Products Research Lab Report 2213, 1961.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information on masonry kilns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE FARALLONES INSTITUTE RURAL CENTER</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15290 Coleman Valley Road</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Occidental, CA 95465</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(707) 874-3060</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Farallones Institute is a non-profit organization active in the development of appropriate community technologies, with an emphasis on renewable sources of energy and food systems. Areas of expertise include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- design and implementation of training programs, with a focus on experiential learning and the acquisition of integrated skills</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- development of educational materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- resource gathering and information sharing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- design, use and evaluation of small-scale technologies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- study trips to rural China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- consulting services</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHP INTERNATIONAL, INC.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1010 West Lake Street</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oak Park, IL 60301</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(312) 848-9650</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHP International, Inc. is a consulting firm specializing in the design, management and evaluation of international training programs. It develops and conducts technical, cross-cultural and language programs in Latin America, Asia, and Africa. In addition, CHP International, Inc. leads staff development workshops in the techniques necessary to effectively implement competency based and experiential training programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GPO 894-395</P></B></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/wb34te/metadata.xml
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@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata/1.0/GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Development in practice: Toward Gender Equality (wb34te)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Society, Culture, Community, Woman, Youth, Population|Women, gender and development, women&apos;s organizations</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">World Bank</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.AZList">C-D-E</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">achieve gender equality</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</GreenstoneDirectoryMetadata>
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--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/import/wb34te/wb34te.htm	(revision 21010)
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+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Development in practice: Toward Gender Equality </TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Development in practice: Toward Gender Equality</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Role of Public Policy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">@ 1995 The Intentional Bank for Reconstruction and Development / THE WORLD BANK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing July 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Development in Practice series publishes reviews of the World Bank's activities in different regions and sectors. It lays particular emphasis on the progress that is being made and on the policies and practices that hold the most promise of success in the effort to reduce poverty in the developing world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This book is a product of the staff of the World Bank. and the judgments made herein, do not necessarily reflect the views of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Photo credits: Maurice Asseo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Library of Congers Cataloging-in-Publication Data</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toward gender equality: the role of public policy.  p. cm-(Development in practice)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Includes bibliographer references (p. 70)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISBN 0-8213-3337-2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Women-Government policy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Women's rights. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Sex discrimination against women. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Series:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development in practice (Washington. D.C.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HQ 1 236.T68; 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">305.4-dc20 95-631</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CIP</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Foreword</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TWENTY years ago in Mexico the First World Conference on Women inspired a movement that has helped to reduce gender inequality worldwide. Illiteracy among women is declining, maternal mortality and total fertility rates are beginning to fall. and more women are participating in the labor force than ever before. However. much remains to be done.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In low-income countries women are often denied health care and basic education. Worldwide. women face limited access to financial services, technology. and infrastructure. They are locked into relatively low-productivity work. In addition to performing household tasks and child-rearing duties, women work longer hours for lower pay than most men. And. most discouraging of all. hundreds of thousands of women each year are subject to gender-related violence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Persistent inequality between women and men constrains a society's productivity and, ultimately slows its rate of economic growth. Although this problem has been generally recognized evidence on the need for corrective action is more controlling today than ever.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report written for the Fourth World Conference on Women is intended as a reference to strategies for promoting gender equality and. consequently enhancing economic efficiency. It pulls together evidence, including case studies, that demonstrates the need for governor action to improve the economic status of women. It points out how public policy can and should support services and infrastructure that provide the highest social returns and that are most heavily used by women. The report also aims to stimulate creative solutions to the problem of gender inequality by high lilting innovative and sometimes not obvious strategies that have proved successful. A study in Morocco, for instance, shows that paving public roads to schools increases by 40 percent the probability that local girls will attend classes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy reform that provides an enabling environment for economic growth goes hand in hand with investing in people. The success of one strategy draws on the success of the other. No efforts at gender equality. however, can be successful without the participation of women themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the international community gathers in Beijing for the Fourth World Conference on Women, the World Bank stands ready to assist client governments in response to the challenges ahead. The Bank believes that by advancing gender equality, governments can greatly enhance the future well-being and prosperity of their people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Armeane M. Choksi Vice President Human Capital Development and Operations Policy The World Bank</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THIS REPORT was prepared by a team led by Kei Kawabata and comprising Alison Evans, Zafiris Tzannatos. Tara Vishwanath, and Rekha Menon. The work was carried out under the direction of Minh Chau Nguyen and the overall guidance of K. Y. Amoako. Valuable contributions were made by Joyce Cacho, Lionel Demery, Shahid Khandker, and Kalanidhi Subbarao.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Background papers for the report were prepared by team members and by Anjana Bhushan; Lynn Brown and Lawrence Haddad; Florencia Castro-Leal, with Ignacio Tavares and Ramon Lopez; Roberta Cohen; Monica Fong: Roger Key, with Beverly Mullings; Andrew Mason; and Veena Siddharth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An external review group and a Bankwide advisory committee provided valuable guidance at all stages of the report's preparation. Kalpana Bardhan. Pranab Bardhan, Nancy Folbre. and T. Paul Schultz were the external reviewers. Harold Aldennan, Jean-Jacques Dethier, Louise Fox, Sunita Gandhi, Chris Grootaert, Jeffrey Hammer, Tariq Husahl, Elizabeth King, Augusta Molnar, Helena Ribe, and Paula Valad made up the advisory committee. The report was edited by Jo Bischoff, Richard M. Crum, and Fiona Mackintosh; Benjamin Crow provided word-processing and graphics support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report also reflects the contributions of the participants in consultations held with nongovenamental organizations on March 1S, 1995, in New York. Data supplied by the United Nations and its agencies. particularly the International Labour Organization, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Statistical Office, and the World Health Organization, were invaluable for the preparation of the report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The production of the report was made possible by the assistance of the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which has given unwavering support to the protnotion of gender equality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Definitions and Data Notes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Definitions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Expected number of years of formal schooling The total number of years of schooling that a child of a certain age can expect to receive if current enrollment patterns remain unchanged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Literacy rate. The proportion of the adult population that can read or write. This indicator is not always accurate because it is self-reported and represents past investments in schooling. It is often defined only with respect to selected languages and may not take into account the progress being made in many countries through literacy campaigns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy AT BIRTH The number of years a newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of birth were to remain unchanged throughout the child's life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maternal mortality ratio. The number of women who die in pregnancy and childbirth per 100,000 live births: A measure of the risk that women face of dying from pregnancy-related causes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Data Notes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless otherwise specified, dollar amounts are current U.S. dollars. A billion is a thousand million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The data used in this report cover a range of time periods and are from more than 100 countries (both developing and industrial).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless otherwise specified, geographic regions are those used by the World Bank in its analytical and operational work and are defined as follows:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">sub-Saharan  Africa countries south of the Sahara except Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">East Asia and the Pacific: low- and middle-income economies of East and Southeast Asia and the Pacific.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe and Central Asia. middle-income European countries and the countries that formed the former Soviet Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin America anti the Caribbean all American and Caribbean economies south of the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East and North Africa all the economies of North Africa and the Middle East.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India. Myantnar, Nepal, Pakistan. and Sri Lanka.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Summary</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THREE messages echo throughout this document:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The causes of gender inequality are complex, linked as they are to the intrahousehold decisionmaking process. However the decisions are made. the intrahousehold allocation of resources is influenced by market signals and institutional norms that do not capture the full benefits to society of investing in women. Low levels of education and training. poor health and nutritional status, and limited access to resources depress women's quality of life and hinder economic efficiency and growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> It is therefore essential that public policies work to compensate for market failures in the area of gender equality. These policies should equalize opportunities between women and men and redirect resources to those investments with the highest social returns. Of these investments. female education, particularly at the primary and lower-secondary level, is the most important, as it is the catalyst that increases the impact of other investments in health, nutrition, family planning, agriculture, industry, and infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Women themselves are agents for change because they play a key role in shaping the welfare of future generations. Public policies cannot be effective without the participation of the target group-in this case. women, who make up more than half the world's people. Their views need to be incorporated into policy formulation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Progress to Date</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two decades considerable progress has been made in reducing the gender gap world wide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> In 1960. for every 100 boys enrolled in primary school. there were 65 girls. In 1990 the ratio had risen to 85.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> In 1980 an average six-year-old girl in a developing country could expect to attend school for 7.3 years. By 1990 this figure had Increased to 8.4 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Since the 1950s the female labor force has grown twice as last as the male labor force. Worldwide, more than 40 percent of women over 15 years of age are now in the labor force; in developing countries women account for 30 percent of the labor force (These figures. it should be noted, do not fully reflect women's participation in the informal sector as unpaid family members in agriculture.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless. inequalities between men and women persist in many important areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Despite women s biological advantage, their mortality and morbidity rates frequently exceed those of men, particularly during childhood and the reproductive years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Traditionally women are employed in lower-pay jobs and in a narrower range of occupations than are men. Women's wages are typically only 60-70 percent of wages earned by men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Whether in private sector employment or public sector decisionmaking, women are less likely to be in positions of responsibility than are men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Why Do Gender Inequalities Persist?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The causes of the persistent inequality between men and women are only partially understood. In recent years attention has focused on inequalities in the allocation of resources at the household level. as seen in the higher share of education, health. and food expenditures boys receive in comparison with girls. The decisionmaking process within households is complex and is influenced by social and cultural norms market opportunities, and institutional factors. There is considerable proof that the intrahousehold allocation of resources is a key factor in determining the levels of schooling. health. and nutrition accorded household members.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inequalities in the allocation of household resources matter because education, health. and nutrition are strongly [hiked to well-being, economic efficiency. and growth. Low levels of educational attainment and poor health and nutrition aggravate poor living conditions and reduce an individual's capacity to work productively. Such economic inefficiency represents a significant loss to society and hampers future economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social returns to investments in women's education and health  a? e significantly greater than for similar investment in men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The social and economic losses are greatest when women are denied access to basic education and health care. Data from around the world show that private returns to investments in education are the same for women as for men and may even be marginally higher (Psacharopoulos 1994). More importantly. social returns (that is, total benefits to society) to investment in women's education and health are significantly greater than for similar investments in men, largely because of the strong correlation between women's education, health, nutritional status. and fertility levels and the education. health, and productivity of future generations. These correlation are even stronger when women have control over the way resources are allocated within the household.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wage differentials between women and men in the market are closely linked to educational levels and work experience. since on average. women earn 30-40 percent less than teen' it is not surprising that fewer women than men participate in the labor force. This wage disparity, reinforced by discriminality institutional norms, in turn influences the intrahousehold division of resources. A vicious circle ensues as households invest less in daughters than in sons in the belief that investment in girls yields fewer benefits. As a result. many women are unable to work outside the household because they lack the education or experience that men have.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decision not to participate in the labor force does not necessarily reflect a woman's own choice, no' does it always correspond to the optimum use of household resources. Furthermore. the market wage does not take into account the social benefits of educating and hiring women. Discrimination in households and in the market carries not only private costs for individuals and households but social costs for society as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public policies for reducing gender inequalities are therefore essential for counteracting market failure and improving the well-being of all members of society. Investing in women's education and health expands their choices in labor markets and other income-generating activities and increases the rate of return on a household's most valuable asset-its labor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decision to allocate women's time to the type of non wage work women typically carry out within the household. such as child care. food preparation, and, in low-income countries especially, subsistence farming and the collection of fuel wood and water, has less to do with economics than with social conventions and norms. These nones can have a strong influence on the household division of labor, even in industrial economies, where women's levels of human capital are equal to-and some times higher than those of most men</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The economy pays to this inequality in reduced labour productivity today and diminished national output tomorrow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whether this division of labor is appropriate is, essentially, for society to decide. However. there is no doubt that women's entry into the labor market and other spheres of the economy is directly affected by the extensive amounts of time they traditionally devote to household maintenance and family care. Most men do not make similar allocations of time in the home. Such inequality constrains women's employment choices and can limit girls' enrollment in schools. The economy pays for this inequality in reduced labor productivity today and diminished national output tomorrow. Public policy can address inequalities in the household division of labor by supporting initiatives that reduce the amount of time women spend doing unpaid work. Examples of such interventions include improved water and sanitation services, rural electrification, and batter transport infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Constraints on female employment opportunities arising from the household division of labor are compounded by institutional norms operating within the labor market. Although overt wage discrimination is illegal in many countries, employers frequently segregate jobs or offer less training to women workers. Employers often perceive the returns to investing in women workers as lower than those for men mainly because of women's primary role in childbearing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of access to financial services, to land, and to intonation and technology compounds the unequal treatment of women. Requirements for collateral, high transaction costs, and limited mobility and education contribute to women s inability to obtain credit. When women do have access to credit, the effect on household and individual well-being is striking. Bon-owing by women is linked to increased holdings of non-land assets, to improve in the health status of female children, and to an increased probability that girls will enroll in school. Independent access to land is associated with higher productivity and. in some cases, with greater investments by women in land conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Strategies for the Future</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the benefits from investing in girls and women are so great and can be quantified. why do households and employers underinvest in women? The main reason is that. as discussed above. markets fail to capture the full benefit to society of' investing in women and girls. Where the market fails or is absent. government must take the lead Public policy can contribute directly and indirectly. to reducing gender inequalities by, for example:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Modifying the legal and regulatory framework to ensure a opportunities </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Ensuring macroeconomic stability and improving, microeconomic incentives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Redirecting public policies and public expenditures to those investments with the highest social returns</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Adopting targeted interventions that correct for gender inequalities at the micro-level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modifying the law to eliminate gender discrimination and equalize opportunities for women and men is an important first step. However. legal reform by itself does not ensure equal treatment. Further public action is required to make sure that gender-neutral laws are enforced at the national and local levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sound economic policies and well-functioning markets are essential for growth, employment generation, and the creation of an environment in which the returns to divesting in women and owls can he fully realized. Economic instability and price distortions can hinder the process. Consequently. sound macroeconomic management is critical. In general. two sets of policies are necessary: one emphasizing macroeconomic stability and the elimination of price distortions. the other focusing on labor-demanding growth and a reorientation in public spending toward basic services with high social returns- such as education. health care and water supply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender inequalities in the distribution of the benefits of public spending frequently arise because of a bias within households that limits women's access to publicly provided services. In addition, the services provided by public spending often are of less benefit to women than to men. Public policy can help remedy this problem by rearranging expenditure priorities among sectors and within the social sectors. It can ensure support for those services and types of infrastructure that offer the highest social returns to public spending and that are most heavily used by women and children. such as water supply anti sanitation services and rural electrification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally general policy interventions may not be enough. and programs that specifically target women and girls may be required. Targeting is justified. Governments can no longer afford not to invest in women gable on two grounds. First. because women are disproportionately represented among the poor. targeting women can be an effective strategy for reducing poverty (broadly defined to include limited access to services. re sources, and other capability-enhancing factors). Second. where gender differences are wide, targeting-for example. the provision of stipends so that girls can attend school-they be needed to capture social gains and increase  internal efficiency</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Conclusion</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments can no longer afford not to invest in women. The evidence on the high private and social returns to investments in women and girls cannot be ignored. By directing public resources toward policies and projects that reduce gender inequality. policymakers not only promote equality but also lay the groundwork for slower population growth, greater labor productivity, a higher rate of human capital formation, and stronger economic growth However, none of these developments can be sustained without the participial of women themselves. Governments and collaborating institutions must listen more carefully to the voices of individual women. including policymakers. and to women's groups. By working with others to identity and implement policies that promote gender equality, governments can make a real difference to the future well-being and prosperity of their people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Chapter one</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Gender Inequalities Persist</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALTHOUGH the gap between opportunities for men and women is narrowing. inequalities persist, especially in certain regions. This report examines four major development indicators: educational attainment, maternal mortality. life expectancy. and economic participation outside the household. All four are closely related to each other and in turn are closely correlated with individual well-being. These indicators provide a broad picture of trends in gender inequality and their impact on the relative well-being of women and of men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Education</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the progress in raising educational enrollment rates for both males and females across all regions in the past three decades, growth in educational opportunities at all levels for females lags behind that for males (figure 1.1). In 1990 an average six-year-old girl in a developing country could expect to attend school for 8.4 years. The figure had increased from 7.3 years in 1980-but an average boy of the same age in a developing country could expect to attend school for 9.7 years The gender gap in expected years of schooling is widest in some countries in South Asia, the Middle East, and Sub-Saharan Africa (see figure 1.2). Gender differences in access to education are usually worse in minority populations such as refugees and internally displaced persons. of which only a few children go to school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p16.png"></center><br>
+ School enrollment ratios in developing countries </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The latest available figures show that 77 million girls of primary school age (6-11 years) are not in school, compared with 52 million boys (figure 1.3). Moreover, even these gross enrollment rates often mask high absenteeism and high dropout rates. Dropout rates are notably high in low-income countries but vary by gender worldwide and within regions. The rates for girls tend to be linked to age, peaking at about grade 5 and remaining high at the secondary level (Herz and others 1991) Cultural factors, early marriage, pregnancy, and household responsibilities affect the likelihood that girls will remain in school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the gross enrollment rate is an acceptable indicator of progress in education, most studies use literacy rates as an indicator of well-being. Overall illiteracy rates have decreased among adults in low- and middle-income countries, but the percentage of illiterate women in the world is still higher than the percentage of illiterate men. Older women constitute the largest share of the illiterates in the world today, a consequence of past inequalities in access to education. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia more than 70 percent of women age 25 and older are illiterate (United Nations 1991).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At post-secondary levels. where the gap in enrollment between women and men is wider, there is implicit "gender streaming," or sex segregation, by field of study, even in areas with snore female than male enrollees. Gender streaming. which is widespread in both developing and industrial countries, prevents women from acquiring training in agriculture, forestry, fishing, "hard" sciences, and engineering (figure 1.4).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p17.png"></center><br>
+ Expected years of schooling </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Health</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two decades life expectancy at birth has increased for both men and women in all regions of the world. In industrial countries women tend to outlive men by six to eight years on average: in low-income countries gender differences are much narrower (two to three years). Despite women's biological advantage, female mortality and morbidity rates frequently exceed those of men, particularly during early childhood and the reproductive years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the reproductive period the most Important causes of morbidity and mortality among women are high fertility and abortion rates, vulnerability to sexually transmitted diseases (STDS), genital mutilation. and gender violence. Each year, about 500,000 women worldwide die from the complications of pregnancy and childbirth. Maternal mortality ratios for developing and industrial countries vary greatly: the rates in parts of South Asia are among the world's highest, in some cases exceeding 1,500 per 100.000 live births. In Sub-Saharan Africa where the ratio is 700 maternal deaths per 100.000 live births, a woman runs a 1 in 22 lifetime risk of dying from pregnancy-related causes, but in northern Europe the risk falls to 10 in 100,000 (United Nations 1993). In the transition economies of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, the rates are around 40 to 50 per 100,000 live births</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p18.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 1.3 children not in school 1990 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major cause of maternal deaths is complications from unsafe abortions. Abortion-related deaths are highest in South and Southeast Asia. followed by Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean. Lack of access to contraceptives can mean that abortion, is used as a form of birth control. For example, in parts of Eastern Europe and Central Asia abortions are more numerous than live births (World Bank 1994b), and abortion rates were as high as 1.76 per live birth in Russia prior to the transition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As increasing numbers of women become aware of and learn to use contraceptives, total fertility rates are falling worldwide. The exception is Sub-Saharan Africa where the total fertility rate averaged 6.4 between 1985 have been infected by HIV. The World Health organization (WHO 1994) estimates that more than 13 million women will have been infected by HIV by 2000 and that about 4 million of that number will have died (figure 1.5 In Atrica, where 10 million adults are infected with the virus, ode-half of all newly infected adults are women, and more than 5 million are women of childbearing age. In Asia almost half of all adults newly infected with the virus are women, compared with less than 25 percent just six years ago.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p19.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 1.4 fields of study</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p20.png"></center><br>
+  Figure 1.5 HIV infected women 1995 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mortality risk for females is high during the reproductive years. but it is even higher during infancy and early childhood. Between 1962 and 1992 INFANT mortality in the developing world decreased by 50 percent (UNICEF 1993 However, in seventeen of the twenty-nine developing countries for which recent survey data are available, female children age 1-4 were found to have higher mortality rates than male children. despite girls? biological advantage (World Bank 1994b). In many of these countries the underlying cause of high mortality among girls is the parents' bias toward boys, who receive the best food and medical care.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genital mutilation, prevalent in twenty-eight countries, is performed on 2 million young girls yearly. The practice leads to long-term morbidity, complications during childbirth, mental trauma, and even death. Table 1.1 summarizes the best available statistics on this practice for selected countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Employment Work</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The time women spend on paid and unpaid work is typically greater than the time men spend in the labor market (see table 1.2 for an example). Unpaid family work is rarely recorded in official statistics. It manifests itself only indirectly in the labor market in the form of gender differences in labor force participation rates. sector of employment, hours of work, and wage level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the whole. labor force participation rates for women are lower than those for men (figure 1.6). However. these differences are often exaggerated because the definition of the participation rate fails to capture many aspects of women's work, particularly time spent on childbearing, childbearing. and other household tasks. Men are usually in the labor force throughout the prime working years (age 20-60), and their participation rates are typically more than 90 percent in virtually every country. Female participation rates vary widely across countries. In 1990, for every ten men in the labor force there were two women in the Middle East and North Africa, three in South Asia. six in Sub-Saharan Africa, and seven in Southeast Asia (United Nations 1991). Worldwide, 41 percent of women age 15 years or over are in the labor force, but in developing countries the corresponding figure is 31 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These numbers are deceptive, however, because they do not take into account the agricultural work for which women in developing countries are responsible within the family For example, the Dominican census of 1981 reported that only 21 percent of rural women participated in the labor force, but just three years later a special study suggested a figure of 81 percent. The census had omitted such activities as cultivating gardens and caring for domestic animals In India different definitions of what constitutes "work" have resulted in estimated participation rates as low as 13 percent and as high as 88 percent (Beneria 1992).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tens of Millions of Women Suffer Female Genital Mutilation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 1.1 female genital mutilation</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=468>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estimated prevalence (percent)</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estimated number of women affected (millions)</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djibouti</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">98</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Egypt</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">13.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">22.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6.3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">29.2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sierra Leone</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.0</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudan</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">89</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">118</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Sri Lanka's Dry Zone, Women Work Longer Hours than Men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 1.2 distribution of monthly work hours per month)</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=451>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peal. Season</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Slack season</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Activity </B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural production</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">298</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">299</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">245</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">235</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Household tasks</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">199</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">220</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fetching water and firewood</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">:30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social and religious duties</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total work hours</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">426</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">560</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">350</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">530</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leisure and sleep</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">294</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">160</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">370</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">190</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are usually employed in different sectors than men. Most of women's nonagricultural employment is in the service sector. but in developing countries female employment in manufacturing has been increasing and is catching up with female employment in services (ILO/ INSTRAW 1985). Women in manufacturing tend to be concentrated in only a few sub sectors: more than two-thirds of the global labor force in garment production is female. and this subsector absorbs almost one-fifth of the female labor force in manufacturing (UNIDO 1993). Men's employment is more evenly distributed across other sectors such as mining manufacturing, construction, utilities, and transport.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over their lifetime, women change their employment status more often than do men. They are also more likely to be self-employed or employed in occupations with flexible house such as subcontracted home work. Regardless of the sector in which they are employed, women tend to work in a narrow range of occupations. Only a few women are in high-paying jobs or in positions with significant responsibility. Nearly two-thirds of the women in manufacturing ate laborers, machine operators. and production workers; only 5 percent ate professional and technical workers and only 2 percent are administrators and managers (UNIDO 1993). However. there are regional differences: women occupy nearly 60 percent of clerical, sales. and service jobs in Latin America and the Caribbean but fewer than 20 percent of similar positions in South Asia North Africa. and the Middle East (figure 1.7).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p23.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 1.6 rates of participation in the labor force by gender</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wages paid to women are typically about 60-70 percent of those paid to men. About one-quarter of the gender wage gap is explained by differences in educational levels, labor market experience, and other human capital'' characteristics (Psacharopoulos and Tzannatos 1992 Horton 1994). The gender wage gap can also be explained in part by women's lower participation in the labor market-a consequence of domestic and other demands on their time and, possibly, of discriminatory employment practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Significant changes in the global economy have affected patterns of employment and working conditions for men and women worldwide. "Globalization" is associated with the deregulation of product and labor markets, with regionalization. and with the liberalization of international trade. In turn. these processes at-e associated with increased female participation in the labor force and with the at-owing "casualization'' of employment, as seen in the growth of part-time work in industrial economies. However, the net effect of globalization on women workers is not yet clear. Growth in the international traded service sector (for example, banking and telecommunications) seems to have offered women in developing countries greater employment opportunities. In addition, the participation rate of women in manufacturing jobs has increased faster than that of men. Women's average participation in the manufacturing labor force is now around 30 percent for both developing and industrial countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p24.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 1.7 types of jobs held by women </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, the number of women employed in export manufacturing has been increasing rapidly, even though this sector employs only a small fraction of all women workers. In Mexico, for example, the number of women employed in export manufacturing rose by nearly 15 percent a year in the 1980s (Jurisman and Moreno 1990). However, employment in this sector has been increasing more rapidly for men than for women, partly because of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">technological upgrading over time and partly; because women are less educated and tend to remain in low-skill occupations (Baden 1992).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women now account for a growing share ret wage employment they tend to stay longer in the labor force than ever before</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite persistent gender inequalities in the labor market. some recent trends  are encouraging. Increasing educational opportunities and decreasing fertility  rates have fed to an increase in the number of women entering the labor market. since the 1950s the female labor force has expanded twice as fast as the male  labor force. Women now account for a growing share of wage employment. and they tend to stay longer in the labor force than ever before The narrowing of the gender gap in labor force participation is enabling women to accumulate the work experience necessary tot- improving their job opportunities and increasing their amines. In the formal sector more and more women are working in occupations and sectors once dominated by men. and in many countries women s wages relative to men s have increased over time</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The data in this chapter illustrate some aggregate trends but they cannot tell US anything about the processes behind the persistence of gender inequality. For a more detailed look at these processes. We turn in the next chapter to a growing body of empirical evidence generated at the household and enterprise level. These studies provide a telling insight into the way in which gender inequalities are being challenged particularly by women At the same time these inequalities are reinforced by economic, legal. and cultural incentive systems that discriminate against women Discrimination continues despite compelling evidence showing that less inequality especially within the household. is associated with heftier welfare outcomes for children and better economic outcomes for the household as a v hole.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Chapter two</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Gender Inequalities Hamper Growth</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inequality women and men limits productivity ultimately slows economic growth. early empirical studies (for example, Kuznets 1955) suggested that income inequality would increase with economic growth during the initial phases of development. This chapter, however. starts with the hypothesis that there is not necessarily a tradeoff between inequality and growth and. indeed that high inequality especially as it affects human capital. hampers growth (Fields 1992: Birdsall and Sabot 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both theory and empirical evidence point to the importance of human capital in creating the necessary conditions for productivity growth and in reducing aggregate inequality in the future. In addition. women s human capital generates benefits for society in the form of lower child mortality.  higher educational attainment improved nutrition. and reduced population growth. Inequalities in the accumulation and use of human capital at-e related to lower economic and social well-being for all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Household and Intrahousehold Resource Allocation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, attempts to explain persistent gender inequalities in the accumulation and use of human capital have focused on the key role of household decisionmaking and tile process of resource allocation within household Households do not make decisions in isolation. however: their decision are linked to market prices and incentives and are influenced by cultural legal and state institutions. These institutions indirectly affect not only the returns on household investment but also access to productive resources and employment outside the house hold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Household decisions about the allocation of resources have a profound effect on the schooling, health care, and nutrition children receive. The mechanisms used to make these decisions and the effect of the decisions on the well-being of individual household members are not fully understood. Two frameworks for thinking about household decisions are the unitary household model and the collective household model (see box 3.1)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BOX 2.1 </P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two models of household members having their own prefer decisionmaking encase. Decisions on allocating resources reflect market rates of return. The unitary household model assumes but they also mirror the relative bar that household members pool regaining power of household members sources and allocate them according within the collective (Manser and to a common set of objectives and Brown 1980: McElroy and Homey goals. Households maximize the joint 1981). Bargaining power is a function welfare of their members by allocating of social and cultural norms. as well income and other resources to the in as of such external factors as opposed individuals and enterprises that promise "unities for paid work, laws governing the highest rate of return as reflected inheritance, and control over producing prices and wages. An increase initiative assets and property rights. These household income increases the well factors influence the terms governing being of all household members.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy interventions based on the sources and decisions about how unitary household model aim to in those resources are used within the crease household welfare, but they household. Thus, an increase in do not necessarily affect all household income may benefit some hold members in the same way. Some household members but leave others household members may be worse unaffected or worse off. The outcome off, for example, if they lose control depends on a member's ability to exover certain resources; others may excise control over resources both in be better off. in which case house-side and outside the household, and it hold welfare is not maximized. cannot be assumed that individual well</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the collective household being increases as household income model. the welfare of individual house-rises. (Collective household models do hold members is not synonymous with not exclude the possibility that the universal household welfare. Resources unitary model may be the best approximate not necessarily pooled, and the motion of household decisionmaking household acts as a collective, with in some contexts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The collective household model helps explain why gender inequalities persist even though household becomes increase over time The next sections adopt a collective household framework to explain how these inequalities exact costs in forgone productivity, seduced welfare for individuals and households, encl. ultimately. slower economic growth.(fender Inequalities in Human Capital )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are strong complementaires between education. health. and nutrition on the one hand, and increased well-being, labor productivity, and growth. On the other. Inequalities in resource allocation that limit household members' educational opportunities. access to health care, or nutrition are costly to individuals, households, and the economy as a whole.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Linkages between Education Health, and Nutritious</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the household level. gender differences in access to education are closely related to inequalities in the shares of household education expenditures allocated to boys and to girls This finding stands even though private returns to girls' schooling are similar to or marginally higher than. those to boys' schooling (figure 2.1; see also Schultz 1988: Mwabu 1994). In this case. parental choice reflects the relatively greater restrictions on educational opportunities and employment choices for girls. in comparison with boys. and cultural norms on the appropriate role for girls within the household.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p28.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 2.1 private returns to education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p29a.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 2.2 education, fertility. and child mortality (a)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p29b.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 2.2 education, fertility. and child mortality (b)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More importantly. the social externalities linked to female education are crucial. Evidence from a large number of countries shows that female education is linked with better health for women and their children and with lower levels (figure 2.2). This link stems from the direct effect of education on the value of a woman's time and consequently. on private returns to her labor. It also stems from the indirect effect of education on the average age at which women marry on their knowledge of basic health care and nutrition, and on reproductive choices (Rosenzweig and Schultz 1982, 1987).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Educating girls and women reduces maternal mortality and fertility rates and increases the demand for health services. A simulation study of seventy two developing countries shows that, with all other factors held constant, a doubling of female secondary school enrollments in 1975 would have reduced tile average fertility rate in 1985 from 5.3 to 3.9 children per household and would have lowered the number of births by 29 percent (Subbarao and Raney 1992. Studies for individual countries have found that one additional year of female schooling can reduce the fertility rate. on average, between 5 and 1 (i) percent (Summers 1994)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are more vulnerable than men to micronutrient deficiencies that aggravate poor health (World Batik 1994b). Poor health and nutrition reduce productivity and the chances of reaping gains from investment in education. Intrahousehold inequalities in consumption and nutritional allocations can therefore be a signal of inefficiency Recent estimates suggest that the com effects on morbidity and mortality of just three types of deficiency-in vitamin A, iodine. and iron-could waste as much as 5 percent of gross domestic product (GDP), yet correcting these deficiencies would cost less than 0.3 percent of low-income countries' GDP (World Bank 1994c, pp. 50-51). Studies of women tea producers in Sri Lanka and of women workers in Chinese cotton mills document the reduction in productivity associated with iron deficiencies and the positive effects of in-on supplementation on work and output (Edgerton and others 1979). A study of six villages in Andhra Pradesh, India, found that disabling conditions caused by malnutrition and the prevalence of diseases reduced female labor force participation by 22 percent (Chatterjee 1991).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Physical anti mental abuse can also have deleterious effects on the well-being and productivity of women (table 2.1). Violence against women is widespread in all cultures and cuts across all age and income groups Its consequences. include unwanted pregnancy. infection with STDs, miscarriage partial or permanent disability. and psychological problems such as depression anti low self-esteem. Recent World Bank estimates indicate that in both industrial and developing countries domestic violence and rape cause women of reproductive age to lose a significant percentage of really days. Domestic violence appears to be an example of how the relatively weaker bargaining power of women and the paucity of options for them outside the home can affect the intrahousehold distribution of welfare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Violence against Women Starts in the Womb and Continues  trough Life</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.1 Violence against women through the life cycle</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phase</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Type of violence</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pre birth</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Battering during pregnancy (emotional and physical effects on the ottoman) effects on birth outcome</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Infancy</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female infanticide: emotional and physical abuse</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Girl hood</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sexual abuse by family members and strangers: forced child prostitution</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adolescence</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dating and courtship violence: economically coerced sex: sexual abuse in the workplace: rape: farce prostitution and trafficking in women</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproductive</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coerced pregnancy: rape: abuse of women by male partners: down abuse and murder partner homicide psychological abuse sexual abuse of unmarried and childless women: abuse of women with disabilities</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Heise 1993 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prospects for gainful employment. as well as the availability of basic social services such as water supply and sanitation. also influence women's well-being. The survival chances of female children in India appear to increase as the employment rate for women rises and the earnings differential between men and women decreases Battilan 1988 Dowry and marriage practices. along with household ownership of land are closely linked to women's chances of survival The effect of such practices cannot be over late. Sen's (1990) comparison of female-male mortality rates in China. India. and Sub-Saharan Africa suggest that more than 100 million women are "missing"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public spending on social services affects the ability of individuals and households to benefit from their own private spending on human capital. In most industrial countries mortality rates decreased even before modern medical care became widely available, mainly because of improved water supplies and sanitation. The same is likely to hold for the developing world. Public interventions that address market under provision of water and sanitation facilities and shortages of health set-vices such as immunization and family planning-have a significant effect. and one that is probably greater for women than for men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of data makes it difficult to evaluate the effects of public spending on the educational attainment and health of women and men Very little empirical evidence in this area exists, but there is some indication that the proportion of public subsidies for education that benefits females is lower than the proportion that benefits males. In Kenya in 1992-93. for example. public spending on education amounted to the equivalent of an annual subsidy of 605 Kenyan shillings per capita: males received. on average. 670 shillings and females only 543 shillings. In Mexico the gender difference in public education subsidies was somewhat less: in Pakistan males received almost twice the female subsidy. Gender inequalities in the distribution of subsidies are greater at high than at primary levels. In Pakistan girls receive, on average. only 96 rupees a year for secondary school bag. compared with 58 rupees for boys. Box 2.2 explains how these figures are calculated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Supply-side differences are partly a function of poorly targeted resources (as. for example, when more is spent on tertiary than on primary schooling). More importantly. they reflect differences in household demand for education for girls and boys. If more girls attended anti stayed in school. the proportion of public subsidy going to girls would he greater.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In health care assessing the incidence of public spending by gender is particularly difficult because of the marked differences in the health needs of women and men. These differences are related to different biological re</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main advantage of this type of analysis is that it measures how well public  services are targeted to certain groups in the population, including women, the  poor, and residents of regions of interest.  Requirements anti to women's reproductive and childbearing roles. Some evidence suggests that because of these differences. per capita health cat-e subsidies to women are the same as and sometimes larger than those to men What is clearer is that women are less likely than men to seek health care. including in many countries. hospital care when it is netted and ate mote likely to consult a non medical health cat-e worker (lather than a qualified medical practitioner). Education tends to increase the likelihood that women will seek health care. whether public or  ace the likelihood that women will seek health care. whether public or private (World Bank 1994b). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The importance of private and public investments in education and health services that will improve women's well-being is cleat. These services at-e also important for another season: these is important evidence that increases in women's well-being yield important intergenerational benefits and productivity gains in the future World Bank Living Standards Measure Study (LSMS) surveys car-tried out in Nicaragua (1993 Viet Nam 1993) Pakistan (1991), and Cote (1988) suggest that the probability of children being enrolled in school increases with their mother's educational level and that (controlling, for income and household size) girls. particularly those in non poor households. are mote likely to attend school if their mothers attended school. Other studies show that households with educated mothers lend to provide children with greater quantities of mote nutritious food often at a lower cost. than households with poorly educated mothers (Thomas 1990b)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Data from Brazil show that giving women more control over nonlabor income has a larger impact on child measures, nutritional intakes, and the proportion of the household budget devoted to human capital inputs than if men had control of this income (Thomas 1993) Other studies indicate that women spend proportionately mote of the income they control on health care for children than do men. Women also spend more on food products (as opposed to such goods as alcohol and tobacco) than men do (Duraiswamy 1992: Hoddinot and Haddad 1992) But fathers education is also important especially in interaction with mothers' education (Thomas 1990a) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other studies have shown that children's educational attainment is lowest in households whet-e the male head has no schooling In Ghana the impact of a mother's education on her children's schooling is reduced when  their father has no schooling. even after controlling for income and household size (Lavy 1992).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Material health (which is linked to education) also has important intergenerational effects. Children of mothers who are malnourished or sickly or receive inadequate prenatal and delivery cat-e face a greater risk of disease and premature death. Iodine-deficient mothers run a greater risk of giving birth to infants with severe mental retardation and other congenital abnormalities than do healthy mothers. Reduced fertility and improved health for women can increase individual productivity and improve family well-being. When good health is combined with education and access to jobs. the result is higher rates of economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Household and Labor Market Linkages</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The link between the household and the labor market is particularly important. Specialization of labor within the household-whether individually chosen. socially determined. or legally induced-can accentuate gender inequalities in the formal and informal labor markets by leaving most of the unpaid work to women. This situation arises from convention rather than  from comparative advantage Inadequate public and community services.  transport. and housing also often have an uneven effect on the way men and women spend their time and can increase the demand for goods produced at home using unpaid labor (Moser 1994) Thus women may spend its much (or more time on unpaid work as on market work. In some countries this unpaid work contributes as much as one-third to the economy recorded GDP-and even mote to the welfare of poor families.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The amount of time women contribute to household production and maintenance, direct income generation. and family care combined is widely held to exceed that of men Analysis of data from Bangladesh. Botswana. Ghana. Kenya. Pakistan. the Philippines. and Zambia on how rural women spend their time confirms that, although use of time by women, and by different generations of women varies according to location. available technology. household characteristics. and cultural norms. gender bias in time use is widespread.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are generally responsible for collecting fuelwood and carrying water. Girls and alder women often do most of this work, although cultural norms in some countries affect women s mobility. The amount of time allocated to these activities is influenced by seasonal patterns of agricultural activity. the availability of substitute goods and services. and environmental changes. A study in Nepal, for instance, found that deforestation associated with a 75 percent rise in the time per trip would increase the time spent gathering fuelwood by 45 percent for all adults and by 50-60 percent for women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to fuel and water collection, child care is another activity that dominates women s time-although. considering the importance of children to future household welfare, the amount of direct time spent with children is limited. The seven-country study suggests that more time is spent on child cat-e in female-headed households. Female-headed households tend to have high dependency ratios and relatively large numbers of children, Implying more child-care time overall, but not necessarily on a per child basis. (Kumar and Hotchkiss 1988).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a large proportion of women's use of time goes unrecorded the design of projects and policies can yield false evaluations of costs and benefits. For example, women's unpaid work may be assumed to have zero value. As a result, women's response to changing incentives may be predicted as being higher than their time constraints actually allow. Project benefits-such as the time saved by locating piped water close to homes or by expanding rural electrification-may also be undervalued. Conversely, the benefits of treeing up time may be far more significant than might have been thought. A study in Tanzania, for example. shows that relieving certain time constraints in a community of smallholder coffee and banana growers increases household cash incomes by 10 percent, labor productivity by 15 percent, and capital productivity by 44 percent (Tibaijuka 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Formal Sector Employment</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unpaid work and family responsibilities. as well as lack of investment in women's education. are strongly associated with women's relatively low rates of participation and their limited earnings in formal sector labor. Women's participation rates usually dip in the childbearing years, and earnings tend to decline following an interruption in employment. Younger on average, work more hours than older women, and married women with young children tend to work less than childless women and mothers of grown children. The correlation of marriage and childbearing with labor market outcomes can be seen even in industrial countries, where wage differences between married women and men are larger than those between single women and men Similarly, in some developing countries relative earnings decline with age (table 2.2) Children are not the only treason for interruptions in women's labor force participation; caring for ill or aged family members is often a womans responsibility. A study from Hungary estimates that half of all absenteeism by women workers is the direct result of the need to care for sick relatives (Einhorn 1993).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Countries, Single Women Earn More Than Married Women and Younger Women More Than Older Women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.2 female-male earnings (adjusted for hours worked) by marital status and age (percent)</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=345>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female-male</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earnings ratio</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By marital status</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Married </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Single</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">69</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">91</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Austria</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">66</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">97</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Germany</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">57</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">103</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Norway</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">72</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">92</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sweden</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">72</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">94</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Switzerland</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">58</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">94</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Kingdom</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">95</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">59</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">96</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Age</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 25 </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B 45</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">75</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">63</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">94</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">81</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">82</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">61</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">92</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: Blau and Kahn 1992 Sedlacek Gutierrez. and Mohindra 1993 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thus. women s labor market outcomes can be substantially poorer than those of men because women's employment opportunities are constrained by social arrangements at the family or household level. These social demands are reinforced by legal conventions. Within the labor market itself, social or employer discrimination can affect women and men differently. and these differences are reflected in the resource allocation decisions taken within the household. Although wage discrimination is illegal in many countries, employers may respond to an increase in the supply of workers by segregating jobs by gender or offering less training to women who they perceive as being temporarily attached to the labor force (even if in fact most women never drop out). For example, women in the former Soviet Union are fairly well educated and have high labor force participation. but they are concentrated in occupations requiring fewer skills and less vocational training than men, and, on average. they earn less than men (Fong 1993).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female Wages Are Lower than Male Wages, but This Is Changing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.3 female-male earnings ratio over time Female-male earning 1 ratio (percent) </P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=496>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First observation</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second observation</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A v Average annual percentage change</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50.2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1981) </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">51.6</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1990)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.7</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">67.2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1984)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70 2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1990)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.7</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">75.7</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1985)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">81.4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1988)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.4</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">55.6</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1986)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60.0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1997)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70.9</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1978)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">80.0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1988)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">73.5</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1980)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">79.8</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1990)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.8</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: Monthly earnings for Indonesia and Thailand rural and urban: for all others urban only</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Tzanntors 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women's earnings relative to men's tend to increase over time. A study of six developing countries shows that female earnings relative to male earnings increased by 1 percent a year in the 1980s (table 2.3). There were two reasons for this increase: over the years women entered higher-paying sectors. and within sectors, their pay increased in relation to that of men. This gain would have been even greater had it not been for the effect on wages of increased female participation in the labor force. However, the most visible dimension of gender inequality in the formal labor sector remains the wage difference between men and women. Women's wages are. on average lower those of men by about 30 to 40 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social or employer discrimination can affect women and men difference and these difference are reflected i/? the resource allocation decisions taken within the household</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A recent study of the gender wage gap in Russia shows that after controlling for education differences, the ratio of women's to men's average hourly earnings stands at just over 71 percent: it has remained at that level since the 1960s. Part of the reason for women s lower hourly earnings in Russia and many other countries lies in patterns of occupational segmentation by ,gender. Some analysts argue that women-who do most of the household work in Russian households and also have high participation in the formal labor market cope with the burdens imposed on them by taking less demanding work and devoting less time to advancing their careers (Newell and Reilly 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Informal Sector</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One difficulty analysts face in interpreting trends in women's labor force participation and employment in developing economies is the large number of women engaged in informal sector activities, many of which overlap with subsistence - orientated household or community-based activities. Informal sector employment in most developing countries. whether in microentreprises or in casual work, is an important source of livelihood for women and their households.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The L competitiveness of women's informal sector activities is  constrained by women's limited mobility and lack of access to financial and public sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A recent study in Mexico estimates that 41 percent of the work force in Mexico's major-cities is employed in the informal sector (World Bank 1995c). Data from a 1989 survey show that 60 percent of men working in the sector are salaried workers' compared with only 18 percent of women. By contrast. 80 percent of women working in the sector are unpaid family members, as against 27 percent of men. By far the most common activity in the informal sector is commerce (fixed-location or itinerant), followed by repair works food preparation. and sales, and small-scale manufacturing. The sectoral distribution of informal employment reflects the hey role informal workers play in supplying goods and services to low-income consumers. Women tend to be concentrated in commerce and men in services and manufacturing, although the percentage differences are relatively small. Two generalizations can be made on the basis of this study: informal sector workers earn less than workers in large firms and women earn less than men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another recent study of tour communities in Lusaka. Guayaquil (Ecuador), Metro Manila, and Budapest shows that informal sector activities ate especially important for during periods of economic reform Although the numbers both of men and of women in the labor force tend to increase during these times women rely more on the informal sector than men clot The competitiveness of womens informal sector activities is informal by women's limited mobility and lack of access to financial and public services. Women also tend to specialize in non traded goods and services that show relatively low average returns to labor. Across the tour cities in the study, women earn between 46 and 68 percent of men's wages (Moser 1994)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ability of informal sector workers to increase their returns depends on access to physical and human capital and their relationship to the institutional and regulatory environment. Contrary to the common belief, many microenterprises face considerable costs associated with the regulatory environment, including registration and licensing fees, as well as outlays for contracts with public authorities concerning zoning regulations and use of public utilities. In Argentina regulatory costs are estimated to absorb as much as 21 percent of the average microfirm's operational expenses. In some sectors, such as manufacturing and construction, the costs of regulation are about 44 percent (World Bank 1994d). In Mexico real regulatory costs. including the costs of compliance and evasion, are about 20 percent of total costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regulatory costs also inhibit Job creation in the informal sector. In Argentina across-the-board deregulation could generate as many as 170,000 jobs in small-scale manufacturing alone. Furthermore. poor workers in family-based firms or micro enterprises and particularly women entrepreneurs-often lack access to such basics as water and power. Targeting infrastructure investments to the poor, which takes account of the needs of women entrepreneurs s. can significantly enhance their productivity and earnings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In rural area where formal markets often are not well developed. informal employment activities play a vital role. In Asia the proportion of female rural wage laborers increased sharply in the 1960s and 1970s. In India women make up a larger proportion of rural wage laborers than of the entire labor force, probably because of growing landlines and poverty among rural households. Rural household labor accounts for a disproportionately large share of employment among the poor and an even larger share among women. Furthermore, a larger proportion of female than male laborers are hired on a casual basis, largely because family arrangements, especially lack of control over property, limit women's ability to work (Hart 1986: Bardhan 1993). Low status in the labor market is also linked to low female indicators in education, health, and nutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Providing credit directly to women has a positive effect on  household and individual welfare and improved gender equality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social norms affecting decisions within the family about occupational choices or migration can also lead to differential patterns of male and female earnings in informal markets (Bhiswanger and Rosenzweig 1984). Family responsibilities hinder women's geographic mobility, constraining their ability to command high wages and limiting them to certain areas or industries. The concentration of women in certain sectors, especially nontraded goods and set-vices. intensifies competition between women entrepreneurs and wage workers and lowers the returns to female labor. These effects are compounded by women's lack of access to credit. training, and technology.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(fender Inequality in Access to Assets and Services )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Access to Financial Markets</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The availability of financial services and access to them are considered important for several reasons. First. savings provide a kind of self-insurance. Second, credit helps households maintain a certain level of consumption at those times when their income fluctuates temporarily. Third, credit can be used to fund investments in capital or other inputs that will yield relatively high returns to production. if households cannot finance such investments from their own savings. A fourth and no less important reason is the role of savings and credit in increasing household members' options outside the home.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inequalities between women and men in access to financial services- particularly credit--are widely documented. Collateral requirements, high transaction costs. limited mobility and education, and other social and cultural barriers contribute to women's inability to obtain credit (Holt and Ribe 1991). The implications tot household efficiency and individual well-being differ, however, depending on whether the household pools its financial resources. If, as the unitary household model assumes. a household pools its resources the characteristics of individual borrowers are less important than if there is little or no pooling. In the first case. credit resources will be used to meet household needs that have been jointly determined, regardless of who the borrower is. In the second case, the use credit is put to and the needs it then satisfies depend on which household member is borrowing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A recent study of credit programs in Bangladesh sponsored by the World Bank shows that providing credit directly to women has a positive effect on variables typically associated with household and individual welfare and improved gender equality (Pitt and Khandker 1995). The study looks at three programs in Bangladesh: the Grameen Bank. the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), and the Bangladesh Rural Development Board (BRDB). in 1992, women accounted for 94 percent of Grameen Bank members. 82 percent of BRAC members. and 68 percent of BRDB members (Khandker and Khalily 1995; Khandker, Lavy, and Filmer 1994). Only the results for the Grameen Bank are presented here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.4 presents the impact of credit obtained by women and men on a variety of social and economic indicators. The results show a clear and positive impact of both male and female borrowing on all indicators of Toward gender equality family welfare especially through an increase in per capita expenditures increases in both boys' and girls schooling, anti a reduction in fertility. Females borrowing has a greater effect on girls' schooling anti per capita expenditure than does male loot-rowing: male borrowing has a greater effect on boys' schooling and fertility than does female borrowing. Interestingly. female borrowing also results in mote female ownership of nonoland assets and an increased supply of female labor to cash - income -earning activities (Pitt and Khandker 1995).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loans to Women and Men Have Important Welfare Implications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2 4 welfare effects of Grameen Bank loans (percentage increase)</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=545>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Welfare e change</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effect of male borrowing</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effect female borrowing</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in boys' schooling</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7.2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6.1</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in girls schooling</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3.0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4.7</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in per capital expenditure</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.8</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4.3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reduction in recent fertility</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7.4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in women's labor supply to cash-income earning activities</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10.4</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in women nonland assents</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">19.9 </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The introduction of programs such as the Grameen Bank in a village has a positive effect on agricultural and nonagricultural production (Khatidketati Chowdhuty 1994: Rahman and Khandke 1994 The probability that women will be self-employed rather than work for wages increases by 52 percent. The latter finding is important because much of the wage employment open to women in rural areas is very poorly remunerated and can be quite exploitative. Self employment can bring the opportunity of higher returns for women, plus the freedom to integrate their earning activities into other work as they see fit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access to financial services alone cannot reduce gender inequalities in the allocation of household resources. A qualitative study reviewing several targeted credit programs in Bangladesh cautions against overgeneralizing about the benefits of giving women access to credit. The study finds that it is difficult to infer that increased borrowing alone improves women's bargaining power because in many rural Bangladesh households the question of who controls the resources is quite complex (Goetz and Sen Gupta 1994). Nevertheless. the possibility of receiving credit (or similarly of working for wages) may give women greater bargaining power within the household. This bargaining power can be used to improve child health and nutrition and may increase the likelihood that children will attend school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Access to Lund and Property</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ownership of land and the distributions of land rights influence the productivity of labor and capital resources and the incentive to invest in resource management Private property rights. in particular. are associated with increased access to product and factor markets. especially credit markets. and to public services such as public utilities and agricultural extension. However. relatively little direct evidence exists to link independent owner of land by women with increased access and productivity. One obstacle to empirical work is that women s access to land and property is often mediated trough marriage (A married woman land rights are frequently limited to use rather than ownership.) Future more. complex systems of land tenure make it difficult to generalize about the effects of owner ship on productivity. None some evidence suggests that independent land rights for women could enhance both the efficiency with which resources are used and the well-being of women and their households: (Agarwal 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The possibility of receiving credit may give e women   greater bargaining power within the  household which  can be used to improve child health and nutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While independent land rights may increase efficiency and household welfare, lack of secure land  appears to be associated with low investments by women in land conservation. In Zimbabwe's communal areas, land that a women acquires is often allocated to her only temporarily: for example, the location of land allotment received from husbands or borrowed from neighbors is usually subject to periodic change (Jackson 1993). The same is true in parts of West Africa (David 1992 Jackson 1994). Uncertainly about the permanence of their control over the land means that women may be reluctant to invest in improvements that will benefit the landowner rather than the user.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A significant trend in recent decades in developing countries has been the move toward private ownership In some countries this trend has been encoulagecl by reforms dealing with land redistribution tenancy or land titling Such reforms are considered important for promoting long-term investments and the adoption of the latest technology They also provide the collateral people need to gain access to credit and other factor markets Ironically, evidence also suggests that perform inequalities in male and female land rights are reinforced by land reform programs For example, in Latin America most reforms are based on the premise that the man of the household its the household head. This presumption means that women (except for widows  and ownership. Even where women and men benefit equally from land reform differences exist between nominal and real land rights (see box 2.3).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the central part of European Russia and in Moldova the lands and assets of state and collective farms are being parceled out in allotments as part of wider economic reforms. Every person who lived and worked on a collective farm receives a share of the land Data show that although on average, women have received a slightly higher proportion of land shares than men, the nonland capital assets of the old farms ale being distributed as property shares on the basis of a formula heavily weighted toward an individual's wage rate and years of employment. Such criteria favor men over women and give men more valuable property chares. Dividends paid on these property shares also tend to be higher than those paid 011 land shares Holt 1995).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Land reform programs that fail to account for gender differences in rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 2.3 who gets access to land? Honduras and Cameroon</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honduras' Agrarian Modernization Law of 1974 includes a provision giving men age 16 or older the right to access to land, independent of any other qualification. For women. however, this right is restricted to unmarried mothers or widows with dependent children. Furthermore. if a male beneficiary dies or becomes incapacitated. the law gives preference in inheritance rights to a male child over the child's legally married mother. Some 30 percent of rural Honduran households are headed by women at least part time because of the seasonal migration of men to look for work (Saito and Spurling 1992). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the northwest and southwest provinces of Cameroon. an estimated 50 percent or more of those who claimed land within the first ten years of land registration (1974-85) were classified as public servants. Over 32 percent of all the remaining land titles went to businesses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women make up more than 51 percent of Cameroon s population and do more than 75 percent of the agricultural work. but they are virtually absent from land registers. Only 3.2 percent of all land titles issued in the Northwest Province were given to women; in the Southwest Province the figure was 7.2 percent. For the country as a whole. it is estimated that women obtained under 10 percent of all land certificates (World Bank 1995a).  to own. use, and transfer land may actually exacerbate the insecurity of women's land claims and. as a result, harm household welfare. For example, there is evidence that land titling focused on male household heads has adversely affected women's ability to farm independently. Moreover. intrahousehold inequalities in income and decisionmaking have increased (FAO 1993) In Africa some titling programs have allowed men to take advantage of their control over land to redesignate land formerly cultivated by women as household land. This switch provided the opportunity for men to increase the amount of work they expect from women on household plots. In other cases women have received smaller and less fertile plots than they had before for their personal crops (FAO 1993).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recognizing women's independent claims to land is therefore an important issue in property reform. In poor households. having rights to land could alleviate both women's own poverty and the household's risk of remaining poor. The season is mainly that women s access to economic resources has a positive effect on household welfare (Agarwal 1994). From the point of view of efficiency, secret land tenure increases the incentive to manage resources efficiently and expands access to formal credit markets. Because secure land tenure can mean greater productivity, it may also increase the household's incentives to invest in women's human capital.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Access to Extension Services</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural extension services provide information training and technology to agricultural producers. Extension services have always been regarded as necessary for agricultural modernization. Given the importance of women's labor to agriculture in most regions, providing women with access to agricultural extension services is essential for current and future productivity. Types of agricultural extension services vary, hut in most countries publicly provided services dominate. Evidence suggests that women have not benefited as much as men have from publicly provided extension services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the importance of women's labor to agriculture it is in most regions providing women with access to agricultural extension services is essential for current  and future of productivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A review of five African countries shows that extension agents are most likely to visit male farmers than female farmers (table 2.5) The impact of this inequity on female productivity depends in part on whether women and men within households pool information. There is, however. little evidence to suggest that this happens (see box 2.4). It is important to ensure that extension services reach omen directly, not only to redress gender inequalities but also to maximize productive efficiency. omen play a critical role in production of food and cash crops for the household. in postharvest activities. and in livestock care Men and omen perform different tasks they can substitute for one another only to a limited extent. and this imitation creates different demands for extension information Also, as men leave farms in search of paid employment ill urban areas. women are increasingly managing and operating farms on a regular and full-time basis. Hence. omen are becoming a constituency for extension and research services in their own right (World Bank 1994e)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.5 visits by agricultural extension agents (percentage of households visited)</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=439>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country and year</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Households with female head</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Households with male head</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya. 1989</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">112</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi, 1989</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">58</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria 1989</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">37</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">22</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania, 1984</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">40</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="4%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1982</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">57</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">29</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="4%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1986</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">19</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 2.4 do women farmers learn from their husbands?</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of women farmers in Burkina Faso found that 40 percent had some knowledge of modern crop and livestock production technologies. For most of these women, relatives and friends were the source of information; nearly one-third had acquired their knowledge from the extension service, and only 1 percent had heard of the technologies from their husbands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Men are less likely to pass information on to their wives when crops and tasks are gender specific. In Malawi women claimed that their husbands rarely passed on advice to them: if their husbands did tell them something. the women did not find it relevant to their needs. In India women learned from friends, relatives. neighbors. and sometimes from their husbands. but this second-hand information seldom changed their production patterns (Saito and Spurling 1992). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The expansion of agricultural services beyond the public sector is a growing phenomenon in developing economies. The inadequacies of public funding plus the need to provide snore client-oriented services, suggest that the private sector has an important role to play However, women's limited access to land and credit put the many potential benefits offered by extension services out of reach. For example in Kenya's Meru and Maranga areas more than half the women surveyed cited a shortage of cash as their reason for not adopting, technologies that would maximize their output and increase their efficiency. The amount of education omen receive and the efficiency with which they run their farms are also closely linked This tie is particularly significant in light of the fact that one purpose of extension services is to advise farmers on use of modern technology.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three studies of Kenya found that the gender of the farm manager was, by itself. an insignification factor in output per hectare but that the manager's educational level had a significant effect on farm productivity (Moock 1976: Saito and Spurling 1992: Bindlish and Evenson 1993). Simulations based on these studies suggest that significant gains could accrue to increased investment in women's physical and human capital. As the data in table 2.6 show, if women and men shared the same educational characteristics and input levels. farm-specific yields would increase between 7 and 22 percent. Giving women primary schooling, by itself. would increase yields by 24 percent. Thus under investment in women's education limits growth of agricultural productivity. Well-targeted extension services can help to narrow the differences in productivity that arise from educational inequalities (Schultz 1988)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing Human Capital and Input Levels Would Increase tile Yield for Women Farmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.6 effects of increasing women farmers' human capital and input levels Increase  yields</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy experiment </B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(percent)</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maize farmers Kenya, 1976</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of giving female farmers sample mean characteristics and input levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of giving female farmer s men's education and input levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of giving women primary schooling</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">24</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food maize (maize beans and cow pears) farmers</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of giving female farmer men's education and input levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.0</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of increasing land area to male farmers' levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of increasing fertilizer to male farmers' levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.6</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Conclusion</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Analysts must look beyond market outcomes to identity the sources of persistent inequality between women and men. The search must focus on the household and its role in the formation of present and future human capital and on institutions beyond the household that reinforce and perpetuate gender inequalities. Gender inequalities within the household affect market outcomes, and these feed back; into household decisionmaking. This process is reinforced by inequalities in access to assets and services beyond the household. Improving the relative status of women within the household and increasing their access to assets and services will increase the returns to investment in human resources and improve the prospects for sustainable economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We must look for that which we have been trained not to see  Ann Scales, Yale Law Journal 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Chapter three</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Public Policies Matter</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As CHAPTER 2 has shown underivesting in girls and women is inefficient for society as a whole. Correcting for past underinvestment will require a "genders" approach to public policy. How this can be concretely achieved is the topic of this chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Equalizing Opportunities by Modifying, the Legal Framework</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Laws form tile functional framework of the economy and of civil society. Equality in the legal treatment of men and women creates the legitimacy policymakers need to seek change. Legal and regulatory provisions that discriminate against women-that. for example bar married women from seeking employment or prevent women from holding legal title to land-perpetuate gender inequalities and severely restrict women's ability to participate fully in social and economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modifying the legal framework to  eliminate discrimination and equalize opportunities for women and men is an important goal for public policy at the national and international levels. A supportive legal environment is also vital for other aspects of public policy that have a direct bearing on the opportunities available to women. such as regulations affecting the formal and informal sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four areas of the law are particularly important for equalizing the opportunities available to men and women: land and property rights; labor market policies and employment law: family law: and financial laws and regulations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Land and Property Rights</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policymakers should ensure that women and men are treated equally in the public allocation of land. Eligibility for land reform programs, for example. should not discriminate against women's perform claims whether the women are heads of households or members of households headed by men. When communities have been resettled or when a project allocates land to participating producers, women should have the same rights to land as men For refugee and displaced women returning to their homelands. often as de facto heads of households. need fair and equal treatment to allow them to establish a Farming or enterprise base as soon as possible. Whet-e land is in short supply, it may be necessary to recognize the land rights of certain groups, as well as their individual rights. The Indian National Sericulture Project is an example; it has leased land to women's groups and promoted women's access to land under state land-grant schemes (Quisumbilig 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some countries have enacted legislation to ensure gender equality in property and contractual rights. Under China's Law of Succession, for example males and females have equal rights to inheritance. Complementary measures are needed to ensure that women know their rights. Such measures include legal programs and campaigns to make judges and administrators sensitive to gender issues in the area of property rights (see box 2.1)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Labor Market Policies and Employment Law</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Discriminatory labor market policies and employment laws are widespread: examples are bans on hiring married women and restrictions on the type of work pregnant women may pet-form. Labor laws may also restrict female participation in jobs and deny women access to work settings. Even legislation that seeks to promote equal opportunity can have outcomes tot women workers. For example, generous maternity and child-care benefits tot women workers may make hiring women relatively mote costly than hiring men. perpetuating the gender wage gap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main issue for public policy its to ensure that fair and equal employment laws exist and are enforced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.1 some NGO efforts to promote women's legal literacy</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schuler and Kadirgamar - Rajasingham (1992) describe innovative approaches by  non governmental organizations to provide women with useful legal knowledge and tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Caribbean Association for Feminist Research and Action (CAFRA) has launched "women and the law" projects in five English-speaking Caribbean countries. Using a participatory methodology. the projects aim to create awareness of the law. provide women with legal information that will be useful to them in their daily lives, identify specific areas for action, and influence overall legislative policy. The projects develop educational materials for legal literacy and offer topic specific paralegal training for women's organizations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The legal literacy program of the Ugandan Women Lawyers' Association (FDA-Uganda) conducts legal literacy campaigns on specified dates each month in different districts. Pairs of FIDA volunteers conduct sessions, using role playing and discussions, on legal topics of relevance to women's lives and provide advice on contacting the FIDA legal clinic for advice and representation. In addition, FIDA and Action for Development broadcast regular radio and television programs on women and the law and publish pamphlets on legal issues of interest to women. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In India the Self - Employed Women's Association (SEWA) holds worker education meetings to provide members with legal information and offers one day training sessions on specialized legal information for community leaders. Members of SEWA paralegal staff research cases, prepare briefs, and argue all cases in labor courts for members. SEWA'S legal literacy efforts are part of its overall strategy of action for supporting self-employed women and women in the informal sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard. the main issue for public policy is to ensure that fair and equal employment laws exist and are enforced. Such laws should cover employment and employment-related benefits and should not be applied in a way that restricts women's access to the labor market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many countries women are protected by special standards in the workplace. These safeguards are of two types. The first includes measures intended to end discrimination in the labor market by requiring equal pay for work of equal value or by prohibiting the exclusion of workers from certain jobs because of gender. The second type protects women in their role as mottles by requiring employers to pay the full cost of maternity leave and provide childcare facilities. restricting night work, and limiting work categorized as dangerous or hazardous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first type of labor standard is often difficult to enforce. although nearly 120 countries have enacted equal opportunity laws. In most cases the law is in place but is not enforced. Furthermore. it often applies only to the formal sector of the labor market. leaving large number of women in the informal sector with little protection. More concerted public and private action is required to devise appropriate for enforcement. In additions complementary measures are needed to increase womens chances of entering the labor force. Such measures would include mote met-it-based hiring of women in the public sector and the creation of an appropriate regulatory framework that encourages the establishment of day-care centers private nursery schools. and kindergartens for the children of workers in both the formal and informal sectors. (Box 3.2 describes a day-care projects in Bolivia)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many countries have laws that limit night work. over theme and the use of heavy machinery by women. While well intentioned. these laws. too. can reduce women's employment options by raising the employer's cost of hiring women and perpetuating the notion that women workers are less flexible than male workers. This adverse result occurs because women already tend to have lower levels of capital than men and are limited by traditional notions of what womens work. Devising effective protective legislation for women is thus a difficult balancing act.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effective laws to protect women must honor the fine line between ensuring sate working conditions for all workers, including women in the informal sector. and providing equal opportunities for all workers seeking employment. Standards relating to maternity leave and child-care benefits are common in the formal sector. To ensure that such standards do not raise the costs of female labor unnecessarily employment legislation should avoid having employers pay benefits directly. Maternity benefits should be funded through general revenue taxes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.2 day-care center in Bolivia to enhance the status of women by increasing their employment opportunities in other Latin American countries, and their knowledge of women in Bolivia are over represented , health, and nutrition. The project among the poor, and many live in will establish day-care centers to proficult circumstances. They are twice vice non formal,  home-based, integrals likely as men to be illiterate, their child development for children unaccess to child care is limited, they the age of 6 in thirty-four poor subject to discrimination in hiring ban and purebred areas. Women and wages, and they are restricted benefit from the project either as by law from engaging in certain procure givers employed at the minimum ductive activities. wage or as clients of the centers. The Integrated Child Development children in day care gives women Project, financed by a credit from the more time to search for jobs or to in World Bank's International Development their current situations (Winkler opponent Association designed and Guedes 1995).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Or social security systems rather than by direct contributions from individual employers. In Eastern Europe and Latin America, however, this method of funding benefits has imposed a significant cost on the treasury, raising the question of how much should be paid and for how long.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One way of addressing this issue is for governments to encourage women and men to share the responsibility for childrearing by adopting legislation allowing either parent to qualify for the leave and benefits associated with having a child (Folbre 1994). Such legislation can be supported by changes in the tax system to ensure equal treatment of workers within the household and a margin tax rate on the earnings of additional workers in the household low enough to avoid creating a disincentive to women's participation in the labor force (Mac Donald 1994). These tax changes can be complemented by legislation that encourages absent to pay child support. Such laws are in place in many Latin American and Caribbean countries. but none systematically monitors transfers (Folbre 1994). Greater efforts to enforce the law are needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Family Law</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender inequality in family law can worsen women's bargaining position within and outside the household and affect household welfare and efficiency. As noted in chapter women's bargaining position in relation to Household resource allocation is often a key factor in determining the wellbeing of household members. particularly children. Reforms of family law can enhance women's economic and social opportunities while still respecting cultural norms. For instance the minim age of marriage for women  should be set high enough so that girls can complete secondary schooling: this would help lower fertility rates. (Allowing for exceptions such as parent consent negates the potential fertility benefit.) Marriage contracts should include stipulations guaranteeing the wife's rights. especially on separation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Women's bargaining position in relation to household</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legal and policy measures can have a direct bearing on the health of women. The law and its enforcement are essential for combating domestic violence against women. If the laws on violence against women are to be enforced, women need to be made aware of the legal recourse available to them and the judiciary and police need to be sensitized to the existence and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.3 innovative approaches to combating gender violence</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil's women-only police stations are an innovative approach to the problem of violence against women. They have been so successful that other countries-including Argentina, Colombia, Costa Rica, India, Peru, and Uruguay-have emulated them. The police stations have made it easier for women to report gender based crimes of violence, and, with that experience, women are now demanding more support from the police, such as legal counseling and advice. Despite the program's success, the number of convictions for gender-based crimes has not increased, largely because similar innovations have not been made in the  judicial system (Heise, Pitanguy, and Germain 1994). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Zimbabwe the Mussasa project provides support and counseling to abused women and sensitizes police and prosecutors to the issues of domestic violence and rape. To ensure the credibility and acceptability of the training, legal professionals are involved in the program. One branch of the criminal justice system-the police department, for example-often hosts training for another, such as prosecutors (Stewart 1992).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Costa Rica El Instituto Legal de las Naciones Unidas y Desarrollo runs gender sensitization training for prosecutors, judges, lawyers, and other professionals who deal with crimes of violence against women (Heise, Pitanguy, and Germain 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Implication of violence against women. Affirmative action policies can increase the number of women police officers lawyers, and judges. Trading police, lawyers, and judges can increase their gender sensitivity. making the legal system more responsive to women's needs. Legal literacy efforts can make women aware of their rights and show them how to use these rights to mobilize for change. Some approaches to dealing with domestic violence are illustrated in box 3.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Financial Laws and Regulations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access to credit is vital for women, allowing them to manage fluctuations in income and expenditures and to expand their businesses. As we saw in the preceding chapters, credit can be an important source of economic empowerment for women within the household. But in many countries. underdeveloped financial markets, controlled interest rates, and overly rigid backings regulations have led to systems of credit that tend to shut out the pool. many of whom are women If financial institutions are to lend to those unable to obtain credit in the current environment. interest rates must be liberalized. Positive interest rates have important effects on informational money markets, which tend to be more exploitative when formal sector credit is rationed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Changes in the laws governing access to credit are also vital because women's business profiles often differ from men's. Compared with men. women are more likely to work in low-risk small, and home-based businesses (Rhyne and Holt 1994). This situation creates a demand for small loans that can be obtained without formal, legally secured collateral and that offer relatively flexible repayment terms. Legislation that encourages broad access to financial institutions can increase the availability of these types of loans. but legal changes may also be needed to extend the range of acceptable collateral.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many countries the regulatory framework contains provisions that are especially punitive to small firms. This adds an additional constraint on women, whose businesses are concentrated at the small end of the size The deregulation of the microentreprise sector would remove implicit disincentives to small-film activity and would relieve some of these Such action would enhance women entrepreneurs' prospects of benefiting from training or credit programs targeted to the microentreprise sector (World Bank 1994d. 1995c).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Redirecting Public Policies and Expenditure to Promote (tender Equality)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is unlikely that legal reform by itself will be sufficient to ensure that women and men ate treated equally. Further public action may be required to guarantee that gentler-neutral laws are enforced at both national and local levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Macroeconomic: Policies</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many developing countries are implementing important policy and institutional reforms to address changing economic conditions on both the domestic and international fronts. These reforms are often supported by international financial institutions and bilateral donors. The pace of reform has varied across countries Those countries that have implemented reforms early on, carried them out consistently, and received adequate financial support have generally enjoyed faster and stronger economic growth than count ties that have undertaken reforms too slowly, too intermittently, or not at all. Where implementation has been slow or the government's commitment weak, economic distortions have tended to multiply and economic trowels to slow. limiting the government's ability to invest in physical and human capital for the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often the poorest groups in society that stand to lose the most from economic distortions. High and rising inflation places a disproportionate tax burden on the poor including low-paid wage workers and those with fixed incomes. For this and other reasons, inflation tends to hit women harder than men. An overvalued currency is also regressive; it keeps the price of goods artificially low. crowding out many locally produced goods. Women's businesses. which ate often concentrated in the informal sector, can be particularly vulnerable to competitions from cheap snorts. An overvalued currency reduces international competitiveness. limiting the availability of foreign exchange for domestic entrepreneurs and constraining business expansion and employment creation. A firm commitment to policy refortify is therefore essential to economic growth and sustainable initiatives for alleviating poverty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Inflation tends to hit women harder than men.</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such reforms generally include two kinds of necessary policies. The first emphasizes macroeconomic stability and the removal of price distortions: the second promotes labor-demanding growth in agriculture and industry and better. mote accessible basic social services. mightily in education, health care and water supply. Macroeconomic stability can be achieved by reducing large current account and government budget deficits and by curtailing excessive money and credit expansion. Correct pricing of foreign exchange and of domestic goods and services facilitates trade and investment and promotes growth Reforms of trade and price incentives encourage job creation and higher earnings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In shots. broadly based economic reforms benefit the poor, as the experiences of diverse countries have shown. Data from the LSMS and similar studies confirm that in Costa Rica, Ethiopia. Than Indonesia, Peru, the Philippines, and Tanzania, declines in poverty rates have accompanied economic reforms. Because of underlying gender inequalities, reductions in poverty do not necessarily improve the economic status of women. Nonetheless. although empirical evidence on changes in women's welfare following reforms is scarce, data from the Philippines suggest that for women. economic reform is by improvements in social indicators and important employment gains (box 3.4). An analysis of household data from Peru indicates that reforms there have not only led to renewed growth and reduced poverty but have also improved the status of female-headed households (box 3.5).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their seminal role in encouraging sustainable. long-term growth. some economic reforms involve transitional costs. for two reasons: the need to implement radical shifts in government policy, and the lag. perhaps of years, between acceleration of economic growth and the realization of the 
+</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.4 social progress and labor force gains for women in the Philippines</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Philippines began implementing economic reforms in the early 1980s. While political turmoil and some policy slippage have weakened GDP growth over the period and led to the need for further reforms, quality of life indicators have improved during adjustment. For example, by 1990 the incidence of absolute poverty had declined by about one-third (to approximately 20 percent of the population). Maternal and infant mortality rates also declined over the period: in 1980 the infant mortality rate was 52 per 1,000 live births, but by 1990 it had fallen to 41 per 1,000 births (Johansen 1993). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The percentage of the population with access to safe drinking water increased between 1980 and 1990, from 65 to 93 percent of the urban population and from 43 to 72 percent of the rural population. The figures for sanitation services showed the same increase, climbing from 81 percent with access in 1980 to 98 per  cent in 1990 among urban dwellers and from 67 to 85 percent among those in rural areas. Secondary school enrollment rates for boys and girls also showed gains. Girls and boys have traditionally reached similar educational levels in the Philippines, a trend that contributed to women's gains in the labor market during adjustment in the 1980s. While labor force participation rates for men rose only slightly, the rates for women increased dramatically, from 23 to 37 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, women's wages as a percentage of men's grew from 71 to 80 percent between 1978 and 1988 (Tzannatos 1995). A recent study of a low-income community in Manila found that in some private sector jobs women earn more than men, reflecting in part the high educational level among women in the sector. Earnings in the informal sector are generally low for both women and men. although some women have been so successful in their informal sector businesses that their spouses have opted to leave low-paying jobs in the formal sector to participate in their wives enterprises (Moser 1994).  benefits of growth by large segments of the population. The short-term costs can include increases in food prices as subsidies are removed temporary restrictions on credit to control monetary expansion, and cuts in public spending as governments attempt to control budget deficits and reorient spending toward the most important public services. Moreover, inequalities in access to and control over resources and in entry into markets hamper some groups in taking advantage of the opportunities created by economic reform For example, people who are unable to acquire new skills may remain for some thee. Gender inequalities in access to and control over land in rural areas can keep women farmers from taking advantage of changes in the relative prices of tradable and non tradable crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.5 macroeconomic reform and improved living standards in Peru</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between 1985 and 1990 Peru's economic regime was marked by expansionary monetary and fiscal policies and high levels of government intervention in most areas of the economy. Although these policies led to an initial period of growth, the approach proved unsustainable: by late 1987 growth had given way to hyperinflation and deep recession. During 1988-90 real GDP dropped by an average of 8 percent a year. Real wages and consumption expenditure also fell sharply as inflation soared to 7,600 percent a year in 1990.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1990 the new government of President Alberto Fujimori introduced macroeconomic reform measures designed to stabilize the economy, reduce fiscal deficits and inflation, increase market efficiency, and improve the country's competitiveness. Under this reform program inflation declined dramatically, falling to 57 percent in 1992 and to 17 percent in 1994. Real GDP grew by about 20 percent between 1991 and 1994, while real per capita consumption expenditure grew by more than 18.5 percent. LSMS data show that poverty declined by 11 percent-from 55 percent of the population in 1991 to 49 percent in 1994. Although the country experienced a brief contractionary period following the introduction of reform measures, household data from Lima for 1990, 1991, and 1994 indicate that in 1994 per capita expenditure was well above, and the incidence of poverty well below, 1990 levels. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improvements in living standards have been widespread, and the largest gains have been made in some of the country's poorest regions, such as the urban and rural sierra (mountain areas). In most parts of the country, increases in per capita expenditure among households headed by women have been above the national average. In the urban and rural sierra, for example. consumption expenditure by these households increased by 47.7 and 44.8 percent. respectively-figures that compare favorably with increases in per capita expenditure among households headed by men (35 and 28 percent for the same regions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although both women and men are expected to gain from economic reform in the long run. gender inequalities at the household and market levels can mean that the benefits of reform reach women, especially poor women. only slowly. Reforms must incorporate measures aimed at counter acting shot-term transitional costs. Among the most important are safety nets specifically targeted to vulnerable groups. For example, in fiscal 1994 seventeen of the twenty-three reform programs supported by the World Bank included components aimed specifically at reducing poverty: fourteen of them targeted programs or safety net measures such as labor-intensive public works projects. targeted and social assistance programs, and unemployment and social security schemes (see box 3.6).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.6 food coupons improve nutrition in Honduras</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The food coupon program in Honduras, part of a social safety net supported by the World Bank and financed by IDA and other donors, was put in place in 1990 to protect the country's most vulnerable people during economic reforms. Starting with about 182,000 participants, by 1994 the program had expanded its coverage to 345.000 of the estimated 430,000 children at risk of malnutrition. The effort also supports nutrition education for health workers, community groups, and mothers. Because coupons are used instead of food. the government saves some 30 percent over traditional food distribution costs, and the beneficiaries are able to choose the food  they will consume. Beginning in 1995, an adjustment for inflation will maintain the value of the coupons, enabling participants to satisfy a constant proportion of their food needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project also supports the development and implementation of a long-term nutrition assistance strategy for Honduras. Although attempting to measure changes in malnutrition is difficult in the short term, there have already been noticeable benefits. Between 1990 and 1993 the number of first-graders with severe or moderate malnutrition dropped by 4 percent. Organizers are now trying to graduate women participants from the program by offering training in basic skills such as food processing and helping them find assembly work in local factories (World Bank 1995b). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, safety nets are not a substitute for a mote integrated approach to economic and social policy that includes appropriate levels of harvest in social services and infrastructure. Recognizing this fact, governments and donors are increasingly incorporating into their reform packages antipoverty initiatives and measures to reduce gender inequality. In Pakistan, for example, the FIDA-financed Public Sector Adjustment. Program provides much needed the financial support for the balance of payments account and reinforces the emphasis on government investment in the social sectors. The program promotes increased access to and improvements in basic education. health. and water supply services that benefit girls and rural areas. It also supports a shift it government education and health spending toward the primary level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fiscal 1994 twelve of twenty-three World Bank economic reform pro emphasized the restructuring public expenditure, primarily to and increase spending on education. health care, and other areas important to poverty reduction such as water supply and sanitation. The Burkina Faso reform program is typical; it supports an increase in the total budgeted amounts for primary education and health services, which are particularly beneficial to the poor and to women. Uganda s program seeks to protect and enhance public expenditures for basic social services. including water supply primary health care and primary education. In the long term, the reform of public spending-especially in the social sectors, physical infrastructure and agricultural research and extension-promises significant benefits) trot women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Sectoral Investments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In principle. public expenditures on social services and infrastructure are allocated on a gender-neutral basis; in practice men and women use these services differently. The resulting inequalities frequently perpetuate gender based differences in the accumulation and distribution of human capital within households. Public policy can address this problem by public expenditure priorities between secrets and within social sectors. Further it can support services and types of infrastructure that provide the highest social returns to public spending and are most heavily used by women  and children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDUCATION. Estimations of the private returns to education for a number of countries (Psachatopoulos 1994) show that returns are at least equal for girls anti boys and are often higher for girls. Moreover, these rates do not capture the externalities generated by providing education to girls. The combination of private and social returns provides a clear signal for restructuring the allocations of public resources so as to support female education. Yet incidence analysis for a number of countries for which the necessary data are available reveals that educational subsidies per capita are higher for males than for females This difference is partly a result of the bias in allocation of subsidies toward higher levels of education, where female enrolled is lowest. Distortions in the allocation of public resources, such as the provision of mote money foe male-dominated tertiary institutions than for education that benefits girls, should be corrected by reallocating spending toward basic (primary and lower-secondary) schooling. Targeting these educational levels will have the maximum effect on girls' education and will yield higher social returns for society as a whole. In countries where universal basic education has been achieved and capital markets are unable to help households finance higher education, continuing subsidize higher education may be warranted. The rationale for the subsidy would be the productivity gains associated with a better-trained labor force.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To correct the bias against enrollment of girls more targeted interventions are need to influence household (see decisionmaking)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However reallocating public spending toward primary education and later toward higher levels is not sufficient to erase the gender gap in education The bias against enrolling girls in school is evident in both poor and no poor households and applies even at the primary level. To correct this bias, more targeted interventions are needed to influence household decision making</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HEALTH. Correcting the gender bias in the public financing of health care IS a more complex process than correcting the bias in education. for two main reasons: the marked differences between the health needs of men and women, and the unreliability of household data on demand for health services in comparison with the data on demand tot education). However it is cleat that targeting health services to women implies provision of adequate funding for prenatal care. infant immunization, and mother and child health services. Because of the significant social benefits of providing women with appropriate health care, governments should make basic services ices that benefit women a top priority among, public health care expenditures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a critical link between the public provision of health care and women's access to educational opportunities. A mother educated to seek preventive care and early treatment of illness for herself and her children (particularly girls) will reduce the cost of health care and in many cases. prevent premature death. Most of these highly cost-effective services can be supplied in rural clinics and health centers. Public spending should be so allocated as to ensure sufficient funding for these primary health facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICES. Agricultural extension and research services are widely considered vital to increasing and sustaining agricultural productivity. Many of these services are being provided by the private sector. but in some countries private services need public support, either because certain markets have not yet been developed or because the infrastructure is poorly developed. However. women farmers and small holders are often not served as effectively by public agricultural extension systems as ate and male farmers (FAO 1993). This disparity stems paltry from expend priorities within agricultural extension services. which concentrate resources on the crops and the technology controlled primarily by male commercial farmers. Reallocating public spending on agricultural extension and research services toward crops and technology raised by or used by small holders and women farmers could yield high social returns to public investment and could increase private returns by improving the skills and productivity of small agricultural producers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reallocating public spending on agricultural extension  and research services toward crops and technology </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Techniques for small holders and women farmers should take into account the need for quality and cost-effectiveness in public services, Economies of scale can be achieved if extension agents deal with groups of farmers instead of with individuals. This approach also provides a valuable forum for exchanging information. fostering peer learning. sharing expensive equipment. and pooling resources for- credit. Mobile trailing units and flexible hours that fit the crowded schedules of women farmers should also be considered. and more female extension agents should be trained to deal directly with female farmers. Such measures can be introduced without large additional resources if existing expenditures are carefully reallocated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INFRASTRUCTURE, Public investment in economic and social infrastructure is vital in facilitated individual and household investment in physical and human capital. However, public expenditures on roads, water supply, and sanitation infrastructure frequently do not meet the needs of those who use the services most heavily. Women are the main users of water services, and it is essential to involve them in designing and implementing water projects. For example. in areas where transport is inadequate and water collection is a daily burden for women and children, the population tends to use the closest available facility rather than the safest one. In such cases. projects that ensure a safe water supply and take into account the specific needs and constraints of the users often have a significant effect on users' health. In two villages in Zaire where a piped water network was installed to provide safe drinking water, the median incidence of diarrhea was halved among children in households located less than a five-minute walk from a public standpipe. Spending allocations that favor public water supply and sanitation improve the general health of the population, save time for women and children. and increase school attendance. A study from Morocco chows that access to tap and well water instead of pond or river water raised school enrollment for both boys and girls (Khandker, Lavy, and Filer 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are the main users of water services and it is essential  to involve them in designing and implementing water projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public spending on roads and energy-related facilities (for instance electrification or energy conservation) or other infrastructure is usually assumed to be gander neutral. Yet women and men use these facilities differently The Morocco study cited above found that the availability of electricity increased the rate for girls substantially more than for boys. The study also showed that the presence of a paved road increased by 40 percent the probability that girls would attend school and reduced by 5 percent their probability of dropping out. Overall, improved road conditions increased the probability of school attendance for girls by 32 percent and for boys by 20 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural electrification can also ease the time constraints on women who must balance household and productive work. Lack of time is often a primary season for women's weak response to economic incentives. especially in rural areas. The case for making public investments in infrastructure would be stronger if gender differences in the use of projects and services, as well as the potential effect of such investment on productivity and social development. were taken into account.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Using Targeting Measures to Narrow the Gender</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As we have seen. policies that specifically target women or girls can address the needs or this group more efficiently and with greater cost-effectiveness than general policy measures. Female household members tend to allocate resources more directly to children. while men tend to allocate more resources to adults. In households in which resources are not pooled. targeting programs to the household as a where will not necessarily benefit all members equally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Targeting women directly is justifiable on two grounds. First, to the extent that gender inequalities prevent an economy from realizing its full potential. targeting to women can be an effective strategy for increasing productivity and output Second, where gender differences are wide, targeting may be needed to capture social gains and to increase internal efficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Targeting women is especially when doing so contributes directly to reducing poverty; or when women have particular needs-for example. when maternal mortality is very high. The exceptionally high gender gap in educational enrollments in some countries can be reduced only by policies (including subsidies) that target girls. An obvious example would be policies that affect the private costs of schooling. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female household members tend to allocate resources more  directly to children it while men</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reducing these direct costs to households Will mean setting new public spending priorities. For example. education institutions for girls especially at the primary level, might be exempted from cost recovery measures. thus increasing the implied public spending subsidy to girls. Similarly. a far; number of publicly funded scholarships can be provided for girls' as has been done in and Guatemala.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Opportunity and travel costs can discourage parents from enrolling especially daughters in school. Some counties have tried to overcome the constraints imposed by opportunity costs by introducing flexible school hours and calendar years and providing child care for younger siblings (box 3.7). In some cases girls who are responsible for looking after their younger brothels and sisters ate allowed to bring them to school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In countries where cultural values may prevent girls from traveling alone to school. measures are needed that will increase access to safe transport.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.8 economic reforms and gender targeting in Mongolia</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since Mongolia began its transition to a market economy in 1990, the living conditions of the population have deteriorated dramatically. According to the government's estimates, a quarter of all Mongolians are now living below the poverty line. Single women with young children are among the "new" vulnerable groups that have emerged in the wake of the transition. As of December 1993 nearly 72 percent of households headed by single persons, usually women, were estimated to have incomes below the poverty line. (About 28 percent of all households in Mongolia are headed by women). The Mongolian Women's Federation reports that the divorce rate is rising among jobless low-income couples, increasing the number of single-parent households. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Along with job loss women are affected by the decline in services such as day care and maternity homes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mothers now have to look after their children at home, which restricts their ability to participate in the labor market and, ironically, increases their dependence on welfare. When herds were privatized, priority was given to people who, according to the government, could take better care of the animals. Unfortunately, this policy adversely affected female-headed households.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The maternal mortality rate has doubled over the past three years. in part because many more babies are being delivered at home. Other factors that have contributed to the rising maternal mortality rate include a decrease in the number of ambulances and the need for patients to pay for the food they consume while they are hospitalized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mongolia, targeting female-headed households, pregnant women, and children is essential for reducing poverty. Social assistance, health care. education, and help in finding employment are particularly important (Subbarao and Ezemenari forthcoming).  change the geographic distribution of primary schools, of provide more boarding facilities. Projects in Pakistan are using school mapping techniques to establish criteria for placing new schools in currently underserved areas. Such programs benefit both girls and boys.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It may be necessary to target women when economic reforms of systemic transitions are occurring. For example, in Mongolia, as well as in other countries making the transition from a socialist to a market economy, women are disproportionately represented among the unemployed and otherwise disadvantaged (box 3.8). Thus, in designing safety nets to mitigate the short negative effects or economic transitions. policymakers need to recognize and evaluate the specific adverse effects on women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not always necessary to restrict a particular program of benefit exclusively to women: the objective can sometimes be achieved indirectly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Techniques based on self-selection appear to be particularly efficient. In Zambia. where men have a strong preference for cash wages, offering wages in kind (food) attracted more women workers than men to public works programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the financial sector. women entrepreneurs are enabled to borrow at market rates of interest when banking institutions adopt innovate collateral requirements, reduce transaction costs, and offer small loans at repeated intervals The Grameen Bank in Bangladesh and Badan Kredit Kecaman in Indonesia do not reserve loans for women specifically: instead. they adopt innovative lending policies the result of which is that women snake up the majority of participants-is 96 percent in a new branch of the Grameen Bank.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Involving Beneficiaries in Public Policy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until recently. the absence of input from beneficiaries often let's ignorant about how the costs and benefits of policy changes would be distributed among the population Today the views and needs of potential beneficiaries are being taken into account at both the macroeconomic and sectoral levels. This trend should make it possible to determine who benefits. who does not, and why. A good example of a situation in which a beneficiary's point of view can make a significant difference is in public expenditure reviews. Governments with unsustainable budget deficits must make difficult decisions about the allocation of public resources. Their task can of ten be facilitated by suggestions from the potential beneficiaries themselves, since one of the key questions policymakers face is whether investments as presently allocated are reaching the intended populations efficiently and effectively</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three broad approaches can be used to guarantee that the views of women and other intended beneficiaries are adequately reflected in policy and project formulation. First. surveys and other methods of collecting statistical data can be designed to ensure that gender-desegregated data are properly collected and analyzed. Second, beneficiary assessments, which use a range of qualitative research methods such as direct observation. selected individual of group interviews. and case studies. can be used to ensure that the views of all groups are adequately represented.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A third approach involves a range of participatory planning and management techniques that reflect a significant transfer of control to the community and local levels. Participatory evaluations use innovative research that allow illiterate and otherwise voiceless groups to express their concerns and priorities. Small grants and credits managed at the local level by NGOs or governments agencies permit a community to choose the projects that best reflect its OWN priorities. Social funds. whereby resources are channeled to demand-driven projects, are one such mechanism While these participatory approaches have been implemented primarily at the local level, they are also beginning to be used to involve the community in regional and national planning. Participatory methods, by helping to create local capacity. ensure the sustainability of projects and programs. They also help establish rational criteria for making public investment choices that incorporate both social and efficiency objectives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Generating and Analyzing Gender-Desegregated Data</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender-desegregated data and the capacity to analyze these data provide public policymakers with essential information and enhance the dialogue with agents outside government. One of the most valuable instruments for collecting desegregated data is the household survey. which can provide detailed information that is invaluable in policymaking. Obtaining full gender information in many instances entails only a small increase in costs. since the desegregation itself involves little extra work. However additional resources ate often needed to analyze the data and make it useful to policymakers. Public statistical agencies might analyze gender-desegregated information in partnership with private and academic institutions in order to share the costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several important steps in collecting useful and accurate data. First. in places where gender -desegregated household data have not yet been collected. special efforts should be made to obtain them. At a minimum data on how individuals use health and educational services should be collected routinely as part of national consumption and expenditure surveys. If household consumption. income or production surveys have already been carried out but little or no gender--desegregated data have been collected, the marginal cost of collection is likely to be quite modest-perhaps on the order of 10 percent of total costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participatory methods help establish rational criteria  for making public investment choose that incorporate  both social and efficiency objectives. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second. in places where basic gender-desegregated data have already been collected, it is important to gather more data from individuals on consumption and. as much as possible. on income and the ownership of assets. Such data ate vital for developing a deeper understanding of how access to and allocation and control of resources are determined within households. More data on men's and women's access to credit and information services, such as agricultural extension programs, are needed for an understanding of women's limited access to important production inputs. The data also indicate the effectiveness of projects and programs in providing such services to women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Third, there should be an increased emphasis on collecting panel data (thee series) to facilitate snore detailed analyses of changes in household behavior over time. Because full panel surveys are costly, it may be necessary to adopt less-expensive panel methods and combine them with flexible data collection. Anthropological and participatory research methods can be used to enhance the quality and relevance of formal survey questions, as well as to provide a "reality check" on formal survey responses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, greater priority needs to be given to gender-disaggregated analysis of existing data sets. This analysis should be carried out not only in social sectors such as health and education but also on such issues as the intrahousehold allocation of time and labor and access to and use of productive resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Working in Collaboration</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments' ability to identify and implement policies that promote gender equality is greatly enhanced by the active participation of other players from the development community and civil society. These agents include individual women and men, community-based groups, private-for-profit firms, trade unions, non governmental organizations, and multilateral and bilateral agencies. Interaction between public institutions and other actors provides the basis for a more informed policy dialogue on gender issues. It also lays the foundation for operational collaboration and for broadly based support for public policy measures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past several decades NGOs have become major players in international development. NGOs are by no means homogenous. In the field of development, they range from large volunteer and charity organizations, many of them based in industrial countries, to community-based self-help groups. They also include research institutes, volunteer-sending agencies, religious organizations, professional associations, and lobbying groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGOs concerned with gender issues have had a particularly important role in designing and implementing gender programs, especially at the grassroots level, and in advocating policy change at the national level NGOs have been effective in providing information and education to women and in helping community-based women's organizations lobby for change. In many countries collaboration between NGOs and governments is still relatively new. Nonetheless, it is growing rapidly-most visibly in the delivery of social and financial services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, in Peru a proposed basic health and nutrition project aims to improve the quality and accessibility of health and nutritional services, with an emphasis on poor women and children. NGOs are expected to play a major role in implementing the project and will be responsible for 75 percent of training and research, 40 percent of education, and 20 percent of service delivery (World Bank 1994g). In Africa many HIV/AIDS support programs are managed by NGOs with assistance from governments and funds from international donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the long run choices made by private sector agents are profoundly important for the persistence  or reduction of gender inequalities </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the financial services sector NGOs have found innovative ways of overcoming barriers that women face in access to credit and savings facilities. Among the better-know programs are the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, ACCION International in Latin America, and the NGO consortium ACCORD in Africa. NGOs have been very successful in organizing village banks and mobile banking systems to reach the rural poor. These credit programs provide women not only with the funds to finance income-generating activities but also with opportunities to acquire basic business skills and to assume leadership positions within their peer groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments also seek to collaborate with a range of institutions from the private sector. In the long run the choices made by private sector agents- whether households, firms, or trade unions-are profoundly important for the persistence or seduction of gender inequalities. Joint public-private sector initiatives can be vital in changing peoples perceptions about the benefits of investing in or hiring women. The private sector has a comparative advantage in providing certain kinds of services to women-for example, vocational education and training. Collaboration with the private sector- often means that public resources can be reallocated to those investments that offer the highest rate of social return. such as basic education and health care.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Strengthening International Policies to Meet New Challenges</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not all issues that bear on gender equality can be effectively addressed by individual nations. For example, refugee and displaced women and children account for up to 80 percent of the 50 million refugees and displaced persons worldwide. The sheer numbers of refugee and displaced women and children highlight the urgent need to devise international strategies for dealing with this problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sheer numbers of refugee and displaced women and  children (estimated at 4 million) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The constraints that refugee and displaced women lace are similar to those faced by other women, only magnified many times. They lack access to health services, even though their health risks are high. Girls often have less access to basic education than in their home countries. With little access to family planning, women s fertility rates may be extraordinarily high at a time when the burden of additional children hinders the chances of survival for both mothers and infants. In the absence of professional abortion services, women may rely on self-induced and unsafe abortions. The proportion of female-headed households is highest in refugee situations, yet the women's income-generating activities and skills are minimal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international response to this type of crisis is usually limited to emergency relief measures. Although vital, these measures often fail to recognize the long-term economic and social costs involved in restructuring the lives of displaced women when they return to their home countries. International public policy has an important role in preparing refugee and displaced women for their future role in rebuilding their societies. Long-term repatriation and development on a regional basis along the lines of the International Conference on Central American Refugees (CIREFCA) in Central America is one approach to involving governments, NGOs and development agencies in a coordinated response to refugee problems. Governments and agencies must make every effort to collaborate in making repatriation viable by establishing development programs that explicitly take account of refugees' needs. Otherwise, chances are high that people will once again be forced to leave their countries. putting at risk national reconciliation efforts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another area that demands an international response is the establishment of legal conventions for the enforcement of social justice and human rights. Equality under the law creates the legitimacy policymakers and private individuals need to seek change that will increase well-being and encourage economic opportunity. In certain instances, legitimacy needs to be established at the international level. For this reason it is vitally important that governments ratify the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. This convention. adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979, provides a framework for action by countries to reduce discrimination against women in political and public life, law and education, employment, health care. commerce. and domestic relations. International conventions of this type provide an important policy lever for women's organizations and other groups in civil society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Conclusions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This chapter has presented the rationale for public interventions to promote gender equality. Such interventions are needed because of market failures and social externalities that extend beyond the individual household to affect society in general. For resources to be allocated efficiently, public spending should focus on those investments with the highest social returns. Given the evidence of high social and private returns to investments in women's human capital, public expenditures should give priority to the investments that have the largest impact on the welfare of girls and women, especially in basic education and reproductive and other health care services. Policymakers also need to identify areas in which actions can be taken that would have gender neutral outcomes, including sectoral programs addressing transport and infrastructure, water supply. and sanitation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BY directing  public resource toward policies and projects  that reduce gender inequality policy markers are promoting  not only equality today but also higher labor productivity </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments can no longer afford not to invest in women. The evidence on private and social returns to investments in women and girls cannot be ignored. By directing public resources toward policies and projects that reduce gender inequality, policy makers are promoted not only equality today but also higher labor productivity, a higher rate of human capital formation, slower population growth. and stronger economic growth tomorrows However, none of these goals can be reached without the participation of women  themselves. Governments and collaborating institutions must listen carefully to the voices of individual women, to women s groups, and to woman policymakers By working with others to identify and implement policies for greater gander equality, governments can take actions that will make a real difference to the future well-being and prosperity of their people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Notes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Birdsall and Sabot (1994) use earlier findings by Barro (1991) to test the relationship between inequality and growth. They find that in Latin America unequal distribution of education. in terms of both quality and quantity, constrained economic growth in the region by reducing opportunities for increasing labor productivity. In East Asia open and relatively equal access to high-quality basic education led to a virtuous circle of high educational performance that stimulated growth and reduced inequality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Subbarao and Raney (1993) estimate that a doubling of family planning services in 1982 would have reduced the fertility rate from 5.5 to 5 0 and the number of births by 3.5 percent</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. The Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS) is a series of multitopic surveys designed to study multiple aspects of household welfare</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Deforestation is represented by the time required to collect a standard load of fuelwood</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. It would be more illuminating to compare wage differences across three categories of women workers: women without children: women with children but with no interruption in employment except for statutory maternity leave: and women with children and with interrupted employment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Among women workers. 53 percent are in commerce. compared with 33 percent of men. In manufacturing. 16 percent of the workers are men. compared with 14 percent for women. In services, 37 percent are men anti 33 percent are women (World Bank 1995c)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. In Bolivia informal moneylenders require borrowers to write postdated checks. If borrowers tail to make timely repayments, these checks are deposited and, as the lender knows will bounce for lack of funds A bounced check is a criminal offense in Bolivia. and the lender can have the borrower arrested The World Bank estimates that about 20 percent of all Bolivian prison inmates-and 40 percent of female inmates imprisoned for 'bouncing' checks and for other collateral-related crimes. In many cases children must live in prison with their mothers (winkler and Guedes, 1995)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. The International Conference on Central American Refugees (CIREECA) was held in Guatemala City in May 1989 A total of 126 projects in seven countries were introduced. with an overall investment of $365 million Areas with high densities of returnees were targeted. and special attention was given to projects to support displaced women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">References</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pitt, Mark, and Shahidur Khandker. 1995 "Household and Intrahousehold Impacts of the Grameen Bank and Similar Targeted Credited Programs in Bangladesh " World Bank, Education and Social Policy Department, Washington. D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population Reference Bureau 1994. The Wood'. Youth 1994 A Special Focus on Reproductive Health Washington. D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Psacharopoulos George 1994. "Returns to Investment in Education: A Global Up-date ' World Development 22(9):1325 43</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Psacharopoulos. George, and Zafiris Tzannatos. 1992 Women's Employment and PUN in Latin America Overview and Methodology. A World Bank Regional and Sectoral Study Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agnes. 1994. ''Improving Women's Agricultural Productivity as Farmers and Workers." Education and Social Policy Department Discussion Paper 37. World Bank, Washington. D C</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rahrnan. Rushidan I. and Shahidur Khandker 1994 "Role of Targeted Credit Programs in Promoting Employment and Productivity of the Poor in Bangladesh." World Bank, Education and Social Policy Department. Washington, D.C. and Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies. Dhaka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rhyne, Elisabeth. and Sharon Holt 1994 ''Women in Finance and Enterprise Development'' Education and Social Policy Department Discussion Paper 40. World Bank. Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rosenzweig, Mark. and T. Paul Schultz. 1982 'Market Opportunities. Genetic Endowments, and Intrafamily Resource Distribution: Child Survival in Rural India'' American an Economic Review 72:4:803-15.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. 1987. 'Fertility and Investments in Human Capital: Estimates of the Consequences of Imperfect Fertility Control in Malaysia.' Journal of Econometrics 36: 163-84</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saito, Katrine, and Daphne Spurlirio 1992 Developing Agricultural Extension to/ Women Farmers World Bank Discussion Paper 156 Washington. D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scales, Ann 1986 "The Emergence of Feminist Jurisprudence'' Yale Law Journal 95(7): 1373-1403.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schuler, Margaret, ed. 1986 Empowerment and the Law Strategies of Third World Women  Washington, D.C.: OEF</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schuler, Margaret. and Sakuntala Kadirgamar-Rajasingilam. eds 1992 Legal Literary. A TOOL for Women's Empowerment New York: United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schultz. T. Paul 1988 ''Education Investments and Returns'' In Hollis Chenery and T.R. Srinivasan. eds. Handbook of Development Economics Amsterdam: North land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sedlacek, Guilhemie, Leah Gutierrez, and Amit Mohindra 1993. "Women in the Labor Market" World Bank. Education and Social Policy Department Washington, D C</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sen, Amartya 1990 'More Than One Hundred Million Women Are Missing: Women's Survival as a Development Problem." New York Review of Books (December 20):61-66.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sivard, R L 1985. Women: A World Survey. Washington, D.C.: World Priorities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stewart, Sheelagh. 1992. ''Working the System: Sensitizing the Police to the Plight of Women " In Margaret Schuler. ed. Freedom from Violence e: Women Strategies from around the World. New York: United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Subbarao Kalanidlli. and Kene l Ezemenari Forthcoming "Transition. Poverty and Social Assistance in Mongolia.'' World Bank. Education and Social Policy Department Washington, D C</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Subbarao Kalanidhi. and Laura Raney 1993 Social Gains from Female Education: A Cross-National Stud!. World Bank Discussion Paper 194. Washington! D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Summers, Lawrence H. 1994 Investing in All the People Education Women in Developing Countries ED' Seminar Paper 45 Washington, D.C: World Bank</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thomas, Duncan 1990a "Household Resources and Child Health in Zimbabwe." Working Paper. Yale University, Economic Grow Center, New Haven, Conn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. 1990b Intrahousehold Resource Allocation: An Inferential Approach of Human Resources 25(4):635-64.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. 1991 Gender Differences in household Resource Allocation. Living Standards Measurement Study Working Paper 79 Washington. D C: World Bank</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. 1993. "The Distribution of Income and Expenditure within the Household." A Annals of Economics and Statistic 29: 109-35.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tibaijuka, Anna 1994 ''Cost of Differential Gender Roles in African Agriculture: A Case Study of Smallholder Banana-Coffee Fames in the Kagera Region, Tanzania." Journal of Agricultural Economics (U K) 45(1):69-81</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toubia, Nahid 1993. Female Genital Mutilation: A Call for Global Action. New York: United Nations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tzannatos, Zafiris 1995. "Growths, Adjustment, and the Labor Market: Effects on Women Workers." World Bank, Poverty and Social Policy Department, Washington. D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization). 1991. 1991. Paris</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. 1993b Trends and Projections of Enrollment by Level of Education by Age and Sex, 1960-2025. Paris</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund! 1993. The Progress of Nations. New York</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNIDO (United Nations Industrial Development Organization). 1993 11 Women in Manu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Recent Development in Practice Books</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Priorities and Strategies for Education: A World Bank Review (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Better Urban Services: Finding the Right Incentives (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strengthening the Effectiveness of Aid: Lessons for Donors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enriching Lives: Overcoming Vitamin and Mineral Malnutrition in Developing Countries (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A New Agenda for Women's Health and Nutrition (also available in French)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population and Development: Implications for the World Bank</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">East Asia's Trade and Investment: Regional and Global Gains from Liberalization</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governance: The World Bank's Experience</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Higher Education: The Lessons of Experience (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Better Health in Africa: Experience and Lessons Learned (also available in French)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Argentina's Privatization Program: Experience, Issues, and Lessons Sustaining Rapid Development in East Asia and the Pacific</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE WORLD BANK A partner in strengthening economies and expanding markets to improve the quality of life for people everywhere, especially the poorest</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender equality is not only a matter of social justice but also good economics. It is of foremost importance to women's wellbeing and development. Discrimination means losses in productivity and lower welfare of women, their families, and society at large.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the gender gap is narrowing in education, health, and many other areas, women are still less educated than men, work more hours, and are paid less. The reasons why gender disparities persist are complex, having to do with social and institutional norms, relationships within households, and even lack of information about the benefits of educating and employing women. Despite the weight of social and cultural factors, public policy can influence women's status and well-being. Governments have a leading role in widening the opportunities available to women and extending the services that are vitally important to them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report outlines what governments and development agencies can do to work toward greater gender equality- one of the best investments a society can make. Public policy can affect investments in health, education, and infrastructure through laws and regulations. It can also affect land ownership, financial services, and access to employment. Not least important, public  policies can affect macroeconomic performance and create a favorable climate for economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/metadata/dls.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/metadata/dls.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/metadata/dls.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet [
+
+  <!-- The outer tag of any metadata set. Contains some number of elements.             -->
+  <!-- @param contact     A contact address for the creator.                            -->
+  <!-- @param creator     The name of the entity resposibly for this set.               -->
+  <!-- @param family      The namespace of this metadata set.                           -->
+  <!-- @param lastchanged The full date, user name and machine name of the last editor. --> 
+  <!--   uses the form:                                                                 -->
+  <!--   Day Mon(th) dd hh:mm:ss yyyy '-' <username> on <machine>                       -->
+  <!-- @param namespace   The abbreviated namespace of this metadata set.               -->
+  <!ELEMENT MetadataSet (Element+)>
+  <!ATTLIST MetadataSet
+				contact     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				creator     CDATA #REQUIRED
+            family      CDATA #REQUIRED
+				lastchanged CDATA #REQUIRED
+				namespace   CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- The name of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Name (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Name
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- The description of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Description (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Description
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- An element in the metadata set. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Element (Attribute*,OptionList?)>
+  <!ATTLIST Element
+				hierarchy  CDATA "false"
+            name       CDATA #REQUIRED
+				occurances CDATA "0">
+
+  <!-- Each element has several attribute children. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Attribute (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Attribute
+            name CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- For listing predefined values for this element. -->
+  <!ELEMENT OptionList (Value+)>
+  <!ATTLIST OptionList
+            restricted (true|false) "false">
+]>
+
+<MetadataSet 
+contact = "nzdl.org"
+creator = "New Zealand Digital Libraries Project: Greenstone"
+family = "Development Library Subset"
+lastchanged = "Tue Jun 04 10:35:30 2002 - jmt12 on blackbird"
+namespace = "dls">
+
+  <Name language="en">Development Library Subset Example Metadata</Name>
+
+  <Description language="en">A metadata set file for use in The Gatherer, created from original metadata found within the Development Library Subset.</Description>
+
+  <Element name="Title" remember_values="true">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en"></Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The title of this resource.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Title</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="version">1.0</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Organization" hierarchy="true" remember_values="true">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en"></Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The organization responsible for producing this resource.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Organization</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="version">1.0</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Subject" hierarchy="true" remember_values="true">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Currently uses a hierarchy.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The subject of this resource.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Subject And Keywords</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="version">1.0</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Keyword" hierarchy="true" remember_values="true">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Informal.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">A more specific indication of what the resource can be used for.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Keyword</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="version">1.0</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Language" remember_values="true">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en"></Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The language of this resource.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Language</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="version">1.0</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="AZList" hierarchy="true" remember_values="true">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not the same as an AZList classifier.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">A customizable AZList based on document titles.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">AZList</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="version">1.0</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+</MetadataSet>
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/metadata/ex.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet [
+
+  <!-- The outer tag of any metadata set. Contains some number of elements.             -->
+  <!-- @param contact     A contact address for the creator.                            -->
+  <!-- @param creator     The name of the entity resposibly for this set.               -->
+  <!-- @param family      The name of this sets family.                                 -->
+  <!-- @param lastchanged The full date, user name and machine name of the last editor. --> 
+  <!--   uses the form:                                                                 -->
+  <!--   Day Mon(th) dd hh:mm:ss yyyy '-' <username> on <machine>                       -->
+  <!-- @param namespace   The namespace of this metadata set.                           -->
+  <!ELEMENT MetadataSet ((Name|Description|Element)+)>
+  <!ATTLIST MetadataSet
+				contact     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				creator     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				description CDATA #REQUIRED
+            family      CDATA #REQUIRED
+				lastchanged CDATA #REQUIRED
+            name        CDATA #REQUIRED
+				namespace   CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- The name of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Name (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Name
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- The description of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Description (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Description
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- An element in the metadata set. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Element (Attribute*,OptionList?)>
+  <!ATTLIST Element
+            name       CDATA #REQUIRED
+				occurances CDATA "0">
+
+  <!-- Each element has several attribute children. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Attribute (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Attribute
+            name CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- For listing predefined values for this element. -->
+  <!ELEMENT OptionList (Value+)>
+  <!ATTLIST OptionList
+            restricted (true|false) "false">
+]>
+
+<MetadataSet 
+contact     = "nzdl.org"
+creator     = "New Zealand Digital Libraries Project: Greenstone"
+family      = "Extracted Greenstone"
+lastchanged = "Tue May 20 10:30:32 2003 - jmt12 on narya"
+namespace   = "ex" 
+>
+
+  <Name language="en">Extracted Greenstone Metadata 1.0</Name>
+
+  <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.0 of the automatically extracted Greenstone Metadata Element Set.</Description>
+
+  <Element name="Encoding">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The encoding of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Encoding</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Language">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The language of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Language</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Source">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Hidden in the Librarian Interface as it already shown by the various file trees.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The filename of the document imported by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Source</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Title">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The title of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Title</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/metadata/profile.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/dls-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE Profiles [
+<!ELEMENT Profiles (Action*)>
+<!ELEMENT Action (#PCDATA)>
+<!ATTLIST Action
+                source     CDATA #REQUIRED
+                target     CDATA "">
+]>
+<Profiles/>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/etc/collect.cfg
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+creator     greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz  
+maintainer  greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz 
+public        true
+collectgroup  true
+
+
+collectionmeta collectionname [l=en]   "Documented Example Collections"
+collectionmeta collectionextra [l=en]  "A group of collections whose \"about\" page describes how they are constructed"
+
+# -- Spanish text ----------------
+collectionmeta collectionname [l=es]   "Colecciones de ejemplo documentadas"
+collectionmeta collectionextra [l=es]  "Un grupo de colecciones cuya pÃ¡gina \"Acerca de\" describe como son construidas."
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese text ----------------
+collectionmeta collectionname [l=zh]   "æŒç€ºç€ºèéŠè"
+collectionmeta collectionextra [l=zh]  "è¿ç»éŠèç\"å
+³äº\"é¡µé¢å°æè¿°åŠäœæå»ºè¯¥éŠèã"
+
+# -- French text ----------------
+collectionmeta collectionname [l=fr]   "Exemple de collections documentÃ©"
+collectionmeta collectionextra [l=fr]  "Un groupe de collections dont la page "about" dÃ©crit la construction."
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/etc/collect.cfg
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1154 @@
+creator		greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+maintainer	greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+public		true
+
+buildtype	mgpp
+searchtypes	plain,form
+
+indexes		text dls.Title,Title dls.Subject dls.Organization dls.Keyword
+
+levels	section document
+
+plugin	GreenstoneXMLPlugin
+plugin	HTMLPlugin -description_tags
+plugin	MetadataXMLPlugin
+plugin	ArchivesInfPlugin
+plugin	DirectoryPlugin
+
+classify	List -metadata dls.Title
+
+classify	Hierarchy -metadata dls.Subject -sort dls.Title
+
+classify	List -metadata dls.Organization -sort_leaf_nodes_using dls.Title -bookshelf_type always
+
+classify	List -metadata dls.Keyword -buttonname Howto
+
+format CL4VList "<td>[link][icon][/link]</td><td>[link][dls.Keyword][/link]"
+
+format SearchVList "<td valign=top>[link]<img src=\'[DocImage]\' height=\'21\'>[/link]</td><td>{If}{[parent(All\': \'):Title],[parent(All\': \'):Title]:}[link][Title][/link]</td>"
+
+format VList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td><td valign=top>[highlight]{Or}{[Title],Untitled}[/highlight]{If}{[Date],<br><small><i>_textdate_[Date]</i></small>}{If}{[NumPages],<br><small><i>_textnumpages_[NumPages]</i></small>}{If}{[Source],<br><small><i>_textsource_[Source]</i></small>}</td>"
+
+format DocumentText "<h3>[Title]</h3>\\n\\n<p>[Text]</p>"
+format DocumentImages true
+format DocumentButtons "Expand Text|Expand Contents|Highlight|Detach|Print"
+format DocumentSearchResultLinks true
+
+format HList "[link][highlight][Title][/highlight][/link]"
+
+format DocumentHeading "{Or}{[parent(Top):Title],[Title],untitled}<br>"
+
+format SearchTypes "plain,form"
+
+# -- English strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=en] "Garish version of demo collection"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=en] "text"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=en] "titles"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=en] "subjects"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=en] "organizations"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=en] "how to"
+
+collectionmeta	.document [l=en] "book"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=en] "chapter"
+
+collectionmeta	depositormetadata [l=en] "{\"name\":\"dls.Title\",\"label\":\"Title\",\"tooltip\":\"dls.Title: The title of this resource.\",\"type\":\"text\"}, {\"name\":\"dls.Organization\",\"label\":\"Organization\",\"tooltip\":\"dls.Organization: The organization responsible for producing this resource.\",\"type\":\"text\"}, {\"name\":\"dls.Subject\",\"label\":\"Subject\",\"tooltip\":\"dls.Subject: The subject of this resource.\",\"type\":\"text\"}, {\"name\":\"dls.Keyword\",\"label\":\"Keyword\",\"tooltip\":\"dls.Keyword: A more specific indication of what the resource can be used for.\",\"type\":\"text\"}, {\"name\":\"dls.Language\",\"label\":\"Language\",\"tooltip\":\"dls.Language: The language of this resource.\",\"type\":\"text\"}"
+
+# -- French strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=fr] "Version Garish de la collection de dÃ©monstration"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=fr] "texte"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=fr] "titres"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=fr] "sujets"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=fr] "organisations"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=fr] "comment faire"
+collectionmeta	.document [l=fr] "livre"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=fr] "chÃ¢pitre"
+
+# -- Spanish strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=es] "VersiÃ³n colorida de la colecciÃ³n de muestra"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=es] "texto"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=es] "tÃ­tulos"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=es] "temas"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=es] "organizaciones"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=es] "cÃ³mo"
+collectionmeta	.document [l=es] "libro"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=es] "capÃ­tulo"
+
+# -- Russian strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=ru] "Ð ÐµÐ·ÐºÐ°Ñ Ð²ÐµÑÑÐžÑ ÐŽÐµÐŒÐŸÐœÑÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœ-ÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=ru] "ÑÐµÐºÑÑ"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=ru] "Ð·Ð°Ð³ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ²ÐºÐž"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=ru] "ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÑÐµÐ»Ðž"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=ru] "ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÐž"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=ru] "ÑÐ¿ÐŸÑÐŸÐ±Ñ"
+collectionmeta	.document [l=ru] "ÐºÐœÐžÐ³Ð°"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=ru] "Ð³Ð»Ð°Ð²Ð°"
+
+# -- Arabic strings ----------------
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=ar] "ÙØµ"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=ar] "Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙÙÙ"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=ar] "Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹Ø§Øª"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=ar] "Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØžÙ
+Ø§Øª"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=ar] "Ø¥Ø±ØŽØ§Ø¯"
+collectionmeta	.document [l=ar] "ÙØªØ§Øš"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=ar] "ÙØµÙ"
+
+# -- Brazilian Portuguese strings ----------------
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=pt-br] "texto"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=pt-br] "tÃ­tulos"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=pt-br] "assuntos"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=pt-br] "organizaÃ§Ãµes"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=pt-br] "como fazer"
+collectionmeta	.document [l=pt-br] "livro"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=pt-br] "capÃ­tulo"
+
+# -- Thai strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	.text [l=th] "àžà¹àž­àžàž§àž²àž¡"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=th] "àžàž·à¹àž­à¹àž£àž·à¹àž­àž"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=th] "àž«àž±àž§à¹àž£àž·à¹àž­àž"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=th] "àž«àžà¹àž§àž¢àžàž²àž"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=th] "àž§àžŽàžàžµà¹àžà¹"
+
+collectionmeta	.document [l=th] "àž«àžàž±àžàžªàž·àž­"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=th] "àžàž"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=zh] "Garishçæ¬çæŒç€ºéŠè"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=zh] "ææ¬"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=zh] "é¢å"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=zh] "äž»é¢"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=zh] "æºæ"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=zh] "åŠäœ"
+
+collectionmeta	.document [l=zh] "ä¹Š"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=zh] "ç« "
+
+# -- English text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=en] "This demonstration collection contains the same material as the original Greenstone demo collection, but its appearance has been altered to look garish.\n
+
+<h3>How the collection works</h3>\n
+
+<p>
+The appearance of Greenstone collections is defined by \"macro files\" in the
+<i>greenstone/macros</i> directory, and can be completely altered by changing the contents of these files.
+Editing them will change the appearance of all collections. To change the appearance of just one collection, place appropriately modified macros in a file called <i>extra.dm</i> in the collection\'s <i>macros</i> directory. For example, this collection uses the file <a href=\"_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\">greenstone/collect/_cgiargc_/macros/extra.dm</a>. \n
+<p>
+To separate presentation details from the macro files,
+Greenstone uses <i>Cascading Style Sheets</i>
+(see <a href=\"http://www.w3.org/Style/CSS/\">http://www.w3.org/Style/CSS/</a> for
+more information), which allow you to specify fonts, colours, spacings, and
+other elements for HTML pages. The standard Greenstone stylesheet is located in <a href=\"_httpstyle_/style.css\">greenstone/web/style/style.css</a>. This collection specifies an auxiliary stylesheet, <a href=\"_httpcstyle_/style.css\">greenstone/collect/_cgiargc_/style/style.css</a>, to be used in addition to the default ones. It includes some comments
+for those unfamiliar with cascading style sheets. Some of the
+macros in <i>extra.dm</i> reference images that have been placed in
+<i>greenstone/collect/_cgiargc_/images</i>.\n
+<p>
+The
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\" target=macro>extra.dm</a>
+macro file overrides some of the macros that Greenstone
+uses by default. In macro files, the \"\#\" character signals a comment line
+(<i>extra.dm</i> is commented to help explain what it does).
+Macros themselves are signalled by
+underscores, and they can reference other macros. This means that the
+content of a page can be split into many small chunks, and it can be
+difficult to work through the chain of which macro calls what. Fortunately,
+changes in macros (like changes in format strings) take effect immediately
+unless you are using the Greenstone local library server, in which case the
+server needs to be restarted. This makes it easy to experiment by editing
+the macro files.\n
+
+<p>
+Macros are grouped into \"packages\". But each package does not necessarily reside in
+a single file. The <i>Global</i> package, most of which is in file
+<a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/base.dm\" target=macro>base.dm</a>
+(parts of it are also in the language-specific macro files such as
+<a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/english.dm\" target=macro>english.dm</a> and
+<a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/french.dm\" target=macro>french.dm</a>),
+contains default macros that can be overridden by macros in other packages. Here is the part
+of <i>extra.dm</i> that redefines global macros.
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package Global\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+&#095;starthighlight&#095; {&lt;b&gt;}\n
+&#095;endhighlight&#095; {&lt;/b&gt;}\n
+\n
+&#095;navbarspacer&#095; { \n
+&lt;br/&gt;\n
+&lt;img src=\"&#095;httpcimages&#095;/horzline.gif\" width=\"87\" height=\"17\"&gt;\n
+&lt;br/&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+The values of <i>starthighlight</i> and <i>endhighlight</i> are used to
+highlight query terms when displaying a document. The default is to set the
+background to yellow. The first specification above places query terms in
+bold instead.\n
+
+<p>
+Next, the <i>navbarspacer</i> macro is what separates the search button and
+classifier buttons in the navigation bar. It is normally Greenstone\'s
+familiar horizontal green bar. The following definition has the effect of
+stacking the buttons vertically, one above the other.
+<pre>
+&#095;navbarspacer&#095; {&lt;br\/&gt;}
+</pre>\n
+
+The definition of <i>navbarspacer</i> given earlier uses the image
+<i>horzline.gif</i> as a separator (this image appears in the
+<i>images</i> directory of the collection). The effect can be seen at the top of this page.\n
+
+<p>
+To arrange the buttons horizontally, still using
+<i>horzline.gif</i> instead of the green bar as separator,
+remove the <i>br</i> tags and define the body of the macro
+(the part in curly brackets) to be:
+<pre>
+&lt;img src=\"&#095;httpcimages&#095;\/horzline.gif\"\n
+width=\"&#095;widthtspace&#095;\" height=\"17\"&gt;
+</pre>\n
+
+The <i>widthtspace</i> variable gives the width of the gap between the
+buttons, which Greenstone calculates.\n
+
+<p>
+The part of <i>extra.dm</i> reproduced below redefines macros in the
+<i>Style</i> package, which is responsible for creating the header and
+footer of every page, and defining common style information:
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package Style\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+
+&#095;collectionspecificstyle&#095; {\n
+&lt;link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"&#095;httpcstyle&#095;/style.css\" type=\"text/css\" \n
+title=\"Greenstone Style\" charset=\"UTF-8\"&gt;\n
+&lt;style&gt;\n
+body.bgimage \\\{ background-image: none; \\\}\n
+a.navlink:hover \\\{ background-image: url(\"&#095;httpcimages&#095;/bg&#095;blue.gif\"); \\\}\n
+&lt;/style&gt;\n
+}\n
+\n
+&#095;pagebanner&#095; {\n
+&lt;div class=\"pageinfo\"&gt; \n
+&lt;p class=\"bannerlinks\"&gt;&#095;homelink&#095;&lt;/p&gt;\n
+&lt;/div&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+
+Greenstone\'s page header macro, which is called <i>header</i> in
+<a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/style.dm\" target=macro>style.dm</a>,
+prints the collection\'s name or logo, and links to the
+home, help, and preferences pages. It calls the macro <i>htmlhead</i> which
+outputs the beginning of an HTML file. This calls the macro <i>cssheader</i> which outputs style information for the page. This macro includes the <i>collectionspecificstyle</i> macro which allows a collection to add some style elements to the default.
+
+<p>To use an entirely new style for the collection, specify the <i>cssheader</i> macro in <i>extra.dm</i>. To just add just a few style declarations to the default style, specify <i>collectionspecificstyle</i> in <i>extra.dm</i>. That is what this collection has done. The above <i>collectionspecificstyle</i> macro includes the collection\'s own stylesheet, and also overrides a couple of the image declarations, getting rid of the green swirly bar background, and changing the hover background for navigation bar buttons to blue.
+
+<p>
+The page header macro also calls <i>pagebanner</i> to include the collection\'s logo,
+home/help/preferences buttons, and the image at the top left that
+identifies the page (about page, search page, etc). The code above
+redefines the banner to suppress all these images except for the home page button -- as you can see, they don\'t appear
+at the top of this page.\n
+
+<p>
+The next part of <i>extra.dm</i> redefines macros in the <i>about</i>
+package (contained in
+<a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/about.dm\" target=macro>about.dm</a>), which generates the
+\"About this collection\" page that you are looking at now:
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package about\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+&#095;content&#095; {\n
+&#095;navigationbar&#095;\n
+\n
+&#095;textabout&#095;\n
+\n
+&lt;h3&gt;&#095;help:textsimplehelpheading&#095;&lt;/h3&gt;\n
+&#095;help:simplehelp&#095;\n
+}
+</pre>\n
+
+The macro <i>content</i> for the <i>About</i> page normally contains the
+navigation bar (with links to <i>Search</i> and any classifiers),
+followed by \"About this collection\" and \"how to find information\"
+text. Because it changes from one collection to another, the
+<i>navigationbar</i> macro is defined internally by Greenstone, and uses
+the <i>navbarspacer</i> macro discussed above. The <i>content</i> macro for
+the <i>About</i> page, given above, differs from the regular one
+(such as the one for the demo collection <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=demo&a=p&p=about\">here</a>)
+in that the navigation bar is not centered, and there is no search box.\n
+
+<p>
+The next part of <i>extra.dm</i> redefines macros in the <i>query</i> package (in
+<a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/query.dm\" target=macro>query.dm</a>),
+which is used to generate the
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">search page</a>:
+<pre>
+##############################################################################\n
+package query\n
+##############################################################################\n
+
+&#095;content&#095; {\n
+&#095;navigationbar&#095;\n
+\n
+&lt;center&gt;\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;cgiargct&#095;,&#095;selectqueryform&#095;,&#095;queryform&#095;)\n
+&lt;/center&gt;\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;searchhistorylist&#095;,&lt;center&gt;&#095;iconsearchhistorybar&#095;&lt;/center&gt;&lt;br&gt;\n
+&lt;center&gt;\n
+&#095;searchhistorylist&#095;\n
+&lt;/center&gt;)\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;cgiargq&#095;,&lt;small&gt;&#095;freqmsg&#095; &#095;textpostprocess&#095;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#095;resultline&#095;,)\n
+&lt;br&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+
+The definition of <i>content</i> in the standard <i>query</i> package is
+similar to the version given above, except that it centers the
+<i>navigationbar</i> macro, whereas the above version does not, and it
+includes an additional green bar. Compare
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">this</a>
+and
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=demo&a=q\">this</a>.\n
+
+<p>
+The file
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\" target=macro>extra.dm</a>
+also redefines macros in the <i>document</i> package,
+which is used to display documents (see
+<a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/document.dm\" target=macro>document.dm</a>). In fact, pages
+generated by classifiers (e.g. lists of titles) are also governed by these macros.
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package document\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+&#095;textheader&#095; {\n
+&#095;cgihead&#095;\n
+&#095;htmlhead&#095;(class=\"bgimage\")&#095;startspacer&#095;&#095;pagebanner&#095; \n
+}\n
+\n
+&#095;content&#095; {\n
+&#095;navigationbar&#095;\n
+\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;phindclassifier&#095;&#095;collageclassifier&#095;,\n
+&lt;p style=\"text-align: center;\"&gt;\n
+&#095;phindclassifier&#095;\n
+&#095;collageclassifier&#095;\n
+&lt;/p&gt;\n
+)\n
+\n
+&#095;If&#095;(\"&#095;cgiargcl&#095;\" eq \"search\",\n
+&lt;ul id=\"searchresults\"&gt;\n
+&#095;prevsearchresult&#095;\n
+&#095;nextsearchresult&#095;\n
+&lt;/ul&gt;)\n
+\n
+&lt;div class=\"document\"&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+
+Greenstone overrides the <i>header</i> macro if a document (and not a
+classifier) is being displayed. Suppose we don\'t want it to. The code
+above redefines the <i>textheader</i> macro (normally defined in
+<i>document.dm</i>) to be the content of the original <i>header</i> macro. The definition of <i>content</i> above overrides the
+default so that the navigation bar is not centered.
+"
+
+# -- French text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=fr] "
+Cette collection de dÃ©monstration contient le mÃªme matÃ©riel que la collection de dÃ©montration originale de Greenstone, mais son apparence a Ã©tÃ© altÃ©rÃ© pour avoir une allure criarde.
+
+<h3>Comment la collection marche</h3>
+
+<p>
+L\'apparence des collections Greenstone est dÃ©finie par des \"fichiers de macros\" dans le rÃ©pertoire <i>greenstone/macros</i> et elle peut Ãªtre complÃštement modifiÃ©e en changeant le contenu de ces fichiers. L\' Ã©dition de ceux-ci changera l\' apparence de toutes les collections.Pour changer l\' apparence d\' une seule collection, il faut placer correctement les macros modifiÃ©s dans un fichier appelÃ© <i>extra.dm</i> dans le rÃ©pertoirede la collection <i>macros</i>. Par exemple, cette collection utilise le fichier <a href=\"_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\">greenstone/collect/_cgiargc_/macros/extra.dm</a>. \n
+<p>
+Pour sÃ©parer certains dÃ©tails de prÃ©sentation des fichiers de macros, Greenstone utilise <i>Cascading Style Sheets</i>(voir <a href=\"http://www.w3.org/Style/CSS/\">http://www.w3.org/Style/CSS/</a> pour plus d\' information), ce qui vous permet de spÃ©cifier la police, les couleurs, les espaces, et autres Ã©lÃ©ments pour les pages HTML. Le \'stylesheet\' de Greenstone standardisÃ© est alloquÃ© dans <a href=\"_httpstyle_/style.css\">greenstone/web/style/style.css</a>. Cette collection spÃ©cifie un \'stylesheet\' auxiliaire, <a href=\"_httpcstyle_/style.css\">greenstone/collect/_cgiargc_/style/style.css</a>, Ã  Ãªtre utilisÃ© Ã  part ceux du dÃ©faut. Ceci inclus quelques commentaires qui ont Ã©tÃ© placÃ©s dans <i>greenstone/collect/_cgiargc_/images</i>.\n
+<p>
+Le fichier de macros <a href=\"_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\" target=macro>extra.dm</a>
+l\'emporte sur certaines des macros que Greenstone utilise par dÃ©faut. Dans des fichiers de macros, le caractÃšre \"\#\" signale une ligne de commentaire(<i>extra.dm</i> est commentÃ© pour expliquer ce qu\'il fait). Les macros elles-mÃªmes sont signalÃ©es par des caractÃšres \"soulignÃ©\" (\"_\") et elles peuvent rÃ©fÃ©rencer d\'autres macros. Ceci signifie que le contenu d\'une page peut Ãªtre Ã©clatÃ© en plusieurs petits morceaux et il peut Ãªtre difficile de retrouver dans la chaÃ®ne et de savoir quelle macro appelle quoi. Heureusement, des modifications dans des macros (comme des modifications dans les chaÃ®nes de format) prennent effet immÃ©diatement, Ã  moins que vous n\'utilisiez le serveur de bibliothÃšque locale de Greenstone; dans ce cas, le serveur doit Ãªtre redÃ©marrÃ©. Ceci rend facile l\'expÃ©rimentation en Ã©ditant les fichiers de macros.
+
+<p>
+Les macros sont regroupÃ©es en \"paquetages\". Mais chaque paquetage ne rÃ©side pas forcÃ©ment dans un fichier unique. Le paquetage <i>Global</i>, dont la majeure partie rÃ©side dans le fichier
+<a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/base.dm\" target=macro>base.dm</a> (d\'autres parties se trouvent aussi dans les fichiers de macros spÃ©cifiques aux langues, comme <a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/english.dm\" target=macro>english.dm</a> et <a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/french.dm\" target=macro>french.dm</a>),
+contient des macros par dÃ©faut qui peuvent Ãªtre Ã©crasÃ©es par des macros d\'autres paquetages. Voici la partie de <i>extra.dm</i> qui redÃ©finit des macros globales.
+
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package Global\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+&#095;starthighlight&#095; {&lt;b&gt;}\n
+&#095;endhighlight&#095; {&lt;/b&gt;}\n
+\n
+&#095;navbarspacer&#095; { \n
+&lt;br/&gt;\n
+&lt;img src=\"&#095;httpcimages&#095;/horzline.gif\" width=\"87\" height=\"17\"&gt;\n
+&lt;br/&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+
+Les valeurs de <i>starthighlight</i> et <i>endhighlight</i> sont utilisÃ©es pour mettre en valeur des termes de requÃªte au moment de l\'affichage d\'un document. Le dÃ©faut est de mettre l\'arriÃšre-plan en jaune. La premiÃšre des spÃ©cifications ci-dessus place les termes de requÃªte en gras.
+
+<p>
+Ensuite, la macro <i>navbarspacer</i> est ce qui sÃ©pare le bouton de recherche des bouton de classificateurs dans la barre de navigation. C\'est normalement la horizontale verte familiÃšre de Greenstone. La dÃ©finition suivante a l\' effet d\' entasser les boutons verticalement, un sur l\' autre.
+<pre>
+&#095;navbarspacer&#095; {&lt;br\/&gt; }
+</pre>\n
+
+La dÃ©finition de <i>navbarspace</i> donnÃ©e auparavant utilise l\' image <i>horzline.gif</i> comme un sÃ©parateur (cette image apparaÃ®t dans le rÃ©pertoire <i>images</i> de la collection). L\' effet peut Ãªtre visualisÃ© dans la partie suppÃ©rieure de cette page. \n
+
+<p>
+Pour ranger les boutons horizontalement, utilisez toujours <i>horzline.gif</i> comme sÃ©parateur au lieu de la barre verte, supprimez les Ã©tiquettes <i>br</i> et dÃ©finissez le corps de la macro (la partie entre parenthÃšses) comme ceci:
+<pre>
+&lt;img src=\"&#095;httpcimages&#095;\/horzline.gif\"\n
+width=\"&#095;widthtspace&#095;\" height=\"17\"&gt;
+</pre>\n
+
+La variable <i>widthtspace</i> donne la largeur de l\'espace entre les boutons que Greenstone calcule.
+
+<p>
+La partie de <i>extra.dm</i> reproduite ci-dessous redÃ©finit des macros dans le paquetage <i>Style</i>, qui est responsable de la crÃ©ation de l\'en-tÃªte et du pied de chaque page, et dÃ©finissant information de style commun:
+
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package Style\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+
+&#095;collectionspecificstyle&#095; {\n
+&lt;link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"&#095;httpcstyle&#095;/style.css\" type=\"text/css\" \n
+title=\"Greenstone Style\" charset=\"UTF-8\"&gt;\n
+&lt;style&gt;\n
+body.bgimage \\\{ background-image: none; \\\}\n
+a.navlink:hover \\\{ background-image: url(\"&#095;httpcimages&#095;/bg&#095;blue.gif\"); \\\}\n
+&lt;/style&gt;\n
+}\n
+\n
+&#095;pagebanner&#095; {\n
+&lt;div class=\"pageinfo\"&gt; \n
+&lt;p class=\"bannerlinks\"&gt;&#095;homelink&#095;&lt;/p&gt;\n
+&lt;/div&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+
+La macro de l\'en-tÃªte de la page de Greenstone, appelÃ©e <i>header</i> dans
+<a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/style.dm\" target=macro>style.dm</a>, affiche le nom ou le logo de la collection, et crÃ©e un lien vers la page d\'accueil, l\'aide, et les pages des prÃ©fÃ©rences. Elle appelle la macro <i>htmlhead</i> qui affiche le dÃ©but d\'une page HTML. Ceci appelle le macro <i>cssheader</i> qui output le style d\' information pour cette page. Ce macro comprend le macro <i>collectionspecificstyle</i> qui permet la collection d\' additionner quelques Ã©lÃ©ments-style au dÃ©faut.
+<p>
+Pour utiliser entiÃšrement un nouveau style pour la collection, spÃ©cifiez le macro <i>cssheader</i> dans <i>extra.dm</i>. Pour ajouter seulement quelques dÃ©clarations de style, spÃ©cifiez le <i>collectionspecificstyle</i> dans <i>extra.dm</i>. C\' est ceci ce que la collection a fait. Le macro ci-dessus <i>collectionspecificstyle</i> comprend la feuillestyle de la propre collection, et annule aussi quelques une des dÃ©clarations images, enlevant la barre verte curvÃ©e du fond d\' Ã©cran, et en changeant le fond hover pour les boutons de la barre de navigation en bleu. \n
+<p>
+La macro d\'entÃªte de page appelle aussi <i>pagebanner</i> pour inclure le logo de la collection, des boutons /accueil/aide/prÃ©fÃ©rences, et l\'image en haut Ã  gauche qui identifie la page (page \"Ã  propos\", page de recherche, etc). Le code ci-dessus redÃ©finit la banniÃšre pour supprimer ces images Ã  l\' exception du bouton de la page d\' entrÃ©e -- comme vous pouvez le voir, elles n\'apparaissent pas en haut de cette page. \n
+
+<p>
+La partie suivante de <i>extra.dm</i> redÃ©finit des macros dans la paquetage <i>about</i> (\"<i>Ã  propos</i>\") (contenu dans <a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/about.dm\" target=macro>about.dm</a>), qui gÃ©nÃšre la page \"About this collection\" que vous voyez actuellement:
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package about\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+&#095;content&#095; {\n
+&#095;navigationbar&#095;\n
+\n
+&#095;textabout&#095;\n
+\n
+&lt;h3&gt;&#095;help:textsimplehelpheading&#095;&lt;/h3&gt;\n
+&#095;help:simplehelp&#095;\n
+}
+</pre>\n
+
+La macro <i>content</i> pour la page <i>About</i> (\"<i>A propos</i>\") contient normallement la barre de navigation (avec des liens vers <i>Search</i> et tous classificateurs), suivie du texte \"About this collection\" (\"A propos de cette collection\") et \"how to find information\" (\"comment trouver de l\'information\"). Parce qu\'elle change d\'une collection Ã  l\'autre, la macro de la <i>barre de navigation</i> est dÃ©finie en interne par Greenstone, et utilise la macro <i>navbarspacer</i> traitÃ©Ã© ci-dessus. La macro <i>content</i> (\"<i>contenu</i>\") pour la page <i>About</i> (\"<i>A propos</i>\"), donnÃ©e ci-dessus, diffÃšre de la macro habituelle (comme celle pour la collection Demo <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=demo&a=p&p=about\">ici</a>)
+en ce sens que la barre de navigation n\'est pas centrÃ©e et qu\'il n\'y a pas de boÃ®te de recherche.
+
+<p>
+La partie suivante de <i>extra.dm</i> redÃ©finit des macros dans le paquetage <i>query</i> (\"<i>requÃªte</i>\") (dans <a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/query.dm\" target=macro>query.dm</a>),
+qui est utilisÃ© pour gÃ©nÃ©rer la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">page de recherche</a>:
+<pre>
+##############################################################################\n
+package query\n
+##############################################################################\n
+
+&#095;content&#095; {\n
+&#095;navigationbar&#095;\n
+\n
+&lt;center&gt;\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;cgiargct&#095;,&#095;selectqueryform&#095;,&#095;queryform&#095;)\n
+&lt;/center&gt;\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;searchhistorylist&#095;,&lt;center&gt;&#095;iconsearchhistorybar&#095;&lt;/center&gt;&lt;br&gt;\n
+&lt;center&gt;\n
+&#095;searchhistorylist&#095;\n
+&lt;/center&gt;)\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;cgiargq&#095;,&lt;small&gt;&#095;freqmsg&#095; &#095;textpostprocess&#095;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#095;resultline&#095;,)\n
+&lt;br&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+
+La dÃ©finition de <i>content</i> dans le paquetage de <i>requÃªte</i> standard est similaire Ã  la version donnÃ©e ci-dessus, exceptÃ© le fait qu\'elle centre la macro <i>barre de navigation</i>, alors que la version ci-dessu ne le fait pas, et qu\'elle inclut une barre verte supplÃ©mentaire. Comparez
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">ceci</a> Ã  <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=demo&a=q\">ceci</a>.
+
+<p>
+Le fichier <a href=\"_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\" target=macro>extra.dm</a> redÃ©finit aussi des macros dans le paquetage <i>document</i> qui est utilisÃ© pour afficher des documents (voir
+<a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/document.dm\" target=macro>document.dm</a>). En fait, les pages gÃ©nÃ©rÃ©es par des classificateurs (par xemple listes de titres) sont aussi contrÃŽlÃ©es par ces macros.
+
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package document\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+&#095;textheader&#095; {\n
+&#095;cgihead&#095;\n
+&#095;htmlhead&#095;(class=\"bgimage\")&#095;startspacer&#095;&#095;pagebanner&#095; \n
+}\n
+\n
+&#095;content&#095; {\n
+&#095;navigationbar&#095;\n
+\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;phindclassifier&#095;&#095;collageclassifier&#095;,\n
+&lt;p style=\"text-align: center;\"&gt;\n
+&#095;phindclassifier&#095;\n
+&#095;collageclassifier&#095;\n
+&lt;/p&gt;\n
+)\n
+\n
+&#095;If&#095;(\"&#095;cgiargcl&#095;\" eq \"search\",\n
+&lt;ul id=\"searchresults\"&gt;\n
+&#095;prevsearchresult&#095;\n
+&#095;nextsearchresult&#095;\n
+&lt;/ul&gt;)\n
+\n
+&lt;div class=\"document\"&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+
+Greenstone neutralise le macro <i>header</i> si un document (et non un classificateur) est en-train d\' Ãªtre visualisÃ©. Supposons qu\' on ne veut pas ceci. Le code ci-dessus redÃ©finit le macro <i>textheader</i> (normalement dÃ©finit dans <i>document.dm,/i>) pour Ãªtre le contenu du macro <i>header</i> originel. La dÃ©finition de <i>content</i> ci-dessus neutralise le dÃ©fault pour que la barre de navigation ne soit pas sentrÃ©e.
+"
+
+# -- Spanish text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=es] "
+Esta colecciÃ³n de muestra contiene el mismo material que la colecciÃ³n de muestra Greenstone original, pero su apariencia ha sido modificada para hacerla mÃ¡s llamativa.
+<p>
+
+<h3>CÃ³mo trabaja esta colecciÃ³n</h3>
+<p>
+La apariencia de las colecciones Greenstone se define por medio de los \"archivos de macros\" que se encuentran en el directorio de <i>greenstone/macros</i> y puede ser modificada completamente cambiando el contenido de estos archivos. Editando estos cambiarÃ¡ la apariencia de todas las colecciones. Para cambiar la apariencia de unicamente una colecciÃ³n, coloque apropiadamente las macros modificadas en un archivo llamado <i>extra.dm</i> en el directorio <i>macros</i> de la colecciÃ³n. Por ejemplo, este directorio utiliza un archivo llamado <a href=\"_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\">greenstone/collect/_cgiargc_/macros/extra.dm</a>. \n
+
+
+<p>
+Para separar ciertos detalles de la presentaciÃ³n de los archivos de macros, Greenstone utiliza <i>Cascading Style Sheets</i>(ver <a href=\"http://www.w3.org/Style/CSS/\">http://www.w3.org/Style/CSS/</a> para mas informaciÃ³n), que le permite especificar la fuente, los colores, espacios, y otros elementos para las pÃ¡ginas HTML. La hoja de estilos Greenstone estÃ¡ndar estÃ¡ guardada en <a href=\"_httpstyle_/style.css\">greenstone/web/style/style.css</a>. Esta colecciÃ³n especifica una hoja de estilo auxiliar, <a href=\"_httpcstyle_/style.css\">greenstone/collect/_cgiargc_/style/style.css</a>, a ser usada en adiciÃ³n a la default. Esto incluye algunos comentarios para aquellos que no estÃ¡n familiarizados con hojas de estilo. Algunas de las macros en <i>extra.dm</i> refieren a imÃ¡genes que han sido colocadas en <i>greenstone/collect/_cgiargc_/images</i>.\n
+
+
+<p>
+
+El archivo <a href=\"_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\" target=macro>extra.dm</a> sustituye algunas de las macros que Greenstone utiliza por omisiÃ³n. En los archivos de macros el carÃ¡cter \"\#\" indica una lÃ­nea de comentario (<i>extra.dm</i> incluye comentarios que explican lo que hace). Las macros se indican por medio de \"_\" y pueden hacer referencia a otras macros. Esto significa que el contenido de una pÃ¡gina puede dividirse en muchas cadenas mÃ¡s pequeÃ±as, ya que puede resultar difÃ­cil trabajar a travÃ©s de la cadena a la cual la macro hace referencia. Afortunadamente los cambios en las macros (al igual que los cambios en las cadenas de formato) tienen efecto inmediatamente a menos que se estÃ© usando el servidor local Greenstone, en cuyo caso el servidor necesita reiniciarse. Esto hace que sea fÃ¡cil experimentar editando archivos de macros.
+<p>
+
+
+Las macros se agrupan en \"paquetes\". Pero cada paquete no reside necesariamente en un solo archivo. El paquete <i>Global</i>, cuya mayor parte se encuentra en el archivo <a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/base.dm\" target=macro>base.dm</a> (partes de Ã©l tambiÃ©n estÃ¡n en los archivos de macros especÃ­ficas de cada idioma como <a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/english.dm\" target=macro>english.dm</a> y <a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/french.dm\" target=macro>french.dm</a>) contiene macros por omisiÃ³n que se pueden sustituir por macros de otros paquetes. Esta es la parte de <i>extra.dm</i> que redefine las macros globales:
+<p>
+
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package Global\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+&#095;starthighlight&#095; {&lt;b&gt;}\n
+&#095;endhighlight&#095; {&lt;/b&gt;}\n
+\n
+&#095;navbarspacer&#095; { \n
+&lt;br/&gt;\n
+&lt;img src=\"&#095;httpcimages&#095;/horzline.gif\" width=\"87\" height=\"17\"&gt;\n
+&lt;br/&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+
+<p>
+Los valores de <i>starthighlight</i> y <i>endhighlight</i> se utilizan para resaltar los tÃ©rminos de la consulta cuando aparece en pantalla un documento. El valor por omisiÃ³n es poner el fondo en amarillo. En vez de eso la primera especificaciÃ³n que aparece arriba pone los tÃ©rminos de la consulta en negritas.
+<p>
+
+A continuaciÃ³n la macro <i>navbarspacer</i> es la que separa el botÃ³n de bÃºsqueda y los botones de los clasificadores en la barra de navegaciÃ³n. Por lo general es la familiar barra verde horizontal de Greenstone. La siguiente definiciÃ³n tiene el efecto de amontonar los botones verticalmente, uno sobre el otro.
+<p>
+
+<pre>
+&#095;navbarspacer&#095; {&lt;br\/&gt;} \n
+</pre>\n
+<p>
+
+La definiciÃ³n de <i>navbarspacer</i> dada anteriormente usa la imagen <i>horzline.gif</i> como un separador (esta imagen aparece en el directorio de la colecciÃ³n <i>images</i>). El efecto puede ser visto en la parte superior de esta pÃ¡gina. \n
+<p>
+
+Para ordenar los botones horizontalmente y seguir usando <i>horzline.gif</i> en vez de la barra verde como separador, quite las etiquetas <i>br</i> y defina el cuerpo de la macro (la parte entre llaves {} ) de la siguiente manera:
+<p>
+
+<pre>
+&lt;img src=\"&#095;httpcimages&#095;\/horzline.gif\"\n
+width=\"&#095;widthtspace&#095;\" height=\"17\"&gt;
+</pre>\n
+<p>
+
+La variable <i>widthtspace</i> da el ancho del espacio entre los botones, lo cual es calculado por Greenstone.
+<p>
+
+La parte de <i>extra.dm</i> que se reproduce a continuaciÃ³n redefine las macros que se encuentran en el paquete de <i>Estilo</i>, el cual es responsable de crear el encabezado y pie de cada pÃ¡gina, y define informaciÃ³n de estilo comÃºn:
+
+<p>
+
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package Style\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+
+&#095;collectionspecificstyle&#095; {\n
+&lt;link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"&#095;httpcstyle&#095;/style.css\" type=\"text/css\" \n
+title=\"Greenstone Style\" charset=\"UTF-8\"&gt;\n
+&lt;style&gt;\n
+body.bgimage \\\{ background-image: none; \\\}\n
+a.navlink:hover \\\{ background-image: url(\"&#095;httpcimages&#095;/bg&#095;blue.gif\"); \\\}\n
+&lt;/style&gt;\n
+}\n
+\n
+&#095;pagebanner&#095; {\n
+&lt;div class=\"pageinfo\"&gt; \n
+&lt;p class=\"bannerlinks\"&gt;&#095;homelink&#095;&lt;/p&gt;\n
+&lt;/div&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+
+<p>
+
+La macro de encabezado de pÃ¡gina de Greenstone, llamada <i>header</i> en <a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/style.dm\" target=macro>style.dm</a>, imprime el nombre o el logotipo de la colecciÃ³n y establece vÃ­nculos con las pÃ¡ginas principal, de ayuda y de preferencias. TambiÃ©n remite a la macro <i>htmlhead</i>, que muestra el inicio de un archivo HTML. Esta llama a la macro <i>cssheader</i> la cual le imprime el formato a la pÃ¡gina. Esta macro incluye a <i>collectionspecificstyle</i> la cual permite a la colecciÃ³n sumar algunos elementos de estilo al default.
+
+<p>
+Para utilizar enteramente el nuevo estilo para la colecciÃ³n, especifique la macro <i>cssheader</i> en <i>extra.dm</i>. Para simplemente agregar un par de declaraciones de estilos al estilo por defecto, especifique <i>collectionspecificstyle</i> en <i>extra.dm</i>. Eso es lo que la colecciÃ³n ha hecho. La macro  mencionada arriba, <i>collectionspecificstyle</i> incluye el \'stylesheet\' propio de la colecciÃ³n, y a la vez anula un par de declaraciones de imagen, deshaciendose del fondo de pantalla de la barra verde curva, y cambiando a azul el fondo planeado para los botones de la barra de navegaciÃ³n.
+<p>
+La macro de encabezado de la pÃ¡gina tambiÃ©n remite a <i>pagebanner</i> para incluir el logotipo de la colecciÃ³n, los botones principal/ayuda/preferencias y la imagen en la parte superior izquierda que identifica la pÃ¡gina (acerca de esta pÃ¡gina, buscar pÃ¡gina, etc.). Este cÃ³digo redefine el banner con el fin de suprimir estas imÃ¡genes, a excepciÃ³n del botÃ³n de la pÃ¡gina de inicio-- como se puede ver aquÃ­, no aparecen en la parte superior de esta pÃ¡gina.
+<p>
+
+La siguiente parte de <i>extra.dm</i> redefine las macros del paquete <i>acerca de</i> (que se encuentra en <a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/about.dm\" target=macro>about.dm</a>), el cual genera la pÃ¡gina \"Acerca de esta colecciÃ³n\" que usted estÃ¡ viendo en este momento.
+<p>
+
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package about\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+&#095;content&#095; {\n
+&#095;navigationbar&#095;\n
+\n
+&#095;textabout&#095;\n
+\n
+&lt;h3&gt;&#095;help:textsimplehelpheading&#095;&lt;/h3&gt;\n
+&#095;help:simplehelp&#095;\n
+}
+</pre>\n
+<p>
+
+La macro <i>content</i> para la pÃ¡gina <i>Acerca de</i> normalmente contiene la barra de navegaciÃ³n (con vÃ­nculos hacia <i>BÃºsqueda</i> y cualquier clasificador) seguida por el texto \"Acerca de esta colecciÃ³n\" y \"cÃ³mo encontrar informaciÃ³n\". Debido a que Ã©sta cambia de una colecciÃ³n a otra, la macro <i>navigationbar</i> es definida internamente por Greenstone y utiliza la macro <i>navbarspacer</i> descripta arriba. La macro de <i>contenido</i> para la pÃ¡gina <i>Acerca de</i> que se menciona arriba difiere de la normal (como la de la colecciÃ³n Demo que se puede ver <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=demo&a=p&p=about\">aquÃ­</a>) en que la barra de navegaciÃ³n no estÃ¡ centrada y no hay cuadro de bÃºsqueda.
+<p>
+
+La siguiente parte de <i>extra.dm</i> redefine las macros del paquete <i>query</i> (que se encuentra en <a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/query.dm\" target=macro>query.dm</a>), el cual se utiliza para generar la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">pÃ¡gina de bÃºsqueda</a>.
+<p>
+
+<pre>
+##############################################################################\n
+package query\n
+##############################################################################\n
+
+&#095;content&#095; {\n
+&#095;navigationbar&#095;\n
+\n
+&lt;center&gt;\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;cgiargct&#095;,&#095;selectqueryform&#095;,&#095;queryform&#095;)\n
+&lt;/center&gt;\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;searchhistorylist&#095;,&lt;center&gt;&#095;iconsearchhistorybar&#095;&lt;/center&gt;&lt;br&gt;\n
+&lt;center&gt;\n
+&#095;searchhistorylist&#095;\n
+&lt;/center&gt;)\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;cgiargq&#095;,&lt;small&gt;&#095;freqmsg&#095; &#095;textpostprocess&#095;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#095;resultline&#095;,)\n
+&lt;br&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+<p>
+
+La definiciÃ³n de <i>content</i> en el paquete de <i>query</i> estÃ¡ndar es similar a la versiÃ³n dada arriba, excepto que centra la macro <i>navigationbar</i>, mientras que la versiÃ³n de arriba no lo hace, e incluye una barra verde adicional. CompÃ¡rese <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">Ã©sta</a> con <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=demo&a=q\">Ã©sta</a>.
+<p>
+
+El archivo <a href=\"_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\" target=macro>extra.dm</a> tambiÃ©n redefine las macros del paquete <i>document</i>, el cual se utiliza para mostrar los documentos en pantalla (vÃ©ase <a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/document.dm\" target=macro>document.dm</a>). De hecho, las pÃ¡ginas generadas por medio de clasificadores (p. ej. las listas de tÃ­tulos) tambiÃ©n se rigen por estas macros.
+<p>
+
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package document\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+&#095;textheader&#095; {\n
+&#095;cgihead&#095;\n
+&#095;htmlhead&#095;(class=\"bgimage\")&#095;startspacer&#095;&#095;pagebanner&#095; \n
+}\n
+\n
+&#095;content&#095; {\n
+&#095;navigationbar&#095;\n
+\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;phindclassifier&#095;&#095;collageclassifier&#095;,\n
+&lt;p style=\"text-align: center;\"&gt;\n
+&#095;phindclassifier&#095;\n
+&#095;collageclassifier&#095;\n
+&lt;/p&gt;\n
+)\n
+\n
+&#095;If&#095;(\"&#095;cgiargcl&#095;\" eq \"search\",\n
+&lt;ul id=\"searchresults\"&gt;\n
+&#095;prevsearchresult&#095;\n
+&#095;nextsearchresult&#095;\n
+&lt;/ul&gt;)\n
+\n
+&lt;div class=\"document\"&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+<p>
+
+Greenstone anula la macro <i>header</i> si el documento (y no un clasificador) estÃ¡ siendo mostrado. Supongamos que no queremos que esto suceda. El cÃ³digo aqui arriba redefine la macro <i>textheader</i> (normalmente definida en <i>document.dm</i>) para ser el contenido del macro original <i>header</i>. La definiciÃ³n de <i>content</i> aqui arriba anula la omisiÃ³n para que la barra de navegaciÃ³n no estÃ© centrada.
+"
+
+# -- Russian text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=ru] "
+Ð­ÑÐ° ÐŽÐµÐŒÐŸÐœÑÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐ°Ñ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ ÑÐŸÑ Ð¶Ðµ ÐŒÐ°ÑÐµÑÐžÐ°Ð», ÑÑÐŸ Ðž ÐŸÑÐžÐ³ÐžÐœÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐ°Ñ ÐŽÐµÐŒÐŸÐœÑÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐ°Ñ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ Greenstone, ÐœÐŸ ÐµÑ Ð²ÐžÐŽ Ð±ÑÐ» ÐžÐ·ÐŒÐµÐœÐµÐœ., ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÑÐ»ÑÑÑÐžÑÑ ÑÐµÐ·ÐºÐŸÑÑÑ.
+<p>
+
+<h3>ÐÐ°Ðº ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ</h3>
+<p>
+ÐÐžÐŽ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐ¹ ÐÑÐžÐœÑÑÐŸÑÐœ Ð·Ð°ÐŽÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ Â«ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ð°ÐŒÐžÂ» Ð² ÐŽÐžÑÐµÐºÑÐŸÑÐžÐž ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÐ° (<i>greenstone/macros</i>>) Ðž ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐŸÑÑÑÑ ÐžÐ·ÐŒÐµÐœÐµÐœÐŸ Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐŸÑÑÑ ÐŒÐŸÐŽÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐ¹ Ð² ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ð°Ñ
+ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ². Ð­ÑÐž ÐŒÐŸÐŽÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐžÐ·ÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ Ð²ÐžÐŽ Ð²ÑÐµÑ
+ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐ¹. Ð§ÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÐžÐ·ÐŒÐµÐœÐžÑÑ Ð²ÐžÐŽ Ð²ÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ Ð»ÐžÑÑ ÐŸÐŽÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž, Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐµÑÑÐžÑÐµ ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÐŒÐŸÐŽÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑ Ð² ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð» ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ¹ <i>extra.dm</i> Ð² Ð¿Ð°Ð¿ÐºÐµ <i>macros</i> ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž. ÐÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÑÐ° ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð» <a href=\"_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\">greenstone/collect/_cgiargc_/macros/extra.dm</a>.\n
+<p>
+
+ÐÐ»Ñ ÐŸÑÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐµÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÑ
+ ÐŽÐµÑÐ°Ð»ÐµÐ¹ Ð¿ÑÐµÐ·ÐµÐœÑÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÑ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»ÐŸÐ² ÐÑÐžÐœÑÑÐŸÑÐœ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑ <i>Cascading Style Sheets</i> (ÑÐŒ. ÐŽÐŸÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»ÑÐœÑÑ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐœÐ° <a href=\"http://www.w3.org/Style/CSS/\">http://www.w3.org/Style/CSS/</a>), ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÐ·Ð²ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÑ ÐÐ°ÐŒ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐžÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÑÐžÑÑÑ, ÑÐ²ÐµÑÐ°, ÐžÐœÑÐµÑÐ²Ð°Ð»Ñ Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ HTML. Ð€Ð°Ð¹Ð» ÑÐŸ ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐœÑÐŒ ÐœÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÐžÐ»ÐµÐ¹ Ð² ÐÑÐžÐœÑÑÐŸÑÐœ Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐµÑÐµÐœ Ð·ÐŽÐµÑÑ: <a href=\"_httpstyle_/style.css\">greenstone/web/style/style.css</a> (ÐŸÐœ Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐµÑÐµÐœ Ð² ÐŽÐžÑÐµÐºÑÐŸÑÐžÐž <i>images</i>, Ð¿ÐŸÑÐŸÐŒÑ ÑÑÐŸ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ñ ÐŒÐŸÐ³ÑÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐŽÐŸÐ±ÐœÑÐµ ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐž Ðº ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐŽÐžÑÐµÐºÑÐŸÑÐžÐž.) Ð­ÑÐ° ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÐžÐŒÐµÐµÑ Ð²ÑÐ¿ÐŸÐŒÐŸÐ³Ð°ÑÐµÐ»ÑÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÑÐžÐ»ÐµÐ²ÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð», <a href=\"_httpcstyle_/style.css\">greenstone/collect/_cgiargc_/style/style.css</a>, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ ÐœÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°ÑÐžÐµÐ² ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÐµÑ
+, ÐºÑÐŸ ÐœÐµ ÑÐ°Ð·Ð±ÐžÑÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ Ñ CSS. ÐÐµÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÑ Ð² <i>extra.dm</i> ÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐž Ðº ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑÐŒ Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐµÑÐµÐœÐœÑÐŒ Ð² <i>greenstone/collect/_cgiargc_/images</i>.\n
+
+<p>
+
+ÐÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÐ°Ð¹Ð» <a href=\"_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\" target=macro>extra.dm</a> ÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÐ³Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÐ°ÑÑÑ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ², ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÑÑÑÑ Ð² Greenstone Ð¿ÐŸ ÑÐŒÐŸÐ»ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ. Ð ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ð°Ñ
+ \"\#\" ÐŸÐ¿ÐŸÐ²ÐµÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐŸ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐµ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°ÑÐžÐµÐ² (<i>extra.dm</i> ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°ÑÐžÐž, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐŸÑÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÑÐœÐžÑÑ, ÑÑÐŸ ÐŸÐœ ÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°ÐµÑ). Ð¡Ð°ÐŒÐž ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÑ ÑÐŸÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑÑÐµÐŒ Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÑÐµÑÐºÐžÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ, Ðž ÐŸÐœÐž ÐŒÐŸÐ³ÑÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÑÐ°ÑÑÑÑ Ðº ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÐŒ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÐ°ÐŒ. Ð­ÑÐŸ ÐŸÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÐ°ÐµÑ, ÑÑÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÑÐ°Ð·Ð±ÐžÑÐŸ ÐœÐ° ÐŒÐœÐŸÐ³ÐžÐµ ÐŒÐ°Ð»ÐµÐœÑÐºÐžÐµ ÐºÑÑÐºÐž, Ðž ÐŒÐŸÐ³ÑÑ Ð²ÐŸÐ·ÐœÐžÐºÐ°ÑÑ ÑÑÑÐŽÐœÐŸÑÑÐž Ð¿ÑÐž ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐµ Ð¿ÐŸ ÑÐµÐ¿Ðž, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÑ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑ Ð²ÑÐ·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ. Ð ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÑÑ, ÐžÐ·ÐŒÐµÐœÐµÐœÐžÑ Ð² ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÐ°Ñ
+, Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸ ÐžÐ·ÐŒÐµÐœÐµÐœÐžÑÐŒ Ð² ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐ°Ñ
+, Ð²ÑÑÑÐ¿Ð°ÑÑ Ð² ÑÐžÐ»Ñ ÐœÐµÐŒÐµÐŽÐ»ÐµÐœÐœÐŸ, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÐÑ ÐœÐµ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÐµ ÑÐµÑÐ²ÐµÑ Ð»ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð±ÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÑÐµÐºÐž Greenstone, Ð² ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ðµ ÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐµÑÐ²ÐµÑ ÐœÑÐ¶ÐŽÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ Ð² Ð¿ÐµÑÐµÐ·Ð°Ð³ÑÑÐ·ÐºÐµ. Ð­ÑÐŸ ÐŸÐ±Ð»ÐµÐ³ÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐºÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐžÐŒÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÑÑÐµÐŒ ÑÐµÐŽÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»ÐŸÐ².
+<p>
+
+
+ÐÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÑ ÑÐ³ÑÑÐ¿Ð¿ÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÑ Ð² Â«Ð¿Ð°ÐºÐµÑÑÂ». ÐÐŸ ÐºÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÑÐ¹ Ð¿Ð°ÐºÐµÑ ÐœÐµ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ·Ð°ÑÐµÐ»ÑÐœÐŸ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ Ð² ÐŸÑÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ðµ. <i>ÐÐ»ÐŸÐ±Ð°Ð»ÑÐœÑÐ¹</i> Ð¿Ð°ÐºÐµÑ, Ð±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ñ ÑÐ°ÑÑÑ ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÑÑÑ Ð² ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ðµ <a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/base.dm\" target=macro>base.dm</a> (ÑÐ°ÑÑÑ ÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÑÑÑ ÑÐ°ÐºÐ¶Ðµ Ð² ÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐžÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÑ
+ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐŸÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ð°Ñ
+ ÑÐžÐ¿Ð° <a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/english.dm\" target=macro>english.dm</a> Ðž <a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/french.dm\" target=macro>french.dm</a>), ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸ ÑÐŒÐŸÐ»ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ³ÑÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÐ³ÐœÑÑÑÐŒÐž ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÐ°ÐŒÐž Ð² ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ Ð¿Ð°ÐºÐµÑÐ°Ñ
+. ÐÐŽÐµÑÑ ÐžÐŒÐµÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐ°ÑÑÑ <i>extra.dm</i>.
+
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package Global\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+&#095;starthighlight&#095; {&lt;b&gt;}\n
+&#095;endhighlight&#095; {&lt;/b&gt;}\n
+\n
+&#095;navbarspacer&#095; { \n
+&lt;br/&gt;\n
+&lt;img src=\"&#095;httpcimages&#095;/horzline.gif\" width=\"87\" height=\"17\"&gt;\n
+&lt;br/&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+
+ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐ°Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ Ð³Ð»ÐŸÐ±Ð°Ð»ÑÐœÑÐµ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÑ, Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÑ <i>starthighlight</i> Ðž <i>endhighlight</i> ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÑÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÑÐ²ÐµÑÐžÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÐŒÐžÐœÐŸÐ² Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐ° Ð¿ÑÐž Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÐž ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°. ÐÐŸ ÑÐŒÐŸÐ»ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ ÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶ÐµÐœ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŸÐ²Ð»ÐµÐœ Ð¶ÐµÐ»ÑÑÐ¹ ÑÐŸÐœ. ÐÐµÑÐ²Ð°Ñ ÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÑ Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸ ÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð²ÑÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÑÐŸÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ¶ÐžÑÐœÑÐŒ ÑÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐŒ.
+<p>
+
+Ð¡Ð»ÐµÐŽÑÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑ <i>navbarspacer</i> ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶ÐžÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÐŸÑÐŽÐµÐ»ÐžÑÑ ÐºÐœÐŸÐ¿ÐºÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ° Ðž ÐºÐœÐŸÐ¿ÐºÐž ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ² Ð² ÐœÐ°Ð²ÐžÐ³Ð°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð»ÐžÐœÐµÐ¹ÐºÐµ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÑÑÐŸ Ñ
+ÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÐºÐŸÐŒÐ°Ñ Ð² Greenstone Ð³ÐŸÑÐžÐ·ÐŸÐœÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐ°Ñ Ð·ÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐ°Ñ Ð»ÐžÐœÐµÐ¹ÐºÐ°. Ð¡Ð»ÐµÐŽÑÑÐµÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐŒÐµÐµÑ ÑÑÑÐµÐºÑ Ð²ÐµÑÑÐžÐºÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ°ÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐºÐœÐŸÐ¿ÐŸÐº, ÐŸÐŽÐœÐ° ÐœÐ°ÐŽ ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐŸÐ¹.
+<p>
+<pre>
+&#095;navbarspacer&#095; {&lt;br\/&gt;}
+</pre>\n
+<p>
+
+ÐÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ <i>navbarspacer</i>, ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÑÐ°ÐœÐµÐµ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑ ÑÐžÑÑÐœÐŸÐº <i>horzline.gif</i> Ð² ÐºÐ°ÑÐµÑÑÐ²Ðµ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ (ÑÑÐŸÑ ÑÐžÑÑÐœÐŸÐº ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑÑÑ Ð² Ð¿Ð°Ð¿ÐºÐµ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž Ð¿ÐŸÐŽ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ <i>images</i>). Ð­ÑÑÐµÐºÑ Ð²ÐžÐŽÐµÐœ Ð² ÐœÐ°ÑÐ°Ð»Ðµ ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ.\n
+
+<p>
+
+Ð Ð°Ð·ÐŒÐµÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐºÐœÐŸÐ¿ÐŸÐº Ð³ÐŸÑÐžÐ·ÐŸÐœÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ, Ð²ÑÐµ ÐµÑÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÑ <i>horzline.gif</i>, Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸ Ð·ÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð»ÐžÐœÐµÐ¹ÐºÐž ÐºÐ°Ðº ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ, ÑÐŽÐ°Ð»ÑÑ ÑÑÐ³Ðž <i>br</i> Ðž ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ ÑÐµÐ»ÐŸ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÐ° (ÑÐ°ÑÑÑ Ð² ÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÐºÐŸÐ±ÐºÐ°Ñ
+), ÐºÐ°Ðº:
+
+<p>
+<pre>
+&lt;img src=\"&#095;httpcimages&#095;\/horzline.gif\"\n
+width=\"&#095;widthtspace&#095;\" height=\"17\"&gt;
+</pre>\n
+
+<p>
+ÐÐµÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÐ°Ñ <i>widthtspace</i> Ð·Ð°ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ ÑÐžÑÐžÐœÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŒÐµÐ¶ÑÑÐºÐ° ÐŒÐµÐ¶ÐŽÑ ÐºÐœÐŸÐ¿ÐºÐ°ÐŒÐž, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÑÐžÑÐ»ÑÐµÑ Greenstone.
+<p>
+
+
+Ð§Ð°ÑÑÑ <i>extra.dm</i>, Ð²ÐŸÑÐ¿ÑÐŸÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÐŽÐµÐœÐœÐ°Ñ ÐœÐžÐ¶Ðµ, Ð¿ÐµÑÐµÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÑ Ð² Ð¿Ð°ÐºÐµÑÐµ <i>Style</i>, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ ÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð·Ð° ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ Ð·Ð°Ð³ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ²ÐºÐ° Ðž ÐœÐžÐ¶ÐœÐµÐ¹ ÑÐœÐŸÑÐºÐž ÐœÐ° ÐºÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐµ:\n
+
+<p>
+
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package Style\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+
+&#095;collectionspecificstyle&#095; {\n
+&lt;link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"&#095;httpcstyle&#095;/style.css\" type=\"text/css\" \n
+title=\"Greenstone Style\" charset=\"UTF-8\"&gt;\n
+&lt;style&gt;\n
+body.bgimage \\\{ background-image: none; \\\}\n
+a.navlink:hover \\\{ background-image: url(\"&#095;httpcimages&#095;/bg&#095;blue.gif\"); \\\}\n
+&lt;/style&gt;\n
+}\n
+\n
+&#095;pagebanner&#095; {\n
+&lt;div class=\"pageinfo\"&gt; \n
+&lt;p class=\"bannerlinks\"&gt;&#095;homelink&#095;&lt;/p&gt;\n
+&lt;/div&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+
+<p>
+
+ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑ Ð·Ð°Ð³ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ²ÐºÐ° ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ Greenstone, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ ÐœÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑÑÑ <i>header</i> Ð² <a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/style.dm\" target=macro>style.dm</a>, Ð¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐœÐ°ÐžÐŒÐµÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž Ðž ÐµÑ ÑÐŒÐ±Ð»ÐµÐŒÑ Ðž ÑÐ²ÑÐ·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÐµÑ Ñ ÐŽÐŸÐŒÐ°ÑÐœÐµÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ¹, Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐŸÑÑÑ Ðž ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐ°ÐŒÐž Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐœÐžÐ¹. ÐÐœ Ð²ÑÐ·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑ <i>htmlhead</i>, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ ÐœÐ°ÑÐ°Ð»ÐŸ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ð° HTML. Ð­ÑÐŸ Ð²ÑÐ·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸ <i>cssheader</i>, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐŸ ÑÑÐžÐ»Ðµ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ. Ð­ÑÐŸÑ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸ <i>collectionspecificstyle</i>, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ Ð¿ÐŸÐ·Ð²ÐŸÐ»ÑÐµÑ ÐŽÐŸÐ±Ð°Ð²ÐžÑÑ Ðº ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÑÑÐžÐ»ÐžÑÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ Ðº ÐœÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸ ÑÐŒÐŸÐ»ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ.
+
+<p>
+Ð§ÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐŸÐ²ÐµÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐŸ ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑÐžÐ»Ñ Ð² ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž, Ð²ÑÐ±ÐµÑÐžÑÐµ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸ <i>cssheader</i> Ð² <i>extra.dm</i>. Ð§ÑÐŸÐ±Ñ Ð²ÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ Ð»ÐžÑÑ ÐŽÐŸÐ±Ð°Ð²ÐžÑÑ ÐœÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÐœÐŸÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÑÑÐžÐ»ÐµÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹ Ðº ÑÑÐžÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÐŸ ÑÐŒÐŸÐ»ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ, Ð²ÑÐ±ÐµÑÐžÑÐµ <i>collectionspecificstyle</i> Ð² <i>extra.dm</i>. Ð­ÑÐŸ Ð±ÑÐ»ÐŸ ÑÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°ÐœÐŸ Ð² ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž. ÐÑÑÐµÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÑÐ¹ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸ <i>collectionspecificstyle</i> ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ ÑÐ°Ð±Ð»ÐžÑÑ ÑÑÐžÐ»ÐµÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž, Ðž Ð¿ÐµÑÐµÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ Ð¿Ð°ÑÑ ÑÑÐžÐ»ÐµÐ¹ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹: ÐÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐ°Ñ ÑÐŸÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°Ñ Ð¿Ð»Ð°ÐœÐºÐ° Ñ Ð·Ð°Ð²ÐžÑÐºÐ°ÐŒÐž ÐžÑÑÐµÐ·Ð»Ð°, Ð° ÑÐŸÐœ ÐœÐ°Ð²ÐžÐ³Ð°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð¿Ð°ÐœÐµÐ»Ðž ÑÐµÐ¿ÐµÑÑ ÑÐžÐœÐžÐ¹.\n
+
+<p>
+ÐÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑ Ð·Ð°Ð³ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ²ÐºÐž ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ ÑÐ°ÐºÐ¶Ðµ Ð²ÑÐ·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ <i>pagebanner</i>, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐžÑÑ ÑÐŒÐ±Ð»ÐµÐŒÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž, ÐºÐœÐŸÐ¿ÐºÐž home/help/preferences Ðž ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐ²Ð° Ð²Ð²ÐµÑÑ
+Ñ, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐµ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÑÐµÑ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ (ÐŸ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐµ, Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐŸÐ²Ð°Ñ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐ° Ðž Ñ.ÐŽ.). ÐÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŒÐ°, ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐœÐ°Ñ Ð²ÑÑÐµ, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ Ð±Ð°ÐœÐœÐµÑ, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐ°Ð²ÐžÑÑ ÑÑÐž ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ. ÐÐ°Ðº ÐÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑÐµ Ð²ÐžÐŽÐµÑÑ, ÐŸÐœÐž ÐœÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÐœÐ°Ð²ÐµÑÑ
+Ñ ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ.\n
+
+<p>
+Ð¡Ð»ÐµÐŽÑÑÑÐ°Ñ ÑÐ°ÑÑÑ <i>extra.dm</i> Ð¿ÐµÑÐµÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ Ð <i>Ð¿Ð°ÐºÐµÑÐµ</i>, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐžÐ¹ÑÑ Ð² <a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/about.dm\" target=macro>about.dm</a>, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ Ð³ÐµÐœÐµÑÐžÑÑÐµÑ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ <i>Â«ÐÐ± ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐžÂ»</i>, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÑ ÐÑ Ð²ÐžÐŽÐžÑÐµ ÑÐµÐ¹ÑÐ°Ñ.
+
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package about\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+&#095;content&#095; {\n
+&#095;navigationbar&#095;\n
+\n
+&#095;textabout&#095;\n
+\n
+&lt;h3&gt;&#095;help:textsimplehelpheading&#095;&lt;/h3&gt;\n
+&#095;help:simplehelp&#095;\n
+}
+</pre>\n
+
+ÐÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐ° <i>Ð ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐµ</i> ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ ÐœÐ°Ð²ÐžÐ³Ð°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÑ Ð»ÐžÐœÐµÐ¹ÐºÑ (ÑÐŸ ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐ°ÐŒÐž Ðº ÐÐŸÐžÑÐºÑ Ðž Ð»ÑÐ±ÑÐŒ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ°ÐŒ), ÑÐŸÐ¿ÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ¶ÐŽÐ°ÐµÐŒÑÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ Â«ÐÐ± ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐžÂ» Ðž ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐŸÐŒ Â«ÐÐ°Ðº ÐœÐ°Ð¹ÑÐž ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑÂ». ÐÐŸÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÑ ÐŸÐœÐž ÐžÐ·ÐŒÐµÐœÑÑÑÑÑ ÐŸÑ ÐŸÐŽÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž Ðº ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐŸÐ¹, ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸc <i>navigationbar</i> ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœ Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐž Greenstone Ðž ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑ <i>navbarspacer</i>, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ Ð±ÑÐ» ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐ¶ÐŽÐµÐœ Ð²ÑÑÐµ. ÐÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑ <i>content</i> ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ <i>Ð ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐµ</i>, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ Ð²ÑÑÐµ, ÐŸÑÐ»ÐžÑÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ ÐŸÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ (ÑÐ°ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=demo&a=p&p=about\">Demo</a>) ÑÐµÐŒ, ÑÑÐŸ ÐœÐ°Ð²ÐžÐ³Ð°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐ°Ñ Ð»ÐžÐœÐµÐ¹ÐºÐ° ÐœÐµ ÐŸÑÑÐµÐœÑÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐ° Ðž Ð·ÐŽÐµÑÑ ÐœÐµÑ ÐœÐžÐºÐ°ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ°.
+<p>
+
+Ð¡Ð»ÐµÐŽÑÑÑÐ°Ñ ÑÐ°ÑÑÑ <i>extra.dm</i> Ð¿ÐµÑÐµÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑ Ð² Ð¿Ð°ÐºÐµÑÐµ <i>Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐ°</i> (<i>query</i>) Ð² <a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/query.dm\" target=macro>query.dm</a>), ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð³ÐµÐœÐµÑÐ°ÑÐžÐž <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ</a>.
+
+<pre>
+##############################################################################\n
+package query\n
+##############################################################################\n
+
+&#095;content&#095; {\n
+&#095;navigationbar&#095;\n
+\n
+&lt;center&gt;\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;cgiargct&#095;,&#095;selectqueryform&#095;,&#095;queryform&#095;)\n
+&lt;/center&gt;\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;searchhistorylist&#095;,&lt;center&gt;&#095;iconsearchhistorybar&#095;&lt;/center&gt;&lt;br&gt;\n
+&lt;center&gt;\n
+&#095;searchhistorylist&#095;\n
+&lt;/center&gt;)\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;cgiargq&#095;,&lt;small&gt;&#095;freqmsg&#095; &#095;textpostprocess&#095;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#095;resultline&#095;,)\n
+&lt;br&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+
+ÐÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ <i>ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ</i> Ð² ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐœÐŸÐŒ Ð¿Ð°ÐºÐµÑÐµ <i>Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐ°</i> Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐµÑÑÐžÐž, ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð²ÑÑÐµ, Ð·Ð° ÐžÑÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÑÑÐŸ ÐŸÐœÐŸ Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð² ÑÐµÐœÑÑÐµ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑ <i>navigationbar</i>, ÑÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÐºÐ°Ðº Ð²ÑÑÐµÑÐ¿ÐŸÐŒÑÐœÑÑÐ°Ñ Ð²ÐµÑÑÐžÑ ÐœÐµ ÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ðž Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐŽÐŸÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»ÑÐœÑÑ Ð·ÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÑÑ Ð»ÐžÐœÐµÐ¹ÐºÑ. Ð¡ÑÐ°Ð²ÐœÐžÑÐµ <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">ÑÐŸ</a> Ðž <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=demo&a=q\">ÑÑÐŸ</a>.
+<p>
+
+
+Ð€Ð°Ð¹Ð» <a href=\"_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\" target=macro>extra.dm</a> ÑÐ°ÐºÐ¶Ðµ Ð¿ÐµÑÐµÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑ Ð² Ð¿Ð°ÐºÐµÑÐµ <i>ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ</i> (<i>document</i>), ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÑÑ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ (ÑÐŒ. <a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/document.dm\" target=macro>document.dm</a>). Ð€Ð°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐž ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ, Ð³ÐµÐœÐµÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÑÐµ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ°ÐŒÐž (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐŸÐŒ ÐœÐ°ÐžÐŒÐµÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹) ÑÐ°ÐºÐ¶Ðµ ÑÐ¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ Ðž ÑÑÐžÐŒÐž ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸÑÐ°ÐŒÐž.
+
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package document\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+&#095;textheader&#095; {\n
+&#095;cgihead&#095;\n
+&#095;htmlhead&#095;(class=\"bgimage\")&#095;startspacer&#095;&#095;pagebanner&#095; \n
+}\n
+\n
+&#095;content&#095; {\n
+&#095;navigationbar&#095;\n
+\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;phindclassifier&#095;&#095;collageclassifier&#095;,\n
+&lt;p style=\"text-align: center;\"&gt;\n
+&#095;phindclassifier&#095;\n
+&#095;collageclassifier&#095;\n
+&lt;/p&gt;\n
+)\n
+\n
+&#095;If&#095;(\"&#095;cgiargcl&#095;\" eq \"search\",\n
+&lt;ul id=\"searchresults\"&gt;\n
+&#095;prevsearchresult&#095;\n
+&#095;nextsearchresult&#095;\n
+&lt;/ul&gt;)\n
+\n
+&lt;div class=\"document\"&gt;\n
+}
+</pre>\n
+
+ÐÑÐžÐœÑÑÐŸÑÐœ Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÑ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸ <i>header</i>, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ (Ð° ÐœÐµ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ). ÐÑÐµÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐžÐŒ, ÐŒÑ ÐœÐµ Ñ
+ÐŸÑÐžÐŒ ÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ. ÐÑÑÐµÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐŽ Ð¿ÐµÑÐµÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸ <i>textheader</i> (ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ Ð² <i>document.dm</i>) Ð² ÐºÐ°ÑÐµÑÑÐ²Ðµ Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐŸÐœÐ°ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÐŒÐ°ÐºÑÐŸ <i>header</i>. ÐÑÑÐµÑÑÐŸÑÑÐµÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ <i>content</i> Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÐŸ-ÑÐŒÐŸÐ»ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ, ÑÐ°Ðº ÑÑÐŸ ÐœÐ°Ð²ÐžÐ³Ð°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐœÐµ ÑÐµÐœÑÑÐžÑÑÐµÑÑÑ.
+"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=zh] "
+æ¬éŠèæå
+å«çææ¡£äžGreenstoneæŒç€ºéŠèäž­çäžæ ·ïŒäœå
+¶å€è§è¢«æŽæ¹äžºgarishé£æ Œã\n
+
+<h3>æ¬éŠèåŠäœå·¥äœ</h3>\n 
+
+<p>GreenstoneéŠèçå€è§ç±<i>greenstone/macros</i>ç®åœäžç\"å®æä»¶\"å®ä¹ïŒä¿®æ¹è¿äºæä»¶çå
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+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\">greenstone/collect/_cgiargc_/macros/extra.dm</a>ã\n
+
+<p>äžºäºå°åç°ç»èä»å®æä»¶äž­åçŠ»åºæ¥ïŒGreenstoneäœ¿çš<i>å±çº§æ ·åŒè¡š</i>ïŒæŽå€ä¿¡æ¯è¯·åè§<a href=\"http://www.w3.org/Style/CSS/\">
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+è®žæå®HTMLé¡µé¢çå­äœãé¢è²ãéŽéä»¥åå
+¶ä»å
+çŽ ãæ åçGreenstoneæ ·åŒè¡šäœäº
+<a href=\"_httpstyle_/style.css\">greenstone/web/style/style.css</a>ãæ¬éŠèäœ¿çšäžäžªéå±çæ ·åŒè¡šïŒ
+<a href=\"_httpcstyle_/style.css\">greenstone/collect/_cgiargc_/style/style.css</a>ïŒäžçŒºçæ ·åŒè¡šäžèµ·äœ¿çšãè¯¥æ ·åŒè¡šå
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+
+<p><a href=\"_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\" target=macro>extra.dm</a>å®æä»¶å°èŠåGreenstoneççŒºçå®ãåšå®æä»¶äž­ïŒ
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+åäœ¿çšçæ¯Greenstoneæ¬å°æå¡åšæš¡åŒïŒåšè¿ç§æ
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+šå±ïŒå
+ïŒå€§éšåå­åšäº
+<a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/base.dm\" target=macro>base.dm</a>æä»¶äž­ïŒïŒä¹æäžéšåä¿å­åšè¯­èšçžå
+³çå®æä»¶äž­ïŒæ¯åŠ
+<a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/english.dm\" target=macro>english.dm</a>äž<a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/french.dm\" target=macro>french.dm</a>ïŒïŒ
+å
+å«äºçŒºççå®äžå¯è¢«å
+¶ä»å
+äž­çå®èŠåãè¿éæ¯<i>extra.dm</i>æä»¶äž­éå®ä¹äºå
+šå±å®åéçéšåã
+
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package Global\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+&#095;starthighlight&#095; {&lt;b&gt;}\n
+&#095;endhighlight&#095;   {&lt;/b&gt;}\n
+\n
+&#095;navbarspacer&#095; { \n
+&lt;br/&gt;\n
+&lt;img src=\"&#095;httpcimages&#095;/horzline.gif\" width=\"87\" height=\"17\"&gt;\n
+&lt;br/&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+
+<i>starthighlight</i>äž<i>endhighlight</i>çåŒè¢«çšäºåšæŸç€ºææ¡£æ¶é«äº®æŸç€ºæ¥è¯¢è¯ãçŒºçæ
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+
+<p>æ¥äžæ¥ïŒ<i>navbarspacer</i>å®èŽèŽ£å°æµè§æ¡äž­çæçŽ¢æé®äžåç±»æé®ååŒãéåžžæ
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+<pre>
+&#095;navbarspacer&#095; {&lt;br\/&gt;}
+</pre>\n
+
+åé¢ç»åºç<i>navbarspacer</i>å®ä¹çšå°äº<i>horzline.gif</i>åŸçäœäžºåéç¬ŠïŒè¿äžªåŸçåšéŠèç<i>images</i>ç®åœäž­ïŒãåšè¿äžªé¡µé¢çé¡¶ç«¯å³å¯çå°ææã\n
+
+<p>è¥èŠææ°Žå¹³æ¹åŒæåè¿äºæé®ïŒå¹¶ä»äœ¿çš<i>horzline.gif</i>èäžæ¯ç»¿è²æ¡äœäžºåéç¬ŠïŒå é€<i>br</i>æ è®°å¹¶å®ä¹å®çäž»äœïŒåšå€§æ¬å·äž­çéšåïŒäžºïŒ
+<pre>
+&lt;img src=\"&#095;httpcimages&#095;\/horzline.gif\"\n
+   width=\"&#095;widthtspace&#095;\" height=\"17\"&gt;
+</pre>\n
+
+<i>widthtspace</i>åéå®ä¹äºæé®éŽçå®œåºŠïŒGreenstoneå°è®¡ç®è¿äžªå®œåºŠã\n
+
+<p>äžé¢æåç<i>extra.dm</i>éšåéå®ä¹äº<i>Style</i>å
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+
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package Style\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+
+&#095;collectionspecificstyle&#095; {\n
+&lt;link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"&#095;httpcstyle&#095;/style.css\" type=\"text/css\" \n
+   title=\"Greenstone Style\" charset=\"UTF-8\"&gt;\n
+&lt;style&gt;\n
+body.bgimage \\\{ background-image: none; \\\}\n
+a.navlink:hover \\\{ background-image: url(\"&#095;httpcimages&#095;/bg&#095;blue.gif\"); \\\}\n
+&lt;/style&gt;\n
+}\n
+\n
+&#095;pagebanner&#095; {\n
+&lt;div class=\"pageinfo\"&gt; \n
+&lt;p class=\"bannerlinks\"&gt;&#095;homelink&#095;&lt;/p&gt;\n
+&lt;/div&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+
+Greenstoneççå€Žå®ïŒå³<a href=\"_httpprefix_/macros/style.dm\" target=macro>style.dm</a>äž­ç<i>header</i>ïŒå°æŸç€ºè¯¥éŠèçåç§°æè
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+è¿äžªå®æŸç€ºé¡µé¢çæ ·åŒä¿¡æ¯ãè¿éå
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+<i>collectionspecificstyle</i>ãè¿å°±æ¯éŠèçåœ¢ææ¹åŒãäžé¢ç<i>collectionspecificstyle</i>å®å
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+
+<pre>
+##########################################################################\n
+package about\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+&#095;content&#095; {\n
+&#095;navigationbar&#095;\n
+\n
+&#095;textabout&#095;\n
+\n
+&lt;h3&gt;&#095;help:textsimplehelpheading&#095;&lt;/h3&gt;\n
+&#095;help:simplehelp&#095;\n
+}
+</pre>\n
+
+<i>About</i>é¡µé¢ç<i>content</i>å®éåžžå
+å«äºæµè§æ¡ïŒéŸæ¥å°<i>æçŽ¢</i>äžä»»æäžäžªåç±»åšïŒïŒæ¥äžæ¥æ¯\"å
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+äž­æŸç€ºçïŒ
+èäžæ²¡ææçŽ¢æ¡ã\n
+
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+çšäºçæ<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">æçŽ¢é¡µ</a>ïŒ
+
+<pre>
+##############################################################################\n
+package query\n
+##############################################################################\n
+
+&#095;content&#095; {\n
+&#095;navigationbar&#095;\n
+\n
+&lt;center&gt;\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;cgiargct&#095;,&#095;selectqueryform&#095;,&#095;queryform&#095;)\n
+&lt;/center&gt;\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;searchhistorylist&#095;,&lt;center&gt;&#095;iconsearchhistorybar&#095;&lt;/center&gt;&lt;br&gt;\n
+&lt;center&gt;\n
+&#095;searchhistorylist&#095;\n
+&lt;/center&gt;)\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;cgiargq&#095;,&lt;small&gt;&#095;freqmsg&#095; &#095;textpostprocess&#095;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&#095;resultline&#095;,)\n
+&lt;br&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+
+æ å<i>query</i>äž­å®ä¹ç<i>content</i>å®äžäžè¿°å®ä¹ç±»äŒŒïŒé€äºæ åå®ä¹äŒå±
+äž­æŸç€º<i>navigationbar</i>å®ïŒèäžè¿°å®ä¹äžå±
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+
+<p><a href=\"_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\" target=macro>extra.dm</a>æä»¶ä¹éæ°å®ä¹äº<i>document</i>å
+äž­çå®ïŒè¿äºå®è¢«çšäºæŸç€ºææ¡£ïŒåè§
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+
+##########################################################################\n
+package document\n
+##########################################################################\n
+\n
+&#095;textheader&#095; {\n
+&#095;cgihead&#095;\n
+&#095;htmlhead&#095;(class=\"bgimage\")&#095;startspacer&#095;&#095;pagebanner&#095; \n
+}\n
+\n
+&#095;content&#095; {\n
+&#095;navigationbar&#095;\n
+\n
+&#095;If&#095;(&#095;phindclassifier&#095;&#095;collageclassifier&#095;,\n
+&lt;p style=\"text-align: center;\"&gt;\n
+&#095;phindclassifier&#095;\n
+&#095;collageclassifier&#095;\n
+&lt;/p&gt;\n
+)\n
+\n
+&#095;If&#095;(\"&#095;cgiargcl&#095;\" eq \"search\",\n
+&lt;ul id=\"searchresults\"&gt;\n
+&#095;prevsearchresult&#095;\n
+&#095;nextsearchresult&#095;\n
+&lt;/ul&gt;)\n
+\n
+&lt;div class=\"document\"&gt;\n
+}\n
+</pre>\n
+
+åŠææŸç€ºçæ¯ææ¡£ïŒèäžæ¯åç±»åšïŒïŒGreenstoneå°èŠå<i>header</i>å®ãåè®Ÿæä»¬äžæ³è®©GreenstoneèŠåè¿äžªå®ïŒåäžé¢çä»£ç å°éæ°å®ä¹<i>textheader</i>å®
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+"
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/garish-e.col
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/garish-e.col	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/garish-e.col	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GathererCollection [
+  <!ELEMENT GathererCollection (Argument*, GathererConfig, BuildConfig, DirectoryMappings)>
+  <!ELEMENT GathererConfig    (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT BuildConfig       (Build, Import)>
+  <!ELEMENT Build             (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Import            (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Schedule          (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Argument          (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Argument
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				enabled           CDATA "true">
+  <!ELEMENT DirectoryMappings (Mapping*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Mapping           (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Mapping 
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				file              CDATA #REQUIRED>
+]>
+<GathererCollection>
+    <Argument name="built">false</Argument>
+    <Argument name="imported">true</Argument>
+    <GathererConfig/>
+    <BuildConfig>
+        <Build/>
+        <Import>
+            <Argument enabled="true" name="removeold"/>
+        </Import>
+        <Schedule/>
+    </BuildConfig>
+    <DirectoryMappings/>
+</GathererCollection>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b17mie/b17mie.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b17mie/b17mie.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b17mie/b17mie.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,7650 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Microlivestock -  Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Microlivestock -  Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Tecnology for International Development </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competence and with regard for appropriate balance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Frank Press is president of the National Academy of Sciences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Robert M. White is president of the National Academy of Engineering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Samuel O. Their is president of the Institute of Medicine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Frank Press and Dr. Robert M. White are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID) of the Office of International Affairs addresses a range of issues arising from the ways in which science and technology in developing countries can stimulate and complement the complex processes of social and economic development. It oversees a broad program of bilateral workshops with scientific organizations in developing countries and conducts special studies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report was prepared by an ad hoc advisory panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Office of International Affairs, National Research Council. Staff support was funded by the Office of the Science Advisor, Agency for International Development, under Grant No. DAN-5538-G-SS-1023-00. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PANEL ON MICROLIVESTOCK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. PHILLIPS, Deputy Director General (Retired), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Senior Advisor to the President, African Development Bank, Abidjan, Ivory Coast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BONNIE V. BEAVER, Professor of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, Texas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT BENIRSCHKE, Professor of Pathology and Reproductive Medicine, University of California-San Diego, San Diego, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROY D. CRAWFORD, Professor of Animal and Poultry Genetics, Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONY J. CUNHA, Distinguished Service Professor Emeritus, University of Florida, Gainesville, and Dean Emeritus, School of Agriculture, California Polytechnic University, Pomona, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID E. DEPPNER, Director, New Forest Project, International Center, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELIZABETH L. HENSON, Executive Director, American Minor Breeds Conservancy, Pittsboro, North Carolina, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. HUSS, Menard, Texas, USA (Formerly Regional Animal Production Officer, FAO, Santiago, Chile)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID R. LINCICOME, Guest Scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS E. LOVEJOY, Assistant Secretary for External Affairs, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARNE W. NORDSKOG, Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LINDA M. PANEPINTO, Director, Miniature Swine Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT J. PETERS, Professor of Animal Breeding and Husbandry in the Tropics and Subtropics, University of Gottingen, Gottingen, West Germany, and Director of Research, International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN A. PINO, Senior Fellow, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Program in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL H. ROBINSON, Director, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KNUT SCHMIDT-NIELSON, James B. Duke Professor of Physiology, Department of Zoology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALBERT E. SOLLOD, Associate Professor and Head, Section of International Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEE M. TALBOT, Visiting Fellow, World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAIR E. TERRILL, Sheep and Goat Scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHRISTEN M. WEMMER, Assistant Director for Conservation, National Zoological Park, Front Royal, Virginia, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DANNY C. WHARTON, Associate Curator Animal Departments, New York Zoological Park, Bronx Zoo, The Bronx, New York, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES A. WOODS, Professor and Curator, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS M. YUILL, Associate Dean for Research and Graduate Training, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* * *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID), National Research Council, Washington, D.C., Microlivestock Study Director and Scientific Editor </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL STAFF</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARK DAFFORN, Technical Writer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELIZABETH MOUZON, Senior Secretary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN VREYENS, MUCIA Intern</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONTRIBUTORS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following individuals have made general contributions to the development of this book. All of the persons listed as research contacts in Appendix B also contributed - usually on one or two species that are their scientific specialty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ASHIQ AHMAD, Wildlife Management Specialist, Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar, Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANGEL C. ALCALA, Division Research, Extension and Development, Silliman University, Dumaguete City, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARTI AMMANN, Basel, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PATRICK ANDAU, Forest Department, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.P. ARORA, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. AYYAPPAN, CIFRI, Kausabyaganga, Bhubaneswar Orissa, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER BAKHUIS, Caribbean Marine Biological Institute, Willemstad, Curacao, Netherlands Antilles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES R. BARBORAK, CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PUSHKAR NATH BHAT, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEVE BENNETT, Curepe, Trinidad, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.P. BLAND, Department of Physiology, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MELVIN BOLTON, Yeppoon, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOSEPH BONNEMAIRE, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D.S. BRANCKRAERT, Faculte des Sciences Agronomiques, Universite du Burundi, Bujumbura, Burundi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER BRAZAITIS, Herpetology, New York Zoological Society, The Bronx, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. DE LA BRETONNE, JR., Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. BRINCK, Department of Animal Ecology, University of Lund, Lund, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LESLIE BROWNRIGG, CIAT, Cali, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. HOMER BUCK, Illinois Natural History Survey, Kinmundy, Illinois, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GERARDO BUDOWSKI, Natural Renewable Resources Programme, CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BUTCHER, Taronga Zoo, Mosman, New South Wales, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JULIAN O. CALDECOTT, World Wildlife Fund Malaysia, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GARY CALLIS, Texline, Texas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. CAMOENS, Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. CHRISTOPHER CARMICHAEL, The Museum, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. CHABRECK, School of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.M. CHAGULA, Research, Ministry of Agriculture, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARAN CHANTALAKHANA, Department of Animal Science, Kasetsart  University, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER R. CHEEKE, Rabbit Research Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis,  Oregon, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.S. CHILD, Forest Resources Division, FAO, Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.S. CHOPRA, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation,  New Delhi, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Ross COCKRILL 29 Downs Park West, Bristol, England, BS6 7QH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CRISOSTOMO CORTES, Dairy Promotion and Extension Section, Dairy Development  Division, Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WYLAND CRIPE, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville,  Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. BEN DAVID, Holon, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. DEVENDRA, International Development Research Centre, Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODNEY DILLINGER, International Agency for Apiculture Development, Rockford,  Illinois, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DIRECTOR, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLLANDE DUMONT, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques  Appliquees, Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.G. EHIOBU, Department of Agricultural Sciences, College of Education, Agbor,  Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD FARNER, Department of Zoology, University of Washington, Seattle,  Washington, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN A. FERGUSON, Overseas Development Administration, Eland House, London,  England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ABELARDO FERRER D., Quinta Nueva Exparta, San Bernardino, Caracas,  Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LYNWOOD A. FIEDLER, Section of International Programs, U.S. Fish and Wildlife  Service, Denver Wildlife Research Center, Denver, Colorado, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. FISCHER, Tropical Science Centre, Division of Tropical Veterinary Medicine,  Justus-Liebig University, Giessen, West Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. FURTADO, Commonwealth Science Council, London, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANK GOLLEY, Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. GONZALES J., Instituto de Produccion Animal, Universidad Central de Venezuela,  El Limon-Maracay, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GRAHAM GOUDIE, Mainland Holdings, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALISTAIR GRAHAM, Tanglewood, Crowborough, East Sussex, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GORDON GRIGG, Zoology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.R. DE GUMAN, JR., Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COLIN P. GROVES, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian  National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. HARDOUIN, Institut de Medicine Tropicale "Prince Leopold," Antwerp, Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEOFFREY HAWTIN, International Development Research Centre, University of  British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GORDON HAVORD, Technical Advisory Division, UNDP, New York, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TIN HLA, Veterinary Department, Director General's Office, Rangoon, Burma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES HENTGES, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. HOLLANDER, Department of Genetics, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RENE E. HONEGGER, Herpetology, Zurich Zoo, Zurich, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JACK HOWARTH, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUANG CHU-CHIEN, Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Beijing, China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANGUS HUTTON, Gympie, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. JASIOROWSKI, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MUHAMMAD YAQUB JAVAID, Directorate of Fisheries, Government of the Punjab, Punjab, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MANGALARAJ JOHNSON, Nudumalai Sanctuary, Vannarpet, Udagamandalani, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MATI KAAL, Tallinn Zoo, ESSR Tallinn, USSR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STELLAN KARLSSON, Simontorp Aquaculture AB, Blentarp, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JACKSON A. KATEGILE, International Development Research Centre, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT E. KENWARD, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Furzebrook Research Station, Wareham, Dorset, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES M. KEARNEY, Miami, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING, Florida State Museum, Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.-G. KLOS Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Berlin, West Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NELS M. KONNERUP, Boom International, Stanwood, Washington, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAVU KWAPENA, Office of Environment and Conservation, Boroko, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS E. LACHER, Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN K. LOOSLI, Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER LUTZ, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CRAIG MACFARLAND, CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE M. MCCORKLE, Department of Rural Sociology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT E. MCDOWELL, Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JEFFREY A. MCNEELY, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADRIAN G. MARSHALL, Institute of South-East Asian Biology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RICHARD R. MARSHALL, Veterinary Medicine, Sutter Hospitals Medical Research Foundation, Sacramento, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.H.G. MARTIN, Department of Zoology, Kenyatta University College, Nairobi, Kenya </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IAN L. MASON, Edinburgh, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN C. MASON, Pacific Biological Station, Nanaimo, B.C., Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MAYO MARTIN, Fish Farming Experimental Station, Stuttgart, Arkansas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">YOLANDA MATAMOROS, Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBIN MCKERGON, Livestock Development Corporation, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. MGHENI, Faculty of Agriculture, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. MONGIN, Station de Recherches Avicoles, INRA-Centre de Tours, Nouzilly, Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOSE ROBERTO DE ALENCAR MOREIRA, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, Belem, Para, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.L.R. OLIVER, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WERNER PAUWELS, Basel, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J.A. PAYNE, Worcester, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IAN PLAYER, Wilderness Leadership School, Bellair, Natal, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES H. POWELL, JR., Plainview, Texas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM R. PRITCHARD, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HECTOR HUGO LI PUN, International Development Research Centre, Bogota, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VICENTE T. QUIRANTE, Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Project, Bureau of Animal Industry, Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAN RATTNER, The Institute of Animal Research, Kibbutz Lahav, D.N. Negev, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.V. REDDY, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RHOEHEIT, Institute of Applied Science and Technology, University Campus, Turkeyen, Guyana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES T. ROBBINS, Department of Zoology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARMEN MA. ROJAS G., CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.H.L. ROLLINSON, Sardinia, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JULIO E. SANCHEZ P., Museo Nacional, San Jose, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JEFF SAYER, World Conservation Centre, Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. SEIFERT, Tropical Cattle Research Centre, CSIRO, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANDRES ELOY SEIJAS, Servicio Nacional de Fauna Silvestre, Maracay, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K. SHAH, Institute of Animal Sciences, National Institute of Health, Islamabad, Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SIEH CHENXIA, Department of Animal Science, Nanjing Agricultural College, Nanjing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.P. SINGH, College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Chandra Sekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. CATIBOG SINHA, Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna, Philippines </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. SMITH, Tropical Animal Health, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, Great Britain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. MITHAT EFENDI, Ankara, Turkey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HENRY STODDARD, Shamrock Veterinary Clinic and Fisheries, Cross City, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUKUT SULARSASA, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjalu Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. SUTTON, Agricultural Research and Education Center, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NICHOLAS SMYTHE, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. SZUMIEC, Polish Academy of Sciences, Experimental Fish Culture Station, Chybie, Poland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. TABUNAKAWAI, Ministry of Primary Industries, Suva, Fiji</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANK M. THOMPSON, Wild Animal Brokers, Bradenton, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALLEN D. TILLMAN, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DON TULLOCH, Winnellie, Northern Territory, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONRADO A. VALDEZ, Dairy Development Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LUIS VARONA, Havana, Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PRAN VOHRA, Department of Avian Sciences, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANTOON DE VOS Whitford, Auckland, New Zealand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GRAHAME WEBB, Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory, Winnellie, Northern Territory, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAGMAR WERNER, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GARY WETTERBERG, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES H. WHARTON, Clayton, Georgia, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.W. BERT WHEELER, College Station, Texas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROMULUS WHITAKER, Madras Crocodile Bank, Perur, Tamil Nadu, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILDLIFE CONSERVATION INTERNATIONAL, New York Zoological Society, The Bronx, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.R. YEO, USDA-ARS, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BRUCE A. YOUNG, Department of Animal Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHAROON YOUNGPRAPAKORN, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm and Zoo, Samutprakan, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS M. YUILL School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. ZEILLER, Miami Seaquarium, Miami, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The purpose of this report is to raise awareness of the potential of small livestock species and to stimulate their introduction into animal research and economic development programs. It is geared particularly towards benefiting developing nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Microlivestock" is a term we have coined for species that are inherently small, such as rabbits and poultry, as well as for breeds of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs that are less than about half the size of the most common breeds. These miniature animals are seldom considered in the broad picture of livestock development, but they seem to have a promising future. Wherever land is scarce it seems reasonable to assume that, things being equal, small animals would be more attractive than large ones. And land for livestock is becoming increasingly scarce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this report we have emphasized multipurpose species with promise for small  holders. In some species, the promise is immediate; in others, it is long term, and much research must be undertaken before that promise can be realized or even understood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We have included wild species that seem to have potential as future livestock. Some are threatened with extinction but are described here because their economic merits may be the key to acquiring support for their protection. Also we have highlighted rare breeds of domesticated species because the current tendency has been to concentrate on a small number of large breeds, and many potentially valuable breeds are becoming extinct through neglect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The book was prepared after an intensive survey of more than 300 animal scientists in 80 countries. They suggested more than 150 species for inclusion. The staff then drafted chapters on about 40 species and these drafts were reviewed by more than 400 researchers worldwide. The thousands of resulting comments, corrections, and additions were integrated into the drafts. The panel then met to review the product, to select the most promising species, and to rework the chapters based on their own experiences and joint conclusions. The result is the current 35 chapters. Most of the case studies and accounts of innovations highlighted in the various sidebars were developed by the staff study director. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collectively, this study covers many species, but it by no means exhausts all the microlivestock possibilities. Lack of space and time precludes discussion of creatures such as edible insects, snails, worms, turtles, and bats, which in some regions are highly regarded foods. Similarly, we have not included aquatic life. These decisions were arbitrary; perhaps invertebrates and aquatic species can be included in future volumes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report is addressed to government administrators, technical assistance personnel, and researchers in agriculture, nutrition, and related disciplines who are concerned with helping developing countries achieve a more efficient and balanced exploitation of their biological resources. Hence, we deal with the animals in a general way and do not cover details of biology, husbandry, or economics. A selection of readings that contains such technical information is cited in Appendix A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further goal of this project has been to explore the common ground between the disparate arms of animal science: to show that specialists in wildlife, zoology, and livestock science have much to learn from one another's field of expertise; to show that "fanciers" of pigeons, pheasants, chinchillas, iguanas, and other species may have much to offer livestock breeders - including germplasm; and that those who raise "obsolete" breeds are not only playing a vital role in the protection of rare genes but can offer the benefit of their experience to commercial livestock producers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout this report, the scientific names of mammals follow those in: Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. 1982. J.H. Honacki, K.E. Kinman, and J.W. Koeppl, editors. Published by Allen Press, Inc.; and the Association of Systematics Collections, Lawrence, Kansas, USA. All dollar figures are in U.S. dollars; all ton figures are in metric tons.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been produced under the auspices of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council. ACTI was mandated to assess innovative scientific and technological advances, with particular emphasis on those appropriate for developing countries. In this spirit, therefore, the current report includes some extremely unusual species. Whether these will eventually prove practical for widespread use is uncertain, but we present them here for researchers and others who look forward to challenges and enjoy the satisfaction of successful pioneering. The domestication of new poultry, as well as the management of rodents, iguanas, and small deer and antelope, should be viewed in this spirit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Current titles in the ACTI series on managing tropical animal resources are: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The production of these books has been supported largely by the Office of the Science Advisor of the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID), which also made this report possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WARNING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If misunderstood, this book is potentially dangerous. Because of the severity of the food crisis, the panel has selected some animals - mainly in the rodent section - that are highly adaptable and grow quickly. These seem appropriate for raising only in areas where they already exist, which are clearly identified in those chapters. Such potentially invasive animals should not be introduced to other environments because they could become serious pests. In any trials, local species should always be given priority.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to cite this report:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council. 1991. Microlivestock: Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cover Design by David Bennett </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the developing countries, there are over 100 million farms of less than five hectares, supporting about 700 million people, who represent about 17 percent of the world population. Even more significant is the fact that about 50 million farms have less than one hectare of land. C. Devendra and Marcia Burns Goat Production in the Tropics We may now be in the wind down stage of bigger is better animal selection trend and it has certainly been a wild ride.... the lesson now being learned is that the bigger breeding animals . . . cost more to maintain, are often slower to reproduce, and may even have a shorter lifespan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kelly Klober</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small Farmer's Journal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g001a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like computers, livestock for use in developing countries should be getting smaller and becoming more "personal." Conventional "mainframes," such as cattle, are too large for the world's poorest people; they require too much space and expense. "Miniframes," such as the conventional breeds of sheep and goats, have an increasingly important role to play. But tiny, "user-friendly" species for home use are the ones highlighted in this report. We have called them "microlivestock."'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two types of microlivestock. One consists of extremely small forms of conventional livestock - such as cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs. The other consists of species that are inherently small poultry, rabbits, and rodents, for instance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock are important because the developing world's animal production is only a fraction of what it should be. Throughout Latin America, Asia, and Africa, the poor eat almost no meat, milk, or eggs - the most nutritious foods. It is estimated, for example, that in Mexico 25 million campesinos cannot afford meat. In poor countries, even the middle class eats less meat in a year than the populations of North America and Europe eat in a month. Malnutrition is common and its effects, especially on children, can be debilitating. It is one of mankind's most serious imbalances - and most pressing problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural families in the Third World usually subsist mainly on the products from their homes or farms. Thus, if we are to help their livestock production, more attention must be given to animals that are sized for their situations. Examples discussed in the report are summarized here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microbreeds Small breeds of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs are common in the developing world. Because they are often raised for subsistence rather than for commerce, the national and global contribution that they make is often overlooked. These small, hardy animals deserve much greater recognition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Later chapters highlight dozens of promising microbreeds. All are less than half average size; some are far smaller than that. The "miniBrahman" cow of Mexico is only 60 cm tall and weighs 140 kg; the southern Sudan dwarf sheep of eastern Africa can weigh as little as 11 kg; the Terai goat of Nepal weighs less than 12 kg; and the cuing pig of Mexico weighs merely 10 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry The widespread use of poultry in Third World villages demonstrates the importance of small, easily managed, household livestock. Small size, the ability to forage for themselves, and a natural desire to stay around the house put chickens, ducks, guinea fowl, and other birds among the most vital resources of rural Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Scratching a living out of the dirt, dust, ditches, and debris, these often-scrawny creatures are a resource to be taken seriously. For the most poverty stricken, a bony bird may be the only source of meat during much of a lifetime. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among poultry, there are many underrated, but highly promising, species, including:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Pigeon. These birds forage widely but return home, thereby providing the farmers with squab, one of the tastiest of all meats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Quail. Small and efficient, they, too, are suited to home rearing, and in Japan and a few other countries, large numbers are raised commercially in very small space. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Muscovy. A native of South American rainforests, this bird is a major poultry resource of France, Taiwan, and a few other countries. Tame, tolerant, and tough, it deserves greater recognition everywhere. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Guinea Fowl. One of the most self-reliant of all domestic birds, this native of Africa is raised in huge numbers in Europe - notably France. Its potential for increased production elsewhere is exceptional. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Turkey. The traditional turkey of Mexico still exists as a scavenger bird in villages and household backyards. Unlike the highly selected modern breeds, it is self-reliant, robust, and disease-resistant. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits Like chickens, rabbits exemplify the vast possibilities that microlivestock offer for increasing meat production in the most poverty-stricken parts of the world. Captive rabbits have been popular as food at least since the time of the Romans. Rabbit rearing has been well established in Europe and China, and now national rabbit projects have begun in many developing nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents Some 7,000 years ago, guinea pigs were domesticated as a source of food for the high Andes; even today in the uplands of Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador, most Indians raise them inside their homes and regard them as an essential part of life. For many Indians, these indoor livestock are the main source of meat. Prolific, tractable, and easy to feed, house, and handle, guinea pigs are even kept in downtown apartment buildings - often in boxes under the bed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other rodents might also be suited to domestication; for instance, the potentially tamable, clean-living species of South American fields and woodlands - agouti, capybara, hutia, mare, coypu, pace, and vizcacha. Two remarkable domestication programs have been started in Africa: the grasscutter in West Africa and the giant rat in Nigeria. Both animals provide popular "bushmeat" and researchers are now learning to raise them in captivity. (Because of its tangy taste, Ghanaians actually pay three times more for grasscutter meat than for beef!)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antelope Another wild African mammal with potential for "household animal husbandry," the blue duiker, is a rabbit-sized antelope. In some areas of Central and Southern Africa the demand is so great that its population is declining at an alarming rate. Duiker rearing, if it can be made successful, might provide both food and an economic alternative to slaughtering the wild populations. It is reported that duikers are easy to maintain and they reproduce well in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat of several other tiny antelope species is also much sought in many African countries, and these animals are also suitably sized to feed the average family at one meal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer Several species of tiny deer - smaller than many dogs - might make useful microlivestock, although much research is needed before their true potential can be judged. Normal-sized deer were once considered too easily frightened to be reared as domestic livestock, but several species are now raised on thousands of deer farms in New Zealand as well as in at least a dozen other countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer and musk deer (which, strictly speaking, are not true deer at all) are of microlivestock size and are also possible future livestock. The musk deer produces one of the most valuable materials in the animal kingdom - more valuable, in fact, than gold. The musk from the male's glands is used in oriental medicines as well as in European perfumes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguanas Over much of the Caribbean and Latin America, iguanas are a traditional source of food. Indeed, the meat of these large herbivorous lizards is so delicious they are being hunted to extinction throughout their wide range. Their eggs are much enjoyed also. Programs in Panama, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Curacao, and Argentina have developed simple methods to hatch and rear three iguana species. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bees Honey bees are present almost everywhere, and honey and wax are high-value products that demand little processing and can be stored and transported easily. Innovations in equipment and technique have made beekeeping successful in the tropics without requiring sophisticated hives or elaborate training. Raising bees can also benefit the many crops that require pollination.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE MICROLIVESTOCK ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although animal science has traditionally emphasized bigness, smallness has its advantages. Some of these are summarized below.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock lend themselves to economic niches that are not easily filled by large livestock. Much of their potential is for subsistence production. They are promising for the many peasants who, being outside the cash economy, are now unable to purchase meat, milk, cheese, or eggs. These people can afford only animals that can be raised within the home or backyard under ambient climatic conditions and on feeds that are cheap and easily available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A subsistence farmer is likely to benefit more from small species than from large because of several factors:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The animals are less expensive to buy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They are less of a financial risk to maintain. (A farmer with several small animals is less vulnerable to loss than a farmer with a single large animal, a feature that is particularly important in subsistence farming where success determines whether the family will survive.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They give a faster return on investment. (Small size generally signifies high reproductive capacity and a fast turnover.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They provide flexibility. (Farmers can more easily change the size of their herd or flock to match the amount of feed available at a given time. Also, they can sell animals according to the family's fluctuating needs for cash or food.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They provide a steadier source of income.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They increase the chances of successful breeding because greater numbers are usually kept. (This also means that breeding stock is more likely to be retained in times of scarcity.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They are more easily transported. (Who hasn't traveled in a Third World bus or train without chickens, ducks, or guinea pigs as fellow passengers?)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- In some cases they are more efficient converters of food energy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are also a number of other benefits to small species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reduced Spoilage. A portion of meat that comes in a "package" of a size that can be readily consumed by a family is important in areas where refrigeration is unavailable or uneconomic. A family can eat the meat produced by most microlivestock in one meal or in one day to minimize the risk of spoilage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Efficient Use of Space. The space required for handling and feeding microlivestock is proportionately less than that required for large animals. Low space requirements make many microlivestock (such as guinea pigs, rabbits, pigeons, and quail) available to landless rural inhabitants who have no room for a cow. This is particularly important with respect to feed production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Cheaper Facilities. Facilities and equipment required for microlivestock are, by and large, smaller and simpler than those required for large animals. They often can be made from local products or scrap material or both.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Ease of Management. Farmers and villagers can manage small animals more easily than large, which is an advantage in the many places where women and children are the main keepers of livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Increased Productivity. Small animals tend to fit well into existing farming systems, thereby expanding the resource base and recycling nutrients. Some - for example bees, ducks, and geese - can feed themselves by scavenging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- By-Products. Many species have fur, feathers, skins, and other by-products that are often more valuable than their meat, milk, or eggs. Examples include the feet and tails of rabbits, musk from musk deer, and pelts from rodents such as coypu. Processing such byproducts creates diversification for the farmer and perhaps jobs for the village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RATIONALE FOR LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many have argued that livestock raising should be discouraged, that it is a primary cause of desertification through overgrazing and that it is an inefficient converter of basic material and energy into human food. "Grow more pulses, grow more grains," these people cry. Their arguments can be valid where the land has high potential for permanent cultivation. Much of the world's surface, however, does not fit into that category, and it is in these areas and for those people who have no access to arable lands that a convincing case for livestock can most easily tee mace. As W.J.A. Payne has written:*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Livestock, particularly ruminants, can process forage and waste crop materials inedible by man into nutritionally desirable food products, many of high protein, mineral and vitamin content and including some of high caloric value. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Approximately 40 percent of total land available in developing countries can be used only for some form of forage production and a further 30 percent is classified as forest with some potential for the production of forage. Some 12 percent of the world's total population live in areas where people depend almost entirely on the products obtained from ruminant livestock. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Livestock provide a range of extremely valuable by-products. Dung is not only a fertilizer and soil-stabilizer but also a fuel of often considerably greater value than the fodder consumed in its production. Other byproducts, especially hides and wool form the bases of rural enterprises that may provide significant incomes to the poorest members of society. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Animal plant and human life are ecologically interdependent. The establishment of agricultural systems in which livestock are integrated with crops, forestry and aquaculture is essential for the improvement of overall productivity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock produce food that adds to the nutritional quality and variety of human diets. Although it is possible for humans to exist without them, these foods are relished and sought after by the majority of humanity. These foods include meat, eggs and processed products such as biltong and cheese. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general, small species tend to expand the food base by using a wider array of resources than do major livestock such as cattle. Many can be raised on feeds that people discard: fibrous residues, industry by-products, or kitchen wastes. Some collect minute feeds that otherwise go unused. For example, chickens and pigeons gather scattered seeds, turkeys gobble up insects, geese graze water weeds, iguanas feed in the tops of trees, and bees collect nectar and pollen from flowers that may be miles away.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even some grazing microlivestock prefer different forages from those preferred by cattle. Antelope and deer, for instance, browse tree leaves; capybara and grasscutters eat reeds. Combining microlivestock with conventional livestock results in a more complete utilization of forage resources and greater animal production per hectare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under conditions of abundance, small size may be of no advantage in mammals, but if feed is limited, it is of great help. A small animal (or its keeper) needs to cover less area to fulfill its daily requirements, so that microlivestock may grow fat in areas where the forage is too sparse to support a larger animal. This is particularly vital when there are seasonal bottlenecks. For example, feed may be plentiful enough for most of the year to supply many large animals; however, the dry season may greatly restrict the numbers that can be kept.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although small animals generally require proportionately higher inputs of feed, they also grow proportionately faster (see sidebar opposite). In addition, species such as rabbits, guinea pigs, and grasscutters digest fibrous matter with surprising efficiency, even though they are not true ruminants like cattle, sheep, and goats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many small animals have high reproductive capacity with short gestation periods, large numbers of offspring, and rapid juvenile growth. They tend to reach sexual maturity at a younger age than large animals, and the interval between the generations can be very short. Thus, meat or other products can be produced more rapidly and more evenly throughout the year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cows, for example, produce a maximum of one calf per year. A pig, on the other hand, may produce 7 or more young; a rabbit, 30 or more; a chicken, more than 100.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adaptability and Hardiness</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The survival rates and manageability of many small breeds and species can be outstanding. Smallness is often an adaptation to harsh environment. Indeed, a major promise for microlivestock is in special environmental niches. Where cold, heat, temperature fluctuations, aridity, or humidity are extreme, microlivestock are likely to show their greatest advantage. Chickens, guinea fowl, goats, and many other small species already live in villages, homes, and backyards in harsh and disease-prone climates, and are usually given no care and sometimes no food: they have to scavenge for their sustenance and survive as best they can. Such selection pressures result in animals of remarkable adaptability, tolerance, and robustness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microlivestock can produce under conditions where conventional species die. The capybara, for instance, is at home in the Latin American lowlands, where the climate is hot and humid and floods cause seasonal inundations. Cattle, by contrast, die because of malnutrition, foot rot, or drowning. Other microlivestock species with a wide tolerance to ecological extremes include the turkey, pigeon, and bee. And some dwarf breeds of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs show surprising tolerance to trypanosomes, the parasites that make conventional breeds impossible to maintain throughout much of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some small species can be raised in cities, where poverty and malnutrition are often worse than in rural areas. It is estimated, for instance, that one million livestock exist in Cairo, not counting the pigeons that are raised on countless rooftops. Goats and cattle are common in urban India, and many Third World cities have far more chickens than people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p9a.png"></center><br>
+ Food utilization versus body size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICROLIVESTOCK LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raising microlivestock is not a panacea for the Third World's food problems. Efforts to develop them will not be without difficulties. Some likely problems are noted here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High Energy Requirements</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smaller animals tend to have a higher feed requirement per unit of body weight than large animals. Anatomical and physiological constraints prevent them from meeting their relatively high energy requirements simply by increasing the rate of food ingestion. Therefore, for optimum production, some small animals, particularly nonruminants, require feed that is higher in protein and lower in fiber than large animals. This is particularly true when the small animals are compared with ruminants such as cattle, sheep, and goats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increased Labor Requirements</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The advantages of low investment, fast return on capital, flexibility, and efficient resource utilization are offset by higher demands for labor. Keeping small animals often requires considerable effort, and its economic viability may depend on the availability of cheap and willing labor. Many small animals are raised at home by family members, such as children, the elderly, and the handicapped, who have time available and whose labor costs are nominally zero.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diseases</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some potential microlivestock are undomesticated, and resistance to diseases and parasites is one justification for their consideration. However, the general healthiness of a species when it is free-ranging can be a misleading guide for its husbandry. Confining any animal in high density invariably increases the potential for the spread of infectious diseases and parasites. Moreover, mismanagement can foster respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases (such as salmonella or coccidiosis) that are rare among scattered populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microlivestock are potential reservoirs for diseases that affect not only local animals but people as well. This may limit their successful development in some areas. Although the dangers are often exaggerated, controls may be needed, particularly of rinderpest, tickborne diseases, and those diseases communicable to humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Predation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small size makes microlivestock easy prey.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Techniques to manage some microlivestock species are not yet well established. The development of appropriate husbandry techniques, as well as a better understanding of the animals' particular biological and behavioral characteristics, will be needed before major progress can be made. These species (for instance rodents, deer, and iguanas) may require collection of different genotypes, as well as studies of diseases, nutrition, and management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Complex Logistics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is complicated and expensive to reach millions of widely scattered peasants, each having only a handful of small animals. Even though total production may far exceed that of commercial farms raising large animals, the smallholdings are often dispersed, their animals are often used for subsistence rather than commerce, and their managers are often ill-trained and illiterate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legislative Restrictions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The use of some microlivestock species may be restricted by legislation. For instance, some countries have meat and veterinary laws that work against the development of species other than cattle. Others have laws to protect wildlife, which could be important in the case of species such as antelope, deer, pace, and iguana.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of Markets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock need not be just for home or local consumption; they can also be raised for market. But some commercial programs, including some with rabbits and guinea pigs, have failed because no public demand was developed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resistance to New Species</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People have close associations with livestock, and in most cultures they do not easily accept animals or animal foods that are radically different from their traditional ones. In general, the ties between certain ethnic groups and a particular species or breed is very strong (one reason, for example, why European colonists introduced their own large breeds of cattle and sheep to Africa and Asia, paying little attention to small indigenous breeds). Moreover, people who are used to bringing the animal to the feed rather than the feed to the animal may resist a small animal that has to be penned up and fed by hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Opposition to Smallness</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, there seems to be an innate human trait that considers bigger to be better, especially among the common livestock. For example, because many tropical cattle are small, there is strong inclination on the part of those responsible for livestock improvement to dismiss them or to increase their size by crossing them with large breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FUTURE OF MICROLIVESTOCK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small animals are likely to become increasingly important. As human populations increase, the space available for growing forage decreases, and this phenomenon favors small animals. Many villagers already have little or no pastureland. Some live in areas (the rice-growing areas of Southeast Asia, for instance) where crops are grown on almost every square meter almost every month of the year. Microlivestock are potentially important for urban areas of developing countries as well. There, too, land is at a premium and is usually inadequate for raising conventional livestock. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, however, microlivestock have been largely ignored. Compared with cattle, they have been accorded little scientific effort. In the drive towards larger animals, stimulated by experience in the temperate zone, the virtually unstudied gene pool of small species and breeds has been mostly bypassed. There have been few attempts to assess or improve their farm productivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is unfortunate, and it is perhaps due to the fact that small animals may be less efficient at digesting certain foods and therefore technically less attractive than large, "modern" breeds. But to Third World peasants, an animal's efficiency is far less important than its survivability and manageability. If an animal cannot be raised under village conditions, its feed-use efficiency or milk yield is irrelevant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock production should be integrated into most ruraldevelopment projects. Small animals offer a way to improve the lives of people who are hard to reach by other methods. Only by expanding research on the husbandry, hygiene, nutrition, reproduction, physiology, and breeding can the promise of animals sized for small farms and villages be fulfilled. Moreover, the costs will be small compared with those of programs for large animals.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specifically, experiment stations should produce and promote methods and materials for use in rearing microlivestock. Donors and development institutions, planners, and policymakers should note the potentials of microlivestock and the benefits that can be derived from them. Teaching manuals and materials are needed, and classes in microlivestock husbandry should be included in rural school curricula.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raising personal livestock on weeds and table scraps in cages beside the house or boxes under the bed will, in many instances, get quality protein to the most poverty stricken more effectively than raising large livestock on pastures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although small size confers many advantages, the question is not whether the large or small animal is "best," but rather how well each can meet a person's varying requirements. In a given situation, livestock can be too small or too large. But the fact remains that not everyone who wants meat or money has the resources to acquire, keep, manage, or utilize a large animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key is balance. Both microlivestock and traditional livestock deserve serious attention. Indeed, it seems likely that the two will seldom compete. Most microlivestock complement traditional livestock because of unique physical, physiological, behavioral, or economic characteristics. They increase the range of options for the millions of poor for whom the choice may not even be between large and small livestock, but between microlivestock and no livestock at all. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It's an unfortunate fact that small animals don't have the prestige among Third World farmers that large animals do (perhaps this arose because children can look after goats and sheep but it takes men to look after cattle). Even sheep and goats are not accorded the same stature as cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hugh Popenoe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeds and varieties were created from mutant genes and thus haste become living reservoirs of these genes, holding them for use in future generations of mankind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g002a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part I : Microbreeds</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g003a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs supply millions of people around the world with the bulk of their cash and animal products. Yet scores of breeds - especially in the tropics - are left out of livestock development projects merely because they are considered too small. These "microbreeds"' have sometimes been considered genetic dead ends because they appear undersized and puny. Many of these traditional animals - some in local use for thousands of years - are disappearing, and even the small ancestors of large modern breeds are becoming extinct.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These small breeds deserve to be studied and developed in their own right. Throughout Africa, Asia, and Latin America, these usually hardy animals are especially adapted to traditional husbandry practices and harsh local conditions. Some have remarkable qualities and are well adapted to resist hostile weather, ravaging pestilence, and poor diets. In remote places and in areas of extreme climate, they are often vitally important for basic subsistence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, because of stress or disease, or insufficient forage, land, or money, microbreeds may be the only practical livestock in many settings. Their individual output may be low, but it can be efficient considering the lack of care and poor feeds they are given. Their availability and the growing number of small-sized farms in the developing world make them increasingly worthy of consideration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following chapters in this section describe microcattle, microgoats, microsheep, and micropigs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Microcattle</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g004a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the purposes of this report, "microcattle" are considered to be small breeds of cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus) with a mature weight of about 300 kg or less. In many areas of the developing world, these are actually the animals most widely held by farmers and pastoralists. They are often treasured because of their resilience and simple requirements. Many survive and produce under harsh conditions, grow rapidly, calve easily, show good maternal ability, yield lean meat, or have other advantages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle have generally been ignored in the push towards larger animals, but they seem inherently suitable for traditional and small-farm husbandry. As rural people in developing countries improve their own productivity, as they become more aware of nutritional needs, and as they depend more upon cash economies, microcattle could become vital means for improving personal, dietary, and economic status.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle have been classified in many ways, but they are generally designated as humped or humpless types. However, clear distinctions among them are sometimes difficult or impossible to make because they have intermingled for thousands of years. Representative microcattle types are listed at the end of the chapter. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than two-thirds of the world's 1.3 billion cattle are found in the developing world; one-third is in the tropics. As noted, a considerable number of these could be called "microcattle."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many strains of microcattle are threatened with extinction because of replacement or crossbreeding with larger types. This is in some respects shortsighted because promoting just a few breeds contributes to narrowing of the genetic base, and valuable traits may be lost when selection is done to conform to any preconceived standard, including large size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle are adapted to a wide variety of habitats. Many types thrive - even with little or no attention - in climates that are hot, humid, arid, or beset by diseases and parasites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle are ruminants and digest fiber well, although they are selective foragers and prefer tender grasses and low-growing legumes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with other tropical cattle, microbreeds generally reach physical and sexual maturity in 2 or 3 years. Many can breed year-round when conditions are favorable (gestation lasts about 9 months). Cows may remain fertile 10 years or more, and can live more than 20 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle usually graze from as few as four hours to as many as eight hours a day. If feed is of poor quality, they must forage (and ruminate) longer to receive adequate nutrition. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle are commonly docile and undemanding animals, and many small breeds are surprisingly responsive to humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like conventional breeds, microcattle produce the same well-known products: meat, milk, manure, hides, horn, blood, and bone. They are also used for traction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small cattle often produce only modest amounts of milk and meat per animal. However, given higher stocking rates, a herd of microcattle is often able to outyield larger, genetically improved animals on a per hectare basis, especially under stressful conditions. When their ability to survive adversity and poor management is taken into account, they may often be far and away the most efficient cattle for traditional husbandry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surprisingly, there is a place even for small draft animals. They tend to be active, thrifty (efficient), and more maneuverable in tight spaces, and so are adapted for use in the small fields, terraces, and paddies that are becoming increasingly common. The small hill cattle of Nepal, for instance, are valued because they can negotiate steep slopes and narrow terraces on Himalayan mountainsides. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle are handled like their larger counterparts, but herding, tethering, fencing, and hobbling are generally easier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle are familiar animals that are accepted in nearly all cultures; their meat, milk, manure, and leather are in demand almost everywhere. In many societies, beef is preferred over other meats, even by those who can rarely afford it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas, organized breeding, production, and marketing associations are already in place. Microcattle can also integrate well into traditional forms of husbandry, whether in pastoral herds of hundreds or as solitary backyard milk cows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under humid and hot conditions, microcattle probably suffer less than larger breeds because their greater ratio of skin area to body mass enhances their ability to shed heat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of cattle that can be kept on a given parcel of land may be increased, sometimes even doubled, with smaller animals. Microcattle can also be penned and fed cut-and-carry forage more easily than can larger cattle, and more of them can be maintained on the same amount of feed. This permits more continuous production and less financial hardship when an animal perishes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small cattle may require less labor because they are generally easier to handle, herd, confine, and transport. They usually have few problems with calving, and as a rule require little or no assistance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microcattle have unusual tolerances to disease. In Africa, for instance, there are breeds that tolerate or resist trypanosomiasis, a parasitic disease that makes large areas of that continent uninhabitable for most other cattle breeds. Others seem more tolerant of internal or external parasites, theileriosis (east coast fever), rinderpest, or other afflictions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle often lack the prestige of larger breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When given quality forage and supplemental feeding, small unimproved cattle may not match the overall productivity of the large, highly developed breeds. Their greatest potential may prove to be for traditional husbandry and for grazing marginal areas where survival is more important than feed efficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BONSAI BRAHMAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mexico, researchers are deliberately creating microcattle. Since 1970, Juan Manuel Berruecos Villalobos, former director of the Veterinary Medicine school at the National Autonomous University, has directed this enterprise. He and his colleagues have miniaturized cows by selecting the smallest specimens out of a herd of normal-sized Brahman cattle and breeding them with one another. After five generations, adult females average 15-180 kg adult males 20-220 kg. A few of the smallest cows are now only 60 cm tall and 140 kg in weight. Merely one-fifth of normal weight, they are shorter than the turkeys that share the barnyard with them. Indeed, they even get lost in the grassy pastures so that the farmers cannot see them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This program seems to have yielded a productive animal that can be cheaply and easily maintained in a small space. Berruecos has demonstrated that the tiny cows can be stocked on one-third the area needed to support one normal-sized cow. He reports that they are giving remarkable amounts of milk: up to four lifers a day, compared with six lifers from their full-sized counterparts. On a feed-intake to weight-gain basis, the tiny cattle are no less efficient than their normal-sized counterparts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although 17 years have gone into the selection of what Berruecos calls his "bonsai cattle," the process is not yet finished. Future goals include testing embryo transplants to see if one normal-sized cow can support multiple "microfetuses" (possibly as many as eight). This would help to rapidly increase the numbers of the miniature form, which weigh merely 4-5 kg at birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All in all, the Mexican researchers see miniaturization as a new option for governments and farmers increasingly squeezed by shrinking farm land and rising production costs. Small livestock they say, are a way to produce more food on less land faster. For example, a campesino with almost no land can have one or two bonsais, but could never maintain a standard-sized cow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their adaptability and robustness make microcattle worthy of preservation, study, and greater use, and they should be incorporated into many ongoing programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selective breeding, although infrequently attempted, can probably improve productivity significantly. Records of breed history should be established, and unusual or special characteristics noted and the information disseminated. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p24a.png"></center><br>
+ Original distribution of wild cattle and banteng (Based on Mason , 1984)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In areas where small, indigenous breeds are being replaced, representative populations should be maintained and studied to increase understanding of their adaptive diversity and to retain a genetic storehouse for the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MICROCATTLE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwarf West African Shorthorn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African coastal forests, and inland. Female 125 kg; male 150 kg. Adaptation to harsh, humid climates and good resistance to trypanosomiasis and other diseases allow these small animals to exist where other cattle die. They are perhaps the smallest cattle of all (often weighing less than 100 kg). In the areas of worst disease and highest rainfall, this hardy animal is often found thriving, but half wild. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muturu Nigeria. Female 160 kg; male 210 kg. This notable subtype is slightly larger. It is the most trypanotolerant of all cattle, showing no symptoms or loss of vitality. It is widely kept, mostly as a village scavenger and often as a pet, and yields a high percentage of meat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N'Dama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West Africa. 200-400 kg. These active, stocky animals utilize low-quality forage, produce good beef, and are used as light draft oxen. Milk production, though poor, improves with feeding level. N'Dama mature early and are exceptionally fertile, and they have already become important in breeding programs. They are resistant to trypanosomiasis, and can exist where temperatures average 30&Yacute; C with 1,500 mm annual rainfall. In the least hospitable areas, N'Damas ranging down to 200 kg are often the only cattle that can remain productive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodope</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southeastern Europe. Female 200 kg; male 350 kg. A humpless multipurpose breed - draft, milk, and beef - that is exceptionally hardy. The milk is high in butterfat. Possibly adaptable to the subtropics. It is rapidly being lost to crossbreeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zebu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zebus are among the most important tropical domestic animals. However, the dwarfs are not well known, although in many areas they are preferred, especially as draft animals. Zebus use less water, even though their sweat glands are larger and more numerous than those of most other cattle. All have a low basal metabolism and resist heat well. In general, they also have high resistance to ticks and other parasites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan Black Taiwan. Female 250 kg; male 250 kg. Well adapted to poor tropical conditions, these work animals are also used for meat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kedah-Kelantan Malaysia. Female 200 kg; male 250 kg. Hardy, well adapted cattle with exceptional fertility on a poor diet, both sexes are used as draft animals as well as sources of meat and cash. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sinhala (Dwarf Zebu) Sri Lanka. Female 200 kg; male 250 kg. An ancient type of zebu, preferred for its handiness in cultivating small paddies and terraced fields. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nuba Dwarf Sudan. 180-220 kg. These work animals are well proportioned but are not slaughtered for meat, and milk production is low. Although tolerant to trypanosomiasis, their numbers have dwindled because of crossbreeding. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small Zebu Somalia. 160-230 kg. These small native cattle are used for beef, milk, and for work. They are well adapted to poor feed in a desolate environment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abyssinian Shorthorn Zebu (Showa) Central highlands of Ethiopia. Female 225 kg; male 305 kg. These widespread, small-humped cattle are very hardy. They produce beef and are generally milked, with surplus production about 2-4 kg daily. Resistant to many parasites, they also have a gentle disposition and make good work animals. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwarf Zebu (Mongalla) Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya. Female 150 kg; male 250 kg. A highly variable, long-entrenched, small, East-African zebu with some nonzebu blood. Pastoralists favor it because of its hardiness. Although slow-maturing, it is well-fleshed, can yield excellent beef, and some types are milked. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mashona Zimbabwe. Female 200 kg; male 250 kg. This hardy zebusanga type (see below) is widespread in drier areas and has a high resistance to disease and parasites. Since the 1940s, it has been bred for beef production and selected animals now weigh more than 500 kg. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mini-Brahman Mexico. 135 kg. Downsized from 450-kg Brazilian zebus through selective breeding by Mexican researchers, these gentle animals are reported to yield two-thirds as much milk (3-4 liters daily) as the parent stock. Because of much higher stocking rates on grass, production per hectare is reportedly greater than with full-sized animals (see sidebar, page 22). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central and South America. Descendants of Spanish and Portuguese  cattle imported over 400 years ago, "criollo" cattle have adapted to a  wide range of harsh climates. Many varieties are small: mature females  often weigh 200-300 kg or less. They sometimes produce little beef or  milk under traditional conditions and management, but they are  extremely hardy and survive when other cattle perish. Through  importation and crossbreeding, many local types have been lost or are  threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chinampo Baja California, Mexico. 200-350 kg. Extremely tolerant of  wild desert conditions, these docile criollo cattle exist largely on scrub  and cactus. They get most of their water from succulent plants, have a  low metabolic rate and body temperature, and are mostly active at night. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Florida Scrub Florida, USA. 225-300 kg. Genetically isolated for more  than 300 years, the Florida Scrub is very hardy in harsh, subtropical  conditions. It has good resistance to ticks and screwworm, and can  subsist on forage with a high roughage content. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sanga</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This type - an ancient cross between longhorns or shorthorns and  humped animals - is found throughout eastern and southern Africa. It  weighs from 150 to 500 kg or more. Some types have been selectively  bred or crossed with European cattle and are quite productive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bavenda Transvaal, South Africa. 240-290 kg. This hardy and  disease tolerant tropical variety is small and prolific. It is generally used  for draft, barter, and beef. However, it has been crossbred with larger  animals so frequently that the smaller types are almost extinct; most  "Bavendas" now weigh more than 300 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ovambo' Northeastern Namibia. Female 160 kg; male 225 kg. A calm  and docile animal with a small hump, it is used by seasonal pastoralists  for beef and milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nilotic Sudan. 180-300 kg. These cattle of southern Sudan show great variation in size, partly due to environmental factors. They are generally resistant to local parasites and worms, have good potential for increased beef production, and their milk is very important locally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chadian "Native" and Dwarf Black Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad. Female 225 kg; male 275 kg. These two types are small, humped meat animals that graze the sparse savanna and are very drought resistant. Little scientific information exists about them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Arab Cattle"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East. Small types (female 225 kg; male 300 kg) are used for meat and some milk, especially in Lebanon. There are many local forms with variable appearance, but all have small humps. Well adapted to grazing sparse vegetation on rough land, they are becoming rare due to crossbreeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hill Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal. Female 160 kg; male 200 kg. A widespread type often recrossed with Indian zebu animals, they are bred to be small. They are thrifty creatures that maintain themselves well on poor forage. Bulls make sure-footed draft animals on rough ground and slopes, and the cows are milked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tibetan Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tibet. Less than 250 kg. These humpless cattle are used as pack animals and can tolerate poor forage and high altitudes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yellow Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southwest and south China. Female 220 kg; male 380 kg. In the subtropics and tropics, small multipurpose types of Yellow Cattle withstand high temperature and humidity. They are used mainly for work and meat, and seem well adapted to poor feed, harsh conditions, and rugged terrain. The Chowpei (190-380 kg) is a hardy working breed of more temperate areas in Hubei Province.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheju Hanwoo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Korea. Female 230 kg; male 280 kg. A yellowish-brown Cheju Island native that has almost no calving difficulty, it is well adapted to poor grazing conditions in harsh environments and is docile and obedient.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madura</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia. Female 220 kg; male 300 kg. An ancient cross between humped cattle and the banteng (see sidebar), these heat- and disease resistant hybrids also have good grazing and mothering ability, and are kept in the most extreme humid tropical environments. Breeding for fighting and racing has given them a poor disposition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dexter Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ireland and North America. 220-360 kg. This breed can be traced back to eighteenth-century Ireland and is believed to have been developed by peasant farmers living on rough land. It is exceptionally hardy and produces both milk and meat. In North America, it has become popular among city folk who acquire country property, as this microbreed is particularly well suited to their usually tiny farms. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BANTENG: THE CUTEST COW</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng (Bos Javanicus) is a small Southeast Asian bovine with a promising future.* It is a different species from cattle. The two will interbreed, but the hybrid offspring are normally sterile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although almost entirely neglected by the animal science community, the banteng is remarkable for an ability to thrive under hot, humid, and disease-ridden conditions where cattle often grow poorly. The sexes are easily distinguished: males are jet black, females are golden brown. Both have bright white socks and rumps as if they had been freshly whitewashed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng are found in remote areas of countries from Burma to Indonesia. But only Indonesia has used it as a farm animal so far. It has more than 1.5 million domesticated banteng - some 20 percent of the country's total "cattle" population. Indonesian farmers value the animal's agility, which allows them to cultivate Relds too narrow for cattle to turn the prow. In addition, gourmets consider banteng meat the tastiest of all. Indonesia appreciates the banteng so much that it has established a genetic sanctuary on the island of Bali - banning cattle in order to maintain the banteng's genetic purity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside Indonesia, only a few scientists have studied this animal, but it seems clear that it is particularly useful under tropical conditions. In heat and humidity, it thrives; even when cattle are starving, one rarely sees a skinny banteng. And demand for its meat is never ending.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Microgoats</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than 90 percent of the world's nearly half billion goats (Capra hircus) are found in developing countries; many weigh less than 35 kg fully grown.` Such "microgoats" are noted for their high reproductive rates, rapid growth, early maturity, tasty meat, and rich milk' as well as for their robust constitution, ease of handling, and tolerance of climatic stress and poor feeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To many people - especially where pigs and poultry are not common - meat and milk from microgoats are the primary animal proteins consumed during a lifetime. Perhaps the world's best foragers, goats eat practically anything made of cellulose, and are not dependent on grass. Because of their unselective feeding behavior, they are capable of living where the feeds - tree leaves, shrubs, and weeds - are too poor to support other types of livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such microgoats deserve wider recognition, for they are often the poor person's only source of milk, meat, and cash income. They are cheap to acquire and easy to maintain, even by people with little property and scarce resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, especially in arid and semiarid climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats generally have a long snout and an upright tail, by which they can be distinguished from most sheep. The mouth is unusual in having a mobile upper lip and a grasping tongue, which permits the animal to nibble even tiny leaves on spiny species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Common commercial goat breeds generally weigh between 60 and 100 kg, with some weighing more than 200 kg. Microgoats may weigh less than 15 kg. Representative examples are listed at the end of the chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, with half in Asia and one-third in Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The FAO projects that world numbers may nearly double by the turn of the century. Goats are thus not endangered, but in some areas select populations of feral goats are being deliberately eradicated, with the consequent loss of potentially valuable genes. Some small breeds are also threatened by excessive crossbreeding with larger types.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most adaptable of all livestock, goats can persist in conditions from arid to humid, and from sea level to high altitude. They are especially well adapted to hot, semiarid climates and to rocky, barren terrain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These ruminants can subsist on many feedstuffs that would otherwise be left to waste. Although selective browsers, they often prefer coarse leaves (including palm fronds) and shrubbery to palatable forage grass.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most microgoats mature quickly, and in the tropics they can generally breed year-round. Their reproductive potential has often been underestimated; kidding is rarely difficult, and many types produce twins and sometimes even triplets or quadruplets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In hot, dry areas, goats require less attention than other livestock, and smaller goats have the added advantage of better heat dissipation. Some microgoats may also show disease resistance. For example, tolerance to trypanosomiasis makes them an important livestock in many regions of Africa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are generally gentle, but can be easily frightened. They may become stubborn and aggressive when threatened or thwarted, and can prove hard to confine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If their feed smells of other animals - particularly of other goats -  they usually shun it unless nothing else is available. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoats mainly produce meat and form an important part of the diet in southern Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America, especially the Caribbean. Goat is sometimes a preferred meat, and there are few social or religious prohibitions against eating it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microgoats are good milkers, and under stressful conditions they may keep producing when other livestock are dry. Goat milk is a valuable dietary supplement: it is nutritious, easily digestible, and usually commands premium prices. It makes excellent cheese and yogurt and can be used by people allergic to cow's milk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoats produce some of the finest and most valuable fibers in the world. Angora and Cashmere goats often weigh less than 30 kg fully grown, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats produce a fine-textured, durable leather that finds extensive uses both locally and internationally. Horns, hooves, blood, and bone meal also have commercial value. Manure is another important product, and comes in fairly dry pellets that are easy to collect, store, and distribute.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats perform important functions in land management. Seeds of many trees (Acacia and Prosopis, for example) are "scarified" by passing through the goats' digestive system, fostering germination and natural revegetation. With care, goats can also be used to clear land of weeds and brush.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are often allowed to roam and scavenge for their own food. They form strong territorial attachments and can be trained to stay within a designated area. However, they cannot be kept from investigating - and quite probably devouring - anything within that territory. They are persistent browsers, so it is essential to prevent overstocking as well as raids on crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Variety of diet is important, and goats show much individuality in feed preferences. They are often raised on crop residue and kitchen refuse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats can be run with other livestock without creating serious competition. The goats browse weedy shrubs, whereas the sheep and cattle graze more on grasses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although perhaps the hardiest of all livestock, most breeds benefit when they are provided shelter from rain and high-noon sun. Abrupt chilling and poor ventilation can cause severe respiratory problems. They are also susceptible to various maladies, such as internal parasites, especially when confined. The highest mortality, however, is caused when very young kids are not supplied with adequate feed and clean, dry shelter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most developing countries goats are already prominent in rural life. Common almost everywhere in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, they are dependable multi-use animals. They are particularly important in providing ready cash, such as for school fees, taxes, marriages, or funerals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats integrate well in mixed agriculture, for example, by consuming leafy wastes, clearing land, and contributing fertilizer. In many places they are raised almost exclusively by women and children. If confined, goats require only simple, inexpensive shelters or pens, which makes them especially important as subsistence animals. In many situations, they may be the most efficient and economic producers for smallholders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals have a relatively fast rate of growth and early reproductive age, even under harsh conditions. They can graze rougher terrain than cattle and most sheep, can go for longer periods without water, and forage well in wooded areas where grass is lacking. They can derive most or all of their diet from roughage unusable by humans; high-energy feeds, such as protein supplements or carbohydrate supplements, are usually not needed even to fatten them for slaughter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are generally healthy and are not affected by many of the parasites and diseases that ravage other livestock. Some resistance to mange, internal parasites, foot-and-mouth disease, and other livestock scourges has been reported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some places (notably, in industrialized nations) there is a strong prejudice against goats and goat meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smallness makes microgoats targets for predators and thieves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many small goats are poor milkers, especially under hardship conditions; however, even small amounts of milk can often fulfill a child's daily nutritional requirement or reinforce a nursing mother's diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are independent and may wander away if not watched, and they can be difficult to pen. They may also have an unpleasant odor when kept confined (males are particularly malodorous during rutting season). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are often disparaged for degrading land and destroying vegetation because they continue to survive on overutilized lands often laid waste by mismanagement of sheep or cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRESH GENES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A rare wild animal with spectacular horns, the bezoar (Capra aegagrus) is the goat's wild ancestor. People domesticated it before 7000 B.C., probably in the mountains along the Iran/ Iraq border. Until recent times, it remained widely scattered across the vast region between Greece and Pakistan, but it now exists only in pockets and is threatened with extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This would be a tragedy because the bezoar is a resilient wild species that crosses readily with domestic goats, and it could pass on its genetic inheritance for heat, drought, and cold tolerance: disease resistance; and other survival qualities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p39a.png"></center><br>
+ Distribution of the bezoar. The arrow indicates the area where it was probably first domesticated, resulting in the goat as we know it (From Mason 1984)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fascinating science and valuable results probably await those willing to study this hardy, handsome creature and to explore the reharnessing of its genetic endowment. Today the bezoar is considered merely a trophy for hunters. The power of its genes to refresh - perhaps even revolutionize - the world's 500 million goats has been lost to sight. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The microgoat's potential has hardly been realized. More research on performance and husbandry is needed to preserve and restore small breeds. Selective breeding for prolificacy, viability, and rapid growth, as well as more selective on-site culling, could greatly improve both meat and milk yields and quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management systems that exploit smallness, stabilize production, and preserve the environment should be introduced and publicized in appropriate goat-rearing areas. Careful assessments of indigenous management methods should be made, particularly emphasizing their desirable characteristics. Improving hygiene in the wet season and supplemental feeding in the dry season are also important, as are disease- and parasite-control measures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The undomesticated ibex and markhor could possibly be major contributors in the development of new, useful breeds for tropical and arid regions (see sidebar, page 42). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE BREEDS OF MICROGOATS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African Dwarf (Djallon)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West and Central Africa. Female 20 kg; male 30 kg. Adapted to humid lowlands, this widespread goat is particularly valuable for meat and skin production. Generally, it is bred for meat, but milk is sometimes an important secondary product. Sexual maturity is very early (3-6 months), and quadruplets occasionally occur (most goat breeds normally produce only single births). Related types go by the names "Cameroon Dwarf," "Dirdi," and "Nigerian Dwarf."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nubian Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States. 35-40 kg (often less). A stable miniature variety of the milking Nubian, this microgoat has been developed recently in the United States by crossing standard-sized Nubians with the West African Dwarf. It combines a good milk output with high levels of butterfat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American Pygmy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States. 15-25 kg. Derived from the West African Dwarf, it is noted for its hardiness and good nature, good milk production, and adaptability to various climates. There are several varieties, some for milking, others for meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudanese Nubian</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Sudan. 25-30 kg. Widespread milk goats of riverain and urban areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudanese Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Sudan. 11-25 kg. A very hardy desert goat similar to the West African Dwarf, it averages 15 kg, but some mature individuals may weigh as little as 11 kg. Used for meat and hides, it produces little milk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small East African</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania. 20-30 kg. A widely neglected meat and hide animal found over a wide range, it is fast growing (sexual maturity at four months) and extremely hardy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritian</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritius. 25-30 kg. A prolific, year-round breeder raised for meat production, it is often confined in simple shelters from birth to slaughter. Perhaps because of this isolation, mortality is less than 10 percent, even with little or no veterinary care.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin America. "Criollo" is a name given to several breeds of ancient Iberian blood with local adaptations to many unfavorable conditions. They are often small and hardy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Creole Caribbean. Females 20 kg; males 25 kg. Robust meat goats of Spanish or West African origin that are kept throughout the Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crioulo Brazil. 30-35 kg. A meat and skin goat derived from Portuguese ancestors, it is hardy, prolific, undemanding, and adapted to harsh environments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chapper</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan. Female 20 kg; male 24 kg. Originating in dry regions, this meat and milk goat is a nonseasonal breeder with outstanding potential.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbari</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan, India. Females 20-25 kg; males 20-40 kg. A prolific, fastgrowing "urban" goat with high twinning and low mortality. Often kept inside houses, they adapt well to confinement and are important for both milk and meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaddi (White Himalaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hill districts of northern India. 25-30 kg. Kept for meat and their long, lustrous white hair, they are pure-breeding and healthy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Changthangi (Ladakh)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kashmir, India. Male 20 kg. A pashmina (cashmere) goat of India, it is adapted to a high altitude, high humidity climate with extremes of temperature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Terai</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal. 8-12 kg. A very small, hardy animal of the southern lowlands, it kids year-round (sometimes twice), and often produces twins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Hill Goat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal. 12-16 kg. A small, mid-altitude goat resembling the Terai. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Bengal (Teddy, Bangladesh Dwarf)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eastern India and Pakistan. Female 10 kg; male 14 kg. A widespread, humid-area, meat goat that is early maturing and very prolific. It kids twice a year, and produces 60 percent twins and 10 percent triplets. It produces a superior leather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katjang</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southeast Asia, China, and Pacific Islands. In places, less than 20 kg. A widespread, highly variable, hardy goat adapted to humid conditions, it usually has twins or triplets. Used for meat and skins, with exceptional females being milked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chinese Dwarf (Tibetan, Jining, Fuyang, or Chengdu Grey)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China. 20-40 kg. Well adapted to the humid tropics, it normally twins and is a good meat producer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heuk Yumso</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Korea. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. A prolific cold-climate goat with a year-round breeding season. The meat is highly prized, and often sells at a premium due to its supposed health-giving effects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hejazi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East. Female 20 kg; male 20 kg. A meat goat, usually black, for harsh desert conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sinai (Black Bedouin)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sinai, Egypt and Negev Desert, Israel. Female 20 kg; male 50 kg. Native to dry, hot deserts, this milk and meat goat matures at 5-8 months and has a twinning rate over 50 percent. A most important characteristic is its drought tolerance. The female, for instance, can drink only once a day - at a pinch, once every other day - without losing appetite or reducing milk flow. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILD RELATIVES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several wild relatives will cross with the goat. Surprisingly, they have the same chromosome number (2n=60), and the offspring are frequently fertile. Although essentially unknown to agricultural science, these hybrids may offer a new gene pool for creating new farm animals and for improving the world's goats. They seem to combine the self-reliance of wild species with the usefulness of domestic ones. Artificial insemination and other modern techniques could make them easier to produce today than ever before.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ibex*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A project in Israel has already produced a cross between the goat and the Nubian ibex (Capra ibex). The Sinai Desert goat, the breed that was used, ranks next to the camel in its ability to go without water - it often drinks only twice a week - but its meat has such a strong flavor that most people consider it dreadful. On the other hand, the ibex is compact and muscular and produces tender, mild meat that steak lovers find delicious. The product from crossbreeding the two is a creature seemingly able to endure extreme temperatures and drought, make use of poor pasture, and produce wonderful steaks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A herd of several hundred of these hybrids (dubbed 'ya-ez") has been created at Kibbutz Lahav in the northern Negev Desert area. Both sexes are fertile, and they can be bred with each other or with either parent. The meat is already in demand on the menus of elegant Tel Aviv hotels. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Markhor**</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Pakistan's northern uplands, it is not uncommon to find hybrids between domestic goats and the mountain goat known as "markhor" (Capra falconeri). Each year in Chitral and Gilgit, they can be found in the goat markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Markhors inhabit high elevations in rugged mountains and thrive on diets so meager as to be useless to goats. The hybrids are produced when markhor males - perhaps ousted by more dominant males - come in contact with feral domestic goats. However, some farmers raise young markhor and goats together (to overcome mutual resistance) and produce their own hybrids,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For a single hybrid animal local goatherds pay up to 5,000 rupees, a princely sum in this impoverished region. Traditionally, villagers have kept them as stud animals. They appreciate the animal's genetic endowment. Markhors tolerate extremes of cold and snow, are nimble and skilled at escaping predators, and survive on scanty fodder, Moreover, they have a high reproduction potential because they generally produce twins. As a result, they also tend to give more milk and it is rich in nutritive value. Instead of long body hairs, markhors possess insulating underfur - a soft and valuable raw material for the famous Kashmiri shawls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apparently, the hybrids can possess many of these qualities together with a calm disposition. Thus they could be useful in themselves and as conduits for passing such traits on to goats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 Microsheep</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the hundreds of breeds of sheep (Ovis aries) in the world, those weighing less than 35 kg when mature have been largely ignored. Although these are common, the impression lingers that they are too small to be useful. Yet this virtually untapped gene pool is esnecially well adapted to traditional Third World animal husbandry. Given attention, these "microsheep" could boost meat, milk, skin, wool, and pelt production in many villages and small farms of Africa, Asia, and Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many microsheep thrive in environments that tax the ability of larger breeds to survive. They are adapted to poor feeds and can be grazed in uncultivated wastelands unsuited to any other livestock except goats or camels. Because of their size, microsheep can fatten in areas where forage is so scattered and sparse that larger animals cannot cover enough ground to fill their bellies each day. In addition, their foraging complements that of other livestock. For example, sheep can graze rough grasses and weeds that cattle find unpalatable. Some survive even the stress of extreme aridity and for this reason are the predominant livestock in North Africa and the Middle East.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many small breeds can be disease resistant. Some, for example, are widespread in the zones of Africa where trypanosomiasis is prevalent. They are generally less adversely affected by foot-and-mouth disease than are cattle, and some small native sheep seem to have fewer problems with insects and parasites than do most other livestock, including temperate-area sheep.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giving more attention to the management and improvement of microsheep could pay back abundantly in the form of food, income, and improved land utilization in many parts of the developing world. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, but notably in drier regions of the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An average weight for temperate sheep breeds is about 70 kg,' but the smallest microsheep weigh less than 20 kg fully grown. Many tropical microsheep are "hairless," and have little or no wool. These are often difficult to distinguish from goats, but (like all sheep) they generally have blunter snouts, more fat, and hanging tails. Some have greatly enlarged rumps or tails that store fat. Unlike goats, sheep have no odor-producing glands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some representative microsheep are described at the end of this chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than one billion sheep occur worldwide, and they occupy every climatic zone in which people live. At least half are in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although more than 1,000 breeds are recognized, only a handful dominate the world's sheep industries. Lesser-known breeds are rapidly becoming extinct (especially in developed countries, although scattered efforts are being made to preserve them). Elsewhere, genetic resources have not been properly evaluated, and potentially valuable stock is being lost before it is even understood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep are among the most adaptable animals. Various types are kept in areas of extreme heat, cold, altitude, aridity, humidity, and rainfall. They are especially widespread in hot, dry climates, but some breeds also thrive in humid areas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep make efficient use of a wide variety of fodder: tree leaves, fortes, grasses, crop residues, and agricultural by-products, for instance. They often survive privation by calling on their reserves of body fat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the tropics, sheep reach sexual maturity in about a year. Many breeds lamb year-round, which allows for a continuous production of premium meat. Gestation takes about five months, and lambing is usually timed to occur when feed is most abundant and nutritious. Microsheep often bear two or more young and, under good management, may produce lambs annually for more than five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These shy animals flock together and, in general, are managed with little effort. They are easily panicked, however, and rams can become aggressive during rutting or when threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE LITTLE SHEEP THAT COULD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dozens of the world's neglected breeds of tiny sheep should be preserved from extinction, for many will undoubtedely prove to have outstanding qualities. Current efforts to save the Navajo sheep in the United States exemplify what can be achieved</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Navajo is a microsheep, and is perhaps the oldest breed of sheep in the United States. It may have been introduced to North America in 1540 by the Spanish explorer Francisco Vazquez de Coronado, who was seeking the mythical Seven Golden Cities of Cibola in the region that is now Arizona and New Mexico. Smaller than many dogs, a full-grown Navajo sheep may weigh only 30 kg, but it became a big part of the culture of the Southwest. Although the Navajos and other local Indians had never seen sheep before the 1500s, they soon became shepherds and weavers, and their rugs made from the unique wool of this wiry little animal remain famous even today.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navajo sheep have white or brown wool hanging in ringlets around their bodies. The fleece is a double coat: long, coarse guard hairs on the outside and short wool on the inside. It yields warm, waterproof, and long-lasting products. Many of the sheep have four horns because the Indians believed that this trait was sacred, and they favored four-horned rams for breeding purposes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of Navajo sheep was reduced sharply between 1950 and 1950 because of severe overgrazing and replacement by improved wool breeds. In recent times there has been so little commercial and scientific interest in this microsheep that by the 1970s only a handful of purebred specimens survived. Since the late 1970s, however, Lyle McNeal, a Utah State University professor, has been working to save it from extinction. By 1988 he had a burgeoning flock at the university and was learning that this supposedly obsolete dwarf is amazingly useful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The breed originated in the arid south of Spain (where it is called the "churro"), and it thrives in the hot, dry climate. Unlike normal breeds, it can exist in the desert without supplementary food and with little water. As McNeal has pointed out, any sheep that can survive and raise a lamb in the aridity and searing heat of the American Southwest has to be superior. He has found that the ewes have a strong maternal instinct, which is vital for protecting lambs against the coyotes that are common in the region. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thanks to the efforts of McNeal and his colleagues, Indians are beginning to use Navajo sheep again; by 1988 there were more than 400 on the Navajo reservation, with their wool fetching premium prices. This tough little sheep could prove valuable not only for American Indians but for poor people in many other dry regions as well. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microsheep are mainly kept for meat production, but - especially in arid regions - for milk as well. Their meat is usually lean with little "muttony" taste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wool or hair is taken from many breeds, although the yield is often small. Skins from hair sheep' thinner than cowhide, are widely used and are in international demand. In some places, manure is considered an important product. In Nepal, thousands of small sheep are used as pack animals, especially to carry salt into mountain valleys.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most sheep are maintained in free-ranging flocks. Many are grazed (often tethered) over a small area during the day and confined in a "fold" at night. Others are penned or kept as village scavengers. These are usually fed supplements of household scraps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep form an integral part of a mixed farming economy; for example, they may graze pastures during the wet season, and survive on crop residues and field weeds during the dry season. They have excellent foraging capabilities and are often kept alongside goats. This broadens the variety of forages utilized and often increases total production from a single piece of land, for sheep and goats have complementary feeding habits and male goats help protect the sheep from some predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In spite of the heavy toll that predators (such as feral dogs) can take on lambs and ewes, the largest proportion of sheep in the tropics are lost through lack of basic care. Modest supplemental feeding of lambs and inexpensive preventive medicines can do much to lower mortality and boost production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep are multipurpose animals, and almost everywhere they produce several products. The rich milk is often preferred to that of cows or goats, especially for making cheese and yogurt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lambs form an important part of the household economy for much of the rural world, and only rarely is social or religious stigma attached to keeping or eating them. Indeed, sheep are the traditional feast animals of several religions, and in some places sheep meat is preferred to beef and sells at a premium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By and large, all sheep products can be processed, utilized, or marketed by the producer. In addition, sheep marketing and transportation systems exist in most countries, at least to some degree.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep are efficient producers and can provide a quick turnover for food and cash. On the brush and coarse grasses of marginal lands, they may be more productive than cattle, and on grass they may outproduce goats. As long as they are not overstocked, sheep do not degrade vegetation; unless starving they will not debark trees. Small breeds cause little erosion, even on steep slopes, heavily traveled paths, or near water holes.2 In South Asia, they have been continuously stocked on the same ground for thousands of years without causing apparent harm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because sheep have a natural tendency to accumulate fat, they "finish" well on grazing and usually do not require a high-energy finishing diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their general healthiness, sheep are affected by many internal parasites and diseases, a few of which are communicable to man. They are especially susceptible to infectious conjunctivitis (pinkeye).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Predators and thieves can be greater threats than sickness. Labor inputs can be high because of the almost continual protection sheep need.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some mutton has a strong taste that many find unappealing. However, the taste is carried mainly by the fat, and the generally lean microsheep are often commended for their fine-textured, sweet meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The numerous breeds of small sheep should be investigated. Assessments should be made for the animals' ability to thrive under adverse conditions and for resistance to particular diseases and parasites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, even minimal extension services and veterinary support for sheep could greatly decrease mortality, especially among lambs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving microbreeds without increasing their size is one of the most interesting challenges facing sheep scientists today. While efforts should be made to conserve and select within types, research should also be conducted on hybrid vigor. Efforts to improve the pelt and fleece of microsheep should also be encouraged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More studies on the interactions between sheep and cropping systems are needed. Sheep (and the manure they produce) could become important components of forestry (see sidebar), crop rotation, alley cropping, and other forms of sustainable agriculture. For instance, sheep are especially effective for weed control in plantation crops such as oil palm and rubber as well as in forests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SMALL SHEEP IN THE FOREST</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even in countries with long traditions of raising large sheep, there are opportunities for using small, agile, hardy breeds. The following is an example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seeking safer methods for stopping brush from smothering newly planted trees, U.S. government foresters have turned from chemical defoliants to flocks of sheep. Court decisions in 1983 and 1984 barred the use of herbicides along Oregon's Pacific Coast. Various alternatives were tried, and the animals proved the most successful. Sheep are now the favored method for controlling unwanted vegetation. Indeed, they have changed the foresters' whore approach to managing reforestation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Formerly, the U.S. Forest Service allowed the brush to grow on logged-over sites and then sprayed it down before planting tree seedlings. Now it plants grass to suppress brush and reduce erosion. The sites are later fertilized, tree seedlings are planted, and within a year sheep are brought in to graze. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, in the district around Alsea, Oregon sheep nimbly skirt old stumps to graze on the lush vegetation. Three times each summer since 1984, about 2,000 sheep have been guided across the replanted areas by a herder and a range conservationist. The sheep eat both the grass and the new buds on brush, but they leave most fir-tree seedlings untouched. The key, according to Rick Breckle, a forester, is to have enough sheep to graze an area evenly and to keep them moving so they don't resort to nibbling the young trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Previously, chemical brush treatments had annually cost $135-$353 per hectare. Now, sowing grass and grazing sheep costs about $300 per hectare. And there is a product to sell: the adult sheep don't fatten well, but the lambs bring a useful income at the end of the summer. What is more, Breckle reports that the trees seem to be growing faster - probably because of the manurings they receive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This method seems likely to be effective elsewhere - at least with trees that are unpalatable or too tall for their growing points to be nibbled. Malaysia, for instance, doubled its sheep population between 1986 and 1989, in part because it has begun raising sheep between the trees in rubber plantations. With the use of agroforestry increasing worldwide, small sheep could find a whole new application.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MICROSHEEP</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Senegal to Nigeria, and south to Angola. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. Well adapted to warm, humid conditions. Prolific, and good disease resistance. Major meat producer in West Africa. Fast growing: by six months of age they approach adult weight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Landim (Small East African)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">East and Central Africa. 23-40 kg. Prolific, adaptable, long fat-tailed type. Large litter size for a sheep. In one recent test, ewes averaged more than 1.4 lambs.3 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berber</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Atlas Mountains. 25-41 kg. Needing little feed and remaining constantly outdoors, these extremely hardy sheep are exploited for meat and their coarse, hairy wool. They fatten easily when well fed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arab</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">North Africa. 40-50 kg. This thin-tailed sheep is exceptionally robust, and is resistant to extremes of temperature, drought, and poor nutrition. Primarily a meat producer, its wool is used for coarse cloths and carpets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Sudan Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the many small breeds of eastern and southern Africa, its weight ranges from 15 to 25 kg, but it may weigh as little as 11 kg. Yielding a fine, short fleece, this hardy, frugal sheep is often run with cattle to maximize grazing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hejazi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deserts of Arabia. 32 kg. A popular and ancient fat-tailed meat producer that is highly acclimatized to drought and privation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zel (Iranian Thin-Tailed)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caspian region of northern Iran. Female 30-32 kg. Well adapted to subtropical regions, they produce coarse wool, milk, and excellent meat that lacks the "mutton taste" and odor of some sheep meats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greek Zackel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mountain and island types. Female 30 kg; male 40 kg. These common sheep are active, hardy, and resistant to extremes of climate and disease. Primarily a milking sheep, their wool is used locally and lambs are slaughtered for special occasions. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sitia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crete. Female 25 kg; male 30 kg. Another of the hardy, screwhorned "zackel" sheep common to the Balkans, they are adapted to poor pasturage and extensive herding. Quick maturing and highly fertile, they can be exploited for milk as well as for meat and coarse wool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Common Albanian</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. Similar to the Greek Zackel, they are used as triple-purpose animals: meat, milk, and wool. They survive in low, marshy areas where parasites are common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zeta Yellow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yugoslavia. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. A small, hardy sheep used for milk and some meat, its primary product is wool. Often unshorn for several years, the long fibers are woven into expensive carpets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pag</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yugoslavia. Female 20-30 kg; male 25-35 kg. These wool, milk, and meat sheep are frugal and well adapted to scant vegetation and rocky terrain. Although they have a low birth rate and carcass yield, their milk and wool are commercially exploitable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roccia (Steinschaf)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Italy, Austria. Female 30 kg; Male 30-35 kg. These "stone sheep" resemble a goat in their ability to exploit the poor pastures of high, steep, rocky mountains. Although not highly productive, they are hardy and frugal and commonly produce twins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corsican</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corsica (France). 25-30 kg. A hardy native breed that is well adapted to rather sparse feed conditions. Coarse wool, both white and black, is well suited for hand processing. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entre Douro e Minho</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Portugal. Female 15-18 kg; Male 20-25 kg. These independent sheep yield a good wool in mountainous terrain that would otherwise be nonproductive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Churra do Campo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Portugal. Female 20 kg; male 30 kg. A coarse-woofed sheep extensively kept in Portugal's dry interior for milk and wool. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Galician</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spain. Female 18 kg; male 25 kg. A milking breed that survives on  poor pasture, it also produces a marketable wool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scotland. Female 25 kg; male 30 kg. Adapted to wide temperature  variations. Possibly the most primitive domesticated sheep of Europe,  probably unchanged from Viking times. Immune to foot rot. A wool  sheep with short brown fleece that is shed annually.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">North Ronaldsay (Orkney)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Scotland. 27-32 kg. Surviving year-round on seaweed,  this rare breed is adapted to high salt intake and the associated digestive  problems. Yield 1-2 kg medium-coarse wool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin America. Derived from ''native'' Spanish Churro and Merino  sheep. Many are small and very hardy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navajo-Churro Southwestern United States. Female 45 kg; male 70  kg. Maternal, and very resistant to internal parasites and hoof rot.  Although the Navajo subsists and reproduces on little feed and scarce  water in desert regions, it was widely replaced by improved breeds  earlier in this century. Because of its hardiness, however, and the use of  its wool in traditional weaving, its numbers are rebounding (see sidebar,  page 50). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Florida Native Southeastern United States. Females 35-45 kg;  males 45-6O kg. This long-isolated and highly variable sheep is  adapted to harsh subtropical climates and is known for its ability to  forage. A medium-wool breed, it is very resistant to intestinal parasites.  Verging on extinction due to neglect and uncontrolled crossbreeding. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Virgin Islands White Hair (St. Croix)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean. Female 35-45 kg; male 45-55 kg. Hair sheep with  some wool in young animals. Well adapted to warm humid conditions, it has fairly good disease and parasite resistance and produces good meat. Prolific, it breeds most of the year and commonly has twins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Magra (Chokhla)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northwest India, Pakistan.4 20-25 kg. Adapted to hot, dry areas, the extremely white and shiny fleece is valued for carpet wool. Slowmaturing and low fertility (lambing at 45 percent) plus extensive crossbreeding have led to serious declines in population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marwari</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northwest India. 25-30 kg. A widespread, white-fleeced sheep that has a high resistance to disease and worms, good fertility, and low mortality. They do well in large flocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mandya (Bandur)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southwest India. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. An outstanding meat breed with good mutton quality, it adapts well to mixed farming and has unusually low lamb mortality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hu (Huyang, Lake Sheep)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China. Female 35 kg; male 45 kg. These fat-tailed sheep have a six month lambing interval and are very prolific. They are used under intensive management to produce meat, wool, and a valuable lambskin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Javanese Thin-Tail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia. 25-40 kg. Widely held as a "bank account," these meat, manure, and skin sheep are well known for being prolific. Although single lambs are not uncommon, litters of six have also been recorded. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILD AND WOOLLY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Considering that dozens of countries depend on the productivity of more than a billion domesticated sheep, it is remarkable that their wild ancestor is accorded no attention. This fast-declining animal is now little more than a trophy for hunters, a fact that should be of vital intemational concern.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep were domesticated in the Middle East and Central Asia in the Stone Age era between 8,000 and 11,000 years ago.* Their wild ancestor was almost certainly the mouflon (Outs orientalis). However, domestication may have occurred in more than one place, and two other wild creatures, the urial (Outs vignei) and the argali (Outs ammon), also possibly provided genes to some sheep breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mouflon, urial, and argali still exist in the mountains of Central Asia, and a European subspecies of mouflon is also found in the Mediterranean, but only on Corsica, Cyprus, and Sardinia.** Because they live in remote, rugged, upland areas, these wild sheep are usually undisturbed, but the numbers are decreasing everywhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This may be a serious loss because these animals could be extremely valuable. They are capable of crossing with domestic sheep, and the offspring are viable and fully fertile.*** For developing new meat-producing breeds, their potential seems almost limitless.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the thousands of years that sheep have been protected by humans, their wild ancestors have continued to face predators, parasites, disease, extreme cold and seasonal starvation. Their genetic endowment, forged and tempered in unforgiving harshness, could be a benefit for all future sheep generations. These animals appear to resist various diseases. Their meat is reported to be of excellent quality, notably lacking the strong mutton flavor that many people find objectionable. They have relatively short, thin tails - a feature that might eliminate the need for docking (tail removal) in the domestic flock. Some (for instance, the Asian mouflon and the urial) have rates of effective reproduction up to 1.6 lambs per ewe, more than twice the average of most domestic types, especially under the conditions where these wild creatures live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That mouflon and other wild sheep could have practical utility is suggested by research at Utah State University. Scientists there have mated mouflon with farm sheep to create sheep better able to defend themselves against coyotes and other natural dangers. Half-wild, half-tame sheep hybrids have existed on a ranch in southern Utah for the past decade. Also, in Cyprus similar mouflon x sheep hybrids have shown considerable promise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the very least, this wiry little mountain sheep could be a model for educating students and the public. It is a living reminder of the fantastic changes that can be induced in animals by selection for various traits. Also, it is a "map" to the history of sheep domestication. Studies of mouflon genes, blood immunology, morphology, physiology, horn structure, skeleton, fleece, temperament, and a host of other features would help unravel the ancestry. These studies and various biochemical analyses would be a fascinating contribution to agriculture, science, history, and the public perception of the origins of our natural resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genes from wild sheep are not likely to quickly benefit wool production. Lack of fleece is one reason why these creatures have been neglected but throughout most of Asia and in North Africa, sheep are bred primarily for meat and milk, and there is a growing worldwide interest in the use of hair sheep. All of this brings new possibilities for the use of this old resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Micropigs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g005a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most breeds of swine (Sus scrofa) are too large to be considered microlivestock, but there are some whose mature weight is less than 70 kg. These micropigs are particularly common in West Africa, South Asia, the East Indies, Latin America, and oceanic islands around the world. At least one, the Mexican Cuino, may weigh a mere 12 kg full-grown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many miniature swine have been developed for use in medical research, but their agricultural potential has been largely ignored. This is unfortunate, for micropigs of all types - native, feral, and laboratory - deserve investigation. Swine provide more meat worldwide than any other animal, and micropigs are potentially important sources of food and income for poor people in many parts of the developing world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smallness makes for nimble and self-sufficient pigs, in contrast to large, lethargic breeds. Small breeds are easier to manage and cheaper to maintain; the threat of injury from angry or frightened animals is lessened; and the sows are less likely to crush newborn piglets, often a major cause of mortality in large breeds. Some micropigs - particularly those from hot regions or wild populations - also have a higher resistance to heat, thirst, starvation, and some diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs adapt to a wide variety of management conditions, from scavenging to total confinement; some are even kept indoors.2 They gain weight quickly, mature rapidly, and help complement grazing livestock because they relish many otherwise unused wastes from kitchens, farms, and food industries, as well as other foods such as small roots, leafy trash, or bitter fruits that are not consumed by humans or ruminants. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For these reasons, micropigs could become useful household and village livestock in the developing world, and they deserve greater attention than they now receive. Although their growth may not be as rapid as that of improved breeds raised under intensive commercial production, with modest care and minimum investment, backyard micropigs can produce sizable yields of meat and other products, as well as improved income for rural and even urban populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, especially in warm, humid areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like full-sized breeds, micropigs are stout-bodied, short-legged animals with small tails and flexible snouts ending in flat discs. Examples of some micropigs are listed at the end of the chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic pigs are found all over the world, but their concentrations vary greatly. Africa has the fewest per capita, but in recent years they have gained increasing favor in the sub-Saharan regions. In Latin America, pigs have long been a major component of backyard agriculture. In the Middle East, an early center of domestication, pigs are not widely kept today because of religious dietary restrictions. In the Ear East, they are the major meat source, and China has more pigs than any other country. And in the Pacific region, pigs and chickens are often the only meat available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are becoming more popular: their worldwide numbers increased by about 20 percent in the 1970s. However, in most countries commercial pig production has focused on a mere handful of breeds, and much genetic diversity is unstudied or even threatened with extinction. Some microbreeds have already been lost, and others are dwindling in numbers.3 Many European breeds have been completely lost. The Cuino and some other Latin American criollo types are threatened, as are most of Africa's traditional breeds. China, however, has made notable efforts to preserve its native types. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although, as previously noted, pigs are found all over the world, they are in general adapted to warm, humid climates where many other livestock species are more susceptible to diseases and environmental stresses. They are also raised at high altitudes, such as in the Andes and Tibet. Although there are few climatic limitations to pig production, only about 20 percent of the world's pigs are currently kept in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are omnivores, willing and able to eat almost anything.4 Unlike most other livestock, they eat their fill and sleep as the food digests, allowing humans to establish a convenient eating and sleeping schedule.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are prolific; a few Chinese breeds routinely have litters of 20 or more. Micropigs are no exception; litters of 6-10 are common. Piglets gain weight rapidly and can be weaned after a few weeks. Sexual maturity is sometimes attained as early as 4-6 months, depending on breed and environment. Pigs are usually slaughtered at 67 months of age, allowing them to be produced on an annual cycle. They can live 10-20 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their smaller size, micropigs have a relatively greater skin-to-weight ratio than today's commercial breeds, and therefore they probably shed heat more effectively. Certainly they seem to perform better in tropical heat and humidity, which normally keep the heavier types from reaching their maximum productivity. Studies have suggested that an optimal size for some tropical environments - because of metabolic and feed efficiency - may be less than 65 kg.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are social animals; they enjoy companionship and ferociously defend their young and sometimes even the humans who care for them. They are employed as guard animals in some areas and have been used extensively in behavioral research.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contrary to common belief, pigs are clean and tidy if provided adequate space. Larger breeds, however, wallow in mud to stay cool in hot weather and require a wallow or shade (except for some Latin American types, which seem less susceptible to heat). Some lightcolored pigs sunburn easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs will dig up earth with their mobile snouts; some breeds do it constantly. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fresh pork is the major pig product in tropical areas. It usually fetches premium prices, and in many places (such as the Pacific Islands and China) it is the most important red meat available to rural people. Nutritious and tasty, it is one of the easiest meats to preserve, needing only salt or melted fat. Processed products such as bacon and sausages can be important for both home consumption and cash sales.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig fat (lard) is a good source of food energy, and can substitute for cooking fats and oils. It is easily melted and clarified, is widely used to make soap, and is a valuable commercial product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig skin, once degreased, is easily tanned into leathers that are popular for garments, shoes, and other products demanding soft, light, and flexible leathers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig manure is a good fertilizer. Because the animals are often kept in confinement, it can be easily collected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many places, pigs are kept as free-roaming scavengers. They can be trained (by coaxing with feed, salt, or affection) to keep close to home, thereby helping to minimize destructive scavenging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Herding is a higher level of management that requires more effort, but it allows pigs to be integrated into other types of agriculture while utilizing feeds that otherwise go to waste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because their exercise needs are minimal and dominance is quickly established within litters, pigs are the easiest hoofed livestock to raise in small enclosures (sties). However, fencing must be secure, and if sties are small, the animals must be moved frequently to prevent diseases and parasites from building up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are well-known, often traditional, animals in many areas, and people usually do not have to be taught how to manage and use them. Efficient scavengers, they can live, grow, and reproduce with a minimum of investment or specialized care. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are highly efficient converters of feed to meat. They can provide the greatest return for the least investment of any hoofed livestock because of their fecundity, low management costs, broad food preferences, and rapid growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs normally accumulate fat during adolescent growth (making ''finishing" feeds less necessary). Some micropigs (especially those from feral ancestors) have the ability to quickly mobilize and store these body-fat reserves; in times of extreme scarcity, it aids their survival.6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs work well in multiple-cropping schemes. They are often used to help clear small plots by uprooting weeds, shrubs, and even small trees. In Southeast Asia, they are frequently raised in conjunction with aquaculture, their manure providing food for the fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If improperly managed or maintained in filthy conditions, pigs may quickly succumb to disease and parasite epidemics. Most diseases are communicated only among pigs, but some can be transmitted to humans. For this reason, pork should always be fully cooked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some cultures never eat pork. Others do, but nonetheless accord pigs and their keepers low status.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young pigs are vulnerable to many predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major survey of small pig breeds is needed. They have the potential to be valuable producers in their own right, as well as to improve other pig breeds. For instance, they represent a little-known reservoir of disease resistance and climatic adaptation. Governments, research stations, universities, and individuals should make special efforts to preserve types that have outstanding or unusual qualities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When it is necessary to eradicate feral pig populations (as is common on Pacific islands), representative stocks should be preserved. These rugged animals have been genetically isolated for decades or even centuries and are likely to carry valuable traits for survival under adversity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large breeds may be promising candidates for genetic "downsizing," which has already produced the many types of miniature pigs that are used in medical research. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE LITTLEST PIG</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although this chapter highlights the world's smallest breeds, there exists a pig that is even smaller. It is, however, an entirely different species and it is on the brink of extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog (Sus salvanius) is a shy and retiring wild creature of northeastern India. It is merely 60 cm long with a shoulder height of 25 cm, and weighs less than 10 kg. It was once found widely along the southern foothills of the Himalayas. Today, however, it apparently occurs in only one area, the Manas National Park in Assam. Despite this protection and the fact that it is listed among the 12 most endangered species on earth, it still falls victim to hunters and to habitat destruction - especially illegal grass fires.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If saved from extinction, this minute species - barely reaching a person's calf - might become useful throughout the world. Its chromosome number is the same as that of the common pig and its physiological processes are probably also similar. Therefore, were its numbers to be built up, it might become a valued and well-known resource for laboratories and small farms. Its daily food intake and its space requirements are only a fraction of a normal pig's. It probably has exceptional tolerance to heat, humidity, and disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not a domesticated species, and there is therefore much to learn before its usefulness can be clearly seen. Indeed, whether it can be reared in captivity is uncertain. Some attempts have ended in disaster, but this seems to have been the result of mismanagement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before there is any possibility of developing it, however, the pigmy hog must be preserved from ultimate loss. The last specimen could go into a villager's pot at any time now. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g006a.png"></center><br>
+ Adult male of the common pig (wild boar) and pigmy hog draw to same scale. (W.L.R. OLIVER)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MICROPIGS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African Dwarf (Nigerian Black, Ashanti)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West Africa. Mature weights of 25-45 kg are reported. In the humid lowland forests of West Africa this breed has long been kept by villagers, often as a scavenger. Indigenous to the hot, humid tsetse zones of West Africa, it seems resistant to trypanosomiasis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chinese Dwarfs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China (and Southeast Asian countries such as Vietnam) has long had small pigs - often characterized by numerous teats and large litters - associated with traditional intensive agriculture as well as scavenging conditions. Some Chinese pigs weighing less than 70 kg are adapted to tropical and subtropical conditions, but the smallest (20-35 kg) live in the cold climates and high altitudes of Gansu, Sichuan, and Tibet. Small black Chinese pigs were crossed with European types in the early 1800s and produced the foundation stock of many modern Western breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are a number of "native" breeds throughout Latin America commonly known as "criollo." Many are quite small. Although, apparently, they are slow to mature and bear small litters, they adapt well to environmental extremes and are widely kept by rural inhabitants for food and income. Criollos are little studied and are being replaced by imported breeds before their possibly outstanding qualities can be quantified.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cuino This micropig from the highlands of central Mexico may be descended from small Chinese types and is the smallest domestic pig, weighing as little as 10-12 kg fully grown. Hardy and an efficient scavenger, it can grow quickly when feed - especially corn - is abundant. A century ago the cuing was a widespread household animal and was used for a time for experimental work in central Mexico. It is now little known and could be threatened with extinction. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Hairless (felon, Tubasqueno, Birish) These small pigs of central and northern South America survive in hot, humid, adverse climates. They are adapted to bulkier feeds than most pigs and can thrive on fruit wastes. Many local types exist. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nilo (Macao, Tatu, Canastrinha) This small, widespread, black, hairless pig of Brazil is often kept inside the house. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yucatan Miniature Swine A subtype of the black hairless from Mexico's hot, arid Yucatan Peninsula, it was imported into the United States in 1960. It has been downsized for laboratory use in the United States and is known as the Yucatan Micropig (registered). Weight at sexual maturity has been lowered through selective breeding from 75 kg to, currently, between 30 and 50 kg, with an ultimate goal of 20-25 kg. There is no evidence of "dwarfism," stunting, or loss of reproductive performance, and it appears to hold notable promise as microlivestock for developing countries. The parent stock, used for meat and lard production in Yucatan, is renowned for gentleness, intelligence, resistance to disease, and relative lack of odor. Exceptional docility, even in older boars and sows with litters, makes them easy to handle without the need for specialized housing or equipment.7 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Laboratory Breeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other miniature laboratory pigs have potential for tropical use. These include the Goettingen, Hanford, Kangaroo Island, Ohmini, Pitman-Moore, and Sinclair (Hormel). In general they weigh 30-50 kg when ready for slaughter and mature at less than 70 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ossabaw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States. 20-30 kg. Feral on Ossabaw Island, South Carolina, for more than 300 years, this pig is well adapted to environmental extremes. Unlike most domestic animals, it can maintain itself in coastal salt marshes. It has perhaps the highest percentage of fat of any pig. The piglets are very precocious, self-reliant, and robust.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kunekune (Pua'a, Poaka)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Zealand. Female 40 kg; male 50 kg. Perhaps of Chinese origin, these black-and-white spotted pigs are docile, slow, and easy to contain. Although late maturing, they can fatten on grass alone. Like other native breeds throughout the Pacific region (for example, the Pauta of Hawaii), stock is being lost through crossbreeding, displacement by other breeds, and eradication efforts. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To find certain disease-resistant genes in poultry it may be necessary to go looking in the backyard chicken flocks in Latin America, Africa, or Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kelly Klober</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small Farmer's Journal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. . . Policies are needed to encourage development of a labor-intensive small-scale livestock sector, which would increase employment and provide a major market for surplus cereals. This sector, however, is particularly restrained by poor technology, poor public support services, and poor marketing channels. Third World livestock production of this type could provide a natural focus for foreign assistance that earlier seemed inappropriate because of concerns about global food scarcity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John W. Mellor International Food Policy Research Institute</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Successful development of agriculture often requires an intimate understanding of the society within which it is to take place - of its systems of values, of its customary restraints.... It has been necessary to understand what incentives the farmer needs to change, what practical difficulties he encounters introducing change, what his traditional pattern of land use is and how this pattern or system can be upset by thoughtless innovation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John de Wilde</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experience with Agricultural Development in Tropical Africa </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part II : Poultry</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g007a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens, ducks, muscovies, geese, guinea fowl, quail, pigeons, and turkeys epitomize the concept of microlivestock. Throughout Africa, Asia, and Latin America they are (collectively) the most common of all farm stock. In many - perhaps most - tropical countries, practically every family, settled or nomadic, owns some kind of poultry. In the countryside, in villages, even in cities, one or another species is seen almost everywhere; in some places, several may be seen together. Although raised in all levels of husbandry, these birds occur most often in scattered household flocks that scavenge for their food and survive with little care or management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their size bestows microlivestock advantages, including low capital cost, low food requirements, and little or no labor requirements. They are also "family sized": easily killed and dressed, with little waste or spoilage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These poultry species help meet the protein needs of the poorest people in the world. Some are raised even in areas where domestic cattle cannot survive because of afflictions such as trypanosomiasis and foot-and-mouth disease. Some are maintained under conditions of intensive confinement - provided a source of feed is available - and can be produced in areas with insufficient land for other meat-producing animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, these birds grow quickly and mature rapidly. (For instance, a chicken can, under proper conditions, reach maturity in 26 months.) They adapt readily to being fenced or penned much, or all, of the time. And, compared with the major farm livestock, their life cycles are short and their production of offspring is high. Thus, farmers can synchronize production to match seasonal changes in the availability of feed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although poultry contribute substantially to human nutrition in the tropics, it is a small fraction of what it could be. The meat is widely consumed and is in constant demand. An excellent source of protein, it also provides minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, and iron, as well as the B-complex vitamins riboflavin, thiamine, and niacin. Nutritionally as complete as red meat, it is much lower in cholesterol and saturated fats. Poultry eggs are also important sources of nutrients. They are a renewable resource, easy to prepare, and are among the best sources of quality protein and vitamins (except vitamin C).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In spite of their numbers and potential, poultry are rarely accorded primary consideration in economic development activities. All in all, these small birds lack the appeal of large, four-legged livestock. Indeed, most countries have little knowledge of the contribution household birds actually make to the well-being and diets of their peoples. In some countries - even those where birds are widely kept - there is little or no poultry research or extension. And where such programs do exist they usually focus almost exclusively on the production of chickens under "industrial" conditions near cities (see sidebar, page 75).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most developing countries now have these intensive chicken industries, in which birds are kept in complete confinement. However, these commercial operations provide food for people in the cash economy, not for subsistence farmers. Moreover, grain is sometimes diverted or imported to maintain these operations, perhaps causing food shortages, higher prices, or depleted foreign exchange. Thus, in this section we focus on other, neglected, aspects of poultry production.,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The neglect of poultry that scavenge around the rural farmhouses and in village yards is understandable. The birds are scattered across the countryside where extension programs are difficult to implement. Their presence is often so ingrained in traditional village life that they are taken for granted and ignored by the authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet village poultry deserve greater attention. As converters of vegetation into animal protein, poultry can be outstanding. In fact, it is estimated that, in terms of feed conversion, eggs rank with cow's milk as the most economically produced animal protein, and that poultry meat ranks above that of other domestic animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most Third World poultry flocks live a wary, half-wild existence, scrounging for insects, earthworms, snails, seeds, leaves, and leftovers from the human diet. From dung and refuse piles they salvage undigested grains, as well as insects and other invertebrates. Often the persons who care for them are women or children. Some keep the birds around the house, penning them at night for protection from predators and thieves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This almost zero-cost production has, in spite of high losses, a remarkable rate of return. Any improvements that require the purchase of supplies cut severely into the profitability. The first step in improving the production of free-ranging poultry is vaccination against diseases (especially Newcastle disease, fowl pox, and Marek's disease) and a modest, supplemental feeding during times of seasonal scarcity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE INDUSTRIAL CHICKEN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout modem livestock farming the trend is toward more intensive methods, and poultry specialists have set the pace. In many countries, since the 1920s, barnyard fowl have given way to egg and broiler factories. The old-fashioned chicken reared outside on corn stubbles for 5 or 6 months has been replaced by the broiler, mass-produced in controlled environment houses in 7 - 10 weeks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a result of this revolution in poultry raising, small farmers who once made a comfortable living from a few laying hens have been forced out of business. These economic changes have also forced poultry men to have larger and larger flocks to survive. The largest broiler-chicken companies even control their own breed development, feed production, house construction, slaughtering, and freezing, many even have wholesale outlets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rapid changes in poultry farming methods can be attributed to the application of advanced technology. The development of the incubator to replace the mother hen sitting her seasonal clutch of eggs was the first mayor step toward intensive poultry farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, chickens were the first livestock to receive serious attention from geneticists. Before World War II, it was discovered that crossbreeding selected pure and inbred lines could result in dramatic increases in production. Hybrids tailor-made for egg or meat production quickly ousted the old pure breeds such as the Rhode Island Red White and Brown Leghorns, Light Sussex, and the various crosses among them. Chicken broilers made by crosses involving parents derived from Cornish and Plymouth Rock have supplanted all others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This situation now prevails in most industrialized countries. The breeding of commercial stocks is in the hands of a few corporations for each commodity (white eggs, brown eggs, chicken broilers, turkeys) and each has national or even global distribution of its hybrid stocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A BREAKTHROUGH IN POULTRY HEALTH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newcastle disease is endemic in developing countries and is a constant threat to poultry. Farmers dread this virus, first identified half a century ago in northern England that brings diarrhea, paralysis, and death to most poultry. It is severe, highly contagious, and can cause 100 percent mortality. When it strikes an area, farmers must kill all chickens - even healthy ones - to stop it from spreading.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only Australia, New Zealand, Northern Ireland and some Pacific islands are unaffected. But, although the disease is not found in Australia, certain strains of the virus are present in Australian chickens. These strains are completely harmless, but Australian researchers have found that they induce antibodies that are effective against Newcastle disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a joint project (funded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research), scientists from Malaysia's University of Agriculture and Australia's University of Queensland* have put this to good use. They have produced a live culture of the harmless virus that farmers can spray onto feed pellets to vaccinate their birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Field tests of the new vaccine, carried out in Southeast Asia, have been extremely promising. Simply coating feeds with the virus seems to be enough to immunize some chickens, which then pass the immunity on to the others in the flock as well as to new hatchlings. In Malaysia, which has 49 million chickens and a population willing to pay a premium for tasty village poultry meat, one economist estimates that the vaccine might increase rural incomes by 25 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conventional vaccines must be stored under refrigerated conditions, which most villages lack. But the Malaysian workers made the Newcastle disease vaccine tolerant of heat. By selective breeding, they now have strains that resist 56&Yacute;C for at least 2 hours. Thus, even in the tropics, the vaccine remains effective for several weeks without refrigeration. The researchers have also devised methods for coating the vaccine onto pelleted feeds. Because the virus can withstand heat, they use a machine designed for coating pharmaceutical tablets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At this stage, the project is showing every promise of producing a cheap means of reducing Newcastle disease losses among chickens throughout much of the world. Already inquiries have come from other Asian countries and from Africa, and it is hoped that the vaccine may eventually benefit many countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">5 Chicken</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g008a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens (Gallus gallus or Gallus domesticus)1 are the world's  major source of eggs and are a meat source that supports a food  industry in virtually every country. There may be as many as 6.5 billion  chickens, the equivalent of 1.4 birds for every person on earth.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No other domesticated animal has enjoyed such universal acceptance,  and these birds are the prime example of the importance of  microlivestock. Kept throughout the Third World, they are one of the  least expensive and most efficient producers of animal protein.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To the world's poor, chickens are probably the most nutritionally  important livestock species. For instance, in Mauritius and Nigeria more  than 70 percent of rural households keep scavenger chickens. In  Swaziland, more than 95 percent of rural households own chickens,  most of them scavengers. In Thailand, where commercial poultry  production is highly developed, 80-90 percent of rural households still  keep chickens in backyards and under houses. And in other developing  countries from Pakistan to Peru, a similar situation prevails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clearly, these chickens should be given far more attention. They  represent an animal and a production system with remarkable qualities;  they compete little with humans for food; they produce meat at low  cost; and they provide a critical nutritional resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scavenger chickens are usually self-reliant, hardy birds capable of  withstanding the abuses of harsh climate, minimal management, and inadequate nutrition. They live largely on weed seeds, insects, and feeds that would otherwise go to waste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, however, quantitative information about the backyard chicken is hard to obtain. Few countries have any knowledge of its actual contribution to the well-being and diet of their people. Notably lacking is an understanding of the factors limiting egg production, which is markedly low and perhaps could be raised dramatically with modest effort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are so well known and ubiquitous that they need no further description. Varying in color from white through many shades of brown to black, they range in size from small bantams of less than 1 kg to giant breeds weighing 5 kg or more. Scavenger chickens tend to weigh about I kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The indigenous chickens of Asia are probably descended directly from the wild junglefowl. Those of West Africa are believed descended from European birds brought by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century; those of Latin America probably descend from Spanish birds introduced soon after the time of Columbus.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p81a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All countries have chickens in large numbers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are not endangered, but industrial stocks are replacing traditional breeds to such an extent that much potentially valuable genetic heritage is disappearing. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although chickens derive from tropical species, they adapt to a wide  variety of environments. The modern Leghorn, for example, is found  from the hot plains of India to the frozen tundra of Siberia, and from  sea level to altitudes above 4,000 m in the Andes. (There are, however,  hatching problems at such high altitudes because of oxygen deficiency.)  They also occur in desert countries such as Saudi Arabia, which has a  vast poultry industry and even exports broilers. (However, the birds  need shade and a lot of water where it is hot and dry.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are omnivorous, living on seeds, insects, worms, leaves,  green grass, and kitchen scraps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A commercial bird may produce 280 eggs annually, but a scavenger  may produce close to none. Commonly, a farmyard hen lays a dozen  eggs, takes three weeks to hatch out a brood of chicks, stays with the  chicks six weeks or more, and only then starts laying again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Egg production depends on daylength. For the highest production  rate, at least 12 hours of daylight are needed. The incubation period is  21 days. A hen can begin laying at 5 months of age or even earlier, but  in scavengers it may be much later. The average weight of the eggs is  approximately 55 g from industrial layers and approximately 40 g from  scavengers. Hatching success from breeder flocks often exceeds 90  percent. Industrial broilers can be marketed as early as 6 weeks, when  they are called "Cornish hens."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These passive, gregarious birds have a pronounced social (pecking)  order. If acclimated, they remain on the premises and are unlikely to go  feral. If given a little evening meal of "scratch," they learn to come  home to roost at night.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens have multiple uses. They were probably first used for cock  fighting; later they were used in religious rituals, and only much later  were raised for eggs and meat. Today, chickens can provide a family  with eggs, meat, feathers, and sometimes cash.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In different parts of the world, people keep scavenging chickens in  different ways. The managers are often women and children because  they have more time to spend at home to feed the birds and repel  predators. Some people leave the birds entirely to their own devices.  Many house them at night. Others take the birds each day to the fields,  where they may find much more food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many ingenious local practices. In Ghana, for example,  farmers "culture" termites for poultry by placing a moist piece of cow  dung (under a tin) over a known termite nest. The termites burrow into  the dung, and some can then be fed to the chickens each day. Because  termites digest cellulose, this system converts waste vegetation into  meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A ratio of 1 male to 10-15 females is adequate for barnyard flocks.  Hens will lay eggs in the absence of a rooster - but of course the rooster  is needed if fertile eggs are wanted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Removing chicks stimulates the hen to lay more eggs. This results in  more chicks being hatched, but it requires that the chicks be nurtured  and fed until they are old enough to fend for themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are everywhere; every culture knows them and how to  husband them. They have been utilized for so many centuries that in  most societies their use is ingrained. Unlike the case with pork and beef,  there are few strictures against eating chicken meat or eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat is high in quality protein, low in fat, and easily prepared. In  many countries, the village chicken's meat is preferred to that of  commercial broilers because it has better texture and stronger flavor.  Even in countries with vast poultry industries there is a growing demand  for the tasty, "organically grown," free-ranging chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are more suited to "urban farming" than most types of  livestock and can be raised in many city situations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds are conveniently sized, easily transported alive, and, by and  large, do not transmit diseases to humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout Asia, Africa, and Latin America, the problems of village  chickens are mainly those discussed below.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High Hatching Mortality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commonly, a hatch of eight or nine village chicks results in only two  or three live birds after a few days. A survey in Nigeria, for instance,  showed that 80 percent died before the age of eight weeks. Losses  elsewhere are known to be similar. This is mostly because of starvation,  cold, dehydration, predators (hawks, kites, snakes, dogs, and cats, for  example), diseases, parasites, accidents, and simply getting lost - all of  which can be prevented without great effort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chronic and Acute Disease</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry diseases can become epidemic in the villages because there  are few if any veterinarians. Newcastle disease, fowlpox, pullorum  disease, and coccidiosis, for example - all of which are endemic in the  Third World - can destroy the entire chicken population over large  areas. Lice and other parasites are also prevalent. Scavengers and  industrial birds seem to show no differences in their tolerance for such  diseases and parasites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Low Egg Production</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey in Nigeria showed that the annual production per hen was  merely 20 eggs. Such low production is common throughout the Third  World and is caused by a combination of low genetic potential,  inadequate nutrition, and poor management. Villagers rarely provide nest  boxes or laying areas, so that some eggs are just not found. Some birds  have high levels of broodiness, and eggs accumulating in a nest  stimulates this. There are indications, however, that some village  chickens (for example, some in China) have quite substantial egg-laying  potential when provided with adequate feed.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Low Egg Consumption</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the tropics, many people choose not to eat eggs. Often this is  because eggs are the source of the next generation of chickens;  sometimes it is because of superstition. Further, eggs do not keep well  because most are fertile and, exposed to constant tropical heat, undergo  rapid embryo development.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crop Damage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often necessary to confine the birds to protect young crops or  vegetable gardens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike the situation with small cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs, there are  few named and recognized breeds of Third World chickens. Yet, nearly  every country has at least one kind of village chicken. These have  survived there for centuries and are highly adapted to local conditions.  In village projects, these unnamed chickens deserve priority attention  before other types are sought from elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Generally speaking, improving the production of scavenging poultry  does not require sophisticated research. Instead, simple precautions are  sufficient. These are discussed below.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Disease Control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At a national or regional level, the initial approach to increasing  chicken production in tropical areas should be disease control. There are  several outstanding instances of success in this endeavor. For example,  the spectacular rise of poultry production in Singapore (from 250,000  birds in 1949 to 20 million in 1957) followed the control of Ranikhet  disease. Village flock-health programs, carried out regularly by visiting  veterinarians ("barefoot veterinarians"), might be the answer to some of  the routine health problems. Today, a prime target should be Newcastle  disease, for which there are good chances for success (see page 76).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first step in chicken production at the farm level is improved  management. With more care and attention, mortality can be greatly  reduced. Because incubating and brooding hens must spend the night on  the ground, they are extremely vulnerable. Even modest predator  controls can be highly beneficial. Building crude and inexpensive nest  boxes and constructing a simple holding area around them can  substantially raise production by ensuring that more chicks survive.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE CHICKEN'S WILD ANCESTOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although little known to most people, the red junglefowl has  contributed more to every nation than any other wild bird. It is  the ancestor of the chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given its descendants importance worldwide, the neglect of  this bird is baffling. If the cow's wild ancestor, the aurochs, had  not become extinct in the 1600s, it would now be worth millions  of dollars as the ultimate source of cattle genetic diversity. Yet  the world's chicken industry remains virtually unaware of the  origin of its source of livelihood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the aurochs, the red junglefowl has a wealth of wild  genes, and it deserves more recognition and protection. For one  thing the modern chicken - selectively bred in the temperate  zone - is highly susceptible to heat and humidity; the junglefowl,  on the other hand, is not. It inhabits the warmest and most humid  parts of Asia: Sri Lanka, India, Burma, Thailand, and most of  Southeast Asia. It may also be resistant to various chicken  diseases and pests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not a rare species. Throughout the wide crescent  stretching from Pakistan to Indonesia, junglefowls are still seen  in the wild, especially in forest clearings and lowland scrub.  Although they are a prized bag for hunters, they survive by fast  running and agile flying. They are sometimes sold in village  markets, but can easily be mistaken for domesticated chickens,  which in this region are often very similar. The wild junglefowl,  however, has feathered legs, a down-curving tail, and an overall  scragginess.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Junglefowls should be under intensive study. They are easy to  rear in captivity and do well in pens, even small ones, as long as  they are sheltered from rain and wind. One drawback is their  craze for scratching unless provided plenty of space they  promptly tear up all grass and dirt. Another is that junglecocks  are violent fighters and must be kept apart. (Cockfighting is  probably a major reason why they were initially selected, and  thus their aggressiveness is perhaps the reason we have the  chicken today.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These highly adaptable creatures live in a variety of habitats,  from sea level to 2,000 m. Most, however, are found in and  around damp forests, secondary growth, dry scrub, bamboo  groves, and small woods near farms and villages. They are  amazingly clever at evading capture and thrive wherever there is  some cover.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other junglefowl species might also provide useful poultry.  They, too, can be raised in captivity with comparative ease, as  long as the cocks are kept apart. Perhaps they might be tamed with imprinting and could prove useful as domestic fowl,  especially in marginal habitats. They are everywhere considered  culinary luxuries and their meat commands premium prices.  Moreover, several have colorful feathers, giving them additional  commercial value. These other species are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- La Fayette's Junglefowl (Gallus lafayettei). Avery attractive  bird of Sri Lanka, it is little known in captivity, and only in the  United States are there any number in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gray or Sonnerat's Junglefowl (Gallus sonnerati). A native  of India, this colorful bird produces feathers that are used in  tying the most prized trout and salmon flies. Demand is so great  that certain populations have declined, and since 1968 India has  banned all export of birds or feathers. Nonetheless, there are  several hundred in captivity in various countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Green Junglefowl (Gallus varius). This is yet another striking  bird. The cock has metallic, greenish-black feathering set off by  a comb that merges from brilliant green at the base to bright  purple and red at the top. Native to Java, Bali, and the  neighboring Indonesian islands as far out as Timor, it is found  particularly near rice paddies and rocky coasts. This species, too,  can be raised without great difficulty, and there are at least 90 in  captivity in various parts of the world.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving poultry nutrition is also of prime importance. There are no quantitative data on the quality of a scavenging chicken's diet. Surveys are badly needed so that appropriate, low-cost supplements can be devised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chances are that the diet for chicks of scavenging poultry is almost always deficient in available energy. Minimal supplementation in the form of cereals or energy-rich by-products can greatly improve both egg and meat production. However, caution must always be exercised and the supplements given only to chicks. Overfed adults will give up scavenging and stay around the owner's house, without really producing much more meat or eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetic Improvement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it seems attractive to replace the scrawny village chicken with bigger, faster-growing imported breeds, it is a process fraught with difficulty. Exotic breeds lack the ability to tolerate the rigors of mismanagement and environmental stress. Many cannot avoid predators, as a result either of being overweight or of having a poor conformation for flight. The local birds, however, probably have a genetic potential that is much higher than can be expressed in the constraining environment. Thus, the environmental constraints should be tackled first.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, the village birds may have a feed-conversion efficiency that is far less than ideal because they are adapted to a scavenging existence. Modern breeds imported into Ghana, for instance, showed a feed-conversion efficiency of less that 3.5:1 (weight of food eaten: growth and eggs), but the local birds had efficiencies of 11:1.4 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need for preserving genetic variability is greater in poultry, especially in chickens, than in any other form of domestic animal. North America, for instance, which years ago had 50 or more common breeds, now relies on only 2 for meat production, and the others have been largely lost. Conservation of germplasm has become a matter of serious concern, and the saving of rare breeds in domestic fowl should not be delayed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE SOUTH AMERICAN CHICKEN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Early European explorers of South America were surprised to discover an abundance of unusual chickens that laid colored eggs and had feathers resembling earrings on the side of the head. While the origin of this bird - commonly called the araucanian chicken and classified as Gallus inauris - is debatable, scientists generally agree that it is pre-Columbian. There is archeological evidence that this bird is native to the Americas. It is reported to have occurred in Chile, Ecuador, Bolivia, Costa Rica, Peru, and Easter Island. It still occurs in the wild in southern Chile and on Easter Island.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The araucanian has been called the "Easter-egg chicken" because it lays light green, light blue, and olive colored eggs. It lays well and has a delicious meat. In areas such as southern Chile the eggs are preferred over those of normal chickens because of their flavor and dark yellow yolk. This unusual bird has a high degree of variability; however, specimens of similar genetic background have been grouped to create "breeds" such as the White Araucanian, Black Araucanian, and Barred Araucanian. These are homozygotes and breed true.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The araucanian has been the subject of much public interest,. clubs dedicated to its preservation have been formed in the United States, Great Britain, and Chile. Its possible exploitation as a backyard microlivestock deserves serious consideration. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">6 Ducks</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g009a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos)1 are well known, but still have much unrealized promise for subsistence-level production. Although a major resource of Asia, where there is approximately one duck per 20 inhabitants, they are not so intensively used elsewhere. On a worldwide basis, for instance, they are of minor importance compared with chickens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is unfortunate because ducks are easy to keep, adapt readily to a wide range of conditions (including small-farm culture), and require little investment. They are also easily managed under village conditions, particularly if a waterway is nearby, and appear to be more resistant to diseases and more adept at foraging than chickens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, the products from ducks are in constant demand. Some breeds yield more eggs than the domestic chicken. And duck meat always sells at premium. A few recently created breeds (notably some in Taiwan) have much lower levels of fat than the traditional farm duck. This development could open up vast new markets for duck meat, especially in wealthy countries, where consumers are both concerned over fat in their diet and eager for alternatives to chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks are also efficient at converting waste resources - insects, weeds, aquatic plants, and fallen seeds, for instance - into meat and eggs. Indeed, they are among the most efficient of all food producers. Raised in confinement, ducks can convert 2.4-2.6 kg of concentrated feed into I kg of weight gain. The only domestic animal that has better feed conversion is the broiler chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raised as village birds and allowed to forage for themselves, ducks become less productive but become even more cost effective because much of the food they scavenge has no monetary value. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several distinctive types have been developed in various regions. Most have lost the ability to fly any distance, but they retain a characteristic boatlike posture and a labored, waddling walk. The Indian Runner, however, has an almost erect stance that permits it to walk and run with apparent ease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic ducks range in body size from the diminutive Call, weighing less than I kg, to the largest meat strains (Pekin, Rouen, and Aylesbury, for example) weighing as much as 4.5 kg. For intensive conditions, the Pekin is the most popular meat breed around the world. In confinement it grows rapidly - weighing 2.5-3 kg at a market age of 78 weeks. In addition, it is hardy, does not fly, lays well, and produces good quality (but somewhat fatty) meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Khaki Campbell breed is an outstanding egg producer, some individuals laying more than 300 eggs per bird per year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Taiwan Tsaiya (layer duck) is also a particularly efficient breed. It weighs 1.2 kg at maturity, starts laying at 120-140 days, and can produce 260-290 eggs a year. Its small body size, large egg weight, and phenomenal egg production make Brown Tsaiya the main breed for egg consumption in Taiwan. More than 2.5 million Brown Tsaiya ducks are raised annually for egg production.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domestic duck is distributed throughout the world; however, its greatest economic importance is in Southeast Asia, particularly in the wetland-rice areas. For example, about 28 percent of Taiwan's poultry are- ducks. In parts of Asia, some domestic flocks have as many as 20,000 birds. One farm near Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, rears 40,000 ducks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although ducks are abundant, some Western breeds are becoming rare. Indigenous types are little known outside their home countries and have received little study, so their status is uncertain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These adaptable creatures thrive in hot, humid climates. However, during torrid weather they must have access to shade, drinking water, and bathing water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks are well adapted to rivers, canals, lakes, ponds, marshes, and other aquatic locations. Moreover, they can be raised successfully in estuarine areas. Most ocean bays and inlets teem with plant and animal life that ducks relish, but (unlike wild sea ducks) domestic breeds have a low physiological tolerance for salt and must be supplied with fresh drinking water. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks search for food underwater, sieve organic matter from mud, root out morsels underground, and sometimes catch insects in the air. Their natural diet is normally about 90 percent vegetable matter (seeds, berries, fruits, nuts, bulbs, roots, succulent leaves, and grasses) and 10 percent animal matter (insects, snails, slugs, leeches, worms, eels, crustacea, and an occasional small fish or tadpole). They have little ability to utilize dietary fiber. Although they eat considerable quantities of tender grass, they are not true grazers (like geese), and don't eat coarse grasses and weeds at all. Sand and gravel is swallowed to serve as "grindstones" in the gizzard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When protected from accidents and predation, ducks live a surprisingly long time. It is not unusual for one to continue reproducing for up to 8 years, and there are reports of exceptional birds living more than 20 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite large differences in size, color, and appearance, all domestic breeds interbreed freely. Eggs normally take 28 days to incubate, brooding and rearing is performed solely by the female.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Depending on breed, a female may reach sexual maturity at about 20 weeks of age. Most begin laying at 20-26 weeks, but the best egg- laying varieties come into production at 16-18 weeks and lay profitably for 2 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is generally well known that ducks are shy, nervous, and seldom aggressive towards each other or humans. Skilled and enthusiastic swimmers from the day they hatch, they spend many hours each day bathing and frolicking in any available water. However, most breeds can be raised successfully without swimming water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although wild ducks normally pair off, domestic drakes will mate indiscriminately with any females in a flock. In intensively raised flocks, I male to 6 females, and in village flocks, 1 male for up to 25 females, results in good fertility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most domestic ducks, particularly the egg-laying strains, have little instinct to brood. If not confined, they will lay eggs wherever they happen to be - occasionally even while swimming. To facilitate egg collection, some keepers confine ducks until noon. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p96a.png"></center><br>
+ Figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a meat source, ducks have major advantages. Their growth rate is phenomenal during the first few weeks. (Acceptable market weights can be attained under intensive management with birds as young as 6-7 weeks of age.) Yet, even in older birds, the meat remains tender and palatable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eggs from many breeds are typically 20-35 percent larger than chicken eggs, weighing on average about 73 g. They are nutritious, have more fat and protein, and contain less water than hen's eggs. They are often used in cooking and make excellent custards and ice cream. Eggs incubated until just before the embryos form feathers produce a delicacy known as balut in the Philippines. Salted eggs are popular in China and Southeast Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feathers and down (an insulating undercoat of fine, fluffy feathers) are valuable by-products. Down is particularly sought as a filler for pillows, comforters, and winter clothing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks have a special fondness for mosquito and beetle larvae, grasshoppers, snails, slugs, and crustaceans, and therefore are effective pest control agents. China, in particular, uses ducks to reduce pests in rice fields.3 Its farmers also keep ducks to clear fields of scattered grain, to clear rice paddy banks of burrowing crabs, and to clear aquatic weeds and algae out of small lakes, ponds, and canals. This not only improves the conditions for aquaculture and agriculture, it also fattens the ducks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Southeast Asia, droving is a traditional form of duck husbandry, much as it was in medieval Europe. The birds are herded along slowly, foraging in fields or riverbanks as they march to market. The journey might cover hundreds of kilometers and take as long as six months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This process, however, is generally declining, and most ducks are raised under farm conditions where they scavenge for much of their feed. Throughout Southeast Asia, ducks have been integrated with aquaculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks can be raised on almost any kitchen wastes: vegetable trimmings, table scraps, garden leftovers, canning refuse, stale produce, and stale (but not moldy) baked goods. However, for top yields and quickest growth, protein-rich feeds are the key. Commercial duck farms rely on such things as fish scraps, grains, soybean meal, or coconut cake. Agricultural wastes such as sago chips, palm-kernel cake, and palm-oil sludge are being used in Malaysia.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks have a very high requirement for niacin (a B vitamin). If chicken rations are used, a plentiful supply of fresh greens must be provided to avoid "cowboy legs," a symptom of niacin deficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of all domestic animals, ducks are among the most versatile and useful and have multiple advantages, including:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Withstanding poor conditions;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Producing food efficiently;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Utilizing foodstuffs that normally go unharvested;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Helping to control pests; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Helping to fertilize the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also, they are readily herded (for instance, by children).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excellent foragers, they usually can find all their own food, getting by on only a minimum of supplements, if any. Raising them requires little work, and they provide farmers with food or an income from the sale of eggs, meat, and down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks can grow faster than broiler chickens if they have adequate nutrients. Like guinea fowl and geese, they are relatively resistant to disease. They also have a good tolerance to cold and, in most climates, don't need artificial heat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING NEW DUCKS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many species of ducks adapt readily to captivity; it is surprising, therefore, that only the mallard and the muscovy have been domesticated so far. Several wild tropical species seem especially worth exploring for possible future use in Third World farms, Because of the year-round tropical warmth, their instinct to migrate is either absent or unpronounced, and the heavy layer of fat (a feature of temperate-climate ducks that consumers in many countries consider a drawback) is lacking. Moreover, because of uniform daylength, they are ready to breed at any time of the year. Candidates for domestication as tropical ducks include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Whistling ducks (Dendrocygna species). These large, colorful, gooselike birds are noted for their beautiful, cheerful whistle.* They are long-necked perching ducks that are found throughout the tropics. By and large, they are gregarious, sedentary, vegetarian, and less arboreal than the muscovy - all positive traits for a poultry species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The black-bellied whistling duck (D. auturunalis) seems especially promising. It is common throughout tropical America (southwestern United States to northwestern Argentina) and is sometimes kept in semicaptivity. Occasionally, in the highlands of Guatemala, for instance, Indians sell young ones they have reared as pets. When hand reared, the birds can become very tame. * * They eat grain and other vegetation, require no swimming water, and will voluntarily use nest boxes. In the wild, they "dump" large numbers of eggs so that even if substantial numbers were removed for artificial hatching, the wild populations should not be affected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Greater wood ducks (Cairina species). The muscovy (C. moschata) was domesticated by South American Indians long before Europeans arrived (see page 124). Its counterparts in the forests of Southeast Asia and tropical Africa are, however, untried as domesticates. The white-winged wood duck (C. scutulata) is found from eastern India to Java. Hartlaub's duck (C. hartlaubi) occurs in forests and wooded savannas from Sierra Leone to Zaire. Both are rare in captivity, but might well prove to be future tropical resources. Both are strikingly similar to muscovies in size and habits, being large, phlegmatic, sedentary, and omnivorous. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Predators are the most important cause of losses in farm flocks. Ducks are almost incapable of defending themselves, and losses from dogs and poachers can be high. Locking them in at night both protects the birds and prevents eggs from being wastefully laid outside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks do suffer from some diseases, mainly those traceable to mismanagement such as poor diet, stagnant drinking water, moldy feed or bedding, or overcrowded and filthy conditions. Of all poultry, they are the most sensitive to aflatoxin, which usually comes from eating moldy feed. They are also susceptible to cholera (pasteurellosis) and botulism, either of which may wipe out entire flocks. Duck virus enteritis (duck plague) and duck virus hepatitis also can cause severe losses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If not carefully managed, ducks can become pests to some crops, especially cereals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, ducks tend to be extremely poor mothers and can be helped by using broody chicken hens or female muscovies as surrogate mothers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Major limitations to large-scale, intensive production are mud, smell, and noise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Defeathering ducks is much more difficult than defeathering chickens because of an abundance of small pinfeathers and down feathers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds already function so well that no fundamental research needs to be done. Nonetheless, there are a number of topics that could improve their production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, different types of low-cost systems need to be explored and developed. These must be low-input systems since cash is a limiting factor for most subsistence farmers. One possibility is the integration of duck and fish farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of all breeds is needed to determine their status and likelihood of extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One need in countries that already have ducks is to encourage the consumption of duck meat. Indonesia, for instance, has 25 million egg-producing ducks, but little duck meat is consumed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research on economically significant diseases is needed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">7 Geese</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g010a.png"></center><br>
+ Brown Chinese Geese</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although geese (Anser spp.) were one of the first domesticated animals, they have yet to receive the level of commercial or industrial exploitation of chickens or even ducks. Thus, their global potential is far greater than is generally recognized today.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic geese are easily managed and well suited to small-farm production; they are among the fastest growing avian species commonly raised for meat, and they have immediate application in many developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are especially appropriate for providing farmers a supplemental income. With little extra work they supply nutritious meat, huge eggs, and rich fat for cooking, as well as soft down and feathers for bedding and clothing. Moreover, their strident voices sound the alarm when strangers or predators approach. They are especially well suited to aquatic areas and marshy lands and are completely at home in warm shallow waterways. Nevertheless, they can thrive away from water. In fact, wherever pasture is available geese readily adapt to captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are grazers, and can be raised almost exclusively on pasture. They are excellent foragers, and on succulent grass can find most or all of their own food. With their powerful bills they pull up grasses and underwater plants and probe soil and water for roots, bulbs, and aquatic animals. Their long necks make them adept at gleaning weeds from hard-to-reach places - such as fence rows, ditches, and swampy areas that baffle larger livestock. They will also feast on vegetable trimmings, garden and table leftovers, canning refuse, and stale baked goods. Like other poultry, they pick up shattered grains of rice, wheat, barley, and other crops, which can reduce the bothersome problem of weeds volunteering in subsequent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are available worldwide. In most climates, they require little or no housing. Given reasonable care and protection from predators, mortality can be extremely low. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic geese come in an assortment of colors, sizes, and shapes. There are two main types, however. Descendants of the wild greylag goose (Anser anser) make up the domestic breeds common in North America and Europe, including the Embden, Toulouse, Pilgrim, American Buff, Pomeranian, Sebastopol, and Tufted Roman breeds. These are generally best suited to temperate climates. On the other hand, descendants of the wild "swan goose" (Anser cygnoides) make up the geese of Asia, including the Chinese and "African" types. These breeds seem better suited to hot climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to these, many European and Asian countries have their own local breeds and types, and there are even several wild species that show some potential for captive production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With their long legs and webbed toes, geese are equally at home walking or swimming. Avid walkers, they march long distances to find forage, but return home at dusk. Accomplished and graceful swimmers, geese are able to take to water soon after they hatch. Despite their large size, some domestic breeds - especially the leaner ones - have retained the ability to fly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are found worldwide, but goose farming is nationally important only in Asia and Central Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic geese are not threatened, although much local variation among the breeds is being lost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most geese adapt well to hot climates - as long as some shade is available. Their waterproof feathers help them adapt well to high rainfall regions. They also tolerate extreme cold. (For instance, in Canada, geese are wintered outdoors in subfreezing temperatures, with merely 'e simple shelter from wind.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For tropical developing countries, the Chinese type, which is widely kept in Southeast Asia, is especially promising. Smaller than most geese (although ganders can weigh over 5 kg), they are the best layers, the most active foragers (making them economical and useful as weeders), the most alert and "talkative," and they produce the leanest meat. Some European breeds, such as Embden and Toulouse, have also been used in the tropics with notable success. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING GEESE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Temperate Zones)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today's domestic geese are descended from two species: the greylag (Anser anser) and the swan goose (Anser cygnoides). These were domesticated in Europe and China, respectively. Their domestication occurred in ancient times, long before people knew about genetics, microorganisms, veterinary science, or behavior modifications such as imprinting. Today, armed with such knowledge, more geese may be amenable to domestication. Most of the 15 other wild species adapt to captivity. Compared to most birds, geese spend much time walking and swimming and are less inconvenienced by pinioning (removing the tip of the wing). Thus, they can be kept outdoors rather than in cages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both of the ancestors of today's domestic geese are native to the northern temperate zone. Two more wild species that might make useful domesticates are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Canada goose (Branta canadensis). North America. People feeding these birds in city parks and wildlife refuges are causing many local flocks to develop. These birds no longer migrate. They are increasing in numbers each year and are well on the way to de facto domestication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- American swan goose (Coscoroba coscoroba). Southern South America. Although most closely allied to swans in shape and physiology, this bird resembles a muscovy (see page 124) in size and behavior. Its calm disposition, as well as its attractive red feet and bill that accent its white plumage, have made it much sought as an ornament for parks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In its diet, the goose utilizes large quantities of tender forage. It can break down plant-cell walls and digest the contents. Although it has no crop for storing food, there is an enlargement at the end of the gullet that serves as a temporary storage organ. Sand and small gravel are swallowed to aid the gizzard in grinding hard seeds and fibrous grasses. Research has shown that geese can digest 15-20 percent of the fiber in their diet, which is 3-4 times the amount that other poultry species can digest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The natural diet consists of grasses, seeds, roots, bulbs, berries, and fruits, normally supplemented with a little animal matter (mainly insects and snails) picked up incidentally. Most feeding takes place on land. They characteristically feed for prolonged periods, even at night.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females may lay for 10 years or more. It is generally believed that reproduction is best in the second year and that it remains good until the fifth year. Geese outlive other types of poultry; life spans of 1520 years are common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The eggs incubate in 27-31 days. The incubation time is more variable than in most poultry species, perhaps because geese have not been subjected to the selection pressure that is imposed by artificial incubators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most intelligent birds, the goose has a good memory and does not quickly forget people, animals, or situations that have frightened it. While personalities and habits vary among individual specimens, there are common behavioral patterns, such as the pecking order, that allow individuals to live peaceably together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless conditions are crowded or there are too many males, geese normally live harmoniously both with themselves and with other creatures. The bond between male and female is strong. Changing mates is difficult, although most geese will eventually accept a new mate after a period of "mourning."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese nest on the ground and prefer the water's edge, but they adapt readily to man-made nesting boxes. The gander usually stands guard while the goose incubates the eggs. He then assists in rearing the goslings. Most geese become irritated if intruders approach their nest or goslings, and will even attack people and large dogs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As previously noted, these birds provide meat, eggs, fat, and down. The meat is lean, flavorful, and of outstanding quality. The fat accumulates between the skin and the flesh and can be rendered into a long-lasting oil. The eggs are large and taste much like chicken eggs. The "down" (the small, fluffy feathers that lie next to the body of adult birds) is the finest natural insulating material for clothing and bedding, and can fetch a premium price. Worldwide markets exist for both down and other goose feathers. In France, in particular, some geese are raised for their livers (foie gras).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese can control many types of aquatic weeds in shallow water as well as grass and some types of palatable broad-leaf weeds on the banks of lakes, ponds, and canals. They can also be used as ''lawn mowers" and "weeders" among cotton, fruit trees, and other crops (see sidebar).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Elongated necks not only allow geese to reach many different foods, they also help them keep a watchful eye on the surroundings. With their exceptional eyesight they can see great distances, and the position of the eyes gives them a wide field of vision. Geese are among the most alert of all animals, and strangers cannot calm them into silence. In the high Andes, in Southeast Asia, and in many other locations, they replace guard dogs. In Europe, they are used to guard whiskey warehouses and sensitive military installations (see page 111).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Methods of caring for adult geese vary according to climate, breed, and people's experiences and needs. Overall, however, the birds cause little trouble and require little expense. They range freely without restriction, feeding themselves and returning home of their own accord. They have strong flocking instincts and can readily be herded from one area to another.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like all young poultry, goslings are fragile. The highest mortality is caused by predators. Until the goslings are 6-10 weeks old, it is prudent to confine the parents and their young at night in a secure pen or building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are the only domestic fowl that can live and reproduce on a diet of grass. They cannot remain healthy on coarse dry fodder, but when grass is succulent they need little else other than drinking water. Many legumes also make excellent goose forage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the tropics, eggs can be laid year-round. The production seldom exceeds 40 eggs per year, although with feed supplement and simple management, the Chinese breed may yield more than 100 eggs. Geese go broody quickly. To break up broodiness, the goose can be confined for 4 6 days away from, but in sight of, the ganders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goslings grow rapidly and can reach market size as early as 10-12 weeks; most geese, however, are marketed at 20-30 weeks of age, when they may weigh from 5 to 7 kg, depending on type and breed. Some young birds (also called green or junior geese), force-fed for rapid growth, are marketed at 4-6 kg when they are 8-10 weeks old.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If fed a good diet to maximize growth and if slaughtered at, say, 10 weeks, the Embden, Chinese, or African will have a carcass low in fat. However, the carcass normally has much more fat than other poultry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese must have a constant supply of reasonably clean drinking water during daylight hours. Although swimming water is not necessary, it promotes cleaner and healthier birds because they find it easier to care for their plumage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING GEESE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Tropics)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese of the tropics have seldom if ever been considered for domestication, but they might provide poultry of considerable value. Presumably they are more heat tolerant and lack the layers of subcutaneous fat (which the ancestors of today's geese needed for warmth in the Arctic). They might thus produce lean birds that would fetch premium prices because excessive fat is the major drawback of today's commercial geese. Examples of tropical species that might be domesticable are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Egyptian goose (AIopochen aegyptiacus). Found throughout the African tropics, this bird is already partly domesticated. However, it is bad tempered and quarrelsome and, so far, this has limited its utility. It has therefore been kept only under semidomestication, without intensive breeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nene (Branta sandvicensis). A native of the Hawaiian Islands, this is one of the most endangered species on earth. So few specimens are in existence that farming enterprises cannot now be envisaged. Yet, should this bird prove amenable and suitable, the possibility of an economic future could boost efforts to build up its now meager populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Bar-headed goose (Anser indicus). India and Central Asia. These smallish geese are handsome, dainty, and have a musical horn-like call. They have distinct black bars across the nape, which gives them their popular name. Hand-reared specimens breed well in captivity. Despite heavy hunting they are still abundant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Northern spur-winged goose (Plectropterus gambensis gambensis). Tropical Africa (Senegal to Zimbabwe). This large bird is a ground nester, but it has long bony spurs on the wings that enable it to easily protect its eggs and young from predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Semipalmated (magpie) goose (Anseranas semipalmata). Australia and New Guinea. One of the most aberrant and primitive of all waterfowl, this long-legged sturdy-billed bird has only partially webbed feet. It perches high in trees and has a loud ungooselike whistling call. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE WADDLING WORK FORCE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because geese relish grasses and shun most broad-leafed plants, some enterprising U.S. farmers in the 1950s began using them to rid cotton fields of grassy weeds, which are difficult to kill with herbicides. The geese were put into the fields as soon as the crop came up. A brace of birds kept an acre of cotton weeded; a gaggle of 12 would gobble as many weeds as a hard-working man could clear with a hoe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This method of clearing fields was so effective that by 1960 more than 175,000 geese honked their way across the carefully tended farmland, mainly in the Southwest. Seven days a week, rain or shine, the feathered field hands slaved uncomplainingly from daybreak to dusk, even putting in overtime on moonlit nights. Many toiled so diligently that they worked themselves out of a job.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The geese cleared the fields more cheaply than hoe hands. They left the crop untouched and ate only the succulent young weeds. They did not damage crop roots (as hoes or tractors can), and they were safe and selective, unlike many herbicides. On top of all that they spread fertilizer for the farmer, and ultimately provided him meat for the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eventually, farmers found that geese could be used to weed nearly all broad-leafed crops: asparagus, potatoes, berry fruits, tobacco, mint, grapes, beets, beans, hops, onions, and strawberries, for example. Geese were used in vineyards and fruit orchards to eat both weeds and the fallen fruits that could otherwise harbor damaging insects. They were employed in fields producing trees for the forest industry and flowers for florists shops. Some growers turned goslings loose in cornfields to consume the "suckers" (cone, after all, is a grass) as well as the grain left on the ground. This eliminated the problem of corn as a weed when different crops were later planted in those fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the 1970s when cotton acreage dropped and herbicides selective for the troublesome grasses were developed, the use of geese declined. But today, some organic farmers are returning to the practice. From February to June in the Pacific Northwest, fields are resounding once more to the old-fashioned racket of White Chinese geese. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mature geese are independent creatures. When kept in small flocks and allowed to roam the farmyard or field, they require less attention than any other domestic bird with the possible exception of guinea fowl. In areas where grass is green for much of the year, they can be raised on less grain or concentrated feed than any other domestic fowl.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Durability is one of their most attractive features. Along with ducks, geese seem to be the most resistant of all poultry to disease, parasites, and cold or wet weather. They also do well in hot climates as long as drinking water and deep shade are available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Growth is not only rapid, it is also efficient. If managed properly, goslings can produce I kg of body weight for every 2.25-3.5 kg of concentrated feed consumed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are not usually thought of as prolific layers. However, as noted, some strains of the Chinese breed will yield well over 100 eggs per goose per year. At 140-170 g per egg, that compares favorably with the output of laying chickens. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are messy and their loud trumpeting is often irritating. However, unless they have been teased or mistreated or if they are nesting or brooding young, they are not aggressive. But kilo for kilo, they are stronger than most animals, and a harassed or angry adult can express its displeasure effectively with powerful bill and pounding wings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excessive concentrations of geese on ponds or along creeks encourages unsanitary conditions, muddies water, hastens bank erosion, and destroys plant life. Where sanitation is poor, salmonellosis can devastate geese and be transmitted, via meat and eggs, to humans. Coccidiosis and gizzard worm are other infections.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Defeathering geese is more difficult than plucking chickens because there are two coats (feathers and down) to remove.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some situations, geese may need a diet supplement (such as grain) if they are grazing vegetation exclusively. A balance must be struck: too much supplement and they will quit foraging and become too fat; too little and they grow slowly and may suffer malnutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are not fully mature until two years of age. Their overall reproductive rate, therefore, is lower than that of other poultry. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry researchers worldwide should begin studies to clarify the role that geese could play in helping to feed Third World nations. Studies might include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Management practices for tropical areas;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Breeding and management for increased egg production;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Incubation techniques;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutrition supplementation (for example, vitamins, minerals, energy, specific amino acids) needed by grazing geese;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Physiology of digestion and reproduction;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Clarifying the inheritance of various traits;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Genetic selection for specific meat, eggs, growth factors, or disease resistance;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Comparative studies of the relative efficiency (especially of feed utilization) of the various types and breeds for specific climates in underdeveloped countries;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Weeding tropical crops with geese; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Studying diseases and cross-infection with other birds. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">8 Guinea Fowl</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g011a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Third World villages, the guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) could become much more valuable than it is today. The bird thrives under semi-intensive conditions, forages well, and requires little attention. It retains many of its wild ancestor's survival characteristics: it grows, reproduces, and yields well in both cool and hot conditions; it is relatively disease free; it requires little water or attention; it is almost as easily raised as chickens and turkeys; and it is a most useful all-round farm bird.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea fowl's potential to increase meat production among hungry countries should be given greater recognition. The birds are widely known in Africa and occur in a few areas of Asia, but they show promise for use throughout all of Asia and Latin America and for increased use in Africa itself. Strains newly created for egg and meat production in Europe - notably in France - show excellent characteristics for industrial-scale production. Also, many semidomestic types in Africa deserve increased scientific assessment as scavenger birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meat from domestic guinea fowl is dark and delicate, the flavor resembling that of game birds. It is a special delicacy, served in some of the world's finest restaurants. Several European countries eat vast amounts. Annual consumption in France, for example, is about 0.8 kg per capita.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl also produce substantial numbers of eggs. In Africa, these are often sold hard-boiled in local markets. In the Soviet Union, they are produced in large commercial operations. In France, guinea fowl strains have been developed that not only grow quickly but lay as many as 190 eggs a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside Europe, virtually all guinea fowl are raised as free-ranging birds. These find most of their feed by scratching around villages and farmyards. Their cost of production is small, and they yield food for subsistence farmers. In Europe, on the other hand, most are raised in confinement, with artificial insemination, artificial lighting, and special feeding. In the main, this is to produce meat for luxury markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl production is beginning to increase all over the world. During the last 20 years, for example, many of Europe's chicken farmers and breeders, wishing to diversify, have switched to this bird. The United States is now studying ways to establish industrial production, and both Japan and Australia are increasing their flocks. Nonetheless, there is still a vast untapped future for this bird.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide. This species is robust and resilient and adapts to many climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are somewhat larger than average scavenger-type chickens: adults weigh up to 2.5 kilograms. They have dark-grey feathers with small white spots. Their heads are bare with a bony ridge (helmet) on top, which makes them look something like vultures. The short tail feathers usually slope downwards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chicks, known as "keels," resemble young quail. They are brown striped with red beaks and legs. The sexes are indistinguishable until eight weeks of age. After that, the males' larger helmets and wattles and the cries of the different sexes can be identified. Both sexes give a one-syllable shriek, but females also have a two-syllable call.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the chicken, the guinea fowl is a gallinaceous species and possesses the characteristic sternum with posterior notches and a raised "thumb."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among domestic types are pearl, white, royal purple, and lavender. Pearl is the most common, and is probably the type first developed from the wild West African birds. Its handsome feathers are often used for ornamental purposes. The white is entirely white from the time of hatching and has a lighter skin. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p117a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe dominates industrial production. France, Italy, the Soviet Union, and Hungary all raise millions of guinea fowl under intensive conditions, just as they raise chickens. Elsewhere, guinea fowl have become established as a semidomesticated species on small family farms. Native flocks are found about villages and homes in parts of East and West Africa, and free-ranging flocks can be seen in many parts of India, notably Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, and Madhya Pradesh. During the slavery era, they were introduced from Africa to the Americas to be used for food. In Jamaica, Central America, and Malaysia, the birds have reverted to the wild state and are treated as game.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are abundant; in most places even wild populations are not threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are native to the grasslands and woodlands of most of Africa south of the Sahara where they occupy all habitats except dense forests and treeless deserts. Being native also to temperate South Africa, they appear to have an inherent adaptability to both heat and cold. However, in cool climates, regardless of daylength, they will not begin egg production until temperatures exceed 15&Yacute;C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl accept many foods: grains, leaves, ant eggs (for which they will tear anthills open), and even carrion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, they lay their first egg at about 18 weeks of age. Unlike many wild birds, which produce a single clutch a year, guinea hens lay continuously until adverse weather sets in.2 Free-range "domestic" guinea hens lay up to 60 eggs a season. And well-managed birds under intensive management lay close to 200. The eggs weigh approximately 40 g. Shells are stronger than those of chickens and are usually brown, but can be white or tinted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea hen goes broody after laying, which can be overcome by removing most of the eggs. A clutch of 15-20 is common. The incubation period is 27 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds never become "tame," but neither do they leave the premises. Although they stray farther than chickens do, they always return. They like to hide their eggs in a bushy corner, often in hollows scratched in the ground. They can fly, although even in the wild they do not fly far. They prefer to roost on high branches and (unless pinioned) can be hard to catch during the day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although wild guinea fowl live in groups, they are monogamous by nature and tend to bond in pairs. However, in domestication a single male may serve four or more females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, guinea fowl are valuable sources of both meat and eggs. They can also be used to control insect pests on vegetable crops.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are good "watch animals"; they have fantastic eyesight, a harsh cry, and will shriek at the slightest provocation. Their agitation on sighting dogs, foxes, hawks, or other predators have saved the lives of many a chicken, duck, and turkey. They are brave and will attack even large animals that threaten them.4 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl can be kept in confinement using the methods for raising battery chickens. In this system, breeding stock are housed in cages and artificially inseminated. It gives the best egg production and fertility but requires housing, equipment, and skilled labor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds can also be kept in a semidomestic state in and around the farmyard. In such cases they are penned until they are 12 weeks old. Unaccustomed to foraging for natural food, they constantly return to their artificial food supply. Eventually, however, they learn to subsist by scavenging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds have been called "the worst parents in the world," and are almost incapable of looking after their keets.5 Because the females are such indifferent mothers, the eggs are best hatched in incubators or under other birds, to avoid the keets' being lost by their natural mothers. In many African countries, eggs are hatched under chickens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keets are often kept indoors until they are 3-4 weeks old to protect them from predators and wet weather. Sexual maturity can be delayed to as late as 32 weeks of age by holding the birds in windowless housing and controlling the lighting. This improves egg size and hatchability and reduces early mortality. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GUINEA FOWL AND THE ANCIENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The earliest reference to guinea fowl can be found in murals in the Pyramid of Wenis at Saqqara in Egypt, painted about 2400 B.C. Aviaries were quite fashionable at the time, and wealthy landowners maintained guinea fowl within their walled gardens. A thousand years later, by the time of Queen Hatshepsut (about 1475 B.C.), the junglefowl (the ancestor of the chicken) had arrived, and from then on it was raised on a substantial scale. Records of this period refer to "walk-in" incubators, constructed of mud bricks and heated by cameldung fires. The largest could hold up to 90,000 eggs (mainly from junglefowl but some from guinea fowl) and hatching rates of up to 70 percent were claimed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 400 B.C., guinea fowl were well established on farms in Greece. Later, they rose to importance in ancient Rome. Pliny the elder (in his Natural History, published 77 A.D.) stated that they were the last bird to be added to the Roman menu and that they were in great demand, both eggs and flesh being considered great delicacies. The emperor Caligula offered them as sacrifices to himself when he assumed the title of deity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea fowl then died out in Europe but was reintroduced by the Portuguese navigators returning from their African explorations in the late 1400s. They gave it the name pintada or "painted chicken" and this changed to pintade in French, while the name "Guinea fowl" (fowl from Africa) stayed in English, and gallina de Guinea in Spanish. Coincidentally, guinea fowl and turkeys were both introduced to England between 1530 and 1550, and the English, smitten with the original French misnomers, were left sorting out "Ginny birds" and "Turkey birds" for the remainder of the century. Both birds were adopted with great enthusiasm, and within 150 years they had utterly displaced the peafowl and swan as the major table birds for festive occasions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adapted from R.H.H. Belshaw, 1985 Guinea Fowl of the World</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with the farmyard chicken the guinea fowl's advantages are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Low production costs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Premium quality meat;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Greater capacity to utilize green feeds;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Better ability to scavenge for insects and grains;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Better ability to protect itself against predators; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Better resistance to common poultry parasites and diseases (for example, Newcastle disease and fowlpox).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surprisingly, this semidomestic bird, which has been farmed for centuries, retains the characteristics (feather morphology, hardiness, social behavior) of its wild ancestor - even when subjected to the most modern intensive-rearing methods employing battery cages and artificial insemination. Thus, it thrives under semicaptive conditions and needs little special care. The birds forage well for themselves and do not require much attention; their meat is tasty and they produce substantial numbers of eggs. Unlike chickens, they don't scratch to get insects out of the soil, so they are less destructive to the garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In backyard production the guinea fowl is supreme, but when produced intensively it costs more to raise than chickens. In Europe, for instance, day-old keets cost about twice as much as day-old broiler chicks. (The major reason is that guinea fowl produce fewer hatching eggs and require a longer feeding period.) Guinea fowl are also more expensive to feed. Their feed conversion (for meat production at the marketing age) is about 3.3-3.6 as compared with a broiler's feed conversion of 1.8-1.9. Moreover, guinea fowl take about twice as long to reach marketable size: they are marketed for meat at age 12-14 weeks, compared with 7-8 weeks for the broilers. Therefore, the selling price of guinea fowl in the Western world is up to twice that of broilers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are nervous and stupid. They can be difficult to catch' and when panicking they can easily suffocate their keets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are susceptible to some of the common diseases of chickens and turkeys. Salmonella is the most prevalent, but others are pullorum disease, staphylococcus, and Marek's disease. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE GUINEA FOWL'S WILD COUSINS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domesticated guinea fowl is descended from just one subspecies of the family's seven known species and numerous subspecies. Some of the others may also have promise as poultry. They, too, generally occur in flocks in bushy grasslands and open forests in Africa. All feed on vegetable matter such as seeds, berries, and tender shoots, and on invertebrates such as slugs. They rarely fly except to roost. They acclimatize well are easy to maintain in captivity, and can survive long periods away from water.** Their disposition is tame and nonaggressive, and they mix well with other birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild subspecies closely related to the domestic guinea fowl that might make future poultry in their own right include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gray-breasted guinea fowl (Numida meleagris galeata). This subspecies is the principal ancestor of domestic guinea fowls. It is found throughout West Africa and probably has many valuable genetic traits. There is much variation in the size and other characteristics among the various individuals. People along the Gambia, Volta, and Niger rivers have long traditions of breeding these birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Tufted guinea fowl (Numida meleagris meleagris). This subspecies is quite large and has black plumage thickly spotted with white dots. It is the probable ancestor of the birds reared in ancient Egypt and in the Roman empire (see page 120). Hill farmers in the southern Sudan sometimes breed them in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Mitred guinea fowl (Numida meleagris mitrata). Probably the most popular game bird in East Africa, this type has a bright blue-green head and red wattles. It was once a common sight in the wild but it has now been decimated by overhunting. It is now most numerous in the Masai lands of Kenya and Tanzania. It has been kept in a semidomesticated form in Zanzibar for several centuries. Zoos and aviaries around the world have imported it, and it has bred well for them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild guinea fowl that are different species from the domestic one but that are still worth considering as potential poultry include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Black guinea fowl (Phasidus niger or Agelastes niger). This bird of the tropical rainforests of West and Central Africa is the size of a small chicken. It has sooty black plumage, a naked head, and a pink or yellow neck. It is seldom hunted because the meat tastes dreadful but this is probably because of a particularly pungent fungus they eat in the forest. Raised on fungus-free forages, these birds are probably very palatable. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Crested guinea hen (Guttera spp.). Three species. These strange-looking birds have a thick mop of inky black feathers above their black, naked faces. Widely distributed in the thickly forested areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Unlike the other species, they prefer the rainforest. They have a musical trumpeting call. At least one species has bred well in Europe. For example, a flourishing colony has been established in the Walsrode Bird Park in Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Vulturine guinea fowl (Acryllium vulturinum). The largest of all guinea fowl, this species is found in parts of Ethiopia, Somalia, and East Africa. One of the most striking looking of all birds, its head is bare and blue, its body black with white spots, and its breast bears long bright cobalt-blue patches on either side. This has been reared as an aviary bird in both Europe and America and might make a useful domesticate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agencies involved in international economic development should undertake guinea fowl assessment trials, evaluations, and coordinated introductions to stimulate programs for small farmers and for industries in dozens of countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeders have been working to improve guinea fowl only since the 1950s. There is a need for more information on growth rate, health, egg production, feed conversion, body weight, carcass yield, laying intensity, fertility, hatchability, and egg weight - especially under free-ranging conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Husbandry research should also be directed towards feeds and feeding systems for growing and breeding stock. Other efforts are needed to increase the hatchability of eggs under natural conditions (under guinea hens or surrogate mothers), and to identify the best lighting regimes (both sexual maturity and rate of lay are influenced by changes in daylength).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea fowl that has become an important domesticated bird throughout the civilized world is descended from just one of seven known species in the family. These birds generally occur in flocks in bushy grasslands and open forest in Africa and Madagascar, and some of the others may also have promise as poultry (see sidebar opposite). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">9 Muscovy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g012a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy (Cairina moschata), a unique ducklike species of the South American rainforest, belongs to a small group of waterfowl that perch in trees. In poultry science, however, it is normally grouped with domestic ducks for lack of a better classification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except in France, Italy and Taiwan muscovies have received little modern research. But their promise can be judged from the fact that they account for 50 percent of the duck meat consumed in France - about 60,000 tons per year - and they are often consumed in Italy and Taiwan as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Third World subsistence farming, muscovies have excellent possibilities. There is probably no better choice for a meat bird that requires minimal care and feed. Tame, quiet, and able to forage for much of their keep, they are inherently hardy, vigorous, and robust. They have heavily fleshed breasts and are highly prized for their meat, which is dark, more flavorful, and less fatty than that of common ducks. An average muscovy gives more meat than a chicken of the same age, and it also survives hot, wet environments better. In addition, muscovies are better parents than the domestic duck. Females are probably the best natural mothers of any poultry species, as measured by their success at incubating their eggs and caring for their young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All in all, this bird deserves more attention than it has received so far in Third World livestock projects. Dispersed around the warm and hot regions of the world, muscovies already exist in small numbers in backyards and villages, much like the domestic chicken in previous centuries. Despite a lack of research, the present unimproved stocks are already impressive meat yielders. Used more widely and more intensively, they could contribute much to poor people's meat supplies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossing the muscovy with the common duck produces a hybrid that combines many of the advantages of both. This cross, known as "mulard," or "mule duck" in English, is raised in France for its liver and meat and is produced in quantity in Taiwan (see sidebar, page 132). It, too, has a major future role.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies are suitable for use almost anywhere that chickens can be kept. Moreover, their tropical ancestry and inherent robustness give them an advantage in hot and humid climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although a muscovy somewhat resembles a goose, it is one of the greater wood ducks of tropical South America. It was domesticated in pre-Columbian times, most likely in the rainforests of Colombia. Related wild types, looking very much like the muscovy, still occur in South American wetlands, particularly mangrove swamps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males have mature live weights of 5 kg and females about 2.5 kg. Both have broad and rounded wings. The adults have patches of bare skin around the eyes, rather than feathers. Much of this is covered in "caruncles," which superficially resemble warty outgrowths. The feet have sharp claws. Both sexes raise a crest of feathers when alarmed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is much color variation among the various muscovy populations including types that are called white, colored, black, blue, chocolate, silver, buff, and pied.2 The most common types (they are not considered breeds) are the white and the colored. The white produces a cleaner looking carcass, but the colored is the most popular meat type in France. Its plumage is an iridescent greenish black, except for white forewings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The native range of the muscovy's probable wild ancestor covers much of Central America and northern South America. The domestic form also occurs over most of Latin America - from southern Chile to the northern limits of traditional culture in lowland Mexico - including the Caribbean, where it was present shortly after Columbus landed.3 The birds can be observed among the domestic fowl in the high Andes, for example, and are feral in southern coastal areas of the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carried across the Atlantic, probably in the early 1500s, the domesticated muscovy spread quickly in Europe, and thence to North America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania. Today, it finds favor with the food-loving French as "canard de Barbarie," and France has the greatest concentration of muscovies in Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Down the centuries the muscovy became popular in tropical Asia (especially the Philippines and Indonesia) and in China and Taiwan. Throughout Indonesia (where it is known as "entok") it is popular with villagers for incubating eggs from ducks, geese, and chickens. It is now spreading into Oceania, and has recently gained particular favor in the Solomon Islands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies are also known in Africa and can be found in many villages, especially in West Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not endangered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild muscovies occur mainly along tropical jungle streams, but domestic muscovies are found in many environments from the heat of Central America to the cold of Central Europe. They also tolerate dry conditions, but they thrive best where climates are both hot and wet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies utilize high-fiber feeds better than chickens and common ducks, and eat larger quantities of grass. They also consume other green vegetation and readily snap up any insects they can find. If quality forage is available, only a small daily ration of grain or pellets is required for them to reach peak production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy females normally hatch and raise large broods efficiently. It is not unusual to see them with a dozen or more fragile ducklings in tow - many of them adopted from other species. They bravely protect their young and have been known to beat off cats, dogs, foxes, and other marauders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, muscovies are healthy and live and breed for many years. They suffer few diseases, especially when free ranging. However, they seem to be more susceptible to duck virus enteritis (duck plague) than common ducks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p129a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While appearing to be slow and lethargic, muscovies can be quick and agile when one tries to catch them. Females are strong fliers and readily clear a standard fence. Males frequently become so ponderous that they cannot get airborne without an elevated perch or the aid of a strong wind. Although they forage over a larger area than chickens, they generally neither decamp nor wander as far as common ducks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated muscovies are either solitary or live together in small family groups, but sometimes in winter they flock together on bodies of water. They swim and dive well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds seldom make loud noises. A drake's voice resembles a muffled "puff"; females are almost mute. However, both can hiss or make a soft sound not unlike that of sleigh bells.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is polygamous (a young male will try to mate with almost any fowl, including chickens). Mating can occur on land or in water. Males are pugnacious and tolerate no opposition. Because of this, they do not do well in close confinement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A BETTER FLY TRAP</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is a voracious omnivore that is particularly fond of insects. For years, some Canadian farmers have sworn that a few muscovies took care of all fly problems on their farms. In 1989, Ontario biologists Gordon Surgeoner and Barry Glofcheskie (see Research Contacts) decided to put this to the test.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting with laboratory trials, the entomologists first put a hungry five-week-old muscovy into a screened cage with 400 living houseflies. Within an hour it had eaten 326. Later, they placed four muscovies in separate cages containing 100 flies each. Within 30 minutes over 90 percent of the insects were gone. It took flypaper, fly traps, and bait cards anywhere from 15 to 86 hours to suppress the populations that much.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moving to fleld tests, the researchers placed pairs of twoyear-old muscovies on several Ontario farms. Videotapes showed the birds snapping at houseflies and biting flies about every 30 seconds and being successful on 70 percent of their attempts. With that efficiency, they achieved 80-90 percent fly control in enclosures such as calf rooms or piggeries. The birds were given only water and had to scavenge for all their food. Females seemed to eat about 10 percent more flies than males, and individuals of any age between eight days and two years were equally effective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds fit the practical needs for farmyard fly control. They stayed close to piglets and calves, to which flies are particularly attracted. They even snatched flies off the hides of resting animals without waking them up. On one farm, the birds huddled between sleeping piglets and were accepted by the sow lying beside them. This was noteworthy because most fly-catching devices (chemical, electrical, or mechanical) must be kept far from animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To the Canadians, the economic advantages are clear. A 35-cow dairy needs $150-$590 worth of chemicals for controlling flies during the fly season; muscovy chicks, on the other hand, cost less than $2 each, eat for free, and can be sold for a profit of 200-400 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The researchers point out that employing muscovies does not eliminate all need for insecticides, but it reduces the amounts required. And muscovies are biodegradable, will not cause a buildup of genetic resistance, and taste better than flypaper. Indeed, their meat is excellent, and the naturally mute birds seldom make any noise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reportedly, muscovies are kept in some houses in South America to control not only flies, but also roaches and other insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is generally raised only for its meat, which is of excellent quality and taste. In stews it is hard to distinguish from pork; cured and smoked it is similar to lean ham.4 The fat content is low.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy eggs are as tasty as other duck eggs, and a muscovy female can supply a large number if she is kept from sitting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are useful for clearing both terrestrial and aquatic weeds.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Down feathers are used, like those of other ducks, in clothing and comforters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies may be raised like common ducks. An ideal grouping is one male to five or six females. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except in Taiwan, France, Hungary, and a few other European countries, they exist predominantly in small flocks in farmyards and village ponds. However, they can be reared under intensive conditions in a shed or pen that is well lighted and equipped with low roosts and bedding. Under such conditions, they may be fed diets recommended for rearing common ducks or given coarse feeds, including whole grain. If chicken rations are used, fresh greens must be provided to avoid "cowboy" legs, a symptom of niacin deficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they thrive in areas where there is abundant water, they do not require access to swimming water. They prefer to nest under cover and will use nesting boxes. A normal clutch size is 9-14 eggs; however, clutches of up to 28 can occur. There may be 4 clutches annually, and (when the hen does not have to brood the ducklings) some muscovies have laid 100 eggs in a year.6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The egg weight, which increases with the female's age, ranges from 65 to 85 g. The eggs require 33-35 days to hatch, a week longer than the common duck's. Hatching success of 75 percent or more is common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with domestic ducks early growth is slow, which is perhaps why muscovies have not enjoyed wider industrial use. However, after the slow period they grow rapidly and, because they forage on a broader range of vegetation than common ducks, they can scavenge a large proportion of their diet at little or no cost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When raised intensively, females average 2 kg and males 4 kg at 11-12 weeks of age. Females may reach sexual maturity by 28 weeks of age; males require a month more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE MULE DUCK OF TAIWAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In parts of Europe, hybrids between muscovies and common ducks are reared for fattening. However, Taiwan has made the most outstanding use of this "mule duck." Thanks in part to this muscovy hybrid, Taiwan's duck industry has grown rapidly in the last decade. The total value of duck products now exceeds $346 million per year. Much of the boom in duck production is due to improved feeding disease control and management systems, but much is also due to the performance of the mule duck. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This hybrid is now Taiwan's major meat-duck breed, and about 30 million are consumed each year. Indeed, the duck industry has been so successful that Taiwan is increasingly exporting frozen duck breast and drumstick meat to Japan. It now provides 24 percent of the duck meat eaten in Japan most of it coming from mule ducks. Also, Taiwan is exporting partially incubated mule-duck eggs throughout Southeast Asia. And mule ducks supply most of the raw material for Taiwan's large feather industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan farmers have been producing mule ducks for 250 years, but the recent jump in production is due to the use of artificial insemination to overcome the natural reticence of the different species to mate. Fortunately, artificial insemination is well developed and is a standard part of farming practice in Taiwan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mule ducks are successful because they have less fat than a broiler chicken and they grow faster. Indeed, they can reach a market weight of 2.8 kg at 65 - 75 days of age, depending upon the weather, season, and management. In part, this fast growth is because they are sterile and waste no energy in preparing for a sexual existence or in laying eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The usual cross employs a muscovy male and a domesticduck female. The domestic breeds most employed for muleduck production are White Kaiya (Pekin male x White Tsaiya female), Large White Kaiya (Pekin male x White Kaiya female) and colored Kaiya. Both sexes of the hybrid offspring weigh about the same.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crosses between a muscovy hen and a domestic drake are much rarer (traditionally, this was because of the different mating behavior of the two species, but even with artificial insemination available they are not much used) and the males of these hybrids are much heavier than the females. Females of this cross do lay eggs, but the eggs are small (about 40 g) and their embryos do not develop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are almost 300 duck-breeding farms in Taiwan, annually producing more than 600,000 female domestic ducks for use in producing mule ducks. Some farmers combine duck raising with fish farming. The excrete of 4,000 ducks on one hectare of pond can provide 30,000 tilapia with 20 percent of their feed. It helps the farmer get rid of waste as well as giving him fresh fish to sell. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the muscovy is an extremely good forager and thrives under free-ranging conditions. Unlike other ducks, it grazes on grass and leaves and will maintain itself on pasture. Apparently, it can digest bran and other fibrous feeds better than common ducks can.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The males are larger than all but the largest strains of table duck. They have exceptionally broad, well-muscled breasts and provide one of the leanest meats of any waterfowl.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is apparently more resistant to diseases that regularly decimate other poultry. This is one reason why villagers favored them: when chickens die, muscovies often survive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The female's strong parental qualities help assure the survival of ducklings with a minimum of human intervention. Her ability to incubate and hatch most other poultry eggs is an added advantage to small farmers who have neither the capital to buy, nor the knowledge to operate, artificial incubators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike other ducks, muscovies are not easily alarmed, and fright does not affect their egg production and laying. Indeed, they are so phlegmatic that automobiles can be major causes of death.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they are a tropical species, these birds are much less tolerant of cold than common ducks and require more protection from freezing weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy's feed conversion is not as good as the chicken's. Also, compared with some other meat-duck breeds, muscovies have a slower rate of growth and require about 4 6 weeks longer to attain maximum development of breast muscles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies can be difficult to handle. If their legs are free, the handler may be badly lacerated by the claws.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although adults have a fair homing ability, muscovies may wander away when local forage is sparse, and young birds may be carried long distances downstream, never to return.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they feed on greenery, they can devastate gardens if the plants are very young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies can be unsuspected carriers of poultry diseases, so that healthy-looking muscovies may infect the other species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry scientists should unite in efforts to advance technical knowledge and public appreciation of this bird. Governments and researchers should begin evaluations of local varieties and their uses and performances. The experiences of France, Italy, Eastern Europe, and Taiwan should be gathered and made available for a worldwide readership.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important that the many muscovy varieties within the countries of Latin America - where the bird has a centuries-long history of domestication - be maintained and studied. Many superior varieties and specimens may be awaiting discovery.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy's nutritional requirements, range and confined systems of management, and disease vulnerability are poorly understood and need study. Especially needed are ways to increase growth rate. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">10 Pigeon</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g013a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons (Columba livia)1 are durable birds that can be raised with little effort. Able to survive in inhospitable climates, they fend for themselves - often ranging over many square kilometers to locate seeds and edible scraps. They have been raised for centuries, especially in North Africa and the Middle East. In parts of North America and Europe, they are produced as a delicacy for the gourmet market. But raising pigeons for food is not nearly as widespread as it could be; indeed, in modern times its potential has hardly been touched. Farmed pigeons are particularly promising as urban microlivestock because they require little space and thrive in cities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young pigeons (squab) grow at a rapid rate. Their meat is finely textured, has an attractive flavor, and is often used in place of game fowl. Tender and easily digested, it commands premium market prices. In many areas, the continuing demand is unfilled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are traditionally raised in dovecotes - "houses" that protect the birds from the elements and from predators. This system allows free-ranging flight and requires almost no human intervention. Dovecotes are a good source of both squab and garden manure, and they continue to be used, especially in Egypt. On the other hand, pigeons can also be raised in confinement - usually in enclosed yards - with all their needs supplied by the farmer. There are, for example, pigeon farms in the United States with up to 35,000 pairs of breeding birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeon production may never rise enough to compete with commercial poultry as a major source of food, but for Third World villages these birds could become a significant addition to the diet as well as a source for substantial supplemental income. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons have small heads, plump, full-breasted bodies, and soft, dense plumage. They weigh from about 0.5 to nearly I kg. A few large breeds (Runts, for instance, which commonly weigh 1.4 kg) are the size of small domestic chickens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many breeds have been developed for meat production. They produce squab that grow quicker and have larger breasts than unselected birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild ancestor of the common pigeon - domestic, wild, or feral -  is thought to be the rock pigeon or rock dove of Europe and Asia. Today its domestic descendants are bred in virtually every country, and those that have gone feral (reverted to the wild) occur in most of the world's cities and towns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are abundant. However, as with most other domestic species there is concern over the decline and loss of certain breeds. Societies have been organized (notably in the United Kingdom) to preserve rare types.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p138a.png"></center><br>
+ Natural habitat of the rock dove ancestor of the domestic pigeon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domestic pigeon can be raised equally well in temperate and tropical zones. Indeed, this adaptable species can be kept anywhere that wild pigeons exist, including arid and humid regions. It should be noted, however, that cold climates do not favor squab production and hot climates promote vermin and disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigeon's natural diet consists mostly of seeds, but includes fruits, leaves, and some invertebrates. Feral pigeons consume a wide array of materials, including insects, bread, meat scraps, weed seeds, and many kinds of spilled grains at mills, wharves, railway yards, grain elevators, and farm fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the first four or five days of life, the young are fed "crop milk." This substance, common to pigeons and doves,2 is composed of cells from the lining of the crop and is very high in fats and nutritional energy. The phenomenal growth rate of young squab has been attributed to crop milk and to its early replacement (within 8-10 days) with concentrated foods, regurgitated by both parents. The parents feed the squab for about four weeks before pushing it out of the nest to prepare for the next clutch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In domestic birds, sexual maturity (as measured by age at first egg) is reached at 120-150 days. Life span can be 15 years, although growth and egg production decline rapidly after the third year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild pigeons often nest on cliff sides. Domestic pigeons prefer to nest around buildings, in nooks and shelves and under the eaves - that is, in "pigeonholes."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In domestic varieties, the pair-bond often lasts until severe illness or death. Sometimes, however, a vigorous male will "invade" a nest and mate with the females there. Both sexes take nearly equal part in nest building, incubation, and caring for the young. Typically, there are two eggs to a clutch. Eight clutches a year is not uncommon for a breeding pair. The incubation period is 17-19 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike most birds, pigeons drink by inserting their beaks into water and sucking up a continuous draft. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Courtship is characterized by cooing, prancing, and displays of spread, lowered tail feathers. "Bow and coo" exhibitions are unique to pigeons and doves and differ among species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are usually raised exclusively for meat. The squab are harvested just before full feather development and before the youngster has started to fly, usually at 21-30 days of age. At this time the ratio of flesh to inedible parts is highest; once flying begins, the meat becomes tougher. Weight depends upon breed, nutrition, and other factors, but usually ranges from 340 to 680 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are extensively used for scientific research, notably in physiology and psychology. They are also widely kept as pets for plumage and for racing. The pigeon's unique homing ability was recognized in Roman times, and the birds have been trained to return to the dovecote from as far away as 700 km. Even today, homing pigeons are used to carry messages, especially during war.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are easily trained to recognize "home." The wing feathers are clipped and the birds are fed close to the dovecote; by the time they refledge, their homing instinct has been developed. Alternatively, newly captured pigeons may be trained by confining them to the dovecote for at least one week. At first, a little grain is provided in the morning (this is to ensure the birds will return to the coop). The birds can obtain the rest themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any waterproof house that is easy to clean is suitable for keeping pigeons. Many traditional dovecotes are built of earthenware pots. In Asia and Europe, wooden pigeon towers are generally used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike chickens, pigeons do not prefer communal roosts. Instead, they prefer nesting shelves, of which there should be two for each breeding pair. The shelves are usually placed in dark corners and are fitted with low walls to keep eggs from rolling out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grit is important in the diet, both to provide minerals and to allow the birds to grind feed in their gizzards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commercial squab breeds are often kept permanently in pens, a process that requires care and experience. Growers expect an average of 12-14 squab per pair per year, although much depends on environment and management. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds need fresh water daily and water for bathing at least weekly. Since they feed their young by regurgitation, the adults must have a continuous supply of clean drinking water. Orphan squab can be fed egg yolk until old enough to consume adult feeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like all poultry, confined pigeons must be provided enough supplemental feed to ensure a balanced diet. A mixture of whole grains can be fed for maximum production. It is important that grains be dry and free of mold (pigeons will not thrive on mash). Peas, beans, or similar pulses make good supplements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARRIER PIGEONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most people consider message-carrying pigeons to be a quaint anachronism. But in a few countries (both developed and developing) carrier pigeons are making a comeback, and in the future they may be used routinely once again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New techniques are making this process far more practical than before. For example, in the past the pigeons would be flown in one direction only. They were transported away from home and at the appropriate time released to find their way back. That was very limiting. But it has since been found that pigeons can be trained to carry messages in two directions: flying from one point to another and then back again. They will do it twice a day, and with almost perfect reliability. The key is to place the feeding station at one end and the nest at the other. This limits the pigeon's range, but they still can handle round-trip distances up to 160 km.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a little ingenuity, there is no need for a person to monitor the stations to receive the messages as the bird arrives. One simple technique is to arrange the station with one-way doors - one opening inwards, the other outwards. Placing a bar across the outward door means that the bird cannot get out until someone releases it. Thus the message can always be retrieved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This system has been employed in Puerto Rico and Guatemala, but it could be used almost anywhere. In many parts of the Third World, in particular, there are remote areas with no phones and with hilly, rough terrain where delivering messages can take hours of strenuous travel. Some locations are subject to unexpected isolation by natural calamities or military or terrorist actions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Puerto Rico, for instance, we kept pigeons in a village 32 km from the capital. The pigeons could get downtown in 20-30 minutes. It took us 1.5-2 hours each way by road. What was easy for the birds was a major trip for us. Pigeons carried the villagers' requests for certain foods and medicines. Our contact in the city then sent up the supplies by bus. The birds never let us down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carrier pigeons are useful for more than just flying far and fast. They have been bred for racing and their large pectoral muscles make them excellent meat producers - much better than the common pigeons normally raised for food. A pair of carriers typically will raise 12 - 16 young each year, and those not needed for message carrying can be butchered at 28 days of age - yielding meat that is nutritious and considered a delicacy in many countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Holderread</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Every day on the northwest coast of France, Petit Gendamme, a black and white carrier pigeon, flies on average 23 km between hospitals on his blood delivery route. Trussed in tiny hand-sewn harnesses, he and a flock of carrier pigeons set out (except during the hunting season) with little red tubes of blood secured to their breasts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"It's a simple, effective, and cost-saving transport system," said Yves Le Henaff, head of the Avranches Hospital laboratory, Cotentin, France, a central blood-testing center that serves a number of isolated medical centers along the coast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The service becomes particularly valuable during the summer tourist rush, when travellers flock to the seashore to visit nearby Mont Saint Michel, crowding the small country roads and increasing the risk of traffic accidents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds' average flight time between the hospitals of Avranches and Granville, for example, a distance of about 27 km, is 20 minutes, including the time for harnessing up. And with a favorable western wind their best time can reach 11 minutes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While gasoline costs the equivalent of $0. 75 a lifer in France, hospital officials say that a few grains of corn is all it takes to run this operation. According to Le Henaff, who supervises the carrier pigeon operation, the hospital is saving up to $46 a day on gas and auto maintenance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 40-year-old Le Henaff got the idea five years ago from an article in a scientific journal describing a similar experiment in Britain. A year later, he and an associate called on the local seamstress to design a light harness that could hold a tube, which, when filled, weighs approximately 39 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The flock now consists of 40 veteran fliers and 20 carrier pigeons in training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And what if the winged creatures stray en route? Le Henaff has devised a fall-back option: two pigeons carry two different test tubes containing the same blood sample.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds fly every day of the year with the exception of the three-month autumn hunting season. Since the beginning of the experiment four years ago, there have been two casualties. Le Henaff believes the birds probably met their fate in some Normand's oven.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sometimes weather is a factor, and heavy fog can keep the delivery team grounded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, the new job seems to benefit the pigeons, too. Unlike sickly city pigeons, whose average life span is about four years, well-cared-for carrier pigeons can live up to 15 years, Le Henaff said. "And how many people do you know who are willing to stay with the same outfit for that long?"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sabine Maubouche</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Washington Post</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">December 2, 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under extensive conditions - where the birds are released each day to feed themselves - almost no land is needed. Under intensive conditions, where the birds spend their lives in confinement, a mere half hectare can be enough space to raise 2,000 pairs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free-ranging pigeons forage over a wider area than most domestic fowl because they fly out to find their feed. Nutrient requirements3 are similar to those of chickens and other fowl (making allowance for the energy needed for flying), so commercial feed and other supplements - if needed at all - are generally available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In dovecote culture, pigeons require little or no handling. They brood the young with little intervention. Although not continuous, the production of meat from these fast-growing, rapidly reproducing birds is more sustained than with most livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost nowhere are there taboos against consuming pigeon meat. Prices received for squab are normally high, and in most places the demand is constant. The only limitation in some areas is the absence of an effective market, which is usually easy to create.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Squab contains a larger proportion of soluble protein and a smaller proportion of connective tissue than most meats and is therefore good for invalids and people with digestive disorders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As many hobbyists can testify, raising pigeons can be gratifying.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are subject to few diseases. However, worms, lice, diarrhea (coccidiosis), canker (trichomoniasis), and salmonella (paratyphoid) occur at some time in most domestic breeds. Salmonella exists in low levels in most flocks and will flare up if birds are stressed. Treatments recommended for domestic chickens are usually suitable for pigeons. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By flying over a wide area and eating grains and other foods, pigeons can cause conflicts with farmers. Indeed, in the 13th century the aristocracy's pigeons became a major grievance of the peasants who saw their seed devoured. On the other hand, "croppers" (breeds with large crops) were developed to steal grain from the lord's fields. The pigeon returned home and his crop was emptied of the grain, which was used by the peasant to make bread.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds can become nuisances. They leave droppings in annoying places, some people find them too noisy, and a few people are severely allergic to "pigeon dust."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Every conceivable type of predator can be expected; therefore, precautions must be taken. The dovecote must be well protected against rats, which are the principal enemy of the eggs and the squabs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nesting birds need a high-protein diet to raise squab at the high rates of gain that are possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry researchers should study the increased role pigeons might play in Third World economic development. Nothing comparable to the sophisticated selection employed with the domestic chicken has so far been attempted. Given such attention the gains could be great.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among pressing research needs are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Breeding. This needs to be better understood. For example, the effects of hybridization and inbreeding need clarification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Environmental limits. Little work has been done outside the temperate regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Diseases. These deserve increased attention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also the potential of "dovecotes" for wild pigeons. Numerous local species are well adapted to local conditions, and these deserve to be tested for "domestication."4 Many wild species quickly lose their fear of man, and in time they can even become too fat to fly. Wild pigeons are already found throughout the humid tropics and are trapped for meat and rearing in New Guinea and other places. They are already an important food source for many subsistence farmers and shifting cultivators, and with some dovecote management could provide a greater, more dependable source of food and income. The potential for domesticating local pigeon species, especially those suited to the tropics, deserves exploration. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">11 Quail</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g014a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native to Asia and Europe, quail' (Coturnix coturnix2) have been farmed since ancient times, especially in the Far East. They reproduce rapidly and their rate of egg production is remarkable. They are also robust, disease resistant, and easy to keep, requiring only simple cages and equipment and little space. Yet they are not well known around the world and deserve wider testing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are so precocious that they can lay eggs when hardly more than 5 weeks old. It is said that about 20 of them are sufficient to keep an average family in eggs year-round. Quail eggs are very popular in Japan, where they are packed in thin plastic cases and sold fresh in many food stores. They are also boiled, shelled, and either canned or boxed like chicken eggs. Quail eggs are excellent as hors d'oeuvres and they also are used to make mayonnaise, cakes, and other prepared foods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In France, Italy, the United States, and some countries in Latin America (Brazil and Chile, for example) as well as throughout Asia, it is the meat that is consumed. It is particularly delicious when charcoal broiled. One company in Spain annually processes 20 million quail for meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the domesticated strains seem to have originated in China, and migrating Chinese carried them throughout Asia. Today, millions of domestic quail are reared in Japan, Indonesia, Thailand, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Indochina, Philippines, and Malaysia, as well as in Brazil and Chile. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commercial production is carried out, as in the chicken industry, in specialized units involving hatcheries, farms, and factories that process eggs and meat. However, quail have outstanding potential for village and "backyard" production as well. It is this aspect that deserves greater attention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail come in various sizes. The smaller types are used for egg production, whereas the larger ones are better for meat. Adult females of improved meat strains may weigh up to 500 g. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several color varieties. However, mature females are characterized by a tan-colored throat and breast, with black spots on the breast. Mature males, which are slightly smaller than females, have rusty-brown throats and breasts. All mature males have a bulbous structure, known as the foam gland, located at the upper edge of the vent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the United States, the Pharaoh strain is the bird of choice for commercial production. Other available strains tend to be bred more for fancy than for food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail eggs are mottled brown, but some strains have been selected for white shells. These eggs are often preferred by consumers and are easier to candle (the process of holding eggs up to a light to check for interior quality and stage of incubation). An average egg weighs 10 g - about 8 percent of the female's body weight. (By comparison, a chicken egg weighs about 3 percent of the hen's body weight.) Quail chicks weigh merely 5-6 g when hatched and are normally covered in yellowish down with brown stripes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ancestral wild species is widely distributed over much of Europe and Asia as well as parts of North Africa. Although domestic quail are now available almost everywhere, Japan is probably the world leader in commercial production; quail farms are common throughout its central and southern regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not endangered. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p149a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are hardy birds that, within reasonable limits, can adapt to many different environments. However, they prefer temperate climates; the northern limit of their winter habitat is around 38&Yacute;N.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A quail's diet in the wild consists of insects, grain, and various other seeds. To thrive and reproduce efficiently in captivity, it needs feeds that are relatively high in protein.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The females mature at about 5-6 weeks of age and usually come into full egg production by the age of 50 days. With proper care, they will lay 200-300 eggs per year, but at that rate they age quickly. The life span under domestic conditions can be up to 5 years. However, second-year egg production is normally less than half the first year's, and fertility and hatchability fall sharply after birds reach 6 months of age, even though egg and sperm production continue. Thus, the commercial life is only about a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crosses between the wild and domestic stocks produce fertile hybrids. Repeated backcrossing to either wild quail or domestic quail is successful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only females hatch the eggs and raise the chicks. Males go off and court other females when their partners begin the nesting process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail eggs taste like chicken eggs. They are often served hard boiled, pickled, fried, or scrambled. Because of their size they make attractive snacks or salad ingredients. They provide an alternative for some people who are allergic to chicken eggs. On frying, the yolk hardens before the albumen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail meat is dark and can be prepared in all of the many ways used for chicken. The two meats are similar in taste, although quail is slightly gamier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its hardiness, small size, and short life cycle, quail are now commonly used as an experimental animal for biological research and for producing vaccines - especially the vaccine for Newcastle disease, to which quail are resistant. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many fanciers and hobbyists have also become interested in raising this adaptable species as a pet. Science teachers find it an excellent subject for classroom projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">QUAIL IN JAPAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some areas of Japan, quail are widely raised for their eggs and meat. However, Japanese originally valued the quail as a songbird. Tradition has it that about 600 years ago people began to enjoy its rhythmic call. In the feudal age, raising song quail became particularly popular among Samurai warriors. Contests were held to identify the most beautiful quail song and birds with the best voices were interbred in closed colonies. Even photostimulation was practiced to induce singing in winter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Around 1910, enthusiastic breeders produced the present domestic Japanese quail from the song quail. It was created as a food source and became a part of Japanese cuisine. During World War II it was almost exterminated, but Japanese quail breeders restored it from the few survivors and from birds imported from China. The original song quail, however, were lost. In the 1960s, commercial quail flocks rapidly recovered and Japan's quail population again reached its prewar level of about 2 million birds. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A QUAIL IN EVERY POT: AN OLD DELICACY FINDS A NEW PUBLIC</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For centuries, quail were considered a great delicacy: a dish that only eminent chefs would cook and diners with an appreciative palate could enjoy. These small migratory birds, which are found in one variety or another throughout the world, were available until recently almost exclusively to hunters in the wild.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But now quail are in danger: in danger of becoming commonplace.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the last few years, quail have gone from being rarefied to a supermarket specialty item. They are on menus in the most elegant restaurants and the most casual cafes and bistros.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Why so much interest?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are now available semi-boneless, which makes them faster and easier to cook, and easier to eat as well. The breastbones are removed by hand before the birds are packaged and shipped to stores. The bones in the wings and legs remain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A stainless-steel V-shaped pin - invented and patented by a restaurant chef who wanted a way to keep quail flat for grilling is inserted into the breast. The pin can be left there throughout cooking and removed just before serving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While whole quail might require 45 minutes to cook, the semi-boneless variety can be grilled in less than 10 minutes, or pan-roasted, braised or sauteed in less than 20 minutes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The flavor of farm-raised quail has also helped bring them into the mainstream. Most farm-raised quail have tender meat like the dark meat of chicken, whose flavor is enjoyed by many people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And at a time when people are searching for foods, specifically animal protein, with low fat and cholesterol, quail fills the bill. The Agriculture Department says that quail skin has about 7 percent fat, about the same as dark meat of roasted chicken without the skin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Judith Banrett Adapted from The New York Times </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">June 21, 1989</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is necessary to keep quail in battery cages on wire floors because males secrete a sticky foam (from the foam gland) with their feces; on a solid floor, this adheres to the feet and collects dung, leading to crippling and breakage of eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult quail can live and produce successfully if they are allowed 80 cm2 of floor space per bird. However, for reproduction about twice that is needed to allow for mating rituals.3 If properly mated, high fertility rates and good egg hatchability can be expected. To obtain fertile eggs, one male is needed for roughly six females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eggs hatch in about 17 days. Chicks require careful attention. Brooding temperatures of between 31 C and 35 C  are needed for the first week and above 21 C for the second week. From the second week on, chicks can survive at room temperature. (These temperatures are similar to those required for common chickens.) In cold climates, supplemental heat may be needed as well as protection from cool drafts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clean water must be provided at all times, with care taken to prevent the chicks from drowning in their water troughs. Shallow trays, jar lids, or pans filled with marbles or stones may be used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail production can be started with little money. These easy-care birds can be housed in small, simple, inexpensive cages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, they are resistant to Newcastle disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SIX OF ONE, HALF A DOZEN OF THE OTHER</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that chickens can be crossed with quail has been known for some time, but there has been little attempt to develop the fertile hybrids. Now Malaysia has begun a project aimed at producing a new poultry bird - a cross between a cockerel and a hen quail. Zainal Abidin bin Mohd Noor, of the Department of Veterinary Services in Kuala Lumpur, is creating a strain that produces eggs of good quality and meat with the flavor of both parents. The new bird is intermediate in size between chicken and quail which is convenient because it is about right for an individual helping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The crossbreeding is done through artificial insemination. The progeny exhibit a range of appearances, sizes, and plumage colors, depending on the strains of cockerel and quail hens used. In the Malaysian research, cockerels have been local Ayam Kampung Bantam, Hybro, and Golden Comet hybrids. The quails have been local inbred Japanese quail (IJQ) and imported meat strain quail (IMSQ).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The trials show that the hybrids derived from the IMSQ flocks grew faster and bigger than those from the IJQ cross. The best have been the Hybro x IMSQ crosses, which weigh 475 g at 10 weeks of age. The best of the IJQ group weighed 290 g during the same period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This type of "tropical game hen" might be a way to introduce hybrid vigor into poultry production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The researchers who developed the hybrid have named it the "yamyuh." </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although generally disease resistant, quail are affected by several common poultry diseases, including salmonella, cholera, blackhead, and lice. They also suffer epidemic mortality from "quail disease" (ulcerative enteritis), which can, however, be controlled with antibiotics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail seem to require more protein than chickens, and produce best when given feed that is fairly high in protein.4 However, they also perform satisfactorily when fed rations designed for turkeys. They have high requirements for vitamin A, which they do not store.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are not suitable as free-ranging "scavengers." They must be kept confined, which is a major constraint. Unlike chickens or pigeons, they have no homing instinct and will not remain on a given site; if released, they will be lost. In addition, since they nest on the ground, they are highly susceptible to predation; they must be protected, especially where certain animals, the mongoose for example, are common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Artificial incubation is essential. Natural incubation using the female is futile; the females do not go broody and rarely incubate their eggs. The shells are extremely thin, but the eggs can be incubated under a small chicken hen, such as a bantam.5 The eggs are also subject to minute fractures. However, the shell membrane is extremely tough and unfertilized eggs are generally unaffected, but the cracks cause fertilized embryos to dehydrate and die. This is a serious limitation. Whenever quail husbandry is introduced, artificial incubation should be included.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail deserve to be included in all poultry research aimed at helping the Third World. Through its international scientific program, Japan, in particular, could apply to developing nations its vast experience with quail farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiences with quail in the tropics (for example, Japanese farmers in the Amazon Basin) and in tropical highlands (for instance, in India, Nepal, or Central Africa) should be collected and assessed to improve understanding of the environmental limits to Third World quail farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cooperation between commercial and laboratory quail breeders should be encouraged. Mutants found at the commercial level would be useful for laboratory work. Conversely, introducing new stocks could help the farmer. In both cases, more genetic diversity might also lead to the production of hybrid vigor, and genetic variability would be conserved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sex-linked genes, if they can be found, would be useful to the commercial quail breeder for the rapid sexing of newly hatched chicks. This could lead to more efficient production techniques, like those in the chicken industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although virtually all work to date has been on the Japanese quail, other species and subspecies warrant research and testing. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">12 Turkey</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g015a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) is well-known in North America and Europe, but in the rest of the world, especially in developing countries, its potential has been largely overlooked. Partly, this is because chickens are so familiar and grow so well that there seems no reason to consider any other poultry. Partly, it is because modern turkeys have been so highly bred for intensive production that the resulting birds are inappropriate for home production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, there is a much wider potential role for turkeys in the future. There are types that thrive as village birds or as scavengers, but these are little known even to turkey specialists. These primitive types are probably the least studied of all domestic fowl; little effort has been directed at increasing their productivity under free-ranging conditions. However, they retain their ancestral self-reliance and are widely used by farmers in Mexico. That they are unrecognized elsewhere is a serious oversight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native to North America, the turkey was domesticated by Indians about 400 BC, and today's Mexican birds seem to be direct descendants.' Unlike the large-breasted, modern commercial varieties, they mate naturally and they retain colored feathers and a narrow breast configuration. Their persistence in Mexico after 500 years of competition with other poultry highlights their adaptability, ruggedness, and usefulness to people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds complement chicken production. They are able to thrive under more arid conditions, they tolerate heat better, they range farther, and they have higher quality meat. Also, the percentage of edible meat is much greater than that from a chicken. Turkey meat is so low in fat that in the United States, at least, it is making strong inroads into markets that previously used chicken exclusively. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkeys are natural foragers and can be kept as scavengers. Indeed, they thrive best where they can rove about, feeding on seeds, fresh grass, other herbage, and insects. As long as drinking water is available, they will return to their roost in the evening.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appreciation for the turkey could rise rapidly. Interest already has been shown by several African nations. A French company has created a strain of self-reliant farm turkeys and is exporting them to developing countries.2 Researchers in Mexico are displaying increased interest in their national resource. And as knowledge and breeding stock continue to be developed, it is likely that village turkeys will become increasingly popular around the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modern turkey breeding has been so dominated by selection for increased size and muscling that commercial turkeys have leg problems and cannot mate naturally (they are inseminated artificially). These highly bred birds are adapted for large-volume intensive production, and must be raised with care. As noted, this chapter emphasizes the more self-reliant, less highly selected turkeys found in Mexico and a few other Latin American countries. They do not require artificial insemination, and with little attention can care for themselves and their young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fully grown "criollo" turkeys of Mexico are less than half the size of some improved strains. Males weigh between 5 and 8 kg; females, between 3 and 4 kg.3 They vary in color from white, through splashed or mottled, to black. The skin of the neck and head is bare, rough, warty, and blue and red in color. A soft fleshy protuberance at the forehead (the snood) resembles a finger. In males it swells during courtship. The front of the neck is a pendant wattle. A bundle of long, coarse bristles (the beard) stands out prominently from the center of the breast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The unimproved domestic turkey is essentially limited to central Mexico and scattered locations throughout nearby Latin American countries. Some village birds are also kept in India, Egypt, and other areas, but these are descended from semi-improved strains exported from North America and Europe in earlier times. Generally speaking, few turkeys are found in tropical countries outside Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated turkeys are not endangered; there are estimated to be about 124 million in the world. However, the wild Mexican varieties, ancestors to the first domesticated turkeys sent to Europe, may now be endangered since their distribution in southwestern Mexico has been greatly reduced. Certainly, some primitive domestic strains in the uplands of central Mexico are also being depleted. A separate type, independently domesticated by the Pueblo Indians of the southwestern United States, seems to have disappeared entirely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkeys can be reared virtually anywhere. Their natural habitat is open forest and wooded areas of the North American continent, but in Mexico they are raised from sea level to over 2,000 m altitude, from  rainforest to desert, and from near-temperate climates to the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p159a.png"></center><br>
+ The original distribution of the turkey and the occellated</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The range of diet is broad. Turkeys eat greens, fruits, seeds, nuts,  grasses, berries, roots, insects (locusts, cicadas, crickets, and  grasshoppers, for example), worms, slugs, and snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction is generally seasonal and is stimulated by increasing  daylength. (A minimum daylength of 12 hours is required.) The birds  can reach sexual maturity at six months of age and may start breeding at  this time. Ten days after first mating, the hen searches out a nest and  commences laying. Industrial birds in temperate climates lay, on  average, 90 eggs a year. The nondescript type of turkey in the tropics  seldom lays more than 20 small eggs (weighing about 60 am) before  going broody.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic turkeys walk rather than fly, and find almost all their food  on the ground. They can, however, fly short distances to avoid  predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commercial birds have lost many abilities for survival in the wild;  they can no longer exist without human care. However, village types  can do well with little management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkeys prefer to make their own nests but can be induced to lay in a  convenient spot if provided with nest boxes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are raised almost exclusively for meat. In many countries,  they are a treat for holidays, birthdays, and weddings. In their native  range of Mexico and Central America, the "unimproved" birds are  usually produced as a cash crop for market. They receive little care or  feed, and thus they are almost all profit - providing a significant income  supplement to many rural homes.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The principles of turkey management (nutrition, housing, rearing' and prevention of disease, for example) are basically the same as those for other poultry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mexico, turkeys are usually kept under free-ranging conditions around houses and villages. Some shelter and kitchen scraps are occasionally provided. A number of them, however, are confined in backyards as protection from marauders and for shelter against rain and wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One male can service up to 12 females. Roomy nests are needed. (As a rule, turkeys require three times the space occupied by chickens.) Most range turkeys are corralled when they begin to lay, so as to protect them from predators. Eggs may be gathered to prevent broodiness and thereby increase production. The eggs may be kept for several days (cool, but not refrigerated) if turned daily, and then may be placed under a chicken hen. (A setting chicken can be used this way to hatch up to nine eggs at a time.) Hatching takes 28 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As in other birds, newly hatched turkeys (poults) must be kept warm during the first weeks of life. Until they begin foraging and have full access to pasture they are usually fed broken grain or fine mash, as well as finely chopped, tender green feed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although free-ranging turkeys are simple to raise, confined turkeys require more complex management. The birds need uncrowded, well ventilated conditions and should be on a wire or slatted floor to reduce parasitic infections. Any feeds recommended for chicks are suitable, but the protein content should be somewhat higher; that is, about 27 percent. They can be fed mixed grains, corn, and chopped legume hay. It may be necessary to provide vitamin supplements and antibiotics and take steps to prevent coccidiosis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"AN INCOMPARABLY FINER BIRD"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The turkey was domesticated in Mexico some time before the Conquest. It is the one and only important domestic animal of North American origin. When the Spanish arrived, they found barnyard turkeys in the possession of Indians in all parts of Mexico and even in Central America. However, the Aztecs and the Tarascans, originating in west-central Mexico, seemed to have achieved the highest development of turkey culture, and it is probable that turkeys were domesticated in the western highlands, perhaps in Michoacan. Wild turkeys of that region are morphologically very similar to the primitive domestic bronze type. Both the Aztecs and Tarascans kept great numbers of the birds, including even white ones. They paid royal tribute to their respective kings in turkeys, according to the Relacion de Michoacan. The Tarascan king fed turkeys to the hawks and eagles in his zoo. The economy of some highland tribes was based on the cultivation of corn and the raising of turkeys.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Starker Leopold</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE INDUSTRIAL TURKEY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The modern domesticated turkey is thought to be descended from two differing wild subspecies, one found in Mexico and Central America and the other in the United States. The southern type is small, whereas the U.S. native is larger and has a characteristic bronze plumage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexican turkeys were exported to Europe soon after the Conquest, and spread rapidly. In the 17th century, some were returned to North America, where they interbred with the eastern subspecies of wild turkey, producing a heavier bird, which was then re-exported to Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These types underwent little change until this century, when the Englishman Jesse Throssel bred them for meat quality. In the 1920s, he brought his improved birds to Canada, where their large size and broad breasts quickly made them foundation breeding stock. Crossed with the narrow-breasted North American types, these heavily muscled meat birds quickly supplanted other varieties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About the same time, the U.S. Department of Agriculture began the scientific development of a smaller meat turkey derived from a more diverse genetic base. By the 1950s, the Beltsville Small Whites predominated in the home consumption market in the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds are efficient and generally take care of themselves. They tolerate dry, hot, or cold climates and forage farther than chickens. They are large, fast growing, highly marketable, low in fat, and tasty. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE TURKEY'S TROPICAL COUSIN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ocellated turkey (Agriocharis ocellata) occurs in Yucatan, Guatemala, and Belize. It is much like the common turkey in size, form, and behavior: however, unlike the common turkey, which in Mexico lives in the high mountain pine and oak forests, the ocellated turkey inhabits bushy, semiforested lowlands. This splendid bird lacks the kind of beard sported by the common turkey gobbler, is generally more metallic in appearance, and has brighter coppery colors. The chief character is a neck and head that are bare, blue, and profusely covered with coral-colored pimples. It also has a yellow-tipped protuberance growing on the crown between the eyes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is worthy of investigation by poultry researchers because it might prove to be domesticable. It was possibly domesticated by the Mayas, whose ruins often include appropriately sized stone enclosures whose soil has elevated levels of phosphorus and potassium. Even today, in the rural Peten area of Guatemala, ocellated turkeys are sometimes kept around houses as scavengers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young birds are readily affected by temperature changes and must be protected from the sun as well as from sudden chills, such as may occur at night. They are particularly susceptible to dampness, especially if associated with cold. One peculiarity is the turkey's aversion to any change in feeding routine or the nature of the food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young turkeys are susceptible to parasitic infestation as well as to the same type of bacterial and virus diseases as chickens (for example, fowlpox and coccidiosis). Blackhead, a devastating disease of young turkeys, is carried by a common parasitic nematode, and can be contracted from chickens. Medicines are available to prevent or treat most disease and pest problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkey development is almost nonexistent in the Third World (and much of the rest of the world, too). Although commercial turkeys are highly developed in some countries, little or no research has been conducted on the criollo turkey. Research on physiology, disease, and husbandry of the criollo turkey should be given high priority.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need for conservation of genetic variability is perhaps more critical in this species than in almost any other domesticated animal. The unimproved types in Mexico should be collected and assessed, and a program to conserve the stocks should be initiated. An analysis should also be made of the traditional management and performance of these birds. In addition, the four or five recognized turkey subspecies should be evaluated for their potential as seed stock for Third World countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">13 Potential New Poultry</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g016a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several preceding chapters have discussed the possibilities of domesticating certain wild birds.l Here, briefly, are highlighted other wild species with qualities that might make them suitable for sustained production. It should be understood that their practical use in the long run is pure speculation; they are included here merely to guide those interested in exploring the farthest frontiers of livestock science.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collectively, poultry have become the most useful of all livestock and the most widespread. Yet only a handful of species are employed. Of the 9,000 bird species, only a few (for instance, chickens, ducks, geese, muscovies, pigeons, and turkeys) have been domesticated for farm use. Strictly speaking, all birds are edible - at least none have poisonous flesh - so it seems illogical to conclude that these are the only likely candidates. Perhaps they are not even the best.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At first sight there may seem to be little need for new species, but poultry meat is in ever increasing demand and there are many niches where the main species are stricken by disease, or are afflicted by heat, humidity, altitude problems, or other hazards. For these areas, a new species might become a vital future resource. Perhaps some could even become globally important. The modern guinea fowl, for example, is a relative newcomer as a worldwide resource (see page 120).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds now used as poultry were domesticated centuries ago by people unaware of behavior modification, nutrition, genetics, microbiology, disease control, and the other basics of domestication. Today we can tame species that they couldn't. In particular, the new understanding of "imprinting" may make the domestication of birds easier today than ever before. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this highly speculative concept, the birds described on the following pages are worth considering. They all eat vegetation and tend to live in flocks, which makes them likely to be easy to feed and to keep in crowded conditions. Most are sedentary, nonmigratory, and poor fliers. All but three (tinamous, sand grouse, and trumpeters) are gallinaceous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gallinaceous birds are already the most important to people. The best known are chickens, turkeys, quail, and guinea fowl. But there are about 240 other species. Most are chickenlike: heavy bodied with short, rounded wings, and adapted for life on the ground. Although some are solitary, many are sociable. Basically vegetarian, they also eat insects, worms, and other invertebrates. The young birds are extremely precocious, walking and feeding within hours of hatching. All of these are advantageous traits for domestication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Game birds are also emphasized here. Many today are considered gourmet delights, and this should give them a head start in the marketplace. Indeed, some are already being raised in a small way on game farms and are at least partly on the way to domestication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHACHALACAS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These brownish birds (Ortalis vetula and nine other species) are found throughout Central and South America, and, given research, could possibly be raised on a large scale. A sort of "tropical chicken," they tame easily, live together in dense populations, and protect their chicks extremely well. They commonly scavenge around houses and people often put out scraps to feed them.2 The chicks are easily hatched, grow fast, and can be fed standard chicken rations.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is already considerable demand for these birds. Everywhere they are found, they are prized as food. In some areas they constitute the single most important game species, and are heavily hunted to supply local communities. Although they have less meat than a chicken, it is tastier and darker.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chachalacas are very adaptable. They occur mainly around forest edges and thrive in the thickets that appear after tropical forests have been felled. They do well close to humans, and their populations are not threatened, despite much hunting. Indeed, they seem well adapted to existence around villages and towns. Although not strong fliers, they are one of the few tree-roosting gallinaceous species. Primarily fruit eaters, they also consume tender leaves, twigs, and buds, and they scratch up the ground, presumably for insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although excitable and noisy, chachalacas become remarkably tame when fed by people. In a few cases, full domestication has almost been reached. Farmers like to have chachalacas around and have even used them to guard domestic chickens. These very raucous and fearless birds will take on all potential threats, even weasels.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GUANS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Close relatives of the chachalacas, guans5 are glossy black birds about the size of small geese. They are highly gregarious and perhaps could be raised in larger numbers. They commonly live around houses, farms, and settlements in their native region of tropical America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike most game birds, guans are chiefly tree dwellers, but they also feed on the ground. Some 12 species are known. All are relentlessly hunted for food and sport - their tameness and inability to fly far or fast making them easy targets. The rapid destruction of tropical forests threatens their populations in some parts of their range. Conservation projects and specific plans of action are being proposed for the most threatened species. Perhaps for the other species, game-ranching projects or even outright domestication might provide just the right incentive for their protection and multiplication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CURASSOWS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curassows are also relatives of guans and chachalacas, but they are even larger - up to 1 m tall and 5 kg in weight. At least seven species are found over the vast area from northern Mexico to southern South America.6 Among them are Latin America's finest game birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It might be possible to produce curassows in organized farming or ranching. They are commonly called "tropical turkeys" because they look like and run like turkeys. Indeed, Latin Americans normally refer to them as "pavos" or "pavones," as if they were the real thing. Their plumage ranges from deep blue to black, invariably with a purple gloss, and all have rather curly crests on their heads. They are not good fliers and spend most of their time on the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curassows are increasingly hunted; their tropical forest habitat is shrinking, and the subsequent loss of populations is a calamity. They are special targets, not only because they are large but also because their light-colored flesh makes exceptional eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is hope that these large wild fowls can be raised and managed in organized programs. Even now, people commonly keep them around their farms and villages. For example, on a number of Venezuelan ranches, yellow-raped curassows can be seen wandering around the cattle yards as if they were chickens.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOREST BIRD RANCHING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has intentionally focused on intensive farming - the type where people bring feed to animals in captivity. However, where this normal type of farming is of marginal value, `'ranching'' free-ranging birds may often be a more effective option. In this, the farmer simply monitors and improves the condition of the range and devises methods to harvest the birds on a sustainable basis. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Bird ranching" may today have outstanding merit, particularly in tropical rainforests. Hence, in this chapter we emphasize birds of the jungle. These might help make standing rainforests profitable producers of income, and thereby provide economic incentives to stop felling trees for cow pastures. Indeed, forest birds might become part of a whole new "salvation farming'' that makes forests more valuable than fields. It is a technique that may contribute to preserving both bird life and its vitally valuable habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MEGAPODES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Megapodes (family Megapodiidae) include some of the world's most interesting birds. They have temperature-sensitive beaks and employ nature's own heat sources as incubators. The best-known species build piles of leaves and use the heat of decomposition to incubate their eggs. The species of Papua New Guinea and Indonesia, however, take advantage of sun-warmed sand or even geothermal activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People have long revered these birds. Aborigines in Australia, Melanesians in New Guinea, and many Micronesians all protect the bizarre nesting sites, and "farm" them for eggs. Local people consider the large eggs special delicacies, and sometimes the egg-laying sites are owned and exploited for generations without a single bird being killed for food.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Programs that provide sustainable supplies of eggs have been established in Papua New Guinea. One is near Mt. Tovarvar, a simmering volcano on the island of New Britain. Here, megapodes gather in large numbers to lay eggs in the hot sands. They dig until they locate sand that is exactly 32.7&Yacute;C, before laying their huge (more than 10 cm long and 6 cm wide) pink eggs. Each year the villagers dig up some 2O,OOO eggs, which are an important source of protein and cash income. The government now regulates the harvest in a way that protects the bird population while supplying a nourishing food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Megapodes are found in only a few parts of the world, but projects such as those in Papua New Guinea provide hope and guidance not only for the sustainable "ranching" of megapodes, but also for other species elsewhere. Many wild birds yield locally important products down, colored feathers, eggs, meat, and skins, and they make excellent songbirds and pets, for example. Their management on a sustainable basis may in certain cases be the key to turning local people into the most dedicated conservationists of all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PARTRIDGES AND FRANCOLINS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Partridges include many small game birds native to the Old World. They are robust, precocious, and larger than quails. Some lay many eggs - the European partridge, for example, lays up to 26 in a clutch. Newly hatched chicks are soon able to feed themselves and can fly within a few weeks, sometimes even within the first few days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species that may make useful poultry include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The European (or gray) partridge (Perdix perdix); </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The rock partridge (Alectoris), bantamlike birds of Africa; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The chukar (A. graeca). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A native of the vast area from southeastern Europe to India and Manchuria, the chukar is stocked as a game bird in many countries. It is now produced routinely under poultrylike husbandry in many parts of the United States, not only for hunting clubs, but also for expensive food markets. The birds are generally raised on turkey rations and dress out at about 500 g after 18 weeks. They sell for more than broiler chickens and are a profitable sideline for increasing numbers of poultry farmers.9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A group of closely related birds are the francolins (genus Francolinus), of which there are 34 species in Africa and 5 in West and South Asia. These adaptable birds are sturdy, live in a variety of habitats, and tend to be rather noisy. Basically, they are partridges with leg spurs. They are highly regarded as a food source and are hunted and trapped wherever they are found.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Francolins are much like quail, but are several times larger. Arabs introduced one of the most beautiful species (Francolinus francolinus) into southern Spain, Sicily, and Greece during the Middle Ages. However, it was hunted so heavily that it soon became extinct in Europe. More recently, francolins have been introduced to the Soviet Union.'&Yacute;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Francolins inhabit steppes, savannas, primeval forests, and mountains. They thrive in cultivated land with much cover. The clutch consists of 6-8 hard, thick-shelled eggs. In recent times at least one program to domesticate them for food has been started in Africa.11</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MALAYSIA'S MOBILE MOUSETRAP</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the report emphasizes microlivestock as food suppliers, it should be realized that small animals - even wild ones - can have other important uses as welt The following interesting example, with possible worldwide implications, comes from recent experiences in Malaysia. *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Certain rodents are major pests on farms and plantations. Now, however, Malaysian zoologists are finding that owls, particularly barn owls (Tyto alba), can help control them. An owl pair and its chicks annually consume 1,500 or more rodents. This is not new knowledge; indeed, on farms throughout the world the barn owl has always been a welcome guest. What is new is that Malaysians are showing how outstandingly effective this process is, and they have initiated major projects to attract and maintain these feathered friends. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barn owls are found in many parts of the world, but were formerly almost unknown in Peninsular Malaysia. In 1969, however, a pair began nesting in an oil-palm plantation in Johore State. Since then, these birds have steadily increased in numbers and have spread throughout most of the peninsula. Today, the population is increasing remarkably quickly as more and more managers erect nest boxes for the owls to live in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The owls are proving to be a good way to remove rats and are notably effective in plantations of oil palm. They perch on fronds and fly under and between the rows of trees. A cost of $1 - $2 per hectare per year is all that is required to install nest boxes, a negligible outlay for the control of such a serious and expensive problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is believed that the barn owls hunt mainly in plantations and other agricultural areas and not in the rainforest. Barn owls are, after all primarily adapted to open spaces and not dense forest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps this experience can be replicated and adopted in other locations and with other crops. Grain crops - notably rice - are particularly prone to the ravages of rodents, and one trial has commenced in Selangor State in a rice area. The concept of using owls for rodent control is also catching on in the United States. Indeed owl nest boxes are being erected in Central Park in the heart of New York City.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PHEASANTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One pheasant, the red junglefowl, gave the world the chicken (see page 86). The other 48 species may have some potential, too. These are rarely seen forest birds; all but one are confined to Asia.13 Because they are prolific they can sustain heavy predation, and many species, notably the ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), are constantly hunted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People in several countries have learned to exploit pheasants on farms and estates. As a result, there is a vast amount of information on how to rear and manage these birds. So far, however, it has been applied only to sport hunting in wealthy societies; the potential of raising pheasants for the mass market should now be seriously addressed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most dramatic-looking pheasant, the peacock (Pavo cristatus), is raised as a poultry species in Vietnam. The meat of the young birds is considered outstanding. In fine restaurants in New York, a peacock dinner is reputed to cost $150. Common peafowls are considered sacred in many parts of India, where they have become so tame that they are essentially domesticated. They also control snakes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">QUAIL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic quail have been previously described (page 146)J but dozens of wild quail species and subspecies occupy many different habitats and ecological niches in almost all parts of the world. Out of all this genetic wealth only one species - the Japanese quail - is widely used. Yet many other species seem easy to raise, becoming exceedingly tame after about the sixth generation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The management and even perhaps intensive production of these various local quails might provide long-term benefits for many developing nations. Quail meat ranks among the finest.14 Some of these lesser-studied birds are more meaty than the Japanese quail or have other possibly useful traits. Much is known about rearing a few of them because they are used in sport hunting or laboratory research. The possibility of domestication, therefore, is not farfetched.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Particular quail that might be considered for domestication are the lesser-known subspecies of Coturnix coturnix. These subspecies are found in various places, including the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Europe (C. c. coturnix breeds in the area ranging from northern Russia to North Africa and from the British Isles to Siberia. In winter it migrates to tropical Africa, Asia, and southern India.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Azores (C. c. conturbans) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands (C. c. confisa) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Cape Verde Islands (C. c. inopinata) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- East Africa (C. c. erlangeri) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Tropical Africa, southern Africa, Madagascar, and Mauritius (C. c. africana) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Japan (C. c. japonica, the most probable ancestor of the domesticated quail)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- China (C. c. ussuriensis, a possible ancestor of the domesticated Japanese quail)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TINAMOUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tinamous are quail-like birds of Central and South America's forests and grasslands. They are, however, much larger than quail and resemble small chickens, with plump bodies and no visible tail. There are more than 40 species, and all are much sought for food because their meat is tender and flavorful. The breast is surprisingly large, and its flesh is pale and translucent. One species, the great tinamou (Tinamus major), has been called "the most perfect of birds for culinary purposes." Frozen tinamous from Argentina were formerly sold in the United States under the name "South American quail."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tinamous are found mainly in tropical areas, but are also widely distributed in Argentina and Chile. They dwell in varied habitats: rainforests, thickets, bushlands, savannas, and grasslands up to 5,000 m altitude in the Andes. Some species sleep in trees, others on the ground. They spend their days creeping about in heavy cover, flying only when forced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At least some species tame readily. Indeed, during the nesting period males become so tractable that they can be picked up off the nest. At the turn of the century, many tinamous were raised as game birds in France, England, Germany, and Hungary. However, for reasons unknown, subsequent attempts to settle them in Europe have failed. Tinamous have been raised in Canada without undue difficulty; they showed little or no stress under captivity and there were few losses.15</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tinamous may also prove suitable for egg production. They lay clutches of 16-20 spectacular-looking shiny eggs that seem to be made of sky-blue and bright-green ceramic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAND GROUSE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sand grouse (mainly Pterocles species) are highly adapted to life in arid regions - desert, dry grasslands, arid savanna, and bushveld. Their entire body (including most of the bill and feet) is covered with dense down, which in the desert insulates them from the burning heat of midday and the freezing cold of night. It also protects the nostrils against blowing sand and dust.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These pigeonlike birds are found throughout the drier regions of Africa and Asia - for instance, the Sahara, Kalahari, Namib, Arabian, and Thar deserts. They live mainly on small seeds, and sometimes flocks of thousands may be seen at waterholes, flying in for a drink from up to 80 km away. For peoples of the driest spots on earth, these birds may make a useful food species: for one thing, they are not endangered. Indeed, they are proliferating as drought and overgrazing is increasing the amount of dry, desolate rangeland that they prefer. The bore holes provided for livestock have both boosted their populations and afforded a place where these wide-ranging birds can be easily captured. When nesting, sand grouse are highly vulnerable to foxes, jackals, mongooses, and other predators. Protection of the nesting sites may be the key to maintaining their populations if harvesting schemes are introduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TRUMPETERS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trumpeters (Psophia species) might prove to be a useful species for sustainable production within tropical forests. As "tree poultry," these relatives of cranes could help provide meat without destroying the trees, as is now done to raise cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These chicken-sized birds inhabit South America's jungles.16 They are nonmigrating, ground-dwelling, and are often kept as pets, notably by Amerindians. Under human protection, trumpeters become very tame. They recognize strangers and challenge them with a loud cackle. 17 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fully adapted to the forest environment, they can run fast, but fly poorly. In the wild, this makes them easy targets for hunters. Because of this and the fact that they make excellent eating, they are approaching extinction in some areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No attempts have been made to rear these birds in numbers, but this should be tried. They feed mainly on plant materials, particularly berries of all kinds. They also relish grasshoppers, spiders, and centipedes, and are particularly fond of termites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trumpeters require trees; they completely avoid cultivated land. Thus, as the destruction of forests in South America continues, their habitat is shrinking. Although their existence is not as yet threatened, the long-term prognosis is bleak. If managed in "forest-ranching" programs, however, they might be saved from extinction and thriving populations built up. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interest in rabbits continues to increase. It is now widely recognized that the raising of small animals in developing countries has great potential as a means of improving human nutrition and economic security. The famines in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia starkly illuminate the need for maximum efficiency in food production to maintain the quality of human life. Rabbit raising contributes to meeting these needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.R. Cheeke, N.M. Patton, S.D. Lukefahr, and J.I. McNitt Rabbit Production </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are especially well adapted to backyard rearing systems in which capital and fodder resources are usually limiting factors in animal production. When rabbits are reared according to the techniques appropriate to the environment they can do much to improve the family diet of many of the most needy rural families, while at the same time supplying them with a source of income. With more advanced technology rabbit production can also help to supply big city meat markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization The Rabbit: Husbandry, Health, and Production </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g017a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part III : Rabbits</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contrary to popular opinion, the domestic rabbit is a substantial part of the world's meat supply. Annual production of rabbit meat is estimated to be one million metric tons, and the total number of rabbits is approximately 708 million.' However, rabbits are now intensively raised for food only in temperate, mostly industrialized, nations. France, Italy, and Spain, for example, have long consumed rabbit meat; West German production was 20,000 tons each year; Hungary raises rabbits in large numbers (two of its commercial rabbitries have more than 10,000 does each); and the United States raises almost 8.5 million rabbits each year for consumption in homes and restaurants.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most developing countries, on the other hand, rabbits are not well known - at least compared with other livestock. But they have great promise there, and in recent years there has been a dramatic increase in interest. For those developing countries where information is available, rabbit meat production almost doubled between 1966 and 1980. For instance, several African countries - among them Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, and Zambia - now have national rabbit-raising programs. A number of Asian countries - such as the Philippines, Indonesia, India, and Vietnam - are also encouraging rabbit farming. And some Latin American countries - Mexico, Costa Rica, and El Salvador, for instance - are actively promoting rabbits for subsistence farmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana is also extensively promoting rabbit farming. Although able to produce all the cereals its population needs, it cannot produce enough meat to satisfy demand. In response, the government organized "Operation Feed Yourself." The National Rabbit Project was created </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hares</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The common hare (Lepus europus) has not been domesticated, but it is nevertheless a major cash crop of several countries. In Argentina, for example, there is a booming, million-dollar enterprise that exports hundreds of thousands of carcasses, mainly to Germany where they are sold as game meat. For Argentine campesinos, many of whom have few sources of livelihood, trapping hares provides a vital income. In New Zealand, too, hare has become an export item.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A closely related species (Lepus capensis) is native to Africa, and perhaps could be "ranched in the same fashion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rainforest Rabbit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forest rabbit, or tapeti (Sylvilagus brasiliensis), is commonly eaten in its native habitat, which extends from southern Mexico to southern Brazil. It occurs in various hot and humid areas of Central and South America and probably within the Amazon Basin itself. Thus, this creature seems a possible candidate for a "tropical rabbit" that can be raised under sweltering conditions, perhaps even in rainforest regions. Although it seems to be heat resistant, it has an especially fine fur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is now known about the tapeti. It is rather secretive and its natural history and even its range are still uncertain. However, its populations appear stable and it is not threatened with extinction. It produces litters of 1 - 5 young after a 44-day gestation, and may bear 4 litters a year. This may seem a lot, but compared with other wild rabbits, the litter size is small and the gestation period long. under this program to provide farmers with breeding stock and practical information on rearing rabbits. (To qualify for the purchase of new breeding stock, would-be rabbit raisers are required to take an intensive three-day course in rabbit husbandry, which is provided at no charge.) With both official and popular support, the rabbit's potential for Ghana has been enhanced through media campaigns complete with radio jingles (examples: "Get the bunny money!" "Grow rabbits - grow children." "Get into the rabbit habit!"), television spots, and large posters. Already, rabbit breeding is included in school curricula and rabbit meat is available in school lunches.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other countries have mounted similar campaigns. In Mexico, for instance, teachers raise rabbits in rural schools as a way of training students; scores of government officials have taken to breeding rabbits in their homes; and several army units are raising rabbits as mess-hall substitutes for costly beef, pork, and chicken. In Nigeria, farmers can now acquire rabbits from 18 government rabbit-breeding centers, which distribute thousands of animals each year. In Costa Rica, the government has similarly established a series of breeding, distribution, and rabbit-farming training centers. And in El Salvador, the technology of rabbit production is being transferred to farmers via the army.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although rabbits are ideal microlivestock in a general sense, rabbit rearing has many problems and limitations. Poor management is a common difficulty. Unlike the traditional method of keeping scavenger animals, rabbits have to be contained and cannot be left to find their own food. Raising rabbits requires more skills, more time, and much more effort than raising barnyard chickens or other familiar scavengers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For all that, rabbits produce more food than scavenging animals; they are less likely to damage crops because they are kept confined; they live exclusively on forage, which tends to grow vigorously in tropical zones; and they generally produce a more valuable product. The rabbit's potential is far from exploited, and rabbit farming will have to increase enormously before its promise for the small farms of the world is realized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is, however, an increasing concern over a recent outbreak of an exceptionally virulent viral rabbit disease - hemorrhagic tracheopneumonis, which attacks the lungs and lung tissue, killing 48 hours after the onset of symptoms. The virus, which has ravaged the animals in parts of Asia and Europe, was identified in China five years ago in Angora rabbits imported from Germany. It spread to Korea in 1986, and in early 1988 moved through southern and eastern Europe and spread as far as Egypt. It has also been identified in Mexico. Vaccination may become a future prerequisite of rabbit rearing in many countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAST FOOD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The order Lagomorpha includes more than 60 small quickmaturing, and rapidly reproducing species. It seems illogical to think that only one is useful as microlivestock. In principle, any rabbit, hare, or pike could be raised in captivity. All are clean, fast growing and rapid breeding. They are opportunistic feeders and can digest fibrous vegetation. Their meat tastes better than chicken and does not carry the stigma of rodent. The animals are small inoffensive, efficient at foraging, and generally tolerant of difficult environments. In theory, at least, they could be raised on vegetation not used by people or by many domesticated livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species worthy of exploratory research include the following.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">14 Domestic Rabbit</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g018a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)1 is suited to small-scale production and backyard farming. It is easily maintained, requires scant space, makes minimal demands on the family budget, and thrives on plant materials that are usually disdained by humans. It utilizes forage efficiently. even coarse vegetation that is high in fiber, and under ideal conditions it can grow so rapidly that its rate is only slightly lower than that of broiler chickens.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rabbit's capacity for reproduction is legendary. In theory, a single male and four females can produce as many as 3,000 offspring a year, representing some 1,450 kg of meat - as much as an average sized cow.3 The meat is pink, delicately flavored, and is usually considered a premium product that provides variety in the diet. It has more protein and less fat and calories per gram than beef, pork, lamb, or chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some breeds are raised for their wool. The long-haired Angora, for instance, yields a luxury fiber that makes a soft, lustrous fabric. It sells at high prices and makes these animals very valuable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbit pelts also bring cash. They are used in fur coats and other luxury garments. In addition, rabbit feet and tails are used in good luck charms and many curios.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are well known for their long ears, fluffy tails, and long hind legs. Many commercial breeds are white, although colored types are sometimes chosen because of special qualities in their meat or pelts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many breeds and much genetic diversity within and between breeds. (Almost 160 varieties are recognized by the American Rabbit Breeders Association.) However, in both North America and Europe, the New Zealand White has traditionally displaced most other breeds for commercial meat production. This medium-weight breed bears large litters, is a good milk producer, and has good mothering ability. It reproduces best under intensive farming and, among purebreds, yields the most meat. A full-grown New Zealand White weighs 4-5 kg, giving about 2 kg of meat at 8-10 weeks of age. Large breeds include the Flemish Giant or the Checkered Giant, which weigh more than 6 kg at maturity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids are rapidly replacing purebreds in Europe for commercial production. Specific crosses of breeds have been shown experimentally to be more productive overall compared with purebred New Zealand Whites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Different meat breeds are preferred in various countries. For example, in Ghana the most popular are Flemish Giants, New Zealand Whites, Yellow Silvers, and Checkered Giants; in Tanzania and Nigeria, New Zealand Whites and Dutch are preferred; in China, Chinchillas and Japanese Large Whites are the most widely consumed. Some smaller breeds - for instance, the Polish - are also valuable for husbandry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some Third World strains have already evolved. They show high tolerance to local conditions (for example, the Baladi - the main strain of the Sudan and the Near East - and the Criollo of Mexico). The Baladi has a small body and relatively low production, but it is hardy and tolerates harsh conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specialized breeds have been developed for wool, fur, and laboratory research. The Angora wool breed has already been mentioned. The Rex breed produces a high-quality pelt used in furs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild ancestor of the domestic rabbit was originally restricted to Spain and Portugal. Today, its descendants are found worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plentiful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic rabbits are best suited to temperate climates, but they do well in tropical and subtropical conditions if hutches are constructed and sited to take advantage of shade and cooling breezes. Ventilation is important (but care must be taken to avoid direct exposure to cold drafts). Prolonged exposure to temperatures higher than 30&Yacute;C reduces both fertility and growth. Apparently, all breeds tolerate heat equally well. However, heat is shed through the ears, and the longer the ear, the more heat a rabbit will tolerate. Lop-eared varieties withstand heat poorly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits eat fibrous vegetation. In addition to normal feces, they produce special droppings called cecotropes. Softer and smaller than the regular fecal pellets, they are excreted in clusters and are swallowed as soon as they are eliminated. Cecotropes are rich in bacterial protein, and this double digestion (coprophagy) enables the animals to utilize the fermentation products formed in the cecum. This process is rather like that of ruminants, and rabbits are sometimes called pseudoruminants.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding begins at 4-6 months of age and may continue up to age 4, occasionally to age 6. Gestation takes 28-32 days. Females can conceive within 24 hours after giving birth and can produce a second litter merely 4 weeks later. With good feed and early rebreeding, 9 or more litters a year are possible. (Such a rate is only achievable under exceptional management, however.) Litter size depends on breed and body weight. Small breeds average 4 young per litter; large breeds 810. Births occur at any time of the year, but production slackens when the weather is exceptionally cold or hot, when feed is scarce, or when days are short. Extremes of heat or cold can also affect the survival of the young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits raised under subsistence conditions are likely to produce 4 or 5 litters a year, with an average of 5-8 young per litter' depending on management and feed quality.5 Annual production of about 20 weaned offspring per female per year under tropical and subtropical conditions is common. The young remain in the nest until they are 2-3 weeks old. Their eyes open at approximately 10 days of age. About 4 months are required to produce a 2-kg market rabbit under subsistence conditions. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits that receive human handling are very gentle and can be trained to live inside people's houses and even use a "litter box."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are multipurpose animals yielding the following products:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Meat. Delicious hot or cold, fancy or plain, it can be breaded and fried, broiled, baked, or barbecued.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Wool. The fineness of rabbit hair is an asset in the production of wool, which is the plucked or shaved hair of the long-haired Angora breed. It is usually mixed with fine Merino sheep wool to give more substance and to improve its wearing quality. An average Angora rabbit produces about 850 g of wool each year. (Some specimens produce as much as 1,000 g.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Fur. The fur is dense.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Leather or vellum. Rabbit hide has the tension and strength required for tiny drive-belts in tape recorders and other delicate machines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Fertilizer. Rabbit manure often contains high proportions of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash, and it comes in convenient drypellet form.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Tourist charms. In many societies, rabbits are connected with good luck. Feet and tails are used for car decorations, key chains, charms, and mementos that appeal to tourists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are also used in biochemical and physiological research.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits can be housed in hutches ranging from sophisticated commercial cages to simple packing crates with a few ventilation holes and rough troughs for food and water. In all cases, watertight roofing is essential. A floor space of only 0.25 m&Yacute; is sufficient for one rabbit, but about 1 m&Yacute; is recommended for a female and her young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting small-scale rabbit production is generally inexpensive. An almost infinite variety of backyard feeding and drinking equipment can be made from various scrap items, such as old bottles. The main criteria are that cleaning should be easy and spillage minimized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In practice, diets can be based largely on herbage: grass, leaves, legumes, crop residues, and kitchen scraps. However, the diet must be wholesome, and caged rabbits fed on forage usually need some grain or agricultural by-products (rice bran, for instance) as a dietary supplement. Supplementation is particularly important for newborns and lactating females, whose diet must contain about 16 percent protein and at least 18 percent fiber. When "noncommercial" feeds are used, salt must be added to prevent salt deficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of higher protein content, legumes (for instance, alfalfa, cowpea, vetch, or pea) are better than grass. Alfalfa is particularly valuable, and in the Sudan and Mozambique it is already grown extensively for feeding rabbits. On diets consisting of alfalfa and rye grass, weaned New Zealand Whites have demonstrated growth rates of 38-39 g per day in animals weighing up to 2 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits, as mentioned, can utilize almost any type of edible vegetation. Also, despite their diminutive size, they can collectively produce as much meat per unit of forage as large livestock, or even more (see page 183).6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is much genetic diversity. Differences in growth rate, fertility, maternal ability, milk production, disease resistance, heat resistance, and other features have been noted. This is useful, since a wide genetic base enhances the likelihood of success of selection programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are easy to handle and can be raised under primitive conditions. They require little financial investment and their husbandry is easily accomplished in the home by women and children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal's rapid reproduction is a big advantage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical conditions produce special problems. There, rabbits must be protected from heat and rain. Stress brought on by high temperatures, high humidity, and wet conditions can lead to respiratory disorders and even sudden death.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most diseases are caused by poor management. Dirty or wet cages lead to diarrhea, sores, mites, and ringworm, all of which can cause serious losses. Enteritis (diarrhea) often kills 20 percent or more of all rabbits before they attain market age and weight. A major disease problem in most countries is coccidiosis, which is particularly harmful to young rabbits. Again, damp and unsanitary conditions increase the susceptibility; better management can control it. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries - notably Australia and New Zealand - escaping rabbits have become a serious menace and have destroyed crops and grazing lands. Because of this threat, it is illegal to import rabbits into some countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, many people are unaccustomed to eating rabbit. Indeed, where commercial ventures have been established in areas with an otherwise plentiful meat supply, there have been financial failures. However, where rabbit meat is familiar, there is usually great demand for it. Also, in poorer areas where animal protein is in short supply, the tasty pink meat is widely appreciated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HOW RABBITS WERE DOMESTICATED</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For 30 or 40 million years the wild species Oryctolagus Cuniculus lived only in the area that today is Spain. Caves there contain Stone Age drawings of it. Phoenician traders landing on the Iberian Peninsula in about 1100 B.C. found huge numbers of these wild rabbits. The little animals were unknown to them and they mistook them for the hyraxes they had seen in Africa. (Although small and rabbitlike, the hyrax is actually related to elephants.) Since the Semitic name for hyrax was shaphan ("one who hides"), the Phoenicians named the peninsula l-shepan-im, from which the Latin name Hispania developed. Thus, "Spain" actually means "island of hyraxes," even though these African animals have never occurred there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the rabbit's reproductive powers and adaptability it is surprising that it hadn't spread beyond Spain, but dense forests covered most of Europe after the last Ice Age. The rabbit, which is suited to open country, only spread rapidly after man had cleared most of the trees. Even then, the natural spread was slowed by the Pyrenees mountains blocking the way into the rest of Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ancient Romans became acquainted with rabbits after they invaded Spain, and they eagerly added wild rabbit meat to their banquets. The meat was so popular that around 1 A.D. Roman voyagers released a pair of rabbits onto the Balearic Islands. In time, these produced so many offspring that the islanders had to appeal to the Roman emperor for help. They even asked to be moved to another country if the emperor could not get rid of the plague of rabbits!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eventually, Romans in Italy, France, and other parts of the European mainland began raising rabbits for meat. They kept them in special cages called leporaria. Their rabbits were probably not truly domesticated; instead they were netted in the wild and caged for fattening before being prepared for the table. The Romans had little incentive to domesticate an animal that could be so easily captured.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tne rabbit was the last farm animal to be domesticated. It seems likely that this did not begin until the Christian era when monks in French monasteries began taming rabbits. In those days, rabbit embryos and newborn young were considered delicacies, called "laurices." In 600 A.D. the Pope declared that laurices were "not meatp," and permitted them to be eaten during fasts and in monasteries of strict discipline where meat was forbidden. Within a few years, the animal was domesticated, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government-sponsored rabbit-research stations and programs are found in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the United States, and the United Kingdom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbit husbandry is well known, but much basic research is needed; for example, specific nutrient requirements, breed comparisons, disease control, reproductive management, and efficient housing and equipment. There is a particular need to reduce the labor required for feeding, breeding, caging, and cleaning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the increasing number of rabbit programs in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, there is a need to share information and ideas among the various countries. The exchange of experiences with rabbit breeding, health and nutrition, and the practical experiences and field studies could be of great value.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further research in rabbit nutrition is necessary to identify nutrient requirements more precisely. Moreover, links between nutrition and disease should be clarified.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further research into the cause and prevention of enteritis is needed. (At present, this condition is prevented by maintaining a fiber level in the diet of at least 18 percent and keeping the energy level relatively low.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legume shrubs could be an answer to the feed problems in the dry season. Deep-rooted shrubby legumes, such as gliricidia or leucaena, remain green well into the dry season and have high protein contents. Rabbits find the leaves of leucaena palatable (see companion report Leucaena: Promising Forage and Tree Crop for the Tropics. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C. 1984), and they are fairly resistant to mimosine (a sometimes toxic amino acid found in leucaena foliage). More research on this promising approach is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted earlier (page 181), a killer virus has recently appeared. Studies into its epidemiology and control are most important. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outsiders who hope to improve conditions in underdeveloped areas, sometimes . . . introduce new food avoidances to the communities they came to help [if outsiders] show repugnance toward consuming goats, . . . rats, . . . crows, insects, intestines and blood, then the people they are educating may likewise give up those . . . foods and lose valuable proteins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calvin W. Schwabe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unmentionable Cuisine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can count on the fingers of one hand the domestic animals that produce virtually all of mankind's meat and milk - a selection made more than 10,000 years ago by our Neolithic ancestors. Yet the earth teems with thousands of species of animals; why limit ourselves to cattle, pigs, goats, and sheep? Given the world's shortages of energy and water and arable land, why not try to domesticate wild animals? The effort would save many species from extinction, provide the world with more food, and introduce gentle farming to fragile environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.D. Vietmeyer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g019a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part IV : Rodents</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents are the world's most widespread, adaptable, and prolific group of mammals. They reproduce well, grow fast, learn quickly, and adapt to a wide variety of local conditions. Many convert vegetation into meat efficiently, digesting some fiber, even though their stomach, like man's, is a simple one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems probable, therefore, that some species would make suitable microlivestock - a notion supported by the previous domestication of the guinea pig, laboratory rat and mouse, gerbil, and hamster. Indeed, "ranching" rodents might be an effective way to increase food supplies in remote areas. It could also be a mechanism to ensure the survival of rare rodents whose natural habitats are being rapidly destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODENTS AS FOOD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents are already common foods in many countries and are valued items of commerce. It has been estimated that 42 of 383 cultures eat rodents.! But the fact that they are a major meat source is almost unrecognized. This is due in part to cultural misunderstanding. Rodents suitable for human food or other products do not live in filth, like common rats. They are clean and vegetarian. Like rabbits, they eat grass and grains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some regions of the world, cooked rodent meat is regarded as the epitome of dining. In many countries, local rodent species are the most eagerly sought meats. City markets in different parts of Latin America carry guinea pig, pace, capybara, and vizcacha. Markets in Asia may carry rice rats, cloud rats, and bandicoot rats. Those of rural Africa are filled with "bushmeats" - usually including grasscutters, giant rats, and several other rodent species. These are often preferred to the meat of domestic stock and fetch higher prices than beef. And the amounts of rodent bushmeat available are not minor. In one year, for example, hunters in Botswana have brought to market 3.3 million kg of meat of the rodent called springhare (see page 278).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fondness for rodent meat is not restricted to the tropics. In the United States, squirrel was once a much sought treat. Fat, nut-fed grey squirrels went into Brunswick stew, which has been called the most famous dish to emerge from the campfires and cabins of Colonial America. Thomas Jefferson liked it. Today, squirrel is the country's number two game animal (after deer), and many are still eaten.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ancient Romans kept fat dormice in captivity, serving them as a delicacy. "The fat dormice are fattened up in barrel-like pots like those in country houses," wrote Varro (116-27 BC). "One feeds these animals large amounts of acorns, chestnuts, or other nuts."2 This small rodent remains a prized food in Europe and still appears on tables in certain areas. The meat is regarded as a delicacy because it tastes of almonds and other nuts. Often it is roasted, broiled, and cooked with its cracklings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents have seldom been included in livestock programs or economic development plans. Yet human appetite has actually caused the extinction of a number of species. Caribbean Indians ate several endemic rodents (one of which was as big as a bear), and may have caused several species to become extinct just before the time of Columbus. Others may soon follow the same dismal route, including the beautiful cloud rat of the Philippines, the hare-like mare of Argentina, the vizcacha of southern South America, and the gentle hutias of the Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea pig is described in a later chapter, but as it is the epitome of a rodent microlivestock species, some historical background is given here. It was domesticated for food use at least 7,000 years ago, probably in what is now the central highlands of Peru and Bolivia. With only llama and deer available, the prehistoric Andean peoples had few readily available sources of meat. They adopted wild cavies, and found that these rangeland rodents (which are more closely related to porcupines than to rats or mice) were gentle, manageable, and easy to rear. By the time the Spaniards arrived in the 1500s, the "cuy"  (pronounced "coo-ee," like the faint cry it makes) was a major food from  Argentina to the Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This impressed the conquistadores, who introduced cuys into Europe,  where they also became a delicacy.3 Within a century, these easily  transported animals began to appear on tables in many parts of the  Spanish empire. Guinea pigs are now reared in campesino huts in the  mountains of central Mexico, in the Philippines, and in several African  nations, along with other areas of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Elsewhere, guinea pigs came to be used only as house pets and  laboratory animals. Although during World War II Mussolini's  government urged Italians to keep them to supplement their meager  meat rations, their use as food was largely ignored in most parts of the  world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The idea of domesticating rodents may seem radical, but  domestication projects are already under way with capybara in  Venezuela (see page 206), pace in Panama (see next page and page  262), giant rat in Nigeria (see page 224), and the grasscutter in Ghana  (see page 232). Rodent husbandry is not complicated and the animals'  environmental requirements seem relatively simple and easy to satisfy.  Moreover, rodents are not usually fastidious feeders, and being  essentially vegetarian will readily accept a wide variety of commonly  available foodstuffs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with most animals with which man is in close contact, rodents can  transmit human diseases.4 With care, however, managed rodents need  not be any more dangerous to care for or to eat than pigs or  horses - both of which are worldwide food resources.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING RODENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To domesticate the pace (see page 262) would seem to be impossible. These large rodents of Central and South America are nocturnal and fiercely territorial; they have low fecundity and take 10 months to reach weaning, and they have tender skin that is easily damaged Most researchers have written them off as candidates for domestication. But at least two have undertaken to beat the odds. We present the findings of one of them here to show that, using modem techniques, even species that normally fight each other to the death on sight are potential farm animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through years of studying paces in Panama, Smithsonian biologist Nicholas Smythe has found that with care and planning the aggressive behavior can be so radically altered that the animals become calm. Indeed, some become almost loving. Newborns, Smythe found, undergo "imprinting" and when he places them with docile adults or with humans, the fierce territoriality never develops. He nurses newborns on "surrogate" mothers that have been imprinted on people. The youngsters then welcome human company and, if fumed out of the cage, return there voluntarily. "It's difficult to imagine a more manageable animal," Smythe said. "Technically speaking they are behaviorally indistinguishable from traditional domestic animals."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As of this writing, Smythe has three generations totalling about 50 individuals, and has several "families" of gentle paces living together in harmony. He has observed that they lose their nocturnal habit and, although they live mainly on fruits in the wild, they readily eat leafy vegetables and other foods in captivity. His captive specimens have recently begun to breed. The offspring remain docile, but they have so far averaged only a little more than two young per female per year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"If we can just double the reproduction rate, then raising paces can compete economically with raising cattle," Smythe explained. "The potential for a bigger brood is all in the animal's anatomy, and if successful, paces in the wet tropics could produce as much protein as cattle."*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas need the shade and protection of the forest. Thus, pace raising might provide an alternative to cutting down rainforests for cattle raising. Instead of toppling trees and planting pastures, people could farm paces in the forest, and perhaps make as much or more money at the same time. In tropical America, the ready acceptance of pace meat is a near guarantee that all they produce will be snapped up at premium prices. In the past, many territorial and aggressive species have been dismissed as being impossible to domesticate or manage. But Smythe has demonstrated that with imprinting and other methods of behavior modification, these need be dismissed no longer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, the pace may already be becoming a new domesticated species. In the first stage of his experiments, Smythe had to train his captive-born paces to be social and nonaggressive. Subsequent generations, however, need no training adopt the new behavior patterns of the parents, and do not revert to aggressive asocial behavior. By the third generation, they have become as accepting of, and indifferent to, people as cattle or sheep. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">15 Agouti</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g020a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the best known of all animals of the American tropics, agoutis (Dasyprocta species)' are prolific rabbit- or hare-sized rodents that are probably easily farmed. They are valued for food and are hunted throughout most of their range. Indeed, agouti meat, once common in Latin markets. is now difficult to find because of indiscriminate killing. Agouti hunting is already prohibited in Brazil; restaurants in Belem, for example, once offered a variety of "cotta" (agouti) dishes at prices equivalent to those of choice filet mignon, but since the early 1970s they have been banned from serving it. Other countries will probably have to institute similar bans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis are active, long-legged, and high-strung. They flee in panic at the slightest alarm. They do not climb but they do burrow occasionally, being essentially specialized ground-dwellers that live in tropical forest regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There have been no organized scientific attempts to raise these swift, shy animals in captivity, but Latin Americans sometimes keep them as "domestics," especially in parks and large gardens. (Agoutis are well known, for instance at the Goeldi Museum in Belem, Brazil.) These animals seem to tame easily, and could perhaps be mass produced on a large scale like rabbits or guinea pigs. They make affectionate pets, sometimes refusing to return to the wild. A research project on captive breeding of two local agouti species (Dasyprocta mexicana and D. punctata) for food is already under way in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of lowland, tropical Latin America and the Caribbean. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis are delicately built, graceful, nimble, and beautifully proportioned. They have slender bodies, short ears, and look somewhat like a rabbit that has been "jacked up" in back. Generally, adults are 40-60 cm long and weigh 2-5 kg. Some are even bigger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They run well and are good jumpers. From a standing start an agouti reportedly can leap as high as 2 m or as far as 6 m; however, as long as they are well fed, there is little problem keeping them behind a wall only 1 m high.2 Reportedly, they sometimes climb easy-sloping trees to collect green fruits, but researchers studying Central American agoutis report that they are strictly terrestrial.3 They swim well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The body hair is thick, coarse, and glossy: pale orange to black on the back, and white to yellow on the belly. Some species have faint stripes, and some have a rump that contrasts with the rest of the back. The short tail is partially concealed under the long body hair.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis occur over a vast area from southern Mexico to Paraguay, including many islands in the Caribbean.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they occasionally damage sugarcane plantings and because the meat is particularly tasty, people hunt agoutis relentlessly, especially near cities and towns. Now, in the l990s, they are becoming rare because of excessive hunting and habitat destruction. Many Latin Americans have never heard of them. In Mexico, for instance, there are few places where agoutis survive, and Dasyprocta mexicana may become extinct if habitat destruction and overhunting continue in its restricted range. In Costa Rica and Panama, agoutis occur only where there is little or no hunting or human interference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From sea level to elevations of at least 2,500 m, the adaptable agouti lives in many habitats: moist lowland forests, dry upland forests, thick brush, and savannas. However, although they thrive in secondary growth areas, they are mainly forest dwellers. Nonetheless, they often enter fields to forage, and young animals occasionally are seen in open areas such as grassy stream banks and cultivated fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis shelter in hollows among boulders, in riverbanks, or under tree roots. They also hide in heavy brush and sometimes in holes dug out by other species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These herbivores eat seeds, fruit, stalks, leaves, roots, and other succulent plant parts, as well as occasional insects and fungi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They seem to mate twice each year. The estrous cycle is variable, but is only about 34 days long. The young are born after a gestation period of 3.5-4 months. Usually, there are twins; however, single births and triplets have been recorded. Newborns are fully developed and are able to run around within hours. They start feeding on solids within a few days. Puberty occurs at about 9 months of age. Life expectancy is 10 years or more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild, agoutis are shy and retiring. Every sense seems constantly triggered for instantaneous action and sometimes they become hysterical. If danger threatens, they usually "freeze," but when discovered they stamp their feet as an alarm signal and dash away, nimbly dodging obstacles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite excessive timidity, they can be violent among themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In undisturbed forests, agoutis are diurnal and are often seen. But around villages they become nocturnal, as a means of self-preservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the most part, these rodents live in loosely formed pairs, with previous litters living around their territory as "satellites." There is some "bigamy," some "philandering," and some "divorce."5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their long claws, they display much finger dexterity. To eat, they usually sit erect, crouching on their haunches and holding the food in their forepaws. If it has a skin' they carefully peel it before starting their meal. They save some nonperishable foods (nuts, for instance) by digging holes in scattered locations, dropping each one in a separate location, stamping it down, and covering it over. This behavior helps disperse the seeds of many species of trees so that agoutis benefit tropical forests and reforestation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p203a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, agoutis are popular game animals. They are often hunted with dogs that even follow them into the burrows. Agouti meat is tasty, although it is usually said to fall short of the meat of the pace (see page 262) because it is leaner and gamier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis adapt well to captivity. With appropriate care they can be bred without difficulty.6 The nervousness that is pronounced in nature is quickly lost in captivity. The young become tame pets. They can be fed on foods such as leafy vegetables, fruit, potatoes, and bread scraps. Although many wild specimens have become nocturnal, captives readily readapt to daylight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Being entirely terrestrial, agoutis require no trees, but they do need space. Given enough area, they get on well (with each other and with different species), and they breed freely. To avoid fighting, it seems necessary to separate females from males at puberty. Probably removing progeny from breeding pens at weaning could also help avoid most of the interpersonal aggression. In large areas with plenty of cover (banana plants, for instance), groups can be kept, but breeding may be disappointing. Husbandry may be most appropriate in large enclosures (50-100 agoutis) with some animals then removed to small cages 0.5-1 m&Yacute; for selective feeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACOUCHIES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Close relatives, the green and red acouchies (Myoprocta acouchy and Myoprocta exilis) also deserve study. These are smaller animals with longer tails, bearing a little plume of white hairs. Although even more delicate and hypersensitive than agoutis, they can be kept in captivity and breed well. They then become less nervous and are easily handled. Acouchies. show remarkable intelligence and even some affection for those they trust. They frequent rainforests, but are rare or even absent in disturbed areas. Adults weigh up to 1.5 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The general biology (diet, reproduction, activity rhythm), is almost the same as that of the agouti, but they live in smaller home ranges (0.6-1.2 hectares versus 2.5 hectares for the agouti) and travel singly, although belonging to a well-established family unit. Adult males tolerate the juvenile males. They occur only in Colombia, the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farming methods would probably be the same as for the agoutis, but acouchies always need plant cover.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis are appropriately sized: a dressed carcass can weigh 1-3 kg. The meat is good, and large commercial undertakings in urban centers could profit from the ready market that already exists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are prolific: females can produce up to two litters a year, each litter averaging two offspring. In protected areas, populations may grow fast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These forest dwellers might provide a source of meat and income without destroying the forests in favor of cattle pastures. Also, they thrive in disturbed areas as long as there is some cover. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiments in Brazil show that agoutis are highly susceptible to foot-and-mouth disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals might become pests: they eat the roots, leaves, and fruit of agricultural crops and occasionally damage sugarcane and banana plants. However, current experience suggests that if they escape captivity they are quickly caught by hunters and do not reach pest levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Live agoutis have strong-smelling anal glands that may be offensive to breeders or could contaminate the meat if the animals are carelessly handled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where the rainforest is destroyed, the agouti population is destroyed. The animals were once well known throughout Latin America, but not anymore. In some areas, therefore, wild breeding stock may not be locally available. Moreover, people may have become sufficiently unfamiliar with them that their value may no longer be appreciated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, they can be the prey of large birds such as eagles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The taxonomy of agouti species needs clarification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Husbandry experiments are required, including studies on topics such as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutrition;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Growth rate;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Shelters and enclosures;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reproduction; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Techniques for catching, moving, marketing, and managing the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One area where agoutis might profitably be raised is in enclosures in palm plantations. Palms such as the babassu provide food, shade, and shelter, while fallen and rotten logs offer secure retreats from predators. This deserves investigation.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instead of clearing vast areas of rainforest for cattle pasture, as is being done in much of Latin America, people might well "farm" agouties in the forests. Few of the settlers flooding into such regions can afford, let alone raise, beef. Small-scale agouti farming offers a promising and inexpensive alternative that would be gentle on the fragile land. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">16 Capybara</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g021a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), the world's largest rodent, can be as big as a sheep and weigh as much as a small person. Its natural habitat is the environs of South America's rivers, marshlands, and swamps, where it feeds on the grasses and reeds that grow near water.1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its size, tasty meat, valuable leather, and rapid reproduction, the capybara is a candidate for both ranching and intensive husbandry throughout the hot and humid lowland tropical regions of Latin America. It seems easy to handle. It is commonly raised in zoos or occasionally as a pet, and has, in at least one instance, been proven successful in large commercial herds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In floodplain ecosystems, capybaras complement cattle because they prefer to graze swamp grasses rather than the dryland grasses on which cattle feed. They have simple stomachs, but are one of the more efficient herbivores. Although they are "selective feeders" that eat lush waterside grasses "preserved in quality" by the water, they also graze pasture, usually selecting new growth that is often too short and scattered for cattle, with their large muzzles, to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The floodplains of the South American subtropics and tropics where the animal is indigenous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they have blunt, horselike heads, capybaras look like gigantic guinea pigs. They are ponderous, barrel shaped, and have a tail too small to be seen from a distance. Their skin is tough and covered by sparse, bristlelike hairs: the color above is reddish brown to gray; beneath, it is yellowish brown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The front legs are shorter than the back. Slightly webbed toes - four on the front feet and three on the back - make them good swimmers. They dive with ease and can stay underwater for up to five minutes. They also move nimbly on land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara is extremely large for a rodent. In size and color, it looks much like a pig. Often more than 100 cm long and 50 cm high at the shoulder, it can exceed 50 kg liveweight. Indeed, specimens weighing up to 90 kg have been reported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before livestock were introduced, the capybara grazed widely over riverine regions throughout South and Central America. Today, it is found in the flooded grasslands from Panama to Paraguay. Mainly, it occurs in the watersheds of the Orinoco, Amazon, Paraguay, and Parana rivers. High population densities exist in the Pantanal of western Brazil and on the Llanos floodplains of Venezuela and Colombia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are few precise population counts, but capybaras can occur in large numbers.2 However, in many areas they appear to be on the verge of extinction, being deliberately eradicated by farmers who think they compete with cattle and transmit diseases. Also, in some areas illegal hunting goes on year-round and great numbers are killed. The animals are particularly vulnerable during the dry season, when they concentrate around the diminished river channels and water holes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, most capybaras live in swampy or grassy areas bordering rivers. However, some are found in other habitats, ranging from open plains to tropical rainforests. But even here they stay near ponds, lakes, streams, and swamps, and never venture much more than 500 m from water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p210a.png"></center><br>
+ The capybaras native range</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara, like all rodents, is a simple-stomached animal, but it is a true herbivore. Its digestive system is especially adapted for fibrous materials. The large cecum - the site of enzymatic digestion serves a function like that of the rumen of sheep, cattle, and goats. It has a digestive capacity similar to that of a sheep's rumen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like rabbits and all the rodents, capybaras are coprophagous. That is, during the morning hours when they are resting, soft feces from the cecum are passed a second time through the digestive system.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributing to the animal's digestive ability is its efficient mastication. It chews its forage seemingly incessantly, reducing it to extremely small particles before it is swallowed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under natural conditions, the females annually bear 1 or 2 litters, each averaging from 4 to 6 offspring. Birth weight is between 1 and 2 kg, depending on litter size and sex. Both males and females reach sexual maturity when they reach a liveweight of 30 kg or more usually between the first and second year of life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras are intelligent, shy, inoffensive, and harmless. In undisturbed ecosystems, they are gregarious and live in family groups of up to 30. The young follow the mother about for many months after birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike most rodents, they do not construct dens, but the groups have specific resting areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are both diurnal and nocturnal and, like many herbivores, they graze at daybreak and dusk, and perhaps also at midnight. They spend the morning resting in weeds on riverbanks, and at noon they cool off by bathing for an hour or so before grazing. They may feed belly deep in water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras wallow in mud, allowing it to dry on their skin before bathing again. Mange can develop in captivity when they cannot take a mud bath.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When startled, a capybara barks loudly and dashes away, but after running 200 m or so it tires, slows down, and may lapse into hyperthermia. At that point a hunter can easily catch it. However, if the animal reaches water, it usually eludes the pursuer because it swims so well - especially underwater.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybara meat is white and has qualities and properties (such as high emulsification) that might allow it to compete with pork and other meats in the food industry. Spanish-style sausages, Italian-style mortadellas, frankfurters, and German-style smoked chops have been produced experimentally.4 However, at present, the meat is mainly consumed only in the dried and salted form. It is particularly popular in Venezuela, where more than 400 tons are sold every year, especially during Easter festivities.5 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara's hide is one of the best for glove making. This luxury product, known in international commerce as carpincho leather, fetches high prices on European markets because it is more heat resistant than most leathers and because it stretches in only one direction. This one way grain allows gloves to stretch sideways without lengthening and looking sloppy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara appears suitable for raising as a livestock animal. Amerindians traditionally collected capybara orphans during the hunting season and raised them until needed for food. Capybara breeding was reported in Brazil as early as 1565.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modern attempts have been made towards domestication. Researchers at the Institute of Animal Production in Venezuela, for instance, started a breeding program in the 1970s using 20 females and 5 males. Since that time they have continuously kept capybaras in confinement. Through selection and management, they have improved the reproduction of captive animals. The current aim is to get 16 offspring per mother per year. Newborns are weaned after 5 weeks and the mother is returned to the breeding pen.6 In Colombia, similar work is in progress, and guidelines for raising capybaras on breeding farms have been published.7 In Brazil, research has been carried out to study capybara nutrition, genetics, management, reproduction, and social behavior in total confinement.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout South America, the price of beef has increased greatly within the last few years, thereby providing a new incentive for capybara husbandry. It has also forced many campesinos to eat more wildlife, which adds another incentive for producing capybara meat on farms and thereby perhaps helping to relieve pressure on the wild stocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When tame, the animals are amenable to handling without physical restraint. They are so tractable that in Surinam a blind man once used one as a guide animal. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras can be raised on a variety of readily available vegetation: leaves, roots, fruits, and vegetables. They thrive in coarse grasses, if given opportunity to select nutritious parts. Their large incisors allow them to bite off short grasses that many herbivores cannot use. For instance, they eat "capybara grass" (Paspalum fasciculatum) that is abundant on river edges in Venezuela and is normally too short for cattle to graze. This makes for low-cost feeding and utilization of a resource that is otherwise unused.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras are at home in hot, humid environments and are fully adapted to life on the tropical floodplains and seasonally flooded savannas. They thrive in extreme climates where cattle struggle, such as in the parts of the lower Paraguayan Chaco where summer temperatures reach 45&Yacute;C.9 An ecological benefit to raising capybaras is that there is no need to alter habitats by introducing exotic forage plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They reproduce quickly. Age at first conception for females is about 1.5 years, and the time between parturitions is generally shorter than that of goats or sheep in the tropics. Young capybaras grow so fast that in 18 months they can reach a liveweight of more than 40 kg. In their natural conditions, they are more disease resistant than cattle. The annual productivity is said to exceed that of cattle in many parts of its range.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is already so widely eaten in South America that the meat from farmed animals should be readily acceptable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras occasionally raid fields and can harm sugarcane, rice, bananas, sweet potatoes, cassava, corn, and other crops. In many parts of Brazil, they are considered agricultural pests and are shot.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Confining these animals in high density may create serious problems. Infectious diseases and parasite outbreaks seem to be worse than those that occur with conventional livestock. Aggression might prove a limitation to capybara husbandry: it is almost impossible to cage two adult males together or to introduce new animals to an existing group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals may transmit disease to people and livestock. They can harbor foot-and-mouth disease and are known to be susceptible to brucellosis. They also carry a form of trypanosome, Trypanosoma evansi. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with cattle, capybara use only a small proportion of the total plant biomass. They are largely selective feeders, and for satisfactory performance must have sufficient area to select the plants they need. If placed in a paddock of only coarse grass, most will eventually die. Like goats and gazelles, capybara probably select a diet that is at least 15 percent richer in crude protein than a typical cattle diet.'&Yacute;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High mortality has never been observed in Venezuela, but keeping the animals alive on a farm in some areas may not be easy. In one trial, more than half (55 percent) of the capybara died of disease, and a few of septicemia (the result of wounds incurred during fights), but most apparently of trypanosomiasis. Other losses were caused by speeding vehicles (29 percent), poaching (6 percent), and predation, mainly by jaguars (12 percent)."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important for researchers to undertake the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gather specimens from different regions for comparative evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Assess experiences of zoos and farms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Undertake nutritional trials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Initiate captive breeding trials - measurements of growth rates, space requirements, feed needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Characterize the animal's productivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Study the capybara's basic physiology and production potentials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Investigate biological factors, such as reproductive physiology, and social behavior (both in the wild and under controlled conditions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine the factors influencing capybara reproduction, growth, and development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine the animal's adaptability and economic merit in various farming systems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Study the influence of environment on reproduction rate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine their complementarily with water buffalo or other ruminants that normally use swampy habitats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine relative causes of mortality (such as diseases specific to capybaras) and predation (especially of the young) by spectacled caiman, crested caracayes, black vultures, and others. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">17 Coypu</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g022a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu' (Myocastor coypus) is an aquatic rodent native to South America. It has been called the "South American beaver," but its size is actually closer to that of a small dog or an agouti. It seems suited to be a microlivestock species because, compared with most rodents' it has a large body size and a relatively high reproduction rate. Moreover, it is easy to manage, and there is much literature on how to raise it in captivity.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fur is the main item of commercial value. In the late 19th century, it was in such high demand that the animal was nearly exterminated. However, in 1922 Argentineans began raising coypu in captivity and this practice spread through South America and to other regions. In many European countries and in various locations in the United States some specimens escaped or were released, and coypu have become established in the waterways.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu meat is tasty and is consumed in many regions of South America as well as in parts of Europe. Because of the absence of musk glands, the meat is free of the "gamy" flavor found in squirrels and rabbits. It is moist, fine "rained, medium light in color, and firm. It is one of the mildest and tenderest of wild meats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal has been widely distributed, but its area of safest use is within its natural range in South America. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu is adapted to a semiaquatic existence and has webbed feet, valvular nostrils that can be closed to keep water out, and underfur that remains dry even under water. Its long, powerful claws on the forefeet are used for grooming, excavating burrows, and digging up and holding food. The tail is slender; the extremely large incisor teeth are orange-red.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An adult is 40-65 cm long and weighs 7-10 kg. Some occasionally weigh up to 17 kg. Males are larger than females. The pelage is thick, with coarse guard hairs overlying the underfur. The soft dense underfur (the commercially valuable pelt called "nutria") is about 2 cm long on the belly, and 2-5 cm long and less dense on the back. The color is yellowish to reddish brown on the back and pale yellow on the belly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu is distributed through southern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. It has been widely introduced in North America, Europe, northern Asia, and eastern Africa. As a result of escapes and releases from fur farms, the animals are now feral in Europe, North America, northern Asia, Japan, and East Africa. In the United States, they are abundant in Louisiana, Oregon, Florida, and the Chesapeake Bay region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In various countries, the animal's status ranges from that of a rarity to that of a pest. Wild coypu are protected by law in Argentina because of overhunting, but there are about 100 producers of farmed coypu.3 Elsewhere the animals are destroyed en masse to reduce the threat of damage to irrigation ditches, dams, and agricultural crops. In England a decade-long program has eradicated them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu mainly inhabit the banks of fresh or brackish waterways.4 They live in temperate zones and are highly sensitive to freezing conditions. Also, their heat tolerance is poor; lowland tropical regions may be too hot for them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p219a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu feeds mainly at night. The diet consists chiefly of plants, particularly water plants and reeds. Large amounts of fibrous vegetation is decomposed in the cecum, where bacteria break down cellulose particles. Mussels, snails, and other small organisms are also often eaten.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals burrow into soft soil or construct nests out of vegetation above ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu are relatively fast breeding. Females first give birth at ages ranging from 6 to 15 months. From then on, they produce 2 or 3 litters a year. They are able to mate and give birth at any time of the year, although more young are born during certain seasons. The gestation period is between 128 and 140 days. There are 5 or 6 (sometimes up to 12) young in each litter. Newborns are well developed, able to see, and fully covered with hair at birth. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The female's four or five pairs of mammae are located on the side of the body, an adaptation that permits the young to nurse while floating with their mothers in the water. In captivity, young are nursed for two months, but can survive if weaned at five days. The mean body weight at birth is about 225 g, but growth is rapid during the first five months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu have a potential life span of more than six years. However, they seldom survive more than three years, and in the wild probably no animals are older than five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are passive creatures, usually entirely lacking in aggression. They are shy and fearful; the slightest disturbance will send them scurrying to the shelter of water, a burrow, or other hiding place. With their large incisors they can bite viciously, but in captivity they tame down, even to where they can be carried around by hand. Compared with domestic animals, they are very sanitary in their feeding and living habits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In hot climates they are nocturnal, in cooler climates crepuscular, and in cold weather they become diurnal. Captive animals become conditioned to diurnal activity if fed during daylight hours. Most of the active period is spent feeding, grooming, and swimming. Grooming is done by scratching and "nibbling" the fur, and an oily secretion from glands located near the mouth and anus lubricates the pelage. Secretions from the anal glands are also employed for marking out territory.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excellent swimmers, coypu spend most of their time in the water. They can remain submerged for five minutes or more. On land, they lumber about with awkward, clumsy movements; however, when the need arises they can run fast and jump short distances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they usually live together in pairs, coypu will form large colonies. They tend to remain in one area throughout their lives: their daily "cruising range" has been measured at less than 45 m.5 However, drought or freezing weather can induce mass migrations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The burrows, which are dug in sloping banks, are usually short with no branching tunnels and generally end in a simple chamber. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In South America, the coypu has a long history of use. Nutria fur was in such high demand and the animal was hunted so avidly at the beginning of the last century that it became rare and had to be protected by government decree. As a result, populations increased dramatically. Nowadays, coypu are protected in many areas, but widespread poaching has reduced their numbers and range.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many thousands are killed each year just for the guard hairs, which are used in making felt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu are used in marsh management to reduce infestations of aquatic weeds and to keep waterways open.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas where it is found, the coypu is trapped by commercial hunters. However, as noted, several countries have coypu farms. In Germany, the animals have been raised on diets consisting chiefly of potatoes supplemented with oats, clover, corn, hay, green forage, legumes, turnips, or cabbage. Elsewhere, feeds generally include such materials as hay, corn, crushed oats, greens, root vegetables, apples, bread, and rabbit feed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To confine coypu, a wall of stone or concrete or a fence of stout wire netting is necessary. It must be set 1 m deep into the ground and rise 1-1.5 m above ground. Water must be available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where selected strains of animals are kept, it is usual to house each female in separate small compartments, complete with pools and shelter boxes. Each is then paired with a male, which is removed after mating to leave the female to rear her brood in seclusion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fur is particularly valuable because the female's nipples are so high that the soft belly fur is unbroken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This herbivore is much cheaper to feed than the furbearing carnivores such as mink. Furs of coypu raised in captivity fetch a price about three times greater than furs from wild animals.6 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wherever the coypu has escaped it has damaged embankments and stream banks. The burrows sometimes weaken dikes that protect low lying areas from flooding. In northern Europe and eastern England, for example, it is considered a serious pest. In rice paddies, coypu could become particularly devastating. They can also damage crops and natural plant communities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu can carry viruses that result in toxoplasmosis, papillomatosis, rabies, and equine encephalomyelitis; bacteria that cause salmonellosis, paratyphoid, and leptospirosis; protozoans that produce sarcosporidiosis and coccidiosis; and rickettsia. Common diseases of captive specimens are bacterial pneumonia, hepatitis-nephritis, Strongyloides infection, and neoplasms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European winters often cause the coypu's tail (which is hairless) to freeze, but the animal hardly seems to notice. A more dangerous situation arises when lakes, streams, or rivers freeze over; beneath the ice, coypu cannot find their way as easily as beavers, and often drown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little research needs to be done. There is massive literature on farming coypu. Nonetheless, the animal's behavior is little studied, and there are few reliable published observations on its social organization. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">18 Giant Rat</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant rat, also known as the pouched rat, is one of Africa's largest rodents.! Two species have been distinguished: Cricetomys gambianus, which lives chiefly in savannas and around the edges of forests and human settlements; and Cricetomys emini, which occurs mainly in rainforests. Both are highly prized as food </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are solitary, but they are easy to handle, have a gentle nature, and make good pets. Researchers at the University of Ibadan in Nigeria have been developing techniques for managing them in captivity. Breeding stocks were established in 1973, and since then so many generations have been bred that this small population is considered domesticated. Commercial-scale giant rat farming is now being established in southern Nigeria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is a promising development because giant rats are a common "bushmeat" throughout much of Africa. Since these herbivores are well known there, and are acceptable as food, they may have as much or more potential as meat animals than the introduced rabbits that are getting considerable attention (see page 178).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The intertropical zone of Africa from the southern Sahara to the northern Transvaal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is among the most striking of all African rodents. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its large size, it often causes amazement - even alarm -  when seen for the first time. The body measures as much as 40 cm, and, on average, weighs about 1-1.5 kg. The record for a hand-reared specimen is 1.6 kg 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from its size, the best known species (Cricetomys gambianus) is noted for the dark hair around its eyes, a nose that is sharply divided into dark upper and pale lower regions, and a tail that has a dark (proximal) section and pale (distal) section. The overall body color is a dusky gray.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lesser known species (Cricetomys emini) has short, thin, and relatively sleek fur. Its upper parts are pale brown; the belly is white.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant rats are commonly found from Senegal to Sudan, and as far south as the northern region of South Africa. The main species is mostly found in moist savannas, patches of forests, and rainforests. However, it can also be found in all West African vegetation zones from the semiarid Sahel to the coast. It also exists at high altitudes up to about 2,OOO m in West Africa and 3,000 m in eastern Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rainforest species occurs in the great equatorial forest belts of Zaire and neighboring Central African countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are probably not threatened with extinction. However, they have been exterminated in some areas (such as in parts of eastern Zaire) where the human population is dense, the land fully cultivated, and the wildlife overhunted. Although common, they are not as well known as one might suppose from their bulk and from the fact that they are sometimes found around, and even inside, houses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant rats occur largely in lightly wooded dryland regions or in forested humid regions. They cannot tolerate high temperatures or truly arid conditions. They often live in farm areas and in gardens. Their burrows are commonly found inside deserted termite mounds and at the base of trees. Some have also been found in the middle of cassava fields. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p227a.png"></center><br>
+ The giant rats distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are herbivores with a tendency to omnivory. They prefer fruits, but also subsist on tubers, grains, vegetables, leaves, legume pods, and wastes (such as banana peels). However, they are not grasseaters. Giant rats also kill and eat mice, insects (caterpillars, cockroaches, and locusts, for example), and probably many other small animals.3 They are particularly fond of mollusks (such as snails).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction is prolific and year-round. The female attains puberty at 20-23 weeks and the gestation period is about 20-42 days. The young are weaned at 21-26 days of age but stay with their mother until 2-3 months of age. So far, the record for the most litters has been 5 in 9 months. It thus seems possible that a female can reproduce 6 times a year. Litter size ranges between I and 5, but 4 is most common. Thus, in 1 year a single female could produce 24 or more young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These strictly nocturnal animals usually lead solitary lives and forage alone. Mostly, they occupy a burrow by themselves, except when the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">young are being raised. The burrows can be complex. Below the entrances are vertical shafts leading to a system of galleries and chambers for storing food, depositing droppings, sleeping, or breeding. The home range is individual and limited (1-6 hectares). In the wild, one male "supervises" the home ranges of several females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, the animals are often seen sitting up and ramming large amounts of food into their spacious cheek pouches. With full cheeks, they return to their burrows and disgorge the food into a "larder." Food (chiefly hard nuts) is stored there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They swim and climb well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A study carried out in Nigeria showed that the giant rat produces about the same amount of meat as the domestic rabbit.4 The meat's nutritional value compares favorably with that of domestic livestock, and African villagers know how to preserve it by smoking or by salting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant rat has recently attracted attention as a potential laboratory animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farmers in Nigeria have traditionally trapped the juveniles and fattened them for slaughter. They usually keep the animals in wire cages and feed them daily with food gathered in the wild as well as with scraps from the household.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the program at the University of Ibadan indicates that the giant rat can be domesticated. Already, specimens are being bred and reared in an intensive program. They adapt to captivity after about a month. They are subsequently transferred into breeding cages, which are wooden boxes with a rectangular wire-mesh "playroom." Each cage holds a breeding pair or a nursing female with its young. Experimental feeding cages have also been designed.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food-preference trials show that palm fruits and root crops (especially sweet potato) are preferred to grains and vegetables. Nutritional studies show that the animals can tolerate up to 7 percent crude fiber in their rations. Although largely vegetarian, they eagerly consume dry and canned dog food. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals have several advantages:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They are well known and much sought after for food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They have adapted to life in lowland tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They are able to live on locally available plant materials, including vegetable waste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They reproduce rapidly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They are more tolerant of captivity than the grasscutter (see next chapter). This is largely because omnivorous feeding makes them easier to feed than the grasscutter and other strict herbivores.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species could easily become a pest. It is recommended for rearing only in areas where it already exists. The crops it damages include cacao, root crops, peanuts, maize, sorghum, vegetables, and stored grains and foods. There is also the possibility that this rodent may transmit diseases to humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A project at the University of Kinshasa in Zaire reports problems in getting giant rats to reproduce in captivity. When two specimens were paired they sometimes fought so viciously that copulation was impossible.6 Special management may be required, such as housing animals in adjacent cages before actually introducing them to each other. Moreover, selection for docility may also be necessary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ratlike appearance is not attractive, and a few African tribes have taboos against consuming the meat of these animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout Africa south of the Sahara, giant rat domestication deserves experimentation and trials. Success would open up the potential for supplemental meat supplies in rural and urban areas where meat is now scarce. Tests are needed to determine the factors that favor breeding: temperature, aeration, light, privacy, and size and form of cages. Moreover, diets that are cheap and easy to make from local feedstuffs must be identified. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further research on the domestication of the giant rat might include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Identifying husbandry techniques that are applicable at low cost in rural areas;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Studying food digestibility and setting up various diets;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Illuminating social behavior: pairing of animals, the best moment for pairing, duration of pairing, age of partners;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Outlining the basics of husbandry (for instance, capital costs, food conversion ratios, growth rates) and making simple and cheap cages;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Studying biology (anatomy, physiology, birth records, growth rate); and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Testing the practical likelihood that this rodent may transmit diseases to people and other animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant rat has an interesting commensal relationship with Hemimerus, an insect that feeds on secretions in the skin. It seems to cause no irritation or damage, and may even benefit the host by helping to keep the skin clean. Caging these animals results in the general loss of the insect, but attempts should be made to maintain them and to determine their role and life cycle.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The potential of this species as a laboratory animal in nutritional, clinical, and pharmacological research also deserves exploration. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">19 Grasscutter</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g023a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus and Thryonomys gregorianus) is found in many forests and savannas of Africa. Its meat, said to resemble suckling pig, often sells for more per kilogram than chicken, beef, pork, or lamb. It is the preferred, and perhaps most expensive meat in West Africa. Indeed. in Ivory</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coast it sells for about $9 per kg. With prices like that, grasscutter is a culinary luxury that only the wealthy can afford.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If domestication of this wild species were successful in providing meat at a price similar to that of poultry (the second most popular meat), markets would be unlimited.2 However, as production costs are high, long-term research will be required before grasscutter production can be profitable to the small farmer. This research should now be undertaken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an effort to capitalize on the markets for this delicacy, agricultural extension services of Cameroon, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Togo, and particularly Benin are already encouraging farmers to rear grasscutters as backyard livestock. They furnish breeding stock and information, and maintain central offices for records. In addition, a bilateral cooperation project in Benin has started experimental work on improved breeding methods combined with the study of animal responses under domestication.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In future, this vegetarian animal might become the African equivalent of South America's guinea pig, playing an important role in reducing Africa's chronic protein shortage. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Humid and subhumid Africa south of the Sahara.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters are robust animals with short tails, small ears, and stocky bodies. Taxonomically, they are more closely related to porcupines than to common rats or mice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although many varieties have been described, there are probably only two species. The larger (Thryonomys swinderianus) weighs 9 kg or more and has a head-and-body length of up to 60 cm. The smaller species (Thryonomys gregorianus) may occasionally reach 8 kg and a body length of 50 cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species have yellow-brown to gray-brown bodies, with whitish bellies. The fur is extremely coarse, firm, and bristly - reflecting the animal's kinship to the porcupine. The tail is scaly and has short, sparse hairs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species have thick, heavy claws and enormous orange incisors that can chew through even the toughest vegetation. (Grasscutters have been known to tear holes in corrugated iron fences.) Nevertheless, they do not bite when handled, although their claws sometimes cause injuries.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters occur in grassland or in wooded savanna throughout the humid and subhumid areas of Africa south of the Sahara. They often live in forest-savanna habitats where grass is present. They do not inhabit rainforest, dry scrub, or desert, but they have colonized the road borders in forest regions. Distribution is determined by availability of adequate or preferred grass species for food. Specifically, Thryonomys swinderianus occurs in virtually all countries of west, east, and southern Africa. Thryonomys gregorianus occurs in savannas in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Zaire, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite heavy hunting, these animals are not threatened with extinction. Nonetheless, many individual populations are well below carrying capacity, or are extinct because of local overexploitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The larger grasscutter (T. swinderianus) generally lives in swampy, low-lying areas, especially along river banks and the borders of lakes and streams. Occasionally, it is found on higher ground among bushes and rocks, living where savanna grasses are dense and tangled enough to afford good cover. In Ivory Coast and southern Guinea, for instance, grasscutters are found (and hunted) throughout the savanna zones. And they can occur in close proximity to farmlands and people (for example, in southwest Nigeria).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the precise diet in the wild has not been determined, grasscutters are vegetarian. They consume nuts, bark, and the soft parts of grasses and shrubs. They particularly favor elephant grass and sweet potatoes. They commonly "raid" cassava and yam plantations, and are considered local pests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters reproduce year-round, although the births seem to peak at certain times of the year, correlated with weather conditions.5 Probably one male takes several females, and the family group possibly has more than one generation of young. The gestation is about 152 days. Apparently, litters normally contain between 2 and 4 young, but in Benin and Togo some litters of up to 11 or 12 are reported.6 Newborns are fully developed, their eyes are open, they weigh approximately 80 g, have thick fur, and quickly become accomplished runners.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p236a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they commonly forage in groups, grasscutters are generally solitary. They are nocturnal, and they travel at night through trails in reeds and grass, often to water. Most specimens seen in markets are males, possibly because males lead the groups and are thus most prone to being trapped.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When alarmed, these animals stamp their hind feet and give a strange booming grunt. When fleeing, they can run very fast and, given a chance, will take to water. They swim with ease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For shelter, grasscutters usually weave nests of matted vegetation or scoop out shallow burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a broad geographic band across sub-Saharan Africa, cattle raising is severely limited by trypanosomiasis. There, other sources of animal protein, including rodents, are traditionally used. Thus, grasscutter meat constitutes an important food for many Africans. The animals are mostly caught and eaten by families for their own use, but some are sold in markets and especially in roadside stalls. Many families depend exclusively on selling bushmeat, particularly that of grasscutters. In Accra, Ghana, during one year, 73 tons of grasscutter meat were sold in the local market. This represented more than 15,000 animals. In southern Africa, too, people find that these rodents make tasty food, although they may cut off the tail to make the carcass look less ratlike.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat is usually eaten smoked, and is so much in demand that grasscutters are hunted in organized drives with spears, dogs, and sometimes fire. It is considered excellent, especially when cooked in soups and stews or barbecued.7 It has been described as resembling venison in flavor, but it is dark like the meat of wild duck.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the savanna area of West Africa, people have traditionally captured wild grasscutters and raised them at home. As an extension of this, organized grasscutter husbandry has been initiated in West Africa. The animals are provided with marshy, tightly fenced areas with plenty of plant cover. The young are harvested from these areas and raised separately.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghanaian researcher Emanuel Asibey, a pioneer of this research, reports success at getting such captive stocks to reproduce. To this end, farmers are provided with breeding boxes and foundation grass cutter colonies. They are taught how to rear and feed the animals for home consumption or for cash income. Basically, the farmers make available large sheds where the animals can move freely. To prevent escape, the walls may be reinforced with cement plaster. The farmers also provide piles of grass, sugarcane, and other foods. A grasscutter reportedly takes about a month to adjust to such confinement. High mortality can occur in this period. The average weight of a mature, home-raised grasscutter is 4-7 kg. The average killing-out (dressed carcass) is 64 percent.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Wildlife Domestication Unit of Ibadan University in Nigeria, another pioneer of rodent domestication, has also reported the potential of domesticated grasscutter colonies.9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research on grasscutter breeding, husbandry, and feeding is similarly being implemented by the Ministry for Rural Development in Benin and at the Lacena in Ivory Coast (see Research Contacts).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The demand for grasscutter meat is so large that it is not being met. Markets for it already exist over much of Africa,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters can devastate such crops as rice, sugarcane, soybeans, peanuts, yams, cassava, sweet potatoes, oil-palm seedlings, maize, young rubber, sorghum, and wheat. Therefore, as with most rodents, they should be reared only in areas where they already exist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In past years, captive animals in Benin have suffered fatal Clostridium infections during September and October. In 1986, a broad-spectrum antibiotic was given with outstanding results. During this season, the animals also suffered from ascarid worms, which were also successfully treated with standard drugs.10</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed in the following areas:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Digestive physiology, feeding habits, feed preferences, feed conversion and growth rate; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Diseases (pathogens and parasites);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Captive breeding and management (growth rates, space requirements, feed needs, etc);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Performance under different environments;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Productivity; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Basic biology (for example, chromosome type, reproductive physiology, and social behavior both in its wild state and under controlled conditions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, specimens should be gathered from different regions for comparative evaluation. A particular need is to select and breed docile specimens because today, even after several generations in captivity, the animal must still be handled with caution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although domestication of the grasscutter is encouraged, wild populations might also be managed to maximize and sustain production through habitat manipulation. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">20 Guinea Pig</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g024a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) are promising microlivestock because they require little capital or labor; provide an inexpensive, readily available, palatable meat; have no odor, and are suitable for keeping indoors. In the highlands of the Andes, many Indians raise them to supplement diets based on grains  and vegetables. Families eat them mostly on special occasions such as weddings and first communions, or they sell them to restaurants or peddle them in village markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The low cost of these small animals makes them available even to many landless peasants. For both the small farmer and apartment dweller, the guinea pig is a possible food reserve. It converts kitchen scraps and marginal wastelands into meat. According to estimates, 20 females and 2 males may produce enough meat year-round to provide an adequate meat diet for a family of 6.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since husbandry practices are simple and cheap, the guinea pig is an excellent source of supplementary income. An FAO study at Ibarra, Ecuador, showed that on small mountain farms the guinea pig provided more profit than either pigs or dairy cows, partly because its meat fetched high prices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although domesticated guinea pigs are mainly a food resource of Latin America, their use has also spread to parts of Africa and Asia. They are raised, for instance, in Nigeria, Cameroon, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Togo, and Zaire. In southern Nigeria, at least 10 percent of all households raise guinea pigs for food, with colonies of up to 30 animals per household. Guinea pigs are also raised in small cages or cardboard boxes by small farmers in the Philippines.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The feeding efficiency is high: studies have shown that it takes between 3.2 and 5.7 kg of forage to produce 1 kg of growth. This makes guinea pigs more efficient than most farm mammals. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs seem especially adapted to the climate and forages of high-altitude zones, but the fact that they are being raised in Central and West Africa indicates that they are also adapted to the lowland tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p243a.png"></center><br>
+ The native distribution of the guinea pigs wild ancestor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs have stocky bodies, fairly short hind legs, and short, unfurred ears. Adults can weigh up to 2 kg, but an average-sized specimen is about 0.5 kg. They are 20-40 cm long (average 28 cm) and have no tail. In domesticated forms, the pelage may be smooth or coarse, short or long, and in some types the hairs form rosettes.4 Domesticated types come in colors ranging from white to dark brown, as well as piebald.5 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The original home of the wild guinea pig is believed to have been the central highlands of Peru and Bolivia. Its domesticated descendants are important as meat animals mainly in that same area, but, as noted, they are also important in certain African and Asian countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few strains are distributed worldwide as laboratory animals and pets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated guinea pigs, as a whole, are in no danger of extinction, although some rare strains are threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These extremely adaptable animals are found in temperate zones and in the highland tropics, but they are usually kept indoors and protected from the extremes of weather. In Lambayeque and other departments of Peru, they are reared at elevations from sea level to more than 4,000 m. In areas where they are raised, daily temperatures fluctuate as much as 30&Yacute;C. In the Bolivian or Peruvian puna region, for instance, day temperatures can be 22&Yacute;C, while night temperatures are -7&Yacute;C. However, they cannot survive freezing temperatures and they may not perform well when exposed to the full tropical heat and sunlight. Many people of the Peruvian highlands keep the animals in darkness (for example, in wood boxes with little or no light).6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal's original wild habitat is believed to have been an area of grasslands, forest edges, swamps, and rocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These herbivores can be raised on kitchen scraps, garden wastes, and weedy vegetation plucked from backyards or roadsides. Andean peasants mainly feed them potato peels, scraps of cabbage, lettuce, carrot, wild grasses, corn stalks, and the foliage of miscellaneous wild plants. Some barley and alfalfa is grown specifically for guinea pigs; it is cut green and sold in small bundles in the markets. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs mate throughout the year except when climate is excessively adverse. Domestic breeds average 2-3 young per litter, although larger litters sometimes occur. The gestation period is 65-70 days with an average of 67. Females come into estrus every 13-24 days, and there is a fertile postpartum estrus.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females can become pregnant when merely 3 months old, and many produce 4 litters every year from then on. In principle, a farmer starting with 1 male and 10 females could see his herd grow to 3,000 animals in one year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newborns are so large that the female's pubic bones must separate for the birth. They emerge fully developed, with fur and open eyes. They look like miniature adults, and they start eating grass and other feedstuffs within hours. (For this reason, babies orphaned at birth have been known to survive.) Weaning may be reached as early as 21 days of age.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The life span in captivity is as long as 8 years, but animals used for breeding usually live only 3.5 years. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUPER GUINEA PIGS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even in their native region, guinea pigs have traditionally received little research attention. However, that began changing in the 1970s with the onset of meat shortages in Peru. (For a time the government restricted beef sales to only 15 days a month.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For instance, in 1972 Peru began a guinea pig improvement project. Researchers from i a Molina National Agrarian University traveled throughout Peru gathering many kinds of guinea pigs short haired long haired black, white, yellow, brown, and even purple. Practically all the guinea pigs eaten in Peru are home grown, and researchers observed that the bigger ones were generally winding up in the stew, leaving the smaller ones for breeding. The people inadvertently were making the animals smaller. (This is a common phenomenon for many animals.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To overcome it, the university research workers compared the mature size and growth rates of all the different guinea pigs. They selected and cross-bred the biggest, meatiest, and fastest-growing ones. This program, later taken over by Instituto Nacional de Investigacion y Promocion Agropecuaria (INIPA), produced remarkable results. The starting animals averaged little more than 0.5 kg, the resulting ones averaged almost 2 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru's "super guinea pigs" are now getting international recognition. They have been introduced into the highlands of Honduras, where the animal is also part of the Indian cuisine. The FAO has shipped some to the Dominican Republic. In addition, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Colombia have all begun their own guinea pig improvement programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within Peru the government has established 11 breeding stations to encourage the farming of guinea pigs for food. The goal is to provide better stud males to the people so that future animals will grow more quickly and reach a greater weight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs generally congregate in small groups, normally made up of 5-10 adults. In favorable areas, however, such groups may coalesce into large colonies. The animals communicate incessantly among themselves, emitting a variety of squeaks and other noises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males, although good-natured with other species, often fight fiercely among themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs are raised mainly for meat. Peru has about 20 million, which annually provide 16-17,000 tons of meat (only 4,000 tons less than Peru's sheep meat production).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs are used worldwide for studies on disease, nutrition, heredity, and toxicology, as well as for the development of serums and other biomedical research. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs require so little space that a small cage or pit can house up to 10 females and 1 male. They can be raised in cages with wire floors of small mesh as well. The labor required is low. A colony of 1,000 females reportedly can be properly cared for by one person. A layer of wood shavings, shredded paper, straw, and dried corncobs is usually recommended for bedding. The droppings are odorless, so the bedding does not need changing as often as with other animals. When the diet mainly consists of greens, much urine is produced, and then the beds have to be changed frequently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When grown for meat, the young are weaned at 3-4 weeks and are ready for market in a matter of 10-13 weeks. Weight gain is rapid for the first 4-6 weeks, and then decreases. The carcasses normally dress out at about 65 percent, including the skin and legs. The meat's protein content is approximately 21 percent.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a few regions of Peru, guinea pigs are "herded" on the open range and retired at night into small adobe coops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This small, inoffensive animal rarely bites, is easy to manage, and has no smell. It is an excellent supplemental meat supply. The improved breeds cannot climb or jump so that they are easy to contain. (Primitive "criollo" types, however, can jump.) If kept dry and given green vegetation, grain, and water, it survives in many environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major constraint is consumer reluctance. Even in Latin America, attempts to promote guinea pig consumption outside the Indian communities have failed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When raised in a clean environment and under normal feeding conditions, guinea pigs thrive and reproduce and do not need routine vaccinations or antibiotics that cattle, sheep, and pigs often require. However, guinea pigs can be carriers of Chagas' disease and salmonella. Further, they are susceptible to pneumonia if temperatures change abruptly when conditions are wet. Coccidiosis and internal and external parasites are also common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green forages and surplus fruits or by-products are critical to provide vitamin C, which the animal is unable to synthesize for itself. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the greatest concentration of guinea pigs is found in the Andes, particular efforts should be directed towards this region. Already, research on guinea pigs has begun in some universities and government research stations in Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, and Bolivia, but more work is needed on matters such as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Breeding "elite" stock for distribution;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Feeding and nutritional-requirement trials, especially for creating alternate feeds that peasants and commercial producers can use during seasons when conventional feeds are hard to get;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Diseases and parasites that may limit production in small farming systems;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Management practices concerning reproduction, housing, herd size, and feeding; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The genetic basis for weight gain and productivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some research should be directed towards developing rations or introducing drought-resistant forages for the dry season because green forage is needed year-round. A range of practical and economical diets needs to be created.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal geneticists in Latin American countries should establish "elite" populations that can provide superior stock throughout the world. It can be anticipated that applying modern breeding methods to existing improved strains will result in great advances in a relatively short period and at little cost (see sidebar).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three species of wild cavies (Cavia aperea, C. fulgida, and C. tschudii), close relatives of the guinea pig, are native to South America and are declining drastically. Research to preserve them is urgently needed. C. aperea is a widely used item of food in rural Brazil and other parts of South America. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">21 Hutia</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g025a.png"></center><br>
+ Hispaniolan Hutia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first meat Christopher Columbus tasted in the New World was probably hutia, a rodent avidly hunted by the Carib Indians. Hutia bones have been unearthed from kitchen middens of pre-Columbian inhabitants of all the Greater Antilles. Indians carried live hutias on voyages possibly in a semidomestic state as a source of food. On some islands, hutias were so eagerly sought that their populations were destroyed long before Europeans arrived. Slaves in the cane fields also hunted hutias for food. The surviving species later suffered when forests were cleared and cats, dogs, mongooses, and other predators were introduced. Consequently, the majority of hutia species died out, and today most surviving members of the family (Capromyidae) are facing extinction. Human predation continues in some areas (for instance, in Jamaica) where the tradition of "coneyhunting" still endures in a few regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias should be tested as possible microlivestock: success could create the incentive for their complete protection. The animals seem to take well to captivity. The Jamaican hutia is already overproducing in zoos, causing a local glut of animals. And hutias are, or were until recently, kept in barns by some people in Cuba, who fed them on banana and other vegetable waste and ate them regularly.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POTENTIAL AREA OF USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias are broad-headed, short-legged, robust animals with small eyes and ears. The various species are from 20 to 60 cm long and weigh from 1 to 9 kg - a size range from that of a guinea pig to that of a small dog. They walk with a slow, waddling motion, but can hop quickly if frightened or pursued. They also climb well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 10 1iving species are all big enough to be candidates for microlivestock. The best known and easiest species to keep in captivity are the Cuban hutia (Capromys pilorides) and Jamaican hutia (Geocapromys brownii). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Cuban hutia (also called hutia conga) is about 60 cm long, with coarse fur, a raccoon-shaped body, and a thick tail covered with sparse bristles. A forest dweller, it weighs up to 7 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The short-tailed Jamaican hutia is smaller: it is 33-45 cm long and weighs up to 2.5 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p252a.png"></center><br>
+ The hutias native range .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias are found only in the Caribbean (Greater Antilles and Bahamas). Most species are confined to a single island, where they represent the only remaining indigenous land mammals. The Cuban hutia is found only in Cuba. The Jamaican hutia is found only in Jamaica, although a close relative occurs on East Plana Cay, Bahamas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This once widely distributed and plentiful family is now failing. Of the 30 or so known recent taxa, more than half are already extinct, and the remainder all suffer from habitat alteration, predation by introduced animals, and hunting by man. With the exception of the Cuban hutia, all species are included on the list of the world's threatened mammals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia ranges have been so reduced that these animals survive only in the most inaccessible forests and rocky drylands. Both the Cuban and the Jamaican hutias occur in a variety of habitats from montane cloud forests to arid coastal semideserts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most species are terrestrial, but some live in trees. The Cuban and Jamaican species are terrestrial, but they can climb trees if circumstances demand. They maneuver well on trunks and larger branches, descending head first like squirrels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias are primarily vegetarian, their diets consisting of leaves, bark, fruits, and twigs, as well as incidental catches of small animals such as lizards and invertebrates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias seem to breed year-round, generally giving birth to litters of 1-4 offspring after a gestation period of 16-20 weeks. The young are well developed at birth, fully haired, open eyed, and capable of most adult movements. After 10 days they begin taking solid food, although they are not fully weaned for at least a month and a half (5 months for the Cuban hutia). Sexual maturity is at 10 months; life expectancy is 8-11 years in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Jamaican hutia has one of the highest diploid chromosome numbers (2n = 88) of any mammal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most hutias are wary and secretive and are easily displaced by human encroachment. They live like rabbits, hiding among tangled vegetation, in holes, and among rocks - communicating by voice and scent markings. They build shelters mainly in rock crevices, but also in the base of thick bushes or in natural cavities in trees. The Cuban hutia is often diurnal, whereas the Jamaican hutia is largely nocturnal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HISPANIOLAN HUTIA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Hispaniolan hutia, or zagouti (Plagiodontia aedium) as it is known in Haiti is smaller than the two Capromyids discussed here, weighing just 1.2 kg. It is difficult to breed in captivity and has a lower reproductive rate than either the Jamaican or Cuban hutia. It is therefore less suitable as an economic or food source.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, there is a significant need for supplemental protein sources in both Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It might be possible to develop a special captive-breeding program for this animal, but it should be done with great care. It is important that a hunting tradition for this animal not be reestablished in rural areas of Haiti or the Dominican Republic, and that local organizations not be misled into believing that there will be a rapid increase in the numbers of this species in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia meat is relished, especially in Jamaica. The animals are still hunted, often by using dogs that smell them out and retrieve them from a hole or hold them at bay in treetops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiences of zoos suggest that the Cuban and Jamaican hutias will thrive in captivity. The animals are generally long-lived and have survived up to 17 years. They are often friendly with their keepers and, when tame, can be held and carried about without any particular danger. However, if angered they can inflict deep bites and should normally be handled with considerable caution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are already much in demand. Their meat has an excellent flavor and they are big enough to provide a worthwhile quantity. If husbandry could be developed on a sustainable basis, it could be used as a mechanism for both economic development and for saving the remnant populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild populations are threatened. Any captive population must be built up without endangering them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All hutias are susceptible to predation by domestic cats, mongooses, dogs, and human poachers, so care must be taken to design predator-proof breeding facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are carriers of eastern equine encephalomyelitis, a serious disease of horses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias deserve urgent conservation attention. In particular, the following steps should be taken:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Establish reserves in natural habitats containing breeding populations to ensure the survival of the genetic diversity of these animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Build up breeding populations in suitable zoos and livestock research centers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gather specimens from different regions for comparative evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Investigate hutia biology, including chromosome type, reproductive physiology, nutrition, and diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Assess experiences of zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Perform captive breeding trials, measuring growth rates, space requirements, food needs, and social behavior (both in its wild state and under controlled conditions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Study the social organization and tameability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colonies of some species could be established on uninhabited islands, as has been done with the Bahamian hutia Geocapromys ingrahami. Even this rare species might eventually be raised to yield meat for local inhabitants, as it is well adapted to dry and barren environments and was a regular food of the pre-Columbian Indians. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">22 Mara</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g026a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many wild relatives of the guinea pig are native to South America. Some, such as the guinea pig itself, are small; others, such as the mare, are much bigger. Maras1 (Dolichotis patagonum) are as tall as terriers and, at first glance, look like dwarf antelopes or huge hares They have large ears and eyes, long legs, and short tails. They generally behave like hares or wild rabbits, but, like deer, they run with a stiff-legged gait when pursued by predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These strange-looking creatures are found in temperate regions in the southern half of South America. They are dry-country animals, living on the thorn-scrub, desert plains of Argentina and the stony wastes of Patagonia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although exceedingly shy, restless, and watchful, mares tame easily, make good pets, and are much favored by the local populace. They were introduced to France last century, and in Victorian times Europeans sometimes bred them. These big, handsome rodents, grazing in little herds, were considered an attractive addition to the lawns of country estates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POTENTIAL AREA OF USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras are best kept in their native region of southern South America. With care, however, they could be used in other areas because they are slow breeders and their population growth is easy to control.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At first sight, these large rodents look like some weird hybrid. They have the long ears of a hare and the tidy body and spindly legs of a small antelope. Although related to guinea pigs, they are long legged. The tail is short; the ears are long and erect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Average-size mares weigh about 8 kg, but large ones can be 1 m long and weigh up to 16 kg.2 Females are larger than males. The coat is light in color, with grey upper parts and whitish underparts. The limbs and feet are tinged a yellowish brown. The pelage is dense, with individual hairs standing at nearly right angles to the skin. This gives a harsh texture, even though the hairs are soft and fine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals can hop, walk, gallop, or run. They are extremely swift and can reach 45 km per hour over long distances. They are also accomplished jumpers, often leaping 2 m high from a standing start. The feet are compact and rather hooflike, but with sharp claws. The hind foot has three digits; the front foot has four.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mare's range in the thorn-scrub desert and Patagonian steppe of Argentina extends from about 28&Yacute;S to 50&Yacute;S.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered. These animals, once plentiful, are now threatened because of the introduction of the European hare, which is more successful at competing for food. In many of the eastern parts of its distribution (see map) it is now extinct.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras inhabit open, dry plains and other treeless semidesert areas of coarse grass or scattered shrubs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras are pure vegetarians. They feed on short grasses and herbs that are sparsely distributed between patches of dry desert scrub. Usually, they are satisfied with a few coarse weeds and the shoots of bushes. However, their overall diet consists of any available vegetation: leaves, roots, fruits, and stems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female mares become sexually receptive within a few hours after giving birth. The estrous cycle is 35 days, plus or minus 5 days.3 The gestation period is 77 days. Each female gives birth to 1-3 young at the mouth of the den; the pups crawl inside to safety. Newborns are well developed, and within a few hours they begin grazing vegetation. They remain in the vicinity of the den for up to 4 months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially, at least, the young are nervous and easily frightened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras shelter in a burrow that they either construct for themselves or "borrow" from another animal that has abandoned it. They are active during the day and spend considerable time basking in the sun. They are always alert for danger. When alarmed, they flee at high speed. The white rump patch flashes a warning to the others, who then follow this "flag."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A fundamental element of their social system is the monogamous pair bond. Certainly in captivity, and probably in the wild as well, the bond between a pair lasts for life. When breeding, 20 or more pairs may band together temporarily to share a single den for the pups.4 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals stand on straight legs, sit on bent haunches with the forepart of the body resting on the fully extended front legs, or recline in a catlike position with the front legs folded under the chest, an unusual position for a rodent. They travel in single file, with the female usually leading. Members of a pair maintain contact by means of a low grumble. Although the long legs can quickly carry it to safety, a mare usually stops every 20-30 m and turns to peer at its pursuer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals clean themselves by licking their sides and apparently by "combing" their fur with their teeth. They wipe their faces as cats do, with the inside of a foreleg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p260a.png"></center><br>
+ The maras native range</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the light-colored meat is said to be dry and flavorless, it is widely consumed in South America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras have been successfully raised and bred in many zoos, and, as noted, have been kept as pets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adults make little use of any shelter; they seem fond of being out and about in all weather. As long as they have a protected burrow for the use of the pups, mare populations can thrive in severe climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In zoos, diets include straw, vegetables, and crushed oats. Drinking water is supplied, although the animals rarely take it if they are feeding on fresh plant materials. They like to have salt blocks, however.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In South America, one mare lived in captivity for almost 14 years; most specimens do not live beyond 10 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras are a good size for microlivestock. They have a short gestation period, and they are social and easy to maintain in groups. They can be successfully kept in pens and can be fed relatively low-quality forage. Colonies can grow to be quite large.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals can easily dig under the edges of cages and escape. Extra-deep foundations are needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following heavy rains, care must be taken to keep them from drowning in their subterranean burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If suddenly disturbed, mares can become hysterical, leaping away regardless of anything in the way, and often seriously injuring or even killing themselves as a result. They fear bodily contact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mare's monogamous nature in the wild is a likely limitation. But perhaps, like chinchillas, the animal will become polygamous in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are sensitive to tuberculosis when kept in humid conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research needs to increase understanding of the mare include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutritional trials;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Husbandry experiments - measurements of growth rates, space requirements, feed needs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Productivity tests;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Grazing-efficiency measurements;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Exploration of commercial details; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determination of diseases and parasites. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">23 Paca</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas (Agouti paca)1,2 are large, white-spotted, almost tailless rodents with the potential to become a source of protein for the American tropics. They are found in lowlands from Mexico to northern Argentina. The meat is white and is considered the best of all Latin American game meat. It is common in local markets and restaurants. Tasting like a combination of pork and chicken, it sells at higher prices than beef and is a regular item of diet in some areas. In Costa Rica, pace is served on special occasions such as weddings or baptisms. It has a higher fat content than the lean meat of agoutis, rabbits, and chickens, and has no gamy taste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paca has promise as a microlivestock. In several countries, Belize and Mexico for example, people already keep them in cages beside their homes and fatten them on kitchen scraps. In Costa Rica, some are bred on farms, under houses, and even in apartments. Research on raising paces in captivity is under way at the Universidad Nacional in Heredia, Costa Rica; at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Balboa, Panama (see page 196); and at the Instituto de Historia Natural in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico. In Turrialba, Costa Rica, an entrepreneur is already breeding and raising pace commercially.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the pace has potential as a food source, many problems still must be resolved before it can be recommended for mass rearing. If solved, however, this species would become an attractive microlivestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pace has potential for use throughout its vast geographical range in Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general appearance, paces are somewhat like giant guinea pigs. The legs are short, the forefeet have four "fingers," and the hindfeet have five small, hooflike "toes." The feet are partially webbed and are adapted both for digging and for swimming. Pacas burrow with all four feet as well as their teeth; even large roots are no obstacle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adults weigh 6-14 kg, males being somewhat larger than females. Although they may become bulbously fat, paces remain "one of the fastest things on four feet. " From a standing start, even a fat specimen can jump at least 1 m off the ground. Pacas are also agile. However, their skin's epidermal layer is thin and fragile, and large strips may be ripped off as they rush headlong through spiky undergrowth. However, such wounds heal astonishingly fast - frequently within days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas are chocolate brown in colon The head is somewhat lighter in shade than the body, and the underparts are whitish or buff colored. There are usually four longitudinal rows of white spots that may merge into stripes along each side of the body. The fur is coarse, spiny, and slippery, and has no underwool. Each hair is stiff, relatively sharp, and very smooth, which makes paces extremely difficult for predators to hang on to.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parts of the cheekbones are enlarged, and the cheeks can open to form special pouches. This is more developed in adult males than in females - indeed, adults can be readily sexed by head shape. The pouches are outside of the mouth and are fully haired. The animals use them mainly to create a resonating chamber for their booming bark and noisy tooth grinding. These enlarged cheeks push the large bulging eyes toward the top of the skull. The eyes are suited for nocturnal conditions, the senses of smell and hearing are uncannily acute, and there is an array of long whiskers that is used when maneuvering at night.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lowland paces are found throughout most of Latin America from east central Mexico to northern Paraguay, Argentina, and Minas Gerais, Brazil. This includes all of Central America and most of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, and the Guianas. The animal has also been introduced into Cuba.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p265a.png"></center><br>
+ The pacas native range</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burgeoning human populations are severely reducing many of Latin America's native animal resources, and the pace is one of the most persecuted. It has been exterminated within hunting range of virtually all cities, towns, and villages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several governments, recognizing the pace's plight, have passed laws prohibiting the hunting and marketing of its meat. Nevertheless, people continue to take it, usually at night, using trail dogs and headlights.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas thrive in a variety of tropical habitats but are most common in forests, swamps, and partly cleared grazing lands. They inhabit most types of forests from deciduous woodland to rainforest. Usually, they stay near streams or rivers, but they often live where there is no permanent water. They are abundant only in little-disturbed forest areas. Although preferring low, dense tree cover, paces sometimes inhabit open rocky areas and farmland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These herbivores feed mainly on fruits, young seedlings, and some seeds. However, when fruits are scarce they may switch to browsing leaves and roots. They probably sometimes eat large insects, and, on rare occasion, may perhaps eat small vertebrates. Captive paces, like many other "frugivores," seem to develop a protein deficiency and will eagerly eat meat scraps on occasion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The young are usually born singly after a gestation period of 146 days. There are probably 2 births a year. Females have an estrous period that begins shortly after giving birth. If mating does not take place at this time, the female becomes unreceptive until after the 3-month (sometimes 4- to 6-month) lactation is over. The length of the estrous cycle is 30 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During daylight hours, paces seclude themselves in brushy cover, in or under fallen logs, or in extensive underground burrows. The burrows, which may be several meters long, are dug in moist soil or taken over from other animals; they are often in river banks, on slopes, among tree roots, or under rocks. Usually, several exits are provided, often being plugged with leaves as a disguise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild, paces dig large holes and rummage about the forest floor at night, gnawing on fruits. Pairs inhabit a defended area, sometimes living together in the same burrow, sometimes not. Also, they usually travel alone, following paths that lead to feeding grounds and water. Individual home ranges are small (1-3 hectares).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although paces are terrestrial, they enter water freely, they swim well, they copulate in water, and, when alarmed, they generally attempt to escape by swimming. They are also lively and playful; however, they can be exceedingly obstinate. Sometimes fighting among themselves becomes very savage. When angered they growl, sometimes noisily, and they can suddenly jump on aggressors, real or imagined, delivering frightful wounds with their chisel-like front teeth thrust forward like a spear. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, pace meat is tasty and brings high prices in the markets. It is considered a delicacy in fine restaurants and was served to Queen Elizabeth during her October 1985 visit to Belize. In Mexico, paces, like pigs, are usually boiled unskinned. Even the skin is then edible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If treated appropriately when young, paces become manageable. They undergo "imprinting," a characteristic of most species that have been domesticated. An imprinted pace becomes so tame that it seeks out human company, follows people around like an amiable dog and, if turned out of its cage, returns voluntarily. (To achieve this degree of tameness it is necessary to remove the animal from its mother at an early age.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although wild paces are almost entirely nocturnal, tame paces are more active during daylight hours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young or partly grown paces are commonly exhibited in zoos. They eat prodigious quantities of almost any vegetation and have been called, "a good substitute for a large garbage pail." Diets can include rolled oats, raw vegetables, bananas, apples, and bread. They probably need additional protein occasionally, and seem to appreciate some fat in their diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If husbandry can be developed, the clamor for pace meat throughout tropical America would be a big economic incentive for farming these animals. The excellence and wide acceptance of the meat is an indication that pace farming would be taken up both in rural and urban areas and by many levels of society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas can harbor human diseases, including leishmaniasis and Chagas' disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from the project in Panama (see page 194), paces have bred only sporadically in captivity, with few offspring surviving. However, successes have been recorded in zoos in London, San Diego, and Washington, D.C., and in a research project in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico. In Costa Rica, they are also reportedly breeding well, with a survival rate of 90 percent since 1982, and 80 percent of the females are reproducing.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All adult paces can be aggressive and dangerous. Their powerful incisors can inflict serious wounds. (They can even rip through planks.) Intraspecific aggression is one of the most serious impediments to captive breeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike the capybara, the pace not only has a long gestation but usually bears a single young. Thus, the output of a single breeding female may be, at best, two offspring per year (at least this is the expected production in the wild). This "slow" breeding is a limitation. In captivity, however, there is a possibility that it can be speeded up.4 The fact that paces bond together in pairs is a limitation. If every female has to be accompanied by a male, then many (otherwise unnecessary) males have to be fed and maintained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male paces are considered difficult to keep as household pets because they spray females (or human substitutes) with a mixture of urine and glandular secretions. This can occur several times a day. In addition, they have anal glands that produce a musky odor that some people find objectionable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although paces are common in some areas over the vast region from Mexico to Argentina, they are little understood, even by zoologists. In fact, most data concerning this animal have come from interviews with local hunters. Intensive field work is needed to develop an understanding of the pace's biology, status, and habitat requirements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The popularity of pace meat makes it urgent to start this work as well as to begin breeding paces on an organized basis. Such projects would lay the groundwork for preserving the species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Particular research needs concern the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Age structure and reproductive performance;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Growth rates and feeding habits;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Behavioral patterns in captivity;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutritional requirements;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Meat quality;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Helminth and arthropod parasites;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Role in transmitting or perpetuating diseases;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reproduction (such as external manifestations of estrus in females); and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Genetic variations that would allow the selection of animals adapted to captivity and females that produce multiple offspring - twins, triplets, or more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ways must be found to introduce more than one female to each male without inciting aggression. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">24 Vizcacha</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g027a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas (Lagostomus maximus) are soft-furred South American rodents that look like long-tailed guinea pigs. They can weigh as much as 8 kg and are resilient animals, inhabiting dry pampas and shrub lands in northern Argentina and neighboring countries. They seem to have promise for producing meat and hides in marginal zones whithin their native habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like chinchillas (page 277), these rodents provide a prized furry pelt. They also provide meat that reportedly tastes "as good as hare," which in Europe is considered the epitome of dining. They are easily trapped alive in cheap, homemade, multiple-catch, funnel traps. And they are thought to be suitable for farming on a large scale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, vizcachas are currently considered pests because they take grazing from cattle and sheep and because they build large burrows that undermine the land. Government campaigns have eradicated them in the richer agricultural areas of Argentina, but the animals are still common in marginal zones. There is evidence that they become more abundant when domestic livestock overgraze the land. In improverished marginal sites, where other livestock enterprises are unsuitable, the potential exists for game-ranching vizcachas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the potential hazard to new areas, vizcachas can be used only in the pampas regions of southern South America where they are already widespread.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas have short front legs, long, muscular hind legs, and round eyes and ears. Their heads seem oversized in proportion to their bodies. Males weigh 5-8 kg, females 2-4.5 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members of the same rodent subfamily as the chinchilla, they have a thick, soft, valuable fur that is grey or brown above, whitish or greyish below. They are, however, much larger than chinchillas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although basically running animals, vizcachas often jump bipedally (like kangaroos), and they sit erect while eating or grooming. The forefeet have four long flexible digits used to grasp food. Their soles and palms are naked and have fleshy pads (pallipes).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas once swarmed widely over the savannas of southern Paraguay, Bolivia, and Argentina, but they are being systematically exterminated. Today they inhabit isolated areas of north, central, and western Argentina and southern Paraguay.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1907, these animals have been mercilessly hunted. The governments of the Argentine provinces where they are mostly found, reward hunters for killing this "pest." However, the numbers are so reduced that now there is no need for a bounty system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas live in flat, dry, steppelike plains; in dry woodland (Chaco), and in low mountains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that these rodents eat their own droppings (coprophagy) augments their ability to utilize natural forages, and allows them to abound in degraded zones. They feed on any plant materials they can find near their colonies, particularly grasses. In feeding trials, their daily dry matter intake was 2-5 percent of the body weight. The metabolic efficiency (dry matter per kg) was 33-56 percent; the digestive efficiency was 50-60 percent.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male vizcachas become sexually mature at about seven months of age and remain fertile throughout the year. The gestation period is long: 154 days. Litters contain one or two young. Newborns are well developed, fully furred, and open eyed, although they cannot fend for themselves for at least three weeks. In the wild, one or two litters are reared each year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas are nocturnal and are active year-round. They inhabit underground burrows, living in colonies often containing many individuals. They collect a variety of materials (for example, bones, sticks, and stones), and heap them in piles above the entrances to their burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their hearing and sense of smell are acute. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p274a.png"></center><br>
+ Vizcachas native range</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas have long been hunted for food as well as for their fur. Their meat is often consumed in pickled form in southern South America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The skins are fabricated into table runners, rugs, bedspreads, slippers, and belts. The skins are also popular for overcoats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas can be kept in captivity without major difficulty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In zoos, vizcachas are fed the typical diets furnished for vegetarian rodents: rolled oats, green vegetables, bananas, apples, and bread. They are usually kept indoors in wire-fronted cages, about 1 x 2 m in size, and provided with sleeping boxes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about vizcacha husbandry, but in one trial, weight rose most rapidly in males until age 18 months (the average size was then 5.3 kg) and subsequently slowed. The heaviest male was 7.3 kg at 30-32 months. The female's weight gain was greatest until 16-18 months (average size 3.3 kg).3 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals seem well adapted to harsh sites where the climate and forage make raising conventional livestock difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat is white and has a good nutritive value because of its high digestibility, low levels of saturated fats, and high levels of proteins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In marginal zones of the pampas, these rodents appear far more productive than traditional livestock.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas may do considerable damage by foraging in cultivated crops. As noted, ranchers claim that they take grazing away from domestic animals, 10 vizcachas eating as much as a sheep. In addition, they claim, vizcachas destroy pasture with their acidic urine. And the large burrow systems sometimes create a hazard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because their reproductive rate is low and their growth rate is only moderate, their commercial breeding might not be profitable except in well-designed projects with clear markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas require sturdy pens, which implies a high initial cost for materials such as concrete and brick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas can be aggressive to one another, especially in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several possible research projects, including:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gathering specimens from different regions for comparative evaluation of characters such as biology, chromosome type, reproductive physiology, social behavior (both in its wild state and under controlled conditions);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Attempting captive rearing and small-scale husbandry;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Assessing performance under various environments; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Quantifying productivity and population dynamics in relation to rangeland use and improvement practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A rational cropping program based on wild stocks is perhaps more viable than captive breeding. This could be organized so as to keep vizcacha numbers in check while sustaining a small chain of processing plants by providing a constant supply of meat and skins. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">25 Other Rodents</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 10 previous chapters have described some rodent species that show promise as microlivestock. Rodentia, however, is one of the largest families of mammals, and the species highlighted by no means exhaust the possibilities. In this chapter we briefly mention others that deserve consideration and exploratory research. These might prove to be potential resources, at least in localized situations. Several are fast nearing extinction and they deserve protection and immediate attention from animal scientists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHINCHILLAS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the high Andes of South America are found the short-tailed chinchilla (Chinchilla brevicaudata) and the long-tailed chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera). These plump little rodents have fur that is possibly the thickest, softest, and warmest of any animal's.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the surface they would seem to be ideal candidates for microlivestock in Third World regions. Indeed, in recent years chinchilla-rearing has been successfully carried out in northern India. However, raising these animals for commercial markets is a highly specialized and costly business because only rare and expensive breeding stock produces top-quality pelts, and all other pelts are worthless in today's marketplace.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These guinea-pig-sized animals have round ears, a bushy tail, and range from 25 to 50 cm long. Adult males rarely weigh more than 500 g, but females may weigh up to 800 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PACARANA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pacarana (Dinomys branickii) is the third-largest living rodent only capybaras and some beavers are larger. But little is known about this seldom-encountered, forest-dwelling species. Nevertheless, pacaranas appear to be likely candidates for domestication. They are amazingly even-tempered and peaceful, and become surprisingly tame.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because these animals are endangered they are unlikely candidates for microlivestock in the short run, but their large size and good meat could be the stimulus for an international effort to study, protect, and rear them in large numbers before it is too late.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacaranas are found along the eastern foothills of the Andes, including parts of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Their area of potential use is in Latin America and the Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It would be advantageous for livestock scientists to investigate this species in captivity. Studies are needed of the animal's general biology, including its nutritional requirements, reproductive capacity, behavior, and physiology. For wildlife specialists, there is a compelling need to protect this species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SPRINGHARE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scattered through the dry lands of eastern and southern Africa - on numerous grasslands, plains, fossil lake beds, hill slopes, and floodplains - is the springhare (or springhaas). With its powerful hind legs, tiny forelegs, upright stance, and hopping gait, it looks something like a tiny kangaroo. It is commonly seen at night, eyes glowing a characteristic red in the headlights.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal is an important source of food and skins for rural peoples throughout southern Africa. In Botswana, it is the principal bushmeat in the human diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Springhares are 35-40 cm long and weigh 3-4 kg. There is one species (Pedetes capensis) and two subspecies: the East African springhare and the Cape springhare (formerly Pedetes cafer). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROCK CAVY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rock cavy (Kerodon rupestris) is closely related to the guinea pig and occurs in the impoverished semiarid region of northeastern Brazil. It is large and lean and has a face somewhat resembling a dog's. It is hunted extensively and is an important source of meat for country people, who consider it a delicacy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This creature might be suitable as a microlivestock. It consumes leaves and bark, and breeds well in captivity. Famine is a serious periodic problem in the often-drought-stricken area, and protein deficiency is common. The rock cavy, like the guinea pig, may be amenable to domestication and may be able to provide the people with better nutrition. However, it is difficult to keep in a cage because it moves fast, climbs well, and easily slips out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because these rodents occur in rare and patchily distributed habitats, they are in desperate need of protection, whether or not they prove to have any long-term utility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SALT-DESERT CAVY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A smaller relative of the mare (page 256), the salt-desert cavy (Dolichotis salinicola) is rabbitlike in appearance and behavior. It has large ears and eyes, long legs, and a short tail. It lacks the mare's white rump patch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal inhabits dry, salty areas of the Chaco desert, particularly areas of dry, woody brush. Specifically, it is found in the saline western Chaco of Paraguay and northwestern Argentina, as well as in the extreme south of Bolivia. It is about 45 cm long and weighs up to 4 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it might make a useful microlivestock in its native habitat, the salt-desert cavy breeds rapidly and can cause much devastation; it should never be introduced to new regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The salt-desert cavy's life in the wild is largely unknown; however, some have been successfully raised and bred in zoos. Exploratory research on keeping and managing these little creatures is warranted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OTHERS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted earlier (page 193), it has been estimated that 42 peoples of various cultures eat rodents. Most of these eat locally available species, some of which are listed below. Whether any have long-term usefulness is uncertain, but study of them in the wild and in captivity could result in some interesting and valuable scientific discoveries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solomon Islands Rodents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Solomon Islands in the southwest Pacific are home to a collection of six rare giant rodents that live in the rainforest canopy. At one time they were important food items. Archeologists have dug up tens of thousands of rodent bones on sites where people lived as long as 30,000 years ago. These mysterious animals were classified last century, but most have not been seen by biologists for decades. However, one, the thinking rat (Solomys sapientis), was rediscovered in 1987 - the first time it had been reported seen since 1901. The others may also be inhabiting the dense and undisturbed forests.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The thinking rat was located on the island of Santa Isabel. It proved to be gentle, unafraid, and friendly. It lives in the forest canopy, weighs up to 1 kg, and feeds on nuts and fruits. Efforts to build up the population are urgently needed. The other species should also be sought.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such animals could be a resource for rainforest production (perhaps in the manner of butterfly farming in Papua New Guinea2). They may never be plentiful enough to be food sources again, but they could nonetheless become valuable. Zoos the world over are likely first customers for these scientific curiosities if production can be boosted and the populations secured.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant New Guinea Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant New Guinea rat (Mallomys rothschildi) is often eaten in New Guinea. It is little known to science but is odorless and easily tamed. It grows so fast that it becomes as big as a guinea pig even before it is weaned. It feeds on a wide variety of tubers and vegetable products. An attractive species native to mountain forests, it has a long heavy tail and black fur with white ticking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porcupines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porcupines, brush-tailed porcupines, and their relatives are distantly related to guinea pigs and are widely consumed as food in tropical regions. Examples are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Indian porcupine (Hystrix indica) and other species of South Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Cape porcupine (H. africaeaustralis) of southern Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Prehensile-tailed porcupine (Coendou prehensilis), which inhabits Central and South America. These nocturnal creatures live in the thick, leafy crowns of trees or in hollow trees or holes in the ground. Although often belligerent among themselves, they can be very friendly and tame toward humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kiore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kiore (Rattus exulans) was formerly an important component of  the diet of most Polynesians, including the Maoris of New Zealand. It  has been successfully reared in captivity in recent times. Unlike many  other rodents, this animal is normally not a scavenger; it is a clean,  even fastidious feeder that is basically a vegetarian (flowers, berries,  nuts, and seeds) and is reckoned remarkably good eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soft-Furred Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The soft-furred rat (Praomys) is relatively large and slender and is  found in the tropical forests of Africa from sea level to more than  3,000 m. Among the most common rodents of the African jungle, it is  trapped almost everywhere. It feeds largely on plants, but eats large  quantities of ants and other insects. It has been raised successfully in  captivity and is eaten by villagers in Malawi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant Squirrels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant squirrel (Ratufa bicolor) occurs throughout Indonesia,  Malaysia, and Sri Lanka. It is the largest squirrel on earth, almost the  size of a cat. A related species, the palm squirrel (Funambulus), also  gets very large. It can crop nuts in the very high treetops that are  inaccessible to people. It is widely used as food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Squirrels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Squirrels of the genus Callosciurus (notably C. notatus and C.  prevostii) are significant pests on cocoa, oil palm, and mixed fruit  plantations in Southeast Asia. They can be reared and bred on a diet of  most types of fruit as long as a little protein, in the form of insects or  cooked wheat, is available. The systematic use of this animal may  offer a chance to turn a pest to advantage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cloud Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two species of slender-tailed cloud rats (Phlocomys spp.) are found  only in southeastern Asia. They live in tree cavities, climb well, and  are well adapted to tree life.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of these (P. cumingi) lives in the northeastern part of Luzon in the Philippines, where it appears to be thriving. It has a large body and long tail and is the largest member of the mouse subfamily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other (Crateromys schadenbergi) has long, thick hair and a thick, bushy tail. It lives in the mountainous areas of northern Luzon. A nocturnal animal, it feeds on buds, bark, and fruits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both are attractive, even fascinating, creatures that are relentlessly hunted for food. They might make useful livestock in forest situations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spiny Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Cayenne spiny rat (Proechimys guyannensis) is found throughout most of South America. It is tasty, easily kept in captivity, and is popularly used in Colombia for food. A nocturnal animal, it is one of the most common mammals in many areas. It has been raised in captivity on bananas, sweet corn, coconut, grain, and various seeds.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bamboo Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The bamboo rat (Rhyzomys spp.) is the largest rodent on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia; it weighs 2-4 kg and the body can be as long as 45 cm. It prefers to live in bamboo thickets and is hunted and eaten by many local peoples.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a need - in considering any sort of game farming - to relate the animal's "preferred" conditions (range, feed, temperature, etc.) to the varying land and climate types not being effectively utilized. In other words, rather than looking at animals that might be farmed, it might be necessary to consider the terrain and climate and then seek animals that would "do" well under those conditions. One major fault with traditional farming has been the tendency to force traditional livestock onto unsuitable land. This has given rise to numerous serious problems. In many cases the most suitable use of an area is provided by several species grazing together to mutual benefit (e.g., goats and sheep on New Zealand hill country improve grazing for each other if ratios are right).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Yerex</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g028a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part V : Deer and Antelope</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several types of tropical deer' and antelope are no bigger than an average-size dog. These "microdeer" and "microantelope"2 are the smallest of all ruminants. Although there is considerable experience with rearing and utilizing the larger species, little is known about these miniature ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given research, mouse deer, muntjac, musk deer, pudu, brocket, huemul, and water deer, as well as half a dozen small antelope, might prove to have considerable potential. Collectively, they come from diverse habitats, ranging from equatorial to subarctic and from moist rainforest to arid savanna. They are adapted to some environmental conditions that are only marginal for production of conventional livestock because of drought, heat, diseases, altitude, or other constraints.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEER FARMING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer appear to be unlikely candidates for livestock, but reindeer were probably among the first domesticated animals and have been draft animals for perhaps 2O,OOO years. Even today, tens of thousands of reindeer pull sleighs in the European arctic. On military expeditions, the ancient Romans took along herds of fallow deer as a source of meat, and more than 1,000 years ago deer were annually herded off the Scottish Highlands for winter meat supplies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, there have been breakthroughs in the "domestication" of deer. Species already being [armed are: red deer (New Zealand, Australia, Taiwan, Korea, Russia, China, Scotland, the United States), elk (New Zealand, Canada, the United States), fallow deer (New Zealand, Australia, England, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, Germany, the United States), ruse deer (Australia, Mauritius, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea), sika deer (Taiwan, New Zealand), musk deer (China, India), and PFre David's deer (New Zealand). Although not truly domesticated, even the moose has been tamed in Scandinavia and the Soviet Union, the calves being bottle-raised from three days of age.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Zealand has made particular progress in domesticating large deer (see sidebar). It seems probable, therefore, that similar success with small deer could be achieved. For those seeking interesting, pioneering research, microdeer are good candidates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANTELOPE RANCHING AND FARMING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The worldwide experiences in domesticating various deer species suggest that the organized production of small antelope should also be considered. Several large species have already been studied and are used in game farming in eastern and southern Africa. Similar research on the smaller species, which so far have received little or no attention, is one of the more speculative ideas in this report. We put it forward only for consideration by researchers, but if exploratory studies prove successful, this is a topic deserving international support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some parts of Africa there are large expanses of uninhabited lands, and producing any sort of livestock there is limited by aridity and by the presence of tsetse flies. But in this habitat live tiny antelope such as dikdik, suni, and klipspringer. In the rainforests and secondary forests are found duikers and the royal antelope. All these creatures have advantages that justify their consideration as microlivestock: they have a more rapid turnover than the big species, and they produce a high yield of quality meat. In addition, compared with cattle, these native ungulates make better use of the habitat. Cattle select a limited number of grass species; antelopes choose a wider range, and also include fortes, bushes, and trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More important perhaps is their resistance to many diseases. Most, if not all, are resistant to trypanosomiasis, the disease carried by the tsetse fly. They are not immune to this and other tropical diseases, but they are less susceptible than cattle. However, part of this may be owing to their ability to roam widely; if confined and treated like domestic animals, they may also require some protection against parasites and diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antelopes are also more productive than cattle; that is, they produce a given quantity of meat more quickly because they breed better in the African hinterlands and grow more rapidly on its existing forages. On the other hand, they generally require a richer diet than cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, in their favor, antelopes affect the habitat less than the same density of cattle does; they spread out more while feeding and thereby cause less erosion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two ways of exploiting this potential. One is by "cropping"taking a controlled offtake from free-ranging populations without depressing the overall population. Several methods for producing meat this way from large antelope have been attempted in countries such as Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique. Few have persisted. Often this has been due to opposition from the vested interests of the cattle industry and from stringent veterinary requirements. Nonetheless, game ranching offers a means by which marginal lands could produce food of a high nutritional quality on a sustained basis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other method is by farming - that is, domesticating or partially domesticating the animals, keeping them in pens or herding them like cattle. Experiments in farming antelopes have been less common than game ranching, but one of the most interesting is that conducted on the Galana Ranch in Kenya. Three wild species - buffalo, eland, and oryx - were selected for comparison with cattle. Half-grown animals were preferred for capture, and it was found that if they were kept in the dark for the first week after capture, and then gradually provided with more and more space while they became familiar with people, after about six weeks they could be released into the open and herded from place to place. Grazing during the day under the eye of a herdsman, they allowed themselves to be herded back to a pen at night in the traditional African manner, where they would sleep around the campfire. This was a promising advance in behavior modification leading toward domestication. The oryx, for example, gained weight on grazing that would not even sustain cattle, and it required only a quarter of the amount of water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At bottom, the question is not what contribution antelopes can make to the African larder, for they already make a significant contribution through (largely illegal) hunting. The question is whether farming could make them a sustainable asset rather than their being senselessly squandered, as is the case at present. Although its potential has yet to be realized, antelope farming is not a panacea for Africa's food problems, and certainly not the world's, but it might pave the way to a new and more gentle way to make savannas useful. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TAME GAME</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the 1970s, deer have taken the place of sheep on many New Zealand pastures, and today the country has more than 5, 000 deer farms carrying over one million head, mainly red deer. It is now common along country roads to see tall fences surrounding graceful deer quietly grazing ryegrass and clover. And there are all the appurtenances for deer that exist for cattle and sheep. Auctions and shows are held regularly. Deer farmers have a professional association and produce their own glossy magazine. Government scientists publish pamphlets on the care and management of deer. There are recognized stud stags, computerized recording schemes for breed improvement, and even veterinary services specifically for deer. Hybridization between wapiti and red deer, and PFre David's deer and red deer, is accepted practice. The animals are moved by use of dogs (which command by mere presence rather than by bark or bite), and herds of up to 80 are shifted by truck. Slaughter facilities specifically for deer are in operation throughout the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This transformation of a nervous, jumpy, and retiring wild species into a farm animal is a remarkable achievement. Once accustomed to people, many specimens become gentle, even affectionate, and will come at a farmer's call. Males are generally as easy to handle as females, except during the rutting season when they become aggressive and cannot be handled at all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, even at the best of times the farmed deer must be handled gingerly. If the causes of stress are not quickly suppressed, hysteria can erupt throughout a herd; in an instant, quiet animals can be leaping suicidally in all directions, disoriented, diving head-on into fences, charging gates. Chronic stress, the causes of which are not always obvious, can result in illness or death, although this trait diminishes in subsequent generations of farm-born stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A deer farm has to be laid out to certain special specifications. To prevent escapes, the boundary fences must be 2 m high with netting of 15- or 30-cm mesh. Inner fences need only be 1.5 m high. Water troughs are placed in the middle of the fields, and nothing is allowed to jut inwards from the fences because the animals tend to walk fencelines and take comfort from the illusion of openness. Because deer like to wallow in hot weather, some farmers also provide shallow waterholes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer yards can be of any design, but the sides of the passageways and holding pens should be solid, as deer do not see fences very well, particularly when under pressure, and may injure themselves in a leap towards what appear to be wide open space. (New Zealanders usually make the sides of plywood.) Also, the holding pens should be roofed, as semidarkness has a calming effect. Animals that in the sunlight become hysterical on seeing a person in the distance, can, in the relative darkness of a roofed shed, be touched and even given injections.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the special facilities, however, handling deer takes time and care and experience. The most successful farmers spend much time among the deer so that the animals become accustomed to human presence. This helps to make yard work easier. Also, new arrivals are allowed to wander through the yards on their own to become familiar with them. In addition, special tame deer are used as leads or decoys to encourage the rest of the herd to follow. Using such simple techniques, a formerly intractable species has become almost fully domesticated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">26 Mouse Deer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g029a.png"></center><br>
+ Lesser Malayan Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer1 (Tragulus spp. and Hyemoschus aquaticus) are among the smallest ruminants known. The lesser mouse deer of Southeast Asia is probably the smallest; an adult stands only 20 cm high and weighs a merc 1-2.5 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they look vaguely like tiny deer, mouse deer differ in several particulars. The stomach is simpler and (like the camel's) has three instead of four effective compartments. Rumination occurs, but mouse deer are the most primitive of all ruminants. Indeed, they share a number of characteristics with nonruminants, including lack of horns or antlers; continually growing, tusklike upper canines in males; sharp-crowned premolars; and four fully developed toes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Virtually unchanged in 25 million years of evolution, these are solitary, nocturnal, retiring animals that have seldom received detailed research. Whether they might make suitable microlivestock is unknown. However, they seem to be tractable, and people in Southeast Asia (Sarawak, for instance) have traditionally kept at least one of the species as backyard pets. Moreover, mouse deer are indigenous to tropical lowland regions and withstand the heat and humidity that are stressful to most conventional livestock species. They probably also are resistant to many diseases of those torrid regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the United States, mouse deer are being raised as laboratory animals for basic research on ungulates. This is because the animals are easier to handle than large deer or goats.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are graceful, lithe, and look somewhat like large rodents. The Asian species are the shape and size of an agouti (see page 198); the African species is more like the pace (see page 262). All have short legs, a small head, and a pointed snout. Adults weigh from 1 to 5 kg, depending on species. The head and body are only 04-1 m long, and the shoulder height is merely 20-36 cm. Males are generally smaller than females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most species the body is a rich brown with white spots and stripes. The belly is usually white. The animals stand on the middle toes, so that the lateral ones do not touch the ground. Neither sex bears antlers. In males the upper canines form long tusks that may extend outside the lips and even to below the line of the jaw.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty-five million years ago, early forms of mouse deer existed throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe. Today's species are restricted to tropical forests and mangrove thickets of Southeast Asia and Central Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the three Asian species, the Indian mouse deer occurs in southern India and Sri Lanka; the larger Malayan mouse deer occurs on the mainland of Southeast Asia and the lesser Malayan mouse deer occurs on Java as well. The water chevrotain, a related African animal, is found from eastern Zaire to the Atlantic coast. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p292a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p293a.png"></center><br>
+ Range of water chevrotain .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, human encroachment into the forest has caused the destruction of the mouse deer habitats and has put various mouse deer species under a pressure that is causing their populations to decline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals inhabit equatorial forests and mixed secondary tropical forest. They generally live among undergrowth on the edges of dense lowland rainforests. They especially haunt rivers and swampy bush areas, seeking escape by water when in danger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little about these animals is recorded. Essentially vegetarians, they feed chiefly on fruits, supplemented by leaves. They also eat insects (for instance, ants), if available. They do not seem to eat grass.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The premolars of the mouse deer are designed for piercing and chopping food rather than for chewing. As noted, the stomach consists of three functional compartments: the rumen, the reticulum, and the abomasum. (The omasum of ruminants is represented only by a rudimentary area.) The stomach occupies almost the whole of the abdominal cavity, extending from the diaphragm to the pelvic inlet, which provides this small animal with large food-storage capacity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The blood has a very high erythrocyte (red blood corpuscle) count as well as the smallest erythrocyte size of any mammal. The flesh is "white" and the muscles contain little myoglobin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mature females reproduce almost continuously, and usually regardless of season. In the female larger Malayan mouse deer, mating occurs within 2 days of giving birth. In the African species, many births are synchronized with the rainy seasons, when fruits are plentiful. The gestation period is about 5-6 months, depending on the species. There is only one young per birth. Weaning normally occurs at 2-3 months, but can occur as early as 3 weeks, with sexual maturity achieved at 4-5 months (Asian species) and 10 months (African species). The young stay alone, hidden in vegetation during the first month or two.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are shy, keeping to dense jungle and depending on concealment for protection. Although often present in large numbers, they are seldom seen. Preferring to be near lakes, rivers, or streams, they can nevertheless wander I km or more from water. They feed mostly at dusk or at night, sheltering in undisturbed areas or under shady bushes during the day. They utter weak, bleating sounds, and when frightened, jump a meter or more in the air.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Communication is by scent and calls. The African species possess anal and preputial glands, with which, along with urine and feces, they mark their home ranges. Males of both Asian and African species possess a chin gland to mark either the vegetation or their mates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are among the most excitable, nervous, and jumpy animals. One must tread softly in their presence for fear of causing absolute pandemonium and mishap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are widely sought by native people for food, and their meat is highly regarded. Dressed carcasses have a high proportion of muscle (84 percent in Asian species), low proportion of bone (15 percent), and an insignificant amount of fat. The ratio of muscle to bone is large - 5.6:1. The mean dressing percentage of 62.1 percent is greater than that reported for cattle, water buffalo, or goat.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adults are wild, generally intractable, and "flighty," but young animals (at least of the Asian species) tame readily and make good pets. Nevertheless, these are delicate creatures and must always be handled gently. Individuals caught in the wild tend to bash against the sides of cages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite an unpromising temperament, Asian mouse deer are regularly bred in zoos, including those in Amsterdam, New York, and Zurich. They also have been reared successfully in small enclosures at several research institutes, such as the I.R.E.T. Institute, Makokou, Gabon; the Institute of Medical Research in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; and at Fort Detrick in the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps the best way to breed this animal is by using the battery system of small units comprising one male and two females per cage. The costs are mostly for obtaining suitable enclosures and for feeding and watering troughs.6 The cages must be covered with mesh because the mouse deer can jump. However, the covering must be sufficiently high to allow the male to stand with its body vertical during copulation.7 They can be fed a variety of foods and grow well on stems of bean plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, these are small, seemingly tractable creatures that are at home in the heat, humidity, and diseases of tropical lowlands. They might play a particularly important role as livestock for tropical rainforests; the forests could be left standing while the animal still produces meat. Today, in a widely condemned process, tropical rainforests are being felled in order to raise cattle for meat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small size makes mouse deer easy prey for various predators. In the wild, snakes, crocodiles, eagles, and forest cats feed on them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are among the most excitable, nervous, and jumpy animals. One must tread softly in their presence for fear of causing absolute pandemonium and mishap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The different species are solitary, and it is difficult to keep many individuals (especially males) in a restricted space. They must be kept in a quiet enclosure, with cover or good shelters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The survival of these four "living fossils" depends on conserving their rainforest habitat and restricting hunting, especially night hunting. But studies of their propagation and management are also imperative.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In particular, research is warranted on various aspects of their husbandry, such as enclosure design, space requirements, and health. A special research need is to understand the animal's nutritional requirements and to develop diets for use in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">27 Muntjac</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g030a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac, or barking deer (Muntiacus species), are among the most widespread but least known of all Asian animals.1 They are almost the size of an average dog and they bark, but they are true deer. These little animals adapt well to captivity and have been introduced to zoos and wildlife collections throughout the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years one species, the Reeves' muntjac, has become established in England, and a few specimens have settled into semicaptivity - staying behind fences, accepting human presence, and even eating out of people's hands. In Sarawak, villagers have also been known to keep muntjac, feeding them a diet of rice with some leafy matter occasionally added.2 Such experiences show that these small, shy deer can be calm and adaptable. It also shows that they can be raised on practical, artificial diets and that they are not strictly browsers. This creates the possibility (admittedly highly speculative) that they might make future microlivestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac produce lean, palatable venison and perhaps could be farmed on an organized basis. They are native to severe environments where heat, humidity, and endemic diseases make raising conventional livestock difficult. In future, given research, muntjac might become widespread contributors to Asian economic development. The lessons learned in captive breeding could also be important for conserving endangered muntjac species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One species, the Indian muntjac, has an incredibly low chromosome number (2n=7 in males; 2n=6 in females), which makes them particularly promising candidates for mammalian genetic studies. This species has regularly bred well in both zoos and research institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are small and slender. Reeves' muntjac, the smallest, has a shoulder height of 45-60 cm. Fully grown, it weighs less than 20 kg; commonly it is merely 10-12 kg. The Java subspecies of the Indian muntjac is the biggest, with a shoulder height of 58 cm and a mature weight of 43 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antlers on the males usually include a main prong as well as a much shorter brow tine. Even the main prong is no larger than a finger, but its pointed tip is hooked and must be treated with caution. There are also two tusklike canine teeth that protrude from the mouth. These have sharp points and a knifelike posterior edge, capable of cutting to the bone a person's finger or another muntjac's rump.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coloration varies from deep brown to yellowish or greyish brown with cream or whitish markings, depending on the species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are native to a vast region from eastern China to Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost a century ago, Indian and Reeves' muntjac were introduced to a deer park in southeast England. Some escaped, and (as noted) the Reeves' muntjac has adapted, spread, and settled down to life in the countryside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the five muntjac species, the Reeves' and the Indian are well known and in no danger. For instance, recent estimates of annual game production have shown that there are about 650,000 Reeves' muntjac in China. The other three are threatened with extinction. Black, Roosevelt's, and Fea's muntjacs are virtually untried in captivity, but the success of raising Reeves' muntjac in English country gardens suggests that perhaps their populations could be saved through captive breeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In their native habitats, these small deer are usually found in dense vegetation on hilly ranges at elevations up to at least 3,000 m.3 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p301a.png"></center><br>
+ The native ranges of the various muntjacs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac seem to be primarily browsers. However, in captivity they eat fresh grass, alfalfa hay, and feed pellets. They also readily eat root crops such as potatoes, carrots, and parsnips. They are "concentrate selectors," preferring foods low in fiber and rich in protein and nutrients. Captive specimens reportedly need; a supply of cut browse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding may occur year-round, but in practice it is synchronized with certain seasons. The first conception can occur as early as 6 months of age. One, occasionally two, young are born after a gestation of about 200 days. They weigh around I kg at birth, and the fawns usually remain hidden until they can move about with the mother. The females mate within a few days of giving birth. Life spans up to 16 years have been recorded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the Indian muntjac is a species of great cytogenetic interest. It has the lowest diploid chromosome numbers yet found in a mammal.4 The large, easily distinguishable chromosomes are a great advantage in tissue culture, and many laboratories now have muntjac cell lines. The karyotypes of the different species' chromosomes are very different; the Indian and Reeves' muntjac can hybridize, but the offspring are infertile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are dainty and have a captivating charm. Always on the alert, they are active both day and night. Often they will bark for an hour or more, but typically they bark for only a minute or two. When panicked, captive muntjac may rush into fences or walls. They can easily leap barriers 1.5 m high.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males are highly territorial and defend their territories vigorously. Adult females also inhabit a specific territory, which they defend against strange individuals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males mark the ground at intervals by lowering the head and rubbing the frontal glands on the ground and by scraping their hooves against the ground. They mark trees by scraping the bark with the lower incisors and rubbing the base of their antlers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Asia, muntjac are hunted for meat, skins, and antlers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac thrive and, at least under ideal conditions, breed freely in captivity. However, they may stop breeding if they are crowded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In England, zoos and private collections keep as many as six muntjac in an area of 40 x 20 m. Plenty of cover is provided for the animals to hide in. Fences almost 2 m high are used. (Lower fences are reportedly adequate where there is no risk of the deer being panicked by dogs or people.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like other deer, muntjac produce extremely lean meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They seem to be healthy animals. In Britain, wild and captive muntjac have few gastrointestinal worms, and ectoparasites such as ticks and lice are not a problem. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MUNTJAC</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In England, far from Asia's forests and mountains, the Reeves' muntjac is the subject of a peculiar chapter in the otherwise unhappy history of introduced species. Charmed by the deer's odd characteristics, the British have welcomed its invasion into gardens around the country. Now, there are tens of thousands of muntjacs on the loose, and some people have even adopted them as pets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although other alien species have wreaked havoc on native plants and animals, muntjacs appear to be a merciful exception. At least over the short term, muntjacs "have proven to be an almost innocuous asset to the countryside. They give pleasure to thousands and pain to few. Eating mostly ivy, grass, leaves, and prickly bushes, they rarely feed in one place long enough to do much damage except to an occasional suburban garden." </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life for many muntjacs is made soft by homeowners who find the deer's large, dewy eyes and tiny antlers irresistible. The kind-hearted suburbanites put out salt licks, water, and kitchen scraps, and they built snug little shelters against the cold north wind. "All our adult deer will take food from the hand," says Walter Buckingham, who has kept muntjacs for five years in his garden in the county of </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hertfordshire, just north of London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The adaptable immigrant is colonizing new areas so rapidly, say biologists, that soon there may be more in England than in Asia. "In time," predicts muntjac-researcher Oliver Dansie (pictured opposite), "it may eventually establish itself as our most widely distributed deer species."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild these animals are not gregarious and are generally found alone or in pairs. Because of their strong territorial instincts, large males may not be able to be kept together without fighting. The upper canine teeth can inflict serious wounds. Some females are intolerant of each other as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are fragile; they cannot be held by the legs, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some infectious diseases may prove to be of epizootic importance: foot-and-mouth disease, mucosal disease, epizootic hemorrhagic disease, rinderpest, and tuberculosis (all three types). This may be a problem, especially when people are raising the animals by hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To ensure a better understanding of their potential as microlivestock, muntjac deserve research and recognition from animal scientists and conservationists from Nepal to China. The English experience shows how populations of the endangered species might be built up. At present, however, none are receiving any husbandry research; only the two most common species can generally be found in zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals deserve investigation into physiology, reproductive requirements, fertility, nutrition (for example, food preferences, feeding strategies, and food utilization), growth, adaptability and environmental tolerance, diseases, management, social structure, and selection for calm temperament. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">28 Musk Deer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The musk deer (Moschus species)1 is so small that (like other ungulates in this section) it is only as large as an average-size dog. A gland in males produces musk, a thick, oily secretion that is one of the most valuable substances in the animal kingdom. Musk is used in Oriental Medicine as well as in Europeans perfumes, and in recent year it has sometimes sold for as much as three times the price of gold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk is traditionally obtained by killing these deer and removing their glands. The dried glands, called pods, contain a reddish brown musk powder that has been a commodity in international commerce for more than 1,000 years. Despite bans in India (1972) and Nepal (1973), musk continues to be illegally exported, mainly via Hong Kong, for use in Japan and Europe. In Japan, for example, it is an ingredient in more than 200 different medicines.2 In Europe, musk goes into some of the most famous perfumes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international trade in Himalayan musk, originating from both northern and southern sides of the Himalayan divide, amounts to 200 kg per year, representing an annual slaughter of 20,000-32,000 male deer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commercial value of the animal makes it highly attractive for development as a livestock species. The economic force causing its slide toward extinction could be employed to protect and restore both the species and its habitat. Ranching these deer might put musk production on a sustainable footing. It might also encourage habitat protection, because in the harsh climate of the high Himalayas, rearing musk deer could be much more profitable to villagers than raising crops or cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer are already being farmed under primitive conditions in China, where techniques for extracting musk without killing the animal have been developed. In India, small collections of musk deer have been established by the forest departments of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. For several years authorities in Nepal have successfully extracted musk from an adult male at the Kathmandu Zoo' without apparent harm to the animal.3 These experiences suggest that musk might become a farmed product. So far, however, success has been limited. The Chinese animals, for example, have a high mortality rate and the musk is said to be of poor quality. Nonetheless, these examples are valuable pioneering case studies that deserve recognition, support, and further development.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With their long ears, arched back, and bounding gait, these diminutive deer remind one of large hares. The pointed face and large ears make their heads strikingly reminiscent of kangaroos. The coarse hair gives them a stocky appearance. The color varies according to species (and subspecies) from rich reddish brown to dark grey or black. The peculiarly brittle and wavy hair probably has good insulating properties, as it consists of air-filled cells arranged like a honeycomb.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer have an average mature weight of about 6-11 kg and a body length of 50-90 cm. They stand 50 60 cm high at the shoulder and 5 cm higher at the rump because the hind legs are longer than the forelegs. Some dwarf types are only 40-46 cm high. The tail is short, and in males it is naked, except for a terminal tuft of hair, because they mark their territories by constantly rubbing the caudal gland, which is located near the tail, onto objects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All four toes are flexible, which, compared to the rigid hoof of other ungulates, gives a firmer grip on precipitous slopes. The dew claws are enlarged and, together with the central digits, splay out, to minimize sinking in soft snow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Neither sex possesses antlers, but males have long upper canine teeth that project well below the lips. The lower front teeth have a spatulate form that probably helps the animals scrape lichens from the surfaces of rocks and trees in winter, when most vegetation is snow covered. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p309a.png"></center><br>
+ The musk deers native range.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The genus is distributed patchily throughout the forested mountainous parts of most of Asia. One population extends from just north of the Arctic Circle southward to the northern edge of Mongolia and Korea. Others occur in China, northern Vietnam, and the Himalayan region including Bhutan, Assam, Tibet, the Indian Himalayas, Nepal, and northern Pakistan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During this century, the musk deer has rapidly declined throughout its former regions. In many parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, and probably Tibet, it is already regarded as rare, with a distribution that is becoming increasingly localized. Possible exceptions are Bhutan and most of China, where its population is thought to be stable. In southern China, a recent estimate puts the musk deer population at 100,000 head. In western and northwestern China, the population is estimated at 200,000-300,000 head.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is the uncontrolled hunt for musk that in most places is driving this animal toward extinction, but its habitat is also being increasingly destroyed by livestock and woodcutters. Part of the loss to hunters is owing to the mindless way in which the animals are caught. Most are snared in traps or nets or killed by poisoned stakes set on trails. This kills all the animals indiscriminately, even females and fawns, which produce no musk. This waste of reproductive animals is extremely destructive to the populations and is senselessly hastening the musk deer's extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer mainly occur in upland woodland and scrub areas. They prefer remote, dense vegetation, especially birch-rhododendron forests in mountainous terrain. They are seldom found in treeless regions or areas thickly populated by people. In the Himalayas, the upper limit coincides approximately with the tree line, which is as high as 4,600 m at the eastern end.6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite its economic importance and wide distribution, little is known of the musk deer's biology. Nonetheless, it is known that musk deer have a gall bladder, a bovid feature that distinguishes it from the true deer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are browsers, relying on young leaves, buds, fruits, and flowers. During the winter, as snow deepens, they depend more on lichens growing above the snow on rocks or tree bark, although in shallow snow they scrape for vegetation with their hooves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The male's musk sac is unique among deer. Situated between the umbilicus and penis, it contains the gelatinous, odoriferous oil. The amount varies with the season and the age of the animal, but pods of adult males usually weigh about 30 g; occasionally up to 45 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males also have a caudal gland under the tail, which secretes a viscous yellow substance with a goaty smell. They mark vegetation with this secretion by rubbing their hindquarters against stems and branches.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males become sexually mature at about 18 months, but females seem capable of reproducing in their first year. The estrous cycle is 18-25 days; the receptive period lasts 36 60 hours. Gestation varies from 178 to 192 days. Each female usually bears one or two fawns, rarely three. The fawn is precocious - able to stand and move within 15 minutes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer are shy, furtive animals with keen senses of hearing, smell, and sight. They are normally solitary and are most active at dawn and dusk. Only under cover of darkness do they frequent the more open spaces. Except in the rutting season, more than two animals are seldom seen together; groups usually consist only of a female and her young. The alarm call, a loud hiss, is often accompanied by a highstepping, springy gait.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild, musk deer lead "orderly" lives. They use well established trails connecting well-established feeding places, resting places, and "latrines" where they deposit their droppings. Migration is uncommon.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remarkably sure footed, musk deer climb cliffs and even the trunks of leaning trees. Being small and solitary, they rely on camouflage to avoid predators but flee through established escape routes when disturbed. If cornered, males defend themselves by slashing with their tusks, often inflicting deep cuts and severe injuries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The strong-smelling, reddish-brown musk is obtainable only from this animal.7 It is used as a fixative in expensive perfumes to increase the retention of the fragrance on the skin. In Oriental medicines it is used in stimulants, sedatives, and other products. Some medicinal properties appear to be genuine.8 Recently, highly purified musk has been selling for as much as $27 a gram.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade in the Himalayan musk deer or its products is banned by all countries that are parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). However, products from musk deer in the Soviet Union and China can be traded legally under license. It seems likely that if formal, self-sufficient, musk-deer farming projects can be established elsewhere, with safeguards to minimize poaching, a wider trade would be officially sanctioned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since at least 1919, Chinese scientists have been experimenting with the extraction of musk without killing the males. When the sexual activity is at its peak, the males are caught and musk removed from the pod with a runcible spoon (curved fork) inserted into the sac's aperture. The procedure takes only minutes. There are records of up to 9 g being recovered at a time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, China established formal musk deer farms in 1958. They are clustered in the Maerkang, Miyalo, and Manchuan areas of Sichuan Province; the Zhenping county of Shanxi Province; and the Fuziling area of Anhui Province. Despite heavy initial losses of animals, mainly during transportation and acclimatization, the Chinese now breed musk deer in considerable numbers. However, juvenile mortality is still high and longevity relatively short. Zoos in other parts of the world have also had difficulties maintaining the animals.9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, musk deer readily accept many foods: lettuce, carrots, potatoes, apples, rolled oats, hay, alfalfa, bananas, some grass, bamboo leaves, and pumpkins, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The musk deer's social system may represent an impediment to its successful reproduction in captivity. It is irascible and scares easily. In close confinement, males fight and may have to be isolated from each other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is an inherent danger in any captive-breeding scheme in the Himalayas: resumption of legal trade in natural musk could damage the remaining populations by stimulating the market and providing an outlet for illicit musk from poached animals. Some biologists (notably in India) consider that a total ban on the trade in natural musk from all sources is essential.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, removing the musk without damaging the animals has not proved commercially successful because of market resistance. Most purchasers require the entire pod in order to be certain that they are receiving the genuine product. Given a regularized farming program, however, it seems likely that mutual trust would circumvent this lack of confidence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To protect this species will not be easy. It occurs in vast, remote areas that are difficult to patrol. The local people are poor and traditionally have used it as a source of income and food. The value of musk is so high that smuggling is already well organized and will be difficult to eradicate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is imperative that the status of existing musk deer populations be established. This is especially important in Nepal. The total population may be not more than 500 in the wild.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No matter what is achieved in farming, pressure on populations will only be reduced by protecting the wild specimens. Thus, the dietary requirements and behavior of musk deer should also be evaluated with a view to building up the wild populations directly. If the techniques of breeding and handling can be improved, farming the animal may also indirectly help wild populations by reducing the pressure to harvest them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An alternative to captive breeding might be ranching the wild animals. In this process, males would be caught periodically and the musk extracted before releasing them. The organized, sustainable harvesting is particularly attractive if developed at the rural level with revenue going directly to local people; it would provide them incentive to conserve not only "their" musk deer but also its habitat. For this purpose, today's musk deer hunters could be trained to extract musk from live animals, releasing and recapturing them on a controlled basis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another alternative could be controlled culling at a sustainable level, as is now done in the Soviet Union, where about 5 percent of the population is harvested each year. However, elsewhere annual culls at any level would not be feasible for at least 10 years because the populations are now so low. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g031a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">29 South America's Microdeer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g032a.png"></center><br>
+ Pudu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South America contains three types of tiny, indigenous deer. None are well known to science, yet they are of microlivestock size, and if given research attention at least two might respond to rearing in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PUDU</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pudu (pronounced "poo-doo") is native to temperate forests of the Andean region. It is among the smallest of all true deer, adult males being merely the size of small terriers and the females being smaller still. It is very shy and retiring and is endangered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All things considered, this animal would appear to be an unlikely candidate for microlivestock. But wherever it is found, the pudu is mercilessly hunted, and captive rearing might be the only way to save its populations from extinction. Indeed, it is already being raised in experimental herds in Chile and Argentina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pudus (also called the Andean dwarf deer) once ranged widely through the foothills, valleys, and lowlands of the Andes. They prefer the dark, dank underbrush of the cool rainforest, particularly thick bamboo stands. There are two species: Pudu pudu is distributed in parts of southern Bolivia and throughout much of southern Chile nearly to the Straits of Magellan. It is also found on islands off the Chilean coast. Pudu mephistophiles is distributed throughout the highlands of Ecuador, where it occurs only in cool areas at great height.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With their short legs, stocky bodies, and compact heads, pudus do not look much like deer - more like small antelopes with foxlike faces and spiky antlers. Full grown, they are only 40 cm tall and weigh less than 12 kg. They have thick fur ranging from reddish brown to pale gray.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the pudu's small size, shy and secretive nature, and forbidding habitat, few people have ever even seen one. Nonetheless, these animals tame easily and reportedly were once kept by South American Indians. Several generations were also once bred in a Paris apartment and were treated exactly like domestic dogs, which most people who saw them for the first time thought they were.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, habitat destruction has greatly reduced the range and numbers of these attractive and fascinating little creatures. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature already lists them as vulnerable to extinction. Pudu studies are highly recommended, and raising pudus promises to be an interesting and valuable activity that may one day lead to one of the most intriguing microlivestock of all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BROCKET</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brockets (Mazama spp.) are small deer that occupy the place in South America's environment that duikers occupy in Africa (see page 326). They typically reside in thick brush. They occur widely throughout South America and are found in every country except Chile and Uruguay. They also occur in Central America, the West Indies, and Mexico.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are four species:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Red brocket (Mazama americana), the most common and widespread, is found from Mexico to Argentina. It is also the largest species, with a mature weight of about 20 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gray (brown) brocket (Mazama gouazoubira) is also found throughout Latin America. It is slightly smaller, weighing about 17 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Lesser brocket (Mazama rufina)2 resides in small and scattered locations in Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay. It weighs 10-20 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Dwarf brocket (Mazama chunyi) is found only in pockets of forest and brush on certain mountainsides in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and northern Peru. The smallest brocket, it weighs only 8-12 kg. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except for their size and color, all brockets look alike. The head,  neck, and tail are short; the ears are wide. The lumbar region is higher  than the shoulders, and this, together with an arched back, gives them a  hunched appearance not unlike a duiker's. The antlers are simple  spikes, never longer than a person's hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The different species are similar in behavior, too.3 They generally  wander around singly or in pairs. Although frequenting dense cover  during the day, they emerge at night to feed in open areas. Little is  known of their food preferences. But farmers know only too well how  fond they are of melons, beans, peppers, and corn. Doubtless, wild  forest fruits dominate their native diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although extensively hunted, brockets are so adept at dodging into  dense brush that relatively few get caught. However, small size makes  them vulnerable to many other predators: puma, jaguar, ocelot, and  eagles and other large birds of prey. Near villages the domestic dog is  probably their worst enemy. (Infuriated vegetable growers commonly  set their dogs on them.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although at first sight these retiring, nervous, and agile creatures  seem unlikely to be even potential microlivestock, young brockets are  sometimes caught and raised by people. It is not uncommon to find  them as pets on farms and in gardens. They seem to become very  tame and might therefore make useful livestock at some future time.  At least one species, the grey brocket, adjusts particularly well to life in  and around human settlements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUEMUL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third type of South American microdeer, the huemul,4 is a much  less likely candidate. It is very rare, very shy, and has so far shown  little likelihood of settling into captivity. However, huemul conservation  is critical: without urgent attention, the animal will become extinct.  Although totally protected by law, it is declining owing to poaching,  farm dogs, habitat loss and diseases transmitted by cattle and other  livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two species:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Chilean huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus)5 occurs in high altitude forests, thickets, and grasslands in the Andes of southern Chile and Argentina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Peruvian huemul, or taruca (H. antisepsis), occurs in parts of the Andes of southern Peru and Bolivia as well as of northern Chile and Argentina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species live in small herds above the tree line. They are very shy, and even though the Chilean national seal bears the depiction of a huemul, almost no Chilean (or anyone else, for that matter) has ever seen a live one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At less than 85 cm tall and probably weighing under 15 kg, huemuls are sized to be microlivestock. However, previous attempts at rearing them in Chile have met with little success. Nevertheless, huemuls have been kept in zoos in Germany, and such experiences - together with the increasing knowledge of how to raise red deer and other species - may eventually provide the keys to their continued existence. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g033a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">30 Water Deer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g034a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about the water deer' (Hydropotes inermis), but it should be considered along with mouse deer, muntjacs, musk deer, and others as a possible species for microlivestock development. It is comparable in size, and it is unusual among deer for producing large litters: births of triplets or more are common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with the other species in this section, this is a highly speculative notion; however, there is some justification for it. The Zoological Society of London has successfully established breeding colonies, and other zoos have also bred the animal in captivity. The water deer has the advantage of rapid growth, early maturity, and high fecundity. Indeed, given protection, its populations have been known to increase rapidly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal has a graceful and delicate appearance, its best known characteristic being the male's long tusks. Both sexes are about the same size, standing 45-55 cm at the shoulder and weighing up to 19 kg. Body length is up to about I m, and the tail is so tiny that it is barely noticeable. The round-tipped ears are characteristically held erect above the head.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water deer are somewhat like muntjacs, but they are longer in the leg and lighter in build. Their forelegs are shorter than their hindlegs so that they stand slightly higher at the haunches than at the shoulders. This gives them a hunched appearance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hair is generally thick and coarse, longest on the flanks and rump. The backs and sides are usually yellowish brown, finely stippled with black. In winter, the coat is thick and variable in color; pale fawn and peppery gray-brown are common shades. In summer, the coat is sleek and reddish. Fawns are white spotted at birth, but this dappling soon fades.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Neither sex has antlers. The upper canine teeth, especially in the males, are enlarged, forming curved tusks 7 cm long. These are much bigger than those in muntjacs and can protrude well below the jawline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In both sexes there is a small inguinal gland present between the hind legs, the only instance among deer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In China the water deer has a wide distribution range. It is mainly found in the provinces of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hunan, Hubei, and Fujian, the mid and lower Yangtze River Basin, and coastal areas and islands in central and eastern China. It is also found in Guilin, southern Sichuan Province, Guangxi Province, and Guangdong Province in the south.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Korea, the animal lives along the lower reaches of most rivers, except those in the extreme northeast. Its northern limit of distribution is probably about latitude 43&Yacute;N.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At Woburn Park in England, a few escaped from a herd early this century and have increased and become established in a number of counties, particularly Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire, Cambridgeshire, and Norfolk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In China, owing to increasing reclamation and cultivation of wetlands, the habitat of the water deer is gradually shrinking. At present the animal is protected by the government, which designates appropriate hunting seasons. It is estimated that about 10,000 are killed each year by hunters. In Korea the water deer is still plentiful. As noted, in England it is maintaining itself and is thriving in some protected parks. It is also reported to be present in France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In its home range, the water deer is usually found among reeds and rushes in swampy areas. It also frequents the tall grasses and sparse shrubs of mountainsides and cultivated fields. In England it has adapted to a variety of habitats, including woodlands. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p323a.png"></center><br>
+ Native range of the water deer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer is chiefly a grazer. It feeds mainly on reeds, coarse grasses, and some tree leaves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As previously mentioned, this is the most prolific species of deer. Up to seven fetuses have been observed in a single pregnant female, although the normal litters are two or three. The gestation period is about 176 days. Fawns are born in late spring or early summer, and weigh only about 0.5 kg at birth. Within 4 days the newborns can live almost exclusively on grasses. Usually, however, they are fully weaned after 4 8 weeks, but remain socially attached to the mother. They appear to become independent after about 4 months. Males become sexually mature at about 5-6 months; females at about 7-8 months.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water deer are generally seen alone. Even where abundant, they seldom congregate in herds. Females are sometimes intolerant of each other, as are adult males or young males. However, in captivity, several females can graze and rest in loose aggregations. The peak period of grazing activity occurs around dusk. Feeding sessions are interspersed with periods of passive cud-chewing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water deer "bark" at intruders. During the rut, males are especially noisy and aggressive, and defend their territories with vigor. Fighting involves striking their tusks into the shoulder or back of their opponents. 3 Information from Lu Houji. These are extremely excitable little animals. When upset, they often "hump" their backs and bound away like rabbits. They are also good swimmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In China the water deer are hunted for their meat and skins, and newly born fawns are killed to obtain the mother's colostrum for medicinal purposes. In a few localities in England, the species has become a game animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer is not yet known on "farms." However, it seems to be easily kept, has bred well in zoos, and has thrived in many British wildlife parks. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The assets of early maturity and high fecundity mean that the potential exists for rapid population expansion. Such an event occurred at Britain's Whipsnade Zoo. In 1929 and 1930, 32 deer were released into undeveloped pasture; by 1937, 120 fawns had been raised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they are relatively small, and because in the wild state they aggregate only under exceptional conditions, water deer are unlikely to have any appreciable impact on vegetation in forests, farms, or gardens. Nonetheless, they can damage crops, and Chinese farmers, who consider them pests, often illegally kill them out of season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are swift and adept at escaping captivity. It is possible that because of territoriality only a single pair will live in a given area. Moreover, males are aggressive and must be kept apart.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They seem able to withstand chilly weather well, but a combination of wet and cold is harmful. Their heavy winter coat, essential to survival in the Far East, renders the animal susceptible to dehydration and heat exhaustion in comparatively mild climates, such as England's.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At birth, the tiny fawns are extremely vulnerable to a variety of predators, both birds and mammals. The species may need areas of dense cover or some shelter from wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer has been successfully kept in semicaptivity for many years; however, for it to reach a level of domestication suitable for use as microlivestock, research is needed in the following areas:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reproduction;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Performance under a range of environments;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Grazing efficiency;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Basic physiology;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Captive breeding and domestication - measurements of growth rates, space requirements, and feed needs; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Modifying behavior to overcome territoriality - for instance, imprinting on humans, selection of docile specimens, hand rearing, and castration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer is not an endangered species; however, efforts should be made to preserve the populations in their native ranges and habitats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">31 Duikers</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g035a.png"></center><br>
+ Red Duiker</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers (Cephalophus and Sylvicapra species) are small African antelopes. Although they are ruminants like cattle, sheep, and goats, some are hardly bigger than hares or rabbits. One, the blue duiker, is less than 40 cm high and usually weighs a mere 4-6 kg. It and some of the slightly larger duikers might be suitable for household husbandry because their meat is an extremely popular food throughout much of Africa. In West Africa, for example, it is one of the most common meats sold in both rural and urban markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This idea, however, is highly speculative because, despite their popularity, little is known about these tiny animals. Their husbandry has been attempted only a few times, but the results were encouraging, and rearing duikers deserves further investigation. They are already being raised in captivity in the United States,' Zimbabwe,2 Togo,3 and Gabon. Researchers in Nigeria have bred blue duikers to the fourth generation and found that, if the animals were first handled by people while young, they remained docile.4 Even blue duikers caught in the wild tame quickly if they are very young, but by the time they reach 3.5 months, they become barely tolerant of man's presence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If duiker husbandry can be developed, it might provide not only a more regular source of meat, but also a lessening of the hunting pressures, thereby giving the wild populations a better chance of survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These antelopes are suitable for testing as microlivestock only in their native region, sub-Saharan Africa. Eventually, they might prove to have wider applicability. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duiker species vary from about the size of a small dog to that of a small donkey. Most are similar in shape and are characterized by short front legs, arched back, and pointed hoofs. The tail is stubby, often with a terminal tuft. The coat varies from reddish brown to nearly black, although a few species are blue-grey and one is zebra striped.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females are slightly larger than males, but the sexes look alike. In most species, both sexes bear small straight horns that project backward from the skull, frequently hidden in a long tuft of hair.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers inhabit virtually all regions of Africa below the Sahara from Gambia in the west to Ethiopia in the east, and all countries as far south as South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are so shy that they are rarely encountered by people. But almost anywhere in Africa (other than North Africa), the observant traveler may glimpse them ducking into forests or thickets. Although there are still countless numbers, people are eating so many that in some localized areas the populations are fast heading toward extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All but one species are found in rainforests or dense woodlands. The grey duiker, however, is found in savannas. If the vegetation is juicy, only a few of the species need a separate water source, so they can thrive in very dry sites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main foods are fruits and seeds supplemented by leaves and shoots. Fruits, which they eat to a much greater degree than other antelopes, are an important part of their diet. Some rare species (for example, the red-flanked duiker, C. rufilatus) can graze. Occasionally (especially in captivity), duikers are also omnivorous, eating fish, crabs, insects, snails, frogs, small animals, or carrion; they also readily accept chopped meat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers reach sexual maturity at 9-15 months; gestation lasts about 7-8 months. In some species, females conceive a few days after calving on a 3- to 5-day postpartum estrus. Apparently one calf per birth is normal. A newborn blue duiker weighs between 0.4 and 0.7 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before one year of age, young duikers leave their parents to find their own mates and territories. Life expectancy is more than 10 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In spite of habitat differences, most duikers behave alike. In the wild they are nervous, shy, and retiring. When alarmed, they plunge into the protection of dense vegetation - hence the origin of the name duiker, which means "diver." Nonetheless, their behavior allows them to be easily netted. An experienced hunter can imitate duiker sounds and call the male out of the bush. Also, a startled animal freezes, thereby facilitating its capture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moving easily through dense vegetation, the head carried low, these tiny animals use regular runs. Forest duiker species are largely diurnal, although a few, such as the bay duiker, are nocturnal. Bush duikers are mainly nocturnal, feeding from early evening until morning. Such nocturnal species shelter during the day in holes (presumably dug by other animals) or inside fallen trees; the diurnal ones lie directly on the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blue duikers are the best-known species and are probably the most likely candidates for microlivestock (see page 332). They seem to be monogamous and apparently mate for life. Unlike most antelopes, their population densities can be high. The pairs reside in territories of 2-4 hectares, which both male and female stoutly defend against rivals. Other species appear to be polygamous and live in large territories (up to 80 hectares).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, the animals are generally calm. However, both males and females can be aggressive toward unfamiliar individuals of their own species. In an enclosure, one male can serve several females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large glands, located beneath each eye, exude a scent that is rubbed onto fences, trees, and other objects as territorial marking. In another form of marking the horns are rubbed against tree trunks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, duiker meat is much sought in many African countries, and the animals are regularly hunted. The meat is lean with little or no intramuscular fat (marbling). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers also have promise as experimental animals. They are true ruminants, with four-part stomachs, and they produce cud. Some are only rabbit size, they need far less room or feed than sheep, and thus are potentially an efficient test animal for determining the nutritional value of forages. Blue duikers, for instance, have a digestion efficiency comparable to that of sheep, but, because of their small size, a test needs only four rabbit cages and 5-10 kg of feed. Sheep, by comparison, require much more spacious facilities and 150 kg of feed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Nigeria, blue duiker pelts are used in making karosses, a traditional dress. A single garment may contain up to 60 pelts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost nothing is known about rearing duikers, but they seem to tame easily and perhaps may be kept in backyards like goats. Indeed, they reportedly make good house pets when hand raised. They are attractive, and from the day of capture young ones can be handled and petted.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Nigerian researchers who bred blue duikers to the fourth generation bottle-fed young specimens five times a day. Older animals were given feeds that included banana, plantain, and papaya; leaves of hibiscus, cassava, and banana; and dried corn. Variety seemed to be important, and the researchers could not predict the quantity of particular foods the animals would choose on any given day. In addition to varied vegetables, a small dish of salt or a salt lick was sometimes required.6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are unlikely to run away, except when startled. However, providing an enclosure is worthwhile. It enables them to establish a territory by marking poles, bushes, and fences. Although needing space in which to run, as little as 10 m&Yacute; is reportedly sufficient for 24 animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Satisfactory shelters include an open-ended oil drum laid on its side, a lean-to made of palm frond, or a small hut made of local matting. Apart from providing shade and protection, shelters should be built so that excited animals can run through them. When cornered, duikers tend to either flee for shelter or jump upwards; a run-through shelter can prevent a frightened one from accidentally leaping over the fence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Based on their own experiences, researchers at Pennsylvania State University in the United States report that blue duikers raised in captivity are easy to maintain, reproduce well, and are not fussy about environmental conditions. In fact, they say, blue duikers seem to enjoy living in cages.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In order to raise duikers successfully, post-pubertal males must be separated. A female should be bred with the same male throughout her productive life span.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE BLUE DUIKER</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In one sense, the blue duiker is the most important animal in Africa. It is the only one found throughout the continent south of the Sahara. It occurs at a greater range of altitudes than most - as low as sea level in many places to almost 5,000 m elevation in Kenya. It occurs in habitats from dense rainforests to dryland savannas. And, in sub-Saharan Africa as a whole, the blue duiker is eaten more than any other animal (although in West Africa it is generally called Maxwell's duiker).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This very small antelope, caught by snare or net, can be found in the meat markets of villages, towns, and cities in all countries from Senegal to Madagascar. It is a source of food for tens of millions. Bushmen, Pygmies, Dinkas, and Mandingos, thousands of miles apart; all share the same fondness for duiker meat and for duiker-skin clothes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, scientifically speaking, this is one of the world's least-known animals. And its numbers are diminishing rapidly. Areas that used to have plenty now have few or none. Overhunting and destruction of the rainforests are jointly contributing to their decline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the losses, people are snaring as many as they can, and there is no sense of concern - not even among most conservationists. However, in many locations there is already evidence that the animals won't be around much longer. Unless something is done - and soon - people will lose their major source of animal protein. If that happens, it is likely that they will move on to larger animals, such as gorillas, which would be an even worse disaster.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best long-term solution is to organize duiker husbandry. Learning to rear duikers would benefit people throughout Africa. The blue duiker is the most suitable species; it is the most common and the most important. Also, it inhabits the edges of the forest and could therefore become a suitable species for ranching without denuding the forest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blue duikers are easy to maintain in captivity. They tame readily and like to shelter and sleep In boxes or cages. They are good converters of vegetation and produce top-quality lean meat. In addition, they are neither affected by tsetse flies nor are very susceptible to diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key now is to learn how to keep these very timid creatures under different conditions. We need to know their foods (especially foods that might be harvested from forests) and reproductive biology. We need to know the right numbers to house together. Most of all, we need projects aimed at rearing and breeding them in captivity under village conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vivian J. Wilson</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many African countries already have a ready market for duiker meat. It is somewhat similar to goat meat, but most people agree that it is superior.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal can live on fibrous vegetation. Unlike conventional ruminant livestock, it is suitable for feeding an average family at one meal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ability to forage in undergrowth where other domestic livestock do not thrive makes duikers potential livestock for tropical forest and bushland regions. They can be raised for meat without cutting the trees or bushes to create pastures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are easy prey for predators: eagles, pythons, wildcats, and people, among others. Thus, they probably require more sophisticated management than common livestock such as goats. However, the quality of their meat could more than compensate for the extra effort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some species are territorial, which means that they may do poorly in captivity, unless their social organization can be altered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under good conditions, the ideal slaughtering age reportedly occurs at 8-10 months, when the blue duiker can weigh 4 kg. Compared to rabbits and guinea pigs, production is relatively slow because of long gestation and lack of multiple births.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are resistant to trypanosomiasis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One general problem is that duikers have short, sharp horns designed specifically for jabbing. This could be a potential danger, especially since the males of some species become aggressive when their females are receptive. However, the horns can easily be clipped and taped to limit the danger. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the duikers' secluded lifestyle, much has still to be learned about their habits. Specific information on behavior and breeding is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal scientists in Africa should gather small herds for comparative studies. This will provide insights into whether duiker temperaments facilitate or hinder their utilization. In addition, assessments of diet, growth rates, behavior in captivity, reproductive rate, adaptability, and future potential can be made. Management considerations include clipping horns, trimming hooves, and controlling lice and fleas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research of particular value would be chemical analysis of duiker milk and of other characteristic glandular secretions. The latter lend themselves especially to a study of animal communication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parming duikers might help rescue the wild populations by relieving hunting pressures. Programs in this area are recommended for locations where overhunting is occurring. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g036a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">32 Other Small Antelope</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g037a.png"></center><br>
+ Klipspringer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The least known and most obscure of all antelope are the delicate African creatures called dikdik, suni, royal antelope, pygmy antelope, and klipspringer. The smallest is a West African form of the royal antelope that stands a mere 25 cm high and weighs less than 2 kg. The four-horned antelope of South Asia is a similarly tough, tractable animal that is also the size of a small dog.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None of these has previously been seriously considered for use as livestock, but they are possibly amenable to rearing in captivity and they provide some of the finest game meat in the world. Given New Zealand's experience with various deer species (see page 288) and Africa's experience with large antelopes, basic research to test out the possibility of organized dwarf-antelope production could prove to be rewarding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The areas where these antelopes might be used are sub-Saharan Africa for the African species and South Asia for the four-horned antelope.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these animals, some, such as the pygmy antelopes, have a crouched appearance with an arched back and short neck; others have a more upright posture with a long neck and a raised head. In all species, the males are smaller than the females and bear tiny spikelike horns. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collectively, these antelopes have native ranges covering huge areas of Africa and part of Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dikdik: Six species occur in two discontinuous distributions - one from Somalia and Ethiopia southward through Kenya and Tanzania, the other in Namibia and Angola. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sunis: Eastern Africa, from Kenya to South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Royal antelope: West African forests. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pygmy antelope: Central Africa from southeastern Nigeria to Zaire. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Klipspringer: Ethiopia to the Cape of Good Hope. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four-horned antelope: India. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many forms are protected by local laws, but none of the species is on the international endangered-species list.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals occupy habitats from dense, moist forests to dry, rocky outcrops and even to deserts. Their ranges have almost certainly been affected by humans - sometimes for the better, since many prefer the secondary growth that invades disturbed areas, notably after overgrazing or slash-and-burn agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although dikdik and klipspringer usually frequent dry areas with scattered brush, the other dwarf antelopes normally stay in dense vegetation. All seem to live in definite areas and do not migrate. For instance:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Dikdik live near streambanks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Sunis inhabit dry country with thick bush, but they can also be found in reed scrub along rivers and in forests up to 3,000 m elevation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Klipspringers live on stony mountain slopes, rocky outcrops' or the sides of steep gorges at altitudes from sea level to 4,000 m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Four-horned antelopes live in undulating or hill country and shelter in tall grass and open jungle, a terrain more common to deer than to antelope. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of these antelope browse on shrubs. They are "concentrate selectors," taking easily digested vegetation such as buds, fruit, and succulent young leaves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also, most obtain much of their water requirement from dew and the vegetation they consume. Klipspringers, for example, are able to live for months without drinking. Sunis and four-horned antelope, on the other hand, drink regularly and seldom live far from water sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known of the reproduction and general performance of these animals. Females become sexually mature at about 6 months in the smaller species and 10 months in the larger. Males become sexually mature at about 14 months. The young are born throughout the year, but births peak with the vegetation flush following the first rains. Where there are two rainy seasons a year, two birth peaks occur. Usually a single calf is born. Dikdik is the only one whose reproduction has been studied in detail. Its pregnancy lasts 172 days, one young is born at a time, and the birth weight is 600-800 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their longevity is unknown but is probably in the range of 10-12 years.l</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These tiny creatures have some of the habits of deer. They are shy and elusive and generally rely on concealment to escape detection. Their first response to a predator is to freeze, and then to flee like hares - dashing off in a series of erratic, zigzag leaps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They live alone, in pairs, or in small family groups, but sometimes congregate in larger groups in thorn thickets. The species that have been studied most (dikdik and klipspringer) are strongly pair bonded. (A male, a female, and one or two young is typical, and a klipspringer rarely moves more than 5 m from its mate.) However, the royal and pygmy antelopes and the suni are more solitary in their behavior. Four-horned antelope are usually seen alone or in pairs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals feed mostly in the early morning and late afternoon Some species deposit dung and urine on particular sites. And they repeatedly daub secretions from glands in front of the eyes onto plant stems, where a sticky mass accumulates. Glands near the hooves mark the ground along frequently traveled pathways. Males also mark females with the scent, thus reinforcing the bond. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The four-horned antelope has a whistling call, which helps keep the family group together. Males repeat it frequently in hot weather. Gestation is 8-8.5 months. If taken young, they reportedly tame easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Much more research needs to be done before attempts are made to convince anyone to domesticate these antelope. There are likely to be considerable difficulties. Guinea pigs, rabbits, and giant rats can successfully be kept in cages or small enclosures, but most antelope probably cannot. Larger enclosures will be needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The food habits and general behavior of these small animals must be studied closely. They are strictly monogamous, and it may be necessary to keep them in pairs. Reproduction, growth, and general performance must become understood under different environmental and nutritional conditions. Mixing species is another aspect to be examined - whether these antelope can be kept with other species in the same enclosure (typical of livestock farming in most poor nations) is not known.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To settle such questions, representative species of microantelope should be gathered for comparative assessment. Researchers should focus on the animals' social structure, on husbandry methods for maintaining them over generations, and on how best to breed them. If the findings are promising, then a campaign to domesticate these antelope could be mounted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout most of their ranges these animals are highly sought "bushmeats." The meat is lean and of extremely high quality. In Zaire's Ituri Forest, for example, pygmies net and kill large numbers of pygmy antelope, hanging the carcasses on sticks by the roadside for sale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their small size, these species might make good laboratory animals for ruminant studies. The dikdik, for instance, becomes a fully functioning ruminant at a body weight of about only 1.5 kg.2 However, their digestive physiology is quite different from that of cattle, sheep, and goats, which makes them atypical ruminants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given organized production, it is likely that dwarf-antelope pelts could become commercially important. North Africa exports the hides of medium-size antelopes to Europe for use in fine sueded leathers. Hides of the small species would almost certainly be in demand as well if a steady supply could be obtained as a by-product of meat production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microantelope provide some of the finest game meat. They are small and perhaps tractable. Most are already widely eaten and are being eliminated over broad areas of their range. Turning them into a sustainable, economic food source could provide motivation for their conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These antelope can digest, and are adapted to, the indigenous forage over vast areas of Africa and South Asia. They are native to tropical habitats, where cattle and other livestock often grow poorly. They also appear to be resistant to trypanosomiasis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some African peoples (for example, the Kalahari Bushmen) have superstitions or social injunctions that prohibit the eating of some of these species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small antelope are probably not as efficient as larger ruminants in digesting fiber: the retention time in the rumen may be too short. On the other hand, quickly digestible cell walls of lush green plants can be used efficiently.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The territorial behavior of most of these species may limit their rearing in large numbers under captive conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, preliminary research on dwarf antelope husbandry is required. Specifically, studies should be conducted to assess:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Growth rates, feed efficiency, and reproductive rate;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Carcass quality;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Economics and the likely cost of production per animal unit; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Studies of digestion.4 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The few statistics available today on the use of wildlife as food are probably much below actual consumption. Most food consumption surveys record food obtained by hunting or trapping under the indiscriminate heading of "Bushmeat" and neglect to include the many small animals that are normally collected by children. In Africa, an amazing variety of wildlife is eaten, including all wild ungulates, primates, all cats, and many species of birds and reptiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization Ceres magazine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All the world's people must begin to overcome in themselves - and even more so in their children - senseless taboos about what is edible and what is not. Only then can we stop today's universal animal-protein wastage. How ironic it would be, in this scientific age, for mankind to starve largely because of a bunch of old wives' tales, irational beliefs, silly associations, and the lack of a sufficient spirit of culinary and gustatory adventure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calvin W. Schwabe Unmentionable Cuisine </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguana is really good, a thousand times better than chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Omero Asinto, waiter Pochote Bar and Restaurant</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barranca, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part VI : Lizards</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large lizards have been important foods since prehistoric times and are still commonly hunted in parts of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.1 Some (such as the monitor lizards seen in markets in Indochina) are carnivorous species that may be difficult to feed and raise economically. However, the iguanas of the Americas offer promise as microlivestock. They are herbivorous and feed primarily on leaves, flowers, and fruits, including many that are too high in the trees to be gathered by man or by other livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguana meat is popular throughout much of Latin America, where consumers willingly pay more for it than for fish, poultry, pork, or beef. To fill the demand, several iguana species are hunted by rifle, slingshot, trap, and noose; they are even run down by trained dogs. Villagers (often small children) catch them for food for the family; professional hunters snare and sell them to vendors. Iguanas are hauled around in gunny sacks and wicker baskets by car, boat, horseback, and people on foot. In parts of El Salvador they have been known to arrive at the market by the truckload.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a result of this indiscriminate hunting, iguanas are now steadily becoming more scarce, and the destruction of their habitat makes the situation even worse. At present, many parts of Latin America's tropical forests are being cleared. The green iguana in particular depends on trees, and as forests disappear its populations are destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, iguanas are forest-edge species: they will grow well on ranches and farms as long as patches of trees are left standing. This offers the hope that they can be raised as microlivestock. They reproduce so prolifically that, in principle, populations can build up exponentially. Mature females, for example, may produce 30 or more eggs a year for up to 10 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past few years, a notable research program in Panama and Costa Rica (see page 351) has laid the practical foundation for iguana farming. It has artificially incubated and raised thousands of green iguana hatchlings. With less than half a square meter of living space per animal, the hatchlings have grown as fast or faster than their wild counterparts. Unlike their kin in the wild - which in their first year of life suffer 95 percent mortality from birds, snakes, and other predators the captive-raised iguanas show almost 100 percent survival. This research project demonstrates that ranching iguanas both for food or for repopulating depleted habitats is feasible. In addition, experimental projects for farming green iguanas have begun in Curacao and El Salvador.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As livestock, lizards have advantages. Being cold-blooded they do not carry human diseases (except for those such as salmonella that result from gross mismanagement). They can be kept in captivity in fairly high densities without diseases breaking out. Although often aggressive in the wild, they coexist in dense populations with few problems as long as they are well fed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is an important conservation component as well. Farming these lizards may help check and may even reverse the downward trends of their populations by allowing large numbers to be released back to the wild at a size that inhibits predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three alternatives for utilizing iguanas:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To manage wild stocks as game animals;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To raise iguanas on farms, like chickens and pigs; or</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To raise young iguanas in captivity and then release them into the wild where they can grow to full size and later be harvested on a sustainable basis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the green iguana has so far received the most attention, two other Latin American species are in farming trials. Black iguanas (garrobos) are being raised experimentally in El Salvador and Costa Rica. And the omnivorous tegu lizard, which produces a valuable leather, is beginning to be farmed in Argentina and is briefly described opposite. Both iguana species are described in the following chapters. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TEGU</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tegus (Tupinambis rufescens and T. teguixin) are large lizards of South America. They are highly prized for their skins, which are made into leather for handbags and similar items. Tegus are heavily exploited; on average, Argentina exports over one million skins a year - about $15 million worth. The 50-year-old tegu industry is estimated to support as many as 30,000 people, including tannery employees and people in rural areas who hunt the lizards full- or part-time. Poor agricultural conditions make farming difficult in the Chaco, and sale of a single tegu skin is worth more than a day's wages for a farmband. Some families also eat the tegu meat and use the fat for medicinal purposes. In many areas, the populations have already been driven to the verge of extinction. Husbandry, therefore, could be beneficial. Traders are hoping that captive operations run by families can eventually replace hunting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although usually associated with the arid regions of northern Argentina and Paraguay, the tegu's range actually covers much of South America - as far north as Colombia, including Trinidad and the Amazon basin. One species (T. rufescens) normally occurs in a dryland habitat, such as Argentina's Chaco region. It can occur in great numbers in pastures, probably because of the insects associated with cattle. But it also occurs in areas that are unsuitable for cattle. Some places where tegus are common are so dry that they can carry only a single cow in 10 hectares. There, farmers might find it profitable to raise tegus. This would maintain the native biological diversity while perhaps reducing the soil degradation that cattle cause.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other species (T. tegubixin) occurs in wet forests, such as those found in Argentina's Formosa Province.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tegus are scientifically interesting. Little is known about their biology, and basic studies are needed. They are not much eaten, but in some areas the tail is considered a delicacy. Indeed, deteriorating economic conditions are already making them more important as a food resource. Convincing campesinos that they can increase their cash income and their meat production by rationally exploiting these large lizards should not be difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable exploitation could also benefit tegu conservation. Large populations still exist in some areas in Argentina and Paraguay, but, overall, the species are declining. A welldesigned management project could ensure the maintenance and reestablishment of large populations where numbers have drastically decreased. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">33 Green Iguana</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g038a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the green iguana (Iguana iguana) is consumed throughout Central America. It is already subject to heavy commercialization and its populations are plummeting. This is not likely to change: as human population increases, so does demand for iguana meat and eggs as well as for live iguanas, thousands of which are kept as house pets. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its herbivorous diet, inoffensive nature, and high reproductive potential, this reptile is a prime species for intensive management. Alert, curious, and social, it is easily tamed from birth. Given minimal protection during the reproductive season, large populations can build up, and animals can be maintained in simple facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, although iguanas can be maintained as microlivestock, they may require three years to reach market size. Raising them to maturity entirely under captive conditions is thus probably uneconomic at present, when specimens can still be inexpensively (albeit often illegally) harvested from the wild. However, it has been found that if released into the wild, most will remain in nearby trees, especially if people erect simple feeding stations and keep them stocked with table scraps or weedy vegetation. This makes for very low-cost production during the years of waiting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given such findings, iguana farming has a promising future. With research, growth rates can undoubtedly be increased and maintenance costs reduced. Also, iguanas are becoming more valuable each year. Even now, farming them could be economic in some areas where wild iguanas are scarce, especially if the young are released into forested sites when they have grown to a size where mortality is low.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although green iguanas will happily graze pastures, they need trees. Iguana farming, therefore, provides a way to keep tropical forests standing while still providing people with meat and income. By growing lizards, farmers don't have to fell the forests to create space for growing food crops or cattle. Iguana farming thus gives an economic incentive to preserve the beleaguered tracts of remaining trees. It may even render reforestation economically attractive. And it may promote the use of shelterbelts and contour strips of trees in cattle-ranching areas. Today's researchers estimate that 200-300 kg of meat can be produced per year per hectare from iguanas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The green iguana can grow to more than 2 m long, but more than half of that length is in its whiplike tail. Adults of breeding size generally weigh 2-4 kg. The scaly skin is green, yellowish, or golden brown with dark markings; color is a function of age and reproductive stage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This large lizard is indigenous to a vast region stretching from Mexico to northern Brazil and Peru, including a number of Caribbean islands. In Mexico, it occurs in tropical forests along both coasts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green iguanas were formerly abundant throughout Central America, but no longer. In the mangrove forests along Mexico's Pacific coast, for instance, only 5 percent of the former population remains. In Guatemala's Pacific lowlands, mere remnants are left. In El Salvador's jungles, the animals have declined to 1 percent of their former density. And in both Panama and Costa Rica, the species is now officially classified as endangered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The green iguana usually lives near water in tropical lowland forests. It thrives only as long as some trees remain. The forests may be either humid or seasonally dry. The animal normally inhabits the treetops, feeding on tender shoots and fruits in the canopy; few other herbivores can convert such forest foliage into food for humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like cattle and other herbivorous mammals, iguanas have a specialized digestive system with an enlarged fermentation chamber in which bacteria break down plant cells. Vegetation is converted into meat about as effectively as in cattle, but not as quickly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After reaching sexual maturity, at 2 or 3 years of age, females lay one clutch of 10 85 eggs each year. (For most specimens the average is probably about 35.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p349a.png"></center><br>
+ Native habitat of the green iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are generally slow moving and lethargic when cold, but during the heat of the day they become extremely alert and can run, swim, and climb with speed and agility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They have a complex social structure and a defined annual reproductive cycle. Hatchlings adapt easily to captivity both when artificially incubated and when captured in the wild. However, captured adults, used to living free, are hard to keep in small enclosures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green iguanas are used mainly for food. The meat tastes somewhat like chicken and in Latin America is typically cooked in a spicy stew. The eggs are also consumed. Small and leathery shelled, they are considered special delicacies and are said to cure various ailments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a sizable demand for live iguanas in the international pet trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exploitation has been mainly for the flesh; the skins are wasted in most cases. However, given organized production, green iguana skin could perhaps become a farm by-product. It sells in the international reptile-leather market under the trade name "chameleon lizard." The hide is typically up to 20 cm wide. Thin and relatively fragile, it is glued to a fabric or cowhide backing to prevent it from tearing. The prime uses are for ladies' accessories, belts, wallets, and shoes. It is inappropriate for uses that involve flexure because the scales overlap and repeated flexing causes them to separate. The skin then becomes rough to the touch and loses its glossy finish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IGUANA MAMA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The program that now offers hope for raising green iguanas as microlivestock is the brainchild of zoologist Dagmar Werner. She began in 1983 by collecting 700 iguana eggs and then learning what to do with them "on the job."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through a combination of luck and intuition, coupled with determination, she discovered appropriate conditions for incubating the eggs on the first try - no less surprising because her incubators (dirt-filled wooden boxes warmed with light bulbs) were in an apartment in a high-rise building in Panama City. Nonetheless, most of the eggs hatched and the several hundred squirming young lizards were quickly trucked to a forest park near the Panama Canal. Here, for five years, assisted by a steady stream of enthusiastic Panamanian biology students, Wemer experimented with cages, feeds, facilities, breeding genetic selection, and the myriad aspects of management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These dedicated researchers eventually devised what might be considered a production line, and they hatched and raised tens of thousands of green iguanas, reduced the animals' infant mortality rate, and created the basic underpinnings for economic production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1988, administration for the project was shifted to neighboring Costa Rica, where Werner established another research farm as well as a fund-raising foundation. From there, she hopes to catalyze all Central America to take up iguana production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Her immediate goal is, paradoxically, to preserve the lizards by putting an iguana in every pot. That will help reduce the indiscriminate hunting that is taking these animals toward extinction in the wild.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Her system is based on setting up feeding stations in the woods and releasing iguanas at seven months, an age at which they are virtually immune to predators. Iguanas need trees, and her ultimate goal is to help save the vanishing rainforests. With profitable iguana farming, she hopes to persuade farmers to save the trees as homes for iguanas, rather than clearing them for crops and cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Iguana management and an international marketing system will protect, rather than exterminate, the iguana," Werner says. "I don't think iguana farming will stop deforestation. But I do think it will contribute a great deal." </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The iguana farming project in Panama and Costa Rica (see sidebar) provides a model for what might be done elsewhere. In its first five years of operation, the project raised more than 10,000 green iguanas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To create the farms, enclosures are constructed with sheet-metal wails sunk 30 cm in the ground.' Inside, the animals sleep in shelters made of bamboo and vegetation. Each shelter has an adjustable entrance slit through which young lizards can slither, but predators, which usually are larger, cannot. Most are set on stilts and food is served in the shade underneath. With this system, from 20 to 60 young iguanas are kept in an area of 10 m&Yacute; (0.5-0.17 m&Yacute; of land area per individual). In another "high-intensity" design, 30 hatchlings are kept in cages I m&Yacute; in size (only 0.05 m&Yacute; per individual).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The iguana farms also include an artificial nest consisting of a "tunnel" leading to a sand-filled egg-laying chamber. (Both tunnel and chamber are made of concrete blocks or other predator-safe material.) Female iguanas (at least in captivity) prefer this to digging their own tunnels, and it is an important advance in iguana breeding because it produces a hatching success of close to 100 percent. Recent versions require no human intervention: the eggs incubate and hatch by themselves and the hatchlings climb out of the nest through a hollow bamboo "pipe" and fall into plastic bags, which can be easily emptied twice a day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The iguanas are fed mixtures of broken rice meal, meat meal, bone meal, fish meal, papayas, bananas, mangos, avocados, and a variety of leaves and flowers. Each day they receive fresh-cut leaves from plants such as beans, mustard, or hibiscus. Hatchlings are raised to an age of 6-10 months, when they are big enough to be released into forests, farmland with scattered trees, or into village backyards with almost no vulnerability to predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With each female producing an average of 35 eggs annually, these animals have inherently high reproductive potential. And if the young are protected from predators during their first few months, populations can build up rapidly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguanas adapt well to second-growth forest and to backyard conditions and can feed on the leaves of fruit trees or timber trees while the farmer can harvest the fruits or wood. Unless grossly overstocked, they are unlikely to affect the productivity of the trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These lizards may take three years to reach marketable size,2 and the cost of raising them to usable size entirely in captivity is currently greater than their market value as food. Less-expensive methods of raising the animals must be found if large-scale commercial iguana farming is to become economically feasible. The main problem is the high cost of the enclosures, not the cost of food. The food costs no more than that for raising a chicken to marketable size, but iguanas do not grow as fast as chickens. For smallholders the only cost of raising them is labor, and that is often unimportant. Free-ranging herbivorous lizards can damage home gardens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For conservation purposes, the main need is to educate people throughout Latin America to the iguana's plight. For example, in Central America people catch pregnant females and cut out the eggs for food. (There is a widespread misconception that the females survive this brutality.) This is devastating to the iguana populations, yet by installing artificial nests, farmers could let the females live and still harvest the eggs. Moreover, people could eat half the eggs and incubate the other half to repopulate the trees around their farms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also important to develop an understanding of iguana reproduction in the wild. At present, the longevity, growth rate, and age of sexual maturity are not well known. Such information would provide baseline data for creating conservation measures to reverse the depletion of this natural resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further husbandry research is needed. Costs must be reduced. The effectiveness of artificial nests must be tested in village practice. Survival rates of captive-raised young after release must be studied. And harvesting and recruitment schemes should be developed to secure optimum exploitation of the repopulated forests. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">34 Black Iguana</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g039a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work on green iguana husbandry may apply also to the black iguanas' (Ctenosaura similis, C. acanthura, C. hemilopha, and C. pectinata). These are similar lizards that live in dry habitats throughout Central America </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exploitation of wild black iguanas for food began in ancient times and has continued in most places over hundreds of years without much harm to the natural populations. Until the 1970s, Latin Americans could obtain the meat and eggs with little effort, and the animals sold cheaply in city markets. In recent years, however, the lizards have become scarce and prices have risen sharply. For instance, in 1976 the central market of San Salvador was selling large specimens for the equivalent of 80 cents, but by 1979 prices were generally from three to six times as much. Today, black iguana meat costs more than fish, poultry, pork, or beef.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eating small game animals is deeply rooted in the traditions of Central America and cannot readily be changed by legislation or education. Despite official edicts, campesinos on a subsistence diet will not willingly forego the little meat they get by capturing and eating lizards. Moreover, legislation is seldom effective because there are too few enforcement officials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with the green iguana, it seems likely that when the factors causing hatchling mortality are reduced, a large harvestable annual surplus can be produced. Black iguanas efficiently convert vegetation into high-grade protein suitable for human consumption. Young ones, however, are insectivorous and carnivorous rather than purely herbivorous, and during their first weeks of life may require a more expensive diet (perhaps meat scraps) than green iguanas require. Moreover, most insectivorous lizards require moving prey. They may or may not accept meat scraps as food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black iguanas are smaller and more stocky than green iguanas, but weigh up to 3 kg. Their tails are spiny and short. The scales on the tail are enlarged, grow in spirals, and are sharp-pointed. Other than that (apart from being generally greyish black in color), the two animals are similar in appearance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The different black iguana species range from northern Mexico along both coasts of Central America to Panama and Colombia's Caribbean islands. Most tolerate moderate human presence well, often thriving around town garbage dumps and cemeteries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As recently as 1981, black iguanas were shipped to markets by the truckload. Today, they are generally limited or even absent over much of their original range. Nevertheless, they are still the major game animals across extensive areas of Central America. Many of those taken are gravid females, which is disastrous for the populations. Excessive insecticide spraying is also thought to be reducing their populations in some areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black iguanas thrive in dry, open woodland. They particularly like rocky hillsides, for they depend for shelter on crevices, rock piles, or soft soil in which they dig burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These omnivores feed on foliage, flowers, and fruits, but also on insects and small vertebrates. Adults spend some of their time climbing trees, but they are much less arboreal than green iguanas. Hatchlings are initially terrestrial but have a mostly arboreal stage in their early weeks of life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females lay one clutch of 20-90 eggs each year. The eggs are much smaller than those of the green iguana and therefore are not as popular a food. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p357a.png"></center><br>
+ Distribution of the black iguana.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These lizards live in burrows or in holes in trees. A typical burrow has several entrances and is 1-2 m long. Several females may combine efforts to form a complex communal burrow with several individual nest chambers. They are such diligent diggers that many are caught while absorbed in the task of adding a new room.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some places, even where they are not common, black iguanas are still intensively hunted. Because their meat is valuable, the reward justifies the considerable effort involved in finding and killing them. Hence, where populations are so depleted that organized hunting is unprofitable, the animals are still subjected to relentless destruction by individuals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farming black iguanas is a novel idea. However, it is not a foolish one. In 1981 the Centro de Recursos Naturales (CENREN) in El </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Salvador started a black iguana farming project. Since then, its researchers have collected data on growth rates, feeding patterns, and the maintenance and reproduction of captive adults. The program offers some promise of maintaining breeding stock in large outdoor enclosures, of producing large numbers of hatchlings, and of restocking depleted areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OTHER IGUANAS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other iguanas that deserve consideration for husbandry include the rock (rhinoceros) iguana (Cyclura cornuta), a herbivorous lizard of the Antillean region. This has been raised in considerable numbers at the National Zoo of Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. Captive-bred specimens have reproduced at the age of 32 months, average clutch size has been about 15, and the average incubation time has been 82 days (at 31&Yacute;C). The innate tameness of these island iguanas renders them better adapted for captive rearing than either the green or the black iguana, and their greater size is an advantage as well. On the other hand, the length of time required to reach maturity, and the relatively small egg clutch (about half that of the green iguana and one-third that of the black iguana) are definite disadvantages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A related species, Iguana delicatissima, also deserves research and conservation attention. It occurs in the Leeward Islands and Martinique, and (as its specific name implies) is even better eating than the green iguana.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latins believe that various ailments are cured or benefited by the flesh of these lizards, so they willingly pay much more for their meat than they would for equivalent amounts of other meats. In most places where the two occur together, the black iguana is preferred over the green iguana.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with green iguana, the black iguana reproduces readily in captivity and has an even higher reproductive potential (averaging 43 eggs per clutch). It has the additional advantage that it thrives in deforested and altered habitats. It can survive near human settlements despite the attacks of dogs and cats, and it attains dense populations in suburban lots or open spaces. (It survives even downtown in cities such as Managua, but not in dense populations because dogs, cats, and humans take so many.) Hence, even in towns and cities, there are habitats capable of supporting it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black iguanas will feed on weedy vegetation or garbage, and adults seem easier to maintain in captivity than their green iguana counterparts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The long delay (probably at least two years) before the animals reach marketable size might make it difficult for the grower to compete with common meats such as poultry or fish. Certain parasitic worms can make the flesh inedible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although smaller than green iguanas, black iguanas are much more aggressive and will defend what they perceive to be their territory. They can inflict a painful bite. They also tend to escape from captivity more readily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, these omnivores depend on animal matter during part of their life cycle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biology of the black iguana deserves much more study.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management techniques developed for the green iguana should be tested for their applicability for black iguana species. Harvesting and recruitment schemes must be developed to create sustainable populations in the wild. The specific needs for feeding the young also need to be addressed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I am convinced that in the Third World, it is only when poor people are assured of their livelihood that they will help us to safeguard their natural environments. So long as people remain hungry, it is very difficult to talk to them about conservation. As a result, I believe that development and conservation are inseparable. Only when conservation takes on a dimension of helping the poor, the downtrodden, the destitute, will it have an enduring impact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.S. Swaminathan International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I suspect that wildness is an inherited characteristic as was found for the turkey by Starker Leopold. So in attempting domestication one should expect to have difficulty until there are enough animals that you can select breeding stock for quietness and tractability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ian McTaggart Cowan Emeritus Professor of Zoology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of British Columbia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle will never be extinct for the simple reason that man eats cattle. The best way to preserve wild species is by demonstrating that they, too, can be a valuable resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ernie Matteram</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York Times Magazine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife utilization should be considered a legitimate form of land use, just as much as livestock husbandry. In fact, what has happened in the past is that Man has domesticated a limited number of animals, mainly in the temperate zones, while overlooking a considerable potential of other animals, which could be domesticated or used with equal validity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antoon De Vos </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part VII Others</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted in the preface, this report by no means exhausts all the microlivestock possibilities. Lack of space and time precludes discussion of creatures such as edible insects, snails, worms, frogs, turtles, and bats, which in some regions are highly regarded foods. Similarly, we have not included fish, shrimp, and other aquatic life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not to say that these are less worthy of consideration. The decision to leave them out was arbitrary, but with several recent breakthroughs in tropical beekeeping it seems prudent to include bees. Accordingly, the final chapter of this book describes the smallest livestock of all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bees are one of the most promising microlivestock. They forage on flowers that are otherwise little utilized and produce honey, wax, and other products of high value. They are important as plant pollinators and can greatly increase the production of some crops. Bees can be kept virtually anywhere with little disruption of other activities, and they are easily available. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">35 Bees</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g040a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of all the livestock reviewed in this publication, bees are the smallest, the least demanding of space, probably the most familiar, and perhaps the most easily adapted to worldwide rural development efforts. For all that, however, they are an often forgotten component in agricultural programs. This is unfortunate because bees can be particularly valuable to tropical countries, providing pollination of crops, useful products, and a premium source of income.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost every village in every tropical country traditionally has had a beekeeper or two. Most use "seat-of-the-pants" methods and "rustic" hives, and this generally leads to low yields and inefficiencies. Today, numerous innovative methods and appropriate equipment are coming available. Many are still not widely known; however, their importance is slowly being recognized. Indeed, some developing countries are already turning bees into a valued natural resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, in less than 10 years Kenya has become self-sufficient in honey production and - despite increased local consumption - is now exporting. In seven years, Papua New Guinea has met its local honey requirements and now also exports its surplus. In only four years, Thailand increased yearly production from practically nothing to more than 1,000 tons. In Brazil, beekeeping is more widespread and production greater than before the outbreak of the African honey bee. These achievements can be largely attributed to the promotion of innovative equipment, modern beekeeping techniques, and extension support for small-scale beekeepers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees are generally easily recognized and need no description here. The major species and subspecies are all roughly similar in appearance and size. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among several hundred species of bees that store honey and pollen in harvestable amounts, only two "social" species, Apis mellifera and Apis cerana, produce multiple combs and can be kept in hives.' Given adequate forage and proper management, they can build up a honey surplus that can be harvested without harming their colonies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apis mellifera, the most widely distributed and exploited honey bee, comes from Europe and Africa. The subspecies from Europe (especially the Italian type, A. mellifera ligustica) is normally preferred because of its docility and high honey yields. It is now the predominant honey bee throughout the temperate zones of Europe, North America, Australasia, and China. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the many subspecies in Africa, A. mellifera adansonii and A. mellifera scutellata have the widest native ranges. The latter was accidently released in Brazil in 1957. It has become naturalized and has dominated the European bees formerly kept by beekeepers. By l990, it had spread northwards to the southernmost areas of the United States and southwards deep into Argentina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The docile Asian hive bee, A. cerana, is found in Asia from the Middle East to Japan and as far south as Indonesia. Although it produces much less honey per hive than A. mellifera, its overall production in many Southeast Asian countries may be greater.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees do not face extinction. However, genetic diversity is disappearing due to loss of habitat, insecticides, displacement by massproduced, genetically uniform queens and exotic breeds, destructive harvesting, and the spread of diseases and pests such as protozoans, bacteria, insects, and mites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees can exist in locations from deserts to rainforests and from near the Arctic to the tropics. They occur wherever there is nectar, pollen, tree resin (for nest building), shelter, and a little water. Heat, drought, and especially rain and humidity may curtail their activities, but a well-managed colony can survive periods of extreme adversity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees live in rigidly hierarchical colonies. Normally there is a  single queen. After mating, she begins laying hundreds of eggs a day.  Those that are fertilized become sterile females, called workers; those  that remain unfertilized develop into males (drones), whose only role is  to fertilize future queens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After two or three years the queen, worn-out, starts laying fewer  and fewer eggs, and the colony may replace her. At that time a few  female larvae are raised on royal jelly, a nutritious, little-understood  secretion that causes them to develop into queens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Workers perform different tasks as they mature. Young ones tend  the queen, guard the hive, and raise the larvae. Older ones, comprising  the vast majority of a colony's population, gather pollen and nectar and  water. Pollen provides the protein and fats, and the nectar, converted  into honey in the bee's body, provides carbohydrates to feed the colony.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bee activities are dictated by weather, availability of food,  genetics, and the overall strength of the colony. They are mediated by  chemical interactions between the queen and the workers that control  almost all behavior.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the Asian and European hive bees are relatively docile, most  of the African subspecies are unpredictable and may defend their  colonies in great numbers and with great persistence. The threat of  "killer bees" has been greatly exaggerated, however. Africans have  provided them nests and hives - and harvested their honey - for  thousands of years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Occasionally, large numbers of the bees in a colony split off from  their nest or hive. They usually cluster on a nearby tree or building,  calmly waiting for "scouts" to find a suitable new home. These  homeless swarms can be captured and will readily move into a hive  the simplest and cheapest way for beekeepers to acquire a colony.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey and beeswax are two of nature's best known and most  valuable products. Honey can be employed in hundreds of foods. It is  widely used in baking because, in addition to its flavor, it retains  moisture better than sugar or syrup, and the product keeps longer. Honey-based alcoholic beverages are popular in many parts of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beeswax also is used in many products, including candles, lubricants, polish, waterproofings, soaps, cosmetics, and electronics. Beeswax can be locally important for `'lost-wax" metal-casting and sculptures as well as batik-dyed clothing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both bee pollen and royal jelly are used in cosmetics and can be eaten. Bee venom is used medicinally, particularly in Europe and the developing world. Bee larvae are eaten raw or fried in many parts of Asia and Africa and are considered a delicacy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keeping bees means managing a colony so that it produces surplus honey or wax. Specifically this requires:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Providing a suitable hive;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Obtaining bees by collecting a swarm, transferring a wild colony, or purchasing a colony complete with an active queen;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Maintaining the colony free from natural enemies in an area that allows it to produce excess honey; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Harvesting the excess honey without weakening the colony or causing it to flee (abscond).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Few other livestock enterprises require less capital, less space, or less attention. Moreover, scarcely any other provides higher quality, more marketable products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beekeeping is a respected and traditional activity in most areas of the world. It promotes self-reliance and requires little, if any, land or money. It is an easy-entry cottage industry that can be started with minimal equipment or training. It can be done by any member of a family as it requires no special strength or size. It is especially appropriate for increasing women's income in the many areas where men are away working.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beekeeping is suited to remote areas where many agricultural enterprises are at a competitive disadvantage because their products are bulky and far from the markets. Honey, wax, pollen, and other bee products can all be sold far from their point of origin, have high monetary value for their weight, and generally find a ready market. Local honeys often command premium prices (in part because many of them are considered medicinal). In addition, beekeeping encourages people to remain in rural areas rather than move to the city in search of an income.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pollination increases the productivity of many crops, and therefore a few hives can boost local food production. By rotating hives among farmers' fields and orchards, a beekeeper performs a valuable service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beekeeping is also an important adjunct to reforestation and desert reclamation projects. It can provide income during the long wait for the trees to reach marketable size. Many forests are potential reservoirs of honey and other products. In some cases, the bees also enhance the fruitfulness and standing value of forests. They also increase pollination in tree-seed orchards and tree nurseries. And in newly established forests, bees improve reseeding potential. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BETTER BEEHIVES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So many hives have been developed in recent years that a design now exists for almost any level of expertise. One of the most important for Third World beekeeping is the top-bar hive. This crate-like box, derived from an ancient Greek design, incorporates modern beekeeping principles but adds the innovation of sloping sides. Beneath its lid are removable boards (top bars) from which the bees hang the combs (because the sides are sloping the bees do not attach the edges of the comb to them). By lifting a top bar, the comb can be inspected and handled - and the honey harvested - with little disturbance to the colony.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This simple hive can make beekeeping accessible to even the poorest people. It is easy to build and use, and can be locally constructed from scrap lumber. It is well suited for raising most types of honey bees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More elaborate and productive is the African long hive. In addition to having top bars, this square-sided box has removable frames within which the bees build their comb.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most elaborate is the Langstroth hive - the type most common in temperate zones.* These yield the most honey. They can be made only where there are facilities for precise carpentry, where durable, nonwarping parts are available, and where there are good extension services to aid and assist beekeepers. Although traditional Langstroth hives are demanding to build and maintain, simplified designs have been created for use in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STINGLESS BEES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By far the most common bees in the tropics, perhaps in the  world, are bees that cannot sting. Their stingers are so akophied  as to be essentially nonexistent (but some can deliver a pretty  fierce bite). They live in colonies and store their honey in wax  pots, some as large as egg cups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stingless bees can be abundant. In a two-block area in  downtown Panama City, 150 nests have been counted. However,  many species depend on trees and their populations are  plummeting as more and more tropical forests are felled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like honey bees, stingless bees have been "domesticated." For  thousands of years in the tropical Americas, Indians have raised  them in special hives made out of logs, gourds, clay pots, and  other simple containers. Cortes reported in 1519 that Indians on  the island of Cozumel, the now popular tourist spot off the east  coast of Yucatan, practiced beekeeping. That was almost 300 years  before the European honeybee was introduced. A popular Mayan  drink was honey wine, and Mayan beekeepers carved stone  earplugs to keep these bees out of their ears.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey from stingless bees has less sugar than normal honey.  However, it is usually more tasty. It is used throughout the  tropics: the Americas, Central Africa, and Southeast Asia, for  instance. Normally, the nests are just robbed, which devastates  the bees because the queen cannot fly, and when she is disturbed  the colony dies. In some areas people open a little hole in the nest.  By putting in a plug, they can then harvest honey a couple of  times a year without destroying the colony.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, a few scientists are reconsidering stingless beekeeping.  In the state of Maranhao in Brazil, an area of crushing poverty,  biologist Warwick Kerr is harnessing stingless bees. He began  after learning that peasants were spending a third of their meager  incomes buying sugar. As part of his experiments, he keeps 60  hives stacked in his garage on the outskirts of the city of San Luis.  (A notable feature of these bees is that there is no prohibition  against keeping them in populated areas.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kerr has found that stingless bees can be made to produce well.  After years of experimenting with different-sized boxes, he can  now obtain more than 4.5 lifers of honey per hive per year. He  reports that the stingless bees are easy to maintain, and can be  raised by poor peoole without land or equipment.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared to raising four-footed livestock, beekeeping is inexpensive and fairly trouble free, but it is not without problems. Many things can go wrong, and include, for example:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Losses. Bees are susceptible to various predators, pests, and diseases. Although ways to avoid or control most afflictions are available, once a colony becomes infested it may have to be destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Theft. Hives or combs - usually kept in secluded areas - that are full of honey are tempting targets and may be stolen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Swarming and absconding. Some or all of the bees may leave a hive and start a new nest, taking even the honey with them.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Bad management. Beekeeping requires certain skills and knowledge, and sometimes frequent attention (such as when the colony is stressed, diseased, or swarming).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Lack of equipment. Beekeepers need hives, smokers (to quiet and repel the bees), hive tools, and - advisable but not absolutely necessary - gloves and a veil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Inadequate storage. Some areas lack the knowledge or the bottles in which to store liquid honey.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Pesticides and herbicides. Nectar- and pollen-collecting bees are vulnerable to insecticides, which farmers may apply (often inappropriately) at the time their crops are flowering. Herbicides can destroy important sources of bee forage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Neighborhood concerns. Bees can sting people and livestock. Although wild bees (and other insects) are the principal culprits, the beekeeper is often blamed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Stressful conditions. When rainfall, aridity, heat, or cold are excessive, bees often cannot produce surplus honey.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surprisingly, much remains to be learned about the natural science of bees. Although some of the research requires sophisticated equipment and facilities, much can (or must) be performed locally by beekeepers because many factors - such as colony behavior, foraging habits, and microclimatic adaptation - depend on the local conditions. This research may include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Adaptation. The provision of locally adapted bee varieties is an important basis for developing advanced beekeeping. This can be done by selecting an appropriate local queen. Further, local breeding of queens and workers lessens the probability of importing exotic diseases and pests. Recent developments promise to move the mass production of queens and workers from the realm of high technology to common practice.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Integration. Continued developments in beekeeping cannot succeed without research, promotion, education, training, and extension services. These are essential for integrating beekeeping with agriculture and reforestation efforts. Thus, descriptions of agronomic plants should always include pollination requirements as well as nectar and pollen potentials. Planting nectar- and pollen-producing firewood species would increase the number of bees, which would in turn help ensure forest survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Bee plants. There is still much to be understood about the relative qualities that different plants bring to beekeeping. Recently, many valuable bee-forage plants have been identified.5 These deserve special consideration in any reforestation or beautification projects. Broad introduction of these plants may also encourage beekeeping that could produce high-value "specialty" honeys or ensure more continuous production of honey. There may also be a place for "bee farms," where every plant is bee forage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- New bee species. Nontraditional species of Apis as well as other members of the bee family (such as Anthophora, Bombus, Megachilae, Nomia, Osmia, Xylocopa, and especially Trigona and Melipona, which are stingless) should be studied to determine their role in pollination and - for some species - their further exploitation for honey. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A Selected Readings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A small selection follows of books and articles that are not too  difficult to locate and that will help readers explore each topic further. Obscure documents are accompanied by an address from which readers can obtain a reprint or photocopy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GENERAL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grzimek, B. 1975. Animal Life Encyclopedia. Vol. 1-13. Van Nostrand Reinhold  Company, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robbins, C.T. 1983. Wildlife Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICROBREEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. 1988. A World Dictionary of Livestock Breeds, Types and Varieties.  Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK. Microcattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barnard, J.P. and J.P. Venter. 1983. Indigenous and Exotic Beef Cattle in South West  Africa - A Progress Report. Available from Department of Agriculture and Nature  Conservation, PB 13184, Windhoek 9000, Namibia. (Sanga)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu. 1984. Livestock Breeds of China. FAO Animal Production and Health  Paper 46. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 217 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cole, H.H. and W.N. Garrett, eds. 1974. Animal Agriculture. 2nd edition. W.H. Freeman  and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Epstein, H. and l.L. Mason. 1984. Cattle. Pages 6-27 in Evolution of Domesticated  Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Felius, M. 1985. Genus Bos: Cattle Breeds of the World. MSD-AGVET, Merck and Co.,  Rahway, New Jersey. 234 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gryseels, G. 1980. Improving Livestock and Farm Production in the Ethiopian Highlands:  Initial Results. ILCA study. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa,  Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1979. Trypanotolerant Livestock in West and Central Africa. Vol. 1, General Study.  International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joshi, N.R. and R.W. Phillips. 1953. Zebu Cattle of India and Pakistan. FAO Agricultural  Study No. 19. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 297 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joshi, N.R., E.A. McLaughlin, and R.W. Phillips. 1957. Types and Breeds of African  Cattle. FAO Agricultural Study No. 37. Food and Agriculture Organization of the  United Nations, Rome. 297 pp. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Koger, M., T.J. Cunha, and A.C. Warnick, eds. 1973. Crossbreeding Beef Cattle. Series 2. University of Florida Press, Gainesville, Florida, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Martinez Balboa, A. 1980. La Ganaderia en Baja California Sur. Vol. 1. Editorial J.B. La Paz, BCS: Mexico. 229 pp. (Criollo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. and J.P. Maule. The Indigenous Livestock of Eastern and Southern Africa. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maule, J.P. 1989. The Cattle of the Tropics. Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Edinburgh University, Edinburgh, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McDowell, L.R., ed. 1985. Nutrition of Grazing Ruminants in Warm Climates. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McDowell, R.E. 1972. Improvement of Livestock Production in Warm Climates. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McDowell, R.E. 1983. Strategy for Improving Beef and Dairy Cattle in the Tropics. Cornell International Agricultural mimeo. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miller, W.J. 1979. Dairy Cattle Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council. 1980. Animal Science in China. CSCPRC Report No. 12. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council. 1981. Effect of Environment on Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perry, T.W. 1980. Beef Cattle Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rollinson, D.H.L. 1984. Bali cattle. Pages 28-34 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rouse, J.E. 1970. World Cattle. Vol. 1, Cattle of Europe, South America, Australia, and New Zealand. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rouse, J.E. 1970. World Cattle. Vol. 2, Cattle of Africa and Asia. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rouse, J.E. 1973. World Cattle. Vol.3, Cattle of North America. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rouse, J.E. 1977. The Criollo-Spanish Cattle in the Americas. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, USA. 303 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shirley, R.L. 1986. Nitrogen and Energy Nutrition of Ruminants. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thrower, W.R. 1954. The Dexter Cow. Revised third impression, 1980. The Spaulding Press, Bethel, Vermont, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G. and W.J.A. Payne. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Acharya, R.M. 1982. Sheep and Goat Breeds of India. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 30. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ademosun, A.A. 1985. Capra spp.: The Emblem of Anarchy - The King-Pin of Man's Pastoral Life. Ife Lectures No. 3. University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu. 1984. Livestock Breeds of China. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 46. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 217 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cole, H.H. and W.N. Garrett. 1980. Animal Agriculture. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copland, J.W. 1985. Goat Production and Research in the Tropics. Proceedings of a workshop held at the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, February 6-8, 1984. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) Proceedings Series No. 7, 118 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C. and M. Burns. 1983. Goat Production in the Tropics. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK. 83 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C. and G.L. McLeroy. 1983. Goat and Sheep Production in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London. 271 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C. and J.E. Owen. 1983. Quantitative and qualitative aspects of meat production from goats. World Animal Review (FAO) 47:19-29.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fielding, D. Goat-keeping in Mauritius. Sonderdruck aus Zeitschrift fur Tierzuchtung und Zuchtungsbiologie. Vol 97(1)(1980):21-27.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gall, C., ed. 1981. Goat Production. Academic Press, London. 619 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haenlein, G.F.W. and D.L. Ace. 1983. Goat Extension Handbook. University of Delaware Cooperative Extension Service, Newark, Delaware, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Husnain, H.V. 1985. Sheep and Goats in Pakistan. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 56. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Development Research Centre (IDRC). Small Ruminant Production Systems in South and Southeast Asia, C. Devendra, ed. Proceedings of a workshop held in Bogor, Indonesia, October 6-10, 1986, cosponsored by the Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Program. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1983. Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in Sheep and Goats, D.H. Hill, ed. Proceedings of the International Workshop held at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria, September 24-26, 1980. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1985. Sheep and Goats in Humid West Africa. Proceedings of the International Workshop held in Ibadan, Nigeria, January 23-26, 1984. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1979. Trypanotolerant Livestock in West and Central Africa. Vol. 1, General Study. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">King, J.W.B., ed. 1988. Directory of Research on Sheep and Goats. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux International, Wallingford, Oxford, UK. 271 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. 1981. Breeds. Pages 57-110 in Goat Production, C. Gall, ed. Academic Press, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. 1984. Goat. Pages 85-99 in Evolution of the Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. and J.P. Maule. 1960. The Indigenous Livestock of Eastern and Southern Africa. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council, 1980. Animal Science in China. CSCPRC Report No. 12. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W., R.G. Johnson, and R.T. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Goat Production and Disease. January 10-15, 1982, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona. Copies can be obtained from Kent Leach, Dairy Goat Journal, P.O. Box 1808, Scottsdale, Arizona 85252, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G. and W.J.A. Payne. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilson, R.T., T. Murayi, and A. Rocha. 1989. Indigenous African small ruminant strains with potentially high reproductive performance. Small Ruminant Research 2: 107-117.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Winrock International, 1984. Sheep and Goats in Developing Countries. Winrock International Technical Paper. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Acharya, R.M. 1982. Sheep and Goat Breeds of lndia. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 30. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carles, A.B. 1983. Sheep Production in the Tropics. Oxford University Press, London. 213 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu. 1984. Livestock Breeds of China. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 46. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 217 pp. Cole, H.H. and W.N. Garrett. 1980. Animal Agriculture. W.H. Freeman and Company,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Francisco, Calffornia, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C. and G.L. McLeroy. 1983. Goat and Sheep Production in the Tropics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Longman, London. 271 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitzhugh, H.A. and G.E. Bradford, eds. 1983. Hair Sheep of Western Africa and the Americas. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Husnain, H.V. 1985. Sheep and Goats in Pakistan. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 56. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. International Development Research Centre (IDRC). 1987. Small Ruminant Production Systems in South and Southeast Asia, C. Devendra, ed. Proceedings of a workshop held in Bogor, Indonesia, October 6-10, 1986, cosponsored by the Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Program. IDRC, Ottawa, Canada. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1983. Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in Sheep and Goats, D.H. Hill, ed. Proceedings of the International Workshop held at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria, September 24-26, 1980. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1985. Sheep and Goats in Humid West Africa. Proceedings of the International Workshop held in Ibadan, Nigeria, January 23-26, 1984. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1979. Trypanotolerant Livestock in West and Central Africa. Vol. 1, Ceneral </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Study. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">King, J.W.B., ed. 1988. Directory of Research on Sheep and Goats. Commonwealth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural Bureaux International, Wallingford, Oxford, UK. 271 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. 1980. Prolific Tropical Sheep. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 17. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, l.L.1967. Sheep Breeds of the Mediterranean. Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Nations. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. and J.P. Maule. 1960. The Indigenous Livestock of Eastern and Southern Africa. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK. Phillips, R.W., R.C. Johnson, and R.T. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ponting, K. 1980. Sheep of the World. Blandford Press, Ltd., Poole, Dorset, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ryder, M.L. 1984. Sheep. Pages 63-85 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ryder, M.L. 1983. Sheep and hIan. Monograph. Duckworth, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Terrill, C.E. 1970. Sheep breeds of the world. (505 breeds). USDA mimeo. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 163 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whitehurst, V.E., R.M. Crown, R.W. Phillips, and D.A. Spencer. 1947. Productivity of Columbia sheep in Florida and their use for crossing with native sheep. Florida Agricultural Experimental Station Bulletin 429. 34 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G. and W.J.A. Payne. 1965. An Introduotion to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilson, R.T., T. Murayi, and A. Rocha. 1989. Indigenous African small ruminant strains with potentially high reproductive performance. Small Ruminant Research 2: 107-117. Winrock International. 1984. Sheep and Goats in Developing Countries. Winrock International Technical Paper. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaltin, B.C. 1979. The Sheep Breeds of Afghanistan, lran, and Turkey. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Micropig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu. 1984. Livestock Breeds of China. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 46. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clutton-Brock, J. 1981. Domesticated Animals from Early Times. British Museum (Natural History), London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cole, H.H. and W.N. Garrett. 1980. Animal Agriculture. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, Calffornia, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cunha, T.J. 1977. Swine Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Epstein, H. and M. Bichard. 1984. Pigs. Pages 145-162 in Evolution of Domesticated </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Krider, J.L., J.H. Conrad, and W.E. Carroll. 1982. Swine Production. McGraw-Hill Company, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. and J.P. Maule. 1960. The Indigenous Livestock of Eastern and Southern Africa. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK. National Research Council. 1983. Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. National Research Council. 1980. Animal Science in China. CSCPRC Report No. 12. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panepinto, L.M. 1986. Miniature swine in biomedical research. LabAnimal 15(8)(November/December 1986):21-27.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panepinto, L.M., R.W. Phillips, L.R. Wheeler, and D.H. Will. 1978. The Yucatan miniature pig as a laboratory animal. Laboratory Animal Science 28(3):308-313.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W. and T.Y. Hou. 1944. Chinese swine and their performance compared with modern and crosses between Chinese and modern breeds. Journal of Heredity 35:365-79.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pond, W.G. and J.H. Maner. 1984. Swine Production and Nutrition. AVI Publishing Company, Westport, Connecticut, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G. and W.J.A. Payne. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POULTRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World's Poultry Science Journal is published 3 times a year by the World's Poultry Science Association, (c/o Institut f-r Kleintierzucht, Dornbergstrasse 25/27, Postfach 280, C-3100 Celle, Germany). It has also published a multilingual poultry dictionary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry, an international journal on poultry, is published by Misset International, a department of Uitgeversmaatschappij, C. Misset b.v., Doetinchem-The Netherlands. (Address: Misset International, P.O. Box 4, 7000 BA Doetinchem, Netherlands.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry Science is published monthly by the Poultry Science Association, Inc., 309 West Clark Street, Champaign, Illinois 61820, USA. British Poultry Science, a quarterly, is available c/o Longman Group Ltd., Subscriptions (Journals) Department, Fourth Avenue, Harlow, Essex CM195AA, UK. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicken</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attfield, H.H.D. 1990. Raising Chickens and Ducks. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, Arlington, Virginia, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crawford, R.D. 1984. Domestic fowl. Pages 298-311 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ensminger, M.E.1971. Poultry Science. Interstate Printers and Publishers, Inc., Danville, Illinois, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fielding, D. 1984. The silent scavengers. African Farming September/October 1984: 11-13.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Howman, K.C. 1980. Pheasants: Their Breeding and Management. K&amp;R Books, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Huchzermeyer, F.W. 1973. Free ranging hybrid chickens under African tribal conditions. Rhodesian Agricultural Journal 70:73-75.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latif, M.A. 1985. In-Depth Analysis on the Successful Experience of Poultry Production in Bangladesh. Report submitted to FAO-APHC Regional Animal Production and Health Office. FAD/UN, Bangkok, Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matthewman, R.W. 1977. A Survey of Small Livestock Production at the Village Level in the Derived Savannah and Lowland Forest Zones of South West Nigeria. M.Sc. thesis, University of Reading, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MTrat, P. 1986. Potential usefulness of the Na (Naked Neck) gene in poultry production. [Vorld's Poultry Science Journal 42:124-142.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nesheim, M.C., R.E. Austic, and L.E. Card. 1979. Poultry Production. 12th edition. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W., R.C. Johnson, and R.J. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sainsbury, D. 1980. Poultry Health and Management. Granada, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scott, M.L., M.C. Nesheim, and R.J. Young. 1982. Nutrition of the Chicken. M.L. Scott and Associates, Ithaca, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smith, A.J. nd. Supplementation for scavenging animals. Unpublished paper. Copies available from A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somes, R. 1984. International Registry of Poultry Genetic Stocks. BuDetin 469, University of Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Storrs, Connecticut, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Araucanian</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilhelm, G.O.E. 1965-1966. La Gallina Araucana (Gallus inauris castelloi 1914). Universidad de Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile, Boletia de Concepcion 40:5-26.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duck</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A film, Duck Farmingan Indonesian Tradition, is available from the CSIRO Film and Video Unit, 314 Albert Street, East Melbourne 3002, Victoria, Australia. Soundtrack is in English or Indonesian and it is available in 16 mm or VHS/Beta Video.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attfield, H.H.D. 1990. Raising Chickens and Ducks. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, Arlington, Virginia, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clayton, G.A. 1984. Common duck. Pages 334-339 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farrell, D. and P. Stapleton, eds. 1986. Duck Production, Science and World Practice. Proceedingsofaduckproductionworkshop, November 18-22, 1985, Bogor, Indonesia. Central Research Institute for Animal Science. Available from Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Nutrition, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia. 430 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holderread, D. 1978. The Home Duck Flock. The Hen House, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97330, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kingston, D.K., D. Kosasih, and I. Ardi. 1979. The Rearing of Alabio Dt~cklings -nd Management of the Laying Duck Flocks in the Swamps of South Kalimantan. Report No. 9. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Ciawi, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Petheram, R.J. and A. Thahar. 1983. Duck egg production systems in West Java. Agricultural Systems 2:75-86.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W., R.G. Johnson, and R.J. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sainsbury, D. 1980. Poultry Health and Management. Granada, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scott, M.L. and W.F. Dean. 1991. Nutrition and Management of Ducks. M.L. Scott of Ithaca, Publisher (P.O. Box 4464, Ithaca, New York 14852, USA)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Warren, A.G. 1972. Ducks and geese in the tropics. World Animal Review 3:35-36.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yi Yung and Yu-Ping Zhon. 1980. The Pekin duck in China. World Animal Review 34:11-14.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crawford, R.D. 1984. Goose. Pages 345-349 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1983. The Goose and its Possible Use for Controlling Weeds. Small Animals for Small Farms. GAN-I. FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Casilla 10095, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holderread, D. 1981. The Book of Geesea Complete Guide to Raising the Home Flock. Hen House Publications, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W., R.G. Johnson, and R.J. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soames, B. 1980. Keeping Domestic Geese. Blandford, London. 159 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USDA Extension Service. 1983. Raising Geese. Farmer's Bulletin No. 2251. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Warren, A.G. 1972. Ducks and geese in the tropics. World Animal Review 3:35-36.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Fowl</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many research papers have been published in French, Italian, Spanish, and Russian, but few in English.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ayeni, J.S.O. 1983. Studies of Grey Breasted Helmet Guineafowl (Numida meleagris galeata Pallas) in Nigeria. World's Poultry Science Journal 39(2):143-151.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belshaw, R.H.H. 1985. Guinea Fowl of the World. Nimrod Book Services, P.O. Box No. 1, Liss, Hampshire, UK. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blum, J.C., J. Guillaume, and B. Leclercq. 1975. Studies of the energy and protein requirements of the growing guinea-fowl. Br-ish Poultry Science 16:157-168.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cauchard, J.C. 1971. La Pintade. Henri Peladan, UzFs, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chemillier, J. 1984. L'Alimentation de la Pintade. F. Hoffmann-La Roche and Cie, 52, Boulevard du Parc, 92521 Neuilly-sur-Seine, Cedex, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux. 1968. Guinea Fowl Breeding and Managernent. Annotated Bibliography No. 85. The Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics, King's Buildings, Edinburgh 9, Scotland, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leclercq, B. 1982. Alimentation des Futurs Reproducteurs Pintades. Pages 101-111 in FertilitT et Alimentation des Volailles. I.N.R.A. Edit.7 Versailles, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leclercq, R. and B. Sauveur. 1982. L'alimentation des reproducteurs pintades. Pages 113-135 in FertilitT et Alimentation des Volailles, I.N.R.A. edit., Versailles, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lukefahr, S. Raising guinea fowl. Paper available from author, c/o International Small Livestock Research Center, Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University. P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. 1985. Small-scale guinea-few! production. Pamphlet 934. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (Publications), Lion House, Alnwick, Northumberland NE66 2PF, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mongin, P. and M. Plouzeau. 1984. Guinea-fowl. Pages 322-324 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I . L. Mason, ed. Longman, London .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USDA. 1970. Raising Cuinea Fowl. Leaflet No. 519. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clayton, G.A. 1984. Muscovy duck. Pages 340-344 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">De Corville, H. 1972. La Production du Canard de Barbarie. Copies available from Institut nacional de la recherce agronomique (INRA), Nouzilly, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farrell, D. and P. Stapleton, eds. 1986. Duck Production, Science and World Practice. Proceedings of a duck production workshop, November 18-22, 1985, Bogor, Indonesia. Central Research Institute for Animal Science. Copies available from D. Farrell, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffreys, M.D.W. 1956. The Muscovy duck. The Nigerian Field21(3):108-11.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kingston, D.J., D. Kosasih, and I. Ardi. 1978. The Use of the Muscovy Drrck for Hatching of Alabio Duck &Yacute;ggs in the Swamplands of Kalimantan. Centre Report No. 7. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Richet, M. 1985. La production du canard de Barbarie. Techniques Agricoles 3770.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abs, M., ed. 1983. Pltysiology and Behavior of the Pigeon. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hawes, R.O. 1984. Pigeons. Pages 351-356 in Evolution of Domesticated Anirnals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hollander, W.F. and W.J. Miller. 1981. Hereditary variants of behavior and vision in the pigeon. Iowa State Journal of Research 55(4):323-331.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Levi, W.M. 1965. Encyclopedia of Pigeon Breeds. T.F.H. Publications, Jersey City, New Jersey, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Levi, W.M. 1981. The Pigeon. 2nd edition revised. Levi Publishing, Sumter, South Carolina, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murton, R.K., R.P.J. Thearle, and J. Thompson. 1972. Ecological studies of the feral pigeon (Columba livia). 1. Population, breeding biology and methods of control. II. Flock behaviour and social organisation. Ecology 9:835-889.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Wisconsin. 1977. Pigeons. Bulletin 4-H 135. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USDA. 1963. Squab Raising. Farmers Bulletin No. 684. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bourquin, O. 1980. Biology of rhe Quail (Coturnix coturnix Linnaeus 1758). Ph.D. thesis, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, Republic of South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katoh, H. and N. Wakasugi. 1980. Studies on the blood groups in the Japanese quail: detection of three antigens and their inheritance. Developmental and Comparative Immunology 4:99-110.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kawahara, T. 1973. Comparative study of quantitative traits between wild and domestic Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Experimental Animals 22(supplement): 138-50.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marsh, A. Quail Manual. Marsh Farms, 7171 Patterson Drive, Garden Grove, Calffornia 92641, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Academy of Sciences. 1969. Coturnix (Coturnix coturnix japonica): Standards and Guidelines for the Breeding, Care, and Management of Laboratory' Animals. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail Production Technology. Leaflet No. 13/1982. Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar, India. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somes, R.G., Jr. 1981. International Registry of Poultry Genetic Stocks. Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Varghese, S.K. 1981. Coturnix Internationalat home and in the Caribbean. Poultry Science 60:1747.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Varghese, S.K. 1982. Coturnix production proves to be a profitable business. Poultry Science 61:1560.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Varghese, S.K. 1983. Processing and yield of coturnix (Japanese quail). Poultry Science 62:1517</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wakasugi, N. and K. Kondo. 1973. Breeding methods for maintenance of mutant genes and establishment of strains in the Japanese quail. Experimental Animals 22(Supplement): I 51 -9.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Woodard, A.E., A. Abplanalp, W.O. Wilson, and P. Vohra. 1973. Japanese Quail Husbandry in the Laboratory. Department of Avian Sciences, University of Calffornia, Davis, Calffornia 95616, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berg, R. and D. Halvorson. 1985. Turkey Management Guide. Minnesota Turkey Growers Association, 678 Transfer Road, St. Paul, Minnesota 55114, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crawford, R.D. 1984. Turkey. Pages 325-334 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ensminger, M.E. 1971. PoultryScience. InterstatePrintersandPublishers, Inc., Danville,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Illinois, USA. Sainsbury, D. 1980. Poultry Health and Management. Granada, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RABBITS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Rabbit Research Center has been established at Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA. It publishes the Journal of Applied Rabbit Research, whose purpose is to convey current research information to those with an interest in commercial rabbit production. The journal describes research conducted at the center and reviews rabbit research results reported in the world's scientific literature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Founded in 1976 in Paris, the World Rabbit Science Association (Typing House, Shurdington, Cheltenhem, Gloucestershire, GL51 SXF, UK) publishes a newsletter of coming events and chronicles the progress of rabbit farming in most countries of the world. Its aims are to facilitate the advancement of the various branches of the rabbit industry, disseminate knowledge, and study problems of production and marketing. Its members represent individuals and associations in 20 countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The American Rabbit Breeder's Association (1925 South Main Street, Bloomington, Illinois 61701, USA) has published a book, Guide to Producing Better Rabbits, which contains an abundance of information concerning management and diseases of the domestic rabbit. The organization also publishes a bimonthly magazine, Domestic Rabbit, that includes a great deal of updated information on rabbit raising.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asociacion Espanola de Cunicultura (Spanish Rabbit Science Association), Now, 23 08785 Ballbona d'Anoia, Barcelona, Spain, has a set of slides for training, covering breeds, handling, pathology, and commercialization.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Report of the Workshop on Rabbit Husbandry. Copies of this report are available free of charge from the International Foundation for Science, Sibyllegatan 47, S-114 42 Stockholm, Sweden. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Working Rabbit Literature Resources File. This materia, is directed at scientists working on some aspect of domestic rabbit research. It lists methods of computer searching for scientific reports in the world's scientific literature, various types of computer literature searches, including commerciaHy available ones, and government services. It a,so includes a list of prepared abstracts. The address is D.D. Caveny and H. L. Enos, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic Rabbit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ministry of Livestock Development. 1981. Rabbit Production. Kenya Ministry of Livestock Development. Copies can be obtained from the Agricultural Information Centre, P.O. Box 14733, Nairobi, Kenya.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attfield, H.H.D. 1977. Rabbit Raising. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, 1815 Lynn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Street, Arlington, Virginia 22209, USA. 90 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bennett, R. 1975. Raising Rabbits the Modern Way. Garden Way Publishing, Charlotte, Vermont 05445, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheeke, P.R. 1987. Rabbit Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheeke, P.R., N.M. Patton, S.D. Lukefahr, and J.I. McNitt. 1986. Rabbit Production. Sixth edition. The Interstate, Danville, Illinois, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1986. Cooking Rabbits. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,  Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1986. Self-Teaching Manual on Backyard Rabb- Rearing. Food and Agriculture  Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Latin America and the  Caribbean, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1986. Backyard Rabbit Rearing: Some Basic Husbandry Practices. Small Animals  for Small Farms. GAN-16. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,  Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schlolaut, W., ed. 1985. A Compendium of Rabbit Production. Gesellschaft f-r  Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) Publication No. 169. TZ-Verlagsgesellschaft mbH,  Postfach 36, D6101 Rossdorf, Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sicivaten, J. and D. Stahl. 1982. A Complete Handbook on Backyard and Commercial  Rabbit Production. CARE/Philippines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vogt, D.W. 1982. Raising Rabbits in Hawaii. Circular 499, Cooperative Extension  Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at  Manoa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agouti</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A report summarizing preliminary results in a captive-breeding project in Mexico is available from A. D. Cuaron (see Research Contacts for address).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deutsch, L.A., and G. Santos. 1984. Contribuitao pare o conhecimento do gOnero  Dasyproctareprodutao de cutiasentre cruzamente das espTcies Dasyprocta aguti,  Dasyprocta azarae e Dasyprocta fuliginosa. Congresso Brasileiro de Zoologia, II,  BelTm, 1984. Resumos. . .BelTm, SBZ/UFPalMPEC, p. 383-4/(Resumos 390). Copies  available from the authors, see Research Contacts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clark, M.M. and B.G. Galef, Jr. 1977. Patterns of agonistic interaction and space  utilization by agoutis, Dasyprocta punctata. Behavioral Biology 20:135-140.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopold, A.S. 1959. Pages 388-393 in Wildlife of Mexico. University of California Press,  Berkeley and Los Angeles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meritt, D.A., Jr. 1982. Bibliography of Dasyprocta (Rodentia). Brenesia 19/20:595-612.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meritt, D.A., Jr. 1983. Preliminary observations on reproduction in the Central  American agouti, Dasyprocta punctata. Zoo Biology 2:127-131.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morris, D. 1962. The behaviour of the green acouchi (Myoprocta pratti) with special  reference to scatter hoarding. Proceedings Zoological Society of London 139:701732.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smith N. 1974. Agouti and babassu. Oryx 12(5):581-582.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smythe, N. 1978. The Natural History of the Central American Agouti (Dasyprocta  punctata). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology No. 257. Smithsonian Institution,  Washington, D.C., USA. 52 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tribe, C.J., R. Leher, M.C.O. Doglio, M.I.L. Rebello, D.S. Mello, and E.M.M. Guimar es.  1985. Uma tentative de esclarecimento do uso de espato e estrutura social na cutia  Dasyprocta a. aguti (Rodentia). Pages 296-7 in Congresso Brasileiro de Zoologia, 12,  Campinas, 1985. Resumos. . .Campinas, SBZ/UNICAMP, 1985. (Resumo 614.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A capybara bibliography, Bibliograf a sobre Chiguires (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), is available from E. Gonzalez-Jimenez and JosT Roberto de Alencar Moreira (see Research Contacts for addresses).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aliaga Rodriguez, L. 1979. Produccion de Cuyes. Universidad Nacional del Centro del Peru, Puno.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baldizan, A., R.M. Dixon, and R. Parra. 1983. Digestion in the capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris). South African Journal of Animal Science 13(1):27-28.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gonzalez-Jimenez, E. 1977a. The capybara, an indigenous source of meat in tropical America. World Animal Review', 21:24-30.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gonzalez-Jimenez, E. 1977b. Digestive physiology and feeding of capybaras. Pages 167177 in Handbook Series in Nutrition and Food. Section G, Diets, Culture Media and Food Supplements, M. Rechcigl, ed. CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gonzalez-Jimenez, E. and R. Parra. 1975. The capybara, a meat-producing animal for the flooded areas of the tropics. Pages 81-86 in Proceedings of the Third World Conference on Animal Production, R.L. Reid, ed. Sydney University Press.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gonzalez-Jimenez, E. 1984. Capybara. Pages 258-259 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Macdonald, D.W., K. Krantz, and R.T. Aplin. 1984. Behavioural, anatomical and chemical aspects of scent marking amongst Capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) (Rodentia:Caviomorpha). Journal of Zoology (London) 202:341-360.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mones, A. and J. Ojasti. 1986. Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris. Mammalian Species 264: 1-7.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ojasti, J. 1968. Notes on the mating behavior of the capybara. Journal of Mammalogy 49:345-374.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ojasti, J. 1973. Estudio Biologico del Chiguire o Capybara. Fondo Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuaria, Caracas, Republica de Venezuela. 27 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zara, J.L. 1973. Breeding and husbandry of the capybara at Evansville Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 13:137-139.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Christen, M.F. 1978. Evaluacion nutritive de cuatro dietas mono especificas en la alimentacion del coipo (Myocastor coypus Molina 1782). Tesis. Faculty of Veterinary Science, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deems, E.F., Jr., and D. Pursley. 1978. North American Fur bearers. Maryland Wildlife Administration, Department of Natural Resources, Cheltenham, Maryland, USA. pp. 155.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CORFO. n.d. Pieles fieas. Especie coipos. Tomo 1, I! and III. Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murua, R., O. Newman, and J. Propelmann. 1981. Food habits of Myocastor coypus (Molina) in Chile. Pages 544-558 in Proceedings of rhe Worldwide Furbearer Conference, J.A. Chapman and D. Pursley, eds. Vol. 1. Worldwide Furbearer Conference, Inc., Frostburg, Maryland, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Willner, G.R. 1982. Nutria; Myocastor coypu. Pages 1059-1076 in Wild Mammals of NorthAmerica, J.A. Chapman and G.A. Feldhamer, eds. The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ajayi, S.S. 1975. Domestication of the African Giant Rat. Department of Forest Resources, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faturoti, E.O., O.O. Tewe, and S.S. Ajayi. 1982. Crude fibre tolerance by the African giant rat (Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse) (Potential sources of protein, Nigeria.) African Journal of Ecology 20(4):289-292.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faturoti, E.O., O.O. Tewe, and S.S. Ajayi. 1983. Effect of varying dietary oil levels on the performance of the African giant rat (Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse). Nutrition Reports International 27(3):525-530.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Den Hartog, A.P. and A. de Vos. 1973. The use of rodents as food in tropical Africa. Nutrition Newsletter (FAO) 11 (2):1-14.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Halcrow, J.G. 1958. The giant rat of East Africa. Nature (London) 181:649-650.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matthewman, R.W. 1977. A Survey of Small Livestock Production at the Village Level in the Derived Savanna and Lowland Forest Zones of South West Nigeria. Development Studies 24. Department of Agriculture and Horticulture, University of Reading, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tewe, O.O., S.S. Ajayi, and E.O. Faturoti. 1984. Giant rat and cane rat. Pages 291-293 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asibey, E.O.A. 1979. Some problems encountered in the field study of the grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus) population in Ghana. Pages 214-7 in Wildlife Management in Savannah Woodland, S.S. Ajayi and L. B. Halstead, eds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baptist, R. and G.A. Mensah. 1986. The Cane-RatFarm animal of the future? [Vorld Animal Review 60:2-6.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matthewman, R.W. 1977. A Survey of Small Livestock Production at the Village Level in the Derived Savanna and Lowland Forest Zones of South West Nigeria. Development Study 24. Department of Agriculture and Horticulture, University of Reading, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pich, S. and K.J. Peters. 1985. Possibilities of using the cane cutter for meat production in Africa. Unpublished manuscript. Copies available from K.J. Peters, Institute of Animal Breeding, Gottingen, Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tewe, O.O., S.S. Ajayi, and E.O. Faturoti. 1984. Giant rat and cane rat. Pages 291-293 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Let's Raise Guinea Pigs," a filmstrip on guinea pig farming, is available from World Neighbors International Headquarters, 5116 North Portland Avenue, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma73112, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aliaga Rodriguez, L. 1979. Produccion de Cuyes. Universidad Nacional del Centro del Peru, Huancayo, Peru. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aliaga Rodriguez, L. 1983. improvement of Guinea Pig Breeding as a Means of Increasing the Productivity and Production of Meat for Consumption oy the Rural Population in Peru. National University of Central Peru, Huancayo, Peru.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bolton, R. 1979. Guinea pigs, protein, and ritual. Ethnology 18(3):229-252.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Huss, D.L. 1982. Small animals for small farms in Latin America. World Animal Ret~iew (FAO) 43:24-29.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1982. The Guinea Pig and a Hypothetical Development Centre. Small Animals for Small Farms. FAO, Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loetz, E. and C. Novoa. 1983. Meat from the guinea pig. Span 26(2):84-86.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muller-Haye, B. 1984. Guinea-pig or cuy. Pages 252-257 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stansfield, S.K., C.L. Scribner, R.M. Kaminski, T. Cairns, J.B. McCormick, and K.M. Johnson. 1982. Antibody to ebola virus in guinea pigs: Tandala, Zaire. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 146(4):483-486.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anderson, S., C.A. Woods, G.S. Morgan, and W.L.R. Oliver. 1983. Geocaprornys brownii. Mammalian Species 201:1-5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Canet, R.S. and V. Berovides Alvares. 1984. Ecomorfologia y rendimiento de la jutia conga (Capromys pilorides Say). Poeyana 279:1-19.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Canet, R.S. and V. Berovides Alvares. 1984. Reproduccion y ecolog~a de la jutia conga (Capromys pilorides Say). Poeyana 220:1-20.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Howe, R., and G.C. Clough. 1971. The Bahamian hutia Geocapromys ingrahami in captivity. international Zoo Yearbook 11:89-93.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Johnson, M.L., R.H. Taylor, and N.W. Winnick. 1975. The breeding and exhibition of capromyd rodents at Tacoma Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 15:53-56.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W.L.R. 1977. The hutias (Capromyidae) of the West Indies. International Zoo Yearbook 17:14-20.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W.L.R. 1985. The Jamaican hutia or Indian Coney (Geocapromys brownii). A model programme for captive breeding and reintroduction? Symposium of the Association of British Wild Animal Keepers, 10:35-52. (Copies available from author, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rowlands, I.W., and B.J. Weir, eds. 1974. The Biology of Hystricomorph Rodents. Symposium of the Zoological Society of London, 34:1-482.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. and H. Genest. 1974. Le comportement social d'une colonide mares, Dolichotis patagonum Z. dans le Parc de BranfTrT. Zeitschrift fin Tierpsychologie 35:225-302.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taber, A.B. and D.W. Macdonald. 1984. Scent dispensing papillae and associated behaviour of the mare, Dolichotis patagonum (Rodentia: Caviomorpha). Journal of Zoology (London) 203:298-302. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paca</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A report summarizing progress in the captive-breeding project in Panama is available from Nicholas Smythe, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Box 2071, Balboa, Panama. A report summarizing preliminary results in the captive-breeding project in Mexico is available from Alfredo D. Cuaron, (see Research Contacts).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collett, S.F. 1981. Population characteristics of Agouti paca (Rodentia) in Colombia. Michigan State University, Publications of the Museum, Biological Series 5(7): 485-602.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matamoros, Y. 1982. Investigaciones preliminares sobre la reproduccion, comportamiento, alimentacion y manego del tepezcuinte (Cuniculus paca, Brisson) en cautiverio. Pages 961-992 in Zoologia Neotropical, Actas del VIII Congreso Latinoamericano de Zoologia, P.J. Salinas, ed. (Copies available from Y. Matamores, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcacha</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jackson, J.E. nd. Growth rates in vizcacha (Lagostomus maximus) in San Luis, Argentina. Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria, San Luis, Argentina. (Copies available from author, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Llanos, A.C., and J.A. Crespo. 1952. Ecologia de la vizcacha (Lagostomus maximus maximus Blainv.) en el nordeste de la provincia de Entre Rios. Revista de Investigaciones Agricolas (Buenos Aires) 6:289-378.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Rodents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butynski, T.M. 1973. Lffe history and economic value of the springhare (Pedetes capensis Forster) in Botswana. Botswana Notes Record 5:209-213.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butynski, T.M. 1979. Reproductive ecology of the springhaas Pedetes capensis in Botswana. Journal of Zoology 189:221-232.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butynski, T.M. 1984. Nocturnal ecology of the springhare, Pedetes capensis, in Botswana. African Journal of Ecology 22:7-22.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butynski, T.M. and R. Mattingly. 1979. Burrow structure and fossorial ecology of the springhare Pedetes capensis in Botswana. African Journal of Ecology 17:205-215.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kofron, C.P. 1987. Seasonal reproduction of the springhare, Pedetes capensis, in southeastern Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology 25.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rosenthal, M.A., and D.A. Meritt. 1973. Hand-rearing springhaas at Lincoln Park Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 18:206-208.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smithers, R.H.N. 1983. The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. University of Pretoria, Pretoria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Velte, F.F. 1978. Hand-rearing springhaas Pedetes capensis at Rochester Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 18:206-208. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEER AND ANTELOPE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Deer Farmer, a quarterly magazine, is published by the New Zealand Deer Farmers' Association, P.O. Box 2678, Wellington, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer Farming is the quarterly magazine of the British Deer Farmers Association (22 Levat Road, Inverness IV2 3NS, Scotland, UK).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaplin, R.E. 1977. Deer. Blandford Press, Poole, Dorset, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoffman, R.R. 1985. Digestion and feeding in deer: their morphophysiological adaptation. In Proceedings International Conference on Deer Biology and Production, eds. P.F. Fennessy and K.R. Drew. Royal Society of New Zealand Bulletin 22, Wellington, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fennessy, P.F. and K.R. Drew, eds. 1985. Biology of Deer Production. Proceedings of an international conference held February 13-18, 1983, Dunedin, New Zealand. Royal Society of New Zealand Bulletin 22, Wellington, New Zealand. Available from Royal Society of New Zealand, Private Bag, Wellington, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wemmer C., ed. 1987. The Biology and Management of the Cervidae. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yerex, D. 1982. The Farming of Deer. Agricultural Publishing, Box 176, Carterton, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kay, R.N.B. 1987. The comparative anatomy and physiology of digestion in tragulids and cervids and its relation to food intake. In The Biology and Management of the Cenvidae, C. Wemmer, ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1975. Le comportement du chevrotain africain, Hyemoschus aquaticus Ogilby (Artiodactyla, Ruminantia). Zeitschrift fdr Tierpsychologie 37:403-501.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1978. Un apertu sur l'Tcologie du chevrotain africain, Hyemoschus aquaticus Ogilby, Artiodactyle Tragulide. Mammalia 42:1-62.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralls, K., C. Barasch, and K. Minkowski. 1975. Behaviour of captive mouse deer, Tragulus napu. Zeitschrift Tierpsychology 37:356-378.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robin, K.P. 1979. Zum Verhalten des Kleinkantschils (Tragulus javanicus). Ph.D. dissertation, University of Zurich. (Copies available from K.P. Robin, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vidyadaran, M.K., M. Hilmi, and R.A. Sirimane. 1982. The gross morphology of the stomach of the Malaysian lesser mousedeer (Tragrrlus javanicus). Pertanika 5(1): 34-38.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vidyadran, M.K., S. Vellayan, and R. Karuppiah. 1983. Muscle weight distribution of the Malaysian lesser mousedeer (Tragulus javanicus). Pertanika 6(2):63-69. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wharton, D.C. 1987. Captive Management of Tragulids at New York Zoological Park. In Biology and Management of the Cervidae, C. Wemmer, ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anderson, J. 1981. Studies on digestion in Muntiacus reeves). M.Phil. thesis. Cambridge University. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barrette, C. 1977. The social behavior of captive muntjac Muntiacus reeves) (Ogilby  1839). Zeitschrift f-r Tierpsychologie 43: 188-213.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaplin, R.E. 1977. Deer. Blandford Press, Poole, Dorset, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chapman, D.I., N.G. Chapman, J.G. Mathews, and D.H. Wurster-Hill. 1983. Chromosome  studies of feral muntjac (Muntiacus sp.) in England. Journal of Zoology, London  201:557-559.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dansie, O. 1970. Muntjac. British Deer Society, Welwyn Garden City, England. 22 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1970. L'organisation spatiale et sociale de Muntiacus reeves) Ogilby 1839 en  semi-liberte. Mammalia 34:331-355.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1971. Observations Tthologiques sur le muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak  Zimmermann 1780 et Muntiacus reeves) Ogilby 1839) en captivitT et semi-libertT.  Zeitschrift fdr Tierpsychologie 28:387-427.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jackson, J.E., D.I. Chapman, and O. Dansie. 1977. A note on the food of muntjac deer  (Muntiacus reeves)). Journal of Zoology (London) 183:546-548.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lu Ho-gee and Sheng He-lin. 1984. Status of the black muntjac Muntiacus crinifrons, in  eastern China. Mammal Review 14(1):29-36.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oli, Madan K. 1986. Studies on stereotyped behavior of barking deer (Muntiacus  muntjak). M.S. dissertation, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhauvan  University, Kathmandu, Nepal. 84 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shi Liming, Ye Yingying, and Duan Xinsheng. 1980. Comparative cytogenetic studies on  the red muntjac, Chinese muntjac, and their Fl hybrids. Cytogenetics and Cell Genetics  26:22-7.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yonzon, Pralad B. 1978. Ecological studies on Muntaicus muntjack. Journal of Natural  History Museum (Nepal) 2(2):91-100.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1974. Feeding musk deer in captivity and collecting musk from the live  animal. Dongwuxue Zhazi, China 2:11-14.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1975. Preliminary experience in raising the survival rate of musk deer.  Dongwuxue Zhazi, China 1 :17-19.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bannikov, A.G., S.K. Ustinov, and P.N. Lobanov. 1980. The musk deer Moschus  moschiferus in the USSR. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural  Resources (IUCN), Gland, Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bi, S.Z., Y.H. Yan, Z.X. Qing, P.T. Sheng, Y.M. Wu, C.F. Chen, G.K. Yang, T.B. Yin,  and Y.J. Lu. 1980. Dissection and analysis of the musk gland of M. moschiferus and a  preliminary investigation into its histology. The Protection and Use of Wild Animals  (China) 1: 14-19.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green, M.J.B. 1978. Himalayan musk deer (Moschus moschiferus moschiferus). Pages  56-64 in Threatened Deer. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural  Resources (IUCN), Morges, Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green, M.J.B. 1985. The musk trade, with particular reference to its impact on the  Himalayan population of Moschus chrysogaster. In Conservation in Developir~g  Countries. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green, M.J.B. 1985. Aspects of the Ecology of the Himalayan Musk Deer. Ph.D.  dissertation, University of Cambridge, U.K. 280 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C.P. 1978. The taxonomy of Moschus, with particular reference to the Indian  Region. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 72:662-676.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holloway, C.W. 1973. Threatened deer of the world: conservation status. Biological  Conservation 5(4).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IUCN. 1974. Red Data Book: Mammalia. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), Morges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jamwal, P.S. 1972. Collection of deer musk in Nepal. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society 69(3):647-649.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seth, S.D., A. Muktiopadtiyay, K. Raghunatham, and R.B. Arora. 1975. Pharmodymamics of Musk. Central Council for Research on Indian Medicine and Homoeopathy, New Delhi, India.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zhang B. 1983. Musk-deer. Their capture, domestication and care according to Chinese experience and methods. Unasylva 35(139):16-24.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zhang, B.L., F.M. Dang, and B.S. Li. 1979. The Farming of Musk Deer. Agricultural Publishing Company, Peking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaplin, R.E. 1977. Deer. Blandford Press, Poole, Dorset, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cooke, A. and L. Farrell. 1983. Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis). British Deer Society Publication No. 2. Elvy and Gibbs, Canterbury, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feer, F. 1982. Quelques observations Tthologiques sur l'Hydropote de chine, Hydropotes inennis (Swinhoe, 1870) en captivitT. Zeitschrift fitr Saeugetierkunde 47: 175-185.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheng Helin and L. Housl. 1984. A preliminary study on the river deer (Hydropotes inermis) population of Shoushau Island (China) and adjacent islets. Acta Theriologica Sinica 4:161-166.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dittrich, L. 1972. Beobachtungen bei der Haltung von Cephalophus-Arten sowie zur Fortpflanzung und Jugendentwicklung von C. dorsalis und C. rufilatus in gefangenschaft. Zoologische Garten Lpz (N.F.) 42:1-16.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1980. L'Tcologie et la vie sociale du cTphalophe bleu (Cephalophus monticola Thunberg), petit ruminant forestier africain. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 54: 205-266.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R.l.M. and E.P. Dunbar. 1979. Observations on the social organisation of common duiker in Ethiopia. African Journal of Ecology 17:249-252.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R.I.M. and E.P. Dunbar. 1980. Animal Behaviour 28:219.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ketelhodt, H.F. Von. 1977. The lambing interval of the blue duiker, Cephalophus monticola Gray in captivity, with observations on its breeding and care. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 7:41-43.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralls, K. 1975. Agonistic behavior in Maxwell's duiker, Cephalophus max~elli. Marnrnalia 39:241-249.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schweers, S. 1984. The reproductive biology of the banded duiker Cephalophus zebra in comparison with other species of Cephalophus. Zeitschrift fur Saeugetierkunde 49(1):21-36.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whittle, C. and P. Whittle. 1977. Domestication and breeding of Maxwell's duiker. The Nigerian Field 42(4):13-21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antelope</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spinage, C.A. 1986. The Natural History of Antelopes. Christopher Helm, UK. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Klipspringer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R. and P. Dunbar. 1974. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 35:481-493.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R.I.M. 1979. Energetics, thermoregulation and the behavioural ecology of klipspringer. African Journal of Ecology 17:217-230.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R. I . M . and E. P. Dunbar. 1 980 . The pairbond in klipspringer. A nimal Beha vior 28:219-229.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dikdik</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hendricks, H. 1975. Zeitschrift fdr Tierpsychologie 38:55-69.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feer, F. 1979. Observations Tcologiques sur le neotrague de Bates (Neltragus bates) de Winton, 1903, Artiodactyle, ruminant, Bovide) du nord-est du gabon. Terre et vie 33: 159-239.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P.P. 1975. Acta Physiol. Scand. 95, 9A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P. P. 1 976 . Tritiated water turnover in Kirk' s dikdik, Madoqua (Rhynchotragus) kirk), Gunther, 1880. Zeischrift far Sadgetierkunde, Mitt. 24:318-319.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P.P. 1977. How to survive heat and aridity: ecophysiology of the dikdik antelope. Veterinary Medical Review 1:77-86.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P.P. 1977. Comparison of voluntary food and water intake and digestion in Kirk's dik-dik and suni. East African Wildlife Journal 15:41-48.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P.P. 1977. Rumen fermentation and body weight in African ruminants. Pages 141-150 in Proceedings 13th International Congress of Game Biologists, T.J. Peterle, ed. Wildlife Society, Washington, D.C., USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P. 1984. Strategies of digestion in African herbivores. Pages 222-243 in Herbivore Nutrition in the Tropics and Subtropics. F.M.C. Gilchrist and R.I. Machie, eds. The Science Press, South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hungate, R.E., G.D. Phillips, A. McGregor, D.P. Hungate, and H.K. Buechner. 1959. Microbial fermentation in certain mammals. Science 130:1192-1194.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morat, P. and M. Nording. 1978. Maximum food intake and passage of markers in the alimentary tract of the lesser mouse-deer. Malaysian Applied Biology 7:11-17.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yalden, D.W., M.J. Largen, and D. Kock. 1984. Catalogue of the mammals of Ethiopia. 5. Artiodactyla. Monitore Zoologico Italiano Supplemento 19:67-221.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIZARDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burghardt, G.M. and A.S. Rand, eds. 1982. Iguanas of the World: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Noyes, Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitch, H.S. and R.W. Henderson. 1977. Age and Sex Differences, Reproduction and Conservation of Iguana iguana. Milwaukee Public Museum Press. Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hirth, H.F. 1963. Some aspects of the natural history of Iguana iguana on a tropical strand. Ecology 44:613-615.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Klein, E.H. 1982. Reproduction of the green iguana (Iguana iguna L.) in the tropical dry forest of southern Honduras. Brenesia 19/20:301-310. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lazell, J.D., Jr. 1973. The lizard genus Iguana in the Lesser Antilles. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University 145(1):1-28.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamsitt, J.R. and D. Valdivieso. 1963. The herpetofauna of the Caribbean Islands San Andres and Providencia. Revista de Biologfa Tropical 11(2): 131- 139. (Copies available from C. LardT, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Van Devender, R.W. 1982. Growth and ecology of spiny-tailed and green iguanas in Costa Rica. with comments on the evolution of herbivory and large body size. Pages 162-183 in Iguanas of the World. Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Noyes, Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Werner, D. and T. Miller. 1984. Artificial nests for female green iguanas. Herpetological Review 15(2):57-58.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Werner, D. 1986. Iguana management in Central America. BOSTID Developments 6(1). 4 pp. (Available from BOSTID Publications, HA 476, National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burghardt, G.M. and A.S. Rand, eds. 1982. Iguanas of the World: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Noyes, Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitch, H.S. and R.W. Henderson. 1978. Ecology and exploitation of Ctenosaura similis. University of Kansas Science Bulletin 51 :483-500. (Copies available from the authors, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitch, H.S., R.W. Henderson, and D.M. Hillis. 1982. Exploitation of Iguanas in Central America. In Iguanas of the World: Behavior, Ecology, and Consen~ation. Noyes, Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iverson, J.B. 1979. Behavior and ecology of the rock iguana, Cyclura carinata. Bulletin of the Florida State Museum Biological Science 24(3):175-358.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Martinez, M.G. 1986. Habitos alimenticios de iguanas y garrobos. La Prensa Grafica, San Salvador, May 5:55. (Copies available from G. LardT, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sanchez, S.A. 1985. El garrobo. El Diario de Hoy, San Salvador June 18:36. (Copies available from G. LardT, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tegu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donadio, O.K. and J.M. Gallardo. 1984. Biologia y Conservacion de las Especies del GTnero Tupinambis (Squamata, Sauria Teiidae) en la Republica Argentina. Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales 'Bernardino Rivadavia" Zoologia, 13(11):117-127. Agosto.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Revision Bibliografica de algunos aspectos de la Biologfa conservacion y explotacion de los lagartos del gTnero topinambis (Daudin, 1803) by Laura Venturino, Dr. Thesis, Universidad de la Republic (Uruguay) 1983).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report to World Wildlife Fund, USA, Biologia y aprovechamiento de una poblacion de Tupinambis references, by Claudio Blanco and Leohor Pessina (1985).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the publications listed, many countries run beekeeping programs, and have literature and extension services available based on local experiences. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The International Bee Research Association (IBRA) publishes a Newsletter for Beekeepers in Tropical and Subtropical Countries twice each year. Its purpose is to provide a forum for exchange of information about beekeeping. The Newsletter is funded by the United Kingdom Overseas Development Agency (ODA) and is distributed free of charge to those in developing countries involved with beekeeping. Write to the International Bee Research Association, 18 North Road, Cardiff CFI 3DY, United Kingdom, for subscription information. The IBRA can also provide information on forthcoming conferences, grant programs, and the names of other beekeepers in your country. The International Agency for Apiculture Development (IAAD) publishes a quarterly newsletter called Cornucopia that contains articles from beekeepers around the world, especially from the developing world. It provides information on producing, selling, and manufacturing hive products on a local level and discusses agroforestry and the pest and pesticide problems of honeybees. Write to Cornucopia, c/o M. Coleman, 6N 909 Roosevelt Avenue, St. Charles, Illinois 60174, USA, for a free sample. Subscriptions are $12 a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adjare, S. 1984. The Golden Insect: a Handbook on Beekeeping for Beginners. Technology Consultancy Centre, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana, in association with Intermediate Technology Publications, Ltd., 9 King Street, Covent Garden, London, WC2 E8HN, UK. 103 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anderson, R.H., B. Buys, and M.F. Johannsmeier. 1983. Beekeeping in South Africa. Department of Agriculture BuHetin No. 394. Pretoria, South Africa. 207 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bradbear, N. and D. De Jong. 1985. The management of africanized honeybees. IBRA Leaflet No. 2. International Bee Research Association (IBRA). Available in English or Spanish from Hill House, Gerrards Cross, Buckinghamshire SL9 ONR, UK. 4 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clauss, B. 1982. A Beekeeping Handbook. Agricultural Information Service, Gaborne, Botswana. 65 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crane, E., P. Walker, and R. Day. 1984. Honey plants of the world. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1984. Proceedings of the expert consultation on beekeeping with Apis mellifera in tropical and sub-tropical Asia. 9-14 April, 1984. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Tropical Region, Paliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok, Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gentry, C. 1984. Small Scale Beekeeping. Manual M-17. Peace Corps, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IBRC. 1976. Apiculture in Tropical Climates. E. Crane, ed. Full report of the First Conference. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IBRC. 1982. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Apiculture in Tropical Climates. New Delhi, 1980. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IBRC. 1985. Proceedings of the Third international Conference on Apiculture in Tropical Climates. Nairobi, Kenya, November 5-9, 1984. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IBRC. 1988. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Apiculture in Tropical Climates. Cairo, Egypt, November 1988. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kigatiira, K.I. 1974. Hive Designs for Beekeeping in Kenya. Proceedings Entomological Society of Ontario 105:118-128.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McGregor, S.E. 1976. Insect Pollination of Cultivated Crop Plants. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 496. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 411 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Razafindrakoto, C. 1972. Beekeeping in Madagascar. UniversitT Paul-Sabaier de Toulouse, France. 123 pp. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sammataro, D. 1985. Beekeeping in the Philippines. 2nd edition. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sammataro, D. and A. Avitabile. 1986. Beekeepers Handbook. 2nd edition. Collier Books' MacMillan Co., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saubolle, B.R, and A. Bachmann. 1979. Beekeeping: an Introduction to Modern Beekeeping in Nepal. Sahayogi Prahashan, Tripureshwar, Kathmandu, Nepal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Silberrad, Roger E.M. n.d. Beekeeping in Zambia. Apimondia. Available through the International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, S. 1964. Beekeeping in India. Silver Jubilee Publication of the Entomological Society of India. Entomological Society of India, New Delhi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smith, Francis G. 1960. Beekeeping in the Tropics. Western Printing Service, Bristol UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Townsend, G.F. 1978. Preparation of Honey for Market. Ministry of Agriculture and Food Publication 544. Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Ontario, Canada.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Townsend, G.F. 1976. Transitional hives for use with the tropical African bee Apis mellifera adansonii. Pages 181-189 in Apiculture in Tropical Climates. E. Crane, ed. Full report of the First Conference. International Bee Research Association, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">B Research Contacts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section includes the names and addresses of individuals and institutions who are familiar with the animal listed. Each person has agreed to answer requests for information and advice. This personal follow-through is the main way this book can stimulate the development of microlivestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICROBREEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Ahunu, Animal Science Department, University of Ghana, P.O. Box 25, Legon, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Andres Poli, EEA San Luis INTA, CC 17, 5730 Mercedes (SL), Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.B. Bareeba, Department of Animal Science, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Bennett, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Berruecos V., School of Veterinary Medicine and Zoology, Universidad Nacional Aut6noma de MTxico, Ciudad Universitaria, Alvaro Obreg6n, 04510, Mexico D.F., Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cai Li, Animal Science and Veterinary Research Institute, Southwest College of Minority Nationalities, Chengdu, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), A.P. 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.L. Chan, B4-5 Nanyang Mansion, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Y. Cheneau, Institut d'Elevage et de MTdecine VTtTrinaire des Pays Tropicaux, Laboratoire de Farcha, BP 433, N'Djamena, Chad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.R. Cockrill, 29 Downs Park West, Bristol BS6 7QH, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.H. Conrad, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cunha, P.O. Box R, La Verne, California 91750, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.E. Deppner, Trees for the Future, 11306 Estona Drive, Silver Spring, Maryland 20902, USA (breeds of the Himalayas, East Indies)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Agriculture Food and Nutrition Sciences Division, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Tanglin P.O. Box 101, 9124 Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.l. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director, Agriculture and Forestry, PB 13184, Windhoek 9000, Namibia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.M.S. Duarte, Instituto de Investigatao Veterinaria, C.P. 7, Huambo, Angola</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Felius, Kerkhoflaan 47C, 3034 TA Rotterdam, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fleharty, American Dexter Cattle Association, R.R. #1, Box 378, Concordia, Missouri 64020. USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Garcia Lagombra, Animal Husbandry Department, Universidad Nacional "Pedro Henriquez Urena," Decanato Ciencias Agropecuarias, Km 5~/z Aut. Duarte, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Gebreab, College of Veterinary Science, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.F.W. Haenlein, Department of Animal Science and Agricultural Biochemistry University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19717-1303, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Z.B. Jensen, Animal and Dairy Science Research Institute, PB X02, Irene, Transvaal 1675, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jin Xizhen, Animal Science and Veterinary Research Institute, Southwest College of Minority Nationalities, Chengdu, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Kitsopanidis, Faculty of Agriculture, Aristotelian University of Thessaloniki, University Campus, Thessaloniki, Greece</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.E. Kodituwakku, Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.M. Konnerup, 74 North Sunrise Boulevard, Camano Island, Washington 98292, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.Y.L. Li, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, South China Agricultural College, Ghangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Loosli, 406 S.W. 40th Street, Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.B. Lwoga, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3000, Morogoro, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Martinez Balboa, Legaspy 1025, Apartado Postal 43, 23000, La Paz, Baja California Sur, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Masam, Livestock Training Institute, Tengeru, P.O. Box 3101, Arusha, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.P. Maule, Hannahfield Quarry House, 578 Lanark Road West, Balerno, Midlothian EH 14 7BN, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Mazid, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Aleppo, Aleppo, Syria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.R. McDowell, Department of Animal Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Morgan, College of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies, University of Juba, P.O. Box 82, Juba, Sudan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.B. Mpiri, Livestock Production Research Institute, Private Bag, Mpwapwa, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ni Shicheng, Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Zhejiang Agricultural University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Nikolov, Institute of Cattle and Sheep Breeding, 6000 Stara Zagora, Bulgaria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. Olson, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.W. Perry, Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Pirchner, Technical University of Munich, D-8050 Munich-Weihenstephan, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramamohana Rao, Postgraduate Studies, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soedomo Reksohadiprodjo, Department of Animai Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Sekip Blok N-42, Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.Y. Robles, Dairy Training and Research Institute, University of the Philippines at Los Banos, College, Laguna 3732, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sie Cheuxia, Department of Animal Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.D. Tillman, 523 West Harned Place, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.C.M. Trail, Livestock Productivity and Trypanotolerance Group, International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.C. Warnick, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.A. Adebowale, Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, University of Ife, Moor Plantation, P.M.B. 5029, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.A. Adeloye, Faculty of Agriculture, Adeyemi College of Education, Onjo, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.A. Ademosun, Department of Animal Science, University of Ife, lle-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.F. Adu, N.A.P.R.I., Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.A. Akinbode, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Akinsoyinu, Department of Animal Science, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Akonji, Institut de Recherches Zootechniques, Office National de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique (ONAREST), B.P. 65, Yaounde, Cameroon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baik Dong Hoon, Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture, Jeonbug National University, JEONJU, 520, Republic of Korea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S.F. Barker, Department of Animal Science, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Boateng, Cooperative Extension Service, University of the Virgin Islands, Box L, Kingshill, St. Croix, Virgin Islands 00850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.E. Bradford, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.S. Browne, Nutrition Consulting Services, P.O. Box 788, St. Thomas, Virgin Islands 00801, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.D. Bunch, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.C. Cartwright, Department of Animal Science, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), A.P. 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Agriculture Food and Nutrition Sciences Division, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Tanglin P.O. Box 101, 9124 Singapore, Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. Fitzhugh, Winrock International, Route 3, Petit Jean Mountain, Morrilton, Arkansas 72110, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.C. Foote, Utah State University International Sheep and Goat Institute, UNC 48, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.R. Gerona, Department of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.F.W. Haenlein, Department of Animal Science and Agricultural Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19717-1303, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Essa Haid, Essa International, Inc., 2550 M Street, Suite 405, Washington, D.C. 20037, USA (small East African)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Harding, Agrarian Society, Palazzo de la Salle, Valletta, Malta</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.A. Hasnath, Department of Animal Husbandry, Bangladesh Agricultural University, P.O. Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.S. Hoversland, Division of Research Grants, National Institutes of Health, 5333 Westbard Avenue, Bethesda, Maryland 20205, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Hulse, National Pygmy Goat Association, RFD #1, Fern Avenue, Amesbury, Massachusetts 01913, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.P. Husband, Department of Natural Resource Science, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, USA (bezoar, agrimi) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Hutchins, 2535 Halsted Road, Apartment 1, Rockford, Illinois 61103, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Iba+ez Herrera, Paraguay 160-Urbanizacion, Apartado 315, El Recreo, Trujillo, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Karam Shah, Livestock Experimental Station Rakh Khairewala, District Muzaffergarh, Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Katongole, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Makerere University, PO Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Kiwuwa, Department of Animal Science, Makerere University, PO Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.Y.L. Li, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, South China Agricultural College, Ghangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.R. Lincicome, Animal Parasitology Institute, U.S. Department of Agric£lture, Building 1180, BARC-East, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Chengxiang, Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science Research Institute, Guang^ dong Agricultural Academy, Guangdong, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Loosli, 406 S.W. 40th Street, Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Mahyuddin Dahan, Department of Animal Sciences, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C.H. Mandari, Livestock Research Centre, West Kilimanjaro, P.O. Box 103, Hai, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Mann, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University of Giessen, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Martinez Balboa, Legaspy 1025, Apartado Postal 43, 23000, La Paz, Baja California Sur, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Mecha, Department of Animal Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Anambra State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Metcalf, School of Medicine, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Khusahry Mohd Yusuff, Malaysian Agricultural and Research Institute (MARDI), G.P.O. Box 12301, Kuala Lumpur 01-02, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Monsi, Departments of Animal Science/Food Science and Technology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, P.M.B. 5080, Port Harcourt, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Montsma, Klomperweg 79, 6741 PD, Lunteren, Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Moore, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.M. Munyabuntu, Department of Animal Science, P.O. Box 7062, Makerere University' Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Th. Murayi, Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda, P.O. Box 138, Butare, Rwanda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.N.M. Mwenya, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Zambia, Box 32379, Lusaka, Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Nivyobizi, FacultT des Sciences Agronomiques, UniversitT du Burundi, BP 2940, Bujumbura, Burundi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Norman, Tropical Development Research Institute, 56/62 Gray's Inn Road, London WCIX 8LU, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Okello-Lapenga, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Makerere University, PO Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ramahefarison, DTpartement de Recherches Zootechniques et VTtTrinaires tCENRADERU), BP 904, Amatobe, Antananarivo, Madagascar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramamohana Rao, Postgraduate Studies, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.K. Rastogi, Department of Livestock Science, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad, West Indies </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Rasul, District Forest Officer &amp; Wildlffe Warden, P.O. Box 501, Gilgit (northern area), Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Rattner, Institute of Animal Research, Kibbutz Lahav, Israel (Sinai goat, ya-ez hybrids)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soedomo Reksohadiprodjo, Department of Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Sekip Blok N-42, Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Repollo, Jr., Palawan National Agricultural College, Aborlan, Palawan, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.Y. Robles, Dairy Training and Research Institute, University of the Pbilippines, Los Banos, Laguna 3732, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Rocha, Instituto de Reprodutao e Melhoramento Animal, C.P. 25, Matola, Mozambique</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Rodriguez, Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), Autopista Duarte Km 24, Apartado 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Nasim Siddiqi, Zoology Department, University of Peshawar, N.W.F.P., Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Shelton, Texas A &amp; M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA (criollo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Shkolnik, Department of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.C. Simpson, Cameroon Road, Prairie View A&amp;M University, Prairie View, Texas 77445, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sie Chenxia, Department of Animal Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People's Republic of Cbina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Wahome, Department of Animal Production, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Watts, Animal Science Department, Natural Resources Development College, Lusaka, Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Wood, Highland Game Farm, Route 4, Box 450, Alexandria, Indiana 46001, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.P. Husband, Department of Natural Resources Science, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microsheep</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.A. Adebowale, Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, University of Ife, Moor Plantation, P.M.B. 5029, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.F. Adu, N.A.P.R.I., Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.A. Akinbode, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Akinsoyinu, Department of Animal Science, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Amin, Jammu and Kashmis State Sheep and Shearing Products Development Board, Nowshera, Srinigar, Kashmir 190 011, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ahmad Mustaffa B. HJ. Babjee, Veterinary Services Department, Ibu Pejabat Perkhidmatan Haiwan, Kementerian Pertanian, Malaysia, Jalan Mahameru, Kuala Lumpur 10-02, Malaysia (grazing in rubber plantations)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S.F. Barker, Department of Animal Science, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, 2351, Australia (Indonesian breeds)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Boateng, Cooperative Extension Service, College of the Virgin Islands, Box L, Kingshill, St. Croix, Virgin Islands 00850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.E. Bradford, University of Calffornia, Davis, Calffornia 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Breckle, U.S. Forest Service, Alsea, Oregon 97324, USA (grazing sheep in forests)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. Bunch, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA (Iranian thin-tailed, Navajo, wild-sheep hybrids)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Carpio P., Departamento de Produccion Animal, Universidad Nacional Agraria, Apartado 456, La Molina, Lima, Peru </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), A.P. 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Cottrell, Pippin Farm, 3081 Goshen Road, Bellingham, Washington 98226, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Courtney, Veterinary Faculty, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Deller, Virgin Islands Department of Agriculture, St. Thomas, Virgin Islands 00820, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Dettmers, 5620 Longwood Avenue, Port Charlotte, Florida 33953, USA (West African dwarf)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Agricultural Food and Nutrition Sciences Division International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Tanglin P.O. Box 101, 9124 Singapore, Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.l. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Drew, Invermay Agricultural Research Centre, Private Bag, Mosgiel, New Zealand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. El Amin, Department of Animal Husandry, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Khartoum, P.O. Box 32, Khartoum North, Sudan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gholam-Hossein Erabi, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz, Tabriz 51664, Iran</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. Fitzhugh, Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development, Route 3, Petit Jean Mountain, Morrilton, Arkansas 72110, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Foote, Animal' Dairy, and Veterinary Science Department, UNC 48, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA (Virgin Islands white hair, wild-sheep hybrids)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.-H. Gueye, Centre de Recherches Zootechniques de Kolda, Institut SenTgalais de Recherches Agricoles, (ISRA), B.P. 53, Kolda, Senegal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Garcia Lagombra, Animal Husbandry Department, Universidad Nacional "Pedro Henriquez Urena," Decanato Ciencias Agropecuarias, Km 5 1/2 Aut. Duarte, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.F.W. Haenlein, Department of Animal Science and Agricultural Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19717-1303, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Henson, Bemborough, Guiting Power, Cheltenham, Gloucester, UK (rare breeds)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Ibanez Herrera, Paraguay 160 - Urbanizacion, Apartado 315, El Recreo, Trujillo, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Jewell, Department of Physiology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 ITN, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jones Sheep Farm, RR 2 Box 185-55, Peabody, Kansas 66866, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.E. Loggins, Animal Science Department, 108-D Suite, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Loosli, 406 S.W. 40th Street, Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C.H. Mandari, Livestock Research Centre, West Kilimanjaro, P.O. Box 103, Hai, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.P. Maule, Hannahfield Quarry House, 578 Lanark Road West, Balerno, Midlothian EH14 7BN, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.K. McNeal, Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Science Department, UNC 48, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Mecha, Department of Animal Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Anambra State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Monsi, Department of Animal Science, Food Science and Technology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, P.M.B. 5080, Port Harcourt, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.M. Munyabuntu, Department of Animal Science, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Th. Murayi, Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda, P.O. Box 138, Butare, Rwanda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.N.M. Mwenya, School of Agriculture Sciences, University of Zambia, Box 32379, Lusaka,  Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Ngendahayo, Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda, B.P. 138, Butare, Rwanda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Njwe, DTpartement des Sciences Animales, Ecole Nationale SupTrieure Agronomique, Centre  Universitaire de Dschang, B.P. 138, YaoundT, United Republic of Cameroon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J.A. Payne, 91 Bedwardine Road, London SE19 3AY, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington,  Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.V. Raghavan, Animal Science Department, College of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh  Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, Andhra Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramamohana Rao, Postgraduate Studies, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University,  Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.K. Rastogi, Department of Livestock Science, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine,  Trinidad, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soedomo Reksohadiprodjo, Department of Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Husbandry,  Universitas Gadjah Mada, Sekip Blok N-42, Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.Y. Robles, Dairy Training and Research Institute, University of the Philippines at Los Banos,  College, Laguna 3732, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Rocha, Instituto de Reprodutao e Melhoramento Animal, C.P. 25, Matola, Mozambique</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Ryder, c/o H.F.R.O., Bush Estate, Penicuik, Edinburgh, UK (Barbados blackbelly, wool)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sie Chenxia, Department of Animal Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People's  Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. David Simpson, Range and Wildlife Department, Texas Tech University, P.O. Box 4349,  Lubbock, Texas 79409, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.E. Terrill, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Building 005, BARC-West, Beltsville, Maryland 20705,  USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.N. Turner, Genetics Research Laboratories, CSIRO, P.O. Box 184, North Ryde, New South  Wales 2113, Australia (Indonesian breeds)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Vaccaro, Universidad Nacional Agraria, La Molina, P.O. Box 456, Lima, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Wahome, Department of Animal Production, P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Wildeus, College of the Virgin Islands, Agricultural Experiment Station, R.R. 2, Box 10051  Kingshill, St. Croix, Virgin Islands 00850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wu Jitang, Animal and Veterinary Science, Jiangsu Province Academy of Agricultural Sciences,  Nanjing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Yenikoye, FacultT d'Agronomie, UniversitT de Niamey, B.P. 10662, Niamey, Niger</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Micropig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.A. Akinbode, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,  University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Andrews, Mesoamerican Ecology Institute, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118, USA (Yucatan pig)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Ashton-Peach, Box 17, Ohaeawai, Bay of Islands, New Zealand (kunekune)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Berruecos V. Muz, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico D.F., Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Blakely, Sedgwick County Zoo, Wichita, Kansas 67203, USA (Ossabaw)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Boateng, Cooperative Extension Service, University of the Virgin Islands, Box L., Kingshill, St. Croix, Virgin Islands 00850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.L. Brisbin, Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, P.O. Drawer E, Aiken, South Carolina 29801, USA (Ossabaw)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Bustad, Veterinary School, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, 99163, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Catibog-Sinha, Forest Products Research and Development Institute, College, Laguna 4031, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), A.P. 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles River Laboratories, Inc., 251 Ballardvale Street, Wilmington, Massachusetts 01887-0630, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.H. Conrad, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cunha, PO Box R, LaVerne, California 91750, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Dederer, 712 Brown Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19123, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Dettmers, 5620 Longwood Avenue, Port Charlotte, Florida 33953, USA (miniature pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Agriculture Food and Nutrition Sciences Division, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Tanglin P.O. Box 101, 9124 Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Edgar, Greenhill, I R.D., Balfour, Southland, New Zealand (kunekune)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Hendricks, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.J. Hepburn, Swine Program, Charles River Laboratories, 251 Ballardvale Street, Wilmington, Massachusetts 01887-0630, USA (laboratory pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Holbrook, Aria Road' via Te Kuiti, New Zealand (kunekune)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.R. Hook, Jr., Sinclair Medical Research Farm, University of Missouri, Route 3, Columbia, Missouri 65203, USA (laboratory pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.O. Ilori, Faculty of Agriculture, University of If e, Ile-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. E. Kodituwakku, Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Loosli, 406 S.W. 40th Street' Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.H. Maner, Winrock International, Route 3, Petit Jean Mountain, Morrilton, Arkansas 72110, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.J. Mayer, Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, P.O. Drawer E, Aiken, South Carolina 29801, USA (Ossabaw)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Monsi, Departments of Animal Science/Food Science and Technology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, P.M.B. 508O, Port Harcourt, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Mtimuni, Livestock Production Department, Bunda College of Agriculture, University of Malawi, P.O. Box 219, Lilongwe, Malawi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.G. Mugisa, c/o Insure Consult, P.O. Box 30002, Nakivubo, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mull, 2834 Hamner Avenue #208, Norco, California 91760, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.L.R. Oliver, Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group, Jersey Wildlife Prescrvation Trust, Les AugrFs Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, UK (pigmy hog) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Panepinto, Redstone Canyon, P.O. Box 105, Masonville, Colorado 80541, USA (miniature pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J.A. Payne, 91 Bedwardine Road, London SE19 3AY, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.C. Perdomo, Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Suinos e Aves, BR 153, km 110, CP D-3, 89700 Concordia, SC, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA (Chinese breeds)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.G. Pond, Meat Animal Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Box 166, Clay Center, Nebraska 68933, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Popenoe, International Programs in Agriculture, 3028 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA (New Guinea pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.S. Reddi, CoHege of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Tirupati 517 502, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Avendano Reyes, Instituto Nacional de las Investigaciones sobre los Recursos BiotTcnicos, (INIREB), Apartado Postal 97, MTrida, Yucatan, Mexico (Yucatan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Robinson, Robinson's Racing Pigs, 5809 20th Avenue South, Tampa, Florida 336195457, USA (miniature pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Arellano Sota, Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Casillo 10095, Santiago, Chile (Cuing)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Sriramamurty, College of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Tirupati 517 502, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.M. Swindle, Comparative Medicine/Lab Animal Resources, Medical University of South Carolina, 171 Ashley Avenue, Charleston, South Carolina 29425, USA (laboratory pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Tilakaratne, Veterinary Research Institute, Gannoruwa, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Wahome, Department of Animal Production, P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wu Jitang, Animal and Veterinary Science, Jiangsu Provincial Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yong Shen Lee, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POULTRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information on poultry can generally be obtained from local ministries of agriculture or veterinary and livestock services. However, another source is the World's Poultry Science Association (c/o Institut fur Kleintierzucht, Dornbergstrasse 25/27, Postfach 280, C-3100 Celle, Germany). It has over 5,000 members from 40 national groups. Its objectives are (1) to advance poultry science and the poultry industry, (2) to disseminate and facilitate the exchange of knowledge pertaining to all branches of the poultry industry, (3) to encourage the promotion of world poultry congresses and regional conferences, and (4) to cooperate with other international organizations. It maintains working groups to explore and assess research work on tropical poultry problems. The World's Poultry Science Journal is published 3 times a year. It has also published a multilingual poultry dictionary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicken</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ben-David, Poultry Production Specialist, 5, Azar Street, Holon 58291, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.L. Brisbin, Jr., Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, P.O. Drawer E, Aiken, South Carolina 29801, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Senior Livestock Specialist, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. Couch, Poultry Science Department, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Crawford, Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 0W0, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Cuca G., Institucion de Ensenanza e Investigacion en Ciencias Agricolas, Colegio de Postgraduados, Chapingo, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.O. Hawes, Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.H. Huang, Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Fifih Floor, 14 Wenchow Street, Taipei, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.H. Ketelaars, Department of Tropical Husbandry, P.O. Box 338, 6700 A.H. Wageningen, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.A. Latif, Department of Poultry Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Martoyo, Faculty of Animal Science, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Jalan Raya Pajajaran, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.T. Moran, Jr., Poultry Science Department, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849-4291, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ochetim, School of Agriculture, University of the South Pacific, Alafua Campus, Apia, Western Samo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Parks, Route 1, Box 47-C, Brookshire, Texas 77423, USA (Araucanian chicken)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apt.810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.L. Polley, Programme DTveloppement Plateau Bateke, CBZO, B.P. 4728, Kinshasa 2, Zaire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramakrishman, Center for Advanced Studies in Poultry Science, Kerala Agricultural University, Mannuthy 680 651, Kerala, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.V. Reddy, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Ross, Department of Animal Science, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Scott, 16 Spruce Lane, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Sexton, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Building 262, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Somes, Nutritional Sciences, Box U-17, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Sunde, Poultry Science Department, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duck</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.E. Abdelsamie, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Nutrition, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ahmed, Department of Poultry Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Bande, PATI, Popondetta Agricultural College, Box 131, Popondetta, Oro Province, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.S. Bird, Cherry Valley Farms Ltd., Rothwell, Lincoln LN7 6BR, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.D. Bulbule, Central Duck Breeding Farm, Government of India, Hessaraghatta, Bangalore 560 088, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.M. Cheng, Avian Genetics Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 2A2, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Dean, Cornell University Duck Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 217, Eastport, New York 11941, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Edwards, Agricultural and Food Engineering Division, Asian Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 2754, Bangkok 10501, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Fishelson, Department of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Ramat-ave, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Floresca, Department of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte 7127, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Godoy, Ingeniero Agronomio, Simon Bolivar 2397, Santiago, Chile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Hardjosworo, Fakultas Peternakan, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Henry, Cherry Valley Farms Limited, Divisional Offices, North Kelsey Moor, Lincoln LN7 6HH, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Hollander, Route 4, Box 168, Ames, lowa 5001O, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Hoffmann, Canning, Nova Scotia BOP IHO, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.H. Huang, Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Fifth Floor, 14 Wenchow Street, Taipei, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Ibanez H., Bolivar 451, Trujillo, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Z. Jungkaro, Research Institute for Inland Fisheries, Jalan Sempur No. 1, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A.R. Kamar, Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.H. Ketelaars, Department of Tropical Husbandry, P.O. Box 338, 6700 A.H. Wageningen, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.P. Kompiang, BaliPenelitianTernak, P.O. Box 123, Bogor 16001, WestJava, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.A. Latif, Department of Poultry Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Martoyo, Faculty of Animal Science, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Jalan Raya Pajajaran, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Mongin, Station de Recherches Avicoles, I.N.R.A., Nouzilly 37380 Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.T. Moran, Jr., Poultry Science Department, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849-4291, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ochetim, School of Agriculture, University of the South Pacific, Alafua Campus, Apia, Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Pingel, Karl-Marx-Universitat, Sektion TV, Lehrstuhl Geflugel- und Pelztierzucht, 7010 Leipzig, Stephanstrasse 12, Germany </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Poernomo, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Jalan R.E. Martadinata 32, P.O. Box 52, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramakrishman, Center for Advanced Studies in Poultry Science' Kerala Agricultural University, Mannuthy 680 651, Kerala, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Retailleau, Grimaud FrFres S.A., La CorbiFre, 49450 Roussay, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.S. Sandhu, Cornell University Duck Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 217, Eastport, New York 11941, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Scott, 16 Spruce Lane, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Shingari, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Tai, Taiwan Livestock Research Institute, 112 Farm Road Shin-hua, Tainan, Taiwan 71210</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Tangendjaja, Bali Penelitian Ternak, P.O. Box 123, Bogor 16001, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tian Fuh Shen, Department of Animal Husbandry, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10764, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.S. Tsai, Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, National Pintung Institute of Agriculture, Pintung, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Romero Villanueva, Centro Tropical de Capacitaci6n Agropecuaria y Forestal, Apartado Postal #4S, Macuspana 86700 Tabasco, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildfowl Trust, Slimbridge, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yeong Shue Woh, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), G.P.O. No. 12301, 50774 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cha Tak Yimp, Poultry and Swine Unit, Department of Veterinary Services, Jalan Mahameru, 50630 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many universities have a department of animal or poultry science that should know about the culture and management of these birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Bande, PATI, Popondetta Agricultural College, Box 131, Popondetta, Oro Province, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.D. Chesterley, 4502 Loomis Trail, Blaine, Washington 98230, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Crawford, Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 0W0, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.l. Dim, Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Jackson, P.O. Box 3, Creenbank, Washington 98253, USA (weeder geese)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Fuan, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Mongin, Station de Recherches Avicoles, l.N.R.A., Nouzilly 37380, Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Ross, Department of Animal Science, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Shingari, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.R. Wilson, Poultry Science Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Fowl</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American Guinea Club, c/o Angie Papp, 620 Payne Road, New Albany, Indiana 47150, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S.O. Ayeni, Kainji Lake Research Institute, P.M.B. 666, New Bussa, Kwara State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ben-David, 5, Azar Street, Holon 58291, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.S. Brah, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">X. Colonna C., 14 Cotham Road, Bristol BS6 6DR, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Dumont, Ecole Nationale SupTrieure des Sciences Agronomiques AppliquTes, 26, boulevard Docteur Petitjean 21100 Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Etches, Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NIG 2WI, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.F. Hutton, Garaina Farms, Scrubby Creek Road, Gympie MS: 115, Queensland 4570, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.N. Johnson, Natal Parks, Game and Fish Preservation Board, P.O. Box 661, Pietermaritzburg 3200, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;:M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Michie, Poultry Husbandry Division, North of Scotland College of Agriculture, Parkhead, Craibstone, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB2 9SX, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Mongin, Station de Recherches Avicoles, I.N.R.A., Nouzilly, 37380 Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ochetim, School of Agriculture, University of the South Pacific, Alafua Campus, Apia, Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. Okaeme, Wildlife/Range Division, Kainji Lake Research Institute, P.M.B. 666, New Bussa, Kwara State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S. Sandhu, Poultry Breeder, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Shingari, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Somes, Nutritional Sciences, Box U-17, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.E. Abdelsamie, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Nutrition, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.P. Bilong, Department of Primary Industry, Monogastric Research Centre, P.O. Box 73, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. de Carville, Station de Recherches Avicoles, I.N.R.A., Centre de Tours, Nouzilly 37380, Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.D. Chesterley, 4502 Loomis Trail, Blaine, Washington 98230, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">X. Colonna C., 14 Cotham Road, Bristol BS6 6DR, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Dumont, Ecole Nationale SupTrieure des Sciences Agronomiques AppliquTes, 26, boulevard Docteur Petitjean 21100 Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.R. Gerona, Department of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barry Glofcheskie, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NIG 2WI, Canada (fly control)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread' P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Hollander, Route 4, Box 168, Ames, Iowa 50010, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Hoffmann, Canning, Nova Scotia BOP IH0, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.H. Huang, Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Fifth Floor, 14 Wenchow Street, Taipei, Taiwan (mule duck)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A.R. Kamar, Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Michie, Poultry Husbandry Division, North of Scotland College of Agriculture, Parkhead, Craibstone, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB2 9SX, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donald E. Mock, Department of Extension Entomology, 239 Waters Hall, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506-4004, USA (fly control)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Mongin, Station de Recherches Avicoles, I.N.R.A., Nouzilly 37380 Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ochetim, School of Agriculture, University of the South Pacific, Alafua Campus, Apia, Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Pingel, Karl Marx Universitat, Sektion TV, Lehrstuhl Geflugel- und Pelztierzucht, 7010 Leipzig, Stephanstrasse 12, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Retailleau, Grimaud FrFres S.A., La CorbiFre, 494S0 Roussay, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Romboli, Le Quericole, Universita Delgi Studi di Pisa 56010 S. Piero A Grado, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.S. Sandhu, Cornell University Duck Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 217, Eastport, New York 11941, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Surgeoner, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NIG 2WI, Canada (fly control)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Tai, Taiwan Livestock Research Institute, 112 Farm Road Shin-hua. Tainan, Taiwan 71210</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.M. Cheng, Avian Genetics Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 2A2, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Dillinger, 3201 Huffman Boulevard, Rockford, Illinois 61103, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Animal Science Department, FacultyofAgriculture, AhmaduBello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.O. Hawes, Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469, U.S.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA (carrier pigeons) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Hollander, Route 4, Box 168, Ames, lowa 5001O, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.A. Latif, Department of Poultry Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Y. Le HTnaff, Laboratoire de l'H(pital Avranches, Avranches, Cotentin, France (carrier pigeons)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A.R. Kamar, Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J. Miller, Department of Genetics, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Owen, 6520 Wiscasset Road, Bethesda, Maryland 20816, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Pena PTrez, Apartado Postal 23, La Nucia, Alicante, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Ross, Department of Animal Science, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.D. Roush, Green Valley Squab Farm, 1348 Green Valley Road, Folsom, California 9563O, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.S. Sandbu, Cornell University Duck Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 217, Eastport, New York 11941, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S. Sim, Department of Animal Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta TOG 2P5, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many people raise Japanese quail. Probably the best way to locate a local source is to consult local pet stores, the county farm advisor's office, university faculty of agriculture, game-bird fanciers, and the like. Finding people with local research experience is usually most useful to beginners. Coturnix International, Inc., is a nonprofit organization with primary interests in promoting small domesticated food animal production for both youth training and improved nutrition. The use of coturnix (Japanese quail) for these purposes is already well established in a number of Michigan schools and in the Dominican Republic, with special emphasis on science projects, especially where nutritional inadequacies exist. The address is Coturnix International Inc., International Headquarters, 1111 Michigan Avenue, Box 250O, East Lansing, Michigan 48823, USA. Avian Sciences Department, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.M. Cheng, Avian Genetics Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 2A2, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.E. Deppner, Trees for the Future, 11306 Estona Drive, Silver Spring, Maryland 20902, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Science and Animal Industries, Alabama AOcM University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.L. Marks, Genetics Unit, Room 107 Livestock-Poultry Building, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Marsh, Marsh Farms, 7171 Patterson Drive, Garden Grove, California 92641, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Martoyo, Faculty of Animal Science, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Jalan Raya Pajajaran, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Z. Abidin bin Mohd Noor, Department of Veterinary Services, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50630 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (chicken-quail hybrids)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.K. Pani, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar 243 122, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Pingel, Karl Marx Universitat, Sektion TV, Lehrstuhl Geflugel- und Pelztierzucht, 7010 Leipzig, Stephanstrasse 12, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Polin, Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.V. Reddy, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodale Research Center, RD #1, Box 323, Kutztown, Pennsylvania 19530, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Ross, Department of Animal Science, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Shingari, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 006, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Somes, Nutritional Sciences, Box U-17, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Tempest, Heifer Project International, P.O. Box 808, Little Rock, Arkansas 72203, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. K. Varghese, Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1225, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Wakasugi, Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusaku, Nagoya, Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.R. Wilson, Poultry Science Department, Archer Road, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Berruecos V. Muz, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico D.F., Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Crawford, Department of Animaland Poultry Science, UniversityofSaskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Cuca G., Institucion de Ensenanza e Investigacion en Ciencias Agricolas, Colegio de Postgraduados, Chapingo, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.E. Nestor, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Pingel, Karl-Marx-Universitat, Sektion TV, Lehrstuhl Geflugel- und Pelztierzucht, 7010 Leipzig, Stephanstrasse 12, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Scott, 16 Spruce Lane, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.J. Sexton, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Building 262, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Somes, Nutritional Sciences. Box U-17, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential New Poultry</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Duckett, P.O. Box 12378, 50776 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (barn owls)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.R. Marion, Department of Wildlife and Range Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA (chachalaca)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Smal, Wildlife Service, Sidmonton Place, Bray County, Wicklow, Ireland (barn owls) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RABBITS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic Rabbit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University,  P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Baselga, Departamento de Ciencia Animal, Escuela TTcnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agronomos, Camino de Vera 14, 46022 Valencia, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. de Blas, Departamento Alimentacion Animal, Escuela TTcnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agronomos, Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Castell6, Real Escuela Oficial y Superior de Avicultura (REOSA), Calle Plana Parafso, s/n  Arenys de Mar, Barcelona, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.B. Chawan, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and  Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.R. Cheeke, Rabbit Research Center, Department of Animal Science, Oregon State University,  Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Fekete, University of Veterinary Science, Department of Animal Nutrition, Budapest, Pf.2,  H-1400 Hungary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Fernandez C., Departamento de Ciencia Animal, Escuela TTcnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agronomos, Universidad PolitTcnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera, 14, 46022 Valencia, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Cervera Fras, Departamento de Ciencia Animal, Universidad PolitTcnica de Valencia, Apartado  22012, Valencia, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.J. Harris, Pel-Freez Rabbit Meat, Inc., P.O. Box 68, Rogers, Arkansas 72756, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A.B. Hundleby, Ciskei Agricultural Corporation Ltd., P.O. Box 59, Bisho, Ciskei, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. de Jong, Department of Tropical Animal Production, Marykeweg 40, 6709 P.G. Wageningen,  The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.A. Kamwanja, Bunda College of Agriculture, University of Malawi, P.O. Box 219, Lilongwe,  Malawi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Leyun, Instituto TTcnico Gesti6n Porcino (ITGP), Seccion Conejos, Ctra. del Sadar, s/n 31006  Pamplona (Navarra), Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Loliger, Lisztstrasse 20, 3100 Celle, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and  Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.P.E. Makhambera, Bunda College of Agriculture, University of Malawi, P.O. Box 219, Lilongwe,  Malawi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.I. McNitt, Center for Small Farm Research, Southern University, P.O. Box 11170, Baton Rouge,  Louisana 70813-1170, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Mgheni, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Animal Science and Production Department, P.O.  Box 3004, Morogoro, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Norman, Tropical Products Institute, Culham, Abingdon, Oxfordshire OX14 3DA, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.N. Odonker, P.O. Box 11, Tsito-Awudome, Volta Region, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.C. Onwudike, Department of Animal Science, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.G. Partridge, Rowett Research Institute, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB2 9SB, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.M. Patton, Rabbit Research Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.J. Paya, Departamento de Microbiologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Avenida Puerta de Hierro, Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. PTrez, Departamento de Reproduccion Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias (INIA), Avenida Puerta de Hierro, s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.L. Polley, Programme DTveloppement Plateau Bateke, CBZO, B.P. 4728, Kinshasa 2, Zaire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Ramchurn, School of Agriculture, University of Mauritius, RTduit, Mauritius</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.E. Reed, Box 98, Markle, Indiana 46770, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Respaldiza, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias (INIA), Departamento de Higiene y Sanidad Animal, Calle Embajadores, 68, 28012 Madrid, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Retailleau, Grimaud FrFres S.A., La CorbiFre, 49450 Roussay, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Rodriguez, Departamento Microbiologia e Inmunologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Calle Miguel Servet, numero 117, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Rodriguez de L., "Conejos" Centro de Investigacion Cientifica del Estado de MTxico A.C., Camino a Huexotla No. 5, San Miguel Coatlinchan, 56170 Texcoco, Estado de MTxico, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Schlolaut, Hessen Institute for Animal Production, Neu-Ulrichstein, 6313 Homberg, West Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.D. Semuguruka, Department of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3018, Chuo Kikuu Morogoro, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Sierra, Departamento Produccion Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Calle Miguel Servet, numero 117, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Valls, Institut de Recerce i Tecnologia Agroalimentaria (IRTA), Torre Marimon, 08140 Caldes de Montbui, Barcelona, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Zaragoza, Departamento de Genetica y Mejora, Facultad de Veterinaria, Calle Miguel Servet, numero 117, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agouti</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.J.R. Alho, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidade de Brasilia, 70910 Brazilia, DF, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.H. Baker, 302 North Strickland Street, Eagle Lake, Texas 77434-1841, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Bonilla Encizo, ICA Tibaitata, Apartado Aereo 151123, BogotG, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.D. Cuaron O., Instituto de Historia Natural, Apartado Postal No. 6, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas 29000, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.A. Deutsch, Parque Zoologico de Sao Paulo, SGo Paulo, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratorie d'Ecologie, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Frenkel, Department of Pathology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66013, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Escajadillo, Gorgas Memorial Laboratory, P.O. Box 935, APO Miami, Florida 340020012, USA OR Avenida Justo Arosemena 34-30, Apartado 6991, Panama 5, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Hallwachs, Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6018, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Hislop, Wildlife Section, Forest Division, Ministry of Food Production, Port-ofSpain, Trinidad and Tobago</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ingrand, I.N.R.A., Campus agronomique, B.P. 709, 97387 Kourou Cedex, French Guiana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.H. Janzen, Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Lavorenti, Animal Sciences Department, ESALQ Universidade de Sao Paulo, C.P. 9, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo 13.400, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.A. Meritt, Jr., 2200 North Cannon Drive, Chicago, IHinois 60614, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. de Alencar Moreira, EMBRAPA-CPATU, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, Caixa Postal 48, BelTm, Para 66000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.Ma. Rojas G., CATIE, 7170 Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Santos, Fundatao Parque Zoologico de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smith, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smythe, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Box 2072, Balboa, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O. Sousa, Department of Microbiology, Cinuad Universitaria "Dr Octavio MTndez Pereira," El Cangregio, Apartado Estafeta Universitaria, Panama City, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.B. Taber, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. Woods, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.J.R. Alho, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidade de Brasilia, 70910 Brasilia, DF, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.P. Bland, Department of Veterinary Physiology, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Summerhall, Edinburgh EH9 IQH, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Bonilla Encizo, ICA Tibaitata, Apartado Aereo 151123, Bogota, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.R. Cheeke, Rabbit Research Center, Department of Animal Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cunha, P.O. Box R, LaVerne, California 91750, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.F. Eisenberg, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Golley, Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30601, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Gonzalez-Jimenez, Facultad de Agronomia, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Maracay, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Hemmer, Institute of Zoology, Johannes Gutenberg University, Anemonenweg 18, D-6500 Mainz-Ebersheim, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Howarth, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ingrand, I.N.R.A., Campus agronomique, B.P. 709, 97387 Kourou Cedex, French Guiana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Konnerup, 74 North Sunrise Boulevard, Camano Island, Washington 98292, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Jackson, Terraza Turrado 80, 5730 Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Lavorenti, Animal Sciences Department, ESALQ Universidade de Sao Paulo, C.P. 9, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo 13.400, Brazil </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Lord, Biology Department, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, Pennsylvania 15705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.W. MacDonald, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. de Alencare Moreira, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, EMBRAPA-CPATU, Caixa Postal 48" BelTm, Para 66000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Muller-Haye, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Room F524, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Ojasti, Institute of Tropical Zoology, Apartado 47058, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas 1041A, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.L. Rondon, Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Centro de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidada Federal de Mato Grosso, Cuiaba-MT, 78000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smith, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.E. Sollod, Section of International Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafton, Massachusetts 01536, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Sunquist, Route 1, Box 1434, Melrose, Florida 32666, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.B. Taber, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.D. Thelen, FAO Regional Of fice for Latin America and the Caribbean, CasiHa 10095, Santiago, Chile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.C. Carmichael, The Museum, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1045, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Chapman, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Contreras, Universidad Cat61ica de Valpariso, Avenida Brasi. 295O, Casilla 4059, Valparaiso, Chile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.-G. Klos, Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Aktiengesellschaft, Hardenbergplatz, 1000 Berlin 30, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Lutz, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Biology and Living Resources, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. de Alencar Moreira, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, Caixa Postal 48, BelTm, ParG, 66000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Szumiec, Experimental Fish Culture Station, Polish Academy of Sciences, Golysz 43-422 Chybie, Poland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. Woods, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Research Institute, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), P.O. Box 20, Achimota, Chana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.P. Bland, Department of Veterinary Physiology, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Summerhall, Edinburgh EH9 IQH, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Brinck, Ecology Building, Department of Animal Ecology, University of Lund, S223 62 Lund, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratorie d'Ecologie, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.C.D. Happold, Department of Zoology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.C. Heymans, BP 1910, Cotonou, Benin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Kamara, c/o Njala University College, Private Mail Bag, Freetown, Sierra Leone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.H. Knight, Kalahari Gemsbok Park, Private Bag X5890, Upington 8800, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Malekani, DTpartement de Biologie, FacultT des Sciences, UniversitT de Kinshasa, B.P. 190, Kinshasa XI, Zaire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Matthewman, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School for Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Alexander, Department of Biology, Natal University, King George V Avenue, Durban 4001, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.O.A. Asibey, Department of Game and Wildlife, Ministry Post Office, Accra, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.S. Ayensu, African Development Bank, 01 B.P. No. 1837, Abidjan 01, Ivory Coast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Baptist, Institute for Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics, University of Hohenheim (480), P.O. Box 700562, D-7000 Stuttgart 70, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.Y. Bimpong-Buta, Council for Law Reporting, P.O. Box M165, Accra, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Brinck, Department of Animal Ecology, University of Lund, Ecology Building, S223 62, Lund, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Dosso, Institut d'Ecologie Tropicale, Abidjan, Ivory Coast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.C.D. Happold, Department of Zoology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Hardouin, Institut de Medicine Tropicale "Prince Leopold," Nationalestraat 155, B2000 Antwerp, Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.C. Heymans, BP 1910, Cotonou, Benin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Hutton, Garaina Farms, Scrubby Creek Road, Gympie MS:115, Queensland 4570, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Kamara, c/o Njala University College, Private Mail Bag, Freetown, Sierra Leone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Laboratoire Centrale de Nutrition Animale (LACENA), B.P. 353, Abidjan 06, Ivory Coast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.-P. Mack, Projet BTnino-Allemand Conseiller Technique auprTs du MDRAC, BP 504, Cotonou, Benin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.H.G. Martin, Department of Zoology, Kenyatta University College, P.O. Box 43844, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Matthewman, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Mensah, Responsable PBAA (Projet BTnino-Allemand d'Aulacodiculture), P.B. 2359, Cotonou, Benin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.A. Omole, Department of Animal Science, University of Ife, Ile-lfe, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.J. Peters, International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), P.O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Petter, MammifFres et Oiseaux, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle Zoologie, 55 rue de Buffon 75005, Paris, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Schr(der, Institute of Animal Breeding, Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 1, 3400 Gottingen, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.W. Thomas, Department of Biology, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec JIK 2RI, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">St. von Korn, Institute of Animal Breeding, Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 1, 3400 G(ttingen, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Walder, Presbyterian Rural Training Centre, P.O. Box 72, Bamenda, NW Province, Cameroon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.P. Bilong, Department of Pimary Industry, Monogastric Research Centre, P.O. Box 73, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.P. Bland, Department of Physiology, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Summerhall, Edinburgh EH9 IQH, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Bolton, Department of Anthropology, Pomona College, Claremont, California 91711, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Bonilla Encizo, ICA Tibaitata, Apartado Aereo 151123, Bogota, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Del Carpio R., Facultad de Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional "Pedro Ruiz Gallo," Calle Atahualpa No. 179, Apartado 48, Lambayeque, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.R. Cheeke, Rabbit Research Center, Department of Animal Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cunha, P.O. Box R, LaVerne, California 91750, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Descailleux, Laboratorio GenTtica Humana, C.P. 11010, Lima 14, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Ferguson, Overseas Development Administration, Eland House, Stug Place, London, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RC, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Frenkel, Department of Pathology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66013, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Hardouin, Institut de MTdecine Tropicale "Prince Leopold," Nationalestraat IS5, B2000 Antwerpen, Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.E. Honegger, Zurich Zoo, Zurichbergstrasse 221, CH-8044 Zurich, Switzerland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Howarth, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calffornia, Davis, Calffornia 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Jackson, Terraza Turrado 80, 5730 Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Jenkins, PNG Institute Medical Research, P.O. Box 60, Goroka, Eastern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. de Jong, Department of Tropical Animal Production, Marykeweg 40, 6709 PG Wageningen, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Kamara, c/o Njala University College, Private Mail Bag Freetown, Sierra Leone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.J. Kohun, Department of Agriculture, PNG University of Technology, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.M. Konnerup, 74 North Sunrise Boulevard, Camano Island, Washington 98292, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.E. Lacher, Jr., Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington 98225, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Feed Science and Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.C. Malik, Department of Agriculture, PNG University of Technology, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Matthewman, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.R. Moreno, Departamento de Produccion Animal, Universidad Nacional Agraria, Apartado 456, La Molina, Lima, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Muller-Haye, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Room F524, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.L. Polley, Programme DTveloppement Plateau Bateke, CBZO, B.P. 4728, Kinshasa 2, Zaire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V. Purizaga A., Alcalde del Concejo Provincial de Pacasmayo, Dos de Mayo 360, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.T. Quirante, Bureau of Animal Industry, Research Center, Alabang 3124, Metro Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.V. Reddy, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.W. Robinson, Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, Box 7621 Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7621, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.C. Allen, Hope Zoo, Kingston, Jamacia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.S. Canet, Instituto de Zoologla, Academia Ciencias de Cuba, Calle 214, esq. a Avenida 19, No. 17A 09, Reparto Atabey, Havana 16, Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Jordan, Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.L.R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les AugrFs Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Ottenwalder, Parque Zool6gico Nacional (ZOODOM), Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Woods, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.T. Blankenship, Animal Resources Center, School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27858-4354, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Jackson, Terraza Turrado 80, 5730 Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Agentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.W. MacDonald, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.H. Pryor, Jr., School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27858-4354, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.B. Taber, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paca</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. de Alencar Moreira, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, EMBRAPA-CPATU, Caixa Postal 48, BelTm, Para 66000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.J.R. Alho, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidade de Brasilia, 70910 Brasilia, DF, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.H. Baker, 302 North Strickland Street, Eagle Lake, Texas 77434-1841, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.D. Cuardn O., Instituto de Historia Natural, Apartado Postal No. 6, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas 29000, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. de Escalante, Zool6gico Nacional, Direccion del Patrimonio Natural y Cultural, San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Frenkel, Department of Pathology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66013, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Hallwachs, Ecology and Systematics, Corson Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Hislop, Wildlife Section, Forest Division, Ministry of Food Production, Port-ofSpain, Trinidad and Tobago</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.H. Janzen, Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Lavorenti, Animal Sciences Department, ESALQ Universidade de Sao Paulo, C.P. 9, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo 13.400, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Y. Matamoros, Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Nacional, Apartado 86, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Meritt, Jr., 2200 North Cannon Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60614, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.Ma. Rojas G., CATIE, 7170 Turrialba, Costa Rica </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O. Rosado, Ministry of Industry and Natural Resources, Belmopan, Belize</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smith, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smythe, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Box 2072, Balboa, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V. Solis, Union Internacional pare la Conservacion de la Naturaleza y de los Recursos Naturales, Oficina Regional pare Centro AmTrica, Apartado Postal 91-1009-FECOSA, San JosT, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. VaidTs, Centro Universitario del Norte Carrera ZootTcnica, Coban, A.V., Ciudad Guatemala 16001, Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcacha</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Bonilla Encizo, ICA Tibaitata, Apartado Aereo 151123, Bogota, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Jackson, Terraza Turrado 80, 5730 Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.L. Marmillon, Estancias del Conlara S.A., Casilla de Correo 451, 5800 Rio Cuarto, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.D. Thelen, FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Casilla 10095, Santiago, Chile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Rodents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.M. Butynski, Impenetrable Forest Conservation Project, Zoology Department, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. Flannery, Australian Museum, 6-8 College Street, Sydney, New South Wales 2000, Australia (Solomon Island rodents)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources, Maendeleo House, Monrovia Street, POB 30786, Nairobi, Kenya (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Jacobsen, Nature Conservation Division, Private Bag X209, Pretoria 0001, South Africa (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.P. Kofron, Museum of Zoology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70893, USA (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. Leary, Ministry of Natural Resources, Honiara, Solomon Islands (Solomon Island rodents)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. McLaughlin, San Diego Zoo, San Diego 92112, California, USA (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.P. Millar, Department of Chemical Pathology, Medical School, Observatory 7925, South Africa (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.D. Skinner, Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern African Wildlife Management Association, POB 413, Pretoria, South Africa ( s p ring hare )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chitton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Van der Merwe, University of Pretoria, Mammal Research Institute, Pretoria 0002, South Africa (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife Society of Zimbabwe, POB 3497, Harare, Zimbabwe (springhare) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEER AND ANTELOPE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.O. Caldecott, World Wildlife Fund Malaysia, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Chaplin, Burnhouse, Fountainhall, Galashiels, Selkirk TDI 2RX, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.W.H. Davison, Zoology Department, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Grubb, 35 Downhills Park Road, London N17 6PE, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Ruiqing, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. MacNamara, Fauna Research, Inc., 11 Park Avenue, Ardsley, New York 10502, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Muul, Integrated Conservation Research, P.O. Box 920, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia 25425, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Nordin, Bureau of Research and Consultancy, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Pathak, Department of Genetics, M.D. Anderson Hospital and Tumor Institute, Houston, Texas 77030, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.T. Robbins, Wildlife Biology Program, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164-4220, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Robin, Tierpark Dahlholzli Bern, Dalmaziquai 149, CH-3005 Bern, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.R. Schmidt, Zoological Garden, CH-8044 Zurich, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.A. Sirimanne, Singapore Zooological Gardens, 80 Mandai Lake Road, Singapore 2572</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.K. Vidyadaran, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Department of Animal Science, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wang Yingxiang, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C. Whittow, Department of Physiology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, 1960 East West Road, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Barrette, DTpartement de Biologie, FacultT des Sciences et de GTnie, UniversitT Laval, QuTbec, GIK 7P4, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Benirschke, 8457 Prestwick Drive, La Jolla, California 92037, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The British Deer Society, Church Farm, Lower Basildon, Reading, Berkshire RG8 9NH, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.O. Caldecott, World Wildlife Fund Malaysia, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 933200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Chapman, Larkmead, Barton Mills, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk IP28 6AA, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Coe, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O. Dansie, The Chapel, 2 Hobbs Hall, Welwyn, Hertsfordshire, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K. Dhungal, Department of Parks and Wildlffe, P.O. Box 860, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.J. Goss, Division of Biology and Medicine, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Grubb, 35 Downhills Park Road, London N17 6PE, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.P. Harding, Animal Ecology Research Group, Zoology Department, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Harris, Department of Zoology, University of Bristol, Woodland Road, Bristol BS8 JUG, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Heck, CatskiH Game Farm, Inc., RD #1, Box 133, Catskill, New York 12414, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. Jacobson, Fish and Wildlffe Department, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Ruiqing, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lu Houji, Department of Biology, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. MacNamara, Fauna Research, Inc., 11 Park Avenue, Ardsley, New York 10502, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.J.A. Manton, Zoological Society of London, Whipsnade Park, Dunstable, Bedfordshire LU6 2LF, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Miura, Department of Biology, Hyogo College of Medicine, Mukogawa-cho 1-1, Nishinomiya, Hyogo-ken 663, Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Muul, Integrated Conservation Research, P.O. Box 920, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia 25425, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Pathak, Department of Genetics, M.D. Anderson Hospital and Tumor Institute, Houston, Texas 77030, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.T. Robbins, Wildlife Biology Program, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Seidel, Tierpark Berlin, Tierklinik, DDR-1136 Berlin, Friedrichsfelde, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shi Liming, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Soma, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Tokyo Medical College Hospital, 1-7, Nishishinjuku 6, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160, Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Stadler, Fakultat fur Biologie, Universitat Bielefeld, 4800 Bielefeld, Universitatsstrasse 25, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.F. Taylor, Taylor Energy Company, The 2-3-4 Loyola Building, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wang Yingziang, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Wemmer, Conservation and Research Center, National Zoological Park, Front Royal, Virginia 22630, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.M. Wurster-HiH, Department of Pathology, Dartmouth Medical School, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.H. Yahner, 320 Forest Resources Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Chaplin, Burnhouse, Fountainhall, Galashiels, Selkirk TDI 2RX, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K. Dhungel, Department of Parks and Wildlife, P.O. Box 860, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. Gaston, Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa KIA OE7, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.J.B. Green, IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, 219C Huntingdon Road, Carnbridge CB3 ODL, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Grubb, 35 Downhills Park Road, London N17 6PE, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Hunter, Jr., Wildlife Department, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. Jacobson, Fish and Wildlife Department, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Kattel, P.O. Box 3070, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Riqing, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lu Houji, Department of Biology, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. McNeely, Program and Policy Division, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, CH1196 Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.W. O'Gara, Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana 59812, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.T. Robbins, Wildlife Biology Program, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164-4220, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Seidel, Tierpark Berlin, Tierklinik, DDR-1136 Berlin, Friedrichsfelde, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shi Liming, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.F. Taylor, Taylor Energy Co., The 2-3-4 Loyola Building, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wang Yingxiang, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Cooke, Nature Conservancy Council, Northminster House, Peterborough PEI I UA, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Farrell, Nature Conservancy Council, Northminster House, Peterborough PEI IUA, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Feer, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Crubb, 35 Downhills Park Road, London N17 6PE, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Riuqing, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica. Kunming Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lu Houji, Department of Biology, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.J.A. Manton, Zoological Society of London, Whipsnade Park, Dunstable, Bedfordshire LU6 2LF, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Seidel, Tierpark Berlin, Tierklinik DDR-1136, Berlin, Friedrichsfelde, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R Smith, Department of Zoology, Whiteknights Park, University of Reading, Reading, Berkshire RG6 2AH, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Stadler, Fakultat fur Biologie, Universitat Bielefeld, 4800 Bielefeld, Universitats strasse 25, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.F. Taylor, Taylor Energy Company, The 2-3-4 Loyola Building, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Wemmer, Conservation and Research Center, National Zoological Park, Front Royal, VA 2263O, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South American Microdeer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Sampath, Trinidad and Tobago Wildlffe Breeders and Farmers Association, c/o 5 3/4 Mile Mark, Penal Rock Road, Penal, Trinidad, West Indies (red brocket)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. MacNamara, Fauna Research, Inc., 11 Park Avenue, Ardsley, New York 10502, USA (pudu)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Chardonnet, Projet Petits Ruminants, B.P. 65, Atakpame, Togo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.L. Cowan, 324 Henning Building, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RI.M. Dunbar, Department of Zoology, University of Liverpool, P.O. Box 147, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Feer, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.R. Kranz, Zoological Society of Philadelphia, 34th Street and Girard Avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Lumpkin, Department of Zoological Research, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Player, Wilderness Leadership School, P.O. Box 15036, BeHair 4006, Natal, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Pond, Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, Box 7621, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Schweers, Bahnhofstrasse 29, D-6744 Kandee, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.D. Skinner, Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.E. SoHod, International Veterinary Medicine, Tufis University, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafion, Massachusetts 01536, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.C. Udell, 14934 VaHey Vista Blouvard, Sherman Oaks, Calffornia 91403, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Varga, Department of Dairy and Animal Science, 225B Borland Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.J. Wilson, Duiker Research and Breeding Centre, Chipangali Wildlife Trust, P.O. Box 1057, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Small Antelope</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Asibey, Department of Game and Wildlife, Ministry Post Office, Accra, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.I. Boshe, College of African Wildlife Management, Mweka, P.O. Box 3031, Moshi, Tanzania (dikdik)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Chardonnet, Project Petits Ruminants, BP 65, Atakpame, Togo (oribi)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K. Dhungel, Department of National Parks and Wildife, Conservation, Babar Mahal, Kathmandu, Nepal (four-horned antelope)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.I.M. Dunbar, Department of Zoology, University of Liverpool, P.O. Box 147, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK (dikdik, klipspringer)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Feer, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.M. Goebel, Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76019, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.P. Hoppe, Am Hauenstein 13, 6706 Wachenheim, Germany (dikdik, suni)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.R. Kranz, Zoological Society of Philadelphia, 34th Street and Girard Avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA (royal antelope, beira, dikdik, klipspringer, suni, four-horned antelope)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Player, Wilderness Leadership School, P.O. Box 15036, Bellair 4006, Natal, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.N.W. Oppong, UNDP/FGN/FAO Livestock Project, P.O. Box 6603, Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.R. Pritchard, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Skinner, Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa (otibi, steinbok)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.E. Sollod, International Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafton, Massachusetts 01536, USA (dikdik, klipspringer)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA (dikdik, klipspringer, four-horned antelope)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIZARDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Benirschke, 8457 Prestwick Drive, La Jolla, California 92037, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.M. Burghardt, Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ferreira, Parque Zoologico Nacional, Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.S. Fitch, Route #3, Box 142, Lawrence, Kansas 66044, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Hemley, World Wildlife Fund, 1255 23rd Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037, USA (for trade information)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Henderson, Milwaukee Public Museum, 800 West Wells Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Higginson, Voluntaria del Cuerpo de Paz, #156 6a Avenida 1-46, Zona 2 Guatemala, Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.B. Iverson, Department of Biology, Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana 47374, USA S.R. Kellert, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, 205 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.W. King, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Larde, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia Planes de Renderos, Km. 10 Col. Los Angeles 13, CP 01196 San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Marcellini, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Mora, 200 m sur Pulperia la Uni6n, Cinco Esquinas, Carrieal, Alajuela, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Ottenwalder, Parque Zool6gico Nacional, Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C. Packard, Department of Zoology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.J. Perez, Condominio Su. Antonio 7, C. San Antonio Abad, San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Phillips, Research Department, San Diego Zoo, Box 551, San Diego, Calffornia 92112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Werner, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Apa,-tado 1501-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.S. Fitch, Route #3, Box 142, Lawrence, Kansas 66044, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Henderson, Milwaukee Public Museum, 800 West Wells Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Higginson, Voluntaria del Cuerpo de Paz, #156 6a Avenida 1-46, Zona 2 Guatemala, Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.M. Hillis, Department of Biology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Larde, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Planes de Renderos Km. 10 Col. Los Angeles 13, CP 01196, San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Marcellini, National Zoologica, Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Mora, 200 m sur Pulperita La Union, Cinco Esquinas, Carrieal, Alajuela, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C. Packard, Department of Zoology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.J. Perez, Condominio Su. Antonio 7, C. San Antonio Abad, San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Phillips, Research Department, San Diego Zoo, Box 551, San Diego, Calffornia 92112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Werner, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Apartado 1501-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rock Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Auffenberg, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Auth, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cullen, Cullen Vivarium, 3401 South 16th Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53215 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ferreira, Parque Zool6gico Nacional, Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Henderson, Mi]waukee Public Museum, 800 West Wells Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.B. Iverson, Department of Biology, Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana 47374, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Ottenwalder, Parque Zool6gico Nacional, Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.A. Wiewandt, Wild Horizons, Inc., P.O. Box 5118, Tucson, Arizona 85703, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tegu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. Blanco, Direccion Nacional de Fauna Silvestre, Avenida Paseo Colon 922 2&Yacute;piso, (1063) Buenos Aires, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.K. Donadio, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, CC 220, Avenida Angel Gallardo 470, Suc. 5, 1405 Buenos Aires, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Gallardo, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, CC 220, Avenida Angel Gallardo 470, Suc. 5, 1405 Buenos Aires, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Hemley, World Wildlife Fund, 1255 23rd Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Marcellini, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.L. Marmillon, Casilla de Correo 451, 5800 Rio Cuarto, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C. Packard, Department of Zoology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Werner, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Apartado 1501-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Local Agriculture Extension Services and beekeepers are often the best source of information for beginning beekeeping. In addition, the following organizations can provide information: International Bee Research Association, 16/18 North Road, Cardiff CF1 3DY, UK; International Agency for Apiculture Development, 6N 909 Roosevelt, St. Charles, Illinois 60174, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Abt, Centre for International Agricultural Development Cooperation, Tel Aviv, Israel M. Adey. International Bee Research Association, 16/18 North Road, Cardiff CFI 3DY, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.O. Adjare, Technology Consultancy Centre, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All India Beekeepers' Association, 817 Sadashiv Peth, Poono 411 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K.N. Atuahene, Forest Product Research Institute (Ghana Forestry Commission), University P.O. Box 63, Kumasi, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.S. Brar, Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Bradbear, International Bee Research Association, North Road, Cardiff CFI 3DY, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.M. Caron, Department of Entomology and Applied Ecology, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19717, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.S. Chahal, Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Clauss, Beekeeping Survey, Kabompo, Zambia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.P. Coleman, International Agency for Apiculture Development, 6N 909 Roosevelt, St. Charles, Illinois 60174, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director, or Resident Bee Specialist, Apiary Studies, Zoological Institute, Leningrad, USSR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. DeJong, Departamento de Genetica, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirao Preto, Universidade Sao Paulo, 14.049Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Dutton, Centre for Overseas Research and Development (CORD), University of Durham, South Road, Durham DHI 3LE, UK (Apisflorea) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.H. Erickson, Carl Hayden Bee Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2000 East Allen Road, Tucson, Arizona 85719, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirao Preto, Departamento de GenTtica, 14100Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Fell, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Flottum, Gleanings in Bee Culture, 623 West Liberty Street, P.O. Box 706, Medina, Ohio 44258-0706, USA (editor)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Free, Rothamstead Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire L5 2JQ, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wolde-Semait Gebre-Wold, P.O. Box 7505, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.B. Habarugira, AHO (Apiary), Mbara Stockfarm, Beekeeping Section, P.O. Box 4, Mbarara, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.A.M. Hassan, Njiro Wildlife (Beekeeping) Research Centre, P.O. Box 661, Arusha, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Hoopingarner, Department of Entomology, University of Michigan, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1115, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.E. Kerr, Departamento de Biolgia, Universidade Federal de UberlGndia, 38400 UberlGndia, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.G. Kevan, or Resident Bee Specialist, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NIG 2WI, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.K. Kigatiia, Beekeeping Branch, Ministry of Agriculture c~ Livestock Development, P.O. Box 30028, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.C. Killins, 163 Trowbridge Avenue, London, Ontario N6J 3M2, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.M. Kiwuwa, AHL (Apiary), Department of Veterinary Services, Headquarters, Beekeeping Section, P.O. Box 7141, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Lanarolle, Apiculture Project, Bindunuwewa, Bandarawela, Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Y. Lensky, Triwaks Bee Research Center, Hebrew University Faculty of Agriculture, Rehovot 76-100, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.D. Levin, Carl Hayden Bee Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2000 East Allen Road, Tucson, Arizona 85719, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Singh Limbu, Godavari Ashram, GPO Box 50, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Mann, 14 Millimani Road, Box 20360, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.J. McGinley, Department of Entomology, NHB-105, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560, USA (Apoidea, except Apis) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. McKay, Peace Corps, American Embassy, Asunci6n, Paraguay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.D. Michener, Snow Entomological Museum, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.A. Morse, Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Morton, Morton Collectanea, University of Miami, Box 248204, Coral Gables, Florida 37724, USA (bee plants)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.G. Mugisa, c/o Insure Consult, P.O. Box 30002, Nakiuubo, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Bin Muid, Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.C. Mulzac, International Agency for Apiculture Development, 393 Decatur Street, Brooklyn, New York 11233, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.S. Najar, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Aleppo, Aleppo, Syria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.E. Nightingale, Box 23, Njoro, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Patty, Foreign Agriculture Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 6095 South Building, Washington, D.C. 20250, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.M. Phiri, Office of Chief Beekeeping Officer, P/BAC Mwekera, Kitwe, Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Pickard, Zoology Department, University College, P.O. Box 78, Cardiff CFI IXL, South Wales, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.W. Robins, GPO Box 50, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Roubik, Stop 105, Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560, USA (stingless bees)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Sammataro, 7011 Spieth Road, Medina, Ohio 44256, USA (editor, Cornucopia) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Schechtel, Cnel. Bogado/Itapua, Paraguay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Shimanuki, Beneficial Insects Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, B-476 BARC-East, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.R. Taylor, Department of Entomology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Tew, Agricultural Technical Institute, Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio 44691, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Tomasko, Pennsylvania State University, 106 Patterson Building, University Park7 Pennsylvania 16802, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Torchio, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bee Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-5310, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Wadlow, 8381 San Mateo, Ft. Myers, Florida 33907, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.W. Whitehead, International Agency for Apiculture Development, c/o 1000 Connecticut Avenue NW, #707, Washington, D.C. 20036, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siriwat Wongsiri, Department of Biology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok7 Thailand (Apis cerana) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wu Yan-ru, Department of Insect Taxonomy and Faunistics, Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, 7 Zhongguancun Lu, Haitien, Beijing, People's Republic of China </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">C BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF PANEL MEMBERS</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. PHILLIPS retired in 1982 from the post of deputy director general of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy, a post he held for four years. Among his earlier posts were that of professor and head, Animal Husbandry Department, Utah State University; senior animal husbandman in charge, Genetic Investigations, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA); chief, Animal Production Branch and deputy director, Agriculture Division, FAO; and executive director, International Organization Affairs, USDA. Among his special assignments were: serving as consultant on animal breeding to the governments of China and India for the U.S. Department of State in 1943-44; and as scientific secretary for agriculture of the United Nations Conference on Science and Technology for the Benefit of Developing Countries, in Ceneva, Switzerland, 1962-63. Dr. Phillips holds a B.S. degree in agriculture from Berea College (1930), M.A. (1931) and Ph.D. (1934) degrees from the University of Missouri, and Honorary D.Sc. degrees from Berea College and West Virginia University. He has been awarded the Berea College Distinguished Alumnus Award and the USDA's Distinguished Service Award. He is author or coauthor of some 240 scientific papers, review papers, chapters in books, and books on various aspects of physiology of reproduction, genetics, livestock production, and international agriculture. In his research, writings, and international activities, Dr. Phillips has given particular attention to breeding in relation to the environment and to the identification and conservation of valuable animal genetic resources. He is also the author of a definitive history of FAO entitled FAO: Its Origins, Formation and Evolution, 19451981 and an autobiography, The World Was My Barnyard. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU is currently senior advisor to the president of the African Development Bank. He is also president of ESA Associates, Washington, D.C., and former director of the Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. A citizen of Ghana, he received his B.A. in 1961 from Miami University in Ohio, M.Sc. from The George Washington University in 1963, and his Ph.D. in 1966 from the University of London. His research interests cover many areas of tropical biology. An internationally recognized expert on topics relating to science, technology, and development, especially in developing countries, he has also published extensively on tropical plants. Dr. Ayensu chairs and serves as a member of many international bodies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BONNIE V. BEAVER, professor of small animal medicine and surgery, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, is a specialist in animal behavior and problem behaviors, especially in domestic and laboratory animals. She received her B.S. and D.V.M. from the University of Minnesota and her M.S. from Texas A&amp;M. In addition to being a popular speaker at scientific meetings, she is the author of five books and numerous book chapters and articles. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT BENIRSCHKE, professor of pathology and reproductive medicine, University of California at San Diego, received his M.D. from the University of Hamburg, Germany, in 1948. He served on the faculties of Harvard and Dartmouth medical schools before coming to San Diego in 1970. At the San Diego Zoo he initiated a research department to advance knowledge in endangered species and now serves as a trustee of that organization. He has written on comparative mammalian cytogenetics, vanishing species, and human reproductive pathology. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROY D. CRAWFORD is professor of animal and poultry genetics at the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. He received his B.S.A. from the University of Saskatchewan in 1955, his M.S. in animal genetics from Cornell University in 1957, and his Ph.D. in poultry genetics from the University of Massachusetts in 1963. He was employed as a scientist with the Research Branch of Agriculture Canada from 1957 to 1964 in Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia. He joined the faculty of the University of Saskatchewan in 1964. He was made a fellow of the Agricultural Institute of Canada in 1986 in recognition of his teaching and research work. His research interests include single gene genetics of poultry, and conservation of genetic resources in poultry and livestock. He has discovered and studied many mutants in chickens; some of them have biomedical importance, including one shown to be an animal genetic model of human grand mal epilepsy; some of them are potentially useful in food production, including an albinism mutant that is being developed for autosexing of commercial chicken broilers. He maintains a very large conservation collection of poultry genetic resources at the University of Saskatchewan and has prepared an inventory and assessment of Canada's poultry and livestock genetic resources. Dr. Crawford is a member of the Expert Panel on Animal Genetic Resources Conservation and Management, FAO/UNEP, Rome, and is a member of the Animal Resources Committee, Canadian Council on Animal Care, Ottawa. He serves on the International Scientific Committee for the French journal GTnTtique, STlection, +volution. He is a member of the Rare Breeds Survival Trust (UK) and is a board member of the American Minor Breeds Conservancy (USA). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONY J. CUNHA, distinguished service professor emeritus, University of Florida, Gainesville, and dean emeritus, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, received his Ph.D. at the University of Wisconsin in 1944. He has given more than 100 lectures in livestock feeding and nutrition in 40 foreign countries. He served as chairman of the Animal Nutrition Committee of the National Academy of Sciences and as a member of the NAS-NRC Board of Agriculture and Renewable Resources, Latin American Science Board, and as chairman of the livestock committee of two world food studies by NAS-NRC. He served as a member of the organizing committee for the first two World Conferences on Animal Production in Rome (1963) and Washington, D.C. (1968). He served as a member of the Title XII Board of International Food and Agricultural Joint Committee on Research and as chairman of its research priorities committee 1977-1981. He is author, editor, coeditor, or contributor to 30 books and author of more than 1,423 scientific and professional articles. He is a winner of 42 campus, state, national, and international honors and awards. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID E. DEPPNER, director of Trees for the Future in Silver Spring, Maryland, has been a consultant for international development projects involving livestock and poultry management and marketing for the past 14 years. He has served in 17 countries of Asia, Africa, and Central America. He has written on processing livestock rations under tropical conditions and about the Madurese breed of cattle found in East Java, Indonesia, where he spent two years studying this ancient breed. He is currently providing technical assistance to projects in several countries for the development of improved forage production as an answer to destruction of natural resources of tropical uplands caused by overgrazing. He received his B.Sc. in animal science from Ohio State University in 1954 and M.Sc. in livestock economics from Araneta University, the Philippines, in 1977. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELIZABETH L. HENSON is the director of the American Minor Breeds Conservancy, based in Pittsboro, North Carolina. She received an M.A. in zoology from Oxford University in 1980 and an M.Sc. in domestic animal breeding from Edinburgh University in 1981. Her primary interests are in the conservation of rare and endangered breeds and varieties of domestic livestock as a genetic resource for changing agricultural needs. She represented Britain at the first international conference on domestic animal conservation in Hungary in 1982, and was a member of the Office of Technology Assessment Committee on grassroots strategies to maintain genetic diversity in 1985. She is executive secretary for four British breed associations and is a member of the British Rare Breeds Survival Trust Technical Panel. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. HUSS was regional animal production officer of the FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile, before his retirement. He received a B.S. in 1949, an M.A. in 1954, and a Ph.D. in 1959, all at Texas A&amp;M University. He was assistant professor of range management at Texas A&amp;M before joining the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in 1967. He founded the FAO Regional Office's Small Animals for Small Farms programme in 1980. Professional assignments and travels in Latin America, the Caribbean' Near and Middle East, and Africa have contributed to his knowledge and experience in microlivestock development. Dr. Huss was recognized by Texas A&amp;M University by being chosen as the recipient of the Memorial Student Center Appreciation and Distinguished Service Awards in 1958 and 196O, respectively, and Honour Professor in the College of Agriculture in 1966 67. He also received the Society for Range Management's Outstanding Service and Achievement Award in 1975 and its Fellow Award in 1978. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID RICHARD LINCICOME has been a guest scientist with the Animal Parasitology Institute, United States Department of Agriculture Experiment Station, Beltsville, Maryland, since 1978, having retired as professor of parasitology, Howard University, Washington, D.C., in 1970. He received the B.S. and M.S. degrees cum laude simultaneously in 1937 from the University of Illinois and a Ph.D. in tropical medicine from the Tulane Medical School, New Orleans, Louisiana, in 1941. His principal research interests have centered around morphologic studies on Acanthocephala, molecular exchanges of dependent cells and their environments, and diagnosis of parasitic diseases. He has been a breeder of Nubian and American pygmy goats for the past 20 years. Dr. Lincicome is currently a member of the Board of Directors of the American Dairy Goat Association and is past president of the National Pygmy Goat Association. He was founder and long time trustee of the American Dairy Goat Association Research Foundation. He is also past president of the Helminthological Society and currently serves the society as archivist. He received the Helminthological Society's Anniversary Award in 1975. He was founder and, for 27 years, editor of the journal Experimental Parasitology, and is the author and editor of more than 180 scientific contributions. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS E. LOVEJOY is a tropical biologist and ornithologist. He is assistant secretary for external affairs, Smithsonian Institution' Washington, D.C. He was formerly executive vice president for the World Wildlife Fund-U.S., chairman of the Wildlife Preservation Trust International, and a member of two commissions of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources. At present, Dr. Lovejoy is a principal investigator of the world's largest controlled ecological experiment, which is attempting to determine the optimum size for parks and reserves. This project, conceived and designed by Dr. Lovejoy, is called "the Minimum Critical Size of Ecosystems" and is a joint program of World Wildlife Fund-U. S. and Brazil's National Institute for Amazon Research. Dr. Lovejoy is also the principal advisor for NATURE (WNET/THIRTEEN, New York), a series that he started in 1980. As principal advisor, he recommends program content and oversees the factual accuracy of the program scripts. A member of 11 scientific societies, Dr. Lovejoy has received grants from 16 foundations and institutions and written more than 100 articles for various national and International publications. He has published three books, Key Environments, Pergamon Press, Oxford; Nearctic Avian Migrants in the Neotropics, a Department of the Interior publication; and Conservation of Tropical Forest Birds, an ICPB publication. He is currently working on The Magnificent Exception, a book on people and the biosphere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARNE W. NORDSKOG is professor emeritus, Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University. He received his B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Minnesota between 1937 and 1943. His training and principal area of research has been in quantitative genetics, but by about 1960 his interests shifted to immunogenetics and more recently to molecular genetics. He has traveled widely, spending two years as an instructor in agriculture at the University of Alaska (1937-39), and has been an NSF Research Fellow at Cal Tech (1960), a visiting professor at the University of Minnesota (1966), an FAO lecturer at the Indian Veterinary Institute (1973), and an FAO-sponsored lecturer on poultry breeding in China (1979). He has acted as a consultant to a commercial breeder in Japan for 20 years. He has been the major professor at Iowa State for more than 60 M.S. and Ph.D. candidates and has published more than 150 scientific papers. Dr. Nordskog is an honorary member of the Norwegian Poultry Breeding Association, a fellow of the Poultry Science Association, and a fellow of the AAAS. In 1972, he was the recipient of the Poultry Science Distinguished Service Research Award. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LINDA M. PANEPINTO, swine research consultant, was director of the Colorado State University Swine Laboratory through 1988. She earned her B.S. in animal sciences at Colorado State University in 1972. In 1973 she joined the research team developing Yucatan miniature swine at Colorado State University, where she was given primary responsibility for colony management, protocol development, and genetic selection programs. In 1977, she designed an experimental research program for the development of a line of Yucatan pigs with a genetic propensity for exceptionally small size. She has continued her work in that area and has developed the Yucatan Micropig, described elsewhere in this publication. Her other major professional area of interest has been the design of facilities and equipment for swine with emphasis on animal comfort and minimizing stress. Her invention, known as the Panepinto Sling, has been widely adopted as the primary restraint method for numerous medical schools and research facilities using swine in the laboratory. She has published extensively in the field.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT J. PETERS is professor of animal breeding and husbandry in the tropics and subtropics, University of Gottingen, and is currently director of research at the International Livestock Centre for Africa. He received his Dr. Agr. degree from the Technical University of Berlin in 1975. He has undertaken research in livestock production development in Southeast Asia and Africa. The major focus of his research has been small animals, with special attention given to the potential of unconventional animals. Early in 1985 he assumed his present position directing research at the International Livestock Centre for Africa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN A. PINO is a senior fellow of the National Research Council, Board on Agriculture, and is currently the project director of the study "Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Imperatives." He received his B.S. in agriculture in 1944-47 and Ph.D. in zoology in 1951 from Rutgers University. As an associate professor he taught and did research in the Department of Poultry Science at Rutgers until 1955 when he accepted a position with the Rockefeller Foundation as animal scientist with the Mexican Agricultural Program, becoming the associate director of that program in 1960. In 1965 he was transferred to the Rockefeller headquarters in New York and became director of the Agricultural Science Program in 1970. Most of his career has been in international agricultural development. He retired from the Foundation in 1983 and went to Washington to become agricultural science advisor at the InterAmerican Development Bank until July 1986 when he accepted his present position. Dr. Pino has been a member of the Board on Agriculture since 1983 and previously from 1973 to 1977. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE is professor of soils, agronomy, botany, and geography, and director of the Center for Tropical Agriculture and International Programs (Agriculture) at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. from the University of California at Davis in 1951 and his Ph.D. in soils from the University of Florida in 1960. His principal research interest has been in the area of tropical agriculture and land use. His early work on shifting cultivation is one of the major contributions to this system. He has traveled and worked in most of the countries in the tropical areas of Latin America, Asia, and Africa. His current interests include improving indigenous agricultural systems of small landholders, particularly with the integration of livestock and crops. He was chairman of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation and a member of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development (under whose aegis this report is presented). He chaired the BOSTID report panels on water buffalo and little-known Asian animals. Currently, he is on the International Advisory Committee of the National Science Foundation and serves as U.S. Board Member for the International Foundation of Science.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL HILL ROBINSON, director of the Smithsonian Institution's National Zoological Park, is an animal behaviorist and a tropical biologist. Before his appointment to the National Zoo, Dr. Robinson served as deputy director of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Panama, which he joined in 1966 as a tropical biologist. He received his Ph.D. from Oxford University after being awarded his B.S., summa cum laude, from the University of Wales. His scientific interests include predator-prey interactions, evolution of adaptations, tropical biology, courtship and mating behavior, phenology of arthropods, and freshwater biology. In the course of his studies, Dr. Robinson has done research in the United States and throughout the developing world. Recent publications include articles on predator-prey interactions, tropical forest conservation, reproductive behavior in spiders, and the function and purpose of zoos in relation to education and conservation. Dr. Robinson's favorite animals are cats, of all kinds. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KNUT SCHMIDT-NIELSON, J.B. Duke Professor of Physiology in the Department of Zoology at Duke University, has studied animal responses to extreme environmental conditions. His major emphasis has been on life in hot deserts, and he is widely recognized for his studies of camels and other desert animals. His research has involved field studies in North and South America, Africa, Asia, and Australia. Dr. Schmidt-Nielson has written several books, which have been translated into more than a dozen languages, and he has published several hundred research papers. He has been elected to the National Academy of Sciences, the Royal Society, the French Academie des Sciences, and several other academies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALBERT E. SOLLOD, is associate professor and head of the international veterinary medicine section at Tufts University School of Veterinary Medicine. He is currently stationed in Niger as chief of party of the integrated livestock project and policy advisor in the Ministry of Animal Resources. He has consulted in 15 countries in Africa and Asia, and his research interests include interdisciplinary systems analysis, indigenous pastoral technologies, monitoring change in agricultural production systems, and monitoring and assessing drought impact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEE M. TALBOT received his Ph.D. in geography and ecology from the University of California at Berkeley in 1963 and has worked on environmental and natural resource ecology and management in over 110 countries. At present he is visiting fellow at the World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., and senior environmental consultant to the World Bank. He carried out pioneering research in Africa and elsewhere on the use of wild animals for food production. He has written more than 180 scientific and technical publications, including ten books and monographs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAIR E. TERRILL, animal scientist, collaborator, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Beltsville, Maryland, received his Ph.D. from the University of Missouri in 1936, served briefly at the Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station, and joined the USDA at the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station, Dubois, Idaho, in the same year. His research concerned genetics and reproduction of sheep, leading to national and international responsibility regarding research and production of sheep, goats, and other animals, with primary emphasis on increasing efficiency of production of meat, wool, and other products. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHRISTIAN M. WEMMER is assistant director for conservation and captive breeding programs at the National Zoological Park and is also in charge of the zoo's 3,100 acre Conservation and Research Center in Front Royal, Virginia. He is vice chairman of the IUCN Deer Specialist Group and a member of the Mustelid and Viverrid Specialist Group of the same organization. His interest in evolutionary and conservation biology has been motivated by frequent travel to South Asia and his role as scientific coordinator of the Smithsonian Nepal Terai Ecology Project. For the past 12 years he has coordinated the development of facilities and programs at the Conservation and Research Center and with Dr. R. Rudran has promoted conservation training and wildlife research in developing nations. He has published over 50 papers on various aspects of mammalian biology and conservation and has co-edited with Benjamin Beck one book on PFre David's deer. His edited volume "The Biology and Management of the Cervidae" was published by the Smithsonian Institution Press. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DANNY C. WHARTON is associate curator, Animal Departments, at New York Zoological Park, Bronx, New York. He received a B.S. from the College of Idaho and an M.Sc. in 1975 from the School for International Training in Brattleboro, Vermont. His Ph.D. in biology was earned at Fordham University. Dr. Wharton was a Peace Corps volunteer to Ecuador 1969-71 and a Fulbright scholar to Germany 1976-77. His research interests have been in the genetic and demographic management of small populations. He works on several committees including the IUCN/SSC Captive Breeding Specialist Group, Species Survival Plan Committee of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, and is species chairman for the North American Propagation Group for the Snow Leopard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES A. WOODS IS curator of mammals at the Florida State Museum and a professor of zoology at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. in zoology from the University of Denver and his Ph.D. in zoology from the University of Massachusetts. He worked at the University of Vermont from 1970 to 1979 when he assumed his present position at the University of Florida. His principle research interests have been in the areas of mammalian ecology (Rodentia) and systematics and evolution and he is especially concerned with island biology. He has spent many years working in the West Indies on a variety of projects and has worked closely with the government of Haiti in establishing a plan for the National Parks of Haiti and in completing a biogeophysical inventory of the natural resources of Hispaniola. He is the ecological consultant for the Institut de Sauvegarde du Patrimoine National in Haiti. He is the author of a number of scientific articles on the fauna of the Antilles including a multivolume series on the fauna of the mountains of Haiti. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS M. YUILL is associate dean for research and graduate training of the School of Veterinary Medicine, assistant director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, and professor of pathobiology and of veterinary science at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He received his B.S. in wildlife management from Utah State University in 1959 and his Ph.D. jointly in veterinary science and wildlife ecology in 1964 from the University of Wisconsin. His principal research interests are animal health and diseases of wildlife, including those transmissible to domestic animals and to man. He worked in Thailand for two years and has had active research programs in Colombia for 17 years, and Costa Rica for 5 years. He has recently become involved in animal health and production development in the Gambia, West Africa. Dr. Yuill is an executive committee member and immediate past president of the Organization for Tropical Studies and currently serves as president of the Wildlife Disease Association. He completed a five-year term as Chairman of the U.S. Virus Diseases Panel of the U.S.-Japan Cooperative Biomedical Sciences Program. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID)</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALEXANDER SHAKOW, Director, Strategic Planning and Review,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank, Washington, D.C., Chairman</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PATRICIA BARNES-MCCONNELL, Director, Bean/Cowpea CRSP, East Lansing, Michigan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JORDAN J. BARUCH, President, Jordan Baruch Associates, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER D. BELL, President, The Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, New York, New York</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BARRY BLOOM, Professor, Department of Microbiology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, The Bronx, New York</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANE BORTNTCK, Assistant Chief, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE T. CURLIN, The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, The National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DTRK FRANKENBERG, Director, Marine Sciences Program, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HARDY, Boyce-Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK HORNE, Dean, College of Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELLEN MESSER, Allan Shaw Feinstein World Hunger Program, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLEs C. MUSCOPLAT, Executive Vice President, Molecular Genetics, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES QUINN, Amos Tuck School of Business, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VERNON RUTTAN, Regents Professor, Department of Agriculture and Applied Economics, Saint Paul, Minnesota</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANTHONY SAN PIETRO, Professor of Plant Biochemistry, Department of Biology, Bloomington, Indiana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST SMERDON, College of Engineering and Mines, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GERARD P. DINEEN, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., ex officio </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES B. WYNGAARDEN, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., ex officio </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development Publications and Information Services (H A-476E)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of International Affairs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20418 U SA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b17mie/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b17mie/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b17mie/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Microlivestock - Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future (b17mie)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">introduce small animals and micro-livestock in your farm</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b18ase/b18ase.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b18ase/b18ase.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b18ase/b18ase.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,2966 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Little Known Asian Animals With a Promising Economic Future</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Little Known Asian Animals With a Promising Economic Future</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation Board on Science and Technology for International Development Office of International Affairs National Research Council </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 1983</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the Councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the Committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropiate balance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Research Council was established by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and of advising the federal government. The Council operates in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy under the authority of its congressional charter of 1863, which establishes the Academy as a private, nonprofit, self-governing membership corporation. The Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in the conduct of their services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. It is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. The National Academy of Engineering and the Institute of Medicine were established in 1964 and 1970, respectively, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID) of the Office of International Affairs addresses a range of issues arising from the ways in which science and technology in developing countries can stimulate and complement the complex processes of social and economic development. It oversees a broad program of bilateral workshops with scientific organizations in developing countries and conducts special studies. BOSTID's Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation publishes topical reviews of technical processes and biological resources of potential importance to developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been prepared by an ad hoc advisory panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Office of International Affairs, National Research Council. Program costs for the study were provided by the Office of Technical Resources, Bureau for Asia, Agency for International Development, under Grant No. ASB-0249-SS-00-1026-00 and the Office of the Science Advisor, Agency for International Development, under Grant No. DAN/ 5538-G-SS-1023-00.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Funding for this printing was provided by the Office of Agriculture, Bureau for Science and Technology, Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C., under Grant No. DAN 1406-G-SS-4001-00.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First Printing, June 1983</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second Printing, July 1984</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 83-061909</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participants in the Study</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributors </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AMBAR ROESYAT, Research Institute for Animal Husbandry, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. B. ARKA, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Udayana University, Bali, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. S. F. BARKER, Professor of Animal Sciences and Head of Department, The University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT BENIRSCHKE, Research Department, San Diego Zoological Garden, San Diego, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEN BERESKIN, Research Geneticist, Nonruminant Animal Nutrition Laboratory, Animal Science Institute, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALEIGH A. BLOUCH, World Wildlife Fund, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. BONGERS, Nature Conservation Department, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. BONNEMAIRE, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, Dijon, France </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. BOSMA, Vakgroep Funktionele Morfologie, Rijksuniversiteit, Utrecht, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. BUTCHER, Assistant Director, Western Plains Zoo, Dubbo, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. S. CHILD, Wildlife and Parks Management Officer, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. ROSS COCKRILL, International Animal Consultant, Almansil, Algarve, Portugal </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PAUL CONRY, Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources, Department of Agriculture, Guam </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD J. COOLIDGE, Former President, International Union for the Conservation of Nature, Beverly, Massachusetts, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. P. CROWCROFT, General Director, Metropolitan Zoo, Toronto, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONY J. CUNHA, Dean Emeritus, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. DEPPNER, Tropical Livestock Consultant, Washington, D.C., USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. DEVENDRA, Head, Feed Resources and Animal Nutrition Branch, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Selangor, Malaysia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. M. DOLAN, San Diego Zoological Garden, San Diego, California, USA DUKUT SULARSASA, Department of Tropical Veterinary Science, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. EPSTEIN, Faculty of Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, Israel (retired) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. FINNIE, Taronga Zoo, Mosman, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. FISCHER, Director, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, JustusLiebig-Universitat, Giessen, Federal Republic of Germany </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IAN FLETCHER, Project for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANNIE P. GRAY, Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Edinburgh, Scotland (retired) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. B. GRIFFITHS, Director, Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. R. GRiMWOOD, Nairobi, Kenya </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COLIN P. GROVES, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T., Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ULRICH HALDER, Swiss League for Nature Conservation, Basel, Switzerland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES G. HICKMAN, Livestock Consultant, A. Mithat Efendi Sokak No. 36/11, Cankaya, Ankara, Turkey </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. HOFFMAN, Veterinarian, Project for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. H. G. HOLMES, Department of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. HUITEMA, Veterinarian, Osterbeek, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. H. HUTASOIT, Director-General, Livestock Services, Jakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BENT JORGENSEN, Director, Copenhagen Zoo, Copenhagen, Denmark </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAT KlEFFER, Department of Animal Science, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, Texas, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING, Director and Professor, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GRAHAM W. M. KIRBY, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Production, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HEINZ-GEORG KLOS, Director, Zoologischer Garten, Berlin, West Germany </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KUSMAT TANUDIMADJA, Professor of Veterinary Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institut Pertanian, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN K. LOOSLI, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN A. LUKAS, White Oak Plantation, Yulee, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. MACDONALD, Vakgroep Funktionele Morfologie, Rijksuniversiteit, Utrecht, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN MACKINNON, Representative, World Wildlife Fund, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT E. McDOWELL, Professor, Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JEFFREY A. McNEELY, Executive Officer, Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADRIAN G. MARSHALL, Honorary Secretary, Institute of South-east Asian Biology, Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen, Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">[AN L. MASON, Animal Breeding Consultant, Edinburgh, Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEERT MONTSMA, Vakgroepen Veefokkerij, Veehouderij, Tropische Veehouderij, Wageningen, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. MORAN, Senior Research Officer, Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute, Kyabram, Victoria, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. MILLER, Chief, Milk Secretion and Mastitis Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAN NARI, Director, Central Research Institute for Animal Science, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARVEY NEESE, President, Agri-Food Systems International, Inc., Troy, Idaho, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. M. NITIS, Department of Animal Nutrition and Tropical Pasture Production, Udayana University, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM L. R. OLIVER, Chairman, lUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN PAYNE, Wildlife Section, Forest Department, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J.A. PAYNE, Tropical Animal Breeding Consultant, London, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. PHILLIPS, Arlington, Virginia, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Scientific Advisor, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C., USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID W. ROBINSON, Associate Dean, International Programs, University of California, Davis, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PATRICK J. ROBINSON, Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. H. L. ROLLINSON, Animal Production Officer, Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLIVE ROOTS, Director, Assiniboine Park Zoo, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. A. SAYER, Nature Conservation and National Parks Project, FAO, Rangoon, Burma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. E. SATTER, Nature Conservation and National Parks Project, FAO, Rangoon, Burma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORCE B. SCHALLER, New York Zoological Society, New York, New York, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN SCHOTTLER, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Industry, Lae, Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE SEIFERT, CSIRO, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROGER V. SHORT, Professor of Reproductive Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. C. SINHA, Outdoor Recreation and Wildlife Research Division, Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna, Philippines </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK J. SIMOONS, Professor, Department of Geography, University of California, Davis, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. D. SIMPSON, Senior Extension Specialist, Department of Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. SITORUS, Research Institute for Animal Production, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. J. SMITH, Royal School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. J. STOLP-DIEPEVEEN, Department of Tropical Animal Production, Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUBANDRlYO, Research Institute for Animal Production, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. SUMADI, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. M. TALBOT, World Wildlife Fund International, Gland, Switzerland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WARREN D. THOMAS, Director, Los Angeles Zoo, Los Angeles, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. L. THROP, Director, Taronga Zoo, Mosman, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALLEN D. TILLMAN, Private Consultant in Animal Production, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD G. TULLOCH, Division of Wildlife Research, CSIRO, Winnellie, Northern Territory, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HELEN NEWTON TURNER, Genetics Research Laboratories, CSIRO, North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. VAN PUIJENBROECK, Curator of Mammals, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. J. WARWICK, Visiting Professor, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WARTOMO HARDJOSUBROTO, Lecturer in Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. H. WHARTON, Chief Research Scientist, CSIRO, Long Pocket Laboratories, Brisbane, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. L. WHEELER, Project Manager, Project for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.H. WOODFORD, Wildlife Veterinarian, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.A.YOUNG, Department of Animal Science, the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.ZULBARDI, Research Institute for Animal Production, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Professional Associate, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Asian Animals Study Director </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council Staff</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE RECKS, Administrative Secretary </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is high time that the world was made aware of the valuable, large ruminant genetic resources of Southeast Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. MORAN Livestock Specialist Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute Kyabram, Victoria, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Without utilization preservation is doomed to failure. Local breeds able to perform well in difficult habitats, such as in sparse vegetation, mountainous terrain, or the tropics, should be used for their agricultural potential. Breeds that demonstrate hybrid vigor on crossing with improved or exotic breeds also merit utilization. Genetically unique breeds should be retained for scientific studies of genetics, evolution, and biochemistry. And aesthetically attractive and historically important breeds should be maintained in parks and preserves for their educational and cultural values.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. L. MASON Animal Breeding Consultant Edinburgh. Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p00.png"></center><br>
+ YAK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report began as a brief examination of the domesticated banteng, a little studied bovine that is an important livestock resource in eastern Indonesia. But the study expanded to include other possibly useful but obscure bovines of Asia: the madura (a hybrid between banteng and cattle), gaur, mithan, kouprey, anoa, tamaraw, yak, and yakowshybrids formed by crossing yaks with cattle. Four pig species were also included (the bearded pig, the Sulawesi warty pig, the Javan warty pig, and the pygmy hog) that are important traditional resources in parts of Asia, as well as the babirusaa piglike, wild animal of Sulawesi that may have a rudimentary rumen. (Asia also has some interesting, little-known breeds of cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats, and the common pig, but in this report we have chosen to highlight unconventional species only.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are unfamiliar to international animal science. This report aims to kindle awareness of their possible promise and to stimulate their introduction into projects in the world's animal research facilities. Only through active investigation will the potential of these species - most of which are now familiar only to a small number of wildlife specialists - become clear. Many are threatened with extinction; their genetic merits should be assessed before it is too late.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development agencies and governments in the tropics should regard local species, such as those described in this report, as important genetic material for bolstering the long-term success of domestic livestock breeding programs. These indigenous resources can probably be improved genetically to compare favorably with imported livestock, particularly in difficult tropical environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report was prepared after Hugh Popenoe, Chairman of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI), and Noel Vietmeyer of the ACT! staff visited banteng researchers in Indonesia, northern Australia, and Papua New Guinea in May 1981. More than 90 researchers (see contributor's list) provided information to the report through correspondence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACTI is a committee of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council. It assesses unconventional resources and technologies that might prove especially applicable to problems of developing countries. Current titles in the ACTI series Managing Tropical Animal Resources are: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal (1981)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea (1983). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The production of these books has been supported largely by the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID). Program costs for this study were sponsored by AID'S Bureau for Asia, and staff costs by AID'S Office of the Science Advisor, which also made possible the free distribution of this report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is an exploratory volume. It will, perhaps, lead in a few years' time to a more complete book on indigenous Asian animals - and perhaps also to similar books on little-known animals of Africa and Latin America. If you have material to contribute to the future edition, please send it to Noel Vietmeyer, JH213, National Academy of Sciences, 2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington, D.C. 20418, USA, who will contact you when any new publication on this subject is planned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia has several domesticated animals about which little is known. Among them are the banteng ("Bali cattle") of Indonesia, the yak of Central Asia's high country, and the mithan of the border region of India, Burma, and Bangladesh.( *The promise of another Asian animal, the water buffalo, is described in companion report no 32. ) Some Asian farmers use domesticated bovine hybrids: the madura (banteng-cattle hybrid) in Indonesia and the yakow (yak-cattle hybrid) in Central Asia. In addition, domesticated forms of at least two Asian pig species (the Indonesian wild boar and the Sulawesi warty pig) are important husbandry animals in parts of Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among Asia's undomesticated animals are five interesting and potentially valuable species of wild bovines: the kouprey in Thailand, Laos, and Kampuchea; the gaur in India and much of Southeast Asia; two species of anoas in Indonesia; and the tamaraw in the Philippines. There are also three species of undomesticated Asian pigs: the bearded pig, the Javan warty pig and pigmy hog. Perhaps the strangest Asian animal of all is the babirusa, a piglike species of eastern Indonesia that may be a rudimentary ruminant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of these animals are either threatened or endangered species, and some will soon be extinct unless scientists, governments, and resource managers take forceful action to preserve them. Scientific management and a better understanding of the animals themselves is required.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important need is to investigate their potential as livestock resources. All seem to be disease resistant and well adapted to difficult natural conditions. Some will interbreed with conventional livestock and might thereby pass on important characters to hybrid progeny. A few of the wild species are ancestors of domestic livestock and could be important genetic reservoirs for maintaining or improving the quality of their domestic descendants. Others may make useful new domesticates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appreciation of their potential in the long-term for the world's agricultural development could create a momentum for the protection, preservation, and greater use of these little-known animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Imported Livestock</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, many thought that the best way to raise animal productivity in tropical developing countries was to introduce high-performing breeds from temperate industrialized areas. The fact that the exotic animals were much more productive than local stock made this seem very appealing. But many such importations ended in failure when the animals either quickly died or their growth or reproduction rates declined so drastically that the herds dwindled away or became uneconomic. These introductions had been made without adequate consideration of the local environment that was expected to support the imported animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More recently, some animal scientists have decried the idea of wholesale importing of temperate-zone livestock into tropical countries without also evaluating the indigenous livestock. In many cases the local animals' apparent poor performance results not from their lack of genetic potential, but from inadequate feeding, breeding, selection, management, and health care.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indigenous Animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until an objective evaluation of particular indigenous breeds is undertaken, governments should regard local animals as vitally important for the long-term development of their domestic livestock industries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To achieve an agriculture that is compatible with nature, we should try to raise an animal as much as possible within its own natural environment. Indigenous species are necessarily well adapted to their surroundings and have survival qualities that imported livestock often lack. They generally select food, either graze or browse, better than foreign species and can therefore exploit the habitat more efficiently and live within it more harmoniously.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But most of the livestock species the world depends on today are best adapted to temperate conditions. This is because Stone Age peoples in what today are Europe, the Middle East, and eastern China domesticated the prototypes of agricultural animals that were available in those places. The world's best-known breeds of cattle, wool sheep, and horses, for example, usually perform well in temperate regions and poorly in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The species described in this report offer promise as new and important alternative livestock resources for tropical regions. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Embryo Transplants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems likely that modern technology will substantially improve our ability to use new species and breeds of livestock. One of the most encouraging of the new biotechnology techniques is embryo transplantation. In this process multiple eggs (produced by hormonally stimulating female animals) are fertilized and transplanted to other female animals. The hormonal cycles of the donor and receiving animals are synchronized so that a pregnancy results.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This technique is widely used to transfer embryos between cattle, but researchers are now exploring transfers between different species and even between different genera. In 1981, for example, animal scientists at the New York Zoological Garden transplanted a fertilized gaur ovum into a Holstein cow, which carried the gaur calf to term. Now veterinarians at the University of Florida are attempting to transplant water buffalo embryos into both zebu and Holstein-Friesian cattle, and vice versa. If such pioneering work can become everyday practice, it will open possibilities of using common livestock to raise rare animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, because embryos are thought to be free of many diseases, their shipment between nations may soon be permitted without elaborate quarantine precautions. Methods for freezing embryos have been worked out so that the tiny bundles of cells can be air freighted inexpensively in small, insulated containers. This may make animals such as those discussed in this report available to Africans, Latin Americans, North Americans, and Europeans. It may vastly simplify the worldwide exchange of animal genetic material and become the animal counterpart of exchanging seeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An additional benefit of embryo transplants is that the surrogate mother's placental blood supply provides the fetus with natural immunity to some local diseases, thus perhaps reducing one of the most serious causes of failure when exotic animals are introduced to new environments. And at Utah State University it has been noted that raising wildsheep embryos in domestic ewes produces lambs that are more docile than if they were raised by their biological mothers. Embryo transplants may be a small step toward domesticating new animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With these possibilities on the horizon, it becomes even more important that all countries preserve their indigenous animals. The rest of this report suggests and discusses Asian species for protection and study. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part I : Domesticated Bovine Species</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems probable that two of our widely used livestock species were domesticated in the Asian tropics: the zebu or humped cattle in India and the water buffalo in the humid marshlands of northeastern India or Southeast Asia. (Both the chicken and some races of pig may also have a tropical Asian origin, but the exact sites of their earliest domestication is unclear.) There are, however, other, much more localized, domesticated bovines in Asia. These are not well studied and deserve greatly increased recognition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section highlights:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Domesticated banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Banteng-cattle hybrids</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Mithan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yak</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yakows. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is time for the world's scientific community to study the genetics, evolution, and biochemical parameters of the unique animal resources, that are found in Southeast Asia. ALLEN D. TILLMAN Animal Consultant Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Though well adapted for survival in their own harsh tropical environments, many domestic livestock breeds are being neglected in the race to achieve temperate zone levels of productivity. CHARLES HICKMAN Department of Dairy Cattle Breeding Ottawa, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies should be made of the present and potential role, productivity and efficiency of all domestic animals and birds, large and small, before they are replaced by imported types. Many wild species also could make important contributions to human welfare with proper management. J. K. LOOSLI Department of Animal Science University of Florida .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conservation of endangered genetic resources represents a genuine and welcome synthesis of the concerns of the agriculturalist and the wildlife enthusiast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN TINKER British Journalist</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p06.png"></center><br>
+ MITHAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Domesticated Banteng</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng (*Bos javanicus is now the accepted name, but Bos sondaicus, Bibos banteng, and other synonyms have been used in the past. (See Hooijer, 1956.) The name "banteng" has traditionally referred to the wild form of Bos javanicus; the name "Bali cattle" to the domesticated form. This chapter describes the domesticated form, but we retain the name banteng to reinforce the fact that the animal is not a breed of cattle, but a distinct species. Despite a cattle-like appearance, the animals are at least as genetically remote from cattle as is the bison. Both produce sterile males when hybridized with European cattle. Australia. (N.D. Vietmeyer)) is a bovine that resembles a small cow. It is, however, an entirely different species from either European cattle (Bos taurus) or zebus (Bos indicus). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These docile animals thrive under hot, humid conditions and, like the water buffalo, have high resistance to ticks and tick-borne diseases. In parts of Southeast Asia they have proved acceptable for draft power and meat production, and they may have potential for many other regions of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng are remarkably uniform in type and have changed little from their wild ancestors (see chapter 6). Bulls stand from 1.3 to 1.5 m high at the shoulders, while cows are about 1.2 m high. They have the general conformation of beef cattle. The skin is tight, the neck short, and the dewlap inconspicuous. The face is narrow and is carried horizontally with the large ears pointing forward. There is no hump, but the male possesses a distinctive crest over the thorax because the spines of the thoracic vertebrae are unusually elongated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On both sexes a striking white oval patch covers the rump and all four legs have white stockings. Calves and females are usually light brown with a thin black line along the middle of the back. Bulls are brown when young but usually turn near-black at maturity, unless castrated. Thus, in a herd the sexes - black males and brown females - are strikingly apparent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male horns grow sideways, upward, and outward from a horny mass on the forehead. Females lack this horny shield and their horns usually grow upward and back, eventually curving down again toward the head. Polled animals have not been reported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mature banteng bulls can weigh from 450 to 500 kg. Under exceptional conditions they may reach 550 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly all the world's domesticated banteng are found in Indonesia. They are particularly important on the islands of Bali, Kalimantan, Lombok, Sulawesi, Sumbawa, and Timor. On Bali and Sumbawa, they are virtually uncontaminated by crossbreeding with other cattle and are thought to have been domesticated there in prehistoric times. Since 1913 government officials have enforced a law that prohibits crossbreeding so as to maintain the purity of the breed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small numbers of banteng have been introduced to Sumatra, Malaysia, and northern Australia, and there are experimental herds in Texas, USA, and New South Wales, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p09.png"></center><br>
+ DISTRIBUTION OF DOMESTICATED BANTEG</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated banteng account for about 20 percent of Indonesia's total population of "cattle." The banteng population increased from 1.1 million in 1967 to 1.4 million in 1975 and is now estimated to be more than 1.5 million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng are found mainly in lowland areas on Indonesian islands straddling the equator. The environment is monsoonal with mean annual temperatures ranging from 23° to 31°C. Most of the region receives heavy rainfall throughout the year, but dry spells as long as five months occur at some locations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng normally have high conception rates. In northern Australia they regularly achieve 80-90 percent conception, as compared with the 50-60 percent of Brahman-Shorthorn crossbred cattle. Similar conception rates have been recorded in Sulawesi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little basic information on the banteng's reproductive physiology has been reported. However, it appears that this differs little from that of cattle. Sexual maturity has been observed as early as 13 months and mating at 16 months.* The gestation period is about one week longer than that of cattle and twinning is not common. At birth, males weigh about 16-17 kg and females about 14-15 kg (about half the size of Brahman-Shorthorn calves). Calves are not weaned at any specific time, and dams may continue suckling a calf until the next birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng will crossbreed with domestic cattle, producing hybrids with notable vigor and heat tolerance (see chapter 2).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has been reported that banteng have the ability to drink water with high salinity," and in northern Australia they have even been seen grazing seaweed on coral reefs at low tide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On high-quality diets, feed-conversion ratios approach those of other bovine species. For example, banteng bulls on high-concentrate diets have shown daily growth rates of 0.7 kg, compared with 0.7 kg in water buffalo, 0.8 kg in zebu cattle, and 0.9 kg in British cattle bulls.:"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the banteng matures, its weight remains lower than that of cattle of similar age. However, relative to mature liveweight, this disadvantage is only about 8 percent.§</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behaviour</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng cannot be handled as roughly as domestic cattle. Cows and calves are timid and easily upset. When stressed they may run into fences and walls, incurring head and spinal injuries. They also easily get into a state of shock. Special squeeze chutes and other special facilities, along with much care in handling the animals, are essential. However, despite their lively temperament banteng are docile if reared, as in Indonesia, with frequent human contact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are promising beef producers. Gourmets consider banteng cuts among the finest of meats, and Indonesia cannot export enough to satisfy the demand in Hong Kong and Japan alone. The meat's outstanding characteristics are its tenderness and leanness. When the animals are maintained and finished under traditional village management, total fat content of the meat (both on a liveweight and carcass basis) is usually less than 4 percent. Little of the fat is deposited among the meat fibers (marbling); about two-thirds of it is mesenteric and the remainder is subcutaneous, laid down in small globules. The carcasses have a high dressing-out percentage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng have proved to be useful as draft animals for the farm but are reportedly less suitable than zebus for hauling carts on roads. Traditionally, both male and female animals are worked, but Balinese farmers normally use females for cultivating light soils only. Banteng are trained when they are about 2 years old and are reportedly easier to train than zebus.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like water buffaloes banteng can utilize low-quality feeds; they are similar in that they can live off forage unpalatable to cattle. It is rare to see banteng in poor condition. Animals of all ages appear to have an ability to maintain weight and body condition even when pasture quality is poor. In this respect, they have been noted to outperform cattle in Australia's Northern Territory. Moreover, due to their lower milk production banteng cows lose less weight and condition during lactation than, for example, Brahman-Shorthorn cows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In comparison with cattle (European breeds) kept under similar circumstances in Australia, banteng are less infested with external parasites. Their hair is short and their hide tough, which helps them resist ticks. Under field conditions few adult cattle ticks (Boophilus microplus) are observed on the animals, except on malnourished individuals, and the incidence of tick-borne disease is said to be very low. Sarcoptic mange is known to affect the animals, but it has a low incidence as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng also appear to tolerate several internal parasites. Liver fluke is probably the most prevalent. Although the animals themselves appear healthy at slaughter, some 80 percent or more of carcasses are found to have partially infected livers. In addition, intestinal worms are often present.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are only slightly affected by Asian trypanosomiasis (Trypanosoma evansi). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are poor milkers; their udders are almost invisible. The lactation varies from 6 to 10 months and milk production is only 0.9-2.8 kg per day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To keep from reverting to the wild state, banteng may need close contact with humans or regular handling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An unidentified banteng disease first appeared on Bali in 1964. Known locally as "jembrana," it spread rapidly, causing mortalities from 10 to 60 percent in certain localities. It was originally thought to be rinderpest; it is now believed to be caused by a rickettsia transmitted by cattle ticks. Outbreaks have occurred with decreasing intensity and virulence since the original outbreak. The disease is under intensive investigation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Bali ziekte," a disease affecting only banteng, has also been noted. It is characterized by dry eczema, followed by severe necrosis of the skin and exposed mucous membrances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their high susceptibility to bovine malignant catarrhal fever, banteng must not be brought in contact with sheep and some other animals. This virus is widely disseminated in sheep and several domestic and wild hoofed mammals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There have been few scientific studies of banteng and no coordinated attempt to improve their performance. They deserve more recognition and they merit testing in tropical locations outside their traditional home in Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The herds in northern Australia (descendants of animals remaining from an abortive colonization attempt in the 1820s) are in a relatively disease-free zone, and although they are feral, they can potentially provide animals for breeding and use in other nations. Although these few hundred banteng are a valuable resource, they are vulnerable to destruction if adverse environmental conditions arise or exotic diseases break out in Australia. Representatives of the herd should therefore be distributed and viable breeding stock established at several new locations. (Their genes and gene combinations may even prove valuable for the indigenous herds in Indonesia, and banteng research and development would make a valuable topic for cooperative research between Australia and Indonesia.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is particularly needed to identify the reasons for the banteng's apparent ability to maintain weight and body condition on poor-quality grazing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problems of bovine malignant catarrhal fever, Bali ziekte, and jembrana need increased attention, particularly directed toward prevention and control. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p13.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Banteng Cattle Hybrids</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng and cattle have the same number of chromosomes, and they will interbreed. Few scientific details on the hybrid progeny are available, but on the Indonesian island of Madura they are a "stabilized crossbreed" because they seem to be genetically uniform. This hybridization took place some 1,500 years ago, when Indian invaders brought zebus of the Sinhala, or Ceylonese, type to Madura and crossed them with the banteng.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These maduras reportedly show better growth rate than the pure banteng species itself. They are thrifty, hardy, and able to perform well under extremes of heat and poor nutrition. Though a hybrid in origin, both sexes of the madura are fully fertile. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For more than 15 centuries the winners of the bull races ("kerapan sap)") have been the herd sires of Madurese villages. This long breeding history has led to an animal with the following characteristics:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Long legs and small feet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Elongated muscles of the rear legs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Heavy muscling over the back, loin, and shoulder</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Quick reactions and nervous temperament</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Great heat tolerance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The ability to perform well as a work animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng-cattle hybrids vary in appearance, depending on whether European or zebu cattle are used in the cross as well as on the amount of backcrossing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maduras (banteng x zebu) are graceful animals. Their bodies are neat, compact, and deep, with well developed forequarters. The cows attain an average weight of about 210 kg and bulls range from 350 to 375 kg at maturity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Superficially, maduras are like Jersey cattle, except for having a much smaller udder. In most of them the banteng dominates the body structure and coat color. Bulls have a well-developed hump; females have almost none. There is no distinct dewlap. Horns are medium sized and curve upwards and slightly backwards. Ears are medium length and horizontal. Breeders on Madura accept only red-brown animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, crossbreeds of banteng and zebu are distributed throughout Indonesia. On the other hand, hybrids between banteng and European cattle have been made only in small programs in the United States and Australia. For example, researchers in central Texas are producing a cross that is one-eighth banteng/seven-eighths Charolais. They believe this will result in a beef animal able to grow well in warm, humid conditions. In the Northern Territory of Australia, no problems have been encountered in mating banteng bulls to Brahman-Shorthorn cows. Calves that are one-fourth banteng/three-fourths Brahman-Shorthorn have since been produced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Virtually all of the 575,000 "cattle" on the Indonesian island of Madura are hybrid animals resulting from crossing indigenous domesticated banteng with zebus. More than 200 head of banteng/Charolais hybrids are found near Easterly, Texas, and a score or so banteng/ Brahman-Shorthorn hybrids are on a research station near Darwin, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The environment in Madura, where most of these hybrids occur, is monsoonal, with mean average temperatures as high as 31°C in the hot season, and dry spells as long as 5 months. It seems likely that judicious selection of the cattle breed could result in hybrids suitable for many other environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the animals on Madura are bred to be raced. They are probably the fastest running bovines. From a standing start, a yoked pair pulling a sled can reach 50 kph by the end of the 130-meter course. An unencumbered individual can approach the speed of a horse (about 68 kph).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When compared with other bovine genotypes in Indonesia, the performance of these hybrids is more closely related to the banteng than the zebu ancestry."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the cross between banteng and European cattle all F1 bulls are sterile; their sperm development ceases at the secondary spermatocyte stage. Infertility also exists in most one-fourth banteng (although some sperm are present) and in all three-fourths banteng bulls. The fertility of the F1 cows, on the other hand, is high - 90 percent as compared with 70 percent for Brahman-Shorthorn cows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hybrids have a lively temperament. However, when they are reared with other domestic cattle or handled on a regular basis, they are almost as docile as cattle. For instance, they remain calm even in Madura's extremely crowded towns. Nevertheless, personal contact probably must be maintained to keep them accustomed to human management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cows are very protective of their calves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several reports from the livestock service of the former Dutch colonial government, as well as several books on the East Indies, state that meat from the madura is the tenderest of any known breed. In addition, the hides are pliable and superior to those of cattle and are used in the highest quality leather goods. They command a price about 20 percent higher than zebu hides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The breed is reportedly one of the best draft animals for its size in the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maduras have several desirable traits, including those outlined below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Feed efficiency. With grain rations, yearling bulls can gain 1 kg on less than 7 kg of ration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Thriftiness. The breed can maintain its body condition on low quality forages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Heat tolerance. The madura has a high rate of cutaneous evaporation and is therefore well adapted to the tropical monsoonal climate. Teams of madura can plow or cultivate land for more than 6 hours, even at high temperatures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Carcass quality. The madura fattens readily on a high-quality diet and  produces carcasses with high dressing percentages, a large rib-eye area, and  high yields of lean meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· External fat thickness. A well-finished madura normally has only a slight  covering of fat over ribs and lower round. Maximum thickness (over the top  round) is less than 1.5 cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Intelligence. These animals are responsive and easily trained. The famous  dancing cattle of Madura, for instance, are actually these banteng-cattle  hybrids.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Parasite resistance. Despite often high levels of fluke infections, the  animals continue to work, reproduce, and maintain body condition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maduras have been bred for one thing - speed. Some of their genetic  limitations are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Low birth weight. The calves begin small, weighing 12-14 kg at birth, and  they continue to be slow weight gainers. [Feeding trials with yearling bulls  have shown daily gains of over 600 g for 180 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Poor lactation. Milk production is normally less than 1.5 lifers per day and lactation ends after about 4 months. The cows often fail to produce milk. Much of this is probably caused by poor nutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the important features of the madura is that its genetic variation has been largely removed during 1,500 years of continuous breeding; with study much valuable information could be obtained that is beneficial to all bovine breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following topics need further study:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Fertility levels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crossbreeding to test the effect of using a wider range of cattle breeds*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Assessment of the hybrid's advantages over the pure banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Performance under a wide range of environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 Mithan</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan (Bos frontalis) is believed to be a domesticated form of gaur (see chapter 6).t (However, it resembles the banteng and some authors have proposed that it is a gaur-cattle cross, others a gaur-banteng cross.) The mithan is a domestic animal indigenous to parts of India, Burma, and Bangladesh. Because of large size and the high butterfat content of its milk it is widely used to crossbreed with cattle in Bhutan. It deserves greater recognition both in Asia and elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan is a handsome animal. Bulls may occasionally exceed 1.7 m at the shoulder and weigh 1,000 kg, but the average bull is about 1.5 m tall and weighs 540 kg. Cows are shorter and weigh less.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal has a dorsal ridge on the crest of the shoulders, a small but pronounced dewlap, and a generally flat forehead. Mithan horns are often of unusual girth; they are straight or gently curving, and many have an enormous base that practically covers the top of the skull.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most calves and females are brown, but adult males are generally black with white stockings on all four legs. Some, however, are light brown, white, or piebald.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the hill ranges of Assam, where gaur are still plentiful and interbreeding between mithan and gaur frequently occurs, the mithans are massive and gaurlike. But in the Chin Hills, where gaur are scarce, the mithans have lost their bulky proportions, probably by interbreeding with cattle. With them, the high dorsal ridge on the shoulder (which lends so much to the imposing stature of the gaur) has disappeared, the horns are cowlike, and the varied coloring of the domestic cow begins to appear.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithan are kept in a domesticated condition by the hill tribes of northeastern India (Mishmis, Mizo, Nagas), the Chittagong Hill tracts, and some Burmese hill ranges (Arakan and Chin Hills). It is the main domestic animal of the Nagas of Nagaland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In India feral herds totalling some 50,000 head roam the jungles of Arunachal Pradesh. Recently the Royal Government of Bhutan has established two herds by purchasing animals from Arunachal Pradesh. Bhutanese farmers have some 60,000 head of animals that are hybrids of mithan and the local breed of cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Bhutan is breeding mithans on government farms and distributing males to private breeders to improve the genetic base.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan is a grazing animal, but in some areas herds are allowed to browse freely in the woods; some return to the villages for protection at night, while others remain largely in the forests. The villagers keep the forest mithans nearby by providing salt, for which the animals have an insatiable craving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feral mithan live in the same habitat as gaurs and are said to move equally skillfully in mountainous terrain. Usually they are found at elevations from 600 to 3,000 m. However, in the Chittagong Hill tracts and the Mishmi country they descend to 300 m and lower, while in Bhutan they have been reported grazing in summer at altitudes as high as 3,300 m, for example around Thimphu.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p23.png"></center><br>
+ Mithan distribution. (after Simoons and Simoons, 1968)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithans are fully fertile amongst themselves. Also, they interbreed freely with the gaur, banteng, yak, and cattle of both the taurus and zebu types. Naga owners encourage the interbreeding with gaur, regarding it as an improvement of the race. (They arrange this by placing salt licks in the forest. After gaur bulls have formed a habit of coming to the licks, mithan cows are left there and in due course mating takes place.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The crosses between mithan and zebu are also encouraged in certain districts. Unlike most crosses between bovine species, those between mithan and cattle result in fertile male and female offspring (although some owners indicate that the F1 male is not a reliable breeder).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is an unusually gentle animal with a quiet disposition, as revealed in the Chin tribe's expression "gentle as a mithan." Normally even a stranger is safe to approach one; if he gives it a bit of salt, it will usually follow him about. Thus, mithans are easily managed in a regular cattlerearing operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many mithans are not domesticated in the strict sense. Their herds live in a semi-tame state near jungle villages and come to settlements only in the evening to lick salt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some regions of northern India, mithans are used for field work and as draft animals. They are also important as a meat supply. The Bhutanese government is establishing a national dairy-mithan breeding program, which could result in a valuable dairy animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To many tribes of northeast India and Burma, mithans serve mainly as sacrificial animals. The Nagas use them as a kind of "currency" to pay for goods, to buy brides, and to pay penalties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids resulting from backcrossing mithan with common cattle are also used as work animals. For at least a century, Bhutanese livestock breeders, particularly those in the eastern section, have mated mithan bulls to siri cows (Bos taurus) from India. This produces very profitable hybrid offspring that have high milk production. The milk is rich in total solids and produces exceptional yields of cheese and butter.* The male of the cross (called "jatsha") is a powerful draft animal, and the female ("jatshum") is a prized milk cow. To this day, extensive crossing continues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan is potentially an animal that can be used in difficult terrain where most domestic cattle breeds do not perform well. Mithans are superior when it comes to feeding on steep slopes and cliffs and for grazing native grass and the leaves of local fodder trees. They are also adapted to tropical and subtropical environments. And they are able to maintain themselves in small herds (6-10 head) in dense jungle.*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan could prove valuable in other parts of the world, and it could be important particularly for the genetic improvement of cattle in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If they are disturbed, mature mithans can be temperamental. They can be difficult to hold with normal fences or chutes, because of their size. When given injections or otherwise subjected to pain, they are liable to bolt to the jungle and not return.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The productivity of these animals needs to be better characterized and defined. Attention should be given to their grazing efficiency as compared with that of cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The two farms the Bhutan government has established for breeding mithans provide an opportunity to gather genetic information on the species and to have experimental matings take place to establish the most suitable animal for various conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The genetic relationship of mithan to gayal, gaur, and cattle needs to be clarified. Although it is believed that the mithan and gayal are the same animal, one of this report's reviewers points out that the mithan of Bhutan are strikingly different in color, body shape, and horn structure from gayals seen in zoos in Europe and India. Although the mithan is now considered a domesticated gaur, many in the past have claimed it as a gaur-cattle hybrid. Physiological research could remove lingering doubts. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p26.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Yak</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yak (Bos grunniens), is a grazing animal that is accustomed to traveling great distances in a harsh environment. Nothing is known about when it was first domesticated, but there has probably been a close association between man and yaks ever since the first humans migrated into the high mountains of Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated yaks are about the size of ordinary cattle and rarely exceed heights of 1.3 m at the shoulder. Their liveweight is generally 250-550 kg for the males and 180-350 kg for the females. They differ little from wild yaks except that they are smaller, have shorter and thinner horns, and may be rusty brown, black, silver grey, or piebald instead of black. Often they have whitish spots on their faces.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yak's hair is long, especially on the flanks, where it forms a shaggy fringe that often reaches the ground. This, together with an underlying layer of thick, fine wool, protects the animal from the bitter cold of its native region. The yak has an enormous tail with a brush of long hair coming from its root, which is rare in bovines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Long extensions of the thoracic vertebrae give the yak shoulders that look like a hump, but this is different from the boneless hump in zebus. The body is long, short-legged, and compact, with particularly large forequarters because, like the bison, the yak has 14 or 15 pairs of ribs instead of the 13 of domestic cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The horns spread outward and upward, and the head is held low, like that of the bison. While no hornless domestic yaks have been reported in Nepal, more than 90 percent of those found in Mongolia lack horns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most yaks are found especially in the mountains and plateaus of Tibet and western China, however they occur from northern Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and Bhutan to Mongolia, and the Soviet Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are more than one million domestic yaks in the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Himalayas the domestic yak is almost always found above 2,000 m elevation. Males are sometimes brought as low as 1,700 m for mating with cattle (see chapter 6), but they do not fare well at such altitudes. In Mongolia and Buryatiya (U.S.S.R.), however, they are found as low as 1,500 m elevation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p29.png"></center><br>
+ Yak distribution. (after J. Bonnemaire, 1976)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild yak lives in desolate mountain areas at altitudes of 4,000-6,000 m. Its habitat is the alpine tundra and the cold desert regions of the northern part of the Tibetan plateau. These barren mountain regions are remote and at higher elevations than the zones of human habitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks look ungainly, partly because they are covered with long hair, but they are agile climbers and can maneuver narrow mountain paths. Their long hair is one adaptation to the cold climate. Other adaptations are the small, compact scrotum of the male and udder of the female, the small teats (only 2-3 cm long) and covering of hair over the udder, and the covering of short hair over the muzzle, except just around the nostrils.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In early summer yaks graze the lush grass in valley bottoms, but for much of the year they live on dry, coarse mountain grass and for long periods obtain water by eating snow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gestation length is 258 days - slightly shorter than that of cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic yaks are docile and easily managed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks are especially useful as riding and pack animals; they can manage loads of more than 150 kg. At altitudes up to 6,000 m they may carry a pack or a person at a steady pace for days and still remain in good condition. In some regions they are the only feasible pack animal. Yak bulls (generally castrated) are also used for plowing and for threshing grain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Occasionally the yak is slaughtered for meat. The meat is particularly important in parts of the USSR and in Mongolia, where in the cold, high-altitude environments it reportedly costs only half as much to produce as beef.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas milk production is an essential aspect of yak husbandry. Yields vary considerably according to management and nutrition, but they average about 600 kg and can be more than 1,000 kg per lactation. Yak milk is golden colored. It is much richer than cow's milk; a typical analysis is: total dry matter, 17.35 percent; fat, 6.5 percent; protein, 5.3 percent; and sugars, 4.6 percent. The fat globules are much larger than those in cow's milk. People of Tibetan stock use yak butter as a food staple and as a lighting fuel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yak hide, though apparently not as good as that of cattle, is used for many purposes. It makes outstanding saddles. Yak hair is used for making ropes, saddle blankets (purportedly the best in the world), grainstorage bags, and tents. The fine wool that occurs beneath the long hair is used for making felt. The annual yield of adult females and males is about 750 g and 1,600 g of hair and about 350 g and 600 g of wool, respectively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because yaks are often found above the timberline their dung is an important fuel in many areas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks can live and work hard in a cold climate. They are the only bovines to thrive at high altitudes. In cold, high areas they can work and produce meat and milk more efficiently and cheaply than cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks are not well able to eliminate surplus heat because their heavy coat reduces their ability to sweat. In warm climates their respiration rate and body temperature increase and they become exhausted and susceptible to infections. At low altitudes in Nepal yaks die of a variety of diseases. Apparently not even yak-cattle hybrid animals (see next chapter) can successfully live below 700 m in that part of the world. This is probably due to overheating, since during the first half of this century yaks grew successfully in trials at low altitudes in Alaska and northern Canada.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yak improvement programs are much needed. It seems probable that the genetic potential of the species is far from realized because Buddhist beliefs oppose the deliberate killing of stock. Techniques for deep freezing yak semen have been successfully developed at Regents Park Zoo, London and should prove invaluable for improving the breed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· As a result of uncontrolled hunting the wild yak is endangered and is now restricted to remote barrens on upland plateaus and highlands in northern Tibet and Chinghai, inhospitable even to domestic yaks. The numbers of wild yak are unknown. They require total protection throughout their range and the establishment of adequately protected reserves with good pasture. To preserve their genetic purity, it is important to isolate wild yaks from domestic yaks and thus keep them pure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A primary need is to catalog the numbers and locations of purebred yaks. Today we have little idea of the total breeding population. Gathering such information is difficult, owing to the geographical isolation of the communities involved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It is also important to catalog the movement of yaks between different areas to see if enough genetic exchange occurs to prevent inbreeding of the population. Exchanges between local pastoralists were much more frequent in the past (for example, between Tibet and Nepal), but this is now more difficult because of border restrictions and because many yak </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">herders that used to move herds long distances have become sedentary farmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Breeding strategies, herd management, product processing, and herd hygiene in Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, northern India, and northern Pakistan, Tibet, Mongolia, and the Soviet Union all differ greatly. It is important to get an overall perspective so that the strengths of the different systems can be judged and the weaknesses reduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· There are clearly different domestic yak "breeds" in terms of their appearance, and these need to be identified and compared systematically. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p33.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">5 Yakows</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks and cattle have the same diploid number of chromosomes (60). And in the regions where yaks are found, they are often interbred with cattle, either the humpless cattle (Bos taurus) of Tibet and Mongolia or the zebu (Bos indicus) of South Asia. As with mules, the hybrid offspring of cattle and yak surpass their parents in strength and vigor. Yakows* grow faster than their parents, and they suffer less from high temperatures than yaks. The hybrid cow reaches sexual maturity earlier and yields larger quantities of milk than the yak cow. The males, however, are sterile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yakow's appearance varies with the type of cattle used in the cross. But because of the phenomenon of hybrid vigor (heterosis), the hybrids are considerably bigger than the mean size of their parents. (For instance, in one test the liveweight was approximately 18 percent higher than the average weight of the parents.) The hybrids also excel in hardiness, working ability, growth rate, and milk production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, their appearance and performance is closer to that of the mother than of the father. Because of this, the yakows can be "custom designed" for various altitude zones. For example, the farmer at lower altitudes may produce cattle-like yakows by breeding yak bulls to domestic cows, while farmers at higher altitudes would use the reverse cross.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yakows have shorter hair and a much less downy undercoat than purebred yaks. They are similar in color to yaks. (In Nepal, black is most frequent, but brown shades and even white may occur.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yakows are found in parts of northeastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, northeast and northwest India, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Tibet, western China, Mongolia, and southeastern Russia. They are found notably in the Himalayan region of Nepal, where they are bred by people of Tibetan culture and language. Sherpas, for instance, supply hybrid cows and heifers to dairy farmers throughout northeastern Nepal. Hybrids are also much bred in Ladakh (northern Pakistan) and Mongolia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whereas farmers in Nepal tend to use zebus to cross with yak, the inhabitants of the Tibetan plateau generally use Bos taurus cattle. People in some areas favor mating yak bulls to cows, while those in other areas prefer the reverse. But even within one village there can be a degree of specialization by different families, depending on wealth and the location of traditional grazing grounds. Generally, however, the crosses between domestic cattle bulls and yak cows are the predominant ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of yak-cattle hybrids in the world is unknown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the yak, the hybrid can live in cold, barren, upland terrain, but it has the advantage of being able to adapt to lower altitudes. In winter, caravans of hybrids may come down as low as 1,600 m in some parts of Nepal, and hybrid herds (especially those resulting from crossing yak bulls with zebu cows) can spend several weeks grazing at altitudes as low as about 1,700 m in winter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female hybrids are fertile when mated with either parent stock. Male hybrids, however, are sterile. Although they have fully developed secondary sexual characters and show libido, their testes do not produce spermatozoa because the seminiferous tubules are poorly developed and the spermatogonia and their nuclei are degenerate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few normal or motile spermatozoa may be found in the semen of backcrosses of the F1 hybrids to either parent, but as a rule the spermatozoa are normal and dead.* Backcrossing is reportedly not common, however, as the progeny do not retain hybrid vigor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tibetan farmers prefer the hybrids for plowing because of their docile temperament. The yak is said to be more stubborn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hybrids are valued as beasts of burden and draft, and are often preferred over yaks. Male hybrids are generally castrated at about 3 years of age so as to increase their strength and size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where pastures occur over areas of greatly varying altitude, the use of hybrid livestock is likely to be more efficient, in biological terms, than the use of yaks or cattle. By judiciously selecting cattle, yaks, or hybrids all altitudes from sea level to above 5,000 m can be utilized with best efficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hybrid's milk is intermediate in composition between that of its parents. However, hybrids yield up to 7 kg of milk per day against the yak's 3 kg. (It seems that the hybrid derived from cattle bull and female yak produces considerably more milk, with a higher fat content than that derived from yak bull x cattle female.) Also the female hybrids produce larger quantities of milk than Nepalese zebu cows on the same hill pastures. They also produce a calf each year, while under normal herd management yaks tend to produce a calf every 2 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids do not tolerate extremes of altitude or cold as well as purebred yaks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The normal gestation period for yaks is about 1 month shorter than that of cattle, and the gestation period for a hybrid is intermediate between that of the parents - hence there may be problems at calving when a female yak is sired by a bull from a large cattle breed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed to identify differences in altitude tolerance between various hybrids. This should include measurements of hemoglobin count, respiration rate, and pulse rates at different altitudes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies are also needed on all production characteristics, particularly on the meat and milk production potentials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cataloging the breeding strategies of different areas where hybrids occur would be useful, along with a historical perspective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research to determine the most productive hybrids by crossing different yak and cattle "breeds" in areas with different environmental conditions could be extremely useful. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part II : Wild Bovine Species</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In various parts of Southeast Asia there exist little-known relatives of cattle and water buffaloes. Many of these wild animals are close to extinction, and attention is drawn to them in hope their populations will be preserved. All of them survive in tropical regions subject to environmental extremes - flooding annual rains, searing droughts, and swarming pests and parasites. These are conditions to which conventional livestock are poorly adapted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None of Africa's bovines is threatened with extinction, and both the European and American forms of bison are being preserved by governments and individuals. In Asia, however, there has been an alarming drop in the numbers of wild water buffalo, wild yak, wild banteng, kouprey, gaur, and tamaraw in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section describes:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wild banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Gaur</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Kouprey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tamaraw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Anoas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If not molested, many of these animals can thrive side by side with human settlements. They may therefore have an important future role in the development of the tropics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is little point in conservation for conservation's sake, but loss of irreplaceable resources through ignorance, greed, or thoughtlessness should be avoided. It may be that these Asian animals have little merit other than their uniqueness, but at the very least, sufficient numbers should be conserved until we have time to find out. A. J. SMITH Royal School of Veterinary Studies, Edinburgh, Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rapid human increase and relative poverty deny hope that any land can lie idle when so many would be robbed of an opportunity simply to exist. For wildlife to survive, let alone at its breathtaking best, we must think of new and better ways to justify its future, preferably by having it contribute to the welfare of those hard-pressed humans who inevitably are further disadvantaged by the creation of national parks. DAVID WESTERN New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is an urgency to conserve and study nontraditional animal species, especially for use in the environmentally challenging tropical areas of the world. The philosophy plant scientists apply to exploring the potential of the plant kingdom needs to be more enthusiastically adopted for the world's animal species. G. W. M. KIRBY, Principal Animal Production Officer Department of Primary Production Darwin, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p40.png"></center><br>
+ GAUR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">6  Wild Banteng</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild banteng (Bos javanicus)* are the most cowlike of all the wild bovines and are the parent stock of the 1.5 million domesticated banteng in Indonesia (see chapter 1). They have a scattered distribution throughout Southeast Asia, and three subspecies are recognized:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Java banteng Bos javanicus javanicus (Java and Bali)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Borneo banteng Bos javanicus lowi (Borneo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Burma banteng Bos javanicus birmanicus (Burma, Thailand, Indochina).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng have been called the most beautiful of all wild relatives of cattle. The cows are usually a vibrant reddish brown, while adult bulls are mostly blackish-brown and sometimes even blue-black (although in Burma and Indochina bulls remain golden brown like the cows, and in Thailand a few banteng have been recorded with white, deerlike spots on their brown coats). Both sexes have white "stockings" and a large white patch on their rumps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng are larger than their domesticated counterparts. Average-sized bulls of the Java and Burma subspecies stand 1.6 m high and weigh 635 kg, but bulls as large as 1.9 m and 825 kg have been recorded. Cows average 1.4 m in height and weigh 400 kg. The Borneo subspecies is smaller.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The horns of banteng bulls are angular, turning out and then up, with inward-pointing tips and reaching a spread of 60-75 cm. The horns of cows are short and crescent shaped. There is a patch of thick, naked skin between the horns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are found in restricted localities scattered over an area ranging from the northeastern edge of India, through Burma, Thailand, the northern Malay Peninsula, central and southern Indochina, and the islands of Borneo, Java, and Bali.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only a few thousand wild banteng survive, and their numbers are decreasing. Most populations are endangered because their habitats are being encroached upon by the growing human population. In Sabah, Malaysia, for example, the areas where an estimated 300-550 banteng (the last remaining herds) occur are scheduled for conversion to permanent agriculture. The animals are being forced to use smaller and smaller habitats, thus increasing losses caused by malnutrition, diseases, and parasites. In addition, throughout much of the animal's range, hunting, military operations, and perhaps interbreeding with domestic cattle are further reducing the original stocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p43.png"></center><br>
+ Distribution of wild banteng. (courtesy of C.H. Wharton)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng's general distribution lies in the zone of deciduous monsoon forest in Southeast Asia. Habitats vary between the extremes of dry wooded parkland with large grassy plains to tropical rain forest with small clearings. The animals prefer flat or undulating terrain. In northern Kampuchea and eastern Java, they inhabit grassland savannas. In western Thailand, they live in a belt of grass and bamboo thickets along upper slopes of dry mountains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng inhabit sites from sea level to around 2,000 m elevation. They avoid large human settlements and plantations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas there are no pronounced hot or cold seasons, but dry seasons can be long.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng prefer feeding on grass, but are fond of herbs, leaves, fruits and blossoms, as well as the sprouts of trees, brush, and young bamboo. Under favorable conditions they drink daily, preferring standing water. During droughts, they seem able to survive several days without water. In coastal areas where there are no mineral licks they can meet their need for salt by occasionally drinking seawater. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sex ratio at birth is 140 males to 100 females, but mortality of bulls is heavy and the adult ratio is about three cows for every bull.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calves are suckled until they are 14-16 months old.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In undisturbed conditions, the banteng's daily activity has a more or less fixed rhythm. During daytime, the animals alternate active and resting periods of 2-3 hours each. The active periods predominantly involve feeding, drinking, and social interactions. While resting, the animals commonly ruminate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a reaction to heavy rains or human disturbances, the animals retreat into dense vegetation. In regions with frequent human disturbance they generally appear in the open only at night. However, where they find particularly suitable localities they become somewhat accustomed to human presence and will venture out in daylight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng live alone or in small groups of up to eight members. Males separate from their mothers at an age of 2-3 years. Sometimes female calves continue living with their mother even beyond maturity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cows and dominant bulls command the best pastures, and young and weaker bulls roam widely, rarely leaving the protection of the thick forest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng bull has a reputation for extraordinary savagery, but stories of its lightning attack have been exaggerated. Wildlife biologists in Indonesia have not been able to document any such attacks and have no qualms about walking in banteng habitats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng show important promise for improving domesticated banteng (see chapter 1) or for interbreeding with cattle (chapter 2). Almost 170 years ago Sir Stamford Raffles, founder of Singapore, noted that in Java "The degenerate domestic cows are sometimes driven into the forest to couple with the wild benteng, for the sake of improving that breed."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tourism could be developed in areas where these magnificent animals occur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng are large, robust animals fully at home both in the heat and humidity of the wet season and in the hot dry season. Their genetic </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">endowment for such tolerance could be of significant value fin improving domestic stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Possible Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng may prove to have a special susceptibility to diseases of domestic animals. Blackleg (Clostridium chauvoli) and mucosal disease have caused heavy losses in banteng in European zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capture of wild banteng may prove difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research on the physiology, production potential, and possible uses of wild banteng is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hunting and destruction of its habitats menace the wild banteng over all of its range. The only promising means for conservation is creation of nature reserves where hunting and forest destruction are forbidden. Conservation efforts should particularly include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Supporting government of Thailand efforts to conserve banteng in western Thailand and the Petchabun Range;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cooperating with the Burmese government in surveys to locate the best banteng habitats;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cooperating with the governments of Kampuchea and Laos to identify banteng habitats and establish appropriate protective measures; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Carrying out research in Java's nature reserves (Ujung Kulon National Park and Baluran Reserve) to ascertain the genetic distinctiveness of the banteng, its status, and its characteristics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Sabah and other areas of Southeast Asia there are cattle breeding projects that use imported stock exclusively. Experimental crossbreeding of local banteng with this stock should be encouraged. There are some feral and domestic banteng, as well as hybrids between wild banteng and feral cattle, that should also be tested.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p45.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">7 Gaur</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gaur (Bos gaurus) would seem to be an ideal meat-producing animal. It is a large bovine with massive muscular development, and it has already been domesticated (see mithan, chapter 3). Gaurs, which are threatened with extinction, deserve much greater attention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two subspecies of gaurs are recognized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bos gaurus gaurus (India, Nepal) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bos gaurus laosiensis (Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Kampuchea, West Malaysia). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With its huge head, massive body, and sturdy limbs, the gaur is the embodiment of vigor and strength. It is among the biggest of bovines. Bulls weigh 600-940 kg and stand 1.6-1.9 m tall at the shoulder, but a record bull of 2.2 m and 1,225 kg has been recorded. Cows are only about 10 cm shorter in height, but they are more lightly built and weigh 150 kg less.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On their shoulders gaur bulls have a striking muscular ridge that slopes down to the middle of the back, where it ends in an abrupt dip. The horns are crescent shaped, creamy yellow, and taper to a sharp point, which is usually tipped in black.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newborns are a light golden yellow, but soon darken to coffee or reddish brown, the color of young bulls and cows. Old bulls are jet black, their bodies almost hairless. Gaurs have light colored forehead and yellowish or white stockings. Their eyes are brown but in certain lights, because of reflection, they appear blue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs excrete an oily, aromatic sweat, unique to this species and to the mithan. It gives the animals a strong bovine smell and may be an adaptation for keeping away insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once common throughout South and Southeast Asia, gaurs now survive only in scattered remnant herds of up to 30 animals in the hill forests of India, Nepal, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Kampuchea, Vietnam, and the Malay Peninsula.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p48.png"></center><br>
+ Gaur distribution. (courtesy of C.H. Wharton)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Historically, the largest concentrations have coexisted with farmers in areas of shifting cultivation. The animals adjust to disturbed land, and they also adapt to man's presence if not unduly harassed. For example, gaurs will feed in agricultural fields, along roadsides, and near occupied houses. Herds in national parks feed peacefully while tourists stand by. Gaurs in zoos also become quite tame and manageable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Populations not protected in parks and reserves are in immediate danger of extinction. Even in the remotest hill forests gaurs are harassed by hunting, exposed to the diseases of domestic cattle, and driven from their natural habitat by human invasion. Most herds outside of parks or wildlife reserves are threatened by agricultural development, hydroelectric dam projects, human settlement, or extensive logging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In India, large populations still exist in the larger sanctuaries such as </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mudumalai and Kanha Park. In Thailand diseases carried by domestic animals, poaching, and habitat destruction have reduced total gaur numbers to fewer than 500. In Malaysia, the population is estimated to be only 400 animals. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs typically live on gentle, undulating terrain with natural mineral licks. They inhabit gaps in the forest, such as abandoned clearings, where they can find grasses and shrubs. In the northern portions of their range, they inhabit deciduous and semideciduous hill and mountain forests with light brush and many grassy clearings. In the lowlands they live in open bamboo jungles, grassy plains near forests, or dense forests broken by glades or open meadows. (In the forest they probably depend to some extent on the slash and burn agriculture of hill people.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals appear to be adapting to increased human presence. They make use of such man-modified habitats as logged forests and fringe areas of agricultural estates that abound with grasses and early secondgrowth vegetation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs are combination grazers and browsers. They feed on the grasses of forest openings as well as on the young leaves, fruits, twigs, and bark of shrubs and juvenile trees. In one study in Malaysia, grasses comprised 41 percent of their diet, fortes 23 percent, and woody browse 36 percent."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs develop large muscular bodies and maintain excellent condition on relatively low-quality feed. In the Malaysian study, crude protein content of grass species varied from 7.0 to 7.6 percent and phosphorus content varied from 0.11 to 0.17 percent; yet calves reached weights of 300 kg or more during their first year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Birth and survival rates of up to 100 percent have been reported for wild gaur populations. Calves are born at any time of the year. The gestation period is 270 days, a little shorter than for banteng or domestic cattle and longer than for yak or kouprey.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Captive gaurs calve first at 2.5 years of age.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gaur interbreeds with the mithan, and both have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 58.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By nature gaurs are shy and timid. As with most wild bovines, their hearing and eyesight seem comparatively poor. Their defense lies in their massive size and acute sense of smell. When a herd with juveniles is threatened by a predator, the adults form a protective circle around the young. Although individuals retreat from danger if they can, they have a unique form of threat: they approach their opponents broadside instead of head on, displaying the huge muscular body and dorsal ridge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In common with other wild bovids, gaurs habitually visit mineral licks, which appear to be necessary to their habitat and influence the herd's movements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike water buffaloes, gaurs do not wallow. They take cover in the forest during the heat of the day and may feed at night and in the early morning during hot weather. In populated areas such as near agricultural estates, they may feed only at night to avoid people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, gaurs associated in loose herds of up to 400 animals, but today groups of only 5 to 12 animals are normally found. The herds, which are of more stable composition than those of banteng, are separated by sex for most of the year; however, during the rut stronger bulls form a series of "tending bonds" with estrous cows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs are thought to be interfertile with domestic cattle. If so, their attributes of size, massive muscular development, tolerance of heat and humidity, and resistance to diseases and parasites can contribute to beef production in the tropics. A gaur-cattle hybrid might also have immunity to some cattle diseases; if it retained the mild temperament of the domesticated parent, an extremely powerful beast of burden could be produced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gaur is a truly majestic animal. Its habit of using grassy forest clearings and salt licks makes it a likely tourist attraction in parks and reserves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a climate and environment where domestic cattle are susceptible to heat stress and parasite infestation, gaur thrive and maintain body condition. Further, they are able to develop large muscular bodies and maintain excellent body conditions on relatively low-quality forage by feeding on a variety of woody browse, grasses, and fortes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Retaining its wild instincts for survival, the gaur is better able to withstand predator attacks them domestic cattle. This could be an advantage when animals graze in remote areas. Adult gaurs are strong enough to defend themselves against a predator as powerful as a tiger. In addition, they are also very protective of their young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs have little immunity to some cattle diseases. In many regions of India, cattle driven into the forests to graze infect gaur herds with rinderpest, foot and mouth disease, cattle plague, and other contagious diseases. Severe losses occur. Gaurs also appear very susceptible to malignant catarrhal fever.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaur numbers are declining throughout their range. If this trend is not reversed, it could effectively prohibit the use of gaur for domestication or crossbreeding purposes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs are shy and excitable, making them difficult to catch, but once in captivity the animals calm down. Second generation zoo populations are easily worked and handled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs on occasion damage cultivated crops such as young rubber trees and cassava. They require sturdy and well-kept fences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Southeast Asia there is special need to support the efforts of the governments of Malaysia and Thailand to conserve this species and to identify important gaur populations. Similar protective measures are needed in Burma, Laos, Kampuchea, and Vietnam.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed to establish and manage new gaur herds in forest reserves and build up the gaur population in the world's zoos. Techniques have been developed to capture and release wild gaur safely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fertilized gaur ova have been successfully transferred into a foster Holstein cow. The cow carried the gaur fetus to a successful delivery. This could be the forerunner of an important means of rapidly expanding captive herds by transferring gaur embryos into cattle in different parts of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is also needed on the basic physiology and production potential of gaur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossbreeding experiments should be started immediately to establish the degree of interfertility between the gaur and other bovine species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p52.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">8 Kouprey</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey (Bos sauveli) is the most primitive of living cattle. Its features are typical of some forms that existed in the Pleistocene era, 600,000 years ago. Discovered by Western scientists only in 1937, the kouprey was the last large mammal to enter the biology books. It is perhaps the most primitive of living cattle and is closely allied to Bos namadicus, the wild ancestor of zebu cattle. In 1964 it was declared Cambodia's national animal. It is now perilously close to extinction, and for a decade no koupreys have been observed close enough for a positive identification by a specialist. In 1982, however, five of the animals were believed sighted in Thailand, near the border with Kampuchea. Thus there are hopes that the kouprey still exists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey is large. Males stand 1.5-2 m high at the shoulder and may weigh 900 kg. Females are approximately three-quarters the height and weight of the males. The body is slender and long-legged. The hump from the withers to the center of the back is smaller than that of the gaur, but larger than that of the banteng. There is a well-developed dewlap from the throat to the mid-chest, which in old animals is sometimes so pendulous that it drags through the grass in front of the forelegs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young bulls are gray, with black on the head and dewlap. Old bulls are entirely black and cows are mouse gray or dullish light brown. As in the gaur and the banteng, the lower parts of the legs have white stockings, but kouprey stockings have a streak of dark hair down the front.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey. (P. Pfeffer)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey horns are among the longest and widest of any bovine. The tips of the adult male horns are surrounded by rough, frayed tissue caused by the animals' habit of digging in the soil with their horns. The females have slender, lyre-shaped horns that corkscrew upwards, unlike those of any other wild or domesticated cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey are said to have a grace more reminiscent of deer than cattle. They move at a light trot, as fast as 32 kph.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey's prevalence in ancient times is evidenced by prehistoric cave-paintings in Kampuchea. The animal was also a favorite of the ancient Khmers, who carved kouprey statues and featured the animal in bas-reliefs on temples, including the monuments of Angkor Wat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, whatever kouprey exist are restricted to an area along both sides of the Mekong River in northern Kampuchea, the Dangrek Range, and other parts of eastern Thailand to the far south of Laos, and to the westernmost part of Vietnam. Although one or two small herds may still exist in remote pockets of Laos and Vietnam, the bulk of the population has always been centered in Kampuchea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are no koupreys in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their large size, gregarious behavior, comparatively low reproductive rate, and preference for open areas, kouprey are vulnerable to hunting. The impressive horns and other tissues are valued as trophies and as medicinals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1964 it was estimated there were about 500 kouprey in Kampuchea, but by 1970 fewer than 70 were left. The subsequent fate of the species is unknown because of the years of warfare in the area. (Early in 1970, the three nominal kouprey reserves of Kampuchea were overrun by military forces.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p55.png"></center><br>
+ KOUPREY DISTRIBUTION. (AFTER C.H. WHARTON )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1975 the kouprey stocks in Laos and Thailand were estimated at only 50 and 20 animals, respectively. By now, hunting and habitat destruction probably have all but eliminated the kouprey from Thailand. However, a reported sighting of five animals that had strayed across the border from Kampuchea was made in July 1982. (By the time Thai zoologists arrived to investigate, the herd apparently had crossed back into Kampuchea.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the banteng, the kouprey inhabits open sites such as light savannas, woodland meadows, and scattered glades in the monsoon forests. It is adapted to dry country. This type of habitat is not widespread in Indochina, and the range of the kouprey is consequently limited.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey spend most of the year among low rolling hills in open areas where grazing and visibility are good. These open areas are a fire climax mosaic of dry dipterocarp savannas and patches of dense forest. Fires occur each dry season, most of them deliberately set by man. Kouprey capitalize on the young growth in burned-over areas. They feed primarily on grasses, sedges, and tree leaves. They also require salt licks and a supply of water in the dry season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gestation period is thought to be about 8.5 months. Cows leave the herd before parturition and return with their calves after about a month. They nurse their calves for about 6 months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey are said to be even more shy than banteng and gaur. They feed in erratic patterns and are always alert and nervous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loose herds of 20 or more have been reported. These were of mixed composition, often with more than one adult male, and were usually led by an old female. Adult bulls sometimes form bachelor herds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey utilize some of the same feeds as wild banteng, and the two animals often live in a loose association. They graze together, and, especially after the mating season, solitary kouprey bulls often associate with banteng herds. The two species do not, however, interbreed in the wild. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey is a candidate for domestication and has important potential as breeding stock. It is a wild animal, but it may have been domesticated temporarily during the Khmer culture, 400-800 years ago.* Both Vietnam and Laos have cattle breeds that resemble kouprey, and a kouprey bull, reputed to be a domestic animal of the Stieng tribe, was exhibited in the Paris Menagerie in the mid-nineteenth century. It may be that kouprey are domestic even today in parts of Indochina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey survival has worldwide significance. The animals could be important for studies of bovine evolution and as a genetic resource for crossbreeding to improve disease resistance and other characteristics of domesticated bovines. For instance, the kouprey is thought to be resistant to rinderpest, a killer disease of domestic cattle. Also, kouprey bulls are distinctive for their long dewlap, and they probably have more skin area for their weight than other bovines and are therefore better able to eliminate body heat. This genetic trait may help large cattle breeds survive in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey's potential may be moot - there may be none left in the world. It is feared that the warfare of recent years may have caused its extinction. However, if enough animals survive and can be protected, the kouprey could probably recover its numbers, as a higher calf-to-cow ratio (1:3) was reported for this species than for either banteng (1:4) or gaur (1:10).*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If wild kouprey are found, their capture is likely to be difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a long-term sequence of research needs for the kouprey, which includes the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.  Working with the governments of Thailand, Laos, and Kampuchea to identify any remaining pockets of this species and to establish conservation programs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establishing one or more captive breeding herds (because there is little chance of the animal surviving in the wild owing to the fighting and turmoil in the area);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Studying the animal's basic physiology and production potential;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Exploring its possible commercial utilization; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Investigating the kouprey's genetic relationship to zebu cattle and the transferability of genetic characters through interbreeding. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p58.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">9 Tamaraw</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) is related to the water buffalo, one of Asia's most important animal resources, but it has never been domesticated or studied and is threatened with extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw looks rather like a miniature water buffalo of the swamp type that is found in Southeast Asia. It reaches about I m in height and 300 kg in weight. It is much more stockily built and is blacker than the swamp buffalo. The tamaraw has white marks on the fetlocks, instead of completely white lower legs like the banteng, gaur, and kouprey. It has short (35-50 cm), very stout horns that curve out and back slightly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endemic to the Philippine island of Mindoro the tamaraw is now virtually restricted to three small areas (Mount Iglet/Mount Baco, Mount Calavita, and Sablayon) in Mindoro Occidental.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its limited distribution, the tamaraw's future is of concern to conservationists. Until World War II, hunting was carefully regulated in its native region and no serious concern was felt for the animal's safety. Since then, however, increases in human population, lumbering, and ranching have restricted the tamaraw's habitat, and the availability of rifles and automatic weapons has seriously threatened its numbers. In 1971, research teams counted 148 head, consisting of 116 adults and 32 calves. The latest estimate is 150-200 head.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these last remaining animals, about 80 are located at Mount Iglit, a game refuge established in 1961 primarily to protect the tamaraw. Recently an active tamaraw conservation program has been started in a 400-hectare enclosed area on the refuge. Stockade traps have been built and tamaraw are beginning to move into them. The goal is to establish a small, semicaptive population that can be properly guarded, studied, and managed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p61.png"></center><br>
+ Tamaraw distribution. (courtesy Wildlife magazine)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The habitat requirements of the tamaraw appear to be fairly flexible, and present habitat use reflects human pressures rather than the animal's preferences. In the past, tamaraw were found in virtually all parts of Mindoro, from sea level to mountain tops. They occupied open grasslands or glades, but hunting pressure and habitat change have forced it to retreat into forest environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present the tamaraw is found primarily in remote areas that have been partly cleared, largely by fire, so that only small pockets of trees remain among coarse grasses such as Imperata cylindrica (a widespread, unpalatable tropical weed commonly called cogon, kunai, alang alang, lalang, or blady grass), and "tahalib" (Saccharum spontaneum). The tamaraw uses the forest pockets for rest and retreat and the open land for grazing. It must have a supply of water for wallowing and drinking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to cattlemen, tamaraw eat both Imperata grass and tehalib but only when these are short and green. During the wet season when most forages are tall and unpalatable, the animals are known to feed on bamboo shoots.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy is about 20 years. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraw are reputed to be nocturnal, ferocious, and retiring. However, in earlier times they were reportedly relatively tame, diurnal animals of open areas. It was the continual hunting that made them increasingly nocturnal and secretive, and like other wild bovids they can become aggressive and dangerous when harassed or wounded. Given effective protection they doubtless would revert to placid, diurnal behavior.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw appears to be a possible livestock animal. Its meat and hides were highly regarded by local peoples, cattlemen, and visiting hunters. Because of its close relationship to the water buffalo, it may be able to provide genetic material for improving the health and hardiness of that valuable animal resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is renowned for hardiness and resilience to heat, humidity, and poor forage, as well as its capability to thrive in a variety of environmental conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraws have only once produced offspring in a zoo and may prove difficult to raise in captivity. However, they have been kept in captivity so seldom that the prospects are unclear. Experiences with other wild bovids suggests that captivity and captive breeding should be no problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw must be protected and preserved. There is urgent need, for example, to establish more secure parks in the Philippines to rebuild the wild population to safe levels. Other conservation measures should include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establishing and maintaining more reserves in natural habitats containing breeding populations, and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Building up breeding populations in suitable zoos and livestock research centers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed on the tamaraw's physiology, production characteristics, behavior, and genetic relationship to the water buffalo. None of these is well understood. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p63.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">10 Anoas</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lowland anoa (Bubalus depressicornis) and the mountain anoa (Bubalus quarlesi)* are small bovines that are related to the water buffalo but that are scarcely bigger than goats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with other bovines, the anoa is tiny. It stands only 0.75-1 m tall at the shoulder. The mountain anoa is smaller than its lowland counterpart. The limbs are short, the body plump, and the neck thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoa horns are short and straight, reaching a maximum length of about 380 mm; they are ringed and triangular in cross section at the base in lowland species and simple and conical in cross section in mountain species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the young are thickly covered with yellowish-brown woolly hair, the mountain anoa adults tend to have curly hair, while lowland anoa have straight hair or are hairless. Adults vary from dark brown to black, with frequent blotches of white on the face, nape, throat, and lower limbs. In mountain anoas the entire lower limbs are creamy white. The underbody parts are usually light brown. Males are generally darker than females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hide is exceptionally thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas are native to dense, mature forests of Sulawesi in eastern Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species are abundant and well distributed on Sulawesi. Most of the northern, eastern, and southeastern peninsulas and the central area of Sulawesi are still forested and have anoa populations, and there are several large nature reserves to protect them. *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several of the world's zoos have anoa collections (see Research Contacts).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The climate of Sulawesi is hot, but tempered by sea winds; annual rainfall varies from 500 mm to 4,000 mm. The eastern and southeastern peninsulas have a sparse population and a scattering of subsistence agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lowland species is found in forests and was once common along the coasts. The mountain anoa is found in primary forests at high altitudes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p66.png"></center><br>
+ DISTRIBUTION OF ANOA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas have a wide-ranging diet that includes grasses, ferns, saplings, palm, ginger, and fallen fruit, especially figs. It is of particular interest that the animals can live on a diet that contains no grass.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas have a high requirement for minerals. They visit mineral-rich hot springs and salt licks, and they even drink from the sea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The San Diego Zoo in the United States and Surabaya Zoo in Indonesia have successfully bred and reared the animals in captivity. The gestation period is 276-315 days, and there is generally only a single birth. The life expectancy is about 20-25 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas are shy animals, but they can be aggressive. The sideways and upwards stab of their straight, sharp horns can be dangerous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except when the cows are about to give birth, anoas apparently associate in pairs rather than in herds. They enjoy water and frequently wallow in mud. Their gait is a trot, but a times they make clumsy leaps. During the morning they feed alone. In the heat of the afternoon they seek refuge under shade trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On Sulawesi anoas are prized for their hide, horns, and meat. The flesh, especially that of calves, is tender and well flavored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although somewhat aggressive and pugnacious, anoas might make a suitable livestock animal. They grow and reproduce well in captivity and are adaptable and intelligent. Their small size makes them easier to handle than many other wild bovines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about the habits of these animals because of their wary nature, secluded environment, and restricted range. They can be tamed enough to obey commands ("lie down," for example) but they remain nervous and likely to butt strangers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surveys are needed throughout Sulawesi to determine the distribution and taxonomy of possible races of the two species, with a view to establishing a protected-area system that will ensure the survival of the genetic diversity of this group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is also needed on social organization and tameability, as well as on the anoa's biological relationship to the tamaraw and water buffalo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One target should be to build up the zoo populations of both species. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p68.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part IlI : Pig and Piglike Species</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In parts of Asia wild and feral pigs are often the most abundant source of meat. These animals are predominantly variants of the domestic pig, Sus scrofa, or of its ancestor, the Eurasian wild boar. Also contributing to the pig population are five Asian species:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bearded pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Sulawesi warty pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Javan warty pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Pigmy hog</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Babirusa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Southeast Asia hybridization between these species and common pigs has resulted in a confusing diversity of forms and interrelationships. Because of their value, these pigs have been spread since prehistoric times by traders and migrating peoples, creating odd and unpredictable distribution patterns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The species listed represent a gene pool of potential importance for the further development of one of man's most important sources of food. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many areas of the world, one must start with the native animals adapted to that environment. In many cases, they are the only animals the native human population can afford to begin with. And it is amazing the increased animal production that can result from the use of better production practices with them. TONY J. CUNHA, Dean Emeritus California State Polytechnic University Pomona, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitting the animal to the vegetation might be a better approach than trying to fit the vegetation to the animal, especially on ranges that have been changed or degraded by man. JAMES TEER, Director Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Austin, Texas, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is now widespread realization that breed importation is not necessarily the quickest route to increased animal production. Indigenous, adapted breeds should be examined more closely and, where necessary, steps should be taken to ensure conservation of at least some of them. HELEN NEWTON TURNER Genetics Research Laboratories, CSIRO, North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maximizing the animal harvest, essentially of animal protein, assumes in concept that all animals will be fully exploited in efficient and economic production systems. C.DEVENDRA Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Selangor, Malaysia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p70.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">11 The Bearded Pig</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it apparently has never been domesticated, the bearded pig (Sus barbatus) has a long history as an important resource in Southeast Asia. Human remains from the Niah Caves in Sarawak are accompanied by large numbers of its bones and teeth, indicating that 40,000 years ago it was the most commonly eaten large animal. Today in Sarawak and some other areas the bearded pig is still probably the most sought after source of wild meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bearded pigs are large. Boars measure 1-1.6 m in length (crown to rump), up to 1 m in height, and may weigh as much as 150 kg. Sows are smaller. Adult males have small facial warts (infraocular and preocular) and a bushy tuft of hair on the cheek. Both sexes vary in color from pale red-brown to yellow-brown or black. They have elongated skulls with longer, more flexible snouts than the common pig.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five subspecies are recognized. They range through the Philippines (Balabac, Palawan and offshore islands, Calamianes, Luzon, Mainit, Mindanao, Jolo, Mindoro, and Cebu) to Borneo, Bangka, Sumatra, the Riau Archipelago, and the Malay Peninsula.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Borneo subspecies (Sus barbatus barbatus) is still abundant in some parts of Sabah, Sarawak (including several wildlife reserves), and </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kalimantan. It remains an important food resource for some hill tribes, although with the spread of Islam, attitudes toward pork are changing in some areas. The Malayan subspecies (Sus barbatus of) is now rare in the Malay Peninsula. It is also becoming rare in Sumatra as the lowland forests are logged and broken up by commercial interests and as the human population expands. The status of the three Philippine subspecies is currently unknown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The bearded pig is most commonly found in both primary and secondary evergreen forests. However, it seems to have wide adaptability, and in Sarawak bearded pigs are found in virtually all habitats from the beaches to the upland rain forests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No biological research has yet been conducted on bearded pigs, but naturalists have made several observations. The pigs eat the seeds of trees (for example, those of species of Dipterocarpaceae and Fageceae), fallen fruits (of Moraceae, Bombacaceae, and other plant families), roots, stems of wild bananas, herbs, and probably earthworms, and along the coast they dig up and eat turtle eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Births occur throughout the year in Sabah, but the peak coincides with the fruiting season of forest trees, usually August-September. The litter size is from 3 to 11 piglets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p73.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No behavioral studies have been conducted, but observations suggest that bearded pigs are generally sedentary animals, although in some areas they congregate into large groups that may travel long distances together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The species might be used (alone or together with other pig species) as a local source of meat, or even as the foundation of a meat industry. The bearded pig is accustomed to living in groups, which may make it suitable for husbandry or game management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is evidence that the bearded pig will interbreed with the common pig, producing young in which both sexes are fertile.* The progeny might have considerable hybrid vigor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The bearded pig may have tolerance (if not actual resistance) to tropical diseases and conditions that affect the common pig. The species survives in areas of Southeast Asia where feral herds of common pigs are not common, apparently owing to their inability to cope with disease or other environmental challenges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No negative qualities have been reported, but the animal's biology, behavior, management, and potential uses are so far virtually unstudied.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aspects of the animal's general biology that should be investigated include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Chromosome type and variability, and chromosomal differences between the bearded pig and other wild and domesticated pig species</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Reproductive physiology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nutritional physiology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Social behavior (both in its wild state and under controlled conditions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To assist in the selective capture of young bearded pigs in the wild, external features that characterize the species at an early age need to be identified.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To assess the bearded pig's potential for contributing hybrid vigor, crossbreeding with other pig species should be attempted under controlled conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">12 The Sulawesi Warty Pig</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Sulawesi warty pig (Sus celebensis) is one of the world's few domesticated animals. It is maintained as a village or household animal in a few areas of Southeast Asia, such as on the Indonesian island of Roti. The common pigs of New Guinea and parts of the Moluccas group are hybrids between this species and the common pig.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sulawesi warty pigs are medium sized, averaging about 60 cm high and 40-70 kg. Boars are larger than females and have longer (10 cm) tusks on both jaws. Boars have three pairs of prominent facial warts: on the snout, the cheek, and on the angle of the jaw. In sows these warts are small or absent entirely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are usually red-brown with sharply marked white and yellow undersides; older animals have a round white spot (about 3 cm in diameter) on each side of the upper cheek. Piglets have horizontal stripes on the body, which disappear as they mature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The body is covered with scanty coarse hair, but stiff bristles, which become erect when the animal is alarmed, occur along the mid-dorsal line of the body. The longest and stiffest occur on the head and nape.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native to mainland Sulawesi and certain surrounding islands, the Sulawesi warty pig has been introduced to the Lesser Sunda Islands (Flores, Sumba, Roti, Semau, and Timor), the Moluccas (Malmahera and Buru), and Simaleue, a small island west of Sumatra. In some parts of the Philippines (for instance, Naujan and Mindoro Oriental) the animal either occur naturally or has been introduced. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids between the Sulawesi warty pig and the common domestic pig occur on New Guinea, Ternate, Morotai, Bacan, Amron, Seram, Kei island, Aru island, and Sulawatti.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many islands of eastern Indonesia, this species is widespread and common. In a few places it is extremely abundant, particularly at higher altitudes; in others, it has been greatly reduced by overhunting, deforestation, and expanding human settlement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Overall, however, Sulawesi warty pig populations are declining, probably due to increased hunting and to human alterations of the animal's habitats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This pig inhabits varied environments, including rain forest, mountain forest, grasslands, and agricultural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p77.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the common pig, the Sulawesi warty pig has broad dietary preferences. It feeds on roots, fallen fruit, leaves, and young shoots. The bulk of its food consists of vegetable materials, but it also feeds on earthworms, insects, aquatic invertebrates, rats, birds, and even carrion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The uterus and placenta are anatomically indistinguishable from those of the common pig. The litter size is from 2 to 8 piglets, with an average of 5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sows can give birth throughout the year, but usually have their young in April or May. The gestation period is about 4 months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding and farrowing occur in the forest and in open Imperata cylindrica grasslands. The pregnant female makes a nest of grasses, leaves, twigs, and branches, which she collects and places over a hole (approximately 2 m long) that she has previously dug. Here she gives birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Foraging is the main activity of the day and usually takes up several hours, mainly in the early morning and evening. In the wild the pigs travel in small groups, the young always traveling with an adult female. On the move, warty pigs feed and rest intermittently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a source of meat the Sulawesi warty pig has been recognized and exploited by local populations since prehistoric times. The presence of feral specimens far outside the pigs' natural range indicates that traders or migrants have long carried it with them on voyages, either as domestic stock or as wild specimens to be released for later capture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tusks, which can be carved like ivory, are a resource for local artisans. Wild specimens are suitable for sport hunting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a body of unrecorded indigenous experience with this animal as a domesticate, but the information needs to be collected and appraised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Sulawesi warty pig may be expected to possess resistance or tolerance to the many diseases prevalent in its native habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is promising potential for hybridization between this species and domestic pigs, which might lead to the improvement of common pigs in tropical regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from the unwritten knowledge of the indigenous people who raise the species, very little information is available on the characteristics and management of this animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The genetic variability within the species, as well as the karyotypic differences with common pigs and other Sus species, should be defined. Further, the hybrid vigor resulting from crossbreeding with other Sus species should be- quantified under controlled conditions. Apart from producing potentially important heat-tolerant livestock, crossbreeding may shed important light on the origins of the common pig in Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal's nutritional requirements and reproductive biology also need study. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p79.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">13 Javan Warty Pig</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Javan warty pig (Sus verrucosus) apparently has never been domesticated, but it has been a resource for hunting peoples for centuries. Now, however, the human population in its native region is predominantly Moslem, and all pigs are widely regarded as agricultural pests. Increasing numbers of them are poisoned each year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Javan warty pig can be up to 1.35 m long and 0.9 m tall. Mature males usually weigh between 80 and 120 kg; females are only half that weight - an unusually dramatic example of sexual dimorphism. The animal has a markedly elongated face with large warts, particularly the infraorbital wart and the smaller preorbital and mandibular warts. Body hairs can be black, red, or yellow, with black tips.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is found only on the Indonesian islands of Java and Bawean. It was formerly found on Madura as well, but because of deforestation it is now thought to be extinct there. Two extant subspecies are recognized. The nominate one, Sus verrucosus verrucosus, occurs on mainland Java. The second, Sus verrucosus blouchi, a smaller animal, has recently been described on Bawean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For years it was thought that the Javan warty pig was extinct in the wild, but in October 1981 a herd was found in a small area on Mount Penanggungan in East Java. This population may prove to be substantial, and there is reason to hope that other populations can be found. Overall, however, it is clear that the Javan warty pig is endangered and declining in numbers. In many areas the animals are subjected to uncontrolled poisoning and hunting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five new reserves have recently been proposed to protect the animal in a variety of habitats because it is not found in appreciable numbers in any of Java's nature reserves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Bawean subspecies is believed to be relatively secure since the establishment of a large reserve.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A breeding colony of 12 Javan warty pigs at the Surabaya Zoo includes 5 young ones born in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitats of the Javan warty pig appear to be confined to elevations below about 800 m. The animals prefer relatively large expanses of grassland or secondary vegetation, where human population is sparse. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p82.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The piglets can be born throughout the year; in one study of 8 sows the litter size ranged from 2 to 8, with a mean of 5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The (diploid) chromosome number has been found to be 38, the same as that of the common pig. Hybridization between these species is thought to occur in the wild, but apparently not with enough frequency to contaminate the Javan warty pig gene pool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unreported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are omnivorous, adaptable animals that might make useful domesticates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The small size of the sows could make this species particularly appropriate for households or smallholder farms. The animal's genetic "distance" from the domestic pig may make it a useful generator of hybrid vigor in crossbreeds. It could have particular value because its meat is much leaner than pork from the common pig.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The numbers in the wild are now too few to permit any cropping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efforts should be directed towards locating and breeding up the Javan warty pig populations that still exist. An immediate need is to isolate pure populations in reserves because it is essential to protect the animal from crossbreeding with other species. In addition, current specimens in zoos should be cataloged and a breeding program established. Other captive breeding colonies should also be started.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to determine the genetic differences between the Javan warty pig and the common pig, as well as the levels of existing hybridization between them. It is also necessary to determine what variation in karyotype may exist within the populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basic ecological and behavioral studies are needed, as well as studies of the dietary requirements, growth rates, and nutritional physiology of captive specimens. The reproductive biology of the animal should be studied, and the possibility of crossbreeding it with other Sus species should be examined under controlled conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Javan warty pig's potential for local meat production should be evaluated. The benefit to rural people of converting an agricultural pest into a profitable source of income should be explored within the local religious context. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p84.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">14 Pigmy Hog</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog (Sus salvanius), a shy and very small pig of northeastern India, is close to extinction because of hunters and the destruction of its habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog is only about 60 cm long, with a shoulder height of about 25 cm and a body weight of less than 10 kg. The hair is medium brown on the sides, darkening to blackish brown along the mid-dorsal line. A facial band of short, dark hair extends from the bridge of the nose to below the eye. The tiny tail is only 3 cm long.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal was once widely found along the southern foothills of the Himalayas; today, it is definitely known to occur in only one area, the Manas National Park in Assam.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy hogs are seriously endangered; in the wild they are close to extinction. Captive animals are now reduced to a single male in the Assam State Zoo and four male siblings in the Zurich Zoo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The few remaining pigmy hogs mainly inhabit tall-grass savannas, but it seems likely that they could adapt to other environments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy hog. (W.L.R. Oliver)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is omnivorous and consumes roots, tubers, grass, leaves, insects, earthworms, eggs, and carrion. While foraging, it undoubtedly consumes large quantities of earth as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chromosome number, 38, is the same as that of the common pig. The karyotype is similar to that the common pig, but small, significant differences have been demonstrated using chromosome banding techniques.*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The age at puberty, time of weaning, length of gestation and estrous cycle, and season of breeding are not yet known with certainty. However, the animal is known to have a single well-defined birth peak (April/May) that coincides with the onset of the rainy season when the food supply increases. The uterus and placenta are anatomically similar to those of the common pig. The litter size varies from 2 to 6. It is not known if the animal can be crossbred with the common pig.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p87.png"></center><br>
+ Distribution of pigmy hog. (W.L.R. Oliver)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are shy, but can be tamed. They tend to forage and run in groups. Nest building is carried out by both males and females and is not restricted to pre-farrowing periods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is no evidence that the pigmy hog has ever been domesticated; it has, however, been extensively hunted and trapped, and recently it was still being sold for human consumption. There would probably be no inherent difficulty in maintaining this species in husbandry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog's small size may make it useful in studies of the physiology of pigs and like mammals. In particular, a study of the uterine capacity may contribute to our understanding of the maternal factors that influence the number and size of mammalian young at birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is unknown if the animal carries genetic resistance to diseases of the domestic pig, but given its habitat, such resistance seems likely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The small numbers of surviving pigmy hogs obviate any consideration of its use in husbandry at the present time. Moreover, its nervous temperament might restrict its potential as a domesticate. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is essential to ensure the survival of this animal. Efforts should be directed towards locating and breeding up the populations that still exist. If its habitat could be protected by preventing the annual dry-season burning of grasses, it is possible that substantial populations could be established. Attempts should also be made to acquire two or more females as mates for the male pigmy hogs at the Assam and Zurich zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also an urgent need to ensure that the animals breed successfully in captivity, and the wealth of international expertise in pig reproduction should be applied to that end. For example, the reproductive biology of the animal could be studied by swine experts; the age at puberty, the length of the estrous cycle, the season of breeding (and whether it is influenced by light or temperature), the length of gestation, and time of weaning all need to be determined.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is an omnivore, but the physiology of its digestion has not been studied. Thus, its nutritive requirements are not well enough known to ensure its survival in captivity or reserves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiments should be made to determine if pigmy hog embryos can be brought to term in the uterus of the common pig. If so, such embryo transfers could be used to distribute embryos and set up new herds, lessening the risk of this species" extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p88.png"></center><br>
+ Adult male of the common pig (wild boar Sus scrofa) and pigmy hog drawn to the same scale. (W.L.R. Oliver) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">15 The Babirusa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa) is a piglike animal whose closest relative appears to be an ancestral animal that lived in Europe 35 million years ago. It is easily tamed, and in its native area there is an ancient tradition of raising young babirusa for meat and for the males' unique tusks. The animal appears to reproduce well in captivity, and with good management techniques it might gain wide use in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male babirusa can be up to 110 cm long and 80 cm tall and weigh up to 100 kg; females are smaller. The male has large upper canines that grow upwards, piercing right through the flesh of the snout and curving back and downwards towards the forehead without ever entering the mouth. The female may sometimes have small upper canines projecting through the skin of the upper lip.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is more slender than a pig of similar size. It has a gray or brown-grey skin color, although one subspecies, Babyrousa babyrussa babyrussa, has light body hair that is fawn colored or black.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa is unique to a few islands of eastern Indonesia: north, central, and southeast Sulawesi, the Togian Islands, and the Sula (Taliabu and Sulabesi) and Buru Islands. On Sula and Buru it is probably not native but was introduced in prehistoric times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On Sulawesi the babirusa remains abundant, despite hunting and the widespread clearing of the forest. Nevertheless, disturbances created by wood and rattan collectors, hunters, loggers, and farmers threaten the babirusa's survival. Throughout the rest of its range, it is also vulnerable to extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biologists are particularly concerned about some of the babirusa subspecies. The one from the north of mainland Sulawesi, Babyrousa babyrussa celebensis, is still relatively abundant in places and is probably in no immediate danger. The Togian Islands' subspecies, Babyrousa babyrussa togeanensis, is abundant in small islands but is threatened by Indonesia's settlement programs and deforestation. The Buru and Sula Islands subspecies, Babyrousa babyrussa babyrussa, may already be extinct; there have been no confirmed sightings in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1981, there were 26 male and 27 female babirusa held in six zoo collections; 22 of these animals are in the Surabaya Zoo in Indonesia, where they breed well. Most, if not all, are believed to belong to the mainland Sulawesi race.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals mainly inhabit moist forests at low altitudes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p91.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Precise details of babirusa biology are unknown, but the stomach has an extra sac, suggesting that the animals may have some ability to break down cellulose. Indeed, they browse leaves, a behavior more often found in a deer than in a pig, and have been referred to as "ruminant pigs." Babirusa also live on roots, berries, and grubs, making them true omnivores. Compared to other pigs, they do little rooting, and in captivity their enclosures remain quite grassy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Babirusa are said to be sexually mature at 5-10 months, but this depends on nutrition. Gestation length is about 158 days. One or two young are produced although there are some reports of litters of three.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One specimen was kept for 24 years in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa is a social animal that moves in groups. A retiring native of the dense jungle, it is a fast runner and swims readily. Mating behavior in captivity generally resembles that of domestic pig. Evidence from zoo animals suggests that the male must be removed from the young at birth but that by the time they are a month old the young are safe from paternal attack.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When captured young or reared in captivity, the babirusa is easily tamed. It has potential as a domesticated species, and with appropriate management may provide a useful source of meat. The meat is tasty and of good quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its unique tusks, the skull of the male finds ready markets. This could provide additional income to farmers raising babirusa for meat. The ivory of the tusks could also be a resource for local artisans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the anatomy of the stomach suggests that the babirusa may be able to make more efficient use of fibrous foodstuffs than other pigs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa produces only one or two young after a gestation period of just over five months; it may therefore take considerable time to build up herds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the babirusa is easily tamed, it is not known whether it can be husbanded in large groups. Also, present lack of knowledge of the animal's nutrition may restrict its husbandry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of animals in the wild is decreasing, and attempts should be made to determine their exact status. Particular attention should be paid to the subspecies Babyrousa babyrussa togeanensis and Babyrousa babyrussa babyrussa. Captive breeding programs for these subspecies should be started.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p93.png"></center><br>
+ When seen in longitudinal section, the stomach of babirusa presents striking similarities  to that of a relatively simple ruminant such as the domestic sheep. Every part except the  omasum, even including a rudimentary reticulum, is represented and occupies the same  relative position. The babirusa stomach differs from that of the domestic pig chiefly in  the enormous size of the diverticulum ventriculi, the prominence of the constrictions  that delimit its three main divisions, and in the size and complexity of the cardia. Regions  corresponding to parts of the ruminant stomach are labeled in brackets. (Information  from Davis, 1940; diagram courtesy Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild populations should be maintained in several regions to ensure that  the species" genetic base is retained. Advantage could be taken of the large  number of islands in eastern Indonesia to establish reserves for the different  babirusa subspecies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currently, little is known about the biology of the animal in the wild its  diet, social behavior, or reproductive performance are almost unstudied. In  view of the relatively small number of babirusa in zoos and the scarcity of  information about the animal's growth rate and general biology, coordinated  studies between zoos could provide much basic information. It has been  suggested that a studbook be initiated for this species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear from chromosome analysis that this pig differs markedly in  its karyotype from that of other pigs. However, more anatomical and  biochemical knowledge is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basic parameters of the animal's reproductive physiology are not known.  Questions to be answered include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can the babirusa be induced to reproduce twice per year?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can babirusa embryos be developed to term in the uterus of the domestic  pig? If so, can the number of babirusas be rapidly multiplied in this way?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Does the babirusa genotypic and gestation-length difference with the  common pig prevent the two from successfully crossbreeding? And if  crossbreeding can be achieved, will the progeny be fertile?  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p94.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part IV : Recommendations and  General Research  Needs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Asian animals described in this report are a natural resource whose  potential is barely glimpsed. They are virtually unknown to established  livestock interests and there has been little thought to developing them as  livestock. As a result, the research and trials that could lead to further use of  these animals is scattered, small scale, and conducted outside the mainstream  of livestock science, mainly by wildlife conservationists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet these animals seem worth considering for use in husbandry in many  tropical regions, especially where poor grazing and harsh environments limit  the performance of conventional livestock. There is a pressing need for  research to develop these species and to explore their potential. Only through  rapid action can many of them be kept available for study and possible  inclusion in agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One suggestion is that funds be provided to establish an Asian  native-livestock research-support team. Its primary purpose would be to  assist in the funding of research projects and to coordinate research being  done in various Asian countries. The team's goal would be to establish a  network of animal scientists based at institutions in Asia and elsewhere to  work cooperatively on the region's little-known bovines and pigs. In this  manner, relatively small sums of money could be used to stimulate and  coordinate Asia-wide research on indigenous animals.*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basic Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The time has come for basic studies on each of the 15 animals discussed in  this book. For each species, the following areas should be investigated:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Physiology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Reproductive requirements and fertility</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nutritional requirements (such as food preferences, feeding strategies, and food utilization)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Growth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Adaptability and environmental tolerance (for instance, water balance, sweat rate, and shade-seeking habits, as well as temperature, pulse, and respiration rates, both under normal conditions and heat stress)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Diseases</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. Management (including stocking rates and other production characteristics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Genetic selection for calm temperament, quick growth, and other desirable qualities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crossbreeding to take advantage of hybrid vigor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Social structure (for example population density and distribution, social organization, leadership, herding potential, aggressiveness of bulls)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Habitat characteristics (behavior-habitat interactions and herd dynamics, for instance).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies are also needed on better utilization of products, such as milk, meat, hides, horn, and hair, from these animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experimental transfer of fertilized eggs of all of these animals into domestic species should be explored with a view to establishing herds in secure and disease-free areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efforts specific to domesticated and wild species, and to hybrids of these species, are discussed below. The report concludes with brief discussions of a few promising species not taken up in the body of the text.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated Species Improving Performance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little data is available on the performance of the domesticated animals discussed in this report. Yet the main value of these species lies in the new and superior genes and gene combinations that can be adapted to animal production in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies need to be conducted with the indigenous species and strains in their native countries to determine if they will respond to improved conditions with improved performance. These projects could provide opportunities for geneticists and animal breeders to improve livestock production while conducting challenging basic research. It would be helpful to establish studbooks of captive specimens and to select and breed for desirable genetic qualities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetic improvement must be directed towards remedying production deficiencies. Methods include selection of superior breeding animals, crossbreeding, and combinations of selection and crossbreeding. Different genetic improvement techniques will be required for each species. Progress should be regularly monitored against the unselected animals and the domestic livestock breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Introductions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical countries should import breeding stock to evaluate the performance of some of these Asian animals in the local environment. Strict quarantine procedures must, of course, be observed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Special emphasis should be placed on the domesticated banteng of eastern Indonesia. These animals are already an important source of human food and they may have considerable potential for increasing production elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild Animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild animals contribute extensively to the welfare of people and economies of developing countries. In many areas they supply much of the animal protein consumed. But the contributions they make are largely unrecorded, and local officials and aid agencies seldom regard wildlife as an economic resource. As a result, few developing countries have analyzed how their people use indigenous animals for subsistence, and few nutritional studies recognize "bushmeat," although large numbers of people eat it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife's contribution justifies more detailed and precise evaluations. In many tropical regions few people even know what species are present, let alone in what numbers. Ecologists and animal scientists should be employed to identify and collect data on the fauna of the tropical forests and how it is used by local people. Their work will provide baseline information on the species present and on the potential utility of the undisturbed natural ecosystems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initial Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All wildlife utilization must be based on a thorough knowledge of the resource, its numbers, the animals' condition, annual recruitment in the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">various populations, and the seasonal movements of the herds. In addition, it is important to understand the interactions of the species with its habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thus, the immediate need is for action to assure the preservation of populations of these animals until research studies can be conducted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard, priority actions include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establishing adequate preserves</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Providing total protection for remaining animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Preventing poaching.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With few exceptions, the wild species described in this report are under the pressures of agricultural and human expansion. Without efforts to preserve their habitats it will be difficult for these species to survive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing Wildlife Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments cannot stop hungry people from hunting game, but they can use this impetus to help protect some indigenous animals as well as forest and woodland habitats. Fostering the production and supply of wild animals such as those described in this book could open up a new: source of meat and other products, particularly for subsistence farmers in remote areas. In the last analysis, this may be the only way of protecting and maintaining these animals and developing local awareness of their value.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International economic development organizations have traditionally shown little interest in wildlife or wildlife habitats. Yet maintaining these animals and their habitats is crucial to the continuing supply of many indigenous food animals, the most important of which are often the smaller ones that flourish in secondary growth. And the forests that support wildlife also protect some of the huge investments that AID, the World Bank, and other other agencies have made to help developing countries. The forest is the sponge that absorbs the water from tropical rains. Without trees covering the watersheds, heavy rains cause rushing water that erodes the land, despoils highways, silts up dams and reservoirs, knocks out bridges, and inundates towns, villages, and farm fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In principle, the farming of tropical wildlife could become a force in preventing clear-felling of the tropical forests. Rational utilization of tropical animals offers productive alternative use of the land. In some cases, the farming of indigenous animals can fit smoothly into tropical habitats and into traditional village life, because the livestock and its needs are usually familiar to local people and are often ingrained in their traditions.( For successful examples see companion reports nos. 44 and 45, Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea and Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrid Animals)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybridization may offer new prospects for using underexploited tropical animal resources. This is a speculative notion, but it deserves serious attention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossbreeding between the animals mentioned in this report holds exciting possibilities for expanding livestock options in the tropics. Some of the crosses, known or envisaged, are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· gaur x cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· banteng x cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· kouprey x cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· yak x cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· yak x banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· anoa x water buffalo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· tamaraw x water buffalo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· domestic pig x warty pigs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· warty pigs x bearded pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Care must be taken, however, to guard against the dilution of wild genes by the escape of hybrid or interbreeding domestic species, or the establishment of feral hybrid populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Exchange of Pig Germ Plasm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Present veterinary restrictions effectively prevent the movement of pigs between most countries. Relatively few species of wild pigs are therefore maintained in zoos outside their countries of origin. This stifles the promising potential for the species described in Part III, as well as for captive-breeding safeguards and research on the endangered species. It is important that attempts be made to identify channels for the future establishment of viable captive stocks both within Asia and elsewhere. Transfer of embryos should be verified as a means of permitting disease-free movement across frontiers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species Not Covered in this Report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This project, which began as a short report on banteng, quickly developed momentum as it brought in suggestion after suggestion of further species. Through pressures of time and budget, it was not possible to take up all of these interesting animals. Some of the omitted ones are listed below. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Takin (Budorcas taxicolor).* A heavily built, Southeast Asian hoofed mammal of the family Bovidae, the takin lives in small herds in the mountains, often above timberline. Though robust and short-legged, it can move about quickly and easily over difficult slopes. It stands up to about 1 m at the shoulder and has a shaggy yellowish- to blackish-brown coat. Both sexes have heavy horns that turn outward from the center of the forehead and then curve up and backward.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goral (Naemorhedus goral).* This small Asian goatlike bovine has slightly backward curving cylindrical horns and a coarse brownish-grey coat. It is related to the chamois and serow (see below) but is distinguished from them by peculiarities in skull form, as well as by smaller size, shorter horns, and the absence of face glands. Gorals are native to a vast area, ranging from the Himalayas to eastern Siberia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serow (Capricorhis sumatrensis). The serow has been called a "goatantelope." Found in Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Vietnam, Thailand, Burma, the eastern Himalayas, and China, it lives on forest-clad slopes, such as the mountains of southern China that are the home of the giant panda. Serows have coarse black hair, long pointed ears, a distinct mane, and short, backward pointing horns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native species of goats are also valuable genetic resources of Asia and examples include ibex (Capra ibex), markhor (Capra falconeri), and bharal (Pseudois nayaur). There are also various species of sheep, including the various races of argalis (Ovis ammon), which form small herds in the mountains, often above timberline. Although robust and short-legged, these animals can move about quickly and easily over difficult slopes. Soviet animal breeders apparently are exploring some of the possibilities of using argalis in animal husbandry. They are crossing domestic sheep with arkhar (Ovis ammon karelini) to produce a commercially viable hybrid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The marketable size of lamb might be increased appreciably to provide larger, leaner cuts of meat by crossing domestic sheep with the Marco Polo sheep (Ovis ammon polii), which is as big as deer and has a mature body weight of 400-500 pounds. Marco Polo sheep meat is reported to have none of the "mutton" favor of domestic sheep. Thus, crosses might enhance consumer acceptance of sheep meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia also has several species of deer that could have been included.§ The musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) is now domesticated in China for musk production and is a resource with a promising future. Also, sambar deer (Cervus unicolor), Asia's largest deer, may prove useful in husbandry. Several deer species are being farmed in New Zealand and ruse deer (Cervus rusa), which are native to South and Southeast Asia, are being farmed in Mauritius, Australia, and Papua New Guinea for meat and medicinal by-products. Two small, goat-sized Asian deer, the hog deer (Cervus porcinus) and the barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), may also be worth considering. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p101.png"></center><br>
+ KOUPREY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Selected Readings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bohlken, H. 1961. Haustiere und Zoologische Systematik. Zeitschrift fur Tierzuchtung und Zuchtungsbiologie76:107-113.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul, and J. A. McNeely. 1977. Mammals of Thailand. Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand. 758 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corbet, G. B., and J. E. Hill. 1980. A World List of Mammalian Species. British Museum of Natural History, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gray, A. P. 1972. Mammalian Hybrids: A Check-List with Bibliography. Commonwealth Technical Communication No. 10 (Rev.). Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Edinburgh, Scotland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honacki, J. H., K. E. Kinman, and J. W. Koeppl. 1982. Mammal Species of the World. Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas, USA. 694 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mochi, U. and T. D. Carter. 1953. Hoofed Mammals of the World. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Payne, W. J. A. 1970. Cattle Production in the Tropics. Longman, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robbins, C. T. In Press. Wildlife Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, New York, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Walker, E. P. 1975. Mammals of the World. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, USA, and London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wharton, C. H. 1969. Man, fire and wild cattle in Southeast Asia. Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference 8: 107-167.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated and Wild Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appleton, D. C., G. Dryden, and A. C. Kondos. 1976. A comparison of the digestive efficiency of the water buffalo and Brahman and Banteng cattle. In Proceedings of the Australian Society of Animal Production 11.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Budiarso, I. T., and S. Hardjosworo. 1976. Jembrana disease in Bali cattle. Australian Veterinary Journal 52(2):97.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copland, R. S. 1974. Observations on banteng cattle in Sabah. Tropical Animal Health and Production 6(2):89-94.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Darmadja, D., and P. Sutedja. 1975. Gestation period and calving interval in Bali cattle. Majalah Ilmiah Universitas Udayana 9:61 -65.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Darmadja, D., and P. Sutedja. 1976. Masa kebuntingan den interval beranak padas sapi Bali. In Proceedings, Seminar Reproduksi den Performance Sapi Bali, April 5-6, 1976. Dinas Peternakan Daerah Ternak Institute, Bali, Indonesia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C., T. Lee Kok Choc, and M. Pathmasingam. 1973. The productivity of Bali cattle in Malaysia. Malaysian Agricultural Journal 49(2):183-197.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holmes, J. H. C., J. H. Schottler, and T. F. Leche. 1977. Southeast Asian cattle, buffalo, and beef in Papua New Guinea. In Agriculture in the Tropics, B. A. C. Enyi and T. H. Varghese, eds. University of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoogerwerf, A. 1970. Udjung Kulan, The Land of the Last Javan Rhinoceros. E. J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hooijer, D. A. 1956. The valid name of the banteng Bibos javanicus d'Alton. Zoologische Mededelingenuitgegeven door het Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie te Leiden 34:223-226.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jellinek, P. J., J. Avenell, A. Thahar, and P. Sitorus. 1980. Infertility associated with crossbreeding of Bali cattle. In Proceedings, 2nd Ruminant Seminar, Ciawi, Indonesia. 79 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jenkinson, D. M., and T. Nay. 1975. The sweat glands and hair follicles of different species of Bovidae. Australian Journal of Biological Science 28:55-68.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kirby, G. W. M. 1979. Bali cattle in Australia. World Animal Review 31 :24-29.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, 1. L. In Press. Evolution of Domesticated Animals. Longman, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meijer, W. C. P. 1962. Das Balirind (Balinese Cattle). Die Neue Brehm-Bucherei, No. 303, A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg Lutherstadt, Federal Republic of Germany. (Translated from the Dutch by E. Mohr.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1973a. Liveweight changes of Brahman cross, Shorthorn, Banteng and buffalo steers grazing improved pastures at Darwin, Northern Territory. Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science 39:68-9.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1973b. Heat tolerance of Brahman cross, buffalo Banteng and Shorthorn steers during exposure to sun and as a result of exercise. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 24:775-782.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1978. Digestibility and water metabolism in Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers fed roughage diets. Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science 44: 57-59.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1980. The prediction of chemical content of the whole carcass from the physically-dissected rib in cattle and buffaloes. Proceedings of the Australian Society of Animal Production 13:503.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1981. Beef and buffalo production by smallholders in Indonesia. World Review of Animal Production 17:55-64.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1982. The performance of Indonesian beef breeds under traditional and improved management systems. Pp. 347-351 in Animal Production and Health in the Tropics, M. R. Jainudeen and A. R. Omar, eds. Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B., B. W. Norton, and J. V. Nolan. 1979. The intake, digestibility and utilization of a low quality roughage by Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 30:333-340.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Namikawa, T., and W. Widodo. 1978. Electrophoretic variations of hemoglobin and serum albumin in the Indonesian cattle including Bali cattle (Bos banteng). Japanese Journal of Zootechnical Science 49(11):817-827.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M., K. Rika, M. Supardjata, K. D. Nurbudhi, and L. R. Humphreys. 1976. Productivity of improved pastures grazed by Bali cattle under coconuts: a preliminary report. Universitas Udayana, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia. 18 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M., and K. Rika. 1978. Bali cattle grazing improved pasture under coconuts. 1. Effects of stocking rate on steer performance and coconut yield. In Seminar on Integration of Animals with Plantation Crops, April 13-15. Preprint No. 10. Penang, Indonesia. 8 pp</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M. 1979a. Effects of replacing 30 percent of the green roughage with concentrate on the performance of Bali steer. Progress report to the International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada. Centre file:3-P77-0087. 25 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M. 1979b. Performance of Bali cattle fed grass supplemented with stylosanthes. Progress report to the International Foundation for Science, Sweden. Project No. RR 76. 15 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M., K. Lana, 1. B. Sudana, N. Sutji, and 1. C. N. Sarka. I980. Persediaan den kebutuhan hijauan ternak di Bali (Roughage supply and requirement of livestock in </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bali). Fakultas Kedokteran Hewan den Peternakan, Universitas Udayana, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia. 218 pp. (Report series mimeograph.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Norton, B. W., J. B. Moran, and J. V. Nolan. 1979. Nitrogen metabolism in Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers fed on low quality roughage. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 30:341.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nursamad, M. 1972. Berat lahir den petumbuhan anak sapi Bali selama 4 bulan di kecamatan Watang Pulu, kabupaten Sidenreng, Sulawesi Selatan. Laporan, Fakultas Peternakan Universitas Hasanuddin yang berafinasi dengan Fakultas Peternakan Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pastika, M., and D. Darmadja. 1976. Performance reproduksi sapi Bali. In Proceedings, Seminar Reproduksi den Performance Sapi Bali, April 5-6, 1976. Dinas Peternakan Daerah Ternak Institut, Bali, lndonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Payne, W. J. A., and D. H. L. Rollinson. 1973. Bali cattle. World Animal Review 7: 13-21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pulungan, H., and K. Ma'sum. 1977. Performance sapi Bali den hasil persilangannya dengan sapi Hereford den Shorthorn. Laporan Khusus Lembaga Penelitian Peternakan, Cabang Grati 1977 (Abstract).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977. Livestock in Indonesia. Research Report No. 1. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siebert, B. D., and W. V. MacFarlane. 1969. Body water content and water turnover of tropical Bos taurus, Bos indicus, Bibos banteng, and Bos bubalus bubalis. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 20:613-622.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siregar, M. G., and 1. M. Suparjata. 1975. A half century existence of Bali cattle in South Sulawesi. Majalah llmiah Universitas Udayana 9: 13-21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Subandriyo, P. Sitorus, M. Zulbardi, and A. Roesyat. 1979. Performance of Bali cattle, as work animals and milk and beef producers. Indonesian Agricultural Research and Development Journal 1(1/2):9-10, 24.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sutedja, P., M. Kota, 1. B. Mantra, and D. Darmadja. 1976. Progress report beberapa performance pada sapi Bali. In Proceedings, Seminar Reproduksi den Performance Sapi Bali, April 5-6, 1976. Dinas Peternakan Daerah Ternak Institut, Bali, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thahar, A., J. B. Moran, and J. T. Wood. In press. Studies on the haemotology of Indonesian large ruminants. Tropical Animal Health and Production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thahar, A., J. B. Moran, and R. E. Soerifpo. In press. Observations on the hair and skin of Indonesian large ruminants and their relationships to heat tolerance. SABRAO Journal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vercoe, J. E., and J. E. Frisch. 1977. The importance of voluntary feed intake and metabolic rate to production in different genotypes of cattle in different environments. Pp. I(c)-42 in Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress of the Society for the Advancement of Breeding Researchers in Asia and Oceania, Canberra, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yeates, N. T. M., and P. J. Schmidt. 1974. Beef Cattle Production. Butterworths Pty Ltd., Chatswood, Sydney, Australia. 323 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng Cattle Hybrids</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Payne, W. J. A., and D. H. L. Rollinson. 1976. Madura cattle. Zeitschrift fur Tiezuchtung und Zuchtungsbiologie 93:89-100.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simoons, F. J., and E. S. Simoons. 1968. A Ceremonial Ox of India: The Mithan in Nature, Culture, and History. The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, 1. L. In Press. Evolution of Domesticated Animals. Longman, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scheurmann, E. 1975. Observations on the behaviour of the mithan (Bibos frontalis Lambert 1837) in captivity. Applied Animal Ethology I :321 -355. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yak and Yakow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Accolas, J. P., and J. P. Deffontaines. 1970. Quelques donnees sur l'elevage du Yak en Republique Populaire de Mongolie. Pp. 133-141 in The Yak: Its Role in the Economic and Cultural Life of Breeders in Central Asia. Societe d'Ethnozootechnie, 25 Boulevard Arago, 75013 Paris, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bonadonna, T. 1970. Nuove possibilita per la Zootechnia dei tropic). Zootecnica e Veterinaria 25:202-221.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bonnemaire, J. 1976. Le Yak domestique et son hybridation. Pp. 46-77 in The Yak: Its Role in the Economic and Cultural Life of Breeders in Central Asia. Societe d'Ethnozootechnie, Paris, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dor, R. 1976. Note sur le Yak au Pamir. Pp. 126-131 in The Yak: Its Role in the Economic and Cultural Life of Breeders in Central Asia. Societe d'Ethnozootechnie, Paris, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ekvall, R. B. 1968. Fields on the Hoof: Nexus of Tibetan Nomadic Pastoralism. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Epstein, H. 1974. Yak and chauri. World Animal Review 9:8-12.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Epstein, H. 1977. Yak and Yak-cattle hybrids. Chapter 3 in Domestic Animals of Nepal. Holmes and Meier Publishers, Inc., New York, USA, and London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivanova, V. V. 1938. K voprosu izucenija plodovitosti samvoc gibridov jaka s rogatym skotom (On the fertility of male yak x cattle hybrids). Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya Biologicheskaya 883-884.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R. W., R. G. Johnson, and R. T. Moyer. 1945. The livestock of China. Pp. 67-76 in United States Department of State Publication No. 2249; Far Eastern Series 9.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R. W., I. A. Tolstoy, and R. G. Johnson. 1946. Yaks and Yak-cattle hybrids in Asia. The Journal of Heredity 37(6): 162-170; 37(7):206-215.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schley, P. 1967. Der Yak und seine Kreuzung mit dem Rind in der Sowjetunion. Giessener Abhandlungen zur Agrar- und Wirtschaftsforschung des Europaischen Ostens, Vol. 44. Otto Harassowitz, Weisbaden, Federal Republic of Germany. 131 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shahrani, M. Nazif Mohib. 1979. The Kirghiz and Wakki of Afghanistan. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington, USA. 264 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vlasov, P., S. Gersenzon, and A. Poljakov. 1932. Gibridizacija mezdu jakom i krupnym rogatym skotom (Hybrids between yak and cattle). Problemy Zhivotnovodstva (1):48-57.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">White, W. T., R. W. Phillips, and E. C. Elting. 1946. Yaks and Yak-cattle hybrids in Alaska. Journal of Heredity 37:355-358.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zawadowsky, M. M. 1931. Zebu-Yak hybrids. Journal of Heredity 22:297.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zuitin, A. I. 1938. New data on the chromosome number in yak (Poephagus grunniens L.). Doklady Akademii Nauk Uzbekskoi SSR 19:201-202.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A unique, interesting film showing wild banteng, gaur and kouprey in Cambodia in 1951</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">is available for hire from The Coolidge Foundation, 38 Standley Street, Beverly, Massachusetts 01915, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul and J. A. McNeely. 1977. Mammals of Thailand. Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand. 758 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H., and E. Scheurmann. 1977. Cytogenetic investigations on domestic and wild animal populations in South and Southeast Asia. Animal Research and Development 6:63-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Halder, U. 1975. Okologie und Verhalten des banteng (Bos javanicus) in Java. Eine Feldstudie. Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg and Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany. 124 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoogerwerf, A. 1974. Report on a Visit to Wildlife Reserves in East Java. Mededelingen No. 21. Nederlandsche Commissie voor Internationale Natuurbescherming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McNeely, J. A. 1975. Wildlife and national parks in the Lower Mekong Basin. Unpub</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">lished report to the Committee for the Coordination of Investigations of the Lower  Mekong Basin, Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, Bangkok, Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sumardja, E. A. 1976. The relationships between banteng Bos javanicus (d'Alton) and  vegetation at the Pananjung-Pangandaran Nature Reserve. Research Grant No. 1237/  TF/VI/74. Preliminary Study Internal Report Biotrop. Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wind, J., and H. Amir. 1977. Distribution of banteng (Bos javanicus) in Java and Bali,  Indonesia. Unpublished ms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wind, J., and H. Amir. 1977. Management Plan Baluran Reserve FAO INS/73/013.  Nature Conservation and Wildlife Management Project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaur</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul. 1965. The gaur. (Bos gaurus). Conservation News of South East  Asia 5:7-10.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul and J. A. McNeely. 1977. Mammals of Thailand. Association for the  Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand. 758 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conry, P. J. 1980. The impact of development and the behavioural response of the  Malaysian seladang. Pp. 279-286 in Tropical Ecology and Development, Proceedings  Fifth International Symposium of Tropical Ecology. International Society of Tropical  Ecology, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conry, P. J. 1981. Habitat selection and use, movements, and home range of Malayan  gaur (Bos gaurus hubbacki) in Central Pahang, Malaysia. M.S. thesis. University of  Montana, Missoula, Montana, USA. 120 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conry, P. J. (In press) Immobilizing Malayan gaur with etorphine. Journal of Wildlife  Management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H. 1975. The water buffalo and related species as important genetic resources:  their conservation, evaluation and utilization. In The Asiatic Water Buffalo.  Proceedings of an International Symposium, Khon Kaen, Thailand. Food and Fertilizer  Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H. 1980. Hybrids between Gaur and Gayal and between Gayal and Banteng as  zoological rarities in Thailand. Animal Research and Development 12:116-119.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fradrich, H., and H. G. Klos. 1976. Zur Haltung und Zucht des Gaurs, Bos gaurus.  Zoologische Garten 46(6):417-425.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hussain, M. Khader. 1969. The southern Asiatic gaur or Indian bison (Bos gaurus  gaurus H. Smith). Cheetal 12(1):29-47.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Krishnan, M. 1972. An ecological survey of the larger mammals of peninsular India.  Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 69:322-349.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Medway, Lord. 1978. The Wild Mammals of Malaya and Singapore. 2nd Edition. Oxford  University Press, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 128 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Momin Khan, M. K. bin 1973. Studies on the seladang (Bos gaurus) in the State of  Perak. Malaysian Nature Journal 26:163-169.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahai, R. C. 1972. Distribution, composition and herd size of Gaur (Bos gaurus) in  Palamau, Bihar. Cheetal 15:60-66.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schaller, G. B. 1967. The Deer and the Tiger. Chicago University Press, Chicago, USA.  370 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weigun, L. E. 1971. The last refuge. Malaysian Nature Journal 24:132-137.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weigun, L. E. 1972. The problems in the preservation of the seladang in the Malaysian  National Park. M.S. thesis. Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.  55 pp</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul and J. A. McNeely. 1977. Mammals of Thailand. Association for the  Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand. 758 pp.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coolidge, H. J. 1940. The Indo-Chinese Forest Ox or Kouprey. Memoirs, Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College 54(6):421-431.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coolidge, H. J. 1955. The Forest Ox or Kouprey of South East Asia. P. 109 in Breeding Beef Cattle for Unfavorable Environments, A. O. Rhoad, ed. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Neese, H.C. 1976. Kouprey along the Laos/Cambodia border area. Unpublished report to the New York Zoological Society, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pfeffer, P., and O. Kim-San. 1967. Le kouprey, Bos(Bibos) sauvelli, Urbain, 1937: discussion systematique et status actuel. Hypothese sur l'origine du zebu (Bos indicus). Mammalia 31(4):521-536.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pfeffer, P. 1969. Considerations sur l'ecologie des forets claires du Cambodge oriental. Terre et Vie 23(1):3-24.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wharton, C. H. 1957. An Ecological Study of the Kouprey. Novibos sauveli (Urbain). Monograph No. 5. Institute of Science and Technology, Manila, Philippines. 111 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dolan, J. M. 1965. Breeding of the lowland anoa in the San Diego Zoological Garden. Zeitschrift Saugetierekunde 30(4):241-248.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duplaix-Hall, N., ed. 1975. International Zoo Yearbook 15. Zoological Society of London</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fradrich, H. 1973. Einige Bemerkungen uber den Anoa. Zeitschrift des Kolner Zoo 16(3):101-105.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H., and H. Hohn. 1976. Der Karyotyp eines weiblichen Tamarau (Anea mindorensis) [The Karyotype of a Female Tamaraw (Anoa mindorensis)]. Giessener Beitrage zur Erbpathologie und Zuchthygiene 6:173.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. P. 1969. Systematics of the anoa (Mammalia, Bovidae) Beaufortia 17(223): 1-12.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Koulischer, L., J. Tyskens, and J. Mortelsmanns. 1972. The chromosomes of a male specimen of Anoa depressicornis quarlesi. Acta Pathologica, Antwerp 56:21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scheurmann, E., H. Hohn, and H. Fischer. 1977. The karyotype of a male Bubalus (Anoa) depressicornis quarlesi Ouwens 1911. In Symposium, Domesticated Animal Cytogenetics, Jouy en Josas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alvarez, J. B., Jr. 1970. Philippines tamaraw, here to stay. IUCN Publication, New Series 18:46-51.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grimwood, l. R. 1975. National Parks and Wildlife Conservation in the Philippines. FAO: PHI/72/006. UNDP/FAO, Rome, Italy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harrisson, T. 1969. The tamaraw and its survival. Conservation News of South East Asia 8:60-61, 70.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kuchn, D. 1975. Tamaraw at Mt. Iglit Came Refuge, Philippines. Tigerpaper 2(3):26.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sitwell, N. 1975. On the track of the tamaraw. Wildlife 17:428-430.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Talbot, L. M., and M. H. Talbot. 1966. The tamaraw, Bubalus mindorensis (Heude). Observations and recommendations. Mammalia 30(1): 1 - 12.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bearded </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Allen, E. F. 1948. The bearded pig. Malaysian Nature Journal 3(2):98-99.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cranbrook, Earl of. 1979. A review of domestic pig remains from archaeological sites in </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diong, C. H. 1973. Studies of the Malayan wild pig in Perak and Johore. Malaysian Nature Journal26(2):120-151.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Croves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Cenus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hertwig, P. 1936. Artbastarde bei Tieren. Handbuch Vererb Wissenschaften 2B:21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hislop, J. A. 1949. Field notes on the bearded pig. Malaysian Nature Journal 4(2):62-64.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hislop, J. A. 1952. More about the bearded pig. Malaysian Nature Journal 7:22-23.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Union for the Conservation of Nature. 1972. Red Data Book 1: Mammalia. IUCN, Cland, Switzerland. (This is a loose-leaf binder that is updated from time to time.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kempe, J. E. 1948. The riddle of the bearded pig. Malaysian Nature Journal 3(1):36-42.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lotsy, J. P. 1922. Die Aufarbeitung des kuhn'schen kreuzungsmaterials im Institut fur Tierzucht der Universitat Halle. Cenetica 4:32-61.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The distribution and status of wild pigs in Indonesia. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 9 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Medway, Lord. 1978. The Wild Mammals of Malaya and Singapore, 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohr, E. 1960. Wilde Schweine. Die Neue Brehm-Biicherei, A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg Lutherstadt, Federal Republic of Cermany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. First written report. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist group. Unpublished report. 14 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pfeffer, P. 1959. Bologie et migrations du sanglier de Borneo (Sus barbatus Muller 1869). Mammalia 23:277-303.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sulawesi Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appelman, F. J. 1955. Uber Sus celebensis Muller und Schlegel. Der Zoologische Garten 21:152-156.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Catibog-Sinha, C. S. 1981. The quantity and quality of wild food plants and the depredation of wild pigs in the Philippines. Ph.D. thesis. Oklahoma State University, Stillwater Oklahoma, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Croves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Cenus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hooijer, D. A. 1968. Pleistocene Vertebrates from Celebes. 8. Sus celebensis Muller and Schlegel, 1845. Beaufortia 16:215-218.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The distribution and status of wild pigs in Indonesia. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Croup. Unpublished report. 9 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohr, E. 1960. Wilde Schweine. Die Neue Brehm-Bucherei, A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg Lutherstadt, Federal Republic of Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. Interim report. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 14, pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Javan Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blouch, R. A. 1979. Proposed Bawean Island Wildlife Reserve Management Plan. World Wildlife Fund, Report to Directorate of Nature Conservation, Indonesia. Unpublished report. 63 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blouch, R. A. 1981. Results of a preliminary search for Sus verrucosus in the Mt. Arjuna area. World Wildlife Fund, Meru Betiri Project 1024. Unpublished report. 4 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoogerwerf, A. 1970. Udjung Kulonthe Land of the Last Javan Rhinoceros. E. J. Brill, I.eiden. The Netherlands. Pp. 330-349. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The distribution and status of wild pigs in Indonesia. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 9 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. First written report. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 14 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy Hog</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bosma, A. A., W. L. R. Oliver, and A. A. MacDonald. In press. The karyotype, including g- and c- banding patterns, of the pigmy hog Sus (Porcula) salvanius (Suidae, Mammalia).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. T. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1980. The Pigmy Hog: The Biology and Conservation of the Pigmy Hog Sus (Porcula) salvanius, and the Hispid Hare, Caprolagus hispidus. Special Scientific Report No. I. Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust. 93 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. Pigmy hog and hispid hare: further observations of the continuing decline (or, a lament for Barnadi and a good cause for skepticism). The Dodo, Journal of the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust 18:10-20.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Babirus a</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bosma, A. A., 1980. The karyotype of the babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa); karyotype evolution in the Suidae. Fourth European Colloquium Cytogenetics Domestic Animals 1980:238-241.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bosma, A. A., and De Haan, N. A. 1981. The karyotype of Babrousa babyrussa (Suidae, Mammalia) Acta Zoologica et Pathologica Antverpiensia 76: 17-27.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Davis, D. D. 1940. Notes on the anatomy of the babirusa. Field Museum of Natural History-Zoology 22(5):363-411.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fradich, H. 1974. A comparison of behaviour in the suidae. Pp. 133-144 in The Behaviour of Ungulates and Its Relation to Management. V. Ceist and F. Walther, eds. IUCN Publication No. 24.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin, No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Croves, C. P. 1980. Notes on the systematics of Babyrousa (Artiodactyla, Suidae). Zoologische Mededelingen, Deel 55(3):29-46.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The structure and function of the tusks of babirusa. Mammal Review 1 1(1):37-40.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The distribution and status of wild pigs in Indonesia. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 9 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. First written report. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 14 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selmier, V. J. 1978. Only in Indonesia: the babirusa. Unpublished report to Directorate of Nature Conservation (P.P.A.), Bogor, Indonesia. 40 pp. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Research Contacts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because Asia contains many livestock breeds about which little is known, an expert committee on Animal Genetic Resources has been recently formed by the Society for the Advancement of Breeding Researchers in Asia and Oceania (SABRAO). Its chairman is Professor J. S. F. Barker of the University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Species Survival Commission of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature has a Wild Cattle Specialist Group that concerns itself with wild banteng, gaur, and kouprey. Its chairman is Mr. Mohd. Khan bin Momin Khan, Director-General, Wildlife and National Parks, West Malaysia, Kompleks Pejabat-Pejabat Kerajaan, Block K-20, Jalan Duta, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following have particular knowledge of the animals described in this book, have contributed to the various chapters, and (in most cases) have agreed to provide advice to bona fide researchers wishing to study further the animals in this report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ida Bagus Arka, Faculty for Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Udayana University, Jalan Sudirman Sanglah, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia J. S. F. Barker, Department of Animal Science, University of New</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Bongers, Department of Nature Conservation, Wageningen Agricultural University, Ritzema Bosweg 32a, 6703AZ Wageningen, The Netherlands David Butcher, Western Plains Zoo, Box 813, Dubbo, New South Wales</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2830, Australia (Banteng are available for research projects and zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quarantine for shipments between Australia and most countries are</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">straightforward)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. K. Camoens, Livestock Specialist, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila, Philippines 2800</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Deppner, 1603 Dayton Road, Hyattsville, Maryland 20783, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.-M. Duplan, Institut Technique de l'Elevage Bovin, Section Amelioration Genetique, Maison Nationale des Eleveurs, 149, rue de Bercy F, 75595 Paris Cedex 12, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. I. Furtado, Universiti Malaya, Lembah Pantai, Kuala Lumpur 22-11, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Hodges, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Huitema, Overzicht 60, 6862 CT, Oosterbeek, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham W. M. Kirby, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Production, P.O. Box 4160, Darwin, Northern Territory 5790, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moh. Zain Katoe, P.T. United Livestock, Jalan Bau Massepe 472, ParePare, South Sulawesi, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. -G. Klos, Director, Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Hardenbergplatz 8 , 1000 Berlin 30, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. Kusmat, Dean, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Jalan Oto Iskandardinata, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ian L. Mason, 8 Ramsay Garden, Edinburgh, EH1 1NA, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert E. McDowell, Department of Animal Science, Frank B. Morrison Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Montsma, Department of Animal Production, Wageningen Agricultural University, Ritzema Bosweg 32a, 6703 AZ Wageningen, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. Moran, Senior Research Officer, Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute, Kyabram, Victoria 3620, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jan Nari, Director of Central Research Institute for Animal Science, Jalan Raya Pajajaran, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. M. Nitis, Department of Animal Nutrition and Tropical Pasture Production, Udayana University, Jalan Sudirman Sanglah, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. J. A. Payne, 91 Bedwardine Road, London SE19 3AY, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donald L. Plucknett, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, 1818 H Street, Washington, D.C. 20433, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Institute for Animal Production, P.O. Box 123, Bogor, Indonesia (Amber Roesyat, Ian Fletcher, Dennis Hoffmann, P. Sitorus, Subandriyo, M. Zulbardi)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David W. Robinson, International Programs, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. H. L. Rollinson, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Seifert, CSIRO, Tropical Cattle Research Centre, P.O. Box 5545, Rockhampton Mail Centre, N. Rockhampton, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. David Simpson, Senior Extension Specialist, Veld, Pastures and Wildlife, Agritex Box 363, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. J. Smith, Tropical Animal Health, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Summerhall, Edinburgh, EH9 1QH Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dukut Sularsasa, Department of Tropical Veterinary Science, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Syamsul Arifin, Jalan Amin Jakfar 41, Pamekasan Madura, Jatim, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taronga Zoo, P.O. Box 20, Mosman, New South Wales 2088, Australia (T. Finnie and J. L. Throp)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frank M. Thompson, Wild Animal Brokers, 15605 S. R. #64, Bradenton, Florida 33508, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Allen D. Tillman, 523 West Harned Place, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Don Tulloch, P.O. Box 38841, Winnellie, Northern Territory 5789, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Helen Newton Turner, P.O. Box 184, North Ryde, New South Wales 2113, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antoon de Vos, P.O. Box 34, Whitford, Auckland, New Zealand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert Warren, Department or Range and Wildlife Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Everett J. Warwick, The Rockefeller Foundation, P.O. Box 63, Yogyakarta, D.I.Y., Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Woodward, 35AI, Sultan Hasanudin, Ujung Pandang, South Sulawesi, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Domesticated Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Askaniya-Nova, USSR (Zoologicheskii Park Askaniya-Nova)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park; banteng-mithan hybrid)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, German Democratic Republic (Tierpark Berlin)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copenhagen, Denmark (Zoologisk Have)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubbo, New South Wales, Australia (Western Plains Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kiev, USSR (Kievskii Zoologicheskii Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madrid, Spain (Zoo de la Casa de Campo; mithan-banteng hybrid)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pretoria, South Africa (National Zoological Gardens of South Africa) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rome, Italy (Giardino Zoologico e Museo de Zoologia del Comune de Rome and Zoorama)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde; 2 male, 2 female, may be wild form)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng-Cattle Hybrids</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abubakar Aldjufri, Secretary, Asian Livestock Business Club, Kebun Pala I/79B Tanah Abang, Jakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saleh Aldjufri, Jalan Jakarta 42, Surabaya, Jawa Timur, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Deppner, 1603 Dayton Rd., Hyattsville, Maryland 20783, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Huitema, Overzicht 60, 6862 CT, Oosterbeek, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham W. M. Kirby, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Production, P.O. Box 4160, Darwin, Northern Territory 5790, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. Moran, Senior Research Officer, Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute, Kyabram, Victoria 3620, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. J. A. Payne, 91 Bedwardine Road, London SE19 3AY, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David W. Robinson, International Programs, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. H. L. Rollinson, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Wheeler, 1000 Shady Lane, College Station, Texas 77840, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaichana Satrulee, Dusit Zoological Park, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. von Furer Haimendorf, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, London WC1, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles G. Hickman, Livestock Consultant, A. Mithat Efendi Sokak No. 36/11, Cankaya, Ankara, Turkey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frederick J. Simoons, 140 Bartlett Ave., Woodland, California 95695, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Mithan (Gayal)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aalborg, Denmark (Aalborg Zoologiske Have)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amsterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijk Zoologisch) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arnhem, The Netherlands (Burgers' Zoo and Safari)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, German Democratic Republic (Tierpark Berlin)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calcutta, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cologne, Federal Republic of Germany (Aktiengesellschaft Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heidelberg, Federal Republic of Germany (Tiergarten Heidelberg)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kolmarden, Sweden (Koemardens Djurpark)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madrid, Spain (Zoo de la Casa de Campo; mithan-banteng hybrid)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabat, Morocco (Pare Zoologique National)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vienna, Austria (Schonbrunn Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tallin, USSR (Tallinna Loomaaed)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yak</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joseph Bonnemaire, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, 26, Bd. Docteur Petitjean, 21100 Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corneille Jest, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1, Place Artistide-Briand, 92190 Meudon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. A. Kazarova, Director, Riga Zoological Garden, Meza prospekt 1, Riga 14 226014, Latvian SSR, USSR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. K. Panday, Swiss Association for Technical Assistance (SATA), Box 113, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralph W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Patrick J. Robinson, Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Oxford, Commonwealth Forestry Institute, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">George B. Schaller, New York Zoological Society, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. B. Singh, Director General, Department of Livestock, HMG, Harihar Bhawan, Pulchowk, Laitpur, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Societe d'Ethnozootechnie, 25, Boulevard Arago, 75013 Paris, France (R. Laurans)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Yak</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arnhem, The Netherlands (Burgers' Zoo and Safari)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baltimore, Maryland, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bronx, New York, USA (New York Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicago, Illinois, USA (Brookfield Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Denver, Colorado, USA (Denver Zoological Gardens)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Detroit, Michigan, USA (Detroit Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evansville, Indiana, USA (Meeker Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Granby, Quebec, Canada (Societe Zoologique de Granby, Inc.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA (John Ball Zoological Gardens)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kansas City, Missouri, USA (Kansas City Zoological Gardens)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Knoxville, Tennessee, USA (Knoxville Municipal Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rochester, New York, USA (Seneca Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Wild Animal Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sioux Falls, South Dakota, USA (Great Plains Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Bend, Indiana, USA (Potawatomi Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Syracuse, New York, USA (Burnet Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Metro Toronto Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Utica, New York, USA (Utica Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wichita, Kansas, USA (Sedgwick County Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West Orange, New Jersey, USA (Turtleback Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada (Assiniboine Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yakows</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joseph Bonnemaire, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, 26, Bd. Docteur Petitjean, 21100 Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Agriculture, Hari Har Bhawan, Pulchok, Lalitpur, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Kathmandu, Nepal (Tewari and Burathoky)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Livestock Development, Peking, China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Professor Karl Fredge, Department of Genetics, University of Uppsala, Uppsala, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian Veterinary Research Institute, P.O. Izatnagar 243 122, Uttar Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Division, National Agricultural Research Center, Islamabad, Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Sheep and Yak Development Project, Dechhen Pelrithang, P.O. Bumthang, Bhutan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralph W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Patrick J. Robinson, Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Oxford, Commonwealth Forestry Institute, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whipsnade Zoo, Whipsnade, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bruce A. Young, Department of Animal Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta TOG 2P5, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Amir, c/o Ministry of Development Supervision and the Environment, JalanMirdekaBarat 15, Jakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. H. Blower, National Parks Project, c/o UNDP, Box 650, Rangoon, Burma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bonsong Lekagul, Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, No. 4 Customhouse Road, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaichana Satrulee, Dusit Zoological Park, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Z. Coto, Tropical Forest Biology, SEAMEO-BIOTROP, P.O. Box 17, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest Department, P.O. Box 311, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia (Patrick Andau, Assistant Chief Game Warden)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. R. Grimwood, P.O. Box 45079, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U. Halder, Swiss League for Nature Conservation, P.O. Box 73, CH4020 Basel, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Huitema, Overzicht 60, 6862 CT, Oosterbeek, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Wayne King, Director and Professor, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lembaga Biologi Nasional (LBN-LIPI), Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John A. Lukas, White Oak Plantation, Rt. 3 Box 224, Yulee, Florida 32097, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffrey A. McNeely, Executive Officer, Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, 1196 Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Payne, Wildlife Section, Forest Department, P.O. Box 311, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somtob Norapuckprutikorn, Captive Propagation Section, Wildlife Conservation Division, Royal Forest Department, Bangkhen, Bangkok 9, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Wheeler, 1000 Shady Lane, College Station, Texas 77840, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Wild Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albuquerque, USA (Rio Grande Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amsterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijk Zoologisch)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicago, Illinois, USA (Brookfield Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cologne, Federal Republic of Germany (Aktiengesellschaft Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copenhagen, Denmark (Zoologisk Have)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Darmstadt, Federal Republic of Germany (Vivarium Darmstadt)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dortmund, Federal Republic of Germany (Tierpark Dortmund)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dresden, German Democratic Republic (Zoologischer Garten Dresden)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">St. Louis, Missouri, USA (St. Louis Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yulee, Florida, USA (White Oak Plantation)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaur</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Aspinal, Howlett's Wildlife Park, near Canterbury, Kent, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul, Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, No. 4 Customhouse Road, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paul Conry, Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources, Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 23367, GMF Guam 96921, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. R. Grimwood, P.O. Box45079, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohd Khan bin Momin Khan, Director-General, Department of Wildlife and National Parks, P.O. Box 611, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. A. Kazarova, Director, Riga Zoological Garden, Meza prospekt 1, Riga 14 226014, Latvian SSR, USSR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.-G. Klos, Director, Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Hardenbergplatz 8, 1000 Berlin 30, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adrian G. Marshall, Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">George B. Schaller, New York Zoological Society, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lee Simmons, Omaha Zoo, Omaha, Nebraska 68108, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Janet Stover, Bronx Zoo, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frank M. Thompson, Wild Animal Brokers, 15605 S. R. #64, Bradenton, Florida 33508, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Guar </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Berlin Zoo was assigned by the IUCN in cooperation with the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">lUDZG to keep the guar studbook records. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bronx, New York, USA (New York Zoological Park; 7 male, 3 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brownsville, Texas, USA (Gladys Porter Zoo; 5 male, 10 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copenhagen, Denmark (Zoologisk Have; 1 male, 2 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holiday Island, Eureka Springs, Arkansas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India (Nehru Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivey, Wilburton, Oklahoma, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kansas City, Missouri, USA (Kansas City Zoological Gardens; I male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kings Mill, Ohio, USA (Wild Animal Safari,; 1 male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Los Angeles, California, USA (The Los Angeles Zoo; I male, 3 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Memphis, Tennessee, USA (Memphis Zoo and Aquarium; I male, 2 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Munich, Federal Republic of Germany (Munchener Tierpark Hellabrunn Ag)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mysore, Karnataka, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA (Oklahoma City Zoo; 7 male, 7 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Omaha, Nebraska, USA (Henry Doorly Zoological Gardens; 7 male, 15 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Riga, Latvian SSR, USSR (Riga Zoological Garden)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Wild Animal Park; 6 male, 6 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Bend, Indiana, USA (Potawatomi Park Zoo; 1 male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">St. Louis, Missouri, USA (St. Louis Zoological Park; 1 male, 2 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Metro Toronto Zoo; 3 male, 1 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vienna, Austria (Schonbrunn Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul, Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, No. 4 Customhouse Road, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harold Coolidge, 38 Standley Street, Beverly, Massachusetts 01915, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffrey A. McNeely, Executive Officer, Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, 1196 Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harvey C. Neese, P.O. Box 332, Troy, Idaho 83871, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Anthony Parkinson, White House, San Roque 1, San Jose, Occidental Mindoro, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pierre Pfeffer, Zoologie, Mammiferes et Oiseaux Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle 55, rue de Buffon 75005 Paris, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Kelly Shelton, 211-A North Cordova, Burbank, California 91505, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Henry Stoddard, Branford Veterinary Clinics, Inc., P.O. Box 548, Branford, Florida 32008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles H. Wharton, Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA (Rt. 2, Clayton, Georgia 30525)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Conservation Centre, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, CH 1196 Gland, Switzerland (David Mitchell, Elizabeth Kemf)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Kouprey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. M. Dolan, San Diego Zoological Garden, San Diego, California 92112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Anoas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp; mountain anoa)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten; mountain anoa)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London, England (lowland anoa)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leipzig, German Democratic Republic (Zoologischer Garten Leipzig; mountain anoa)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde; 1 male, 3 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Zoological Garden; 1 male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Wild Animal Park; 1 male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (Taronga Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Natural Resources, Quezon City, Manila, Philippines (J. B. Alvarez, Jr., Assistant Director)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. R. Grimwood, P.O. Box 45079, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Natural Resources Conservation Office, Ministry of Natural Resources, Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Anthony Parkinson, White House, San Roque 1, San Jose, Occidental Mindoro, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ian Player, P.O. Box 192, Howick 3290, Natal, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Sitwell, c/o WWF(UK), 11-13 Ockford Rd., Godalming, Surrey GU7 lQU, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. M. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna 3720, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bearded Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Julian Oliver Caldecott, Sub-Department of Veterinary Anatomy, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3DY, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The AustralianNationalUniversity, P.O. Box4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 10H, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Parks and Wildlife Office, Sarawak Forest Department, Jalan Gartak, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia (Kron Aken, David Labang, Mike Kavanagh)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Payne, Wildlife Section, Forest Department, P.O. Box 311, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Bearded Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore, Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sulawesi Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Catibog-Sinha, Outdoor Recreation and Wildlife Research Division, Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna 3720, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The AustralianNationalUniversity, P.O. Box4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 10H, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Mackinnon, WWF/TUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, ChanneL Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Sulawesi Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Javan Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raleigh A. Blouch, 2125 Forest Glen, Lansing, Michigan 48906, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. Bosma, Department of Functional Morphology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, State University Utrecht, P.O. Box 80157, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Directorate of Nature Conservation (PPA), Jalan Ir. H. Juanda 9, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lembaga Biologi Nasional (LBN-LIPl), Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 10EI, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Werner Pauwels, Pfeffingerstrasse 48, CM-053, Basel, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perum Perhutani, Forest State Corporation, Jalan Jendral Gatot Subroto 17-18, Post Box 111, Jakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Javan Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy Hog</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. Bosma, Department of Functional Morphology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, State University Utrecht, P.O. Box 80157, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. C. Gogoi, Adviser Forests, (Wildlife and Environmental Planning), Meghalaya, P.O. Shillong 793 001, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The AustralianNationalUniversity, P.O. Box4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 lOH, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Deb Roy, Manas National Park, P.O. Barpeta Road, Kamrup 781 315, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Pigmy Hog</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gauhati, India (Assam State Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zurich, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Babirusa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. Bosma, Department of Functional Morphology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, State University Utrecht, P.O. Box 80157, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 lOH, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Victoria Selmier, 353 10th Street, San Francisco, California 94103, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Babirusa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, W. de Meurichy)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bandung, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany, (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copenhagen, Denmark, (Zoologisk Have)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia, (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nuremberg, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poznan, Poland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stuttgart, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia, (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas (member through 1981) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Native Plants, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOlS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (member through 1982) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGElARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAMUEL P. ASPER, Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BELL, Department of Population Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEONARD BERRY, Professor, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST.J. BRISKEY, Dean, School of Agriculture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON S. BROWN, Director, Resources Systems Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. BURRIS, Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAUDIA JEAN CARR, Associate Professor, Conservation and Resource Studies, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATE FIELDS, Director, Developing Markets, Control Data Corporation, Minneapolis, Minnesota </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND J. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN HOWARD GIBBONS, Director, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM HUGHES, Director, Engineering Energy Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM A. W. KREBS, Vice President, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Acorn Park, Cambridge, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE I. LYTHCOTT, University of Wisconsin, School of Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANICE E. PERLMAN, Executive Director, Committee for a New New York, New York City Partnership, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK C. ROBBINS, President, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER A. ROSENBLITH, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HERBERT SMUCKLER, Dean of International Studies and Programs, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GILBERT F. WHITE, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Assistant Dean for International Programs, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN G. HURLEY, Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Associate Director/Studies </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL P. GREENE. Associate Director/Research Grants </P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b18ase/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b18ase/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b18ase/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Little Known Asian Animals With a Promising Economic Future (b18ase)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">introduce little-known Asian farm animals with a promising future</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b20cre/b20cre.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b20cre/b20cre.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b20cre/b20cre.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1134 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Managing Tropical Animal Resources - Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Managing Tropical Animal Resources - Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of International Affairs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Cooperation with the Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 1983</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development(BOSTID) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panel on Crocodile Farming</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director, Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HOWARD W. CAMPBELL (deceased) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, Jr., Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING, Director, Florida Museum, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS, Furzebrook Research Station, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Wareham, Dorset, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT M. PYLE, Species Conservation Monitoring Unit, Cambridge, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS, Representative, The Asia Foundation, Taipei, Taiwan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CAROL GABARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WASSAM GABARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KAROL KISOKAU, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Waigani </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAVU KWAPENA, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MIRO LAUFA, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GREG MITCHELL, Crocodile Farm, Lae </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEO NING, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Wewak </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MIGUEE AEVAREZE DEE TORO, Instituto de Historia Natural, Departamento de Zoologia, Chiapas, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANGUS D'A.BELLAIRS, Department of Anatomy, St. Mary's Hospital Medical School, University of London, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER BRAZAITIS, Department of Herpetology, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H.CHABRECK, Louisiana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MAX C.DOWNES, The Game Conservation Centre, Melbourne, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KARLHEINZ FUCHS, hoechst Aktiengesellschaft, Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAIRE HACEN, Reptile Products Association, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RENEE.HONEGGER, Zurich Zoo, Zurich, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TED JOANEN, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, Chenier, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN LEVER, Koorana Crocodile Farm, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM MAGNUSSON, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia, Manaus, Amazonia, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRY MESSEE, School of Physics, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRED PARKER, Kirwan Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANTHONY POOLEY, St. Lucia Estuary, Zululand, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES A.ROSS, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.B.SALE, UNDP/FAO Crocodile Breeding and Management Project, Hyderabad, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LUISVARONA, La Habana, Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHAROON YOUNGPRAPAKORN, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm, Samutprakan, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UTAl YOUNGPRAPAKORN, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm, Samutprakan, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MYRNA WATANABE, Co-editor of ICUN Newsleter, Brooklyn, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROMULUS WHITAKER, Guindy Deer Park, Madras, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Professional Associate, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Crocodile Study Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council Staff</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY lANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE REGES, Administrative Secretary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This publication is dedicated to the memory of panel member Howard W. "Duke" Campbell who devoted most of his professional life to the conservation of crocodilians. Dr. Campbell was Chairman of the Crocodilian Specialist Group of the Survival Commission of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources at the time of his death in 1981.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel that produced this report met in Papua New Guinea in May 1981. Its purpose was to consider the principles of the Papua New Guinea crocodile farming program and their implications for economic development and for the management and survival of crocodilians elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles are an integral part of the tropical fauna; they are ecologically important, biologically interesting, and, potentially, a renewable natural resource of considerable economic value. The panel hopes that through this report the possibility of saving and managing this animal throughout the tropics can be better assessed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members of the panel consulted officials of the Ministry of Wildlife and Conservation in Port Moresby and visited crocodile farms in Moitaka, Popondetta, and Lae. The panel is grateful to Karol Kisokau, Navu Kwapena, and Miro Laufa of the Division of Wildlife for arranging its itinerary and visits in Papua New Guinea. It also wishes to thank Yano Belo, Minister of Environment, for hosting an evening social at the Moitaka crocodile farm; Greg Mitchell and his wife Judy, who entertained the panel at their home in Lae and conducted a tour of their company's crocodile farm; and Wassam and Carol Gabara who acted as guides and hosts in Popondetta.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council, is assessing scientific and technological advances that might prove especially applicable to problems of developing countries. This report is one of a series that explores promising areas of science previously unknown, neglected, or overlooked. Current titles in the ACT! series on Managing Tropical Animal Resources include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal (1981) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These activities are supported largely by the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID). Program costs for this study were sponsored by AID'S Bureau for Asia, and staff costs by AID'S Office of the Science Advisor, which also made possible the free distribution of this report. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gavials ( Present-day crocodilians are grouped into three families: crocodiles, alligators and caimans, and gavials (gharials). The animals differ from one another only in minor characters such as shape of snout, arrangement of scutes, and dental features. This report focuses mainly on crocodile species, but its conclusions are generally applicable to alligators, caimans, and gavials.) have existed for some 200 million years - much longer than mammals - but they are now disappearing at alarming rates. Of the 21 or so species of crocodilians distributed in the warm waters of the world, at least 18 are threatened with extinction in most of the countries where they are found.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although some species, such as the American alligator, appear to be out of danger because of strict conservation measures, many of the others survive mostly in national parks, protected preserves, or a few breeding stations. This is true for the slender-spouted crocodiles of Africa and Asia, the saltwater crocodile of Australia and Southeast Asia, the black caiman and Orinoco crocodile of South America, the Chinese alligator, the Siamese crocodile, and other species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat destruction is a major contributor to crocodilian decline; each year more breeding areas are disturbed as swamps and marshlands are drained, rivers dammed, estuaries reclaimed, and riverine forests denuded. However, illegal poaching by tribal people with their simple but effective traps, snares, and set hooks, as well as professional hunters operating with power boats, spotlights, and modern firearms are also decimating the animals over most of their ranges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To a large extent these animals are being destroyed because of their market value. Crocodile is regarded as the costliest and most fashionable leather in western markets. Since World War II, demand for crocodile leather shoes, handbags, luggage, wallets, watchbands, and other expensive luxury articles has far exceeded supply. Even small items such as purses and handbags sell for many hundreds of dollars each. For instance, a ladies' purse or handbag made from crocodile skin can command prices as high as $4,000. A pair of men's shoes may cost from $500 to $900, and a wallet from $150 to $250.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The crocodile trade peaked in the mid-1960s, when world markets absorbed more than 2 million crocodile skins each year. Today it is still large. In 1979, for instance, 1,000,000 caiman hides and 300,000 true crocodile hides entered international commerce. In 1981 the United States itself imported 100,000 hides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International markets for reptile hides and leathers are centered in France, Italy, the Federal Republic of Germany, and Japan. France, the single largest buyer of raw crocodilian hides, uses an estimated 300,000 to 400,000 skins a year. The major buyers of finished crocodile leather products are Hong Kong, Japan, Thailand, Singapore, and the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unrestricted hunting and poaching for hides are wiping out the large breeding animals. Excessive hunting has a devastating effect on crocodile populations because their age distribution is like a pyramid: a small number of breeding animals dominates a large number of juveniles and hatchlings, most of which never survive to maturity. Such societies, in which the size of future populations depends on only a few animals, are highly vulnerable to extinction; once some of the mature members are killed the population can crash. And it takes a long time for a crocodilian population to rebuild because for most large species the females do not begin breeding until they are at least 8 years old.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rearing Crocodiles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there may seem to be no future for many crocodile populations, the situation is not hopeless. With intelligent intervention and under good conditions they can recover rapidly. Mature crocodiles have no enemies other than man, and, given some care and protection, a small number of breeders can produce a huge number of progeny each year. Mature females of the various crocodilian species usually lay between 30 and 70 eggs each year, and under normal conditions most of these eggs hatch successfully. The key to conserving the population is to protect the few mature animals and their habitats. Then, because of their fecundity, crocodilians can rapidly build up large numbers of young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This has been exemplified by the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). Ten years ago its future seemed doubtful, but the legal protection of the populations has brought a remarkable recovery. Numbers are now so high that two states have lifted the ban on harvesting alligators, and between lo,ooo and 20,000 American alligator hides now enter commerce each year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The past few decades have seen several other examples of successful crocodile-rearing projects. Later chapters of this book highlight the national program in Papua New Guinea. In addition, three successful government-operated farms exist in India (where all the progeny is returned to the wild because current Indian law prohibits commercial crocodile farms). A remarkable farm with more than 3,000 breeding animals operates on the outskirts of Bangkok, Thailand. Australia has four crocodile farms, and a few African countries now have crocodile farms that are already beginning to supply hides internationally. For example, in 1982 Zambia had two such farms, Zimbabwe, five, South Africa, four (with five more planned or under construction), and Kenya, one. Appendix A lists these and other countries that are initiating farms for various crocodilian species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The early technical success of these projects offers the expectation that with an appropriate framework of safeguards and research, crocodiles might become a thriving resource for tropical nations. If such experiences can be replicated, crocodilians and their habitats may come to be considered as resources to be managed and treasured. This will require considerable investment, strict legislation and law enforcement, and international cooperation and research, as well as careful monitoring of the traffic in farmed hides. But national crocodile industries are a possibility, and they could result in thriving natural populations that are free from the danger of extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such prospects may also provide economic incentives for preserving the often-fragile ecosystem in which wild crocodilians live. Crocodile farming could play a part by slowing the uncontrolled draining of swamps and other wetlands that cover large areas of the lowland humid tropics of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles as a managed resource could economically benefit remote areas of the lowland tropics. Villagers there often have few alternative sources of income and possibilities for economic development are limited. Because the human population is relatively sparse, few opportunities exist for local trading; even where fish are abundant the problems of marketing are formidable. Indeed, in some areas crocodiles may constitute the only readily salvable resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles as Farm Animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Well-fed crocodiles grow quickly. Under ideal conditions they may reach lengths of 1 m or more in a year and 1.5 m in 2 years. They are normally harvested in the third year when they reach about 2 m in length. In this time their value may have risen from about $5 to as much as $200.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles have acquired a reputation as voracious feeders; investigations reveal this to be false. The animals actually have modest food requirements. Many hatchling animals have a food conversion rate of about 50 percent; that is, the crocodile adds 1 kg of weight for every 2 kg of food it consumes. Cattle, sheep, and pigs would have to eat 3-5 times as much food to achieve the same weight increase. After 2 years the crocodile's growth rate begins to slow down. During the third year the conversion falls to about 25 or 30 percent, which is still a high figure, and makes crocodiles probably the most nutritionally efficient land animal for commercial husbandry. Only the growth of some fish is comparable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The high food conversion efficiency is due to the fact that crocodiles have low metabolic rates and are normally extremely lethargic. They are active only in short bursts, spend hours immobile, and move only about one-third as much as mammals. Moreover, being reptiles, they spend almost no food energy maintaining body temperature. They bask in the sun to keep warm and seek shade or water to cool off. For these reasons crocodilians can thrive in marginal habitats unsuitable for mammals or birds (Investigations on the Nile crocodile showed that a pelican takes 3 days to consume food equal to its own weight, whereas a crocodile takes 125-160 days - Cott, 1961.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming is also space efficient. As long as they are sorted by size, hundreds of juveniles or dozens of larger animals can be penned together in a small area. Indeed crocodiles often choose to pile up on top of one another in stacks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about disease in reptiles. However, as farm animals, crocodiles have a major advantage: they produce antibodies readily and have few problems with external infections. In the wild it is common to find crocodiles missing limbs or tips of tails, with eyes gouged out, or enormous scars on the body. But the wounds heal readily, with little sign of infection (The American alligator is being used at the University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine as a model for studies on antibody formation.). This minimizes the need for veterinary services, a distinct benefit in remote village farms. Nevertheless, internal bacterial diseases, such as salmonella, can get out of hand and destroy a program by reducing growth rates, lowering hide quality, or killing the animals outright.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile Hides</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is the belly skin that is the valuable part of a crocodile, and the worth of a hide is determined by the size of the belly skin, the smallness of its scales, and the hide's general condition. (Holes, cuts, scars, and rot drastically reduce its value.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although international markets utilize any crocodile skin from 0.3 m to 6 m long, the most sought-after hides are not the biggest but the moderate-sized ones from animals about 1.5-2 m long. These hides are approximately 25-50 cm in belly width.( A crocodile's total length is approximately 4-4.5 times the width of its belly). Large hides, for example those more than 3 or 4 m in length, are suitable only for luggage and briefcases because their scales are large. Smaller hides, on the other hand, are suitable both for items such as shoes, handbags, and wallets and for larger items.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Internationally, the most desirable hides come from the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). It has proportionally the smallest belly scales of any crocodile, it lacks osteoderms,(Osteoderms are deposits of calcium carbonate under the skin. They are undesirable because they dissolve away during the tanning process, leaving a pitted surface),and on the side of its body the scales are uniformly small. The next most valuable hides probably come from Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii), the American alligator, the Siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis), and the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rest of this report highlights the program in Papua New Guinea, where during the last 10 years the government has made crocodile rearing an organized industry, much as poultry farming is elsewhere. This program, which is beginning to establish crocodiles as a significant natural asset, is designed both to protect the wild populations and to integrate traditional uses of these reptiles into a scientifically managed hide industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Papua New Guinea crocodile farming (In the official terminology of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the Papua New Guinea program is "ranching" rather than "farming" because the young livestock are mostly culled from wild populations and are not bred on the farm) has become the cornerstone for the economic improvement of some of the world's poorest people. It offers a means for bringing the rural poor into the process of economic development, and it can be blended into a traditional village structure where land and resources may be communally owned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The projects are small and many have had operational difficulties, but they suggest that conservation and economic development can be not only compatible, but also mutually reinforcing. The innovative idea is not that crocodiles can bring in money, but that sound conservation can be blended with marketing crocodile skins, meat, and by-products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important aspect of this approach to crocodile conservation is that it is based on protecting the existing landscape and resources. It provides a tool for conserving the species in their own wild habitats so that survival will not depend on a few captive specimens living under artificial conditions. It requires none of the bush clearing, fencing, forage planting or pesticide spraying that domestic animals often demand ,important advantages in an economic development project in a fragile tropical swamp or rain forest ecosystem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Papua New Guinea approach, then, provides an economic incentive for wildlife protection. Everyone ,from the villager to the minister of trade ,has a stake in keeping the wild populations healthy. Out of self-interest, in addition to natural respect, large numbers of people become the guardians of the resource and the habitat needed to keep it surviving and productive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The world's major conservation organizations have given Papua New Guinea's crocodile program their stamp of approval. In 1976 a team of scientists representing the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, one of the most prestigious conservation organizations in the world, inspected the program. As a result, Papua New Guinea was given special dispensation, and its crocodile skins can be legally traded internationally. For example, because of its endangered status the saltwater crocodile is banned from trade by the Convention on international Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). An exemption, however, is granted to Papua New Guinea in recognition of the fact that its crocodiles now are sufficiently well managed to sustain a skin industry without seriously damaging the wild stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This program serves as a model for nations of the Americas, Asia, and Africa where crocodilian resources are still unmanaged or managed poorly. Crocodiles are being destroyed so fast that within about five years Papua New Guinea and other countries that have organized crocodile farming operations may be the only ones supplying significant numbers of skins to the international market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the principles developed in Papua New Guinea deserve international attention, the recipe will not be a cure-all for problems of rural development or crocodile conservation. Instead, the Papua New Guinea experience suggests that local social, political, economic, and conservation goals can become the impetus for a successful blend of village improvement and wildlife protection.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Crocodile Farming in Papua New Guinea</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As recently as the l950s, crocodiles were abundant in Papua New Guinea. Hunting was a major occupation and was unrestricted. Some Australians and Europeans made fortunes by shooting thousands of crocodiles a year to make shoes and handbags in Europe and North America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it was obvious that wild populations could not sustain such wholesale slaughter, the destruction continued. By 1967 both the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) and the freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus novaeguineae) were threatened with extinction. By 1968, despite increased hunting, the yield of skins had dropped in half; along the easily accessible river systems, crocodile populations had been wiped out. By 1969 the saltwater crocodile had disappeared from much of its range throughout the country, and wildlife officers estimated that without protection most specimens of breeding size would be eliminated within five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But how could crocodiles be protected? Papua New Guinea is divided by mountain ranges, ravines, torrential rivers, forests, seas, malarial swamps, and more than 700 languages. It would take hundreds of trained wildlife officers to enforce a ban on crocodile hunting, particularly in the face of opposition from tribesmen who have traditionally harvested crocodiles for food, decorative items, and implements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge was given to the officers of the Wildlife Division. Under the leadership of Max C. Downes, these officials concluded that the best way to protect crocodile populations was to halt the slaughter of the large breeding adults and build up a new hide industry based on the increased numbers of young that would result.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Few young crocodiles ever reach breeding age in the wild. The tiny, virtually defenseless hatchlings are easy prey for large fish, birds, or other crocodiles. Almost all of them are killed by predators or by other natural causes, such as floods..</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main areas of crocodile distribution in Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What was needed, the wildlife officers concluded, were incentives to make these smaller animals economically attractive, incentives to encourage local people to raise small crocodiles to commercial size. If that could be accomplished, hundreds of hatchlings that would normally perish could be utilized without endangering the wild populations' future. Villagers could benefit by selling skins while the vital breeding-sized animals were being left alone to provide more hatchlings. The system could benefit both the villagers and the vulnerable crocodile populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="b20a.png"></center><br>
+ Main areas of crocodile distribution in Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The idea was viable partly because many Papua New Guineans - particularly those of the Sepik and Fly Rivers - have ancient spiritual and cultural attachments to crocodiles. To them, the idea of handling and managing the animals is not unusual. Crocodile motifs are common in their art and they live in harmony with the big beasts and do not consider them dangerous pests to be eliminated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legislation passed by the Papua New Guinea government in 1969 capitalized on this tradition by making the villagers themselves the real force in crocodile protection. The law did not ban crocodile hunting, but instead banned the possession, sale, and export of skins larger than 20 inches (51 cm) wide. In this way, it protected breeding-sized animals while allowing for the harvest of juveniles. It also allowed a person to kill a crocodile if attacked (but barred the selling of the skin, if it were oversized).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1980, the legislation was supplemented by a law banning the export of small skins. Together, the bans on possessing large skins and exporting small skins have created a stimulus for gathering small crocodiles from the wild and rearing them to moderate size on farms. The legislation has been the impetus for crocodile farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming officially started in Papua New Guinea in 1972. In the late 1970s, it was extensively supported by a UNDP/FAO assistance program that provided personnel and funds for technical support and program management. Today there are about 300 small village farms (The numbers vary, since some villagers go in and out of production depending on their need for income, seasonal variation in river levels, the cost of fuel, and the availability of government extension agents) supplying a number of larger business groups that rear crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife officers now teach crocodile farming, not crocodile conservation per se. They have introduced crocodile-rearing techniques to villagers all over Papua New Guinea. They help build pens and teach tribesmen how to care for the young reptiles, which are so vulnerable and timid that they can literally die of fright.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government loans of up to US$10,000, along with matching development bank loans, are available to help a farmer enter the crocodile farming business. The funds pay for pumps for changing the water in the pens and sometimes for an outboard motor used in gathering young crocodiles. Everything else a villager needs can be obtained from the forest, including materials for pen construction; a small farm can therefore be established inexpensively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Three Types of Farms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government's crocodile management program recognizes three levels of operation: village farms (up to 300 crocodiles), small-business farms (up to 1,000 crocodiles), and large-business farms (more than 1,000 crocodiles).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A village crocodile farm consists of a small pen fenced with posts lashed together with vines. This stockade fence is about 1.5 m high and is sunk about 60 cm in the ground so the crocodiles cannot burrow out. Much of the enclosure is planted with grass, cassava, and banana trees to provide secluded areas where the animals, which regulate their body temperature by the warmth of the sun, can find shade. A shallow pool is excavated in the center.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These village farms are usually run by only one or two people. Many are little more than pens scattered in the remote bush for holding young crocodiles until a buyer from a larger farm comes around. Small crocodiles bring less money than medium-sized animals, but the villager avoids having to feed and care for them for a long period.(Because of operational difficulties, many village farms were abandoned in 1982. Lack of proper husbandy - despite government efforts - were the main reason for these difficulties. Most villagers now collect and hold young only until buyers from commercial farms arrive. However, they are still earning money from crocodiles, and the concept of fully functioning village farms remains valid for the future in Papua New Guinea, as well as for appropriate sites elsewhere). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The small-business farm usually consists of a group of enclosures (each about 6 m x 6 m) constructed of bush materials. It is typically located near an airstrip. It buys crocodiles from the village farmer and, in turn, supplies them to the larger farms, which sometimes dispatch aircraft to pick the animals up (Special cardboard shipping containers have been devised. They can be folded to make cylinders of various diameters to fit crocodiles of different sizes). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large-scale crocodile farms accommodate as many as 20,000 crocodiles and require a large investment. They serve to regulate the export of skins and are the major purchasers of live crocodiles from the smaller farms. During periods of drought, flooding, or diminished food supplies, the large-scale farms also act as emergency buyers. On the outskirts of Lae on Papua New Guinea's northern coast, there is a 100-hectare farm with nearly 8,000 crocodiles. It is associated with a poultry company, and the crocodiles are raised on the offal from the slaughterhouse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government Research and Extension</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Wildlife Division has constructed four demonstration farms across the country and one large research farm at Moitaka near Port Moresby, the capital city. After training at one of these, a tribesman can start his own farm alone or can call on the government for further assistance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moitaka is also the site of short courses in crocodile farming. Prospective farmers are brought in for several weeks' training. They learn how to build pens, to feed and care for crocodiles, to kill and skin them, and to prepare the hides for market. They also learn about the crocodile laws and the reason they were enacted. A farm at Lake Murray, in a remote and swampy area of the Western Province, serves the same purpose. It is built entirely from bush materials (see picture, pp. 6-7).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Wildlife Division provides instruction books, profusely illustrated for the illiterate. The books include vivid descriptions of all phases of farming the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic Gains</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 10 years, crocodile rearing has expanded remarkably in Papua New Guinea. It has already become the main source of income for the people of some swamp and river areas. The Ambunti area, for example, produces coffee and rice, but crocodile skins now bring in much of the area's income. By 1981 the farms nationwide contained a total of 30,000 crocodiles, ensuring a sustained production of at least 10,000 skins a year worth approximately US$ 1-2 million on the international market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because crocodiles are a familiar resource, villagers take to the program quickly. By contrast, introducing cattle or western-style crop raising requires massive education and training, in addition to some social and environmental disruption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On government farms in Papua New Guinea, fish-fed crocodiles have increased their belly width by 25 cm per year and are ready for slaughter in 2-3 years when the width approaches 50 cm. The selling price of the skin is then between $100 and $200, depending on species, flaws, and size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But skins are not the only product. A crocodile with a skin big enough to market can provide 20 kg of meat. The meat is white and is low in fat. Papua New Guinea is a net importer of meat, and crocodile farming is now augmenting local supplies. The large farm at Lae already sells frozen crocodile meat (including front and hind legs, tail steaks, ribs, and chops) both locally and on foreign markets. Some orders have come in from dealers in Paris who supply expensive French restaurants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 Conclusions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benefits of Crocodile Farming</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming seems to be singularly appropriate for rural, isolated, lowland communities in the tropics. The land there is often unsuitable for conventional agriculture, and the people lead a tenuous existence or drift to the cities looking for work. In such areas, there are few opportunities for people to earn cash without drastic and expensive modifications to the environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming has many advantages over hunting the animal in the wild. For instance, crocodiles farms can:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Permit government monitoring of the crocodile industry. (Hunters are more difficult to regulate since they work in remote areas, often undetected and crossing borders at will.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yield a regular harvest of a specific number of animals of a selected size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Produce a standardized, premium product that better serves the needs of the international hide industry, making skins poached from the wild less desirable. (They may provide, for instance, a standard first grade 1-1.5 m long hide rather than hides of mixed size and quality.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Reduce the wasteful losses of hides from improper handling, the fate of a high proportion of skins now brought in from the wild.(*In remote areas, salt may become scarce late in the season as it is used for hides. This often results in insufficient salt being used when the supply runs out and hides subsequently rot or "slip". In some isolated areas, as much as 25 percent of the hides are lost or downgraded because of improper curing for lack of salt. However, skins produced on farms, especially near urban areas or large villages, are usually properly salted; if salt becomes scarce, killing of the animals can be delayed) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Educate the public about crocodile ecology and the animal's importance to the habitat and the local economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Provide sites for scientific studies on crocodilians. Studies conducted on alligators at the Rockefeller Refuge in Louisiana, USA, for example, have provided reproductive, nutritional, and growth data directed specifically towards developing efficient farming techniques.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For some farms the earnings from hides, meat, and by-products may be supplemented by tourism (through gate admissions and the sale of curios), as well as by selling eggs and young to other farms for breeding stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A long-term program of wise utilization of crocodiles can benefit governments by providing revenue from hides, curios, craftwork, and manufactured articles, as well as from export duties. Furthermore, in their natural state in parks and preserves, crocodiles are an important tourist attraction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an effort to preserve crocodile habitats, the Papua New Guinea program has encouraged the collection of eggs or young from the wild and has discouraged the breeding of crocodiles in captivity. This is because a reliance on the wild creates economic incentives to conserve crocodile habitats; if the habitats are drained for human settlement or conventional agriculture the farmers lose the source of their stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contrary to popular impression, preliminary observations indicate that crocodiles benefit commercial fisheries. The animals are important links in the ecosystems of rivers and lakes and are often the largest inhabitants of the freshwater wetlands. Their movements inhibit the growth of aquatic plants in the waterways, and, in areas with prolonged dry seasons, some species maintain residual waterholes that benefit small aquatic organisms that would otherwise perish. In estuaries and lakes, crocodiles enrich the nutrient content of the water by converting terrestrial prey into feces that in turn feed invertebrates and fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where crocodiles have been eliminated, reductions in the tonnage of fish caught for human consumption can usually be demonstrated. For example, in Brazil, Kenya, and India, a decline in the fishermen's catch has paralleled the decline in crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations of Crocodile Farming</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments and individuals seeking rapid returns on investments should realize that a crocodile farming industry is not a get-rich-quick scheme. To build a stable national industry may require 10 years and an investment of at least $500,000 before it is biologically and economically successful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, an organized industry is vital. A village crocodile-rearing pond is only profitable if there is someone to buy, grade, package, and ship the product with all its documentation. Services will be needed at all levels to advise on disease control, nutrition, skinning, and preserving the hides. In many parts of the world crocodile farms have been financial and conservation failures not just because of poor husbandry management, but also because of fiscal shortsightedness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selection of a suitable farm site is basic to the economics of the entire operation. Farms demand a steady supply of meat or fish to feed the crocodiles, and are most successful when located near a reliable source of inexpensive food. Some farms take advantage of offal from nearby chicken or cattle abattoirs; others use the fish by-catch from shrimping operations. In the absence of an inexpensive animal protein feed, the farm will have to raise its own food (tilapia is frequently used) or harvest it from the wild, both of which can be expensive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farms also require a steady year-round supply of clean water for the holding ponds and tanks. If this cannot be supplied by gravity flow from nearby sources, it must be pumped from wells or from nearby lakes or ponds. This, too, is likely to be expensive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the general hardiness of crocodiles, the farms must have access to veterinary care. Most disease problems stem from poor sanitation, low water temperatures, and poor diet, all of which can be easily corrected. But with large numbers of animals crowded together, disease problems, if not quickly diagnosed and treated, can wipe out the young captive animals in epidemic proportions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capturing and transporting large crocodilians is dangerous and difficult. Dealing with a large captive population of crocodiles of different age groups and sizes requires a great deal of experience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although crocodilians are common in zoos, successful breeding of these reptiles in captivity is so far a rare and remarkable event. However, researchers are now coming to understand the behavioral requirements for success. For instance, gravid females must have access to appropriate nesting sites, males must have ample space when they are penned in with other males, and juveniles and hatchlings must be separated from their parents and housed by size and feeding preferences. That prolific breeding can be achieved, however, is illustrated by the Samutprakan crocodile farm near Bangkok, Thailand, which reportedly has reared tens of thousands of its own animals and now aims for a population of 100,000 crocodiles by 1987.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The worldwide shortage of crocodile leather is becoming more acute each year, and it will be many years before any output from farms can significantly reduce pressure on wild populations. Thus, farming should be only one aspect of an overall conservation program that includes total protection of some populations in national parks and sanctuaries. In addition, the conservation of natural wetlands is an important part of overall economic planning. If wetlands are lost, many wild species in addition to crocodiles will be affected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Australia, Asia, Africa, and the Americas, many crocodilian populations are poorly protected because governments lack the manpower or the will to enforce conservation laws rigorously, especially in the remote areas where the last remaining crocodiles reside. Because most wildlife departments in the tropics are short staffed and have vast areas to police, their efforts at wildlife protection are frequently ineffective. Moreover, some countries have been slow to introduce protective legislation for an animal that does not engender public sympathy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea's program offers one of the best hopes for saving all endangered crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gavials. The methods developed there serve as a model for other nations. By providing an alternative, Papua New Guinea gives villagers the incentive to protect wild crocodiles that are breeding nearby so as to assure themselves of future supplies. The people themselves become the conservators of the local animals and habitats. In turn, watersheds, soils, and conventional agricultural development (including natural and forest products) can all benefit. The habitat is also preserved for many other wildlife species that share it, and genetic diversity can be maintained. Conversely, without a special incentive to conserve them, all these resources are normally degraded as a region develops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Regulations, Safeguards, and Research Needs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Papua New Guinea experience provides a model for other nations, but to implement such a program requires a foundation of legislation, government support, and legal safeguards. Prerequisites of any crocodile farming program are an overhaul of legislation, strict law enforcement, and reciprocal laws with neighboring countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The enforcement of wildlife regulations is so inadequate in most countries that crocodile farming is open to abuse. Farms can front for illegal poaching operations, and hides taken from the wild can be intermingled with hides produced on the ranch or farm unless government enforcement is stringent and inspection frequent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, the stimulation of world trade in crocodile hides through the sale of farmed hides might lead to increased poaching of wild crocodiles or eggs. Poachers have fewer operating expenses than farmers, and unscrupulous hunters and dealers can harvest hides, steal crocodile eggs or young, and subsequently sell them through countries that lack enforcement capabilities. This practice could be disastrous for countries where crocodile populations have almost disappeared.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government Regulations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before any farming scheme is attempted, protective legislation should be in operation throughout the country. This should make it unlawful to kill, capture by any means whatsoever, disturb willfully, or pursue any crocodiles, or to collect or gather any crocodile eggs without a permit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No crocodile eggs should be allowed to be imported or exported with out a permit. No persons should possess, sell, buy, donate, receive consequent upon a donation, convey, keep in captivity, or display any live crocodiles without being the holder of a permit. And no person should be allowed to import or export any crocodile, dead or alive, or any portion of a crocodile, processed or not, from any country without a permit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before granting a license for a commercial farm, the government should investigate the applicant's land tenure and financial resources, particularly since the farm will have to operate for three to four years before producing crocodiles suitable for culling. The applicant's ability and experience in rearing crocodiles should be determined. A plan of the proposed farm, including details of water and food supply and the proposed methods of harvesting food, should be examined.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is suggested that:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· No permit for egg harvesting should be issued until adequate rearing facilities have been prepared. The permit should state the name of the holder or his authorized representative, the annual total number of eggs allocated for harvesting, and the area where collection is permitted.(In some cases it is also important to specify a harvest time. Often it is best to take eggs laid early in the season because the female will then lay another clutch.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Permits should be issued on a year-by-year basis. The applicant should understand that the department may refuse to renew or issue further permits if the farm is not managed satisfactorily or if permit conditions have not been observed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The applicant should understand that the farm and all production records should be available for inspection by an official of the conservation department.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The farmer should be required to submit periodic reports detailing the total number of nests raided and eggs harvested, the egg mortality, and the number of eggs hatched. Thereafter, the number of animals held in captivity, the rate of mortality and its causes, if known, and the number of animals sold or culled should be included in each report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Furthermore, it is recommended that the permit holder release 5 percent of his annual crop of hatchlings in order to restock the natural habitat. In addition, a further 5 percent of the hatchling crop should be reared to a length of 1 m before being released, bringing the total release of young crocodilians to 10 percent of the annual crop of hatchlings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The distribution of hatchlings and young reared animals should be supervised by the conservation department.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless government agencies monitor the wild populations of crocodilians being harvested for hides, eggs, or young, the farms themselves could become a major drain on those populations, leading to their extinction. Therefore, before any farming program is started, a survey of the breeding grounds should be undertaken to determine the number of nests available and those from which eggs can be taken with least danger to the wild population (for example, from nests on grounds likely to be flooded).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These breeding grounds should be fully protected; tourists on foot, in vehicles, or in launches should not be allowed to visit or disturb crocodiles during the breeding season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Safeguards and Cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international traffic in millions of unmarked crocodilian hides and products poses one of the greatest obstacles to enforcement of national and international endangered species regulations. Hides and skins frequently cannot be traced to their source or country of origin. Legally harvested or farmed animals cannot readily be distinguished from those exported in secret from illegal sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need for internationally acceptable methods of marking individual hides and products is critical. Traffic in illegal crocodilian hides and products will continue as long as law enforcement agencies lack the means to detect them easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the United States a system has been developed in some states that enables conservation, police, and customs officials to monitor traffic in alligator hides. A conservation authority issues an official tag for each animal allowed by the license. All hides exported are tagged with a serially numbered plastic tag that cannot be removed without breaking it. The serial number is recorded on the export permit and with details of the buyer's and seller's name and address. This tag remains on the hide, right through the tanning process, until the hide reaches the manufacturer. Each tannery maintains a register of purchases that is available for inspection. This system also is being implemented in Zimbabwe and is worthy of trial in other countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tagging of all hides and products for individual identification is an important safeguard. Other safeguards include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The use of engraved stamps or seals to authenticate legal licenses and export permits and make it more difficult for documents to be forged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Internationally accessible data and a retrieval system that allows law enforcement personnel to corroborate the authenticity of documentation and the origin of hides and products;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Monitoring agencies to record and publish market statistics, traffic, and trends;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Laws limiting the sale of hides only to nations that cooperate in an internationally sanctioned program of safeguards; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Research funding to monitor populations and develop new marking and identification techniques. (For instance, the use of dyes, roll marking, and infusion of detectable chemical tracers has yet to be fully explored.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is urgent need for tannery owners, manufacturers, and conservation authorities to jointly work out the rational exploitation of crocodile populations. Commercial interests have reaped a rich reward over many years, and if the crocodile industry is to continue, its entrepreneurs must invest in management and conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clearly, research to improve farming techniques will be a wise investment for both commercial operators and the countries concerned. Surveys to determine population numbers and size as well as the structure of breeding stocks and recruitment rates are essential. Such surveys may indicate the need to establish sanctuaries to protect breeding stock and nesting grounds, or perhaps to ban hunting to allow populations to recover. A rearing program and restocking of suitable habitats might be necessary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix A: Crocodile Farming Around the World</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiences with crocodile farming in Papua New Guinea, the main subject of this report, are described in chapter 2. Here we summarize the status of similar efforts in other countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four crocodile farms have been established in Australia, one in the Northern Territory and three in Queensland. To date, only the Edward River farm, operated by the government as an aboriginal development project, has developed a successful breeding program. There, seven-yearold saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) hatched on the farm from wild eggs are now breeding and laying fertile eggs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A farm for Chinese alligators (Alligator sinensis) has been established at Xuancheng, Anhui Province. Its purpose is to breed alligators for conservation, although the hide of this species is not in great demand because it has many osteoderms in the belly scales. Recently the government has expressed interest in establishing a farm for saltwater crocodiles in southern China. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan has one crocodile farm or rearing station, but it is too far north to breed its own stock, except in heated indoor enclosures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several buyers in the Philippines who maintain pens of crocodiles for short periods. None of these is a farm. A new experimental farm for the Philippine freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus novaeguineae mindorensis) was established by Silliman University in an attempt to preserve that endangered species and to promote an economic interest in crocodile conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Micronesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A farm for saltwater crocodiles has been established on Palau, where a small population of these crocodiles occurs in a brackish interior swamp. In the past, the government hired a hunter to reduce the population whenever the local people felt it had become sufficiently large to present a danger, about once a decade. Presumably the nuisance crocodiles will now end up in the farm. The farm, which has been in existence only for a year or two, earns money from tourist admissions as well as hide production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few crocodile-rearing stations have operated for several decades in Java, Sumatra, and Kalimantan. These have been stocked with eggs and young animals collected from the wild in Sumatra and Kalimantan. In the early 1970s, three such operations in Samarinda, East Kalimantan, closed down for lack of wild stock. At least one operation in Jakarta, Java, continues to survive, but with virtually no output of stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of Irian Jaya (Indonesian New Guinea) in 1980 indicated a number of ranches in that region as well, but revealed that some were having difficulty obtaining stock because of overharvest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore has a famous crocodile farm that figures prominently in tourism. It breeds some of its stock, but also obtains wild stock from all over Southeast Asia. Singapore has a thriving crocodile hide trade. Many buyers and several tanneries are located there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore is not a member of CITES and openly trades in any and all species of crocodilians.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several crocodile farms in West Malaysia (at Penang, for example) and at least one in East Malaysia (near Sandakan, Sabah). These started out as rearing stations relying on wild young, but have moved slowly toward breeding their own stock. The Penang farm depends on tourism to pay many of its expenses. The Sandakan farm is operated in conjunction with a duck and pig farm that supplies it with offal. Its stock consists of saltwater crocodiles. Until at least 1980, it had very little production from captive animals, but the owner is hoping to broaden his stock from them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sarawak (East Malaysia) also used to have several rearing farms. The present status of these operations is unknown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm was started in 1950 with 20 wild crocodiles and an investment of US$500. Today it is reported to be the world's largest crocodile farm, with about 30,000 individuals. About 3,700 of these animals, placed in eight separate breeding ponds, are used for breeding stock, and there are plans for a population of 100,000 by 1987. The Samutprakan farm opened to the public 12 years ago and now receives about one million visitors annually.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of the farm's crocodiles are from the two species native to Thailand, the saltwater crocodile and the Siamese freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis). It also has hybrids of the two, as well as the indigenous false gavial (Tomistoma schlegelii) and five exotic species: South American caiman (Caiman crocodilus), New Guinea freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus novaeguineae), Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis), broad-spouted caiman (Caiman latirostris), and dwarf caiman (Paleosuchus palpebrosus). The farm has succeeded in breeding South American caiman (Caiman crocodilus); the other species are approaching maturity and it is hoped they will breed in the near future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The farm sells crocodile meat locally, mostly to restaurants as a delicacy (for US$5 per kg).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commercial and biological success of the farm is largely due to favorable conditions at Samutprakan. The temperature and humidity are high year-round, and low costs of labor and building materials permit the physical plant to be profitably established and maintained. The main cost is for food; approximately 4,000-5,000 kg of by-catch fish are needed daily at a cost of US 20 cents per kg. If the supply of fish is inadequate, the diet is supplemented with chicken wings, legs, and necks from a slaughterhouse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Rangoon there are some crocodile-holding pens operated by hide buyers. It is not clear whether breeding or farming of crocodiles occurs in them or whether the operation simply acts as a clearing center for wild hides. The government has expressed interest in establishing farms in the mangrove areas near the mouth of the Irrawaddy River. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1974 an FAO report on India's crocodiles noted that the Indian gavial (Gavialis gangeticus) was on the verge of extinction, the saltwater crocodile was extremely rare, and the Indian mugger (Crocodylus palustris was a depleted, although not threatened, species).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government, with United Nations assistance, then initiated a project for the conservation and management of all three species. This program aimed to protect and restock habitats. Animals for restocking were obtained by collecting eggs laid in the wild, incubating them under controlled conditions, raising the resulting hatchlings, and returning juveniles to specially selected sanctuaries when they reached about 1.2 m in length,at which time they are free from predation other than by man.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project has resulted in the comeback of the gavial. By March 1979, 200 gavials had been restored to the wild. The wild population now exceeds 1,000 animals of more than 2 m length, and the number is expected to increase rapidly through natural reproduction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project has also carried out extensive research on crocodiles, and since its founding in 1978 the Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute, located in Hyderabad, has trained many wildlife officers in crocodile protection. Crocodile-rearing facilities are also located near Madras, Lucknow, and Cuttack. All have had success in raising the animals and restocking their habitats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Indian crocodile project has been a notable success and it coincided with (and perhaps helped create) a wave of local interest in India's wildlife and its conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A farm stocked with American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) was established at a popular hotwater spring resort area, using animals supplied by a Florida farm. The Israeli program will earn money from tourist admissions and from future production of hides. The first successful hatching of captive-bred alligators was reported in 1982.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Near Mombasa a farm for the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) has been set up to produce hides from captive-bred stock. The farm is a demonstration project of a large cement factory that is attempting to return its limestone-mined areas to productive agriculture. Some sophisticated experiments are under way on crocodile nutrition, with food for the animals produced in an intensive aquaculture project using tilapia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia is planning a series of farms patterned after those in Zimbabwe (described below).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe has made great strides in captive breeding. In 1979, 87 captive females at two farms produced 1,906 eggs, and a third farm has set aside 30 captive females for breeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four of the country's five crocodile farms are on the shores of Lake Kariba and the other is at Victoria Falls. The government allows each farm an annual allotment of wild eggs (averaging 2,000 to 2,500 eggs) for stocking its rearing programs. Each farm is also striving to become self sufficient in egg production by developing successful breeding programs. The government is considering reducing each farm's allotment by the number of eggs produced annually in the farm so that each will eventually become independent of the wild populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe farmers operate on a system that obliges them to return a small percentage of live animals to the wild if the government requires it. At present, this requirement is being waived because the wild population is increasing on its own.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe has built its crocodile conservation program on a broad base. Crocodiles are protected throughout the country, as game animals in the country at large and as totally protected species in parks and sanctuaries. Populations have increased dramatically, from endangered status in the l950s to over 50,000 individuals today. In the 1950s a survey of the Zambesi River and Lake Kariba revealed no crocodiles; today thousands are seen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe's Department of National Parks and Wildlife is striving to ensure that its legitimate international trade in farm-raised hides does not provide illegal operators in other countries with the opportunity to sell poached hides (for example, forging papers that claim their hides originated on legitimate Zimbabwe farms). To make poaching difficult, Zimbabwe, taking a clue from the state of Louisiana, plans to use serially numbered nonremovable plastic tags to mark legitimate hides. Numbers of the tags will be noted on export permits. In addition, every export permit will be validated by the government with an engraved security stamp that is difficult to forge and that shows ink damage if any erasures or modifications are attempted. The use of such stamps is recommended by CITES, and Zimbabwe is the first nation to put them into use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa has four crocodile farms, and another five are planned or under construction. Apart from the Natal Parks Board Crocodile Research Station at St. Lucia Estuary, which breeds Nile crocodiles for restocking and conservation purposes, all farms are for tourism and hide production. So far only one farm, outside Pretoria, is reported to produce many offspring. Only the provinces of Transvaal and Natal have wild crocodiles, and neither allows eggs, young, or adults to be collected for stocking farms. Both provinces, however, permit the killing of nuisance crocodiles on private land. Transvaal will allow one or two nuisance crocodiles to be taken captive by farmers, but it refuses permission for removing larger numbers of nuisance animals,presumably for fear that this would generate a flood of spurious nuisance complaints. Natal will not permit the removal of any wild crocodiles to farms, nor will it supply offspring from the St. Lucia station to farmers. This makes the Pretoria farm the only source of crocodiles in South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following the example of Zimbabwe, the South African farmers (present and potential) formed a crocodile farming association in 1982.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several farms patterned after those in Zimbabwe are planned for the Okavango area. Petitions for approval are currently before the Botswana government.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1960s French businessmen established a farm for Nile crocodiles near Lake Chad. It collapsed after only a few years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivory Coast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Ivory Coast has obtained assistance from Zimbabwe to establish a conservation program for its three native crocodiles: the Nile crocodile, African slender-spouted crocodile (Crocodylus cataphractus), and Congo dwarf crocodile (Osteolaemus tetraspis). Recommendations were made for conserving the wild populations as well as for establishing farms. Field studies are under way.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A commercial farm for the South American caiman (Caiman crocodilus) was established in southern Italy in the late 1970s. Stock was obtained from Colombia. The animals, numbering in the thousands, arrived in Rome in winter and were transported south to the farm in an open truck. Most died from cold. Later shipments fared no better, and the few animals that survived died from poor husbandry. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Americas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are between 15 and 20 successful alligator farms in the United States. Most are located in Florida and Louisiana, and there is at least one in California. All earn a portion of their money from tourist admissions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the 1960s the Cuban government established at least two farms for crocodiles. One is located in the Zapata Peninsula National Park; the other is near Cienfuegos. The purpose of these farms is to breed crocodiles whose wetland habitat has been converted to sugar cane fields. Eventually, the farms will also produce a cash crop of hides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, what started out as an admirable effort created several conservation problems because the farm managers did not realize there were two crocodiles in Cuba ,the American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) in brackish waters, and the Cuban crocodile (Crocodylus rhombifer) in freshwater areas. The two were mixed in the farms and hybridization resulted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Mexican government has established several farms for Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii) in Chiapas and Veracruz. The purpose is to breed the species in captivity to relieve hunting pressure on the wild population and prevent its extinction. Original funding was provided by the World Wildlife Fund. At least one of these farms still exists. Breeding has been achieved, but there have been problems of survival in hatchlings. The cause of the deaths has not been discovered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years several businessmen in Mexico have expressed interest in starting one or more crocodile farms, but none has yet materialized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1960s, the Louisiana Game and Fisheries Commission supplied specimens of the American alligator to a cattle rancher in El Salvador for the purpose of establishing an experimental farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Louisiana was interested in studying growth rates of American alligators in a tropical nation where the animals did not have to undergo winter hibernation. The husbandry on the farm followed methods worked out in Louisiana. The animals grew fast and presumably have started breeding. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A captive breeding program for the Orinoco crocodile (Crocodylus intermedius) was established in Venezuela in the late 1970s on the ranch of Tomas Blohm. The operation is not commercial; its purpose is to prevent extinction of the species. The offspring may be used for restocking wild habitats in the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Venezuelan law there can be no commercial export of any crocodilians. In addition, the Orinoco crocodile and the various caimans are protected. However, the reptiles are everywhere killed as vermin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru has proposed harvesting certain wild populations of caimans (Caiman crocodilus) to supply animals to a ranching operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BraziI</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Brazil is interested in establishing farms for several species of caiman, including the yacare (Caiman crocodilusyacare). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Latin American Nations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the past two years, other Central and South American nations that have indicated their intention to set up farms for crocodiles or caimans are Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, and Uruguay. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix B: Practical Crocodile Farming</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This appendix is adapted from a paper by A. Pooley that detailed the lessons learned from farming crocodiles to restock depleted habitats in Natal, South Africa. The information is presented here not as a blueprint for setting up a farm, but to show prospective farmers some of the points that they must first consider before attempting to rear crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farm Location</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reliable supplies of good water and suitable food are the most important considerations for establishment of a crocodile farm; the area selected must have both. Village farms also need to be close enough to wild crocodile populations for the animals to be obtained easily. Larger farms can be located farther from the source.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For small farms, a natural supply of food should also be readily available in the wild. Areas that have a fishing industry are ideal locations. For large farms, sites near slaughterhouses or fish-processing facilities are ideal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other considerations also include the volume of water available throughout the year, the distance over which water must be piped to the ponds, and pumping costs. The quality of the water should be established, with samples tested for salinity and acidity and, where the supply comes from mineral springs, analyzed for harmful chemicals. Chlorinated water must be tested regularly to ensure that the chlorine content is not too high, and the nature of any factory effluents present should be determined. It is important to establish whether fish, frogs, crabs, mollusks, or aquatic insects survive in the water intended for use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bacterial analysis is advisable where the water is drawn from a river that drains an area densely populated by humans and livestock. If the water is found to be contaminated, the stagnant pond rearing pen system should not be used, particularly when Salmonella spp. are present in high concentrations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A filter system has advantages if water is pumped straight from a river carrying a heavy silt load. Apart from enabling farmers to see the animals in the pools, filtered water makes the pools and pipes easier to clean. Filtration can be achieved by drawing water from a deep pit close to the river so that the water collected seeps through sand or mud.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A reservoir or a series of supply tanks is useful as an additional method of filtering water. In the event that pumping equipment fails, such a reserve supply may prove vital to the health and survival of the crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ponds should receive as much sun as possible, particularly during the winter months. A series of winter air temperature recordings would be useful in choosing the site of rearing pens, since valley temperatures are often several degrees lower than the temperatures some 50 to 100 m uphill. Preference should be given to the warmer locations, taking into account the direction of local winds and heavy rains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil types are the next consideration. If soils are sandy and porous, earth ponds are impractical and a concrete lining is required to retain water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Drainage of the ponds must be carefully considered. Drainage is far easier if the ponds are built on a slight rise. Water from the ponds must not be allowed to stagnate nearby; the drainage system must be efficient. It is recommended that pens be spaced at least 8 m apart and that their drainpipes lead underground at least 10 m before emptying.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pen Construction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pens with rounded corners are the most successful. Crocodiles frequently choose to lie together in a pile. Square corners allow them to pile up against the angle, smothering those on the bottom and sometimes allowing animals to climb over the fence. With rounded corners, the pile cannot grow very high before the crocodiles slide sideways and the heap collapses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiments in South Africa indicate that natural pools containing rooted vegetation are less prone to become sources of disease than are concrete pools. The surface of the concrete seems to become impregnated with liquid and debris from food and to become a breeding ground for bacteria. For hatchlings and very small juvenile crocodiles, concrete has an added disadvantage; its rough surface can abrade the belly skin when the animals slide in and out of the water, which can foster infection. In 5 or 10 years, even smooth concrete will erode sufficiently to become a problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Researchers elsewhere, however, report better results with concrete lined ponds, which they find easier to clean. Concrete pools are useful for summer because they can be scrubbed clean and because the volume of water used is small. Normally they need only be emptied, cleaned, and refilled every third day, and there is no wastage through seepage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pools are best built as channels. This provides more bank for basking and enables the pools to accommodate more crocodiles. Because the larger males become belligerent only when they can see each other, floating logs, patches of grass, or channel corners are visual barriers that reduce interactions. The channel system also gives more water edge, and this appears to satisfy the territorial instinct.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles are famous for basking in the sun, but they die surprisingly easily of heat prostration. At least one-third of the land area of a farm pen should be shaded with vegetation. The amount of space around each pool is calculated to allow ample basking room for each animal, and an area of shade must likewise be provided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On land, crocodiles often seek contact with each other (thigmotaxis) and frequently lie piled on top of each other, but this should be a matter of choice rather than of overcrowding. There should be few enough animals in the enclosure to allow every crocodile to get out of the water if it chooses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ideally, only half the available number of pools should be occupied at a time, so that they can be used in rotation. In this system, the animals can be moved to fresh pools every two months (or as necessary), leaving the "used" pools to be drained and dried out to bake in the sun. After two months, the pools will then be clean and ready for use again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important requirement is that the pools be at least 60 cm in depth; otherwise, the water becomes too hot in summer. The pool floor should be sloped towards the drain outlet to facilitate cleaning and flushing away uneaten food. Also, the outlet pipe should be 10 cm in diameter, with a stopcock outside the enclosure, so that the pool can be cleaned and emptied efficiently. It is essential to place a screen in the drainpipe to prevent small crocodiles from escaping or being sucked out of the pool during cleaning. After some time, stagnant ponds may become difficult to clean because of the heavy growth of algae on their sides. Hard-bristle scrubbing brushes are needed to dislodge this growth. Small amounts of copper sulfate in the water will help control algae if used regularly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The entire pond and surrounding apron must be smoothly plastered to facilitate cleaning. It helps to have a water source close to each pool from which a hose pipe can be led to pressure spray and clean the pool and its apron.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important part of the design is a partly submerged, gently sloping ledge, some 45 cm in width, around the perimeter of the pool. This provides a shallow resting zone for the crocodiles and gives them easy access to the water. The crocodiles rest there when feeding, and the ledge prevents them from scraping their bellies and damaging their claws when they enter or leave the pool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For small crocodiles it is advisable to roof over the entire pen with wire netting or cries-crossed strands of wire. This protects against predators. Further, young crocodiles can climb vertical wire netting with ease and will escape unless the enclosure is either roofed or has side walls that slope inwards. A skirting board (planking, sheet iron, tin, or plastic sheeting) placed against the wire netting can also prevent this. If wire netting is used for the sides of the pens it should have mesh no larger than 1 cm so that hatchlings will not injure themselves by trying to climb through. While these pools are being cleaned, care must be exercised to prevent crocodiles from falling into the empty pool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water can be passed continuously through the pools. The advantage of this is that during hot summer weather, when crocodiles are feeding at their maximum rate, small uneaten food particles, feces, and urine are carried away. Constant dilution of the pond's water also ensures a low bacteria level. However, the pool must be drained and scrubbed clean at least weekly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earthen pools are easy and cheap to build and are a "natural" habitat where vegetation can be planted and small live fish introduced; insects, frogs, and other creatures attracted to the dams will be an important addition to the diet and health of the crocodiles. Earthen pools are ideal in climates where low winter temperatures are likely to cause respiratory illness in the young animals. During cold weather the crocodiles burrow into the mudbanks and survive nights of heavy frost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the animal's burrowing capabilities, it is important to provide a strip of land 4 m wide between the pool's edge and the boundary fence. Otherwise, crocodiles may tunnel beyond the fence line. Fences must be buried at least 1 m deep to intercept the burrows and to prevent predators from burrowing in. Burrowing, however, can be hazardous, because the burrows can collapse and suffocate the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In areas where the soil is porous or sandy, the floor of an earth dam can be sealed with concrete or plastic irrigation sheets. A layer of earth can be used to conceal this artificial floor. The disadvantages of earth pools are that, because of seepage, they require more water than concrete ones and that they require more maintenance because they cannot be efficiently cleaned. Even if the pools are provided with constantly circulating water, they eventually become fouled, particularly during hot weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Removing crocodiles from an earth pond can prove difficult, since most will take refuge in their burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capturing Crocodiles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles are located at night, usually from a boat, by shining a light along the edges of rivers and lagoons. Because of a reflective tapetum, the eyes of crocodiles glow reddish or orange and are visible for a hundred meters or more. If the population has not become exposed to hunting and become wary of people, the animals will not submerge when the light strikes them. Dazzled by the beam, they tolerate a stealthy approach, and small animals can simply be grabbed by hand or scooped up in a net. They can then be transported in sacks to the rearing pens. Larger animals may be noosed or baited into cylindrical screen traps at places they frequent along the water's edge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Managing a Crocodile Farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a problem to sort the young crocodiles. From one clutch of eggs, some individuals will be aggressive and others may be shy or extremely timid; growth may vary from rapid to very slow, with a few individuals classed as runts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Larger animals can be so dominant that smaller individuals will not even attempt to feed. If sorting is not done, the smaller, less-aggressive individuals do not get a fair share of the food; they grow slowly and get bitten and harassed by the larger animals. At feeding time, some will flee to the opposite side of the pen and stop feeding altogether. Keeping the young animals sorted into classes of the same size avoids many of these problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition and Feeding</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the crocodilian's reputation as a man-eater, small wild crocodiles live mainly on invertebrates and larger ones live mainly on fish. Papua New Guinea's farmers feed a varied diet of locally caught fish, crab, shrimp, frogs, snails, grasshoppers, beetles, and slaughterhouse waste. Whole animals minced up should be used, if necessary, because crocodiles require a diet of bone, intestine, scales, and other tissues to provide calcium and minerals. Bones in chopped fish must be minced thoroughly for hatchlings or very young crocodiles, or they should be fed very small fish supplemented by tadpoles or insects. One village in Papua New Guinea has shown remarkable success in rearing hatchlings on a diet of chopped fish and live freshwater shrimp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fish is an excellent food for the bulk feeding of a large captive population. Whole fish chopped into pieces, including the livers and hearts, forms a balanced diet that may be supplemented by meat, if available, to make up bulk. Small whole fish are particularly suitable; the crocodiles derive calcium from the bones and scales, plus roughage to facilitate digestion, while the flesh, liver, and heart are rich in nutrients and protein The main difficulty usually lies in harvesting enough fish to meet the crocodiles' demands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any method of supplementing the diet with live creatures is recommended. For instance, a light can be left burning in each pen about 15 cm above the water for attracting insects. Various types of insect traps may also be used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles also can be fed on a variety of wastes such as offal or noncommercial fish. Ideally, a large-scale farm should be located near a poultry slaughterhouse. (Cattle offal is also satisfactory, but it is not nutritionally adequate as a sole ration for crocodiles.) Even crocodile offal itself can be fed back to crocodiles. However, the use of offal will necessitate dietary supplements to assure sufficient phosphorus and calcium. These minerals are generally provided by feeding bones to the crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles usually consume their food in the water, but they can also be fed on land. They will eat daily, but are able to remain active for weeks without food. If they are fed in the water of a farm pen, the water will become polluted unless there is considerable flow to carry away the debris. In extreme cases, the pools become septic. To ensure the health of the growing animals, constantly flowing water is far superior to standing water. (The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm in Thailand feeds some of its animals in water, but the small feeding pools are separate from the large regular breeding pools and at a lower level to prevent their overflowing into the breeding pools.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to feed pieces of food small enough to be swallowed without difficulty. Large fish should be cut into elongated rather than square pieces, since the bones can cause damage during swallowing. Similarly, whole live fish should not be so large that the dorsal fin may cause damage to the reptile's throat and gullet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to know the amount of food that each group of animals will consume at each meal. By feeding at the same time each day, it is easy to calculate how much is required. Moreover, the crocodiles become accustomed to a routine and the food is consumed while it is still fresh. In the hot summer months the animals will devour a full meal every 24 hours, but the feeding rate slackens with the onset of colder weather. It is then wise to start reducing frequency and quantities until food is required only every second or third day, depending on the climate. Generally, young crocodiles will refuse food when the air or water temperature falls below 60°F (15.6°C). Even in midsummer sudden cold spells may occur; at such times, it is usually futile to feed the animals or try to coax them to eat until the weather warms up again. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During hot weather conditions it is preferable to feed late in the afternoon or evenings, mainly to avoid placing the food on a hot cement surface. The food should be spread out around the edge of the pool under the shaded area so that the animals do not have to climb over one another to reach it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In cemented pens the area where the food is laid out should be cleaned and scrubbed two hours after feeding time and any uneaten food removed from the water with a hand net. In earthen pools, the food should be placed at a different spot along the bank at each feeding. A useful aid to hygiene is keeping a few predacious fish, such as barbel (Clarias spp.), in each pool to clean up scraps of uneaten food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population Density</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty-five crocodiles are considered the maximum manageable number per unit; staying within this limit reduces competition for food, bullying and fighting, and the number of injuries. A low stocking rate also results in a more even average growth rate. Most important is the fact that the overall health of the crocodiles is better than in a more crowded pen; disease problems are fewer and the symptoms easier to detect in a small group. If the units are spaced 8 m apart, there is also less danger of infectious disease spreading to other pens. The cleaning of pens is facilitated, and the disturbance caused by capturing crocodiles to be moved to other units is minimized. Housing 500 crocodiles in groups of 25 will require 20 separate pens, and an additional two pens should be provided to allow for intensive care of sick, injured, and weaker animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the first year, when animals are graded frequently, they will often be moved from one pen to another. Recording the number of animals housed in each pen will make it possible to keep track of numbers and movements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction is impossible when crocodiles are kept in large groups composed of different species and sizes and in more or less unnatural enclosures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Healthy, sexually mature pairs of crocodiles are usually not enough to start a breeding program. Genetic diversity to maintain a long-term breeding group must be considered, and certain environmental factors are vital for success. The distinct size and age classes of a free-living population must also be taken into consideration. Optimal sex ratios for breeding in enclosed compounds must be determined and adhered to. If a breeding unit is not based on regard for the animals' basic needs for space, nesting sites, and retreats, the larger specimens will disturb, injure, and often kill smaller specimens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diseases and Parasites</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Disease symptoms may be easily overlooked if the observer is not familiar with the behavior of crocodiles under a variety of conditions. It is essential to know how they normally walk, swim, sleep, feed, and bask in relation to the time of day, the air and water temperatures, and the amount of sunlight or rain, by day, by night, and at different seasons of the year. Caretakers should notice the appearance of feces from healthy animals to be able to detect evidence of diarrhea, and to identify misaligned teeth and weakened limbs to detect nutritional deficiencies. Eggs are critically dependent on specific temperature and moisture requirements if the embryos are to develop normally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often difficult to determine the cause of illness or death, and even if the ailment has been correctly diagnosed, it is not easy to capture and administer drugs to large numbers of sick animals. Some animals may be injured during the handling process. Emphasis on preventing disease, rather than curing it, is the best way of ensuring a healthy crop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost inevitably, the water in the pools will harbor concentrations of bacteria such as salmonella. If strict hygiene is observed, however, the bacterial level will not be harmful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is recommended that whenever possible animals found newly dead should be dissected and vital organs such as the brain, heart, lung, liver, spleen, kidney, and stomach removed for veterinary research. Blood slides should also be taken and feces samples collected. The various specimens must be carefully labeled, frozen as quickly as possible, and packed on ice in a vacuum flask for immediate dispatch to the nearest veterinary research institute or pathologist. Alternatively, dying animals may be sent live for research purposes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is helpful for the handler to become thoroughly acquainted with the animal's internal anatomy, in order to distinguish between healthy and diseased organs. This knowledge, coupled with the symptoms noted before the animal dies, and the veterinary report, will be useful in future diagnosis and treatment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One problem for the crocodile farmer is a roundworm (nematode) parasite that burrows into the belly skin. When the burrow collapses it produces an undulating track across the belly and throat scales that ruins the hide. These parasites have been found in crocodiles from Latin America, Africa, Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Asia. They seem more prevalent in some areas and some farms than in others. The organism has been identified, but no treatment or control has been discovered. It is, however, believed that damp, muddy conditions foster the nematode, and that to reduce it pens should have areas of dry land where the animals can bask.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Killing, Skinning, and Tanning</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some farmers kill the crocodiles themselves, but many rear the animals and then sell them to a larger concern that is better equipped to deal with the skins. Killing is done most quickly and humanely by catching the crocodile with a noose and severing the spinal cord just behind the skull.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many hides are ruined or severely damaged during skinning. Even a single hole resulting from a slip of the skinning knife may reduce a hide's value by 25 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After skinning, the hides are normally coated with about 0.5 cm of coarse salt and rolled up. Within 48 hours they are unrolled and resalted. If the hide is not sufficiently salted, it may become infected with bacteria or fungi that cause the epidermis of the scales to decay or slip. Although this layer is removed during tannage, scale slip is a symptom of rot and usually causes damage to the finished hide product. If the decay is intense, the salted hides may become reddish or brown in color. This is called "red heat."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although salt remains the universally used preservative for raw hides, the reptile leather industry has developed chemical fixatives that are used in addition to salt for preserving hides for tanning. Most of these pretannage fixatives are liquid and require soaking the hide in a vat, which may not be feasible in remote areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A pretanned hide is called a crust. It is green-gray (chrome tanned) or tan (vegetable tanned) and is stiff. The hide is dyed and glazed to its final finish. To increase the workability and to remove as many of the osteoderms as possible (if they are present), the underside of the hide is shaved to an even thickness. The shaving is done by craftsmen. If they shaved too much, the hide will be thin and weak, especially over the suture between the scales.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix C: Selected Readings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information on the management and status of crocodiles can be found in the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IUCN/Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter. Available from the editors, Peter Brazaitis and Myrna Watanabe, c/o New York Zoological Park, Bronx Zoo, The Bronx, New York 10460, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Field Guide of Captive Rearing and Management of Crocodiles in India is available from Mr. R. K. Rao, Director, Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute (Government of India), Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blake, D. K. 1974. The rearing of crocodiles for commercial and conservation purposes in Rhodesia. The Rhodesia Science News 8(10):315-324.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blake, D. K., and J. P. Loveridge. 1975. The role of commercial crocodile farming in crocodile conservation. Biological Conservation 8(4): 261-272.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bolton, M. 1981. Crocodile Husbandry in Papua New Guinea. Field Document 4. FO: DP/ PNG/74/029. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 103 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bolton, M., and M. Laufa. 1982. The crocodile project in Papua New Guinea. Biological Conservation 22:169-179.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazaitis, P. (In press) Problems in the Identification of Commercial Crocodilian Hides and the Effect on Law Enforcement. Proceedings of the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group meeting in Zimbabwe September-October, 1982. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazaitis, P. 1973. The identification of living crocodiles. Zoologica 58(3-4):59-101.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cott, H. B. 1954. Ecology and economic status of the crocodile in Uganda. Record of the Symposium on African Hydrobiology and Inland Fisheries, Committee on Technical Cooperation for Africa South of the Sahara 6:119-122.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cott, H. B. 1961. Scientific results of an inquiry into the ecology and economic status of the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) in Uganda and Northern Rhodesia. Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 29(4):211-337.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Downes, M. C. 1978. An explanation of the National Policy for the Crocodile Programme. Wildlife Division, Department of Lands, Surveys and Environment, Konedobu, Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fuchs, K., nd. Die Krokodilhaut Eduard Roether Verlag Darmstadt, Frankfurt, West Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham, A., 1981. Mapping the pattern of crocodile nesting activity in Papua New Guinea. Field Document No. 3, FO: DP/PNG/74/029. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 50 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joanen, T., and L. McNease. 1975. Notes on the Reproductive Biology and Captive Propagation of the American Alligator. Proceedings of the 29th Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners 29:407-415. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joanen, T., and L. McNease. 1979. Culture of the American alligator. International Zoo Yearbook 19:61-66.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">King, F. W., and P. Brazaitis. 1971. Species identification of commercial crocodile skins. Zoologica 56(2): 15-72.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loveridge, J. P. ed. 1982. The Zimbabwe Science News 16(9):196-219. Causeway, Zimbabwe. (Contains five articles on crocodilian research and conservation; from Zimbabwe, Australia the United States, and lndia.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Millichamp, N. J. ;980. Medical aspects of disease in reptile collections. In The Care and Breeding of Captive Reptiles, The British Herpetological Society, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parker, F. 1981. New Crocodile Laws for Papua New Guinea. Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu, Papua New Guinea. 50 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1969. Some observations on the rearing of crocodiles. Lammergeyer 10:45-59.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1971. Crocodile rearing and restocking. Pp. 104-130 in Crocodiles, IUCN Publications New Series Supplementary Paper 32. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1110 Gland, Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1973. Conservation and Management of Crocodiles in Africa. Journal of the South African Wildlife Management Association 3(2):101-103.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1977. A report on Crocodile Farming. Papua New Guinea. Wildlife leaflet No. 77/27. pp. 1-14.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1981. Disappearing African Crocodiles. Oryx 16(1):38-40.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. (In press). The status of crocodiles in Africa. Paper Presented at 5th Meeting IUCN Survival Service Commission's Crocodile Specialist Group. Gainesville Florida, USA. September 1980.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C., and C. Gans. 1976. The Nile crocodile. Scientific American 234(4): 114-124.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wallis, B. E. 1980. Market prospects for reptile leathers. Report number ITC/DIP/12, International Trade Commission, Geneva, Switzerland. 50 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wermuth, Von H., and K. Fuchs. 1978. Bestimmen von Krokodilen und ihrer Haute. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whitaker, R. 1982. Export prospects from commercial crocodile farms in Bangladesh. ITC/UNCTAD, Geneva, Switzerland. 47 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whitaker, R., and M. Kemp. 1981. The crocodile industry in Papua New Guinea: Commercial Aspects. Field Document No. 2. FO:DP/PNC/74/029. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 35 pp. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix D: Research Contacts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following individuals are involved in crocodilian research. Most are biologists concerned with the conservation or natural history of the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Applied Ecology Crocodile Farm, Edward River, Queensland 4870</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shelley Burgin, Total Environment Center, 18 Argyle Street, Sydney, New South Wales 2000</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Melvin Bolton, Woodbury Farm, Woodbury Road, M.S. 142, Via Yeppoon, Queensland 4703</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Max C. Downes, The Game Conservation Center, 24 Queens Parade, North Fitzroy, Victoria 3068</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alistair Graham, P.O. Box41266, Darwin, Northern Territory 5792</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gordon Grigg, Zoology A08, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Lever, Koorana Crocodile Farm, M.S.F. 76, Rockhampton, Queensland 4702</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harry Messel, Head, School of Physics, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fred Parker, 717 Ross River Road, Kirwan, Queensland 4814</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grahame Webb, School of Zoology, University of New South Wales, Kensington 2033</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohd. Reza Khan, Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Dacca, Dacca 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">William Magnusson, Depto de Ecologia, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia, Caixa Postal 478, 69000, Manaus, Amazonia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ko Ko Gyi, Professor of Zoology, Rangoon Arts and Sciences University, Rangoon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nyan Taw, Research Officer, People's Pearl and Fishery Corporation, Myakhwanyo Street, Thaketa, Rangoon </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Huang Chu-Chien, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Swatow Prefecture Crocodile Farm, Shantou, Guang Dong Province</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federico Medem, Instituto Roberto Franco, Apartado Aereo 2261, Villavicencio (Meta)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gerado Budowski, Head, Natural Renewable Resources Programme, CATIE, Turrialba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Luis Varona, Norte 29, Nuevo Vedado, La Habana 6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jose Alberto Ottenwalder, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Plaza de la Cultura, Santo Domingo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Karlheinz Fuchs, Schillerstrasse 2, 6257 Hunfelder 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jaime Tres 1., Centro de Estudias Conservacionistas, Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, Avenida de la Reforma 0-63, Zona IO, Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. C. Choudhury and Lala A. K. Singh, Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute, 19-4-319, Lake Dale, Rajendranagar Road, Hyderabad 500 264, Andhra Pradesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian Board for Wildlife, c/o Department of Environment, Bikaner House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi 110 011</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Sale, UNDP/FAO Crocodile Breeding and Management Project, 19-4-319, Lake Dale, Rajendranagar Road Hyderabad 500 264, Andhra Pradesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Shanmugunathan, Chief Wildlife Warden, Vivekananda Road, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudhakar Kar, Saltwater Crocodile Research and Conservation Unit, Danginal 754 220 Via Rejkanika, District Cuttack, Orissa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Romulus Whitaker, Madras Snake Park Trust, Guindy Deer Park, Madras, Tamil Nadu, 600 002</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. S. Child, Wildlife and Parks Management Of ficer FAO, Rome</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wataru Kimura, Proprietor, Atagawa Tropical and Alligator Garden, Atagawa Higashi Zlu Town, Shizuoka Prefecture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Haller , Bamburi Portland Cement Co. ,Ltd., P.O. Box 90202 ,Mombasa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paul R. Wycherley, President, Malayan Nature Society, P.O. Box 150, Kuala Lumpur</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miguel Alvarez del Toro, Director, Instituto de Historia Natural, Departamento de Zoologia, Apartado Postal No. 6, Tuxtle Gutierrez, Chiapas, 29000</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marco Antonio Lascano B., INIREB, Apdo. No 281, Merida</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tirtha Maskey, National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Office, Thapathali, P.O. Box 107, Kathmandu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Zealand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antoon de Vos, Box 34, Whitford, Auckland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Milton G. Camacho B., Instituto Nicaraguense de Recursos Naturales y del Ambiente (IRENA), Depto. de Fauna Silvestre, Kim 12 1/2 Carreterra Norte, Managua.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ashiq Ahmad, Wildlife Management Specialist, Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abdul Latif Rao, Conservator of Wildlife, National Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, U.G. St. 51, Sector F 6/4, Islamabad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miro Laufa, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, P.O. Box 2585, Konedobu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Karol Kisokau, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Central Government Offices, Waigani</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navu Kwapena, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham Goudie, Crocodile Farm, Lae</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Martin Hollands, Monitoring Ecologist, National Crocodile Project, P.O. Box 2585 Konedobu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pedro Vasques Ruesta, Departamento de Manejo Forestal, Universidad Nacional Agraria, Apdo. 456, La Molina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angel C. Alcala, Division Research, Extension and Development, Silliman University, Dumaguete City, 6501, Negros</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">School of Agriculture, Silliman University, Dumaguete City, 6501, Negros.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. B. Anthony, The Natal Parks, Game and Fish Preservation Board, Box 662, Pietermaritzburg, Natal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antony Pooley, P.O. Box 42, St. Lucia Estuary, 3936 Zululand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rene E. Honegger, Curator, Zurich Zoo, Zurichbergstrasse 221, 8044 Zurich</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U. Srisomboon, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Livestock Development, Bangkok Utai Youngprapakorn and Charoon Youngprapakorn, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm and Zoo Co., Ltd., Talban Road, Samutprakan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angus d'A. Bellairs, Department of Anatomy, St. Mary's Hospital Medical School University of London, Paddington, London W2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Robert Bustard, Isle of Man</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Behler, New York Zoological Society, 185th Street &amp; Southern Blvd., The Bronx, New York 10460</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peter Brazaitis, New York Zoological Society, 185th Street &amp; Southern Blvd., The Bronx New York 10460</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gary Callis, Rt. I, Box 360, Clayton, New Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert H. Chabreck, Louisiana State University, School of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Michael Davenport, Department of Herpetology, National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20008</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Claire Hagen, Representative, Reptile Products Association, 120 Cabrini Blvd., New York, New York 10033</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fred Hauptfuhrer, Director of Planning and Development, World Wildlife Fund, Inc., 910 17th Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20006</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Howard Hunt, Atlanta Zoological Park, 518 Atlanta Ave. S.E., Atlanta, Georgia 30315</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ted Joanen, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, Route 1, Box 20-B, Grand Chenier, Louisiana 70643</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Wayne King, Director, Florida State Museum, Gainesville, Florida 32611</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffrey W. Lang, Biology Department, University of North Dakota, University Station, Grand Forks, North Dakota 58202</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles J. Lankester, UNDP, I United Nations Plaza, New York, New York 10017</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">James H. Powell, 1110 Kokomo Street, Plainview, Texas 79072</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles A. Ross, Division of Reptiles and Amphibians, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Myrna Watanabe, 141 Columbia Heights, Brooklyn, New York 11201</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uruguay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federico Achaval, Departamento de Zoologia (Vertebrados), Universidad de la Republic Cerrito73, Montevideo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tomas Blohm, Apartado 69, Caracas 1010-A</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andres Seijas Y., Servicio Nacional de Fauna Silvestre, MARNR, Apartado 184, Maracay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. K. Blake, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, P.O. Box 8365, Causeway, Harare</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Loveridge, Zoology Department, University of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kevin van Jaarsveldt, Crocodile Farmers Association of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box 2569, Harare </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix E: Biographical Sketches of Panel Members</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director of the Office of Biological Secretary General Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., is currently the Secretary General of the International Union of Biological Sciences. He received his B.A. in 1961 from Miami University in Ohio, M.Sc. from The George Washington University in 1963, and his Ph.D. in 1966 from the University of London. His research interests are in comparative anatomy and phylogeny of flowering plants, commercial timbers, histology of monocotyledons, economic botany, and tropical biology. An internationally recognized expert on tropical plants, he has published extensively in these areas and on topics relating to science, technology, and development, especially in developing countries. Dr. Ayensu was co-chairman of the Panel on Underexploited Tropical Plants of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation and chairs and serves as a member of many international bodies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, JR., is Graduate Research Professor in the Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville. As Technical Director of the Caribbean Conservation Corporation, he has directed a seasonal research program at the breeding ground of the green turtle at Tortuguero, Costa Rica, since 1952, with continuous grants from the National Science Foundation from 1955 to 1980, and has carried out investigations of marine turtle ecology and navigation in various parts of the world. The author of numerous papers, articles, and books, he received the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal of the National Academy of Sciences for Handbook of Turtles and the John Burroughs Medal for The Windward Road. He is Research Associate of the American Museum of Natural History; Affiliate Curator of Natural Sciences, Florida State Museum; Chairman of the Marine Turtle Specialist Group of the Survival Service Commission, International Union for the Conservation of Nature; Honorary Consultant of the World Wildlife Fund; Fellow of the Linnean Society of London; Fellow of the American Fisheries Society; and a member of Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi.In 1973 he was awarded a gold medal from the World Wildlife Fund for the application of scientific findings to the conservation of marine turtles. In 1975 he received the Edward W. Browning Award for achievement in biological conservation. In 1978 Dr. Carr was awarded the Gold Medal of the New York Zoological Society for contributions to natural science and conservation; in 1978 he became Officer of the Order of the Golden Ark (The Netherlands).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING is the Director of the Florida State Museum, Gainesville. He received a B.S. in 1957 and an M.S. in 1961 from the University of Florida and a Ph.D. from 1966 from the University of Miami. His research interests are in wildlife conservation and habitat preservation, impact of international trade on wildlife populations, and ecology and behavior of reptile populations. He worked at the New York Zoological Society from 1967 to 1975. As an international wildlife consultant, Dr. King has received honors from the Dominican Republic, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, and from H.R.H. Prince Bernhard of The Netherlands. He has served on committees advising the State Department and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources on policies regarding the trade of crocodile skins, turtle products, and other wildlife materials. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry and Professor of Forest Genetics, Yale University, was Dean of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale from 1965 to 1975. He received a B.A. from Luxembourg College and a B.Sc.F. from the University of New Brunswick in 1950, an M.F. in ecology in 1951, and a Ph.D. in forest genetics from Yale in 1954. He is especially knowledgeable about francophone Africa and was chairman of the Sahel program of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development and a member of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation. From 1960 to 1965 he was research collaborator at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. In 1966 he was the recipient of the Award for Outstanding Achievement in Biological Research from the Society of American Foresters and in 1975 was Distinguished Professor (Fulbright-Hays Program) in Yugoslavia. Before joining the Yale faculty, he served as project leader in forest genetics for the U.S. Forest Service in Florida. He has served as a consultant to FAO, various foreign governments, and private forestry companies, and he has traveled extensively in the tropical countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS is head of the Furzebrook Research Station of the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (National Environment Research Council, U.K.). He received a B.A. in natural sciences (zoology) at the University of Cambridge of 1958, M.A. in 1962, and received his Ph.D. from London University in research on the integrated control of orchard pests. Dr. Morris worked at Monks Wood Experimental Station on the effects of grassland management on populations of invertebrates and developed a strong interest in community and applied ecology, particularly the conservation of insect populations. Recently he has become involved with problems of butterfly conservation and resource utilization. He is Secretary of the Joint Committee for the Conservation of British Insects, a Vice-Chairman of the Lepidoptera Specialist Group of lUCN'S Survival Commission, and Chairman of the Habitat and Species Protection Committee of SEL (Societal Europaea Lepidoptero-Logica). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH L. POPENOE is Professor of Soils, Agronomy, Botany, and Geography and Director of the Center for Tropical Agriculture and International Programs (Agriculture) at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. from the University of California at Davis in 1951 and his Ph.D. in soils from the University of Florida in 1960. His principal research interest has been in the area of tropical agriculture and land use. His early work on shifting cultivation is one of the major contributions to this system. He has traveled and worked in most of the countries in the tropical areas of Latin America, Asia, and Africa. He is past Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Escuela Agricola Panamericana in Honduras, Visiting Lecturer on Tropical Public Health at the Harvard School of Public Health, and a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Society of Agronomy, the America Geographical Society, and the International Soils Science Society. He is Chairman of the Advisory Committee for Technology Innovation and a member of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT MICHAEL PYLE, a writer and consulting lepidopterist based in Gray's River, Washington, has served since 1979 as Co-Compiler of the lUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book. In this capacity he is consultant to the Conservation Monitoring Center in Cambridge, England. After receiving his B.S. and M.S. at the University of Washington, he took his Ph.D. through the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University in 1976. He worked for the Government of Papua New Guinea on the conservation and utilization of insect resources and then with the Nature Conservancy as Northwest Land Steward. A former Fulbright Scholar to the United Kingdom, Dr. Pyle subsequently founded the Xerces Society for conservation of beneficial insects and their habitats. He has been chairman of IUCN'S Lepidoptera Specialist Group (Species Survival Commission) since 1976. His publications include the Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Butterflies. A comprehensive book on insect conservation in his next project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS received his Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1977 in natural resources management. He has worked on various wildlife research projects in Asia since 1964 and is representative for the Asia Foundation in Taiwan. He has published articles on butterfly conservation and wildlife industries in Taiwan, where he has been studying the butterfly and wildlife farming projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, staff officer for this study, is Professional Associate of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. A New Zealander with a Ph.D. in organic chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley, he now works on innovations in science that are important for developing countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas (member through 1981) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Native Plants, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (member through 1982) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGLIARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAMUEL P. ASPER, Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BELL, Department of Population Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEONARD BERRY, Professor, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST I. BRISKEY, Dean, School of Agriculture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON S. BROWN, Director, Resources Systems Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. BURRIS, Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAUDIA JEAN CARR, Associate Professor, Conservation and Resource Studies, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATE FIELDS, Director, Developing Markets, Control Data Corporation, Minneapolis, Minnesota </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND J. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN HOWARD GIBBONS, Director, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM HUGHES, Director, Engineering Energy Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM A. W. KREBS, Vice President, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Acorn Park, Cambridge, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE I. LYTHCOTT, University of Wisconsin, School of Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANICE E. PERLMAN, Executive Director, Committee for a New New York, New York City Partnership, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK C. ROBBINS, President, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER A. ROSENBLITH, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HERBERT SMUCKLER, Dean of International Studies and Programs, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GILBERT F. WHITE, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Assistant Dean for International Programs, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN G. HURLEY, Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Associate Director/Studies </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL P. GREENE, Associate Director/Research Grants </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b20cre/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b20cre/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b20cre/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Managing Tropical Animal Resources - Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (b20cre)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b21wae/b21wae.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b21wae/b21wae.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b21wae/b21wae.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1888 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; The Water Buffalo: New Prospects For An Underutilized Animal (1984)</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Water Buffalo: New Prospects For An Underutilized Animal (1984)</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Original editon 1981</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second printing 1984</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission on International Relations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Panel on Water Buffalo</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of  Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEVE P. BENNETT, Bennett's Animal Clinic, Port of Spain, Trinidad, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARAN CHANTALAKHANA, Dean, Department of Animal Science, Kasetsart  University, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD D. CHARLES, Senior Lecturer, Meat Production, Department of Animal  Husbandry, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. ROSS COCKRILL, Livestock Expert, Food and Agriculture Organization (retired),  Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WYLAND CRIPE, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONY J. CUNHA, Dean, School of Agriculture, California Polytechnic University,  Pomona, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. JOHN DE BOER, Winrock International Livestock Research and Training Center,  Morrilton, Arkansas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MAARTEN DROST, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MOHAMED ALI EL-ASHRY, Department of Animal Production, Faculty of  Agriculture, Shoubra el Khiema, Cairo, Egypt </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ABELARDO FERRERD ., Former Director, Breeding Administration Centers,  Animal Sciences Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Caracas, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JEAN K. GARDNER, Former Chief, Logistics Division USAID/Philippines, Jackson,  Mississippi, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES F. HENTGES, Department of Animal Science,University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JACK HOWARTH, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis,  California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NELS M. KONNERUP, Livestock Expert, Agency for International Development  (retired), Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. P LEONARDS, Water buffalo breeder, Lake Charles, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN K. LOOSLI, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville,  Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOSEPH MADAMBA, Director, Asian Institute of Aquaculture, Iloilo, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CRISTO NASCIMENTO,Director, Brazilian Agriculture Research Corporation  (EMBRAPA), Agriculture Research Center for Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem,  Para, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural  Research, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM R. PRITCHARD, Dean, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. THOMAS REID, (deceased), Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN H. SCHOTTLER, Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Industries, Lae, Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DALBIR SINGH DEV, Dean, Animal Science Department, College of Agriculture, Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT W. TOUCHBERRY, Dean, Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD G. TULLOCH, Division of Wildlife Research, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Winnellie, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., Staff Study Director </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., Staff Associate </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is an animal resource whose potential seems to have been barely recognized or examined outside of Asia. Throughout the world there are proponents and enthusiasts for the various breeds of cattle; the water buffalo, however, is not a cow and it has been neglected. Nevertheless, this symbol of Asian life and endurance has performed notably well in recent trials in such diverse places as the United States, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Trinidad, Costa Rica, Venezuela, and Brazil. In Italy and Egypt as well as Bulgaria and other Balkan states the water buffalo has been an important part of animal husbandry for centuries. In each of these places certain herds of water buffalo appear to have equaled or surpassed the local cattle in growth, environmental tolerance, health, and the production of meat and calves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although these are empirical observations lacking painstaking, detailed experimentation, they do seem to indicate that the water buffalo could become an important resource in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate zones in developing and developed countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If this is the case, then it is clear that many countries should begin water buffalo research. Serious attention by scientists could help dispel the misperceptions and uncertainties surrounding the animal and encourage its true qualities to emerge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report describes the water buffalo's attributes as perceived by several animal scientists. It is designed to present the apparent strengths of buffaloes compared with those of cattle, to introduce researchers and administrators to the animal's potential, and to identify priorities for buffalo research and testing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel that produced this report met at Gainesville, Florida, in July 1979. It was composed of leading water buffalo experts (particularly those from outside Asia who have directed the beginnings of water buffalo industries in their countries) and leading American animal scientists, many of whom are also familiar with the animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report complements The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. Ross Cockrill and published in 1974 by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Cockrill's 933-page book is a "bible" of water buffalo knowledge and provides details of breeds, world distribution, physiology, and an extensive bibliography.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The present report is an introduction to the water buffalo and its potential. It is written particularly for decision makers, as well as scholars or students, in the hope that it will stimulate their interest in the animal and thereby increase the appreciation of, and funding for, buffalo research. The report includes much empirical observation, largely from the panel members. Some of these observations may, in the long run, prove not to be universally applicable. Much benchmark information needs to be obtained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since its creation in 1971, the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) has investigated innovative ways to use current technology and resources to help developing countries. Often this has meant taking a fresh look at some neglected and unappreciated plant or animal species. The committee assembles ad hoc panels of experts (usually incorporating both skeptics and proponents) to scrutinize the topics selected. The panel reports serve to draw attention to neglected, but promising, technologies and resources. (For a list of ACTI reports, see page 115.) ACTI reports are provided free to developing countries under funding by the Agency for International Development (AID).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program costs for this study were provided by AID'S Office of Agriculture, Development Support Bureau, and staff support was provided by the Office of Science and Technology, Development Support Bureau.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The final draft of this report was edited and prepared for publication by F. R. Ruskin. Bibliographic editing was by Wendy D. White. Cover art was by Deborah Hanson.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domesticated water buffalo Bubalus bubalis numbers at least 130 million-one-ninth the number of cattle in the world. It is estimated that between 1961 and 1981 the world's buffalo population increased by 11 percent, keeping pace with the percentage increase in the cattle population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there are some pedigreed water buffaloes, most are nondescript animals that have not been selected or bred for productivity. There are two general types-the Swamp buffalo and the River buffalo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swamp buffaloes are slate gray, droopy necked, and ox-like, with massive backswept horns that make them favorite subjects for postcards and wooden statuettes in the Far East. They are found from the Philippines to as far west as India. They wallow in any water or mud puddle they can find or make. Primarily employed as a work animal, the Swamp buffalo is also used for meat but almost never for milk production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">River buffaloes are found farther west, from India to Egypt and Europe. Usually black or dark gray, with tightly coiled or drooping straight horns, they prefer to wallow in clean water. River buffaloes produce much more milk than Swamp buffaloes. They are the dairy type of water buffalo. In India, River buffaloes play an important role in the rural economy as suppliers of milk and draft power. River buffaloes make up about 35 percent of India's milk animals (other than goats) but produce almost 70 percent of its milk. Buffalo butterfat is the major source of cooking oil (ghee) in some Asian countries, including India and Pakistan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although water buffaloes are bovine creatures that somewhat resemble cattle, they are genetically further removed from cattle than are the North American bison (improperly called buffalo) whose massive forequarters, shaggy mane, and small hindquarters are unlike those of cattle. While bison can be bred with cattle to produce hybrids,( This is not, however, very successful, the male progeny (at least of the F 1 generation) are sterile).there is no well-documented case of a mating between water buffalo and cattle that has produced progeny.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parts of Asia and even Europe have depended on water buffaloes for centuries. Their crescent horns, coarse skin, wide muzzles, and low-carried heads are represented on seals struck 5,000 years ago in the Indus Valley, suggesting that the animal had already been domesticated in the area that is now India and Pakistan. Although buffaloes were in use in China 4,000 years ago, they are not mentioned in the literature or seen in the art of the ancient Egyptians, Romans, or Greeks, to whom they were apparently unknown. It was not until about 600 A.D. that Arabs brought the animal from Mesopotamia and began moving it westward into the Near East (modern Syria, Israel, and Turkey). Water buffaloes were later introduced to Europe by pilgrims and crusaders returning from the Holy Land in the Middle Ages. In Italy buffaloes adapted to the area of the Pontine Marshes southeast of Rome and the area south of Naples. They also became established in Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, and Bulgaria and have remained there ever since.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Villagers in medieval Egypt adopted the water buffalo, which has since become the most important domestic animal in modern Egypt. Indeed, during the last 50 years, their buffalo population has doubled to over 2 million head. The animals now supply Egypt with more meat-much of it in the form of tender "veal"-than any other domestic animal. They also provide milk, cooking oil, and cheese.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other areas have capitalized on the water buffalo's promise only in very recent times. For instance, small lots of the animals brought to Brazil (from Italy, India, and elsewhere) during the last 84 years have reproduced so well that they now total about 400,000 head and are still increasing, especially in the lower Amazon region. Buffalo meat and milk are now sold widely in Amazon towns and villages; the meat sells for the same price as beef. Nearby countries have also become familiar with the water buffalo. Trinidad imported several breeds from India between 1905 and 1908, while Venezuela, Colombia, and Guyana have been importing them in recent decades. During the 1970s Costa Rica, Ecuador, Cayenne, Panama, Suriname, and Guyana introduced small herds. By 1979 the buffalo in Venezuela numbered more than 7,000 head.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Across the Pacific, the new nation of Papua New Guinea has found the water buffalo well suited to its difficult environment. For 9 years the government has attempted to run cattle on the Sepik and Ramu Plains on Papua New Guinea's north coast, where the temperatures are high and the forage of poor quality. But the cattle remain thin and underweight. In the 1960s animal scientists began evaluating water buffaloes already living in Papua New Guinea and, encouraged by the results, introduced additional buffaloes from Australia. These have performed remarkably well, producing greater numbers of calves and much more meat than the cattle in the region. The buffaloes appear to maintain appetite despite the heat and humidity, whereas cattle do not. The government of Papua New Guinea has since imported more water buffaloes and today has thriving herds totaling almost 3,500 head. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United States has been slow to recognize the water buffalo's potential, but the first herd (50 head) ever imported for commercial farming arrived in February 1978.(Air-freighted from the wilds of Guam, the U.S. island possession on the western Pacific, by panel member Tony Leonards. Prior to that time (in 1974), four head of water buffalo were imported to the Department of Animal science' university of Florida, for study. The only other water buffaloes in North America were a few animals in zoos.) The humble water buffalo, normally considered fit only for the steamy rice fields of Asia, is now proving itself on farm fields in Florida and Louisiana. As a result, interest in the animal is on the rise in U.S. university and farm circles.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From experience accumulated in Asia, Egypt, South America, Papua New Guinea, Australia, the United States, and elsewhere, animal scientists now perceive that many general impressions about the water buffalo are incorrect.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, it is widely believed that the water buffalo is mean and vicious. Encyclopedias reinforce this perception, and in the Western world it is the prevalent impression of the animal. The truth is, however, that unless wounded or severely stressed, the domesticated water buffalo is one of the gentlest of all farm animals. Despite an intimidating appearance, it is more like a household pet-sociable, gentle, and serene. In rural Asia the care of water buffaloes is often fumed over to small boys and girls aged about four to nine. The children spend their days with their family's gentle buffalo, riding it to water, washing it down, waiting while it rolls and wallows, and then riding it to some source of forage, perhaps a grassy field or thicket. It is not uncommon to see a buffalo patiently feeding, with a young friend stretched prone on its broad gray back, asleep.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps the notion about the viciousness of water buffaloes stems from confusing them with the mean-tempered African buffalo Syncerus caffer, actually a distant relative with which they will not interbreed and which is classified in a different genus.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ferocity is the most blatant misconception concerning the water buffalo, although other fallacies are widely reported as well.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One generally held belief is that water buffaloes can be raised only near water. Actually, buffaloes love to wallow, but they grow and reproduce normally without it, although in hot climates they must have shade available.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another belief is that the water buffalo is exclusively a tropical animal. River-type buffaloes, however, have been used to pull snow plows during Bulgarian winters. They are found in Italy (over 100,000 head), Albania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Turkey, the Georgia and Azerbaijan areas of the Soviet Union (almost 500,000 head) and other temperate-zone regions as well. They are also found in cold, mountainous areas of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Nepal.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p04to05.png"></center><br>
+ World Distribution of Water Buffaloes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet another misconception is that the water buffalo is just a poor man's beast of burden. In addition to providing fine lean meat, buffaloes in fact provide rich milk. Mozzarella cheese, one of the most popular in Europe, comes from the buffaloes in Italy. Buffalo milk has a higher content of both butterfat and nonfat solids than cow's milk does. It therefore often brings higher prices than cow's milk. Throughout much of India it is in such demand that cow's milk is sometimes hard to sell.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the misconceptions generally held about buffaloes are based on little data and much prejudice. For instance, it is widely believed that water buffalo meat is tough and less desirable than beef. However, when the animals are raised for meat, buffalo steaks are lean, as tender as beef, and in appearance it is difficult to distinguish the two. In taste-preference tests at the University of Queensland, buffalo steaks were preferred over those from Angus and Hereford cattle. Tests conducted in Trinidad, Venezuela, the United States, and Malaysia produced similar results.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia has shipped water buffalo meat to Hong Kong, the United States, Germany, and Scandinavia. Buffalo meat is now available in stores in Australia's Northern Territory, where demand exceeds supply. It sells at competitive prices and is particularly sought for barbecues and the famous Australian meat pie. In the Philippines, two-thirds of the meat consumed in homes and restaurants is actually water buffalo, a fact that many Filipinos do not realize.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with cattle,waterbuffaloes apparently have an efficient digestive system, one which extracts nourishment from forage so coarse and poor that cattle do not thrive on it. Thin cattle are commonly seen in Asia and northern Australia, for example, but it's rare to see a protruding rib on a buffalo, even though it uses the same source of feed.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, water buffaloes live on coarse vegetation on the marginal land traditionally left to the peasants. They help make human survival possible. An old Chinese woman in Taiwan once told panelist W. Ross Cockrill: "To my family the buffalo is more important than I am. When I die, they'll weep for me; but if our buffalo dies, they may starve."  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A better understanding of the water buffalo could be invaluable to many developing nations. In particular, improved production of water buffalo meat offers hope for helping feed India, the second most populous nation on earth. Although India for religious reasons forbids the slaughter of cows, it has no prohibitions regarding slaughter of water buffaloes or the consumption of buffalo meat.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most developing countries are in the tropics, and the water buffalo is inherently a tropical animal. It is comfortable in hot, humid environments. In the Amazon, for example, buffaloes are now common on the landscape and may even replace cattle completely.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical countries have more serious disease problems than temperate countries do. Although susceptible to most cattle diseases, the water buffalo seems to resist ticks and often appears to be more resistant to some of the most devastating plagues that make cattle raising risky, difficult, and sometimes impossible in the tropics. Several researchers report that when water buffaloes are allowed to wallow, their mud-coated skin seems to deter insect and tick ectoparasites and they consequently require greatly reduced treatment with insecticides. Although the buffalo fly (Siphona exigua) affects the animals, other pests such as the warble fly and the screwworm, for example, seldom affect healthy buffaloes. AIso, despite their inclination for living in swamps, Avers, and ponds, diseases of the feet such as foot rot and foot abscesses are rare.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another benefit to developing countries is the water buffalo's legendary strength. A large part of the total farm power available in South China, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, the Indochina states, India, and Pakistan comes from this "living tractor." Dependable and docile, the animals pull plows, harrows, and carts with loads that weigh several tons. In the Amazon buffalo teams pull boats laden with cargo and tourists through shallows and swamps.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The petroleum crisis has forced many farmers to reconsider animal power even in some of the technically advanced countries. Buffaloes are not only extraordinarily strong, they can also work in deep mud that may bog down a tractor. Even up to their bellies they forge on, dragging both plow and driver through the mud. Although its average walking speed is only about 3 kilometers per hour, the buffalo, unlike its mechanical competition, doesn't need gasoline or spare parts and its working life is often 20 years or more.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As already noted, the major genetic divisions of the water buffalo are the Swamp buffalo of the eastern half of Asia, which has swept-back horns, and the River buffalo of the western half of Asia, which usually has curled horns. There is also the Mediterranean buffalo, which is of the River type but has been isolated for so long that it has developed some unique characteristics. (Records of the buffalo in Italy date back 1,000 years, during which there have been no reported imports.) Mediterranean buffaloes are stocky, high yielding animals that combine both beef and dairy characteristics.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there is only one breed of Swamp buffalo, certain subgroups seem to have specific inherited characteristics. For example, the buffaloes of Thailand are noted for their large size, averaging 450-550 kg, and weights of up to 1,000 kg have been observed. Elsewhere, Swamp buffaloes range from 250 kg for some small animals in China to 300 kg in Burma and 500-600 kg in Laos.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only in India and Pakistan are there well-defined breeds with standard qualities. There are eighteen River buffalo breeds in South Asia, which are further classified into five major groups designated as the Murrah, Gujarat, Uttar  Pradesh, Central Indian, and South Indian breeds. These are the five groups and  main breeds:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=484>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Group</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeds</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murrah</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murrah, Nili/Ravi, Kundi</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gujarat</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surti, Mehsana, Jafarabadi</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uttar Pradesh</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhadawari, Tarai</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Indian</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nagpuri, Pandharpun, Manda, Jerangi, Kalahandi, Sambalpur</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Indian</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toda,  South Kanara</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best-known breeds are Murrah, Nili/Ravl, Jafarabadi, Surti, Mehsana, and  Nagpuri. Most of the buffaloes of the Indian subcontinent belong to a nondescript  group known as the Desi buffalo. There is no controlled breeding among these  animals and most are quite small, yield little milk, and are variable in color.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Swamp buffalo has 48 chromosomes, the River buffalo, 50. The chromosomal  material is, however, similar in the two types and they crossbreed to produce fertile  hybrid progeny. Cattle, however, have 60 chromosomes and although mating  between cattle and buffaloes is common, hybrids from the union are unlikely to  occur.( In 1965 a reputed hybrid was born at Askaniya Nova Zoopark in the Soviet Union  (see Gray, A., 1971. Mammalian Hybrids, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux,  Slough, England, p. 126). Hybrids have also been reported from China (Van  Fu-Czao 1959, Gibridy buivolc i krupnogo  i rogatogo skota(buffalo and  cattlehybrids)Zhivotnovodstro, Mosk., 21:92). Both of these reports seem doubtful  because despite many attempts, no other hybrids have ever been claimed to have  been produced). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Individual buffaloes show large variation in milk yield, conformation, horn shape,  color, meat production, temperament, growth rate, and other characteristics.  Selection for survival under adverse conditions has occurred naturally (those that  could not stand adversity died early) and farmers have probably tended to select  animals of gentle temperament. But systematic genetic improvement has almost  never been attempted. It seems likely that further selection could quickly improve  their productivity.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, the large bulls that would be best for breeding purposes are often  being selected as draft animals and castrated, or sent to slaughter, or (as with  some feral animals in northern Australia and on the Amazon island of Marajo) shot  by hunters. The result is that the buffalo's overall size in countries such as Thailand  and Indonesia has been decreasing as the genes for large size and fast growth are  lost.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo is still largely an animal of the village, and many of its reported  limitations are caused more by its environment than by the animal itself. Moreover,  much of the animal's genetic potential is obscured by environmental influences. For  example, for many breeds and types the genetic variations in milk yield and growth  cannot be accurately determined because they are overwhelmed by the effects of  inadequate nutrition and management.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, some inherent limitations of buffaloes can be identified. For instance,  buffaloes suffer if forced to remain, even for a few hours, in direct sunlight. They  have only one-tenth the density of sweat glands of cattle and their coating of hair is  correspondingly sparse, providing little protection from the sun. Accordingly,  buffaloes must not be driven over long distances in the heat of the day. They must  be allowed time for watering and, if possible, for wallowing. Driving under a hot sun  for long hours will cause heat exhaustion and possibly death; losses can be very  high and can occur suddenly. Young calves are particularly affected by heat.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are also sensitive to extreme cold and seem less able than cattle to  adapt to truly cold climates(A rule of thumb is that buffaloes don't do well where the sun is inadequate to ripen,  say, cotton, grapes, or Ace. Kaleff, B., 1942. Der Hausbuffel und seine  Zuchtungsbiologie im Vergleich zum Rind. Zeitschsift Tierzucht Biologze,  51:131-178). Sudden drops in temperature and chill winds may lead  to pneumonia and death.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is usually found m areas where there is ready access to a wallow  or shower. This is not a necessity, but when temperatures are high the availability of  water is important for maintaining buffalo health and productivity. It seems clear,  then, that the buffalo is not suitable for arid lands.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing buffalo productivity through breed improvement is just now beginning.  Throughout Asia buffalo mating is almost completely haphazard, and so the animal  lacks the quality improvement through breeding that most cattle have had.  Therefore, most buffaloes are of nondescript heritage and genetic potential.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On poor quality feed water buffalo grow at least as well as cattle, but under intensive  conditions they probably won't grow as fast as the best breeds of cattle. In feedlots,  therefore, the buffalo is likely to be less productive than improved cattle. Weight  gains of about 1 kg per day have been recorded, some exceptional cattle may gain  at almost twice that rate.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo has long been considered a poor breeder-slow to mature sexually,  and slow to rebreed after calving. Accumulated experience now shows, however,  that this is mainly a result of poor management and nutrition. Buffaloes are not  sluggish breeders. Nevertheless, their gestation period is about a month longer  than that of cows, buffalo estrus is difficult to detect, and many matings occur~at  night so that~ farmers are likely to encounter more problems breeding buffaloes  than cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are gentle creatures, but if roughly or inexpertly handled they can, through fear or pain, become completely unmanageable. Buffalo behavior sometimes differs from that of cattle. For example, most buffaloes are not trained to be driven. Instead, the herdsman must walk alongside or ahead of them; they then instinctively follow. Also, because of their innate attachment to an individual site or herd it is more difficult to move buffaloes to new locations or herds. In addition, buffaloes respect fences less than cattle do and when they have the desire to move they are harder to contain. (Electric fences, however, will stop them.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their general good health, buffaloes are probably as susceptible as cattle to most infections. However, the buffalo seems to be peculiarly sensitive to a few cattle diseases and resistant to a few others (see chapter 7). Reactions to some diseases seem to vary with region, environment, and breed, and the differences are not well understood.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Destruction of the environment is sometimes attributed to buffalo wallowing. This danger seems to have been overstated, except in cases where stocking rates were unreasonably high.(An ongoing study in Northern Australia of environmental degradation widely attributed to buffalo has now shown that the effects are caused by man and climatic changes and only very slightly by buffaloes. (information supplied by D. G. Tulloch.) ) However, buffaloes rub against trees more often than cattle do, and they sometimes de-bark the trees, causing them to die.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, some of the best genetic stocks of water buffaloes exist in areas where certain infections and viral and other diseases sometimes occur. Thus, many countries are reluctant to permit importation of water buffaloes, despite the fact that modern quarantine procedures under conditions of maximum security can essentially eliminate the risk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, it must be emphasized that because buffalo research has been largely neglected, most results reported in this and other buffalo writings cover small numbers of animals and short periods of time. Many are merely empirical observations that have not been subjected to independent confirmation.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1972.Buffalo at the crossroads. World Farming 14(n:l0-l3.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asian and Pacific Council. 1979. Priorities in buffalo research identified.ASPAC News letter No. 43.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bowman, J. c. 1977. Animals for Man. Edward Arnold Publishers, Ltd., London, United Kingdom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo Bulletin. Newsletter published by the Buffalo Research Committee of Kasetsart University, Bangkok' Thailand. (In English and Thai.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo World. Newsletter published by the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132001, Haryana, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chantalakhana, C. 1975. The buffaloes of Thailand-their potential, utilization and conservation. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chantalakhana, C., and Na Phuket, S. R. 1979. The role of swamp buffalo in small farm development and the need for breeding improvement in Southeast Asia. Extension Bulletin No. 125. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1967. The water buffalo. Scientific American 217:118.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R., ed. 1974. The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill W. R. 1975. The domestic buffalo. Blue Book for the Veterinary Profession No. 25. Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1976. The Buffaloes of China. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R., ed. 1977. The Water Buffalo. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1977. The water buffalo: domestic animal of the future. Bovine Practitioner 12:92-98.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1978. Domestic water buffaloes. In: The Care and Management of Farm Animals, edited by W. N. Scott. Bailliere TindaU, London, United Kingdom.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1980. The ascendant water buffalo-key domestic animal. World Animal Review 33:2-13.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DeBoer, A. J. 1972. Technical and economic constraints on bovine production in three villages in Thailand. Dissertation Abstracts International 33(5):1935.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DeBoer, A. J. 1975. Livestock and Poultry Industry in Selected Asian Countries. Report of Survey on Diversification of Agriculture: Livestock and Poultry Production. Asian Productivity Organization, Tokyo, Japan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">de Guzman, M. R., Jr. 1979. An overview of recent developments in buffalo research and management in Asia. Extension Bulletin No. 124. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Documentation Center on Water Buffalo. 1978. Abstract Bibliography on Water Buffalo, 1971-1975. Documentation Center on Water Buffalo, University of the Philippines at Los Banos Library, College, Laguna 3720, Philippines.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fahimuddin, M. 1975. Domestic Water Buffalo. Oxford and IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi, India  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H. 1975. The water buffalo and related species as important genetic resources: their conservation, evaluation and utilization. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6  1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ford, B. D., and Tulloch, D. G. 1977. The Australian buffalo-a collection of papers. Technical Bulletin No.18. Department of the Northern Territory, Animal Industry and Agriculture Branch, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, Australia.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gupta, H. C. 1977. Possibilities and realities of developing buffalo's performance, breeding and feeding. Indian Dairyman 29(6):337-346.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kartha, K. P. R.1965. Buffalo. In: An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics edited by G. Williamson and W. J. A. Payne. Longman, London, United Kingdom.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McKnight, T. L. 1971. Australia's buffalo dilemma. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 61(4):759-773.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madamba, J. C., and Eusebio, A. N. 1979. Developments in the strengthening of buffalo research in Asia. Buffalo Bulletin 2(3):7-16.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mahadevan, P. 1978. Water buffalo research-possible future trends. World Animal Review 25: 2-7.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oloufa, M. M. 1979. Buffaloes as producers of meat and milk. Egyptian Journal of AnimalProduction 19:1-10. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pant, H. C., and Roy, A. 1972. The water buffalo and its future. In: Improvement of Livestock Production in Warm Climates, edited by R. E McDowell. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research. 1978. The Philippines Recommends for Caraboo Production, PCARR, Los Banos, Laguna 3732, Philippines.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ranjhan, S. K., and Pathak, N. N. 1981. Management and Feeding of Buffaloes. Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, India  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977a. Livestock in Indonesia. Research Report No. 1. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia. (In English and Indonesian.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977b. Preliminary Observations on the Productivity of Porking Buffalo in Indonesia. Research Report No. 2. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia. (In English and Indonesian.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sundaresan, D. 1979. The role of improved buffaloes in rural development. Indian Dairyman 31(2):73-78.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1978. The water buffalo, Bubalus bubalis, in Australia: grouping and home range.Australian Wildlife Research 5:327-34.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wahid, A. 1973. Pakistani buffaloes. World Animal Review 7:22~28. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Meat</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo offers promise as a major source of meat, and the production of buffaloes solely for meat is now expanding.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because buffaloes have been used as draft animals for centuries, they have evolved with exceptional muscular development, some weigh 1,000 kg or more. Until recently, however, little thought was given to using them exclusively for meat production. Most buffalo meat was, and still is, derived from old animals slaughtered at the end of their productive life as work or milk animals. As a result, much of the buffalo meat sold is of poor quality. But when buffaloes are properly reared and fed, their meat is tender and palatable.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are exported for slaughter from India and Pakistan to the Middle East and from Thailand and Australia to Hong Kong. Demand for meat is so great that Thailand's buffalo population has dropped from 7 million to 5.7 million head in the last 20 years, a period in which the human population has more than doubled.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carcass Characteristics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All buffalo breeds-even the milking ones-produce heavy animals whose carcass characteristics are similar to those of cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite heavier hide and head, the amount of useful meat (dressing percentage) from buffaloes is almost the same as in cattle. Mediterranean type buffalo and Zebu cattle steers in Brazil yielded dressing percentages of 55.5 and 56.6 percent respectively. Swamp buffalo dressing percentages have been measured in Australia at 53 percent. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are lean animals. Although a layer of subcutaneous fat covers the carcass, it is usually thinner than that on comparably fed cattle. Even animals that appear to be fat prove to be largely muscle. Australian research on Swamp buffaloes reveals that buffaloes with more than 25 percent fat are difficult to produce, whereas average choice-grade beef carcasses may contain  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general, the buffalo carcass has rounder ribs, a higher proportion of muscle, and a lower proportion of bone and fat than beef has.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo hide is so thick that it can be sliced into two or three layers before tanning into leather.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meat Quality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo meat and beef are basically similar. The muscle pH (5.4), shrinkage on chilling (2 percent), moisture (76.6 percent), protein (19 percent), and ash (1 percent) are all about the same in buffalo meat and beef. Buffalo fat, however, is always white and buffalo meat is darker in color than beef because of more pigmentation or less intramuscular fat (2-3 percent "marbling," compared with the 3-4 percent in beef).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eating Quality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taste-panel tests and tenderness measurements conducted by research teams in a number of countries have shown that the meat of the water buffalo is as acceptable as that of cattle. Buffalo steaks have rated higher than beefsteaks in some taste tests in Australia, Malaysia, Venezuela, and Trinidad.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In taste-panel studies in Trinidad, cooked joints from three carcasses Trinidad buffalo, a crossbred steer (Jamaica-Red/Sahiwal), and an imported carcass of a top-grade European beef steer-were served. The 28 diners all had experience in beef production, butchery, or catering and were not told the sources of the various joints. All the carcasses were held in cold storage for one week before cooking. The buffalo meat was rated highest by 14 judges; 7 chose the European beef; 5 thought the crossbred beef the best; and 2 said that the buffalo and crossbred were equal to or better than the European beef. The buffalo meat received most points for color (both meat and fat), taste, and general acceptability. There was little difference noted in texture.( Information supplied by P. N. Wilson.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo veal is considered a delicacy. Calves are usually slaughtered for veal between 3 and 4 weeks of age; dressed weight is 59-66 percent of live weight.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is some evidence that buffaloes may retain meat tenderness to a more advanced age than cattle because the connective tissue hardens at a later age or because the diameter of muscle fibers in the buffalo increases more slowly than in cattle(Joksimonc, 1979) In one test the tenderness (measured by shearing force) of muscle samples from carcasses of buffalo steers 16-30 months old was the same as that from feedlot Angus, Hereford, and Friesian steers 12-18 months old. This gives farmers more flexibility in meeting fluctuating markets while still providing tender meat.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1976. Livestock Production in Asian Context of Agricultural Diversification. Asian Productivity Organization, Tokyo, Japan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arganosa, F. C., Sanchez, P. C., Ibarra, P. I., Gerpacio, A. L., Castillo, L. S., and Arganosa, V. G. 1973. Evaluation of carabeef as a potential substitute for beef. Philippine Journal of Nutrition 26(2).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arganosa, F. C., Arganosa, V. G., and Ibarra, P. I. 1975. Carcass evaluation and utilization of carabeef. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bennett, S. P. 1973. The "buffalypso"-an evaluation of a beef type of water buffalo in Trinidad, West Indies. Paper presented at the Third World Conference on Animal Production, Melbourne, Australia.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Borghese, A., Gigli, S., Romita, A., Di Giacomo, A., and Mormile, M. 1978. Fatty acid composition of fat in water buffalo calves and bovine calves slaughtered at 20, 28, and 36 weeks of age. In: Patterns of Growth and Development in Cattle: A Seminar in the EEC Programme of Coordination of Research on Beef Production, held at Ghent, October 11-13,1977. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles, D. D., and Johnson, E. R. 1972. Carcass composition of the water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Australian Journal of Agriculture Research 23:905-911.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles, D. D., and Johnson, E. R. 1975. Live weight gains and carcass composition of buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) steers on four feeding regimes. Australian Journal of Agriculture Research 26:407-413.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1975. Alternative livestock: with particular reference to the wafer buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). In: Meat. Proceedings of the 21st Easter School in Agricultural Science, University of Nottingham, edited by D. J. A. Cole and R. A. Lawrie. Butterworth, London, England.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El-Ashry, M. A., Mogawer, H. H., and Kishin, S. S. 1972. Comparative study of meat production from cattle and buffalo male calves. Egyptian Journal of Animal Production 12:99-107.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El-Koussy, H. A., Afifi, Y. A., Dessouki, T. A., and El-Ashry, M. A. 1977. Some chemical and physical changes of buffalo meat after slaughter. Agriculture Research Review 55:1-7.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Johnson, E. R., and Charles, D. D. 1975. Comparison of live weight gain and changes in carcass composition between buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and Bos taurus steers. Australian Journal of Agriculture Research 26:415- 422.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joksimovic, J. 1979. Physical, chemical and structural characteristics of buffalo meat. Arhiv za Polloprivredne Nauke 22:110.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joksimovic, J., and Ognjanovic, A. 1977. A comparison of carcass yield, carcass composition, and quality characteristics of buffalo meat and beef Meat Science 1:105 -110.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mai, S. C., and Wu, T. H. 1974. TSC's intensive feed-lot system for cow-calf and beef production program. Taiwan Sugar 21(6):198-211.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matassino, D., Romita, A., Cosentino, E., Girolami, A., and Cloatruglio, P. 1978. Myorheological, ohemical, and colour characteristics of meat in water buffalo and bovine calves slaughtered at 20, 28 and 36 weeks. In: Patterns of Growth and Development in Cattle: A Seminar in the EEC Programme of Coordination of Research on Beef Production, held at Chent, October 11-13, 1977. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mogawer, H. H., El-Ashry, M. A., and Mahmoud, S. A. 1976. Comparative study of meat production from cattle and buffalo male calves. II. Effect of different roughage concentrate ratios in ration on carcass traits. Journal of Agriculture Research {Tanta University) 2:6-12.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ognjanovic, A. 1974. Meat and meat production. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. CockrilL Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rastogi, R., Youssef, F. G., and Gonzalez, F. D. 1978. Beef type water buffalo of Trinidad-Beefalypso. World Review of Animal Production 14(2) :49 -56.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Romita, A., Borghese, A., Gigli, S., and Di Giacomo, A. 1978. Growth rate and carcass composition of water buffalo calves and bovine calves slaughtered at 20, 28 and 36 weeks. In: Patterns of Growth and Development in Cattle: A Seminar in the EEC Programme of Coordination of Research on Beef Production, Held at Chent, October 11-13, 1977. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilson, P. N. 1961. Palatability of water buffalo meat. Journal of the Agricultural Society of Trinidad 61:457, 459-460. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 Milk</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than 5 percent of the world's milk comes from water buffaloes. Buffalo milk is  used in much the same way as cow's milk. It is high in fat and total solids, which  gives it a rich flavor. Many people prefer it to cow's milk and are willing to pay more  for it. In Egypt, for example, the severe mortality rate among buffalo calves is due in  part to the sale of buffalo milk, which is in high demand, thus depriving calves of  proper nourishment. This also occurs in India, where in the Bombay area alone an  estimated 10,000 newborn calves starve to death each year through lack of milk.  The demand for buffalo milk in India (about 60 percent of the milk consumed; over  80 percent in some states) is reflected in the prices paid for a liter of milk: about  130 paisa for cow's milk compared with about 200 paisa for buffalo milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twelve of the 18 major breeds of water buffalo are kept primarily for milk production  (although males may be used for traction and all animals are eventually used for  meat). The main milk breeds of India and Pakistan are the Murrah, Nili/Ravi, Surti,  Mehsana, Nagpuri, and Jafarabadi. The buffaloes of Egypt, Eastern Europe  (Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia, and the USSR), and Italy are used for milk  production and there are also herds used principally for this purpose in Iran, Iraq,  and Turkey.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Composition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk contains less water, more total solids, more fat, slightly more lactose,  and more protein than cow's milk. It seems thicker than cow's milk because it  generally contains more than 16 percent total solids compared with 12-14 percent  for cow's milk. In addition, its fat content is usually 50-60 percent higher (or more)  than that of cow's milk. Although the butterfat content is usually 6-8 percent,( An analysis of 7,770 records of Nili/Ravi buffaloes in herds at the Pakistan  Research Institute showed that average butterfat content was 6.40 (a mean based  on 10 tests over 10 months). of all the samples tested, 77 percent ranged between  5 and 8 percent butterfat and 12 percent were below 5 percent butterfat.  -information supplied by R. E. McDowell.)  it can  go much higher in the milk of some well fed dairy buffaloes and in the milk of  Swamp buffaloes (which are not normally used for milking). Cow's milk butterfat content is usually between 3 and 5 percent.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its high butterfat content, buffalo milk has considerably higher energy value than cow's milk. Phospholipids are lower but cholesterol and saturated fatty acids are higher in buffalo milk. Studies have shown that digestibility is not adversely affected by this. Because of the high fat content, the buffalo's total fat yield per lactation compares favorably with that of improved breeds of dairy cattle; it is much higher than that of indigenous cows.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally the protein in buffalo milk contains more casein and slightly more albumin and globulin than cow's milk. Several researchers have claimed that the biological value of buffalo milk protein is higher than that of cow's milk, but this has not yet been proved conclusively.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p27.png"></center><br>
+ Tables 1 and 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mineral content of buffalo milk is nearly the same as that of cow's milk except for phosphorus, which occurs in roughly twice the amount in buffalo milk. Buffalo milk tends to be lower in salt.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk lacks the yellow pigment carotene, precursor for vitamin A, and its whiteness is frequently used to differentiate it from cow's milk in the market. Despite the absence of carotene, the vitamin A content in buffalo milk is almost as high as that of cow's milk. (Apparently the buffalo converts the carotene in its diet to vitamin A. The two milks are similar in B complex vitamins and vitamin C, but buffalo milk tends to be lower in riboflavin.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Milk Products</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk, like cow's milk, can provide a wide variety of products: butter, butter oil (clarified butter or ghee), soft and hard cheeses, condensed or evaporated milks, ice cream,yogurt, and buttermilk. It is of great economic importance in India in preparing "toned" milk-a mixture of buffalo milk and milk made by reconstituting skim milk powder.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The richness of buffalo milk makes it highly suitable for processing. To produce 1 kg of cheese, a cheese maker requires 8 kg of cow's milk but only 5 kg of buffalo milk. To produce 1 kg of butter requires 14 kg of cow's milk but only 10 kg of buffalo milk. Because of these high yields, processors appreciate the value of buffalo milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo cheese is pure white. It many countries it is among the most desirable cheeses (mozzarella and ricotta in Italy, gemir in Iraq, the salty cheeses of Egypt, and pecorino in Bulgaria, for example). In Venezuela all the cheese produced from the small La Guanota milking herd in the Apure River basin (about 100 kg a day) is bought by the Hilton Hotel and sells for 15 bolivars per kg compared with 8 bolivars per kg for cheese made from cow's milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although much in demand for making soft cheese, buffalo milk is less desirable for making hard cheeses such as cheddar or gouda. During cheesemaking it produces acid more slowly than cow's milk, retains more water in the curd, and loses more fat in the whey.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheeses are becoming increasingly popular throughout the world. Demand is rising at a rate that is among the highest for any food product. Cheese offers particular benefit to areas where refrigeration is not widely available, where transporting high-protein foods to remote areas is difficult, and where seasonal fluctuations affect milk supplies. Buffalo milk may make cheesemaking profitable on an even smaller scale than conventional dairying; it is more concentrated than cow's milk and requires relatively less energy to transport and process (an increasingly important factor where fuels are limited).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p31.png"></center><br>
+ Table 3 Highest Milk Yield (kg per Day) Recorded in the All India Milk Yield</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yield</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In countries like India and Egypt, the milk yield of buffaloes is generally higher  (680-800 kg) than for local cattle (360-500 kg). However, since selection for  exceptional milk production is not conducted systematically, large variations in yield  occur between individual animals, and milk production of dairy buffaloes falls short  of its potential.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nonetheless, some outstanding yields have been recorded. On Indian government  farms, average yields for milking buffaloes range from 4 to 7 kg per day in  lactations averaging 285 days. Daily yields of 12 kg have been reported for some  Bulgarian buffalo cows and a daily production of over 20 kg has been reported for  some remarkable animals in India. A peak milk yield of 31.5 kg in a day has been  recorded from a champion Murrah buffalo in the All India Milk Yield Competition  conducted by the Government of India (see Table 3).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At Caserta, Italy, a herd of 1,600 machine-milked, pedigreed dairy buffaloes has  produced average yields of 1,500 kg during lactations of 270 days. In Pakistan an  analysis of over 6,000 lactations of Nili/Ravi buffalo cows showed an average yield  of 1,925 kg during lactations averaging 282 days(Average adjusted for year and  season and calving. Cady et al., in press.) . In India the average milks yield of  Murrah buffaloes in established herds is also reported to be about  1,800kg(*"Williamson and Payne, 1965.)Table 4 lists some outstanding lactation  yields reported from different parts of the world. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with cattle, the percentages of fat, protein, and total solids decrease as the milks yield increases.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Swamp buffaloes of Southeast Asia are usually considered poor milk producers. They are used mainly as draft animals, but it may be that their milk potential has been underestimated. In the Philippines Swamp buffalo cows with nursing calves have produced 300-800 kg of milk during lactation periods of 180-300 days(*Philippines Council for Agriculture and Resources Research (PCARR). 1978. The Philippines Recommends for Caraboo Production, PCARR, Los Banos, Philippines)In Thailand Swamp buffaloes selected and reared for milk production have yielded 3-5 kg per day during 305-day lactations.(Information supplied by Charan Chantalakhana.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p32.png"></center><br>
+ Table 4 Milk Production of Some Outstading Buffalo Cows and Dairy Herds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Nanning Livestock Research Institute and Farm in Kwangsi Province,which is representative of many others in South China, is upgrading the native  Swamp buffaloes (or Shui Niu) by selective breeding for size and weight and by  crossbreeding with dairy breeds such as the Murrah and Nili/Ravi. The crossbreeds  that are milked yield 4-5 kg daily.(*CockriH, W. R. 1976. The Buffaloes of China.  FAO, Rome.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dairy Management</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The characteristics of the dairy buffalo so closely approximate those of the dairy cow that successful methods of breeding, husbandry, and feeding for  milks production for the cow can be applied equally to the dairy buffalo. Buffaloes,  however, have not been bred for uniform udders and it is more difficult to milk them  by machine.(Some thousands of buffaloes are machine milked in Bulgaria and Italy, however. At  Ain Shams University in Egypt, buffaloes have adapted to machine milking. The  calves are separated from their dams immediately after birth and no problems of  milk letdown have been observed. -information supplied by M. El Ashry.)Also, some buffaloes have more of a problem with milks letdown than  dairy cows (although not as much of a problem as some native cattle breeds in the  tropics). Frequently, a calf is kept with the cow and is tied to her foreleg at milking  time. In India, Burma, and other countries a dummy calf may be provided; playing  music seems to work, too.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Addeo, F., Mercier, J. C., and Ribadeau-Dumas, B. 1977. The caseins of buffalo  milk. Journal of Dairy Research 44(3):455-468.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agarwala, O. P. 1962. Certain factors of reproduction and production in a water  buffalo herd. Indian Joumal of Dairy Science 15(2):45-51.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albourco, F., Mincione, B., Addeo, F., and Ameno, M. 1969. Buffaloes' milk. II.  Variations in composition during lactation of milk produced without change in  feeding. Industrie Agraria 7(5):210-219.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associazione Italiana Tecnici del Latter. 1970. Buffaloes' milk and cheese. Scienza  e Tecnica 21(3):175-196.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhatnagar, V. K., Lohia, K. L., and Monga, O. P. 1961. Effect of the month of  calving on milk yield, lactation length and calving interval in Murrah buffaloes. Indian  Journal of Dairy Science 14(3): 102-108.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhasin N. R., and Desai, R. N. 1967. Effect of age at first calving and first lactation  yield on life time production in Hariana cattle. Indian Veterinary Journal 44:684694.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cady, R. A., Shah, S. K., Schermerhorn, E. C., and McDowell, R. E. In Press.  Factors affecting performance of Nili-Ravi buffaloes in Pakistan. Journal of Dairy  Science.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Castillo, L. S. 1975. Production, characteristics and processing of buffalo milk. In:  The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at  Khon Kahn, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology  Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dassat, P. M., de Paolis, P., and Sartore, G. 1966. Environmental effects on milks  yield in Italian buffalo.Acta Medica Veterinaria 12(6):587-593.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dave, B. K., and Taylor, C. M. 1975. A study on relationship of persistency with other first production traits in Indian water buffaloes. Indian Journal of Animal Health 14(1) :77-80.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deshmukh, S. N., and Choudhury, P. N. R. 1971. Repeatability estimates of some economic characteristics in Italian buffaloes. Zentralblatt fuer Veterinaer-medizen 18:104-107.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ganguli, N. C. 1979. Buffalo milk technology. World Animal Review 30:2-10.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gomez, I. V. 1977. The manufacture of semihard cheese (Danish type) from carabao milk. Philippine Agriculturalist 61(3/4) :78-86.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gurnani, M., and Nagarcenkar, R. 1971. Evaluation of breeding performance of buffaloes and estimation of genetic and phenotypic parameters. Annual Report of the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katpatal, B. G. 1977. Dairy cattle crossbreeding in India. I. Growth and development of crossbreeding. World Animal Review 22: 15-21.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kay, H. D. 1974. Milk and milk production. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kohli, M. L., and Malik, D. D. 1960. Effect of service period on total milk production and lactation length in Murrah buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 13(3): 105-111.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nascimento, C. N. B., Moura Carvalho, L. O. D., and Lourenco, J. B. 1979. Irnportancia do Bufalo para a Pecuarfa Brasileira. Agricultural Research Center for Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem, Para, Brazil.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raafat, M. A., El-Sayed, Abou-Hussein, Abou-Raya, A. K., and El-Shirbiny A. 1974. Some nutritional studies of colostrum and milk of cows and buffaloes E:gyptian Journal of Animal Production 14(1) :137-148.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ragab, M. T., Asker, A. A., and Kamal, T. H. 1958. The effect of age and seasonal calving on the composition of Egyptian buffalo milk. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 11(1):18-28.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saudi Arabia Standards Institution. 1978. Raw milk. Saudi Arabia Standard 98.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sebastian, J., Panthulu, P. C, and Bhimasena, M. 1971. Composition of Surti buffalo milk. Annual Report of the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sekhon, G. S., and Gehlon, M. S. 1966. Repeatability estimates of some economic traits in the Murrah buffalo. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 14:18-22.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, B. B., and Singh, B. P. 1971. Comparative study of lifetime economics of Hariana versus Murrah buffaloes. Indian Veterinary Journal 48:485-489.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, R. P. 1966. A study of production up to ten years of age in buffaloes maintained at military farms. Indian Veterinary Journal 43:986-992.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, S. B., and Desai, R. N. 1962. Production character of Bhadawari buffalo cow. Indian Veterinary journal 39:332-343.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venkayya, D., and Anantakrishnan, C. P. 1957. Influence of age at first calving on the performance of Murrah buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 10(1):20-24.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G., and Payne, W. J. A. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. Longman, London, United Kingdom. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Work</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is the classic work animal of Asia, an integral part of that  continent's traditional village farming structure. Probably the most adaptable and  versatile of all work animals, it is widely used to plow; level land; plant crops; puddle  rice fields; cultivate field crops; pump water; haul carts, sleds, and shallow-draft  boats; carry people; thresh grain; press sugar cane; haul logs; and much more.  Even today, water buffaloes provide 20-30 percent of the farm power in South  China, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, and Indochina(Figures provided by A. J. de veer. In India water buffaloes contribute much less to  farm power (6-12 percent); bullocks are more commonly used. In Pakistan  buffaloes are little used for farm power (1-2 percent) but provide much of the road  haulage. Papua New Guinea has no tradition of using any work animal, but villagers  are increasingly using buffaloes for farm work and the government is employing  Fillipinos to train them) . Millions of  peasants in the Far East, Middle East, and Near East have a draft buffalo. For them  it is often the only method of farming food crops.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As fuel becomes scarce and expensive in these countries, the buffalo is being used  more frequently as a draft animal. ln 1979 water buffalo prices soared in rural  Thailand because of the increased demand.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although Asian farms have increasingly mechanized in the last 20 years, it has  often proved difficult to persuade the farmer to replace his buffalo with a tractor  since the buffalo produces free fertilizer and does not require diesel fuel. Now there  is renewed official interest in draft power. Sri Lanka has recently opened up large  new tracts of farmland in the Mahawali Valley, creating such a demand for work  animals that buffalo shortages have become a national development problem.  Indonesia's transmigration schemes are also handicapped by shortages of animal  power.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For many small farmers the buffalo represents capital. It is often the major  investment they have. Buffalo energy increases their productivity and allows them to  diversify. Even small farms have work animals that, like the farmer himself, subsist  off the farm. Tractors usually require at least four hectares for economical operation,  which precludes their use on most peasant farms. Further, the infrastructure to  maintain machinery is often not readily available.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are also used for hauling. Buffalo-drawn carts carry goods between  villages where road surfaces are unfit for trucks. The animals easily traverse  ravines, streams, paddies, and narrow and rocky trails. In the cities carts can  compete economically with trucks where the road surface is unprepared, where  loading or unloading takes longer than the journey itself, or where the loads are too  small and distances too short to make trucking economical. For road haulage  buffaloes are generally shod: the shoes are flat plates fitted to each hoof.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capacity for Work</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is a sturdy draft animal Its body structure, especially the  distribution of body weight over the feet and legs, is an important advantage. Its  large boxy hooves allow it to move in the soft mud of rice fields. Moreover, the  buffalo has very flexible pastern and fetlock joints in the lower leg so that it can bend  back its hooves and step over obstacles more easily than cattle. This water-loving  animal is particularly well adapted to paddy farming because its legs withstand  continual wet conditions better than mules or oxen(Australian animal scientists working in Bogor, Indonesia, found that the puddling  effect of buffalo hooves on the soil was critical for rice cultivation in the local soils.  Tractors produced fields so porous that they drained dry. (Information supplied by  A. F. GurnettSmith.) On one research station near Darwin, Australia, buffaloes were  used to prevent water draining from a dam. (Information supplied by D. G. Tulloch.). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although buffaloes are preferred by farmers in the wet, often muddy lowlands of  Asia, mules, horses, and cattle move more rapidly and are preferred in the dryer  areas.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes do not work quickly. They plod along at about 3 km per hour. In  most parts of Southeast Asia they are worked about 5 hours a day and they may  take 6-10 days to plow, harrow, and grade one hectare of rice field. Their stamina  and drawing power increase with body weight.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they have difficulty keeping cool in hot, humid weather (see next chapter),  it is necessary to let working buffaloes cool off, preferably in a wallow, every 2 hours  or so. Without this their body temperatures may rise to dangerous levels.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A pair of 3-year-old buffaloes costs about the same as a small tractor in Thailand.  But many farmers raise their own calves and there is no investment beyond labor.  The "fuel" for the animals comes mainly from village pastures and farm wastes such  as crop stubble and sugarcane tops. Buffaloes have an average working life of  about 11 years, but some work to age 20.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harness</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yoke used on working buffalo in Asia has changed very little in the last 1,500 years. It is doubtful that a working buffalo can exert its full power with it. The hard wooden yoke presses on a very small area on top of the animal's neck, producing severe calluses, galls, and obvious discomfort. The harness tends to choke the animal as the straps under the neck tighten into the windpipe. Since the traditional hitch is usually higher than the buffalo's low center of gravity, the animal cannot pull efficiently. Considerably more pulling power and endurance can be obtained by improving the harness. The situation is not unlike that in Western agriculture in the twelfth century when the horse collar-one of the most important inventions of the Middle Ages first appeared. Before that, horses were yoked like buffalo and the harness passed across their windpipes and choked them as they pulled. Use of the horse collar improved pulling efficiency and speeded the development of transportation and trade.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The curved yoke now universally used on water buffalo contacts an area of the neck that is only about 200 cm2 (little more than half the size of this page). The entire load is pulled on this small area and causes the wood to dig into the flesh.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A horse collar is a padded leather device that encircles the animal's neck. One modified in Thailand for use on water buffalo (see page 43) had a contact area of 650 cm2, more than three times that of the yoke it replaced. The collar's padding pressed against the animal's shoulders, not its neck, and  therefore did not choke it. Attached to the collar were wooden hames with the traces for hitching the animal to a wagon or plow. In trials a buffalo pulled loads 24 percent heavier with the collar than with the yoke, and the horsepower it developed increased by 48 percent(These trials were conducted by J. K. Garner in Thailand in 1958. In the maximum-load test the yoked buffalo failed to move a load of 570 kg, but it moved a load of 640 kg when fitted with the horse collar. In an endurance test the yoked animal took 35 minutes to pull a load 550 m, but harnessed with the collar it took only 21 minutes). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another potentially valuable harness is the breast strap, a set of broad leather straps that pass over the animal's neck and back. One breast strap modified for water buffalo use had a contact area of 620 cm2, almost as much as that of the horse collar, and in trials the buffalo pulled a load 12 percent heavier than with a yoke and the horsepower it developed increased by almost 70 percent( The same animal used in the horse collar trials pulled 700 kg with the breast strap, in the endurance test it took 18.5 minutes to travel the 550-m distance). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These seem very good innovations. In the humid tropics, however, leather collars and breast straps may decay rapidly. To make them widely practical may require experimentation with, or development of, special leather treatments or more durable materials.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1974. The working buffalo. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domes tic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1976. The Buffaloes of China. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">de Guzman, M. R., Jr. 1975. The water buffalo-Asia's beast of burden and key to progress. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Garner, J. K. 1958 (Reprint 1980) Increasing the Work Efficiency of the Water Buffalo Through Use of Improved Harness. (Copies available from Office of Agriculture, Development Support Bureau, Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C. 20523)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kamal, T. H., Shehata, O., and Elbanna, I. M. 1972. Isotope Studies on the Physiology of Domestic Animals. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977. Preliminary Observations on the Productivity of Working Buffalo in Indonesia. Research Report No. 2, Center for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vaugh, M. 1945. Report on a detailed study of methods of yoking bullocks for agricultural work. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 15:186-198.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ward, G. M., Sutherland, T. M., and Sutherland, J. M. 1980. Animals as an energy source in Third World agriculture. Science 208:570. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">5 Adaptability and Environmental Tolerance</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heat Tolerance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the buffalo is remarkably versatile, it has less physiological adaptation to extremes of heat and cold than the various breeds of cattle. Body temperatures of buffaloes are actually lower than those of cattle, but buffalo skin is usually black and heat absorbent and only sparsely protected by hair. Also, buffalo skin has one-sixth the density of sweat glands that cattle skin has, so buffaloes dissipate heat poorly by sweating. If worked or  driven excessively in the hot sun, a buffalo's body temperature, pulse rate, respiration rate, and general discomfort increase more quickly than those of cattle(Failure to appreciate this has caused many buffalo deaths in northern Australia when the animals were herded long distances through the heat of the day as if they were cattle).. This is particularly true of young calves and pregnant females. During one trial in Egypt 2 hours' exposure to sun caused temperatures of buffalo to rise 1.3°C, whereas temperatures of cattle rose only 0.2-0.3°C.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes prefer to cool off in a wallow rather than seek shade. They may wallow for up to 5 hours a day when temperatures and humidity are high. Immersed in water or mud, chewing with half-closed eyes, buffaloes are a picture of bliss.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In shade or in a wallow buffaloes cool off quickly, perhaps because a black skin rich in blood vessels conducts and radiates heat efficiently (Tests at the University of Florida have shown that buffaloes in the shade cool off more quickly than cattle. -Robey, 1976).  Nonetheless, wallowing is not essential. Experience in Australia, Trinidad, Florida, Malaysia, and elsewhere has shown that buffaloes grow normally without wallowing as long as adequate shade is available.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cold Tolerance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although generally associated with the humid tropics, buffaloes, as already noted, have been reared for centuries in temperate countries such as Italy, Greece, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, and in the Azerbaijan and Georgian republics of the USSR. In 1807 Napoleon brought Italian buffaloes to the Landes region of southwest France and released them near Mont-deMarsan. They became feral and multiplied prodigiously in the woods and dunes of the littoral, but unfortunately the local peasants found them easy targets, and with the fall of Napoleon the whole herd was killed for meat(In the twelfth century Benedictine monks introduced buffaloes from their possessions in the Orient to work the lands of their abbey at Auge in northeastern France. In the thirteenth century a herd was introduced to England by the Earl of Cornwall, the brother of Henry III. Nothing is known about how well either herd survived). Buffaloes are also maintained on the high, snowy plateaus of Turkey as well as in Afghanistan and the northern mountains of Pakistan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo has greater tolerance of cold weather than is commonly supposed. The current range of the buffalo extends as far north as 45° latitude in Romania and the sizable herds in Italy and the Soviet Union range over 40° N latitude(Philadelphia and Peking are at comparable latitudes. In the Southern Hemisphere the 40° line of latitude easily encompasses Cape Town, Buenos Aires, Melbourne, and most of New Zealand's North Island).  Cold winds and rapid drops in temperatures, however, appear to have caused illness, pneumonia, and sometimes death. Most of the animals in Europe are of the Mediterranean breed, but other River-type buffaloes (mainly Murrahs from India) have been introduced to Bulgaria and the Soviet Union, which indicates that River breeds, at least, have some cold tolerance.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Altitude</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although water buffaloes are generally reared at low elevations, a herd of Swamp buffaloes is thriving at Kandep in Papua New Guinea, 2,500 m above sea level. And in Nepal, River buffaloes are routinely found at or above 2,800 m altitude.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wetlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are well adapted to swamps and to areas subject to flooding. They are at home in the marshes of southern Iraq and of the Amazon, the tidal plains near Darwin, Australia, the Pontine Marshes in south-central Italy, the Orinoco Basin of Venezuela, and other areas.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Amazon, buffaloes (Mediterranean and Swamp breeds) are demonstrating their exceptional adaptability to flood areas. Buffalo productivity outstrips that of cattle, with males reaching 400 kg in 30 months on a diet of native grasses( Information supplied by C. Nascimento). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The advantage of water buffaloes over Holstein, Brown Swiss, and Criollo cattle was demonstrated in a test at Delta Amacuro, Venezuela, when the cattle developed serious foot rot In the wet conditions of the Orinoco Delta and had to be withdrawn from the test. The area of Venezuela is flooded 6 months of the year and creates constant problems for cattle, yet the buffalo seems to adapt well(*Information supplied by A. Ferrer). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High humidities seem to affect buffaloes less than cattle. In fact, if shade or wallows are available, buffaloes may be superior to cattle in humid areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In southern Brazil, trials comparing buffalo and cattle on subtropical riverine plains have favored the buffalo also. This work is being carried out on native pastures, mostly in  the State of Sao Paulo.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hafez, E. S. E., Badreldin, A. L., and Shafei,M. M. 1955. Skin structure of Egyptian buffaloes and cattle with particular reference to sweat glands. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 46:19-30.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katyega, P. M. J., Masoud, A. J., and Kobo, E. 1980. Information on body and carcass characteristics of Egyptian water buffalo and Mpwapwa x Friesian steers raised in central Tanzania. Tanzania Veterinary Bulletin 2:86-90.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I. L. 1974. Environmental physiology. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1973. Heat tolerance of Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers during exposure to sun and as a result of exercise. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 24(5) :775 -782.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nair, P. G., and Benjamin, B. R. 1963. Studies on sweat glands in the Indian water buffalo. 1. Standardization of techniques and preliminary observations. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 33:102.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pandey, M. D., and Roy, A. 1969a. Studies on the adaptability of buffaloes to tropical climate. I. Seasonal changes in the water and electrolyte status of buffalo cows. Indian Journal of Animal Science 39:367.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pandey, M. D., and Roy, A. 1969b. Studies on the adaptability of buffaloes to tropical climate. II. Seasonal changes in the body temperature, cardio-respiratory and hematological attributes in buffalo cows. Indian Journal of Animal Science 39:378.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prusty, J. N. 1973. Role of the sweat glands in heat regulation in the Indian water buffalo. Indian Journal of Animal Health 12(1):33-37.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robey, C. A., Jr. 1976. Physiological Responses of Water Buffalo to the Florida Environment. M.S. Thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">6 Nutrition</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most buffaloes are located in countries where land, cultivated forage crops, and pastures  are limited. Livestock must feed on poor-quality forages, sometimes supplemented with  a little green fodder or byproducts from food, grain, and oil seed processing. Usually  feedstuffs are in such short supply that few animals have a balanced diet, but the buffalo  seems to perform fairly well under such adverse conditions.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Growth Rate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insufficient measurements have been taken to allow unequivocal state. meets about the  relative growth rates of cattle and buffaloes. However, many observations made in  various parts of the world indicate that the buffalo's growth is seldom inferior to that of  cattle breeds found in the same environments. Some observations are given below.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Trials in Trinidad in the early 1960s involved buffaloes grazing pangola grass (Digitaria  decumbens) together with Brahman and Jamaican Red cattle. Over a period of 20  months the buffaloes gained an average of 0.72 kg per day, whereas the cattle on a  comparable nearby pasture gained 0.63 per day(Experiments performed by P. N. Wilson. -Information supplied by S. P. Bennett.).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the Orinoco Delta of Venezuela unselected Criollo/Zebu crossbred cattle gained  0-0.2 kg per day on Paspalum fasciculatum, whereas the water buffaloes with them  gained 0.25-0.4 kg per day(Cunha  et al., 1975).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the Apure Valley of Venezuela, 100 buffalo steers studied in 1979 reached an  average weight of 508 kg in 30 months, whereas the 30-month old Zebu steers tested  with them weighed 320 kg. The feed consumed was a blend of native grasses (25  percent of the diet) and improved grasses (such as pangola, pare, and guinea grass)( Information supplied by A. Ferrer). In  the same valley 200 buffalo heifers (air freighted from Australia) produced weight gains  averaging 0.5 kg per day over a 2-year period (and 72 percent of them calved). Government statistics for the area record average weight gains in crossbreeds between Zebu and Criollo cattle as 0.28 kg per day (with 40 percent calving).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the Philippines, buffaloes showed weight gains of 0.75-1.25 kg per day, the same as those of cattle. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Daily weight gains of over 1 kg have been recorded for buffaloes in Bulgaria and Yugoslavia.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Liveweight gains of 0.80 kg per day have been recorded for buffaloes in Papua New Guinea. In a very humid, swampy area of the Sepik River coastal plains liveweight gains by males averaged 0.47 kg per day and females 0.43 kg per day for more than a year. The average weight of 30 4-year-old female buffaloes was 375 kg, while the average weight of 4-year-old female Brahman/ Shorthorn crossbred cattle was 320 kg.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· At the research station near Belem in the Brazilian Amazon weaned Murrah buffaloes, pastured continuously on Echinochloa pyramidalis (a nutritious grass), gained 0.8 kg daily and reached 450 kg in about 18 months. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Liveweight gains of 0.74-l.i kg per day have been obtained in Australia. Buffalo steers grew as fast or faster than crossbred Brahman cattle on several improved pastures near Darwin, but on one very poor pasture, 40-year-old buffaloes each weighed only 400 kg, whereas the Brahman crossbred steers reared with them weighed 500 kg. The reason for this is not clear.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efficiency of Digestion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian animal nutritionists have investigated water buffaloes intensively over the past two decades. Many have reported that buffaloes digest feeds more efficiently than do cattle, particularly when feeds are of poor quality and are high in cellulose.One trial revealed that the digestibility of wheat straw cellulose was 24.3 percent for cattle and 30.7 percent for buffalo. The figures for berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) cellulose were 34.6 percent for cattle and 52.2 percent for buffalo. In another trial the digestion of straw fiber was 64.7 percent in cattle, 79.8 percent in buffalo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other nutrients reported to be more highly digested in buffaloes than in cattle (Zebu) are crude fat, calcium and phosphorus, and nonprotein nitrogen.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recent experiments in India suggest that buffaloes also are able to utilize nitrogen more efficiently than cattle. Buffaloes digested less crude protein than cattle in one trial but increased their body nitrogen more (and they were being fed only 40 percent of the recommended daily intake of crude protein).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ability of buffaloes to digest fiber efficiently may be partly due to the microorganisms in their rumen. Several Indian research teams have published data indicating that the microbes in the buffalo rumen convert feed into energy more efficiently than do those in cattle (as measured by the rate of production of volatile fatty acids in the rumen).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also, in laboratory studies samples of buffalo rumen contents produced volatile fatty acids more quickly from a variety of animal feedstuffs than did samples from the rumen of cattle  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No single reason alone explains the buffalo's success in using poor quality forages. Rather, it is a combination of reasons that differ with the breed and conditions used. Studies by other researchers suggest that additional causes might include:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Higher dry matter intake; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Longer retention of feed in digestive tract;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Ruminal characteristics more favorable to ammonia-nitrogen utilization;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Less depression of cellulose digestion by soluble carbohydrates (e.g., starch or molasses);  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Superior ability to handle stressful environment; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A wider range of grazing preferences.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calf Growth Rates</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the buffalo's gestation period is more than a month longer than that of cattle, the calves are born weighing 35-40 kg, or about the same as that of a newborn Holstein calf. But because buffalo milk has about twice the butterfat of cow's milk, the calves grow very quickly. They also suffer more shock at weaning and have to be slowly changed to their new feeding program. Buffaloes can be marketed as full-grown animals for beef at the age of 2-3 years, sometimes even earlier.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p59.png"></center><br>
+ Table 5 Some Coarse Grasses and Forages Palatable to Buffaloes but Less Readily</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, in Indonesia it has been found that buffalo steers can be marketed 6 months before Zebu steers because they may be 100 kg heavier. In Egypt some buffalo calves given feed supplemented with concentrates weighed 360 kg at 1 year of age. At Ain Shams University near Cairo, buffalo calves weaned at 7-14 days of age gained 0.7 kg per day from weaning to slaughter at 18 months of age and weighed 400 kg. Rice straw comprised 50 percent of the finishing diet.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes on Italian farms have reached 350 kg in 15-18 months and some year-old calves weighed 320 kg. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grazing trials on native pasture (with mineral supplementation) in the Brazilian Amazon indicate that buffalo calves grew faster than cattle. At 2 years of age Mediterranean-type buffaloes averaged 369 kg, Swamp type, 322 kg, and Jafarabadi type, 308 kg. The Zebu cattle tested with them averaged 265 kg and the crossbred Zebu/Charolais, 282 kg. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feed Preferences</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes graze a wider range of plants than cattle. During floods near Manaus in the  Brazilian Amazon when cattle become marooned on small patches of high ground,  many suffer from foot rot and many starve to death. Their buffalo companions on the  other hand-bodies sleek and full-swim out to islands of floating aquatic plants and eat  them, treading water. Also, they dive almost 2 m to graze beneath the floodwaters. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Florida buffaloes in a lakefront voluntarily consumed vines, sedges, rushes, floating aquatic weeds, and the leaves and shoots of willows and other  trees along the water's edge. Few of these plants are voluntarily grazed by cattle. In  northern Australia water buffaloes graze the very pickily leaves of pandanus; they also  graze sedges, reeds, floating grass, and aquatic weeds. Hungry buffaloes will eat bark,  twigs, and other unpalatable vegetation.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the variety of their tastes they have been used in northern Queensland,  Australia, to clear pastures of woody weeds left untouched by cattle. In some countries  cattle are used to graze the palatable tops of pasture plants and are followed by  buffaloes to graze the less desirable lower parts.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afifi, Y. A., El-Koussy, H. A., El-Khishen, S. S., and El-Ashry, M. A. 1977. Production of  meat from Egyptian buffaloes. I. The effect of using different sources of roughages on  rate of gain, gross and net efficiency during the growth and finishing periods. Egyptian  Journal of Animal Production 17(2).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appleton, D. c., Dryden, G., and Kondos, A. C. 1976. A comparison of the digestive  efficiency of the water buffalo and the Brahman and Banteng cattle. Proceedings of the  Australian Society of Animal Production 11.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhatia, L S. 1967. The Study of Factors Affecting the Utilization of Low Grade  Roughages and Production of Volatile Fatty Acids in the Rumen of Indian Cattle. Punjab  Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chalmers, M. 1.1974. Nutrition. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo  edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome,  Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles, D. D., and Johnson, E. R. 1975. Live weight gains and carcass composition of  buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) steers on four feeding regimes. Australian Journal of  Agricultural Research 26:407-413.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaturvedi, M. L, Singh, u. B., and Ranjhan, 5. K 1973. Comparative studies on the  efficiency of feed unitization in cattle and buffaloes. Indian Journal of Animal Science  43(12):1034.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chutikul, K. 1975. Ruminant (Buffalo) nutrition. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kacn, Thailand, March 31April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cunha, E., Alvarez, F., Larez, O., and Bryan, W. B. 1975. Pasture and Livestock Investigations in the Humid Tropics: Orinoco Delta, Venezuela. 4. Beef Cattle and Water Buffalo Grazing Trials with Native and Introduced Grasses. IRI Research Institute, New York, New York, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Davendra, C. 1979. The potential value of grasses and crop by-products for feeding buffaloes in Asia. Extension Bulletin No. 126. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">de Guzman, M. R., Jr. 1975. A summary of research into buffalo feeding in the Philippines. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunkel, R. 1981. Animal production using nutrient-deficient fodders in the tropics and subtropics. Animal Research and Development 13:32-39.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El-Ashry, M. A., Mogawer, H. H., and Kishin, S. S. 1972. Comparative study of meat production from cattle and buffalo male calves. I. Effect of roughage: concentrate ratio in ration for rate of gain and feed efficiency of native cattle, Friesian and buffalo calves. Egyptian Journal of Animal Production 12(2) :99 -107.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grant, R. J., Van Soest, P. J., McDowell, R. E., and Perez, C. B. 1974. Intake, digestibility and metabolic loss of Napier grass by cattle and buffaloes when fed wilted, chopped and whole. Journal of Animal Science 39(2):423.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ibrovic, M., Cvetkovic, A., Smrcek, A., and Janevski, K. 1972. A contribution to the knowledge of metabolism of carotene and seasonal dynamics of vitamin A in the buffalo. Veterinaria 21(4) :511.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., Sidhu, G. S., and Moxin, A. L. 1962. Cellulose digestion in water buffaloes and Zebu cattle. Journal of Animal Science 21:1001.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1966. Effect of urea on the voluntary intake of wheat skew in Zebu cattle and the buffalo. Indian Veterinary Journal 43:880-886.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1969. Biochemical processes in the rumen. 111. Effect of different carbobydrates on in vitro digestion of cellulose and utilization of urea nikogen by rumen micro-organisms from zebu and buffalo. Indian Journal of Animal Science 39 :27-32.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1971a. Studies on the biochemical process in the rumen. Vl. In vivo digestion of cellulose in buffalo and cattle. Indian Veterinary Journal 48:267-271.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1971b. Studies on the biochemical process in the rumen. VII. In vitro digestion of cellulose in cattle and buffalo. Indian Veterinary Journal 48:583-586.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1972. Studies on the biochemical processes in the rumen. VIIL The significance of molar proportions of acetic and propionic acids in the rumen on the growth rate of buffalo and Zebu. Indian Veterinary Journal 49:995-1000.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Gill, R. S., Makkar, G. S., and Ranjan, S. K. 1977. Work done on buffalo nutrition in India-a review. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 30(3): 173-191.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Langar, P. N., Sidhu, G. S., and Bhatia, I. S. 1969. Utilization of nitrogen and production of volatile fatty acids in the rumina of buffalo (Bos bubalis) and zebu (Bos indicus) at different time intervals, under a feeding regimen deficient in carbohydrates. Indian Veterinary Journal 46:593-598.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ludri, R. S., and Razdan, M. N. 1975. Effect of level and source of dietary nitrogen on water metabolism in cows and buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 28:107109.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ludri, R. S., and Razdan, M. N. 1980. Efficiency of nitrogen utilization by Zebu cows and buffaloes. I. Nutrient utilization and nitrogen balances on preformed protein diets. TropicalAgriculture (Trinidad) 57:83-90. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1964. The fractionation of carbohydrates in Indian feedstuffs and the digestion of different fractions in the rumina of cattle and buffalo. Journal of Research, Ludhiana 1:56-66.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Misra, R. K., and Ranhoka, G. S. 1969. Influence of energy levels on the utilization of peanut protein-urea nikogen by cattle and buffalo. Journal of Animal Science 28: 107-109.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mullick, D. N. 1964. Review of the investigations on the physiology of Indian buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Saience 17:45-50.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Naga, M. A., El-Shazly, K., Deif, H. I., Abaza, M. A., and El-Faham, R. H. 1975. Relationship between nitrogen balance, digested nitrogen and dry matter digestibility in ruminants. Journal of Animal Science 40(2):366-373.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nangia, O. P., Aggarwal, V. K., and Singh, A. 1972. Studies on the utilization of dietary protein in cattle and buffaloes. Indian Joumal of Dairy &amp;ience 25: 1-5.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nascimento C. N. B., Moura Carvalho, L. O. D., and Lourenco, J. B. 1979. Importdneia do Bufaio para a Pecubria Brasileira. Agricultural Research Center for Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem, Para, Brazil.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nascimento, C. N. B., and Velga, J. B. 1973. Weight gains in stabled buffaloes of the Mediterranean breed. Boletim Tecnico do Instituto de Pesqutsas e Experimentacao Agropecuarias do Norte 58:24-72.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ponnappa, G. G., Nooruddin, M. D., and Raghavan, G. V. 1971. Rate of the passage of food and its relation to digestibility of nutrients in Murrah buffaloes and Hariana cattle. Indian Journal of Animal Science 41:1026-1030.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Punj, M. L., Kochar, A. S., Bhatia, I. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1968. In vitro studies on the cellulolytic activity and production of volatile fatty acids by the inocula obtained from the rumen of Zebu cattle and Murrah buffalo on different feeding regimens. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 38 :325-332.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raghavan, G. V., Kakkar, B., Rao, M. V. N., and Mullick, D. N. 1963. Effects of air temperature and humidity on the metabolism of food nutrients in cattle and buffalo bulls. Annals of Biochemistry and Experimental Medicine 23 :23-28.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ray, S. N., and Mudgal, V. D. 1962. Rumen metabolism studies in cattle and buffalo. Proceedings of the 16th International Dairy Congress, Copenhagen. A:105-l11.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahai, L., Johri, P. N., and Kehar, N. D. 1955. Effect of feeding alkali and water-treated cereal straws on milk yield. Indfan Journal of Veterinary Science 25:201-212.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saini, B. S., and Ray, S. N. 1964. Comparative utilization of coarse fodders in cattle and buffalo. Annual Report of the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schottler, J. H., Boromana, A., and Williams, W. T. 1977. Comparative performance of cattle and buffalo on the Sepik Plains, Papua New Guinea.AustralianJournal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 17(87) :550 -554. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sebastian, L., Mudgal, V. D., and Nair, P. G. 1970. Comparative efficiency of milk production by Sahiwal cattle and Murrah buffalo. Joumal of Animal Science 30:253256.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, C. B., and Mugdal, V. D. 1966. Studies on the lignin and cellulose contents of fedder crops and effect of lignification of cellulose digestion. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 19:100.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sidbu, G. S., Kochar, A. S., and Makkar, G. S. 1967. Effect of supplementing Bajra stalks with lucerne and concentrates and their part replacement by urea on the production of volatile fatty acids in the rumen of cows and buffaloes. Journal of Research, Ludhiana 4:104-110.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, B. K., and Mudgal, V. D. 1967. The comparative utilization of feed nutrients from lucerne hay in buffalo and crossbred zebu heifers. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 20: 142-145.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tandon, R. N.' Sharma, D. D., and Mugdal, V. D. 1972. Effect of feeding urea with different levels of energy on the biochemical changes in the rumen of cows and buffaloes. Indian Journal of Animal Science 42: 174-179  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Upadhyaya, R. S., Singh, U. B., and Ranjhan, S. K. 19i3. Digestibilit of nutrients and VFA concentation in zebu cattle and buffalo calves fed on green cowpea and maize. Indian Journal of Animal Science 43 :5 83-s 88.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Verma, M. L., Sidhu, G. S., and Kochar, A. S. 1968. Effect of frequency on the production of VFA in the rumen by zebu cattle and buffalo. Journal of Research, Ludhiana 5(3) :1 -6.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Verma, M. L., Singh, N., Sidhu, G. S., Kochar, A. S., and Bhatia, I. S. 1970. The in vitro cellulose digestion and VFA production from some of the common Indian feeds using rumen inocula from Zebu cattle and buffalo. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 23:155 -160. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">7 Health</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When compared with other domestic livestock, the water buffalo generally is a healthy animal. This is particularly impressive because most of them live in hot, humid regions that are conducive to disease, and the buffalo is a bovine susceptible to most diseases and parasites that afflict cattle. Although the reasons are not specifically known, the effect of disease on the buffalo and its productivity is often less deleterious than on cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antibiotics and vaccines developed for cattle work equally well on buffaloes. As a result, treatments are available for most of the serious diseases of buffaloes, although some are not very effective for either animal.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The greatest buffalo losses are often among calves. Newborn buffalo calves, like bovine calves, can succumb in large numbers to viruses, bacteria, and poor nutrition. This is largely due to poor management during the calf's frst 2 months of life. For example, as noted previously, villagers in some countries often sell the valuable buffalo milk, thus depriving the calves.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo calf losses are often similar to those of the cattle around them, but the animal's proclivity for wallowing exposes calves to waterborne diseases. Further, a young one occasionally drowns when an adult rolls on top of it.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reactions to some specific diseases and parasites are discussed below.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pasteurellosis- Probably the water buffalo's most serious disease, pasteurellosis, or hemorrhagic septicemia, is caused by the bacterium Pasteurella multocida (P. septica). Buffaloes are more susceptible to it than cattle and die in large numbers where pasteurellosis occurs. A vaccine against pasteurellosis is effective in protecting both buffaloes and cattle; it is cheap and easily made.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tuberculosis- Despite some claims to the contrary, the water buffalo is susceptible to the bovine strain of tuberculosis (Alycobacterium bovis). Scattered reports from different parts of India indicate no difference in the incidence of infection between cattle and buffaloes(Information supplied by S. K. Misra, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India).  Other strains of mycobacteria have been isolated from feral buffaloes and cattle in northern Australia but seem to have little effect on the animals. Tuberculosis occurs among the buffalo herds of the world only because most are kept under unsanitary conditions(In 1905 buffaloes were introduced to Trinidad because the cattle herds (Zebu and srahman breeds) were infected with tuberculosis and, in those days, it was thought that buffaloes were resistant to the disease. Most were housed in muddy, ill-kept pens and forced to eat sugarcane tops off the ground; consequently, in 1949 over 30 percent of the buffaloes reacted to the tuberculin test. (The cattle herds had 80 percent reactors.) Tuberculosis was eliminated in Trinidad's buffaloes by improving the sanitary conditions: installing concrete floors and mangers and cleaning the pens regularly. This, together with regular tuberculin testing and removal of reactors, led to such a dramatic improvement that buffalo tuberculosis is now virtually unknown. -Information supplied by S. K. Bennett.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brucellosis-Buffaloes and cattle are equally susceptible to brucellosis. Although seldom reported as a problem elsewhere, brucellosis in Venezuela is increasing more rapidly among buffaloes than among cattle. In India the disease is no more prevalent among buffaloes than among cattle.  As many as 57 percent of some Venezuelan herds are infected with the disease. It is a frequent cause of abortion in buffaloes. Serologic procedures and measures developed for the control of the disease in cattle are also effective means of curbing this infection in buffaloes. (Consumption of raw milk or contact with aborted fetuses may cause undulant fever in humans.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mastitis- Among milking buffaloes mastitis is a problem as it is in dairy cows, but to a lesser extent. It is likely to increase, however, as the milk production per individual buffalo is increased. The bacteria that cause mastitis in the buffalo are similar to those in cattle. Treatment and control programs used for cattle are equally effective for buffaloes.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Diseases -Among the epizootic diseases, rinderpest and piroplasmosis seem to affect buffaloes as much as cattle. Foot-and-mouth disease also affects buffaloes, but to a lesser degree than cattle, producing smaller lesions and having a lower incidence. In northern Australia buffaloes deliberately infected with bovine pleuropneumonia bacteria exhibited slight fever, but the disease never appeared. No naturally occurring eases have been reported in buffaloes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ticks -Buffaloes are notably resistant, although not immune, to ticks. In a tick-infested area of northern Australia only 2 engorged female ticks were found on 13 adult buffaloes during a 2-year test. Accordingly, healthy buffaloes are not commonly affected by diseases borne by ticks nor are the hides damaged by their bites. Since ticks are rarely found on buffaloes, anaplasmosis, theileriasis, and babesiosis, which are tick-borne, have little effect on buffaloes in the field. (Buffaloes and cattle are equally susceptible, however, if inoculated with East Coast fever, a form of theileriasis.) This is important because tick infestations in cattle are particularly troublesome in the tropics and the pesticides used to control them are becoming ineffective as the ticks develop resistance. The pesticides are also becoming expensive.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The basis of the buffalo's tick resistance is not known, but wallowing and rubbing may play a role in it; animals kept in experimental concrete pens in Australia have developed heavy tick infestation. (rials carried out on Magnetic Island by R. H. V/harton, Commonwealth Scientiflc and Industrial Research Organisation, Townsville, Queensland, Australia). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p68to69.png"></center><br>
+ Table 6 Some Infections and Parasites of Buffalo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Screwworm- Larvae of the screwworm fly (Callitroge species), a major pest of livestock in Central and South America and some other tropical areas, do not affect adult water buffalo. In Venezuelan areas where cattle (Zebu type) are severely infested, adult water buffaloes are virtually free of screwworm larvae and the umbilicus of newborn calves seldom if ever becomes infected. ( Information supplied by A. Ferrer). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The same is true in Papua New Guinea. It is thought that the mud plaster produced by wallowing suffocates the larvae, but in India screwworms do not affect water buffaloes either, and there they wallow in fairly clear water and the farmer usually washes them off. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roundworm- The heavy losses of young buffalo calves throughout the world are caused, in large measure, by the roundworm Toxocara vitulorum. The calves seem more susceptible than mature animals and they become infected before birth or within 24 hours after birth through the mother's colostrum. The roundworm is the most serious buffalo parasite and in untreated calves the small intestine can get packed with worms to the point of complete occlusion. Although huge numbers of calves die each year, anthelmintic drugs that control roundworms are highly effective and widely available.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The adult water buffalo appears to have a high degree of resistance to strongyloid nematodes. Being such excellent converters of rough fodders they do not suffer the nutritional deficiency and the resulting liability to these roundworms experienced seasonally by cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liver Fluke- During wallowing, water buffaloes can easily become infected with the waterborne infective stages of liver fluke (Fasciola gigantica). Although the number of flukes in a buffalo may be phenomenally high, no clinical signs of the disease are usually evident. It seems likely that the resulting liver damage reduces the growth and the work and milk production of buffaloes more than is generally appreciated.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trypanosomiasis- The water buffalo is susceptible to trypanosomiasis and is reportedly more susceptible than cattle to Trypanosoma evansi.Experience with the animal in Africa is limited, but trypanosomiasis may be the reason why Egypt is the only African country that has traditionally employed water buffalo.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Parasites- The wallow and its resulting mud cake seem to protect water buffalo from many biting flies, but the main ectoparasite in Australia and Southeast Asia is the buffalo fly (Siphona spp.). Pediculosis, caused by the sucking louse (Hematopinus tuberculatus), occurs widely among buffalo, and sarcoptic mange (Sarcoptes scabiei var. bubalus) is a serious disease, especially among calves and during dry seasons when wallowing opportunities are restricted. The lung worm Dictyocaulus ririparus thrives in warm, humid areas and sometimes infects buffaloes heavily, although its outward manifestations are rare.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barlow, J. N. 1977. Toxicology and safety evaluation of Phosvel to Egyptian water buffalo. Pages 517-522 in: Pesticide Management and Insecticide Resistance, edited by D. L. Watson and A. W. A. Brown. Academic Press, New York, New York, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhowmik, M. K., and Iyer, P. K. R. 1977. Studies on the pathology of chronic lesions in the mammary glands of buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). 1. Actinomycosis, nocardiosis and lesions simulating tuberculosis. Indian Veterinary Journal 54(5):342-346.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhowmik, M. K., Singh, S. P., and Iyer, P. K. R. 1977. Studies on chronic mastisis in buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). lndian Journal of Animal Health 16(2) :157-160.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1974. Aspects of disease. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dhar, S., Bhattacharyulu, Y., and Gautam, O. P. 1973. Susceptibility of Indian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) to Theileria annulata infection. Haryana Agricultural University Journal of Research 3(1):27-30.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwivedi, S. K., Mallick, K. P., and Malhotra, M. N. 1979. Babesiosis: clinical cases in Indian water buffaloes. Indian Veterinary Journal 56(4):333-335.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Griffiths, R. B. 1974. Parasites and parasitic diseases. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hafez, S. M., and Krauss, H. 1979. Detection of antibodies against some respiratory pathogens in the sera of domestic animals in Egypt. Bulletin of Animal Health and Production in Africa 27(3):209-214.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ho, T. M. 1976. Animal disease control program in Republic of China for better animal production. Korean Journal of Animal Science 18(4):317-321.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iannelli, D. 1978. Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis Arnee) allotypes: identification of a multiple allelic system. Animal Blood Groups and Biochemical Genetics 9(2):105113.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kapur, M. P., and Singh, R. P. 1977. Diagnosis of mastitis: a comparative study of four indirect tests.Haryana Veterinarian 16(2):69-73.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leue, A. 1971. Buffaloes in Nepal. Tierartliche Umschau 26(4):173-178.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohan, R. N. 1968. Diseases and parasites of buffaloes. I. Viral, mycoplasmal, and rickettsial diseases. II. Bacterial and fungal diseases. III. Parasitic and miscellaneous diseases. Veterinary Bulletin 38:567-576, 647-659, 735-756.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murthy, D. K., and Sharma, S. K. 1974. Studies on reactivity and immunogenecity of cell-culture rinderpest vaccine in different species of ruminants. Indian Journal of Animal Science 44(6):359-365.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Agustin, F. 1973. Important diseases and parasites of Carabaos. Philippine Journal of Nutrition 26(2):68-79.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schneider, C. R., Kitikoon, V., Sornmani, S., and Thiachantra, S. 1975. Mekong schistosomiasis. III. A parasitological survey of domestic water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) on Khong Island, Laos. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 69(2):227-232.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, K. N. S., Jain, D. K,, and Noble, D. 1975. Calf mortality in pure and crossbred Zebu cattle and Murrah buffaloes reared artificially from birth. Animal Production 20(2):207-211.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, S. K., Banegee, D. P., and Gautam, O. P. 1978. Anaplasma marginale infection in Indian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Indian Journal of Animal Health 17(2): 105-110.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shaw, J. J., and Lainson, R. 1972. Trypanosoma vivax in Brazil. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 66(1):25-32.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shukla, R. R., and Singh, G. 1972. Studies on tuberculosis amongst Indian buffaloes. Indian Veterinary Journal 49(2):119-123.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soni, J. L. 1978. Suitability of different serological tests for diagnosis of brucellosis in buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). Indian Journal of Animal Science 48(12) :873-881. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tantawi, H. H., Fayed, A. A., Shalaby, M. A., and Skalinsky, E. I. 1979. Isolation, cultivation and characterization of poxviruses from Egyptian water buffaloes .Journal of the Egyptian Veterinary Medical Association 37(4):15-23.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thomson, D. 1977. Diseases of water buffalo in the Northern Territory of Australia. Australian Veterinary Practioner 7(1):50-52.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young, P. L. 1979. Infection of water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) with bovine ephemeral fever virus. Australian Veterinary Journal 55(7):349-350. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">8 Reproduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo has a reputation for being a sluggish breeder, but the average animal is so poorly fed that its reproductive performance is unrepresentative of its capabilities. Without reasonable nutrition the animals cannot reach puberty as early in life or reproduce as regularly as their physiology or genetic capability would normally allow.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Actually, adequately nourished buffaloes reach puberty at about the same age as cattle, as early as 18 months of age in buffalo bulls. In northern Australia Swamp females have conceived even as early as 14 months of age and feral buffaloes routinely conceive at 16 months of age. In the herd at Punjab Agricultural University in Ludhiana, India, 11 River buffalo heifers showed estrus at ages less than 18.5 months and a few came into heat when less than 15 months old. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo also can calve at an age comparable to that of cattle. At the Ain Shams University in Egypt a well-fed Egyptian buffalo herd of several hundred animals has an average age at first calving of 27 months, 22 days(Information supplied by M. El Ashry. Because of nutritional uncertainties, El Ashry and his colleagues believe that body weight is a better indicator of sexual preparedness than age is. These researchers at Ain Shams University recommend mating heifers when they weigh 365 kg no matter what their age. Research at Punjab Agricultural University shows that buffalo heifers can be bred when they weigh over 270 kg and manifest estrus).Most animals in the Punjab Agricultural University River buffalo herd calved before 35 months, one at 28.3 months.! In one Venezuelan herd almost all heifers 20-24 months old were pregnant; virtually all calved before age 38 months, most by 30 months, and one at age 23 months. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In trials in Queensland, Australia, and in Papua New Guinea buffaloes produced more calves over a 3-year period than the cattle tested with them. In the hot, humid Sepik Plains in northern Papua New Guinea it was noticed that female buffaloes (Swamp breed) came into estrus even while they were losing weight because of inadequate nutrition, whereas cattle did not. Under these stressful conditions the buffalo calves also reached sexual maturity earlier and the buffaloes had a higher calving percentage and a shorter calving interval because they came back into estrus more quickly than cattle(Information supplied by J. Schottler. The age at first calving of more than 60 nutritionally poor buffaloes was 38 months in one herd and 45 months for Brahman cross cattle) . Similar observations have been made in Florida, Trinidad, the Brazilian Amazon, Venezuela, and elsewhere. Although these are exceptions to the normal observations in Asia, where buffaloes seem to breed more slowly than cattle, they do demonstrate the buffalo's potential for improved breeding.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estrus in buffalo cows usually lasts about 24 hours, but duration varies and may range from 11 to 72 hours. It occurs on an average 21-day cycle. Determination of when a cow is in estrus is difficult because often the animal shows few outward signs of "heat." This increases the chances of missing a cycle, especially for artificial insemination. Unclean surroundings, poor nutrition, and poor management, cause a high death rate among calves; this also contributes to the buffalo's often low reproductive rate.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many areas, calving is seasonal. This seems to be largely due to changes in nutrition. It may also be caused by heat stress, in either males or females, which results in a low breeding rate during the hot season. However, when buffalo cows are well fed, they come into estrus and will breed in any season.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many matings take place at night and are therefore unobserved. In one set of pregnancy diagnoses in northern Australia, the buffalo's conception rate (81 percent) was higher than that of the Brahman crossbreeds (70 percent) they were with. In India, artificial insemination of water buffaloes began in the late 1950s. Deep-frozen semen is now available and its use is spreading. Overall conception rates of 70-80 percent are obtained. It is estimated that some 100,000 buffaloes are now being artificially inseminated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo's gestation period is about one month longer and is more variable than that of cattle. Whereas cattle give birth after about 280 days (Angus, 279, Holstein, 279-280, Brown Swiss, 286), buffaloes take 300334 days (average 310) or roughly 10 months and 10 days (differences between breeds are unknown). In Punjab, India, River buffaloes have been observed to come into estrus as early as 40 days after calving. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nonetheless, only under uncommon circumstances can a buffalo cow produce a calf each year. In one herd of 800 cows in Venezuela the average female buffalo over age 4 produces 2 calves every 3 years. In response to a recent questionnaire, the majority of Indonesian farmers estimated that the calving rate was between 3 and 4 calves in 5 years. A few claimed a calf a year, some only 1 or 2 calves In 5 years. In Florida it has been noted that some buffalo cows having just calved became pregnant more quickly than cattle, so that a calf may indeed be produced each year. Regular yearly breeding has been noted also in northern Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The incidence of abortion, dystocia, retained placenta, and other parturition problems in buffaloes is similar to that in cattle. Twinning is very rare; probably no more than 0.01 percent of buffalo pregnancies produce twins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Preliminary results in northern Australia indicate that weaning can be carried out as late as 12 months of age without any effect on conception time of the buffalo dam.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhattacharya, P. 1974. Reproduction. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chauhan, F. S., Singh, N., and Singh, M. 1977. Involution of uterus and cervix in buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 30(4):286-291.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eusibio, A. N. 1975. Breeding, management and feeding practices of buffaloes in the Philippines. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Animal Production and Health Paper. 1979. Buffalo Reproduction and Artificial Insemination. Proceedings of the Seminar Sponsored by FAO/SIDA/Government of India, held at National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132001-India, December 4-15, 1978. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghanem, Y. S. 1955a. Environmental causes of variation in the length of gestation of buffaloes. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 25 :301-311.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghanem, Y. S. 1955b. Genetic causes of variation in the length of gestation of buffaloes. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 25:307-311.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health, E., and Gupta, R. 1976. Ultrastructure of water buffalo (Bos bubalis) spermatozoa. Zentralblatt fuer Veterinaerrnedizin 23(2):106-120.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu, C. H. 1978. The preliminary results of crossbreeding of buffaloes in China. Research Institute for Animal Science of Kwangsi, People's Republic of China.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matharoo, J. S., and Singh, M. 1980. Revivability of buffalo spermatozoa after deepfreezing the semen using various extenders. Zentralblatt fuer Veterinaermedizin 27(5): 385-391.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rao, A. V. N., Murthy, T. S., and Dutt, K. L. 1979. Effect of lunar cyclicity on oestrus rhythmicity in the Indian water buffalo. Livestock Advisor 4(7):29-30.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rawal, C. V. S. 1978. A study on correlations of weight of pituitary gland and reproductive organs in males of Indian water buffalo. Indian Journal of Heredity 10(3):11-12.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977. Livestock in Indonesia. Research Report No. 1. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia. (In English and Indonesian.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roy, A. 1974. Observations on the physiology of reproduction. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. CockrilL Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahai, R., and Singhal, R. A. 1977. The sex chromatin profile of water buffaloes of Murrah breed. Indian Journal of Animal &amp;Science 11(2):63-67.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, A. 1978. Studies on the process of spermatogenesis and epididymal sperm reserve in water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Thesis Abstracts, Haryana Agricultural University 4(4):331.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, M., Matharoo, J. S., and Chauhan, F. S. 1980. Preliminary fertility results with frozen buffalo semen in Tris extender. Theriogenology 13(3):191-194.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, N., Chauhan, F. S., and Singh, M. 1979. Postpartum ovarian activity and fertility in buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Sefence 32(2): 134-139.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sunkaporn Ratanadilok Na Puket. 1975. The improvement of buffalo production through breeding and management under Thailand conditions. In: Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Takkar, P. O., Chauhan, F. S., Tiwana, M. S., and Singh, M. 1979. Breeding behaviour of buffalo cows. Indian Veterinary Journal 56: 168-172.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toelihere, M. R. 1975. Physiology of reproduction and artificial insemination of water buffaloes. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1968. Incidence of calving and birth weights of domesticated buffalo in the Northern Territory. Proceedings of the Australian Society for Animal Productlon 7: 144-147.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1979. The water buffalo in Australia: reproductive and parent-offspring behaviour of buffalo. Australian Wildlife Research 6:265-287. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">9 Management</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are adaptable and are managed in many ways. In general, they are raised like cattle. But in some operations they must be handled differently. This chapter highlights these differences.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Millions of water buffaloes are managed in "backyards" in Asia. They exist on the resources of small holdings. Management and expenditures are minimal. Care of the family buffalo is usually entrusted to children, old people, or women not engaged in other farm duties; the buffalo allows them to be useful and productive.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo fits the resources available on the farm, but it is also an urban animal. Thousands of herds of 2-20 buffaloes may be found in the cities and towns of India, Pakistan, and Egypt-all fed, managed, and milked in the streets.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, the buffalo has important qualities as a feedlot animal; it can be herded and handled with relative ease because of its placid nature. The Anand Cooperative in India's Gujarat State, which daily contributes thousands of gallons of milk to Operation Flood (the world's largest nutrition project), involves more than 150,000 Surti buffaloes that are fed, managed, and milked by their owners under feedlot-like conditions in their villages. Many of Italy's 100,000 buffaloes are maintained under similar conditions.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes can also be managed on rangelands. In Brazil, Venezuela, Trinidad, the United States, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and elsewhere there is rising interest in raising buffalo beef on the range. The production practices for raising them are similar to those used for range cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes in the humid tropics must be able to cool off. Shade trees are desirable, and although a wallow is not essential, it is probably the most effective way the animal has of coping with heat. Alternatively, water showers may be provided to wet down the animals 3-5 times during the hottest part of the day.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are intelligent animals. Young ones learn patterns quickly and often are reluctant to change their habits. Feral animals-even those born in the wild-tame down after a week or two in a fenced enclosure to the point where many can be handled, haltered, and hand fed(In one example, loo feral buffalo were captured in Northern Territory, Australia. With in 14 days all the animals-males and females, young and old-had become docile and amenable to handling. -Information supplied by D. G. Tulloch) . Among feral herds of northern Australia it has been observed that buffaloes have clans and families. A female calf seems to remain with its family and mother for many years (possibly for life). A male calf stays until it is about 2 years old, when it is driven from the group by an adult bull. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has also been noted in northern Australia that free-ranging buffaloes instinctively select clean water areas to drink from, other areas to wallow in, and still others as "toilet areas." In addition, China's buffaloes reportedly are being "toilet trained" to defecate only at specific sites to avoid contaminating waterways with schistosome eggs.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another interesting observation from northern Australia is that most buffalo dams readily adopt a calf that has been orphaned by the death of its mother. In fact, females will allow several calves to nurse (including calves of other mothers and sometimes even adults).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are also self-reliant. For several months each year in Vietnam and Malaysia, for instance, they are turned loose in the forests to fend for themselves.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Provision of adequate fencing is one of the great problems of buffalo management. The  animals have strong survival instincts and if feed runs short, such as in the dry season,  they will break through fences that would deter cattle who would remain and starve. They  will also break through fences if their family unit is split up. Barriers must be stronger  than those used for cattle and the wires closer together and lower to the ground because  buffaloes lift fences up with their horns rather than trample them down. In northern  Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Costa Rica it has been found that buffaloes are  particularly sensitive to electric fences (a single wire is all that is needed), and in Brazil a  special suspension fence has been devised(Moura Carvalho et al., 1979). Both of these  seem to be cheap and efficient answers to the fencing problem.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are easily handled from horseback and easily worked through a corral.  Actually, because of their docility they can be mustered on foot, even on ranges where  cattle require horses. Unless they come from different areas they tend to herd together  and can be mustered like sheep.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the major management adjustments to be made by cattlemen is understanding  and capitalizing on the buffalo's placid nature. Buffaloes are naturally timid and startle  easily; they must be handled quietly and calmly. Rough handling, wild riding, and loud  shouting make handling them more difficult and training them much harder.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village buffaloes are led and managed by a ring threaded through the septum between  the nostrils. The technique is frequently applied crudely and cruelly, often resulting in a  ripped septum.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The identification of individual buffaloes is difficult. Fire brands do not remain legible on  the skin for long. Cryobranding (freeze branding) is more durable. Most types of ear tags  are not very successful; the numbers wear off and mud covers up the tag's color. In  northern Australia ear tattooing has been the most successful identification technique,  with tattoos remaining legible for at least 8 years(Between 1958 and 1962 hundreds of  Australian buffalo were shipped on the hoof to the meat markets in Hong Kong without  trouble, despite crowded shipboard conditions and the long sea voyage. But in 1962 one  roughly treated bull went berserk in Hong Kong and killed a handler, and the Hong Kong  authorities stopped the trade as a result, although the problem was really one of  mismanagement. Buffalo have since been sent by air from Australia to Venezuela,  Nigeria, and Papua New Guinea and by barge to Papua New Guinea. No handling  problems have been experienced en route).  When they pasture together, cattle and  buffaloes coexist satisfactorily. They segregate themselves into their own groups and do  not interfere with one another. The buffaloes, however, usually dominate the cattle and  tend to monopolize the areas with the best feed supply.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feed troughs and mineral boxes used for cattle are suitable for buffaloes, but chutes and  crushes must be widened to accommodate the buffalo's broader body and, when  necessary, the Swamp buffalo's greater horn spread. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are powerful  swimmers. In Brazil they have been known to escape by swimming down the Amazon River. An unusual management difficulty is caused by piranha in the rivers and swamps of Venezuela. In one herd of 100 heifer buffaloes, 40 have lost all or part of a teat to these voracious fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The horns of water buffaloes are seldom removed or prevented from growing, a  testament to the animal's docility. (When questioned, one Thai villager said that he wouldn't  allow it because it would be a disgrace to the buffalo.) However, the animals can be  dehorned as calves in the same manner as cattle. They are then easier to handle In  chutes and cause less accidental injury to neighboring animals, handlers, walls, and  trees.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benya, E. G. 1972. Cattle and buffalo production in Vietnam. Dairy Science Mimeo  Report, Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, Gainesville, Florida, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1974. Management, conservation and use. In: The Husbandry and Health  of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of  the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">De Boer, A. J. 1976. A further report on the Taiwan livestock industry: general policy  conclusions and further research needs. Journal of Agricultural Economics 19:116129.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lin, C. H. 1975. The breeding, management and feeding of water buffaloes in Taiwan. In:  The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon  Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei,  Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McDowell, R. E. 1972. Improvement of Livestock Production in Warm Climates. W. H.  Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moura Carvalho, L. O. D., LouIenco, J. B., Nascimento, C. N. B., and Costa, N. A. 1979.  Cerca de Contencao pare Bubalinos e Bovinos. Comunicado Tecnico No. 28,  Agricultural Research Center for the Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem, Para, Brazil.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rufener, W. H. 1975. Management and productive performance of water buffalo in  northeast Thailand. In: The Asiatic TVater Buffalo. Proceedings of an International  Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer  Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1978. The water buffalo in Australia: grouping and home range. Australian  Wildlife Research 5:327-354.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1979. Redomestication of water buffaloes in the Northern Territory of  Australia. Animal Regulation Studies 2(1):5-20.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">10 Environmental Effects</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The grazing and wallowing habits of water buffaloes may have unexpected consequences when the animals are introduced to new, perhaps fragile environments. The presence of several thousand feral buffaloes on the coastal plains of northern Australia, for example, has become a very emotional issue among Australian environmentalists, some of whom foretell the complete destruction of the environment if the uncontrolled feral herds are not destroyed( It is not at all clear, however, that the buffaloes (which have existed in the area for 150 years) are causing the observed environmental degradation. Other possibilities include: fire, climatic stress, overgrazing, and a variety of farming, hunting, and other human activities, especially the use of four-wheel-drive vehicles. Thousands of wild pigs also share the area, along with crayfish that burrow into and weaken the levees that keep out the sea, something for which the buffaloes have been blamed). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil Compaction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes have larger hooves than cattle of comparable size and thus they compact the soil less. But buffaloes often live in damp, boggy areas where their feet may compact soft soils. Also, buffaloes are creatures of habit and, when able, they set up fixed points for drinking, feeding, defecating, wallowing, and sleeping. Between the points they wear sharply defined trails in the vegetation and soil.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wallowing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Possibly the water buffalo's greatest environmental limitation is its propensity to build wallows. In hot climates every buffalo will wallow at some time during the heat of the day if water is available. When they can, buffaloes will make their own wallows, enlarging a mud puddle by rolling in it or even using their heads to flip water out of a drinking trough and muddying the ground nearby.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pasture in the immediate area of the wallow is usually damaged by trampling and waterholes may become fouled, but buffaloes return to the same wallow day after day and do not build new ones indiscriminately. Thus, the muddied area is not a large proportion of the location in which they graze unless a large number of animals are confined in a small space(At Gainesville, Florida (possibly because of its subtropical but not hot climate), a herd of 52 buffaloes concentrated in a one-hectare field did not attempt to build a wallow at ale -Information supplied by H. Popenoe.) . In addition, man-made wallows can be dug at safe sites and the animals will use them. The problem of wallowing is therefore not generally a serious one.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Damage to Waterways</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because buffaloes often live near and enter water freely, they may cause erosion in ditches, river banks, canals, and levees. Also, their wallowing muddies the water, which may adversely affect some fish species and reduce the growth of algae. Buffaloes commonly urinate and defecate in the water, possibly creating a pollution hazard, although in most situations this contamination is likely to be minor.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The presence of this herbivore in natural waterways may reduce the number of water plants. Some plants are trampled, some eaten, and some underwater species are suppressed because the muddied water transmits less light. This (and several other of the buffalo's environmental effects) can be turned to advantage (see picture page 85) when, as often occurs, aquatic plants grow out of control and become obnoxious weeds.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Damage to Pastures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes have very strong jaws, and when forage is sparse they graze it close to the ground; this overgrazing can destroy a pasture. In addition, they eat virtually all available plant material (including many species that cattle shun), so that a densely stocked pasture can become completely defoliated. In northern Australia it has been found that, with time, buffaloes become accustomed to a given pasture, and unless fences are strong they will instinctively return to it until the forage has been depleted.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo's inclination to eat many plants can be used to improve the environment and suppress growth of coarse weedy species of plants. On the Sepik Plains in Papua New Guinea buffaloes are being used to graze and suppress sedges (Cyperus species), as a result, the more desirable Paspalum species are beginning to appear. At Mount Bundy in northern Australia native pastures are being improved on a commercial scale by overstocking them with buffaloes. The animals reduce or completely eliminate spear grass and other weeds-even those with thorns-and thus foster the survival and growth of introduced forage legumes such as stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis). In Sri Lanka buffaloes have been used to graze out the vigorous tropical grass Imperata cylindrica.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Damage to Trees</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes instinctively rub against trees (and walls and fences), eagerly browse leaves, and sometimes nibble bark, so they damage trees more so than cattle. In northern Australia it has been noted that each "family herd" of feral buffaloes selects one or two trees for rubbing against so that the rubbing damage is confined to them. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rajapske, G., 1950. Death of illuk. Ceylon Coconut Quarterly, 1:7-9.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1969. Home range in feral water buffalo. Australian Journal of Zoology 17:143-152.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1970. Seasonal movement and distribution of the sexes in the water buffaloes in the Northern Territory. Australian Journal of Zoology 18:399-414.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1975. Buffalo in the northern swamplands. Proceedings III of the World Conference on Animal Production. Theme 1, Paper 7.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1977. Some aspects of the ecology of the water buffalo in the Northern Territory. In: The Australian buffalo-a collection of papers, edited by B. D. Ford and D. G. Tulloch. Technical Bulletin No. 18, Department of the Northern Territory, Animal Industry and Agriculture Branch, Australian Government Printing Service, Canberra, Australia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">11 Recommendations and Research Needs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has outlined the water buffalo's apparent merits, but most of the statements made about the animal are based on empirical observations. Many of its most exciting and potentially valuable features have not been subjected to the careful scrutiny needed to confirm their validity.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the fact that there are 130 million or more water buffalo in the world, research on the animal is scanty and limited to only a few situations and sites. Quantitative information (especially for the various breeds), tests, trials, and comparison studies are needed.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The research to be done on the water buffalo offers scientific challenges that can be undertaken in laboratories and experiment stations in most parts of the world and in many disciplines: breeding, physiology, microbiology, veterinary science, nutrition, food science, dairy science, and other fields. Water buffalo research is an area worthy of financial support by philanthropic institutions and international development agencies concerned with problems of food and resource shortages. The dominant role of the buffalo in the rural economies of Egypt and Asian countries offers the opportunity for buffalo research that can bring improvements quickly and easily to the rural poor. For other countries the water buffalo is an untapped resource, and they should test its productivity on native pasturelands, marshy lowlands, hot and humid areas where cattle do not thrive, and on areas prone to cattle diseases and parasites that are difficult to control.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specific recommendations follow.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Comparison with Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal scientists worldwide should undertake trials to compare growth rate, feeding, nutrition, breeding, and other aspects of buffalo and cattle performance.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle and water buffaloes are obviously different animals. Each has its own limitations and advantages, and each deserves to be studied in its own right. Perhaps the quickest way for animal scientists to experience for themselves the merits of the water buffalo is to conduct their own comparative trials with buffaloes and cattle in their areas. The results will provide local guidance and will help extend recognition of the buffalo's value, especially under difficult conditions where it may exceed cattle in productivity and profitability.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Germ Plasm Preservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Urgent action is needed, especially in Southeast Asia, to preserve and protect outstanding buffalo specimens.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries (Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia, for example) buffalo populations are decreasing dramatically. High demands for meat are causing slaughter at younger and younger ages. Much of the meat is exported to restaurants and markets in Singapore and Hong Kong. Unfortunately, the largest and quickest growing animals are often selected for slaughter. This results in the loss of a major genetic resource, which is compounded by the practice of castrating the largest males to make them more tractable as work animals. Ten years ago in Thailand it was common to find buffalo weighing 1,000 kg; now it is hard to find 750-kg specimens. A similar situation exists in the Philippines where there is no dearth of good breeding stock, but butchers are paying such high prices that farmers are selling even quality animals for slaughter. In northern Australia, where some of the bulls weigh almost 1,200 kg, the largest animals are being shot for meat, hides, pet food, or sportsmen's trophies,  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A large number of high-yielding buffaloes are taken each year to big cities in India (for example, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras) for milking. At the end of lactation many are returned to the villages, but many others are slaughtered, rather than being fed and retired. This creates a huge loss of valuable germ plasm. In many locations most of the largest animals have already been lost. Only urgent action will protect those remaining.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Shipment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo quarantine stations should be organized in "disease-free" areas to develop buffalo germ plasm pools for international exchange.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The importation of buffaloes presents difficulties for any government, researcher, or farmer wishing to obtain the animals for the first time or for breeding purposes. Quarantine laws make it extremely difficult and expensive to exchange genetic resources.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia is one of the few nations where there are large numbers of water buffalo in an area free of the major animal diseases. Papua New Guinea, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria, Colombia, Venezuela, and other nations have taken advantage of this and have  imported Australian buffaloes. But Australian herds are all Swamp buffaloes(The island  of Guam is also a safe source of Swamp animals, although the feral herds there are  depleted, only 300 or 400 animals were left on Guam in 1978) and so breeding centers  should be set up also (in Sri Lanka and Italy perhaps) where importers can obtain  River-type (including Mediterranean) buffaloes.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetic Improvement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide efforts should be made to select superior buffalo bulls and cows for breeding.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Performance testing, leading to the mass selection of superior animals, deserves high  priority. Virtually all buffalo breeding is haphazard and unplanned. Village animals graze  together and matings are usually not con" trolled, observed, or recorded. Thus, the full  genetic potential of the water buffalo is not being realized.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A massive selection program is needed to bring about genetic progress. For each breed,  bulls and cows with the potential for improving production of meat and milk and  increasing draft power should be identified and used for breed improvement. However,  the wide variations between the characteristics of individual animals may make  exceptional genetic advances difficult to achieve quickly.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Important traits for culling and selection include behavior, temperament, reproduction  rate, easy milk letdown, average daily gain in weight or weight at a given age, carcass  quality (for example, large hindquarters), and milk production, as well as strength and  endurance for work.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossbreeding of Swamp and River buffaloes is a potentially important route to genetic  improvement. The progeny reportedly show hybrid vigor (heterosis) in milking ability,  fertility, meat production, and working ability. Infusing genes for high milk production into  the Swamp buffalo, now used mainly for meat and work, creates the potential for a  triple-purpose animal.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The use of artificial insemination and deep-frozen semen should be a major help in  upgrading the buffalo. Moreover, the transport of live embryos (rather than neonatal  animals) for implantation in the uterus of surrogate mothers could be important for water  buffalo. It seems unlikely, however, that buffalo embryos can be implanted in cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most genetic selections should be made in Asia where 97 percent of the world's water  buffaloes are located. The improvements will depend on how accurately bulls can be  identified, selected, and mated. Performance and  progeny testing is sorely needed at research stations as well as "on the farm." Governments should also institute bull-loan or artificial-insemination programs as a means for upgrading the village herds.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Comparison of Breeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The relative merits of the various buffalo breeds should be determined,  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little or no information is available on the comparative performance of the different buffalo breeds in various environments, especially the 17 or so River breeds in the Subcontinent and the Egyptian and Mediterranean breeds. Comparison trials of the breeds and breed-crosses are needed in a wide range of climates from the humid tropical to the temperate. In addition, the cytogenetic, immunogenetic, and inheritance relationships of breeds should be clarified.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel encourages countries such as India and Pakistan that have a number of buffalo breeds (for example, Murrah, Surti, Jafarabadi, Mehsana, and Nili/Ravi) to set up experimental farms for scientific reproduction of superior specimens. Substantial research benefits as well as profitable economic returns from using and exporting some of them would be realized.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meat and Milk Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and demonstration is needed to foster the widespread consumption of buffalo meat and milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk, cheese, and other dairy products are considered outstanding foods in all locations where they are produced. Taste tests so far have indicated that buffalo meat is similar or slightly superior to beef produced under the same conditions.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A specific need is to feed the male calves and use them for meat. Many are now slaughtered at a young age and light weight. Research that provides either a partial or complete milk substitute for feeding calves would have a major impact on meat supplies and farmer income. Diets being developed for calves in Egypt incorporate such ingredients as whey, soybean meal, corn flour (corn starch), and yeast.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other research topics include:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The effect of climate, thermoregulation, and wallowing on meat and milk production;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The meat characteristics of each of the breeds and the differences between them,  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Milk production and quality for each of the breeds;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Adapting buffaloes to machine milking by genetic selection or by designing new milking  machinery;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Developing new or improved milk products (such as yogurt, cottage cheese, and hard  cheese); and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Banking genetically superior germ plasm for later use.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Work Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel recommends research on new harnesses to replace the omnipresent yoke.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As already noted, the wooden yoke, which has not changed in 1,500 years or more, is an  inefficient harness. Research is needed to adapt horse collars, hames, breast straps,  and other devices for the buffalo. Because much of the farm power in Asia comes from  buffaloes, the impact of improved harness could be dramatic, widespread, and of  enormous value to millions of small farmers there. If the experiments in Thailand  described earlier are an indication, the farm power in Asia could be increased by 25  percent overnight with the adoption of an improved harness. The buffalo will continue to  be the small farmer's "tractor," so the benefits from improved harnesses are likely to  continue for a long time.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are 13 million buffalo and bullock carts in India and 20 million Indians are engaged  in the business of road haulage. Application of appropriate technology would eliminate  the archaic wooden wheels, axles, and heavy carts and substitute lightweight carts,  perhaps with such features as metal wheels, pneumatic tires, ball bearings, and fixed  axles. With such improvements, loads might be increased and hauled over longer  distances at greater speed and with less work.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trials in New Areas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Testing of water buffalo production is needed in many areas where the animal is not  known.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A seemingly adaptable animal, the water buffalo should be productive throughout the  earth's warm temperate, subtropical, and tropical zones. Different breeds may adapt  differently to extremes of heat, humidity, and cold, and this needs further study.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United States, the Mediterranean Basin of Europe, and some of the more temperate  European areas like southern England are worth considering for water buffalo trials. In the Southern Hemisphere River buffaloes are already found as far south as 25° latitude in Brazil's Sao Paulo State (where large herds are raised); an experimental herd of Swamp buffaloes has performed outstandingly in Brisbane, Australia (27°S); and there are a few Swamp buffalo in South Australia and Victoria (35°S or more). There is good reason to believe that water buffaloes may be productive in all of the states in Australia, New Zealand's North Island, South Africa, Argentina, and other warm temperate areas of the Southern Hemisphere.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biggest void in the water buffalo map is virtually the entire continent of Africa. It seems a paradox that the buffalo-Egypt's most important domestic animal-is not farmed commercially in any other African country. Experimental herds have been introduced to Nigeria, Uganda, Mozambique, Tanzania, and other countries in the past, and the initial success of three of them is described in Appendix A.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo, with its tolerance for heat, disease, poor-quality feed, and mismanagement, appears to have outstanding promise for African nations such as Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco, Senegal, and The Gambia as well as all nations south of the Sahara (Nambia perhaps being an exception).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More specific aspects of environmental tolerance deserving research attention are:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The physiology of the buffalo's response to heat, cold, humidity, and other environmental factors;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The effect of climate on growth, reproduction, milk production, health, respiration rate, behavior, and carcass quality; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Measurement of the calorific efficiency and chemical composition of all breeds of buffaloes and cattle to determine the environments best suited to each breed.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite observations of the buffalo's ability to utilize poor quality forage, research is needed to learn how the animal does it.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This research should:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establish the buffalo's nutrient requirements by breed, sex, age, and weight for maintenance, growth, reproduction, lactation, and work;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Determine voluntary forage consumption and the nutrient utilization of different forages in various stages of maturity;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Examine rumen microbiology and fermentation, the rate of digestion, production, and absorption of volatile fatty acids produced in the rumen, and utilization of energy, nitrogen, vitamins, and minerals; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Develop milk replacements for early~weaned calves;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Observe the current village-level feeding of low~uality forages to learn their nutrient requirements, nutrient deficiency diseases, and nutrient supplementation needed;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Study the utilization of concentrated, high-energy feeds (especially byproduct feeds) to determine the upper limits of buffalo growth and productivity (milk, meat, and work) and carcass quality;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Compare various breeds of water buffaloes and other ruminants to determine possible differences in nutritional requirements and performance; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Apply economic research to production practices, including night feeding of cut forage and the use of improved pastures.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research to improve management practices could benefit small farmers, ranchers, and feedlot feeders alike.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about the farm management factors that influence water buffalo productivity. Studies and extension literature for farmers are needed on subjects such as:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Proper fencing;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Procedures for dehorning and for preventing horn growth in calves;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Grazing management methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Preservation of forages;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Methods and effect of castration;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Methods and effect of spaying;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Breeding methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Milking methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Artificial insemination, methodology and use;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Methods of handling animals under grazing conditions or in feedlots;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Age for weaning under different conditions;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Mineral and protein supplementation methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Semen freezing;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Ova transplantation methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cryobranding and other methods of animal identification;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Control of internal parasites; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Disease prevention and treatments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed in areas where uncertainties about buffalo diseases are hindering  the animals' use.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The research should:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Develop control and management practices to prevent specific infections and parasites  for buffalo groups such as calves, yearlings, heifers, pregnant cows, newly calved cows,  and bulls;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Elucidate the factors (genetic, nutritional,management, disease) causing losses of  newly born calves;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Prevent and control the major diseases and parasites of the buffalo: hemorrhagic  septicemia, brucellosis, tuberculosis, foot-and-mouth disease, sarcoptic mange,  fascioliasis, nematode parasites, rinderpest and "rinderpestlike" diseases, nephritis, and  conjunctivitis;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Develop herd-health programs and specific disease-control programs for the various  production systems;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Determine the level of susceptibility to trypanosomiasis, a disease that might mitigate  against introducing the animal widely to Africa; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Define the buffalo's role in malarial ecology.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed to improve water buffalo reproduction.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research topics should include:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Physiology and deep-freezing of buffalo semen. (Although it is possible to freeze the  buffalo semen now, further improvements are needed to achieve higher conception  rates.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Incidence of sub-estrus and anestrus. This is fairly high in buffaloes. Work is needed to  determine the factors contributing to this problem and find solutions applicable in the  field. A simple, inexpensive test for the routine diagnosis of estrus is needed. It could  ensure that buffaloes are inseminated at the optimal time and could lead to the possible  synchronizing of estrus in groups of animals as well as the elimination of seasonal  breeding.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Seasonality of breeding. Investigations are needed into seasonal effects on the intensity  and deviation of estrus in buffaloes. Most of the buffaloes in northern India and Pakistan,  for example, calve between July and December, causing scarcity of milk in the summer  season and a flush of production in the winter months (this phenomenon causes serious  marketing problems).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Low libido and low semen yield in buffalo bulls. Semen yield in buffalo bulls is less than half of the yield from cattle bulls.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Effect of season and other factors on semen quality.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Variation in the freezability of semen from different bulls.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dissemination of Information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel recommends that two water buffalo publications be produced.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These should be:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· An international water buffalo newsletter. It is important to maintain communication among researchers working with the water buffalo in far flung research stations, universities, missions, and villages. Research findings may not be widely shared if technical animal science journals and the one or two national newsletters now available remain the only source of water buffalo information. A newsletter would bring together results from different parts of the world. It would provide rapid exchange of information as well as a forum for informal opinions, observations, and preliminary experimental data that are usually not accepted by journals.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A formal journal of water buffalo research.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, other methods for disseminating water buffalo information are to be encouraged. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix A</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water Buffalo in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the water buffalo, Africa is the unknown continent. Apart from Egypt, where the  "gamoosa" is a major livestock resource, there have been few recorded experiences  with the animal in Africa. While this may be attributed to disease, chances are it is  because of historical oversight.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small herds of buffaloes were recently introduced to Uganda, Tanzania, and Nigeria, but  because there were so few animals no firm conclusions can be drawn. Initial  observations, however, suggest that the water buffalo could have an important future role  in Africa, south of the Sahara. There seems little reason to believe that they won't thrive  there as they have done elsewhere in the tropics.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following statements were provided by researchers involved in the enterprises.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Uganda imported a herd of 12 buffalo cows and one bull in 1969. Grazed on poor-quality  unimproved pasture they received neither supplementary feeding nor any preferential  treatment over the East African zebus kept with them. The herd stayed 7 years at  Entebbe before being moved to another part of the country. They proved to be very  efficient converters of the low protein, high-fber fodder. During this time the herd grew to  40 adult cows and 2 bulls (all other steers were slaughtered). The cows calved every  year. The calves matured at 2 to 21/2 years; the zebu calves took at least 3 years to  mature. Buffalo calves were much heavier than the zebus of comparable age.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"The buffalo cows averaged 7 liters of milk per milking. In taste it was preferred to zebu  milk. Also, the quality of the meat after slaughter was much better than that of the zebus.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"A major advantage the buffaloes had over the cattle was that they were remarkably  unaffected by diseases endemic to the area. Apart from a few calves that died of  diseases that also killed cattle on the farm at Entebbe, the buffaloes resisted tick-borne  diseases, the biggest killers of cattle in Uganda, and were unaffected by the virulent  strains of East Coast Fever (Theileriosis), Uganda's most serious endemic animal  disease."(Information supplied by G. L. Corry, Director, Veterinary Research Services, Entebbe  Uganda)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Early in 1976, 194 buffaloes aged 6-9 months were imported from the environs of Darwin in Australia's Northern Territory. The animals settled down quite well, and by the end of 1978 the stock population had risen to about 320, the adults weighing about 400 kg with about 80 percent fertility. The animals were in excellent health when an outbreak of streptothricosis occurred early in 1979. Because of the intractable nature of this rare disease of cattle, sheep, and pigs, the apparent spread of the disease in the confined area of the ranch, and the persistence of the organism, the animals were slaughtered(nformation supplied by Dr. J. E. Erhiaganoma, Chief Veterinary Officer, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Benin City, Bendel State of Nigeria)..  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania introduced 21 buffalo heifers and 2 buffalo bulls from Egypt in 1968 and 1970. By 1977 the herd had grown to 150 animals. They were kept at the Livestock Production Research Institute at Mpwapwa, a site representative of central Tanzania(Mpwapwa is located at an elevation of 1,000 m. It receives an annual rainfall of 700 mm during a single season between late November and early May. Mean minimum temperatures of 13°C occur in June, and mean maximum temperatures of 26°C occur in November). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over a period of 10 years the buffalo were studied and compared with crossbreeds of local Mpwapwa cows and Friesian steers. On average, the buffaloes conceived and calved 4 months earlier than the cattle, their mean calving intervals were about a month shorter, their birth and weaning weights were 1.5 times higher, and their daily weight gain was about double that of the crossbred cattle. The milk yield from the buffaloes was only about two thirds that of the crossbred cattle, but their rnilk's high butterfat content meant that the overall butterfat production was higher in buffaloes.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Figures reported are shown below:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p98.png"></center><br>
+ Table</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a second study (Shoo, R A. 1980. A study of the performance of Egyptian water buffaloes. Student project, Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Medicine, University of Dar-Es-Salaam, Morogoro, Tanzania.), 30 buffaloes and 34 Mpwapwa cattle (not the crossbreeds) were compared(Mpwapwa cattle are a Tanzanian breed with 55 percent Asian, 35 percent African, and 10 percent European blood). The calving intervals were 396 + 126 days for buffaloes and 437 + 109 days for cattle. The buffaloes first conceived at mean ages of 23-25 months (matings occurred in both wet and dry seasons), the cattle at 27-36 months. The buffaloes calved at 35 months, the cattle at 46 months.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On farms at Ruvu and Mabuki the calving rate was 63 percent, and the mortality rate 1.2-6.9 percent(Rakha, A. 1980. water buffalo Production, Tanzania. Report of the technical Cooperation Program TCP/URT/9002, Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations, Rome, Italy). The buffalo's overall milk yields averaged 1,237 kg in 225 days, or 5.5 kg per day.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results of the introduction of buffalo to Tanzania are considered "quite encouraging and the future of buffaloes in Tanzania will be bright." (Oloufa, M. M. 1981. The future of water buffaloes in Tanzania Paper presented at the Tanzania Society of Animal Production Eighth Scientific Conference, Arusha, Tanzania May 26-29, 1981.) Future plans call for increasing the herd to about 200 animals with a view toward establishing another buffalo herd. In addition, 5 buffalo sires have been selected in Egypt for shipment to Tanzania.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix B</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Contacts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A directory of names in buffalo studies and research is available from the International Buffalo Information Center, Kasetsart University Library, Bangkhen, Bangkok 10900, Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Industry Branch, Department of Primary Production, P.O. Box 5160, Darwin, Northern Territory 5790 (D.R. Thomson, B. Ford)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berrimah Agricultural Research Station, Darwin, Northern Territory</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coastal Plains Research Station, near Darwin, Northern Territory</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. G. Tulloch, P.O. Box 38841, Winnellie 5789, Northern Territory</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Queensland, Department of Animal Husbandry, St. Lucia, Queensland (D.D. Charles)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associacao de Criadores de Bufalos do Brasil, Cx Postal 832, Sao Paulo (President, Dr. Paulo Joaquim Monteiro da Silva)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Pesquisa Agropecuaria do Tropico Umido (Agricultural Reseach Center of the Humid Tropics), Caixa Postal, 48, Belem, Para, 66000  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faculdade de Medicina Veterinaria e Zootecnia (Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnology), Universidade Estadual "Julio de Mesquita Filho," Campus de Botucatu, Estado de Sao Paulo  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto de Zootecnia (Institute of Zootechnology), Nova Odessa, Sao Paulo (Prof. Alberto Alves Santiago)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr. Geraldo Mosse, Rua Apinages 716-CEP, 05017, Sao Paulo, S.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr. Walmore Muller Lacort, Ministerio de agriculture Explanada des Ministerios, Bloco 8-50 Andar Sala 518, 70.000 Brasilia, D.F.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bulgaria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Sofia (P. Ivanov, Z. Zahariev)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo Basis, Livestock Breeding Research Institute, Shumen (Dr. D. St. Polikhronov, Director; Dr. A. Alexis)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Nanking Agricultural College, Nanking (Professor Sieh Chen-Hsia)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kwangsi Agriculture College, Nanning, Kwangsi (Professor Wang Pei Chien</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Farm, Lu Hsu, Pinyang County, Kwasngsi Chang Autonomous Region</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Institute for Animal Science, Nanning, Kwangsi (Dr. Chou Chi-Sheng)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singchow Dairy Farm, Kwangtung Province</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jose Luis Pacheco, Director, Dept Formento, 8502 JAPDEVA, Puerto Limon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Egypt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ain Shams University, Kasr-EI-Zaafran, Abbasiyah, Cairo (M.A. El-Ashry, A.M. El-Serafy)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Production, College of Agriculture, Cairo University, Cairo (Dr. M.T. Ragab)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Alexandria, 22 Al-Gueish Avenue, Shatby, Alexandria (K. El-Shazly)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr. R. Dunkel, Herzeleidstrasse 39, 5330 Konigswinter 41, Bonn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. Dr. H. Fischer, Insitut fur Tropische Veterinarmedizin, Wilhelmstr. 15, 6300 Giessen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gesellschaft fur Agrarentwicklung (GAE), Meckenheimer Allee 113, 5300 Bonn 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hungary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Kovacs, Department of Animal Husbandry, Agricultural University, Deak F. -u16, 8361Keszthely  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Hyderabad, A.P. (Director of Research)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Husbandry Commissioner, Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Sciences, Director General, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Buffalo Breeding Farm, Sambalpua, PO: Sunbeda, Distt. Kerapur, Orissa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Frozen Semen Bank, Hessarghatta, Bangalore, Kamataka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Murrah Breeding Farm, Almadi, Tamil Nadu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Surti Buffalo Farm, Dhamrod, Gujarat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chief Superintendent, Govenment Livestock Farm, Hissar, Haryana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Chandra Sekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Mathura Campus, Mathura, U.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Co-ordinator, All India Buffalo Improvement Project, Natioal Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, (Dr. V. N. Tripathi)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director, Military Dairy Farm, Army Headquarters, Quatermaster, General Branch, DHQ PO New Delhi 11  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.B. Pant, University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, U.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government Livestock Farm, Anjora Distt: Durg, Madhya Pradesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gujarat Agricultural University, Reproductive Biology Research Unit, PO Anand Agricultural Institute, Anand, Gujarat  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haryana Agricultural University , Hissar, Haryana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Barcilly, V.P. (Dr. S.K. Ranjan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, 482004, M.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kaira District Cooperative Milk Producers Union Ltd., Anand, Gujarat (Dr. V. Kurien, Chairman)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Dairy Development Board, Anand, Gujarat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Dairy Research Institute (ICAR), Karnal 132002, Haryana (S.P. Arora, Dr. D. Sundaresan, Director)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab (Dr. J.S. Ichhponani, Dr. S.K. Misra)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwar Campus, Dharwar, Karnataka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Udaipur, Udaipur, Rajasthan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balai Inseminasi Buatan Lembang, Jawa Barat (Dr. R.D. Simangunsong)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Directorate of Animal Husbandry, Department of Agriculture, Jl Salemba Raya 16, Jakarta (Dr. Jaman Zailani)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pusat Penelitian den Pengambangan Ternak (Centre for Animal Research and Development), Bogor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iraq</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Rearing Station, Abu Ghraib, Baghdad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Production and Health Division, FAO,00100 Rome</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associazione Provinciale Allevatori, via Redentare, Caserta (Professore de Franciscis,Presidente)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto de Ricerche soll'Adattamento Bovini e dei Bufali, Ponticelli, Napoli (Director: Pro£ Lino Ferrara)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto Sperimentale per la Zootecnica, via Onofrio Panvino, Rome (Prof. A. Pilla)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto Sperimentale per la Zootecnice di Roma, via Salaria 31, 00016, Monterotondo Scalo (Dr. Augusto Romita)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ugo Jemma, Torre Lupara, 81050 Pastorano, near Caserta</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Shimuzu, The University of Tsukuba, Sakura-mura niihar gun ibaraki-ken 300-311</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Animal Husbandry Station, Kluang</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University Pertanian, Serdang, Selangor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Serdang, Selangor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Artificial Insemination Project, Tfipureshwar, Kathmandu (Dr. A.C. Gupta)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Division, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Kathmandu (Dr. N.D. Joshi)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">College of Animal Husbandry, Lahore (Dr. Mohammad Shafi Chaudhry)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Reproduction, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad (Dr. Rashid Ahmad Chaudhary)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Production Research Institute, Bahadurnagar District, Sahiwat, Punjab (Dr. S.K. Shah, Director)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Punjab Veterinary Research Institute, Lahore 13</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hugo Giraoud, Apartado 60-2745, El Dorado</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Primary Industry, ERAP, P.O. Box. 348, Lae (John H. Schottler)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sepik Plains Livestock Station, Ufimo via Wewak, E.S.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Science Department, Central Luzon State University, Muiloz, Nueva Ecija</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">College of Veterinary Medicine, University of the Philippines Systems, Diliman, Quezon City Dairy Development Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, Sta. Mesa, Metro Manila (Dr. Conrado A. Valdez)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dairy Training and Research Institute, University of the Philippines at Los Banos, College, Laguna 3720  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Science, University of the Philippines at Los Banos, College, Laguna 3720 (Dr. V. C. Momongon)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Documentation Center on Water Buffalo, University of the Philippines at Los Banos Library, College, Laguna 3720  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research, Livestock Research Division, Los Banos, Laguna 3732 (Dr. Alfonso N. Eusebio)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Portugal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Ross CockriII, 591 Vale do Lobo, Almansil, Algrave 8100</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Production and Health, Peradeniya (Dr. K. Balachandran)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">School of Veterinary Science, University of Sri Lanka, Peradenlya Dr. B.M.A.O. Perrera)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, P.O. Box 22-149, Taipei City</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Medicine, University of Dar es Salaam, Morogoro (M.L. Kyomo)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAFCO Farm, Ruvu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director, Livestock Development Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Dar es Salaam</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.M.J. Katyega, Director, Livestock Production Research Institute, Private Bag, Mpwapwa M.M. Oloufa, FAO, Morogoro  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kasetsart University, Department of Animal Science, Bangkok (Dr. Charan Chantalakhana) Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Henri Dunant Street, Bangkok 5 (Dr. Maneewan Kamonpatana)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Henri Dunant Road, Bangkok 10500  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Regional Office, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 2 (Dr. B. K. Soni)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of Livestock Development Project, Tha Phra, Khon Kaen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Buffalo Research and Training Center, Surin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trinidad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Steve Bennett, 61 Mucurapo Road, Port-of-Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. L. Corry, Director, Veterinary Research Services, P.O. Box 24, Entebbe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Mugerwa, Faculty of Agriculture, MaKerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. B. Begg, Resident Veterinary Surgeon, Howletts and Port Lympne Estates, Ltd., Port Lympne, Lympne, Kent CT21 4PD  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. N. Wilson, BOCM Silcock Ltd., Basing View, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2EQ</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wyland Cripe, Asst. Dean for Public Services, College of Veterinary Medicine, Box J-125, JHMHC, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Harrington, IRI Research Institute, Inc. One Rockefeller Plaza, New York, New York 10020 James Hentges, Department of Animal Science, Room 2104 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jack Howarth, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nels M. Konnerup, 609 East Iverson Road, Camano Island, Washington 98292</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. P. Leonards, P.O. Box 1094, Lake Charles, Louisiana 70602</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John K. Loosli, Department of Animal Science, Room 2103 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert E. McDowell, Department of Animal Science, Frank B. Morrison Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hugh Popenoe, International Programs in Agriculture, 3028 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">William R. Pritchard, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abelardo Ferrer D., Quinta Nueva Exparta, Avenida Jose Felix Rivas, San Bernardino, Caracas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix C</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANDREW HAY, President, Calvert-Peat, Inc., New York, New York (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Institute of Land Rehabilitation, Utah State University, Logan, Utah  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGLIARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director, Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PEDRO BARBOSA, Department of Entomology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FLETCHER L. BYROM, Chairman, Koppers Company, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON BROWN, Director, Resource Systems Institute, The East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DORIS GALLOWAY, Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, California  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY E. CARTER, Associate Administrator, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELIZABETH COLSON, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley, California  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BREWSTER C. DENNY, Dean, Graduate School of Public Affairs, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND I. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, ex-officio  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HERBERT I. FUSFELD, Director, Center for Science and Technology Policy, Graduate School of Public Administration, New York University, New York, New York (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARTIN GOLAND, President, Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LINCOLN GORDON, Senior Fellow, Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C. (member through September 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES P. GRANT, President, Overseas Development Council, Washington, D.C. (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, ax-officio  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE R. HERBERT, President, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM N. HUBBARD, JR., President, The Upjohn Company, Kalamazoo, Michigan (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT N. KREIDLER, Private Foundation Consultant, New York, New York  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RICHARD LASTER, Executive Vice President, General Foods Corporation, White Plains, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN LISTON, Director, Institute for Food Science &amp; Technology, College of Fisheries, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS F. MALONE, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, ex-officio  FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODNEY W. NICHOLS, Executive Vice President, Rockefeller University, New York, New York (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DANIEL A. OKUN, Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. RAY PARISER, Senior Research Scientist, Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAMES BRIAN QUINN, Amos Tuck School of Business Administration, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PRISCILLA C. REINING, Director, Project on Desertification, International Division, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C. (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. RICHARDSON, JR., Department of Horticulture, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, Rockefeller University, New York, New York  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. GUYFORD STEVER, Consultant, Washington, D.C.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Program Officer, Africa and the Middle East, International Agricultural Development Service, New York, New York  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VICTOR RABINOWITCH, Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Deputy Director  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN G. HURLEY, Deputy Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b21wae/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b21wae/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b21wae/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">The Water Buffalo: New Prospects For An Underutilized Animal (1984) (b21wae)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Cattle</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">utilize the Water Buffalo more effectively</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b22bue/b22bue.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b22bue/b22bue.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b22bue/b22bue.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,656 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea </TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Managing Tropical Animal Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First Printing, June 1983 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second Printing, May, 1985 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"><A NAME="Acknowledgements"></A></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of International Affairs </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Cooperation with the Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Bulolo, Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing  Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the Councils of  the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the  Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were  chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to the  procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the  National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute  of Medicine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Research Council was established by the National Academy of Sciences in  1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's  purposes of furthering knowledge and of advising the federal government. The Council  operates in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy under the  authority of its congressional charter of 1863, which establishes the Academy as a  private, nonprofit, self-governing membership corporation. The Council has become the  principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National  Academy of Engineering in the conduct of their services to the government, the public,  and the scientific and engineering communities. It is administered jointly by both  Academies and the Institute of Medicine. The National Academy of Engineering and the  Institute of Medicine were established in 1964 and 1970, respectively, under the charter  of the National Academy of Sciences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID) of the  Office of International Affairs addresses a range of issues arising from the ways in which  science and technology in developing countries can stimulate and complement the  complex processes of social and economic development. It oversees a broad program of  bilateral workshops with scientific organizations in developing countries and conducts  special studies. BOSTID's Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation publishes  topical reviews of technical processes and biological resources of potential importance to  developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been prepared by an ad hoc advisory panel of the Advisory Committee  on Technology I innovation, Board on Science and Technology for International  Development, Office of international Affairs, National Research Council. Program costs  for the study were provided by the Office of Technical Resources, Bureau for Asia,  Agency for International Development under Grant No. ASB-0249-SS-00-1026-00 and  the Office of the Science Advisor, Agency for International Development, under Grant  No DAN/5538-GSS- 1023-00.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First Printing, June 1983 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second Printing, May, 1985 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Panel_on_Butterfly_Farming_in_P"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Panel on Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT M. PYLE, Chairman, Lepidoptera Specialist Group, International  Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland,  Switzerland, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director, Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian  Institution, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, JR., Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING, Director, Florida State Museum, C;ainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOlS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, Yale University, New  Haven, Connecticut </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS, Head of Subdivision of Invertebrate Ecology,  Furzebrook Research Station, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Wareham,  Dorset, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University  of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS, Representative, The Asia Foundation, Taipei,  Taiwan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Contributors_"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Contributors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER CLARK, Manager, Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Bulolo </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CAROLE GABARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WASAM GARARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KAROL KISOKAU, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Waigani </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAVU KWAPENA, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and  Environment, Konedobu </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MIRO LAUFA, Crocodile Section, Department of Lands and Environment,  Konedobu </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEO NING, Division of Wildlife, East Sepik Province, Wewak </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODERICK ORARI, Butterfly farmer, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL PARSONS, Ecologist, Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Bulolo </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BLU RAIRI, Butterfly farmer, Maprik  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Countries </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. S. BROWN, JR., Department of Zoology, State University of Campinas, Sao  Paulo, Brazil </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. M. COLLINS, Co-compiler, Invertebrate Red Data Book, International Union  for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Cambridge, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WAYNE GAGNE, Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANGUS HUTTON, Garaina Farms, Gympie, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ASHLEY C. MORTON, Department of Biology, The University, Southampton,  England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRED PARKER, Kirwan, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* * *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Professional Associate, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Butterfly Study Director </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council Staff </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE REGES, Administrative Secretary </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Preface_"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly farming is a growing new industry in Papua New Guinea, and by  turning irdwings, mauve swallowtails, and other insects into a cash crop  villagers are both earning money and practicing sound wildlife conservation.  In this unique program butterfly farming is being used to complement the  preservation of species and of habitats. In balancing the utilization of  common butterflies with the protection of the most threatened species, Papua  New Guinea is providing a model for other countries, particularly those in the  tropics. The program demonstrates how village development can become an  integral part of conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel that produced this report convened in Papua New Guinea in  May 1981. Its purpose was to investigate the concepts underlying this  project and to assess their potential for application elsewhere. Panel members  met with staff of the government's Division of Wildlife in Port Moresby and  later visited butterfly farms in Popondetta and the insect trading agency in  Bulolo. The panel is grateful to Karol Kisokau, Navu Kwapena, and Miro  Laufa of the Division of Wildlife for arranging the itinerary in Papua New  Guinea and to Peter Clark and Michael Parsons for hosting the Bulolo and  Popondetta visits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report is one of the National Research Council series, Managing  Tropical Animal Resources. Current titles in the series are:*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal (  1981 ) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future  (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (1983)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea ( 1983)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These activities have been conducted under the auspices of the Advisory  Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research  Council (see page 29). The purpose of ACT}iS the assessment of  unconventional scientific advances that might prove especially applicable to  problems of developing countries. Since its founding in 1971, it has produced  about 30 reports covering subjects as diverse as ferrocement construction  materials, the winged bean (a high-protein tropical food crop), and techniques  to provide more water for arid lands. This study adds the dimension of  conservation and ecosystem protection to ACTI'S principal concerns of  promising but neglected resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACTI activities are supported largely by the U.S. Agency for International  Development (AID). Program costs for this study were supported by AID'S  Bureau for Asia, and staff costs by AID'S Office of the Science Advisor, which  also made possible the free distribution of this report.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"><A NAME="BM1_Introduction_and_Summary_"></A></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Introduction and Summary</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international demand for tropical butterflies is much greater than is  generally recognized. Each year millions of them are caught and sold  throughout the world. Many buyers are scientists engaged in research on  aspects of systematics, ecology, ethology, evolution, and conservation.  Others are individuals who like expensive curios that incorporate butterflies,  such as display cases, coffee tables, wall hangings, or other objects. But  increasingly, the fragile, iridescent creatures, mounted in plastic or glass, are  used to decorate less-expensive items such as purses, trays, platters, screens,  and other common objects in Europe, North America, and Japan. In addition,  amateur butterfly collecting, which reached a peak in Victorian times, is again becoming popular.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this has produced a strong and active market. The current trade is  estimated to be between US $10 and $20 million annually, and the demand is  rising.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remote regions of Papua New Guinea are benefiting from this burgeoning  interest in tropical insects, and several hundred villagers are rearing or  collecting butterflies, beetles, and other insects for export. The Papua New  Guinea government now considers insects a national resource, and it has  made butterfly farming part of the nation's village economic development. At Bulolo it has established an Insect Farming and Trading Agency (IFTA) to  handle the business details of a growing international trade. And Papua New  Guinea is the only country so far to specify insect conservation as a national  objective in its constitution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botanical research is the key to Papua New Guinea's butterfly farming  program. Local botanists and ecologists have identified the plants that the  various butterfly species use during their life cycle. The butterfly farmers  then build up their "livestock" by clearing small areas of ground  and planting leafy food plants for larvae, together with the nectar-producing  flowering plants that adult butterflies feed on. The combination of flowering  and leafy plants provides a complete habitat where butterflies find everything  they need to grow and reproduce. Therefore, most remain, and the farmer  retains his livestock without fences or walls.*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are among the most unusual farms in the world. Around their edges  are hibiscus and bougainvillea that attract the adult butterflies, whose  mouthparts are adapted for drinking nectar from flowers. And inside are leafy  plants, such as the strange Dutchman's pipe vine (Aristolochia tagala), on  which the caterpillars of several birdwing butterflies feed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The enriched butterfly habitat in the villager's garden attracts and holds a  breeding population that becomes a self-renewing resource. By varying the  plant species the farmer can even maintain colonies of different butterfly  species. And because insects are so prolific, some butterfly farmers are  beginning to have problems with overstocking and have had to shift larvae  from plant to plantrather like moving cattle from one field to the next as the  grazing runs out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic Development </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The IFTA program started in 1974 with fewer than 30 Papua New Guineans  from villages in two provinces. By 1978, more than 500 villagers in 10  provinces had been introduced to farming or collecting butterflies for export.  Since then, business has been increasing about 40 percent a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gram for gram, exotic butterflies are far more valuable than cattle. Prices  paid by dealers in Europe, North America, and Japan range from 30 cents for  individuals of common species to around $10 for the two birdwing species  whose export is allowed. A specimen of a rarer species (for example, a female  of the mauve swallowtail Graphium weiskei) may bring as much as $50.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project is still an embryonic activity; it is not large, as development  programs go. IFTA has only one professional staff person and two local  technicians to handle the distribution of specimens. The agency's goal is to  export between 5,000 and 10,000 specimens a month, from which the villages  can expect a return of $10,000 or more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency purchases butterflies from villagers and uses them to fill orders from overseas buyers. Colorful beetles, strange-looking stick and leaf insects, and some moths and cicadas are also caught in the wild and sent to Bulolo. The profits, less 25 percent, are returned to the villagers. At the time of the panel's visit, IFTA had received about 4,000 shipments of butterflies and other insects from the rural people and had paid out about US $180,000 to purchase them. In 1979, the average farmer or collector received about $37 per box of specimens. By 1980, this had risen to about $50 per box. In 1981 it was estimated that a diligent butterfly farmer could earn an annual income of about $1,200.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even so small an annual income is substantial in rural areas where the mean annual per capita income may be only $50. In many remote areas it is difficult to create income-producing opportunities because of illiteracy, dispersed population, and, in some cases, resistance to foreign ways.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through butterfly farming many rural Papua New Guineans are for the first time participating in a cash economy. The product is a highvalue, low-volume crop. It brings needed or supplementary income to the people of the predominantly rural areas. Compared with farming coffee, another possible industry in Papua New Guinea's rural regions, it requires far less effort or land, and it involves minimal costs to the producer. And where a few expatriate opportunists once made small fortunes exploiting Papua New Guinea's butterflies, the profits now go to the villagers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat loss is by far the most critical issue in butterfly conservation. If habitat changes, the animals must change, leave, or die. Usually they die, since alternative habitats are already occupied or too distant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly all the world's butterfly species have suffered diminished ranges, and an estimated half of the world's butterfly populations face threats from human development. From Britain to Bhutan, the insects' habitats have come under siege. In Europe, perhaps one-third of all butterfly species are threatened, owing chiefly to the reductions in their various habitats. In California, half-a-dozen coastal butterflies have been lost since the 1860s, and an equal number are now endangered. In Madagascar and Rwanda, swallowtails and some species that occur nowhere else are being sacrificed to the clearing of forests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The losses are much more than aesthetic, for many butterflies benefit people. They pollinate crops, are a major link in the food chain, and serve as sensitive indicators of ecological health.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A striking feature of the Papua New Guinea butterfly farming program is that it is designed to conserve and increase the species being traded. It is a pioneering conservation effort that has been endorsed by the Lepidoptera Specialist Group of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. The program helps relieve pressure on endangered populations, because for successful butterfly farms the villagers must retain - and even foster - a healthy wild population on or near their land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insect farming also helps preserve habitats because it leaves the bulk of the land intact and it helps landowners earn money without requiring them to cut down the rain forest as they would for timber or for cocoa, coffee, or oil palm plantations. Similarly, villagers can retain their traditional hunting grounds while cropping the insects that rely on these grounds for survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The existence of the butterfly farming project has served to focus attention on the status of all butterfly species. In 1968 this led to a law banning the taking of even a single specimen of the seven birdwing species threatened with extinction in Papua New Guinea. These large, brilliantly colored creatures can bring as much as $1,000 each in international trade, but there is a stiff fine in Papua New Guinea for even possessing one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enriching habitats with butterfly food plants (notably the Dutchman's pipe vine, Aristolochia tagala) has greatly increased the numbers of Papua New Guinea's two common birdwing species, Ornithoptera priamus and Troides oblongomaculatus. Now the country is taking on the challenge of increasing the seven endangered birdwing species that are protected and banned from trade. Already the IFTA staff has found that at least one of these rare species (Ornithoptera victoriae) is easily reared on the Dutchman's pipe vine. Farms are now being designed and sited with a view to building up the populations of this giant endangered species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclusions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At this stage, the importance of this pioneering activity lies not in its size, but in the new vistas it opens up for the use of tropical resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In farming butterflies, Papua New Guinea is showing that indigenous wildlife resources (especially those being depleted because of their commercial value) can contribute to economic development and that the farming of indigenous animals can be fitted smoothly into traditional village life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Providing employment in rural areas is a major problem of developing countries. And in a sense, butterflies are an "appropriate" livestock, particularly for remote areas of the tropics where other income-producing activities are difficult to establish or are harmful to traditional lifestyles and fragile environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterflies may seem unusual farm animals, but to villagers in the Papua New Guinea jungle it is cattle that are exotic. The villagers live in close contact with their local insects; invariably they know much about butterfly locations, behavior, habits, life cycle, and the food eaten by the caterpillars.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farming butterflies is proving a business to which villagers quickly adapt. Butterflies do not require the equipment or financing of a conventional farm; no capital is required, except for postage on the first shipment of specimens. Insect farming allows people to participate in the cash economy without causing disruptive changes in traditional village life. The villagers can work long and hard if they wish or they can put in only enough time to produce a little cash for necessities, leaving plenty of time for raising crops and other village activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often claimed that economic development is necessarily destructive to the environment and detrimental to conservation - that as rural societies develop, their natural surroundings must suffer. The Papua New Guinea butterfly farming project is an innovative program that demonstrates this need not be true.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The program also shows that where human needs are given attention, conservation can be successful. Elsewhere in the tropics, attempts to conserve habitat without considering the needs of the people who live nearby have often failed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In sum, the butterfly farming program demonstrates that certain natural resources can be used profitably in a way that protects the environment. The program offers a culturally appropriate use of the land; on a broad scale, it could become a force in preventing clear-felling of the forest for timber exports or the wholesale conversion of rain forest to cash-crop monocultures such as coconut, coffee, or oil palm. Most of Papua New Guinea is still covered by primary rain forest; exploiting the economic value of the insects that live there is helping safeguard this increasingly rare habitat, which is fast disappearing in most parts of the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species Conservation </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The knowledge gained from farming Papua New Guinea's butterflies has already contributed to relieving the threat of extinction from seven endangered species of birdwings. This experience could be replicated in other places where there are endangered butterfly species. Indeed, the program provides a model for nations that could profitably farm butterflies while protecting their threatened butterfly species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extension to Other Organisms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This project has a strategy and organizational structure that could well be applied to plants, such as rare orchids, and animals, such as crocodiles, that are endangered because of their commercial value. Indeed, using similar concepts of combining village income and conservation, the Papua New Guinea Division of Wildlife is farming crocodiles,* ruse deer, wallabies, and two native birds, the megapode and cassowary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through such husbandry practices, many species elsewhere might be saved from extinction, while providing income to the local people who traditionally have used the resource. Other countries should look with interest at the way Papua New Guinea is handling its wildlife enterprises. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM2_Butterfly_Status_and_Conserva"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Butterfly Status and Conservation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About 100,000-150,000 species of butterflies have been described; perhaps half that number remain to be discovered. Although there are important concentrations in the Arctic and temperate regions, most species are found in the tropics. There, the diversity of colors and forms is dazzling; every imaginable combination of hue and color is displayed. And many tropical butterflies are enriched with "structural" colors, which cause the wings to flash iridescently in the sun as they bend the light they reflect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although butterflies have long been admired and often depicted in art, they have been seriously studied only since the end of the seventeenth century. Linnaeus, in his Systema Naturae, placed the small number of butterflies then known in the single genus Papilio. Today that genus is restricted to the true swallowtails, and more than 700 genera of butterflies are recognized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Butterfly Trade</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Last century, as knowledge of butterflies grew and methods of preserving them improved, they become popular collectors' items. Wealthy naturalists such as Rothschild and LeMoult dispatched collectors to all parts of the world for specimens. Today the trade in butterflies is even more extensive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three major kinds of butterfly and insect trade. In one, large numbers of common species are collected in the wild and processed for use in ornamental objects such as coasters, mats, and lampshades. This is a low-value, high-volume industry that is both labor- and capital-intensive. It frequently uses "chipped" or slightly damaged butterflies. It often sells butterflies with paper bodies and only the wings of actual insects, which seem to be acceptable to a large part of the buying public.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Taiwanese butterfly trade is an example. It operates on a large scale. At least a dozen Taiwanese factories employ scores of workers to capture and process butterflies. Estimates of annual sales vary from 15 million to 500 million butterflies. Taiwanese butterfly wings pasted onto paper bodies with pig-bristle antennae are used in ornaments and household objects from wall hangings to clear-plastic toilet seats. The bodies are recycled as pig feed. Despite this massive trade, Taiwan's wild butterfly populations seem to be remaining steady.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Similar, though smaller, industries trafficking in common butterflies are found in Korea, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Brazil, Honduras, and several African nations. The famous blue morpho butterflies of the American tropics enter the trade at the rate of some 50 million per year. Nearly all of these are the brilliant iridescent males, and biologists believe the number sold could be doubled without harming the overall population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second type of trade involves higher value and lower volume. This produces a vastly different product from the paper-bodied butterflies bound for novelty stores. It is exemplified by the operation in Papua New Guinea where sales are to collectors, museums, and students, and the specimens are high-quality insects in good to perfect condition, usually bearing scientific data. Because of the relatively high value per specimen, this trade can be carried on by fewer individuals in a nonfactory setting, and it is well suited to village industry, provided there is supervision and a quality-control checkpoint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third type of butterfly trade is for high-quality, expensive ornamental items, such as glass cases, domes, wall mounts, or jewelry containing beautiful insects. Brazil, for example, has a thriving jewelry trade based on the iridescent blue morpho butterfly. This type of trade can also furnish high-paying outlets for village-farmed insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p08.png"></center><br>
+ Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In all three divisions of the butterfly trade, dealers fulfill an essential role. Few collectors and scientists can travel the world collecting their own specimens. Some dealers have established reputations for honesty, some have not. Exploitation of suppliers and customers alike has been rife. Few dealers are careful to attach accurate locality data to their specimens; some make serious mistakes in identifying them. (To combat this problem, British insect dealers have formed an association to monitor conservation-related activities and improve professional practice.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Generally, dealers supply specimens bred from the caterpillar or chrysalis and described as "ex pupa." Unless butterflies are caught immediately after emerging from the pupa the fragile wings tear and the scales detach to produce "worn" specimens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Taxonomy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Classifying butterflies is difficult. Their most obvious features, the color and pattern of the wings, vary greatly; individuals and populations of the same species often look quite different. This has led to the dubious naming of many species and subspecies. And the uncertainties it causes have led some biologists, especially those working in ecology and genetics, to name populations rather than species or subspecies. However, populations frequently evolve, and this introduces a further uncertainty. Much additional work on basic butterfly systematics is needed. The knowledge gained should contribute particularly to the conservation of endangered species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly conservation is still in an early state of development, bedeviled by scarce or incomplete information. The conservation status of even the most thoroughly studied butterfly species is known in only a few areas. The distribution and status of most species is essentially unknown, and proposals for conservation measures are largely based on guesswork. Nevertheless, some conservation programs have been enacted. Most have concentrated on designating endangered species and banning their collection.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The greatest threat to butterflies and other insects, however, is habitat alteration. On several continents some species have already become extinct or endangered when humans altered the special environment they require. The importance of protecting butterfly habitats should not be underrated. Many species are restricted to very small areas, particularly to individual islands (Corsica, Sardinia, Jamaica, Madagascar, Sumba, the Comoros, Fiji, the Solomon Islands, Manus, and the Duke of York Islands, for instance). Such species are vulnerable to extinction because nearly all island habitats are fragile and are changing rapidly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it is uncommon for insect species to be dangerously reduced merely by the capture of specimens, renewed commercial interest in butterflies gives rise to concern for their conservation. Most insects reproduce rapidly, and their high fecundity enables them to replace such losses in a generation or two - provided the basic environment has not been altered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But there are certain species of butterfly that reproduce slowly and are therefore more threatened by collection. The unusual birdwing butterflies of New Guinea, for example, produce only small broods. Moreover, these rare species command higher prices. Because this makes them particularly vulnerable, legislation to protect birdwing butterflies has been instituted in both parts of New Guinea - Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Accordingly, to save Queen Alexandra's birdwing (the largest and most threatened of the birdwings) from extinction, several wildlife management areas have been set up in Popondetta on Papua New Guinea's north coast. The government is also setting up refuges, administered by village councils, to preserve and protect other birdwing butterflies and wildlife resources. This habitat conservation is an important adjunct to the butterfly farming program. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM3_History_and_Government_Policy"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 History and Government Policy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soon after Europeans discovered New Guinea's remarkable insect fauna around the turn of the century, collectors began arriving, and they have been coming ever since. Many were reputable professional or amateur scientists, gathering modest numbers of specimens for study and for museums, including Papua New Guinea's own national collection. Others, however, were plunderers who carried away large numbers of rare butterflies, giving little or no compensation to the local people and showing no concern for survival of the species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1966 the Papua New Guinea government responded to excessive collecting by designating seven rare birdwing butterflies as protected species. It became illegal to collect these huge, colorful birdwings, and strong measures were instituted - fines for nationals, deportation of expatriates - to halt black market trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1960s and early 1970s commercial collecting of the other butterfly species continued piecemeal and unsupervised. Income was erratic, and expatriate dealers often paid their Papua New Guinean suppliers only a few cents for specimens that retailed for several hundred dollars in Europe and Japan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Insect Farming and Trading Agency</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When Papua New Guinea achieved independence in 1975, the new government decreed that only nationals should profit from the country's butterfly resource. Since that time only Papua New Guineans have been able to export butterfly specimens (nonprotected species) for profit. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1978, to guarantee Papua New Guineans fair prices and stable sales, a marketing agency was established. Its purpose was to protect the resource, to foster butterfly farming, and to ensure a high-quality export product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modest in its beginnings, the Insect Farming and Trading Agency (IFTA) was organized by Angus Hutton, a former tea planter and amateur lepidopterist. The business side of the agency was later developed by Peter Clark, who had worked with Hutton. Identification and production of food plants was advanced by Michael Parsons, Robert Pyle, and others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IFTA provides a market for those Papua New Guinea nationals who farm and collect butterflies and other insects. The agency allows them to obtain fair and fixed prices, maintains quality control, and ensures that current data accompanies all specimens. It also pools the insects from many sources and fills large orders from overseas dealers. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the butterflies IFTA exports, about 30 percent are from village farms and 70 percent are collected in the field. However, more than 50 percent of the revenue is made up of the farmed butterflies because of their better quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quality Control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency strives to sell only highest-quality insects; it rejects many butterflies as substandard. Most specimens are sold as named subspecies and to identify and name them requires much skill. Staff members have been specially trained to do this. (To a large extent, the area of origin, particularly in the case of the offshore islands, defines the subspecies concerned.) Locality data, usually consisting of village, province, and month and year of collecting or emergence, is affixed to all butterfly envelopes before they are pooled at the agency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IFTA stores its collection by species, in simple wooden boxes kept in cupboards lit from below (to lure potential pests away from the insects and to warm the cupboards and prevent mold). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marketing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency makes up orders and dispatches them (with the required export permits) to customers "on trust." Although this is open to abuse, most buyers pay promptly and the system is easy and convenient. Careful records are kept of all suppliers, customers, and species in stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the time of the panel's visit, about 80 percent of the agency's business consisted of responding to requests from dealers. However, less than 10 percent of the orders received from all sources could be filled.Some requests were too small and others too specialized; in some cases the agency simply didn't have the specimens on hand (for example, a request for all the subspecies of a given butterfly). Furthermore, the agency has neither the office staff nor space to cope with every order in a business whose volume is almost doubling every two years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Field Extension</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife extension officers periodically visit clients and new villages to sustain or develop enthusiasm for insect farming. They explain and demonstrate the procedures of butterfly farming and collecting and teach potential farmers how to recognize a valuable species in each of its life stages. Above all, they demonstrate how to prepare specimens for sale. This is because it is often difficult to convince farmers of the need for extreme care and delicacy in handling, and many inexperienced farmers send in bruised or hopelessly damaged specimens. Although about 500 villagers were farming butterflies at the time of the panel's visit, fewer than 50 were supplying good material regularly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These contacts are also important because the butterfly farmers easily become discouraged if no interest is shown in their work. In the Papua New Guinea countryside there is often little need for cash; people can obtain all their food, clothes, shelter, and resources from their gardens or from the bush. Money received from one shipment of butterflies may last a subsistence farmer for months, making it difficult for the agency to sustain his interest in providing regular shipments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency's extension officers have initiated a number of butterfly farming projects at primary, secondary, and vocational schools. These projects have proved most successful. Apart from the practical education they give students, they provide early insight into one of Papua New Guinea's most useful resources. Several vocational schools also provide training in mounting butterflies and beetles as souvenirs for tourists, as well as in the construction of hatching cages and solar driers. Beautiful wooden cabinets to hold butterflies have also been made by some teenage students.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Monitoring</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to teaching Papua New Guineans to collect and farm insects, IFTA promotes research both to conserve species and to make them available in quantity. Success has already been achieved in farming the common birdwing butterflies by planting large numbers of the Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia tagala) vines that they feed on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency's staff includes an ecologist, indicating the importance of the scientific basis for conservation in this project. The ecologist is at hand to conduct research on life histories, farming methods, and management measures for rare species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IFTA staff are now identifying new food plants that will permit more species to be farmed. Research into the life histories of many butterflies with economic potential is well under way, so that an increasing number of species will become "farmable" and will be available in future in perfect ex pupa condition. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sources of all specimens received by IFTA are recorded on a map so that a butterfly's range and rarity or abundance can be assessed and conservation measures implemented where necessary. In this way, even insects too damaged for sale at least have value to conservation efforts. All specimens of unusual scientific interest are lodged in the national insect collection for future study. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM4_Operating_a_Butterfly_Farm"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Operating a Butterfly Farm</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Planting the Farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key to farming butterflies is to establish a garden of the plants the various species need for their life cycles. The ideal farm area is about 0.2 hectares. This is spacious enough for growing food plants for adults and larvae and small enough to keep the plants watered, weeded, pruned, and generally well tended. Such a farm can contain about 500 vines, grown like bean plants on poles or shade trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to surround the site with a thick hedge of hibiscus, bougainvillea, ixora, poinsettia, or other nectar-bearing plants whose flowers attract adult butterflies and encourage them to remain in the area. The hedges also keep out pigs and other livestock that may damage the leafy plants inside the farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good way to start a farm is to establish it in a vegetable garden. (Papua New Guinea butterfly farmers often plant butterfly vines between their rows of sweet potato or tarot) By the time the vegetables are ready to harvest, the area already has some thriving butterfly food plants and probably some winged livestock as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most successful butterfly food plants in Papua New Guinea is Aristolochia tagala, a vine on which the larvae of more common birdwing butterflies feed. Another is Evodea - a food plant of the large blue ulysses swallowtail and many colorful weevils.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shade trees also can be food plants for butterflies other than birdwings and for beetles or weevils. Examples are species of Annona (such as soursop), Citrus (such as lemon), Cerbera, and Graptophyllum. Wallace's Longhorn Beetle feeds on breadfruit (Artocarpus communis). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, one area of the farm is kept aside for growing seeds or cuttings. (IFTA sells seed of some suitable species.) In this nursery the butterfly food plants are watered and cared for, and unhealthy ones are easily spotted and weeded out. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p16.png"></center><br>
+ Stylized diagram of a butterfly farm:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Hedge of hibiscus, ixora, and poinsettia to keep pigs out and provide nectar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B Fruits trees (such as lemon).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C The aristolochia vine grown on the branches of others trees (such as leucaena), to feed    caterpillar larvae.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D Nursery area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E A hut for tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Diagram courtesy IFTA, Bulolo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Life Cycle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, each butterfly species has a preferred food plant for its larvae. After the female has mated she searches for the correct plant and lays her eggs on or near it. In a few days the eggs hatch, and the young caterpillars usually eat their own eggshells and begin feeding on the softer leaves and shoots of the food plant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As they grow, the caterpillars shed their skins. Each molt is called an instar, and five instars occur before a larva is big enough to pupate. Pupation is a resting stage during which the adult butterfly develops inside the hard, protective chrysalis. For pupation the larva selects the underside of a stem or leaf to protect it from rain and predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After 10 days to 3 weeks, depending on the type of butterfly, the pupal case splits open and the adult insect emerges. This usually occurs before 9 o'clock in the morning. The freshly emerged adult then takes from 3 to 4 hours to expand and dry its wings before flying off to feed on nectar and to search for a mate to begin the life cycle once again. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harvesting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the farm is well established, pupae can be collected daily. Ideally, about 50 percent should be left or released. At least as many females as males should be released. Pupae that are too high to reach are usually left to emerge naturally and repopulate the farm. Others are left because they are not quite perfect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The farmer can usually see that emergence will occur on the next day, since the pupa becomes darker in color as the adult wing and body colors develop. He then plucks off the stem or leaf to which the pupa is attached. (The soft, new pupae are not touched because this damages the adult.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He pins the leaf to a board or puts it in a net or in a small cage. Often these are kept inside to protect the pupae against pests and large predators. However, some farmers construct small houses out of bush materials to hold pupae ready for hatching. Others keep their pupae in the open and count on being able to collect the adults before they have flown away.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Care is taken to protect the specimens from ants and rats. For example, the legs of the cage are placed in bowls of water to deter ants from climbing up. The pupae are sprayed with water 2-3 times a week to speed up the hatching process and to prevent them from drying out. (Only a light spray is used; otherwise the pupa develop mold.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pupae are best kept in a shady place so the butterflies will remain calm after hatching and will not flap and damage their wings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Processing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the newly emerged butterfly has completely dried its wings, it is carefully caught by the thorax and injected with a small amount of a killing agent such as ethyl acetate or boiling water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small butterflies are particularly easily damaged if handled, so they are placed for about 10 minutes in a killing jar containing cotton (cotton wool) soaked with a little ethyl acetate. A layer of cardboard is placed above the cotton so that the butterflies are not stained by the solvent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The farmer places the dead butterflies in paper envelopes, being careful at all times not to touch or damage the wings. The envelopes are easily made from grease-proof paper, which the agency supplies on request.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To ensure that the butterflies will not mold, they are placed on a black plastic tray and dried in the sun, in their papers, for about 4 days. During this time they are protected from pests such as ants, and the drying trays have a screen on top to prevent the envelopes from blowing away or from being rained on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once properly dried, the insects, still in their envelopes, are stored in boxes, preferably airtight to prevent condensation and molding. When enough specimens have been collected, the villager packs them carefully in strong cardboard boxes (which the agency also supplies) with cotton or kapok. A few naphthalene crystals are added to keep away pests, and the box is wrapped and sent to Bulolo. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM5_Application_to_Other_Nations"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">5 Application to Other Nations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the essence of the Papua New Guinea approach is the cultivation of food plants that the butterflies need to complete their life cycles. This is a process that could be replicated elsewhere, and the potential for butterfly farming exists in many countries. In fact, although Papua New Guinea is rich in butterfly species - some 700 of them - it is not unusually so. Other countries also have large numbers of species. There are, for instance 2,500 species known in Costa Rica.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are some 14,000 species of true butterflies in the world. Although there is possible competition, many countries have no overlap in species at all. As collectors and specialists usually want butterflies from many different parts of the world, the likely competition among countries exporting farmed or wild-caught butterflies is minimal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterflies are supplied to the trade from nearly every part of the world. But because they are most diverse in the tropics, it is likely that the best chance for success in farming them lies there. However, some temperate countries also have an abundance of particular species, and in Europe, the United States, and Japan, butterfly farming is already established on a small scale. This is mainly because many collectors like to rear their own material and they purchase eggs, caterpillars, or chrysalids instead of killed adults. Many dealers in these countries supply a few tropical species that are easy to rear, such as the orchard swallowtail (Papilio aegeus). However, this trade is generally low in volume and value, and temperate-zone butterfly farms are little more than a sideline to normal dealerships.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some general comments follow on the potential of butterfly farming in various parts of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Temperate regions of the Old World (Palaearctic Realm). East palaearctic species are in great demand internationally and obtainable with great difficulty. China, in particular, has species of both Parnassius and Papilio that might be farmed. However, all Parnassius species are montane to some degree and none has been farmed yet. Eurasian arctic satyrids, lesser fritillaries, and sulphurs are also in great commercial demand and could perhaps be farmed. Swallowtails are few and are frequently protected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tropical Africa and associated islands (Afrotropical Region). The potential for butterfly farming has not yet been considered in Africa, although the diversity of desirable species is great and the potential market extensive. This area has important swallowtails and Charaxes species (Nymphalidae), but so far as is known, no farming enterprises exist. Experimental or trial farms for butterflies are needed in different parts of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asian tropics (Oriental Realm). Silk moths, such as Bombyx mori, are commercially farmed in Asia, and butterfly farming would seem to be a natural extension of this. Many Asian butterflies are supplied to dealers, especially from Taiwan and the Philippines, but there is little farming. A very large trade originates in Malaysia, especially for Rajah Brooke's birdwing (Trogonoptera brookiana). Farming is reputed to take place, but most specimens are actually collected. Desirable species of swallowtails, including the black and gold birdwings (Troides species), occur throughout the region. Species belonging to the families Nymphalidae and Pieridae are good candidates for farming, as they are in much demand from dealers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Australia, New Guinea, and associated islands to the west (Australasian Realm). Australia is not rich in butterflies, but it has some important endemic species. At least one "farm" exists in Australia, but this appears to be an offshoot of a normal dealership, which rears a few local species to supply at early stages to collectors. Farming is to be encouraged here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Guinea's most coveted butterflies, which it shares with Irian Jaya, are the Ornithoptera birdwings. But almost equally desired by collectors and specialists are the Troides birdwings, concentrated to the west of New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Temperate regions of the Americas (Nearctic Realm). There is a considerable trade in New World butterflies from nearly every family (few Lycaenidae and Hesperiidae), but almost all are caught in the wild. There is a strong market for far-northern species (Boloria, Colias, Erebia, Oenesis). Farming these might be possible among Canadian and Alaskan Indian or Eskimo groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tropical regions of the Americas (Neotropical Realm). This is a likely area for the development of butterfly farming, particularly as its species are completely different from those of the tropics elsewhere. The Morpho and Agrias species of South America are much desired by collectors. It is possible that some of the highly prized morpho butterflies are already farmed (as the law, in fact, requires), but evidence is conflicting, and most biologists believe that the major supply of specimens is from wild populations. Other groups that lend themselves to farming include the swallowtails, nymphalids (including Agrias), and certain members of the family Satyridae. There are large fauna of Riodinidae and Lycaenidae that are potentially suitable for farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A dealer in preserved butterflies has recently set up business in the Dominican Republic, and butterfly farms have been established in Costa Rica.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· General. Butterflies in the family Riodinidae and, especially, Lycaenidae seem to be a neglected resource. Many species are relatively small but brightly colored. A major difficulty is that many Lycaenidae have to live with ants for part of their lives and this complicates their rearing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Parks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some regions with tourist industries are showing interest in establishing "butterfly zoos" or "butterfly jungles." These displays have live butterflies (usually farmed or reared) in artificial habitats resembling the natural ones. Some species, such as the orchard swallowtail (Papilio aegeus), respond well to such conditions. One British dealer has a "tropical jungle" in an enclosed environment in which both temperature and atmospheric pressure are regulated. A large British butterfly zoo has been established and a smaller one has been proposed. The New York Zoological Society is developing a butterfly component in its Wild Asia Hall at the Bronx Zoo, and San Francisco, Portland, Cincinnati, and Tokyo all have thriving insect zoos. Also, the Colombo Zoo in Sri Lanka has a live display and a successful program of butterfly rearing. Similar enterprise could be shown in other places with tourist industries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting a Butterfly Farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly farming is initially an ecological and botanical challenge. One must first observe, identify, and propagate the plants that the various species use for food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Success for butterfly farmers rests on their choosing commercially attractive species. Unfortunately, ecological details of the life histories of suitable species are known in only a few cases. The prospective farmer will be largely on his own and must first develop this information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the most desirable species are native to primary tropical forests, and they may need protection because of the rate at which their habitat is being destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any program to commercially exploit butterflies and other insects must either bypass the rarest, most restricted, and slowest reproducing species; farm them cautiously with a high percentage of adults released; or take them with the greatest of care. Further, there must be adequate habitat protection both in the natural state and in mixed land uses (rather than just agricultural croplands) to support the insects and furnish a continuing supply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some competition could occur if live butterflies were exported between countries and used to establish farming enterprises. In general, however, butterflies are easier to farm in their native habitats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Appendix_A"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A Selected Readings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carvalho, J. C. M., and O. H. H. Mielke. 1972. The trade of butterfly wings in Brazil and its effect upon survival of the species. Proceedings 19th International Congress of Entomology (Moscow) 1 :486-488.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fenner, T. L. 1976. Aspects of butterfly conservation in Papua New Guinea, Pp. 121-127 in Ecology and Conservation in Papua New Guinea, K. P. Lamb and J. L. Gressitt eds. Pamphlet 2. Wau Ecology Institute, Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parsons, M. n.d. Insect Farming and Trading Agency Farming Manual. Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Division of Wildlife, P.O. Box 129, Bulolo, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pyle, R. 1981. Butterflies: now you see them.... International Wildlife I I (1):4- 11.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pyle, R., M. Bentzien, and P. Opler. 1981. Insect conservation. Annual Review of Entomology 26:233-258.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pyle, R. M. and S. A. Hughes. 1978. Conservation and utilization of the insect resources of Papua New Guinea. Unpublished report, copies available from the author, see Research Contacts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Severinghaus, S. R. 1977. The butterfly industry and butterfly conservation in Taiwan. Atala 5(2):20-23.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unno, K. 1974. Taiwan's butterfly industry. Wildlife 16: 356-359.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vietmeyer, N. D. 1979. Butterfly ranching is taking wing in Papua New Guinea. Smithsonian 10(2):119-135. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Appendix_B"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix B</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Contacts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wayne Gagne, Bishop Museum, P.O. Box 6037, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96818 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angus Hutton, Garaina Farms, Scrubby Creek Road, Gympie 4570, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insect Farming and Trading Agency, P.O. Box 129, Bulolo, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea (Peter Clark, Manager; Michael Parsons, Ecologist)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Karol Kisokau, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Central Government Offices, Waigani, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navu Kwapena, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rudi Mattoni, 9620 Heather Road, Beverly Hills, California 90210, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Michael G. Morris, Chairman, Butterfly Specialist Group, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Furzebrook Research Station, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Wareham, Dorset BH20 5AS, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ashley C. Morton, Department of Biology, Building 44, The University, Southampton S09 5NH, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fred Parker, 717 Ross River Road, Kirwan, Queensland 4814, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert M. Pyle, Chairman, Monarch Project, Xerces Society, 369 Loop Road, Gray's River, Washington 98621, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheldon R. Severinghaus, Representative, The Asia Foundation, 42, Chien Kuo North Road, Taipei 104, Taiwan, Republic of China </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Appendix_C"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix C</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biographical Sketches of Panel Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director of the Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., is currently the Secretary-General of the International Union of Biological Sciences. He received his B.A. in 1961 from Miami University in Ohio, M.Sc. from The George Washington University in 1963, and his Ph.D. in 1966 from the University of London. His research interests are in comparative anatomy and phylogeny of flowering plants, commercial timbers, histology of monocotyledons, economic botany, and tropical biology. An internationally recognized expert on tropical plants, he has published extensively in these areas and on topics relating to science, technology, and development, especially in developing countries. Dr. Ayensu was co-chairman of the Panel on Under exploited Tropical Plants of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation and chairs and serves as a member of many international bodies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, JR., is Graduate Research Professor in the Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville. As Technical Director of the Caribbean Conservation Corporation, he has directed a seasonal research program at the breeding ground of the green turtle at Tortuguero, Costa Rica, since 1952, with continuous grants from the National Science Foundation from 1955 to 1980, and has carried out investigations of marine turtle ecology and navigation in various parts of the world. The author of numerous papers, articles, and books, he received the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal of the National Academy of Sciences for Handbook of Turtles and the John Burroughs Medal for The Windward Road. He is Research Associate of the American Museum of Natural History; Affiliate Curator of Natural Sciences, Florida State Museum; Chairman of the Marine Turtle Specialist Group of the Survival Service Commission, International Union for the Conservation of Nature; Honorary Consultant of the World Wildlife Fund; Fellow of the Linnean Society of London; Fellow of the American Fisheries Society; and a member of Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1973 he was awarded a gold medal from the World Wildlife Fund for the application of scientific findings to the conservation of marine turtles. In 1975 he received the Edward W. Browning Award for achievement in biological conservation. In 1978 Dr. Carr was awarded the Gold Medal of the New York Zoological Society for contributions to natural science and conservation; in 1978 he became Officer of the Order of the Golden Ark (The Netherlands).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING is the Director of the Florida State Museum, Gainesville. He received a B.S. in 1957 and an M.S. in 1961 from the University of Florida and a Ph.D. from 1966 from the University of Miami. His research interests are in wildlife conservation and habitat preservation, impact of international trade on wildlife populations, and ecology and behavior of reptile populations. He worked at the New York Zoological Society from 1967 to 1975. As an international wildlife consultant, Dr. King has received honors from the Dominican Republic, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, and from H.R.H. Prince Bernhard of The Netherlands. He has served on committees advising the State Department and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources on policies regarding the trade of crocodile skins, turtle products, and other wildlife materials. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOlS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry and Professor of Forest Genetics, Yale University, was Dean of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale from 1965 to 1975. He received a B.A. from Luxembourg College and a B.Sc.F. from the University of New Brunswick in 1950, an M.F. in ecology in 1951, and a Ph.D. in forest genetics from Yale in 1954. He is especially knowledgeable about francophone Africa and was chairman of the Sahel program of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development and a member of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation. From 1960 to 1965 he was research collaborator at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. In 1966 he was the recipient of the Award for Outstanding Achievement in Biological Research from the Society of American Foresters and in 1975 was Distinguished Professor (Fulbright-Hays Program) in Yugoslavia. Before joining the Yale faculty, he served as project leader in forest genetics for the U.S. Forest Service in Florida. He has served as a consultant to FAO, various foreign governments, and private forestry companies, and he has traveled extensively in the tropical countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS is head of the Furzebrook Research Station of the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (National Environment Research Council, U.K.). He received a B.A. in natural sciences (zoology) at the University of Cambridge of 1958, M.A. in 1962, and received his Ph.D. from London University in research on the integrated control of orchard pests. Dr. Morris worked at Monks Wood Experimental Station on the effects of grassland management on populations of invertebrates and developed a strong interest in community and applied ecology, particularly the conservation of insect populations. Recently he has become involved with problems of butterfly conservation and resource utilization. He is Secretary of the Joint Committee for the Conservation of British Insects, a Vice-Chairman of the Lepidoptera Specialist Group of lUCN'S Survival Commission, and Chairman of the Habitat and Species Protection Committee of SEL (Societal Europaea Lepidoptero-Logica). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH L. POPENOE is Professor of Soils, Agronomy, Botany, and Geography and Director of the Center for Tropical Agriculture and International Programs (Agriculture) at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. from the University of California at Davis in 1951 and his Ph.D. in soils from the University of Florida in 1960. His principal research interest has been in the area of tropical agriculture and land use. His early work on shifting cultivation is one of the major contributions to this sytem. He has traveled and worked in most of the countries in the tropical areas of Latin America, Asia, and Africa. He is past Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Escuela Agricola Panamericana in Honduras, Visiting Lecturer on Tropical Public Health at the Harvard School of Public Health, and a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Society of Agronomy, the America Geographical Society, and the International Soils Science Society. He is Chairman of the Advisory Committee for Technology Innovation and a member of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT MICHAEL PYLE, a writer and consulting lepidopterist based in Gray's River, Washington, has served since 1979 as Co-Compiler of the lUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book. In this capacity he is consultant to the Conservation Monitoring Centre in Cambridge, England. After receiving his B.S. and M.S. at the University of Washington, he took his Ph.D. through the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University in 1976. He worked for the Government of Papua New Guinea on the conservation and utilization of insect resources and then with the Nature Conservancy as Northwest Land Steward. A </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">former Fulbright Scholar to the United Kingdom, Dr. Pyle subsequently founded the Xerces Society for conservation of beneficial insects and their habitats. He has been chairman of IUCN'S Lepidoptera Specialist Group (Species Survival Commission) since 1976. His publications include the Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Butterflies. A comprehensive book on insect conservation in his next project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS received his Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1977 in natural resources management. He has worked on various wildlife research projects in Asia since 1964 and is representative for the Asia Foundation in Taiwan. He has published articles on butterfly conservation and wildlife industries in Taiwan, where he has been studying the butterfly and wildlife farming projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, staff officer for this study, is Professional Associate of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. A New Zealander with the Ph.D. in organic chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley, he now works on innovations in science that are important for developing countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Advisory_Committee_on_Technolog"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas (member through 1981) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L.GADEN,JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Native Plants, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (member through 1982) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Board_on_Science_and_Technology"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGLIARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAMUEL P. ASPER, Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BELL, Department of Population Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEONARD BERRY, Professor, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST J. BRISKEY, Dean, School of Agriculture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON S. BROWN, Director, Resources Systems Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. BURRIS, Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAUDIA JEAN CARR, Associate Professor, Conservation and Resource Studies, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATE FIELDS, Director, Developing Markets, Control Data Corporation, Minneapolis, Minnesota </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND J. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN HOWARD GIBBONS, Director, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM HUGHES, Director, Engineering Energy Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM A. W. KREBS, Vice President, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Acorn Park, Cambridge, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE 1. LYTHCOTT, University of Wisconsin, School of Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANICE E. PERLMAN, Executive Director, Committee for a New New York, New York City Partnership, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK C. ROBBINS, President, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER A. ROSENBLITH, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HERBERT SMUCKLER, Dean of International Studies and Programs, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GILBERT F. WHITE, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Assistant Dean for International Programs, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN C. HURLEY, Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Associate Director/Studies </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL P. GREENE, Associate Director/Research Grants </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/b22bue/metadata.xml
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@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea (b22bue)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">start a butterfly farm</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/ec158e/ec158e.htm
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--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/ec158e/ec158e.htm	(revision 21010)
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+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; The Courier - N°158 - July - August 1996 Dossier Communication and the media - Country report Cape Verde</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Courier - N°158 - July - August 1996 Dossier Communication and the media - Country report Cape Verde</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFRICA-CARIBBEAN-PACIFIC - EUROPEAN UNION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dossier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Communication and the media</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Press freedom, regarded as a fundamental human right, is also a key component in the democratization process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the help of experts in the field, we look at what various organizations are doing to combat censorship and promote a free press in ACP countries and elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We also highlight the new trend of donor support for projects aimed at promoting press freedom. These include, notably, provisions for the training of journalists. And as new means of communication, such as the World Wide Web, develop, we consider what is being done to prevent the opening up of a new divide - this time between the 'information rich' end the 'information poor'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the least-developed countries, Cape Verde is seen as a model of good governance and stable democracy. It is also admired for its perseverance in the struggle against the exigencies of history and climate. The country suffers from almost permanent drought and has virtually no regular supplies of fresh water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Its history has been punctuated by serious famines and while the people are no longer hungry, they still face formidable economic difficulties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde produces just 10% of what it consumes and its exports are one fifteenth of its imports. The one bright spot is in services, where it enjoys a positive trade balance. This sector (in particular, international transport and tourism), together with the country's cultural industries, offer the best hope for future development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Meeting point</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Robert M&eacute;nard, Director of 'Reporters sans fronti&egrave;res'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Combating attacks on press freedom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Reporters sans fronti&egrave;res' was founded in June 1985 in Montpellier where Robert M&eacute;nard was working as a journalist with Radio France. Now based in Paris, RSF has two main policy areas. In the first place it alerts international public opinion and the media to situations involving violations of press freedom (via publications such as 'RSF News letter' the Annual Report and specific books and reports). Secondly, RSF actively intervenes by sending letters of protest to official bodies and assisting victims. Last year RSF dealt with more than 350 cases involving the press throughout the world. The organisation's ambition, according to Mr M&eacute;nard, is to be a kind of Amnesty International in the press field. The interview began with Mr M&eacute;nard giving a detailed description of RSF's work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We do two things - we report violations of press freedom and help journalists who are the victims of such violations. Take the former Yugoslavia, for example. It would have been unthinkable to monitor what was going on in that war-torn country without, at the same time, helping the media who were victims of the repression. So we sent over lawyers to help in trials involving the press, helped the families of imprisoned journalists and gave general assistance to the media. In the case of Oslabodenje, the Sarajevo daily, this went on for four years. We did similar work in Rwanda where RSF helped the media to get back on its feet after the genocide. In Algeria at the moment we are involved in aiding  journalists who are obstructed when doing their work. We also give help in Europe - currently to refugee journalists in Belgium, France, Spain, Switzarland and Germany. That's basically what we do; reporting violations of press freedom and helping those who are the victims of it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you work with other organisations, for example the United Nations ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We work with various types of organisations. We have daily contact with other NGOs specialising in press freedom, such as Article 19 in London and the Committee for the Protection of Journalists in New York, to give just two examples. We also have contacts with NGOs involved in human rights issues in general and, above all, with Amnesty International.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then there are our links with international organisations and, first and foremost, with the UN system. RSF has submitted reports in response to requests from various organisations, ranging from the UN Committee for Human Rights to UNESCO. We also work with the Council of Europe and the Organisation of African Unity. But our closest  relationship is with the European Union, or two reasons; firstly because it is RSF's main financial backer and secondly Because the EU enables us to do three things. It has helped us set up and has Financed a vast network of correspondents in 130 different countries and, to my mind, this is the most important thing in terms of defending human rights and press freedom. We also publish reports, which we write in response to EU requests, on press freedom in one country or another and which are made available to the EU and European Parliament. Our third \ink comes in the form of assistance. We manage an aid fund to help where the press is in difficulties, and the money is provided by the Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-You have mentioned a network of correspondents which has been set up. How does it operate ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is a network of people who are in daily contact with RSF and who tip us off when a situation requiring our attention arises. Whenever there is a violation of press freedom in a country where the network operates, our correspondent lets us know - that's the first priority. Then, they make enquiries at our request. The third stage is to set up events. For example May 3 was World Press Freedom Day and, on that day, in about 20 countries in Africa, our correspondents organised events on the theme of press freedom. A fourth aspect of our correspondents' work is that they are often responsible on the ground for helping journalists in difficulty. They also help the media in general because we give them documents and supply them with information which they distribute in their particular country. Their task, therefore, is to alert us to a situation, meet our requirements for information and, on our behalf, physically to assist people on the ground, set up events and disseminate information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Are the correspondents all nationals of the countries in which they work ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. Also, about 90% of them are joumalists and they are all paid for what they do. Their relationship with us is clear-cut. It is very important for them to be paid because this means that   we can ask certain things of them. If you   work as a volunteer no-one can give you  a deadline to produce such and such a   document. In our case, we pay them to   do this work for RSF.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you choose countries where the situation is already problematic ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Unfortunately, problems exist in many countries. Less than half the countries in the world show any degree of respect for press freedom and that means we have a great deal of work. In addition, information arriving at RSF from the correspondents is distributed to other organisations. We have set up a system called Infex which is an electronic mailbox.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All RSF's information is put on a computerised system and immediately disseminated to all the organisations involved in the defence of human rights, and press freedom in particular.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So the technological revolution is a positive thing as far as you are concerned ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Absolutely. Both the Imais and Internet systems are unbelievably useful tools which have completely revolutionised our work. For example, RSF might protest about the situation in some country or other. Take China, for example - we regularly lodge protests against the lack of press freedom there. There are 17 journalists in jail, no freedom for the press and a great many problems. However, people in China are not aware of what we do and in order to get information they have to listen to international radio stations. On the Internet, RSF's services are available in French, English and Spanish and it is consulted by people the world over. It is thus one of their sources of information. Another example would be a case where we set up an operation and inundate a number of people in a particular country with faxes, in order to pass on the information. Modern technology enables us to break down the fortresses which totalitarian or dictatorial regimes attempt to construct around themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- RSF has just published its 1996 Report. What do you have to say regarding the current position of press freedom ? Has progress been made ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I would say two things. In the long term, the situation is improving. If you remember, 25 years ago, the regimes in half the countries in Latin America were dictatorships, communism dominated half of Europe and nearly all of Africa had single-party systems. Even in Europe, there were dictatorships - in Spain, Portugal and Greece. So we cannot deny that there has been progress. The problem is that, for three or four years now, there has been a noticeable rise in new threats to press freedom, and this is a great source of concern to us. Here I am thinking of the rise in power of fundamentalist movements, particularly religious fundamentalism. In a number of countries nowadays - the best example, or perhaps I should say the worst example, is Algeria - journalists are not only threatened by the state but are being killed by armed Islamic groups. The rise in religious fundamentalism is indeed a real danger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second type of threat confronting the press is the increased influence of mafia-type criminals. You will, of course, have heard about drug trafficking in places like Colombia or Peru. Nowadays, in some countries where communism has been overthrown, the big threat comes from these criminal gangs. Not so long ago in Russia, the star presenter on the main TV channel was killed because he got in the way of 'Mafia' interests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third threat comes from uncontrolled actions by groups fighting for autonomy or independence, like the Kurdish movement in Turkey (the PKK), and a number of separatist groups in India. The EU is no stranger to this either</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ETA poses a continual threat to the press, as do members of the FLNC in Corsica. It is only a few months since members of the latter group machine gunned a journalist's house. A fourth and new kind of threat, particularly in countries with a democratic system, comes from the rise of the extreme right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lastly, a point I draw particular attention to in our recent report is, in fact, a dual phenomenon. On the one hand there are states which pass laws under which any criticism is a crime and may lead to prosecution. An example of this is Egypt where the government has enacted a law which has led to charges being brought against some 60 journalists since summer 1995. On the other hand, there are states where justice simply does not operate and there is no will to make it function.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Last year, 51 journalists were killed and a number of others were attacked, but there has not been a single trial or conviction. It is a real culture of impunity. In some countries, the justice system either does not operate, or it is not independent. In such places, the authorities are reluctant to identify and prosecute those responsible for attacks on journalists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· RSFcurrently has project running in Rwanda, in collaboration with the EU. Could you tell us something about this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The EU is helping us to meet a wide range of needs in Rwanda, as well as in Burundi, where sadly, the situation is rather similar. In Rwanda, there are those who governed the country before the genocide and those in power at the moment. There was a specific problem there in that nearly half of Rwanda's journalists were killed during the genocide - 49 out of about 100. We had virtually to reconstruct the press system and the EU gave us the means to do this.The press currently has difficulties vis-&agrave;-vis the authorities but it is attempting to do its job.  in Burundi, where our work is of a more conventional type, we see continuing attacks on press freedom. There, RSF is trying to resist the pressure, again supported by the EU. In fact, thanks to the EU, we are helping a   number of countries' media to survive despite difficult conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another quite new problem is that before and during the genocide in Rwanda, the media were used as vehicles for disseminating hatred. They issued calls for people to kill their compatriots, in this instance the Tutsis, and the language they used was unbelievably violent. On Radio Mille Collines, presenters would say - and I quote; 'The graves are not full yet'. They would give out the addresses of people who had to be killed and when the murders had been carried out they would actually say, 'You killed them too quickly - you should have killed them more slowly to make them suffer more', or, 'You didn't kill the children, go back and kill the childreni. We actually have recordings of statements like this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In such a situation, journalists must be made to answer for what they have done and be brought to justice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has helped us conduct a number of surveys which will enable the international criminal court in The Hague to charge Rwandan journalists with complicity or incitement to genocide. We expect this to take place in the very near future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course in Rwanda, all that is in the past but the same thing is happening today in Burundi where there is a radio station called 'Radio Democracy' - what a joke! A number of journalists there are issuing calls for people to be killed and we have a copy of one of their newspapers whose front page offers a cash reward to anyone who kills such and such a person. This is not journalism. RSF has lodged complaints against these people and one of these 'journalists' has just been charged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We are doing three things in Rwanda and Burundi: denouncing violations of press freedom by the authorities, helping media victims and - something new - reporting what has come to be known as 'the media of hatred'. Unfortunately, this type of media is not restricted to Rwanda and Burundi. it is a phenomenon that we see in a number of African countries, in the former Yugoslavia, the Caucasus and the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East. Perhaps you are aware that the 50th anniversary of the Nuremberg trials has just passed ? But did you know that there were two journalists among the accused? The press has forgotten that journalists played a part in the rise of Nazism. RSF is pointing out that the same thing is happening today in many countries and we have to fight it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 'The EU is a  perfect partner</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Given what you have just said, should restrictions be placed on press freedom ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - This is a very complex subject. You have to remember that international texts, particularly the convention on civil and political rights, place restrictions on press freedom. Article 19, which defines press freedom, stipulates that there are certain limits to this and Article 20 forbids any dissemination of racist or antisemitic ideas and any incitements to violence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RSF has two things to say. First, governments which have signed the agreements must ensure they are observed. These set limits. Journalists are not above the law and they must be punished when they say certain things. So states must face up to their responsibilities and apply the treaties they have signed. Second, I feel that the international community, and Europe in particular - when it signs agreements or gives aid to third countries - should demand that they respect press freedom but clamp down on the media of hatred.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· RSF has just published a draft model legislation governing the press. In preparing this, were you influenced by your experience of the extremist media ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Perhaps we were influenced too much. I am my own worst critic. We sent a mission to Rwanda before the genocide but did not appreciate the full effects of the evil disseminated by the media of hatred, particularly Radio Mille </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collines. We underestimated the situation and are concerned at what is happening. We believe there must be express limits on press freedom and this draft framework law is one way of formulating such restrictions. It is not necessarily the best way of going about things, but our profession has to ask itself questions regarding the definition of press freedom and the limits we must not exceed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Are you satisfied with what the EU is doing in this area ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The EU is a perfect partner and has never exerted any pressure. With the Union, we are able to do things that would not be possible with individual Member-State government because the latter conduct foreign policy in defence of certain interests. Each country has its own cultural history linguistic links or links arising out of former colonial times which prevent it financing RSF's studies unconditionally. As far as our missions are concerned, RSF decides what it wants to do and we send our reports to the EU. They have also granted us a budget enabling us to give immediate aid to people in difficulty. This is the most positive action possible If the EU were not there, there would unfortunately be no-one else to finance an organisation like ours. 60% of our budget comes from the Union, 20%from various companies. We generate the remaining 20% ourselves through sales of books and contributions. Because the EU is a grouping of governments, the Commission has some room for manoeuvre. This is the only possible kind of support for organisations like RSF and, if it were not there, it would be the end for the people whom RSF supports.  interview by Dorothy Morrissey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ACP</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The economy of Cameroon: Better prospects but still a long way to go</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is an astonishing sight to behold during the rainy season. As you drive along the road from Yaound&eacute; to Bamenda, you come to a point where human habitation starts - and it then continues unbroken for more than 100 kiLom&eacute;tres. Just before Bafoussam, and as far as the eye can see, every patch of land is cultivated. Bananas, oranges, mangoes, sugarcane, cassava, palm trees, groundnuts and maize grow luxuriantly in open fields and in the front and back gardens of many houses. This route, of course, takes you mainly through the western part of Cameroon, home to the Bamilelr&eacute;s, recognised as one of the country's most enterprising and industrious ethnic groups. The population density here is 200 per km2 as opposed to 1 per km2 in the East.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The impact of this widespread farming, carried out by a large number of smallholders, is visible in the local markets, whether in Bafoussam, Mbouda or Bamenda. There, the stalls overflow with fruits and vegetables and prices are very low - a virtual paradise for the middlemen whose unmistakable presence is signalled by the significant number of trucks loading the produce for distribution throughout the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These scenes come as no surprise to the long-time observer of Cameroon's economy. The country achieved virtual self-sufficiency in food over 15 years ago. It is one of the few African countries to have been able to do this, thanks both to its physical  endowments and an early recognition of its agricultural vocation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon is often described as a microcosm of Africa, not just in terms of its make-up of English- and French speaking communities, but because it enjoys almost all the continent's climatic conditions. The south is equatorial, with two rainy seasons and two dry seasons of equal duration, the centre is Savannah country with one rainy season and one dry season, while the extreme north (part of the Sahel) is hot and dry. The country has a very good supply of rainfall - from 5000 mm annually in the southwest to around 600 mm near Lake Chad.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such varied climates favour the cultivation of a variety of crops. Timber is  produced mainly in the southern provinces while palm oil, tea, cocoa, coffee, rubber, timber and foodcrops are produced in the southwestern and western areas. The central and north provinces specialise in cattle and cotton production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concentration on agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon has, not surprisingly, concentrated on agriculture. Indeed the government has given top priority to the sector in all its development plans   since independence in 1960. It has been involved in the marketing of the main export crops and has provided subsidies to farmers in the form of low-priced fertilisers and pesticides for their cocoa, coffee, rubber, palm oil, etc. Almost three-quarters of the working population (the majority of whom are smallholders) are engaged in farming. And despite a low level of mechanisation, they are very efficient. The rate of growth in food outstrips the rate of population growth. Only a few largescale farmers or firms are involved in the production of cash crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until the early 1980s, when oil came into the picture, these large scalefarmers and firms amounted for more than 70% of export earnings, 40% of state revenue and 32% of the Gross Domestic Product. The plan initially was to use oil revenues to further boost and transform agriculture. However, the dramatic increase in the country's oil production, combined with much higher world petroleum prices during the first half of the 1980s, made the sector not only Cameroon's biggest export earner, but also, in a certain sense, a 'spoiler' for agriculture. Increased revenues enabled the government to maintain the level of prices paid to farmers, even though world prices had slumped to disastrous levels. This created distortions in the market. (Later, when the oil price slumped, and revenues dropped sharply, producer prices were also reduced, bringing them closer into line with international prices.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture's contribution to GDP declined steadily to around 21 % in 1985, rose to 27% in 1989 and has hovered around 30% ever since. The sector's share of export earnings has also fallen to about 40% of total exports by value.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite this, Cameroon's agriculture remains, comparatively, in a much better shape than that of most African countries. Indeed, it contributed in large measure to the country's reputation as one of Africa's economic successes in the 1980s. During that decade, growth averaged 8% per annum. However, the period was also marked by dramatic increases in oil revenues which induced  significant policy changes as well as leading to maladministration. The government paid less attention to taxation and customs duties as sources of income and turned a virtual blind eye to smuggling which harmed the manufacturing sector. The civil service, on the other hand, expanded beyond reason, a phenomenon that some have attributed to patronage by the ruling single party.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boom in public expenditure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Protected somewhat against fluctuations in earnings from export crops, by a strong but overvalued CFA franc, the government embarked on a wide range of capital expenditure and imports. Then, in 1987, international oil prices fell as dramatically as they had risen earlier in the decade. At the time, public spending was running at CFAF 8 billion - well above the CFAF 5.6bn the country actually earned. Revenues from oil continued their downward slide to CFAF4.5 bn in 1988, CFAF 2.8 bn in 1991 and CFAF 2.5 bn in 1994. 1995 saw a modest rise to CFAF 3 bn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1987 thus marked the beginning of a rapid deterioration in Cameroon's financial situation. In the period which followed, civil servants' salaries were unpaid for months, several of the country's foreign missions were left without resources and both domestic and foreign debts worsened. In 1993, the government owed commercial banks around CFAF 3.3bn. Its external debt stood at around $7.5bn with a service ratio of more than 25% of foreign exchange earnings. The devaluation of the CFA franc in January 1994 improved the internal debt situation significantly. In February, the government signed a letter of intent with the IMF after agreeing to a series of reforms which included, among other things, rationalising the banking and insurance sectors, raising revenue from non-oil sources, bringing inflation down and reducing the budget deficit. In return the IMF provided a stand-by loan equivalent to CFAF 1.4bn. However, the agreement was suspended just a few months later when the Fund reached the conclusion that the government lacked the will to carry the reforms through. The 1994/95 budget foresaw a deficit of 4.5% of GDP - well above the IMF's guideline of 1.5%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meanwhile the country's financial situation had become so critical that it could no longer service its debts, most notably, those it owed to the World Bank. France, which had traditionally been ready to come to the rescue, refused to bail Cameroon out and it finally dawned on the authorities that structural adjustment was unavoidable. When, in September 1995, talks resumed with the IMF, the commitment to adjustment was no longer in doubt. The government agreed, in addition to fiscal reforms, to liberalise trade in cocoa, coffee and timber, to prune the civil service and to privatise state enterprises which dominate the industrial sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commitment to reforms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since then the reform process has been in full swing. The first and most important task has been to improve the government's financial position. The civil service, which employs more than 175000 people, is gradually being reduced and salaries have been cut. Trade is also being liberalised and subsidies are being removed. The 1995/96 budget, unveiled in June last year, was welcomed by the IMF. It included, for the first time in a long while, increases in income tax and a widening of tax bands. A series of measures have also been introduced to combat tax evasion and fraud. External signs of wealth, water and electricity consumption, and telephone bills are now being used as means of assessing income tax.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Responsibility for the collection of customs duties has been removed from the Customs Department which was often accused in the past of corruption and inefficiency. The task has been given instead to a Swiss-based preshipment inspection company. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The donor community has responded positively. With French assistance, the government has been able to clear its outstanding debt to the World Bank. The IMF has provided a stand-by credit facility of $101 million in support of the adjustment programme for 1995/ 96 and debts to the Paris Club covering the same period have been rescheduled. In addition, now that Cameroon has been reclassified as a poor country, it is entitled to benefit from the terms of the Naples Agreement, which allow for up to 67% of debts to western govemments to be written off. A number of creditor nations have either forgiven the country its debts or have reduced them substantially. More loans have come from France and a number of other donors, including the World Bank and the European Community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EC is financing a series of projects within the framework of the adjustment programme, including the restructuring of the civil service and preparation of the ground for privatisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lately though, the donor community has been showing signs of disenchantment, following allegations of misuse of funds and perhaps even outright embezzlement. Last March, an IMF mission to Yaound&eacute; failed to obtain an adequate explanation concerning the allocation of certain sums. The result, at the time The Courier went to press, was that an IMF loan for settlement of Cameroon's debt to the African Development Bank was being held up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dealing with the negative social impact</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p07a.png"></center><br>
+ Figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sudden devaluation of the CFA franc in January 1994 halved Cameroon's purchasing power overnight. The government has since cut wages twice. The average salary of a top civil servant, which stood at around CFAF 300 000 before devaluation, is now less than CFAF 180 000 while the lowest paid government employees receive just CFAF 30 000. At the same time, prices, particularly of imported manufactured goods and inputs, have risen sharply. Increases of up to 150% have been  recorded. By way of example, the price of a baguette (french bread), which was only CFAF 80 in January 1994 had risen to CFAF 130 by March 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there is considerable hardship, Cameroonians are a great deal more fortunate than fellow Africans in many other countries undergoing a similar adjustment process. Staple food remains cheap and affordable to the vast majority, thanks to the continuing strength of agriculture. As a result, there are few, if any, cases of malnutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of donors, including China, Belgium and the EC, are concentrating on health and education with the specific aim of reducing the negative social impact of adjustment. The EC, for example, has a project designed to strengthen health provision at the grassroots. This entails rehabilitating  infrastructures (health centres and district hospitals in particular) and establishing medical supply centres in areas that are not covered by other donors. The project is governed by the principle of cost-recovery to ensure viability and sustainability. But one area where the donors cannot do much is in the field of job creation. There is growing unemployment and job prospects in the formal sector, at least in the short term, are not good.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In macro-economic terms, things are locking up slightly for Cameroon. After recording economic growth of 3% in 1994/95, the hope is for a 5% increase in 1995/96. However, Cameroon's main economic operators, grouped under the umbrella of GICAM (Groupement inter-patronal du Cameroun), expressed fears late last year   that the country would not achieve this level of growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon exports a variety of primary commodities, most of whose prices have recovered in recent years, and devaluation has had a positive impact on the country's balance of trade. Specifically, it has helped make exports more competitive and in 1994/ 95 the trade surplus was a healthy CFAF 349bn, almost double the CFAF 128bn recorded in the previous year. There was a noticeable slowdown in the export of timber in the latter half of last year and the qualities of coffee and cocoa being sold were not up to the usual standard, a situation that led to both crops being shunned in the world market. Bananas exported to France were also meeting stiffer competition from French Caribbean bananas. However, the fact that rubber production has risen by more than 10%, while aluminium output and sales have increased, should help Cameroon to record another positive trade balance when the figures are next published.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forestry sector, which has huge foreign-exchange earning and employment potential, is being rationalised as part of the current structural adjustment programme. The Canadian Agency for International Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(CAID) has a five-year project to conserve and regenerate some 30 000 hectares. In fact, half of Cameroon is covered by forest and less than 500 000 ha is currently being exploited. The objective is to ensure that forest resources are exploited in the future at a sustainable level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The private sector</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industry, which is still in its infancy, has been developed by the government since independence largely with a view to import-substitution, although with some gearing towards the regional market. It accounts for about 14% of GDP and is currently dominated by aluminium smelting. Although devaluation has lately improved the competitiveness of those enterprises that add value to locally available raw materials, the manufacturing sector as a whole faces two major challenges now that the government has accepted the idea that the economy is best driven by the private sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first relates to private investments, which have been sluggish  over the past ten years; a clear illustration of a lack of confidence in the economy. This was amply demonstrated when Cameroonians with funds abroad failed to repatriate them to take advantage of the CFAF devaluation as was widely expected. This phenomenon puts the whole privatisation exercise in jeopardy as it means that the government is more likely to have to rely on foreign entrepreneurs. The best the authorities can therefore expect in the short term, some observers say, is to convert those state enterprises that are not already joint-ventures into ones where private investors become the majority shareholders. Complete divestment will then take place gradually over a longer timescale. Overall, 150 state enterprises have been earmarked for sale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to Andr&eacute; Siaka, director of Cameroon's Brewery, who is also Chairman of GICAM, another reason for the lack of investment was high interest rates. These hovered around 20% for many years. Even now, after the reform of the banking sector, interest rates remain very high and there are no borrowers, he told The Courier. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donors again have been conscious of this and some of their interventions have reflected this concern. For example, Canada is providing funds for the establishment in Douala (the commercial capital) of a centre for the development of private enterprises. Meanwhile, the Chinese have promised to provide CFAF 7bn to enable a line of credit to be opened for small and medium sized enterprises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government itself is puting in place a number of incentives, according to Minister of Trade and Industry Eloundou Mani Pierre. The liberalisation of the economy and the reform of the customs regime in collaboration with UDEAC, to which Cameroon belongs, are part of these. Mr Mani told The Courier that with a population of under 12 million, Cameroun's most important market was Central Africa. He also, perhaps surprisingly, has high hopes for the new World Trade Aareement. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon meanwhile is reviewing its plan for the establishment of export processing zones with the help of its main donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also looking at other ways of attracting foreign investment, particularly in 'value-added' enterprises involved in the processing of locally available raw materials such as cotton, cocoa, coffee and timber.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social and political peace</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second, and by far the more serious challenge facing manufacturing, is the problem of large-scale smuggling by petty traders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evidence of this abounds in the booming central market of Douala, where goods of all kinds can be found at very reasonable prices. Ironically the measures which were being taken and judged to be relatively effective against smuggling in recent years have had to be abandoned under structural adjustment rules imposed on the government.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As Mr Siaka pointed out, petty traders dealing in smuggled goods put pressure on enterprises, 'because they do not pay tax', and threaten to render domestic manufacturing uncompetitive. It is also widely acknowledged, however, that the small-scale traders, who dominate the informal sector, provide job opportunities to Cameroonians, which is important at a time of economic austerity. Indeed petty trading has arguably been the safety-valve, helping to ease the social pressures brought about by structural adjustment, and thus preventing civil unrest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the extent to which that safety-valve can withstand the emerging political pressures is a different matter. Democratisation, understandably, was one of the conditions imposed by donors for assistance to Cameroon. After a series of elections - presidential, legislative and municipal - which were marred by violence and deaths, there are still doubts about the health of democracy in the country. Indeed, there are signs that tension is  mounting. And few would dispute that if Cameroon is to succeed economically, it needs both social peace and political stability. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Jacques Santer commends regional  initiative</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Alex Kremer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission President's visit to West Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union's commitment to regional development in sub-Saharan Africa is as strong as ever, but sustainable development can only come from Africa's own initiative. This was the message delivered by Jacques Santer, President of the European Commission, in his address to African heads of state at the UEMOA (Economic and Monetary Union of West Africa) summit in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, on May 10.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'I wish to emphasise from the start,' Mr Santer declared to the Presidents of Benin, Burkina Faso, C&ocirc;te d'lvoire, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo, 'that the European Commission and the European Parliament are both determined to make our partnership even more dynamic and in tune with today's rapidly changing world.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The presence of the Commission President at the UEMOA summit marks a milestone in the European Community's support for regional integration in the developing world. With its own Commission, Council of Ministers and Court of Justice, the UEMOA appears to be consciously  following the supranational model of regional integration pioneered by the European Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sequencing of UEMOA integration, however, is almost the reverse of the European model. Already linked by a single currency in the CFA franc, the West African Union's member states are now pressing ahead with plans for integration of their 'real' economies. The implementation timetable agreed in Ouagadougou covers freedom of establishment, free movement of capital, mutual macroeconomic monitoring and the first steps to customs union with the harmonisation of external tariffs and the lowering or removal of intra-regional barriers to trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President Santer indicated that the European Commission is keen to discuss how the European Development Fund (EDF) can support these initiatives. Such aid could take the form of technical assistance and training as well as direct budgetary support to mitigate the short-term costs of customs union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UEMOA is not, however, an aid project. Its member states have designed it to stand on its own feet financially from the start. A 'community solidarity levy' was due to come into effect on 1 July 1996. The money will be used for a structural fund programme beginning in late 1997, as well as to finance the Union's operating costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meeting with the President of Burkina Faso, Blaise Compaor&eacute;, Mr Santer said that it was particularly significant that his first official visit to Africa as President of the European</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission was to Ouagadougou. Not only was it a reaffirmation of the partnership between Africa and the EU, and a statement of the EU's willingness to support regional integration in the developing world. It was also a tribute to the determination of the people of Burkina Faso and other African countries to promote their own development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community is Burkina Faso's second largest donor, contributing 10% of total aid payments in 1994. Since 1991, the EC has committed an average of ECU 45 million each year to development cooperation with this country, rising to a peak of ECU 100m in 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Santer visited the EDF-financed road improvement site at Tougan, close to the frontier with Mali, and noted that intra-regional transport links were an essential complement to the legislative programme of the UEMOA. He concluded his tour of regional cooperation projects with a visit to a photovoltaic pumping system financed by the EC under its West African solar energy programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, on a more personal note, the Commission President was able to drop in on a project managed by the charity Chr&eacute;tiens pour le Sahel. Mr Santer worked for this Luxembourg-based organisation before starting his career in politics and he was visibly pleased to see that it was still going strong - supporting home-grown African initiatives with a little financial help from the European Community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.K. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA - moving with the times</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) was inaugurated 11 years ago in Ede, Prince Claus of the Netherlands - whose interest in development issues is well-known - attestded as guest of honour. On 19 April, he returned to take part in the official opening of the CTA's new building in neigh bouring Wageningen in the Dutch province of Gelderland. The siting of the purpose built premises is significant. The town of Wageningen has long been an important European centre for agricultural research and the Dutch, of course, are renowned for their commitment to cooperation with developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CTA may only have moved a short distance from its previous headquarters, but the Centre's 38-strong staff are also aware of the need to move with the times when it comes to fulfilling  their role in the field of agricultural information. This point was particularly emphasised by CTA Director, Dr. R.D. Cooke in his presentation at the opening ceremony. Recalling the Centre's main tasks (see box) Dr Cooke spoke of the 'changing horizons and challenges' which they faced, and he focused on four specific aspects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first of these is the big change taking place in national agricultural systems, with the state withdrawing more and more in favour of the private sector and NGOs. This is being accompanied by a trend towards decentralisation with the result that the CTA has many more potential partners to cater for and work with.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Global liberalisation has also had an effect on the kind of information being sought by the CTA's 'customers'. In the past, demand was almost exclusively for scientific or technical information, notably aimed at increasing productivity. Dr Cooke reported that while this remained important, there was now  an increasing interest in marketing and socio-economic aspects to facilitate decision-taking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It came as no surprise to hear the Director highlight the challenge posed by new technologies such as electronic networking and digital storage. The key point here, he stressed, was to find ways of adapting these to ACP needs and realities. 'In the next century,' he argued, 'the haves and the heve-nots will be defined by their access to information.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, Dr Cooke referred to the growing significance of regional linkages. He indicated that the CTA was locking at ways in which it could help its partners to devise regional development programmes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The declaration signalling the official opening of the building was made in the preceding presentation by E.F.C. Niehe who is Deputy DirectorGeneral for European Cooperation at the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In his speech, Mr Niehe emphasised the relevance of the CTA, pointing out that while the world food situation had improved, 'we are now on the threshold of structural food insecurity'. He also spoke in more general terms about the future of ACP-EU cooperation and acknowledged that 'partnership, sovereignty and equality had been somewhat neglected' by donors. However, he suggested that these concepts were now 'coming back'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the ACP side, the Swaziland ambassador, CS. Mamba,who is co-President of the Committee of Ambassadors, took up the theme of food shortages in sub-Saharan Africa and identified some of the difficulties encountered by African producers, particularly in respect of new technologies and marketing. He also referred to the environmental challenges facing ACP countries, especially in the Caribbean and Pacific. He was keen, however, to stress that the picture was 'not entirely negative'. Thus, for example, new technologies and methods had had a positive impact on grain production in Zimbabwe, horticulture in Kenya, and cocoa and coffee in West Africa. Mr Mamba echoed Dr Cooke in stressing the advantages of regional markets, and concluded with a firm statement of support for continuing ACP-EU cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'History,' he said, 'will show that the Lom&eacute; Convention played a central role in the momentum of development.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The final speaker was Steffen Smidt, Director-General for Development at the European Commission, who suggested that the CTA had played a pioneering role in developing a sectoral  approach at a time when the focus of development cooperation tended to be on individual projects. 'The Centre', he said, 'has become a well-respected international institution in the field of agricultural information.' The Director General focused on the need for ACP countries to develop their own capacities and on the gap that exists 'between potential and reality', because of capacity limitations. The Centre, he believed, could 'help bridge this gap.' Mr Smidt also reiterated a point made earlier that the information flow should not just be in one direction. 'Information from South to North is vital,' he argued, to ensure better targeting of programmes in future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the speeches, guests had an opportunity to learn more about the CTA's work by speaking to the Centre's personnel and visiting a special exhibition illustrating the nature and purpose of the Centre's activities. _</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer About the CTA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CIA's tasks are: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - to develop and provide services which improve access to information for agricultural and rural development ; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - to strengthen the Opacity of ACP countries to produce, acquire, exchange and utilise information in these areas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Programmes are organised around three principal themes: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strengthening information centres - designing strategies for improving agricultural information services; - promoting use of new information technologies; - providing training; - donating books. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Promoting contact and exchange of: experience among CTA's partners in rural development - seminars; - study visits. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Providing information on demand - publication s; - radio and audiovisual materials; - literature services for researchers; - Question and answer service. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(The address of the Technical Centre for Agriculture and Rural cooperation can be found in the CTA section towards the end of the white pages in   this issue.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bananas, Hamlet and the Windward IsIands</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Martin Dihm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What do the Windward Islands' banana industry and Hamlet have in common ? Both are intrigued by the same question: 'To be or not to be.' But unlike Hamlet, whose fete was decided rather quickly and tragically, the future of Windward Canibbean banana production is still open. And what is more, Windward producers have a distinct advantage over Hamlet. They can hire consultants to analyse their problem and come up with fresh solutions. That is what has happened. But before turning to the solutions, what have the problems been ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The four Windward Islands; Dominica, St Lucia, St Vincent and Grenada, have long enjoyed preferential market access to the UK. This first permitted the creation of the industry and then secured its survival, even with production costs that are much higher than those of other producers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A traumatic moment came when the European Community had to decide on a common market regime for bananas. Coming into effect in mid 1993 the regime maintained the principle of preferential access for traditional ACP producers. Nevertheless, it introduced a move towards greater market liberalisation. Fierce attacks on the regime by certain of the EU's trading partners have raised doubts about its viability. The system is due, in any case, to expire in 2002 when even further liberalisation seems likely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this could cause great difficulties for the Windward Islands which still depend substantially on banana exports to the EU. A decline in prices since mid-1993 and the appearance of new competitors in the previously protected UK market have further underlined the need for the Windwards to compete in a more liberal arena. The Islands commissioned a study, funded by the UK and the EC, into the competitiveness of their industry and on ways of improving its position. It was not the first study of this type, but earlier ones had had no real impact on the industry which had always been sufficiently protected to avoid swallowing the bitter pill of adjustment. This time, it was clear from the outset that action would have to be taken if the industry were to master the new situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The study provided a wealth of interesting insights and recommendations. The first big surprise - at least for outsiders - was the discovery that the industry was wasting considerable amounts each year through certain deficiencies in governance, management and production methods. The second theme of the study was the poor banana quality resulting from an inappropriate pricing system. In effect, price differences paid to farmers were not sufficient to reward extra attention to quality aspects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The study's recommendations pertaining to management, production and quality were all agreed in a meeting on 29 September 1995, which brought together the Prime Ministers, the EC and other donors. Prime Minister Mitchell of St Vincent labelled this chance for the industry to get its business right as 'the last train to San Fernando'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What has happened since then ? After some hesitation, the industry has indeed begun to 'take up arms against its sea of troubles' (to return to the Hamlet analogy). The EC, for its part, has taken the part of Horatio, the faithful friend. Its role is a delicate one though - for the EC has a lot of money available. Take, for example, the ECU 25m allocated to St Vincent in the 1994 STABEX exercise (roughly five times that  country's national indicative programme). How are such funds to be injected reasonably into the islands without undermining their own strength and sense of purpose in pursuing the right strategy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To answer this, one has to look at the actual requirements. Streamlining the banana industry is less a question of big infrastructure projects than of providing expertise to guide the necessary structural changes. It also means fewer people will be employed in the sector. Aid should, therefore, focus on technical assistance, promoting diversification, and social 'cushioning'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge, of course, remains considerable and the outcome will not be known for some time. But it is clear that the Windwards have taken bold steps in the right direction and that further steps are on the agenda. There is also little doubt that the islands small, sweet bananas can only be competitive in their market segment if they are produced and marketed professionally, and with dedication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So what could Hamlet have learnt from this experience ? In short - get sound analysis and fresh advice from outside - and then boldly implement. And stick close to your good old friend, Horatio! </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.D.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">British beef overshadows Development Council</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most recent meeting of the EC`s Development Council was one of the first to be hit by the non-cooperation policy adopted by the UK in protest at the export ban on British beef. The Overseas Development Minister, Linda Chalker, announced at the outset to her fellow ministers: 'I will not be able to agree today to the adoption of those texts... on which unanimity is required'. Britain is seeking agreement 'for a step-by-step lifting of the export ban', which was imposed after scientific evidence suggested a link between Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) - and its human 'equivalent', Creuzfeld Jakob Disease. Cases of BSE have been recorded across Europe, but the vast majority have been in the UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Texts which were approved included a regulation on refugees in non-Lom&eacute; developing countries. This makes available ECU 240 million over a four-year period (19961999) for longer term assistance to refugees and displaced persons - mainly in Asia and Latin America. Also agreed were two three-year programmes covering Aids control and environmental projects respectively. They will cover the period 1997-1999, and each has been allocated the sum of ECU 45m. In addition, ministers confirmed a regulation on the criteria for disbursing humanitarian aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the British stance meant that a number of important resolutions were blocked, including a text on mounting projects which link emergency, rehabilitation and longer-term aid. Rino Serri, Italy's Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs who presided the Council meeting, said that once adopted, this approach would represent a 'qualitative leap for the EU's development policy.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other resolutions awaiting approval relate to the strengthening of coordination between Member States, evaluation of the environmental impact of development policies, decentralised cooperation, and migration and development. Since good headway was made on these subjects despite the British attitude, the texts are expected  to be speedily agreed once the UK lifts its veto. Ministers also had an initial discussion on a paper presented by Commissioner Pinheiro on preventing conflicts in Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As is customary at these biannual meetings, several delegations raised points of particular national concern. Belgium, for example, is worried about the Commission's proposal which would finally establish the single market in chocolate products while leaving Member States the choice of adapting their legislation to allow a vegetable oil content of up to 5% in chocolate. Belgium feels that this approach could ultimately prove harmful to cacoa-producing countries and claims that it will be difficult to control the exact percentage of oil used. Sweden, meanwhile, wants action to reform the UN institutions while Italy is keen to increase public awareness of development policies. Finland emphasised the need for better coordination between the European Community and its Member States on environmentally sustainable projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Great Lakes region</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was backing for the June Round Table meeting on Rwanda organised by the UNDP, as well for the various diplomatic initiatives aimed at bringing stability to the Great Lakes region. On 27 May, the ministers dined  with Emma Bonino, the European Commissioner responsible for humanitarian issues, and with former US President, Jimmy Carter, who has played a major role in the search to find a solution to the region's problems. Others active in this effort include South Africa's Archbishop Tutu, and former Presidents Nyerere and Tour&eacute; of Tanzania and Mali respectively. Ministers also commended the efforts of the UN and the OAU.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Serri said there was a 'desperate need for a ceasefire' in Burundi and called for a 'speeding up of the peace process and full deployment of available humanitarian and development aid.' He told journalists it was vital for the EU to make special efforts to strengthen the judicial systems in Rwanda and Burundi - 'so that the justice system can work properly and identify those responsible for the genocide.' He pledged that 'substantial resources' would be made available once peace is secured. Ministers also called for a control of arms sales to the region, although they have no power to legislate in this area, which remains the preserve of the Member States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside the meeting place, Senegalese fishermen and NGOs joined forces to mount a protests against the effects of traditional EU fisheries agreements. These provide financial compensation to governments in exchange for access to their waters for EU vessels, but the protesters claim that they harm local fishing industries and disrupt food supplies. A significant number of agreements are due to come up for renewal later this year. NGOs are lobbying for a new and 'fairer' type of accord which provides for catch reductions, more selective fishing methods and the employment of locally-hired fishermen on EU boats. These proposals are all set out in a paper entitled 'The Fight for Fish: Towards Fair Fisheries Agreements,' published by Eurostep, a Brussels-based NGO. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Country report</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Cape Verde</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Making the best of history</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde has been shaped by the harmattan, the hot dry wind which blows from Africa, strong ocean currents and five hundred years of Portuguese colonialisation. Portugal has been a constant presence in the archipelago's history since the fifteenth century, when it granted the colonists who were to settle on the islands of Cape Verde a monopoly over the slave trade. The country became an interface between Africa, Europe and the Americas, at the centre of the triangle of trade in slaves, hardware and gold. The intermingling of black populations of every origin who  passed through the islands meant that the country was unable to present a united face against the colonialist culture. The colonists were therefore able to impose their own culture, with their fervent and proselytzing Catholicism becoming the principal ingredientin the mixture that is Cape Verde. Strong, scorching winds from the desert have shaped the islands' landscape and inhospitable ocean currents mean that approaches to the islands are difficult, their rocky cliff faces plunging into the sea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mythical Portuguese colonial oasis</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Up to the eighteenth century, Cape Verde was no more than a commercial centre for Portugal, its population at the end of that century barely exceeding 50,000, to be halved by the great drought between 1773-75. Other periods of drought regularly decimated the population and the arrival of new colonists and slaves did not offset such losses or compensate for the massive exodus which began in the early nineteenth century with the arrival of American whalers in search of crew members for their ships. Seven hundred thousand Cape Verdians currently live abroad, half of these in the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only four hundred thousand  have stayed in their own country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the beginning of the twentieth century, a period which signalled a turning point in the country's history, the population still numbered no more than 150 000. At the time, major sea voyages were being undertaken and Cape Verde's geographical location was highly valued. Mindelo, on the island of S&atilde;o Vicente in the north of the archipelago, developed as a coal-and-watersupply port for English vessels plying the route between India and the Americas, and England helped construct this port. However, Portugal's policy towards Cape Verde was double-edged. On the one hand, the islands were regarded as a natural extension of the home country, but as a competitor in terms of port activities. This led to Mindelo's slow development, although the trade in  skins, fishery produce, coffee and salt  could have made it a thriving centre. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mixing of races in Cape Verde has often been held up as, so-to-speak, 'humane colonisation', but this opinion is not corroborated by the under-developed state of the country at the time of independence and the fact that Portugal implemented food security measures to combat the ravages of catastrophic famines only when under pressure from public opinion, at the end of the first half of the twentieth century. The island's colonists had always used slave labour to produce food or fabrics which enabled them to purchase more slaves and it was only when the slave based economy began to decline, which   resulted in the impoverishment of the colonists, that a major grouping of free Blacks and rebel or emancipated slaves came into being. That is when the intermixing of races began. Therefore, before the abolition of slavery (18641869-1878), the vast majority of the black population of the island was free; both unmarried and married colonists would generally emancipate their children born of a secret relationship with female slaves. The aristocracy and white upper-middle classes continued to live a cloistered, aloof life and did not mix with other races. A second factor which would suggest that Portuguese colonisation of Cape Verde was sympathetic in outlook is the reputation of this small country's intellectuals; although colonisation created only a small intellectual elite which was the product of a single institution, the Mindelo College, opened in 1917. In a quote by Michel Lesourd, Deirdre Meintel refers to this phenomenon as the mythical 'cultural oasis'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A nation born of a middle class in tatters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through its contradictions, it was this black, mulatto and 'petty white' middle class which was to forge the mixed-race culture and national identity, caught between its own privileges and its aspirations of aristocracy, between its rejection of African culture (they sought a 'lusotropical' culture) and the need to find allies amongst the lower classes who retained African cultural values. In order to acquire the wealth and attributes of power, this middle class was to take over the lands vacated by the decline of the slavebased economy and which were often much improved by the former slaves (renamed 'tenant farmers' without a major change in their living conditions) preventing a major economic upheaval which could have put an end to this iniquitous system. Their wholesale appropriation of land explains why, today, there is a very high proportion of landless farmers in Cape Verde, seasonal agricultural workers who survive only thanks to the State's welfare system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This petty bourgeoisie was to give birth to growing awareness which would lead to calls for independence. Officially, Cape Verde was not a colony but a province, and its inhabitants in theory had the same rights or lack of rights as Portuguese citizens in Salazar's 'New State', where the right to vote depended on social and cultural status. In other Portuguese territories, members of the petty bourgeoisie held the rank of colonial administrators and, from their ranks, the pro-independence movements emerged. Such was the case of the PAIGC (Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde pro-lndependence Party), created by Amilcar Cabral, a symbolic figure in Africa's striuggles for independence and Cape Verde's national hero. He was assassinated in mysterious circumstances in Guinea-Conakry in 1973. His brother, Luiz Cabral, was to become president of Guinea-Bissau, and Aristides Pereira his successor as Party leader and Cape Verde's first president.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's uneventful transition to independence in July 1975 mirrored Portugalts Carnation Revolution and was quite unlike the fierce war entered into by Portugal in Mozambique and Angola. There was a clandestine struggle during which a number of combatants were imprisoned, but there was never any real guerilla warfare. The Portuguese governor remained at his post until he was replaced by an ambassador. The PAIGC was to govern both Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde until the coup d'&eacute;tat against Luiz Cabral in Guinea-Bissau in 1980, when it adopted the name of PAICV in Cape Verde, thereby signalling the end to any dream of a union between the two countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diplomatic ventures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new state pursued an even-handed diplomatic approach and accomplished the considerable diplomatic feat of remaining equidistant between the Cold wer's principal adversaries, adapting over time to all the changes which occurred on the world  scene. Post-independence, embassies were opened by the United States, China and the Soviet Union. Cape Verde, with its marxist leanings, maintained the former links created with apartheid South Africa by Portugal. The arrival in power of a liberal party had no effect on this diplomatic tightrope-walking act. It was South Africa which was to provide aid to build the international airport at Sal. Ironically, after the establishment of democracy in South Africa, it was at this very airport that President Mandela was to stress his desire for strengthened links with the archipelago. Latterly, Cape Verde has demonstrated this flexible in its recent decision to Join the group of, French-speaking countries whilst still regarding itself as a mouthpiece for the Portuguese-speaking world, enjoying a privileged relationship with Portugal, the Azores, Brazil and African countries where the official language is Portuguese. It is also a very active member of the CEDAO (Community of West-African States) and its President is currently chairman of the CILSS (Inter  national Commitee to Combat Drought). Cape Verde receives as much aid from China as from the US, from Russia and Sweden as from Cuba and Japan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This diplomacy is in keeping with the atypical 'Marxist' Party which first initiated it. With its interventionist approach to economics, its highly developed social policy which gives priority to education, health and combating unemployment through public welfare, this party could be regarded as a socialist party, yet it opted decisively for a market economy. Its single-party structure mirrored the example of would-be popular democracies, but it never set up a system of repression and terror: only one opposition member's death is said to have taken place in suspicious circumstances on the island of Santo Antao. The population was able to discuss politics at popular assemblies and held no fear of openly criticising the government and, in the case of the well-off, of displaying its wealth. A mudan&ccedil;a (change) was implemented calmly and collectedly by the PAICV when it was in power, sowing the seeds of its own downfall. With no pressure from street demonstrations and no insistent demands from political classes, the government of President Aristides Pereira and Prime Minister Pedro Pires adapted to the new situation created by the fall of the Berlin Wall. In early 1990, the PAICV gave up its privileged position as the single party and, one year later, at the legislative elections in January 1991 and presidential elections in February 1991, Africa witnessed the first democratic overthrow of a single-party government which had achieved independence. After the legislative elections, the PAICV, which had placed too great a reliance on being credited for its good governance, was silenced. The desire for change was too great and the position adopted by the Catholic church, anxious to punish a party which had dared to opt for a referendum on abortion, did the rest. President Aristides Pereira's personal prestige stood for little in the full face of this onslaught.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What change?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister Carlos Veiga, who had founded the MPD only eight months before his overwhelming success in the 1991 elections, became the new figurehead in Cape Verde politics. His power sharing with Antonio Mascarenhas Monteiro was again successful at the most recent elections (December 1995 and January 1996). Shortly before the poll, the MPD experienced a near-fatal split, but the new party which emerged, the PCD, had only one representative as against 50 (an absolute majority) for the MPD and 21 for the PAICV, which continued to exist. Three other parties taking part in the elections fell by the wayside and the polarisation of Cape Verde's politics into two camps locks set to continue. This is the second time that the MPD has surprised its opponents - this time, the political adversaries had attacked the MPD's attempt to curry favour, but the majority of the electorate, concentrated on the island of Santiago, continued to show their appreciation of the visible signs of modernisation in their lives and also the government's seductive politics, particularly in the ran-up to the elections. The country had also had a good harvest and, although this was unconnected with the MPD, that party could only benefit from it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite what MPD leaders might say, there has been no real ideological split, any political reorientation having been instigated in 1990 by the previous regime when it threw off its socialist trappings. Diplomacy remains  pragmatic and the new government's liberal rhetoric and social policy, particularly in the areas of education and health, has essentially been maintained. Suspension of the State's collective works programme, the symbol of the State's interventionist social policy, is only temporary, according to statements issued by the Prime Minister, counter to several rumours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More visible changes have taken place in the economy: partial liberalisation of the banking system; legislation relating to foreign investment; suspension of the requirement for preliminary import authorisation; despite the government's backtracking as regards certain basic products; privatisation of State assets, particularly in the hotel business, etc. Here, too, the PAICV government engineered the changes, but it can surely not be criticised for maintaining a delicate balance between the new demands of the global village and the social practices of a country which is very poor, but which is succeeding in putting an end to its poverty and creating a modest quality of life, but a secure one. Given its bleak geographical location, Cape Verde is simply  continuing to make the best of history. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The economy: too weak to worsen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The arrival in Praia on 30 April of a throng of IMF officials cannot have failed to cause the government some concern, despite its air of calm. Ministers repeated publicly that Cape Verde had already carried out its own programme of structural adjustments, that they were on the same wavelength as the Bretton Woods institutions, and that they could not, therefore, see any reason why any further adjustments  should be imposed upon them. Nevertheless, the fact that the Cape Verde escudo has had rather a bumpy ride since last year's elections, trading sometimes by as much as 15% under its official rate on the parallel market, caused a certain degree of anxiety within financial circles, with the banks taking action by freezing certain credit facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government insists that this situation has by no means arisen because of a sudden anxiety raised by opposition parties as to the effects of possible devaluation The truth is that there is a genuine structural imbalance caused by the trade deficit, a disequilibrium which is only being partially offset by official development assistance and the transfer of currency by Cape Verde emigres. As a percentage of the GDP, the overall budgetary deficit has tripled between 1993 and 1994 (increasing from 3.3% to 13.6%). For a country which could always be relied upon to pay its debts promptly, Cape Verde is now, for the first time, in arrears with its payments (see the 1995 report of the Bank of Portugal). The servicing of external debts represents 25.7% of goods and services exported - although these are relatvely small compared with neighbouring countries - the country's total outstanding debt is now nearing $200 million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although Cape Verde is one of the LDCs (least developed countries) with a total GNP of approximately $850 per capita, out of a total of 174 States, it actually ranks 123 in the Human Development Indicator Tables, which take into account various factors such as life expectancy, education, etc. Its position near the middle of these tables clearly shows that, although the country is poor, its affairs are nevertheless being managed fairly efficiently. Boasting an adult literacy rate of 66% and a life expectancy of 64.7 years, Cape Verde is well ahead of those countries at the bottom of the list, which include a number of its Sahelian neighbours. Efficient administration of the State and the absence of rampant corruption are further feathers in the nation's cap. These achievements have earned Cape Verde much esteem from its sponsors, which goes to explain the prudence of the Bretton Woods institutions and their relative sympathies towards the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unkind Mother Nature</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's history has been punctuated by great famines. Between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries the country suffered no less than 30 famines, with this century seeing some of the cruellest: 16 000 people died in 1903-1904, the death toll in 1921 was 17000, in 1941-43 it was 25000 and between 1946-48 famine claimed 20 000 lives - a figure which at the time represented 20% of the total population of the archipelago. After the last famine, the colonial authorities, under pressure from international opinion, adopted food programmes which made the country more able to cope with the consequences of subsequent droughts. The last great famine ended 50 years ago. The nation may no longer be hungry, but the factors which make its inhabitants' lives so difficult remain. The  main reason lies in the country's geography. Cape Verde has virtually no permanent springs and the topography of most of the islands, which are very mountainous, means that heavy rain simply runs down to the sea, the parched soil being unable to absorb it sufficiently. What is more, these downpours simultaneously wash away the little arable land that do" exist, thereby aggravating erosion. The whole situation is further worsened by the fact that the winter in this Sahelian region is very short. Despite huge efforts by successive governments, barely half the population has access to drinking water, with this figure barely reaching 25% in rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a population of less than 400 000, there are just not enough people to pull off the miracle of making such an unforgiving soil bear fruit. Hence, although providing 50% of all jobs, agriculture represents only 17% of the nation's gross domestic product and produces only 10% of food consumed locally. The mountainous islands that make up Cape Verde are like teeth jutting out of the sea, and with virtually no continental shelf to speak of, small scale fishing is extremely difficult. Even with industrial equipment such as that installed on board large trawlers, catches are small - so small in fact that the country's fisheries agreement with the European Commission brings it only one million ECU over three years, one tenth of the proportional amount earned by neighbouring Senegal. Fishing thus represents less than 4% of the GDP.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mere survival - a</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Herculean task</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Transport difficulties are another handicap for the economy. The sheer force of the harmattan, the strong ocean currents and the fog which often covers the region, make journeying by boat between the islands frequently hazardous. In addition, the volcanic relief of the islands makes them difficult to reach and means that there are very few locations that make suitable har  bours. construction is both complex and costly due to the steep rocky barriers that seal off deep valleys. Those roads which have been built under the FAIMO scheme (Highly Labour-lntensive Projects) have sometimes turned into real labours of Hercules, and many areas, especially those on sparsely-populated islands, remain completely cut-off. The use of aeroplanes only partly solves the problem. Although competitive, the prices charged by the national airline, TAICV, are still too high for the average inhabitant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not only does the soil on Cape Verde contain very little water, it has virtually no natural resources: a few stones, lime, pozzolana and a little salt. Within the manufacturing sector (which makes up less than 20% of the GDP), only the construction and civil engineering industries, representing more than 10% of the GDP, contribute in any significant way to the economy, thanks partly to the transfer of currency from emigres who invest in the construction  sector and works with wide public interest. These works, known as FAIMO schemes, have to some extent given this impoverished country a gloss that masks its poverty. Launched after Cape Verde gained its independence, they employ more than 25 000 people for up to ten months of the year in the construction of paved roads or in reafforestation projects, and ensure the survival of one hundred thousand people - over one quarter of the population. The workers are on the whole recruited from among farm labourers, with another large section of the workforce being made up of 'Solteiras' or 'single women', numerous in a country where the male population is constantly emigrating. Unfortunately, the liberal option adopted by the present government has cast some doubt as to whether these projects will continue and this year, for the first time, work ceased in April - three months ahead of the usual termination date. Yet the poor wages which these seasonal jobs pay (ECU 2 per day) are sometimes the only source of income for some families.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only the tertiary sector shows a healthy balance of trade, accounting for  more than 60% of the country's gross domestic production, with the biggest slice of the sector going to the hotel industry, followed by the transport industry. Although, overall, Cape Verde's balance of trade records a large deficit, the balance of trade for the services sector generally shows a profit, with the transport services provided by the international airport, Amilcar Cabral de Sal, alone accounting for 13% of exports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Barely 10% of commercial goods are domestically produced and this has at times fallen below 5%. Cape Verde is therefore genuinely dependent upon foreign aid. Official development assistance represents 27.8% of the GNP (1989 figures), having risen from 17.7% to 27.2% of the GNP between 1980 and 1986. Cape Verde also relies on a second source of income - its emigrant population. In 1990 the currency transfers of its emigres represented nearly 20% of the GNP. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The colonial heritage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributing too to the country's poverty are relatively low educational standards. In this area too, successive governments have continued their predecessors' efforts to improve standards of education. However, at the time the country achieved independence, it was in a deplorable state. The reputation of a small intellectual elite of Cape Verdians had, over several decades, led the world to believe that Portuguese colonial rule had been 'enlightened'. This was a mere illusion. It was not until 1917, when the Mindelo grammar school was founded, that the country was able to claim an educational establishment of any cultural sophistication. The Mindelo school was the first state school in the country and it was to provide the nation with its first batch of 'home-grown' intellectuals. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, the Church, which was in charge of all matters educational, had provided basic primary education; then, at the end of the last century, it opened two secondary schools with the purpose of training students for positions in government and the civil service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even so, the Mindelo school remained an exception until the middle of this century. In 1950, no more than 5000 children received primary education and no more than 400 went to secondary school. Thirty years earlier, the figure was slightly higher, but Salazar, with his retrograde ideologies, saw education as dangerous and threatening and trimmed the number of schools on the islands from 150 to 60. True, Cape Verde was undoubtedly in a better state than other Portuguese colonies, but, with an illiteracy rate of 80% at the beginning of the 1960s, its position was nevertheless far from enviable. It was not until independence that any real progress was made, with 60% of children attending primary school in 1989 (the average for LDCs is 54%). However, this figure is still well below the average for developing countries, which stands at 90%, and even now, only 13 % of children have access to secondary education. As for higher education, this is virtually only available abroad; in Europe, Brazil, USA and Cuba, in particular.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serious health problems still exist, exacerbated in particular by the scarcity of water. The cholera epidemic which has struck several African countries over the last two years has killed over 150 people in Cape Verde. The prevalence of AIDS exceeds the average for sub-Saharan Africa, with more than 2000 people being HIV positive and with some one hundred having developed the full-blown disease. According to official figures, 70 have died of the disease. The cholera epidemic which, unlike previous epidemics has affected towns much more than rural areas, is a sign of the deterioration of sanitary conditions in towns - particularly in Praia - affected by a lack of water, a dilapidated sewerage system and overcrowding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anchoring the country's economy in its culture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet, through all the doom and gloom, a small miracle is taking place in Cape Verde. Despite such a heavy burden of poverty, the country has, since gaining independence 20 years ago, managed to clamber up the league tables notably in the essential areas of health and education. Life expectancy at birth, which was only 52 years in 1950,  had increased in 1992 to 64.7 years, better than the average for developing countries and 13 years more than the average for sub-Saharan Africa. The infant mortality rate which stood at 110 per thousand in 1960, had dropped drastically to 50 per thousand by 1992, while virtually all children now receive essential vaccinations. Malaria is also now rare. In 1988 the GDP of Cape Verde amounted to only C.V.Esc 20 billion ($289 million), in other words, 6.9% of the GDP of Trinidad and Tobago, and 16.6% of that of Mauritius. But it is growing steadily. From 1980 to 1988, it grew by 6% per annum, compared with 3% per annum for the Sahel, and since 1980 the GDP per capita has doubled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The solution the nation's leaders should be seeking is greater integration in the global economy context by encouraging foreign investment. They do not need to create free zones but free enterprise, such as the shoe manufacturing concerns which, over the last two years, have contributed to achieving a considerable increase in exports. Various steps have been taken to attract investors, such as the adoption of the principle of tacit acceptance of applications for investment within 30 days. The Prime Minister, Carlos Veiga, and the 'Super-Minister' for Economic Coordination, Antonio Guelberto do Rosario, have highlighted the service, tourism and fishing industries as top government priorities. In order to develop these areas they intend to invest in infrastructures, with the aid, of course, of foreign backers. The modernisation of the port of S&atilde;o Vicente and of the international airport of Sal are currently underway, and the telecommunications project to link the islands by cable has also already been launched. The government's short-term plans also include the development of industries connected with the islands' culture. In the words of Mr Veiga: 'We in Cape Verde should develop our culture and use it as our anchor, to prevent our country drifting into oblivion. That way, our tiny country, which is fortunate enough to have a strong cultural identity, will be a Nation rather than a just a State'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.G. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with President Antonio Mascarenhas Monteiro</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A wealth of culture and a realistic approach to diplomacy: Cape Verde's two major assets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How the current government differ from the former administration which had Marxist leanings ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The two eras are distinct from each other in that, since 1990, the Cape Verde people have been able to choose a life of freedom and democracy. Before that, for the   first fifteen years after independence, there was a single-party system. So it is also valid to speak of a break - a break with the way in which institutions used to function at a political level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The single-party era does not seem to have been as strict as in other countries and the current regime appears to be continuing along the same lines in some areas. Was the former administration not, to some extent, responsible for initiating the change which has taken place ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No, that's something else entirely. I often say that we had a civilised single party, and I assume that is what you are referring to. However, it is not possible to speak of continuity when formerly we had a single party and now we have moved on to a system where there is freedom of expression and new parties can be set up. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Admittedly, the single party did initiate a change when it created the conditions necessary for the advent of democracy. It removed the infamous Article 4 from the constitution, which seates that the PAICV was the guiding force of society and the state. In fact, it was the PAICV which drew up the country's first electoral laws whereby we were elected. When I say 'we', I mean the party which is in power and also myself, President of the Republic. The single party thus opened the way to  democracy here: that much is undeniable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Am I also right in thinking that many of those who are in power today received their training in that single party ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - You are quite correct. When a change such as this comes about, one has to appreciate, and I do not wish to be elitist here, that it is the higher echelons of a party which lead the move towards change. Such people were there, working in the administration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Since politics gives direction to economic affairs, has there been a total turnaround in this sector, with a clear decision to opt for liberalisation and privatisation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Before 1990, we had a staterun economy. After that, the country's economy was opened up with a number of privatisations, fewer import restrictions, and so on. The word 'break' is also applicable in this area in that we now have a market economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Do you feel that the economy has really shaken off state control given that the govemment still manages important sectors, such as the price of raw materials ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That is necessary a market economy does not mean that the state is entirely absent. I am in favour of a market economy, but with state monitoring. As far as possible, the state has to correct the injustices which are necessarily generated by competition. This is not, as some would have it, ultraliberalism. The government is still entitled to monitor the economy, but the change has been greatest in terms of attitude, in terms of the way things are done.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Do you, like many leaders of developing countries, believe that the requirements set by international institutions as regards structure/ adjustment are too great ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We are not subject to compulsory adjustment - it is on a voluntary basis here. However, I do feel that adjustment, as implemented in Africa, sometimes has regrettable aspects. On occasion, it is asking a little too much to impose the same requirements on countries whose actual situations are very different. What is applicable to Nigeria is not necessarily suitable for S&atilde;o Tome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The 1992 constitution switched Cape Verde over from a presidential system to a parliamentary system. As President of the Republic, do you fee/ trapped by this constitution ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Cape Verde's constitution was never a presidential one. The system under which I was elected is effectively 'semi-presidential'. Admittedly, the constitution which was approved by Parliament in 1992 reduced the powers of the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President, particularly as regards the right to dissolve Parliament - which was unrestricted in the 1980 text. The revision was made to permit democratisation and ensure the proper functioning of the institutions, and it was therefore fairly wide-ranging. Now, in order to dissolve Parliament, the President has to have the support of the Council of the Republic, which means that his hands are tied to some extent. Previously, the President could also dismiss the government, without too many restrictions. I would say that the President's prerogatives have undergone a substantial reduction in comparison with those exceptional powers. As for the rest, things are as they were. In a semi-presidential regime as that envisaged by the 1980 constitution, the President has no executive role.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You seem to have chosen to play the role of 'wise man' Some observers think you give the Prime Minister too much leeway.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - They are wrong. The Prime Minister's post is conferred on him by the constitution. He is Head of Government and it is he who governs. I cannot govern in his place. What is true is that there is a great deal of ignorance - people do not restrict themselves to their own fields and attempt to teach lessons in subjects they are unfamiliar with. Germany has a parliamentary  regime like we do - what is the position of the President of the Republic in Germany? If you were to ask a Cape Verde intellectual for the name of the President of Germany, he would be unable to answer you. The parliamentary regime does not give the President of the Republic any powers to run the country. I do not know what the Prime Minister can have taken away from me because I have no power for him to take over. However, I would say that, here, the President of the Republic does have a fairly high profile, in spite of his reduced powers, because all the country's citizens know him. In terms of foreign policy, he plays a significant role in that he represents the country abroad. I attend international conferences like the Rio Summit, go to meetings of the OAU and sign international undertakings on behalf of my country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The President is also the guarantor of the new democracy, which observers seem to regard as well-established. But there still seem to be some bad habits. For instance, I have heard criticism of MPD power and of the fact that state  resources are made available to one party at election time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Look, this is criticism from the government's opponents - it is a normal state of affairs and happens everywhere. Any party, in any country, which has a parliamentary majority, can govern easily. This is possible, even when the majority is very small - and even in Europe. Look at Portugal when Cavaquo Silva was Prime Minister. There were people who said it was a PSD State. You will be familiar with France when Pompidou and even de Gaulle were in power, and Francis Mitterrand used to speak of a Gaullist state. As far as the election campaign is concerned, I am not aware of the government here having monopolised state resources and I don't believe this has happened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Another important factor involved in democracy is the press. Several journalists from the private media sector are awaiting a decision from you on a number of points - for example the lack of pubic support for the private press - in contrast to thestate-run press which has access to all that it needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - What decision are they waiting for ? Do they want me to decide in favour of resourcess being given to the private media ? I have already done that on a number of occasions. Recently, I had a meeting with the Prime Minister and I brought this matter up. He told me that it was something that was currently being considered. Sometimes, however, I get the impression that some of my critics want me to do the work of an opposition leader and to oppose the Government. That is not my job. I think that the President of the Republic, in a regime such as ours, ought to be a unifying force and not someone who foments political tension and instability. That is something I have always tried to avoid, but I do have sufficient courage to tell the government and the Prime Minister exactly what I think and I have actually dared to criticise them publicly several times. I am sole judge of the criticism I make, and I decide if it is appropriate and also when the time is right. Sometimes, people would have   me criticise the government according to a timetable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A number of journalists in the private sector are currently being prosecuted and these actions nearly all originate from sources close to the government Surely if they were actually acting unprofessionally, we would see legal actions from parts of society, such as business, and not just from the political class.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The reason for this is very simple. It is the political class that they vilify. I myself have been insulted on a number of occasions and, despite having put up with it for five years, I have not instigated any lawsuits. There was one case which was taken seriously by the Attorney General's office and there  were other cases when the Prime Minister was called a thief. I would ask you, is this a normal state of affairs ? Does freedom of the press mean that it can call a Minister or the Mayor of Praia a thief? Is that what is meant by democracy ? You have to be aware of the background to these court cases - and there are a good many of them, some dating from 1991. They are not designed to 'get at' any particular newspaper. The reason many of these cases have been brought is because serious insults of the kind we are talking about are a crime. That is true of even the most advanced democracies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In economic terms, Cape Verde does not appear too badly off. But some economic indicators do give rise to concern, notably the big gap between the export and import figures. How do you see your country's future when it no longer relies so much on international aid ? Do you believe in the dream of many of your fellow countrymen, that Cape Verde will be Africa's 'little dragon'?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Unlike some people, I have never spoken of becoming a dragon. I don't like this expression. I do believe that, despite our enormous problems - Cape Verde has few resources and we have been in the grip of drought for many years - it does have a number of assets. We are capable of making progress and I believe that there are a number of promising areas which have already been identified: for example, fisheries, tourism and even 'foreign' investment. We have to be optimistic about Cape Verde's future. We are in a difficult situation, everyone knows that, but we are a hard-working and courageous people and our prospects are good. The country will be able to forge ahead.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-On the diplomatic front, Cape Verde appears something of an expert at maintaining good relations with different regimes: for instance, with both Israel and the Arab countries, with China, and with South Africa before and after apartheid. How do you manage this ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - There is no magic formula. Since independence, Cape Verde has tried to adopt a realistic and pragmatic foreign policy. We are a small country with no great influence on the international scene and we have to be on good terms with everyone. That is the principle on which we base our foreign policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cape Verde and Guinea Bissau used to be fairly close - do you foresee any future rapprochement, perhaps in some form of federation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is difficult to say. I feel that there is already a degree of rapprochement in progress, particularly in economic terms. Recently, we signed a civil aviation cooperation agreement, and there are opportunities for similar achievements in the fisheries and shipping sectors as well. Relations between the Cape Verde and Guinea Bissau governments are excellent but, to my mind, the idea of our forming a federation is out of date. It would not be in our interests nor in those of Guinea Bissau. We do, however, intend to develop a closer economic relationship and our political relations are very good indeed. I would wager that our partners in Guinea Bissau would give you a similar analysis of the situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-In cultural terms, can it be said that your country has succeeded in becoming a multi-ethnic state ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The important thing is that the Cape Verde people should have their own identity; that there should be a specific Cape Verde culture. What I would say is that all the citizens of Cape Verde are proud of their culture and citizenship. This constitutes a great source of strength for a country such as ours which has major challenges to overcome. Our culture is also an asset in our country's development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview with Aristides Lima, leader of the Opposition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'The government owes its victory to abuse of the electoral system'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· As main leader of the Opposition, what are your views on the fact that the governing party has recently been reelected ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I believe the country's economy is in crisis. Growth rates are not very high, just like in the 1980s, for example, and there is a high level of structural imbalance. Unemployment has increased: in 1990, unemployment stood at approximately 25% and now it is 30%. There used to be 25 000 people who worked in what we call the high intensity labour sector and who had a job for about 10 months of the year. They were recently laid off early. Such jobs were part of a social programme which, amongst other things, enabled us to build roads. The prices of staple products, such as sugar, maize and rice, which were stable, have just gone up, and the price of cement, which was also controlled to promote economic growth, is no longer subject to the same control and I can foresee this giving rise to many problems in areas outside the towns and cities. In Praia, a 50-kg bag of cement used to cost 440 escudos and, although that price will stay more or less the same, on islands like Fogo, it will go up to about 660 escudos. This will generate problems for economic growth and a number of major projects in the tourism sector, for example, will suffer. The balance between exports and imports has also been adversely affected in that the level of coverage of imports by exports has fallen, despite announcements to the contrary made by the government.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· From 1993 to 1995, exports tripled in volume, if the government is to be believed. What are your thoughts on that ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The problem is that, in this country, some exports rely on the import of considerable amounts of raw materials. For example, in S&atilde;o Vicente, there is a shoe-manufacturing plant which gets its supplies of raw materials from abroad. The same applies to fishing and a number of fisheries products, such as anchovies, which are still canned in S&atilde;o Vicente but which have to be imported from Chile or elsewhere. This causes great problems when it comes to managing the country's foreign currency reserves, which have fallen markedly. In 1990, reserves provided over 6 months' coverage for imports, but now we have to operate in terms of weeks or even days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nevertheless, the government could say that it is not responsible for the economic picture you have just painted because the world economic situation is hitting all small countries harder.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No, the government is responsible, because it has been unable to implement the appropriate liberalization policy. For example, this should have been applied gradually to the trade sector, but the government rushed in and has now had to backtrack on goods which needed import authorization. What happened was that it lifted this authorization requirement but has now  had to bring it in once again. And another thing, the policy of liberalization has not been accompanied by very high levels of foreign investment and, in addition, the country's skilled workers feel marginalised, all of which goes to make the situation worse. As for structural adjustment, the government has always supported the idea of 'less State equals a better State', but, in practice, we have seen spending on the State's everyday activities go up and up. Civil service staff levels have now risen to about 12 000, compared with the former 10 000. However, increased spending is also a result of a not always equitable wages policy - the difference between the highest and lowest salaries is huge and, in some public bodies, one worker might be earning 15 times as much as another.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· According to the Minister for Economic Coordination, the currency is under pressure as a result of the Opposition's irresponsible scare tactics of announcing a future devaluation, leading to the stock-piling of currency and goods, a kind of artificial speculation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's a very good way of offloading one's responsibilities - the Opposition did no more than criticise the government's policy and point to the   facts of the situation. It was members of the government themselves who acknowledged the low levels of currency reserves and the State bank which suspended transfers abroad. The Minister would have people believe that the Opposition lacks any credibility so how could this same Opposition have any influence on peoples' behaviour? The problem is actually extremely basic: economic operators, society and foreigners are not really au fait with the country's real economic situation because the government does not issue information, which is one of our basic criticisms. Parliamentary representatives and political parties no longer receive the figures they need and the latter are sometimes forced to consult foreign sources or to rely on their personal links with people who are close to sources of information. I myself criticised the Prime Minister for adopting this attitude of regarding information as subversive. I asked the Prime Minister for a copy of the study on Cape Verde's economy by a Portuguese professor, which had been paid for with tax payers' money. I never received it. For our part, we hope that Cape Verde's partners will be able to recognise the true situation and persuade the government to act in a more equitable manner.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nonetheless the people cannot be too disappointed, because they reelected the government for another term.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That could be explained in many ways - the government controls information and therefore holds the reins of power. It controls television, radio, part of the print media, and the private-press sector is fairly weak, so it has been able to manipulate information and give people the idea that the country is on the right track. The government did do things to change peoples' lives, but it exaggerated its achievements using the State social communication means available to it. In fact, it did not achieve the major objectives it set itself: firstly its fight against unemployment - a failure. Balancing foreign economic relations - another failure. Balancing the domestic  economic situation: differences between our various islands have become more acute. In matters of health, Cape Verde made major advances when our party was in power and, although, to all intents and purposes, the health sector is just as good when compared with other African countries, it has, in fact, deteriorated. Diseases which had been eradicated from the country are returning, like malaria, for example, cholera, etc. Health services are concentrated in the capital city, Praia, and there is no decentralisation, which has negative effects on even links between carers and patients. Humanism shows the effects of a situation such as this, and it applies not only to health: there is an unfair distribution of State financial resources between the central government and local government. The State has been unable to reform local finances and has politicised transfers of funds to those districts which are closest to it. The government has also profited from the structural problems encountered in the working of our democracy. One of these structural problems is Parliament's weakness: it sits only three times a year and the representatives do not work full-time - they are sometimes employed by the administration which they are supposed to monitor. Democracy has a price and although savings can be made in other spheres, when one is  seeking good governance, one of the conditions for which is a strong, functional and effective Parliament, this is not possible. The weakness of the private-press sector is yet another problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-And are you continuing to work in the administration ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I am a 'full-time' parliamentary representative. There are now about 10 out of 79 representatives who work on a full-time basis. They are members of Parliament's office, chairmen of committees and parliamentary leaders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The government says that it inherited a serious state of affairs when it took over power from the PAICV.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is simply not true that the good life began with this government's accession to power. Here's a little history lesson: think back to colonial times. Admittedly, there were negative aspects to our time in power but you must remember that the PAICV did, in fact, leave in place the subjective.  physical basis for the new policy direction. When we achieved independence, Cape Verde had no ports or airports, apart from small-scale port facilities at S&atilde;o Vicente. We built the port at Praia, the port at Sal, the port at S&atilde;o Nicolau and a number of airports. The telecommunications system was also set up by the PAICV government and we implemented the initial educational reforms. In the 1980s, the GDP growth rate was 7%and the per capita income was one of the highest in Africa, more than $820.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The party in power describes the PAICV as marxist and non-democratic claiming that it was they, not the PAICV, who introduced democracy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That is nothing more than rhetoric, because all of the current governing party's members were in the PAICV - they were radicals, more marxist than anyone. Everyone knows that here, in Cape Verde, we had a pragmatic party, not a marxist party, although marxism was a source of ideas for many people. The idea was not to build socialism here. In those days, we had an open, not a centralised economy and all trade was private. We always had a market economy and to describe us as non-democratic is idle rhetoric. The PAICV's ideology has always been one of national liberation based on political and economic independence, with power vested in the people. This was a normal state of affairs during a national liberation struggle and, although it would be true to say that we were influenced by a certain single-party model which had gained widespread acceptance in Africa, the single party here could not be compared with any other. Both the PAIGC and later the PAICV attempted to force people into taking part in citizens' assemblies in order to put forward suggestions to the candidates. The current Prime Minister, Mr Veiga, for example, was put forward by a militants' assembly - he was on the PAICV's lists and they used to sit one beside the other on the benches in Parliament. The regime was, I suppose, slightly paternalistic but it was the people themselves who were really responsible for national liberation, it was they who had an idea of justice, patriotism, of being African, which explains the total commitment of Cape Verde's people to our party in the struggle for independence and also the good results we achieved when in power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Why, then, were you not re-elected ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The party had been in power for a long time, with the same president, the same prime minister, the same president of the national assembly and virtually all the same ministers. People were hungry for change because the ruling elite had been in place for so long. The international scene, also, did not favour the old single-party system. Another element, too, was the Church, which fought us over the question of abortion. Perhaps I should point out that, from the very beginning, a section of the Catholic church was not in favour of independence, but younger members of the clergy, with more sympathetic feelings towards the population, supported us and, thus, we changed peoples' attitudes. The Church in Africa is a phenomenon worthy of greater analysis, particularly in Cape Verde, where, I feel, the current government was able to take advantage of the Cape Verde peoples) essentially religious nature to criticise us and present us as an anticlerical party. In fact, the situation is quite different: most PAICV leaders and militants are Roman Catholics and some church" were damaged by opponents in an attempt to discredit the party. Another example of abuse of the electoral system, apart from taking advantage of the peoples' religious nature, is the country's poverty. During election campaigns, the government make it easier for people to obtain food, and it also creates more jobs, en masse, but these disappear again after the elections - precisely as is happening at the moment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· As it is governed at the moment, Cape Verde is regarded by other countries as a 'star pupil'. Surely this is another success for the government ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Cape Verde has always been regarded as a star pupil because, here, our society is fairly homogeneous and there are no major social or ethnic imbalances. However, in my opinion, the future depends on changes at a structural level and such changes cannot take place unless we have a functioning parliament and a strong private press. I cannot deny that the government has had some successes, but I also believe that the people will have an opportunity to judge how it keeps its promises.  interview by Hegei Gouger</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A portrait of towns and cities with atmosphere</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It suffices for an unruly little bird to escape</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For, suddenly, Fire to spark, Night to dissolve</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The walls of every prison to cave in</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the tidal-wave battering</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amassed, in its untamed heart,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By a tiny breathless bird.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Mario Fonseca in 'La Mer a tous les coupe')</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most cities in the Third World devote all their energy to mere survival and there are few imbued with the same atmosphere as Mindelo - the very air  appears to brim over with art and good taste, beauty and sensuality. Our guide to the city speaks slowly, measuring his words, his delivery not an indication that he is searching for a translation, although it could be interpreted as an affectation, but matching the modulation of the language which is closest to his heart: 'I believe the air in this city is imbued with hedonism. Here, we mix work and pleasure - today is a holiday, but I am working. However, my day is not so rigidly timetabled that I cannot do some work and, since you have invited me out for a drink, take some time off to accept'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antonio Firmino, director of the Craft Centre, continues to tell us about his favourite city in the same steady language, a dreamy look in his eyes and wearing a Che Guevara-style beret. The tale he tells is the story of a tiny country which has fallen in love with culture: the actual building housing the Craft Centre used to be a school, the 'Mindelo Technical College', founded in 1917, the first secular educational institution. It was to transform the city into a cultural haven. The story goes that a certain senator named Vera Cruz, who represented the island of S&atilde;o Vicente in the Portuguese Senate, wanted to establish Cape Verde's first college. His peers objected, arguing that Mindelo had no building worthy of housing an institution of such a high standing but</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vera Cruz straight away replied: 'So, why not use mine?'. Thus, he casually handed over his private residence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Art even in the fish market</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How many inhabitants are there in Mindelo? According to Antonio Firmino, 'Just me and my friends'. How right he is. It would be impossible not to become part of such a captivating place. And so a long journey began, which included the creation of Claridade, a review (and cultural movement) established in 1938 by Balthasar Lopes, a writer and essayist of world renown who was born in S&atilde;o Nicolau but taught in Mindelo, and other great artists who were to make up the country's literary and artistic roll of honour. Claridade was to be followed by Certeza which was also to influence the cultural elite. Although historians and other commentators feel that Claridade did no more than praise Cape Verde's 'latinity', rejecting its African side, artists are unanimous in regarding it as the cradle of Cape Verdian intellectual culture and the soil which was to nurture Mindelo and make it such an extraordinary little town. The impression is that everyone here is interested in art - the local authorities encourage and help sculptors in their creative activities all over the town, making it a living museum: here, there is a painting by Antonio Concei&ccedil;&auml;o and, over there, a huge flat sculpture of couples in languorous embraces, by Ro and Anildo, an illustration of the marvellous hedonism evoked by our host.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The same assured but delicate touch of these two artists can be seen in the lobby of Fishpackers, an anchovy- and tunapacking company, this time in the form of a celebration of fishermen. One of the finest examples of this type of art, which can be seen everywhere in the streets and public places, is the sequence of four huge decorative-tile frescoes in the fish market. When Bela Duarte showed them to us, it was such a delight to see how much at ease this famous artist was in the company of the staliholders, to whom both she and her work seemed so familiar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over and above this hedonistic atmosphere, there is, in Mindelo, an eclecticism which can be detected just as widely in other towns and cities, which means that you can talk about painting with the President of the Republic, dancing with a factory manager and decorative tiles with the man in the street. And the latter is literally 'in the street' - the inhabitants of S&atilde;o Vicente, the capital, derive immense pleasure from strolling in its squares and narrow streets, and around the port. A little stall, looking like a sugar loaf in the middle of one of the city's many squares, opposite a grand hotel, opens up in the early evening just like a flower, attracting hundreds of people to it who come to quench their thirst, to converse or woo, and to dance to the music escaping from the terrace of the Porto Grande Hotel, which has just reopened after being privatised and modernised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is as if a dress ball were taking place on two different levels, one in front of the other, dancing to the same music and with equal pleasure: above, in an enormous gallery open to the sky, elegant guests (who include a small gathering of government officials and pretty Brazilian actresses who are here to film television soaps) and, down in the square, the dancing promenaders, full of admiration, almost stimulating those above.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verdian nights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like all the island's intellectuals, Antonio Firmino has a number of different jobs. In addition to running the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Craft Centre, he teaches 'nautical' English to would-be sailors, is an amateur painter and musician (he plays and composes for his wife, who is a singer). His spare time is devoted to writing a column. The Craft Centre exhibits, amongst other things, a large number of tapestries, an art form much prized in Cape Verde. These admirable examples are by Ju&auml;n Fortes, Juamo Pento, and a good many others, in particular Bela Duarte, Tchal&ecirc; Figueira, Lucia Queiros and Miguel Figueira, Mindelo's top artistic foursome who appear to be  involved in everything, including the frescoes at the fish market. Bela, who showed us her studio, her house and the fish market, does not conceal the joy she derives from colour and allusion in her pictures, tapestries or decorative tiles, ranging from the most distant abstraction to an anecdotal figuration, using her native land with its doleful nuances, soft cries and romantic strength as raw  material. Above all, there is convivial artistic writing: 'Resistencia', which is at first sight a tapestry and then a patchwork of colour and sinuous lines. Scarcely has the artist begun to explain her work than everything becomes clear: this is a story, in threads and colours, about drought, representing roots, energy, space and struggle, all part of the Cape Verdian soul. She is also paying homage to those weavers of traditional African loincloth (badiu) from Cape Verde from whom today's artists inherited their technique.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So, where to meet Antonio's friends? To find them, look no further than the Cape Verdian nights (noite caboverdiana), those gatherings which take place everywhere and resemble both a nightclub and an artistic association, all those present sharing a fondness for Cape Verde mingled with nostalgia and yearning. One such place is the Piano Bar, which was closed on account of the departure of its owner Chico Serra, another notable in local society, who was accompanying a friend, C&eacute;saria Evora, in her attempt to conquer new lands. Mission accomplished, Chico Serra is back and will soon be open for business again, his club's atmosphere just as intimate and warm as before - just enough room for his piano, his musician friends and others who come to sample grog and music.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa nonetheless</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mario Fonseca also adores Mindelo but he would not agree that that wind-blown city has a monopoly on art and culture. He is from an island in the lee of the wind, from Praia, capital of the island of Santiago and of the country. In his opinion, it is the whole of Cape Verde which is bubbling with creativity and he will enchant you with his tales of Praia and its old colonial district, the 'Plateau', which still retains much of the nostalgic character to be seen in the now yellowing photographs taken 50 years ago when the city was not so sprawling and the ambience of Sucupira market was almost tangible. He will also tell you everything about the island of Santiago, with Cidade Velha, the ancient capital  which was too difficult to defend against repeated pirate attacks. It bowed to Praia's supremacy and, today, has an old-fashioned feeling, nestling within a cove around the ruins of its castle, and dominated by the fort which perches above a cliff face. The architecture owes much of its charm to the predominant Creole style which is vaguely reminiscent of Portugal, in every pastel shade. Cidade Velha's central square is caressed by a gentle breeze and groups of young people can always be seen lazing around the monument to the slaves. Time seems to stand still. The pretty little white church whose walls are decorated with sheaves of bougainvillaea, Santa Maria do Rosario, is the oldest on the island and, indeed, along the entire West African coast. It was built in 1460 and the white marble paving in the central nave conceals the final resting place of grandees from colonial times, their epitaphs erased over five hundred years by the soles and knees of penitents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The director of the INAC (National Cultural Institute), responsible for Praia National Museum (which is soon to open its doors), is Mario Alberto de Almeida Fonseca, who once taught French in Portugal; he is a former administrator who has worked in Mauritania and Turkey, a translator and also a former regional manager of the national airline. In addition he is a poet whose works have been translated into several languages, including Serbo-Croat and Russian. Above all, he is an amateur connoisseur of the art and artists of his country. As the INAC's director, he is responsible for cultural events, exhibitions, shows, publishing and also the compilation of an oral record of the country's history and the preparation of  a Creole dictionary. The INAC's work also involves a major history of Cape Verde, the first volume of which has already been published. He will show you the future National Museum's collection, moving from one painting to another, from an old photograph to an antique cimboa, a type of locally-manufactured violin from the 1 9th century, or to an old Massachusetts galleon, testament to the past explorations of his people. You will first of all discover the works of artists from Praia such as Mito and Kiki Lima, not on account of Fonseca's chauvinism but because he feels he has to 'convert' the visitor who may have left Mindelo with the impression that that city is Cape Verde's premier cultural centre. There is also the music from the island of Santiago - the funana, the batuque, the fina&ccedil;o - all more African than the languid style so influenced by the Portuguese fado of this island's musical groups (Fina&ccedil;on, Bulimundo, Tuvaroes, Kod&eacute; di Dona or the great traditional style singer Nha Inacia Gomes). Gomes is a 'women of the people' whose musical heritage consists of no more than local tradition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was she who 'reinvented' jazz and whom Alberto Fonseca admires a great deal. Cesaria Evora, moreover, is not the first musician to publicise Cape Verdian music abroad: Fina&ccedil;on or Kod&eacute; di Dona, for example, have captivated many music-lovers, particularly musicians, in Europe and America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Chamber and the stage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Daniel Brito is not from Mindelo either. He is from Sal but confesses to having to pay regular visits to Mindelo, to immerse himself in that city's hedonistic atmosphere. For three years he has been director of the National Cinematographic Institute which was established in 1967 and is currently exhibiting newfound dynamism on account of the 'production tax' (4% of the filming budget, paid to the Institute and generally converted into a holding, which the State supplements to make the sum up to slightly more than 10% in co-productions). There is also an agreement with Portugal which encourages co-productions between the two countries, thereby enabling Cape Verdian technicians to receive their training. Brito is working on a local video-film-production project (TV viewers are very fond of such things) and wants to set up a major production centre to be made available to lusophone African countries and, perhaps, others. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Daniel Spencer Brito is also Sal's parliamentary representative (10 000 inhabitants), musician, writer/composer and guitarist in his own group, Madrugada. His talents include the composition of morna and coladeira pieces, as well as jazz-rock. At the end of May, the MP was due to appear in his own production at the Cirque d'Hiver in Paris, as part of the lusophone music festival. You could say that he divides his time between the Institute, the Chamber and the stage; however, he is also involved in research into copyright protection in Cape Verde. Daniel (it would never occur to you to call him anything else, even five minutes after making his acquaintance) always gives the same advice to anyone wishing to discover Cape Verde, namely to get to know the atmosphere of a tocatinha, spontaneous jam sessions which take place at one location or another, usually even more intimate than the 'Cape Verdian nights'. By the way, I almost forgot - by training, Brito is a vet, having studied in Romania. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Cape Verd-EU Cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sponsors are delighted at the full use of aid</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's physical characteristics - its small size, the fact that its territory is scattered over a number of islands and islets, its Sahelian climate (continually rendering it vulnerable to drought), the arid nature of the soil and its low population (under five hundred  thousand inhabitants) - might explain its high levels of poverty and mean that, in order to survive and develop, it requires considerable amounts of foreign aid. However, it is the effort made by this small country to stabilise its economy and to gain maximum profit from foreign aid which has attracted special attention from sponsors. Last year the European Commission decided to increase its contribution to Cape Verde's National Indicative Programme, within the framework of the Lom&eacute; Convention (tome IV, first protocol 199-95, seventh EDF) by 7%, i.e. an extra ECU 1.7 million. Cape Verde had already put virtually all the ECU 23 million allocated to it to good use, an indication of the government's desire to use the aid granted to the full.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When realism is a luxury</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is difficult to imagine an island inhabited by 160 000 people - the island of S&atilde;o Vicente, where the country's second largest city, Mindelo, with its population of 70 000, is located - having no source of drinking water. In former times, water was shipped in from the neighbouring island of Santo Antao, but Mindelo now has a number of seawater desalination plants, most of these provided by Israel, which meet 100% of its supply needs. The supply of both water and electricity is managed by</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Electra, a publicly-owned company, which, within the framework of the EDF (European Development Fund), has received European Commission aid to increase its electricity-generating capacity. It has set up three wind pumps, of Danish manufacture, which alone supply 13% of the island's non-industrial requirements. Elsewhere, such solutions as sea-water desalination and wind pumps might appear to be unrealistic but, for 160 000 people with no indigenous supply, realism is sometimes a luxury.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the island of Santiago, which is home to Praia, the capital city, does have some natural water sources, these are far from sufficient for its needs. One of the projects recently financed by the European Union concerned improvements to water-distribution systems, water purity and rainwater drainage. Amongst other things, this work involves the recycling of waste water which the island cannot afford to let drain away. Cape Verde's Achilles' heel is definitely its lack of water, its strong point unquestionably the dynamic outlook of its population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has an office on Cape Verde where the work done at Praia (water distribution and purity, support for poorer districts of the capital threatened with overpopulation) is regarded as symbolic of the EU's desire to take account of both weaknesses and strengths and represents the overall intention behind Community aid to this country. Generally speaking, such aid is geared towards infrastructures (water and electricity production and distribution, urban development) on the one hand and education and health on the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Praia's historic old town, the 'Plateau', with its wealth of fine colonial and neo-classical architecture, risks losing many of its buildings which have been abandoned by their owners who lack the means to maintain them. Community aid has also been provided to help save this part of the country's heritage. Funds are insufficient to finance a complete restoration of the 'Plateau', but, following the example of the Cape Verde government, which has maintained administrative buildings in good condition, the Commission will probably assume responsibility for renovation of a superb nineteenth-century building, the 'Case Cor-de-Rosa'. The purpose of this project is two-fold; not only will the building be restored, but also it will become the core of a more general project to train professionals in building techniques and restoration and it will serve as an example to motivate future purchasers, institutions, businesses and individuals to preserve the historic old town.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Community has also funded a study into the preservation of the capital's historic old town, which has been used as a basis by Praia Town Council. A project is currently underway, costing 1 million ECU, to restore an islet. The principal aim of this project is to train Cape Verdian technicians. Other work in the field of training has induded the building of the Praia Technical College. The next phase of this project, worth almost ECU 1 million, will fund the supply of equipment and teacher training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Still within the context of the overall project to develop Praia city, an EDF programme worth ECU 1.3 million has been created for the development of a designated area as an industrial site. A rural electrification project in the area around Praia was, at the end of 1995, granted a budget of ECU 1.5 million and will benefit a population of 7500 people living in the three most densely populated rural centres on the island of Santiago. The technical side of the works will be entrusted to Electra, with the private sector being responsible for supplying equipment and monitoring the works. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's 'essence' as a resource</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's leaders regularly point to the richness, which they term the 'essence', of Cape Verde, contrasting this with the fact that their country is so poor. Indeed, despite limited resources, this country devotes a great deal of energy and ingenuity to 'cultivating' its culture. Two projects, financed within the framework of the National Indicative Programme and amounting to ECU 500 000, concern two feature-length films and will play a part in lessening the island's isolation by publicising its culture and people abroad. The first film, made during 1995 and entitled 'llh&eacute;u de Contenda', is the first fiction-based feature film to be made in Cape Verde and is the work of Leao Lopes, a director who has drawn his inspiration from the work of another Cape Verdian citizen, Teixeira de Sousa, and which centres on the history of Cape Verde and the birth of its national identity. The EDF contribution (approximately ECU 250 thousand) amounts to 14% of the total production cost. The film is currently being shown in a number of European countries. Virtually the same amount of  money has been set aside to fund another production, this time by a Portuguese director, Francisco Manso, based on a novel by a Cape Verdian author, Germano de Almeida, and entitled 'O Testamento do Sr. Napuceno', which was being filmed on the island of S&atilde;o Vicente at the time of our visit. 50% of the finance for this film comes from Portuguese producers, the other co-producers being French and Belgian.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Others EDF projects recently completed or being completed include one for improving roads on the islands of Santiago, S&atilde;o Nicolau and Maio (ECU 3 million) and a micro-project programme (ECU 1 million). In addition to funds from the EDF, Cape Verde has received further finance under the Lom&eacute; Convention, including ECU 700 000 within the context of the Stabex transfer schemes to offset loses in the banana-production sector during 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Design a micro climate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extemal food aid is essential in a country which cannot meet its own requirements and the Commission's most recent food-aid-budget contribution amounted to nearly ECU 2 million. Other special budget lines include funds provided under 'Human Rights and Democratisation in Developing Countries'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To an attentive foreign visitor, one of Cape Verde's most interesting achievements is the progress it has made in reforesting such an infertile soil. One of these reforested areas, covering 5000 hectares (1990-94) forms the basis of a regional project to disseminate knowhow accumulated in this sphere in Cape Verde. Training course. have enabled technicians and others involved in the reformtation of the Sahel countries to gain experience in methods which have proved succesful here. The production and distribution of teaching tools (books, posters, films, etc.) supplement the project. Since independence, Cape Verde has achieved a tenfold increase in the amount of land which is forested - admittedly there was little to start with, but since climatic conditions are so hostile this result can be regarded as a major accomplishment. There is even a hope that a micro-climate might form. On the island of Santiago, in some of these new green areas, wild duck which had long since disappeared have returned. It is nice to dream but the country cannot afford to rest on its laurels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 4 033 km2 Population: 390 000 (1990) Population density: 97 per km2 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population growth rate: 2.8 % (forecast for the period 19922000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Praia (pop. 75 000)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other main town: Mindelo (pop. 65 000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Languages: Portuguese, Creole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currency: Cape Verde Escudo (CVE). In May 1996,1 ECU was worth CVE 104 ($1 = CVE 83 approx.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government: Mixed presidential/parliamentary system. The President is not the head of the executive but he represents the country and is guarantor of national unity and the Constitution. Unicameral Parliament. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President: Antonio Mascarenhas Monteiro (elected in 1991 and reselected at the beginning of this year) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Carlos Veiga (since 1991) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Political parties represented in Parliament:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Movimento pare a Democracia (MPD)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Partido Africano pare a Independencia de Cabo Verde (PAICV)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Partido da Convergencia Democratica (PCD) - formed as a result of a break away from the MPD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Party representation in Parliament: MPD 50, PAICV 21, PCD 1 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1992 figures)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP: CVE 23.9 billion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP per capita: US $840</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Origin of GDP by sector: agriculture 13%, industry 17%, services 70% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Real GDP growth (estimate 1995): 4% Balance of payments: deficit of CVE 11.9 billion </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main trade partners: Portugal, Spain, Netherlands, Brazil. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual inflation rate: 9.1%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth: 64.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Infant mortality per 1000 live births: 56 Adult literacy: 66.4% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education (primary, secondary and tertiary): 59% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.536 (123rd out of 174) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: UNDP Human Development Report, 1995; Economic Intelligence Unit 1995; 'Etat et soci&eacute;t&eacute; aux iles du Cap Vert, by Michel Lesourd. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p32a.png"></center><br>
+ Figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Europe</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Lom&eacute; Convention in focus</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poll results and new brochure launched in Brussels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new poll of Europeans high lights a deficit of information about the European Community's development policies. A brochure just published on the Lom&eacute; Convention, available in all EU languages, seeks to fill some of the gaps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At a press conference on May 21, Development Commissioner, Joso de Deus Pinheiro, unveiled the findings of a survey commissioned from the Brussels consultancy, International Research Associates (INRA). The aim of the exercise was to sound out how Europeans perceive developing countries. The sample was 16 346 people, of 15 years and upwards, who were polled in the 15 Member States during December 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The survey shows that since 1991, helping the poor in the developing countries has slipped in the 'league' of issues of most concern to Europeans. The subject now ranks eighth in a table topped by the fight against unemployment. But the better news is that Europeans believe development of these regions should be the fourth most important priority for joint actions between Member States. This comes just below combating terrorism, environmental questions and defending Europe's economic interests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While 82% of Europeans are favourable to development cooperation, 12% are against. The degree of support varies, as one would expect, from one EU country to another. Interestingly, the survey shows that Member States facing an economic squeeze are the most reticent, irrespective of their past track record in development aid. In Belgium, only 65% are in favour while in</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Austria and France, the figures are 69% and 72% respectively. At the other end of the scale, Greece comes out top with 97% just ahead of Spain on 96% and Ireland on 91%. INRA's explanation for this variation is that it reflects the economic problems which are increasingly being felt in northern states of the Community. It is also worth pointing out that nations on EU's southern flank may be more convinced of the effectiveness of aid since they themselves are recipients of EC structural funds allocated to modernise the Union's disadvantaged regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But INRA's report also reveals some misconceptions about European development aid. These, says Commissioner Pinheiro, may be attributed to the lack of visibility of the relevant development policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">57% of those questioned believe that the bulk of the Community's assistance consists of emergency aid, rather than longer-term project support. The reverse is actually true. More people answer 'no' then 'yes' to the question: 'Does aid contribute to reducing poverty in developing countries'? And most consider that United Nations agencies (UNICEF, UNESCO etc.) do more in the  field of helping developing countries than the EC. Non-governmental organisations also have a high profile, with the EU Member States and Bretton Woods institutions (IMF and World Bank) trailing behind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other key findings from the poll - which Professor Pinheiro says will provide much food for thought in the coming months as thoughts turn to cooperation after Lom&eacute; IV - are highlighted in the box.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mid-term review and beyond</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Professor Pinheiro feels that some of results, which signal the need to tighten up on the management of development aid, have already been addressed in the mid-term review of the Lom&eacute; Convention which will come on stream from the beginning of 1997. The programming of the eighth European Development Fund (EDF) is already well under way and, with a view to increasing the effectiveness of aid, just 70% of resources earmarked for each ACP state will be allocated at the outset (for a three year period). An analysis of how the remainder should be spent will take place at the end of the three years. In addition, Professor Pinheiro indicated that a 'strategic' document was being drawn up on each of the 70 ACP states prior to allocation of funds. This was being done in 'permanent consultation with Member States and Commission delegations, in the interests of achieving a real synergy between the two.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More sweeping changes to the relationship are likely after the current</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some key findings from the INRA report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Aid must reach its intended destination and arrive where it is needed 93.2%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Aid must meet the needs of the local people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90.7%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The beneficiary state must raspect human rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">85.1%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Transparency, effective public management and the fight against  corruption are essential</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The beneficiary state must respect an overall development plan put forward by an  international aid organisation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">78.3%  plan  put  forward</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by an  internati onal  aid  organisa tion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Aid must be used to fund action by local NGOs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The beneficiary state must have a democratic system of government</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">59.3%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">56.0%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Convention expires at the turn of the century. Professor Pinheiro indicated that a first draft (green paper) on the possible shape of the ACP-KU relationship after 2000 will be published by the Commission by the end of the year. This, however, is likely to offer more questions than answers about future cooperation. 'I am not sure if we should keep the Lom&eacute; structure for every country, in the third millennium,' the Commissioner told the assembled journalists, highlighting the different levels of development now apparent between Lom&eacute; nations. Mauritius, now well on the way to becoming the 'Singapore' of Africa, was a case in point. He also pointed out the small island states of the Caribbean are at a very different stage of development from countries such as the Central African Republic or Burundi. He added that, in deciding what to do in future it would also be necessary to take stock of regional developments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Questions about Lom&eacute; answered</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the meantime, efforts are under way to boost the image of Community aid. With this in mind, the Information Unit of the Development Directorate-General has just published a brochure entitled 20 Questions and Answers about the Lom&eacute; Convention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides explaining in a nutshell what the Convention is, it answers some of the questions most frequently asked by sceptics about the benefits of development aid and trade preferences, highlighting the positive aspects for developing and developed economies alike. It points out, for example, that for every ECU 100 spent on aid, the Community recovers ECU 48 in the form of projects, supplies and technical assistance purchased from European companies!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The brochure provides a succinct explanation of how the Commission monitors aid to stop embezzlement and corruption. It highlights the right of the European Court of Auditors to check accounts of projects and fund transfers - and to investigate documents in the Lom&eacute; states, without the permission of the country concerned. Another precaution is that once a project is under way, financing is by banker's transfer. This involves a paper specifying that the holder of contract X, whose bank account number is Y. should be credited with Z amount of money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An explanation is given as to why the European Commission is involved in development aid when the Member States have their own bilateral development policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The brochure explains the advantages of EC assistance over bilateral arrangements and details how the Lom&eacute; system has been evolving in line with the increasing globalisation of the economy, in particular since the fall of the Berlin Wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It also contains some pocket statistics on official development assistance (ODA) flows which help to underline the message that the European Union (Community plus Member States) digs deeper into its pocket than its industrialised competitors in providing development aid. In 1994, the Community and its then 12 member states (excluding Austria, Sweden and Finland), contributed an average of 0.40% of their gross national product in ODA. The individual percentages varied from 1.03% in the case of Denmark to 0.20% in Italy. This compared with figures of 0.29% and 0.15% for Japan and the United States respectively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, total ODA from the Twelve reached $26.59 billion. Of this, $4.83 billion came from the European Community in its own right. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The content of chocolate</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Months of heated debate in the EU over the maximum allowable content of vegetable fats in chocolate have culminated in a Commission proposal for a revised Directive which, claim officials, should be to the taste of most interested parties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has proposed that the 'subsidiatity' principle should apply to the content of chocolate. This means leaving it to individual Member States to decide whether they will allow the use of vegetable oil - up to a maximum of 5% by weight - in their chocolate-making. The eight EU countries where this practice is currently prohibited  are free to modify their laws to take account of this 5% rule. The other cocoa butter and dry cocoa contents specified in the Directive - 18% and 35% respectively - may not be reduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The addition of up to 5% vegetable fats was authorised under Directive 73/241 for the UK, Ireland and Denmark when they first joined the EC. Other Member States who acceded later - Austria, Finland, Portugal and Sweden - also use these oils in chocolate production. The remaining EU countries have continued to prohibit the use of vegetable fats - and the sale of chocolate containing such fats. The result has been a partitioning of the EU market, in direct conflict with the Single Market principle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the proposal is approved by the Council and the Parliament, all 15 Member States will be free to decide whether vegetable oil can be used in making chocolate. Whatever their individual decisions, however, the barriers will come down, thus opening up the 'pure' chocolate markets to competition from less expensive varieties containing vegetable oil. Stricter labelling rules will also be introduced, with the precise nature of any substitute oils being clearly indicated. The simple mention 'vegetable oil' will no longer suffice. Martin Bangemann, the Commissioner responsible for industry, stressed the significance of revising the Directive in allowing  chocolate products to circulate freely throughout the KU. This, he argued, would be in the interests of consumers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Winners and losers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Traditional cocoa producers such as Cote d'lvoire, Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon are fearful that the proposal may prompt some of Europe's 'pure' chocolate countries to change their laws - and that they will lose trade as a result. On the other hand, sheanut exporters in Burkina Faso, Mali, Ghana, Togo and Benin are hoping for higher sales if the 5% rule is adopted by more EU countries. Sheanuts account for 20% of Burkinabe exports and 98% of these are used to make vegetable oil substitute for chocolate products. The sheanut price is just 10% of the cocoa bean price. The Commission calculates that the maximum saving a manufacturer could expect by substituting vegetable fat for cocoa butter is around 1.5% of the ax-factory price.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In weighing up what to do, the Commission also considered the objectives of the International Cocoa Organisation (ICCO). These include taking 'all practical measures to increase the cocoa consumption in their countries by eliminating or reducing all obstacles to the growth of consumption in cocoa.' The ICCO estimates that if the 5% rule is applied in the remaining eight states - Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain - it will lead to a reduction in cocoa butter usage of 36 000-50 000 tonnes, which amounts to a drop in demand for cocoa beans of between 88000 and 125000 tonnes. This represents between 9-12% of current consumption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some producers suggest that these estimates are too high since they assume that manufacturers will go for  almost full substitution, which is not necessarily seen as inevitable. In addition, there is a belief that overall demand for chocolate products may grow as a result of the legal change.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was not the view taken by NGOs who reacted promptly - and critically - to the Commission text. The Brussels NGO Liaison Committee issued a statement claiming that it would lead to a drop of between 6.25% and 12.5% in the main exporting countries' cocoa receipts - and an additional burden on the European Community's Stabex fund. But chocolate producers and others argue that this is speculative. The impact, they say, will depend on the legal response of the eight Member States, as well as on the reaction of manufacturers. There are signs that the latter may well stick to their traditional and distinctive methods. A spokesperson for the Belgian-based Cote d'Or/ Suchard, pointed out that the proposal had a long way to go before it was approved, and stressed that his company had no intention of changing their 'winning recipes which had served them well since 1883. At the same time, he admitted, vegetable oil could be useful in a more diversified range of chocolate products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The vegetable oil 'lobby' argues that the addition of vegetable fat makes chocolate easier to mould and less likely to melt in warm climates. And for those who fear the elimination of 'pure' chocolate from the market, they point to manufacturers in Britain, where vegetable oil has traditionally been used, who still exclude such fats from some of their brands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The proposal must now be debated by the Council and it is clear that the arguing is not over yet. But it is beginning to look as if the consumers may be the final arbiters. Through their purchasing habits, they are likely to be the ones who finally determine the winners and losers in the great chocolate debate. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Minority businesses in the UK</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In no country in Europe are ethnic minorities more organised than in the United Kingdom - though they are still not adequately organised, in the opinion of many, to pool their considerable resources together and overcome stereotypes, racism and unenployment. But this may  change if the morale engendered by a recent exhibition of minority businesses in the UK is anything to go by.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The statistics speak for themselves. There are 3.3 million Asians, Africans and Afro-Caribbeans in Britain, about 5% of the population (and the figure is projected to double in the next 25 years). They have six elected Members of Parliament - five Labour and one Conservative - as well as numerous personalities in the world of sports and the media. According to the 1994 Labour Force Survey, 48% of ethnic minorities are graduates or are in full time studies and 55% earn salaries well over &amp;15 000 (ECU 18 000) annually. They have a combined gross annual income estimated at f42 billion and an annual spending power of at least f26 ten.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past 15 years, ethnic minority-owned businesses have grown considerably. In the last two years alone, they were responsible for more than 30 000 new business concerns throughout the country, according to the Commission for Racial Equality (CRE). Although many are in the retail trade, the 10% or so involved in production or manufacturing are extremely dynamic,  particularly those connected with the clothing industry or operating franchises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are considerable differences between Asians on the one hand and Africans and Afro-Caribbeans on the other. The former are more business oriented and account for well over 80% of all ethnic enterprises. This success in business is often attributed to Asians' industriousness, but there is another crucial and often neglected factor: Asians have a stronger sense of group solidarity and patronage than Africans and Afro-Caribbeans. Whereas the former spend virtually all their earnings within their community, the latter (who are mainly Christians and are known to make greater efforts at integration into the British society) spend theirs in the society at large.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unemployment among the black population in general is 19% compared to 8% for whites (in London it is three times higher). They are much more likely to be turned down by employers even when they have better qualifications than their white counterparts. Often self-employment is the only way out. This explains why there has been a boom in business start-ups by ethnic minorities over the past two years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although several black profffsional associations have come into being in recent years, it has been clear for some time to black leaders that the community's energies are dispersed and that these needed to be harnessed for the benefit of ethnic minorities as a whole. Blacks clearly have political and business clout to be exploited.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The idea for an exhibition of black businesses in the United Kingdom was mooted by a black business couple who, were influenced by a similar event  held annually in the United States called 'Black Expo USA'. But the impetus came from the 'Race for Opportunity Campaign' launched in October last year by the Conservative Government through the Department of Trade and Industry. The campaign has so far seen more than 20 big British companies pledge to do business with ethnic minority enterprises. These include British Airways, British Gas, British Telecom, British Aerospace and several high-street banks and finance houses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Held at the Barbican Centre in London on 4 and 5 May, the exhibition was aimed at creating awareness among ethnic minorities of their potentialities, showing the opportunities available to them not only in the UK but also in Europe, and at promoting networking amongst their businessmen and women. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cross-party support</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The exhibition, which had a cross-party support, could not have come at a more favourable time. Both the Tory government and opposition Labour Party have expressed support for policies favourable to small and medium-sized enterprises, which means that there should be continuity in this area if Labour comes to power in the next general election.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was borne out by the enthusiasm with which the shadow minister for small business, Mrs Barbara Roche greeted the exhibition. To her, the event should be seen in the context of Labour's overall policy on small businesses. Speaking at one of the seminars which was run alongside the exhibition to discuss various aspects of minority business problems, Mrs Roche explained that there were three important reasons why her party was promoting small enterprises, especially those involved in exports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first was that large companies were downsizing, and job-creation towards the end of this century and into the next would be largely by small and medium-sized enterprises. The second was that small businesses were efficient distributors of wealth and the third was that they were good at innovation and using new technologies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because a large number of small businesses are folding, or are struggling to survive in the UK today (often as a result of late payment of bills by large companies), Mrs Roche said a Labour government would introduce a statutory limit of 30 days for the settlement of bills by large companies. The latter would then have to pay interest to small businesses for any late payments. Ethnic minority businesses, she also said, were part and parcel of Labour's strategy for economic growth and jobs in Britain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Barbican exhibition attracted more than 80 exhibitors mainly in retailing, finance, telecommunications, consultancy, arts and crafts, publishing, electronics and education. There were  very few exhibitors from the manufacturing sector (a disappointment considering the number of Asians in the clothing industry) and virtually none in engineering. Some of the big companies connected with the 'Race for Opportunity Campaign' like British Airways and British Gas, as well as the newly created government-backed Business Link, the Customs and Excise department, the Inland Revenue, the Army and the Metropolitan Police were there. Also present was Louis Farrakan's 'Nations of Islam', (not necessarily on a recruitment drive, though that must have been part of the game), but as a reminder of its campaign for greater self-reliance by the black community which culminated late last year in the 'Million-Man' march on Washington DC. Video tapes of the march and speeches by Farrakan and other black leaders in the United States were on sale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Difficulties</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The seminar run concurrently with the exhibition attracted many notable speakers, among them Members of Parliament, Keith Vaz, Bernie Grant and Barbara Roche and Commissioner Dr Zaka Khan of the Commission for Racial Equality. Jessie Boseman, vice-president of 'Black Expo USA, who was also scheduled to speak, did not turn up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was general agreement on the main factors inhibiting the growth of ethnic minority businesses, the most obvious being racism and  discimination. Ethnic businesspeople not only have difficulties obtaining public contracts, but they are often denied access to finance, market and even premises. Furthermore, they suffer from lack of management skills, networks and feedback. Dr Khan of the Commission for Racial Equality highlighted mounting racist attacks, mostly against Asianowned shops, which have claimed a number of lives in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Integration into mainstream economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is no longer a hidden fact that banks discriminate against black businesses. Surveys carried out by the NatWest and Midland banks have confirmed that fact. The latter though, it must be acknowledged, has a laudable Fellowship Programme, designed to encourage ethnic minority university students to take up careers in the Midland Bank on graduation. Lack of access to the market has effectively meant that black businesses have been left out of the mainstream of the British economy. Everyone agreed that it makes good economic sense to see them integrated into it. This was particularly   the position of both Barbara Roche and Zaka Khan. The question was: would it be possible ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some of the issues raised on the floor by businesspeople revealed that many were sceptical that racism and discrimination could be overcome in multiracial Britain. The Commission for Racial Equality symbolises the fight against these two evils and Dr Khan had a hard time defending its role. The CRE was criticised for constantly quoting statistics on improvements in the living conditions of ethnic minorities which, it was argued, were totally removed from reality. Despite this, Dr Khan remained upbeat. To him the future promises great things for ethnic minorities. He promised to look into the grievances aired by some businespeopie during the seminar. Barbara Roche, for her part, promised that a Labour government would encourage the banks to offer packages of assistance to small enterprises, in particular, black-owned ones. They would also ensure that local councils offered minority enterprises a share of local government contracts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greater self-reliance and global trade</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In view of the problems black businesspeople have had to contend with over the years, Bernie Grant, the Member of Parliament for Tottenham in North London, did not devote much time to the idea of integrating them into mainstream British economy. He felt that racism and discrimination were so prevalent that there was little chance of that happening. For him, the future for black businesspeople in Britain lay in greater self-reliance and entry into international trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a speech entitled 'political responsibility, and black import and export business', the M.P. set the Barbican exhibition in the context of the global economic situation - one where he said, 'the countries of the North are exploiting those of the South, in particular African countries.' Africa's heavy debts to the West should in fact be the other way round. He argued that the new world trade agreement, which  opens up the developing countries to competition, was unfair. 'This means that countries where minorities in the UK came from are going to have problems, and it is the duty of thee minorities to ensure that their countries have a fair deal,' he said. Mr Grant cited, by way of example, the EU's banana protocol under the Lom&eacute; Convention which gives preferential treatment to small Caribbean island producers and which is currently being 'unfairly' challenged by South American producers under the WTO rules. The role of multinationals, which are effectively acting es 'middleman', was, he believed, pernicious for developing countries. There was a need for black businessmen to step in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Minority enterprises in the UK do not exist in isolation from the rest of the world, he elaborated. They should seek to engage in international trade and take advantage of their connection with their countries of origin. To facilitate this, Mr Grant said that a group under his chairmanship had set up a Global Trade Centre in his constituency in North London with the aim of helping black and minority enterprises establish direct trade links with Africa, the Caribbean and black America. The Centre was already in contact with a number of African countries which have expressed interest in the idea. Such a link would not only ensure a better deal for African producers but also favour the growth of minority businesses across the world. This was, he confessed, 'a political agenda' designed to reduce the excessive profits of multinationals, if not put an end to their 'outright exploitation' of Africa and the Caribbean. Mrs Roche expressed support for the Centre for the role it could play in boosting British exports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UK minorities and the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European Union</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A self-confessed Eurosceptic, who would have preferred the UK to strengthen economic ties with the Commonwealth rather than with Europe, Mr Grant displayed an extraordinary understanding of the European</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Union's affairs. What worried him most about greater European integration, he said, was racism and the fact the UK job market, where black and ethnic minorities are already heavily disadvantaged, will be exposed to further competition from other Europeans most of whom speak several languages. However, he had no alternative but to support the Labour Party's line on Europe and work to secure the best advantage of British membership for ethnic minorities. He contrasted Tory 'divisions' on Europe with Labour's 'united' policy and condemned the British Government's attitude generally towards the Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development of the Union, Mr Grant said, was of great significance to black people. He was sure the Government's Immigration and Asylum bill, which had come up against strong opposition in the House of Lords, was aimed at harmonising immigration laws with other countries in the Union. The bill, if passed, will change the UK's visa regime and have serious implications for ethnic minorities and their businesses in Britain. He revealed that, with the support of ethnic minority members of the British Parliament, Bill Morris, the black General Secretary of the Transport and General Workers Union (the second biggest trade union in the UK) and other European trade union leaders, the Intergovernmental Conference was being lobbied for the inclusion of a stronger clause against racism in the Treaty of Rome. The aim, ultimately, is to see measures in line with the UK's laws against racism and discrimination enacted at the Union level. This would include the establishment of a European equivalent of the Commission for Racial Equality - with similar powers - so as to establish a level-playing field for ethnic minorities in competition for jobs and in business throughout Europe. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dossier</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Communication and the media</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Dossier coordinated by Debra Percival)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Press freedom is widely acknowledged as the cornerstone of democracy with a clamp-down anywhere in the world frequently interpreted as a sign of government repression. The rash of multi-party elections in African nations at the beginning of the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1990s brought new publications to news-stands. Many of these have since folded - often because of a lack of funds and sometimes because of government censorship.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many organisations are campaigning vigorously in the public eye for a free press in developing nations. These include Reporters Sans Frontieres, Article 19 and the International Federation of Joumalists - all of which are featured in this Dossier. The US-based Freedom House has also been monitoring the state of press freedom worldwide since 1979. In its recently published 1996 survey, it says that even today, only 22% of the world's population live in countries with a free press. 38% have a press sector that is 'partly free' while the description 'not free' is applied to the remaining 40%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are also regional organisations such as The Media Institute of Southern Africa (MISA), which are playing a part in keeping media issues to the fore. David Nthengwe, a researcher with MISA, highlights the fact that democratisation does not necessarily guarantee a free media or free expression more generally. He also draws attention to the difficulties faced by private and community organisations in obtaining adequate finance. These are  typical of the problems facing the media in many countries, both in the ACP group and elsewhere in the developing world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In seeking to tackle these issues, donors are showing increasing interest in backing media programmes with development finance (linked to democratisation and human rights). The European Union, UNESCO and a number of bilateral donors have expanded their activities in this area with a variety of projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One big change has been the rapid growth of the 'Information Superhighway'. This has prompted fears that the developing countries may fall further behind, although donors have indicated a willingness to help ensure this does not happen. One NGO closely monitoring the development of the Internet for the South is the PANOS Institute. Meanwhile, multilateral donors (notably the World Bank, through its INFODEV programme) are also becoming involved. A number of EU personalities lent their support to the development of the information society in the developing world, at a major conference staged in South Africa in May on the initiative of the country's Vice President, Thabo Mbeki. A work programme of projects was drawn up with the aim of making sure, in the words of European Commissioner, Martin Bangemann, that there is no divide between the 'information-poor' end the 'information-rich'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, although the world is undergoing an information revolution, the more traditional media (the press and above all, radio) will, for the foreseeable future, continue to have a central part in informing, educating and entertaining people in many developing  countries. It is important that those of us who increasingly communicate via our computer screens do not lose sight of this essential fact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this Dossier, we examine a number of the key issues affecting the media and highlight some innovative projects in this area - with the help of a series of experts. The subject has clearly moved higher up the development agenda, but there is still a long way to go, as the figures cited above show. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Aidan White of the IFJ</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Confronting the age-old problem</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the chance, 'governments would like to run and manipulate the media'. This is the view of Aidan White, General Secretary of the Brusselsbased International Federation of Journalists (IFJ), who says it is an 'ageold problem'. And the Federation, which has member organizations in 93 countries, works to prevent it from happening. It also provides a range of services to journalists throughout the world. We recently spoke to Mr White, who used to write for the British daily, The Guardian. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He began by outlining to us the Federation's key areas  of activity which include, in particular, the professional conditions in which journalists work and the defence of human rights. On the first of these, Mr White focused on the problem of economic pressures and difficult social conditions. 'We take a strong view that you can't have press freedom if journalists work in conditions of poverty or technical deprivation. It is a nonsense,' he stressed, 'to talk about a free press in a situation where journalists aren't paid, or if they are unable to function properly.' In seeking to tackle this, he spoke, in particular, of the 'need for independent organisations of journalists defending professional and social interests.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards human rights, the IFJ is active in the international community, working with bodies such as UNESCO and the UN Human Rights Commission. 'We are very interested in issues such as the legal environment in which journalists and the media operate, and are extremely active in the defence of physical safety.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr White went on to give more detailed information about the IFJ's work in Algeria, where many journalists have been killed in recent years. This country clearly has a bad international reputation and the General Secretary was anxious to offer a more balanced picture of the situation. 'In my view, there is a real malformation of Alaeria's  image in Europe and elsewhere. The view we get is of a paralysed society where nothing can function properly - a kind of international basket case. It is not like that. In Algeria, life continues. There is a form of democracy. There are a dozen newspapers which appear every day. The streets are full of traffic and people walking about. The reality is that there is a particularly horrifying and barbaric form of terrorism which is targeted against intellectuals including journalists. This means that the media has a terrible problem.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aidan White explained the strategy of the IFJ in seeking to confront this. 'We began by going to Algeria to investigate what was going on. Then we established an international office on the spot. This is a direct contact point of solidarity for local journalists and the local media. So we don't report Algeria through Paris. We don't see the need to go through some sort of middleman in order to find out what's going on in the country or have contact with Algerian journalists.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'And then we have two specific programmes which are very important', he continued. One involves providing humanitarian assistance to journalists and their families. The other is a series of practical activities in Algeria. Thus, for example, we are organising a round table on terrorism and information.' He pointed out that the Algerian government had resorted to the traditional method of press censorship in the face of ,the terrorist threat and stressed the 'need to counter this. 'We are also organising a practical seminar on personal safety, as well as one on professional social rights, the need for ethical standards and better social conditions.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The point, he emphasised was that events were being organised on the spot. Algeria may pose terrible difficulties 'but it doesn't mean we walk away from it.' The IFJ's emphasis was firmly on being a 'functional organisation working directly with the people who need help.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Funding and the EU link</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tuming to the issue of the IFJ's funding, Mr White explained how the core activities - his own salary and administrative costs - are paid for by the subscriptions of member organisations, which amount to roughly $1 million. On top of that, the Federation carries out projects with the EU and other donors. They also distribute funds, offering their expertise as a representative body to help other organisations that want to undertake work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asked in what way the EU could do more, the General Secretary stressed the political dimension. 'It should intervene,' he argued, 'to establish certain standards in international relations. We say, for instance, that political, economic and military cooperation with any state outside the Union should be based on a commitment to and respect for freedom of expression and opinion.' He underlined the 'responsibility' of the EU to take a stand against countries that locked up journalists, implicitly criticising those who argued that freedom of expression was very important but who then shelved the issue when economic relations were involved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He also urged a more proactive approach 'moving away from the strategy of counting bodies, complaining, and making reports about how bad the situation is' towards one based on comprehensive programmes of assistance. He described the IFJ's Media for Democracy programme in Africa as a 'first attempt' in that direction. Mr </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">White highlighted what he saw as a difficulty with existing projects. 'The problem is that the EU is confronted by all sorts of different NGOs who come and say: 'we have got this good project - give us support for it'. This is fine but it inevitably means that resources are spread very diffusely and often to no effect.' A lot of activities, he suggested, such as one-off seminars and conferences, were 'like fireworks in the night sky: they glow bright for a brief period and then they disappear.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He went on to plead for an integrated, comprehensive strategy. 'Until that exists, you will not be able to solve the fundamental problems facing journalists.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training and status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The discussion moved on to the subject of training. Perhaps surprisingly, Aidan White did not see this as an important priority in itself. As he explained: 'It's no use training journalists to be very high quality if they go off to work in a country where the legal environment does not allow them to function properly. And it's no use training them to be ethical if they go somewhere that is steeped in political or financial corruption, and where there is no culture which appreciates the media's role in democratic society.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With this in mind, he believes that training should be directly related to the strategic approach he referred to earlier. 'Yes, we need professional, well trained journalists, but it should be part of a range of programmes. And professional training is not just important for journalists. It should also be provided for managers, editors, advertisers... and perhaps even for politicians!'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The General Secretary noted that the status of journalists in most countries was quite high. They are seen as a filter for information 'coming from the government to the governed'. This was important, he thought, but 'tine real question is how the filter functions. On the one hand journalists have a relatively high status, and what they do is extremely important, but they work close to the political elites, which means they  are subject to pressure. They must retain their independent role, scrutinising and investigating what governments are doing.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the subject of access to information in developing countries, Aidan White observed that the situation is now better than it was ten years ago but pointed to the 'age-old problem of people in power wanting to control the media.' He gave the example of journalists in Indonesia, 'who really want to speak independently of the government, but who are being killed because they represent independent strands of opinion.' Overall, however, he believes the situation has been improving. 'This is partly due to changes in information technology. A government can no longer simply take a journalist out and beat him up. There are half a dozen press freedom organisations around the world watching for and reporting on such events.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a tendency in Europe to assume that 'everything in the garden is rosy' in terms of press freedom, and we were interested to hear what the Secretary General thought of this proposition. He was quick to offer a less complacent view. 'We have just issued a very strong statement against the EU about their secrecy policy,' he pointed out. 'You cannot claim the moral high ground for democracy in Africa or elsewhere if you have a system of secrecy in Europe which operates at the highest political level and which denies citizens access to information.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He was also concerned about the concentration of the media in enormous congLom&eacute;rates. This trend, he argued, 'is actually profoundly damaging to the culture of information.' He cited, in this context, the action of the Murdoch organisation 'in banning all news from his cable channels going into China.' Mr White continued: 'They banned the BBC and they banned news coverage in the Chinese language in order to make a business arrangement with the Beijing government. That sort of activity, in our view, is direct censorship from the heart of western democracy.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, Aidan White gave some more detailed information about the Media for Democracy programme in Africa which he described as 'ground-breaking.' The Federation has used it to develop key themes, including the coverage of elections. 'The real test of press freedom,' he continued, 'is at an election, because that is when the political pressure is toughest and the professional quality of journalism is exposed. For Africa, we developed a manual on election reporting and, interestingly, it has become the source document worldwide for election reporting.' He explained how it formed the basis for developing a text which is universal. This has been translated into various European languages, and Arabic, and has been employed in Poland, Romania, Albania and Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the first phase of the Media for Democracy programme, the Federation held a serf. of seminars and conferences on how the media covered elections. As Mr White stressed, this was a crucial time in Africa. Political change was taking place, multi-party democracy was being introduced and there was a need to clarify how elections operated and how they should be reported. 'People didn't have the experience. They wanted the information, and to discuss how things should be done.' The seminars covered aspects such as financial corruption, the organisation of journalists and the role of ethics. And what the IFJ found was that the same kind of things happen in Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique and South Africa - and indeed across the world. In the words of the Secretary General, 'they have an echo everywhere because, at its root, the problem is the same - those in power want to manipulate the media and use whatever pressures they can.' The lesson learnt from the IFJ's experience in Africa is that common solutions are also valid. Or as Aidan White put it, 'there is no part of the world that can't teach the rest of the world something.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.M. &amp; S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Freedom of expression: the first freedom</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Frances d'Souza</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frances d'Souza who is Executive Director of AROSE 19, a nom governmental organization which campaigns against censorship globally, explains why Freedom of Expression is for her the most important human right</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the absence of freedom of expression, it is almost impossible to protect other rights, including the right to life. Once governments can draw a cloak of secrecy round their actions and remain unaccountable, massive human rights violations can, and do, take place. For this reason alone, the right to free expression, specifically protected in international human rights treaties, must be considered a primary right. It is significant that one of the first indications of a government's intention to depart from democratic principles is when it increases its control over information, usually by gagging the media. At the one end of the spectrum, supposedly minor infringements of this fundamental right occur daily in western democracies; for example the abuse of national security laws to prevent publication of information which might embarrass the authorities. At the other end of the scale are regimes of terror which brutally suppress opposition, information and even the freedom to exercise religious beliefs. Without free speech and an independent media, it is easier for governments to employ propaganda to promote ethnic conflict, war and genocide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right to freedom of expression is formally protected in major international treaties including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* This text is an abridged version of a submission made by the author to a public hearing hosted by the European Parliament's Committee on Foreign Affairs, Security and Defence and the Sub-Committee on Human Rights and the Committee on Culture, Youth, Education and the Media, April 25, 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Political Rights (Article 19), and the European Convention on Human Rights (Article 10). It is also enshrined in many national constitutions, although this does not always guarantee its protection. Freedom of expression is something which applies even in countries which have not ratified the relevant international treaties. This is because the Universal Declaration is so widely accepted that its provisions now form part of customary international law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While it is generally agreed that freedom of expression is the cornerstone of democracy, international treaties permit certain restrictions. Unlike the American First Amendment rights which allow few, if any, checks on free speech, the international treaties aim for a balance between competing rights. Thus, for example, free speech may be limited where it impinges on the individual's right to privacy, or where it involves incitement to violence or hatred. Given that the permitted restrictions are necessarily broad, the limits of free speech are constantly being tested in national courts and in regional tribunals such as the European Commission and Court of Human Rights. In recent years, several landmark cases have helped define what restrictions may be imposed by governments and under what circumstances. In particular, it has been emphasised by the European Court that any restriction should 'pass' a threepart test; it should be prescribed by law (and thus not be arbitrarily imposed), it should be proportionate to the legitimate aims pursued, and it should be demonstrably necessary in a democratic society in order to protect the individual and/or the state.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Who censors what?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the rules governing restrictions on free speech, many justifications are still invoked by governments in suppressing information which may be inimical to their policies or interests. These include arguments in defence of national security or the 'public interest'. The mechanisms used to restrict the free flow of information range from subtle economic pressures, and devious methods of undermining political opponents and the independent media, to the enactment of restrictive press laws and rules for licensing journalists. In extreme cases, they may involve the illegal detention, torture and disappearance of journalists and others associated with the expression of independent views.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right of free speech may appear less important than, for example, freedom from torture or extrajudicial killing. It is also sometimes difficult to persuade the public that censorship, generally associated with banning obscene materials, is a bad thing! It requires a recognition of some of the fundamental principles of democracy to understand why censorship is so dangerous. Democracy implies that people can make choices about the issues that affect their lives, including what they wish to see, read, hear or discuss. While this may seem a luxurious freedom, mainly preoccupying the wealthy West, it is a comparatively short distance between state censorship of an offensive book to the silencing of political dissidents. And the distance between this and the use of violence to suppress opposition is even shorter. Censorship tends to grow rapidly from small beginnings. Allowing a government the power to deny people information, however trivial, not only leads to laws and procedures which can and will be used by those in authority against those with less authority. It also denies people the information they need to render their governments accountable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There have been some terrible examples of the role of censorship in recent years. We have seen it in the republics of the former Yugoslavia   where the media were manipulated for propaganda purposes. We have seen it in Rwanda where the government associated radio incited citizens to kill each other in the name of ethnic supremacy. And we have seen it in Iran which maintains the threat of murder against a citizen of another country because he wrote a book which displeased the authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are clear links between access to information (or rather the lack of it), and war. Democracy empowers people by increasing participation in decision-making at all levels. The poor, who are denied access to information on decisions which deeply affect their lives, are powerless and have no voice. They cannot influence the ruling elites whose interest in consolidating their own power and position may be served by initiating conflict.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is significant that of the 126 developing countries listed in the 1993 Human Development Report, wars were being waged in 30 and a further 33 were suffering severe civil conflicts. 55 of these 63 countries were to be found at the lower end of the Human Development Index which is an indicator of poverty. It is reasonably safe to assume that most people never welcome war. They may be coerced into supporting 'their' side in a conflict by their governments, using propaganda designed to whip up fear and extreme nationalist sentiment. If the majority had a democratic voice, they would undoubtedly object to war. But voices are silenced. Thus, the freedom to express one's views, to challenge government decisions and to insist upon political rather than violent solutions, are necessary aspects of democracy which can, and do, avert war.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">State-sponsored propaganda in Rwanda, as in the former Yugoslavia, succeeded because there were no ways of challenging it. One can conclude that it is impossible for a country to wage war in the absence of a compliant media willing to indulge in government propaganda. Governments needs civilians to fight wars for them and the media is needed to reinforce government policies and intentions at every turn. In a  totalitarian state where the expression of political views, let alone the possibility of political organisation is suppressed, one has to ask what other possibilities are open to a genuine political movement intent on introducing justice. All too often, terrorism and violence are the only perceived options available to communicate the need for change.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What NGOs can do</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work of human rights organizations has to become much more proactive and should be concerned with providing early warning and preventive action. Monitoring freedom of exprmsion, especially freedom of the press, offers an excellent context because it is widely recognised that would-be dictators always seek to silence people's voices through banning newspapers or other methods of censorship. One has to assume that when censorship begins in earnest, worse human rights abuses will follow and this should be the point for action. Had there been a greater international lobby for an independent media, for access to information and for participation in decision-making in the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Nigeria, Burma and many other countries, some of the gross violations which continue to occur, could have been prevented.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Censorship is the first instrument of a government intent on departing from democratic procedures. In this sense it is an early warning signal and at ARTICLE 19, we believe we have a special responsibility to understand better how democracy is destroyed through censorship and how we can alert the international community to act to prevent it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By way of conclusion, anything which can build strong and sound media infrastructures, at the earliest to pportunity, in transitional democracies, is both a gift and a great investment. A crusading press, prepared to separate fact from opinion and to verify its sources, can create a level playing field in which all sectors of society have a voice. This would preclude political control and manipulation for nationalistic power purposes. There is also a need to strengthen local monitoring groups which have the capacity to verify information. International organisations should amplify the voices of local organisations and bring them to the attention of the international community. It is only where there is a strong human rights culture in a given country, whether it has achieved democracy or not, that political changes can be seized upon and shaped into the democratic process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To achieve these objectives, NGOS need to work with governments which are obliged by international law to uphold fundamental rights. We need organisations such as the KU, the UN, ASEAN, and others, to insist on respect for human rights in their dealings with third countries. We also need the general public to be aware of what fundamental rights are, what are the consequences of infringement, and how they can, as individuals, successfully challenge restrictionss imposed on them by their governments. Above all, NGOS need to work with multilateral organisations to determine where slender resources can most fruitfully be targeted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.d'S.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Commission support for democratisation through the media</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Mark Leysen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amongst the many cooperation activities in which it is involved, the Lom&eacute; Convention covers cultural cooperation, which includes information and communication, yet European Development Fund support for the media in ACP countries is negligible. Although considerable and increasing amounts of aid are granted for the cinema in such countries, EU support for TV, radio and the printed media is small.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, for some years now, the Commission has provided considerable aid to the printed media and radio in ACP countries under its 'Support for democratisation and respect for human rights' budget, which heralds a new approach to media questions. The EDF does not participate in the vast majority of big communications projects in Africa, namely PANA (Panafrican News Agency), URTNA (African National Television and Radio Union, the African equivalent of the European Broadcasting Union), the Programme Exchange Centre, Afrovision, Cierro, etc. The reluctance of EU and ACP partners to embark on such media projects can be explained both by EDF procedures and by the worldwide political context including the situation in most African countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until recently, the media was a matter for the State in Africa. The 'New World Information and Communications Order', announced in the 1 970s, foresaw the participation of not only African citizens, but also of their governments in the world information highway. However, the democratic credentials of such governments were open to question - they controlled the printed media, radio, television and press agencies and any support for such media amounted to a strengthening of the State monopoly and this is why the EDF did not take part.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, aid to the independent media was impossible because such entities did not exist in most African countries and the authorities were not prepared to back a request for aid to the press which they regarded as contrary to their country's interests. If support for the media did exist, it was indirect and restricted to backing of means of communication servicing development projects: literacy campaigns, the fight against AIDS, increasing awareness of ecological problems, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was not until the advent of the democratisation movement and the support that Europe decided to grant to it that a media-aid strategy was to take root. As a kind of 'Fourth Estate', the media monitor executive power and report any abuse of it. In parallel, they play a key role in strengthening civil society by providing information (if not objective information, then at least information from many sources) on current political, social, economic and cultural issues and by providing a medium which offers an opportunity to speak out on matters of importance to society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Commission focuses its media support in five areas in agreement with representatives of African press and specialist European . organisations in this area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Freedom of expression It provides direct aid to national, regional and international organizations to defend freedom of expression, specifically financing monitoring, surveys and the reporting of any violation of press freedom (censorship, intimidation, arrests and arbitrary trials, etc.), and direct assistance to the media and any journalists who are victims of such attacks on press freedom. This direct aid is channelled to, inter alia, the activities of Reporters sans frontieres (see 'Interview with Mr Robert Menard', in this issue), 'Article XIX' and Index on Censorship, all organisations which operate like an Amnesty International for the press.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new independent press is often run by journalists who have had no journalistic training and the former State media often require being updated after many years of professional 'distortion' responding to 'his master's voice'. The Commission hence finances programmes offering training in basic journalistic techniques, election coverage; professional codes of ethics, etc. In this area, it is working with a number of European and African organizations, giving priority to long-term actions which are likely to spawn others and to programmes aimed at achieving a higher level of professionalism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid for vocational organizations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vocational organizations for journalists have a role to play in improving the profession's social standing, in strengthening its cohesion in the face of political division, in defending its interests and in coming to the aid of journalists who have been victims of repression. The Commission finances a vast 'Media for Democracy' programme conducted by the International Federation of Journalists and its affiliated regional and national organisations (see interview with Aidan White, in this issue). The programme aims to strengthen or create national and regional associations of journalists, but is also involved in more general actions to   increase the professional standing of the media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access to sources of information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A credible and responsible press requires sources of information which the new and financially precarious press cannot allow itself. The Commission supports the creation or updating of documentation centres, North/South  and South/South exchanges between publications and radio stations, access to international press agencies or photographic libraries, etc., being shared between several media bodies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legislative framework and code of ethics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not enough merely to guarantee freedom of expression in the   constitution. This principle must be embodied in all legislative and regulatory texts to prevent a journalist being prosecuted arbitrarily for 'defamation' or 'a breach of State security'. Moreover, to appear credible, the profession must observe a code of ethics. The Commission backs the drafting of press codes, codes of ethics and regulations to govern the air waves. It also backs the creation of press and air wave regulatory bodies as well as the provision of training in journalistic ethics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is obvious that the 'Democracy and Human Rights' budget cannot alone meet the needs of Africa's multi-faceted media scene. Moreover, although the media are a key element in any democratisation process, they are also much more than that - as a means of information and recreation, they have a role to play in the human development of society; as an instrument to create greater awareness, they can contribute to the strengthening of a civil society which is gradually taking charge; and as an economic sector in the full throes of development, they can make a contribution to the GDP and create jobs. All the more reason for national sponsors and the EDF to take more of an interest. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National television, victim of  democracy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than the other media, television in Africa is controlled by the State and serves, first and   fore most, to disse minat e news about the leade r and his govern ment. The state of equip ment depen ds on when it was suppl ied by a friend ly count ry from the North, and as it was almos t certai nly offere d to the count ry's leade rs 'as a perso nal gift', it usual ly consi sts of oversi zed equip ment which the nation al televis ion statio n canno t maint ain correc tly owing to a lack of resou rces. Whils t Europ e is movin g over to digita l Betac am and 1619 forma t, many Africa n TV statio ns are still opera ting with Umat ic and with mach ines that are impos sible to maint ain. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With such deriso ry mean s, nation al TV statio ns have to conte nd with unfair comp etition from the intern ationa l statio ns which, from their satell ites, are inund ating the contin ent with their broad casts . The worldbroad castin g chann els of Europ ean statio ns are receiv ed clearl y (CFI, TV5 Afriqu e, BBC World Telev ision, Deut sche Welle, etc.). The numb er of religio us statio ns (gene rally Islam ic) contin ues to increa se and comm ercial televi sion is develo ping apace - CN N, MTV, Cana l Horizo ns, M-Ne t and others can be picke d up just about every where and can thus cream off the best of a comm ercial mark et which is still virtual ly non-e xisten t and awaiti ng better days . </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The URTN A is unabl e to defen d the intere sts of its memb ers, prope rly and its initiat ives (which are, nevert heles s, lauda ble) are stagn ating: the -progr amme rexch ange centre in Nairob i does not excha nge very much at all and Afrovi sion, . the syste m for excha nging news betw een   nation al TV statio ns via satell ite, is strugg ling to Get off the aroun d. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Never theles s, Africa n TV statio ns do not lack talent or motiva tion and many of them are capab le of produ dng more qualit y progra mmes . What can be done to help them ? Firstly, a decis ion has to be made regar ding who is to be helpe d. Certa inly not intern ationa l TV statio ns' be they private or public, which have their own strate gy (comm ercial or politic al and produ ce televis ion progra mmes for impor t which make only a very margi nal contri bution to the expre ssion of Africa n talent . It would also be wrong to rely or, privati sation and comm ercial statio ns in order to obtain quali ty televis ion - t his much has been demo nstrat ed by the Europ ean exper ience . As for direct aid to nation al televis ion, this would mere ly reinfo rce the State mono poly over inform ation. Wha t is requir ed is greate r suppo rt for the transi tion of State televi sion into a genui ne public servic e. with the benef it of an indep enden t statut e and also true editor ial indep enden ce. Conse quent ly, as things curre ntly stand, aid for trainin g teievis ion' profes siona ls, suppo rt for qualit y progra mme produ ction and any aid aimed at draftin g a public -servic e televis ion Statu te, are usefu l forms of suppo rt which are neutra l with regard to State -medi a contro l. Any direct aid to nation al </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> televis ion statio ns in the form of   hardw are and equip ment shoul d be </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> subje ct to their conve rsion into an auton omou s public servic e. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Images of Africa in the Western media</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Geoff Mungham</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems difficult to find an African leader or African journalist who has not, at some time, been either fiercely critical or quietly despairing of the way in which the continent is depicted by the western media. Their grievances have come to form part of a now familiar litany. Claims are made that the reporting of Africa is now almost entirely in terms of what has been called a'coup, crisis and famine syndrome', and that the western media focus only on 'bad news' out of Africa and ignore the 'positive' achievements of many African countries. These criticisms go hand-in-hand with accusations that Africa cannot ' tell its own story, in its own way', because the global news market is dominated by powerful, westerr-owned corporations, who have their own agenda for reporting Africa. For many Africans, their continent is becoming increasingly invisible in the trade in global news. For them, Rupert Murdoch's cynical remark that 'the Third World sells no newspapers' would appear to have been uttered with Africa specifically in mind. Finally there are those Africans who are concerned about 'western cultural imperialism' undermining traditional African values and culture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How true are these claims? Is Africa becoming once again a dark continent; one largely excluded from the glare of western media coverage? Are some of the correctives suggested by different African leaders worse than the problems they are complaining about? And if Africa is in danger of becoming a 'disappearing world' for news, to what extent are many African countries themselves to blame?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To begin with, there is no doubt that African critics have a case. First and most obvious, is the undeniable brute fact that global news and information flows are dominated by a small number of multinational operators, nearly all of whom - especially since the end of the Cold War - are western owned and controlled. This is true of the great international news agencies, whether the traditional wire services like Reuters or Agence France-Press, or the newer global television news services represented by WTN and CNN, among others. The major clients for their output are western news organizations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, most African countries are in no position to mount a challenge to this world news order. The continent has recently been described as one of the 'least dynamic regions in the global economy, where buying power of consumers is low' and in which many countries are burdened with crippling debt payments. In the same vein, a 1991 World Bank report not only pointed to the increasing 'communications gap' between Africa and the developed world, but went on to suggest that most of the continent offered poor prospects for those wanting to invest in telecommunications projects. These are among the reasons why Africa scores so poorly in terms of putting in place viable national communications infrastructures, let alone being able to take on the global market leaders in securing a higher profile for Africa in the world's news rooms. The same factors also help explain why most African countries remain so dependent on western-controlled news sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This dependency is not simply a question of the easy availability of copy or other material from the western news agencies. Puri (a Tanzanian journalist and Managing Editor of Newslink Africa)  presents other reasons why African editors are interested in what's happening in the West. These include the links between many African countries and their former colonial rulers, the realities of global and economic relations and his claim that African editors often have little interest in other parts of the continent. As he puts it, '...a newspaper reader in Botswana, for example, is not much interested in reading detailed reports from Morocco.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, there is plenty of evidence to support the criticisms of the 'coup, crisis, famine' coverage. Examples are too numerous to cite here, but the following small selection is fairly representative of the broader picture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Introducing the findings of a 'Global News Agenda Survey', Malik and Anderson noted: 'For the rest of the world, Africa means coupe, and largescale killings (covered usually only in the first few days), almost ritualistic famine relief... and the occasional travelogues in the guise of saving something or other'. Similar claims were made by Okigho when he wrote that while CNN and other satellite organisations have 'revolutionised international news coverage', the most common images of Africa still depict internecine warfare (in Angola, Liberia, Somalia), pogroms in Rwanda, political violence in Sierra Leone and ethnic conflicts in Kenya and elsewhere in Africa. In contrast, says Okigho, the 'many positive developments' are routinely ignored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A limited review that I made of wire service copy from the main international news agencies during the week of 13-20 May 1996, produced findings that seemed to echo some of these complaints. In this period, hard news stories were concentrated on a handful of the 50 plus countries of Africa; Burundi, the Central African Republic (C.A.R.), Egypt, Liberia, Somalia, Sudan and South Africa - together with stories of alleged financial irregularities in the World Health Organisation in Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copy about Burundi dealt with ethnic violence and attacks inside Zaire   on Burundi by Hutu 'rebels'. Reports from the C.A.R. focused on an army mutiny, street battles and looting, but were angled on the mediating role of French troops (the C.A.R is a former French colony) and the fate of 100 Americans trapped in the capital, Bangui. Egypt was featured after its government accused Sudan of harbouring a 'vipers' nest of terrorists'. Out of Liberia came a torrent of wire copy about fighting in Monrovia along with assorted atrocity stories, but pinning the emphasis on the plight of foreign nationals (especially Britons and Americans) and the role being played by the USS Guam in air-lifting them to safety. Somalia rated a mention because of the release of two foreign aid workers (British and German) held by an unidentified 'rebel faction'. On South Africa, the wire services were fixed on further violence and killings in KwaZuluNatal, the result of ongoing struggles between rival supporters of the A.N.C and the Inkatha Freedom Party.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'agenda for Africa' sent out by the wire agencies, was replicated by  the menu offered by Reuters TV and APTV. For instance, on one day during the study period, the former was offering ten picture feeds; only one was from Africa (on the C.A.R.) while the rest included such compelling visuals as the British Queen's visit to the Chelsea Flower Show. For the fifteen picture feeds being touted by the APTV on a single day, one featured Africa ('news pictures to offer on the airlift by US marines'), which competed for the attention of western news rooms alongside visuals of a US woman who collected hubcaps (140 000 of them, no less!), Hugh Grant arriving by boat at the Cannes Film Festival, footage of the Monaco Grand Prix and a 'fun run' in Sarajevo (whether or not pictures are available, the idea of a 'fun-run' in Bosnia still seems a difficult concept to grasp) But what these studies show is not the whole picture about Africa which circulates in the West. Nor should they necessarily be used to support the usual criticisms about the performance of the western media in relation to the continent. In the first place, not all news  out of Africa fits into the syndrome the critics complain about. For example, a great deal of the coverage of South Africa has been 'positive' (if we trace the reporting of that country's transition to majority rule). So, too, have the moves towards multi-party politics in African states like Zimbabwe. Similarly, there is plenty of reporting of Africa's sporting successes (such as South Africa's Rugby World Cup triumph). Nor is the West unaware of the work of certain African musicians and film makers - indeed, it has been influenced by them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And even if 'positive' coverage is sometimes hard to find, the critics may still be missing some key points. The first is to do with western 'news values' or rather a failure to appreciate how they work - whether in relation to Africa or anywhere else. The staple diet of much of the global news flow is about 'bad news' and, in this respect, Africa prob  ably fares no worse or better than other parts of the developing world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, a more 'systematic' reporting of much of Africa is still difficult. My point here is about a lack of efficient and developed communication infrastructures, but also a reluctance by many African leaders to tolerate - let alone actively encourage - free and honest open reporting. Too many African journalists have been, and are being, harassed, imprisoned or killed by their own governments. Much of the media in Africa - especially the broadcast media - remains under state control. Newspapers that show a 'lack respect' for the ruling party are frequently shut down. These realities help explain why some of the maligned western media are turned to by those Africans who want something more than state propaganda from their newspapers or broadcasters. This is why the BBC World Service has come to enjoy such a high reputation in many parts of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Third, the attempts made by the African states to try and take on western dominance of global news and information flows, have been misjudged. Two failed initiatives in particular are worth mentioning in this context; the launch in 1983 of the Pan African News Agency (PANA) and the long-time obsession with setting up a 'New World Information Order' (NWIO).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the start, PANA has been dogged by financial and management problems. African governments owe $18 million, journalists have gone unpaid, lines have been disconnected and in 1992 a UNESCO-funded audit found evidence of financial mismanagement. The main source of information PANA traded in was material from the domestic news agencies of OAU member states. Since most of these are state-controlled, the 'news' they were offering was never likely to attract many western users. To try and give PANA a new lease of life, UNESCO are backing a rescue package, which would allow for private investors to be shareholders along with state-owned African national news agencies. But the pro  posed partnership funding is unlikely to work, especially in one-party states where the ruling groups have always been suspicious of any media not under their direct ownership.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The NWIO project has chased even more impossible dreams. Any attempt fundamentally to change the global news order was always going to be beyond countries with severe national communication 'deficits'. Most African countries, with weak and undercapitalised information infrastructures were never in a position to take on the market leaders in the global news business. In pursuit of the NWIO idea, endless international conferences were held, declarations passed and ritual attacks made on ' western media dominance'. Nothing came of it all. If the sense of frustration which kept the concept alive was understandable, less easy to grasp was why African leaders focused on the NWIO idea, while their own grassroots communication systems remained impoverished and under-resourced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most recent attempt to develop 'top-down' communications facilities in parts of Africa comes with the attempts to push satellite-delivered payTV on the continent. Among the 'players' here are Multi-Choice (which will be offered to subscribers in over 30 countries in sub-Saharan Africa), Canal Horizons (targeted on North Africa and Francophone West Africa) and Panafnet (also aimed at buyers in Francophone West Africa). Because these enterprises are subscription-based there will be a clear bias in take-up towards upperincome groups; and - certainly in the case of Multi-Choice - the output will have a 'strong UK/USA programming flavour'. It is hard to see how these initiatives will ever meet the real news and information needs of the vast majority of African consumers, who have limited spending power and are often deprived of the most basic communication tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As Hans Dieter Klee (former Head of the Africa Service of Deutsche Welle) has rightly argued, what Africa urgently needs is large-scale international media aid to help strengthen its own media. This aid should not be targeted at projects designed somehow to allow Africa to 'compete' with Western media congLom&eacute;rates. It should, instead, be aimed at building up diverse, viable and professional local and national media enterprises in African countries themselves. In this, the EU can play a leading role, working through the links established under the Lom&eacute; Convention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robust national communication structures in Africa will not, of course, alter the balance of global media power. They will be able to do little to stop the international news agencies reporting Africa in the way they have done in the past. And it will be a long time before most Africans becomes travellers on the 'information superhighway', since this, in essence, is an extension of existing computer and telephonic communications, which the continent lacks. But a vigorous local and national media, Africa-wide, would be good for Africa and the best barrier for resisting outside media influences. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6.M.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">References</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Okigho: 'National Images in the Age of the Information Super Highway </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African Perspectives', African Media Review, vol. 9,1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Malik and K. Anderson: 'TV: The Global New Agenda Survey', intermedia, January-February 1992. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Hicks 'North of the Limpopo', Cable and Satellite Europe, April 1996. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A message of hope on the Burundi airwaves</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Parliament may seem an unlikely launch pad for a radio station, but two members of this elected body, who are committed to a free and fair press as one of the cornerstones of democracy, have set up Radio Espoir (Radio Hope) in Burundi with backing of the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parliamentarians, Pierre Pradier (ERA-F) and Bernard Kouchner (PSE-F) are co-founders of Radio Espoir (Radio Umwizero, in Kirundi) which brings together a French association and a local Burundi radio station. Three expatriates are working on the Bujumbura-based project; an editor, a radio technician and an administrator. They have teamed up with local journalists who, for the moment, are providing their services free of charge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The station, which broadcasts in Kirundi, is targeted at an audience in the 15-25 age group. In a country with an 80% illiteracy rate, radio is the only way of reaching the population. 'The idea came to us in 1994, with Rwanda and Radio Libre des Mille Collines' says Pierre Pradier. 'If so much harm could be done with radio, then why equally could good not be achieved.' RLMC was the radio set up in July 1993 on the eve of the genocide in Rwanda. It became a mouthpiece  for the Akazu, a clan of Hutu extremists grouped around the then President's wife, Agathe Habyarimana, and it undermined the Arusha agreements by whipping up ethnic conflict in Rwanda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Pradier explains that Radio Hope journalists intentionally avoid speaking about Hutus and Tutsis. He also highlights the problems encountered in providing news coverage when local conditions are so difficult. As he points out; 'When you speak about the situation of a woman who has lost her husband in Burundi, you are talking politics.' Security considerations are important too while the MEP stresses that a proper analysis of events can only come with time: 'At the moment we are limited to reporting the facts. And it is only when the facts are verified that one can begin to interpret them.' The news items broadcast by the station rely on agency dispatches confirmed by a network of local people who call in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of such sensitivities and in an effort to find as much common ground as possible, the radio station gives music top billing. This has the added advantage of helping to attract listeners. It also offers general programmes on African roots, sport, culture and educational themes, in addition to its news items. It is currently broadcasting for six hours a day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pierre Pradier says he would like to see an end to the 'navel gazing' of Burundi's population. 'We want to show that peace is possible, by showing how it is progressing elsewhere: in Haiti, for example, where there is a legitimate President now, and amongst the Chiapas in Mexico.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But, like many fledgling stations, finding enough funds from donors to guarantee its future is a worry. The station's current ECHO grant runs out in September 1996. Indeed, the project, classified under emergency aid, was atypical for the humanitarian aid office. But Mr Pradier is hoping that continued support will come from one of the EU's budget lines. He believes that the Union is a particularly suitable donor because it tends to be less 'colonialistic' than some others. He also raises the possibility of seeking funds from private donors such as the Fondation de France. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking to the future of the station, Pierre Pradier argues that they cannot let the project 'drop' and hopes eventually to see it being handed over to local broadcasters, assuming 'they are people we can depend on'. The signs so far are encouraging. He would also like to see Radio Hope's programme content broadened to include game shows, with radios offered as prizes for the winners. As far as he is concerned, the more people who tune in, the better! _</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joint Assembly resolution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ACP/Ku Joint Assembly is pushing for EC institutions and Lom&eacute; signatories to be more supportive of media issues. A resolution on the role of communications media in the development and consolidation of democracy in ACP states. passed by the Assembly in March, contained the following points:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - freedom of expression and free communications and media are vital to the development of a democratic society;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - more ACP countries should give opposition parties access to the media' notably where this is controlled by the state;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - all candidates and political parties should be given access to the media in a 'balanced and fair manner'; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - laws which restrict press freedom and the electoral process should be repealed;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - any threat of physical attack against media organisations or their employees should be investigated by the authorities, with those responsible being brought to justice;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the media should be impartial, providing accurate information during elections, helping to educate the electorate, explaining the importance of elections, giving information on where, when and how to vote, and explaining the secret ballot;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - EU assistance for free and a fair elections - and a free media sector in ACP countries - should be increased. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Catholic radio in Southern Africa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Antonio Pacheco</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this abridged article, the author, who is a Portuguese journalist, gives details of two church-supported local radio projects in Southern Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the end of the 1980s, the Social Communication Department of IMBISA, the conference of Catholic bishops in Southern Africa (a kind of SADC for Roman Catholics) embarked on a local radio project. It had a two-pronged approach. First, it involved setting up a network of small community radio stations. The local population were involved, sharing responsibility for making programmes and broadcasting information and news about everyday life in the remotest places. In some cases, the programme content was retransmitted at a provincial or even national level. The second aspect was that it was supplemented by the creation of flexible and independent associations of journalists/presenters. They formed information agencies operating as a network to link up local radio stations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At that time, the main concern in Southern Africa was to rid South Africa of apartheid. There was also a desire to promote freedom of expression in Angola and Mozambique. Given that radio was (and still is) the most important means of communication in the region, the idea was to set up a regional network capable of overcoming all the constraints ranging from legal bans and restrictions on broadcasting to widespread illiteracy. The ultimate objective was to set up a Catholic radio station based in Swaziland. This project did not go ahead, however, because it was too expensive to finance and, above all, because it was dependent on the regional Catholic hierarchy. It proved difficult to reconcile the various ideological views and sensitivities of bishops in the various countries of the region. There was also a growing feeling amongst the Christian communities that the underlying need was not for a radio station which would be a vehicle for bishops' views, but rather a media system that served the people, offering recreation, training and information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio Pax</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another local radio project of interest, which is now up and running, involved reviving Radio Pax, the private Catholic radio station which made a significant contribution during the 1 960s to the struggle for a free Mozambique. The operation closed down in 1977 but the experience was not forgotten and 16 years later, the decision was made to bring the station back on air. Those behind the new project took advantage of the trend towards greater political openness in the country. Their aim was to offer a credible and informative alternative, which, they hoped, would be up and running in time for the elections scheduled for October 1994. A course was run between July and September 1994 which brought together young presenters chosen by small communities on the outskirts of Beira, Chimoio, Nampula, Quelimane and Maputo. The course involved honing the participants' presentation skills and providing practical training in technical subjects, and programme and information preparation. This was how the first association of young independent Christian journalists came into being.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For various reasons, including red-tape and customs regulations, the  new Radio Pax was unable to broadcast in the run-up to the general election. However, the young journalists, who received their training at various locations, were able to act as important independent sources of information. This was channelled to Maputo and used as backup for a number of international press officials and observers. The information relayed by the young presenters in the provinces made it possible to publish a newsletter which was circulated throughout the country, using fax, religious channels and a variety of other means.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio Pax is now in operation, although it faces major technical problems. It is based in a community centre in Inhamizua, 20 km from Beira. The station has already done important work in gathering information about local traditions, and has broadcast programmes aimed particularly at women and young people in suburban areas. The network also incorporates Mozambique's Radio Encontro, which broadcasts from Nampula in conjunction with the Anchilo training centre. There are plans for further local radio stations in Maputo in the south, Quelimane and Chimolo in the centre and Pemba in the north.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio Pax is managed entirely by the Association of Independent Young Christian Journalists in Beira. In terms of training, the current preoccupation is to teach the young people involved how to manage the small radio stations which have been made available to them, and to set up local self financing systems. Although equipment is important, what really counts in this project is the training of the presenters. Working in close collaboration with the community, it is they who are in the front linepromoting the inalienable right of free expression.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Voice of the Disabled in Chad!</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Mand Rya&iuml;ra Ngarara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Support Group for the Disabled in Chad (AEHPT) was set up in 1987 with the assistance of the International Christian Service for Peace (EIRENE), which has its headquarters in Germany. By coming together to form a group, disabled people hoped to take charge of their lives and break down the wall of silence that surrounds them. However, despite setting up various workshops (welding workshops, small printing works, musical groups) and publishing an information newsletter, entitled 'Perspectives'. the AEHPT has been unable to improve the image of disabled people within Chad society and has failed to  raise awareness that the work done by the disabled is not only of value, but deserves due recognition. From this status quo sprang the idea of broadcasting a national weekly radio programme called 'The Voice of the Disabled'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two reasons why radio was chosen as the communication medium: firstly, the very strong oral tradition of the country, together with the population's weak purchasing power, which make access to newspapers difficult, means that radio remains the most appropriate medium for reaching a wide audience; and secondly, radio programmes are not difficult to produce, since they do not require vast technical, financial or human resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Letting the disabled have their say</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially launched by the AEHPT, The Voice of the Disabled is now jointly produced and broadcast by four associations actively involved in defending the interests of those with disabilities. It is broadcast nationwide every Monday at peak listening times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The programme is not, however, aimed solely at those with disabilities but, on the contrary, seeks to increase awareness in Chad society as a whole. It also acts as a platform from which to urge the authorities to take concrete measures to help this section of the population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, more than a year after its launch, The Voice of the Disabled is enjoying tremendous success, with ever larger numbers of people, from all walks of life, tuning in. For the disabled themselves it provides a vast source of information, explaining the facts behind the causes of their disabilities and giving advice on how to prevent such disabilities and what can be done to treat them, and it keeps people informed about  what is happening within the various associations for the disabled, giving information about the activities, projects and special events that are taking place. As far as the rest of the population is concerned, The Voice of the Disabled has helped to raise the profile of disabled people in Chad. Slowly but surely, people's preconceptions are beginning to change and one of the programme's greatest achievements has been to eradicate gradually the negative image which people used to have of disabilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, the lamentable fact remains that this programme is broadcast solely in French, and this is why plans are now in the pipeline to broadcast The Voice of the Disabled in both Arabic and Sara - Chad's two national languages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.R.N. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">TV documentaries and development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Africa Express experiment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Richard Synge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'Africa Express' documentory series mounted by Channel4, an independent British TV station, has done more than just put a new slant on news provided by state-run African channels. it has also created jobs for African producers and reporters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Television viewers in Africa will soon get the chance to see documentaries on African current affairs and development topics which have hitherto only been seen on British TV sets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Channel Four's Africa Express programme has recently concluded its third series to much critical acclaim in Britain. it included items on a surprisingly diverse range of topics. One film showed how a cash-strapped Congolese prison saves money by sending its prisoners home one day in every month, and included lively interviews with the governor and the prisoners themselves as well as footage of the grim prison conditions. Others focused on the flourishing free currency market in Zaire, the spread of South Africa's 'shebeen' culture into the country's upmarket suburbs, political battles in Namibia over the rights to manage historic tourist sites and the Nigerian military government's blatant attempts to censor television reporting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The latest series supplemented the work of British film crews by incorporating several documentaries that were made entirely by African production teams. Special funding for this element of the Africa Express project came from the environmental television distribution agency TVE. As a result, Africa Express hired four African directors and used African-based crews to film half of the 24 films in the series.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other innovative part of the project was that the programmes are now becoming available to viewers in Africa at the lowest possible cost. To promote this concept of 'media feedback', TVE has been actively marketing the series to non-governmental organisations and facilitating arrangements for the distribution of the cassettes to African broadcasting stations, both state-owned and private.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'It is a way forward for us, because nothing like this has been done before,' says Raphael Tuju, a Kenyan film producer who runs a video resource centre in Nairobi, marketing documentaries to local broadcasting stations and the educational sector. 'There are too few opportunities for producers in African countries to break into the international networks. The subjects we cover are rarely of interest to the distribution companies, the differences in technology are too wide and getting wider, and there are not enough African producers who have reached the professional level to compete with their counterparts abroad.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peter Gill, who edited Africa Express for Channel Four, welcomed the opportunity to help promote the independent film industry in Africa. 'It was thoroughly stimulating,' he says, adding that one of the constant challenges was 'finding ways to bridge the gap between what is technically possible in Africa and the standards required for a European television production.' The four African directors hired for the series were two South Africans, Eddie Mbalo and Teddy Mattera, a Zimbabwean, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albert Chimedza, and a Namibian, Bridget Pickering. They all worked directly under Peter Gill's management and in contact with a producer in the field. Gill was impressed with the level of journalistic and technical expertise available in Africa and the dedication of the teams working in difficult situations. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even where the production teams were British, all the 24 films in the latest Africa Express series used African journalists and presenters. They researched and organised most of the films in advance of the actual shoot by the visiting film crews. Cameroonian journalist, Emmanual Wotany, played a prominent role in the films on Congo and Zaire. Kenyan reporter Joseph Warungu proposed and presented a film on the hazards of skin-bleaching in The Gambia. The presenter of the programme on Nigeria, Toyin Fane-Kayode, bravely challenged the censorship of the country's military regime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An all-African camera and sound team led by Lawrence Mbada and Mandla Mlambo was responsible for the four films in the series that were shot by the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC). In the extremely difficult conditions of Angola and Namibia, an experienced SABC cameraman was used. Here there was a need to ensure that the less experienced directors were not further challenged by having to work with an inexperienced crew.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For TVE's Robert Lamb, one of the main breakthroughs made by Africa Express was in the agreement of Channel Four to collaborate both with the SABC and with TVE itself, which insisted on the involvement and participation of African journalists, film-makers and technicians. He was impressed by the results and hopes that thee could be 'an even greater African involvement in another series, if one is commissioned.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The latest series was a success, being regularly watched by up to two million viewers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Channel Four granted broadcasting rights for the series in lowincome countries to TVE and Worldview International Foundation as well as the non-broadcast rights to TVE and its partners in the third world. These   agreements allow TVE to provide the tapes at nominal cost to a network of video resource centres, similar to that run by Raphael Tuju in Nairobi. Such centres seek to get development-oriented documentary films shown by the local broadcasting stations but survive by supplying the needs of schools, colleges, non-governmental organisations and other categories of 'multipliers'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most successful documentary centres is the Film Resource Unit (FRU) in Johannesburg. From its origins as a way of sharing bootlegged foreign films and TV programmes during the political repression of the 1980s, FRU is now a major distributor of educational and documentary films.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To overcome the inexperience of state-owned African broadcasting networks in showing programmes of developmental relevance to their societies, video resource centres have to provide their own sponsorship. 'It is difficult for us to compete with the likes of Coca Cola, which will sponsor programmes like soap operas,' says Raphael Tuju, 'but one way round this obstacle is to sponsor a programme and at the same time advertise our services. The business we generate this way usually means that we can at least break even.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Film-making capacity in Africa has been severely limited by most governments' domination of the broadcasting media and a deep and institutional reluctance to encourage independent local productions. The mainly government-owned television stations rarely have a policy to buy in locallymade programmes and tend to look to Britain, France or the US for outside material, which is often dumped on the market at low prices, making it an even harder challenge for local producers to generate the funds to make their own programmes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decline of the once-active film industry in Nigeria, in particular, means that in English-speaking Africa, the field is now dominated by South Africa and Zimbabwe. In French-speaking Africa, the continuation of subsidies  has kept an 'art house' tradition alive, especially in Senegal and Burkina Faso. In most of the continent, however, the only development-oriented programmes shown to the public tend to be made by the governments' own propaganda departments rather than by independent film-makers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where there is a lack of access  to local broadcasting media, African film-makers continue to experiment with making their own dramas and documentaries, showing their work on video in village halls and schools. 'At the grassroots, African film-making can be stimulated simply by consumer demand,' says Russel Honeyman, who publishes the African Film and TV Yearbook in Harare. 'But local products do not usually translate into international products. Film and television is a global industry and film-makers should not insist on being too parochial. There is room for greater international collaboration.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Based on the experience of the latest Africa Express series, TVE now plans to build on its achievements. In May 1996, it exhibited the series to the directors of African television stations at a conference in Windhoek, Namibia, and discussed arrangements for distribution of the cassettes. It is also planning to  participate in a workshop for French speaking West African nations in Senegal under a grant from the European Union's human rights division. The consultative process will continue with a meeting of the African video resource centre network at the end of 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TVE's Robert Lamb hopes that the success of Africa Express might encourage international funding agencies in Europe to take up the challenge of funding films made in Africa for African consumption. He doubts that Channel Four on its own would take such a risk. Constraints are, perhaps inevitably, imposed on TVE's concept by the fact that programmes produced for European audiences use a production and editorial structure that requires 'post production' in European capitals. 'Although we came out owning the rights to the programmes in Africa, Channel Four still had 80% of the control over the production and editorial decisions,' he acknowledges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert Lamb is fully aware of the challenges that lie ahead. 'National broadcasters are in a parlous financial position and are still, for the most part, stifled by government controls,' he notes. 'Africans who have received formal training rarely find the funds to apply their newly-acquired skills.' But Mr Lamb and his TVE organisation are convinced that there will be increasing demand for more programmes like Africa Express, as much from Africa itself as from European audiences. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.S. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Internet and the South</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Renaud de la Brosse</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, who works at the Panos Institute in Paris, reflects on the pros and cons of new information technology for countries in the South and on their chances of success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Internet has become such a craze amongst users in Third-World countries (researchers, teachers, businesses,, liberal professions, etc.) that it amply demonstrates that a real and genuine need is being met, despite adverse comments from its detractors. The rapid increase in the number of connections to the network in the North is mirrored by an exponential growth in the South. Africa is a good example of the possibilities offered by access to the global network whilst at the same time revealing the technical and financial restrictions facing countries in the South.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost all of Africa's 55 countries are today connected to the network, from South Africa, which has over 800.000 computers, to Uganda, which has just a few thousand. The importance of the Internet in Africa must be viewed less in terms of the number of computers (means of access to the Internet) and more in terms of the constant increase it represents in numbers of subscribers to the network. In the last six months alone, the number of subscribers increased by over 50%, whilst the increase in France, for example, was only 20%. Another telling figure is the number of host computers per 1.000 inhabitants, which rose by 147% in South Africa between 1994 and 1995 whereas the increase for Taiwan and Australia was 83% and 50%, respectively!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because it is under-supplied in communications equipment, Africa is starting out with a disadvantage compared with other continents. However, the recent G7 Conference on Information and Development, which took place in mid-May in Midrand in South Africa, brought together 40 countries and 18 intergovernmental organizations and made it possible 'to build a bridge between developed countries and developing countries' so that the latter are not excluded from the world of new information technologies. The benefit to be gained from the Net for the Black Continent lies in the fact that African surfers are anxious to break free  from their scientific, cultural or economic isolation which comes not only from relationships between Africa and the rest of the world, but often from relationships between regions and countries on the African continent itself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Precursors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As in Europe and the United States, scientists and researchers in Africa are the first to have understood the importance of the Net and there are now - in French speaking Africa - networks such as the Intertropical Computer Network, which groups together approximately 3000 surfers in 11 countries. The importance of the Internet for these researchers is manifold; in most countries, the education system is in grave crisis, essentially because of diminishing budget resources which for years, on account of structural adjustment measures, have been melting away. This explains the absence of libraries or documentation centres. The Internet is therefore becoming a stopgap measure, offering access to all current scientific production and giving African researchers the chance to publicise and gain recognition for their work outside their own continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interesting experiments in North/South cooperation are also being set up, with the French-speaking Agency for Higher Education and Research currently establishing what it calls a 'virtual French-speaking campus', a kind of vast library to which affiliated universities will be connected. The project is also justified in economic terms since, through the medium of electronic mail (e-mail), which goes hand in hand with the Internet, exchanges of information will be cheaper than by fax, for example, which costs at least five times as much for the same amount of information transmitted. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside the academic community, heads of African businesses are also launching themselves into cyberspace, particularly in the case of several hundred of them who have grouped together within a West-African Business Network. Internet's financial viability in the South is dependent on membership of African businesses and multinational companies established in Africa. The cost of subscription is still beyond the means of private individuals and only 'institutional' subscribers are currently able to guarantee payment in the short term.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A useful tool</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the possibilities on offer remain to be explored, so the Internet can therefore be an important medium for promoting African culture - Niger has set up a Web via which it is possible to visit its archaeological sites and Benin has just set up a server dedicated to voodoo. In general terms, there is the challenge of mastering content, in other words the African suffers should not restrict themselves to a  passive use (sleeking information from the North) but should, on the contrary, move progressively as players providing content and information. For the countries of the South, it is a matter of mastering information and preserving their culture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The range of possibilities offered by the Net is limitless. Its development in Africa or in the South in general does, however, run up against a number of obstacles, including those of both a technical and financial nature. The importance of the Internet lies in being able to transmit greater quantities of information more cheaply than by using other communications techniques. However, the required technology is expensive and therein lies the principal difference between the North and the South.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The infrastructure which would permit rapid, longterm expansion of the Internet is nowhere near being installed in Africa, just as in the other developing countries. The continent is still under-equipped in terms of telephone lines; according to a survey by the BDT (Telecommunications Development Office), the number of main telephone lines per 100 inhabitants is less than 0.5 in sub-Saharan Africa, and in terms of equipment providing access to the Net (computer, modem, etc.). In real terms, this makes access to the network much more expensive for a user in the South than for one in the North. All these imported electronic goods are much more expensive than in the West, and this is without taking account of the additional cost, in most African countries, imposed by tariff barriers on IT goods, which are regarded with great suspicion by the authorities who perceive them as a potential danger more than as essential development tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fear is that the remote transmission of data might pose a threat to less than democratic regimes. Under the pretext of 'the control of information-based wealth', a State may decide to interfere with the 'consent' or even 'suppress' a site for producing and exchanging information deemed contrary to its interests. Once more, the question of freedom of expression arises in different terms in the South and North. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Panos Institute</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Panos Institute is a non-profit-making association set up in 1988. Together with its counterparts in London and Washington, the Paris Panos Institute founded Panos International The Institute's aim is to strengthen, particularly in Africa, local expression and information capabilities. Within the context of sustainable and  better-shared development, it aims to promote the emergence of a more democratic culture and of more democratic debate. To this end, the Panos Institute runs two main programmes in west Africa from Paris and its branch offices (Senegal, Mali, Chad and Ghana).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The programme to support pluralism in matters of information, which has four major objectives: - to expand and consolidate the legal, institutional and statutory framework of pluralist-type information - to increase professionalism in the media - to give institutional support to authors in west Africa who promote pluralism in information - to contribute to the production and circulation of more diversified and more qualified information on certain priority topics such as the environment, human rights, management and prevention of conflict, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The migration and cooperation programme seeks to enhance the value of the contribution made by citizens from Third World countries residing in the rich nations to development in their countries of origin. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union, UNESCO and the ACCT, American foundations (Ford, Rockefeller) or German foundations, and bilateral cooperation agreements (Denmark, Netherlands, Norway, Germany, France) support the actions of the Panos Institute. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The press in Africa as a tool in the democratic  process</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Florence Win&eacute;ry</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although radio is 'king of the media' in Africa, the press is increasingly becoming an active player in the democratic process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This has been seen particularly over the last six years in the French-speaking African states where a burgeoning of political parties has been matched by the appearance of an unusually large number of  newspapers. In these countries, the press still requires rudimentary political stability - in contrast to English-speaking countries, where it has a much longer tradition and can nowadays be generally regarded as the 'Fourth Estate'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria is a good illustration of this. One need only cite the press campaigns mounted there to protest against the Federation's membership of the Islamic Conference Organisation in 1986, and more recently, the support given to Moshood Abiola. The vitality of the Nigerian press is something that deserves to be emphasised. Despite a series of measures over the years aimed at suppressing it (not exclusively by the military authorities) it is still much in evidence. There are demonstrations to support it, and it has 'gone underground' at times, continuing to publish clandestinely. The journalists' struggle intensified in June 1993, when it was recommended that they should exercise 'discretion and self-regulation'. In spite of the problems, the Nigerian press endeavours to remain a source of pressure in Nigeria's political and social arena.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Returning to the French-speaking media, we see that the pace of expansion varies considerably from one country to another. In Benin, for example, current discussions are centred  strongly on opening up the country's airwaves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Is a private press a partisan press?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is debatable whether the private press is truly independent. In the political sphere, it is often highly partisan while 'economic' independence - in the sense of access to the materials needed to produce a newspaper - is not always possible. Printing and distribution are often subject to monopolies which may constitute a form of disguised censorship for the publishers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initiatives aimed at setting up press associations in one form or another have been launched in an attempt to overcome these problems. This helps explain why the SEP (publishers' Society) was established. This group, which hopes to extend its activities throughout the region, is based in Benin where the democratisation process (and the proliferation of press titles) first begun. In many countries, media associations have already been formed covering specific areas such as radio, the press and publishing. There are plans for similar organisations in the field of television. Sometimes, they have printing facilities which are available to other private publications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The principal challenge facing a general information-based newspaper is that it should appear regularly and on time. The next stage, ideally, is for it to be able to increase its distribution. Initially, a number of newspapers only came out monthly or even every two months. After appearing regularly for several months - and thereby achieving  relative financial stability - they then moved to weekly publication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most countries, a new legal framework was also adopted, although the application of the legislation has often proved laborious. This is particularly true of the setting up of regulatory authorities. In Senegal, where the media was previously governed by a law passed in 1979 (and amended in 1986), new legislation was enacted at the beginning of 1996. The measure was prompted by concerns over ethical standards, a demand for a more 'responsible' approach, a desire to prevent monopolies developing, and fears of excessive foreign involvement. This year has also seen the implementation of media law amendments in Cote d'lvoire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The focus of the work of many newly-formed organisations has been the drawing up of a professional code of ethics, with a view to defining the basis of the journalist's profession. In Cote d'lvoire, the OLPED (Press Freedom and Professional Ethics Monitor) was created in September 1995 in Yamoussoukro at a seminar on journalists' responsibilities during elections. The OLPED is made up of 13 members representing publishers, civil society and the nation's journalists. Although the 'Monitor' has only moral authority, it has had considerable influence on journalists' professional consciences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The OLPED held weekly working sessions up to March 1996 and now meets every two months. One of its main achievements has been to define the criteria whereby a responsible attitude can be guaranteed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vigilance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The press can expect to be subject to rigorous supervision during an election campaign - as happened recently in Benin. Indeed, Benin's press has attracted special attention from various national institutions including, most notably, the NGO community. This interest resulted In the organisation of seminars on journalism during an election period, designed to avoid incitements to violence. The HAAC (Audi  ovisual and Communications High Authority), responsible for statutory control of the media in the run-up to and during the campaign, took part in these meetings which were aimed at increasing awareness and highlighting the heavy responsibility carried by the media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite a number of incidents during the campaign (which were immediately reported) and although the situation threatened to get out of hand while the country was obliged to wait for the publication of the results of the second round, the press conducted itself in a fairly moderate manner. It should be recalled that there was a great deal of apprehension in Benin before the results were announced with a widespread fear that violence might break out. These fears were given extensive coverage by the media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The HAAC proved to be central to the electoral process and, ultimately, the press was congratulated by most political leaders in Benin, and by those from abroad who were involved in organising and observing the poll, for the role that it played in the process. By and large, it concentrated on portraying popular expectations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During an election period, the print media is an essential vehicle of opinion and power, justifying the creation of special titles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, the private press is playing an increasingly important role in the democratic process and the question of its survival appears to have attracted more serious attention from the authorities. In Senegal, a subsidy has been granted to a number of newspapers, subject to certain conditions, and Mali set an example this year by establishing a private press aid fund, with Cote d'lvoire about to follow suit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The political context which has favoured this flourishing of the private press has had a marked influence on the way it has developed and on the editorial content of most journals - which is strongly focused on politics and 'national' issues. The press has barely had a chance to find its feet on the media scene and in the political process, and it has had to contend with huge  economic constraints. Low circulation figures are one key reason for its precarious position - newspapers are read only by an educated, urban minority. However, the press is now embarking on a new course, attempting to establish a loyal readership with a view to guaranteeing its long-term survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Independence and integrity ought, of course, to be the hallmark of journalism, although currently it is not  possible to say that the profession is dissociated entirely from political militancy. In the past, the press has played  a part in undermining the national consensus by promoting division and, on occasion, fomenting exclusion and confrontation. The issue today is whether the sector can now take its place in states governed by the rule of law, representing public opinion and helping to bring about a rapprochement of ideas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.M. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Benin's press on parole?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Richard Lawson T&egrave;vi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When President Mathieu K&eacute;rekou of Benin granted permission to set up private newspapers in his country, the result was an upsurge of new titles. The following article is written by a journalist who works on  one of these publications ('Tam-Tam Express'). He offers an assessment of the way the private press has developed in Benin, and in particular of the ethical and economic challenges it needs to overcome in the new democratic order.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1988, President K&eacute;r&eacute;kou's revolutionary regime authorised the setting-up of private newspapers in Benin. At the beginning, only a limited degree of freedom was granted to new publications but things have evolved quickly. 'La Gazette du Golfe' and 'Tam-Tam Express', the first independent weeklies to be set up (two years prior to the 1990 national conference), went beyond what the Marxist regime had in mind and effectively achieved press freedom in the face of opposition from the Ministry of Information and Propaganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalists took advantage of their initial limited freedom to publish reports about political and financial scandals and this, not surprisingly, gave a new lease of life to the media more generally in Benin. In particular, journalists from the national radio and television  channels were quick to switch their style of reporting, dispensing with the stereotyped formal language which had previously characterised the public-service media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meanwhile, several politically oriented publications came into being ('L'Opinion', 'La Recade', 'Le Canard du Golfe'). This development gave newfound dynamism to the emergence of a free and independent press in the crucial period prior to Benin's national conference, which was held in February 1990.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To date, 170 titles have been registered with the Ministry of the Interior, although barely half of these have been published more than five times. Some appeared only once and many have existed in name only. Publications which have had only a sporadic existence are legion and, in the years between 1991 and 1996, when political power alternated between Presidents Soglo and Kerekou, independent privatepress titles flourished. Unfortunately, they faced a number of problems - such as prohibitive paper and printing costs and poor distribution networks. The result was that many operators were financially ruined as a result of their decision to venture into this area of publication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currently, the Benin market has only 20 or so titles which appear on a   reasonably regular basis. For the most part, these are two-weekly and monthly publications which concentrate their activities in Cotonou. The audiovisual media are conspicuous by their absence, despite the provisions of the Constitution adopted in December 1990, which gave special powers to the HAAC (Audiovisual and Communications High Authority), particularly as regards guaranteeing 'press freedom' and 'opening up the audiovisual sector'. No one knows when this law will actually be implemented, but it does appear that the Benin Parliament, which sits in Porto Novo, has been giving more attention to this issue since General K&eacute;r&eacute;kou's accession to power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The relationship between the press and the state</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governmen/press relationships are not particularly healthy at the moment. The usual reflex of authorities in any country is to control or manipulate the press wherever possible. At the ORTB (Benin Broadcasting and Television Office), a branch of the public sector, journalists often complain of the pressures they face in processing information. The same is said at the national daily, 'La Nation'. Fortunately, such pressures have not always shaken the resolve of the professional journalists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The private press has a different problem. In this case, it is the newspaper proprietors who look to collaborate with the political parties. As one publishing editor has said, 'Our problem is more one of allegiance than of harassment'. Virtually all publications are political vehicles for one or other group - which makes nonsense of the code of ethics that is supposed to govern the profession. This phenomenon was most marked during the election period. All the titles that had been in 'hibernation' came to life again and new titles were born, only to disappear once the poll was over. This is also a reflection of the very meagre resources available to most private publishers. Those who do have sufficient means are usually quick to offer allegiance - for example to particular businesses - in order to position themselves more favourably from an economic  standpoint. Thus, some of the press rather overtly promotes particular economic interests. Others assiduously woo politicians and, in some cases, use blatant blackmailing techniques. In the latter situation, the 'market' operates on the basis that a file (sometimes assembled from a number of documents) will not be published if an endorsement is given or - what is worse - in return for hard cash. The justification for this shameful practice is that the market is highly restricted, sales of newspapers bring in very little income and advertising is non-existent but the newspaper has to keep going nonetheless. This situation also explains why defamation actions are frequently settled 'out of court' by the parties to the dispute.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A profession fraught with difficulties</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another explanation for the existence of blackmail is the lack of training. The majority of journalists working for private publications come into the profession for want of something better to do, after they have finished their university courses. One experienced journalist refers to these people as mere 'hirelings'. It is only once they have entered the profession that they learn the basics through joining journalists' associations and by receiving support from some of the bilateral-cooperation missions and foundations that are operating in Benin. The country does not, itself, have any colleges of journalism to speak of. Only recently, the national daily newspaper inaugurated a course for young journalists receiving their training on the country's various publications. This course will be spread over one year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young journalists working at the national agency, the Benin Press Agency, are trained by WANAD (the West-African National Agencies Development) centre, under the auspices of UNESCO, which is subregional in vocation. The 20 or so trainees have no clear idea of what awaits them when they finish their course - whether all, or just some of them, will be taken on full-time by the agency. Those who are not kept on at the end of their training period are likely to  swell the ranks of the 'hirelings' - who seem fated to remain at that level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new administration will have to tackle the more general question of aid to the press in order to give a fresh boost to the private sector. This has been facing a real struggle since the devaluation of the CFA franc. The effect of the devaluation was to increase the cost of all the inputs needed for publishing newspapers. A new initiative of the part of the authorities would make it possible to offer more work to journalists and to improve considerably the quality of work they produce. To quote the publisher of a private newspaper: 'The influence of money must be curbed. To do this, the state must grant genuine aid to the press so that the profession can be genuinely free and objective and thereby fulfil the important role it has to play in the consolidation of democracy'. R.L.T. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Current media in the English-speaking Caribbean</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Dr Marjan de Bruin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this abridged article, who leaches et the Caribbean institute of Media and Communication (CARIMAC) at the Mona (Jamaica) Campus of the University of the West Indies, focuses on some of the peculiarities of press and media development in small island Caribbean states.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The English-speaking</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean comprises thirteen independent nations that are members of Caricom (the Caribbean Community) and a few  remaining small dependent territories. The total population is about six million. In most of these countries, the majority of the population is of African descent although in Trinidad and Guyana, about half the people are of Asian (Indian) origin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sea, whose name unites the islands, is a serious barrier to communication and social interchange between them. it takes as long to go by plane from Barbados to Jamaica (1200 miles direct, but 2000 miles via Miami) as it takes to cross the Atlantic from Paris to New York (3600 miles) - and the latter journey is usually cheaper! And until fairly recently, telephone calls from neighbouring Caribbean countries without a common language were routed through London, Paris or Miami.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The distances make communications difficult. Mail can take weeks, telephone circuits are often overloaded and, in some countries, unscheduled power cuts often disrupt computer systems at the most inopportune moments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Communication and the media</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Caribbean has a strong oral tradition. This, together with poverty and an estimated general literacy rate of about 80%, makes radio the most popular medium. Recent studies show,  for instance, that 99% of Jamaican households reported having at least one radio at home. In Jamaica alone, three large national radio stations between them broadcast nine hours of prime time call-in radio.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In all Caribbean countries, alongside the mass media, 'alternative' medias play an important role in communication for social change. In some countries, the term simply connotes non mainstream operations. In others it refers to alternative formats which are found in the mainstream media. The term also represents the use of other communication behaviour - popular theatre, dance, music, oral history, story telling. It has been suggested that the increased use of alternative media and alternative uses of mainstream media are an indication of the audience's dissatisfaction with the mainstream mass media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most English-speaking Caribbean countries, the government owns some of the major mass media, especially electronic. Only recently has the private sector developed its own strongholds in radio and television. Print has always been an area of mainly private ownership. Only the larger countries have daily newspapers; morning or evening papers - although usually not more than two or three. In the smaller countries the press consists of weeklies, or bi-weeklies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government ownership</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ownership or control of media houses by governments is recognised as  a serious obstacle to true investigative journalism.The economies of all Caribbean countries are heavily dependent on tourism. Stories on environmental hazards and crises which might affect this essential source of income are subject to explicit or implicit (selfl censorship.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government ownership in some instances means policy discontinuity over time; each new regime imports its own set of administrators and sometimes even entire newsroom staffs. In other instances, where the same party has ruled for a long time, positions within the media are very stable because they are tied to political loyalty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Private ownership, however, does not mean an absence of potential pressure or political influences. In Trinidad &amp; Tobago, the country's oldest daily - The Trinidad Guardian - recently lost its Managing Director, its editor and six of its top editorial executives, after the owners - a supermarket chain - pressurised the editor to moderate criticisms of the country's new administration. The owners also tried to convince the managing director and editor to dismiss a columnist who was a disaffected and now hostile former member of the new ruling party. In apparent justification, the owners produced a document which suggested that it was the policy of the Guardian not to endanger the commercial prospects of its owners by injudicious criticism of the powers that be. Caribbean journalists attacked the Guardian ownership for what some saw as an attempt to turn a respected newspaper into the public relations arm of a commercial congLom&eacute;rate. Despite the protests, the Guardian's new editor, a veteran of forty years in journalism, argued that the proprietors had good reason to interfere with his predecessors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The region's oldest daily, The Jamaica Gleaner (established in 1834) went even further. In an editorial it said: 'In our view the owners have a right to oppose the way in which the judgment of the Editor and others is exercised. The right of the Guardian Board to query content cannot be questioned. It is impossible for a newspaper to be run   without the input of the Board of Governors.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small markets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most English-speaking Caribbean countries are relatively small in population as well as area. The number of media organizations is limited. The limited size of the market has important implications for the financial basis of the media, especially the part that is privately-owned. It limits the horizontal mobility of media workers - there are simply not that many options - and it makes the relationship between media and sources extremely vulnerable. There are not that many sources either. It also means that most Caribbean media houses have very limited resources. Many reporters have to cover a wide range of topics. Specialised reporting for instance on the environment, or health, is usually not feasible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the major problems in the Caribbean media is the high proportion of imported television programming. The region is geographically close to the United States and satellite broad  casting makes access to the Northern networks even easier. In the ten years from 1976 to 1986, the imported content of four large television stations in the region moved from an average of 78.5% to 87%. When the amount of imported content carried by the smaller stations was included, the average increased to 90% of all material televised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Privatisation and new technologies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several of the larger Caribbean countries have seen an explosive growth in the electronic media. Jamaica, which has a population of about 2.5 million living in some 620 000 households, and per capita GDP of $1563, has seen the number of radio stations grow from three to nine and TV stations from one two, in a period of just five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trinidad &amp; Tobago, with 1.2 million inhabitants in 300 000 households, and per capita GDP of $4049, went through a similar process, with seven new radio stations and two new, privately-owned TV stations being set up over the last five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbados, with a population of 260000 living in about 50000 households has long supported two daily newspapers. There are also two TV stations on the island, while viewers can receive television signals from neighbouring islands. This country has the highest per capita GDP in the region ($5562) after The Bahamas ($10,308).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One positive effect of this intensive growth is certainly to be found in the increased employment opportunities for broadcasters. In the past, journalists risked their careers if they disagreed with their employers. Now people have more options. However, increased competition in a relatively small market also enlarges the risk of commercialisation and a lowering of standards. One does not need to undertake in-depth research to discover that locally-produced television is scarce and not always of the highest standard. It is cheaper to buy foreign programming than to produce original content. Some   of the graduates of the Caribbean Institute of Media and Communication, who performed above average during their training and education in print journalism, can be seen sliding down the standards scale once they enter the mass media as working journalists. Similarly, the standards of newsrooms are not always high. In fairness to the professionals, it must be said that the decline in standards is partly due to the lack of resources in editorial departments. The major newsrooms in radio and television in Jamaica, still depend on typewriters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development of new technologies has contributed to two almost opposite movements. On the one hand, greater access to worldwide networks has widened horizons. On the other, the introduction of cable TV offers, at least in principle, the possibility for small-scale communication initiatives, such as community radio stations either for geographical communities or communities of interest (for example, people or groups interested in the environment).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Satellite dishes, VCRs and computers are breaking down traditional communication borders. In the Jamaican capital, Kingston, 28% of households have a dish and 21% a computer. The picture is very different just 20 miles away, in the neighbouring but rural parish of St Thomas, where the figures are just 1% and 2% respectively. New technologies are affordable for the happy few and are increasing the gap between the 'haves' and 'have-nots' of information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In all of these societies, computers sit uneasily in otherwise nondigital environments. The information that one works with is usually not computerised. Many records are still handwritten, with data kept on index cards. Computerisation is a costly process for which there is rarely a budget.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the hardware is available, it is easy to retrieve data from non Caribbean sources. At the same time, it is barely possible - at least at the moment - to tap into Caribbean data sources. There is no commercial Caribbean software. Page make-up and layout programmes, for instance, rely on  non-Caribbean electronic clip-art-images and symbols. It may simply be a matter of time before local products develop, but currently, the main constraints are to do with lack of funds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalism</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How is journalism faring in this environment ? The Caribbean context gives journalism a special professional profile. The small size of Caribbean societies has implications for the use of sources. Access is easier, but it also creates sharper dilemmas where loyalty is concerned: most sources are people you know personally and who know you. Anonymity is almost impossible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because the societies are so small, you will meet many of the same people in different roles on different occasions. The small scale of the market makes all enterprises in media and journalism very vulnerable to market forces: the withdrawal of one or two major advertisers would endanger the chances of survival of some media houses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The situation of the press is most marginal in the smaller countries. In Antigua (population 66000), radio and television are controlled either by the Government or by people with close links to those in power. One opposition paper, a trade union publication, has survived several legal assaults by the authorities over the years. The other, little more than a newsletter, has managed to survive into its second year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Grenada (population 91000), journalists complain about police harassment of reporters on duty, and in most of the smaller countries, journalists are uneasily aware of the continuing hostility of long-ruling political parties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The working environment of journalists in Caribbean media organisations is usually more modest compared to that of journalists in rich countries. There is less technology, smaller staffs and lower salaries. In the smaller Caribbean countries, it is not unusual for journalists to have to combine two jobs. Journalism alone cannot pay the bills.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a sharp difference between rich and poor in most developing countries. For large sections of the population, the big decisions will have nothing to do with buying a second or a third television set.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is more likely to be a simple matter of whether there is food on the table tonight. These different priorities obviously influence a journalist's agenda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In developing economies, this can create serious dilemmas for the journalists: if you know your story is likely to hurt the tourist industry - which happens to be the main national income earner of your country - will pursuing it be a waste of valuable time ? And how do you decide on the relevance of a scoop when people - some of whom are your friends - could lose their jobs ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.d.B.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Sources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hilary Brown (1995): American Media Impact on Jamaican Youth: The Cultural Dependency Thesis in 'Globalization, Communications and Caribbean identity', Edited by Hopeton S. Dunn, Kingston, Jamaica, lan Randle Publishers. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aggrey Brown and Roderick Sanatan !1987). Talking With Whom ? A Report a the State of the Media in the Caribbean. Caribbean Institute of Media and Communication (Carimac), Kingston, Jamaica. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aggrey Brown (1995). Caribbean Cultures and Mass Communication Technology: Re-examining the Cultural/ Dependency Thesis, in 'Globalization, Communications and Caribbean Identity'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Doctoring' the image</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With modern computer technology, it is now very easy for publishers (and film-makers) to dabble with reality. Whereas in the past, you could be reasonably sure that what you saw was a fair representation of what actually happened, today there is no such guarantee.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recently in the United Kingdom, one of the country's regional newspapers came in for criticism when it published a 'doctored' photograph of a well-known opposition politician. He was captured on  film at a social function sitting at a table with a glass of beer in front of him. By the time the paper's computer experts had finished with the photo, it looked as if he was drinking champagne ! When the story broke, the journal thought it expedient to issue an immediate apology. For while  this kind of misrepresentation may appear trivial, in the modern age, image is crucial for those who are involved in public life. Put simply, voters' are more likely to look kindly on beer-drinking politicians than on those whose favourite tipple is champagne.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was a similar case involving an advertisement issued by a well-known car manufacturer. For their publicity in Britain, the company used a landscape photo portraying a selection of their employees. In Poland, the same picture was used but black and Asian workers were no longer to be seen. Their places in the line-up were miraculously taken by people of Caucasian appearance. The advertisers' rather surprising explanation was that this had been a 'mistake'!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other recent victims of 'doctored' pictures or socalled 'photo collages' have included members of the European Parliament and a senior EC official, although these particular misrepresentations received very little publicity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Should consumers of printed or broadcast material be entitled to assume that images are never tampered with ? And if some doctoring is acceptable, where do you draw the line ? The answer to the first question is clearly no. There are certain situations where photo or film enhancement techniques are unobjectionable. We sometimes use them on The Courier cover pages to remove blemishes or fill in gaps which may detract from the main image. In fashion  advertising, it is common for the 'look' of the model to be altered. The aim here is to draw the reader's eye to the page so that their attention can then be focused on the product. More dramatic alterations may even be acceptable if it is evident to the reader that a change has been made. Satirical articles, for example, can sometimes be amusingly illustrated with obviously altered images.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where the practice is reprehensible is where the picture has been changed in a way that leads the reader to draw false conclusions about what he or she is observing. The  classic example of this is where the image of a person captured in one setting is placed against a different backdrop, without the reader being informed. This may be done to give either a more positive or a more negative impression (the latter approach is more usual) but in either case, it is dishonest. If a politician allows himself to be photographed on a Caribbean beach while on mission at the taxpayers' expense, even if he was only there during the lunch break for a quick dip, then he can't really complain. But if the picture was actually taken when he was on holiday in Majorca, and superimposed against a more exotic back  ground, then both the 'victim' and the reader are being cheated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There will always be borderline cases, but in principle, it ought to be possible to draw a reasonably clear distinction between 'right' and 'wrong' in this area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nonetheless, it is likely that distorted images will continue to be presented to us in the future. In pluralist societies, newspapers and broadcasters operate in a fiercely competitive environment and in theory, this should provide a deterrent. If one media organisation is found to have doctored images in a dishonest way, there will always be plenty of others willing to expose the misbehaviour.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In practice, however, the only real deterrent is the likelihood of a drop in circulation, or lower viewing figures. And while consumers may say they disapprove of journalistic dishonesty (whether in photographs or the written word), there is little evidence to suggest that they react by taking their custom elsewhere. Indeed, in some developed countries, the closer a journal sails to the wind, the more likely it is to enjoy a high circulation!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It used to be said that 'the camera never lies'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nowadays, we can't be so certain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Analysis</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Broadening the debate</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In issue 156 of The Courier, we announced the launch of a programme by the European Centre for Development Policy Management on the future of KU-ACP relations beyond Lom&eacute; IV. Here, we publish an abridged text supplied by the ECDPM reporting on progress.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After 20 years, the Lom&eacute; Convention is thought by some not to have lived up to expectations and now that East West rivalry is no longer an issue, many doubt its continued relevance. Questioning, as such, is no bad thing, provided it takes place in a fair and unbiased manner and is not used as a pretext to abandon the acquis  of more than 20 years of cooperation. This is the rationale behind a number of private and official initiatives to redefine KU-ACP cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Consultations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ECDPM's post-tome IV exercise has now been up and running for more than a year. Consultations have been held in more than 20 ACP countries, involving representatives from the private and non-governmental sectors, officials in the National Authorising Offices, EC delegations, regional organisations and research centres. A number of strong impressions have emerged from these interviews. In the first place, the initial comment of many NGOs and private sector representativ  was essentially 'what is in it for us ?'. This points to a lack of knowledge of the Convention in non-governmental circles and suggests that this complicated instrument is not entirely 'user-friendly'. Its government to government character was also criticised. There were calls for ACP-KU relations to be opened up to the private sector and civil society. In this context, experience with decentralised cooperation was seen as encouraging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, the benefits of the Lom&eacute; trade provisions were highlighted with fears being expressed about what would happen after the year 2000. It was felt that at a time when many ACPs  are undergoing structural adjustment, and the private sector is getting its act together, a clearer European commitment in this area would benefit both sides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Various actors from the private, NGO and research communities indicated a willingness to engage in debate on redefining mutual ACP-KU interests and on the design of a new cooperation contract. Some of them had an opportunity to present their views at an ECDPM conference on the future of KU-ACP relations held on 12-14 June.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear that the process of reflection is now firmly under way. At the institutional level, the Joint Assembly began as far back as February 1995, when it launched an action plan to revitalise KU-ACP cooperation. This year, it asked Senator Jean-Louis Firmin of Haiti to draw up a report on the future of the Lom&eacute; Convention. It also requested the Social Partners to tackle the issue at their next annual meeting in November 1996. On the European side, the Commission will present a Green Paper later this year while the ACPs are also studying the question. Last November, the ACP Council resolved that Heads of State should meet before the end of 1997 to agree on a joint position.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Obstacles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this activity suggests a real awareness of what is at stake. Many obstacles have to be overcome, however, if a new type of partnership is to emerge. The main pillars of Europe's commitment to the ACP countries - aid and trade - both appear under threat. It will be necessary to redefine mutual interests - beyond the negative interdependencies - so that they can serve as a basis for a more modern and effective partnership. Greater creativity  will also be required to find new forms of EU support on ACP trade issues that are compatible with World Trade Organisation obligations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An in-depth rethink of ACP-KU cooperation will significantly benefit from inputs by actors traditionally excluded from the discussions - who are anxious to participate in redefining cooperation ties. For instance, in Namibia, NGOs called for formal consultation mechanisms for non-governmental actors. Similarly, economic operators meeting in Trinidad in November called for a new Europe-Caribbean partnership. There should also be a role for applied research conducted in ACP centres. There is already a joint research project on the future of West Africa Europe relations and similar initiatives are being formulated elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The plea for a debate that is open to the key ACP actors should be taken on board by decision-makers and negotiators - and thus far, they have proved receptive. However, two conditions are needed to maintain this fruitful exchange. First, ACP stakeholders need to be able to base their views on full knowledge of the facts and issues. It is essential that the Convention's authors make a major effort to provide more and better information. The ECDPM is willing to play a part in this. Initiatives already under way include the development of EUFORIC - a Forum on the Internet for specialised information on European development cooperation - and the preparation of practical guides to the Lom&eacute; Convention. Enhanced access to information can help all partners move towards a real dialogue. Second, forms and channels for dialogue. need to be devised to ensure that an open debate is sustained beyond the initial reflections taking place within the EU and ACP groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ECDPM</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Re-compromising' development aid for the future</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Jos Jonckers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this article offers an academy critique of *e challenges facing the global system of development cooperation in the post-cold War era. He argues that the old compromises that have shaped development assistance since the Second World War have broken down and pleads for a radical re-think of the strategy in order to 'enable' fess affluent societies to gain from the advent of global 'free market democracy'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let us face it. International development early 50 years, the developed world has taken aid for granted. It no longer does. In real terms, it has started to give less. The expected 'peace dividend' has not materialised and scepticism is rising. Aid and solidarity are considered old-fashioned concepts. Progress and development, it is increasingly argued, must come from cooperation based on mutual interest and a businesslike approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid scepticism is at its highest in the USA. A conservative majority in Congress promotes radical 'winner' recipes and aid has been slashed. Slowly but surely, America is getting out of the development business. Lacking domestic support, the Clinton administration seeks to 'rescue' the country's aid programme by seeking more cooperation with other donors - particularly the KU, whose solidarity horizons do not yet stop at its own borders. But even here, horizons are shrinking. European aid to its immediate neighbours in the East and the southern Mediterranean basin has risen. Happy and prosperous neighbours suddenly seem more important than distant friends in need.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Has the end of the cold war marked the beginning of a cold world - where international solidarity is being dismantled together with the nuclear warheads ? Or could we be experiencing the beginning of a fundamental reshaping of international solidarity and aid between nations?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond altruism - self interest</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International aid has always involved a compromise within affluent society. People and nations are not normally disposed to give something away unless they receive something in return. Any attempt at understanding and reshaping the future of development aid must therefore start from the premise that those providing development aid do so as a result of a complex and evolving compromise between altruism and self-interest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Affluent countries are usually only interested in assisting poorer ones when the effect is to strengthen their international leadership, and in some way to enhance their security and material wellbeing. Looked at in this context, we must recognise that development aid, whatever its altruistic aims, will only exist if it also serves the legitimate, albeit more selfish agenda of the donor. It also means that the compromise which gives aid its rationale in affluent society changes over time: aid is regularly 'recompromised'. In secure and prosperous times, donors are  more inclined to forego self-interest and to cooperate in the interest of less affluent countries. In times of insecurity, the altruistic dimension is likely to diminish in importance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In colonial times, systematic aid flows first emerged as a result of a compromise between expansionist Northern governments and Christian society with its own 'colonizing' clergy. Decolonisation had the effect of increasing insecurity in most former colonial powers. In an attempt to safeguard the capital they had 'invested' in their overseas territories, following the latter's independence, they increasingly shaped aid with a view to 'buying' goodwill from the new rulers. This process, which 'recompromised' aid from a colonial into a neocolonial form, resulted in the secular, institutionalised arrangement now known as 'bilateral aid'. In addition, during the Cold War, Western aid was used increasingly as a device to stop the Third World joining the Second World (the communist bloc). The result was an aid system which was both more internationalised and more politicised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The next stage came with the end of the Cold War. Communism had joined colonialism and fascism in the dustbin of history. Affluent Western society had emerged as the winner. With it came the Western vision for stability, peace and progress: a world of sovereign nations, organised on the basis of democratic and capitalist market principles and committed to respect for each other's territory and for basic human rights. Today, capitalism has become the norm in most nation states. Long-time sceptics such as India, and even convinced opponents such as China and Vietnam, have embraced it. Democracy has not yet achieved the same coverage, but it is sailing forward under favourable conditions. Political pluralism is steadily being consolidated in much of East and Central Europe, while dictatorial regimes in Africa, Asia and Latin America are now the exception.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The effect of all of this has been a speedy erosion of the terms of the compromise on which development aid thrived for so long. In a rapidly globalis  ing,multi-polar world, the old approaches appear increasingly redundant. From this perspective, the current aid crisis is not surprising and is not necesarily a bad thing. Western affluent society is essentially trying to come to terms with the demystification of its development aid, as part of a process of reshaping it for the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three 'recompromising' strategies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As in the past, the recompromising process is influenced by both self-interest and altruism in affluent society. Three trends can be identified.. The first, which is the most idealistic, involves restoring altruism. This approach seeks to 'purge' aid of the perverse political and economic compromises and contradictions caused by decades of neocolonial and Cold-War self-interest. It has impacted on aid in several ways. First, it has given a significant boost to humanitarian aid - the most altruistic form - at the expense of development assistance. Second, it has led to a 'decentralisation' of aid - with more assistance being channelled through organisations such as NGOs, that have an 'uncompromised' altruistic profile. Third, it has led to a 'deconstruction' of development aid along idealistic-altruistic lines. 'Women in development', 'child health', 'environment'and 'poverty alleviation' are all examples of deconstructed labels around which aid is increasingly being structured and justified. Finally, it has prompted an 'intellectualisation' of development aid with the particular purpose of tightening its altruistic aims. For example, the Logical Framework Approach, the concept of 'sustainable development', the UNDP's Human Development Index and various experiments with more 'accountable' project management systems, have all essentially been devised as ways of encapsulating and supporting the altruistic intentions that lie behind aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second recompromising strategy, which may be summed up in the expression be businesslike, approaches development cooperation  much more skeptically. Aid, it is argued, only makes sense if it leads to real progress and development - and the prevailing view is that this is not happening. The approach is fueled by the obsession of trying to measure progress with the help of business tools such as 'output', 'impact', 'efficiency', 'rates of return' and so on. This has led to burgeoning aid 'evaluation'. It has also probably contributed to the discovery of aid failures which, in turn, has prompted growing criticism of aid agencies and operators. The businesslike strategy has gained further ground because of the failure of many countries to achieve any real progress in recent decades. Its advocates argue that the compromises which undermined aid's development impact in the past are inherently linked with its altruistic nature. The conclusion is that altruistic aid will seldom or never work. The strategy has impacted on aid in a number of ways being, for example, the major cause of so-called 'aid fatigue'. It has also prompted a search for ways to enhance cooperation for mutual benefit, indeed transforming the narrow, pre Cold War trade cooperation link with developing countries into a much broader and rapidly growing economic cooperation approach. Finally, it has sought to enhance aid's impact on the economic conditions and growth prospects of developing countries through more ambitious, structural-oriented forms of aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regionalism, the third major strategy, is linked to globalisation. Rooted in human survival psychology, this approach prompts nations in close proximity to form 'strategic' coalitions. In the post-Cold War era, development aid is one of the instruments used by affluent regions to strengthen their position in a 'globalising' environment. The strategy entails promoting 'open' regionalism elsewhere in the world and capitalising on this to create linkages and interactions which enhance their own influence or hegemony. From the point of view of the international political economy, this makes perfect sense. Having succeeded in making the 'world of nations' accept capitalism and democracy, it is through the consolidation   process of free market democracy in other countries and regions that powerful affluent nations will seek to gain maximum advantage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Need for a vision</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With this improved insight into the dynamics that have been reshaping development aid, is it now possible to go further and develop a more political vision of relations between affluent and less affluent nations in future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free market democracy, having endured the 'crises' of decolonisation, fascism and communism, has succeeded in promoting stability and peace within and between nations. Its main strength has probably been its crucial enabling function, with an increasing number of people and nations now in a position to 'earn' a better future. It appears that the model has the capacity to generate fairly equitable growth and progress, which is presumably why more and more countries are turning to it. As is so often the case, however, the strength of the system also contains the seeds of its weakness. Conceived as an 'enabling' mechanism, it results in the categorisation of those who fail to 'be enabled' as 'unable'. Marginalised because they cannot participate and perform in the   system, the excluded (whether individuals or states) are dubbed 'losers'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are seen as a burden and a threat by the 'winners'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The result is disparity in society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experience in most affluent nations suggests that despite the enabling environment created by free market democracy, up to a quarter of the population finds itself unable to perform effectively, and is marginalised as a result. Moreover, there seems to be an upward trend in the numbers affected by unemployment, underemployment and poverty. Disparity never occurs without some cost to society, which is a good reason why it ought to be minimised. The costs come mainly in the form of internal transfers earned (but foregone) by the active, 'winning' section of society. In more sociallyinspired, free market democracies, it is accepted that marginalisation resulting from the model's shortcomings must be minimised and/or adequately compensated for. In more conservative free market democracies, exclusion is seen more as a weakness of individuals than of the system. Compensatory transfers are generally kept to a minimum to induce people to 'break out' of their situation. But while such societies may save on 'empathetic' transfers, they will generally need to spend much more of their wealth defending against threats posed by growing disparity, such as crime, drug-trafficking and political extremism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The costs of disparity are political as well as financial. Genuine democracy is based on the participation of a representative majority of citizens. In affluent societies, however, a growing minority no longer participates. The real danger stems from the fact that this is highly skewed. It is the same, growing, marginalised minority that is 'unable' to participate which is also withdrawing from democratic involvement. The result is alienation from the political system and an erosion of democracy to the extent that its very survival may be threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is really at stake </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having conquered most of the world's nations, free market capitalism is now set to conquer the world of nations, helped by technological advances in communications, transport and computer technology. Economists have amply shown that the interdependence resulting from free international competition need not be detrimental. Indeed, because global capitalism ensures that ideas, initiatives and resources can be 'put to work' anywhere in the world - wherever they generate most profit - interdependence is usually seen as mutually beneficial. In essence, it confirms what might be called the global enabling effect of free-market capitalism. The basic thesis is that the adoption by less affluent nations of free market democracy should 'enable' many more of them to improve the lives of their people in the coming decades. The boost engendered by this 'enabling effect' will, in turn, help to sustain progress in the more affluent countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If this is the aim, then a new vision should progressively inspire future cooperation between the affluent and less affluent countries. The first concern should be to define 'purpose' and 'interest' much more in terms of system and process, than of output. What really matters is the 'enabling potential' of free market democracy in the specific context of the less affluent countries. How something is achieved and by whom should take precedence over what is achieved. The ultimate aim must be to ensure that free-market democracy 'takes root' in less affluent nations and is able to determine who does what and how.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A second major concern should be to maximise the 'enabling potential' of free market democracy for the most vulnerable sections of individual populations. As mentioned earlier, up to a quarter of the people in affluent societies are excluded. In poorer countries, the figure is much higher. If free market democracy fails to enable a significant proportion of this marginalised group, then it will not take root. And if the poor cannot be mobilised, the  growth that does occur will be highly skewed, leading to growing disparity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A third point is to ensure that the 'global enabling' effect of free market capitalism does not become the exclusive preserve of deregulated capital and the 'winners' who control it, leading to new forms of exploitation and disparity. The concern must be to find a way of directing the combined forces of 'capitalism without borders' and 'democracy within borders' in such a way that it leads to a genuinely better world in which the number of 'losers' is dropping and disparities are diminishing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A historic perspective</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is useful at this stage to take a look at the history of capitalism. Freemarket democracy delivered affluence to about a third of the global population over the last century mainly because of the 'accommodation' between labour and capital in an enabling environment created by 'Fordist' mass-production and consumption. A similar accommodation is now needed to enable global free market democracy to extend material wellbeing to the remaining two thirds of the (continually growing) world population, while at the same time sustaining it among the existing affluent third. It is no longer an accommodation between capitalists and workers that is required, however, but one between the affluent and the less affluent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fordism basically transformed the 'interdependent' stake of capital and labour in the economic pie, into a 'joint stake' - leading to the production of a larger pie. By analogy, what is needed today is to ensure that affluent and less affluent societies develop a joint stake in the production of a larger 'global pie' as a result of new technologies and more efficient, globalised modes of production. Attracting and sustaining capitalist investment in such modes will increasingly depend on demand and consumption structures which guarantee that poorer societies share with affluent ones the benefits of such global production systems. In the same way that a larger 'mess-produced pie' was dependent on higher and more   equitable mass consumption, so will a larger 'globally-produced pie' depend increasingly on higher and more equitable global consumption. In this context, the principal policy aim of development cooperation should be to ensure that growth resulting from globalisationis both enabling and disparity-reducing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The disabling effect of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'poor' competition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Driven by the powerful motive of capital accumulation, globalisation has the tendency to promote competition. In principle, this should be a good thing, but left unchanneled, it can have negative effects. One might draw an analogy between the conquering of the global market and the spread of water during a flood. The water always takes the easiest route, entering the most vulnerable areas first where it causes the most damage. Likewise, globalization, fueled by 'deregulated' capital, often tends to promote competition where it is easiest, but where it is not necessarily beneficial. This is the case, for example, in less affluent countries, where poverty is exploited to achieve what might be dubbed a 'poor' competitive advantage - in the sense that it is based on disparity, but also in that, far from 'enabling', it may actually have the opposite effect. Child labour, sex tourism, environmentally destructive tourism, tropical forms logging, the export of industrial pollution and misuse of intellectual property are all examples of 'disabling' competition resulting from global disparity. In a rapidly globalising world this is ultimately damaging to all concerned, which is why both affluent and less affluent nations have an interest in reducing the gap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All of this points to the need for a major redefinition of society's role in general and of aid in particular. During the colonial and Cold War periods, development cooperation was progressively uprooted and alienated from society. Serving an increasingly complex and non-transparent agenda, it became more and more a 'cockpit' affair, piloted by a small specialised crew - and it  found itself flying higher and higher above society. In short, affluent society lost touch with development cooperation and aid. Occasionally, the media intervened to 're-establish contact' but the result was that development aid usually only attracted mainstream public attention when things had gone terribly wrong.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning vision into action</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the aim is to have affluent and less affluent society working together to ensure that the latter adopts 'free market democracy'- and can adapt it in a way which benefits both - it is vital that the former be reconnected to the business of development cooperation. The affluent must be challenged to help transform their less affluent partners, in the interested and creative manner of a minority stakeholder. They must be ready to share the wealth of knowledge and experience generated in their own process of development. Representatives of all walks of affluent life should therefore be provided with greater opportunity for dialogue and cooperation with their less affluent counterparts. Increasingly easy and cheap communications and transport should facilitate this. This new form of stakeholdership will not happen, however, unless affluent society can be imbued with the new vision.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donors should actively support the process. Instead of spending most of their time and resources determining the scope and content of development cooperation, they should step down from their cockpit. Their new role should be as brokers and facilitators of cooperation. An initial priority must be to extol the vision itself. As this gathers momentum, they should then turn to 'brokering' it in practice - acting as a catalyst between the affluent and less affluent in order to facilitate 'enabling' cooperation between them. The development of an effective brokerage profile and methodology will probably entail important changes in the way that donors work. They need to move much closer to their  constituency, and to be made democratically accountable again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As mentioned earlier, the concept of enabling cooperation concentrates on who does what, and how. Essentially, therefore, it should be seeking to mobilise democratic and free market forces in less affluent societies. The advantage of working this way is that change and progress will be determined primarily from within the society in question - with cooperation as a source of encouragement. Such an approach also entails acceptance of the fact that the pace of progrms must be left much more to the enabling forces of the maturing democracies and free markets, however weak and imperfect these may still appear. Indeed, the central purpose of cooperation should be to help these fore" become stronger. To achieve this, cooperation will need to move away from an emphasis on engineering outputs to one which involves 'messaging' the system and process. And it is not just methodologies that need to be altered; there must also be a radical change in cooperation mentality. Thus, for example, donors should attempt to broker cooperation which is 'small but smart'. Advancing 'best practice' might be another creative way to pursue cooperation which is enabling. And while some output-related decision techniques can still be used, these must be creatively reshaped to support a more 'enabling' approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, this enabling vision entails an awareness of the imperfections of free-market democracy, combined with a conviction that it offers enormous potential for the less affluent countries of the world. 'Recompromising' development aid for the future will mean reshaping it to support a process of adoption and adaptation of free market democracy in less affluent countries which is highly 'enabling'. The result should be a system of international solidarity which is working for free-market democracy, rather than as a substitute for it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.J.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The effects of corruption on development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Dieter Frisch</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corruption - defined as 'the abuse of public power for personal ends' - has always existed. During recent decades, however, it has grown both in terms of geographic extent and intensity. Since the mid 1970s, it has infiltrated virtually every country in the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was hoped that the easing of political and economic restrictions that characterised the 1990s after the end of the Cold War would have gone some way to reducing this phenomenon. Through increased openness resulting from political pluralism and the freedom of the press, the process of democratisation should, under normal circumstances, mobilise efforts to overcome corruption. However, emergent democracies are still fragile and seem to find the task of tackling established self interests a formidable one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By reducing state intervention and therefore the opportunities for corruption, economic liberalisation should improve matters. In the short term, however, the opposite would appear to be true. Weakened state structures, a lack of appropriate legislation, powerlessness on the part of the judicial system to combat corruption, the pursuit of easy money - mistakenly perceived by some as being equivalent to a market economy - all these factors together contribute to aggravating the phenomenon, at least in the transitional stages. Such a state of affairs cannot fail to have some effect on those who are involved in and concerned by development issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Needless to say, corruption and its effects can be seen from a multitude of viewpoints. There is always the ethical angle - but how can we possibly presume to preach to countries of the South and East when bribery is just as rife in the North and when, as far as corruption within international economic relations is concerned, it is in fact, virtually by definition, the North who is the corrupter and the South and East who are the corrupted ? The only possible reply to such an argument - and one which is morally disputable even though economically valid - would be that the rich North can afford the luxury of wasting some of its wealth whereas in the case of developing countries, their sparse financial resources need to be used in the best way possible! Other lines of reasoning emphasise the distortions that corruption causes in the fair application of conditions of competition by penalising successful, yet honest, undertakings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major obstacle in the path of development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In my opinion, corruption should be approached from the point of view of the effects it has on development. I say this because long professional experience has taught me that corruption is one of the major obstacles to progress, and that its effects on development are disastrous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some people would no doubt counter this assertion with the 'cultural' argument whereby they would have us believe that, in certain cultures, corruption is quite normal and morally acceptable. Well I do not know of a single place on earth where growing rich through taking bribes is considered lawful or morally acceptable! I should like to quote Olusegun Obansanjo,  former President of Nigeria, on the subject: 'In the African concept of appreciation and hospitality, a gift is a token. It is not demanded. The value is in the spirit of the giving, not the material worth. The gift is made in the open for all to see, never in secret. Where the gift is excessive, it becomes an embarrassment, and is returned. If anything, corruption has perverted the positive aspects of this age-old tradition'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then there are the cynics - including renowned professors - who claim that corruption oils the wheels of progress and enables development to take place. In this respect again, and putting all ethical aspects aside, it would be worthwhile distinguishing between the small baksheesh which 'helps' certain administrative procedures along ('acceleration fees') and large-scale corruption which perverts the course of de  velopment. This does not of course mean that we should underestimate the destructive effects that even small-scale corruption can have on society!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet others have simply resigned themselves to the situation. For them, corruption is intrinsically linked to underdevelopment. As long as a person's normal income does not provide him with a decent living, the door will always be open to bribes. It is, therefore, through development that we should be attempting to eradicate corruption. Yet this argument is reminiscent of the debate on the population explosion. It is only through development, some say, that the problems of population growth will be resolved. But by then, the planet will be inexorably overpopulated! In my opinion, the same argument is just as valid as far as corruption is concerned. We simply cannot wait for it to be stamped out through development. (In any case, development is hardly a miracle cure: true, we have the examples of Singapore and Hong Kong where corruption is extremely uncommon, but we could also mention Italy, where it was precisely at the height of the country's development that corruption became the norm). We must act therefore, and without delay, focusing our efforts on eradicating large-scale corruption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If we analyse some of the effects that corruption has on development, the first thing we notice is that it increases the cost of goods and services, and not insignificantly either. Although a 5% reduction in the profit margin might, at a pinch, be absorbed by the supplier, corruption levels of 10% to 20%, which have become commonplace, will inevitably be reflected in the price and will, consequently, be paid for through the national or foreign (in the case of foreign aid) resources of a country. It is therefore the national economy that ultimately suffers the consequences of an unjustified surcharge on the goods or services, with the difference being pocketed by some government official or politician who has abused his power for his own personal gain. Given that such operations are generally financed by bank  loans or, in the case of foreign aid, by concessional loans, these surcharges inevitably bring about a proportionate increase in that country's debts. In fact it is now assumed that the exchange value of sums paid out in backhanders makes up a considerable proportion of the foreign debts of developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, the damaging effects of such practices do not stop there. The corrupt decision-maker may well be tempted to accept a substandard quality of service which will make his personal profit all the greater. Thus, with a road building project for example, complicity between government departments and contractors may result in corner-cutting with regard to agreed standards of quality so that the savings made may be shared out between the two parties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At their very worst, the disastrous effects of corruption mean that the conception of a project, and ultimately its very choice, are determined by corruption. As far as conception is concerned, a good example would be the purchase of a technology which is wholly unsuited to the particular needs of a country or the choice of a capital intensive project - more lucrative in terms of corruption - rather than a labour-intensive one which would nevertheless be far more beneficial to that nation's development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The absolute peak of perversion, however, is when the very choice of priorities - and therefore of projects - is determined by corruption. What we are referring to here are those situations in which the real development priorities of a country are neglected in favour of operations which generate the greatest personal gain for the decision-makers. At this point I would like to quote R&eacute;mi Godeau, writing in Jeune Afrique: 'These currency-guzzling abortive projects have become a graveyard of white elephants. Africa is littered with vast deserted motorways which are being eroded by the Savannah, with fully functional but empty factories which have been left to fall into ruin only a few years after they were opened, with railway lines which are now impassable  through a lack of maintenance, and with hydroelectric dams abandoned because they cost too much to run'. Let us pick up on the point about empty factories. These 'follies of development' are to be found in many developing countries and in Africa in particular. Some have never produced, others have failed to reach full production capacity while others still face such prohibitive costs that big state subsidies are needed to keep them going. If we follow the thread right back to the beginning we find, more often than not, that factories have been sold without ensuring real competition between suppliers. Admittedly, such projects usually have only private-sector backing (they are rarely financed through official aid), but the funding is nonetheless backed by state-controlled bodies. The existence of corruption in such cases must be more than mere presumption - what other reason could there be for making decisions which run so counter to the interests of development ? In his work 'Grand Corruption in Third World Development', George Moody-Stuart identified those areas which are especially vulnerable to corruption. These are most notably, the procurement of military and other   technically sophisticated equipment, and large-scale works (in other words, any major, capital-intensive project and any scheme where objective valuation and comparison is hampered because of the technical sophistication involved).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is worthwhile mentioning at this point that a country which borrows money to finance projects that do not satisfy its real needs, and which may indeed be considered economically futile or absurd, will see its debt burden increase - and not simply by the 10% to 20% that is used to fund 'backhanders'. The loss will ultimately be 100% if one views it in terms of the cost of the unproductive investment to the national economy. Discussions about the debts of developing countries rarely focus on the mechanisms which have produced these debts. Yet in most cases, they have become unserviceable on account of the ineffective use of overseas aid - the sort of bad management to which corruption contributes considerably.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is more, by deflecting the sparse resources which do exist towards non-priority or low-priority areas, corruption contributes to a large extent to ensuring that fundamental needs such as food, health and education, are not met. It is therefore one of the causes of under development and of poverty in general. Needless to say, official aid is often called upon to make good the deficit left by the irresponsible management of otherwise available resources. Is it any surprise if, in the long run, public opinion in the countries of the North begins to grow weary of bridging gaps which efficient management of resources should never have allowed to appear in the first place ? How are we to convince European taxpayers that it is they who need to provide the money to fund bush clinics in countries which put their funds in prestige projects, if not directly into Swiss bank accounts?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A vicious circle that must be broken</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effectively, we find ourselves in a 'catch-22'situation. Corruption is one of the causes of under development and poverty, yet poverty is in part responsible for its continuation. If a person cannot earn an honest living for himself and his family, then he is more or less forced into earning it by less honest means. Hence corruption is both the cause and the consequence of under development. In order to break the pattern we must therefore combat large-scale corruption inasmuch as it is a significant cause of underdevelopment and we must work gradually to eradicate the reasons for its propagation in society, and in particular to remedy the notorious lack of adequate income to ensure a decent standard of living.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general terms, we can say that corruption also kills off the spirit of development. Nothing is more destructive to a society than the pursuit of 'a fast and easy buck' which makes honest people who work hard appear naive or foolish. That is why, in the context of economic reforms under the heading of 'structural adjustment', it is vital that the model advocated be one of a market economy based on a sound framework of legislation and on an efficient state. It should not allow free rein to the sort of ruthless capitalism which is aimed at immediate profit at all costs. The example of certain transition countries in the East, where a market economy has become synonymous with the law of the jungle, the Mafia and corruption, really should make us stop and think.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the final analysis, an economy undermined by corruption has the effect of discouraging potential foreign investors and public donors. Yet if development is to succeed, countries have to be able to attract a flow of capital. As Serge Michailof put it: 'Success attracts money. Waste, failure and chaos drive it away'. And although investors are very keen to do business, with the exception of a few opportunists, they all look for host countries that have a stable and predictable climate. Entrepreneurs have been known to withdraw from certain African countries - which are nevertheless rich in resources - because of the constraints imposed on them by corruption on a scale which they considered to be unacceptable. As for public donors, they are increasingly reluctant to offer financial aid to those countries that manage their own resources poorly. It is precisely this failing which is one of the causes of what we now refer to as 'aid fatigue'. Financial aid institutions should go as far as suspending their cooperation in blatant cases of corruption and bad management, just as they do in cases of serious violation of human rights. Conversely, 'good governance' should be the determining factor when allocating aid, and it would appear that Article 5 of the revised Lom&eacute; IV Convention does in fact foresee such an approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, far from reserving the foregoing criticisms for countries of the South, I believe that the partners of the North have their part to play in the ravages wrought by corruption, be it only as a result of the inconsistencies between their development cooperation policies and their export promotion policies. Basing our assumptions on the principle that cooperation efforts are genuinely motivated by concerns for development - and I can attest that this is precisely the motivation behind the policies of the European Union, which I have served for a great many years - we should not forget that Western countries have a tendency to promote exports, by other means, without any consideration for the effects this has in terms of development. They thus contribute to the dishonest practices which we have been discussing. The fact that they tolerate, or even go as far as to encourage corruption as a means of promoting exports - restricting the application of the criminal law to acts committed on their own territory and allowing corruption to be taxdeductible under the heading of 'necessary expenses' - seems to me to be absolutely scandalous. In the AlortR too, the battle against the canker of international corruption is a formidable one. But it is a fight to which we are committed in the context of 'Transparency International' This NGO, which was created in 1993, makes its services available to any country which genuinely wishes to eradicate the scourge of corruption. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> D.F. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Close-up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">National park  restoration in Chad: luxury or necessity ?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Phllippe Dejace</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Terms like 'democracy' and 'sustainable development' are increasingly used to keep donors happy, and to present new development projects in the most favourable possible light. With this in mind, it is interesting to look at an example from 'the field' to see how genuine the commitment actually is. Adherence to these concepts has undoubtedly made a positive contribution to environmental protection, but there is also a negative side</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1989, the Zakouma National Park in south-east Chad has been undergoing restoration in a   programme supported by the KU. Devastated by a decade of conflict, this wildlife sanctuary of nearly 3000 square kiLom&eacute;tres was little more than a huge graveyard in 1986 when Pierre Pfeffer of the Paris Natural History Museum visited it and decided to campaign for its restoration. Today, this is recognised to have been a sensible decision. It is acknowledged that wildlife are better off when they have a reasonably large area in which to live, away from human activity. Aerial counts made in 1986, 1991 and 1995 confirm that animal numbers are on the increase in the park and that irreversible destruction has been averted. Currently, Zakouma is the only area effectively being protected in Chad. The other designated sites (one park and seven reservations) remain impoverished and in a state of near devastation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recognising the challenge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One should not be lulled into complacency. Even when a process involving local village communities is initiated, the low standard of living of the inhabitants, their educational level, and the progressive deterioration of vegetation around protected areas in  variably make the latter a tempting 'target'. In these circumstances, it is very hard to preserve their integrity. At Zakouma, a busy time lies ahead. The local people must be educated and informed as quickly as possible. This presents us with the first hurdle given the inadequacy of the education sector. The Ministry of Education is underfunded and with growing numbers of pupils in the system, it is virtually impossible to plan special programmes aimed at increasing awareness of this particular problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are other reasons why there should be short-term investment in this sector. There are good arguments for preserving a few control sites while the awareness programme is under way, since these will one day serve to illustrate what can be achieved. It is also much less difficult to preserve an area than to try to reconstitute it, once desertification has set in. The site is part of the national heritage whose value can only increase. Moreover, in most cases, the protected areas ensure the survival of fish stocks in lakes and rivers downstream and act as a reservoir for game: many of the animals which breed there provide food for the people living at the zone's edges. Even frequent wholesale slaughter of wildlife, as happens during a war, is reversible if the vegetation remains intact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the park is cut off from human activity (the area is flooded and therefore closed, to all intents and purpose, for four months of the year), it has an uncertain future. It faces pressure  from itinerant herdsmen and poachers, the latter tracking giraffe right up to the outskirts of Zakouma village, which is in the middle of the park. Although located in a wildlife reserve of 20 000 km2 - which is supposed to be a buffer zone - the park is not truly protected because human activity inside the reserve is not controlled. In the dry season, the park teems with wildlife. A clear density gradient has been identified with the animal population dropping as you move from the centre to the periphery. Indeed, only about a third of the 3000 km2 is intensively exploited by the wildlife which lives there - and even this area is relatively insecure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enclosure would give those who are keen to defend the park a grace period in which to set up long-term awareness strategies. Ironically, one danger results from the striking democratisation that has taken place in Chad. To win votes, some politicians have called for the bans applying to the park to be lifted. This approach has the potential to succeed because, owing to shortfalls in the education system, the electorate is insufficiently mature in political terms. Another factor is that traditional leaders, seeing their power progressively diminish, are inclined to 'revolt'. Thus, they may fail to intervene when stockmen deliberately invade the park, encouraged by demagogues in search of votes. When the grasslands are invaded by cattle, few wild animals can compete and they are forced to retreat to the central area of the park. Against this background of a need for urgent action, the Zakouma Park team is concentrating its awareness-raising efforts on traditional leaders and the administrative authorities - rather than on teaching schoolchildren about environmental protection (although such a campaign is also envisaged).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some argue that setting up a 'sustainable and participation-based development' strategy would make it possible to avoid the situation that now exists in Zakouma. The idea behind such a strategy - which clearly has its   attractions - is that man is perfectly capable of managing his native territory. All that is needed is for him to be granted land and to receive support for his initiatives. Many who espouse this approach continue to despatch teams to demonstrate that this is the ideal response. Unfortunately, in the particularly complicated case of managing the environment on the fringes of a national park, the local people are usually reluctant to make the investment. The more normal inclination is to reap a short-term profit from resources that are within reach. The inhabitants are also tired of the lectures they get from specialists who visit for just a few hours. The scope of the problem is such that expertise needs to be available on an ongoing basis. Considerable resources are also needed to ensure.that the effort is sustained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not easy to halt environmental destruction in a market economy which has overturned traditional values and gives priority to increasing personal wealth and consumption. A natural environment's potential for exploitation is always limited. Yet stock-rearing involves the use of animals 'selected' over thousands of years to take maximum advantage of the least scrap of vegetation. By contrast, a wild animal is much more selective and never ruins the environment it exploits. It may even be able to adapt its reproductive cycle to the available food resources! We are nowhere near this situation in domestic stockbreeding!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is where 'sustainable development', which sounds highly reassuring, appears at odds with reality. Beyond a certain threshold, one cannot avoid depleting the resource. If one is to adopt an approach that involves the population actively, one must acknowledge that their response may fall short of what is needed. Indeed, they may do things which provoke migration, and are thus damaging. Thus, for example, the opening-up of a water source may attract more nomadic herdsman, thereby undermining rather than enhancing the surrounding area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Awareness programme</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The single most significant step towards protecting the park would be to ease population pressure, but progress in this area is very limited. We can only wait for the birthrate to decrease; something which invariably happens as a country develops. But what will become of the national parks in the meantime ? In Zakouma, an eco-development team is currently listening to the villagers' claims. As elsewhere, an attempt is being made to gain time. Unfortunately, the current climate of transparency in Chad, which is one of the positive aspects of democratisation and should be a major asset, has not had much impact in this area. The awareness programme suffers from a serious lack of trained workers and when meetings are held, they usually turn into interminable discussions, simply increasing the level of frustration. On the other hand, a convincing discussion-leader can advance matters considerably and discussion is surely the right approach to adopt. Furthermore, the process must lead to concrete results. Otherwise, decisions taken may end up being postponed indefinitely because they conflict with the interests of political decision-makers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the difficulties, the Zakouma team is placing heavy reliance on this desire for transparency. Although the project's initial aims have essentially been to restore infrastructures and thereby promote an increase in wildlife, the addition of an ecodevelopment aspect and ecological monitoring has made it possible to create an important 'reservoir' of knowledge. A computerized map of the vegetation has been produced with the help of a microlight equipped with a GPS (satellite positioning) system. There have also been aerial inventories tracking the seasonal density and distribution of wildlife, as well as in-depth sociological surveys in the villages most hostile to the park's existence. This major database makes it possible to organise meetings, conferences and discussions to demonstrate that the park's contribution is greater than it seems. One big frustration for local people living on the  park's fringes concerns the redistribution of the income it generates. Looking first at tourism, Chad hardly qualifies as a major holiday destination and those who do visit the park are too few to make a significant contribution (the income raised barely covers the cost of replacing their bedlinen !)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One interesting conclusion has been drawn from studies of the animal distribution in the different seasons. It appears that when pressure from nomadic herdsman is at its strongest, during the dry season, the wildlife take refuge in the park and numbers multiply in safety. When the stockmen return northward, the wild animals then go beyond the park boundaries where they are hunted and eaten by villagers. This is surely a form of income redistribution! Moreover, many young fish in the park's only river (the bahr Salamat), take advantage of the flooding of the area during the rains. This releases huge volumes of nutrients back into the ecosystem. In the park, the fish are safe from the fishermen who work downstream and they can swim back to their spawning grounds. This guarantees the renewal of stocks depleted during the dry season. The level of fish stocks in Lake Iro - and probably in the River Chari as well - is thus linked to the existence of the Zakouma Park! When this version of income redistribution is explained, it often helps to convince traditional leaders who then use their influence to limit incursions by stockmen or poachers. However, a lot remains to be done because demographic pressure and standards of living both make it more difficult to get the message across.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We know that excessive human activity always results in environmental deterioration. Zakouma, although under pressure, has been 'spared' to some extent, and as such, it represents an important resource. But some see it as a luxury and it faces a suspended death sentence. If people stop regarding its conservation as something that is necessary, the sentence will end up being carried out. In my opinion, the most reliable way of guaranteeing its preservation would be to enclose it completely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.H.D. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Developing World</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">European NGOs look ahead at annual meeting in Brussels</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Agostino Ambrogetti</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 22nd annual General Assembly of European Development Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), and a thematic conference entitled 'A Europe open to the world', were held in Brussels from 18 - 20 April. Representatives of more than 800 NGOs attended, with the Assembly adopting 14 resolutions as well as issuing specific appeals on the European Union's Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) and on Lebanon. The Assembly renewed its approval of the development NGOs' 'Strategic Priorities', adopted the Work Plan for the 1996-98 period, and looked at the overall impact of the Lom&eacute; Convention with an eye to likely future developments. The subsequent Conference focused, among other things, on the issue of coherence between the EU's development cooperation and its other policies (notably trade and agriculture). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A general impression that emerged from the two events was that the NGO movement was attaching increasing importance to its role as advocate for the developing countries. A fundamental aspect of this is the ongoing dialogue that NGOs have with the European institutions, and the lobbying they carry out on policy issues. Commission representatives who spoke at the Assembly indicated their understanding and appreciation of this. For example, Development Commissioner, Jao de Deus Pinheiro, referred warmly to 'the very active role played by the NGO community in the debate on the mid-term revision of the Lom&eacute; Convention,' and acknowledged that the NGOs had mounted an 'important political lobby' in favour of increased funding for the next five-year period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commissioner was keen to emphasise the complementarily that existed between the European Commission and the NGO movement in support of emerging societies in the South. He also urged his audience to continue in their task of challenging the general apathy towards development cooperation. This, he said, entailed appealing directly to public opinion in order to influence political leaders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A similar tone was adopted by Bernard Ryelandt, who heads the unit responsible for cofinancing NGO projects in the Commission's development directorate-general (DG VIII) He spoke of the 'decisive' action of European NGOs in balancing other lobbies such as the agricultural one. This, he believed, had the effect of improving the coherence of EU policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Delegates from a number of countries set out their views on the advocacy issue, and what they saw as the growing NGO role in this area. Andy Rutherford from the United Kingdom said that he saw increased lobbying as necessary, complementing the work carried out in the field through development projects. He pointed out that Southern NGOs had themselves requested their Northern partners to pressurise European governments in the hope that the latter would adopt external policies more favourable to the developing world. Mr Rutherford also raised the thorny question of structural adjustment. The view that adjustment policies were not succeeding in eradicating poverty, had, he said, been acknowledged by the EU's Development Council in its resolution adopted in June 1995. With this in mind, the NGOs would be raising the issue with the World Bank and the IMF - where the EU Member States are among the most substantial contributors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guido Barbera, who headed the Italian delegation to the Assembly, took up this point, calling for more pressure to be exerted on the Bretton Woods institutions by European NGOs and indeed, by the European Commission itself. This was necessary, he believed, to promote coherent macroeconomic policies favouring the development of economic relationships with the less-developed countries. In more general terms, Mr Barbera applauded the growing NGO participation in the political arena, stating that this was both 'positive' and fundamental'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evaluation of the Liaison</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Committee's work</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A document was presented to the Conference by the NGDO-EU Liaison Committee containing an evaluation of its activities. The aim, in drawing up the document, was to 'review and critically assess the work and organization of the Committee, and evaluate whether it meets the expectations of its stake holders.' In order to do this, NGO members were consulted through questionnaires.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The evaluation revealed that support for the Liaison Committee as the representative umbrella organization of European NGOs remains strong, although there is widespread uncertainty about the future. This is reflected in the perception that the Committee has   gradually been losing momentum. There were also some doubts expressed about its representativeness. Large NGOs, it was noted, were able to spread their efforts across different networks. The fact that small NGOs tended not to be involved in the Committee emerged as one of the critical issues for discussion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attention was also focused on the alleged weakness of many national platforms (the documents containing proposals drawn up by the various national NGO assemblies) in representing the aspirations of their member organizations. This issue, and the question of voting on resolutions without debating the documents in question gave rise to controversy. Some delegates boycotted the vote while others submitted a written protest and there is clearly some demand for reforms designed to make the Assembly's procedures more democratic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General conditions of cm  financing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another highly topical subject on the Assembly's agenda was the proposed revision of the General Conditions for the Co-financing of NGO </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Projects in Developing Countries. Commission speakers who touched on this subject included Professor Pinheiro and Jacob Houtman who is a Director in DG VIII Both referred to the revision process that was currently under way, and emphasised the higher priority that would be attached to capacity building for Southern NGOs. This involves providing support to strengthen the organisational structure of the bodies in question, and to improve the skills of their staff in managing and implementing projects. Such an approach is now recognised as essential for the long-term sustainability of NGO activities. As Mr Houtman was keen to stress, the principles underpinning the KU-NGO relationship (recognition of NGO independence and specificity, freedom of initiative for European NGOs in cooperation with their Southern partners) would be safeguarded in the revised conditions. Other priorities to be set out in the conditions would include the promotion </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Notice at the site of a non governmental organisation in</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe devoted to improving agricultural productivity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Crucial to provide more institutional support for Southem</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGOs' of democracy and human rights through reinforced structures of civil society, and a greater emphasis on the fight against poverty, income-generating activities and social development programmes. With these objectives in mind, it was all the more crucial to provide more institutional support for Southern NGOs. They, unlike their Northern partners, had a permanent presence in society in the developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The revised general conditions would also reflect the new orientation which favours a long-term programme approach over the traditional project by-project method. This should lead to a reduced administrative burden, and benefit long-standing NGO partners who have demonstrated viable approaches in working with their Southern counterparts, as well as good management and accountability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'A Europe open to the world'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Conference which took place following the NGO General Assembly focused on assessing the coherence of different EU policies and on ways of achieving coherence where it might be lacking. As the title of the Conference suggests, the question which was never far from participants' minds was 'what sort of Europe is being created.' Is it a Europe which stands in solidarity with the South (and East), or is it one which retreats into its fortress, concerned only with its own prosperity ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the outset, EU policy - or rather its mode of implementation - came in for criticism. It was claimed, on the bask of the experience of both European and Southern NGOs, that the principles of development cooperation set out in the Maastricht Treaty (Title XVII) were not being applied universally and consistently. These principles include the sustainable economic and social development of developing countries, their integration into the world economy, the fight against poverty, and the development and consolidation of democracy, human rights and the rule of law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this connection, three specific discussion topics were selected: the EU's common foreign and security policy (CFSP), its common commercial and agriculture policies (CCP and CAP) and its immigration and asylum policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regarding the first of these, it was suggested that the EU's definition of 'security' tended to be viewed solely in terms of common defence, and that the concept of 'human security' drawn up by the UNDP had been neglected. The latter seeks to define the concept on a broader basis including aspects such as equitable and sustainable development, as well as human rights and democracy. The view was also expressed that a more firm and coordinated CFSP was needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the second topic - trade and agriculture - there was a strong feeling that the policies of the EU (and the USA) were heavily weighted in favour of 'home' producers and that this had the effect of undermining local production and food security in the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing countries. The Union was urged to remove the policy 'contradictions' that allowed this situation to arise bearing in mind the specificity and sensitivity of the food trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, several speakers were highly critical of what they viewed as negative trends in the approach to immigration and asylum adopted by the EU and its Member States, with increasingly strict rules being implemented. There were also calls for measures designed to integrate resident migrants into society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, integration may well be seen as the key message to have emerged from the NGOs' gathering. The call was for the people and governments of the European Union, acting in the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC), to integrate the needs of the rest of the world's people into their actions and programmes. The talk was of common values of human rights and solidarity, in both internal and external polices. And it was clear from the commitment of those who attended that the NGOs are determined to maintain and strengthen their role - as active partners in the development of the South, as advocates for the developing countries and perhaps indeed as keepers of the European conscience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Workshops</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As part of the proceedings of the NGO General Assembly, three workshops were organised dealing with specific themes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Workshop 1 was entitled Beyond Lom&eacute; IV. There was a general consensus among those taking part that the Convention's underlying philosophy helped to protect developing countries in today's global commercial environment. Without the Lom&eacute; system, it was felt that the ACP countries would have suffered even more from the deterioration in their terms of trade. With this in mind, the World Trade Organisation came in for criticism for its stance against regional preferential agreements (even if this does not apply to the least developed countries).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The major finding of Workshop 2, which dealt with Poverty in the North and the South, was that  poverty is the result of interactions at a global level - and is not 'nation specific'. It was therefore important to adopt a global approach in  seeking to tackle the causes of poverty, and to develop further North-South exchanges of experience for the benefit of both sides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third workshop was devoted to making the most of EU Presidencies. Here, the aim was to evaluate past experience of lobbying undertaken by the NGO community in those countries holding the EC Council Presidency, during the six-month period in question. The main recommendation to emerge was that more needed to be done in establishing contacts and exchanging information between the relevant national NGO communities. Such exchanges, it was felt, were needed before, during and after the six month Presidency period, in order to facilitate continuity of lobbying on key themes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resolutions </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Resolutions adopted by the NGO General Assembly, considerable emphasis was placed on human rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> issues, with texts being agreed on Nigeria, the peoples of the Western</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahara and the child sex 'industry'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade (in the widest sense of the word) also featured prominently. In addition to a general resolution on world trade, representatives passed motions on the arms trade, traffic in landmines and the production of the drug coca.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also adopted were resolutions on preventive diplomacy, cooperation with Cuba, the Euro-Mediterranean partnership and the 'deterioration' of the situation in the Great Lakes region of Africa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Africans seek bigger share of tourist dollar</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Godfrey Karoro</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe's government is under pressure to encourage greater African involvement in the predominantly white-run tourism industry, which is facing intense competition from neighbouring South Africa. 'Black participation in all sectors of tourism is a priority,' says Environment and Tourism Minister Chen Chimutengwende. 'Blacks have waited in the wings long enough,' he adds, 'and their entry on to centre stage is inevitable. The solution lies in nurturing black entrepreneurship and giving it the material and technical backup to ensure its growth.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only 38 of the country's 436 tour operators are indigenous, and most focus on provision of goods and services, particularly transport. African interest in the business was kindled last year when the government identified tourism as one of the sectors which could benefit from an international $74 million credit facility. This prompted enquiries from  about 500 potential entrepreneurs. Interest was heightened during the election campaign earlier this year, when President Mugabe's government made an issue of the continuing economic domination of the white community which constitutes  less than 1% of the country's 11 million population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Chimutengwende pledged support for greater black participation, but the government itself is under fire for not doing enough. 'We have a time-bomb and the government should do something about it quickly before it explodes,' says Colin Blythe-Wood, managing director of a tour company and chairman of the Zimbabwe Association of Tour and Safari Operators (ZATSO), referring to the black-white imbalance in the whole economy. 'We are indeed fortunate that this industry, which has perhaps the greatest potential in our economy, is still in its infancy,' he says. He argues that the government holds the trump card, through its ownership of vast tracts of land in national parks, forests and communal areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 1994 Zatso report identified more than 100 sites on state-owned land suitable for development by African tourism ventures. At least half, says Mr Blythe-Wood, were in areas of abundant wildlife, including the 'big five' - elephant, lion, rhinoceros, hippopotamus and buffalo. Other opportunities could be provided he suggests, if the National Park service got out of the accommodation business and concentrated on flora and fauna conservation. 'The government cannot be a referee and a player at the same time. It should sell off its shares in the Rainbow Tourism Group' - a wholly-owned government company which is the third largest operator in the tourism sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the industry's problems is that South Africa, too, has found tourism to be an unexpectedly good economic performer. Arrivals there rose by 50% in 1995, and a new government discussion document suggests that tourism could double its foreign exchange earnings by the year 2000 and triple its contribution to national income. South Africa's parks and beaches are well developed, but entrepreneurs are also fostering attractions such as Boer War battle sites and 'Road to Freedom' tours in which visitors have breakfast with former freedom fighters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fear is that South Africa will be the regional hub for visitors, siphonino off  most of the earnings, with</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe merely getting the overspill from short side-trips.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zatso chief executive, Elias Nyakuni, points out that South</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa is already using Zimbabwe's top attraction to lure visitors, urging them 'to come to South Africa to see the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Victoria Falls'! Efficient train, luxury bus and air services connect several South African cities to the Falls, which are on the Zimbabwe-Zambia border. Mr Nyakuni says that Zimbabwe  could also lose out if things go wrong in their southern neighbour. 'Violence in South Africa could deter people from coming to Zimbabwe.' He accuses the government of not taking marketing in Europe and North America sufficiently seriously. 'The 4-5% annual growth is, in essence, through word of mouth. We need to investt more in marketing.' He says that the Zimbabwe Council for Tourism is underfunded and that it operates 'without brochures or pamphlets.' Neverthelms,  with 1.25 million visitors last year spending $252m (up from 1.04m spending $203m in 1994) - tourism is a growth area in which black people could take a bigger share - and not just, as at present, as guides, drivers, mechanics and cooks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lovemore Chihota, who runs a booming Victoria Falls safari business, has shown the way. He admits that there is a lot of money to be made from tourism, but warns that careful preparation is needed, as well as determination, commitment and, a realisation that there are no quick returns. He also points to the need to have some equity. 'The promoter,' he stresses, 'must put his money where his mouth is.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> G.K.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Culture and society</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dak'Art 96</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most important exhibitions of African art, the Biennial Festival of Conternporary African Art, opened its doors to the public in Dakar, Senegal, on 8 May 1996. The 'Pan-African Art Exhibition', as it is still called, was being staged for the third time although it almost failed to take place at all, having been postponed several times over the last four years. All those who participated - from the artists who exhibited to the directors of art galleries and cultural  institions - were pleasantly surprised. The next edition of me Courier will include a more comprehensive account of the exhibition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President Abdou Diouf of Senegal inaugurated the event at the Daniel Sorano National Theatre in the company of a number of VlPs, including BartoLom&eacute; Amat Armengol who represented the European Commission. The Commission was Dak'Art 96's main financial partner providing support to the tune of CFAF 200 million (ECU 300 000 approx). The Biennial Festival aims to be a showcase for African artists allowing them to break into the international plastic arts market. Hitherto, this has remained relatively closed to them despite the general recognition that Africa has a contribution to make to the art world in this area. Mr Ousmane Sow Huchard, chairman of the Festival's scientific board, stressed that success lay first in stimulating the art market in Africa itself. He gave the example of his own country which had voted the so-called '1 % law', which stipulated the proportion of works of art that should be used to decorate all new public buildings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Festival's main exhibition, at the Ifan Museum of African Arts, was devoted to major trends in African sculpture. 42 artists selected by an international panel took part and, despite some criticism, their choice was a  judicious one. The same cannot be said, unfortunately, of the second major exhibition, at the National Art Gallery. This was devoted to contemporary Senegalese art and the skill involved in producing the exhibits was not of a consistently high standard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were also five individual exhibitions featuring artists chosen by internationally famous judges. These might be expected to have a dynamic effect in setting standards on the market. Zeribun Yempeta of Ethiopia offered a quite original style, working on a support of leather straps fastened to a trellis of fine strips of wood. He draws his inspiration from a combination of African design, Coptic and Greek influences, and ancient Egyptian art. Ethiopian painting was one of the major revelations of the 'Africa 95' exhibition in London last year and the Festival gave a further opportunity for such art to be displayed. Another display presented work by the Moroccan painter, Mohamed Kacimi, whose pictures have been hung in various exhibitions - although the term 'pictures' is not always appropriate to this artist's work. It is perhaps more fitting to say that he 'occupies space'. In Dakar, he covered three walls of a large room with 'rolling art'. His skill, particularly in monumental works, is to offer excitement and calm simultaneously, through the use of animated forms and soft, rhythmic harmonies. Ezrom Legae of South Africa, Moustapha Dime of Senegal and Pascale Martine Tayou of Cameroon were the three other artists granted individual exhibitions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the trends which came to the fore at Dak'Art was the use of alternative media and recycled material. The latter, in a sense, is the man in the street's legacy to art. Initially, recycling was used predominantly in the informal sector to produce utilitarian objects. The 'Biennial Festival Village' was set aside for informal sculptors, and in an open area beside the Village, both inside a marquee and outdoors, one of the most individually striking exhibitions was presented. This combined a variety of artistic forms ranging from painting to video, not to mention Adeagbo's unusual montages, including 'African artists and AIDS'. This had already been exhibited in a number of countries and was staged by the Revue Noire team in parallel with its 'AIDS' issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Festival included dozens of on-site exhibitions as well as all the 'fringe' presentations. The AIDS exhibition was one of the boldest but the display entitled 'Love' offered the greatest degree of unity and uniformity of design. Dak'Art 96 also made an attempt to integrate other forms of creativity such as dance, design and fashion. The latter two, for example, were presented at the Espace Vema, a fine metal structure where the creations of the Senegalese designer Claire Kane were in perfect harmony with the highly original furnishings. The European Union's prize for creativity, one of the Festival's four major prizes, was awarded to Vincent Namien, a designer from Cote d'lvoire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hege'Goueier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">On creativity... in Africa and elsewhere</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Alain Nicolas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this article is head curator and director of the Museum of African, Oceanic and Amerindian Arts in Marseilles. Here he offers his thoughts on the (partially unconscious) reluctance of the 'official' art world in the West - museums, critics and art historians - to accept contemporary African artists. Even now, they tend to be relegated to the sphere of 'alternative' art. However, he believes that the abundance of creative Africans, and the pressure they are exerting on the art world and market will, sooner or later, generate a 'new revolution' in the museums. This iswhat happened in the early20th century when traditional African art first arrived in the West. This article is linked to the dossier on African creativity published in our previous issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When I was asked to make this small contribution on African creativity, I was happy to oblige since, as a non-specialist, I am able to content myself with a few generalisations. I believe that there are still barriers, sometime not very visible, but nonetheless real, which have to be broken down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, writing just a few lines on creativity is a difficult exercise given the amount of literature on the subject and so many divergent opinions. So, what line should I adopt? About 15 years ago - in the wake of hordes of specialists in the humanities from sociology, psychology, ethnology, anthropology and so on - a rational approach, known as 'the anthropology of art', was at last proposed. The term 'rational' should be seen here in the context of the distinction between exact or 'hard' sciences such as mathematics, physics and astronomy, and the humanities, which are essentially inexact or 'soft' disciplines. And in brief, the West tends to take a scientific approach, relying on empirical evidence, even when it seeks to study such subjects as human creativity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Creativity obviously is to be found in many different spheres. It is needed in technology, it is fundamental to story-telling, it underpins all forms of social organisation and has a part to play in religion. Similarly, what we term 'art'  is one of the spheres of creative endeavour. The anthropology of art seeks to document artistic creativity and to analyse the conditions surrounding its expression in various cultures. This is a laudable enterprise insofar as art is regarded as another means of expression, used in one form or another by all human groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The creative function is universal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The basic postulate is that any society - and any individual - possesses creative potential which may be expressed in any way. The first thing to examine, therefore, is the context of choice. There are various modes of artistic expression ranging from music, poetry, prose and dance to architecture, painting and fashion. Some individuals or societies may have no choice, perhaps because of socio-economic constraints. Others may favour a particular mode of expression while nonetheless dabbling in more than one area. The expression of creativity is, therefore, like an identifying mark, claimed by the group or by the individual. The concept of 'style' now comes into play. The expression of one group is different from that of another and no two can ever be the same. Fundamental elements are at work in this materialisation of creativity. Some  are due to the natural environment. Thus, for example, a society located in a place where wood is abundant may favour sculpture. Others come from the group or individual themselves. And in the final analysis, it is the groups or individuals that decide what to portray (or not) on the basis of their own social norms and what they want to express.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These few limited thoughts should be supplemented by the observation that sculpture or the plastic arts more generally can also be examined from at least two angles: as a means of conveying information, and as a form of linguistic expression.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards the former, some have proposed analysing any work of art, from whatever culture, as a message. Analysis of the work therefore includes an examination of the conditions surrounding the production and transmission of the message. What message is broadcast ? How does it function ? What does the addressee gain from it? This approach is fine in hypothetical terms but does not allow one to go beyond theoretical and formal data, teaching us nothing about the content of the message under study. It refers back to the originator who holds the keys to the way in which it was sent and thus to its form and meaning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linguistically speaking, we assume that all expression through sculpture is a language and that the techniques for studying language can therefore be applied to the work of art. This approach is more rewarding because it brings us closer both to the sources and to the function of communication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Be that as it may, all methods involve knowledge of the group or of the individual (but also of the relationships between them) and thus of any organised knowledge. Art cannot be separated from perception. This is the position of the majority of scientists. Yet we are not completely certain of this. Briefly, we are led to imagine that art could be irreducible at a certain level. When we look at a sculpture or listen to a piece of music, aside from the emotional content which is at least   partly quantifiable, what are we able to understand about the culture which produced them ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having travelled widely throughout the world and kept my eyes open, without having become the 'observer-participant' which the ethnologist should be, I am certain that the same creative function can be seen everywhere, and it is not difficult to identify.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frequent visits to the world's museums and, perhaps above all, to their vaults, further reinforces the impression that constants do exist and are worthy of more and better investigation. Art, and more particularly the art of others, from other continents, is still the domain of a happy few.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are usually highly literate people, and are seldom activists expounding a cause.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contemporary African art must find its niche</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The above statements relate as much to contemporary art as to what we term 'traditional' art. How many of the world's museums really show contemporary art from Africa ? It is as if this sector were cut off from current cultural reality. This is despite the fact that each week, new artists, musicians, designers, painters, sculptors, dancers, film-makers, stylists and photographers emerge from Africa, to be 'recognised' in the West (if anyone knows what 'recognition' really means!). The museums are, in fact, confused by this burgeoning of talent because they have no idea how to manage it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has been said that contemporary African art is an urban phenomenon aimed at those living in towns and cities - and that it rebels against essentially rural, traditional art.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The argument is that the usual methods for analysing traditional art cannot be fully mobilised because 'urban civilisation' conforms to a set of universal norms (more or less), which are distinct from those studied by ethnologists. It would, therefore, be more appropriate to consider contemporary art in the context of sociology and aesthetics. This may be true, but it still comes down to a matter of observation. Confusion reigns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When we staged an exhibition in Marseilles by the Senegalese sculptor, Ousmane Sow, the first individual showing of his works came as a major shock to many people, including the specialists. I can remember the reactions of at least   two colleagues from museums of contemporary art. What they said was almost identical, and was along the following lines:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What's the name of this sculptor ? I am not familiar with him...</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. Do you like his work ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, I do, but what's his name ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. Ousmane Sow </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I don't know him. Astonishing! Where's he from ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. Senegal - he lives in Dakar. Are you interested in his sculptures ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but..</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. You can buy one of his works - he's not very expensive yet and it would be good for your museum. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The problem is he's African.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AN. I see... </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· His works are more your sphere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. But they don't have anything to do with traditional art which is what I have in my museum. Ousmane Sow is a contemporary artist, isn't he ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but he's African, and your museum is a museum of African art.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. You're correct, I would love to buy one of his works. But it would be the only example of contemporary art in my museum and would represent a change of policy for me. You wouldn't have anything by Ousmane Sow. And we would then be rivals! </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Critics, artists and art historians have begun discussing contemporary African art, more and more good reviews of it are being published, talks are being given and some major exhibitions have been mounted. There are pioneers and supporters in France, Germany and elsewhere, and there is even a great museum - Washington's Smithsonian - which took it on board several years  ago - but we still seem to be a long way from a commitment from most institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I hope this statement will soon be proved wrong. Institutions do not like taking risks. Either they create 'ghettos' ('let's set up a museum of contemporary African art'), or they set up committees to consider the subject. It is up to us to set our houses in order, but we must not be too naive. This is the art market, after</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although we tend to cling to this somewhat short-sighted administrative view that there should be different institutions depending on whether we are dealing with heritage or contemporary creativity, museums of contemporary art must integrate all the world's sculptural expression. If not, they will be in conflict with the above; postulate which claims that creative  potential is the same everywhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for so-called museums of anthropology and also a few rare museums such as the Museum of African, Oceanic and Amerindian Art in Marseilles, the systematic exhibition of contemporary art does generate a number of problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When I have wanted to do this in the past, I have been reminded of the 'museographic landscape' and advised to consult the authorities, to organise a major debate on the topic: who, what, where ? That is the rational approach, we are told. There is no great hurry!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, the recent arrival of African artists comes at a moment in our history when we are questioning the existence of our museums. When I say 'we', I mean the West in general.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So, what might happen ? Traditional African art caused an explosion in Western art and traditional art history at the very beginning of the 20th century, with the cubists and their research which led them to develop a passion for African sculpture. We are all aware of what we owe to Africa and its traditional artists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contemporary art from Africa is knocking on the closed door of Western museums, but the arrival of contemporary African artists and the pressure they exert on the art world and  market might trigger a new revolution in the museums, which are also the archives. Certainly, all the usual followers are ready to take up the cause, and that is how it should be. Let's be optimistic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The works of Ainsley Yearwood: Bombarded with colour</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Claude Smets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ainsley Yearwood is a Trinity dadian artist based in London. me Courier had the opportunity to meet him recently when an exhibition of his works was staged at his country's embassy in Brussels. Brought up in Trinidad, he moved to London to study fine arts at the Chelsea Art School. Feeling unable to express himself fully in this discipline, he ended up taking a degree in graphic design. Mr Yearwood is still based in the UK capital where, in addition to his work as a painter, he also designs costumes for the Notting Hill Carnival, a cousin of the famous Trinidad Carnival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The artist is fortunate to be able to live from his work. Besides the present exhibition which is touring Europe (Manchester, Brussels, Geneva and London), he has other works currently on show at three galleries in the US. He finds that the reaction of the American public is different from the European one. Americans, he believes, are more spontaneous and openminded. 'Europeans tend to stick more to things they already know; to which they are more accustomed.' The titles he gives to his art pieces are for him 'a basis for artistic conversation' with his audience. They express his emotions, feelings, and thoughts, but do not try to impose a specific interpretation of the painting on the viewer. Ainslie Yearwood dislikes the idea of being labelled or categorised - or as he describes it, 'to  be put into a box'. As such, he rebels against people who try to make him conform.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A world citizen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although Ainsley Yearwood recognises his African roots within Trinidadian society, he sees himself as 'a world citizen'. The influences in his paintings are many and varied - deriving from the multicultural background of Trinidad and Tobago, European art and graphic design, the memories of his own childhood and his recent experiences. 'I am like a sponge', he says. 'Everything influences me in my work... people, places and all that I see around me. They help me to view things from a different perspective.' These all then flow together to be visualised through his 'inner eye' (expressed, for example, by two blue dots in his work In the Company of Nature which represents the Grand Canyon). By paying particular attention to what he sees, his 'visual view' is transformed into an 'emotional view'. Thus, for example, his painting Evolution appears to be a landscape. A :loser look reveals that the rocks are in the shape of hands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The artist also uses symbols in dome of his work, as a personal means 'or him to express life. The butterfly :rapped in a jar, for example, in Love lost, is a symbol of the fragility of life. The glass of water in Soul of a Mother symbolises the way a child looks at the world as something exciting and new. he also draws strongly on the imagery of candles, inner eyes and doorways.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strong colours, strong emotions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What unifies Mr. Yearwood's work, is his use of colours. As he says, they are 'strong colours to express strong emotions'. In this, he has been inspired by his childhood in Trinidad which, in his own words, 'was an environment that constantly bombarded you with colour - from crystal to aquamarine, sapphire and emerald - a perpetual rainbow of red, yellow, green and blue'. One painting where colour is used to striking effect is Carnival Bacchanal. This depicts Trinidad's Carnival and reflects both the island's multicultural society and its vividness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ainsley Yearwood has also produced more surrealist and psycho-biographical works, under the influence of artists such as Salvador Dali and Francis Bacon. Emotions are revealed through the use of darker though still vivid colours. These works (such as Evolution, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Translucent State and Suspended in Limbo) show a fragmented self, stuck between past, present and future, looking for a way forward. They come in stark contrast to the brighter mood of paintings of island scenes - which are in a more African style - or of jazz musicians (such as Soul of a City or The Musician). According to the artist, this is being realistic. If he wants to paint life, he must show the different and contrasting emotions a human being experiences. 'You get up in the morning and you are feeling a little bit happy. You come home in the evening and you are feeling a little bit down. So emotions are continuously changing. If I said that I was always happy, that wouldn't be true.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As mentioned above, a number of Ainsley Yearwood's pieces portray jazz players. He enjoys going to New Orleans to listen to jazz bands and in Soul of a City he portrays one of the musicians. The title underlaines the importance of performers in a place like New Orleans - where indeed, they form an integral part of city life. In A Musical Love affair, the painter uses techniques learned as a graphic designer to help him express his feelings. By drawing graphic lines, the cello player and the instrument flow into one another. He explains: 'The cello player was not just playing the instrument. She was actually part of it. It is as if she were making love to the cello.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear from the foregoing that Mr. Yearwood's art is primarily visual. The onlooker is bombarded with strong colours - which are used, together with abstraction and symbolism, to express both optimistic and pessimistic feelings. The artist uses his multicultural background to great effect, drawing on influences from Trinidad, Africa and Europe, to create different modes of expression. These are the essential factors which make his paintings interesting and refreshing to look at.  c.s. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA-Bulletin</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Fairness on the livestock field of play</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Sarah Reynolds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the town of Thies one of Senegal's regional capitals, there is an abattoir where nothing goes to waste. Even the horns of cattle are sold for making carvings for sale to tourists while the tips of the horns are exported to Japan. In a rural area of Chad, small-scale livestock farmers are preserving meat by the age-old process of cutting it into strips and drying it in the sun. Careful attention to hygiene and quality control has resulted in a product so consistently good that it has found an export market as far away as Gabon. Livestock producers in sub-Saharan Africa are responding to market opportunities, not because they recognise the need to improve national food requirements, but in pursuit of profit. Therein lies the best chance for stimulating the livestock sector's production capacity. The challenge is to design policies that protect consumers without crushing entrepreneurial potential for producers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than half the population of sub-Saharan Africa is likely to be living in a town or city within the next 30 years. These city dwellers will have neither the skill, the time nor the space to raise livestock. There are indications on present trends that their demand for food of animal origin will increase. Where will they get it from ? Imported meat is more expensive than it used to be, largely as a result of the change in policies of the European Union. These have also affected the supply of low-cost milk powder and butter oil. Imports from countries outside the continent will  undoubtedly continue but intra-African   trade and local production will become   far more significant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has been estimated that the production of animal products in sub-Saharan Africa would have to increase by 4% per year to ensure an adequate supply of animal protein for the region's growing population, and to end the need for imports. This presents a major challenge to policy-makers. Already, the current pressure on land resources is causing conflict in some areas and the prospect of more people, more animals, and more strain on already inadequate resources, is perturbing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information vacuum  in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of value</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Decisions on how to achieve sustainable and yet more productive land-use, while at the same time ensuring fair access to resources for other interested users, cannot be soundly based if made in an information vacuum. It was in recognition of the lack of information about the livestock sector that the CTA organised and sponsored a seminar on Livestock development policies in the humid and sub-humid zones of sub-Saharan Africa. This was held in Abidjan, Cote d'lvoire on 5-9 February 1996. It was attended by participants from 17 countries within the region and by representatives from international institutions and from Europe. The objective was to contribute to the ongoing debate on policies aimed at bringing about sustainable livestock development while respecting natural resources in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of value</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effective planning of government action on issues such as import policy, provision of inputs and services, marketing and research priorities requires quantitative information on livestock production systems. Why is this information lacking when it is estimated that livestock products contribute about 25% of total agricultural GDP in subSaharan Africa? The livestock sector is too important to ignore and yet it is consistently undervalued. The reason is that economists and statisticians like to deal with a tangible unit that can be counted. Ideally, this should be a monetary unit but, failing that, it should at least be a unit that can be easily converted to money, such as the number of animals potentially available to the market. But if animals are used to sustain a traditional way of life, for people who do not have to pay before they can eat, it is difficult to put a monetary value on the food they consume. Similarly, if a herd of animals is sustained by forage that has no other use, on land that can be used for no other purpose, the cost of feeding cannot easily be measured in financial terms. Indeed producers have little to gain from allowing government   departments to acquire information about their assets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock owners have their own objectives when deciding whether and how to increase production. Livestock provide energy in the form of draught power, and dung for fuel or biogas. Their manure restores structure and fertility to the soil. Social prestige may be measured in the quantity and quality of the animals one possesses. For some livestock owners, their animals are their 'barking' system. They represent a deposit account for accumulated wealth and a current account when an animal is sold to raise cash. Indeed it may be impossible to obtain credit from an orthodox bank. There is an added advantage in that there are no interest charges to pay when you raise cash by selling your own animals as opposed to taking out a loan from a bank. It may be difficult to measure real production when animals are treated as a capital reserve. For example, an increase in meat prices, perhaps as a response to a change in economic policy, may result in a short-term reduction rather than increase, in the number of animals being marketed. This is because producers are able to maintain their income by selling fewer animals and can simultaneously  increase their breeding herds. Alternatively, there may be little incentive to producers to sell more animals if they have no use for the extra money they earn. It is of course true that more people are joining the cash economy as they become aware of the desirability of consumer goods, or of services such as schooling. Governments may aspire to design policies which will develop the livestock sector for the economic welfare of society as a whole, but if these policies ignore the objectives of livestock owners, they will fail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fair play</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a football match, the referee is there to see fair play. In the livestock sector, governments have to ensure fair play between the 'demand team' and the 'supply team', in other words the -consumers and the producers. Governments often make two mistakes. Either they help one team at the expense of the other, or else they join in the game themselves. The role of the authorities should be to make the rules that protect both teams from unfair or unsafe practices. For example, health and hygiene regulations must be in place, and  enforced, but not be so onerous that illegal and totally unregulated marketing channels are established.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Private traders have considerable power to manipulate markets if they collude to form cartels and prevent outsiders from entering their ring. Governments should ensure that this is not allowed to happen, that markets are open and that traders are free to operate provided that they observe health and hygiene regulations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Veterinary services</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most countries are no longer able to supply even minimum standards of veterinary support to their livestock producers. The efforts that have been made in recent years have been largely in the form of donor-funded projects where continuity is rarely guaranteed. The only viable alternative seems to be to transfer activities of this kind to service providers in the private sector. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work that they do under contract to the government, for example relating to the control of epidemic diseases, must be funded by government or other central agencies since cost-recovery from individual livestock owners is not feasible when participation has to be compulsory. The work that they do on behalf of individuals, or associations of livestock owners, should, however, be paid for by those who benefit directly from the increased productivity that should result - the farmers. The greatest difficulty lies in managing what will be a long and difficult transition period. The success of ventures to privatise veterinary services depends on whether the profession can deliver a decent living in the private sector, particularly in rural areas where the need is undoubtedly greatest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is in the rural areas that livestock production needs to be intensified. On the outskirts of Africa's major cities, intensive pig and poultry production is already being supported by commercial, joint venture capital. Dairy units, in which exotic, high performance cattle breeds are managed in a controlled environment, are producing fresh milk for cash-paying consumers in nearby towns and cities. Urban areas create the demand but it is the rural areas that need the development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal products are seasonal and prices fluctuate accordingly. However, consumers are more likely to develop the habit of using products that are consistently available at stable prices. Government intervention to stabilise  prices risks favouring the consumer at the expense of the producer. For example, if imports are used to counter temporarily high prices during periods of drought, then producers will receive less for their reduced output at the very time when they need support. The most effective policy of price stabilization is to encourage the adoption of production systems that are less vulnerable to seasonal changes. Processing achieves this to some degree and brings benefits to both producers and consumers. Furthermore, because animal products are perishable, and dangerous to human health when they deteriorate, processing extends storage life, and may even have an effect in improving food security.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most countries, the time of greatest food shortage is at the beginning of the rainy season. This is also the time when milk production soars because cattle have good feed; and yet much of that milk is wasted because there is more than required for home consumption. If that surplus milk can be fumed into cheese, potential customers in more distant markets may be reached. Provided that the product is acceptable to the consumer, cheese-making reduces wastage, diversifies the producer's source of income and may also provide employment, and therefore income, to those brought in to help with the production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A technology that has been exhaustively tested by FAO for its suitability for use in Africa is lactoperoxydase. This is an enzyme which extends by three hours the length of time before milk begins to curdle and clot. This effectively doubles the time available for milk to reach the cooling centre, and thereby extends the catchment areas for producers wishing to supply fresh milk to urban markets. The trials that have been conducted show that it is entirely safe. When milk is brought to rural collecting points, it is the responsibility of the cooling centre employee, not the farmer, to add the enzyme at the prescribed rate as the milk is transferred into cans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On current trends, it seems probable that there will be more than 20 capital cities in Africa that have a population of 10 million people by the year 2010. How many other cities and towns will have developed by that time ? There are so many people migrating to the urban areas, and they are doing so because the type of activities that ought to be taking place in the countryside do not exist. If the livestock industry, both primary production and processing, can be encouraged in rural areas, and if the infrastructure is in place to ensure that animal products, in whatever form, can reach urban markets, rural dwellers will find it more comfortable to stay where they are rather than going to the cities to look for jobs that do not exist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge for policy-makers is to deal even-handedly, not only in the interests of the livestock sector, but in the interests of other farmers, consumers, the national economy and the long-term sustainability of the nation's natural resources. For this task, reliable information, which is accessible to all countries within the region, is essential. The database structure of this information should be standardised so that it can form the basis of regional cooperation on trade and the sustainable use of land resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.R. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Couriers Mailbag</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WCL seeks a wider  expression views</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We refer to the article published by The Courier in issue no 156 (March-April 1996) entitled The changing face of trade unionism in Africa, which reflects the views of the ICFTU (AFRO) and OATUU.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We are surprised that you have not taken pains to solicit the views of the World Confederation of Labour (WCL) and its regional organisation, the Democratic Organisation of African Workers Trade Unions (DOAWTU) - which participated on the same footing as the two other trade union organisations at the ACP-KU Social Partners meeting in December last year. We strongly believe this omission on your part should be corrected in future in order to allow a wider expression of the views and stands of all representative trade unions in Africa on such important issues as structural adjustment programmes, the social clause, labour standards and working conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carlos L. Custer, Secretary-General, World Confederation of Labour, Brussels, Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linked destinies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The continuing dialogue between the ACP and EC Groups has exposed many mutual concerns about world affairs and has promoted a more complete understanding of the problems of both advanced and developing  nations. I am confident that in the future, we shall see further progress in our efforts to create a favourable financial climate for the resolution of our economic problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Global political and economic events have brought home to all of us how inextricably our social and economic destinies are linked. This is true of a whole range of subjects from human rights and political reform to economic development, conservation, health education and industrial promotion. None of these subjects can be put into independent boxes. We must seek more effective integration of our social and economic policies - both internally and internationally - if we are to serve the welfare of the people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I rejoice in your initiative in publishing The Courier. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teddyiniovo, International institute for Global Cooperation, Benin City, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scope for energy selfsufficiency</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">May I congratulate you on the new layout of The Courier, which is a great deal clearer and which you have instituted as a result of comments made by a number of your readers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I am surprised to discover that you have not said anything about the question of energy dependence in the Lom&eacute; Convention countries. Energy self sufficiency is an extremely important issue. ACP countries face a famine in this area which is rarely mentioned. Most are majors exporters of petroleum, which is  costly and absorbs a significant proportion of their foreign exchange earnings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Practically all the Lom&eacute; countries are in a position to produce alcohol from crops such as sugar cane and manioc without any negative impact on their food resources. These crops could be distilled to produce big-ethanol which is an excellent fuel. All that is needed - and it is a major challenge admittedly - is for production to be organised in each country, and for the required national and international financing to be set up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also required is the political will in these countries to overcome the various obstacles, including those lobbies who oppose this kind of production because they want petrol imports to be maintained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pierre Mariotte Consultant, Paris, France </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bibliography</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jean Monnet - 1888-1979  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Eric Roussel. Published by Fayard, Paris. 1996. 1004 pages. FFR 198.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jean Monnet was almost 91 years old when he died and, despite the fact that he had no higher education qualifications and at times did not hold any official post, his public role was legendary. From the very first page of his book, Eric Roussel stresses the fact that, from the moment Jean Monnet met the Prime Minister, Rene Viviani, in September 1914 until 9 May 1975, the day the Action Committee for a United States of Europe was dissolved, he worked constantly for the European cause.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He applied the same tireless enthusiasm to all his duties, in whatever sphere of activity he was involved - and these were many and varied. Despite his provincial origins, Jean Monnet was, among other things, a cognac merchant, an advocate of the Allied coordination effort during the First World War, Deputy Secretary General of the League of Nations (for a short time), a banker in America and China during the 1930s and in charge of the Victory Program in the USA in 1941. From 1947 to 1952, he was the first Commissioner-General of the Economic Plan in France. He and Robert Schuman were the architects of the famous Declaration of 9 May 1950 which was to form the basis of European construction. He went on to become the first President of the ECSC's High Authority and, until 1975, he was the driving force behind the Action Committee for a United States of Europe. And that is just to highlight his renowned roles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, Jean Monnet was both a visionary and a pragmatist, who was to become adviser to some of the greatest names of his day. General de Gaulle, another great visionary, albeit with a very different ideology, called him 'the inspiration' behind European integration, although such an accolade was not completely devoid of irony given that the two men could hardly be said to see eye to eye.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jean Monnet was a purveyor of new ideas, but also an eternal realist who never failed to recognise the importance of the status quo. Indeed, he could have stepped right out of the pages of a Paul Morand novel. And yet, despite the fact that he was held in the highest esteem by world political heavyweights (Clemenceau, Roosevelt, Churchill, Adenauer, de Gasperi, Brandt, Pompidou, John Kennedy, Henry Kissinger, Heath and Giscard d'Estaing, to name but a few), in his private life he was a simple man, of modest disposition - in fact a bourgeois in the best sense of the word.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 'workaholic', like many great men, Jean Monnet defied categorization. He has recently been described as 'a man of fringe ideologies who was nevertheless always at the centre of things'. During the latter part of his life, he settled comfortably into his role as 'rather' of Europe. His fundamental thoughts on that topic could be summed up in one line from the Declaration of 9 May 1950, (now a public holiday in the European institutions). 'Europe will not be built in a day, nor as a single structure, but will come about through concrete actions which, first and foremost, create a de facto solidarity'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Monnet, nationalism meant only war and, from 1942 onwards, he set his sights on preparing for the future, surrounding himself with a team of extraordinary talent - people such as Etienne Hirsch, Herve Alphand, Rene Mayer and Robert Marjolin. These men strove to find ways to avoid war between the countries of Western Europe, to define the objectives of European unification and to establish European institutions which would be equal to such a task.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eric Roussel is a journalist with an arts degree and a doctorate in law, and this is an outstanding work on the 'pragmatic visionary' that was Jean</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Monnet. The book is comprehensive, extremely well-written and impressively documented. Most notably, the author had access, for the first time, to the famous journal kept by Jean Monnet in which he recorded his countlles conversations with the key players and set out his own thoughts. Today, his dream of 'a united Europe complemented by a partnership with the United States' is still one of the big issues. And as the arguments rage, we should perhaps recall some other famous words from Jean Monnet's Memoires: 'We do not seek to form a coalition of States, we seek to unite men . </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alain Lacroix </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Le Choix de l'Europe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Opting for Europe)  by Laurent Cohen-Tanugi. Pub/ished by Fayard, Paris. 225 pages. FFR 110 - BFR 748.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Laurent Cohen-Tanugi successfully reminds us of the modernity of the European project; that there are aspects of it that are essential to our independence and our prosperity, to preserving our model of society and maintaining our influence on the international stage. By urging Europeans and European leaders to look to the future so as to be better able to manage the risks and seize the opportunities that it offers and, ultimately, to be in a better position to change things, he brings us all hope'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was how Jacques Delors described this book, and, basically, there you have it in a nutshell. It would, however, be worthwhile adding that 'opting for Europe' is not quite as simple as it sounds - a fact which has not escaped the attention of the author, who is a graduate of France's elite Ecole normale superieure and of the Harvard Law School. He is also a barrister and member of a renowned firm of international lawyers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the Treaty of Rome, European progress has very often come about because Member States have set themselves deadlines for achieving particular objectives. 1996 sees the opening of the Intergovernmental Conference, an event of major importance, which is expected to continue at least until the spring of 1997 (with parliamentary elections planned in several Member States in 1997 and 1998). Among the items on the agenda for the IGC is the need to adapt the European institutions - which in essence have hardly changed since 1958 - and to open up the way for the third phase of Economic and Monetary Union in 1999 for those States which have fulfilled the economic convergence criteria set out in the Maastricht Treaty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, besides the technical and financial problems involved, there are also differences between certain Member States about the political future of Europe. The author rightly stresses, in this respect, that the situation has become even more complex since the demise of the Soviet Union. In particular, some politicians support an expansion of the EU towards Central and Eastern Europe, so as to avoid strengthening European integration. The author believes that, broadly speaking, there are two distinct positions. On the one hand, there is the United Kingdom, which would be happy with a large free trade area guided by a 'Secretariat-Commission'and with flexible and relatively loose inter-State cooperation structures at a political level. On the other hand, there is Germany, which wants expansion of the Union towards the East as well, but also wants a swift and concrete consolidation of a common monetary and political 'hard core'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In his book, the author expresses his view that France will play a vital role in maintaining and advancing the essential elements that form the basis of the European enterprise. And he nails his own colours firmly to the mast as someone who hopes to see the continent moving towards some form of federal structure. As one observer commenting   on the work has noted, 'This little Bible, brimming with faith in the concept of a unified Europe, will be invaluable - even to the doubting Thomases among us'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publications received</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Et.... qu'en pensent les villageois? Projets de developpement durable et be veins de base b&eacute;n&eacute;ficiaires</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(But... what do the villagers think about it ? Sustainable development projects and basic needs of aid recipients)  by Myriam Bacquelaine. Published by Ured (Research, Education and Development Unit) of the K.U. Brussels (17, avenue de la Liberte, B- 1080 Brussels). 1995. 3Z2 pages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Les problemes du monde rural vus par les habitants - Portraits de villages de Haute-Guinee</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(me problems of rural life as seen by the inhabitants - Profiles of villages in Upper Guinea)  by Myriam Bacquelaine. Published by Ured (Research, Education and Development Unit) of the KU. Brussels (17, avenue de la Liberte, B- 1080 Brussels). 1995. 222 pages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, who has a PhD in educational sciences and is a researcher at Ured, has written these two works on the basis of a study she carried out on behalf of the European Commission in Guinea (Conakr,v). This aimed at identifying the most urgent priorities of village communities within the context of an environment restoration project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conclusion of the first book underlines research results which point to the adoption of a different approach to development at local level: one which respects the wishes of the recipients and which finally breaks free from western ethnocentrism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the second volume, the author presents the results of the survey conducted in the villages of Upper Guinea. Six villages with varying characteristics in terms of size, geographical location and administrative status are featured in more detail. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Informations pour le Developpement: Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Information on development: Agriculture)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Published by Ibiscus (ibis, rue du Havre, F-75008 Paris) and by the Agency for Cultural and Technical Cooperation. 1995. 271 pages. FFR 150.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than just an index, this publication is a useful working tool for anyone seeking reliable information about development in the agricultural sector. It includes a list of the main organisations specialising in agriculture in 40 French-speaking countries and a list of the principal places and means from which to obtain information (documentation centres, data banks, optical discs, CDs and on-line data services). There is also a selection of periodicals, a bibliographic section (with more than 300 references, including abstracts) and contributions by specialists relating to major topics connected with rural development: landownership systems, links between cash crops and food crops, agricultural funding, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda - Trois jour qui ont fait basculer l'histoire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Rwanda - Three days that shook history)  by Filip Reyntjens. Published by L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole-Polytechnique, F75005 Paris). Cahiers africains no. /6! 1995. 148 pages FFR 9O. ISBN 2-738437044.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although much has been written about the tragic events in Rwanda, this work examines an aspect of the story which is still largely a mystery: the brief period which began on 6 April with the missile attack on the presidential jet and ended on 9 April, when the 'caretaker government' was swam into office. According to the author, these 72 hours were of critical importance since it was during  this time that the country's killing machine was set in motion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Essentially based on eye-witnffs accounts, it is a tale which is far from complete. The book, however, does provide some hitherto undocumented information which allow us to delve deeper in search of the truth behind one of the darkest pages of recent human history.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Les refugies rwandais a Bukavu au Zaire - De nouveaux Palestiniens?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(The Rwandan refugees in Bukavu, Zaire - the new Palestinians ?)  by Philippe de Dorlodot Published by L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole-Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris) and by the Jeremie Group. 1995. 253 pages. FM 150. ISBN 2-7384-3698-6.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author has brought together various stories, appeals, communiques, analyses and thoughts to write this book about the crisis facing the Rwandan refugees. The accounts cover the period from April 1994 to October 1995 and relate to the situation in South Kivu, Zaire, where an already volatile position has been greatly exacerbated by the arrival of the refugees. The people living in the regional centres of Goma and Bukavu are having to live with the tragedy of gross overcrowding and all its consequences - environmental deterioration, price increases, general insecurity and the threat of war on the border between Rwanda and Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire now wants the refugees to leave as quickly as possible, but their return to Rwanda is still problematic. Rejected at every turn, are these Rwandan refugees set to become the new Palestinians? In the postscript to the work, Filip Reyntjens (the author of the book reviewed previously) states that 'These new refugees will not accept eternal exile. H voluntary repatriation is not possible, and if forced repatriation is unacceptable, the only way left open to them may be armed repatriation... The civil society of South Kivu... is well aware of this, and the international community would do well to listen to their cries of alarm... If  it does not, the tragic events of the past year will have been merely a prelude, with the worst still to come'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La tragedie rwandaise - Historique et Perspectives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(The Rwandan tragedy - historical background and future prospects)  by Emmanuel Nkunzumwami. Published by L'Harmaffan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1995. 480 pages. FFR 250. ISBN 2-7384-3697-8.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, a teiecommunications engineer and economist, was born and raised in Rwanda. He now lives in France and has had several articles about the situation in his country published. In this work, he seeks to Reconstruct the machine of central Rwandan power which first appeared in the eleventh century, seeking answers to questions such as: Who ruled the country and how? What alliances were forged and according to what criteria? What kinds of social structure existed and what forms did conflict take? He then goes on to describe the trauma of colonial rule which 'deliberately' fanned the flames of socio-ethnic conflict so that the people could be more easily controlled. From there, he takes us through the era of an 'independent' Rwanda under a dictatorial regime. Its power was progressively stripped away, initially under the pressure of internal calls for democracy, and then by the demands of Western aid donors. Finally, he recounts the events since April 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having given the historical background, the author examines the country's future prospects. He believes that the 'siege mentality' of the new government does nothing to induce the return of the 2 million refugees who shuffle back and forth across the border and who find themselves stuck between a 'rock and a hard place'. Finally, the author poses a straightforward question - but one which has yet to be answered: How can we rebuild a country that has witnessed genocide on such a scale ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">News round-up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In brief</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNCTAD Report on the least-developed countries (LDCs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to the annual report of UNCTAD (The UN Conference on Trade and Development), the 48 least developed countries of the planet, after several years of stagnation - and indeed, decline in some cases - enjoyed an average growth rate of 3% in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 1994-95. The figure was 4.6% for LDCs in Asia and 2.2% for those in Africa (33 out 48).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNCTAD says that the renewed grovvth rate for Africa's least developed nations is due to an increase in commodity prices, to improved political and social stability in certain countries and to economic reforms which have been implemented. If these favourable conditions are maintained, further modest progress can be anticipated for 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the positive impact of these factors on the development of countries, notably in Asia, UNCTAD believes that there is still a short-term danger that the world's weakest economies will suffer further marginalisation. It is pointed out, in this context, that the LDCs' share of total world trade - which stood at 1.7% in 1970 - had fallen to 0.4% for exports and 0.7% for imports, by 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the longer term it is thought that the LDCs, with their reliance on basic commodities for export receipts, may benefit from the globalization of their economies. This should happen notably through the regional trade agreements to which they are parties, alongside other developing countries. These regional markets, which are more attractive for investors, offer an opportunity for LDCs to try out their products and can, in time, help improve their competitiveness. In the  meantime, however, UNCTAD has noted that the immediate effects of the Uruguay Round have tended to be more negative, with reductions in the preferences enjoyed by LDCs in export markets and increases in the price of foodstuffs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, because they are dependent on official development aid (ODA) to finance investment, and even for their national budgets, LDCs are faced with possible further marginalisation as such aid flows are reduced. The figures show that, in terms of total resource flows, the amount of ODA provided by the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the OECD fell to 23% in 1994 from a figure of 27% a decade previously.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Likewise, the amount of aid, expressed as a proportion of the GDP of the donor countries, has been falling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNCTAD suggests a bolder policy as regards external debt - which, in 1994, amounted to 73% of the entire Gross Domestic Product of the LDCs. The organisation believes that the establishment of a new mechanism with sufficient resources to reduce multilateral indebtedness, combined with the expansion of existing mechanisms, could have the effect of reducing the overall debt burden to a more reasonable level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the subject of globalisation, UNCTAD argues that the international community should work to ensure that the LDCs' export markets do not become blocked by protectionist measures. It also believes that extensions to regional trade agreements, taking in the main industrialised countries, should not be allowed to have a damaging effect on the commercial interests of the LDCs. It points out that these countries have only limited scope for pursuing independent, national economic policies and that</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No agreement over banning landmines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Humanitarian organisations have expressed disappointment over the outcome of a recent United Nations conference, convened in Geneva to draw up a convention on 'Inhumane weapons). Both NGOs, and public agencies such as UNICEF, are particularly unhappy that state representatives at the meeting were unable to agree to an immediate and comprehensive ban on anti-personnel mines. These devices, which often lie hidden in the soil for many years, kill and maim thousands of civilians in current (and former) conflict areas across the globe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diplomats attending the Geneva conference were keen to emphasise what had been achieved. So-called 'dumb' mines, which do not self-destruct after a certain time will eventually be phased out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seif-destructing devices, which are still permitted under international law, will be subject to strict new standards, designed notably to ensure that they can be detected. And there will be new rules to ensure that minefieids are properly marked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Critics point out that signatories to the Convention will not be obliged to phase out 'dumb' mines immediately and that their use will remain legal for a further nine years after the agreement enters into force.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also an exception to the rule about marking the location of mines, 'where direct military action makes its impossible to comply' - a not uncommon circumstance in conflict situations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the Geneva Conference, a number of countries, including the United States, have announced their intention to reduce their stockpiles of mines. Few nations, however, seem willing to renounce their use altogether. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.  their governments have little choice but to adopt the prevailing market oriented approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Long-term food security</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A seminar on 'Long-Term Food Security Policies' was held in Brussels on 1-3 April at the initiative of the European Commission. The meeting, which was opened by Professor Pinheiro, Commissioner with responsibility for relations with the ACP countries, brought together about a hundred participants representing Member States, third countries, international organisations and major cooperation agencies. It was also attended by experts and researchers in the field of food security.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fulfilling a promise made by the Commission, the aim of the seminar was to clarify the long term strategic issues and take a closer look at food security policies with a view to preparing a European position for the World Food Summit scheduled for Rome in November under the auspices of the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community and its Member States are the world's main donors of food aid having spent ECU 1.089 billion on this in 1994. This amounted to 53% of the global total with the United States providing 44% and Japan 3%. Despite the large amounts being given, the FAO, the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the World Bank are all predicting that unless global food donations are boosted significantly, certain Asian and African countries will face an alarming food deficit by the beginning of the next century.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between 600 million and 800 million people are likely to be facing hunger by the year 2010 and the cereal needs  of the developing countries could well double between now and then.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This projected scenario coincides with a period of market difficulty. World stocks are low and grain prices have risen by 40% in just one year. Whether or not this is a portent of future food shortage, it has given rise to renewed debate on the ability of certain countries and regions of the world to supply themselves and the extent to which they will have to have recourse to the international markets. Closer attention is also being paid to the wider strategies that need to be implemented to ensure food security in the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If one looks at the issue solely in terms of increasing supply, the projections are gloomy. Experience shows that the 'right' of access to a sufficient food supply for each of the planet's inhabitants cannot be guaranteed whether through world economic growth, food self-sufficiency at the national level, or the international markets and trade liberalisation. There is, therefore, a need for food security policies, in the developing countries in particular, which act on the conditions of demand as well as supply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In his presentation opening the seminar, Commissioner Pinheiro stressed the fact that of the ECU 7 billion allocated by the EU for development cooperation last year, ECU 1 billion was in the form of food aid. He also noted that this aid 'category' had evolved over the last decade in the context of the search for food security and explained how the Commission, in revising the policy towards the end of 1994, had set out three essential aspects:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the use of food aid as a policy instrument designed to achieve longterm food security with the emphasis on local purchases and 'triangular' operations - thereby encouraging the growth of the agricultural sector in the developing countries: this entailed developing a new aid instrument in which funds are available to import basic food products (as a way of encouraging the private sector to  take a more active part in the economic life of those countries facing a structural food deficit);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the integration of aid instruments into the actual development efforts of the beneficiary countries;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - improved access for the people who suffer most from food shortages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Professor Pinheiro indicated that the Commission would shortly be presenting a communication on the strengthening of the link between development aid on the one hand and emergency, rehabilitation and food aid on the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He stressed the important role that food aid operations could play in preventing conflicts and easing social tensions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to the Commissioner, the challenge in this area have been clearly identified but he believes that additional thinking is needed, notably on the impact of events in China and the countries of the former Soviet Union, and on the effect of US and EC agricultural policies on the world markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, Professor Pinheiro expressed the view that food security was, above all, a national responsibility with all civil society actors having a role to play.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Citing the rise in the price of cereals during the second half of 1995 - which had prompted concerns about the availability of food aid and its impact on the balance of payments (notably in sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian sub-continent) - he gave an assurance that the Commission would remain vigilant about this. At the same time, he was concerned not to see a return to situations where aid in the form of straightforward transfers of food increased. These, he observed,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· had at least partly contributed to food costs, the destabilisation of local production and constraints on intra-regional trade. As such, they had set   back or undermined the reforms in this sector in the countries concerned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean rice exporters fear changes in OCT . rules</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guyana and Suriname, together with a number of Overseas Countries and Territories (OCTs), have expressed concern over the European Commission's recently announced intention to change the shape of its relations with the OCTs. In particular, they are worried that proposed new rules could harm their rice sales to the 15 European Union nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guyana currently exports 180 000 tonnes of rice (80% of its exports) to the KU. This is shipped initially to the Netherlands Antilles (Cura&ccedil;ao, Aruba and Bonaire) to be partially milled. It then enters the EU market duty-free by virtue of the Union's existing trade rules with the OCTs. But Caribbean exporters fear that this 'OCT route' could soon be blocked by changes currently being considered in Brussels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As already announced in issue no 157 of The Courier (May-June 1996), in the context of the mid-term review of the association with the OCTs, the Commission published a text on February 14 proposing some fine tuning to the trade preferences it grants to these territories. This has now gone forward to the Council of Ministers for decision. The Commission proposal is that while agricultural produce may continue being processed in the OCTs - and hence still benefit from the more relaxed rules - this should happen in future on a case-by-case basis, and only if priority is given to the least developed OCTs and the operations are economically justified.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, preferential arrangements do apply to direct rice exports from Guyana and Suriname to the KU, but it is argued that the levies are still too high to make the trade viable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to Yesu Persaud, who is Chairman of Guyana's Institute of Private Enterprise; 'it is only via the OCTs that we can export to the European Union.' Mr Persaud was speaking to journalists during a lobby visit to Brussels on April 16. He was accompanied by Charles P Kennard, Chairman of the Guyana Rice Development Board and David Jessop, director of the London-based Caribbean Council for Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Justifying the need for derange, some EU officials point to evidence that non-tome developing countries are 'abusing' the OCT rice route. Rice is a sensitive product for some EU nations such as Spain and Italy, who grow their own.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Persaud said that Guyana and Suriname were lobbying either for their own duty-free quota under the Lom&eacute; trade rules, or for 'a more reasonable levy'. At the same time, however, he indicated that the Caribbean rice growers were keen on keeping the route open via the Dutch and other OCTs (such as Montserrat and the Turks and Caicos) where major investments have been made on the  strength of the existing arrangements. A representative of the Turks and Caicos told reporters that his country earned half a million dollars a year from the trade, and that a new jetty had been built with British government support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guyana's rice exports have climbed from less than 39 000 tonnes in 1986 to more than 200 000 tonnes in 1995. And as Mr Persaud also stressed, the trade has done so well that Guyana is now investing in high-yielding varieties. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fight against locusts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fipronil, a recently developed pesticide, is said to be 10 times more effective than other products on the market in the control of locusts, according to representatives of the pharmaceutical giant, Rhone-Poulenc who organised a seminar on locust control </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Links between emergency, rehabilitation and development aid </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European commission has recently approved a communication </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> (COM(96) 153) which was due to be presented to the Development Council on 28 May. The document seeks to respond tO the challenge of I maintaining and improving the effectiveness of emergency aid  rehabilitation assistance and development cooperation with third countries - in the face of a wide variety of political, economic and social circumstances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Communication suggests ways of strengthening the links between the three types of aid within a strategic planning framework which includes intensified dialogue and political cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This initiative follows extensive consultations, both within the Commission (i_ service groups) and with representatives of numerous outside bodies (Member State experts, USAID, UN agencies, NGOs, academic institutions etc.). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the key phrase in the Communication may be 'strategy and global planning', emphasis is also placed on 'coordination' end 'opportunity'. This underlines a commitment to adapting procedures, where necessary, so that measures can be taken at the right time and the transition from emergency aid, to rehabilitation and subsequently to development cooperation can take place in the best possible conditions.  with the 70-member African, Caribbean and Pacific group. The event took place in Brussels in April.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new product, claims the company, fills a big gap that was left in the war against locust infestation when DDT was banned in 1986 (toxic residues from the chemical having been found to enter the food chain and damage the ecosystem).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is stated that Fipronil causes 99% mortality among locusts and gives complete protection for up to three weeks when applied in doses of six grammes per hectare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Its developers claim that it is three times cheaper than any other form of anti-locust pesticide used between 1987-1995, a calculation which includes the logistical costs involved in distributing the pesticide. It is said to be very effective in preventing locust infestations in countries in the Sahel that are particularly at risk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Sahel has some 250 acridian species. Of these, about 15, are known regularly to attack crops in large numbers, according to Michel Launois, who heads the French agricultural research body, CIRAD-GERDAT-PRIFAS.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the Brussels seminar, emphasis was placed on the need for donors to set aside more funds for the prevention of locust infestations. It was also stressed that locust control must be at a regional level because of the migratory nature of the species, and the link between locust control and food security was underlined.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CIRAD-GERDAT-PRIFAS has just published an educational cartoon strip entitled 'Les Dents du Ciel 11' (available from Cirad-Gerdat-Prifas, B.P. 5035, F34032 Montpellier Cedex 1). This is intended to explain to a wide audience the need for an integrated approach to locust control.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I New fishing agreement between Angola and the EU</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new fisheries agreement between Angola and the EU was initialled on 2 May. It is due to run for three years (as opposed to two years for the previous one) and should ensure greater stability and better programming of the Community fleet's fishing activities in Angolan waters. The EU will pay Angola the sum of ECU 13.35 million per annum in exchange for improved fishing rights for European fishermen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is worth noting that the agreement contains certain innovations. These concern, for example, the legal status of catches (which are given Community origin). This should help to avoid the kind of dispute that has arisen in the recent past. There is also the possibility of imposing an annual biological 'rest-period' for shrimp fishing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I African conference on consumer protection</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first African conference on consumer protection was held in Harare, Zimbabwe from 28 April to 2 May. This resulted from a joint initiative by the organization Consumers international and the United Nations, and it was supported financially by the European Commission. The latter was represented at the event by Mrs Emma Bonino, the Commissioner responsible for Consumer Policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The aim of the conference was to lay down the basis for a genuine consumer policy in Africa. Representatives of 45 African governments attended, together with officials from various regional and sub-regional organizations and delegates from a large number of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African consumer bodies. Coinciding with the tenth anniversary of the adoption by the UN of the guiding principles for the protection of consumers, the Conference offered an opportunity to track progress on the application of these principles in African countries. It also saw the adoption of 'model' legislation setting out the essential rights which should be guaranteed to consumers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In her speech, Mrs Bonino stressed the Commission's commitment to supporting the efforts of African governments and consumer organisations in seeking to establish, in a clear and pragmatic way, the link between consumption and development. Evidence of this commitment, she pointed out, was to be seen in her very presence at the conference. She also lent her support to the broad application of the UN's guiding principles in Africa. This would ensure that the health, security and economic rights of African consumers could be protected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the European Commissioner stressed that legislation, while important, was not enough in itself to tackle the fundamental problem - which was the satisfaction of basic needs. She appealed for global action in Africa deigned to break the vicious circle of poverty - based on voluntary action at all levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mrs Bonino added that the Commission would seek ways of supporting projects, in particular in the fields of food and health. This should assist citizens to meet their essential needs - with the opportunity to consume products which were different, 'local' and of better quality, and with risks to health and security minimised. The approach should avoid the exhaustion of scarce resources and respect nature. She indicated that an action plan would be drawn up by the Commission in collaboration with Consumers International. This, it was hoped, would allow financing of pilot programmes under a separate budget line which would be sought from the European Parliament for 1997. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE INSTITUTIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AT WORK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COMMON FOREIGN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> AND SECURITY POLICY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), the European Union has recently issued a number of statements, details of which are set out below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Towards national reconciliation in Angola</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 4 April 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Troika of the European Union Ambassadors in Luanda made a formal demarche with both the Government of Angola and UNITA in order to welcome the positive outcome of the Libreville Summit between the President of Angola, Jose Eduardo dos Santos, and the President of UNITA, Jonas Savimbi, and in particular their commitment to establish an integrated national army by June and the creation of an appropriate institutional structure, including the formation of a government of unity and national reconciliation by June/July. The Government and UNITA were encouraged to continue to refrain from military activity and hostile propaganda and to provide for free circulation of persons and goods as soon as possible. The EU Ambassadors underlined also the importance of securing human rights as well as transparency in financial management, economic stabilisation and reforms. Having recalled the terms of reference of the EU Joint Position adopted on 2 October, 1995, the Ambassadors underlined that the Union will continue to monitor, with the greatest attention, the development of the situation particularly as regards respect for the implementation of the calendar agreed in Libreville. Welcoming the recent steps taken by UNITA, the EU expressed concern at the slow pace of the quartering and disarming of UNITA troops and urged UNITA to proceed with its commitments, in full cooperation with UNAVEM ill. The EU encouraged the Government to continue the quartering of the rapid intervention police and the disengagement and pulling back of the FAA to the nearest barracks. The importance of disarming the civilian population was also emphasised. The EU also reiterated their call to the Government and UNITA to refrain from acquiring lethal material and to cooperate fully with the de-mining process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has reiterated its full support to the Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General, Maitre Blondin Beye, to the Joint Commission and to the United Nations Angola Verification Mission (UNAVEM).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia and Malta align themselves with this declaration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free elections in Sierra Leone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 4 April 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union welcomes the fact that presidential and parliamentary elections took place in Sierra Leone in a free and fair atmosphere and in fulfilment of the established timetable for the return to democracy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results reflect the will of the people of Sierra Leone to achieve a democratically elected civilian government despite attempts at intimidation by armed elements and the ongoing fighting in various parts of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU welcomes the peace talks between the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) and the Freetown authorities as well as the intention expressed by President Kabbah to meet Mr Sankoh at the earliest possible opportunity. The EU calls on all the parties to work for peace and national reconciliation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serious threat to peace process in Liberia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 11 April 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses its deep concern at the outbreak of fighting in Monrovia, which represents a serious threat to the peace process in Liberia. The EU is firmly convinced that the AbuJa agreement provides the right framework for resolving the crisis and calls upon the Council of State, the Liberian national transitional government and the Liberian factions to implement it, and to put the peace process back on track, in order to avoid further deterioration of the situation, and the violation of human rights. The EU condemns the loss of human life and the harassment of the civilian population and humanitarian workers. All parties concerned should prove their willingness to re-establish and maintain the ceasefire which represents the necessary prerequisite to disarmament and demobilization. The relevant measures and the necessary preparations can no longer be delayed. The EU asks the factions to return all weapons seized during the fighting to ECOMOG. The EU will base its attitude to Liberia on the concrete steps taken by all parties concerned to implement the Abuja agreement and bring the conflict to an end.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Treaty of Pelindaba on a nuclear weapon-free zone in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 12 April 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union welcomes the signature in Cairo on 11 April 1996 of the Pelindaba Treaty establishing the African Nuclear Weapon Free Zone. The Treaty is in line with the Decision on Principles and Objectives for Nuclear Non-Proliferation and Disarmament issued by the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference which   recognised that the creation of Nuclear Weapon Free Zones enhances global and regional peace and security.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU considers that Nuclear Weapon Free Zones are welcome complementary instruments to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, the universality of which the EU continues to promote.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Central and Eastern European countries associated with the EU and the associated countries Cyprus and Malta align themselves with this declaration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appeal for the 'boat people' of Liberia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 14 May 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses its deep concern at the grave humanitarian situation caused by the ongoing fighting in Monrovia and condemns the violence against the civilian population and the harassment of aid operations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While recognising the enormous efforts already made by neighbouring countries to assist the hundreds of thousands of existing Liberian refugees, the Council deplores the fact that the thousands of people crammed in precarious conditions on ships in the area are still in search of a friendly port.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It appeals on humanitarian grounds to the neighbouring countries to give at least temporary shelter to these victims of the fighting and affirms its own willingness to give humanitarian aid to cover their most urgent needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Council calls on all the Liberian factions to stop the fighting immediately and put the peace process back on track in order to avoid further suffering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VISITS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Prime Minister of Rwanda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Prime Minister of Rwanda, Pierre Celestin Rwigema, visited Brussels from 26 to 29 March in the course of a tour aimed at informing the main donors about the work undertaken by his government in recent months and about the policies which would be implemented in the future. He was accompanied by the Minister of Planning and the Minister for Rehabilitation. The Prime Minister was received by Commissioner Pinheiro, who is responsible for relations with the ACP countries and by Mrs Bonino, the Commission member in charge of humanitarian actions. He also spoke at meetings of the External Relations and Development Committees of the European Parliament. Professor Pinheiro took the opportunity to highlight to the Prime Minister his concerns about the current situation in Rwanda, reiterating the Commission's commitment to the country and its people. He also spoke of the need for the authorities to pursue policies and implement measures leading to the restoration of normality. He said it was essential to have a dialogue with the Rwandan refugees in neighbouring countries (there are now about 1.7 million) and to pursue the pacification process under the auspices of the United Nations and the Organisation of African Unity, with the involvement of all the heads of government in the Great Lakes region. Mr Rwigema's visit came at a crucial time for Rwanda. Even if the immediate crisis had passed, there was still a dire need for rehabilitation and development assistance, on top of the existing emergency aid programmes. The political situation remained delicate and the future was by no means secure, notwithstanding some encouraging signs of a progressive improvement as exemplified by the Tunis summit. The recent nomination of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aldo Ajello as the EU's special envoy to the Great Lakes region underlined the political and moral dimension of the EU's commitment to the peace process in this troubled part of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUPPORT FOR HUMAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RIGHTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently decided to provide the following financing for projects under the budget line 'Support for. democratisation and human rights'. Non-ACP countries </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central America: ECU 180.000 to support seven national and one regional fore aimed at providing training in the field of human rights for instructors. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central America: ECU 100.000 for a democracy consolidation training programme for 30 teams from various organisations in Nicaragua, Guatemala and El Salvador. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central America/Colombia: ECU 263.000 for a series of actions, notably in Colombia, involving the provision of information on human and citizens' rights. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil: ECU 190.000 for a project designed to boost the civil rights of black people in the country, through the training of judicial personnel and the strengthening of legislation against race discrimination. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil: ECU 145.000 for a training programme for magistrates, prosecutors and the police aimed at facilitating the uniform application of the law in the State of S&atilde;o Paulo. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil: ECU 290.000 for a training programme in the sphere of democratic municipal management, in the cities of Recife, Porto Alegre, Santos and Fortaleza. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala: ECU 308.000 for a project to collect and make available the case law of the Constitutional Court, and  to train officials and members of civil society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honduras: ECU 326.000 to support the National Human Rights Commission with a view to promoting such rights in the Departments of Comayagua and Olancho. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honduras: ECU 131.000 for an education programme dealing with civic and electoral issues and the rights of children. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexico: ECU 20.000 to support an initial Latin-American colloquium on the subject of the Ombudsman (in the face of the objectives and challenges of the region). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua: ECU 285.000 to support the social rehabilitation of minors in custody. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panama: ECU 125.000 for a training action in the field of the defence of human rights. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panama: ECU 250.000 to support a communication campaign designed to strengthen the image of the 'people's ombudsman'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela: ECU 160.000 to strengthen the institution of Justices of the Peace in the country's municipalities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela: ECU 100.000 ECU for a training and promotion action in the field of human rights and the strengthening of civil society. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EUROPEAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEVELOPMENT FUND</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following, where required, favourable opinions from the EDF Committee, the Commission has decided to provide grants and special loans from the 5th, 6th and 7th EDFs to finance the following operations (grants unless otherwise stated). Major projects and programmes are highlighted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic and social infrastructure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon: ECU 7.3 million for a programme aimed at protecting the urban boundary of the city of Kousseri from the encroachments of the Logone river, to improve sanitation and for the upgrading of an urban access route towards Chad. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 54 million for a transport infrastructure programme aimed at facilitating the social and economic development of the people living in the recisions in question (Western region, Brong Afaho, the Ashanti region). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 3.8 million for a human resource development programme designed to achieve better planning, management and implementation of development projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 1.9 million for a project to support the development of tourism. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 385 000 to extend the water supply system in the town of Mantola </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 13.5 million to upgrade the Ere-Kelo road </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade promotion/ structural adjustment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benin-Cameroon C&ocirc;te-d'lvoire-GhanaGuinea-Togo: ECU 1.99 million for a regional programme of trade activities and training with a view to relaunching the pineapple business in West and Central Africa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burkina Faso: ECU 180 000 for the construction of an 'export and creativity' pavilion at the Salon international de l'artisanat in Ouagadougou. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua-New Guinea: ECU 5.3 million for the fourth structural adjustment support programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madagascar: ECU 1.9 million for a rice irrigation project. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enterpris</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana: ECU 33.7 million from the Sysmin fund, to support the work of the BCL, Tati and FEB mining companies in the SelebiPhikwe region. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominican Republic: ECU 1.3 million to support the STD-HIV-AIDS prevention programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madagascar: ECU 1.9 million for a decentralised training project in favour of regional tourism operators. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tuvalu: ECU 300 000 for the rehabilitation of primary schools on the islands of Nukutetau and Nanumea. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Africa (Cameroon-Central African Republic-Congo-GabonEquatorial Guinea): ECU 16 million for phase 2 of the ECOFAC project (Conservation and rational utilisation of forest ecosystems in Central Africa). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Institutional support</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi: ECU 1 million towards a study aimed at allowing the government to implement its land reform policy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea: ECU 4.5 million for a study aimed at allowing the government to undertake proper planning in the area of water resources and irrigation. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miscellaneous</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacific region: ECU 4.9 million for a project designed to improve the efficiency and security at certain airports. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUMANITARIAN AID</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali: ECU 1 million towards the reintegration of some 200 000 Malians who fled to Algeria and Mauritania during the rebellions of the 1980s. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 317 000 for victims of the severe floods that struck the centre and south of the country recently. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria: ECU 850 000 to help fight the meningitis epidemic affecting seven provinces of the country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sierra Leone: ECU 700 000 in urgent food and medical assistance for some 250 000 refugees who fled to the areas around the towns of Bo and Kemena following the fighting. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 200 000 to help fight the meningitis epidemic. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 145 000 to help victims of the cholera epidemic and to assist in preventing its further spread (following the course of the Zaire river). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia: ECU 60 000 to help fight cholera in the municipality of Silvia, where some 40 000 are under threat due to a lack of drinking water and deficiencies in basic hygiene. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala: ECU 1.52 million to provide food aid and basic essentials to returnees from other parts of the country, and from Mexico, following years of civil war. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Armenia/Azerbaijan: ECU 11.57 million (ECU 4.07m for Armenia and ECU 7.5m for Azerbaijan), for food and medical assistance, targeted at the most vulnerable sections of the population, and for the provision of agricultural materials with a view to reducing progressively the dependence of the refugees, who are victims of the conflict in Nagomo-Karabakh.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caucasus-Georgia-Tadilkistan: ECU 3.2 million for food aid to be targeted at the most vulnerable sections of the population. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Georgia: ECU 7.43 million for victims of the internal conflict in this country where the loss of the Russian market has seriously undermined the rural economy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lebanon: ECU 600 000 for displaced people, to allow for the purchase of basic essentials including food, medicines, shelter and blankets. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afghanistan: ECU 600 000 for health infrastructures in the refugee camps   around Jalalabad, and for medical aid to refugees in the town of Herat. Indonesia: ECU 120 000 for toots and materials to construct shelters for the victims of the earthquake that struck in February. China (Tibetan nomads): ECU 550 000 for food aid, medicines and blankets for some 72 000 people living in the mountainous regions who have been badly hit by severe weather and a food shortage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AID </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p95a.png"></center><br>
+ The Commission has recently taken decisions to finance food aid as set out in the chart which follows: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Aknowlegments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa - Caribbean - Pacific - European Union</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Address: Postal address (mail only) 'The ACP-KU Courier' Commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 Brussels Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier office address (visitors) First floor Astrid Building 1, rue de Geneve Evere - Brussels Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publisher Steffen Smide commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 - BRUSSELS (Belgium) Tel. 00-32-2-299 11 11 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Publications</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assistant editors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeanne Remade</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associate assistant  editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joumalist:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Production Manager:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dorothy Morrissey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secretariat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carmela Peters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: 299-30~02</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Margriet Mahy-van der Werf</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/ec158e/metadata.xml
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--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/ec158e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/ec158e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
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+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">The Courier - NÂ°158 - July - August 1996 Dossier Communication and the media - Country report Cape Verde (ec158e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Communication, Information and Documentation|Communication, telecommunication, mass communication, mass media, film-making</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Development Periodicals and Magazines|The Courier ACP 1990 - 1996 Africa-Caribbean-Pacific - European Union</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">EC Courier</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/ec159e/ec159e.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/ec159e/ec159e.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/ec159e/ec159e.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,2869 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; The Courier - N°159 - Sept- Oct 1996 Dossier Investing in People Country Reports: Mali ; Western Samoa</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Courier - N°159 - Sept- Oct 1996 Dossier Investing in People Country Reports: Mali ; Western Samoa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFRICA-CARIBBEAN-PACIFIC - EUROPEAN-UNION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali, which used to be the centre of great appears hemmed in by its frontiers, colonisation having culminated in the break-up of the old 'French Sudan'. Following the marxist regime of Modibo Keita (the 'founder' of the nation) and the dictatorship of Mousse Traor&eacute;, Mali has discovered democracy. It is still one of the world's poorest countries but recent macro-economic trends are highly encouraging and there is a new dynamism. It seems that the ending of the Tuareg conflict has provoked a surge of optimism- even among ordinary citizens whose wallets have yet to feel the effects of an improving national economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacific island nations have a reputation for idyllic scenery and rich cultural traditions. Western Samoa has both of these assets in abundance, but it also faces many development challenges. With a population of just 165 000, the country has a limited local market, and it is a very long way from potential overseas customers. It is also susceptible to destructive tropical storms. Despite these constraints, there have been some promising signs of economic progress in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dossier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Investing in people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To say that investing in people makes economic sense is to state the obvious. But to what extent are the implications of this statement fully understood in the developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, in these days of constantly shifting development theories? We look at this subject in our Dossier. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acnowledgements</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa - Caribbean - Pacific - European Union</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Address: Postal address (mail only) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'The ACP-EU Courier' Commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1049 Brussels </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belgium </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier office address (visitors) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First floor Astrid Building 1, rue de Gen&egrave;ve </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evere - Brussels </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publisher Steffen Smidt </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission of the European communities </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">200, rue de la Loi </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1049 - BRUSSELS </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Belgium) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. 00-32-2-299 11 11 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Publications</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assistant editors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeanne Remacle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associate assistant editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalist:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Production Manager:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dorothy Morrissey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secretariat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carmela Peters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: 299-30-02</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Margriet Mahy-van der Werf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(299-30-12)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cower page:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cover photo by</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John and Penny Hubley</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Meeting points</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Ieremiah Tabai, Secretary General of the Forum Secretariat</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Pacific Forum: 'responding to the needs of the Member States'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although an accountant by training, leremiah Tabai has never had the opportunity to practise his profession, having pursued a successful political career instead since 1974. In 1978, he was annointed head of government in Kiribati and a year later he became his country's first President, when it achieved independence. He held this position for 12 years. In 1991, he took up the top post in one of the South Pacific's key regional bodies, the Forum Secretariat, which is based in Suva, Fiji. During a recent Courier visit to the region, we had the opportunity to interview the Secretary General. Our discussion was wide-ranging, covering issues such as the Forum Secretariat's role, the economic challenges facing the South Pacific, and the development of regional links with Australia, New Zealand and Asia. We began by asking Mr Tabai to outline the objectives of the organisation that he heads.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Like many other organisations in the region, the Forum was established essentially to try and assist the development process of the Member States. At the time it was set up, there was already an organisation in existence - the South Pacific Commission - which dates back to 1947. But there was a feeling that we needed an organisation that was not just restricted to economic issues; that could talk about other matters with a bearing on the development of the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the early years, when the organisation was called the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Cooperation (SPEC), the focus was heavily on trying to assist the trade and economic development of the member countries. Later, the name was changed to the Forum Secretariat and its role evolved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In what way ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It has evolved in seeking to respond to the needs of the Member States. It started as a very small bureau essentially dealing, as I said, with trade and economic issues. Subsequently, it moved into areas like energy, civil aviation, maritime questions and telecommunications. It also became more involved in political issues. We have a division which deals specifically with these.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1995 was a very important year in the history of the Forum. We had a review of the organisation, looking at ways we could perform better and taking account of the changes in the region and the world at large. The fundamental recommendation in the report which came out of that review was that the Secretariat should focus mainly in future on poliy-related issues, in the areas of trade and investment, economics and international relations. This report was discussed and endorsed at the last Forum in Madang, Papua New Guinea. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Does this mean, in practice, a withdrawal from project activity ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It may. The essential focus of the work will be providing policy advice to countries. Having said this, there should still be some project work. For instance, we will be engaged in a programme to provide assistance for importers, particularly in the small island countries. The idea is to help people- who may not be familiar with all the legal requirements-to learn how to get into the business. This will involve running a workshop and inviting people with expertise to pass on their knowledge. So even though the focus will be on policy issues, there will still be room for project-type activities where needed -so long as these fit in with the policy priorities. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mentioned the fact that the Forum now deals with political questions. Although the issue may now be seen as 'water under the bridge' to what extent was the Forum Secretariat involved in the diplomatic disagreement over French nuclear testing ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- We were very much involved from the beginning. In 1991, when the French testing was not underground but atmospheric, the region, at a Forum meeting, came out strongly in opposition to the tests. Right up to our last meeting in Madang, the subject was always a major item on the agenda, and we left France in no doubt as to the resolve of our region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the new President took the decision to resume testing after a gap of several years, I was in the group from the South Pacific that went to France to express our views to French ministers, face-to-face. Our team was led by the then Australian Foreign Minister, Gareth Evans, who was President of the Forum. And when the tests began again, the Chairman took a decision suspending the dialogue and partner status of France with the Forum. So, as you see, we have been heavily involved in the issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What resources does the Forum have at its disposal and where does the money come from ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- An important source of funds is our members' contributions. These tend to be used to cover the operational costs of the organisation. Then of course, there are the funds made available by our donors. The main ones are obviously Australia and New Zealand but there are many other countries and international organisations who provide assistance. The EU, of course, is an important partner. There was also a private donor who funded our conference centre.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How many people are employed in the Secretariat ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Around 80, all based here in Suva. Most of these are support staff.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is the current state of relations between the Forum Secretariat and the main donors ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I would say our relations are good. We have an extensive mechanism for consultation with the donors. Every two years, we invite them here for a dialogue. We talk about the key issues and discuss ways in which they can assist us. There is also usually a dialogue associated with the Forum (ministerial) meetings. In September this year, after the Forum meeting, we will have more discussions with our main partners such as the EU, Canada, France, Japan and the UK. I should mention too the close links we have with international organisations like the Asian Development Bank, the World Bank and the IMF.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I think it is fair to say that the Forum Secretariat is seen as a particularly important organisation in the region. That is why donors are quite keen to be seen assisting us in what we do.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are the key development issues facing the South Pacific nations ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Development is quite a difficult process for our region. There are various international reports (particularly from the World Bank) - that describe how we have fared over the last few years. If you compare our performance with the Caribbean countries, for example, you find that we have not done nearly so well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We face a number of problems. First, there is the fact that we are so small. Small communities find it much more difficult than large ones to achieve development. You need to have the market and the critical mass to do all the things that are needed and we lack these. A second, related point is that our countries are very isolated from the rest of the world. It is true that here in Fiji, there are quite good connections, but if you go to Tuvalu, Kiribati or Niue, you will soon discover how difficult it is to get out. And if you are so isolated in terms of communication, how can you hope to increase your exports ? How can you airfreight your fish to Japan when there is no aircraft available-or the one that is available is not fast enough to ensure that the product is still fresh when it arrives?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On this question, one of the things we are increasingly realising is the need to do more in terms of human resource development. We all recognise that, without an educated population and workforce, it is very hard to achieve the development that we are aiming for. To be fair, if you compare the literacy rates here with those of many other countries, say in Africa, they are not at all bad. Our literacy levels are quite high. But I think we have a long way to go in acquiring problem-solving skills of the type needed to compete internationally. We are now talking with the EU about how we can utilise funding from the second protocol of Lom&eacute; IV. And I suspect that human resource development will remain high on the agenda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is that view shared by the European side ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think so. l have a feeling that they will support it because it is so obvious. If you develop human skills, you are better placed when it comes to problem-solving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Going back to the key development issues, another point is the lack of natural resources. This is less of a difficulty for countries like Fiji or Papua New Guinea, but it certainly affects the small island states. It hardly needs saying that if you don't have the resources in the first place, it is much harder to develop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, I think there is a question of how the Pacific region can get a better return on the resources it does have. This theme of 'managing our resources' was discussed by the Forum in Brisbane two years ago. Fisheries is probably the most important area here. The question is how we can earn more from this than we are currently doing- and there is no easy answer. Likewise in the forestry sector. We have to ensure that logging is done on a sustainable basis. But we must also recognise that leaders of the Pacific nations are under pressure. On the one hand, they are trying to take a lona-term view. but they are also striving to tackle the immediate problems. In an ideal world, our region would obtain a far better return on our resources, and that is something that we have to work on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having said all this, I don't think one should be too pessimistic. This region is still a very good place to live in. That is clearly reflected in the number of visitors we get. The 'South Seas' still have a special connotation that draws people here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You effectively have two 'genera/' regional organisations, with overlapping memberships, covering the South Pacific -the Forum, and the South Pacifc Commission (SPC). Do you think there is room for bath ? Do you complement each other or is there a rivalry ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We have more than two regional organisations. We also have SPREP (South Pacifc Regional Environment Programme), the FFA (Forum Fisheries Agency)....</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but these are specialist bodies with distinct sectoral responsibilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, that's true. In answer to your question, my view is that we have no problem with things as they stand. I was very involved in the debate some years back on the question of what we called an SRO - a single regional organisation. There was a strong push to try and achieve an SRO. The subject was debated for a few years and, in the end, it was possible to resolve the question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mean it was resolved by the idea being abandoned ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I suppose it depends on the way you look at it. The outcome was a decision to leave the regional organisations as they are but with the establishment of a mechanism to ensure they work together more effectively. This mechanism is called SPOCC-the South Pacific Organisations Coordinating Committee. It is a meeting of heads of regional organisations which happens at least once a year. We talk about the issues that are common to our mandate and work out ways of doing things better. SPOCC has been operating for six or seven years now and I think it works fairly well. There is, after all, no conflict in our underlying objectives. So my answer here is no, I don't see any problem. I don't see any rivalry between us. It is a question of seeing how we can work together to achieve the goals that we share.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the European Union, the fundamental goal, set out in the Treaty, is to move towards 'ever-closer union' We have been doing this in fits and starts over the past 35 years. Do you see the Forum perhaps taking on a similar role here-as the focus for economic, and perhaps ultimately, political integration in the South Pacifc ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- I think it is too early to speculate. We already have a number of sub-groups in the region like the MSG, the Melanesian Spearhead Group, whose members are the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu and Fiji (admitted last year). Further north, we have the Micronesian grouping which brings together Nauru, Tuvalu, the Marshall Islands and Kiribati. These groups meet outside the Forum framework and they essentially have a common aim which is to work more closely together. I think they feel it is easier to do it at this level because they are closer to each other and have more in common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for the Forum Secretariat, you can never tell what may come in the future. On balance, however, I think at the moment that integration is a long way off. Having said this, you do sometimes hear people putting the idea forward. There is, for example, something called the CER system, which stands for 'closer economic relations' between Australia and New Zealand. There have been suggestions that it might be possible to enlarge this grouping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking at closer economic cooperation, and the general dismantling of trade barriers, we also need to recognise the growing importance of APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) for the region. We are trying strengthen our links with the APEC countries and in October, we will be establishing a trade office in Japan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mean a Forum Secretariat office ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, in Tokyo. We are also talking with the Chinese and will probably end up with an office in Beijing. This is all part of our attempt to integrate ourselves with the Asean region. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by Simon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mission statement of the Forum Secretariat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mission of the Forum Secretariat is to enhance the economic and social well being of the people of the South Pacific, in support of the efforts of the national governments. The Secretariat has particular responsibility to facilitate, develop and maintain cooperation and consultation between member governments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Secretariat must pursue its mission in accordance with the directives of the Forum and within its mandated areas of operation. it undertakes political and economic activities, regional in nature and complementary to the activities of the member governments. Its role requires it to act as the secretariat to the Forum and to disseminate the Forum's views, to coordinate activities with other regional institutions in particular through the SPOCC process, and to represent the Forum's interests intemationally, as required. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ACP</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Investment symposium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A success story for African mining</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The MIGA (Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency) symposium was held in Montreal from 22-24 May. It brought together some 40 African mining ministers, most of the important donor agencies and representatives of around 25 mining companies. MIGA, which is a specialised agency of the World Bank, promotes the flow of private investment to developing countries. It provides insurance against political risks and assists member countries in attracting foreign investment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The purpose of the symposium was to attract investors from all over the world in order to exploit the rich mining possibilities offered by many African states. Several of the countries that attended went to considerable effort to present themselves well, and it was evident that some are quickly learning what it takes to attract foreign investors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The climate for mining investment in most African states has improved tremendously over the last two to three years. Most countries have introduced new mining codes, clearly defining the rights and obligations of foreign investors. State-owned companies are also being privatised, taxation has been made more reasonable and institutions in the mining sector, such as geological surveys, are becoming more efficient.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this has led to a big increase in exploration for new deposits and a substantial increase in investment. At present, the activity is particularly heavy in West Africa, where many countries have very good gold potential. The European Community is contributing to this development in several ways. The biggest success so far has been the exploration campaign in Mali, funded under that country's Lom&eacute; National Indicative Programme (NIP), which led to the discovery of the Sadiola gold deposit. A world-class gold mine will be built here, bringing substantial benefits to the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank has also supported many African countries in their efforts to reform the legal and administrative framework for the mining industry. An important element, however, in attracting mining companies is the availability of good geological data. This is a very expensive activity, which does not bring immediate returns, if at all. So it is not appropriate to finance this through bank loans. The NlPs and SYSMIN Fund, on the other hand, are instruments that are well-suited to this kind of work. The Community has already financed a series of airborne geophysical surveys in Botswana and Namibia -to mention just two examples-and a new Sysmin project is currently being prepared for Burkina Faso.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission Unit responsible for Mining Cooperation and Sysmin (VIIIl.B.5) was represented at the symposium. Its main purpose for being there was to present the functioning of Sysmin and the Community's cooperation in the field of mining to ACP ministers, mining companies and other donor agencies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Current state of the mining sector</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mining sector is currently very active. Exploration in West Africa doubled between 1993 and 1995 and new mines are being opened all the time. A lot of this new activity is to be found in the gold sector. This is mainly due to the development of cheaper production methods combined with a much more positive investment climate in many African countries. A gold mine takes less time to reach the production stage than, for example, a copper mine, with the former being far less dependent on good infrastructure. Outside the gold sector, activity is much more subdued. While base-metal prices are at a reasonable level, the pay-back period is much longer and the lack of suitable infrastructure kills many projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For many countries, mining is a key area in the growth of the private sector. State-ownad mines are being privatised and the new mines that are being opened have little or no state participation. Foreign investors are bringing in the most up-to-date mining technologies and business methods, and they are faced with the need to train local people in technical and business skills. Supporting the mining sector is clearly an efficient way of supporting private sector development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SYSMIN's future role</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given that most metals are currently fetching quite high prices, it is probable that relatively few ACP countries will be eligible for SYSMIN assistance over the next two to three years. The viability of most existing mines is not thought to be under threat and they should continue to be profitable. Thus, countries that are heavily dependent on mining should not experience severe losses in export income, which in turn means that relatively few SYSMIN requests are expected during the period of Lom&eacute; IV's second financial protocol. At the same time, the financial allocation for SYSMIN has been increased from ECU 48Om to ECU 575m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When trying to attract new mining investors, it is essential for a country to have good geological information. Private companies are normally unwilling to undertake much general prospect ion, such as airborne geophysical surveys, because it is very expensive and, if they do, it is usually limited to very small areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, companies are tending to restrict their activities to areas for which general information is already available. These points were raised by several of the mining companies that attended the symposium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the present mining boom is not going to last for ever. Metal prices are volatile and, with the next downturn in the business cycle, a decline in metal prices will surely follow. So it is essential to prepare the basis for future mining activities by collecting general data. Given that a significant part of the SYSMIN allocation may remain unused because of a lack of requests, it would be worthwhile to consider whether a part could be reallocated to prepare general geological data for mining activities in the next century. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. B.-H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Joint Assembly to consider climate problem</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Hans van de Veen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Can the EU-ACP relationship be used to strengthen the dialogue between Europe and the main victims of climate change ? And can the Lom&eacute; Convention be one of the tools to promote climate protection measures, as well as the implementation of the Climate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Treaty? These questions will be considered in depth at a hearing on climate derange scheduled for the next ACP-EU Joint Assembly, to be held in the last week of September 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Periods of heavy rain have always been part of normal life in Fiji. But the latest rains were different, says counsellor Taina Tudau of the Fiji Embassy in Brussels. 'They were much more extreme than what we were used to, and caused heavy damage. Normally it took several days of heavy rain before the floods came up. This time, the water flooded the islands almost immediately the rain began to fall.' Mrs Tudau sees two main causes for the recent flooding. First, there is heavy deforestation on the islands, causing widespread erosion. But she is sure there was another reason for the recent damage: 'In the Pacific we know the local climate is changing. We see that the sea is rising. We are experiencing more extreme weather events. There can be no doubt that global warming is already going on.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji is a prominent member of the Alliance of Small Island States (Aosis), the group of 36 nations which feel particularly threatened by global warming. At the first Conference of Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, held in Berlin in March 1995, Aosis called for industrialised nations to reduce their C02 emissions by 20% by 2005 (based on 1990 levels). At the end of the conference, the 150 national delegations agreed to begin negotiations on targets for industrialised nations to cut emissions in the early years of the next century.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So intentions may be good, but in practice not much has been done yet. The EU, for its part, risks losing credibility if firm action is not taken soon. According to a recent Commission White Paper on energy policy, the use of energy within the Union will increase by 1% a year up to 2020. Failing 'any strong policy interventions', the paper says, emissions of carbon dioxide are likely to show a 'substantial increase' during this period. Says Fiji-counsellor Tudau: 'As small island states we know what's at stake, but there seems to be no feeling of urgency in the rest of the world. We really wonder how long it will take before there is a definite move towards reduction of greenhouse gases.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EU-ACP cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the Berlin conference, the ACP countries-led by Aosis but with support from most of the African states -took a constructive and moderate position in the G77. The position adopted by the EU could also be described as moderate, certainly compared to that of other OECD countries. Several observers have pointed to the fact that these two moderate approaches by important blocks within the Climate Convention negotiations offer possibilities for some form of cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'No doubt the EU represents the most progressive group of countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">within the OECD, although its position is far from sufficient', says Sible Schone, a representative of the World Wide Fund for Nature. 'Besides that, the EU has a special relationship with a large group of developing countries. Quite obviously it will be significant to get a dialogue started between the EU and the ACPs on the subject of climate change.' Currently, there is no such dialogue. 'At the moment we are not in a dialogue with ACP countries on climate change', says Bertil Heerink of the European Commission's Environment Directorate-General who is a member of the EU delegation to the climate negotiations. 'I'm convinced this will happen some day, but first we have to agree on our own goals and measures. I am sure developing countries want us to give priority to this too.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The special ACP subcommittee to deal with tropical timber, the environment and fisheries, formed after the signing of the revised Lom&eacute; IV, only recently started its work. With respect to the global warming issue, it is waiting for the Joint Assembly hearing, according to ambassador Michael King of Barbados, who is a committee member. 'The specific interests of the different regions have to be articulated there, and then some kind of sustained effort has to be initiated.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The unit for Sustainable Development and Natural Resources in the Development Directorate-General of the Commission (DG VIII) not at present dealing with the subject of climate change. Says Head of Unit, Amos Tincani: 'We have worked on biodiversity and desertification, and we want to do more on the specific environmental problems of small island states. But we have done nothing similar on climate change. This is partly because it is so much a global problem, but the main reason is we simply lack the people and the time to go into it.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assembly hearing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At its meeting in Windhoek in March this year, the Joint Assembly adopted a resolution which had been proposed by representatives of 13 small island states. This urged the EU to take the lead in combating climate change and the adverse effects thereof. More specifically, the Commission is being asked to update its climate change strategy for the period post-2000 and to achieve significant reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases over the coming decade and thereafter. The resolution riches on to call for extra assistance to ACP countries in the Caribbean, Pacific and Indian Ocean to help them improve their disaster preparedness. The Commission is also urged to accelerate the transfer of appropriate technologies and practices, to enable ACP states to develop coastal zone management strategies and to rehabilitate and protect areas stricken by drought and desertification as well as by hurricanes and floods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two representatives of the European Parliament, Maartje van Putter (PES) and Peter Liege (EPP), have been active on the situation of the small island states and climate change for several years. According to Mrs Van Putten, the main effect of the coming Assembly hearing should be to put extra pressure on the Commission to take its responsibility seriously. 'Talking about climate change,' she says, 'one should never forget who is to blame and who, therefore, must take decisive action. A European tax on energy or carbon dioxide would be an important first step, but no more than that.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides influencing the Commission's energy policy, Mrs Van Putten hopes the Assembly hearing will raise public awareness on the climate problem in those ACP countries which are not in the 'small island' category. 'If you are talking about rising sea levels, the African states with low-lying coastal zones face the same problems as the small island countries,' she points out. 'And they also face the problem of desertification and declining food production.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Integrating the climate dimension</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a recent briefing paperto the Commission, the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) concluded that, hitherto, the aid community (including the EU) had not incorporated measures on global warming into their strategic thinking on sustainable development. 'Indeed, the possibility of climate change has been considered of minor importance in comparison to other environmental concerns.' This is hardly surprising, says the London-based institute, as the climate issue has only recently been placed on the international agenda. Moreover, the long-term threat of global warming raises some difficult questions regarding priorities in circumstances where resources are limited. In other words: who wants to spend scarce funds on problems the full effects of which will probably not be felt for another 25 to 50 years? The best way forward, suggests the IIED, is to tackle the apparent conflict between shortterm development priorities and longterm climate protection, by 'integrating the climate dimension' rather than considering climate change as an issue in isolation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Technology transfer could be a central point, according to WWF's Sible Schone. 'Developing countries see technology transfer as a central theme in the Climate Convention, but the industrialised countries don't give enough weight to these There are a lot of paragraphs about technology transfer in the Convention as well as in Lom&eacute;. Now it's time to fill in these commitments.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strangely, there are hardly any Lom&eacute; projects currently under way in the field of energy efficiency. It is strange because experts have pointed to the large potential in developing countries for cost-effective energy improvement and energy conservation. Improved management could save at least 25% of the energy now being consumed. Quick realisation of this potential would significantly contribute to alleviating environmental &agrave;nd development problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Henri Martin, energy specialist in DG VIII, agrees a lot more could be done in this field, but he points out: 'We are dependent on requests. If you look at the wording of the Convention, everything has already been said. There are chapters on energy and technology transfer. The problem is that we don't get enough signals back from the ACP countries that these items are a priority for them. I'm afraid sustainable energy or energy efficiency is not high on the agenda of most countries.' Taina Tudau disagrees strongly: 'Our experience is that the projects that could make a difference and contribute to sustainable development, protection of the environment and local sustainable energy production, are found to be too small. It is the donor that sets the conditions for the projects, not us, the small island states.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New funding?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Can the EU build a credible policy linking climate and development cooperation, without reserving extra money? Not surprisingly, there is disagreement on this question. In Brussels, officials are inclined to point to possibilities that are already there but not being used. Amos Tincani, for instance, observes that 'there are budgets for this kind of problem under Lom&eacute;. We have provisions specially targeted for the islands'. He mentions regional budgets in particular: 'A lot can be started at the regional level which then trickles down to the national level. But after producing fine resolutions, everybody seems to forget the work still needs to be done. The idea is: 'oh yes, we can do it, provided it is with fresh money'. We say: a lot more can be done with existing budgets and instruments.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maartje van Putten, from the Parliament, says the discussion should not be 'dominated by southern demands for additional money'. She agrees that ACP countries could make better use of existing funds and possibilities, such as, for instance, the funds for intra ACP cooperation. But counsellor Tudau points to the fact that the Climate Convention urges industrialised countries to support the response of developing countries to climate problems through 'new and additional' money, besides the transfer of environmentally sound technologies and expertise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a financial mechanism built into the Climate Convention, which is administered by the Global Environmental Facility, to cover additional costs of appropriate measures. But much more could be done by the aid community, including the EU, according to Mrs Tudau. 'Most European countries will not succeed in stabilising, let alone reducing, their emissions. In reaction to this, as ACP countries we should say: European Union, you are not fulfilling your obligations. You have to try harder and you have to set extra money aside to compensate for the damage this is doing to us. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.v.d.V.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ACP-EU Council in Apia</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were no real surprises or unexpected developments at the ACP-EU Council meeting which took place in Apia, Western Samoa, on 27 and 28 June, 1996. The session was preceded by an ACP Council, which saw the adoption of three important decisions. The first of these was the appointment of a new ACP Secretary-6eneral, Mr Ng'andu P. Magande of Zambia. The post had been vacant for some time, following deadlock within the ACP Group over a successor to Berhane Ghebray (see issue 155 of The Courier, p.6). The ministers also agreed to hold a summit of ACP heads of government in Libreville, Gabon, during the second half of 1997. This meeting is expected to focus heavily on the future of ACPEU relations once the present Lom&eacute; Convention has expired.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the substantive area, the ACP Council adopted a resolution deploring the suspension of cooperation with Equatorial Guinea. Ministers urged the European Union to make use of the procedure in Article 366a of the revised Lom&eacute; Convention, and to set in train the consultation procedure envisaged in this provision.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This issue was raised again by the ACP side at the subsequent ACP-EU Council. This meeting, which was presided over by Mrs Toya (Italian Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs) and Mr Syamujaye (Zambia's Trade Minister) had a relatively light agenda. There was a discussion about the Commission proposal for a directive on the use of vegetable fats, other than cocoa fat, in chocolate (see issue 158 of The Courier, p.35). Somalia also featured in the debate, with representatives agreeing on the need to find ways of allowing this country to benefit from Lom&eacute; Convention provisions. The civil conflict in Somalia, and the absence of an effective central administration have prevented the deployment of regular development aid for many years, although significant amounts of emergency assistance have been and are still being provided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, the ACP-EU Council approved two reports drawn up by the development finance cooperation subcommittee and commodities sub-committee respectively. Representatives were able to reach a compromise on two outstanding points of contention in the resolution on development finance relating to tenders and the dissemination of the user's guide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note was taken of the number of countries that have so far lodged instruments of ratification for the revisad Lom&eacute; Convention (Mauritius agreement). At the time of the Apia meeting, only nine countries had ratified: seven on the ACP side (Barbados, Dominica, Equatorial Guinea, Jamaica, Malawi, Mauritius and Solomon Islands) and two EU Member States (Denmark and Sweden). Appeals were made for the contracting parties to speed up their ratification procedures so that the Eighth European Development Fund can come on stream as speedily as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The next ACP-EU Council meeting will take place in Luxembourg on 24 and 25 April 1997.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Western Samoa deserves a special mention for the warmth of their hospitality and the efficient way in which they organised the Council meeting. Delegates from all sides were keen to express their appreciation of the host country's efforts, which ensured the smooth running of the various meetings and gave the visitors a real taste of this Pacific country's unique culture. ed. S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New ACP Secretary-General</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ng`andu Peter Magande, is no stranger to the challenge of development at the grassroots. The new Secretary-General of the ACP Group, who was born in 1947, began his working career as a provincial development officer, planning and supervising projects in the Southern Province of his native Zambia. He is an economics graduate of the University of Zambia and also holds a master's degree in agricultural economics from Makerere university, Uganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From working in the field, he moved into government administration, rising to the position of Permanent Secretary-a post which he held in a number of ministries. Since the mid-1980s, he has had key jobs in a number of Zambian enterprises (including Managing Director of the Zambia National Commercial Bank) His most recent work has been on a project to develop private sector participation in agricultural input and produce marketing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Kenya's economy in the 1990s</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Elisabeth Pape</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya has enjoyed rare political stability since independence in 1963. It is one of the most famous holiday destinations in Africa, with abundant wildlife, fine beaches and stunning scenery. But despite having the most advanced economy in East Africa, it is still one of the world's poorest countries. Over 11 million Kenyans live below the poverty line. But better times may be ahead. The Government has embarked on an ambitious reform programme which promises to lay the foundations for strong growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The early 1990s marked the worst time in Kenyan history, in economic development terms. Real GDP growth dropped from 4.3% in 1990 to 2.1% in 1991 and was almost zero in 1992 and 1993. This poor performance was due to drought, structural rigidities, lack of monetary discipline, non-enforcement of banking regulations, and reduced donor assistance. While Kenya was used to receiving substantial foreign aid inflows, the present decade began with growing tensions between Government and donors. In the new post-Cold War atmosphere, the latter wanted to see political and economic reforms, and in November 1991 they decided to halt guick-disbursing aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Multi-party elections in December 1992 did not immediately restore relations with the donors, in particular as they were accompanied by a lack of fiscal and monetary discipline whose effects threatened economic ruin. Monetary expansion was fuelled, among other things, by discretionary exemptions to Banking Act provisions, which enabled over-borrowing by certain 'political' banks from the Central Bank. In early 1993, things came to a head. Foreign currency reserves were down to just a few weeks of imports, the banking system was on the verge of collapse, and consumer prices had shot up. Against this background, the Government went for a comprehensive, IMF-supported structural adjustment programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of far-reaching reforms were implemented with unprecedented speed. Exchange restrictions were removed, import licensing was ended, import procedures were made easier and tariffs were reduced. The export license requirement was also lifted and price controls were abolished. In March 1993, the Central Bank (CBK) began to tighten monetary policy. By issuing large amounts of treasury bills, it soaked up most of the excess liquidity which had been injected the previous year. There was also stricter bank supervision and a number of weak financial institutions were closed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Structural reforms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Government began structural reforms aimed at reducing its own role in the economy in favour of the private sector. The privatisation programme, begun in 1991, was accelerated. By the end of 1995, the authorities had divested more than half of the 211 non-strategic parastatals-though critics complained the process often lacked transparency. The Government also substantially reduced its fiscal deficit through, above all, an improved revenue policy. The deficit fell from 11.4% of GDP in 1992/93 to 2.5% in 1994/95. The number of civil servants was reduced, mainly through voluntary early retirement, so that, by the end of 1995, the service had been trimmed by more than 30 000 (10% of the payroll).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1995, the reform programme lost momentum as proponents of the old and the new systems locked horns. Vested interests stood in the way of more radical reforms. Temporary import bans on maize and sugar were reimposed, key parastatal reforms were delayed and expensive but economically dubious projects were approved outside normal budgetary procedures. These included an international airport in Eldoret, a presidential jet and an identity card project. These further delayed the resumption of balance of payments support by the Bretton Woods Institutions and contributed to the frustration of efforts to improve relations with donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The economic crisis peaked in early 1993 and the shilling was sharply devalued. The official rate went from about KSh 36 to the dollar at the end of 1992 to KSh 60 in April 1993. On the market, the currency was being traded at a premium of more than 30% and that continued until July-i.e. about two months after the removal of exchange restrictions. The market premium then started to decline and the two rates converged in mid-October when the shilling stood at 69 to the dollar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The high interest rate on treasury bills under the liberalised foreign exchange regime was the main reason behind strong currency inflows which began in October 1993. Other factors, whose exact impact is difficult to gauge, included capital flight from neighbouring crisis-torn countries, the international money laundering one normally finds in places with newly liberalised foreign exchange regimes, and a surplus in the current account position. The shilling then started to rise, despite the CBK's massive currency purchases which led to a build up of reserves to the equivalent of six months of imports. The appreciation continued up to October 1994: indeed, at one point, the shilling reached a high of 35 to the dollar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That was the turning point. Strong import demand, fuelled in particular by a surge in oil imports in the wake of petroleum market liberalisation, and an outflow of portfolio investments due to lower interest rates, weakened the currency. By mid-1995, after two sharp falls, it reached a rate of 56 to the dollar. Since then, it has been relatively stable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic recovery</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Real GDP grew by 3% in 1994 and an estimated 5% in 1995. Good weather certainly helped, but the economy also benefited from the Government's reforms. Agriculture, the mainstay, grew by 2.8% in 1994 and by more than 5% in 1995. This compares with negative growth rates in 1992-93, when the sector was hard hit by bad weather. Elsewhere, the trends were more mixed. Many producers for the local market were affected by trade liberalisation and, in 1994, by the strong shilling. The former created a highly competitive environment almost overnight-after years of cosy protectionism. For cloth manufacturers, the liberalisation of imports of second-hand clothing further aggravated the problem. In 1994, the clothing sector's output dropped 35%. Tourism, the main foreign exchange earner, fared quite well in volume terms in 1994 despite the strong shilling. But while turnover may have gone up, it is likely that many operators did not earn enough extra to cover their increased local currency costs. In 1995, visitor arrivals fell by 20% to the lowest figure since 1988. In consequence, tourism earnings fell by a quarter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As intended, liberalisation led to higher trade volumes. In 1994, exports ( + 16%) rose by more than imports ( + 13%) in value terms, but the position was reversed in 1995 when the latter jumped by 35% while the former were 14% lower. One good sign was that the highest import growth was in industrial supplies and machinery (60% up) but the fact that the deficit almost doubled to reach record levels was obviously a cause for concern.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major revolution has also taken place in trade flows. In 1994, for the first time, Uganda overtook the UK as the biggest importer of Kenyan goods. In the same year, the value of Kenya's exports to African countries moved ahead of its combined exports to Europe and North America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During 1994, the Nairobi Stock Exchange proved to be one of the worid's best-performing stock markets, the value of shares rising by 80%.1995 was disappointing, however. Although foreigners were allowed to invest for the first time, the index nonetheless fell by 25%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fighting inflation has been the CBK's main objective since 1993 and a tight monetary policy has brought the problem under control. Inflation dropped from 46% in 1993 to 29% in 1994 and to below 2% in 1995. Recently, however, an upward trend has bean observed. This follows a money supply increase far in excess of the expansion of economic activity, and is mainly due to a substitution of treasury bills for borrowing from the Central Bank since the end of 1994. If inflation is to remain within the 5% target for 1996-which already seemed highly unlikely by the middle of the year - the trend needs to be speedily reversed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially, the main way of mopping up excess liquidity was through the sale of treasury bills. When the sales began in March 1993, there was a huge liquidity overhang and high interest rates had to be offered to take money out of the market quickly. The rate earned on 90-day bills-which became the lead interest rate in the economy- rose from 17% to 80% between March and July 1993. It then declined steadily, reaching 18% at the end of 1994. This prompted an outflow of short-term capital, leading to currency depreciation and lower foreign reserves. Since mid 1995, treasury bill rates have been back above 20% and this seems to have stabilised the foreign exchange situation. It is generally believed that the high prevailing real interest rates are a major obstacle to investment and economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interest on domestic debt is still a big item in the state budget, although, the situation is much improved, thanks to the reduction in the stock of treasury bills and lower interest rates. In fiscal year 1993/94, interest payments on domestic debt alone swallowed one third of total gavernnnent expenditure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agriculture sector employs 70% of the total labour force and generates more than a quarter of Kenya's GDP. Much of industry is linked to agricultural processing, and tea, coffee and horticultural products are Kenya's major foreign exchange earners after tourism. The marketing of key farm products is dominated by large parastatals and cooperatives which are often run like parastatals. Most marketing organisations have been hard hit by the liberalisation, which brought both inefficiency and corruption to light. Tea growers have complained about improprieties at the Kenya Tea Development Authority. Imported sugar flooded the local market, often without paying import duties, leaving the mills with huge stocks. This, in turn, created severe cash flow problems. Most sugar farmers have not been paid for months. Kenya Cooperative Creameries was not able to pay farmers for milk deliveries for up to half a year, and could only start servicing the arrears when the Government came to its rescue with KSh 800 million in January 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Formidable challenges</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya's labour force, around 12.5 million in 1996, is growing at more than 4% a year. This means that at least half a million people enter the job market annually. The challenge of absorbing the new workers is formidable. Studies show that any strategy to deal with this must be based on three pillars: smallholder agriculture (to absorb most of the growth in the rural labour force), continuing substantial job creation in the informal sector, and high real GDP growth (+8% per year is needed to ensure that the modem sector absorbs a significant number of workers).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Informal sector employment has risen rapidly (up by 15-20% a year since 1991). By 1994, for the first time, there were more people working here than in the modern economy. The informal sector covers semi-organised and unregulated activities largely under taken by self-employed people or employers with just a few workers. Typically, they do not comply fully with tax, registration, and licensing rules, and this sometimes leads to conflict with the authorities. Workers are often paid below the minimum wage and have no social security. For many, the informal sector is, therefore, an 'employer' of last resort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is estimated that almost 50% of rural people and 30% of urban residents live in absolute poverty- unable to meet their minimum requirements for food and essential non-food items. While the percentage has remained fairly stable in recent decades, the increase in the number of 'absolute' poor is alarming. So too is the extent of the poverty: the gap between these people's minimum needs and their actual disposable income has reportedly increased over the last ten years. The bulk of the poor live in the central and western parts of the country, which have the best agricultural potential, the rich soils having always attracted settlers. For decades there was enough land to go around, but demographic trends have finally started to take their toll. The size of landholding has declined continuously, in many cases reaching levels which are no longer capable of sustaining a family.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There has been some progress in restructuring parastatals, but much remains to be done. The performance of key parastatals has been unsatisfactory by international standards and this has constrained growth. At Mombasa port, which is managed by the Kenya Ports Authority, handling charges are 50% higher than the global average, while container turnover is three times slower. Rail transport is unreliable, slow and more expensive than road haulage. The Kenya Power and Lighting Company has a shortage of generating capacity which means periodic power cuts. And intervention in the maize market by the National Cereals and Produce Board- at above-market prices-has prevented private sector involvement as well as placing a heavy burden on government finances. The Board has posted annual operating losses of between KSh 1.8bn and KSh 2.5bn each fiscal year since 1992/93.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corruption, misuse of funds, and the politics of patronage remain endemic and these clearly distort development. Elimination of corruption has been an aim of most reform programmes but it seems that the effect so far has only been to change its form. Trade liberalisation has killed cash cows such as import and foreign exchange licences, and the commercialisation of parastatals has stopped them from doing deals with cronies which were profitable only for the latter. But other forms of non-acceptable wealth accumulation have emerged. In the early 1990s, alleged exports of gold and diamonds are thought to have resulted in a loss of KSh 7 billion of public funds. Land grabbing has also become widespread. This either involves land being sold to individuals or companies with well-established political connections at well below market prices, or the purchase of land by public institutions from the same individuals or companies at inflated prices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After delays because of political differences, cooperation between the three states of the former East African Community (Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya) was revived in early 1996. The EAC Secretariat, based in Arusha, is headed by a Kenyan, Francis Muthaura, a former ambassador in Brussels. For the three countries, the new cooperation aims at facilitating movements of people, capital and trade within the region, and harmonisation of external tariffs and investment regulations. Currencies will be fully convertible. This revived cooperation is expected to have a major growth impact. The Nairobi Stock Exchange is currently assisting Kampala and Dar es Salaam to set up their own exchanges. And the NSE Chairman, Jimnah Mbaru, sees the future not only in a cross-listing of companies in the three places, but in a regional stock exchange.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy framework</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Policy Framework Paper (PFP) for 1996-1998, which was published in February ahead of the donors' Consultative Group (CG) Meeting, was highly applauded for both its content and form. The programme, which the media has dubbed 'the big push', promises finally to crack most of the 'hard nuts' of previous reform agendas, in particular in the parastatal and public sector. It also lays down measures aimed at supporting fiscal and monetary discipline through the next elections. These include cutting the budget deficit to 1.5 % of GDP by 1997/98, a tight monetary policy, and more autonomy for the Central Bank. In addition, it tackles some areas'that have emerged as avenues of corruption in recent years, such as the National Social Security Fund. While previous PFPs were highly confidential, this one was published, and the President appointed a Commission chaired by himself to oversee its implementation. These are seen as important steps in bridging the credibility gap which threatened to open up again in 1995. Donors are prepared to support the reform agenda and are eager to see it implemented speedily. Shortly after the positive outcome of the CG meeting, the IMF approved a three-year Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility programme for a total of $220m. The World Bank is expected to follow suit with a credit of $85m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An increasing number of donors, however, have pointed to the link between democratic governance/ human rights issues on the one hand, and aid and investment flows on the other. If Kenya is to meet its ambitious targets and turn into a newly-industrialising country by 2010, foreign inflows will be vital. The point was succinctly put by a delegate to the CG meeting. 'If its (the Government's) economic successes are matched by a commitment to democracy and human rights, Kenya may yet prove that surging economic growth is not just for Asian tigers, but for African lions, too.' The period leading up to the next general election will be the acid test. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.P. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Country report</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Mali : An omnipresent sense of history</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some countries have a strong folk memory. Despite its size, Mali appears hemmed in by its frontiers. For more than a thousand years, this state was a splendid empire, constantly spreading outward and reflecting the history of the African continent with its conquests and alliances, reversals of fortune and moments of glory. At its height, it extended from the Atlantic to the Sudanese border, from the south of Morocco to the north of Nigeria. Mali's history rests in the minds of its people rather than in any structures inherited from the past. This acts as an antidote to the 'amnesia' often brought on by colonisation, which has the effect of paralysing the future. Although poor, the country has a well-established sense of its place in the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A racial melting pot</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">`</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the eve of colonisation, Mali was known es 'west Sudan'. In 1924, the territory then known as 'French Sudan' was split up and small portions of the Malian nation were incorporated into the seven states bordering it-a move certainly not calculated to have a cohesive effect on the remnants of the old empire. Mali has long been a melting pot of races, ethnic groups and cultures. They have learned to live together- intermingling, sometimes forming unexpected alliances, and occasionally fighting one another. The result today is a potpourri where true racial or ethnic confrontation is difficult to imagine. The interplay of history and the mixing of ethnic groups, families and individuals, has created what one intellectual de scribed to us as 'the anti Rwanda vaccine'. Historical mythology offers, perhaps, further evidence of the fusion of cultures in this country. As in ancient Greece or Rome, to take European examples, each ethnic group and each Malian empire, was 'backed' by a host of gods, spirits and totems. In this nebulous world, where dreams beget history and where vastly differing ethnic groups can trace themselves back to a common ancestor, the result was a multiplicity of interrelationships. Under various names, the python totem belongs to many different peoples, including the Peal, Ma/inke and Sarakolle. A study of the migrations of the peoples who make up Mali also reveals a great many relationships - for example, between the Dogon, who are black, and the Shongoi; who are more half-caste. They regard one another as cousins, originating from Aswan in Egypt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malians appear to share a genuine sense of belonging in keeping with their shared culture. The 'people' of Mali came into being long before the state of the same name. The guerilla war fought in recent years by the Tuaregs (this is the English plural, Tuareg already being the plural form of Targul) against the Malian army, is often viewed abroad as a struggle between whites (or Arabs) and blacks. But this is an illusion. Although the Tuaregs are probably the only 'white' minority in the country, they are an integral ingredient in the melting pot. They are also known as 'Kel-Tamasheq' - those who speak Tamashek, which was originally the language of their Bella slaves. Like all the country's ethnic groups, they have dominated and have in turn been dominated. They have forged alliances with one another, and, more commonly, have united against Arab or Berber invasions. The relative absence of bitterness overall is probably due to the fact that each of Mali's peoples has had its era of glory and imperial dominance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali is lucky to have such knowledge of its history. For centuries, the most precise details have been collected by the griots. The same role has also been played by the many secret societies which have initiation periods lasting, in some cases, up to 50 years. They were, and sometimes still are, repositories for the secrets of history, magic, astrology and science, and also for the symbols of power-the religious objects and artefacts of the former emperors. There are written sources as well, something which is quite rare in Africa. These have been transcribed since the beginning of the millennium and, in recent decades, close collaboration between historians, griots and members of traditional societies has enabled a deeper knowledge to be gained of Mali's history.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A rich empire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asselar Man, discovered near Timbuktu in the centre of Mali, was a contemporary of Cro Magnon Man. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cave paintings from five thousand B.C. reveal similarities with those in Egypt and are probably the work of migrant populations from the east, who moved into Mali as the Sahara Desert expanded. Less reliable sources state that interbred populations of Jews and Egyptians under the command of an officer of the Pharaoh Dinga created the Soninke dynasty (originating from Aswan). These people probably laid the found ations of the first great Malian empire, that of Ouagadou. Other sources, equally unreliable, report that they were probably Judaeo-Syrians who arrived at the end of the third century A.D. and found a population already in place. What is more or less certain is that, during the first millennium, a Soninke dynasty was installed around the current frontier between Mauritania and Mali and that 40 princes ruled it in succession in the period prior to 750 A.D. Initially, these rulers were white but, with increasing intermarriage, their skins became darker and darker. To Arab chroniclers, Mali came to be known as Bafour or Bilad es-Soudan (the country of the blacks). At the beginning of the second millennium, the Ouagadou empire held sway over several kingdoms in the south, including the Nigerian delta and a number of Berber principalities. Documents dating from this period have replaced the name Ouagadou with that of Ghana, by analogy, perhaps, with the emperor's title. The empire was already very rich, the richest in the world according to an Arab chronicler who visited it in 970. A work by the writer A/ Bakri, which appeared a century later (1087) went into great detail about the empire's organisation-the system of matrilinear succession, the role of councils of dignitaries, and the capital, Koumbi (whose foundations were discovered in 1914 in southern Mauritania). This city was divided into two districts, one of these being the sacred, imperial city, home to the empire's python totem to which a young girl was sacrificed every year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A story of courage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The killing of the snake totem is the most significant myths in the country's history. The hero of the story is Amadou Sefedokete whose love for his beautiful fiancee Sia (who was about to be offered in sacrifice), prompted him to descend into the monster's lair and confront it. By killing the totem, he broke the thread of countless generations before him, who had carried out the ritual sacrifice. He is still remembered for this magnificent action, based on love and a sense of nobility, and he remains a subject for artists of all types. His brave action still causes young lovers in Africa to shudder in admiration. However, this act of deicide brought about a reversal of fortunes. The monster's seven heads, which the young hero is said to have cut off one after the other, are reputed to have been scattered to the four comers of the earth, thereby dispersing the empire's riches and leaving it penniless. The true story is more prosaic. Ghana's wealth was eyed greedily by the Arabs and Berbers who had long traded with it. The empire's resistance in the face of Islam gave Moroccan religious fanatics a pretext for organising a jihad. It was invaded by an army of 30000 devotees supported by forces from some of the empire's black vassal states. The 'holy war' began in 1042 ending 34 years later with the occupation of Koumbi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The occupation did not last long but was followed by internal clan wars which brought about the end of an era. Restoration came about at the end of the 72th century , in the small Sosso kingdom, south of Ouagadou (also set up by a small group of Sonink&eacute;). One of the minor kings called Soumangourou Diarasso dreamed of recreating Ghana's empire, and, in 1203, he succeeded in sacking the ancient capital of Koumbi in a move designed to establish his own dynasty. This was an important symbolic act and in the fierce war which followed, Soumangourou subjugated Mand&eacute;, a region which was overflowing with wealth. One of Africa's greatest heroes, Soundjata, rose up against him. He was supposedly the legitimate heir to the Mandingo throne, but was unable to walk, having been born an invalid of a deformed mother who had been married at the recommendation of the king's sorcerer. His young half-brother took his place on the throne and sent the paralysed prince into exile. At the age of 18, Soundjata decided to seize his own place in history and a 'giant' was thus bom. In 1235, his army fought that of the bloodthirsty Sosso monarch whom he himself is said to have cut down in an extraordinary battle. It was a fight which, according to the legends, saw the use of all types of weapon, including magic. Soundjata had forged a grand alliance in order to gain victory. Rather than reducing to vassalage the small kingdoms which had allied themselves with him, the new emperor decided to form them into a federation-although he wisely declared that from Niani (his capital), 'I shall see all'. His empire took the name of 'Mali' (the hippopotamus) on account of that animal's strength and mastery of bath water and land. For 20 years, the empire was to stretch as far as the Atlantic Ocean. Its structure, based on a number of warrior clans, craftsmen, freemen and marabous, is still characteristic of Mali and neighbouring countries today. The empire was rich in gold once again but also in terms of agricultural organisation with the development of cotton and groundout farming. Soundjata disappeared mysteriously in 1255, leaving a prosperous empire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Conquest' of America?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1285, there was a struggle for succession between two princes and a third, Prince Sakoura (a freed slave), took advantage of the quarrel to take power for himself. Sakoura expanded the empire by subjugating the Timbuktu Tuaregs and the Gao Shongoi: After his short reign, a genuine heir of Soundjata, Aboubakar II, ascended the throne. He had his eye on conquests over the seas and, according to the story, he set sail westwards leading a fleet of 2000 vessels. He was never seen again. However, recent studies favour the hypothesis that he was not lost at sea as had always been supposed' but did, in fact, reach the Americas. A series of ineffective monarchs succeeded this 'conqueror of the impossible', who preceded Christopher Columbus by 200 years, leaving little real impression on history other than the records of their exuberant behaviour. One of them, for example, went on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 with a reported retinue of 60 000 and distributed considerable amounts of gold to all the dignitaries he encountered in that holy place. These kings, however, are acknowledged as having preserved the empire's unity, guaranteeing order without repression and allowing wide religious, moral and sexual tolerance, even for married women. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kingdom centred on Gao dates back to at least the first millennium but it was usually a vassal of the Ouagadou empire and of Mali. One of its kings, Sonny Ali Ber (known as Sonny the Great), came to the throne in 1464, profiting from the decay of the Mali empire. His reign was marked by a bitter struggle against the Ul&eacute;mas of Timbuktu who, over a period of four centuries following the Almoravid conquest, had converted a large portion of the empire to Islam. The circumstances of Sonny's disappearance are uncertain, but he is thought to have drowned in 1492, the year when a certain Genoese navigator was to achieve the ancient goal of 'discovering' the Malian empire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sonny Ber's successor did not last long in the face of Islamic expansion. The new Askia dynasty was installed to lead the Shongoi empire, and this expanded with the annexation of Dahomey and part of Nigeria. However, a small part of the former Mali empire never passed under their rule. The Askia dynasty blew hot and cold in terms of religious fervour. Tyrannical at first, it later took a softer line. Under the reign of one monarch, the Gao court based in the university city of Timbuktu became a place of exceptional refinement-only to slide once again into a state of intolerance. One of the Askias, having destroyed the last symbols of the former Mali empire, the city of Niani, set upon his former Moroccan allies. Another emperor, Askia Daoud (1549-1582), turned out to be a fine administrator. He developed agriculture and set up a genuine bank in Gaol War with Morocco continued throughout his reign and beyond. In 1584, imperial force defeated 20 000 Moroccan soldiers, winning a victory which might have been decisive had it not been for internal dissent. This weakened the Askia side and enabled Morocco, with a band of Spanish mercenaries, to take over the empire, following a battle in April 1591. Success was due, above all on this occasion, to the firearms deployed by the winning side. Such weapons were unknown to the 45 000 Malian cavalry and infantry who were engaged. It also turned out to be a Pyrrhic victory. The occupying troops sent the great scholars from Timbuktu University to Morocco, where their peers took up their cause. Moreover, the foreign soldiers were won over by the easy life in Mali-and one of the first results of their presence was a big increase in the half-caste population. In 1612, the troops rejected the Moroccan command: the occupation was at an end and the last few Moroccans were later expelled from Timbuktu by the Tuaregs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black religious proselytism and colonisation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To each dog his day. In the 17th century, the Bambaras set up an empire around Segou, but the debauched lifestyle of several of the sovereigns and disapproval of the part they played in the slave trade proved to be their downfall. Once again, the history of the country was to be shaped by a slave- Ngolo Diarra-who founded his dynasty in 1766. He was able to restore a degree of prestige to the kingdom, but his efforts were undermined after his death. As a reaction, a proselytising Black Islam then began to evolve.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Massina became a theocratic state around the beginning of the 19th century, in common with other kingdoms which appeared at the same time. One of their most famous rulers, the conqueror El Hadj Oumar, was defeated by the troops of the French General Faidherbe who forced him to give up West Senegal. The days of Malian independence were now numbered. The courage of his successor only delayed the progress of French colonisation, which finally prevailed at the end of the century.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resistance fighters carried on the war from other points in the old empire, particularly from what is now Guinea. The country was dismantled by the colonial system and pacified, but the end of the Second World War and the return of African soldiers brought a renewed desire for independence. French Sudan became the rallying point for freedom fighters in the French colonies-the old dream of reunification was not dead and buried. In 1946, the Rassemblement Democratique Africain was set up, later to become the USRDA (Union soudanaise-Rassemblement democratique africain). In 1956, the future architect of Mali's independence, Modibo Keita, was appointed leader of the movement and elected to represent the 'Sudan' in the French Assembly. A 'Malian Federation' project was drawn up to include Dahomey (Benin), Upper Volta (Burkina Faso), Senegal and 'Sudan' (Mali). A constituent assembly of independence movement representatives was set up in 1959. However, the constitution adopted by the local Malian and Senegalese assemblies was rejected by the other two. The Federation now had only two members but was nonetheless proclaimed independent on 20 June 1960. In the event, the spirit of unity was lacking and, on the pretext of a rivalry between the two leaders (the 'Sudanese' Modibo Keita and the Senegalese Mamadou Dia), Senegal withdrew from the union in August. On 22 September 1960, the 'Sudan', now without an outlet to the sea, adopted one of the most prestigious names in its history: Mali.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new state was landlocked not only geographically but also, very soon, politically. Modibo Keita's socialist agenda prompted foreign investors to pull out, and the country was organised increasingly as a 'people's democracy'. Fortunately, the repression was not excessive but a sizeable proportion of the population disapproved of the system that had been chosen. Mali and Guinea still had modest aspirations to their old dream of unification. The founder of the Republic, Modibo Keita, was overthrown by a military coup on 19 November 1968. More than the break-up by colonisation, which left dreams of Sudan being reconstituted, this military putsch sounded the knell of the old empire. Mali became just another state whose colonial and post-colonial eras have been marked by a lack of success. Nevertheless, a sense of history is still omnipresent. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goueier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Three republics to create one democracy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is just something you have to get used to-in French-speaking Africa, virtually all countries have imitated France in assigning a number to each republic formed under a new constitution. At the time of its independence on 20 June 1960, Mali was a federation of two states; Senegal and the former 'French Sudan'. It was an alliance which failed after only a few weeks'existence end 'French Sudan' then adopted one of its most prestigious former names- Mali. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first regime, under Modibo Keita, became increasingly unpopular as its form of 'tropical' marxism caused it to become more and more isolated. One of its main shortcomings was its unrealistic five-year plans, none of which were ever implemented. Discontent became rife among various social groups. including the farmers who, opposed collectivisation and were adept at passive resistance which they employed to disrupt the supply of produce. The regime also modelled itself on the so-called 'people's democracies' in certain respects. For instance, it made a determined effort to improve education, health and social justice, while refraining from the more dictatorial excesses that often characterised such systems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially welcomed by some sections of the population, the November 1968 putsch, by Lieutenant Moussa Traore quickly fumed into dictatorship although it was to be more than 10 years before there were any significant anti-government protests. At the end of 1990, opponents of the regime openly set up organisations which claimed opposition-party status. One of these was ADEMA (the Alliance for Democracy in Mali), formed by the current President of the Republic, Alpha Oumar Konare. Marches calling for a multi-party state attracted the support of tens of thousands of people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The dictator then sought to neutralise the opposition, beginning with the Tuaregs in the north who had been waging a guerilla war. This conflict was viewed by many as the 'front line' in the people's struggle against dictatorship, and the Tuareg cause was supported by opposition movements. The government, which had for some time opted for 'soft' repression, now revealed its claws and in January 1991 it began to imprison student leaders. The streets were filled with armoured vehicles and the first death amongst the students brought condemnation. Repression reached its height on 22 March 1991, when several dozen students were killed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prior to this, in February 1991, Moussa Traore's UDPM (Democratic Union of the Malian People) came out in support of a multi-party system - a move which marked the beginning of the end of the regime. The day after the students were killed, a democracy coordination committee launched an appeal for a general strike, to last until the dictator was overthrown. This began on 26 March, and amounted, in effect, to a 'democratic' coup d'etat. Its instigator was Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Toure, who took charge of the transition to-tether with the democratic movements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The former dictator was arrested and put on trial for his crimes. He was later condemned to death but his sentence was recently commuted by President Konare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Tuareg guerilla war continued despite the government's conciliatory attitude. The new administration also had to deal with a number of social claims which had long been stifled by the dictatorship. However, popular support for the regime remained firm. The new constitution was adopted virtually unanimously in a January 1992 referendum and, a week later, ADEMA won the municipal elections, the first in a series of electoral victories for Alpha Oumar Konare. He went on to win the Presidential election (for the Third Republic) in April, with almost 70% of the vote. Meanwhile, negotiations with the Tuareg rebels resulted only in signatures on agreements which were not observed. The situation grew worse with the Ghanda Koy counter-offensive, but this in turn led to a seemingly viable accord between the Azawad Arab Islamic front, the most important guerilla movement, and the Malian government. Last March, President Konare presided over an enormous bonfire of weapons seized from the former guerilla fighters. The flames lit up the skies above Timbuktoo, the symbol par excellence of rapprochement between the peoples of Mali.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the beginning of January 1994, the regime suffered the effects of the devaluation of the CFA franc. Economic liberalisation had enabled Mali to improve its macroeconomic position, but social discontent, particularly in the towns and cities, demonstrated that the average citizen was continuing to suffer economic hardship. The President still enjoys considerable support, and political democracy is greatly appreciated. Obviously, the government cannot be blamed for all the difficulties facing the country. There is, for example, a lack of professionalism in the press. However, it could have given a lead in the case of the State media, which still studiously avoids criticising the government's actions. The administration has also been taken to task for its apparently lax attitude towards 'economic' misdemeanours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Next year will see a series of elections. The government views these with apprehension, although it has stolen a march over its rivals by signing a political accord with several small parties. Opposition is centred around the MPR (Patriotic Movement for Renewal), the revamped former party of the dictator Moussa Traore. This has undergone a 'facelift, and now seems to be regaining support. lts trump card is decentralisation. Its former leaders, who held total power for a quarter of a century, can take advantage of the network of contacts they built up. The US-ADA, the party of the Republic's founder, Modibo Keita, which until recently appeared to be the herald of change, seems lately to have restricted its role to that of arbiter. Surprises are in the offing, but one thing is certain: the Third Republic's constitution will remain the guarantee of democracy in Mali. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.G.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with Ali N. Diallo, President of the National Assembly</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mali, the army has learnt if from the past</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali's institutions were radically remodelled in the wake of the recent vote on decentralisation. This is aimed at allowing, among other things, a degree of autonomy for the north of the country-which is essential to guarantee national reconciliation. The sudden growth in the number of small towns and villages may result in some political surprises during the long e/ection campaign period which is due to begin early next year. The President of the National Assembly, Ali N. Diallo, finds himself in a pivotal position: his Adema (A/fiance for Democracy in Mali) party current/y holds a comfortable majority in Parliament. With democracy being consolidated in Mali, he must find this an exhilarating time. Our frst question touched on this</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is certainly an excellent time to be in Mali, but freedom is the most difficult of man's needs to satisfy. Our National Assembly has 12 parties and most people in our country are inspired by ideas based on tolerance and respect for the right to be different. The main concern of those of us who lead the party currently in the majority, is to question constantly whether we are necessarily always right. We have a comfortable majority-72 members out of 115-but this certainly doesn't mean that the National Assembly is just a rubber stamp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· There is, of course, another stumbling block when one has such a large majority, which is the possibility of internal divisions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, I would agree with you there. Mali's MPs have to realise that they came into this business after a three-stage process. First there was a popular uprising, then the army intervened to put an end to the bloodbath.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, we had the high level national conference to draft the constitution, the electoral code and the charter for the country's parties. MPs, therefore, must always bear in mind that, though they can claim legitimacy on the basis of the revolution, there is also a republican legitimacy they ought to respect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The second phase in the process was the intervention of the army-are you not a*aid that the 'Niger syndrome'will raise its ugly head in Mali, too ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Naturally, MPs have seen what happened in Niger and elsewhere, but fear is tempered here because officers in Mali's forces have also given a great deal of thought to the effects of military dictatorship. Democrats and republicans within the armed forces are very aware that only a minority of men in uniform profited to any degree from the previous regime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think that because Mali had what might be called a 'moderate' dictatorship, it is now in a better position than it would have been had the previous administration been more repressive ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Let me put it this way. The military dictatorship went through three different stages. During the first stage, just after the coup on 19 November 1968, the junta chose Mao Tse Tung as a model, hammering home the idea that power could be won by force of arms-and it was carried away by the popular acclaim it initially received. Subsequent popular resistance then took them by surprise. People wanted more freedom, but they also wanted to keep what they had gained in social matters. Army officers asked the protestors to abandon their action so that normal constitutional life could be resumed, but the trade unions had their own ideas. They advocated things which the people in power opposed. The ensuing repression was therefore fierce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was a second phase during which the military were at odds with one another over the leadership question. The popular view was that the country had fourteen different heads of state at that time. This went on until 28 February 1978 when there was a brief Iuli and they were tempted to return power to the civil authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then came the third phase when, despite appearances, poverty was on the increase. At first, Malians said that there were two 'IMFs' on the loose in Mali-the International Monetary Fund and the intimate circle surrounding the Moussa family. When the social foundation of the regime contracted, and all the country's business became concentrated in the hands of Moussa, his wife and her relations, the popular forces went on the offensive. This was a period of vociferous protest. Moussa Traore reacted with brutality: hence the 200 dead amongst the schoolchildren and students who were protesting- we will never know the exact number.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yet, the former regime could be said to have made the crucial economic choices which your government has continued with. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I wouldn't agree with that. There was a half-hearted discussion at the time about liberalising the economy but, in reality, bureaucracy got in the way. It is the economic laws voted in by ourselves which form the true basis of a liberal economy. However, if you really want to look to the past, I would say that it was the February 1967 accords signed between Mali and France, when we came back into the franc zone, which set the whole process rolling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Tuaregs and the government have just signed an agreement but the question of the north of the country is still a sensitive one. What are your views on this subject ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The problem in the north of Mali is extremely complex. First, the Malian nation is made up of a patchwork of minorities, the largest being the Ban Mana (Ed. 'Bambara' in the colonial vocabulary), but no ethnic group is larger than all the others put together. Second, all groups have, at one time or another, held supremacy. But the fact is that the peoples involved have all lived in the same area throughout history- they have shared joys and sorrows, and their blood has mingled on Malian soil. l would accept that the Malian nation is not as well consolidated as it should be, but it is arguably one of the most advanced in the sub-region in terms of its constitution-though I don't mean to sound chauvinistic here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anyway, the problem in the north of the country seems to me to be one of development. The various regions have not all developed at the same rate on account of climate differences. In addition, the dictatorship did not show any great respect for minorities - although it did not direct its actions solely against the Tuaregs, who resorted to arms. The Tuaregs exaggerated the mistreatment they had suffered because they were unfamiliar with what was happening in the rest of the country. In fact, Moussa Traore oppressed everyone: the French-style Jacobin state we inherited did not allow for regional differences. After independence, the regime redoubled its efforts to centralise the state. both because it was Jacobin in outlook and because of Modibo Keita's communist leanings. In 1959, the French forced the Tamashek (ea. 'Tuaregs') to secede-Max Lejeune and Houphouet Boigny were mixed up in all that. This was when oil was first discovered in Algeria and the war with Algeria had been in full swing since 1954. Modibo Keita set up the Malian Federation and declared in 1959 that, upon independence, he would withdraw all soldiers from the Algerian front. Since the Malian Federation was dismantled, Gao virtually became an Algerian willaya, a base camp for its fighters. Mali did not accept this. Moreover, Algeria, around the time it achieved independence, took retaliatory measures and sealed off its borders, mercilessly sending back huge numbers of refugees. It mobilised them through humiliation, telling them that they were the last members of the white race-the only ones to allow themselves to be under black rule.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· But when Ganda Koy's militia halted the Tuareg movement, they appeared to have been supported by the black population. Doesn't that also suggest a racist attitude ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I addressed the Tuaregs in October 1992, and pointed out that their wish to regard themselves as overlords and the other peoples in Mali as vassals who ought to pay tribute would provoke a general uprising, with the risk of a slide into civil war. I told several of the Tuareg chiefs seated around me the legend of Ouagadou- about the serpent of the well who each year demanded that the Soninke people should sacrifice an 18-year-old girl in its honour. Then the day came when a young man refused to accept the sacrifice of his fiancee. He went down into the monster's lair, watched by a horrified crowd who saw his recklessness as folly, and cut off the serpent's head. In the beginning, the Malian people's sympathies in fact lay with the rebellion. On 26 March, when the rebellion against the dictatorship took place, the president at the time, Konare, asked for all the Tuareg chiefs to be brought to him so that they could set up a transition body. He got a nasty surprise when the Tuaregs resorted to arms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Was the government, as rumoured, behind the Ganda Koy ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Not the government as such. To my mind, it would be wrong to applaud when one faction of the people one governs wants to exterminate another faction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It appears that some of the people are unhappy with the concessions that have been made to the Tuaregs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is a myth. The idea that we are frustrated because the Tuaregs were once our masters, is a story put about by Europe. The situation is quite the reverse. At the time of colonisation, they were unwilling to ream, like other nomads, such as the Peul people, for example. There were splits with them, of course, but no actual, all-out war. Forging a nation always requires tears, sweat and mourning. Those who return will find what they left broken or stolen and will want land which is less barren than that impoverished by the encroaching desert. However, those who stayed put in the face of rebel attacks had their houses smashed and their animals taken away. There will be problems when some Peals, for example, identify their cows which were stolen. We will have to negotiate, but I have confidence in the people. Just as they ended the war, they will be able to heal the wounds-of this I am sure. And the process has already started.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I gather that you continue to practice as a doctor, on top of your political duties. Is this to teach a moral lesson to your political colleagues ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I would say that it is more of a weakness, an inability to abandon a passion, even for supposedly good reasons. l am an 'internalist' and I have a passion for mechanisms. If you cure an infection and it returns, you have to look elsewhere to solve the problem. There are those in authority who spend money on trying to tackle problems without troubling to locate the cause. I would like to think that the analytical rigour of clinical science might also be put to good use in promoting understanding in politics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 1 240 190 km²</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 10 million</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population density: 8.15 per km²</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population growth rate: 3.1 % </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Bamako (pop.700 000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other main towns: S&eacute;gou (65 000), Mopti (52 000), Sikasso (50 000), Koutiala (37 000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Languages: French (official language), Bambara, Peul, Shongoi, Tamashek </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curreny: CFA franc. In July 1996,1 ECU was worth CFAF 647.5 ($1 = CFAF 515) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government: Mixed presidential and parliamentary system. Greater powers are due to be transferred to the regions after the next elections. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Head of State: Alpha Oumar Konar&eacute;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Ibrahim Boubacar Keita Political parties represented in Parliament: ADEMA (absolute majority). 'Opposition' - CNID, USRDA and numerous other smaller groupings. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p021.png"></center><br>
+ Map</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1993 figures unless otherwise stated) GDP: CFAF 753.8 billion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP per capita: $530</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Origin of GDP by sector: agriculture 42%, industry 11 %, services 47% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Real GDP growth: 2.4%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balance of payments: deficit of CFAF 84.1 billion (estimated) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main trade partners (% of total trade) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exports: Thailand (24.2%), Brazil (19.1%), Ireland (9.7%), Belgium/Luxembourg (9.7%) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Imports: C&ocirc;te d'lvoire (22.2%), France (14.5%), Senegal (9.7%), Hong Kong (4.6%)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main exports: cotton 40%, livestock 28%, gold 17.5%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual inflation rate: 3%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth: 46.2 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Infant mortalityper 1000 live births: 158 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult literacy: 28.4% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education (primary, secondary and tertiary): 16% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.223 (171st out of 174)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with Amadou Seydou Traor&eacute;, opposition leader and USRDA spokesman</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Macro-economic indicators tell you nothing about the distribution of the country's resources'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It cannot be easy to be in opposition when Parliament is dominated by a majority which is given a good press and is regarded abroad as a good pupil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We do not really find it a problem. If one is familiar with Mali's current situation, the people's views, reactions and judgments count for more than outside opinion, despite the fact the latter may seem important. However, we do take account of others' opinions. We are pleased to be able to speak to you-to express our ideas and points of view- so that outsiders can see that the USRDA offers a credible alternative for Mali. We feel quite secure in our current position because the principles and values we stand for are those closest to the Malian people. So we have no problem in being the opposition party. We are not the kind of hysterical opposition which resorts to foul means as well as fair ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Given that most Malian political trends stem from the revolutionary democratic movement, what are your party's special features ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Our party's origins are in the movement which dates from 26 March 1960-which itself grew out of an underground movement. The main component of this was the USRDA whose government was overthrown by a reactionary military putsch. Adema won the last elections, and we do not contest this fact despite a number of irregularities. Indeed, we supported the Adema government's initial actions. We were one of seven parties who regarded the Third Republic as our own offspring. Between 1992 and 1994, even when we faced grave difficulties and they were asking for suggestions, the government ignored our proposals. This happened, for example, at the time the World Bank threatened to pull out. As it functions at the moment, the government is not meeting the Malian people's basic aspirations. They want to see a change from the previous regime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are your essential criticisms of the way Adema works ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We are critical on a number of fronts. Looking at it first from an institutional standpoint, when the Malian people rejected the old regime, they wanted the existing set-up to be changed into a democratic one. The few institutions that have been established since then do not reflect this desire. They are virtually no different from what we had under the single-party system. True, we have an opposition party, but its views are ignored. Second, in terms of the management of democracy, a number of bodies, such as the State Commission on the public media, simply do not function. You have been in Mali for a week now, so you must have heard Adema spokesmen on the TV or radio. But you will never hear a member of the opposition. The space reserved for that -formerly an open forum for free political discussion-has been removed and the state-controlled TV and radio stations do not allow political parties to have a say. In the economic sphere, our approach is also completely different. We believe that support for the development of the private sector means that the state has to act as regulator. Economic development cannot simply be left to run its course as a kind of 'rat race'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Could you give us a few practical examples of what you describe as Use selling-off of the family jewels ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-With pleasure. Before the 26 March revolution, there was a general consensus that, in the process of privatisation, the state sector should be managed in a way that benefited the Malian economy. But the reality is that privatisation methods have not changed. They are no different from what they were in Moussa Traor&eacute;'s time. The electricity sector, for example, which has not yet really been privatised, is now managed by the Bouyges group of France. And it costs more, which will hardly help the country's economic development. The state airline has simply been absorbed by Air Afrique. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· If you were in power, how much economic scope do you think you would have, given the prevailing trend towards international liberalisation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I recognise that there is a dominant international lobby which has drawn up its own conditions, laws and principles. Even if one does not agree with this approach, one has to take it into account. However, it should be feasible to achieve privatisation in a different way. We know what we are talking about because we used to run this country. Indeed, we set up the national economy. Before 1960, there was no economic system to speak of. l am currently completing the text of a work which looks at our economic position at the time of independence. The plain fact is that we had nothing at the time of independence. There were only three pharmacists, fewer than ten doctors, and about ten people qualified to teach in our grammar schools-not much to write home about after 70 years of colonialism! After 1960, we had to set everything up from scratch. If you trace the history of every country in the world, whether under a monarchy or a republic, you see that the state has always made the first move in bringing about industrialisation, developing the maritime sector, and stimulating imports and exports. If you think about it, at the outset, the main manufactured activities were the domain of royalty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You claim that your party left a legacy, but some might say that the highly interventionist regime of your hero, Modibo Keita, who brought about independence, contained the seeds of Moussa Traore's dictatorship.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-These are just fairy stories. When a regime is overthrown by a coup d'etat, it always becomes the victim of systematic defamation campaigns in the press. We were maligned for 23 years with no right of reply and no right to issue a statement to set the record straight. In a way, we are talking today about a past which did not exist. You know the saying 'you are not only what you are but also what people say you are'. This reference to dictatorship is one of the most serious calumnies. But no matter what lies are told, something of the truth will always remain. If our regime had been dictatorial or inquisitorial, a coup d'etat would not have been possible. Before the 1968 coup, Modibo Keita was given a file by the security services warning him of the plot by Moussa Traore, and giving a list of his accomplices. He was advised to arrest the conspirators and put them on trial. His response was that he would not agree to a Malian citizen being deprived of his liberty without a scrap of evidence. I knew Keita very well. It will be a long time before we have another head of state with such democratic convictions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The ordinary people, the farmers, say that they did better under Traore, than under Keita.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, but it depends who you talk to. With Traore, there was an atmosphere of moral decline. We were free to plunder, steal and murder, but it was not real freedom. The farmers see it from a different perspective. However, l can still show you a copy of the 'Summary Report on the Seminar on Cooperation in the Rural Environment' which we drew up in 1968, just a few months before the coup d'etat. This highlighted the fact that socialism had not penetrated into the countryside during the seven or eight years we were in power. So you see our own self criticism appeared in a document published in May 1968. This demonstrates the fact that we were not complacent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is your view of the compliments the current government is receiving from many foreign observers, and the good marks it has been given in the macro-economic field by international institutions ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Good macro-economic results which are due to good management of public finances are beneficial for the country. However, such management must be accompanied by greater welfare and an improved standard of living for the people. There is no point hailing a GDP increase of 3-4% if more than 10% of the population does not have enough to eat. You have been through Bamako and other towns and cities and you have seen the construction sites and big buildings. But in their daily life, people are now more ill at ease. They have been disappointed by the Adema regime. The welfare of the ordinary citizen cannot be defined by reference to the personal wealth of someone who is having a seven-storey building put up. All of this new construction is reflected in the higher GDP. But the macro-economic indicators tell you nothing about the distribution of the country's resources-and the scales are currently tipped towards injustice. Those who are working are earning less but those who do not work are earning more. Embezzlement and corruption are currently worse than under Moussa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is the likelihood of a changeover of political power given that the opposition groups are at odds? The union between yourselves and Parena appears to have been suspended.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We are capable of winning the forthcoming elections without entering into an agreement with any other party. Having said this, we are the party to which most groupings in Mali are now turning and we are currently in the process of forming an alliance which will carry a great deal of weight. l am not one to speculate but I am sure that Parena's supporters will, in time, reach the same conclusions as ourselves regarding the timeliness and suitability of an alliance between us. We have contacts with a number of other parties but we do not want to form an electoral pact in the way one would make preparations for a coup-forming a group, ousting the regime and then shooting at each other! Moreover, it is important not to confuse change with restoration. There are those who advocate the restoration of Moussa's regime. Opposition of that kind would suit the current government very well because it would allow them to raise the spectre of our former dictator in the hope of attracting support from those who are frightened by such a pro spect. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by H.G.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The magnetism of the unfamiliar... but unexotic</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In West Africa, there is a dry, desert-like region which a river tried to bring under its sway. Instead of flowing seawards, the river's path went in the opposite direction to find this region, impulsively tracing a majestic loop of 2000 kiLom&eacute;tres before heading seawards. The Niger may not have provided an ideal site for Mali's major towns and villages, but it was considerate enough to form a major waterway between them which is navigable over almost its entire course. Its network of tributaries has resulted in the formation of large landlocked lakes whose waters are full of fish-a reminder of the times when the Sahara was one huge expanse of water. It has also resulted in the extraordinary Niger basin, a central delta area the size of Belgium, criss-crossed by lesser tributaries which reach into the smallest valleys. The river has created a diverse landscape which entices the visitor back. The land is steeped in history and if one wishes to learn its secrets, one has no choice but to study the empires of the past, forged it is said, by mythological deities and heros.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the dry season, visitors marvel at the beauty of the plains, which stretch as far as the eye can see. They will be tempted to return to view the waters that will cover them for just a few months during the rains. This is when the towns and villages appear as islands in the flooded landscape. Later in the seasonal cycle, Nature divests itself of its watery raiment and prepares to welcome the egrets, pink flamingos and all the other richly coloured birds which have flown in from afar. The cultural life of this region is also imbued with a rare richness, combining mystery and individuality. Mali has a distinctive character: it is accessible but not adulterated by frippery, welcoming but not taken over, affable but able to treat everyone as its equal. There is no need to make constant reference to the past which existed before colonial times-the past simply exists, eloquent in its tranquil humility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of Mali should logically begin in Bamako, the likely port of arrival. But if one immediately journeys to the towns and villages that were the cradles of empire, one is better able to appreciate this young capital, barely 250 years old, whose history owes much to its smaller forebears. We arrived in the evening and departed at dawn the next day. So Bamako was no more than a blur. The River Niger, still known as the Djoliba in the capital, is crossed by two long bridges which offer a view over the wild river banks. Most of the constructions are brand-new and some have a style borrowed from their thousandyear-old 'Sudanese' architectural heritage. It would have been more romantic to travel by river to the central part of the delta but, despite the welcoming nature of the Niger as it flows through Mali, it is difficult to navigate over the Sotuba rapids, between Bamako and Koulikoro approximately 50 km away. When the waters are in spate from July to December, it takes no more than two days to reach Segou, three to reach Mopti, five to reach Gao and an extra day to arrive in Timbuktu.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Segou, the rebel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Our first stop after Bamako is Koulikoro, the departure point for Niger cruises. After the unusual houses of the bazo fisherman on the banks of the river, as one leaves Bamako, it is the river itself which is a source of curiosity, transforming the voyage into a wonderful promenade through a forest abounding in game. Then there are the thatched, circular mud huts. Those without a roof are built on piles and are often ovens for preparing karite-nut oil whose bitter-sweet fragrance mingles with the fruity scent of the mango trees which line our route. In Koulikoro, every day is market day. The market spills out into the road and then shrinks back to allow vehicles to pass. It is also a centre for hunters and poachers who come here to seek customers. Above all, it is the centre for the guilds of masons who jealously guard the secrets of traditional Sudanese building skills. For the visitor who cares to linger, the griots will sing the praises of the old magician-king Soumangourou whose spirit has haunted this small town for eight-and-a-half centuries. When he was overthrown by the hero Soundjata, he just vanished into thin air-in the land of mystery that is Mali, great kings do not die, they simply disappear.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first 250 kiLom&eacute;tres of the river's course from Bamako are enchanting. One's first real encounter with Mali's past come at Segou-when the balanzans come into view. The charming, independent city is close by. Segou, the Bambara capital, did not form part of most of Mali's empires. Indeed, the word Bambara comes from 'Ban-Mane', which means 'those who reject a master'. There are 4444 + 1 balanzans to announce the city, all of which are numbered except the last one, which still guards its secret. The balanzans conceal another secret: during the dry season they are covered with leaves, which they lose during the winter. A curious traveller might arrive at Segou with memories of Maryse Conde's fine prose (Segou, Robert Laffont, France, 1984). Her work is an epic fresco of life at the court of the Bambara kingdom in the nineteenth century. The city itself stretches for eight kiLom&eacute;tres along the river bank, with a promenade high above the river on an embankment from where there is an uninterrupted view over the water to the horizon. The richly coloured fabrics of the washer women create a dreamlike atmosphere, giving an impression of the shimmering tunics worn by princes, and the women who swim in the river are not given to excessive prudishness, another reminder of the city's enduring rebellious nature. The charm and cleanliness of the town are striking, its administrative buildings stretching along a grand boulevard lined with modern structures. We see in their profiles, the traditional architectural styles as well as a variety of colours. The whole scene is shaded by gardens full of flowers. It is easy to forget that Segou has retained none of its former architectural wealth. This was all destroyed by the organisers of a jihad who sacked this city of infidels who had never been won over to Islam or, later, to Catholicism. The city walls and the regal courtyards are all gone, so what remains is jealously protected: the sceptre and regal symbols of King Diarra, the kingdom's treasures and its secrets. On Mondays, market day, it is possible to see people kneeling at the feet of an old man. He is the custodian of the town's remaining riches, but will never reveal where they are held. Oumar Santara, one of Segou's intellectuals, is attempting to gain an insight into these mysteries in order to protect them better because, he says, the pillage is still going on. Mali's cultural heritage is being ransacked by outsiders. In some villages on the opposite bank of the river, it is still possible to find 13th-century coins in the village squares.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trial marriage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly 500 kiLom&eacute;tres separate Segou from Mopti. Midway between the two is San, barely more than a large village. San is bathed by the waters of the Bani, a major tributary of the Niger which it flows into it at Mopti. In the market, fine cotton fabrics can be bought, as can the skills of the blacksmiths. Here, however, there is above all an air of secrecy. The town's inhabitants are members of the Bobo people. The name translates es 'stammering', 'mute' being implied. This is the town which holds the secrets of fatal poisons- cocktails of poisonous plants and snake venom. There are also unguents of all kinds to relieve pain, alleviate scarring, and so on. San has another reputation, that of handing out severe punishment to adulteresses. This seems paradoxical when one discovers that women here enjoy exceptional sexual freedom during adolescence and up to the time of their marriage, and even afterwards. They enter into a trial marriage for three or four years, during which time they are free to 'play the field'. At the end of this period, on the occasion of a feast, they reveal whether or not they will accept their 'provisional' husband. If not, the woman regains her freedom and can start all over again as many times as she wishes. If she decides to become the man's wife, she chooses some of her husband's friends with whom she may 'have a fling' for two weeks, the aim being that she thereby lays to rest her unmarried freedom. She will then swear an oath of fidelity to her husband which she breaks on pain of being cast out of society and even, it would appear, at the risk of losing her life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 1 2-kiLom&eacute;tre dyke, which seems to float on the water during the winter season, links Sevare, the crossroads of the major routes across Mali, to Mopti. Situated below water level, Mopti owes its existence to the embankments which protect it. The dyke offers a fine promenade which opens out onto the quayside of this bustling town. The streets are crowded and the settlement has a vitality and beauty, with coloured lights mirrored in the water. On land, the crowds drift in much the same way as the multitude of boats anchored in staggered rows along the riverbank. These stretch for hundreds of metres- as far as the eye can see. All this wealth of detail forms a tableau punctuated by the outlines of the slender fishing smacks (pirogues or dugout canoes). Despite their size, these vessels retain their uncluttered lines, always giving the impression that they are slicing through the water. The biggest of them are perhaps 50 metres long, carrying cargoes of up to 150 tonnes. This strange, animated scene, which resembles no other in the world, seems to have been staged as a way of reviving the buried images of the Mali of legend-provoking a memory of things unseen and prompting new sensations. Despite the fact that it is replete with Malian influences, Mopti did not develop until colonial times. Like Segou, it never really belonged to any of Mali's great empires, although it became their meeting point. It is a place where all the country's languages are spoken. Indeed, the word 'mopte' in Peal means 'place of assembly'. At Zigui's restaurant or in a cafe down by the port, one find groups of beribboned Tuareg artisans still with their belle servants (former slaves) in tow. One can watch the Peals, also followed by their servants, negotiating their deals. Some trade in gold jewellery, dogon or other ethnic sculptures. Others buy and sell the magnificent Segou carpets or cotton fabrics. Others still dabble in ancient archaeological artifacts (which it is forbidden to sell) and in sacred objects from all over the country. The town itself is an artifact: the apparent hotchpotch is regulated by an internal, almost natural organisation. The hundreds of boats, fishing smacks and other small craft are arranged along the river banks according to the goods they are importing. There is one place for fishing boats, another for furniture imports, and so on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mopti merits an overnight stay. In the curve of the great arc which forms the port, a soft light lingers on the congested river banks. It is not just the people who seem to tire of the day's hustle and bustle. The biggest boats with their gentle backwash, anchored in the mud until the next incoming tide, grow too lazy for their images to be reflected in the water and they seem to hold on to the last of the sun's glow, awaiting the first glimmers of moonlight</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Dogon region, poetry in stone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As one approaches Bandiagara, on the threshold of the cliff faces which bear the name of this town, the landscape changes. Most of Mali is flat, but here, we find ourselves in the high land. In fact, the altitude is only a few hundred metres, but the landscape is dominated by sheer and rugged rock faces. This is Dogon country where everything seems to be made of stone: the roads, houses and hills appear in matching tones of salmon pink. The inhabitants, too, seem to have been hewn from the very rock. At first glance, the landscape is unremarkable apart from the sight of all this rock, but as one's perception grows keener, shapes can be made out. At the foot of the slopes are caves that are still lived in. And in the most vertical part of the cliff faces, we can pick out regular, sculpted barrel shapes, combining to form an impressive design. These stone cylinders are the ancient dwellings of the Telems, a mysterious people who preceded the Dogons and were conquered by them. Nothing is known about their disappearance. Today, the cylinders are used as Dogon graves. Access is gained to them during funeral services, by means of a system of ropes. At the top of the cliff is Shanga, the beauty of the Dogon region. It stands atop a 400metre sheer drop which extends over a length of 200 kiLom&eacute;tres. Reaching Shanga from Bandiagara involves picking one's way through the rocky landscape and sliding over sandstone scree.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before the Europeans arrived to colonise the country, no one had succeeded in subjugating the Dogon region. Was it really ever under the sway of the colonists ? This region, whose beauty lies in its harshness, has no embellishments. And its language is as hard on the ears as the rock is underfoot. As everywhere, to feed themselves, the Dogons till the soil. But this must be carried on the backs of men and women over distances of several kiLom&eacute;tres and then deposited on the rock. Every onion bulb and every root pulled from this thin layer is a testament to the tenacity of humankind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Dogon region is like a magnet-it attracts pilgrims from afar who come to venerate El Hadj Oumar, the founder of the Islamic brotherhood of the African Tidjani-a military and religious leader whose life and disappearance are shrouded in mystery. It also attracts people because of the beauty of its works of art. Some of these, apparently of recent manufacture, are actually centuries old. For the custodians of the sacred objects, the interest of outsiders is viewed as a catastrophe. The artefacts are constantly pilfered and sometimes, their keepers commit suicide in their horror at such desecration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fine regalia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djenne translates as 'the beloved of the waters' and is surrounded by two strekhes of the Bani river. Thus, apart from a short time in the dry season, when the river can be forded, it is an island accessible only by boat. The town has always been a rival of Timbuktu, the 'daughter' of the desert. Before Mopti was created, Djenne was the country's meeting point. The town is dominated by its mosque which is a masterpiece of Sudanese architecture. This imposing clay structure has been a magnet for the faithful since the thirteenth century. It has always been rebuilt in the same style, each version scrupulously identical to the previous one. The most recent reconstruction dates from the early 1900s.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centre of the Malian empire, Djenne has retained all its finery, magnificence and prestige. It was annexed by the Shongoi empire at the end of the Middle Ages and its conquerors have always been seduced by the town's beauty. The mosque has been designated a World Heritage Site, and the entire town has protected status. For centuries, its architecture influenced other towns and cities in the Sahel and it continues to do so. The secrets of the knowledge and skills of its master masons are still jealously guarded, passed on only reluctantly to the initiated. The whole town is built around the mosque, revealing an interplay of balance and power. There are magnificent inner courtyards to which entry is gained through massive, ornate studded gates. The elaborate and finely carved windows, the intertwined leaves and scrolls of the arabesques and the moucharabies, all bear witness to the Moroccan influence. This has, however, been toned down and it now blends in with Djenne's indigenous forms of decoration and architecture. Whilst all Mali's former great towns and cities were known for their power and military glory, Djenne takes pride in having dispensed with brute force, its spirit protecting it from subjugation. All those who pass through take something of Djenne's spirit away with them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coca Cola kept at bay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Returning to the capital from where we started, we discover that it was colonisation that turned Bamako from a village into the large city that it is today. It inhabitants now number approximately one million. Although a city of recent origin, the site on which it is built dates back to the dawn of time. The hills overlooking the city are home to cave paintings and the underground tombs provide more evidence of a human presence dating from ancient times. There is then a gap of several thousand years in Bamako's history. In early colonial times, just two centuries ago, the village had no more than 700 inhabitants. Bamako began to be developed at the beginning of the 1900s and it is the only city in Mali to have a colonial atmosphere. It has not, however, lost out to change. The ministerial buildings at Koulouba hill, one of five dominating the city, or the Point G houses in the National Museum area, may not equal the beauty of Sudanese architecture, but they are elegant nonetheless. Their plain style is softened by their leafy gardens. The administrative buildings in the lower part of the city are often a fusion of colonial or modern styles and traditional architecture. These edifices are also made more attractive by fine gardens, which lend originality to the city. One of the most successful combinations is the great market, unfortunately in the process of restoration at the time of our visit and whose beautiful interior we were unable to appreciate. It is interior beauty which characterises this city in comparison with other African capitals. Despite its congestion and the density of its population, Bamako still has the atmosphere of a lively village. There is little of what one might term a 'social scene', but it is enough to be invited into the 'squares' or respectfully to visit the block-shaped houses which are still home to entire families and where discussion sessions (grins) last into the small hours. These sessions are enhanced with food and the omnipresent cup of tea. Bamako still prefers tea to imported beverages and to receive guests in the family home rather than joining in the social round in the hotel foyers so characteristic of major capital cities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For those hesitant to venture into the traditional life of Bamako (although they would be assured of a welcome), there are many restaurants which make a good attempt at recreating a homely atmosphere. One is not, however, required to take part in the conversations. Two restaurants (the Djenne and the Santoro), which have opened recently, allow one to enjoy the pleasures of art and history. They are part of a wider project to promote Malian art and set up an organisation for artists and craftsmen. They contain areas modelled on the refinement of former imperial furnishing, interior design and architecture, as well as exhibits by Mali's greatest artists. Their creator, Aminata Traore, is an intellectual, art connoisseur and international expert. In Dakar or Abidjan, patrons of such establishments would probably be expatriates with perhaps a few local dignitaries. But at the Santoro and Djenne, prices have been kept reasonably low (no account having been taken of the 50% devaluation in the CFA franc) and the art remains accessible to middle-class Malians. Thus, the spirit of the 'grins' is preserved. The preferred beverage is still a cup of fragrant tea or perhaps a glass of refreshing juice. Whisky will never replace tea, nor will Coca Cola replace fruit juices. Mali is not a country which rejects other people, but it resists cultural encroachment, preferring the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">familiar to the exotic. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Mali-EU cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roads and adjustment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Theo Hoorntje</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For 1990-95, ECU 151.7m was allocated (mainly in project aid) under the seventh EDF National Indicative Programme (NIP). This is equivalent to about 1.5% of Mali's GDP and 13% of its public-sector investment programme for the period in question. European funds from sources other than the NIP-emergency aid, Stabex, European Investment Bank (EIB) venture capital and resources from the structural adjustment facility- reached ECU 87.2m over the same five-year period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1995, support for the structural adjustment programme represented 5.4% of the balance of payments deficit and 7.8% of the budget deficit. Looking at all instruments together, the amount involved in financing decisions taken by the Commission last year was ECU 42m, with the disbursement figure rising to ECU 40m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The NlP's primary commitment level under the 7th EDF rose from 76% at the beginning of the financial year to 92% at the end, which means that virtually all available programmable resources are now allocated to projects and programmes. The secondary commitment level, which involves the conversion of proposals into concrete agreements and contracts, rose from 33% to 45% by the end of the financial year. Disbursement rates remain relatively low (32% of available resources).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Allocations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid is distributed to the various sectors, as follows:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Roads (29% of the total);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Support for structural adjustment (20%);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Rural development / Environment (1 4%);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Support for the private sector (12%);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Decentralisation (9%); </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Public health (9%); </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Water supplies (4%); </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Education/Culture (3%).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear that Community aid concentrates mainly on road infrastructures-covering both maintenance and the opening-up of remote regions. Support for structural adjustment, which comes second, is used to finance the State budget's current expenses, particular emphasis being placed on improvement of fiscal and customs income and greater efficiency in health-policy matters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In other areas, such as rural development, Community aid also makes an attempt to consolidate gains from previous actions, particularly through the development of rice growing and stock rearing, which should improve supplies to the domestic market and offer further export potential. As far as the environment is concerned, the aim is to contribute to the sustainable management of natural resources on the part of basic users, such as farmers, breeders, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The private sector is supported by actions in key areas and by a programme that was recently set up which involves directing resources through a financial institution (Credit Initiative SA). The objective is to promote lending to SMEs, which is in keeping with the general aim of achieving economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the context of administrative reform, priority is given to the decentralisation process which aims to promote the emergence of new local decision making centres (which should, in the long term, become key players in project development and implementation), and to give such decentralised bodies the means they require to fulfil these new public-sector missions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for health, Community aid has contributed to the PSPHR project financed by other donors. Its main focus is initially on infrastructures and on the policy relating to the supply of essential medicines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the water-supply sector, actions are aimed at strengthening village infrastructures, particularly in the Bankass and Koro areas. A solar-pump programme has also been set up in the Mopti and Koulikoro regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to a school reconstruction programme in the north of the country, the Commission has been able to support education and culture through a dozen or so film projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the general 'heading' of non-programmable resources, there have been a number of interventions. These include extra support for structural adjustment, Stabex transfers, deployment of the balance from the 5th EDF and EIB projects. Emergency aid has been deployed in the north of the country where, despite difficult conditions, programmes have been able to continue without interruption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, Community regional aid is helping to combat rinderpest, as well as being directed towards road maintenance, and the provision of training and information on environmental protection. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.H. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">NGOs finally achieve tangible results</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Catherine Beauraind and her five colleagues in the small team of foreigners and Malians, woke early. It had been a short night: our fault, since we had arrived at Bandiagara on the edge of the Niger valley much later than expected having taken the Sevare route. This is the gateway to the rocky Dogon region and travellers on the road occacionaliy fall victim to bandits-which probably made our hosts somewhat apprehensive about our late arrival. The people we had come to see are road builders, working without sophisticated equipment in a region of rocks and cliffs. They seem very youth froml, particularly those who have come from afar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are 'Progress Volunteers', the name given to the many young people who come to this very poor African country to offer their commitment and dynamism, if not perhaps their experience. On this particular morning, still feeling fatigued, Catherine was having to coordinate the departure of escorts for seasonal workers who were being dispatched to various locations. Their job is to ensure the upkeep of the rocky roads, and the equipment they use is rudimentary to say the least. The Bandiagara-Dourou stretch is maintained by the AFVP (French Association of Progress Volunteers) and is one in a long list of NGO projects. In 1995 alone, the European Commission supported over 50 NGO schemes, to the tune of ECU 1.5 million. Most EU countries and a number of others also have their own projects. On top of this, there is the emergency help provided by the European Commission Humanitarian Office (ECHO), which has just approved a grant of ECU 1 million for the north of Mali. Now that a peace accord has been signed between the government and the Tuareg rebels, this region is likely to see a huge influx of refugees returning to villages that are ill prepared to receive them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali is a least-developed nation and one of the most highly subsidised countries in terms of per capita aid, though recently, its political fortunes have been boosted by the democratisation process. And the efforts of the NGOs now seem to be paying off. The recent times of famine have faded in people's memories even in the Dogon region, where many families ate calabashes in desperation before succumbing to starvation. Mother nature is playing a part in the country's renewal: there has been ample rain over the last Many NGO projects are aimed at helping the population use its meagre resources to exploit the natural wealth of the River Niger and its tributaries. At Konna, for example, a striking village at the confluence of two rivers, the Regional Literacy and Self-Management Project is up and running. Financed, among others, by the European Development Fund, this is being implemented at a number of localities, and it has played a part in the renewal which can now be seen. Fresh coats of paint, repairs to houses, fewer starving children and the return of many migrants all underline this new vitality. Each of the 17 small cultivated areas in the village that are covered by the project (worked by about 60 people), receives no more aid than a motorised pump, a few cereals and a small amount of cash in the first year. A basic course in management is also provided. It is up to the villagers to use these resources to yield a profit. Results tend to be good, proof of success being the growing number of such schemes which are being set up without aid from the organisation. The project is now in its seventh year. It did experience one bad year-1992-when, despite bumper harvests, rice imports into Mali were excessive and prices dropped. The village has therefore made an attempt to diversify its crops. Its objective is to sell onions in Cote d'lvoire, where the inhabitants are very fond of this vegetable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most villages have been able to save money which was initially placed in banks and then invested elsewhere in the wake of devaluation's harsh lessons. Konna opted for purchasing livestock. In nearby Kotaka, surpluses partially funded the construction of an impressive mosque. Kotaka was one of the places most affected by the recent meningitis epidemic, but a hospital would probably have been too expensive. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Western Samoa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A new spirit of enterprise</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small countries with a limited resource base are frequently buffeted by economic forces over which they have no control. If you live in Western Samoa, however, you are likely to be preoccupied by forces of a different kind. For while most of the time, Mother Nature presents a benign face in this attractive and fertile Pacific state, every once in a while, she loses her temper.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical storms are an unavoidable reality in much of the Pacific and they breed a special form of resilience which should impress the inhabitants of more temperate climes. The people of Samoa, and other cyclone prone countries in the region, are adept at picking themselves up and, if necessary, starting all over again, once the winds have passed. But between 1989 and 1993, the Samoans' capacity for renewal was to be tested more than ever before. Like a plucky boxer facing a much stronger opponent, the country would just be struggling back to its feet when another hammer blow would send it reeling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The closest to a knock-out punch came in December 1991 in the shape of Cyclone Val-the worst storm to hit the islands in more than a century. This brought death and injury, as well as widespread economic devastation. The coconut and coffee trees on which the country depends for much of its export income were either swept away or stripped bare. Many homes were also destroyed and infrastructures were severely damaged. (The 1993 cyclone, although less powerful, caused further crop destruction.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the last five years, virtually all the damage has been repaired. Indeed, a great many facilities have been upgraded with plans for further improvements in the pipeline. To some extent, the credit for this remarkable recovery must be shared. Overseas donors played an important part in restoring key infrastructures while expatriate Samoans, whose remittances are an important 'invisible' earning for the country in normal times, also rallied round. But the key players, of course, were the people themselves, who rose to the challenge of reconstructing their country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, Western Samoa - which has a population of 165 000-is experiencing an economic mini-boom. Growth during 1996 is expected to be between 5% and 6% for the second consecutive year and there are encouraging signs of a new, home-grown entrepreneurial spirit. This is not to say that everything in the garden is rosy. The latest growth figures need to be set against the unavoidable recession caused by Cyclones Val and Ofa (which struck in 1990) and a mediocre economic performance throughout the 1980s. And while there is some evidence of diversification, the economy is still very narrowly based. There is also considerable room for improvements in health care and education provision. Doubts have been expressed, for example, as to the accuracy of the official literacy figures. Finally, there is a high level of dependence on foreign aid (the country's main donors are the Asian Development Bank, Japan, Australia and the European Community).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economists will tell you how notoriously difficult it is to express the wealth of a developing nation in statistical form. GDP figures can offer a pointer, but they do not present the whole picture as they take no account of the informal economy. Western Samoa provides a particularly good illustration. At US $950, the estimated per capita GDP is very low by Pacific standards. Yet there is clearly no starvation. A great deal of the food consumed by the Samoans simply does not 'show up' in the cash economy. The term subsistence agriculture seems peculiarly inappropriate here since locally available food sources are many and varied.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Similarly, many of the materials used to build the 'fares' (traditional houses) in the villages are obtained without recourse to builders' merchants. And when a Samoan wants a new house, he builds it himself-with the help of his family and neighbours. This involves skilled carpentry work-for which people would pay highly in industrialised societies - and which does not register either in the country's economic statistics. So it is clear that the basic GDP figures do not paint a complete picture. Nonetheless, they illustrate the relatively underdeveloped state of the formal economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking at exports, Western Samoa's traditional agricultural sector has gone through some rough times, for a variety of reasons. In the past, the mainstays were copra and coconut products (oil and cream), cocoa and tarot</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The storms destroyed or damaged many of the coconut and cocoa trees, wiping out exports for a number of years until new plantings could reach maturity. The market in food products derived from the coconut had been depressed in any case. One reason for this was negative publicity over the high cholesterol content of coconuts, although more recent research, suggesting that not all types of cholesterol are bad for you, has at least partly restored the reputation of this highly flexible crop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taro, which is Western Samoa's staple food crop, was exported in ever increasing quantities during the 1980s but the trade has suffered badly in recent years because of an outbreak of taro leaf blight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, Western Samoa's most important primary exports are, once again, coconut-based (oil and cream). With the new trees reaching maturity, production recommenced on a small scale towards the end of 1994. The following year saw a big jump in exports and the figures for 1996 are expected to - come close to pre-cyclone levels,The marketing situation has also improved as a result of privatisation. The old Copra Board, a parastatal with a reputation for inefficiency, was abolished in 1990, its assets being bought for a nominal sum by a Samoan businessman who has invested heavily in refurbishment. This has all been achieved despite continuing low prices for coconut products in the world markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cocoa takes longer to recover but harvesting of the first new crop is due to take place this year with the emphasis on a high value, fine tasting variety. A new chocolate factory (Wilex C.C.P. Ltd), also masterminded by a local entrepreneur, Eddie Wilson, has been built with assistance from the EU's Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) and a credit from the European Investment Bank (EIB) channelled through the Development Bank of Western Samoa (DBWS). This is a particularly significant venture since it aims to maximise added value before export. The factory is currently operating well below full capacity, awaiting the arrival of the first local crop, but there are high hopes for its long term success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other main crops exported are bananas and kava. The latter is a mild narcotic based on the root of the pepper plant, which is used in pharmaceutical preparations. It also has an important place in Samoan (and wider Pacific) culture, being drunk in diluted form on ceremonial occasions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a view to achieving further export diversification, a number of other agricultural/horticultural export possibilities have also been identified. These include asparagus, mangos and cut flowers. The most likely potential market for new tropical production is New Zealand-already the destination for more than half of Western Samoa's exports. However, this country has stringent health rules with rigorous controls on the import of plant and animal material. The understandable aim is to protect the local farming sector from diseases introduced from outside, but it creates an additional hurdle for potential exporters in the developing countries of the Pacific. In particular, Western Samoa needs to come to grips with the fruit fly problem, if it wishes to make inroads into the New Zealand market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Timber also once featured prominently in the trade statistics before declining at the end of the 1980s. There are hopes for a revival here with the authorities keen to encourage value added processing of wood products within the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite its obvious association with the sea, Western Samoa has never really gone in for commercial fishing. While the Exclusive Economic Zone is small by Pacific standards, the country being 'hemmed in' by other island nations and territories, it is still more than 40 times the land area. The government would particularly like to attract foreign investment in fish processing and canning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industry</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is probably unrealistic to expect a small and geographically isolated nation such as Western Samoa to develop a highly diversified industrial base but there have been one or two notable ventures which show signs of potential. The above-mentioned chocolate factory is one such. The country also has a highly successful brewery. It is not uncommon for developing nations to produce their own local beer but Western Samoa's Vailima brand has managed to break out successfully into the regional market, bringing in useful foreign exchange in the process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biggest industrial success story-dwarfing all other manufacturing ventures-has been the establishment of a factory by the Japanese company Yazaki to produce wire harnesses for cars. The business employs some 2500 people (mainly women) in a highly labour-intensive operation-and it makes a significant contribution to the trade balance. The value-added electrical components are re-exported for incorporation into cars sold mainly in Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The company was attracted by a number of factors including low labour costs in this non-unionised society, and the political stability of Western Samoa. Perhaps most important, however, were the incentives offered by the government. These went well beyond the usual tax holidays provided by developing countries to attract foreign investors. Indeed, it was the government that built the factory and the company was allowed to occupy it rent-free. Some observers have expressed concern at such largesse but the authorities are insistent that it was still a good deal. They point to the jobs that were created (a huge number by Samoan standards) at a time when many people's livelihoods were threatened by taro blight. They also argue that the profits of the operation are retained in Western Samoa, thereby helping to boost the wider economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Services</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The service sector offers perhaps the best potential for expansion of Western Samoa's formal economy. Top of the list here comes tourism (featured in a separate article), which has been expanding much faster than the underlying rate of economic growth. Despite the increase in both visitors and income, tourism is still underdeveloped. The government (supported by the opposition) believes that this is one field where Western Samoa definitely has a 'comparative advantage'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linked to tourism, of course, is the air transport business. Although it might still be possible to obtain passage on a merchant ship bound for the South Sea islands, the vast majority of visitors arrive by plane, and good air connections are obviously essential. The history of the country's national carrier, Polynesian Airlines, offers two object lessons. The first is how not to run an airline and the second, more recent and encouraging one, is how to grasp the nettle when the crisis finally breaks. In 1992, with tourism in mind, the government owned airline decided to expand its operations substantially. It leased three long-haul aircraft which it hoped to fill with visitors in search of a new tropical haven. The market research was clearly inadequate and the planes flew with many empty seats. Other aspects of the company's management proved deficient and there was a chronic lack of financial. Debts mounted at such a frightening rate that the budgetary position of the entire country was threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, the government took decisive action, bringing in Richard Gates, the experienced airline entrepreneur, who is credited with having turned Air New Zealand around. Relatively small airline businesses in the Pacific are not likely to make a.fortune for anyone, but with proper management, they should at least be able to break even and perhaps even turn in a small profit. This was not something that even the prodigious talents of Mr Gates could achieve, however, with the crushing burden of debt accumulated by Polynesian Airlines. So the government assumed responsibility for the debts and then gave the new manager a free hand, on the firm understanding that the taxpayer would not come to the rescue again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the airline side, the operation was drastically slimmed down. The leases on the large aircraft were terminated, staff 'down-sizing' took place and bath ticketing and financial management were tightened up. The positive impact of these measures was soon evident, with a small operating profit registered in 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Left with huge debts, the action of the authorities was equally impressive, although it entailed discomfort for most Western Samoans. In order to restore its own financial position, the government instituted 15% public expenditure cuts across the board. In macro-economic terms, it is generally acknowledged that this strong medicine was needed, but the social consequences were all too clear as well: reduced funds for health and education, and pressure on important capital investment budgets. Perhaps fortuitously for the country, the financial crisis caused by the Polynesian Airlines debacle coincided with the payment of a substantial Stabex payment from the European Community. The country's was eligible for Stabex funds because of the collapse in agricultural export receipts following the cyclones, and the money-which was directed mainly into infrastructure projects-could hardly have come at a better time. Meanwhile, the government has paid off a large portion of the airline's debt with the residue rescheduled for payment over a five-year period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government has taken a number of steps aimed at attracting offshore finance business to the country. Western Samoa now has a comprehensive legal framework governing such activities, including crucial provisions guaranteeing secrecy. Another vital factor in attracting offshore funds, which has already been mentioned, is political stability. There is even the suggestion that the country's time zone, which puts it almost a day behind Australia and New Zealand, might somehow be turned to its advantage in global financial dealings (although it is not clear how the benefit would be derived in otherwise legitimate transactions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The last three years have seen a big increase in company incorporations and there are now more than 2500 offshore companies (including 15 banks and eight insurance companies) registered. It is difficult to imagine Western Samoa ever challenging the likes of Liechtenstein, the Bahamas or Jersey in this market, given its geographical distance from the main industrialised nations, but even a successful 'niche' operation could bring some useful income to the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five years ago, when the Courier last covered Western Samoa, the emphasis was heavily on recent constitutional changes and most notably, the introduction of universal franchise. At the time, there was a lot of interest in how the traditional Samoan way of life (faa-Samoa) would be affected. This is based on the village structure and the matai system which vests considerable authority in family heads. There is also a strong attachment to the Christian faith, as exemplified by strict Sunday observance rules (also found in Tonga and other Pacific countries).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, the Samoans appear to have embraced their more 'westernised' system of government without any difficulty. Although everyone over 21 has a vote, one still has to be a matai to be eligible to stand for Parliament. In contrast to hierarchical structures elsewhere in the Pacific, however, the system here seems to be based largely on merit and it is not particularly exclusive (there are an estimated 19 000 matai). The matai, nonetheless, exercise considerable authority in village affairs, most notably over the use of customary land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In short, the change seems to have caused few problems because Western Samoa already had its own decentralised form of democracy. It was not a question of educating people about hitherto alien concepts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that change in Western Samoa is slow and progressive rather than sudden and violent, is recognised by most observers to be a good thing. An illustration of this evolutionary approach is the arrangement governing the position of Head of State. The post, which is held by His Highness Malietoa Tunamefili 11, currently appears to be a cross between a presidency and a monarchy. Under the 1962 independence constitution, two of the country's four paramount chiefs were given the position, to be held jointly, for life. With the death of Tupua Tamasese Meaole in 1963, the surviving incumbent became sole Head of State. There will be no automatic succession, however, and Parliament will decide who should have the post in future, with the term of office limited to five years. There is obviously a great deal of respect for the Head of State and his office among Western Samoans, although it should be stressed that his role is largely ceremonial, with political authority being vested in the elected government. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for party politics, there are two groupings represented in Parliament, the ruling Human Rights Protection Party and the opposition Samoa National Development Party. The party system is not particularly strong, however, being based more on personalities than ideology. Corruption is not seen to be a major problem although a major row did blow up recently over a critical report issued by the Auditor-General for 1994. This led to him being suspended and this issue had not yet been resolved at the time The Courier went to press.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa is not unique in having to adapt to a rapidly changing world. The phenomenon affects all societies, with modern communications technology increasingly breaking down the 'protection' that geographical isolation used to afford. In Westem Samoa, as elsewhere, there must be concern about the impact of this on the country's traditional way of life. Yet the indications are that this Pacific nation is managing the transition rather better than many other developing countries. The people seem to combine an unselfconscious pride in their traditions and cultural assets with a pragmatic welcoming of ideas from outside which help to improve their material wellbeing. The hope must be that this process can continue as we approach the third millennium. S'imon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Historical summary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to archaeological evidence, the islands of Samoa were first settled about 3000 years ago, after gradual migration within the Pacific from people originally from South East Asia. Samoa, it seems, was the cradle of the Polynesian culture, and settlers from there spread to other islands of Polynesia in the east, north and south.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first European to sight the group in 1722 was Jacob Roggeveen, and although there was intermittent contact between European sailing vessels and the islanders during the 18th century, more permanent contact was established with the arrival of the European missionaries in the early 1980s. They were soon followed by traders looking for copra, beche de mer, sandalwood and other products. Later, some of the trading firms, notably German, fumed to large-scale production of copra and other products such as cotton, cacao and rubber, which also led a corresponding increase in interest on the part of colonial powers. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1800s, the Samoan group became the focus of colonial rivalry between Great Britain, the USA and Germany, leading, in 1900, to the partitioning of the islands between Germany and the United States. The eastern part of the group came under American control and has remained so to this day, while Germany controlled the western islands. Britain received territorial concessions elsewhere in the Pacific. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the outbreak of World War I, New Zealand took over what had come to be known as German Samoa, and became the administrative power there under the League of Nations and later the United Nations until Western Samoa became the first Patific island nation to become an independent state in 1962.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Source: Government of Western Samoa. this text is taken from the information brochure prepared by the authorities for distribution to delegates at the recent ACP-EU Council of Ministers meeting). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dream ticket ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Depart Nuku'alofa-12.00, January l 2000 Arrive Apia - 14.00, December 37 1999</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People with cash to burn are often ready to spend surprising amounts of money in their pursuit of the unusual. Tonga has already recognised this as it begins preparing for the third millennium Lying just to the west of the International Dateline, it believes it will the first country to see the sun rise on the new millennium, although other Pacific territories have also made the claim. (For this purpose, we ignore the purists who point out that the third millennium will not actually begin until January 1, 2001.) Celebrations are planned and bookings are already being taken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Westem Samoa is obviously not in the running for this distinction since it is east of the dateline, but what this means is it will be the last nation in the world to say goodbye to the old millennium. This surely presents an opportunity for the local tourist industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And what about those intrepid voyagers who fancy greeting the year 2000 in Tonga and then 'seeing out' the old millennium 24 hours later in Samoa. If i were an airline manager, I would be examining the possibility of extra flights from Nuku'alofa on the big day. (Let's hope it's not a Sunday I)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">An interview with Tuilaepa Sailele Malielegaoi, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Economic future in tourism end manufacturing'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier visited Western Samoa at the end of June while the country was hosting the ACP-EU Council of Ministers meeting. At the time, veteran Prime Minister, Tofilau Eti Alesana, was recovering from an operation, and his duties were being carried out by his deputy, Tuilaepa Sailele Malielegaoi, who is also the Minister of Finance. Despite a hectic schedule, the Deputy Prime Minister kindly managed to find a slot for a keynote interview with The Courier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· There is growing evidence of a new economic dynamism in this island nation, which has managed to find its feet remarkably speedily after the destruction wrought by cyclones in 1989 and 1990. With this in mind, we began by asking the Minister about the economic prospects for the country ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think they are excellent. Our country suffered a major catastrophe as a result of the cyclones, coming, as they did, in two successive years. There was major damage to our infrastructure and forestry resources- coconuts and cocoa. At the time, we estimated the bill at more than $600m. But the rehabilitation of the infrastructure went ahead quickly, thanks to the major support provided by bodies like the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and of course, the European Union, not to mention the bilateral donor countries who answered our call for help. So in some ways, it was a blessing in disguise. We suffered badly, but with the assistance that came, we have been able to improve our roads and electricity supply, and the protection of our foreshore. It also encouraged us to embark on replanting to replace the trees-mainly cocoa and coconut -that had been destroyed. Last year, for the first time since the cyclones, our copra exports came back in strength. We have, at last, started to approach the pre-cyclone export levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are likely to be the key sectors for future economic activity ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We believe that the economic future of our country now lies more in tourism and in manufacturing industries. Dealing with the latter first, we have already succeeded in attracting some industries. The major investment so-far has come from Yazaki, a Japanese company that produces wire harnessing systems (electrical components) for vehicles. This employs almost 3000 people in Western Samoa. In fact, the company set up here before the cyclones and it did not take long for us to see the benefits. The value added equivalent provided by just that one plant is roughly equivalent to our total agricultural exports for last year. So you can see the importance of manufacturing industry for us. We have provided very generous incentives and have also allocated sufficient government land to provide space for factories.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other industry which is now in the forefront, in terms of foreign exchange earnings, is tourism. We now earn four times more from this sector than we do from agriculture-and agriculture is supposed to be the mainstay of our economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course, we mustn't reduce the priority that we give to agriculture. It is one area where we have the resources. More specifically, I think that we have great potential for beef production. If we should have another cyclone, the trees will be damaged but cattle should not be affected. So I think we should look more towards beef production and other forms of agricultural diversification. We do have some good commercial farming in place at the moment, but it is not enough. We need to do more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about the chocolate industry ? You have traditionally grown cocoa but you now also have a factory to process the raw material right up to the end product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is a direct result of our drive to promote more manufacturing - whether it is export-oriented or geared towards import substitution. The chocolate venture is a new one and I think there are good, prospects here as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important point is that we are moving back into growing the fine flavour variety of cocoa here. We used to be one of the 14 producers of fine flavoured cocoa in the world, and we got premium prices for it. But somehow, over the years, we switched to producing inferior quality bulk cocoa. We regretted doing that and are now switching back to the higher quality variety-which is just coming back into production following the cyclones. So here we have another potential area for exports. On the other hand, taro which used to be our major export prior to 1993 is facing difficulties. It is affected by a disease, the taro blight, which seems to be uncontrollable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Thinking in particular of the impact of tourism, are you concerned that an influx of foreign visitors might damage Western Samoa's unique and very special culture ? I see, for example, that you now have a 'McDonalds' restaurant in the centre of Apia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- No. I am not really concerned. In 1992, we set up our own tourism festival. This takes place in the first week of September and is quite clearly intended to be a feature event with an emphasis on promoting tourism. All the activities at the festival focus on the various aspects of our culture-the arts, the dances, the preparation of food, the singing and so on. It seems to me that our drive for tourism is actually helping to revive some of the cultural aspects that would otherwise have been dvina out. So I believe there is a complementarily between culture and tourism, so long as we ensure that the relationship between the two is maintained. I think this point is backed up, if you look at the growing popularity of ecotourism nowadays. This is very much concerned with preservation-of both the environment and of local cultures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In international circles, Western Samoa is deemed to be a least-developed country on account of its low GDP per head figures. Yet nobody is starving here and you appear to have a very 'rich' lifestyle, even if people don't have a great deal of cash in their pockets. Do you think the international classification is a fair one ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- I think the first point to emphasise is that a lot of the signs of development you see here are of recent origin. They date back only to 1992-93. Infrastructures have improved considerably over a very short time and this could well create a certain impression about the people's standard of living. On the other hand, it is true that our economy is not completely based on cash. And, of course, our earnings are in Tala which go a lot further here than their dollar equivalent in the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Presumably, it is to your benefit to be classified as an LDC because it gives you access to more sources of foreign funding ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I am happy to leave the classification to the experts. They are the ones who come and estimate our average per capita income, which is then used as the yardstick for placing a country in one or other category. I think it is ironic though, that if you go to a country like the USA, which is supposed to be very rich, you find beggars on the street. It certainly makes you wonder. Perhaps it is not really the statistical wealth of a country that is important, but its social system. And our social system here ensures that no-one goes hungry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· That leads on rather neatly to my next question. What do you think are the main social challenges that need to be tackled here ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We still have quite a lot of 'service care' needs in the villages that we need to attend to. That is why we have placed the highest priority on social services over the next five years. I am talking here in particular about health, education and water supplies. There are still a lot of villages that need to have piped water brought into the home. Education-wise, we have reasonable access, but we need to improve the teaching material that is available in the classes and upgrade the general level of village schooling. We need to dissuade families from moving to the capital in the belief that they can get better education for their children here. So we still have a lot of work to do to ensure that the primary schools in the villages are upgraded. It is not simply a question of ensuring that competent teachers are available, but also as I say, providing good teaching materials and laboratory equipment for science subjects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· All of this obviously needs to be paid for, which entails healthy government finances. You recently had a serious problem over the debts run up by Air Polynesia, and you took very stringent measures to tackle this which resulted in expenditure cuts. What do the figures look like today ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-They are OK. We are running a budget deficit which means we have to borrow both overseas and locally, but we try to keep the deficit at a reasonable level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What has been the effect of introducing the Value Added Goods and Services Sales Tax (VAGST) ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It has helped enormously. Of course, in order to sell the idea, we had to reduce other taxes and duties. As you know, there is an international trend towards removing customs duties and shifting revenue-raising in the direction of consumption taxes. Customs levies, which are the traditional source of revenue are diminishing. So what we have done is to lay the foundation for the eventual shift in our revenue base. Also, we promised to cut income taxes even more-from 38% to 25% within two years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Has this measure been implemented yet ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-No, it is due to be introduced in 1998.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Finally, I would like to turn to a constitutional question. Western Samoa introduced universal franchise some five or six years ago, but you still have a system in which only matai (family heads) are entitled to stand as candidates in elections. Do you envisage any further changes to the system ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I cannot really see that we will ever change again. The Constitution stipulates that our government is based on Samoan traditions and Christian principles. When we introduced universal suffrage, we were applying something that had always been there in any case. Samoans have always taken part in the process of choosing their leaders and voting is simply another way of doing this. The only difference is that we would arrive at a decision by getting together through our village structures and talking, whereas your system involves marking a ballot. So the change was quite in accordance with our customs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let me say something about the way villages choose their matai. When there is a question of succession, everyone has a right to take part in the process. There is no age limit. So in that sense, you could argue that we are more advanced. And we always had female matai, even before the arrival of the Europeans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this respect, I believe we are quite different from Fiji and Tonga. In Tonga, the dividing line is quite clear. If you are born a noble, you remain a noble and if you are born a commoner, you will always be a commoner. It is the same in Fiji. There, you are automatically a ratu K your father was one. By contrast, here in Samoa, my son cannot automatically succeed to my title. So to become a matai, a person has to earn it, and to put his case at the family meeting which is convened to choose a successor. Usually, the person chosen is the one who displays the best leadership qualities. I think I should also point out that becoming a matai is not that difficult. If you want to be one, you inform the family and if they think you have matured sufficiently, you will generally get the position and then become eligible to be a parliamentary candidate. It is typical that when a family sees a fellow has matured, he becomes a matai.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 2934 km² (Exclusive Economic Zone of 130 000 km²)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 165000</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population density: 57 per kiLom&eacute;tres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Apia (situated on the island of Upolu)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National language: Samoan (English is the business language)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currency: Tala (WS$) made up of 100 sene. In June 1996, 1 ECU was worth approximately WS$ 3. (US$1 = WS$ 2.3)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">System of government: A unicameral constitutional democracy with strong traditional elements. The current Head of State is one of the country's four paramount chiefs, and he holds the office for life. Thereafter, the Fono (Legislative Assembly) will elect the Head of State for five-year terms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is universal franchise (introduced in 1991) but in order to be a Parliamentary candidate, one has to be a matai (family head). Western Samoa is said to have about 19000 matai. The minimum voting age is 21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Head of State: HH Malietoa Tanumafili II</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Tofilau Eti Alesana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main political parties: Human Rights Protection Party (HRPP), Samoa National Development Party (SNDP)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Party representation in Parliament: HRPP 35, SNDP 11, Independent 3. (The HRPP total includes 11 members elected as independents in the April 1996 election who subsequently joined the governing party).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p038.png"></center><br>
+ Map</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy (1995 figures unless otherwise stated)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual GDP per capita: approx US$ 950</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP growth rate: 7%. The target for 1996 is 34%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Principal exports: coconut oil (WS $8m), coconut cream (WS $4.8m), copra (WS $2.2m).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balance of payments: exports - WS $21.7m, imports - WS $228.1m. 'Invisible' earnings, officially described as 'net foreign earnings' amounted to WS $171m, leaving a current amount deficit of WS $36.8m in 1995 (20%lower than the previous year). The main 'invisibles' are private transfers (remittances from Western Samoans living abroad), tourism, income from services and the value added trade of the Yazaki electrical components firm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inflation rate (end 1995): 1 %. Inflation tends to fluctuate a great deal. The figure for 1994 was 18.4%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government budget (projected for 1996/97): revenue WS $288.4m, expenditure WS $312.7m, deficit WS $24.3m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Accumulated government debt: WS$ 389 m</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth (1993): 67.8 years</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult literacy (1993): 98% (A UNESCO report in 1994 suggested that real literacy levels were significantly below those indicated in official figures) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education: all levels from age 6-23: 74%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.700 (88th out of 174) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Marketing a tropical idyIl</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Folasaito Joe Annandale and his wife Tui are the brains behind Western Samoa's latest tourist facility- the Sinalei Reef Resort, which has just opened on the beautiful south coast of Upolu island. They are among a growing number of Samoan entrepreneurs who are injecting new dynamism into the country's economy although they are somewhat unusual in the tourist trade. With the notable exception of the famous 'Aggie Grey's Hotel' in Apia, tourist accommodation in Western Samoa has tended to be the preserve of foreign investors, including some of the major international hotel chains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At first sight, it is surprising to discover how underdeveloped the tourism sector is in Western Samoa. Tour operators may be inclined to use the phrase 'tropical paradise' a little too freely but this island nation certainly seems to meet most of the essential criteria. It has the obligatory golden beaches fringed with palm trees, extensive coral reefs and striking mountain scenery overlaid with lush vegetation. The vivid colours leave a particularly strong impression. Greens predominate but there are also many copper-leafed trees and bushes, and an abundance of red, orange and yellow flowers. Western Samoa can also offer a number of special features which are important in marketing terms. There is, of course, the legendary hospitality of the Samoans and their distinctive and vibrant traditions. This must be one of the most musically 'literate' populations in the world, a talent which is reflected in the numerous choirs/dance groups. The harmonies are impressive and the traditional dances are both expressive and entertaining. There is also the unique 'fare' architecture which is a particular source of fascination to outsiders, not to mention the Robert Louis Stevenson connection. The famous author spent the last four years of his life in Western Samoa and the house where he lived- which used to be the Head of State's residence - has recently been converted into a museum.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Good prospects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The potential for expanding tourism is something that has not escaped the government. In today's highly competitive free-market world, countries are being urged to exploit their 'comparative advantage' and the Western Samoan authorities recognise that this sector offers some of the best prospects for future growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like most other economic activities, the tourist trade was badly hit as a result of cyclone devastation in 1989 and 1990. However, visitor numbers have increased substantially since then. Indeed, looking at year on year earnings, the tourist sector is performing better than any other area of the economy. In 1994, income was WS$.58 million (50 000 + visitors). The following year, it reached WS$.78m and there are hopes that it could top WS$.100m in 1996. Of course, no-one in Samoa is talking about 'mass' tourism. The country is too far from the main industrialised nations to be able to offer traditional package holidays (perhaps fortunately !), and too small to absorb the cultural and environmental impact without lasting damage. Having said this, the market can be divided into two very distinct portions. At one end of the scale are the low spending 'back-packers'-often taking advantage of relatively cheap 'round the world' airline tickets to stop off and sample the pleasures of Western Samoa. These tourists may not spend very much on a daily basis but they are reasonably significant from a financial standpoint because they tend to stay for quite lengthy periods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the other end, you find the high-spending, 'exclusive' customer willing to pay for high quality accommodation and catering. Perhaps not surprisingly, the Government is more interested in attracting the latter, which is why they are keen to encourage investors such as the Annandales.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier spoke to Joe Annandale about his business strategy when we recently visited the country. The Sinalei Reef Resort, which has received EIB loan financing channelled through the Development Bank of Western Samoa, has just 20 rooms (including four suites) giving it a capacity of less than 50. Customers will be offered a tropical idyll and a chance to escape completely from the pressures of modern living. The long term aim, according to Mr Annandale, is to entice Europeans in general and Germans in particular. The latter, it is said, have a preference for environmentally-friendly, 'escapist' vacations and, of course, there is a historical link between Germany and Western Samoa. Until a European clientele can be built up, the focus will be on attracting guests from Australia and New Zealand. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Culture clash?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there is no question of Western Samoa being swamped by visitors from overseas, even a modest increase in tourist numbers is bound to have an impact in this country of just 165000 inhabitants. On the negative side, the Samoan system of customary (village) land ownership sometimes appears at odds with entrepreneurship founded on individual ownership of property and resources. In the early stages, Joe and Tui Annandale encountered local difficulties-including squatters-when they bought the land to develop the resort. The usual arrangement is for overseas tourism operators to lease customary land, a process which may involve protracted and ultimately fruitless negotiations with the matai (village heads) who have traditionally used the land for other purposes. Of course, the clash between traditional land tenure systems and 'modern' capitalism is not restricted to tourist ventures-as mining operators in Papua New Guinea have discovered. But while one understands the frustrations for developers, who may find themselves embroiled in complex and interminable land disputes, we should also recognise the concerns of local people who see a possible threat to their way of life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the positive side, new tourism developments mean jobs and trading opportunities. In the building of the Sinalei Resort, the Annandales drew heavily on local labour, employing 35 people from the neighbourhood. As Mr Annandale pointed out, this was essential for a complex designed to fit in with the local environment. The Samoans have always built their own houses and only they had the required carpentry skills. The resort also employs 35 regular staff for catering, housekeeping etc. and again, the majority are local people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, there is one criticism often levelled against tourist ventures which certainly does not apply at the Sinalei Reef (or other Samoan hotels). This is that most of the food and drink consumed by visitors is imported. The Annandales make a point of purchasing their fish, meat and fruit locally, thereby ensuring that some of the financial benefits of their venture flow back to their own community: in short, a happy combination of astute public relations and good economics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with opposition leader Tupua Tamasese Efi</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Revive the agricultural base'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tupua Tamasese Efi a former Prime Minister of Western Samoa, is leader of the opposition Samoa National Development Party which won 11 of the 49 seats in the parliamentary elections held in April 1996. In this interview, he outlines his own and his party's views on some of the key political and economic issues in his country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In what ways does your party offer a different agenda from that of the governing HRPP ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think the differences are mainly of emphasis. The present government tends to focus on law-making and exploiting the country's least developed status. Our focus would be more on developing our indigenous agricultural industries. If you scrutinise the economic picture in Samoa, you will find that there has been a very substantial decline in agricultural exports in the last fifteen years. Our economy, if you can call it that, is increasingly sustained by largesse-the donations that we get from overseas. This has complicated our situation. Our relative economic independence has been sabotaged to a point where, suddenly, we are getting a proletariat. That might be unavoidable in a lot of places, but it doesn't have to happen in a small country like ours which has self-sustaining village units, and a potentially secure agricultural base supported by products like cocoa, copra and bananas. If you look at what is happening today, you see that, all of a sudden, we have a new class of under-privileged people with absolutely no income at all. And the tragedy is that it has happened without anyone really noticing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So our emphasis is to try and revive our agricultural base, and to seek out exports. In the past, our economy was sustained by cocoa and copra exports, and a lot of our food was sold to New Zealand. Now, you find that there are hardly any exports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So your focus would be more on boosting the traditional aspects of the Samoan economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Not necessarily traditional. Our party is not bound to cocoa, or copra or whatever. But we are committed to improving our agriculture. It matters little whether it is traditional or other crops. But we need to break back into the New Zealand market. This is the best place to aim for. Australia has its own tropical sector and nothing that we can produce is needed by them. New Zealand is different. One of the biggest challenges we have to overcome in getting back into that market is our fruit fly problem. It would seem sensible for us to channel substantial resources into overcoming this hurdle so that we can sell to New Zealand again. There is a tremendous potential market-and not just for copra. There are also products such as flowers, and a whole number of other possibilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Given what you have just said,what emphasis would you place on sectors like manufacturing and tourism ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think that tourism is an obvious way to go and this is where we are in agreement with the government. Of course, you will have heard of the debacle of the Air Polynesia finances. When you compare the losses that were run up with our foreign exchange reserves you get some idea of how enormous the problem was. It was a situation that went badly awry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This issue aside, we agree that we need to get into tourism-but it must be within reason. Part of the explanation for people gravitating towards tourism is that they see it as the only available avenue-or at least the most visible way of making money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another economic point I want to raise concerns debt. Loans can be a quick fix, but when your whole economy is tied to indebtedness, you are creating something that is built on sand. You end 'A potentially secure agricultural base' up acquiring more and more capital items that are totally unrelated to your present or likely future resources. This is one of the most destructive things that can happen to a society, and it is very clearly happening here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have a rich and vibrant living culture here in Western Samoa. Are you concerned that globalisation could ultimately pose a threat to this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-No, I am not worried. You have to accept it as a natural development. The things that are distinctive in our culture have to find their place in adapting to the new realities. There is no point putting your head in the sand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Turning to political aspects, you now have universal franchise, but you still have to be a matai to be eligible to stand for Parliament Does your party have any plans to change this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Some years ago, we had a constitutional convention which led to changes in the system. Attached to that was a provision requiring a further constitutional convention to be convened in 20 or 25 years (I can't remember the exact period). So we are committed to that. We have to sit down and look at the overall picture. We have gone a long way in terms of universal franchise and it is possible that we need to go even further.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But if one takes the United Kingdom as a model, I think the important lesson is that you should 'make haste slowly'. The genius of the Westminster model is that it involves careful evolution. I hope that this tradition will be followed by our country. The constitution, as it was put together some 30 or 40 years ago, has served its purpose very well but there are quite a few anomalies appearing now.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is your view about regional cooperation in the South Pacific What future do you see in working together with the other countries of the region- perhaps presenting a more united front to the outside world ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-There is a lot of sense in the SAS approach-I am referring here to the Scandinavian countries getting together to form an airline. It is sensible to take a common stand where we have a common interest. But there are obviously intricacies resulting from historical, economic and social factors. At the moment I am reading a book on lain Macleod, the British Conservative statesman. His experience in the failed attempt to form a federation in the Caribbean is very revealing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When you enter a common endeavour, there is always the pull of your own particular interests. And there can be a suspicion that the 'bigger boys' will use the others to promote their own interests. A lot of this may be perception rather than reality. Also, traditional rivalries can intrude. Sometimes you need to fall flat on your face before you Let me give you an example from the world of rugby. It took Rupert Murdoch to get Fiji, Tonga and Western Samoa to realise that our fates are intertwined. He has come in with a commercial package that has taken over the entire rugby scene in the region- with a heavy emphasis on Australia and New Zealand-and this has hit us in a big way. For example, we find ourselves being cut out of traditional rugby tours. There is no point in us trying to claim that we are self-sufficient in this area. The big lesson is that we need to cooperate a lot more with the Tongans and Fijians in order to make an impact on the wider rugby scene._ </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Western Samoa-EU cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Focus on utilities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Mylanwy van de Velde</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa's cooperation with the European Community began in 1975 with its accession to the Lom&eacute; Convention. From the start, the sector to benefit most from programmable funds (ECU 4.6 m under Lom&eacute; I and ECU 6m under Lom&eacute; II) was the energy sector, with the financing of the Samasoni Hydroelectric Scheme in the late 1970s and the Sauniatu Hydropower Scheme in the early 1980s.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In parallel, a programme of 260 microprojects was funded involving the development of poultry and pig farming, and fisheries, covering 96 villages on the main islands of Upolu and Savai'i. A further ECU 890 000 was allocated to the Western Samoa Development Bank, in the form of a credit line, to increase the Bank's lending capacity. In addition, at a time when copra exports were still considerable, the Community financed storage and handling facilities for coconut oil and copra pellets (ECU 900 000).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On top of programmable aid, Western Samoa received 12 Stabex transfers totalling ECU 9.3m for export losses on copra, wood, bananas and cocoa in the period 1975-84.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Lom&eacute; III, the development of the country's substantial hydroelectric power potential continued, and Western Samoa began to make considerable steps towards self-sufficiency in energy needs. While in 1980 some 78% of the electricity generated came from diesel plants, by 1986 this percentage had dropped to 26%. The volume of petroleum imports for electricity generation dropped to 36% in the period 1982-86. With the building of the Afulilo Hydropower Plant (Lom&eacute; III and IV), these volumes have decreased further, with positive benefits in terms of foreign exchange savings. The scheme (which was co-funded by the Asian Development Bank, the EIB, the World Bank and the Western Samoa Electric Power Corporation) involved the construction of a 10 million cubic metre reservoir, a penstock, a powerhouse, and the installation of mechanical equipment and transmission lines, and has contributed substantially to the quality of electricity supply on the island of Upolu.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p043.png"></center><br>
+ Community aid to Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Additional work has been done with Lom&eacute; IV funds to address the question of rural water supply: a water master plan and design study for a number of rural areas have been completed, and a public awareness programme on the rational use of water resources has been designed for implemention at such time as planned infrastructural work goes ahead.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, an ECU 1 m microprojects programme has been initiated with the aim of financing the renovation of infrastructure for rural communities in the fields of water supply, health, education, tourism, agriculture and fisheries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stabex payments under Lom&eacute; 111 (1985-1989) and Lom&eacute; IV (1990-1994) amounted to ECU 11.1 m and ECU 5.7m respectively. These were paid to compensate for losses in coconut oil and copra products, especially, but also for losses on exports of cocoa beans and of wood in the rough.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the above grant aid, the EIB has provided a total of some ECU 9m in risk capital in the years since 1981, the bulk of which was used in connection with the Sauniatu and Afulilo Hydropower Schemes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further total of ECU 660 896 has been allocated in emergency aid to Western Samoa, in 1983 after a serious fire on Savai'i, and in 1990 and 1991 after the disastrous cyclones Ofa and Val.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Programming of the next tranche of EC funding under the eighth EDF has still to be completed, but the indications are that prominence will be given to extending and upgrading the water supply network. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.v.d.V.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new health-centre for Tafua</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sight that greeted the people of Tafua when they emerged from shelter in 1990, following the passage of Ccyclone Ofa,was one of complete devastation. The tropical storm had been one of the worst in living memory and this village community on the island of Savai'i, together with many others in the Samoas, found themselves having to start almost from scratch. Homes had been swept away' crops destroyed and much of the essential infrastructure Iay in ruins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a testament to the resilience and determination of the people in these communities that there are few signs today of the havoc wrought by the winds just six years ago. In some places, rows of dead trees still stand in silent witness to the power of Mother Nature, although the scene is softened : by the new crops and lush vegetation growing beneath. But the villagers have rebuilt their houses and, with some help from outside, they have been able to re-establish i the essential community facilities as well. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through its micro-projects programme, the EC was able to offer a helping hand in the task of reconstruction. For the modest sum of just ECU 10 000, Tafua now has a new community health clinic adjacent to the site of the old one which was swept away by Ofa. In keeping with the rules of the scheme, the villagers were obliged to contribute 25% of the cost-which they provided in kind, in the shape of the labour for rebuilding the clinic. The Courier visited Tafua in June and was shownaround the facility by Nurse Agata Leuelu who provides primary health care for the 600 villagers. We also met local Methodist minister, the Rev. Siaosi Selesele, who explained how the people had taken shelter in the neighbouring school when the storm reached Samoa. It turned out to be the right choice as it was one of very few structures left standing in the neighbourhood. Villagers are obviously hoping that there won't be another 'Ofa' for a very long time' but if and when the next big wind does strike, the new ctinic-which has been built to withstand a lot more strain-should hopefully be able to weather the storm. In the meantime, it provides an important service in the delivery of health care to the people of the area. The European Community has also provided micro-project funding to help rebuild the health clinic at Taga on Savai'i. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dossier</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Investing in people</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Dossier coordinated by Augustine Oyowe)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Previous editions of The Courier have dealt, separately and at length, with various aspects of human resource development, especially in the context of recent dossiers on population and social development, education and training, public health, women, and poverty. Our current dossier looks at the issue from the investment perspective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To say that investing in people makes economic sense is to state the obvious. But to what extent are the implications of this statement fully understood in the developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa in these days of constantly shifting development theories?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Labour or 'human capital' has long been recognised as a key factor of economic growth. As opposed to sustainable human development, which places human beings at the centre of economic activities (the recipient of the fruits of economic progess), 'human capital' places them at the beginning of the process. The difference of approach is thus evident even though the objective is the same. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Investing in people is a concept which simultaneously combines 'human welfare' with the 'human capital' approach at the beginning of the economic development process. It encompasses nutrition, health and education, and should, under the right investment climate or conditions, enable any investor, whether State or individual, to reap an adequate return .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After three decades of considerable efforts at investment in health and education by sub-Saharan African countries, the returns in terms of standards of living, economic grovvth and rate of development have been extremely disappointing. The conclusion which can be drawn is that the conditions necessary for adequate returns on these investments have been absent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colonial legacy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sub-Saharan Africa inherited from the colonial regimes, infrastructures in health delivery and education that were not only alien to its culture and traditions, but also totally inadequate for nation building. It is a well known fact that in 1960, there were no more than 1200 university graduates in Capital redefined</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important when thinking of investnent in human resources to understand the real concept of capital. Below is an extract of a definition given by Stefan de Vylder (taken from his UNDP discussion paper: 'Sustainable Human Development and Macroeconomics strategic links and implications' . </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A child in the North is born wealthy. His or her share of the capital accumulated by earlier generations is worth a fortune. The higher wages and salaries in the North, compared with those in the South, largely reflect differences in endowment of the country, rather than of the individual. The fact that, for example, a nurse in Germany earns 30 times more than one in Bangladesh or Zambia has little to do with individual differences in training or skills; the higher salaries in the North simply reflect the higher dividend on the capital bestowed from the past. Part of this wealth or heritage is easily visible: factories, roads, schools hospitals, universities, telecommunications, and other infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, there are other, less tangible, forms of capital that constitute a crucial complement to physical and infrastructural capital; parliamentary democracy, a free press, respect for human rights' norms for social interaction, systems of rapid dissemination of new ideas, trade unions and a myriad of other large or small social organisations, a judiciary system which, by and large, defends law and justice, and other institutions. This latter form of capital may be called institutional or social capital. It is also highly unevenly distributed in the world, with large differences both between the North and the South and within individual countries of the North as well as in the South the region as a whole. Indeed, some countries had no graduates at all and in others, they could be counted on the fingers of one hand. In what was effectively a race against time, African leaders understandably responded by investing massively in human resource development. This was made possible partly by small, but steady rates of economic growth and partly by sustained foreign assistance. Between 1960 and 1980, sub-Saharan African governments consistently allocated high proportions of their annual budgets to health and education. Households and individuals made similar efforts (accounting for nearly 75% of all spending on health). They made sacrifices and gave a high premium to the education of their children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results were tangible and very significant. By the late 1980s, sub-Saharan Africa was producing over 70 000 graduates a year. Major cities had hospitals and health centres and the rural areas, clinics and dispensaries. Amid a general improvement in nutrition and health-care delivery, the incidence of infectious disease, and maternal and infant mortality were considerably reduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite these achievements, the approach to manpower building by the post-independent African leaders was, to say the least, haphazard. As a result, a number of problems, such as the appropriateness of school curricula, under staffing and the long-term budget implications of recurrent expenditures, were overlooked (although reform efforts have since been attempted in some countries with varying degrees of success).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The consequences were felt in the 1980s when Africa's economic crisis was only just beginning. Health and school infrastructures deteriorated for lack of maintenance. There were shortages of qualified teachers and teaching materials leading to falls in educational standards as well as in primary school enrolments. And health systems failed for lack of personnel and drugs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The situation has worsened as the continent's economic crisis has deepened-a crisis characterised by huge budget deficits, high inflation rates, sluggish growth rates and a heavy debt burden. Structural adjustment programmes (SAPs), introduced in response to this, have only served to undermine further the gains made in human resource development. SAPs have been aimed mainly at macroeconomic stabilisation, deregulation and privatisation of state enterprises, and the social sectors have lost out in the process. Subsidies on basic commodities, especially food, have been removed, civil servants and employees of state enterprises have been made redundant and cost-recovery has become the standard practice in medical services. These measures have all combined to produce a level of poverty never before seen in the region, a situation which has adversely affected nutritional standards, provoked malnutrition in many countries and reduced resistance generally to infectious diseases. Because of the rise in unemployment, large sections of the educated population have been rendered unproductive, a waste of several years investment by both the state and the individuals in question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appropriateness of skills</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although sub-Saharan Africa produced a large number of graduates before the economic crisis began, few had the kinds of skills needed for industry and agriculture. The evidence of this lies in the unsuccessful attempts by some governments in the late 1970s to indigenise executive positions, most of which required high levels of technological knowledge or experience. The 1980s saw a dramatic increase in the number of foreign technical assistants working on the continent and, paradoxically, in the number of qualified African professionals leaving, mainly for Western Europe, the United States and Canada.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International technical assistance to, or cooperation with, subSaharan Africa has intensified. Organisations such as the World Bank, IMF, UNDP, UNCTAD, UNESCO, European Union and Commonwealth are all involved in one form or another. The effectiveness of this assistance varies, however. This dossier features articles on the work of three of these bodies (the Commonwealth, UNDP and VNESCO). The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation was set up more than 25 years ago to mobilise Commonwealth skills to meet the needs of member states as required. The UNDP's TOKTEN programme is designed to reduce the negative impact of the brain drain by getting highly qualified developing country expatriates to contribute their skills to the development of their home countries without necessarily having to return permanently. Finally, UNESCO's university twinning programme is designed as a mechanism for the rapid transfer of technology and sharing of knowledge. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While international assistance or cooperation is indispensable, it is surely no substitute for Africa's own efforts at human resource development. Three years ago, Edward Jaycox, then World Bank Vice-President for the Africa Region, announced what appeared to be a change of policy at the annual conference of the African-American Institute in Washington DC. He said that the Bank would no longer pay for foreign technical assistants to help resolve African economic problems but would instead help African governments build their own capacity. Although the Bank has traditionally had enormous influence on development thinking and policy worldwide, the apparent policy change does not appear to have influenced other donors. Nor, indeed, is there any evidence that the Bank itself is implementing it vigorously. The number of foreign experts being sent to Africa continues to grow. There were over 100 000 in 1988.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rationality of investing in people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the negative social impact, ten years of structural adjustment have not produced the sought-after stabilisation or the economic growth that was initally anticipated. Even the World Bank and IMF, who spearheaded the structural adjustment idea, have admitted that it has flaws and the need for a new approach to sub-Saharan Africa's economic problems could hardly be more urgent. In the Dossier, Giovanni Andreas Cornia argues for a new focus for structural adjustment, based on restoring adequate levels of public spending on health, education, social welfare and water supplies, so as to enable sub-Saharan Africa to restore and develop its human resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evidence of the impact of a healthy and educated population on economic growth and development abound. Studies on the economies of the East Asian 'tigers' have all concluded that big investments in education in the late 1950s and 1960s were largely responsible for the rapid growth they have experienced in recent years. Malaysia, although a latecomer, appears to be following in the footsteps of its neighbours. After nearly two decades of investment in human resource development, and the introduction of a foreign investment policy which requires some technology transfer, the Government now predicts Malaysia will achieve 'fully developed' status by 2016-twenty years from now.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A relatively well-educated workforce and a certain amount of physical capital or natural resources are all a country needs to succeed economically. Sub-Saharan Africa has sufficient natural resources as is often pointed out. The other side of the equation-a relatively well-educated workforce-is missing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sub-Saharan Africa lags behind other regions in human resource development for a complex variety of reasons. The natural and political environment are not conducive to the delivery of social services: low population density and weak transport infrastructures make such delivery expensive and the achievement of economies of scale impossible. The region's climate favours a variety of diseases (such as malaria and sleeping sickness) and many areas have little or no access to natural water sources. Political instability and weak institutions also continue to cast a long shadow. Although these constraints are long-term, appropriate policy measures could reduce their negative impact significantly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giovanni Cornia analyses the distributive effects of appropriate health care, nutrition and education on economic growth. He suggests ways of making rational use of available resources for maximum returns and of mobilising funds through taxation, foreign aid and other sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an age of increasing globalisation, where technology is more easily transferable across borders, a healthy and educated population is essential, not only for the absorption and use of new technology but also for meaningful participation in international trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is insufficient, however, to have an educated workforce. Sub Saharan Africa must acquire the institutional and managerial capacity to make the right decisions, both in the public and private sectors. This is essential in the quest to eliminate poverty, achieve sustained and sustainable economic growth and ensure a realistic integration of the region into the global economy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A much needed new focus for SAPs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Giovanni Andrea Cornia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two decades, a clear consensus, supported by a growing amount of empirical evidence, has emerged on the growth and distributive effects of appropriate health care, nutrition and education, and on the rationality of investing in human resources to promote development in low-income economies, and in sub-Saharan Africa in particular. It is now clear that public and private rates of return on investment in primary and secondary education are substantially greater than those in most industrial sectors. Similarly, it is now well demonstrated that nutritional interventions in favour of workers at low levels of food intake has a very large impact on labour productivity. Also, provision of simple but adequate nutrition and health care at an early age has been shown to spare substantially greater health outlays over the longer term. While the number of these examples can be multiplied, the lesson is overwhelmingly clear: investing in people is a sound development policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the same two decades, a broad political consensus has also emerged on the need to establish realistic targets in these areas and mobilise adequate resources to achieve them. The latter decade, however, has also been characterised by a widespread and acute recession which has reached its lowest point in the African continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While there has been a general recognition of the link between the deterioration of the social sector and Africa's economic decline, the interpretations of the causes of this decline and how best to address them vary considerably.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1980s also witnessed the advent of structural adjustment, an approach aiming at revitalising economies affected by severe crises and which calls, amongst other things, for a reduction in public spending, including on social services. With sharp falls in revenues, it was argued, African governments could no longer afford to provide health and education free of charge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments were to encourage instead the role of the private sector (since competition between state, private and non-governmental agencies fosters efficiency and enhances quality) and make households bear a greater share of the cost of publicly provided social services (as-it was alleged-households had a strong 'willingness to pay' for better quality health care and education).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a debate characterised by an overwhelming concern for expenditure reduction, little thought was given to protecting the provision and effectiveness of basic health care and education for all. Nor was sufficient attention paid to the mobilisation of additional revenue through taxation, foreign aid or other measures Even the introduction of rationalisation measures, which would have allowed for use and preservation of limited resources, received scant attention. During this period, public policies often ignored a number of well-known public finance arguments concerning market failures, externalities, natural monopolies, etc. typical of basic health and education. It was all too often forgotten, for instance, that the market systematically undersupplies 'quasi-public goods' like education, safe water, immunisation and collective infrastructure (i.e. goods which produce benefits not only for consumers but also for society as a whole); that incomplete or non-existent markets alone are unable to provide complete insurance coverage against the risks of sickness and disability; that the free play of market forces can generate levels of poverty that are socially unacceptable, and that competition among many small providers does not allow for the realisation of the economies of scale which only the public sector can realise because of its size, administrative infrastructure and revenue raising ability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greater and better government involvement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this paper, I will attempt to point out the main distortions in the social sector in sub-Saharan Africa and the major reforms, part of an alternative policy paradigm to the standard approach focusing on large expenditure reductions. My main line of argument is for more efficient and renewed but, in most cases, greater rather than less government involvement. I do not deny the important role of communities, nongovernmental bodies and private providers of social services, but the retreat of the state, which has been underway for several years in most of Africa, is palpably wrong: it may be a good survival strategy, it is definitely not a good development strategy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any approach to revitalisation of the social sector in Africa must aim at increasing both the quality and the relevance of services to the life, health and productivity of the population; enhancing efficiency; reducing distributive biases in the use of public expenditure, and improving the flow of both public and private resources to the social sector. These sets of measures are briefly discussed here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raising relevance, reducing unit costs and enhancing quality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two basic initiatives are essential to the achievement of this goal. Firstly, it is necessary to adapt the content of services to the demands placed on the child, the adolescent and the family by the external environment. Secondly, in doing so, it is necessary to provide minimum resources, particularly recurrent inputs, for every unit of service offered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Much can be done to improve the relevance of education in Africa. A key element in this is the wider use of African languages in the educational system. Admittedly such a step would probably encounter obstacles, but the results of pilot projects in the continent and experiences in several English speaking countries have been encouraging. The use of African languages should be expanded throughout primary and at least part of secondary schooling. And the curriculum of basic education should include basic health science, agriculture, food and nutrition, basic technological science, ecology and environmental studies as well as reading, writing, arithmetic, history, geography and elementary civics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While responding more appropriately to the life and developmental needs of children and adolescents, these measures offer the potential to improve substantially the cost effectiveness of the educational system by reducing the number of drop-outs and repeaters, particularly if the measures are accompanied by school-based nutritional support programmes and by steps to ensure a steady, if basic, supply of teaching materials such as books, chalk, slates, pens, exercise books and so on. Minimum expenditures for the latter, estimated at $5-10 per child per year, have been shown to have a profound impact on the quality and attractiveness of education.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving the relevance and quality of African secondary and higher education will require an increase in the number of courses in science, engineering, agronomy, management and other fields. Given the limited success of vocational training and yet the profound need for this type of education, a more flexible approach may be appropriate. Business associations and ministries of labour, rather than ministries of education, for example, could organise the type of vocational training that responds more closely to labour market conditions. Much needs to be done to gear university research to local and national needs. Rather than maintaining the model of independent residential universities, faculties could interact more with and rely upon local institutions and non-governmental organisations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the health sector, a more vigorous approach is necessary to implement the 'Health for All' strategy. In particular, more attention must be paid to the quality of the training imparted to village health workers, the provision of minimum supplies of essential drugs, adequate supervision, the mobilisation of communities and the strengthening of family planning services in the first tier of the primary health care pyramid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greater efforts are needed to contain unit costs through the mobilisation of community resources (such as materials and time) and the introduction of 'product standards' and 'production techniques' more in line with local factor endowments. With respect to capital expenditure, one major source of potential savings is the substitution of imported materials with local ones in the construction of schools, clinics and other public health facilities. Through this approach, capital costs per student could be more than halved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In health care, savings are also possible, in some cases, in wages and other recurrent expenditures. The potential for savings through increased efficiency in the procurement, management, storage, distribution and prescription of pharmaceuticals is substantial. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And there is a need for more carefully articulated manpower policies, with recognition of the cost implications of alternative skill mixes. Many tasks carried out by senior professionals can be performed by auxiliary personnel. In this regard, there is substantial scope for the application of nominal fees as a tool to guide demand for health care and thus increase efficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Similar considerations are valid in the education sector. Despite considerable declines during the 1980s in both French-speaking and Eastern and Southern Africa, teacher salaries in the late 1980s were still considerably higher than per capita GNP in several countries. While a cutback may be possible in some countries, reductions below the 'efficiency wage' should be avoided as they affect the quality of teaching.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are, of course, other approaches to reducing unit costs such as using teachers trained on crash courses and- paid salaries lower than that of fully trained ones, multi shift education to increase teaching hours, multigrade classes to increase class sizes and the creation of regional training centres with donor support. In addition, in most of sub-Saharan Africa, all university students receive fellowships to cover living expenses while at school. In many cases these fellowships represent a substantial proportion of total unit costs at the tertiary level. They add, in effect, to the regressive nature of educational subsidies and should be suppressed for all except for those who are least able to pay.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Substantial improvements in the distribution of benefits of public expenditure could be obtained through its restructuring towards basic services which benefit the poor more than they do the rich. This would mean, typically, the reallocation of part of the expenditure on hospitals to primary health care activities and part of the expenditure on universities to primary education. It would also mean that a greater share of investments in water supply and sanitation should be assigned to rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Correcting existing misallocation, however, is not simple, as capital and labour resources are only partially mobile. This is particularly true of capital expenditure which has already been invested in physical infrastructure. Inter sect oral reallocation is easier for recurrent expenditure, particularly when budgets are expanding, and it can lead to the achievement of more efficient and distributive gains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government subsidies need to be improved through effective targeting on 'merit goods' (such as food and shelter). Targeting is distributionally and administratively more effective when it is accomplished according to some objective criteria such as geography (the poorest areas), type of commodity ( low quality foods not consumed by the rich), easily identifiable population group (like pregnant women, young children, children in elementary school in poor areas, etc.) or season. It is less effective when carried out by means-testing or by targeting individuals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decentralisation of health care and education in the African context is likely to improve the geographical distribution of services. Poor communications and transport systems, population dispersion and the fact that the supervision of personnel, resource distribution and operations is easier at lower levels of administration, are all arguments in favour of such decentralisation. Nonetheless, where it means loss of control over the implementation of national policies (in curriculum development, manpower training, drug procurement and so forth) and excessive additional financial burdens on households and communities, decentralisation is potentially damaging. This was the experience of Kenya when the purchase of drugs was decentralised at the district level. It subsequently had to reverse this policy because of the problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing the flow of resources to basic social services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the considerable scope for protecting and, in some cases, expanding the delivery of cost-effective and high-impact social services, even during periods of declining resources, there are limits to what can be achieved through the measures discussed above, particularly in countries where the share in GDP of public health and education expenditure is already low. Indeed in most African countries, the flow of resources to these sectors must be vastly increased. The options available include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Increasing the share of government expenditure on key social services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Top priority should be given to a radical restructuring of government expenditure involving the shifting of resources towards those sectors with high social rates of return. Expenditure on defence can be cut substantially, while subsidies to chronically lossmaking public and private enterprises and interest payments on debt (the relief effect on foreign-debt interest payments of current provisions is utterly inadequate) should be reduced. If realistic expenditure restructuring like that proposed here were implemented, 1015% of overall public spending in many countries could be redirected to social activities with high rates of return. One half to two-thirds of these savings could be allocated to health care, nutrition, training, education and welfare, thus raising the share of these activities to about 30-35% of total expenditure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Increasing taxation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between the late 1970s and the mid-1980s, the average tax to GDP ratio for sub-Saharan Africa fell from 18% to 16-17%. (Only recently are there signs of recovery, but these are confined to only a few countries). This resulted mainly from the recession affecting the region and from the limited priority attached to revenue collection in most adjustment programmes implemented during the first part of the 1980s. In these 'first generation' programmes, the stabilisation of deficits was achieved mainly by cutting expenditure and raising excise duties. Increases in income taxes and progressive indirect taxes were far less frequent and land and property taxes were almost never introduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While taking effect rapidly, the measures implemented led to excessive drops in public expenditure on 'quasi public goods' and have had a regressive distributive impact. It is now widely recognised that a more active tax policy is needed. Such a policy should aim at improving revenue generation and enhancing the efficiency and equity of the overall tax system. This would permit a controlled rise in specific 'socially efficient' public expenditures, particularly basic health, primary and secondary education and public infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the 1980s, a number of countries, including Burkina Faso, Kenya, Malawi and Zimbabwe, initiated efforts to reform their tax systems. While the choice of optimal tax instruments has depended on specific country conditions, a few general principles of tax reform apply to all countries. First, colonial type tax systems emphasising the taxation of exports (and to some extent, of imports) should evolve towards systems which focus on income taxes, progressive and efficient indirect taxes and increases in the prices of such public utilities as telephone and electricity which benefit mainly the wealthier sections of society. Second, purchases of goods and services consumed by the poorest should be exempted from indirect taxes. Third, efforts should not concentrate on raising marginal tax rates but rather on broadening the tax base by reducing tax evasion and tax elusion, and fourth a low, uniform and broad-based tax on wealth (such as on land or other assets) should be introduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A non-distortionary and equitably-spread increase in the tax ratio equivalent to 2-3% of GPD is technically feasible in a good number of African countries and would by itself add to the real flow of resources to health care and education by about 15%, even assuming no growth and no shift in priorities towards the social sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Introducing 'earmarked' taxes or raising local ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The flow of tax resources to the social sector could be augmented more readily if the new tax revenue thus generated, or at least part of it, were directly earmarked for specific health and education activities (for which there are guarantees that tax money is spent efficiently), or if these taxes were raised directly by district and provincial authorities, who are usually entrusted with responsibility for social services at the local level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Mobilising additional resources from households and communities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In sub-Saharan Africa, as in most other developing regions, households have long borne a substantial share of the national expenditure on health, education, water supply and so on by contributing resources (in kind, cash and time) for the construction of health and education facilities, covering direct and indirect costs (transport uniforms, fees, drugs etc.) associated with the provision of public services and making payments to private providers. Despite these already considerable contributions, user charges have been introduced or raised on a large scale in recent years in many countries to alleviate the burden on public expenditure imposed by the economic crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, while the small but significant contribution of user charges to health and education budgets should be acknowledged, the negative effects of the indiscriminate application of these charges should also be emphasised. Indeed, in many African countries the need for health care, education and other social services rarely coincides with the ability to pay. The implementation of user charges can have adverse effects in three ways. First, it may lead to a contraction in the demand for services. Second, in the health sector, it tends to discourage the use of preventive services for which potential patients may not see an immediate relevance (such as ante natal care and immunisation). Third, it may adversely affect a household's ability to meet other basic needs, such as the purchase of food, particularly if fees are charged simultaneously for health, education and other services and if the household's income declines. In addition to these problems, there is little evidence that the revenue from user charges is actually reinvested to improve the quality or expand the coverage of local services, as those who promote user charges argue. Despite recent attempts at keeping a share of the user fees at the local level (e.g. at the collecting facilities), in most cases revenue merely flows to the public treasury. Moreover, user charges usually generate a relatively small proportion of the total operating cost of the health care sector, with gross yields at around 5%. If the costs of fee collection are included, the yields are lower and, in some cases, negative.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, health care, education and the provision of water include different types of services, some clearly geared to the needs of the poor and others catering more for middle and upper-income groups. While user charges are not well suited to primary education, disease control programmes, basic curative services and communal water supply, the same cannot be said of university education and other 'income elastic' services. For the latter, cost recovery measures would be advisable, although subsidised access for the deserving poor must be assured. For the intermediate category, which includes most curative health services and secondary education, selective cost-recovery measures might be desirable, with low income individuals exempted or charged only a nominal fee.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While direct user fees (levied on patients at the moment of their treatment) are problematic from several perspectives, there are other indirect ways to mobilise resources from communities (generally before episodes of illness), such as various kinds of prepayment schemes, health insurance, lotteries, mutual funds and the sale of produce from community fields, in addition to their contributions in kind. These schemes have two main features which are attractive for health-care: they shift the moment of payment, so that individuals are not burdened with relatively more significant expenditure at the time of illness, and they spread the burden of costs (e.g. for drugs) over a larger group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Increasing the volume of international aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There has been a considerable shift in official development assistance (ODA) in favour of Africa over the past two decades. Africa's share in total ODA rose from 19.4% in 1975/6 to 25.1% in 1980/1, and to 34.2% in 1988/9. However, the share assigned to human resource development has dropped, while- debt-service obligations have often absorbed a growing share of ODA. Greater flows are therefore needed. In the late 1980s, the World Bank estimated that additional annual aid of about $1 billion was required during the 1990s to halt social retrogression and ensure reasonable progress. But this flow of aid has not materialised on any appreciable scale. Indeed the trend in the 1990s has been towards an absolute decline in aid flows. The simplest and the most cost-effective way to effect such aid transfer would be through debt relief, although some increases in ODA are needed. Improvement in the quality of aid, including substantial shifts to programme aid, greater participation in the financing of recurrent costs and more focus on primary health care and education and on rural water supply are also required.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What role for NGOs and private providers?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While private providers, including church missions, have always been important in Africa, much of the market oriented literature tends to be very optimistic about the scope for expanding private services in order to replace government ones. Although a multiplicity of providers is desirable (and frequently unavoidable), there are several reasons why such optimism should be tempered. First, private sector services in Africa are typically concentrated in urban areas, and because of their cost, cater for upper-income groups. Although non-governmental providers (especially missions) are often located in rural areas, and they generally provide valuable services, they are seldom able to guarantee extensive coverage and in some cases may duplicate government services. Second, private providers are not without costs to governments; they often receive subsidies or preferential treatment in the allocation of foreign exchange and typically offer higher salaries and better working conditions which draw manpower away from the public sector. In Zambia, for instance, a teacher in a primary school run by the Consolidated Copper Mines can earn more than a lecturer at the University of Zambia. In countries with extremely limited numbers of doctors, certified nurses, qualified teachers and so on, greater privatisation would exacerbate the 'brain drain' from the public to the private sector and the undersupply of 'quasi public goods' for the majority, leading to harmful social differentiation. Third, quality is not necessarily an important incentive in the private sector in developing countries. The view that private institutions in health care and education are more efficient tends to be based largely on analyses in developed countries. Fourth, the growing pressure for pluralism in social service provision often gives scant attention to the problems of central coordination and planning and the development of an adequate 'regulatory framework' for private sector activities. While playing an important complementary role, the private sector and, to a lesser extent, the NGO sector, are thus affected by important objective limitations. Indeed, ironically, their proper functioning and social utility depends crucially on the existence of a stronger, not weaker, state able to regulate, coordinate and ensure that basic social services are provided - possibly through a multitude of public, NGO and private providers-to all citizens of a nation. G.A.C</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Capacity building for management and development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Franklyn Lisk</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development experience of much of sub-Saharan Africa in past decades provides ample illustration of the importance of capacity building in the development process. The importance is related to the ability to manage economic and social processes, including the analysis and formulation of policy options, for attaining development objectives such as employment generation and poverty reduction. The consequences of failures in domestic economic management, compounded by the effects of a prolonged economic crisis in the region have, inter alla, contributed to high and rising levels of open unemployment and underemployment, declining per Capita incomes and real wages, and an increase in the incidence and intensity of poverty in a number of African countries. The persistence of these adverse consequences, which represent a serious threat to economic growth and sustainable development, are somehow linked-either as a cause or an effect -to weaknesses and instability in the institutional framework for management and public administration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem of weak institutional and general capacity for management in Africa today can be traced to the colonial legacy. This left many countries in the region, at the time of independence, with insufficient institutional and human capacity to cope with the transition from colony to independent sovereign state, particularly with respect to the responsibility for economic management. More specifically, this related to the unequal and disadvantageous manner of Africa's incorporation into the international economic system in the late 1950s and the early 1960s. Lack of technological know-how, inadequate infrastructure and limited investment resources compounded the immediate post-independence problem of weak institutional capacity, and left many African countries highly vulnerable to external shocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was extremely difficult for the majority of African countries to break out of the old 'protected' colonial production and trade systems and rapidly to diversify their economies in line with the requirements of participating effectively in a competitive world economy. Since independence, institutional and human capacity for management in many African countries has not grown fast enough to keep up with the requirements of changing socioeconomic circumstances at the national level and to face the challenge of increasing globalisation. Critical skill shortages in public administration and private sector management in Africa can hardly be addressed in the context of the current economic crisis. The consequences of this crisis can be seen, for example, in underfunded and poorly equipped training and management development institutions, and in low-paid and demoralised civil services. At the same time, the 'brain drain' from the continent, partly as a consequence of poor pay and career prospects, has further undermined capacity in Africa. The interaction of foreign donors and African governments has not always served the interest of capacity building. It has been admitted, even by the World Bank that 'aid has done much less than one might have hoped to reduce poverty (in Africa)'. There is now more or less a consensus in the international donor community that expatriate technical assistance does not and cannot solve all kinds of development problems in the region. Far from solving problems, the imposition of foreign technical assistance has, in some cases, become a destructive force which undermines the development of domestic capacity that is critical to solving local development problems. Where donor assistance is inappropriate in terms of project concept and design, or there is a mismatch between design and domestic implementation and management capacity, technical assistance could end up becoming part of the problem rather than the solution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conceptual issues</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before examining the requirements for institutional capacity building in developing countries, and particularly African countries, it is necessary to clarify salient issues pertaining to the concept. Broadly speaking, capacity building in a development context refers to a comprehensive process which includes the ability to identify constraints and to plan and manage development. The process usually involves the development of human resources and institutions, and a supportive policy environment. Ideally, it aims at improving on existing capabilities and resources and using them efficiently to achieve sustainable economic and social development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Narrowing the concept to focus on institution-building, the emphasis will be on the development of particular institutions, their human and material resources, their organisational management and their administrative capacities. More specifically, the aim of institutional capacity building is to improve significantly the outputs and impacts of institutions concerned with economic management, public administration (including project management), enterprise development and so on-in both the public and private sectors. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is obvious that relevant development-oriented institutions within an economy can exert a decisive influence on economic growth and employment prospects, and indeed on the attainment of sustainable economic and social development. From a macro standpoint,planning and similar development institutions are required for better management of the economy including, more crucially, the ability to mobilise, allocate and utilise human and material resources in an efficient and productive manner. At the micro level, human and institutional capacity is critical to sound project management and public administration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The framework</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The general situation in Africa today suggests that capacity building is required in relation to the following priority areas:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- good governance, to ensure stability;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-economic management, to maximise resource mobilisation and promote sustainable development;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- human resource development, to support employment creation and income generation, and reduce poverty;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- science and technology, to increase the efficiency of the population and facilitate infrastructural development;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-enterprise development, to enhance the critical role of the private sector in overall development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The degree of emphasis given to each of the above in a given context would vary according to the level and complexity of existing human and institutional capacities, the economic and financial means to support capacity, the relative roles of the public and private sectors, and the degree of involvement of civil society in the decision-making process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The policy context for institutional capacity building should be multi-sectoral and flexible, but coherent in relation to the desired objectives of development. This is to ensure that the process of capacity building is adaptable to changing circumstances-an issue that is particularly relevant in the context of countries undertaking structural adjustment and economic reform programmes when there is a need effectively to nurture and utilise local skills and to mobilise investment resources efficiently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the light of the development challenge facing African countries, the process of capacity building in the region requires, above all, appropriate and adequate human and institutional capabilities to plan and manage economic and social development processes. These capabilities should include the means of assessing the achievements and impact of capacity building on poverty reduction, employment creation, etc. Existing public sector institutions for development planning and management could provide the operational framework for national capacity building, but the process should also include the participation of diverse social forces, the private sector and non-governmental institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regarding the role of external donors and technical assistance agencies, the approach should be based on the concept of 'partners in development', which implies consultation and dialogue between donor and recipient on all aspects of project planning, design and implementation- with project 'ownership' resting with national authorities. Technical assistance from foreign donors should therefore go mainly towards developing the necessary domestic capacity, rather than contributing to the undermining of existing or potential capacity. Furthermore, assistance provided by external donors should be directed towards the building of capacity for promoting regional economic cooperation and integration through support for the development of viable African regional and sub-regional development organisations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Support initiatives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The issue of domestic capacity building in Africa has more recently been the focus of attention by the international community as a whole. Indeed, the former World Bank vice-president for Africa, Edward Jaycox, has described 'capacity building' es the 'missing link in African development' which is 'critical to the development effort (of the region) and the chances of success'. UN agencies, spearheaded by the UNDP, have been active in promoting capacity building as a major requirement for attaining sustainable development. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1991, the UNDP Governing Council took a decision which resulted in the development of guidelines covering assistance to governments in the formulation and implementation of national capacity building strategies relating to all stages of the project cycle in the developing countries. The decision coincided with the introduction of the 'programme approach' by the UNDP which emphasised the centrality of national development programmes as the hub for the integration of UN technical assistance activities with national efforts. Emphasis on the use of national skills in the development process was consolidated within the general operational framework for 'national execution', which implied that overall responsibility for management of UN operational activities and accountability remained with the government and other national institutions and beneficiaries who 'owned' these activities. Under these new arrangements, a high priority was thus placed on the strengthening and sustaining of development management and administrative capacities on a long-term basis as an integral part of UNDP technical assistance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank's interest in capacity building in Africa has been more closely linked to the need for administrative and technical capacity at the national level to carry out policy analysis and economic management in the context of on-going structural adjustment and economic reform programmes. In a trailblazing address to the African American Institute Conference in 1993, Mr Jaycox came out strongly in favour of a new approach to lending to African countries which gave top priority to the development of critical human and institutional capacity. He admitted that the Bank's $4 billion a year lending programme in sub-Saharan Africa had not had the desired impact on development in the region because not enough attention had been paid to national capacity in the past. He went on to criticise the international donor community and financial institutions, including the World Bank itself, for designing and carrying out technical assistance activities which not only fail to solve problems but end up undermining the development of capacity in Africa. Mr Jaycox accordingly pledged to give direct support to capacity building in the Bank's lending programmes, mainly through human resource development and the creation of a 'demand for professionalism in Africa.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNDP, the African Development Bank and the World Bank, collaborated in the early 1990s to set up the 'African Capacity Building Foundation' (ACBF), based in Harare, Zimbabwe, with initial seed money of about $30 million and another $70 million attracted from bilateral donors and African governments themselves. The fund is to be used by the Foundation to support capacity building in Africa through training and institution building. Particular attention will be paid to the rehabilitation and strengthening of selected research and training institutions to meet the challenge of indigenous capacity building. Another initiative set up with foreign donors and African support, the Africa Research Consortium in Nairobi, is a good example of collaboration at regional level that is contributing to capacity building in the critical area of economic policy analysis and management. Similarly, the African Development Bank helped establish the African Business Round table which promotes entrepreneurship and enterprise development based on African ownership and control.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Role of the ILO</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For well over three decades the ILO, as part of its technical cooperation programme in Africa, has been involved in a wide range of management development, productivity and institution building initiatives at both national and regional levels. This is consistent with the need to strengthen African training institutions to play a crucial role in providing development managers with the necessary skills to analyse and formulate policy options and manage public and private enterprises efficiently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most successful initiatives undertaken by the ILO, in collaboration with the UNDP and the Economic Development Institute (EDI) of the World Bank, is the UNEDIL programme for strengthening management training in Africa. Since its inception in 1987, the UNEDIL programme has proven to be a worthwhile initiative in institutional capacity building in the management field. Support for the programme has also come from national and regional management development institutes (MDIs) in Africa, regional and sub-regional organisations such as SADC and the Commonwealth Secretariat, and major bilateral donors such as USAID, CIDA, NORAD, the Netherlands and France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from aiming at strengthening institutional capacity, the UNEDIL programme has been instrumental in fostering networking among African development institutes and promoting professional contacts and the exchange of experience. One outcome of the programme has been the revival of three subregional MDI associations which enjoy the direct support of UNEDIL and serve as focal points for UNEDIL's subregional networking arrangements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Networking on a subregional basis has made it possible to optimise the use of scarce resources and talents, and this has helped to increase managerial capacity in the region as a whole. Collaboration has also permitted an exchange of experience among African institutions, and has brought together expertise both from within Africa and from outside to assist in the development of managerial capacity across the continent. This fits in with the goals of technical cooperation in general, and of South-South cooperation in particular. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.L. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The role of international academic cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing demands and diminishing resources in higher education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Professor Dumitru Chitoran</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As we approach the end of the millennium, higher education world-wide finds itself in a paradoxical situation. On the one hand, it is witnessing unprecedented growth. Enrolments are on the increase and so are the expectations placed on it by society. The correlation between investment in higher education and research, and the level of social, economic and cultural development of nations is well-established and is gaining increasing ground at a time when all development has become knowledge-intensive. On the other hand, higher education is in a state of crisis in practically all countries of the world, under the pressure of serious financial constraints. It has to compete for public funds with many other sectors and very often it is among the first to undergo severe cuts. These cuts have reached a dramatic threshold in the developing countries. As a result, the gap between the developing and the developed countries with regard to higher learning and research is wider than ever and it continues to grow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inter-university cooperation has emerged as a major tool for the support of higher education in the developing countries and as a flexible mechanism for the rapid transfer and sharing of knowledge, channelled via university links and exchanges. As emphasised in the Policy Paper for Change and Development in Higher Education issued by UNESCO in 1995, 'the most pressing need for international cooperation in higher education is to reverse the process of decline of institutions in the developing countries, particularly in the least developed.' The internationalisation of higher education has advanced steadily, reinforced by current processes of economic and political integration and facilitated by the steady advances in information and communication technologies. But, as indicated in the UNESCO World Education Report (1993), it is increasingly subject to the competitive laws of the market. Universities have been urged to develop an entrepreneurial, commercial attitude and to regard international cooperation mainly as a source of additional income. Fees for foreign students have risen considerably in many countries. As a result, academic mobility is becoming more North-North and less South-North or South-South. The benefits of study abroad, of exchanges, networking and access to data are recognised, but the costs involved render them increasingly a privilege, restricted to those who can afford it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An innovative programme</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO's response to these trends was the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme, launched in 1991. While serving as an instrument to foster overall inter-university cooperation, it was aimed at giving a clear direction and goal, namely to support higher education in the developing countries. It was meant to mark a return to the spirit of international academic solidarity, through twinning, networking and other linking arrangements among universities. The programme was also designed as an innovative form for the rapid transfer of knowledge, and for institutional development in higher education, including the establishment of transnational centres for advanced studies and research, as a means of redressing the widening knowledge gap between industrially developed and developing countries. One other aim of the Programme was to alleviate the negative effects of the brain drain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme has seen steady and dynamic development from the very beginning, and has emerged as the major thrust of UNESCO's action in the field of higher education. The favoured institutional framework for carrying out activities is a UNESCO Chair. The programme's activities are extremely diverse. They include the appointment of visiting professors, provision of scholarships and fellowships, facilitating of staff and student exchanges and undertaking of joint research. The 'chairs' are typical of basic units of research and training, with a strong international dimension, since either the chairholder, or some of the professors or researchers associated with its programme come from abroad. Other projects involve complex inter university networks, varying in size from three to more than 50 institutions. Within networks, certain institutions serve as focal points, responsible for initiating activities and securing broad participation in their execution. Also included are cooperation programmes established by UNESCO with major university associations and networks in order to carry out UNITWIN-related activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, there are 163 established UNESCO Chairs (a further 84 are under consideration) and 34 largescale networks (18 more are being developed). A total of over 750 teachers, researchers and other support staff are involved in their activities. It is estimated that 350 courses (mainly at the graduate level), attended by more than 7500 students, were organised by the established UNESCO Chairs during the 1992-1996 period. Also, 120 seminars, training workshops, symposia and colloquia were staged over the same period, attended by more than 6000 participants. Some 580 academics from developing countries spent short periods of time at partner universities in the developed countries to upgrade their training. In addition, 355 scholarships have been granted to students and young academics from developing nations within the framework of the Programme. Research has been encouraged through 240 projects (mainly joint ones) resulting, according to progress reports received so far, in the publication of 55 volumes, some 100 published articles and over 150 monographs and progress reports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ACPs in the programme</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A large number of these projects (UNESCO Chairs and networks) concern ACP countries. Africa has been given top priority. Over 30 of the established Chairs are located there and 18 more are under consideration for subSaharan Africa, in order to reinforce the contribution of the programme to the development of higher education in this region. In addition, certain projects located at institutions in Europe and North America carry on activities which are designed to support African universities. A few examples illustrate this. Starting from its bilateral links with several African universities, the University of Utrecht proposed developing these into a broader, multilateral project under the umbrella of UNITWIN. For this purpose, it joined forces with three other European institutions: the University of Lund in Sweden, the Ruhr University in Bochum, Germany and the University of Porto in Portugal. The result was the establishment of the Utrecht/Southern Africa/UNITWIN (USU) network. It includes, at its southern pole, the universities of Harare, Maputo, Namibia, and Western Cape, where UNESCO Chairs have been established in different fields. The aim is to develop each of them into (sub)regional centres of advanced study and research. This is well under way in the case of the UNESCO Chair in Mathematics and Science Education at Western Cape University in South Africa. A first step was to link its activities to those of the MESA (Mathematics Education in South Africa) project, a cooperation project between the Utrecht-Freundenthal Institute for Mathematics Education and the University of the Western Cape. A school for Science and Maths Education is to be established at the University of Western Cape.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another large scale project is the Network of African Teacher Training Institutions, built around a UNESCO Chair at the Ecole Normale Superieure in Dakar. This is designed to serve as a regional centre for postgraduate training and research in the field of education. After several years preparation, activities were launched in 1995. The strength of networking is illustrated by a number of other linking arrangements in support of African higher education institutions. These include the network initiated by the NATURA Group of European universities in the field of agriculture, the ORBICOM Network in the field of Communication, which is a global network but pays particular attention to the needs of African universities, and the UNESCO/John Hopkins University Networking and Partnership in Adolescent Youth Health and Development. The last-mentioned focuses on HlV/AIDS-related research, and includes institutions such as Addis Ababa and Makerere Universities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agreement signed by UNESCO with the Association of African Universities (AAU) within the framework of UNITWIN provides for support of the latter's staff development and management programme. A UNESCO Chair in Educational Management and Administration is to be established. It will function on a rotating basis at several universities in South Africa, Botswana and Malawi. There are also a number of 'tailor-made' chairs which respond to more specific needs of institutions, notably to develop training and research capabilities in areas such as human rights, democray and peace (at the Universities of Namibia, Addis Ababa and Fianarantsoa in Madagascar), or in the field of Water Resources and Water Culture (at the Universities of Malawi and Omdurman in Sudan). In the latter field, an interesting example is the UNESCO Chair established at the University of Nice, which, although located in France, carries out its activities in Mauritania and has produced the most comprehensive study so far on water resource management in that country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The programme has also made a good start in the Pacific and the Caribbean, even if achievements there are on a more modest scale. There are already 22 established chairs with 14 more under consideration. They cover a wide spectrum of priority fields, including the sustainable use of rain forest resources at the University of Guyana, higher education management and information technology at the University of Havana in Cuba, educational sciences in Fiji, and the use of drugs in Chulalongkorn University in Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO works closely with the University of the South Pacific and the University of the West Indies, with which it has established four UNESCO Chairs. Moreover, it has signed a cooperation agreement, in the framework of UNITWIN, with the Commonwealth Secretariat and the Association of Commonwealth Universities for activities in both regions. There is great potential for the further development of the Chairs programme in the Pacific and Caribbean, given the existence of the two regional universities mentioned above and the strong interest of universities in a number of developed countries (such as Australia, Canada, Japan and Spain) in supporting the programme. It appears to be particularly well suited for the systems of higher education in the two regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Funding</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cost of international cooperation in higher education has risen steadily and this is currently one of the major obstacles preventing the full use of the potential of academic links. New information and communication technologies help reduce costs, but universities in the least-developed countries would first need considerable investment in order to procure and maintain the necessary equipment. That is why UNESCO has based the Chairs programme on funding principles aimed at lowering costs and sharing them in a genuine spirit of academic solidarity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the outset, UNESCO made it very clear that, since it was not a funding agency, it could not, by itself, assume the financial burden of such an ambitious programme, involving several hundred institutions and thousands of university teachers, researchers and students. However, it decided to make a commitment by providing some initial funds. Rough estimates indicate that, over the 1992-1995 period, UNESCO has contributed some $2.5 million (from its Regular and Participation Programmes, Fellowship Bank and Funds-in-Trust) to the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme. At the same time, it has pressed for increased international development aid for higher education, particularly from the developed countries, and from international organisations, including the UN specialised agencies. A strong case is made for the benefit of pooling resources and for involving directly the higher education institutions themselves </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNITWIN-based projects, including UNESCO Chairs, are usually initiated through the direct contributions of UNESCO (the range is generally between $15 000 and $25 000 per individual project). This is meant to help prepare and launch projects and to secure further funding from other sources. The institutions themselves must include allocations for the respective projects in their own budgets and request their appropriate national authorities to make contributions. This applies equally to universities in the developing countries, however poor their resources may be. It serves to indicate that the project in question is indeed seen as a priority by them and by their national authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experience of the UNITWIN funding formula so far gives cause for cautious optimism. Many projects have been able to secure funds by having recourse to the various sources mentioned above. Thus, the Utrecht/ Southern Africa/UNITWIN Project received a first UNESCO allocation of $50 000 in 1993, in order to launch its activities. The fact that it concerned a large-scale project (a network of eight universities, with four chairs established at four African universities and one at the University of Utrecht) explains the larger UNESCO allocation. This was followed by a second allocation of $70 000 in 1994 for the actual implementation of activities in Africa. The UNESCO seed money led to additional funding-$600 000 annually, for the 1992-1995 period, from various Dutch donors (mainly the Ministry of Development Cooperation, through NUFFIC) and from the European Union, and $450 000 from the University of Utrecht budget, including the total cost for the functioning of the UNESCO Chair on African Studies established at that university. The other three European universities participating in the network (Bochum, Lund and Porto) have also made contributions and are now looking for donor funding in their countries. It is important to mention that the four African universities belonging to the network have also allocated funds from their own budgets to the UNITWIN projects and are actively seeking additional resources from aid and development programmes established for their countries by various donor agencies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It can be fairly argued that in terms of cost-effectiveness, efficiency and the ability to generate funding from various sources, UNITWIN compares favourably with existing cooperation schemes in higher education and research. But it is still too early to conclude that the Chairs Programme can continue and develop further on the basis of the present funding arrangements. The needs are arguably too big for the institutions and individuals involved, who may find themselves in a perpetual search for funds. An evaluation of the programme is under way and this will be submitted to the Member States for their decision. UNESCO is hoping that its efforts to revive academic solidarity, and its campaign in favour of higher education in the developing countries will receive the support of the international community. More than ever before, these countries need to develop their capacity for advanced training and research in order to achieve self sustainable development. The academic community has already indicated its willingness to join forces with UNESCO in this undertaking. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Brain drain : Colossal loss of investments for developing countries</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a highly qualified professional chooses to leave his own country for another, he does so for one or several legitimate political or economic reasons: peace and security for himself and his family, job satisfaction, better pay and conditions. a higher standard of living, etc. Throughout history, countries and centres of academic excellence which offer these attractions have received the largest numbers of professional migrants and these have, in turn, made substantial contributions, not only to the economic growth of their host countries, but also to the scientific and technological advancement of humanity. The wave of German scientists who moved to the United States after the Second World war, and their discoveries and inventions, come readily to mind. On a global level, therefore, the free movement and interaction of highly skilled people is a positive thing. But the costs to the home countries of losing their professionals is incalculable-in terms of both development opportunities and loss of investment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whereas Western Europe was the main loser, especially to the United States, up until the 1960s, the developing countries have emerged in recent years as the biggest suppliers of qualified professionals to the industrialised world as a whole. Today there are more than a million and a half skilled expatriates from the developing countries settled in Western Europe, the USA, Japan and Canada. The USA's educational system and its research institutions are heavily dependent on them. These migrant professionals contribute in no small way to increasing the disparities between the world's rich and poor nations. And it is the developing countries that need them most.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa, which has serious shortages of manpower, has been worst hit. It is said to have lost 60 000 professionals (doctors, university lecturers, engineers, surveyors, etc) between 1985 and 1990 and to have been losing an average of 20 000 annually ever since.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are more than 21 000 Nigerian doctors practising in the United States alone. Meanwhile, Nigeria's own health system suffers a cruel lack of medical practitioners. 60% of all Ghanaian doctors trained locally in the 1980s have left the country, according to the UNDP's 1992 Human Development Report, while, in Sudan, 17% of doctors and dentists, 20% of university lecturers, 30% of engineers and 45% of surveyors have gone to work abroad.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it is difficult to calculate the cost of an expatriate professional in terms of the nutrition, health care and education provided by households and the State, it is clear developing countries are losing colossal amounts of investment annually to the developed countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The US Congressional Research Service, for example, computed in 197172 that the USA gained $20 000 annually on each skilled migrant from the developing countries. If this rather conservative amount is extrapolated for Africa, then the continent lost more than $1.2 billion of investment between 1985 and 1990 on the 60 000 or so African professionals who emigrated during that period. Much closer perhaps to the truth today would be the estimate made by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), using 1979 prices, which put a cash value of $184 000 on each African professional migrant (and this only for those between the ages of 25 and 35).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, expatriate remittances, particularly from skilled workers who earn higher salaries than the average migrant, constitute an important source of funds for development in their home countries. Throughout Africa, households are being maintained by remittances from relatives working abroad. Also, fine buildings are being put up and small-scale projects are financed in villages and cities across the continent with funds sent from overseas. But taken together, these will never be large enough to compensate Africa for the loss of investment suffered as a result of the 'brain drain'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serious flaw in international cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The migration of highly qualified professionals from the developing countries is an extremely complex problem which presents the international community with a major dilemma. First, the 'brain drain' cannot be stopped by force nor can it be legislated against. It is linked to fundamental human rights- the right of individuals to move from one country to another, although the exercise of that right is governed by the immigration policies of individual countries. Second, it is fundamentally a national problem which can only be resolved at the national level by providing enough incentives for qualified nationals to remain at home. Third, some industrialised countries like the USA and Canada, have historically operated liberal immigration policies. Even European states, whose immigration policies tend to be more restrictive, have a good number of third world professionals, but there are over a million in the USA and Canada. It is arguable whether, under the circumstances, the liberalisation of the international labour market under the World Trade Organisation, as is being suggested (even by some developing countries), will actually be in Africa's interests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The reasons for Africa's brain drain problem are legion and easily identifiable, being both structural and economic. The most often cited cause is the continent's school curricula which many see as still largely modelled on the systems of the former colonial masters. This, it is argued, has led to the production of graduates in disciplines that have little or no relevance to the socio-cultural and economic milieux of the continent. This is a highly debatable assertion, given the large numbers of the technical assistants currently working in Africa who are products of the educational systems of the former colonial powers-at least some of whom are having a positive impact on the continent's development. This, however, must not distract from the fact that African higher schools systems are illequipped to produce the right skills for Africa's development needs. Because of shortages of both science equipment and teachers, the system instructs the vast majority of pupils in arts rather than in science and technology-and it is the latter which hold the key to economic growth and development. Thus, there is overproduction of graduates in areas where there are few employment opportunities. This results in high levels of migration, even, paradoxically among the few trained scientists because of the absence of an environment conducive to full professional expression and satisfaction. It is not uncommon for things as simple as electricity and water supply to provide reasons for emigration. Examples abound of frustrated African scientists who have had their experimental work of several years destroyed overnight through power failures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Powerful factors in the brain drain include Africa's poor rates of economic growth over the past 30 years (worsened by structural adjustment measures which have resulted in dramatic falls in living standards) and political instability (disturbances in Nigeria and Zaire, civil war in Liberia, Sierra Leone and Somalia etc). Thousands of qualified professionals have been forced unwillingly into exile, and the majority of those left behind, in these times of serious economic crisis, are engaged in unskilled pursuits-in petty trading and taxi driving-far removed from their professional training. The loss of investment associated with this situation cannot be underestimated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sub-Saharan Africa is in the paradoxical situation today of having large numbers of graduates in various disciplines -from medicine and engineering to architecture and accountancy-who have either emigrated or are simply unemployed, while it hosts a large army of foreign technical assistants. Indeed, Africa receives more advice per capita than any other continent. In 1988, there were more than 80 000 technical assistants, and today the figure is well over 100 000. These experts are believed to cost donors a total of $4bn annually to maintain, a figure which represents nearly 35% of Africa's total official development aid. This situation reveals a serious flaw in the operation of international development cooperation. Would it not be more efficient and cost effective to employ qualified African expatriates in the place of many of these foreign technical experts. The former, after all, have both linguistic and cultural links with the continent. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has a programme in this area which points to a possible way forward. The article on that programme, TOKTEN, follows. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Brain gain' : A cost - effective UNDP programme</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the scale of the brain drain problem facing the developing countries, the UNDP's Transfer of Knowledge Through Expatriate Nationals (TOKTEN) project may not amount to much, but it has proved, in its 19 years of existence, to be a cost-effective way of getting highly qualified expatriates from the developing countries to contribute to the development of their countries of origin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It all started in Turkey in 1977 by pure accident. A Turkish mineral expert in Alberta, Canada, was asked by a compatriot if he would be kind enough to come over to Turkey and explain his innovative coal cleaning process to the staff and students of his old university in Ankara-the Middle East Technical University. He expressed his interest in the project. Soon afterwards he was contacted by the UNDP which offered to fund part of his trip to Ankara. The expert spent one month in Turkey giving a series of seminars, not only at the Middle East Technical University, but also at the Istanbul and Dokuz Eylul Universities. During these lectures, he made recommendations on resolving Turkey's specific coal utilisation problems. His impact was immense and such that the UNDP was inspired to set up the TOKTEN project along similar lines to help developing countries gain from the knowledge of their expatriate professionals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The system is simple. Member States of the United Nations can apply to join the project. The latter is administered in each country by a National Working Commitee (NWC) which is made up of representatives from the government, local organisations, the private sector and the UNDP. Institutions of that country (government ministries and agencies, private and public sector enterprises, universities, research and development institutions, hospitals, etc) can apply for assistance in a variety of areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Applications are processed by the NWC and recruitment of experts is usually in one or more of the following ways:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> through consultants with lists of experts recognised by the Government as having extensive contacts within their expatriate communities;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> through embassies and missions, alumni associations and research institutions;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> through prominent members of the country's expatriate community who identify and alert other high level expatriates of the opportunities to return home and serve their countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the Working Committee chooses a consultant, an offer of assignment is made. The beneficiary organisation and the consultant will then determine the timing of the mission and inform the UNDP.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOKTEN assignments last between one and three months depending on the ability of the consultant and the needs of the beneficiary'. They are not meant to be highly remunerative. Consultants are only entitled to round trip economy fare tickets (by the most direct route) and a daily subsistence allowance at the prevailing UN rate. The costs are paid out of the beneficiary country's 'Indicative Planning Figure'(IPF) which is the amount of assistance the UNDP makes available to a developing country over a five-year programming cycle. Health insurance cover and accommodation is not provided. Usually these are the responsibilities of the beneficiary government or organisation. The salaries of the consultants during their absence are paid by their affiliated employers whose agreement is often necessary for the projects to go ahead.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOKTEN consultants are thus not motivated by money but by a genuine desire (with a modicum of patriotism) to contribute to the development of their countries of origin to which they retain strong cultural and linguistic ties. And their impact on the ground is usually immediate and measurable. Pressures are not put on volunteers to return permanently to their countries, although many have chosen to do so since the programme began in 1977.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The system is not only low-cost and cost-effective. It covers a great variety of specialised fields and enables programmes to be implemented with speed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conditions for success</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A UNDP assessment of the programme in 1987, ten years after it began, concluded that regular monitoring of its operation had enabled information garnered to be applied to increase its effectiveness. It had been found, for example, that short-term expatriate consultancies were especially beneficial when the problem tackled was specific and the consultant selected was of international standing, when both the requesting organisation and the expatriate were well prepared in advance, and when the initial mission was followed up by a series of measures, often including a return visit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 1992, 35 countries were participating in the programme and over 3800 consultancies had been run. Since then, the number of countries has increased dramatically to 51 and con</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">sultancies to 5000. In 1994 and 1995 alone, 28 countries reported over 700 consultancies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has also become clear that, whereas the main recipient institutions have been government agencies, science and technology research institutions, universities and organisations, the private sector is increasingly showing interest in the programme. The number of female specialists is also increasing: in 1991, 40 consultants were women and last year this figure rose to over 100.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, the ACP countries participating in the programme are; Benin, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Dominica, Ethiopia, Fiji, Guinea, Guyana, Haiti, Liberia, Nigeria, Sao Tome &amp; Principe, Sierra Leone, St Lucia, Trinidad &amp; Tobago and Uganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Success stories include a highly skilled Guyanese medical practitioner in the United States who returned home after 17 years to assume the post of minister of health. He had been sent to oversee the introduction of certain aspects of health care such as preventive medicine (immunisation, general child care and nutrition), treatment of trauma (victims of accidents and violence etc) and the establishment and management of the physical facilities for emergency patients. During his stint, his recommendation on the upgrading of the emergency room facilities was rapidly implemented and this contributed significantly to improving patient care. Another story involved a Guinean banker who, after a consultancy stint in Guinea, abandoned a lucrative job in France to return home permanently to work at the Central Bank of Guinea, helping to set up a new loan system for commercial imprt and export businesses. Guinea, in fact, has been one of the greatest beneficiaries of the TOKTEN programme with numerous consultancies involving the University of Conakry, covering more than 20 disciplines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For very small sums the programme is ensuring that developing countries which have invested enormously in the education of their expatriate nationals have a return, at least, in the form of the knowledge they oquired.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Mobilising Commonwealth skills for Commonwealth development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The role of the Commonwealth in the economic and social progress of its member states is neither widely known nor widely publicised. Yet for over 25 years, the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation (CFTC) has made significant contributions to the efforts of its developing member countries to accelerate the pace of their economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The recognition by the Commonwealth that people are its greatest resource forms the basis of its approach to development assistance-providing, in the short term, specialist technical skills which are either not available or are in short supply to governments to enable them to fill key positions in areas as diverse as export and industrial promotion, high-level economic and legal services etc, and in the longer term, a wide range of training programmes in areas that are crucial for economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation is funded by voluntary financial contributions from member governments which, as has just been mentioned, can also draw on it according to their needs and priorities. As a pioneer of technical cooperation between developing countries, the Fund recruits its experts from these countries and encourages South/South cooperation. It is thus not uncommon to see West Africans serving, on short-term contracts, as legal officers in remote Pacifc island states or Sri Lankans or Indians advising on new agricultural techniques in Africa. The Fund is administered by four separate divisions within the Commonwealth Secretariat: the management and training division; the general technical assistance division; the export and industrial development division, and the economic and legal advisory services division. In 1994-95 the CFTC's financial resources stood at around f23.6 million (ECU 30m).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human resource development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly one-third of the CFTC's budget is spent on human resource development, helping enhance people's skills through a mix of training workshops, study visits and individual attachments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some 4000 training fellowships were awarded in 1993-95 to enhance technical skills. These were given to middle and senior professional, technical and administrative managers to study at some of the Commonwealth's best institutions or to take up work attachments (63% of training takes place in less-developed countries).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Fund also enables universities and other institutions to become centres of excellence and upgrade the tuition they offer by appointing academic and technical specialists. In 1993-95, for example, it helped five universities in Africa and the Caribbean to run applied Masters courses through collaboration with other Commonwealth universities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the CFTC is usually able to meet only 60% of the requests it receives for specialised training, its programmes are held on a regional and pan-Commonwealth basis to maximise impact, especially in topics such as administrative reform, financial management and strategic planning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Fund's training priorities include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- first and foremost, identifying needs (consultants are sent to countries to examine their development plans and help them to prioritise training needs).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- providing education and training in key areas that reflect CFTC concerns such as well-managed economic and financial reform by government, sustainable development, participation of women and application of technology.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- ensuring an integrated package of consultancy, advice and training to help managers in government, and public and private sector enterprises to coordinate and manage reforms and restructuring.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- organising policy workshops and seminars that bring together senior government officials, executives and academics from Commonwealth countries to pool experiences, learn examples of best practice, discuss problems and reflect on emerging issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- giving support to institutions to offer new and specialised education and training programmes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- providing technical and vocational training under the Commonwealth Industrial Training and Experience Programme (between 1993 and 1995, workshops were held in hospital equipment repairs, railway repairs and maintenance and computer-assisted manufacturing).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- providing training in information systems, new technologies and environmental issues (governments are helped to develop management information systems and apply information technology). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-setting up programmes for women with a particular focus on entrepreneurs and community managers (among other initiatives, the CFTC is helping three African universities develop specialised programmes in entrepreneurship for women in non-traditional sectors).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-coordinating wider linkages among professional networks to facilitate exchanges of information and examples of best practice (the CFTC recently helped to set up the Commonwealth Association for Public Administration and Management to assist in improving public service performance and in raising ethical standards).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Expertise on tap</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shortage of skills is one of the biggest stumbling-blocks facing countries trying to raise the living standards of their people. Providing experts accounts for about one-third of the CFTC's budget.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because its assistance is relatively small and carefully targeted, it avoids the potential waste associated with larger scale projects and poor technical planning. In 1993-95, the cost both of a typical long-term expert and an average project was around £50 000 (ECU 62 000) a year. Experts can be in place within three or four weeks of project approval.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the same period, over 200 long- and short-term experts were provided to 43 developing Commonwealth countries, six dependent territories and 18 regional organisations. The expertise requested is extremely diverse, from hydrography and agroforestry to tourism, statistics, legal affairs, health, social planning and computer science.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assignments for short-term experts can range from a few days to six months. Their role is advisory, helping governments to introduce new systems or technologies. Long-term experts stay usually from six months to two years; others may stay up to four years. Experts assist in the development and implementation of policies or in the provision of managerial skills and the training of counterpart staff to take over in due course. Some long-term experts are trainers in specialist fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CFTC makes every effort to appoint women experts. In 1993-95, they made up 13% of experts that were sent to the field. These included a consultant anaesthetist in Ghana, an agricultural economist in Mozambique, an information specialist in Barbados, a fisheries development officer in Papua New Guinea and an environmental lawyer in Seychelles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A scheme to allow suitably qualified and experienced people to volunteer as short-term experts for a maximum of three months was launched in mid-1995. The scheme draws on experts from the Commonwealth who are willing to give their services on a voluntary basis to developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entrepreneurs come first</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In its help to small businesses, the CFTC focuses on those who manage the businesses and identify new entrepreneurial talent. Most assistance is given to small states, especially in the Pacific. The programme has three phases: the first relates to 'surveys of opportunity' which is aimed at identifying suitable entrepreneurs, investment opportunities and potential for expansion as well as specific problems. Next comes 'workshops on entrepreneurship development' during which business owners and operators are helped to think creatively, to become more aware of opportunities that are available and to act strategically when planning expansion. And the last are what we call 'business clinics' in which one-to-one counselling is provided to an entrepreneur at his or her business. This personal support has proved very successful in helping individual entrepreneurs to become more efficient and competitive and, by implication, adapt to changing world economic conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing exports</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CFTC has pioneered the use of Contact-Promotion programmes and 'Buyer-Seller Meets' forums to help small exporters. These forums allow company representatives, often from small Commonwealth countries, to display their wares and meet prospective buyers from other countries. CFTC consultants plan these activities well ahead, short listing producers that are likely to succeed, identifying suitable foreign markets and advising on redesigning of products. Sometimes exporters and factory staff also receive training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CFTC funds a special 'export development programme' for women entrepreneurs. This includes detailed country studies of women engaged in exporting as well as sales promotions abroad. Studies of this type have recently been conducted in Cyprus, Sri Lanka and Zambia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are helped, under the programme, to adapt their handicrafts for export, improve their manufacturing techniques and undertake sales missions abroad. Training is also given in export marketing, product development, costing and pricing. If necessary, changes to government policy are recommended. In 1994, the assistance given to Ghanaian women to develop markets for their basket ware and handicrafts is estimated to have helped generate sales worth US$3.1 million (ECU 2.4m). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">EU's investments in education and training in the ACP states</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Digby Swift</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community's investments in human resource development-health, nutrition and education-in ACP states have regularly been covered in the pages of this magazine whether in the context of dosiers or of country resorts. Here we present a brief description of how the EU's policy in education and training evolved under the Yaounde and Lom&eacute; Convemntions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Educating all the people. This is not just a slogan. In a poor, underdeveloped country, there may be some short-term gains from supplying high quality education and training to an elite few. But, as the 'Asian Miracle' has proved, major long-term gains in development and wealth are possible only if the entire population possesses a reasonable level of education.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Now for the problem. For many countries, notably those of sub-Saharan Africa, a large proportion of school age children receive no education at all. Of those who do attend school, many receive little benefit from their education because of the very low quality of provision. Only a small minority reach secondary education. And yet a higher proportion than ever of national budgets is now going to the education sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem is urgent because of the time it will take to resolve. Even if we could wave a magic wand to provide all children with a good primary education, it would take a decade to see the benefits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How is European aid helping to tackle this problem? What have been the guiding principles of European aid to education in the past? And why is the problem still acute in, for example, subSaharan Africa, despite decades of investment in aid to education ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid mirrors developments</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid to education has mirrored developments in the education sectors of the countries concerned. For example, the low-income countries of Africa, which account for 73% of Africa's population, have seen a rapid expansion in their education systems followed by a collapse of funding. This has resulted in a serious decline in standards of provision. European aid, which began by providing piecemeal assistance to infrastructure and manpower, shifted to a 'project approach' to tackle these emerging problems and is now moving towards a coordinated sectoral approach to help tackle the reform of whole education systems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From 1970 to 1980, the number of pupils enrolling in the primary schools of developing countries more than doubled, and the numbers in secondary and tertiary education quadrupled. Even relative to the increasing population, there was a 90% increase in the proportion of primary-aged children in school, and a large increase in the proportion of girls. This growth was accompanied by a doubling of government budgetary resources made available to education.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the massive general economic decline between 1980 and 1985, the money made available for education from the public purse fell by 40%, yet the education systems continued to grow. The result was that teachers' salaries plummeted, and funds for non-salary recurrent costs such as teaching materials and maintenance virtually dried up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1985, the financial situation has somewhat improved and funding is now at an all-time high. Nevertheless, for many African states, the education sector is in a state of crisis. Buildings are crumbling and inadequate; teachers are untrained or undertrained and often absent because of low incentives and weak supervision. There are few books and other teaching materials. Consequently, many pupils leave school virtually illiterate and innumerate. Moreover, because of the low quality of instruction and increasing costs to parents, many parents are no longer bothering to send children to school even when places are available. Primary enrolment fell by around 10% between 1990 and 1992. Thus in many countries, a fundamental reform of the sector is seen as the only way forward.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evolution of aid</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the early days of European aid, education and training were seen as suppliers of manpower for countries to modernise their economies. The priority themes of the 1970 Yaounde Convention for European Community aid were industrialisation, regional cooperation and international trade. Community support to education and training focused on the construction of colleges and university faculties to serve industrialisation and regional cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1975 Lom&eacute; I Convention referred specifically to 'the establishment of regional institutions of advanced technology, in the context of training programmes to enable nationals to participate fully in economic development'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1980 Lom&eacute; II Convention introduced multiannual training programmes, and support in the form of training awards and courses/seminars; experts and instructors; teaching equipment; collaboration between training or research establishments and universities. The emphasis was still on vocational training for other sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A significant proportion of European bilateral aid to education and training took the form of European teachers for secondary schools, colleges and universities. These helped to cover the shortage of locally trained teachers, whilst educating an elite able to fill senior and middle positions in the public and private sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 1985, problems were becoming all too apparent within the education systems being supported. As in other sectors, there was increased emphasis on the 'project approach' towards tackling these problems. Thus the Lom&eacute; Ill Convention includes support to education and training 'in the form of integrated programmes aimed at a well defined objective'. This could include, for example, 'assisting the ACP States' own efforts to restructure their educational establishments and systems and to update curricula, methods and technology employed, in order to step up the effectiveness and cut back the cost of all types of training'. A concern for under-represented groups, particularly women, was also becoming explicit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 1990, the concept of investing in people through education and training had moved high on the donor agenda, and alongside it, a growing concern for sectoral reform. According to the 1989 Lom&eacute; IV Convention, 'Cooperation shall be aimed at supporting development in the ACP States, a process centred on man himself and rooted in each people's culture. It shall back up the policies and measures adopted by those States to enhance their human resources, increase their own creative capacities and promote their cultural identities. Cooperation shall also encourage participation by the population in the design and execution of development operations.' In a chapter entitled Operations to enhance the value of human resources, a section on Education and Training refers to supporting the ACP State's efforts to 'reform their basic education institutions and systems, in particular by providing overall primary education coverage and adjusting imported systems as well as building them into development strategies'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1980s and early 1990s, European states and the Community joined the World Bank in support of structural adjustment. In a 1991 communication to the European Development Council, the Commission stated that it 'will give absolute priority to the social dimension of adjustment, in particular ensuring that the health and education sectors are adequately covered, in conjunction with sectoral reforms introduced or planned in these two areas.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balancing this concern for system reform has been a growing appreciation of the importance of decentralised cooperation. An example is the cost-sharing microprojects for grassroots development first introduced in Lom&eacute; I with explicit mention of support to primary schools. Another example is the need to support the activities of nongovernmental organisations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new policy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two events in the early 1990s have had a profound impact on European support for education and training. The first was the World Conference on Education for All: Meeting the Basic Learning Needs held in Jomtien in 1990. This emphasised the need for universal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">primary education and adult literacy to be firmly placed on the political agenda, and has resulted in a profound swing of donor support away from higher education and towards primary education. The second important event was the 1992 Treaty of European Union which requires the coordination of Member States' policy and operations, particularly in the social sectors. Guidelines are contained in the 1994 Council Resolution on support to education and training in developing countries in which 'the Council emphasises that education, in particular basic education, is a fundamental right'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to the Resolution, 'the priority for the Community and the Member States must be both to maximise access to education within the limits of the resources available and to ensure that the quality of education provided is suited to the needs of the majority of students. 'This is to be achieved through 'a balanced, programme-based strategy, tailored to the specific circumstances of the individual developing country', with pride of place accorded to basic education. It should provide 'support to the developing countries' own policies and efforts', not acting as a substitute for local initiative, and should involve better integration of action under structural adjustment with education sector priorities and aid activities. The Council also recommends a special emphasis on coordination in a number of pilot countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the outset, Community aid to education and training in African, Caribbean and Pacific countries has been in response to requests from the ACP states with an emphasis on ownership of the resulting programme by those states. What the new policy introduces into this process is a dialogue between government and all donors on needs, priorities and approaches set in the context of the education sector as a whole. Only through such a comprehensive approach can developing countries and European states reach a true partnership in realising the education and training needs of all citizens on which the future of their countries so crucially depends. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.S.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Analysis</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">EU-ACP relations : Building for tomorrow</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Kenneth Karl</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1989 saw the end of the Yalta inspired twin-superpower dominance. Nations had to examine their priorities in their desire for integration in an international environment in which geostrategic and economic realignment would be unavoidable. The philosophy which had served as a basis and reference point for North/South relations throughout the Cold War period is now being called into question and necessary adjustments in ideas have been triggered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Lom&eacute; Convention, which governs the development-cooperation relationship between the EU and the 70 ACP countries, is a unique North/South cooperation agreement on account of its contractual nature, its durability, the funds it allocates and the fact that it provides for a permanent dialogue. But it is also now at a decisive point in its history.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Those who regard the Convention as out-of-date and in need of renovation, and those more radical critics who believe that it no longer serves any useful purpose and must be phased out, both argue that a new direction is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Beyond all the criticism formulated against this system, the fundamental question remains as to whether the Lom&eacute; Convention will be able, given the necessary changes, to carry on after its fourth version expires.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The years between now and the end of the century will, naturally, see the application of the revised Lom&eacute; IV, including the substantial improvements made to it. However, this same period must also be used to prepare the ground for ACP/KU development cooperation in the future, whatever form it might take.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shortly after his nomination as European Commissioner for relations with the ACP countries and South Africa, Professor Pinheiro commented, realistically, that the ACP countries are no longer 'in fashion'. The change of emphasis can be seen clearly if one looks at the EU's burgeoning relations with its eastern neighbours from the former Communist bloc (illustrated by the wide range of European programmes now benefiting these countries). One might also cite the strengthening of ties with countries in the Mediterranean basin. Economic and security concerns underpin this development, but it undoubtedly reduces the significance which was once accorded to the ACP states.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, the economic objectives of virtually all EU countries, as they seek to reduce budget deficits and deal with increasing internal social problems inevitably put pressure on the amount of development aid being granted to the Third World.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This situation is, of course, not restricted to the European Union - which in fact remains the world's main contributor of official development aid. At the instigation of a Republican dominated Congress, the United States is planning much more swingeing cuts in its contribution, both to certain international agencies and to certain regions (including Africa).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This undeniable cutback in public development aid has been offset in recent years by net increases in private capital flows, but the geographical distribution is highly skewed. Only a few of the poorest developing countries have benefited from the trend, the main 'winners' being the emerging states of Asia. These include countries such as China, India and Indonesia which, it is worth noting in passing, do not have particularly good human rights records, in the sense that the term is understood in Europe. Despite the fact that ACP countries have identified potential for attracting foreign investment, they have not actually benefited from this change in resource flows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this climate, with official development aid in inaeasingly short supply, innovative methods for making optimum use of the available resources must be devised within the context of the Lom&eacute; Convention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On current indications, it is quite possible that in the year 2000, the Lom&eacute; Convention will be filed away in the archives. ACP/KU relations will certainly have to be more in step with recent developments on the international scene. The initial reasons for the establishment of a cooperative relationship between Europe and the ACPs, following the signature of the Rome Treaty, are now outmoded. As Paul Valery has commented: 'One of the worst mental aberrations is to think that things can survive when the reasons for their existence have gone'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So, what type of development cooperation should the countries of the European Union and their ACP partners aim for in the future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alternative trends</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has stated that it is in favour of a globalisation of aid within an innovative framework. One of the first questions to be asked is whether uniform cooperation with regions whose monolithic character is being increasingly called into question is still desirable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Variable geometry in development cooperation relations is increasingly being seen as the trend to be followed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If this option is chosen, there is a risk of the following scenario being created: The EU's relationship with the Caribbean could become diluted within its relationship with Latin-American countries and links with the Pacific countries could become confused with economic relations with Asia. What would then become of Africa, the continent needing most attention on account of the wide range of its difficulties and its increasing marginalisation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1990, the United Nations General Assembly, aware of the African question, adopted a new agenda on development in Africa, thus making that continent its number-one priority. Europe, on the other hand, must not simply focus on Africa but must invent new modes of action which are more concrete and more effective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secondly, recent trends imply greater conditionality. This has been taken on board not just by EU Member States. A number of multilateral aid agencies have also included it in their strategy. The OECD's Development Aid Committee believes that future relationships between North and South will be greatly influenced by conditionality and, indeed, the Organisation goes so far as to advocate this approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, conditionality in terms of development is a strategic element which must be handled with extreme caution. If cooperation, whether today or in the future, is to be based on conditionality, then it can only be rendered effective if aid recipients (both governments and the governed) are genuinely committed to the idea. They must be convinced, in a climate of resource-scarcity, than the approach is motivated above all by a desire for greater success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union thus has a vital role to play, making full use of its advantages in terms of dialogue and consultation in order to prevent conditionality being perceived as a condescending mechanism. Thereby, it can help to prevent conditionality from generating the well-known perverse effects of 'tied' aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course, conditionality raises the thorny question of national sovereignty, but it is important to observe that modern international relations have moved on, both de jure and de facto, from a concept of absolute sovereignty to one of relative sovereignty. This is illustrated by the trend towards humanitarian intervention as a right, the requirements of the Bretton Woods institutions, supranationality in certain regional international organisations, and the very fact of world economic interdependence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This does not mean that the developing states should sell off their sovereignty to the highest bidder but that conditionality should be the subject of negotiation. Donors must be more flexible in their demands and thereby give the country in question such room to manoeuvre as is necessary for programmes to succeed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thirdly, development of the private sector appears now to be approved by all parties. Since independence, the State has been omnipresent and omnipotent in most productive areas of ACP economies. Given the failures of the public sector, private enterprise is now being called in to help. Its development is one of the sector specific policies which will and must receive most support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development of the private sector must permit better distribution of the fruits of the growth that it generates and promote integration of the ACP countries into the market economy. There can be no question of pitting private enterprise against the public sector, because any Manichean approach in this sphere might prove to be risky. It is important also to stress that free market development cannot take place overnight and that it is subject to inescapable macro and microeconomic preconditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, the birth and expansion of a dynamic private sector depends on the politico-economic fabric. This includes reliable financial bodies, functioning financial intermediation, adequate infrastructures, technical qualifications and training, a suitable legal/ regulatory framework, institutions to support private businesses, the channelling of the informal sector and a public sector which is prepared to play fair, aware of its regulatory role. These, in short, are the necessary ingredients for the adjustment of the private sector to permit the development of a true enterprise culture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development of a harmonious private sector will make it possible more easily to achieve the transformation and export objectives required by international competitiveness. It should, therefore, help to counteract the erosion of commercial preferences generated by the Uruguay Round. The latter's time limits should, in any case, be extended, because it seems clear that the ACP countries will be unable to fulfil their obligations by the end of the moratorium obtained by the EU during the negotiations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The notion of compensating for inequality that is found in international development law, implies the adoption of a normative system to counteract the weak trading position of developing countries vis-a-vis their competitors in the North. But in recent times, this idea has been losing ground and it is unlikely to cut much ice with the WTO authorities. Legal equality in a situation where there is structural inequality is not, in fact, equitable, and it is therefore necessary to find some other way of mitigating the adverse effects, looking at it in a global context.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Promotion of domestic and foreign investment should be better supported. People talk of the 'risk/ country' threshold that deters foreign investors. It may be that this can be measured objectively by looking at economic and other indicators, but even if this is not possible, it clearly exists as a psychological barrier. This is a problem for many ACP countries and it needs to be crossed, using measures which tackle the many obstacles to investment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Changing the culture of development cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides all the technical aspects, one could argue that the shortcomings of the Lom&eacute; Convention stem also from the perceptions of those involved in development cooperation. In short, it is the actual concept and culture of development aid which must be changed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the European side, the colonial legacy has conditioned attitudes, imprinting on them a dominant patemalism which is prejudicial to the aim of development. This European concept of cooperation must be overturned. Moreover, development cooperation must not be seen as the art of the possible but as the art of making possible what is strictly necessary, by virtue of genuine negotiation with the countries which have resolved to move forward.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, it is desirable to have a better developed policy of informing European public opinion about development cooperation. An effort is needed to counter false impressions, such as the one left by the French journalist who wrote: 'Official development aid is like taking money from the poor in rich countries to give it to the rich in poor countries'. Better information is needed to ensure that the public can decide such matters for itself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coordinating the Union's policies with those of the Member States now presents an enormous challenge. The political obstacles are huge and development cooperation may well suffer as a result of them if the objectives of coordination, coherence and complementarity contained in the Maastricht Treaty are not achieved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for the ACP countries, success in their economic development depends on many factors, cooperation being only one of them. Many political leaders in these nations have too often described cooperation with the North as the only way in which they can develop. In fact, this should be seen as nothing more than an additional factor - supporting the national effort and a genuine desire for development. It is pure fantasy to believe that development can be set in motion solely on the basis of an external impetus. To succeed, it must come from within a country. This is why future cooperation between the EU and the ACP countries must progress towards reinforcing the aptitude of the latter to devise, master and control their own development process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the future, the ACP countries must propose concrete and responsible solutions to their partners, doing so by means of the dialogue system. They must also promote development based on participation, particularly with the involvement of young people and women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that the ACPs can offer a credible prospectus for development must be acknowledged. It is undoubtedly a challenge, but it can successfully be overcome if a climate of stability, security and confidence is created, matched by an unambiguous political will.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In KU/ACP relations, programmes must include the long-term vision necessary for sustainable development. Too often in the past, the strategy has been aimed at an immediate and ostentatious result. Successful development in the future will depend crucially on a change in such attitudes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.K. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let us know what you think</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The debate about the future of cooperation between the European Union and the ACP states is now beginning to gash' pace. Last year, we established the 'Analysis' section in The Courier to report on this debate-and give readers an opportunity to express their own views on the subject.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The response so far has been encouraging, but it has come mainly from the European side. We are keen to receive contributions from ACP readers as well. If you have you own ideas or opinions about what should happen after Lom&eacute; IV expires, why not put them on paper and send them to us. Our address is on the inside front cover of the magazine. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The view of civil society on the future after Lom&eacute; IV</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was the subject of a conference which took place in Maastricht from 12-14 June, under the auspices of the European Centre for Development Policy Management (ECDPM). It brought together participants from ACP countries and Europe, including representatives of civil society (NGOs, the private sector, etc.). Four major topics were addressed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How can a new KU/ACP commercial relationship be constructed ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was agreement that some form of preferential trade regime should continue after 2000. Some participants stressed the need to Promote 'fair trade', which would contribute not only to growth but also to development. The impact of individual trade preferences is not always clear-cut, but obviously there cannot be a single solution covering all problems in all ACP countries. An analysis of negative constraints demonstrated the difficulties involved in reconciling the rules of the Lom&eacute; Convention and those of the World Trade Organisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How can the private sector become involved in development ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most important aspect of this topic is knowing how to create a favourable and business-friendly environment which will enable the private sector to play its part-and the role the European Union could play in this process. The private sector was defined as both formal and informal, encompassing large, medium and small enterprises, whether local or foreign. The importance of a strong local private sector in guaranteeing long-term stability was particularly emphasised. In this respect, the view was expressed that the role of the state and its relationship with the European Commission should be redefined. There was also a call for time to be set aside time for effective dialogue, and to create the space for a partnership between the public and private sectors. It was felt that the role of Economic and Social Councils should be expanded and specified more clearly. As for the specific issue of privatisation, the point was made that this should not be seen as a panacea and that it should be approached on a country-by-country basis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards current instruments, it was noted that their objective is essentially to meet public-sector requirements. The role of the Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) attracted some criticism. Speakers felt that the private sector should be more involved in the preparation and implementation of cooperation programmes with the European Community. Direct financial support to the private sector was seen as desirable, including backing from the European Investment Bank.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What partnership ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The partnership concept was seen to have been eroded over the past two decades, with the pretext of efficiency resulting in a more paternalistic approach. Mechanisms needed to be found to enable EU priorities and the prerogatives of ACP countries to be reconciled. Reference was made to the political nature of the origin of the partnership and the need to find a new political raison d'etre for this type of relationship. The problems of cohesion within the ACP group and its relations with the EU were also raised, and there was a discussion about the possibility of giving the Convention a regional character-although a number of speakers expressed reservations about this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the European side, two lacunae emerged, namely coordination between donors, and consistency between Lom&eacute; and other Community policies (including relationships with the Bretton Woods institutions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the principle of partnership, some participants were keen to stress the motives of solidarity and common interest that lay behind cooperation. It was not simply a matter of 'negative' interdependence. The appropriateness of the term 'partnership' was questioned, if this was only to mean financial and technical cooperation. The politicisation of Lom&eacute; appears to be on the agenda, involving a move from the current partnership to a genuine 'contractual approach' through political dialogue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for the role of partnership in cooperation policy management, it was felt essential that civil society and the private sector be involved. There was also a discussion of the debt problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How can financial and technical cooperation be improved ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As usual, reference was made to the need to simplify and differentiate management of Lom&eacute; Convention instruments, particularly in the context of the programming process. As regards the role of non-state actors, a cautious approach was recommended. Finally, new instruments were called for to prevent conflict.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Conclusions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This conference, coming after several others of the same type, was characterised essentially by private sector and NGO calls for greater participation in Community cooperation policy. Moreover, the need for 'politicisation' of the Lom&eacute; policy, shifting from purely financial and technical aid to a genuine cooperation contract, seems to have attracted the support of all participants. These questions are sure to figure in the 'Green Paper' on 'tome after 2000', which the European Commission plans to publish before the end of 1996. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Democratising democracy'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 6 and 7 June, the Belgian Par/iament hosted a UN seminar on 'me future of international development cooperation: new communication challenges' 'Democratising Democracy' was the succinct, journalistic way in which one of the speakers at the meeting summed up his solution to the problem of underdevelop meet. He was Jean-Bertrand Aristide, former President of Haiti, who observed that democracy, as advocated by the developed world, and increasingly accepted by developing countries, does not prevent the latter's slide into even greater poverty. The Courier had the opportunity to interview Mr Aristide. We began by asking him whether his statement implied that democracy is failing in a world striving to 'globalise' it J-B.A.-The word democracy comes from the Greek words 'demos', meaning people and 'kratein', meaning to govern. In other words, it signifies government of the people, for the people by the people-but if we take a look at the world today, the impression we get is that not all so-called democratic governments are in fact what they purport to be. Hence the need to 'democratise democracy', so as to create a situation in which all citizens can help set governments on a course towards such a model.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concepts usually generate conflict and, therefore, when speaking of revolution, democracy or globalisation, it is necessary to be au fait with the subject matter so as not to become involved in a dialogue of the deaf. In the specific case of globalisation, my opinion is that this has a tendency to make what is an already precarious situation even more unbalanced. Concepts cannot be applied everywhere without thought being given to their harmful consequences. This does not mean to say that we should give up completely. It's one thing to speak of the globalisation of peace, as if an ineluctable need existed to promote peace on a world scale, but I'm not sure that everyone would define the globalisation of peace in the same way as I do.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Could we turn now to your own country, Haiti. How do you view the future of democracy there, bearing in mind the economic circumstances ? At the seminar, you mentioned several factors which demonstrate democracy's *agility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Democracy is indeed fragile. 1% of Haiti's population owns 48% of the country's wealth and it is estimated that about 65% of the working population is employed in agriculture as against 5.1% in the 'industrial' sector. But is this really the true picture ? Reality for most people is poverty-unacceptable and sub-human poverty. A man needs work to earn his daily crust by the sweat of his brow, but unemployment has reached catastrophic proportions. When people are unable to earn their living, there is little point in discussing the positive influence of democracy. What is needed is for those with a great deal of wealth and those with less wealth to talk to each other; a dialogue between the private and public sectors, so that we can head off futile conflicts and devote all our efforts to economic growth coupled with human development. I do believe that this is possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yet, the rich are so rich and the poor so poor. Is it not fantasy to think that the gulf which separates them, and their mutual mistrust, can simply be set aside so that genuine dialogue can take place ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is one of the challenges we have faced ever since 1960 and, although we have not yet reaped the harvest of this process, we have to carry on. It's not too late. We just have to approach the subject logically and with all the facts to hand, and we must have the intelligence to be patient. If we continue with dialogue, we will achieve real results. Only the citizens of Haiti can play a part in Haiti's development-this is not a task for outsiders. We, on the other hand, have to be more receptive to international cooperation, while maintaining mutual respect and dignity. But what we also need is for our own people to act together in order to enhance our own growth. This is not to say that geopolitical reality can be disregarded. Other countries have to be taken into account, but, as a starting point, we have to consider Haiti's human and material resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Thereisdialogueata world level, but there are rules to be applied. I am thinking, here, of free competition. Haiti has to play by the rules, just like any other country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Since we gained independence, our history has seen a succession of coups d'etat and people have been over-eager in brandishing weapons to solve economic, political or social problems. Now that democracy has been restored in Haiti, weapons are not the solution to our problems-I cannot stress this enough. What we need is for those with money to sit down and negotiate with those who have none: for the government to get people round the table and devise a common plan to accommodate all interested parties- looking at both the nation's interests and the interests of investors. I do believe that it is possible to achieve this. We have, in fact, already begun to prepare the ground. I am not basing my words, here, on pure theory, but am speaking from experience. In concrete terms, we have to transcend class and racial differences to recognise that Haitian men and women, regardless of their colour and the country they might live in outside Haiti, regardless of their nationality, even, are still part of Haiti's indigenous population. The way must be kept open for dignified and balanced cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The other point you mentioned today was that there can be no development without the effective involvement of the population. Are you not leaving yourself open to accusations of having socialist or even communist tendencies ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-As I have just said, we have to be scientific in our approach and check our facts over and over again. I fail to see how anyone can claim to be working towards peace without looking at poverty which is the greatest threat to social cohesion. Of course, there are those who would deny this assertion, and that is their right. However, rational analysis of the situation can help us alleviate poverty and promote security. It needs to be underlined that security is also one of the essential factors in economics. The UN Security Council is called in to prevent or resolve conflicts. To my mind, we should also be talking about an economic security council to deal with the economic realities. The deeper one plunges into poverty, the greater one's feelings of insecurity-the two always go hand in hand. And insecurity can crop up anywhere in the world. Nor is it a question of charity. It is a real, rational question which must sharpen our awareness, stimulate our common sense and set us on a course to protect the world by alleviating poverty. That, at least, is one approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, you have to recognise that politics is essentially a question of power while economics is influenced by interests. Everyone uses the means at their disposal to defend their personal interests and we know perfectly well that there are no free gifts. The so-called developed countries allocate just 0.3% of their GDP to development aid, yet we are losing our tropical forests at the rate of the area of a football pitch every second. In Haiti, forests now cover only a small area of the country. But in the final analysis, environmental catastrophe threatens us all, rich and poor alike, even if certain countries do not face specific ecological risks. We either deal with it as reasonable people, or we close our eyes to the 'cause and effect' realities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but are we reasonable people ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The crisis of ethics is indeed a reality and a great many values are now being called into question. These days, we have to love in order to prove we are not contradicting ourselves. If we believe in God, we might call this love 'God', just as we might call it 'justice'. It all depends on your philosophy, religion or beliefs. If I feel love, I cannot be indifferent to the situation of victims of injustice, both in Haiti and elsewhere. If a man is humiliated, crushed, exploited or marginalised, then 1, too, am humiliated, crushed and marginalised. It is love which makes us fight for justice everywhere. Either one is a demagogue revelling in big words or one is sincere and ready to die so that another might live-this brings immortality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· One final question. You were speaking just now of insecurity and economics. Is there a link, here, with one of your most recent decisions, the abolition of Haiti's army ? Could you tell us how you were able to pull off this 'coup'? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- I am perfectly happy to answer such an important question and would like to be able to give a clear and direct reply. But given that the struggle is still going on, I don't think I should go into too much detail. A decision was made. The Haitian people opted to rid themselves of the army. Supporting their democratic wish, it was our job to help bring about this dissolution. The army, it is worth recalling, had about 7000 men, absorbed 40% of the national budget-and had killed many of our compatriots. We have had to be logical and patient in achieving this goal, bearing in mind that the guarantors of the agreement which led to my return had their own views, which were different from ours. We also needed courage and wisdom and, above all, the determination of the people. My motto has always been that it is better to fail with the people than to succeed without them, and in this we did not fail. Our task now is not to bask in our own glory but to continue the work of structuring the police force, to prevent it becoming another army. To achieve this, we have to make steady progress and use sound judgment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Close-up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Growing rice at high altitude in Burundi</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Jean-Pierre Tilquin and Miguel Amado</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This tiny country tucked away at the heart of Africa has, as is well known, been convulsed over the last three years by an acute socio-political crisis. The tragic consequences have included loss of human life, damage to the economic and social infrastructure, and a movement of refugees to neighbouring countries. Burundi, already one of the most densely populated nations in Africa, also has high population growth. It could be argued that it is only thanks to the hard work and perseverance of the farmers (admittedly, 90% of the population) that the country manages to keep going at all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture in Burundi follows traditional lines and is based on a farming system divided between food crops for consumption by the farmer and his family, and cash crops (mainly coffee, tea and cotton). Although at the beginning of the decade the crops grown for food were sufficient to meet the population's needs, today demographic pressures are forcing farmers to increase food-crop production. It is these pressures that have prompted them to descend into the marshlands which cover approximately 110 000 hectares (8% of cultivable land in Burundi). These marshes are flooded during the rainy season and so allow rice to be cultivated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population growth has also meant that fields cannot be left fallow for long periods. This has resulted in more intensive use of marginal land and an increase in forest clearing. Such practices exacerbate erosion of cultivated areas. The loss of organic matter and nutrients leads to reduced soil fertility and lower yields. Although rainfall in Burundi is high, the soil is only moderately fertile, because of factors such as acidity, aluminium toxicity, and phosphorus immobilisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While 20% of land suitable for cultivation is currently given over to growing dry beans-a staple in the Burundi diet - various factors now point towards farming the low-lying marshlands, with a particular emphasis on rice. This is one way of increasing the useful agricultural surface area of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The events of 1993 (democratic elections, followed by the assassination of President Ndadaye), have created a period of instability which has been highly damaging for the country's agriculture. Some people lost their property and livelihood, and are only now slowly re-establishing themselves. The environment has also suffered as a result of the sheer numbers of displaced people. They occupy areas, both urban and rural, which were completely unprepared for the flood of people. it is estimated that 50 000 hectares of forest have been destroyed as a result-with devastating consequences for the country's ecosystem. What is more, the rate of demographic growth has led to overfarming and to a reduction in the average surface area of farms (to 0.7 ha per household).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice-a crop for the future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Against this background, the prospect of farming low-lying marshland offers some hope for the people of Burundi. In fact, the marshy valleys have long been used to grow beans, maize and sweet potatoes during the long dry season for later consumption during the short dry season. This practice, which was environmentally sound, provided a regular harvest, but also ensured the preservation of the marshlands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The practice of growing rice during the rainy season, followed by a crop of maize and beans during the dry season, is a form of integrated agriculture. It should be economically viable and environmentally sustainable while ensuring product quality, delivering a good yield, limiting any risks involved and allowing a high degree of social integration. These are the criteria which need to be examined in determining whether high-altitude rice cultivation in Burundi succeeds or fails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice crops have been grown in this region, on the shores of Lake Tanganyika and in the Ruzizi valley (altitude 800 m), for more than 200 years, having been introduced by successive migrations of people travelling along the old slave route from Zanzibar. Certain varieties, known as 'pandabilima' (which in Swahili means 'he who climbs the mountain') can be grown on land up to a height of 1300 metres. They cannot, however, be planted on the higher central plateau because low temperatures at night render them completely infertile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not surprising that the new scheme to grow rice at high altitudes was greeted with interest. Indeed, it became almost a craze among farmers -to the extent that in 1990, rice crops covered more than 20 000 ha of Burundi. The area planted with rice fell subsequently, and in some regions the crop disappeared altogether. This was due largely to the appearance of the fungal 'rice blast disease', which can wipe out an entire crop, and to inadequate planning and misguided husbandry. The extensive planting of only one variety left the crop particularly vulnerable and once the disease did take hold, it was virtually impossible to eradicate. Needless to say, in a country where access to pesticides is non-existent, the introduction of a new crop cannot be based on a single variety; if it is to establish itself successfully, varietal diversification is vital. We should point out here that attempts were made in 1984 to improve varietal diversification </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">in the framework of the EU's Scientific and Technical Programme run by DG XII of the Commission. At that time, it was necessary to familiarise farmers with the techniques for growing the new crop and this aspect of the programme was funded by the EDF, in particular through three integrated projects. These related to agriculture and pastoral forestry and were initiated during 198889 in three provinces of Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Without going into the technical details of the programme, it suffices to say that growing rice at high altitude in the tropics differs from rice-growing in temperate regions. The low night-time temperatures characteristic of high altitudes mean that the crop is subject to constant stress. In temperate regions, the stress caused by cold weather is a problem only at the beginning and end of the growing cycle. As for selection methods, rice varieties have been produced that are resistant to rice blast disease - which remains the main problem. Also, by mixing the varieties grown, the farmers have created a wide diversity which offers a stable basis for a sustainable crop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Transformation of an ecosystem</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the viewpoint of development aid specialists, turning marshland into cultivable land means draining it (digging a ditch and fitting pipes). But this leaves the land open to erosion, causes silting in rivers and ultimately leading to desertification. By changing water levels in a region and disturbing the thermal equilibrium, marshlands cease to be marshlands. The method may have been justifiable before rice growing became possible. Indeed, it was employed in the natural marshlands of Buyenzi by some experts who specialised in upland rice. But it also resulted in large-scale destruction of one ricevariety-Yunnan 3-by rice blast disease in 1990.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development projects which set themselves spectacular objectives can involve major alterations to the landscape. More often than not, these need to be rectified later. Thus, when it was decided to cultivate vast expanses of papyrus, the plants were moderately successful only thanks to constant artificial assistance. Put simply, the land could not sustain the crop on its own. In the process, the marshes were turned into floating peat bogs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The option chosen here was to adapt the small valleys for rice cultivation and teach the farmers the relevant techniques. Together with their families, they have eagerly embarked on the work needed to prepare the terrain for cultivation, although there are still some land tenure issues that need resolving. (Some people have refused to commit themselves to marshland reclamation projects as long as the land does not belong to them). It should be stressed that growing rice along a strip of water is an option which is in harmony with environmental needs. It promotes percolation of the water, thereby restoring underground water levels and preventing pollutants from being washed down towards the Nile or Zaire basins. It is therefore in keeping with global strategies for conserving resources and ensuring sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the marshlands, farmers traditionally plant beans and maize in banked-up beds during the dry season (from June to November). By skilfully selecting and growing different bean varieties, the farmer can stagger his crops and thereby ensure a continuous harvest from September until the time the maize is harvested. The marshes are then left fallow during the heavy rains which reach their peak in April. A rice variety which can be harvested in six months could thus be fitted in during this perriod with out disturbing the traditional hill-farming work schedule.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since farmers on the high plateaux had not traditionally grown rice, it was necessary to teach them the techniques needed to produce a successful crop. They were also informed of the benefits that improvements such as dykes, water supply pipes and drainage pipes could have on crop productivity. They have since applied this knowledge in their cultivation. During the dry season, without disrupting the infrastructures on which their rice cultivation is based, they have rebuilt banked-up beds and grown the traditional bean and maize crop. The system has been in place for about ten years and no drop in yield has been recorded. The yield averages 4.5 t/ha for rice, 1 t/ha for beans and 0.4 t/ha for maize-figures which are quite remarkable when compared with the yields of crops grown on the hills in acid soil with increasing levels of aluminium toxicity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By alternating two different farming systems, the problem of weeds -and therefore hoeing-and of pests is greatly limited. The extensive mixing of the soil that takes place accelerates the recycling of biogenic material-and the marshlands stay as marshlands!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manageable land development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three main types of marshy valley, each requiring specific programmes. The first consists of valleys lying above 1400 m with a rainfall in excess of 1500 mm. These areas are characterised by a clay soil, are constantly fed with water (with a high iron content) from the mountains, and are often very rich in organic matter. They require drainage using ditches and filtration channels, with changes of gradient so that the mountain water tables can be tapped and the water levels controlled. This is important to prevent a build-up of ferrous toxicity in the soil, which is extremely harmful to rice. A farming system involving paddy fields and banked-up beds can be accommodated perfectly in these types of valleys. Then there are the valleys lying between 800 and 1400 m with a rainfall of between 1100 and 1500 mm. These are known as 'dambos' in Swahili, and they extend from Northern Kenya right down to Southern Zimbabwe. Strewn with giant termite nests, the land here is well-suited to rice cultivation as long as water levels are carefully controlled. All the available water needs to be harnessed via filtration canals dug into the hillside. These allow the paddies to be irrigated speedily and, during the dry season, they can also be used to irrigate between the rows of ridgeplanted crops. It would, however, be very difficult to irrigate the entire valley during the dry season and so it is pointless digging a drainage ditch. The third and final type consists of small alluvial plains tucked away between the hills and stretching along the escarpments. Here, the level of soil fertility is determined by the heavy erosion resulting from farming on burnt land, and the practice of setting fire to the hills in order to 'regenerate' pastures. To grow rice in such locations, a filtration canal needs to be dug into the hillside, into which water then collects from the water table. The paddy fields also need to be terraced. These alluvial plains lend themselves perfectly to a farming system in which paddy fields are alternated with banked-up beds. All these land-adaptation schemes can be easily implemented and maintained by the farmers themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A sociological revolution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although rice grows quickly, it is highly labour-intensive. Thus, when</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">the young rice plants need to be planted out-which happens to coincide with the end-of-year school holidays-the whole family takes part. What is more, rice has become extremely important in sociological terms: reserved in days gone by for special occasions, it now forms part of the nation's staple diet, being mixed together with beans and dressed with palm oil and tomato sauce. The rice harvest is also a time for merrymaking and festivities which go on for the best part of a week.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice cultivation has also engendered a vital sense of solidarity among farmers as far as sharing water is concerned, and rice-growing cooperatives have been a runaway success. These enable farming operations to be synchronised and running costs to be reduced, in particular by reducing the number of bird scarers needed. The crop, furthermore, can be harvested when fully ripe. On individual plots, farmers usually only allow the rice to mature to 75% before harvest for fear of theft. Finally, the cooperative helps to ensure that infrastructures such as drains and canals are properly maintained and that water supply installations are treated with respect. Each cooperative is run by a representative appointed by the group of farmers. These supervisors are then responsible for organising all operations: choosing and storing seed for the following season's crops, getting information about new varieties, consulting each other and pointing out any problems they may have to those in charge of research and advisory services. The area allotted to each cooperative depends on the number of households in the group and also takes into account the area available, with 10 ares per family being the usual maximum for planted-up paddy fields. Cooperatives may range in size from 5 to 25 families.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cooperatives like this are just the beginning. Networks of rural organisations, in which the farmers club together to buy equipment and fertilisers, need to be developed on a larger scale and they could provide a springboard for the development of the secondary sector, which is vital to the development of the country as a whole.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We would do well to recall that the cassava mills which have been so successful in Burundi and which still run today without any 'technical assistance' had equally humble beginnings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It must be acknowledged that the people who migrated to this 'wild frontier' of rice cultivation in Burundi also introduced into these regions diseases such as bilharzia and malaria (the mosquitoes carrying the parasite were transported in the luggage of people travelling from the capital to the provinces). Despite this, rice cultivation at high altitude has proved a veritable lifesaver for Burundi. In the year that the FAO plans to stage a summit on famine, it is appropriate to highlight the important role of rice-growing in the food production strategy of this country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until recently, Burundi ensured that it had enough to feed its people through a delicate balancing act between growing food crops, leaving land fallow and rearing livestock which produced manure. At present, however, increased agricultural production is only possible by increasing the surface area of the country under cultivation-at the expense of fallow land and livestock farming. Such a move risks reducing soil fertility and could lead to the substitution of crops of high nutritional value, such as beans, with higher yield crops such as cassava or sweet potatoes which suck the subsoil dry of minerals and nutrients.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In short, traditional farming methods in Burundi are arguably now out of balance and the situation is getting worse. This may, indeed, be a root cause of the ethnic crisis. A systematic policy of re-establishing marshlands and organising rural communities around high-altitude rice cultivation would allow the country to look ahead with optimism to the next 20 years. Suitable varieties are currently available and the altitudes at which rice can be grown have been pushed back in Burundi as far as 1700 m. What is now needed is the funds! </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J-P.T. &amp; M.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Developing world</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Freedom of expression: the heartbeat of democracy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A view from UNESCO.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The article which follows is an abridged version of a text compiled by Carlos Amaldo, who heads UNESCO's research into communication and the free flow of information. Mr Arnaldo highlights some of the main aspects of the UN agency's support for the development of a free press in the African, Caribbean and Pacific regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution passed by the ACP/KU Joint Assembly in March 1996 in Windhoek, Namibia, reflected the spirit of many of UNESCO's communication programmes in these regions. Echoing the principal tenets of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the resolution declares: 'freedom of expression is a precondition for holding free and fair elections'; 'the monopoly of information media is a barrier to the development of democracy,'; 'there is a need to create a climate in which all part)" can participate fully in political life.' It further holds: 'communication media must not only inform the electorate in an impartial and objective manner' but also; 'freedom of expression and the existence of free communications media are vital preconditions for the development of a democratic society.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution was timely, responding to a need to remind political leaders, as well as civic society, of the relation between free communication media and truly democratic practices. Just five years ago, on 3 May 1991,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African journalists and media adopted the Windhoek Declaration at the UN/ UNESCO seminar on promoting an independent and pluralistic African press. Likewise, journalists and media practitioners of each major region adopted the Declarations of Alma Ata (October 1992), Santiago (May 1994) and Sana'a (January 1996), all of which affirmed the unwavering belief of professional communicators in freedom of expression, press freedom, independence and pluralism of the media, and the contribution of such freedoms to democratic processes. At their 28th General Conference, UNESCO Member States further declared that, 'press freedom is an essential component of any democracy.' All these declarations contain action programmes to strengthen press freedom in these regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning to look at some practical initiatives, a media project entitled 'Independent Press in Africa', which was put in place after the signing of the Windhoek declaration, soon attracted the interest of a number of donors (Italy, USA, France). Under this project, the International Programme for the Development of Communication (IPDC) organised four sets of courses for journalists in 1994. In April 1995, IPDC arranged a multi-theme workshop for 33 English-speaking journalists and editors from Central and West Africa on marketing, distribution techniques, managing mass media enterprises in Africa, new communication technologies, journalism and ethical issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are now plans afoot to study the situation of the press in Mauritius, Madagascar and Comoros, and to publish several handbooks about press enterprises. Efforts will also be made to attract increased donor contributions so that the successes achieved by these initial training activities can be strengthened and shared with other regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further example of positive action in support of the media is the work of MISA (the Media Institute of Southern Africa-featured in more detail in the following article). This organisation has been receiving UNESCO support since 1994 under a funding arrangement with the Danish International Development Agency. The project seeks to strengthen links among the region's independent media so as to enhance the free flow of information. It also aims to boost cooperation and information-sharing with similar groups in developing and developed countries worldwide, to strengthen the ability of the region's independent media to stand on its own feet and to improve professional standards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MlSA, which was set up in 1992, has been monitoring and safeguarding press freedom in the region, facilitated by an electronic network for distribution of information on press freedom issues. It has mounted seminars and training workshops for professional journalists on computer-aided design, strategic financial management, journalism ethics and advertising management. MISA's campaigning material includes a bi-monthly magazine, Free Press: the Media Magazine of Southern Africa and a booklet, So this is Democray, which is a compilation of its 'action alerts' curing 1994 and 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another UNESCO initiative is the 'Communication and Good Governance in West and Central African Countries' project, supported by Germany. This aims to strengthen the human and technical capacity of the media in these regions so that they can make a contribution to good governance. The three year project is to be implemented in 10 countries - Benin, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Sao Tome &amp; Principe and Togo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Together with other institutions such as legislatures, the judiciary and civic organisations, media bodies like MISA have a useful role to play. They can enhance transparency and accountability by systematic analysis and reporting of government programmes, policies and pledges, and by encouraging public discussions which help people to make informed decisions about public issues and about how their leaders discharge the power vested in them. Fulfilment of these functions requires access to the media, and qualified, well-trained practitioners who can effectively use the media for information, education and communication on good governance issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning our attention now to the Caribbean, the question of media freedom recently came to the fore in Trinidad and Tobago when 13 editors and journalists on The Guardian lost their jobs following publication of a number of controversial articles (some reports said they 'constructively resigned'). The events cast a shadow over the famous Carnival. Indeed, as one journalist put it, the Carnival quickly ceded to the 'sacrificial rites' of Holy Week. Six of the paper's youngest reporters were among those who lost their jobs-but out of the furore, a new newspaper was born.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 'Comparative Study of Media Laws in the CARICOM countries' by Ainsley Sahai, commissioned earlier by UNESCO, became a reference in the debates that followed. The study highlighted that all Caribbean countries guaranteed freedom of expression in their national constitutions. Indeed, Trinidad and Tobago's constitution explicitly guarantees press freedom as well. The Media Association of Trinidad and Tobago (MATT) organised two meetings. The first of these, on 10 April 1996, was a public forum on issues of press freedom. Although a full cross-section of society was not present, and not all the issues at stake were fully debated, it was nevertheless a start. Those who took the floor came from many sectors of society -women, the unemployed, workers, community organisations and at least three different religious groups. About a quarter of those who contributed spoke as individuals. While many criticised the press for errors in reporting, all confirmed the need to uphold a free press vis-a-vis both political pressures and economic and financial interests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The public gave strong support to MATT and demanded that the forum be replicated in other parts of the country. It was the first time that the public had been given the opportunity to speak out on these issues. It was not so much the content of the discussion which counted, but the very fact that the event took place, bringing the media closer to its 'customers'. The meeting gave the public an opportunity to put over their own perceptions of press freedom, impartial reporting and the strengthening of democratic processes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two days later, with support from UNESCO, the Media Association staged a journalists' symposium, moderated by George John, consulting editor at The Guardian. David de Caires, publisher of Guyana's Stabroek News was invited by MATT as an external consultant. Drawing on past and more recent examples of uneasy relations between a free press and governments, Mr de Caires concluded with a headlinehitting statement; the relations of the press with government should not be too cosy, the press must maintain its adversarial position.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many journalists took the floor to stress Trinidad and Tobago's constitutional guarantees for both freedom of expression and press freedom. They also stressed the need to safeguard editorial independence, not only in the printed press, but also in broadcasting, and urged the repeal of 'antiquated' libel laws-a point also made in the Sahai study. The preparation of a Freedom of Information Act was strongly urged to ensure access to public information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These events appear to have strengthened the resolve of the jobless journalists. They grouped together to set up a new weekly newspaper, called The Independent. The new publication focuses on investigative articles, comment and reviews. In addition, a monthly called The Formatt was launched by MATT to disseminate specialised news on press freedom issues and to provide print support for future public fore. Both newspapers brought out their first editions in early May amidst the celebrations of World Press Freedom Day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacific</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Pacific, issues of freedom of expression and press freedom are no less salient, although a key issue for practitioners there is the modernisation of infrastructures. This is needed to ensure that this vast island region does not find itself in the slow lane of the information highway.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The computerisation of radio newsrooms, in places such as the Cook Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, Solomon Islands and Tonga, is a priority. The Cook Islands already has a fully computerised newspaper operation. Indeed, this is the first newspaper in the Pacific with the capacity to transmit photographs from various parts of the country to the newsroom electronically by phone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Considerable concern has been expressed about the inadequacy of national television programming. There is a need for the people of the Pacific to see themselves and their culture, and not just the imported fare distributed by most international TV services. With UNESCO support, women media producers from seven island countries were able to meet to work out ways of cooperating on a series of television documentaries that they themselves produced and exchanged within the region. Preparations are now under way for the annual evaluation and awarding of prizes at the end of 1996. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A.A. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Campaigning for free expression in the SADC region</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by David Nthengwe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Media Institute of Southern Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Officially launched in September 1992, the role of the Media Institute of Southern Africa is primarily that of coordinator, facilitator and communicator in the promotion of media freedom and diversity, (as envisaged in the 1991 Windhoek Declaration). MISA operates in 11 of the 1 2 SADC countries and is currently investigating setting up a chapter in the twelfth-Mauritius- which joined the Community 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chapters are serviced by a regional secretariat based in the Namibian capital, Windhoek. The secretariat is accountable to a policy-making governing council of elected representatives from each national chapter, while funding for MISA and its projects is channeled through the MISA Education and Production Trust, overseen by a board of independent trustees. The organisation is currently almost entirely donor-funded, with UNESCO, NORAD, SIDA, the KU, the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, IBIS, and the Australian and German governments being the main contributors. Other income is generated through the sale of subscriptions to MISA publications and services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Institute's main work is in the field of advocacy; highlighting violations of media freedom and free expression, and exploring ways of ensuring that these fundamental freedoms become entrenched throughout Southern Africa. In 1994, MISA became a member of the International Freedom of Expression Exchange (IFEX) network in a bid to increase international awareness of media freedom violations in Southern Africa. Membership of IFEX has enabled MISA to distribute as well as receive information on media freedom issues in a quick and relatively cheap way via the Internet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Action alerts'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994 and 1995, MISA issued via IFEX and its own electronic mail network, the MISANET (see below), more than 190 'action alerts' relating to media freedom infringements in Southern Africa, and effective campaigns against some of these violations have resulted. In August 1994, Lesotho journalist, Rabuka Chalatse, was shot by soldiers while covering a demonstration. An alert issued by MISA triggered a swift response, and within 24 hours, funds had been raised to pay for emergency treatment which saved the young journalist's leg. In November 1995, Angolan freelance journalist, Mario Paiva, had his life threatened by people who, it was alleged, were state security agents. MlSA's alert prompted protest from throughout the world, and resulted in several governments offering Paiva sanctuary in their embassies in Angola. The threat against the journalist was subsequently lifted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MlSA's advocacy work has also shown that democratisation does not necessarily result in guaranteed media freedom and free expression. In Zambia, for example, which had a multi-party election in 1991, arcane laws inherited from previous regimes have been used against the private media in particular, and free expression, in general. As this article was being written, Fred M'membe, the Editor-in-Chief of Zambia's privately-owned daily 'The Post', and two of his colleagues, were starting an indefinite prison term for contempt of Parliament. The sentence was passed not by a court of law, but by the Speaker, under legislation inherited from British colonial rule. Their 'crime' was to comment on criticism made in Parliament of a Supreme Court decision which declared unconstitutional, laws requiring anyone wishing to stage a demonstration to obtain police permission first.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five months prior to his arrest, M'membe received the MISA Press Freedom Award, which is presented annually to individuals or institutions considered to have made an outstanding contribution to the advancement of media freedom in Southern Africa. M'membe was the third recipient of the award.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free flow of information essential</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the Windhoek Declaration points out, 'the establishment, maintenance and fostering of an independent, pluralistic and free press' is essential to economic development, as well as for the growth of democracy. Accordingly, MISA argues that the free flow of information is vital to the development process. Effective communication within SADC-a 'development community'- has been hampered by the region's poor postal and telecommunications services. MISA considers that these logistical barriers to the free flow of information are a form of censorship. In a bid to break through the information voids which have kept Southern African media workers and their audiences isolated from each other for so long, it has made particular use of advances in information technology, including, most notably, the Internet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two years, MISA has been linking member organisations up to electronic mail (e-mail). This allows members throughout the region to exchange news, photographs and other information. To date, 25 MISA member organisations are linked to this network, called the MISANET, although further growth has been hampered by members' unfamiliarity with e-mail, and the lack of local technicians to train people and provide user support. Nonetheless, computerised communications have proved to be an appropriate technology, and development of the MISANET remains a top priority. By making some services available to non-MISA subscribers, MISA also intends to generate income and thus reduce its current dependency on donor funding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Focus on training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coordination of training and material support to independent media is another area where MISA looks to develop media freedom and diversity. The region's independent media sometimes operates in politically and economically hostile environments. Its survival-and thus the sustenance and growth of media diversity-hinges on these organisations becoming highly professional, well-managed concerns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Working through training institutions based primarily in the region, MISA coordinates workshops and other training programmes aimed at improving the skills of media workers, particularly in the fields of management and finance. Workshops in strategic and financial management, project management, advertising, marketing, sales and subscription management, ethics, subediting, and computerised design were staged during 1994 and 1995. For 1996, training is scheduled in economic reporting, project management, photography, advertising sales, circulation and sales management, computer-aided design, developing world and financial and strategic management. Instruction will also be provided to media workers without formal training. Meanwhile, research is to be carried out into setting up a media ombudsman for Southern Africa, printing press initiatives, media training needs, and the difficulties faced by women media workers in the region. The last-mentioned is in line with MlSA's policy of encouraging gender awareness and equality within the Southern African media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Private and community-based media organisations face constant problems securing adequate finance. As businesses, they often do not qualify for donor support, while banks are reluctant to lend them money. Therefore, MISA is looking to set up of a Media Development Fund to which independent media can apply for loans, credit guarantees and grants. A study is currently being conducted into the feasibility of such a fund, which MISA hopes to have up-andrunning by early 1997.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Broadcasting in Southern Africa is still largely state-controlled. Moves by some of the region's governments to 'deregulate' broadcasting have been erratic, and many private broadcasting licenses granted in the process have gone to organisations or individuals closely linked to the authorities. MISA is now drawing up a policy aimed at seeking the effective liberalisation of broadcasting legislation covering public, private and community broadcasting throughout the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As part of this process, MISA will, this year, stage a conference on broadcasting and community media, to coincide with its Annual General Meeting-which has become one of the largest gatherings of media workers on the African continent. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.N.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Volunteers show their worth</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Thomas M. Neufing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volunteers have become a major component in international development efforts. They make up a significant proportion of the total human resources available for development cooperation (up to a fifth of the skilled international personnel serving in developing countries). In the early days, volunteer service was strongly influenced by the idea of oneway technical assistance. Specialists, mainly from the North, served in developing nations where their expertise was desperately needed but not yet found among local citizens. Much has changed since.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the US Peace Corps, the UN Volunteers Programme (UNV) ranks as the second largest volunteer-sendina agency with some 4000 professionals in the field every year. Its universality and internationality is reflected in the high number of UNV specialists (74%) who come from developing countries. The scope and size of the international volunteer contribution to development cooperation (notably areas such as HIV/AIDS and the environment), has increased significantly over the years as a result of the changing development challenge. The re-thinking of the role of technical cooperation is equally central to the volunteer debate and this has led to much greater flexibility in the ways in which volunteer services are provided. The important role volunteers can play in peace building efforts with a long-term development dimension, complementary to humanitarian relief, is increasingly being recognised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Working with rather than for people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the UNV's 25th anniversary, and the relocation of its headquarters to Bonn this summer, it is an appropriate time both to assess and to acknowledge the contribution made by these volunteers. Since the programme began in 1971, some 14 000 professionals have dedicated a period of their lives to serve as a UNV. The programme is administered by UNDP, and is therefore intimately linked to its structures, particularly in the field. Regarding community-based initiatives, the comparative advantage of UNVs is that of working with rather than for people over an extended period, thus facilitating their initiatives. The experience of many development agencies shows that in promoting socio-economic change at the village level, the type of person needed is one who-through long-term commitment and sensitivity -can learn as much from local partners as offer advice to them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International volunteers are engaged mainly in rural development tasks. Those working through specialised NGOs such as the Red Cross, and Medecins Sans Frontieres have proved to be highly effective agents, supporting governments faced with disaster situations. In the case of UNV, the value of using volunteer specialists from other developing nations, as a way of encouraging technical cooperation amongst developing countries, is particularly recognised. Most volunteers- perhaps two-thirds - serve in least developed and small island countries. And about three-quarters serve in rural areas, working mostly in programmes of agricultural and community development, health, education and the supply of basic services. Since the end of the Cold War, a growing number have been deployed in emergency relief, refugee and rehabilitation programmes. UNVs make up 10% of the UN's civilian component in Cambodia; 4096 of the field staff of the World Food Programme and almost 100% of outreach workers attached to the UN Mission in Guatemala. UNVs are increasingly involved in human rights promotion, the organisation of elections and conflict resolution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a consensus among the main international humanitarian and development actors that their programmes should be mutually supportive. For example, development efforts must respond to humanitarian crises by remaining on the scene and supporting immediate needs, as well as aiding in the prevention of crises which are known to be looming. Emergency humanitarian assistance should also pave the way for longer term development by viewing the immediacy of the moment through the lens of future sustainable rehabilitation. Both sets of activities should, ideally, be launched and implemented in tandem with local bodies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">External assistance efforts must include strengthening local capacity to cope with problems. Empowerment strategies which inform, educate and facilitate the people's own vision of peaceful and sustainable living environments (including respect for human rights) are fundamental to the future of communities coping in the aftermath of crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Relief, rehabilitation and development?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNV programme has been active in exploring the efficacy of volunteer support to communities in crisis in order to bridge the gap between immediate needs and longer term developmental goals. In 1994, the UNV held its 4th Special Consultation, entitled, Between Crisis and Development - Volunteer Roles and UNV's Contribution. At this event, donor governments, UN agencies and cooperating partners from civil society had an indepth discussion of the issues surrounding volunteer efforts, and the complementary nature of emergency interventions and follow-up measures. The participants reconfirmed the need for local capacity building. They also affirmed the usefulness of the UN Volunteer contribution in crisis prevention, emergency rehabilitation and 'building bridges' to sustainable development. The work of UNVs in preventive action and promoting post-conflict development was highlighted. There has been a significant increase in demand for specialist volunteer services in all types of crisis. These may be economic, natural or man-made, but they all have in common the need to provide essential relief and rehabilitation services for basic survival (to refugees and resident populations). In many countries, disasters and internal strife have put so much pressure on essential public services that the longterm capacity of the people to recover may be threatened. Governments in developing countries and donors both believe it is fully justified to use volunteer specialists to help provide such services during the adjustment period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Mixed' teams</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The contribution of both international and national volunteers is often essential to link immediate relief efforts to future long-term development. National volunteers-people working in their own countries within the UN framework-complement the international approach by providing the key grassroots perspective. UN Volunteers who speak local languages, live and work in remote communities, are familiar with community structures and are known to local leaders, play a key part in facilitating preventive action and providing follow-up in the aftermath of a crisis. UNV specialists are well-placed to build effective partnerships with national and local actors. In the last two years, some 2000 UN Volunteers have worked in various parts of the world in prevention and preparedness, peacekeeping, electoral support, human rights, rehabilitation and reconstruction, and humanitarian relief.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi offers an example of an initiative designed to stem a crisis through local capacity-building. The UNV is financing a project there which supports the mediation and dialogue efforts of the UN Secretary General's Special Representative (SRSG) through the recruitment of UNV peace advisers and conflict resolution facilitators. This project is being run successfully out of the SRSG's office, extending public awareness of the reconciliation process. It includes use of the mass media to promote understanding, and brings local actors together to work for peaceful solutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tasks undertaken by UN volunteers all fit into the spectrum which has 'crisis' et one end end 'development' at the other. The work, moreover, is undertaken in partnership-with civil society (NGOs and community-based organisations), government departments, UN agencies and regional international organisations (such as the KU).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through efforts that aim to link relief, rehabilitation and development, new productive partnerships are emerging to enhance coherence, coordination and complementarily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The growth of professionalism</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30 years ago, the typical profile of an international volunteer was that of a generalist graduate from an industrialised country seeking first-time experience abroad before settling down to a career. Over time, the governments of developing countries made clear their need for practical and often specialised skills aimed at giving them the ability to manage their own programmes. They increasingly expressed impatience at hosting untrained volunteers. Professionalism became the key word. Unfortunately, the word 'volunteer' is still a source of confusion: it is often equated with 'amateur'. This is a perception that now needs to be corrected. The personnel sent out by most agencies that supply volunteers are likely to be in their thirties, with post-graduate qualifications and several years' practical experience in their fields. The typical UNV specialist is an example par excel/ence of this trend: 39 years of age, holding a Master's degree and with more than ten years of experience in a particular discipline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was not just the dedication, but also the professionalism of the hundreds of UN Volunteers serving in Mozambique that impressed Aldo Ajello, the former UN Special Representative in Mozambique (now EU Special Envoy for the Great Lakes Region). 'If I were to run another mission,' he said, 'I would ask immediately for volunteers.' In terms of monitoring-which was vital in building up the trust and confidence needed to ensure the election results were accepted-'UNV electoral officers were our only real presence and they proved to be extremely professional.' ~ T.N. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Study by the World Wide Fund for Nature</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Structural adiustment, the environment, and sustainable development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by David Reed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 29 May, David Reed of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) was in Brussels to present the results of a study undertaken by the WWF, with the support of the European Commission, the longterm consequences of structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) on the environment and the use of nature/ resources. Conclusions were drawn from nine country case studies from Cameroon, Mall Tanzania, Zambia, El Salvador, Jamaica, Venezuela, Vietnam and Pakistan. We publish here an abridged version of Mr Reed's general presentation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAPs, often implemented at the instigation of the international financial institutions, have responded to the pervasive economic problems of the 1980s and to profound changes in the economy in recent decades. The programmes have generally been successful in improving macroeconomic indicators in developing countries. The marketorientation of economies has been increased through liberalised trade and capital flows, privatisation, reductions in regulation and price setting, and cuts in government budgets and programmes. For most developing countries, these changes were essential to economic recovery and adjustment to the new global marketplace.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable development in the social, economic, and environmental sense, has, however, been ignored in SAPs. Many reform programmes have been accompanied by increases in poverty and unemployment, worsening income distribution, and the collapse of social services, environmental protection and state institutional capacities. These immediate costs of adjustment inhibit countries' long-term ability to expand productivity and employment opportunities, as natural resources are exploited indiscriminately to meet short-term needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environmental impacts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The environmental effects of structural adjustment vary from country to country depending on the specific components of the reform package, the structure of the economy, and the implementation process. The WWF's country case studies reveal particular mechanisms through which structural adjustment has altered resource-use patterns. Some more general patterns also emerge from the studies. Everywhere, cuts in government institutions and funding have reduced the state's capacity to facilitate the transition process, to compensate for market failures, and to provide for long-term and social sustainability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many reforms associated with structural adjustment have the potential to improve both environmental and economic outcomes. However, the failure to implement complementary environmental policies or strengthen institutions and regulations, has created a very mixed environmental record. Increases in poverty, greater production incentives, and the loss of government regulatory capacity, have all aggravated patterns of poor resource use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extractive and agricultural economies generally increased production in response to greater exposure to global markets. Without proper policies in place, this increase has put a strain on fragile ecosystems. Environmental pressures include increased land degradation and deforestation for agriculture, livestock and timber production; increased production of non-renewables without long-term investment of the proceeds or environmental safeguards; and increased pollution and damage to the ecosystem from unregulated tourism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The burden of fiscal retrenchment and price changes under structural adjustment have fallen most heavily on the poor, particularly women. The strong association between poverty and environmental degradation has been revealed, as efforts to maintain livelihoods have led to deforestation, land degradation, overhunting and other pressures on endangered species, as well as the unmanaged extraction of nonrenewable resources. Increasing poverty and unemployment associated with adjustment has also added to population pressures in urban areas with insufficient infrastructure exacerbating problems of pollution, disease and congestion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The implications of disregarding the environmental and social impact of adjustment are examined in the various case studies. Structural adjustment has been sustained by the promise that market-orientation and export-led - growth will raise living standards. Evidence from the studies, however, strongly suggests that long-term productive capacity is being destroyed by short-term exploitation of natural resources. Not only environmental but also economic and social sustainability are threatened by the loss of environmental goods and services. Drawing down natural capital has been encouraged by government policies that promote exports and open resources up to international markets. And the process is accelerated by the growing population of poor and unemployed who rely on natural resources for survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recommendations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following its study, the WWF offers a series of recommendations to reduce the environmental costs of structural adjustment and economic integration, and to reorient structural adjustment aims towards sustainable development. Most urgently, environmental issues must be integrated into structural economic reforms - environmental assessments must become part of the programmes. A strategic vision of the role that natural resources and environmental goods and services could play in the transformation of developing economies is essential to designing appropriate strategies. Efforts to industrialise economies must include consideration of the environmental implications. Social services and environmental institutions must be maintained during the adjustment process to prevent increases in poverty and environmental degradation that have both short-term and long-term consequences for development. Essential services include credit and marketing support to small farmers, income-generating opportunities for women, food-assistance programmes, and promotion of distributional equity. The state's role in providing services which neither the private sector nor civil society can provide, must be maintained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the great variety in economic structures and in the capacity of markets and civil society among developing countries, adjustment strategies and government roles must be tailored to each case. Everywhere, countries must implement national institutional reforms for environmental management. Civil society must be strengthened to allow participation in the adjustment process. International financial institutions promoting and designing SAPs must reform their policies and approaches to implementation in the light of the clear evidence that macroeconomic reforms are having a profound effect on the environment and on the possibilities for sustainable development. Continuing failure to correct these problems on a national level accentuates the concern for addressing issues of sustainability on a global level. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.R. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Culture and society</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Why a Biennial Festival of Contemporary African Art?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dak'Art 96</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first World Festival of Negro Art, held in 1966, was essentially a political exercise. In the post-independence period, it was felt necessary to show the world that the people of Africa (both the continent and the diaspora), had a rich culture which had long been suppressed. The festival - which has never been repeated-is viewed with a great deal of nostalgia by supporters of modern African art and black intellectuals. The better, brighter future, which seemed at the time to be just over the horizon, never quite lived up to expectation. Even before financing problems had surfaced, the festival's fate had already been sealed by petty political rivalries and a greedy pursuit of the limelight. Years later, attempts to relaunch the event met with a lukewarm reception. It was already the beginning of the end as far as ideologies were concerned. In complete contrast, Dak'Art 96 (Dakar, 915 May 1996) set its sights firmly on the market place, nowadays the yardstick by which all success is measured. Its goals were simple: to break into the art market and overcome the generally held prejudice that contemporary African art lacks modernity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An international market for African art does exist, but it concerns itself solely with ancient art- and Africa itself profits little from such trade. Indeed, it would be more accurate to speak of plundering than of trade. The seminar, organised last year by the Terveuren Museum in Brussels on the looting of African works of art, revealed the true extent of the phenomenon. Despite the fact that pirated works fetch considerable sums on the black market, contemporary African artists are faced with a 'Catch-22' situation. Major galleries in Europe, America and Japan do not exhibit their work because African art is ignored by the leading art periodicals; and their work never appears in these publications because it is never exhibited. One reason for the fact that African art is not put on show is that virtually no funds are allocated by international institutions to sponsor exhibitions by the artists in question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many third-world governments do not dare, are unwilling or are unable to include culture on their list of priorities within international cooperation agreements. One exception is Burkina Faso which now boasts a cinema industry as a result. Senegal is trying to follow in its footsteps. But there are not many places in Africa where artists are promoted for the quality of their creative output. The majority of initiatives have, in fact, been on a voluntary basis. The magazine Revue Noire is one of the most significant examples of this approach. A group of aficionados of contemporary African art - indeed with a passion for art pure and simple, whether African or European-decided to try and break the vicious circle. They looked at two options: the establishment of an art gallery of worldwide renown or of an equally prestigious arts publication, and came down in favour of the latter. Thus Revue Noire was born. However, its success was generally given very slim odds: it was seen as too glossy, too expensive and too intellectual. The sub-text here of course, is that a publication about African art had no right to be glossy, expensive or intellectual, especially since the money could have been used for something far more 'useful' to the development of these countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Others, such as Marie-Claire Mwanza from l'Espace Alizes in Brussels, have attacked the problem from a different angle-by exhibiting contemporary African art. Prior to her initiative, there was not a single gallery in Brussels that specialised in this sector of the market, and there are still none that figure on the shopping lists of the world's great collectors. Whatever the price set for a contemporary African work, it is generally perceived as being too high. The contrast with the prices demanded for works by even the youngest European or American artists, even for their very first exhibitions, speaks volumes. African art is too expensive in relation to what exactly ? The answer is in relation to the status accorded to it, which is of course determined by the art world. In other words, a big fat zero if one considers the fact that African art is never exhibited.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thanks to Revue Noire, African art has been brought to the major galleries of the Western world. Similar projects have been launched or are in the process of being launched in various countries of the West, such as the magazine NKA in Brooklyn, for example. Exhibition organisers, museums, galleries and those looking to stage art festivals now know on whose door to knock, and the last few months have proved extremely promising. The Guggenheim Museum in New York is currently hosting a major exhibition of African art, and Africa 95, held in London, was swiftly followed by Copenhagen 96. The Guggenheim Museum, moreover, is in a completely different league to the Museum of African and Oceanic Art in Paris or the Museum of Central Africa in Tervueren, Belgium (formerly the Colonial Museum)-it is one of the world's most prestigious temples of modern art. What is more, London's Africa 95, which was so disparaged by African art specialists, who considered it nothing more than a meeting place for traders, did, whether we like it or not, act as a significant catalyst. And what about pirated works of art, such as those plundered from the Niger Valley ? These have found a 'home' in public as well as private collections, pointing to a real need to 'clean out the Augean stables'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few African artists are beginning to get themselves known within 'the market', but there are still not enough of them. It was with great foresight that the organisers of Dak'Art placed these artists at the top of their invitation list. Another shrewd move was to invite the art market's arbiters of taste to select those African artists who should present solo exhibitions, and to ask celebrated art critics and collectors to form part of the international panel of judges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is probably true to say that Africa has rarely known such a dynamic period of creativity which places it at the forefront of global aesthetic trends. The aim of the Biennial Festival was to underline this fact beyond any doubt. Among those artists who are currently in a position to break into the market, the Senegalese sculptor, Ousmane Sow, probably heads the list. Paradoxically, however, Ousmane Sow's work was not presented at Dakar although he himself was there, his tall, striking figure standing out from the crowd. Despite the fact that he lent his support to Dak'Art 96 and that the opening gala was partly dedicated to him with the magnificent film of Beatrice Soule, Ousmane Sow resolutely refused to display his own work. He has no wish to take part in gatherings of 'African artists'. He is an artist and he is African, but he is not an 'African artist'. 'A Japanese artist is a contemporary artist in this universal world', he argues, 'so why should I allow myself to be pigeon-holed in a ghetto ?' No matter how satisfied and pleased champions of contemporary African art may be with the organisation behind the Biennial Festival, they cannot deny that Ousmane Sow has a point. Having said this, there is no contradiction here, but rather a complementary vision. Sow's stance and the idea behind Dak'Art are part of a two-pronged attack, to borrow a military term. The organisers of the Biennial and Sow himself doubtless saw it in this way, and decided to join forces.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each time Beatrice Soule tackles the work of an artist, she explores it in a very unusual way, reinventing the arts documentary. Her films are reminiscent of the music of Nino Rota in Fe//ini's films, Rota subjugating himself to the service of the director's work, sublimating his own originality through this extreme humility. It is impossible to picture the images of Federico Fellini without Rota's haunting music. Beatrice Soule saw in Sow's work a love affair between an artist and his sculpture, coming up with the idea of placing Sow's sculptures in the savannah and imagining the intimate interaction between Africa's natural world, which is at the heart of the artist's inspiration, and his works, which the natural world is able to absorb back into itself. The result of this juxtaposition is that the physical work of art is eclipsed by sheer creative force and spirit. The genius behind the work becomes the work, merges with it and is reincarnated in it. The one thing that Soule did not film was Ousmane Sow himself, her images concentrating solely on the creative act. It would be illusory to attempt to explain a Beatrice Soule film, especially this film. When she unveils how the artist tames physical matter, reinventing materials in order to create a work of art, technique simply recedes into the background, becoming blurred and intangible. Whereas others would have adopted a scientific or factual approach, her camera perceives the abstract aspects of the piece-and its gestation. The film was due to be broadcast on the international FrancoGerman arts channel Arte. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If Ousmane Sow's sculptures are characterised by their gigantic proportions, then those of Georges Adeagbo, a Beninois artist whose name is also beginning to be heard in the commercial art establishment, are characterised by their 'fugacity'. Adeagbo's artistic constructions are as fleeting as puffs of smoke, like voodoo symbols scratched out in the sand. His art is symbolic and ephemeral. Once one of his works has been exhibited, all that remains of it is a hollow shell which he has to reinvent over and over again. Adeagbo constructs ideas, using a host of assorted materials which he painstakingly selects over months, even years. Yet despite the meticulous care with which they are put together, as far as the artist is concerned, the materials per se are of no importance. He could convey exactly the same idea using other elements. An Adeagbo piece is not merely a pile of objects. It is neither conceptual art, nor scrap art. It consists rather of 'installations' which rise and spread outwards. Sometimes, he uses specially constructed sculptures. At other times he employs everyday objects- shoes, saucepans, stones, spectacles or footballs. He also works with written material; manuscripts, parchment, pieces of newspaper and books, portraying the written word as both a creative force and a deceptive screen. Adeagbo himself is a man of few words. Perpetually crouched on the ground, he constructs, modifies, touches and observes his creations. Why should these constructions remind us so much of paintings? They are as much a pile of objects as a painting is an accumulation of layers of paint. It is by forgetting the paint that we are able to admire the picture and it is by looking beyond the materials used by Adeagbo that his work truly reveals itself. Indeed, it is a sign of his genius as an artist that the materials never intrude upon our contemplation of his work. In Dakar, Adeagbo's work was shown in the AIDS exhibition organised by Revue Noire. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another artist who took part in the AIDS exhibition, and whose art could well be the impetus behind the new universal aesthetic, the avant-garde (if such a concept has a meaning), is Pascale Marthine Tayou from Cameroon. He was given the honour of presenting one of the five solo exhibitions. Tayou was sponsored by Yakuyi Kawagushi, the curator of the Setagaya Museum in Tokyo, who exhibited his work at the forum organised within the overall framework of the exhibition. While the term 'installation' may best describe the works of Georges Adeagbo's, Tayou's work falls unquestionably under the heading of sculpture. This is despite the fact that the two artists use virtually identical materials. Tayou sculpts from wood, covering his pieces with all manner of manufactured and salvaged objects such as shoes, nails, plastic bags and enormous condoms, or with natural objects such as bits of roots and stones. He then paints the arrangement. The work is dense, unyielding and mesmerising, often etching itself into the onlooker's mind. His sculpture lacks heavy ornamentation, yet its starkness has a rich quality, the theme encompassed by a jumble of material standing out clearly, like the outline of a silhouette. Take his work 'Fight against AIDS'. The piece consists of a wooden frame in the shape of figure-of-eight, with each horizontal line doubled, defining a key element in a tragic body with bulging eyes and a Pere Ubu belly. In contrast to this suffocatingly tragic figure, the brightly-coloured shoes of a Harlequin with a faded costume offer a comical note.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were other creators who could well ruffle a few feathers in the art market that ultimately makes or breaks an artist: Tamsir Dia of Cote d'lvoire (whose screaming figures are reminiscent of Munch), Cheikh Niass of Senegal, Mathilde Moro of Cote d'lvoire and Abdoulaye Konate of Mali. The last mentioned was honoured with the highest award of the festival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A decision was taken that Dak'Art 96 should encompass other areas of creativity, such as music, design and fashion, in addition to the visual arts. At the gala evening held to inaugurate the Festival, there was a fashion show choreographed in the manner of a ballet. The staging of this can only be described as mawkish. The audience were treated neither to a real performance, nor to a good fashion show. The second fashion spot, which was supposed to present an overview of African design, was also quite pitiful. If the event's organisers decide to keep these parallel areas of creativity in the Festival, then their decision will be solely thanks to the success of the International Design Exhibition. Apart from two or three 'exotic' pieces, this was generally of a very high standard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community's choice in awarding the prize for creativity to a designer, Vincent Amian Namien from the Cote d'lvoire, was particularly revealing. This artist strips everything down to its bare essentials, creating a line that is so purified as to leave only the quintessence of form. Thus, he creates a chair that is nothing more than a perfect metal triangle, with four boards and four metal wires-and yet offers perfect comfort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Claire Kane, a fashion designer of Franco-Senegalese descent, had the verve to go it alone and show her collection at the prestigious Salon of Design. Her clothes are characterised by the rejection of all superfluous detail, achieving a fluid line that stylises movement. Following an aesthetic code that has been decanted from the melting pot of the collective costume heritage of the entire continent, Claire Kane is directly involved in the creation of her designs, from the weaving of the cloth to the last finishing touches. In fact, she admits that her true passion is fabric rather than fashion, her favourite material being woven pagne. She often uses silk-screen printing to introduce pattern. She then adds words to the patterns in her designs and, abracadabra, one would think that this is the way it has always been done in Africa. A subtle modernity, combining both past and future, seems to be a recurring motif in African creativity. International artists, still few in number, travel from Dakar to be dressed by her.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If, in the future, the Festival's organisers decide to concentrate solety on the visual arts, this would come as no surprise. On the other hand, it would also make sense to continue to include design and fashion. A country's cultural heritage should be considered one of its raw materials and a source of economic wealth, and unimaginative accountants may have to resign themselves to this fact. Herein lies a possible answer to the question: 'why hold a Biennial Festival of Contemporary African Art?'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegei Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acting against AIDS</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Robert Rowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many ways of raising money to fight AlDS have been tried, but one of the most unusual must surely be the approach taken by an official of the European Commission. Robert Rowe, who until last year was an assistant editor on The Courier, put on a oneman show in Brussels and then rook it to the other side of the world to raise money for a voluntary organisation working on AIDS prevention and care in Malaysia. Here is his story of fighting the virus with the power of the theatre.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'By the year 2000, South-East Asia will be host to the majority of the world's AIDS cases.' So runs a stark prediction from the World Health Organisation, quoted in a recent paper from a grouping of NGOs affiliated to the Malaysian AIDS Foundation. It goes on to predict that 'the region faces a potential HIV spread of titanic proportions.' In Thailand, a country with a large population and a sad reputation for prostitution, the HIV threat was recognised relatively early and effective public awareness campaigns have successfully reversed the rise in the incidence of infection. But in neighbouring Malaysia, where stricter religious and social attitudes have inhibited wide public discussion of the disease and its methods of transmission, over 13000 people were HIV-positive at the last count-and that is just the figure derived from the small percentage of the population who have been tested. Activists say the true number is certainly higher and it is growing every day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first cases of HIV in Malaysia were found among intravenous drug users and sex workers, and one of the earliest organisations to begin working with people engaged in these high-risk activities was Pink Triangle. This is a voluntary, non-profit-making body which started up in 1987 by setting up AIDS prevention and support programmes for and with the general public and the gay community. Its name, in fact, refers to the pink triangle badge which men sent to concentration camps in Nazi Germany for homosexuality were made to wear. The group has always depended heavily on volunteers to plan and carry out its programmes, which now also involve running a support group for people with HIV or AIDS and a street outreach programme and drop-in centre providing AIDS information, basic medical care, temporary shelter and food for sex workers, injecting drug users and transsexuals. The centre can also provide legal referrals for members of these groups summonsed to appear in court. For the general public, talks, workshops and poster and photo exhibitions are held in schools, hospitals, factories, youth and corporate organisations and other NGOs. Pink Triangle trains its volunteers, too, to provide counselling and information about AIDS and sexuality to anyone who calls up on a confidential telephone line.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work is serious and vital, but the atmosphere is far from gloomy in Pink Triangle's premises in a lively part of the Malaysian capital, Kuala Lumpur. Though funding comes from several sources at home and abroad, including the European Union, the organisation still has to generate a lot of its own money, and one successful method they have used is to put on imaginative events where fund-raising can be combined with an opportunity to raise public awareness. Last December, for example, they marked the week surrounding World AIDS Day with a string of shows, dance parties, talk-ins and street activities called Pinkfest '95. In venues all over the town, and on television and radio, well-known personalities joined a hundred of Pink Triangle's own speakers and performers to provide education without moralising. The aim was to personalise the issue of AIDS by showing how anyone could be at risk, but at the same time dealing in facts, not fear. Thousands of attractively designed and very frank leaflets and posters put across the virus-busting message in catchy graphics and pithy phrases in several languages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I happened to be in Kuala Lumpur around New Year and saw a video of some of the Pinkfest highlights which set me thinking how admirable an impression of solidarity and self-help the anti-AIDS struggle in Malaysia conveys, and to wondering whether, back in Brussels, it might not be possible for us in Europe to do something to help. It particularly impressed and touched me that while Pink Triangle delivers its message to every single member of Malaysian society, it makes quite clear, even by its name, that it has a special care for some of that society's most downtrodden members, people for whom no one else had ever ventured to speak. Public silence, opprobrium and ridicule make it especially hard to get the safe-sex message through to gay men, especially the young, to transsexuals and sex workers, and as long as there is no cure the only way of containing the spread of infection is by education- and by changing social attitudes. The many women whose husbands or partners are careless about infection also stand to benefit from greater openness and more factual information. But organising all this takes money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It happens that among the multinational English-speaking expatriate community in Brussels there is a thriving amateur theatre scene-in fact they say that if two British people found themselves on an otherwise deserted island, one would immediately put on a play for the other, and the same seems to hold true of the Irish and the North Americans. However, it was less certain that anyone apart from me would want to exert themselves, for the many weeks required to stage a production, on behalf of an AIDS charity in a remote Asian country, so l decided to go ahead by myself and perform a one-man comedy. The play was Brief Lives; it has nothing whatever to do with AIDS, but in its day it was a huge success in London and New York. Adapted in the 1960s by the British actor Patrick Garland from the dusty old memoirs of a real historical figure, John Aubrey, it depicts a day in the life of this 1 7th-century English scientist, historian and wit. As he potters about, an extremely old man, in a garret full of manuscripts and curios, he reminisces about his contemporaries in hilarious and touching vignettes, the potted biographies which give the play its name. Aubrey died in penury, but the picture he gives of a vanished age is now reckoned to be the equal of the record we find in the diary of the better-known Samuel Pepys.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also a great deal funnier, and when I showed the script to various friends I was astounded and moved to discover how many of them wanted to be involved in the project. Eventually we put together a team headed by the director, Anne Wilkinson, a music impresario married to a coal expert from the European Commission, with production, design, stage management, lighting, sound effects, costume, music and offstage voices-not to mention publicity and box office-provided by other friends from the European institutions or the private sector. The five performances were given in June in a small theatre just adapted from a pottery workshop, and altogether the Brussels showing made a profit of some 110 000 Belgian francs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We had expected just to send this donation to Pink Triangle through the post, but to our immense pleasure they said they would like to see not just the money but, if possible, the play too. By ingenious compression the designer, Burt Baum, managed to cut the essentials of the set down to three sheets painted to give a three-dimensional effect, we put the voices and music on cassette, rolled up the costume tightly and worked out that the whole play, thus reduced, could be got into one suitcase. There is a little theatre company in the Pacific ACP state of Vanuatu called Wan Smol (One Small) Bag which actually gave me this idea. So off I went to Kuala Lumpur with this bag, and did the play another five times there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The staging in Malaysia was done by an adventurous outfit called Instant Cafe Theatre. This young company has a reputation for pushing forward the boundaries of public discussion with topical plays and supports Pink Triangle's aims and work. Brief Lives was well outside their usual repertoire, as well as being spoken in the English of 300 years ago. My worry was that bringing such a Western and Eurocentric entertainment might be resented as cultural imperialism in a country with three great and fascinating cultures of its own, Malay, Chinese and Indian, each with its own style of drama. But it turned out there was a local tradition of amateur dramatics in English, particularly Shakespeare, and that English is the usual lingua franca for speakers of different Asian languages. What went down unexpectedly well was the depiction of an old man nearing death and reviewing the best moments of his life; as the character puts it in the play, 'When a boy, I did always love to converse with old men, as living histories,' and Maiaysians have a particular regard and affection for the elderly. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I came away from Kuala Lumpur with many charming memories: the unfailing, sweet-natured enthusiasm of the audience; the relief on the first night as I stood on stage in a floor-length costume of three layers, designed to suggest London in midwinter rather than to cope with the equatorial heat of the Malay peninsula, and realised that the stage was air conditioned. The night when this air conditioning blew out a vital candle on the stage, and a man in the front row lent me his highly un-17th-century lighter to get my clay pipe going. The Chinese friend who gave me a genuine antique opium pipe to add to John Aubrey's collection of exotic curios. The delicious succession of Asian chicken dishes which the stage manager produced for me to eat on stage, cooked in very un-English coconut milk or glazed with rice wine. The work permit which specified I could perform as an artiste but must not 'sit out' or dance with the audience! The theatre's resident singer asking if she could add the play's Elizabethan theme song, with lute accompaniment, to her repertoire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taking this play to another continent was a fascinating cultural experience for me as a European, and I hope for the audiences too it was something more than just a painless way of being relieved of money in a deserving cause. At any rate the theatre asked if they could have another play soon, one in which Malaysian actors could be incorporated as well. As for Pink Triangle, some of its leading lights were packing their bags to go to Vancouver for this year's International AIDS Conference, but before they left it was a pleasure to hand over the proceeds of the whole venture and to hear that the organisation will use the money to develop a drop-in centre for people approaching them in person for the first time. Some first-timers are understandably timid about coming to the unfamiliar (and clearly signposted) premises for help or information, and a private space where they can talk in confidence is something Pink Triangle has always wanted to provide but could never find the funds for, as the project or programme money they get from their regular donors is invariably tied to what outsiders might think were more urgent priorities. It is not only the headline grabbing schemes which have useful effects: a quietly welcoming space where someone can be himself or herself may do more to dispel an individual's fear and ignorance than publicly visible campaigning, especially where religious and social pressures against certain types of nonconformity are strong. In fighting HIV/AIDS, we must try whatever works. And empowerment must begin with the self. It was a great privilege to be welcomed in like any other volunteer wanting to help bring about a necessary change. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.R. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA-Bulletin</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Earthen architecture</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials, techniques and knowledge at the service of new architectural applications</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Hugo Houben and Hubert Guilland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major building material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The importance - both in quantity and quality- of unbaked earth constructions in the world is very little known. Believed to be of ancient origin, (it is associated with the early civilisations of the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Indus and Huang He), nowadays, earth is not usually regarded as a major building material. This is despite the fact that it continues to leave an undeniable and distinctive imprint on the architectural landscapes, both rural and urban, of many countries. Unbaked earth is still, in fact, a major building material, being used extensively by people to erect homes and other buildings. Although sites of human occupation have seen constant regeneration with the passage of time, unbaked earth construction has persisted. Excavated from the soil itself, and moulded by the hand of man (or trampled by beasts of burden), the result is a building material which is used in all forms of construction-from simple huts and modest homes, to farm buildings, large houses, urban blocks, religious edifices, castles and palaces. The skills employed are based on knowledge acquired and refined over a long period of time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A contemporary building material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the use of earth in so called 'advanced' countries has declined in the 40 years since the end of the Second World War, in the developing countries it has continued unabated. In the former, the industrialisation of construction and other sweeping changes have rendered obsolete ancient techniques based on the use of local skills and materials, and on mutual help within communities. In the latter, various factors have dictated the continuing use of locally available solutions, materials and knowledge. These include shortages of processed materials (which are costly in both foreign currency and imported energy terms), the widening of the development 'gap', the accumulation of debt contracted within the international monetary system and the survival of local life-styles in which people are accustomed to coming to get her for mutual help for survival. In these countries, which have no industrial means, and which are to be found in various latitudes across the world, earth remains the main-if not the only- building material. Do these circumstances mean that it is a poor material, fashioned using outmoded techniques and unsuitable for promoting the development which is so necessary? The answer to this question is a clear 'no'. On the contrary, the materials and techniques involved are generally of a high standard. They can ensure true architectural quality, allowing communities to continue creating their private or public living environments, and to integrate their buildings into a coherent framework of self-generated development which makes the most of the resources available, both human and material. In fact, scientific and architectural research into earth as a building material, and on related building techniques, has made considerable progress in recent decades. Combined with investments made by industrialists and construction companies, the result is that we now have a wide range of properly mastered production procedures and technical solutions available. These offer great flexibility in meeting a wide range of possible applications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Making a mark on world architecture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recent global surveys, although partial (covering about 30% of the world's housing), have given us an indication of how extensively earth is used in construction. In developing countries alone, 50% of the rural population and 20% of those living in urban areas are believed to be concerned. The figures, which are drawn from the combined data of statistical surveys in various areas, and from bibliographical information, almost certainly underestimate the true position. They show, for example, that 60% of the housing in Peru is in moulded bricks or rammed earth. 83% of the houses in Kigali, the capital of Rwanda, are made of earth. More than 70%of India's housing stock is constructed out of moulded earth bricks or using successive layers of earth, and these buildings provide shelter for nearly six hundred million people. In France, many rural dwellings are built from unbaked earth and one finds, for instance, that in the Dauphine region, up to 90% of the buildings in certain villages are made out of rammed 'pise' earth. Finally, in California, there were estimated to be almost 200 000 'adobe' (sun-dried earth brick) dwellings by 1980 and the use of this material was growing at the rate of 30% a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Closer examination reveals that the whole world bears the indelible stamp of earthen architecture. Earth is used in Africa-in humble shelters built on leased land and in the great granaries of the continent. It is found in the palaces of the Hausa emirs of Nigeria, the ksours and kasbahs of Morocco and the mosques of Mali. In the Middle East, you come auoss it in the tightly-packed neighbourhoods of Ispahan and Iran, the fortified dwellings of Najran in Saudi Arabia, the multi-storey earth blocks of Shibam and the valley of the Hadramaut in Yemen. In Europe, there are the mouded brick farms of Aquitaine and the baroque and neo-classical castles of the Saone valley. And bringing in other parts of the world, we might mention the pueblos of the New Mexico Indians, and the houses built by the Hakkas in the Chinese province of Fujian, laid out in their characteristic concentric circles. The use of unbaked earth in building may be seen as a vestige of past history, but it is actually a living framework for history in the making.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Realistic uses for the future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Confronted with the energy crisis of the 1970s, oil-dependent industrialised countries were forced to look again at tried and tested technical solutions which were now proving to be too 'energy-greedy'. The building sector did not escape this reappraisal and the search began for ways of reducing energy consumption both at source (covering the production and use of building materials) and further down the production chain (maintenance). Research on biomass and solar energy ran in parallel with experiments to update traditional materials and to attempt to rationalise the production process. Earth again became a focus of interest, with government institutions supporting a considerable amount of new research and experimentation. This covered applications in both the industrialised world and in developing countries, research for the latter being undertaken in the context of bilateral or multilateral cooperation. With the threat to the ecological balance posed by pollution, degradation and the plundering of natural areas, this interest in developing materials and techniques that are inherently friendly to the environment has not lessened. In many places, people are becoming increasingly involved in controlling and managing their living environment. The field has been opened up by qualitative research, a new awareness of the available options and an increase in leisure time. With techniques now at hand that are easy to use and economical, a greater measure of (partial or complete) selfhelp building is now possible. The USA, Australia and Germany all encourage new forms of intervention in building which give greater responsibility to the occupier in the creation of his living environment. Viewed from this perspective, earth as a building material has definite advantages and plays an important role.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In developing countries, burdened by debt and confronted by an urgent need to build on a scale unprecedented in history, imported materials, techniques and energy are largely inaccessible to the majority of people, and their use may contribute to promoting 'bad' development. Building with earth emerges as an efficient shortterm way of producing houses or public buildings such as schools, which are both economical and of high quality (being culturally and climatically suitable). Decision-makers in these countries are well aware of this and have mobilised 'upstream' feasibility studies in their education and public housing programmes. The research covers local resources and knowledge, and the use of labour intensive techniques that generate employment and enable the population gradually to become 'monetarised'. The days of costly experimentation, often with no practical result, are now over. A new confidence in the resources that are available must be encouraged. There needs to be an increase in building completions and those who built them need more training. Today, this is happening in Mexico (850 earthen houses recently built in the state of Zacatecas) and in Burkina Faso (6000 school classrooms constructed by 1995.) No fewer than forty million homes will have to be built between now and the year 2000 for the urban population of Africa alone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies show that for most of the people involved, there is no choice but to employ local materials, most often earth. One can thus predict that at least 20% of urban and pert-urban housing in African countries (about eight million units), will be built in earth over the next ten years, at a rate of eight hundred thousand units per year. If demand from rural areas is added to this, one gets some idea of the scale of the task facing decision-makers and builders. The use of earth and other locally available materials is unavoidable, and should be encouraged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environmental advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is particularly important to enumerate the many advantages of building in unbaked earth from the point of view of the environment. This issue, one of the contemporary problems facing society, is increasingly moving centre-stage, and in the future, it is sure to play a greater part in political, economic, social and cultural strategies linked to the planning and improvement of the quality of life. Here we refer to the concept of the environment in the widest sense of the word, ecological, economic, technical, health-wise and psychological, cultural and human.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the ecological environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In terms of pollution and degradation, unbaked earth offers a highly positive picture:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not contribute to the deforestation which results, for example, from the use of organic resources for firing baked earth materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not consume any nonrenewable energy (oil, gas, etc.) at source for the processing and production of materials, or further down the production line in their application. This is in sharp contrast to the production of cement, lime and other conventional binding materials, and steel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- By exploiting strata on construction sites, it allows a considerable saving in energy for the transport of materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not contribute to a degradation of the landscape as does the extraction of minerals and ores which hollows out hillsides and creates open cast sites. A great deal of the earth excavated in the course of large public works (notably roads and motorways) can be recycled and used in building (allowing very easy decentralised distribution).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not contribute to the diminution of resources of aggregates such as gravel and sand, excavated either from quarries or from water courses, in insular sites or lagoons. The latter can endanger the ecological balance of these natural environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It uses very little water which is essential for the life of the people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It produces no industrial or chemical waste and has the additional advantage of being almost entirely recyclable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the economic environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It is often comparable in cost with, or indeed more economic than competing technologies and requires no major financial mobilisation for its generally light production infrastructure. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It guarantees rapid amortisement thresholds for bankable investments thanks to its low infrastructure requirements for usable production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It contribution to local flexibility, being readily susceptible to a decentralised approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Throughout the production process, it creates employment and monetary added-value which can be injected for development purposes into other sectors of the economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- By allowing savings in energy and foreign currency, it contributes at the macro and micro economic levels of the building sector, to a considerable reduction in developing countries' debt and to the balance of payments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the technical environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It has thermophysical and hydric properties (good conductivity, energy retention capacity, thermal differential, delayed temperature differences etc.) which help ensure comfortable temperatures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It normally only requires simple production and application tools (moulds, presses, light shuttering, normal masonry tools, etc.) which are widely accessible to masons and self-help builders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of health and the psychological environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Not only non-polluting in its use, it also guarantees the absence of harmful effects in the context of daily life (no gaseous emissions or other toxic chemical components, radioactive emissions etc.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It contributes to psychological wellbeing by the architectural exploitation of its inherent characteristics; these include the surface texture, colour, form and luminosity of the material. It thus makes an active contribution to the beauty of the living environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the cultural and human environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It maintains the traditional architecture heritage of the area in question through the use of local materials and thus plays a part in the respect for, as well as the survival and updating of, cultural, architectural and urban environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It allows local populations to take charge of the production of their built environment and thus contributes to the expression of the democratic rights of all to control their living environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future of earth on the move</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In her work entitled 'A Fate Worse than Debt' (Penguin Books, 1988), the famous political commentator, Susan George, analysed the debt situation of developing countries and attempted to determine the basis for a positive resolution of the problem. Her approach focused in particular on solutions involving repayment in creative values or 'in kind' rather than in strictly monetary means. At the end of her analysis, she put forward eleven potential solutions to allow this repayment in kind and to launch a coherent approach for the development of less advanced societies. One of these recommendations was that it would be necessary to develop 'the study and survey (and if necessary the improvement) of local building techniques, in particular earth architecture ('pise' or 'banco').' Ms George argued that new buildings, particularly public ones, should be constructed using these techniques.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear that various solutions are being considered for the future: one in which building with earth, using a wide range of local techniques, will have a new technological, social, cultural, ecological, economic and political role of paramount importance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Various methods of utilisation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The technical, constructional and architectural possibilities of earth are very extensive. The study of popular traditions and of traditional knowledge throughout the world has enabled some 18 different methods of utilisation of the material to be identified, each in itself capable of being applied in a wide variety of ways. This wide construction potential has enabled the building of modest shelters, village houses, urban blocks, religious edifices and palaces. This is not to say that other traditional materials do not have an important role, but the sheer diversity and flexibility of earthen architecture probably cannot be equalled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As was indicated earlier, the use of earth as a building material has given rise to numerous applications using a wide variety of production and construction techniques. Some of these techniques are still used in traditional construction many countries, some have been abandoned, while others have only recently been the subject of developmental experimentation. It is worth noting that there is a register of the principal techniques, mainly associated with processes using moulds, shuttering and direct shaping. The six most widely used techniques are: 'adobe', 'rammed earth', 'straw clay', 'wattle and daub', 'cob' and 'compressed blocks'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these six, three (wattle and daub, straw clay, and cob), are highly traditional, while the others (adobe, rammed earth and compressed earth blocks) have recently been the subject of spectacular evolution linked to the modernisation of production machinery and methods of application. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p094.png"></center><br>
+ The use of earth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The couriers mailbag</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plea for African solidarity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thank you sincerely for your report on the second plenary of the Global Coalition for Africa which appeared in the March-April 1996 edition. As a 'displaced' Liberian, I would like to comment on some of the issues reported in the article.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First, I hope that Africans recognise and appreciate all that former President Jimmy Carter has done and continues to do for our beloved continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, I support the view of Ms Johnson-Sirleaf and President Afwerki of Eritrea that we, as Africans, must invest in ourselves and in productive endeavours in our own countries. However, given the number of civil wars, that have resulted in displacement of our peoples and migration of the labour force, it is imperative that we also begin to think of and recognise each other as Africans first - and only then as members of whatever ethnic group we belong to. As a Liberian with professional qualifications who relocated to Ghana in 1992, I met with opposition and resentment because of my nationality and sex. I subsequently went to the Caribbean where my acceptance as an African was easier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When there is a population movement, the psychological impact associated with feelings of rejection and intimidation is severe. Sub-Saharan Africa will never develop or reach its fullest potential until we begin to think and act as a united, yet diverse group of people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I agree that it is important to develop our homelands first, but in the case of Liberia, Burundi or Rwanda, where no one seems to understand the concept of peace or the idea of having a future, it is crucial that the displaced be respected and accepted as fellow Africans. It would be even better if we were afforded the opportunity to integrate and assimilate into society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ciata A. Bishop, Grand Cayman.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What about Guinea-Bissau ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I am a student from Guinea-Bissau reading international law and political science at the Social Science University in Toulouse. I have also been a faithful Courier reader for more than seven years. In the March-April issue of 1996, you published an article on fisheries by Anthony Acheampong entitled 'A vital food source in West Africa'. You gave the figures for fish production in 16 West African countries-but did not mention my native country! I should point out that Guinea-Bissau consumes and exports a great deal of fish, and the product is an important source of foreign exchange to the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.J. Alves d'Almada, Toulouse, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Media and democracy in Southern Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I refer to the article with the above title by Francis Caas which appeared in issue no. 154 of The Courier (November-December). I enjoyed reading the text which examined the emergence of a free press due to the advent of political liberalisation in the Southern African region. However, I wish to make a correction as to what I think is a misrepresentation of fact. The author said, and I quote: 'The installation of a democratic regime in 1994 (in Malawi) enabled the MBC to begin broadcasting in all languages spoken in the country'. This is not actually correct although the Malawi Broadcasting Corporation, apart from broadcasting in English and Chechewa, has since introduced Tumbuka on the radio. I felt it was important to put the record straight on this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Disher G.DJ. Pindani Lecturer in Public Administration, Chancellor College, Zomba, Malawi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corrigenda </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In issue no 157, a number of 'author' footnotes were inadvertently omitted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pascal Dotchevi, author of 'Togo: the victory of the taxi. bikes' (p.11) is a journalist on Kpakpa Desenchante, a satirical weekly published in Lom&eacute; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Piritta Sorsa, author of 'Banking and securities' (p.13) works at the IMF office in Geneva.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yves Delafon, author of 'Developing consultancy work in the ACP countries' (p.15) is the director of a consultancy and President of the Federation of External Trade Associations in Provence/ Cote d'Azur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N'Gone Fall, author of 'Fashion; Out of Africa.. the breath of inspiration' (p.53) is a journalist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also in issue 157, some errors appeared in the article entitled 'Sparks fly in Namibia'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the introductory section it was stated that secret harlots were held on resolutions relating to Nigeria, Niger and Sudan. This should have read Nigeria, Niger and Equatorial Guinea; a resolution on Sudan was passed by normal, open vote procedure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the heading 'The future of Lom&eacute;' the ACP Generai Rapporteur vvas refered to as Mr Firmin, which is the forename. The General Rapporteur's surname is Mr Jean-Louis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the fifth paragraph under the same heading, there was a reference to Helena Torres Couto. This should have read Mr Jose Manuel Torres Couto. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bibliography</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L'Afrique est-elle protectionniste- Les chemins buissonniers de la liberation exterieure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Is Africa protectionist ? Greater economic freedom via the maze)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Beatrice Hibou. Karthala Publications (22-24, boulevard Arago, F-75013 Paris). 1996. 334 pp. ISBN 286537-633-8.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This volume offers a clearsighted analysis of the foreign trade policies of African states, fraud, smuggling and the way in which the franc zone operates, giving a definitive, reformulated account of structural adjustment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In her approach, the author is critical of both the liberal political economy and the new trends (the 'new political economy' end the neoinstitutionalist trends) which perpetuate the division between the economy and society. She refers to K Polanyi for whom Man's social relationships include economics and in whose opinion the economic system is managed as a function of non-economic motives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From this starting point, Beatrice Hibou demonstrates the part played by the unexpected and the unintentional in economic policies as they currently exist, revealing that coherence in foreign-trade policies on the part of African countries is not an economic priority but a socio-political one. In this connection, she shows that structural adjustment programmes have been unsuccessful in making any real impact on protectionist practices, at least in terms of their political and historical bases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After an overview of (legal or illegal) foreign-trade practices in contemporary Africa, protectionism is clearly alive and well, although much less widely applied and effective than about a decade ago. The reduction in the State's legal powers has meant increased freedom for 'informal networks', various types of dispensation, and an increase in fraud and smuggling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the basis of Jean-Francois Bayart's opinion, dating from 1989, the author suggests that the explanation is to be found in the specific nature of Africa's economic history, which is one of independent means, a lack of production and management of dependency without the way in which it operates being affected. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Reality of Aid</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Independent review of international aid. Pub.: J. Randel and T. German. Earthscan Publications Ltd. (120, Pentonville Road, UK London N1 9JN). 1996. 244 pp. ISBN 1 85383 292 8.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Reality of Aid (now an annual publication) compiled by two NGOs; Eurostep and ICVA, aims to highlight the extent to which donor aid helps developing nations, looking beyond the official publications of governments, banks and inter-governmental bodies. It contains a useful critique of the European Union's various aid policies and the respective bilateral policies of each of its 15 member states, as well as those of other Western nations like Australia, New Zealand, Switzerland and the United States. This year's review highlights, in particular, the need to mount more projects to alleviate poverty, despite aid commitments becoming more scarce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It says, for example, 'Too much aid is being squandered by governments on projects which have more to do with commercial and political advantage than poverty eradication. Rigorous evaluation needs to identify those programmes which can make an impact -and aid must increasingly be directed only to these areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International aid to developing nations has fallen off over the years. In 1994, members of the OECD's Development Assistance Committee-21 of the world's richest countries-allowed their aid to fall to just 0.3 % of GNP, the lowest level for more than 20 years. The review stresses the need for donors to address in particular; policy coherence (environment, agriculture and consumption policies are all linked to poverty), the effectiveness of aid, the failure thus far to invest in people and the fact that the amount of assistance going to health and education is stagnating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The review also features analytical case studies of various donor activities in selected developing nations (India, Fiji, Cambodia, Peru, Zimbabwe) and looks at Western assistance to post communist countries in transition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A chapter on the European Union's current development policies, edited by Mirjam van Reisen, a Brussels-based Eurostep researcher, criticises the lack of coherence of EU aid with its Member States bilateral programmes-an issue which is likely to come more to the fore as other European nations join the Union in the next millennium. Ms van Reisen also claims that there are too few staff running the EU's development policies and suggests, in particular, that there is a lack of expertise in the social and poverty areas. She stresses the importance for the EU's political leaders of giving more political clout to the EU's development policies at the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC), which is currently engaged in revising the EU's treaties. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">News round-up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">In brief</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trafficking of women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European Commissioner for immigration policy and legal affairs, Anita Gradin, will set to work with fellow Commissioners over the coming months to draw up a European Union action programme to clamp down on the trafficking of women which she describes as, 'the modern slave trade'. This comes hot on the heels of the Vienna European conference on trafficking of women, held on June 10 and 11, which was co-hosted by the European Commission, the Austrian government and the International Organisation for Migration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ms Gradin told journalists on June 12: 'I will put forward to the Council and the European Parliament a communication on the trafficking in women for sexual exploitation. This will cover migration policy, police and judicial cooperation, and social aspects to support and protect the victims. It will also consider European relations with the source countries, where the women are recruited.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Vienna conference highlighted the need for cooperation between Member States and third countrie from which women are lured into prostitution in Western Europe. Recommendations, which are expected to be part of the EU policy, include setting up central national units in each Member State to exchange information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commissioner told the participants in Vienna: 'The slave trade in women is growing, a slave-trade that aims at sexual exploitation. No part of the world seems to be free from this degrading treatment of women. Women are bought and sold like cattle or commodities. They are deprived of their rights and their dignity. And the direction of the trade is the same all over-it is women from poor conditions that are forced into a deplorable life by men in richer countries.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">She cited a typical case of one woman from the Dominican Republic from the book 'Stolen Lives' by Sietske Altinks: 'One day I went to visit a friend who was going to discuss job opportunities in Europe. I went with her and met a schoolteacher who knew somebody called Juan who could get me a job in the Netherlands. When I went to see him, his associates told me that I would easily find employment in a beauty parlour.' She ended up in prostitution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ms Gradin continued: 'The consequences for the women are dreadful. Often, they find themselves deprived of their freedom to move and decide for themselves; they are often locked up and subjected to violence and sexual exploitation. And should they be able to free themselves, they are regarded as illegal residents and expelled.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Aid for development in the field of communication</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A seminar was held under the auspices of the United Nations in the Belgian Parliament on 6 and 7 June, on 'the future of international development cooperation: new challenges for communication'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union was represented at the event, among others, by Colette Flesch and Steffen Smidt, the directors general respectively of DG X and DG VlII of the Commission. Mrs Flesch gave a presentation at the opening session in which she highlighted the various communication approaches adopted by the European Community in its efforts to counter what appears to be a growing lack of interest in development aid on the continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Smidt, who spoke in the second session of the seminar, began his presentation with an anecdote, citing a text displayed at the entrance to a Federal building in Washington. This states: 'Taxes are what we pay to have a civilised society'. Paraphrasing this sentiment, the Director-General argued that, 'development assistance is what we pay to have a civilised European Union.' The question, he went on to pose, was whether we were paying enough ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of the participants painted a discouraging picture of the situation facing the world's poorest countries in a world of advanced communications and increasing globalisation. Almost all were pessimistic about the impact of the socalled 'information super highways' on the least-developed nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most striking interventions came from Mabbub Ul Haq, the former Finance Minister of Pakistan, who spoke just after Mr Smidt in the plenary meeting, as well as at one of the discussion workshops. Mr Ul Haq urged the creation of a UN Economic Security Council, arguing that the main risk of global conflagration lies in the disparity that exists between rich and poor, now that the dangers associated with the Cold War have receded. One of the most acute issues under discussion was the growing challenge to the received wisdom that technical assistance is essential for consolidating national capacities. The evidence of 40 years of technical assistance would suggest otherwise (with 95% of funds set aside for this purpose going to foreign experts). Indeed, it was argued that those countries receiving most technical assistance per capita, had 'benefited' least from the system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In his second contribution, Mr Ul Haq painted a somewhat more encouraging picture, pointing out that the shaky 0.3% share of GNP allocated to development aid by the industrialised countries had achieved miracles in terms of increased life expectancy (up by 17 years) and the doubling of school enrolments in the countries of the South.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Round one of the South Africa-EU talks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa gave no immediate response to the European Union's proposals for a bilateral trade agreement at the first round of high level negotiations in Brussels on June 20. The talks were headed by Dr L. T Links who is South Africa's new Ambassador in Brussels and for the KU, by the Director General for Development, Steffen Smidt. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most difficult subject to negotiate will be future terms of access for South Africa's farm produce. The European mandate, which was agreed by EU Member States on March 25, foresees the exclusion of 39% of South Africa's farm produce currently sold to the EU from the planned free trade area. Applying World Trade Organisation (WTO) rules, the EU wants a scaled dismantling of barriers to trade in both farm and manufactured goods over a 10-year period, with a maximum of 12 years for a few highly sensitive items. But the EU has agreed to 'asymmetry' whereby, in some areas, it will open up its market to South Africa at a faster pace than vice versa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abdul Minty, deputy Director General at the Foreign Affairs Department in Pretoria, who is one of ,the chief negotiators, explained that South Africa had not yet responded to the terms because it is still consulting internally with the National Economic Development and Labour Council and with its partners of the Southern African Customs Union (Botswana, Swaziland, Namibia and Lesotho). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During a recent visit to Brussels, South Africa's former agriculture minister, Dr Kraai van Niekerk and his deputy, Mrs Thoko Didiza, told reporters that as it stood, the EU's mandate was 'anti-developmental'. Dr van Niekerk said he would like to see citrus fruit, in particular, removed from the list of exclusions. He also sought to dispel the fears of some EU Member States who wish to omit a larger proportion of South Africa's farm produce from the FTA, for fear of competition with equivalent EU produce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr van Niekerk stressed the 'complementary' nature of South Africa's farm production. He pointed out that his country's growing season was at the opposite time of year to that of the EU and noted that South Africa's output of farm produce could only increase by about 2%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EU spokesman, Joao Vale de Almeida, said that progress had been made during the Brussels talks on aspects of South Africa's 'tome protocol'. This is aimed at giving South Africa certain benefits from the Lom&eacute; Convention- some eligibility for South African companies to tender for Lom&eacute; contracts and the partial extension of the Lom&eacute; rules of origin to South African exports. It was originally planned that the Lom&eacute; protocol should be implemented at the same time as a bilateral trade accord, (on January 1 1997). Mr Vale de Almeida spelt out that although it would not be technically and legally impossible for the Lom&eacute; protocol to come on stream without the bilateral pact, it would be more practical if the two could be implemented at the same time. A second round of talks is expected to take place in the autumn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Echo Media Awards</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 29 June, the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO) launched a Television and Radio awards scheme to reward high-quality coverage of humanitarian affairs. Prizes will go to programmes produced or co-produced by independent production companies and/or broadcasting stations in the 15 EU countries which have been transmitted in a Member State on terrestrial or satellite television or radio between January 1 1995 and September 1 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Judging by a panel made up of NGOs, environmentalists, politicians and the media will be in six categories:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People on the move-a television documentary on the humanitarian consequences of sudden or forced population movements; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the minds of the people-a TV documentary on the psychological trauma in crisis situations; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forgotten conflicts-TV coverage of a long-running crisis forgotten by the mainstream; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vulnerable groups-TV coverage of the hazards encountered by women, children and the elderly in rebuilding their lives; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Broadcast commitment-to a radio or TV station for consistent, high-quality coverage of humanitarian issues; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio award-for the most incisive and analytical coverage of an emergency or humanitarian crisis. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Announcing the scheme, EC Commissioner, Emma Bonino, said: 'These awards give us an opportunity to acknowledge the vital role that broadcasters play in raising awareness of the issues at stake in imaginative, accurate and moving ways. They also serve to remind us of some of the basic European values such as solidarity and humanitarianism that have sometimes been eclipsed by barrages of headlines about mad cows and fish wars.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entries for this inaugural year must be submitted by September 19, 1996. Details can be obtained from: Mandy Duncan-Smith, Media Natura (UK), tel: (44 171) 240 4936 fax: (44171) 240 2291 E-mail: medianatura@gn.apc.org</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Posters featuring contemporary Bantu art</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the framework of its cooperation programme with the Commission, CICIBA (Centre international des civilisations bantu-B.P. 770-Libreville- Gabon) has recently launched a series of large format reproductions featuring contemporary Bantu art. Thirteen works have been chosen, displaying a representative selection of art forms-painting, sculpture, engraving and moulded leather. The posters, more than 5000 of which have been printed in quadrichromic colour, have a 40 x 60 format. They are also available as postcards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The artists featured are Marcela Costa (Angola), Assouambo (Cameroon), Daikou (Central African Republic), Mouanga Nkodia (Congo), Abdou Moeou (Comoros), Pambou Boulaz (Gabon), Jose Menan (Equatorial Guinea), Protais Hakizimfura (Rwanda), Protasio Pina (Sao Tome &amp; Principe), Silu Kinanga and Munyenz Tshibangu (Zaire) and Mulenga Chafilwa (Zambia).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CICIBA has also put together a similar series on ancient Bantu art. The fourth bi-annual exhibition of contemporary Bantu art, which has received some support from the European Commission, was due to be staged in Luanda (Angola) during July and August.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Links between technology and society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For more than 50 years, technological innovation has been regarded by many writers in the field as the motor of economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, with rapid developments in the media sector and the emergence of 'information super-highways', the whole world is talking about the emergence of a new society dominated by 'smart' technology linked with research and creativity. This trend gives rise to many questions. Will the information be made available to all, and if so, when ? Will it lead to a change in North-South relations? Can we imagine what a world of 'tale-working', 'tale-education' and video on demand will be like ? What will the cost of all this be? Will biotechnology rescue the world or be the cause of its downfall ? What will the consequences be for the environment ? And in a globalised world, what standards and norms will be used ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In short, what is the real nature of the relationship between technology and society; between science and humankind ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fifteen universities of the EEA (European Economic Area) from Oslo to the Basque country and from London to Athens (taking in Roskilde, Maastricht, Louvainla-Neuve, Namur, Strasbourg, Lausanne, Sienna, Bari, Madrid, Valencia and Lisbon), have come together to offer a multidisciplinary course focusing on these key questions. During the first term, classes in theory and seminars are offered (in the local language of the institution) by experts from the academic world and the public and private sectors. Visits are also planned to multinational companies and laboratories. For the second half of the course, the students gain a wider European dimension by 'changing' university (with grants from the Socrates programme). The bulk of their time at this stage will be spent preparing a research dissertation in English on a topic which fits in with the specialisation of the host institution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For further information on the ESST</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">programme, contact:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. E Lints (UCL-Belgium)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. (32) 01047.82.60</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. T. Nguyen (FUNDP-Belgium)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. (32) 081-72.49.09</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The institutions at work</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Common foreign and security policy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), the European Union has recently issued a number of statements, details of which are set out below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antipersonnel mines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 13 May 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the closure of the Review Conference of the States Parties to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, the European Union recalls that it has, in recent years, redoubled its efforts to combat the severe consequences caused to civilians by the indiscriminate use of land mines, in particular anti-personnel mines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The KU, which adopted joint action in May 1995 in order to reconfirm its commitment to the objective of an overall strengthening of Protocol 11 of the CCW, considers that the achievements of the Review Conference (such as the extension of the scope of Protocol II; the strengthening of restrictions on the use of mines; the new and immediate prohibitions regarding transfers; the provisions on technological cooperation and assistance; the regular review mechanism, etc), taken together, are significant steps forward, both in terms of the land mines protocol itself and of the development of international humanitarian law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The KU, however, underlines that the resuits of the Review Conference fall short of its expectations and of some of the goals set out in its joint action. In particular, the EU should have liked an effective and binding verification mechanism and no periods of deferral of compliance, or at least much shorter ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is convinced that the conclusion of this Review Conference is only the beginning of a challenging process which requires constant and widespread efforts and persistence in order to fully achieve its basic humanitarian objectives. The EU will continue to seek solutions to the problems caused by antipersonnel land mines and will strive towards the goal of their eventual elimination as stated in UN Resolution 50/70 (O). In the meantime, the Member States of the EU will seek early ratification of the amended Protocol II, as well as of the new Protocol IV on blinding laser weapons, and will take urgent steps to ensure their compliance with all the provisions of these two protocols pending their entry into force.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU will also continue to make active efforts with a view to achieving universal adherence to the CCW, since its objectives can only be effectively attained through implementation of its provisions by the widest number of states and parties to conflicts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Furthermore, the EU recalls its determination to pursue its contribution to the international mine clearance efforts. The EU has already contributed to the UN Voluntary Trust Fund, financing, in particular, projects in Angola and Mozambique as well as in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. In addition, the EU will consider the possibility of conducting specific demining actions and will continue to seek to that effect the contribution of the WEU to the elaboration and implementation of such actions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Central and Eastern European countries associated with the EU (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania and Slovakia) and the associated countries Cyprus and Malta, as well as the EFTA country members of the EEA, Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway, align themselves with this statement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Great Lakes region and the situation in Burundi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 24 June 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU's objectives and priorities with regard to the Great Lakes region are to secure peace, to consolidate the process of national reconciliation in the countries concerned, to facilitate a return to normal democratic life, in particular by restoring the rule of law, and to encourage economic and social recovery.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aware as it is of the close links between the various political, economic and humanitarian problems in the region and of the serious risk of destabilisation which remains, the EU would emphasise the need for a comprehensive approach and a regional dimension in the search for lasting solutions to the crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It considers that the presence of over a million and a half refugees in the region constitutes a major factor of destabilisation and that their return to their countries of origin in safety and with dignity is essential if peace is to be restored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It appeals to the Heads of State who signed the Cairo and Tunis Declarations to comply with the undertakings they gave, so as in particular to stop trafficking in arms and the training of the various militia and armed groups which serve only to increase insecurity in the region. It would point to United Nations Resolution 1053 in this regard and also the measures in the plan of action adopted by the Bujumbura Conference (12 to 17 February 1995) for the prevention of subversive activities in countries of asylum. The EU also emphasises the importance of deploying United Nations observers in airports and at frontiers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is increasingly concerned at the deteriorating political and human rights situation in Burundi and at the increase in violence. The persistent clashes, spreading over different parts of the country, and the killings and atrocities committed against the civilian population could well involve Burundi in a spiral of permanent conflict.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU strongly condemns all recourse to violence, which will never bring about a solution to the country's problems, and appeals to all the factions in the country to begin negotiating a resolution of their differences and to agree on an immediate, general cessation of violence. It supports the initiatives taken by the United Nations and the Organisation of African Unity to restore peace, as well as former President Nyerere's current efforts in this area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It fervently hopes that the talks taking place will result in a national dialogue open to all factions within the country. It also expresses its support for the ongoing efforts made by various bodies and eminent figures such as former Presidents Carter and Toure, and Archbishop Tutu.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU would point out that it too has taken initiatives aimed at resolving the crisis and recently appointed a special envoy for the Great Lakes region, Mr Aldo Ajello, to assist the current efforts of the United Nations, the Organisation of African Unity and other bodies and individuals, and specifically to lend support to the organisation of a regional conference under the joint aegis of the UN and the OAU to examine and resolve the deep-rooted causes of the crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU remains convinced that such a conference must be convened as soon as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reiterates that it is prepared to assist with specific measures to promote peace and reconciliation in Burundi, in particular the organisation of a national dialogue, support for action to promote human rights and the restoring of the rule of law. It is furthermore willing to continue funding the presence of OAU observers and United Nations human rights observers in the country. It is also prepared to help with the economic and social recovery of Burundi as soon as political and security conditions allow rehabilitation programmes to be set up in the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: progressive restoration of aid</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 28 June 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union takes note of the fact that the regime in Niger has announced the results of the country's constitutional referendum and has lifted the state of emergency and the ban on political parties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU takes the view that Niger has thus met the conditions set out by the Council on 13 May 1996 for the progressive restoration of cooperation. In the first instance, this will take the form of: -support for the electoral process; -aid for structural adjustment which, at present, needs to be focused exclusively on the most pressing needs in the social sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Council will continue to follow closely the situation in Niger, in particular as regards the preparation and conduct of the presidential and legislative elections.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arusha summit on Burundi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 5 July 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recalling its declaration of 25 June 1996, the European Union congratulates President Mkapa on the organisation of the Arusha regional summit, which has produced constructive proposals on the conflict in Burundi. It expresses appreciation for the untiring efforts of former President Nyerere and reiterates its support for his peace initiative.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU encourages the region's Heads of State and the Organisation of African Unity to commit themselves resolutely to supporting and giving substance to the Arusha recommendations and to contribute to the restoration of security in Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU expects the President and the Prime Minister of Burundi to fulfil the undertakings they gave at the Summit to overcome the crisis in Burundi and, with the help of the countries of the region, to put an end to the violence which is destroying the people of Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU calls on all the political forces of Burundi to seek a political solution and to give a favourable reception to regional initiatives to restore peace to their country. It calls the attention of all the parties to the conflict in Burundi to the fact that it condemns all forms of violence and that it will not recognise a government that has taken power by force of arms. Only peace, a peace consolidated at regional level, can guarantee the security of all and lay the foundations for economic and social development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is prepared to support the realisation of the Arusha objectives with a view to restoring peace and security in Burundi. It reiterates its readiness to help Burundi in its economic and social recovery when political and security conditions make it possible to begin its rehabilitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reiterates the need to convene the Conference on Peace, Security and Stability in the Great Lakes Region under the joint aegis of the United Nations and the OAU.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: support for the OAU Resolution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 15 July 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recalling its previous Declarations and Common Position on Burundi and, in particular, the Declarations of 25 June 1996 and 5 July 1996, the European Union warmly welcomes the Resolution on Burundi adopted by the Organisation of African Unity's Assembly of Heads of State and Government in Yaounde on 8 -10 July 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Union particularly welcomes the reaffirmation by the OAU of its support for the Mwanza Peace Talks under the facilitation of former President Nyerere and its encouragement to him to continue with his efforts based on and incorporating the principles of sustainable democracy and security for all the people of Burundi and an all-inclusive negotiation process. The Union reiterates its appreciation of the untiring efforts of former President Nyerere and its support for his peace initiative in this context.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The declaration in the Resolution of the OAU's full support for the outcome of the Arusha Summit of 25 June 1996, especially the acceptance of the request by the Government of Burundi for security assistance in order to complement and reinforce the Mwanza peace talks, as well as creating conducive security conditions for all parties to freely participate in the Mwanza process is also welcomed by the Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reaffirms its willingness to support the realisation of the Arusha objectives with a view to restoring peace and security in Burundi. It remains ready to help Burundi in its economic and social recovery when political and security conditions make it possible to begin its rehabilitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Visits</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The President of Haiti</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The President of the Republic of Haiti, Rene Preval, visited the Commission on 11 June. He met with President Jacques Santer, Commissioner Joao de Deus Pinheiro (responsible for relations with the ACP States) and Commissioner Emma Bonino (responsible for humanitarian aid).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President Preval thanked the European Union for all the support it had provided both for the restoration of democracy in Haiti and for the country's economic development. He spoke in particular of the discussions that are currently under way with the Bretton Woods institutions aimed at restoring Haiti's economy. The President indicated that an economic recovery programme would need balance of payments support to the tune of $119m during 1996, as well as assistance for a range of economic sectors amounting to a billion dollars over a three-year period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For his part, Professor Pinheiro expressed satisfaction at being able to welcome the President at a time when the democratic process in Haiti was functioning normally and institutional consolidation was taking place. In a statement to the press, he said it was an appropriate moment 'to evaluate our cooperation and to strengthen it in a way that will contribute to economic and social development' in Haiti. He added that it was essential for the Haitian people to recognise that democracy was worthwhile. Professor Pinheiro also welcomed the normalisation of relations between Haiti and its neighbour, the Dominican Republic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The President of the Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The newly-elected President of the Dominican Republic, Leonel Fernandez Reyna, had a working session at the Commission on 15 and 16 July.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This trip to Brussels was the President's first overseas visit in his new capacity, following his election on 30 June. Indeed, he had not yet formally assumed office at the time of his visit. His inauguration was due to take place on 16 August and the President-elect extended an invitation to the Commission to attend the ceremony. Mr Fernandez Reyna's subsequent itinerary included visits to Spain, France and the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Support for human rights</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently approved the financing of the following projects under the budget line 'Human Rights and Democracy in the Developing Countries):</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea: ECU 120 000 for a project aimed at actively involving members of the National Assembly in the institution's functioning, and in the democratisation process taking place in the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: ECU 72 000 for a human rights training programme in schools in both urban and rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria: ECU 118 000 for a human -rights training programme to be run in educational establishments and through itinerant projects in regions lacking education infrastructures. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji: ECU 119 000 for a project to support a non-partisan, multi-ethnic civic forum, aimed at contributing to the achievement of a consensus among various social groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal: ECU 59 112 to safeguard texts which are essential to the preservation of Tibetan culture. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal: ECU 30196 for the archiving of slides and photographs depicting art objects in order to preserve the culture and traditional techniques of Tibet. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines: ECU 61 750 for a mission to identify the areas in which strategies for human rights and democracy could lead to positive and lasting changes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sri Lanka: ECU 84 314 for a programme of information in the field of promoting equal opportunities and non-discrimination </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Aid for rehabilitation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently decided to finance the following projects in developing countries affected by serious civil disturbances or natural disasters:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: ECU 847 000 for an integrated programme covering the rehabilitation of agriculture and basic infrastructures, training in demining, hygiene and self sustaining development in Kipungo. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: ECU 185 000 for the rehabilitation of basic infrastructures (water, health, education and housing) In the province of Luanda. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea: ECU 353 947 to support the rehabilitation and development of basic </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">health care services in the south-west of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea: ECU 575 197 for the rehabilitation of water supplies and community development in the town of Hagaz. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 515.685 for the rehabilitation of primary care and water supplies in the Warder area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 455 630 to help the rehabilitation of repatriated people and displaced persons in the Borena area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 308 475 for the rehabilitation of health care and water supplies in the Hararghe area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 848 000 for a programme of support to upgrade medical infrastructures. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 590 000 to consolidate the water sector and rehabilitate livestock infrastructures in Maputo and Gaza provinces. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 500 000 for the second phase of a programme to help reestablish and reintegrate displaced people in Milange. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 241 259 for a project designed to revitalise livestock producer groups, make available essential veterinary products and support cattle production in the landward prefecture of Kigali. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 411 751 to provide professional training in primary health care. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 805 475 for an environment rehabilitation project in the prefecture of Kibungo. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 437 622 for the rehabilitation of primary schools in the southwest of the country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 94 650 to train laboratory technicians. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 626 439 for the rehabilitation of wells and water points in the Nugal region. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 423 687 for the creation of enterprises involved in making bricks and earth blocks in order to assist in the rehabilitation of rural habitats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 1 491 117 for a tree-planting project around the Virungas National Park as part of a rehabilitation programme directed at Rwanda's immediate neighbours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 213 536 for operational and methodological support for rural development projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 645 120 for technical assistance in the follow-up and evaluation of rehabilitation projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 551980 for a programme to rehabilitate schools and provide support for the education sector. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">European development fund</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following, where required, favourable opinions from the EDF Committee, the Commission has decided to provide grants and special loans from the 5th, 6th and 7th EDFs to finance the following operations (grants unless otherwise stated). Major projects and programmes are highlighted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic and social infrastructure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi: ECU 1.9 million for the rehabilitation and construction of customs facilities. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 11 million for resurfacing and improvements to the runway at Lusaka international Airport. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji ECU 1.8 million for the rebuilding of three bridges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade promotion/ structural adjustment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Member states of SADC (Southern Africa), ECOWAS (West Africa) and ECOCAS (Central Africa): ECU 500 000 for a follow-up pilot project relating to industrial fore in different sectors. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana: ECU 1.9 million for a tourism development programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djibouti: ECU 4.1 million to support the 1996-97 structural adjustment programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Netherlands Antilles/Aruba: ECU 5 million for a tourism promotion programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture/ rural development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madagascar: ECU 1.9 million to support professional organisations in the field of rural credit. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swaziland: ECU 1.4 million to build a bridge at Maphobeni, to facilitate rural development in this area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swaziland: ECU 1.5 million to improve the storage and commercialisation of maize. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benin: ECU 700 000 to enhance the security of blood supplies in the Oueme, Mono and Atlantique departments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education/training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana: ECU 15 million for a training programme directed at SMEs, independent operators and the unemployed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 1.05 million for a programme designed to strengthen training and research capacity in the economic field. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Member states of IGAD (Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, Uganda): ECU 1.9 million for a training programme for the commercialisation of cereals. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lesotho: ECU 1.3 million for a community reforestation programme in the Lesotho Highlands. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Institutional support</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djibouti: ECU 250 000 to provide technical support for the computerisation of the National Bank's accounting system. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: ECU 1.8 million to support the electoral process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 1.7 million for an assistance programme for the National Authorising </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Officer covering the management of funds allocated by the European Community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 1.5 million for the first phase of a tourism development programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cariforum countries-Antigua &amp; Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, Bahamas, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, St Kitts &amp; Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent &amp; the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad &amp; Tobago): ECU 725 000 in technical assistance for the programming unit of the Cariforum General Secretariat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miscellaneous</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All ACPs: ECU 5 million to strengthen fisheries management and biodiversity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 1.5 million for a pilot project in the field of decentralised cooperation. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 12.5 million for a community development programme in the battle against poverty. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 47 million for the second rehabilitation programme. The focus will be on productive activities (livestock, agriculture and fisheries), the social sectors (health, water, sanitation systems and education), the private sector (revenue generation, job creation, SMEs), the public sector (training, establishment of institutions), demobilisation, and the integration of former combatants </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 1.6 million for a programme to combat poverty including, in particular, the provision of credit to micro-enterprises. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 2 million to support the integration of displaced people in Kasai. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">European investment bank</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa: A loan of ECU 56 million for Eskom, the public electricity company, for the modemisation of part of its electricity distribution network.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Humanitarian aid</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: ECU 14 million for a global assistance programme covering food and medical aid, the distribution of equipment and demining operations. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 500 000 for the distribution of essential food products and to meet the special nutritional needs of children in the north of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cote d'lvoire: ECU 340 000 to help combat cholera and yellow fever among refugees from Liberia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 140 000 towards the setting up of a camp for 'boat people' arriving from Liberia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea: ECU 160000 for the distribution of food to refugees from Liberia and Sierra Leone. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Senegal: ECU 250 000 towards the fight against cholera, notably in the town of Touba.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sierra Leone: ECU 4.2 million for food and emergency medical aid (to combat cholera) for people displaced by the civil war. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 1.5 million for a measles vaccination programme and for medical and food aid for victims of the internal conflict. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Sudan: ECU 13 million to finance ECHO flights, and for food, medical aid and the provision of water supplies, for civilian victims of the conflict, notably in Khartoum and its environs and in the refugee camps in the north of Uganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non - ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua: ECU 1.5 million for medicines, essential provisions, drinking water supply equipment and training actions in the area of epidemic prevention. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru: ECU 800 000 for shelters and medical assistance to people in the process of reestablishing their homes having fled from the violence that has occurred over the past ten years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ex-Yugoslavia: ECU 102 million for various emergency operations. The breakdown of this aid, by country, is as follows: Bosnia-Herzegovina-ECU 77.45 million; Croatia-ECU 11.95 million; Serbia-Montenegro-ECU 12,6 million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Russian Federation: ECU 900 000 for street children in St Petersburg and homeless people in Moscow. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afghanistan: ECU 7 million for a coordinated aid programme covering public health measures, the provision of drinking water, hygiene and refuse collection. The aid will be directed both at the people of Kabul and at other provinces of the country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kirghizistan: ECU 3.6 million for the purchase and distribution of food. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tadilkistan: ECU 8.9 million for a food and medical programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangladesh: ECU 300 000 to help victims of the tropical storm that struck in the middle of May. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Food aid</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: 15 000 tonnes of cereals, 2000 tonnes of oils and 3000 tonnes of beans amounting to a total value of ECU 20.075 million. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/ec159e/metadata.xml
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--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/ec159e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
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@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
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+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">The Courier - NÂ°159 - Sept- Oct 1996 Dossier Investing in People Country Reports: Mali ; Western Samoa (ec159e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Society, Culture, Community, Woman, Youth, Population|Social sciences, sociology (works comprising several subgroups) incl. participatory research and training</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Development Periodicals and Magazines|The Courier ACP 1990 - 1996 Africa-Caribbean-Pacific - European Union</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">EC Courier</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/ec160e/ec160e.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/ec160e/ec160e.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/ec160e/ec160e.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,2779 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; The Courier - N°160 - Nov - Dec 1996 - Dossier Habitat - Country reports: Fiji , Tonga</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Courier - N°160 - Nov - Dec 1996 - Dossier Habitat - Country reports: Fiji , Tonga</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa - Caribbean - Pacific - European Union </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country reports</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji is home to people of a variety of cultures but it would not be accurate to describe this Pacific island country as a 'melting pot'. Politics here are dominated by the difficult relationship between indigenous Fijians and the descendants of indentured Indian labourers brought in to work the sugar cane fields. We look at how this situation affects the economy -  which everyone acknowledges has considerable potential, and examine the prospects for ethnic rapprochement as the nation begins a 'great debase' on the future shape of its Constitution. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga appears like a haven of tranquility in a turbulent world. A society which respects hierarchies and is strongly attached to 'traditional values', it is also one of the few remaining places with a hereditary ruler who wields substantial power. But outside influences cannot be ignored altogether and nations everywhere are having to adapt to living in the 'global village'. Our report focuses on the possible consequences of this for the 'Friendly Islands' as the new millenium approaches. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dossier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of 'habitat' conjures up different things to different people - from the right to a roof over one's head to the way in which we manage the flora and fauna of the planet. In our dossier, we consider the legacy of the United Nations 'Habitat' Conference held in Istanbul earlier this year. We also highlight some of the initiatives being taken to improve the quality of people's living environment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgements</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier: Africa  - Caribbean - Pacific - European union</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Address: Postal address (mail only) 'The ACP-EU Courier' Commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 Brussels Belgium </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier office address (visitors) First floor Astrid Building 1, rue de Geneve Evere- Brussels Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publisher Steffen Smidt commission of the European communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 - Brussels (Belgium) Tel. 00-32-2-299 1111 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Publications</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assistant editors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeanne Remacle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associate assistant editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalist:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Production Manager:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dorothy Morrissey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secretariat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carmela Peters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: 299-30-02</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Margriet Mahy-van der Werf (299-30-1 2)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Meeting point</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Jacques Bugnicourt, Executive Secretary of Enda Tiers Monde</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main development battle must be fought in the towns and cities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Founded in 1972, Enda Tiers Monde ('Enda' stands for 'environment and development') is one of the few large international NGOs to be based in a developing country. It has a presence in a number of states in Africa, Latin America and Asia and has been concentrating its efforts on towns and cities, in the belief that this is where deprived populations can be best assisted. Jacques Bugnicourt, who is Enda's Executive Secretary, has some strong views about what needs to be done to tackle the problem of urban deprivation. When we interviewed him at the Enda headquarters in Dakar, Senegal, we began by asking him about the history of the organisation that he heads.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - When we launched Enda, I am not sure that we had any particular goal in mind. You would have to go back to the end of the 1950s, with the war in Indochina, the approaching conflict in Algeria, the independence of countries in Africa and the last-ditch struggles of the colonial powers, notably France. It was in Paris that links were forged between activists from many Third-World countries - in particular, we all took part in the street demonstrations mounted by people from the French colonies. There were some very strong groupings like the Federation of Students from Black Africa, and its equivalents set up by students from the Maghreb, Latin America and Asia. Ten years later, in the 1970s, we could see that the independence experiment was turning sour and the hopes we vested in the actions of determined and brilliant people had come to nothing. The United Nations was becoming increasingly bureaucratic. Some of our friends and colleagues who had government posts had their hands tied, while others were in prison and were equally powerless. In addition, the communists were disappointed at not being able to apply their doctrine to local conditions. Some did, in fact, manage to achieve small-scale results locally when working at the grass-roots, but by and large, their efforts were not successful. I came to Dakar, where I taught in a United Nations institute.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A lot of people had theories. But you cannot take up the battle for the poor without the poor themselves, or for those under the yoke of colonial rule without the participation of the subjugated population. To begin with, you have to appreciate the diversity of the various peoples in developing countries, and be aware of their daily life and struggle. Cesaire wrote that you had to ask questions about the soil, about cities, about men and about the sun. Later, once you have done this, you can act.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We need to dismantle the barriers. There can be no agronomy without economics, and no economics without sociology. If you are talking about jobs in Senegal, you also must talk about jobs in Mali and Guinea - treat Africa as a whole. Another thing is that you have to stand up for yourself and not allow yourself to be manipulated by people from the developed countries. One of the major problems we have noticed is that part of Africa's elite is out of touch with the general population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are the underlying reasons for the foundation of Enda. Nowadays, it is a non-profit-making international organisation working with various communities - an 'INGO', if you like, with the 'I' standing for 'international'. We have bases almost everywhere in the Third World, from Ho Chi Minh City to La Paz.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is each section of Enda independent, then ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. We took the view that there was a danger of becoming too centralised and acting like a small-scale UNICEF or UNESCO, so we decided to guard our independence very carefully. We opted for the widest-ranging autonomy possible. This has its drawbacks of course, but these are far outweighed by the advantages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mention drawbacks. Would it be true to say that the original enthusiasm which greeted the creation of Enda has fallen off somewhat ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's something we are always concerned about. It is not structures which maintain cohesion, but the sharing of goals and the channelling of our actions towards the common good.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the various sections get together, we find that we have a great many things in common. But there is no good reason why those of us in Dakar should try to influence the way people work in working-class districts in Santo Domingo, for example, where they are trying to tackle problems like AIDS and unemployment. We simply tell them what we are doing here and vice versa. If you want to serve the people, you have to have a decentralised set-up. It would be wrong to deal with a problem centrally, and to do so would be against our instincts. Most of us have no particular liking for institutions. An institution must be of service in the battle, not the other way round.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How do you guarantee cohesion in practice ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It costs a great deal to travel of course, but we do have a lot of joint programmes. For example, the cities programme includes people from Bogota, Santo Domingo, Rabat, Dakar, Ho Chi Minh City and Bombay, all working together. They meet from time to time and, when they do, it is to get down to practical work. Together, their work is, say, three-quarters practical and one quarter reflective. Nevertheless, there is ongoing tension, particularly in the relationship between overall policy and local demands. Another conflict arises between grass-roots action and reflection.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The impression one gets is that you yourself are the 'cement' between the various groups which make up Enda. Could this not be seen as a weakness which may make things difficult in the future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's what other people say, not what I think. I try to make my presence useful and those who come after me will do the same. What really holds us together is our belief in what we are doing. It is not a question of adhering to some kind of 'monolithic' faith. We simply believe that we can be of use, recognising that there are many limitations. Let me give you a practical example. If someone involved in recycling in Bogota were to meet up with someone from a poor district in Dakar who works at the rubbish tip, they would have a great deal in common and would find it useful to compare their problems and consider practical ways of solving them together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are your most important activities in Senegal ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - By far the most important is the one covering the city of Dakar. As well as being a focus for the country itself, Dakar is a metropolitan centre for the entire sub-region, with influence over Bamako, Conakry, Bissau and perhaps even Praia in Cape Verde and Nouakchott in Mauritania. What happens here has repercussions in all those cities. I do not want to sound too dramatic, but the decisive factor in our destiny will be the fate of young people and the poor in the major cities. Two-thirds of these people are facing chronic problems. Those under twenty make up more than half the population and their lives are continuing to spiral down into poverty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enda should obviously be operating in those areas where it can be of most use. And in the context of towns and cities, we have completely reviewed our strategy. For some years we gave priority to the countryside. For a long time, in fact, we believed that rural development would permit a much improved urbanisation process. There was even the view that people in developed countries would not object to paying a little more for agricultural produce, because they could be certain that the money was going to those who actually grew the cotton, groundnuts, cocoa or whatever.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the last fifteen years or so, though, we have come round to the view that our actions must be directed principally at towns and cities. We found initially that there were some interesting projects involving small groups - working to improve the position of children or banding together in cooperative savings ventures. It was good, long-term work which gave results. But that is all out of date now. We have to speak in terms of much larger numbers  -  tens of thousands and not tens or hundreds. Otherwise, there is no chance of making a real difference. That is why we have considerably altered our strategy. Three years ago, approximately two thousand children were able to go to holiday camps. Most of these holidays were paid for by companies, but fewer than 10% of the beneficiaries were genuinely poor. Last year, no fewer than 10 000 children were sent away on five days' holiday -  to the coast near Dakar. Enda was involved in this programme working with 200 local cultural and sports associations. The idea was to give the children the chance to splash about in the sea, but also to use African resources to help them become full citizens and learn that our diversity is the source of our wealth. There are at least 100 000 children living in misery and many of them could end up joining the ranks of the street children. If you can give these youngsters five days holiday plus a bit of follow-up, you allow friendships to be built. It offers a brief escape from everyday reality. It may not be paradise, but it is something tangible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another example is the tontines that have been formed into a federation. We currently have nineteen thousand women participating in these and if you bear the large family sizes in mind - there are perhaps ten people in every family - that represents a lot of people. The women pay into the tontines and the money is used, not just for the security of their immediate family, but also to help young people set themselves up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then there is rubbish collection. Enda runs its own scheme but there are also a number of groups that have turned rubbish collection into a profession. The young people collect the rubbish and recycle it. There are about 50 000 people in the biggest district where we are involved in rubbish collection. There are also some young people in that district who are engaged in water recycling and although it only involves supplying about a hundred people at the moment, I believe this scheme will grow. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We also organise schools and are currently involved in making films for schools on the subjects of the environment, hygiene and solidarity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Enda has just opened an 'eco-centre'. If I understand it correctly, this is a showcase to promote a horizontal link between Enda's various activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That is right. We want it to be a place of passage, meeting, exhibition, permeation and redistribution. We hope people will feel comfortable there, and that it will be a tool symbolising a new way of working. So the centre offers an experience, but we also want it to be used to promote activity. A variety of events have been organised there simultaneously - recently for example, a meeting of shoe-shiners, a gathering of teachers from a long-standing educational centre, an exhibition for the Biennial Festival of Contemporary African Art, and a local-community meeting about setting up a small production facility. Two days earlier, there was a preliminary holiday-camp meeting where the instructors got together to look at the best available teaching methods designed to make children more aware of the importance of solidarity. We believe that solidarity is essential in tackling problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So the centre has a multitude of uses, all of which contribute to the vitality of the local economy. You have to understand the crucial importance of the local economy. It responds to all the basic needs of the poorest people, who want to live their lives just like the rest of us.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You talk of depending on the local (what some would call the informal) economy to live - or at least survive. But this sector is not viewed with enthusiasm by the international authorities ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Their policy is based on domination and fear: fear of those who accumulate assets. To see these hordes of people in the developing countries frightens them. It's a bit like the horror of the wealthy classes at the end of the nineteenth century when faced with a working class which dared to aspire to wealth. They will give to charity but are not prepared to make a long-term investment. The lack of support for the local economy stems from the fact that foreign aid is geared, first and foremost, towards major projects or emergency aid. Four or five years ago, the UN conducted a survey in 10 towns and cities in West Africa, but the results were not published because they showed that the average rate of growth of the local economy was 7.5%. So, you see, we are far from just muddling along. Great things could be achieved if only there were a change in attitude. It also requires a change of terminology. How can one justify the use of the word 'informal' and, worse still, treat the work of the poorest people and fraudulent activities under the same heading. Fraud may be formal or informal. Knowing African society as I do, I am aware that fraud is statistically more widespread amongst the prosperous and highly respected. So we must not cast stones at the little man selling socks who has no trading licence because he cannot afford one, or at the woman who sets up a stall at a school entrance without complying with the law which requires a recent certificate stating that she does not have tuberculosis. What is the bottom line here ? Must we respect the law or the people who want to live without being thieves, beggars or prostitutes ? It is unacceptable for force to lie with the law and for the majority to be cast into wretchedness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Senegal, there used to be fixed prices for milk. The World Bank protested, declaring that this was a restriction on free competition. Now we have to pay much more and many people can no longer afford to give their children-milk every day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To put it in perspective, Senegal's economy is about the same size as that of the city of Bordeaux. So we must use all the available potential. Highly qualified managers should do their job looking after the high-tech sectors. But, at the same time, we should not be driving out the poor people who are just trying to eke out a living. The informal sector creates services for a very small investment, and people also require services. Economic policy must allow society to walk on two legs, not just one. What that means is that we need a great deal of flexibility, and perhaps a complete review of the law. Contraceptive implants have to be licensed so that there are no more back-street abortions. And it must be possible for girls to attend school even if they do not have a proper birth certificate - why should they be excluded from education for want of a piece of paper. It should be possible to trade with a simple one-day ticket which people should be able to buy in post offices or cinemas. What would be wrong with that? And we should have a moratorium on a number of regulations. We need to wage war on the destitution that we are suffering and that means taking decisive measure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ACP</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Joint Assembly begins discussions on future ACP-EU relations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the agenda was, as usual, heavily laden with a variety of long-standing issues ranging from regional cooperation, fisheries, the cocoa content of chocolate and bananas to the situation in several ACP states (in particular Rwanda and Burundi), the future of ACP-EU relations was at the forefront of discussions at the ACP-EU Joint Assembly, which was held in Luxembourg from 23-26 September 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Opened in the presence of the Grand Duke and Grand Duchess of Luxembourg, the Assembly's general attitude was not one of speculation as to whether or not the European Union would abandon the ACP states when the Lom&eacute; IV Convention expires in the year 2000 - a feeling that was rife shortly after the signing of the revised version in Mauritius in November 1995. Instead, it was one of positive thinking and of exploring the kind of agreement that would succeed it. 'There is no question of the European Union getting out of a relationship which took decades to build', Luxembourg's Prime Minister Jean-Claude Junker, told participants in his welcoming address.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As pessimism gives way to guarded optimism, ACP-EU parliamentarians have taken an important initiative, even before the Commission's Green Paper is published, in what is bound to be a long and passionate debate. A special summit of ACP Heads of State is planned for Gabon later in 1997 to discuss the issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Options for the future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A general report, introduced by Mr Firmin Jean-Louis (Haiti), provided the main platform for the Joint Assembly's deliberation. Although presented too late for representatives to have the opportunity to examine it in detail, the exchange of views on the floor was wide-ranging and reflected the report's content to a considerable degree.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report encapsulates all the ideas that have emerged so far in various fore. It analyses framework options for future ACP-EU relations  -  bilateral, regional and multilateral - and raises pertinent questions and concerns. Noting that international cooperation is increasingly dictated by economic and security considerations, and that North-South solidarity is, as a result, being pushed to the background, it regrets the fact that certain EU member states appear to indicate a preference for bilateral over multilateral cooperation. The author of the report warns that this trend would not only diminish the credibility of the Union but also its international influence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any instrument of cooperation, the report says, should take into account the different levels of development among ACP states as well as the regional vocation of many others. Its objective must be poverty eradication, sustainable economic and social development, and the harmonious integration of the ACP states into the global economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It recognises the need to secure the support of European public opinion which is largely unconvinced that EU aid to ACP states has been effective over the past 20 years. Not enough publicity; it says, has been given to its positive aspects. The report goes on to warn that solidarity and development are at stake and that the debate on the future of ACP-EU relations should not be left to politicians and technocrats. It should also involve wider civil society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Joint Assembly debate, the commitment of EU political leaders to the development of the ACP states was often called into question. Francis Wurtz (EUL-F) summed it up when he said there were worrying signs that the EU intends to downgrade its relationship with the ACP states - signs which go back to the negotiations on the Lom&eacute; IV second financial protocol, when several countries refused to increase their contributions to the 8th EDF. The EU draft budget for 1997, which he said revealed a substantial reduction in the funds allocated to the developing countries outside the Mediterranean region, provided further evidence of this. 'We must be vigilant,' he told his colleagues, 'and must not allow the Lom&eacute; Convention to be revised downwards.' Mr Wurtz agreed that greater efforts were needed to create awareness and mobilise European opinion in favour of development. The European public should know that EU development policy was not based on charity but on self-interest. 'Without Africa developing, Europe has little chance of maintaining growth in the long run.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lord Plumb (EPP-UK), the European Co-President of the Joint Assembly, admitted that it would not be easy to influence European public opinion. 'One of the roles of the Joint Assemby,' he said, however, 'must be to ensure that the peoples of Europe have confidence in the progress being made by the countries of the South. We must all help in this task of confidence-building.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Glenys Kinnock (PES-UK) urged that there should be as much participation as possible in the ongoing dialogue over future ACP-EU relations in order to bridge what she saw as 'the gap between rhetoric and reality.' Equity, she argued, should be the main objective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP Co-President, Sir John Kaputin (Papua New Guinea), said there was no doubt that the EU was forging closer ties with the former Eastern bloc countries at the expense of the ACPs. He pointed out, however, that the Lom&eacute; Convention had always encouraged a 'forward-looking' approach and argued that whatever succeeded the current ACP-EU relationship should be 'the most important' agreement ever.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The representative from Barbados, Dr Richard Cheltenham, was of the opinion that whatever the outcome of the discussions, efforts were needed to avoid 'chaos'. There should, for example, be no immediate abandonment of the trade preferences that ACP states had acquired. Transformation must be gradual to enable them to adjust and restructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European Commissioner, Professor Pinheiro, chose, first of all, to underline the importance of the role of 'the state and civil society' in development. He indicated that he saw this as growing more and more in importance. This was reflected in the agreement signed in Mauritius -  an agreement which seeks to encourage the consolidation of democracy, the rule of law, good governance and transparency, and which emphasises decentralised cooperation and the role of the private sector. the Commissioner spoke about the current programming exercise, reminding the Assembly that resources were being allocated in two tranches in accordance with the provisions of the revised Convention, to take account of each ACP state's development strategy and the objectives and priorities of the Community's development policy. He revealed that only 16 ACP countries and two EU Member States had ratified the revised Convention and urged those that have not done so to accelerate the process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He welcomed the Joint Assembly's initiative in debating future ACP-EU relations. The Commission's Green Paper, he told representatives, will be published in November. He was, therefore, not in a position to enter into detailed discussions with members on the subject at this stage. He stressed, nonetheless, that the document 'will not be a blueprint for future EU strategy towards the ACP countries. It will be a discussion paper.' there were a number of key questions that needed to be addressed regarding strategy, the scope of future relations and the use of the traditional instruments of aid and trade. 'This is not to say that we should start afresh', he argued. 'We should build on what has been achieved so far, and adapt where necessary.' Professor Pinheiro was certain that whatever the outcome of the discussions, there were a number of 'unchallengeable principles' on which ACP-EU relations should continue to be based. These were: partnership, ownership by ACP countries of their development policies, security in terms of EU support and predictability of relations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New areas of concern</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This session of the Joint Assembly saw the emergence of two new areas of concern: urban development, and the effects of climate change on small island states. An initial report on the former was presented by the rapporteur, Daby Diagne (Senegal). It did not give rise to much debate. The report emphasises the pivotal role towns play in economic development and urges the Community to adopt an integrated policy on urban development (See our interview with Mr Daigne in the Dossier). The latter was the subject of a full morning hearing, involving a panel of ACP-EU experts who are closely involved with the problem. They warned of the threat posed by global warming to the survival, and even existence, of many islands in the Caribbean and the Pacific. The emission of greenhouse gases, the Assembly was told, has reached levels never before experienced (see the article which follows). Representatives agreed on the need to integrate climate change considerations into sustainable development strategies. A Working Group on the issue was set up with Karin Junker (PES-G) as general rapporteur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cocoa and babanas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was no avoiding the intractable problems of cocoa and bananas. On cocoa, opinions were divided as usual. There were those who felt that the Commission's proposed new directive allowing chocolate to contain vegetable oils (up to 5% of total volume) in place of cocoa butter, was reasonable. The proposal also involves a labelling system to ensure that the exact contents of the product are clearly indicated Advocates of this strategy argued that it would not only widen consumer choice but would also promote the export of shea-butter and other vegetable oils which a number of ACP countries produce. Opponents were worried that if implemented, the directive could lead to a big fall in cocoa exports and a commensurate loss of earnings for ACP cocoa producers. Magda Aelvoet (Greens-B) argued in favour of maintaining the status quo, saying that this was preferable to what was being put forward in the draft directive. She warned that the Commission propose' would almost certainly result in everyone (cocoa producers, shea-butter producers and consumers) losing out. There was no guarantee that menu facturers would choose shea-butter given that they would be free to use whatever vegetable oils they liked She was certain they would go for the cheapest substitute or even for synthetic products. Accordingly, Mrs Aelvoet proposed a 'freeze' on all proposals. This view was reflected in the resolution passed by the Assembly, which called on the Council to reject the proposed directive. It also requested the sever member countries which currently authorise the use of vegetable oil to comply gradually with the existing directive  -  which bans their use altogether.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banana issue proved even thornier. There is a dispute at the World Trade Organisation, where the Lom&eacute; Protocol is being challenged by the United States and Latin American banana producers. Mrs Kinnock expressed anger at the fact that the arbitration panel set up by the WTO is made UP of three countries known to advocate free trade. The panel, she said, is chaired by Hong Kong - which the Organisation told her was representing the 'developing countries!' The general feeling among representatives was that the odds were stacked against the European Union and the ACPs. The Assembly passed a resolution asking the Union to stand firm in defence of the banana regime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Democracy, human rights, peace and security</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty-seven questions were addressed to the Council of Ministers and a further 28 to the Commission. More than a third of these dealt with issues relating to emergency relief operations, democracy, human rights, peace and security  -  recurring themes throughout the four-day meeting. The emphasis, in this context, was on Burundi, Rwanda, Liberia and Nigeria, all of which were considered individually under the agenda item 'the situation in ACP states'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the detailed answers given by Commissioner Pinheiro to questions on Burundi and Rwanda, the Assembly had a long session with Aldo Ajello, the EU's Special Representative to the Great Lakes. The discussion focused on efforts to restore democracy and legitimate government in Burundi, national reconciliation, and the repatriation of refugees from neighbouring countries to both Burundi and Rwanda. Mr Ajello gave members a comprehensive picture of the complex political and humanitarian situation in the region. He spoke of the sanctions imposed on Burundi by neighbouring countries and the efforts of the former Tanzania President, Julius Nyerere, to bring about dialogue and a just political settlement in Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria was again in the dock. Its representative, Dada Olisa, acting Charge d'affaires at the Embassy in Brussels, gave an account of what he considered was the progress made by the Abacha regime on human rights and democracy since the Joint Assembly met in Windhoek last March. He mentioned the repeal of the decree under which Ken Saro-Wiwa and other minority activists were executed, the release of detainees and the transitional programme for a return to democracy by 1998. He pleaded for the Assembly's understanding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">His explanation cut no ice with any of the seven political groupings in the European Parliament, who came together to present a compromise draft resolution on Nigeria. They wish to see all political prisoners released immediately, and the restoration of civil and political rights, as well as a democratically elected civilian government, by the end of 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution on Nigeria was again passed by secret ballot - the very last act of the session. It calls, among other things, for a total arms embargo (preventing the trade in future but also covering existing supply agreements) and for the financial assets of the Nigerian government and of members of the country's ruling councils (and of their families), to be frozen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution does not differ very much from the previous one. Mrs Junker, Johanna Maij-Weggen (EPP-NL) and Mrs Kinnock all expressed disappointment that the EU Council had failed to implement this fully. However, by repeating the demand for sanctions, they said, the Assembly was sending a very strong message to the Council that it was determined to see Nigeria return to democracy as quickly as possible. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Alarm bells sound on small island states</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Climate change</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A morning session of the ACP-EU Joint Assembly was devoted to a public hearing on the effects of climate change on small island states. It was appropriate that the issue should be brought to the attention of the Assembly by Maartje van Putten (PESNL). Representing a country much of which lies below sea-level. she is familiar with the devastating effects of sea flooding. At the hearing, which was very well attended, a panel of invited ACP-EU experts was on hand to enlighten the audience on the extent of the problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although global warning has been on the international agenda for more than 10 years, the seriousness of the threat it poses to the survival of small island states is only now beginning to be taken seriously - and it might already be too late, if some of the most apocalyptic scientific predictions are to be believed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is now growing evidence that global warming is taking place. In recent years, we have experienced more extreme weather conditions - heatwaves, floods and increasingly destructive tropical storms - while there are signs that icecaps are melting and sea levels rising. The increasing incidence of malaria in Africa has been linked to these changes. And it is all happening because of the influence our style of living is having on the planet - in particular the huge emissions of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane, from our factories, vehicles and so on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That the public hearing attracted a large audience was not only a reflection of the interest the problem is now commanding. It also symbolised the mounting international pressure for reductions in CO2 levels in the atmosphere, and for the adoption of more realistic strategies of sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel of experts comprised Dr Leonard Nurse, Manager of the Coastal Conservation Project in Barbados, Donald Stewart, Acting Director of the South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme (SPREP), Dr Robert Watson, Senior Scientific Adviser at the Environment Department of the World Bank and Chairman of the second Working Group of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and Neroni Slade, Vice-Chairman of the Association of Small Island States (AOSIS) and AOSIS Coordinator on Climate Change. A separate workshop on climate change was also organised on the same afternoon outside the formal Joint Assembly setting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to Dr Nurse, current estimates based on most reliable models, suggest sea level is rising at the rate of 5mm a year (the 'range of uncertainty' is between 2mm and 9mm). This is two to five times the rate experienced in the last 100 years. This rise is expected to continue beyond the year 2100 even if greenhouse gases are stabilised. The implications for small island states, particularly the low-lying ones, would be severe. 'Atolls such as Tokelau, Marshall Islands, Tuvalu and the Maldives could possibly disappear', he said. 'Major population displacement would be experienced in Micronesia, Palau, Nauru, French Polynesia, the Cook Islands and Tonga.' Meanwhile, small islands with extensive coastal plains and limited upland areas such as Barbados, the Bahamas and Antigua, 'would be highly vulnerable to social and economic disruptions', as major cities, ports and tourist facilities, industries, freshwater sources, fertile agricultural lands and even coral reefs are destroyed by typhoons and cyclones, or washed away in floods. 'Given the limitations of climate models,' Dr Nurse said, 'it is not possible to state with certainty at this stage whether there will be a change in the behaviour of tropical storms and hurricanes. However, it is highly probable that an increase in the frequency and intensity of these phenomena could occur in a 'warmer world'. One study, he claims, predicts tropical storms would have a potential destructive force at least twice what they have today.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr Watson, similarly, struck a pessimistic note when he said that the potential for irreversible damage was great. He agreed with Dr Nurse that even if we took measures now to reduce CO2 emissions, stabilisation of the situation will take centuries. He pleaded for climate change to be taken into consideration 'in our everyday decisions.' Governments must not wait for cause and effect to be established before taking action. 'It is,' he said, 'economically feasible to reduce CO2' by introducing appropriate policy measures: looking at supply of and demand for energy, resorting to new and renewable energy sources, nuclear power, etc. and ensuring more efficient land management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The question of 'burden-sharing' in the reduction of emissions between the industrialised world and the developing countries was debated at length. It was noted, for example, that small islands states are responsible for a very small proportion of the emissions, yet they bear the brunt of the consequences. There was a general consensus that burden-sharing should be based on equity and justice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It should be noted that the Alliance of Small Island States (which was formed during the Second World Climate Conference in 1990) has called on the industrialised world to achieve a 20% reduction in their greenhouse gas emissions by the year 2005 (The 'Toronto objective'). This, it hopes, would bring CO2 in the atmosphere down to 1990 levels. Whether this is realistic is debatable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, a number of strategy options are being closely examined by the European Commision and the Council with a view to adopting Community-wide measures to reduce emissions significantly by 2005-2010. Member States have made phasing-out proposals with targets of 5-10% by 2005, 15-20% by 2020 and 50% by 2030. This works out at an average reduction of 196 2% annually from the year 2000.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several parliamentarians wanted to know what the Commission, in particular, had done and will do to help small ACP island states overcome the effects of climate change. It was soon discovered during the discussion that a number of African countries were equally concerned. A Commission representative referred the Assembly to the provisions in the Convention which covered global warming and the special problems of island states. Although there is no specific reference to climate change, the Commission had dealt and would continue to deal with the issue in the broader context of its environmental action. Studies, projects and programmes are being implemented in the Caribbean and Indian Ocean in particular. Furthermore, DG VIII has drawn up internal briefing papers aimed at making departments aware of the issues of climate change and the environment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Country reports</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Fiji</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Political stability is the key to economic success</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most of the ACP states featured in our Country Reports, the vital issues are usually economic and social ones. How is a nation with a poor natural resource base to achieve lasting development ? What can be done to improve the skills of the people? How can a vibrant private sector be created ? Can better health care be delivered and how should it be paid for? Some of these questions might well be valid for Fiji but the visiting journalist soon discovers that they are all secondary issues. For this is a country whose political system itself dominates the agenda. The fundamental issue here is the relationship between the indigenous people of Fiji and the descendants of indentured Indian labourers brought in by the British between 1879 and 1916 to work in the sugar cane fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji, in fact, is home to people of a variety of cultures. On the indigenous side, the majority are Melanesians but there are also some Polynesians (living on the island of Rotuma). The country even plays host to Banabans, from Kiribati, who were displaced from their homes on Ocean Island to make way for the phosphate diggers. They hold a freehold to the island of Rabi and enjoy a special self-governing status. And while the Indians form the bulk of the non-indigenous population, there are also small Chinese and European communities as well as a number of inhabitants of mixed race.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite this diversity, it would be inappropriate to describe Fiji as a melting pot. Ever since the rapid expansion of the Indian population, official policy has tended to accentuate the divisions. In the early days, it was the British who were responsible for this, although one has to be careful to avoid value judgments. The colonial administrators, it seems, were aware of the tensions that would arise by bringing in large numbers of people of a different culture, language and religion. Their eventual response was to provide guarantees for the local population, notably as regards land rights. The effect was to preserve the traditional land tenure system which was based on villages and families. At the time, it seemed a logical thing to do, but several generations on, the country now has a settled population of Indian origin (43% of the total) who have limited opportunities to own land - even though many of them work on it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the economy has developed, each of the two main communities has found itself 'specialising' in different fields. For example, cane farmers and retailers tend to be of Indian origin while the public service has traditionally attracted more native Fijians. Significantly, the army is almost exclusively filled by indigenous people - a crucial factor in the 1987 military coup.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the political front, as Fiji moved towards independence, the idea of providing separate representation for each ethnic group also took hold. The independence constitution of 1970 reflected this with the two main communities being given parity (22 seats each) in the House of Representatives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shattered illusion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there was no real assimilation between 1970 and 1987, Fiji was seen by many as a model of a successful multiracial society. It was only when the country got its first Indian-dominated administration (sustained in power by a smaller native Fijian party) that this illusion was shattered. There was a military coup led by Lieutenant-Colonel Sitiveni Rabuka, who is now the elected Prime Minister,. Shortly thereafter, Fiji became a republic (Queen Elizabeth was formerly Head of State) and in 1990, a new Constitution was adopted giving political primacy to the indigenous Fijians. Needless to say, it was a time of greatly heightened communal tension.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1987 coup and the events that followed have been well covered elsewhere (including our previous Country Report which was published in 1991). It suffices to say here that while the last few years have been a lot less turbulent, tensions remain. In 1997, the country must adopt a new set of constitutional proposals and a big debate is currently under way about the shape of the system of government for the 21st century. This subject is covered in a later article and also features prominently in our interviews with the Prime Minister and Opposition Leader.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main focus of this article is therefore on economic and social aspects although, as one soon discovers, this frequently leads us back to the ethnic question. This is particularly the case when one considers the overall economic performance of the country. Fiji is not poor by developing nation standards and it has enjoyed modest growth during 1995 and 1996, but there is a widespread view that it could be doing a great deal better were it not for the political uncertainties. The problem is summed up by the Economic Intelligence Unit in its Fiji Country Report for the first quarter of 1996: 'Political instability will continue to deter investment, other than that on highly favourable tax terms.' In other words, Fiji is paying a high economic price for its internal difficulties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General unease about the future and, in particular, the outcome of the constitutional review process is compounded by specific concerns over land tenure. The long-term leases granted to (mainly Indian) farmers are approaching their end and the government must soon decide what it should do next. Will any of the sugar cane farmers be evicted and if so, how many ? What alternative arrangements will be made for them? These questions remained to be answered when The Courier visited Fiji in July although, as our keynote interviews show, the subject was clearly exercising the minds of the politicians.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A long-term strategy for agriculture?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The way in which the land question is dealt with will have a crucial impact on the sugar industry - still the country's most important product in terms of its contribution to GDP and the jobs that it generates (see the article entitled 'Sugar definitely has a future'). With other uncertainties facing this sector - in particular, the process of global liberalisation - there is a growing recognition of the need for a long-term strategy. The government has a two-pronged approach  -  improving efficiency within the sector and diversifying into other agricultural products. To learn more about this, we spoke to Luke Ratuvuki, who is the Permanent Secretary for Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Ratuvuki began by stressing the scope for increasing the sugar yield per hectare by as much as 75% (and by even more with irrigation). If productivity could be boosted on this scale, Fiji sugar would be in a much better position to compete in open world markets. He admitted, however, that the country would still face a struggle in maintaining market share and, looking ahead ten years, foresaw a slimmed down industry providing high quality sugar with more of a focus on niche markets. This inevitably meant looking at other agricultural products as possible long-term substitutes. The coconut (or as the Permanent Secretary dubbed it, 'the tree of life') is traditionally grown here and seems poised to enjoy a new lease of life following a period of decline. Fiji has also picked up the taro trade at the expense of Western Samoa, which is affected by taro blight, while there are significant exports of ginger to Australia, New Zealand, Canada and Europe. Mr Ratuvuki spoke enthusiastically about branching out into other areas such as pawpaws, mangoes, bananas and aubergines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji has potential for growth in a range of non-agricultural sectors, but farming is sure to play a vital part in the economy for many years to come. Currently, sugar represents almost three quarters of all crops by value (excluding subsistence growing) and the Fijians are only too aware that this makes the country particularly vulnerable to external shocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other primary sectors are all present in Fiji, albeit on a more modest scale. There is some deep-sea fishing backed by Asian investors. This provides useful employment although perhaps not the best possible financial return to the country. As one would expect in a nation of three hundred islands, there is also extensive artisanal and subsistence fishing in the inshore areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forestry sector divides into two parts: artificial softwood plantations which are said to be managed sustainably and the naturally growing hardwoods. As regards the latter, the EU is helping with a mapping project. Although Asian loggers do not operate in Fiji, there is considerable land clearance taking place, leading to problems of erosion and silting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prospects for mining</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gold is the main mineral being exploited with important deposits around Vatukoula. The sector has had its ups and downs but the Emperor Gold Mining Company has now embarked on an expansion project aimed at raising production from the current level of about 4000 kilos per annum to 6000 kilos by the year 2000. A huge copper and gold mine is also planned for Namosi, some 35 km from Suva. Other minerals discovered but not exploited include bauxite, iron, lead, zinc, phosphates and marble. Mining currently makes a modest contribution to overall GDP but represents an important component in the export earnings figures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With one key exception, manufacturing is on a fairly small scale with an emphasis on staple items (butter, beer, soft drinks, paint, soap etc.) for the local market. The exception is the garment industry which provides some 20% of the country's export income and a considerable amount of employment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The investments in garment manufacturing and mining have been important in jobs terms and in improving the trade figures, but there are those who criticise the fact that the government appears to derive little revenue from the operations. The exact fiscal benefits are not easy to determine, prompting some observers to suggest that official secrecy should be eased (see the article on the Constitutional Review later in this Country Report).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the service sector, long-term growth is foreseen in the key area of tourism. The number of holidaymakers choosing Fiji dipped sharply at the time of the coup, illustrating the importance of political stability in attracting visitors. Tourist arrivals bounced back once Fiji's internal difficulties had receded from the international headlines. The politicians must be hoping that nothing will occur during the current period of constitutional discussion and negotiation to put Fiji back on the front pages. It is worth mentioning here that Fiji's national carrier, Air Pacific, is an example of a relatively rare bird - an airline that makes money ! According to journalist Avin Rahish, writing in the July 1996 issue of The Review (the news and business magazine of Fiji): 'It is one of the few government investments that is profitable on its own.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If tourism is a success story, there is something of a shadow over the financial services sector, which is more extensive here than in most developing countries. The reason is the collapse last year of the National Bank of Fiji with losses of US$ 142m (equivalent to 10% of the annual GDP). The authorities were accused of a failure in supervision and the taxpayers have had to pick up some of the bill. More serious, however, is the undermining of confidence in the system and it will take time for this to be restored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social challenges</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a middle-income country, Fiji has relatively favourable social indicators in the areas of health and education. Medical facilities are provided by the government but it is said that the public health system is not as good as it once was. This is attributed, among other things, to the emigration of highly qualified staff in the aftermath of the events of 1987. Nonetheless, the country does have 27 hospitals and one doctor for approximately every 1900 people. At 72 years, life expectancy is high compared to the ACP average.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The education sector is well-developed with more than 800 primary and secondary schools (for a population of less than 800 000) and 41 technical or vocational institutions. As a result, primary school enrolment is close to 100% while the 1986 census revealed that 60% of 15-year olds were still in education. On the other hand, there are concerns over the proportion of teachers lacking qualifications, notably in the primary school system. In practice, there is considerable racial segregation at both primary and secondary levels, although there is no official policy to this effect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Educationally, the jewel in the crown is almost certainly the University of the South Pacific whose main campus is in Suva. This regional institution, which has departments in a number of other countries of the South Pacific, draws students from various island nations. Dr Vijay Naidu, who is the USP's Pro-Vice Chancellor, outlined some of the special features of this unique university which has to cater for a highly dispersed population. Like traditional tertiary institutions, it provides a wide range of degree programmes on campus, catering for 3500 students. It has a further 9000 who are being educated using the 'distance mode'. Distance learning is organised through centres in each of the participating countries. Students can attend these centres from time to time but much of their work is done through radio and telephone linkages and, increasingly nowadays, by e-mail and satellite communications. The University, Dr Naidu stressed, also provides continuing education at non-degree level 'in everything from computing to basket-weaving'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the health sector, the USP suffered a loss of highly qualified staff after 1987  -  and not just among employees of Indian origin. As the Pro-Vice Chancellor pointed out, the coup created 'a new sense of insecurity' all round and teachers who decided to emigrate were quickly accepted in Australia and New Zealand. The loss has been particularly serious in the scientific disciplines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90% of the USP's recurrent expenditure is covered by member government contributions with the remainder coming from Australia and New Zealand. For capital investments, there is heavy reliance on external donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In both of Fiji's main ethnic communities, a strong commitment to the family ensures that there is relatively little absolute poverty although things may be changing as the country become more urbanised. It is rare to see beggars in the streets in the South Pacific but Suva, sadly, has a number of these.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall picture is of a country with very considerable potential in both human and natural resource terms which needs to overcome a number of challenges to secure a more prosperous future. Some of these challenges - adapting to the world of free markets, tackling bureaucratic impediments, bringing development to rural villages, improving the infrastructure, and so on - are familiar to all developing countries. The single most important constraint, however, is the big ethnic divide, and the political uncertainty which flows from this. And this is something which can only be solved by the people of Fiji themselves. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with Prime Minister Sitiveni Rabuka</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'The last ten years have been very educational for me'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is almost ten years since Sitiveni Rabuka led the military coup which toppled the newly-electerl coalition government The stormy events of 1987 are long gast end Fiji has returned to more peaceful ways, but the country is arguably not yet at peace with itself. Major-General Rabuka is now the erected Prime Minister, having led the SVT to victory at the polls in 1992 and 1994. But the gulf between the native Fijians end citizens of Indian descent remains -  indeed, it is institutionalised in a political system which ensures a parliamentary majority for the former. A constitutional review is currently under way end a new text must tee adopted by July 1997. For both sides, the stakes are high. In this interview, Prime Minister Rabuka speaks frankly about the crucial issues facing Fiji as the nation gears up for the great constitutional debate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji also faces some formidable economic challenges and we began by asking the Prime Minister about these.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The main challenge is the one that everybody faces: achieving an acceptable rate of growth to ensure job creation and address the unemployment problem. We also want to improve the standard of living of the people, to upgrade our infrastructure, and to develop both the urban and rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What sectors do you see as offering the best hope for future growth ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  We are looking particularly at tourism and the agro-based industries. In the international sphere, we are aiming to boost trade, particularly with our traditional trading partners, Australia and New Zealand, and with new partners that we are trying to cultivate in Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We are very grateful for the Lom&eacute; Convention and the various arrangements associated with it - particularly as regards access to the EU market for our sugar products. Although it would be desirable for us not to have to rely on preferential pricing for sugar, for the moment, there is no alternative. And while we are looking for alternatives and seeking to diversify our economy, we will need that system to remain in place. We would like to continue the dialogue to ensure that this happens. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the area of trade, as I say, our focus is on Australia and New Zealand, and the regional trade agreement that the Pacific island territories have with them. This agreement is currently under review. One important aspect is the clause governing the rules of origin. If we can convince Australia and New Zealand to reduce the local input requirement from 50% to 35%, then we won't need any aid from them. The effect will be to secure existing jobs and, indeed, to increase employment, particularly in the garment industry. At the moment, most of the textiles we import for further processing come from Australia. Because of the market we have to sell to, it is very good quality material. This means the costs are high, in comparison with the local input needed to turn it into finished products, and this makes it difficult for us to get up to the required 50%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If we don't get that reduction, things could go in the opposite direction. Manufacturers might relocate and we could be facing jobs losses. You have to remember that we are competing with Asian producers who have very low wage costs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is this proposal for a reduction in the local input requirement on the agenda with the Australians and New Zealanders ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The review actually excludes the clause on the rules of origin. Having said this, we have effectively raised the calculation of our local input in negotiations on a series of other points. On paper, the 50% figure is unchanged but in fact, there has been a reduction of about 5%, thus giving us a little margin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· On the sugar issue you said you were hopeful that some form of preferential access to the EU market would be maintained. Isn't there a concern that this may not last beyond the year 2000, particularly given the increasingly liberal world trading system ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, and we are looking at that. We should be gearing ourselves up for what happens at the end of the current Lom&eacute; agreement. It remains to be seen whether, with the WTO and the new trends, the curtain will suddenly be brought down on 1 January 2000, or whether there will be a grace period in which we are given time to consolidate our diversification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The other big issue in the sugar sector concerns the impending expiry of the land leases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That is a local issue and a very important one. It has high priority on our government agenda. We are currently talking to the landowners and lessees, explaining what will happen. The legislation (the Agricultural Landlord and Tenant Act) makes no provision for further extensions to the leases, which are now nearing their end. Do we need a new act or should we amend the present law to allow extensions beyond the 50 years originally allowed for ? And if we are to do that, what happens to the compensation provisions? At the moment, these are viewed in a rather one-sided way. The emphasis is on the situation where the landlord compensates the tenant for improvements made to the land. But the rules also provide for compensation in the other direction where the value has been reduced. This may be due to constant cultivation over 50 years. What if the owner wants to return the land to its original use, planting taro, yams or cassava, as his father may have done fifty years ago, and finds he can no longer do so ? There has to be a balancing act here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hopefully, most of the land will be leased again under a new agreement or under an amendment to the existing law - because we will need to continue sugar production. It is also worth noting that some sugar farmers are beginning to diversify into other crops, both subsistence and commercial.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What arrangements do you envisage for those farmers who do not have their leases renewed ? Will they be relocated ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Right now, we are looking at the use of state land. There are two basic categories here - what used to be known as 'Crown Land under Schedule A' and 'Crown Land under Schedule B'. Schedule A covers the land not claimed by anybody during the Commission that was set up to determine the ownership of land in the very early colonial years. Schedule B is land that belonged to a community or landholding unit that has since died out: in other words, where there is no surviving member of the land-owning unit. So we have those parcels of land available. My party's policy is to restore land to the traditional owners where possible, but in those cases where you cannot identify the original owners, there will be land available for resettlement - although resettlement is perhaps not a very good term to use. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It is somewhat emotive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It implies taking a person, family or community from somewhere and planting them somewhere else -  and I hope we can avoid that. On the other hand, if you look at what people are doing nowadays, everybody's relocating. People are always resettling, moving away from home and setting up elsewhere. In this case it is perhaps a necessity, in the sense that the legislation has caught up with us. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can I turn now to the sensitive issue of the constitution. This is another area where decision day is looming. You currently have a constitutional review under way with the Commission's report due out soon. What do you think will emerge from this process over the next 12-18 months ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I don't feel that the constitutional issue is a sensitive one and do not think anyone should feel restrained in asking questions about it. It reflects the reality of the situation in Fiji. There is a requirement that the 1990 Constitution be reviewed and we have a Review Commission chaired by Sir Paul Reeves. He is a very capable man who is a former Governor-General of New Zealand and a very eminent constitutional lawyer. Assisting him, we have two party nominees - one from the main Fijian party and one nominated jointly by the Indian parties in Parliament. I have total confidence in that Commission. I believe they will come up with very objective observations and recommendations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let me explain the timetable to you. The report is expected by the end of August. It will be presented first to the President and then to me for submission to Cabinet. I envisage it being tabled in Parliament towards the end of September. We cannot debate it until three months have elapsed from the date it was tabled - which takes us to the end of the year. A lot of work will be needed during the first half of 1997. The Joint Parliamentary Select Committee, made up of members of both the upper and lower houses, will have to work on the report and try and build consensus on the various issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given that the house is racially divided, and the possibility that a premature discussion on the floor of the house may raise the temperature, I would prefer not to have a full parliamentary sitting in the early part of next year. Instead, we should go into committee and deal with it there. And then when we are satisfied that the issues can be brought out into the open, we will debate them fully in Parliament. As soon as we start talking next year, the legislative craftsmen should begin their work. On the basis of this programme, I believe we can meet the deadline to the day, promulgating a new Constitution which has been accepted by both houses on 25 July 1997. So I am very hopeful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Without prejudging the final outcome, do you envisage a move away from strict communal separation ? I am thinking here, in particular, of the separate voting lists ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think there may be provision for some cross-communal voting. There was something like this in the 1970 Constitution which had both communal and national rolls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about the longer term. Do you foresee a political system developing in Fiji where ethnic origin is irrelevant -  perhaps a 'right-left' divide, if that is still a meaningful concept ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I am not bold enough to say that that will happen. I have seen the darkest side of Fijian nationalism. I have seen the fear that was in the Indian population in 1987. But if we move too quickly to remove the racial safeguards that are in the Constitution, we may run the risk of prolonging the bad relationship between the races that we now have. So I would say we should proceed very cautiously and let the natural healing process take its course. We also need to look beyond the Constitution at aspects such as our education system and enhancing the ability of the Fijians to compete.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I believe the education system is also very divided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Some schools are reserved for Fijians although, slowly, there are Indians from families close to the schools who are beginning to enter them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think that this is a promising sign for the future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think so. I went to a purely Fijian school and when I came out of that, everything was Fijian for me. I went straight into the army which is another Fijian-dominated institution. It was not planned that way. It is just the way it happened. My tolerance level of other races was very low. But you cannot expect somebody who gets to this level of leadership to have a low racial tolerance level. I must admit that the last ten years have been very, very educational for me - very good for my own being. I consider what I used to think before and the way I used to feel before. I have never been threatened by an Indian, but I had always been in Fijian 'safe' areas - a Fijian school and then in the army. But since coming out of that sort of cocoon, I have managed very well to accept that I have to compete with them, I have to look after them, and I have to devise policies and programmes that will be good for them as well as being good for us.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· One final question. Do you envisage Fiji seeking to rejoin the Commonwealth in the near future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think seeking is the wrong word. We will do what we feel is good for Fiji and its people. The people of Fiji are those who are here now but it will include some of those who have moved on looking for greener pastures and who are willing to come back. We were not expelled from the Commonwealth; our membership lapsed. It is up to the Commonwealth to say whether they are prepared to reconsider our member ship. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 18 272 km². Fiji has two main islands (Viti Levu and Vanua Levu) and about 300 smaller ones. It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of approximately 1.3 million km²). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 790 000</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population density: 43 per kilometre² </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Suva (situated on the island of Viti Levu) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main languaqes: English, Bauan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(main Fijian language)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currency: Fiji dollar (F$). In June 1996, 1 ECU was worth approximately F$ 1.80. (US$1 = F$ 1.40) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p15.png"></center><br>
+ Fiji</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">System of government: A bicameral parliamentary system consisting of an appointed Senate and an elected House of Representatives. The President is a non-executive head of state chosen by the Great Council of Chiefs. The President appoints the Prime Minister. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the Constitution, adopted in 1990, the Parliament is divided along racial lines. The Senate has 34 members, 24 of whom are indigenous Fijians. In the 70-member House of Representatives, 37 seats are reserved for native Fijians, 27 for Indo-Fijians, 5 for 'general voters' (other ethnic groups) and 1 for Rotuma Island (whose inhabitants are Polynesian). The 1990 Constitution provides for a review within seven years and discussions are currently under way with a view to amending the Constitution by the 1997 deadline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President: Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Major General Sitiveni Rabuka </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main political parties: Soqosoqo ni Vakavulewa ni Taukei (SVT - Fijian), National Federation Party (NFP  -  Indian), Fiji Labour Party (FLP - Indian),  Fijian Association (FA - Fijian), General Voters Party (GVP).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Party representation in Parliament (1994 election result): SVT 31, NFP 20, FLP 7, FA 5, GVP 4, Others 3. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP: (1995) F$ 2.85 billion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual GDP per capita: approx US$ 2600 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP growth rate (1995): 2.2% (2.9% predicted for 1996) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Principal exports (1994): Sugar (US$ 182m), Garments (US$ 96m), Gold (US$ 43m), Fish (US$ 38m), Timber (US$ 21 m) Main trading partners (in order of importance):</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exports - Australia, UK, USA, Japan, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Imports - Australia, New Zealand, USA, Japan, Singapore.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade balance (1994): exports - US$ 547m, imports - US$ 826, deficit - US$ 279m. The current account figures also usually reveal a deficit but this is much smaller due to tourism earnings and official transfers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inflation rate (1995): 2.2%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government budget (1996): revenue -  F$ 759m, expenditure  -  F$ 851 m, deficit - F$92 (about 3.5% of GDP) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forma/sector employment: 98 112 (out of a total economically active population of about 265 000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth (1993): 71.6 years </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult literacy (1993): 90.6%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education: all levels from age 6-23: 79% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.853 (47th out of 174) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: Economic Intelligence Unit, UNDP Human Development Report, 1996, EC Commission. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">An interview with opposition leader Jai Ram Reddy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'We need to move to a more racially neutral system'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji is not unique in having a political system that is heavily influenced by racial or communel issues In places as diverse as Northern Ireland, Belgium, Guyana and Trinidad - not to mention many parts of Africa - people vote for parties which claim to represent the particular ethnic, religious or linguistic group to which they belong. Where Fiji is different, however, is in having a Constitution that gives primacy to one particular community. Since the 1987 coup, native Fijians have held the upper hand with a guaranteed majority in Parliament and a firm grip on the levers or power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1990 Constitution, adopted when communal feelings were still running high, contained a requirement for a constitutional review within seven years. When The Courier visited Fiji (July 19961 the work of a three-member Commission appointed to carry out the review and make recormmendations was nearing completion. All sides seem to accept the need for reforms designed to help bridge the sharp racial divide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The big question is how radical these reforms are likely to be. We sought the views of Jai Ram Reddy, the leader of the opposition National Federation Party (NFP) which has the support of most of the country's Indian (Indo-Fijian) community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You are the first opposition leader I have met who cannot, constitutionally, become Prime Minister. How do you feel about that ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is something that rankles with me - the mere thought that I am not equal with my fellow citizens of other races. I think that's generally the way the Indians feel here. All the constraints and limitations, the denial of basic human rights, are the source of a great deal of unhappiness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You talk about basic human rights. Obviously, the political aspects are very important but I get the impression that, in other respects, this is a fairly free and easy society: there is free expression, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, but free expression is only one aspect of human rights. The fact is that discrimination based on race is widespread and institutionalised. About 45% of the population is Indo-Fijian but you will find they are not fairly represented in the higher levels of the public service. At the Permanent Secretary level, there is definitely a government policy to have a limited number of Indians - and there are hardly any in the more crucial ministries. The same is true of managerial positions throughout the public sector. In the statutory bodies and major public undertakings, there is a deliberate policy of excluding Indians. So we are very much a marginalised community in the public sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wouldn't it be true to say that Indians have quite a lot of economic power ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No, I don't agree. There is a tendency for people who come here, end for some people in Fiji, to project this image of Indians controlling the economy. It is a fallacy. It all boils down to how you define economic power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let's take natural resources. The land, and therefore the forests, are almost exclusively owned and controlled by native Fijians. Even in the corporate sector, the largest business undertaking is the manufacture of sugar, and 80% of the shares are owned by the government. The Indians don't own this industry. They are the small sugar cane producers working on ten-acre plots. And who controls banking and insurance ? Certainly not the Indians. Most of the financial services companies are foreign-owned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The area where the Indians are most visible is in the retail sector. But those little shops you see in the towns are small family businesses. The shopkeepers work up to 15 hours a day, and you will discover that many of them do not even own their premises; they are tenants. So the idea that Indians control the economy is a bit of a myth. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Constitution, and in particular the system of racial differentiation for voting and holding certain offices, is obviously a key issue for you. With the Constitution currently under review, what is your party's policy in this area ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The first elections under the current Constitution took place in 1992 and we took part in them under protest. We made clear that our participation should not be construed as acceptance of the system. Indeed, the sole issue on which we campaigned was our rejection of the Constitution. But we accepted the fact that we needed to get into the system as it was, and to try and create an environment where there would be widespread appreciation that it had to change. The 1990 text, in fact, laid down that it had to be reviewed by the seventh anniversary of its promulgation. I think the architects of the Constitution realised themselves that it was deficient. And we laid great emphasis on the need for dialogue; a general recognition that the country would be much better off with everybody working together and that there was nothing to be gained by oppressing or marginalising a community. And that is the kind of environment we have tried to create.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Constitutional review will shortly be published. What do you hope will come out of that exercise ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I am reasonably optimistic. I think the environment is more favourable now and there is a general recognition that the system has to change. I am sure you will get confirmation of this when you talk to the government side. We need to move away from this very polarised, compartmentalised political system to a more racially neutral one. I think views may diverge as to how far we should go. That will be the contentious issue. But I believe we will make progress.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I certainly think we will get a good report from the Constitutional Review Commission. One of our fears, when we started on this journey, was whether it would be independent and be given fair terms of reference. Largely because of the cooperative and accommodating attitude that we ourselves adopted, and to which the government responded, we were able to get a Commission that was well-balanced. We are very fortunate to have Sir Paul Reeves, a former Governor-General of New Zealand. His independence is taken for granted. The Commission also has one nominee from the indigenous side and one from the Indo-Fijian side. So we certainly expect a good report. There is already a kind of acceptance I think on all sides that political parties need to prepare themselves for a more multiracial approach to governance in the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· On this point, I see that the SVT (the governing party) is looking at the idea of opening up its membership to other groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think there will be many nonnative Fijians interested in joining ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Not straight away but at least it is a beginning. It is an acceptance that they can't remain racially exclusive. If, for example, the Commission recommends a move toward a racially neutral system - at least for a certain number of seats - then it would be important for the SVT to have non-Fijians in their party.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can I turn to economic issues, which I presume cannot be divorced altogether from political ones ? There is a lot of discussion about the future of the sugar industry which is tied in with the question of renewing the land leases This is an issue which is due to be resolved soon. How concerned are you about the impending decision on the leases ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - This is something that concerns us very deeply. As you correctly observe, you can't separate the political and economic aspects. The two are very closely interlinked here - perhaps more so than in other countries - because of the land situation. The bulk of Indian peasant farmers, both within and outside the sugar industry, are on leases that will begin to expire next year. If these are not renewed, the problem will not just be an economic one but an enormous human one. What do we do with these people who all belong to a particular racial group. It really boils down to our very survival. Despite the growth in the towns, the bulk of the people are still rurally based. They are small subsistence farmers, living in the country areas with no more than 10 or 12 acres to cultivate. So the social implications of non-renewal in terms of poverty, dispossession and hardship are enormous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· But how real is the concern ? Surely, the overwhelming economic logic is for the leases to be renewed. After all the land is being put to productive use at the moment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Yes, but unfortunately, when you have a communal dimension to the problem, logic does not always prevail. If you think about it, there was no logic in the events of 1987. The trouble is that every issue here has a racial twist. After the coup, communal sentiments were aroused and sharpened. There was a prolonged period of anti-lndian propaganda and in that environment of anger, a highly racial constitution was adopted. There were people in positions of influence openly advocating non-renewal, threatening to take all the land back. Now they need to undo all this and it will not be easy, given the enormous strength of feeling that has been aroused. Having said this, I believe that we are now in the process of restoring sanity to our public life. It is also beginning to dawn on everybody that the sugar industry is vital for Fiji and it will continue to be so for some years to come.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I have heard that view expressed on all sides, but I wonder if people are sufficiently aware of the implications of global liberalisation. It has been suggested that this will make sugar increasingly unviable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think a lot of people are unaware of the implications, because there has been very little public education in this field. But amongst those 'in the know', there is certainly an appreciation. I am a member of the Parliamentary Select Committee on Sugar and we were recently addressed by the head of the marketing company and the head of the Sugar Commission. At that level, there is an awareness, but if you speak to the average farmer who has been growing and selling sugar for many years, he will probably assume that life will just go on as before.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Isn't it true to say that sugar depends heavily on the Lom&eacute; Convention arrangement with the European Community ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Very much so. In my view, the sugar industry is run so inefficiently that but for the huge subsidy we get from the European Community, it would not be viable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Presumably, this means that measures must be taken to improve efficiency ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, absolutely. But the first issue to resolve is the land question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is no point talking to the farmers about efficiency  -  asking them to improve their husbandry and focus on sugar content rather than the quantity of cane produced - when they don't know if they will have land to cultivate after next year. So you see all other issues have become completely subsidiary to the tenure question. At the moment, we are in a limbo. The government and the people urgently need to resolve this problem. Then we can put it behind us and address the other concerns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Are there any other economic sectors which you feel offer promise for the future of the country ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Any growth outside of tourism will, I think, have to be centred on the agricultural sector. We need more agro-based industries and more diversification. We could grow a lot of other crops here - mangoes for example. We also need to improve extension services to farmers, and make an aggressive effort to identify markets. The farmers will grow the crops but they must be sure that somebody will buy them. Every year, for example, we have a glut of tomatoes - so many that they can't even give them away in the markets. This kind of problem kills the incentive to produce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is obviously heavy state involvement in the running of agriculture. Do you see scope for more privatisation or 'corporatisation' in line with global trends ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think that growth, even in the agricultural sector has to be private-sector driven. At the same time, you have got to create the right environment and infrastructure for this to happen. Unfortunately, it keeps coming back to this question of land. If big investors, for instance, want to come here and invest in agriculture, they need to know what sort of tenure they are going to get and whether they can buy the freehold. I am sure there are people, particularly now from the Asian region, who would be interested in investing in agriculture, but the land problem is a big constraint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do you think Fiji will rejoin the Commonwealth at any point ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Well, we hope so. You know we are all very strongly in favour of rejoining. One of the things that I personally feel very strongly about is the unfortunate severance of our link with the Queen. I don't know, constitutionally, whether it can be restored. Obviously, there are difficulties in that area, but I think a large majority of ordinary people in this country would like at least to see Fiji back in the Commonwealth. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Seeking a lasting constitutional settlement</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When The Courier visited Fiji in July, the report of the Constitutional Review Commission headed by Sir Paul Reeves (former Governor-General of New Zealand) had not yet been completed  -  and what it would contain was a major topic of speculation. As readers will see from the interview we publish with the Prime Minister and Opposition Leader, the impartiality of the three-member Commission was not in question  -  at least within the political mainstream on both the native Fijian and Indian sides. Nonetheless, there were doubts about whether a consensus could be found. For the Indo-Fijians, a scaling down of the 'racial' features in the Constitution was seen as a prerequisite. Yet the ruling SVT, in its own submissions to the Commission, had effectively supported the status quo. In view of this apparently unbridgeable gulf, could the compilers of the Report come up with recommendations capable of forming the basis for a lasting constitutional settlement ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The long-awaited Report was formally transmitted to President Ratu Mara on 6 September and a few days later, it was tabled to a joint session of the Senate and the House of Representatives. It now falls to a joint select committee of the two Houses to thrash out a new set of constitutional proposals. These will be presented to Parliament for debate and decision in the first half of next year with a view to meeting the July 1997 deadline foreseen in the 1990 Constitution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Report of the Review Commission is lengthy (almost 800 pages) and contains no fewer than 697 separate recommendations. The key ones, however, relate to the system for electing members of the House of Representatives. Currently, separate electoral lists based on race are used to fill all 70 seats (37 native Fijians, 27 Indo-Fijians, 1 Rotuman and 5 'General Electors', covering all other races). It was widely expected that the Commission would propose a mixture of 'reserve' seats and 'open' ones, with the latter, as their name implies, being chosen by the whole electorate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">45 'open' seats proposed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is precisely what they have done - but the suggested breakdown may have come as a surprise to some. The proposal is for 45 open seats (15 three-member constituencies) and 25 single-member 'reserve seats (12 native Fijian, 10 Indo-Fijian, 1 Rotuman and 2 'General Electors'). If adopted, the new system would no longer legally guarantee a majority for people of Fijian origin in the country's legislature. What would happen in practice would depend on a number of factors including the nature of the voting system in the three member open constituencies, the willingness of people to cast their ballots across the ethnic divide and the actual turnout of voters from the different communities. It should be pointed out, however, that native Fijians now constitute half the population, large numbers of Indians having emigrated over the past nine years. So long as communal voting patterns persist, this will presumably be reflected in the Parliamentary arithmetic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also proposed that the bulk of the 35-member Senate (Bose e Cake) should be made up of elected representatives of Fiji's provinces. In the field of local government, it is suggested that the present system based on villages and provinces, which applies only to native Fijians, might be replaced by an arrangement applicable to all races. In this context, the rote of the Council of Chiefs (Bose Levu Vakaturaga) would be reduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the sections of the Report relating to representation are bound to attract most attention, the Commission also put forward a series of other proposals aimed at improving the governance of Fiji. One idea, which appears designed to alter the political culture, is for the 'Official Secrets Act' to be replaced by a 'Freedom of Information Act'. The presumption of secrecy would be replaced by a rule that official information should be accessible to the public except where there is good reason to withhold it. In a similar vein, the Report recommends an 'integrity code' to govern the behaviour of holders of public office.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initial reactions to the outcome of the Commission's work were mixed. Key players, including the President, Prime Minister and opposition spokespersons broadly welcomed the Report but more nationalistic elements were quick to reject it and one group even mounted a ceremonial burning of the document.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is obvious that a great many more words will be exchanged - and some of them will no doubt be heated  - in the coming months. It is difficult to see how everyone can be 'brought on board' but the hope must be that a compromise can be crafted that is acceptable to the majority on both sides of the communal divide. The people of this Pacific island nation are well aware that prosperity and stability go hand in hand. The single most important achievement in ensuring stability for the longer term would be to secure a satisfactory settlement of the constitutional issue. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Sugar definitely has a future'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was the key sentiment expressed by Isimeli Bose, Fiji's Trade Minister, when he spoke to The Courier earlier this year. Mr Bose insisted that 'no matter what anybody says, sugar will be the backbone of this country's economy for years to come.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When we discussed Fiji's current economic situation and future prospects with the Minister, it was not surprising that sugar should have featured so prominently. The sector faces a difficult future for both internal and external reasons. At home, the long-term leases granted to the farmers (mainly Fiji Indians) under the Agricultural Landlord and Tenant Act are due to expire over the next few years. No provision was made for their renewal and the resulting uncertainty has provoked widespread concern, not least among the leaseholders themselves. The external 'threat' comes from new international trade rules administered by the World Trade Organisation. At present, Fiji's sugar industry is heavily dependent on the preferential access to the EU market which was granted under the Lom&eacute; Sugar Protocol. No one is quite sure what will happen when Lom&eacute; IV expires at the turn of the century but it is clear that the stakes are high.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Bose was quick to acknowledge the importance of ending the uncertainty facing the sugar farmers. 'But the real challenge', he said, 'is to ensure the maintenance of our markets for sugar.' He was aware of the encroachment of global trade liberalisation but stressed that the industry's leaders and the government were 'doing the work now and planning for the future.' At the same time, the authorities are clearly hoping that the European Union will be able to continue with some form of preferential arrangement after the year 2000, if only to buy time so that the industry can adapt and farmers can diversify.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the subject of trade diversification, Mr Bose pointed out that 'the field is very limited'. He continued; 'However, since 1988, we have seen garment production picking up from very humble beginnings. By 1995, we had about F$185 million-worth of exports in this area.' He also spoke enthusiastically about the government policy of encouraging manufacturing in tax-free factories and zones. 'This developed well between 1989 and 1992 and then there was something of a slowdown.' Tax-free factories have been established in a number of locations and the first real tax-free zone is now being set up in Kalabo. Mr Bose indicated that EU assistance was being provided in this area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Privatisation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Our conversation then turned to the changing economic role of governments - throughout the world, they are withdrawing from active involvement in industrial and commercial operations. We asked how far this process had occurred in Fiji and, in particular, whether there was a privatisation policy. The Minister replied in the affirmative, pointing out that government departments 'do not usually make very good businesspeople.' The policy, therefore, was to 'corporatise' and 'privatise', although the process is still in its early stages. The Trade and Commerce Ministry has a public enterprise unit which is responsible for drawing up a policy framework for the government. In 1995, Mr Bose explained, a public enterprise bill was presented to Parliament, 'but there were so many concerns expressed to the previous Minister that it was referred to a select committee -  which, in fact was chaired by me before I took up my present poet.' The committee had now completed its work and the Minister indicated that the issue would go back to Parliament in September.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the legislative delay, Mr Bose was keen to stress that his department was already working on individual programmes. The post and telecoms business, for example, had just gone through another stage towards privatisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is, of course, an important distinction between 'corporatisation' and 'privatisation' - the former implies staying within the state sector but at arms-length from the administration. This point was acknowledged by our interviewee who explained that the approach was a step-by-step one. The first stage was to reorganise a department along commercial lines. Corporatisation came next 'and then finally you have privatisation by disposing of shares.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He stressed that the most important aim was to ensure an element of competition wherever possible. 'There is no point simply moving from a government monopoly to a private monopoly', he insisted, 'although obviously, there are utilities like water, electricity and even telephones where this may not be easy.' The minister concluded; 'Where they are natural monopolies, we will regulate them.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Our final topic of discussion was the possibility of regional integration in the Pacific.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How far had the South Pacific countries gone in this direction and did the Minister think there was a need for closer economic cooperation? Mr Bose replied that he thought economic integration was a good thing. He pointed to a document on his desk containing a draft proposal for a bilateral trade agreement with Papua New Guinea. 'We will soon be holding negotiations with them, and have also just signed an agreement with Tonga.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The focus on bilateral trade arrangements at this stage suggests that the region still has some way to go on the regional integration path.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the Minister nonetheless insisted that it was something 'that can and will happen'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Our daily bread - courtesy of a remarkable Fijian businesswoman</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How can a businesswomen succeed in Fiji's patriarchal society? Mere Samisoni, the entrepreneur behind the 'Hotbread Kitchen' gave us an appropriate answer when she said 'I roll with it', although the pun was probably unintentional In fact, it is difficult to imagine this dynamic lady being pushed around. Anybody who manages to build up a chain of bakeries from scratch, capturing 35% of the country's urban consumer market in the process, must have a lot of determination. At the same time, Mrs Samisoni displays a strong sense of social commitment. She believes in community values, advocates group decision-making and consensus, and even describes the tax system as 'reasonably fair'. In short, she contradicts the widely-held view propagated by lurid American TV series, that a dogeat-dog attitude is needed for business success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, Mrs Samisoni started out with the idea of working with one of the caring professions. Trained in nursing administration in Australia and New Zealand, she returned to Fiji only to find that there were no openings available. That was when she decided to go into the private sector, establishing 'Samisoni Enterprises'. And over the years, she has succeeded in building up one of the largest bread-making operations in the country. The Hotbread Kitchen operation is highly decentralised with the bread being baked in different locations for sale through the company's local outlets. Her business is also the first Fijian one to franchise out its operations. And having already won a big chunk of the urban market, she is now looking to expand operations in the rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Samisoni Enterprises, of course, is not simply a bread-making operation. The company now offers a line of 62 separate bakery products, with some local adaptations to suit varying tastes. It employs some 275 staff with perhaps another 50 working in the related franchise operations. And the business had an important breakthrough when it won the contract for 'MacDonalds' in Nadi. With branches of the famous hamburger chain likely to open in other parts of Fiji, this could be the start of something big. In fact, there is even a suggestion that Fiji could be used to source Macdonalds' operations in New Zealand, the rolls (or buns, as the Americans like to call them) being exported frozen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Constant quality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Mrs Samisoni, the key to a successful and profitable operation is 'constant quality' and unfailing attention to customer service. As she puts its, 'if you let quality slip just once, you can end up losing customers for a very long time.' Baking is a labour-intensive business and she is keen to stress the importance of developing people's abilities - in particular, the human relaitons skills of those who deal direct with the customer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As if running a business wasn't enough, Mere Samisoni is also busy completing a Masters in Business Administration (MBA) at the University of the South Pacific, with a thesis on indigenous business. From what we discovered, speaking to this remarkable Fijian entrepreneur, she should have been helping to teach the course! </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Viti Levu - island of contrasts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anyone from overseas who is travelling to the Fijian capital, Suva, will soon discover that the country's largest island is a very diverse place. Roughly circular in shape, Viti Levu provides more than half of Fiji's total land area and is home to about three-quarters of the population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The journey to Suva on the south-east coast will almost certainly involve transiting through Nadi International Airport (pronounced Nandi) which is situated in the west. This is the country's only major international gateway and while it is ideal for tourists heading for the resort hotels, it is less convenient for business travellers whose destination is Suva. Their journey has to be completed either by road (which takes several hours) or on one of the small commuter planes which ply regularly between Nadi and Nausori (itself a half-hour drive from the capital).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biggest surprise to those who are unfamiliar with the country is that the west and the south-east have very different weather patterns. When your aircraft lands at Nadi, the chances are high that the sun will be shining. On reaching Suva, you are more likely to encounter rain. This part of the country enjoys - if that is the correct term - a micro-climate which is good for tropical vegetation but less appealing to human beings. The 'blame' for locating the Fijian capital in such a spot is said (not too seriously) to lie with the country's former colonial rulers. According to the story, a British envoy visited Suva on one of its rare sunny days and, on the strength of this, designated it as the seat of administration. The British can hardly deny their involvement since it was in 1882, during the early years of colonial rule, that the capital moved from Levuka (situated on the much smaller island of Ovalau). But the key reason was almost certainly the fact that Suva, with its large bay, could be developed as a port. Whatever the explanation, one must have some sympathy with the foreign diplomats who keep a raincoat or umbrella to hand at all times, and yet are viewed with envy back home because they have a 'paradise' posting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To be fair, Suva has attributes other than its weather which make it an interesting place. It has, for example, some very attractive architecture, both local and colonial. The views across the bay can be dramatic - and, in this respect, the rolling cloud formations may actually enhance the picture. And the centre of the city buzzes with activity (except on Sunday because of the Sabbatarian influence).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The population of the greater Suva area is about 160 000. This may not be enormous, but it is the largest concentration of humanity to be found between Hawaii and Australia. In some ways, it is the 'capital' of the South Pacific - a point which is underlined by the fact that the Forum Secretariat is based here. It is also the site of the University of the South Pacific's main campus. The local population is mainly ethnic Fijian but there are Indo-Fijians as well as citizens of Chinese and European extraction. Add to this the diplomatic corps, foreign businesspeople and students from other parts of the region, and you get a very cosmopolitan mix. This is reflected in the variety of cuisines available in the local restaurants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The western part of Viti Levu is also cosmopolitan but in a very different way, with a stronger Indian influence and, of course, a constantly changing tourist population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of the island's inhabitants live a relatively short distance from the sea. Thus, in demographic terms, Viti Levu is like a doughnut with a thick layer of humanity around the edge and a hole in the middle. The analogy may not be entirely apt since the 'hole' is, in fact, a spectacular mountainous area. This makes the road that runs round the island a key arterial route. Meanwhile, those who choose to fly from Nadi to Suva, assuming they are not of a nervous disosition, can enjoy the experience of travelling below the height of the surrounding peaks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The few people who do occupy the central region live in traditional Fijian villages and have a lifestyle far removed from either the town dwellers or the sugar cane farmers. Its size may be little more than ten thousand square kiLom&eacute;tres but Viti Levu is truly an island of contrasts. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Fiji-EU cooperation: comprehensive package</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Ernst Kroner</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji was a signatory of the first Lom&eacute; Convention in 1975 and, to date, the country has been allocated some ECU 190m in EU development cooperation funds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting with a relatively modest ECU 9.9m under Lom&eacute; I, the national indicative programme rose to ECU 13m under the following Convention. Without neglecting rural development (feeder roads in Vanua Levu), under Lom&eacute; I most of the resources were devoted to transport infrastructure (a main road on Vanua Levu). Under Lom&eacute; 11, cooperation concentrated clearly on agriculture and rural development, in particular by means of the funding of microprojects, with infrastructural programmes (the extension of the Vanua Levu road, social infrastructure) taking second place. Under this Convention, a new field of action was also addressed: trade development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tax free zone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade development was addressed further under Lom&eacute; III (6th EDF, ECU 20m, of which ECU 5m in special loans), with support given to an Investment and Trade Development Programme. The longer-term objective of the project was to widen the economic base of Fiji and to create employment. The more immediate objective was the i establishment of a Tax Free Zone near Suva. In order to promote this scheme and to secure markets for exporting the goods which would eventually be produced, the project included a programme of trade and investment promotion to be implemented by the Fiji Trade and Investment Board. Due to problems linked with identifying an appropriate site, the project, which had been given the go-ahead in 1990, only came on stream in 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural and agricultural development continued to be one of the main sectors of cooperation, with the funding of three major projects. The first was a coconut rehabilitation and development project, situated on the island of Taveuni, which aimed at improving the productivity of coconut plantations through the introduction and multiplication of high yield hybrids. The project also provided for the establishment of a 30 hectare coconut nursery centre, which was expected to finance itself through the sales of seedlings. EC support for this project ended in 1992, since when the scheme has been taken over by the Government. A second project (a large-scale microprogramme divided into two sub-programmes) aimed on the one hand at the construction of access roads to facilitate the development of cocoa plantations, and on the other at the introduction and development of pineapple plantations in Vanua Levu. The first component was closed after disappointing results. The second component, however, produced very interesting and promising results, which will, however, need private and governmental support in order to become sustainable. A rural electrification project involving 28 rural electrification schemes and the supply and installation of a small power plant is still ongoing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing human resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Lom&eacute; III, the formerly prominent transport infrastructure sector lost some importance. The Kubulau Peninsula road project on Vanua Levu brought to an end the work started under previous Conventions. This road, which filled the last gap in the circuminsular road, was opened on in July 1994. Lom&eacute; III also saw the beginning of human resources development as a new theme of cooperation, with Technical Assistance funded for the logging school. This area, embodying strong links with forestry and environmental issues, has been further developed under Lom&eacute; IV with the reconstruction of the school burnt down in 1993, and the enlargement of the training and education provided to what now constitutes a Forest Training Centre.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The national indicative programme relating to the first protocol of Lom&eacute; IV (7th EDF, ECU 22m in grant aid) identifies rural development and social infrastructure as the sectors of concentration to which 65% of resources are to be devoted. The remaining 35% will be used for non-focal activities, including trade and services, tourism, cultural cooperation, training and technical cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Building bridges</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, it was only following the very destructive cyclone Kina in January 1993 that cooperation activities could start in the form of the rebuilding of four bridges either severely damaged or completely destroyed by the post-cyclone floods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Work on two smaller bridges of major importance to Viti Levu (Korovou and Vunidawa, ECU 1.135m) was started in 1994 by the Public Works Department and completed in January 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Financing Agreement for the two major bridges (ECU 10.24m) was signed in June 1994 and provides for the rebuilding of the bridges of Ba and Sigatoka. These form part of the main road around the island of Viti Levu and are therefore vital for the movement of people and goods on Fiji's main island. The new bridges, 190 and 182 metres long respectively, will be two-lane, and will provide for footpaths and utilities. To enable the traffic to by-pass the often congested towns of Ba and Sigatoka, new sites for both bridges have been chosen, which also call for the building of new approach roads. Building works were under way in early 1996 and completion is expected by April 1997.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non programmable aid for Fiji has been considerable over the years. While Stabex transfers for losses on coconut oil (totalling ECU 5.4m under Lom&eacute; I - Lom&eacute; III) came to a halt under Lom&eacute; IV (because levels of exports fell below the required dependency threshold), emergency aid (total ECU 9.5m) has continued, unfortunately, to be needed. Time and again the islands have been hit by cyclones (the most recent occasion being in January 1993, when the EU made available ECU 1 m for food rations following cyclone Kina).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, a significant feature of EU-Fiji cooperation was the credits provided by the European Investment Bank. It was very active under Lom&eacute; I to Lom&eacute; III, providing loans from its own resources to a total value of ECU 87.5m with a further ECU 6.1 m allocated in risk capital. Loans went to the energy sector (hydropower scheme), industry (wood processing) and services (telecommunications, sea and air transport). Considerable interest rate subsidies (totalling ECU 14.1m) have also been made available under the various EDFs in support of these loans. More recently, the EIB has financed an aircraft maintenance centre (1991) and a telecommunications project (1995).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over and above financial cooperation, Fiji benefits from the second largest quota (165348 tonnes per annum) under the Sugar Protocol annexed to the Lom&eacute; Conventions. This covers some 45% of its total sugar exports. The yearly benefit from this provision is estimated at between ECU 45m and ECU 55m - in other words, only slightly less than the total of all programme aid granted since Lom&eacute; I (ECU 64.9m). About two-thirds of these benefits reach the farmers, so that the EU subsidises every sugar smallholder, on average, to the extent of some ECU 1500 a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recently, Fiji's quota under the Sugar Protocol was increased by 881 tonnes, as a result of the reallocation of the shortfall of deliveries by Barbados. Furthermore, Fiji benefits from an annual special tariff quota to the tune of some 30 000 tonnes up to the year 2001.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industrial development and external trade have been supported by the relaxation of the rules of origin for exports to the EU of canned tuna to the extent of 500 tonnes a year from 1993 to 1996. A similar arrangement, applicable for certain quantities of garments up the end of 1993 was recently extended to the end of 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji's main exports to the EU (sugar, fish and garments) - and the resulting surplus in its trade relations with the EU - are consequently highly dependent upon the continuity of these preferences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Support for tourism</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the field of services, and specifically in tourism, the EU - through its support of the Tourism Council of the South Pacific - has contributed to the fact that every sixth tourist or so arriving in Fiji comes from a member country of the Union. Tourism being by far Fiji's most important source of foreign exchange earnings, receipts from European tourists amount at present to some ECU 30m, and are greater than those from the export of fish and fish products</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taking the Sugar Protocol into consideration, the EU is by far the most important of Fiji's development partners, followed by Australia. The country also benefits from bilateral cooperation arrangements with EU Member States (UK, France, Germany). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Tonga</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Hoping to maintain harmony</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'None of the most civilised nations have ever exceeded these islanders in the great order and regularity maintained on every occasion, in ready and submissive compliance with the commands of their chiefs, and the perfect harmony that subsists among all ranks.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These were the words of Captain Cook who visited the Tonga archipelago several times on his voyages around the world in the eighteenth century. The famous explorer was obviously impressed by the social organisation of this island nation and, although it is more than two centuries since he undertook his Pacific voyages, many of his observations hold true today. Talk of submissive compliance may no longer be appropriate, but in contrast to the turbulence of much of the outside world, Tonga certainly ranks as a peaceful society, which is respectful of hierarchies and strongly attached to 'traditional values'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The reference to harmony is particularly apposite, as The Courier discovered when we visited Tonga earlier this year. It was fortunate that our trip coincided with the King's birthday celebrations and we had the opportunity to enjoy the superb choral music which plays a central part in many important ceremonies here. Like their Polynesian cousins in Western Samoa (featured in our last issue), the Tongans seem to have a natural flair for music and a talent for spontaneous harmony. The question is whether these 'Friendly Islands' - a name they certainly deserve  -  can maintain their reputation for social harmony into the third millenium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In order to answer this, one has to identify where discordant notes could creep in. The biggest challenge appears to come from the process of globalisation. New technologies, particularly in the field of communications, are rapidly breaking down barriers. The tide of the international economic system, with its emphasis on mass production, con sumerism and free trade, is lapping at the islands' shores And political systems everywhere are under pressure to con form to a 'democratic' model which some would argue places the individual above the community. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course, external influences can be both positive and negative Cultural exchanges can be enriching, and new ideas and techniques may offer opportunities for improving the quality of life. The key is to adapt without undermining the social fabric. And in Tonga, as in other countries, a harmonious future will ultimately depend on the way the country evolves both politically and economically.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking first at the current political set-up in Tonga, one cannot fault the use of the term constitutional monarchy which is the preferred description locally. It is important, however, to recognise that the constitution - which dates back to 1875 - gives considerable power to the monarchy. There is a measure of democracy in that all adults over 21 have a vote, but they only elect nine of the 30 Members of Parliament A further nine are chosen by the country's 30+ nobles while the twelve Cabinet Ministers, who sit in the House ex officio are nominated by the King. Tonga may' be small (it has fewer than 100 000 inhabitants) but it nonetheless attract: the interest of political scientists as one of the few remaining states with a hereditary ruler who wields substantial power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Critics of the system view it as an anachronism, although their emphasis is on reform rather than revolutionary change. Defenders argue that the arrangement works well in a small, homogenous nation which values its unique culture and traditions (even if the constitution contains many 'British' elements). The latter also point, with some justification, to the attitude of the population. There are dissenting voices but the majority appears to be happy with the existing set-up, thereby lending it democratic legitimacy  -  at least indirectly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There may not, at present, be any overwhelming demand for constitutional reform but things can change. In particular, a people's view of their political system and how it might evolve is likely to be influenced by the prevailing economic conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic outlook</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga's economy is not exactly booming with the most recent estimates suggesting a 2% GDP drop in 1995-96. Several of the traditional problems faced by developing countries are to be found writ large here. The local market is not just small but tiny by global standards, and this makes it exceptionally difficult to achieve economies of scale. There is heavy demand for imported manufactured items and few viable export opportunities to balance the equation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The education system compares favourably with those of other developing nations but the pool is so small that Tonga inevitably suffers from human resource shortages. This is exacerbated by a steady 'brain drain'. Qualified Tongans, who may already have experienced life abroad at college or university, are tempted by a range of attractions including higher salaries, better housing and more extensive career prospects. The skills shortage is particularly severe in the medical profession. In a recent issue of Matangi Tonga (the 'national news magazine'), it was reported that the country would only have one anaesthetist by 1997 - with a local doctor observing wryly that there was no need for one since the main hospital's only specialist surgeon had recently left to take up a post abroad.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it would be better for Tonga to retain its qualified people, the fact that the country 'exports' labour does have its positive side. Tongans have a strong sense of family and community, and overseas workers send significant amounts of money back home. This injection of 'foreign' funds boosts the local economy and reduces the overall balance of payments deficit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture is by far the most important economic sector, with most crops being grown for local consumption. The islands benefit from a fertile soil and a tropical climate, allowing the cultivation of a wide variety of fruit and vegetables. All land is vested in the Crown, with estates allocated to the nobles. By law, each adult male is also supposed to be allotted three hectares although there is not enough land to go round. Despite this difficulty, which means that some people do not receive their allocation, the result is that most Tongans are involved in farming. The advantage of the arrangement is that it guarantees a living for the bulk of the population even if their cash income is low. On the other hand, it is obviously a feudal system which favours the upper echelons of Tongan society. In addition, it tends to hinder the development of larger units which could benefit from economies of scale. While anxious to make farming more efficient (and export-oriented), the government currently has no plans to introduce land reform.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In export terms, the main crop is squash (pumpkins). Production increased dramatically in the early 1990s when a market niche was identified in Japan and it soon became the country's biggest foreign exchange-earner. More recently, income has been depressed, with overproduction in 1994 leading to a drop in prices, and poor rainfall the following year reducing yields. The November export figures for the last three years (November is the month when squash deliveries peak) illustrate the extent of Tonga's reliance on this single product. In November 1993, the country's overall export income was T$15m - more than half of the annual total. Twelve months later, the figure had dropped to T$9m and last year, it fell below T$6m. When The Courier visited Tonga, the authorities were talking about limiting the amount of squash exported to Japan this year to 15 000 tonnes, in the hope of maintaining premium prices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government is also acutely aware of the risks of mono-dependence and is looking for other outlets for its agricultural produce. Demand for copra, Tonga's traditional export, has apparently been reviving, but the price has not been high enough to attract local farmers back into the market. Other crops sold abroad include vanilla, cocoa, coffee, black pepper and ginger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One farmer who is doing his bit in the quest for export diversification is Masao Soakai, a former general manager of the Copra Board. He is now the managing director of a company that specialises in the import and export of produce. This energetic 73 year-old gave us a guided tour of the plots he had rented. He cultivates an astonishing range of different crops which include potatoes (for Fiji), cassava, taro, yams, carrots, broccoli, cauliflowers, strawberries, bananas and capsicums. He also rears cattle and pigs (a Tongan tradition). Masao Soakai stresses the importance of rotation in maintaining yields and believes strongly in planting for the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other sectors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wherever you happen to be in Tonga, the Pacific Ocean is never far away. Evidence of the country's maritime tradition can be found in accounts of the appropriately named William Mariner (see box article on this page). But while, in the past, Tongan vessels sailed far and wide, and the country has a huge exclusive economic zone (EEZ), the fishing industry is relatively undeveloped. The sector generates about 5% of GDP. A project sponsored jointly by the FAO and the UNDP revealed that there was considerable scope for expansion, both in the inshore and reef zones and in the deep sea area. The main species which could be exploited commercially are albacore, skipjack and yellowfin tuna. Tonga has received assistance to develop its fisheries from the USA and Japan, and the government has offered tax advantages in the hope of promoting investment, but there is still a long way to go before the country realises its full potential in this area. Hitherto, the country has not licensed foreign vessels to fish in its waters but there is talk of this policy changing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tourism could also generate a lot more income although it currently faces a number of infrastructural and practical constraints. The government is committed to expanding the sector but Mrs Papiloa Bloomlield Foliaki, the owner and manager of Nuku'alofa's third largest hotel (the 'Friendly Islander') feels that a lot more could be done. She pointed out to The Courier that a healthy tourist sector would provide employment as well as stimulating new business for food producers, builders and craft industries. She focused, in particular, on deficiencies in training and marketing, and suggested that some of the resources allocated to agriculture might be better spent in tackling these.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga's natural assets make it a 'dream' location for visitors looking for a complete change of scene - particularly if they happen to be keen on sailing, snorkelling or scuba diving. The problem is that the country is so far off the beaten track that it is expensive to get to (some would see this as an advantage in deterring mass tourism). Nothing much can be done to change this but it does mean that they have to aim at the upper end of the market. This requires top quality accommodation  -  of which there is a distinct shortage at the moment. As regards marketing, Mrs Foliaki was hopeful that the recent formation of a hotel association would enable the Tongan tourist industry to raise its profile abroad. Despite her optimism - echoed by all those we spoke to in official circles - the latest figures for visitor arrivals show a downturn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the manufacturing sector, the story is, sadly, one of long term decline. Clothing production ceased in 1994 and the output of leather items has been falling. There are very few industrial activities in which Tonga has a comparative advantage (whether actual, or potential) and this is something which is recognised locally. There may be some scope for adding value to agricultural products through processing but it is unlikely that industry will take off in a big way in the foreseeable future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sale of passports (see the interview with Prime Minister Baron Vaea) is an issue which attracted publicity - not all of it favourable - some years ago, when the government launched the TPPP (Tonga Protected Person's Passport). This was designed to be a travel document which did not confer the right of residence in the country. The authorities adopted the scheme with an eye firmly on Hong Kong, a British colony which is due to be transferred to China in 1997. Some passports were sold but the project never really took off as the immigration authorities of other countries refused to accept the document. Now there are suggestions that the idea may be revived, although this time involving normal passports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The foregoing survey of Tonga's economy does not paint a particularly happy picture but it should be stressed that there is very little real poverty in the islands. In many ways, the informal economy is more important, and subsistence agriculture and fishing ensure that people do not go hungry. With their traditional family structures and strong attachment to the Christian faith, the Tongans have not yet encountered many of the social problems associated with more consumption-oriented societies. But to paraphrase a famous saying, 'no nation is an island' nowadays - even if it happens to be surrounded by water! In an era of increasing globalisation, the key question is how to manage change. Let us hope that the people of Tonga can find the right answer. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview, Prime Minister Baron Vaea</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Constrained by our geography'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No-one can accuse Tonga's Prime Minister of being a starry-yed optimist. As the following interview reveals, Baron Vaea, who heads a twelve-member ministerial team, is refreshingly honest about the economic difficulties facing his small island country. The Courier interviewed him in July, at his office in Nuku'alofa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have suffered a GDP drop and a general slowdown of activity in recent years. What is the government doing to restore the situation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is true that the economy has been declining. The main cause is the excessive demand from the private sector for imports from New Zealand and Australia, combined with diminishing exports. Our exports fell when the price of copra dropped. Another problem is New Zealand's quarantine rules. New Zealand is very particular on quarantine against insects, notably fruit flies, which may damage their own export trade. We have endeavoured to balance this out by selling squash to Japan and indeed, it has been a saviour as far as our economy is concerned. Squash is something our farmers know how to grow. Of course, the market goes up and down. Recently, we made the mistake of over-producing and quite a lot of the crop could not be sold abroad. I think our farmers are now realising this, and that they have to plant according to the quota that we ourselves have imposed. Tourism is another important area although levels of room occupancy are very dependent</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">on the economic situation in other countries. Then there are passport sales.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is this something you are still doing ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, but it has been hit by technical difficulties. A number of Hong Kong Chinese bought our Tongan Protected Persons Passport (TPPP) in the hope that they could travel. The immigration authorities in other countries decided they would not accept the document so this source of income dried up. We have changed to national passports which people can use to travel. We are hoping to revive this in order to suit the conditions of the Hong Kong people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is this being done on the assumption that the people who purchase such a passport would not ultimately settle here ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. The main reason people in Hong Kong want a passport is to keep open the option of leaving after the changeover.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Has this policy prompted any criticism from other countries ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No. The main problem is the Chinese themselves who are due to take over Hong Kong next year. It is possible that they will not recognise these passports. We are planning to have discussions with the Chinese on this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Going back to the agricultural sector, are you not putting too many eggs in one basket in focusing so heavily on squash. What efforts are you making to diversify ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We have just signed a trade agreement with Fiji. They are such a close neighbour yet we have had virtually no trade with them. This should change with the agreement, to the benefit of our economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What products are we talking about here ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Mainly vegetables, particularly those that are favoured by the Indian community, such as chills and spices. A trade mission has just returned from Fiji where they picked up a number of orders. The representative of a group of growers also recently returned from Japan. He took a sample of dried pawpaw, a crop which is popular with the Japanese, and apparently received an excellent response. This is an area which is promising.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key issue, however, is the amount of space available in the aeroplane. You can't ask everyone to grow pawpaw when the airline tells us that they can only take eight tonnes at a time. Only a limited number of farmers can be involved, so that we can continue to supply the tonnage that the airline can handle. We will encourage the rest of the farmers to concentrate on other products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is your policy regarding foreign investment ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We encourage overseas investors to engage in activities that local people are not involved in. Land leases are available for anything they want to do which fits in with this policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga has an extremely limited manufacturing sector and there appears to have been a long-term decline. What prospects are there for reversing this trend ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - For many years, the policy of the government has been to encourage exports. We have had entrepreneurs here who have exported things like woollen garments, small boats, horse saddles and so on - but it didn't last. The sad fact is that hardy anything is exported from Tonga. The main reason is that we are constrained by our geography. We are so far away from the main markets. The raw materials have to be brought in and by the time the article is finished, there is no way that it can compete in price terms. This has always been our problem. We are always looking for new markets but it is not easy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A second limitation is the private sector in Tonga. This is weak in terms of technology, marketing and product quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about further processing of local products - perhaps value-added agricultural activity ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, this is something that we would hope to do, though the same kinds of problem arise. People don't set up the processing plant because they say there isn't enough local cultivation to make it worthwhile. And the farmers don't grow the crop because they say there is no market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So it is 'chicken and egg' situation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. The result is that people only grow for home consumption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I should mention here that there are other resources we have yet to exploit, notably in our waters. We have reserved these for ourselves and do not allow foreign fishing vessels. So we are trying to recover resources from the sea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also the possibility of drilling for oil. Research ships operating in the Pacific have found a limited number of locations where it would be worth looking for oil reserves and two of them are in our waters. We have been publicising this with a view to encouraging further exploration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· This would presumably involve drilling licences for oil multinationals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. Some companies have done this in the past although only on a small scale. The answer we got from the oil companies is that they are interested in exploitation - but not now because of the low oil price. When the price goes up, I think we may attract interest again but that is clearly only a long term possibility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A lot of young Tongans leave the islands to work overseas. What is the explanation for this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is true that a high percentage of our population migrates. These are people in search of a better life, who seek to reap the benefits of their abilities by working overseas. They can have a nice house and get a good education for their children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I should stress that we have a good education system here but there is a heavy emphasis on gaining qualifications in order to get into the civil service. Where we are lacking is in the field of technical education. We have some facilities of course - an Institute of Science and Technology and a Marine Institute to train people to go to sea. This is very much in its infancy and we hope it will help for the future. But even some who have gone through this system end up looking for jobs overseas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Turning to political issues, you have a monarchy here which is still very powerful. Do you anticipate any changes in the system ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - There has been some public pressure for change. I don't think people want a radical upheaval but there is a feeling in certain quarters that the present system could be improved upon. As you probably know, Parliament has nine members elected by the people and a further nine selected by the 28 nobles from among their own number. The third component is the government -  12 ministers who are appointed by the King. It has been suggested that qualified people who don't presently sit in Parliament should be there to help deal with the economy. One idea is to change the Constitution so that whole population elects 30 members. The King would then choose his ministers from these 30.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Has this idea made any headway ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  No, not so far. We are maintaining the old system. The proposal has been aired but it hasn't been passed in the House. There are a lot of people, I think, who prefer the present system because they feel the monarchy works for the benefit of all the people. Would a new team necessarily stick to this principle? There must be a danger that they would tend to favour just one section of the population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can you comment, finally, on Tonga' relations with its partners in development cooperation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - As you know, we have good relations with the EU through the Lom&eacute; Convention. We also have strong bilateral links with Australia and New Zealand which have been giving us assistance. But I think we have to face up to the fact that the aid cannot continue. The UK, for example, used to provide us with our judges. That has been taken over by Australia and New Zealand -  but for how long ? I think it is bound to be phased out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So we will continue to have relations with our partners, but we need to recognise that they are concentrating their efforts now and adapt accordingly. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 669 km². Tonga has about 170 small islands and four main island groups (Tongatapu, Ha'apai, Vava'u and the Niuas). It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of approximately 700 000 km,). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Nuku'alofa (situated on Tongatapu) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 99 000 (1994 census) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population density: 149 per kilometre² </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth (1992): 68 years Official languages: Tongan and English Currency: Pa'anga (T$) made up of 100 seniti. The currency is pegged to the Australian dollar. In September 1996, 1 ECU was worth T$ 1.57 (US$1 T$ 1.22)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p32.png"></center><br>
+ Tonga</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Polities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">System of government: Constitutional monarchy based on the Constitution promulgated in 1875. Considerable powers remain vested in the King. The Parliament has 31 members  -  the Speaker, 12 ministers (including the Governors of Vava'u and Ha'apai) who are appointed by the King, 9 nobles chosen by the 33 members of the nobility and 9 People's Representatives elected by universal suffrage. There are no political parties although there has been talk of setting up a 'people's Party'. The twelve cabinet ministers hold office until they reach retirement age.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Head of State: King Taufa'ahau Tupou IV</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Baron Vaea of Houma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy (estimated 1995 figures unless otherwise stated) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual GDP per capita: approx US $1900</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP growth rate: -2% (1995/96)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Principal exports: squash, vanilla, manufactured goods and fish. In the early 1990s, squash accounted for more than half the country's total export income. In 1995, however, the harvest was affected by drought and exports dropped significantly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balance of payments: A trade deficit of US $38.8m (exports  -  US $18.3m, imports  -  US $57.1 m). The current account deficit is much smaller thanks to 'invisible' earnings, notably from tourism and remittances from Tongans living overseas. Inflation rate (April 1995): 4.5%. Total external debt: T$ 44m (1993)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: Tonga in Profile (on the Internet -  http: 11l www. netstorage. com/kami/ tonga) Economic Intelligence Unit Country Report 1996. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with peoples representative, Teisina Fuko</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'There is much more political awareness'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People's representative, Teisina Fuko offers an alternative view</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While Tonga has no political parties, and the main levers of power remain in the hands of the monarch, it would be a mistake to conclude that there is no questioning of the status quo in this small Pacific kingdom. As The Courier discovered on its recent visit, Tongans are happy to speak openly about their political system and to criticise (or praise) aspects of it me local media may not be particularly extensive but it nonetheless allowe for different viewpoints to be expressed, including criticism of the authorities. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Those who advocate political reforms in Tonga face something of an uphill struggle. There is no overwhelming demand for change and although the lever of popular support for the current system is not easy to judge, there appears to be widespread acquiescence  -  which effectively amounts to the same thing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, the focus of 'opposition' has tended to be within the ranks of the people's representatives who sit in Parliament We spoke to one of these elected members, Teisina Fuko, who comes from the Ha'apai island group and began by asking how democratic the thought the system was.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I would say about 50%. Up until the 1970s, the system was very traditional but we now seem to be westernising quite quickly. People are returning from overseas with different ideas and this is having an impact on the way we are governed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think you will ultimately have a Parliament whose members are all elected by universal franchise ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I would say it is more certain now than ever before. There is much more political awareness. We see it in the schools, where children are being taught to think independently. There are also the new economic trends -  commercialisation and the focus on foreign earnings which imply the need for modernisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You sound quite enthusiastic about the 'westernisation' process. Are you not concerned about the possible negative aspects in terms of the survival of your traditional culture ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think we have to strike a balance. We mustn't go to extremes. Our culture and traditions are important but there are new things we need to take on board and some old habits we should drop. Take business opportunities: we have to be more democratic in this area. If one group has all the power then they will tend to favour their friends which isn't necessarily efficient. What it boils down to is a lack of checks and balances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the present economic difficulties, I also think we need to move quite quickly. I recently wrote an article arguing that the King should transfer his power to appoint ministers to the people. Ministers should be elected so that they can be accountable to the taxpayer. We are a close-knit family here and there is no question of getting rid of the monarchy. But we need to sit down and hammer out a compromise which will allow us to improve our economy and make it more competitive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let me give you a practical example. Defence is now third on our list of priorities. That doesn't make sense to me. We would be better spending the money on economic development. We also need to boost the private sector so it can create jobs, instead of tying its hands. At present, 50% of our revenue goes on paying civil servants. What for 7 It may create employment, but it is not productive. So the government has to be minimised. Having said this, there are some positive signs. I am glad, for example, to see new blood being brought into the ministerial team.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Parliament is currently composed of three groups - twelve ministers, nine nobles and nine people's representatives. On paper, that suggests that no group can dominate ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Yes, but the ministers and nobles often work together and we are  outvoted. It is difficult to imagine the nobles saying 'no' to the King although, to be fair, they do sometimes abstain and some of them recognise the need for certain reforms to the system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Turning to the economy, which areas do you think offer the best development prospects ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-  Tonga's potential lies in fishing. We are an island nation that has always depended on the resources of the sea and we have the necessary labour force. What the people need is the know-how  -  advanced technologies to develop this sector. We also have to set up credit programmes so that people can invest in boats and equipment. I believe we should spend a lot more on fishing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately the government does not take the same view. It has put a lot of resources into small industries, airlines and so on. Yet the reality is that these sectors are in decline. Manufacturing has fallen and so have agricultural exports. Fishing is the only sector that is expanding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about the prospects for agriculture ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think we have reached the limit in this sector. There is very little scope for expansion. I also believe we should be concentrating on what we can produce to use locally. There is very little more we can do in terms of commercial exploitation. Tonga is somewhat overcrowded and we cannot use too many chemicals because the water table is so low.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· One local issue, which presumably has economic implications, concerns the possible expulsion of foreigners who have been here for a certain amount of time. Apparently, the decision has been taken not to renew certain residence permits. What is your view on this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think Tonga should encourage skilled people who are here to stay. We should use make use of their skills, particularly where they have expertise that is lacking locally. At the same time, there are some people here who just came for a visit and ended up staying without doing anything very productive. There are also a number who came after the coup in Fiji and I think we should give them some leeway.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the whole, I don't think it is a big problem. Tonga has traditionally been very liberal in the application of its immigration law. We have never been colonised so we tend not to have a suspicion of foreigners. And whatever we do must be in accordance with the law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Could you sum up your vision for the future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  You only need to look around you to see that we have a youthful population here: a lot of young people who need to be catered for. We are investing heavily in education which I think is good but we need to do more to adapt to the changing world. We were peaceful in the past because most Tongans were on roughly the same level in terms of wealth. Now the poor are getting poorer while the rich get richer. This could lead to an increase in social tensions. With a more democratic system, we should be able to close the gap and work for a peaceful and more prosperous future. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Seeking business overseas</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Minister outlines economic strategy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the policy of appointing Ministers for life - or at least until retirement age - is maintained, then Dr Giulio Masasso Tu'ikolongahau Paunga can look forward to a long career in the Tonga Cabinet. At just 32, he has recently been been given the job of Minister for Labour, Commerce and Industries (with responsibility also for tourism). He may be relatively young, but the new minister has impressive academic credentials. He took a master's degree in Japan (in Japanese) and as we soon discovered, he has some new ideas about how to achieve economic development in his country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr Masasso's portfolio covers a wide range of economic activities and we began by asking what he thought the main focus of his work would be. He identified three areas  -  agriculture, which is the single most important sector; fisheries which has potential for growth; and tourism. He would also like to see more manufacturing, particularly for export, but acknowledged that the current prospects in this area were very limited.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking first at agricultural production for export, we noted that a significant change had taken place over the last decade. Coconut-related products had been largely replaced by squash, a 'gap' in the Japanese market having been identified when other sources of supply were not available. Tonga may have been the first to spot the opportunity but was there not a danger that other countries might 'muscle in'? The government was 'very aware of this danger', said the Minister and was trying very hard to diversify its export products. He mentioned vanilla, papaya, beans and, in particular, carrots. The last-mentioned crop grows well in the islands and there is apparently a growing taste for carrot juice in Japan. A list of products with export potential, which could be grown successfully in Tonga, had been drawn up in cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture, and Dr Masasso's department would be actively seeking new business overseas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government is obviously interested in developing trade with Japan and other countries in Asia, but the Minister felt that New Zealand and Australia were likely to remain the principal markets for Tongan farm products in the future. He was looking forward to easier access to New Zealand once new quarantine facilities had been set up at the international airport on Tongatapu. This, he said, should allow for a larger throughput of export crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efficiency, of course, is the key to winning and keeping overseas customers. With this in mind, our discussion turned to the land tenure system. The allocation (at least in theory) of parcels of land to all male Tongans discourages the development of larger farms or plantations. Was this the most effective way of exploiting the country's fertile lands? Dr Masasso acknowledged that the system hampered efficiency but stressed that the question was a very sensitive one. The right to cultivate a plot of land is deeply rooted in Tongan culture, and radical changes to the property laws are not on the agenda. As the Minister put it; 'We are trying to maximise our efficiency under the present system of land tenure.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning to tourism, Dr Masasso observed that 'this has been the most stable industry over the past ten years,' bringing an average of T$ 12 million into the country every year. In looking at possible growth, however, he stressed the need to take account of the environmental and cultural impact. 'Tonga is a very small country, and it would not be right to build too many hotels and related facilities. It might be possible, but the long-term effects would be a little too much for the country.' Dr Masasso said he favoured tourism which has 'e closer relationship with people -  a cultural exchange, targeting people who really wish to understand our country.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fishing is a sector which appears to have huge potential given the size of Tonga's exclusive economic zone. Dr Masasso explained how Japanese assistance was being used in a boat building scheme designed to produce vessels that local people could afford. He also spoke enthusiastically of the research that had been carried out to determine the nature and size of the fish stocks. He recognised, however, that while most of Tonga's fishing was inshore, there was scope for a great deal more revenue from deep-sea fishing. In this connection, negotiations were underway with the United States, Taiwan and Japan, to allow vessels from these nations to fish in Tongan waters. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conversation then moved on to the more general issue of entrepreneurship and the role of the state in the economy. The Minister indicated that the government believed in privatisation but stressed that this was not simply 'because other countries are doing ft.' The main issue at this stage, he said, was to create a sufficiently large pool of well-trained people to take over activities currently run by the authorities. 'The government wishes it didn't need to get involved but we are a small developing nation, and to get things started, you need capital and know-how  - which locals sometimes don't have access to.' In these circumstances, the state had to activate projects which could later be privatised once the necessary skills had been built up. Another 'major strategy' was to develop a much closer relationship between the Ministry and the private sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This led us into a discussion about Tonga's attitude to foreign investors who might also be in a position to supply capital and know-how. The authorities had recently threatened that a number of residence permits would not be renewed. Was this not a disincentive to potential overseas investors ? Dr Masasso was keen to offer clarification. 'The media makes it look as if Tonga doesn't like investors but they have misinterpeted the situation. He insisted; 'we want the foreign investment here and are encouraging it in those areas where locals cannot get involved.' Defending the actions of the immigration authorities, the Minister stressed that what they were doing was normal practice. 'Those who stay here illegally and do not extend their visa have to be deported.' The action, he argued, was not directed against foreign investors and indeed, the latter should be encouraged by the government's commitment to upholding the law.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Tonga-EU cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing the Vava'u islands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Myfanwy van de Velde</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EC-Tonga cooperation began in 1975 with the first Lom&eacute; Convention, soon after Tonga gained full independence in 1970. Grant aid totalling ECU 19.8m (Lom&eacute; I - Lom&eacute; IV) has been allocated to the country during its 20-year membership of the Convention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Lom&eacute; I, funds were directed principally towards two main projects: the construction of the wharf at Neiafu, Vava'u, and funding for the Ministry of Works to procure road maintenance equipment and build schools, rural health centres and small wharves at Ha'apai and Vava'u. Remaining funds were used to finance studies involving dredging, trade promotion and designs for Vava'u and Faua fisheries harbours. The EIB also financed a line of credit of ECU 130 000, under Lom&eacute; I, to the Tonga Development Bank.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lom&eacute; II funds focused on the fisheries sector, and on initiating works relating to the upgrading of the Vava'u airport. There were also projects in the fisheries sector, aimed at encouraging fishermen to undertake commercial fishing to meet local demand. To this end, the Faua Fisheries Harbour for small boats was built, and marketing and cold storage facilities were provided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By the time Lom&eacute; III funds came on stream, Tonga had adopted a regional development approach with regard to its various island groups. The aim was to have a coherent development programme taking account of the specific constraints and potential of each. The Vava'u group of islands became identified as the focal area for the use of EC assistance, and Lom&eacute; III resources (ECU 6.5m in grants and ECU 0.5m in the form of risk capital to be managed by the EIB) as well as Lom&eacute; IV funds (ECU 6m and ECU 1 m respectively) have duly focused on its development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Located in the north of the Kingdom, Vava'u is the second group of islands both in terms of population (16 000) and land area. With an abundance of natural resources, the group is thought to have greater potential for agriculture and tourism than other parts of the Kingdom. However, this potential was largely untapped at the time Lom&eacute; III was initiated. This was due to a variety of constraining factors including relatively low productivity, undeveloped marketing infrastructures, substantial import levels and poor distribution of utilities and other public services. One particular constraint preventing the development of tourism was limited access caused by a lack of transport infrastructures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two main projects aimed at addressing these problems have been implemented. The first, costing ECU 1.24m, involved completing the upgrading of the local airport at Lupepau'u (begun under Lom&eacute; II). In addition to runway improvements, a new terminal building was provided, complete with safety and navigational equipment. Passengers began using the new facilities in early 1995. The second project, entitled the 'Vava'u Development Programme', was allocated the sum of ECU 5m. This money is being used to pay for a series of activities including road upgrading, the provision of photovoltaic equipment for household energy needs and the supply of equipment for vocational training colleges. New buildings being funded include health clinics, a market and an agricultural quarantine building. The funds also cover the cost of establishing the Vava'u Development Unit as the monitoring and implementing agency for the programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Programme continues under Lom&eacute; IV, with about 85% of programmable resources for Tonga (approximately ECU 5m) set aside for activities in the focal area. Funds will be directed towards developing the Neiafu urban area, in recognition of the need to upgrade access and services in the commercial centre of Vava'u. The projects envisaged include upgrading the town centre and urban roads, port improvements, and measures to increase the capacity and improve the distribution of piped and rain water to households. In addition, a multi-annual micro-projects programme will lead to the construction of jetties on the inhabited outer islands of Vava'u, thereby improving access to Neiafu which is the main centre of the archipelago.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the above grant aid, Tonga has received funds in the form of Stabex transfers for losses in export earnings in respect of coconut products, bananas and vanilla. It also received emergency aid in 1977, following an earthquake, and in 1982 following Hurricane Isaac.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EIB interventions have contributed to the share capital of the Tonga Development Bank and have increased the Bank's lending capacity to small and medium-sized enterprises. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Switching on the Iights</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uelingatoni Tevita Vaea (known as 'T' to his friends), proved to be a mine of information for The Courier, when we visited the Vava'u island group in northern Tonga recently. 'T' is a Tongan engineer who returned to his native land from Australia to work as assistant project manager in the Vava'u Development Unit. His help was particularly useful during the highlight of our visit - a traditional celebratory feast laid on by the villagers of Nuapapu. This is one of Vava'u's inhabited outer islands and the celebration was staged to mark the installation of solar powered lighting, courtesy of Lom&eacute; Convention funds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nuapapu is one of a number of outlying villages to receive solar installations under the Vava'u Development Programme. In all, some 350 homes have been wired up. Units attached to individual buildings collect the power and convert it into electricity which is stored in a battery. When night falls, the lights can then be switched on. Although the bulk of the installation costs are covered by the project, each participating household is required to pay a lump sum to have a unit fitted. They are also contracted to pay a modest amount each month towards maintenance of the system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It may all seem rather prosaic to those of us accustomed to electrical power at the flick of a switch, but for the people of the villages in the Vava'u group, the project is little short of revolutionary. For centuries, their daily rhythm has been governed largely by the rising and setting of the sun. The only 'artificial' light available after darkness came from fuel-burning (and more recently, battery) torches or lamps  - enough perhaps to reveal a path or highlight the position of an object, but certainly not to read or do intricate work with one's hands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The formal 'switching on' ceremony was performed by the Dutch Ambassador, Mr van Thessen and Jonathan Rodwell, who is the European Commission's resident advisor in Tonga. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was preceded by a courtesy visit to the village chief and the above-mentioned feast, which gave the European visitors an authentic and memorable taste of traditional Tongan hospitality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The food was brought from all quarters of the village on long rectangular trays covered with leaves. Each was laden with food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fare was predominantly local: the famous roast pigs featured prominently along with fish, chicken, bananas, coconuts and a variety of root and tuber vegetables.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were also some 'imported' items: the corned beef which is so popular here, some packets of crisps to add colour to the guest 'table' and boiled sweets woven into garlands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The trays were laid end to end, stretching perhaps 20 metres and woven mats were placed all around. Having received our garlands of flowers, we were invited to sit down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The feast was interspersed by various speeches and 'T' helped out with a translation and explanation of the proceedings. We began with a prayer in Tongan, delivered by the local minister. This was followed by a speech of welcome and thanks by the matapule (spokesman) of the village chief.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High ranking people in Tonga always have a matapule to speak on their behalf on such occasions. Ambassador van Thessen and Mr Rodwell then replied on behalf of the guests, (in English, with consecutive translation provided).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They expressed thanks to the people of Nuapapu for their hospitality and wished them success with their new electric lighting. There was then a short discourse by the District Officer followed by a closing prayer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">References to all this speechmaking could leave a false impression that this was a formal and stilted affair.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact the reverse was very much the case: the mood was relaxed throughout and there is no doubt that the villagers know how to enjoy themselves. Music was supplied by a group of men playing a variety of instruments and the women joined in the festivities with what appeared to be spontaneous bursts of dancing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were also special solo dances performed by two young ladies whose bodies had been smeared with coconut oil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As tradition dictates, once their performances (involving highly expressive hand and finger movements) were complete, the audience expressed their appreciation by slapping banknotes on the oily exposed surfaces of the dancers' bodies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The light was fading as the feast ended and we moved to the brief 'lighting up' ceremony, carried out to the accompaniment of applause.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guests (including the staff of the Vava'u Development Unit who have guided the project through its various stages) then took their leave of this hospitable community and set off by boat on the return journey to Neiafu. As the vessel drew away from the shore, we were able to look up and see, for the first time, the twinkling lights of Nuapapu. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dossier</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Habitat</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Livable cities and rural rights</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Dossier coordinated by Debra Percival and  Claude Smets)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United Nations Conference, Habitat 11, on human settlements (Istanbul, June 3-14 1996) exposed the Herculean task of addressing the problems of ever-growing cities and called for 'shelter for all.' The special contribution of civil society in making cities more liveable was acknowledged at the conference - but the big question is, who will foot the bill ? The meeting also spoke of improving dwellings in rural areas to keep people on the land and halt the mass exodus to the cities. But the right to remain and prosper from one's habitat can be at odds with outside pressures for environmental conservation. The dossier looks at some of the issues raised by the conference, and the wider significance of 'Habitat II' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second UN gathering on the theme of 'habitat', staged two decades after the first conference in Vancouver, took place against a backdrop of rapid and alarming urban growth. In 1900, one person in ten lived in a city. By 1948, the ratio was three in ten and by the year 2000 half the world's population are expected to be urban dwellers. 25 years after that, the figure is expected to have climbed to 60%. Africa is the region that currently has the highest rate of urban growth. In 1950, it had only one city with a population of one million. By the end of this decade there could be 60 cities of this size, according to UN figures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The focus on human settlements and liveable cities inevitably meant that Habitat II covered some of the same ground as other UN conferences convened during the 1990s to explore the big issues facing mankind: the 1992 'Earth Summit' on environmental matters in Rio de Janeiro, the 1994 Population Conference in Cairo, the 1995 Social Summit in Copenhagen and the 1995 Women's Conference in Beijing. Issues common to all the agendas included rapid population growth, environmental degradation, access to clean water, poor sanitation, lack of infrastructures, and women's issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rallying calls of Habitat II, set out in the Conference's conclusions, were 'shelter for all' and 'sustainable human settlements in an urbanising world.' The Nairobi-based Centre for Human Settlements is to be the focus for the follow-up. But as delegates dispersed, one of the pressing questions was where the money will come from to meet the host of agreed objectives -  which include clean water with improved technology, conservation and protection of the environment, and better health and education. In this dossier, European Commission officials from the Development Directorate General, who attended the conference, reflect on Istanbul and its likely followup.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whereas in the past, cities were associated with economic development, innovation and the diffusion of new ideas, nowadays they conjure up the vision of urban poverty, environmental degradation, poor sanitation and a host of health hazards. Urbanisation is the direct consequence of rapid population growth, according to the 1993 Human Development Report. In 1965, agriculture provided 77% of employment in developing countries and represented more than 41 % of Gross Domestic Product. By 1985, this sector was contributing a lot less to GDP but was still providing 72% of all employment. So a large number of people continue to depend on agriculture although its share of the global economy is declining. In these circumstances, it not surprising that many of the world's poorest people are migrating to cities - the annual estimate is 20-30 million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The dossier looks, in particular, at the environmental cost of rampant urbanisation and at the problems of city living for more vulnerable groups such as women. They are often among the poorest urban dwellers and can fall victim to exploitation and crime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paradoxically, poor people in cities are becoming even poorer as economies improve. Additional pressures on these marginalised groups living in cities are neatly summed up by Jeremy Seabrook, author of 'In the Cities of the South.' In a recent article for Gemini news agency: 'Tougher Struggle for Survival in the Concrete Jungle,' he writes; 'As the pace of development quickens, with high economic growth and increased migration to urban areas, land price in most big cities have soared. Poor people are being increasingly removed from their hoary" - by mysterious fires, explosions and 'accidents'. Meanwhile, the urban poor's ability to mobilise and achieve has been used against them. The capacity of people to create homes and secure local communities has been used as a justification for the withdrawal of government services.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He continues: 'As inequalities become more glaring, enclaves of prosperity are sealed off from the slums by checkpoints, guards and fences - like frontiers to another country. Despite this, people are still flocking to the city  -  often refugees from intensifying, industrialised agriculture and.. megaprojects in the countryside...' Mr Seabrook points out that without decent jobs, they fall prey to sub-contractors, who exploit them, offering them low pay and demanding that they work long hours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Civil society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the cities of many developing nations, 'civil society' is taking a lead, with projects to bridge the gap between the 'haves' end the 'have note'. Numerous participants at the Istanbul conference applauded the urban programmes undertaken by various elements of civil society, which include NGOs, community groups and individuals. Their significance was recognised in Istanbul, where their voice came through loud and clear. Nigerian journalist, Paul Okunlola, writing in this dossier notes a move towards 'bottom up' projects in Lagos as a result of the tough times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agostinho Jardim Gon&ccedil;alves, the President of the NGO-EU Liaison Committee, was particularly pleased at the input of civil society to the conference's committees and conclusions. The debate, he said, had not just been about the macroeconomic aspects. Instead, it had come 'within the reach of the populations themselves.' The people, he argued, were both victims of the anomalies of inhumane settlement and the key players in efforts to construct a humane, dignified habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeremy Seabrook describes some of the inspiring international initiatives undertaken by civil society. Examples include the Society for the Promotion of Area Resource Centres (SPARC) in Bombay, which works with pavement dwellers; the Association of Basic Needs (ARBAN), and 'Health for All' in Dhaka; the Eddie Guazon Foundation in Manila, which seeks to protect the poor against private interests; and the Foundation for Women, which is trying to tackle the trafficking of girls for Bangkok's brothels. But Mr Seabrook also warns against overestimating the strengths of popular organisation. As he points out: 'They require an enabling and positive framework, which the free market can never provide. Government intervention, of a more benign and positive kind than hitherto, is vital if people are to help themselves. As it is, too often they are forced to struggle against the people elected to govern them.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chair of the Habitat Conference, Wally N'Dow, emphasised local solutions. The conference, he said, 'recognised the changing global patterns of life' and that solutions must be found at the local level. 'National governments and international agencies', he argued, were not in a position to solve massive urban problems or to pay to put them right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were a number of donor pledges at the conference. The European Union countries, for example, reiterated their long-standing commitment to provide 0.7% of GNP for development by the year 2000  -  though many of the 15 member states are still well short of this target.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One scheme which has attracted the particular interest of donors is South Africa's Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP). To a considerable extent, the success of President Mandela's government is likely to be judged on the success of this programme. It aims, among other things, to improve health, education, housing and sanitation and as such, it mirrors many of the 'Habitat II' goals. Launched in 1994, it is the centrepiece of the South African government's efforts to create a more democratic, prosperous, non-racial and non-sexist society. In the dossier, we look at the RDP's objectives, how it is faring and what sort of support the EU is giving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond the city, the dossier looks at what is happening to some rural dwellers who have not taken flight to the city. Although, largely focused on the city, Habitat II acknowledged the importance of urban and rural linkages in its conclusions: 'Rural and urban settlements are interdependent... governments must work to extend adequate infrastructure and opportunities to rural areas to increase their attractiveness and thereby minimise... migration.' There was mention too of the need for more jobs and housing for rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But in some rural areas, the inhabitants have found themselves in dispute with conservationists. The latter seek to protect wildlife and the rural habitat by setting up national parks - a solution which is not necessarily in the interests of local people struggling to maintain their livelihood. We take a look at such dilemmas and the possible solutions being developed so that rural dwellers can continue to make the most of their habitat. This rural struggle, where solutions are also being called for at a local level, is not unlike the battle being waged for a better quality of life in the cities. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Towards a global concept of urban development - an interview with Daby Diagne</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deputy mayor of the city of Louga, Daby Diagne is also President of the Finance Committee of Senegal's National Assembly, General Secretary of the Association of Mayors of Senegal and President of the World Federation of United Cities. He is the ACP-EU Joint Assembly's General Rapporteur on urban development and The Courier had the opportunity to interview him in September at the Assembly's meeting in Luxembourg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have just submitted an initial report on urban development to the Joint Assembly. In it, you recommend that the Community adopt a specific and consistent global policy in this field, notwithstanding the fact that successive Lom&eacute; Conventions have contained a number of significant provisions relating to the subject. What is the reasoning behind your recommendation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - There are several reasons. First, there is the fact that, in the past, cities were often viewed solely in terms of infrastructures and sectors. Experience shows that this approach is not effective. Specialists are increasingly opting for a more global 'city' concept. The Commission must therefore adapt itself to the new situation. It is true that it has financed infrastructures and launched health and clean-up programmes, but the problem is that this has been done in a somewhat unsystematic way without being linked to long-term regional development or a zonal policy. There is now an increasing need for an integrated regional development approach. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think ACP countries are aware of the importance of cities ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That's another question altogether. Obviously, the ACP countries are in the process of changing their views on this subject and a number have appointed ministers to look after urban affairs. The reality of city life has to be taken into account. The rate of urban growth in the ACPs far exceeds that in other parts of the world and it is in the towns and cities that one sees the most glaring instances of poverty and under-development. People have therefore been forced to take the 'city' phenomenon into account in the ACP countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The political will must exist for a policy to be successful. Do the ACP countries have a genuine will to implement an urban policy ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I don't think it is possible to speak of a uniform trend in all ACP states. However, in certain regions - for example in West Africa, which I know well - a municipal culture is beginning to take shape. There is a growing political will, which is illustrated by the discussions on decentralisation, and people are increasingly recognising that central government cannot do everything by itself. One can find regional development and planning policies designed to create the fabric of mediumsized cities. Not everyone has them but it is something we are seeing more and more of.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· ACP countries face complex challenges and there are people who say that the actions of the European Community are too dispersed owing to the number of sectors it is involved in. Doesn't your recommendation simply add to this problem ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - On the contrary. I regard my recommendation as being pro-integration and therefore pro-globalisation  - which is not the complete opposite of a sectoral, diversified approach. I believe it would allow the Union's activities in certain fields to be better interlinked. I am thinking here of water, health, clean-up operations and infrastructures  - all of which are major problems for society. Naturally, a more global concept will require greater dedication, and if there are additional resources, so much the better, but, in my view, the situation could be improved even with what we currently have available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The rate of urbanisation in Africa is higher than elsewhere and the living conditions of city dwellers - particularly those in the shanty towns  -  are becoming increasingly difficult in terms of health, education, environment and so on. What, in your opinion, would be the optimum strategy for reversing the decline, at least in the short-term ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - First of all, I think we have to make a distinction here. Let's take the actual rate of urbanisation. Contrary to what is generally thought, this is lower than in the rest of the world. In other words, Africa has fewer towns and cities than the rest of the world. It is the rate of growth in the urban population that is higher. Populations are becoming increasingly concentrated in the cities, with the drift of people from the countryside. In addition, the phenomenon is being fed by demographic trends. You ask me if there is anything we can do to halt this. There are actions that can be taken to restore some balance. For example, we could make investments in the rural environment to keep people in the countryside, and we could implement suitable agricultural policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But we must not labour under too many illusions, because life in towns and cities will be an inevitable characteristic of the next century. Economists and urban planners have been considering the phenomenon for a long time now - perhaps 30 or 40 years. It is  something that cannot be halted, because it is a fact of civilisation. So, what should we do? Above all, we should devote our efforts to regional development, achieving a balanced distribution of human resources, and a more equitable exploitation of natural resources. Power has to be decentralised so that people do not abandon their roots but face up to local challenges. And we have to implement urban policies which are satisfactory in terms of investment, management and popular participation. In simple terms, urbanisation has to be managed. We cannot hope to reverse the trend overnight, particularly in the case of a continent like Africa where everything happens quickly. Africa is enormous and its population has not yet reached its maximum levels. We have to take all this into account.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We must acknowledge that scientific progress and improvements in the field of health have contributed to population growth, and a reduction in mortality rates. This means that urban civilisation is a reality that we have to manage. There is a risk of uncontrolled growth in urban centres. When infrastructures are lacking, when there is no water, when hygiene cannot be guaranteed and when there is no work, a country's security is threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have mentioned democracy end the decentralisation of government This also requires adequate financial resources. Where do you think the ACP countries will find the money to implement decentralisation strategies ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Democracy involves a search for freedom - freedom of opinion and expression, independent of material or financial problems. The problem with decentralisation lies in administrative method. It is not purely a matter of money. In the first instance, it is a question of choosing the right approach. It has been demonstrated that without any extra resources, one can still act differently by delegating and decentralising. And success is much more likely because the people are involved in the process. Admittedly, it requires an internal reallocation of resources. A proportion of everything that was formerly centralised has to be allocated to development and to basic needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To answer your question more directly, there is a great deal of talk of this alternative method of governing. It is inspiring new hope and a thirst for something better. It is even being viewed as an 'ideal' solution - which it cannot be entirely. However, by decentralising human and economic resources, and by allowing people to participate, hope can be inspired at local level. This should make for better administration and support, which is an improvement in itself. Of course, this may make people more demanding. Will it satisfy their requirements? As I have already said, internal resources will have to be reallocated, but resources must also come from outside. One cannot make an allout effort for decentralisation without doing something to improve international cooperation. This cooperation, however, must be adaptable, and the state must retain its pre-eminent position and its role as guarantor and arbiter. But in addition, local communities should have access to international cooperation either directly or indirectly through their organisations, municipal structures and so on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In this context, what role do you see for international organisations - not just in terms of financial resources, but also of human resources ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think what we now need to do is build up a pool of skills in each municipal area. The developed countries have experience in this field. We have to take their processes as a model without necessarily copying their experience. This is something which will be discussed. Secondly, in the context of relationships between towns and cities, I believe it is possible to make access to experts more flexible and that this can take place very quickly, with the provision of training and fairly basic technology transfers. General training is also extremely important. In order to build up a pool of skills in towns and cities, local government must form a dynamic, management-oriented team. The approach has to be one of business-like management and objectives have to be targeted using private-sector methods, although public-service requirements always have to be borne in mind. A great deal, therefore, can be done at international level, in terms of support for networks of associations and committees of locally elected representatives, enabling them to discuss matters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We could, for example, carry out a comparative study of legislation in a particular area, thereby gaining access to other types of experience. Internationally, aid can be given to associations to help them buy equipment and attain a degree of freedom of manoeuvre vis-&agrave;-vis the authorities. In the field of decentralised cooperation, the international community can help elected representatives to implement their projects through partnerships, conducting studies, and providing personnel. Cooperation is possible in all spheres -  implementation, management, financing and so on. I believe that a new type of cooperation will gradually come into being. It is not a question of creating 'white elephants', but rather small and medium-scale projects which are of genuine use to the population. And I am not talking here about acts of charity, such as the donation of medicines, but sustainable projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Habitat II: taking stock</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Christian Cure'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future of towns and cities is not what it was. In the 20 years between the first United Nations conference on human settlements (1976) and Habitat II which took place in Istanbul in June 1996, the situation has changed a good deal. The significance of urbanisation  - and its irreversible nature -  are now acknowledged, as is the powerlessness of the authorities to deal single handedly with the complex phenomena which result The author of this article points out that civil society has suddenly broken into a field hitherto the preserve of official agencies and qualified experts, claiming a 'right to the city' based on research into more equitable development models.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vancouver to Istanbul: two symbols for two eras</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vancouver was the 1976 host of the first conference on human settlements organised by the United Nations. At that time, the UN was celebrating 30 years of existence and Vancouver, a model of urban development and modernity, provided inspiration for the developers and experts needed to plan the cities of the future. 'Appropriate technologies' heralded the possibility of mass-produced, cheap housing for everyone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty years later, the UN chose Istanbul as the host city for the Habitat II conference on human settlements, forcing us to face up to a quite different situation: uncontrollable urban growth (400 000 migrants arrive there every year), social and environmental problems, and intercultural and political tensions (amply illustrated by the Turkish politicians' inability to form a government at the very time the Conference was taking place). In brief, Istanbul presents us with the usual list of problems facing most of the world's major cities - and those of developing countries in particular.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Against this backdrop, the international community  -  180 countries, 500 local dignitaries, a few thousand professionals and even some ordinary citizens - came together from 3 to 14 June to discuss a 'settlement action plan'. This document, which had been in preparation for two years, contains 183 articles. It sets out a series of goals, principles and undertakings as well as providing an action plan for cities, the initial results of which should begin to be seen by the year 2001.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The preparatory committee selected two basic topics for discussion: securing adequate shelter for all, a basic but nonetheless controversial theme; and sustainable urban development The latter encompasses housing, demographic factors, infrastructure, services, the environment, transport, energy, social and economic development, the future of underprivileged groups and combating exclusion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cycle initiated at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 (followed by the Copenhagen, Beijing and Cairo meetings) was continued by Habitat II. Two major handicaps had to be overcome - 'conference fatigue' (with the resulting fact that there were fewer delegates than anticipated) and ensuring that what had been accomplished at earlier conferences was not undermined. Given that the subject of the meeting was human settlements, it was inevitable that sensitive issues already debated at previous summits, relating to the environment and social aspects, would keep recurring.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Civil society as an active force</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of conclusions arose from the official sessions (hearings, dialogues and various forums) which took place over the two weeks of the conference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First, Habitat II represented a recognition of the fact of urbanisation. In the past, there was a tendency on the part of the international community to play down, or even ignore, the phenomenon of urban growth and this was reflected in the meagre resources allocated to this area by donors. Today, the issue is better understood than it was 10 or 20 years ago, and it is acknowledged that the growth trend is unstoppable. Statistical studies and a set of 'urban indicators' drawn up for Habitat II confirm the scale of the problem. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, the Istanbul summit was a lesson in modesty. The obvious powerlessness of public authorities to deal single-handedly with the challenge of burgeoning towns and cities is recognised. The result was an understanding that a more pragmatic view is needed -  one which pays more attention to the complexities of urbanisation, to the wide variety of possible responses and, above all, to the multi-faceted nature of the players involved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Conference therefore became a genuine forum for debate. One of its most significant aspects was the emergence of 'civil society' as an active force. Hitherto, the field has largely been the preserve of official agencies and qualified experts. For the first time in a UN forum, local authorities, community leaders, private sector representatives and other dynamic forces in civil society were invited to give their views and take part in discussion groups. Whereas in the past, the debate was dominated by macroeconomic and technical questions, in Istanbul, the political and social aspects were given prominence as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The effect of this was to improve the quality of the debate. The outlines of a new relationship between governments and civil society (NGOs, ordinary citizens and popular urban groups) were defined - with the local authorities slotting in somewhere in the middle. And there was a particular focus on the question of dimension or scale: what should be the basis for urban democracy and citizenship. Both of these are seen as essential if one is to have successful and sustainable urban development policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A right to the city?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first stage of the analysis is to look at urban life from a macroeconomic standpoint. Urban growth is determined by the evolution of the world economic system and, in particular, by the globalisation of markets. This has generated increased competition, including competition between cities themselves. Since the end of the 1980s, cities have been responsible for between 50% and 80% of the GDP of most countries. In other words, they represent more than mere links in the global economy; they are, in fact, pivotal points.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hence the principles which broadly underpin the Habitat 11 programme. In fundamental terms, public policies must promote the capital, housing, property and employment markets, with a view to improving the efficiency of urban management (living conditions, infrastructures, services, environment, etc.). This is not just desirable in human terms but also essential if urban productivity is to be improved. Many decision-makers at the meeting agreed that privatisation of services, partnerships involving the authorities, the community and the private sector, and decentralisation were all part and parcel of a new standard for good local governance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Representatives of 'social' interests, on the other hand, were successful in focusing the debate on fundamental rights and principles, including individual and social rights. Indeed, these issues dominated the Conference and gave rise to the most difficult negotiations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were prolonged talks, for example, on the central issue of the right to a roof over one's head. The outcome was a commitment by governments to promote 'the full and progressive acceptance of the right to adequate shelter'. The NGOs had been hoping for a more clear-cut undertaking. Questions relating to the status of vulnerable groups, women's rights and their equal access to land, and protection against eviction, were also the subject of heated exchanges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps the most important step forward, however, was the success of civil society representatives in sowing the seeds of a new idea - the 'right to the city'. This concept has been devised on the basis of research into more equitable and soundly-based development models to which local authorities are increasingly giving practical support. Thousands of individual experiences and issues were highlighted in Istanbul by NGOs and community groups. Thus, there is a mass of evidence that populations are capable of responding through local initiatives and of taking responsibility for improving their living and housing conditions. If this 'resource' is to be exploited to the full, urban politicians must develop a deeper understanding of the scale of micro-territories and local societies within cities. They also need to promote and coordinate their decision-making in a way which involves consulting and involving the local populations. In the modern era, this is the key to ensuring social cohesion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond Istanbul</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There may have been a lot of new thinking on the basic principles, but there was no reference to financial undertakings in the Habitat 11 programme. On the latter issue, the international community was highly circumspect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank took the initiative, announcing the launch of an 'urban compact', involving an additional $15 billion in loans for urban projects over the next five years. It also revealed that it would triple its aid to NGOs involved in the urban environment. Recent World Bank estimates suggest that just 0.2% to 0.5% of a country's GDP would need to be set aside for the poor to gain access to basic urban services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards monitoring, the NGOs and local authorities won the right to sit on the Human Settlements Committee which will be responsible for implementing the habitat programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most important points to emerge from Istanbul, however, were that local authorities were given both formal recognition, and a major practical role - in keeping with their current responsibilities. The habitat programme is, in fact, a powerful call for decentralisation and increased local autonomy, its action plan being built on the implicit principles of 'subsidiarily' and 'proximity'. To a large extent, the successful implementation of the programme will depend on the mobilisation of municipal politicians and officials - and on the policies they adopt at local level. The agenda for cities in the 21 st century that was adopted at the Rio Summit must now be fleshed out and become the future reference for action by local authorities, NGOs and citizens' associations. Finally, the importance of decentralised cooperation and the role of local councils in international cooperation have been reconfirmed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Local authorities and their international organisations decided to form a worldwide coordinating group to continue structured dialogue with the international community and to guarantee that the Istanbul resolutions are followed up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some people predicted that Habitat 11 would be 'the revenge of the cities'. To quote P. Maragall, chairman of the Committee of the Regions, the conference at least provided the opportunity to build, and to give a wider audience to 'the voice of the United Cities within the United Nations'. That itself is a major step forward. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'A house to call my own'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tackling violence against women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Rosemary Okello</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this article is a journalist with the Nairobi-based Women's Feature Service (WFS) She contends that the Habitat 11 conference skirted around some of the issues affecting women city dwellers in Africa, such es violence and sexual abuse. Improving their lives, she argues, starts with a roof over their heads</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lofty ideals set during this year's UN Conference on Human Settlements in Istanbul meant little to African women like Catherine Kaberu. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As she recalls the misery of living on the streets of Nairobi, she is just happy now to have a safe, secure room for her family. 'I thought by running away from home and coming to Nairobi, I would find a better life" says Ms Kaberu. Instead, the streets became her home and her life was defined by the fear of violence against her. Her two children were born during that difficult period, following rapes. She cannot identify their father. There are an estimated 30 000 street people in Nairobi and Catherine Kaberu says that all street women and girls are regularly abused.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Every day we had to look for a place to sleep and we bribed the watchmen to guard us.' Often it was the same watchmen, employed to guard office blocks in the city's central district, who took advantage of the women's desperate situation. Not even age could protect them says 63-year old Felista Nyambura, herself a veteran of the streets. 'I suffered all manner of humiliation,' she states, referring to ten years spent on the streets with her seven children. 'The watchmen would rape me if I refused to give in to them - after they had offered me a place to sleep for the night with my children. I am just so happy to be off the streets. I will never go back,' she states firmly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The confidence of the two women comes from their new security as owners of simple one-roomed houses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Having a house to call my own is the most important thing that ever happened to me,' says Ms Nyambura as she explains how she ended up on the street after the piece of land her husband left in their rural home was taken over by her in-laws.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The two women are part of a group of 114 who have benefited from the Urban Destitute Programme, a project of the African Housing Fund which is involved in participatory community development with the homeless women of Nairobi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Catalina Trujillo, the 'Women in Development' coordinator for the Habitat conference stresses: 'If a woman's place is in the house, we had better make sure she owns it.' These sentiments were supported in Istanbul by the conference Secretary General, Wally N'Dow: He stated: 'By conviction, by analysis and even by instinct, women's rights to ownership and inheritance of property is right. If Habitat II... does not also contribute to social progress by addressing some of the issues like property rights for women, then it will have failed.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the women of-Africa in particular, the most important thing that should have come out of Istanbul was an affirmation of their right to own and inherit property, and to security.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These issues affect most African women regardless of their status and they were presented to ministers concerned with shelter and settlements when they met in Johannesburg last year to prepare an African agenda for the Istanbul meeting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most African countries accept the theoretical premise that women must have access to land, credit and inheritance, and recognise that certain types of violence are targeted primarily at women. South Africa's President Mandela affirmed: 'When we talk about people-centred development, we should understand that the involvement of women is often the difference between success and failure.' Yet in reality, customary law and insensitivity to gender concerns continue to predominate. Unfortunately, when the African ministers adopted their declaration, the point on the "unencumbered access of women to credit and land ownership' appeared in only 20th place. And while forced evictions were highlighted in Istanbul, violence against women did not feature at all among the 'key priorities'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet in parts of Africa these are major concerns affecting women every day. 'In South Africa, a women is raped every 83 seconds and in some areas, a girl can expect to be raped four times in her life,' says Emelda Boikanyo of the Johannesburg-based Women's Health Project. Idah Matou remembers how one Sunday morning in 1992, five men stormed into her shop in Alexandria township. They seized the day's earnings and anything else they could carry away before raping her 1 5-year old daughter. A few weeks earlier, they had called to demand protection money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Violence in the home is also a growing problem. Mmatshilo Motsei, Director of Agisanang Domestic Abuse Prevention and Training, an NGO based in Alexandria, South Africa, says the problem is so pervasive, 'it must be raised as a national concern.' Habitat II turned a deaf ear on these women's concerns. This was not their forum. Shawna Tropp of the NGO Women's Caucus criticised those attending the conference who claimed that it was not about women but cities. 'Women live in cities,' she says and adds: 'By and large, human settlements are still very much seen in terms of bricks and mortar'. She calls for greater understanding of the role played by women, usually in an unpaid capacity, in the management of communities. 'Everything begins with having a house in a secure neighbourhood where the dignity of women is protected.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Megacities</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The megacity personifies human misery for many in developing nations. As agglomerations proliferate in the twenty-first century, the United Nations Population Fund's 1996 report - The State of the World Population  -  considers how one might go about remedying the ills of city dwelling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNFPA's figures for urban growth make worrying reading. Over half the world's people will live in cities within ten years (3.3 billion out of a total of 6.59 billion). Between 1970 and 2020, the urban population will have risen by more than two billion - and 93% of these will be in developing nations. These increases will add to the strain of an estimated 600 million people already living in urban areas of developing nations without the resources to meet their basic housing and health needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Back in 1950, New York was the only city with more than 10 million inhabitants. Today, there are 14 in this category. Tokyo, which is home to 26.5 million people, is the largest. And by 2015, many others are expected to join the megacity 'club'  -  Djakarta (Indonesia), Karachi (Pakistan), Dhaka (Bangladesh), Delhi (India), Tianjin (China), Manila (Philippines), Cairo (Egypt), Istanbul (Turkey), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Lahore (Pakistan), Hyderabad (India), Bangkok (Thailand), Lima (Peru), Teheran (Iran) and Kinshasa (Zaire).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the majority of the world's people will be living in cities by 2005, it will take a little longer for the 50% threshold to be crossed in the less developed regions. However, this is expected to happen before 2015. Looking specifically at Africa, the current estimates reveal significant regional variations. In Southern Africa the rate of urbanisation is 48%. The figures for North, West, Central and East Africa are 45%, 36%, 33% and 21 % respectively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Expanding populations are likely to add to the widely reported list of horrors emanating from cities that are bursting at their seams. Problems include the collapse of basic services such as water and waste management, escalating social conflict, millions of urban children open to labour exploitation, sexual exploitation, environmental degradation, traffic congestion and environmental hazards such as increased air pollution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, the UNFPA report acknowledges that cities are also 'concentrations of human creativity and the highest form of social organisation'. It continues: 'Cities provide capital, labour and markets for entrepreneurs and innovators at all levels of economic activity'. Indeed, between 60% and 80% of developing countries' GNP is generated by their major conurbations. Social transformation occurs at a faster pace in urban areas. Thus, health indicators tend to be better, literacy is higher and there is more social mobility. And there are more opportunities for women. The city presents fewer obstacles for women's education and female city dwellers are less likely to be constrained by traditions which may stifle their creativity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But harnessing this potential is no easy task. The final chapter of the UNFPA report, entitled 'Policies, strategies and issues for improving cities', argues that urban dwellers in developing nations have been badly affected by structural adjustment policies. These have resulted in the elimination of subsidies on food and other commodities, increases in school fees and job losses in the public sector. Cities will also be required to adapt to the 'mass global experience in decentralisation' involving the shifting of local decisions from central government to municipal authorities, parastatal bodies and the private sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p48.png"></center><br>
+ Regional distribution of urban population</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women - a priority</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report stresses the importance of improving education and health, with a particular focus on women. As Dr Nafis Sadik, who is Executive Director of the UNFPA, observes; 'If urban centres are to be made liveable, and the quality of life of the poorer members of society is to be improved, women should be given the chance to play their role in the process.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report reiterates the specific targets for improving the lives of women that were drawn up by the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development held in Cairo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the field of education, these include 100% primary school enrolment (for both girls and boys) by 2015, improving access for girls and women to secondary, tertiary and vocational education, and closing the gender gap in the primary and secondary sectors by 2005.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other goals include a progressive reduction in infant and maternal mortality, making reproductive health services accessible to all through the primary health care system by 2015, greatly improved provision for family planning (allowing couples to make free and informed decisions on the number, spacing and timing of births) and providing better protection against sexually transmitted diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The State of the World Population Report concludes: 'A successful urban future depends, as much as anything else, on engaging all members of the community - especially women and the poor  -  in a constructive political process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There will have to be partnerships struck between governments, nongovernmental organisations, the private sector, and local and community organisations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And global urbanisation will require that the international community  -  governments, NGOs and international institutions - act to exploit the potential of cities to improve the lives of the world's people and to establish the foundations of sustainable development in the 21st century.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Lagos under stress</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Paul Okunlola</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a present population of some 7.5 million, the new millenium will propel Lagos to megacity status. The United Nations Population Fund predicts that 24 million people will live in the city by 2015, making it the third most populous conurbation on the globe. Whilst the donor community has supported urban projects in the past, tough times mean more reliance on 'bottom up' schemes backed by N60s and community-based groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When it began to rain in the small hours of Thursday 18 July 1996, residents of Lagos -  Nigeria's largest city and economic nerve centre -  merely stirred in their slumber. The gentle, but persistent showers, didn't rank among the heaviest downpours experienced by this coastal city, which gets rain on average for eight months in every year. Nor are Lagosians unfamiliar with spells of rain lasting up to seven days without break.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But by the time of the early morning 'rush hour', the traffic-laden streets of metropolitan Lagos were being swept with rampaging floods. Until well after noon, the city's social and economic life was at a standstill. Already difficult road conditions were rendered impossible for motorists, marooned at the wheel for hours. Exhausted school children eventually made it back home after spending the better part of the day in traffic. Crowds of commuters waited interminably at bus-stops for vehicles that never came.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The economic toll was expected to be heavy, with offices in both government and the private sector remaining empty all day. Commercial activities were put on hold as shops remained shuttered until well after noon. The communications network and electricity supply to key areas of the city were shut down for hours, to protect equipment. One state government official commented: 'It has never been so bad.' By the time the water receded and life had returned to normal, both government engineers and private sector consultants were in agreement: the main reasons for the flooding were illegal development along the natural courses of inner-city waterways, and the reduced drainage capacity of the overdeveloped metropolitan area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exploding metropolis</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both the flood itself, and the acknowledgement of the human limitations of the city officials, illustrate the frustrations that have attended the management of this exploding metropolis over the last three decades. In the months leading up to the July flooding, a major controversy erupted over plans to landfill the inland Kuramo lake in the highbrow Victoria Island district and develop it as a housing estate. This pitted state government officials and a firm of developers on the one hand, against a motley band of citizens groups, non-governmental organisations and concerned environmentalists on the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The unusual strength of local feeling against the project reflects growing fears that the island itself could be submerged. Five years ago, this was thought to be a remote prospect but today it is seen as a real threat, given the increasing frequency of flooding incidents and ocean surges along the coastal area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More and more people are arguing that there is a correlation between the growing frequency of flooding incidents and the massive sandfilling activity that has taken place over the years. The Kuramo issue remains contentious but it is just one example of the wider dilemma facing the city's development planners. They have the daunting task of providing for legions of migrants to Lagos - whose swelling numbers are placing great stress on the failing infrastructure. The problem may be particularly acute in the Nigeria's largest city, but it reflects a wider trend of urbanisation in the country over the past half century, as the overall population has increased.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1921, Nigeria had just 18.7 million inhabitants. Current estimates put the population in the region of 103.5 million. And the growth in the proportion of urban dwellers has been equally dramatic. In 1931, fewer than 7% of the people lived in urban centres. The figure had risen to 10% by 1952,19% by 1963, 33% by 1984, and 42% at the last count, in 1991. Current figures suggest that there are now seven Nigerian cities with more than a million inhabitants and no fewer than 78 whose population exceeds 100 000.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The changing structure of the country's human settlement profile has been linked to broader economic and social changes. The situation has been exacerbated by the economic depression of the last two decades. Analysts have noted a trend of declining primary production in such areas as agriculture, mining, quarrying and exploitation of natural resources. This has resulted in greater attention being paid to secondary and tertiary economic activities -  which are generally city-based. The figures illustrate the dramatic nature of the change that has taken place. In 1952, the ratio of primary to secondary/ tertiary economic activity, as measured in Nigeria's GDP, was 68:32. Four decades later, the ratio was 38:62.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to World Bank consultant, Prof. Akin Mabogunje, the trend is exemplified by the expansion of a whole range of activities located in urban centres -  large, medium and small-scale enterprises in manufacturing and construction, utilities, transport and communications systems, wholesale and retail outlets, hotels, restaurants, finance and insurance companies, and estate agencies. Then there is the whole range of government activity. Until 1991, Nigeria's huge federal bureaucracy was located in Lagos, operating alongside a state administration and some 15 local authorities. Add to this the major docks and airports of Lagos, and you get an urbanisation phenomenon which has, to say the least, been intimidating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lagos, which only occupies 0.4% of the country's land area, gains an extra 300 000 inhabitants every year on top of its natural growth rate. That the city is a 'pole of attraction' is hardly surprising. It is clearly the economic nucleus of the country, reputed to account for about 57% of total value added in manufacturing and about 40% of the nation's most highly skilled manpower.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Urban toll</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The costs have also been high. Professor Poju Onibokun, a human settlements expert, enumerates these: grossly inadequate housing and infrastructure with millions dwelling in slums; social amenities under enormous pressure with a shortage of schools and poor health facilities; endemic crime and juvenile delinquency; the breakdown of traditional values, family cohesiveness and community spirit. The capacity of law enforcement institutions is also increasingly hampered by technological and resource limitations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these ills, the shortage of housing and lack of infrastructure are seen as the most acute. This is borne out by a recent World Bank study which notes that:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the quality of life and living conditions have deteriorated;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - economic production has plunged;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the inadequate provision of infrastructural services has negatively affected the operations of most private sector investors, who now need to spend between 22% and 25% of their capital outlay on providing their own infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over 90% of the city's housing is provided by the private sector. But this has been handicapped in recent times by spiralling development costs and a general shortage of funds. New private housing has consisted largely of thousands of individual units, built mainly in areas of existing large scale developments. The authorities have made their own efforts to plug the gap and over the last 15 years, no fewer than 6000 hectares of marshland have been sandfilled and reclaimed in six separate development schemes (some of which have proved controversial). The Land Use Act of 1978 vested all urban land in the state authorities, although the administration of the legislation has not always proved satisfactory.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public transport is another problem for Lagos residents. There is no integrated system of mass transport and the sector is essentially made up of hundreds of privately operated buses and a dwindling taxi fleet. Massive currency devaluations have meant that the purchase price of new vehicles has rocketed. Maintenance costs for the increasingly dilapidated fleet have also spiralled. As a result, the system is stretched to beyond its capacity and it is the commuters who bear the brunt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public sector spending obviously has an important part to play in maintaining urban structures. The downturn in international aid flows has, therefore, had a visible impact with decline in infrastructure provision and maintenance, leading to a less favourable operating environment for private investors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, Lagos has been a notable beneficiary of urban support programmes with multi-million dollar schemes for water supply, storm water drainage, and infrastructure. Most of these have been World Bank-led but the support of the European Union and its Member States in this area is also considered crucial.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the positive side, adversity has proved a catalyst for greater community-based and NGO activity in environmental and human settlement issues over the last decade. This is a fresh approach, based on 'bottom-up' strategies, which should open up muchneeded new avenues to urban management in Nigeria more generally and in Lagos in particular. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A Eurocrat in Istanbul</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Gilles Fontaine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, a specialist in urban development, offers us his thoughts on the Istanbul conference. This event, he believes, was a landmark in the collective process of raising awareness which was begun at the Rio Conference on the environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14 June 1996 - last day of Habitat II</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Night fell a long time ago. A feeling of hope permeates the hall. Most of the work is completed but there are still disputes over a few paragraphs of the text of the Habitat 11 Agenda. Some delegates have not slept for two days and they can be seen standing around, afraid they might fall asleep. The sense of fatigue increases further when, at midnight, the symbolic 'stopping of the clocks' (to permit a successful outcome of the final negotiations) is announced over the PA system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At two in the morning, the wait has become almost unreal. It is virtually unimaginable that the Conference should come to nothing, after two years of intense work. Since Wednesday evening, the general atmosphere has been almost euphoric. Agreement has been reached on all the essential points within the allotted time and the Conference is already being heralded as another success story. All that remains to be done is to finalise the 'Istanbul Declaration', a four-page policy text broadly summarising the work of the Conference. The Conference would finally close about two hours later, amid general relief - but why the impasse?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breaking new ground... and remaining steadfast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some problems arose where they were least expected! To everyone's surprise, 'informal' working sub-groups had to be set up to discuss nuclear testing and anti-personnel mines! These themes were a far cry from the Habitat Agenda, but this sort of thing inevitably happens at major international conferences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other stumbling blocks appeared without any real warning, when some delegates attempted to renegotiate the conclusions of the Beijing and Cairo conferences. The negotiators had to stand firm on two counts. The hard-won recognition of women's rights needed to be defended all over again. And, more importantly, the attempt in Istanbul to reopen the debate on everything that had been gained at previous conferences had to be avoided. The European Union's negotiators took an aggressive stance on both these issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that so much negotiating effort is expended is a good illustration of the political significance governments attach to the topics debated on such occasions. A conference may be seen as resembling the proverbial half-bottle of water  - some regard it as half empty and others as half full. One's viewpoint depends on one's expectations  -  and much disappointment is caused by a misunderstanding of how such conferences operate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meeting the delegates</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although I am no anthropologist, I think I was able to identify three major groups of participants. First, there were the 'negotiators', who have built up a common language from conference to conference. I was surprised at the extent to which reference was constantly made, in the negotiating groups, to the 'Languages' of Rio, Copenhagen or Beijing. This is not just a question of vocabulary or syntax, but represents a genuine revolution in thought at international level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second group, to which I myself belonged, was made up of national and international officials. These are the people who, to a greater or lesser extent, prepare the conference. They then attend it and, ideally, write a mission report on returning to their offices (bemoaning the fact that few people will read their words of wisdom !)'These delegates tend to offer the harshest judgments. A common refrain is: 'We have long argument about words in parenthesis in a huge document that no one will ever read!'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third group, which nowadays is the largest, consists of representatives of so-called civil society. Since Rio, every United Nations conference has seen the parallel organisation of an NGO Forum, and the latter's influence has constantly increased. At Beijing, the authorities banished the NGO Forum to a site 60 km from the capital, but Istanbul welcomed it with open arms on the same footing as the 'Cities Summit' and the meetings of researchers and industrialists. A more fundamental development was the invitation to NGOs and local authorities to take an active part in the working groups and at meetings. This was a 'first' in international conference history and I was struck by the motivation and competence of many of the participants, as well as by the ease with which they have adapted to the information society. Gone are the days when addresses are exchanged on scraps of paper, accompanied by the ritual 'We must keep in touch!'. These days, your business card must include your Internet Email address. Contacts are organised through networks connected to databases, and people swap CD ROMs with each other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What did Habitat II achieve?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'official' end most visible result of the Conference was obviously the adoption of the Habitat Agenda - the final fruit of long hours of work within the national committees set up for the occasion. This document, over a hundred pages in length, contains a 'World Action Plan', accompanied by the 'Istanbul Declaration'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is not so well-publicised is the fact that many countries  -  including a number of ACPs  -  took the opportunity to publish their own national reports containing individual action plans. The amount of preparation that went into these reports revealed a high degree of motivation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having looked at them more closely since, I have gained a somewhat better understanding of the months of work put in tens of thousands of people across the world. This reassures me that the majority of state participants will monitor the Habitat 11 follow-up very closely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One has to recognise that the mere adoption of a text, however significant it may be, cannot be regarded as a magic formula which will change the face of the world overnight. To the impatient among us who want everything straight away, and to unrepentant sceptics, I would say this. In environmental matters there are two major periods in our recent history - the period before Rio and the period after Rio. The Rio meeting, and each subsequent conference, have been milestones in a long, coherent process of collective reflection and growing awareness. Istanbul did, in fact, keep its promises: the right to adequate shelter is now recognised internationally as the fundamental right of every human being.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The exploding city</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Stephane Yerasimos</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Istanbul. Ten million inhabitants - with double that number expected in 20 years time. Financial irregularities, a chaotic house-building sector, a lack of infrastructure and rampant speculation. One needed to look no further than the host city to find the key issues facing the Habitat Conference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Istanbul is a city steeped in history. It is also one of the Third World's biggest conurbations. Over the last 16 centuries, it has been the capital of two great empires - the Byzantine and the Ottoman - resulting in a rich legacy of monuments and a historic centre on a par with that of Rome. From the Middle Ages to the beginning of the modern era, it was regarded as Europe's largest city. On the eve of the Second World War, it had a population of one million, but that figure has now multiplied tenfold. Almost half of its ten million inhabitants are living on a knife edge, and many are in 'illegal' housing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first big transformation of the city came in the middle of the 19th century when the Ottoman authorities opted for westernisation and embarked on an extensive management programme. By the time the Empire collapsed in 1922, much of the ancient fabric - and traditional housing -  of the city had already been lost. Under the new republic, the capital was transferred to Ankara, and the authorities stepped up their efforts at modernisation. In 1937, Ataturk gave Frenchman Henri Prost, a city planner who had helped preserve the old centres of a number of Moroccan towns, the job of devising major public works in the heart of the old city. The infrastructure was also updated and taken together, these works (which were completed during the 1950s) transformed the old walled city and its ancient suburbs (Galata and Uskudar) into a modern aggLom&eacute;ration, interspersed with ancient monuments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mass immigration</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike the colonial powers who attempted to preserve the traditional character of old city centres around the Mediterranean rim and in the rest of the Islamic world, the desire of successive Turkish governments to modernise the country resulted in the disappearance of most of Istanbul's ancient fabric, and the city no longer has a compact area of old districts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The transformation of the city centre was matched, after the Second World War, by an explosion of building on the outskirts - a phenomenon characteristic of Third World countries. Improved sanitation and hygiene standards led to a natural population increase of between 2.5% and 3% per year. Meanwhile, the modernisation of agricultural practices caused a mass rural exodus. Marginalised in both economic and social terms. the people who flooded into Istanbul soon over whelmed the resident population. Today, the bulk of the people living in the city have rural origins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new residents began by occupying the edges of the old quarters and taking over the open spaces which remained after the ravages of an earlier fire. They then began to settle in ever-increasing circles around Istanbul, establishing the first gecekondu districts (groups of huts constructed overnight). These have been incorrectly described as shanty towns. In fact, most buildings are permanent structures and they rapidly develop into multi-storey dwellings. Most of the land on which these illegal buildings have sprung up was originally privately owned. But the elected multi-party government in power at the time was quick to spot the electoral possibilities in these areas. Each district was a reservoir of potential voters and, on the eve of each election, the parties in power would distribute property titles to the illegal occupants. They, in turn hastened to consolidate and increase their assets. This explains the emergence of increasingly densely populated districts without infrastructure during the 1950s and early 1960s</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industrialisation, and the arrival in the city of people who used to be rural landowners (driven out by the new market economy) later created a demand for housing which the normal market was unable to meet. This has given rise to a new phenomenon of urban marginalisation, involving the illegal division of land into plots. The system involves the purchase of agricultural properties by developers and speculative builders. These are divided into small plots and resold, quite legally, to purchasers  -  who then build unauthorised structures in contravention of the normal planning rules. Often, benefiting from political alliances, the developers take control of these districts and 'convert' the votes of the people living there into cash, in return for urban investments. This enables them to consolidate their power and increase the value of their remaining stock of plots.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An uncontrolled population increase</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, a third phenomenon, linked to the growth of a middle class, began to occur in the mid-1980s, when building cooperatives came into being. Their predecessors were the corporate associations which grouped together public officials (beginning with the army and the police). These developed into ad-hoc associations enabling a group of developers to tap people's savings, thereby dispensing with the need for loans in a country where chronic inflation makes credit prohibitive. Several thousands of dwellings are often constructed at the same time, in the form of tightly packed, multiple-occupancy blocks. The requirements of multi-storey construction mean that these buildings are of acceptable quality, but the related infrastructures are sorely lacking. Entire districts are built 'in the wilds' without any infrastructural investment by the developers or local authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The city is continuing to expand, without reference to any development plan. The fifteen or so major urban schemes drawn up since the 1950s have all remained in desk drawers and the only significant construction work has been on roads (notably bridges and ring roads). These generate further uncontrolled population increases on the outskirts of the city.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the natural rate of demographic growth is slowly declining - it has just dropped to under 2% per year -  the most recent census (in 1990) reveals that Turkey now has more people living in its cities than in its rural areas. Yet the statistics also show that half of the country's people are still involved in agriculture. Given the continuing natural growth, and the fact that in semi-industrialised countries, the rural population tends to settle at around a third or even just a quarter of the total, we can assume that the drift to towns and cities will continue for the next 30 or 40 years. This trend will affect all Turkish towns and cities, be they large, small or medium-sized. But Greater Istanbul, where the majority of the country's economic and social activity is concentrated, is set to experience a doubling of its population within the next twenty-five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dilemma for urban planners</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem caused by demographic changes is exacerbated by economic constraints. For a number of years now, Turkey has suffered a high (albeit stable) inflation rate of about 70% per year. This situation discourages investment in industry, and makes people take refuge in ownership of land that they can build on. Land has thus become the target of speculation by people in all social classes. Against this background, it is virtually impossible to regulate the use of land  - something which must be at the heart of any urban-development programme. An alternative is to discuss the possibility of developing a social consensus involving a more liberal approach to property speculation, recgnising that land is a source of revenue at all levels. This might entail releasing central and local authorities from any responsibility to provide services or other infrastructural investment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the present circumstances, however, any scheme to redevelop Istanbul effectively would seem doomed to failure. The only intervention which might succeed would be at the 'cleaning-up' stage - coming in after the construction of the dwellings under the conditions described above. It is only once the new inhabitants' dream of having a roof over their heads is realised that they come face to face with the harsh daily realities of living in a self-built city of nearly ten million people. They may then be prepared to make some sacrifices in order to improve their living conditions. The moment when harsh reality replaces emotion, is the only time the urban planner has the slightest chance of being listened to. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Adequate housing in the EU: rights and realities</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Misia Coghlan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are 2.7 million homeless people in the European Union and many millions more are badly housed. But the EU is said to be lagging in taking measures to provide adequate housing - one of the internationally recognised human rights. An expert from a leading campaign group for the homeless explains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the weeks and months leading up to the Second United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II), much argument and debate centred around the existence of the right to adequate housing. The legal basis of this right was challenged by a handful of delegates and the arguments continued right through the Conference itself. The outcome is that the final Declaration includes a reaffirmation of states to a 'commitment to the full and progressive realisation of the right to adequate housing as provided for in the international instruments.' (see first box)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The political impact of Habitat II as the culmination of the recent series of UN Conferences has been disappointing. The Istanbul Conference was originally heralded with the catch-phrase 'housing for all'. In the course of the preparatory process, this was watered-down to become 'shelter for all' and, as has been seen, the wording of the final Declaration simply refers to existing international commitments and allows for the 'full and progressive realisation of the right.' This of course begs the question of how such a right was ever supposed to have been achieved other than 'progressively' and how meaningful such a commitment can be in the absence of parallel undertakings as to implementation and enforcement. In short, very little has been achieved in progressing international commitment to the realisation of the right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right to adequate housing has in fact been recognised for some time now by the Member States of the European Union, all of whom have ratified the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (the most important legal basis of housing rights found in international law). Under article 11(1), the parties to the Covenant recognise, 'the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family, including adequate food, clothing and housing...'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of 'adequacy', it is generally acknowledged, is determined at least in part by social, economic, cultural and climatic factors. Adequate housing can be understood as including the following components: legal security of tenure, affordability, habitability, accessibility, location and availability of services, materials, facilities and infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It hardly needs pointing out that commitments in international law, whether legally binding or not, remain statements of intent and are of limited practical use unless accompanied by a comprehensive legislative framework in domestic law which will secure both the access to the right as well as providing enforcement mechanisms. What, then, is the reality ? Has the right to adequate housing been enacted into national legislation and, most importantly, is the right actually being respected across the European Union?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Realities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FEANTSA, the European Federation of National Associations Working with the Homeless, has been conducting the European Observatory on Homelessness with the support of the European Commission since 1991. FEANTSA's research findings have increasingly demonstrated both the extent and the gravity of the housing crisis in Europe: in what is one of the wealthiest subregions of the world, a large and growing group of the population is being excluded from adequate housing. (see box on next page)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, FEANTSA's 1995 transnational research report (Home/essness in the European Union) has found that the right to housing does not exist in any Member State as a legally enforceable claim. Although the right is recognised in the constitution of several Member States, this remains a statement of intent and does not create any entitlement. Other Member States have adopted a different approach - housing legislation in the United Kingdom, for example, does create an obligation on the local authorities to provide housing for those homeless people assessed to be in priority need and found to be unintentionally homeless. There is no sign of convergence in the ways EU Member States address the right to housing and housing exclusion in their national legislation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right to housing is not addressed in EU legislation as a legal principle and Member States have exclusive competence to deal with housing issues themselves. There is thus no overall European housing policy, nor is there yet any European policy on homelessness. FEANTSA has, however, identified common trends throughout Europe which have contributed to the escalation of homelessness and the lack of adequate housing provision.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall European trend has been an increased reliance on the competitive market to meet all housing needs, with an unwillingness on the part of government to commit public resources to assist lower income groups, who are therefore confronted with the limited choice available to them on the open housing market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The supply of housing has been undergoing change throughout Europe. In all countries, owner-occupation is on the increase, with tax relief generally being offered as an incentive. The private rented sector, on the other hand, has continued to decline. Social housing has generally suffered from cuts in funding. The result is that there is a shortfall in the supply of affordable housing for rent and rents have become correspondingly higher. It is clear that the competitive housing market cannot and will not meet the needs of the increasing numbers of people without the resources to afford market rents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The type of housing required has also changed: demographic trends have meant that households are getting smaller but more numerous - thus, there is a need for more but smaller dwellings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem has been exacerbated by the lack of an overall strategy either at European level or, indeed, often at national level, to meet the realities of structural changes on the labour market. Indeed, in some countries, the increase in long-term unemployment has been accompanied by an erosion of social protection systems. Faced with escalating demand for longterm welfare assistance, the authorities have often responded by tightening up on eligibility criteria in an attempt to cut or limit benefit payments, with shortterm palliative measures to deal with emergency cases. Thus, increasing numbers of people living on or under the poverty threshold, coupled with the deregulation of the housing market, have led to severe housing stress and increased vulnerability to homelessness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finland sets an example</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finland is one EU country tackling the housing problem. In 1987, the International Year of the Homeless, the Finnish government announced its intention to eliminate homelessness. At that time, the number of homeless people was put at close to 20 000. The programme for the development of housing set the objective of making 18 000 homes available for the homeless over a period of five years. Special funds were set aside in the national budget to permit the local authorities and other organisations to purchase housing for the homeless. State loans for the construction of housing for rent were made available to municipalities with a large homeless population. In under ten years, the number of homeless people in Finland has been reduced to half what it was in the mid-1980s. Finland now enjoys a comprehensive system of carefully targeted housing supply, housing subsidies, benefits and allowances and housing is seen as an integral part of a multi-dimensional strategy to combat poverty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For one in twenty citizens of the European Union, the criteria which, as a whole, constitute adequate housing remain inaccessible. Yet at Istanbul, the EU voiced its determination to make an important and constructive contribution to the implementation of the Habitat objectives. This included an acknowledgement that increased attention should be paid to people living in poverty and that appropriate action should be taken by governments at all levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European housing ministers were due to meet informally in Dublin, on 24 and 25 October of this year, specifically to tackle the question of 'housing for socially excluded people'. The time has come to devise and implement coherent strategies to prevent housing exclusion for low income groups. The market has neither the ethics nor the long-term planning capacity to do this; it remains the responsibility of the state. It can only be hoped that the housing ministers will recognise this and agree on the necessity of protecting housing as a product and as a service from the competitive market, at least for vulnerable groups. The housing ministers have been holding informal meetings since 1989. This year's meeting provides the opportunity, particularly in the light of the Habitat II debate, to exchange information on effective measures to help low income groups access and maintain a home. The result should be the drafting of a number of concrete goals to be achieved within a realistic time-scale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Homelessness in Europe is not on the scale seen in other regions of the world - with the development and reinforcement of effective preventive policies, based on proven and cost-effective welfare models existing in some Member States, the housing crisis can still be contained. In short, where there is a political will, there is a way. Europe has the potential to serve as a model of good practice to the rest of the world and should do so, more especially in the light of all that was - and wasn't  - achieved at Istanbul. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">References</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Is the European Union Housing its Poor ? Dragana Avramov, Catherine Parmentier and Brian Harvey, FEANTSA, Brussels 1995 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Homelessness in the European Union, Dragana Avramov, FEANTSA, Brussels 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Invisible Hand of the Housing Market, Dragana Avramov, FEANTSA, Brussels 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Cities of the Third World</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Francis Cass</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In ten or so years' time, more than half the world's population will be living in built-up areas and, according to UN figures, by 2025 nearly two thirds of us will live in towns and cities. This is not a complete surprise -  over the last few decades, the ratio of city dwellers to rural people has consistently moved in 'favour' of the former. In 1950, 29% of people were city dwellers. Since 1985, the urban population has exceeded 40% of the global total.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, we are witnessing an acceleration in demographic growth, especially in developing countries. Of the 2.6 billion people who currently live in towns, 1.6 billion live in the world's least developed regions. By 2025, the urban population of the Third World will have risen to 3.2 billion, out of a global urban population of just over 4 billion. On the basis of these figures, it is estimated that the number of urban dwellers in developing countries is increasing by approximately 150 000 people each day! In Cape Town in South Africa, for example, as in many towns and cities of the Third World, this demographic explosion can actually be seen happening. All you need to do is drive regularly along the N2 motor way  - which passes through the shanty towns of Khayelitsha and Guguletu -  to see how, week by week, the makeshift dwellings are spreading - gradually expanding to every available plot of land. The same scene is repeated in all of Africa's large towns. In Cot&eacute; d'lvoire, the population of Abidjan rises by 400 inhabitants a day on average. In Gabarone, the capital of Botswana, whose population was barely 3000 at the time of independence in the 1960s, the population is increasing by 18% each year and today 160 000 people live there. Such growth is often accompanied by widespread indifference on the part of local authorities. Such indifference is due, in particular, to a shortage of financial resources, but it also reflects an absence of political will to do anything to tackle the problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Demography and poverty</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The demographic explosion which has taken place in the urban areas of developing countries is due to three main factors: natural population growth, rural emigration to towns and cities, and (less importantly) the redefinition of the administrative boundaries of built-up areas. The first two factors are equally to 'blame' but in future, it is predicted that rural depopulation in Africa will become the single most important element in urban population growth. This will be especially true of countries where there is rampant rural poverty. In this context, we need to recognise other circumstances, such as famine, desertification, a shortage of cultivable land and conflicts, which serve to exacerbate the phenomenon. If people living in the countryside decide to migrate to towns, it is because they are looking for a better life and hope to improve their standard of living. Few succeed. According to a World Bank study, 50% of people in abject poverty will be living in urban areas by the year 2000.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The effects that urban poverty has on the environment are often dramatic. The reverse is also true. A damaged environment constitutes a daily hazard for town and city dwellers, in particular the most destitute. The precarious nature of their living conditions means that only in extremely rare cases are these people able to guard against the degeneration of their immediate surroundings. Driven to the outer limits of the towns - where even basic infrastructures such as sewers and the collection of household waste are often lacking, the poorest sections of society are left to fend for themselves. Local authorities have neither the means nor (often) the inclination to do anything to help them. Even those who are comfortably off and who can afford to give part of their income to safeguard their immediate environment (thereby protecting themselves to some extent) cannot escape the consequences of more general ecological problems such as air pollution and the contamination of water supplies. Living in a modern house in a well-to-do district is simply not enough. It is not possible to shield oneself completely from the problems created by environmental destruction. For example, even an unofficial rubbish tip, located several kilometres away from a residential area, can have disastrous effects on groundwater - meaning that sooner or later, the quality of the drinking water will suffer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Towns gasping for water...</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, the vast majority of Third World towns are facing a series of ecological problems which directly or indirectly, affect the lives of their inhabitants. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), 220 million city dwellers have no access to drinking water and 420 million have no latrines. It does not take much to imagine the potentially catastrophic health consequences of such a situation - in which people are forced to drink and irrigate their land with water from contaminated sources. The WHO has estimated that three million children died during 1993 as a direct result of diarrhoea, and that nearly two million of these victims had consumed drinking water contaminated with faecal matter. In developing countries, 90% of waste water is poured, completely untreated, into rivers, lakes and coastal waters. Again, one can easily imagine the impact on marine flora and fauna, and on the health of those who eat the products fished from these waters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">...and gasp for breath</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As far as air quality is concerned, the WHO intimates that more than a billion city dwellers throughout the world breathe highly polluted air. For the most part, this pollution is generated by industry and motor vehicles. A small improvement has been recorded in the urban areas of developed countries, but air quality in the towns and cities of the South has deteriorated considerably during recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many reasons for this. First, there has been an increase in industrial activity, mainly concentrated around towns and cities. This is a result of economic development, but also of the fact that many factories - including some with the worst pollution records  - have relocated from the North to the South, where legislation governing emissions is less stringent. Second, in contrast to the trends seen in developed countries - where cars are usually well-maintained, (running on unleaded petrol and rarely more than five years old) motor vehicles in the Third World -  whose numbers are increasing significantly  -  are frequently old, badly maintained and run on leaded fuel. According to the World Bank, 95% of the lead polluting the air in the towns and cities of developing countries comes from vehicles which run on leaded petrol and studies carried out on the subject have revealed concentrations of up to 1.5 microgrammes of lead per cubic metre of air. In North America and Europe the concentration varies between 0.2 and 0.8 microgrammes per cubic metre.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another problem facing towns and cities in the southern hemisphere arises from the enormous amounts of waste they produce and from the fact that they have few treatment facilities. In many cases, the rubbish is not even collected and is left to accumulate into the piles which can often be seen on the edges of shanty towns. This accumulation of refuse encourages the proliferation of certain diseases and poses a real threat to the health of residents both nearby and further away. In addition to this ordinary, everyday waste, the countries of the Third World have to deal with problems generated by toxic waste  - not just their own, but also that which is 'exported' there by industrialised countries. Needless to say, the towns which actually have the means and facilities needed to treat this highly polluting waste are few and far between.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linking development with environmental protection</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While environmental problems have a direct impact on human health and on the natural world, they also entail huge economic costs. The effect of pollution on human health translates into ever-increasing health costs and a decline in productivity. And it is not only city dwellers who suffer the consequences of a deteriorating urban environment. Depending on their size, the degree of industrial activity and population concentration, towns and cities pollute and destroy areas well beyond their own administrative boundaries. They swallow up enormous amounts of natural resources, suck their hinterlands dry and spit out 'what is left'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nowadays, there is an increasing global consensus over the need to tackle these growing problems rapidly. This was seen clearly at the Habitat II Conference in Istanbul. Most cities of the southern hemisphere urgently need to get to grips with their numerous ecological problems - the alternative is to sink further into chaos. In a similar vein, it has become obvious that some sort of balance must be found between economic development and safeguarding the environment - and that considerable investments are needed to achieve this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solutions do exist. Recycling projects, for example, could provide jobs for large numbers of town and city dwellers, as well as cleaning up the environment. Governments of industrialised nations should take the necessary steps to ensure that their toxic waste does not end up in the rubbish dumps of the countries of the South. Authorities in urban areas in the Third World should set aside more of their budgets to help the most underprivileged sections of their populations, so that they can manage their own environment. Local authorities should also respond more efficiently to the basic needs of impoverished districts, not least by building roads and sewer systems, by ensuring that rubbish is collected and by guaranteeing all people access to drinking water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Last but not least, a concerted effort - especially a concerted financial effort - should be made by decision-makers at the local, national and international levels. We need to recognise that environmental damage is a phenomenon which rarely confines itself to the local level. Sooner or later, it becomes a problem for all of us. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When conservation is at odds with the local population</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Hendrik Smets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The clash between the interests of people living on the edges of the Zakouma National Park in Chad and the authorities' attempts at conservation illustrates the situation facing many other nature reserves in Africa. This article argues in favour of a form of eco-development to suit everyone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the Zakouma National Park (PNZ) WAS officially set up in 1963 (it had been at the planning stage since 1956), the area it covered meant that local people had to be moved -  but the promised compensation was never paid. During the second phase of the PNZ's relaunch, financed by the European Development Fund (EDF), a perimeter path following the 1963 boundaries was marked out, but local villagers opposed this, regarding it as an extension of the Park's area. Subsequently, they rejected a move to build a dispensary in a village located at the edge of the park on the pretext that such a structure would again constitute an extension to the reserve's land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conflict between the itinerant stockbreeders of the region and the authorities has simmered for many years. The latter have shrunk from enforcing the 1963 law on transhumance corridors which applies to the fringes of the national park. Under this law, it is prohibited (in principle) to gather wood, hunt for game, fish, or gather honey and other natural produce. The result is a tendency among locals to view the PNZ as an adversary rather than a potential partner in development. Safari tourism is developing too slowly and is not leading to sufficient benefits for example, from a craft industry, or more general redevelopment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the second phase of the project was at the planning stage, its organisers recognised that, in order to guarantee the park's future, support had to be given to the people living on its edges. A high-level 'cooperation committee' was therefore proposed. The membership of this committee, which would sit in N'Djamena, was to include ministers, directors-general, park authorities and Commission representatives. Unfortunately it has not yet been brought into operation. By contrast, the local authorities and park management have been able to set up their own committee which met for the first time in January 1996. This body has helped to tackle some of the most sensitive problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second phase also saw the implementation of a series of microprojects. - school renovations, a dispensary, a bridge, the sinking of wells, a dam, a mill and a nursery. But these were set up without preliminary study, and no arrangements were made to sound out the views of the local people, or the form of development they would like promoted. Understandably, local hostility was encountered and the projects cannot, in any real sense, be viewed as offshoots of the wider PNZ scheme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project has not been extended to a third phase. Because of this, there is a risk that the capital invested -  and the positive results that have been achieved - could be lost altogether. Should any donor choose to 'pick up the baton' in future, they will need to recognise the key imperative of creating a symbiotic relationship between the park and the local population. To do this, there must be an awareness-raising effort, undertaken in parallel with any eco-development programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the first instance, a higher profile should be given to institutional issues. In particular, the cooperation committee in N'Djamena must be able to act, where necessary, as an appeal or arbitration chamber to deal with any disputes which cannot be resolved by the local authorities' committee. The latter, of course, would continue to meet on a regular basis to discuss any problems encountered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, there should be campaigns to disseminate information and train local people who are in daily contact with the park's environment. The aim here would be to make them progressively more accountable for conservation and the exploitation of natural resources (cutting wood, gathering produce, hunting, fishing, and so on). They must also gain a better understanding of the effects of poaching and desertification. Above all, such campaigns should seek to convince the people of the benefits they stand to gain from the park, if they continue to respect its integrity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this context, some lessons might be drawn from a regional project dating from April 1987 (which was never fully implemented). This was aimed at halting the advance of the desert in the northern Central African Republic and southern Chad. The component of the project which is of interest to the present discussion was its programme to increase public awareness  -  which involved training organisers, preparing and disseminating information (posters, videos, films), organising information tours and giving support to the Training and Environmental Information Programme of the CILSS (Inter-State Committee to Combat Drought in the Sahel), of which Chad is a member.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One could also learn something from the approach adopted by the Manda National Park which is situated 270 km from Zakouma. This has 'volunteer villagers' appointed by the chiefs of the four cantons making up the park zone, who know the territory well. The volunteers take part in information, awareness and monitoring operations alongside national park and animal reserve employees. Dressed in pale olivegreen uniforms, they cycle between the villages and encampments, providing a link between the villagers and officials in N'Djamena. They have an invaluable role in convincing village people of the advantages of cooperating in the development of the park and its surrounding areas. And the cost of a volunteer is just CFAF 5 000 (ECU 7.5) per month.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eco-development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Returning to the PNZ, it is true that a small proportion of the population already benefits from the park's existence. Wages are paid to the patrols, and the permanent and seasonal workforce, while micro-projects have been set up. The park pays traders, artisans, farmers and stockbreeders for certain services and there are some tourists. But the bulk of the population does not see these advantages having been largely excluded up to now.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any future eco-development programme should therefore aim at reducing pressure on the park in order to guarantee its long-term integrity. This would obviously need to be preceded by a clear definition of the action to be undertaken, but in the meantime, it might be useful to offer a few guidelines. The programme should include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - a series of flanking or support activities providing infrastructure and equipment, such as a dispensary, a school, paths, wells and carts;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - a food-security programme providing for the conservation of agricultural areas, as well as measures to prevent erosion and safeguard harvests (cereal banks, stores, gardens, agro-forestry systems and pest control);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a project to promote natural resources such as fisheries, gum arable, honey, and straw fodder;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a wood/energy management programme providing improved hearths and brick ovens, and the organised gathering and use of supplies;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- development of the craft industry and training of tourist guides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If, in a third phase, an awareness and eco-development programme could be successfully implemented, the Zakouma National Park should be able to look forward to a brighter future. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A new 'eco-centre' in West Africa: Two Presidents amid the dust</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In April, on the eve of the International Conference on Human Settlements, the first West-African eco-centre ('Ecopole`) was opened in Dakar. It was set up by Enda, one of the few international non-governmental organisations of significant size based in a developing country. The 'eco' refers to two things - the economic life of the ordinary people and the ecological aspect of the centre. One of the most memorable images of the opening ceremonies was the sight of two Presidents  -  Abdou Diouf of Senegal and his Malian counterpart, Alpha Oumar Konare  -  striding through the dust in a working-class district of the Senegalese capital. For supporters of the 'Ecopole', the event epitomised the fight back of the popular urban economy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The dust which settled on the Presidents' fine clothes was that of the Rail district, so called on account of the railway which cut through it in former times. Built in an old, disused factory, the airy, clean 'eco-complex' adds a touch of style to this semi-industrial, semi-shanty town district. The old buildings were redeveloped with the help of members of some two hundred cultural and sports associations, working in partnership with the NGO. They used recycling techniques of which they are past masters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The complex had, in fact, been in operation for some time prior to its formal inauguration, but the ceremony  -  which attracted the interest of international press agencies - provided an opportunity to publicise the venture. Since its formation in 1972, Enda has been working to give a higher profile to the 'popular' economy (they eschew the term 'informal') in Senegal and elsewhere. The NGO has focused, in particular, on trying to encourage those involved in the popular economy to collaborate more closely and integrate their activities, as well as on boosting awareness of what is happening in similar communities elsewhere. The opening of the 'Ecopole' provided a showcase for the achievements of the popular economy in West Africa, as well as a forum for dialogue. And it now has the seal of approval of two Heads of State, not to mention other VlPs who made supportive statements at the opening.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The popular economy fights back</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the inaugural ceremony, the former sheds - now converted into airy vaults clustered around a central structure - hosted a major presentation of the popular economy in a series of exhibitions. It is a kind of 'eco-museum' with pride of place going to recycling. Exhibits ranged from 'fabrics' made of old plastic bags crocheted together, to toy sports cars fashioned from wire and tin cans. And the reaction to the exhibition went beyond the usual, somewhat condescending appreciation of 'the skill of these people'. There were, of course, some curios of interest to tourists such as the aforementioned children's toys, small metal suitcases and papier-mache boxes. But there were also works of art, masks and sculptures, which captured something of the nature of this 'recycling culture'. Indeed, international art critics at the Biennal Festival of Contemporary African Art, taking place in Dakar, were talking of a new artistic trend, also seen in the work of artists from other regions, based on reclamation. This, of course, begs the question: 'Has art not always been based on reclamation?'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interesting though the subject may be, the artistic and aesthetic qualities of the fruits of recycling are of only secondary importance when one is dealing with everyday objects. The important thing is for deprived populations to use what means they have to survive and to improve the quality of their lives. Tourists may choose to buy decorative and unusual objects on the reclamation market, but more significantly, families can obtain essential items such as kitchen utensils, ploughing implements, carpentry tools and stoves  - all cast from vehicle wheels and bits of scrap metal. They are made using small forges and furnaces the size of a large saucepan, or cut from otherwise unusable pieces of metal sheet. The craftsmen can also supply somewhat more sophisticated equipment: ploughs, brick-moulding machines or soldering irons. One of the exhibitions staged at the 'eco-centre' was a co-production with the Quebec Museum of Civilisation and the Canadian Embassy in Senegal, which had previously toured Canada and four African countries. Entitled 'Africa's ingenuity', it covered a wide variety of styles, ranging from the utilitarian to the artistic. It will, in due course, form the eco-museum's centrepiece. Another temporary exhibition was called 'Antuka: Kinshasa, the art of living in the city', and this paid homage to the Zairean capital - a place which, of necessity, has become one of the 'capitals' of resourcefulness. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jet engines and donkeys</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One hopes that the two Heads of State found time to admire the jet engine constructed by a young Zairean from nothing but reclaimed materials: parts taken from cars, mopeds and unwanted metal sheet. And it works -  not on an aircraft, naturally, but on the bench. This engine is now a legend. Its constructor has apparently already been spotted by a European head-hunting company and offered a job in France. This is part of the 'fight-back' referred to by Enda officials, in which some recognition is finally being given to the economies of the world's poorest populations. During his visit, the President of Senegal issued a plea for greater integration of the informal sector into the overall economic fabric. His remarks were revealing: the West-African 'Ecopole', as its name implies, covers an entire region, and assumption of responsibility by the local people for the shanty towns and poorer districts has lifted a significant burden from central government.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another example of this trend is found in the Malian capital, Bamako, where a hundred or so local community associations have banded together to take over full responsibility for the collection of domestic waste. This organisation, whose initial efforts were ridiculed, is now fully operational. One wonders whether the authorities in other cities have heard about Bamako's scheme. What about Port-au-Prince in Haiti, for example, where they are struggling with mountains of rubbish which they cannot deal with owing to a lack of resources ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since their inception, economic interest groupings (ElGs) such as the one in Bamako have helped bridge the gap between the 'formal' and 'informal' economies. They rely on collaboration and their enterprise is exemplary. At the outset, the inhabitants of poor districts, acting on the initiative of the ElGs, expressed the desire to improve their neighbourhoods by organising refuse collection. They used whatever means were available - which in most cases meant donkeys and carts. In more central districts, delivery tricycles were employed for collection. Specially constructed, tipper-style carts, each costing CFAF 200 000 (ECU 300) have since been brought into service. The price of a donkey, by contrast, is about CFAF 50 000 (ECU 75). The animals and equipment belong to the ElGs and are looked after and maintained by them, with carters receiving a monthly income and social security benefits. A number of groups were set up eight years ago, promoted by young technicians, academics, architects and economists. Those who benefit are known as 'subscribers', with each family paying a contribution towards the service. Managing equipment and collecting contributions both require a well-structured administrative department, but the administrators are not confined to their offices. As employees of the business, they see nothing wrong in lending a hand and assisting the carters. In short, it is an enterprise based on a whole new approach. The contribution made by families varies according to the EIG and the district in question, but it is generally set at around CFAF 750 (ECU 1.2) per family per month. The price of the service may be up to twice this sum in the so called 'quartier des Blancs' (the 'white' district). In theory, the state ought to be subsidising the ElGs, but in practice, this does not happen. The authorities do not even fulfil the task allocated to them under agreements signed with the ElGs, which is to transport the refuse from temporary dumps to a final site. According to local people, the problem is not that the local authorities do not have the trucks available for the task. The vehicles, they allege, are used instead for the officials' own private purposes. The ElGs are forced to plug the gap as far as possible. At present, they appear to be the only ones taking any interest in waste recycling, aware as they are of the risk to the environment posed by permanent dumping grounds, and of the specific danger that the water table will be polluted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A modern concept of the 'informal' economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'informal' economy is increasingly becoming the norm. According to an Enda survey, 90% of businesspeople in Senegal started out in the informal sector. The conclusion would seem to be that the necessary training for dealing with current conditions is not to be found in the formal education system. The popular economy is not out of step with the modern economy as some would claim. Indeed, one could argue that it is the modern economy, as adapted to today's conditions. The increasing involvement of ordinary people in the economic circuit, which they enter via parallel routes, should also guarantee the continuation of Africa's experiment with democracy. We have seen attempts by former dictators to backtrack in this respect. They cite as evidence, the failure of technicians trained abroad - the 'darlings' of the West who, they claim, are at the beck and call of international institutions. But a return to the past, as exemplified by the regime of Nicephore Soglo, strikes fear into many people. Their response is to generate productivity, social cohesion and political stability through the popular economy, by way of compensation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is suggested that small-scale traders, who distribute hardware from south-east Asia, constitute an obstacle to the development of local production. But there is a confusion here between cause and effect. In fact, the popular economy appears more as a response to the lack of consumer goods. The problem lies with the so-called 'major' local entrepreneurs who favour the import/ export business over production, and with the banks that prefer to focus on larger businesses (influenced by anonymous officials or major economic interests) and have no time for small-scale operators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Rail district in Dakar has a long history. It is overpopulated, having been settled by workers and artisans, and their influx made it the most expensive poor district. It is a place where the rents, for even the humblest hut without water or electricity, accounted for most of the inhabitants' meagre income. This situation led to the appearance of squatters who built their own shacks on waste ground. For these people, the threat of eviction loomed constantly like a sword of Damocles. The district is also home to a large number of maids and other household employees. Two thousand of these people (from Rail and other parts of the city) set up their own friendly society to which they pay regular contributions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a world which has always teemed with good ideas: artisans recycling materials, blacksmiths working at the forge and so on. In this sense, nothing much has changed, but the big difference now is that the people have organised themselves. In so doing, they have been able to provide training for adults and children in makeshift schools, and to purchase and renovate old huts  - having extracted a guarantee from officials that such moves would not be opposed. Nowadays, those who live in the district no longer pay rent. However, it will only be possible to measure the true success of the Rail district when there is no longer a need for an organisation like Enda to ensure that it operates effectively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some years ago, a former sailor, who always dreamed of being a teacher, set up his own school in the main street which runs through the district. He worked on the pavement and in the car park in front of a furniture store, teaching children in the morning before the offices opened and adults in the evening after they had closed. Enda recently offered him a few pieces of furniture, but for many years, he received no help other than a few pieces of chalk, worn-down pencils and the remains of exercise books from his 'colleagues' in regular education. This is a man who has to supply his pupils not just with teaching materials but also sometimes with food. This year, with his voice catching in his throat, he told us that one of his former 'street pupils' is going to college. How can the learned economists calculate the value of this devoted 'academic'? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The RDP challenge</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Professor Willie Esterhuyse</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cornerstone of South Africa's Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) announced by President Nelson Mandela on May 24 1994, shortly after taking office, is people-centred development with an accent on modern infrastructure, health, education, housing and sanitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lessons have already been learnt from teething troubles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The RDP is the government's response to the massive socio-economic needs of the bulk of the South African population. It is foremost a strategic framework aimed at human development and restructuring the country's economy. It involves housing projects and programmes to improve the socioeconomic infrastructure covering clean water, electricity, public works, schools, urban renewal and primary health care. Empowerment programmes have been developed, for example; micro and small businesses, support for emergent farmers and skills training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the main achievements of the RDP has been to sensitise South Africans to the plight of the poor. Apartheid, amongst other things, succeeded in keeping this out of sight, effectively locking the poor out of the system. A veil of ignorance prevailed among the privileged class. The RDP tore away the veil and has led to a willingness to participate in development and reconstruction programmes, especially in private sector circles. It is succeeding in prioritising South Africa's socio-economic challenges, as well as mobilising funding and organising a common and sustainable approach. Its most important achievement to date is probably the idea of partnerships in development between the state, private sector institutions and non-governmental organisations. Through the RDP, South Africans have accepted that they will have to 'run with the development ball'. They are also aware that the state cannot go it alone, nor should it act as a 'super' development agency. Thus, a very high premium is put on involving the private sector and other actors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Problems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But many problems have already been encountered. Unfortunately, the RDP was seen by some as a quick-fix solution to South Africa's socio-economic difficulties. Expectations over delivery were too high. Red tape and a growing bureaucracy stifled the initiative early on. Frustrations among the poor quickly surfaced. Many of those who wanted to participate, and applied for RDP funding, were unable to develop viable business plans - a strict requirement to get funds. The launch of projects was further complicated by the absence, at one stage, of legitimate local and governmental structures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But important lessons were learnt from the initial phases, in particular the need to involve people on the ground from day one - starting with the identification of needs, the design of a specific project and its execution. It was accepted that process is more decisive than the product. A second lesson was that a separate RDP office, with its own Ministry, complicated matters as far as delivery was concerned, tending to centralise development. This led to the announcement by President Mandela on March 28 1996 that the RDP office would be closed down. RDP programmes were thereafter integrated into the main budget administered by functional government agencies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another very important lesson was that socio-economic development and reconstruction had to go hand in hand with a dynamic macro-economic strategy - made public earlier this year. It was realised that one cannot have good projects in a bad policy environment - to quote a World Bank report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, it is generally accepted that the RDP, on its own, cannot launch South Africa on a road to sustainable and vigorous economic growth. We needed a twin-track approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Progress</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The RDP has notched up a number of successes. The provision of clean water to rural and urban communities has gone a long way under the leadership of Minister Kadar Asmal -  highlighting the fact that leadership strengthened by solid management, does make a difference. The electrification programme for low-income households, involving the parastatal, Eskom (Electricity Supply Commission), is another success story. The same goes for the Presidential projects, such as free health care for expectant mothers and infants, and some of the nutrition programmes. But the provision of housing for low-income groups has been less successful than anticipated. Rent and services boycotts, as well as unemployment, are some of the reasons for slow progress. Job creation is another problem area. It is envisaged that visible progress in these areas will emerge in the course of next year. Establishing a culture of learning is another great challenge. A restructuring of the educational system is underway, but progress is restricted by severe financial constraints.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Implementation of the RDP, the best strategic framework for socioeconomic development South Africa has ever had, will be a long process. Courage and sustainability are key issues. How to lead and manage expectations, without undermining hope, is a great challenge. The meaningful involvement of donors is another issue. Joint ventures between donors, the private sector, government agencies and communities are happening. Most of these, having been carefully negotiated and executed, are already making a significant difference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But spectacular progress should not be expected. Development, reconstruction, and growth of the kind that South Africa needs, will take time. However, the lessons and achievements of the past two years have put South Africa in an excellent position to change the country's socio-economic environment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Targeting South Africa's poor</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Christine Thompson</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The provision of basic amenities for the urban and rural poor rank high on the agenda of the EU's aid policy towards South Africa. In this respect, European cooperation has been tailored to fit with the government's own Reconstruction and Development Programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Programme for Reconstruction and Development (EPRD) is the name of the current EU development assistance package to South Africa and it seeks to help improve living conditions for all South Africans. The programme earmarks ECU 125 million a year until 1999. It has evolved from the so-called 'positive measures' programme launched in 1985 to help counter the negative effects of sanctions and to help the victims of apartheid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under a Declaration of Intent drawn up with Minister Jay Naidoo, then at the helm of South Africa's Reconstruction and Development Programme, it was decided that EU aid should be channelled to the key sectors of education and training, health, rural development, water supply, urban development, economic cooperation, trade and investment promotion, and the promotion of good governance and democracy. In each of these areas, the EU actively encourages a partnership effort between governmental structures and NGOs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.5 million homes wanted</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over 60% of South Africa's population is urbanised. The apartheid government's restrictions on home ownership in urban areas for the past four decades resulted in a housing backlog estimated at 2.5 million units, with demand growing by 200 000 units per year. Estimates vary, but approximately seven million people are believed to be living in informal settlements throughout South Africa on land occupied both legally and illegally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improved housing and sanitation are seen as priority areas in urban and rural development. Between 1991 and 1996, the EU has funded 18 projects in the urban development sector valued at approximately R303.1 m (ECU 52m). The Urban Sector Network (USN) and the Cato Manor Development Programme are typical.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is providing the USN with a total of R26.2m (ECU 4.5m) between 1995 and 1998. The USN is a national network of nine affiliate NGOs, and its aim is to improve living conditions for the urban poor. The beneficiaries of the programme are city dwellers earning less than R2000 (ECU 344) a month and there is a particular emphasis on households with monthly incomes of under R800 (ECU 137) a month.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through integrated, community-based development, the USN and its affiliates provide technical support and service provision to urban development projects, focusing on housing, local government transformation, skills transfer, project planning, facilitation, information dissemination, education and training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Cato Manor Development Programme received funding in 1995, also for a three year period. The EU has contributed R117.6m (ECU 20.2m) to the project. Cato Manor, an area in Natal near Durban, was the location of the largest forced resettlement scheme implemented under apartheid. Today, it is the first area targeted for integrated housing in a former white township.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall objective of the programme is to improve living conditions through a policy that strengthens the delivery system for infrastructure and housing. The programme anticipates providing the community with primary and secondary schools, sports fields, community halls, libraries and a community health centre. Access to housing finance will be improved and opportunities for income generation provided through a vocational training centre and small-scale industry workshops. In addition, provision is being made to improve management and general policy-making capabilities. By continuing to fund such projects, the EU is working with the South African government to improve the living conditions of the urban and rural poor. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Guardians of Eden'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Theatre for Africa, a performing group from Southern Africa, went on tour this autumn to put across the message that the exploitation of Africa's fauna should remain in the hands of rural communities. They did this with a powerful mix of words, dance, mime and song, in a play entitled Guardians of Eden '. The Courier met the author and cast on the Brussels leg of their tour. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The setting for the Brussels' performance was the 'Grand Place' (Grote Markt). With its ornate mediaeval architecture, this famous square in the centre of the Belgian capital could hardly have been more removed from the theme of the play - which is about conservation and development problems in Africa and empowering rural people to manage, use and benefit from the wildlife around them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The play was commissioned by the Southern Africa Sustainable Use Specialist Group (SASUSG) and the idea was that it should reach as many people as possible in the run-up to the World Conservation Congress planned for Montreal in October 1996. South African writer and former economist, Nicolas Ellenbogen, travelled throughout Southern Africa to recruit the all-African cast. Many examples of cultural imperialism leading to the destruction of habitat, highlighted in the production, were actually encountered by Mr Ellenbogen as he travelled through the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The play opens with a spirit medium summoning representatives from villages in several African countries to discuss the threat to their survival. The actors display their athletic skills performing mimes of the abundant wildlife with simple props, as the history of Africa is recalled from the dinosaurs to the present day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A parable is then told. An old chief informs his three sons that to prosper in the 21st century, the village must change. He instructs them to return a year later with ideas for prosperity, which will be discussed in an indaba (debate). Each chooses a different path. The wheeling and dealing first son seeks out quick fix schemes with NGOs and various city authorities. The second son learns from the difficulties of city life and comes up with a blend of simple wisdom and new ideas. The third spends his time in beer halls -  and his revelry provokes roars of laughter throughout the performance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arriving back in his village after almost a year has elapsed, the second son finds that his older brother returned several months earlier to implement his money raising projects. Enjoying the cash benefits of the scheme, the men of the village do not want to hold an indaba. They are forced to do so by the women and Midzimu - the old chief. The audience is then asked to vote and there is a unanimous show of hands for the second son who symbolises the sustainable use of natural resources. The dissolute third son, meanwhile, is eaten by a crocodile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivory ban fury</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the message goes out to developers and donors to respect rural autonomy, the play also raises serious questions for Europe's politicians. The frequent appearance of the destructive elephant, in the course of the play, allows Mr Ellenbogen to vent his anger at the ivory import ban imposed by many European states. 'I am furious about the ban', be told The Courier, 'as it is having a profound effect on the daily needs of the people.' He rejects the argument that it helps conservation, insisting that; 'with a stroke of a pen, you reduced the value of the elephant.' The playwrite argues that local people need to see wildlife as economically and socially valuable. Otherwise, they will adopt new forms of land use which will result in the extinction of the species. He also draws attention to the growing black market in ivory in Southern Africa since the ban was introduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'token' South African - symbolically played by the only woman in the cast - is given a 'rough time as the baby of Africa', says Ellenbogen. The play also contains numerous swipes at the donor community which frequently gives grants, without, it is said, any respect for local traditions. The Swiss doctoral student researching the potential for producing goat's cheese in Africa exits the stage squealing after asking a goat herder what he does with his animals. 'We slit their throats', is his reply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guardians of Eden was first launched at the Grahamstown Arts Festival in South Africa in July. It was performed in Zimbabwe and Kenya, and won a prize at the Edinburgh Festival 'Fringe' in August. From there, it moved to Frankfurt and Geneva before reaching Brussels. It was due to be performed in Antwerp, London and several American cities before a final staging at the Montreal Congress in October.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The play is in English and the languages of Southern Africa, but Nicolas Ellenbogen believes it can be readily understood by his multinational audiences. For him, the message - that local people must have the power to manage their own wildlife on their own land - needs no translating. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Analysis</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Europeans and development cooperation: there are opportunities too!</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Stelios Christopoulos</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If politicians in Europe see jobs as their primary concern, it is probably because the citizens regard unemployment as their most serious problem. In the Europe of the Fifteen, the average unemployment rate was about 10% in 1985 dropping to 7.5% in 1990. By 1994, it had risen to a record high of more than 11%. By contrast, unemployment in the United States fell below 6.5% in 1994 and the figures for 1995 reveal a continuing downward trend. In Japan, the proportion of people without work remained below 3% in 1994. Assuming there is no change in current trends, the most recent demographic projections suggest that there will be 70 million people over the age of 65 in the EU by the year 2020, out of a total population of 348 million. This is 18 million more than there are today. The proportion of over-65s is, thus, projected to rise from 15% at present to 20% in less than 25 years. These two elements  -  an ageing population and ongoing structural unemployment - clearly reveal that European society lacks a degree of dynamism compared with its competitors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an attempt to address this problem, albeit partially, the President of the European Commission, Jacques Santer, launched a European employment pact in April 1996. There are three underlying reasons for this initiative -  Europe's endemic unemployment, the need to reestablish a climate of confidence as a prerequisite for renewed investment and consumption, and the need to fit the creation of the single currency into an overall economic strategy aimed at increasing growth, competitiveness and employment in Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'I'm young, help me find a job', is the heartfelt plea of many of young Europeans. But what chance is there that their cry for help will be answered in a difficult global environment?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We have seen the globalisation of strategic relationships in a range of key areas including the environment, the management of energy resources, health, demography and security. The trend has been accelerated by rapid technical progress in the fields of transport and telecommunications. This process has not taken the big multinational companies by surprise - they were already free of the constraints of sovereignty or space, and were quick to globalise their structures. These enterprises have become more competitive by taking advantage, wherever possible, of the most favourable production conditions, particularly regarding raw materials and employment conditions. More spectacular still has been the growth of international trade: in 1990, the volume of world trade was 11.5 times as great as it had been 40 years earlier. During the same period, global production only increased fivefold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What this means nowadays is that employment in the EU Member States is directly affected (and some would say threatened) by the world situation. Productivity and growth conditions in Europe are no longer sufficient to ensure full employment. Competition from developing countries, with their low wage bills and undervalued currencies, is too great for countries in the EU. Their position is not the same as that of the multinational companies. They do not have the structures to deal with swiftly evolving events, nor are they capable of controlling the process of globalisation. This is demonstrated, inter alia, by their inability to respond to the financial speculation which turns capital away from productive investment. Today, for example, for every US dollar in circulation, there are at least 30 dollars which are the product of financial speculation. This is not money from productive work by any particular person, but money which is the product of a financial 'virtual reality' and which is usually reinvested in financial speculation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Countries are beginning to realise the need to pool their national skills and cooperate at a regional level, in order to enhance their business competitiveness and take on the challenges of the globalised trading system. But the level of integration implied by this strategic choice must be sufficiently comprehensive if it is to make up for the reduced capability of countries to respond on an individual basis. This process of regionalisation may well be a prerequisite for regulating the world economy in such areas as exchange parities and financial speculation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And what of Europe in particular? Despite having a head-start on other regional groupings (such Asean, Nafta and Mercosur), the situation is not too rosy. Owing to the lack of a full internal market, Europe is unable to compete on equal terms with the United States or Japan. The internal market still comes up against blocks in important areas, as evidenced by problems over the European employment pact. And there are a number of other defects which make the internal market insufficiently competitive in the context of globalisation. It is true that a more coherent environment has been created for European companies, with common regulations and rules of competition enabling them to distribute their goods and services among the EU's consumers. But despite the appearance of a domestic, or single, market, it is one which is devoid of a genuine internal policy in keeping with its size. This is what distinguishes it from the internal markets of the United States or Japan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The explanation for the disparity may lie in the fact that the most recent moves towards the single market, through 'Single Act', date from 1987. This was before the upheavals which so decisively signalled the globalisation trend. Despite the criticisms sometimes levelled at it, it is a genuine single market which is largely open to the outside world (with only a few exceptions, notably as regards the Common Agricultural Policy, where it is recognised that there is a need for progressive adaptation). But there is still no single currency, nor is there a genuine common commercial and economic policy. The EU is unable to react to change at world level in the same way as its competitors. The common customs tariff, together with protective measures such as the anti-dumping regulations, are still not sufficient to solve all the Union's problems. What is needed on top of this is an active common policy component.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet, as the European employment pact makes clear, the EU holds a trump card in an increasingly interdependent world. The proviso is that it must speak with one voice, enforce multilateral rules and open up new markets for itself, because, as the document points out 'exports create jobs...'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, the developing world received 37% of global direct foreign investment ($84 billion) as against less than 20% at the beginning of the 1980s (the flow of foreign exchange is regarded nowadays as the principal factor influencing development). This is a spectacular increase but the resources are not 'fairly' distributed from the point of view of either the investing countries or the recipients. For example, southeast Asia is currently the world's most dynamic region. Yet, not to put too fine a point on it, it is virtually ignored by European investors. Only 3% of European overseas investment is directed towards this zone. Likewise, Europe's market share in the region is no more than 5%. The US has invested between two and three times more in south-east Asia while Japanese investment is four times higher.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, sub-Saharan Africa attracted just 0.8% of direct foreign investment ($1.8 billion). And there is no evidence that Europeans have invested more than the Japanese or Americans in this region. This is despite the highly optimistic outlook for the situation in Africa offered by the late Ron Brown, the former US Trade Secretary. On returning from a tour of Africa with American businesspeople in February 1994, he remarked that major opportunities were opening up in that continent, with spectacular returns on investments  - at the time, the best in the world. His regret was that so few people were aware of the situation. Undoubtedly more significant still was the declaration made in Washington before his departure for Africa to the effect that the United States would no longer leave African markets exclusively to the former colonial powers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So although others are beginning to explore the possibilities offered by Africa, Europe is still sceptical. A similar scepticism prevailed during the 1960s when it was assumed that the lot of south-east Asia would be famine, and few development prospects. Given the historical links between Europe and Africa, the geographical proximity of the two continents, and the pressing problems faced by the 'old' continent vis-&agrave;-vis its competitors, such an attitude appears difficult to explain. In the years since the former European colonies in Africa gained independence - and despite the creation of an institutional cooperation framework (the Lom&eacute; Convention, which many regard as a model of development cooperation)  -  many Europeans clearly no longer wish to be involved in Africa. The explanation for this lack of interest may be the difficult conditions within African countries -  obstacles preventing access to markets, the lack of liberalisation or political instability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But this analysis in not entirely convincing. More ACP countries are democracies than ever before in the post-independence era. As for Africa - a much-debated ACP region  -  it is wrong to talk purely in terms of internal conflict, famines or the AIDS epidemic. There are countries in this continent with growth rates of between 5% and 6%, and several examples of where European companies have successfully penetrated local markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need to highlight the existence of genuine business opportunities in ACP countries and to make the European public aware of development aid success stories, were among the main conclusions to come out of the first meeting of a television delegates' network, organised by the European Commission's Development Directorate-General on 31 January 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any European company chairman interested in expanding into an ACP country - thereby enlarging the company's market and enhancing its competitiveness - is likely to acknowledge the possibilities, if offered back-up from the EU or from national governments. But they will then probably point to the complications which remain -  and with some justification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With this in mind, it is worth reiterating the fact that specialised institutions exist for facilitating contact with the ACP countries. In 1995, for example, the Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) was involved in 367 projects, assisting, free of charge, in the expansion or rehabilitation of industrial companies in ACP countries, in partnership with European business. Although the number of such projects is constantly increasing (190 in 1993,229 in 1994), it is still a long way short of what is needed. But it should be stressed that the CDl's approach, which involves promoting the creation of networks, appears to work. The establishment OF ACP contact networks in ACP countries makes it easier to identify potential areas for involvement and to prepare better for European institutional and sectoral networks. There are several successful projects which have led to the creation or safeguarding of jobs in Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also in 1995, the European Investment Bank (EIB) granted ECU 430 million in loans to businesses in various sectors in 29 ACP countries. This includes an increase in the Bank's activity in Africa over previous years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What, then, of the effect of Europe's development cooperation policies on the European market ? According to the most conservative estimates, for every ECU 100 granted in aid, the Community 'gets back' ECU 48 in the form of jobs, supplies and technical assistance. This figure does not take account of additional 'secondary' business generated by, for example, the supply of spare parts or the provision of technical advice. This business can be quite significant given the degree of penetration achieved by European companies in the markets of many developing countries. Nor does the estimate include any new business opportunities directly arising from the links established between the companies involved in aid projects and the recipient countries. Thus, it is clear that when a project is set up, it may well have extra beneficial effects for Europe through additional flows of goods and services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'return' on aid is even greater in Member States' individual bilateral programmes. For example, tied aid from countries such as Belgium, Italy and the United Kingdom leads to a payback of more than 70%. Another point is that as Europe's industrial rules are harmonised, the success of a single European company in penetrating a particular developing country market may pave the way for companies in other EU Member States, thus benefiting the Union as a whole. Tied aid creates favourable conditions for setting up European companies and for placing European goods and services in other markets. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the return on aid may be described as satisfactory, the same is not true of the number of companies that benefit or of the actual turnover involved. One wonders whether this weakness is due to a lack of information about existing resources and facilities, or whether there still a lack of confidence about countries which, despite the progress they have made, are still politically unstable and therefore unpredictable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One might also wonder whether the time is right for investment. Our answer would be that, even though financial speculation is currently governed by global economic considerations, which prevent productive targeting of capital, this situation cannot last. There is a worldwide move to rectify the situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We all need to be aware that time is no longer on our side. In many sectors, European companies still have a competitive edge over businesses from third countries, owing to their degree of specialisation and technological expertise. But if they are to survive, they must take on a worldwide dimension. In particular, they should pay attention to the comparative advantage that they have in the ACP countries on account of their special skills, historic links, geographical location and, above all, the institutional connections between these developing nations and the 'old' continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although problems do exist and although both European and ACP bureaucracy can sometimes discourage private operators from exploring the potential of the developing world (and more particularly the ACP region), they should not give up. Europe's challenge is to help them to exploit this potential whilst not raising false hopes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nothing can take the place of the shared experience and confidence which arises spontaneously in full knowledge of the facts. In this regard, we feel, there is still much to be done. In both Europe and the ACP countries, one way to succeed is to increase the number of networks representing industrial, economic and financial interests at various levels, and to assist them in identifying opportunities more effectively. This would help to create a new dynamism and renewed vigour in Europe. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Close - up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Eritrea: the start of a renaissance ?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Courier's issue of July-August 1994, we published a country report on Eritrea. This country became independent in 1993 after almost 30 years of fighting which had bled the county white. Loss of human life, displaced persons, socio-economic disruption and environmental damage have been Eritrea's sad fate in recent times. However, there has now been peace for three years and the Eritrean people are attempting to pick up the threads. Alfonso Artico, a freelance journalist who recently travelled to Eritrea, now offers us a few on-the-spot impressions of his trip, focusing on some current projects which offer hope to this sorely afflicted people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fisheries at Massawa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The port of Massawa is located on the Red Sea, whose blue waters are teeming with fish. In 1986, the European Union suggested that it would be a suitable place for fisheries development. At the time, the city was a maze of back streets, baking in the sun. Few could have predicted the fate that would befall it five years later. For in 1991, war came to Massawa and 80% of the city was destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Italians, it is said, have 'always' been here, and they once had great plans for the city. Together with Assab, further to the south, Massawa was to be a key point of access to the sea, and a potential launch pad for the, country's struggling economy. The colonial days are long past but, when the Eritrean Popular Liberation Army took over the country after the recent war, the Italians came back to help tackle an immense task. The city, by then, was little more than a pile of rubble.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Help also came from somewhat further afield, in the shape of Professor Seichi Etoh, a Japanese specialist in marine biology. He had made a study of the city in 1989 and he chose to return in 1992 to help in fisheries development. At the outset, his working methods disconcerted the Eritreans who were used to a slightly more relaxed attitude to labour, under the hot sun and eternally blue sky.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Armed with the experience of working in Kenya and a number of other developing countries, Professor Etoh arrived in Massawa and installed himself in a house looking over the sea. After a period of adaptation, to gain his bearings, he took up his new challenge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge in question is a fisheries project whose main funders are the UNDP, Japan, Italy and the African Development Bank. A total of $7 million has been committed with payments spread over a five-year period. The project began operating in January 1993.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main problem at the outset was one of skills and qualifications. Important posts were often filled by high-ranking former solders, whose administrative skills were less than satisfactory. Conversely, those with the right qualifications - some of whom were criticised for spending the war years in the lecture theatres of European universities  -  had problems finding work. This was particularly true in the closed and conservative world of the fisherman. After a few teething troubles, Etoh was able to announce that he had the confidence of the government, and his efforts rapidly bore fruit thereafter. He set about reorganising the fishermen's cooperative - a task which entailed overcoming the reluctance of members to adopt new practices. He also arranged for the construction of jetties where vessels could take on supplies. Fish were to be unloaded at one spot, and their diesel tanks would be refilled at a different location. The cost of diesel is 1.41 birr (ECU 0.17) per litre. The fishermen's cooperative, which has 440 members, has 35 000 birr (ECU 4000) in its funds. It is also making repayments on a 1.8 million-birr (ECU 200 000) loan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'In the beginning, there was frenzied activity, which some regarded as chaos', Seichi Etoh recalls. However, in less than two years, the jetties have been completed and the ice plants -  essential for preserving the fish - are running flat out. Now they are producing eight tonnes of ice a day. The daily catch is about two tonnes of fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The real revolution occurred when Seichi Etoh decided to try and organise cooperatives for women, who represent 25% of the workforce in the production chain. He followed up with an even more radical scheme, offering them paid work in the relatively unrewarding but essential field of ship maintainance and repair. This freed the fishermen, most of whom had no remunerative activity outside the fishing season (November to March), to seek work elsewhere during the other seven months of the year. Eritrea, a country where women's potential has not traditionally been acknowledged (or tapped) had never seen the like before. Nowadays, of the 200 who fish out of Massawa, 50 are women who have formed their own organisation - and they generate a considerable profit. They have even opened up a fish restaurant!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall standard of living has increased considerably. This year, fisheries-related production has risen 120% compared with 1995. And the port is doing reasonably well in quality terms. Using the international scale, which ranks the catches from 0 to 10, the quality of fish landings by the Massawa fishermen is rated 6 overall - as against 8 for Japan. 5 for China and 6.5 for Europe. The local market has expanded as a result of efforts to modify local eating habits. People have been taught to grill fish instead of frying it in expensive (and somewhat unhealthy) oil. The message - 'eat grilled fish' - is going out daily on national radio, and women are going into the schools and villages to teach this 'latest' cooking technique.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The local market may be important, but the main target for the increased production is Ethiopia. With the purchase of four refrigerated lorries, it is now possible to transport fish products over long distances. Another important customer is Italy, which currently takes about a third of the total production. Seichi Etoh is hopeful that, following this example, new markets can be found in other parts of Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The success of the Massawa project has exceeded all expectations and, although he downplays the achievement with typical oriental modesty, it is clear that Etoh's bet has paid off. The fishermen have come to understand the advantages to be gained in reorganisation and maintaining their 'tools' of production. And as anticipated, the bulk of the profit from the project is going back to the fishermen. The government has taken care not to cream off too much for itself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other projects are now under way. Etoh is attempting to persuade the fishermen to give up their wooden craft in favour of ferro-cement vessels but after centuries of doing things in a certain way, it will take more than a few months for the new plans to be adopted. The monthly meetings with representatives from the cooperatives are stormy and animated. However, two vessels are already being built, on the assumption that a practical demonstration is worth far more than a long speech. The 60 people working directly on the project are awaiting the outcome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This change has become necessary owing to the cost of wood - which is one of the reasons why the fishermen have grown progressively poorer. Timber prices have been rising sharply for some years, particularly in Dubia, the regional centre of the wood trade. The war, in the meantime, sent incomes spiralling downwards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Overall, the Eritrean fishing fleet has 500 vessels, all made of wood, of which 250 have Massawa as their home port. In previous years, the wood (known as tengi in Eritrean) came from Ethiopia. But this country is facing ecological problems and fishermen have been forced to search elsewhere for building and maintenance materials for their unstable and costly vessels (a 13-metre boat requires 8 m³ of wood). Etoh explains that the new boats, while slower, glide more easily over the water on account of their stability. However, the first attempts at change have not been easy. Indeed, things got so bad that Etoh went on holiday 'for longer than expected', he said, though he took advantage of the break to visit Singapore and buy Chinese tricycles  -  which can now be seen in the streets of Massawa. The reign of the bicycle with a simple wicker basket which could carry just 20 kilos is over. Now, each tricycle can deliver 100 kg of fresh fish, packed in ice. All in all, the programme is running smoothly. Etoh has only to check it from time to time. After all this labour, will the smiling Japanese professor be taking a well-earned rest? 'Probably not,' he says, adding 'I am currently thinking about a chain of restaurants. Fish restaurants of course !'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An unusual 'bank'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The road leading to Gersteti village is so beautiful that it takes your breath away. Multicoloured birds fly lazily above the vehicle carrying the journalists and humanitarian aid workers - who are deep in discussion about the kind of world they wish to create. However, there is a switch in the conversation once they reach the Seraye plateaux. Their attention is drawn to the fields which stretch as far as the eye can see. It doesn't take long to discover that demand for land here far outweighs supply. The situation, which is already critical, has not been helped by the influx of refugees returning from neighbouring countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the war ended in 1991, everyone's prime concern was to relaunch an agricultural sector ruined by 28 years of combat. Farmers and farming communities, the lifeblood of the countryside, had been mobilised to fight on the front line. In 1990, agricultural production was at such a low level that the word 'negligible' featured prominently in the Ministry of Agriculture's statistics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oxfam, which first came to Eritrea in 1978, has been running an unusual project on the Seraye plateaux. Located to the south of Asmara, the capital, this region is the second most densely populated part of the country. Five districts containing 65 villages and 17000 families, were chosen for the project  -  on account of their low rainfall and the fact that it is difficult, and in some cases, impossible, to cultivate the exhausted soil. Local communities, village leaders and politicians all understood that only full-scale collaboration could prevent a food-supply disaster in the province. An organisation was therefore created: the villagers elected 13 representatives (12 men and one woman) and began by setting up a seed bank. There was a severe shortage of seed materials in this devastated country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project got off the ground in November 1995 and is set to run for three years. Its objective is simple: to guarantee self-sufficiency in seeds and to provide a reserve during hard times. The 'Seed Bank Committee' has also given training to 40 farmers in seed conservation, terracing and basic agricultural economics. Two wells have been sunk, but these are insufficient for the 40 square kiLom&eacute;tres that require irrigation. Oxfam is putting up the money for the various initiatives while the local community is providing the labour force. It is worth noting that a bag of averagequality cement costs 35 birrs (ECU4), equivalent to one third of a worker's monthly wage. Fourteen different varieties of seed have been stored in sheds - which the locals visit to obtain their supplies. The purchase of 230 quintals of local seeds and the donation of 70 quintals from elsewhere have started the programme off. Next year, Individual farmers will have to repay this 'loan' in kind, with a 10% 'interest payment', also in the form of seeds. The surplus generated will be retained by the bank as a resource to be drawn upon, if necessary, when times are hard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The local community was quick to understand the advantages to be gained from this system. They were all too aware of the low productivity of their land and up to then, were powerless to resolve the situation. The possibility of falling back on traditional resources to offset production difficulties no longer existed. And the skills they had acquired over the generations were now insufficient, given the poor condition of the soil. In these circumstances, one can well understand their enthusiasm when they saw that 100 kg of seeds per hectare yielded a harvest six times larger than previously. Other elements which contributed to a progressive improvement in conditions were the sinking of new wells, a reduced influx of refugees from Sudan, and a slow but appreciable improvement in the country's general economic situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As well as being involved in this project, Oxfam is an active member of Acord, an NGO association which extends cash loans at rates much lower than those demanded by the banks. (Acord's rate is 12% per annum with a minimum repayment of 5 birrs per month). Targeted mainly at the most deprived sections of the population, the loans enable the poor to set up small businesses or, more commonly, to purchase agricultural implements, repair irrigation channels and buy cattle. Once again, a village committee manages the transactions. The scheme has brought renewed hope to the most deprived groups. Individual loans have been available since 1994 and the association currently has 163 clients. The total amount lent so far is 878 000 birrs (ECU 110 000).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The combined effects of these programmes - seed banks and preferential loans - are already visible. It would take months to visit all the farms and fields, workshops and stores, where men and women have invested their energies and hopes. Seraye province now produces a third of Eritrea's cereals, a telling illustration of the fact that one does not need billions of dollars for development and humanitarian aid for the work to be effective. In the final analysis, a country's wealth lies in its citizens. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An up-to-date printing plant</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As one strolls down Liberation Avenue, which cuts the city of Asmara in two, one might be forgiven for thinking that 28 years of war have already been forgotten. Surveying the multi-coloured neon signs of the shops, it certainly appears as if the country has turned the corner and the wounds are healing rapidly. One building whose restrained frontage stands outs in sharp contrast is the Adulis printing-works. Adulis was the name of a semi-mythical city founded by the Greeks on the Red Sea in the third millennium before Christ. 'But there is nothing insubstantial about this place', comments Mohamad Shiffa Osman, with a smile. He is one of three expert typesetters who went on a training course in Belgium earlier this year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The Adulis printing works has its own particular memories of the Eritrean people's struggle for independence. As far back as the 1960s, when the first shots were being fired, the resistance recognised that their fighters and the civil population both had to have access to information. However, it was not until the 1980s that a true propaganda structure came into being. During the war, the Eritrean People's Liberation Army ran a clandestine ministry of information. In Eritrea and elsewhere, this became the channel for conveying practical information, and providing the latest news from the front. It was also used to transmit personal messages, which were delivered to the heart of areas occupied by the Ethiopian Army. 'Our presses were hidden in caves, up in the mountains, and everything was run on generators', Mohamed remembers. The initial amateur approach was quickly replaced by a more professional one. 'We did have professional printers working for us, but it was mainly self-taught comrades'. On-the job apprenticeships had to be fitted in between bouts of fighting!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'At the time of liberation, in 1991, we set about restoring this printing works, which was founded in 1896 by the Italians', Mohamed explained as he gave us a guided tour of the works. The effort put into relaunching this essential activity soon bore fruit. Within the year, the printing operation was running at a profit - indeed it had a virtual monopoly of printing in the country. The presses were brought down from the mountains on the backs of camels and then taken to Asmara by truck. 'You see this Aurelia 48?', asks Mohamed, pointing to a machine. 'Well, it was up in the north, hidden away in a village'. Throughout our visit, Mohamed draws attention to equipment from an earlier age  -  candidates for the museum which are still in operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some items have their own story to tell, like the press donated years ago by Oxfam which still churns out thousands of sheets every day. During the war, it was taken from cave to cave, following the army's advance as it conquered new terrain. Most of the Adulis machines, however, were already there, when the decision was taken to restart the operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The initial budget for the works was a tidy five million birr (ECU 620 000). Today, Adulis has an annual turnover of 20 million birr. Monthly salaries range from 400 birr (ECU 50) for maintenance staff to 1800 birr (ECU 225) for the director, Michael G. Bakhli. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The printing works also acts as a testing ground for workers' social progress. According to Mohamed and the director, the 350 or so people employed at the works benefit from exceptional social cover. If a worker falls ill, his wage is guaranteed for one month, then it drops to 50% in the second month and stops altogether at the end of the third. if a woman is pregnant, she has to take a month's statutory leave and is granted a further two months on full pay. In the event of dismissal, an employee receives two months' wages, although this latter arrangement is gradually changing to one month's wages for each year of service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Far from resting on the laurels of their success, the Adulis works' directors have appealed for assistance. In order to be at the cutting edge of technology and to have the resources to break into new markets, they need to supplement their knowledge. Therefore, three 'volunteers' spent the three months from January to March this year working in Belgian companies, to the satisfaction of everyone, both hosts and visitors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Mohamed's gaze, the walls of the workshop have been brightened up with posters which provide a splash of colour. Although the noise from the presses often drowns out conversation, you cannot escape the feeling of hope here. It is like a breath of fresh air, and one leaves with the strong impression of a country that is rising from the ashes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Developing world</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ECHO fine-tunes disaster preparedness strategy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Eva Kaluzynska</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a cyclone strikes in the Caribbean, beware of giant flying razorblades - airborne sheets of corrugated iron that kill and maim unsuspecting victims every time. 'The use of galvanised iron sheeting for roofing is extremely dangerous in cyclone-prone areas,' says Professor Debarati Guha-Sapir, Director of the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) at the Universite Catholique de Louvain. 'We know this, and we need to encourage the use of lighter materials, such as thatching, which doesn't kill if it flies off in a gale,' she adds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That is the kind of issue facing people exposed to unavoidable natural disasters  -  in the Caribbean's case, every year. In 1995, there were 27 tropical storms in the region. CRED has been in the vanguard of monitoring natural disasters and in coming up with solutions to the problems they create since it was set up in 1973. Now it is assisting the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO) in developing its new Disaster Prevention, Mitigation and Preparedness Programme (DIPECHO) to cover the next two years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1994, ECHO has spent almost ECU 7 million on 50 disaster prevention operations, at both national and regional levels. Now, instead of just responding to requests for funding from non-governmental organisations, international organisations and governments, ECHO has decided to fine-tune its strategy. It will concentrate its efforts on specific regions known to be particularly vulnerable and prone to natural disasters. We may not know exactly when disasters will strike, but we certainly know where to expect them. The regions selected at present are: the Caribbean, Central America, South East Asia and Bangladesh.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All of them are exposed to repeated emergencies. All of them have a struggle to develop when their efforts are disrupted so frequently. They cannot just pick up where they left off. Loss of life and property is just the most visible aspect of what happens when disaster strikes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The infrastructure, such as it is, takes a hammering. Road and rail links are severed. Communications, electricity and water supplies break down. Add loss of health care and sanitation, and you get populations exceedingly vulnerable to epidemics. Add loss of education facilites, and a vicious spiral of poverty sets in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An expert in emergency aid cites the sad example of the Aetas, a tribal group that used to live a secluded life on the remote slopes of Mount Pinatubo, the volcano that erupted spectacularly in 1991 in the Philippines. Though the volcano was known to be menacingly active, the Aetas were not evacuated and resettled in time. They fled in panic as disaster struck, to the plains, where they faced a deadly, invisible enemy: measles, a disease to which they had never been exposed. Measles claimed more victims than the volcano itself did in the months that followed. They could have been resettled earlier. And they could have been immunised years before, but weren't.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It's easy to be wise after the event. DlPECHO aims to encourage action before it's too late. The idea behind ECHO's new policy is to take each region, and to identify its hazards and capacity for dealing with disasters. This will help to pinpoint the gaps. Then it will draw up Action Plans that slot into the wider picture of potential development in each case.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DIPECHO projects will involve training personnel in the regions affected to handle disasters, and to strengthen the institutions that can contribute to effective prevention, preparedness and mitigation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some of the solutions are ingenious, low-cost, low-tech ideas. Take, for instance, the use of light, widely-available, inexpensive materials for roofing in earthquake or cyclone-prone zones - an idea poorer countries could adapt from wealthy Japan's experience. Or the construction of safe, raised 'islands' that will stay above the waterline amid flooding in Bangladesh to offer shelter. Or adapting drainage, and changing cropping patterns in Andhra Pradesh, India, to mitigate the effects of cyclones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In earthquake-prone Central America, protecting roads and bridges, or building schools less prone to collapse is very important. Using the radio or even neighbourhood watch systems to sound the alarm when disaster is imminent can make a big difference to its impact in terms of injuries. Drilling all at risk, from school-age up, to know what to expect and to know what to do is vital.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DIPECHO did not include Africa in its first selection of regions for Action Plans. This is not to underestimate the gravity or scale of the disasters experienced there, says Professor Guha-Sapir: 'Floods, drought and famine are very frequent events there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are often killers.' Overexploitation of scarce resources and political turmoil compound situations that lead to disasters which seem less dramatic than a volcano eruption, but are no less far-reaching in impact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The instability in many of the areas worst affected means that African countries lack the institutions needed to prepare for disasters in an organised way, she says. 'There are limits on ECHO's ability to intervene. It's unrealistic to expect the kind of grassroots, technical preparedness we are talking about in the current situation.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ECHO's Jean-Claude Heyraud sums up the new policy: 'As far as preventing, mitigating and preparing for catastrophes goes, the new proactive approach reflects the importance ECHO attaches to this type of action. The DIPECHO programme meets the growing need to evaluate risks in order to reduce loss of life and damage to property. If and when emergency aid is needed, preparation and prevention can help to reduce the scale and cost of such actions.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Culture and society</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">African reflections</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Seydou Sarr</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third Festival of African Cinema was held in Brussels on 15-22 June. For one week, film-goers in the Belgian capital filled the auditoria of the Palais des Beaux-Arts, where they discovered new images of an alternative Africa. And as always, when the time came to assess how the Festival had gone, professionals and organisers alike were left pondering the problems facing the African film industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Organised for the first time in 1994, on the initiative of Diaspora Productions, the Festival had a number of objectives, including that of bringing Africa's finest films to wider public notice. The initiative stemmed from two observations. In the first place, the European public's opinion of Africa is based on what it sees on television -  and that image is of a continent so ravaged by famine, misery and strife that it is incapable of progress. Second, from a professional standpoint, there is no effective distribution network in Belgium for African films. Samba Traore by Burkina Faso's Idrissa Ouedraogo and Hyenes by the Senegalese Djibril Diop Mambety were two rare exceptions in succeeding in getting on to the circuit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A forum for reflection</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In setting up film-industry meetings, the organisers of the Brussels Festival wanted the event to be a forum for reflection on the problems facing African cinema. In the 40 years it has existed, there has undoubtedly been some progress. It is even possible to speak of genuine mastery of images and cinematographic language. But there are also many problems -  involving production and distribution, a lack of official support, a shortage of private capital and limited access to international markets. At home, meanwhile, African firms face fierce competition from multi-million dollar productions coming out of the USA, Europe and Asia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe has traditionally offered the only feasible route for those seeking technical and financial resources. The principal donors are the European Union, the ACCT (Cultural and Technical Corporation Agency) and the French Ministry of Cooperation. There are, of course, many instances of African directors producing films without taking this route, but these ventures usually have smaller budgets, and insufficient funds to devote to promotion (press releases, trailers etc). As regards distribution in Belgium, directors face an additional difficulty - they have to take the language issue into account (particularly when films are shown in Flanders).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African professionals are looking at various ways of solving these problems, including the possibility of coproduction with European operators. For some years now, public and private bodies have also been considering the idea of establishing combined co-production teams in a form of partnership, as a way of supporting African cinema. This topic has been on the agenda of other African film festivals (notably in Amiens) and it came up for discussion in Brussels as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A colloquium on the subject of ACP/Europe co-production was staged on the fringe of the Brussels event. This served to highlight a number of successful experiments in North/South collaboration. One example was the Cape Verdian film Ilheu de Contenda, by Leao Lopes which was made with support from a Belgian production company, Saga Films. This film was screened at the Festival. It also gave an opportunity to discuss a range of other topics. African journalists accredited to the Festival were given the task of drafting a resolution whose conclusions will be submitted to various contributors including FEPACI (the Pan-African Federation of Film-Makers), the European Union, producers and other donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was general agreement that a coherent legal framework for organising relationships between directors and producers, on the basis of mutual trust, was badly needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Positive results</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is worth making a brief assessment of the efforts made by the organisers of the Brussels Festival to offer an improved programme. The showing of shorts at the beginning of a performance is undoubtedly a formula they should employ again. These works are a specialised genre which give young directors the chance to present their first work. The bulk of the shorts that were screened this year were in the form of 'documentaries' based on fiction - but with one foot in the real world. They dealt with people's lives, their daily concerns, and a variety of social phenomena. Thus, we were presented with films dealing with Aids, urban delinquency, the role of women in society and so on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another positive point the organisers should concentrate on is the space resewed for English and Portuguese-language films. There were eight performances in this category including four feature films in English and two in Portuguese. A further worthwhile element was the space allocated to African women (from Nigeria, Kenya, Zimbabwe and Burkina Faso) who have chosen to use the cinema as a means of expression.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diaspora Productions' managers are said to be reasonably satisfied with the way the Festival went. They hope it can continue to be held at the Palais des Beaux-Arts, since they see this as one way of liberating African cultural events from the Afro-Brussels 'ghetto' where they have often been held. They are also keen, in future years, for African films to be shown in Brussels cinemas while the Festival is under way. If this happens, film-goers in Brussels will have the pleasure, from next year, of seeing quality works in their usual cinemas. The timing is appropriate since the 1997 Brussels event will follow the Ouagadougou Festival (Fespaco) which traditionally sees the launch of a number of new films.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Family meeting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The organisers chose to close the 1996 Festival with a fashion parade which gave Pathe 'O, the designer from Cot&eacute; d'Ivoire, the chance to present his collection to the Brussels audience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the fringes of the Festival, there was also a musical offering in the shape of the Toure Kunda brothers who came to lend their support to filmmakers and other African artistes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are those who would argue that the Brussels Festival has now entered the category of a 'not-to-bemissed' event. Every year, it attracts significant numbers of film-makers from Africa and the diaspora, even when they have no current projects or films to present. There was a real family atmosphere in the corridors of the Palais des Beaux-Arts, due in no doubt to the absence of competition. From the outset, the Diaspora Productions team chose to stage an event at which prizes were not awarded, thereby promoting reflection and contact with the public. It is generally agreed that the Brussels Festival offers a rare opportunity for film-makers to meet and discuss their productions and projects in a relaxed atmosphere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The credit for this, in the view of many of the participants, lies with Pape Mbaye Sene, one of the guiding lights of the event, who has also been dubbed the 'high priest' of African cinema. It has, in fact, been suggested tongue-in-cheek that 'in Brussels, they award a Pape, not an Oscar'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'We make films... but we do not exist!' - interview with Souleymane Cisse</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future of African cinema seen through the eyes of the Malian film maker, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In April, The Courier had the opportunity of meeting Souleymane Cisse, one of Africa's most celebrated film-makers, who has won several awards at major international film festivals. His films, such as Yeelen, which was awarded the Prix du Jury in Cannes in 1987 (the first African film to receive such a prestigious accolade), Waati, which was entered at the same festival, and Finye, have already become classics. Cisse is not just a director, he also produces his own films. In 1972, he impressed international critics by single-handedly producing a short film of exceptionally high quality Cinq jours d'une vie -  which won an award at the Carthage Film Festival. By relying, above all, on his own limited resources, combined with a powerful determination to develop and promote Africa's film industry, Souleymane Cisse has an implied but powerful message for the entire African continent. When he went on stage at the Palais des Festivals in 1987 to receive his award for Yeelen, he said that he was accepting it on behalf of all those who did not have the opportunity to speak for themselves. In particular, he dedicated the film to all the South African technicians who had worked together with him on the project. His has made spirited efforts to boost the African film industry and it was in this context that he helped set up the 'Union of African cinema and audiovisual producers and entrepreneurs' last March. This organisation aims to encourage African countries (especially in West Africa), to take the necessary political decisions to ensure the survival and grouwth of African cinema. When we spoke to Souleymane Cisse, our discussion ranged far and wide. We began by asking the film director whether African art gets the recognition it deserves in Europe? He seemed surprised at the question but then, without hesitation, proceeded to explain his own approach - with the emphasis on the political rather than the aesthetic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The recognition that African art gets in the West has more to do with politics than aesthetic discernment. Such recognition evolves from the spirit of Africa's relations with the other continents, a spirit which is often devoid of all honesty. We stand at the threshold of the 21st century. We should be looking to develop ways of communicating with each other and finding common ground. We should be able to look each other in the eye. When, for example, people in France debate whether or not the Louvre should have a gallery of African art, it begs the question, 'who is asking for what ?'. When some people wonder whether or not African art really is art, they are asking themselves a pointless question. African art is. Nothing more, nothing less. In any case, the West has some highly contradictory views as far as the whole idea of art in Africa is concerned. On the one hand they dispute the fact that the culture of the Ancient Egyptians was, in essence, an African one, and yet on the other hand the characters of Ancient Egypt - in films for example - are always portrayed as dark-skinned. African art is the 'in' thing at the moment, despite the current tendency to belittle Africa. They think that today's Black Americans and Afro-Caribbeans can be made to forget their African roots, but that just will not happen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Generally speaking, do you think that African politicians should devote time and energy to this battle to defend African culture when their countries face such insurmountable material problems ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Once they have gained power, the obsessive preoccupation of our politicians has been to concentrate on economic policies, neglecting their countries' cultural needs. But without a deeply-rooted culture, you cannot discuss matters on equal terms with representatives of other nations. In their heart of hearts, they will not respect you fully. There have been two or three countries which have tried to combine economic development with cultural development - I'm thinking of Guinea under Sekou Toure, Mali under Modibo Keita and Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah, but in one way or another, all three have been thwarted, for their perceptiveness. I am not now commenting on, or necessarily agreeing with, their domestic policies, but rather with the broad vision they shared for Africa as a whole. The fact that Europe is currently in the process of forging the European Union will be an instrumental force in the opening up of other regions of the globe. It was Europe, after all, which divided much of the world into English speakers, French speakers, Portuguese speakers, Spanish speakers and so on. Now that Europeans are themselves seeking to unite their countries, how could they possibly object to a similar union in Africa - for the sake of its cultural identity. This idea of a United Europe is, therefore, a welcome one. What is more, I believe that the issue has already been tackled within relations between the European Union and ACP countries. Not only is Africa the continent closest to Europe; it is in helping to develop the African continent that Europe has most to gain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The cultural aspect has already been incorporated into Lom&eacute; IV, but it seems that ACP countries do not attach as much importance as they should to such matters when drawing up their lists of priorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Many of the politicians in charge of these countries themselves lack any sort of culture. Alternatively, stripped of their own culture, they flaunt that of a foreign land. They say that health care is a priority, that food is a priority, but cultural needs do not figure on their list. Yet culture forms part of an urgent need. You'll see - as soon as any sort of cultural development takes place in a country, or wherever a country already has a viable, thriving culture, its economy will also flourish; of that there is no doubt. A nation which has a highly developed culture will always be able to stand on its own two feet economically. Take, for example, the nations of the former Soviet Union  - their economies may be unstable at the moment. It's only natural that they have to start from scratch, but as long as they manage to hold on to their cultures, they will pull through. These countries will not lag behind as Africa has done.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It costs money to operate a film industry. Have you found that your reputation as a director has made the financial side of things any easier for you ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I don't honestly think much has changed in the way we finance our films. Perhaps I should only speak for myself, but I do not believe it is any easier for me than it is for young filmmakers. Mali has no film production facilities, so we are all in the same boat. That is why we organised a colloquium in March this year, aimed at getting a picture of the exact state of West Africa's film industry. What we learned was that it is in pretty bad state. We make films but, in a certain sense, we don't really exist as a film industry. I would dearly like my works to be screened, for example, in Mali, Guinea and Senegal, but that is not possible because the distribution and screening networks are no longer there. Even the most liberal Western countries have passed laws to promote and protect their local film industries, so why don't we do the same ? I cannot make films in the United States without first going through various unions and other professional associations. In France, I cannot distribute my films the way I want, and if I want to make a film, I have to make it through French producers. If people come to work here, they should have to use national producers. The relevant laws were drawn up three or four years ago, but they still haven't been passed. We want all those involved in the film industry to have the opportunity to be true professionals. There should be assistance available to modernise projection rooms and theatres. We are currently in the process of setting up the 'Union of African cinema and audiovisual producers and entrepreneurs' which should help to persuade governments to take our requests into account.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Isn't African cinema also a victim of television ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The problem in Mali is a very simple one. We live in a country where people like to get out and about. The cinema is somewhere they can do that quite easily. So people use it as a place where they can meet up in the evening, just as they like to congregate around the fire to sing and dance. So why are our cinemas empty ? Because when people do go to the cinema, they cannot see the screen properly or they cannot hear the soundtrack, or they are uncomfortable sitting on broken and rickety chairs. If you can provide a suitable and comfortable environment for them, people will start going to the cinema again. That doesn't mean that television doesn't have its place, but people like to go out. This is especially the case with our open air cinemas, which are the perfect places for people to come together, have a chat, enjoy each other's company and relax. A nice auditorium, a good film, and you'll see how the queues will form. All we need to do is upgrade the auditoria, re-equip the projection rooms, overhaul the sound systems, put new chairs in - just a few basic comforts. When people go out to the cinema, it's because they want to escape from their humdrum routine for a while, to dream and unwind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African governments should do what they can to enable people to relax and enjoy themselves like this. Going to the cinema is like going to school. People go there to learn something - whether consciously or subconsciously - and to see something different. We really must get rid of this purely commercial vision of the cinema, especially in Africa. It should, first and foremost, be a cultural experience, and only subsequently a commercial exercise. But we also need to be realistic. When helping those involved in promoting the film industry, the government should lay down a precise set of conditions, specifying how and when the loans should be repaid and requiring something in return for their subsidies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So you think that if the Ministries of Culture in African countries were given greater powers, they would be in a position to carry out this task ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is not something solely for the Ministry of Culture. This is the type of approach which should be adopted by the state as a whole, in each country. For example, the government should provide a support fund for the film industry and certain other branches of the arts. Even if they were increased substantially, the meagre budgets allocated to the Ministry of Culture in our countries would still represent paltry sums. In Africa, the department of culture is at the bottom of everybody's list.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· But if you look at the number of African films that have been shown in recent years at Cannes and other international festivals, surely one can afford to be a little more optimistic than you are ? More and more young African filmmakers are releasing films.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - True, but as I said earlier, no progress has been made as far as film production is concerned. In that respect, contrary to what people may think, we are still at square one. Young filmmakers are put off and, as more and more avenues are closed to them, they gradually lose their fighting spirit. A film director has no choice but to be his own producer, his own manager - to do everything himself in fact. The result is that he becomes a jack of all trades and a master of none. During our recent colloquium, we decided to set up smallscale facilities which will deal solely with film production and where young people can go and use their services, thus leaving them free to channel their energies into actually directing their films. In the same way, we intend to set up other structures which will deal exclusively with other aspects of the cinema industry. The goal we have set ourselves is that of fostering professionalism in the West African film industry. Maybe then our governments will listen to us.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think there is any difference between African countries as far as opportunities are concerned ? For example, Burkina Faso would appear to be the cinema capital of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, and no. More often than not, it is African film-makers who have chosen Burkina Faso to stage events connected with the cinema industry because it is a landlocked country. This is what has made it the film capital of Africa, not any deliberate move on the part of the politicians. Having said this, the government in Burkina Faso is also making great efforts, despite its limited resources. But each country has its own potential. We must stop trying to tear this continent apart.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mentioned the former President of your own country, Modibo Keita, as one of those far-sighted enough to appreciate the importance of nurturing African culture. Where does Mali stand at the moment in terms of strengthening its own cultural heritage identity ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - After independence, in the years from 1960 to 1968, there was a time when young people would get together and become involved in various biennial art festivals. We had a series of events which encouraged a kind of a 'cultural vision' nationwide. They were so successful that other countries were soon following our example. After the coup in 1968, however, everything fell apart. In the following 23 years there was a total cultural vacuum, in which young people felt completely disorientated, despite superficial attempts to relaunch the festivals. We are now only just trying to rediscover our cultural roots after a long period of upheaval. What we in Mali do have working in our favour, is the fact that our country is a harmonious patchwork of different peoples, all living together without the slightest trace of bitterness or hatred. We are lucky here because our rulers rarely tried to manipulate our ethnic loyalties to set one group against another. A Malian, irrespective of his roots, will always rejoice in the success of his fellow countrymen, whatever tribe they happen to belong to. We owe our good fortune to a heritage in which our peoples have always respected one another - even when they have faced each other as enemies. It is only as a result of this historic mutual respect that we can now speak of a Malian culture where each individual group of people has its own idiosyncrasies, its own customs, is sensitive towards other cultures and actually rejoices in their differences. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA Bulletin</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA and the promotion of rural development through book distribution</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of CTA's tasks is to provide information on request to researchers, extension workers, planners, farmers' organisations, trainers and information specialists involved in agricultural development in ACP states. In addition to requested publications, CTA also distributes publications on its own initiative to its target groups. These publications, some 550 titles, are also supplied free of charge and consist of books published by CTA, co-published, or purchased specially because of their relevance. In 1995, almost 65 000 books were posted to ACP countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The people who receive the publications to some extent select themselves, because they write to CTA with requests for information. They find out about its existence through attending CTA seminars held in ACP countries or in Europe, or through seeing copies of Spore (CTA's bi-monthly bulletin in English, French and Portuguese which goes to around 50 000 addresses and is seen by many more), or by word of mouth. Over the years, CTA has built up a mailing list of 42 500 addresses of people and organisations active in some way in agriculture and rural development. Of the total, 37 800 are in ACP countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But there are questions. Are our books getting to those who need them and is the targeting accurate enough? And, most importantly, is this the best way of doing things ? For CTA does not - and cannot - satisfy the total demand for books on agriculture and rural development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is the best way?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the number of addresses on the mailing list, many more people could in theory still be added. Should CTA even try to satisfy this demand ? The publications are free and, if CTA increased its coverage of the demand, it might in some countries hold back the development of local bookselling with a consequent detrimental effect on local publishing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The majority of those now on the mailing list are 'individuals' rather than institutions, libraries, documentation centres, associations, organisations, etc. On the face of it, more people could be reached by sending CTA publications to groups rather than to individuals, but it's not always clear who is an individual in the sense of information not being shared with others. Some individuals are teachers, some are extension agents, some receive publications on behalf of a cooperative, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the importance of information - the driving force behind development  -  CTA has been investigating and giving support to technical publishing and book distribution in Africa over the last few years and is currently examining its own policy on book distribution over the ACP countries as a whole. Part of the context for this policy re-appraisal is the state of bookselling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Difficulty of book distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Everyone involved in the books business in and for the ACP countries knows that getting books where you want them to go, book distribution, is not straightforward. The reasons for the difficulty are not straightforward either. One development officer remarked of Papua New Guinea that the lack of books outside the capital, Port Moresby, couldn't simply be explained by lack of roads, because in the most out of the way places you could be sure of finding Coca Cola. Is it, then, that the Coca Cola company has superior marketing and distribution arrangements ? Probably so, but it is the nature of the two products which also determines how far they get. Traders will more readily take goods which they know they will be able to sell easily and the immediate satisfaction given by cigarettes or Coca Cola tends to put them before books in the list of priorities for purchase.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the ACP countries where CTA sends books and information, many have under-developed road and rail networks while the postal facilities provide a reliable service only to a relatively small part of the country. The local book publishing and bookselling industries are often themselves developing. Potential readers often cannot afford to buy the books and consequently book distribution is the weak link in the chain from writing and publishing a book to selling it. If books can't be sold, new ones can't be published, for the investment finance for a new publishing project has to come from somewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Africa, the lack of a strong local book sector was attributed in part to the traditional oral culture of the continent which left little need for reading. The majority of students would read in order to pass their exams, after which they hardly sought books again to buy or to read.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main books distributed were therefore textbooks for schools, colleges and for higher education. As long as these were distributed through booksellers, a forum still existed for displaying and raising interest in other books.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Booksellers could also function as sources and conduits of information about the variety of books in print and of their interest to particular groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This development was stunted because of the low purchasing power of many people, lack of foreign exchange (except in the CFA franc states), high cost of importing (either books or the raw materials, print machinery and spare parts to manufacture books) and, consequentially, shortage and lack of variety of locally-published books.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, in some countries the state intervened in school book publishing and supply (for example in Tanzania), so that the bread and butter of the bookselling business disappeared.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Booksellers then either diversified their stock so that they became bookseller-stationers or worse - books came after groceries, footballs, hats, etc., or the booksellers ceased trading in books or closed down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The publishing-distribution chain in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Book distribution is part of a chain of activities in the book sector which depend on each other and support each other. The chain starts with an idea for a book which may come from an author or from potential readers who make known their needs and it ends with the published books being bought. The lack of a good book distribution infrastructure in Africa is linked to the lack of a wide variety of books from a good number of publishers and the lack of a market for the books.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At least until South Africa became a democracy, Nigeria probably had the most active publishing industry in Africa with a high level of publishing professionalism. In such a huge country this may not be surprising: there is a large market, state administrations with urban headquarters, and a variety of arrangements for publishing and distributing books. But publishers suffer from a scarcity of investment funds, with high costs of borrowing, which affects their ability to keep books in print and to start new publishing projects. Relatively few technical books are published locally because of the risks when compared with, for example, publishing school textbooks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In such a vast country, the state of book distribution varies from place to place, with cities and large towns obviously having a greater variety of books available for sale than small towns and rural areas. Small traders carry books to the latter; they do not take orders and the books they carry are those that they can get hold of which they think will sell. Would-be readers are frustrated unless they or their friends visit a city. Mail order is not a possibility because the domestic postal service is not trusted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the urban areas, where there are booksellers, an indeterminate number of potential readers cannot afford to buy books, especially those that have been imported. Book piracy is a consequence of this. Booksellers' sales have declined, their turnover has been reduced as has their ability to stay in business. Some institutions in the country buy direct from publishers or from overseas suppliers rather than from booksellers, which further damages them. Booksellers buy books from publishers in small quantities for a fast turn-round which affects publishers' ability to build up investment funds for the next publishing project or for a large reprint with its possibility of reducing unit book costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not to say that technical books are totally unavailable from Nigerian booksellers, but it is clear that only specialised outlets which know their book-buying customers well can risk stocking some of them. Rural dwellers have no chance of buying them without making a big effort in time and money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In contrast, Senegal has a less developed publishing and bookselling industry than Nigeria, with about a dozen professional publishers and a small network of booksellers, mostly in Dakar and the larger towns in the regions. The most important publishing opportunities in Senegal are in the field of primary school textbooks - where there is competition both within the country, with publishers from other developing states, and from the North. Senegal being a lot smaller than Nigeria, there is only room for one textbook, and primary school book production is not therefore the mainstay of local publishers. The publisher which used to supply all primary and secondary school textbooks for the Ministry of National Education is an exception and is still probably dependent upon educational publishing for its turnover. Few technical books are published; as with books for higher education, they are imported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The network of booksellers has been decreasing and it is difficult to make a living just by selling books without the back-up of other products to sell. Thus there are bookseller-stationers, bookseller-grocers, kiosks and street sellers, especially of secondhand books. Booksellers tend to order titles in small quantities because they cannot risk being left with unsold stock which ties up their capital. They order little and often. Most school textbooks are distributed through the Ministry of National Education, but booksellers still sell a variety of textbooks, some official and approved and some not. Before the devaluation of the CFA franc, booksellers ordered more from abroad. These books have now doubled in price, making them unaffordable, with a consequent opportunity opened for local publishers to fill a gap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from the professional publishers, various sorts of publications are being produced and distributed by literacy and post-literacy organisations and a delegated literacy ministry. Some organisations promote literacy for its own sake, while others use the attainment of literacy as the means through which development can spread in rural areas. The publications concern rural development, agriculture, health and nutrition, and rural democracy, amongst others. There is a good variety of different titles and a good supply of cheap and affordable books. Some are sold through booksellers, but most people buy them when they take their literacy courses, while small traders carry them up-country to sell and buy more copies from the publishers with the proceeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Book aid schemes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A whole literature exists on book aid schemes. Briefly, book aid comes in two forms, one using the local book sector and the other not to any great extent. The British Government's Educational Low Prices Books Scheme (sadly scheduled to end, at least in its present form, in April 1997) and the French Government's Programme Plus both use the local bookselling industry to make available standard tertiary textbooks and others at subsidised rates. Not all students could afford to buy them, but the two schemes nonetheless promote bookselling and commercial life within ACP countries and beyond. To some extent they safeguard the continuation of fore where up-to-date books can be seen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CTA's books aid scheme does not use the local book sector in terms of book distribution, although cooperation in co-publishing is beginning. The FAO, in distributing publications to ACP and other developing countries, is similar. Books supplied under multilateral and bilateral agencies' projects have tended to sidestep the local book sector, although this has been changing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with food aid, the question to be answered is whether continuing the aid prolongs the condition ? Or does the analogy with food aid break down in certain circumstances because books are different ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving book distribution in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Various efforts are being made to improve book markets for African publishers. For example, the African Books Collective, based in Oxford, UK, markets and sells both anglophone and francophone African publishers' selected books in the North and also to other African countries. It is often easier for publishers in the North to sell their books in Africa than it is for African publishers to sell their books across frontiers and in the continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publishers Associations have been formed in about a dozen countries with APNET, the African Publishers' Network, celebrating its fourth year as a continental association. CTA supported APNET in the production of the first catalogue of agricultural books published by African publishers. Very recently, an Africa-wide booksellers association has been created.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CTA and future book distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since CTA started distributing books on agriculture and rural development, publishing and bookselling activities in many ACP countries have multiplied and the context has changed somewhat. As noted at CTA's Montpellier conference in 1995, there is now much information and many documents going from North to South, suited to the planners, research workers and extension agents who process the information and pass it down to the small-scale farmers. Rather, a two-way information route would be more efficient, between farmers who have information to offer as well as information needs and information providers. The growth in requests to CTA for publications from co-operatives and farmer associations and from non-academic libraries and documentation units is evidence that the publications distribution service is fulfilling a need. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Couriers mailbag</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earthen architecture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I read your article on 'Earthen Architecture', published by the CTA Bulletin in the September-October 1996 issue of The Courier (n° 159) with a great deal of interest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The article presents such traditional products as rammed earth and adobe which have been used by man since time immemorial as witnessed by constructions and monuments to be found in the countries cited by the authors of the article, as well as industrial products such as the compressed earth block (CEB), which have provoked much interest in many parts of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The authors also demonstrate that the use of the compressed earth block has a distinct advantage in that it valorises local raw materials, encourages the setting up of local enterprises and creates employment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard, I would particularly wish to inform you that the Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) has, for the last ten years, been working on the industrial development of the CEB sector through support to ACP promoters at various levels:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - diagnostic studies of projects and setting-up of production units;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - search for EU technical partners who have economically advantageous technologies and are ready to transfer their know-how;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- training of enterprise personnel in CEB production and in the utilisation of this product;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- support in the manufacturing of brick presses such as is currently the case in Nigeria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some 100 small and mediumsized enterprises and non-governmental organisations in ACP countries involved in the CEB sector have benefited from direct CDI assistance. This assistance has, notably, led to the improved technical and economic performance of these enterprises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond support to projects, the CDI in collaboration with CRATerre actively participates in the industrial promotion of this technology. The Centre recently disseminated 2000 copies of a technical guide entitled 'CEB: Production Equipment' throughout the ACP countries. An exhibition on the compressed earth block and its application took place during the Industrial Mining Forum held in Lusaka, Zambia, in December 1994. Similar exhibitions were held during the Matconstruct Forum (Libreville, Gabon, October 1995) and at the Industrial Partnership event (Bordeaux, France, February 1995). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The standardisation of the compressed earth block is a prerequisite for the development of this sector. The Centre therefore organised a workshop on this topic in Yaounde in 1996 as a follow-up to the Matconstruct Forum. This seminar brought together some 40 ACP and EU participants to discuss the 'CEB: Standardisation' guide currently being prepared by CRATerre for publication in December 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main objective of the guide is to encourage ACP promoters to manufacture products in conformity with accepted norms and thus facilitate CEB integration in the industrial construction market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efforts made by the CDI, in collaboration with CRATerre, to develop the CEB sector deserve to be better known. We would therefore look forward to an opportunity to present the Centre's activities in this sector in a future issue of me Courier. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surendra Sharma, Director, Centre for the Development of Industry,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brussels, Belgium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Map insets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thank-you for your informative magazine. I wish you all the best in your endeavours to improve me Courier further. May I suggest that in the Country Report profiles, you include an inset map of the region highlighting the country in question for those readers who may not be familiar with the area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andrew Frederick Meya, Kampala, Uganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of readers have raised this point with us since we have rearranged the cover pages and transferred the ACP and Europe 'regional' maps to the inside back cover. In future, we will endeavour to ensure that there is a cross-reference to this page in the Country Report profile. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bibliography</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publications received</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La politique etrangere du Cameroun (Cameroon's foreign policy) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Narcisse Mouelle Kombi. Pub. L'Harmattan, Collection «Points de vue» (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1996. 238 pp. ISBN 2-73843701-X.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon belongs to the zone formerly called the 'Third World' which is nowadays labelled the 'South'. This region of great diversity currently faces major socio-economic and political conflict, and receives 'multiform' and 'tied' aid from the developed countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This does not, however, prevent it from having a degree of freedom of action in diplomatic terms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, who is a specialist in international law, believes that as a player on the world scene, Cameroon puts its foreign-policy skills to good advantage and has acquired a certain respect in international relations and in global institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He argues that Yaounde is attempting to implement a realistic and pragmatic foreign policy, reflecting its own sovereign status and the imperatives of development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, the country is endeavouring to implement the changes forced upon it by modern circumstances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Le developpement institutionnel - Les organisations a l'epreuve de la specificite et de la concurrence (Institutional development - Organisations based on specificity and competition) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Arturo Israel. Translated from the English by Alain Claisse. Pub. L'Harmattan (5-7, me de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1996. 235 pp. 140 FF. ISBN 2-73844322-2.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A graduate of the University of Chile and the London School of Economics, the author has devoted most of his career (particularly within the World Bank) to examining the problems of economic and social development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He has been one of the pioneers of institutional development, a field which is nowadays seen as essential to all development strategies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He argues that institutional development requires not bureaucratisation but the promotion and recognition of two principles in both public and private organisations. These are competition and specificity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The former induces those involved to improve the quality of their work, whilst forcing them to listen to the 'consumer'. The latter involves qualifications, specialisation and a precise definition of objectives, tasks, resources and results.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After a critical review of assessment reports produced over a 15-year period by the World Bank in the field of institutional development, Arturo Israel tells us why such development is one of the keys to success in development projects. He demonstrates that a good project being implemented in an unfavourable institutional environment has little chance of achieving positive long-term effects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La justice internationale face au drame rwandais (International justice confronted by the Rwandan crisis) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the direction of Jean-Fran&ccedil;oise Dupaquier, with William Bourdon, Pierre-Serge Heger, Frederic Mutagwera, Fran,cois-Xavier Nsanzuwera, Rakiya Omaar, William A. Schabas and Anne-Marie Swartenbroekx. Pub. Karthala (22-24, boulevard Arago, F-75013, Paris). 1996. 248 pp. FF 130. BF. 715. ISBN 2-86537-662-1.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is two years since the genocide and political massacres which resulted in the death of a million people in Rwanda. In this work, the authors describe and analyse the progress made in various legal proceedings in Rwanda itself, in the international arena and in the jurisdictions of Belgium, France, Canada and Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some countries have been slow and apparently reluctant to fulfil their international obligations and this has resulted in disappointment and impatience on the part of the victims' families, jurists and human rights activists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the example of the Nuremberg trials, the authors suggest there are good grounds for concluding that international human rights have become less important over the last 50 years. This work allows one to reach a considered opinion. Modern legal instruments provide for the punishment of those responsible for the appalling tragedy in Rwanda. These instruments could be seen as a significant advance in the recognition of human rights by the international community. But what is missing at the moment is the political will (and public pressure) to implement them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Methodologies d'analyse de la mortalite des enfants - Applications au Cameroun (Analytical methodologies in child mortality as applied to Cameroon) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Amadou Noumbissi. Pub. Braylant-Academia (25, Grand Rue, B-134B Louvainla-Neuve) and L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1996. 305 pp. ISBN 2-87209389-3 (Academia-Braylant) and ISBN 2-7384-3722-2 (L'Harmattan).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Child mortality, always very high in sub-Saharan Africa, varies according to social class, habitat and region. The identification of the social, economic and cultural factors which influence the survival of children depends on the quality of data, and on the relevance of the indicators and statistical models used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the aid of specific examples, this work attempts to demonstrate the origin of a number of sources of bias in so-called classical approaches and the distortion of the truth which a poor choice or detrimental manipulation of statistical models can give rise to.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A teacher and researcher at the Demographic Institute of the Catholic University of Louvain (Belgium), the author proposes methods to take account of the interdependence and synergy which exist between the factors which affect the risk of mortality. He applies these methods to the data gained in two national surveys which were carried out in Cameroon in 1978 and 1991.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Revue Region et Developpement (Region and Development Journal)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pub. L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F75005 Paris). 1995. 238 pp. ISBN 2-7384-4125-4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This half-yearly journal, first launched in 1995, deals with the various socio-economic aspects of regional development. The second issue contains articles which may be of interest to our readers, including: 'Regionalisation, globalisation and polarisation of the world economy: is there room for developing countries?', and 'Housing models in developing countries'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Structural adjustment and ethnicity in Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Eghosa E. Osaghae. Pub. The Nordic Africa Institute (P.O. Box 1703, S-751 47 Uppsala, Sweden). 1995. 66 pp. ISBN 91-7106373-0.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author is a lecturer who heads the politics department at the University of Transkei in South Africa. A significant conclusion from his study, undertaken at the Nordic Africa Institute, is that from the ethnic standpoint, the implementation of structural adjustment (with its corollary of reduced state involvement in public life), has had positive effects in Nigeria. This contrasts with the usual perception of the structural adjustment process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The migration experience in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collection prepared under the direction of Jonathan Baker and Tade Akin Aina. Pub. The Nordic Africa Institute (P.O. Box 1703, S-751 47 Uppsala, Sweden). 1995. 353 pp. ISBN-91-7106366-8.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This volume aims to take stock of migration in Africa. The causes of the phenomenon are varied and complex, and the authors have chosen an approach which illustrates the diversity of the theories, and methodological and analytical trends involved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The book offers an empirical assessment of migration in contemporary Africa, focusing particularly on the problem of women migrants. Migration is an important element in the wider development equation and this work fills a gap in the literature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Challenges to the Nation-State in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collection prepared under the direction of Adebayo O. Olukoshi and Liisa Laakso. Pub. The Nordic Africa Institute (P.O. Box 1703, S-751 47 Uppsala, Sweden) in collaboration with the Institute of Development Studies, University of Helsinki. 1996. 213 pp. ISBN 91-7106381-1.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge confronting the nation state in contemporary Africa are of great interest to specialists attempting to understand how deconstruction and recomposition of the political identity of populations affects the post-colonial unitarian project. The studies offered in this volume show that this process has often taken ethno-regionalist, religious or separatist forms -  reinforced by economic crisis and the negative effects of structural adjustment, not to mention the legacy of years of political authoritarianism and exclusion dating from the colonial period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The authors believe that in order to promote national unity and a sense of citizenship in Africa, priority should be given, inter alia, to more representative forms of government, power-sharing and decentralisation, multi-party elections, the reinvention of the post-colonial social contract and cultural autonomy for minority groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agenda for Africa's economic renewal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collection prepared under the direction of Benno Ndulu and Nicolas van de Walle. Pub. Overseas Department Council (1875 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 1012, Washington, DC 20009, USA). 1996. 246 pp. ISBN 1-56000900-4.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For 20 years, sub-Saharan Africa has been experiencing a severe economic crisis. Growth has been stagnant and the result has been reduced living standards for much of the population, and ever-increasing pressure on the continent's political structures. Structural adjustment, advocated by international organisations in an attempt to restore growth in Africa, has not had the anticipated results and has given rise to a number of disputes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this book, 10 African, US and European experts attempt to look beyond the immediate horizon and identify strategies which could be implemented to give renewed vigour to the African economy. They analyse the choices which should be made in key areas such as agriculture, trade and industry, the role of the state and the social sectors. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">News round - up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">In brief</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World congress against the sexual exploitation of children</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first international congress dealing with the problem of the sexual exploitation of children for profit was held in Stockholm from 27 to 31 August. The initiative for the meeting came from ECPAT (End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism), working in collaboration with the Swedish government, the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and a group of NGOs supporting the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The congress was attended by government representatives from most of the UN countries, participants from various international and regional organisations (including the UN Centre for Human Rights, the International Labour Organisation, the World Health Organisation, UNESCO, UNHCR and Interpol), NGOs, health professionals and media representatives from across the globe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The aim of the congress was to draw the international community's attention to the issue of the sexual exploitation of children and to promote the development of national plans to tackle all forms of abuse in this area. It focused particularly on three aspects: child prostitution, the 'trade' in children for sexual purposes, and child pornography.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there are a number of legal instruments which refer to these problems, the key one for the purposes of the Stockholm meeting was the Convention on the Rights of the Child. In Article 34 of this multilateral treaty, which has been ratified by 186 countries, the signatory states commit themselves to protect children against all forms of exploitation and violence of a sexual nature. For the purposes of the Convention, a child is defined as any human being less than 18 years old, except where the age of majority is lower than 18 in the relevant local legislation (Article 1).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The committee that was responsible for planning the Congress drew up documents on a number of themes including: the revision and application of laws; psycho-social prevention; tourism and child prostitution; those who engage in abuse; hygiene and health; the role of the media; child pornography; education; and human values. These subjects were all examined by working groups during the two-day session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The congress was addressed by Anita Gradin, Member of the European Commission with responsibility for internal and judicial affairs, and matters relating to immigration. She took the opportunity to underline the point that the traffic in women and children was international. Organised crime, she said, lay at the heart of the 'trade' and it was closely linked to a whole range of other criminal activities. She cited, in this context, kidnapping, forging of documents, 'false' marriages and adoptions, clandestine immigration, violence and forced labour. these, in turn were associated with the drug trade, extortion and murder. The conclusion was that a global action plan and more international cooperation were needed. Ms Gradin acknowledged that existing arrangements had been successful in exposing the existence of paedophile networks but she was convinced that international cooperation should be strengthened further, and that organisations such as Interpol and Europol would be called upon to play a bigger part in the future. The European Commissioner went on to declare that a commitment to the protection of children ought to be a priority. The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child - which is now eight years old -  should not merely tee 'adopted' by all countries. It should, rather, be applied in full and integrated into the legislation of every nation. There was no point, she suggested, in enacting new laws, if the existing ones were not being implemented and the financial resources had not been provided. Ms Gradin reaffirmed the European Commission's commitment to the fight against the exploitation of children. This would be reflected in communications to be drawn up by the Commission for presentation to the Council of Ministers and European Parliament, on the following subjects:  - the treatment of women (on the basis of the recommendations made by the Vienna Conference on this subject, which was held in June 1996);  - sex tourism, notably in certain countries in Asia and Latin America;  - actions designed to eliminate paedophile rings and child pornography networks which make use of new information technologies such as the Internet. During the congress, the Belgian Minister of Foreign Affairs announced that his country would be launching an initiative at the EC's Justice and Internal Affairs Council meeting scheduled for 26 and 27 September. They would be proposing common action designed to strengthen police and judicial cooperation in the fight against the sexual exploitation of children for profit. He believed that it should be possible to take measures both within the framework of the Europol Convention, and by means of new and specific cooperation instruments. The culmination of the Stockholm congress was the adoption of a declaration and an action plan. These foresee strengthened cooperation and coordination among local and national authorities, and a series of measures to protect children, prevent abuse and provide rehabilitation. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1997: European year against racism </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a resolution adopted on 23 July, the Council of Ministers formally designated 1997 as the European year against racism. The aims, set out in the resolution, include:  - highlighting the threat posed by racism, xenophobia and antisemitism, in terms of both respect for fundamental rights, and in ensuring the economic and social cohesion of the European Community;  - encouraging reflection and discussion of the measures needed to tackle racism, xenophobia and antisemitism in Europe;  - promoting a sharing of experiences, best practice, and effective strategies drawn up at the local, national and European levels;  - disseminating information on the aforementioned best practice and strategies amongst those most closely involved in the fight against racism, xenophobia and antisemitism, with a view to enhancing the effectiveness of their actions in this area;  - highlighting the advantages of integration policies implemented at the national level, in particular in the fields of employment, education, training and housing;  - taking account, wherever possible, of the experiences of victims of racism, xenophobia and antisemitism, and promoting the participation of these people in society. ECU 6 million will be spent on a series of activities designed to help achieve these objectives during the 'year against racism'. A logo and slogan will be devised, and seminars and conferences will be staged with the aim of strengthening international cooperation (themes will include the role of education in eliminating racism, ways of establishing dialogue, and establishing mutual respect between different communities living in towns and cities). Documents and audiovisual material will be distributed, and an effort will be made to get the message across in the media. There will also be action to encourage information exchanges on best practice, and to increase public awareness of the issue. Prizes will be awarded to media organisations which safeguard the quality of the information they put out and which seek to promote tolerance. A specific effort will be made to counter the racist propaganda now appearing on the Internet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WTO banana challenge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union has set out its legal defence of duty-free preferences for African and Caribbean banana producing countries that are members of the Fourth Lom&eacute; Convention. This took place in September at an initial hearing of a World Trade Organisation (WTO) panel  - convened at the request of a number of competing banana producer nations. African and Caribbean states were permitted to voice their opinion as third part)" in the case, despite an objection from the United States. The EU's banana market arrangements  - notably Protocol 5 of the Lom&eacute; Convention, which sanctions duty-free access  - have twice before come under attack in the Geneva body. Two earlier hearings in the WTO's forerunner, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), concerned the EU's previous state-to-state regime, and the new single market arrangements which have been in operation since July 1993. The present panel was set up at the request of four Latin American banana producer nations - Ecuador, Honduras, Mexico and Guatemala - together with the United States which is arguing that its domestic banana companies are losing out. The complainants jointly claim that the tariff quota for Latin American nations, the core of regulation 404/93 establishing the EU regime, discriminates against them. They also challenge the licensing arrangements of the so-called 'framework agreement' made under the GATT framework in 1994 with four Latin American nations (Colombia, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Venezuela). In return for a bigger share of the EU market, these four agreed to refrain from further challenges in the WTO against the EU's banana arrangements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel is expected to give its verdict in March 1997. The hearings are taking place behind closed doors, but it is understood that EU and ACP nations can count on the support of Japan - which currently imposes its own quotas on imports of other items and does not want to be challenged for these - and that of India which wants to show solidarity with the ACP countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Speaking in Geneva, Cot&eacute; d'lvoire's Commodities Minister, Alain Gauze, stressed the heavy dependence of many African and Caribbean states on banana growing. 90% of Dominica's commodity exports are bananas and the crop accounts for 70% of its export receipts and 25% of its Gross Domestic Product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One ACP representative in Brussels described the task ahead es 'convincing them (the panel) that the banana regime and regulation 404/93 are required to fulfil the obligations of the EU under the Lom&eacute; Convention and the subsequent waiver.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The waiver to which he referred was accorded by GATT to the Lom&eacute; Convention's various non-reciprocal trade preferences in 1994, but it is up for renewal at the end of the year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has already put in a request for its extension until February 29, 2000, coinciding with the expiry date of Lom&eacute; IV.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The WTO was expected to rule on the renewal of the waiver in mid-October ahead of the panel's decision. If the renewal of the waiver were to be disallowed, the EU and ACP 'defendants' at the panel could find themselves on shaky legal ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the meantime, the EU has fixed its 1996 tariff quota, allowing a maximum of 2.553 million tonnes of Latin American bananas to be imported into the Union with a tariff of ECU 75 per tonne.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further quota of 72 440 tonnes has been allocated to this region following tropical storms Iris, Luis et Marilyn. The damage caused by these storms led to the suspension of supplies of bananas from several Caribbean islands. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EU banana production is expected to reach 750 000 tonnes in 1996, while preferential imports from the African and Caribbean members of the ACP group have been fixed at 680 000 tonnes. According to latest predictions, the total consumption of this fruit in the European Union in 1996 will be 4030440 tonnes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade and labour standards</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ahead of the first ministerial meeting of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) to be held in December in Singapore, the European Commission has published a discussion paper (COM (96) 402 final) on whether labour standards should be linked to trade - which could mean sanctions for nations which do not comply with globally recognised labour clauses. What is at stake is to draw up globally recognised criteria and implement them without accusations of protectionism from some developing nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At an informal meeting of EU trade ministers in Dublin on September 18, EC Trade Commissioner, Sir Leon Brittan, said that, in supporting an international code, the European Union had no intention of damaging the competitive advantage of developing nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many Asian countries, who view the move of the EU and of other industrialised nations as veiled protectionism, do not even want the subject broached at the Singapore meeting. However, mention was made of the link between trade and internationally recognised labour standards in the conclusions of the Uruguay Round of GATT in Marrakesh in 1994, which requested that the WTO do more work on this issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The recent Commission paper advances the reasons for an international code: 'Workers in certain sectors in particular perceive that their jobs are under threat from imports from countries which allow unfair or unacceptable working practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These concerns cannot be ignored and should be addressed by the world trading system. Otherwise the perception will be - wrongly - that trade liberalisation is the problem and not the solution to the challenge to all societies to create a higher standard of living for all their citizens.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It further makes the point that such a policy is in line with others such as the promotion of democracy, respect for human rights and adherence to the rule of law. The EU has always upheld the view that there is a positive correlation between social progress, economic growth and trade liberalisation. According to the paper: 'There is no question of imposing on developing countries the higher wage levels and better working conditions which pertain in the industrialised world. Nor is this an action designed to re-erect new barriers to trade under cover of a social agenda.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU and international bodies are already looking at the kind of global criteria that might be adopted. A report of the International Labour Organisation (ILO), published in 1994, as well as the conclusions of the 1995 World Social Summit in Copenhagen, both suggest that freedom of association, collective bargaining, prohibition of forced labour and the elimination of child labour are top of the list.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A report entitled: 'Trade, Employment and Labour Standards - a study of core workers' rights and international trade', produced this year by the Paris-based Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), looks at the options in depth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeff Atkinson, trade policy advisor for the NGO, Oxfam UK, suggests that initial negotiations should be limited to matters covered in ILO Conventions 87 and 98. The former deals with freedom of association and protection of the right to organise, while the latter is on the right to organise and collective bargaining. He argues that other Conventions, covering such matters as the right to equal renumeration for men and women workers, freedom from discrimination and the abolition of forced labour, depend on the first two. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A notable omission from Jeff Atkinson's list is ILO Convention 138 on child labour. He does not feel that this Convention adequately addresses the issue. While international concern has focused on the most abusive forms of child labour such as slavery and prostitution, he points out not all child labour is so grossly abusive. Some forms can bring in money for food and shelter, which would otherwise not be available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He argues that if conditions are right, employment (say on a family farm or business) can contribute positively to a child's development, by providing an informal learning environment in which social and physical skills can develop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'To tackle the symptoms, for example by banning child labour, without addressing the underlying cause is likely to be counterproductive', says Mr Atkinson. He argues that it might induce children to seek illegal work in order to survive, or alternatively that they may end up becoming destitute.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some bodies are already trying to enforce improved standards. Although the ILO cannot implement sanctions, if an ILO member fails to comply with Conventions, a dialogue can be instituted with the defaulting country. It is also running an extensive public campaign against child labour and is assisting the development of social labelling for goods produced which fully respect ILO Conventions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under its new Generalised System of Preferences (GSP), the EU can remove some trade preferences if goods imported from non-Lom&eacute; developing nations are found to have been made with forced or slave labour. And from January 1, 1998, extra preferences can be given to countries which so request and comply with Conventions 87, 98 and 138. But if the enforcement of a socalled 'Social Clause' does reach the WTO level, some voices are already calling for joint monitoring involving the WTO and that long-time champion of human rights, the ILO. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1996 UNCTAD Report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A slow world growth rate is revealed in this year's annual report of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), published in September. The global economy expanded by only 2.4% in 1995 compared with a 2.8% increase in 1994. And production is below what it could be, says the report. On the whole, developing nations achieved higher growth rates than their industrialised counterparts in 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1996, world growth is expected to slow further although there will still be 'star performers' in some regions, and particularly slow movers in others. Asia is the continent currently doing best and China has the fastest expanding economy - despite this having slackened in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1995, Africa recorded higher growth than Latin America, according to the Rubens Ricupero, UNCTAD Secretary General. It also managed the first real increase in average per capita income for a long time. This was partly due to commodity prices picking up - they rose 10% on average.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But not such good news for the continent was a drop in private capital flows, notably direct investment. And the growth rate was highly variable across Africa. In some countries it was above 5% but in others, the economic situation was hit badly by political and armed conflicts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meanwhile, drought led to lower production in the Sahel. The prospects for 1996 are uncertain according to the report. It noted that even countries whose economies have expanded during 1995 and 1996 will need another ten concurrent years of good economic results to get back to the per capita income they enjoyed 20 years ago.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report highlights the tremendous difficulties facing many of the heavily-indebted, least developed nations. This is despite the fact that a number of donors have recently written off substantial amounts of some countries' public debts while the Paris Club has rescheduled repayments from other nations. Even if the new arrangements are followed through, UNCTAD is predicting that debt will remain a major burden for many countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One worrying factor is the weight of their multilateral debt and bilateral obligations to creditors other than the Paris Club. Multilateral institutions have implemented a number of measures, but these are of very limited scope. The UNCTAD Secretary General is encouraging multilateral creditors in particular, to put more muscle behind their debt relief plans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The authors of the report are also recommending the establishment of an agency, within UNCTAD itself, to help developing nations achieve trade diversification and industrialisation strategies for economic growth. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seminar on NGOs and government relations in humanitarian emergencies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The British Council is organising an international seminar on the above subject in Oxford, UK, from 12-17 December 1996. The main themes to be covered at the meeting will include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the actors in humanitarian assistance;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - funder and donor policy;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- government sovereignty;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- rights and obligations of intervention;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the role of the beneficiary;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- conflicts of interest and areas of cooperation between donor NGOs and host governments, and;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- accountability and evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information can be obtained from the Marketing Manager, International Seminars, The British Council, 1 Beaumont Place, GB-Oxford, OX1 2PJ.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. (44) 1B65 316 636, Fax. (44) 1865 57368.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E-mail: International. Seminar@britcoun.org </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The institutions at work</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COMMON FOREIGN AND SECURITY POLICY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), the European Union has recently issued a number of statements, details of which are set out below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: condemnation of the massacre on 19 July</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 23 July 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses grave concern at the deteriorating situation in Burundi especially at the killing of civilians and other gross violations of human rights which continue to be perpetrated in that country. It vehemently condemns the massacre of civilians in the Bugendana camp for displaced persons on 19 July last and deplores the expulsions of Rwandan refugees against their will. This massacre, following as it does those at Gishubi, Kivyuka, Teza, Mutoyi, Songa and Kamenge, represents a new stage in the vortex of violence, action and reaction putting Burundi at risk of being drawn ever further into a full civil war, the effects of which would be catastrophic for the people of Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU calls on all Burundians to turn away from violence and move singlemindedly along the road to a peaceful and negotiated solution of their problems. It would point to the undertakings given on 25 June 1996 at Arusha during the Summit of Heads of State of the region in favour of dialogue open to all sectors of Burundi's population together with provision of the security measures needed to create the conditions for such dialogue. It would also point out that these undertakings were given formal backing by the Heads of State and Government of the entire continent of Africa when they met from 8 to 10 July at Yaounde under the aegis of the Organisation for African Unity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU believes that only compliance with the undertakings given at Arusha and their swift implementation can restore a climate of confidence and prevent Burundi becoming embroiled in a generalised conflict. As it has already stressed in the Council's statement of 15 and 16 July, the EU reiterates that it is prepared to assist in pursuit of the Arusha objectives in order to restore peace and security in Burundi and it supports the efforts of former President Nyerere and the countries of the region to achieve this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: appeal for reconciliation following the coup d'Etat </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 26 July 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union shares the deep concern of the Secretary General of the United Nations, and others, about yesterday's military coup in Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU urges all sides to avoid recourse to violence and to take all steps to resolve the crisis by exclusively peaceful means.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU believes that the main immediate priority is the humanitarian situation. There must be no further loss of life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An immediate beginning of a national debate is essential, leading to a real process of national reconciliation, founded on democracy and security for all sections of society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard, the EU commends the efforts of former President Nyerere and regional leaders to broker an all-inclusive, negotiated settlement in Burundi, in peaceful conditions, and urges them to examine the possibility of continuing their efforts in this respect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reiterates its firm commitment to the re-establishment of peace in Burundi. The Union is following developments in the country closely, in active consultation with partners in the UN, with the OAU and others, towards the goal of restoring peace and security in Burundi. The EU Special Envoy, Mr Ajello, who is in the region, is actively assisting in this process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: doubts about the first round election results</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 1 August 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses deep concern about the way in which the first round of the presidential elections in Niger on 7-8 July was conducted. In particular, it deplores the decision taken by the Niger authorities to dissolve the independent national electoral commission during the voting process and to replace it with an alternative body. It is the view of the EU that this decision, by the Niger authorities, casts serious doubts on the credibility of the election results. It requests the Niger authorities to explain this decision and why observers found it impossible to assist in gathering and collating the election results.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU urges the Niger authorities, in dealing with the critical situation which has resulted from their decision, to respect fully the fundamental freedoms of movement, expression and association of the Niger people. It attaches great importance to the restoration of all civil rights.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU will examine, in the light of recent developments, its policies of economic and development cooperation with the Niger authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU calls for the full restoration of democratic civilian government in Niger through transparent processes. Free and fair elections will be crucial in this respect. The EU will continue to follow the situation in Niger closely and in particular the preparation, holding and transparency of the forthcoming legislative elections on 22 September. Iceland, the Central European countries associated with the EU and the associated countries Cyprus and Malta align themselves with this declaration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swaziland: revision of the Constitution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 6 August 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union welcomes the announcement by King Mswati III of the names of the new Prime Minister of Swaziland and of the Constitutional Review Commission and is pleased that its membership represents all shades of political opinion in Swaziland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU wishes to encourage all members of the Constitutional Review Commission to participate fully in its work and expresses confidence that their endeavours will bring about the adoption of a draft democratic constitution acceptable to the people of Swaziland as a whole. It hopes that the Commission will pursue its task energetically and is ready to offer appropriate assistance to the Commission if it so wishes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: appeal for talks and reconciliation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 19 August 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recalling its declarations of 25 June and 5, 15, 23 and 26 July 1996, the European Union reiterates its deep concern about the situation in Burundi. It urges all sides to refrain from violence and to commit themselves to, and work actively towards, a negotiated and peaceful resolution of the crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU wishes to express its support for the regional leaders, the Organisation of African Unity and the former President of Tanzania, Mr Julius Nyerere, in the efforts which they have been making to assist Burundi to overcome peacefully the grave crisis which it is experiencing, and encourages them to continue their efforts to facilitate the search for a political solution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU considers it essential for a dialogue to be organised without delay, bringing together all of Burundi's political forces without exception, including representatives of civil society, in order to negotiate a democratic, institutional consensus ensuring security for all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is convinced that national reconciliation and civil peace in Burundi can be restored on a lasting basis only through the participation of all sections of society in the principal institutions and bodies of the State.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU urges all sides in Burundi to call an immediate halt to the violence and respect the safety of all Burundians.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It reaffirms its willingness to support Burundi's recovery efforts, once the necessary national reconciliation is embarked upon with all the resolve required.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AID FOR REHABILITATION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of the 'European Programme for Reconstruction and Development in South Africa', the Commission has recently decided on financing for the following ten projects:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 19.2 million for a development programme covering the management of the public service;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 17.2 million for technical assistance to the Ministry of Education;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 16 million for a support programme for Parliament;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 15 million for the electrification of rural schools;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 9 million to support the reform process in the police services of the Eastern Cape province;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 8.9 million for a financing and investment development programme for SMEs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 5 million for a programme of rural water supply and sanitation projects to be implemented </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by the NGO Mvula Trust; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 4.3 million to support the trade union movement;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 2.3 million for the 'Soul City 1996' project designed to make full use of the mass media to promote health and development issues;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 1.9 million to support the 'Truth and National Reconciliation Commission'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EUROPEAN DEVELOPMENT FUND</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following, where required, favourable opinions from the EDF Committee, the Commission has decided to provide grants and special loans from the 5th, 6th and 7th EDFs to finance the following operations (grants unless otherwise stated). Major projects and programmes are highlighted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic and social infrastructure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burkina Faso: ECU 4.125 million for studies relating to certain road infrastructures. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritius: ECU 9 million for an irrigation programme in the northern plains. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominica: ECU 1.65 million towards the establishment of refuse treatments systems.  Trade promotion/ structural adjustment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cot&eacute; d'lvoire: ECU 25.5 million to , support the structural adjustment programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lesotho: ECU 8.6 million for the fourth structural adjustment programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture/rural development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia-Kenya-Uganda: ECU 20 million for a programme to coordinate national activities aimed at achieving sustainable rural development in the region (notably involving the fight against the Tsetse fly)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education/training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean region: ECU 5.9 million towards a post-secondary education training programme in the countries of the OECS (Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States - Antigua &amp; Barbuda, British Virgin Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St Kitts &amp; Nevis, St Lucia, St. Vincent &amp; the Grenadines). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi: ECU 4.4 million for a social/ participatory programme in the forestry sector as part of the implementation of a national forestry policy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Institutional support</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SADC member states: ECU 1.7 million to support the SADC (Southern African Development Community) secretariat in order to strengthen the SADC-EU regional programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UEMOA (West Africa Economic and Monetary Union): ECU 12 million to support the regional integration process in the member states (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cot&eacute; d'lvoire, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 1.5 million for a support programme for the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EUROPEAN INVESTMENT  BANK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the first half of 1996, the Bank has provided the following loans from its own resources or in the form of risk capital:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa/Madagascar: ECU 30 million for ASECNA (I'Agence pour la securite de la navigation aerienne en Afrique et a Madagascar) for the renewal and modernisation of air safety equipment. Botswana: ECU 6.6 million to the Botswana Power Corporation to help increase electricity-generating capacity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burkina Faso: ECU 6 million to SOFITEX (Societe burkinabe des fibres textiles) for the renewal and extension of its cotton ginneries facility. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali: ECU 5.3 million to the Societe Energie du Mali for the financing of the Balingue thermal power station. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritania: ECU 2 million to SNIM (Societe rationale industrielle et miniere) for the setting up and operation of a mechanical workshop. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritania: ECU 1.4 million to the Societe arabe du fer et de l'acier (Arab iron and steel company) for the construction of a foundry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 500 000 to Grafites de Ancuabe for the exploitation of a graphite mine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 2 million to the Zambia Venture Capital Fund, set up to subscribe for minority equity stakes in SMEs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jamaica: ECU 40 million to Telecommunications of Jamaica Ltd for expansion and modernisation of the domestic and international telecommunications network. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">British Virgin Islands: ECU 600 000 to the government for the design and feasibility study of the main airport at Beef Island, Tortola. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga: ECU 3.7 million to the Tonga Telecommunications Commission for the development of the country's domestic telecommunications network.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUMANITARIAN AID</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 5 million for the purchase and distribution of vegetable oils and cereals to refugees living in the country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 420 000 for emergency medical assistance in the fight against cholera in the Mandera region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 1.9 million for emergency food aid to the victims of the continuing factional fighting. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudan: ECU 2.5 million for the purchase and distribution of maize in a transit camp close to the capital (154 000 people) and in the south of the country (1 million people), and for the distribution of sorghum to Ethiopian and Eritrean refugees in the east (200 000 people). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 150 000 to help tackle the cholera epidemic. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 10 million for a programme to counter malnutrition and improve basic health care, in particular for women and children in isolated locations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Montserrat: ECU 380 000 to help evacuees in the wake of the recent volcanic eruption. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia: ECU 1 million for people displaced as a result of drug terrorism and the fighting that has been taking peace between government forces and guerillas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Costa Rica: ECU 400 000 for the victims of Hurricane Cesar. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala: ECU 220 000 to train teachers in order to improve education among repatriated communities in the department of Alta Verapaz. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua: ECU 440 000 to improve conditions for the social and economic reintegration of uprooted populations (people who have been repatriated, displaced or demobilised) in the department of Rio San Juan. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Caucasus: ECU 4.18 million for civilian victims of the war in Chechnya and for refugees in Ossetia and Dagestan. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iraq: ECU 9 million for food aid, medical provisions, rehabilitation of drinking water systems, sanitary equipment and educational material to assist 3 million people in the north and centre of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yemen: ECU 150 000 for flood victims. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cambodia: ECU 290 000 for a programme to construct and distribute artificial limbs to land-mine victims. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand (Burmese refugees): ECU 220 000 for 'Mon' refugees from Burma (Myanmar) who have fled the violence in their country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand (Burmese refugees): ECU 500 000 for medical aid in favour of 'Karen' refugees from Burma (Myanmar). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AID</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently decided to allocate the following aid: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p90.png"></center><br>
+Table</P>
+
+<!--
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/ec160e/metadata.xml
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+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">The Courier - NÂ°160 - Nov - Dec 1996 - Dossier Habitat - Country reports: Fiji , Tonga (ec160e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Settlements, Housing, Building - Infrastructure Construction (Roads etc)|Settlements and housing: general works incl. low- cost housing, planning techniques, surveying, etc.</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Development Periodicals and Magazines|The Courier ACP 1990 - 1996 Africa-Caribbean-Pacific - European Union</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">EC Courier</Metadata>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/fb33fe/fb33fe.htm
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+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Farming snails 1: Learning about snails; Building a pen; Food and shelter plants</TITLE>
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+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Farming snails 1: Learning about snails; Building a pen; Food and shelter plants</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rome 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P-69</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISBN 92-5-102396-4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&copy; FAO 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Did you know that many kinds of snails are good to eat?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Snail meat tastes good and it is also good for you. If you have snail meat to eat, it will help to keep you and your family strong and healthy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p60a.png"></center><br>
+ Family kept strong and healthy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. If you want to have snails to eat you can get them in different ways.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Many people gather wild snails that live nearby. Sometimes you can buy snails at the market or from people who gather them to sell to others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. You can also raise your own snails. This is called snail farming. Today, a great many people all over the world farm snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. If you farm your own snails, you will always have a supply of fresh snail meat whenever you want it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Then, if your family is not too big and you grow more snails than you need to eat, you can sell what you do not use to your neighbours or at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61a.png"></center><br>
+ Selling snails at the market</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. With more food to eat and the money you get by selling snails, you and your family can live better.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. However, if your family is big you will need to grow many more snails if you are going to have enough to eat and to sell at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61b.png"></center><br>
+ You need to grow more snails if your family is big</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">What do you need to start?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You will need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> enough snails to start your snail farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61c.png"></center><br>
+ Snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> a place near your house with the right kind of soil and the right amount of water for snails to live and grow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61d.png"></center><br>
+ A place near your house</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the kinds of plants that snails need for food and shelter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the materials to build a pen for the snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p62a.png"></center><br>
+ Plants that snails need; The materials to build a pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. If you have or can get all of these things, you can raise snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Learning about snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. To farm snails is not hard; however, it is quite different from keeping chickens or ducks or from growing crops such as maize, rice, cassava or groundnuts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12. Since farming snails is so different from other kinds of farming, you will have to learn a lot of new things.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">13. One way to learn about snails so that you will be able to farm them is to watch the wild snails that live near you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p62b.png"></center><br>
+ Watch the wild snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14. Try to see how they live, how they move and where they go, what plants they like best and what they eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15. You can learn many things by watching wild snails that will help you later if you decide to start a snail farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p63a.png"></center><br>
+ Wild snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">16. Another way to learn about snails is to ask an older farmer who knows a lot about your area. If there are people near you who gather snails to sell to others, they may be able to help you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">17. In the next part of this booklet, you will begin to learn some things that you need to know to farm snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">What kind of snails can you farm?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">18. The kind of snails that you can farm are snails that live on land, and there are many kinds of land snails that are good to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">19. However, some kinds of land snails are not good to eat and they may even make you very, very sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20. So, you must be very careful when you choose snails to farm. If you are not sure that a snail is good to eat, do not use it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p63b.png"></center><br>
+ Do not use snail unless you are sure it is good to eat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">21. Now look at the drawings on pages 8 to 11 and you will see four kinds of good snails that live in different places.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">22. You may be able to find one of these kinds of snails where you live. Notice that two of them are small and two of them are large.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">23. The smaller kinds of snails, shown on pages 8 and 9, can often be found in places where part of the year is warm and part of the year is cold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">24. The larger kinds of snails, shown on pages 10 and 11, can often be found in places where it is warm all year round.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64a.png"></center><br>
+ Helix pomatia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of small snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can be found in places where part of the year is warm and part of the year is cold</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 weighs from 15 to 25 grams and measures from 40 to 50 millimetres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 has a strong shell which is pale brown and off- white</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in two to three years if it is well fed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from 30 to 50 eggs each growing season</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64b.png"></center><br>
+ Helix Pomatia - 30 to 50 small eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64c.png"></center><br>
+ Helix aspersa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of small snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can often be found in places where part of the year is warm and part of the year is cold</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 weighs from 4 to 20 grams and measures from 30 to 45 millimetres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 has a weak shell with broken stripes which are light brown to black</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in one year if it is well fed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from 40 to 170 eggs one to three times each growing season</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64d.png"></center><br>
+ Helix aspersa - 40 to 170 small eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65a.png"></center><br>
+ Achatina achatina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of large snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can often be found in places where it is warm all year round</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 weighs from 150 to 200 grams or more and measures from 90 to 130 millimetres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 has a very strong brown shell</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in two years if it is well fed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from 100 to 300 eggs one to two times each growing season</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65b.png"></center><br>
+ Achatina achatina - 100 to 300 small eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65c.png"></center><br>
+ Archchatina marginata</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of large snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can often be found in places where it is warm all year round</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 weighs from 150 to 200 grams or more and measures from 90 to 130 millimetres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 has a very strong brown shell</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in two years if it is well fed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from five to ten eggs four to eight times each growing season</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65d.png"></center><br>
+ Archchatina marginata - five to ten large eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">25. If you cannot get one of these snails, you may be able to get others very much like them where you live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">26. There are many other kinds of good snails. There may even be several kinds of good snails that are eaten where you live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">27. If snails are eaten where you live, you can farm one of these. Then you will be sure that it is good to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Where can you get snails?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">28. When you are ready to get snails, perhaps you can get them by gathering wild snails that live near you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p66a.png"></center><br>
+ Gathering wild snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">29. Perhaps you can buy them from people who gather wild snails to sell to others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p66b.png"></center><br>
+ Buying from one who gathers wild snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30. You may even be able to buy them from another snail farmer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p66c.png"></center><br>
+ Buying from another snail farmer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Never term snails that you buy at the market. Snails at the market may have been washed, kept too cold or hurt and they may die soon.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Where can you farm snails?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">31. A good place for a snail farm is one where there already are snails. If there already are snails, you will know that the soil and the water in the soil are right for snails to live and grow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">32. However, if there are no snails near where you live it does not mean that you cannot raise snails there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">33. If you have the right kind of soil with the right amount of water, you can bring good snails from another place to start your snail farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The soil and the water in the soil</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">34. Soil is important for snails. Part of the time they live on the soil and part of the time they live in the soil, and to live well, snails need good soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p67a.png"></center><br>
+ Snail on the soil; Snail in the soil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">35. When snails are not on the soil or in the soil, they are on plants which grow in the soil. So, the soil must also be good for the kinds of plants that snails need.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p67b.png"></center><br>
+ Snail on plant</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">36. When snails are in the soil, they are resting or laying their eggs. If the soil has the right amount of water, snails will live well, the eggs they lay will hatch well and the baby snails will come out of the soil easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">37. Snails cannot live in hard soil such as heavy clay soils. When heavy clay soil is too dry, snails cannot dig into it to rest and lay their eggs. When heavy clay is too wet, snails and the eggs they lay may die.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">38. Snails cannot live in loose soil such as soils that have a lot of sand. Sandy soils do not hold enough water for snail eggs to hatch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">39. The drawings on the next page show how a snail digs a hole, lays its eggs, closes the hole and how the baby snails come out when they have hatched.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">40. Snails need calcium from the soil to make their shells. All snails grow better and have stronger shells when there is a lot of calcium in the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">41. So, if you are going to farm snails, you must have a good medium soil that has neither too much clay nor too much sand. It must also have enough calcium and the right amount of water for your snails to live and grow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you have a garden, you can easily tell if your soll is good for snails. If your green leafy vegetables grow well, snails will also grow well in the same kind of soil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68a.png"></center><br>
+ Snails will grow well in a garden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 snail digging a hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68b.png"></center><br>
+ 1 snail digging a hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 laying the eggs and closing the hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68c.png"></center><br>
+ Snail laying eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 baby snails hatching and coming out of the hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68d.png"></center><br>
+ Baby snails hatching and coming out of the hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Plants for food and plants for shelter</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">42. Snails need plants for both food and sheller. Most kinds of snails use several kinds for food and several other kinds for shelter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p69a.png"></center><br>
+ Plants for food and plants for shelter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">43. They may also use different plants for food and shelter at different times of the year. Sometimes during the growing season snails eat and find shelter on the same plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">44. Snails usually hide on shelter plants during the day when it is dry and move to food plants to eat at night or early in the morning when they are wet with dew. However, sometimes snails do eat during the day after it has rained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">45. If you live in a place which has a season when plants do not grow, snails will dig into the soil to rest and they do not eat then.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">46. During the growing season snails will eat a lot and grow very fast if they have food plants that they like.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">47. So, before you begin you will have to find out exactly what plants they like to eat. To do this you will have to watch snails at night when they eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p69b.png"></center><br>
+ See what snails eat at night</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">48. You can tell that snails are eating when you see their heads moving as they scrape food into their mouths. You can also tell when a snail has been eating by the holes it makes in the leaves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p69c.png"></center><br>
+ Snail on leaf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">49. You will also have to find out what plants they like for shelter. To do this you will have to watch snails during the day when they rest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p70a.png"></center><br>
+ See where snails rest during the day</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50. It is often difficult to find snails on shelter plants because they are hiding. So, you will have to look very carefully.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p70b.png"></center><br>
+ Snails are hiding on shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">51. In addition to the food plants, there are many other kinds of foods that you can put into a pen for your snails to eat. You will learn about these foods and when you should use them in the next booklet in this series.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dew and rain</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">52. Dew at night in the growing season helps the plants to grow and makes the leaves and the ground wet so that snails can move about.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">53. Rain in the growing season also helps the plants to grow and it cleans the plants of dust and the dirt that snails leave when they move about. The dirt that snails leave may make them sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">54. So, it is very important that the food and shelter plants are wet and clean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">55. When the leaves are wet, snails move easily, eat more and grow well. When the leaves are dry, snails move very little, or not at all, and they grow poorly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p70c.png"></center><br>
+ Wet leaves are good for snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">56. When it rains and the plants are clean, the snails will be healthy. When it does not rain and the plants are dirty, the snails may get sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">57. Dew and rain also keep the ground moist so that the snails can move easily and dig into it to rest and to lay their eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">58. In the next booklet, you will be told how to wet the leaves of plants and moisten the ground when it is too dry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Land that is wet</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">59. Land that is very wet, low land that does not drain well or land that floods in the rainy season is not good for snail farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p71a.png"></center><br>
+ Low, wet land is bad for snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Wind</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60. Wind during the growing season is bad because it dries the dew and dries out the snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p71b.png"></center><br>
+ Wind is bad for snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">61. If you decide to farm snails, try to keep them in a place that is protected from the wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p71c.png"></center><br>
+ Snails should be farmed in a place protected from the wind</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Where do you keep snails when you farm them?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">62. If you decide to farm snails you must keep them in a pen. Snails kept in a well- built pen will not get away easily and you can watch them and take care of them well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">63. After the first year you will need at least two pens. If you decide to farm more snails you may want even more pens. You will learn how to use two or more pens in the next booklet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p72a.png"></center><br>
+ Two pens the second year</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">64. In each pen you can give your snails the right kinds of plants for them to eat and to use as shelter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">65. In each pen you can put the food and shelter plants near each other so that the snails can move easily from one to the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">66. Each pen you build must also keep the snails safe from their enemies. Snails have many enemies. You must be careful to protect them from</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> mice and rats</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> shrews and moles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> walking insects that live on the ground such as ants and beetles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> slugs and other snails that eat snail meat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> birds that eat snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> frogs and toads</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> thieves</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p72b.png"></center><br>
+ Protect them from
+</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">67. A snail pen can be small or large depending on how many snails you want to raise. However, when you first begin, start with a small pen. You will need fewer materials. It will be easier to take care of.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">68. In addition, with a small pen you will need fewer snails to begin. When you know more about raising snails, you can build a bigger pen and get more snails to raise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">69. A good size for a pen is 5 x 5 metres. Later in this booklet you will learn how to build a small pen of this size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How many snails will you need when you first begin?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70. If you are using small snails like those you have seen on pages 8 and 9 in this booklet, you will need more snails to begin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">71. If you are using large snails like those you have seen on pages 10 and 11 in this booklet, you will need fewer snails to begin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">72. With a pen of 5 x 5 metres (25 square metres) you will need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 150 snails if you use the small kind (6 for each square metre)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 25 snails if you use the large kind (1 for each square metre).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p73a.png"></center><br>
+ 150 small snails; 25 large snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How much snail meat can you expect to get?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">73. The amount of snail meat that you will get from small snails will be about the same as what you would get from large snails. This is because you will use many more small snails than large snails and the meat will be about equal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">74. With one 5 x 5 metre pen you will get 12 to 13 kilograms of snail meat each year and with two 5 x 5 metre pens you will get 24 to 26 kilograms each year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p73b.png"></center><br>
+ 12 to 13 kilograms each year; 24 to 26 kilograms each year</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Now you must decide</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">75. In the first part of this booklet you have learned many things about snails and farming snails. You have learned</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> why it is good to farm snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> what you need to farm snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> what kinds of snails you can farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> how to find plants near you that are good for food and shelter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> what kind of soil and how much water in the soil snails need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> where to keep snails and how many you need to start</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">76. You may also have been able to learn a lot about snails by watching the wild snails near where you live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">77. An old farmer may have told you what he knows about snails. Someone who gathers snails to sell to others or another snail farmer may have helped you to learn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">78. So, now that you know a lot about snails it is time to decide if you would like to start your own snail farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">79. If you would like to begin you will learn exactly what to do in the rest of this booklet and in the next booklet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How to begin</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Choose a place on your land to put your snail farm</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">80. Try to choose a place that is close to your house. That way you will be able to watch your snails, protect them from their enemies and take care of them easily</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p74a.png"></center><br>
+ Close to your house</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">81. In Items 34 to 41 you were told that to farm snails you must have the right kind of soil with the right amount of water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">82. Remember, if green leafy vegetables grow well in your soil, snails will also grow well in the same kind of soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p74b.png"></center><br>
+ If your garden grows well, so will your snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">83. In Items 59 to 61 you were told that low, wet land and wind are bad for snails. So, avoid low, wet places and try to put your snail farm where it is protected from the wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p75a.png"></center><br>
+ Avoid low, wet land; Find a place protected from wind</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">84. In Item 63 you were told that after the first year you will need at least two pens and later you may want even more. In Item 69 you were told that it is best to start with a small pen of 5 x 5 metres.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">85. So, try to find a place where you can put at least two or three 5 x 5 metre pens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p75b.png"></center><br>
+ two or three 5 x 5 metre pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Clean the site and prepare the ground</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">86. Clean the site and prepare the ground a little before the growing season so that you can build the pen in time to plant the food and shelter plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">87. First, mark out a square of 8 x 8 metres on the place that you have chosen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p75c.png"></center><br>
+ Mark and clear the 8 x 8 metre square</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">88. That way, with a pen of 5 x 5 metres in the centre of the square, you will have a path of 1.5 metres all the way around it (see Item 92). If you have enough land, the path can be even wider.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">89. Clear the square of trees, bushes grass, creeping grass and weeds. Take away all of the roots and the big stones that you can.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p76a.png"></center><br>
+ Take away roots and big stones</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90. Spread the plant material that you have cleaned evenly on the ground and cover the whole square. If there is not enough, bring more plant material from another place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p76b.png"></center><br>
+ Cover the square with plant materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">91. When the plant material is dry, burn it. This will kill the insects, the weed seeds and the roots of creeping grass, and rid the ground of mice, rats and shrews.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p76c.png"></center><br>
+ Burn the plant materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insecticides and poisons can also be used to rid your pen of insects, mice, rats and other enemies of snails. However, if you use them, do not use them by yourself because they are very dangerous. Ask someone who knows how to use them, such as your extension agent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">92. Now mark out a smaller square of 5 x 5 metres inside the big square. This is for your first snail pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p77a.png"></center><br>
+ Mark the 5 x 5 metre square</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">93. Dig the ground in the smaller square to a depth of 20 centimetres and turn it over well. As you dig, remove any rubbish or roots that you find.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p77b.png"></center><br>
+ Dig in the ground</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">94. While you are digging, if you see any more insects or any of the enemies of snails, bring more dry plant material and burn the ground again. To farm snails, the area must be free of insects, mice, rats and other enemies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">95. When you have finished digging, the ground in the 5 x 5 metre square should be as smooth and well worked as it would be if you were planting a vegetable garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p77c.png"></center><br>
+ The 5 x 5 metre square should be smooth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">96. However, do not use any fertilizer, animal manure or compost as you might with a vegetable garden. Fertilizers may burn the snails and animal manure or compost may bring in insects and weed seeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Building a pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">97. Build a pen for your snails as soon as you can after you have burned the plant material. This is to keep other insects, mice, rats or shrews from getting into your pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">98. A snail pen is a simple fenced- in area and you can build a fence using</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> corrugated sheet metal or plastic sheets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> woven plant material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> woven plant material with chicken wire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p78a.png"></center><br>
+ Materials for fence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using corrugated sheet metal or plastic sheets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">99. A fence of corrugated sheet metal or plastic sheets makes the best pen for snails because it keeps out their enemies very well. However, sheet metal or plastic costs a lot of money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p78b.png"></center><br>
+ A fence of corrugated sheet metal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">100. If you are going to build a pen using corrugated metal or plastic, you must build it in such a way that the enemies of snails cannot get in between the sheets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using woven plant material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">101. To save money, you can build a fence of woven plant material such as split bamboo. If the woven material is tight, it will keep out enough of enemies for you to farm snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79a.png"></center><br>
+ Woven material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using woven plant material with chicken wire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">102. If you can get fine- mesh chicken wire, you can improve a fence that is made of woven material.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79b.png"></center><br>
+ Chicken wire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">103. To do this, first make the fence of chicken wire and then cover it with woven material.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79c.png"></center><br>
+ First use chicken wire then cover it with woven material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">104. The chicken wire will keep out rats and other small animals. The woven plant material will keep most of the insects out and keep the snails in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79d.png"></center><br>
+ Keep out small animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With any kind of pen animals such as rats may get in, and this is especially true with pens made only of woven plant material. So, you must always watch for rats and other animals and keep them out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to build the fence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">105. Build the fence as you would any fence, by driving posts into the ground. Use posts 1.40 metres long. When the posts are in place they should be 1.00 metre above and 0.40 metre below the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p80a.png"></center><br>
+ Drive posts into the ground</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">106. Whatever material you use for the fence of your pen, it should be buried 0.40 metre below the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">107. If you are using woven material you will have to change the bottom of the fence when it rots.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">108. This can be done more easily by making the woven material in two parts, one for the top and one for the bottom. When the bottom part rots, you can change it without having to change the whole fence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p80b.png"></center><br>
+ Attach top parts first; attach bottom parts second</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keeping your snails in the pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">109. Many of your snails may crawl over the fence and get out of the pen. If you build a flap on the inside at the top of the fence, it will be more difficult for your snails to get out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">110. However, even with a flap some snails may get out, and for this reason many snail farmers put two flaps on their fence. With two flaps they find that fewer snails get out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p81a.png"></center><br>
+ With two flaps, your snails will not easily crawl out of the pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you make your pen using galvanized sheet metal, you will not need flaps. Snails will not crawl on galvanized sheet metal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">111. The drawings show you how to build a 5 x 5 metre pen using woven plant material, with and without chicken wire and how to build flaps to keep your snails in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p81b.png"></center><br>
+ How to build a 5 x 5 metre small pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 if you are using woven material only, attach it as you were told to do in Item 108</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82a.png"></center><br>
+ Attach woven material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 If you are using chicken wire and woven material, attach the chicken wire first and then the woven material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82b.png"></center><br>
+ Attach the chicken material first</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 be sure that the fence cover goes all the way to the bottom of the 0.40- m trench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82c.png"></center><br>
+ 0.40- m trench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6 fill in the trench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82d.png"></center><br>
+ Fill in the trench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7 attach the flaps to the inside of the pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: use woven material 0.25 m wide for the flaps</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8 first attach the bottom flap using heavy cord</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p83a.png"></center><br>
+ Use heavy cord</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9 then attach the top flap</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Plant the food and shelter plants</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">112. You have already been told that you should clean and prepare the site and build your snail pen in time for the planting season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">113. If it has been only a short time since you dug the ground and worked the soil in your pen, you can begin to plant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">114. If it has been a long time, dig and work the soil again before you plant. However, as you were told in Item 96, do not use fertilizer, animal manure or compost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">115. Now you can begin to plant the food and shelter plants. Remember that you should use</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> plants that grow well where you live</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> plants that last a long time</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> plants that snails like</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">116. The drawings, show you two ways to plant food and shelter plants in a 5 x 5 metre pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">117. On pages 50 to 55 you will see some food and shelter plants that snails are known to like. Look at them carefully. Perhaps you can find some of them where you live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two ways plant food and shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 if your shelter plants are small, plant your pen like this</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84a.png"></center><br>
+ Mark three places for small shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 plant the shelter plants first and then plant the food plants all around the shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84b.png"></center><br>
+ First plant the shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 if your shelter plants are large, plant your pen like this</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84c.png"></center><br>
+ Mark only one place for large shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 plant the shelter plants first and then plant the food plants all around the shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84d.png"></center><br>
+ Leave a path inside the fence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RAMPE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p85a.png"></center><br>
+ Some plants for food</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rape is one of many kinds of smooth- leaved cabbage. It grows from seed and lasts a number of months. Rape is the best food plant for Helix snails (see pages 8 and 9 in this booklet). Many of the other kinds of smooth- leaved cabbage also make good food plants for snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p85b.png"></center><br>
+ Rape</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFRICAN SPINACH (Amaranthus)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This green leafy vegetable is a good food plant for young Achatina and Archachatina snails. However, if you plant African spinach for your snails, they will need other kinds of food plants as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p85c.png"></center><br>
+ African spinach</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PAPAYA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You have already been told that snails can be given food to eat other than the food plants that you have planted in the pen (see also Items 175 to 179 in the next booklet). The tender green leaves and cut- up fruit of the papaya tree are very good for Achatina and Archachatina snails. However, the papaya should not be planted inside the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p86a.png"></center><br>
+ Papaya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HORSE- RADISH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Horse- radish is a good food and shelter plant for young Helix snails. However, when they are older they will need other kinds of food plants as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p86b.png"></center><br>
+ Horse- Radish</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEAF BEET</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leaf beet grows well from seed and lives for one year. It can be used with He/ix snails for both food and for shelter. As a food plant alone it is not the best and you will have to give your snails other food plants as well. However, as a shelter plant it is very good for Helix snails. These snails lay eggs under the beet plants and find shelter around the roots in cold weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p86c.png"></center><br>
+ Leaf Beet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BURDOCK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burdock grows from seed and lives for more than a year. It grows very slowly and you should plant it as soon as you can so that it can grow big enough for your snails. However, once it has grown it makes a good food and shelter plant for almost any kind of snail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p87a.png"></center><br>
+ Burdock</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BANANA and LOOFAH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banana and loofah plants together provide both food and shelter for Achatina and Archachatina snails. Ripe bananas can be cut up and fed to the snails and they can use the loofah plant for food and for shelter. However, your snails will need other food plants as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p87b.png"></center><br>
+ Banana and Loofah</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PLANTAGO</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plantago grows well from seed and lasts about two years. It is the best shelter plant for Helix snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p87c.png"></center><br>
+ Plantago</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ASPARAGUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asparagus lives for many years and it is a good shelter plant for young Achatina and Archachatina snails. However, it is not good for older snails because they are too heavy for asparagus plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When are the plants big enough for food and for shelter?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">118. The food plants must be big enough to feed your snails and the shelter plants tall enough to cover them and to protect them from the sun.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">119. Depending on the kind of snails that you are raising, most plants will be big enough after they have been growing for about five to six weeks or when they have reached a height of 10 to 20 centimetres.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p88a.png"></center><br>
+ Plants will grow to a height of 10 to 20 cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">120. When you are sure that the plants are big enough to provide food and shelter, you can begin to collect the snails and put them into the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">121. In Booklet No. 34, Farming snails 2, you will learn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> how to choose good snails and how to put them in the pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> how to take care of your snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when and how to harvest snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> how to prepare snails for cooking</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">122. You will also be told some things that you can do to improve your snail farm so that later when you have more experience you can raise more and better snails.</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/fb33fe/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/fb33fe/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/fb33fe/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Farming snails 1: Learning about snails; Building a pen; Food and shelter plants (fb33fe)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Agriculture and Food Processing|Better Farming series of FAO and INADES - 46 booklets</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Settlements, Housing, Building - Infrastructure Construction (Roads etc)|Settlements and housing: general works incl. low- cost housing, planning techniques, surveying, etc.</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">FAO Better Farming series</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/fb34fe/fb34fe.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/fb34fe/fb34fe.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/fb34fe/fb34fe.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,672 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Farming snails 2: Choosing snails; Care and harvesting; Further improvement</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Farming snails 2: Choosing snails; Care and harvesting; Further improvement</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rome 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P-69</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISBN 92-5-102397-2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&copy; FAO 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first twenty- six volumes in FAO's Better Farming Series were based on the Cours d'apprentissage agricole prepared in C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire by the Institut africain de d&eacute;veloppement &eacute;conomique et social for use by extension workers. Later volumes, beginning with No. 27, have been prepared by FAO for use in agricultural development at the farm and family level. The approach has deliberately been a general one, the intention being to constitute basic prototype outlines to be modified or expanded in each area according to local conditions of agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the booklets deal with specific crops and techniques, while others are intended to give the farmer more general information which can help him to understand why he does what he does, so that he will be able to do it better. Booklets No. 33 and 34 were added to the series owing to a growing interest in small- scale snail farming for food and profit in many countries where FAO's Better Farming Series is widely used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adaptations of the series, or of individual volumes in it, have been published in Amharic, Arabic, Bengali, Creole, Hindi, Igala, Indonesian, Kiswahili, Malagasy, SiSwati, Thai and Turkish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Requests for permission to issue this manual in other languages and to adapt it according to local climatic and ecological conditions are welcomed. They should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Choosing your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">123. All of the snails that you choose for your pen must be of the same kind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p093a.png"></center><br>
+ All of the snails that you farm must be the same kind</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">124. You may have found one of the kinds of snails shown on pages 8 to 11 in the last booklet living in your area. You may also have found a different kind of snail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">125. Now you must learn to choose the beat of the kinds of snails that you have found. When you first begin you will need fully grown snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">126. Remember, that all snails are both male and female and all snails lay eggs. So, when you are looking for snails, you can choose any one that is fully grown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">127. You can tell that a snail is fully grown because it has a lip on the mouth of its shell. The drawings below show two fully grown snails with lips.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p094a.png"></center><br>
+ Snails which fill and which does not fill their cells</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">128. Look at the drawings again. Notice that although both snails are fully grown, one of them fills its shell and one of them does not.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">129. The snail that does not fill its shell may be sick or it may have lost its water because of dry weather. This snail may not grow well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">130. Choose only snails that fill their shells. Snails that fill their shells will usually grow well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">131. Choose snails that have good, strong shells. Strong shells protect snails from their enemies, and snails with strong shells sell better at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">132. Choose the largest of the fully grown snails that you can find from the kind of snail that you are going to farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p094b.png"></center><br>
+ Choose the largest snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">133. The larger snails of any kind of snail will be better and healthier and lay more eggs than a snail that is smaller.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">134. In addition, the eggs of large, healthy snails hatch better and the baby snails grow bigger and faster.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">135. Later, when you have more experience in choosing snails, you will learn just how large a fully grown snail should be. You will also learn the different colours of the kind of snail that you are farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">136. Then you can choose snails that are the same size and colour that you want your baby snails to be.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As you collect your snails, handle them very gently and put them carefully into a container such as a basket so that you can carry them to the pen without hurting them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p095a.png"></center><br>
+ Handle your snails carefully</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Putting your snails in the pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">137. Just before you put your snails in the pen, take out all the grass, the creeping grass and the weeds that may have grown while the food and shelter plants were growing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p095b.png"></center><br>
+ Take out all grass, creeping grass and weeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">138. Never put snails in a pen in the morning or during the day when the sun is hot. Always put them in the evening when it is cool. This is when they begin to move about and to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p095c.png"></center><br>
+ Always put snacks in the pen in the evening</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">139. If there is no dew and leaves of the plants and the ground are dry, wet them. Items 160 to 165 in this booklet will tell you how.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p096a.png"></center><br>
+ Wet the plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">140. When you put snails in the pen, put an equal number of them in four different places.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">141. In the last booklet you were told that for a 5 x 5 metre pen you would need 150 snails if you use the small kind, and 25 snails if you use the large kind. So, if you need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 150 snails, put 35 to 40 snails in four places</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 25 snails, put 6 snails in three places and 7 snails in one place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">142. The arrows in the drawing at the top of the next page will show you where to put snails in a 5 x 5 metre pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p096b.png"></center><br>
+ Where to put the snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When you put snails in a pen, never put them near the fence or in a corner of the fence. If you put them near the fence it is easier for them to get out than it is if you put them near the centre of the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p096c.png"></center><br>
+ Do not put snails in the corner or near the fence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">143. The morning after you have put your snails in the pen, look to see that they have all moved. If any of them have not moved, put them under shelter plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">144. If any snails die, take them out and put in the same number of new snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p097a.png"></center><br>
+ Take out the dead snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">145. At first your snails will try to crawl out of the pen. During this time, go around the pen each morning and put them back.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">146. After about two weeks your snails will become used to their new home and most of them will not try to crawl out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">147. However, it is a good idea, even after the first two weeks, to check from time to time and put back any of the snails that may have got out of the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When to take out the fully grown snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">148. When you see a lot of baby snails in your pen, you will no longer need to keep the fully grown snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">149. So, take out all of the fully grown snails that you first put into your pen. You can either eat them or sell them at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p097b.png"></center><br>
+ Take out all fully grown snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">150. Now, with only the baby snails left, the food plants in the pen will be more likely to last until the baby snails are big enough to harvest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">151. Later in this booklet, you will be told when the baby snails are big enough to harvest and how to harvest them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Taking care of your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">152. After you have put your snails in their pen, watch them carefully to see that they are eating well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">153. If you have given them enough of the right kinds of food plants, they will eat a lot and you will have very little to do for them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">154. However, here are some things that you must do</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> wet the plants and moisten the ground</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> take care of the plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> take away the weeds and the creeping grass</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></DIR>
+
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Wet the food and shelter plants and moisten the ground</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">155. You have already been told that the leaves of the food and shelter plants must be wet and clean and that the ground must be moist (see Items 52 to 58 in the last booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">156. If there is too lime dew and not enough rainfall during the time when the plants and the snails are growing, you will have to water the plants and the ground yourself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">157. If it is dry, you should water the plants and the ground at least every second day. However, if it is very dry, you may have to water them every day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">158. Never water in the morning or during the day when the sun is hot. Always water in the evening at about sunset.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">159. If you water when the sun is hot, the snails will begin to move away from the shelter plants and the hot sun may kill them before they can find shelter again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">160. An easy way to wet the plants and moisten the ground is by hand. First fill a bucket with water and wrap a piece of cloth around your hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p098a.png"></center><br>
+ Wrap a cloth around your hand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">161. Then, dip your hand with the cloth into the bucket of water and gently splash the plants and the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p099a.png"></center><br>
+ Gently splash plants and ground</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">162. Continue to splash the plants and the ground gently until you have watered the whole pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">163. When you have finished, the leaves of the plants should be wet and the ground should be moist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">164. You can tell when the plants are wet enough and the ground is moist enough when you can see your snails moving about easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p099b.png"></center><br>
+ Snails move about easily</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">165. Remember: the soil must be moist and not wet in order for snail eggs to hatch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You have already been told that if you live in a place that has a dry season when the plants do not grow, snails dig into the ground to rest. Never water at this time or your snails may come out of the ground when they should not.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Tend the food and shelter plants</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">166. Watch all of your plants to see that they are growing well and that they do not get too tall or too thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">167. Plants that are too tall or thick stop the dew from reaching the leaves and stop the rain from washing away the dust and the dirt that snails leave when they move about.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">168. If you see that the plants are not being wet or washed by dew or rain, cut them back.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p101a.png"></center><br>
+ Cut back the plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Take away the weeds and creeping grass</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">169. After your snails are in their pen you must be sure to take away all weeds and especially creeping grass as soon as you see them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">170. Creeping grass grows very fast and so thick that it can kill the food and shelter plants. If this happens, your snails will have no food and no place to find shelter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">171. Taking away weeds and creeping grass when snails are in the pen is very difficult. So, you must be very careful not to hurt them or step on them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">172. If the weeds and creeping grass get too thick, it may be better to move the snails before you take weeds and creeping grass away (see Item 183 in this booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">173. Keep the path around the pen clear of weeds, grass and creeping grass. This will help to keep weed seeds and unwanted plants out of the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p101b.png"></center><br>
+ Keep the path clean</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">174. If the path is clean, insects will be less likely to cross it to get into the pen and you will be able to see signs of mice, rats and shrews.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Feeding your snails other kinds of food</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">175. There are a number of reasons for giving your snails other kinds of food. Here are a few</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when you have not planted the right kinds of food plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when you have too many snails for the number of food plants that you have planted</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when most of the food plants in the pen have been eaten by the snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">176. If you decide for any of these reasons that you must give your snails other kinds of food, here are some foods that snails like to eat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the outside leaves of vegetables such as cabbage or cauliflower</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the tops of vegetables such as carrots or beets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> ripe banana fruit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> most waste fruit and vegetables</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> cut- up papaya, melon or squash</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p102a.png"></center><br>
+ Food snails eat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">177. There are many other foods that snails like to eat. If you have some food that you think might be good, try it with your snails and see if they like it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">178. If your snails are not eating their food plants well, you also can try some others. Cut pieces from the plant that you want to try and put them in the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">179. If you see that your snails like the new food plants better, you can use these plants when you build the second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Building the second pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">180. In the last booklet you were told that to farm snails you will need at least two pens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p103a.png"></center><br>
+ Two pens needed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">181 . With two pens you can move your snails from one pen to the other to get rid of any enemies that may have got in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">182. You can also move your snails to dig the ground and work the soil so that they can dig into the soil to rest and can lay their eggs easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">183. With two pens you can move your snails from one pen to the other if the weeds and creeping grass get too thick to take away with snails in the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">184. You can also plant new food plants when the old ones have been eaten. When you are moving the snails, you can get rid of any of them that have not grown well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When to build the second pen and how to build it</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">185. Build your second pen a little before the growing season and exactly one year after you built the first pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">186. Begin just as you did before, by cleaning and preparing the ground (see Items 86 to 96 in the last booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">187. However, if you put your second pen near your first pen, be very careful when you burn the plant material not to burn your first pen or harm the snails in it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">188. For this reason it is best to leave an open space of at least 3 metres between your first and second pens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p103b.png"></center><br>
+ Be very carefull when you burn the plant material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">189. Now you are ready to build the second 5 x 5 metre pen and to plant the food and shelter plants (see Items 97 to 117 in the last booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Putting snails in your second pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">190. When the plants in your second pen have grown big enough to provide food and shelter, you can put in the snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p104a.png"></center><br>
+ When the plants are grown, you can bring the snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">191. If the snails in your first pen have grown well, you can use some of them for your second pen. So, collect the right number of the biggest and best snails from your first pen to put in your second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">192. If the snails in your first pen have not grown well, you will have to begin again with new fully grown snails for your second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">193. Remember, with your first pen you put in 150 snails if you used the small kind and 25 snails if you used the large kind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">194. However, different snails lay different amounts of eggs. So with your second pen you may want to change the number of snails that you put in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">195. If there were too many baby snails for the food plants in your first pen, put fewer fully grown snails in your second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">196. If there were too few baby snails for the food plants in your first pen, put more fully grown snails in your second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">197. If you are not sure how many snails to use, it is best to continue to put in 150 if you use small snails and 25 if you use large snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p104b.png"></center><br>
+ 25 Large snails; 150 small snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">198. Later, when you have learned more about the kind of snails that you are using and how many baby snails they have, you will be better able to judge just how many fully grown snails that you should use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do not forget to take out all of the fully grown snails that you have put in after you see a lot of baby snails in your second pen (see Items 148 to 151 in this booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Harvesting your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When to harvest your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">199. If your snails have grown well, some of them will be big enough to harvest about one year after you have first put snails in the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">200. If you need any snails to put in another pen, collect them first. So, choose the right number (see Items 193 to 198 in this booklet) of the biggest and best snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">201. Carefully put these snails into a container so that you can carry them to the other pen without hurting them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p105a.png"></center><br>
+ Put snails into a container</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">202. Now you are ready to harvest the rest of your biggest snails. Remember, the best way to harvest is a few snails at a time when you want some to eat or to sell at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">203. However, harvest all of the snails by the end of the second year so that you can plant the pen in time for the next growing season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How to harvest your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">204. Harvesting snails is done by hand. It is often hard work to find them because they may be hiding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p105b.png"></center><br>
+ Harvesting snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">205. The easiest time to find the snails is when the plants are wet, after it has rained or at night when there is dew and they are moving about or eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">206. You can also put out some of the food that snails like and when they come to eat it, you can collect them easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p105c.png"></center><br>
+ Put out some food</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">207. When you are harvesting, handle your snails carefully and put them into a container such as a box or basket or a net sack. However, do not put more than 10 kilograms in a container or you may hurt them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106a.png"></center><br>
+ Put snails in a container</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">What to do with the snails you harvest</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">208. If you are going to sell the snails, you can carry them to the market in containers like the ones above. However, you must be very careful not to hurt them or break their shells.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">209. Remember, snails with clean shells and well- cared- for snails will sell better at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">210. If you want to keep the snails for you and your family to eat later, you can store them alive in containers filled with material such as sawdust or chopped maize husks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">211. That way you can keep them for as long as six to eight weeks before you use them. The drawings below show you how to store snails this way.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 a box is a good container to store snails in</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106b.png"></center><br>
+ A box</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 cover the bottom of the box with about 5 cm of sawdust or chopped maize husks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106c.png"></center><br>
+ Cover the bottom of the box with sawdust</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 carefully put in a layer of snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 cover the snails with about 3 cm of sawdust or chopped maize husks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106d.png"></center><br>
+ Cover the snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 continue to do this until the box is full</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: be sure that the top layer of snails is covered</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preparing snails for cooking</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">212. Before snails can be used you must be sure that there is no food in them. They must be clean inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">213. Snails that have been stored in a container (see Items 210 and 211 in this booklet) for more than four days will have no food left in them. They are clean inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">214. However, snails which have just been taken from the pen have been eating and are usually full of food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">215. So, before you can use them you must wait for them to become clean inside. To do this you need only to keep them from eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">216. Put them in a container where they can get no food but plenty of air. You can use a covered basket or a net sack.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p107a.png"></center><br>
+ Use a covered basket or a net sack</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">217. Put the basket or sack in a cool place away from the sun. After four days the snails will be clean inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p107b.png"></center><br>
+ Put the container away from sun</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">218. All snails must be washed and boiled just before cooking them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">219. First, put them in clean, cool water with a little salt and vinegar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p107c.png"></center><br>
+ Put them in clean water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">220. After a short time the water will begin 10 turn white and you will know that the snails are being washed inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">221. When the water is very white, take the snails out and empty out the old water. Then put them again in clean, cool water with a little salt and vinegar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p108a.png"></center><br>
+ Empty out dirty water; wash snails again</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">222. Continue to wash them this way until the water no longer turns white. Then you will know that the snails are completely washed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">223. Now put the snails in boiling water, again with salt and vinegar, and boil them at least five minutes. The snails are now ready to be cooked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p108b.png"></center><br>
+ Boil snails with salt and vinegar for five minutes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Snail meat can be cooked like any meat or it can be cut into pieces and added to a stew or vegetables. If snails are eaten where you live, there will be many ways to cook them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Further improvement</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">224. After you have been farming snails using two pens for some time, you may find that you and your family could eat or sell more snails if you had them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">225. You can raise more snails by building another pen. You can either build another 5 x 5 metre pen or you can build a still bigger pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">226. You can also raise more snails by taking better care of the snails that you have. If you take better care of your snails, year after year they will become bigger, healthier and stronger and produce more baby snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Building the third pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">227. Perhaps the most important thing that you can do to improve your snail farm is to build a third pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p109a.png"></center><br>
+ Build a third pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">228. Up until now, using only two pens, you have had to use both of them all of the time so that you could take fully grown snails from one after you had harvested the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p109b.png"></center><br>
+ Using two pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">229. Today, farmers know that it is not good to grow the same crops in the same place all of the time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">230. This is also true if you grow the same food and shelter plants in the same pen all of the time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">231. However, if you plant vegetables in one of your three pens for a year, the vegetables will grow well because of the snail manure in the soil. Afterwards, your food and shelter plants will also grow better because the soil has had a rest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">232. Also, if you raise snails in the same place all of the time, the sicknesses that they may get would do more harm year after year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">233. So, if you plant something else for a year or two and then start with snails again, they will be less likely to get sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">234. The diagram below shows you how to improve a snail farm by planting a vegetable garden in each pen from to time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p110a.png"></center><br>
+ Diagram</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Building a bigger pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">235. You may want to build a still bigger pen for your third pen so you can grow many more snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">236. If you build a 5 x 10 metre pen, you can grow two times as many snails. If you build a 10 x 10 metre pen, you can grow four times as many snails as you did in a 5 x 5 metre pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p110b.png"></center><br>
+ Pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">237. However, building a bigger pen is a lot more work and you will need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> more land</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> more materials to build it</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> more food and shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> more fully grown snails to begin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">238. You must also be sure that you and your family have enough time to take care of a bigger pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">239. If you do decide to build a bigger pen, build it exactly the same way that you built your first 5 x 5 metre pen (see pages 43 to 46 in the last booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p111a.png"></center><br>
+ Building a bigger pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Taking better care of your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">240. The better you understand the snails that you are farming, the better you can take care of them. So, you should always watch them and learn as much as you can.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">241. When you have learned the exact kinds of food plants that your snails like to eat, you will see that they grow well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">242. Then, if you always choose the biggest and best snails each time you begin, you will improve the quality of the snails that you are farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">243. So, with bigger and better snails and with more pens or bigger pens, you will be able to raise many more snails to eat or to sell and you arid your family will be able to live better.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p111b.png"></center><br>
+ Your family will be able to live better</P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/fb34fe/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/fb34fe/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/fb34fe/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Farming snails 2: Choosing snails; Care and harvesting; Further improvement (fb34fe)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Agriculture and Food Processing|Better Farming series of FAO and INADES - 46 booklets</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Settlements, Housing, Building - Infrastructure Construction (Roads etc)|Settlements and housing: general works incl. low- cost housing, planning techniques, surveying, etc.</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">FAO Better Farming series</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">farm snails</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/wb34te/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/wb34te/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
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+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Development in practice: Toward Gender Equality (wb34te)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Women, gender and development, women&apos;s organizations</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">World Bank</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">achieve gender equality</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/wb34te/wb34te.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/wb34te/wb34te.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/import/wb34te/wb34te.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1910 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Development in practice: Toward Gender Equality </TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Development in practice: Toward Gender Equality</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Role of Public Policy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">@ 1995 The Intentional Bank for Reconstruction and Development / THE WORLD BANK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing July 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Development in Practice series publishes reviews of the World Bank's activities in different regions and sectors. It lays particular emphasis on the progress that is being made and on the policies and practices that hold the most promise of success in the effort to reduce poverty in the developing world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This book is a product of the staff of the World Bank. and the judgments made herein, do not necessarily reflect the views of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Photo credits: Maurice Asseo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Library of Congers Cataloging-in-Publication Data</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toward gender equality: the role of public policy.  p. cm-(Development in practice)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Includes bibliographer references (p. 70)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISBN 0-8213-3337-2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Women-Government policy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Women's rights. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Sex discrimination against women. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Series:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development in practice (Washington. D.C.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HQ 1 236.T68; 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">305.4-dc20 95-631</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CIP</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Foreword</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TWENTY years ago in Mexico the First World Conference on Women inspired a movement that has helped to reduce gender inequality worldwide. Illiteracy among women is declining, maternal mortality and total fertility rates are beginning to fall. and more women are participating in the labor force than ever before. However. much remains to be done.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In low-income countries women are often denied health care and basic education. Worldwide. women face limited access to financial services, technology. and infrastructure. They are locked into relatively low-productivity work. In addition to performing household tasks and child-rearing duties, women work longer hours for lower pay than most men. And. most discouraging of all. hundreds of thousands of women each year are subject to gender-related violence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Persistent inequality between women and men constrains a society's productivity and, ultimately slows its rate of economic growth. Although this problem has been generally recognized evidence on the need for corrective action is more controlling today than ever.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report written for the Fourth World Conference on Women is intended as a reference to strategies for promoting gender equality and. consequently enhancing economic efficiency. It pulls together evidence, including case studies, that demonstrates the need for governor action to improve the economic status of women. It points out how public policy can and should support services and infrastructure that provide the highest social returns and that are most heavily used by women. The report also aims to stimulate creative solutions to the problem of gender inequality by high lilting innovative and sometimes not obvious strategies that have proved successful. A study in Morocco, for instance, shows that paving public roads to schools increases by 40 percent the probability that local girls will attend classes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy reform that provides an enabling environment for economic growth goes hand in hand with investing in people. The success of one strategy draws on the success of the other. No efforts at gender equality. however, can be successful without the participation of women themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the international community gathers in Beijing for the Fourth World Conference on Women, the World Bank stands ready to assist client governments in response to the challenges ahead. The Bank believes that by advancing gender equality, governments can greatly enhance the future well-being and prosperity of their people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Armeane M. Choksi Vice President Human Capital Development and Operations Policy The World Bank</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THIS REPORT was prepared by a team led by Kei Kawabata and comprising Alison Evans, Zafiris Tzannatos. Tara Vishwanath, and Rekha Menon. The work was carried out under the direction of Minh Chau Nguyen and the overall guidance of K. Y. Amoako. Valuable contributions were made by Joyce Cacho, Lionel Demery, Shahid Khandker, and Kalanidhi Subbarao.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Background papers for the report were prepared by team members and by Anjana Bhushan; Lynn Brown and Lawrence Haddad; Florencia Castro-Leal, with Ignacio Tavares and Ramon Lopez; Roberta Cohen; Monica Fong: Roger Key, with Beverly Mullings; Andrew Mason; and Veena Siddharth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An external review group and a Bankwide advisory committee provided valuable guidance at all stages of the report's preparation. Kalpana Bardhan. Pranab Bardhan, Nancy Folbre. and T. Paul Schultz were the external reviewers. Harold Aldennan, Jean-Jacques Dethier, Louise Fox, Sunita Gandhi, Chris Grootaert, Jeffrey Hammer, Tariq Husahl, Elizabeth King, Augusta Molnar, Helena Ribe, and Paula Valad made up the advisory committee. The report was edited by Jo Bischoff, Richard M. Crum, and Fiona Mackintosh; Benjamin Crow provided word-processing and graphics support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report also reflects the contributions of the participants in consultations held with nongovenamental organizations on March 1S, 1995, in New York. Data supplied by the United Nations and its agencies. particularly the International Labour Organization, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Statistical Office, and the World Health Organization, were invaluable for the preparation of the report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The production of the report was made possible by the assistance of the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which has given unwavering support to the protnotion of gender equality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Definitions and Data Notes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Definitions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Expected number of years of formal schooling The total number of years of schooling that a child of a certain age can expect to receive if current enrollment patterns remain unchanged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Literacy rate. The proportion of the adult population that can read or write. This indicator is not always accurate because it is self-reported and represents past investments in schooling. It is often defined only with respect to selected languages and may not take into account the progress being made in many countries through literacy campaigns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy AT BIRTH The number of years a newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of birth were to remain unchanged throughout the child's life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maternal mortality ratio. The number of women who die in pregnancy and childbirth per 100,000 live births: A measure of the risk that women face of dying from pregnancy-related causes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Data Notes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless otherwise specified, dollar amounts are current U.S. dollars. A billion is a thousand million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The data used in this report cover a range of time periods and are from more than 100 countries (both developing and industrial).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless otherwise specified, geographic regions are those used by the World Bank in its analytical and operational work and are defined as follows:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">sub-Saharan  Africa countries south of the Sahara except Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">East Asia and the Pacific: low- and middle-income economies of East and Southeast Asia and the Pacific.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe and Central Asia. middle-income European countries and the countries that formed the former Soviet Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin America anti the Caribbean all American and Caribbean economies south of the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East and North Africa all the economies of North Africa and the Middle East.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India. Myantnar, Nepal, Pakistan. and Sri Lanka.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Summary</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THREE messages echo throughout this document:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The causes of gender inequality are complex, linked as they are to the intrahousehold decisionmaking process. However the decisions are made. the intrahousehold allocation of resources is influenced by market signals and institutional norms that do not capture the full benefits to society of investing in women. Low levels of education and training. poor health and nutritional status, and limited access to resources depress women's quality of life and hinder economic efficiency and growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> It is therefore essential that public policies work to compensate for market failures in the area of gender equality. These policies should equalize opportunities between women and men and redirect resources to those investments with the highest social returns. Of these investments. female education, particularly at the primary and lower-secondary level, is the most important, as it is the catalyst that increases the impact of other investments in health, nutrition, family planning, agriculture, industry, and infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Women themselves are agents for change because they play a key role in shaping the welfare of future generations. Public policies cannot be effective without the participation of the target group-in this case. women, who make up more than half the world's people. Their views need to be incorporated into policy formulation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Progress to Date</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two decades considerable progress has been made in reducing the gender gap world wide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> In 1960. for every 100 boys enrolled in primary school. there were 65 girls. In 1990 the ratio had risen to 85.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> In 1980 an average six-year-old girl in a developing country could expect to attend school for 7.3 years. By 1990 this figure had Increased to 8.4 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Since the 1950s the female labor force has grown twice as last as the male labor force. Worldwide, more than 40 percent of women over 15 years of age are now in the labor force; in developing countries women account for 30 percent of the labor force (These figures. it should be noted, do not fully reflect women's participation in the informal sector as unpaid family members in agriculture.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless. inequalities between men and women persist in many important areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Despite women s biological advantage, their mortality and morbidity rates frequently exceed those of men, particularly during childhood and the reproductive years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Traditionally women are employed in lower-pay jobs and in a narrower range of occupations than are men. Women's wages are typically only 60-70 percent of wages earned by men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Whether in private sector employment or public sector decisionmaking, women are less likely to be in positions of responsibility than are men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Why Do Gender Inequalities Persist?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The causes of the persistent inequality between men and women are only partially understood. In recent years attention has focused on inequalities in the allocation of resources at the household level. as seen in the higher share of education, health. and food expenditures boys receive in comparison with girls. The decisionmaking process within households is complex and is influenced by social and cultural norms market opportunities, and institutional factors. There is considerable proof that the intrahousehold allocation of resources is a key factor in determining the levels of schooling. health. and nutrition accorded household members.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inequalities in the allocation of household resources matter because education, health. and nutrition are strongly [hiked to well-being, economic efficiency. and growth. Low levels of educational attainment and poor health and nutrition aggravate poor living conditions and reduce an individual's capacity to work productively. Such economic inefficiency represents a significant loss to society and hampers future economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social returns to investments in women's education and health  a? e significantly greater than for similar investment in men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The social and economic losses are greatest when women are denied access to basic education and health care. Data from around the world show that private returns to investments in education are the same for women as for men and may even be marginally higher (Psacharopoulos 1994). More importantly. social returns (that is, total benefits to society) to investment in women's education and health are significantly greater than for similar investments in men, largely because of the strong correlation between women's education, health, nutritional status. and fertility levels and the education. health, and productivity of future generations. These correlation are even stronger when women have control over the way resources are allocated within the household.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wage differentials between women and men in the market are closely linked to educational levels and work experience. since on average. women earn 30-40 percent less than teen' it is not surprising that fewer women than men participate in the labor force. This wage disparity, reinforced by discriminality institutional norms, in turn influences the intrahousehold division of resources. A vicious circle ensues as households invest less in daughters than in sons in the belief that investment in girls yields fewer benefits. As a result. many women are unable to work outside the household because they lack the education or experience that men have.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decision not to participate in the labor force does not necessarily reflect a woman's own choice, no' does it always correspond to the optimum use of household resources. Furthermore. the market wage does not take into account the social benefits of educating and hiring women. Discrimination in households and in the market carries not only private costs for individuals and households but social costs for society as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public policies for reducing gender inequalities are therefore essential for counteracting market failure and improving the well-being of all members of society. Investing in women's education and health expands their choices in labor markets and other income-generating activities and increases the rate of return on a household's most valuable asset-its labor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decision to allocate women's time to the type of non wage work women typically carry out within the household. such as child care. food preparation, and, in low-income countries especially, subsistence farming and the collection of fuel wood and water, has less to do with economics than with social conventions and norms. These nones can have a strong influence on the household division of labor, even in industrial economies, where women's levels of human capital are equal to-and some times higher than those of most men</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The economy pays to this inequality in reduced labour productivity today and diminished national output tomorrow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whether this division of labor is appropriate is, essentially, for society to decide. However. there is no doubt that women's entry into the labor market and other spheres of the economy is directly affected by the extensive amounts of time they traditionally devote to household maintenance and family care. Most men do not make similar allocations of time in the home. Such inequality constrains women's employment choices and can limit girls' enrollment in schools. The economy pays for this inequality in reduced labor productivity today and diminished national output tomorrow. Public policy can address inequalities in the household division of labor by supporting initiatives that reduce the amount of time women spend doing unpaid work. Examples of such interventions include improved water and sanitation services, rural electrification, and batter transport infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Constraints on female employment opportunities arising from the household division of labor are compounded by institutional norms operating within the labor market. Although overt wage discrimination is illegal in many countries, employers frequently segregate jobs or offer less training to women workers. Employers often perceive the returns to investing in women workers as lower than those for men mainly because of women's primary role in childbearing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of access to financial services, to land, and to intonation and technology compounds the unequal treatment of women. Requirements for collateral, high transaction costs, and limited mobility and education contribute to women s inability to obtain credit. When women do have access to credit, the effect on household and individual well-being is striking. Bon-owing by women is linked to increased holdings of non-land assets, to improve in the health status of female children, and to an increased probability that girls will enroll in school. Independent access to land is associated with higher productivity and. in some cases, with greater investments by women in land conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Strategies for the Future</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the benefits from investing in girls and women are so great and can be quantified. why do households and employers underinvest in women? The main reason is that. as discussed above. markets fail to capture the full benefit to society of' investing in women and girls. Where the market fails or is absent. government must take the lead Public policy can contribute directly and indirectly. to reducing gender inequalities by, for example:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Modifying the legal and regulatory framework to ensure a opportunities </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Ensuring macroeconomic stability and improving, microeconomic incentives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Redirecting public policies and public expenditures to those investments with the highest social returns</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Adopting targeted interventions that correct for gender inequalities at the micro-level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modifying the law to eliminate gender discrimination and equalize opportunities for women and men is an important first step. However. legal reform by itself does not ensure equal treatment. Further public action is required to make sure that gender-neutral laws are enforced at the national and local levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sound economic policies and well-functioning markets are essential for growth, employment generation, and the creation of an environment in which the returns to divesting in women and owls can he fully realized. Economic instability and price distortions can hinder the process. Consequently. sound macroeconomic management is critical. In general. two sets of policies are necessary: one emphasizing macroeconomic stability and the elimination of price distortions. the other focusing on labor-demanding growth and a reorientation in public spending toward basic services with high social returns- such as education. health care and water supply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender inequalities in the distribution of the benefits of public spending frequently arise because of a bias within households that limits women's access to publicly provided services. In addition, the services provided by public spending often are of less benefit to women than to men. Public policy can help remedy this problem by rearranging expenditure priorities among sectors and within the social sectors. It can ensure support for those services and types of infrastructure that offer the highest social returns to public spending and that are most heavily used by women and children. such as water supply anti sanitation services and rural electrification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally general policy interventions may not be enough. and programs that specifically target women and girls may be required. Targeting is justified. Governments can no longer afford not to invest in women gable on two grounds. First. because women are disproportionately represented among the poor. targeting women can be an effective strategy for reducing poverty (broadly defined to include limited access to services. re sources, and other capability-enhancing factors). Second. where gender differences are wide, targeting-for example. the provision of stipends so that girls can attend school-they be needed to capture social gains and increase  internal efficiency</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Conclusion</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments can no longer afford not to invest in women. The evidence on the high private and social returns to investments in women and girls cannot be ignored. By directing public resources toward policies and projects that reduce gender inequality. policymakers not only promote equality but also lay the groundwork for slower population growth, greater labor productivity, a higher rate of human capital formation, and stronger economic growth However, none of these developments can be sustained without the participial of women themselves. Governments and collaborating institutions must listen more carefully to the voices of individual women. including policymakers. and to women's groups. By working with others to identity and implement policies that promote gender equality, governments can make a real difference to the future well-being and prosperity of their people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Chapter one</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Gender Inequalities Persist</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALTHOUGH the gap between opportunities for men and women is narrowing. inequalities persist, especially in certain regions. This report examines four major development indicators: educational attainment, maternal mortality. life expectancy. and economic participation outside the household. All four are closely related to each other and in turn are closely correlated with individual well-being. These indicators provide a broad picture of trends in gender inequality and their impact on the relative well-being of women and of men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Education</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the progress in raising educational enrollment rates for both males and females across all regions in the past three decades, growth in educational opportunities at all levels for females lags behind that for males (figure 1.1). In 1990 an average six-year-old girl in a developing country could expect to attend school for 8.4 years. The figure had increased from 7.3 years in 1980-but an average boy of the same age in a developing country could expect to attend school for 9.7 years The gender gap in expected years of schooling is widest in some countries in South Asia, the Middle East, and Sub-Saharan Africa (see figure 1.2). Gender differences in access to education are usually worse in minority populations such as refugees and internally displaced persons. of which only a few children go to school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p16.png"></center><br>
+ School enrollment ratios in developing countries </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The latest available figures show that 77 million girls of primary school age (6-11 years) are not in school, compared with 52 million boys (figure 1.3). Moreover, even these gross enrollment rates often mask high absenteeism and high dropout rates. Dropout rates are notably high in low-income countries but vary by gender worldwide and within regions. The rates for girls tend to be linked to age, peaking at about grade 5 and remaining high at the secondary level (Herz and others 1991) Cultural factors, early marriage, pregnancy, and household responsibilities affect the likelihood that girls will remain in school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the gross enrollment rate is an acceptable indicator of progress in education, most studies use literacy rates as an indicator of well-being. Overall illiteracy rates have decreased among adults in low- and middle-income countries, but the percentage of illiterate women in the world is still higher than the percentage of illiterate men. Older women constitute the largest share of the illiterates in the world today, a consequence of past inequalities in access to education. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia more than 70 percent of women age 25 and older are illiterate (United Nations 1991).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At post-secondary levels. where the gap in enrollment between women and men is wider, there is implicit "gender streaming," or sex segregation, by field of study, even in areas with snore female than male enrollees. Gender streaming. which is widespread in both developing and industrial countries, prevents women from acquiring training in agriculture, forestry, fishing, "hard" sciences, and engineering (figure 1.4).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p17.png"></center><br>
+ Expected years of schooling </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Health</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two decades life expectancy at birth has increased for both men and women in all regions of the world. In industrial countries women tend to outlive men by six to eight years on average: in low-income countries gender differences are much narrower (two to three years). Despite women's biological advantage, female mortality and morbidity rates frequently exceed those of men, particularly during early childhood and the reproductive years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the reproductive period the most Important causes of morbidity and mortality among women are high fertility and abortion rates, vulnerability to sexually transmitted diseases (STDS), genital mutilation. and gender violence. Each year, about 500,000 women worldwide die from the complications of pregnancy and childbirth. Maternal mortality ratios for developing and industrial countries vary greatly: the rates in parts of South Asia are among the world's highest, in some cases exceeding 1,500 per 100.000 live births. In Sub-Saharan Africa where the ratio is 700 maternal deaths per 100.000 live births, a woman runs a 1 in 22 lifetime risk of dying from pregnancy-related causes, but in northern Europe the risk falls to 10 in 100,000 (United Nations 1993). In the transition economies of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, the rates are around 40 to 50 per 100,000 live births</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p18.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 1.3 children not in school 1990 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major cause of maternal deaths is complications from unsafe abortions. Abortion-related deaths are highest in South and Southeast Asia. followed by Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean. Lack of access to contraceptives can mean that abortion, is used as a form of birth control. For example, in parts of Eastern Europe and Central Asia abortions are more numerous than live births (World Bank 1994b), and abortion rates were as high as 1.76 per live birth in Russia prior to the transition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As increasing numbers of women become aware of and learn to use contraceptives, total fertility rates are falling worldwide. The exception is Sub-Saharan Africa where the total fertility rate averaged 6.4 between 1985 have been infected by HIV. The World Health organization (WHO 1994) estimates that more than 13 million women will have been infected by HIV by 2000 and that about 4 million of that number will have died (figure 1.5 In Atrica, where 10 million adults are infected with the virus, ode-half of all newly infected adults are women, and more than 5 million are women of childbearing age. In Asia almost half of all adults newly infected with the virus are women, compared with less than 25 percent just six years ago.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p19.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 1.4 fields of study</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p20.png"></center><br>
+  Figure 1.5 HIV infected women 1995 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mortality risk for females is high during the reproductive years. but it is even higher during infancy and early childhood. Between 1962 and 1992 INFANT mortality in the developing world decreased by 50 percent (UNICEF 1993 However, in seventeen of the twenty-nine developing countries for which recent survey data are available, female children age 1-4 were found to have higher mortality rates than male children. despite girls? biological advantage (World Bank 1994b). In many of these countries the underlying cause of high mortality among girls is the parents' bias toward boys, who receive the best food and medical care.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genital mutilation, prevalent in twenty-eight countries, is performed on 2 million young girls yearly. The practice leads to long-term morbidity, complications during childbirth, mental trauma, and even death. Table 1.1 summarizes the best available statistics on this practice for selected countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Employment Work</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The time women spend on paid and unpaid work is typically greater than the time men spend in the labor market (see table 1.2 for an example). Unpaid family work is rarely recorded in official statistics. It manifests itself only indirectly in the labor market in the form of gender differences in labor force participation rates. sector of employment, hours of work, and wage level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the whole. labor force participation rates for women are lower than those for men (figure 1.6). However. these differences are often exaggerated because the definition of the participation rate fails to capture many aspects of women's work, particularly time spent on childbearing, childbearing. and other household tasks. Men are usually in the labor force throughout the prime working years (age 20-60), and their participation rates are typically more than 90 percent in virtually every country. Female participation rates vary widely across countries. In 1990, for every ten men in the labor force there were two women in the Middle East and North Africa, three in South Asia. six in Sub-Saharan Africa, and seven in Southeast Asia (United Nations 1991). Worldwide, 41 percent of women age 15 years or over are in the labor force, but in developing countries the corresponding figure is 31 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These numbers are deceptive, however, because they do not take into account the agricultural work for which women in developing countries are responsible within the family For example, the Dominican census of 1981 reported that only 21 percent of rural women participated in the labor force, but just three years later a special study suggested a figure of 81 percent. The census had omitted such activities as cultivating gardens and caring for domestic animals In India different definitions of what constitutes "work" have resulted in estimated participation rates as low as 13 percent and as high as 88 percent (Beneria 1992).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tens of Millions of Women Suffer Female Genital Mutilation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 1.1 female genital mutilation</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=468>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estimated prevalence (percent)</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estimated number of women affected (millions)</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djibouti</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">98</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Egypt</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">13.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">22.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6.3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">29.2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sierra Leone</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.0</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudan</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">89</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">118</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Sri Lanka's Dry Zone, Women Work Longer Hours than Men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 1.2 distribution of monthly work hours per month)</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=451>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peal. Season</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Slack season</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Activity </B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural production</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">298</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">299</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">245</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">235</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Household tasks</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">199</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">220</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fetching water and firewood</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">:30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social and religious duties</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total work hours</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">426</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">560</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">350</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">530</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leisure and sleep</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">294</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">160</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">370</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">190</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are usually employed in different sectors than men. Most of women's nonagricultural employment is in the service sector. but in developing countries female employment in manufacturing has been increasing and is catching up with female employment in services (ILO/ INSTRAW 1985). Women in manufacturing tend to be concentrated in only a few sub sectors: more than two-thirds of the global labor force in garment production is female. and this subsector absorbs almost one-fifth of the female labor force in manufacturing (UNIDO 1993). Men's employment is more evenly distributed across other sectors such as mining manufacturing, construction, utilities, and transport.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over their lifetime, women change their employment status more often than do men. They are also more likely to be self-employed or employed in occupations with flexible house such as subcontracted home work. Regardless of the sector in which they are employed, women tend to work in a narrow range of occupations. Only a few women are in high-paying jobs or in positions with significant responsibility. Nearly two-thirds of the women in manufacturing ate laborers, machine operators. and production workers; only 5 percent ate professional and technical workers and only 2 percent are administrators and managers (UNIDO 1993). However. there are regional differences: women occupy nearly 60 percent of clerical, sales. and service jobs in Latin America and the Caribbean but fewer than 20 percent of similar positions in South Asia North Africa. and the Middle East (figure 1.7).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p23.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 1.6 rates of participation in the labor force by gender</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wages paid to women are typically about 60-70 percent of those paid to men. About one-quarter of the gender wage gap is explained by differences in educational levels, labor market experience, and other human capital'' characteristics (Psacharopoulos and Tzannatos 1992 Horton 1994). The gender wage gap can also be explained in part by women's lower participation in the labor market-a consequence of domestic and other demands on their time and, possibly, of discriminatory employment practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Significant changes in the global economy have affected patterns of employment and working conditions for men and women worldwide. "Globalization" is associated with the deregulation of product and labor markets, with regionalization. and with the liberalization of international trade. In turn. these processes at-e associated with increased female participation in the labor force and with the at-owing "casualization'' of employment, as seen in the growth of part-time work in industrial economies. However, the net effect of globalization on women workers is not yet clear. Growth in the international traded service sector (for example, banking and telecommunications) seems to have offered women in developing countries greater employment opportunities. In addition, the participation rate of women in manufacturing jobs has increased faster than that of men. Women's average participation in the manufacturing labor force is now around 30 percent for both developing and industrial countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p24.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 1.7 types of jobs held by women </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, the number of women employed in export manufacturing has been increasing rapidly, even though this sector employs only a small fraction of all women workers. In Mexico, for example, the number of women employed in export manufacturing rose by nearly 15 percent a year in the 1980s (Jurisman and Moreno 1990). However, employment in this sector has been increasing more rapidly for men than for women, partly because of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">technological upgrading over time and partly; because women are less educated and tend to remain in low-skill occupations (Baden 1992).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women now account for a growing share ret wage employment they tend to stay longer in the labor force than ever before</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite persistent gender inequalities in the labor market. some recent trends  are encouraging. Increasing educational opportunities and decreasing fertility  rates have fed to an increase in the number of women entering the labor market. since the 1950s the female labor force has expanded twice as fast as the male  labor force. Women now account for a growing share of wage employment. and they tend to stay longer in the labor force than ever before The narrowing of the gender gap in labor force participation is enabling women to accumulate the work experience necessary tot- improving their job opportunities and increasing their amines. In the formal sector more and more women are working in occupations and sectors once dominated by men. and in many countries women s wages relative to men s have increased over time</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The data in this chapter illustrate some aggregate trends but they cannot tell US anything about the processes behind the persistence of gender inequality. For a more detailed look at these processes. We turn in the next chapter to a growing body of empirical evidence generated at the household and enterprise level. These studies provide a telling insight into the way in which gender inequalities are being challenged particularly by women At the same time these inequalities are reinforced by economic, legal. and cultural incentive systems that discriminate against women Discrimination continues despite compelling evidence showing that less inequality especially within the household. is associated with heftier welfare outcomes for children and better economic outcomes for the household as a v hole.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Chapter two</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Gender Inequalities Hamper Growth</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inequality women and men limits productivity ultimately slows economic growth. early empirical studies (for example, Kuznets 1955) suggested that income inequality would increase with economic growth during the initial phases of development. This chapter, however. starts with the hypothesis that there is not necessarily a tradeoff between inequality and growth and. indeed that high inequality especially as it affects human capital. hampers growth (Fields 1992: Birdsall and Sabot 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both theory and empirical evidence point to the importance of human capital in creating the necessary conditions for productivity growth and in reducing aggregate inequality in the future. In addition. women s human capital generates benefits for society in the form of lower child mortality.  higher educational attainment improved nutrition. and reduced population growth. Inequalities in the accumulation and use of human capital at-e related to lower economic and social well-being for all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Household and Intrahousehold Resource Allocation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, attempts to explain persistent gender inequalities in the accumulation and use of human capital have focused on the key role of household decisionmaking and tile process of resource allocation within household Households do not make decisions in isolation. however: their decision are linked to market prices and incentives and are influenced by cultural legal and state institutions. These institutions indirectly affect not only the returns on household investment but also access to productive resources and employment outside the house hold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Household decisions about the allocation of resources have a profound effect on the schooling, health care, and nutrition children receive. The mechanisms used to make these decisions and the effect of the decisions on the well-being of individual household members are not fully understood. Two frameworks for thinking about household decisions are the unitary household model and the collective household model (see box 3.1)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BOX 2.1 </P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two models of household members having their own prefer decisionmaking encase. Decisions on allocating resources reflect market rates of return. The unitary household model assumes but they also mirror the relative bar that household members pool regaining power of household members sources and allocate them according within the collective (Manser and to a common set of objectives and Brown 1980: McElroy and Homey goals. Households maximize the joint 1981). Bargaining power is a function welfare of their members by allocating of social and cultural norms. as well income and other resources to the in as of such external factors as opposed individuals and enterprises that promise "unities for paid work, laws governing the highest rate of return as reflected inheritance, and control over producing prices and wages. An increase initiative assets and property rights. These household income increases the well factors influence the terms governing being of all household members.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy interventions based on the sources and decisions about how unitary household model aim to in those resources are used within the crease household welfare, but they household. Thus, an increase in do not necessarily affect all household income may benefit some hold members in the same way. Some household members but leave others household members may be worse unaffected or worse off. The outcome off, for example, if they lose control depends on a member's ability to exover certain resources; others may excise control over resources both in be better off. in which case house-side and outside the household, and it hold welfare is not maximized. cannot be assumed that individual well</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the collective household being increases as household income model. the welfare of individual house-rises. (Collective household models do hold members is not synonymous with not exclude the possibility that the universal household welfare. Resources unitary model may be the best approximate not necessarily pooled, and the motion of household decisionmaking household acts as a collective, with in some contexts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The collective household model helps explain why gender inequalities persist even though household becomes increase over time The next sections adopt a collective household framework to explain how these inequalities exact costs in forgone productivity, seduced welfare for individuals and households, encl. ultimately. slower economic growth.(fender Inequalities in Human Capital )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are strong complementaires between education. health. and nutrition on the one hand, and increased well-being, labor productivity, and growth. On the other. Inequalities in resource allocation that limit household members' educational opportunities. access to health care, or nutrition are costly to individuals, households, and the economy as a whole.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Linkages between Education Health, and Nutritious</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the household level. gender differences in access to education are closely related to inequalities in the shares of household education expenditures allocated to boys and to girls This finding stands even though private returns to girls' schooling are similar to or marginally higher than. those to boys' schooling (figure 2.1; see also Schultz 1988: Mwabu 1994). In this case. parental choice reflects the relatively greater restrictions on educational opportunities and employment choices for girls. in comparison with boys. and cultural norms on the appropriate role for girls within the household.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p28.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 2.1 private returns to education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p29a.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 2.2 education, fertility. and child mortality (a)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p29b.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 2.2 education, fertility. and child mortality (b)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More importantly. the social externalities linked to female education are crucial. Evidence from a large number of countries shows that female education is linked with better health for women and their children and with lower levels (figure 2.2). This link stems from the direct effect of education on the value of a woman's time and consequently. on private returns to her labor. It also stems from the indirect effect of education on the average age at which women marry on their knowledge of basic health care and nutrition, and on reproductive choices (Rosenzweig and Schultz 1982, 1987).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Educating girls and women reduces maternal mortality and fertility rates and increases the demand for health services. A simulation study of seventy two developing countries shows that, with all other factors held constant, a doubling of female secondary school enrollments in 1975 would have reduced tile average fertility rate in 1985 from 5.3 to 3.9 children per household and would have lowered the number of births by 29 percent (Subbarao and Raney 1992. Studies for individual countries have found that one additional year of female schooling can reduce the fertility rate. on average, between 5 and 1 (i) percent (Summers 1994)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are more vulnerable than men to micronutrient deficiencies that aggravate poor health (World Batik 1994b). Poor health and nutrition reduce productivity and the chances of reaping gains from investment in education. Intrahousehold inequalities in consumption and nutritional allocations can therefore be a signal of inefficiency Recent estimates suggest that the com effects on morbidity and mortality of just three types of deficiency-in vitamin A, iodine. and iron-could waste as much as 5 percent of gross domestic product (GDP), yet correcting these deficiencies would cost less than 0.3 percent of low-income countries' GDP (World Bank 1994c, pp. 50-51). Studies of women tea producers in Sri Lanka and of women workers in Chinese cotton mills document the reduction in productivity associated with iron deficiencies and the positive effects of in-on supplementation on work and output (Edgerton and others 1979). A study of six villages in Andhra Pradesh, India, found that disabling conditions caused by malnutrition and the prevalence of diseases reduced female labor force participation by 22 percent (Chatterjee 1991).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Physical anti mental abuse can also have deleterious effects on the well-being and productivity of women (table 2.1). Violence against women is widespread in all cultures and cuts across all age and income groups Its consequences. include unwanted pregnancy. infection with STDs, miscarriage partial or permanent disability. and psychological problems such as depression anti low self-esteem. Recent World Bank estimates indicate that in both industrial and developing countries domestic violence and rape cause women of reproductive age to lose a significant percentage of really days. Domestic violence appears to be an example of how the relatively weaker bargaining power of women and the paucity of options for them outside the home can affect the intrahousehold distribution of welfare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Violence against Women Starts in the Womb and Continues  trough Life</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.1 Violence against women through the life cycle</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phase</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Type of violence</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pre birth</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Battering during pregnancy (emotional and physical effects on the ottoman) effects on birth outcome</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Infancy</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female infanticide: emotional and physical abuse</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Girl hood</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sexual abuse by family members and strangers: forced child prostitution</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adolescence</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dating and courtship violence: economically coerced sex: sexual abuse in the workplace: rape: farce prostitution and trafficking in women</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproductive</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coerced pregnancy: rape: abuse of women by male partners: down abuse and murder partner homicide psychological abuse sexual abuse of unmarried and childless women: abuse of women with disabilities</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Heise 1993 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prospects for gainful employment. as well as the availability of basic social services such as water supply and sanitation. also influence women's well-being. The survival chances of female children in India appear to increase as the employment rate for women rises and the earnings differential between men and women decreases Battilan 1988 Dowry and marriage practices. along with household ownership of land are closely linked to women's chances of survival The effect of such practices cannot be over late. Sen's (1990) comparison of female-male mortality rates in China. India. and Sub-Saharan Africa suggest that more than 100 million women are "missing"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public spending on social services affects the ability of individuals and households to benefit from their own private spending on human capital. In most industrial countries mortality rates decreased even before modern medical care became widely available, mainly because of improved water supplies and sanitation. The same is likely to hold for the developing world. Public interventions that address market under provision of water and sanitation facilities and shortages of health set-vices such as immunization and family planning-have a significant effect. and one that is probably greater for women than for men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of data makes it difficult to evaluate the effects of public spending on the educational attainment and health of women and men Very little empirical evidence in this area exists, but there is some indication that the proportion of public subsidies for education that benefits females is lower than the proportion that benefits males. In Kenya in 1992-93. for example. public spending on education amounted to the equivalent of an annual subsidy of 605 Kenyan shillings per capita: males received. on average. 670 shillings and females only 543 shillings. In Mexico the gender difference in public education subsidies was somewhat less: in Pakistan males received almost twice the female subsidy. Gender inequalities in the distribution of subsidies are greater at high than at primary levels. In Pakistan girls receive, on average. only 96 rupees a year for secondary school bag. compared with 58 rupees for boys. Box 2.2 explains how these figures are calculated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Supply-side differences are partly a function of poorly targeted resources (as. for example, when more is spent on tertiary than on primary schooling). More importantly. they reflect differences in household demand for education for girls and boys. If more girls attended anti stayed in school. the proportion of public subsidy going to girls would he greater.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In health care assessing the incidence of public spending by gender is particularly difficult because of the marked differences in the health needs of women and men. These differences are related to different biological re</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main advantage of this type of analysis is that it measures how well public  services are targeted to certain groups in the population, including women, the  poor, and residents of regions of interest.  Requirements anti to women's reproductive and childbearing roles. Some evidence suggests that because of these differences. per capita health cat-e subsidies to women are the same as and sometimes larger than those to men What is clearer is that women are less likely than men to seek health care. including in many countries. hospital care when it is netted and ate mote likely to consult a non medical health cat-e worker (lather than a qualified medical practitioner). Education tends to increase the likelihood that women will seek health care. whether public or  ace the likelihood that women will seek health care. whether public or private (World Bank 1994b). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The importance of private and public investments in education and health services that will improve women's well-being is cleat. These services at-e also important for another season: these is important evidence that increases in women's well-being yield important intergenerational benefits and productivity gains in the future World Bank Living Standards Measure Study (LSMS) surveys car-tried out in Nicaragua (1993 Viet Nam 1993) Pakistan (1991), and Cote (1988) suggest that the probability of children being enrolled in school increases with their mother's educational level and that (controlling, for income and household size) girls. particularly those in non poor households. are mote likely to attend school if their mothers attended school. Other studies show that households with educated mothers lend to provide children with greater quantities of mote nutritious food often at a lower cost. than households with poorly educated mothers (Thomas 1990b)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Data from Brazil show that giving women more control over nonlabor income has a larger impact on child measures, nutritional intakes, and the proportion of the household budget devoted to human capital inputs than if men had control of this income (Thomas 1993) Other studies indicate that women spend proportionately mote of the income they control on health care for children than do men. Women also spend more on food products (as opposed to such goods as alcohol and tobacco) than men do (Duraiswamy 1992: Hoddinot and Haddad 1992) But fathers education is also important especially in interaction with mothers' education (Thomas 1990a) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other studies have shown that children's educational attainment is lowest in households whet-e the male head has no schooling In Ghana the impact of a mother's education on her children's schooling is reduced when  their father has no schooling. even after controlling for income and household size (Lavy 1992).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Material health (which is linked to education) also has important intergenerational effects. Children of mothers who are malnourished or sickly or receive inadequate prenatal and delivery cat-e face a greater risk of disease and premature death. Iodine-deficient mothers run a greater risk of giving birth to infants with severe mental retardation and other congenital abnormalities than do healthy mothers. Reduced fertility and improved health for women can increase individual productivity and improve family well-being. When good health is combined with education and access to jobs. the result is higher rates of economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Household and Labor Market Linkages</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The link between the household and the labor market is particularly important. Specialization of labor within the household-whether individually chosen. socially determined. or legally induced-can accentuate gender inequalities in the formal and informal labor markets by leaving most of the unpaid work to women. This situation arises from convention rather than  from comparative advantage Inadequate public and community services.  transport. and housing also often have an uneven effect on the way men and women spend their time and can increase the demand for goods produced at home using unpaid labor (Moser 1994) Thus women may spend its much (or more time on unpaid work as on market work. In some countries this unpaid work contributes as much as one-third to the economy recorded GDP-and even mote to the welfare of poor families.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The amount of time women contribute to household production and maintenance, direct income generation. and family care combined is widely held to exceed that of men Analysis of data from Bangladesh. Botswana. Ghana. Kenya. Pakistan. the Philippines. and Zambia on how rural women spend their time confirms that, although use of time by women, and by different generations of women varies according to location. available technology. household characteristics. and cultural norms. gender bias in time use is widespread.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are generally responsible for collecting fuelwood and carrying water. Girls and alder women often do most of this work, although cultural norms in some countries affect women s mobility. The amount of time allocated to these activities is influenced by seasonal patterns of agricultural activity. the availability of substitute goods and services. and environmental changes. A study in Nepal, for instance, found that deforestation associated with a 75 percent rise in the time per trip would increase the time spent gathering fuelwood by 45 percent for all adults and by 50-60 percent for women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to fuel and water collection, child care is another activity that dominates women s time-although. considering the importance of children to future household welfare, the amount of direct time spent with children is limited. The seven-country study suggests that more time is spent on child cat-e in female-headed households. Female-headed households tend to have high dependency ratios and relatively large numbers of children, Implying more child-care time overall, but not necessarily on a per child basis. (Kumar and Hotchkiss 1988).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a large proportion of women's use of time goes unrecorded the design of projects and policies can yield false evaluations of costs and benefits. For example, women's unpaid work may be assumed to have zero value. As a result, women's response to changing incentives may be predicted as being higher than their time constraints actually allow. Project benefits-such as the time saved by locating piped water close to homes or by expanding rural electrification-may also be undervalued. Conversely, the benefits of treeing up time may be far more significant than might have been thought. A study in Tanzania, for example. shows that relieving certain time constraints in a community of smallholder coffee and banana growers increases household cash incomes by 10 percent, labor productivity by 15 percent, and capital productivity by 44 percent (Tibaijuka 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Formal Sector Employment</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unpaid work and family responsibilities. as well as lack of investment in women's education. are strongly associated with women's relatively low rates of participation and their limited earnings in formal sector labor. Women's participation rates usually dip in the childbearing years, and earnings tend to decline following an interruption in employment. Younger on average, work more hours than older women, and married women with young children tend to work less than childless women and mothers of grown children. The correlation of marriage and childbearing with labor market outcomes can be seen even in industrial countries, where wage differences between married women and men are larger than those between single women and men Similarly, in some developing countries relative earnings decline with age (table 2.2) Children are not the only treason for interruptions in women's labor force participation; caring for ill or aged family members is often a womans responsibility. A study from Hungary estimates that half of all absenteeism by women workers is the direct result of the need to care for sick relatives (Einhorn 1993).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Countries, Single Women Earn More Than Married Women and Younger Women More Than Older Women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.2 female-male earnings (adjusted for hours worked) by marital status and age (percent)</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=345>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female-male</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earnings ratio</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By marital status</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Married </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Single</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">69</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">91</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Austria</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">66</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">97</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Germany</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">57</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">103</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Norway</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">72</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">92</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sweden</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">72</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">94</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Switzerland</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">58</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">94</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Kingdom</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">95</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">59</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">96</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Age</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 25 </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B 45</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">75</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">63</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">94</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">81</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">82</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">61</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">92</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: Blau and Kahn 1992 Sedlacek Gutierrez. and Mohindra 1993 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thus. women s labor market outcomes can be substantially poorer than those of men because women's employment opportunities are constrained by social arrangements at the family or household level. These social demands are reinforced by legal conventions. Within the labor market itself, social or employer discrimination can affect women and men differently. and these differences are reflected in the resource allocation decisions taken within the household. Although wage discrimination is illegal in many countries, employers may respond to an increase in the supply of workers by segregating jobs by gender or offering less training to women who they perceive as being temporarily attached to the labor force (even if in fact most women never drop out). For example, women in the former Soviet Union are fairly well educated and have high labor force participation. but they are concentrated in occupations requiring fewer skills and less vocational training than men, and, on average. they earn less than men (Fong 1993).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female Wages Are Lower than Male Wages, but This Is Changing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.3 female-male earnings ratio over time Female-male earning 1 ratio (percent) </P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=496>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First observation</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second observation</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A v Average annual percentage change</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50.2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1981) </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">51.6</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1990)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.7</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">67.2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1984)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70 2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1990)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.7</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">75.7</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1985)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">81.4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1988)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.4</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">55.6</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1986)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60.0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1997)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70.9</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1978)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">80.0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1988)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">73.5</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1980)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">79.8</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1990)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.8</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: Monthly earnings for Indonesia and Thailand rural and urban: for all others urban only</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Tzanntors 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women's earnings relative to men's tend to increase over time. A study of six developing countries shows that female earnings relative to male earnings increased by 1 percent a year in the 1980s (table 2.3). There were two reasons for this increase: over the years women entered higher-paying sectors. and within sectors, their pay increased in relation to that of men. This gain would have been even greater had it not been for the effect on wages of increased female participation in the labor force. However, the most visible dimension of gender inequality in the formal labor sector remains the wage difference between men and women. Women's wages are. on average lower those of men by about 30 to 40 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social or employer discrimination can affect women and men difference and these difference are reflected i/? the resource allocation decisions taken within the household</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A recent study of the gender wage gap in Russia shows that after controlling for education differences, the ratio of women's to men's average hourly earnings stands at just over 71 percent: it has remained at that level since the 1960s. Part of the reason for women s lower hourly earnings in Russia and many other countries lies in patterns of occupational segmentation by ,gender. Some analysts argue that women-who do most of the household work in Russian households and also have high participation in the formal labor market cope with the burdens imposed on them by taking less demanding work and devoting less time to advancing their careers (Newell and Reilly 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Informal Sector</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One difficulty analysts face in interpreting trends in women's labor force participation and employment in developing economies is the large number of women engaged in informal sector activities, many of which overlap with subsistence - orientated household or community-based activities. Informal sector employment in most developing countries. whether in microentreprises or in casual work, is an important source of livelihood for women and their households.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The L competitiveness of women's informal sector activities is  constrained by women's limited mobility and lack of access to financial and public sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A recent study in Mexico estimates that 41 percent of the work force in Mexico's major-cities is employed in the informal sector (World Bank 1995c). Data from a 1989 survey show that 60 percent of men working in the sector are salaried workers' compared with only 18 percent of women. By contrast. 80 percent of women working in the sector are unpaid family members, as against 27 percent of men. By far the most common activity in the informal sector is commerce (fixed-location or itinerant), followed by repair works food preparation. and sales, and small-scale manufacturing. The sectoral distribution of informal employment reflects the hey role informal workers play in supplying goods and services to low-income consumers. Women tend to be concentrated in commerce and men in services and manufacturing, although the percentage differences are relatively small. Two generalizations can be made on the basis of this study: informal sector workers earn less than workers in large firms and women earn less than men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another recent study of tour communities in Lusaka. Guayaquil (Ecuador), Metro Manila, and Budapest shows that informal sector activities ate especially important for during periods of economic reform Although the numbers both of men and of women in the labor force tend to increase during these times women rely more on the informal sector than men clot The competitiveness of womens informal sector activities is informal by women's limited mobility and lack of access to financial and public services. Women also tend to specialize in non traded goods and services that show relatively low average returns to labor. Across the tour cities in the study, women earn between 46 and 68 percent of men's wages (Moser 1994)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ability of informal sector workers to increase their returns depends on access to physical and human capital and their relationship to the institutional and regulatory environment. Contrary to the common belief, many microenterprises face considerable costs associated with the regulatory environment, including registration and licensing fees, as well as outlays for contracts with public authorities concerning zoning regulations and use of public utilities. In Argentina regulatory costs are estimated to absorb as much as 21 percent of the average microfirm's operational expenses. In some sectors, such as manufacturing and construction, the costs of regulation are about 44 percent (World Bank 1994d). In Mexico real regulatory costs. including the costs of compliance and evasion, are about 20 percent of total costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regulatory costs also inhibit Job creation in the informal sector. In Argentina across-the-board deregulation could generate as many as 170,000 jobs in small-scale manufacturing alone. Furthermore. poor workers in family-based firms or micro enterprises and particularly women entrepreneurs-often lack access to such basics as water and power. Targeting infrastructure investments to the poor, which takes account of the needs of women entrepreneurs s. can significantly enhance their productivity and earnings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In rural area where formal markets often are not well developed. informal employment activities play a vital role. In Asia the proportion of female rural wage laborers increased sharply in the 1960s and 1970s. In India women make up a larger proportion of rural wage laborers than of the entire labor force, probably because of growing landlines and poverty among rural households. Rural household labor accounts for a disproportionately large share of employment among the poor and an even larger share among women. Furthermore, a larger proportion of female than male laborers are hired on a casual basis, largely because family arrangements, especially lack of control over property, limit women's ability to work (Hart 1986: Bardhan 1993). Low status in the labor market is also linked to low female indicators in education, health, and nutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Providing credit directly to women has a positive effect on  household and individual welfare and improved gender equality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social norms affecting decisions within the family about occupational choices or migration can also lead to differential patterns of male and female earnings in informal markets (Bhiswanger and Rosenzweig 1984). Family responsibilities hinder women's geographic mobility, constraining their ability to command high wages and limiting them to certain areas or industries. The concentration of women in certain sectors, especially nontraded goods and set-vices. intensifies competition between women entrepreneurs and wage workers and lowers the returns to female labor. These effects are compounded by women's lack of access to credit. training, and technology.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(fender Inequality in Access to Assets and Services )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Access to Financial Markets</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The availability of financial services and access to them are considered important for several reasons. First. savings provide a kind of self-insurance. Second, credit helps households maintain a certain level of consumption at those times when their income fluctuates temporarily. Third, credit can be used to fund investments in capital or other inputs that will yield relatively high returns to production. if households cannot finance such investments from their own savings. A fourth and no less important reason is the role of savings and credit in increasing household members' options outside the home.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inequalities between women and men in access to financial services- particularly credit--are widely documented. Collateral requirements, high transaction costs. limited mobility and education, and other social and cultural barriers contribute to women's inability to obtain credit (Holt and Ribe 1991). The implications tot household efficiency and individual well-being differ, however, depending on whether the household pools its financial resources. If, as the unitary household model assumes. a household pools its resources the characteristics of individual borrowers are less important than if there is little or no pooling. In the first case. credit resources will be used to meet household needs that have been jointly determined, regardless of who the borrower is. In the second case, the use credit is put to and the needs it then satisfies depend on which household member is borrowing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A recent study of credit programs in Bangladesh sponsored by the World Bank shows that providing credit directly to women has a positive effect on variables typically associated with household and individual welfare and improved gender equality (Pitt and Khandker 1995). The study looks at three programs in Bangladesh: the Grameen Bank. the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), and the Bangladesh Rural Development Board (BRDB). in 1992, women accounted for 94 percent of Grameen Bank members. 82 percent of BRAC members. and 68 percent of BRDB members (Khandker and Khalily 1995; Khandker, Lavy, and Filmer 1994). Only the results for the Grameen Bank are presented here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.4 presents the impact of credit obtained by women and men on a variety of social and economic indicators. The results show a clear and positive impact of both male and female borrowing on all indicators of Toward gender equality family welfare especially through an increase in per capita expenditures increases in both boys' and girls schooling, anti a reduction in fertility. Females borrowing has a greater effect on girls' schooling anti per capita expenditure than does male loot-rowing: male borrowing has a greater effect on boys' schooling and fertility than does female borrowing. Interestingly. female borrowing also results in mote female ownership of nonoland assets and an increased supply of female labor to cash - income -earning activities (Pitt and Khandker 1995).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loans to Women and Men Have Important Welfare Implications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2 4 welfare effects of Grameen Bank loans (percentage increase)</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=545>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Welfare e change</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effect of male borrowing</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effect female borrowing</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in boys' schooling</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7.2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6.1</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in girls schooling</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3.0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4.7</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in per capital expenditure</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.8</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4.3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reduction in recent fertility</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7.4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in women's labor supply to cash-income earning activities</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10.4</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in women nonland assents</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">19.9 </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The introduction of programs such as the Grameen Bank in a village has a positive effect on agricultural and nonagricultural production (Khatidketati Chowdhuty 1994: Rahman and Khandke 1994 The probability that women will be self-employed rather than work for wages increases by 52 percent. The latter finding is important because much of the wage employment open to women in rural areas is very poorly remunerated and can be quite exploitative. Self employment can bring the opportunity of higher returns for women, plus the freedom to integrate their earning activities into other work as they see fit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access to financial services alone cannot reduce gender inequalities in the allocation of household resources. A qualitative study reviewing several targeted credit programs in Bangladesh cautions against overgeneralizing about the benefits of giving women access to credit. The study finds that it is difficult to infer that increased borrowing alone improves women's bargaining power because in many rural Bangladesh households the question of who controls the resources is quite complex (Goetz and Sen Gupta 1994). Nevertheless. the possibility of receiving credit (or similarly of working for wages) may give women greater bargaining power within the household. This bargaining power can be used to improve child health and nutrition and may increase the likelihood that children will attend school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Access to Lund and Property</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ownership of land and the distributions of land rights influence the productivity of labor and capital resources and the incentive to invest in resource management Private property rights. in particular. are associated with increased access to product and factor markets. especially credit markets. and to public services such as public utilities and agricultural extension. However. relatively little direct evidence exists to link independent owner of land by women with increased access and productivity. One obstacle to empirical work is that women s access to land and property is often mediated trough marriage (A married woman land rights are frequently limited to use rather than ownership.) Future more. complex systems of land tenure make it difficult to generalize about the effects of owner ship on productivity. None some evidence suggests that independent land rights for women could enhance both the efficiency with which resources are used and the well-being of women and their households: (Agarwal 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The possibility of receiving credit may give e women   greater bargaining power within the  household which  can be used to improve child health and nutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While independent land rights may increase efficiency and household welfare, lack of secure land  appears to be associated with low investments by women in land conservation. In Zimbabwe's communal areas, land that a women acquires is often allocated to her only temporarily: for example, the location of land allotment received from husbands or borrowed from neighbors is usually subject to periodic change (Jackson 1993). The same is true in parts of West Africa (David 1992 Jackson 1994). Uncertainly about the permanence of their control over the land means that women may be reluctant to invest in improvements that will benefit the landowner rather than the user.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A significant trend in recent decades in developing countries has been the move toward private ownership In some countries this trend has been encoulagecl by reforms dealing with land redistribution tenancy or land titling Such reforms are considered important for promoting long-term investments and the adoption of the latest technology They also provide the collateral people need to gain access to credit and other factor markets Ironically, evidence also suggests that perform inequalities in male and female land rights are reinforced by land reform programs For example, in Latin America most reforms are based on the premise that the man of the household its the household head. This presumption means that women (except for widows  and ownership. Even where women and men benefit equally from land reform differences exist between nominal and real land rights (see box 2.3).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the central part of European Russia and in Moldova the lands and assets of state and collective farms are being parceled out in allotments as part of wider economic reforms. Every person who lived and worked on a collective farm receives a share of the land Data show that although on average, women have received a slightly higher proportion of land shares than men, the nonland capital assets of the old farms ale being distributed as property shares on the basis of a formula heavily weighted toward an individual's wage rate and years of employment. Such criteria favor men over women and give men more valuable property chares. Dividends paid on these property shares also tend to be higher than those paid 011 land shares Holt 1995).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Land reform programs that fail to account for gender differences in rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 2.3 who gets access to land? Honduras and Cameroon</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honduras' Agrarian Modernization Law of 1974 includes a provision giving men age 16 or older the right to access to land, independent of any other qualification. For women. however, this right is restricted to unmarried mothers or widows with dependent children. Furthermore. if a male beneficiary dies or becomes incapacitated. the law gives preference in inheritance rights to a male child over the child's legally married mother. Some 30 percent of rural Honduran households are headed by women at least part time because of the seasonal migration of men to look for work (Saito and Spurling 1992). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the northwest and southwest provinces of Cameroon. an estimated 50 percent or more of those who claimed land within the first ten years of land registration (1974-85) were classified as public servants. Over 32 percent of all the remaining land titles went to businesses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women make up more than 51 percent of Cameroon s population and do more than 75 percent of the agricultural work. but they are virtually absent from land registers. Only 3.2 percent of all land titles issued in the Northwest Province were given to women; in the Southwest Province the figure was 7.2 percent. For the country as a whole. it is estimated that women obtained under 10 percent of all land certificates (World Bank 1995a).  to own. use, and transfer land may actually exacerbate the insecurity of women's land claims and. as a result, harm household welfare. For example, there is evidence that land titling focused on male household heads has adversely affected women's ability to farm independently. Moreover. intrahousehold inequalities in income and decisionmaking have increased (FAO 1993) In Africa some titling programs have allowed men to take advantage of their control over land to redesignate land formerly cultivated by women as household land. This switch provided the opportunity for men to increase the amount of work they expect from women on household plots. In other cases women have received smaller and less fertile plots than they had before for their personal crops (FAO 1993).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recognizing women's independent claims to land is therefore an important issue in property reform. In poor households. having rights to land could alleviate both women's own poverty and the household's risk of remaining poor. The season is mainly that women s access to economic resources has a positive effect on household welfare (Agarwal 1994). From the point of view of efficiency, secret land tenure increases the incentive to manage resources efficiently and expands access to formal credit markets. Because secure land tenure can mean greater productivity, it may also increase the household's incentives to invest in women's human capital.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Access to Extension Services</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural extension services provide information training and technology to agricultural producers. Extension services have always been regarded as necessary for agricultural modernization. Given the importance of women's labor to agriculture in most regions, providing women with access to agricultural extension services is essential for current and future productivity. Types of agricultural extension services vary, hut in most countries publicly provided services dominate. Evidence suggests that women have not benefited as much as men have from publicly provided extension services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the importance of women's labor to agriculture it is in most regions providing women with access to agricultural extension services is essential for current  and future of productivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A review of five African countries shows that extension agents are most likely to visit male farmers than female farmers (table 2.5) The impact of this inequity on female productivity depends in part on whether women and men within households pool information. There is, however. little evidence to suggest that this happens (see box 2.4). It is important to ensure that extension services reach omen directly, not only to redress gender inequalities but also to maximize productive efficiency. omen play a critical role in production of food and cash crops for the household. in postharvest activities. and in livestock care Men and omen perform different tasks they can substitute for one another only to a limited extent. and this imitation creates different demands for extension information Also, as men leave farms in search of paid employment ill urban areas. women are increasingly managing and operating farms on a regular and full-time basis. Hence. omen are becoming a constituency for extension and research services in their own right (World Bank 1994e)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.5 visits by agricultural extension agents (percentage of households visited)</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=439>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country and year</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Households with female head</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Households with male head</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya. 1989</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">112</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi, 1989</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">58</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria 1989</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">37</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">22</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania, 1984</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">40</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="4%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1982</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">57</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">29</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="4%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1986</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">19</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 2.4 do women farmers learn from their husbands?</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of women farmers in Burkina Faso found that 40 percent had some knowledge of modern crop and livestock production technologies. For most of these women, relatives and friends were the source of information; nearly one-third had acquired their knowledge from the extension service, and only 1 percent had heard of the technologies from their husbands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Men are less likely to pass information on to their wives when crops and tasks are gender specific. In Malawi women claimed that their husbands rarely passed on advice to them: if their husbands did tell them something. the women did not find it relevant to their needs. In India women learned from friends, relatives. neighbors. and sometimes from their husbands. but this second-hand information seldom changed their production patterns (Saito and Spurling 1992). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The expansion of agricultural services beyond the public sector is a growing phenomenon in developing economies. The inadequacies of public funding plus the need to provide snore client-oriented services, suggest that the private sector has an important role to play However, women's limited access to land and credit put the many potential benefits offered by extension services out of reach. For example in Kenya's Meru and Maranga areas more than half the women surveyed cited a shortage of cash as their reason for not adopting, technologies that would maximize their output and increase their efficiency. The amount of education omen receive and the efficiency with which they run their farms are also closely linked This tie is particularly significant in light of the fact that one purpose of extension services is to advise farmers on use of modern technology.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three studies of Kenya found that the gender of the farm manager was, by itself. an insignification factor in output per hectare but that the manager's educational level had a significant effect on farm productivity (Moock 1976: Saito and Spurling 1992: Bindlish and Evenson 1993). Simulations based on these studies suggest that significant gains could accrue to increased investment in women's physical and human capital. As the data in table 2.6 show, if women and men shared the same educational characteristics and input levels. farm-specific yields would increase between 7 and 22 percent. Giving women primary schooling, by itself. would increase yields by 24 percent. Thus under investment in women's education limits growth of agricultural productivity. Well-targeted extension services can help to narrow the differences in productivity that arise from educational inequalities (Schultz 1988)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing Human Capital and Input Levels Would Increase tile Yield for Women Farmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.6 effects of increasing women farmers' human capital and input levels Increase  yields</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy experiment </B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(percent)</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maize farmers Kenya, 1976</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of giving female farmers sample mean characteristics and input levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of giving female farmer s men's education and input levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of giving women primary schooling</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">24</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food maize (maize beans and cow pears) farmers</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of giving female farmer men's education and input levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.0</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of increasing land area to male farmers' levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of increasing fertilizer to male farmers' levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.6</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Conclusion</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Analysts must look beyond market outcomes to identity the sources of persistent inequality between women and men. The search must focus on the household and its role in the formation of present and future human capital and on institutions beyond the household that reinforce and perpetuate gender inequalities. Gender inequalities within the household affect market outcomes, and these feed back; into household decisionmaking. This process is reinforced by inequalities in access to assets and services beyond the household. Improving the relative status of women within the household and increasing their access to assets and services will increase the returns to investment in human resources and improve the prospects for sustainable economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We must look for that which we have been trained not to see  Ann Scales, Yale Law Journal 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Chapter three</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Public Policies Matter</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As CHAPTER 2 has shown underivesting in girls and women is inefficient for society as a whole. Correcting for past underinvestment will require a "genders" approach to public policy. How this can be concretely achieved is the topic of this chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Equalizing Opportunities by Modifying, the Legal Framework</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Laws form tile functional framework of the economy and of civil society. Equality in the legal treatment of men and women creates the legitimacy policymakers need to seek change. Legal and regulatory provisions that discriminate against women-that. for example bar married women from seeking employment or prevent women from holding legal title to land-perpetuate gender inequalities and severely restrict women's ability to participate fully in social and economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modifying the legal framework to  eliminate discrimination and equalize opportunities for women and men is an important goal for public policy at the national and international levels. A supportive legal environment is also vital for other aspects of public policy that have a direct bearing on the opportunities available to women. such as regulations affecting the formal and informal sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four areas of the law are particularly important for equalizing the opportunities available to men and women: land and property rights; labor market policies and employment law: family law: and financial laws and regulations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Land and Property Rights</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policymakers should ensure that women and men are treated equally in the public allocation of land. Eligibility for land reform programs, for example. should not discriminate against women's perform claims whether the women are heads of households or members of households headed by men. When communities have been resettled or when a project allocates land to participating producers, women should have the same rights to land as men For refugee and displaced women returning to their homelands. often as de facto heads of households. need fair and equal treatment to allow them to establish a Farming or enterprise base as soon as possible. Whet-e land is in short supply, it may be necessary to recognize the land rights of certain groups, as well as their individual rights. The Indian National Sericulture Project is an example; it has leased land to women's groups and promoted women's access to land under state land-grant schemes (Quisumbilig 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some countries have enacted legislation to ensure gender equality in property and contractual rights. Under China's Law of Succession, for example males and females have equal rights to inheritance. Complementary measures are needed to ensure that women know their rights. Such measures include legal programs and campaigns to make judges and administrators sensitive to gender issues in the area of property rights (see box 2.1)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Labor Market Policies and Employment Law</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Discriminatory labor market policies and employment laws are widespread: examples are bans on hiring married women and restrictions on the type of work pregnant women may pet-form. Labor laws may also restrict female participation in jobs and deny women access to work settings. Even legislation that seeks to promote equal opportunity can have outcomes tot women workers. For example, generous maternity and child-care benefits tot women workers may make hiring women relatively mote costly than hiring men. perpetuating the gender wage gap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main issue for public policy its to ensure that fair and equal employment laws exist and are enforced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.1 some NGO efforts to promote women's legal literacy</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schuler and Kadirgamar - Rajasingham (1992) describe innovative approaches by  non governmental organizations to provide women with useful legal knowledge and tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Caribbean Association for Feminist Research and Action (CAFRA) has launched "women and the law" projects in five English-speaking Caribbean countries. Using a participatory methodology. the projects aim to create awareness of the law. provide women with legal information that will be useful to them in their daily lives, identify specific areas for action, and influence overall legislative policy. The projects develop educational materials for legal literacy and offer topic specific paralegal training for women's organizations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The legal literacy program of the Ugandan Women Lawyers' Association (FDA-Uganda) conducts legal literacy campaigns on specified dates each month in different districts. Pairs of FIDA volunteers conduct sessions, using role playing and discussions, on legal topics of relevance to women's lives and provide advice on contacting the FIDA legal clinic for advice and representation. In addition, FIDA and Action for Development broadcast regular radio and television programs on women and the law and publish pamphlets on legal issues of interest to women. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In India the Self - Employed Women's Association (SEWA) holds worker education meetings to provide members with legal information and offers one day training sessions on specialized legal information for community leaders. Members of SEWA paralegal staff research cases, prepare briefs, and argue all cases in labor courts for members. SEWA'S legal literacy efforts are part of its overall strategy of action for supporting self-employed women and women in the informal sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard. the main issue for public policy is to ensure that fair and equal employment laws exist and are enforced. Such laws should cover employment and employment-related benefits and should not be applied in a way that restricts women's access to the labor market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many countries women are protected by special standards in the workplace. These safeguards are of two types. The first includes measures intended to end discrimination in the labor market by requiring equal pay for work of equal value or by prohibiting the exclusion of workers from certain jobs because of gender. The second type protects women in their role as mottles by requiring employers to pay the full cost of maternity leave and provide childcare facilities. restricting night work, and limiting work categorized as dangerous or hazardous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first type of labor standard is often difficult to enforce. although nearly 120 countries have enacted equal opportunity laws. In most cases the law is in place but is not enforced. Furthermore. it often applies only to the formal sector of the labor market. leaving large number of women in the informal sector with little protection. More concerted public and private action is required to devise appropriate for enforcement. In additions complementary measures are needed to increase womens chances of entering the labor force. Such measures would include mote met-it-based hiring of women in the public sector and the creation of an appropriate regulatory framework that encourages the establishment of day-care centers private nursery schools. and kindergartens for the children of workers in both the formal and informal sectors. (Box 3.2 describes a day-care projects in Bolivia)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many countries have laws that limit night work. over theme and the use of heavy machinery by women. While well intentioned. these laws. too. can reduce women's employment options by raising the employer's cost of hiring women and perpetuating the notion that women workers are less flexible than male workers. This adverse result occurs because women already tend to have lower levels of capital than men and are limited by traditional notions of what womens work. Devising effective protective legislation for women is thus a difficult balancing act.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effective laws to protect women must honor the fine line between ensuring sate working conditions for all workers, including women in the informal sector. and providing equal opportunities for all workers seeking employment. Standards relating to maternity leave and child-care benefits are common in the formal sector. To ensure that such standards do not raise the costs of female labor unnecessarily employment legislation should avoid having employers pay benefits directly. Maternity benefits should be funded through general revenue taxes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.2 day-care center in Bolivia to enhance the status of women by increasing their employment opportunities in other Latin American countries, and their knowledge of women in Bolivia are over represented , health, and nutrition. The project among the poor, and many live in will establish day-care centers to proficult circumstances. They are twice vice non formal,  home-based, integrals likely as men to be illiterate, their child development for children unaccess to child care is limited, they the age of 6 in thirty-four poor subject to discrimination in hiring ban and purebred areas. Women and wages, and they are restricted benefit from the project either as by law from engaging in certain procure givers employed at the minimum ductive activities. wage or as clients of the centers. The Integrated Child Development children in day care gives women Project, financed by a credit from the more time to search for jobs or to in World Bank's International Development their current situations (Winkler opponent Association designed and Guedes 1995).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Or social security systems rather than by direct contributions from individual employers. In Eastern Europe and Latin America, however, this method of funding benefits has imposed a significant cost on the treasury, raising the question of how much should be paid and for how long.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One way of addressing this issue is for governments to encourage women and men to share the responsibility for childrearing by adopting legislation allowing either parent to qualify for the leave and benefits associated with having a child (Folbre 1994). Such legislation can be supported by changes in the tax system to ensure equal treatment of workers within the household and a margin tax rate on the earnings of additional workers in the household low enough to avoid creating a disincentive to women's participation in the labor force (Mac Donald 1994). These tax changes can be complemented by legislation that encourages absent to pay child support. Such laws are in place in many Latin American and Caribbean countries. but none systematically monitors transfers (Folbre 1994). Greater efforts to enforce the law are needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Family Law</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender inequality in family law can worsen women's bargaining position within and outside the household and affect household welfare and efficiency. As noted in chapter women's bargaining position in relation to Household resource allocation is often a key factor in determining the wellbeing of household members. particularly children. Reforms of family law can enhance women's economic and social opportunities while still respecting cultural norms. For instance the minim age of marriage for women  should be set high enough so that girls can complete secondary schooling: this would help lower fertility rates. (Allowing for exceptions such as parent consent negates the potential fertility benefit.) Marriage contracts should include stipulations guaranteeing the wife's rights. especially on separation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Women's bargaining position in relation to household</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legal and policy measures can have a direct bearing on the health of women. The law and its enforcement are essential for combating domestic violence against women. If the laws on violence against women are to be enforced, women need to be made aware of the legal recourse available to them and the judiciary and police need to be sensitized to the existence and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.3 innovative approaches to combating gender violence</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil's women-only police stations are an innovative approach to the problem of violence against women. They have been so successful that other countries-including Argentina, Colombia, Costa Rica, India, Peru, and Uruguay-have emulated them. The police stations have made it easier for women to report gender based crimes of violence, and, with that experience, women are now demanding more support from the police, such as legal counseling and advice. Despite the program's success, the number of convictions for gender-based crimes has not increased, largely because similar innovations have not been made in the  judicial system (Heise, Pitanguy, and Germain 1994). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Zimbabwe the Mussasa project provides support and counseling to abused women and sensitizes police and prosecutors to the issues of domestic violence and rape. To ensure the credibility and acceptability of the training, legal professionals are involved in the program. One branch of the criminal justice system-the police department, for example-often hosts training for another, such as prosecutors (Stewart 1992).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Costa Rica El Instituto Legal de las Naciones Unidas y Desarrollo runs gender sensitization training for prosecutors, judges, lawyers, and other professionals who deal with crimes of violence against women (Heise, Pitanguy, and Germain 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Implication of violence against women. Affirmative action policies can increase the number of women police officers lawyers, and judges. Trading police, lawyers, and judges can increase their gender sensitivity. making the legal system more responsive to women's needs. Legal literacy efforts can make women aware of their rights and show them how to use these rights to mobilize for change. Some approaches to dealing with domestic violence are illustrated in box 3.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Financial Laws and Regulations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access to credit is vital for women, allowing them to manage fluctuations in income and expenditures and to expand their businesses. As we saw in the preceding chapters, credit can be an important source of economic empowerment for women within the household. But in many countries. underdeveloped financial markets, controlled interest rates, and overly rigid backings regulations have led to systems of credit that tend to shut out the pool. many of whom are women If financial institutions are to lend to those unable to obtain credit in the current environment. interest rates must be liberalized. Positive interest rates have important effects on informational money markets, which tend to be more exploitative when formal sector credit is rationed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Changes in the laws governing access to credit are also vital because women's business profiles often differ from men's. Compared with men. women are more likely to work in low-risk small, and home-based businesses (Rhyne and Holt 1994). This situation creates a demand for small loans that can be obtained without formal, legally secured collateral and that offer relatively flexible repayment terms. Legislation that encourages broad access to financial institutions can increase the availability of these types of loans. but legal changes may also be needed to extend the range of acceptable collateral.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many countries the regulatory framework contains provisions that are especially punitive to small firms. This adds an additional constraint on women, whose businesses are concentrated at the small end of the size The deregulation of the microentreprise sector would remove implicit disincentives to small-film activity and would relieve some of these Such action would enhance women entrepreneurs' prospects of benefiting from training or credit programs targeted to the microentreprise sector (World Bank 1994d. 1995c).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Redirecting Public Policies and Expenditure to Promote (tender Equality)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is unlikely that legal reform by itself will be sufficient to ensure that women and men ate treated equally. Further public action may be required to guarantee that gentler-neutral laws are enforced at both national and local levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Macroeconomic: Policies</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many developing countries are implementing important policy and institutional reforms to address changing economic conditions on both the domestic and international fronts. These reforms are often supported by international financial institutions and bilateral donors. The pace of reform has varied across countries Those countries that have implemented reforms early on, carried them out consistently, and received adequate financial support have generally enjoyed faster and stronger economic growth than count ties that have undertaken reforms too slowly, too intermittently, or not at all. Where implementation has been slow or the government's commitment weak, economic distortions have tended to multiply and economic trowels to slow. limiting the government's ability to invest in physical and human capital for the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often the poorest groups in society that stand to lose the most from economic distortions. High and rising inflation places a disproportionate tax burden on the poor including low-paid wage workers and those with fixed incomes. For this and other reasons, inflation tends to hit women harder than men. An overvalued currency is also regressive; it keeps the price of goods artificially low. crowding out many locally produced goods. Women's businesses. which ate often concentrated in the informal sector, can be particularly vulnerable to competitions from cheap snorts. An overvalued currency reduces international competitiveness. limiting the availability of foreign exchange for domestic entrepreneurs and constraining business expansion and employment creation. A firm commitment to policy refortify is therefore essential to economic growth and sustainable initiatives for alleviating poverty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Inflation tends to hit women harder than men.</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such reforms generally include two kinds of necessary policies. The first emphasizes macroeconomic stability and the removal of price distortions: the second promotes labor-demanding growth in agriculture and industry and better. mote accessible basic social services. mightily in education, health care and water supply. Macroeconomic stability can be achieved by reducing large current account and government budget deficits and by curtailing excessive money and credit expansion. Correct pricing of foreign exchange and of domestic goods and services facilitates trade and investment and promotes growth Reforms of trade and price incentives encourage job creation and higher earnings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In shots. broadly based economic reforms benefit the poor, as the experiences of diverse countries have shown. Data from the LSMS and similar studies confirm that in Costa Rica, Ethiopia. Than Indonesia, Peru, the Philippines, and Tanzania, declines in poverty rates have accompanied economic reforms. Because of underlying gender inequalities, reductions in poverty do not necessarily improve the economic status of women. Nonetheless. although empirical evidence on changes in women's welfare following reforms is scarce, data from the Philippines suggest that for women. economic reform is by improvements in social indicators and important employment gains (box 3.4). An analysis of household data from Peru indicates that reforms there have not only led to renewed growth and reduced poverty but have also improved the status of female-headed households (box 3.5).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their seminal role in encouraging sustainable. long-term growth. some economic reforms involve transitional costs. for two reasons: the need to implement radical shifts in government policy, and the lag. perhaps of years, between acceleration of economic growth and the realization of the 
+</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.4 social progress and labor force gains for women in the Philippines</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Philippines began implementing economic reforms in the early 1980s. While political turmoil and some policy slippage have weakened GDP growth over the period and led to the need for further reforms, quality of life indicators have improved during adjustment. For example, by 1990 the incidence of absolute poverty had declined by about one-third (to approximately 20 percent of the population). Maternal and infant mortality rates also declined over the period: in 1980 the infant mortality rate was 52 per 1,000 live births, but by 1990 it had fallen to 41 per 1,000 births (Johansen 1993). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The percentage of the population with access to safe drinking water increased between 1980 and 1990, from 65 to 93 percent of the urban population and from 43 to 72 percent of the rural population. The figures for sanitation services showed the same increase, climbing from 81 percent with access in 1980 to 98 per  cent in 1990 among urban dwellers and from 67 to 85 percent among those in rural areas. Secondary school enrollment rates for boys and girls also showed gains. Girls and boys have traditionally reached similar educational levels in the Philippines, a trend that contributed to women's gains in the labor market during adjustment in the 1980s. While labor force participation rates for men rose only slightly, the rates for women increased dramatically, from 23 to 37 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, women's wages as a percentage of men's grew from 71 to 80 percent between 1978 and 1988 (Tzannatos 1995). A recent study of a low-income community in Manila found that in some private sector jobs women earn more than men, reflecting in part the high educational level among women in the sector. Earnings in the informal sector are generally low for both women and men. although some women have been so successful in their informal sector businesses that their spouses have opted to leave low-paying jobs in the formal sector to participate in their wives enterprises (Moser 1994).  benefits of growth by large segments of the population. The short-term costs can include increases in food prices as subsidies are removed temporary restrictions on credit to control monetary expansion, and cuts in public spending as governments attempt to control budget deficits and reorient spending toward the most important public services. Moreover, inequalities in access to and control over resources and in entry into markets hamper some groups in taking advantage of the opportunities created by economic reform For example, people who are unable to acquire new skills may remain for some thee. Gender inequalities in access to and control over land in rural areas can keep women farmers from taking advantage of changes in the relative prices of tradable and non tradable crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.5 macroeconomic reform and improved living standards in Peru</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between 1985 and 1990 Peru's economic regime was marked by expansionary monetary and fiscal policies and high levels of government intervention in most areas of the economy. Although these policies led to an initial period of growth, the approach proved unsustainable: by late 1987 growth had given way to hyperinflation and deep recession. During 1988-90 real GDP dropped by an average of 8 percent a year. Real wages and consumption expenditure also fell sharply as inflation soared to 7,600 percent a year in 1990.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1990 the new government of President Alberto Fujimori introduced macroeconomic reform measures designed to stabilize the economy, reduce fiscal deficits and inflation, increase market efficiency, and improve the country's competitiveness. Under this reform program inflation declined dramatically, falling to 57 percent in 1992 and to 17 percent in 1994. Real GDP grew by about 20 percent between 1991 and 1994, while real per capita consumption expenditure grew by more than 18.5 percent. LSMS data show that poverty declined by 11 percent-from 55 percent of the population in 1991 to 49 percent in 1994. Although the country experienced a brief contractionary period following the introduction of reform measures, household data from Lima for 1990, 1991, and 1994 indicate that in 1994 per capita expenditure was well above, and the incidence of poverty well below, 1990 levels. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improvements in living standards have been widespread, and the largest gains have been made in some of the country's poorest regions, such as the urban and rural sierra (mountain areas). In most parts of the country, increases in per capita expenditure among households headed by women have been above the national average. In the urban and rural sierra, for example. consumption expenditure by these households increased by 47.7 and 44.8 percent. respectively-figures that compare favorably with increases in per capita expenditure among households headed by men (35 and 28 percent for the same regions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although both women and men are expected to gain from economic reform in the long run. gender inequalities at the household and market levels can mean that the benefits of reform reach women, especially poor women. only slowly. Reforms must incorporate measures aimed at counter acting shot-term transitional costs. Among the most important are safety nets specifically targeted to vulnerable groups. For example, in fiscal 1994 seventeen of the twenty-three reform programs supported by the World Bank included components aimed specifically at reducing poverty: fourteen of them targeted programs or safety net measures such as labor-intensive public works projects. targeted and social assistance programs, and unemployment and social security schemes (see box 3.6).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.6 food coupons improve nutrition in Honduras</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The food coupon program in Honduras, part of a social safety net supported by the World Bank and financed by IDA and other donors, was put in place in 1990 to protect the country's most vulnerable people during economic reforms. Starting with about 182,000 participants, by 1994 the program had expanded its coverage to 345.000 of the estimated 430,000 children at risk of malnutrition. The effort also supports nutrition education for health workers, community groups, and mothers. Because coupons are used instead of food. the government saves some 30 percent over traditional food distribution costs, and the beneficiaries are able to choose the food  they will consume. Beginning in 1995, an adjustment for inflation will maintain the value of the coupons, enabling participants to satisfy a constant proportion of their food needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project also supports the development and implementation of a long-term nutrition assistance strategy for Honduras. Although attempting to measure changes in malnutrition is difficult in the short term, there have already been noticeable benefits. Between 1990 and 1993 the number of first-graders with severe or moderate malnutrition dropped by 4 percent. Organizers are now trying to graduate women participants from the program by offering training in basic skills such as food processing and helping them find assembly work in local factories (World Bank 1995b). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, safety nets are not a substitute for a mote integrated approach to economic and social policy that includes appropriate levels of harvest in social services and infrastructure. Recognizing this fact, governments and donors are increasingly incorporating into their reform packages antipoverty initiatives and measures to reduce gender inequality. In Pakistan, for example, the FIDA-financed Public Sector Adjustment. Program provides much needed the financial support for the balance of payments account and reinforces the emphasis on government investment in the social sectors. The program promotes increased access to and improvements in basic education. health. and water supply services that benefit girls and rural areas. It also supports a shift it government education and health spending toward the primary level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fiscal 1994 twelve of twenty-three World Bank economic reform pro emphasized the restructuring public expenditure, primarily to and increase spending on education. health care, and other areas important to poverty reduction such as water supply and sanitation. The Burkina Faso reform program is typical; it supports an increase in the total budgeted amounts for primary education and health services, which are particularly beneficial to the poor and to women. Uganda s program seeks to protect and enhance public expenditures for basic social services. including water supply primary health care and primary education. In the long term, the reform of public spending-especially in the social sectors, physical infrastructure and agricultural research and extension-promises significant benefits) trot women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Sectoral Investments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In principle. public expenditures on social services and infrastructure are allocated on a gender-neutral basis; in practice men and women use these services differently. The resulting inequalities frequently perpetuate gender based differences in the accumulation and distribution of human capital within households. Public policy can address this problem by public expenditure priorities between secrets and within social sectors. Further it can support services and types of infrastructure that provide the highest social returns to public spending and are most heavily used by women  and children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDUCATION. Estimations of the private returns to education for a number of countries (Psachatopoulos 1994) show that returns are at least equal for girls anti boys and are often higher for girls. Moreover, these rates do not capture the externalities generated by providing education to girls. The combination of private and social returns provides a clear signal for restructuring the allocations of public resources so as to support female education. Yet incidence analysis for a number of countries for which the necessary data are available reveals that educational subsidies per capita are higher for males than for females This difference is partly a result of the bias in allocation of subsidies toward higher levels of education, where female enrolled is lowest. Distortions in the allocation of public resources, such as the provision of mote money foe male-dominated tertiary institutions than for education that benefits girls, should be corrected by reallocating spending toward basic (primary and lower-secondary) schooling. Targeting these educational levels will have the maximum effect on girls' education and will yield higher social returns for society as a whole. In countries where universal basic education has been achieved and capital markets are unable to help households finance higher education, continuing subsidize higher education may be warranted. The rationale for the subsidy would be the productivity gains associated with a better-trained labor force.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To correct the bias against enrollment of girls more targeted interventions are need to influence household (see decisionmaking)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However reallocating public spending toward primary education and later toward higher levels is not sufficient to erase the gender gap in education The bias against enrolling girls in school is evident in both poor and no poor households and applies even at the primary level. To correct this bias, more targeted interventions are needed to influence household decision making</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HEALTH. Correcting the gender bias in the public financing of health care IS a more complex process than correcting the bias in education. for two main reasons: the marked differences between the health needs of men and women, and the unreliability of household data on demand for health services in comparison with the data on demand tot education). However it is cleat that targeting health services to women implies provision of adequate funding for prenatal care. infant immunization, and mother and child health services. Because of the significant social benefits of providing women with appropriate health care, governments should make basic services ices that benefit women a top priority among, public health care expenditures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a critical link between the public provision of health care and women's access to educational opportunities. A mother educated to seek preventive care and early treatment of illness for herself and her children (particularly girls) will reduce the cost of health care and in many cases. prevent premature death. Most of these highly cost-effective services can be supplied in rural clinics and health centers. Public spending should be so allocated as to ensure sufficient funding for these primary health facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICES. Agricultural extension and research services are widely considered vital to increasing and sustaining agricultural productivity. Many of these services are being provided by the private sector. but in some countries private services need public support, either because certain markets have not yet been developed or because the infrastructure is poorly developed. However. women farmers and small holders are often not served as effectively by public agricultural extension systems as ate and male farmers (FAO 1993). This disparity stems paltry from expend priorities within agricultural extension services. which concentrate resources on the crops and the technology controlled primarily by male commercial farmers. Reallocating public spending on agricultural extension and research services toward crops and technology raised by or used by small holders and women farmers could yield high social returns to public investment and could increase private returns by improving the skills and productivity of small agricultural producers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reallocating public spending on agricultural extension  and research services toward crops and technology </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Techniques for small holders and women farmers should take into account the need for quality and cost-effectiveness in public services, Economies of scale can be achieved if extension agents deal with groups of farmers instead of with individuals. This approach also provides a valuable forum for exchanging information. fostering peer learning. sharing expensive equipment. and pooling resources for- credit. Mobile trailing units and flexible hours that fit the crowded schedules of women farmers should also be considered. and more female extension agents should be trained to deal directly with female farmers. Such measures can be introduced without large additional resources if existing expenditures are carefully reallocated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INFRASTRUCTURE, Public investment in economic and social infrastructure is vital in facilitated individual and household investment in physical and human capital. However, public expenditures on roads, water supply, and sanitation infrastructure frequently do not meet the needs of those who use the services most heavily. Women are the main users of water services, and it is essential to involve them in designing and implementing water projects. For example. in areas where transport is inadequate and water collection is a daily burden for women and children, the population tends to use the closest available facility rather than the safest one. In such cases. projects that ensure a safe water supply and take into account the specific needs and constraints of the users often have a significant effect on users' health. In two villages in Zaire where a piped water network was installed to provide safe drinking water, the median incidence of diarrhea was halved among children in households located less than a five-minute walk from a public standpipe. Spending allocations that favor public water supply and sanitation improve the general health of the population, save time for women and children. and increase school attendance. A study from Morocco chows that access to tap and well water instead of pond or river water raised school enrollment for both boys and girls (Khandker, Lavy, and Filer 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are the main users of water services and it is essential  to involve them in designing and implementing water projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public spending on roads and energy-related facilities (for instance electrification or energy conservation) or other infrastructure is usually assumed to be gander neutral. Yet women and men use these facilities differently The Morocco study cited above found that the availability of electricity increased the rate for girls substantially more than for boys. The study also showed that the presence of a paved road increased by 40 percent the probability that girls would attend school and reduced by 5 percent their probability of dropping out. Overall, improved road conditions increased the probability of school attendance for girls by 32 percent and for boys by 20 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural electrification can also ease the time constraints on women who must balance household and productive work. Lack of time is often a primary season for women's weak response to economic incentives. especially in rural areas. The case for making public investments in infrastructure would be stronger if gender differences in the use of projects and services, as well as the potential effect of such investment on productivity and social development. were taken into account.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Using Targeting Measures to Narrow the Gender</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As we have seen. policies that specifically target women or girls can address the needs or this group more efficiently and with greater cost-effectiveness than general policy measures. Female household members tend to allocate resources more directly to children. while men tend to allocate more resources to adults. In households in which resources are not pooled. targeting programs to the household as a where will not necessarily benefit all members equally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Targeting women directly is justifiable on two grounds. First, to the extent that gender inequalities prevent an economy from realizing its full potential. targeting to women can be an effective strategy for increasing productivity and output Second, where gender differences are wide, targeting may be needed to capture social gains and to increase internal efficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Targeting women is especially when doing so contributes directly to reducing poverty; or when women have particular needs-for example. when maternal mortality is very high. The exceptionally high gender gap in educational enrollments in some countries can be reduced only by policies (including subsidies) that target girls. An obvious example would be policies that affect the private costs of schooling. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female household members tend to allocate resources more  directly to children it while men</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reducing these direct costs to households Will mean setting new public spending priorities. For example. education institutions for girls especially at the primary level, might be exempted from cost recovery measures. thus increasing the implied public spending subsidy to girls. Similarly. a far; number of publicly funded scholarships can be provided for girls' as has been done in and Guatemala.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Opportunity and travel costs can discourage parents from enrolling especially daughters in school. Some counties have tried to overcome the constraints imposed by opportunity costs by introducing flexible school hours and calendar years and providing child care for younger siblings (box 3.7). In some cases girls who are responsible for looking after their younger brothels and sisters ate allowed to bring them to school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In countries where cultural values may prevent girls from traveling alone to school. measures are needed that will increase access to safe transport.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.8 economic reforms and gender targeting in Mongolia</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since Mongolia began its transition to a market economy in 1990, the living conditions of the population have deteriorated dramatically. According to the government's estimates, a quarter of all Mongolians are now living below the poverty line. Single women with young children are among the "new" vulnerable groups that have emerged in the wake of the transition. As of December 1993 nearly 72 percent of households headed by single persons, usually women, were estimated to have incomes below the poverty line. (About 28 percent of all households in Mongolia are headed by women). The Mongolian Women's Federation reports that the divorce rate is rising among jobless low-income couples, increasing the number of single-parent households. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Along with job loss women are affected by the decline in services such as day care and maternity homes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mothers now have to look after their children at home, which restricts their ability to participate in the labor market and, ironically, increases their dependence on welfare. When herds were privatized, priority was given to people who, according to the government, could take better care of the animals. Unfortunately, this policy adversely affected female-headed households.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The maternal mortality rate has doubled over the past three years. in part because many more babies are being delivered at home. Other factors that have contributed to the rising maternal mortality rate include a decrease in the number of ambulances and the need for patients to pay for the food they consume while they are hospitalized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mongolia, targeting female-headed households, pregnant women, and children is essential for reducing poverty. Social assistance, health care. education, and help in finding employment are particularly important (Subbarao and Ezemenari forthcoming).  change the geographic distribution of primary schools, of provide more boarding facilities. Projects in Pakistan are using school mapping techniques to establish criteria for placing new schools in currently underserved areas. Such programs benefit both girls and boys.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It may be necessary to target women when economic reforms of systemic transitions are occurring. For example, in Mongolia, as well as in other countries making the transition from a socialist to a market economy, women are disproportionately represented among the unemployed and otherwise disadvantaged (box 3.8). Thus, in designing safety nets to mitigate the short negative effects or economic transitions. policymakers need to recognize and evaluate the specific adverse effects on women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not always necessary to restrict a particular program of benefit exclusively to women: the objective can sometimes be achieved indirectly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Techniques based on self-selection appear to be particularly efficient. In Zambia. where men have a strong preference for cash wages, offering wages in kind (food) attracted more women workers than men to public works programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the financial sector. women entrepreneurs are enabled to borrow at market rates of interest when banking institutions adopt innovate collateral requirements, reduce transaction costs, and offer small loans at repeated intervals The Grameen Bank in Bangladesh and Badan Kredit Kecaman in Indonesia do not reserve loans for women specifically: instead. they adopt innovative lending policies the result of which is that women snake up the majority of participants-is 96 percent in a new branch of the Grameen Bank.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Involving Beneficiaries in Public Policy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until recently. the absence of input from beneficiaries often let's ignorant about how the costs and benefits of policy changes would be distributed among the population Today the views and needs of potential beneficiaries are being taken into account at both the macroeconomic and sectoral levels. This trend should make it possible to determine who benefits. who does not, and why. A good example of a situation in which a beneficiary's point of view can make a significant difference is in public expenditure reviews. Governments with unsustainable budget deficits must make difficult decisions about the allocation of public resources. Their task can of ten be facilitated by suggestions from the potential beneficiaries themselves, since one of the key questions policymakers face is whether investments as presently allocated are reaching the intended populations efficiently and effectively</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three broad approaches can be used to guarantee that the views of women and other intended beneficiaries are adequately reflected in policy and project formulation. First. surveys and other methods of collecting statistical data can be designed to ensure that gender-desegregated data are properly collected and analyzed. Second, beneficiary assessments, which use a range of qualitative research methods such as direct observation. selected individual of group interviews. and case studies. can be used to ensure that the views of all groups are adequately represented.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A third approach involves a range of participatory planning and management techniques that reflect a significant transfer of control to the community and local levels. Participatory evaluations use innovative research that allow illiterate and otherwise voiceless groups to express their concerns and priorities. Small grants and credits managed at the local level by NGOs or governments agencies permit a community to choose the projects that best reflect its OWN priorities. Social funds. whereby resources are channeled to demand-driven projects, are one such mechanism While these participatory approaches have been implemented primarily at the local level, they are also beginning to be used to involve the community in regional and national planning. Participatory methods, by helping to create local capacity. ensure the sustainability of projects and programs. They also help establish rational criteria for making public investment choices that incorporate both social and efficiency objectives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Generating and Analyzing Gender-Desegregated Data</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender-desegregated data and the capacity to analyze these data provide public policymakers with essential information and enhance the dialogue with agents outside government. One of the most valuable instruments for collecting desegregated data is the household survey. which can provide detailed information that is invaluable in policymaking. Obtaining full gender information in many instances entails only a small increase in costs. since the desegregation itself involves little extra work. However additional resources ate often needed to analyze the data and make it useful to policymakers. Public statistical agencies might analyze gender-desegregated information in partnership with private and academic institutions in order to share the costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several important steps in collecting useful and accurate data. First. in places where gender -desegregated household data have not yet been collected. special efforts should be made to obtain them. At a minimum data on how individuals use health and educational services should be collected routinely as part of national consumption and expenditure surveys. If household consumption. income or production surveys have already been carried out but little or no gender--desegregated data have been collected, the marginal cost of collection is likely to be quite modest-perhaps on the order of 10 percent of total costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participatory methods help establish rational criteria  for making public investment choose that incorporate  both social and efficiency objectives. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second. in places where basic gender-desegregated data have already been collected, it is important to gather more data from individuals on consumption and. as much as possible. on income and the ownership of assets. Such data ate vital for developing a deeper understanding of how access to and allocation and control of resources are determined within households. More data on men's and women's access to credit and information services, such as agricultural extension programs, are needed for an understanding of women's limited access to important production inputs. The data also indicate the effectiveness of projects and programs in providing such services to women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Third, there should be an increased emphasis on collecting panel data (thee series) to facilitate snore detailed analyses of changes in household behavior over time. Because full panel surveys are costly, it may be necessary to adopt less-expensive panel methods and combine them with flexible data collection. Anthropological and participatory research methods can be used to enhance the quality and relevance of formal survey questions, as well as to provide a "reality check" on formal survey responses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, greater priority needs to be given to gender-disaggregated analysis of existing data sets. This analysis should be carried out not only in social sectors such as health and education but also on such issues as the intrahousehold allocation of time and labor and access to and use of productive resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Working in Collaboration</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments' ability to identify and implement policies that promote gender equality is greatly enhanced by the active participation of other players from the development community and civil society. These agents include individual women and men, community-based groups, private-for-profit firms, trade unions, non governmental organizations, and multilateral and bilateral agencies. Interaction between public institutions and other actors provides the basis for a more informed policy dialogue on gender issues. It also lays the foundation for operational collaboration and for broadly based support for public policy measures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past several decades NGOs have become major players in international development. NGOs are by no means homogenous. In the field of development, they range from large volunteer and charity organizations, many of them based in industrial countries, to community-based self-help groups. They also include research institutes, volunteer-sending agencies, religious organizations, professional associations, and lobbying groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGOs concerned with gender issues have had a particularly important role in designing and implementing gender programs, especially at the grassroots level, and in advocating policy change at the national level NGOs have been effective in providing information and education to women and in helping community-based women's organizations lobby for change. In many countries collaboration between NGOs and governments is still relatively new. Nonetheless, it is growing rapidly-most visibly in the delivery of social and financial services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, in Peru a proposed basic health and nutrition project aims to improve the quality and accessibility of health and nutritional services, with an emphasis on poor women and children. NGOs are expected to play a major role in implementing the project and will be responsible for 75 percent of training and research, 40 percent of education, and 20 percent of service delivery (World Bank 1994g). In Africa many HIV/AIDS support programs are managed by NGOs with assistance from governments and funds from international donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the long run choices made by private sector agents are profoundly important for the persistence  or reduction of gender inequalities </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the financial services sector NGOs have found innovative ways of overcoming barriers that women face in access to credit and savings facilities. Among the better-know programs are the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, ACCION International in Latin America, and the NGO consortium ACCORD in Africa. NGOs have been very successful in organizing village banks and mobile banking systems to reach the rural poor. These credit programs provide women not only with the funds to finance income-generating activities but also with opportunities to acquire basic business skills and to assume leadership positions within their peer groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments also seek to collaborate with a range of institutions from the private sector. In the long run the choices made by private sector agents- whether households, firms, or trade unions-are profoundly important for the persistence or seduction of gender inequalities. Joint public-private sector initiatives can be vital in changing peoples perceptions about the benefits of investing in or hiring women. The private sector has a comparative advantage in providing certain kinds of services to women-for example, vocational education and training. Collaboration with the private sector- often means that public resources can be reallocated to those investments that offer the highest rate of social return. such as basic education and health care.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Strengthening International Policies to Meet New Challenges</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not all issues that bear on gender equality can be effectively addressed by individual nations. For example, refugee and displaced women and children account for up to 80 percent of the 50 million refugees and displaced persons worldwide. The sheer numbers of refugee and displaced women and children highlight the urgent need to devise international strategies for dealing with this problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sheer numbers of refugee and displaced women and  children (estimated at 4 million) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The constraints that refugee and displaced women lace are similar to those faced by other women, only magnified many times. They lack access to health services, even though their health risks are high. Girls often have less access to basic education than in their home countries. With little access to family planning, women s fertility rates may be extraordinarily high at a time when the burden of additional children hinders the chances of survival for both mothers and infants. In the absence of professional abortion services, women may rely on self-induced and unsafe abortions. The proportion of female-headed households is highest in refugee situations, yet the women's income-generating activities and skills are minimal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international response to this type of crisis is usually limited to emergency relief measures. Although vital, these measures often fail to recognize the long-term economic and social costs involved in restructuring the lives of displaced women when they return to their home countries. International public policy has an important role in preparing refugee and displaced women for their future role in rebuilding their societies. Long-term repatriation and development on a regional basis along the lines of the International Conference on Central American Refugees (CIREFCA) in Central America is one approach to involving governments, NGOs and development agencies in a coordinated response to refugee problems. Governments and agencies must make every effort to collaborate in making repatriation viable by establishing development programs that explicitly take account of refugees' needs. Otherwise, chances are high that people will once again be forced to leave their countries. putting at risk national reconciliation efforts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another area that demands an international response is the establishment of legal conventions for the enforcement of social justice and human rights. Equality under the law creates the legitimacy policymakers and private individuals need to seek change that will increase well-being and encourage economic opportunity. In certain instances, legitimacy needs to be established at the international level. For this reason it is vitally important that governments ratify the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. This convention. adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979, provides a framework for action by countries to reduce discrimination against women in political and public life, law and education, employment, health care. commerce. and domestic relations. International conventions of this type provide an important policy lever for women's organizations and other groups in civil society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Conclusions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This chapter has presented the rationale for public interventions to promote gender equality. Such interventions are needed because of market failures and social externalities that extend beyond the individual household to affect society in general. For resources to be allocated efficiently, public spending should focus on those investments with the highest social returns. Given the evidence of high social and private returns to investments in women's human capital, public expenditures should give priority to the investments that have the largest impact on the welfare of girls and women, especially in basic education and reproductive and other health care services. Policymakers also need to identify areas in which actions can be taken that would have gender neutral outcomes, including sectoral programs addressing transport and infrastructure, water supply. and sanitation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BY directing  public resource toward policies and projects  that reduce gender inequality policy markers are promoting  not only equality today but also higher labor productivity </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments can no longer afford not to invest in women. The evidence on private and social returns to investments in women and girls cannot be ignored. By directing public resources toward policies and projects that reduce gender inequality, policy makers are promoted not only equality today but also higher labor productivity, a higher rate of human capital formation, slower population growth. and stronger economic growth tomorrows However, none of these goals can be reached without the participation of women  themselves. Governments and collaborating institutions must listen carefully to the voices of individual women, to women s groups, and to woman policymakers By working with others to identify and implement policies for greater gander equality, governments can take actions that will make a real difference to the future well-being and prosperity of their people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Notes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Birdsall and Sabot (1994) use earlier findings by Barro (1991) to test the relationship between inequality and growth. They find that in Latin America unequal distribution of education. in terms of both quality and quantity, constrained economic growth in the region by reducing opportunities for increasing labor productivity. In East Asia open and relatively equal access to high-quality basic education led to a virtuous circle of high educational performance that stimulated growth and reduced inequality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Subbarao and Raney (1993) estimate that a doubling of family planning services in 1982 would have reduced the fertility rate from 5.5 to 5 0 and the number of births by 3.5 percent</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. The Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS) is a series of multitopic surveys designed to study multiple aspects of household welfare</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Deforestation is represented by the time required to collect a standard load of fuelwood</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. It would be more illuminating to compare wage differences across three categories of women workers: women without children: women with children but with no interruption in employment except for statutory maternity leave: and women with children and with interrupted employment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Among women workers. 53 percent are in commerce. compared with 33 percent of men. In manufacturing. 16 percent of the workers are men. compared with 14 percent for women. In services, 37 percent are men anti 33 percent are women (World Bank 1995c)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. In Bolivia informal moneylenders require borrowers to write postdated checks. If borrowers tail to make timely repayments, these checks are deposited and, as the lender knows will bounce for lack of funds A bounced check is a criminal offense in Bolivia. and the lender can have the borrower arrested The World Bank estimates that about 20 percent of all Bolivian prison inmates-and 40 percent of female inmates imprisoned for 'bouncing' checks and for other collateral-related crimes. In many cases children must live in prison with their mothers (winkler and Guedes, 1995)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. The International Conference on Central American Refugees (CIREECA) was held in Guatemala City in May 1989 A total of 126 projects in seven countries were introduced. with an overall investment of $365 million Areas with high densities of returnees were targeted. and special attention was given to projects to support displaced women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">References</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agarwal. Bina. 1994. "Gender and Command Over Property: A Critical Gap in Economic Analysis and Policy in South Asia." World/Development 22(10) 22(10): 145578.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baden. Sally. 1993. "The Impact of Recession and Structural Adjustment on Women's Work in Developing and Developed Countries." Working paper. International Labour Office. Geneva</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
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+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hosken, Fran P., ed 1992. Women's International Network News 18(4).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jackson. Cecile 1993 "Doing What Comes Naturally? Women and Environment in Development." World Development 21 (12): 1947-63.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Johansen. Frida 1993 Poverty Reduction in East Asia. World Bank Discussion Paper 203. Washington. D C</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jurisman. Clara, and Araceli Moreno. 1990. ''Women, Labour and Crisis: Mexico." Prepared for International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) project on Weathering Economic Crises: Women's Economic Responses to Recession in Latin America and the Caribbean. ICRW, Washington. D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kalima Rose. 1992. Where Women are Leaders The Sewa Movement in India. London Zed Press</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Khandker. Shahidur R. and Osman H. Chowdhury 1994 "Targeted Credit Programs and Rural Poverty in Bangladesh." World Bank, Education and Social Policy Department. Washington, D.C. and Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies, Dhaka.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Khandker, Shahidur R. Baqui Khalily. and Zahed Khan 1993 ''Sustainability of Grameen Bank: What Do We Know ? World Bank. Education and Social Policy Department. Washington. D C, and Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies, Dhaka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Khandker, Shahidur R., Victor Lavy, and D Filmer. 1994. Schooling and Cognitive in World Bank Discussion Paper 264. Washington. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kumar, Shubh K. and David Hotchkiss. 1988 Consequences of Deforestation for Women's Time Allocation Agricultural Production and Nutrition in Hill Areas of Nepal International Food Policy Research Institute Research Report 69 Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kuzoets. Simon. 1955 Economic Growth and Income Inequalities." American Economic Review 45 (March): 1-28.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lavy, Victor. 1992. Investment in Human Capital Schooling Supply in Rural Ghana Living Standards Measurement Study Working Paper 93 Washington, D C: World Bank.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacDonald, Martha. 1994. 'Panel Presentation at the Gender Symposium" World Bank. Poverty and Social Policy Department, Washington. D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manser Marilyn, and Murray Brown 1980 "Marriage and Household Decision making: A Bargaining Analysis " International Economic Review 21:11 44</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McElroy, Marjorie, and Mary Jean Homey. 1981. "Nash-bargained Household Decisions: Towards a Generalisation of the Theory of Demand" International</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic Review 22 (June):333 49</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moock, Peter R 1976 "The Efficiency of Women as Farm Managers: Kenya." American an Journal of Agricultural Economic 58(5):831-35.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moser, Caroline O. 1992 "Adjustment from Below: Low-income Women, Time and the Triple Role in Guayaquil. Ecuador" In Haleh Ashar and Carolynne Dennis, eds., Women and Adjustment Policies in the Third World. New York: St. Martin Press</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1994. "Urban Poverty and Social Policy in the Context of Adjustment" World Bank, Urban Development Division, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mwabu, Germano. 1994 "Household Composition and Expenditures on Human Capital Inputs in Kenya" Presented at Northeast Universities Development Conference, Economic Growth Center Yale University, New Haven, Conn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newell, Andrew and Barry Reilly 1994. "Pine Gender Wage Gap in Russia. ' World Bank, Europe and Central Asia Country Department 3, Washington. D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pitt, Mark, and Shahidur Khandker. 1995 "Household and Intrahousehold Impacts of the Grameen Bank and Similar Targeted Credited Programs in Bangladesh " World Bank, Education and Social Policy Department, Washington. D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population Reference Bureau 1994. The Wood'. Youth 1994 A Special Focus on Reproductive Health Washington. D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Psacharopoulos George 1994. "Returns to Investment in Education: A Global Up-date ' World Development 22(9):1325 43</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Psacharopoulos. George, and Zafiris Tzannatos. 1992 Women's Employment and PUN in Latin America Overview and Methodology. A World Bank Regional and Sectoral Study Washington, D.C.</P>
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+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agnes. 1994. ''Improving Women's Agricultural Productivity as Farmers and Workers." Education and Social Policy Department Discussion Paper 37. World Bank, Washington. D C</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rhyne, Elisabeth. and Sharon Holt 1994 ''Women in Finance and Enterprise Development'' Education and Social Policy Department Discussion Paper 40. World Bank. Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rosenzweig, Mark. and T. Paul Schultz. 1982 'Market Opportunities. Genetic Endowments, and Intrafamily Resource Distribution: Child Survival in Rural India'' American an Economic Review 72:4:803-15.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scales, Ann 1986 "The Emergence of Feminist Jurisprudence'' Yale Law Journal 95(7): 1373-1403.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schuler, Margaret, ed. 1986 Empowerment and the Law Strategies of Third World Women  Washington, D.C.: OEF</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schuler, Margaret. and Sakuntala Kadirgamar-Rajasingilam. eds 1992 Legal Literary. A TOOL for Women's Empowerment New York: United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schultz. T. Paul 1988 ''Education Investments and Returns'' In Hollis Chenery and T.R. Srinivasan. eds. Handbook of Development Economics Amsterdam: North land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sedlacek, Guilhemie, Leah Gutierrez, and Amit Mohindra 1993. "Women in the Labor Market" World Bank. Education and Social Policy Department Washington, D C</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sen, Amartya 1990 'More Than One Hundred Million Women Are Missing: Women's Survival as a Development Problem." New York Review of Books (December 20):61-66.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sivard, R L 1985. Women: A World Survey. Washington, D.C.: World Priorities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stewart, Sheelagh. 1992. ''Working the System: Sensitizing the Police to the Plight of Women " In Margaret Schuler. ed. Freedom from Violence e: Women Strategies from around the World. New York: United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Subbarao Kalanidlli. and Kene l Ezemenari Forthcoming "Transition. Poverty and Social Assistance in Mongolia.'' World Bank. Education and Social Policy Department Washington, D C</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Subbarao Kalanidhi. and Laura Raney 1993 Social Gains from Female Education: A Cross-National Stud!. World Bank Discussion Paper 194. Washington! D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Summers, Lawrence H. 1994 Investing in All the People Education Women in Developing Countries ED' Seminar Paper 45 Washington, D.C: World Bank</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thomas, Duncan 1990a "Household Resources and Child Health in Zimbabwe." Working Paper. Yale University, Economic Grow Center, New Haven, Conn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. 1990b Intrahousehold Resource Allocation: An Inferential Approach of Human Resources 25(4):635-64.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. 1991 Gender Differences in household Resource Allocation. Living Standards Measurement Study Working Paper 79 Washington. D C: World Bank</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. 1993. "The Distribution of Income and Expenditure within the Household." A Annals of Economics and Statistic 29: 109-35.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tibaijuka, Anna 1994 ''Cost of Differential Gender Roles in African Agriculture: A Case Study of Smallholder Banana-Coffee Fames in the Kagera Region, Tanzania." Journal of Agricultural Economics (U K) 45(1):69-81</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toubia, Nahid 1993. Female Genital Mutilation: A Call for Global Action. New York: United Nations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tzannatos, Zafiris 1995. "Growths, Adjustment, and the Labor Market: Effects on Women Workers." World Bank, Poverty and Social Policy Department, Washington. D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization). 1991. 1991. Paris</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. 1993b Trends and Projections of Enrollment by Level of Education by Age and Sex, 1960-2025. Paris</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund! 1993. The Progress of Nations. New York</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNIDO (United Nations Industrial Development Organization). 1993 11 Women in Manu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Recent Development in Practice Books</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Priorities and Strategies for Education: A World Bank Review (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Better Urban Services: Finding the Right Incentives (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strengthening the Effectiveness of Aid: Lessons for Donors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enriching Lives: Overcoming Vitamin and Mineral Malnutrition in Developing Countries (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A New Agenda for Women's Health and Nutrition (also available in French)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population and Development: Implications for the World Bank</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">East Asia's Trade and Investment: Regional and Global Gains from Liberalization</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governance: The World Bank's Experience</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Higher Education: The Lessons of Experience (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Better Health in Africa: Experience and Lessons Learned (also available in French)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Argentina's Privatization Program: Experience, Issues, and Lessons Sustaining Rapid Development in East Asia and the Pacific</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE WORLD BANK A partner in strengthening economies and expanding markets to improve the quality of life for people everywhere, especially the poorest</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender equality is not only a matter of social justice but also good economics. It is of foremost importance to women's wellbeing and development. Discrimination means losses in productivity and lower welfare of women, their families, and society at large.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the gender gap is narrowing in education, health, and many other areas, women are still less educated than men, work more hours, and are paid less. The reasons why gender disparities persist are complex, having to do with social and institutional norms, relationships within households, and even lack of information about the benefits of educating and employing women. Despite the weight of social and cultural factors, public policy can influence women's status and well-being. Governments have a leading role in widening the opportunities available to women and extending the services that are vitally important to them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report outlines what governments and development agencies can do to work toward greater gender equality- one of the best investments a society can make. Public policy can affect investments in health, education, and infrastructure through laws and regulations. It can also affect land ownership, financial services, and access to employment. Not least important, public  policies can affect macroeconomic performance and create a favorable climate for economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/macros/extra.dm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/macros/extra.dm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/macros/extra.dm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,286 @@
+# this file must be UTF-8 encoded
+
+## Introduction to customising the appearance of a Greenstone Collection.
+##
+## You will need to know some basic HTML coding to edit this file.
+##
+## This file overrides some of the default macros used by greenstone. I've
+## tried to explain what each custom macro does, so hopefully it is
+## straight-forward. I'm sure it looks a little daunting at first, but the
+## use of macros gives you lots of flexibility for modifying pages, once
+## you get the hang of it.
+
+##   -- John McPherson, 18 June 2003
+
+######################################################
+## General comments and hints
+
+## In these macro files, the '#' is the start of a comment. Greenstone will
+## ignore everything after a '#' until the end of the line, unless it
+## is part of a macro.
+
+## To change the appearance of your Greenstone library, edit the macro files 
+## in greenstone/macros. If you need to add a new macro file, you must add it 
+## to the "macrofiles" list in greenstone/etc/main.cfg so that Greenstone 
+## will use it.
+
+## To change the appearance of just a single collection, create a file 
+## called extra.dm in the macros directory of the collection.  Collection 
+## specific macros should be put in there. Macros in this file will override 
+## the default greenstone macros, just for that collection.
+
+## Every page action in greenstone has a name. We call it a "package".
+## So the default action is the "about" package. (This is the p=about cgi
+## argument). Other common actions are "document" and "help".
+## If a macro isn't found that is specific to that action, then greenstone
+## will fall back to macros defined in the "Global" package.
+## All macros in this file belong to whichever package was the most recently
+## mentioned one, with a line such as "package Global".
+
+## macros can have optional parameters, that make them more specific.
+## For example, you could have _macro_ {general case} as well as
+## _macro_ [c=garish-e] {For garish-e collection only} for when the 
+# "c" argument (which means the collection) is set to "garish-e". 
+## Or _macro_ [l=fr] {french case} for 
+## when the language is set to French. This is how we cope with different 
+## language interfaces.
+
+## Collection specific macros put into the main macro files must have a 
+## collection parameter ([c=garish-e]), otherwise they will apply to all 
+## collections. Macros in a collection's extra.dm do not need this parameter.
+
+## Don't refer to a macro's name inside the same macro, otherwise greenstone
+## will go into a recursive loop printing out the macro...
+
+## I've put HTML comments like <!-- end of custom header --> in the macros
+## so that you can see them when you do "view source" on a web page, to
+## help see the effect of changes of these macros.
+
+## _httpcimages_ is a macro that expands to the images directory of the 
+## current collection. Any collection images or stylesheets should be put 
+## there. 
+
+## The macros below modify the appearance of a specific greenstone collection.
+## It makes all the pages include a style-sheet, so that you can put
+## html-related appearance stuff (such as font colours and faces) in there,
+## rather than editing the macros for each piece of text.
+## mozilla has excellent CSS support - Netscape 4 and IE both have
+## incomplete implementations, but mostly work with the simple CSS I've used
+## here as a demonstration.
+##
+## Edit the file garish-e/styles/style.css to change the colours and fonts.
+
+
+##############################################################################
+package Global
+##############################################################################
+## default macros - can be overridden by specific packages. The normal versions
+## of these macros are in the file base.dm (and in the language-specific
+## macro files such as english.dm and french.dm)
+
+## These 2 macros are used for highlighting text that matched a query when
+## displaying a document. The default is to set the background to yellow.
+##
+## Note - this is a joke. Please don't ever use the blink tag in real life :)
+#_starthighlight_  {<blink>}
+#_endhighlight_  {</blink>}
+
+_starthighlight_ {<b>}
+_endhighlight_ {</b>}
+
+## navbarspacer - this is what goes between the search button and the
+## classifier buttons in the navigation bar.  The default is the
+## horizontal green bar.  You can put any html in here, and you can use
+## the _widthtspace_ macro if you want the calculated gap between the
+## buttons.
+## Note, navigation bar macros are defined in nav_css.dm, not base.dm
+
+## Note - netscape 4.x needs a space between the br and the /
+#_navbarspacer_  {<br />}
+
+## If you don't like the look of that, you could comment the above line out
+## and uncomment one of the following definitions for navbarspacer:
+
+## This will stack the buttons one above the other (they are in a table) with
+## our image as separator. This closes the current row and starts a new one.
+## This will use our custom image in the collection's images directory.
+
+_navbarspacer_  { 
+<br /><img src="_httpcimages_/horzline.gif" width="87" height="17">
+<br />
+}
+
+## This uses our custom image instead of the green bar, but otherwise has the
+## buttons horizontally, just like the default.
+#
+#_navbarspacer_  {
+# <img src="_httpcimages_/horzline.gif" width="_widthtspace_"
+# height="17"> 
+#}
+
+
+##############################################################################
+package Style
+##############################################################################
+
+## Style package is responsible for creating the header and footer of every
+## page. This is special as there is no style action as such - the other
+## actions include macros from here.
+
+## htmlhead is used by the default _header_ macros. It prints out the
+## beginning of an html file, including the header. It includes the 
+## _cssheader_ macro, which links to external stylesheets, and includes 
+## some image declarations. To override the entire style, write a new 
+## _cssheader_ macro here
+
+#_cssheader_ {
+#<link rel="stylesheet" href="_httpcstyles_/style.css" type="text/css" 
+#   title="Garish style Style" charset="UTF-8">
+#}
+
+## To keep most of the standard greenstone style, and just override a few 
+## style declarations, we can define _collectionspecificstyle_, which is 
+## included in the default _cssheader_ macro. The title of a stylesheet 
+## link must be 'Greenstone Style', in order for it to be used in 
+## conjunction with the main stylesheet.
+
+## Here we include the garish-e collection's stylesheet, which defines the 
+## page color to pink.
+## We also remove the background image for the page to get rid of the green 
+## swirly bar, and specify a new (blue) background image for hover 
+## (mouse over) on the navigation bar buttons 
+
+_collectionspecificstyle_ {
+<link rel="stylesheet" href="_httpcstyles_/style.css" type="text/css" 
+   title="Greenstone Style" charset="UTF-8">
+<style>
+body.bgimage \{ background-image: none; \}
+a.navlink:hover \{ background-image: url("_httpcimages_/bg_blue.gif"); \}
+</style>
+
+}
+
+## The default _pagebanner_ includes the collection's logo, the
+## home/help/preferences buttons, and a large image that says whether
+## you're viewing the about page, the search page, the titles page, etc.
+
+## Uncomment this or define style:pagebanner to something else if you don't
+## want any of those images appearing
+
+## Remove banner entirely
+#_pagebanner_ {}
+
+## Just leave in the home button
+_pagebanner_  {
+<div id="banner">
+<div class="pageinfo"> 
+<p class="bannerlinks">_homelink_</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+}
+
+##############################################################################
+package about
+##############################################################################
+## "about" is page you see when you first go to a collection. The default
+## versions of these macros are in the about.dm file.
+
+## content by default has the navigationbar (links to Search and classifiers),
+## and "About this collection" and "how to find information" text.
+## The _navigationbar_ macro is defined internally by the greenstone server,
+## and uses the _imagespacer_ macro defined in the Global section.
+##
+## This is similar to the default, except that we don't center the navigation 
+## bar and don't include a search box on the collection's about page.
+
+
+_content_  {
+<!-- start of custom about:content -->
+_navigationbar_
+<div class="document">
+_textabout_
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3>_help:textsimplehelpheading_</h3>
+_help:simplehelp_
+</div>
+</div>
+<!-- end of custom about:content -->
+}
+
+
+##############################################################################
+package query
+##############################################################################
+## These are macros related to creating the search page. The default versions
+## are in the file query.dm
+
+
+## This is similar to the default, except we don't centre the _navigationbar_
+## and we've removed one of the green bars
+_content_  {
+<!-- start of custom query:content -->
+_navigationbar_
+
+<div class="document">
+<div class="queryform">
+<center>
+_If_(_cgiargct_,_selectqueryform_,_queryform_)
+</center>
+</div>
+_If_(_searchhistorylist_,<center>_iconsearchhistorybar_</center><br />
+<center>
+_searchhistorylist_
+</center>)
+_If_(_cgiargq_,<small>_freqmsg_ _textpostprocess_</small><br />_resultline_,)
+<br />
+<!-- end of custom query:content -->
+}
+
+
+##############################################################################
+package document
+##############################################################################
+## These are macros related to creating a document page. The default versions
+## are in the file document.dm. Note that technically, the classifiers are
+## also document pages (eg the title lists).
+
+## Note that the server overrides the _header_ macro if we are "not at the
+## top level", which basically means that when viewing a document (and not
+## a classifier), there won't be a heading.
+##
+## We can get around this by re-defining the textheader macro to output
+## what we want (instead of the normal version in document.dm). We copy the 
+## Global version of _header_ (from style.dm) and add it as the content of
+## _textheader_. Note that we can't just use 
+## _textheader_  {_Global:header_}
+## as any package specific macros (eg _pagetitle_) will no longer be used.
+
+_textheader_  {
+_cgihead_
+_htmlhead_(class="bgimage")_startspacer__pagebanner_
+}
+
+
+## Override the default so that we are not centering the navigation bar.
+## The library will automatically output the document after this.
+_content_  {
+<!-- start of custom document:content -->
+_navigationbar_
+
+_If_(_phindclassifier__collageclassifier_,
+<p style="text-align: center;">
+_phindclassifier_
+_collageclassifier_
+</p>
+)
+
+_If_("_cgiargcl_" eq "search",
+<ul id="searchresults">
+_prevsearchresult_
+_nextsearchresult_
+</ul>)
+
+<div class="document">
+<!-- end of custom document:content -->
+}
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/metadata/dls.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/metadata/dls.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/metadata/dls.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet [
+
+  <!-- The outer tag of any metadata set. Contains some number of elements.             -->
+  <!-- @param contact     A contact address for the creator.                            -->
+  <!-- @param creator     The name of the entity resposibly for this set.               -->
+  <!-- @param family      The namespace of this metadata set.                           -->
+  <!-- @param lastchanged The full date, user name and machine name of the last editor. --> 
+  <!--   uses the form:                                                                 -->
+  <!--   Day Mon(th) dd hh:mm:ss yyyy '-' <username> on <machine>                       -->
+  <!-- @param namespace   The abbreviated namespace of this metadata set.               -->
+  <!ELEMENT MetadataSet (Element+)>
+  <!ATTLIST MetadataSet
+				contact     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				creator     CDATA #REQUIRED
+            family      CDATA #REQUIRED
+				lastchanged CDATA #REQUIRED
+				namespace   CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- The name of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Name (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Name
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- The description of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Description (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Description
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- An element in the metadata set. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Element (Attribute*,OptionList?)>
+  <!ATTLIST Element
+				hierarchy  CDATA "false"
+            name       CDATA #REQUIRED
+				occurances CDATA "0">
+
+  <!-- Each element has several attribute children. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Attribute (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Attribute
+            name CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- For listing predefined values for this element. -->
+  <!ELEMENT OptionList (Value+)>
+  <!ATTLIST OptionList
+            restricted (true|false) "false">
+]>
+
+<MetadataSet 
+contact = "nzdl.org"
+creator = "New Zealand Digital Libraries Project: Greenstone"
+family = "Development Library Subset"
+lastchanged = "Tue Jun 04 10:35:30 2002 - jmt12 on blackbird"
+namespace = "dls">
+
+  <Name language="en">Development Library Subset Example Metadata</Name>
+
+  <Description language="en">A metadata set file for use in The Gatherer, created from original metadata found within the Development Library Subset.</Description>
+
+  <Element name="Title" remember_values="true">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en"></Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The title of this resource.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Title</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="version">1.0</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Organization" hierarchy="true" remember_values="true">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en"></Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The organization responsible for producing this resource.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Organization</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="version">1.0</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Subject" hierarchy="true" remember_values="true">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Currently uses a hierarchy.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The subject of this resource.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Subject And Keywords</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="version">1.0</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Keyword" hierarchy="true" remember_values="true">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Informal.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">A more specific indication of what the resource can be used for.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Keyword</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="version">1.0</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Language" remember_values="true">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en"></Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The language of this resource.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Language</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="version">1.0</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="AZList" hierarchy="true" remember_values="true">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not the same as an AZList classifier.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">A customizable AZList based on document titles.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">AZList</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="version">1.0</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+</MetadataSet>
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/metadata/ex.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet [
+
+  <!-- The outer tag of any metadata set. Contains some number of elements.             -->
+  <!-- @param contact     A contact address for the creator.                            -->
+  <!-- @param creator     The name of the entity resposibly for this set.               -->
+  <!-- @param family      The name of this sets family.                                 -->
+  <!-- @param lastchanged The full date, user name and machine name of the last editor. --> 
+  <!--   uses the form:                                                                 -->
+  <!--   Day Mon(th) dd hh:mm:ss yyyy '-' <username> on <machine>                       -->
+  <!-- @param namespace   The namespace of this metadata set.                           -->
+  <!ELEMENT MetadataSet ((Name|Description|Element)+)>
+  <!ATTLIST MetadataSet
+				contact     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				creator     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				description CDATA #REQUIRED
+            family      CDATA #REQUIRED
+				lastchanged CDATA #REQUIRED
+            name        CDATA #REQUIRED
+				namespace   CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- The name of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Name (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Name
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- The description of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Description (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Description
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- An element in the metadata set. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Element (Attribute*,OptionList?)>
+  <!ATTLIST Element
+            name       CDATA #REQUIRED
+				occurances CDATA "0">
+
+  <!-- Each element has several attribute children. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Attribute (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Attribute
+            name CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- For listing predefined values for this element. -->
+  <!ELEMENT OptionList (Value+)>
+  <!ATTLIST OptionList
+            restricted (true|false) "false">
+]>
+
+<MetadataSet 
+contact     = "nzdl.org"
+creator     = "New Zealand Digital Libraries Project: Greenstone"
+family      = "Extracted Greenstone"
+lastchanged = "Tue May 20 10:30:32 2003 - jmt12 on narya"
+namespace   = "ex" 
+>
+
+  <Name language="en">Extracted Greenstone Metadata 1.0</Name>
+
+  <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.0 of the automatically extracted Greenstone Metadata Element Set.</Description>
+
+  <Element name="Encoding">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The encoding of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Encoding</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Language">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The language of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Language</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Source">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Hidden in the Librarian Interface as it already shown by the various file trees.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The filename of the document imported by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Source</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Title">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The title of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Title</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/metadata/profile.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE Profiles [
+<!ELEMENT Profiles (Action*)>
+<!ELEMENT Action (#PCDATA)>
+<!ATTLIST Action
+                source     CDATA #REQUIRED
+                target     CDATA "">
+]>
+<Profiles/>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/style/style.css
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/style/style.css	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/garish-e/style/style.css	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+/* This style sheet is used by the garish collection as an
+  example of modifying the appearance */
+
+/* notes about style sheets.
+
+   Colours - The most portable way to specify colours is to use the
+     #xxxxxx notation, which is in hex for red, green, and blue.  eg black
+     is #000000, red is #ff0000, blue is #0000ff and white is #ffffff.
+     This may seem confusing at first, but you can't count on colour names
+     being the same across all browsers and platforms. For example,
+     linux/x11 has hundreds of colours with names such as DarkOliveGreen
+     and PaleVioletRed. However, simple colour names should work with most
+     browsers...
+
+*/
+   
+
+/* set defaults for the HTML body */
+body {
+ /* set the face. The first one in the list found will be used, so
+    have reasonable fall-backs */
+ /* use a serif font windows uses "times new roman", "times" on mac/linux */
+  font-family: times new roman, times, serif;
+ /* you can set a background colour, but a lot of the images/buttons are
+    designed to blend into a white background. */
+  background-color: pink;
+}
+
+
+/* paragraph text - this will override the settings above for text inside
+ <p>....</p> tags. Uncomment if you want to test it, although red text with
+ a pink background is pretty ugly :) */
+/*
+p {
+ color: red;
+}
+*/
+
+/* headings */
+h1, h2, h3, h4 {
+ /* use a sans-serif font - arial on windows, helvetica on mac/linux */
+ font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;
+ color: blue;
+}
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/etc/collect.cfg
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,427 @@
+creator		greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+maintainer	greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+public		true
+
+buildtype	mg
+
+indexes		document:text document:From document:Subject
+defaultindex	document:text
+
+plugin		GreenstoneXMLPlugin
+# process_exp tells EmailPlugin which files to process - in this case all files
+# starting with 'greenstone'. This is used as the email files in this 
+# collection don't have a standard mbx/email extension.
+# OIDtype message_id tells the plugin to use the message identifier as the 
+# Greenstone document identifier - this way we can use the InReplyTo metadata
+# to link to the original email.
+plugin		EmailPlugin -process_exp greenstone.* -OIDtype message_id
+plugin		MetadataXMLPlugin
+plugin		ArchivesInfPlugin
+plugin		DirectoryPlugin
+groupsize      200
+
+# note that [ and ] get turned into &#9x; before we remove the prefix!
+# mingroup 2 so that bookshelves are only generated when there is more than
+# one item with a common value.
+# removeprefix removes re: fwd: [greenstone-users] [greenstone-devel] from
+# the subject line before classifying, so that messages and their replies end
+# up in the same folder.
+classify	AZCompactList -metadata Subject -mingroup 2 -removeprefix (\\s*(?i:re:|fw(d)?:|\&#91;greenstone-(users|devel)\&#93;)\\s*)*
+classify	AZCompactList -metadata FromName -mingroup 2 -buttonname From
+classify	DateList -nogroup  -bymonth 
+
+format DocumentHeading ""
+format DocumentButtons ""
+format DocumentArrowsTop false
+format DocumentArrowsBottom false
+format DocumentGoTo false
+
+# removed from format strings to prevent listing email addresses - John:
+# &lt;<a href=\"mailto:[FromAddr]\">[FromAddr]</a>&gt;
+
+# for Subjects
+format CL1VList "
+<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td>{If}{[numleafdocs], <b>[Title]</b>,<b>[link][Subject][/link]</b><br>
+_From_: [FromName] &nbsp;&nbsp;(<a href=\"_httpquery_&q=[cgisafe:FromName]&h=dfr\">_SearchBySender_</a>) <br>
+_Date_: [DateText]}</td>
+"
+
+# for From
+format CL2VList "
+<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td>{If}{[numleafdocs],
+<strong>_From_:</strong> [Title] ([numleafdocs]),
+<strong>_From_: [FromName]</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;(<a href=\"_httpquery_&q=[cgisafe:FromName]&h=dfr\">_SearchBySender_</a>) <br>
+<strong>_Subject_:</strong> [link][Subject][/link]<br>
+<strong>_Date_:</strong> [DateText]
+}</td>
+"
+
+# for Dates
+format CL3DateList "
+<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td><b>[link][Subject][/link]</b><br>
+_From_: [FromName] &nbsp;&nbsp;(<a href=\"_httpquery_&q=[cgisafe:FromName]&h=dfr\">_SearchBySender_</a>)<br>
+_Date_: [DateText]
+</td>
+"
+
+format SearchVList "
+<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td><b>[link][Subject][/link]</b><br>
+_From_: [FromName] &nbsp;&nbsp;(<a href=\"_httpquery_&q=[cgisafe:FromName]&h=dfr\">_SearchBySender_</a>)<br>
+_Date_: [DateText]
+</td>
+"
+
+format DocumentText "<center> <h2>[Subject]</h2>
+<p>
+<table width=\"90%\">
+<tr bgcolor=\"#DDDDEE\">
+<td align=\"right\">_From_</td>
+<td><b><a href=\"_httpquery_&q=[cgisafe:FromName]&h=dfr\">[FromName]</a></b>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr bgcolor=\"#DDDDEE\">
+<td align=\"right\">_Date_</td><td><b>[DateText]</b></td>
+</tr>
+<tr bgcolor=\"#DDDDEE\">
+<td align=\"right\">_Subject_</td>
+<td><b>[Subject]</b></td></tr>
+_If_([InReplyTo],<tr bgcolor=\"#DDDDEE\"><td align=\"right\">In-Reply-To</td><td>
+<a href=\"_httpdocument_&amp;d=[InReplyTo]\">([InReplyTo])</a></td></tr>)
+<tr><td colspan=\"2\">[Text]</td></tr>
+</table>
+</p>
+</center>"
+
+format VList "<td valign=\"top\">[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td valign=\"top\">[ex.srclink]{Or}{[ex.thumbicon],[ex.srcicon]}[ex./srclink]</td>
+<td valign=\"top\">[highlight]
+{Or}{[dc.Title],[exp.Title],[ex.Title],Untitled}
+[/highlight]{If}{[ex.Source],<br><i>([ex.Source])</i>}</td>"
+
+format HList "[link][highlight][ex.Title][/highlight][/link]"
+
+format DateList "<td>[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td>[highlight]{Or}{[dc.Title],[exp.Title],[ex.Title],Untitled}[/highlight]</td>
+<td>{Or}{[dc.Date],[exp.Date],[ex.Date]}</td>"
+
+
+# -- English strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=en] "Greenstone Archives collection"
+
+collectionmeta	.document:text [l=en] "Messages"
+collectionmeta	.document:From [l=en] "From fields"
+collectionmeta	.document:Subject [l=en] "Subject lines"
+
+collectionmeta	From [l=en] "From"
+collectionmeta	Date [l=en] "Date"
+collectionmeta	Subject [l=en] "Subject"
+collectionmeta	SearchBySender [l=en] "search by sender"
+
+# -- French strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=fr] "Collection des Archives de Greenstone"
+
+collectionmeta	.document:text [l=fr] "Messages"
+collectionmeta	.document:From [l=fr] "Champs De"
+collectionmeta	.document:Subject [l=fr] "Lignes de sujets"
+
+collectionmeta	From [l=fr] "De"
+collectionmeta	Date [l=fr] "Date"
+collectionmeta	Subject [l=fr] "Sujet"
+collectionmeta	SearchBySender [l=fr] "recherche par expÃ©diteur"
+
+# -- Spanish strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=es] "ColecciÃ³n de Archivos Greenstone"
+
+collectionmeta	.document:text [l=es] "Mensaje"
+collectionmeta	.document:From [l=es] "Campo Emisor"
+collectionmeta	.document:Subject [l=es] "LÃ­neas del Asunto"
+
+collectionmeta	From [l=es] "De"
+collectionmeta	Date [l=es] "Fecha"
+collectionmeta	Subject [l=es] "Asunto"
+collectionmeta	SearchBySender [l=es] "buscar por emisor"
+
+# -- Russian strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=ru] "ÐÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ Ð°ÑÑ
+ÐžÐ²ÐŸÐ² Greenstone"
+
+collectionmeta	.document:text [l=ru] "Ð¡ÐŸÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐœÐžÑ"
+collectionmeta	.document:From [l=ru] "ÐÐ· Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐµÐ¹"
+collectionmeta	.document:Subject [l=ru] "Ð¡ÑÑÐŸÐºÐž Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑÐ°"
+
+collectionmeta	From [l=ru] "ÐÑ"
+collectionmeta	Date [l=ru] "ÐÐ°ÑÐ°"
+collectionmeta	Subject [l=ru] "ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ"
+collectionmeta	SearchBySender [l=ru] "ÐÐŸÐžÑÐº Ð¿ÐŸ ÐŸÑÐ¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=zh] "Greenstoneå­æ¡£éŠè"
+
+collectionmeta	.document:text [l=zh] "æ¶æ¯"
+collectionmeta	.document:From [l=zh] "æ¥èªå­æ®µ"
+collectionmeta	.document:Subject [l=zh] "äž»é¢è¡"
+
+collectionmeta	From [l=zh] "æ¥èª"
+collectionmeta	Date [l=zh] "æ¥æ"
+collectionmeta	Subject [l=zh] "äž»é¢"
+collectionmeta	SearchBySender [l=zh] "æåéè
+æçŽ¢"
+
+# -- English text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=en] "This is a collection of email messages 
+from the Greenstone mailing list archives, from November/December, 2008.
+
+<h3>How the collection works</h3>
+
+<p>
+The Greenstone Archives collection
+uses the <i>Email</i> plugin, which parses files in email formats. In this case, there is a file per month per mailing list, and each file contains many email messages. The <i>Email</i>
+plugin splits these into individual documents, and produces <i>Title</i>,
+<i>Subject</i>, <i>From</i>, <i>FromName</i>, <i>FromAddr</i>,
+<i>Date</i>, <i>DateText</i>, <i>InReplyTo</i>, and optionally <i>Headers</i>, metadata.
+
+<p>
+The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>collection configuration file</a> begins with the specification
+<i>groupsize 200</i>. This groups documents together into groups of 200. Email
+collections typically have many small documents, and grouping them together
+prevents Greenstone\'s internal file structures from becoming bloated and
+occupying more disk space than necessary. Notice that the <i>Email</i> plugin first
+splits the input files up into individual Emails, then <i>groupsize</i> groups them
+together again. This allows the collection designer to control what is going on.
+
+<p>
+The <i>indexes</i> line specifies 3 searchable indexes, which can be seen by clicking
+beside the word \"Messages\" on the
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">search page</a> to reveal a drop-down menu.
+The first (called <i>Messages</i>) is created from the document
+text, while the others are formed from <i>From</i> and <i>Subject</i> metadata.
+
+<p>
+There are three classifiers, based on <i>Subject</i>, <i>FromName</i>, and
+<i>Date</i> metadata. The <i>AZCompactList</i> classifier used for the first
+two is like <i>AZList</i> but generates a bookshelf for duplicate items, as
+illustrated <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\">here</a>.
+This is represented by a tree structure whose nodes are either
+leaf nodes, representing documents, or internal nodes. A metadata item called
+numleafdocs gives the total number of documents below an internal node. The
+format statement for the first classifier, called <i>CL1Vlist</i>, checks
+whether this item exists. If so the node must be an internal one, in which case
+it is labeled by its <i>Title</i>. Otherwise the node\'s label starts with the
+<i>Subject</i> which links to the document, then gives <i>FromName</i> metadata, with a link to \"Search by Sender\", followed by the <i>DateText</i>.
+
+<p>
+The second classifier (<i>CL2Vlist</i>) is similar, but shows slightly
+different information -- the result can be seen
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2\">here</a>.
+For internal nodes, the actual number of leaf documents
+(<i>numleafdocs</i>) is given in parentheses after the <i>Title</i>. For
+document nodes the <i>FromName</i>, with a link to \"Search By Sender\", <i>Subject</i> (linked to the document), and <i>DateText</i> metadata is
+shown.
+
+<p>
+The third classifier is a <i>DateList</i>, which allows selection by month and year.
+
+<p>
+Finally, the document text is formatted to show the header fields (<i>FromName</i>, <i>DateText</i>, <i>Subject</i>, <i>InReplyTo</i>), followed by
+the message text (written as <i>[Text]</i> in the format statement). <i>FromName</i> is linked to a search on that name, while <i>InReplyTo</i> links to the email message that it refers to. 
+"
+
+# -- French text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=fr] "
+
+Cette collection est composÃ©e de messages Ã©lectroniques extraits des archives de la liste de diffusion Greenstone, 
+publiÃ©s entre novembre et dÃ©cembre 2008.
+
+<h3>Comment fonctionne cette collection ?</h3>
+
+<p>
+La collection Greenstone Archive utilise le plugin \"<i>E-mail</i>\", qui traite les fichiers aux formats e-mail. 
+Dans ce cas, il y a un fichier par mois et par liste de diffusion, et chaque fichier contient de nombreux messages.
+Le plugin <i>E-mail</i> les Ã©clate en documents individuels et produit les mÃ©tadonnÃ©es 
+<i>Title</i>, <i>Subject</i>, <i>Headers</i> (en option), <i>From</i>, <i>FromName</i>, 
+<i>FromAddr</i>, <i>Date</i> et <i>DateText</i>.
+
+<p>
+Le <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier de configuration</a> de la collection dÃ©bute avec la spÃ©cification <i>groupsize 200</i>. Ceci regroupe les documents par groupes de 200. Les collections E-mail sont constituÃ©es habituellement de plusieurs documents de petite taille; leur regroupement Ã©vite l\'augmentation excessive des structures de fichier internes de Greenstone et l\'occupation de plus d\'espace disque que nÃ©cessaire. Notez que le plugin <i>E-mail</i> Ã©clate d\'abord les fichiers d\'entrÃ©e Ã  traiter en E-mail individuels, ensuite <i>groupsize</i> procÃšde Ã  leur regroupement. Ceci permet au crÃ©ateur de la collection de contrÃŽler ce qui se passe.
+
+<p>
+La ligne des <i>indexes</i> prÃ©cise trois indexes de recherche qui peuvent Ãªtre vus en cliquant Ã  cÃŽtÃ© du mot \"Message\" de la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">page de recherche</a> pour rÃ©vÃ©ler un menu dÃ©roulant. Le premier (appelÃ© <i>Messages</i>) est crÃ©Ã© Ã  partir
+du texte du document, tandis que les autres sont formÃ©s Ã  partir des mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es <i>From</i> et <i>Subject</i>.
+
+<p>
+Il existe trois classificateurs basÃ©s sur les mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es <i>Subject</i>, <i>FromName</i> et <i>Date</i>. Le classificateur <i>AZCompactList</i> utilisÃ© pour les deux premiers est semblable
+Ã  \"<i>AZList</i>\", mais en outre il gÃ©nÃšre un rayon de bibliothÃšque pour les articles dupliquÃ©s, comme illustrÃ© <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\">ici</a>.
+Il est reprÃ©sentÃ© par une structure arborescente dont les nÅuds sont soit des nÅuds de feuille
+reprÃ©sentant les documents, soit des nÅuds internes. Une MÃ©ta-donnÃ©e appelÃ©e
+\"Numleafdocs\" donne le nombre total de documents sous un nÅud interne. Les dÃ©clarations de format pour le premier classificateur, appelÃ© <i>CL1VList</i>, vÃ©rifie si cette mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e existe, auquel cas le nÅud doit Ãªtre d\'une part interne et d\'autre part libellÃ© par son \"<i>Title</i>\" (<i>Titre</i>). Sinon le nom du noeud commencera par le <i>Subject</i> qui fait le lien vers le document, suivi par la mÃ©tadonnÃ©e <i>FromName</i>, avec un lien vers la \"Recherche par expÃ©diteur\" et enfin par la <i>DateText</i>. 
+
+<p>
+Le deuxiÃšme classificateur (<i>CL2Vlist</i>) est similaire, mais fournit une
+information lÃ©gÃšrement diffÃ©rente --le rÃ©sultat peut Ãªtre vu
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2\">ici</a>.
+Pour les nÅuds internes, le nombre exact de documents en feuilles
+(<i>numleafdocs</i>) est donnÃ© entre parenthÃšses aprÃšs <i>Title</i>. 
+Pour les documents noeuds, les mÃ©tadonnÃ©es suivantes seront visibles : 
+<i>FromName</i>,  avec un lien vers la \"Recherche par expÃ©diteur\", 
+<i>Subject</i> (avec un lien vers le document), et <i>DateText</i>.
+
+<p>
+Le troisiÃšme classificateur est un \"<i>DateList</i>\" qui permet une sÃ©lection par mois et par annÃ©e.
+
+<p>
+Pour finir, le document est mis en forme pour montrer les entÃªtes (<i>FromName</i>, <i>DateText</i>, <i>Subjet</i>, <i>InReplyTo</i>), suivis par le texte du message (Ã©crit en tant que <i>[Text]</i> dans le format d'enregistrement). FromName est un lien vers une recherche sur ce nom, tandis que InReplyTo est un lien vers le message Ã©lectronique auquel celui-ci se rÃ©fÃšre.
+"
+
+# -- Spanish text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=es] "
+Esta es una colecciÃ³n de mensajes de email del archivo de la lista de mailing de Greenstone, de Noviembre/Diciembre de 2008.
+
+<h3>CÃ³mo trabaja esta colecciÃ³n</h3>
+<p>
+
+La colecciÃ³n de Archivos de Greenstone utiliza el plugin <i>Email</i>, el cual descompone y analiza los archivos que estÃ¡n en formato de correo electrÃ³nico. En este caso, hay un archivo por mes por lista, y cada archivo contiene muchos mensajes de email. El plugin <i>Email</i> los divide en documentos individuales y produce los metadatos <i>Title</i>, <i>Subject</i>, <i>From</i>, <i>FromName</i>, <i>FromAddr</i>, <i>Date</i>, <i>DateText</i>, <i>InReplyTo</i>, y opcionalmente <i>Headers</i>.
+<p>
+
+El <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n de la colecciÃ³n</a> empieza con la especificaciÃ³n <i>groupsize 200</i>, la cual reÃºne los documentos en grupos de 200. En tÃ©rminos generales las colecciones de correo electrÃ³nico tienen muchos documentos pequeÃ±os y al agruparlos se evita que las estructuras de archivos internos de Greenstone crezcan demasiado y ocupen mÃ¡s espacio del necesario. Recuerde que el plugin <i>Email</i> divide primero los archivos de entrada en correos individuales y luego <i>groupsize</i> los agrupa nuevamente. Esto le permite al diseÃ±ador de la colecciÃ³n controlar lo que estÃ¡ pasando.
+<p>
+
+La lÃ­nea <i>Ã¯ndexes</i> especifica 3 Ã­ndices de bÃºsqueda, los cuales se pueden ver haciendo click a un lado de la palabra \"Mensajes\" en la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">pÃ¡gina de bÃºsqueda</a> para que aparezca un menÃº descendente. El primero (llamado <i>Mensajes</i>) se crea a partir del texto del documento, mientras que los demÃ¡s se forman a partir de los metadatos de <i>Remitente</i> y <i>Asunto</i>.
+<p>
+
+Existen tres clasificadores basados en los metadatos de <i>Asunto, Nombre del Remitente</i> y <i>Fecha</i>. El clasificador <i>AZCompactList</i> utilizado para los dos primeros es como <i>AZList</i>, pero ademÃ¡s genera un estante para los Ã­tems duplicados, tal como se puede ver <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\">aquÃ­</a>. Ãste se representa por medio de una estructura de Ã¡rbol cuyos nodos son hojas que representan documentos o nodos internos. Un Ã­tem de metadato llamado <i>numleafdocs</i> proporciona el nÃºmero total de documentos debajo de un nodo interno. Los enunciados de formato para el primer clasificador llamado <i>CL1Vlist</i> comprueban si existe dicho Ã­tem. En caso afirmativo se trata de un nodo interno, en cuyo caso se etiquetarÃ¡ por su <i>TÃ­tulo</i>. AdemÃ¡s, la etiqueta del nodo comienza con <i>Subject</i> que es un link al documento, luego el metadato <i>FromName</i>, con un link a \"Search by sender\", seguido por la fecha <i>DateText</i>.
+<p>
+
+El segundo clasificador (CL2Vlist) es similar, sÃ³lo que muestra una informaciÃ³n ligeramente diferente. El resultado se puede ver <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2\">aquÃ­</a>. Para nodos internos el nÃºmero de documentos (<i>numleafdocs</i>) aparece entre parÃ©ntesis despuÃ©s del <i>TÃ­tulo</i>. Para los nodos de los documentos se muestran el <i>FromName</i>, con un link a \"Search by Sender\", el <i>Subject</i> (enlazado al documento), y <i>DateText</i>.
+<p>
+
+El tercer clasificador es una <i>Lista de Fechas (DateList)</i>, que permite hacer la selecciÃ³n por mes y aÃ±o.
+<p>
+
+Finalmente, el document text estÃ¡ formateado para mostrar los campos del encabezado (<i>FromName</i>, <i>DateText</i>, <i>Subject</i>, <i>InReplyTo</i>), seguido del texto del mensaje (escrito como <i>[Text]</i> en la cadena de formateo). FromName estÃ¡ enlazado a una bÃºsqueda sobre ese mismo nombre, mientras que InReplyTo enlaza con el mensaje al cual hace referencia.
+"
+
+# -- Russian strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=ru] "
+<!-- _text1_ -->
+This is a collection of email messages 
+from the Greenstone mailing list archives, from November/December, 2008.
+
+<h3>ÐÐ°Ðº ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ</h3>
+
+ÐÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ Ð°ÑÑ
+ÐžÐ²ÐŸÐ² Greenstone ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœ Ðmail, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ Ð°ÐœÐ°Ð»ÐžÐ·ÐžÑÑÐµÑ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ñ Ð² ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ°Ñ
+ ÑÐ»ÐµÐºÑÑÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÑ. <!-- _text2_ -->In this case, there is a file per month per mailing list, and each file contains many email messages.  ÐÐ»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœ Ðmail ÑÐ°Ð·Ð±ÐžÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÐžÑ
+ ÐœÐ° ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐ²ÐžÐŽÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÑÐµ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ Ðž ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐµÑ <i>ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</i>, <i>ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ</i>, <i>ÐÑ</i>, <i>ÐÐŒÑ ÐŸÑÐ¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ</i>, <i>ÐÐŽÑÐµÑ ÐŸÑÐ¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ</i>, <i>ÐÐ°ÑÐ°</i>, <i>ÐÐ°ÑÐ° ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐŸÐŒ</i>, <i>ÐÐŸÐŒÑ ÐÑÐ²ÐµÑ</i> Ðž Ð²ÑÐ±ÐŸÑÐŸÑÐœÐŸ <i>ÐÐ°Ð³ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ²ÐºÐž</i>. 
+<p>
+
+ÐÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð» ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÐœÐ°ÑÐžÐœÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ <i>groupsize</i> 200. ÐÐœ ÑÐŸÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ Ð² Ð³ÑÑÐ¿Ð¿Ñ Ð¿ÐŸ 200 ÐµÐŽÐžÐœÐžÑ. ÐÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÑÐ»ÐµÐºÑÑÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÑÑ ÐžÐ· Ð±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð° ÐœÐµÐ±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐžÑ
+ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ², Ðž Ð³ÑÑÐ¿Ð¿ÐžÑÐŸÐ²ÐºÐ° ÐžÑ
+ Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐŸÑÐ²ÑÐ°ÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»ÐŸÐ²ÑÐµ ÑÑÑÑÐºÑÑÑÑ Greenstone ÐŸÑ ÑÐ°Ð·Ð±ÑÑ
+Ð°ÐœÐžÑ Ðž Ð·Ð°ÐœÑÑÐžÑ Ð±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐ° ÐœÐ° ÐŽÐžÑÐºÐµ, ÑÐµÐŒ ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸ. ÐÐ°ÐŒÐµÑÑÑÐµ, ÑÑÐŸ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœ Ðmail Ð²ÐœÐ°ÑÐ°Ð»Ðµ ÑÐ°Ð·Ð±ÐžÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ Ð²Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐœÑÐµ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ñ ÐœÐ° ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐ²ÐžÐŽÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÑÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐºÑÑÐŸÐœÐœÑÐµ Ð¿ÐžÑÑÐŒÐ°, Ð° Ð·Ð°ÑÐµÐŒ <i>groupsize</i> ÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ð° ÑÐŸÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐžÑ
+ Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐµ. Ð­ÑÐŸ Ð¿ÐŸÐ·Ð²ÐŸÐ»ÑÐµÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐµÐºÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²ÑÐžÐºÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÑÐ¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÑÑ ÑÐµÐŒ, ÑÑÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÑÐµÑ ÐŽÐ°Ð»ÑÑÐµ.
+<p>
+
+Ð¡ÑÑÐŸÐºÐ° <i>ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÐŸÐ² (indexes)</i> ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ 3 ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÑÑ
+ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ° ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÐ°, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ³ÑÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ Ð²ÐžÐŽÐœÑ, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÑÐµÐ»ÐºÐ°ÑÑ ÐŸÐºÐŸÐ»ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð° <i>Ð¡ÐŸÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐœÐžÑ (Messages)</i> ÐœÐ° <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÐµ</a> ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·Ð° ÐœÐžÑÐ¿Ð°ÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÐŒÐµÐœÑ. ÐÐµÑÐ²ÑÐ¹, ÐœÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÐŒÑÐ¹ <i>Ð¡ÐŸÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐœÐžÑÐŒÐž</i>, ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐ· ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐ° ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°, Ð² ÑÐŸ Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÑ ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÐµ ÑÑÐŸÑÐŒÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÑ Ð¿ÐŸ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐŒ <i>ÐÑ ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ðž ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ</i>.
+<p>
+
+Ð¡ÑÑÐµÑÑÐ²ÑÐµÑ ÑÑÐž ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ°, ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐœÐ° ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ <i>ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ</i>, <i>ÐÐŒÑ ÐŸÑÐ¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ</i> Ðž <i>ÐÐ°ÑÐ°</i>. ÐÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ <i>AZCompactList</i>, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÐŒÑÐ¹ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐŽÐ²ÑÑ
+, Ð¿ÐŸÑ
+ÐŸÐ¶ ÐœÐ° <i>AZLIST</i>, ÐœÐŸ ÐŸÐœ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐžÑÑÐµÑ ÐºÐœÐžÐ¶ÐœÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐºÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŽÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÐ² ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ², ÐºÐ°Ðº Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐŸ <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\">Ð·ÐŽÐµÑÑ</a>. ÐÐœÐ° Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐ° ÑÑÑÑÐºÑÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐŽÐµÑÐµÐ²Ð°, ÑÐ·Ð»Ñ ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ·Ð»Ð°ÐŒÐž Ð»ÐžÑÑÐ°, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÑ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ, ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐžÐŒÐž ÑÐ·Ð»Ð°ÐŒÐž. ÐÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ², ÐœÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÐŒÑÐµ numleafdocs, ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐµ ÐºÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÐµÑÑÐ²ÐŸ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ², ÑÐ°ÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÐœÐžÐ¶Ðµ Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ·Ð»Ð°. ÐÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ° ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ°, ÐœÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÐŒÑÐµ <i>CL1Vlist</i>, Ð¿ÑÐŸÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÑ, ÑÑÑÐµÑÑÐ²ÑÐµÑ Ð»Ðž ÑÑÐŸÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ. ÐÑÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐŸ ÑÐ°Ðº, ÑÐŸ ÑÐ·ÐµÐ» ÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶ÐµÐœ Ð±ÑÑÑ Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐžÐŒ, Ð² ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ðµ ÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÐŸÐœ Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ ÐµÐ³ÐŸ <i>ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ (Title)</i>. <!-- _text4_ -->Otherwise the node\'s label starts with the
+<i>Subject</i> which links to the document, then gives <i>FromName</i> metadata, with a link to \"Search by Sender\", followed by the <i>DateText</i>.
+<p>
+
+ÐÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ (<i>CL2Vlist</i>) Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ±ÐµÐœ Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒÑ, ÐœÐŸ ÐŸÐœ Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÐŸÑÐ»ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑÑÑÑÑ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ -- ÑÐµÐ·ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ñ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐžÐŽÐµÑÑ <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2\">Ð·ÐŽÐµÑÑ</a>. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐžÑ
+ ÑÐ·Ð»ÐŸÐ² ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐµ ÑÐžÑÐ»ÐŸ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² Ð² ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐµ (<i>numleafdocs</i>) ÐŽÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ Ð² ÐºÑÑÐ³Ð»ÑÑ
+ ÑÐºÐŸÐ±ÐºÐ°Ñ
+ Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ»Ðµ <i>ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ</i>. <!-- _text5_ -->For
+document nodes the <i>FromName</i>, with a link to \"Search By Sender\", <i>Subject</i> (linked to the document), and <i>DateText</i> metadata is
+shown.
+<p>
+
+Ð¢ÑÐµÑÑÐžÐŒ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ <i>DateList</i>, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ Ð¿ÐŸÐ·Ð²ÐŸÐ»ÑÐµÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐžÐ·Ð²ÐŸÐŽÐžÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐŸÑÐºÑ ÑÐŸÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐœÐžÐ¹ Ð¿ÐŸ ÐŒÐµÑÑÑÑ Ðž Ð³ÐŸÐŽÑ.
+<p>
+
+<!-- _text6_ -->Finally, the document text is formatted to show the header fields (<i>FromName</i>, <i>DateText</i>, <i>Subject</i>, <i>InReplyTo</i>), followed by
+the message text (written as <i>[Text]</i> in the format statement). FromName is linked to a search on that name, while InReplyTo links to the email message that it refers to. 
+"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=zh] "
+æ¬éŠèç±Greenstoneé®ä»¶åè¡šææ¡£äž­2008å¹Ž11æäž12æçemailæ¶æ¯ç»æã 
+ 
+<h3>æ¬éŠèåŠäœå·¥äœ</h3>\n 
+
+<p>
+Greenstoneå­æ¡£éŠèäœ¿çš<i>Email</i>æä»¶ïŒè¿äžªæä»¶å€çemailæ ŒåŒçæä»¶ãåšæ¬éŠèè¿ïŒæ¯äžªé®ä»¶åè¡šæ¯äžªæéœæäžäžªå¯¹åºçæä»¶ïŒ
+èæ¯äžªæä»¶å
+å«è®žå€emailæ¶æ¯ã<i>Email</i> æä»¶å°è¿äºæä»¶åæåäžªçææ¡£ïŒå¹¶çæ<i>æ é¢</i>ã<i>äž»é¢</i>ã<i>åä»¶äºº</i>ã
+<i>åä»¶äººåç§°</i>ã<i>åä»¶äººå°å</i>ã<i>æ¥æ</i>ã<i>æ¥æææ¬</i>ã<i>åå€</i>ä»¥åéæ©æ§ç<i>é¢å</i>å
+æ°æ®ã
+
+<p>
+éŠè<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>é
+çœ®æä»¶</a>èµ·å§äº<i>groupsize 200</i>è®Ÿçœ®ã 
+è¿äžªè®Ÿçœ®å°ææ¡£ä»¥200äžºåäœåç»ãEmailéŠèéåžžæè®žå€å°ææ¡£ïŒèå°è¿äºå°ææ¡£åæå°ç»å¯é¿å
+Greenstoneçå
+éš 
+æä»¶ç»æååŸè¿äºåºæäžå æ®äžå¿
+èŠçç£çç©ºéŽãè¯·æ³šæ<i>Email</i>æä»¶éŠå
+å°èŸå
+¥æä»¶åæåäžªçemailïŒç¶å<i>groupsize</i>
+åå°å®ä»¬åç»ãè¿äœ¿åŸéŠèçè®Ÿè®¡è
+å¯ä»¥å¯¹è¿çšå ä»¥æ§å¶ã
+
+<p>
+<i>indexes</i>è¡è®Ÿçœ®äº3äžªäŸæ£çŽ¢ççŽ¢åŒïŒè¿å¯éè¿åš<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=q\">æçŽ¢é¡µé¢</a>äž 
+ç¹å»\"æ¶æ¯\"ïŒäº§çäžäžªäžæåè¡šèåãç¬¬äžäžªïŒç§°äžº<i>æ¶æ¯</i>ïŒæ¯ä»ææ¡£ææ¬äž­åå»ºçïŒåŠå€çéé¡¹æ¯æå»ºåš<i>åéäºº</i>å
+<i>äž»é¢</i>å
+æ°æ®äžçã
+
+<p>
+æ¬éŠèæäžäžªåç±»åšïŒåå«åºäº<i>äž»é¢</i>ã<i>åä»¶äººåç§°</i>ä»¥å<i>æ¥æ</i>å
+æ°æ®ãåé¢äž€äžª<i>AZCompactList</i>åç±»åš 
+å<i>AZList</i>ç±»äŒŒïŒäœéå€æ¡ç®äŒä»¥ä¹Šæ¶åœ¢åŒæŸç€ºïŒåŠ<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\">è¿é</a>æç€ºã 
+è¿éæ¯äžäžªæ åç»æïŒå
+¶èç¹èŠä¹æ¯ä»£è¡šææ¡£çå¶å­èç¹ïŒèŠä¹æ¯å
+éšèç¹ãnumleafdocså
+æ°æ®è®°åœäºäžäžªå
+éšèç¹äžçææ¡£çæ»æ°ã 
+ç¬¬äžäžªåç±»åšçæ ŒåŒåéïŒ<i>CL1Vlist</i>ïŒå€æ­è¿äžªå
+æ°æ®æ¯åŠå­åšãåŠæå­åšååœåèç¹å¿
+ç¶æ¯äžäžªå
+éšèç¹ïŒæ­€æ¶è¯¥èç¹çšå
+¶<i>é¢å</i>ææ è¯ã 
+åŠåè¯¥èç¹çæ ç­Ÿå°éŠå
+æŸç€º<i>äž»é¢</i>å
+æ°æ®ïŒäžå¯ä»¥éŸæ¥å°è¯¥ææ¡£ïŒç¶åæŸç€º<i>åä»¶äººåç§°</i>å
+æ°æ®ïŒä»¥åäžäžª\"æåéäººæçŽ¢\"çéŸæ¥ïŒæ¥äžæ¥æ¯<i>æ¥æææ¬</i>ã
+
+<p>
+ç¬¬äºäžªåç±»åšïŒ<i>CL2Vlist</i>ïŒäžåé¢çç±»äŒŒïŒåªæ¯æŸç€ºçä¿¡æ¯çšæäžåââåŠ<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2\">è¿é</a>æç€ºã 
+å¯¹äºå
+éšèç¹èèšïŒå
+¶å¶å­ææ¡£çæ°ç®ïŒ<i>numleafdocs</i>ïŒçšåæ¬å·æ¬èµ·å¹¶æŸç€ºåš<i>é¢å</i>ä¹åãå¯¹äºææ¡£èç¹åæŸç€º<i>åä»¶äººåç§°</i>ã
+ä»¥åäžäžª\"æåä»¶äººåç§°æçŽ¢\"çéŸæ¥ïŒ <i>äž»é¢</i>ïŒéŸæ¥å°ææ¬ïŒä»¥å<i>æ¥æææ¬</i>å
+æ°æ®ã
+
+<p>
+ç¬¬äžäžªåç±»åšæ¯<i>DateList</i>ïŒå¯ææåå¹Žè¿è¡éæ©ã
+
+<p>
+æåïŒææ¡£ææ¬çæŸç€ºæ ŒåŒæ¯å€Žå­æ®µïŒ<i>åä»¶äººåç§°</i>ã<i>æ¥æææ¬</i>ã<i>äž»é¢</i>ã<i>åå€</i>ïŒïŒæ¥äžæ¥æ¯æ¶æ¯ææ¬ïŒå³æ ŒåŒåéäž­ç<i>[Text]</i>ïŒã
+<i>åä»¶äººåç§°</i>æåžŠçéŸæ¥å°å¯¹è¿äžªåä»¶äººåå­è¿è¡æçŽ¢ïŒè<i>åå€</i>æåžŠçéŸæ¥æåæåŒçšçemailæ¶æ¯ã
+"
+
+# use utf-8 as the default encoding
+cgiarg shortname=w argdefault=utf-8
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/gsarch-e.col
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/gsarch-e.col	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/gsarch-e.col	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GathererCollection [
+  <!ELEMENT GathererCollection (Argument*, GathererConfig, BuildConfig, DirectoryMappings)>
+  <!ELEMENT GathererConfig    (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT BuildConfig       (Build, Import)>
+  <!ELEMENT Build             (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Import            (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Argument          (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Argument
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				enabled           CDATA "true">
+  <!ELEMENT DirectoryMappings (Mapping*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Mapping           (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Mapping 
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				file              CDATA #REQUIRED>
+]>
+<GathererCollection>
+    <Argument name="built">false</Argument>
+    <Argument name="imported">true</Argument>
+    <GathererConfig/>
+    <BuildConfig>
+        <Build/>
+        <Import>
+            <Argument enabled="true" name="removeold"/>
+        </Import>
+    </BuildConfig>
+    <DirectoryMappings/>
+</GathererCollection>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/import/greenstone-devel-2008-December.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/import/greenstone-devel-2008-December.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/import/greenstone-devel-2008-December.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,2247 @@
+From amin.hedjazi at gmail.com  Tue Dec  2 01:09:20 2008
+From: amin.hedjazi at gmail.com (Amin Hedjazi)
+Date: Tue Dec  2 01:09:25 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Plugin Developement
+Message-ID: <4105c9810812010409r164596ddxf4c77be57e8d06ac@mail.gmail.com>
+
+hi there
+does any boyd knows where i can fined some documents on greenstone plugin
+developements
+and the plugin programatical structures ?
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081201/5c2aad5e/attachment.html
+From vlado at etfbl.net  Thu Dec  4 22:26:09 2008
+From: vlado at etfbl.net (Vladimir Risojevic)
+Date: Thu Dec  4 22:24:29 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] cache_generated_images problem (and solution)
+Message-ID: <4937A231.8040406@etfbl.net>
+
+Dear Greenstone team,
+
+Since I am currently maintaining a few collections which consist mainly of
+scanned images, I welcome cache_generated_images option in Greenstone 2.81.
+However, when I tried to build a collection with 
+cache_generated_images=true on a
+WinXP machine I got the following error messages: Use of uninitialized 
+value in substitution (s///) at C:\Program 
+Files\Greenstone/perllib/plugins/BaseMediaConverter.pm line 84. and **** 
+Error is: fileparse(): need a valid pathname at C:\Program 
+Files\Greenstone/perllib/plugins/BaseMediaConverter.pm line 88.
+I traced the problem to BaseMediaConverter.pm and found out that the first
+message appears because regexp in line 84 cannot match $base_dir because on
+windows $base_dir contains slashes as directory separators, while in 
+$filename
+directory separators are backslashes. The second error message is merely a
+consequence of the first one, because $file is empty.
+In order to solve this either $base_dir or $filename has to be fixed. I 
+couldn't
+find where $self->{'base_dir'} is set. It seems that it is not in line 
+67 of
+BaseMediaConverter.pm since $base_dir there is an empty string. In the 
+end (and
+because it is very late night) I decided to use a quick and dirty 
+approach and
+insert:
+$filename =~ s/\\/\//g;
+before the regexp in line 84 and fix the $filename. This solved the 
+problem, and
+I hope it will be helpful to others.
+Maybe a better way to solve this problem would be to construct
+$self->{'base_dir'} with backslashes or slashes depending on the operating
+system, as utils::filename_cat does. However, as I said I cannot find 
+where it
+is defined.
+
+Best regards,
+
+Vladimir
+
+-- 
+Vladimir Risojevic
+Teaching Assistant
+Faculty of Electrical Engineering
+University of Banjaluka
+Patre 5
+78000 Banjaluka
+Bosnia and Herzegovina
+
+Phone: +387 51 221 847, +387 51 221 876
+Fax:   +387 51 211 408
+Email: vlado@etfbl.net
+WWW:   http://www.etfbl.net
+
+
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Dec  8 13:50:15 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Dec  8 13:50:24 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Fastcgi
+In-Reply-To: <E4B8EC0490204F938A35BCCDBD5E6CC9@orsna.gov.ar>
+References: <E4B8EC0490204F938A35BCCDBD5E6CC9@orsna.gov.ar>
+Message-ID: <493C6F47.5080500@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081208/c3dc75cd/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Dec  8 14:16:53 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Dec  8 14:17:02 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Plugin Developement
+In-Reply-To: <4105c9810812010409r164596ddxf4c77be57e8d06ac@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4105c9810812010409r164596ddxf4c77be57e8d06ac@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <493C7585.8050605@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081208/299dfb0b/attachment-0001.html
+From sklein at pratt.edu  Tue Dec  9 03:14:30 2008
+From: sklein at pratt.edu (Stephen I. Klein)
+Date: Tue Dec  9 03:14:01 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] RE: [greenstone-users] oaister
+In-Reply-To: <493C3ABF.2000506@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <003c01c95619$6ba1d970$42e58c50$@edu>
+	<493C3ABF.2000506@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <004301c9593f$4994a5a0$dcbdf0e0$@edu>
+
+Katherine,
+
+ 
+
+Thank you for your comprehensive reply.
+
+ 
+
+I merely want to be able to:
+
+ 
+
+1>     produce an OAI compliant XML file with Greenstone, so I could indeed 
+
+2>     Intermediate with a gateway (such as Los Alamos) and 
+
+3>     harvest with OAIster. 
+
+ 
+
+Previously, I performed step 1 with Luna and steps 2 and 3 as described.
+
+ 
+
+Does Greenstone produce OAI compliant XML files? Or can I export my Dublin
+Core from Greenstone to a XML file that is OAI compliant?
+
+ 
+
+Stephen
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+Stephen I. Klein
+Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+Assistant Professor
+Pratt Institute Library
+200 Willoughby Avenue
+Brooklyn, NY 11205
+sklein@pratt.edu
+(718) 399 4423
+Pratt
+
+ 
+
+From: Katherine Don [mailto:kjdon@cs.waikato.ac.nz] 
+Sent: Sunday, December 07, 2008 04:06 PM
+To: Stephen I. Klein
+Cc: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz; John Rose
+Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] oaister
+
+ 
+
+Hi Stephen
+
+I have just had a look on the web at OAIster and static repositories. Sorry,
+I should have done this before I replied to you the first time.
+
+After my 5 mins of reading, this is what I understand the situation is.
+Please correct me if I am wrong.
+
+OAIster harvests OAI repositories. To become a data provider, you need to
+check your repository against a validator, and then register.
+If you don't have a proper OAI server, then you can set up a static OAI
+repository, which is an XML file. 
+These may be harvested by OAI repository gateways, which is what you are
+trying to do?
+
+Greenstone provides a proper OAI repository server (oaiserver), and from
+version 2.81 and later should validate against the repository validator
+specified on the OAIster "Steps to Becoming a Data Contributor" page.
+
+We currently don't provide exporting a collection as an OAI static
+repository. 
+
+Is there a reason why you wish to keep using a static repository rather than
+setting up the proper OAI repository?
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+Stephen I. Klein wrote: 
+
+We are migrating our digital collections and need to keep our collection OAI
+harvestable.  We currently have a presence via OAIster
+(http://oaister.umdl.umich.edu/o/oaister/) and have intermediated through
+the Los Alamos Gateway at:
+ 
+http://libtest.lanl.gov/
+ 
+Does Greenstone allow for the building of OAI compliant XML files that are
+successfully intermediated via a standard gateway and harvestable with
+OAIster?
+ 
+The following page suggests the inverse:
+ 
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/OAI_support
+ 
+Any suggestions to approach this goal would be greatly appreciated.  Thank
+you.
+ 
+Regards,
+ 
+ 
+Stephen I. Klein
+Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+Assistant Professor
+Pratt Institute Library
+200 Willoughby Avenue
+Brooklyn, NY 11205
+sklein@pratt.edu
+(718) 399 4423
+Pratt
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+  _____  
+
+
+
+ 
+_______________________________________________
+greenstone-users mailing list
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+  
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081208/4e6db7dd/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec  9 07:35:18 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Tue Dec  9 07:33:16 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Re: [greenstone-users] oaister
+In-Reply-To: <004301c9593f$4994a5a0$dcbdf0e0$@edu>
+References: <003c01c95619$6ba1d970$42e58c50$@edu>
+	<493C3ABF.2000506@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<004301c9593f$4994a5a0$dcbdf0e0$@edu>
+Message-ID: <493D68E6.4000001@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Stephen
+
+No, Greenstone currently doesn't provide this option, as we provide a 
+proper OAI repository (which you can use directly with OAIster).
+I have added a ticket to our trac bug/feature tracking system, so it may 
+get added in the future.
+http://trac.greenstone.org/ticket/431
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+Stephen I. Klein wrote:
+>
+>  
+>
+> Thank you for your comprehensive reply.
+>
+>  
+>
+> I merely want to be able to:
+>
+>  
+>
+> 1>     produce an OAI compliant XML file with Greenstone, so I could 
+> indeed
+>
+> 2>     Intermediate with a gateway (such as Los Alamos) and
+>
+> 3>     harvest with OAIster.
+>
+>  
+>
+> Previously, I performed step 1 with Luna and steps 2 and 3 as described.
+>
+>  
+>
+> Does Greenstone produce OAI compliant XML files? Or can I export my 
+> Dublin Core from Greenstone to a XML file that is OAI compliant?
+>
+>  
+>
+> Stephen
+>
+>  
+>
+>  
+>
+>  
+>
+> Stephen I. Klein
+> Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+> Assistant Professor
+> Pratt Institute Library
+> 200 Willoughby Avenue
+> Brooklyn, NY 11205
+> sklein@pratt.edu <mailto:sklein@pratt.edu>
+> (718) 399 4423
+> *P**ra**t**t*
+>
+>  
+>
+> *From:* Katherine Don [mailto:kjdon@cs.waikato.ac.nz]
+> *Sent:* Sunday, December 07, 2008 04:06 PM
+> *To:* Stephen I. Klein
+> *Cc:* greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz; John Rose
+> *Subject:* Re: [greenstone-users] oaister
+>
+>  
+>
+> Hi Stephen
+>
+> I have just had a look on the web at OAIster and static repositories. 
+> Sorry, I should have done this before I replied to you the first time.
+>
+> After my 5 mins of reading, this is what I understand the situation 
+> is. Please correct me if I am wrong.
+>
+> OAIster harvests OAI repositories. To become a data provider, you need 
+> to check your repository against a validator, and then register.
+> If you don't have a proper OAI server, then you can set up a static 
+> OAI repository, which is an XML file.
+> These may be harvested by OAI repository gateways, which is what you 
+> are trying to do?
+>
+> Greenstone provides a proper OAI repository server (oaiserver), and 
+> from version 2.81 and later should validate against the repository 
+> validator specified on the OAIster "Steps to Becoming a Data 
+> Contributor" page.
+>
+> We currently don't provide exporting a collection as an OAI static 
+> repository.
+>
+> Is there a reason why you wish to keep using a static repository 
+> rather than setting up the proper OAI repository?
+>
+> Regards,
+> Katherine
+>
+> Stephen I. Klein wrote:
+>
+> We are migrating our digital collections and need to keep our collection OAI
+> harvestable.  We currently have a presence via OAIster
+> (http://oaister.umdl.umich.edu/o/oaister/) and have intermediated through
+> the Los Alamos Gateway at:
+>  
+> http://libtest.lanl.gov/
+>  
+> Does Greenstone allow for the building of OAI compliant XML files that are
+> successfully intermediated via a standard gateway and harvestable with
+> OAIster?
+>  
+> The following page suggests the inverse:
+>  
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/OAI_support
+>  
+> Any suggestions to approach this goal would be greatly appreciated.  Thank
+> you.
+>  
+> Regards,
+>  
+>  
+> Stephen I. Klein
+> Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+> Assistant Professor
+> Pratt Institute Library
+> 200 Willoughby Avenue
+> Brooklyn, NY 11205
+> sklein@pratt.edu <mailto:sklein@pratt.edu>
+> (718) 399 4423
+> Pratt
+>  
+>  
+>  
+>  
+>   
+>  
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+>
+>
+>   
+>  
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz <mailto:greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>   
+
+From amin.hedjazi at gmail.com  Wed Dec 10 19:41:17 2008
+From: amin.hedjazi at gmail.com (Amin Hedjazi)
+Date: Wed Dec 10 19:41:41 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] question about gsprintf
+Message-ID: <4105c9810812092241x531f08c5xda2b2b34bd682e3e@mail.gmail.com>
+
+hello every one
+can any body out there tell me what is the line 231 in file
+\gs2build\perllib\gsprintf.pm is good for ?
+i wanted to traslate the strings.properties inside \gs2build\perllib\  to
+persian
+but when i made a strings_fa.properties file like other traslations and
+saved it az utf-8 it returnd an error while
+trying to load the gli
+so i traced back the error and got to the line 231 in file
+\gs2build\perllib\gsprintf.pm and that wolude be the line below
+           $linetext =~
+s/(\s*)\#\s+Updated\s+(\d?\d-\D\D\D-\d\d\d\d)\s*$//i;
+becouse of this line my xml out put from the file downloadeinfo.pl wasent
+well formed
+and i got the error when i was trying to load the gli
+but when i commented out the line 231 in file \gs2build\perllib\gsprintf.pm
+my errors where gone and the gli loaded perfectly whit my traslations in
+there own palceses
+so sombody please tell me what is this line good for and
+if that problem was spose to be a bug shoulde i report it in the tracs ?
+tnx every one
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081210/ce85cc74/attachment.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Dec 11 13:08:36 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Oran of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Thu Dec 11 13:08:54 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Greenstone2.81rc2 released
+Message-ID: <49405A04.7070708@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello list members,
+
+We are pleased to announce that the Windows, GNU/Linux, Mac OS/X and
+Source distributions of Greenstone v2.81rc2
+are now available for download from our sourceforge page:
+http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone or from 
+http://www.greenstone.org/download
+
+Release notes are copied below.
+
+This release is further to the recent 2.81rc release (first advertised 
+as 2.81). If you installed the 2.81rc release, we recommend you upgrade 
+to 2.81rc2. This can be done in two ways:
+A) Simply install Greenstone2.81rc2 on top of the existing 
+Greenstone2.81rc installation. This will overwrite all exising files 
+with the updated files, but will not delete anything, so your 
+collections will be preserved. Any changes to config files will be 
+overwritten with the defaults.
+B) Rename the home folder of your existing Greenstone2.81rc installation 
+by adding '.bak' to the folder name. Then install the new 
+Greenstone2.81rc2 in its place and copy your collections and any 
+modified config files from the old 2.81rc installation to the 2.81rc2 
+installation.
+
+As always, please report any problems or bugs to the mailing list.
+
+Regards,
+Oran and the rest of the Greenstone team.
+
+Release Name: 2.81rc2
+
+The Windows, GNU/Linux, Mac OS/X and Source distributions of Greenstone v2.81rc2
+ are now available for download from our sourceforge page:
+
+  http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone
+
+or via
+
+  http://www.greenstone.org/download
+
+
+Important changes in this release include, in no particular order:
+
+Stability and Bug Fixes
+-----------------------
+Some small problems in the recent 2.81rc release of Greenstone2 have been ironed
+out to create an overall more robust release. Some features have been restored
+(including realistic books and dynamic classifiers on Windows) and the
+LuceneWrapper.jar file has been put back into the release.
+
+GDBM
+----
+Greenstone now comes with it's own modified version of gdbm which can
+auto-detect the format of database files (ldb or bdb format) and load either
+format on any of Greenstone's supported platforms. This achieves a better level
+of portability for Greenstone collections, and allows collections built on one
+operating system to be served from other operating systems supported by
+Greenstone.
+
+
+Installer improvements
+----------------------
+* The new installer:
+   - is now available in five languages
+   - can now cope with being executed from a path with accented characters and
+     other special characters. (There is still a known issue with chinese
+     file paths, which can be avoided by simply running from c:\ or another path
+     with no special characters.)
+* The source release is now provided as a platform-independent zip / tar archive
+* We now provide a simple binary zip / tar distribution for each platform
+
+
+Vista Compatibility
+-------------------
+* When Greenstone is installed into the Program Files directory on Windows Vista,
+it is necessary to elevate to a higher access level to run GLI and the
+Greenstone server. As of this release, you can do this by launching the Start
+Menu items as an administrator. Just right-click the item and choose "Run as
+Administator", or set "Run as Adminsitrator" in the shortcut properties.
+Also, as a way to avoid having to elevate to higher access levels altogether,
+the default installation directory is now inside the current user's home folder.
+
+* Some Windows Vista users have experienced a problem when perl outputs warning
+messages in front of xml output passed to GLI. The error messages themselves are
+not fatal, but cause the xml to become invalid, resulting in a GLI crash. GLI
+has been modified to ignore these warning messages and thereby keep the validity
+of the xml.
+
+New Start Menu icons and server image
+-------------------------------------
+Each item in a Greenstone Start Menu group is now has a unique icon so you can
+tell which is which at a glance. We have also added some links to the wiki and 
+the Greenstone website for convenience. The old server image has also been
+replaced with the new GS2 Server logo.
+
+The release notes from the 2.81rc release and included below:
+
+Release Name: 2.81rc
+
+The Windows, GNU/Linux, Mac OS/X and Source distributions of Greenstone v2.81rc
+ are now available for download from our sourceforge page:
+
+  http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone 
+
+or via 
+
+  http://www.greenstone.org/download
+
+
+Important changes in this release include, in no particular order:
+
+Installer:
+--------------
+
+The Greenstone installer downloads are now created using only open source 
+software, including Ant Installer (http://antinstaller.sourceforge.net/), 
+Apache Ant (http://ant.apache.org/), our own search4j (based on launch4j 
+http://launch4j.sourceforge.net/), and our own Greenstone release kits.
+
+We felt it was essential to move away from our existing, closed-source 
+installer suite as it was not in the spirit of Greenstone to rely on 
+proprietary software, and it invited the unnecessary cost of keeping the suite 
+up-to-date.
+
+Using only open source software has also given us the freedom to customise the 
+user experience of the installers. Where a feature was lacking in one of the 
+open source packages, we have enjoyed the ability to "open the hood" and 
+implement it.
+
+With the development of the Greenstone release kits we are now able to generate
+ releases of Greenstone automatically and unattended. This process takes just 
+20 minutes, and it has helped us a lot in the development and testing of new 
+features of Greenstone. We have been able to set up a feedback loop, where code
+ committed one day is included in an automatic nightly snapshot release made 
+available for download on our website the next day. Our users have also 
+benefited from being able to obtain up-to-date snapshot releases of Greenstone 
+in between our official releases.
+
+These daily snapshots are available through:
+
+  http://www.greenstone.org/snapshots
+
+On Windows, the version number is included in the Start Menu which means that 
+multiple installations of Greenstone will have their own entries in the Start 
+Menu. The installer no longer writes to the registry, so installation no 
+longer requires administrator privileges.
+
+ImageMagick is now bundled with Greenstone for binary web releases for all 
+platforms (previously it was only provided on a CD-ROM release) and includes 
+JPEG2000 support. The installer offers the option to install this or not.  
+You can skip installing it if you already have ImageMagick previously installed.
+
+Ghostscript is now bundled with Greenstone for binary web releases for Windows 
+and Mac. The installer offers the option to install this or not.  You can 
+skip installing it if you already have Ghostscript previously installed.
+
+Importing and Plugin Changes:
+------------------------------
+
+Plugin Restructuring: The plugins have been restructured. This has been done 
+mostly for coding efficiency. The most noticeable change is that plugins have 
+been renamed. xxxPlug now becomes xxxPlugin, and some have also had their names
+ modified or expanded to be clearer. For example, DBPlug is now DatabasePlugin,
+ PPTPlug is PowerPointPlugin. The complete list of new plugins can be seen at 
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Plugins. Old collections should 
+still build okay in GLI, which will map the old plugin names to the new ones. 
+Command line building should also work, but the configuration file won't be 
+altered to use the new names.
+
+A lot of work has been done trying to get Greenstone to work properly with 
+non-ascii filenames. Two versions of the filename are stored, [Source] for 
+displaying the filename, and [SourceFile] for linking to the file from a web page.
+
+The -smart_block option (most commonly seen with HTMLPlugin) has been deprecated
+. Instead we have a first pass through the documents to find out which ones 
+should be blocked.
+
+MARCPlugin and MARCXMLPlugin can now map metadata to Qualified Dublin Core as 
+well as Dublin Core.
+
+MARCXMLPlugin now assigns metadata from metadata.xml files.
+
+EMAILPlugin now saves binary attachments as binary files on Windows
+
+ImagePlugin and PagedImagePlugin now offer the -cache_generated_images option 
+to prevent thumbnails and screenview images being recreated each import.
+
+OAIPlugin saves the metadata as Dublin Core rather than moving it all to the ex
+ metadata set. This means that it won't show up in the GLI unless the files are
+ exploded. Exploding is now available for OAI records.
+
+ProCitePlugin no longer uses the pc namespace. Metadata is stored using the 
+field names set in the workform definition, rather than using Field1Name and 
+Field1Value etc..
+
+-reversesort option to import.pl to be used with -sortmeta option to sort in 
+reverse order.
+
+Tidied up OID generation. OIDtype and OIDmetadata options are now available 
+for each plugin as well as globally from import.pl. Hashing usually occurs on 
+the original file, but some plugins specify that hashing should be done on the 
+Greenstone XML document.
+
+Building and Indexing Changes:
+-------------------------------
+
+Improvements to Lucene incremental building. Lucene document identifiers now 
+match Greenstone identifiers, rather than 1, 2, 3, thanks to DL Consulting. 
+This improves search efficiency, and is another step towards true incremental 
+building. Rebuilding with no new documents shouldn't break the index.
+
+MGPP and Lucene building tidied up. 'allfields' now means combined searching 
+over all specified indexes (not all document metadata) for both mgpp and lucene.
+ 'metadata' will index all metadata, but no longer reindexes metadata that has 
+already been specified. MGPP indexing over combined fields now works properly.
+
+New collection configuration file option: infodbtype. Values include gdbm (the 
+default), gdbm-txtgz, sqlite, mssql. This specifies what database system to use
+for the collection metadata database. Currently this needs to be added to 
+collect.cfg by hand, as it is not available in GLI yet.
+
+gdbm: the default, and is what has always been used previously. This is 
+platform dependent. It transfers between Windows and Linux, but not to/from a 
+Mac.
+
+gdbm-txtgz: A gzipped text version of the database. At runtime, the first time 
+this collection is accessed, it will be unpacked and converted to the 
+appropriate GDBM database using txt2db. This is a good choice if you are 
+creating a collection to be used on another operating system, especially if 
+one or more of those operating systems is a Mac.
+
+sqlite: Platform independent database using SQLite. The new dynamic classifiers
+can be used with this database. Thanks to DL Consulting. 
+
+mssql: Windows specific database using MS SQL Server. See 
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Using_MSSQL_for_Collection_Database 
+for information about how to set this up. The new dynamic classifiers
+ can be used with this database. Thanks to DL Consulting.
+
+Depositor:
+------------
+
+Collection editing using the Depositor is now enabled by default for the admin 
+user.
+
+The metadata fields offered for each document can now easily be customised 
+from the GLI.  
+
+By default, the depositor will import and build each document into the 
+collection when it is added. It can now be easily set up to just "deposit" 
+the item without rebuilding.
+
+See http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/How_to_use_the_depositor for 
+more information.
+
+GLI
+-------
+
+A new right-click file option for binary files that go through a conversion 
+process to be imported, such as PDF, Word and PowerPoint files. "Replace source
+document with HTML" will convert the original file to HTML and replace it in 
+the collection. This means that the converted HTML (which may be unattractive) 
+can now be modified in the collection. This is available for Remote GLI too.
+
+A new right-click file option on the collection tree background to refresh the 
+file view. This is useful if you have manually added files to the collection 
+outside of GLI.
+
+MetadataXMLPlugin has been moved 'below the line' in the Plugins panel so 
+cannot be removed in GLI. If you are using GLI to add metadata, then you need 
+this plugin.
+
+The Export As option now only exports one collection at a time. Collections 
+can be exported as GreenstoneMETS, FedoraMETS, MARCXML and DSpace archive.
+
+'NavigationBar pulldown' added to the list of format options - this makes the 
+navigation 'bar' a drop down list instead of a bar across the page.
+
+Lots of work done on making the Download panel work better, including getting 
+download processes to terminate when they are cancelled or when GLI is closed 
+while they are still running.
+
+New panel under the Format tab, "Depositor Metadata" which allows 
+customisation of which metadata fields should be offered in the depositor for 
+that collection.
+
+CJK segmentation option has been added to GLI. This doesn't do proper word 
+segmentation, but adds a space in between each CJK character. The character 
+ranges have been expanded to work with Japanese and Korean. It is applied to 
+metadata as well as document text.
+
+Another new feature in Greenstone v2.81 is the ability to schedule the
+automatic rebuilding of a greenstone collection using the GLI. There's a new
+panel under the Create tab allowing the scheduling of automatic collection
+rebuilding. Scheduling will require some configuration in order for it to work.
+The following link has more information on how to do this for each platform:
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Scheduled_Collection_Building_from_the_Librarian_Interface
+
+Greenstone Runtime:
+----------------------
+New dynamic classifiers (if the collection uses sqlite or MSSQL as the 
+collection database). These are generated at runtime so do not require the 
+collection to be rebuilt for classifier changes. Another step towards true 
+incremental building. See 
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/More_about_classifiers#How_do_I_use_dynamic_classifiers.3F 
+for more information. Thanks to DL Consulting.
+
+Large code restructuring.  Code is split between common-src, build-src and 
+runtime-src.  Makes it easer to use code in other projets, such as Greenstone 3 
+and running Greenstone on an iPhone/iPod Touch.
+
+External links now default to going straight to the web page, rather than 
+showing a warning page first.
+
+Improvements to the oaiserver, thanks to DL Consulting. Resumption token 
+support has been added, and it now validates against online validation tools.
+
+Greenstone now compiles for Linux on 64-bit platforms.  All programs are 
+compiled natively for 64-bit, except for those that rely on mg/mgpp, which 
+still need to be 32-bit compiled.  As part of the configure/make process, the 
+correct flags are automatically set, so from the developers point of view you 
+compile up Greenstone on a 64-bit machine the exact same way you do for any 
+other Unix-based system.
+
+Greenstone should now compile with Microsoft Visual Studio 2005, thanks to DL Consulting.
+
+FLI - Fedora Librarian Interface
+---------------------------------
+
+The Fedora Librarian Interface (FLI) is very much like GLI in that it allows 
+you to gather together your documents. It then uses Greenstone's ability to 
+convert documents into the FedoraMETS format so that these can be ingested 
+(put into) a Fedora repository. The process of building a collection using FLI 
+exports documents into a repository maintained by a Fedora server rather than 
+one maintained by Greenstone. In order to use FLI, you will need to have 
+Fedora installed. More information on how to install Fedora and set it up 
+to work with FLI, and how to run FLI itself, can be found in the documents:
+
+1. Installing Fedora (2.2.1/3.0) and Fedora-related information
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/InstallingFedora
+
+2. Installing Fedora Generic Search (to provide full-text indexing and
+searching capabilities for a Fedora repository)
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/InstallingFedoraGSearch
+
+3. Running FLI, the Fedora Librarian Interface
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/RunningFLI
+
+
+Translations:
+--------------
+
+Thanks to:
+
+John Rose, for help with English GLI help, French translations for GLI and Greenstone.
+Maxime Rouast for Greenstone French translations
+Celine Guimbertaud for GLI French translations
+Yohannes Mulugeta and Abiyot Bayou for Greenstone Amharic translations
+Kamal Salih for GLI Arabic translations
+Gerhard Riesthuis for Greenstone Dutch translations
+Mohan Raj Pradhan for GLI Nepali translations.
+Diego Spano for translating the installer's interface into Spanish.
+Xiaofeng Yu for translating the installer's interface into Mandarin.
+Doris Jung for translating the installer's interface into German. 
+
+...and many other minor improvements and bug fixes
+
+We want to ensure that Greenstone works well for you. Please report any
+problems to the Greenstone mailing list 
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz.
+
+
+[DL Consulting (http://www.dlconsulting.com) are the world's leading suppliers 
+of commercial consulting, customization, support, maintenance and hosting 
+services for the Greenstone digital library software suite.]
+
+
+
+From anu at ncsi.iisc.ernet.in  Mon Dec  1 20:33:38 2008
+From: anu at ncsi.iisc.ernet.in (K.T Anuradha)
+Date: Thu Dec 11 22:24:07 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Multilingual database creation: Lab exercises
+In-Reply-To: <492B8158.1000907@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <492B8158.1000907@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <Pine.LNX.4.64.0812011300290.20715@ncsi.iisc.ernet.in>
+
+Dear Greenstone user,
+
+I wanted to share lab exercise which I had prepared for a workshop I 
+conducted during December 2008 on Multilingual capability on GSDL. Hope it 
+is of use to all those working on multilingual feature!
+
+Regards, Anuradha
+
+-- 
+This message has been scanned for viruses and
+dangerous content by MailScanner, and is
+believed to be clean.
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+A non-text attachment was scrubbed...
+Name: multilingual.pdf
+Type: application/pdf
+Size: 111593 bytes
+Desc: 
+Url : https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081201/25fd8cac/multilingual-0001.pdf
+From boroday_katya at yahoo.com  Thu Dec 11 01:01:46 2008
+From: boroday_katya at yahoo.com (Katya Boroday)
+Date: Thu Dec 11 22:24:08 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Technical question
+Message-ID: <407437.74551.qm@web55406.mail.re4.yahoo.com>
+
+The Tatarstan Center of the Scientific and Technical Information would like to use the on-line version of Greenstone's digital libraries in our work. Unfortunately, we can't install the necessary software because of the some technical reasons. Please, help us to solve this problem.
+ 
+Looking forward to hear from you, Boroday Katya
+Russia, Kazan
+
+
+      ________________________________________________________
+?? ??? ? Yahoo!? 
+????????? ??????????? ? ??????????. Yahoo! ?????! http://ru.mail.yahoo.com
+-------------- next part --------------
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+From ybakelli at hotmail.com  Sat Dec 13 10:58:30 2008
+From: ybakelli at hotmail.com (Bakelli Yahia)
+Date: Sat Dec 13 10:58:43 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Multilingual database creation: Lab exercises
+In-Reply-To: <Pine.LNX.4.64.0812011300290.20715@ncsi.iisc.ernet.in>
+References: <492B8158.1000907@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<Pine.LNX.4.64.0812011300290.20715@ncsi.iisc.ernet.in>
+Message-ID: <BAY105-W13AE306FD46AF249AFE7DED2F90@phx.gbl>
+
+
+ unsubscribe 
+_________________________________________________________________
+Lancez des recherches en toute sécurité depuis n'importe quelle page Web. Téléchargez GRATUITEMENT Windows Live Toolbar aujourd'hui !
+http://toolbar.live.com
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081212/d9fcf047/attachment.html
+From ybakelli at hotmail.com  Sat Dec 13 10:58:46 2008
+From: ybakelli at hotmail.com (Bakelli Yahia)
+Date: Sat Dec 13 10:58:59 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] unsubscribe
+In-Reply-To: <Pine.LNX.4.64.0812011300290.20715@ncsi.iisc.ernet.in>
+References: <492B8158.1000907@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<Pine.LNX.4.64.0812011300290.20715@ncsi.iisc.ernet.in>
+Message-ID: <BAY105-W2455913E547CA0F0F03861D2F90@phx.gbl>
+
+
+ unsubscribe 
+_________________________________________________________________
+Lancez des recherches en toute sécurité depuis n'importe quelle page Web. Téléchargez GRATUITEMENT Windows Live Toolbar aujourd'hui !
+http://toolbar.live.com
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081212/00008d88/attachment.html
+From amin.hedjazi at gmail.com  Sat Dec 13 18:39:13 2008
+From: amin.hedjazi at gmail.com (Amin Hedjazi)
+Date: Sat Dec 13 18:39:24 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] question about gsprintf,please help me
+Message-ID: <4105c9810812122139y7e9ea093q4ba0af2705057e9f@mail.gmail.com>
+
+hello every one
+can any body out there tell me what is the line 231 in file
+\gs2build\perllib\gsprintf.pm is good for ?
+i wanted to traslate the strings.properties inside \gs2build\perllib\  to
+persian
+but when i made a strings_fa.properties file like other traslations and
+saved it az utf-8 it returnd an error while
+trying to load the gli
+so i traced back the error and got to the line 231 in file
+\gs2build\perllib\gsprintf.pm and that wolude be the line below
+           $linetext =~
+s/(\s*)\#\s+Updated\s+(\d?\d-\D\D\D-\d\d\d\d)\s*$//i;
+becouse of this line my xml out put from the file downloadeinfo.pl wasent
+well formed
+and i got the error when i was trying to load the gli
+but when i commented out the line 231 in file \gs2build\perllib\gsprintf.pm
+my errors where gone and the gli loaded perfectly whit my traslations in
+there own palceses
+so sombody please tell me what is this line good for and
+it apears this line was making my utf-8 code to have some syntax error in it
+!!!!!
+if that problem was spose to be a bug shoulde i report it in the tracs ?
+please help me
+tnx every one
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081213/e8e8baaf/attachment.html
+From amin.hedjazi at gmail.com  Mon Dec 15 20:53:33 2008
+From: amin.hedjazi at gmail.com (Amin Hedjazi)
+Date: Mon Dec 15 20:53:39 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Persian Translation Updates and some Questions
+	about the release process
+Message-ID: <4105c9810812142353r165fa7excdf21116f001549c@mail.gmail.com>
+
+hello ,again
+ive just updated the falowing tickets in the trac and updated the
+falowing translation files:
+
+Ticket #405
+Ticket #416
+
+and the updated files are these :
+
+CrossCollectionSearch_fa.properties
+GS2Construct_fa.properties
+GS2LuceneSearch_fa.properties
+interface_default_fa.properties
+IViaSearch_fa.properties
+message_fa.properties
+Visualizer_fa.properties
+AbstractBrowse_fa.properties
+AbstractGS2FieldSearch_fa.properties
+AbstractSearch_fa.properties
+Authentication_fa.properties
+in Ticket #416
+
+dictionary_fa.properties
+in Ticket #405
+
+would some one be so kined and letting me know that how are the files
+uploaded are processed?
+would they be added in the next releases ?
+
+and if so
+
+would some one notify me if any of my files that i have uploaded
+needed some changes to be able to be added in next releases ?
+
+and that who is responsible for cheking them out ?
+what happens if these files were rejected ?
+
+i am going to upload the gli orientation fixes for right to left languages next
+
+please let me ok
+and is it possible to have contact with greenstone teem directly to be
+more informed about the releases ?
+
+many thanx for your supports
+Amin
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec 16 08:42:35 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Tue Dec 16 08:42:44 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] unsubscribe
+In-Reply-To: <BAY105-W2455913E547CA0F0F03861D2F90@phx.gbl>
+References: <492B8158.1000907@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<Pine.LNX.4.64.0812011300290.20715@ncsi.iisc.ernet.in>
+	<BAY105-W2455913E547CA0F0F03861D2F90@phx.gbl>
+Message-ID: <64877.206.207.225.23.1229370155.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi
+
+To unsubscribe from the greenstone-devel mailing list, please go to
+https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-devel, enter
+your e-mail address in the last box near the bottom of the page, and click
+"Unsubscribe or edit options".
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+>
+>  unsubscribe
+> _________________________________________________________________
+> Lancez des recherches en toute sécurité depuis n'importe quelle page Web.
+> Téléchargez GRATUITEMENT Windows Live Toolbar aujourd'hui !
+> http://toolbar.live.com_______________________________________________
+> greenstone-devel mailing list
+> greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-devel
+>
+
+
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec 16 10:24:00 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Tue Dec 16 10:24:12 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Persian Translation Updates and some 
+	Questions about the release process
+In-Reply-To: <4105c9810812142353r165fa7excdf21116f001549c@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4105c9810812142353r165fa7excdf21116f001549c@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <54404.206.207.225.23.1229376240.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Amin
+
+Please read
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Information_for_language_maintainers
+for the details.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+
+> hello ,again
+> ive just updated the falowing tickets in the trac and updated the
+> falowing translation files:
+>
+> Ticket #405
+> Ticket #416
+>
+> and the updated files are these :
+>
+> CrossCollectionSearch_fa.properties
+> GS2Construct_fa.properties
+> GS2LuceneSearch_fa.properties
+> interface_default_fa.properties
+> IViaSearch_fa.properties
+> message_fa.properties
+> Visualizer_fa.properties
+> AbstractBrowse_fa.properties
+> AbstractGS2FieldSearch_fa.properties
+> AbstractSearch_fa.properties
+> Authentication_fa.properties
+> in Ticket #416
+>
+> dictionary_fa.properties
+> in Ticket #405
+>
+> would some one be so kined and letting me know that how are the files
+> uploaded are processed?
+> would they be added in the next releases ?
+>
+> and if so
+>
+> would some one notify me if any of my files that i have uploaded
+> needed some changes to be able to be added in next releases ?
+>
+> and that who is responsible for cheking them out ?
+> what happens if these files were rejected ?
+>
+> i am going to upload the gli orientation fixes for right to left languages
+> next
+>
+> please let me ok
+> and is it possible to have contact with greenstone teem directly to be
+> more informed about the releases ?
+>
+> many thanx for your supports
+> Amin
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-devel mailing list
+> greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-devel
+>
+
+
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec 16 10:30:36 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Tue Dec 16 10:30:45 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Technical question
+In-Reply-To: <407437.74551.qm@web55406.mail.re4.yahoo.com>
+References: <407437.74551.qm@web55406.mail.re4.yahoo.com>
+Message-ID: <57507.206.207.225.23.1229376636.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi
+
+If you want to install a binary Greenstone, please go to
+http://www.greenstone.org/download#snapshots-dist to dowmload the source.
+
+If you want to install a Greenstone from the SVN repository, please read
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Install_GSDL_from_SVN_in_Linux
+for the details.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+
+> The Tatarstan Center of the Scientific and Technical Information would
+> like to use the on-line version of Greenstone's digital libraries in our
+> work. Unfortunately, we can't install the necessary software because of
+> the some technical reasons. Please, help us to solve this problem.
+> Â 
+> Looking forward to hear from you, Boroday Katya
+> Russia, Kazan
+>
+>
+>       ________________________________________________________
+> ÐÑ ÑÐ¶Ðµ Ñ Yahoo!?
+> ÐÑÐ¿ÑÑÐ°Ð¹ÑÐµ ÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸÐ²Ð»ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÑÑÐµÐœÐœÑÑ. Yahoo!
+> ÐÐŸÑÑÑ!
+> http://ru.mail.yahoo.com_______________________________________________
+> greenstone-devel mailing list
+> greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-devel
+>
+
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec 16 18:58:09 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Tue Dec 16 18:58:19 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Re: [greenstone-users] Regarding Greenstone
+In-Reply-To: <1228906641.05d0abb9a864ae4981e933685b8b915c@mail.in.com>
+References: <1228906641.05d0abb9a864ae4981e933685b8b915c@mail.in.com>
+Message-ID: <49474371.80202@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello Jayanta,
+
+In addition to Suresh Nair's suggestion of visiting www.greenstone.org:
+
+ > Is it developed in Java ? If it is then I would like to join the
+ > community, since I am a Java developer I can try for it.
+ > There fore, I would like to request you to give me some detail about the
+ > project and the language in which it is developed.
+
+- The Greenstone 2 server's code is in C++.
+- The Greenstone 3 server's code is in Java. Greenstone 3 is the 
+research version and does nearly all things that Greenstone 2 does plus 
+a few more.
+- The Greenstone Librarian Interface used by both Greenstone 2 and 
+Greenstone 3 is in Java.
+- The importing and building scripts, as well as the plugins they use to 
+build the collections are written in Perl. The scripts can be called 
+from the command line but are also invoked by GLI.
+
+Regards,
+Anupama
+
+
+Jayanta Bora wrote:
+> Dear Sir,
+> 
+> I am Jayanta from Delhi, India. I am a Software Engineer and working in 
+> the field of Java/J2EE.
+> 
+> I am interested to know about greenstone project and I would like to 
+> join the development community which will help me to expand my knowledge 
+> and skill.
+> 
+> I tried to know about the project and come to know that its a very good 
+> project for digital library. 
+> 
+> Is it developed in Java ? If it is then I would like to join the 
+> community, since I am a Java developer I can try for it.
+> 
+> There fore, I would like to request you to give me some detail about the 
+> project and the language in which it is developed.
+> 
+> 
+> Regards,
+> 
+> Jayanta
+> 
+> 
+> 
+> Get Yourself a cool, short *@in.com* Email ID now! 
+> <http://mail.in.com/mails/new_reg.php?utm_sou 
+> rce=invite&utm_medium=outgoing>
+> 
+> 
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> 
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Wed Dec 17 18:34:05 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Wed Dec 17 18:34:16 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Re: [greenstone-users] Microsoft Office 2007
+	revisited
+Message-ID: <49488F4D.2000809@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Forwarding a copy to the mailing list:
+
+Hello Doug,
+
+The ticket number 426 at Trac has not been updated to reflect the
+Greenstone Team's more recent discussions on the topic. It seems likely
+that we will be trying to use Open Office as an alternative means of
+converting various documents--particularly the different kinds of MS
+Office documents, such as .docx, ppt--where this is installed, else we
+may default to using the current conversion tools.
+
+You are right that a plugin to handle Open Office documents is also a
+requirement. Our present thinking at this stage is not to parse the docx
+or other MS Office formats ourselves, but to rather use Open Office's
+ability to convert them. Similarly, we might try to use Open Office
+itself to convert Open Office documents or otherwise fall back on the 
+OpenDocument plugin (see below).
+
+Your intention in writing a plugin for OOXML sounds like it might not
+require Open Office to be installed in order to accomplish the 
+conversion to HTML, is that right? It does sound very helpful.
+
+ > I haven't dug into the OpenDocument plugin,
+At present, the OpenDocumentPlugin.pm seems to extract only the text
+from the document, going by what the starting comments say:
+
+# Processes OASIS Open Document format.
+# Word processing document: .odt, template: .ott
+# Spreadsheet document: .ods, template: .ots
+# Presentation document: .odp, template: .otp
+# Graphics document: .odg, template: .otg
+# Formulas document: .odf, template: .otf (not supported)
+
+#This basically extracts any text out of the document, but not much else.
+
+# this inherits ReadXMLFile, and therefore offers -xslt option, but does
+# nothing with it.
+
+Regards,
+Anupama
+
+Doug Carter wrote:
+ > Hi all,
+ >
+ > Can anyone give me a rough development status on this? All of the
+ > converters mentioned on "http://trac.greenstone.org/ticket/426" are
+ > deficient in one way or another. Plus most of them are concerned only
+ > with docx and not the whole OOXML family of documents.
+ >
+ > I noticed that you've already got an OpenDocument plugin available.
+ > This may be an ignorant question, but isn't the framework of a ODT
+ > similar to OOXML? (a zip file with some xml/images)
+ >
+ > I haven't dug into the OpenDocument plugin, but I'm wondering why it
+ > wouldn't be a good starting place to develop a OOXML plugin.
+ > Before I get too far looking into this, I'd like to know if someone
+ > is already working on it. I don't want to duplicate the effort.
+ >
+ > Thanks,
+ >
+ > Doug
+ >
+ >
+ > On Thu, Dec 04, 2008 at 06:52:10PM -0800, Jeff Crump wrote:
+ >> Another message from Greenstone, with a link to the converter "to do"
+ >> ticket. There are lots of potential conversion tools in the ticket
+ >> report. They are open to our input on the tools (and I guessing you may
+ >> have already made determinations on some of them).
+ >>
+ >> Best,
+ >> Jeff
+ >> -----Original Message-----
+ >> From: Anupama of Greenstone Team
+ >> [mailto:greenstone_team@cs.waikato.ac.nz] Sent: Thursday, December 
+04, 2008 6:39 PM
+ >> To: Jeff Crump; Katherine Don
+ >> Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] Microsoft Office 2007 revisited
+ >>
+ >> Hello Jeff,
+ >>
+ >>  > Is this a matter of finding a pre-existing converter that works with
+ >>> Office 2007, or writing it yourselves?
+ >> It is indeed a matter of finding a pre-existing open-source converter
+ >> tool and embedding it into Greenstone's building workflow by wrapping it
+ >> in a plugin.
+ >>
+ >> I have added a "To Do" ticket for this, as intimated (see
+ >> http://trac.greenstone.org/ticket/426), but will ask whether we can
+ >> expedite our looking into this matter. There are many people using
+ >> Office documents who want Greenstone to be compatible with the more
+ >> recent formats. It is certainly the only way to proceed.
+ >>
+ >> The filed ticket has some links to conversion tools for us to 
+consider. Is there any *open-source* tool that you may know of in your 
+experience
+ >> and which you prefer for its ability to accurately accomplish the
+ >> conversion? If so, we can give it preference when we consider which one
+ >> to incorporate. If you do not know of any, don't worry.
+ >>
+ >> Thanks for your valuable input,
+ >> Anupama
+ >>
+ >>
+ >>
+ >>
+ >> Jeff Crump wrote:
+ >>> Hi Anupama,
+ >>> Thank you VERY much for clarifying this! I asked my original question
+ >> badly. Without the ability to convert Office 2007 to html and make it
+ >> searchable full-text, we would have no reason to upgrade from 2.52.
+ >>> I'm afraid our organization will soon be upgrading entirely to Office
+ >> 2007. Our Greenstone Digital Library is actually our organization's main
+ >> document repository - documents go in and out each day (we rebuild the
+ >> library every night), so it isn't really an option for us to have be
+ >> unable to convert Office 2007.
+ >>> Is this a matter of finding a pre-existing converter that works with
+ >> Office 2007, or writing it yourselves?
+ >>> Thanks and best regards,
+ >>> Jeff
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>> -----Original Message-----
+ >>> From: Anupama of Greenstone Team 
+[mailto:greenstone_team@cs.waikato.ac.nz]
+ >>> Sent: Wednesday, December 03, 2008 6:17 PM
+ >>> To: Jeff Crump
+ >>> Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] Microsoft Office 2007 revisited
+ >>>
+ >>> Hello Jeff,
+ >>> Greenstone at present is still using the wvWare tool to convert MS
+ >> Word documents to html. It is not able to handle the more recent Word
+ >> formats.
+ >>> We intend to look into alternative conversion tools both for Word and
+ >> other MS Office formats. I'll add in a "To Do" ticket about this.
+ >>> Thanks,
+ >>> Anupama
+ >>>
+ >>> Jeff Crump wrote:
+ >>>> Hi, We're on Greenstone 2.52. We are considering an upgrade to 2.8x
+ >> but our main requirement is that Microsoft Office 2007 documents build
+ >> properly.
+ >>>> I was told on this list to try 2.8, but we can't find any
+ >> documentation anywhere saying that Office 2007 (Word, Excel, Powerpoint,
+ >> etc.) is supported in 2.8.
+ >>>> Can anyone point me to this documentation? Or can anyone verify from
+ >> experience that Office 2007 documents are supported in Greenstone 2.8 or
+ >> 2.81?
+ >>>> If all we need is the right plugin, rather than the full upgrade,
+ >> that would be great to know, too.
+ >>>> Thanks again,
+ >>>> Jeff
+ >>>>
+ >>>>
+ >>>>
+ >>>>
+ >>>>
+ >>>> ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+ >>>> -
+ >>>> --
+ >>>>
+ >>>> _______________________________________________
+ >>>> greenstone-users mailing list
+ >>>> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+ >>>> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+ >>>
+ >
+
+
+
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Wed Dec 17 18:46:45 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Wed Dec 17 18:46:55 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Technical question
+In-Reply-To: <407437.74551.qm@web55406.mail.re4.yahoo.com>
+References: <407437.74551.qm@web55406.mail.re4.yahoo.com>
+Message-ID: <49489245.5010605@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello Katya,
+
+1. Can you tell us what version of Greenstone you were trying to 
+install? For instance, was it the recent Greenstone 2.81 rc2?
+
+2. What is the operating system you are trying to install it on? 
+Windows, Linux or a Mac OS? And which version of the OS are you running?
+
+Is there any other specific environment information which you think it 
+will be useful for us to know about?
+
+Do also try the links to the latest binaries (nightly snapshots) that 
+Quan (qq6) provided.
+
+3. If you would rather try to install Greenstone from its source code, 
+there are some additional links related to what Quan provided on the 
+page http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone
+
+All the best,
+Anupama
+
+
+Katya Boroday wrote:
+> The Tatarstan Center of the Scientific and Technical Information would 
+> like to use the on-line version of Greenstone's digital libraries in our 
+> work. Unfortunately, we can't install the necessary software because of 
+> the some technical reasons. Please, help us to solve this problem.
+>  
+> Looking forward to hear from you, Boroday Katya
+> Russia, Kazan
+> 
+> 
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> 
+> ?? ??? ? Yahoo!? ????????? ??????????? ? ??????????. Yahoo! ????? 
+> <http://ru.mail.yahoo.com>!
+> 
+> 
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> 
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-devel mailing list
+> greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-devel
+
+
+From stefan.flo at gmail.com  Wed Dec 17 22:30:56 2008
+From: stefan.flo at gmail.com (Stefan Florin)
+Date: Wed Dec 17 22:39:20 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Question
+Message-ID: <2a11c1db0812170130p3a247fabsc49468c6ce1df660@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hello,
+
+   My Name is Stefan Florin, I've installed Greenstone and have some
+problems in managing access database files. I've created a .dbi file but I
+get an error when trying to build the Collection (I'm using the demo
+Greenstone collection). Any help will be appreciated. Thank you.
+
+
+#!c:\strawberry\perl\bin\perl.exe
+##
+##  printenv -- demo CGI program which just prints its environment
+##
+use POSIX;
+use strict;
+use CGI qw(:standard);
+use CGI::Carp qw(fatalsToBrowser);
+use DBI;
+use Time::Local
+print header;
+
+
+
+$dbplug_debug=1;
+
+######################################
+## Set DSN-Less Connection
+######################################
+my $DSN = 'driver=Microsoft Access Driver (*.mdb);dbq=c:\Documents and
+Settings\fstefan\Greenstone2\collect\demo\test.mdb';
+my $dbh = DBI->connect("dbi:ADO:$DSN", '','')
+  or die "$DBI::errstr\n";
+
+######################################
+## Generate the SQL Statement
+######################################
+my $sql = qq{ SELECT * FROM tblContacts };
+my $sth = $dbh->prepare( $sql );
+
+$sth->execute() or die "Execution problem: $DBI::errstr";
+
+my( $id, $lastname, $firstname);
+$sth->bind_columns( undef, \$id, \$lastname, \$firstname);
+
+while( $sth->fetch() ) {
+  print "$id, $lastname, $firstname" ."<br />";
+}
+
+%db_to_greenstone_fields = (
+    "firstName" => "Title",
+    "lastName"  => "text"
+);
+
+#######################################
+##  Close Connection
+#######################################
+$dbh->disconnect;
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081217/3ea13313/attachment.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Dec 18 14:49:04 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Thu Dec 18 14:49:15 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Persian Translation Updates and some Question
+	about the release process
+In-Reply-To: <4105c9810812142353r165fa7excdf21116f001549c@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4105c9810812142353r165fa7excdf21116f001549c@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <4949AC10.6070800@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081218/11bfa116/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Fri Dec 19 09:31:49 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Fri Dec 19 09:32:01 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Question
+In-Reply-To: <2a11c1db0812170130p3a247fabsc49468c6ce1df660@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <2a11c1db0812170130p3a247fabsc49468c6ce1df660@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <494AB335.7030809@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Stefan
+
+What are you trying to do exactly? You don't need a dbi file to build 
+the demo collection. You can just run the Librarian Interface, open the 
+demo collection (File->Open), then go to the Create tab and click build 
+collection.
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+Stefan Florin wrote:
+> Hello,
+>  
+>    My Name is Stefan Florin, I've installed Greenstone and have some 
+> problems in managing access database files. I've created a .dbi file 
+> but I get an error when trying to build the Collection (I'm using the 
+> demo Greenstone collection). Any help will be appreciated. Thank you.
+>
+>
+> #!c:\strawberry\perl\bin\perl.exe
+> ##
+> ##  printenv -- demo CGI program which just prints its environment
+> ##
+> use POSIX;
+> use strict;
+> use CGI qw(:standard);
+> use CGI::Carp qw(fatalsToBrowser);
+> use DBI;
+> use Time::Local
+> print header;
+>  
+>  
+>  
+> $dbplug_debug=1;
+>
+> ######################################
+> ## Set DSN-Less Connection
+> ######################################
+> my $DSN = 'driver=Microsoft Access Driver (*.mdb);dbq=c:\Documents and 
+> Settings\fstefan\Greenstone2\collect\demo\test.mdb';
+> my $dbh = DBI->connect("dbi:ADO:$DSN", '','')
+>   or die "$DBI::errstr\n";
+>    
+> ######################################
+> ## Generate the SQL Statement
+> ######################################
+> my $sql = qq{ SELECT * FROM tblContacts };
+> my $sth = $dbh->prepare( $sql );
+>
+> $sth->execute() or die "Execution problem: $DBI::errstr";
+>
+> my( $id, $lastname, $firstname);
+> $sth->bind_columns( undef, \$id, \$lastname, \$firstname);
+>
+> while( $sth->fetch() ) {
+>   print "$id, $lastname, $firstname" ."<br />";
+> }
+>
+> %db_to_greenstone_fields = (
+>     "firstName" => "Title",
+>     "lastName"  => "text"
+> );
+>  
+> #######################################
+> ##  Close Connection
+> #######################################
+> $dbh->disconnect;
+>  
+>
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-devel mailing list
+> greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-devel
+>   
+
+From oranfry at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Fri Dec 19 17:28:12 2008
+From: oranfry at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Oran Fry)
+Date: Fri Dec 19 17:28:28 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Final of Greenstone2.81 Released
+Message-ID: <494B22DC.9010801@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello Users and Developers of Greenstone,
+
+We are pleased to announce that the Windows, GNU/Linux, MacOS and Source 
+distributions of the finalised Greenstone2.81 are now available for 
+download from our sourceforge page:
+http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone or from 
+http://www.greenstone.org/download
+
+This is the finalised 2.81 release. It includes some bug fixes found in 
+in 2.81rc2. If you are running a 2.81rc or 2.81rc2 please download and 
+upgrade to this release. Our response to any mailing list questions 
+about the 2.81rc or 2.81rc2 releases will simply be to ask you to 
+upgrade to 2.81 first and see if that fixes the problem.
+
+As always, please report any problems or bugs to the mailing list.
+
+Many of us in the Greenstone Team will be taking leave over Christmas 
+and throughout January. We wish all list members the best over the 
+holiday season! An unfortunate side effect is, of course, that our 
+responses on the mailing list may slow down over that period. We invite 
+all list members to help each other out during this time - if you know 
+the answer to a question someone else asks on the list, have confidence 
+in answering, as it might be a while before one of the Greenstone team 
+is available to reply.
+
+Happy Holidays,
+Oran and the rest of the Greenstone team.
+
+Release Name: 2.81
+
+The Windows, GNU/Linux, Mac OS/X and Source distributions of Greenstone 
+v2.81
+ are now available for download from our sourceforge page:
+
+  http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone
+
+or via
+
+  http://www.greenstone.org/download
+
+
+This is the finalised 2.81 release. It includes some bug fixes found in in
+2.81rc2. If you are running a 2.81rc or 2.81rc2 please download and 
+upgrade to
+this release.
+
+Important changes in this release include, in no particular order:
+
+wvWare updated
+--------------
+We have upgraded the version of wvWare included with Greenstone in the Linux
+binary releases to version 1.2.4. It was not possible to do the same for the
+MacOS binary distribution without shipping around 80Mb of additional 
+libraries,
+so the MacOS binary release still comes with version 0.7.1. MacOS users may
+upgrade wvWare if needed by downloading it from
+http://wvware.sourceforge.net/ and compiling it. Source users will also
+still get version 0.7.1 but may upgrade in the same way.
+
+
+The release notes from the 2.81rc2 release and included below:
+
+Release Name: 2.81rc2
+
+The Windows, GNU/Linux, Mac OS/X and Source distributions of Greenstone 
+v2.81rc2
+ are now available for download from our sourceforge page:
+
+  http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone
+
+or via
+
+  http://www.greenstone.org/download
+
+
+Important changes in this release include, in no particular order:
+
+Stability and Bug Fixes
+-----------------------
+Some small problems in the recent 2.81rc release of Greenstone2 have 
+been ironed
+out to create an overall more robust release. Some features have been 
+restored
+(including realistic books and dynamic classifiers on Windows) and the
+LuceneWrapper.jar file has been put back into the release.
+
+GDBM
+----
+Greenstone now comes with it's own modified version of gdbm which can
+auto-detect the format of database files (ldb or bdb format) and load either
+format on any of Greenstone's supported platforms. This achieves a 
+better level
+of portability for Greenstone collections, and allows collections built 
+on one
+operating system to be served from other operating systems supported by
+Greenstone.
+
+
+Installer improvements
+----------------------
+* The new installer:
+   - is now available in five languages
+   - can now cope with being executed from a path with accented 
+characters and
+     other special characters. (There is still a known issue with chinese
+     file paths, which can be avoided by simply running from c:\ or 
+another path
+     with no special characters.)
+* The source release is now provided as a platform-independent zip / tar 
+archive
+* We now provide a simple binary zip / tar distribution for each platform
+
+
+Vista Compatibility
+-------------------
+* When Greenstone is installed into the Program Files directory on Windows
+Vista, it is necessary to elevate to a higher access level to run GLI 
+and the
+Greenstone server. As of this release, you can do this by launching the 
+Start
+Menu items as an administrator. Just right-click the item and choose "Run as
+Administator", or set "Run as Adminsitrator" in the shortcut properties.
+Also, as a way to avoid having to elevate to higher access levels 
+altogether,
+the default installation directory is now inside the current user's home 
+folder.
+
+* Some Windows Vista users have experienced a problem when perl outputs 
+warning
+messages in front of xml output passed to GLI. The error messages 
+themselves are
+not fatal, but cause the xml to become invalid, resulting in a GLI 
+crash. GLI
+has been modified to ignore these warning messages and thereby keep the 
+validity
+of the xml.
+
+New Start Menu icons and server image
+-------------------------------------
+Each item in a Greenstone Start Menu group is now has a unique icon so 
+you can
+tell which is which at a glance. We have also added some links to the 
+wiki and
+the Greenstone website for convenience. The old server image has also been
+replaced with the new GS2 Server logo.
+
+The release notes from the 2.81rc release and included below:
+
+Release Name: 2.81rc
+
+The Windows, GNU/Linux, Mac OS/X and Source distributions of Greenstone 
+v2.81rc
+ are now available for download from our sourceforge page:
+
+  http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone
+
+or via
+
+  http://www.greenstone.org/download
+
+
+Important changes in this release include, in no particular order:
+
+Installer:
+--------------
+
+The Greenstone installer downloads are now created using only open source
+software, including Ant Installer (http://antinstaller.sourceforge.net/),
+Apache Ant (http://ant.apache.org/), our own search4j (based on launch4j
+http://launch4j.sourceforge.net/), and our own Greenstone release kits.
+
+We felt it was essential to move away from our existing, closed-source
+installer suite as it was not in the spirit of Greenstone to rely on
+proprietary software, and it invited the unnecessary cost of keeping the 
+suite
+up-to-date.
+
+Using only open source software has also given us the freedom to 
+customise the
+user experience of the installers. Where a feature was lacking in one of 
+the
+open source packages, we have enjoyed the ability to "open the hood" and
+implement it.
+
+With the development of the Greenstone release kits we are now able to 
+generate
+ releases of Greenstone automatically and unattended. This process takes 
+just
+20 minutes, and it has helped us a lot in the development and testing of 
+new
+features of Greenstone. We have been able to set up a feedback loop, 
+where code
+ committed one day is included in an automatic nightly snapshot release 
+made
+available for download on our website the next day. Our users have also
+benefited from being able to obtain up-to-date snapshot releases of 
+Greenstone
+in between our official releases.
+
+These daily snapshots are available through:
+
+  http://www.greenstone.org/snapshots
+
+On Windows, the version number is included in the Start Menu which means 
+that
+multiple installations of Greenstone will have their own entries in the 
+Start
+Menu. The installer no longer writes to the registry, so installation no
+longer requires administrator privileges.
+
+ImageMagick is now bundled with Greenstone for binary web releases for all
+platforms (previously it was only provided on a CD-ROM release) and 
+includes
+JPEG2000 support. The installer offers the option to install this or not. 
+You can skip installing it if you already have ImageMagick previously 
+installed.
+
+Ghostscript is now bundled with Greenstone for binary web releases for 
+Windows
+and Mac. The installer offers the option to install this or not.  You can
+skip installing it if you already have Ghostscript previously installed.
+
+Importing and Plugin Changes:
+------------------------------
+
+Plugin Restructuring: The plugins have been restructured. This has been 
+done
+mostly for coding efficiency. The most noticeable change is that plugins 
+have
+been renamed. xxxPlug now becomes xxxPlugin, and some have also had 
+their names
+ modified or expanded to be clearer. For example, DBPlug is now 
+DatabasePlugin,
+ PPTPlug is PowerPointPlugin. The complete list of new plugins can be 
+seen at
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Plugins. Old collections should
+still build okay in GLI, which will map the old plugin names to the new 
+ones.
+Command line building should also work, but the configuration file won't be
+altered to use the new names.
+
+A lot of work has been done trying to get Greenstone to work properly with
+non-ascii filenames. Two versions of the filename are stored, [Source] for
+displaying the filename, and [SourceFile] for linking to the file from a web
+page.
+
+The -smart_block option (most commonly seen with HTMLPlugin) has been 
+deprecated
+. Instead we have a first pass through the documents to find out which ones
+should be blocked.
+
+MARCPlugin and MARCXMLPlugin can now map metadata to Qualified Dublin 
+Core as
+well as Dublin Core.
+
+MARCXMLPlugin now assigns metadata from metadata.xml files.
+
+EMAILPlugin now saves binary attachments as binary files on Windows
+
+ImagePlugin and PagedImagePlugin now offer the -cache_generated_images 
+option
+to prevent thumbnails and screenview images being recreated each import.
+
+OAIPlugin saves the metadata as Dublin Core rather than moving it all to 
+the ex
+ metadata set. This means that it won't show up in the GLI unless the 
+files are
+ exploded. Exploding is now available for OAI records.
+
+ProCitePlugin no longer uses the pc namespace. Metadata is stored using the
+field names set in the workform definition, rather than using Field1Name 
+and
+Field1Value etc..
+
+-reversesort option to import.pl to be used with -sortmeta option to 
+sort in
+reverse order.
+
+Tidied up OID generation. OIDtype and OIDmetadata options are now available
+for each plugin as well as globally from import.pl. Hashing usually 
+occurs on
+the original file, but some plugins specify that hashing should be done 
+on the
+Greenstone XML document.
+
+Building and Indexing Changes:
+-------------------------------
+
+Improvements to Lucene incremental building. Lucene document identifiers 
+now
+match Greenstone identifiers, rather than 1, 2, 3, thanks to DL Consulting.
+This improves search efficiency, and is another step towards true 
+incremental
+building. Rebuilding with no new documents shouldn't break the index.
+
+MGPP and Lucene building tidied up. 'allfields' now means combined 
+searching
+over all specified indexes (not all document metadata) for both mgpp and 
+lucene.
+ 'metadata' will index all metadata, but no longer reindexes metadata 
+that has
+already been specified. MGPP indexing over combined fields now works 
+properly.
+
+New collection configuration file option: infodbtype. Values include 
+gdbm (the
+default), gdbm-txtgz, sqlite, mssql. This specifies what database system 
+to use
+for the collection metadata database. Currently this needs to be added to
+collect.cfg by hand, as it is not available in GLI yet.
+
+gdbm: the default, and is what has always been used previously. This is
+platform dependent. It transfers between Windows and Linux, but not 
+to/from a
+Mac.
+
+gdbm-txtgz: A gzipped text version of the database. At runtime, the 
+first time
+this collection is accessed, it will be unpacked and converted to the
+appropriate GDBM database using txt2db. This is a good choice if you are
+creating a collection to be used on another operating system, especially if
+one or more of those operating systems is a Mac.
+
+sqlite: Platform independent database using SQLite. The new dynamic 
+classifiers
+can be used with this database. Thanks to DL Consulting.
+
+mssql: Windows specific database using MS SQL Server. See
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Using_MSSQL_for_Collection_Database 
+
+for information about how to set this up. The new dynamic classifiers
+ can be used with this database. Thanks to DL Consulting.
+
+Depositor:
+------------
+
+Collection editing using the Depositor is now enabled by default for the 
+admin
+user.
+
+The metadata fields offered for each document can now easily be customised
+from the GLI. 
+
+By default, the depositor will import and build each document into the
+collection when it is added. It can now be easily set up to just "deposit"
+the item without rebuilding.
+
+See http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/How_to_use_the_depositor for
+more information.
+
+GLI
+-------
+
+A new right-click file option for binary files that go through a conversion
+process to be imported, such as PDF, Word and PowerPoint files. "Replace 
+source
+document with HTML" will convert the original file to HTML and replace 
+it in
+the collection. This means that the converted HTML (which may be 
+unattractive)
+can now be modified in the collection. This is available for Remote GLI too.
+
+A new right-click file option on the collection tree background to 
+refresh the
+file view. This is useful if you have manually added files to the 
+collection
+outside of GLI.
+
+MetadataXMLPlugin has been moved 'below the line' in the Plugins panel so
+cannot be removed in GLI. If you are using GLI to add metadata, then you 
+need
+this plugin.
+
+The Export As option now only exports one collection at a time. Collections
+can be exported as GreenstoneMETS, FedoraMETS, MARCXML and DSpace archive.
+
+'NavigationBar pulldown' added to the list of format options - this 
+makes the
+navigation 'bar' a drop down list instead of a bar across the page.
+
+Lots of work done on making the Download panel work better, including 
+getting
+download processes to terminate when they are cancelled or when GLI is 
+closed
+while they are still running.
+
+New panel under the Format tab, "Depositor Metadata" which allows
+customisation of which metadata fields should be offered in the 
+depositor for
+that collection.
+
+CJK segmentation option has been added to GLI. This doesn't do proper word
+segmentation, but adds a space in between each CJK character. The character
+ranges have been expanded to work with Japanese and Korean. It is 
+applied to
+metadata as well as document text.
+
+Another new feature in Greenstone v2.81 is the ability to schedule the
+automatic rebuilding of a greenstone collection using the GLI. There's a new
+panel under the Create tab allowing the scheduling of automatic collection
+rebuilding. Scheduling will require some configuration in order for it 
+to work.
+The following link has more information on how to do this for each platform:
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Scheduled_Collection_Building_from_the_Librarian_Interface
+
+Greenstone Runtime:
+----------------------
+New dynamic classifiers (if the collection uses sqlite or MSSQL as the
+collection database). These are generated at runtime so do not require the
+collection to be rebuilt for classifier changes. Another step towards true
+incremental building. See
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/More_about_classifiers#How_do_I_use_dynamic_classifiers.3F 
+
+for more information. Thanks to DL Consulting.
+
+Large code restructuring.  Code is split between common-src, build-src and
+runtime-src.  Makes it easer to use code in other projets, such as 
+Greenstone 3
+and running Greenstone on an iPhone/iPod Touch.
+
+External links now default to going straight to the web page, rather than
+showing a warning page first.
+
+Improvements to the oaiserver, thanks to DL Consulting. Resumption token
+support has been added, and it now validates against online validation 
+tools.
+
+Greenstone now compiles for Linux on 64-bit platforms.  All programs are
+compiled natively for 64-bit, except for those that rely on mg/mgpp, which
+still need to be 32-bit compiled.  As part of the configure/make 
+process, the
+correct flags are automatically set, so from the developers point of 
+view you
+compile up Greenstone on a 64-bit machine the exact same way you do for any
+other Unix-based system.
+
+Greenstone should now compile with Microsoft Visual Studio 2005, thanks 
+to DL
+Consulting.
+
+FLI - Fedora Librarian Interface
+---------------------------------
+
+The Fedora Librarian Interface (FLI) is very much like GLI in that it 
+allows
+you to gather together your documents. It then uses Greenstone's ability to
+convert documents into the FedoraMETS format so that these can be ingested
+(put into) a Fedora repository. The process of building a collection 
+using FLI
+exports documents into a repository maintained by a Fedora server rather 
+than
+one maintained by Greenstone. In order to use FLI, you will need to have
+Fedora installed. More information on how to install Fedora and set it up
+to work with FLI, and how to run FLI itself, can be found in the documents:
+
+1. Installing Fedora (2.2.1/3.0) and Fedora-related information
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/InstallingFedora
+
+2. Installing Fedora Generic Search (to provide full-text indexing and
+searching capabilities for a Fedora repository)
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/InstallingFedoraGSearch
+
+3. Running FLI, the Fedora Librarian Interface
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/RunningFLI
+
+
+Translations:
+--------------
+
+Thanks to:
+
+John Rose, for help with English GLI help, French translations for GLI and
+Greenstone.
+Maxime Rouast for Greenstone French translations
+Celine Guimbertaud for GLI French translations
+Yohannes Mulugeta and Abiyot Bayou for Greenstone Amharic translations
+Kamal Salih for GLI Arabic translations
+Gerhard Riesthuis for Greenstone Dutch translations
+Mohan Raj Pradhan for GLI Nepali translations.
+Diego Spano for translating the installer's interface into Spanish.
+Xiaofeng Yu for translating the installer's interface into Mandarin.
+Doris Jung for translating the installer's interface into German.
+
+...and many other minor improvements and bug fixes
+
+We want to ensure that Greenstone works well for you. Please report any
+problems to the Greenstone mailing list
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz.
+
+
+[DL Consulting (http://www.dlconsulting.com) are the world's leading 
+suppliers
+of commercial consulting, customization, support, maintenance and hosting
+services for the Greenstone digital library software suite.]
+
+
+From ihw at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec 23 10:48:24 2008
+From: ihw at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Ian Witten)
+Date: Tue Dec 23 10:48:47 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Greenstone Wins Andrew W. Mellon Foundation MATC
+	Award
+References: <20081214152515.B165632A79C@smtp8-g19.free.fr>
+Message-ID: <59E3A373-9DCF-4A84-8ACA-B93BEBABC544@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+I am very pleased to announce that the University of Waikato has been  
+awarded US$50,000 for the Greenstone project within the Third Annual  
+Mellon Awards for Technology Collaboration (see http:// 
+matc.mellon.org/press-release). This competition is meant "to  
+recognize important organizational contributions to open source  
+projects which currently or potentially provide significant benefits  
+to at least one traditional Mellon constituency (higher education,  
+especially the arts and humanities; libraries; museums; arts  
+organizations; and nature conservation)." We understand that the  
+committee was primarily impressed by Greenstone's impact in the  
+developing world as testified by many users who supported our  
+candidacy online, thanks to all of you who contributed recommendations.
+
+The University intends to use the award to further the Greenstone  
+community of developers and users, particularly in developing  
+countries. This will involve improving the documentation, making  
+tutorial videos, and stimulating the development of Greenstone  
+capabilities and user groups in developing countries.
+
+As part of this effort we invite proposals from the Greenstone  
+community in developing countries for small grants (US$1000 to US 
+$5000) which will be awarded in 2009 according to the following  
+criteria:
+
+* one-time assistance (not a continuing subvention) for a project  
+which will lead to sustainable follow-up: examples of activity could  
+be organisation of user meetings or training workshops, expert  
+missions for training and advice (particularly exchange of expertise  
+within a given region or country), institutional exchanges or user  
+services;
+* priority to regional networks and to countries and institutions in  
+greatest need (normally grants will not available to individuals, but  
+there could be exceptions);
+* priority to projects which are partially self-funded or partially  
+funded by third parties.
+
+Detailed proposals should be addressed to John Rose  
+<john.rose1@free.fr>, Research Associate, University of Waikato, who  
+will correspond with the submitting parties as needed to refine their  
+proposals. Awardees will be expected to submit a detailed evaluation  
+report at the conclusion of their projects.
+
+cheers
+ian
+
+
+From m.mehrling at neu.edu  Wed Dec 24 07:06:38 2008
+From: m.mehrling at neu.edu (m.mehrling@neu.edu)
+Date: Wed Dec 24 07:06:48 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] global search and replace / global update
+In-Reply-To: <59E3A373-9DCF-4A84-8ACA-B93BEBABC544@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <OF5AAC6407.341CB382-ON85257528.0063279D-85257528.0063662B@neu.edu>
+
+Hello,
+
+Does anyone have a solution for updating metadata in a batch in 
+Greenstone?  We can do search and replace in the XML, but that's not 
+ideal.
+
+Thanks and happy holidays!
+
+Martin
+
+************************************
+Martin Mehrling
+Digital Systems Specialist
+m.mehrling@neu.edu
+617.373.5885
+========================
+301 Snell Library
+Northeastern University
+Boston, Massachusetts 02115
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081223/e2fa6d09/attachment.html
+From wendy.osborn at uleth.ca  Wed Dec 24 08:26:20 2008
+From: wendy.osborn at uleth.ca (Wendy Osborn)
+Date: Wed Dec 24 08:26:32 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] global search and replace / global update
+In-Reply-To: <OF5AAC6407.341CB382-ON85257528.0063279D-85257528.0063662B@neu.edu>
+References: <OF5AAC6407.341CB382-ON85257528.0063279D-85257528.0063662B@neu.edu>
+Message-ID: <56750.205.200.39.132.1230060380.squirrel@webmail.uleth.ca>
+
+
+Hi,
+
+I know that if you load a collection into the GLI, and go to the Enrich
+panel, you can select multiple documents with the mouse and cntl/shift
+keys.  Then, when you enter metadata (for example, dc.Title), this will be
+entered for all documents that you have selected.
+
+Hope this helps,
+
+Wendy
+
+On Tue, December 23, 2008 11:06 am, m.mehrling@neu.edu wrote:
+> Hello,
+>
+> Does anyone have a solution for updating metadata in a batch in
+> Greenstone?  We can do search and replace in the XML, but that's not
+> ideal.
+>
+> Thanks and happy holidays!
+>
+> Martin
+>
+> ************************************
+> Martin Mehrling
+> Digital Systems Specialist
+> m.mehrling@neu.edu
+> 617.373.5885
+> ========================
+> 301 Snell Library
+> Northeastern University
+> Boston, Massachusetts 02115
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-devel mailing list
+> greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-devel
+>
+
+
+--
+"Masquerading as a normal person day after day is exhausting" - Anonymous
+
+Wendy Osborn
+Assistant Professor of Computer Science
+Director, Southern Alberta Digital Library
+Department of Mathematics and Computer Science
+University of Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
+phone: +1 403 329 2294
+email: wendy.osborn@uleth.ca
+www:   http://www.cs.uleth.ca/~osborn
+
+
+
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/import/greenstone-devel-2008-November.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/import/greenstone-devel-2008-November.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/import/greenstone-devel-2008-November.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,2101 @@
+From amin.hedjazi at gmail.com  Mon Nov  3 20:32:37 2008
+From: amin.hedjazi at gmail.com (Amin Hedjazi)
+Date: Mon Nov  3 20:32:45 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Fwd: Question: how to have Greenstone ina
+	webArchive format (.war)
+In-Reply-To: <4105c9810811022324l19bc6f16t8651d49343c41ff2@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4105c9810811022324l19bc6f16t8651d49343c41ff2@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <4105c9810811022332r2a0f058ax29ec1234a3491a4f@mail.gmail.com>
+
+hellow my name is amin hedjazi i am working to locolize greenstone3 for
+persan language
+and now i have some problems , i want to deploy greenstone3 on a nother
+server .
+sofar i have been building greenstone3 trunk version  on eclipse and have
+been runing it with its own .bat file
+which runs it under a embedded tomcat as a local server now i want to deploy
+my work on a public apache tomcat server which i have acces to by
+only the Online manager and i need the .war file too deploy GreenStone3
+Files and servlet i wonder if any body out there coulde help me on this.
+thank you amin hedjazi
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081103/48ef51a2/attachment.html
+From amin.hedjazi at gmail.com  Mon Nov  3 20:24:44 2008
+From: amin.hedjazi at gmail.com (Amin Hedjazi)
+Date: Tue Nov  4 21:39:05 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Question: how to have Greenstone ina webArchive
+	format (.war)
+Message-ID: <4105c9810811022324l19bc6f16t8651d49343c41ff2@mail.gmail.com>
+
+hellow my name is amin hedjazi i am working to locolize greenstone3 for
+persan language
+and now i have some problems , i want to deploy greenstone3 on a nother
+server .
+sofar i have been building greenstone3 trunk version  on eclipse and have
+been runing it with its own .bat file
+which runs it under a embedded tomcat as a local server now i want to deploy
+my work on a public apache tomcat server which i have acces to by
+only the Online manager and i need the .war file too deploy GreenStone3
+Files and servlet i wonder if any body out there coulde hellp me on this
+thank you amin hedjazi
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081103/0d39ef40/attachment.html
+From dspano at orsna.gov.ar  Wed Nov  5 08:54:13 2008
+From: dspano at orsna.gov.ar (Diego Spano)
+Date: Wed Nov  5 08:52:44 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Archives - Index/assoc: why both?
+Message-ID: <!&!AAAAAAAAAAAYAAAAAAAAAMqkfLKn3i1CvY3Zg+pc6XzigAAAEAAAAEtb1H+TZexMs7JT7EsI2z8BAAAAAA==@orsna.gov.ar>
+
+Hi list,
+ 
+it is well known that every document in import folder generates a folder in
+archives after the import process. Then, building process copies all source
+files to index/assoc, so we have duplicated disk space needed to host all
+files.
+ 
+I have a collection with almost 700.000 tiff files, all imported with
+Pagedimgplug. This collection is not a static one, every couple of days we
+add new documents, so we have two options:
+ 
+1- Use Lucene and incremental building: this sounds interesting but we have
+many problems with parsing doc.xml files, accents and many other things.
+ 
+2- Use MGPP: it works great, we have all the features we need but
+incremental indexing is not possible. So every few days we have to reindex
+all again, and again... This approach consumes a reasonable time to generate
+indexes, but it spends a lot of time copying 700.000 files from archives to
+building/assoc, and deleting the old index folder with the other 700.000
+files.
+ 
+The questions are:
+ 
+a- Is it possible to link to source files directly from archives folder?.
+This will result in saving a lot of time because copying files form archives
+to assoc is no more necessary. I remember that someone asked for something
+like this, but I canŽt find the mail in the email archives collection. I
+think that builcol.pl must be modified to work this way. Is there anybody
+out there that can do it?.
+ 
+b- Is it possible to add an option to future releases where the user can
+choose weather buildcol with source docs in place (in archives folders) or
+not?.
+ 
+TIA.
+ 
+Diego Spano
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081104/4caa78aa/attachment.html
+From amin.hedjazi at gmail.com  Wed Nov  5 19:19:45 2008
+From: amin.hedjazi at gmail.com (Amin Hedjazi)
+Date: Wed Nov  5 19:19:52 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Question about Collection Customization
+In-Reply-To: <4105c9810811042216g491a2c3cnb56c34e93640ff04@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4105c9810811042216g491a2c3cnb56c34e93640ff04@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <4105c9810811042219u53dd4b98jf08fbe37051b7f24@mail.gmail.com>
+
+hello every one i am amin
+and i got some questions about collection customization in GS3
+what i want to do hear is to build a collection whit some pdf file whit Marc
+metadata description but i do not want to show the compleate pdfs on the
+greenstone
+online interface but the only marc metadata descryption should be shown in
+the there whit a linke to the pdf file for download , for now the only
+search options would be the mark metadata file field to be searched
+ok now
+
+1 . is there any way for me to do this whit the standard greenstone plugins
+and collections ?
+2 . or should i make my own Collections if so i would like to now where to
+start at ?
+
+so far i have read the Greenstone3 manual and got farmiliar whit the
+architecture consepts and service developments
+but i couldent find some good resources for plugin developements if there is
+any out there i would appreciate it if some one woulde let me now about it.
+
+**<http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&ct=res&cd=2&url=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FOptical_character_recognition&ei=QTYRSZC2Oom4sAODgKWTCQ&usg=AFQjCNFeJw7ESCWs7JHfY_fxn5sHjjkL4w&sig2=ALY7Q7vub_rcKvwze4rFWw>
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081105/78eae219/attachment.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Nov 13 17:35:11 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Thu Nov 13 17:35:16 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Greenstone 2.81 released!
+Message-ID: <491BAE7F.8080509@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi everyone,
+
+We are pleased to announce that the Windows, GNU/Linux, Mac OS/X and
+Source distributions of Greenstone v2.81
+are now available for download from our sourceforge page:
+http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone or from 
+http://www.greenstone.org/download
+
+Release notes are copied below.
+
+This has been a long time coming, thank you for your patience.
+
+As always, please report any problems or bugs to the mailing list.
+
+Regards,
+Katherine and the rest of the Greenstone team.
+
+------------------------------
+Greenstone 2.81 release notes
+------------------------------
+
+Important changes in this release include, in no particular order:
+
+Installer:
+--------------
+
+The Greenstone installer downloads are now created using only open source
+software, including Ant Installer (http://antinstaller.sourceforge.net/),
+Apache Ant (http://ant.apache.org/), our own search4j (based on launch4j
+http://launch4j.sourceforge.net/), and our own Greenstone release kits.
+
+We felt it was essential to move away from our existing, closed-source
+installer suite as it was not in the spirit of Greenstone to rely on
+proprietary software, and it invited the unnecessary cost of keeping the 
+suite
+up-to-date.
+
+Using only open source software has also given us the freedom to 
+customise the
+user experience of the installers. Where a feature was lacking in one of 
+the
+open source packages, we have enjoyed the ability to "open the hood" and
+implement it.
+
+With the development of the Greenstone release kits we are now able to 
+generate
+  releases of Greenstone automatically and unattended. This process 
+takes just
+20 minutes, and it has helped us a lot in the development and testing of 
+new
+features of Greenstone. We have been able to set up a feedback loop, 
+where code
+  committed one day is included in an automatic nightly snapshot release 
+made
+available for download on our website the next day. Our users have also
+benefited from being able to obtain up-to-date snapshot releases of 
+Greenstone
+in between our official releases.
+
+These daily snapshots are available through:
+
+   http://www.greenstone.org/snapshots
+
+On Windows, the version number is included in the Start Menu which means 
+that
+multiple installations of Greenstone will have their own entries in the 
+Start
+Menu. The installer no longer writes to the registry, so installation no
+longer requires administrator privileges.
+
+ImageMagick is now bundled with Greenstone for binary web releases for all
+platforms (previously it was only provided on a CD-ROM release) and 
+includes
+JPEG2000 support. The installer offers the option to install this or not.
+You can skip installing it if you already have ImageMagick previously 
+installed.
+
+Ghostscript is now bundled with Greenstone for binary web releases for 
+Windows
+and Mac. The installer offers the option to install this or not.  You can
+skip installing it if you already have Ghostscript previously installed.
+
+Importing and Plugin Changes:
+------------------------------
+
+Plugin Restructuring: The plugins have been restructured. This has been 
+done
+mostly for coding efficiency. The most noticeable change is that plugins 
+have
+been renamed. xxxPlug now becomes xxxPlugin, and some have also had 
+their names
+  modified or expanded to be clearer. For example, DBPlug is now 
+DatabasePlugin,
+  PPTPlug is PowerPointPlugin. The complete list of new plugins can be 
+seen at
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Plugins. Old collections should
+still build okay in GLI, which will map the old plugin names to the new 
+ones.
+Command line building should also work, but the configuration file won't be
+altered to use the new names.
+
+A lot of work has been done trying to get Greenstone to work properly with
+non-ascii filenames. Two versions of the filename are stored, [Source] for
+displaying the filename, and [SourceFile] for linking to the file from a 
+web page.
+
+The -smart_block option (most commonly seen with HTMLPlugin) has been 
+deprecated
+. Instead we have a first pass through the documents to find out which ones
+should be blocked.
+
+MARCPlugin and MARCXMLPlugin can now map metadata to Qualified Dublin 
+Core as
+well as Dublin Core.
+
+MARCXMLPlugin now assigns metadata from metadata.xml files.
+
+EMAILPlugin now saves binary attachments as binary files on Windows
+
+ImagePlugin and PagedImagePlugin now offer the -cache_generated_images 
+option
+to prevent thumbnails and screenview images being recreated each import.
+
+OAIPlugin saves the metadata as Dublin Core rather than moving it all to 
+the ex
+  metadata set. This means that it won't show up in the GLI unless the 
+files are
+  exploded. Exploding is now available for OAI records.
+
+ProCitePlugin no longer uses the pc namespace. Metadata is stored using the
+field names set in the workform definition, rather than using Field1Name 
+and
+Field1Value etc..
+
+-reversesort option to import.pl to be used with -sortmeta option to 
+sort in
+reverse order.
+
+Tidied up OID generation. OIDtype and OIDmetadata options are now available
+for each plugin as well as globally from import.pl. Hashing usually 
+occurs on
+the original file, but some plugins specify that hashing should be done 
+on the
+Greenstone XML document.
+
+Building and Indexing Changes:
+-------------------------------
+
+Improvements to Lucene incremental building. Lucene document identifiers 
+now
+match Greenstone identifiers, rather than 1, 2, 3. Rebuilding with no new
+documents shouldn't break the index.
+
+MGPP and Lucene building tidied up. 'allfields' now means combined 
+searching
+over all specified indexes (not all document metadata) for both mgpp and 
+lucene.
+  'metadata' will index all metadata, but no longer reindexes metadata 
+that has
+already been specified. MGPP indexing over combined fields now works 
+properly.
+
+New collection configuration file option: infodbtype. Values include 
+gdbm (the
+default), gdbm-txtgz, sqlite, mssql. This specifies what database system 
+to use
+for the collection metadata database. Currently this needs to be added to
+collect.cfg by hand, as it is not available in GLI yet.
+
+gdbm: the default, and is what has always been used previously. This is
+platform dependent. It transfers between Windows and Linux, but not 
+to/from a
+Mac.
+
+gdbm-txtgz: A gzipped text version of the database. At runtime, the 
+first time
+this collection is accessed, it will be unpacked and converted to the
+appropriate GDBM database using txt2db. This is a good choice if you are
+creating a collection to be used on another operating system, especially if
+one or more of those operating systems is a Mac.
+
+sqlite: Platform independent database using SQLite. The new dynamic 
+classifiers
+  (created at runtime) can be used with this database. See
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/More_about_classifiers#How_do_I_use_dynamic_classifiers.3F
+
+for more information. Thanks to DL Consulting
+
+mssql: Windows specific database using MS SQL Server. See
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Using_MSSQL_for_Collection_Database 
+
+for information about how to set this up. Thanks to DL Consulting
+
+Depositor:
+------------
+
+Collection editing using the Depositor is now enabled by default for the 
+admin
+user.
+
+The metadata fields offered for each document can now easily be customised
+from the GLI.
+
+By default, the depositor will import and build each document into the
+collection when it is added. It can now be easily set up to just "deposit"
+the item without rebuilding.
+
+See http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/How_to_use_the_depositor for
+more information.
+
+GLI
+-------
+
+A new right-click file option for binary files that go through a conversion
+process to be imported, such as PDF, Word and PowerPoint files. "Replace 
+source
+document with HTML" will convert the original file to HTML and replace 
+it in
+the collection. This means that the converted HTML (which may be 
+unattractive)
+can now be modified in the collection. This is available for Remote GLI too.
+
+A new right-click file option on the collection tree background to 
+refresh the
+file view. This is useful if you have manually added files to the 
+collection
+outside of GLI.
+
+MetadataXMLPlugin has been moved 'below the line' in the Plugins panel so
+cannot be removed in GLI. If you are using GLI to add metadata, then you 
+need
+this plugin.
+
+The Export As option now only exports one collection at a time. Collections
+can be exported as GreenstoneMETS, FedoraMETS, MARCXML and DSpace archive.
+
+'NavigationBar pulldown' added to the list of format options - this 
+makes the
+navigation 'bar' a drop down list instead of a bar across the page.
+
+Lots of work done on making the Download panel work better, including 
+getting
+download processes to terminate when they are cancelled or when GLI is 
+closed
+while they are still running.
+
+New panel under the Format tab, "Depositor Metadata" which allows
+customisation of which metadata fields should be offered in the 
+depositor for
+that collection.
+
+CJK segmentation option has been added to GLI. This doesn't do proper word
+segmentation, but adds a space in between each CJK character. The character
+ranges have been expanded to work with Japanese and Korean. It is 
+applied to
+metadata as well as document text.
+
+New panel under the Create tab allowing the scheduling of automatic 
+collection
+rebuilding.
+
+Greenstone Runtime:
+----------------------
+
+Large code restructuring.  Code is split between common-src, build-src and
+runtime-src.  Makes it easer to use code in other projets, such as 
+Greenstone 3
+and running Greenstone on an iPhone/iPod Touch.
+
+External links now default to going straight to the web page, rather than
+showing a warning page first.
+
+Improvements to the oaiserver, thanks to DL Consulting. Resumption token
+support has been added, and it now validates against online validation 
+tools.
+
+Greenstone now compiles for Linux on 64-bit platforms.  All programs are
+compiled natively for 64-bit, except for those that rely on mg/mgpp, which
+still need to be 32-bit compiled.  As part of the configure/make 
+process, the
+correct flags are automatically set, so from the developers point of 
+view you
+compile up Greenstone on a 64-bit machine the exact same way you do for any
+other Unix-based system.
+
+FLI - Fedora Librarian Interface
+---------------------------------
+
+The Fedora Librarian Interface (FLI) is very much like GLI in that it 
+allows
+you to gather together your documents. It then uses Greenstone's ability to
+convert documents into the FedoraMETS format so that these can be ingested
+(put into) a Fedora repository. The process of building a collection 
+using FLI
+exports documents into a repository maintained by a Fedora server rather 
+than
+one maintained by Greenstone. In order to use FLI, you will need to have
+Fedora installed. More information on how to install Fedora and set it up
+to work with FLI, and how to run FLI itself, can be found in the documents:
+
+1. Installing Fedora (2.2.1/3.0) and Fedora-related information
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/InstallingFedora
+
+2. Installing Fedora Generic Search (to provide full-text indexing and
+searching capabilities for a Fedora repository)
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/InstallingFedoraGSearch
+
+3. Running FLI, the Fedora Librarian Interface
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/RunningFLI
+
+
+Translations:
+--------------
+
+Thanks to:
+
+John Rose, for help with English GLI help, French translations for GLI 
+and Greenstone.
+Maxime Rouast for Greenstone French translations
+Celine Guimbertaud for GLI French translations
+Yohannes Mulugeta and Abiyot Bayou for Greenstone Amharic translations
+Kamal Salih for GLI Arabic translations
+Gerhard Riesthuis for Greenstone Dutch translations
+Mohan Raj Pradhan for GLI Nepali translations.
+Diego Spano for translating the installer's interface into Spanish.
+Xiaofeng Yu for translating the installer's interface into Mandarin.
+Doris Jung for translating the installer's interface into German.
+
+
+...and many other minor improvements and bug fixes
+
+We want to ensure that Greenstone works well for you. Please report any
+problems to the Greenstone mailing list
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz.
+
+
+[DL Consulting (http://www.dlconsulting.com) are the world's leading 
+suppliers
+of commercial consulting, customization, support, maintenance and hosting
+services for the Greenstone digital library software suite.]
+
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 12:49:21 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 12:49:24 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Lucene with 2.81
+Message-ID: <4920B181.4010702@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi everyone
+
+The Lucene jar file is missing from the 2.81 release. If you want to 
+build collections with Lucene, please download
+http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/~kjdon/greenstone2.81/LuceneWrapper.jar
+and put it into the bin/java directory of your Greenstone 2.81 installation.
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 15:05:43 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 15:05:51 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Re: [greenstone-users] oai harvesting with
+	greenstone
+In-Reply-To: <D6B530A1090A224EA17A37D3BFE35F5E264EF55BCF@XVS2-CLUSTER.yu.yale.edu>
+References: <75B6C137B58E41AFA60DAC5FD96103F1@prattlibraries.edu>
+	<D6B530A1090A224EA17A37D3BFE35F5E264EF55BCF@XVS2-CLUSTER.yu.yale.edu>
+Message-ID: <4920D177.1010706@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081117/068f5635/attachment.html
+From sklein at pratt.edu  Tue Nov 18 03:21:27 2008
+From: sklein at pratt.edu (Stephen I. Klein)
+Date: Tue Nov 18 03:20:54 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] RE: [greenstone-users] oai harvesting with
+	greenstone
+In-Reply-To: <4920D177.1010706@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <75B6C137B58E41AFA60DAC5FD96103F1@prattlibraries.edu>
+	<D6B530A1090A224EA17A37D3BFE35F5E264EF55BCF@XVS2-CLUSTER.yu.yale.edu>
+	<4920D177.1010706@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <92DF57110C744E6EAC933CFD51FD2CBD@prattlibraries.edu>
+
+I am sort of confused.  We would like to be able to generate an OAI
+compliant file with a colelciton in Greenstone to make available for
+harvesting outside of Greenstone via OAIster.  Does Greenstone allow for
+this?
+
+ 
+
+Thank you.
+
+ 
+
+Sincerely,
+
+ 
+
+Stephen
+
+ 
+
+Stephen I. Klein
+Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+Assistant Professor
+Pratt Institute Library
+200 Willoughby Avenue
+Brooklyn, NY 11205
+sklein@pratt.edu
+(718) 399 4423
+Pratt
+
+ 
+
+  _____  
+
+From: Katherine Don [mailto:kjdon@cs.waikato.ac.nz] 
+Sent: Sunday, November 16, 2008 09:06 PM
+To: Belanger, Arthur
+Cc: Stephen I. Klein; greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz;
+greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] oai harvesting with greenstone
+
+ 
+
+Hi Arthur and Stephen
+
+Michael from dlconsulting (dlconsulting.com) has done some work on this, and
+our OAI server now validates. The 2.81 release contains the new server if
+you'd like to try it. You can get it from www.greenstone.org/download
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+Belanger, Arthur wrote: 
+
+Stephen,
+
+ 
+
+Greenstone does have an OAI server as well as an OAI harvester.  However, I
+just tried my server with the OAI repository Explorer at
+http://re.cs.uct.ac.za/ and it failed.
+
+ 
+
+I did also run it through the Data Provider Validation and Registration at
+http://www.openarchives.org/Register/ValidateSite and it failed 2 tests,
+improper response to an invalid request and a problem with some characters
+in the data (this is my problem).  The first problem may be a limit in GS'
+oaiserver.
+
+ 
+
+-- 
+Arthur Belanger
+Medical Library System Manager
+ITS Academic Media & Technology
+Yale University
+PO Box 208065
+New Haven, CT  06520-8065
+
+ 
+
+(203) 785-6928
+(203) 737-2859, fax
+
+ 
+
+mailto:Arthur.Belanger@Yale.Edu
+http://www.yale.edu/its/about/amt
+http://info.med.yale.edu/library
+
+ 
+
+NOTE: Yale ITS will NEVER request passwords or other personal information
+via email. Messages requesting such information are fraudulent and should be
+deleted. 
+
+  _____  
+
+From: greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+[mailto:greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz] On Behalf Of
+Stephen I. Klein
+Sent: Thursday, October 30, 2008 1:45 PM
+To: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz;
+greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Subject: [greenstone-users] oai harvesting with greenstone
+
+ 
+
+We are migrating our digital collections and need to keep our collection OAI
+harvestable.  We currently have a presence via OAIster
+(http://oaister.umdl.umich.edu/o/oaister/) and have intermediated through
+the Los Alamos Gateway at:
+
+ 
+
+http://libtest.lanl.gov/
+
+ 
+
+Does Greenstone allow for the building of OAI compliant XML files that are
+successfully intermediated via a standard gateway and harvestable with
+OAIster?
+
+ 
+
+The following page suggests the inverse:
+
+ 
+
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/OAI_support
+
+ 
+
+Any suggestions to approach this goal would be greatly appreciated.  Thank
+you.
+
+ 
+
+Regards,
+
+ 
+
+Stephen
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+Stephen I. Klein
+Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+Assistant Professor
+Pratt Institute Library
+200 Willoughby Avenue
+Brooklyn, NY 11205
+sklein@pratt.edu
+(718) 399 4423
+Pratt
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+
+
+
+
+  _____  
+
+
+
+ 
+_______________________________________________
+greenstone-users mailing list
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+  
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081117/e3562fa2/attachment-0001.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Nov 18 12:19:35 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Tue Nov 18 12:19:40 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Re: [greenstone-users] Problem white GLi Client
+	Login
+In-Reply-To: <4105c9810811162241r3c8b9dafkedb3b95b0b701379@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4105c9810811160350r2f9f20bq4b704a7c21fbb946@mail.gmail.com>	
+	<4920A5A6.6090708@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<4105c9810811162241r3c8b9dafkedb3b95b0b701379@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <4921FC07.8010502@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Amin,
+
+1. > what did you ment by
+ >  >I see you're using an older version of GS3, since some source code
+ > updates in the last >months meant that gliserver4gs3.pl is no longer
+ > used by the current GS3 code.
+ > i Downlaoded the GS3.03 from the greenstone site
+ > what do you guyes use now ?
+ > and give me the linke in the tracs so i could see it for my self
+ > is it all java ?
+ > which one is better to use for now until its compleate?
+
+The latest version of Greenstone 3 needs lots of changes to catch up and 
+work well again, because our focus in the recent weeks was all on 
+Greenstone 2 for its release.
+
+Therefore, for now, use the version of Greenstone 3 you have. In a 
+little while, GS3 will be sufficiently updated for you to work with the 
+latest from SVN. The SVN url (from TRAC) for GS3 is
+svn co http://svn.greenstone.org/greenstone3/trunk greenstone3
+
+2. About your language translation questions, I've forwarded them to the 
+person who knows a lot about the language interface for GS and GLI. 
+Though the developer in question is out of the country at the moment, I 
+am hopeful they may respond when they find the time.
+
+
+3. > how ever the error had changed since whit out the javahome varible
+ > tests previosly it was like bellow
+Probably this is because the error output code has changed.
+
+The old error message you encountered said:
+ > Content-type:text/plain ERROR: Java failed -- do you have the Java
+ > run-time installed? JAVA_HOME environment variable not set. Might not
+ > be able to find Java unless in PATH
+Therefore, will you try again after adding Java's bin library to your path.
+
+For instance my PATH starts with:
+/opt/jdk1.5.0_10/bin:/opt/jdk1.5.0_10/bin/javac:/path/to/apache-ant-1.6.5:
+/path/to/fedora3/server/bin:/path/to/fedora3/client/bin:/opt/jdk1.5.0_10/jre:<more>
+
+As you see in the above, I have the PATH to the JRE at the end. Try that 
+first. Otherwise (and I hope this is not necessary), you can try to add 
+your JDK's bin folder and javac to the PATH, similar to how my PATH 
+contains them both.
+
+Tell me how you get on,
+Anupama
+
+
+Amin Hedjazi wrote:
+> thanx Anupama and Quan , i realy appreciate you guyes answering my 
+> questions .
+> but this all dident work again
+> i downloaded the latest files from the trac site and worked whit them , 
+> first whit only the downloaded files and then inserted the javahome home 
+> and done all that my 3 varibles in the cfg file are like bellow :
+> 
+>     gsdl3srchome    "C:\Program Files\Greenstone3"
+>     gsdlhome    "C:\Program Files\Greenstone3\gs2build"
+>     javahome "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0"
+> 
+> and i uncomented the two lines in the .pm file (line 287 and 292)
+> but im steel geting the error
+> 
+> Content-type:text/plain ERROR: Java failed -- do you have the Java 
+> run-time installed?       GSDL3SRCHOME: C:\Program Files\Greenstone3 
+> GSDLHOME: C:\Program Files\Greenstone3\gs2build GSDLOS: windows PATH: 
+> ;C:\Program Files\Greenstone3\gs2build\bin\script;C:\Program 
+> Files\Greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows;C:\Program 
+> Files\Greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows\perl\bin (cmd=check-installation)
+> 
+> how ever the error had changed since whit out the javahome varible tests
+> previosly it was like bellow
+> 
+> Content-type:text/plain ERROR: Java failed -- do you have the Java 
+> run-time installed? JAVA_HOME environment variable not set. Might not be 
+> able to find Java unless in PATH (;C:\Program 
+> Files\Greenstone3\gs2build\bin\script;C:\Program 
+> Files\Greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows;C:\Program 
+> Files\Greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows\perl\bin) GSDL3SRCHOME: 
+> C:\Program Files\Greenstone3 GSDLHOME: C:\Program 
+> Files\Greenstone3\gs2build GSDLOS: windows PATH: ;C:\Program 
+> Files\Greenstone3\gs2build\bin\script;C:\Program 
+> Files\Greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows;C:\Program 
+> Files\Greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows\perl\bin (cmd=check-installation)
+> 
+> 
+> the JAVA_HOME instance is in my enviromental varibles and i get it in 
+> the command line whit echo %JAVA_HOME%
+> 
+> and Anupama what did you ment by
+>  >I see you're using an older version of GS3, since some source code 
+> updates in the last >months meant that gliserver4gs3.pl is no longer 
+> used by the current GS3 code.
+> i Downlaoded the GS3.03 from the greenstone site
+> what do you guyes use now ?
+> and give me the linke in the tracs so i could see it for my self
+> is it all java ?
+> which one is better to use for now until its compleate?
+> 
+> and somthing else to , i wanted to localize greenstone for persian language
+> ive been working on that for some time now and transelated the gli and 
+> the online demo intefaces to Persian but previosly your gli interface 
+> dident worked whit right to left languages
+> so ive changed some gui codes of the gli and made some component 
+> orientation corections for right to left languages to take affect when 
+> in a language whit and espetial line in its "dictionary_fa.properties" 
+> and so on ...
+> 
+> does the gli support right to left languages now ?
+> is there a Persian Language traslation ?
+> if not can i some how submite my work or can i some how contribute?
+> 
+> On Mon, Nov 17, 2008 at 2:28 AM, Anupama of Greenstone Team 
+> <greenstone_team@cs.waikato.ac.nz 
+> <mailto:greenstone_team@cs.waikato.ac.nz>> wrote:
+> 
+>     Hi Amin,
+> 
+>     I see you're using an older version of GS3, since some source code
+>     updates in the last months meant that gliserver4gs3.pl is no longer
+>     used by the current GS3 code.
+> 
+>     If you are indeed using Greenstone 3.03, instead of updating all of
+>     your GS3 code:
+> 
+>     1) There may be a problem with the way JAVA_HOME is set on the
+>     server machine. If you have access to the server machine, do you see
+>     that JAVA_HOME is set correctly when doing
+>            echo $JAVA_HOME
+>     on Linux, or
+>            echo %JAVA_HOME%
+>     on Windows? You need to do this in an entirely fresh x-term, without
+>     running any extra scripts that set special environment variables for
+>     you.
+> 
+>     You wrote that
+> 
+>      > ive tested the perl code in command line and it works out fine
+>     telling
+>      > me "java found" and "installation is  ok" when i execute some
+>     thing like
+>      > this :
+>      >
+>      >           Perl gliserver4gs3.pl check-installation
+>     Could this have something to do with JAVA_HOME being set by a
+>     start-up script (like bash.rc or a bat script) that's run on opening
+>     an x-terminal/dos-prompt? That could explain how JAVA_HOME is then
+>     undefined when running GLI.
+> 
+> 
+>     2) You may want to try the following that worked for someone else
+>     previously:
+>      > 1. Follow all the steps on the wiki page (from a previous email, I
+>      > think you have done this step already).
+> 
+>      > 2. Make back-up copies of your gsdlCGI4gs3.pm and gliserver4gs3.pl
+> 
+>      > 3. Download the slightly modified versions of these two files from
+>      > SVN:
+>      >
+>     http://trac.greenstone.org/browser/greenstone3/trunk/web/WEB-INF/cgi/gsdlCGI4gs3.pm
+>      >
+>     http://trac.greenstone.org/browser/greenstone3/trunk/web/WEB-INF/cgi/gliserver4gs3.pl
+> 
+>      > 4. Maybe you want to go and check that the new gliserver4gs3.pl
+>     still > works as before by pointing your browser to
+>      >
+>     http://yourhost:yourport/greenstone3/cgi-bin/gliserver4gs3.pl?cmd=check-installation
+> 
+>     Finally, if it still gives you trouble about JAVA_HOME not being
+>     set, you can also try the following.
+>     5. Additionally, make a backup copy of the file
+>            <your GS3 installation folder>/web/WEB-INF/cgi/gsdl3site.cfg
+>     6. Download the updated file
+>     http://trac.greenstone.org/browser/greenstone3/trunk/web/WEB-INF/cgi/gsdl3site.cfg
+>     and put this file into your GS3 installation folder's
+>     web/WEB-INF/cgi folder.
+>     7. In a text editor, open up the just downloaded gsdl3site.cfg file
+>     and uncomment the following line by removing the hash in front of it:
+>            javahome /full/path/to/j2sdk1.4/or/higher
+>     Then edit the above line to set the path to your JAVA_HOME.
+>     8. In a text editor, open up the updated gsdlCGI4gs3.pm you
+>     downloaded in step 3 above.
+>     9. Look for the following lines (line 287 and 292) and uncomment
+>     them by removing the # sign in front of them:
+>            my $javahome = $self->get_java_home();
+>            $ENV{'JAVA_HOME'} = $javahome;
+>     10. Now try pointing your browser to
+>     http://yourhost:yourport/greenstone3/cgi-bin/gliserver4gs3.pl?cmd=check-installation
+>     Does this help fix the missing JAVA_HOME problem?
+> 
+>     Regards,
+>     Anupama
+> 
+> 
+>     Amin Hedjazi wrote:
+> 
+>         Hello its me again
+>         i got some question on the Client_gli Login
+>         i am using GS3
+>         first i read the link below and done compleately what it said
+> 
+>                  
+>         http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone3
+> 
+>         and it was very use full thx Quan
+>         but in the part were i get to test my installation whit this :
+> 
+>                
+>          http://localhost:8080/greenstone3/cgi-bin/gliserver4gs3.pl?cmd=check-installation
+> 
+>         i get this error :
+> 
+>         Content-type:text/plain ERROR: Java failed -- do you have the
+>         Java run-time installed? JAVA_HOME environment variable not set.
+>         Might not be able to find Java unless in PATH (;c:\Program
+>         Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\script;c:\Program
+>         Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows;c:\Program
+>         Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows\perl\bin) GSDL3SRCHOME:
+>         c:\Program Files\greenstone3 GSDLHOME: c:\Program
+>         Files\greenstone3\gs2build GSDLOS: windows PATH: ;c:\Program
+>         Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\script;c:\Program
+>         Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows;c:\Program
+>         Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows\perl\bin
+>         (cmd=check-installation)
+> 
+>         ive tested the perl code in command line and it works out fine
+>         telling me "java found" and "installation is  ok" when i execute
+>         some thing like this :
+> 
+>                  Perl gliserver4gs3.pl check-installation
+> 
+>         ill start the client_gli4gs3.bat and go on until it askes me for
+>         the user name and password but when entering my pass it gives
+>         and error telling me this user does not exist (i entere the same
+>         password which a coulde Authenthicate my selfe in the online
+>         interface
+>         , and i made a new user whit the privliges but no chance to log
+>         in via the GLI !!)
+>         hear is the exact error i get :
+> 
+>         An error has occurred on the remote GreenStone server while
+>         performing this operation:Authentication failed:no account for
+>         user 'admin'.
+> 
+>         sombody help please
+>         and pardon the bad english please
+> 
+> 
+>         ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> 
+> 
+>         _______________________________________________
+>         greenstone-users mailing list
+>         greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>         <mailto:greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+>         https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+> 
+> 
+> 
+
+
+From wendy.osborn at uleth.ca  Thu Nov 20 06:24:49 2008
+From: wendy.osborn at uleth.ca (Wendy Osborn)
+Date: Thu Nov 20 10:20:35 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Greenstone 2.81 released!
+In-Reply-To: <491BAE7F.8080509@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <491BAE7F.8080509@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <43832.142.66.56.237.1227115489.squirrel@webmail.uleth.ca>
+
+
+Hi everyone,
+
+As mentioned, one of the new features in Greenstone v2.81 is the ability
+to schedule the automatic rebuilding of a greenstone collection using the
+GLI.
+
+Scheduling will require some configuration in order for it to work. The
+following link has more information on how to do this for each platform:
+
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Scheduled_Collection_Building_from_the_Librarian_Interface
+
+Regards,
+
+Wendy
+
+--
+"Masquerading as a normal person day after day is exhausting" - Anonymous
+
+Wendy Osborn
+Assistant Professor of Computer Science
+Director, Southern Alberta Digital Library
+Department of Mathematics and Computer Science
+University of Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
+phone: +1 403 329 2294
+email: wendy.osborn@uleth.ca
+www:   http://www.cs.uleth.ca/~osborn
+
+
+
+On Wed, November 12, 2008 9:35 pm, Anupama of Greenstone Team wrote:
+> Hi everyone,
+>
+> We are pleased to announce that the Windows, GNU/Linux, Mac OS/X and
+> Source distributions of Greenstone v2.81
+> are now available for download from our sourceforge page:
+> http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone or from
+> http://www.greenstone.org/download
+>
+> Release notes are copied below.
+>
+> This has been a long time coming, thank you for your patience.
+>
+> As always, please report any problems or bugs to the mailing list.
+>
+> Regards,
+> Katherine and the rest of the Greenstone team.
+>
+> ------------------------------
+> Greenstone 2.81 release notes
+> ------------------------------
+>
+> Important changes in this release include, in no particular order:
+>
+> Installer:
+> --------------
+>
+> The Greenstone installer downloads are now created using only open source
+> software, including Ant Installer (http://antinstaller.sourceforge.net/),
+> Apache Ant (http://ant.apache.org/), our own search4j (based on launch4j
+> http://launch4j.sourceforge.net/), and our own Greenstone release kits.
+>
+> We felt it was essential to move away from our existing, closed-source
+> installer suite as it was not in the spirit of Greenstone to rely on
+> proprietary software, and it invited the unnecessary cost of keeping the
+> suite
+> up-to-date.
+>
+> Using only open source software has also given us the freedom to
+> customise the
+> user experience of the installers. Where a feature was lacking in one of
+> the
+> open source packages, we have enjoyed the ability to "open the hood" and
+> implement it.
+>
+> With the development of the Greenstone release kits we are now able to
+> generate
+>   releases of Greenstone automatically and unattended. This process
+> takes just
+> 20 minutes, and it has helped us a lot in the development and testing of
+> new
+> features of Greenstone. We have been able to set up a feedback loop,
+> where code
+>   committed one day is included in an automatic nightly snapshot release
+> made
+> available for download on our website the next day. Our users have also
+> benefited from being able to obtain up-to-date snapshot releases of
+> Greenstone
+> in between our official releases.
+>
+> These daily snapshots are available through:
+>
+>    http://www.greenstone.org/snapshots
+>
+> On Windows, the version number is included in the Start Menu which means
+> that
+> multiple installations of Greenstone will have their own entries in the
+> Start
+> Menu. The installer no longer writes to the registry, so installation no
+> longer requires administrator privileges.
+>
+> ImageMagick is now bundled with Greenstone for binary web releases for all
+> platforms (previously it was only provided on a CD-ROM release) and
+> includes
+> JPEG2000 support. The installer offers the option to install this or not.
+> You can skip installing it if you already have ImageMagick previously
+> installed.
+>
+> Ghostscript is now bundled with Greenstone for binary web releases for
+> Windows
+> and Mac. The installer offers the option to install this or not.  You can
+> skip installing it if you already have Ghostscript previously installed.
+>
+> Importing and Plugin Changes:
+> ------------------------------
+>
+> Plugin Restructuring: The plugins have been restructured. This has been
+> done
+> mostly for coding efficiency. The most noticeable change is that plugins
+> have
+> been renamed. xxxPlug now becomes xxxPlugin, and some have also had
+> their names
+>   modified or expanded to be clearer. For example, DBPlug is now
+> DatabasePlugin,
+>   PPTPlug is PowerPointPlugin. The complete list of new plugins can be
+> seen at
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Plugins. Old collections should
+> still build okay in GLI, which will map the old plugin names to the new
+> ones.
+> Command line building should also work, but the configuration file won't
+> be
+> altered to use the new names.
+>
+> A lot of work has been done trying to get Greenstone to work properly with
+> non-ascii filenames. Two versions of the filename are stored, [Source] for
+> displaying the filename, and [SourceFile] for linking to the file from a
+> web page.
+>
+> The -smart_block option (most commonly seen with HTMLPlugin) has been
+> deprecated
+> . Instead we have a first pass through the documents to find out which
+> ones
+> should be blocked.
+>
+> MARCPlugin and MARCXMLPlugin can now map metadata to Qualified Dublin
+> Core as
+> well as Dublin Core.
+>
+> MARCXMLPlugin now assigns metadata from metadata.xml files.
+>
+> EMAILPlugin now saves binary attachments as binary files on Windows
+>
+> ImagePlugin and PagedImagePlugin now offer the -cache_generated_images
+> option
+> to prevent thumbnails and screenview images being recreated each import.
+>
+> OAIPlugin saves the metadata as Dublin Core rather than moving it all to
+> the ex
+>   metadata set. This means that it won't show up in the GLI unless the
+> files are
+>   exploded. Exploding is now available for OAI records.
+>
+> ProCitePlugin no longer uses the pc namespace. Metadata is stored using
+> the
+> field names set in the workform definition, rather than using Field1Name
+> and
+> Field1Value etc..
+>
+> -reversesort option to import.pl to be used with -sortmeta option to
+> sort in
+> reverse order.
+>
+> Tidied up OID generation. OIDtype and OIDmetadata options are now
+> available
+> for each plugin as well as globally from import.pl. Hashing usually
+> occurs on
+> the original file, but some plugins specify that hashing should be done
+> on the
+> Greenstone XML document.
+>
+> Building and Indexing Changes:
+> -------------------------------
+>
+> Improvements to Lucene incremental building. Lucene document identifiers
+> now
+> match Greenstone identifiers, rather than 1, 2, 3. Rebuilding with no new
+> documents shouldn't break the index.
+>
+> MGPP and Lucene building tidied up. 'allfields' now means combined
+> searching
+> over all specified indexes (not all document metadata) for both mgpp and
+> lucene.
+>   'metadata' will index all metadata, but no longer reindexes metadata
+> that has
+> already been specified. MGPP indexing over combined fields now works
+> properly.
+>
+> New collection configuration file option: infodbtype. Values include
+> gdbm (the
+> default), gdbm-txtgz, sqlite, mssql. This specifies what database system
+> to use
+> for the collection metadata database. Currently this needs to be added to
+> collect.cfg by hand, as it is not available in GLI yet.
+>
+> gdbm: the default, and is what has always been used previously. This is
+> platform dependent. It transfers between Windows and Linux, but not
+> to/from a
+> Mac.
+>
+> gdbm-txtgz: A gzipped text version of the database. At runtime, the
+> first time
+> this collection is accessed, it will be unpacked and converted to the
+> appropriate GDBM database using txt2db. This is a good choice if you are
+> creating a collection to be used on another operating system, especially
+> if
+> one or more of those operating systems is a Mac.
+>
+> sqlite: Platform independent database using SQLite. The new dynamic
+> classifiers
+>   (created at runtime) can be used with this database. See
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/More_about_classifiers#How_do_I_use_dynamic_classifiers.3F
+>
+> for more information. Thanks to DL Consulting
+>
+> mssql: Windows specific database using MS SQL Server. See
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Using_MSSQL_for_Collection_Database
+>
+> for information about how to set this up. Thanks to DL Consulting
+>
+> Depositor:
+> ------------
+>
+> Collection editing using the Depositor is now enabled by default for the
+> admin
+> user.
+>
+> The metadata fields offered for each document can now easily be customised
+> from the GLI.
+>
+> By default, the depositor will import and build each document into the
+> collection when it is added. It can now be easily set up to just "deposit"
+> the item without rebuilding.
+>
+> See http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/How_to_use_the_depositor for
+> more information.
+>
+> GLI
+> -------
+>
+> A new right-click file option for binary files that go through a
+> conversion
+> process to be imported, such as PDF, Word and PowerPoint files. "Replace
+> source
+> document with HTML" will convert the original file to HTML and replace
+> it in
+> the collection. This means that the converted HTML (which may be
+> unattractive)
+> can now be modified in the collection. This is available for Remote GLI
+> too.
+>
+> A new right-click file option on the collection tree background to
+> refresh the
+> file view. This is useful if you have manually added files to the
+> collection
+> outside of GLI.
+>
+> MetadataXMLPlugin has been moved 'below the line' in the Plugins panel so
+> cannot be removed in GLI. If you are using GLI to add metadata, then you
+> need
+> this plugin.
+>
+> The Export As option now only exports one collection at a time.
+> Collections
+> can be exported as GreenstoneMETS, FedoraMETS, MARCXML and DSpace archive.
+>
+> 'NavigationBar pulldown' added to the list of format options - this
+> makes the
+> navigation 'bar' a drop down list instead of a bar across the page.
+>
+> Lots of work done on making the Download panel work better, including
+> getting
+> download processes to terminate when they are cancelled or when GLI is
+> closed
+> while they are still running.
+>
+> New panel under the Format tab, "Depositor Metadata" which allows
+> customisation of which metadata fields should be offered in the
+> depositor for
+> that collection.
+>
+> CJK segmentation option has been added to GLI. This doesn't do proper word
+> segmentation, but adds a space in between each CJK character. The
+> character
+> ranges have been expanded to work with Japanese and Korean. It is
+> applied to
+> metadata as well as document text.
+>
+> New panel under the Create tab allowing the scheduling of automatic
+> collection
+> rebuilding.
+>
+> Greenstone Runtime:
+> ----------------------
+>
+> Large code restructuring.  Code is split between common-src, build-src and
+> runtime-src.  Makes it easer to use code in other projets, such as
+> Greenstone 3
+> and running Greenstone on an iPhone/iPod Touch.
+>
+> External links now default to going straight to the web page, rather than
+> showing a warning page first.
+>
+> Improvements to the oaiserver, thanks to DL Consulting. Resumption token
+> support has been added, and it now validates against online validation
+> tools.
+>
+> Greenstone now compiles for Linux on 64-bit platforms.  All programs are
+> compiled natively for 64-bit, except for those that rely on mg/mgpp, which
+> still need to be 32-bit compiled.  As part of the configure/make
+> process, the
+> correct flags are automatically set, so from the developers point of
+> view you
+> compile up Greenstone on a 64-bit machine the exact same way you do for
+> any
+> other Unix-based system.
+>
+> FLI - Fedora Librarian Interface
+> ---------------------------------
+>
+> The Fedora Librarian Interface (FLI) is very much like GLI in that it
+> allows
+> you to gather together your documents. It then uses Greenstone's ability
+> to
+> convert documents into the FedoraMETS format so that these can be ingested
+> (put into) a Fedora repository. The process of building a collection
+> using FLI
+> exports documents into a repository maintained by a Fedora server rather
+> than
+> one maintained by Greenstone. In order to use FLI, you will need to have
+> Fedora installed. More information on how to install Fedora and set it up
+> to work with FLI, and how to run FLI itself, can be found in the
+> documents:
+>
+> 1. Installing Fedora (2.2.1/3.0) and Fedora-related information
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/InstallingFedora
+>
+> 2. Installing Fedora Generic Search (to provide full-text indexing and
+> searching capabilities for a Fedora repository)
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/InstallingFedoraGSearch
+>
+> 3. Running FLI, the Fedora Librarian Interface
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/RunningFLI
+>
+>
+> Translations:
+> --------------
+>
+> Thanks to:
+>
+> John Rose, for help with English GLI help, French translations for GLI
+> and Greenstone.
+> Maxime Rouast for Greenstone French translations
+> Celine Guimbertaud for GLI French translations
+> Yohannes Mulugeta and Abiyot Bayou for Greenstone Amharic translations
+> Kamal Salih for GLI Arabic translations
+> Gerhard Riesthuis for Greenstone Dutch translations
+> Mohan Raj Pradhan for GLI Nepali translations.
+> Diego Spano for translating the installer's interface into Spanish.
+> Xiaofeng Yu for translating the installer's interface into Mandarin.
+> Doris Jung for translating the installer's interface into German.
+>
+>
+> ...and many other minor improvements and bug fixes
+>
+> We want to ensure that Greenstone works well for you. Please report any
+> problems to the Greenstone mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz.
+>
+>
+> [DL Consulting (http://www.dlconsulting.com) are the world's leading
+> suppliers
+> of commercial consulting, customization, support, maintenance and hosting
+> services for the Greenstone digital library software suite.]
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-devel mailing list
+> greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-devel
+>
+
+
+
+
+
+From amin.hedjazi at gmail.com  Thu Nov 20 21:00:18 2008
+From: amin.hedjazi at gmail.com (Amin Hedjazi)
+Date: Thu Nov 20 21:00:26 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Question about greenstone trac ?
+Message-ID: <4105c9810811200000h7441120brb176433ed8bb6bec@mail.gmail.com>
+
+hello every one i saw the greenstone traces and now i have some questions .
+when some one makes a new ticket in the trac system
+who woulde be responsible for solving the problem ?
+if i can do some thing about one where can i sobmit my code ?(is it the
+attach file button in the trac under Attachments)
+and if so ,lets say i made some changes to some source code in the app ,
+which files should upload ?
+and who manages all the updates to be made or not ?
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081120/0f040693/attachment-0001.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Fri Nov 21 14:54:26 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Oran of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Fri Nov 21 14:54:28 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Question about greenstone trac ?
+In-Reply-To: <4105c9810811200000h7441120brb176433ed8bb6bec@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4105c9810811200000h7441120brb176433ed8bb6bec@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <492614D2.50806@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Amin,
+
+Answers below.
+
+Cheers,
+Oran.
+
+Amin Hedjazi wrote:
+> hello every one i saw the greenstone traces and now i have some 
+> questions .
+> when some one makes a new ticket in the trac system
+> who woulde be responsible for solving the problem ?
+The ticket would start out as unassigned. Then anyone who wanted to fix 
+it can accept it by entering their username. If we think it is an urgent 
+problem we will fix it ourselves as soon as possible.
+> if i can do some thing about one where can i sobmit my code ?(is it 
+> the attach file button in the trac under Attachments)
+Yes that will do nicely.
+> and if so ,lets say i made some changes to some source code in the app 
+> , which files should upload ?
+Just the source files you have modified.
+> and who manages all the updates to be made or not ?
+Someone in the Greenstone team will look at the changes and run some 
+tests and then decide whether to commit them to the repository. Please 
+send us an email to alert us when you have submitted changes, as we 
+might miss it otherwise.
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-devel mailing list
+> greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-devel
+>   
+
+
+From dspano at orsna.gov.ar  Sat Nov 22 09:16:30 2008
+From: dspano at orsna.gov.ar (Diego Spano)
+Date: Sat Nov 22 09:15:26 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] GS and MSSQL
+Message-ID: <007701c94c16$0ac25830$20470890$@gov.ar>
+
+Hi list,
+
+ 
+
+IŽm trying to use GS with MSSQL. I done all changes as Wiki said, also
+compiled the source, but when I run buildcol.pl I get:
+
+ 
+
+Can't locate DBI.pm in @INC (@INC contains: C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281\collect\prensa/perllib/plugins C:\Arch
+
+ivos de programa\Greenstone281\collect\prensa/perllib/classify C:\Archivos
+de programa\Greenstone281\collect\prensa/perl
+
+lib C:\Archivos de programa\Greenstone281/perllib/cpan C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib C:\Archivos de prog
+
+rama\Greenstone281/perllib/classify C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/plugins C:\Archivos de programa\Greens
+
+tone281/perllib/cpan/XML/XPath C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/cpan C:\Archivos de programa\Greenstone281/
+
+perllib C:/Archivos de programa/Greenstone281/bin/windows/perl/lib .) at
+C:\Archivos de programa\Greenstone281/perllib/d
+
+butil.pm line 501.
+
+BEGIN failed--compilation aborted at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/dbutil.pm line 501.
+
+Compilation failed in require at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/classify.pm line 33.
+
+BEGIN failed--compilation aborted at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/classify.pm line 33.
+
+Compilation failed in require at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/basebuilder.pm line 31.
+
+BEGIN failed--compilation aborted at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/basebuilder.pm line 31.
+
+Compilation failed in require at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/mgppbuilder.pm line 28.
+
+BEGIN failed--compilation aborted at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/mgppbuilder.pm line 28.
+
+Compilation failed in require at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/lucenebuilder.pm line 43.
+
+BEGIN failed--compilation aborted at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/lucenebuilder.pm line 43.
+
+Compilation failed in require at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281\bin\script/buildcol.pl line 548.
+
+ 
+
+Where is DBI.pm file?
+
+ 
+
+Any help?
+
+ 
+
+DIego
+
+-------------- next part --------------
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+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 24 10:13:35 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 10:13:47 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Re: [greenstone-users] oai harvesting with
+	greenstone
+In-Reply-To: <92DF57110C744E6EAC933CFD51FD2CBD@prattlibraries.edu>
+References: <75B6C137B58E41AFA60DAC5FD96103F1@prattlibraries.edu>	<D6B530A1090A224EA17A37D3BFE35F5E264EF55BCF@XVS2-CLUSTER.yu.yale.edu>	<4920D177.1010706@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<92DF57110C744E6EAC933CFD51FD2CBD@prattlibraries.edu>
+Message-ID: <4929C77F.9050302@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081124/edc3f694/attachment-0001.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 24 11:07:32 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 11:07:41 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Re: Lucene sort feature
+In-Reply-To: <871DF87510814DCCA83CCEDCB5FC7932@orsna.gov.ar>
+References: <871DF87510814DCCA83CCEDCB5FC7932@orsna.gov.ar>
+Message-ID: <4929D424.8070600@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081124/8447590e/attachment.html
+From amin.hedjazi at gmail.com  Mon Nov 24 20:25:28 2008
+From: amin.hedjazi at gmail.com (Amin Hedjazi)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 20:25:48 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] collection building customization
+Message-ID: <4105c9810811232325o48caad2ex77b8d55374fec9ac@mail.gmail.com>
+
+hi , it me again :D
+and i need some help an opinions .
+i am using GS3 .
+what i want to do is to build a pdf collection
+may be better to call it file collection
+i want to enter some pdf files with their metadata and a abstract text in
+the collection
+the collection soulde be sherchable from the metadata types and the abstract
+text.
+and the content of an document in the web site soulde be a  table showing
+some metadata and the abstract and a download link to
+the pdf file* i know that this in posible with editing the greenstone
+fromats in the GLI or manualy.*
+and i do not want to use pdf plugin , becuse my pdfs are not standard ones
+and i have problems when using pdf plug.
+*first what kindes of plugins shoulde i use ? is the unknownPlug for this
+reason ?*
+i know how to edite the formats in the GLI (browse,search,dispaly ...) but i
+dont now the exact syntax for
+greenstone fromats and i couldent finde any document on them so :
+*is their a document for greenstone3 format syntax for out their?*
+*how shoulde i enter the abstract text? shoulde it be in a metadata field or
+is their another option for longer abstracts ?*
+and am going to enter the metadata in persian language
+their wouldent be any steming an accent an case options support for persian
+language
+*shoulde i use Lucene or Mg and Mgpp are better ?*
+what i want to do heare is some thing like in hear :
+
+http://nzdl.sadl.uleth.ca/cgi-bin/library?e=d-00000-00---off-0publicat--00-0--0-10-0---0---0prompt-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0-0-11-1-0utfZz-8-00&a=d&c=publicat&cl=CL1.1&d=HASH010f219e01de87dcc96023c6
+
+but i do not want to index the pdf file it self
+i woulde appreciate your help .
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081124/4a8151b6/attachment.html
+From sklein at pratt.edu  Tue Nov 25 03:52:40 2008
+From: sklein at pratt.edu (Stephen I. Klein)
+Date: Tue Nov 25 03:52:04 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] RE: [greenstone-users] oai harvesting with
+	greenstone
+In-Reply-To: <4929C77F.9050302@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <75B6C137B58E41AFA60DAC5FD96103F1@prattlibraries.edu>	<D6B530A1090A224EA17A37D3BFE35F5E264EF55BCF@XVS2-CLUSTER.yu.yale.edu>	<4920D177.1010706@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<92DF57110C744E6EAC933CFD51FD2CBD@prattlibraries.edu>
+	<4929C77F.9050302@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <FC3893AD7A9147E8A64C4D37C3C9C02E@prattlibraries.edu>
+
+Katherine,
+
+ 
+
+I greatly appreciate your response.  
+
+ 
+
+My understanding of OAI is cursory at best, but I thought that OAI
+compliance required supporting  the Dublin Core scheme/format?
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+Stephen
+
+Stephen I. Klein
+Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+Assistant Professor
+Pratt Institute Library
+200 Willoughby Avenue
+Brooklyn, NY 11205
+sklein@pratt.edu
+(718) 399 4423
+Pratt
+
+ 
+
+  _____  
+
+From: Katherine Don [mailto:kjdon@cs.waikato.ac.nz] 
+Sent: Sunday, November 23, 2008 04:14 PM
+To: Stephen I. Klein
+Cc: greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz;
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] oai harvesting with greenstone
+
+ 
+
+Hi Stephen
+
+Sorry, I misunderstood what you were after. I guess what you want is the
+ability to export a collection as OAI (currently we provide MARC, METS,
+DSpace formats).
+I'm not sure what kind of file  OAIster wants
+Is the file you are after like the result of an OAI request? Can you set up
+your Greenstone with an oai server, send a request to it, and then save the
+XML result as a file?
+
+If you wanted to try this, you can use our OAI server to test the format
+before setting up your own one.
+http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/gsdl-svn/oaiserver
+
+If this is not suitable, then I guess the answer is no. If this is something
+that many people might want to do, then we could look at maybe implementing
+it in the future.
+
+I hope this helps,
+Katherine
+
+Stephen I. Klein wrote: 
+
+I am sort of confused.  We would like to be able to generate an OAI
+compliant file with a colelciton in Greenstone to make available for
+harvesting outside of Greenstone via OAIster.  Does Greenstone allow for
+this?
+
+ 
+
+Thank you.
+
+ 
+
+Sincerely,
+
+ 
+
+Stephen
+
+ 
+
+Stephen I. Klein
+Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+Assistant Professor
+Pratt Institute Library
+200 Willoughby Avenue
+Brooklyn, NY 11205
+sklein@pratt.edu
+(718) 399 4423
+Pratt
+
+ 
+
+  _____  
+
+From: Katherine Don [mailto:kjdon@cs.waikato.ac.nz] 
+Sent: Sunday, November 16, 2008 09:06 PM
+To: Belanger, Arthur
+Cc: Stephen I. Klein; greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz;
+greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] oai harvesting with greenstone
+
+ 
+
+Hi Arthur and Stephen
+
+Michael from dlconsulting (dlconsulting.com) has done some work on this, and
+our OAI server now validates. The 2.81 release contains the new server if
+you'd like to try it. You can get it from www.greenstone.org/download
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+Belanger, Arthur wrote: 
+
+Stephen,
+
+ 
+
+Greenstone does have an OAI server as well as an OAI harvester.  However, I
+just tried my server with the OAI repository Explorer at
+http://re.cs.uct.ac.za/ and it failed.
+
+ 
+
+I did also run it through the Data Provider Validation and Registration at
+http://www.openarchives.org/Register/ValidateSite and it failed 2 tests,
+improper response to an invalid request and a problem with some characters
+in the data (this is my problem).  The first problem may be a limit in GS'
+oaiserver.
+
+ 
+
+-- 
+Arthur Belanger
+Medical Library System Manager
+ITS Academic Media & Technology
+Yale University
+PO Box 208065
+New Haven, CT  06520-8065
+
+ 
+
+(203) 785-6928
+(203) 737-2859, fax
+
+ 
+
+mailto:Arthur.Belanger@Yale.Edu
+http://www.yale.edu/its/about/amt
+http://info.med.yale.edu/library
+
+ 
+
+NOTE: Yale ITS will NEVER request passwords or other personal information
+via email. Messages requesting such information are fraudulent and should be
+deleted. 
+
+  _____  
+
+From: greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+[mailto:greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz] On Behalf Of
+Stephen I. Klein
+Sent: Thursday, October 30, 2008 1:45 PM
+To: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz;
+greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Subject: [greenstone-users] oai harvesting with greenstone
+
+ 
+
+We are migrating our digital collections and need to keep our collection OAI
+harvestable.  We currently have a presence via OAIster
+(http://oaister.umdl.umich.edu/o/oaister/) and have intermediated through
+the Los Alamos Gateway at:
+
+ 
+
+http://libtest.lanl.gov/
+
+ 
+
+Does Greenstone allow for the building of OAI compliant XML files that are
+successfully intermediated via a standard gateway and harvestable with
+OAIster?
+
+ 
+
+The following page suggests the inverse:
+
+ 
+
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/OAI_support
+
+ 
+
+Any suggestions to approach this goal would be greatly appreciated.  Thank
+you.
+
+ 
+
+Regards,
+
+ 
+
+Stephen
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+Stephen I. Klein
+Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+Assistant Professor
+Pratt Institute Library
+200 Willoughby Avenue
+Brooklyn, NY 11205
+sklein@pratt.edu
+(718) 399 4423
+Pratt
+
+ 
+
+ 
+ 
+ 
+
+
+
+
+
+  _____  
+
+
+
+ 
+ 
+ 
+_______________________________________________
+greenstone-users mailing list
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+
+
+  _____  
+
+
+
+ 
+_______________________________________________
+greenstone-users mailing list
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+  
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081124/4ab63665/attachment-0001.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Nov 25 17:38:48 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Tue Nov 25 17:38:55 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Re: trouble building greenstone3 from source
+Message-ID: <492B8158.1000907@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Skip the previous email I just sent. Below is the same, but with some
+important corrections.
+
+Hello Andrew,
+
+I tried compiling up a fresh checkout of Greenstone 3 from SVN on the
+Windows machine here and did not encounter this problem. However, this may
+be because my settings for Java are set up in such a manner that it worked
+out.
+
+- Do you have a JDK installed on your machine?
+- What is your JAVA_HOME set to?
+- Do you have the following files in your JAVA_HOME\bin folder:
+javac
+javah
+java
+javadoc
+jar
+
+I do not know to what extent you are familiar with programming, but seeing
+as how you are compiling up GS3 from SVN, I thought I could explain the
+following to you so that you can try out a few things to narrow down where
+the problem might be.
+
+Concerning this bit that you referred to:
+ >> compile-packages:
+ >>      [echo] compile javagdbm
+ >>      [echo] Windows: compile javagdbm (java only)
+ >>      [exec] Compiling...
+ >>      [exec] The system cannot find the path specified.
+ >>      [exec] The system cannot find the path specified.
+ >>      [exec] The system cannot find the path specified.
+ >>      [echo] Install the javagdbm jar file
+
+These print statements happen in your Greenstone3/build.xml file (around
+line 1200).
+
+At the stage this happens, the build.xml is calling the makefile
+"winMake.bat" located in your Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm folder and
+passing the arguments "compile" and "javaonly".
+
+During execution of this makefile, some directory path is referred to that
+it cannot find, causing the compilation to fail at this stage which then
+causes the build to fail when the javagdbm jar file has not been produced.
+
+1. In a DOS prompt, can you go to the directory
+Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/ and then from there type:
+winMake.bat compile javaonly
+Does it give some error statements here?
+
+2. If so, can you go one directory further down into a folder called java
+(so that now you are in Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java) and type:
+winMake.bat compile
+Are there any error statements appearing here now?
+
+If there was no error output in doing either 1. or 2. above, neither 3 nor
+4 below are necessary:
+3. If you open up the file Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/winMake.bat
+in Wordpad (Notepad doesn't preserve the lines very well), you will see
+that the arguments "compile" and "javaonly" to winMake.bat cause it to
+call another winMake.bat makefile located
+at Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java, passing it the "compile" 
+argument.
+
+The first question is, do you have a folder called java situated inside your
+Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/? And does
+Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java contain a file called winMake.bat?
+
+4. If so:
+When opening up the Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java/winMake.bat
+file in
+WordPad, you may perhaps notice that it refers to lots of directory paths.
+It stores many of these paths in variables marked by ALL_UPPERCASE.
+Sometimes it may happen that in reality these paths contain spaces like
+"Program Files". This could cause problems if spaces are indeed involved,
+unless such paths are embedded in quotes.
+
+Can you replace the following section in your
+Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java/winMake.bat file with the bit that
+follows it:
+ >>>>REPLACE FOLLOWING:
+:compile
+         if not exist %JAVACLASSDIR% mkdir %JAVACLASSDIR%
+         echo Compiling...
+         %JAVAC% -d %JAVACLASSDIR% %JAVACOPTIONS%
+au\com\pharos\gdbm\*.java au\com\pharos\io\*.java
+au\com\pharos\meta\*.java au\com\pharos\packing\*.java
+au\com\pharos\test\*.java au\com\pharos\util\*.java
+         %JAVAH% -classpath %JAVACLASSDIR% -o %JAVAGDBMHOME%\jni\GdbmFile.h
+au.com.pharos.gdbm.GdbmFile
+         %JAR% cf %JAVAGDBMHOME%\javagdbm.jar -C %JAVACLASSDIR% au
+         goto done
+<<<<
+
+ >>>>REPLACE WITH:
+:compile
+         if not exist "%JAVACLASSDIR%" mkdir "%JAVACLASSDIR%"
+         echo Compiling...
+         "%JAVAC%" -d "%JAVACLASSDIR%" "%JAVACOPTIONS%"
+au\com\pharos\gdbm\*.java au\com\pharos\io\*.java
+au\com\pharos\meta\*.java au\com\pharos\packing\*.java
+au\com\pharos\test\*.java au\com\pharos\util\*.java
+         "%JAVAH%" -classpath "%JAVACLASSDIR%" -o
+"%JAVAGDBMHOME%\jni\GdbmFile.h" au.com.pharos.gdbm.GdbmFile
+         "%JAR%" cf "%JAVAGDBMHOME%\javagdbm.jar" -C "%JAVACLASSDIR%" au
+         goto done
+<<<<
+
+Now, back in your DOS prompt, from within the
+Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/ directory, type:
+winMake.bat compile javaonly
+
+Do you still see the same problems?
+
+5. If the above changes did not fix the errors, we can print out the
+values of these paths to make sure they are all set to something that
+makes sense.
+
+After the line
+set JAR="%JAVA_HOME%\bin\jar"
+in your Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java/winMake.bat file,
+
+can you paste the following bits between >>>> <<<<:
+ >>>>
+echo javagdbmhome: "%JAVAGDBMHOME%"
+echo javaclassdir: "%JAVACLASSDIR%"
+echo.
+echo javac: "%JAVAC%"
+echo javah: "%JAVAH%"
+echo java: "%JAVA%"
+echo javadoc: "%JAVADOC%"
+echo jar: "%JAR%"
+<<<<
+
+Go back to your DOS prompt and from within
+Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java/ type:
+winMake.bat compile
+
+Hopefully it should now print out all the values of the paths above so
+that you can see whether any of them is conspicuous. For instance:
+- Do all the printed paths have a value or is any left as ""?
+- And when you look for these folders in Windows Explorer, are you able to
+find all the folder paths which were just printed out to the DOS prompt?
+
+Tell us how you get on,
+Anupama
+
+
+ > Andrew Marlow wrote:
+ >> hello,
+ >>
+ >> I am trying to build greenstone3 from source and I have hit a problem.
+ >>
+ >> I downloaded it using the instructions for SVNon the greenstone3 web
+ >> page, then I said ant prepare install. Below is the end of the build
+ >> log, which shows the error message:
+ >>
+ >> ---
+ >> configure-gs2building:
+ >>
+ >> configure-c++:
+ >>
+ >> compile-web:
+ >>     [javac] Compiling 1 source file to
+ >> c:\everything\amarlow\development\mystuff
+ >> \research\digital_libraries\greenstone3\web\WEB-INF\classes
+ >>
+ >> compile-packages:
+ >>      [echo] compile javagdbm
+ >>      [echo] Windows: compile javagdbm (java only)
+ >>      [exec] Compiling...
+ >>      [exec] The system cannot find the path specified.
+ >>      [exec] The system cannot find the path specified.
+ >>      [exec] The system cannot find the path specified.
+ >>      [echo] Install the javagdbm jar file
+ >>
+ >> BUILD FAILED
+ >> 
+c:\everything\amarlow\development\mystuff\research\digital_libraries\greenstone3
+ >> \build.xml:1211: Warning: Could not find file
+ >> c:\everything\amarlow\development\
+ >> 
+mystuff\research\digital_libraries\greenstone3\src\packages\javagdbm\javagdbm.ja
+ >> r to copy.
+ >>
+ >> Total time: 25 minutes 32 seconds
+ >> ----
+ >>
+ >> What am I doing wrong please?
+ >>
+ >
+ > I'll get one of the research programmers to double check the SVN
+ > checkout and compile sequence under Windows, but in the meantime, what
+ > version of Windows, Java and Visual Studio are you using? Can you also
+ > check and let us know what the JAVA_HOME environment variable is set to
+ > for you set up.
+ >
+ > Thanks,
+ >
+ > David.
+ >
+ >> --
+ >> Regards,
+ >>
+ >> Andrew M.
+ >
+ >
+
+From amin.hedjazi at gmail.com  Tue Nov 25 21:36:09 2008
+From: amin.hedjazi at gmail.com (Amin Hedjazi)
+Date: Tue Nov 25 21:36:14 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] persian traslation updated and some questions
+Message-ID: <4105c9810811250036v3e70597eh55c7a1cd7e0828f8@mail.gmail.com>
+
+ive just attache the gli persian (farsi) traslation in the ticket #405
+Oran told me to send an email when i updated my ticket ,so heare it is
+now i had changed codes of the gui so it can support right to left languages
+
+soulde i upload the files in the same place ?
+there are a greate deel of files that i hade to chage almost the hole GUI
+package
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/attachments/20081125/08793648/attachment.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Nov 27 10:10:25 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Thu Nov 27 10:10:28 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-devel] Re: persian traslation updated and some questions
+In-Reply-To: <4105c9810811250036v3e70597eh55c7a1cd7e0828f8@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4105c9810811250036v3e70597eh55c7a1cd7e0828f8@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <492DBB41.6090205@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Armin
+
+Thank you for the translations. I will look at getting them in to 
+Greenstone today.
+Please zip up the other files and send them to me 
+(greenstone_team@cs.waikato.ac.nz). I assume you have just modified 
+files for the librarian interface? What version of greenstone were you 
+using? A release, or did you get it out of svn?
+
+Thanks,
+Katherine
+
+Amin Hedjazi wrote:
+> ive just attache the gli persian (farsi) traslation in the ticket #405
+> Oran told me to send an email when i updated my ticket ,so heare it is
+> now i had changed codes of the gui so it can support right to left 
+> languages
+> soulde i upload the files in the same place ?
+> there are a greate deel of files that i hade to chage almost the hole 
+> GUI package
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/import/greenstone-users-2008-December.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/import/greenstone-users-2008-December.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/import/greenstone-users-2008-December.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,8018 @@
+From john.rose1 at free.fr  Mon Dec  1 06:13:26 2008
+From: john.rose1 at free.fr (John Rose)
+Date: Mon Dec  1 06:50:59 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Default Language
+In-Reply-To: <20081120052233.AA0683F20D4@mail.alumni.caltech.edu>
+References: <20081120052233.AA0683F20D4@mail.alumni.caltech.edu>
+Message-ID: <20081130175043.D176219708@smtp6-g19.free.fr>
+
+Dear Thao,
+
+If you want the whole website to come up in Vietnamese, then you can add
+cgiarg shortname=l argdefault=vi
+into etc/main.cfg file in the Greenstone home directory.
+
+However, if you want it on a per collection 
+basis, then it is more complicated, please see 
+the ongoing discussion between Katherine Don and Gloria Toro on this list.
+
+                                         Best regards, John Rose
+
+>From: "Thao Thao" <thaotk2@gmail.com>
+>To: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>Date: Mon, 17 Nov 2008 18:17:58 +0700
+>Subject: [greenstone-users] Default Language
+>Message: 4
+>
+>   Hi everybody
+>   I am using Greenstone 2.81rc. Could someone 
+> please tell me how to make VietNamese the 
+> default language of the interface instead of 
+> english?This mean that when my web displays 
+> first time,interface of web  is VietNam interface.
+>  Thanks.
+
+
+                 John B. Rose
+                 1 Bis, Rue des Châtre-Sacs
+                 92310 Sèvres
+                 France
+                 Email: <john.rose1@free.fr>
+                         (in case of bounce then 
+send to <johnrose@alumni.caltech.edu>) 
+
+
+From johnrose at alumni.caltech.edu  Mon Dec  1 07:00:33 2008
+From: johnrose at alumni.caltech.edu (John Rose)
+Date: Mon Dec  1 07:01:00 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Default Language
+Message-ID: <20081130180048.EED773F0E9F@mail.alumni.caltech.edu>
+
+Dear Thao,
+
+If you want the whole website to come up in Vietnamese, then you can add
+cgiarg shortname=l argdefault=vi
+into etc/main.cfg file in the Greenstone home directory.
+
+However, if you want it on a per collection 
+basis, then it is more complicated, please see 
+the ongoing discussion between Katherine Don and Gloria Toro on this list.
+
+                                         Best regards, John Rose
+
+>From: "Thao Thao" <thaotk2@gmail.com>
+>To: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>Date: Mon, 17 Nov 2008 18:17:58 +0700
+>Subject: [greenstone-users] Default Language
+>Message: 4
+>
+>   Hi everybody
+>   I am using Greenstone 2.81rc. Could someone 
+> please tell me how to make VietNamese the 
+> default language of the interface instead of 
+> english?This mean that when my web displays 
+> first time,interface of web  is VietNam interface.
+>  Thanks.
+
+
+                 John B. Rose
+                 1 Bis, Rue des Châtre-Sacs
+                 92310 Sèvres
+                 France
+                 Email: <john.rose1@free.fr>
+                         (in case of bounce then 
+send to <johnrose@alumni.caltech.edu>)  
+
+
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Dec  1 10:33:44 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Dec  1 10:33:53 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Moving Search Button
+In-Reply-To: <271DCDCC5E8A4820A0D0CE4AE0F8B8BB@hq.pactecasia.com>
+References: <151046.62866.qm@web24401.mail.ird.yahoo.com>	<63312.72.200.121.229.1223848287.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<271DCDCC5E8A4820A0D0CE4AE0F8B8BB@hq.pactecasia.com>
+Message-ID: <493306B8.2060102@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081201/d0d3ce92/attachment.html
+From vave_r at usp.ac.fj  Mon Dec  1 14:11:10 2008
+From: vave_r at usp.ac.fj (Ron Vave)
+Date: Mon Dec  1 14:11:12 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Help!!
+In-Reply-To: <492B6028.8080404@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <001c01c94b5e$51161320$f3423960$@ac.fj>
+	<4925F0E6.4070503@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<006301c94b6e$2255bda0$670138e0$@ac.fj>
+	<492601A2.6040500@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<008401c94b75$21ced630$656c8290$@ac.fj>
+	<49260B8C.90601@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<009301c94b79$b31d07c0$19571740$@ac.fj>
+	<492619D9.7070304@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<00c101c94b85$c846da70$58d48f50$@ac.fj>
+	<492B6028.8080404@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <000301c95351$b26f1310$174d3930$@ac.fj>
+
+Hello Anupama,
+
+Just to let you know that the previous fix on the gli.bat file didn't work,
+but the recent suggestion of installing on C:\ drive worked like a breeze.
+
+Please convey my sincere thanks and appreciation to the Greenstone support
+staff for all your help/time.
+
+----------------------------------------
+Ron Vave
+Environment unit
+Institute of Applied Science
+Faculty of Science & Technology,
+University of the South Pacific,
+Suva, Fiji.
+
+Office: 3232-977
+Fax:    : 3231-534
+----------------------------------------
+
+-----Original Message-----
+From: Anupama of Greenstone Team [mailto:greenstone_team@cs.waikato.ac.nz] 
+Sent: 25 November 2008 14:17
+To: vave_r@usp.ac.fj; greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] Help!!
+
+Hello Ron,
+
+Were the changes to the gli.bat file sufficient to fix the problems you 
+encountered?
+If not, another developer here came up with a different suggestion. As 
+you are working on Vista and Vista has a different way of dealing with 
+Administration privileges, it may be better for you to install 
+Greenstone outside of C:\Program Files. Try either C:\ directly or in 
+your user account (Users\<your user account name>). But first you'll 
+need to uninstall the Greenstone 2.81rc you have in C:\Program Files though.
+
+Therefore,
+1. First run uninstall on your Greenstone 2.81rc installed in C:\Program 
+Files
+2. Rerun the installer and put it somewhere *other* than C:\Program 
+Files, such as C: or in a location within your User account.
+
+A better solution is being considered for Vista that will hopefully 
+allow installation into C:\Program Files, but for the time being, we 
+hope the above suggestion may sort out the issue you've been facing.
+
+Regards,
+Anupama
+
+Ron Vave wrote:
+
+
+
+From amr_ftoh2008 at yahoo.com  Mon Dec  1 16:40:27 2008
+From: amr_ftoh2008 at yahoo.com (amr hassan)
+Date: Mon Dec  1 16:40:33 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] I need help !!
+Message-ID: <42689.49628.qm@web38603.mail.mud.yahoo.com>
+
+Hi,,,
+what is mean thes errores??
+Error:coud not read Xref Table ?
+Error:PDF files damaged ?
+Error: PDF version 1.5 -- xpdf supports version 1.4 (continuing anyway) ?
+Error: Couldn't find trailer dictionary?
+ pdftohtml error log?
+Error executing pdftohtml.pl?
+ 
+I do not need convert Arabic PDF into HTML ? What I do ?
+what is a Suitable Browsing Classifer to Browes PDF Files ?
+ 
+Thank,s
+
+
+      
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081130/b337c39a/attachment.html
+From thaotk2 at gmail.com  Tue Dec  2 06:06:16 2008
+From: thaotk2 at gmail.com (Thao Thao)
+Date: Tue Dec  2 06:06:26 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Error Apache
+Message-ID: <4409126a0812010906x37a2de21w310b003d2b8e9a3f@mail.gmail.com>
+
+ Hi everybody!
+ I installed Apache2.2.9 ang Greenstone 2.72(Web Library). Content
+httpd.conf:
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+#
+# server as "C:/Program Files/Apache Software
+Foundation/Apache2.2/logs/foo.log".
+#
+#
+# ServerRoot: The top of the directory tree under which the server's
+# configuration, error, and log files are kept.
+#
+# Do not add a slash at the end of the directory path.  If you point
+# ServerRoot at a non-local disk, be sure to point the LockFile directive
+# at a local disk.  If you wish to share the same ServerRoot for multiple
+# httpd daemons, you will need to change at least LockFile and PidFile.
+#
+ServerRoot "C:/Program Files/Apache Software Foundation/Apache2.2"
+
+#
+#Listen 12.34.56.78:80
+Listen 8080
+#
+<IfModule !mpm_netware_module>
+<IfModule !mpm_winnt_module>
+#
+#
+User daemon
+Group daemon
+</IfModule>
+</IfModule>
+# 'Main' server configuration
+#
+# The directives in this section set up the values used by the 'main'
+# server, which responds to any requests that aren't handled by a
+# <VirtualHost> definition.  These values also provide defaults for
+# any <VirtualHost> containers you may define later in the file.
+#
+# All of these directives may appear inside <VirtualHost> containers,
+# in which case these default settings will be overridden for the
+# virtual host being defined.
+#
+# ServerAdmin: Your address, where problems with the server should be
+# e-mailed.  This address appears on some server-generated pages, such
+# as error documents.  e.g. admin@your-domain.com
+#
+ServerAdmin admin@localhost.com
+
+#
+# ServerName gives the name and port that the server uses to identify
+itself.
+# This can often be determined automatically, but we recommend you specify
+# it explicitly to prevent problems during startup.
+#
+# If your host doesn't have a registered DNS name, enter its IP address
+here.
+#
+ServerName localhost:8080
+
+#
+# DocumentRoot: The directory out of which you will serve your
+# documents. By default, all requests are taken from this directory, but
+# symbolic links and aliases may be used to point to other locations.
+#
+DocumentRoot "C:/Program Files/Apache Software Foundation/Apache2.2/htdocs"
+
+#
+# Each directory to which Apache has access can be configured with respect
+# to which services and features are allowed and/or disabled in that
+# directory (and its subdirectories).
+#
+# First, we configure the "default" to be a very restrictive set of
+# features.
+#
+<Directory />
+    Options FollowSymLinks
+    AllowOverride None
+    Order deny,allow
+    Deny from all
+</Directory>
+#
+# This should be changed to whatever you set DocumentRoot to.
+#
+<Directory "C:/Program Files/Apache Software Foundation/Apache2.2/htdocs">
+    #
+    # Possible values for the Options directive are "None", "All",
+    # or any combination of:
+    #   Indexes Includes FollowSymLinks SymLinksifOwnerMatch ExecCGI
+MultiViews
+    #
+    # Note that "MultiViews" must be named *explicitly* --- "Options All"
+    # doesn't give it to you.
+    #
+    # The Options directive is both complicated and important.  Please see
+    # http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.2/mod/core.html#options
+    # for more information.
+    #
+    Options Indexes FollowSymLinks
+    #
+
+    #
+    AllowOverride None
+
+    #
+    # Controls who can get stuff from this server.
+    #
+    Order allow,deny
+    Allow from all
+</Directory>
+#
+# DirectoryIndex: sets the file that Apache will serve if a directory
+# is requested.
+#
+<IfModule dir_module>
+    DirectoryIndex index.html
+</IfModule>
+#
+#
+<FilesMatch "^\.ht">
+    Order allow,deny
+    Deny from all
+    Satisfy All
+</FilesMatch>
+
+#
+# ErrorLog: The location of the error log file.
+# If you do not specify an ErrorLog directive within a <VirtualHost>
+# container, error messages relating to that virtual host will be
+# logged here.  If you *do* define an error logfile for a <VirtualHost>
+# container, that host's errors will be logged there and not here.
+#
+ErrorLog "logs/error.log"
+#
+#
+LogLevel warn
+<IfModule log_config_module>
+
+    LogFormat "%h %l %u %t \"%r\" %>s %b \"%{Referer}i\" \"%{User-Agent}i\""
+combined
+    LogFormat "%h %l %u %t \"%r\" %>s %b" common
+
+    <IfModule logio_module>
+      # You need to enable mod_logio.c to use %I and %O
+      LogFormat "%h %l %u %t \"%r\" %>s %b \"%{Referer}i\"
+\"%{User-Agent}i\" %I %O" combinedio
+    </IfModule>
+
+    CustomLog "logs/access.log" common
+
+</IfModule>
+
+<IfModule alias_module>
+    #
+    # Redirect: Allows you to tell clients about documents that used to
+    # exist in your server's namespace, but do not anymore. The client
+    # will make a new request for the document at its new location.
+    # Example:
+    # Redirect permanent /foo http://localhost/bar
+
+    #
+    # Alias: Maps web paths into filesystem paths and is used to
+    # access content that does not live under the DocumentRoot.
+    # Example:
+    # Alias /webpath /full/filesystem/path
+    #
+    # If you include a trailing / on /webpath then the server will
+    # require it to be present in the URL.  You will also likely
+    # need to provide a <Directory> section to allow access to
+    # the filesystem path.
+
+    #
+    # ScriptAlias: This controls which directories contain server scripts.
+    # ScriptAliases are essentially the same as Aliases, except that
+    # documents in the target directory are treated as applications and
+    # run by the server when requested rather than as documents sent to the
+    # client.  The same rules about trailing "/" apply to ScriptAlias
+    # directives as to Alias.
+    #
+    ScriptAlias /cgi-bin/ "C:/Program Files/Apache Software
+Foundation/Apache2.2/cgi-bin/"
+
+</IfModule>
+
+<IfModule cgid_module>
+    #
+    # ScriptSock: On threaded servers, designate the path to the UNIX
+    # socket used to communicate with the CGI daemon of mod_cgid.
+    #
+    #Scriptsock logs/cgisock
+</IfModule>
+
+#
+# "C:/Program Files/Apache Software Foundation/Apache2.2/cgi-bin" should be
+changed to whatever your ScriptAliased
+# CGI directory exists, if you have that configured.
+#
+<Directory "C:/Program Files/Apache Software Foundation/Apache2.2/cgi-bin">
+    AllowOverride None
+    Options None
+    Order allow,deny
+    Allow from all
+</Directory>
+
+#
+#
+DefaultType text/plain
+
+<IfModule mime_module>
+    #
+    # AddHandler allows you to map certain file extensions to "handlers":
+    # actions unrelated to filetype. These can be either built into the
+server
+    # or added with the Action directive (see below)
+    #
+    # To use CGI scripts outside of ScriptAliased directories:
+    # (You will also need to add "ExecCGI" to the "Options" directive.)
+    #
+    #AddHandler cgi-script .cgi
+
+    # For type maps (negotiated resources):
+    #AddHandler type-map var
+
+    #
+    # Filters allow you to process content before it is sent to the client.
+    #
+    # To parse .shtml files for server-side includes (SSI):
+    # (You will also need to add "Includes" to the "Options" directive.)
+    #
+    #AddType text/html .shtml
+    #AddOutputFilter INCLUDES .shtml
+</IfModule>
+
+#
+# Note: The following must must be present to support
+#       starting without SSL on platforms with no /dev/random equivalent
+#       but a statically compiled-in mod_ssl.
+#
+<IfModule ssl_module>
+SSLRandomSeed startup builtin
+SSLRandomSeed connect builtin
+</IfModule>
+# Setting up the Apache webserver to work with Greenstone2
+ScriptAlias /gsdl/cgi-bin/ "C:/Program Files/Greenstone/cgi-bin"
+  <Directory "C:/Program Files/Greenstone/cgi-bin">
+     Options None
+     AllowOverride None
+  </Directory>
+
+  Alias /gsdl/ "C:/Program Files/Greenstone"
+  <Directory "C:/Program Files/Greenstone">
+     Options Indexes MultiViews FollowSymLinks
+     AllowOverride None
+     Order allow,deny
+     Allow from all
+  </Directory>
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+Content gsdlsite.cfg:
+# points to the GSDLHOME directory
+gsdlhome    "C:\Program Files\Greenstone"
+
+# this is the http address of GSDLHOME
+# if your webservers DocumentRoot is set to $GSDLHOME
+# then httpprefix can remain commented out
+httpprefix  /gsdl
+
+# this is the http address of the directory which
+# contains the images for the interface.
+# if your webservers DocumentRoot is set to $GSDLHOME
+# then httpimg will be /images
+httpimg     /gsdl/images
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+When I visit http://localhost:8080/gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe, display error:
+Not Found
+
+The requested URL /gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe was not found on this server.
+
+If you know correct this error, you show me. Thank you very much.
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081202/80fea918/attachment.html
+From jcrump at mercycorps.org  Tue Dec  2 06:59:21 2008
+From: jcrump at mercycorps.org (Jeff Crump)
+Date: Tue Dec  2 06:56:52 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] 2.8 and 2.81
+Message-ID: <B7C2258D2CE34641953C8E1B4C7484500172DAA6@mcexchange.mercycorps.org>
+
+Hi, We're looking at a possible upgrade from Greenstone 2.52 to 2.8 or 2.81. Can you point me to where I can see a list of improvements 2.8x provides over 2.52 from the *user perspective*?
+
+In other words, what would a *visitor* to our digital library be able to do with 2.8x that they could not do with 2.52? 
+
+Also, are there any improvements to search (either from a user or admin perspective)?
+
+Thanks,
+Jeff
+
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec  2 09:01:11 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Tue Dec  2 09:01:17 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re:Re:Re:Re: greenstone version
+In-Reply-To: <19153367.334071227975268928.JavaMail.coremail@bj163app20.163.com>
+References: <19105.206.207.225.21.1226611082.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<41283.206.207.225.20.1226519806.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<52848.72.200.121.229.1226349307.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<17395854.10201226011241249.JavaMail.coremail@bj163app20.163.com>
+	<23110385.81226420564025.JavaMail.coremail@app145.163.com>
+	<31639843.28931226535711317.JavaMail.coremail@bj163app124.163.com>
+	<19153367.334071227975268928.JavaMail.coremail@bj163app20.163.com>
+Message-ID: <49647.206.207.225.20.1228161671.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Huan Qiao
+
+Was the Greenstone installer running properly? Did you inspect any error
+during installing? If everything was fine, my only suggestion is that you
+could delete the greestone folder and reinstall it.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+> Hi Quan
+> I met a new problem when I run Greenstone2.81. The showcases, such as
+> search, title,etc. can't be seen at all. I think it may be that my
+> computer uses Chinese.But the other computer is ok. Could you please help
+> me?
+> By the way, thanks for your help last time. It is really helpful.
+> Hope to hear from you as soon as possible.
+>
+>
+> --
+> Huan Qiao
+> Dept. of Information Management
+> Beijing Normal University
+> Beijing 100875
+>
+>
+> åš2008-11-14ïŒqq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz åéïŒ
+>>Hi Huan Qiao
+>>
+>>The message shows that "cmd.exe" couldn't be found locally. It was the
+>>cause that WV couldn't be executed to convert .doc files to HTML files.
+>>
+>>I think you have to make "cmd.exe" running first, and rebuild the
+>>collection later.
+>>
+>>Regards
+>>Quan
+>>
+>>
+>>> Hi, the problem is as follows.
+>>>  import.pl> Converting fj22007132tjmshzgshchb[1].doc to HTML format
+>>> import.pl> Can't spawn "cmd.exe": No such file or directory at
+>>> C:\Downloads\c\bin\script/gsConvert.pl line 518.
+>>> import.pl> Error executing wv converter:No such file or directory
+>>> import.pl> Could not convert fj22007132tjmshzgshchb[1].doc to HTML
+>>> format
+>>> import.pl> WARNING: No plugin could process
+>>> fj22007132tjmshzgshchb[1].doc
+>>> import.pl> *********************************************
+>>> import.pl> Import complete
+>>> import.pl> *********************************************
+>>> import.pl> * 1 document was considered for processing
+>>> import.pl> * 0 were processed and included in the collection
+>>> import.pl> * 1 was rejected
+>>>
+>>> Thanks anyway.
+>>> --
+>>> Huan Qiao
+>>> Dept. of Information Management
+>>> Beijing Normal University
+>>> Beijing 100875
+>>>
+>>>
+>>> Ã¥ÂÂš2008-11-13Ã¯ÂŒÂqq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz Ã¥ÂÂÃ©ÂÂÃ¯ÂŒÂ
+>>>>Hi Huan Qiao
+>>>>
+>>>>Launch GLI and go to File->Preference->Mode, switch to the Expert mode
+>>>> by
+>>>>selecting Expert from the list. Then rebuild the collection, all
+>>>> messages
+>>>>regarding building will be displayed. Go through the messages, you will
+>>>>find reasons of the errors.
+>>>>
+>>>>If you have any questions, please replay me and cc to
+>>>>greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz at the same time, because your
+>>>>questions will benefit others.
+>>>>
+>>>>Regards
+>>>>Quan
+>>>>
+>>>>
+>>>>
+>>>>> Hi, my problem is as follows. Thanks.
+>>>>>
+>>>>> The file bill of rights_05312007.doc was recognised but could not be
+>>>>> processed by
+>>>>> any plugin.
+>>>>> The file Digital Divide.doc was recognised but could not be processed
+>>>>> by
+>>>>> any
+>>>>> plugin.
+>>>>> The file personal statement 1.doc was recognised but could not be
+>>>>> processed by any
+>>>>> plugin.
+>>>>>
+>>>>> 4 documents were considered for processing:
+>>>>>    1 document was processed and included in the collection.
+>>>>>    3 were rejected.
+>>>>>
+>>>>>
+>>>>>
+>>>>> --
+>>>>> Huan Qiao
+>>>>> Dept. of Information Management
+>>>>> Beijing Normal University
+>>>>> Beijing 100875
+>>>>>
+>>>>>
+>>>>> ÃÂÃÂ2008-11-11ÃÂ£ÃÂ¬qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+>>>>> ÃÂÃÂŽÃÂµÃÂÃÂ£ÃÂº
+>>>>>>Hi Huan Qiao
+>>>>>>
+>>>>>>Could you replay me from the last email and forward to the group list
+>>>>>> as
+>>>>>>well? Because I couldn't remember the question when I read it.
+>>>>>>
+>>>>>>Regards
+>>>>>>Quan
+>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>  Hi, my greenstone version is 2.80, and platform is Windows XP.
+>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>> --
+>>>>>>> Huan Qiao
+>>>>>>> Dept. of Information Management
+>>>>>>> Beijing Normal University
+>>>>>>> Beijing 100875
+>>>>>>
+>>>>>>
+>>>>>
+>>>>
+>>>>
+>>>
+>>
+>>
+>
+
+
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec  2 09:09:36 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Tue Dec  2 09:09:45 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Error the depositor
+In-Reply-To: <4409126a0811270234s6a1525a6rf6c2d8825407e111@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4409126a0811270234s6a1525a6rf6c2d8825407e111@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <6325.206.207.225.20.1228162176.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi
+
+The message showed the user has to be granted full permissions to the 
+C:\Program Files\Greenstone folder before using depositor. So you need to
+check the user rights of the greenstone folder.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+> Hi everybody!
+> I'm studying Greenstone2.72. I installed Web Library and IIS(on
+> WindowsXP).But when I use The depositor, appear error: "The depositor
+> failed
+> to read from or write to a temporary file or directory.Possible causes
+> are:Greenstone does not have read/write access to the C:\Program
+> Files\Greenstone/tmp directory."
+> Can you show me the way corrects this mistake?
+> Thank you very much!
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec  2 09:23:23 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Tue Dec  2 09:23:33 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Error Apache
+In-Reply-To: <4409126a0812010906x37a2de21w310b003d2b8e9a3f@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4409126a0812010906x37a2de21w310b003d2b8e9a3f@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <22475.206.207.225.20.1228163003.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi
+
+I met the same problem with Apache2.2.9 on Windows Xp. And I found Apache
+1.3 can server Greenstone perfectly by following the configuration of the
+library.txt file.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+>  Hi everybody!
+>  I installed Apache2.2.9 ang Greenstone 2.72(Web Library). Content
+> httpd.conf:
+> ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> #
+> # server as "C:/Program Files/Apache Software
+> Foundation/Apache2.2/logs/foo.log".
+> #
+> #
+> # ServerRoot: The top of the directory tree under which the server's
+> # configuration, error, and log files are kept.
+> #
+> # Do not add a slash at the end of the directory path.  If you point
+> # ServerRoot at a non-local disk, be sure to point the LockFile directive
+> # at a local disk.  If you wish to share the same ServerRoot for multiple
+> # httpd daemons, you will need to change at least LockFile and PidFile.
+> #
+> ServerRoot "C:/Program Files/Apache Software Foundation/Apache2.2"
+>
+> #
+> #Listen 12.34.56.78:80
+> Listen 8080
+> #
+> <IfModule !mpm_netware_module>
+> <IfModule !mpm_winnt_module>
+> #
+> #
+> User daemon
+> Group daemon
+> </IfModule>
+> </IfModule>
+> # 'Main' server configuration
+> #
+> # The directives in this section set up the values used by the 'main'
+> # server, which responds to any requests that aren't handled by a
+> # <VirtualHost> definition.  These values also provide defaults for
+> # any <VirtualHost> containers you may define later in the file.
+> #
+> # All of these directives may appear inside <VirtualHost> containers,
+> # in which case these default settings will be overridden for the
+> # virtual host being defined.
+> #
+> # ServerAdmin: Your address, where problems with the server should be
+> # e-mailed.  This address appears on some server-generated pages, such
+> # as error documents.  e.g. admin@your-domain.com
+> #
+> ServerAdmin admin@localhost.com
+>
+> #
+> # ServerName gives the name and port that the server uses to identify
+> itself.
+> # This can often be determined automatically, but we recommend you specify
+> # it explicitly to prevent problems during startup.
+> #
+> # If your host doesn't have a registered DNS name, enter its IP address
+> here.
+> #
+> ServerName localhost:8080
+>
+> #
+> # DocumentRoot: The directory out of which you will serve your
+> # documents. By default, all requests are taken from this directory, but
+> # symbolic links and aliases may be used to point to other locations.
+> #
+> DocumentRoot "C:/Program Files/Apache Software
+> Foundation/Apache2.2/htdocs"
+>
+> #
+> # Each directory to which Apache has access can be configured with respect
+> # to which services and features are allowed and/or disabled in that
+> # directory (and its subdirectories).
+> #
+> # First, we configure the "default" to be a very restrictive set of
+> # features.
+> #
+> <Directory />
+>     Options FollowSymLinks
+>     AllowOverride None
+>     Order deny,allow
+>     Deny from all
+> </Directory>
+> #
+> # This should be changed to whatever you set DocumentRoot to.
+> #
+> <Directory "C:/Program Files/Apache Software Foundation/Apache2.2/htdocs">
+>     #
+>     # Possible values for the Options directive are "None", "All",
+>     # or any combination of:
+>     #   Indexes Includes FollowSymLinks SymLinksifOwnerMatch ExecCGI
+> MultiViews
+>     #
+>     # Note that "MultiViews" must be named *explicitly* --- "Options All"
+>     # doesn't give it to you.
+>     #
+>     # The Options directive is both complicated and important.  Please see
+>     # http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.2/mod/core.html#options
+>     # for more information.
+>     #
+>     Options Indexes FollowSymLinks
+>     #
+>
+>     #
+>     AllowOverride None
+>
+>     #
+>     # Controls who can get stuff from this server.
+>     #
+>     Order allow,deny
+>     Allow from all
+> </Directory>
+> #
+> # DirectoryIndex: sets the file that Apache will serve if a directory
+> # is requested.
+> #
+> <IfModule dir_module>
+>     DirectoryIndex index.html
+> </IfModule>
+> #
+> #
+> <FilesMatch "^\.ht">
+>     Order allow,deny
+>     Deny from all
+>     Satisfy All
+> </FilesMatch>
+>
+> #
+> # ErrorLog: The location of the error log file.
+> # If you do not specify an ErrorLog directive within a <VirtualHost>
+> # container, error messages relating to that virtual host will be
+> # logged here.  If you *do* define an error logfile for a <VirtualHost>
+> # container, that host's errors will be logged there and not here.
+> #
+> ErrorLog "logs/error.log"
+> #
+> #
+> LogLevel warn
+> <IfModule log_config_module>
+>
+>     LogFormat "%h %l %u %t \"%r\" %>s %b \"%{Referer}i\"
+> \"%{User-Agent}i\""
+> combined
+>     LogFormat "%h %l %u %t \"%r\" %>s %b" common
+>
+>     <IfModule logio_module>
+>       # You need to enable mod_logio.c to use %I and %O
+>       LogFormat "%h %l %u %t \"%r\" %>s %b \"%{Referer}i\"
+> \"%{User-Agent}i\" %I %O" combinedio
+>     </IfModule>
+>
+>     CustomLog "logs/access.log" common
+>
+> </IfModule>
+>
+> <IfModule alias_module>
+>     #
+>     # Redirect: Allows you to tell clients about documents that used to
+>     # exist in your server's namespace, but do not anymore. The client
+>     # will make a new request for the document at its new location.
+>     # Example:
+>     # Redirect permanent /foo http://localhost/bar
+>
+>     #
+>     # Alias: Maps web paths into filesystem paths and is used to
+>     # access content that does not live under the DocumentRoot.
+>     # Example:
+>     # Alias /webpath /full/filesystem/path
+>     #
+>     # If you include a trailing / on /webpath then the server will
+>     # require it to be present in the URL.  You will also likely
+>     # need to provide a <Directory> section to allow access to
+>     # the filesystem path.
+>
+>     #
+>     # ScriptAlias: This controls which directories contain server scripts.
+>     # ScriptAliases are essentially the same as Aliases, except that
+>     # documents in the target directory are treated as applications and
+>     # run by the server when requested rather than as documents sent to
+> the
+>     # client.  The same rules about trailing "/" apply to ScriptAlias
+>     # directives as to Alias.
+>     #
+>     ScriptAlias /cgi-bin/ "C:/Program Files/Apache Software
+> Foundation/Apache2.2/cgi-bin/"
+>
+> </IfModule>
+>
+> <IfModule cgid_module>
+>     #
+>     # ScriptSock: On threaded servers, designate the path to the UNIX
+>     # socket used to communicate with the CGI daemon of mod_cgid.
+>     #
+>     #Scriptsock logs/cgisock
+> </IfModule>
+>
+> #
+> # "C:/Program Files/Apache Software Foundation/Apache2.2/cgi-bin" should
+> be
+> changed to whatever your ScriptAliased
+> # CGI directory exists, if you have that configured.
+> #
+> <Directory "C:/Program Files/Apache Software
+> Foundation/Apache2.2/cgi-bin">
+>     AllowOverride None
+>     Options None
+>     Order allow,deny
+>     Allow from all
+> </Directory>
+>
+> #
+> #
+> DefaultType text/plain
+>
+> <IfModule mime_module>
+>     #
+>     # AddHandler allows you to map certain file extensions to "handlers":
+>     # actions unrelated to filetype. These can be either built into the
+> server
+>     # or added with the Action directive (see below)
+>     #
+>     # To use CGI scripts outside of ScriptAliased directories:
+>     # (You will also need to add "ExecCGI" to the "Options" directive.)
+>     #
+>     #AddHandler cgi-script .cgi
+>
+>     # For type maps (negotiated resources):
+>     #AddHandler type-map var
+>
+>     #
+>     # Filters allow you to process content before it is sent to the
+> client.
+>     #
+>     # To parse .shtml files for server-side includes (SSI):
+>     # (You will also need to add "Includes" to the "Options" directive.)
+>     #
+>     #AddType text/html .shtml
+>     #AddOutputFilter INCLUDES .shtml
+> </IfModule>
+>
+> #
+> # Note: The following must must be present to support
+> #       starting without SSL on platforms with no /dev/random equivalent
+> #       but a statically compiled-in mod_ssl.
+> #
+> <IfModule ssl_module>
+> SSLRandomSeed startup builtin
+> SSLRandomSeed connect builtin
+> </IfModule>
+> # Setting up the Apache webserver to work with Greenstone2
+> ScriptAlias /gsdl/cgi-bin/ "C:/Program Files/Greenstone/cgi-bin"
+>   <Directory "C:/Program Files/Greenstone/cgi-bin">
+>      Options None
+>      AllowOverride None
+>   </Directory>
+>
+>   Alias /gsdl/ "C:/Program Files/Greenstone"
+>   <Directory "C:/Program Files/Greenstone">
+>      Options Indexes MultiViews FollowSymLinks
+>      AllowOverride None
+>      Order allow,deny
+>      Allow from all
+>   </Directory>
+> -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> Content gsdlsite.cfg:
+> # points to the GSDLHOME directory
+> gsdlhome    "C:\Program Files\Greenstone"
+>
+> # this is the http address of GSDLHOME
+> # if your webservers DocumentRoot is set to $GSDLHOME
+> # then httpprefix can remain commented out
+> httpprefix  /gsdl
+>
+> # this is the http address of the directory which
+> # contains the images for the interface.
+> # if your webservers DocumentRoot is set to $GSDLHOME
+> # then httpimg will be /images
+> httpimg     /gsdl/images
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> When I visit http://localhost:8080/gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe, display
+> error:
+> Not Found
+>
+> The requested URL /gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe was not found on this server.
+>
+> If you know correct this error, you show me. Thank you very much.
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From vave_r at usp.ac.fj  Tue Dec  2 11:28:17 2008
+From: vave_r at usp.ac.fj (Ron Vave)
+Date: Tue Dec  2 11:28:18 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Endnote export to GLI
+Message-ID: <001f01c95404$1b7bf280$5273d780$@ac.fj>
+
+Bula (hello),
+
+ 
+
+First, I would like to know if the Endnote reference database can somehow be
+imported into Greenstone, and if yes, how do I go about doing this? And if
+there are any disadvantages to this as opposed to entering information
+directly into GLI?
+
+ 
+
+Secondly, I would like to know if its possible to search the archives of
+postings made on this Greenstone listserver, so a person could search that
+first and apply solutions proposed in it, before repeating any postings
+here.
+
+ 
+
+Vinaka (thanks),
+
+Ron Vave
+
+ 
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081202/0c038b55/attachment.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec  2 12:16:24 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Tue Dec  2 12:16:34 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Error Apache
+In-Reply-To: <4409126a0812010906x37a2de21w310b003d2b8e9a3f@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4409126a0812010906x37a2de21w310b003d2b8e9a3f@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <49347048.5030809@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+
+Hi Thao Thao,
+
+Could you try out the following:
+1. At present, your httpd.conf file has your ServerName set to contain 
+both the host and port as follows:
+ServerName localhost:8080
+
+You have specified the portnumber separately already, which is correct. 
+But your ServerName should not contain the portnumber. Therefore, can 
+you set the ServerName entry in your httpd.conf to just localhost (or, 
+alternatively, to the name of your machine):
+ServerName localhost
+
+2. Stop and start your apache server again.
+Then first try visiting http://localhost:8080/gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe
+and if that didn't work, try visiting 
+http://localhost:8080/gsdl/cgi-bin/library
+(without the .exe extension)
+
+Tell us if you still have any difficulties.
+Regards,
+Anupama
+
+
+Thao Thao wrote:
+>  Hi everybody!
+>  I installed Apache2.2.9 ang Greenstone 2.72(Web Library). Content 
+> httpd.conf:
+> ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> #
+> # server as "C:/Program Files/Apache Software 
+> Foundation/Apache2.2/logs/foo.log".
+> #
+> #
+> # ServerRoot: The top of the directory tree under which the server's
+> # configuration, error, and log files are kept.
+> #
+> # Do not add a slash at the end of the directory path.  If you point
+> # ServerRoot at a non-local disk, be sure to point the LockFile directive
+> # at a local disk.  If you wish to share the same ServerRoot for multiple
+> # httpd daemons, you will need to change at least LockFile and PidFile.
+> #
+> ServerRoot "C:/Program Files/Apache Software Foundation/Apache2.2"
+> 
+> #
+> #Listen 12.34.56.78:80 <http://12.34.56.78:80>
+> Listen 8080
+> #
+> <IfModule !mpm_netware_module>
+> <IfModule !mpm_winnt_module>
+> #
+> #
+> User daemon
+> Group daemon
+> </IfModule>
+> </IfModule>
+> # 'Main' server configuration
+> #
+> # The directives in this section set up the values used by the 'main'
+> # server, which responds to any requests that aren't handled by a
+> # <VirtualHost> definition.  These values also provide defaults for
+> # any <VirtualHost> containers you may define later in the file.
+> #
+> # All of these directives may appear inside <VirtualHost> containers,
+> # in which case these default settings will be overridden for the
+> # virtual host being defined.
+> #
+> # ServerAdmin: Your address, where problems with the server should be
+> # e-mailed.  This address appears on some server-generated pages, such
+> # as error documents.  e.g. admin@your-domain.com 
+> <mailto:admin@your-domain.com>
+> #
+> ServerAdmin admin@localhost.com <mailto:admin@localhost.com>
+> 
+> #
+> # ServerName gives the name and port that the server uses to identify 
+> itself.
+> # This can often be determined automatically, but we recommend you specify
+> # it explicitly to prevent problems during startup.
+> #
+> # If your host doesn't have a registered DNS name, enter its IP address 
+> here.
+> #
+> ServerName localhost:8080
+> 
+> #
+> # DocumentRoot: The directory out of which you will serve your
+> # documents. By default, all requests are taken from this directory, but
+> # symbolic links and aliases may be used to point to other locations.
+> #
+> DocumentRoot "C:/Program Files/Apache Software Foundation/Apache2.2/htdocs"
+> 
+> #
+> # Each directory to which Apache has access can be configured with respect
+> # to which services and features are allowed and/or disabled in that
+> # directory (and its subdirectories).
+> #
+> # First, we configure the "default" to be a very restrictive set of
+> # features. 
+> #
+> <Directory />
+>     Options FollowSymLinks
+>     AllowOverride None
+>     Order deny,allow
+>     Deny from all
+> </Directory>
+> #
+> # This should be changed to whatever you set DocumentRoot to.
+> #
+> <Directory "C:/Program Files/Apache Software Foundation/Apache2.2/htdocs">
+>     #
+>     # Possible values for the Options directive are "None", "All",
+>     # or any combination of:
+>     #   Indexes Includes FollowSymLinks SymLinksifOwnerMatch ExecCGI 
+> MultiViews
+>     #
+>     # Note that "MultiViews" must be named *explicitly* --- "Options All"
+>     # doesn't give it to you.
+>     #
+>     # The Options directive is both complicated and important.  Please see
+>     # http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.2/mod/core.html#options
+>     # for more information.
+>     #
+>     Options Indexes FollowSymLinks
+>     #
+> 
+>     #
+>     AllowOverride None
+> 
+>     #
+>     # Controls who can get stuff from this server.
+>     #
+>     Order allow,deny
+>     Allow from all
+> </Directory>
+> #
+> # DirectoryIndex: sets the file that Apache will serve if a directory
+> # is requested.
+> #
+> <IfModule dir_module>
+>     DirectoryIndex index.html
+> </IfModule>
+> #
+> #
+> <FilesMatch "^\.ht">
+>     Order allow,deny
+>     Deny from all
+>     Satisfy All
+> </FilesMatch>
+> 
+> #
+> # ErrorLog: The location of the error log file.
+> # If you do not specify an ErrorLog directive within a <VirtualHost>
+> # container, error messages relating to that virtual host will be
+> # logged here.  If you *do* define an error logfile for a <VirtualHost>
+> # container, that host's errors will be logged there and not here.
+> #
+> ErrorLog "logs/error.log"
+> #
+> #
+> LogLevel warn
+> <IfModule log_config_module>
+> 
+>     LogFormat "%h %l %u %t \"%r\" %>s %b \"%{Referer}i\" 
+> \"%{User-Agent}i\"" combined
+>     LogFormat "%h %l %u %t \"%r\" %>s %b" common
+> 
+>     <IfModule logio_module>
+>       # You need to enable mod_logio.c to use %I and %O
+>       LogFormat "%h %l %u %t \"%r\" %>s %b \"%{Referer}i\" 
+> \"%{User-Agent}i\" %I %O" combinedio
+>     </IfModule>
+> 
+>     CustomLog "logs/access.log" common
+> 
+> </IfModule>
+> 
+> <IfModule alias_module>
+>     #
+>     # Redirect: Allows you to tell clients about documents that used to
+>     # exist in your server's namespace, but do not anymore. The client
+>     # will make a new request for the document at its new location.
+>     # Example:
+>     # Redirect permanent /foo http://localhost/bar
+> 
+>     #
+>     # Alias: Maps web paths into filesystem paths and is used to
+>     # access content that does not live under the DocumentRoot.
+>     # Example:
+>     # Alias /webpath /full/filesystem/path
+>     #
+>     # If you include a trailing / on /webpath then the server will
+>     # require it to be present in the URL.  You will also likely
+>     # need to provide a <Directory> section to allow access to
+>     # the filesystem path.
+> 
+>     #
+>     # ScriptAlias: This controls which directories contain server scripts.
+>     # ScriptAliases are essentially the same as Aliases, except that
+>     # documents in the target directory are treated as applications and
+>     # run by the server when requested rather than as documents sent to the
+>     # client.  The same rules about trailing "/" apply to ScriptAlias
+>     # directives as to Alias.
+>     #
+>     ScriptAlias /cgi-bin/ "C:/Program Files/Apache Software 
+> Foundation/Apache2.2/cgi-bin/"
+> 
+> </IfModule>
+> 
+> <IfModule cgid_module>
+>     #
+>     # ScriptSock: On threaded servers, designate the path to the UNIX
+>     # socket used to communicate with the CGI daemon of mod_cgid.
+>     #
+>     #Scriptsock logs/cgisock
+> </IfModule>
+> 
+> #
+> # "C:/Program Files/Apache Software Foundation/Apache2.2/cgi-bin" should 
+> be changed to whatever your ScriptAliased
+> # CGI directory exists, if you have that configured.
+> #
+> <Directory "C:/Program Files/Apache Software Foundation/Apache2.2/cgi-bin">
+>     AllowOverride None
+>     Options None
+>     Order allow,deny
+>     Allow from all
+> </Directory>
+> 
+> #
+> #
+> DefaultType text/plain
+> 
+> <IfModule mime_module>
+>     #   
+>     # AddHandler allows you to map certain file extensions to "handlers":
+>     # actions unrelated to filetype. These can be either built into the 
+> server
+>     # or added with the Action directive (see below)
+>     #
+>     # To use CGI scripts outside of ScriptAliased directories:
+>     # (You will also need to add "ExecCGI" to the "Options" directive.)
+>     #
+>     #AddHandler cgi-script .cgi
+> 
+>     # For type maps (negotiated resources):
+>     #AddHandler type-map var
+> 
+>     #
+>     # Filters allow you to process content before it is sent to the client.
+>     #
+>     # To parse .shtml files for server-side includes (SSI):
+>     # (You will also need to add "Includes" to the "Options" directive.)
+>     #
+>     #AddType text/html .shtml
+>     #AddOutputFilter INCLUDES .shtml
+> </IfModule>
+> 
+> #
+> # Note: The following must must be present to support
+> #       starting without SSL on platforms with no /dev/random equivalent
+> #       but a statically compiled-in mod_ssl.
+> #
+> <IfModule ssl_module>
+> SSLRandomSeed startup builtin
+> SSLRandomSeed connect builtin
+> </IfModule>
+> # Setting up the Apache webserver to work with Greenstone2
+> ScriptAlias /gsdl/cgi-bin/ "C:/Program Files/Greenstone/cgi-bin"
+>   <Directory "C:/Program Files/Greenstone/cgi-bin">
+>      Options None
+>      AllowOverride None
+>   </Directory>
+>  
+>   Alias /gsdl/ "C:/Program Files/Greenstone"
+>   <Directory "C:/Program Files/Greenstone">
+>      Options Indexes MultiViews FollowSymLinks
+>      AllowOverride None
+>      Order allow,deny
+>      Allow from all
+>   </Directory>
+> -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> Content gsdlsite.cfg:
+> # points to the GSDLHOME directory
+> gsdlhome    "C:\Program Files\Greenstone"
+> 
+> # this is the http address of GSDLHOME
+> # if your webservers DocumentRoot is set to $GSDLHOME
+> # then httpprefix can remain commented out
+> httpprefix  /gsdl
+> 
+> # this is the http address of the directory which
+> # contains the images for the interface.
+> # if your webservers DocumentRoot is set to $GSDLHOME
+> # then httpimg will be /images
+> httpimg     /gsdl/images
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> When I visit http://localhost:8080/gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe, display error:
+> 
+> 
+>   Not Found
+> 
+> The requested URL /gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe was not found on this server.
+> 
+> If you know correct this error, you show me. Thank you very much.
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> 
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> 
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+
+
+From rajankila at hotmail.com  Tue Dec  2 17:57:15 2008
+From: rajankila at hotmail.com (Rajan)
+Date: Tue Dec  2 17:59:19 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Apache & Web library installation
+In-Reply-To: <BAY0-MC10-F71IKPd5z00208266@bay0-mc10-f7.bay0.hotmail.com>
+References: <BAY0-MC10-F71IKPd5z00208266@bay0-mc10-f7.bay0.hotmail.com>
+Message-ID: <BAY128-DS63E900AA1EBD4FD2F77FAB6000@phx.gbl>
+
+Dear All,
+
+But I had never experienced any  problem in installing and using gsdl 2.80
+in Windows XP SP II with Apache 2.2.9.
+In another institution, it did not work when firewall was on. So we disabled
+the firewall.
+I had used Apache 2.2.4 too previously in my Windows XP successfully.
+After installation, we need to restart the computer to get the result.
+During the installation, I provided localhost ( without  any Port No) as
+ServerName and port no was not mentioned.
+So it might have used the default port no 80
+So it appears that the problem is not that of Apache 2.2.9
+
+Regards,
+
+K Rajasekharan
+Kerala Institute of Local Administration
+Thrissur
+
+--------------------------------------------------
+> Original Message:
+> Date: Tue, 2 Dec 2008 09:23:23 +1300 (NZDT)
+> From: qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+> Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] Error Apache
+> Hi
+> I met the same problem with Apache2.2.9 on Windows Xp. And I found Apache
+> 1.3 can server Greenstone perfectly by following the configuration of the
+> library.txt file. >
+> Quan>
+>>  Hi everybody!
+>>  I installed Apache2.2.9 ang Greenstone 2.72(Web Library). Content
+>> httpd.conf:
+>> 
+
+From arthur.belanger at yale.edu  Wed Dec  3 07:06:48 2008
+From: arthur.belanger at yale.edu (Belanger, Arthur)
+Date: Wed Dec  3 07:07:00 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Endnote export to GLI
+In-Reply-To: <001f01c95404$1b7bf280$5273d780$@ac.fj>
+References: <001f01c95404$1b7bf280$5273d780$@ac.fj>
+Message-ID: <D6B530A1090A224EA17A37D3BFE35F5E264F120C64@XVS2-CLUSTER.yu.yale.edu>
+
+Ron,
+
+We have done this quite successfully.  We exported several EndNote libraries in BibTex format and then imported them into GS using the BibTex plugin (BibTexPlug).  The trick is to export in BibTex format.  We have just over 10,000 records in this collection.
+
+The Greenstone archives are available at http://nzdl.sadl.uleth.ca/cgi-bin/library?a=p&p=about&c=gsarch
+
+You should also see http://www.greenstone.org/support for more options.
+
+--
+Arthur Belanger
+Medical Library System Manager
+ITS Academic Media & Technology
+Yale University
+PO Box 208065
+New Haven, CT  06520-8065
+
+(203) 785-6928
+(203) 737-2859, fax
+
+mailto:Arthur.Belanger@Yale.Edu
+http://www.yale.edu/its/about/amt
+http://info.med.yale.edu/library
+
+
+NOTE: Yale ITS will NEVER request passwords or other personal information via email. Messages requesting such information are fraudulent and should be deleted.
+
+________________________________
+From: greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz [mailto:greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz] On Behalf Of Ron Vave
+Sent: Monday, December 01, 2008 5:28 PM
+To: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Endnote export to GLI
+
+Bula (hello),
+
+First, I would like to know if the Endnote reference database can somehow be imported into Greenstone, and if yes, how do I go about doing this? And if there are any disadvantages to this as opposed to entering information directly into GLI?
+
+Secondly, I would like to know if its possible to search the archives of postings made on this Greenstone listserver, so a person could search that first and apply solutions proposed in it, before repeating any postings here.
+
+Vinaka (thanks),
+Ron Vave
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081202/a9f7b7e0/attachment.html
+From hammondthrasher_c at usp.ac.fj  Wed Dec  3 09:34:12 2008
+From: hammondthrasher_c at usp.ac.fj (Chris Hammond-Thrasher)
+Date: Wed Dec  3 09:32:04 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: greenstone-users Digest, Vol 69, Issue 3
+In-Reply-To: <20081201230119.9232518BA68@mx1.usp.ac.fj>
+References: <20081201230119.9232518BA68@mx1.usp.ac.fj>
+Message-ID: <1228250052.10492.6.camel@localhost>
+
+Ron,
+
+Regarding Endnote data, the trick is to convert it into a format that
+can be imported into Greenstone. I have done this, with the help of a
+little Perl scripting, with Inmagic DBText databases. I would be happy
+to show you how I did this.
+
+-cht
+
+
+> ------------------------------
+> 
+> Message: 4
+> Date: Tue, 2 Dec 2008 10:28:17 +1200
+> From: "Ron Vave" <vave_r@usp.ac.fj>
+> Subject: [greenstone-users] Endnote export to GLI
+> To: <greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+> Message-ID: <001f01c95404$1b7bf280$5273d780$@ac.fj>
+> Content-Type: text/plain; charset="iso-8859-1"
+> 
+> Bula (hello),
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> First, I would like to know if the Endnote reference database can somehow be
+> imported into Greenstone, and if yes, how do I go about doing this? And if
+> there are any disadvantages to this as opposed to entering information
+> directly into GLI?
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> Secondly, I would like to know if its possible to search the archives of
+> postings made on this Greenstone listserver, so a person could search that
+> first and apply solutions proposed in it, before repeating any postings
+> here.
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> Vinaka (thanks),
+> 
+> Ron Vave
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> -------------- next part --------------
+
+
+=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
+Chris Hammond-Thrasher MLIS CISSP
+Library Systems Manager
+University of the South Pacific Library
+Suva, Fiji
++679 3232233
+hammondthrasher_c@usp.ac.fj
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081203/16be6d0d/attachment.html
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Wed Dec  3 10:46:19 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Wed Dec  3 10:46:28 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re:Re:Re:Re:Re: greenstone version
+In-Reply-To: <11601973.549981228226244287.JavaMail.coremail@bj163app17.163.com>
+References: <49647.206.207.225.20.1228161671.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<19105.206.207.225.21.1226611082.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<41283.206.207.225.20.1226519806.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<52848.72.200.121.229.1226349307.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<17395854.10201226011241249.JavaMail.coremail@bj163app20.163.com>
+	<23110385.81226420564025.JavaMail.coremail@app145.163.com>
+	<31639843.28931226535711317.JavaMail.coremail@bj163app124.163.com>
+	<19153367.334071227975268928.JavaMail.coremail@bj163app20.163.com>
+	<11601973.549981228226244287.JavaMail.coremail@bj163app17.163.com>
+Message-ID: <35157.206.207.225.23.1228254379.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Huan Qiao
+
+>The fact is that the Greenstone 2.8 version works well although it can't
+deal with Chinese.
+Do you mean you couldn't import Chinese documents into Greenstone? To
+import Chinese documents, you need to add "separate_cjk   true" manually
+into collect.cfg. Please see
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Configuration_file_options#Options_also_available_as_options_to_import.pl
+for details.
+
+If you want the greenstone web page displayed in Chinese, please add
+"l=zh" (default language is English)at the end of the address. A Chinese
+sample collection is available at
+http://nzdl.sadl.uleth.ca/cgi-bin/library?a=p&p=about&c=chinese&l=zh
+
+And you can reference the collect.cfg at
+http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/chinese/etc/collect.cfg
+
+>However, 2.81 version can't show the header words.
+
+Could you send me a screen shot?
+
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+
+> Hi  Quan,
+> Thank you for your message. The fact is that the Greenstone 2.8 version
+> works well although it can't deal with Chinese. However, 2.81 version
+> can't show the header words.All the Chinese characters can't be shown. We
+> tried many times to download 2.8 again but didn't succeed. So where can we
+> find the problem. We would like to change the language into Chinese.
+> Thanks again. .
+>
+>
+> --
+> Huan Qiao
+> Dept. of Information Management
+> Beijing Normal University
+> Beijing 100875
+>
+>
+> åš2008-12-02ïŒqq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz åéïŒ
+>>Hi Huan Qiao
+>>
+>>Was the Greenstone installer running properly? Did you inspect any error
+>>during installing? If everything was fine, my only suggestion is that you
+>>could delete the greestone folder and reinstall it.
+>>
+>>Regards
+>>Quan
+>>
+>>> Hi Quan
+>>> I met a new problem when I run Greenstone2.81. The showcases, such as
+>>> search, title,etc. can't be seen at all. I think it may be that my
+>>> computer uses Chinese.But the other computer is ok. Could you please
+>>> help
+>>> me?
+>>> By the way, thanks for your help last time. It is really helpful.
+>>> Hope to hear from you as soon as possible.
+>>>
+>>>
+>>> --
+>>> Huan Qiao
+>>> Dept. of Information Management
+>>> Beijing Normal University
+>>> Beijing 100875
+>>>
+>>>
+>>> Ã¥ÂÂš2008-11-14Ã¯ÂŒÂqq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz Ã¥ÂÂÃ©ÂÂÃ¯ÂŒÂ
+>>>>Hi Huan Qiao
+>>>>
+>>>>The message shows that "cmd.exe" couldn't be found locally. It was the
+>>>>cause that WV couldn't be executed to convert .doc files to HTML files.
+>>>>
+>>>>I think you have to make "cmd.exe" running first, and rebuild the
+>>>>collection later.
+>>>>
+>>>>Regards
+>>>>Quan
+>>>>
+>>>>
+>>>>> Hi, the problem is as follows.
+>>>>>  import.pl> Converting fj22007132tjmshzgshchb[1].doc to HTML format
+>>>>> import.pl> Can't spawn "cmd.exe": No such file or directory at
+>>>>> C:\Downloads\c\bin\script/gsConvert.pl line 518.
+>>>>> import.pl> Error executing wv converter:No such file or directory
+>>>>> import.pl> Could not convert fj22007132tjmshzgshchb[1].doc to HTML
+>>>>> format
+>>>>> import.pl> WARNING: No plugin could process
+>>>>> fj22007132tjmshzgshchb[1].doc
+>>>>> import.pl> *********************************************
+>>>>> import.pl> Import complete
+>>>>> import.pl> *********************************************
+>>>>> import.pl> * 1 document was considered for processing
+>>>>> import.pl> * 0 were processed and included in the collection
+>>>>> import.pl> * 1 was rejected
+>>>>>
+>>>>> Thanks anyway.
+>>>>> --
+>>>>> Huan Qiao
+>>>>> Dept. of Information Management
+>>>>> Beijing Normal University
+>>>>> Beijing 100875
+>>>>>
+>>>>>
+>>>>> ÃÂ¥ÃÂÃÂš2008-11-13ÃÂ¯ÃÂŒÃÂqq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+>>>>> ÃÂ¥ÃÂÃÂÃÂ©ÃÂÃÂÃÂ¯ÃÂŒÃÂ
+>>>>>>Hi Huan Qiao
+>>>>>>
+>>>>>>Launch GLI and go to File->Preference->Mode, switch to the Expert
+>>>>>> mode
+>>>>>> by
+>>>>>>selecting Expert from the list. Then rebuild the collection, all
+>>>>>> messages
+>>>>>>regarding building will be displayed. Go through the messages, you
+>>>>>> will
+>>>>>>find reasons of the errors.
+>>>>>>
+>>>>>>If you have any questions, please replay me and cc to
+>>>>>>greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz at the same time, because
+>>>>>> your
+>>>>>>questions will benefit others.
+>>>>>>
+>>>>>>Regards
+>>>>>>Quan
+>>>>>>
+>>>>>>
+>>>>>>
+>>>>>>> Hi, my problem is as follows. Thanks.
+>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>> The file bill of rights_05312007.doc was recognised but could not
+>>>>>>> be
+>>>>>>> processed by
+>>>>>>> any plugin.
+>>>>>>> The file Digital Divide.doc was recognised but could not be
+>>>>>>> processed
+>>>>>>> by
+>>>>>>> any
+>>>>>>> plugin.
+>>>>>>> The file personal statement 1.doc was recognised but could not be
+>>>>>>> processed by any
+>>>>>>> plugin.
+>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>> 4 documents were considered for processing:
+>>>>>>>    1 document was processed and included in the collection.
+>>>>>>>    3 were rejected.
+>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>> --
+>>>>>>> Huan Qiao
+>>>>>>> Dept. of Information Management
+>>>>>>> Beijing Normal University
+>>>>>>> Beijing 100875
+>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>> ÃÂÃÂÃÂÃÂ2008-11-11ÃÂÃÂ£ÃÂÃÂ¬qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+>>>>>>> ÃÂÃÂÃÂÃÂŽÃÂÃÂµÃÂÃÂÃÂÃÂ£ÃÂÃÂº
+>>>>>>>>Hi Huan Qiao
+>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>>Could you replay me from the last email and forward to the group
+>>>>>>>> list
+>>>>>>>> as
+>>>>>>>>well? Because I couldn't remember the question when I read it.
+>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>>Regards
+>>>>>>>>Quan
+>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>>>  Hi, my greenstone version is 2.80, and platform is Windows XP.
+>>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>>> --
+>>>>>>>>> Huan Qiao
+>>>>>>>>> Dept. of Information Management
+>>>>>>>>> Beijing Normal University
+>>>>>>>>> Beijing 100875
+>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>
+>>>>>>
+>>>>>
+>>>>
+>>>>
+>>>
+>>
+>>
+>
+
+
+
+From anu at ncsi.iisc.ernet.in  Mon Dec  1 20:33:38 2008
+From: anu at ncsi.iisc.ernet.in (K.T Anuradha)
+Date: Wed Dec  3 22:44:22 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Multilingual database creation: Lab exercises
+In-Reply-To: <492B8158.1000907@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <492B8158.1000907@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <Pine.LNX.4.64.0812011300290.20715@ncsi.iisc.ernet.in>
+
+Dear Greenstone user,
+
+I wanted to share lab exercise which I had prepared for a workshop I 
+conducted during December 2008 on Multilingual capability on GSDL. Hope it 
+is of use to all those working on multilingual feature!
+
+Regards, Anuradha
+
+-- 
+This message has been scanned for viruses and
+dangerous content by MailScanner, and is
+believed to be clean.
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+A non-text attachment was scrubbed...
+Name: multilingual.pdf
+Type: application/pdf
+Size: 111593 bytes
+Desc: 
+Url : https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081201/25fd8cac/multilingual-0001.pdf
+From thaotk2 at gmail.com  Tue Dec  2 05:52:40 2008
+From: thaotk2 at gmail.com (Thao Thao)
+Date: Wed Dec  3 22:44:24 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Error Apache
+Message-ID: <4409126a0812010852r3b5b6025v47677172cff0940b@mail.gmail.com>
+
+ Hi everybody!
+ I installed Apache2.2.9 ang Greenstone 2.72(Web Library). Content
+httpd.conf:
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+#
+# This is the main Apache HTTP server configuration file.  It contains the
+# configuration directives that give the server its instructions.
+# See <URL:http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.2> for detailed information.
+# In particular, see
+# <URL:http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.2/mod/directives.html>
+# for a discussion of each configuration directive.
+#
+# Do NOT simply read the instructions in here without understanding
+# what they do.  They're here only as hints or reminders.  If you are unsure
+# consult the online docs. You have been warned.
+#
+# Configuration and logfile names: If the filenames you specify for many
+# of the server's control files begin with "/" (or "drive:/" for Win32), the
+# server will use that explicit path.  If the filenames do *not* begin
+# with "/", the value of ServerRoot is prepended -- so "logs/foo.log"
+# with ServerRoot set to "C:/Program Files/Apache Software
+Foundation/Apache2.2" will be interpreted by the
+# server as "C:/Program Files/Apache Software
+Foundation/Apache2.2/logs/foo.log".
+#
+# NOTE: Where filenames are specified, you must use forward slashes
+# instead of backslashes (e.g., "c:/apache" instead of "c:\apache").
+# If a drive letter is omitted, the drive on which httpd.exe is located
+# will be used by default.  It is recommended that you always supply
+# an explicit drive letter in absolute paths to avoid confusion.
+
+#
+# ServerRoot: The top of the directory tree under which the server's
+# configuration, error, and log files are kept.
+#
+# Do not add a slash at the end of the directory path.  If you point
+# ServerRoot at a non-local disk, be sure to point the LockFile directive
+# at a local disk.  If you wish to share the same ServerRoot for multiple
+# httpd daemons, you will need to change at least LockFile and PidFile.
+#
+ServerRoot "C:/Program Files/Apache Software Foundation/Apache2.2"
+
+#
+# Listen: Allows you to bind Apache to specific IP addresses and/or
+# ports, instead of the default. See also the <VirtualHost>
+# directive.
+#
+# Change this to Listen on specific IP addresses as shown below to
+# prevent Apache from glomming onto all bound IP addresses.
+#
+#Listen 12.34.56.78:80
+Listen 8080
+
+#
+# Dynamic Shared Object (DSO) Support
+#
+# To be able to use the functionality of a module which was built as a DSO
+you
+# have to place corresponding `LoadModule' lines at this location so the
+# directives contained in it are actually available _before_ they are used.
+# Statically compiled modules (those listed by `httpd -l') do not need
+# to be loaded here.
+#
+# Example:
+# LoadModule foo_module modules/mod_foo.so
+#
+LoadModule actions_module modules/mod_actions.so
+LoadModule alias_module modules/mod_alias.so
+LoadModule asis_module modules/mod_asis.so
+LoadModule auth_basic_module modules/mod_auth_basic.so
+#LoadModule auth_digest_module modules/mod_auth_digest.so
+#LoadModule authn_alias_module modules/mod_authn_alias.so
+#LoadModule authn_anon_module modules/mod_authn_anon.so
+#LoadModule authn_dbd_module modules/mod_authn_dbd.so
+#LoadModule authn_dbm_module modules/mod_authn_dbm.so
+LoadModule authn_default_module modules/mod_authn_default.so
+LoadModule authn_file_module modules/mod_authn_file.so
+#LoadModule authnz_ldap_module modules/mod_authnz_ldap.so
+#LoadModule authz_dbm_module modules/mod_authz_dbm.so
+LoadModule authz_default_module modules/mod_authz_default.so
+LoadModule authz_groupfile_module modules/mod_authz_groupfile.so
+LoadModule authz_host_module modules/mod_authz_host.so
+#LoadModule authz_owner_module modules/mod_authz_owner.so
+LoadModule authz_user_module modules/mod_authz_user.so
+LoadModule autoindex_module modules/mod_autoindex.so
+#LoadModule cache_module modules/mod_cache.so
+#LoadModule cern_meta_module modules/mod_cern_meta.so
+LoadModule cgi_module modules/mod_cgi.so
+#LoadModule charset_lite_module modules/mod_charset_lite.so
+#LoadModule dav_module modules/mod_dav.so
+#LoadModule dav_fs_module modules/mod_dav_fs.so
+#LoadModule dav_lock_module modules/mod_dav_lock.so
+#LoadModule dbd_module modules/mod_dbd.so
+#LoadModule deflate_module modules/mod_deflate.so
+LoadModule dir_module modules/mod_dir.so
+#LoadModule disk_cache_module modules/mod_disk_cache.so
+#LoadModule dumpio_module modules/mod_dumpio.so
+LoadModule env_module modules/mod_env.so
+#LoadModule expires_module modules/mod_expires.so
+#LoadModule ext_filter_module modules/mod_ext_filter.so
+#LoadModule file_cache_module modules/mod_file_cache.so
+#LoadModule filter_module modules/mod_filter.so
+#LoadModule headers_module modules/mod_headers.so
+#LoadModule ident_module modules/mod_ident.so
+#LoadModule imagemap_module modules/mod_imagemap.so
+LoadModule include_module modules/mod_include.so
+#LoadModule info_module modules/mod_info.so
+LoadModule isapi_module modules/mod_isapi.so
+#LoadModule ldap_module modules/mod_ldap.so
+#LoadModule logio_module modules/mod_logio.so
+LoadModule log_config_module modules/mod_log_config.so
+#LoadModule log_forensic_module modules/mod_log_forensic.so
+#LoadModule mem_cache_module modules/mod_mem_cache.so
+LoadModule mime_module modules/mod_mime.so
+#LoadModule mime_magic_module modules/mod_mime_magic.so
+LoadModule negotiation_module modules/mod_negotiation.so
+#LoadModule proxy_module modules/mod_proxy.so
+#LoadModule proxy_ajp_module modules/mod_proxy_ajp.so
+#LoadModule proxy_balancer_module modules/mod_proxy_balancer.so
+#LoadModule proxy_connect_module modules/mod_proxy_connect.so
+#LoadModule proxy_ftp_module modules/mod_proxy_ftp.so
+#LoadModule proxy_http_module modules/mod_proxy_http.so
+#LoadModule rewrite_module modules/mod_rewrite.so
+LoadModule setenvif_module modules/mod_setenvif.so
+#LoadModule speling_module modules/mod_speling.so
+#LoadModule ssl_module modules/mod_ssl.so
+#LoadModule status_module modules/mod_status.so
+#LoadModule substitute_module modules/mod_substitute.so
+#LoadModule unique_id_module modules/mod_unique_id.so
+#LoadModule userdir_module modules/mod_userdir.so
+#LoadModule usertrack_module modules/mod_usertrack.so
+#LoadModule version_module modules/mod_version.so
+#LoadModule vhost_alias_module modules/mod_vhost_alias.so
+
+<IfModule !mpm_netware_module>
+<IfModule !mpm_winnt_module>
+#
+# If you wish httpd to run as a different user or group, you must run
+# httpd as root initially and it will switch.
+#
+# User/Group: The name (or #number) of the user/group to run httpd as.
+# It is usually good practice to create a dedicated user and group for
+# running httpd, as with most system services.
+#
+User daemon
+Group daemon
+
+</IfModule>
+</IfModule>
+
+# 'Main' server configuration
+#
+# The directives in this section set up the values used by the 'main'
+# server, which responds to any requests that aren't handled by a
+# <VirtualHost> definition.  These values also provide defaults for
+# any <VirtualHost> containers you may define later in the file.
+#
+# All of these directives may appear inside <VirtualHost> containers,
+# in which case these default settings will be overridden for the
+# virtual host being defined.
+#
+
+#
+# ServerAdmin: Your address, where problems with the server should be
+# e-mailed.  This address appears on some server-generated pages, such
+# as error documents.  e.g. admin@your-domain.com
+#
+ServerAdmin admin@localhost.com
+
+#
+# ServerName gives the name and port that the server uses to identify
+itself.
+# This can often be determined automatically, but we recommend you specify
+# it explicitly to prevent problems during startup.
+#
+# If your host doesn't have a registered DNS name, enter its IP address
+here.
+#
+ServerName localhost:8080
+
+#
+# DocumentRoot: The directory out of which you will serve your
+# documents. By default, all requests are taken from this directory, but
+# symbolic links and aliases may be used to point to other locations.
+#
+DocumentRoot "C:/Program Files/Apache Software Foundation/Apache2.2/htdocs"
+
+#
+# Each directory to which Apache has access can be configured with respect
+# to which services and features are allowed and/or disabled in that
+# directory (and its subdirectories).
+#
+# First, we configure the "default" to be a very restrictive set of
+# features.
+#
+<Directory />
+    Options FollowSymLinks
+    AllowOverride None
+    Order deny,allow
+    Deny from all
+</Directory>
+
+#
+# Note that from this point forward you must specifically allow
+# particular features to be enabled - so if something's not working as
+# you might expect, make sure that you have specifically enabled it
+# below.
+#
+
+#
+# This should be changed to whatever you set DocumentRoot to.
+#
+<Directory "C:/Program Files/Apache Software Foundation/Apache2.2/htdocs">
+    #
+    # Possible values for the Options directive are "None", "All",
+    # or any combination of:
+    #   Indexes Includes FollowSymLinks SymLinksifOwnerMatch ExecCGI
+MultiViews
+    #
+    # Note that "MultiViews" must be named *explicitly* --- "Options All"
+    # doesn't give it to you.
+    #
+    # The Options directive is both complicated and important.  Please see
+    # http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.2/mod/core.html#options
+    # for more information.
+    #
+    Options Indexes FollowSymLinks
+
+    #
+    # AllowOverride controls what directives may be placed in .htaccess
+files.
+    # It can be "All", "None", or any combination of the keywords:
+    #   Options FileInfo AuthConfig Limit
+    #
+    AllowOverride None
+
+    #
+    # Controls who can get stuff from this server.
+    #
+    Order allow,deny
+    Allow from all
+
+</Directory>
+
+#
+# DirectoryIndex: sets the file that Apache will serve if a directory
+# is requested.
+#
+<IfModule dir_module>
+    DirectoryIndex index.html
+</IfModule>
+
+#
+# The following lines prevent .htaccess and .htpasswd files from being
+# viewed by Web clients.
+#
+<FilesMatch "^\.ht">
+    Order allow,deny
+    Deny from all
+    Satisfy All
+</FilesMatch>
+
+#
+# ErrorLog: The location of the error log file.
+# If you do not specify an ErrorLog directive within a <VirtualHost>
+# container, error messages relating to that virtual host will be
+# logged here.  If you *do* define an error logfile for a <VirtualHost>
+# container, that host's errors will be logged there and not here.
+#
+ErrorLog "logs/error.log"
+
+#
+# LogLevel: Control the number of messages logged to the error_log.
+# Possible values include: debug, info, notice, warn, error, crit,
+# alert, emerg.
+#
+LogLevel warn
+
+<IfModule log_config_module>
+    #
+    # The following directives define some format nicknames for use with
+    # a CustomLog directive (see below).
+    #
+    LogFormat "%h %l %u %t \"%r\" %>s %b \"%{Referer}i\" \"%{User-Agent}i\""
+combined
+    LogFormat "%h %l %u %t \"%r\" %>s %b" common
+
+    <IfModule logio_module>
+      # You need to enable mod_logio.c to use %I and %O
+      LogFormat "%h %l %u %t \"%r\" %>s %b \"%{Referer}i\"
+\"%{User-Agent}i\" %I %O" combinedio
+    </IfModule>
+
+    #
+    # The location and format of the access logfile (Common Logfile Format).
+    # If you do not define any access logfiles within a <VirtualHost>
+    # container, they will be logged here.  Contrariwise, if you *do*
+    # define per-<VirtualHost> access logfiles, transactions will be
+    # logged therein and *not* in this file.
+    #
+    CustomLog "logs/access.log" common
+
+    #
+    # If you prefer a logfile with access, agent, and referer information
+    # (Combined Logfile Format) you can use the following directive.
+    #
+    #CustomLog "logs/access.log" combined
+</IfModule>
+
+<IfModule alias_module>
+    #
+    # Redirect: Allows you to tell clients about documents that used to
+    # exist in your server's namespace, but do not anymore. The client
+    # will make a new request for the document at its new location.
+    # Example:
+    # Redirect permanent /foo http://localhost/bar
+
+    #
+    # Alias: Maps web paths into filesystem paths and is used to
+    # access content that does not live under the DocumentRoot.
+    # Example:
+    # Alias /webpath /full/filesystem/path
+    #
+    # If you include a trailing / on /webpath then the server will
+    # require it to be present in the URL.  You will also likely
+    # need to provide a <Directory> section to allow access to
+    # the filesystem path.
+
+    #
+    # ScriptAlias: This controls which directories contain server scripts.
+    # ScriptAliases are essentially the same as Aliases, except that
+    # documents in the target directory are treated as applications and
+    # run by the server when requested rather than as documents sent to the
+    # client.  The same rules about trailing "/" apply to ScriptAlias
+    # directives as to Alias.
+    #
+    ScriptAlias /cgi-bin/ "C:/Program Files/Apache Software
+Foundation/Apache2.2/cgi-bin/"
+
+</IfModule>
+
+<IfModule cgid_module>
+    #
+    # ScriptSock: On threaded servers, designate the path to the UNIX
+    # socket used to communicate with the CGI daemon of mod_cgid.
+    #
+    #Scriptsock logs/cgisock
+</IfModule>
+
+#
+# "C:/Program Files/Apache Software Foundation/Apache2.2/cgi-bin" should be
+changed to whatever your ScriptAliased
+# CGI directory exists, if you have that configured.
+#
+<Directory "C:/Program Files/Apache Software Foundation/Apache2.2/cgi-bin">
+    AllowOverride None
+    Options None
+    Order allow,deny
+    Allow from all
+</Directory>
+
+#
+# DefaultType: the default MIME type the server will use for a document
+# if it cannot otherwise determine one, such as from filename extensions.
+# If your server contains mostly text or HTML documents, "text/plain" is
+# a good value.  If most of your content is binary, such as applications
+# or images, you may want to use "application/octet-stream" instead to
+# keep browsers from trying to display binary files as though they are
+# text.
+#
+DefaultType text/plain
+
+<IfModule mime_module>
+    #
+    # TypesConfig points to the file containing the list of mappings from
+    # filename extension to MIME-type.
+    #
+    TypesConfig conf/mime.types
+
+    #
+    # AddType allows you to add to or override the MIME configuration
+    # file specified in TypesConfig for specific file types.
+    #
+    #AddType application/x-gzip .tgz
+    #
+    # AddEncoding allows you to have certain browsers uncompress
+    # information on the fly. Note: Not all browsers support this.
+    #
+    #AddEncoding x-compress .Z
+    #AddEncoding x-gzip .gz .tgz
+    #
+    # If the AddEncoding directives above are commented-out, then you
+    # probably should define those extensions to indicate media types:
+    #
+    AddType application/x-compress .Z
+    AddType application/x-gzip .gz .tgz
+
+    #
+    # AddHandler allows you to map certain file extensions to "handlers":
+    # actions unrelated to filetype. These can be either built into the
+server
+    # or added with the Action directive (see below)
+    #
+    # To use CGI scripts outside of ScriptAliased directories:
+    # (You will also need to add "ExecCGI" to the "Options" directive.)
+    #
+    #AddHandler cgi-script .cgi
+
+    # For type maps (negotiated resources):
+    #AddHandler type-map var
+
+    #
+    # Filters allow you to process content before it is sent to the client.
+    #
+    # To parse .shtml files for server-side includes (SSI):
+    # (You will also need to add "Includes" to the "Options" directive.)
+    #
+    #AddType text/html .shtml
+    #AddOutputFilter INCLUDES .shtml
+</IfModule>
+
+#
+# The mod_mime_magic module allows the server to use various hints from the
+# contents of the file itself to determine its type.  The MIMEMagicFile
+# directive tells the module where the hint definitions are located.
+#
+#MIMEMagicFile conf/magic
+
+#
+# Customizable error responses come in three flavors:
+# 1) plain text 2) local redirects 3) external redirects
+#
+# Some examples:
+#ErrorDocument 500 "The server made a boo boo."
+#ErrorDocument 404 /missing.html
+#ErrorDocument 404 "/cgi-bin/missing_handler.pl"
+#ErrorDocument 402 http://localhost/subscription_info.html
+#
+
+#
+# EnableMMAP and EnableSendfile: On systems that support it,
+# memory-mapping or the sendfile syscall is used to deliver
+# files.  This usually improves server performance, but must
+# be turned off when serving from networked-mounted
+# filesystems or if support for these functions is otherwise
+# broken on your system.
+#
+#EnableMMAP off
+#EnableSendfile off
+
+# Supplemental configuration
+#
+# The configuration files in the conf/extra/ directory can be
+# included to add extra features or to modify the default configuration of
+# the server, or you may simply copy their contents here and change as
+# necessary.
+
+# Server-pool management (MPM specific)
+#Include conf/extra/httpd-mpm.conf
+
+# Multi-language error messages
+#Include conf/extra/httpd-multilang-errordoc.conf
+
+# Fancy directory listings
+#Include conf/extra/httpd-autoindex.conf
+
+# Language settings
+#Include conf/extra/httpd-languages.conf
+
+# User home directories
+#Include conf/extra/httpd-userdir.conf
+
+# Real-time info on requests and configuration
+#Include conf/extra/httpd-info.conf
+
+# Virtual hosts
+#Include conf/extra/httpd-vhosts.conf
+
+# Local access to the Apache HTTP Server Manual
+#Include conf/extra/httpd-manual.conf
+
+# Distributed authoring and versioning (WebDAV)
+#Include conf/extra/httpd-dav.conf
+
+# Various default settings
+#Include conf/extra/httpd-default.conf
+
+# Secure (SSL/TLS) connections
+#Include conf/extra/httpd-ssl.conf
+#
+# Note: The following must must be present to support
+#       starting without SSL on platforms with no /dev/random equivalent
+#       but a statically compiled-in mod_ssl.
+#
+<IfModule ssl_module>
+SSLRandomSeed startup builtin
+SSLRandomSeed connect builtin
+</IfModule>
+# Setting up the Apache webserver to work with Greenstone2
+ScriptAlias /gsdl/cgi-bin/ "C:/Program Files/Greenstone/cgi-bin"
+  <Directory "C:/Program Files/Greenstone/cgi-bin">
+     Options None
+     AllowOverride None
+  </Directory>
+
+  Alias /gsdl/ "C:/Program Files/Greenstone"
+  <Directory "C:/Program Files/Greenstone">
+     Options Indexes MultiViews FollowSymLinks
+     AllowOverride None
+     Order allow,deny
+     Allow from all
+  </Directory>
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+Content gsdlsite.cfg:
+# this file should be placed in the same directory as your library
+# executable file. it defines parameters that are particular to a
+# given site, and therefore should be edited to suit your site.
+
+# points to the GSDLHOME directory
+gsdlhome    "C:\Program Files\Greenstone"
+
+# this is the http address of GSDLHOME
+# if your webservers DocumentRoot is set to $GSDLHOME
+# then httpprefix can remain commented out
+httpprefix  /gsdl
+
+# this is the http address of the directory which
+# contains the images for the interface.
+# if your webservers DocumentRoot is set to $GSDLHOME
+# then httpimg will be /images
+httpimg     /gsdl/images
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+When I visit http://localhost:8080/gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe, display error:
+Not Found
+
+The requested URL /gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe was not found on this server.
+
+If you know correct this error, you show me. Thank you very much.
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081201/8177f38a/attachment-0001.html
+From ronvave at connect.com.fj  Tue Dec  2 08:18:54 2008
+From: ronvave at connect.com.fj (Ron Vave)
+Date: Wed Dec  3 22:44:24 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Endnote export to GLI
+Message-ID: <001201c953e9$a9ece5d0$fdc6b170$@com.fj>
+
+Bula (hello),
+
+ 
+
+First, I would like to know if the Endnote reference database can somehow be
+imported into Greenstone, and if yes, how do I go about doing this? And if
+there are any disadvantages to this as opposed to entering information
+directly into GLI?
+
+ 
+
+Secondly, I would like to know if its possible to search the archives of
+postings made on this Greenstone listserver, so a person could search that
+first and apply solutions proposed in it, before repeating any postings
+here.
+
+ 
+
+Vinaka (thanks),
+
+Ron Vave
+
+ 
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081202/c5afb300/attachment.html
+From khannadim2007 at gmail.com  Thu Dec  4 00:13:03 2008
+From: khannadim2007 at gmail.com (Nadim Khan)
+Date: Thu Dec  4 00:13:07 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problems in writting hindi in greenstone
+Message-ID: <183057210812030313w5f6f5c22ua295ee9080ddf335@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Dear Collegues,
+
+I am not able to write hindi in greenstone librarian interface.kindly help
+me by providing necessary instructions.i also located hindi.dm in my macros
+file already installed.
+
+
+Thanks
+Nadim Khan
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081203/f88d7cfc/attachment.html
+From khannadim2007 at gmail.com  Thu Dec  4 00:28:28 2008
+From: khannadim2007 at gmail.com (Nadim Khan)
+Date: Thu Dec  4 00:28:36 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem in installing apache 2
+Message-ID: <183057210812030328k3abbd311re6052cfc6a105861@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Dear Collegues ,
+
+i receive this error when i restart apache2
+
+only one usage of each socket address(protocol/network address/port)is
+normaly permitted.:make_sock:could not bind to address 0.0.0.0:80 no
+listening sockets available,shutting down unable to open logs
+
+
+
+kindly help
+
+
+Thanks
+
+Nadim khan
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081203/002cf953/attachment.html
+From jcrump at mercycorps.org  Thu Dec  4 06:38:28 2008
+From: jcrump at mercycorps.org (Jeff Crump)
+Date: Thu Dec  4 06:35:55 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Microsoft Office 2007 revisited
+Message-ID: <B7C2258D2CE34641953C8E1B4C7484500172DADB@mcexchange.mercycorps.org>
+
+Hi, We're on Greenstone 2.52. We are considering an upgrade to 2.8x but our main requirement is that Microsoft Office 2007 documents build properly.
+
+I was told on this list to try 2.8, but we can't find any documentation anywhere saying that Office 2007 (Word, Excel, Powerpoint, etc.) is supported in 2.8.
+
+Can anyone point me to this documentation? Or can anyone verify from experience that Office 2007 documents are supported in Greenstone 2.8 or 2.81? 
+
+If all we need is the right plugin, rather than the full upgrade, that would be great to know, too.
+
+Thanks again,
+Jeff
+
+ 
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Dec  4 13:25:14 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Thu Dec  4 13:25:23 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Microsoft Office 2007 revisited
+In-Reply-To: <B7C2258D2CE34641953C8E1B4C7484500172DADB@mcexchange.mercycorps.org>
+References: <B7C2258D2CE34641953C8E1B4C7484500172DADB@mcexchange.mercycorps.org>
+Message-ID: <56617.72.200.121.229.1228350314.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Jeff
+
+Yes, Greenstone can process Word, Excel, Powerpoint documents. I don't
+exactly know the differences between 2.52 and 2.81. But the basic concept
+didn't change I think, but some small improvements have been made for
+user's convenience, Like the names of plugins have been modified in the
+latest version. Please read the release notes and the link below for
+details.
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Plugins
+
+I think you can install Greenstone 2.81 on a computer, and then build a
+small collection to feel the differences.
+
+If your old collections needn't to be rebuilt and all customization codes
+are in the collection folders, you just need to copy the collect folder to
+the new GREENSTONEHOME/collect, and then see how's going on a web browser.
+If you already made modification on the macros/ folder, you need to
+carefully compare differences first then move them to the new version.
+
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+> Hi, We're on Greenstone 2.52. We are considering an upgrade to 2.8x but
+> our main requirement is that Microsoft Office 2007 documents build
+> properly.
+>
+> I was told on this list to try 2.8, but we can't find any documentation
+> anywhere saying that Office 2007 (Word, Excel, Powerpoint, etc.) is
+> supported in 2.8.
+>
+> Can anyone point me to this documentation? Or can anyone verify from
+> experience that Office 2007 documents are supported in Greenstone 2.8 or
+> 2.81?
+>
+> If all we need is the right plugin, rather than the full upgrade, that
+> would be great to know, too.
+>
+> Thanks again,
+> Jeff
+>
+>
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Dec  4 14:20:04 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Thu Dec  4 14:20:16 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: Word File Processing Problem
+In-Reply-To: <11305d350811262337q5ce7017r3a2dd7e50b150363@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <11305d350811262335u5aca8d25pc4c9b0ecb7a5b0ae@mail.gmail.com>
+	<11305d350811262337q5ce7017r3a2dd7e50b150363@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <49373044.3070105@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello Biju,
+
+While I've had one word document that did not get converted for me, it 
+did not not produce the message you encountered but instead caused the 
+build process to stall indefinitely.
+
+Katherine of the Greenstone Team has told me that the kind of problem 
+you've come up against can happen when the wvware tool that Greenstone 
+uses to convert Word docs to html is not compatible with the version of 
+the Word doc in question.
+
+Here are her suggestions on what you could try:
+1. Instead of using wvware, you could use windows scripting. This is 
+available to you only if you're running GLI on a Windows platform. 
+Windows scripting uses Windows' own capabilities to convert Word docs to 
+html (such as MS Word's Save As HTML option). Please refer to
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/enhanced_word.htm
+for a tutorial that covers this.
+
+2. You can set GLI to run in Expert Mode in order to see a more 
+descriptive error message as to what went wrong. Go to the menu File > 
+Preferences > Mode > Expert.
+
+All the best,
+Anupama
+
+Biju R wrote:
+> Dear Anupama
+>  
+> I was building a word files collection with Greenstone 2.81rc in 
+> windows. I got an error message like "*The file keralam.doc was 
+> recognised but could not be processed by any plugin*" The file is build 
+> with MS Word 2003. Word Pluggin is available in the *Assigned 
+> Pluggins.*  Please give me a solution.
+>  
+> With regards
+> 
+> -- 
+> Biju
+> Kerala, India
+>  
+> 
+> 
+> 
+> -- 
+> Biju R
+> Junior Library & Information Assistant
+> Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode
+> IIMK Campus PO
+> Kozhikode (Dist)
+> Kerala - 673 570
+> Phone: 0495 2809147
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Dec  4 14:44:36 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Thu Dec  4 14:44:45 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Apache & Web library installation
+In-Reply-To: <BAY128-DS63E900AA1EBD4FD2F77FAB6000@phx.gbl>
+References: <BAY0-MC10-F71IKPd5z00208266@bay0-mc10-f7.bay0.hotmail.com>
+	<BAY128-DS63E900AA1EBD4FD2F77FAB6000@phx.gbl>
+Message-ID: <49373604.90601@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello,
+
+Also please have a look at
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Setting_up_an_Apache_Web_Server_for_Greenstone_2_Walkthrough
+where Apache 2.2.8 was used with Greenstone 2.80. (More recently we were 
+successful in using Apache 2.2.10 on the Mac Leopard OS.)
+
+Regards,
+Anupama
+
+Rajan wrote:
+> Dear All,
+> 
+> But I had never experienced any  problem in installing and using gsdl 2.80
+> in Windows XP SP II with Apache 2.2.9.
+> In another institution, it did not work when firewall was on. So we 
+> disabled
+> the firewall.
+> I had used Apache 2.2.4 too previously in my Windows XP successfully.
+> After installation, we need to restart the computer to get the result.
+> During the installation, I provided localhost ( without  any Port No) as
+> ServerName and port no was not mentioned.
+> So it might have used the default port no 80
+> So it appears that the problem is not that of Apache 2.2.9
+> 
+> Regards,
+> 
+> K Rajasekharan
+> Kerala Institute of Local Administration
+> Thrissur
+> 
+> --------------------------------------------------
+>> Original Message:
+>> Date: Tue, 2 Dec 2008 09:23:23 +1300 (NZDT)
+>> From: qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+>> Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] Error Apache
+>> Hi
+>> I met the same problem with Apache2.2.9 on Windows Xp. And I found Apache
+>> 1.3 can server Greenstone perfectly by following the configuration of the
+>> library.txt file. >
+>> Quan>
+>>>  Hi everybody!
+>>>  I installed Apache2.2.9 ang Greenstone 2.72(Web Library). Content
+>>> httpd.conf:
+>>>
+> 
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+> 
+
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Dec  4 15:38:09 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Thu Dec  4 15:38:18 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problems in writting hindi in greenstone
+In-Reply-To: <183057210812030313w5f6f5c22ua295ee9080ddf335@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <183057210812030313w5f6f5c22ua295ee9080ddf335@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <56701.72.200.121.229.1228358289.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Nadim
+
+For Greenstone language support, please read instruction at
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_language_support,
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Language-dependent_text_in_Greenstone,
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Information_for_language_maintainers.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+> Dear Collegues,
+>
+> I am not able to write hindi in greenstone librarian interface.kindly help
+> me by providing necessary instructions.i also located hindi.dm in my
+> macros
+> file already installed.
+>
+>
+> Thanks
+> Nadim Khan
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From trankhoaqn at gmail.com  Thu Dec  4 18:26:19 2008
+From: trankhoaqn at gmail.com (Khoa Tran)
+Date: Thu Dec  4 18:41:05 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Remote greenstone
+Message-ID: <e04902680812032126v57a0da0xa30a5f85596d37a7@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hi everybody!
+I use Greenstone 2.72 and Apache 2.2.10 under Windows XP. I executed steps
+in Remote Greenstone on Greenstone Wiki. I used the stand-alone GLI client
+and no error appear.When I create a new collection but nothing in this. GLI
+has header  Mode Librarian Collection: No collection.
+What is error?
+-------------- next part --------------
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+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081204/300e38e6/attachment.html
+From rajankila at hotmail.com  Thu Dec  4 19:08:10 2008
+From: rajankila at hotmail.com (Rajan)
+Date: Thu Dec  4 19:11:25 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Enabling Indic Languages such as Malayalam in
+	Windows XP 
+In-Reply-To: <BAY0-MC6-F120fM88dc003474eb@bay0-mc6-f12.bay0.hotmail.com>
+References: <BAY0-MC6-F120fM88dc003474eb@bay0-mc6-f12.bay0.hotmail.com>
+Message-ID: <BAY128-DS212FB62B10F2B663EA98AB6020@phx.gbl>
+
+      Dear All,
+     
+      Windows based computers, now, can handle Indic Languages, such as Malayalam, on enabling the Indic Input Method Editor (IME) and by adding the language Keyboard.
+     
+      An IME
+
+      ·         is a component of the operating system, that 
+
+      ·         allows computer users to enter complex characters of languages such as Malayalam 
+
+      ·         using a standard Western Keyboard created for English.
+     
+      IME can be added from the Microsoft Windows/Office CD or from the Downloads link under the For End Users section of the www.bhashaindia.com 
+     
+      To enable Malayalam on the Windows XP platform (Service Pack II necessary), the following simple 5-step procedure is to be followed :
+
+        1.. The support for Malayalam IMEs can be enabled by going to Control Panel and then on the button titled "Regional and Language Options". Three options will emerge as tabs: Regional Options, Languages and Advanced.  Select the Languages tab. Check the box titled "Install files for complex scripts and left-to-right languages (including Thai)" and click Apply. Then insert the Windows XP CD to finish the configuration.  
+        2.. Run the Malayalam IME setup file and restart the computer.  
+        3.. To enable the recognition of the keyboard layout the user must go to the Control Panel and then on to Regional and Language Options button. Of the three tabs available, select the Languages tab. Then click on the Details. . . button in the Text services and input languages section. Upon clicking the button, select Malayalam as the input language and Add Malayalam as the keyboard. In the option box that ensues, select Malayalam Indic IME 1 as the option. 
+        4.. After the installation is complete, start any Office application, including WordPad or Notepad. Click the Language Indicator located in the System Tray on the right side of the Windows taskbar, and click to select "Malayalam Indic IME 1 from the shortcut menu that appears. The computer can be used to create language documents or type metadata in GLI.
+     
+
+Regards,
+
+K Rajasekharan
+Kerala Institute of Local Administration
+Thrissur
+
+--------------------------------------------------
+> ------------------------------
+> 
+> Original Message: 
+> Date: Wed, 3 Dec 2008 03:13:03 -0800
+> From: "Nadim Khan" <khannadim2007@gmail.com>
+> Subject: [greenstone-users] Problems in writting hindi in greenstone
+> To: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>  Dear Collegues,
+> 
+> I am not able to write hindi in greenstone librarian interface.kindly help
+> me by providing necessary instructions.i also located hindi.dm in my macros
+> file already installed.
+> 
+> Nadim Khan
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081204/cb1632f8/attachment.html
+From e at robinson.org.nz  Thu Dec  4 21:32:01 2008
+From: e at robinson.org.nz (E Robinson)
+Date: Thu Dec  4 21:32:03 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Reader of a CD with a Greenstone collection
+In-Reply-To: <4920D52B.5080009@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <000f01c93933$1a81a870$4f84f950$@de>
+	<4920D52B.5080009@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <49379581.90306@robinson.org.nz>
+
+I have published two fairly small Greenstone collections on a CD, and 
+have found that some have given up trying to install it through problems 
+they have encountered.
+
+What is the minimum configuration and other software needed to install a 
+collection on a Windows computer? Is Java needed for accessing a collection?
+
+I have put the following note with later CDs and it has slowed the 
+complaints, but many of the users are not very computer literate, and 
+problems are still occurring. One user told me today that he was able to 
+install on his work machine but cannot on his home machine.
+_____________________________________________________________________
+The CD should be self installing. We recommend using the directory 
+suggested by the installation programme for the Greenstone software, and 
+when the choice is given electing to install the collections to the hard 
+disk (provided there is room on the hard disk; the installation process 
+suggests that about 800Mb is needed). If the collections are not loaded 
+to the hard disk they still run reasonable well, if a little slower, but 
+the CD is needed each time the collections are used.
+
+The CD will not install properly on computers using operating systems 
+other than Windows. Some users have experienced problems with the 
+software wishing to set itself up as a local server ? it may need to be 
+authorised in the Windows or other Firewall. It has been suggested that 
+because it does act that way, users who do not have a firewall may be 
+best to disconnect from the internet while using the programme, but we 
+are not aware of any problems from leaving internet connections open 
+while running the Library.
+_______________________________________________________________________
+
+The next version will almost certainly be hosted on a web site, but that 
+will not be until next year . . .
+
+Thanks
+Ed Robinson
+Wellington, New Zealand
+
+
+
+From thaotk2 at gmail.com  Thu Dec  4 16:05:38 2008
+From: thaotk2 at gmail.com (Thao Thao)
+Date: Thu Dec  4 21:59:14 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Error Remote
+Message-ID: <4409126a0812031905o2cb980f9id03ef014dae38488@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Skipped content of type multipart/alternative-------------- next part --------------
+A non-text attachment was scrubbed...
+Name: lloi.bmp
+Type: image/bmp
+Size: 678758 bytes
+Desc: not available
+Url : https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081204/b249ab46/lloi-0001.bmp
+From sklein at pratt.edu  Fri Dec  5 03:05:53 2008
+From: sklein at pratt.edu (Stephen I. Klein)
+Date: Fri Dec  5 03:05:19 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] oaister
+Message-ID: <003c01c95619$6ba1d970$42e58c50$@edu>
+
+We are migrating our digital collections and need to keep our collection OAI
+harvestable.  We currently have a presence via OAIster
+(http://oaister.umdl.umich.edu/o/oaister/) and have intermediated through
+the Los Alamos Gateway at:
+
+http://libtest.lanl.gov/
+
+Does Greenstone allow for the building of OAI compliant XML files that are
+successfully intermediated via a standard gateway and harvestable with
+OAIster?
+
+The following page suggests the inverse:
+
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/OAI_support
+
+Any suggestions to approach this goal would be greatly appreciated.  Thank
+you.
+
+Regards,
+
+
+Stephen I. Klein
+Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+Assistant Professor
+Pratt Institute Library
+200 Willoughby Avenue
+Brooklyn, NY 11205
+sklein@pratt.edu
+(718) 399 4423
+Pratt
+
+ 
+
+
+From johnrose at alumni.caltech.edu  Fri Dec  5 03:04:47 2008
+From: johnrose at alumni.caltech.edu (John Rose)
+Date: Fri Dec  5 03:06:05 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Endnote export to GLI
+In-Reply-To: <20081204023826.90AA73F2281@mail.alumni.caltech.edu>
+References: <20081204023826.90AA73F2281@mail.alumni.caltech.edu>
+Message-ID: <20081204140535.308BC3F22E0@mail.alumni.caltech.edu>
+
+Dear Ron,
+
+I understand that there is an option in Endnote to export to BibTex, 
+and there is a BibTex plugin for Greenstone. So that if this works, 
+it would be simpler and in principle more error resistant than 
+directly reformatting the metadata to confirm to Greenstone standards.
+
+Please let us know if this works. Some of the bibliographic database 
+plugins, including perhaps BibTex, were apparently developed a long 
+time ago for specific applications and may have hitches. Best 
+regards, John of Greenstone Team
+
+P.S. The CDS/ISIS plugin was completely reworked in 2006 and the 
+ProCite plugin has been refined in version 2.81rc but not yet widely 
+tested. We are carefully monitoring for user feedback.
+
+>From: "Ron Vave" <ronvave@connect.com.fj>
+>Precedence: list
+>To: <greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+>Date: Tue, 2 Dec 2008 07:18:54 +1200
+>Reply-To: ronvave@connect.com.fj
+>Subject: [greenstone-users] Endnote export to GLI
+>Message: 1
+>
+>Bula (hello),
+>
+>First, I would like to know if the Endnote reference database can 
+>somehow be imported into Greenstone, and if yes, how do I go about 
+>doing this? And if there are any disadvantages to this as opposed to 
+>entering information directly into GLI?
+>
+>Secondly, I would like to know if its possible to search the 
+>archives of postings made on this Greenstone listserver, so a person 
+>could search that first and apply solutions proposed in it, before 
+>repeating any postings here.
+>
+>Vinaka (thanks),
+>Ron Vave
+>
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081204/688c5c49/attachment.html
+From jsharif at jjay.cuny.edu  Fri Dec  5 05:16:21 2008
+From: jsharif at jjay.cuny.edu (Javeria Sharif)
+Date: Fri Dec  5 05:16:30 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Moving Collect folder
+Message-ID: <0KBD00BM60ZGY6@scms1.jjay.cuny.edu>
+
+Hi group,
+
+ 
+
+I have greenstone set up on a server. We just bought a network storage
+device and we want to move the collect folder to the network storage device.
+Is there a way I can do that what setting I would need to change if I move
+the folder? Thanks 
+
+ 
+
+Javeria Sharif
+
+Library Webmaster
+
+Lloyd Sealy Library John Jay College of Criminal Justice, CUNY
+
+899 Tenth Ave, New York, NY 10019
+
+jsharif@jjay.cuny.edu
+
+ 
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081204/b2e257c4/attachment.html
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Fri Dec  5 10:32:55 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Fri Dec  5 10:33:04 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Remote greenstone
+In-Reply-To: <e04902680812032126v57a0da0xa30a5f85596d37a7@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <e04902680812032126v57a0da0xa30a5f85596d37a7@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <14427.206.207.225.22.1228426375.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Khoa
+
+Please download Greenstone 2.81, and then try the remote GLI again by
+following the instruction on Wiki.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+
+> Hi everybody!
+> I use Greenstone 2.72 and Apache 2.2.10 under Windows XP. I executed steps
+> in Remote Greenstone on Greenstone Wiki. I used the stand-alone GLI client
+> and no error appear.When I create a new collection but nothing in this.
+> GLI
+> has header  Mode Librarian Collection: No collection.
+> What is error?
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Fri Dec  5 10:40:29 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Fri Dec  5 10:40:39 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Error Remote
+In-Reply-To: <4409126a0812031905o2cb980f9id03ef014dae38488@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4409126a0812031905o2cb980f9id03ef014dae38488@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <7670.206.207.225.22.1228426829.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Thao
+
+The error message showed that JarSinger couldn't be found from the path.
+You have to check whether the Java_JDK\bin folder has been included into
+the path, and is there a JarSinger class under the Java_JDK\bin folder?
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+>  Hi every body!
+>  Thanks you for help me. I installed Apache2.2.10 but when I configuration
+> remote, to step:
+>   Run
+>
+>     jarsigner -keystore appletstore -signedjar SignedGatherer.jar
+> GLI.jar privateKey
+>
+> appear error(you can see image in attach a file).
+> I downloaded SignedGatherer.jar and executed next step but it still error.
+> Can you show me the way correct this error.
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Fri Dec  5 10:51:08 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Fri Dec  5 10:51:18 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Moving Collect folder
+In-Reply-To: <0KBD00BM60ZGY6@scms1.jjay.cuny.edu>
+References: <0KBD00BM60ZGY6@scms1.jjay.cuny.edu>
+Message-ID: <51787.206.207.225.22.1228427468.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Javeria
+
+You probably can try to create a symbolic link to the collect folder in
+the storage device.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+> Hi group,
+>
+>
+>
+> I have greenstone set up on a server. We just bought a network storage
+> device and we want to move the collect folder to the network storage
+> device.
+> Is there a way I can do that what setting I would need to change if I move
+> the folder? Thanks
+>
+>
+>
+> Javeria Sharif
+>
+> Library Webmaster
+>
+> Lloyd Sealy Library John Jay College of Criminal Justice, CUNY
+>
+> 899 Tenth Ave, New York, NY 10019
+>
+> jsharif@jjay.cuny.edu
+>
+>
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Fri Dec  5 11:22:05 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Fri Dec  5 11:22:15 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Reader of a CD with a Greenstone collection
+In-Reply-To: <49379581.90306@robinson.org.nz>
+References: <000f01c93933$1a81a870$4f84f950$@de>
+	<4920D52B.5080009@cs.waikato.ac.nz> <49379581.90306@robinson.org.nz>
+Message-ID: <11427.206.207.225.22.1228429325.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Ed
+
+> What is the minimum configuration and other software needed to install a
+> collection on a Windows computer?
+No other software is needed to be installed if you want to run a
+collection exported from Greenstone.
+
+>Is Java needed for accessing a
+> collection?
+Web browsing of Greenstone 2 is implemented in C. And the exported
+collection has included a C binary code for serving the Greenstone pages.
+So you don't have to install any JAVA for it.
+
+>One user told me today that he was able to
+> install on his work machine but cannot on his home machine.
+If you send the error message of the exported greenstone collection cannot
+run to the mailing list, it may be help for developers to locate the
+problem.
+
+>Some users have experienced problems with the
+> software wishing to set itself up as a local server
+The exported collection only can be viewed locally, it cannot be access
+from the network. If you want the collections to be accessed from the
+network, you have to install the Greenstone software.
+
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+
+> I have published two fairly small Greenstone collections on a CD, and
+> have found that some have given up trying to install it through problems
+> they have encountered.
+>
+> What is the minimum configuration and other software needed to install a
+> collection on a Windows computer? Is Java needed for accessing a
+> collection?
+>
+> I have put the following note with later CDs and it has slowed the
+> complaints, but many of the users are not very computer literate, and
+> problems are still occurring. One user told me today that he was able to
+> install on his work machine but cannot on his home machine.
+> _____________________________________________________________________
+> The CD should be self installing. We recommend using the directory
+> suggested by the installation programme for the Greenstone software, and
+> when the choice is given electing to install the collections to the hard
+> disk (provided there is room on the hard disk; the installation process
+> suggests that about 800Mb is needed). If the collections are not loaded
+> to the hard disk they still run reasonable well, if a little slower, but
+> the CD is needed each time the collections are used.
+>
+> The CD will not install properly on computers using operating systems
+> other than Windows. Some users have experienced problems with the
+> software wishing to set itself up as a local server  it may need to be
+> authorised in the Windows or other Firewall. It has been suggested that
+> because it does act that way, users who do not have a firewall may be
+> best to disconnect from the internet while using the programme, but we
+> are not aware of any problems from leaving internet connections open
+> while running the Library.
+> _______________________________________________________________________
+>
+> The next version will almost certainly be hosted on a web site, but that
+> will not be until next year . . .
+>
+> Thanks
+> Ed Robinson
+> Wellington, New Zealand
+>
+>
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From m.mehrling at neu.edu  Sat Dec  6 07:31:28 2008
+From: m.mehrling at neu.edu (m.mehrling@neu.edu)
+Date: Sat Dec  6 07:31:37 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] links from AZCompact list 
+In-Reply-To: <49373604.90601@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <OF895431A4.B6583C4B-ON85257516.00643869-85257516.0065B076@neu.edu>
+
+Hello,
+
+Instead of using icons, I would like to link from an AZCompact list of 
+subjects ("open this section of the library and view contents") to the 
+page with the full list of each subject ("close this section of the 
+library").  I have figured out how to make the link using 
+[link][Title][/link], but on the second page there is a link back (to the 
+list of subjects) but also a link with the name of the file(I think it's 
+ex.title) which doesn't go anywhere useful.  How can I get rid of the link 
+of the name of the file?  It seems to be linked to the subject name 
+somehow.
+
+Also,  I am looking for more instruction on manipulating the macros and 
+config files, and maybe even looking at the source code.  I've been using 
+the wiki and listserv archives, are there any other resources I should be 
+checking?
+
+Thanks very much for any help,
+Martin
+
+************************************
+Martin Mehrling
+Digital Systems Specialist
+m.mehrling@neu.edu
+617.373.5885
+========================
+301 Snell Library
+Northeastern University
+Boston, Massachusetts 02115
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081205/fe4f0840/attachment.html
+From jbfox at sdb.org  Sun Dec  7 03:26:18 2008
+From: jbfox at sdb.org (Julian Fox)
+Date: Sun Dec  7 03:26:30 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] the wvWare solution
+Message-ID: <493A8B8A.3010804@sdb.org>
+
+Dear List,
+An issue that has bugged me for a while is now resolved - simply enough, 
+I must add, but I wonder if people in the GS Team could take a note of 
+this please, if they have not already done so for 2.81. It concerns the 
+version of wvWare that comes with 2.80, and which handles conversion of 
+MS files, particularly Word.  It is an older version, and while wvWare 
+has remained somewhat static for a few years, there is a newer version 
+1.2.4 which works better than the one shipped with GS 2.80.  Could this 
+newer version be included, please, in upgrades of GS?
+I realise that the issue is less important for Windows users, who can 
+overcome problems by using Windows scripting, but in my case, using 
+Ubuntu 8.10 and GS 2.80, MSWord files were simply not being converted to 
+html as they should be, and I was left with hieroglyphics instead of 
+readable text. By replacing the wvWare file in the gsdl/bin/linux folder 
+(that was sufficient, nothing else needed) with the 1.2.4 version I 
+resolved the problem. It also seems to have resolved a similar problem I 
+was having with ppt files.  I might add, for anyone using Linux, that I 
+had to download a few lib file dependencies to compile wvWare, and that 
+kept me a bit preoccupied for a while until I succeeded, but that's by 
+the way. Beyond that, the problem was resolved.
+Julian
+
+From rmorgenstern at unam.na  Sun Dec  7 04:53:09 2008
+From: rmorgenstern at unam.na (rmorgenstern@unam.na)
+Date: Sun Dec  7 07:09:56 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Large CDS/ISIS database
+Message-ID: <20081206155309.yzwp22hy808kcggo@webmail.unam.na>
+
+Good day,
+
+I want to explode a CDS/ISIS database with 32146 records.  Is there a  
+limit to the number of records that can be exploded? I used 100  
+records per folder. It just hangs for a long while and then actually  
+explodes some records, but not all the 32146.
+Here is the error message:  For testing purposes I entered 3 file  
+names of tiff files in the last 3 records of the database with the  
+corresponding files in the prefix folder.  If necessary I can send the  
+database master file, the FDT and XRF off list.
+
+Thanks very much
+Renate Morgenstern
+
+  Number of records: 32146
+  Obtaining document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416...
+  doc file full = c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+  WARNING: Could not obtain document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+  Creating a nul document 2416.nul
+  Obtaining document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416...
+  doc file full = c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+  WARNING: Could not obtain document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+  Creating a nul document 2416.nul
+  Obtaining document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416...
+  doc file full = c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+  WARNING: Could not obtain document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+  Creating a nul document 2416.nul
+  Obtaining document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416...
+  doc file full = c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+  WARNING: Could not obtain document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+  Creating a nul document 2416.nul
+  Obtaining document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416...
+  doc file full = c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+  WARNING: Could not obtain document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+  Creating a nul document 2416.nul
+  Obtaining document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416...
+  doc file full = c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+  WARNING: Could not obtain document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+  Creating a nul document 2416.nul
+  Obtaining document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416...
+  doc file full = c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+  WARNING: Could not obtain document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+  Creating a nul document 2416.nul
+  Obtaining document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416...
+  doc file full = c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+
+
+----------------------------------------------------------------
+This message was sent using IMP, the Internet Messaging Program.
+
+
+
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Dec  8 10:06:07 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Dec  8 10:06:22 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] oaister
+In-Reply-To: <003c01c95619$6ba1d970$42e58c50$@edu>
+References: <003c01c95619$6ba1d970$42e58c50$@edu>
+Message-ID: <493C3ABF.2000506@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081208/8f7339d0/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Dec  8 10:59:59 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Dec  8 11:00:09 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problems in writting hindi in greenstone
+In-Reply-To: <183057210812030313w5f6f5c22ua295ee9080ddf335@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <183057210812030313w5f6f5c22ua295ee9080ddf335@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <493C475F.6020805@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081208/a5b564b9/attachment-0001.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Dec  8 11:50:44 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Dec  8 11:51:01 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Word plugin with windows_scripting problem
+	with	MS Office (russian)
+In-Reply-To: <492E8ACB.6030601@bntu.by>
+References: <492E8ACB.6030601@bntu.by>
+Message-ID: <493C5344.2070202@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello,
+
+Please send us your questions in English, as this is an English-language 
+mailing list.
+
+Here is a translation of what you wrote to us, courtesy of Olena:
+ >the letter says the following:
+ >
+ > they have issues with encoding. When they use DOC file and normal
+ > conversion method, it's all fine, but when they use windows_scripting
+ > the encoding is not readable. There is also a problem with Equation
+ > Editor, Mathtype formulas and special characters in MS Office, which
+ > go missing when the PDF file is converted.
+ > They ask to help with this issue.
+
+1. Could you please send us one of the documents you are working with, 
+for us to look at it here and try it out.
+2. We are not sure we understand the final part of your question. (You 
+wrote that the "special characters in MS Office ... go missing when the 
+PDF file is converted.") Is it that you are trying to put a PDF document 
+or a Word/Office document into Greenstone?
+
+Please reply in English, because unfortunately we do not understand Russian.
+
+Thanks and regards,
+Anupama
+
+
+shaman wrote:
+> ???????????? ?????????,
+> ??? ?????? ? ?? ???????? ???????? ? ??????????, ??? ??????????? 
+> ?????????? ????? ??????? ??????? ????????????????? ???????? ???????? 
+> ?????????, ? ??? ??????????? ? ??????? windows_scripting ????????? ?? 
+> ??????????. ????? ?????????? ???????? ? Equation Editor, Mathtype 
+> ????????? ? ????????????? MS Office, ?????? ?????????????? ??? 
+> ??????????? PDF ??????????. ?????? ?????? ??? ? ??????? ???? ???????.
+> 
+> 
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> 
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Dec  8 12:36:19 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Dec  8 12:36:29 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Microsoft Office 2007 revisited
+In-Reply-To: <B7C2258D2CE34641953C8E1B4C7484500172DAF1@mcexchange.mercycorps.org>
+References: <B7C2258D2CE34641953C8E1B4C7484500172DADB@mcexchange.mercycorps.org>
+	<49373DB5.8010903@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<B7C2258D2CE34641953C8E1B4C7484500172DAF1@mcexchange.mercycorps.org>
+Message-ID: <493C5DF3.504@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081208/3f2fb59c/attachment.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Dec  8 12:54:52 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Dec  8 12:55:02 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Greenstone and OSX
+In-Reply-To: <4CD75E25-5F63-4B14-9314-B583E9A65B10@namibian.com.na>
+References: <4CD75E25-5F63-4B14-9314-B583E9A65B10@namibian.com.na>
+Message-ID: <493C624C.7040007@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081208/ed405267/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Dec  8 13:03:02 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Dec  8 13:03:14 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Weights File - ver. 2.8
+In-Reply-To: <OFD3F79930.6B5C03AA-ON0A2574C5.006E9DE1-0A2574C5.006F3DFA@hawaii.gov>
+References: <OFD3F79930.6B5C03AA-ON0A2574C5.006E9DE1-0A2574C5.006F3DFA@hawaii.gov>
+Message-ID: <493C6436.2090203@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081208/c6c3c9ba/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Dec  8 14:32:52 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Dec  8 14:33:01 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] I need help !!
+In-Reply-To: <42689.49628.qm@web38603.mail.mud.yahoo.com>
+References: <42689.49628.qm@web38603.mail.mud.yahoo.com>
+Message-ID: <493C7944.6060902@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081208/837481ce/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Dec  8 15:01:01 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Dec  8 15:01:12 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem with cover images
+In-Reply-To: <20081125185107.BTU65627@expms4.cites.uiuc.edu>
+References: <20081125185107.BTU65627@expms4.cites.uiuc.edu>
+Message-ID: <493C7FDD.3020703@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081208/5c636d4d/attachment-0001.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Dec  8 15:02:48 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Dec  8 15:02:59 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: AZCompact or Generic list and accents
+In-Reply-To: <1227596676.492ba38471233@webmail.bondy.ird.fr>
+References: <1227596676.492ba38471233@webmail.bondy.ird.fr>
+Message-ID: <493C8048.3090804@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081208/8a6c54a2/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Dec  8 15:06:25 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Dec  8 15:06:35 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Lucene indexer didn't work on exported CD-ROM
+	collection
+In-Reply-To: <c09e909f0810070031h65eca419ie730864c9f6075b2@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <c09e909f0809250431n32966c88xeb2a5062656c2ebf@mail.gmail.com>	
+	<48EA7D44.9090906@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<c09e909f0810070031h65eca419ie730864c9f6075b2@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <493C8121.5070904@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081208/58c25843/attachment.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Dec  8 15:13:45 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Dec  8 15:13:54 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] how to edit messages
+In-Reply-To: <574730.51876.qm@web8901.mail.in.yahoo.com>
+References: <574730.51876.qm@web8901.mail.in.yahoo.com>
+Message-ID: <493C82D9.2000703@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081208/36f87174/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Dec  8 15:24:58 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Dec  8 15:25:10 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Cross Collection "Infection"
+In-Reply-To: <da83a5eb0810171435n7b449a10naff94dd0426c516d@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <46F3D19F020000900000D85F@hermes.cwu.edu>
+	<da83a5eb0810171435n7b449a10naff94dd0426c516d@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <493C857A.50304@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081208/8f19ac52/attachment.html
+From sklein at pratt.edu  Tue Dec  9 03:14:30 2008
+From: sklein at pratt.edu (Stephen I. Klein)
+Date: Tue Dec  9 03:14:11 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] oaister
+In-Reply-To: <493C3ABF.2000506@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <003c01c95619$6ba1d970$42e58c50$@edu>
+	<493C3ABF.2000506@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <004301c9593f$4994a5a0$dcbdf0e0$@edu>
+
+Katherine,
+
+ 
+
+Thank you for your comprehensive reply.
+
+ 
+
+I merely want to be able to:
+
+ 
+
+1>     produce an OAI compliant XML file with Greenstone, so I could indeed 
+
+2>     Intermediate with a gateway (such as Los Alamos) and 
+
+3>     harvest with OAIster. 
+
+ 
+
+Previously, I performed step 1 with Luna and steps 2 and 3 as described.
+
+ 
+
+Does Greenstone produce OAI compliant XML files? Or can I export my Dublin
+Core from Greenstone to a XML file that is OAI compliant?
+
+ 
+
+Stephen
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+Stephen I. Klein
+Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+Assistant Professor
+Pratt Institute Library
+200 Willoughby Avenue
+Brooklyn, NY 11205
+sklein@pratt.edu
+(718) 399 4423
+Pratt
+
+ 
+
+From: Katherine Don [mailto:kjdon@cs.waikato.ac.nz] 
+Sent: Sunday, December 07, 2008 04:06 PM
+To: Stephen I. Klein
+Cc: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz; John Rose
+Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] oaister
+
+ 
+
+Hi Stephen
+
+I have just had a look on the web at OAIster and static repositories. Sorry,
+I should have done this before I replied to you the first time.
+
+After my 5 mins of reading, this is what I understand the situation is.
+Please correct me if I am wrong.
+
+OAIster harvests OAI repositories. To become a data provider, you need to
+check your repository against a validator, and then register.
+If you don't have a proper OAI server, then you can set up a static OAI
+repository, which is an XML file. 
+These may be harvested by OAI repository gateways, which is what you are
+trying to do?
+
+Greenstone provides a proper OAI repository server (oaiserver), and from
+version 2.81 and later should validate against the repository validator
+specified on the OAIster "Steps to Becoming a Data Contributor" page.
+
+We currently don't provide exporting a collection as an OAI static
+repository. 
+
+Is there a reason why you wish to keep using a static repository rather than
+setting up the proper OAI repository?
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+Stephen I. Klein wrote: 
+
+We are migrating our digital collections and need to keep our collection OAI
+harvestable.  We currently have a presence via OAIster
+(http://oaister.umdl.umich.edu/o/oaister/) and have intermediated through
+the Los Alamos Gateway at:
+ 
+http://libtest.lanl.gov/
+ 
+Does Greenstone allow for the building of OAI compliant XML files that are
+successfully intermediated via a standard gateway and harvestable with
+OAIster?
+ 
+The following page suggests the inverse:
+ 
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/OAI_support
+ 
+Any suggestions to approach this goal would be greatly appreciated.  Thank
+you.
+ 
+Regards,
+ 
+ 
+Stephen I. Klein
+Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+Assistant Professor
+Pratt Institute Library
+200 Willoughby Avenue
+Brooklyn, NY 11205
+sklein@pratt.edu
+(718) 399 4423
+Pratt
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+  _____  
+
+
+
+ 
+_______________________________________________
+greenstone-users mailing list
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+  
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081208/4e6db7dd/attachment-0001.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec  9 07:35:18 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Tue Dec  9 07:33:12 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] oaister
+In-Reply-To: <004301c9593f$4994a5a0$dcbdf0e0$@edu>
+References: <003c01c95619$6ba1d970$42e58c50$@edu>
+	<493C3ABF.2000506@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<004301c9593f$4994a5a0$dcbdf0e0$@edu>
+Message-ID: <493D68E6.4000001@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Stephen
+
+No, Greenstone currently doesn't provide this option, as we provide a 
+proper OAI repository (which you can use directly with OAIster).
+I have added a ticket to our trac bug/feature tracking system, so it may 
+get added in the future.
+http://trac.greenstone.org/ticket/431
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+Stephen I. Klein wrote:
+>
+>  
+>
+> Thank you for your comprehensive reply.
+>
+>  
+>
+> I merely want to be able to:
+>
+>  
+>
+> 1>     produce an OAI compliant XML file with Greenstone, so I could 
+> indeed
+>
+> 2>     Intermediate with a gateway (such as Los Alamos) and
+>
+> 3>     harvest with OAIster.
+>
+>  
+>
+> Previously, I performed step 1 with Luna and steps 2 and 3 as described.
+>
+>  
+>
+> Does Greenstone produce OAI compliant XML files? Or can I export my 
+> Dublin Core from Greenstone to a XML file that is OAI compliant?
+>
+>  
+>
+> Stephen
+>
+>  
+>
+>  
+>
+>  
+>
+> Stephen I. Klein
+> Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+> Assistant Professor
+> Pratt Institute Library
+> 200 Willoughby Avenue
+> Brooklyn, NY 11205
+> sklein@pratt.edu <mailto:sklein@pratt.edu>
+> (718) 399 4423
+> *P**ra**t**t*
+>
+>  
+>
+> *From:* Katherine Don [mailto:kjdon@cs.waikato.ac.nz]
+> *Sent:* Sunday, December 07, 2008 04:06 PM
+> *To:* Stephen I. Klein
+> *Cc:* greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz; John Rose
+> *Subject:* Re: [greenstone-users] oaister
+>
+>  
+>
+> Hi Stephen
+>
+> I have just had a look on the web at OAIster and static repositories. 
+> Sorry, I should have done this before I replied to you the first time.
+>
+> After my 5 mins of reading, this is what I understand the situation 
+> is. Please correct me if I am wrong.
+>
+> OAIster harvests OAI repositories. To become a data provider, you need 
+> to check your repository against a validator, and then register.
+> If you don't have a proper OAI server, then you can set up a static 
+> OAI repository, which is an XML file.
+> These may be harvested by OAI repository gateways, which is what you 
+> are trying to do?
+>
+> Greenstone provides a proper OAI repository server (oaiserver), and 
+> from version 2.81 and later should validate against the repository 
+> validator specified on the OAIster "Steps to Becoming a Data 
+> Contributor" page.
+>
+> We currently don't provide exporting a collection as an OAI static 
+> repository.
+>
+> Is there a reason why you wish to keep using a static repository 
+> rather than setting up the proper OAI repository?
+>
+> Regards,
+> Katherine
+>
+> Stephen I. Klein wrote:
+>
+> We are migrating our digital collections and need to keep our collection OAI
+> harvestable.  We currently have a presence via OAIster
+> (http://oaister.umdl.umich.edu/o/oaister/) and have intermediated through
+> the Los Alamos Gateway at:
+>  
+> http://libtest.lanl.gov/
+>  
+> Does Greenstone allow for the building of OAI compliant XML files that are
+> successfully intermediated via a standard gateway and harvestable with
+> OAIster?
+>  
+> The following page suggests the inverse:
+>  
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/OAI_support
+>  
+> Any suggestions to approach this goal would be greatly appreciated.  Thank
+> you.
+>  
+> Regards,
+>  
+>  
+> Stephen I. Klein
+> Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+> Assistant Professor
+> Pratt Institute Library
+> 200 Willoughby Avenue
+> Brooklyn, NY 11205
+> sklein@pratt.edu <mailto:sklein@pratt.edu>
+> (718) 399 4423
+> Pratt
+>  
+>  
+>  
+>  
+>   
+>  
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+>
+>
+>   
+>  
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz <mailto:greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>   
+
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec  9 07:41:13 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Tue Dec  9 07:39:08 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] OAI and DC metadata
+In-Reply-To: <746E6A427A7A4D489E4841B8C8EA78610242DA15@S01EXC005.mairie.toulouse.intra>
+References: <746E6A427A7A4D489E4841B8C8EA78610242DA15@S01EXC005.mairie.toulouse.intra>
+Message-ID: <493D6A49.1010306@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Patrick
+
+The 2.81 release has been modified so that the OAI metadata will remain 
+as dublin core. So I suggest you try that release. (greenstone.org/download)
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+HERNEBRING Patrick wrote:
+>
+> Hi list,
+>
+> I?m testing the OAI service provider using Greenstone 2.80. I tried to 
+> harvest some repositories and have been able to download both metadata 
+> and documents. But it seems that the imported Dublin core metadata are 
+> transformed into extracted Greenstone metadata (e.g. ex.Title, 
+> ex.Subjects?)
+>
+> Is it possible to extract The Dublin core metadata and to have them 
+> directly dispatched in the appropriated DC fields ??
+>
+> All the best,
+>
+> Patrick Hernebring
+>
+> Musique et numérisation
+>
+> Bibliothèque d'Etude et du Patrimoine
+>
+> Bibliothèque de Toulouse
+>
+> 1 rue de Périgord
+>
+> 31000 Toulouse
+>
+> 05.61.22.63.76
+>
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>   
+
+From spomerg at cwu.EDU  Wed Dec 10 08:03:51 2008
+From: spomerg at cwu.EDU (Gavin Spomer)
+Date: Wed Dec 10 08:08:30 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: [greenstone-devel] Plugin Developement
+In-Reply-To: <493C7585.8050605@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <4105c9810812010409r164596ddxf4c77be57e8d06ac@mail.gmail.com>
+	<493C7585.8050605@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <493E5097.D9EE.0090.0@gwmail.cwu.edu>
+
+Thanks Katherine.
+
+
+Gavin Spomer
+Systems Programmer
+Brooks Library
+Central Washington University
+
+
+
+>>> Katherine Don <kjdon@cs.waikato.ac.nz> 12/07/08 5:16 PM >>> 
+Hi Amin (and Gavin, since you asked this question a while ago)
+
+There is not much documentation, sorry. There is a little bit on the wiki, and some of it hasn't been updated, so different pages may relate to different versions of greenstone. The plugin structures have changed for 2.81. If you are developing plugins, then I suggest you use 2.81 as the new inheritance hierarchy should make it easier to develop a new plugin.
+
+The best way is to start with the plugin that is most similar to what you want to do, then modify the bits of code that need to be different.
+
+On the wiki:
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Plugins : is a list of all plugins and what they do (2.81+)
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Explaining_Plugins : a bit more info about the code (2.80-)
+http://www.greenstone.org/manuals/gsdl2/en/html/Chapter_getting_the_most_out_of_your_documents.htm: part of the developers guide, talking about plugins.
+
+I want to update the wiki with this kind of info about developing plugins, but just never seem to find the time...
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+Amin Hedjazi wrote:hi there
+does any boyd knows where i can fined some documents on greenstone plugin developements
+and the plugin programatical structures ?
+_______________________________________________
+greenstone-devel mailing listgreenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nzhttps://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-devel  
+
+
+
+From spomerg at cwu.EDU  Wed Dec 10 08:16:25 2008
+From: spomerg at cwu.EDU (Gavin Spomer)
+Date: Wed Dec 10 08:17:40 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Cross Collection "Infection"
+In-Reply-To: <493C857A.50304@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <46F3D19F020000900000D85F@hermes.cwu.edu>
+	<da83a5eb0810171435n7b449a10naff94dd0426c516d@mail.gmail.com>
+	<493C857A.50304@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <493E5389.D9EE.0090.0@gwmail.cwu.edu>
+
+Wow. This was a long time ago. ;)
+
+I'm still using Greenstone 2.72. Currently, the problem has either corrected itself or no image collections have been built by our archivist. I would test, but am just swamped right now. When the problem exists, building an image collection only affects the the paged image collection. When building the paged image collection, it does not affect the image collection. It's like the image collections are ganging up on the paged image collection because it's different. LOL! ;)
+
+- Gavin
+
+>>> Katherine Don <kjdon@cs.waikato.ac.nz> 12/07/08 6:24 PM >>> 
+Hi there
+
+Weird! What versions of Greenstone are you using?
+Gavin, when you build the image collections, do they affect any of the other image collections? And if you build the pagedimage collection, does it not affect the image collections?
+
+James, you are having a paged image collection affecting an image collection?
+
+Are your thumbnails all called thumbnail.jpg? The images that are affecting the different collections, do they have the same name?
+
+In Greenstone 2.81 the thumbnails have the original file name as part of their name, so hopefully this won't happen any more. (I hope you are not seeing this in 2.81!)
+
+Cheers,
+Katherine
+
+James Fournie wrote:I am having this problem as well, and so I thought I'd bump this topic
+in case Gavin has solved it or anyone has any feedback on it.
+
+I have several paged image collections and a photo collection.  I
+should note that the paged image collections are heavily customized
+with HTML and CSS.  When I search the (uncustomized) photo collection,
+I see thumbnails from the paged image collections in the search
+results, and those thumbnail photos are in the photo collection's
+folder under index/assoc/HASH0122.dir/thumbnail.gif -- these files
+themselves are the wrong thumbnails, but only the thumbnails seem
+wrong (the full size and screenview seem fine).
+
+I suspect there is something going wrong when the thumbnails are
+generated during collection building, maybe with the tmp folder.  but
+I'm not sure exactly what's causing the cross pollination.
+
+~James
+
+On Fri, Sep 21, 2007 at 2:13 PM, Gavin Spomer <spomerg@cwu.edu> ( mailto:spomerg@cwu.edu ) wrote:
+   
+
+I have a problem that has me totally stumped. On our Greenstone server we have 8 image collections and 1 paged-image collection. When building any of the image collections, it affects the paged-image collection in the following way: some, but not all, of the [ex.thumbicon]'s my SearchVList show thumbnail images from the image collection that was built, instead of the correct thumbnail images from the paged-image collection. Even more vexing, when I right-click on one of the "invading" thumbnails and select "View image", the resulting url shows that the thumbnail is in one of the paged-image HASH subdirectories!! Oddly enough, the VList for my browsing classifiers is unaffected.
+
+If I rebuild my paged-image collection, the problem gets fixed. But this is obviously not a long term solution. I don't want to have to rebuild my paged-image collection after every time I build one of my image collections.
+
+This is quite disconcerting and doesn't make any sense to me whatsoever. If I have one collection open in the GLI, why should it have ANY effect on another collection?
+
+I'm thoroughly perplexed. What am I missing?
+
+Gavin Spomer
+Systems Programmer
+Brooks Library
+Central Washington University
+
+
+_______________________________________________
+greenstone-users mailing listgreenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nzhttps://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+
+      _______________________________________________
+greenstone-users mailing listgreenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nzhttps://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+  
+
+
+From jbfox at sdb.org  Wed Dec 10 09:04:09 2008
+From: jbfox at sdb.org (Julian Fox)
+Date: Wed Dec 10 09:04:30 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Xena
+Message-ID: <493ECF39.10500@sdb.org>
+
+Hi list,
+A question regarding Xena (open source conversion to xml used as a 
+digital preservation technique by the National archives of Australia).
+It occurred to me that since Xena does a nice job in converting all 
+kinds of formats to xml (or probably better, wrapping them in xml and 
+maybe that's the problem?) it could be part of the plugin approach to 
+Greenstone.  Or not?  I actually tried it out but since Xena saves as 
+*.xena I couldn't somehow get the unknown plugin to work with that!  I 
+then thought I'd change that to .xml but that didn't work either.
+Just a thought.
+Julian
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Wed Dec 10 13:01:26 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Wed Dec 10 13:01:39 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: [greenstone-devel] Re: trouble building
+	greenstone3 from source
+In-Reply-To: <492B8158.1000907@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <492B8158.1000907@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <493F06D6.9060007@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Copied to the list.
+
+
+Hello again Andrew,
+
+The solution of another developer (Quan, qq6) that recently worked in a 
+Linux context may also be applicable in dealing with the javagdbm 
+compilation problem you encountered.
+
+As per their suggestion, try compiling with Java 5 rather than Java 6 by 
+setting your JAVA_HOME to the former.
+
+Yesterday, a developer here who was trying to compile Greenstone 3 from 
+SVN on their Windows laptop got the same compilation error, while it 
+succeeded for me when I tried it out immediately thereafter on another 
+Windows machine. I suspected my environment settings must have been 
+different. And now I see that they were: both my Windows and Linux 
+machines are set to use a JDK 5 for JAVA_HOME whereas the other 
+developer had set JAVA_HOME to 6 on their laptop.
+
+Therefore, when you get a chance, will you try this out and inform us if 
+it didn't solve the problem for you?
+
+Thanks,
+Anupama
+
+
+> Skip the previous email I just sent. Below is the same, but with some
+> important corrections.
+> 
+> Hello Andrew,
+> 
+> I tried compiling up a fresh checkout of Greenstone 3 from SVN on the
+> Windows machine here and did not encounter this problem. However, this may
+> be because my settings for Java are set up in such a manner that it worked
+> out.
+> 
+> - Do you have a JDK installed on your machine?
+> - What is your JAVA_HOME set to?
+> - Do you have the following files in your JAVA_HOME\bin folder:
+> javac
+> javah
+> java
+> javadoc
+> jar
+> 
+> I do not know to what extent you are familiar with programming, but seeing
+> as how you are compiling up GS3 from SVN, I thought I could explain the
+> following to you so that you can try out a few things to narrow down where
+> the problem might be.
+> 
+> Concerning this bit that you referred to:
+>  >> compile-packages:
+>  >>      [echo] compile javagdbm
+>  >>      [echo] Windows: compile javagdbm (java only)
+>  >>      [exec] Compiling...
+>  >>      [exec] The system cannot find the path specified.
+>  >>      [exec] The system cannot find the path specified.
+>  >>      [exec] The system cannot find the path specified.
+>  >>      [echo] Install the javagdbm jar file
+> 
+> These print statements happen in your Greenstone3/build.xml file (around
+> line 1200).
+> 
+> At the stage this happens, the build.xml is calling the makefile
+> "winMake.bat" located in your Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm folder and
+> passing the arguments "compile" and "javaonly".
+> 
+> During execution of this makefile, some directory path is referred to that
+> it cannot find, causing the compilation to fail at this stage which then
+> causes the build to fail when the javagdbm jar file has not been produced.
+> 
+> 1. In a DOS prompt, can you go to the directory
+> Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/ and then from there type:
+> winMake.bat compile javaonly
+> Does it give some error statements here?
+> 
+> 2. If so, can you go one directory further down into a folder called java
+> (so that now you are in Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java) and type:
+> winMake.bat compile
+> Are there any error statements appearing here now?
+> 
+> If there was no error output in doing either 1. or 2. above, neither 3 nor
+> 4 below are necessary:
+> 3. If you open up the file Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/winMake.bat
+> in Wordpad (Notepad doesn't preserve the lines very well), you will see
+> that the arguments "compile" and "javaonly" to winMake.bat cause it to
+> call another winMake.bat makefile located
+> at Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java, passing it the "compile" 
+> argument.
+> 
+> The first question is, do you have a folder called java situated inside 
+> your
+> Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/? And does
+> Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java contain a file called winMake.bat?
+> 
+> 4. If so:
+> When opening up the Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java/winMake.bat
+> file in
+> WordPad, you may perhaps notice that it refers to lots of directory paths.
+> It stores many of these paths in variables marked by ALL_UPPERCASE.
+> Sometimes it may happen that in reality these paths contain spaces like
+> "Program Files". This could cause problems if spaces are indeed involved,
+> unless such paths are embedded in quotes.
+> 
+> Can you replace the following section in your
+> Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java/winMake.bat file with the bit that
+> follows it:
+>  >>>>REPLACE FOLLOWING:
+> :compile
+>         if not exist %JAVACLASSDIR% mkdir %JAVACLASSDIR%
+>         echo Compiling...
+>         %JAVAC% -d %JAVACLASSDIR% %JAVACOPTIONS%
+> au\com\pharos\gdbm\*.java au\com\pharos\io\*.java
+> au\com\pharos\meta\*.java au\com\pharos\packing\*.java
+> au\com\pharos\test\*.java au\com\pharos\util\*.java
+>         %JAVAH% -classpath %JAVACLASSDIR% -o %JAVAGDBMHOME%\jni\GdbmFile.h
+> au.com.pharos.gdbm.GdbmFile
+>         %JAR% cf %JAVAGDBMHOME%\javagdbm.jar -C %JAVACLASSDIR% au
+>         goto done
+> <<<<
+> 
+>  >>>>REPLACE WITH:
+> :compile
+>         if not exist "%JAVACLASSDIR%" mkdir "%JAVACLASSDIR%"
+>         echo Compiling...
+>         "%JAVAC%" -d "%JAVACLASSDIR%" "%JAVACOPTIONS%"
+> au\com\pharos\gdbm\*.java au\com\pharos\io\*.java
+> au\com\pharos\meta\*.java au\com\pharos\packing\*.java
+> au\com\pharos\test\*.java au\com\pharos\util\*.java
+>         "%JAVAH%" -classpath "%JAVACLASSDIR%" -o
+> "%JAVAGDBMHOME%\jni\GdbmFile.h" au.com.pharos.gdbm.GdbmFile
+>         "%JAR%" cf "%JAVAGDBMHOME%\javagdbm.jar" -C "%JAVACLASSDIR%" au
+>         goto done
+> <<<<
+> 
+> Now, back in your DOS prompt, from within the
+> Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/ directory, type:
+> winMake.bat compile javaonly
+> 
+> Do you still see the same problems?
+> 
+> 5. If the above changes did not fix the errors, we can print out the
+> values of these paths to make sure they are all set to something that
+> makes sense.
+> 
+> After the line
+> set JAR="%JAVA_HOME%\bin\jar"
+> in your Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java/winMake.bat file,
+> 
+> can you paste the following bits between >>>> <<<<:
+>  >>>>
+> echo javagdbmhome: "%JAVAGDBMHOME%"
+> echo javaclassdir: "%JAVACLASSDIR%"
+> echo.
+> echo javac: "%JAVAC%"
+> echo javah: "%JAVAH%"
+> echo java: "%JAVA%"
+> echo javadoc: "%JAVADOC%"
+> echo jar: "%JAR%"
+> <<<<
+> 
+> Go back to your DOS prompt and from within
+> Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java/ type:
+> winMake.bat compile
+> 
+> Hopefully it should now print out all the values of the paths above so
+> that you can see whether any of them is conspicuous. For instance:
+> - Do all the printed paths have a value or is any left as ""?
+> - And when you look for these folders in Windows Explorer, are you able to
+> find all the folder paths which were just printed out to the DOS prompt?
+> 
+> Tell us how you get on,
+> Anupama
+> 
+> 
+>  > Andrew Marlow wrote:
+>  >> hello,
+>  >>
+>  >> I am trying to build greenstone3 from source and I have hit a problem.
+>  >>
+>  >> I downloaded it using the instructions for SVNon the greenstone3 web
+>  >> page, then I said ant prepare install. Below is the end of the build
+>  >> log, which shows the error message:
+>  >>
+>  >> ---
+>  >> configure-gs2building:
+>  >>
+>  >> configure-c++:
+>  >>
+>  >> compile-web:
+>  >>     [javac] Compiling 1 source file to
+>  >> c:\everything\amarlow\development\mystuff
+>  >> \research\digital_libraries\greenstone3\web\WEB-INF\classes
+>  >>
+>  >> compile-packages:
+>  >>      [echo] compile javagdbm
+>  >>      [echo] Windows: compile javagdbm (java only)
+>  >>      [exec] Compiling...
+>  >>      [exec] The system cannot find the path specified.
+>  >>      [exec] The system cannot find the path specified.
+>  >>      [exec] The system cannot find the path specified.
+>  >>      [echo] Install the javagdbm jar file
+>  >>
+>  >> BUILD FAILED
+>  >> 
+> c:\everything\amarlow\development\mystuff\research\digital_libraries\greenstone3 
+> 
+>  >> \build.xml:1211: Warning: Could not find file
+>  >> c:\everything\amarlow\development\
+>  >> 
+> mystuff\research\digital_libraries\greenstone3\src\packages\javagdbm\javagdbm.ja 
+> 
+>  >> r to copy.
+>  >>
+>  >> Total time: 25 minutes 32 seconds
+>  >> ----
+>  >>
+>  >> What am I doing wrong please?
+>  >>
+>  >
+>  > I'll get one of the research programmers to double check the SVN
+>  > checkout and compile sequence under Windows, but in the meantime, what
+>  > version of Windows, Java and Visual Studio are you using? Can you also
+>  > check and let us know what the JAVA_HOME environment variable is set to
+>  > for you set up.
+>  >
+>  > Thanks,
+>  >
+>  > David.
+>  >
+>  >> --
+>  >> Regards,
+>  >>
+>  >> Andrew M.
+>  >
+>  >
+> 
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-devel mailing list
+> greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-devel
+> 
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Wed Dec 10 16:18:33 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Wed Dec 10 16:18:44 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: Customization
+In-Reply-To: <20D14A2AD8E423468EF08E2AB9352DA23D9C987819@SGPMBX01.APAC.bosch.com>
+References: <20D14A2AD8E423468EF08E2AB9352DA23D9C987819@SGPMBX01.APAC.bosch.com>
+Message-ID: <493F3509.3010100@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi,
+
+ > 1. Want to change the appearance of the word *"search"* given in the
+ > circle that is from small letters to capital letters. How to do this?
+ > (pls see screenshot-1)
+
+a. Open up the file GSDLHOME/images/style.css in a texteditor
+
+b. Look for the definition of p.bannertitle in this css file.
+
+c. Change its text-transform attribute value from lowercase to uppercase 
+instead.
+Your p.bannertitle may then look like:
+
+/* the title set by the receptionist based on the page action */
+p.bannertitle {
+   font-family: sans-serif, arial, helvetica;
+   font-size: 24px;
+   font-weight: bold;
+   margin: 10px 0 0 0;
+   text-transform: uppercase;
+   white-space: nowrap;
+   padding: 6px 2px 10px 0px;
+   background-repeat: repeat-y;
+   background-position: top right;
+  }
+
+
+ > 2. Want to add some more text/contents in the collection home
+ > page(apart from the present text highlighted in the circle), how to
+ > add some more contents ? (Pls see screenshot-2)
+
+Please have a look at the tutorial page
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/using_macro_files.htm
+
+You can also add a longer description for your collection (which goes 
+into the collection's main page) through GLI. Go to the Format tab, 
+select General on the left, and in the large text area on the right, add 
+more text.
+
+
+ > 3. Want to change the appearance of the text in *"How to find
+ > information in the....."* given in the circle that is from small
+ > letters to First letter/Character capital letters. How to do this?
+ > (pls see screenshot-2)
+
+a. Open up the file GSDLHOME/macros/english.dm in a texteditor.
+
+b. Find the line
+_textsimplehelpheading_ {How to find information in the _collectionname_ 
+collection}
+
+c. Change this line to
+_textsimplehelpheading_ {How To Find Information In The _collectionname_ 
+Collection}
+
+d. Restart your Greenstone 2 server and check that it has the correct case.
+
+
+ > 4. Want to change the colour of navigation bar, how & where to make
+ > this change?
+
+The image GSDLHOME/images/bg_green.png is used as the navigation bar. 
+Either:
+a. open up the file GSDLHOME/macros/style.dm and replace the uses of 
+bg_green.png with the name of the image file you want to use in its 
+stead, or
+b. create a new PNG image for your navigation bar and name it 
+bg_green.png and replace the existing one in the folder GSDLHOME/images
+
+At present, the style.dm file contains:
+_cssheader_ {
+_csslink_
+<style type="text/css">
+body.bgimage \{ background-image: url("_httpimg_/chalk.gif"); \}
+div.navbar \{ background-image: url("_httpimg_/bg_green.png"); \}
+div.divbar \{ background-image: url("_httpimg_/bg_green.png"); \}
+a.navlink \{ background-image: url("_httpimg_/bg_off.png"); \}
+a.navlink_sel \{ background-image: url("_httpimg_/bg_green.png"); \}
+a.navlink:hover \{ background-image: url("_httpimg_/bg_on.png"); \}
+p.bannertitle \{background-image: url("_httpimg_/banner_bg.png"); \}
+p.collectiontitle \{background-image: url("_httpimg_/banner_bg.png"); \}
+</style>
+_collectionspecificstyle_
+
+}
+
+Regards,
+Anupama
+
+
+Emmanuel E C (RBEI/HRL1-D-KCI) wrote:
+> Dear Sir/Madam,
+>  
+> Kindly let me know how to make the following changes in GSDL.
+>  
+> 1. Want to change the appearance of the word *"search"* given in the 
+> circle that is from small letters to capital letters. How to do this? 
+> (pls see screenshot-1)
+>  
+> 2. Want to add some more text/contents in the collection home page(apart 
+> from the present text highlighted in the circle), how to add some more 
+> contents ? (Pls see screenshot-2)
+>  
+> 3. Want to change the appearance of the text in *"How to find 
+> information in the....."* given in the circle that is from small letters 
+> to First letter/Character capital letters. How to do this? (pls see 
+> screenshot-2)
+>  
+> 4. Want to change the colour of navigation bar, how & where to make this 
+> change?
+>  
+> *ScreenShot-1*
+>  
+> *Screenshot-2*
+> *Regards
+> Emmanuel E.C
+> *K-Center & Information Services,
+> Robert Bosch Engineering and Business Solutions,
+> #123,Industrial Layout, Hosur Road ,Koramangala,
+> Bangalore-95, INDIA
+> 
+> Ph.No-080- 6657-1497
+>  
+
+
+From amin.hedjazi at gmail.com  Wed Dec 10 19:41:17 2008
+From: amin.hedjazi at gmail.com (Amin Hedjazi)
+Date: Wed Dec 10 19:41:37 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] question about gsprintf
+Message-ID: <4105c9810812092241x531f08c5xda2b2b34bd682e3e@mail.gmail.com>
+
+hello every one
+can any body out there tell me what is the line 231 in file
+\gs2build\perllib\gsprintf.pm is good for ?
+i wanted to traslate the strings.properties inside \gs2build\perllib\  to
+persian
+but when i made a strings_fa.properties file like other traslations and
+saved it az utf-8 it returnd an error while
+trying to load the gli
+so i traced back the error and got to the line 231 in file
+\gs2build\perllib\gsprintf.pm and that wolude be the line below
+           $linetext =~
+s/(\s*)\#\s+Updated\s+(\d?\d-\D\D\D-\d\d\d\d)\s*$//i;
+becouse of this line my xml out put from the file downloadeinfo.pl wasent
+well formed
+and i got the error when i was trying to load the gli
+but when i commented out the line 231 in file \gs2build\perllib\gsprintf.pm
+my errors where gone and the gli loaded perfectly whit my traslations in
+there own palceses
+so sombody please tell me what is this line good for and
+if that problem was spose to be a bug shoulde i report it in the tracs ?
+tnx every one
+-------------- next part --------------
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+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081210/ce85cc74/attachment.html
+From Emmanuel.EC at in.bosch.com  Wed Dec 10 00:18:46 2008
+From: Emmanuel.EC at in.bosch.com (Emmanuel E C (RBEI/HRL1-D-KCI))
+Date: Wed Dec 10 23:02:32 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Customization
+Message-ID: <20D14A2AD8E423468EF08E2AB9352DA23D9C987819@SGPMBX01.APAC.bosch.com>
+
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+From jsharif at jjay.cuny.edu  Thu Dec 11 07:07:02 2008
+From: jsharif at jjay.cuny.edu (Javeria Sharif)
+Date: Thu Dec 11 07:07:10 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Gli applet
+Message-ID: <0KBO00H0PA2YCM@scms1.jjay.cuny.edu>
+
+Hi group,
+
+ 
+
+ I have setup the Java applet to run via the web browsers however the applet
+cannot load any collections. The "file" and "edit" menus are grayed out. I
+can navigate "Local Filespace" and "Home Folder" just fine. Also on the
+right side it says "no collection loaded". 
+
+I'm logging in with a user that is a member of the administrator and
+colbuilder groups.
+
+Client computer is a WinXP with FF 3 and IE 7.
+
+Greenstone Server is a Window 2003 server with IIS 6.0 
+
+ 
+
+Thanks
+
+Javeria Sharif
+
+Library Webmaster
+
+Lloyd Sealy Library John Jay College of Criminal Justice, CUNY
+
+899 Tenth Ave, New York, NY 10019
+
+jsharif@jjay.cuny.edu
+
+ 
+
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+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Dec 11 13:08:36 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Oran of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Thu Dec 11 13:08:47 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Greenstone2.81rc2 released
+Message-ID: <49405A04.7070708@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello list members,
+
+We are pleased to announce that the Windows, GNU/Linux, Mac OS/X and
+Source distributions of Greenstone v2.81rc2
+are now available for download from our sourceforge page:
+http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone or from 
+http://www.greenstone.org/download
+
+Release notes are copied below.
+
+This release is further to the recent 2.81rc release (first advertised 
+as 2.81). If you installed the 2.81rc release, we recommend you upgrade 
+to 2.81rc2. This can be done in two ways:
+A) Simply install Greenstone2.81rc2 on top of the existing 
+Greenstone2.81rc installation. This will overwrite all exising files 
+with the updated files, but will not delete anything, so your 
+collections will be preserved. Any changes to config files will be 
+overwritten with the defaults.
+B) Rename the home folder of your existing Greenstone2.81rc installation 
+by adding '.bak' to the folder name. Then install the new 
+Greenstone2.81rc2 in its place and copy your collections and any 
+modified config files from the old 2.81rc installation to the 2.81rc2 
+installation.
+
+As always, please report any problems or bugs to the mailing list.
+
+Regards,
+Oran and the rest of the Greenstone team.
+
+Release Name: 2.81rc2
+
+The Windows, GNU/Linux, Mac OS/X and Source distributions of Greenstone v2.81rc2
+ are now available for download from our sourceforge page:
+
+  http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone
+
+or via
+
+  http://www.greenstone.org/download
+
+
+Important changes in this release include, in no particular order:
+
+Stability and Bug Fixes
+-----------------------
+Some small problems in the recent 2.81rc release of Greenstone2 have been ironed
+out to create an overall more robust release. Some features have been restored
+(including realistic books and dynamic classifiers on Windows) and the
+LuceneWrapper.jar file has been put back into the release.
+
+GDBM
+----
+Greenstone now comes with it's own modified version of gdbm which can
+auto-detect the format of database files (ldb or bdb format) and load either
+format on any of Greenstone's supported platforms. This achieves a better level
+of portability for Greenstone collections, and allows collections built on one
+operating system to be served from other operating systems supported by
+Greenstone.
+
+
+Installer improvements
+----------------------
+* The new installer:
+   - is now available in five languages
+   - can now cope with being executed from a path with accented characters and
+     other special characters. (There is still a known issue with chinese
+     file paths, which can be avoided by simply running from c:\ or another path
+     with no special characters.)
+* The source release is now provided as a platform-independent zip / tar archive
+* We now provide a simple binary zip / tar distribution for each platform
+
+
+Vista Compatibility
+-------------------
+* When Greenstone is installed into the Program Files directory on Windows Vista,
+it is necessary to elevate to a higher access level to run GLI and the
+Greenstone server. As of this release, you can do this by launching the Start
+Menu items as an administrator. Just right-click the item and choose "Run as
+Administator", or set "Run as Adminsitrator" in the shortcut properties.
+Also, as a way to avoid having to elevate to higher access levels altogether,
+the default installation directory is now inside the current user's home folder.
+
+* Some Windows Vista users have experienced a problem when perl outputs warning
+messages in front of xml output passed to GLI. The error messages themselves are
+not fatal, but cause the xml to become invalid, resulting in a GLI crash. GLI
+has been modified to ignore these warning messages and thereby keep the validity
+of the xml.
+
+New Start Menu icons and server image
+-------------------------------------
+Each item in a Greenstone Start Menu group is now has a unique icon so you can
+tell which is which at a glance. We have also added some links to the wiki and 
+the Greenstone website for convenience. The old server image has also been
+replaced with the new GS2 Server logo.
+
+The release notes from the 2.81rc release and included below:
+
+Release Name: 2.81rc
+
+The Windows, GNU/Linux, Mac OS/X and Source distributions of Greenstone v2.81rc
+ are now available for download from our sourceforge page:
+
+  http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone 
+
+or via 
+
+  http://www.greenstone.org/download
+
+
+Important changes in this release include, in no particular order:
+
+Installer:
+--------------
+
+The Greenstone installer downloads are now created using only open source 
+software, including Ant Installer (http://antinstaller.sourceforge.net/), 
+Apache Ant (http://ant.apache.org/), our own search4j (based on launch4j 
+http://launch4j.sourceforge.net/), and our own Greenstone release kits.
+
+We felt it was essential to move away from our existing, closed-source 
+installer suite as it was not in the spirit of Greenstone to rely on 
+proprietary software, and it invited the unnecessary cost of keeping the suite 
+up-to-date.
+
+Using only open source software has also given us the freedom to customise the 
+user experience of the installers. Where a feature was lacking in one of the 
+open source packages, we have enjoyed the ability to "open the hood" and 
+implement it.
+
+With the development of the Greenstone release kits we are now able to generate
+ releases of Greenstone automatically and unattended. This process takes just 
+20 minutes, and it has helped us a lot in the development and testing of new 
+features of Greenstone. We have been able to set up a feedback loop, where code
+ committed one day is included in an automatic nightly snapshot release made 
+available for download on our website the next day. Our users have also 
+benefited from being able to obtain up-to-date snapshot releases of Greenstone 
+in between our official releases.
+
+These daily snapshots are available through:
+
+  http://www.greenstone.org/snapshots
+
+On Windows, the version number is included in the Start Menu which means that 
+multiple installations of Greenstone will have their own entries in the Start 
+Menu. The installer no longer writes to the registry, so installation no 
+longer requires administrator privileges.
+
+ImageMagick is now bundled with Greenstone for binary web releases for all 
+platforms (previously it was only provided on a CD-ROM release) and includes 
+JPEG2000 support. The installer offers the option to install this or not.  
+You can skip installing it if you already have ImageMagick previously installed.
+
+Ghostscript is now bundled with Greenstone for binary web releases for Windows 
+and Mac. The installer offers the option to install this or not.  You can 
+skip installing it if you already have Ghostscript previously installed.
+
+Importing and Plugin Changes:
+------------------------------
+
+Plugin Restructuring: The plugins have been restructured. This has been done 
+mostly for coding efficiency. The most noticeable change is that plugins have 
+been renamed. xxxPlug now becomes xxxPlugin, and some have also had their names
+ modified or expanded to be clearer. For example, DBPlug is now DatabasePlugin,
+ PPTPlug is PowerPointPlugin. The complete list of new plugins can be seen at 
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Plugins. Old collections should 
+still build okay in GLI, which will map the old plugin names to the new ones. 
+Command line building should also work, but the configuration file won't be 
+altered to use the new names.
+
+A lot of work has been done trying to get Greenstone to work properly with 
+non-ascii filenames. Two versions of the filename are stored, [Source] for 
+displaying the filename, and [SourceFile] for linking to the file from a web page.
+
+The -smart_block option (most commonly seen with HTMLPlugin) has been deprecated
+. Instead we have a first pass through the documents to find out which ones 
+should be blocked.
+
+MARCPlugin and MARCXMLPlugin can now map metadata to Qualified Dublin Core as 
+well as Dublin Core.
+
+MARCXMLPlugin now assigns metadata from metadata.xml files.
+
+EMAILPlugin now saves binary attachments as binary files on Windows
+
+ImagePlugin and PagedImagePlugin now offer the -cache_generated_images option 
+to prevent thumbnails and screenview images being recreated each import.
+
+OAIPlugin saves the metadata as Dublin Core rather than moving it all to the ex
+ metadata set. This means that it won't show up in the GLI unless the files are
+ exploded. Exploding is now available for OAI records.
+
+ProCitePlugin no longer uses the pc namespace. Metadata is stored using the 
+field names set in the workform definition, rather than using Field1Name and 
+Field1Value etc..
+
+-reversesort option to import.pl to be used with -sortmeta option to sort in 
+reverse order.
+
+Tidied up OID generation. OIDtype and OIDmetadata options are now available 
+for each plugin as well as globally from import.pl. Hashing usually occurs on 
+the original file, but some plugins specify that hashing should be done on the 
+Greenstone XML document.
+
+Building and Indexing Changes:
+-------------------------------
+
+Improvements to Lucene incremental building. Lucene document identifiers now 
+match Greenstone identifiers, rather than 1, 2, 3, thanks to DL Consulting. 
+This improves search efficiency, and is another step towards true incremental 
+building. Rebuilding with no new documents shouldn't break the index.
+
+MGPP and Lucene building tidied up. 'allfields' now means combined searching 
+over all specified indexes (not all document metadata) for both mgpp and lucene.
+ 'metadata' will index all metadata, but no longer reindexes metadata that has 
+already been specified. MGPP indexing over combined fields now works properly.
+
+New collection configuration file option: infodbtype. Values include gdbm (the 
+default), gdbm-txtgz, sqlite, mssql. This specifies what database system to use
+for the collection metadata database. Currently this needs to be added to 
+collect.cfg by hand, as it is not available in GLI yet.
+
+gdbm: the default, and is what has always been used previously. This is 
+platform dependent. It transfers between Windows and Linux, but not to/from a 
+Mac.
+
+gdbm-txtgz: A gzipped text version of the database. At runtime, the first time 
+this collection is accessed, it will be unpacked and converted to the 
+appropriate GDBM database using txt2db. This is a good choice if you are 
+creating a collection to be used on another operating system, especially if 
+one or more of those operating systems is a Mac.
+
+sqlite: Platform independent database using SQLite. The new dynamic classifiers
+can be used with this database. Thanks to DL Consulting. 
+
+mssql: Windows specific database using MS SQL Server. See 
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Using_MSSQL_for_Collection_Database 
+for information about how to set this up. The new dynamic classifiers
+ can be used with this database. Thanks to DL Consulting.
+
+Depositor:
+------------
+
+Collection editing using the Depositor is now enabled by default for the admin 
+user.
+
+The metadata fields offered for each document can now easily be customised 
+from the GLI.  
+
+By default, the depositor will import and build each document into the 
+collection when it is added. It can now be easily set up to just "deposit" 
+the item without rebuilding.
+
+See http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/How_to_use_the_depositor for 
+more information.
+
+GLI
+-------
+
+A new right-click file option for binary files that go through a conversion 
+process to be imported, such as PDF, Word and PowerPoint files. "Replace source
+document with HTML" will convert the original file to HTML and replace it in 
+the collection. This means that the converted HTML (which may be unattractive) 
+can now be modified in the collection. This is available for Remote GLI too.
+
+A new right-click file option on the collection tree background to refresh the 
+file view. This is useful if you have manually added files to the collection 
+outside of GLI.
+
+MetadataXMLPlugin has been moved 'below the line' in the Plugins panel so 
+cannot be removed in GLI. If you are using GLI to add metadata, then you need 
+this plugin.
+
+The Export As option now only exports one collection at a time. Collections 
+can be exported as GreenstoneMETS, FedoraMETS, MARCXML and DSpace archive.
+
+'NavigationBar pulldown' added to the list of format options - this makes the 
+navigation 'bar' a drop down list instead of a bar across the page.
+
+Lots of work done on making the Download panel work better, including getting 
+download processes to terminate when they are cancelled or when GLI is closed 
+while they are still running.
+
+New panel under the Format tab, "Depositor Metadata" which allows 
+customisation of which metadata fields should be offered in the depositor for 
+that collection.
+
+CJK segmentation option has been added to GLI. This doesn't do proper word 
+segmentation, but adds a space in between each CJK character. The character 
+ranges have been expanded to work with Japanese and Korean. It is applied to 
+metadata as well as document text.
+
+Another new feature in Greenstone v2.81 is the ability to schedule the
+automatic rebuilding of a greenstone collection using the GLI. There's a new
+panel under the Create tab allowing the scheduling of automatic collection
+rebuilding. Scheduling will require some configuration in order for it to work.
+The following link has more information on how to do this for each platform:
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Scheduled_Collection_Building_from_the_Librarian_Interface
+
+Greenstone Runtime:
+----------------------
+New dynamic classifiers (if the collection uses sqlite or MSSQL as the 
+collection database). These are generated at runtime so do not require the 
+collection to be rebuilt for classifier changes. Another step towards true 
+incremental building. See 
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/More_about_classifiers#How_do_I_use_dynamic_classifiers.3F 
+for more information. Thanks to DL Consulting.
+
+Large code restructuring.  Code is split between common-src, build-src and 
+runtime-src.  Makes it easer to use code in other projets, such as Greenstone 3 
+and running Greenstone on an iPhone/iPod Touch.
+
+External links now default to going straight to the web page, rather than 
+showing a warning page first.
+
+Improvements to the oaiserver, thanks to DL Consulting. Resumption token 
+support has been added, and it now validates against online validation tools.
+
+Greenstone now compiles for Linux on 64-bit platforms.  All programs are 
+compiled natively for 64-bit, except for those that rely on mg/mgpp, which 
+still need to be 32-bit compiled.  As part of the configure/make process, the 
+correct flags are automatically set, so from the developers point of view you 
+compile up Greenstone on a 64-bit machine the exact same way you do for any 
+other Unix-based system.
+
+Greenstone should now compile with Microsoft Visual Studio 2005, thanks to DL Consulting.
+
+FLI - Fedora Librarian Interface
+---------------------------------
+
+The Fedora Librarian Interface (FLI) is very much like GLI in that it allows 
+you to gather together your documents. It then uses Greenstone's ability to 
+convert documents into the FedoraMETS format so that these can be ingested 
+(put into) a Fedora repository. The process of building a collection using FLI 
+exports documents into a repository maintained by a Fedora server rather than 
+one maintained by Greenstone. In order to use FLI, you will need to have 
+Fedora installed. More information on how to install Fedora and set it up 
+to work with FLI, and how to run FLI itself, can be found in the documents:
+
+1. Installing Fedora (2.2.1/3.0) and Fedora-related information
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/InstallingFedora
+
+2. Installing Fedora Generic Search (to provide full-text indexing and
+searching capabilities for a Fedora repository)
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/InstallingFedoraGSearch
+
+3. Running FLI, the Fedora Librarian Interface
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/RunningFLI
+
+
+Translations:
+--------------
+
+Thanks to:
+
+John Rose, for help with English GLI help, French translations for GLI and Greenstone.
+Maxime Rouast for Greenstone French translations
+Celine Guimbertaud for GLI French translations
+Yohannes Mulugeta and Abiyot Bayou for Greenstone Amharic translations
+Kamal Salih for GLI Arabic translations
+Gerhard Riesthuis for Greenstone Dutch translations
+Mohan Raj Pradhan for GLI Nepali translations.
+Diego Spano for translating the installer's interface into Spanish.
+Xiaofeng Yu for translating the installer's interface into Mandarin.
+Doris Jung for translating the installer's interface into German. 
+
+...and many other minor improvements and bug fixes
+
+We want to ensure that Greenstone works well for you. Please report any
+problems to the Greenstone mailing list 
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz.
+
+
+[DL Consulting (http://www.dlconsulting.com) are the world's leading suppliers 
+of commercial consulting, customization, support, maintenance and hosting 
+services for the Greenstone digital library software suite.]
+
+
+
+From jbfox at sdb.org  Thu Dec 11 20:04:11 2008
+From: jbfox at sdb.org (Julian Fox)
+Date: Thu Dec 11 20:04:48 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: greenstone-users Digest, Vol 69, Issue 4
+In-Reply-To: <20081202214638.690A41CA39@mx01.omnibit.it>
+References: <20081202214638.690A41CA39@mx01.omnibit.it>
+Message-ID: <4940BB6B.6060003@sdb.org>
+
+Hi list,
+A simple question with what I hope is a simple answer: can I get an a-z 
+selector hlist by using just the hierarchy classifier?  Alternatively, 
+can I get the A-Z list to somehow recognise the | dividers in a hierarchy?
+Julian
+
+greenstone-users-request@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz wrote:
+> Send greenstone-users mailing list submissions to
+> 	greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>
+> To subscribe or unsubscribe via the World Wide Web, visit
+> 	https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+> or, via email, send a message with subject or body 'help' to
+> 	greenstone-users-request@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>
+> You can reach the person managing the list at
+> 	greenstone-users-owner@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>
+> When replying, please edit your Subject line so it is more specific
+> than "Re: Contents of greenstone-users digest..."
+>
+>
+> Today's Topics:
+>
+>    1. Apache & Web library installation (Rajan)
+>    2. RE: Endnote export to GLI (Belanger, Arthur)
+>    3. Re: greenstone-users Digest, Vol 69, Issue 3
+>       (Chris Hammond-Thrasher)
+>    4. Re:Re:Re:Re:Re: greenstone version (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+>
+>
+> ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+>
+> Message: 1
+> Date: Tue, 2 Dec 2008 10:27:15 +0530
+> From: "Rajan" <rajankila@hotmail.com>
+> Subject: [greenstone-users] Apache & Web library installation
+> To: <greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+> Message-ID: <BAY128-DS63E900AA1EBD4FD2F77FAB6000@phx.gbl>
+> Content-Type: text/plain; format=flowed; charset="iso-8859-1";
+> 	reply-type=original
+>
+> Dear All,
+>
+> But I had never experienced any  problem in installing and using gsdl 2.80
+> in Windows XP SP II with Apache 2.2.9.
+> In another institution, it did not work when firewall was on. So we disabled
+> the firewall.
+> I had used Apache 2.2.4 too previously in my Windows XP successfully.
+> After installation, we need to restart the computer to get the result.
+> During the installation, I provided localhost ( without  any Port No) as
+> ServerName and port no was not mentioned.
+> So it might have used the default port no 80
+> So it appears that the problem is not that of Apache 2.2.9
+>
+> Regards,
+>
+> K Rajasekharan
+> Kerala Institute of Local Administration
+> Thrissur
+>
+> --------------------------------------------------
+>   
+>> Original Message:
+>> Date: Tue, 2 Dec 2008 09:23:23 +1300 (NZDT)
+>> From: qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+>> Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] Error Apache
+>> Hi
+>> I met the same problem with Apache2.2.9 on Windows Xp. And I found Apache
+>> 1.3 can server Greenstone perfectly by following the configuration of the
+>> library.txt file. >
+>> Quan>
+>>     
+>>>  Hi everybody!
+>>>  I installed Apache2.2.9 ang Greenstone 2.72(Web Library). Content
+>>> httpd.conf:
+>>>
+>>>       
+>
+>
+>
+> ------------------------------
+>
+> Message: 2
+> Date: Tue, 2 Dec 2008 13:06:48 -0500
+> From: "Belanger, Arthur" <arthur.belanger@yale.edu>
+> Subject: RE: [greenstone-users] Endnote export to GLI
+> To: "vave_r@usp.ac.fj" <vave_r@usp.ac.fj>,
+> 	"greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz"
+> 	<greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+> Message-ID:
+> 	<D6B530A1090A224EA17A37D3BFE35F5E264F120C64@XVS2-CLUSTER.yu.yale.edu>
+> Content-Type: text/plain; charset="iso-8859-1"
+>
+> Ron,
+>
+> We have done this quite successfully.  We exported several EndNote libraries in BibTex format and then imported them into GS using the BibTex plugin (BibTexPlug).  The trick is to export in BibTex format.  We have just over 10,000 records in this collection.
+>
+> The Greenstone archives are available at http://nzdl.sadl.uleth.ca/cgi-bin/library?a=p&p=about&c=gsarch
+>
+> You should also see http://www.greenstone.org/support for more options.
+>
+> --
+> Arthur Belanger
+> Medical Library System Manager
+> ITS Academic Media & Technology
+> Yale University
+> PO Box 208065
+> New Haven, CT  06520-8065
+>
+> (203) 785-6928
+> (203) 737-2859, fax
+>
+> mailto:Arthur.Belanger@Yale.Edu
+> http://www.yale.edu/its/about/amt
+> http://info.med.yale.edu/library
+>
+>
+> NOTE: Yale ITS will NEVER request passwords or other personal information via email. Messages requesting such information are fraudulent and should be deleted.
+>
+> ________________________________
+> From: greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz [mailto:greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz] On Behalf Of Ron Vave
+> Sent: Monday, December 01, 2008 5:28 PM
+> To: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> Subject: [greenstone-users] Endnote export to GLI
+>
+> Bula (hello),
+>
+> First, I would like to know if the Endnote reference database can somehow be imported into Greenstone, and if yes, how do I go about doing this? And if there are any disadvantages to this as opposed to entering information directly into GLI?
+>
+> Secondly, I would like to know if its possible to search the archives of postings made on this Greenstone listserver, so a person could search that first and apply solutions proposed in it, before repeating any postings here.
+>
+> Vinaka (thanks),
+> Ron Vave
+>
+> -------------- next part --------------
+> An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+> URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081202/a9f7b7e0/attachment-0001.html
+>
+> ------------------------------
+>
+> Message: 3
+> Date: Wed, 03 Dec 2008 08:34:12 +1200
+> From: Chris Hammond-Thrasher <hammondthrasher_c@usp.ac.fj>
+> Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: greenstone-users Digest, Vol 69, Issue
+> 	3
+> To: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> Cc: "ron.vave" <ron.vave@usp.ac.fj>
+> Message-ID: <1228250052.10492.6.camel@localhost>
+> Content-Type: text/plain; charset="iso-8859-1"
+>
+> Ron,
+>
+> Regarding Endnote data, the trick is to convert it into a format that
+> can be imported into Greenstone. I have done this, with the help of a
+> little Perl scripting, with Inmagic DBText databases. I would be happy
+> to show you how I did this.
+>
+> -cht
+>
+>
+>   
+>> ------------------------------
+>>
+>> Message: 4
+>> Date: Tue, 2 Dec 2008 10:28:17 +1200
+>> From: "Ron Vave" <vave_r@usp.ac.fj>
+>> Subject: [greenstone-users] Endnote export to GLI
+>> To: <greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+>> Message-ID: <001f01c95404$1b7bf280$5273d780$@ac.fj>
+>> Content-Type: text/plain; charset="iso-8859-1"
+>>
+>> Bula (hello),
+>>
+>>  
+>>
+>> First, I would like to know if the Endnote reference database can somehow be
+>> imported into Greenstone, and if yes, how do I go about doing this? And if
+>> there are any disadvantages to this as opposed to entering information
+>> directly into GLI?
+>>
+>>  
+>>
+>> Secondly, I would like to know if its possible to search the archives of
+>> postings made on this Greenstone listserver, so a person could search that
+>> first and apply solutions proposed in it, before repeating any postings
+>> here.
+>>
+>>  
+>>
+>> Vinaka (thanks),
+>>
+>> Ron Vave
+>>
+>>  
+>>
+>> -------------- next part --------------
+>>     
+>
+>
+> =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
+> Chris Hammond-Thrasher MLIS CISSP
+> Library Systems Manager
+> University of the South Pacific Library
+> Suva, Fiji
+> +679 3232233
+> hammondthrasher_c@usp.ac.fj
+> -------------- next part --------------
+> An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+> URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081203/16be6d0d/attachment-0001.html
+>
+> ------------------------------
+>
+> Message: 4
+> Date: Wed, 3 Dec 2008 10:46:19 +1300 (NZDT)
+> From: qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+> Subject: [greenstone-users] Re:Re:Re:Re:Re: greenstone version
+> To: "qiaohuan1955" <qiaohuan1955@163.com>
+> Cc: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> Message-ID:
+> 	<35157.206.207.225.23.1228254379.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+> Content-Type: text/plain;charset=iso-8859-1
+>
+> Hi Huan Qiao
+>
+>   
+>> The fact is that the Greenstone 2.8 version works well although it can't
+>>     
+> deal with Chinese.
+> Do you mean you couldn't import Chinese documents into Greenstone? To
+> import Chinese documents, you need to add "separate_cjk   true" manually
+> into collect.cfg. Please see
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Configuration_file_options#Options_also_available_as_options_to_import.pl
+> for details.
+>
+> If you want the greenstone web page displayed in Chinese, please add
+> "l=zh" (default language is English)at the end of the address. A Chinese
+> sample collection is available at
+> http://nzdl.sadl.uleth.ca/cgi-bin/library?a=p&p=about&c=chinese&l=zh
+>
+> And you can reference the collect.cfg at
+> http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/chinese/etc/collect.cfg
+>
+>   
+>> However, 2.81 version can't show the header words.
+>>     
+>
+> Could you send me a screen shot?
+>
+>
+> Regards
+> Quan
+>
+>
+>   
+>> Hi  Quan,
+>> Thank you for your message. The fact is that the Greenstone 2.8 version
+>> works well although it can't deal with Chinese. However, 2.81 version
+>> can't show the header words.All the Chinese characters can't be shown. We
+>> tried many times to download 2.8 again but didn't succeed. So where can we
+>> find the problem. We would like to change the language into Chinese.
+>> Thanks again. .
+>>
+>>
+>> --
+>> Huan Qiao
+>> Dept. of Information Management
+>> Beijing Normal University
+>> Beijing 100875
+>>
+>>
+>> åoeš2008-12-02ïŒOEqq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz å+^(TM)é?"ïŒs(
+>>     
+>>> Hi Huan Qiao
+>>>
+>>> Was the Greenstone installer running properly? Did you inspect any error
+>>> during installing? If everything was fine, my only suggestion is that you
+>>> could delete the greestone folder and reinstall it.
+>>>
+>>> Regards
+>>> Quan
+>>>
+>>>       
+>>>> Hi Quan
+>>>> I met a new problem when I run Greenstone2.81. The showcases, such as
+>>>> search, title,etc. can't be seen at all. I think it may be that my
+>>>> computer uses Chinese.But the other computer is ok. Could you please
+>>>> help
+>>>> me?
+>>>> By the way, thanks for your help last time. It is really helpful.
+>>>> Hope to hear from you as soon as possible.
+>>>>
+>>>>
+>>>> --
+>>>> Huan Qiao
+>>>> Dept. of Information Management
+>>>> Beijing Normal University
+>>>> Beijing 100875
+>>>>
+>>>>
+>>>> Ã¥ÂoeÂš2008-11-14Ã¯ÂŒÂOEqq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz Ã¥Â+Â^(TM)Ã©Â?Â"Ã¯ÂŒÂs(
+>>>>         
+>>>>> Hi Huan Qiao
+>>>>>
+>>>>> The message shows that "cmd.exe" couldn't be found locally. It was the
+>>>>> cause that WV couldn't be executed to convert .doc files to HTML files.
+>>>>>
+>>>>> I think you have to make "cmd.exe" running first, and rebuild the
+>>>>> collection later.
+>>>>>
+>>>>> Regards
+>>>>> Quan
+>>>>>
+>>>>>
+>>>>>           
+>>>>>> Hi, the problem is as follows.
+>>>>>>  import.pl> Converting fj22007132tjmshzgshchb[1].doc to HTML format
+>>>>>> import.pl> Can't spawn "cmd.exe": No such file or directory at
+>>>>>> C:\Downloads\c\bin\script/gsConvert.pl line 518.
+>>>>>> import.pl> Error executing wv converter:No such file or directory
+>>>>>> import.pl> Could not convert fj22007132tjmshzgshchb[1].doc to HTML
+>>>>>> format
+>>>>>> import.pl> WARNING: No plugin could process
+>>>>>> fj22007132tjmshzgshchb[1].doc
+>>>>>> import.pl> *********************************************
+>>>>>> import.pl> Import complete
+>>>>>> import.pl> *********************************************
+>>>>>> import.pl> * 1 document was considered for processing
+>>>>>> import.pl> * 0 were processed and included in the collection
+>>>>>> import.pl> * 1 was rejected
+>>>>>>
+>>>>>> Thanks anyway.
+>>>>>> --
+>>>>>> Huan Qiao
+>>>>>> Dept. of Information Management
+>>>>>> Beijing Normal University
+>>>>>> Beijing 100875
+>>>>>>
+>>>>>>
+>>>>>> ÃfÂ¥Ã,ÂoeÃ,Âš2008-11-13ÃfÂ¯Ã,ÂŒÃ,ÂOEqq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+>>>>>> ÃfÂ¥Ã,Â+Ã,Â^(TM)ÃfÂ©Ã,Â?Ã,Â"ÃfÂ¯Ã,ÂŒÃ,Âs(
+>>>>>>             
+>>>>>>> Hi Huan Qiao
+>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>> Launch GLI and go to File->Preference->Mode, switch to the Expert
+>>>>>>> mode
+>>>>>>> by
+>>>>>>> selecting Expert from the list. Then rebuild the collection, all
+>>>>>>> messages
+>>>>>>> regarding building will be displayed. Go through the messages, you
+>>>>>>> will
+>>>>>>> find reasons of the errors.
+>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>> If you have any questions, please replay me and cc to
+>>>>>>> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz at the same time, because
+>>>>>>> your
+>>>>>>> questions will benefit others.
+>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>> Regards
+>>>>>>> Quan
+>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>               
+>>>>>>>> Hi, my problem is as follows. Thanks.
+>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>> The file bill of rights_05312007.doc was recognised but could not
+>>>>>>>> be
+>>>>>>>> processed by
+>>>>>>>> any plugin.
+>>>>>>>> The file Digital Divide.doc was recognised but could not be
+>>>>>>>> processed
+>>>>>>>> by
+>>>>>>>> any
+>>>>>>>> plugin.
+>>>>>>>> The file personal statement 1.doc was recognised but could not be
+>>>>>>>> processed by any
+>>>>>>>> plugin.
+>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>> 4 documents were considered for processing:
+>>>>>>>>    1 document was processed and included in the collection.
+>>>>>>>>    3 were rejected.
+>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>> --
+>>>>>>>> Huan Qiao
+>>>>>>>> Dept. of Information Management
+>>>>>>>> Beijing Normal University
+>>>>>>>> Beijing 100875
+>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>> ÃfÂfÃ,Â"ÃfÂfÃ,Âs(2008-11-11ÃfÂ,Ã,Â£ÃfÂ,Ã,Â¬qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+>>>>>>>> ÃfÂfÃ,Â?ÃfÂ,Ã,ÂŽÃfÂ,Ã,ÂµÃfÂfÃ,ÂEURÃfÂ,Ã,Â£ÃfÂ,Ã,Âº
+>>>>>>>>                 
+>>>>>>>>> Hi Huan Qiao
+>>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>>> Could you replay me from the last email and forward to the group
+>>>>>>>>> list
+>>>>>>>>> as
+>>>>>>>>> well? Because I couldn't remember the question when I read it.
+>>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>>> Regards
+>>>>>>>>> Quan
+>>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>>>                   
+>>>>>>>>>>  Hi, my greenstone version is 2.80, and platform is Windows XP.
+>>>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>>>>
+>>>>>>>>>> --
+>>>>>>>>>> Huan Qiao
+>>>>>>>>>> Dept. of Information Management
+>>>>>>>>>> Beijing Normal University
+>>>>>>>>>> Beijing 100875
+>>>>>>>>>>                     
+>>>>>>>>>                   
+>>>>>>>               
+>>>>>           
+>>>       
+>
+>
+>
+>
+>
+> ------------------------------
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+>
+> End of greenstone-users Digest, Vol 69, Issue 4
+> ***********************************************
+>
+>
+>   
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081211/32c02576/attachment-0001.html
+From beibay at gmail.com  Thu Dec 11 21:10:36 2008
+From: beibay at gmail.com (Winn Mon Saw)
+Date: Thu Dec 11 21:10:41 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] "WSASYSNOTREADY" error in running GreenStone
+	version2.81 on Vista
+In-Reply-To: <c326dec50812110002y5c8605d5m6dca5326c337a08e@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <c326dec50812110002y5c8605d5m6dca5326c337a08e@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <c326dec50812110010p7697bc8ei28bbf70d7eeda41@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Dear Sir/Madam,
+
+I installed GreenStone version 2.81 on Vista and when I run GreenStone
+Server or GreenStone Librarian Interface, I encounter an error -- "Could not
+initialize the network (Reason: WSASYSNOTREADY)."
+
+May I ask you to advise me to solve this problem, please.
+
+Thanks a lot.
+
+-- 
+Regards,
+wmons
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081211/9ed10aa1/attachment.html
+From jbora at in.com  Wed Dec 10 23:57:21 2008
+From: jbora at in.com (Jayanta Bora)
+Date: Thu Dec 11 22:24:22 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Regarding Greenstone
+Message-ID: <1228906641.05d0abb9a864ae4981e933685b8b915c@mail.in.com>
+
+Dear Sir,I am Jayanta from Delhi, India. I am a Software Engineer and working in the field of Java/J2EE.I am interested to know about greenstone project and I would like to join the development community which will help me to expand my knowledge and skill.I tried to know about the project and come to know that its a very good project for digital library. Is it developed in Java ? If it is then I would like to join the community, since I am a Java developer I can try for it.There fore, I would like to request you to give me some detail about the project and the language in which it is developed.Regards,JayantaGet Yourself a cool, short @in.com Email ID now!
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081210/ba62a027/attachment.html
+From sureshn at tafe.co.in  Thu Dec 11 22:27:48 2008
+From: sureshn at tafe.co.in (sureshn@tafe.co.in)
+Date: Thu Dec 11 22:28:54 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Regarding Greenstone
+In-Reply-To: <1228906641.05d0abb9a864ae4981e933685b8b915c@mail.in.com>
+Message-ID: <2A82FF44A89AE748A9A2C9465052F6A01572226D87@Myconnect.tafedc.com>
+
+Kindly visit the website www.greenstone.org<http://www.greenstone.org/> for further information ....
+Regards
+
+Suresh Nair
+
+________________________________
+From: greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz [mailto:greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz] On Behalf Of Jayanta Bora
+Sent: Wednesday, December 10, 2008 4:27 PM
+To: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Regarding Greenstone
+
+Dear Sir,
+
+I am Jayanta from Delhi, India. I am a Software Engineer and working in the field of Java/J2EE.
+
+I am interested to know about greenstone project and I would like to join the development community which will help me to expand my knowledge and skill.
+
+I tried to know about the project and come to know that its a very good project for digital library.
+
+Is it developed in Java ? If it is then I would like to join the community, since I am a Java developer I can try for it.
+
+There fore, I would like to request you to give me some detail about the project and the language in which it is developed.
+
+
+Regards,
+
+Jayanta
+
+
+Get Yourself a cool, short @in.com Email ID now!<http://mail.in.com/mails/new_reg.php?utm_sou%0d%0a%20rce=invite&utm_medium=outgoing>
+
+The information containted and transmitted by this EMAIL is proprietary to TAFE
+and is intended for use only by the individual or entity to which it is addressed, and 
+may contain information that is privileged, confidential or exempt from disclosure 
+under applicable law.If this is a forwarded message,the content of this E-MAIL may 
+not have been sent with the authority of the Company. If you are not the intended 
+recipient, an agent of the intended recipient or a person responsible for delivering 
+the information to the named recepient, you are notified that any use, distribution
+transmission,printing, copying or dissemination of this information in any way or in 
+any manner is strictly prohibited.If you have received this communication in error, 
+please delete this mail.
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081211/201af929/attachment.html
+From dspano at orsna.gov.ar  Fri Dec 12 01:15:26 2008
+From: dspano at orsna.gov.ar (Diego Spano)
+Date: Fri Dec 12 01:14:15 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] "WSASYSNOTREADY" error in running
+	GreenStone	version2.81 on Vista
+In-Reply-To: <c326dec50812110010p7697bc8ei28bbf70d7eeda41@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <c326dec50812110002y5c8605d5m6dca5326c337a08e@mail.gmail.com>
+	<c326dec50812110010p7697bc8ei28bbf70d7eeda41@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <003301c95b8a$264880b0$72d98210$@gov.ar>
+
+Hi,
+
+ 
+
+When you launch greenstone server, go to File menu à settings . Once there,
+choose Always use localhost or Always use 127.0.0.1 as your address
+resolution method.
+
+ 
+
+The error you mentioned appears because you donŽt have any network
+connection available, so there is no ip address available to run server. 
+
+ 
+
+Hope this helps.
+
+ 
+
+Diego Spano
+
+ 
+
+De: greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+[mailto:greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz] En nombre de Winn
+Mon Saw
+Enviado el: jueves, 11 de diciembre de 2008 6:11
+Para: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Asunto: [greenstone-users] "WSASYSNOTREADY" error in running GreenStone
+version2.81 on Vista
+
+ 
+
+Dear Sir/Madam,
+
+I installed GreenStone version 2.81 on Vista and when I run GreenStone
+Server or GreenStone Librarian Interface, I encounter an error -- "Could not
+initialize the network (Reason: WSASYSNOTREADY)." 
+
+May I ask you to advise me to solve this problem, please.
+
+Thanks a lot.
+
+
+
+-- 
+Regards,
+wmons
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081211/0c06dff1/attachment-0001.html
+From beibay at gmail.com  Fri Dec 12 01:58:56 2008
+From: beibay at gmail.com (Winn Mon Saw)
+Date: Fri Dec 12 01:59:04 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] "WSASYSNOTREADY" error in running GreenStone
+	version2.81 on Vista
+In-Reply-To: <003301c95b8a$264880b0$72d98210$@gov.ar>
+References: <c326dec50812110002y5c8605d5m6dca5326c337a08e@mail.gmail.com>
+	<c326dec50812110010p7697bc8ei28bbf70d7eeda41@mail.gmail.com>
+	<003301c95b8a$264880b0$72d98210$@gov.ar>
+Message-ID: <c326dec50812110458j14086515o90c5670cad499025@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hey,
+
+Thanks a lot for your reply.
+
+I follow your advice and I got it now.
+
+Thank you very much. :) I really appreciate it.
+
+On Thu, Dec 11, 2008 at 8:15 PM, Diego Spano <dspano@orsna.gov.ar> wrote:
+
+>  Hi,
+>
+>
+>
+> When you launch greenstone server, go to File menu à settings . Once
+> there, choose "Always use localhost" or "Always use 127.0.0.1" as your
+> address resolution method.
+>
+>
+>
+> The error you mentioned appears because you donŽt have any network
+> connection available, so there is no ip address available to run server.
+>
+>
+>
+> Hope this helps.
+>
+>
+>
+> Diego Spano
+>
+>
+>
+> *De:* greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz [mailto:
+> greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz] *En nombre de *Winn Mon
+> Saw
+> *Enviado el:* jueves, 11 de diciembre de 2008 6:11
+> *Para:* greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> *Asunto:* [greenstone-users] "WSASYSNOTREADY" error in running GreenStone
+> version2.81 on Vista
+>
+>
+>
+> Dear Sir/Madam,
+>
+> I installed GreenStone version 2.81 on Vista and when I run GreenStone
+> Server or GreenStone Librarian Interface, I encounter an error -- "Could not
+> initialize the network (Reason: WSASYSNOTREADY)."
+>
+> May I ask you to advise me to solve this problem, please.
+>
+> Thanks a lot.
+>
+>
+> --
+> Regards,
+> wmons
+>
+
+
+
+-- 
+Regards,
+wmons
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081211/9ce28967/attachment.html
+From subhashkhode at yahoo.com  Fri Dec 12 21:36:42 2008
+From: subhashkhode at yahoo.com (subhash khode)
+Date: Fri Dec 12 21:46:30 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Ph.D.
+Message-ID: <122009.76647.qm@web94811.mail.in2.yahoo.com>
+
+ 
+Dear all Professinal
+ 
+It is requested to all indian  professinals to send your details if they are using
+greenstone software for my Ph.D work.
+ 
+ 
+Subhash Khode
+Cheif Librarian
+Mahakal Institute of Technology
+Ujjain (MP)
+
+
+      Add more friends to your messenger and enjoy! Go to http://messenger.yahoo.com/invite/
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081212/6a3ac379/attachment.html
+From amin.hedjazi at gmail.com  Sat Dec 13 18:39:13 2008
+From: amin.hedjazi at gmail.com (Amin Hedjazi)
+Date: Sat Dec 13 18:39:21 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] question about gsprintf,please help me
+Message-ID: <4105c9810812122139y7e9ea093q4ba0af2705057e9f@mail.gmail.com>
+
+hello every one
+can any body out there tell me what is the line 231 in file
+\gs2build\perllib\gsprintf.pm is good for ?
+i wanted to traslate the strings.properties inside \gs2build\perllib\  to
+persian
+but when i made a strings_fa.properties file like other traslations and
+saved it az utf-8 it returnd an error while
+trying to load the gli
+so i traced back the error and got to the line 231 in file
+\gs2build\perllib\gsprintf.pm and that wolude be the line below
+           $linetext =~
+s/(\s*)\#\s+Updated\s+(\d?\d-\D\D\D-\d\d\d\d)\s*$//i;
+becouse of this line my xml out put from the file downloadeinfo.pl wasent
+well formed
+and i got the error when i was trying to load the gli
+but when i commented out the line 231 in file \gs2build\perllib\gsprintf.pm
+my errors where gone and the gli loaded perfectly whit my traslations in
+there own palceses
+so sombody please tell me what is this line good for and
+it apears this line was making my utf-8 code to have some syntax error in it
+!!!!!
+if that problem was spose to be a bug shoulde i report it in the tracs ?
+please help me
+tnx every one
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081213/e8e8baaf/attachment.html
+From alok at prl.res.in  Mon Dec 15 17:17:57 2008
+From: alok at prl.res.in (Alok Shrivastava)
+Date: Mon Dec 15 17:16:13 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] gsdl document not open
+Message-ID: <6cc7aab6394bfe99e8ba22bb2b62edf0.squirrel@mail.prl.res.in>
+
+Dear all,
+
+I am new to gsdl.
+I install gsdl on fedora 8.
+everything works fine except a problem.
+when I try to open a document it gives the following error.
+
+Not Found
+
+The requested URL /collect/1995/index/assoc/HASH9299.dir/doc.pdf was not
+found on this server.
+Apache/2.2.0 (Fedora) Server at < servername > Port 80
+
+
+I checked everything is properly placed and file permissions are also
+correct.
+
+Can anybody give some suggestion.
+
+Thanks in advance
+--
+Alok S
+
+
+
+
+
+From sureshbabal at gmail.com  Mon Dec 15 20:40:01 2008
+From: sureshbabal at gmail.com (Chauhan)
+Date: Mon Dec 15 20:40:05 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] GSDL - 2.81rc on 'Windows Server 2003'
+Message-ID: <45de2d750812142340l2d6c478fn4a934227a34c316a@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Dear Professional Friends,
+
+I am trying to use Greenstone - 2.81rc (even tried 2.80 version too) on
+'Windows Server 2003' but unable to build/add any kind of collections on
+this. Could you kindly let me know the reasons which are not allowing me to
+build or add any collection?
+
+
+Following message appears while building collection:
+______________________________________________________________
+The file *.pdf was recognised but could not be processed by any plugin.
+The file *.doc was recognised but could not be processed by any plugin.
+
+
+2 documents were considered for processing:
+  2 were rejected.
+______________________________________________________________
+
+I am using Apache webserver and JAVA (jre-6-winodws-i586) as per the GSDL
+requirements.
+
+Hope to hear you soon.
+
+With kind regards,
+
+
+Suresh K Chauhan
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081215/d4ef46bd/attachment.html
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec 16 10:00:24 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Tue Dec 16 10:00:37 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] question about gsprintf,please help me
+In-Reply-To: <4105c9810812122139y7e9ea093q4ba0af2705057e9f@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4105c9810812122139y7e9ea093q4ba0af2705057e9f@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <1034.206.207.225.23.1229374824.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Amin
+
+"$linetext =~ s/(\s*)\#\s+Updated\s+(\d?\d-\D\D\D-\d\d\d\d)\s*$//i;"
+intended to clean up the string by deleting blank spaces,#,blank space
+followed by "Updated" and date with empty. Please see
+http://www.comp.leeds.ac.uk/Perl/sandtr.html#remembering for more details.
+
+In your case, there might be some special characters in your translations,
+for which the expression couldn't handle properly. If you could find those
+special characters that will be help for developers to find a solution.
+And the way to do it is not difficult. Try to write an simple Perl code to
+pass all your translated strings with this expression, then you might find
+the problem.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+
+
+> hello every one
+> can any body out there tell me what is the line 231 in file
+> \gs2build\perllib\gsprintf.pm is good for ?
+> i wanted to traslate the strings.properties inside \gs2build\perllib\  to
+> persian
+> but when i made a strings_fa.properties file like other traslations and
+> saved it az utf-8 it returnd an error while
+> trying to load the gli
+> so i traced back the error and got to the line 231 in file
+> \gs2build\perllib\gsprintf.pm and that wolude be the line below
+>            $linetext =~
+> s/(\s*)\#\s+Updated\s+(\d?\d-\D\D\D-\d\d\d\d)\s*$//i;
+> becouse of this line my xml out put from the file downloadeinfo.pl wasent
+> well formed
+> and i got the error when i was trying to load the gli
+> but when i commented out the line 231 in file
+> \gs2build\perllib\gsprintf.pm
+> my errors where gone and the gli loaded perfectly whit my traslations in
+> there own palceses
+> so sombody please tell me what is this line good for and
+> it apears this line was making my utf-8 code to have some syntax error in
+> it
+> !!!!!
+> if that problem was spose to be a bug shoulde i report it in the tracs ?
+> please help me
+> tnx every one
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec 16 10:09:49 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Tue Dec 16 10:09:58 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] gsdl document not open
+In-Reply-To: <6cc7aab6394bfe99e8ba22bb2b62edf0.squirrel@mail.prl.res.in>
+References: <6cc7aab6394bfe99e8ba22bb2b62edf0.squirrel@mail.prl.res.in>
+Message-ID: <34987.206.207.225.23.1229375389.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi
+
+I guess this collection was built on GLI. You can change GLI into Expert
+mode from File -> Preferences, then rebuild the collection. Please watch
+the building log carefully to check the errors.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+> Dear all,
+>
+> I am new to gsdl.
+> I install gsdl on fedora 8.
+> everything works fine except a problem.
+> when I try to open a document it gives the following error.
+>
+> Not Found
+>
+> The requested URL /collect/1995/index/assoc/HASH9299.dir/doc.pdf was not
+> found on this server.
+> Apache/2.2.0 (Fedora) Server at < servername > Port 80
+>
+>
+> I checked everything is properly placed and file permissions are also
+> correct.
+>
+> Can anybody give some suggestion.
+>
+> Thanks in advance
+> --
+> Alok S
+>
+>
+>
+>
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec 16 10:19:46 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Tue Dec 16 10:19:55 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] GSDL - 2.81rc on 'Windows Server 2003'
+In-Reply-To: <45de2d750812142340l2d6c478fn4a934227a34c316a@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <45de2d750812142340l2d6c478fn4a934227a34c316a@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <8244.206.207.225.23.1229375986.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi
+
+Please go to Design panel and click Documents Plugins from the left hand,
+a list of plugins will be displayed on the right. Make sure PDFPlugin is
+in the list if the documents are PDF format, and WordPlugin has to be
+added for processing word documents.
+
+Also, Change your GLI into Expert mode (File -> Preferences) and watch the
+ building log carefully to check errors when all the files are being
+processed
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+> Dear Professional Friends,
+>
+> I am trying to use Greenstone - 2.81rc (even tried 2.80 version too) on
+> 'Windows Server 2003' but unable to build/add any kind of collections on
+> this. Could you kindly let me know the reasons which are not allowing me
+> to
+> build or add any collection?
+>
+>
+> Following message appears while building collection:
+> ______________________________________________________________
+> The file *.pdf was recognised but could not be processed by any plugin.
+> The file *.doc was recognised but could not be processed by any plugin.
+>
+>
+> 2 documents were considered for processing:
+>   2 were rejected.
+> ______________________________________________________________
+>
+> I am using Apache webserver and JAVA (jre-6-winodws-i586) as per the GSDL
+> requirements.
+>
+> Hope to hear you soon.
+>
+> With kind regards,
+>
+>
+> Suresh K Chauhan
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec 16 10:35:09 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Tue Dec 16 10:35:19 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Gli applet
+In-Reply-To: <0KBO00H0PA2YCM@scms1.jjay.cuny.edu>
+References: <0KBO00H0PA2YCM@scms1.jjay.cuny.edu>
+Message-ID: <30087.206.207.225.23.1229376909.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Javeria
+
+Which version of Greenstone are you using? If you have Firefox installed,
+errors can be checked from Tools->Java Console.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+> Hi group,
+>
+>
+>
+>  I have setup the Java applet to run via the web browsers however the
+> applet
+> cannot load any collections. The "file" and "edit" menus are grayed out. I
+> can navigate "Local Filespace" and "Home Folder" just fine. Also on the
+> right side it says "no collection loaded".
+>
+> I'm logging in with a user that is a member of the administrator and
+> colbuilder groups.
+>
+> Client computer is a WinXP with FF 3 and IE 7.
+>
+> Greenstone Server is a Window 2003 server with IIS 6.0
+>
+>
+>
+> Thanks
+>
+> Javeria Sharif
+>
+> Library Webmaster
+>
+> Lloyd Sealy Library John Jay College of Criminal Justice, CUNY
+>
+> 899 Tenth Ave, New York, NY 10019
+>
+> jsharif@jjay.cuny.edu
+>
+>
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec 16 11:19:55 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Tue Dec 16 11:19:57 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Any updates to the Humanity Development Library
+	CD?
+Message-ID: <4946D80B.6050306@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+
+---------------------------- Original Message ----------------------------
+Subject: Updates
+From:    "Jean-Michel Mavoungou" <mavoungoujeanmichel@gmail.com>
+Date:    Mon, December 15, 2008 6:33 am
+To:      osborn@cs.uleth.ca
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Hi,
+
+I have the 2.0 version of the Humanity Development  Library,,,,dating 
+back from around 2000 - 2001
+Is there an update to the actual CD?
+
+Thanks
+
+
+From alok at prl.res.in  Tue Dec 16 16:45:17 2008
+From: alok at prl.res.in (Alok Shrivastava)
+Date: Tue Dec 16 16:46:13 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] gsdl document not open
+In-Reply-To: <34987.206.207.225.23.1229375389.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <6cc7aab6394bfe99e8ba22bb2b62edf0.squirrel@mail.prl.res.in>
+	<34987.206.207.225.23.1229375389.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <4947244D.3090305@prl.res.in>
+
+Hello,
+
+I think there is some plugin missing.
+I install pdftohtml.
+but still the same problem is there.
+I think that the plugin has to be integrated with gsdl.
+can somebody have any idea how to integrate it with gsdl.
+
+Thanks and regards
+
+__
+Alok S
+
+
+qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz wrote:
+> Hi
+>
+> I guess this collection was built on GLI. You can change GLI into Expert
+> mode from File -> Preferences, then rebuild the collection. Please watch
+> the building log carefully to check the errors.
+>
+> Regards
+> Quan
+>
+>   
+>> Dear all,
+>>
+>> I am new to gsdl.
+>> I install gsdl on fedora 8.
+>> everything works fine except a problem.
+>> when I try to open a document it gives the following error.
+>>
+>> Not Found
+>>
+>> The requested URL /collect/1995/index/assoc/HASH9299.dir/doc.pdf was not
+>> found on this server.
+>> Apache/2.2.0 (Fedora) Server at < servername > Port 80
+>>
+>>
+>> I checked everything is properly placed and file permissions are also
+>> correct.
+>>
+>> Can anybody give some suggestion.
+>>
+>> Thanks in advance
+>> --
+>> Alok S
+>>
+>>
+>>
+>>
+>>
+>> _______________________________________________
+>> greenstone-users mailing list
+>> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>>
+>>     
+>
+>   
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec 16 18:52:00 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Tue Dec 16 18:52:09 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] gsdl document not open
+Message-ID: <49474200.5040308@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Forgot to CC to the list
+
+Hello Alok,
+
+ >>> The requested URL /collect/1995/index/assoc/HASH9299.dir/doc.pdf
+When you view the collection in the web browser, and select one of the 
+browsing classifiers such as Titles or Filenames (these buttons for 
+browsing will be located next to the Search button in the navigation 
+bar), does it at least list the html version of this item? Can you view 
+the converted document or is that also not available along with the 
+original pdf document?
+
+
+ > I install pdftohtml.
+1. Actually, pdftohtml should already be in the bin/windows (or 
+bin/linux) directory that is located inside your Greenstone installation 
+directory. That is the version of pdftohtml that will be used.
+
+2. Are you using GLI (the Greenstone Librarian Interface) application to 
+build your collection? In the Design tab of GLI, you need to make sure 
+that the PDFPlugin is in the list of plugins that will be used.
+
+If this plugin is NOT already in the list of Assigned Plugins of the 
+Design tab, then add it to this list as follows: select the PDFPlugin 
+from the dropdown box at the very bottom of the Design Tab, press the 
+Add Plugin button and click OK in the plugin's Configuring Arguments 
+dialog that opens. Then try rebuilding the collection.
+
+If your pdf document is still not getting converted to html:
+
+3. As Quan said, can you go set the GLI mode to Expert and then in the 
+Create tab of GLI, check what the errors are (if any) on building the 
+collection?
+
+4. Can you thereafter also read through and work through the PDF tutorial
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/enhanced_pdf.htm
+
+This tutorial discusses some instances where PDFs won't be processed and 
+goes through some suggestions as to what can be done to work around such 
+cases.
+
+The sample documents that are used during this tutorial are linked to at 
+the top right of the page. It doesn't take long to do, so do try it out. 
+When you work through this tutorial are there any points where things 
+failed for you?
+
+Regards and good luck,
+Anupama
+
+
+Alok Shrivastava wrote:
+ > Hello,
+ >
+ > I think there is some plugin missing.
+ > I install pdftohtml.
+ > but still the same problem is there.
+ > I think that the plugin has to be integrated with gsdl.
+ > can somebody have any idea how to integrate it with gsdl.
+ >
+ > Thanks and regards
+ >
+ > __
+ > Alok S
+ >
+ >
+ > qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz wrote:
+ >> Hi
+ >>
+ >> I guess this collection was built on GLI. You can change GLI into Expert
+ >> mode from File -> Preferences, then rebuild the collection. Please watch
+ >> the building log carefully to check the errors.
+ >>
+ >> Regards
+ >> Quan
+ >>
+ >>
+ >>> Dear all,
+ >>>
+ >>> I am new to gsdl.
+ >>> I install gsdl on fedora 8.
+ >>> everything works fine except a problem.
+ >>> when I try to open a document it gives the following error.
+ >>>
+ >>> Not Found
+ >>>
+ >>> The requested URL /collect/1995/index/assoc/HASH9299.dir/doc.pdf 
+was not
+ >>> found on this server.
+ >>> Apache/2.2.0 (Fedora) Server at < servername > Port 80
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>> I checked everything is properly placed and file permissions are also
+ >>> correct.
+ >>>
+ >>> Can anybody give some suggestion.
+ >>>
+ >>> Thanks in advance
+ >>> --
+ >>> Alok S
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>> _______________________________________________
+ >>> greenstone-users mailing list
+ >>> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+ >>> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>
+ >>
+ >
+ > _______________________________________________
+ > greenstone-users mailing list
+ > greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+ > https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+ >
+
+
+
+From rmorgenstern at iway.na  Tue Dec 16 23:47:40 2008
+From: rmorgenstern at iway.na (Renate Morgenstern)
+Date: Tue Dec 16 23:44:04 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Sqaure brackets in text
+Message-ID: <4947874C.7060804@iway.na>
+
+Hi,
+
+According to archival and cataloguing rules, etc, information has
+sometimes to be embraced in square brackets [ ]. When one wants to
+display this information in Greenstone, it does not display because
+the parameters are also in { }. When we removed the { } it was
+showing. Is there a way how to get around this problem?
+We now have removed the [ ] from the text.
+Thanks for any suggestions.
+
+Renate--
+Renate Morgenstern
+P O Box 30664, WIndhoek, Namibia
+Tel/Fax: 242124
+Email: rmorgenstern@iway.na
+
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+
+No virus found in this incoming message.
+Checked by AVG - http://www.avg.com 
+Version: 8.0.176 / Virus Database: 270.9.17/1846 - Release Date: 12/12/2008 6:59 PM
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+Skipped content of type multipart/alternative
+From rmorgenstern at iway.na  Tue Dec 16 23:49:06 2008
+From: rmorgenstern at iway.na (Renate Morgenstern)
+Date: Tue Dec 16 23:45:20 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Date list display
+Message-ID: <494787A2.9020705@iway.na>
+
+Good day,
+
+We have a collection of 41 PDF documents (old prospectussess). One of
+the browsing
+classifiers is the year and I use the date list for it. However, when
+viewing not all the years are showing. I have tried many options, but
+with no success. I then removed 2 documents from the collection, and
+there all the documents could be seen under the year. Then I added one
+again, and the same problem as before. What is also puzzling, is that
+the year is not displayed as a horizontal line above the documents,
+but a vertical line with all the documents for that year next to each.
+One can view it online at:
+http://196.20.16.213/gsdl/cgi-bin/library?site=localhost&a=p&p=about&c=prospect&l=en&w=utf-8
+I can send the collect.cfg file off-line.
+
+Regards
+Renate
+
+
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+
+No virus found in this incoming message.
+Checked by AVG - http://www.avg.com 
+Version: 8.0.176 / Virus Database: 270.9.17/1846 - Release Date: 12/12/2008 6:59 PM
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+Skipped content of type multipart/alternative
+From julianmoyanoc at gmail.com  Tue Dec 16 23:53:45 2008
+From: julianmoyanoc at gmail.com (Julian Moyano)
+Date: Tue Dec 16 23:53:54 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: gsdl document not open (Alok Shrivastava)
+Message-ID: <3e1b18b40812160253o32b55e3fwe433541281264ebe@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hi Alok:
+Yuo can copy the  folders  of the directory Archives(Collec-->your name
+Collection--->Archives) to Assoc (Collect-->your name
+collection--->Index---> Assoc). Try again.
+
+http://www.manuelalbar.org
+------------ próxima parte ------------
+Se ha borrado un adjunto en formato HTML...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081216/b7c23058/attachment.html
+From jsharif at jjay.cuny.edu  Wed Dec 17 06:18:30 2008
+From: jsharif at jjay.cuny.edu (Javeria Sharif)
+Date: Wed Dec 17 06:18:36 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Awstats
+Message-ID: <0KBZ00BKYBT6N9@scms1.jjay.cuny.edu>
+
+Hi group,
+
+ 
+
+I am running Awstats for greenstone statistics. I want to find out if there
+is a way I can see where the people are visiting from the domains and the
+country. Thank you 
+
+ 
+
+Javeria Sharif
+
+Library Webmaster
+
+Lloyd Sealy Library John Jay College of Criminal Justice, CUNY
+
+899 Tenth Ave, New York, NY 10019
+
+jsharif@jjay.cuny.edu
+
+ 
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081216/c2f26848/attachment.html
+From johnrose at alumni.caltech.edu  Wed Dec 17 08:41:41 2008
+From: johnrose at alumni.caltech.edu (John Rose)
+Date: Wed Dec 17 08:42:23 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: Updates
+In-Reply-To: <20081216104526.A8F073F0E2C@mail.alumni.caltech.edu>
+References: <20081216104526.A8F073F0E2C@mail.alumni.caltech.edu>
+Message-ID: <20081216194156.C70863F200D@mail.alumni.caltech.edu>
+
+Dear Jean-Michel,
+
+The latest version of this general collection was version 2.1 (August 
+2002), but the developer of the collection, Human Info NGO 
+(http://www.humaninfo.org) has also published a large number of 
+specialised CD-ROMs in the same format. You can see how to obtain 
+them on the above, and you can see portions of several of them online 
+at http://www.nzdl.org .
+
+                                 Best regards, John Rose of Greenstone Team
+
+P.S. If you are a French-speaking Greenstone user, there is a French 
+language discussion group which can be accessed at 
+http://www.freelists.org/webpage/greenstone_fr .
+
+
+>From: Anupama of Greenstone Team <greenstone_team@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+>Precedence: list
+>To: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz,
+>         Katherine Don <kjdon@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+>Date: Tue, 16 Dec 2008 11:19:55 +1300
+>Subject: [greenstone-users] Any updates to the Humanity Development 
+>Library CD?
+>
+>---------------------------- Original Message ----------------------------
+>Subject: Updates
+>From:    "Jean-Michel Mavoungou" <mavoungoujeanmichel@gmail.com>
+>Date:    Mon, December 15, 2008 6:33 am
+>To:      osborn@cs.uleth.ca
+>--------------------------------------------------------------------------
+>
+>Hi,
+>
+>I have the 2.0 version of the Humanity 
+>Development  Library,,,,dating back from around 2000 - 2001
+>Is there an update to the actual CD?
+>
+>Thanks
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Wed Dec 17 12:49:58 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Oran of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Wed Dec 17 12:50:08 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Awstats
+In-Reply-To: <0KBZ00BKYBT6N9@scms1.jjay.cuny.edu>
+References: <0KBZ00BKYBT6N9@scms1.jjay.cuny.edu>
+Message-ID: <49483EA6.8040304@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Javeria,
+
+The default settings for Awstats should show you the hits by country. So
+if you get Awstats working you should get the information by default. I
+believe it uses the top level domain of the host of the incoming http
+requests to work out the country. Just make sure your web server (which
+I assume is apache) keeps the access log in the correct format - Awstats
+has instructions on how to do that.
+
+Cheers,
+Oran.
+
+Javeria Sharif wrote:
+>
+> Hi group,
+>
+>  
+>
+> I am running Awstats for greenstone statistics. I want to find out if 
+> there is a way I can see where the people are visiting from the 
+> domains and the country. Thank you
+>
+>  
+>
+> Javeria Sharif
+>
+> Library Webmaster
+>
+> Lloyd Sealy Library John Jay College of Criminal Justice, CUNY
+>
+> 899 Tenth Ave , New York , NY 10019
+>
+> jsharif@jjay.cuny.edu <mailto:jsharif@jjay.cuny.edu>
+>
+>  
+>
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>   
+
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Wed Dec 17 12:58:37 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Wed Dec 17 12:58:40 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: greenstone
+Message-ID: <494840AD.3070606@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+This is my second email to you just now. It is almost the same as the 
+previous one, but I've made a few small corrections, which means you can 
+skip reading the last one.
+
+
+Hello Derrick,
+
+ >> We have created Greenstone database for our research documents.
+ >> So  i wanted to find out if you can host it for us.
+Yes. As Prof Witten said, it could be hosted on the New Zealand Digital 
+Library website (nzdl.org).
+
+If you could send us your collection by exporting it to cd or dvd, as 
+explained below, then we can do this for you.
+
+Exporting your collection to cd/dvd:
+
+1. Run the Greenstone Librarian Interface (GLI). If you're on Windows 
+and installed Greenstone 2, then you would access GLI through the Start 
+Menu.
+
+If you are on a Windows machine but hadn't used an installer to install 
+Greenstone 2, then there may not be any shortcut menus from the Start 
+Menu. In such a case, to run GLI you would open the DOS prompt, cd into 
+your Greenstone installation folder's "gli" subfolder and then type:
+gli.bat
+
+If you're on Linux, you would run GLI from the terminal by first going 
+into your Greenstone installation directory's "gli" folder and then 
+launching GLI by typing:
+./gli.sh
+
+
+2. When the GLI application window opens up, choose the File > Export 
+menu option.
+
+3. In the Export collection dialog that displays,
+a. set the item in the Export To dropdown box as GreenstoneMETS,
+b. in the Folder Name textbox, type a simple name for the folder into 
+which your collection data will be stored,
+c. in the list of Available Collections, choose the collection you wish 
+to export,
+d. Press the Export Collection button
+
+If you have more than one collection that you want to export to CD/DVD, 
+then repeat steps 3b to 3d for each. If you provide a different Folder 
+Name for each, then your collections will each be stored inside a 
+separate folder.
+
+4. By default the exported collections will be stored inside the folder 
+called "tmp" which is located in your greenstone installation folder. 
+This tmp folder will contain one or more subfolders, going by the Folder 
+Name(s) you provided in 3b for each exported collection.
+
+5. Could you thereafter burn the contents of the "tmp" folder onto a CD?
+
+Once you've made your disc, can you post it to:
+
+Anupama Krishnan
+Digital Library Lab G2.01
+Department of Computing and Mathematical Sciences
+University of Waikato, Te Whare Wananga o Waikato
+Gate 1 Knighton Road
+Private Bag 3105
+Hamilton 3240
+New Zealand
+
+Once we've received the disc and added its collection(s) to the nzdl 
+website, we will inform you of where to find your collection(s).
+
+All the best,
+Anupama
+
+
+ >
+ > Hi Anu
+ >
+ > I am nominating you :-) I guess you could reply to Derick and let him
+ > know to send the collection to you, and how to do it. (export to cd/dvd
+ > from gli is probably the best way).
+ >
+ > Cheers,
+ > Kath
+ >
+ >
+ >
+ >> From: Derick Hamavhwa <hamavhwamwiinga@yahoo.com>
+ >> Date: 11 December 2008 10:21:15 PM
+ >> To: telphick@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+ >> Subject: Greenstone.
+ >> Reply-To: hamavhwamwiinga@yahoo.com
+ >>
+ >> Hi .
+ >> Hope you are doing fine. Am Derrick from Zambia.Am the Knowledge
+ >> Manager for Zambia Forum for Health Research.We have created
+ >> Greenstone database for our research documents.Now the problem is
+ >> that there is no internet service provider here in Zambia who can
+ >> host the Greenstone database.So i wanted to find out if you can
+ >> host it for us.We want it to be accessible through the internet and
+ >> so if there is a way we can make it accessible through the internet
+ >> you can tell us.We will realy appreciate for your help.
+ >>
+ >> Regards,
+ >> Derrick.
+ >
+ > Hi Derrick. I think we should be able to put this up as one of the
+ > collections on nzdl.org. Can you send us the whole collection (in a
+ > form that we can rebuild it), say as a zip file?
+ >
+ > [Kathy, could you nominate someone to deal with this, please?]
+ >
+ > cheers
+ > ian
+ >
+ >
+ >
+
+
+From rajankila at hotmail.com  Wed Dec 17 17:26:26 2008
+From: rajankila at hotmail.com (Rajan)
+Date: Wed Dec 17 17:28:42 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Human Development Library - Updated version
+In-Reply-To: <BAY0-MC5-F6JsALJtrU00036d67@bay0-mc5-f6.bay0.hotmail.com>
+References: <BAY0-MC5-F6JsALJtrU00036d67@bay0-mc5-f6.bay0.hotmail.com>
+Message-ID: <COL118-DS224D338F0D967EEBD8394EB6F20@phx.gbl>
+
+Dear Mr Jean Michael,
+
+Community Development Library for Sustainable Development and Basic Human Needs 2.1 released on August 2002 is the updated version of the CD-ROM library.
+It contains 1785 documents. It is available at http://nzdl.sadl.uleth.ca/cgi-bin/library?a=p&p=about&c=cdl
+
+Regards,
+
+K Rajasekharan
+Kerala Institute of Local Administration
+Thrissur
+
+
+---------------------------- Original Message ----------------------------
+Subject: Updates
+From:    "Jean-Michel Mavoungou" <mavoungoujeanmichel@gmail.com>
+Date:    Mon, December 15, 2008 6:33 am
+To:      osborn@cs.uleth.ca
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Hi,
+
+I have the 2.0 version of the Humanity Development  Library,,,,dating 
+back from around 2000 - 2001
+Is there an update to the actual CD?
+
+Thanks
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081217/f390fd81/attachment-0001.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Wed Dec 17 18:46:45 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Wed Dec 17 18:46:58 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: [greenstone-devel] Technical question
+In-Reply-To: <407437.74551.qm@web55406.mail.re4.yahoo.com>
+References: <407437.74551.qm@web55406.mail.re4.yahoo.com>
+Message-ID: <49489245.5010605@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello Katya,
+
+1. Can you tell us what version of Greenstone you were trying to 
+install? For instance, was it the recent Greenstone 2.81 rc2?
+
+2. What is the operating system you are trying to install it on? 
+Windows, Linux or a Mac OS? And which version of the OS are you running?
+
+Is there any other specific environment information which you think it 
+will be useful for us to know about?
+
+Do also try the links to the latest binaries (nightly snapshots) that 
+Quan (qq6) provided.
+
+3. If you would rather try to install Greenstone from its source code, 
+there are some additional links related to what Quan provided on the 
+page http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone
+
+All the best,
+Anupama
+
+
+Katya Boroday wrote:
+> The Tatarstan Center of the Scientific and Technical Information would 
+> like to use the on-line version of Greenstone's digital libraries in our 
+> work. Unfortunately, we can't install the necessary software because of 
+> the some technical reasons. Please, help us to solve this problem.
+>  
+> Looking forward to hear from you, Boroday Katya
+> Russia, Kazan
+> 
+> 
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> 
+> ?? ??? ? Yahoo!? ????????? ??????????? ? ??????????. Yahoo! ????? 
+> <http://ru.mail.yahoo.com>!
+> 
+> 
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> 
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-devel mailing list
+> greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-devel
+
+
+From salama.u at arabccd.org  Wed Dec 17 20:56:46 2008
+From: salama.u at arabccd.org (usama salama)
+Date: Wed Dec 17 21:00:03 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Greenstone for Arab
+Message-ID: <MAILewpRnaFb42Vw6KT0000844b@mail.arabccd.org>
+
+Dear Greenstoners,
+
+ 
+
+I'm about to build a community for the Arab users of Greenstone, this
+according to a previous discussion with Mr. John Rose.  
+
+ 
+
+Please feel free to join the group and open topics related to the Arabic
+problems, practicing, and contributions in using Greenstone.
+
+ 
+
+But, don't leave this mailing list because the new one wouldn't replace than
+integrate with.  
+
+ 
+
+To subscribe :
+
+http://www.freelists.org/list/greenstone4arab
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+Finally, have nice feasts and vacations all over the world
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+Regards
+
+ 
+
+USAMA SALAM
+
+ 
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081217/cd66f7a2/attachment.html
+From johnrose at alumni.caltech.edu  Wed Dec 17 22:36:57 2008
+From: johnrose at alumni.caltech.edu (John Rose)
+Date: Wed Dec 17 22:37:52 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Large CDS/ISIS database
+In-Reply-To: <20081207220020.A697A3F20EB@mail.alumni.caltech.edu>
+References: <20081207220020.A697A3F20EB@mail.alumni.caltech.edu>
+Message-ID: <20081217093737.E467A3F0CB4@mail.alumni.caltech.edu>
+
+Dear Renate,
+
+In the CDS/ISIS to Greenstone guide 
+(http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/others/CDS-ISIS_to_DL.doc), 
+the limitations to exploding are explained in chapter 4 and several 
+solutions are given. If adjusting the "records per folder" parameter 
+does not help, please try exploding and also building from the 
+command line and inform us if the problem has been solved.
+
+There is also the possibility of splitting the CDS/ISIS database into 
+several sub-databases (exporting different MFN ranges to separate ISO 
+files in CDS/ISIS, and reimporting them to CDS/ISIS databases with 
+different names). You can then build separate Greenstone collections 
+to be searched with the cross-collection search facility (to be set 
+in the GLI Format panel). This has the disadvantage that browsing 
+across more than one the sub-databases at one time would not be possible.
+
+Modifying GLI to handle the large amounts of metadata associated with 
+large bibliographic databases would be a major project which could be 
+considered if there is a sufficiently broad user demand.
+
+                                                         Best regards, John
+
+>From: rmorgenstern@unam.na
+>To: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>Date: Sat, 06 Dec 2008 15:53:09 +0000
+>Subject: [greenstone-users] Large CDS/ISIS database
+>
+>Good day,
+>
+>I want to explode a CDS/ISIS database with 32146 records.  Is there a
+>limit to the number of records that can be exploded? I used 100
+>records per folder. It just hangs for a long while and then actually
+>explodes some records, but not all the 32146.
+>Here is the error message:  For testing purposes I entered 3 file
+>names of tiff files in the last 3 records of the database with the
+>corresponding files in the prefix folder.  If necessary I can send the
+>database master file, the FDT and XRF off list.
+>
+>Thanks very much
+>Renate Morgenstern
+>
+>  Number of records: 32146
+>  Obtaining document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416...
+>  doc file full = c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+>  WARNING: Could not obtain document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+>  Creating a nul document 2416.nul
+>  Obtaining document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416...
+>  doc file full = c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+>  WARNING: Could not obtain document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+>  Creating a nul document 2416.nul
+>  Obtaining document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416...
+>  doc file full = c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+>  WARNING: Could not obtain document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+>  Creating a nul document 2416.nul
+>  Obtaining document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416...
+>  doc file full = c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+>  WARNING: Could not obtain document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+>  Creating a nul document 2416.nul
+>  Obtaining document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416...
+>  doc file full = c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+>  WARNING: Could not obtain document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+>  Creating a nul document 2416.nul
+>  Obtaining document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416...
+>  doc file full = c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+>  WARNING: Could not obtain document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+>  Creating a nul document 2416.nul
+>  Obtaining document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416...
+>  doc file full = c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+>  WARNING: Could not obtain document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+>  Creating a nul document 2416.nul
+>  Obtaining document file c:\winisis\data\air\2416...
+>  doc file full = c:\winisis\data\air\2416
+
+
+From thaotk2 at gmail.com  Wed Dec 17 23:02:24 2008
+From: thaotk2 at gmail.com (Thao Thao)
+Date: Wed Dec 17 23:02:29 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Binary and Source code
+Message-ID: <4409126a0812170202o3660e37o6993043d7ae5e02e@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hi everybody!
+i used Greenstone for build my library but I want ask "What  What is the
+difference between binary and source code? "
+Thanks you!
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081217/fd329a9f/attachment.html
+From cool.rajat at gmail.com  Wed Dec 17 23:32:57 2008
+From: cool.rajat at gmail.com (rajatmahajan)
+Date: Wed Dec 17 23:33:09 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] rajatmahajan wants to keep up with you on Twitter
+Message-ID: <4948d559cd342_6f6415555984875833994@twitter-web006.twitter.com.tmail>
+
+To find out more about Twitter, visit the link below:
+
+http://twitter.com/i/e182cc7efd3fa1b0c3e9f27e970f3feb817e767a
+
+Thanks,
+-The Twitter Team
+
+About Twitter
+
+Twitter is a unique approach to communication and networking based on the simple concept of status. What are you doing? What are your friends doing?right now? With Twitter, you may answer this question over SMS or the Web and the responses are shared between contacts.
+
+This message was sent by a Twitter user who entered your email address. If you'd prefer not to receive emails when other people invite you to Twitter, click here:
+http://twitter.com/i/optout/eccbed2448919042cde4154e4f17b27f3e1e6828
+
+From akujenga at gmail.com  Thu Dec 18 00:02:43 2008
+From: akujenga at gmail.com (Amos Kujenga)
+Date: Thu Dec 18 00:02:49 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Sqaure brackets in text
+In-Reply-To: <4947874C.7060804@iway.na>
+References: <4947874C.7060804@iway.na>
+Message-ID: <53f027730812170302s5331d4eak791d6351b6eb123e@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hi Renate,
+
+You can simply use the backslash character "\" as an escape character.
+For example, if part of your format statement was:
+
+<td valign="top">[dc.Title]</td>
+
+then you'd change it to:
+
+<td valign="top">\[[dc.Title]\]</td>
+
+for square brackets or
+
+<td valign="top">\{[dc.Title]\}</td>
+
+for curly brackets.
+
+I hope that helps!
+
+Regards
+
+
+Amos
+
+
+On 12/16/08, Renate Morgenstern <rmorgenstern@iway.na> wrote:
+> Hi,
+>
+> According to archival and cataloguing rules, etc, information has
+> sometimes to be embraced in square brackets [ ]. When one wants to
+> display this information in Greenstone, it does not display because
+> the parameters are also in { }. When we removed the { } it was
+> showing. Is there a way how to get around this problem?
+> We now have removed the [ ] from the text.
+> Thanks for any suggestions.
+>
+> Renate--
+> Renate Morgenstern
+> P O Box 30664, WIndhoek, Namibia
+> Tel/Fax: 242124
+> Email: rmorgenstern@iway.na
+>
+>
+>
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Dec 18 08:48:41 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Thu Dec 18 08:48:54 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Gli applet
+In-Reply-To: <1360E4243F7B1A4789DF3EBE55F356C41659C2C50F@JJAYEXCH.jjay.cuny.edu>
+References: <30087.206.207.225.23.1229376909.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<1360E4243F7B1A4789DF3EBE55F356C41659C2C50F@JJAYEXCH.jjay.cuny.edu>
+Message-ID: <60998.72.200.121.229.1229543321.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Javeria
+
+Please download a new Greenstone at
+http://www.greenstone.org/download#snapshots-dist, and try the applet
+again.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+> Hi,
+>
+> I am running greenstone 2.74.
+>
+> Javeria Sharif
+>
+> Library Webmaster
+>
+> Lloyd Sealy Library John Jay College of Criminal Justice, CUNY
+>
+> 899 Tenth Ave, New York, NY 10019
+>
+> jsharif@jjay.cuny.edu
+>
+> -----Original Message-----
+> From: qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz [mailto:qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz]
+> Sent: Monday, December 15, 2008 4:35 PM
+> To: Javeria Sharif
+> Cc: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] Gli applet
+>
+> Hi Javeria
+>
+> Which version of Greenstone are you using? If you have Firefox installed,
+> errors can be checked from Tools->Java Console.
+>
+> Regards
+> Quan
+>
+>> Hi group,
+>>
+>>
+>>
+>>  I have setup the Java applet to run via the web browsers however the
+>> applet
+>> cannot load any collections. The "file" and "edit" menus are grayed out.
+>> I
+>> can navigate "Local Filespace" and "Home Folder" just fine. Also on the
+>> right side it says "no collection loaded".
+>>
+>> I'm logging in with a user that is a member of the administrator and
+>> colbuilder groups.
+>>
+>> Client computer is a WinXP with FF 3 and IE 7.
+>>
+>> Greenstone Server is a Window 2003 server with IIS 6.0
+>>
+>>
+>>
+>> Thanks
+>>
+>> Javeria Sharif
+>>
+>> Library Webmaster
+>>
+>> Lloyd Sealy Library John Jay College of Criminal Justice, CUNY
+>>
+>> 899 Tenth Ave, New York, NY 10019
+>>
+>> jsharif@jjay.cuny.edu
+>>
+>>
+>>
+>> _______________________________________________
+>> greenstone-users mailing list
+>> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>>
+>
+>
+>
+
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Dec 18 15:32:03 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Thu Dec 18 15:32:15 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] the wvWare solution
+In-Reply-To: <493A8B8A.3010804@sdb.org>
+References: <493A8B8A.3010804@sdb.org>
+Message-ID: <4949B623.1030807@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Julian
+
+We are just about to release the final 2.81 release. The windows and 
+Linux binary versions have been updated to include static binaries for 
+the new wvWare version. The Mac binary release, and source release, will 
+remain with the old wvWare.
+We didn't want to include the new version in the source release as it 
+takes about 80Mb by the time you add in all the dependencies. But people 
+working from source releases can always install it themselves if they 
+need to.
+
+Our focus for this problem next year will be to try and use Open Office 
+to convert Word etc documents, so that we can handle Office 2007 documents.
+
+Thanks for prompting us about this.
+
+Cheers,
+Katherine
+
+Julian Fox wrote:
+> Dear List,
+> An issue that has bugged me for a while is now resolved - simply 
+> enough, I must add, but I wonder if people in the GS Team could take a 
+> note of this please, if they have not already done so for 2.81. It 
+> concerns the version of wvWare that comes with 2.80, and which handles 
+> conversion of MS files, particularly Word.  It is an older version, 
+> and while wvWare has remained somewhat static for a few years, there 
+> is a newer version 1.2.4 which works better than the one shipped with 
+> GS 2.80.  Could this newer version be included, please, in upgrades of 
+> GS?
+> I realise that the issue is less important for Windows users, who can 
+> overcome problems by using Windows scripting, but in my case, using 
+> Ubuntu 8.10 and GS 2.80, MSWord files were simply not being converted 
+> to html as they should be, and I was left with hieroglyphics instead 
+> of readable text. By replacing the wvWare file in the gsdl/bin/linux 
+> folder (that was sufficient, nothing else needed) with the 1.2.4 
+> version I resolved the problem. It also seems to have resolved a 
+> similar problem I was having with ppt files.  I might add, for anyone 
+> using Linux, that I had to download a few lib file dependencies to 
+> compile wvWare, and that kept me a bit preoccupied for a while until I 
+> succeeded, but that's by the way. Beyond that, the problem was resolved.
+> Julian
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Dec 18 18:34:26 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Thu Dec 18 18:34:41 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Binary and Source code
+In-Reply-To: <4409126a0812170202o3660e37o6993043d7ae5e02e@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4409126a0812170202o3660e37o6993043d7ae5e02e@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <4949E0E2.1000203@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello Thao Thao,
+ > I want ask "What  What is the
+ > difference between binary and source code? "
+
+- Binaries are precompiled and therefore they are ready to run when 
+you've downloaded them. The installer and the zipped binaries contain 
+binary versions of Greenstone.
+
+- Source code needs to be compiled up before it can be run. The source 
+code releases contain the code but no binaries. The person who 
+downloaded it will need to compile up the source code first (compiling 
+the code will generate the executable binaries) after which they can 
+then run the program.
+
+The advantage with binaries is that you don't need the Java or C++ 
+compilers installed on your machine in order to run Greenstone if you 
+are working on Windows, Linux or Mac Leopard (if this last is configured 
+similarly to our situation).
+
+The advantage to having source code is that in those cases where a 
+binary release is not available for someone's particular system, they 
+can still produce a binary that will work for them by compiling up the 
+source code on their own machine. This will generate binaries that are 
+native to their machine, and (assuming the compilation succeeded without 
+a glitch) this will work.
+
+Hope this wasn't too confusing,
+Anupama
+
+Thao Thao wrote:
+> Hi everybody!
+> i used Greenstone for build my library but I want ask "What  What is the 
+> difference between binary and source code? "
+> Thanks you!
+> 
+> 
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> 
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Fri Dec 19 17:30:27 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Oran of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Fri Dec 19 17:30:38 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Final of Greenstone2.81 Released
+Message-ID: <494B2363.80009@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello Users and Developers of Greenstone,
+
+We are pleased to announce that the Windows, GNU/Linux, MacOS and Source
+distributions of the finalised Greenstone2.81 are now available for
+download from our sourceforge page:
+http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone or from
+http://www.greenstone.org/download
+
+This is the finalised 2.81 release. It includes some bug fixes found in
+in 2.81rc2. If you are running a 2.81rc or 2.81rc2 please download and
+upgrade to this release. Our response to any mailing list questions
+about the 2.81rc or 2.81rc2 releases will simply be to ask you to
+upgrade to 2.81 first and see if that fixes the problem.
+
+As always, please report any problems or bugs to the mailing list.
+
+Many of us in the Greenstone Team will be taking leave over Christmas
+and throughout January. We wish all list members the best over the
+holiday season! An unfortunate side effect is, of course, that our
+responses on the mailing list may slow down over that period. We invite
+all list members to help each other out during this time - if you know
+the answer to a question someone else asks on the list, have confidence
+in answering, as it might be a while before one of the Greenstone team
+is available to reply.
+
+Happy Holidays,
+Oran and the rest of the Greenstone team.
+
+Release Name: 2.81
+
+The Windows, GNU/Linux, Mac OS/X and Source distributions of Greenstone
+v2.81
+are now available for download from our sourceforge page:
+
+  http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone
+
+or via
+
+  http://www.greenstone.org/download
+
+
+This is the finalised 2.81 release. It includes some bug fixes found in in
+2.81rc2. If you are running a 2.81rc or 2.81rc2 please download and
+upgrade to
+this release.
+
+Important changes in this release include, in no particular order:
+
+wvWare updated
+--------------
+We have upgraded the version of wvWare included with Greenstone in the Linux
+binary releases to version 1.2.4. It was not possible to do the same for the
+MacOS binary distribution without shipping around 80Mb of additional
+libraries,
+so the MacOS binary release still comes with version 0.7.1. MacOS users may
+upgrade wvWare if needed by downloading it from
+http://wvware.sourceforge.net/ and compiling it. Source users will also
+still get version 0.7.1 but may upgrade in the same way.
+
+
+The release notes from the 2.81rc2 release and included below:
+
+Release Name: 2.81rc2
+
+The Windows, GNU/Linux, Mac OS/X and Source distributions of Greenstone
+v2.81rc2
+are now available for download from our sourceforge page:
+
+  http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone
+
+or via
+
+  http://www.greenstone.org/download
+
+
+Important changes in this release include, in no particular order:
+
+Stability and Bug Fixes
+-----------------------
+Some small problems in the recent 2.81rc release of Greenstone2 have
+been ironed
+out to create an overall more robust release. Some features have been
+restored
+(including realistic books and dynamic classifiers on Windows) and the
+LuceneWrapper.jar file has been put back into the release.
+
+GDBM
+----
+Greenstone now comes with it's own modified version of gdbm which can
+auto-detect the format of database files (ldb or bdb format) and load either
+format on any of Greenstone's supported platforms. This achieves a
+better level
+of portability for Greenstone collections, and allows collections built
+on one
+operating system to be served from other operating systems supported by
+Greenstone.
+
+
+Installer improvements
+----------------------
+* The new installer:
+   - is now available in five languages
+   - can now cope with being executed from a path with accented
+characters and
+     other special characters. (There is still a known issue with chinese
+     file paths, which can be avoided by simply running from c:\ or
+another path
+     with no special characters.)
+* The source release is now provided as a platform-independent zip / tar
+archive
+* We now provide a simple binary zip / tar distribution for each platform
+
+
+Vista Compatibility
+-------------------
+* When Greenstone is installed into the Program Files directory on Windows
+Vista, it is necessary to elevate to a higher access level to run GLI
+and the
+Greenstone server. As of this release, you can do this by launching the
+Start
+Menu items as an administrator. Just right-click the item and choose "Run as
+Administator", or set "Run as Adminsitrator" in the shortcut properties.
+Also, as a way to avoid having to elevate to higher access levels
+altogether,
+the default installation directory is now inside the current user's home
+folder.
+
+* Some Windows Vista users have experienced a problem when perl outputs
+warning
+messages in front of xml output passed to GLI. The error messages
+themselves are
+not fatal, but cause the xml to become invalid, resulting in a GLI
+crash. GLI
+has been modified to ignore these warning messages and thereby keep the
+validity
+of the xml.
+
+New Start Menu icons and server image
+-------------------------------------
+Each item in a Greenstone Start Menu group is now has a unique icon so
+you can
+tell which is which at a glance. We have also added some links to the
+wiki and
+the Greenstone website for convenience. The old server image has also been
+replaced with the new GS2 Server logo.
+
+The release notes from the 2.81rc release and included below:
+
+Release Name: 2.81rc
+
+The Windows, GNU/Linux, Mac OS/X and Source distributions of Greenstone
+v2.81rc
+are now available for download from our sourceforge page:
+
+  http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone
+
+or via
+
+  http://www.greenstone.org/download
+
+
+Important changes in this release include, in no particular order:
+
+Installer:
+--------------
+
+The Greenstone installer downloads are now created using only open source
+software, including Ant Installer (http://antinstaller.sourceforge.net/),
+Apache Ant (http://ant.apache.org/), our own search4j (based on launch4j
+http://launch4j.sourceforge.net/), and our own Greenstone release kits.
+
+We felt it was essential to move away from our existing, closed-source
+installer suite as it was not in the spirit of Greenstone to rely on
+proprietary software, and it invited the unnecessary cost of keeping the
+suite
+up-to-date.
+
+Using only open source software has also given us the freedom to
+customise the
+user experience of the installers. Where a feature was lacking in one of
+the
+open source packages, we have enjoyed the ability to "open the hood" and
+implement it.
+
+With the development of the Greenstone release kits we are now able to
+generate
+releases of Greenstone automatically and unattended. This process takes
+just
+20 minutes, and it has helped us a lot in the development and testing of
+new
+features of Greenstone. We have been able to set up a feedback loop,
+where code
+committed one day is included in an automatic nightly snapshot release
+made
+available for download on our website the next day. Our users have also
+benefited from being able to obtain up-to-date snapshot releases of
+Greenstone
+in between our official releases.
+
+These daily snapshots are available through:
+
+  http://www.greenstone.org/snapshots
+
+On Windows, the version number is included in the Start Menu which means
+that
+multiple installations of Greenstone will have their own entries in the
+Start
+Menu. The installer no longer writes to the registry, so installation no
+longer requires administrator privileges.
+
+ImageMagick is now bundled with Greenstone for binary web releases for all
+platforms (previously it was only provided on a CD-ROM release) and
+includes
+JPEG2000 support. The installer offers the option to install this or not.
+You can skip installing it if you already have ImageMagick previously
+installed.
+
+Ghostscript is now bundled with Greenstone for binary web releases for
+Windows
+and Mac. The installer offers the option to install this or not.  You can
+skip installing it if you already have Ghostscript previously installed.
+
+Importing and Plugin Changes:
+------------------------------
+
+Plugin Restructuring: The plugins have been restructured. This has been
+done
+mostly for coding efficiency. The most noticeable change is that plugins
+have
+been renamed. xxxPlug now becomes xxxPlugin, and some have also had
+their names
+modified or expanded to be clearer. For example, DBPlug is now
+DatabasePlugin,
+PPTPlug is PowerPointPlugin. The complete list of new plugins can be
+seen at
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Plugins. Old collections should
+still build okay in GLI, which will map the old plugin names to the new
+ones.
+Command line building should also work, but the configuration file won't be
+altered to use the new names.
+
+A lot of work has been done trying to get Greenstone to work properly with
+non-ascii filenames. Two versions of the filename are stored, [Source] for
+displaying the filename, and [SourceFile] for linking to the file from a web
+page.
+
+The -smart_block option (most commonly seen with HTMLPlugin) has been
+deprecated
+. Instead we have a first pass through the documents to find out which ones
+should be blocked.
+
+MARCPlugin and MARCXMLPlugin can now map metadata to Qualified Dublin
+Core as
+well as Dublin Core.
+
+MARCXMLPlugin now assigns metadata from metadata.xml files.
+
+EMAILPlugin now saves binary attachments as binary files on Windows
+
+ImagePlugin and PagedImagePlugin now offer the -cache_generated_images
+option
+to prevent thumbnails and screenview images being recreated each import.
+
+OAIPlugin saves the metadata as Dublin Core rather than moving it all to
+the ex
+metadata set. This means that it won't show up in the GLI unless the
+files are
+exploded. Exploding is now available for OAI records.
+
+ProCitePlugin no longer uses the pc namespace. Metadata is stored using the
+field names set in the workform definition, rather than using Field1Name
+and
+Field1Value etc..
+
+-reversesort option to import.pl to be used with -sortmeta option to
+sort in
+reverse order.
+
+Tidied up OID generation. OIDtype and OIDmetadata options are now available
+for each plugin as well as globally from import.pl. Hashing usually
+occurs on
+the original file, but some plugins specify that hashing should be done
+on the
+Greenstone XML document.
+
+Building and Indexing Changes:
+-------------------------------
+
+Improvements to Lucene incremental building. Lucene document identifiers
+now
+match Greenstone identifiers, rather than 1, 2, 3, thanks to DL Consulting.
+This improves search efficiency, and is another step towards true
+incremental
+building. Rebuilding with no new documents shouldn't break the index.
+
+MGPP and Lucene building tidied up. 'allfields' now means combined
+searching
+over all specified indexes (not all document metadata) for both mgpp and
+lucene.
+'metadata' will index all metadata, but no longer reindexes metadata
+that has
+already been specified. MGPP indexing over combined fields now works
+properly.
+
+New collection configuration file option: infodbtype. Values include
+gdbm (the
+default), gdbm-txtgz, sqlite, mssql. This specifies what database system
+to use
+for the collection metadata database. Currently this needs to be added to
+collect.cfg by hand, as it is not available in GLI yet.
+
+gdbm: the default, and is what has always been used previously. This is
+platform dependent. It transfers between Windows and Linux, but not
+to/from a
+Mac.
+
+gdbm-txtgz: A gzipped text version of the database. At runtime, the
+first time
+this collection is accessed, it will be unpacked and converted to the
+appropriate GDBM database using txt2db. This is a good choice if you are
+creating a collection to be used on another operating system, especially if
+one or more of those operating systems is a Mac.
+
+sqlite: Platform independent database using SQLite. The new dynamic
+classifiers
+can be used with this database. Thanks to DL Consulting.
+
+mssql: Windows specific database using MS SQL Server. See
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Using_MSSQL_for_Collection_Database 
+
+
+for information about how to set this up. The new dynamic classifiers
+can be used with this database. Thanks to DL Consulting.
+
+Depositor:
+------------
+
+Collection editing using the Depositor is now enabled by default for the
+admin
+user.
+
+The metadata fields offered for each document can now easily be customised
+from the GLI.
+
+By default, the depositor will import and build each document into the
+collection when it is added. It can now be easily set up to just "deposit"
+the item without rebuilding.
+
+See http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/How_to_use_the_depositor for
+more information.
+
+GLI
+-------
+
+A new right-click file option for binary files that go through a conversion
+process to be imported, such as PDF, Word and PowerPoint files. "Replace
+source
+document with HTML" will convert the original file to HTML and replace
+it in
+the collection. This means that the converted HTML (which may be
+unattractive)
+can now be modified in the collection. This is available for Remote GLI too.
+
+A new right-click file option on the collection tree background to
+refresh the
+file view. This is useful if you have manually added files to the
+collection
+outside of GLI.
+
+MetadataXMLPlugin has been moved 'below the line' in the Plugins panel so
+cannot be removed in GLI. If you are using GLI to add metadata, then you
+need
+this plugin.
+
+The Export As option now only exports one collection at a time. Collections
+can be exported as GreenstoneMETS, FedoraMETS, MARCXML and DSpace archive.
+
+'NavigationBar pulldown' added to the list of format options - this
+makes the
+navigation 'bar' a drop down list instead of a bar across the page.
+
+Lots of work done on making the Download panel work better, including
+getting
+download processes to terminate when they are cancelled or when GLI is
+closed
+while they are still running.
+
+New panel under the Format tab, "Depositor Metadata" which allows
+customisation of which metadata fields should be offered in the
+depositor for
+that collection.
+
+CJK segmentation option has been added to GLI. This doesn't do proper word
+segmentation, but adds a space in between each CJK character. The character
+ranges have been expanded to work with Japanese and Korean. It is
+applied to
+metadata as well as document text.
+
+Another new feature in Greenstone v2.81 is the ability to schedule the
+automatic rebuilding of a greenstone collection using the GLI. There's a new
+panel under the Create tab allowing the scheduling of automatic collection
+rebuilding. Scheduling will require some configuration in order for it
+to work.
+The following link has more information on how to do this for each platform:
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Scheduled_Collection_Building_from_the_Librarian_Interface
+
+Greenstone Runtime:
+----------------------
+New dynamic classifiers (if the collection uses sqlite or MSSQL as the
+collection database). These are generated at runtime so do not require the
+collection to be rebuilt for classifier changes. Another step towards true
+incremental building. See
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/More_about_classifiers#How_do_I_use_dynamic_classifiers.3F 
+
+
+for more information. Thanks to DL Consulting.
+
+Large code restructuring.  Code is split between common-src, build-src and
+runtime-src.  Makes it easer to use code in other projets, such as
+Greenstone 3
+and running Greenstone on an iPhone/iPod Touch.
+
+External links now default to going straight to the web page, rather than
+showing a warning page first.
+
+Improvements to the oaiserver, thanks to DL Consulting. Resumption token
+support has been added, and it now validates against online validation
+tools.
+
+Greenstone now compiles for Linux on 64-bit platforms.  All programs are
+compiled natively for 64-bit, except for those that rely on mg/mgpp, which
+still need to be 32-bit compiled.  As part of the configure/make
+process, the
+correct flags are automatically set, so from the developers point of
+view you
+compile up Greenstone on a 64-bit machine the exact same way you do for any
+other Unix-based system.
+
+Greenstone should now compile with Microsoft Visual Studio 2005, thanks
+to DL
+Consulting.
+
+FLI - Fedora Librarian Interface
+---------------------------------
+
+The Fedora Librarian Interface (FLI) is very much like GLI in that it
+allows
+you to gather together your documents. It then uses Greenstone's ability to
+convert documents into the FedoraMETS format so that these can be ingested
+(put into) a Fedora repository. The process of building a collection
+using FLI
+exports documents into a repository maintained by a Fedora server rather
+than
+one maintained by Greenstone. In order to use FLI, you will need to have
+Fedora installed. More information on how to install Fedora and set it up
+to work with FLI, and how to run FLI itself, can be found in the documents:
+
+1. Installing Fedora (2.2.1/3.0) and Fedora-related information
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/InstallingFedora
+
+2. Installing Fedora Generic Search (to provide full-text indexing and
+searching capabilities for a Fedora repository)
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/InstallingFedoraGSearch
+
+3. Running FLI, the Fedora Librarian Interface
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/RunningFLI
+
+
+Translations:
+--------------
+
+Thanks to:
+
+John Rose, for help with English GLI help, French translations for GLI and
+Greenstone.
+Maxime Rouast for Greenstone French translations
+Celine Guimbertaud for GLI French translations
+Yohannes Mulugeta and Abiyot Bayou for Greenstone Amharic translations
+Kamal Salih for GLI Arabic translations
+Gerhard Riesthuis for Greenstone Dutch translations
+Mohan Raj Pradhan for GLI Nepali translations.
+Diego Spano for translating the installer's interface into Spanish.
+Xiaofeng Yu for translating the installer's interface into Mandarin.
+Doris Jung for translating the installer's interface into German.
+
+...and many other minor improvements and bug fixes
+
+We want to ensure that Greenstone works well for you. Please report any
+problems to the Greenstone mailing list
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz.
+
+
+[DL Consulting (http://www.dlconsulting.com) are the world's leading
+suppliers
+of commercial consulting, customization, support, maintenance and hosting
+services for the Greenstone digital library software suite.]
+
+
+
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Sat Dec 20 07:30:00 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Sat Dec 20 07:30:09 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users]Hierarchy question
+In-Reply-To: <4940BB6B.6060003@sdb.org>
+References: <20081202214638.690A41CA39@mx01.omnibit.it>
+	<4940BB6B.6060003@sdb.org>
+Message-ID: <494BE828.5080400@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Julian.
+
+ From memory, I don't think Hierarchy classifier makes an A-Z list. 
+However, there is an option -hlist_at_top to make the first level 
+horizontal. I think if you used this, then added an extra level at the 
+start of your hierarchy, then you could achieve what you want.
+
+eg your metadata would look like:
+A|Animals|Mammals|Cats
+
+THis would mean modifying your metadata, so may not be a very good 
+solution if you have entered it all already.
+
+I don't think any other classifier uses hierarchical metadata.
+
+Regards, Katherine
+
+Julian Fox wrote:
+> Hi list,
+> A simple question with what I hope is a simple answer: can I get an 
+> a-z selector hlist by using just the hierarchy classifier?  
+> Alternatively, can I get the A-Z list to somehow recognise the | 
+> dividers in a hierarchy?
+> Julian
+>
+>
+
+From emil.wandzilak at unodc.org  Sat Dec 20 07:39:12 2008
+From: emil.wandzilak at unodc.org (Emil WANDZILAK)
+Date: Sat Dec 20 07:39:23 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] 
+	Emil WANDZILAK is out of the office until Sunday, 4 January 2009
+Message-ID: <OFE474B28C.95F8825B-ONC1257524.00667795-C1257524.00667796@unvienna.org>
+
+
+During my absence, for urgent requests, please contact my colleague  Mr.
+Deniz Mermerci on  26060-4195.
+
+This is an automated message - please do not respond.
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Sat Dec 20 20:13:37 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Sat Dec 20 20:13:57 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] incomplete marc file
+In-Reply-To: <BAY115-W10D605E2F72C39268CBD6596270@phx.gbl>
+References: <BAY115-W10D605E2F72C39268CBD6596270@phx.gbl>
+Message-ID: <494C9B21.6020700@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Ehab
+
+What version of Greenstone are you using? I have just tried it with your 
+marc file. It was a bit strange, at first I had the same problem as you, 
+but then it seemed to be working.
+
+Can you please download the new greenstone release, 2.81 (not an rc 
+version), from www.greenstone.org/download.
+
+Then you'll need to recompile to enable the z3950 server, in the same 
+way that you did for your current version.
+
+Then please build the collection in the new version and see if it works 
+for you.
+
+One thing you can check is to look at the archive files for the 
+collection (gsdl/collect/collname/archives) You should see some of the 
+metadata from the marc record in the doc.xml file.
+
+Currently the z3950 server does a mapping from dublin core metadata to 
+marc fields, but it must have no namespace. ie the metadata needs to be 
+Title, Subject etc, not dc.Title, dc.Subject etc.
+We will be looking to change this in a future release.
+
+Once you have done all this, please let me know how you get on.  I'd 
+like to make sure that it is working for you.
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+
+Ehab Galal wrote:
+> Greetings,
+>  
+> I am a new user of greenstone. I am trying to build a bibliography 
+> library to be accessible through Z39.50.
+> I created a collection using the attached 1.marc (a marc record). When 
+> I search the library using EndNote or even using greenstone download 
+> feature, I get an incomplete marc record, in the attached 2.marc
+>
+> Are there any settings that I missed to set?
+>  
+> Thanks a lot,
+> Ehab
+>
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> You live life beyond your PC. So now Windows goes beyond your PC. See 
+> how <http://clk.atdmt.com/MRT/go/115298556/direct/01/>
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Sat Dec 20 21:07:57 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Sat Dec 20 21:08:06 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Date list display
+In-Reply-To: <494787A2.9020705@iway.na>
+References: <494787A2.9020705@iway.na>
+Message-ID: <494CA7DD.90100@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Renate
+
+If you have 39 documents or less, then the DateList doesn't make the 
+horizontal list of dates.  The dates that are displayed vertically down 
+the page are actually special formatting of the document items. You can 
+get rid of this using the -no_special_formatting option to DateList.
+When you add more documents, the classifier is generating the horizontal 
+list of dates, and the list of docs is split up by those dates. I 
+suspect that your format statement is a bit wrong, and is making the 
+horizontal links invisible. And because you are only looking at one set 
+of docs, then all the other ones are not there.
+
+I have just looked at your collect.cfg file 
+(http://196.20.16.213/gsdl/collect/prospect/etc/collect.cfg)
+You have used dc.Title in the HList format statement instead of Title. 
+Classifier bookshelves or horizontal links only have Title metadata, not 
+dc.Title.
+
+Try changing the format statement, add another document and see how it 
+looks.
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+Renate Morgenstern wrote:
+> Good day,
+>
+> We have a collection of 41 PDF documents (old prospectussess). One of
+> the browsing
+> classifiers is the year and I use the date list for it. However, when
+> viewing not all the years are showing. I have tried many options, but
+> with no success. I then removed 2 documents from the collection, and
+> there all the documents could be seen under the year. Then I added one
+> again, and the same problem as before. What is also puzzling, is that
+> the year is not displayed as a horizontal line above the documents,
+> but a vertical line with all the documents for that year next to each.
+> One can view it online at:
+> http://196.20.16.213/gsdl/cgi-bin/library?site=localhost&a=p&p=about&c=prospect&l=en&w=utf-8 
+>
+> I can send the collect.cfg file off-line.
+>
+> Regards
+> Renate
+>
+>
+>
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+>
+>
+> No virus found in this outgoing message.
+> Checked by AVG - http://www.avg.com 
+> Version: 8.0.176 / Virus Database: 270.9.18/1850 - Release Date: 12/15/2008 5:04 PM
+>
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Sat Dec 20 21:30:28 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Sat Dec 20 21:30:35 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] links from AZCompact list
+In-Reply-To: <OF895431A4.B6583C4B-ON85257516.00643869-85257516.0065B076@neu.edu>
+References: <OF895431A4.B6583C4B-ON85257516.00643869-85257516.0065B076@neu.edu>
+Message-ID: <494CAD24.8030607@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Martin
+
+I am not sure that I understand exactly what you are trying to do. I 
+would be good if you can send your collect.cfg file for the collection, 
+and either a link to the page or a screenshot of what it looks like now, 
+and tell us which bits you want to get rid of.
+
+The greenstone wiki and mailing list archives are the main places for 
+info. I think that all our info would be linked to from the wiki, its 
+just a matter of finding it :-) (if its there).
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+m.mehrling@neu.edu wrote:
+>
+> Hello,
+>
+> Instead of using icons, I would like to link from an AZCompact list of 
+> subjects ("open this section of the library and view contents") to the 
+> page with the full list of each subject ("close this section of the 
+> library").  I have figured out how to make the link using 
+> [link][Title][/link], but on the second page there is a link back (to 
+> the list of subjects) but also a link with the name of the file(I 
+> think it's ex.title) which doesn't go anywhere useful.  How can I get 
+> rid of the link of the name of the file?  It seems to be linked to the 
+> subject name somehow.
+>
+> Also,  I am looking for more instruction on manipulating the macros 
+> and config files, and maybe even looking at the source code.  I've 
+> been using the wiki and listserv archives, are there any other 
+> resources I should be checking?
+>
+> Thanks very much for any help,
+> Martin
+>
+> ************************************
+> Martin Mehrling
+> Digital Systems Specialist
+> m.mehrling@neu.edu
+> 617.373.5885
+> ========================
+> 301 Snell Library
+> Northeastern University
+> Boston, Massachusetts 02115
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>   
+
+From salama.u at arabccd.org  Sun Dec 21 20:15:52 2008
+From: salama.u at arabccd.org (usama salama)
+Date: Sun Dec 21 20:04:16 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Greenstone for Arabs
+Message-ID: <MAIL1O1rxxvpVgHNzus0000a028@mail.arabccd.org>
+
+Dear Greenstoners,
+
+ 
+
+I'm about to build a community for the Arab users of Greenstone, this
+according to a previous discussion with Mr. John Rose.  
+
+ 
+
+Please feel free to join the group and open topics related to the Arabic
+problems, practicing, and contributions in using Greenstone.
+
+ 
+
+But, don't leave this mailing list because the new one wouldn't replace than
+integrate with.  
+
+ 
+
+To subscribe :
+
+http://www.freelists.org/list/greenstone4arab
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+Finally, have nice feasts and vacations all over the world
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+Regards
+
+ 
+
+USAMA SALAM
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081221/2adf6ed8/attachment.html
+From ihw at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Dec 23 10:48:24 2008
+From: ihw at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Ian Witten)
+Date: Tue Dec 23 10:48:44 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Greenstone Wins Andrew W. Mellon Foundation MATC
+	Award
+References: <20081214152515.B165632A79C@smtp8-g19.free.fr>
+Message-ID: <59E3A373-9DCF-4A84-8ACA-B93BEBABC544@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+I am very pleased to announce that the University of Waikato has been  
+awarded US$50,000 for the Greenstone project within the Third Annual  
+Mellon Awards for Technology Collaboration (see http:// 
+matc.mellon.org/press-release). This competition is meant "to  
+recognize important organizational contributions to open source  
+projects which currently or potentially provide significant benefits  
+to at least one traditional Mellon constituency (higher education,  
+especially the arts and humanities; libraries; museums; arts  
+organizations; and nature conservation)." We understand that the  
+committee was primarily impressed by Greenstone's impact in the  
+developing world as testified by many users who supported our  
+candidacy online, thanks to all of you who contributed recommendations.
+
+The University intends to use the award to further the Greenstone  
+community of developers and users, particularly in developing  
+countries. This will involve improving the documentation, making  
+tutorial videos, and stimulating the development of Greenstone  
+capabilities and user groups in developing countries.
+
+As part of this effort we invite proposals from the Greenstone  
+community in developing countries for small grants (US$1000 to US 
+$5000) which will be awarded in 2009 according to the following  
+criteria:
+
+* one-time assistance (not a continuing subvention) for a project  
+which will lead to sustainable follow-up: examples of activity could  
+be organisation of user meetings or training workshops, expert  
+missions for training and advice (particularly exchange of expertise  
+within a given region or country), institutional exchanges or user  
+services;
+* priority to regional networks and to countries and institutions in  
+greatest need (normally grants will not available to individuals, but  
+there could be exceptions);
+* priority to projects which are partially self-funded or partially  
+funded by third parties.
+
+Detailed proposals should be addressed to John Rose  
+<john.rose1@free.fr>, Research Associate, University of Waikato, who  
+will correspond with the submitting parties as needed to refine their  
+proposals. Awardees will be expected to submit a detailed evaluation  
+report at the conclusion of their projects.
+
+cheers
+ian
+
+
+From jsharif at jjay.cuny.edu  Wed Dec 24 04:51:08 2008
+From: jsharif at jjay.cuny.edu (Javeria Sharif)
+Date: Wed Dec 24 04:51:22 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Changing apperance of specific collection
+Message-ID: <0KCC007IA6EJ8L@scms1.jjay.cuny.edu>
+
+Hi Group,
+
+ 
+
+I have installed greenstone and I have several different collections on it.
+For one collection I set up a style with images and links on the top and the
+colors. But now I want to change the look for another collection. The
+problem is I set up another css style sheet for other collection but css
+style only changes the font and the colors. But I want to get rid of the
+banner image at the top and change the colors here is the link
+http://10.1.12.60/Greenstone/cgi-bin/library.exe?site=localhost
+<http://10.1.12.60/Greenstone/cgi-bin/library.exe?site=localhost&a=p&p=about
+&c=ellenste&l=en&w=utf-8> &a=p&p=about&c=ellenste&l=en&w=utf-8
+
+I don't want the top image and the color red for only this specific
+collection how to I get around doing that. Thanks for the help.
+
+ 
+
+Javeria
+
+ 
+
+Javeria Sharif
+
+Library Webmaster
+
+Lloyd Sealy Library John Jay College of Criminal Justice, CUNY
+
+899 Tenth Ave, New York, NY 10019
+
+jsharif@jjay.cuny.edu
+
+ 
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081223/4df60493/attachment-0001.html
+From m.mehrling at neu.edu  Wed Dec 24 07:06:38 2008
+From: m.mehrling at neu.edu (m.mehrling@neu.edu)
+Date: Wed Dec 24 07:06:47 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] global search and replace / global update
+In-Reply-To: <59E3A373-9DCF-4A84-8ACA-B93BEBABC544@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <OF5AAC6407.341CB382-ON85257528.0063279D-85257528.0063662B@neu.edu>
+
+Hello,
+
+Does anyone have a solution for updating metadata in a batch in 
+Greenstone?  We can do search and replace in the XML, but that's not 
+ideal.
+
+Thanks and happy holidays!
+
+Martin
+
+************************************
+Martin Mehrling
+Digital Systems Specialist
+m.mehrling@neu.edu
+617.373.5885
+========================
+301 Snell Library
+Northeastern University
+Boston, Massachusetts 02115
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081223/e2fa6d09/attachment.html
+From sean.felhofer at wmitchell.edu  Sat Dec 27 14:13:36 2008
+From: sean.felhofer at wmitchell.edu (Felhofer, Sean)
+Date: Sat Dec 27 14:16:24 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] problems installing 2.81 on linux server
+Message-ID: <1842918339D4EC45B55F6BF363B95F67353C13@popovich.WMCL.local>
+
+I'm looking for assistance on installing Greenstone 2.81 on a remote server running Centos 5.  I've used 2.80 for 
+another site using the same remote server, so I know that end is fine.
+
+I've ftp'd the Greenstone-2.81-linux.bin file to a public_html directory.  Then I run the following command line 
+via Putty:
+
+[root@host public_html]# ./Greenstone-2.81-linux.bin
+
+Unfortunately, this always returns the following error message:
+
+Creating temp directory...
+Extracting installer jar...
+Preparing Greenstone installer...
+Launching Installer ...
+No graphics environment available, reverting to text
+
+Exception in thread "main" java.lang.ExceptionInInitializerError
+at java.lang.Class.forName0(Native Method)
+at java.lang.Class.forName(Unknown Source)
+at org.tp23.antinstaller.renderer.RendererFactory.getTextPageRenderer(Re                                                                              ndererFactory.java:81)
+at
+org.tp23.antinstaller.runtime.TextRunner.renderPages(TextRunner.java:                                                                              105)   
+at org.tp23.antinstaller.runtime.TextRunner.runInstaller(TextRunner.java                                                                              :80)
+at org.tp23.antinstaller.runtime.exe.ExecuteRunnerFilter.exec(ExecuteRun                                                                              nerFilter.java:37)
+at org.tp23.antinstaller.runtime.ExecInstall.exec(ExecInstall.java:84)
+at org.tp23.antinstaller.selfextract.NonExtractor.main(NonExtractor.java                                                                              :59)
+Caused by: java.util.MissingResourceException: Can't find resource for bundle
+ java.util.PropertyResourceBundle, key affirmativeChars
+        at java.util.ResourceBundle.getObject(Unknown Source)
+        at java.util.ResourceBundle.getString(Unknown Source)
+        at org.tp23.antinstaller.renderer.text.AbstractTextPageRenderer.<clinit>                                                                           
+(AbstractTextPageRenderer.java:86)
+        ... 8 more
+The installer exited with an error
+Greenstone may not be correctly installed
+Deleting the temp directory
+[root@host public_html]#
+
+I've also tried installing the -2.81-linux-binary.tar.gz version. That unzips fine, but I can't find the install.sh file that
+
+Any help on getting 2.81 installed would be greatly appreciated.  
+
+Sean Felhofer
+William Mitchell College of Law
+St. Paul Minnesota
+
+_______________________________________________________________________
+This email has been scanned for all viruses.
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081226/8ec995e6/attachment.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Sat Dec 27 22:39:35 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Sat Dec 27 22:39:36 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] problems installing 2.81 on linux server
+In-Reply-To: <1842918339D4EC45B55F6BF363B95F67353C13@popovich.WMCL.local>
+References: <1842918339D4EC45B55F6BF363B95F67353C13@popovich.WMCL.local>
+Message-ID: <4955F7D7.3070704@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Sean
+
+The binary installer doesn't run in a text environment, as you have found.
+Use the tar gz version. Just unpack it. Then you'll need to edit the 
+cgi-bin/gsdlsite.cfg file by hand.
+And set up your Apache in the same way you did last time.
+
+How to do these two things can be found at
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Setting_up_an_Apache_Web_Server_for_Greenstone_2_Walkthrough
+Step 8.
+
+There is no install.sh file any more.
+We need to make specific instructions like these available in the release
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+Felhofer, Sean wrote:
+>
+> I'm looking for assistance on installing Greenstone 2.81 on a remote 
+> server running Centos 5.  I've used 2.80 for
+> another site using the same remote server, so I know that end is fine.
+>
+> I've ftp'd the Greenstone-2.81-linux.bin file to a public_html 
+> directory.  Then I run the following command line
+> via Putty:
+>
+> [root@host public_html]# ./Greenstone-2.81-linux.bin
+>
+> Unfortunately, this always returns the following error message:
+>
+> Creating temp directory...
+> Extracting installer jar...
+> Preparing Greenstone installer...
+> Launching Installer ...
+> No graphics environment available, reverting to text
+>
+> Exception in thread "main" java.lang.ExceptionInInitializerError
+> at java.lang.Class.forName0(Native Method)
+> at java.lang.Class.forName(Unknown Source)
+> at 
+> org.tp23.antinstaller.renderer.RendererFactory.getTextPageRenderer(Re                                                                              
+> ndererFactory.java:81)
+> at
+> org.tp23.antinstaller.runtime.TextRunner.renderPages(TextRunner.java:                                                                              
+> 105)  
+> at 
+> org.tp23.antinstaller.runtime.TextRunner.runInstaller(TextRunner.java                                                                              
+> :80)
+> at 
+> org.tp23.antinstaller.runtime.exe.ExecuteRunnerFilter.exec(ExecuteRun                                                                              
+> nerFilter.java:37)
+> at org.tp23.antinstaller.runtime.ExecInstall.exec(ExecInstall.java:84)
+> at 
+> org.tp23.antinstaller.selfextract.NonExtractor.main(NonExtractor.java                                                                              
+> :59)
+> Caused by: java.util.MissingResourceException: Can't find resource for 
+> bundle
+>  java.util.PropertyResourceBundle, key affirmativeChars
+>         at java.util.ResourceBundle.getObject(Unknown Source)
+>         at java.util.ResourceBundle.getString(Unknown Source)
+>         at 
+> org.tp23.antinstaller.renderer.text.AbstractTextPageRenderer.<clinit>                                                                          
+> (AbstractTextPageRenderer.java:86)
+>         ... 8 more
+> The installer exited with an error
+> Greenstone may not be correctly installed
+> Deleting the temp directory
+> [root@host public_html]#
+>
+> I've also tried installing the -2.81-linux-binary.tar.gz version. That 
+> unzips fine, but I can't find the install.sh file that
+>
+> Any help on getting 2.81 installed would be greatly appreciated. 
+>
+> Sean Felhofer
+> William Mitchell College of Law
+> St. Paul Minnesota
+>
+>
+> _______________________________________________________________________
+> This email has been scanned for all viruses.
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>   
+
+From rajankila at hotmail.com  Wed Dec 31 00:23:51 2008
+From: rajankila at hotmail.com (Rajan)
+Date: Wed Dec 31 00:26:05 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Web library installation of gsdl 2.81
+Message-ID: <COL118-DS16B80BF934C3C06C9F7088B6E70@phx.gbl>
+
+Hi,
+
+I could not find out the choice selector for Web Library mode of  installation in gsdl 2.81 when I tried to install Web library installation over  the Local library installation in the same computer. 
+Is it possible to install gsdl 2.81 in the web library mode using Apache as we had been installing earlier versions ?
+
+Regards,
+
+K Rajasekharan
+Kerala Institute of Local Administration
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081230/aecfb41e/attachment.html
+From dspano at orsna.gov.ar  Wed Dec 31 01:38:37 2008
+From: dspano at orsna.gov.ar (Diego Spano)
+Date: Wed Dec 31 01:36:48 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Web library installation of gsdl 2.81
+In-Reply-To: <COL118-DS16B80BF934C3C06C9F7088B6E70@phx.gbl>
+References: <COL118-DS16B80BF934C3C06C9F7088B6E70@phx.gbl>
+Message-ID: <004001c96a7b$894c9930$9be5cb90$@gov.ar>
+
+Hi,
+
+ 
+
+ GS 2.81 installer has both things (web and local) by default. You canŽt
+choose what to install.
+
+ 
+
+Bye.
+
+ 
+
+Diego
+
+ 
+
+De: greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+[mailto:greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz] En nombre de Rajan
+Enviado el: martes, 30 de diciembre de 2008 9:24
+Para: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Asunto: [greenstone-users] Web library installation of gsdl 2.81
+
+ 
+
+Hi,
+
+ 
+
+I could not find out the choice selector for Web Library mode of
+installation in gsdl 2.81 when I tried to install Web library installation
+over  the Local library installation in the same computer. 
+
+Is it possible to install gsdl 2.81 in the web library mode using Apache as
+we had been installing earlier versions ?
+
+ 
+
+Regards,
+
+ 
+
+K Rajasekharan
+Kerala Institute of Local Administration
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081230/9607f682/attachment-0001.html
+From bijuraghavan at gmail.com  Wed Dec 31 18:05:26 2008
+From: bijuraghavan at gmail.com (Biju R)
+Date: Wed Dec 31 18:05:36 2008
+Subject: [Fwd: [greenstone-users] Web library installation of gsdl 2.81]
+In-Reply-To: <1203.172.20.6.8.1230696721.squirrel@intranet.iimk.ac.in>
+References: <1203.172.20.6.8.1230696721.squirrel@intranet.iimk.ac.in>
+Message-ID: <11305d350812302105p78cfd5m70370a1855d1a03b@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Dear Mr. Rajasekharan
+
+Greenstone 2.81 will install both the web library and local
+library together. You can install Apache and connect the Greenstone as you
+have done for the earlier version. GLI will use the local library by
+default. To get GLI to use the web library, rename server.exe in the
+Greenstone2 directory to something else.
+
+With regards
+
+Biju
+FOR Greenstone Support for South Asia
+
+On Wed, Dec 31, 2008 at 9:42 AM, <sunitha@iimk.ac.in> wrote:
+
+> ---------------------------- Original Message ----------------------------
+> Subject: [greenstone-users] Web library installation of gsdl 2.81
+> From: "Rajan" <rajankila@hotmail.com>
+> Date: Tue, December 30, 2008 4:53 pm
+> To: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+>
+> Hi,
+>
+> I could not find out the choice selector for Web Library mode of
+> installation in gsdl 2.81 when I tried to install Web library installation
+> over the Local library installation in the same computer.
+> Is it possible to install gsdl 2.81 in the web library mode using Apache as
+> we had been installing earlier versions ?
+>
+> Regards,
+>
+> K Rajasekharan
+> Kerala Institute of Local Administration
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081231/d5b31039/attachment.html
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/import/greenstone-users-2008-November.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/import/greenstone-users-2008-November.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/import/greenstone-users-2008-November.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,8886 @@
+From jbfox at sdb.org  Sat Nov  1 00:07:41 2008
+From: jbfox at sdb.org (jbfox@sdb.org)
+Date: Sat Nov  1 00:06:20 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Brazil
+Message-ID: <c39fc800377db2cc45d99d5af35e27b2.squirrel@mailserver.omnibit.it>
+
+
+
+Hi list,
+I am endeavouring to help a group set up Greenstone in Sao
+Paulo, Brazil.  Does anyone know of any university or other body in
+that city (or for that matter elsewhere in Brazil) where Greenstone is
+operating?  I would like to leave them with the possibility of
+contacting someone who is using GS in their own language. 
+Unfortunately my Portuguese is not so crash hot and I have to rely on
+Spanish to do my explanations.
+Julian
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081031/e78d73f6/attachment-0001.html
+From zala at mica.ac.in  Sat Nov  1 00:59:00 2008
+From: zala at mica.ac.in (Lavji Zala)
+Date: Sat Nov  1 01:12:21 2008
+Subject: [Fwd: Re: [greenstone-users] What is ISIS use for?]
+Message-ID: <59552.61.95.254.18.1225454340.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+
+
+
+
+---------------------------- Original Message ----------------------------
+Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] What is ISIS use for?
+From:    "Lavji Zala" <zala@mica.ac.in>
+Date:    Fri, October 31, 2008 5:27 pm
+To:      "Gavin Spomer" <spomerg@cwu.EDU>
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Dear Likedom,
+
+CDS/ISIS stands for "Computerized Documentation System-Integrated Set for
+Information Systems". If you have any collection/database (e.g. Book) in
+ISIS you can drag following three files to your greenstone collection
+(e.g. books).
+
+bok.mst
+bok.fdt
+bok.xrf
+
+The greenstone automatically will creat exp metadata/elements.
+
+regards,
+
+Lavji Zala
+Assistant Librarian
+Knowledge Exchange & Information Centre (KEIC)
+Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad (MICA)
+Shela Village
+Ahmedabad -380058
+
+>> >>> Luke Onwuka <lukedom_easy01@YAHOO.com> 10/29/08 6:46 AM >>>
+>> I have been hearing of the word ISIS but i have not use it for once. Can
+>> anyone give me little note on what ISIS means and how it can be use with
+>> Greenstone?
+>>
+>> Thank you.
+>>
+>> Lukedom
+>
+>
+> It is a plugin that processes ISIS database files. I have never used it
+> either, but I have no need to use it.
+>
+> The Greenstone Wiki Plugins page says:
+>
+>    ISISPlug.pm 	ISIS database files
+>
+>
+> Running "pluginfo.pl ISISPlug" from the command line, the description
+> says:
+>
+>    This plugin processes CDS/ISIS databases. For each CDS/ISIS database
+> processed, three files must exist in the collection's import
+>    folder: the Master file (.mst), the Field Definition Table (.fdt), and
+> the Cross-Reference File (.xrf).
+>
+>
+> A quick Google'n and I found Unesco's CDS/ISIS page:
+>
+>    http://www.unesco.org/webworld/isis/isis.htm
+>
+>
+> Hope this helps.
+>
+>
+> Gavin Spomer
+> Systems Programmer
+> Brooks Library
+> Central Washington University
+>
+>
+>
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+
+From jbfox at sdb.org  Sat Nov  1 11:52:17 2008
+From: jbfox at sdb.org (jbfox@sdb.org)
+Date: Sat Nov  1 11:50:51 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] large image on homepage
+Message-ID: <320576f12f4897fc9c390c760d2334e2.squirrel@mailserver.omnibit.it>
+
+
+
+A question if I may,
+Apart from the fact that I am trying to explain
+things to a local group in Sao Paulo in a language I have not yet mastered
+(!), I have a problem I cannot resolve.  They have a wide (very)
+screen and a smaller, more ordinary one. The header image they want is
+meant to cover the full width of the screen, but obviously while that
+works for the smaller screen it does not for the larger one.
+Where -
+and how - do I control the replacement for gsdlhead.gif to achieve this
+flexibility? I thought I might be able to do it from the style.css but to
+no avail, at least so far.
+
+I'm also still looking for the
+possibility of a group in this country who uses Greenstone.  One kind
+person responded to my last query but has suggested there are alternatives
+to Greenstone.  For any number of reasons I wish to stick with
+Greenstone but would prefer to leave them with some help and epxerience in
+Portuguese.
+Julian
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081031/6b634667/attachment.html
+From raul.barrerap at gmail.com  Tue Nov  4 04:05:59 2008
+From: raul.barrerap at gmail.com (=?ISO-8859-1?Q?Ra=FAl_Barrera?=)
+Date: Tue Nov  4 04:06:07 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] PDF Plug
+Message-ID: <d2dbf2f40811030705p5599a606s7a980804b2500157@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hello everybody, I have a question about pdf plug for I found a problem
+processing documents in pdf with version 1.5, Greenstone has no problems
+with pdf files with versions from 1.4 and back down, but with version 1.5 is
+unable to process those documents.
+This is the warning that Greenstone shows:
+
+import.pl> RecPlug: getting directory
+/var/www/html/gsdl/collect/dlibrosdi/import/Elbosquedelospigmeos
+import.pl> MetadataXMLPlug: processing Elbosquedelospigmeos/metadata.xml
+import.pl> Converting Elbosquedelospigmeos.pdf to HTML format
+import.pl> Error executing pdftohtml.pl
+import.pl> pdftohtml error log:
+import.pl> Error: PDF version 1.5 -- xpdf supports version 1.4
+(continuing anyway)
+import.pl> Error (0): PDF file is damaged - attempting to reconstruct
+xref table...
+import.pl> Error: Couldn't find trailer dictionary
+import.pl> Error: Couldn't read xref table
+import.pl> Could not convert Elbosquedelospigmeos.pdf to HTML format
+import.pl> Error: PDF version 1.5 -- xpdf supports version 1.4
+(continuing anyway)
+import.pl> Error (0): PDF file is damaged - attempting to reconstruct
+xref table...
+import.pl> Error: Couldn't find trailer dictionary
+import.pl> Error: Couldn't read xref table
+import.pl> ADVIRTIENDO: NingÃºn plugin podrÃ¡ ser procesado
+Elbosquedelospigmeos/Elbosquedelospigmeos.pdf
+
+
+I hope for answers,
+thanks and regards
+-- 
+Raúl Barrera P.
+------------ próxima parte ------------
+Se ha borrado un adjunto en formato HTML...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081103/5d185b5d/attachment.html
+From spekkiomofw at gmail.com  Tue Nov  4 13:15:52 2008
+From: spekkiomofw at gmail.com (Scott Nicolson)
+Date: Tue Nov  4 13:15:58 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem compiling from src - javagdbm on OSX
+Message-ID: <153957d20811031615i343bf158x43df2905f3ae26ca@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hello all,
+
+I'm a graduate student at the University of Pittsburgh, and I'm trying to
+get Greenstone 3 running on my Intel Mac in OSX. Where I'm getting stuck is
+when ant tries to compile javagdbm. It keeps saying this:
+
+[exec] configure: error: not found in $JAVA_HOME
+[exec] checking for the JDK...
+[exec] Result: 1
+
+However, I have set $JAVA_HOME to the correct path to Java on OSX. I've set
+it over and over again. There's no logical reason (AFAIK) why it can't find
+the JDK. I've searched the archives and the web and I can't find any help.
+
+Any ideas or assistance would be much appreciated.
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081103/9c827686/attachment.html
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Nov  4 14:04:38 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Tue Nov  4 14:04:41 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] PDF Plug
+In-Reply-To: <d2dbf2f40811030705p5599a606s7a980804b2500157@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <d2dbf2f40811030705p5599a606s7a980804b2500157@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <53721.72.200.121.229.1225760678.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Raúl
+
+Pdftohtml is a third part package used to convert PDF to HTML in
+Greenstone. Greenstone cannot nothing about it if it cannot work on PDF
+v1.5, but wait until a new version of pdftohtml released.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+
+> Hello everybody, I have a question about pdf plug for I found a problem
+> processing documents in pdf with version 1.5, Greenstone has no problems
+> with pdf files with versions from 1.4 and back down, but with version 1.5
+> is
+> unable to process those documents.
+> This is the warning that Greenstone shows:
+>
+> import.pl> RecPlug: getting directory
+> /var/www/html/gsdl/collect/dlibrosdi/import/Elbosquedelospigmeos
+> import.pl> MetadataXMLPlug: processing Elbosquedelospigmeos/metadata.xml
+> import.pl> Converting Elbosquedelospigmeos.pdf to HTML format
+> import.pl> Error executing pdftohtml.pl
+> import.pl> pdftohtml error log:
+> import.pl> Error: PDF version 1.5 -- xpdf supports version 1.4
+> (continuing anyway)
+> import.pl> Error (0): PDF file is damaged - attempting to reconstruct
+> xref table...
+> import.pl> Error: Couldn't find trailer dictionary
+> import.pl> Error: Couldn't read xref table
+> import.pl> Could not convert Elbosquedelospigmeos.pdf to HTML format
+> import.pl> Error: PDF version 1.5 -- xpdf supports version 1.4
+> (continuing anyway)
+> import.pl> Error (0): PDF file is damaged - attempting to reconstruct
+> xref table...
+> import.pl> Error: Couldn't find trailer dictionary
+> import.pl> Error: Couldn't read xref table
+> import.pl> ADVIRTIENDO: NingÃºn plugin podrÃ¡ ser procesado
+> Elbosquedelospigmeos/Elbosquedelospigmeos.pdf
+>
+>
+> I hope for answers,
+> thanks and regards
+> --
+> Raúl Barrera P.
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From qhuan2008 at bnu.edu.cn  Tue Nov  4 00:26:40 2008
+From: qhuan2008 at bnu.edu.cn (=?gb2312?B?x8e7tg==?=)
+Date: Tue Nov  4 21:38:37 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Inquiry
+Message-ID: <425711600.19418@bnu.edu.cn>
+
+I am trying to use Greenstone to create a collection. However, it can't deal with
+the word document.It expresses as follows. Would anybody give me a help? Thanks
+ever so much.
+
+The file bill of rights_05312007.doc was recognised but could not be processed by
+any plugin.
+The file Digital Divide.doc was recognised but could not be processed by any
+plugin.
+The file personal statement 1.doc was recognised but could not be processed by any
+plugin.
+
+4 documents were considered for processing:
+    1 document was processed and included in the collection. 
+    3 were rejected.
+
+
+
+From dspano at orsna.gov.ar  Wed Nov  5 08:54:13 2008
+From: dspano at orsna.gov.ar (Diego Spano)
+Date: Wed Nov  5 08:52:42 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Archives - Index/assoc: why both?
+Message-ID: <!&!AAAAAAAAAAAYAAAAAAAAAMqkfLKn3i1CvY3Zg+pc6XzigAAAEAAAAEtb1H+TZexMs7JT7EsI2z8BAAAAAA==@orsna.gov.ar>
+
+Hi list,
+ 
+it is well known that every document in import folder generates a folder in
+archives after the import process. Then, building process copies all source
+files to index/assoc, so we have duplicated disk space needed to host all
+files.
+ 
+I have a collection with almost 700.000 tiff files, all imported with
+Pagedimgplug. This collection is not a static one, every couple of days we
+add new documents, so we have two options:
+ 
+1- Use Lucene and incremental building: this sounds interesting but we have
+many problems with parsing doc.xml files, accents and many other things.
+ 
+2- Use MGPP: it works great, we have all the features we need but
+incremental indexing is not possible. So every few days we have to reindex
+all again, and again... This approach consumes a reasonable time to generate
+indexes, but it spends a lot of time copying 700.000 files from archives to
+building/assoc, and deleting the old index folder with the other 700.000
+files.
+ 
+The questions are:
+ 
+a- Is it possible to link to source files directly from archives folder?.
+This will result in saving a lot of time because copying files form archives
+to assoc is no more necessary. I remember that someone asked for something
+like this, but I canŽt find the mail in the email archives collection. I
+think that builcol.pl must be modified to work this way. Is there anybody
+out there that can do it?.
+ 
+b- Is it possible to add an option to future releases where the user can
+choose weather buildcol with source docs in place (in archives folders) or
+not?.
+ 
+TIA.
+ 
+Diego Spano
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081104/4caa78aa/attachment-0001.html
+From jcrump at mercycorps.org  Wed Nov  5 10:21:06 2008
+From: jcrump at mercycorps.org (Jeff Crump)
+Date: Wed Nov  5 10:18:47 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] What version of Greenstone supports MS Office
+	2007 documents?
+Message-ID: <B7C2258D2CE34641953C8E1B4C748450A1E783@mcexchange.mercycorps.org>
+
+Hi, We're running Greenstone 2.52 and we cannot build Office 2007 documents. What version of Greenstone supports Office 2007?
+
+Thanks,
+Jeff
+
+From thaotk2 at gmail.com  Wed Nov  5 17:39:08 2008
+From: thaotk2 at gmail.com (Thao Thao)
+Date: Wed Nov  5 17:39:14 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Database Of Greenstone 3.03
+Message-ID: <4409126a0811042039g7a6729ecq7dd9989141fe2ed5@mail.gmail.com>
+
+  Hi everybody!
+  I am using Greenstone 3.03 but I don't know what database is used by
+Greenstone 3.03, SQL, Access or My SQL? and where do I can find this
+database in?
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081105/2c200a77/attachment.html
+From amin.hedjazi at gmail.com  Wed Nov  5 19:16:08 2008
+From: amin.hedjazi at gmail.com (Amin Hedjazi)
+Date: Wed Nov  5 19:16:15 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Question about Collection Customization
+Message-ID: <4105c9810811042216g491a2c3cnb56c34e93640ff04@mail.gmail.com>
+
+hello every one i am amin
+and i got some questions about collection customization in GS3
+what i want to do hear is to build a collection whit some pdf file whit Marc
+metadata description but i do not want to show the compleate pdfs on the
+greenstone
+online interface but the only marc metadata descryption should be shown in
+the there whit a linke to the pdf file for download , for now the only
+search options would be the mark metadata file field to be searched
+ok now
+1 . is there any way for me to do this whit the standard greenstone plugins
+and collections ?
+2 .or should i make my own Collections if so i would like to now where to
+start at ?
+
+so far i have read the Greenstone3 manual and got farmiliar whit the
+architecture consepts and service developde mements
+but i couldent find some good resources for plugin develope ments if there
+is any out there i would appreciate it if some one woulde let me now about
+it.
+
+**<http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&ct=res&cd=2&url=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FOptical_character_recognition&ei=QTYRSZC2Oom4sAODgKWTCQ&usg=AFQjCNFeJw7ESCWs7JHfY_fxn5sHjjkL4w&sig2=ALY7Q7vub_rcKvwze4rFWw>
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081105/6e5a31dd/attachment.html
+From john at lis.upatras.gr  Thu Nov  6 02:08:32 2008
+From: john at lis.upatras.gr (=?iso-8859-7?B?w+nc7e3n8iDU89zq+e3h8g==?=)
+Date: Thu Nov  6 02:09:20 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] 13th European Conference on Digital Libraries -
+	First Call for Contributions
+Message-ID: <56688905BACA49798DD42A838923655C@Aktaie>
+
+Apologies if you receive this more than once.
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+13th European Conference on Digital Libraries (ECDL2009)
+September 27 - October 2, 2009, Corfu, Greece
+http://www.ecdl2009.eu/
+
+The Call for Contributions for ECDL2009 can be found at:
+http://www.ionio.gr/conferences/ecdl2009/call.php
+
+*** Submission deadline for Full Papers, Short Papers, Posters and
+Demonstrations: March 21, 2009
+*** Submission deadline for Doctoral Consortium Papers: June 1, 2009
+*** Submission deadline for Workshops, Tutorials and Panels: February 27,
+2009
+
+Finally, you can also find the poster and the leaflet of the conference at:
+http://www.ionio.gr/conferences/ecdl2009/content/poster_A4.pdf
+http://www.ionio.gr/conferences/ecdl2009/content/poster_A3.pdf
+http://www.ionio.gr/conferences/ecdl2009/content/ECDL_leaflet_2ndEdition.pdf
+
+See you in Corfu next September! 
+
+
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Nov  6 09:16:37 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Thu Nov  6 09:16:42 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] What version of Greenstone supports MS 
+	Office 2007 documents?
+In-Reply-To: <B7C2258D2CE34641953C8E1B4C748450A1E783@mcexchange.mercycorps.org>
+References: <B7C2258D2CE34641953C8E1B4C748450A1E783@mcexchange.mercycorps.org>
+Message-ID: <55426.72.200.121.229.1225916197.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Jeff
+
+Please download the latest Greenstone 2.8 at
+http://www.greenstone.org/download and try to build the collection again.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+> Hi, We're running Greenstone 2.52 and we cannot build Office 2007
+> documents. What version of Greenstone supports Office 2007?
+>
+> Thanks,
+> Jeff
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Nov  6 09:22:01 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Thu Nov  6 09:22:04 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Inquiry
+In-Reply-To: <425711600.19418@bnu.edu.cn>
+References: <425711600.19418@bnu.edu.cn>
+Message-ID: <55470.72.200.121.229.1225916521.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi
+
+Could you tell me which version of Greenstone you are working on and what
+platform you installed Greenstone at?
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+> I am trying to use Greenstone to create a collection. However, it can't
+> deal with
+> the word document.It expresses as follows. Would anybody give me a help?
+> Thanks
+> ever so much.
+>
+> The file bill of rights_05312007.doc was recognised but could not be
+> processed by
+> any plugin.
+> The file Digital Divide.doc was recognised but could not be processed by
+> any
+> plugin.
+> The file personal statement 1.doc was recognised but could not be
+> processed by any
+> plugin.
+>
+> 4 documents were considered for processing:
+>     1 document was processed and included in the collection.
+>     3 were rejected.
+>
+>
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From glawson at rollinghills.lib.mo.us  Fri Nov  7 08:12:55 2008
+From: glawson at rollinghills.lib.mo.us (glawson)
+Date: Fri Nov  7 08:13:00 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Greenstone 3 - Error Message
+Message-ID: <491341B7.8070600@rollinghills.lib.mo.us>
+
+We are trying to get Greenstone 3 on OpenSuse 11 running. Installation 
+and configuration is complete with no apparent problems. When trying to 
+build our first collection using a couple of images, we can select the 
+images and enter all the metadata, but when running "build collection" 
+it indicates:
+
+************** Import  Started **************
+The file metadata.xml is being processed by MetadataXMLPlugin.
+The file postcard1_med.png is being processed by ImagePlugin.
+The file bookmark_med.png is being processed by ImagePlugin.
+************** Import Finished **************
+2 documents were considered for processing:
+    2 documents were processed and included in the collection.
+
+************** Build  Started **************
+Compressing text...
+Creating an index based on text;Title;Source;...
+Creating information database...
+
+-----------------------------
+After this the progress bar shows 100% complete, and an error message 
+"Collection Preview State"pops up with the message:
+
+"An error has occurred which will prevent the collection being previewed".
+
+This collection does not show up on the user web interface.
+
+Any help/ideas?
+
+Greg Lawson
+Rolling Hills Consolidated Library
+1912 N. Belt Highway
+St. Joseph, MO 64506
+816-232-5479 x2303
+
+
+From amr_ftoh2008 at yahoo.com  Fri Nov  7 08:54:08 2008
+From: amr_ftoh2008 at yahoo.com (amr hassan)
+Date: Fri Nov  7 08:54:16 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] very Important
+Message-ID: <911174.75995.qm@web38608.mail.mud.yahoo.com>
+
+Hi,,,
+I was established digital library by greenstone .... This library Contain with Documents " Arabic PDF"  After clicking on the  building library, and browsing library I can not find something ??!! why greenstone Does not deal with pdf ?? what i can do to ?
+i need answer
+Thanks
+
+
+      
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081106/6929bc4b/attachment.html
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Fri Nov  7 10:54:32 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Fri Nov  7 10:54:38 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] very Important
+In-Reply-To: <911174.75995.qm@web38608.mail.mud.yahoo.com>
+References: <911174.75995.qm@web38608.mail.mud.yahoo.com>
+Message-ID: <49340.206.207.225.23.1226008472.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi
+
+Go to File -> preference -> Mode on GLI, and switch to the Expert mode.
+Then rebuild the collection, all messages including errors during building
+process will be displayed. The error info indicates what's going wrong
+there.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+
+
+> Hi,,,
+> I was established digital library by greenstone .... This library Contain
+> with Documents " Arabic PDF"  After clicking on the  building library, and
+> browsing library I can not find something ??!! why greenstone Does not
+> deal with pdf ?? what i can do to ?
+> i need answer
+> Thanks
+>
+>
+>       _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From rmorgenstern at unam.na  Fri Nov  7 23:27:27 2008
+From: rmorgenstern at unam.na (Renate Morgenstern)
+Date: Fri Nov  7 22:42:21 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] OAI harvesting problem
+In-Reply-To: <49340.206.207.225.23.1226008472.squirrel@webmail.scms.waik
+	ato.ac.nz>
+References: <911174.75995.qm@web38608.mail.mud.yahoo.com>
+	<49340.206.207.225.23.1226008472.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <20081107094212.7A99B3E0022@mx1.its.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+
+Hi,
+
+Using Greenstone to download records from OAI sites I do not have a
+problem with most of the sites, e.g. Dspace, Eprints, etc. However, when
+I tried it with the University of Michigan OAI records I get the
+response that the 'server information is not available.'
+Here is the 
+URL: 
+<http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/o/oai/oai?verb=ListSets>http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/o/oai/oai?verb=ListSets
+Why is this?
+
+Thanks for the help in advance.
+Renate
+
+
+Mrs Renate Morgenstern
+University of Namibia Library
+Windhoek, Namibia
+Tel.: +264 61 2063869
+rmorgenstern@unam.na
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081107/587602af/attachment.html
+From rmorgenstern at unam.na  Fri Nov  7 23:32:19 2008
+From: rmorgenstern at unam.na (Renate Morgenstern)
+Date: Fri Nov  7 22:42:27 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] A-Z Compact list display
+Message-ID: <20081107094224.12E713E000D@mx1.its.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+
+>Hi,
+>
+>I have a collection of PDF documents converted to HTML. In the 
+>display of an A-Z Compact List I just want the PDF link and not the 
+>link to the html files generated by Pdftohtml.  When I remove the 
+>link to the html, then the link in the A-Z Classifier also 
+>disappears. Here is my current format. How should I format it to 
+>only display the link to the PDF?
+>Thanks
+>Renate
+>===============
+>
+><td valign="top">[link][icon][/link]</td>
+><td 
+>valign="top">[ex.srclink]{Or}{[ex.thumbicon],[ex.srcicon]}[ex./srclink]</td>
+><td valign="top">[highlight]
+>{Or}{[format:dc.Date],[ex.Title],Untitled}
+>{if}{[numleafdocs],([numleafdocs])}
+>[/highlight]
+>{If}{[dc.Numbers], - No. <i>[dc.Numbers]</i>}</td>
+>
+
+Mrs Renate Morgenstern
+University of Namibia Library
+Windhoek, Namibia
+Tel.: +264 61 2063869
+rmorgenstern@unam.na
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081107/f7a15c3b/attachment.html
+From rmorgenstern at unam.na  Sat Nov  8 00:23:05 2008
+From: rmorgenstern at unam.na (Renate Morgenstern)
+Date: Fri Nov  7 23:31:12 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] [Fwd: Large image collections and remote GLI
+	lient]
+Message-ID: <20081107103108.04CB03E0015@mx1.its.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi,
+We have problems with a large image collection (more than 2200) and the
+remote GLI client on MAC. It is impossible to add more images when
+trying to drag them over from the left panel to the right panel.
+It worked fine when the collection was smaller.
+Thanks
+Renate
+
+Mrs Renate Morgenstern
+University of Namibia Library
+Windhoek, Namibia
+Tel.: +264 61 2063869
+rmorgenstern@unam.na
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081107/05f6445e/attachment.html
+From akujenga at gmail.com  Sat Nov  8 01:20:41 2008
+From: akujenga at gmail.com (Amos Kujenga)
+Date: Sat Nov  8 01:20:48 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] A-Z Compact list display
+In-Reply-To: <20081107094224.12E713E000D@mx1.its.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <20081107094224.12E713E000D@mx1.its.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <53f027730811070420p366f3026j7b300fb59f1a58a6@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hi Renate,
+
+Try changing <td valign="top">[link][icon][/link]</td>
+to <td valign="top">{If}{[numleafdocs],[link][icon][/link]}</td>
+
+The If statement should ensure that Greenstone only displays the
+bookshelf icons (when leaf nodes exist) and not the links to the html
+versions created by Greenstone.
+
+Kindly confirm if this has solved your problem.
+
+Amos
+
+On 11/7/08, Renate Morgenstern <rmorgenstern@unam.na> wrote:
+>
+>>Hi,
+>>
+>>I have a collection of PDF documents converted to HTML. In the
+>>display of an A-Z Compact List I just want the PDF link and not the
+>>link to the html files generated by Pdftohtml.  When I remove the
+>>link to the html, then the link in the A-Z Classifier also
+>>disappears. Here is my current format. How should I format it to
+>>only display the link to the PDF?
+>>Thanks
+>>Renate
+>>===============
+>>
+>><td valign="top">[link][icon][/link]</td>
+>><td
+>>valign="top">[ex.srclink]{Or}{[ex.thumbicon],[ex.srcicon]}[ex./srclink]</td>
+>><td valign="top">[highlight]
+>>{Or}{[format:dc.Date],[ex.Title],Untitled}
+>>{if}{[numleafdocs],([numleafdocs])}
+>>[/highlight]
+>>{If}{[dc.Numbers], - No. <i>[dc.Numbers]</i>}</td>
+>>
+>
+> Mrs Renate Morgenstern
+> University of Namibia Library
+> Windhoek, Namibia
+> Tel.: +264 61 2063869
+> rmorgenstern@unam.na
+>
+>
+
+From akujenga at gmail.com  Sat Nov  8 02:05:21 2008
+From: akujenga at gmail.com (Amos Kujenga)
+Date: Sat Nov  8 02:05:42 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] [Fwd: Large image collections and remote GLI
+	lient]
+In-Reply-To: <20081107103108.04CB03E0015@mx1.its.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <20081107103108.04CB03E0015@mx1.its.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <53f027730811070505s10417012k60f97f2b47f388b8@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hi Renate,
+
+A few questions...
+- What is the exact error(s) message(s)?
+- Do you still have enough free hard disk space on your server? (sorry
+for asking such a question!) Since you mentioned that it used to work
+when the collection was smaller.
+- Are you adding the files one-by-one or in bulk?
+
+Regards
+
+
+Amos
+
+On 11/7/08, Renate Morgenstern <rmorgenstern@unam.na> wrote:
+> Hi,
+> We have problems with a large image collection (more than 2200) and the
+> remote GLI client on MAC. It is impossible to add more images when
+> trying to drag them over from the left panel to the right panel.
+> It worked fine when the collection was smaller.
+> Thanks
+> Renate
+>
+> Mrs Renate Morgenstern
+> University of Namibia Library
+> Windhoek, Namibia
+> Tel.: +264 61 2063869
+> rmorgenstern@unam.na
+>
+>
+
+From dspano at orsna.gov.ar  Sat Nov  8 09:14:08 2008
+From: dspano at orsna.gov.ar (Diego Spano)
+Date: Sat Nov  8 09:12:31 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Sorting search results and Classifiers VLists
+Message-ID: <D4742D4C3AD34A5095994F11379B2135@orsna.gov.ar>
+
+Skipped content of type multipart/alternative-------------- next part --------------
+_______________________________________________
+greenstone-users mailing list
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+From dspano at orsna.gov.ar  Sat Nov  8 09:18:00 2008
+From: dspano at orsna.gov.ar (Diego Spano)
+Date: Sat Nov  8 09:16:47 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Archives - Index/assoc: why both?
+Message-ID: <!&!AAAAAAAAAAAYAAAAAAAAAMqkfLKn3i1CvY3Zg+pc6XzigAAAEAAAAEtb1H+TZexMs7JT7EsI2z8BAAAAAA==@orsna.gov.ar>
+
+Hi  you all,
+ 
+it is well known that every document in import folder generates a folder in
+archives after the import process. Then, building process copies all source
+files to index/assoc, so we have duplicated disk space needed to host all
+files.
+ 
+I have a collection with almost 700.000 tiff files, all imported with
+Pagedimgplug. This collection is not a static one, every couple of days we
+add new documents, so we have two options:
+ 
+1- Use Lucene and incremental building: this sounds interesting but we have
+many problems with parsing doc.xml files, accents and many other things.
+ 
+2- Use MGPP: it works great, we have all the features we need but
+incremental indexing is not possible. So every few days we have to reindex
+all again, and again... This approach consumes a reasonable time to generate
+indexes, but it spends a lot of time copying 700.000 files from archives to
+building/assoc, and deleting the old index folder with the other 700.000
+files.
+ 
+The questions are:
+ 
+a- Is it possible to link to source files directly from archives folder?.
+This will result in saving a lot of time because copying files form archives
+to assoc is no more necessary. I remember that someone asked for something
+like this, but I canŽt find the mail in the email archives collection. I
+think that builcol.pl must be modified to work this way. Is there anybody
+out there that can do it?.
+ 
+b- Is it possible to add an option to future releases where the user can
+choose weather buildcol with source docs in place (in archives folders) or
+not?.
+ 
+TIA.
+ 
+Diego Spano
+-------------- next part --------------
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+From shaheen.sha at gmail.com  Sat Nov  8 03:02:31 2008
+From: shaheen.sha at gmail.com (shaheen shah)
+Date: Sun Nov  9 16:39:43 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Unsubscribe Request
+Message-ID: <f7e0cbc10811070602j2d2c34a3x92bcfc878bf33a2c@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Pls unsubscribe me from the list
+
+Thank You
+Shaheen
+-------------- next part --------------
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+From LuisaK at spc.int  Mon Nov 10 10:14:21 2008
+From: LuisaK at spc.int (Luisa Korodrau)
+Date: Mon Nov 10 10:11:34 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Unsubscribe Request
+Message-ID: <A5FCCF65C3B4CB43AD3B881FCEC0603903F3A516@highlander.suva.noumea.spc.local>
+
+Please unsubscribe me from the list
+
+Thank you
+
+ 
+
+Luisa Korodrau
+
+Secretariat of the Pacific Community
+
+Private Mail Bag
+
+Suva
+
+Fiji Islands
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+-------------- next part --------------
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+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Nov 11 09:42:27 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Tue Nov 11 09:42:32 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Unsubscribe Request
+In-Reply-To: <A5FCCF65C3B4CB43AD3B881FCEC0603903F3A516@highlander.suva.noumea.spc.l
+	ocal>
+References: <A5FCCF65C3B4CB43AD3B881FCEC0603903F3A516@highlander.suva.noumea.spc.local>
+Message-ID: <52928.72.200.121.229.1226349747.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Luisa
+
+To unsubscribe from the list, please visit
+https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users, enter
+your e-mail address in the last box at the bottom of the page, and click
+"Unsubscribe or edit options". You will then have the option to
+unsubscribe.
+
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+
+> Please unsubscribe me from the list
+>
+> Thank you
+>
+>
+>
+> Luisa Korodrau
+>
+> Secretariat of the Pacific Community
+>
+> Private Mail Bag
+>
+> Suva
+>
+> Fiji Islands
+>
+>
+>
+>
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From thaotk2 at gmail.com  Tue Nov 11 21:44:16 2008
+From: thaotk2 at gmail.com (Thao Thao)
+Date: Tue Nov 11 21:44:22 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Web in Greenstone 3.03
+Message-ID: <4409126a0811110044obc68af5y78306e48eb7ff08d@mail.gmail.com>
+
+ Hi evrybody!
+ I am using Greenstone 3.03 on WindownXP. But I don't what language has web
+writed by?Is it Jsp?.And where did web pages store ?
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081111/d082fe9b/attachment.html
+From tahirjan at gmail.com  Mon Nov 10 20:00:37 2008
+From: tahirjan at gmail.com (Tahir Jan)
+Date: Tue Nov 11 22:42:53 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] CD of Green Stone
+Message-ID: <1587ebc40811092300h1aa50c3ah5ff84058700a3531@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Dear
+
+I want to install the Greenstone in my library please send me the CD of
+Greenstone at the Below mentioned address.
+
+Regards
+
+
+-- 
+TAHIR JAN
+Librarian
+Institute of Management Studies
+University of Peshawar
+
+Email: tahirjan@gmail.com
+             tahirjan@Upesh.edu.pk
+Phone: 0092-91-9216668
+Cell:     0092-333-9148972
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081109/276d52df/attachment.html
+From cmolefe2002 at yahoo.com  Wed Nov 12 19:19:08 2008
+From: cmolefe2002 at yahoo.com (Chedza Molefe)
+Date: Wed Nov 12 19:19:15 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Help with Greenstone Search options!
+Message-ID: <115149.51880.qm@web52408.mail.re2.yahoo.com>
+
+Dear all,
+ 
+After going through training, we started to work with the GSDL. We managed, after some struggle, to create some collections and we have since been populating and indexing. We have, however hit a snag when we tried to create more collections. 
+ 
+While the initial batch of collections offers options to search by several entry points such as Title, Author, keywords, date, material formats etc, the collections remain stuck on the default just searching for some words.
+ 
+We have tried to base the collections entirely on the existing ones and this does not help. I am appealing to colleagues who may have better understand to please guide us on finding a solution to this.
+ 
+I thank you all.
+
+Chedza Molefe
+Archivist
+African Union Commission Archivist
+P.O. Box 3243
+Addis Ababa
+Ethiopia
+
+Tel. 00251 11 551 0358
+Fax. 00251 11 551 7844
+
+Cell. 00251 9121 4834 0
+
+
+
+      
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081111/a65c6a6a/attachment.html
+From ata.rehman at gmail.com  Wed Nov 12 19:20:46 2008
+From: ata.rehman at gmail.com (Ata ur Rehman)
+Date: Wed Nov 12 19:21:00 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] From where to get djvu plugin for GSDL 2.8
+Message-ID: <c387a3b60811112220o6603be2du58b39b8c5e469bb7@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Dear All
+
+I have installed GSDL 2.8.  I want to build a collection of PDF and DJVU
+files but DJVU plugin is not available.  Can someone guide me about this
+plug-in? I am using Windows Vista
+
+Ata
+LISolutions.org
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081112/bf3fa014/attachment-0001.html
+From akujenga at gmail.com  Thu Nov 13 00:09:40 2008
+From: akujenga at gmail.com (Amos Kujenga)
+Date: Thu Nov 13 00:09:45 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Help with Greenstone Search options!
+In-Reply-To: <115149.51880.qm@web52408.mail.re2.yahoo.com>
+References: <115149.51880.qm@web52408.mail.re2.yahoo.com>
+Message-ID: <53f027730811120309o49bc4892nfd73f1bfd58de075@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hi Chedza,
+
+I'd be glad to assist if possible, however, what is the exact problem
+that you are facing, i.e., would you be more specific? For instance,
+are you creating collections on a local machine or using Remote
+Greenstone Librarian Interface, etc?
+
+Regards
+
+Amos
+
+On 11/12/08, Chedza Molefe <cmolefe2002@yahoo.com> wrote:
+> Dear all,
+>
+> After going through training, we started to work with the GSDL. We managed,
+> after some struggle, to create some collections and we have since been
+> populating and indexing. We have, however hit a snag when we tried to create
+> more collections.
+>
+> While the initial batch of collections offers options to search by several
+> entry points such as Title, Author, keywords, date, material formats etc,
+> the collections remain stuck on the default just searching for some words.
+>
+> We have tried to base the collections entirely on the existing ones and this
+> does not help. I am appealing to colleagues who may have better understand
+> to please guide us on finding a solution to this.
+>
+> I thank you all.
+>
+> Chedza Molefe
+> Archivist
+> African Union Commission Archivist
+> P.O. Box 3243
+> Addis Ababa
+> Ethiopia
+>
+> Tel. 00251 11 551 0358
+> Fax. 00251 11 551 7844
+>
+> Cell. 00251 9121 4834 0
+>
+>
+>
+>
+
+From m.mehrling at neu.edu  Thu Nov 13 02:19:29 2008
+From: m.mehrling at neu.edu (m.mehrling@neu.edu)
+Date: Thu Nov 13 02:18:20 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Help with Greenstone Search options!
+Message-ID: <OFC4AA3298.0CF32DB7-ON852574FF.00493222@neu.edu>
+
+Skipped content of type multipart/alternative-------------- next part --------------
+_______________________________________________
+greenstone-users mailing list
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+From nguyetvutk2 at gmail.com  Thu Nov 13 02:31:05 2008
+From: nguyetvutk2 at gmail.com (vu thi anh nguyet)
+Date: Thu Nov 13 02:31:12 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Greenstone3
+Message-ID: <4ac733610811120531q5c659c4aoc0ee1e6884110b50@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hi everybody
+I'm using Greenstone3 in windowsXP and I want export Greenstone Library
+collection to internet but i don't know how export it to internet. Can you
+help me show detail way ?what server requirement?
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081112/8c2803f6/attachment.html
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Nov 13 08:56:46 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Thu Nov 13 08:56:48 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re:Re: greenstone version
+In-Reply-To: <23110385.81226420564025.JavaMail.coremail@app145.163.com>
+References: <52848.72.200.121.229.1226349307.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<17395854.10201226011241249.JavaMail.coremail@bj163app20.163.com>
+	<23110385.81226420564025.JavaMail.coremail@app145.163.com>
+Message-ID: <41283.206.207.225.20.1226519806.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Huan Qiao
+
+Launch GLI and go to File->Preference->Mode, switch to the Expert mode by
+selecting Expert from the list. Then rebuild the collection, all messages
+regarding building will be displayed. Go through the messages, you will
+find reasons of the errors.
+
+If you have any questions, please replay me and cc to
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz at the same time, because your
+questions will benefit others.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+
+
+> Hi, my problem is as follows. Thanks.
+>
+> The file bill of rights_05312007.doc was recognised but could not be
+> processed by
+> any plugin.
+> The file Digital Divide.doc was recognised but could not be processed by
+> any
+> plugin.
+> The file personal statement 1.doc was recognised but could not be
+> processed by any
+> plugin.
+>
+> 4 documents were considered for processing:
+>    1 document was processed and included in the collection.
+>    3 were rejected.
+>
+>
+>
+> --
+> Huan Qiao
+> Dept. of Information Management
+> Beijing Normal University
+> Beijing 100875
+>
+>
+> ÔÚ2008-11-11£¬qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz ÐŽµÀ£º
+>>Hi Huan Qiao
+>>
+>>Could you replay me from the last email and forward to the group list as
+>>well? Because I couldn't remember the question when I read it.
+>>
+>>Regards
+>>Quan
+>>
+>>>  Hi, my greenstone version is 2.80, and platform is Windows XP.
+>>>
+>>>
+>>> --
+>>> Huan Qiao
+>>> Dept. of Information Management
+>>> Beijing Normal University
+>>> Beijing 100875
+>>
+>>
+>
+
+
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Nov 13 09:27:23 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Thu Nov 13 09:27:27 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] From where to get djvu plugin for GSDL 2.8
+In-Reply-To: <c387a3b60811112220o6603be2du58b39b8c5e469bb7@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <c387a3b60811112220o6603be2du58b39b8c5e469bb7@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <14041.206.207.225.20.1226521643.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Ata
+
+The online document of Plugins is available at
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins. You can find
+all plugins in GSDL there. As there isn't a DJVU plugin right now, you
+could try UnknownPlug to handle the DJVU files.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+
+> Dear All
+>
+> I have installed GSDL 2.8.  I want to build a collection of PDF and DJVU
+> files but DJVU plugin is not available.  Can someone guide me about this
+> plug-in? I am using Windows Vista
+>
+> Ata
+> LISolutions.org
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From trankhoaqn at gmail.com  Thu Nov 13 14:23:12 2008
+From: trankhoaqn at gmail.com (Khoa Tran)
+Date: Thu Nov 13 14:23:18 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Web in Greenstone 2
+Message-ID: <e04902680811121723n45f30ee5xd531ce01bc757807@mail.gmail.com>
+
+ Hi all!
+ I'm learning about Greenstone. I know language web is used in GS3 is Java
+but I don't know what language web is used in GS2? Is it macro file? I want
+to export GS2 to Internet. Can you show me the way to export?What files
+indispensable to export?
+-------------- next part --------------
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+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Nov 13 17:25:32 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Thu Nov 13 17:25:42 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Greenstone 2.81 released!
+Message-ID: <491BAC3C.4050204@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi everyone,
+
+We are pleased to announce that the Windows, GNU/Linux, Mac OS/X and
+Source distributions of Greenstone v2.81
+are now available for download from our sourceforge page:
+http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone or from 
+http://www.greenstone.org/download
+
+Release notes are copied below.
+
+This has been a long time coming, thank you for your patience.
+
+As always, please report any problems or bugs to the mailing list.
+
+Regards,
+Katherine and the rest of the Greenstone team.
+
+------------------------------
+Greenstone 2.81 release notes
+------------------------------
+
+Important changes in this release include, in no particular order:
+
+Installer:
+--------------
+
+The Greenstone installer downloads are now created using only open source
+software, including Ant Installer (http://antinstaller.sourceforge.net/),
+Apache Ant (http://ant.apache.org/), our own search4j (based on launch4j
+http://launch4j.sourceforge.net/), and our own Greenstone release kits.
+
+We felt it was essential to move away from our existing, closed-source
+installer suite as it was not in the spirit of Greenstone to rely on
+proprietary software, and it invited the unnecessary cost of keeping the 
+suite
+up-to-date.
+
+Using only open source software has also given us the freedom to 
+customise the
+user experience of the installers. Where a feature was lacking in one of 
+the
+open source packages, we have enjoyed the ability to "open the hood" and
+implement it.
+
+With the development of the Greenstone release kits we are now able to 
+generate
+  releases of Greenstone automatically and unattended. This process 
+takes just
+20 minutes, and it has helped us a lot in the development and testing of 
+new
+features of Greenstone. We have been able to set up a feedback loop, 
+where code
+  committed one day is included in an automatic nightly snapshot release 
+made
+available for download on our website the next day. Our users have also
+benefited from being able to obtain up-to-date snapshot releases of 
+Greenstone
+in between our official releases.
+
+These daily snapshots are available through:
+
+   http://www.greenstone.org/snapshots
+
+On Windows, the version number is included in the Start Menu which means 
+that
+multiple installations of Greenstone will have their own entries in the 
+Start
+Menu. The installer no longer writes to the registry, so installation no
+longer requires administrator privileges.
+
+ImageMagick is now bundled with Greenstone for binary web releases for all
+platforms (previously it was only provided on a CD-ROM release) and 
+includes
+JPEG2000 support. The installer offers the option to install this or not.
+You can skip installing it if you already have ImageMagick previously 
+installed.
+
+Ghostscript is now bundled with Greenstone for binary web releases for 
+Windows
+and Mac. The installer offers the option to install this or not.  You can
+skip installing it if you already have Ghostscript previously installed.
+
+Importing and Plugin Changes:
+------------------------------
+
+Plugin Restructuring: The plugins have been restructured. This has been 
+done
+mostly for coding efficiency. The most noticeable change is that plugins 
+have
+been renamed. xxxPlug now becomes xxxPlugin, and some have also had 
+their names
+  modified or expanded to be clearer. For example, DBPlug is now 
+DatabasePlugin,
+  PPTPlug is PowerPointPlugin. The complete list of new plugins can be 
+seen at
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Plugins. Old collections should
+still build okay in GLI, which will map the old plugin names to the new 
+ones.
+Command line building should also work, but the configuration file won't be
+altered to use the new names.
+
+A lot of work has been done trying to get Greenstone to work properly with
+non-ascii filenames. Two versions of the filename are stored, [Source] for
+displaying the filename, and [SourceFile] for linking to the file from a 
+web page.
+
+The -smart_block option (most commonly seen with HTMLPlugin) has been 
+deprecated
+. Instead we have a first pass through the documents to find out which ones
+should be blocked.
+
+MARCPlugin and MARCXMLPlugin can now map metadata to Qualified Dublin 
+Core as
+well as Dublin Core.
+
+MARCXMLPlugin now assigns metadata from metadata.xml files.
+
+EMAILPlugin now saves binary attachments as binary files on Windows
+
+ImagePlugin and PagedImagePlugin now offer the -cache_generated_images 
+option
+to prevent thumbnails and screenview images being recreated each import.
+
+OAIPlugin saves the metadata as Dublin Core rather than moving it all to 
+the ex
+  metadata set. This means that it won't show up in the GLI unless the 
+files are
+  exploded. Exploding is now available for OAI records.
+
+ProCitePlugin no longer uses the pc namespace. Metadata is stored using the
+field names set in the workform definition, rather than using Field1Name 
+and
+Field1Value etc..
+
+-reversesort option to import.pl to be used with -sortmeta option to 
+sort in
+reverse order.
+
+Tidied up OID generation. OIDtype and OIDmetadata options are now available
+for each plugin as well as globally from import.pl. Hashing usually 
+occurs on
+the original file, but some plugins specify that hashing should be done 
+on the
+Greenstone XML document.
+
+Building and Indexing Changes:
+-------------------------------
+
+Improvements to Lucene incremental building. Lucene document identifiers 
+now
+match Greenstone identifiers, rather than 1, 2, 3. Rebuilding with no new
+documents shouldn't break the index.
+
+MGPP and Lucene building tidied up. 'allfields' now means combined 
+searching
+over all specified indexes (not all document metadata) for both mgpp and 
+lucene.
+  'metadata' will index all metadata, but no longer reindexes metadata 
+that has
+already been specified. MGPP indexing over combined fields now works 
+properly.
+
+New collection configuration file option: infodbtype. Values include 
+gdbm (the
+default), gdbm-txtgz, sqlite, mssql. This specifies what database system 
+to use
+for the collection metadata database. Currently this needs to be added to
+collect.cfg by hand, as it is not available in GLI yet.
+
+gdbm: the default, and is what has always been used previously. This is
+platform dependent. It transfers between Windows and Linux, but not 
+to/from a
+Mac.
+
+gdbm-txtgz: A gzipped text version of the database. At runtime, the 
+first time
+this collection is accessed, it will be unpacked and converted to the
+appropriate GDBM database using txt2db. This is a good choice if you are
+creating a collection to be used on another operating system, especially if
+one or more of those operating systems is a Mac.
+
+sqlite: Platform independent database using SQLite. The new dynamic 
+classifiers
+  (created at runtime) can be used with this database. See
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/More_about_classifiers#How_do_I_use_dynamic_classifiers.3F
+
+for more information. Thanks to DL Consulting
+
+mssql: Windows specific database using MS SQL Server. See
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Using_MSSQL_for_Collection_Database 
+
+for information about how to set this up. Thanks to DL Consulting
+
+Depositor:
+------------
+
+Collection editing using the Depositor is now enabled by default for the 
+admin
+user.
+
+The metadata fields offered for each document can now easily be customised
+from the GLI.
+
+By default, the depositor will import and build each document into the
+collection when it is added. It can now be easily set up to just "deposit"
+the item without rebuilding.
+
+See http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/How_to_use_the_depositor for
+more information.
+
+GLI
+-------
+
+A new right-click file option for binary files that go through a conversion
+process to be imported, such as PDF, Word and PowerPoint files. "Replace 
+source
+document with HTML" will convert the original file to HTML and replace 
+it in
+the collection. This means that the converted HTML (which may be 
+unattractive)
+can now be modified in the collection. This is available for Remote GLI too.
+
+A new right-click file option on the collection tree background to 
+refresh the
+file view. This is useful if you have manually added files to the 
+collection
+outside of GLI.
+
+MetadataXMLPlugin has been moved 'below the line' in the Plugins panel so
+cannot be removed in GLI. If you are using GLI to add metadata, then you 
+need
+this plugin.
+
+The Export As option now only exports one collection at a time. Collections
+can be exported as GreenstoneMETS, FedoraMETS, MARCXML and DSpace archive.
+
+'NavigationBar pulldown' added to the list of format options - this 
+makes the
+navigation 'bar' a drop down list instead of a bar across the page.
+
+Lots of work done on making the Download panel work better, including 
+getting
+download processes to terminate when they are cancelled or when GLI is 
+closed
+while they are still running.
+
+New panel under the Format tab, "Depositor Metadata" which allows
+customisation of which metadata fields should be offered in the 
+depositor for
+that collection.
+
+CJK segmentation option has been added to GLI. This doesn't do proper word
+segmentation, but adds a space in between each CJK character. The character
+ranges have been expanded to work with Japanese and Korean. It is 
+applied to
+metadata as well as document text.
+
+New panel under the Create tab allowing the scheduling of automatic 
+collection
+rebuilding.
+
+Greenstone Runtime:
+----------------------
+
+Large code restructuring.  Code is split between common-src, build-src and
+runtime-src.  Makes it easer to use code in other projets, such as 
+Greenstone 3
+and running Greenstone on an iPhone/iPod Touch.
+
+External links now default to going straight to the web page, rather than
+showing a warning page first.
+
+Improvements to the oaiserver, thanks to DL Consulting. Resumption token
+support has been added, and it now validates against online validation 
+tools.
+
+Greenstone now compiles for Linux on 64-bit platforms.  All programs are
+compiled natively for 64-bit, except for those that rely on mg/mgpp, which
+still need to be 32-bit compiled.  As part of the configure/make 
+process, the
+correct flags are automatically set, so from the developers point of 
+view you
+compile up Greenstone on a 64-bit machine the exact same way you do for any
+other Unix-based system.
+
+FLI - Fedora Librarian Interface
+---------------------------------
+
+The Fedora Librarian Interface (FLI) is very much like GLI in that it 
+allows
+you to gather together your documents. It then uses Greenstone's ability to
+convert documents into the FedoraMETS format so that these can be ingested
+(put into) a Fedora repository. The process of building a collection 
+using FLI
+exports documents into a repository maintained by a Fedora server rather 
+than
+one maintained by Greenstone. In order to use FLI, you will need to have
+Fedora installed. More information on how to install Fedora and set it up
+to work with FLI, and how to run FLI itself, can be found in the documents:
+
+1. Installing Fedora (2.2.1/3.0) and Fedora-related information
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/InstallingFedora
+
+2. Installing Fedora Generic Search (to provide full-text indexing and
+searching capabilities for a Fedora repository)
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/InstallingFedoraGSearch
+
+3. Running FLI, the Fedora Librarian Interface
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/RunningFLI
+
+
+Translations:
+--------------
+
+Thanks to:
+
+John Rose, for help with English GLI help, French translations for GLI and
+Greenstone.
+Celine Guimbertaud for GLI French translations
+Maxime Rouast for Greenstone French translations
+Yohannes Mulugeta and Abiyot Bayou for Greenstone Amharic translations
+Kamal Salih for GLI Arabic translations
+Gerhard Riesthuis for Greenstone Dutch translations
+Mohan Raj Pradhan for GLI Nepali translations.
+
+
+...and many other minor improvements and bug fixes
+
+We want to ensure that Greenstone works well for you. Please report any
+problems to the Greenstone mailing list
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz.
+
+
+[DL Consulting (http://www.dlconsulting.com) are the world's leading 
+suppliers
+of commercial consulting, customization, support, maintenance and hosting
+services for the Greenstone digital library software suite.]
+
+From sppons at gmail.com  Thu Nov 13 19:30:22 2008
+From: sppons at gmail.com (Ponerulappan)
+Date: Thu Nov 13 19:30:31 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Greenstone 2.81 released!
+In-Reply-To: <491BAC3C.4050204@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <491BAC3C.4050204@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <caa538920811122230i47b1a809ha116b52227c6d07c@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Is there any update an collection building as we have to build entire
+collection for adding single file and it's difficult for and take much time
+for biggest collections
+
+On Thu, Nov 13, 2008 at 9:55 AM, Anupama of Greenstone Team <
+greenstone_team@cs.waikato.ac.nz> wrote:
+
+> Hi everyone,
+>
+> We are pleased to announce that the Windows, GNU/Linux, Mac OS/X and
+> Source distributions of Greenstone v2.81
+> are now available for download from our sourceforge page:
+> http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone or from
+> http://www.greenstone.org/download
+>
+> Release notes are copied below.
+>
+> This has been a long time coming, thank you for your patience.
+>
+> As always, please report any problems or bugs to the mailing list.
+>
+> Regards,
+> Katherine and the rest of the Greenstone team.
+>
+> ------------------------------
+> Greenstone 2.81 release notes
+> ------------------------------
+>
+> Important changes in this release include, in no particular order:
+>
+> Installer:
+> --------------
+>
+> The Greenstone installer downloads are now created using only open source
+> software, including Ant Installer (http://antinstaller.sourceforge.net/),
+> Apache Ant (http://ant.apache.org/), our own search4j (based on launch4j
+> http://launch4j.sourceforge.net/), and our own Greenstone release kits.
+>
+> We felt it was essential to move away from our existing, closed-source
+> installer suite as it was not in the spirit of Greenstone to rely on
+> proprietary software, and it invited the unnecessary cost of keeping the
+> suite
+> up-to-date.
+>
+> Using only open source software has also given us the freedom to customise
+> the
+> user experience of the installers. Where a feature was lacking in one of
+> the
+> open source packages, we have enjoyed the ability to "open the hood" and
+> implement it.
+>
+> With the development of the Greenstone release kits we are now able to
+> generate
+>  releases of Greenstone automatically and unattended. This process takes
+> just
+> 20 minutes, and it has helped us a lot in the development and testing of
+> new
+> features of Greenstone. We have been able to set up a feedback loop, where
+> code
+>  committed one day is included in an automatic nightly snapshot release
+> made
+> available for download on our website the next day. Our users have also
+> benefited from being able to obtain up-to-date snapshot releases of
+> Greenstone
+> in between our official releases.
+>
+> These daily snapshots are available through:
+>
+>  http://www.greenstone.org/snapshots
+>
+> On Windows, the version number is included in the Start Menu which means
+> that
+> multiple installations of Greenstone will have their own entries in the
+> Start
+> Menu. The installer no longer writes to the registry, so installation no
+> longer requires administrator privileges.
+>
+> ImageMagick is now bundled with Greenstone for binary web releases for all
+> platforms (previously it was only provided on a CD-ROM release) and
+> includes
+> JPEG2000 support. The installer offers the option to install this or not.
+> You can skip installing it if you already have ImageMagick previously
+> installed.
+>
+> Ghostscript is now bundled with Greenstone for binary web releases for
+> Windows
+> and Mac. The installer offers the option to install this or not.  You can
+> skip installing it if you already have Ghostscript previously installed.
+>
+> Importing and Plugin Changes:
+> ------------------------------
+>
+> Plugin Restructuring: The plugins have been restructured. This has been
+> done
+> mostly for coding efficiency. The most noticeable change is that plugins
+> have
+> been renamed. xxxPlug now becomes xxxPlugin, and some have also had their
+> names
+>  modified or expanded to be clearer. For example, DBPlug is now
+> DatabasePlugin,
+>  PPTPlug is PowerPointPlugin. The complete list of new plugins can be seen
+> at
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Plugins. Old collections should
+> still build okay in GLI, which will map the old plugin names to the new
+> ones.
+> Command line building should also work, but the configuration file won't be
+> altered to use the new names.
+>
+> A lot of work has been done trying to get Greenstone to work properly with
+> non-ascii filenames. Two versions of the filename are stored, [Source] for
+> displaying the filename, and [SourceFile] for linking to the file from a
+> web page.
+>
+> The -smart_block option (most commonly seen with HTMLPlugin) has been
+> deprecated
+> . Instead we have a first pass through the documents to find out which ones
+> should be blocked.
+>
+> MARCPlugin and MARCXMLPlugin can now map metadata to Qualified Dublin Core
+> as
+> well as Dublin Core.
+>
+> MARCXMLPlugin now assigns metadata from metadata.xml files.
+>
+> EMAILPlugin now saves binary attachments as binary files on Windows
+>
+> ImagePlugin and PagedImagePlugin now offer the -cache_generated_images
+> option
+> to prevent thumbnails and screenview images being recreated each import.
+>
+> OAIPlugin saves the metadata as Dublin Core rather than moving it all to
+> the ex
+>  metadata set. This means that it won't show up in the GLI unless the files
+> are
+>  exploded. Exploding is now available for OAI records.
+>
+> ProCitePlugin no longer uses the pc namespace. Metadata is stored using the
+> field names set in the workform definition, rather than using Field1Name
+> and
+> Field1Value etc..
+>
+> -reversesort option to import.pl to be used with -sortmeta option to sort
+> in
+> reverse order.
+>
+> Tidied up OID generation. OIDtype and OIDmetadata options are now available
+> for each plugin as well as globally from import.pl. Hashing usually occurs
+> on
+> the original file, but some plugins specify that hashing should be done on
+> the
+> Greenstone XML document.
+>
+> Building and Indexing Changes:
+> -------------------------------
+>
+> Improvements to Lucene incremental building. Lucene document identifiers
+> now
+> match Greenstone identifiers, rather than 1, 2, 3. Rebuilding with no new
+> documents shouldn't break the index.
+>
+> MGPP and Lucene building tidied up. 'allfields' now means combined
+> searching
+> over all specified indexes (not all document metadata) for both mgpp and
+> lucene.
+>  'metadata' will index all metadata, but no longer reindexes metadata that
+> has
+> already been specified. MGPP indexing over combined fields now works
+> properly.
+>
+> New collection configuration file option: infodbtype. Values include gdbm
+> (the
+> default), gdbm-txtgz, sqlite, mssql. This specifies what database system to
+> use
+> for the collection metadata database. Currently this needs to be added to
+> collect.cfg by hand, as it is not available in GLI yet.
+>
+> gdbm: the default, and is what has always been used previously. This is
+> platform dependent. It transfers between Windows and Linux, but not to/from
+> a
+> Mac.
+>
+> gdbm-txtgz: A gzipped text version of the database. At runtime, the first
+> time
+> this collection is accessed, it will be unpacked and converted to the
+> appropriate GDBM database using txt2db. This is a good choice if you are
+> creating a collection to be used on another operating system, especially if
+> one or more of those operating systems is a Mac.
+>
+> sqlite: Platform independent database using SQLite. The new dynamic
+> classifiers
+>  (created at runtime) can be used with this database. See
+>
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/More_about_classifiers#How_do_I_use_dynamic_classifiers.3F
+>
+> for more information. Thanks to DL Consulting
+>
+> mssql: Windows specific database using MS SQL Server. See
+>
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Using_MSSQL_for_Collection_Database
+> for information about how to set this up. Thanks to DL Consulting
+>
+> Depositor:
+> ------------
+>
+> Collection editing using the Depositor is now enabled by default for the
+> admin
+> user.
+>
+> The metadata fields offered for each document can now easily be customised
+> from the GLI.
+>
+> By default, the depositor will import and build each document into the
+> collection when it is added. It can now be easily set up to just "deposit"
+> the item without rebuilding.
+>
+> See http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/How_to_use_the_depositor for
+> more information.
+>
+> GLI
+> -------
+>
+> A new right-click file option for binary files that go through a conversion
+> process to be imported, such as PDF, Word and PowerPoint files. "Replace
+> source
+> document with HTML" will convert the original file to HTML and replace it
+> in
+> the collection. This means that the converted HTML (which may be
+> unattractive)
+> can now be modified in the collection. This is available for Remote GLI
+> too.
+>
+> A new right-click file option on the collection tree background to refresh
+> the
+> file view. This is useful if you have manually added files to the
+> collection
+> outside of GLI.
+>
+> MetadataXMLPlugin has been moved 'below the line' in the Plugins panel so
+> cannot be removed in GLI. If you are using GLI to add metadata, then you
+> need
+> this plugin.
+>
+> The Export As option now only exports one collection at a time. Collections
+> can be exported as GreenstoneMETS, FedoraMETS, MARCXML and DSpace archive.
+>
+> 'NavigationBar pulldown' added to the list of format options - this makes
+> the
+> navigation 'bar' a drop down list instead of a bar across the page.
+>
+> Lots of work done on making the Download panel work better, including
+> getting
+> download processes to terminate when they are cancelled or when GLI is
+> closed
+> while they are still running.
+>
+> New panel under the Format tab, "Depositor Metadata" which allows
+> customisation of which metadata fields should be offered in the depositor
+> for
+> that collection.
+>
+> CJK segmentation option has been added to GLI. This doesn't do proper word
+> segmentation, but adds a space in between each CJK character. The character
+> ranges have been expanded to work with Japanese and Korean. It is applied
+> to
+> metadata as well as document text.
+>
+> New panel under the Create tab allowing the scheduling of automatic
+> collection
+> rebuilding.
+>
+> Greenstone Runtime:
+> ----------------------
+>
+> Large code restructuring.  Code is split between common-src, build-src and
+> runtime-src.  Makes it easer to use code in other projets, such as
+> Greenstone 3
+> and running Greenstone on an iPhone/iPod Touch.
+>
+> External links now default to going straight to the web page, rather than
+> showing a warning page first.
+>
+> Improvements to the oaiserver, thanks to DL Consulting. Resumption token
+> support has been added, and it now validates against online validation
+> tools.
+>
+> Greenstone now compiles for Linux on 64-bit platforms.  All programs are
+> compiled natively for 64-bit, except for those that rely on mg/mgpp, which
+> still need to be 32-bit compiled.  As part of the configure/make process,
+> the
+> correct flags are automatically set, so from the developers point of view
+> you
+> compile up Greenstone on a 64-bit machine the exact same way you do for any
+> other Unix-based system.
+>
+> FLI - Fedora Librarian Interface
+> ---------------------------------
+>
+> The Fedora Librarian Interface (FLI) is very much like GLI in that it
+> allows
+> you to gather together your documents. It then uses Greenstone's ability to
+> convert documents into the FedoraMETS format so that these can be ingested
+> (put into) a Fedora repository. The process of building a collection using
+> FLI
+> exports documents into a repository maintained by a Fedora server rather
+> than
+> one maintained by Greenstone. In order to use FLI, you will need to have
+> Fedora installed. More information on how to install Fedora and set it up
+> to work with FLI, and how to run FLI itself, can be found in the documents:
+>
+> 1. Installing Fedora (2.2.1/3.0) and Fedora-related information
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/InstallingFedora
+>
+> 2. Installing Fedora Generic Search (to provide full-text indexing and
+> searching capabilities for a Fedora repository)
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/InstallingFedoraGSearch
+>
+> 3. Running FLI, the Fedora Librarian Interface
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/RunningFLI
+>
+>
+> Translations:
+> --------------
+>
+> Thanks to:
+>
+> John Rose, for help with English GLI help, French translations for GLI and
+> Greenstone.
+> Celine Guimbertaud for GLI French translations
+> Maxime Rouast for Greenstone French translations
+> Yohannes Mulugeta and Abiyot Bayou for Greenstone Amharic translations
+> Kamal Salih for GLI Arabic translations
+> Gerhard Riesthuis for Greenstone Dutch translations
+> Mohan Raj Pradhan for GLI Nepali translations.
+>
+>
+> ...and many other minor improvements and bug fixes
+>
+> We want to ensure that Greenstone works well for you. Please report any
+> problems to the Greenstone mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz.
+>
+>
+> [DL Consulting (http://www.dlconsulting.com) are the world's leading
+> suppliers
+> of commercial consulting, customization, support, maintenance and hosting
+> services for the Greenstone digital library software suite.]
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+-- 
+Thanks &  Best Regards
+Pons  (Ponerulappan)
+Library & Information Services, Cognizant Academy
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081113/ed851b2e/attachment-0001.html
+From rajankila at hotmail.com  Thu Nov 13 19:54:27 2008
+From: rajankila at hotmail.com (Rajan)
+Date: Thu Nov 13 19:56:40 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Installing Greenstone on Windows Vista -Reg
+Message-ID: <BAY128-DS10CD20E4E9FCD306AD20FB6170@phx.gbl>
+
+Hi,
+
+Can we right now install Greenstone 2.80 on Windows Vista using Graphical mode?
+I could not do when I tried last day.
+The mailing list archive also does not give me any proper answer even though there are some mails on this issue last year.
+
+Regards,
+
+
+K Rajasekharan
+Kerala Institute of Local Administration
+Thrissur
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081113/741d0641/attachment.html
+From akujenga at gmail.com  Thu Nov 13 21:15:19 2008
+From: akujenga at gmail.com (Amos Kujenga)
+Date: Thu Nov 13 21:15:31 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Help with Greenstone Search options!
+In-Reply-To: <910731.79291.qm@web52405.mail.re2.yahoo.com>
+References: <53f027730811120309o49bc4892nfd73f1bfd58de075@mail.gmail.com>
+	<910731.79291.qm@web52405.mail.re2.yahoo.com>
+Message-ID: <53f027730811130015m3b7f1507rb222200e548fa359@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hi Chedza,
+
+Assuming you are using version 2.8, search indexes are specified in
+the "Assigned Indexes" box that is found under "Search Indexes" on the
+Design Panel. To add a new index, click on "New Index" and then select
+the field(s) from the list that appears. Remember that you'll have to
+rebuild your collection for these changes to take effect. To specify
+what text Greenstone should display for a particular index, change the
+appropriate "Display text" under Search on the Format panel.
+
+You can also find out a little more about search indexes from the
+tutorial exercise on Word and PDF files:
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/word_pdf_collection.htm
+
+I hope this helps.
+
+Regards
+
+Amos
+
+On 11/12/08, Chedza Molefe <cmolefe2002@yahoo.com> wrote:
+> Dear Amos,
+>
+> I am tried, in tha attached file, to demonstrate the problem in pictures.
+> The small arrows indicate where the differences are. I am working with a
+> standalone system but the idea is to eventually move to a web server one
+> when we think we have control of the situation.
+>
+> Let me  thank you in advance, I appreciate your response.
+>
+> Chedza Molefe
+> Archivist
+> African Union Commission Archivist
+> P.O. Box 3243
+> Addis Ababa
+> Ethiopia
+>
+> Tel. 00251 11 551 0358
+> Fax. 00251 11 551 7844
+>
+> Cell. 00251 9121 4834 0
+>
+>
+> --- On Wed, 11/12/08, Amos Kujenga <akujenga@gmail.com> wrote:
+>
+> From: Amos Kujenga <akujenga@gmail.com>
+> Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] Help with Greenstone Search options!
+> To: cmolefe2002@yahoo.com
+> Cc: sagreenstone@lists.eifl.net, greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> Date: Wednesday, November 12, 2008, 5:09 AM
+>
+> Hi Chedza,
+>
+> I'd be glad to assist if possible, however, what is the exact problem
+> that you are facing, i.e., would you be more specific? For instance,
+> are you creating collections on a local machine or using Remote
+> Greenstone Librarian Interface, etc?
+>
+> Regards
+>
+> Amos
+>
+> On 11/12/08, Chedza Molefe <cmolefe2002@yahoo.com> wrote:
+>> Dear all,
+>>
+>> After going through training, we started to work with the GSDL. We
+> managed,
+>> after some struggle, to create some collections and we have since been
+>> populating and indexing. We have, however hit a snag when we tried to
+> create
+>> more collections.
+>>
+>> While the initial batch of collections offers options to search by several
+>> entry points such as Title, Author, keywords, date, material formats etc,
+>> the collections remain stuck on the default just searching for some words.
+>>
+>> We have tried to base the collections entirely on the existing ones and
+> this
+>> does not help. I am appealing to colleagues who may have better understand
+>> to please guide us on finding a solution to this.
+>>
+>> I thank you all.
+>>
+>> Chedza Molefe
+>> Archivist
+>> African Union Commission Archivist
+>> P.O. Box 3243
+>> Addis Ababa
+>> Ethiopia
+>>
+>> Tel. 00251 11 551 0358
+>> Fax. 00251 11 551 7844
+>>
+>> Cell. 00251 9121 4834 0
+>>
+>>
+>>
+>>
+>
+>
+>
+>
+
+From rajankila at hotmail.com  Thu Nov 13 22:44:04 2008
+From: rajankila at hotmail.com (Rajan)
+Date: Thu Nov 13 22:54:03 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Greenstone in Malayalam
+Message-ID: <BAY128-DS7C2AA538DAF5FDFF2422FB6170@phx.gbl>
+
+Dear All,
+
+I had found it difficult to install gsdl 2.80 in my Windows Vista in graphical mode, but when I tried with 2.81 rc, there was no problem at all. It is working well.
+
+Can anyone tell me how can I convert Greenstone 2.81 rc  into Malayalam. I have installed Malayalam Unicode fonts and have found that malayalam .dm is added properly.
+
+One friend told me that Windows Malayalam Pack of Microsoft is essential for proper working of Malayalam in Greenstone.
+
+Will someone, having better understanding, advice me how to go ahead ?
+
+Regards,
+
+
+K Rajasekharan
+Kerala Institute of Local Administration
+Thrissur
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081113/9d13374f/attachment.html
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Fri Nov 14 10:35:24 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Fri Nov 14 10:35:29 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Web in Greenstone 2
+In-Reply-To: <e04902680811121723n45f30ee5xd531ce01bc757807@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <e04902680811121723n45f30ee5xd531ce01bc757807@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <50588.206.207.225.21.1226612124.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi
+
+Yes, macros are used in greenstone2. Please read
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/All_about_macros to know the
+details.
+
+Please read
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Export_the_GSDL_collections_to_CD/DVD
+for the info about exporting collections.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+>  Hi all!
+>  I'm learning about Greenstone. I know language web is used in GS3 is Java
+> but I don't know what language web is used in GS2? Is it macro file? I
+> want
+> to export GS2 to Internet. Can you show me the way to export?What files
+> indispensable to export?
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Fri Nov 14 10:50:43 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Fri Nov 14 10:50:46 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Greenstone in Malayalam
+In-Reply-To: <BAY128-DS7C2AA538DAF5FDFF2422FB6170@phx.gbl>
+References: <BAY128-DS7C2AA538DAF5FDFF2422FB6170@phx.gbl>
+Message-ID: <12288.206.207.225.21.1226613043.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi
+
+Add "l=ml" (means set language to Malayalam ) to the end of the parameters
+on the address box, then reload the page. Then you will see that the page
+is translated into Malayalam.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+
+> Dear All,
+>
+> I had found it difficult to install gsdl 2.80 in my Windows Vista in
+> graphical mode, but when I tried with 2.81 rc, there was no problem at
+> all. It is working well.
+>
+> Can anyone tell me how can I convert Greenstone 2.81 rc  into Malayalam. I
+> have installed Malayalam Unicode fonts and have found that malayalam .dm
+> is added properly.
+>
+> One friend told me that Windows Malayalam Pack of Microsoft is essential
+> for proper working of Malayalam in Greenstone.
+>
+> Will someone, having better understanding, advice me how to go ahead ?
+>
+> Regards,
+>
+>
+> K Rajasekharan
+> Kerala Institute of Local Administration
+> Thrissur_______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From stevej at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Fri Nov 14 15:40:29 2008
+From: stevej at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Steve Jones)
+Date: Fri Nov 14 15:40:34 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem compiling from src - javagdbm on OSX
+In-Reply-To: <153957d20811031615i343bf158x43df2905f3ae26ca@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <153957d20811031615i343bf158x43df2905f3ae26ca@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <25C6A10D-1BEF-45D0-9B53-C3934BDE66BF@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+> [exec] configure: error: not found in $JAVA_HOME
+> [exec] checking for the JDK...
+> [exec] Result: 1
+
+Scott
+
+I have just done a build under OS X 10.5.5 on an Intel machine with
+
+	JAVA_HOME=/Library/Java/Home/
+
+and
+
+	$ which java
+	/Library/Java/Home/bin/java
+
+and
+	
+	$ java -version
+
+	java version "1.5.0_16"
+	Java(TM) 2 Runtime Environment, Standard Edition (build 1.5.0_16- 
+b06-284)
+	Java HotSpot(TM) Client VM (build 1.5.0_16-133, mixed mode, sharing)
+
+
+I built the source  checked out with
+
+	svn co http://svn.greenstone.org/greenstone3/trunk greenstone3
+
+in two stages
+
+	ant prepare
+	ant install
+
+
+
+I get warnings, but not errors for javagdbm compilation (see below)
+There is an error when compiling wvWare (see below)
+
+I suspect that your JAVA_HOME environment variable isn't correctly  
+set, or /Library/Java/Home doesn't have the full content.
+
+I think that the config script for javagdbm checks that JAVA_HOME
+	- is not blank
+	- is set to a directory
+	- has an subdirectory called  'include'
+
+At what point in the compile sequence for javagdbm shown below do you  
+get the failure?
+
+Cheers
+Steve
+
+_________________________
+Steve Jones
+Associate Professor, Computer Science
+University of Waikato
+Private Bag 3105
+Hamilton, New Zealand
+stevej@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+compile-packages:
+      [echo] compile javagdbm
+      [exec] for subdir in java jni; do \
+      [exec] 	echo making all in $subdir; \
+      [exec] 	(cd $subdir && /usr/bin/make  all) || exit 1; \
+      [exec] 	done
+      [exec] making all in java
+      [exec] mkdir -p ./classes
+      [exec] /Library/Java/Home//bin/javac -d ./classes -sourcepath . - 
+deprecation -g -O au/com/pharos/*/*.java
+      [exec] au/com/pharos/gdbm/GdbmFile.java:161: warning:  
+[deprecation] runFinalizersOnExit(boolean) in java.lang.System has  
+been deprecated
+      [exec] 	System.runFinalizersOnExit(true);
+      [exec]               ^
+      [exec] au/com/pharos/packing/NativeStringPacking.java:62:  
+warning: [deprecation] getBytes(int,int,byte[],int) in  
+java.lang.String has been deprecated
+      [exec] 	str.getBytes(0, len, rawArray, 0);
+      [exec]            ^
+      [exec] au/com/pharos/packing/NativeStringPacking.java:79:  
+warning: [deprecation] String(byte[],int) in java.lang.String has been  
+deprecated
+      [exec] 	    return new String(raw, 0);
+      [exec]                    ^
+      [exec] Note: Some input files use unchecked or unsafe operations.
+      [exec] Note: Recompile with -Xlint:unchecked for details.
+      [exec] 3 warnings
+      [exec] /Library/Java/Home//bin/javah -o ..//jni/GdbmFile.h - 
+classpath ./classes: au.com.pharos.gdbm.GdbmFile
+      [exec] /Library/Java/Home//bin/jar cf ..//javagdbm.jar -C ./ 
+classes au
+      [exec] making all in jni
+      [exec] gcc -I. -I/Library/Java/Home//include -I/Users/stevej/tmp/ 
+greenstone3/src/packages/gdbm-1.8.3/include -I/System/Library/ 
+Frameworks/JavaVM.framework/Headers/  -c -Wall -O2 -fpic -I. -I/ 
+Library/Java/Home//include -I/Users/stevej/tmp/greenstone3/src/ 
+packages/gdbm-1.8.3/include -I/System/Library/Frameworks/ 
+JavaVM.framework/Headers/  -DWRAPPER_VERSION=\"0005\"  gdbmjava.c
+      [exec] gdbmjava.c:1: warning: -fpic is not supported; -fPIC  
+assumed
+      [exec] gdbmjava.c: In function ?datumToArray?:
+      [exec] gdbmjava.c:375: warning: pointer targets in passing  
+argument 5 of ?(*env)->SetByteArrayRegion? differ in signedness
+      [exec] gdbmjava.c: In function ?arrayToDatum?:
+      [exec] gdbmjava.c:391: warning: pointer targets in assignment  
+differ in signedness
+      [exec] gdbmjava.c: In function ?releaseArray?:
+      [exec] gdbmjava.c:403: warning: pointer targets in passing  
+argument 3 of ?(*env)->ReleaseByteArrayElements? differ in signedness
+      [exec] gdbmjava.c: In function ?releaseArrayAbort?:
+      [exec] gdbmjava.c:414: warning: pointer targets in passing  
+argument 3 of ?(*env)->ReleaseByteArrayElements? differ in signedness
+      [exec] gcc  -dynamiclib -fno-common -single_module -framework  
+JavaVM -o libgdbmjava.jnilib gdbmjava.o -L/Users/stevej/tmp/ 
+greenstone3/src/packages/gdbm-1.8.3/lib -lgdbm
+      [exec] for subdir in java jni; do \
+      [exec] 	echo making install in $subdir; \
+      [exec] 	(cd $subdir && /usr/bin/make  install) || exit 1; \
+      [exec] 	done
+      [exec] making install in java
+      [exec] make[1]: Nothing to be done for `install'.
+      [exec] making install in jni
+      [exec] cp libgdbmjava.jnilib /Users/stevej/tmp/greenstone3/lib/ 
+jni/
+      [echo] Windows: compile javagdbm (java only)
+      [echo] Install the javagdbm jar file
+      [copy] Copying 1 file to /Users/stevej/tmp/greenstone3/lib/jni
+
+
+
+
+      [exec] gcc  -o wvWare wvWare.o  -L. -lwv -lz   -liconv  -L/sw/ 
+lib -lglib -lm -Wl,-multiply_defined -Wl,suppress
+      [exec] Undefined symbols:
+      [exec]   "_iconv_close", referenced from:
+      [exec]       _wvLIDToCodePageConverter in libwv.a(text.o)
+      [exec]       _wvLIDToCodePageConverter in libwv.a(text.o)
+      [exec]       _wvHandleCodePage in libwv.a(text.o)
+      [exec]       _wvHandleCodePage in libwv.a(text.o)
+      [exec]       _wvOutputFromUnicode in libwv.a(text.o)
+      [exec]   "_iconv", referenced from:
+      [exec]       _wvHandleCodePage in libwv.a(text.o)
+      [exec]       _wvHandleCodePage in libwv.a(text.o)
+      [exec]       _wvOutputFromUnicode in libwv.a(text.o)
+      [exec]       _wvOutputFromUnicode in libwv.a(text.o)
+      [exec]   "_iconv_open", referenced from:
+      [exec]       _wvLIDToCodePageConverter in libwv.a(text.o)
+      [exec]       _wvLIDToCodePageConverter in libwv.a(text.o)
+      [exec]       _wvHandleCodePage in libwv.a(text.o)
+      [exec]       _wvHandleCodePage in libwv.a(text.o)
+      [exec]       _wvOutputFromUnicode in libwv.a(text.o)
+      [exec] ld: symbol(s) not found
+      [exec] collect2: ld returned 1 exit status
+      [exec] make[3]: *** [wvWare] Error 1
+      [exec] make[2]: *** [all] Error 1
+      [exec] make[1]: *** [all] Error 1
+      [exec] make: *** [all] Error 1
+
+
+
+From tbaret at pop.ras.eu.org  Wed Nov 12 23:25:21 2008
+From: tbaret at pop.ras.eu.org (tbaret@pop.ras.eu.org)
+Date: Fri Nov 14 23:17:59 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] gli-client 2.80 http error code=500
+Message-ID: <j7smV4Nq.1226485521.6580200.tbaret@pop.ras.eu.org>
+
+Hi,
+
+I'm experiencing some problems with GLI-client (v2.80). My installation
+(v2.80) is running on a Linux debian server. When I run the GLI-client I
+get several HTTP 500 error messages - specifically for classinfo.pl and
+pluginfo.pl -listall. I 'OK' my way through the messages and then the
+Librarian Interface dies.
+
+Can someone suggest what might be wrong with my installation ?
+
+I join the errors messages (some messges are in french)
+
+1 : Server returned HTTP response code: 500 for URL:
+http://192.168.1.253/cgi-bin/gliserver.pl?cmd=get-script-option&script=classinfo.pl&xml=&language=en&listall&un=admin&pw=xxxxxx&ts=1226485227235
+
+I "OK"
+
+Then
+
+"impossible d'obtenir la liste des classificateurs en utilisant
+classinfo.pl - listall"
+
+I "OK"
+
+then
+
+"Server returned HTTP response code: 500 for URL:
+http://192.168.1.253/cgi-bin/gliserver.pl?cmd=get-script-option&script=classinfo.pl&xml=&language=en&listall&un=admin&pw=xxxxxx&ts=1226485651688"
+
+I "OK"
+
+then
+
+"impossible d'obtenir la liste des modules utilisant pluginfo.pl -
+listall
+
+After that, i "OK" and the gli-client die.
+
+I join too the error message from the shell :
+
+-- Greenstone Librarian Interface (GLI)
+Copyright (C) 2006, New Zealand Digital Library Project, University Of
+Waikato
+GLI comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details see LICENSE.txt
+This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
+
+Checking Java: /usr/bin/java
+
+Running the Greenstone Librarian Interface...
+Version: 2.80
+
+Deleting user's local collect directory...
+Done.
+gliserver args:
+cmd=get-script-options&script=classinfo.pl&xml=&language=en&listall
+java.io.IOException: Server returned HTTP response code: 500 for URL:
+http://192.168.1.253/cgi-bin/gliserver.pl?cmd=get-script-options&script=classinfo.pl&xml=&language=en&listall&un=admin&pw=catalog&ts=1226484010936
+at
+sun.net.www.protocol.http.HttpURLConnection.getInputStream(HttpURLConnection.java:1261)
+at
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.sendCommandToServerInternal(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:1127)
+at
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.sendCommandToServer(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:971)
+at
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.access$200(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:56)
+at
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer$RemoteGreenstoneServerGetScriptOptionsAction.perform(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:607)
+at
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer$RemoteGreenstoneServerActionQueue.run(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:249)
+gliserver args:
+cmd=get-script-options&script=pluginfo.pl&xml=&language=en&listall
+java.io.IOException: Server returned HTTP response code: 500 for URL:
+http://192.168.1.253/cgi-bin/gliserver.pl?cmd=get-script-options&script=pluginfo.pl&xml=&language=en&listall&un=admin&pw=catalog&ts=1226484020625
+at
+sun.net.www.protocol.http.HttpURLConnection.getInputStream(HttpURLConnection.java:1261)
+at
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.sendCommandToServerInternal(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:1127)
+at
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.sendCommandToServer(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:971)
+at
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.access$200(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:56)
+at
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer$RemoteGreenstoneServerGetScriptOptionsAction.perform(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:607)
+at
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer$RemoteGreenstoneServerActionQueue.run(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:249)
+gliserver args: cmd=download-collection-configurations
+java.io.IOException: Server returned HTTP response code: 500 for URL:
+http://192.168.1.253/cgi-bin/gliserver.pl
+at
+sun.net.www.protocol.http.HttpURLConnection.getInputStream(HttpURLConnection.java:1261)
+at
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.downloadFileInternal(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:1076)
+at
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.downloadFile(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:928)
+at
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.access$300(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:56)
+at
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer$RemoteGreenstoneServerDownloadCollectionConfigurationsAction.perform(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:509)
+at
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer$RemoteGreenstoneServerActionQueue.run(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:249)
+Error: Could not download collection configurations.
+Done!
+
+From sbdweb at uib.es  Fri Nov 14 01:15:05 2008
+From: sbdweb at uib.es (Eduardo del Valle)
+Date: Fri Nov 14 23:18:01 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem with the installation of Greenstone 2.81
+ in Windows XP Professional
+Message-ID: <7D9C054F81A441C4BE0A1FD9342B3D39@sbdwebeduard>
+
+Skipped content of type multipart/alternative-------------- next part --------------
+A non-text attachment was scrubbed...
+Name: Error.doc
+Type: application/msword
+Size: 29696 bytes
+Desc: not available
+Url : https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081113/85c5c819/Error-0001.doc
+From anu at ncsi.iisc.ernet.in  Sat Nov 15 02:16:29 2008
+From: anu at ncsi.iisc.ernet.in (K.T Anuradha)
+Date: Sat Nov 15 01:53:52 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Greenstone in Malayalam
+Message-ID: <Pine.LNX.4.64.0811141836070.12453@ncsi.iisc.ernet.in>
+
+Dear Rajasekharan,
+
+I had organised advanced Greenstone workshop last year in which I covered 
+Multilingual capability and Interoperability (OAI-PMH and Z39.50 
+protocols) in detail both on Windows XP and Linux platform with lots of 
+lab session for giving hands on experience for the participants. I am 
+giving below a few important things that you have to do:
+
+1. If you want Greenstone interface to be in malayalam, you have to make 
+following changes in main.cfg (I am sure these are built in Greenstone 
+version 2.6 onwards because at NCSI we created macro files for Malayalam, 
+Tamil and Telugu then and earlier we had created Kannada and Hindi macro 
+files) :
+
+Check if malayalam.dm is there in macros folder
+Check that malayalam.dm  is entered in main.cfg under macros
+Check you have the following entry in main.cfg
+Language shortname=ml longname=Malayalam default_encoding=utf-8
+
+2. If you want to do data entry in malayalam language with Msword or similar 
+text editors, then you have to make your OS understand this for which you have 
+to install IME. I did this on Windows XP and it may be the same on Vista also. 
+However, you can go through this link: 
+http://www.microsoft.com/globaldev/vista/Whats_New_Vista.mspx#E4EAC
+
+To install IME On XP:
+
+Start- Settings-Control Panel- Regional & Language Options -Languages- 
+Supplement Language Support - Check (Install Complex Scripts and right-to-left 
+languages including Thai)
+
+Adding language Keyboard layouts:
+
+Start- Settings- Control Panel- Regional & Language Options- Languages Details- 
+Installed Services- Add  Select your Language & Say OK
+
+3. I also used vertual keyboard for data entry.
+
+4. Configuring web browser to view different Charsets (most of the cases 
+browser will detect Charset of an Web pages, if it fails you have to make the 
+following settings)
+
+         For Internet Explorer
+
+         For Unicode Pages  utf-8 Charset: View  Encoding  utf-8
+
+         For other charset: View  Encoding  Respective charset
+
+         For Netscape
+
+                         View  Character Encoding  Respective Charset
+
+Hope this helps!
+
+Regards, Anuradha
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------
+Ms.K.T.Anuradha                          E-mail: anu@ncsi.iisc.ernet.in 
+Senior Technical Officer                 URL:vidya-mapak.ncsi.iisc.ernet.in 
+National Centre for Science Information
+Indian Institute of Science              FAX:(+91-80) 23601426/23600683
+Karnataka, Bangalore 560 012             Tel:(+91-80) 23600271/22932511
+India
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+On Thu, 13 Nov 2008, Rajan wrote:
+
+> Dear All,
+> 
+> I had found it difficult to install gsdl 2.80 in my Windows Vista in 
+> graphical mode, but when I tried with 2.81 rc, there was no problem at all. 
+> It is working well.
+> 
+> Can anyone tell me how can I convert Greenstone 2.81 rc  into Malayalam. I 
+> have installed Malayalam Unicode fonts and have found that malayalam .dm is 
+> added properly.
+> 
+> One friend told me that Windows Malayalam Pack of Microsoft is essential for 
+> proper working of Malayalam in Greenstone.
+> 
+> Will someone, having better understanding, advice me how to go ahead ?
+> 
+> Regards,
+> 
+> 
+> K Rajasekharan
+> Kerala Institute of Local Administration
+> Thrissur
+> -- 
+> This message has been scanned for viruses and
+> dangerous content by MailScanner, and is
+> believed to be clean.
+> 
+>
+
+-- 
+This message has been scanned for viruses and
+dangerous content by MailScanner, and is
+believed to be clean.
+
+
+From dspano at orsna.gov.ar  Sat Nov 15 02:43:47 2008
+From: dspano at orsna.gov.ar (Diego Spano)
+Date: Sat Nov 15 06:19:30 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem with the installation of Greenstone
+	2.81 in Windows XP Professional
+In-Reply-To: <7D9C054F81A441C4BE0A1FD9342B3D39@sbdwebeduard>
+References: <7D9C054F81A441C4BE0A1FD9342B3D39@sbdwebeduard>
+Message-ID: <003801c9465f$04fd33f0$0ef79bd0$@gov.ar>
+
+Hi Eduard,
+
+ 
+
+Follow these steps:
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+ When you run the installer, it creates a folder in  C:\Documents and
+Settings\nombre_del_usuario\Configuración local\Temp named  greenstone-xxxx.
+
+ 
+
+Copy that folder to c:\ and then:
+
+ 
+
+1-    go to start menu and run cmd
+
+2-   in console window run  cd c:\greenstone-xxxx
+
+3-   then run  java jar greenstone.jar
+
+ 
+
+And the installer will do all the process without any problem.
+
+ 
+
+I realize that you are from Spain, donŽt you want to subscribe to Spanish
+users list?. Send an email to greenstone_es@freelists.org with the subject
+Subscribe . There you can ask in spanish!.
+
+ 
+
+Regards 
+
+ 
+
+Diego Spano
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+De: greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+[mailto:greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz] En nombre de
+Eduardo del Valle
+Enviado el: jueves, 13 de noviembre de 2008 10:15
+Para: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Asunto: [greenstone-users] Problem with the installation of Greenstone 2.81
+in Windows XP Professional
+
+ 
+
+Dear friends 
+
+ 
+
+We have tried to install the new release of Greenstone 2.81 in 2 Windows XP
+Profesional systems and it gives the same error.
+
+ 
+
+This problems happens since you are using the new installer.
+
+ 
+
+I have attached the installation report so that you can check the problem
+
+ 
+
+Thank yo
+
+ 
+
+Eduard del Valle
+
+Web and Digizitation
+
+Cra de Valldemossa, km 7.5
+
+Librarian Services
+
+Edifici Ramon Llull
+
+University of Balearic Islands
+
+07122 Palma de Mallorca
+
+ 
+
+Tel. 971 17 33 56
+
+Web:  <http://biblioteca.uib.es/> http://biblioteca.uib.es
+
+ 
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081114/362bf91b/attachment.html
+From amin.hedjazi at gmail.com  Mon Nov 17 00:50:23 2008
+From: amin.hedjazi at gmail.com (Amin Hedjazi)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 00:50:31 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem white GLi Client Login
+Message-ID: <4105c9810811160350r2f9f20bq4b704a7c21fbb946@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hello its me again
+i got some question on the Client_gli Login
+i am using GS3
+first i read the link below and done compleately what it said
+
+           http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone3
+
+and it was very use full thx Quan
+but in the part were i get to test my installation whit this :
+
+
+http://localhost:8080/greenstone3/cgi-bin/gliserver4gs3.pl?cmd=check-installation
+
+i get this error :
+
+Content-type:text/plain ERROR: Java failed -- do you have the Java run-time
+installed? JAVA_HOME environment variable not set. Might not be able to find
+Java unless in PATH (;c:\Program
+Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\script;c:\Program
+Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows;c:\Program
+Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows\perl\bin) GSDL3SRCHOME: c:\Program
+Files\greenstone3 GSDLHOME: c:\Program Files\greenstone3\gs2build GSDLOS:
+windows PATH: ;c:\Program Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\script;c:\Program
+Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows;c:\Program
+Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows\perl\bin (cmd=check-installation)
+
+ive tested the perl code in command line and it works out fine telling me
+"java found" and "installation is  ok" when i execute some thing like this :
+
+
+          Perl gliserver4gs3.pl check-installation
+
+ill start the client_gli4gs3.bat and go on until it askes me for the user
+name and password but when entering my pass it gives and error telling me
+this user does not exist (i entere the same password which a coulde
+Authenthicate my selfe in the online interface
+, and i made a new user whit the privliges but no chance to log in via the
+GLI !!)
+hear is the exact error i get :
+
+An error has occurred on the remote GreenStone server while performing this
+operation:Authentication failed:no account for user 'admin'.
+
+sombody help please
+and pardon the bad english please
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081116/37d4ca86/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 09:25:44 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 09:25:50 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Web in Greenstone 3.03
+In-Reply-To: <4409126a0811110044obc68af5y78306e48eb7ff08d@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4409126a0811110044obc68af5y78306e48eb7ff08d@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <492081C8.6010806@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081117/a1bbcf75/attachment-0001.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 09:32:20 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 09:32:24 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] CD of Green Stone
+In-Reply-To: <1587ebc40811092300h1aa50c3ah5ff84058700a3531@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <1587ebc40811092300h1aa50c3ah5ff84058700a3531@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <49208354.2010204@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081117/602ae0db/attachment.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 09:54:44 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 09:54:48 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Database Of Greenstone 3.03
+In-Reply-To: <4409126a0811042039g7a6729ecq7dd9989141fe2ed5@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4409126a0811042039g7a6729ecq7dd9989141fe2ed5@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <49208894.6080807@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081117/4438ec0b/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 10:12:27 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 10:12:32 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] PDF Plug
+In-Reply-To: <53721.72.200.121.229.1225760678.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <d2dbf2f40811030705p5599a606s7a980804b2500157@mail.gmail.com>
+	<53721.72.200.121.229.1225760678.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <49208CBB.80808@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081117/74044d8a/attachment.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 10:20:49 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 10:20:54 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Greenstone 2.81 released!
+In-Reply-To: <caa538920811122230i47b1a809ha116b52227c6d07c@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <491BAC3C.4050204@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<caa538920811122230i47b1a809ha116b52227c6d07c@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <49208EB1.6050503@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081117/71b40da7/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 12:45:37 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 12:45:43 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Newbie question: regarding hierarchy
+In-Reply-To: <acf753b40810282153r4f48d858r6794697d399d44c2@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <acf753b40810251144n27ace0een29ea9d1f099e8db1@mail.gmail.com>	
+	<1127.222.155.161.90.1225072094.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>	
+	<acf753b40810280837s7833bd75te602e58109da219@mail.gmail.com>	
+	<1248.222.155.161.90.1225250572.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<acf753b40810282153r4f48d858r6794697d399d44c2@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <4920B0A1.4020804@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081117/14be5709/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 12:49:21 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 12:49:23 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Lucene with 2.81
+Message-ID: <4920B181.4010702@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi everyone
+
+The Lucene jar file is missing from the 2.81 release. If you want to 
+build collections with Lucene, please download
+http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/~kjdon/greenstone2.81/LuceneWrapper.jar
+and put it into the bin/java directory of your Greenstone 2.81 installation.
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 14:16:52 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 14:17:00 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem with the installation of Greenstone
+	2.81 in Windows XP Professional
+In-Reply-To: <003801c9465f$04fd33f0$0ef79bd0$@gov.ar>
+References: <7D9C054F81A441C4BE0A1FD9342B3D39@sbdwebeduard>
+	<003801c9465f$04fd33f0$0ef79bd0$@gov.ar>
+Message-ID: <4920C604.2060108@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081117/3c71e057/attachment-0001.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 14:52:36 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 14:52:41 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Web in Greenstone 2
+In-Reply-To: <e04902680811121723n45f30ee5xd531ce01bc757807@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <e04902680811121723n45f30ee5xd531ce01bc757807@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <4920CE64.6000804@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081117/a09b81c6/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 15:05:43 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 15:05:50 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] oai harvesting with greenstone
+In-Reply-To: <D6B530A1090A224EA17A37D3BFE35F5E264EF55BCF@XVS2-CLUSTER.yu.yale.edu>
+References: <75B6C137B58E41AFA60DAC5FD96103F1@prattlibraries.edu>
+	<D6B530A1090A224EA17A37D3BFE35F5E264EF55BCF@XVS2-CLUSTER.yu.yale.edu>
+Message-ID: <4920D177.1010706@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081117/068f5635/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 15:21:31 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 15:21:35 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Where is KEA?
+In-Reply-To: <000f01c93933$1a81a870$4f84f950$@de>
+References: <000f01c93933$1a81a870$4f84f950$@de>
+Message-ID: <4920D52B.5080009@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081117/352373a3/attachment.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 17:19:03 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 17:19:10 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem white GLi Client Login
+Message-ID: <4920F0B7.5040609@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Amin,
+
+I see you're using an older version of GS3, since some source code 
+updates in the last months meant that gliserver4gs3.pl is no longer used 
+by the current GS3 code.
+
+If you are indeed using Greenstone 3.03, instead of updating all of your 
+GS3 code:
+
+1) There may be a problem with the way JAVA_HOME is set on the server 
+machine. If you have access to the server machine, do you see that 
+JAVA_HOME is set correctly when doing
+     echo $JAVA_HOME
+on Linux, or
+     echo %JAVA_HOME%
+on Windows? You need to do this in an entirely fresh x-term, without 
+running any extra scripts that set special environment variables for you.
+
+You wrote that
+ > ive tested the perl code in command line and it works out fine telling
+ > me "java found" and "installation is  ok" when i execute some thing like
+ > this :
+ >
+ >           Perl gliserver4gs3.pl check-installation
+Could this have something to do with JAVA_HOME being set by a start-up 
+script (like bash.rc or a bat script) that's run on opening an 
+x-terminal/dos-prompt? That could explain how JAVA_HOME is then 
+undefined when running GLI.
+
+
+2) You may want to try the following that worked for someone else 
+previously:
+ > 1. Follow all the steps on the wiki page (from a previous email, I
+ > think you have done this step already).
+
+ > 2. Make back-up copies of your gsdlCGI4gs3.pm and gliserver4gs3.pl
+
+ > 3. Download the slightly modified versions of these two files from
+ > SVN:
+ > 
+http://trac.greenstone.org/browser/greenstone3/trunk/web/WEB-INF/cgi/gsdlCGI4gs3.pm
+ > 
+http://trac.greenstone.org/browser/greenstone3/trunk/web/WEB-INF/cgi/gliserver4gs3.pl
+
+ > 4. Maybe you want to go and check that the new gliserver4gs3.pl still 
+ > works as before by pointing your browser to
+ > 
+http://yourhost:yourport/greenstone3/cgi-bin/gliserver4gs3.pl?cmd=check-installation
+
+Finally, if it still gives you trouble about JAVA_HOME not being set, 
+you can also try the following.
+5. Additionally, make a backup copy of the file
+     <your GS3 installation folder>/web/WEB-INF/cgi/gsdl3site.cfg
+6. Download the updated file
+http://trac.greenstone.org/browser/greenstone3/trunk/web/WEB-INF/cgi/gsdl3site.cfg
+and put this file into your GS3 installation folder's web/WEB-INF/cgi 
+folder.
+7. In a text editor, open up the just downloaded gsdl3site.cfg file and 
+uncomment the following line by removing the hash in front of it:
+     javahome /full/path/to/j2sdk1.4/or/higher
+Then edit the above line to set the path to your JAVA_HOME.
+8. In a text editor, open up the updated gsdlCGI4gs3.pm you downloaded 
+in step 3 above.
+9. Look for the following lines (line 287 and 292) and uncomment them by 
+removing the # sign in front of them:
+     my $javahome = $self->get_java_home();
+     $ENV{'JAVA_HOME'} = $javahome;
+10. Now try pointing your browser to
+http://yourhost:yourport/greenstone3/cgi-bin/gliserver4gs3.pl?cmd=check-installation
+Does this help fix the missing JAVA_HOME problem?
+
+Regards,
+Anupama
+
+
+Amin Hedjazi wrote:
+ > Hello its me again
+ > i got some question on the Client_gli Login
+ > i am using GS3
+ > first i read the link below and done compleately what it said
+ >
+ >            http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone3
+ >
+ > and it was very use full thx Quan
+ > but in the part were i get to test my installation whit this :
+ >
+ > 
+http://localhost:8080/greenstone3/cgi-bin/gliserver4gs3.pl?cmd=check-installation
+ >
+ > i get this error :
+ >
+ > Content-type:text/plain ERROR: Java failed -- do you have the Java 
+run-time installed? JAVA_HOME environment variable not set. Might not be 
+able to find Java unless in PATH (;c:\Program 
+Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\script;c:\Program 
+Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows;c:\Program 
+Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows\perl\bin) GSDL3SRCHOME: 
+c:\Program Files\greenstone3 GSDLHOME: c:\Program 
+Files\greenstone3\gs2build GSDLOS: windows PATH: ;c:\Program 
+Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\script;c:\Program 
+Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows;c:\Program 
+Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows\perl\bin (cmd=check-installation)
+ >
+ > ive tested the perl code in command line and it works out fine 
+telling me "java found" and "installation is  ok" when i execute some 
+thing like this :
+ >
+ >           Perl gliserver4gs3.pl check-installation
+ >
+ > ill start the client_gli4gs3.bat and go on until it askes me for the 
+user name and password but when entering my pass it gives and error 
+telling me this user does not exist (i entere the same password which a 
+coulde Authenthicate my selfe in the online interface
+ > , and i made a new user whit the privliges but no chance to log in 
+via the GLI !!)
+ > hear is the exact error i get :
+ >
+ > An error has occurred on the remote GreenStone server while 
+performing this operation:Authentication failed:no account for user 'admin'.
+ >
+ > sombody help please
+ > and pardon the bad english please
+ >
+ >
+ > ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ >
+ > _______________________________________________
+ > greenstone-users mailing list
+ > greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+ > https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 17:19:37 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 17:19:44 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] gli-client 2.80 http error code=500
+Message-ID: <4920F0D9.4040705@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi,
+It looks like both the errors you encountered through using the shell 
+and from using your browser are due to the same problem: the url does 
+not seem to be right or is not working for some reason.
+
+This line in the shell's error output which you sent:
+ > 
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.sendCommandToServerInternal(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:1127)
+
+refers to this line of source code:
+InputStream gliserver_is = gliserver_connection.getInputStream();
+This throws an exception because there is some problem with establishing 
+the connection to the server. (HTTP 500 errors are server errors.)
+
+1. Might there be any typos in the URL you used? For instance, when I 
+set the browser to the base URL you used (http://192.168.1.253/), 
+nothing seems to load and I eventually get a Connection Failed: 
+Connection Timed Out (110) error.
+2. Have you followed the instructions on the wiki page
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone
+3. If you had already done step 2, did you get a success message on 
+pointing your browser to
+http://<your-machine-name>:<port>/gsdl/cgi-bin/gliserver.pl?cmd=check-installation
+This is a very important step, and unless you get a success message 
+here, the rest will not work.
+
+Please try out the above and tell us how you go.
+Regards,
+Anupama
+
+ >
+ > I join too the error message from the shell :
+ >
+ > -- Greenstone Librarian Interface (GLI)
+ > Copyright (C) 2006, New Zealand Digital Library Project, University Of
+ > Waikato
+ > GLI comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details see LICENSE.txt
+ > This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
+ >
+ > Checking Java: /usr/bin/java
+ >
+ > Running the Greenstone Librarian Interface...
+ > Version: 2.80
+ >
+ > Deleting user's local collect directory...
+ > Done.
+ > gliserver args:
+ > cmd=get-script-options&script=classinfo.pl&xml=&language=en&listall
+ > java.io.IOException: Server returned HTTP response code: 500 for URL:
+ > 
+http://192.168.1.253/cgi-bin/gliserver.pl?cmd=get-script-options&script=classinfo.pl&xml=&language=en&listall&un=admin&pw=catalog&ts=1226484010936
+ > at
+ > 
+sun.net.www.protocol.http.HttpURLConnection.getInputStream(HttpURLConnection.java:1261)
+ > at
+ > 
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.sendCommandToServerInternal(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:1127)
+ > at
+ > 
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.sendCommandToServer(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:971)
+ > at
+ > 
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.access$200(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:56)
+ > at
+ > 
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer$RemoteGreenstoneServerGetScriptOptionsAction.perform(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:607)
+ > at
+ > 
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer$RemoteGreenstoneServerActionQueue.run(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:249)
+ > gliserver args:
+ > cmd=get-script-options&script=pluginfo.pl&xml=&language=en&listall
+ > java.io.IOException: Server returned HTTP response code: 500 for URL:
+ > 
+http://192.168.1.253/cgi-bin/gliserver.pl?cmd=get-script-options&script=pluginfo.pl&xml=&language=en&listall&un=admin&pw=catalog&ts=1226484020625
+ > at
+ > 
+sun.net.www.protocol.http.HttpURLConnection.getInputStream(HttpURLConnection.java:1261)
+ > at
+ > 
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.sendCommandToServerInternal(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:1127)
+ > at
+ > 
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.sendCommandToServer(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:971)
+ > at
+ > 
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.access$200(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:56)
+ > at
+ > 
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer$RemoteGreenstoneServerGetScriptOptionsAction.perform(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:607)
+ > at
+ > 
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer$RemoteGreenstoneServerActionQueue.run(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:249)
+ > gliserver args: cmd=download-collection-configurations
+ > java.io.IOException: Server returned HTTP response code: 500 for URL:
+ > http://192.168.1.253/cgi-bin/gliserver.pl
+ > at
+ > 
+sun.net.www.protocol.http.HttpURLConnection.getInputStream(HttpURLConnection.java:1261)
+ > at
+ > 
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.downloadFileInternal(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:1076)
+ > at
+ > 
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.downloadFile(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:928)
+ > at
+ > 
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer.access$300(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:56)
+ > at
+ > 
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer$RemoteGreenstoneServerDownloadCollectionConfigurationsAction.perform(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:509)
+ > at
+ > 
+org.greenstone.gatherer.remote.RemoteGreenstoneServer$RemoteGreenstoneServerActionQueue.run(RemoteGreenstoneServer.java:249)
+ > Error: Could not download collection configurations.
+ > Done!
+ >
+ >
+ >
+ > ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ >
+ > _______________________________________________
+ > greenstone-users mailing list
+ > greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+ > https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 17:20:24 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 17:20:31 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: Problem with the installation of Greenstone
+ 2.81 in Windows XP Professional
+Message-ID: <4920F108.9040400@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello Eduardo,
+
+Thank you very much for trying out the latest Greenstone 2 release and 
+for telling us of this unexpected problem. We will be looking into it 
+now and will try to respond with a solution as soon as we can. We may 
+then send you a link by email to a special installer that hopefully will 
+work in your case.
+
+On preliminary inspection of the document with the error output you've 
+sent us, we suspect the problem is due to the special characters in the 
+path going to your temp directory which seem to not be properly handled 
+by the installer.
+
+Regards,
+Greenstone Team
+
+Eduardo del Valle wrote:
+ > Dear friends
+ >
+ >
+ >
+ > We have tried to install the new release of Greenstone 2.81 in 2 
+Windows XP Profesional systems and it gives the same error.
+ >
+ >
+ >
+ > This problems happens since you are using the new installer.
+ >
+ >
+ >
+ > I have attached the installation report so that you can check the problem
+ >
+ >
+ >
+ > Thank yo
+ >
+ >
+ >
+ > Eduard del Valle
+ >
+ > Web and Digizitation
+ >
+ > Cra de Valldemossa, km 7.5
+ >
+ > Librarian Services
+ >
+ > Edifici Ramon Llull
+ >
+ > University of Balearic Islands
+ >
+ > 07122 Palma de Mallorca
+ >
+ >
+ >
+ > Tel. 971 17 33 56
+ >
+ > Web: http://biblioteca.uib.es <http://biblioteca.uib.es/>
+ >
+ >
+ >
+
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 17:20:42 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 17:20:51 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: Problem with the installation of Greenstone
+ 2.81 in Windows XP Professional
+Message-ID: <4920F11A.40708@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello again Eduardo,
+
+Please see the email we sent earlier today. This one continues on from 
+there.
+
+After our investigating the problem, we have concluded that in all 
+likeliness the problem is indeed caused by there being special (Spanish) 
+characters in your path. We have made a temporary fix that we believe 
+can work in your situation.
+
+Please download this new file (tweaked GS2.81rc installer):
+http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/~ak19/Greenstone-2s2008.11.14-win32.exe
+
+For this to work, you will need to put this installer in a location 
+whose entire path does NOT contain any special characters before 
+executing it.
+
+We hope it will work for you. Please tell us if you encounter any 
+further difficulties. This is an incomplete solution, that will work as 
+long as the path to your installation folder contains only Roman 
+characters. This is why we can't provide it as an official fix to this 
+problem yet.
+
+Regards,
+Greenstone Team
+
+
+Eduardo del Valle wrote:
+ > Dear friends
+ >
+ >
+ >
+ > We have tried to install the new release of Greenstone 2.81 in 2 
+Windows XP Profesional systems and it gives the same error.
+ >
+ >
+ >
+ > This problems happens since you are using the new installer.
+ >
+ >
+ >
+ > I have attached the installation report so that you can check the problem
+ >
+ >
+ >
+ > Thank yo
+ >
+ >
+ >
+ > Eduard del Valle
+ >
+ > Web and Digizitation
+ >
+ > Cra de Valldemossa, km 7.5
+ >
+ > Librarian Services
+ >
+ > Edifici Ramon Llull
+ >
+ > University of Balearic Islands
+ >
+ > 07122 Palma de Mallorca
+ >
+ >
+ >
+ > Tel. 971 17 33 56
+ >
+ > Web: http://biblioteca.uib.es <http://biblioteca.uib.es/>
+ >
+ >
+ >
+
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 17:31:53 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 17:31:58 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: OAI harvesting problem
+Message-ID: <4920F3B9.3010506@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Copy of the contents of 2 mails for the mailing list
+
+
+Hello Renate,
+
+This seems to be a mystery. Last time I wrote, I had tried it on a Linux 
+machine. Just now I tried it on Windows. In both cases, I attempted to 
+do an OAIdownload from within GLI using GS2.80 first *and* also the 
+latest Greenstone 2. And it worked for me in all these instances.
+
+I know that you mentioned that you already got GLI downloading from 
+other OAI servers, but will you try downloading 4 docs from a different 
+OAI server one more time? For example, would you try the OAI option in 
+the GLI Download panel using the following settings:
+URL: http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/oaiserver
+set: oai-e
+max records: 5
+
+And can you tell us how you get on?
+
+If that does not work, perhaps some of the bugfixes made in the download 
+panel for the latest release may have had the side-effect of getting 
+this to work for you. Could you try the updated new release from:
+http://www.greenstone.org/download#snapshots-dist for your OS?
+
+Can you also tell me what pressing the Server Information button in the 
+Download panel says?
+
+Regards,
+Anupama
+
+
+
+
+Renate Morgenstern wrote:
+ >
+ >
+ >> Hi,
+ >> Thanks for the information. I first tried it at work where we have a 
+proxy server and then the GLI just hangs.
+ >> Then I tried from home with no proxy server and I get the following 
+information. I tried various sets, but with no success:
+ >> Any suggestion what could be wrong?
+ >> Regards
+ >> Renate
+ >> =========================
+ >> Gathering OAI identifiers.....
+ >> Server information is unavailable.
+ >> Gathering OAI identifiers.....
+ >> Server information is unavailable.
+ >> Gathering OAI identifiers.....
+ >> Server information is unavailable.
+ >> Gathering OAI identifiers.....
+ >> Server information is unavailable.
+ >> Gathering OAI identifiers.....
+ >> Server information is unavailable.
+ >>>
+ >>>>
+ >>>>
+ >>>> Hi Renate,
+ >>>>
+ >>>>
+ >>>> The URL you provided in your email is one that allows you to query 
+their server for the list of sets they have, whereas the base URL of the 
+oaiserver (the bit before the question-mark) is what the Download 
+Panel's OAI mode expects you to type in.
+ >>>>
+ >>>> That is, I think you need to use this URL: 
+http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/o/oai/oai
+ >>>> Can you try it with the above URL?
+ >>>>
+ >>>> I tried it out with Greenstone 2.80 just now, using the following 
+settings in the Download panel > OAI:
+ >>>> URL: http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/o/oai/oai
+ >>>> Set: mbooks:pdus
+ >>>> Max records: 4
+ >>>>
+ >>>> I got the "mbooks:pdus" for the setname from the URL in your 
+message. If you point your browser to 
+http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/o/oai/oai?verb=ListSets, the page that 
+loads lists the various sets that the OAI server provides metadata for. 
+The second or third has the setSpec element set to mbooks:pdus 
+(<setSpec>mbooks:pdus</setSpec>).
+ >>>>
+ >>>> I hope this helps,
+ >>>> Anupama
+ >>>>
+ >>>>
+ >>>>
+ >>>> Renate Morgenstern wrote:
+ >>>>> Hi,
+ >>>>> Using Greenstone to download records from OAI sites I do not have 
+a problem with most of the sites, e.g. Dspace, Eprints, etc. However, 
+when I tried it with the University of Michigan OAI records I get the 
+response that the 'server information is not available.'
+ >>>>> Here is the URL:
+ >>>>> http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/o/oai/oai?verb=ListSets
+ >>>>> Why is this?
+ >>>>> Thanks for the help in advance.
+ >>>>> Renate
+ >>>>>
+ >>>>> Mrs Renate Morgenstern
+ >>>>> University of Namibia Library
+ >>>>> Windhoek, Namibia
+ >>>>> Tel.: +264 61 2063869
+ >>>>> rmorgenstern@unam.na <mailto:rmorgenstern@unam.na>
+ >>>
+ >>> Mrs Renate Morgenstern
+ >>> University of Namibia Library
+ >>> Windhoek, Namibia
+ >>> Tel.: +264 61 2063869
+ >>> rmorgenstern@unam.na <mailto:rmorgenstern@unam.na>
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>> No virus found in this incoming message.
+ >>> Checked by AVG - http://www.avg.com Version: 8.0.175 / Virus 
+Database: 270.9.2/1785 - Release Date:
+ >>> 11/13/2008 9:12 AM
+ >>>
+ >>>
+ >>
+ >>
+ >>
+ >> --
+ >> Renate Morgenstern
+ >> P O Box 30664, WIndhoek, Namibia
+ >> Tel/Fax: 242124
+ >> Email: rmorgenstern@iway.na <mailto:rmorgenstern@iway.na>
+ >>
+ >>
+ >> No virus found in this outgoing message.
+ >> Checked by AVG - http://www.avg.com <http://www.avg.com/>
+ >> Version: 8.0.175 / Virus Database: 270.9.2/1785 - Release Date: 
+11/13/2008 9:12 AM
+ >
+ > Mrs Renate Morgenstern
+ > University of Namibia Library
+ > Windhoek, Namibia
+ > Tel.: +264 61 2063869
+ > rmorgenstern@unam.na
+ >
+
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 17:48:06 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 17:48:09 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Installing Greenstone on Windows Vista -Reg
+Message-ID: <4920F786.1090800@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Rajasekharan,
+
+Please try the latest nightly snapshot version of Greenstone 2 (2.81+) 
+since this can be installed successfully on Windows Vista. You can get 
+the latest update of this version of Greenstone 2 from 
+http://www.greenstone.org/download#snapshots-dist
+
+There is also a Greenstone Support Group for the Indian subcontinent: if 
+you wish to join, please write to greenstonesupport@iimk.ac.in
+
+Regards,
+Anupama
+
+Rajan wrote:
+ > Hi,
+ >
+ > Can we right now install Greenstone 2.80 on Windows Vista using 
+Graphical mode?
+ > I could not do when I tried last day.
+ > The mailing list archive also does not give me any proper answer even 
+though there are some mails on this issue last year.
+ >
+ > Regards,
+ >
+ >
+ > K Rajasekharan
+ > Kerala Institute of Local Administration
+ > Thrissur
+ >
+ >
+ > ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ >
+ > _______________________________________________
+ > greenstone-users mailing list
+ > greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+ > https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 19:44:13 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 19:44:17 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] GREENSTONE
+In-Reply-To: <B2E4FE5BD2C15A4FB07FA01380F8433B0209E1@kpict3.kp.local>
+References: <B2E4FE5BD2C15A4FB07FA01380F8433B0209E1@kpict3.kp.local>
+Message-ID: <492112BD.1090704@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello Philip,
+
+Sorry for the late response as we've been very busy with the new release 
+of Greenstone 2.
+
+This email concerns some of your questions:
+
+1. You wrote: "When I create a new collection based on the Word and Pdf 
+collections (Ver. 2.80) , I always get two versions of the documents ? 
+the original document located in the import folder for the specific 
+collection and an HTML greenstone version. I want to have the Greenstone 
+version to be visible to the user and not the original version."
+
+Yes, this is indeed possible. Please see the tutorial "Formatting the 
+Word and PDF collection" at 
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/formatting_word_pdf.htm, 
+and read upto and including step 3.
+You may want to first glance over the preceding and related tutorial "A 
+collection of Word and PDF files" located at 
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/word_pdf_collection.htm, 
+to have a better understanding of the context and how it relates to your 
+situation.
+
+2. You asked: "I do I customize the greenstone installation so that the 
+Home page title shows the name of my institution eg Kenya Polytechnic 
+University College Digital library?"
+
+Please look at the Greenstone tutorial "Customization: macro files and 
+stylesheets" located at 
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/using_macro_files.htm
+
+Steps 11 to 13 of that tutorial appear most relevant to your situation.
+
+
+3. And you asked: "Can I have/create Blank pages from within greenstone 
+where I can put customized information eg Vision and Mission, About us 
+etc which I can then link from the Home page."
+
+The same tutorial at 
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/using_macro_files.htm
+mentions the macros folder of your greenstone installation and explains:
+
+"Macros are grouped into packages, and different packages control the 
+appearance of different pages. For example, the home, help, preferences, 
+query, document packages control the home, help, preferences, query, and 
+document pages, respectively. Some macro files contain macros for just 
+one package, for example, home.dm, query.dm, document.dm, while others 
+contain macros for many packages. base.dm contains macros used globally, 
+style.dm controls the common style of each page, english.dm, french.dm 
+and other language files contain the text fragments for the entire 
+interface, in that language."
+
+Later on in the same page, it shows you how to customise your About 
+page. You can use your Greenstone About page to add the information you 
+want and customise it. Please try out this tutorial. The files you'll 
+need to follow the tutorial are at the top right hand corner of the page 
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/using_macro_files.htm
+
+Hope this helps. If you want to learn more about how to do various 
+things in Greenstone, I found the tutorials to be really helpful myself. 
+They are at http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises
+
+Best of luck,
+Anupama
+
+
+Philip Kitheka wrote:
+> Hallo,
+> 
+> I do I customize the greenstone installation so that the Home page title 
+> shows the name of my institution eg Kenya Polytechnic University College 
+> Digital library? I will appreciate your responses.
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> Regards,
+> 
+>  
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> Philip M. Kitheka
+> 
+> Deputy HOD, POLYICT
+> 
+> The Kenya Polytechnic University College
+> 
+> P.O Box 52428 - 00200
+> 
+> Nairobi.
+> 
+> Phone: +254 (20) 315467/ 343672
+> 
+> Cell: +254 723 875113
+> 
+> Email: kithekap@kenpoly.ac.ke <mailto:kithekap@kenpoly.ac.ke>
+> 
+>           mpkitheka@yahoo.com <mailto:mpkitheka@yahoo.com>
+> 
+>           kithekap@hotmail.com <mailto:kithekap@hotmail.com>
+> 
+>  
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> 
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> 
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 17 19:53:49 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Nov 17 19:54:06 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] large image on homepage
+In-Reply-To: <491C8BD8.4080600@sdb.org>
+References: <320576f12f4897fc9c390c760d2334e2.squirrel@mailserver.omnibit.it>
+	<491BBD20.3000903@cs.waikato.ac.nz> <491C8BD8.4080600@sdb.org>
+Message-ID: <492114FD.6030005@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Julian,
+
+Your original question:
+ > I have a problem I cannot resolve.  They have a wide (very) screen 
+and > a smaller, more ordinary one. The header image they want is meant to
+ > cover the full width of the screen, but obviously while that works 
+for > the smaller screen it does not for the larger one.
+ > Where - and how - do I control the replacement for gsdlhead.gif to
+ > achieve this flexibility? I thought I might be able to do it from the 
+ > style.css but to no avail, at least so far.
+
+Could you tell me the approximate dimensions of the image as you wish to 
+display it both on the narrower and the wider screen? Then I can try it 
+out here and tell you how much luck (or not) I have. I am hopeful that 
+perhaps we can still figure this out using CSS coupled with a liquid layout.
+
+Thanks,
+Anupama
+
+
+Julian Fox wrote:
+> Thanks Anupa,
+> The problem arose in Brazil where I was helping a team (and still am but 
+> now from Rome by email!), and I simply could not get the image to size 
+> properly with respect to the rest of the normal Greenstone home page - 
+> normal in the sense that I had already changed the chalk image and 
+> pulled off the gsdlhead image and replaced it with this wider one. But 
+> on different screens it came out differently with respect to the rest of 
+> the page.  It's probably not so much a Greenstone issue as such but 
+> rather my lack of knowledge of how to handle images.  Still and all, 
+> it's not so easy to replace gsdlhead with anything but a smaller image.  
+> This is the second time I've had the problem to be truthful.  I've 
+> looked through the relevant help pages you mentioned but didn't really 
+> find direction there for a solution. I possibly need to sit down face to 
+> face with someone smarter than me in this business and get advice that way.
+> Thanks for your help,
+> Julian
+> 
+> Anupama of Greenstone Team wrote:
+>> Hello Julian,
+>> About your earlier question:
+>>> Where - and how - do I control the replacement for gsdlhead.gif to 
+>>> achieve this flexibility? I thought I might be able to do it from the 
+>>> style.css but to no avail, at least so far.
+>>
+>> Can you please take a look at the following Greenstone tutorial called 
+>> "Customization: macro files and stylesheets", which discusses how to 
+>> work go about adjusting the gsdlhead.gif:
+>> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/using_macro_files.htm
+>>
+>> I think the steps of that tutorial page which may be most relevant to 
+>> you would be steps 9-13, but do have a look through the rest page in 
+>> case there is anything else of interest.
+>>
+>> Best of luck,
+>> Anupama
+>>
+>>
+> 
+
+ >>> A question if I may,
+ >>> Apart from the fact that I am trying to explain things to a local 
+ >>> group in Sao Paulo in a language I have not yet mastered (!), I 
+have >>> a problem I cannot resolve.  They have a wide (very) screen and 
+a >>> smaller, more ordinary one. The header image they want is meant to 
+ >>> cover the full width of the screen, but obviously while that works 
+ >>> for the smaller screen it does not for the larger one.
+ >>> Where - and how - do I control the replacement for gsdlhead.gif to 
+ >>> achieve this flexibility? I thought I might be able to do it from 
+ >>> the style.css but to no avail, at least so far.
+ >>>
+ >>> I'm also still looking for the possibility of a group in this
+ >>> country who uses Greenstone.  One kind person responded to my last 
+ >>> query but has suggested there are alternatives to Greenstone.  For 
+ >>> any number of reasons I wish to stick with Greenstone but would
+ >>> prefer to leave them with some help and epxerience in Portuguese.
+ >>> Julian
+
+
+
+From sklein at pratt.edu  Tue Nov 18 03:21:27 2008
+From: sklein at pratt.edu (Stephen I. Klein)
+Date: Tue Nov 18 03:20:50 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] oai harvesting with greenstone
+In-Reply-To: <4920D177.1010706@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <75B6C137B58E41AFA60DAC5FD96103F1@prattlibraries.edu>
+	<D6B530A1090A224EA17A37D3BFE35F5E264EF55BCF@XVS2-CLUSTER.yu.yale.edu>
+	<4920D177.1010706@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <92DF57110C744E6EAC933CFD51FD2CBD@prattlibraries.edu>
+
+I am sort of confused.  We would like to be able to generate an OAI
+compliant file with a colelciton in Greenstone to make available for
+harvesting outside of Greenstone via OAIster.  Does Greenstone allow for
+this?
+
+ 
+
+Thank you.
+
+ 
+
+Sincerely,
+
+ 
+
+Stephen
+
+ 
+
+Stephen I. Klein
+Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+Assistant Professor
+Pratt Institute Library
+200 Willoughby Avenue
+Brooklyn, NY 11205
+sklein@pratt.edu
+(718) 399 4423
+Pratt
+
+ 
+
+  _____  
+
+From: Katherine Don [mailto:kjdon@cs.waikato.ac.nz] 
+Sent: Sunday, November 16, 2008 09:06 PM
+To: Belanger, Arthur
+Cc: Stephen I. Klein; greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz;
+greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] oai harvesting with greenstone
+
+ 
+
+Hi Arthur and Stephen
+
+Michael from dlconsulting (dlconsulting.com) has done some work on this, and
+our OAI server now validates. The 2.81 release contains the new server if
+you'd like to try it. You can get it from www.greenstone.org/download
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+Belanger, Arthur wrote: 
+
+Stephen,
+
+ 
+
+Greenstone does have an OAI server as well as an OAI harvester.  However, I
+just tried my server with the OAI repository Explorer at
+http://re.cs.uct.ac.za/ and it failed.
+
+ 
+
+I did also run it through the Data Provider Validation and Registration at
+http://www.openarchives.org/Register/ValidateSite and it failed 2 tests,
+improper response to an invalid request and a problem with some characters
+in the data (this is my problem).  The first problem may be a limit in GS'
+oaiserver.
+
+ 
+
+-- 
+Arthur Belanger
+Medical Library System Manager
+ITS Academic Media & Technology
+Yale University
+PO Box 208065
+New Haven, CT  06520-8065
+
+ 
+
+(203) 785-6928
+(203) 737-2859, fax
+
+ 
+
+mailto:Arthur.Belanger@Yale.Edu
+http://www.yale.edu/its/about/amt
+http://info.med.yale.edu/library
+
+ 
+
+NOTE: Yale ITS will NEVER request passwords or other personal information
+via email. Messages requesting such information are fraudulent and should be
+deleted. 
+
+  _____  
+
+From: greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+[mailto:greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz] On Behalf Of
+Stephen I. Klein
+Sent: Thursday, October 30, 2008 1:45 PM
+To: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz;
+greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Subject: [greenstone-users] oai harvesting with greenstone
+
+ 
+
+We are migrating our digital collections and need to keep our collection OAI
+harvestable.  We currently have a presence via OAIster
+(http://oaister.umdl.umich.edu/o/oaister/) and have intermediated through
+the Los Alamos Gateway at:
+
+ 
+
+http://libtest.lanl.gov/
+
+ 
+
+Does Greenstone allow for the building of OAI compliant XML files that are
+successfully intermediated via a standard gateway and harvestable with
+OAIster?
+
+ 
+
+The following page suggests the inverse:
+
+ 
+
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/OAI_support
+
+ 
+
+Any suggestions to approach this goal would be greatly appreciated.  Thank
+you.
+
+ 
+
+Regards,
+
+ 
+
+Stephen
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+Stephen I. Klein
+Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+Assistant Professor
+Pratt Institute Library
+200 Willoughby Avenue
+Brooklyn, NY 11205
+sklein@pratt.edu
+(718) 399 4423
+Pratt
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+
+
+
+
+  _____  
+
+
+
+ 
+_______________________________________________
+greenstone-users mailing list
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+  
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081117/e3562fa2/attachment.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Nov 18 12:19:35 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Tue Nov 18 12:19:44 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem white GLi Client Login
+In-Reply-To: <4105c9810811162241r3c8b9dafkedb3b95b0b701379@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4105c9810811160350r2f9f20bq4b704a7c21fbb946@mail.gmail.com>	
+	<4920A5A6.6090708@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<4105c9810811162241r3c8b9dafkedb3b95b0b701379@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <4921FC07.8010502@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Amin,
+
+1. > what did you ment by
+ >  >I see you're using an older version of GS3, since some source code
+ > updates in the last >months meant that gliserver4gs3.pl is no longer
+ > used by the current GS3 code.
+ > i Downlaoded the GS3.03 from the greenstone site
+ > what do you guyes use now ?
+ > and give me the linke in the tracs so i could see it for my self
+ > is it all java ?
+ > which one is better to use for now until its compleate?
+
+The latest version of Greenstone 3 needs lots of changes to catch up and 
+work well again, because our focus in the recent weeks was all on 
+Greenstone 2 for its release.
+
+Therefore, for now, use the version of Greenstone 3 you have. In a 
+little while, GS3 will be sufficiently updated for you to work with the 
+latest from SVN. The SVN url (from TRAC) for GS3 is
+svn co http://svn.greenstone.org/greenstone3/trunk greenstone3
+
+2. About your language translation questions, I've forwarded them to the 
+person who knows a lot about the language interface for GS and GLI. 
+Though the developer in question is out of the country at the moment, I 
+am hopeful they may respond when they find the time.
+
+
+3. > how ever the error had changed since whit out the javahome varible
+ > tests previosly it was like bellow
+Probably this is because the error output code has changed.
+
+The old error message you encountered said:
+ > Content-type:text/plain ERROR: Java failed -- do you have the Java
+ > run-time installed? JAVA_HOME environment variable not set. Might not
+ > be able to find Java unless in PATH
+Therefore, will you try again after adding Java's bin library to your path.
+
+For instance my PATH starts with:
+/opt/jdk1.5.0_10/bin:/opt/jdk1.5.0_10/bin/javac:/path/to/apache-ant-1.6.5:
+/path/to/fedora3/server/bin:/path/to/fedora3/client/bin:/opt/jdk1.5.0_10/jre:<more>
+
+As you see in the above, I have the PATH to the JRE at the end. Try that 
+first. Otherwise (and I hope this is not necessary), you can try to add 
+your JDK's bin folder and javac to the PATH, similar to how my PATH 
+contains them both.
+
+Tell me how you get on,
+Anupama
+
+
+Amin Hedjazi wrote:
+> thanx Anupama and Quan , i realy appreciate you guyes answering my 
+> questions .
+> but this all dident work again
+> i downloaded the latest files from the trac site and worked whit them , 
+> first whit only the downloaded files and then inserted the javahome home 
+> and done all that my 3 varibles in the cfg file are like bellow :
+> 
+>     gsdl3srchome    "C:\Program Files\Greenstone3"
+>     gsdlhome    "C:\Program Files\Greenstone3\gs2build"
+>     javahome "C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0"
+> 
+> and i uncomented the two lines in the .pm file (line 287 and 292)
+> but im steel geting the error
+> 
+> Content-type:text/plain ERROR: Java failed -- do you have the Java 
+> run-time installed?       GSDL3SRCHOME: C:\Program Files\Greenstone3 
+> GSDLHOME: C:\Program Files\Greenstone3\gs2build GSDLOS: windows PATH: 
+> ;C:\Program Files\Greenstone3\gs2build\bin\script;C:\Program 
+> Files\Greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows;C:\Program 
+> Files\Greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows\perl\bin (cmd=check-installation)
+> 
+> how ever the error had changed since whit out the javahome varible tests
+> previosly it was like bellow
+> 
+> Content-type:text/plain ERROR: Java failed -- do you have the Java 
+> run-time installed? JAVA_HOME environment variable not set. Might not be 
+> able to find Java unless in PATH (;C:\Program 
+> Files\Greenstone3\gs2build\bin\script;C:\Program 
+> Files\Greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows;C:\Program 
+> Files\Greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows\perl\bin) GSDL3SRCHOME: 
+> C:\Program Files\Greenstone3 GSDLHOME: C:\Program 
+> Files\Greenstone3\gs2build GSDLOS: windows PATH: ;C:\Program 
+> Files\Greenstone3\gs2build\bin\script;C:\Program 
+> Files\Greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows;C:\Program 
+> Files\Greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows\perl\bin (cmd=check-installation)
+> 
+> 
+> the JAVA_HOME instance is in my enviromental varibles and i get it in 
+> the command line whit echo %JAVA_HOME%
+> 
+> and Anupama what did you ment by
+>  >I see you're using an older version of GS3, since some source code 
+> updates in the last >months meant that gliserver4gs3.pl is no longer 
+> used by the current GS3 code.
+> i Downlaoded the GS3.03 from the greenstone site
+> what do you guyes use now ?
+> and give me the linke in the tracs so i could see it for my self
+> is it all java ?
+> which one is better to use for now until its compleate?
+> 
+> and somthing else to , i wanted to localize greenstone for persian language
+> ive been working on that for some time now and transelated the gli and 
+> the online demo intefaces to Persian but previosly your gli interface 
+> dident worked whit right to left languages
+> so ive changed some gui codes of the gli and made some component 
+> orientation corections for right to left languages to take affect when 
+> in a language whit and espetial line in its "dictionary_fa.properties" 
+> and so on ...
+> 
+> does the gli support right to left languages now ?
+> is there a Persian Language traslation ?
+> if not can i some how submite my work or can i some how contribute?
+> 
+> On Mon, Nov 17, 2008 at 2:28 AM, Anupama of Greenstone Team 
+> <greenstone_team@cs.waikato.ac.nz 
+> <mailto:greenstone_team@cs.waikato.ac.nz>> wrote:
+> 
+>     Hi Amin,
+> 
+>     I see you're using an older version of GS3, since some source code
+>     updates in the last months meant that gliserver4gs3.pl is no longer
+>     used by the current GS3 code.
+> 
+>     If you are indeed using Greenstone 3.03, instead of updating all of
+>     your GS3 code:
+> 
+>     1) There may be a problem with the way JAVA_HOME is set on the
+>     server machine. If you have access to the server machine, do you see
+>     that JAVA_HOME is set correctly when doing
+>            echo $JAVA_HOME
+>     on Linux, or
+>            echo %JAVA_HOME%
+>     on Windows? You need to do this in an entirely fresh x-term, without
+>     running any extra scripts that set special environment variables for
+>     you.
+> 
+>     You wrote that
+> 
+>      > ive tested the perl code in command line and it works out fine
+>     telling
+>      > me "java found" and "installation is  ok" when i execute some
+>     thing like
+>      > this :
+>      >
+>      >           Perl gliserver4gs3.pl check-installation
+>     Could this have something to do with JAVA_HOME being set by a
+>     start-up script (like bash.rc or a bat script) that's run on opening
+>     an x-terminal/dos-prompt? That could explain how JAVA_HOME is then
+>     undefined when running GLI.
+> 
+> 
+>     2) You may want to try the following that worked for someone else
+>     previously:
+>      > 1. Follow all the steps on the wiki page (from a previous email, I
+>      > think you have done this step already).
+> 
+>      > 2. Make back-up copies of your gsdlCGI4gs3.pm and gliserver4gs3.pl
+> 
+>      > 3. Download the slightly modified versions of these two files from
+>      > SVN:
+>      >
+>     http://trac.greenstone.org/browser/greenstone3/trunk/web/WEB-INF/cgi/gsdlCGI4gs3.pm
+>      >
+>     http://trac.greenstone.org/browser/greenstone3/trunk/web/WEB-INF/cgi/gliserver4gs3.pl
+> 
+>      > 4. Maybe you want to go and check that the new gliserver4gs3.pl
+>     still > works as before by pointing your browser to
+>      >
+>     http://yourhost:yourport/greenstone3/cgi-bin/gliserver4gs3.pl?cmd=check-installation
+> 
+>     Finally, if it still gives you trouble about JAVA_HOME not being
+>     set, you can also try the following.
+>     5. Additionally, make a backup copy of the file
+>            <your GS3 installation folder>/web/WEB-INF/cgi/gsdl3site.cfg
+>     6. Download the updated file
+>     http://trac.greenstone.org/browser/greenstone3/trunk/web/WEB-INF/cgi/gsdl3site.cfg
+>     and put this file into your GS3 installation folder's
+>     web/WEB-INF/cgi folder.
+>     7. In a text editor, open up the just downloaded gsdl3site.cfg file
+>     and uncomment the following line by removing the hash in front of it:
+>            javahome /full/path/to/j2sdk1.4/or/higher
+>     Then edit the above line to set the path to your JAVA_HOME.
+>     8. In a text editor, open up the updated gsdlCGI4gs3.pm you
+>     downloaded in step 3 above.
+>     9. Look for the following lines (line 287 and 292) and uncomment
+>     them by removing the # sign in front of them:
+>            my $javahome = $self->get_java_home();
+>            $ENV{'JAVA_HOME'} = $javahome;
+>     10. Now try pointing your browser to
+>     http://yourhost:yourport/greenstone3/cgi-bin/gliserver4gs3.pl?cmd=check-installation
+>     Does this help fix the missing JAVA_HOME problem?
+> 
+>     Regards,
+>     Anupama
+> 
+> 
+>     Amin Hedjazi wrote:
+> 
+>         Hello its me again
+>         i got some question on the Client_gli Login
+>         i am using GS3
+>         first i read the link below and done compleately what it said
+> 
+>                  
+>         http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone3
+> 
+>         and it was very use full thx Quan
+>         but in the part were i get to test my installation whit this :
+> 
+>                
+>          http://localhost:8080/greenstone3/cgi-bin/gliserver4gs3.pl?cmd=check-installation
+> 
+>         i get this error :
+> 
+>         Content-type:text/plain ERROR: Java failed -- do you have the
+>         Java run-time installed? JAVA_HOME environment variable not set.
+>         Might not be able to find Java unless in PATH (;c:\Program
+>         Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\script;c:\Program
+>         Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows;c:\Program
+>         Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows\perl\bin) GSDL3SRCHOME:
+>         c:\Program Files\greenstone3 GSDLHOME: c:\Program
+>         Files\greenstone3\gs2build GSDLOS: windows PATH: ;c:\Program
+>         Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\script;c:\Program
+>         Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows;c:\Program
+>         Files\greenstone3\gs2build\bin\windows\perl\bin
+>         (cmd=check-installation)
+> 
+>         ive tested the perl code in command line and it works out fine
+>         telling me "java found" and "installation is  ok" when i execute
+>         some thing like this :
+> 
+>                  Perl gliserver4gs3.pl check-installation
+> 
+>         ill start the client_gli4gs3.bat and go on until it askes me for
+>         the user name and password but when entering my pass it gives
+>         and error telling me this user does not exist (i entere the same
+>         password which a coulde Authenthicate my selfe in the online
+>         interface
+>         , and i made a new user whit the privliges but no chance to log
+>         in via the GLI !!)
+>         hear is the exact error i get :
+> 
+>         An error has occurred on the remote GreenStone server while
+>         performing this operation:Authentication failed:no account for
+>         user 'admin'.
+> 
+>         sombody help please
+>         and pardon the bad english please
+> 
+> 
+>         ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> 
+> 
+>         _______________________________________________
+>         greenstone-users mailing list
+>         greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>         <mailto:greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+>         https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+> 
+> 
+> 
+
+
+From vave_r at usp.ac.fj  Wed Nov 19 14:53:37 2008
+From: vave_r at usp.ac.fj (Ron Vave)
+Date: Thu Nov 20 10:55:27 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Newbie to Greenstone
+Message-ID: <010c01c949e9$a3662dc0$ea328940$@ac.fj>
+
+Hello from Fiji,
+
+ 
+
+I have just installed Greenstone, and am looking for manuals (pdf) on steps
+towards building a library database for our department, and making it
+available online later.
+
+ 
+
+'How to build a digital library' has to be bought.
+
+ 
+
+I would appreciate getting any documentation/manual that can help me get
+started.
+
+ 
+
+Thanks,
+
+ 
+
+----------------------------------------
+
+Ron Vave
+
+Environment unit
+
+Institute of Applied Science <http://www.usp.ac.fj/ias> 
+
+Faculty of Science & Technology,
+
+University of the South Pacific,
+
+Suva, Fiji.
+
+ 
+
+Office: 3232-977
+
+Fax:    : 3231-534
+
+----------------------------------------
+
+ 
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081119/22d52805/attachment.html
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Nov 20 10:55:52 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Thu Nov 20 10:55:54 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: GLI not working
+In-Reply-To: <dfb4b74f0811181729t1a1044eft62c86792287b980@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <dfb4b74f0811161657t7a84a3f0wff382c9f4b80317@mail.gmail.com>
+	<dfb4b74f0811181729t1a1044eft62c86792287b980@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <49854.206.207.225.23.1227131752.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Graeme
+
+You can try to rebuild the collection on a console and see what errors
+displaying.
+
+Firstly, you need to cd to the GSDLHOME folder and setup the gsdl
+environment:
+source setup.bash
+
+then, build the collection:
+buildcol.pl your-collection-name
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+
+> Hi,
+>
+> Qui,
+>
+> I have tried to sent the following to the list but have been getting
+> "temporary failure" warnings. I was hoping that you might be able to help.
+>
+> Cheers,
+>
+> Graeme.
+>
+> On Mon, Nov 17, 2008 at 10:57 AM, graeme <foster.graeme@gmail.com> wrote:
+>
+>> Hi,
+>>
+>> Several weeks ago I rebuild Greenstone 2.80 on a Fedora 9 virtual
+>> machine.
+>> As I recall  I ran the gli and I loaded a large collection and built it.
+>> Today I have tried to start the gli and I am now getting IOException
+>> errors
+>> when I try to load the gli.
+>>
+>> A summary is:
+>>
+>> .../classinfo.pl: cannot execute
+>>
+>> .../plugininfo.pl: cannot execute
+>>
+>> Failed when trying to parse: Webdownload
+>> ...
+>> .../downloadinfo.pl: cannot execute
+>>
+>> Failed when trying to parse: MediaWikidownload
+>> ...
+>> .../downloadinfo.pl: cannot execute
+>>
+>> Failed when trying to parse: OAIdownload
+>> ...
+>> .../downloadinfo.pl: cannot execute
+>>
+>> Failed when trying to parse: Z3950download
+>> ...
+>> .../downloadinfo.pl: cannot execute
+>>
+>> Failed when trying to parse: SRWdownload
+>> ...
+>> .../downloadinfo.pl: cannot execute
+>>
+>> After several more lines I get a Done! message, but alas nothing
+>> appears.
+>>
+>> I've tried to search the archive but not found anything. Any help would
+>> be
+>> gratefully received.
+>>
+>> Graeme.
+>>
+>
+
+
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Nov 20 11:02:26 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Thu Nov 20 11:02:31 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Newbie to Greenstone
+In-Reply-To: <010c01c949e9$a3662dc0$ea328940$@ac.fj>
+References: <010c01c949e9$a3662dc0$ea328940$@ac.fj>
+Message-ID: <55344.206.207.225.23.1227132146.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi
+
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki has contained all
+Greenstone manuals, tutorial exercises, examples, and related documents.
+It is a good resource to learn how to use Greenstone. Besides, you can
+catch up Greenstone news at http://www.greenstone.org/
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+> Hello from Fiji,
+>
+>
+>
+> I have just installed Greenstone, and am looking for manuals (pdf) on
+> steps
+> towards building a library database for our department, and making it
+> available online later.
+>
+>
+>
+> 'How to build a digital library' has to be bought.
+>
+>
+>
+> I would appreciate getting any documentation/manual that can help me get
+> started.
+>
+>
+>
+> Thanks,
+>
+>
+>
+> ----------------------------------------
+>
+> Ron Vave
+>
+> Environment unit
+>
+> Institute of Applied Science <http://www.usp.ac.fj/ias>
+>
+> Faculty of Science & Technology,
+>
+> University of the South Pacific,
+>
+> Suva, Fiji.
+>
+>
+>
+> Office: 3232-977
+>
+> Fax:    : 3231-534
+>
+> ----------------------------------------
+>
+>
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+
+
+From thaotk2 at gmail.com  Tue Nov 18 00:17:58 2008
+From: thaotk2 at gmail.com (Thao Thao)
+Date: Thu Nov 20 15:15:04 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Default Language
+Message-ID: <4409126a0811170317g3154992v290ae7969c4e6705@mail.gmail.com>
+
+  Hi everybody
+  I am using Greenstone 2.81rc. Could someone please tell me how to make
+VietNamese the default language of the interface instead of english?This
+mean that when my web displays first time,interface of web  is VietNam
+interface.
+ Thanks.
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081117/4f80e6aa/attachment.html
+From zala at mica.ac.in  Thu Nov 20 17:04:01 2008
+From: zala at mica.ac.in (Lavji Zala)
+Date: Thu Nov 20 17:19:21 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem in visibility of Keywords
+Message-ID: <34025.61.95.254.18.1227153841.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+
+Dear Friends,
+
+I am using Greenstone 2.75 (Windows). I have created the collection titled
+"MICA in News". If i enter number of keywords in "Keywords" element in
+that case only first keyword is visible. How can i made accessible rest of
+keywords to the users?
+
+Kindly guide me,
+
+Kind regards,
+
+
+Lavji Zala
+Assistant Librarian
+Knowledge Exchange & Information Centre (KEIC)
+Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad (MICA)
+Shela
+Ahmedabad - 380058
+Mobile: 9377922949
+
+
+From foster.graeme at gmail.com  Thu Nov 20 17:42:14 2008
+From: foster.graeme at gmail.com (graeme)
+Date: Thu Nov 20 17:42:21 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem in visibility of Keywords
+In-Reply-To: <34025.61.95.254.18.1227153841.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+References: <34025.61.95.254.18.1227153841.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+Message-ID: <dfb4b74f0811192042u2885876mcaba40bf84c8639f@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hi,
+
+I don't know how you are entering the keywords, but if I remember correctly
+the XML requires the "accumulate" attribute.
+
+Graeme.
+
+On Thu, Nov 20, 2008 at 2:04 PM, Lavji Zala <zala@mica.ac.in> wrote:
+
+> Dear Friends,
+>
+> I am using Greenstone 2.75 (Windows). I have created the collection titled
+> "MICA in News". If i enter number of keywords in "Keywords" element in
+> that case only first keyword is visible. How can i made accessible rest of
+> keywords to the users?
+>
+> Kindly guide me,
+>
+> Kind regards,
+>
+>
+> Lavji Zala
+> Assistant Librarian
+> Knowledge Exchange & Information Centre (KEIC)
+> Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad (MICA)
+> Shela
+> Ahmedabad - 380058
+> Mobile: 9377922949
+>
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081120/d856afe3/attachment.html
+From trankhoaqn at gmail.com  Mon Nov 17 16:48:49 2008
+From: trankhoaqn at gmail.com (Khoa Tran)
+Date: Thu Nov 20 18:22:30 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Export to CD
+Message-ID: <e04902680811161948u1f9d3car9e85fb250808fd33@mail.gmail.com>
+
+ Dear friends
+ I am using Greenstone 2.81rc. I buidlt some collections, then exported to
+CD.But I have a problem: when I click server.exe file, one box display and
+requires "Enter Library".After I enter, Firefox opened collections.
+ I want I don't need enter but Firefox still open my collections(this means
+Firefox automatically open my collections). How do I have to do?What
+properties do I must modify?
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081117/a7d46075/attachment-0001.html
+From zala at mica.ac.in  Thu Nov 20 18:18:05 2008
+From: zala at mica.ac.in (Lavji Zala)
+Date: Thu Nov 20 18:33:19 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem in visibility of Keywords
+In-Reply-To: <dfb4b74f0811192042u2885876mcaba40bf84c8639f@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <34025.61.95.254.18.1227153841.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+	<dfb4b74f0811192042u2885876mcaba40bf84c8639f@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <43200.61.95.254.18.1227158285.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+
+Dear Graeme,
+
+I enter one keyword and press "Enter Key" then enter another keyword. Is
+it right the way?
+
+Lavji Zala
+> Hi,
+>
+> I don't know how you are entering the keywords, but if I remember
+> correctly
+> the XML requires the "accumulate" attribute.
+>
+> Graeme.
+>
+> On Thu, Nov 20, 2008 at 2:04 PM, Lavji Zala <zala@mica.ac.in> wrote:
+>
+>> Dear Friends,
+>>
+>> I am using Greenstone 2.75 (Windows). I have created the collection
+>> titled
+>> "MICA in News". If i enter number of keywords in "Keywords" element in
+>> that case only first keyword is visible. How can i made accessible rest
+>> of
+>> keywords to the users?
+>>
+>> Kindly guide me,
+>>
+>> Kind regards,
+>>
+>>
+>> Lavji Zala
+>> Assistant Librarian
+>> Knowledge Exchange & Information Centre (KEIC)
+>> Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad (MICA)
+>> Shela
+>> Ahmedabad - 380058
+>> Mobile: 9377922949
+>>
+>>
+>> _______________________________________________
+>> greenstone-users mailing list
+>> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>>
+>
+
+
+
+From foster.graeme at gmail.com  Mon Nov 17 13:57:11 2008
+From: foster.graeme at gmail.com (graeme)
+Date: Thu Nov 20 19:57:48 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] GLI not working
+Message-ID: <dfb4b74f0811161657t7a84a3f0wff382c9f4b80317@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hi,
+
+Several weeks ago I rebuild Greenstone 2.80 on a Fedora 9 virtual machine.
+As I recall  I ran the gli and I loaded a large collection and built it.
+Today I have tried to start the gli and I am now getting IOException errors
+when I try to load the gli.
+
+A summary is:
+
+.../classinfo.pl: cannot execute
+
+.../plugininfo.pl: cannot execute
+
+Failed when trying to parse: Webdownload
+...
+.../downloadinfo.pl: cannot execute
+
+Failed when trying to parse: MediaWikidownload
+...
+.../downloadinfo.pl: cannot execute
+
+Failed when trying to parse: OAIdownload
+...
+.../downloadinfo.pl: cannot execute
+
+Failed when trying to parse: Z3950download
+...
+.../downloadinfo.pl: cannot execute
+
+Failed when trying to parse: SRWdownload
+...
+.../downloadinfo.pl: cannot execute
+
+After several more lines I get a Done! message, but alas nothing appears.
+
+I've tried to search the archive but not found anything. Any help would be
+gratefully received.
+
+Graeme.
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081117/d03c8d12/attachment.html
+From espinoza.rafaelangel at gmail.com  Tue Nov 18 15:56:53 2008
+From: espinoza.rafaelangel at gmail.com (rafael angel espinoza)
+Date: Thu Nov 20 19:58:25 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] (sin asunto)
+Message-ID: <9bb176e20811171856x2ac531e6k40b947d8f14bf041@mail.gmail.com>
+
+hola como estan amigos
+------------ próxima parte ------------
+Se ha borrado un adjunto en formato HTML...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081117/f99f25da/attachment.html
+From wendy.osborn at uleth.ca  Thu Nov 20 06:24:49 2008
+From: wendy.osborn at uleth.ca (Wendy Osborn)
+Date: Thu Nov 20 22:07:51 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: [greenstone-devel] Greenstone 2.81 released!
+In-Reply-To: <491BAE7F.8080509@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <491BAE7F.8080509@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <43832.142.66.56.237.1227115489.squirrel@webmail.uleth.ca>
+
+
+Hi everyone,
+
+As mentioned, one of the new features in Greenstone v2.81 is the ability
+to schedule the automatic rebuilding of a greenstone collection using the
+GLI.
+
+Scheduling will require some configuration in order for it to work. The
+following link has more information on how to do this for each platform:
+
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Scheduled_Collection_Building_from_the_Librarian_Interface
+
+Regards,
+
+Wendy
+
+--
+"Masquerading as a normal person day after day is exhausting" - Anonymous
+
+Wendy Osborn
+Assistant Professor of Computer Science
+Director, Southern Alberta Digital Library
+Department of Mathematics and Computer Science
+University of Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
+phone: +1 403 329 2294
+email: wendy.osborn@uleth.ca
+www:   http://www.cs.uleth.ca/~osborn
+
+
+
+On Wed, November 12, 2008 9:35 pm, Anupama of Greenstone Team wrote:
+> Hi everyone,
+>
+> We are pleased to announce that the Windows, GNU/Linux, Mac OS/X and
+> Source distributions of Greenstone v2.81
+> are now available for download from our sourceforge page:
+> http://sourceforge.net/projects/greenstone or from
+> http://www.greenstone.org/download
+>
+> Release notes are copied below.
+>
+> This has been a long time coming, thank you for your patience.
+>
+> As always, please report any problems or bugs to the mailing list.
+>
+> Regards,
+> Katherine and the rest of the Greenstone team.
+>
+> ------------------------------
+> Greenstone 2.81 release notes
+> ------------------------------
+>
+> Important changes in this release include, in no particular order:
+>
+> Installer:
+> --------------
+>
+> The Greenstone installer downloads are now created using only open source
+> software, including Ant Installer (http://antinstaller.sourceforge.net/),
+> Apache Ant (http://ant.apache.org/), our own search4j (based on launch4j
+> http://launch4j.sourceforge.net/), and our own Greenstone release kits.
+>
+> We felt it was essential to move away from our existing, closed-source
+> installer suite as it was not in the spirit of Greenstone to rely on
+> proprietary software, and it invited the unnecessary cost of keeping the
+> suite
+> up-to-date.
+>
+> Using only open source software has also given us the freedom to
+> customise the
+> user experience of the installers. Where a feature was lacking in one of
+> the
+> open source packages, we have enjoyed the ability to "open the hood" and
+> implement it.
+>
+> With the development of the Greenstone release kits we are now able to
+> generate
+>   releases of Greenstone automatically and unattended. This process
+> takes just
+> 20 minutes, and it has helped us a lot in the development and testing of
+> new
+> features of Greenstone. We have been able to set up a feedback loop,
+> where code
+>   committed one day is included in an automatic nightly snapshot release
+> made
+> available for download on our website the next day. Our users have also
+> benefited from being able to obtain up-to-date snapshot releases of
+> Greenstone
+> in between our official releases.
+>
+> These daily snapshots are available through:
+>
+>    http://www.greenstone.org/snapshots
+>
+> On Windows, the version number is included in the Start Menu which means
+> that
+> multiple installations of Greenstone will have their own entries in the
+> Start
+> Menu. The installer no longer writes to the registry, so installation no
+> longer requires administrator privileges.
+>
+> ImageMagick is now bundled with Greenstone for binary web releases for all
+> platforms (previously it was only provided on a CD-ROM release) and
+> includes
+> JPEG2000 support. The installer offers the option to install this or not.
+> You can skip installing it if you already have ImageMagick previously
+> installed.
+>
+> Ghostscript is now bundled with Greenstone for binary web releases for
+> Windows
+> and Mac. The installer offers the option to install this or not.  You can
+> skip installing it if you already have Ghostscript previously installed.
+>
+> Importing and Plugin Changes:
+> ------------------------------
+>
+> Plugin Restructuring: The plugins have been restructured. This has been
+> done
+> mostly for coding efficiency. The most noticeable change is that plugins
+> have
+> been renamed. xxxPlug now becomes xxxPlugin, and some have also had
+> their names
+>   modified or expanded to be clearer. For example, DBPlug is now
+> DatabasePlugin,
+>   PPTPlug is PowerPointPlugin. The complete list of new plugins can be
+> seen at
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Plugins. Old collections should
+> still build okay in GLI, which will map the old plugin names to the new
+> ones.
+> Command line building should also work, but the configuration file won't
+> be
+> altered to use the new names.
+>
+> A lot of work has been done trying to get Greenstone to work properly with
+> non-ascii filenames. Two versions of the filename are stored, [Source] for
+> displaying the filename, and [SourceFile] for linking to the file from a
+> web page.
+>
+> The -smart_block option (most commonly seen with HTMLPlugin) has been
+> deprecated
+> . Instead we have a first pass through the documents to find out which
+> ones
+> should be blocked.
+>
+> MARCPlugin and MARCXMLPlugin can now map metadata to Qualified Dublin
+> Core as
+> well as Dublin Core.
+>
+> MARCXMLPlugin now assigns metadata from metadata.xml files.
+>
+> EMAILPlugin now saves binary attachments as binary files on Windows
+>
+> ImagePlugin and PagedImagePlugin now offer the -cache_generated_images
+> option
+> to prevent thumbnails and screenview images being recreated each import.
+>
+> OAIPlugin saves the metadata as Dublin Core rather than moving it all to
+> the ex
+>   metadata set. This means that it won't show up in the GLI unless the
+> files are
+>   exploded. Exploding is now available for OAI records.
+>
+> ProCitePlugin no longer uses the pc namespace. Metadata is stored using
+> the
+> field names set in the workform definition, rather than using Field1Name
+> and
+> Field1Value etc..
+>
+> -reversesort option to import.pl to be used with -sortmeta option to
+> sort in
+> reverse order.
+>
+> Tidied up OID generation. OIDtype and OIDmetadata options are now
+> available
+> for each plugin as well as globally from import.pl. Hashing usually
+> occurs on
+> the original file, but some plugins specify that hashing should be done
+> on the
+> Greenstone XML document.
+>
+> Building and Indexing Changes:
+> -------------------------------
+>
+> Improvements to Lucene incremental building. Lucene document identifiers
+> now
+> match Greenstone identifiers, rather than 1, 2, 3. Rebuilding with no new
+> documents shouldn't break the index.
+>
+> MGPP and Lucene building tidied up. 'allfields' now means combined
+> searching
+> over all specified indexes (not all document metadata) for both mgpp and
+> lucene.
+>   'metadata' will index all metadata, but no longer reindexes metadata
+> that has
+> already been specified. MGPP indexing over combined fields now works
+> properly.
+>
+> New collection configuration file option: infodbtype. Values include
+> gdbm (the
+> default), gdbm-txtgz, sqlite, mssql. This specifies what database system
+> to use
+> for the collection metadata database. Currently this needs to be added to
+> collect.cfg by hand, as it is not available in GLI yet.
+>
+> gdbm: the default, and is what has always been used previously. This is
+> platform dependent. It transfers between Windows and Linux, but not
+> to/from a
+> Mac.
+>
+> gdbm-txtgz: A gzipped text version of the database. At runtime, the
+> first time
+> this collection is accessed, it will be unpacked and converted to the
+> appropriate GDBM database using txt2db. This is a good choice if you are
+> creating a collection to be used on another operating system, especially
+> if
+> one or more of those operating systems is a Mac.
+>
+> sqlite: Platform independent database using SQLite. The new dynamic
+> classifiers
+>   (created at runtime) can be used with this database. See
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/More_about_classifiers#How_do_I_use_dynamic_classifiers.3F
+>
+> for more information. Thanks to DL Consulting
+>
+> mssql: Windows specific database using MS SQL Server. See
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Using_MSSQL_for_Collection_Database
+>
+> for information about how to set this up. Thanks to DL Consulting
+>
+> Depositor:
+> ------------
+>
+> Collection editing using the Depositor is now enabled by default for the
+> admin
+> user.
+>
+> The metadata fields offered for each document can now easily be customised
+> from the GLI.
+>
+> By default, the depositor will import and build each document into the
+> collection when it is added. It can now be easily set up to just "deposit"
+> the item without rebuilding.
+>
+> See http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/How_to_use_the_depositor for
+> more information.
+>
+> GLI
+> -------
+>
+> A new right-click file option for binary files that go through a
+> conversion
+> process to be imported, such as PDF, Word and PowerPoint files. "Replace
+> source
+> document with HTML" will convert the original file to HTML and replace
+> it in
+> the collection. This means that the converted HTML (which may be
+> unattractive)
+> can now be modified in the collection. This is available for Remote GLI
+> too.
+>
+> A new right-click file option on the collection tree background to
+> refresh the
+> file view. This is useful if you have manually added files to the
+> collection
+> outside of GLI.
+>
+> MetadataXMLPlugin has been moved 'below the line' in the Plugins panel so
+> cannot be removed in GLI. If you are using GLI to add metadata, then you
+> need
+> this plugin.
+>
+> The Export As option now only exports one collection at a time.
+> Collections
+> can be exported as GreenstoneMETS, FedoraMETS, MARCXML and DSpace archive.
+>
+> 'NavigationBar pulldown' added to the list of format options - this
+> makes the
+> navigation 'bar' a drop down list instead of a bar across the page.
+>
+> Lots of work done on making the Download panel work better, including
+> getting
+> download processes to terminate when they are cancelled or when GLI is
+> closed
+> while they are still running.
+>
+> New panel under the Format tab, "Depositor Metadata" which allows
+> customisation of which metadata fields should be offered in the
+> depositor for
+> that collection.
+>
+> CJK segmentation option has been added to GLI. This doesn't do proper word
+> segmentation, but adds a space in between each CJK character. The
+> character
+> ranges have been expanded to work with Japanese and Korean. It is
+> applied to
+> metadata as well as document text.
+>
+> New panel under the Create tab allowing the scheduling of automatic
+> collection
+> rebuilding.
+>
+> Greenstone Runtime:
+> ----------------------
+>
+> Large code restructuring.  Code is split between common-src, build-src and
+> runtime-src.  Makes it easer to use code in other projets, such as
+> Greenstone 3
+> and running Greenstone on an iPhone/iPod Touch.
+>
+> External links now default to going straight to the web page, rather than
+> showing a warning page first.
+>
+> Improvements to the oaiserver, thanks to DL Consulting. Resumption token
+> support has been added, and it now validates against online validation
+> tools.
+>
+> Greenstone now compiles for Linux on 64-bit platforms.  All programs are
+> compiled natively for 64-bit, except for those that rely on mg/mgpp, which
+> still need to be 32-bit compiled.  As part of the configure/make
+> process, the
+> correct flags are automatically set, so from the developers point of
+> view you
+> compile up Greenstone on a 64-bit machine the exact same way you do for
+> any
+> other Unix-based system.
+>
+> FLI - Fedora Librarian Interface
+> ---------------------------------
+>
+> The Fedora Librarian Interface (FLI) is very much like GLI in that it
+> allows
+> you to gather together your documents. It then uses Greenstone's ability
+> to
+> convert documents into the FedoraMETS format so that these can be ingested
+> (put into) a Fedora repository. The process of building a collection
+> using FLI
+> exports documents into a repository maintained by a Fedora server rather
+> than
+> one maintained by Greenstone. In order to use FLI, you will need to have
+> Fedora installed. More information on how to install Fedora and set it up
+> to work with FLI, and how to run FLI itself, can be found in the
+> documents:
+>
+> 1. Installing Fedora (2.2.1/3.0) and Fedora-related information
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/InstallingFedora
+>
+> 2. Installing Fedora Generic Search (to provide full-text indexing and
+> searching capabilities for a Fedora repository)
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/InstallingFedoraGSearch
+>
+> 3. Running FLI, the Fedora Librarian Interface
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/RunningFLI
+>
+>
+> Translations:
+> --------------
+>
+> Thanks to:
+>
+> John Rose, for help with English GLI help, French translations for GLI
+> and Greenstone.
+> Maxime Rouast for Greenstone French translations
+> Celine Guimbertaud for GLI French translations
+> Yohannes Mulugeta and Abiyot Bayou for Greenstone Amharic translations
+> Kamal Salih for GLI Arabic translations
+> Gerhard Riesthuis for Greenstone Dutch translations
+> Mohan Raj Pradhan for GLI Nepali translations.
+> Diego Spano for translating the installer's interface into Spanish.
+> Xiaofeng Yu for translating the installer's interface into Mandarin.
+> Doris Jung for translating the installer's interface into German.
+>
+>
+> ...and many other minor improvements and bug fixes
+>
+> We want to ensure that Greenstone works well for you. Please report any
+> problems to the Greenstone mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz.
+>
+>
+> [DL Consulting (http://www.dlconsulting.com) are the world's leading
+> suppliers
+> of commercial consulting, customization, support, maintenance and hosting
+> services for the Greenstone digital library software suite.]
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-devel mailing list
+> greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-devel
+>
+
+
+
+
+
+From trankhoaqn at gmail.com  Tue Nov 18 15:03:36 2008
+From: trankhoaqn at gmail.com (Khoa Tran)
+Date: Thu Nov 20 22:11:03 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Greentone Collector
+Message-ID: <e04902680811171803j72a446abjd8ff7b4db4168664@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hi everybody!
+Can you tell me where download Greenstone Collector?I don't find it.
+Thanks.
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081118/d976227c/attachment-0001.html
+From rossi at ird.fr  Fri Nov 21 02:41:33 2008
+From: rossi at ird.fr (Pier Luigi ROSSI)
+Date: Fri Nov 21 02:41:37 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] AZCompactList with accents in metadata
+Message-ID: <4925690D.2050501@ird.fr>
+
+Dear Greesntone list,
+
+a try to create an AZCompactList with authors metadata.
+Many caracters of this metadata is with accents : é  è ê
+(you now, french, spanish, italian, ..... uses accents ;-} )
+
+The classifier put accents at the end of the list : is very unplesent
+(for authors and computer scientist)
+
+Have you got a solution ?
+
+Regards
+
+PL Rossi
+IRD, France
+
+
+From vave_r at usp.ac.fj  Fri Nov 21 11:21:21 2008
+From: vave_r at usp.ac.fj (Ron Vave)
+Date: Fri Nov 21 11:19:52 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Help!!
+Message-ID: <001c01c94b5e$51161320$f3423960$@ac.fj>
+
+Managed to install Greenstone 2.81. Whoopy!
+
+ 
+
+Problem is when I try to start Greenstone Library Interface (GLI). It comes
+up with an error message like so:
+
+ 
+
+-----------------------------
+
+Access is denied
+
+PERL:
+
+C:\Program Files\Greenstone2\bin\windows\perl\bin
+
+ 
+
+Failed to locate an appropriate version of Java. You must install Java
+Runtime Environment (version 1.4 or greater) before running the Greenstone
+Library Interface.
+
+-----------------------------
+
+ 
+
+Note that Java 1.6 is already installed, and Greenstone server picksup on
+this when executed, but not GLI.
+
+ 
+
+Any suggestions on what I need to do to, to solve this.
+
+ 
+
+p.s. I am logged on as administrator on this computer, it that'll make any
+difference.
+
+ 
+
+Thanks.
+
+ 
+
+----------------------------------------
+
+Ron Vave
+
+Environment unit
+
+Institute of Applied Science <http://www.usp.ac.fj/ias> 
+
+Faculty of Science & Technology,
+
+University of the South Pacific,
+
+Suva, Fiji.
+
+ 
+
+Office: 3232-977
+
+Fax:    : 3231-534
+
+----------------------------------------
+
+ 
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081121/e567b335/attachment.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Fri Nov 21 12:21:10 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Fri Nov 21 12:21:17 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Help!!
+In-Reply-To: <001c01c94b5e$51161320$f3423960$@ac.fj>
+References: <001c01c94b5e$51161320$f3423960$@ac.fj>
+Message-ID: <4925F0E6.4070503@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Ron,
+
+Could you tell us a bit more about the context:
+
+1. Did you download Greenstone-2.81rc-win32.exe (the binary 
+distribution) or Greenstone-2.81rc-win32-source.jar (source code 
+distribution)? The former comes with a bundled Java in C:\Program 
+Files\Greenstone2\packages\jre.
+
+2. What Windows operating system are you using?
+
+Regards,
+Anupama
+
+Ron Vave wrote:
+> Managed to install Greenstone 2.81. Whoopy!
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> Problem is when I try to start Greenstone Library Interface (GLI). It 
+> comes up with an error message like so:
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> *-----------------------------*
+> 
+> *Access is denied*
+> 
+> *PERL:*
+> 
+> *C:\Program Files\Greenstone2\bin\windows\perl\bin*
+> 
+> * *
+> 
+> *Failed to locate an appropriate version of Java. You must install Java 
+> Runtime Environment (version 1.4 or greater) before running the 
+> Greenstone Library Interface.*
+> 
+> *-----------------------------*
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> Note that Java 1.6 is already installed, and Greenstone server picksup 
+> on this when executed, but not GLI.
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> Any suggestions on what I need to do to, to solve this.
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> p.s. I am logged on as administrator on this computer, it that?ll make 
+> any difference.
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> Thanks.
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> ----------------------------------------
+> 
+> *Ron Vave*
+> 
+> /Environment unit/
+> 
+> /Institute of Applied Science <http://www.usp.ac.fj/ias>/
+> 
+> Faculty of Science & Technology,
+> 
+> University of the South Pacific,
+> 
+> Suva, Fiji.
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> *_Office_**:* 3232-977
+> 
+> *_Fax_**:*    : 3231-534
+> 
+> ----------------------------------------
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> 
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> 
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+
+
+From vave_r at usp.ac.fj  Fri Nov 21 13:14:34 2008
+From: vave_r at usp.ac.fj (Ron Vave)
+Date: Fri Nov 21 13:14:19 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Help!!
+In-Reply-To: <4925F0E6.4070503@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <001c01c94b5e$51161320$f3423960$@ac.fj>
+	<4925F0E6.4070503@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <006301c94b6e$2255bda0$670138e0$@ac.fj>
+
+I downloaded the binary distribution, and I'm using Windows Vista Ultimate.
+Have since downloaded two different versions of java (recent one is SDK).
+
+Both version of java, after installation, still results in same error
+message as before, stating that it failed to locate an appropriate version
+of java.
+
+----------------------------------------
+Ron Vave
+Environment unit
+Institute of Applied Science
+Faculty of Science & Technology,
+University of the South Pacific,
+Suva, Fiji.
+
+Office: 3232-977
+Fax:    : 3231-534
+----------------------------------------
+
+
+-----Original Message-----
+From: Anupama of Greenstone Team [mailto:greenstone_team@cs.waikato.ac.nz] 
+Sent: 21 November 2008 11:21
+To: vave_r@usp.ac.fj; greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] Help!!
+
+Hi Ron,
+
+Could you tell us a bit more about the context:
+
+1. Did you download Greenstone-2.81rc-win32.exe (the binary 
+distribution) or Greenstone-2.81rc-win32-source.jar (source code 
+distribution)? The former comes with a bundled Java in C:\Program 
+Files\Greenstone2\packages\jre.
+
+2. What Windows operating system are you using?
+
+Regards,
+Anupama
+
+Ron Vave wrote:
+> Managed to install Greenstone 2.81. Whoopy!
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> Problem is when I try to start Greenstone Library Interface (GLI). It 
+> comes up with an error message like so:
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> *-----------------------------*
+> 
+> *Access is denied*
+> 
+> *PERL:*
+> 
+> *C:\Program Files\Greenstone2\bin\windows\perl\bin*
+> 
+> * *
+> 
+> *Failed to locate an appropriate version of Java. You must install Java 
+> Runtime Environment (version 1.4 or greater) before running the 
+> Greenstone Library Interface.*
+> 
+> *-----------------------------*
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> Note that Java 1.6 is already installed, and Greenstone server picksup 
+> on this when executed, but not GLI.
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> Any suggestions on what I need to do to, to solve this.
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> p.s. I am logged on as administrator on this computer, it that'll make 
+> any difference.
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> Thanks.
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> ----------------------------------------
+> 
+> *Ron Vave*
+> 
+> /Environment unit/
+> 
+> /Institute of Applied Science <http://www.usp.ac.fj/ias>/
+> 
+> Faculty of Science & Technology,
+> 
+> University of the South Pacific,
+> 
+> Suva, Fiji.
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> *_Office_**:* 3232-977
+> 
+> *_Fax_**:*    : 3231-534
+> 
+> ----------------------------------------
+> 
+>  
+> 
+> 
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> 
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Fri Nov 21 16:13:17 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Fri Nov 21 16:13:20 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Export to CD
+In-Reply-To: <e04902680811161948u1f9d3car9e85fb250808fd33@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <e04902680811161948u1f9d3car9e85fb250808fd33@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <4926274D.60408@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello Khoa,
+
+Your OS is Windows I see, since only Windows comes with the server.exe file.
+
+Will you try the following before exporting to CD?
+
+Make sure server.exe is not running. Go into your Greenstone2 
+installation directory. In there you will find either one or both of the 
+following files:
+1. gsdlsite.cfg
+2. glisite.cfg
+
+If the gsdlsite.cfg file is missing, make a copy of the glisite.cfg file 
+and rename the *copy* as gsdlsite.cfg.
+
+Open gsdlsite.cfg, and edit two lines: the line with the property 
+"autoenter" and the line with the property "start_browser". Set both 
+properties equal to 1 as follows:
+	autoenter=1
+	start_browser=1
+
+Now try running server.exe locally to see if that works. If it works as 
+you wanted it to, export your collections to a *rewriteable* CD (CD-RW) 
+and test whether it still behaves in the desired manner. If it does, 
+then you can write the collections to a regular CD, otherwise you can 
+erase the CD-RW and reuse it again.
+
+I hope this works,
+Anupama
+
+
+Khoa Tran wrote:
+>  Dear friends
+>  I am using Greenstone 2.81rc. I buidlt some collections, then exported 
+> to CD.But I have a problem: when I click server.exe file, one box 
+> display and requires "Enter Library".After I enter, Firefox opened 
+> collections.
+>  I want I don't need enter but Firefox still open my collections(this 
+> means Firefox automatically open my collections). How do I have to 
+> do?What properties do I must modify?
+> 
+> 
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> 
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Fri Nov 21 16:14:21 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Fri Nov 21 16:14:24 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Export to CD
+Message-ID: <4926278D.2020004@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello Khoa,
+
+Your OS is Windows I see, since only Windows comes with the server.exe file.
+
+Will you try the following before exporting to CD?
+
+Make sure server.exe is not running. Go into your Greenstone2 
+installation directory. In there you will find either one or both of the 
+following files:
+1. gsdlsite.cfg
+2. glisite.cfg
+
+If the gsdlsite.cfg file is missing, make a copy of the glisite.cfg file 
+and rename the *copy* as gsdlsite.cfg.
+
+Open gsdlsite.cfg, and edit two lines: the line with the property 
+"autoenter" and the line with the property "start_browser". Set both 
+properties equal to 1 as follows:
+     autoenter=1
+     start_browser=1
+
+Now try running server.exe locally to see if that works. If it works as 
+you wanted it to, export your collections to a *rewriteable* CD (CD-RW) 
+and test whether it still behaves in the desired manner. If it does, 
+then you can write the collections to a regular CD, otherwise you can 
+erase the CD-RW and reuse it again.
+
+I hope this works,
+Anupama
+
+
+Khoa Tran wrote:
+ >  Dear friends
+ >  I am using Greenstone 2.81rc. I buidlt some collections, then 
+exported to CD.But I have a problem: when I click server.exe file, one 
+box display and requires "Enter Library".After I enter, Firefox opened 
+collections.
+ >  I want I don't need enter but Firefox still open my collections(this 
+means Firefox automatically open my collections). How do I have to 
+do?What properties do I must modify?
+ >
+ >
+ > ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ >
+ > _______________________________________________
+ > greenstone-users mailing list
+ > greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+ > https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+
+
+
+From bijuraghavan at gmail.com  Fri Nov 21 17:49:14 2008
+From: bijuraghavan at gmail.com (Biju R)
+Date: Fri Nov 21 17:49:22 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Greentone Collector
+In-Reply-To: <e04902680811171803j72a446abjd8ff7b4db4168664@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <e04902680811171803j72a446abjd8ff7b4db4168664@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <11305d350811202049p4c62726cnf6907e6dd6f71882@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Dear Khoa Tran,
+
+Greenstone Collector is presently disabled in the software. If you want to
+enable the collector, edit the configuration file (main.cfg) which is
+available in the '*etc*' folder in the greenstone installation directory.
+With regards
+
+Biju
+Greenstone Support South Asia
+On Tue, Nov 18, 2008 at 7:33 AM, Khoa Tran <trankhoaqn@gmail.com> wrote:
+
+> Hi everybody!
+> Can you tell me where download Greenstone Collector?I don't find it.
+> Thanks.
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+>
+
+
+-- 
+Biju R
+Junior Library & Information Assistant
+Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode
+IIMK Campus PO
+Kozhikode (Dist)
+Kerala - 673 570
+Phone: 0495 2809147
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081121/20b4990f/attachment-0001.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Fri Nov 21 17:56:45 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Oran of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Fri Nov 21 17:56:50 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Help!!
+In-Reply-To: <017c01c94b8e$e735ed00$b5a1c700$@ac.fj>
+References: <001c01c94b5e$51161320$f3423960$@ac.fj>
+	<4925F0E6.4070503@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<006301c94b6e$2255bda0$670138e0$@ac.fj>
+	<492601A2.6040500@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<008401c94b75$21ced630$656c8290$@ac.fj>
+	<49260B8C.90601@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<009301c94b79$b31d07c0$19571740$@ac.fj>
+	<492619D9.7070304@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<00c101c94b85$c846da70$58d48f50$@ac.fj>
+	<49263367.1090105@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<017c01c94b8e$e735ed00$b5a1c700$@ac.fj>
+Message-ID: <49263F8D.5060508@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+NOTE: rename the attachment to gli.bat!!
+
+Hi Ron,
+
+Attached is a patched gli.bat file which might fix your 'Access Denied'
+problem. It does not use the disk when setting environment variables
+like the one shipped with 2.81rc. (Actually there are a few places where
+it still does but they probably won't be executed.) Hope this helps.
+
+Also, do check for the existence of gli.log as the output might have
+made it in there after all.
+
+Cheers,
+Oran.
+
+Ron Vave wrote:
+> thanks Anupama, and please relay my thanks to the rest of your team, for
+> assisting me. I will wait for that gli.bat file.
+>
+> ----------------------------------------
+> Ron Vave
+> Environment unit
+> Institute of Applied Science
+> Faculty of Science & Technology,
+> University of the South Pacific,
+> Suva, Fiji.
+>
+> Office: 3232-977
+> Fax:    : 3231-534
+> ----------------------------------------
+>
+>
+> -----Original Message-----
+> From: Anupama of Greenstone Team [mailto:greenstone_team@cs.waikato.ac.nz] 
+> Sent: 21 November 2008 16:05
+> To: vave_r@usp.ac.fj
+> Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] Help!!
+>
+> Hi again,
+>
+> Before reading the previous message I sent, can you wait a few minutes. 
+> Another developer here is trying to modify gli.bat in such a way that he 
+> hopes you will not encounter the "Access is denied" message again. Once 
+> he has adjusted the gli.bat file, I'll send it to you. Can you then run 
+> that and see whether it solves your problem at all? He's still testing 
+> out the changes at the moment.
+>
+> If it does not solve your problem, then would you look at the previous 
+> email I just sent you.
+> Thanks,
+> Anupama
+>
+> Ron Vave wrote:
+>   
+>>  
+>>
+>>  
+>>
+>>  
+>>
+>> ----------------------------------------
+>>
+>> Ron Vave
+>>
+>> Environment unit
+>>
+>> Institute of Applied Science
+>>
+>> Faculty of Science & Technology,
+>>
+>> University of the South Pacific,
+>>
+>> Suva, Fiji.
+>>
+>>  
+>>
+>> Office: 3232-977
+>>
+>> Fax:    : 3231-534
+>>
+>> ----------------------------------------
+>>
+>>  
+>>
+>>  
+>>
+>> -----Original Message-----
+>> From: Anupama of Greenstone Team [mailto:greenstone_team@cs.waikato.ac.nz]
+>> Sent: 21 November 2008 14:16
+>> To: vave_r@usp.ac.fj
+>> Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] Help!!
+>>
+>>  
+>>
+>> Hello again Ron,
+>>
+>>  
+>>
+>> Thank you for sending the output so promptly.
+>>
+>>  
+>>
+>> It turns out there are two more files I can identify where the first
+>>
+>> occurrence of the
+>>
+>>             @echo off
+>>
+>> statement needs to be replaced by
+>>
+>>             :: @echo off
+>>
+>>  
+>>
+>> Can you make the above change in the following two files as well:
+>>
+>> 1. C:\Program Files\Greenstone2\gli\gsdlver.bat
+>>
+>> 2. C:\Program Files\Greenstone2\gli\chkinst.bat
+>>
+>>  
+>>
+>> And can you once again run the program and send us the output as you did
+>>
+>> before? I'm sorry to trouble you again with this, but it is harder for
+>>
+>> us to identify the problem unless all the output is visible.
+>>
+>>  
+>>
+>> Thanks for your efforts,
+>>
+>> Anupama
+>>
+>>  
+>>
+>> Ron Vave wrote:
+>>
+>>  > 
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > 
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > 
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > ----------------------------------------
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > Ron Vave
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > Environment unit
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > Institute of Applied Science
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > Faculty of Science & Technology,
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > University of the South Pacific,
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > Suva, Fiji.
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > 
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > Office: 3232-977
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > Fax:    : 3231-534
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > ----------------------------------------
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > 
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > 
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > -----Original Message-----
+>>
+>>  > From: Anupama of Greenstone Team 
+>> [mailto:greenstone_team@cs.waikato.ac.nz]
+>>
+>>  > Sent: 21 November 2008 13:15
+>>
+>>  > To: vave_r@usp.ac.fj
+>>
+>>  > Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] Help!!
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > 
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > Hello Ron,
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > 
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > I'm sorry I didn't explain it very well. GSDLHOME is a placeholder for
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > the full directory path to your Greenstone2 installation folder. In
+>>     
+> your
+>   
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > case, from the image you sent me, 'GSDLHOME' would be C:\Program
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > Files\Greenstone2
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > 
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > Therefore, can you
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > 1. Open the file C:\Program Files\Greenstone2\gli\gli.bat and change
+>>     
+> the
+>   
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > first line, which is
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  >              @echo off
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > into
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  >              :: @echo off
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > 
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > 2. Open the file C:\Program Files\Greenstone2\setup.bat and change the
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > first line, which is
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  >               @echo off
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > into
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  >              :: @echo off
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > 
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > 3. Run gli.bat again, and send us the output that appears in your DOS
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > prompt/command console?
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > 
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > Thanks,
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>  > Anupama
+>>
+>>  >
+>>
+>>     
+>
+>
+>   
+
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+@echo off
+set GLILANG=en
+
+set VERTBAR="|"
+
+::  -------- Run the Greenstone Librarian Interface --------
+
+:: This script must be run from within the directory in which it lives
+if exist gli.bat goto start
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "en" echo This script must be run from the directory in which it resides.
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "es" echo Este gui¢n deber  ejecutarse desde el directorio en el que reside.
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "fr" echo Ce script doit tre excut 
+ partir du rpertoire dans lequel il se trouve.
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "ru" echo â®â áªàš¯â €®«Š¥­ ¡ëâì ¢§ïâ š§ €šà¥ªâ®àšš, ¢ ª®â®à®© ®­ à á¯®«®Š¥­
+    goto exit
+
+:start
+if "%OS%" == "Windows_NT" goto progName
+    :: Invoke a new command processor to ensure there's enough environment space
+    if "%1" == "Second" goto progName
+        command /E:2048 /C %0 Second %1 %2 %3 %4 %5 %6 %7 %8 %9
+        goto done
+
+
+:progName
+if not "%PROGNAME%" == "" goto findGSDL
+	:: otherwise PROGNAME was not set, so default to the Greenstone Librarian Interface (GLI) program
+	if "%GLILANG%" == "es" set PROGNAME=Biblioteca Digital Greenstone
+	if "%GLILANG%" == "fr" set PROGNAME=Bibliothécaire Greenstone
+	if "%GLILANG%" == "ru" set PROGNAME=ÉÎÔÅÒÆÅÊÓ Greenstone
+	:: if the PROGNAME is still not set, then set the language to English
+	if "%PROGNAME%" == "" set PROGNAME=Greenstone Librarian Interface
+
+
+if "%PROGABBR%" == "" set PROGABBR=GLI
+if "%PROGNAME_EN%" == "" set PROGNAME_EN=Greenstone Librarian Interface
+
+:findGSDL
+echo.
+if "%GLILANG%" == "en" echo %PROGNAME% (%PROGABBR%)
+if "%GLILANG%" == "en" echo Copyright (C) 2006, New Zealand Digital Library Project, University Of Waikato
+if "%GLILANG%" == "en" echo %PROGABBR% comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details see LICENSE.txt
+if "%GLILANG%" == "en" echo This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
+
+if "%GLILANG%" == "es" echo Interfaz de la %PROGNAME% (%PROGNAME_EN% - %PROGABBR%)
+if "%GLILANG%" == "es" echo Copyright (C) 2006, New Zealand Digital Library Project, University Of Waikato
+if "%GLILANG%" == "es" echo La Interfaz de la %PROGNAME% NO INCLUYE ABSOLUTAMENTE NINGUNA GARANTÖA.
+if "%GLILANG%" == "es" echo Para mayor informaci¢n vea los trminos de la licencia en LICENSE.txt
+if "%GLILANG%" == "es" echo Este es un software abierto, por lo que lo invitamos a que lo distribuya de forma gratuita
+
+if "%GLILANG%" == "fr" echo Interface du %PROGNAME% (%PROGNAME_EN% - %PROGABBR%)
+if "%GLILANG%" == "fr" echo Copyright (C) 2006, New Zealand Digital Library Project, University Of Waikato
+if "%GLILANG%" == "fr" echo %PROGABBR% est fourni sans AUCUNE GARANTIE; pour des dtails, voir LICENSE.txt
+if "%GLILANG%" == "fr" echo Ceci est un logiciel libre, et vous tes invit 
+ le redistribuer
+
+if "%GLILANG%" == "ru" echo š¡«š®â¥ç­ë© š­â¥àä¥©á %PROGNAME% (%PROGNAME_EN% - %PROGABBR%)
+if "%GLILANG%" == "ru" echo Copyright (C) 2006, New Zealand Digital Library Project, University Of Waikato
+if "%GLILANG%" == "ru" echo  ­¥ € ¥â   ; €¥â «š á¬. ¢ â¥ªáâ¥ LICENSE.TXT
+if "%GLILANG%" == "ru" echo â® - á¢®¡®€­® à á¯à®áâà ­ï¥¬®¥ ¯à®£à ¬¬­®¥ ®¡¥á¯¥ç¥­š¥ š ë ¬®Š¥â¥ à á¯à®áâà ­ïâì ¥£®
+
+echo.
+::  ---- Determine path to Greenstone home for GS2 and GS3 ----
+set GSDLPATH=
+:: Some users may set the above line manually, or it may be set as an argument
+
+set _VERSION=
+if not "%GSDLPATH%" == "" goto getVer
+	:: Otherwise gsdlpath is not yet set
+	:: Check the env vars first 
+	if not "%GSDL3SRCHOME%" == "" goto ver3
+		if not "%GSDLHOME%" == "" goto ver2
+			:: If not set, the default location for the GLI is a subdirectory of Greenstone
+			set GSDLPATH=..
+			goto getVer
+
+:getVer
+call gsdlver.bat %GSDLPATH% %_VERSION% > nul
+if "%_VERSION%" == "1" goto exit
+::if we are running GS2, free up any pre-set GS3 environment variables since we won't need them
+if "%_VERSION%" == "2" set GSDL3SRCHOME=
+if "%_VERSION%" == "2" set GSDL3HOME=
+goto testGSDL
+
+
+:ver3
+set _VERSION=3
+set GSDLPATH=%GSDL3SRCHOME%
+:: if GS2 is now also set, then both GS3 and GS2 are set: 
+:: warn the user that we have defaulted to GS3
+if not "%GSDLHOME%" == "" echo Both Greenstone 2 and Greenstone 3 environments are set.
+if not "%GSDLHOME%" == "" echo It is assumed you want to run Greenstone 3.
+if not "%GSDLHOME%" == "" echo If you want to run Greenstone 2, please unset the
+if not "%GSDLHOME%" == "" echo environment variable GSDL3SRCHOME before running GLI.
+if not "%GSDLHOME%" == "" echo.
+goto testGSDL
+
+
+:ver2
+set _VERSION=2
+set GSDLPATH=%GSDLHOME%
+::free up the GS3 environment variables since we are running GS2 and don't need them
+set GSDL3SRCHOME=
+set GSDL3HOME=
+goto testGSDL
+
+
+:testGSDL
+set CHECK=1
+call chkinst.bat "%GSDLPATH%" %_VERSION% %GLILANG% %CHECK% > nul
+if "%CHECK%" == "1" goto exit
+	:: otherwise installation worked well
+	goto prepGSDL
+
+
+:prepGSDL
+:: Greenstone 3 case
+if "%_VERSION%" == "3" goto prepGS3
+
+if not "%_VERSION%" == "2" echo "Greenstone version unknown"
+if not "%_VERSION%" == "2" goto :exit
+
+:: Otherwise, we are dealing with Greenstone 2
+:: Setup Greenstone 2, unless it has already been done
+if not "%GSDLHOME%" == "" goto doneGSDL
+    call "%GSDLPATH%\setup.bat" SetEnv > nul
+    goto doneGSDL
+
+
+:prepGS3
+set GSDL2PATH=
+: Some users may set the above line manually
+
+if "%GSDL3SRCHOME%" == "" goto setup3
+	if "%GSDL3HOME%" == "" goto setup3
+		::otherwise
+		goto gs2build
+
+
+:setup3
+:: Setup Greenstone 3, unless it has already been done
+	for /F %%T in ('cd') do set GLIDIR=%%T
+    cd "%GSDLPATH%"
+    call gs3-setup.bat SetEnv > nul
+    cd %GLIDIR%
+    goto gs2build
+
+
+:gs2build
+	:: If Greenstone version 3 is running, we want to set gsdl2path
+	:: Determine GSDLHOME for GS3 
+	if not "%GSDL2PATH%" == "" goto setupGS2
+		:: GSDL2PATH is not yet set. 
+		:: And if GSDLHOME is not set either, then assume 
+		:: that the gs2build subdir of GS3 exists
+		if "%GSDLHOME%" == "" set GSDL2PATH=%GSDL3SRCHOME%\gs2build
+		if "%GSDLHOME%" == "" goto setupGS2	
+			:: Otherwise GSDLHOME is set, so set GSDL2PATH to GSDLHOME
+			echo GSDLHOME environment variable is set to %GSDLHOME%.	
+			echo Will use this to find build scripts.
+			set GSDL2PATH=%GSDLHOME%
+
+:setupGS2
+set CHECK=1
+call chkinst.bat "%GSDL2PATH%" 2 %GLILANG% %CHECK% > nul
+if "%CHECK%" == "1" goto exit
+	:: otherwise installation worked well
+	:: Setup Greenstone, unless it has already been done
+	if "%GSDLHOME%" == "" call "%GSDL2PATH%\setup.bat" SetEnv > nul
+	:: Either way, we can now dispose of GSDL2PATH
+	set GSDL2PATH=	
+	goto doneGSDL
+
+
+:doneGSDL
+:: GSDLPATH is no longer needed, since GSDLHOME should now be set
+set GSDLPATH=
+
+
+:findPerl
+::  ---- Check Perl exists ----
+set PERLPATH=
+
+:: Some users may set the above line manually - If you do this, you need to 
+:: make sure that perl is in your path otherwise lucene collections may not 
+:: work
+if not "%PERLPATH%" == "" goto testPerl
+
+    :: Check if Perl is on the search path
+	for /F %%T in ('echo %PATH% %VERTBAR% winutil\which.exe perl.exe') do set PERLPATH=%%T
+    if not "%PERLPATH%" == "" goto testPerl
+
+    :: If not, try GSDLHOME\bin\windows\perl\bin
+    if exist "%GSDLHOME%\bin\windows\perl\bin\perl.exe" goto gsdlPerl
+
+    :: Still haven't found anything, so try looking in the registry (gulp!)
+    type nul > %TMP%\perl.reg
+    regedit /E %TMP%\perl.reg "HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Perl"
+    type %TMP%\perl.reg > %TMP%\perl.txt
+    del %TMP%\perl.reg
+
+    winutil\findperl.exe %TMP%\perl.txt | winutil\setvar.exe PERLPATH > %TMP%\setperl.bat
+    del %TMP%\perl.txt
+    call %TMP%\setperl.bat
+    del %TMP%\setperl.bat
+
+    :: If nothing was found in the registry, we're stuck
+    if "%PERLPATH%" == "" goto noPerl
+
+    :: if have found perl in registry, but not in path, then we need to 
+    :: add it to path for lucene stuff.
+    if "%OS%" == "Windows_NT" set PATH=%PATH%;%PERLPATH%
+    if "%OS%" == "" set PATH="%PATH%";"%PERLPATH%"
+    goto testPerl
+
+:gsdlPerl
+    set PERLPATH=%GSDLHOME%\bin\windows\perl\bin
+    	
+:testPerl
+:: Check that a Perl executable has been found
+if not exist "%PERLPATH%\perl.exe" goto noPerl
+echo PERL:
+echo %PERLPATH%
+echo.
+
+goto findJava
+
+:noPerl
+    echo.
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "en" echo The Greenstone Librarian Interface requires Perl in order to operate,
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "en" echo but Perl could not be detected on your system. Please ensure that Perl
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "en" echo is installed and is on your search path, then try again.
+
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "es" echo La Interfaz de la Biblioteca Digital Greenstone requiere Perl para poder
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "es" echo operar, pero ste no aparece en su sistema. Por favor aseg£rese de
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "es" echo que Perl est  instalado y se encuentra en su ruta de b£squeda.
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "es" echo A continuaci¢n ejecute nuevamente este gui¢n.
+
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "fr" echo Greenstone Librarian Interface ncessite perl pour son fonctionnement,
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "fr" echo mais perl n'a pas pu tre dtect dans votre systme. Veuillez vous 
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "fr" echo assurer que perl est install et est spcifi dans votre chemin de 
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "fr" echo recherche, puis redmarrez ce script.
+
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "ru" echo š¡«š®â¥ç­ë© š­â¥àä¥©á Greenstone âà¥¡ã¥â Perl, çâ®¡ë š¬¥âì ¢®§¬®Š­®áâì
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "ru" echo à ¡®â âì, ­® Perl ­¥ ¡ë« ¢ ¢ è¥© ášáâ¥¬¥. ®Š «ã©áâ , ¯®€â¢¥à€šâ¥,
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "ru" echo çâ® Perl ãáâ ­®¢«¥­ š ­ å®€šâáï ­  ¢ è¥¬ ¯ãâš ¯®šáª , § â¥¬
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "ru" echo ¯®¢â®à­®¢¢¥€šâ¥ íâ®â áªàš¯â.
+    goto exit
+
+
+:findJava
+    if "%_VERSION%" == "2" (
+		set SEARCH4J_EXECUTABLE=%GSDLHOME%\bin\windows\search4j.exe
+		set HINT=%GSDLHOME%\packages\jre
+	)
+    if "%_VERSION%" == "3" (
+		set SEARCH4J_EXECUTABLE=%GSDL3SRCHOME%\bin\search4j.exe
+		set HINT=%GSDL3SRCHOME%\packages\jre
+	)
+    
+    for /F %%T in ('"%SEARCH4J_EXECUTABLE%" -e -m "1.4.0_00" -p "%HINT%"') do set JAVA_EXECUTABLE=%%T
+    if "%JAVA_EXECUTABLE%" == "" goto noJava
+    echo Java:
+    echo %JAVA_EXECUTABLE%
+    echo.
+
+    goto checkGLI
+
+:noJava
+    echo.
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "en" echo Failed to locate an appropriate version of Java. You must install a
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "en" echo Java Runtime Environment (version 1.4 or greater) before running the
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "en" echo Greenstone Librarian Interface.
+
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "es" echo No se pudo localizar una versi¢n apropiada de Java. Usted deber 
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "es" echo instalar un Ambiente de Ejecuci¢n Java (versi¢n 1.4 o superior)
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "es" echo antes de correr la Interfaz de la Biblioteca Digital Greenstone.
+
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "fr" echo Une version ad?quate de Java n'a pas pu ?tre localis?e. Vous devez
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "fr" echo installer un Java Runtime Environment (version 1.4 ou sup?rieur)
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "fr" echo avant de d?marrer Greenstone Librarian Interface.
+
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "ru" echo ¥ ã «®áì ®¯à¥¥«âì ¬¥áâ®­ å®¥­¥ á®®â¢¥âáâ¢ãîé¥© ¢¥àá Java.
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "ru" echo ?ë ®«­ë ãáâ ­®¢âì Java Runtime Environment (¢¥àáî 1.4 « ¢ëè¥) ¯¥à¥ ¢¢®®¬
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "ru" echo ¡¡«®â¥ç­®£® ­â¥àä¥©á  Greenstone.
+    goto exit
+
+:checkGLI
+:: ---- Check that the GLI has been compiled ----
+if exist "classes/org/greenstone/gatherer/Gatherer.class" goto runGLI
+if exist "GLI.jar" goto runGLI
+    echo.
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "en" echo You need to compile the Greenstone Librarian Interface (using makegli.bat)
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "en" echo before running this script.
+
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "es" echo Usted necesita compilar la Interfaz de la Biblioteca Digital Greenstone
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "es" echo (por medio de makegli.bat) antes de ejecutar este gui¢n.
+
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "fr" echo Vous devez compiler le Greenstone Interface (en utilisant makegli.bat)
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "fr" echo avant d'excuter ce script.
+
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "ru" echo ë €®«Š­ë ª®¬¯š«šà®¢ âì ¡š¡«š®â¥ç­ë© š­â¥àä¥©á Greenstone (šá¯®«ì§ãï makegli.bat)
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "ru" echo ¯¥à¥€ ¢¢®€®¬ íâ®£® áªàš¯â 
+    goto exit
+
+
+:runGLI
+
+if not "%_VERSION%" == "" (
+    echo Greenstone Major Version:
+	echo %_VERSION%
+	echo.
+)
+
+if not "%GSDL3SRCHOME%" == "" (
+    echo GSDL3SRCHOME:
+    echo %GSDL3SRCHOME%
+	echo.
+)
+
+if not "%GSDL3HOME%" == "" (
+    echo GSDL3HOME:
+    echo %GSDL3HOME%
+	echo.
+)
+
+if not "%GSDLHOME%" == "" (
+    echo GSDLHOME:
+    echo %GSDLHOME%
+	echo.
+)
+
+:: ---- Explain how to bypass Imagemagick and Ghostscript bundled with Greenstone if needed ----
+echo.
+if exist "%GSDLHOME%\bin\windows\ghostscript\bin\*.*" echo GhostScript bundled with Greenstone will be used, if you wish to use the version installed on your system (if any) please go to %GSDLHOME%\bin\windows and rename the folder called ghostscript to something else.
+echo.
+echo.
+if exist "%GSDLHOME%\bin\windows\imagemagick\*.*" echo ImageMagick bundled with Greenstone will be used, if you wish to use the version installed on your system (if any) please go to %GSDLHOME%\bin\windows and rename the folder called imagemagick to something else.
+echo.
+echo.
+
+
+:: ---- Finally, run the GLI ----
+if "%GLILANG%" == "en" echo Running the %PROGNAME%...
+if "%GLILANG%" == "es" echo Ejecutando la %PROGNAME%...
+if "%GLILANG%" == "fr" echo Excution de %PROGNAME%
+if "%GLILANG%" == "ru" echo ¥ªãéš© ¡š¡«š %PROGNAME%...
+
+:: -Xms32M          To set minimum memory
+:: -Xmx32M          To set maximum memory
+:: -verbose:gc      To set garbage collection messages
+:: -Xincgc          For incremental garbage collection
+:: -Xprof           Function call profiling
+:: -Xloggc:<file>   Write garbage collection log
+
+
+:: Run GS3 if version = 3
+if "%_VERSION%" == "3" "%JAVA_EXECUTABLE%" -cp classes/;GLI.jar;lib/apache.jar;lib/qfslib.jar org.greenstone.gatherer.GathererProg -gsdl %GSDLHOME% -gsdlos %GSDLOS% -gsdl3 %GSDL3HOME% -gsdl3src %GSDL3SRCHOME% -perl %PERLPATH% %1 %2 %3 %4 %5 %6 %7 %8 %9
+if "%_VERSION%" == "3" goto finRun
+
+:: Run GS2 since version is 2:
+:: if FLI is running, we don't want the local Greenstone library server running
+if "%PROGABBR%" == "FLI" goto webLib
+	:: Else we're running GLI, so we want the local Greenstone library server (if server.exe exists, otherwise it will be webLib)
+	if exist "%GSDLHOME%\server.exe" goto localLib 
+
+:webLib
+    "%JAVA_EXECUTABLE%" -Xmx128M -cp classes/;GLI.jar;lib/apache.jar;lib/qfslib.jar org.greenstone.gatherer.GathererProg -gsdl %GSDLHOME% -gsdlos %GSDLOS% -perl %PERLPATH% %1 %2 %3 %4 %5 %6 %7 %8 %9
+    if ERRORLEVEL 2 if not "%localLibFailed%" == "true" (
+        echo webLib failed, going to localLib
+		set webLibFailed=true
+        goto localLib
+    )
+    goto finRun	
+
+:localLib
+    "%JAVA_EXECUTABLE%" -Xmx128M -cp classes/;GLI.jar;lib/apache.jar;lib/qfslib.jar org.greenstone.gatherer.GathererProg -gsdl %GSDLHOME% -gsdlos %GSDLOS% -perl %PERLPATH% -local_library %GSDLHOME%\server.exe %1 %2 %3 %4 %5 %6 %7 %8 %9
+    if ERRORLEVEL 2 if not "%webLibFailed%" == "true" (
+        echo localLib failed, going to webLib
+        set localLibFailed=true
+        goto webLib
+    )
+    goto finRun
+
+
+:finRun
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "en" echo Done!
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "es" echo ­Hecho!
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "fr" echo Termin!
+    if "%GLILANG%" == "ru" echo ë¯®«­¥­®!
+    goto done
+
+
+:exit
+echo.
+pause
+
+:done
+:: ---- Clean up ----
+set PERLPATH=
+set JAVA_EXECUTABLE=
+From zala at mica.ac.in  Sat Nov 22 01:27:24 2008
+From: zala at mica.ac.in (Lavji Zala)
+Date: Sat Nov 22 01:42:43 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Winisis to Greenstone (Metadata Exlpoding)
+Message-ID: <51083.61.95.254.18.1227270444.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+
+Dear Friends,
+
+I would like to convert Winisis archive (dissertation database)  to
+Greenstone. I have been using the menual titled Creating Greenstone
+Digital Library with Winisis Database designed by K. Rajasekharan and
+K.M. Nafala. It helped me a lot. Even through I am facing problem that has
+been detailed as below.
+
+In winisis archive (Dissertation database) there are number of
+fields/elements including LINK and PHOTO. The LINK element
+represents Pdf of document  and the PHOTO element represents the Image
+of student. I want both elements to be visible/accessible in greenstone.
+When I try to explode the metadata (dis.mst, dis.fdt, dis.xrf) in
+Greenstone (Dissertation collection) it shows the Explode Metadata Box.
+I have chosen dos_850-DOS Codepage 850 (Latin 1) as Input _coding. I
+have also chosen LINK as document field I want to include one more
+field IMAGE in Input_coding box. How can i do that.
+
+Kindly guide me.
+
+regards,
+
+Lavji N. Zala
+Assistant Librarian
+Knowledge Exchange & Information Centre (KEIC)
+Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad (MICA)
+Shela
+Ahmedabad - 380058
+M- 093779922949
+
+
+From dspano at orsna.gov.ar  Sat Nov 22 09:16:30 2008
+From: dspano at orsna.gov.ar (Diego Spano)
+Date: Sat Nov 22 09:15:23 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] GS and MSSQL
+Message-ID: <007701c94c16$0ac25830$20470890$@gov.ar>
+
+Hi list,
+
+ 
+
+IŽm trying to use GS with MSSQL. I done all changes as Wiki said, also
+compiled the source, but when I run buildcol.pl I get:
+
+ 
+
+Can't locate DBI.pm in @INC (@INC contains: C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281\collect\prensa/perllib/plugins C:\Arch
+
+ivos de programa\Greenstone281\collect\prensa/perllib/classify C:\Archivos
+de programa\Greenstone281\collect\prensa/perl
+
+lib C:\Archivos de programa\Greenstone281/perllib/cpan C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib C:\Archivos de prog
+
+rama\Greenstone281/perllib/classify C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/plugins C:\Archivos de programa\Greens
+
+tone281/perllib/cpan/XML/XPath C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/cpan C:\Archivos de programa\Greenstone281/
+
+perllib C:/Archivos de programa/Greenstone281/bin/windows/perl/lib .) at
+C:\Archivos de programa\Greenstone281/perllib/d
+
+butil.pm line 501.
+
+BEGIN failed--compilation aborted at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/dbutil.pm line 501.
+
+Compilation failed in require at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/classify.pm line 33.
+
+BEGIN failed--compilation aborted at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/classify.pm line 33.
+
+Compilation failed in require at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/basebuilder.pm line 31.
+
+BEGIN failed--compilation aborted at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/basebuilder.pm line 31.
+
+Compilation failed in require at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/mgppbuilder.pm line 28.
+
+BEGIN failed--compilation aborted at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/mgppbuilder.pm line 28.
+
+Compilation failed in require at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/lucenebuilder.pm line 43.
+
+BEGIN failed--compilation aborted at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281/perllib/lucenebuilder.pm line 43.
+
+Compilation failed in require at C:\Archivos de
+programa\Greenstone281\bin\script/buildcol.pl line 548.
+
+ 
+
+Where is DBI.pm file?
+
+ 
+
+Any help?
+
+ 
+
+DIego
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081121/effdcc59/attachment-0001.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Sat Nov 22 13:38:20 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Sat Nov 22 13:36:22 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Export to CD
+In-Reply-To: <e04902680811161948u1f9d3car9e85fb250808fd33@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <e04902680811161948u1f9d3car9e85fb250808fd33@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <4927547C.40509@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi
+
+Do you mean that you don't want to see the pop up window where you have 
+to click "enter library"? In that window is a file menu. Under 
+File->Settings, check the "enter library automatically on startup" box, 
+and click "ok". The window shouldn't be displayed next time.
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+Khoa Tran wrote:
+>  Dear friends
+>  I am using Greenstone 2.81rc. I buidlt some collections, then 
+> exported to CD.But I have a problem: when I click server.exe file, one 
+> box display and requires "Enter Library".After I enter, Firefox opened 
+> collections.
+>  I want I don't need enter but Firefox still open my collections(this 
+> means Firefox automatically open my collections). How do I have to 
+> do?What properties do I must modify?
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>   
+
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Sat Nov 22 13:44:02 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Sat Nov 22 13:42:06 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] AZCompactList with accents in metadata
+In-Reply-To: <4925690D.2050501@ird.fr>
+References: <4925690D.2050501@ird.fr>
+Message-ID: <492755D2.6080309@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Pier
+
+Try using GenericList instead. That handles non-ascii characters much 
+better.
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+Pier Luigi ROSSI wrote:
+> Dear Greesntone list,
+>
+> a try to create an AZCompactList with authors metadata.
+> Many caracters of this metadata is with accents : é  è ê
+> (you now, french, spanish, italian, ..... uses accents ;-} )
+>
+> The classifier put accents at the end of the list : is very unplesent
+> (for authors and computer scientist)
+>
+> Have you got a solution ?
+>
+> Regards
+>
+> PL Rossi
+> IRD, France
+>
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Sat Nov 22 13:45:22 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Sat Nov 22 13:43:25 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Greentone Collector
+In-Reply-To: <11305d350811202049p4c62726cnf6907e6dd6f71882@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <e04902680811171803j72a446abjd8ff7b4db4168664@mail.gmail.com>
+	<11305d350811202049p4c62726cnf6907e6dd6f71882@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <49275622.4050808@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Once you have enabled it in main.cfg, then you will get a link from the 
+home page of your library.
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+Biju R wrote:
+> Dear Khoa Tran,
+>  
+> Greenstone Collector is presently disabled in the software. If you 
+> want to enable the collector, edit the configuration file (main.cfg) 
+> which is available in the '*etc*' folder in the greenstone 
+> installation directory.
+> With regards
+>  
+> Biju
+> Greenstone Support South Asia
+> On Tue, Nov 18, 2008 at 7:33 AM, Khoa Tran <trankhoaqn@gmail.com 
+> <mailto:trankhoaqn@gmail.com>> wrote:
+>
+>     Hi everybody!
+>     Can you tell me where download Greenstone Collector?I don't find it.
+>     Thanks.
+>
+>     _______________________________________________
+>     greenstone-users mailing list
+>     greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>     <mailto:greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+>     https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+>
+>
+>
+> -- 
+> Biju R
+> Junior Library & Information Assistant
+> Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode
+> IIMK Campus PO
+> Kozhikode (Dist)
+> Kerala - 673 570
+> Phone: 0495 2809147
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>   
+
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Sat Nov 22 14:00:03 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Sat Nov 22 13:58:07 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem in visibility of Keywords
+In-Reply-To: <43200.61.95.254.18.1227158285.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+References: <34025.61.95.254.18.1227153841.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>	<dfb4b74f0811192042u2885876mcaba40bf84c8639f@mail.gmail.com>
+	<43200.61.95.254.18.1227158285.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+Message-ID: <49275993.2010107@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Lavji
+
+Yes, that is the right way to enter multiple values.
+
+To display more than the first one, you need to use [sibling:Keywords] 
+instead of [Keywords] in your format statement.
+
+For more information, see
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/How_to_format_the_output_of_your_collection
+
+in particular,
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/How_to_format_the_output_of_your_collection#Extended_metadata_names
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+Lavji Zala wrote:
+> Dear Graeme,
+>
+> I enter one keyword and press "Enter Key" then enter another keyword. Is
+> it right the way?
+>
+> Lavji Zala
+>   
+>> Hi,
+>>
+>> I don't know how you are entering the keywords, but if I remember
+>> correctly
+>> the XML requires the "accumulate" attribute.
+>>
+>> Graeme.
+>>
+>> On Thu, Nov 20, 2008 at 2:04 PM, Lavji Zala <zala@mica.ac.in> wrote:
+>>
+>>     
+>>> Dear Friends,
+>>>
+>>> I am using Greenstone 2.75 (Windows). I have created the collection
+>>> titled
+>>> "MICA in News". If i enter number of keywords in "Keywords" element in
+>>> that case only first keyword is visible. How can i made accessible rest
+>>> of
+>>> keywords to the users?
+>>>
+>>> Kindly guide me,
+>>>
+>>> Kind regards,
+>>>
+>>>
+>>> Lavji Zala
+>>> Assistant Librarian
+>>> Knowledge Exchange & Information Centre (KEIC)
+>>> Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad (MICA)
+>>> Shela
+>>> Ahmedabad - 380058
+>>> Mobile: 9377922949
+>>>
+>>>
+>>> _______________________________________________
+>>> greenstone-users mailing list
+>>> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>>> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>>>
+>>>       
+>
+>
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+>   
+
+From zala at mica.ac.in  Sat Nov 22 19:16:22 2008
+From: zala at mica.ac.in (Lavji Zala)
+Date: Sat Nov 22 19:31:47 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem in visibility of Keywords
+Message-ID: <41840.61.95.254.18.1227334582.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+
+
+
+
+Dear Katherine,
+
+I will be grateful to you if you give me small example the way to use
+the 'sibling'. I am using it as follow but it does not work.
+
+<td valign="top">[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td
+valign="top">[ex.srclink]{Or}{[ex.thumbicon],[ex.srcicon]}[ex./srclink]</td>
+<td valign="top">[highlight]
+{Or}{[dc.Title],[exp.Title],[ex.Title],Untitled}
+{If}{[dc.Date^available],<b><br>Publication Year:
+</b>[dc.Date^available]}
+{If}{[dc.Type],<b><br>Publication Type:
+</b>[dc.Type]}
+{If}{[sibling(All' ,'):Keyword]}
+[/highlight]{If}{[ex.Source],<br><i>([ex.Source])</i>}</td>
+
+Except highlighted part, everything is OK.
+
+Kind
+regards,
+
+Lavji N. Zala
+
+ 
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081122/403bbddf/attachment.html
+From zala at mica.ac.in  Sat Nov 22 20:05:08 2008
+From: zala at mica.ac.in (Lavji Zala)
+Date: Sat Nov 22 20:20:48 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem in visibility of Keywords
+In-Reply-To: <49275993.2010107@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <34025.61.95.254.18.1227153841.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+	<dfb4b74f0811192042u2885876mcaba40bf84c8639f@mail.gmail.com>
+	<43200.61.95.254.18.1227158285.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+	<49275993.2010107@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <35676.61.95.254.18.1227337508.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+
+Dear Katherine,
+
+I have used it as follow and it work fine but how can i seperate an
+individual keyword (by using comma ',')?
+
+{If}{[sibling:dc.Keyword],<b><br>Keywords: </b>[sibling:dc.Keyword]}
+
+This string results all keywords in one line without seperation.
+
+regards,
+
+Lavji Zala
+
+> Hi Lavji
+>
+> Yes, that is the right way to enter multiple values.
+>
+> To display more than the first one, you need to use [sibling:Keywords]
+> instead of [Keywords] in your format statement.
+>
+> For more information, see
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/How_to_format_the_output_of_your_collection
+>
+> in particular,
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/How_to_format_the_output_of_your_collection#Extended_metadata_names
+>
+> Regards,
+> Katherine
+>
+> Lavji Zala wrote:
+>> Dear Graeme,
+>>
+>> I enter one keyword and press "Enter Key" then enter another keyword. Is
+>> it right the way?
+>>
+>> Lavji Zala
+>>
+>>> Hi,
+>>>
+>>> I don't know how you are entering the keywords, but if I remember
+>>> correctly
+>>> the XML requires the "accumulate" attribute.
+>>>
+>>> Graeme.
+>>>
+>>> On Thu, Nov 20, 2008 at 2:04 PM, Lavji Zala <zala@mica.ac.in> wrote:
+>>>
+>>>
+>>>> Dear Friends,
+>>>>
+>>>> I am using Greenstone 2.75 (Windows). I have created the collection
+>>>> titled
+>>>> "MICA in News". If i enter number of keywords in "Keywords" element in
+>>>> that case only first keyword is visible. How can i made accessible
+>>>> rest
+>>>> of
+>>>> keywords to the users?
+>>>>
+>>>> Kindly guide me,
+>>>>
+>>>> Kind regards,
+>>>>
+>>>>
+>>>> Lavji Zala
+>>>> Assistant Librarian
+>>>> Knowledge Exchange & Information Centre (KEIC)
+>>>> Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad (MICA)
+>>>> Shela
+>>>> Ahmedabad - 380058
+>>>> Mobile: 9377922949
+>>>>
+>>>>
+>>>> _______________________________________________
+>>>> greenstone-users mailing list
+>>>> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>>>> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>>>>
+>>>>
+>>
+>>
+>>
+>> _______________________________________________
+>> greenstone-users mailing list
+>> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>>
+>>
+>
+
+
+
+From zala at mica.ac.in  Sat Nov 22 20:26:27 2008
+From: zala at mica.ac.in (Lavji Zala)
+Date: Sat Nov 22 20:41:57 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem in visibility of Keywords
+In-Reply-To: <49275993.2010107@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <34025.61.95.254.18.1227153841.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+	<dfb4b74f0811192042u2885876mcaba40bf84c8639f@mail.gmail.com>
+	<43200.61.95.254.18.1227158285.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+	<49275993.2010107@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <35756.61.95.254.18.1227338787.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+
+Dear Katherine,
+
+The problem has been resolved with your greate help. I have used following
+string.
+
+{If}{[sibling(All:\'; \'):dc.Keyword],<b><br>Keywords:
+</b>[sibling(All:\'; \'):dc.Keyword]}
+
+Thank you very much...
+
+Lavji Zala
+
+
+
+> Hi Lavji
+>
+> Yes, that is the right way to enter multiple values.
+>
+> To display more than the first one, you need to use [sibling:Keywords]
+> instead of [Keywords] in your format statement.
+>
+> For more information, see
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/How_to_format_the_output_of_your_collection
+>
+> in particular,
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/How_to_format_the_output_of_your_collection#Extended_metadata_names
+>
+> Regards,
+> Katherine
+>
+> Lavji Zala wrote:
+>> Dear Graeme,
+>>
+>> I enter one keyword and press "Enter Key" then enter another keyword. Is
+>> it right the way?
+>>
+>> Lavji Zala
+>>
+>>> Hi,
+>>>
+>>> I don't know how you are entering the keywords, but if I remember
+>>> correctly
+>>> the XML requires the "accumulate" attribute.
+>>>
+>>> Graeme.
+>>>
+>>> On Thu, Nov 20, 2008 at 2:04 PM, Lavji Zala <zala@mica.ac.in> wrote:
+>>>
+>>>
+>>>> Dear Friends,
+>>>>
+>>>> I am using Greenstone 2.75 (Windows). I have created the collection
+>>>> titled
+>>>> "MICA in News". If i enter number of keywords in "Keywords" element in
+>>>> that case only first keyword is visible. How can i made accessible
+>>>> rest
+>>>> of
+>>>> keywords to the users?
+>>>>
+>>>> Kindly guide me,
+>>>>
+>>>> Kind regards,
+>>>>
+>>>>
+>>>> Lavji Zala
+>>>> Assistant Librarian
+>>>> Knowledge Exchange & Information Centre (KEIC)
+>>>> Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad (MICA)
+>>>> Shela
+>>>> Ahmedabad - 380058
+>>>> Mobile: 9377922949
+>>>>
+>>>>
+>>>> _______________________________________________
+>>>> greenstone-users mailing list
+>>>> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>>>> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>>>>
+>>>>
+>>
+>>
+>>
+>> _______________________________________________
+>> greenstone-users mailing list
+>> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>>
+>>
+>
+
+
+
+From JTapia at Dipres.gob.cl  Fri Nov 21 09:14:44 2008
+From: JTapia at Dipres.gob.cl (Judith Tapia L.)
+Date: Sat Nov 22 22:13:40 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] =?iso-8859-1?q?RV=3A_Problemas_con_la__Instal?=
+	=?iso-8859-1?q?aci=F3n_de_Greenstone?=
+Message-ID: <4F56FEAA68D9344C90DF91BB77DE3EF0734878@phoenix.RedDipres.cl>
+
+
+> Estimados Señores
+> Tengo instalado en mi PC el software Greenstone, pero NO funciona la interfaz para el biblioteacrio, osea no lo puedo abrir ni agregar ningún registro.
+> Agradezvo sus comentarios. Les saluda atentamente desde Santiago de Chile
+> 
+> Judith Tapia Lorca
+> Bibliotecaria
+> Ministerio de Hacienda de Chile
+> Fono 473 26 33
+> 
+> 
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+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081120/89417a28/attachment-0001.html
+From buyun.qu at gmail.com  Sat Nov 22 01:38:09 2008
+From: buyun.qu at gmail.com (Buyun QU)
+Date: Sat Nov 22 22:13:41 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] the GLI cannot display Chinese correctly?
+Message-ID: <e0b2a1040811210438r7c19bda6s9f53ac30d0634f60@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Skipped content of type multipart/alternative-------------- next part --------------
+A non-text attachment was scrubbed...
+Name: Interface.jpg
+Type: image/jpeg
+Size: 61416 bytes
+Desc: not available
+Url : https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081121/3109b643/Interface-0001.jpg
+-------------- next part --------------
+A non-text attachment was scrubbed...
+Name: language.jpg
+Type: image/jpeg
+Size: 33604 bytes
+Desc: not available
+Url : https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081121/3109b643/language-0001.jpg
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 24 10:01:33 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 10:01:43 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: unsubscribing
+In-Reply-To: <BLU134-W7E4DD14AD078586E71D72D8130@phx.gbl>
+References: <320576f12f4897fc9c390c760d2334e2.squirrel@mailserver.omnibit.it>	<491BBD20.3000903@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<491C8BD8.4080600@sdb.org> <492114FD.6030005@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<BLU134-W7E4DD14AD078586E71D72D8130@phx.gbl>
+Message-ID: <4929C4AD.5000202@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081124/6e3418a8/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 24 10:13:35 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 10:13:51 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] oai harvesting with greenstone
+In-Reply-To: <92DF57110C744E6EAC933CFD51FD2CBD@prattlibraries.edu>
+References: <75B6C137B58E41AFA60DAC5FD96103F1@prattlibraries.edu>	<D6B530A1090A224EA17A37D3BFE35F5E264EF55BCF@XVS2-CLUSTER.yu.yale.edu>	<4920D177.1010706@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<92DF57110C744E6EAC933CFD51FD2CBD@prattlibraries.edu>
+Message-ID: <4929C77F.9050302@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081124/edc3f694/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 24 10:16:47 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 10:16:56 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Default Language
+In-Reply-To: <4409126a0811170317g3154992v290ae7969c4e6705@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4409126a0811170317g3154992v290ae7969c4e6705@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <4929C83F.5080706@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081124/d1946fe3/attachment-0001.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 24 10:25:34 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 10:25:37 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] the GLI cannot display Chinese correctly?
+In-Reply-To: <e0b2a1040811210438r7c19bda6s9f53ac30d0634f60@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <e0b2a1040811210438r7c19bda6s9f53ac30d0634f60@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <4929CA4E.7010708@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi
+
+You need to change the font in the preferences window (the field 
+underneath the language one).
+I am not sure what the best font for Chinese is, but the following works 
+for me:
+Arial Unicode MS, BOLD, 14
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+
+Buyun QU wrote:
+> Dear all,
+> I have just installed Greenstone 2 (version 2.81rc) under Windows 
+> system correctly, but when I clicked "Greenstone Librarian Interface 
+> (GLI)"  within the Startup menu, I cannot get what I want. The 
+> interface cannot display Chinese correctly (as enclosed in 
+> "Interface.jpg"), even if I set the default language as 
+> Chinese-Simplified (as enclosed in "language.jpg"). I am so frustrated 
+> and does anyone can tell me why and how?
+>  
+> BTW, my operation system is Windows Server 2003, Chinese-Simplified.
+>  
+> Looking forward to your assistance, thank you!
+>
+> -- 
+>
+
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 24 10:50:22 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 10:50:33 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] controling documents per page
+In-Reply-To: <E2C3446C75B22642B2A6442E09440B71012836DA@EX04.ad.tulane.edu>
+References: <eaa5d41b0805291304ke942649ibb339b4d6a5883f6@mail.gmail.com>
+	<E2C3446C75B22642B2A6442E09440B71012836DA@EX04.ad.tulane.edu>
+Message-ID: <4929D01E.2030301@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081124/0dd6a2a3/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 24 10:54:25 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 10:54:27 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem in visibility of Keywords
+In-Reply-To: <35756.61.95.254.18.1227338787.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+References: <34025.61.95.254.18.1227153841.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+	<dfb4b74f0811192042u2885876mcaba40bf84c8639f@mail.gmail.com>
+	<43200.61.95.254.18.1227158285.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+	<49275993.2010107@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<35756.61.95.254.18.1227338787.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+Message-ID: <4929D111.1050009@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Lavji
+
+That's great that you have managed to work this out yourself.
+A slightly simpler format statement would be
+
+{If}{[dc.Keyword],<br><b>Keywords:</b>[sibling(All:\'; \'):dc.Keyword]}
+
+This tests for the existence of dc.Keyword metadata, then prints them 
+all out.
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+Lavji Zala wrote:
+> Dear Katherine,
+>
+> The problem has been resolved with your greate help. I have used following
+> string.
+>
+> {If}{[sibling(All:\'; \'):dc.Keyword],<b><br>Keywords:
+> </b>[sibling(All:\'; \'):dc.Keyword]}
+>
+> Thank you very much...
+>
+> Lavji Zala
+>
+>
+>
+>   
+>   
+
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 24 11:06:00 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 11:06:09 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Sorting search results
+In-Reply-To: <6B744608810A40AEB43C603F6BE31C6A@orsna.gov.ar>
+References: <6B744608810A40AEB43C603F6BE31C6A@orsna.gov.ar>
+Message-ID: <4929D3C8.4020909@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081124/14636f8f/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 24 11:13:35 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 11:13:49 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] GLI for distributed access to collections?
+In-Reply-To: <BAY137-W14950EA73F66188FF8CACD8C390@phx.gbl>
+References: <BAY137-W14950EA73F66188FF8CACD8C390@phx.gbl>
+Message-ID: <4929D58F.9070103@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081124/40ce31e6/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 24 11:15:45 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 11:15:57 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Cross collection and sorted results
+In-Reply-To: <001701c8fd92$d0a13ee0$1a0101c1@SHAIO.COM>
+References: <001701c8fd92$d0a13ee0$1a0101c1@SHAIO.COM>
+Message-ID: <4929D611.9020300@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081124/d392684c/attachment.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 24 11:18:16 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 11:18:34 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Question about translation (Thai)
+In-Reply-To: <5CCD6420E2AE46539A51B86A66BAD378@hq.pactecasia.com>
+References: <001701c8fd92$d0a13ee0$1a0101c1@SHAIO.COM>
+	<5CCD6420E2AE46539A51B86A66BAD378@hq.pactecasia.com>
+Message-ID: <4929D6A8.7080804@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081124/79d051b1/attachment-0001.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 24 11:19:31 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 11:19:52 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] cross-collection search results - ver 2.8
+In-Reply-To: <OF3689B1C8.65CC0B9A-ON0A2574AD.0080AB9D-0A2574AD.0082EEFC@hawaii.gov>
+References: <OF3689B1C8.65CC0B9A-ON0A2574AD.0080AB9D-0A2574AD.0082EEFC@hawaii.gov>
+Message-ID: <4929D6F3.3090304@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081124/afffc702/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 24 12:11:21 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 12:11:31 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: greenstone-users Digest, Vol 65, Issue 13
+In-Reply-To: <a29502030808290920x656c62a3r2a3677d1dbb1917f@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <48b6f44a.1abd600a.465e.ffff895dSMTPIN_ADDED@mx.google.com>
+	<a29502030808290920x656c62a3r2a3677d1dbb1917f@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <4929E319.3010001@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081124/6967e8f6/attachment.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 24 12:24:57 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 12:25:07 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Sorting search results and Classifiers VLists
+In-Reply-To: <D4742D4C3AD34A5095994F11379B2135@orsna.gov.ar>
+References: <D4742D4C3AD34A5095994F11379B2135@orsna.gov.ar>
+Message-ID: <4929E649.6010701@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081124/df56e075/attachment.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 24 12:26:17 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 12:26:29 2008
+Subject: =?ISO-8859-1?Q?Re=3A_=5Bgreenstone-users=5D_RV=3A_Problema?=
+	=?ISO-8859-1?Q?s_con_la__Instalaci=F3n_de_Greenstone?=
+In-Reply-To: <4F56FEAA68D9344C90DF91BB77DE3EF0734878@phoenix.RedDipres.cl>
+References: <4F56FEAA68D9344C90DF91BB77DE3EF0734878@phoenix.RedDipres.cl>
+Message-ID: <4929E699.4000309@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello Judith,
+
+I'm sorry I can't speak Spanish, I will have to write in English instead.
+Can you gives us more information, like:
+1. What version of Greenstone 2 are you using? 2.80, the latest 2.81rc 
+or another?
+2. Are you running it on Windows or is your PC a Linux?
+3. Is there any text in the DOS console or terminal when you try to run 
+GLI and it fails?
+
+Thanks,
+Anupama
+
+
+Judith Tapia L. wrote:
+> 
+> Estimados Señores
+> Tengo instalado en mi PC el software Greenstone, pero NO funciona la 
+> interfaz para el biblioteacrio, osea no lo puedo abrir ni agregar ningún 
+> registro.
+> 
+> Agradezvo sus comentarios. Les saluda atentamente desde Santiago de Chile
+> 
+> Judith Tapia Lorca
+> Bibliotecaria
+> Ministerio de Hacienda de Chile
+> Fono 473 26 33
+> 
+> 
+> 
+> ------------------------------------------------------------------------
+> 
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+
+
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 24 12:28:47 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 12:28:56 2008
+Subject: =?ISO-8859-1?Q?Re=3A_=5Bgreenstone-users=5D_RV=3A_Problema?=
+	=?ISO-8859-1?Q?s_con_la__Instalaci=F3n_de_Greenstone?=
+In-Reply-To: <4F56FEAA68D9344C90DF91BB77DE3EF0734878@phoenix.RedDipres.cl>
+References: <4F56FEAA68D9344C90DF91BB77DE3EF0734878@phoenix.RedDipres.cl>
+Message-ID: <4929E72F.50808@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081124/21b6ed87/attachment-0001.html
+From kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Mon Nov 24 12:32:24 2008
+From: kjdon at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Katherine Don)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 12:32:33 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Winisis to Greenstone (Metadata Exlpoding)
+In-Reply-To: <51083.61.95.254.18.1227270444.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+References: <51083.61.95.254.18.1227270444.squirrel@www.mica.ac.in>
+Message-ID: <4929E808.6060404@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi Lavji
+
+Greenstone doesn't currently allow this. I think it will be simple to 
+add in though.
+Can you please send me (off list) a sample database (preferably a small 
+one) that contains records with both fields and I can try to get it working.
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+Lavji Zala wrote:
+> Dear Friends,
+>
+> I would like to convert Winisis archive (dissertation database)  to
+> Greenstone. I have been using the menual titled ?Creating Greenstone
+> Digital Library with Winisis Database? designed by K. Rajasekharan and
+> K.M. Nafala. It helped me a lot. Even through I am facing problem that has
+> been detailed as below.
+>
+> In winisis archive (Dissertation database) there are number of
+> fields/elements including ?LINK? and ?PHOTO?. The ?LINK? element
+> represents Pdf of document  and the ?PHOTO? element represents the Image
+> of student. I want both elements to be visible/accessible in greenstone.
+> When I try to explode the metadata (dis.mst, dis.fdt, dis.xrf) in
+> Greenstone (Dissertation collection) it shows the ?Explode Metadata Box?.
+> I have chosen ?dos_850-DOS Codepage 850 (Latin 1)? as ?Input _coding?. I
+> have also chosen ?LINK? as ?document field? I want to include one more
+> field ?IMAGE? in ?Input_coding? box. How can i do that.
+>
+> Kindly guide me.
+>
+> regards,
+>
+> Lavji N. Zala
+> Assistant Librarian
+> Knowledge Exchange & Information Centre (KEIC)
+> Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad (MICA)
+> Shela
+> Ahmedabad - 380058
+> M- 093779922949
+>
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+>   
+
+From felipevera at gmail.com  Mon Nov 24 14:32:52 2008
+From: felipevera at gmail.com (Felipe Vera)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 14:33:01 2008
+Subject: =?ISO-8859-1?Q?Re:_[greenstone-users]_RV:_Problem?=
+	=?ISO-8859-1?Q?as_con_la_Instalaci=F3n_de_Greenstone?=
+In-Reply-To: <4F56FEAA68D9344C90DF91BB77DE3EF0734878@phoenix.RedDipres.cl>
+References: <4F56FEAA68D9344C90DF91BB77DE3EF0734878@phoenix.RedDipres.cl>
+Message-ID: <5c33f9400811231732v39e4a131v15c0eea82d5efad7@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hola Judith:
+
+
+Primero, seria bueno que te subscribas a la lista de usuarios Greenstone en
+español mediante este mail greenstone_es@freelists.org
+
+
+Respecto al problema puntual puedes comentar lo siguiente por favor:
+
+
+1- Que versión de Greenstone tienes instalado en tu PC
+
+2- Que mensaje te arroja la pantalla al momento de abrir la instarfaz del
+bibliotecario de Greenstone????
+
+3- Tienes instalada la aplicación gráfica de Java, la cual es necesaria para
+poder ejecutar y abrir la "interfaz de Bibliotecario" de Greenstone.
+
+4- En caso que NO tengas aun instalado "JAVA" por favor descarga desde
+el siguiente
+enlace<http://www.prodigioconsultores.com/wp-content/uploads/soluciones/j2re-1_4_2_07-windows-i586-p.rar>el
+archivo ejecutable "comprimido", al momento de ejecutar el archivo
+debes
+instalar "todo por defecto"
+
+
+Comencemos con lo anterior y seguimos avanzando.
+
+
+Saludos y seguimos en contacto
+Felipe Vera
+
+
+
+
+2008/11/20 Judith Tapia L. <JTapia@dipres.gob.cl>
+
+>
+> Estimados Señores
+> Tengo instalado en mi PC el software Greenstone, pero NO funciona la
+> interfaz para el biblioteacrio, osea no lo puedo abrir ni agregar ningún
+> registro.
+>
+> Agradezvo sus comentarios. Les saluda atentamente desde Santiago de Chile
+>
+> Judith Tapia Lorca
+> Bibliotecaria
+> Ministerio de Hacienda de Chile
+> Fono 473 26 33
+>
+>
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-users mailing list
+> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>
+>
+
+
+-- 
+Saludos
+Felipe Vera
+------------ próxima parte ------------
+Se ha borrado un adjunto en formato HTML...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081123/790df474/attachment.html
+From amin.hedjazi at gmail.com  Mon Nov 24 19:13:41 2008
+From: amin.hedjazi at gmail.com (Amin Hedjazi)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 19:13:46 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] very Important
+Message-ID: <4105c9810811232213g71add8c3kbc0cb2d49ca6ecb7@mail.gmail.com>
+
+hello every one
+amr hassan wrote :
+
+browsing library I can not find something ??!!
+
+you had wrote some thing about arabic pdfs !
+i am building a Persian language library and
+i had this problem my self
+and since these languages are very similar i think your having the same
+problem .
+i think that it doesent have any thing to do with greenstone .
+this problems ocure becuse of persian an arabic fonts in pdf fromats , their
+always embeded in the document
+and each character then is handeled as an pdf object
+greenstones pdftohtml converter only lookes for plain text in pdf files
+thas why ther is not any thing readable in the library afte building from a
+arabic pdf file
+some arabic and persian pdf documents use ansi format and can be
+scaned with greenstone but with some errors because they are right to left
+languages and ansi was
+not developed for RTL languages.
+this is not only greenstones problem this ocures almost in any right to left
+language pdf convertation .
+if any body out there can help i woulde realy appriatiate it?
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081124/dff40732/attachment.html
+From amin.hedjazi at gmail.com  Mon Nov 24 20:25:28 2008
+From: amin.hedjazi at gmail.com (Amin Hedjazi)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 20:25:52 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] collection building customization
+Message-ID: <4105c9810811232325o48caad2ex77b8d55374fec9ac@mail.gmail.com>
+
+hi , it me again :D
+and i need some help an opinions .
+i am using GS3 .
+what i want to do is to build a pdf collection
+may be better to call it file collection
+i want to enter some pdf files with their metadata and a abstract text in
+the collection
+the collection soulde be sherchable from the metadata types and the abstract
+text.
+and the content of an document in the web site soulde be a  table showing
+some metadata and the abstract and a download link to
+the pdf file* i know that this in posible with editing the greenstone
+fromats in the GLI or manualy.*
+and i do not want to use pdf plugin , becuse my pdfs are not standard ones
+and i have problems when using pdf plug.
+*first what kindes of plugins shoulde i use ? is the unknownPlug for this
+reason ?*
+i know how to edite the formats in the GLI (browse,search,dispaly ...) but i
+dont now the exact syntax for
+greenstone fromats and i couldent finde any document on them so :
+*is their a document for greenstone3 format syntax for out their?*
+*how shoulde i enter the abstract text? shoulde it be in a metadata field or
+is their another option for longer abstracts ?*
+and am going to enter the metadata in persian language
+their wouldent be any steming an accent an case options support for persian
+language
+*shoulde i use Lucene or Mg and Mgpp are better ?*
+what i want to do heare is some thing like in hear :
+
+http://nzdl.sadl.uleth.ca/cgi-bin/library?e=d-00000-00---off-0publicat--00-0--0-10-0---0---0prompt-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0-0-11-1-0utfZz-8-00&a=d&c=publicat&cl=CL1.1&d=HASH010f219e01de87dcc96023c6
+
+but i do not want to index the pdf file it self
+i woulde appreciate your help .
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081124/4a8151b6/attachment.html
+From lukedom_easy01 at yahoo.com  Mon Nov 24 20:42:37 2008
+From: lukedom_easy01 at yahoo.com (Luke Onwuka)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 20:42:43 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] I need to view my collections from other
+	client's computer
+Message-ID: <892046.32468.qm@web31602.mail.mud.yahoo.com>
+
+I need to view my collections from other client's computer, what should i do?
+ 
+Please reply..
+ 
+Luke
+
+
+      
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081123/454b5bd0/attachment.html
+From lukedom_easy01 at yahoo.com  Mon Nov 24 20:44:35 2008
+From: lukedom_easy01 at yahoo.com (Luke Onwuka)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 20:44:39 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] I want to view my collections...
+Message-ID: <239528.39889.qm@web31605.mail.mud.yahoo.com>
+
+How do i make my collections to be view from other client's computer within the network...
+ 
+Please reply.
+ 
+Luke
+
+
+      
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081123/e89acb37/attachment-0001.html
+From akujenga at gmail.com  Mon Nov 24 21:35:06 2008
+From: akujenga at gmail.com (Amos Kujenga)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 21:35:13 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] I need to view my collections from other
+	client's computer
+In-Reply-To: <892046.32468.qm@web31602.mail.mud.yahoo.com>
+References: <892046.32468.qm@web31602.mail.mud.yahoo.com>
+Message-ID: <53f027730811240035w54bd4154i3360a84e47f8a86a@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hi Luke,
+
+After successfully installing Greenstone, it may help you to read
+what's on the following links:
+- http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Running_Greenstone
+- http://www.greenstone.org/manuals/gsdl2/en/html/Chapter_installation_procedure.htm#Section_how_to_find_greenstone
+
+Feel free to ask if you don't find an answer to your question on the
+above-mentioned pages.
+
+If you're writing from Africa, I'd also like to invite you to join the
+sagreenstone discussion list on:
+http://www.eifl.net:8080/mailman/listinfo/sagreenstone
+
+Regards
+
+
+Amos
+
+On 11/24/08, Luke Onwuka <lukedom_easy01@yahoo.com> wrote:
+> I need to view my collections from other client's computer, what should i
+> do?
+>
+> Please reply..
+>
+> Luke
+>
+>
+>
+
+From akujenga at gmail.com  Mon Nov 24 21:38:52 2008
+From: akujenga at gmail.com (Amos Kujenga)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 21:39:00 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] I need to view my collections from other
+	client's computer
+In-Reply-To: <892046.32468.qm@web31602.mail.mud.yahoo.com>
+References: <892046.32468.qm@web31602.mail.mud.yahoo.com>
+Message-ID: <53f027730811240038r647358fcu80aa451e77c1f78b@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hi Luke,
+
+After successfully installing Greenstone, it may help you to read
+what's on the following links:
+- http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Running_Greenstone
+- http://www.greenstone.org/manuals/gsdl2/en/html/Chapter_installation_procedure.htm#Section_how_to_find_greenstone
+
+Feel free to ask if you don't find an answer to your question on the
+above-mentioned pages.
+
+If you're writing from Africa, I'd also like to invite you to join the
+sagreenstone discussion list on:
+http://www.eifl.net:8080/mailman/listinfo/sagreenstone
+
+Regards
+
+
+Amos
+
+On 11/24/08, Luke Onwuka <lukedom_easy01@yahoo.com> wrote:
+> I need to view my collections from other client's computer, what should i
+> do?
+>
+> Please reply..
+>
+> Luke
+>
+>
+>
+
+From akujenga at gmail.com  Mon Nov 24 21:44:45 2008
+From: akujenga at gmail.com (Amos Kujenga)
+Date: Mon Nov 24 21:44:53 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] I need to view my collections from other
+	client's computer
+In-Reply-To: <892046.32468.qm@web31602.mail.mud.yahoo.com>
+References: <892046.32468.qm@web31602.mail.mud.yahoo.com>
+Message-ID: <53f027730811240044v31316ba7tcd3ce9e9d6fd73c2@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hi Luke,
+
+After successfully installing Greenstone, it may help you to read
+what's on the following links:
+- http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Running_Greenstone
+- http://www.greenstone.org/manuals/gsdl2/en/html/Chapter_installation_procedure.htm#Section_how_to_find_greenstone
+
+Feel free to ask if you don't find an answer to your question on the
+above-mentioned pages.
+
+If you're writing from Africa, I'd also like to invite you to join the
+sagreenstone discussion list on:
+http://www.eifl.net:8080/mailman/listinfo/sagreenstone
+
+Regards
+
+
+Amos
+
+On 11/24/08, Luke Onwuka <lukedom_easy01@yahoo.com> wrote:
+> I need to view my collections from other client's computer, what should i
+> do?
+>
+> Please reply..
+>
+> Luke
+>
+>
+>
+
+From jbfox at sdb.org  Tue Nov 25 09:39:31 2008
+From: jbfox at sdb.org (Julian Fox)
+Date: Tue Nov 25 09:39:51 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: greenstone-users Digest, Vol 68, Issue 24
+In-Reply-To: <20081124074452.759188067@mx06.omnibit.it>
+References: <20081124074452.759188067@mx06.omnibit.it>
+Message-ID: <492B1103.102@sdb.org>
+
+Hi list,
+Quite some time ago I had a problem with the ppt plugin (I'm using GS v. 
+2.80 on a Linux box) and have hobbled along a bit ever since, sometimes 
+successfully other times not.  Put simply, I seem to be getting rather 
+too many 'Powerpoint 95/97 converter failed' messages after things are 
+processed - far too many in fact, so I'm asking if there is perhaps a 
+newer version of this plugin that I can bring into my 2.80 - or would I 
+need to update to 2.81 and will that fix things anyway in this regard?  
+Since I now have a very large DL with some 200,000 items in it, any 
+upgrading takes time and effort which I'd prefer to avoid for a while.
+Occasionally I've overcome the problem by using the unknown plugin but 
+that's not a perfect way to handle things.  I'd much prefer if the ppt 
+plugin would do its job.  I'm quite sure I can't have that many faulty 
+Powerpoint presentations!
+Anyone got any thoughts on this one?
+
+greenstone-users-request@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz wrote:
+> Send greenstone-users mailing list submissions to
+> 	greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>
+> To subscribe or unsubscribe via the World Wide Web, visit
+> 	https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+> or, via email, send a message with subject or body 'help' to
+> 	greenstone-users-request@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>
+> You can reach the person managing the list at
+> 	greenstone-users-owner@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>
+> When replying, please edit your Subject line so it is more specific
+> than "Re: Contents of greenstone-users digest..."
+>
+>
+> Today's Topics:
+>
+>    1. Re: Winisis to Greenstone (Metadata Exlpoding) (Katherine Don)
+>    2. Re: RV: Problemas con la Instalación de Greenstone (Felipe Vera)
+>    3. very Important (Amin Hedjazi)
+>    4. collection building customization (Amin Hedjazi)
+>    5. I need to view my collections from other	client's computer
+>       (Luke Onwuka)
+>    6. I want to view my collections... (Luke Onwuka)
+>
+>
+> ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+>
+> Message: 1
+> Date: Mon, 24 Nov 2008 12:32:24 +1300
+> From: Katherine Don <kjdon@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+> Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] Winisis to Greenstone (Metadata
+> 	Exlpoding)
+> To: Lavji Zala <zala@mica.ac.in>
+> Cc: greenstonesupport@iimk.ac.in,
+> 	greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> Message-ID: <4929E808.6060404@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+> Content-Type: text/plain; charset=windows-1252; format=flowed
+>
+> Hi Lavji
+>
+> Greenstone doesn't currently allow this. I think it will be simple to 
+> add in though.
+> Can you please send me (off list) a sample database (preferably a small 
+> one) that contains records with both fields and I can try to get it working.
+>
+> Regards,
+> Katherine
+>
+> Lavji Zala wrote:
+>   
+>> Dear Friends,
+>>
+>> I would like to convert Winisis archive (dissertation database)  to
+>> Greenstone. I have been using the menual titled "Creating Greenstone
+>> Digital Library with Winisis Database" designed by K. Rajasekharan and
+>> K.M. Nafala. It helped me a lot. Even through I am facing problem that has
+>> been detailed as below.
+>>
+>> In winisis archive (Dissertation database) there are number of
+>> fields/elements including "LINK" and "PHOTO". The "LINK" element
+>> represents Pdf of document  and the "PHOTO" element represents the Image
+>> of student. I want both elements to be visible/accessible in greenstone.
+>> When I try to explode the metadata (dis.mst, dis.fdt, dis.xrf) in
+>> Greenstone (Dissertation collection) it shows the "Explode Metadata Box".
+>> I have chosen 'dos_850-DOS Codepage 850 (Latin 1)' as 'Input _coding'. I
+>> have also chosen 'LINK' as 'document field' I want to include one more
+>> field "IMAGE" in 'Input_coding' box. How can i do that.
+>>
+>> Kindly guide me.
+>>
+>> regards,
+>>
+>> Lavji N. Zala
+>> Assistant Librarian
+>> Knowledge Exchange & Information Centre (KEIC)
+>> Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad (MICA)
+>> Shela
+>> Ahmedabad - 380058
+>> M- 093779922949
+>>
+>>
+>> _______________________________________________
+>> greenstone-users mailing list
+>> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>>
+>>   
+>>     
+>
+>
+>
+> ------------------------------
+>
+> Message: 2
+> Date: Sun, 23 Nov 2008 22:32:52 -0300
+> From: "Felipe Vera" <felipevera@gmail.com>
+> Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] RV: Problemas con la Instalación de
+> 	Greenstone
+> To: "Judith Tapia L." <JTapia@dipres.gob.cl>
+> Cc: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> Message-ID:
+> 	<5c33f9400811231732v39e4a131v15c0eea82d5efad7@mail.gmail.com>
+> Content-Type: text/plain; charset="iso-8859-1"
+>
+> Hola Judith:
+>
+>
+> Primero, seria bueno que te subscribas a la lista de usuarios Greenstone en
+> español mediante este mail greenstone_es@freelists.org
+>
+>
+> Respecto al problema puntual puedes comentar lo siguiente por favor:
+>
+>
+> 1- Que versión de Greenstone tienes instalado en tu PC
+>
+> 2- Que mensaje te arroja la pantalla al momento de abrir la instarfaz del
+> bibliotecario de Greenstone????
+>
+> 3- Tienes instalada la aplicación gráfica de Java, la cual es necesaria para
+> poder ejecutar y abrir la "interfaz de Bibliotecario" de Greenstone.
+>
+> 4- En caso que NO tengas aun instalado "JAVA" por favor descarga desde
+> el siguiente
+> enlace<http://www.prodigioconsultores.com/wp-content/uploads/soluciones/j2re-1_4_2_07-windows-i586-p.rar>el
+> archivo ejecutable "comprimido", al momento de ejecutar el archivo
+> debes
+> instalar "todo por defecto"
+>
+>
+> Comencemos con lo anterior y seguimos avanzando.
+>
+>
+> Saludos y seguimos en contacto
+> Felipe Vera
+>
+>
+>
+>
+> 2008/11/20 Judith Tapia L. <JTapia@dipres.gob.cl>
+>
+>   
+>> Estimados Señores
+>> Tengo instalado en mi PC el software Greenstone, pero NO funciona la
+>> interfaz para el biblioteacrio, osea no lo puedo abrir ni agregar ningún
+>> registro.
+>>
+>> Agradezvo sus comentarios. Les saluda atentamente desde Santiago de Chile
+>>
+>> Judith Tapia Lorca
+>> Bibliotecaria
+>> Ministerio de Hacienda de Chile
+>> Fono 473 26 33
+>>
+>>
+>> _______________________________________________
+>> greenstone-users mailing list
+>> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>>
+>>
+>>     
+>
+>
+>   
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081124/65f26af8/attachment.html
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Nov 25 14:53:23 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Tue Nov 25 14:53:33 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] I want to view my collections...
+In-Reply-To: <239528.39889.qm@web31605.mail.mud.yahoo.com>
+References: <239528.39889.qm@web31605.mail.mud.yahoo.com>
+Message-ID: <492B5A93.7040509@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello Luke,
+
+ > How do i make my collections to be view from other client's computer
+ > within the network...
+
+It depends on what version of Greenstone you are using and also the web 
+server you are using with it. In the following, I discuss how I got it 
+working in Greenstone 2 using an Apache web server (II) and in 
+Greenstone 3 using the default Tomcat web server that is part of the 
+installation (III).
+
+(I) Greenstone 2 (GS2) and Apache web server:
+I don't know how to do this with the default local library server 
+(server.exe) that comes with Greenstone 2. But setting up an external 
+web server, such as an Apache web server sorted this out for me so that 
+I was able to view collections from a server on a different machine from 
+my client machine.
+
+1. To set up an Apache web server with your Greenstone 2, please follow 
+the instructions at the wiki page
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Setting_up_an_Apache_Web_Server_for_Greenstone_2_Walkthrough
+
+2. Restart the Apache web server as explained in the wiki page link above.
+
+3. On the server machine itself, test that you can view your collections 
+by pointing your browser to
+http://<serverhostname>:<portnumber>/gsdl/cgi-bin/library
+or for Windows, also try 
+http://<serverhostname>:<portnumber>/gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe
+
+where serverhostname and portnumber are what you configured your Apache 
+web server to be in step 1.
+Even the "gsdl" in the URL above may be different if you set this to be 
+something else in step 1.
+
+4. Then, on the client machine, open up a browser and also go to the 
+same URL
+http://<serverhostname>:<portnumber>/gsdl/cgi-bin/library
+(or http://<serverhostname>:<portnumber>/gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe on 
+Windows)
+And see whether the Greenstone 2 server's collections are now visible 
+from here as well.
+
+
+(II) Greenstone 3 and the default Tomcat web server
+1. When initially setting up Greenstone 3, you can edit the 
+build.properties file to set the hostname and portnumber of your server. 
+By default these values are set to localhost and 8080, respectively.
+In order to be able to view all the images in the Greenstone pages from 
+client machines, the server hostname specified in build.properties must 
+be the name of the server host rather than merely the relative 
+"localhost" value.
+
+2. Changes to the server's hostname value in build.properties may not 
+take effect until additional corresponding changes are made. Please see
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Walkthrough:_installing_Greenstone_3_from_SVN_source#Advanced
+to find out how to get Greenstone 3 to configure Tomcat to take these 
+changes into consideration.
+
+
+Whether or not the above suggestions works for your situation may 
+additionally depend on how much access your particular network settings 
+allow between your networked computers.
+
+Best of luck,
+Anupama
+
+
+From greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Nov 25 15:17:12 2008
+From: greenstone_team at cs.waikato.ac.nz (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Date: Tue Nov 25 15:17:15 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Help!!
+In-Reply-To: <00c101c94b85$c846da70$58d48f50$@ac.fj>
+References: <001c01c94b5e$51161320$f3423960$@ac.fj>
+	<4925F0E6.4070503@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<006301c94b6e$2255bda0$670138e0$@ac.fj>
+	<492601A2.6040500@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<008401c94b75$21ced630$656c8290$@ac.fj>
+	<49260B8C.90601@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<009301c94b79$b31d07c0$19571740$@ac.fj>
+	<492619D9.7070304@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<00c101c94b85$c846da70$58d48f50$@ac.fj>
+Message-ID: <492B6028.8080404@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello Ron,
+
+Were the changes to the gli.bat file sufficient to fix the problems you 
+encountered?
+If not, another developer here came up with a different suggestion. As 
+you are working on Vista and Vista has a different way of dealing with 
+Administration privileges, it may be better for you to install 
+Greenstone outside of C:\Program Files. Try either C:\ directly or in 
+your user account (Users\<your user account name>). But first you'll 
+need to uninstall the Greenstone 2.81rc you have in C:\Program Files though.
+
+Therefore,
+1. First run uninstall on your Greenstone 2.81rc installed in C:\Program 
+Files
+2. Rerun the installer and put it somewhere *other* than C:\Program 
+Files, such as C: or in a location within your User account.
+
+A better solution is being considered for Vista that will hopefully 
+allow installation into C:\Program Files, but for the time being, we 
+hope the above suggestion may sort out the issue you've been facing.
+
+Regards,
+Anupama
+
+Ron Vave wrote:
+
+
+
+From sklein at pratt.edu  Tue Nov 25 03:52:40 2008
+From: sklein at pratt.edu (Stephen I. Klein)
+Date: Tue Nov 25 23:25:57 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] oai harvesting with greenstone
+In-Reply-To: <4929C77F.9050302@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <75B6C137B58E41AFA60DAC5FD96103F1@prattlibraries.edu>	<D6B530A1090A224EA17A37D3BFE35F5E264EF55BCF@XVS2-CLUSTER.yu.yale.edu>	<4920D177.1010706@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<92DF57110C744E6EAC933CFD51FD2CBD@prattlibraries.edu>
+	<4929C77F.9050302@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <FC3893AD7A9147E8A64C4D37C3C9C02E@prattlibraries.edu>
+
+Katherine,
+
+ 
+
+I greatly appreciate your response.  
+
+ 
+
+My understanding of OAI is cursory at best, but I thought that OAI
+compliance required supporting  the Dublin Core scheme/format?
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+Stephen
+
+Stephen I. Klein
+Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+Assistant Professor
+Pratt Institute Library
+200 Willoughby Avenue
+Brooklyn, NY 11205
+sklein@pratt.edu
+(718) 399 4423
+Pratt
+
+ 
+
+  _____  
+
+From: Katherine Don [mailto:kjdon@cs.waikato.ac.nz] 
+Sent: Sunday, November 23, 2008 04:14 PM
+To: Stephen I. Klein
+Cc: greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz;
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] oai harvesting with greenstone
+
+ 
+
+Hi Stephen
+
+Sorry, I misunderstood what you were after. I guess what you want is the
+ability to export a collection as OAI (currently we provide MARC, METS,
+DSpace formats).
+I'm not sure what kind of file  OAIster wants
+Is the file you are after like the result of an OAI request? Can you set up
+your Greenstone with an oai server, send a request to it, and then save the
+XML result as a file?
+
+If you wanted to try this, you can use our OAI server to test the format
+before setting up your own one.
+http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/gsdl-svn/oaiserver
+
+If this is not suitable, then I guess the answer is no. If this is something
+that many people might want to do, then we could look at maybe implementing
+it in the future.
+
+I hope this helps,
+Katherine
+
+Stephen I. Klein wrote: 
+
+I am sort of confused.  We would like to be able to generate an OAI
+compliant file with a colelciton in Greenstone to make available for
+harvesting outside of Greenstone via OAIster.  Does Greenstone allow for
+this?
+
+ 
+
+Thank you.
+
+ 
+
+Sincerely,
+
+ 
+
+Stephen
+
+ 
+
+Stephen I. Klein
+Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+Assistant Professor
+Pratt Institute Library
+200 Willoughby Avenue
+Brooklyn, NY 11205
+sklein@pratt.edu
+(718) 399 4423
+Pratt
+
+ 
+
+  _____  
+
+From: Katherine Don [mailto:kjdon@cs.waikato.ac.nz] 
+Sent: Sunday, November 16, 2008 09:06 PM
+To: Belanger, Arthur
+Cc: Stephen I. Klein; greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz;
+greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] oai harvesting with greenstone
+
+ 
+
+Hi Arthur and Stephen
+
+Michael from dlconsulting (dlconsulting.com) has done some work on this, and
+our OAI server now validates. The 2.81 release contains the new server if
+you'd like to try it. You can get it from www.greenstone.org/download
+
+Regards,
+Katherine
+
+Belanger, Arthur wrote: 
+
+Stephen,
+
+ 
+
+Greenstone does have an OAI server as well as an OAI harvester.  However, I
+just tried my server with the OAI repository Explorer at
+http://re.cs.uct.ac.za/ and it failed.
+
+ 
+
+I did also run it through the Data Provider Validation and Registration at
+http://www.openarchives.org/Register/ValidateSite and it failed 2 tests,
+improper response to an invalid request and a problem with some characters
+in the data (this is my problem).  The first problem may be a limit in GS'
+oaiserver.
+
+ 
+
+-- 
+Arthur Belanger
+Medical Library System Manager
+ITS Academic Media & Technology
+Yale University
+PO Box 208065
+New Haven, CT  06520-8065
+
+ 
+
+(203) 785-6928
+(203) 737-2859, fax
+
+ 
+
+mailto:Arthur.Belanger@Yale.Edu
+http://www.yale.edu/its/about/amt
+http://info.med.yale.edu/library
+
+ 
+
+NOTE: Yale ITS will NEVER request passwords or other personal information
+via email. Messages requesting such information are fraudulent and should be
+deleted. 
+
+  _____  
+
+From: greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+[mailto:greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz] On Behalf Of
+Stephen I. Klein
+Sent: Thursday, October 30, 2008 1:45 PM
+To: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz;
+greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Subject: [greenstone-users] oai harvesting with greenstone
+
+ 
+
+We are migrating our digital collections and need to keep our collection OAI
+harvestable.  We currently have a presence via OAIster
+(http://oaister.umdl.umich.edu/o/oaister/) and have intermediated through
+the Los Alamos Gateway at:
+
+ 
+
+http://libtest.lanl.gov/
+
+ 
+
+Does Greenstone allow for the building of OAI compliant XML files that are
+successfully intermediated via a standard gateway and harvestable with
+OAIster?
+
+ 
+
+The following page suggests the inverse:
+
+ 
+
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/OAI_support
+
+ 
+
+Any suggestions to approach this goal would be greatly appreciated.  Thank
+you.
+
+ 
+
+Regards,
+
+ 
+
+Stephen
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+Stephen I. Klein
+Electronic Resources/Systems Librarian
+Assistant Professor
+Pratt Institute Library
+200 Willoughby Avenue
+Brooklyn, NY 11205
+sklein@pratt.edu
+(718) 399 4423
+Pratt
+
+ 
+
+ 
+ 
+ 
+
+
+
+
+
+  _____  
+
+
+
+ 
+ 
+ 
+_______________________________________________
+greenstone-users mailing list
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+  
+ 
+
+
+
+
+
+  _____  
+
+
+
+ 
+_______________________________________________
+greenstone-users mailing list
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+  
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081124/4ab63665/attachment-0001.html
+From ak19 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Tue Nov 25 16:38:27 2008
+From: ak19 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (ak19@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Tue Nov 25 23:26:00 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: trouble building greenstone3 from source
+In-Reply-To: <492B29B2.2010103@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <2db6d47e0811230642qe7e1e98y38dc9b1fcc902b6b@mail.gmail.com>
+	<492B29B2.2010103@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <1075.130.217.244.92.1227584307.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hello Andrew,
+
+I tried compiling up a fresh checkout of Greenstone 3 from SVN on the
+Windows machine here and did not encounter this problem. However, this may
+be because my settings for Java are set up in such a manner that it worked
+out.
+
+- Do you have a JDK installed on your machine?
+- What is your JAVA_HOME set to?
+- Do you have the following files in your JAVA_HOME\bin folder:
+javac
+javah
+java
+javadoc
+jar
+
+I do not know to what extent you are familiar with programming, but seeing
+as how you are compiling up GS3 from SVN, I thought I could explain the
+following to you so that you can try out a few things to narrow down where
+the problem might be.
+
+Concerning this bit that you referred to:
+>> compile-packages:
+>>      [echo] compile javagdbm
+>>      [echo] Windows: compile javagdbm (java only)
+>>      [exec] Compiling...
+>>      [exec] The system cannot find the path specified.
+>>      [exec] The system cannot find the path specified.
+>>      [exec] The system cannot find the path specified.
+>>      [echo] Install the javagdbm jar file
+
+These print statements happen in your Greenstone3/build.xml file (around
+line 1200).
+
+At the stage this happens, the build.xml is calling the makefile
+"winMake.bat" located in your Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm folder and
+passing the arguments "compile" and "javaonly".
+
+During execution of this makefile, some directory path is referred to that
+it cannot find, causing the compilation to fail at this stage which then
+causes the build to fail when the javagdbm jar file has not been produced.
+
+1. In a DOS prompt, can you go to the directory
+Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/ and then from there type:
+winMake.bat compile javaonly
+Does it give some error statements here?
+
+2. If so, can you go one directory further down into a folder called java
+(so that now you are in Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java) and type:
+winMake.bat compile
+Are there any error statements appearing here now?
+
+If there was no error output in doing either 1. or 2. above, neither 3 nor
+4 below are necessary:
+3. If you open up the file Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/winMake.bat
+in Wordpad (Notepad doesn't preserve the lines very well), you will see
+that these arguments cause it to call another winMake.bat makefile located
+at Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java, with the "compile" argument.
+
+The first question is, do you have a folder called java situated inside your
+Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/? And does
+Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java contain a file called winMake.bat?
+
+4. If so:
+When opening up the Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/winMake.bat file in
+WordPad, you may perhaps notice that it refers to lots of directory paths.
+It stores many of these paths in variables marked by ALLUPPERCASE.
+Sometimes it may happen that in reality these paths contain spaces like
+"Program Files". This could cause problems if spaces are indeed involved,
+unless such paths are embedded in quotes.
+
+Can you replace the following section in your the
+Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java/winMake.bat file with the bit that
+follows it:
+>>>>REPLACE FOLLOWING:
+:compile
+	if not exist %JAVACLASSDIR% mkdir %JAVACLASSDIR%
+	echo Compiling...
+        %JAVAC% -d %JAVACLASSDIR% %JAVACOPTIONS% 
+au\com\pharos\gdbm\*.java au\com\pharos\io\*.java
+au\com\pharos\meta\*.java au\com\pharos\packing\*.java
+au\com\pharos\test\*.java au\com\pharos\util\*.java
+        %JAVAH% -classpath %JAVACLASSDIR% -o %JAVAGDBMHOME%\jni\GdbmFile.h
+au.com.pharos.gdbm.GdbmFile
+        %JAR% cf %JAVAGDBMHOME%\javagdbm.jar -C %JAVACLASSDIR% au
+	goto done
+<<<<
+
+>>>>REPLACE WITH:
+:compile
+	if not exist "%JAVACLASSDIR%" mkdir "%JAVACLASSDIR%"
+	echo Compiling...
+        "%JAVAC%" -d "%JAVACLASSDIR%" "%JAVACOPTIONS%" 
+au\com\pharos\gdbm\*.java au\com\pharos\io\*.java
+au\com\pharos\meta\*.java au\com\pharos\packing\*.java
+au\com\pharos\test\*.java au\com\pharos\util\*.java
+        "%JAVAH%" -classpath "%JAVACLASSDIR%" -o
+"%JAVAGDBMHOME%\jni\GdbmFile.h" au.com.pharos.gdbm.GdbmFile
+        "%JAR%" cf "%JAVAGDBMHOME%\javagdbm.jar" -C "%JAVACLASSDIR%" au
+	goto done
+<<<<
+
+Now, back in your DOS prompt, from within the
+Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/ directory, type:
+winMake.bat compile javaonly
+
+Do you still see the same problems?
+
+5. If the above changes did not fix the errors, we can print out the
+values of these paths to make sure they are all set to something that
+makes sense.
+
+After the following line in your
+Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java/winMake.bat file:
+set JAR="%JAVA_HOME%\bin\jar"
+
+Can you paste the following:
+echo javagdbmhome: "%JAVAGDBMHOME%"
+echo javaclassdir: "%JAVACLASSDIR%"
+echo.
+echo javac: "%JAVAC%"
+echo javah: "%JAVAH%"
+echo java: "%JAVA%"
+echo javadoc: "%JAVADOC%"
+echo jar: "%JAR%"
+
+Go back to your DOS prompt and from within
+Greenstone3/src/packages/javagdbm/java/ type:
+winMake.bat compile
+
+Hopefully it should now print out all the values of the paths above so
+that you can see whether any is conspicuous.
+- Do they all have a value or is any left as ""?
+- And when you look for them in Windows Explorer, are you able to find all
+the folder paths which were just printed out to the DOS prompt?
+
+Tell us how you get on,
+Anupama
+
+
+> Andrew Marlow wrote:
+>> hello,
+>>
+>> I am trying to build greenstone3 from source and I have hit a problem.
+>>
+>> I downloaded it using the instructions for SVNon the greenstone3 web
+>> page, then I said ant prepare install. Below is the end of the build
+>> log, which shows the error message:
+>>
+>> ---
+>> configure-gs2building:
+>>
+>> configure-c++:
+>>
+>> compile-web:
+>>     [javac] Compiling 1 source file to
+>> c:\everything\amarlow\development\mystuff
+>> \research\digital_libraries\greenstone3\web\WEB-INF\classes
+>>
+>> compile-packages:
+>>      [echo] compile javagdbm
+>>      [echo] Windows: compile javagdbm (java only)
+>>      [exec] Compiling...
+>>      [exec] The system cannot find the path specified.
+>>      [exec] The system cannot find the path specified.
+>>      [exec] The system cannot find the path specified.
+>>      [echo] Install the javagdbm jar file
+>>
+>> BUILD FAILED
+>> c:\everything\amarlow\development\mystuff\research\digital_libraries\greenstone3
+>> \build.xml:1211: Warning: Could not find file
+>> c:\everything\amarlow\development\
+>> mystuff\research\digital_libraries\greenstone3\src\packages\javagdbm\javagdbm.ja
+>> r to copy.
+>>
+>> Total time: 25 minutes 32 seconds
+>> ----
+>>
+>> What am I doing wrong please?
+>>
+>
+> I'll get one of the research programmers to double check the SVN
+> checkout and compile sequence under Windows, but in the meantime, what
+> version of Windows, Java and Visual Studio are you using? Can you also
+> check and let us know what the JAVA_HOME environment variable is set to
+> for you set up.
+>
+> Thanks,
+>
+> David.
+>
+>> --
+>> Regards,
+>>
+>> Andrew M.
+>
+>
+
+
+
+From Pier.Luigi.Rossi at bondy.ird.fr  Tue Nov 25 20:04:36 2008
+From: Pier.Luigi.Rossi at bondy.ird.fr (Pier.Luigi.Rossi@bondy.ird.fr)
+Date: Tue Nov 25 23:26:01 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] AZCompact or Generic list and accents
+Message-ID: <1227596676.492ba38471233@webmail.bondy.ird.fr>
+
+
+
+Hi Katherine,
+
+
+I try to use a GenericList but uncessfully.
+The GenericList needs to class metadata in unicode format.
+My metadata are in unicode format ...
+If I try to class the library interface generete an error.
+
+My solution (my idea for the moment) is :
+1) For the authors list I need an AZCompactList
+2) When I generete my metadata file (with a php script)
+I generete 2 metadata fields for author : first with accents
+second without
+3) I generete list with the first and I present the bibliographic
+list with accents.
+
+
+But I thing it will better if you try add to AZList collation
+for ascii caracters > 127
+
+
+Un grand merci
+
+Pier Luigi ROSSI
+IRD
+
+
+Katherine Don a écrit :
+> Hi Pier
+>
+> Try using GenericList instead. That handles non-ascii characters much better.
+>
+> Regards,
+> Katherine
+>
+> Pier Luigi ROSSI wrote:
+>> Dear Greesntone list,
+>>
+>> a try to create an AZCompactList with authors metadata.
+>> Many caracters of this metadata is with accents : é  è ê
+>> (you now, french, spanish, italian, ..... uses accents ;-} )
+>>
+>> The classifier put accents at the end of the list : is very unplesent
+>> (for authors and computer scientist)
+>>
+>> Have you got a solution ?
+>>
+>> Regards
+>>
+>> PL Rossi
+>> IRD, France
+>>
+>>
+>> _______________________________________________
+>> greenstone-users mailing list
+>> greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+>> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+>>
+>
+
+
+From dspano at orsna.gov.ar  Wed Nov 26 01:34:50 2008
+From: dspano at orsna.gov.ar (Diego Spano)
+Date: Wed Nov 26 01:33:48 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: greenstone-users Digest, Vol 68, Issue 24
+In-Reply-To: <492B1103.102@sdb.org>
+References: <20081124074452.759188067@mx06.omnibit.it> <492B1103.102@sdb.org>
+Message-ID: <002101c94efa$35a24fb0$a0e6ef10$@gov.ar>
+
+Julian:
+
+ 
+
+Can you detect a common problem from those ppt that canŽt be processed by
+PPTPlug?. If you open some of them, what do you see?. Perhaps it has no
+text, only images inside?.
+
+ 
+
+Try to put another pptplug line in collect.cfg below the one that you have,
+with the option: -convert_to pagedimg_jpg. With this, you ensure that any
+ppt that was not processed because the text canŽt be extracted, will be
+processed as images. You wil not have access to full text searches to those
+files, but they will appear in classifiers or in fielded searches!.
+
+ 
+
+Hope this helps.
+
+ 
+
+Diego Spano
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+De: greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+[mailto:greenstone-users-bounces@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz] En nombre de
+Julian Fox
+Enviado el: lunes, 24 de noviembre de 2008 18:40
+Para: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Asunto: [greenstone-users] Re: greenstone-users Digest, Vol 68, Issue 24
+
+ 
+
+Hi list,
+Quite some time ago I had a problem with the ppt plugin (I'm using GS v.
+2.80 on a Linux box) and have hobbled along a bit ever since, sometimes
+successfully other times not.  Put simply, I seem to be getting rather too
+many 'Powerpoint 95/97 converter failed' messages after things are processed
+- far too many in fact, so I'm asking if there is perhaps a newer version of
+this plugin that I can bring into my 2.80 - or would I need to update to
+2.81 and will that fix things anyway in this regard?  Since I now have a
+very large DL with some 200,000 items in it, any upgrading takes time and
+effort which I'd prefer to avoid for a while.
+Occasionally I've overcome the problem by using the unknown plugin but
+that's not a perfect way to handle things.  I'd much prefer if the ppt
+plugin would do its job.  I'm quite sure I can't have that many faulty
+Powerpoint presentations!
+Anyone got any thoughts on this one?
+
+greenstone-users-request@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz wrote: 
+
+Send greenstone-users mailing list submissions to
+        greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+ 
+To subscribe or unsubscribe via the World Wide Web, visit
+        https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+or, via email, send a message with subject or body 'help' to
+        greenstone-users-request@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+ 
+You can reach the person managing the list at
+        greenstone-users-owner@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+ 
+When replying, please edit your Subject line so it is more specific
+than "Re: Contents of greenstone-users digest..."
+ 
+ 
+Today's Topics:
+ 
+   1. Re: Winisis to Greenstone (Metadata Exlpoding) (Katherine Don)
+   2. Re: RV: Problemas con la Instalación de Greenstone (Felipe Vera)
+   3. very Important (Amin Hedjazi)
+   4. collection building customization (Amin Hedjazi)
+   5. I need to view my collections from other       client's computer
+      (Luke Onwuka)
+   6. I want to view my collections... (Luke Onwuka)
+ 
+ 
+----------------------------------------------------------------------
+ 
+Message: 1
+Date: Mon, 24 Nov 2008 12:32:24 +1300
+From: Katherine Don  <mailto:kjdon@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+<kjdon@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] Winisis to Greenstone (Metadata
+        Exlpoding)
+To: Lavji Zala  <mailto:zala@mica.ac.in> <zala@mica.ac.in>
+Cc: greenstonesupport@iimk.ac.in,
+        greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Message-ID:  <mailto:4929E808.6060404@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+<4929E808.6060404@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Content-Type: text/plain; charset=windows-1252; format=flowed
+ 
+Hi Lavji
+ 
+Greenstone doesn't currently allow this. I think it will be simple to 
+add in though.
+Can you please send me (off list) a sample database (preferably a small 
+one) that contains records with both fields and I can try to get it working.
+ 
+Regards,
+Katherine
+ 
+Lavji Zala wrote:
+  
+
+Dear Friends,
+ 
+I would like to convert Winisis archive (dissertation database)  to
+Greenstone. I have been using the menual titled Creating Greenstone
+Digital Library with Winisis Database designed by K. Rajasekharan and
+K.M. Nafala. It helped me a lot. Even through I am facing problem that has
+been detailed as below.
+ 
+In winisis archive (Dissertation database) there are number of
+fields/elements including LINK and PHOTO. The LINK element
+represents Pdf of document  and the PHOTO element represents the Image
+of student. I want both elements to be visible/accessible in greenstone.
+When I try to explode the metadata (dis.mst, dis.fdt, dis.xrf) in
+Greenstone (Dissertation collection) it shows the Explode Metadata Box.
+I have chosen dos_850-DOS Codepage 850 (Latin 1) as Input _coding. I
+have also chosen LINK as document field I want to include one more
+field IMAGE in Input_coding box. How can i do that.
+ 
+Kindly guide me.
+ 
+regards,
+ 
+Lavji N. Zala
+Assistant Librarian
+Knowledge Exchange & Information Centre (KEIC)
+Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad (MICA)
+Shela
+Ahmedabad - 380058
+M- 093779922949
+ 
+ 
+_______________________________________________
+greenstone-users mailing list
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+ 
+  
+    
+
+ 
+ 
+ 
+------------------------------
+ 
+Message: 2
+Date: Sun, 23 Nov 2008 22:32:52 -0300
+From: "Felipe Vera"  <mailto:felipevera@gmail.com> <felipevera@gmail.com>
+Subject: Re: [greenstone-users] RV: Problemas con la Instalación de
+        Greenstone
+To: "Judith Tapia L."  <mailto:JTapia@dipres.gob.cl> <JTapia@dipres.gob.cl>
+Cc: greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+Message-ID:
+ 
+<mailto:5c33f9400811231732v39e4a131v15c0eea82d5efad7@mail.gmail.com>
+<5c33f9400811231732v39e4a131v15c0eea82d5efad7@mail.gmail.com>
+Content-Type: text/plain; charset="iso-8859-1"
+ 
+Hola Judith:
+ 
+ 
+Primero, seria bueno que te subscribas a la lista de usuarios Greenstone en
+español mediante este mail greenstone_es@freelists.org
+ 
+ 
+Respecto al problema puntual puedes comentar lo siguiente por favor:
+ 
+ 
+1- Que versión de Greenstone tienes instalado en tu PC
+ 
+2- Que mensaje te arroja la pantalla al momento de abrir la instarfaz del
+bibliotecario de Greenstone????
+ 
+3- Tienes instalada la aplicación gráfica de Java, la cual es necesaria para
+poder ejecutar y abrir la "interfaz de Bibliotecario" de Greenstone.
+ 
+4- En caso que NO tengas aun instalado "JAVA" por favor descarga desde
+el siguiente
+enlace
+<http://www.prodigioconsultores.com/wp-content/uploads/soluciones/j2re-1_4_2
+_07-windows-i586-p.rar>
+<http://www.prodigioconsultores.com/wp-content/uploads/soluciones/j2re-1_4_2
+_07-windows-i586-p.rar>el
+archivo ejecutable "comprimido", al momento de ejecutar el archivo
+debes
+instalar "todo por defecto"
+ 
+ 
+Comencemos con lo anterior y seguimos avanzando.
+ 
+ 
+Saludos y seguimos en contacto
+Felipe Vera
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+2008/11/20 Judith Tapia L.  <mailto:JTapia@dipres.gob.cl>
+<JTapia@dipres.gob.cl>
+ 
+  
+
+Estimados Señores
+Tengo instalado en mi PC el software Greenstone, pero NO funciona la
+interfaz para el biblioteacrio, osea no lo puedo abrir ni agregar ningún
+registro.
+ 
+Agradezvo sus comentarios. Les saluda atentamente desde Santiago de Chile
+ 
+Judith Tapia Lorca
+Bibliotecaria
+Ministerio de Hacienda de Chile
+Fono 473 26 33
+ 
+ 
+_______________________________________________
+greenstone-users mailing list
+greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-users
+ 
+ 
+    
+
+ 
+ 
+  
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081125/f690f318/attachment-0001.html
+From timothee.baret at laligue-alpesdusud.org  Wed Nov 26 01:48:29 2008
+From: timothee.baret at laligue-alpesdusud.org (=?ISO-8859-1?Q?Timoth=E9e_Baret?=)
+Date: Wed Nov 26 01:48:45 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: gli-client 2.80 http error code=500,
+ (Anupama of Greenstone Team)
+Message-ID: <492BF41D.7000803@laligue-alpesdusud.org>
+
+Hi,
+
+I send you the summary about the work our informatician did to solve our 
+problem thank to your advices :
+
+> 1. Might there be any typos in the URL you used? For instance, when I
+> set the browser to the base URL you used (http://192.168.1.253/),
+> nothing seems to load and I eventually get a Connection Failed:
+> Connection Timed Out (110) error.
+
+Sorry, 192.168.1.253 is a local address, only accessible from our 
+private network.
+
+> 2. Have you followed the instructions on the wiki page
+> http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone
+> 3. If you had already done step 2, did you get a success message on
+> pointing your browser to
+> http://<your-machine-name>:<port>/gsdl/cgi-bin/gliserver.pl?cmd=check-installation 
+>
+> This is a very important step, and unless you get a success message
+> here, the rest will not work.
+
+This test didn't work, I received the source code off the script instead 
+off the result. Your tip helped us finding the problem : the path to 
+perl interpretor was wrong in gliserver.pl
+
+> Please try out the above and tell us how you go.
+
+Thanks, we can start working with Greestone now.
+-------------- section suivante --------------
+Une pièce jointe non texte a été nettoyée...
+Nom: timothee_baret.vcf
+Type: text/x-vcard
+Taille: 369 octets
+Desc: non disponible
+Url: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081125/bedde0b4/timothee_baret.vcf
+From zhang at wrlc.org  Wed Nov 26 08:10:38 2008
+From: zhang at wrlc.org (Allison Zhang)
+Date: Wed Nov 26 08:10:54 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Customizing Greenstone User Interface Updated
+	11-25-08
+In-Reply-To: <4929D611.9020300@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+References: <001701c8fd92$d0a13ee0$1a0101c1@SHAIO.COM>
+	<4929D611.9020300@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+Message-ID: <B44C2F7B73CAA245A1E2F845C115D46D0F979CC5@w2k-exchange1.wrlc2k.wrlc.org>
+
+Dear Friends,
+
+I just added a section "Hyperlinks in Document Display" under "Modifying Document Display"  in my online document "Customizing Greenstone User Interface" at http://www.wrlc.org/dcpc/UserInterface/interface.htm.
+
+Just let you know.
+
+
+
+Allison B Zhang
+Manager, Digital Collections Production Center
+Washington Research Library Consortium
+901 Commerce Drive
+Upper Marlboro, Maryland, 20774
+Telphone: 301-390-2049
+Fax:  301-390-2020
+
+
+
+
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081125/414f6c1a/attachment.html
+From kcostel4 at illinois.edu  Wed Nov 26 13:51:07 2008
+From: kcostel4 at illinois.edu (Kaitlin Costello)
+Date: Wed Nov 26 13:51:15 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Problem with cover images
+Message-ID: <20081125185107.BTU65627@expms4.cites.uiuc.edu>
+
+Hello List,
+
+I am running Greenstone 2.80 on an Apache server and am having problems with displaying cover images as thumbnails instead of document icons.  When I place a .jpg file with the same name as a .flv or .pdf file into the import directory where the .flv or .pdf resides (as instructed here: http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Customizing_collections#How_do_I_add_cover_images_for_my_documents.3F), the .jpg does not appear as the cover image for the .flv file.  I have cover images disabled (DocumentImages set to false so that the cover image does not show up on the document page) and a statement in VList that says: "{If}{[dc.Format] eq 'flv', [link]<img src="[DocImage]" height='150' />[/link]}.  Instead, I get the following error:
+
+The file Test.jpg.pag was not recognised by any plugin.
+The file Test.jpg.dir was not recognised by any plugin.
+
+It seems as if, for some reason, Greenstone is converting the .jpg into two files: a .jpg.pag and a .jpg.dir file.  I can't figure out why this is happening. However, when I try this exact procedure on my home installation of Greenstone that is not on the Apache server, it works as it should and cover images are displayed as thumbnails.  
+
+Is there a workaround for this problem?  I cannot figure out another way to display an image as the thumbnail icon for documents that are not images.
+
+Thank you,
+Kaitlin
+
+From jbfox at sdb.org  Wed Nov 26 20:13:54 2008
+From: jbfox at sdb.org (Julian Fox)
+Date: Wed Nov 26 20:14:10 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] wvware?
+Message-ID: <492CF732.1020802@sdb.org>
+
+Hi list,
+After my recent post on problems with ppt files, I took a wider look and 
+discovered what I think is a broader issue.  It also involves conversion 
+of .doc files.
+I recall a year or two back, with GS 2.73, that when I moved up to 2.74 
+(upgrading also, at the time, Ubuntu Feisty as the OS), any number of 
+doc files simply wouldn't convert to html (got lots of lines of ????  no 
+matter how I organised the wordplugin). The (good) advice I got at the 
+time was to get myself a new version of wvware (1.4.7 was it? I can't 
+recall) and adjust the relevant gsconvert.pl file. That seemed to work.
+I am now using GS 2.80 and by now Ubuntu 8.04 (Gutsy). And I'm back to 
+the old problem, first noticed by the fact that powerpoint files don't 
+convert (most, anyway) and now it seems that doc is following suit. I'm 
+assuming the ones that have converted are prior to both upgrades a month 
+back, and its the recent ones that are not converting.  So is the 
+problem the same or similar?  I wonder if someone could comment on this 
+for me. Clearly it doesn't happen with people using a Windows OS or 
+there would have been many posts on this issue.
+If someone in fact does believe that the problem is the way the version 
+of wvware in GS 2.80 (vis-a-vis Ubuntu Gutsy 8.04) is the problem, I'm 
+not 100% sure about how to fix it. I took a quick look yesterday to see 
+if wvware has newer versions, but the impression is it has remained 
+static over a year or two.  I'm also not exactly sure how or what to 
+adjust inside the gsconvert.pl file if I have to change that - I've 
+forgotten what I did some time back where I recall someone gave me 
+precise directions line by line but I can't find them now!
+I've come back to thinking it's this problem because no matter what 
+adjustments I make to the plugins (word or ppt) I have way too many 
+files that are not converting to html.  There seems to be less problem 
+(or none) with the pdf conversion to html.
+Julian
+
+From akujenga at gmail.com  Wed Nov 26 21:24:32 2008
+From: akujenga at gmail.com (Amos Kujenga)
+Date: Wed Nov 26 21:24:40 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Customizing Greenstone User Interface Updated
+	11-25-08
+In-Reply-To: <B44C2F7B73CAA245A1E2F845C115D46D0F979CC5@w2k-exchange1.wrlc2k.wrlc.org>
+References: <001701c8fd92$d0a13ee0$1a0101c1@SHAIO.COM>
+	<4929D611.9020300@cs.waikato.ac.nz>
+	<B44C2F7B73CAA245A1E2F845C115D46D0F979CC5@w2k-exchange1.wrlc2k.wrlc.org>
+Message-ID: <53f027730811260024s75f90ac9l1b7186d2df2ee7e0@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hi Allison,
+
+Thanks so much for the update.
+
+I'm sure these your efforts have and will continue to benefit many
+"Greenstoners" out there (or here :-)). Documentation (lack of it) is
+usually a big drawback in FOSS projects but with your input, for
+example, I believe many can learn a lot more about Greenstone IF they
+can get to GO THROUGH the page. Your page does answer many many
+questions, I must admit, but sadly, despite such efforts I'm not sure
+where this culture of "if all else fails, consult the manual" came
+from; people hardly read manuals, period! I'd like to encourage list
+members to read the already existing documentation as it'll answer
+many of the questions that get to be asked on the list. I think the
+list archive is also another good stopping point.
+
+Once again, thanks and do keep up the good work.
+
+Regards
+
+
+Amos
+
+On 11/25/08, Allison Zhang <zhang@wrlc.org> wrote:
+> Dear Friends,
+>
+> I just added a section "Hyperlinks in Document Display" under "Modifying
+> Document Display"  in my online document "Customizing Greenstone User
+> Interface" at http://www.wrlc.org/dcpc/UserInterface/interface.htm.
+>
+> Just let you know.
+>
+>
+>
+> Allison B Zhang
+> Manager, Digital Collections Production Center
+> Washington Research Library Consortium
+> 901 Commerce Drive
+> Upper Marlboro, Maryland, 20774
+> Telphone: 301-390-2049
+> Fax:  301-390-2020
+>
+>
+>
+>
+>
+
+From qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz  Thu Nov 27 10:03:41 2008
+From: qq6 at cs.waikato.ac.nz (qq6@cs.waikato.ac.nz)
+Date: Thu Nov 27 10:03:53 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Re: [greenstone-devel] persian traslation
+ updated and some questions
+In-Reply-To: <4105c9810811250036v3e70597eh55c7a1cd7e0828f8@mail.gmail.com>
+References: <4105c9810811250036v3e70597eh55c7a1cd7e0828f8@mail.gmail.com>
+Message-ID: <28483.206.207.225.23.1227733421.squirrel@webmail.scms.waikato.ac.nz>
+
+Hi
+
+Please read two pages
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_language_support ,
+http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Information_for_language_maintainers
+, if you want to make a contribution on translation of Greenstone
+interface.
+
+Regards
+Quan
+
+> ive just attache the gli persian (farsi) traslation in the ticket #405
+> Oran told me to send an email when i updated my ticket ,so heare it is
+> now i had changed codes of the gui so it can support right to left
+> languages
+>
+> soulde i upload the files in the same place ?
+> there are a greate deel of files that i hade to chage almost the hole GUI
+> package
+> _______________________________________________
+> greenstone-devel mailing list
+> greenstone-devel@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz
+> https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone-devel
+>
+
+
+
+From thaotk2 at gmail.com  Thu Nov 27 23:34:10 2008
+From: thaotk2 at gmail.com (Thao Thao)
+Date: Thu Nov 27 23:34:17 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Error the depositor
+Message-ID: <4409126a0811270234s6a1525a6rf6c2d8825407e111@mail.gmail.com>
+
+Hi everybody!
+I'm studying Greenstone2.72. I installed Web Library and IIS(on
+WindowsXP).But when I use The depositor, appear error: "The depositor failed
+to read from or write to a temporary file or directory.Possible causes
+are:Greenstone does not have read/write access to the C:\Program
+Files\Greenstone/tmp directory."
+Can you show me the way corrects this mistake?
+Thank you very much!
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081127/cbcd79e6/attachment.html
+From shaman at bntu.by  Fri Nov 28 00:55:55 2008
+From: shaman at bntu.by (shaman)
+Date: Fri Nov 28 00:56:02 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Word plugin with windows_scripting problem with
+	MS Office (russian)
+Message-ID: <492E8ACB.6030601@bntu.by>
+
+???????????? ?????????,
+??? ?????? ? ?? ???????? ???????? ? ??????????, ??? ??????????? 
+?????????? ????? ??????? ??????? ????????????????? ???????? ???????? 
+?????????, ? ??? ??????????? ? ??????? windows_scripting ????????? ?? 
+??????????. ????? ?????????? ???????? ? Equation Editor, Mathtype 
+????????? ? ????????????? MS Office, ?????? ?????????????? ??? 
+??????????? PDF ??????????. ?????? ?????? ??? ? ??????? ???? ???????.
+
+From trankhoaqn at gmail.com  Fri Nov 28 03:57:37 2008
+From: trankhoaqn at gmail.com (Khoa Tran)
+Date: Fri Nov 28 03:57:45 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Remote greenstone2.72
+Message-ID: <e04902680811270657s59d581c2hef105f8453f3cef4@mail.gmail.com>
+
+ Hi everybody!
+ I am configuring for remote Greenstone2.72. I use IIS on WindowXP. When I
+visit "http://localhost/gsdl/cgi-bin/gliserver.pl?cmd=check-installation"
+appear error:
+
+CGI ErrorThe specified CGI application misbehaved by not returning a
+complete set of HTTP headers. The headers it did return are:
+
+Can't open perl script "Files\Greenstone\cgi-bin\gliserver.pl": No
+such file or directory
+
+
+Can you show me the way correct this error?
+-------------- next part --------------
+An HTML attachment was scrubbed...
+URL: https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-users/attachments/20081127/675d3c10/attachment.html
+From apetrenko at bntu.by  Thu Nov 27 01:56:50 2008
+From: apetrenko at bntu.by (apentrenko)
+Date: Sat Nov 29 23:45:41 2008
+Subject: [greenstone-users] Word plugin with windows_scripting problem with
+	MS Office (russian)
+Message-ID: <492D4792.2000806@bntu.by>
+
+???????????? ?????????,
+??? ?????? ? ?? ???????? ???????? ? ??????????, ??? ??????????? 
+?????????? ????? ??????? ??????? ????????????????? ???????? ???????? 
+?????????, ? ??? ??????????? ? ??????? windows_scripting ????????? ?? 
+??????????. ????? ?????????? ???????? ? Equation Editor, Mathtype 
+????????? ? ????????????? MS Office, ?????? ?????????????? ??? 
+??????????? PDF ??????????. ?????? ?????? ??? ? ??????? ???? ???????.
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/metadata/ex.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet [
+
+  <!-- The outer tag of any metadata set. Contains some number of elements.             -->
+  <!-- @param contact     A contact address for the creator.                            -->
+  <!-- @param creator     The name of the entity resposibly for this set.               -->
+  <!-- @param family      The name of this sets family.                                 -->
+  <!-- @param lastchanged The full date, user name and machine name of the last editor. --> 
+  <!--   uses the form:                                                                 -->
+  <!--   Day Mon(th) dd hh:mm:ss yyyy '-' <username> on <machine>                       -->
+  <!-- @param namespace   The namespace of this metadata set.                           -->
+  <!ELEMENT MetadataSet ((Name|Description|Element)+)>
+  <!ATTLIST MetadataSet
+				contact     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				creator     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				description CDATA #REQUIRED
+            family      CDATA #REQUIRED
+				lastchanged CDATA #REQUIRED
+            name        CDATA #REQUIRED
+				namespace   CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- The name of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Name (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Name
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- The description of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Description (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Description
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- An element in the metadata set. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Element (Attribute*,OptionList?)>
+  <!ATTLIST Element
+            name       CDATA #REQUIRED
+				occurances CDATA "0">
+
+  <!-- Each element has several attribute children. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Attribute (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Attribute
+            name CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- For listing predefined values for this element. -->
+  <!ELEMENT OptionList (Value+)>
+  <!ATTLIST OptionList
+            restricted (true|false) "false">
+]>
+
+<MetadataSet 
+contact     = "nzdl.org"
+creator     = "New Zealand Digital Libraries Project: Greenstone"
+family      = "Extracted Greenstone"
+lastchanged = "Tue May 20 10:30:32 2003 - jmt12 on narya"
+namespace   = "ex" 
+>
+
+  <Name language="en">Extracted Greenstone Metadata 1.0</Name>
+
+  <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.0 of the automatically extracted Greenstone Metadata Element Set.</Description>
+
+  <Element name="Encoding">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The encoding of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Encoding</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Language">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The language of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Language</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Source">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Hidden in the Librarian Interface as it already shown by the various file trees.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The filename of the document imported by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Source</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Title">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The title of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Title</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/metadata/profile.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/gsarch-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE Profiles [
+<!ELEMENT Profiles (Action*)>
+<!ELEMENT Action (#PCDATA)>
+<!ATTLIST Action
+                source     CDATA #REQUIRED
+                target     CDATA "">
+]>
+<Profiles/>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/image-e/COPYING
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/image-e/COPYING	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/image-e/COPYING	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+The images in this collection have been produced by members of the Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato.
+The University of Waikato holds copyright. They may be distributed freely, without any restrictions. 
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/image-e/etc/collect.cfg
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/image-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/image-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,460 @@
+creator		greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+public		true
+
+buildtype	mgpp
+
+plugin	ImagePlugin -OIDtype incremental
+plugin	GreenstoneXMLPlugin
+plugin	MetadataXMLPlugin
+plugin	ArchivesInfPlugin
+plugin	DirectoryPlugin
+
+classify	List -metadata Image -buttonname Browse
+
+format VList "<td valign=\'top\'>[link][thumbicon][/link]</td>
+<td valign=\'top\'>_ImageName_: [Image]<br>_Width_: [ImageWidth]
+<br>_Height_: [ImageHeight]<br>_Size_: [ImageSize]</td>"
+
+format DocumentText "<center><table width=\'_pagewidth_\'>
+<tr><td><img src=\'_httpassocdir_/[assocfilepath]/[Image]\'>
+<br>_ImageName_: [Image]<br>_Width_: [ImageWidth]<br>_Height_: [ImageHeight]
+<br>_Size_: [ImageSize]</td></tr></table></center>"
+
+format DocumentHeading ""
+format DocumentButtons ""
+
+format HList "[link][highlight][ex.Title][/highlight][/link]"
+
+
+# strings that don't need translating
+collectionmeta	sampleoid [l=en] "D2"
+
+# -- English strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=en] "Simple image collection"
+
+collectionmeta	ImageName [l=en] "Image Name"
+collectionmeta	Width [l=en] "Width"
+collectionmeta	Height [l=en] "Height"
+collectionmeta	Size [l=en] "Size"
+
+# -- French strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=fr] "Collection d\'images simple"
+
+collectionmeta	ImageName [l=fr] "Nom d\'image"
+collectionmeta	Width [l=fr] "Largeur"
+collectionmeta	Height [l=fr] "Hauteur"
+collectionmeta	Size [l=fr] "Taille"
+
+# -- Spanish strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=es] "ColecciÃ³n simple de imÃ¡genes"
+
+collectionmeta	ImageName [l=es] "TÃ­tulo de la imagen"
+collectionmeta	Width [l=es] "Ancho"
+collectionmeta	Height [l=es] "Altura"
+collectionmeta	Size [l=es] "TamaÃ±o"
+
+# -- Russian strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=ru] "ÐÑÐŸÑÑÐ°Ñ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹"
+
+collectionmeta	ImageName [l=ru] "ÐÐŒÑ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ"
+collectionmeta	Width [l=ru] "ÐšÐžÑÐžÐœÐ°"
+collectionmeta	Height [l=ru] "ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐ°"
+collectionmeta	Size [l=ru] "Ð Ð°Ð·ÐŒÐµÑ"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=zh] "ç®ååŸçéŠè"
+
+collectionmeta	ImageName [l=zh] "åŸçå"
+collectionmeta	Width [l=zh] "å®œåºŠ"
+collectionmeta	Height [l=zh] "é«åºŠ"
+collectionmeta	Size [l=zh] "å€§å°"
+
+# -- English text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=en] "This is a basic image collection that contains no text and no
+explicit metadata. Several JPEG files are placed in the import directory prior to importing
+and building the collection, that\'s all.
+<p>
+The images in this collection have been produced by members of the Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato.
+The University of Waikato holds copyright. They may be distributed freely, without any restrictions.
+
+<h3>How the collection works</h3>\n
+
+<p>
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">Here</a> is a sample document in the collection.
+The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>
+configuration file</a> specifies no indexes, so the search button is
+suppressed.\n
+
+<p>
+There is only one plugin, <i>ImagePlugin</i>, aside from the four that are
+always present (<i>GreenstoneXMLPlugin</i>, <i>MetadataXMLPlugin</i>, <i>ArchivesInfPlugin</i>, <i>DirectoryPlugin</i>).
+<i>ImagePlugin</i> relies on the existence of two programs from the ImageMagick suite
+(<a href=\"http://www.imagemagick.org\">http://www.imagemagick.org</a>): <i>convert</i> and
+<i>identify</i>. Greenstone will not be able to build the collection correctly unless
+ImageMagick is installed on your computer.\n
+
+<p> <i>ImagePlugin</i> automatically creates a thumbnail and generates the following
+metadata for each image in the collection:\n
+
+<blockquote>
+<table border=0 cellspacing=0>
+<tr><td width=125 valign=top><i>Image</i></td><td>Name of file containing the image <tr>\n
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ImageWidth</i></td><td>Width of image (in pixels) <tr>\n
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ImageHeight</i></td><td>Height of image (in pixels) <tr>\n
+<tr><td valign=top><i>Thumb</i></td><td> Name of gif file containing thumbnail of image <tr>\n
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ThumbWidth</i></td><td>Width of thumbnail image (in pixels) <tr>\n
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ThumbHeight</i></td><td>Height of thumbnail image (in pixels) <tr>\n
+<tr><td valign=top><i>thumbicon</i></td><td>Full pathname specification of thumbnail image <tr>\n
+<tr><td valign=top><i>assocfilepath</i></td><td>Pathname of image directory in the collection\'s <i>assoc</i> directory <tr>\n
+</table>
+</blockquote>\n
+
+<p>
+The image is stored as an \"associated file\" in the <i>assoc</i> subdirectory
+of the collection\'s <i>index</i> directory. (<i>Index</i> is where all files
+necessary to serve the collection are placed, to make it self-contained.) The
+pathname &#095;<i>httpassocdir</i>&#095;, which is the same as
+&#095;<i>httpcollection</i>&#095;<i>/index/assoc</i>, refers to this directory. For any
+document, its thumbnail and image are both in a subdirectory whose filename is
+given by <i>assocfilepath</i>. The metadata element <i>thumbicon</i> is set to
+the full pathname specification of the thumbnail image, and can be used in the
+same way as <i>srcicon</i> (see the MSWord and PDF demonstration collection).\n
+
+<p>
+The second format statement in the
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>configuration file</a>,
+<i>DocumentText</i>, dictates how the document will appear, and
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">this</a> is the
+result. There is no document text (if there were, it would be producible by
+[<i>Text</i>]). What is shown is the image itself, along with some metadata extracted
+from it.\n
+
+<p>
+The configuration file
+specifies one classifier, a <i>List</i> based on <i>Image</i> metadata, shown
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\">here</a>. The format statement shows the thumbnail image along with
+some metadata. (Any other classifiers would have the same format, since this
+statement does not name the classifier.) \n
+
+<p>
+You may wonder why the thumbnail image is generated and stored explicitly, when
+the same effect would be obtained by using the original image and scaling it:\n
+
+<pre>
+&lt;td&gt;[link]&lt;img src=\'_httpassocdir_/[assocfilepath]\n
+/[Image]\' width=[ThumbWidth] height=[ThumbHeight]&gt;\n
+[/link]&lt;\/td&gt;&lt;td valign=middle&gt;&lt;i&gt;[Title]&lt;\/i&gt;&lt;\/td&gt;
+</pre>\n
+
+<p>
+The reason is to save communication bandwidth by not sending large images when
+small ones would do.\n
+
+<p>For a more comprehensive image collection, see the
+<a href=\"http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&p=about&c=aircraft\">kiwi aircraft images</a>
+in the New Zealand Digital Library. The structure of this collection is
+quite different, however: it is a collection of web pages that include many
+images along with the text. The HTML plugin <i>HTMLPlugin</i> also processes image
+files, but it does so in a different way from ImagePlugin (for example, it
+does not produce the metadata described above).\n
+"
+
+# -- French text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=fr] "
+C\'est une collection d\'images de base qui ne contient ni texte
+ni mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e explicite. Plusieurs fichiers JPEG sont placÃ©s
+dans dans le rÃ©pertoire \"import\" avant toute importation
+et toute crÃ©ation de la collection. C\'est tout.
+<p>
+Les images de cette collection ont Ã©tÃ© produites par des membres du Department of Computer Science, de l'UniversitÃ© de Waikato. L'UniversitÃ© de Waikato en dÃ©tient le copyright. Elles peuvent Ãªtre distribuÃ©es librement, sans aucune restriction. 
+
+<h3>Comment fonctionne cette collection ?</h3>
+
+<p>
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">Voici</a> un document test dans la collection. Le <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg> fichier de configuration</a> ne spÃ©cifie aucun index, ainsi le bouton de recherche est supprimÃ©.
+
+<p>
+Il n\'y a qu\'un seul plugin, <i>ImagePlugin</i>, Ã  cÃŽtÃ© des quatre qui sont toujours prÃ©sents
+(<i>GreenstoneXMLPlugin</i>, <i>MetadataXMLPlugin</i>, <i>ArchivesInfPlugin</i>, <i>DirectoryPlugin</i>). <i>ImagePlugin</i> dÃ©pend de deux programmes de la suite ImageMagick (<a href=\"http://www.imagemagick.org\">http://www.imagemagick.org</a>):
+<i>convert</i> et <i>identify</i>. Greenstone ne sera pas en mesure de crÃ©er la collection sans l\'installation de ImageMagick sur votre ordinateur.
+
+<p> <i>ImagePlugin</i> crÃ©e automatiquement une vignette d\'image et gÃ©nÃšre les
+mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es suivantes pour chaque image dans la collection :
+
+<blockquote>
+<table border=0 cellspacing=0>
+<tr><td width=125 valign=top><i>Image</i></td><td>Nom de fichier contenant l\'image<tr>
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ImageWidth</i></td><td>Largeur de l\'image(en pixels)<tr>
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ImageHeight</i></td><td>Hauteur de l\'image(en pixels)<tr>
+<tr><td valign=top><i>Thumb</i></td><td>Nom de fichier gif contenant la vignette de l\'image<tr>
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ThumbWidth</i></td><td>Largeur de la vignette d\'image (en pixels)<tr>
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ThumbHeight</i></td><td>Hauteur de la vignette d\'image (en pixels)<tr>
+<tr><td valign=top><i>Thumbicon</i></td><td>SpÃ©cification entiÃšre du chemin de la vignette d\'image <tr>
+<tr><td valign=top><i>assocfilepath</i></td><td>Chemin du rÃ©pertoire de l\'image dans le dossier <i>assoc</i> de la collection<tr>
+</table>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+L\'image est stockÃ©e en tant que \"associated file\" (fichier associÃ©) du sous-rÃ©pertoire <i>assoc</i> du rÃ©pertoire <i>index</i> de la collection. (<i>Index</i> est le lieu de stockage de tous les fichiers nÃ©cessaires Ã  la collection pour en assurer la consistance. Le chemin _<i>httpassocdir</i>_ qui est le mÃªme que _<i>httpcollection</i>_<i>/index/assoc</i> fait rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  ce rÃ©pertoire. Pour tout document, la vignette et l\'image sont tous les deux dans
+un sous rÃ©pertoire dont le nom de fichier est donnÃ© par <i>assocfilepath</i>. L\'Ã©lÃ©ment de mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>thumbicon</i> est prend la valeur de du chemin complet de la vignette de l\'image et peut Ãªtre utilisÃ© de la mÃªme faÃ§on que <i>srcicon</i> (voir la collection de dÃ©monstration MSWord et PDF).
+
+<p>
+La seconde dÃ©claration de format dans le <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier de configuration</a>, <i>DocumentText</i>, impose la maniÃšre dont le document est affichÃ©; <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">voici</a> le rÃ©sultat. Il n\'existe aucun texte de document (si tel Ã©tait le cas, il serait produit par <i>[Text]</i>). Ce qui est affichÃ© est l\'image elle-mÃªme, avec quelques mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es qui en sont extraites.
+
+<p>
+Le fichier de configuration spÃ©cifie un classificateur, une <i>List</i> basÃ©e
+sur la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>image</i>, comme indiquÃ© <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\">ici</a>.
+La dÃ©claration de format montre la vignette d\'image avec quelques mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es
+(Tous les autres classificateurs auraient le mÃªme format, dÃšs lors que la dÃ©claration ne fait mention d\'aucun classificateur).
+
+<p>
+On peut se demander pourquoi la vignette d\'image est produite et stockÃ©e explicitement alors que le mÃªme effet serait obtenu en utilisant l\'image originale et en la dessinant Ã  l\'Ã©chelle:
+
+<pre>
+&lt;td&gt;[link]&lt;img src=\'_httpassocdir_/[assocfilepath]\n
+/[Image]\' width=[ThumbWidth] height=[ThumbHeight]&gt;\n
+[/link]&lt;\/td&gt;&lt;td valign=middle&gt;&lt;i&gt;[Title]&lt;\/i&gt;&lt;\/td&gt;
+</pre>\n
+
+<p>
+La raison est que pour Ã©conomiser de la bande passante, il est prÃ©fÃ©rable d\'envoyer des images de petite taille.
+
+<p>
+Pour une collection d\'images plus complÃšte, consulter
+<a href=\"http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&p=about&c=aircraft\">Kiwi aircraft images</a>
+dans la bibliothÃšque numÃ©rique de Nouvelle ZÃ©lande. La structure de cette collection est
+cependant tout Ã  fait diffÃ©rente : c\'est une collection de pages web qui comprennent beaucoup
+d\'images avec du texte. Le plugin HTML, <i>HTMLPlugin</i> traite aussi des fichiers d\'images mais
+de maniÃšre diffÃ©rente que ImagePlugin (par exemple, il ne produit pas la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e dÃ©crite
+ci-dessus).
+
+"
+
+# -- Spanish text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=es] "
+Esta es una colecciÃ³n bÃ¡sica de imÃ¡genes sin texto ni ningÃºn metadato explÃ­cito. Varios archivos JPEG se colocan en un directorio especÃ­fico antes de importar y construir la colecciÃ³n. Eso es todo.
+<p>
+Las imÃ¡genes en esta colecciÃ³n han sido producidas por miembros del Departamento de Ciencias de la ComputaciÃ³n, de la Universidad de Waikato.
+La Universidad de Waikato tiene el copyright. Ellas pueden distribuirse libremente, sin ninguna restricciÃ³n.
+
+<h3>CÃ³mo trabaja esta colecciÃ³n</h3>
+<p>
+
+Se puede <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">ver aquÃ­</a> un documento de muestra de la colecciÃ³n. El <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n</a> no especifica ningÃºn Ã­ndice, por lo que el botÃ³n de bÃºsqueda se suprime.
+<p>
+
+SÃ³lo hay un plugin, <i>ImagePlugin</i>, ademÃ¡s de los cuatro que siempre estÃ¡n presentes (<i>GreenstoneXMLPlugin, MetadataXMLPlugin, ArchivesInfPlugin, DirectoryPlugin</i>). <i>ImagePlugin</i> se basa en la existencia de dos programas del paquete de software ImageMagick (<a href=\"http://www.imagemagick.org\">http://www.imagemagick.org</a>): <i>convert</i> e <i>identify</i>. Greenstone no podrÃ¡ construir correctamente la colecciÃ³n a menos que ImageMagick estÃ© instalado en su computadora.
+<p>
+
+<i>ImagePlugin</i> crea automÃ¡ticamente una miniatura de la imagen y genera los siguientes metadatos para cada imagen de la colecciÃ³n:
+<p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<table border=0 cellspacing=0>
+<tr><td width=125 valign=top><i>Image</i></td><td> Nombre del archivo que contiene la imagen. <tr>\n
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ImageWidth</i></td><td> Ancho de la imagen (en pixeles). <tr>\n
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ImageHeight</i></td><td> Altura de la imagen (en pixeles). <tr>\n
+<tr><td valign=top><i>Thumb</i></td><td> Nombre del archivo gif que contiene la miniatura de la imagen. <tr>\n
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ThumbWidth</i></td><td> Ancho de la imagen reducida (en pixeles). <tr>\n
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ThumbHeight</i></td><td> Altura de la imagen reducida (en pixeles). <tr>\n
+<tr><td valign=top><i>thumbicon</i></td><td> EspecificaciÃ³n del nombre de la ruta de acceso completo de la imagen reducida. <tr>\n
+<tr><td valign=top><i>assocfilepath</i></td><td> Nombre de la ruta de acceso del directorio de imÃ¡genes en el directorio asociado de la colecciÃ³n. <tr>\n
+</table>
+</blockquote>\n
+<p>
+La imagen se guarda como \"archivo asociado\" en el subdirectorio <i>assoc</i> del directorio <i>index</i> de la colecciÃ³n. (<i>Index</i> es el lugar donde todos los archivos necesarios para la colecciÃ³n se colocan con el fin de hacerla autocontenida.) El nombre de la ruta de acceso <i>_httpassocdir_</i> es el mismo que <i>_httpcollection_/index/assoc</i> y remite a este directorio. Para cualquier documento tanto la miniatura como la imagen estÃ¡n en un subdirectorio cuyo nombre de archivo es dado por <i>assocfilepath</i>. El elemento de metadato <i>thumbicon</i> tiene como valor la ruta completa a la imagen miniatura y puede usarse de la misma manera que <i>srcicon</i> (vÃ©ase la colecciÃ³n de muestra en MSWord y PDF).
+<p>
+
+El segundo enunciado de formato en el <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n</a>, <i>DocumentText</i>, dicta la forma en que aparecerÃ¡ el documento. <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">Ãste</a> es el resultado. No hay texto (en caso de que hubiera, se podrÃ­a producir por medio de [<i>Text</i>]). Lo que se muestra es la imagen junto con algunos metadatos extraÃ­dos de ella.
+<p>
+
+El archivo de configuraciÃ³n especifica un clasificador, <i>List</i>, basado en el metadato <i>Image</i>, tal como se muestra <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\">aquÃ­</a>. La cadena de formateo muestra la imagen reducida junto con algunos metadatos. (Cualquier otro clasificador tendrÃ­a el mismo formato, ya que esta cadena no especifica a ningÃºn clasificador en particular.)
+<p>
+
+Tal vez se preguntarÃ¡ por quÃ© se genera y guarda la imagen reducida de manera explÃ­cita, cuando se podrÃ­a obtener el mismo efecto usando la imagen original y escalÃ¡ndola:
+<p>
+
+<pre>
+&lt;td&gt;[link]&lt;img src=\'_httpassocdir_/[assocfilepath]\n
+/[Image]\' width=[ThumbWidth] height=[ThumbHeight]&gt;\n
+[/link]&lt;\/td&gt;&lt;td valign=middle&gt;&lt;i&gt;[Title]&lt;\/i&gt;&lt;\/td&gt;
+</pre>\n
+
+<p>
+
+La razÃ³n es que de esta manera se ahorra ancho de banda en la comunicaciÃ³n al no enviar imÃ¡genes de gran tamaÃ±o cuando se pueden enviar pequeÃ±as.
+<p>
+
+Para conocer una colecciÃ³n de imÃ¡genes mÃ¡s completa, consulte la <a href=\"http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&p=about&c=aircraft\">kiwi aircraft images</a> de la Biblioteca Digital de Nueva Zelanda. Sin embargo, la estructura de esta colecciÃ³n es muy diferente. Se trata de una colecciÃ³n de pÃ¡ginas Web que incluye muchas imÃ¡genes junto con el texto. El plugin <i>HTMLPlugin</i> tambiÃ©n procesa archivos de imÃ¡genes, pero lo hace de manera diferente a ImagePlugin (por ejemplo, no produce los metadatos descritos arriba).
+<p>
+
+"
+
+# -- Russian text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=ru] "
+Ð­ÑÐŸ ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²ÐœÐ°Ñ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐ°Ñ ÐœÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ ÐœÐžÐºÐ°ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐ° Ðž ÐœÐžÐºÐ°ÐºÐžÑ
+ ÑÐ²ÐœÑÑ
+ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+. ÐÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ JPEG-ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»ÐŸÐ² Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐµÑÐµÐœÑ Ð² ÐŽÐžÑÐµÐºÑÐŸÑÐžÑ ÐžÐŒÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐ° ÐŽÐŸ ÐžÐŒÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ Ðž Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÑÐŸÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž. Ð ÑÑÐŸ Ð²ÑÐµ.
+<p>
+<!-- _text1_ -->
+The images in this collection have been produced by members of the Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato.
+The University of Waikato holds copyright. They may be distributed freely, without any restrictions.
+
+<h3>ÐÐ°Ðº ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ</h3>
+<p>
+
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">ÐÐŽÐµÑÑ</a> Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœ ÑÐžÐ¿ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ¹ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž. <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>ÐÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»</a> ÐœÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ ÐœÐžÐºÐ°ÐºÐžÑ
+ ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÐŸÐ², ÑÐ°Ðº ÑÑÐŸ ÐºÐœÐŸÐ¿ÐºÐ° Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ° Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐ°.
+<p>
+
+ÐÐŒÐµÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÐŸÐŽÐžÐœ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœ <i>ImagePlugin</i>, Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐžÐŒÐŸ 4, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ Ð¿ÑÐžÑÑÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐµÐ³ÐŽÐ° (<i>GreenstoneXMLPlugin</i>, <i>MetadataXMLPlugin</i>, <i>ArchivesInfPlugin</i>, <i>DirectoryPlugin</i>). <i>ImagePlugin</i> Ð¿ÐŸÐ»Ð°Ð³Ð°ÐµÑÑÑ ÐœÐ° ÑÑÑÐµÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŽÐ²ÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŒ ÐžÐ· ÐœÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐ° ImageMagick (<a href=\"http://www.imagemagick.org\">http://www.imagemagick.org</a>) - <i>convert</i> Ðž <i>identify</i>. Greenstone ÐœÐµ ÑÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ ÑÑÑÐŸÐžÑÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐžÐ»ÑÐœÐŸ, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ImageMagick ÐœÐµ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŸÐ²Ð»ÐµÐœ ÐœÐ° Ð²Ð°ÑÐµÐŒ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐ¿ÑÑÑÐµÑÐµ.
+<p>
+
+<i>ImagePlugin</i> Ð°Ð²ÑÐŸÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐž Ð³ÐµÐœÐµÑÐžÑÑÐµÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÑÑÑÐžÐµ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ Ð² ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž:
+<p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<table border=0 cellspacing=0>
+<tr>
+<td width=125 valign=top><i>Image</i></td>
+<td>
+ÐÐŒÑ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ImageWidth</i></td>
+<td>
+ÐšÐžÑÐžÐœÐ° ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ (Ð² Ð¿ÐžÐºÑÐµÐ»Ð°Ñ
+)
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ImageHeight</i></td>
+<td>
+ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐ° ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ (Ð² Ð¿ÐžÐºÑÐµÐ»Ð°Ñ
+)
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign=top><i>Thumb</i></td>
+<td>
+ÐÐŒÑ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ð° ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ° ÐŸÐ±ÐŒÐµÐœÐ° Ð³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÐŒ ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐŒÐž, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ThumbWidth</i></td>
+<td>
+ÐšÐžÑÐžÐœÐ° ÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ (Ð² Ð¿ÐžÐºÑÐµÐ»Ð°Ñ
+)
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ThumbHeight</i></td>
+<td>
+ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐ° ÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ (Ð² Ð¿ÐžÐºÑÐµÐ»Ð°Ñ
+)
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign=top><i>Thumbicon</i></td>
+<td>
+ÐÐŸÐ»ÐœÐŸÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÑÑÐž Ðº ÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐŒÑ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign=top><i>assocfilepath</i></td>
+<td>
+ÐÐŒÑ Ð¿ÑÑÐž Ðº Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŽÐžÑÐµÐºÑÐŸÑÐžÐž ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹ Ð² ÐŽÐžÑÐµÐºÑÐŸÑÐžÐž ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž <i>assoc</i>
+</td></tr></table>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+
+ÐÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÑ
+ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑÑ ÐºÐ°Ðº Â«ÑÐ²ÑÐ·Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Â» Ð² Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŽÐžÑÐµÐºÑÐŸÑÐžÐž <i>assoc</i> ÐŽÐžÑÐµÐºÑÐŸÑÐžÐž ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž <i>index</i>. Index -- ÑÑÐŸ ÐŽÐžÑÐµÐºÑÐŸÑÐžÑ, ÐºÑÐŽÐ° Ð²ÑÐµ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ñ, ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÑÐµ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶ÐžÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž, Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐµÑÐµÐœÑ, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÐŸÐœÐ° Ð±ÑÐ»Ð° Ð°Ð²ÑÐŸÐœÐŸÐŒÐœÐŸÐ¹. ÐÐžÑÐµÐºÑÐŸÑÐžÑ <i>httpassocdir</i>, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐ°Ñ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐŸÐ¹ Ð¶Ðµ ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŸÐ¹, ÑÑÐŸ Ðž <i>&#095httpcollection&#095/index/assoc</i>, ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÑÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ Ðº ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐŽÐžÑÐµÐºÑÐŸÑÐžÐž. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð»ÑÐ±ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° ÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ Ðž Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐŸÐµ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÑÑÑÑ Ð² Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŽÐžÑÐµÐºÑÐŸÑÐžÐž, ÐžÐŒÑ ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑÑÑ <i>assocfilepath</i>. ÐÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° <i>thumbicon</i> ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐŸÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÑÑÐž Ðº ÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐŒÑ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ Ðž ÐŒÐŸÐ³ÑÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑÑÑ ÑÐµÐŒ Ð¶Ðµ ÑÐ°ÐŒÑÐŒ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŸÐŒ, ÑÑÐŸ Ðž <i>srcicon</i> (ÑÐŒ. ÐŽÐµÐŒÐŸÐœÑÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž MS Word Ðž PDF).
+<p>
+
+ÐÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐŸÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ° Ð² ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ðµ, <i>DocumentText</i>, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ, ÐºÐ°Ðº ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ, Ðž <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">ÑÑÐŸÑ Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ</a> ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐµÐ·ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÐŸÐŒ. Ð¢ÐµÐºÑÑ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° ÐŸÑÑÑÑÑÑÐ²ÑÐµÑ (ÐµÑÐ»Ðž Ð±Ñ ÐŸÐœ Ð±ÑÐ», ÑÐŸ ÐŸÐœ Ð±Ñ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐžÐ·Ð²ÐŸÐŽÐžÐ»ÑÑ [Ð¢ÐµÐºÑÑÐŸÐŒ] [Text]. Ð¢ÐŸ, ÑÑÐŸ Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐŸ, ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐœÐµÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµÐŒ Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐµ Ñ ÐœÐµÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒÐž ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐŒÐž, ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœÐœÑÐŒÐž ÐžÐ· ÐœÐµÐ³ÐŸ.
+<p>
+
+ÐÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð» ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ ÐŸÐŽÐžÐœ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ -- <i>List</i>, ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐœÐ° ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ <i>Image</i>, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°Ðœ <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\">Ð·ÐŽÐµÑÑ</a>. ÐÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ° Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐµ Ñ ÐœÐµÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒÐž ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐŒÐž (Ð»ÑÐ±ÑÐµ ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÐµ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÑ ÐžÐŒÐµÐ»Ðž Ð±Ñ ÑÐŸÑ Ð¶Ðµ ÑÐ°ÐŒÑÐ¹ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ, ÑÐ°Ðº ÐºÐ°Ðº ÑÑÐŸÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÐœÐµ ÐœÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ).
+<p>
+
+ÐÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑÐµ ÑÐ¿ÑÐŸÑÐžÑÑ, Ð¿ÐŸÑÐµÐŒÑ ÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ Ð³ÐµÐœÐµÑÐžÑÑÐµÑÑÑ Ðž ÑÐŸÑ
+ÑÐ°ÐœÑÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐ²ÐœÐŸ, ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÑÐŸÑ Ð¶Ðµ ÑÐ°ÐŒÑÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐµÐºÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ³ Ð±Ñ Ð±ÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐµÐœ Ð¿ÑÐž ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐž ÐŸÑÐžÐ³ÐžÐœÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ Ðž ÐŒÐ°ÑÑÑÐ°Ð±ÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐž ÐµÐ³ÐŸ:
+<br>
+<pre>
+&lt;td&gt;[link]&lt;img src=\'_httpassocdir_/[assocfilepath]\n
+/[Image]\' width=[ThumbWidth] height=[ThumbHeight]&gt;\n
+[/link]&lt;\/td&gt;&lt;td valign=middle&gt;&lt;i&gt;[Title]&lt;\/i&gt;&lt;\/td&gt;
+</pre>\n
+
+ÐÑÐžÑÐžÐœÐ° ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÐžÑ Ð² ÑÐŸÐŒ, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÑÐŸÑ
+ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÑÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐ¿ÑÑÐºÐ°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐ²ÑÐ·Ðž, ÐœÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐ»Ð°Ñ Ð±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐžÐµ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ, ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÐŒÐ°Ð»ÐµÐœÑÐºÐžÐµ ÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐŸ Ð¶Ðµ.
+<p>
+
+ÐÐŸÐ»ÐµÐµ ÐžÑÑÐµÑÐ¿ÑÐ²Ð°ÑÑÑÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹ ÑÐŒÐŸÑÑÐžÑÐµ Ð² <a href=\"http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&p=about&c=aircraft\">kiwi aircraft images</a> Ð² ÐÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ·ÐµÐ»Ð°ÐœÐŽÑÐºÐŸÐ¹ ÐŠÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ¹ ÐÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÑÐµÐºÐµ. Ð¡ÑÑÑÐºÑÑÑÐ° ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž Ð²ÐµÑÑÐŒÐ° ÐŸÑÐ»ÐžÑÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ, Ð¿ÐŸÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÑ ÑÑÐŸ Ðž ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ Web-ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐ°Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐŒÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹ ÐœÐ°ÑÑÐŽÑ Ñ ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐŸÐŒ. ÐÐ»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœ <i>HTMLPlugin</i> ÑÐ°ÐºÐ¶Ðµ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð±Ð°ÑÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ñ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹, ÐœÐŸ ÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÑÐŸ ÑÐ°Ðº ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÐŒ ÑÐ¿ÐŸÑÐŸÐ±ÐŸÐŒ, ÑÐµÐŒ ImagePlugin (ÐœÐ¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÐŸÐœ ÐœÐµ Ð³ÐµÐœÐµÑÐžÑÑÐµÑ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ, ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ Ð²ÑÑÐµ).
+<p>
+"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=zh] "
+è¿æ¯äžäžªåºæ¬çåŸçéŠèïŒäžå
+å«ä»»äœææ¬ä»¥åéå±å
+æ°æ®ãåšå¯Œå
+¥æå»ºéŠèä¹åïŒåšimportç®åœäž­å­åšå äžªJPEGæä»¶ïŒå°±è¿äºã 
+ 
+<p>æ¬éŠèäž­çåŸçç±æå¡æå€§å­Šè®¡ç®æºç³»çæåæææäŸãæå¡æå€§å­Šæ¥æè¿äºæä»¶ççæãè¿äºæä»¶å¯èªç±ååžïŒæ²¡æä»»äœéå¶ã 
+ 
+<h3>æ¬éŠèåŠäœå·¥äœ</h3>\n 
+ 
+<p><a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">è¿é</a>æ¯æ¬éŠèäž­çäžäžªææ¡£ç€ºèã<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>é
+çœ®æä»¶</a>äž­æ²¡ææå®çŽ¢åŒïŒå æ­€æ²¡ææçŽ¢æé®ã\n 
+ 
+<p>æ¬éŠèåªæäžäžªæä»¶ïŒ<i>ImagePlugin</i>ïŒä»¥åæ°žè¿é
+çœ®å¥œçåäžªæ åæä»¶ïŒ<i>GreenstoneXMLPlugin</i>ïŒ<i>MetadataXMLPlugin</i>ïŒ<i>ArchivesInfPlugin</i>ïŒ<i>DirectoryPlugin</i>ïŒã<i>ImagePlugin</i>äŸèµäºäž€äžªæºèªImageMagickçå€éšèœ¯ä»¶(<a href=\"http://www.imagemagick.org\">http://www.imagemagick.org</a>)ïŒ<i>convert</i>å<i>identify</i>ãåŠæImageMagickæ²¡æè¢«æ­£åžžå®è£
+ïŒGreenstoneå°äžèœæ­£åžžæå»ºéŠèã\n 
+ 
+<p><i>ImagePlugin</i>èªåšåå»ºäžäžªçŒ©åŸå¹¶äžºæ¯äžªåŸçåå»ºä»¥äžå
+æ°æ®ïŒ\n 
+ 
+<blockquote> 
+<table border=0 cellspacing=0> 
+<tr><td width=125 valign=top><i>Image</i></td><td>å
+å«åŸççæä»¶å <tr>\n 
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ImageWidth</i></td><td>åŸçå®œåºŠïŒä»¥åçŽ äžºåäœïŒ<tr>\n 
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ImageHeight</i></td><td>åŸçé«åºŠïŒä»¥åçŽ äžºåäœïŒ<tr>\n 
+<tr><td valign=top><i>Thumb</i></td><td>å
+å«åŸççŒ©åŸçgifæä»¶å<tr>\n 
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ThumbWidth</i></td><td>çŒ©åŸå®œåºŠïŒä»¥åçŽ äžºåäœïŒ<tr>\n 
+<tr><td valign=top><i>ThumbHeight</i></td><td>çŒ©åŸå®œåºŠïŒä»¥åçŽ äžºåäœïŒ<tr>\n 
+<tr><td valign=top><i>thumbicon</i></td><td>çŒ©åŸçå®æŽè·¯åŸ<tr>\n 
+<tr><td valign=top><i>assocfilepath</i></td><td>éŠèäž­<i>assoc</i>ç®åœçäž­çimageç®åœè·¯åŸ<tr>\n 
+</table> 
+</blockquote>\n 
+ 
+<p>è¿äžªåŸçå°ä»¥\"associated file\"ïŒéå±æä»¶ïŒçåœ¢åŒå­åšåš<i>index</i>ç®åœç<i>assoc</i>å­ç®åœäž­ãïŒ<i>Index</i>ç®åœå
+å«äºéŠèææçæææä»¶ïŒä»¥äŸ¿è®©å
+¶å
+å«å®æŽçä¿¡æ¯ãïŒè·¯åŸå&#095;<i>httpassocdir</i>&#095;ïŒç­åäº&#095;<i>httpcollection</i>&#095;<i>/index/assoc</i>ïŒéœæåè¿äžªç®åœãå¯¹äºä»»äžææ¡£ïŒå
+¶çŒ©åŸäžåŸçéœå°ä¿å­åšäžäžªå­ç®åœäž­ïŒè¯¥å­ç®åœçæä»¶åç±<i>assocfilepath</i>æå®ãå
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ <i>thumbicon</i>è¢«è®ŸäžºçŒ©åŸåŸççå®æŽè·¯åŸåïŒå¹¶å¯æçš<i>srcicon</i>çæ¹åŒäœ¿çšïŒåè§åŸ®èœ¯WordäžPDFæŒç€ºéŠèïŒã\n 
+ 
+<p><a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>é
+çœ®æä»¶</a>äž­çç¬¬äºäžªæ ŒåŒååæ°ïŒ<i>DocumentText</i>ïŒæå®åŠäœæŸç€ºææ¡£ïŒåŠ<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">è¿é</a>æç€ºãè¿éæ²¡æä»»äœææ¬ïŒåŠææçè¯ïŒææ¬å°ç±[<i>Text</i>]æäŸïŒãè¿éæŸç€ºçåªæ¯åŸçæ¬èº«ïŒä»¥åäžäºä»äž­æœååºçå
+æ°æ®ã\n 
+ 
+<p>é
+çœ®æä»¶æå®äºäžäžªåç±»åšïŒäžäžªåºäº<i>åŸç</i>å
+æ°æ®ç<i>List</i>ïŒåŠ<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\">è¿é</a>æç€ºãæ ŒåŒååæ°æŸç€ºçŒ©åŸä»¥åäžäºå
+æ°æ®ãïŒææåç±»åšçæ ŒåŒéœæ¯çžåçïŒå äžºè¿äžªæ ŒåŒåæ°å¹¶æ²¡ææå®åç±»åšåãïŒ\n 
+ 
+<p>äœ å¯èœæ³é®éè¿çŒ©æŸååŸå³å¯åŸå°ææçæ
+åµäžïŒäžºä»ä¹è¿èŠç¹å«ççæåå­åšçŒ©åŸïŒ\n 
+ 
+<pre> 
+&lt;td&gt;[link]&lt;img src=\'_httpassocdir_/[assocfilepath]\n 
+/[Image]\' width=[ThumbWidth] height=[ThumbHeight]&gt;\n 
+[/link]&lt;\/td&gt;&lt;td valign=middle&gt;&lt;i&gt;[Title]&lt;\/i&gt;&lt;\/td&gt; 
+</pre>\n 
+ 
+<p>åå æ¯äžºäºèçåžŠå®œïŒå³åšå¯ä»¥åéå°åŸççæ
+åµå°ïŒäžåéå€§çåŸçã\n 
+ 
+<p>æŽå€æçåŸçéŠèå¯åè§æ°è¥¿å
+°æ°å­åŸä¹ŠéŠäž­ç<a href=\"http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&p=about&c=aircraft\">kiwi aircraft images</a>éŠèãç¶èïŒè¿äžªéŠèçç»ææåŸå€§å·®å«ïŒå®å
+å«äºè®žå€éåžŠææ¬çåŸçãHTMLæä»¶<i>HTMLPlugin</i>ä¹å¯å€çåŸçæä»¶ïŒäœæ¯å
+¶å€çæ¹åŒæå«äºImagePluginïŒæ¯åŠå®äžäŒçæäžè¿°è¿äºå
+æ°æ®ïŒã\n
+"
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/image-e/image-e.col
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/image-e/image-e.col	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/image-e/image-e.col	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GathererCollection [
+  <!ELEMENT GathererCollection (Argument*, GathererConfig, BuildConfig, DirectoryMappings)>
+  <!ELEMENT GathererConfig    (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT BuildConfig       (Build, Import)>
+  <!ELEMENT Build             (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Import            (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Schedule          (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Argument          (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Argument
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				enabled           CDATA "true">
+  <!ELEMENT DirectoryMappings (Mapping*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Mapping           (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Mapping 
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				file              CDATA #REQUIRED>
+]>
+<GathererCollection>
+    <Argument name="built">false</Argument>
+    <Argument name="imported">true</Argument>
+    <GathererConfig/>
+    <BuildConfig>
+        <Build/>
+        <Import>
+            <Argument enabled="true" name="removeold"/>
+        </Import>
+        <Schedule/>
+    </BuildConfig>
+    <DirectoryMappings/>
+</GathererCollection>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/image-e/metadata/ex.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/image-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/image-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet [
+
+  <!-- The outer tag of any metadata set. Contains some number of elements.             -->
+  <!-- @param contact     A contact address for the creator.                            -->
+  <!-- @param creator     The name of the entity resposibly for this set.               -->
+  <!-- @param family      The name of this sets family.                                 -->
+  <!-- @param lastchanged The full date, user name and machine name of the last editor. --> 
+  <!--   uses the form:                                                                 -->
+  <!--   Day Mon(th) dd hh:mm:ss yyyy '-' <username> on <machine>                       -->
+  <!-- @param namespace   The namespace of this metadata set.                           -->
+  <!ELEMENT MetadataSet ((Name|Description|Element)+)>
+  <!ATTLIST MetadataSet
+				contact     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				creator     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				description CDATA #REQUIRED
+            family      CDATA #REQUIRED
+				lastchanged CDATA #REQUIRED
+            name        CDATA #REQUIRED
+				namespace   CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- The name of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Name (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Name
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- The description of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Description (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Description
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- An element in the metadata set. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Element (Attribute*,OptionList?)>
+  <!ATTLIST Element
+            name       CDATA #REQUIRED
+				occurances CDATA "0">
+
+  <!-- Each element has several attribute children. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Attribute (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Attribute
+            name CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- For listing predefined values for this element. -->
+  <!ELEMENT OptionList (Value+)>
+  <!ATTLIST OptionList
+            restricted (true|false) "false">
+]>
+
+<MetadataSet 
+contact     = "nzdl.org"
+creator     = "New Zealand Digital Libraries Project: Greenstone"
+family      = "Extracted Greenstone"
+lastchanged = "Tue May 20 10:30:32 2003 - jmt12 on narya"
+namespace   = "ex" 
+>
+
+  <Name language="en">Extracted Greenstone Metadata 1.0</Name>
+
+  <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.0 of the automatically extracted Greenstone Metadata Element Set.</Description>
+
+  <Element name="Encoding">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The encoding of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Encoding</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Language">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The language of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Language</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Source">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Hidden in the Librarian Interface as it already shown by the various file trees.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The filename of the document imported by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Source</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Title">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The title of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Title</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/image-e/metadata/profile.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/image-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/image-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE Profiles [
+<!ELEMENT Profiles (Action*)>
+<!ELEMENT Action (#PCDATA)>
+<!ATTLIST Action
+                source     CDATA #REQUIRED
+                target     CDATA "">
+]>
+<Profiles/>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/isis-e/etc/collect.cfg
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/isis-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/isis-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,490 @@
+creator		greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+public		true
+
+groupsize	100
+
+buildtype	mgpp
+
+indexes		ConferenceMainEntry^all Title^all Edition^all Imprint^all Collation^all Series^all Notes^all Keywords^all PersonalAuthors^all CorporateBodies^all Meetings^all AddedTitle^all OtherLanguageTitles^all text
+
+plugin	GreenstoneXMLPlugin
+plugin	ISISPlugin -input_encoding dos_437 -OIDtype incremental -subfield_separator ", " -entry_separator <br>
+plugin	MetadataXMLPlugin
+plugin	ArchivesInfPlugin
+plugin	DirectoryPlugin
+
+classify	AZList -metadata Title
+classify	AZCompactList -mingroup 1 -metadata Keywords^sub -buttonname Keyword
+
+format SearchTypes "form, plain"
+
+format DocumentButtons ""
+
+format DocumentContents false
+
+format DocumentHeading "
+<hr>
+<table>
+{If}{[Title^all], <tr><td valign=top><b>_Title_:</b></td><td valign=top>[Title^all]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[PersonalAuthors^all], <tr><td valign=top><b>_Authors_:</b></td><td valign=top>[PersonalAuthors^all]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[CorporateBodies^all], <tr><td valign=top><b>_CorporateAuthors_:</b></td><td valign=top>[CorporateBodies^all]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[ConferenceMainEntry^all], <tr><td valign=top><b>_Conference_:</b></td><td valign=top>[ConferenceMainEntry^all]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Edition^all], <tr><td valign=top><b>_Edition_:</b></td><td valign=top>[Edition^all]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Imprint^all], <tr><td valign=top><b>_Imprint_:</b></td><td valign=top>[Imprint^all]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Collation^all], <tr><td valign=top><b>_Collation_:</b></td><td valign=top>[Collation^all]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Series^all], <tr><td valign=top><b>_Series_:</b></td><td valign=top>[Series^all]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Notes^all], <tr><td valign=top><b>_Notes_:</b></td><td valign=top>[Notes^all]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Keywords^all], <tr><td valign=top><b>_Keywords_:</b></td><td valign=top>[Keywords^all]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[Meetings^all], <tr><td valign=top><b>_Meetings_:</b></td><td valign=top>[Meetings^all]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[AddedTitle^all], <tr><td valign=top><b>_AddedTitle_:</b></td><td valign=top>[AddedTitle^all]</td></tr>}
+{If}{[OtherLanguageTitles^all], <tr><td valign=top><b>_OtherLanguageTitles_:</b></td><td valign=top>[OtherLanguageTitles^all]</td></tr>}
+</table>
+<hr>"
+
+format DocumentText "{If}{_cgiargshowrecord_, <b>_CDSrecord_:</b><br/><tt>[ISISRawRecord]</tt><p/><center><a href=\'_gwcgi_?e=_cgiarge_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_cgiargd_\'>_HideCDSrecord_</a></center>, <center><a href=\'_gwcgi_?e=_cgiarge_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_cgiargd_&showrecord=1\'>_ShowCDSrecord_</a></center>}"
+
+format VList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td><td>[Title]<br><i>{If}{[PersonalAuthors^all], {If}{[CorporateBodies^all], [sibling(All\'; \'):PersonalAuthors] - , [sibling(All\'; \'):PersonalAuthors]}}{If}{[CorporateBodies^all], [CorporateBodies^all]}</i></td>"
+
+format CL2VList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td><td>{If}{[numleafdocs], [Title] ([numleafdocs]), [Title]}</td>"
+
+format DateList "<td>[link][icon][/link]</td><td>[highlight]{Or}{[dls.Title],[dc.Title],[Title],Untitled}[/highlight]</td><td>[Date]</td>"
+
+format HList "[link][highlight]{Or}{[dls.Title],[dc.Title],[Title],Untitled}[/highlight][/link]"
+
+collectionmeta	sampleoid [l=en] "D0s103"
+
+# -- English strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=en] "CDS/ISIS example"
+
+collectionmeta	.ConferenceMainEntry^all [l=en] "conference main entry"
+collectionmeta	.Title^all [l=en] "title"
+collectionmeta	.Edition^all [l=en] "edition"
+collectionmeta	.Imprint^all [l=en] "imprint"
+collectionmeta	.Collation^all [l=en] "collation"
+collectionmeta	.Series^all [l=en] "series"
+collectionmeta	.Notes^all [l=en] "notes"
+collectionmeta	.Keywords^all [l=en] "keywords"
+collectionmeta	.PersonalAuthors^all [l=en] "personal authors"
+collectionmeta	.CorporateBodies^all [l=en] "corporate bodies"
+collectionmeta	.Meetings^all [l=en] "meetings"
+collectionmeta	.AddedTitle^all [l=en] "added title"
+collectionmeta	.OtherLanguageTitles^all [l=en] "other language titles"
+collectionmeta	.text [l=en] "raw record"
+
+collectionmeta	Title [l=en] "Title"
+collectionmeta	Authors [l=en] "Authors"
+collectionmeta	CorporateAuthors [l=en] "Corporate authors"
+collectionmeta	Conference [l=en] "Conference"
+collectionmeta	Edition [l=en] "Edition"
+collectionmeta	Imprint [l=en] "Imprint"
+collectionmeta	Collation [l=en] "Collation"
+collectionmeta	Series [l=en] "Series"
+collectionmeta	Notes [l=en] "Notes"
+collectionmeta	Keywords [l=en] "Keywords"
+collectionmeta	Meetings [l=en] "Meetings"
+collectionmeta	AddedTitle [l=en] "Added title"
+collectionmeta	OtherLanguageTitles [l=en] "Other language titles"
+
+collectionmeta	CDSrecord [l=en] "CDS/ISIS record"
+collectionmeta	ShowCDSrecord [l=en] "Show CDS/ISIS record"
+collectionmeta	HideCDSrecord [l=en] "Hide CDS/ISIS record"
+
+# -- French strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=fr] "Exemple CDS/ISIS"
+
+collectionmeta	.AddedTitle^all [l=fr] "titre ajoutÃ©"
+collectionmeta	.Collation^all [l=fr] "collation"
+collectionmeta	.ConferenceMainEntry^all [l=fr] "entrÃ©e principale de confÃ©rence"
+collectionmeta	.CorporateBodies^all [l=fr] "organismes d\'entreprise"
+collectionmeta	.Edition^all [l=fr] "edition"
+collectionmeta	.Imprint^all [l=fr] "imprimer"
+collectionmeta	.Keywords^all [l=fr] "mots-clÃ©s"
+collectionmeta	.Meetings^all [l=fr] "rÃ©unions"
+collectionmeta	.Notes^all [l=fr] "notes"
+collectionmeta	.OtherLanguageTitles^all [l=fr] "titres dans d\'autres langues"
+collectionmeta	.PersonalAuthors^all [l=fr] "auteurs personnels"
+collectionmeta	.Series^all [l=fr] "sÃ©ries"
+collectionmeta	.Title^all [l=fr] "titre"
+collectionmeta	.text [l=fr] "Enregistrement brut"
+
+collectionmeta	Title [l=fr] "Titre"
+collectionmeta	Authors [l=fr] "Auteurs"
+collectionmeta	CorporateAuthors [l=fr] "Auteurs de corporation"
+collectionmeta	Conference [l=fr] "ConfÃ©rence"
+collectionmeta	Edition [l=fr] "Edition"
+collectionmeta	Imprint [l=fr] "Imprimer"
+collectionmeta	Collation [l=fr] "Collation"
+collectionmeta	Series [l=fr] "SÃ©ries"
+collectionmeta	Notes [l=fr] "Notes"
+collectionmeta	Keywords [l=fr] "Mots-clÃ©s"
+collectionmeta	Meetings [l=fr] "RÃ©unions"
+collectionmeta	AddedTitle [l=fr] "Titre ajoutÃ©"
+collectionmeta	OtherLanguageTitles [l=fr] "Titres dans d\'autres langues"
+
+collectionmeta	CDSrecord [l=fr] "Enregistrement CDS/ISIS"
+collectionmeta	ShowCDSrecord [l=fr] "Afficher l\'enregistrement CDS/ISIS"
+collectionmeta	HideCDSrecord [l=fr] "Cacher l\'enregistrement CDS/ISIS"
+
+# -- Spanish strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=es] "ColecciÃ³n de muestra CDS/ISIS"
+
+collectionmeta	.AddedTitle^all [l=es] "titulo aÃ±adido"
+collectionmeta	.Collation^all [l=es] "codificaciÃ³n"
+collectionmeta	.ConferenceMainEntry^all [l=es] "entrada principal de la conferencia"
+collectionmeta	.CorporateBodies^all [l=es] "persona jurÃ­dica"
+collectionmeta	.Edition^all [l=es] "ediciÃ³n"
+collectionmeta	.Imprint^all [l=es] "impresiÃ³n"
+collectionmeta	.Keywords^all [l=es] "palabras clave"
+collectionmeta	.Meetings^all [l=es] "reuniones"
+collectionmeta	.Notes^all [l=es] "notas"
+collectionmeta	.OtherLanguageTitles^all [l=es] "tÃ­tulos en otros idiomas"
+collectionmeta	.PersonalAuthors^all [l=es] "autores personales"
+collectionmeta	.Series^all [l=es] "serie(s)"
+collectionmeta	.Title^all [l=es] "tÃ­tulo"
+collectionmeta	.text [l=es] "registro sin procesar"
+
+collectionmeta	Title [l=es] "TÃ­tulo"
+collectionmeta	Authors [l=es] "Autores"
+collectionmeta	CorporateAuthors [l=es] "Autores corporativos"
+collectionmeta	Conference [l=es] "Congreso"
+collectionmeta	Edition [l=es] "EdiciÃ³n"
+collectionmeta	Imprint [l=es] "ImpresiÃ³n"
+collectionmeta	Collation [l=es] "CodificaciÃ³n"
+collectionmeta	Series [l=es] "Serie(s)"
+collectionmeta	Notes [l=es] "Notas"
+collectionmeta	Keywords [l=es] "Palabras clave"
+collectionmeta	Meetings [l=es] "Reuniones"
+collectionmeta	AddedTitle [l=es] "Titulo aÃ±adido"
+collectionmeta	OtherLanguageTitles [l=es] "TÃ­tulos en otros idiomas"
+
+collectionmeta	CDSrecord [l=es] "Registro CDS/ISIS"
+collectionmeta	ShowCDSrecord [l=es] "Mostrar el registro CDS/ISIS"
+collectionmeta	HideCDSrecord [l=es] "Ocultar registro CDS/ISIS"
+
+# -- Russian strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=ru] "ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ CDS/ISIS"
+
+collectionmeta	.AddedTitle^all [l=ru] "ÐŽÐŸÐ±Ð°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ"
+collectionmeta	.Collation^all [l=ru] "ÑÐŸÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ"
+collectionmeta	.ConferenceMainEntry^all [l=ru] "Ð³Ð»Ð°Ð²ÐœÑÐ¹ Ð²Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽ ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐµÑÐµÐœÑÐžÐž"
+collectionmeta	.CorporateBodies^all [l=ru] "ÐºÐŸÑÐ¿ÐŸÑÐ°ÑÐžÐ²ÐœÑÐµ ÑÐµÐ»Ð°"
+collectionmeta	.Edition^all [l=ru] "ÐžÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ"
+collectionmeta	.Imprint^all [l=ru] "ÐŸÑÑÐžÑÐº"
+collectionmeta	.Keywords^all [l=ru] "ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÐµ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°"
+collectionmeta	.Meetings^all [l=ru] "Ð²ÑÑÑÐµÑÐž"
+collectionmeta	.Notes^all [l=ru] "Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ"
+collectionmeta	.OtherLanguageTitles^all [l=ru] "ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ° ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ°Ñ
+"
+collectionmeta	.PersonalAuthors^all [l=ru] "Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÑÐµ Ð°Ð²ÑÐŸÑÑ"
+collectionmeta	.Series^all [l=ru] "ÑÑÐŽ/ÑÐµÑÐžÐž"
+collectionmeta	.Title^all [l=ru] "ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ"
+collectionmeta	.text [l=ru] "ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐ°ÐœÐœÐ°Ñ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÑ"
+
+collectionmeta	Title [l=ru] "ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ"
+collectionmeta	Authors [l=ru] "ÐÐ²ÑÐŸÑÑ"
+collectionmeta	CorporateAuthors [l=ru] "ÐÐ²ÑÐŸÑÑ"
+collectionmeta	Conference [l=ru] "ÐÐŸÐœÑÐµÑÐµÐœÑÐžÑ"
+collectionmeta	Edition [l=ru] "ÐžÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ"
+collectionmeta	Imprint [l=ru] "ÐŸÑÑÐžÑÐº"
+collectionmeta	Collation [l=ru] "ÑÐŸÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ"
+collectionmeta	Series [l=ru] "ÑÑÐŽ/ÑÐµÑÐžÐž"
+collectionmeta	Notes [l=ru] "Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ"
+collectionmeta	Keywords [l=ru] "ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÐµ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°"
+collectionmeta	Meetings [l=ru] "Ð²ÑÑÑÐµÑÐž"
+collectionmeta	AddedTitle [l=ru] "ÐŽÐŸÐ±Ð°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ"
+collectionmeta	OtherLanguageTitles [l=ru] "ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ° ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ°Ñ
+"
+
+collectionmeta	CDSrecord [l=ru] "ÐÐ°Ð¿ÐžÑÑ CDS/ISIS"
+collectionmeta	ShowCDSrecord [l=ru] "ÐÐŸÐºÐ°Ð· Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÐž CDS/ISIS"
+collectionmeta	HideCDSrecord [l=ru] "Ð¡ÐºÑÑÑÑ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÑ CDS/ISIS"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=zh] "CDS/ISISç€ºèéŠè"
+
+collectionmeta	.ConferenceMainEntry^all [l=zh] "å
+šéšäŒè®®äž»é¢æ¡ç®"
+collectionmeta	.Title^all [l=zh] "å
+šéšé¢å"
+collectionmeta	.Edition^all [l=zh] "å
+šéšçæ¬"
+collectionmeta	.Imprint^all [l=zh] "å
+šéšå»æ¬"
+collectionmeta	.Collation^all [l=zh] "å
+šéšæ ¡æ¬"
+collectionmeta	.Series^all [l=zh] "å
+šéšç³»å"
+collectionmeta	.Notes^all [l=zh] "å
+šéšæ³šé"
+collectionmeta	.Keywords^all [l=zh] "å
+šéšå
+³é®è¯"
+collectionmeta	.PersonalAuthors^all [l=zh] "å
+šéšäžªäœèè
+"
+collectionmeta	.CorporateBodies^all [l=zh] "å
+šéšæºæå®äœ"
+collectionmeta	.Meetings^all [l=zh] "å
+šéšäŒè®®"
+collectionmeta	.AddedTitle^all [l=zh] "å
+šéšéå é¢å"
+collectionmeta	.OtherLanguageTitles^all [l=zh] "å
+šéšå
+¶ä»è¯­ç§é¢å"
+collectionmeta	.text [l=zh] "åå§è®°åœ"
+
+collectionmeta	Title [l=zh] "é¢å"
+collectionmeta	Authors [l=zh] "èè
+"
+collectionmeta	CorporateAuthors [l=zh] "æºæèè
+"
+collectionmeta	Conference [l=zh] "äŒè®®"
+collectionmeta	Edition [l=zh] "çæ¬"
+collectionmeta	Imprint [l=zh] "å»æ¬"
+collectionmeta	Collation [l=zh] "æ ¡æ¬"
+collectionmeta	Series [l=zh] "ç³»å"
+collectionmeta	Notes [l=zh] "æ³šé"
+collectionmeta	Keywords [l=zh] "å
+³é®è¯"
+collectionmeta	Meetings [l=zh] "äŒè®®"
+collectionmeta	AddedTitle [l=zh] "éå é¢å"
+collectionmeta	OtherLanguageTitles [l=zh] "å
+¶ä»è¯­ç§é¢å"
+
+collectionmeta	CDSrecord [l=zh] "CDS/ISISè®°åœ"
+collectionmeta	ShowCDSrecord [l=zh] "æŸç€ºCDS/ISISè®°åœ"
+collectionmeta	HideCDSrecord [l=zh] "éèCDS/ISISè®°åœ"
+
+# -- English text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=en] "This collection shows a
+<a href=\"http://portal.unesco.org/ci/ev.php?URL_ID=2071&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201\">
+CDS/ISIS</a> database of bibliography entries.
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">
+Here</a> is an example record.\n
+
+<h3>How the collection works</h3>\n
+
+<p>
+The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\"
+target=collect.cfg>collection configuration file</a> specifies the ISISPlugin
+plugin, which processes CDS/ISIS databases. These databases have several files, but ISISPlugin uses just three: CDS.fdt (where CDS is the name of the database), containing the field names used in the database, CDF.xrf (a cross-reference file), and CDS.mst, containing the actual records. Whenever ISISPlugin encounters an \".mst\" file, it looks for the corresponding \".fdt\" and \".xrf\" files. In this case the plugin has been given an
+<i>input_encoding</i> argument because some entries in the database
+contain extended characters (in a form that was used in early
+versions of the DOS operating system). It has also been given a subfield
+separator argument, whose purpose is explained below.\n
+The <i>-OIDtype incremental</i> plugin option was used to give identifiers
+that are consistent across different operating systems (which may not happen with HASH identifiers), so that we can link to a document in
+this description.\n
+<p>
+Like the <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/bibtex-e\">bibliography
+collection</a>, this collection incorporates a <a
+href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=q&c=_cgiargc_&ct=1&qto=3&qt=1\">form-based search interface</a>
+that allows fielded searching. This is specified by the line <i>format SearchTypes \"form,plain\"</i> in the configuration file; the <i>plain</i> argument ensures
+that there is a plain textual full-text search feature as well (which can
+be selected from the <a
+href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&c=_cgiargc_&p=preferences\">Preferences</a> page). The
+<i>groupsize 100</i> line puts documents together into groups of 100 (as
+explained in the <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/bibtex-e\">bibliography
+collection</a>).\n
+
+<p>
+Some fields in CDS/ISIS databases have subfields. For example, in this case
+the <i>Imprint</i> field has subfields <i>Imprint.a</i> for place,
+<i>Imprint.b</i> for publisher and <i>Imprint.c</i> for date. For each
+field and subfield, ISISPlugin generates a metadata element -- in this case
+there will be metadata called <i>Imprint^a</i>, <i>Imprint^b</i> and
+<i>Imprint^c</i>. (There could be a field called just <i>Imprint</i>,
+although in this case there is not.) ISISPlugin also generates a metadata
+element called <i>Imprint^all</i> that gives all subfields concatenated
+together, separated by the character string that was specified as a plugin
+argument (in this case \", \").\n
+
+<p>
+The designer of this collection has decided to create searchable
+indexes on all the <i>^all</i> metadata fields, as well as one on <i>text</i>
+which makes the raw records searchable too. Of course, the designer could have created
+searchable indexes on any of the subfields instead -- or as well.\n
+
+<p>
+There are two browsing classifiers, an <i>AZList</i> based on <i>Title</i>
+metadata and an <i>AZCompactList</i> based on <i>Keyword</i>
+metadata. Recall that the <i>AZCompactList</i> classifier is like
+<i>AZList</i> but generates a bookshelf for duplicate items. The
+<i>VList</i> format specification applies to both the search results list
+and the <i>Title</i> classifier, while the <i>CL2VList</i> puts the number
+of documents associated with each keyword as described in the <a
+href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/marc-e\">MARC example collection</a>. In
+Greenstone, and in CDS/ISIS, any metadata item can have several different
+values. The <i>VList</i> specification <nobr><i>sibling(All\'; \')</i></nobr> gathers
+together all the values, separated (in this case) by semicolon.\n
+
+<p>
+The <i>DocumentText</i> format specification incorporates the same
+mechanism for hiding and showing raw records as explained for the <a
+href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/bibtex-e\">Bibliography collection</a>, using
+the <i>DocumentHeading</i> to show the formatted record and
+<i>DocumentText</i> to show (or hide) the original database entry. \n"
+
+# -- French text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=fr] "
+Cette collection montre une base de donnÃ©es <a href=\"http://portal.unesco.org/ci/ev.php?URL_ID=2071&amp;URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&amp;URL_SECTION=201\">CDS/ISIS</a> d\'entrÃ©es bibliographiques. <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">Voici</a> un exemple d\'enregistrement.
+
+<h3>Comment fonctionne la collection ?</h3>
+
+<p>
+Le <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier de configuration de collection</a> spÃ©cifie le plugin ISISPlugin qui traite les base sdonnÃ©es CDS/ISIS. Ces bases de donnÃ©es contiennent plusieurs fichiers, mais ISISPlugin en utilise seulement deux: CDS.fdt (oÃ¹ CDS est le nom de la base de donnÃ©es) contenant les noms des champs utilisÃ©s dans la base de donnÃ©es, et CDS.mst qui contient les enregistrements. A chaque fois que ISISPlugin rencontre un fichier \".mst\", il cherche le fichier \".fdt\" correspondant. Dans ce cas, un argument <i>input_encoding</i> a Ã©tÃ© attribuÃ© au plugin parce quelques entrÃ©es dans la base de donnÃ©es contiennent des caractÃšres Ã©tendus (dans une forme qui Ã©tait utilisÃ©e dans les toutes premiÃšres versions du systÃšme d\'exploitation DOS). On lui aussi attribuÃ© un argument de sÃ©paration de sous-champ dont l\'objet est explquÃ© ci-dessous.
+L'option <i>-OIDtype incremental</i> a Ã©tÃ© utilisÃ©e pour ce plugiciel afin de donner des identifiants cohÃ©rents aux documents, indÃ©pendamment du systÃšme d'exploitation (ce qui est impossible avec les identifiants de hachage). De cette maniÃšre, il est possible de crÃ©er un lien vers un document dans cette description.
+<p>
+Comme la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/bibtex-e\">collection de bibliographie</a>, cette collection incorpore une <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=q&c=_cgiargc_&ct=1&qto=3&qt=1\">interface de recherche basÃ©e sur des formulaire</a> qui permet la recherche basÃ©e sur des champs. Ceci est spÃ©cifiÃ© par la ligne <i>format SearchTypes \"form,plain\"</i> dans le fichier de configuration; l\'argument <i>simple</i> garantit qu\'il y ait aussi une fonction de recherche textuelle (qui peut Ãªtre sÃ©lectionnÃ©e Ã  partir de la page de <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=preferences&c=_cgiargc_\">PrÃ©fÃ©rences</a>). La ligne <i>groupsize 100</i> regroupe les documents en lots de 100 (comme expliquÃ© dans la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/bibtex-e\">collection de bibliographie</a>).
+
+<p>
+Certains champs dans les bases de donnÃ©es CDS/ISIS databases ont des sous-champs. Par exemple, dans ce cas, le champ <i>Imprint</i> a des sous-champs <i>Imprint.a</i> pour l\'endroit, <i>Imprint.b</i> pour l\'Ã©diteurs et <i>Imprint.c</i> pour la date. Pour chaque champ et sous-champ, ISISPlugin gÃ©nÃšre un Ã©lÃ©ment de mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e -- dans ce cas-ci, il y aura des mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es appÃ©lÃ©es <i>Imprint^a</i>, <i>Imprint^b</i> et <i>Imprint^c</i>. (Il y aurait pu y avoir un champ appelÃ© tout simplement <i>Imprint</i>, bien que dans ce cas prÃ©sent il n\'y en ait pas). ISISPlugin gÃ©nÃšre qussi un Ã©lÃ©ment de mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e appelÃ© <i>Imprint^all</i> qui donne tous les sous-champs concatenÃ©s ensemble, sÃ©parÃ©s par la chaine de caractÃšres qui a Ã©tÃ© spÃ©cifiÃ©e comme argument de plugin (dans ce cas-ci \", \").
+
+<p>
+Le concepteur de la collection a dÃ©cidÃ© de crÃ©er des indexes recherchables par le biais de tous <i>^all</i> les champs de mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e, mais aussi par le biais de <i>text</i>, permettant aussi une recherche brute des enregistrements. Naturellement, le concepteur aurait pu (aussi, ou Ã  la place) crÃ©er des indexes recherchables par n\'importe quel sous-champ.
+
+<p>
+Il y a deux classificateurs de navigation, <i>AZList</i> basÃ© sur la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>Title</i>
+et <i>AZCompactList</i> basÃ© sur la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>Keyword</i>. Rappelez-vous que le classificateur <i>AZCompactList</i> est semblable Ã  <i>AZList</i>, mais gÃ©nÃšre un rayon de bibliothÃšque pour les Ã©lÃ©ments dupliquÃ©s. La spÃ©cification de format <i>VList</i> s\'applique aussi bien Ã  la liste de rÃ©sultats de recherche qu\'au classificateur <i>Title</i>, pendant que <i>CL2VList</i> met le nombre de documents associÃ©s Ã  chaque mot-clÃ© comme dÃ©crit dans <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/marc-e\">MARC example collection</a>. Dans Greenstone, et dans CDS/ISIS, tout Ã©lÃ©ment de donnÃ©e peut avoir plusieurs valeurs. La spÃ©cification <i>VList</i> <i>sibling(All\'; \')</i> rgroupe ensemble toutes les valeurs, sÃ©parÃ©es (dans ce cas) par un point-virgule.
+
+<p>
+La spÃ©cification du format <i>DocumentText</i> incorpore le mÃªme mÃ©canisme pour cacher et afficher des enregistrements comme expliquÃ© pour la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/bibtex-e\">collection de bibliographie</a>, en utilisant <i>DocumentHeading</i> pour montrer l\'enregistrement formatÃ© et <i>DocumentText</i> pour montrer (ou cacher) l\'entrÃ©e de base de donnÃ©es originale.
+"
+
+# -- Spanish text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=es] "
+Esta colecciÃ³n muestra una base de datos <a href=\"http://portal.unesco.org/ci/ev.php?URL_ID=2071&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201\">CDS/ISIS</a> de entradas bibliogrÃ¡ficas. He <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">aquÃ­</a> un ejemplo de registro.
+
+<h3>CÃ³mo trabaja esta colecciÃ³n</h3>\n
+
+<p>
+El <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n de la colecciÃ³n</a> especifica el plugin ISISPlugin, el cual procesa las bases de datos CDS/ISIS. Estas bases de datos contienen varios archivos, pero ISISPlugin solo utiliza dos: CDS.fdt (donde CDS es el nombre de la base de datos), el cual contiene los nombres de los campos usados en la base de datos, y CDS.mst, el cual contiene los registros. Cada vez que ISISPlugin encuentra un archivo \".mst\", busca el archivo \".fdt\" correspondiente. En este caso al plugin se le ha dado un argumento <i>input_encoding</i>, ya que algunas entradas de la base de datos contienen caracteres extendidos (en una forma que se usÃ³ en versiones tempranas del sistema operativo DOS). TambiÃ©n se le ha dotado de un argumento separador de subcampos, cuyo propÃ³sito se explica mÃ¡s adelante.
+
+La opciÃ³n <i>-OIDtype incremental</i> se utiliza para generar identificadores que sean consistentes a travÃ©s de diferentes sistemas operativos (lo que no ocurre con identificadores HASH), de forma que podamos tener el enlace al documento en esta descripciÃ³n.
+
+<p>
+Al igual que la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/bibtex-e\">colecciÃ³n bibliogrÃ¡fica</a>, esta colecciÃ³n incorpora una <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=q&c=_cgiargc_&ct=1&qto=3&qt=1\">interfaz de bÃºsqueda basada en formularios</a> que permite la bÃºsqueda por campos. Esto se especifica por medio de la lÃ­nea <i>format SearchTypes \"form,plain\"</i> (el argumento \"plain\" asegura que se cuenta igualmente con una funciÃ³n de bÃºsqueda de texto completo (la cual se puede seleccionar en la pÃ¡gina de <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&c=_cgiargc_&p=preferences\">Preferencias</a>). La lÃ­nea <i>groupsize 100</i> junta los documentos en grupos de 100 (tal como se explicÃ³ en la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/bibtex-e\">colecciÃ³n bibliogrÃ¡fica</a>).
+
+<p>
+Algunos campos en las bases de datos CDS/ISIS cuentan con subcampos. Por ejemplo, en este caso el campo <i>Imprint</i> (ImpresiÃ³n) tiene los subcampos <i>Imprint.a</i> para el lugar, <i>Imprint.b</i> para la editorial e <i>Imprint.c</i> para la fecha. Para cada campo y subcampo ISISPlugin genera un elemento de metadato. De este modo, en el presente caso habrÃ¡ metadatos llamados <i>Imprint^a</i>, <i>Imprint^b</i> and <i>Imprint^c</i> (tambiÃ©n podrÃ­a haber un solo campo llamado <i>Imprint</i>, aunque no en este caso.) ISISPlugin genera asimismo un elemento de metadato llamado <i>Imprint^all</i> que incluye todos los subcampos concatenados, separados por la cadena de caracteres que se especificÃ³ como argumento del plugin (en este caso \", \").
+
+<p>
+El diseÃ±ador de esta colecciÃ³n decidiÃ³ crear Ã­ndices de bÃºsqueda en todos los campos de metadatos <i>^all</i>, asÃ­ como uno en <i>text</i> (texto) que hace que tambiÃ©n se puedan buscar registros bÃ¡sicos. Por supuesto, en vez de eso -- o junto con ello -- el diseÃ±ador pudo haber creado Ã­ndices de bÃºsqueda en cualquiera de los subcampos.
+
+<p>
+Hay tambiÃ©n dos clasificadores de exploraciÃ³n, una <i>AZList</i> basada en el metadato <i>TÃ­tulo</i> (Title) y una <i>AZCompactList</i> basada en el metadato <i>Palabra clave</i> (Keyword). Recuerde que el clasificador <i>AZCompactList</i> es como <i>AZList</i>, pero genera ademÃ¡s un estante para Ã­tems duplicados. La especificaciÃ³n de formato <i>VList</i> se aplica a ambos, la lista de resultados de la bÃºsqueda y el clasificador de <i>TÃ­tulos</i>, mientras que <i>CL2VList</i> pone el nÃºmero de documentos asociados a cada palabra clave, tal como se describe en la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/marc-e\">colecciÃ³n de muestra MARC</a>. En Greenstone y en CDS/ISIS cualquier Ã­tem de metadato puede tener varios valores diferentes. La especificaciÃ³n de <i>VList</i> <nobr><i>sibling(All\'; \')</i></nobr> junta todos los valores, separados (en este caso) por punto y coma.
+
+<p>
+La especificaciÃ³n de formato <i>DocumentText</i> incorpora el mismo mecanismo para ocultar o mostrar los registros sin procesar, tal como se explicÃ³ en la <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/bibtex-e\">ColecciÃ³n BibliogrÃ¡fica</a>, usando el <i>DocumentHeading</i> para mostrar el registro formateado y 
+<i>DocumentText</i> para mostrar (u ocultar) la entrada original de la base de datos.
+"
+
+# -- Russian text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=ru] "
+Ð­ÑÐ° ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ Ð±Ð°Ð·Ñ ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð±ÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÑ
+ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÐµÐ¹ <a href=\"http://portal.unesco.org/ci/ev.php?URL_ID=2071&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201\">CDS/ISIS</a>. <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">ÐÐŽÐµÑÑ Ð¿ÑÐžÐ²ÐŸÐŽÐžÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÐž</a>.
+
+<h3>ÐÐ°Ðº ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ</h3>
+
+<p>
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>ÐÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð» ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž</a> ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœ ISISPlugin, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð±Ð°ÑÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ Ð±Ð°Ð·Ñ ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ CDS/ISIS. 
+<!-- _text1_ -->
+These databases have several files, but ISISPlugin uses just three: CDS.fdt (where CDS is the name of the database), containing the field names used in the database, CDF.xrf (a cross-reference file), and CDS.mst, containing the actual records. Whenever ISISPlugin encounters an \".mst\" file, it looks for the corresponding \".fdt\" and \".xrf\" files.
+
+Ð ÑÑÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ðµ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœ Ð±ÑÐ» ÐŽÐ°Ðœ Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÐŒÐµÑÑ <i>input_encoding</i>, Ð¿ÐŸÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÑ ÐœÐµÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÐž Ð² Ð±Ð°Ð·Ðµ ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°Ñ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÐºÐž ÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ( Ð² ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐµ, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐ°Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°Ð»Ð°ÑÑ Ð² ÑÐ°ÐœÐœÐžÑ
+ Ð²ÐµÑÑÐžÑÑ
+ ÐŸÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÑ DOS). ÐÐŒÑ ÑÐ°ÐºÐ¶Ðµ Ð±ÑÐ» ÐŽÐ°Ðœ Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÐŒÐµÑÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ, ÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÑÐœÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐœÐžÐ¶Ðµ.
+<!-- _text2_ -->
+The <i>-OIDtype incremental</i> plugin option was used to give identifiers
+that are consistent across different operating systems (which may not happen with HASH identifiers), so that we can link to a document in
+this description.
+<p>
+ÐÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸ <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/bibtex-e\">Ð±ÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž</a>, ÑÑÐ° ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð±Ð»Ð°ÐœÐŸÑÐœÑÐ¹ <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=q&c=_cgiargc_&ct=1&qto=3&qt=1\">ÐžÐœÑÐµÑÑÐµÐ¹Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ°</a>, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ Ð¿ÐŸÐ·Ð²ÐŸÐ»ÑÐµÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐžÐ·Ð²ÐŸÐŽÐžÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐº Ð¿ÐŸ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐŒ. Ð­ÑÐŸ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐŸ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐŸÐ¹ <i>format SearchTypes \"form,plain\"</i> Ð² ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ðµ; Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÐŒÐµÑÑ <i>plain</i> Ð³Ð°ÑÐ°ÐœÑÐžÑÑÐµÑ, ÑÑÐŸ Ð·ÐŽÐµÑÑ ÐžÐŒÐµÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐ°ÐºÐ¶Ðµ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÐµ ÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ° (ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ Ð²Ð·ÑÑÐŸ ÐžÐ· ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&c=_cgiargc_&p=preferences\">ÐÑÐµÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐœÐžÐ¹</a>). Ð¡ÑÑÐŸÐºÐ° <i>groupsize 100</i> ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐŽÐžÐœÑÐµÑ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ Ð² Ð³ÑÑÐ¿Ð¿Ñ Ð¿ÐŸ 100 (ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÑÐœÐµÐœÐŸ Ð² <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/bibtex-e\">Ð±ÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž</a>).
+
+<p>
+ÐÐµÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»Ñ Ð² Ð±Ð°Ð·Ð°Ñ
+ ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ CDS/ISIS ÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÐ»Ñ. ÐÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, Ð² ÑÑÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ðµ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»Ðµ <i>Imprint</i> (ÐŸÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÐº) ÐžÐŒÐµÐµÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÐ»Ñ <i>Imprint.a</i> (ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸ ÐžÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÑ), <i>Imprint.b</i> (ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ) Ðž <i>Imprint.c</i> (ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ ÐžÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÑ). ÐÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»Ñ Ðž Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÐ»Ñ ISISPlugin Ð³ÐµÐœÐµÑÐžÑÑÐµÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ -- Ð² ÑÑÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ðµ Ð±ÑÐŽÑÑ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ Ñ ÐžÐŒÐµÐœÐ°ÐŒÐž <i>Imprint^a</i>, <i>Imprint^b</i> Ðž <i>Imprint^c</i>. (ÐÐŸÐ³Ð»ÐŸ Ð±Ñ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÑÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»Ðµ, ÐœÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÐŒÐŸÐµ <i>Imprint</i>, Ñ
+ÐŸÑÑ Ð² ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ðµ ÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÐœÐµÑ). ISISPlugin ÑÐ°ÐºÐ¶Ðµ Ð³ÐµÐœÐµÑÐžÑÑÐµÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ñ ÐžÐŒÐµÐœÐµÐŒ <i>Imprint^all</i>, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ ÐŽÐ°ÐµÑ Ð²ÑÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÐ»Ñ, ÑÐ²ÑÐ·Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐµ Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐµ, Ð²ÑÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ Ñ
+Ð°ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐµÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐŸÐ¹, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐ°Ñ Ð±ÑÐ»Ð° ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐ° ÐºÐ°Ðº Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœÐ° (Ð² ÑÑÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ðµ \", \").
+
+<p>
+ÐÑÐŸÐµÐºÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²ÑÐžÐº ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÑÐµÑÐžÐ» ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÑÐµ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ° ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÑ ÐœÐ° ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ðµ Ð²ÑÐµÑ
+ <i>^all</i> ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐµÐ¹, ÑÐ°Ðº Ð¶Ðµ ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐŸÐŽÐžÐœ ÐœÐ° ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ðµ ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐ°, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ Ð¿ÐŸÐ·Ð²ÐŸÐ»ÑÐµÑ ÑÐ°ÐºÐ¶Ðµ ÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°ÑÑ ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÑÐŒÐž ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ° Ðž ÐœÐµÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐµ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÐž. ÐÐŸÐœÐµÑÐœÐŸ, Ð¿ÑÐŸÐµÐºÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ñ ÐžÐº Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸ ÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŒÐŸÐ³ ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÑÐµ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ° ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð»ÑÐ±ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ· Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐµÐ¹ -- ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÑÑ ÐžÑ
+ ÑÐ°ÐºÐ¶Ðµ.
+
+<p>
+ÐÐŽÐµÑÑ ÐžÐŒÐµÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ²Ð° ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ° Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐŸÑÑÐ° -- <i>AZList</i>, ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐœÐ° ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ (<i>Title</i>) Ðž <i>AZCompactList</i>, ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐœÐ° ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÐÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð° (<i>Keyword</i>). ÐÑÐ¿ÐŸÐŒÐœÐžÑÐµ, ÑÑÐŸ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ <i>AZCompactList</i> Ð¿ÐŸÑ
+ÐŸÐ¶ ÐœÐ° <i>AZList</i>, ÐœÐŸ Ð³ÐµÐœÐµÑÐžÑÑÐµÑ ÐºÐœÐžÐ¶ÐœÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐºÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŽÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÑÑÑÑÐžÑ
+ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ². Ð¡Ð¿ÐµÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ° <i>VList</i> Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÐœÐžÐŒÐ° Ðž Ðº ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÑ ÑÐµÐ·ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÐŸÐ² Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ° Ðž Ðº ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÑ ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ (<i>Title</i>), Ð² ÑÐŸ Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÑ ÐºÐ°Ðº <i>CL2VList</i> Ð²ÑÐ²ÐŸÐŽÐžÑ ÐœÐŸÐŒÐµÑÐ° ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ², ÑÐ²ÑÐ·Ð°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ñ ÐºÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÑÐŒ ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÐŒ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐŒ, ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐŸ Ð² <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/marc-e\">Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÐµ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž MARC</a>. Ð GS Ðž Ð² CDS/ISIS, Ð»ÑÐ±ÑÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÐŒÐŸÐ³ÑÑ ÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÐœÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÑÐ°Ð·Ð»ÐžÑÐœÑÑ
+ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐ¹. ÐÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ Ð² <i>VList</i> ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÐŸÐŽÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐœÑ <nobr><i>sibling(All\'; \')</i></nobr> ÑÐŸÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐµ Ð²ÑÐµ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÑ, Ð²ÑÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ (Ð² ÑÑÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ðµ) ÑÐŸÑÐºÐŸÐ¹ Ñ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÑÑÐŸÐ¹.
+
+<p>
+Ð¡Ð¿ÐµÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ° <i>DocumentText</i> Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐŸÑ Ð¶Ðµ ÑÐ°ÐŒÑÐ¹ ÐŒÐµÑ
+Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·ÐŒ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÑÐºÑÑÑÑ Ðž Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÐž, ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÑÐœÐµÐœÐŸ ÐŽÐ»Ñ <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/bibtex-e\">ÐÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž</a>, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÑ <i>DocumentHeading</i>, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐµ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÐž Ðž <i>DocumentText</i>, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÑÑ (ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐºÑÑÑÑ) Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐŸÐœÐ°ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÑÑ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÑ Ð±Ð°Ð·Ñ ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+.
+"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=zh] "
+æ¬éŠèæŸç€ºäžäžªå
+å«æç®è®°åœç<a href=\"http://portal.unesco.org/ci/ev.php?URL_ID=2071&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201\">CDS/ISIS</a>æ°æ®åºã 
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">è¿é</a>æ¯äžæ¡ç€ºäŸè®°åœã\n 
+ 
+<h3>æ¬éŠèåŠäœå·¥äœ</h3>\n 
+ 
+<p>æ¬éŠèç<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>é
+çœ®æä»¶</a>æå®äœ¿çšISISPluginïŒè¯¥æä»¶äžéšå€çCDS/ISISæ°æ®åºãè¿äºæ°æ®åºæå€äžªæä»¶ïŒäœæ¯ISISPluginçšå°çåªæäžäžªïŒCDS.fdtïŒè¿éCDSæ¯æ°æ®åºåïŒïŒè¯¥æä»¶å
+å«æ°æ®åºäž­çšå°çå­æ®µåïŒCDF.xrfïŒäžäžªäº€ååŒçšçæä»¶ïŒïŒä»¥åCDS.mstïŒè¯¥æä»¶å
+å«å®é
+çè®°åœãæ¯åœISISPluginéå°äžäžª\".mst\"æä»¶ïŒå®å°æ¥æŸå¯¹åºç\".fdt\"å\".xrf\"æä»¶ãåšè¿ç§æ
+åµäžïŒè¯¥æä»¶è®Ÿå®äžäžª<i>input_encoding</i>åæ°ïŒå äžºæ°æ®åºäž­çäžäºè®°åœå
+å«äºæ©å±çå­ç¬ŠïŒåŠååšDOSæäœç³»ç»æ©æçæ¬äž­çäžæ ·ïŒãè¯¥æä»¶è¿æäžªå­å­æ®µåéç¬Šåæ°ïŒäžé¢ä»ç»è¿äžªåæ°çç®çã\n 
+æä»¶ç<i>-OIDtype incremental</i>éé¡¹è¢«çšäºæå®åšäžåæäœç³»ç»äžéœäžèŽçææ¡£æ è¯ç¬ŠïŒèHASHæ è¯ç¬Šåšäžåæäœç³»ç»äžå¯èœäžåïŒïŒä»¥äŸ¿æä»¬èœåšæ­€æ®µæè¿°äž­éŸæ¥å°æäžªææ¬ã\n 
+ 
+<p>åŠå<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/bibtex-e\">æç®éŠè</a>ïŒæ¬éŠèå
+æ¬äžäžª<a 
+href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=q&c=_cgiargc_&ct=1&qto=3&qt=1\">åºäºè¡šåçæ£çŽ¢èç®</a>ïŒè¯¥çé¢å
+è®žçšæ·è¿è¡å­æ®µæ£çŽ¢ãè¿æ¯éè¿åšé
+çœ®æä»¶äž­è®Ÿçœ®<i>format SearchTypes \"form,plain\"</i>è¡å®ç°çã<i>plain</i>åæ°åŒç¡®ä¿æ¬éŠèä¹æäžäžªçº¯ææ¬çæ£çŽ¢åèœïŒè¿å¯åš<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&c=_cgiargc_&p=preferences\">åå¥œ</a>é¡µé¢äž­éæ©ïŒã<i>groupsize 100</i>è¡å°ææ¡£ä»¥100äžºåäœè¿è¡åç»ïŒæ­£åŠåš<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/bibtex-e\">æç®éŠè</a>äž­æè¿°ïŒ\n 
+ 
+<p>CDS/ISISæ°æ®åºçäžäºå­æ®µæå­å­æ®µãæ¯åŠïŒåšæ¬éŠèäž­<i>Imprint</i>å­æ®µæéå¯¹å°æ¹çå­å­æ®µ<i>Imprint.a</i>ïŒéå¯¹åºçåç<i>Imprint.b</i>ïŒéå¯¹æ¥æç<i>Imprint.c</i>ãå¯¹æ¯äžªå­æ®µåå­å­æ®µïŒISISPluginéœå°çæäžäžªå
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ ââæ­€æ¶çå
+æ°æ®æ<i>Imprint^a</i>ïŒ<i>Imprint^b</i>ä»¥å<i>Imprint^c</i>ãïŒè¿å¯æäžª<i>Imprint</i>å­æ®µïŒå°œç®¡è¯¥å­æ®µåšæ¬éŠèäž­äžå­åšãïŒISISPluginè¿å°çæäžäžª<i>Imprint^all</i>å
+æ°æ®æ¥å°ææå­å­æ®µäž²èèµ·æ¥ïŒå¹¶çšæä»¶åæ°æå®çå­ç¬Šäž²ïŒåšè¿éæ¯\", \"ïŒéŽéã\n 
+ 
+<p>è¿äžªéŠèçè®Ÿè®¡è
+å³å®åšææ<i>^all</i>å
+æ°æ®å­æ®µäžåå»ºå¯æçŽ¢ççŽ¢åŒïŒåæ¶ä¹åš<i>text</i>ïŒææ¬ïŒäžåå»ºäžäžªçŽ¢åŒä»¥äœ¿åŸåå§è®°åœå¯è¢«æçŽ¢ãåœç¶ïŒéŠèçè®Ÿè®¡è
+ä¹å¯åšä»»äžå­å­æ®µäžåå»ºçŽ¢åŒæ¥æ¿æ¢æè
+è¡¥å
+
+ç°æçŽ¢åŒã\n 
+ 
+<p>æ¬éŠèæäž€äžªæµè§åç±»åšïŒäžäžªåºäº<i>é¢å</i>å
+æ°æ®ç<i>AZList</i>ïŒä»¥åäžäžªåºäº<i>å
+³é®è¯</i>å
+æ°æ®ç<i>AZCompactList</i>ãåæ³<i>AZCompactList</i>åç±»åšäž<i>AZList</i>ç±»äŒŒïŒäœæ¯äŒäžºéå€çè®°åœåå»ºä¹Šæ¶ã<i>VList</i>æ ŒåŒåæ°äœçšäºæçŽ¢ç»æåè¡šä»¥å<i>é¢å</i>åç±»åšïŒè<i>CL2VList</i>å°ååºäžæ¯äžªå
+³é®è¯å
+³èçææ¡£æ°ç®ïŒæ­£åŠ<a 
+href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/marc-e\">MARCæŒç€ºéŠè</a>äž­æè¿°çãåšGreenstoneä»¥åCDS/ISISäž­ïŒä»»äœå
+æ°æ®è®°åœéœå¯æå€äžªäžåçåŒã<i>VList</i>äž­ç<nobr><i>sibling(All\'; \')</i></nobr>å°è·åææçåŒïŒå¹¶ïŒåšè¿éïŒçšéå·å°å
+¶éŽéæŸç€ºã\n 
+ 
+<p><i>DocumentText</i>æ ŒåŒå
+å«çæŸç€ºäžéèåå§è®°åœçæºå¶äž<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=p&p=about&c=documented-examples/bibtex-e\">æç®éŠè</a>äž­æè¿°çäžæ ·ïŒéœæ¯äœ¿çš<i>DocumentHeading</i>æ¥æŸç€ºæ ŒåŒåççºªåœïŒå¹¶çš<i>DocumentText</i>æ¥æŸç€ºïŒæéèïŒåå§çæ°æ®åºè®°åœã\n
+"
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/isis-e/import/CDS.fdt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/isis-e/import/CDS.fdt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/isis-e/import/CDS.fdt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+W:CDS   
+F:CDS   CDS1  CDS2  CDS3  PICT1 PICT2 PICT3 PICT31CCDS4 CDSCOL
+S:CDS   
+***
+Conference main entry         npdz                12 300 0 0
+Title                         z                   24 500 0 0
+Edition                                           25 100 0 0
+Imprint                       abc                 26 300 0 0
+Collation                     abc                 30 100 0 0
+Series                        vz                  44 300 0 1
+Notes                                             50 500 0 0
+Keywords                                          69 1000 0 0
+Personal Authors                                  70 100 0 1
+Corporate Bodies                                  71 300 0 1
+Meetings                      npdz                72 300 0 1
+Added Title                   z                   74 500 0 1
+Other language titles         z                   76 500 0 1
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/isis-e/isis-database-license.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/isis-e/isis-database-license.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/isis-e/isis-database-license.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+The CDS database used in this collection is a sample database distributed with the WinISIS version of the CDS/ISIS software, and its redistribution is covered by the following license:
+
+WinISIS Distribution License
+(free of charge)
+
+Version 1.5 build 3
+
+Whereas UNESCO has developed and owns the intellectual property of the CDS/ISIS software (in whole or in part, including all files and documentation, from here on referred to as CDS/ISIS) for the storage and retrieval of information,
+
+Whereas the receiving institution/person desires to use CDS/ISIS for the computerized management of its information,
+
+Whereas the receiving institution/person assumes responsibility for the selection of CDS/ISIS to achieve its intended results, and for the installation, use and results obtained from CDS/ISIS,
+
+Accordingly, UNESCO shall supply the receiving institution/person with CDS/ISIS as well as relevant CDS/ISIS manuals and documentation, available at UNESCO at the time of transfer, and grant the receiving institution/person the following
+
+LICENCE
+
+The receiving institution/person may:
+
+(a) Use CDS/ISIS on one or more computers;
+(b) Make copies of and redistribute the CDS/ISIS system, provided that that each copy should reproduce all the copyright notices and that such distributions clearly state that the original CDS/ISIS is available free of charge from UNESCO to everyone;
+(c) Modify and/or add system menus and message files using the procedures described in the CDS/ISIS manual, especially for the purpose of developing additional language versions of CDS/ISIS, provided that such new language versions are made available to UNESCO;
+(d) Print/reproduce the CDS/ISIS manuals or portions thereof, provided that such copies reproduce the copyright notice;
+(e) Translate the CDS/ISIS manuals or portions thereof, provided that such translations clearly indicate the original source and the name of the translating institution/person, and that UNESCO is informed of any translation and receives a copy.
+
+The receiving institution/person may not:
+
+(a) Use or permit others to use CDS/ISIS except under the terms listed above;
+(b) Make copies or translations of CDS/ISIS and the related manuals obtained by UNESCO except as provided above;
+(c) Erase, replace or modify any copyright notice displayed by the programs during their execution;
+(d) Sell, lease or grant any right on CDS/ISIS to other parties, or distribute CDS/ISIS for profit.
+
+TERMINATION
+
+This Agreement shall be effective until terminated by either party. It shall also terminate if the receiving institution/person fails to comply with any terms or conditions set forth in this Agreement.
+
+WARRANTY AND LIABILITY
+
+UNESCO provides CDS/ISIS as is without warranty of any kind, either expressed or implied, including, but not limited to the suitability of CDS/ISIS for a particular purpose. The entire risk as to the quality and performance of CDS/ISIS is with the receiving institution/person.
+
+In no event will UNESCO be liable to the receiving institution/person for any damages, including lost savings or other incidental or consequential damages arising out of the use or inability to use CDS/ISIS.
+
+Any dispute between the parties to this Agreement concerning the interpretation or application thereof, which is not settled by negociation, shall be settled by arbitration under the UNCITRAL (United Nations Commission on International Trade Law) arbitration rules as at present in force. 
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/isis-e/isis-e.col
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/isis-e/isis-e.col	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/isis-e/isis-e.col	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GathererCollection [
+  <!ELEMENT GathererCollection (Argument*, GathererConfig, BuildConfig, DirectoryMappings)>
+  <!ELEMENT GathererConfig    (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT BuildConfig       (Build, Import)>
+  <!ELEMENT Build             (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Import            (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Schedule          (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Argument          (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Argument
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				enabled           CDATA "true">
+  <!ELEMENT DirectoryMappings (Mapping*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Mapping           (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Mapping 
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				file              CDATA #REQUIRED>
+]>
+<GathererCollection>
+    <Argument name="built">false</Argument>
+    <Argument name="imported">true</Argument>
+    <GathererConfig/>
+    <BuildConfig>
+        <Build/>
+        <Import>
+            <Argument enabled="true" name="removeold"/>
+        </Import>
+        <Schedule/>
+    </BuildConfig>
+    <DirectoryMappings/>
+</GathererCollection>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/isis-e/metadata/ex.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/isis-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/isis-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet [
+
+  <!-- The outer tag of any metadata set. Contains some number of elements.             -->
+  <!-- @param contact     A contact address for the creator.                            -->
+  <!-- @param creator     The name of the entity resposibly for this set.               -->
+  <!-- @param family      The name of this sets family.                                 -->
+  <!-- @param lastchanged The full date, user name and machine name of the last editor. --> 
+  <!--   uses the form:                                                                 -->
+  <!--   Day Mon(th) dd hh:mm:ss yyyy '-' <username> on <machine>                       -->
+  <!-- @param namespace   The namespace of this metadata set.                           -->
+  <!ELEMENT MetadataSet ((Name|Description|Element)+)>
+  <!ATTLIST MetadataSet
+				contact     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				creator     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				description CDATA #REQUIRED
+            family      CDATA #REQUIRED
+				lastchanged CDATA #REQUIRED
+            name        CDATA #REQUIRED
+				namespace   CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- The name of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Name (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Name
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- The description of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Description (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Description
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- An element in the metadata set. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Element (Attribute*,OptionList?)>
+  <!ATTLIST Element
+            name       CDATA #REQUIRED
+				occurances CDATA "0">
+
+  <!-- Each element has several attribute children. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Attribute (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Attribute
+            name CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- For listing predefined values for this element. -->
+  <!ELEMENT OptionList (Value+)>
+  <!ATTLIST OptionList
+            restricted (true|false) "false">
+]>
+
+<MetadataSet 
+contact     = "nzdl.org"
+creator     = "New Zealand Digital Libraries Project: Greenstone"
+family      = "Extracted Greenstone"
+lastchanged = "Tue May 20 10:30:32 2003 - jmt12 on narya"
+namespace   = "ex" 
+>
+
+  <Name language="en">Extracted Greenstone Metadata 1.0</Name>
+
+  <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.0 of the automatically extracted Greenstone Metadata Element Set.</Description>
+
+  <Element name="Encoding">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The encoding of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Encoding</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Language">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The language of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Language</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Source">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Hidden in the Librarian Interface as it already shown by the various file trees.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The filename of the document imported by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Source</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Title">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The title of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Title</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/isis-e/metadata/profile.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/isis-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/isis-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE Profiles [
+<!ELEMENT Profiles (Action*)>
+<!ELEMENT Action (#PCDATA)>
+<!ATTLIST Action
+                source     CDATA #REQUIRED
+                target     CDATA "">
+]>
+<Profiles/>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/marc-e/etc/collect.cfg
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/marc-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/marc-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,292 @@
+creator		greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+maintainer	greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+public		true
+
+buildtype	mgpp
+
+indexes		text dc.Title
+defaultindex	text
+
+levels	document
+
+plugin	GreenstoneXMLPlugin
+plugin	MARCPlugin -OIDtype incremental
+plugin	MetadataXMLPlugin
+plugin	ArchivesInfPlugin
+plugin	DirectoryPlugin
+
+classify	AZList -metadata dc.Title -removesuffix \\s*(\\/|;|,|\\.).*
+classify	AZCompactList -metadata dc.Creator -removesuffix (b\\.\\s+)?(\\d+(\\-?))(\\d+(\\.)?)?
+classify	AZCompactList -metadata "dc.Subject"
+
+format VList "<td>[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td>{If}{[numleafdocs],[Title],<b>[dc.Title]</b>{If}{[dc.Creator], [sibling:dc.Creator]}{If}{[dc.Publisher], <i>[dc.Publisher]</i>}}</td>{If}{[numleafdocs],<td><i>([numleafdocs])</i></td>}"
+
+#format CL2VList "<td>[link][icon][/link]</td><td>{If}{[numleafdocs],[Title],[dc.Creator]; <i>[dc.Title]</i>{If}{[dc.Publisher], <i>[dc.Publisher]</i>}}</td><td>{If}{[numleafdocs],<i>([numleafdocs])</i>}</td>"
+#format CL3VList "<td>[link][icon][/link]</td><td>{If}{[numleafdocs]{[Title],[dc.Title]{If}{[dc.Creator], [dc.Creator]}{If}{[dc.Publisher], [dc.Publisher]}}</td><td>{If}{[numleafdocs],<i>([numleafdocs])</i>}</td>"
+
+format HList "[link][highlight][ex.Title][/highlight][/link]"
+
+format DocumentHeading "[dc.Title]<br>"
+
+format DocumentText "[Text]"
+
+format DocumentButtons ""
+
+format SearchTypes "plain,form"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=en] "_labeltext_"
+collectionmeta	.Title [l=en] "_labelTitle_"
+collectionmeta	.Source [l=en] "_labelSource_"
+
+collectionmeta	sampleoid [l=en] "D0s156"
+
+# -- English strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=en] "MARC example"
+
+# -- French strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=fr] "Exemple MARC"
+
+# -- Spanish strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=es] "ColecciÃ³n de muestra MARC"
+
+# -- Russian strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=ru] "ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ MARC"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=zh] "MARCç€ºäŸéŠè"
+
+# -- English text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=en] "This collection, which contains _about:numdocs_ MARC entries, is based on the MARC records of working papers published by
+<a href=\"http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz\">Computer Science Department</a> at <a href=\"http://www.waikato.ac.nz\">the University of Waikato</a>.
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">Here</a> is a sample document in the collection.
+
+<h3>How the collection works</h3>\n
+
+<p>
+The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>configuration file</a> uses <i>MARCPlugin</i> to process the MARC records, as well as the
+standard plugins. There are three classifiers, based on <i>dc.Title</i>,
+<i>dc.Creator</i>, and <i>dc.Subject</i> metadata. The <i>Title</i> classifier uses AZList, while the other two use AZCompactList, which groups items with the same metadata into a bookshelf. The <i>-removesuffix</i> argument for the <i>Title</i> and <i>Creator</i>
+classifiers removes suffixes from the metadata string (<i>dc.Title</i> and
+<i>dc.Creator</i> respectively). This is specified as a PERL regular
+expression, and trims characters (such as trailing punctuation)
+from the strings for display.
+<p>
+The <i>VList</i> format statement controls the display of search results and all classifiers. For bookshelves, the number of leaf documents is displayed on the right-hand side. For documents, <i>dc.Title</i> is displayed, along with <i>dc.Creator</i> and <i>dc.Publisher</i>. <i>[sibling:dc.Creator]</i> is used as dc.Creator has multiple values, and specifies that all values be output, not just the first one.
+<p>
+
+The MARC plugin uses a special file to map MARC field numbers to
+Greenstone-style metadata. This file resides in the
+<i>greenstone/etc</i> directory, and is called
+<a href=\"_httpprefix_/etc/marc2dc.txt\" target=marc2dc>marc2dc.txt</a>.
+It lists the correspondences between MARC field numbers and Greenstone
+metadata. Any MARC fields that are not listed simply do not
+appear as metadata, though they are still present in the
+Greenstone document. Each line in the file has the format
+<blockquote>
+&lt;MARC field number&gt; -&gt; GreenstoneMetadataName
+</blockquote>
+Lines in the file that begin with \"\#\" are comments. \n
+<p>
+The standard version of this file is loosely based on
+the MARC to Dublin Core mapping found at <a
+href=\"http://www.loc.gov/marc/marc2dc.html\">http://www.loc.gov/marc/marc2dc.html</a>
+(which assumes USMARC/MARC21).
+<p>
+Multiple MARC fields may map to a single Dublin Core field.
+For example, fields 720 (\"Uncontrolled name\"), 100 (\"Personal name\"),
+110 (\"Corporate name\") and 111 (\"Meeting name\") all map to
+<i>dc.Creator</i>. Actual MARC records normally
+define only one of these fields, and anyway Greenstone allows
+multi-valued metadata.\n
+<p>
+Some mappings are dependent on subfields. For example, MARC field 260 contains
+information about publication and distribution. Subfields \"c\" (Date of Publication) and \"g\" (Date of manufacture) are mapped to <i>dc.Date</i>, using the following mapping line:
+<blockquote>
+260$c$g -&gt; dc.Date
+</blockquote>
+
+Greenstone also provides a file for mapping MARC to <b>qualified</b> dublin core: <a href=\"_httpprefix_/etc/marc2qdc.txt\" target=marc2qdc>greenstone/etc/marc2qdc.txt</a>. This can be used by the MARC plugin by setting the <i>-metadata_mapping_file</i> option to \"marc2qdc.txt\".
+"
+
+# -- French text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=fr] "Cette collection, which contains _about:numdocs_ MARC entries, is based on the MARC records of working papers published by
+<a href=\"http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz\">Computer Science Department</a> at <a href=\"http://www.waikato.ac.nz\">the University of Waikato</a>.
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">Voici</a> un document Ã©chantillon dans la collection.
+
+<h3>Comment marche cette collection ?</h3>
+
+<p>
+Le <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier de configuration</a> utilise <i>ZipPlug</i> et <i>MarcPlug</i> Ã  cotÃ© des trois qui sont utilisÃ©s en standard.
+Il y a trois classificateurs basÃ©s sur les mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es <i>dc.Title</i>, <i>dc.Creator</i> et <i>dc.Subject</i>. Le classificateur <i>dc.Title</i> est une liste AZList, alors que les deux autres sont des listes AZCompactList, qui regroupent les documents avec les mÃªmes mÃ©tadonnÃ©es dans une Ã©tagÃšre. L'argument <i>-removesuffix</i> pour les classificateurs <i>Title</i> et <i>Creator</i> supprime les suffixes de la chaÃ®ne des mÃ©tadonnÃ©es (respectivement pour <i>dc.Title</i> et <i>dc.Creator</i>).
+Ceci est spÃ©cifiÃ© comme une expression
+rÃ©guliÃšre de PERL et ajuste pour l\'affichage des caractÃšres (comme une ponctuation finale).
+<p>
+La dÃ©claration de format <i>VList</i> contrÃŽle l'affichage des rÃ©sultats de recherche et de tous les classificateurs. Pour les Ã©tagÃšres, le nombre de pages de documents est affichÃ© sur le cÃŽtÃ© droit. Pour chaque document, <i>dc.Title</i> est affichÃ©, ainsi que <i>dc.Creator</i> and <i>dc.Publisher</i>. <i>[sibling:dc.Creator]</i> est utilisÃ© lorsque dc.Creator a plusieurs valeurs, et prÃ©cise que toutes les valeurs doivent Ãªtre affichÃ©es, et pas seulement la premiÃšre. 
+
+<p>
+Le module Marc utilise un fichier spÃ©cial pour la mise en correspondance des numÃ©ros de champ MARC avec les mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e de type Greenstone. Ce fichier se trouve dans le rÃ©pertoire <i>gsdl/etc</i>,
+et est appelÃ© <a href=\"_httpprefix_/etc/marc2dc.txt\" target=marc2dc>marc2dc.txt</a>. Il liste les correspondences entre les numÃ©ros de champ MARC et les mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es Greenstone. Tous les champs MARC qui ne sont pas listÃ©s ne vont pas apparaÃ®tre comme mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es, bien qu\'ils spient toujours prÃ©sents dans le document Greenstone. Chaque ligne dans le fichier Ã  le format:
+
+<blockquote>
+&lt;numÃ©ro de champ MARC&gt; -&gt; NonMetadonnÃ©eGreenstone
+</blockquote>
+
+Les lignes dans le fichier qui commence par \"\#\" sont des commentaires.
+
+<p>
+La version standard de ce fichier est approximativement basÃ©e sur la mise en correspondance MARC - Dublin Core trouvÃ© Ã  <a href=\"http://www.loc.gov/marc/marc2dc.html\">http://www.loc.gov/marc/marc2dc.html</a>
+(qui suppose USMARC/MARC21).
+Plusieurs champs MARC peuvent correspondre Ã  un seul champ Dublin Core. Par exemple, les champs USMARC 720 (\"Uncontrolled name\"), 100 (\"Personal name\"), 110 (\"Corporate name\") et 111 (\"Meeting name\") correspondent tous Ã  <i>dc.Creator</i>. Les notices MARC actuelles remplissent normalement un seul de ces champs, et dans tous les cas, Greenstone autorise ds champs de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es Ã  plusieurs valeurs. Certaines correspondances dÃ©pendent des sous-champs. Par exemple, le champs MARC 260 contient des informations sur la publication et la distribution des ouvrages. Les sous-champs \"c\" (Date de Publication) and \"g\" (Date de fabrication) sont mis en correspondance avec <i>dc.Date</i>, en utilisant la ligne suivante: <blockquote> 260$c$g     -&gt; dc.Date </blockquote> Greenstone fournit Ã©galement un fichier pour Ã©tablir la correspondance entre MARC et le Dublin Core <b>qualifiÃ©</b> : <a href=\"_httpprefix_/etc/marc2qdc.txt\" target=marc2qdc>greenstone/etc/marc2qdc.txt</a>. Cela peut Ãªtre utilisÃ© avec le plugiciel MARC en donnant la valeur \"marc2qdc.txt\" Ã  l'option <i>-metadata_mapping_file</i>.
+"
+
+# -- Spanish text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=es] "
+Esta colecciÃ³n, la cual contiene _about:numdocs_ registros MARC, estÃ¡ basada en registros MARC de papers de trabajo publicados por el <a href=\"http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz\">Departamento de Ciencias de la ComputaciÃ³n</a> de la <a href=\"http://www.waikato.ac.nz\">Universidad de Waikato</a>. He <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">aquÃ­</a> un documento de muestra de la colecciÃ³n.
+<p>
+
+<h3>CÃ³mo trabaja esta colecciÃ³n</h3>
+<p>
+
+El <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n</a> utiliza <i>MARCPlugin</i> ademÃ¡s de los tres plugins estÃ¡ndar. Existen tres clasificadores basados en los metadatos <i>dc.TÃ­tulo</i>, <i>dc.Creador</i> y <i>dc.Asunto</i>. El clasificador <i>dc.Title</i> es una AZList, mientras que los otros dos son AZCompactList, que agrupa items con el mismo metadato en un \"estante\". El argumento <i>-removesuffix</i> para el clasificador por <i>Title</i> y por <i>Creator</i> remueve los sufijos de la cadena de caracteres (<i>dc.Title</i> y <i>dc.Creator</i> respectivamente). Esto se especifica como una expresiÃ³n regular PERL y ordena los caracteres (como la puntuaciÃ³n que se encuentra al final) a partir de las cadenas para su presentaciÃ³n en pantalla.
+<p>
+La cadena de formateo <i>VList</i> controla la forma en la que se muestran los resultados y todos los clasificadores. Para los estantes, el nÃºmero de documentos contenidos se muestra en la parte derecha. Para los documentos, se muestra el metadato <i>dc.Title</i>, junto al <i>dc.Creator</i> y el <i>dc.Publisher</i>. <i>[sibling:dc.Creator]</i> se utiliza debido a que dc.Creator tiene mÃºltiples valores, y especifica que se deben mostrar todos los valores, no solamente el primero.
+
+<p>
+
+El plugin de MARC utiliza un archivo especial para mapear y convertir los nÃºmeros de campo MARC a metadatos estilo Greenstone. Este archivo reside en el directorio <i>gsdl/etc</i> y se llama <a href=\"_httpprefix_/etc/marc2dc.txt\" target=marc2dc>marc2dc.txt</a>. Incluye una lista de las correspondencias entre los nÃºmeros de campo MARC y los metadatos Greenstone. Cualquier campo MARC que no estÃ© incluido en la lista simplemente no aparece como metadato, aunque siga estando presente en el documento Greenstone. Cada lÃ­nea del archivo tiene el siguiente formato:
+<p>
+
+<blockquote>
+&lt;MARC field number&gt; -&gt; Nombre_de_Metadato_Greenstone
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+
+Las lÃ­neas en el archivo que empiezan con \"\#\" son comentarios.
+<p>
+
+La versiÃ³n estÃ¡ndar de este archivo se basa en el mapeo genÃ©rico  de MARC a Dublin Core que se encuentra en <a href=\"http://www.loc.gov/marc/marc2dc.html\">http://www.loc.gov/marc/marc2dc.html</a> (el cual asume USMARC/MARC21).
+
+MÃºltiples campos MARC pueden mapearse a un mismo campo Dublin Core.
+Por ejemplo, los campos 720 (\"Uncontrolled name\"), 100 (\"Personal name\"),
+110 (\"Corporate name\") y 111 (\"Meeting name\") mapean todos a <i>dc.Creator</i>. Los registros actuales de MARC normalmente definen solo uno de esos campos, pero de cualquier manera Greenstone permite metadatos multivalor. \n
+<p>
+Algunos mapeos dependen de los subcampos. Por ejemplo, el campo MARC 260 contiene informaciÃ³n sobre la publicaciÃ³n y la distribuciÃ³n. Subcampos \"c\" (Date of Publication) y \"g\" (Date of manufacture) son mapeados a <i>dc.Date</i>, usando la siguiente linea de configuraciÃ³n:
+<blockquote>
+260$c$g -&gt; dc.Date
+</blockquote>
+
+Greenstone tambiÃ©n provee un archivo para el mapeo de MARC a Dublin Core <b>cualificado</b>: <a href=\"_httpprefix_/etc/marc2qdc.txt\" target=marc2qdc>greenstone/etc/marc2qdc.txt</a>. Puede ser usado por el plugin de MARC configurando el parÃ¡metro <i>-metadata_mapping_file</i> con \"marc2qdc.txt\".
+"
+
+# -- Russian text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=ru] "This collection, which contains _about:numdocs_ MARC entries, is based on the MARC records of working papers published by
+<a href=\"http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz\">Computer Science Department</a> at <a href=\"http://www.waikato.ac.nz\">the University of Waikato</a>. <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=_sampleoid_\">ÐÐŽÐµÑÑ</a> Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœ ÑÐžÐ¿ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ¹ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž.
+
+<h3>ÐÐ°Ðº ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ</h3>
+<p>
+
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>ÐÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»</a> ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœÑ <i>ZIPPlug</i> Ðž <i>MARCPlug</i>, Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐžÐŒÐŸ ÑÑÐµÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐ°. ÐÐŒÐµÑÑÑÑ ÑÑÐž ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ°, ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐœÐ° ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ <i>ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ (dc.Title)</i>, <i>Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ (dc.Creator)</i> Ðž <i>ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑÐ° (dc.Subject)</i>. <!-- _text1_ -->The <i>dc.Title</i> classifier is an AZList, while the other two are AZCompactList, which groups items with the same metadata into a bookshelf. The <i>-removesuffix</i> argument for the <i>Title</i> and <i>Creator</i>
+classifiers removes suffixes from the metadata string (<i>dc.Title</i> and
+<i>dc.Creator</i> respectively). Ð­ÑÐŸ ÑÑÐµÐ±ÑÐµÑ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŸÐ²ÐºÐž PERL ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐžÐ»ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð²ÑÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ, Ðž ÑÑÐµÐ·Ð°ÐµÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÐºÐž (ÑÐžÐ¿Ð° ÐºÐŸÐœÐµÑÐœÑÑ
+ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÐºÐŸÐ² Ð¿ÑÐµÐ¿ÐžÐœÐ°ÐœÐžÑ) ÐžÐ· ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŸÑÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ.
+<p>
+<!-- _text2_ -->
+The <i>VList</i> format statement controls the display of search results and all classifiers. For bookshelves, the number of leaf documents is displayed on the right-hand side. For documents, <i>dc.Title</i> is displayed, along with <i>dc.Creator</i> and <i>dc.Publisher</i>. <i>[sibling:dc.Creator]</i> is used as dc.Creator has multiple values, and specifies that all values be output, not just the first one.
+<p>
+
+ÐÐ»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœ MARC ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑ ÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐžÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð» ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÐŸÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐŸÐŒÐµÑÐ° Ð¿ÐŸÐ»Ñ Ð² MARC Ðž ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Greenstone. Ð­ÑÐŸÑ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð» ÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÑÑÑ Ð² ÐŽÐžÑÐµÐºÑÐŸÑÐžÐž <i>gsdl/etc</i> Ðž ÐœÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑÑÑ <a href=\"_httpprefix_/etc/marc2dc.txt\" target=marc2dc>marc2dc.txt</a>. ÐÐœ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÐµÑ ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐŸÐº ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐžÑ ÐŒÐµÐ¶ÐŽÑ ÐœÐŸÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŒÐž Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐµÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÑ MARC Ðž ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐŒÐž Greenstone. ï¿œÑÐ±ÑÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»Ñ MARC, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ ÐœÐµ Ð²ÐœÐµÑÐµÐœÑ Ð² ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐŸÐº, Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸ ÐœÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ, Ñ
+ÐŸÑÑ ÐŸÐœÐž Ð¿ÑÐžÑÑÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑ Ð² ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐµ Greenstone. ÐÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÐ°Ñ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐ° Ð² ÑÑÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ðµ ÐžÐŒÐµÐµÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÑÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ.
+
+<blockquote>
+&lt;MARC field number&gt; -&gt; GreenstoneMetadataName
+</blockquote>
+Ð¡ÑÑÐŸÐºÐž Ð² ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ðµ, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ ÐœÐ°ÑÐžÐœÐ°ÑÑÑÑ ÑÐŸ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÐºÐ° \"\#\", ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐŒÐž.
+<p>
+
+Ð¡ÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐœÐ°Ñ Ð²ÐµÑÑÐžÑ ÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ð° ÑÐ²ÐŸÐ±ÐŸÐŽÐœÐŸ Ð±Ð°Ð·ÐžÑÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐœÐ° MARC Ð² ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐž Dublin Core, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐµ Ð²ÐŸÑÐ¿ÑÐžÐœÐžÐŒÐ°ÐµÑ USMARC/MARC21 Ðž ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐœÐŸ ÐœÐ°Ð¹ÑÐž ÐœÐ° <a href=\"http://www.loc.gov/marc/marc2dc.html\">http://www.loc.gov/marc/marc2dc.html</a>.
+
+<!-- _text3_ -->
+Multiple MARC fields may map to a single Dublin Core field. 
+For example, fields 720 (\"Uncontrolled name\"), 100 (\"Personal name\"), 
+110 (\"Corporate name\") and  111 (\"Meeting name\") all map to 
+<i>dc.Creator</i>. Actual MARC records normally
+define only one of these fields, and anyway Greenstone allows
+multi-valued metadata.\n
+<p>
+Some mappings are dependent on subfields. For example, MARC field 260 contains
+information about publication and distribution. Subfields \"c\" (Date of Publication) and \"g\" (Date of manufacture) are mapped to <i>dc.Date</i>, using the following mapping line:
+<blockquote>
+260$c$g     -&gt; dc.Date
+</blockquote>
+
+Greenstone also provides a file for mapping MARC to <b>qualified</b> dublin core: <a href=\"_httpprefix_/etc/marc2qdc.txt\" target=marc2qdc>greenstone/etc/marc2qdc.txt</a>. This can be used by the MARC plugin by setting the <i>-metadata_mapping_file</i> option to \"marc2qdc.txt\".
+"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=zh] "
+æ¬éŠèå
+å«_about:numdocs_æ¡MARCè®°åœïŒæ¯åš<a href=\"http://www.waikato.ac.nz\">æå¡æå€§å­Š</a>
+<a href=\"http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz\">è®¡ç®æºç³»</a>åè¡šçå·¥äœè®ºæåºç¡äžæå»ºçã
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&d=HASH0127daf20f8b3eec5c5db834s9\">è¿é</a>æ¯æ¬éŠèäž­çäžäžªç€ºèææ¡£ã 
+ 
+<h3>æ¬éŠèåŠäœå·¥äœ</h3>\n 
+ 
+<p>æ¬éŠèç<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>é
+çœ®æä»¶</a>äœ¿çš<i>MARCPlugin</i>æ¥å€çMARCè®°åœïŒ
+è¿äœ¿çšäºäžäºæ åçæä»¶ãæ¬éŠèæäžäžªåç±»åšïŒåå«åºäº<i>dc.Title</i>ïŒ<i>dc.Creator</i>å<i>dc.Subject</i>å
+æ°æ®ã<i>é¢å</i>
+åç±»åšäœ¿çšAZListïŒèå
+¶ä»äž€äžªäœ¿çšAZCompactListïŒAZCompactListå°æççžåå
+æ°æ®åŒçè®°åœéäž­å°äžäžªä¹Šæ¶äž­ã<i>é¢å</i>å<i>äœè
+
+</i>åç±»åšç<i>-removesuffix</i>åæ°å°å é€å
+æ°æ®å­äž²äž­çåçŒïŒåå«å¯¹åºäº<i>dc.Title</i>å<i>dc.Creator</i>å­æ®µïŒãè¿æ¯äžäžª
+PERLæ­£åè¡šèŸŸåŒïŒå®å°å é€æäžäºå­ç¬ŠïŒæ¯åŠç»å°Ÿçæ ç¹ç¬Šå·ïŒã 
+ 
+<p><i>VList</i>æ ŒåŒååæ°æ§å¶æçŽ¢ç»æåææåç±»åšçå€è§ãå¯¹äºä¹Šæ¶ïŒå
+¶äž­å
+å«çææ¡£æ°ç®å°è¢«æŸç€ºåšå³äŸ§ãå¯¹äºææ¡£ïŒå°æŸç€º<i>dc.Title</i>
+ä»¥å<i>dc.Creator</i>å<i>dc.Publisher</i>ã<i>[sibling:dc.Creator]</i>çšäºdc.Creatoræå€äžªåŒçæ
+åµïŒå®è¡šææŸç€ºææåŒïŒèäžä»
+ä»
+æ¯ç¬¬äžäžªåŒã 
+ 
+<p>MARCæä»¶äœ¿çšç¹æ®çæä»¶å°MARCå­æ®µçŒå·æ å°å°Greenstoneæ ŒåŒçå
+æ°æ®ãè¿äžªæä»¶åš<i>greenstone/etc</i>ç®åœäž­ïŒå«å
+<a href=\"_httpprefix_/etc/marc2dc.txt\" target=marc2dc>marc2dc.txt</a>ãè¯¥æä»¶ååºäºMARCå­æ®µçŒå·äžGreenstoneå
+æ°æ®å­æ®µéŽç
+å¯¹åºå
+³ç³»ãä»»äœæ²¡æååºçMARCå­æ®µéœäžäŒæ å°äžºå
+æ°æ®ïŒå°œç®¡å®ä»¬ä»å°åºç°åšGreenstoneææ¡£äž­ãè¿äžªæä»¶äž­çæ¯äžè¡éœéµåŸªä»¥äžæ ŒåŒïŒ 
+<blockquote> 
+&lt;MARC field number&gt; -&gt; GreenstoneMetadataName 
+</blockquote> 
+ææä»¥\"\#\"åŒå§çè¡éœæ¯æ³šéè¡ã\n 
+ 
+<p>è¿äžªæä»¶ä»¥<a href=\"http://www.loc.gov/marc/marc2dc.html\">http://www.loc.gov/marc/marc2dc.html</a>çMARCå°éœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®
+æ å°ïŒåè®ŸUSMARC/MARC21ïŒäžºå€§èŽåºç¡ã 
+ 
+<p>å€äžªMARCå­æ®µå¯èœéèŠæ å°å°äžäžªéœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®å­æ®µäžãäŸåŠïŒå­æ®µ720ïŒ\"éåæ§é¢å\"ïŒïŒ100ïŒ\"äººå\"ïŒïŒ110ïŒ\"æºæå\"ïŒä»¥å111
+ïŒ\"äŒè®®å\"ïŒéœè¢«æ å°äžº<i>dc.Creator</i>ãå®é
+MARCè®°åœéåžžåªå®ä¹è¿äºäž­çäžäžªå­æ®µïŒèGreenstoneä¹å
+è®žäœ¿çšå€åŒçå
+æ°æ®ã\n 
+ 
+<p>æäºæ å°åå³äºå­å­æ®µãæ¯åŠïŒMARCå­æ®µ260å
+å«å
+³äºåºçäžååžçä¿¡æ¯ãå­å­æ®µ\"c\"ïŒåºçæ¥æïŒå\"g\"ïŒå¶é åæ¥æïŒéœæ å°å°<i>dc.Date</i>ïŒ
+éè¿äœ¿çšä»¥äžçæ å°è¡ïŒ 
+<blockquote> 
+260$c$g     -&gt; dc.Date 
+</blockquote> 
+Greenstoneè¿æäŸMARCå°<b>éå®ç</b>éœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®éçæ å°ïŒ
+<a href=\"_httpprefix_/etc/marc2qdc.txt\" target=marc2qdc>greenstone/etc/marc2qdc.txt</a>ãè¿éèŠå°MARCæä»¶ç
+<i>-metadata_mapping_file</i>éé¡¹è®Ÿå®äžº\"marc2qdc.txt\"ã 
+"
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/marc-e/import/marc.marc
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/marc-e/import/marc.marc	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/marc-e/import/marc.marc	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,5371 @@
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+352666
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+  a(nzNZBN)11355888
+  azbn99047346
+  9ABQ-8644
+  aWUcWU
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.99/9
+1 aChang, Chung-yi.
+14aThe LRU*WWW proxy cache document replacement algorithm /cby Chung-yi Chang, Tony McGregor and Geoffrey Holmes.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1999.
+  a11 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v99/9
+  a"June 1999."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aWorld Wide Web.
+ 0aWeb sitesxManagement.
+ 0aInformation storage and retrieval systems.
+ 0aWorld Wide Web servers.
+1 aHolmes, Geoffrey
+1 aMcGregor, A. J.q(Anthony James)
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v99/9.
+
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+  aUcWU
+  au-nz---
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.99/8
+1 aGroves, Lindsay J.
+12aA survey of software requirements specification practices in the New Zealand software industry /cby Lindsay Groves...[et.al.]
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1999.
+  a22 p. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paperx1170-487X ;v99/8
+  a"June 1999."
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aComputer softwarexDevelopmentxEstimates.
+ 0aComputer softwarexDevelopmentxEstimateszNew Zealand.
+ 0aSoftware engineering.
+10aNickson, Ray.
+10aReeve, Greg.
+10aReeves, Steve,d1957- .
+10aUtting, Mark.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v99/8.
+
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+  aQA75.5.W926 no.99/7
+1 aPaynter, Gordon W.
+10aAutomating iterative tasks with programming by demonstration :ba user evaluation /cby Gordon W. Paynter and Ian H. Witten.
+  aHamilton, N. Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1999.
+  a9 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v99/7
+  a"May 1999."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 9).
+ 0aComputer programming.
+ 0aEnd-user computing.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v99/7.
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+  aQA75.5.W926 no.99/6
+00aFacilitating multiple copy/paste operations /cby Mark Apperley ... [et al.].
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1999.
+  a8 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v99/6
+  a"May 1999."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 8).
+ 0aText processing (Computer science)
+ 0aText editors (Computer programs)
+1 aApperley, Mark D.
+10aBaker, Jay.
+10aFletcher, Dale.
+ 0aRogers, William J.q(William John)
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v99/6.
+
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+  9ABQ-5902
+  aWUcWU
+0 aeng
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.99/5
+1 aApperley, Mark D.
+10aBrowsing tree structures/cby Mark Apperley...[et.al.]
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1999.
+  a14 p. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paperx1170-487X ;v99/5
+  a"May 1999."
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aTrees (Graph theory)
+ 0aData structures (Computer science)
+ 0aGraph theory.
+10aHodge, Stephen Brett.
+10aChester, Michaelq(Michael Eric)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v99/5.
+
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+      s1999    nz a     b    00010 eng d
+  ozbn99032612 
+  a(nzNZBN)11303627
+  9ABQ-4211
+  aDUScDUS
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.99/4
+1 aHall, Mark Andrew.
+10aFeature selection for discrete and numeric class machine learning /cby Mark A. Hall.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1999.
+  a16 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v99/4
+  a"April 1999."
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aAlgorithms.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v99/4.
+
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+  ozbn99029085 
+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  a(nzNZBN)11289639
+  9ABQ-4209
+  aNZNBcDUS
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.99/3
+1 aHolmes, Geoffrey
+12aA diagnostic tool for tree based supervised classification learning algorithms /cby Geoffrey Holmes and Leonard Trigg.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1999.
+  a[6] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v99/3
+  a"March 1999."
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aAlgorithms.
+ 0aMachine learningxResearch.
+ 0aData mining.
+1 aTrigg, Leonard.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v99/3.
+
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+20041014034147.0
+      s1999    nz       b    00010 eng d
+  ozbn99025163 
+  a(nzNZBN)11251350
+  9ABQ-3536
+  aDUScDUS
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.99/2
+1 aHolmes, Geoffrey
+10aGenerating rule sets from model trees /cGeoffrey Holmes, Mark Hall and Eibe Frank.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1999.
+  a9 p. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v99/2
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  a"March 1999."
+  aBibliography: p. 9.
+ 0aTrees (Graph theory)
+ 0aDecision trees.
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aRegression analysis.
+1 aHall, Mark Andrew.
+1 aFrank, Eibe.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v99/2.
+
+01257cam  2200325 a 4500001000700000005001700007008004100024010001200065020002800077035001300105040001500118043001200133092002500145100003600170245013100206260008000337300003400417490004600451500002100497504004100518610003300559650005600592650002200648650003600670650003600706700002600742700002200768710005500790830008600845
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+20060526112528.0
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+  o5521881
+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  9ABT-4689
+  aNZNBcNZNB
+  au-nz---
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.99/16
+1 aKeegan, Te Taka Adrian Gregory.
+14aThe Niupepa collection :bopening the blinds on a window to the past /cTe Taka Keegan, Sally Jo Cunningham and Mark Apperley.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1999.
+  a[10] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v99/16
+  a"December 1999."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+20aNew Zealand Digital Library.
+00aNew Zealand newspapersxComputer network resources.
+00aMaori newspapers.
+00aDigital librarieszNew Zealand.
+00aOnline bibliographic searching.
+1 aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+1 aApperley, Mark D.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v99/16.
+
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+363519
+20031029034034.0
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+  o5477424
+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  9ABS-5076
+  aNZNBcNZNB
+04a519.53221
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.99/14
+1 aWang, Yong.
+10aClustering with finite data from semi-parametric mixture distributions /cby Yong Wang and Ian H. Witten.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1999.
+  a1, [5] leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v99/14
+  a"November 1999."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+00aCluster analysis.
+00aMixture distributions (Probability theory)
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v99/14.
+
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+359649
+991008s1999    nz a     b    000 0 eng d
+  9ABR-8482
+  aPU
+04a495.1028551221
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.99/13
+02aA compression-based algorithm for Chinese word segmentation /cby W.J. Teahan ... [et al.].
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1999.
+  a20 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v99/13
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  a"September 1999."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 19-20)
+ 0aChinese languagexData processing.
+ 0aComputer algorithms.
+ 0aText processing (Computer science)
+1 aTeahan, William John.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v99/13
+
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+  9ABR-8041
+  aPU
+  aABR8041
+04a519.536221
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.99/12
+1 aWang, Yong.
+10aPace regression /cby Yong Wang and Ian H. Witten.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1999.
+  a27 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v99/12
+  a"September 1999."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 23-24)
+ 0aRegression analysis.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v99/12.
+
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+  9ABR-4618
+  cGratis (pbk.)
+  aNZNBcWUdNZNB
+04a006.31221
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.99/11
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+10aWEKA :bpractical machine learning tools and techniques with Java implementations /cby Ian H. Witten ... [et. al.].
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1999.
+  a[4] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v99/11
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  a"August 1999."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 4).
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aJava (Computer program language)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v99/11.
+
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+20031029034039.0
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+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  a(nzNZBN)11356334
+  9zbn99047965
+  9ABQ-8643
+  aNZNBcNZNB
+04a006.31221
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.99/10
+1 aFrank, Eibe.
+10aReduced-error pruning with significance tests /cby Eibe Frank and Ian H. Witten.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept.  of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1999.
+  a42 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v99/10
+  a"June 1999."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 36-38).
+00aDecision trees.
+00aAlgorithms.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v99/10.
+
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+20031029034041.0
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+  a(nzNZBN)11194037
+  azbn99012045
+  9ABQ-2384
+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  aNZNBcDUS
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.99/1
+1 aBach, Joscha.
+10aLexical attraction for text compression /cby Joscha Bach and Ian H. Witten.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Sciences, University of Waikato,cc1999.
+  a10 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v99/1
+  a"January 1999."
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 10).
+ 0aData compression (Telecommunication)
+ 0aLexicology.
+ 0aText processing (Computer science)
+ 0aImage processingxDigital techniques.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v99/1.
+
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+20031029034044.0
+      s1998    nz a     b    00000 eng d
+  ozbn98055645 
+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  a(nzNZBN)10853147
+  9ABP-0976
+  aNZNBcCUMB
+0 a005.74221
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.98/9
+00aManaging multiple collections, multiple languages, and multiple media in a distributed digital library /cby Ian H. Witten ... [et al.].
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1998.
+  a[18] leaves :bill., music ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v98/9
+  a"May 1998."
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aDigital librariesxManagement.
+ 0aDistributed databasesxManagement.
+ 0aDatabase management.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v98/9.
+
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+      s1998    nz       b    00000 eng d
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+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  a(nzNZBN)10790983
+  9ABO-5748
+  aNZNBcNZNB
+  au-nz---
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.98/8
+1 aWilliams, Michael Llewellyn.
+13aAn evaluation of passage-level indexing strategies for a technical report archive /cby Michael Williams.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c[1998]
+  a9 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v98/8
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  a"April 1998."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 8-9).
+ 0aOnline bibliographic searching.
+ 0aOnline information services.
+ 0aDigital librarieszNew Zealand.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v98/8.
+
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+      s1998    nz a     b    00000 eng d
+  ozbn98036776 
+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  a(nzNZBN)10782842
+  9ABO-5746
+  aNZNBcNZNB
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.98/7
+00aPredicting apple bruising using machine learning /cby G. Holmes ... [et al.].
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1998.
+  a[8] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v98/7
+  a"April 1998."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aApplesxPostharvest diseases and injuriesxComputer simulation.
+ 0aApplesxHandlingxComputer simulation.
+ 0aMachine learning.
+1 aHolmes, Geoffrey
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v98/7.
+
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+  ozbn98035548 
+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  a(nzNZBN)10772605
+  9ABO-3462
+  aNZNBcNZNB
+0 a005.133221
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.98/5
+1 aHenson, Martin C.
+12aA logic for the schema calculus /cby Martin C. Henson and Steve Reeves.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1998.
+  a20 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v98/5
+  a"March 1998."
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 20).
+ 0aZ (Computer program language)
+1 aReeves, Steve,d1957-
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v98/5.
+
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+      s1998    nz       b    00000 eng d
+  ozbn98035528 
+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  a(nzNZBN)10772612
+  9ABO-3463
+  aNZNBcNZNB
+0 a005.133221
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.98/4
+1 aHenson, Martin C.
+10aRevising Z :bsemantics and logic /cby Martin C. Henson and Steve Reeves.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1998.
+  a42 p. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v98/4
+  a"March 1998."
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 42).
+ 0aZ (Computer program language)
+1 aReeves, Steve,d1957-
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v98/4.
+
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+344091
+20031028105122.0
+      s1998    nz a     b    00000 eng d
+  ozbn99007170 
+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  a(nzNZBN)11120218
+  9ABP-6778
+  aNZNBcCU
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.98/18
+1 aBainbridge, David I.
+10aMaking oral history accessible over the World Wide Web /cby David Bainbridge and Sally Jo Cunningham.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1998.
+  a25 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v98/18
+  a"November 1998."
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 25).
+ 0aOral historyxData processing.
+ 0aOral historyxInformation resources.
+ 0aWorld Wide Web.
+ 0aDatabase searching.
+ 0aInformation retrieval.
+1 aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v98/18.
+
+01115cam  2200301 a 4500001000700000005001700007008004100024010001700065035002100082035001300103040001100116092002500127100002500152245011300177260008000290300003300370490004600403500002100449504004100470650002800511650002000539650003200559650002500591700002100616700003500637710005500672830008600727
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+20031028105039.0
+      s1998    nz a     b    00000 eng d
+  ozbn99000613 
+  a(nzNZBN)11120213
+  9ABP-6777
+  aCUcCU
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.98/17
+1 aBainbridge, David I.
+10aMelody based tune retrieval over the World Wide Web /cby David Bainbridge, Rodger J. McNab and Lloyd Smith.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1998.
+  a[9] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v98/17
+  a"November 1998."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aMusicxData processing.
+ 0aComputer music.
+ 0aMusic librariesvDatabases.
+ 0aDigital electronics.
+1 aMcNab, Rodger J.
+1 aSmith, Lloyd A.q(Lloyd Allan)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v98/17.
+
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+344010
+      s1998    nz a     b    00010 eng d
+  ozbn98089472 
+  a(nzNZBN)11047949
+  9ABP-6656
+  aDUScDUS
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.98/16
+1 aJones, Steve,d1966-
+10aLink as you type :busing key phrases for automated dynamic link generation /cSteve Jones.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1998.
+  a[9] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper ;v98/16
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  a"September 1998."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aHypertext systems.
+ 0aDatabase searching.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v98/16.
+
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+  a(nzNZBN)11060416
+  9ABP-6657
+  aCUcCU
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.98/15
+00aNaive Bayes for regression /cby Eibe Frank ... [et al.].
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1998.
+  a17 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v98/15
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  a"October 1998."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 16-17).
+ 0aBayesian statistical decision theory.
+ 0aRegression analysis.
+ 0aTrees (Graph theory)
+1 aFrank, Eibe.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+1 aTrigg, Leonard.
+1 aHolmes, Geoffrey
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v98/15.
+
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+  9ABP-6658
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+  au-nz---
+0 a004.66221
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.98/14
+00aMeasuring ATM traffic :bfinal report for New Zealand Telecom /cJ. Cleary ... [et al.].
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1998.
+  a15 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v98/14
+  aCONTRIBUTED CATALOGUING.
+  a"October 22, 1998."
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  a"October 1998."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 15)..
+ 0aAutomated tellersxMeasurementxComputer programs
+ 0aAutomated tellerszNew ZealandvStatistics.
+ 0aElectronic funds transferszNew ZealandvStatistics.
+1 aCleary, John G.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+2 aTelecom Corporation of New Zealand.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v98/14.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;vno.98/14.
+
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+  aQA75.5.W926 no.98/13
+1 aJones, Steve,d1966-
+13aAn analysis of usage of a digital library /cby Steve Jones, Sally Jo Cunningham and Rodger McNab.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1998.
+  a[12] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v98/13
+  a"June 1998."
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aDigital libraries.
+ 0aDigital librarieszNew Zealand.
+ 0aOnline bibliographic searching.
+ 0aDatabase searching.
+1 aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+1 aMcNab, Rodger J.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v98/13.
+
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+  aQA75.5.W926 no.98/12
+2 aCBISE'98d(1998 :cPisa, Italy)
+10aProceedings of CBISE'98 :bCAiSE®98 Workshop on Component Based Information Systems Engineering /cedited by John Grundy.
+10aCAiSE*98 Workshop on Component Based Information Systems Engineering
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1998.
+  a107 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v98/12
+  a"June 8-9, Pisa, Italy"--Added t.p.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aComputer-aided software engineeringvCongresses.
+ 0aSystems engineeringvCongresses.
+1 aGrundy, John C.q(John Collis)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v98/12.
+
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+  9ABP-0974
+  aNZNBcCUMB
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+  aQA75.5.W926 no.98/11
+1 aTrigg, Leonard.
+13aAn entropy gain measure of numeric prediction performance /cby Leonard Trigg.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1998.
+  a11 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v98/11
+  a"May 1998."
+  aReceived on standing order.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 8).
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aEntropy (Information theory)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v98/11.
+
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+  aQA75.5.W926 no.98/10
+1 aCleary, John G.
+10aExperiences with a weighted decision tree learner /cby John G. Cleary and Leonard E. Trigg.
+  aHamilton, N.Z :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1998.
+  a15 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v98/10
+  a"May 1998."
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 14-15).
+ 0aDecision trees.
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aAlgorithms.
+ 0aBayesian statistical decision theory.
+1 aTrigg, Leonard.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v98/10.
+
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+  aQA75.5.W926 no.98/03
+1 aJones, Steve,d1966-
+10aVQuery :ba graphical user interface for Boolean query specification and dynamic result preview /cby Steve Jones.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1998.
+  a[9] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v98/3
+  a"March 1998."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aDatabase searchingxComputer programs.
+ 0aGraphical user interfaces (Computer systems)
+ 0aAlgebra, BooleanxData processing.
+ 0aVenn diagramsxData processing.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v98/3.
+
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+1 aFrank, Eibe.
+10aGenerating accurate rule sets without global optimization /cby Eibe Frank and Ian Witten.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1998.
+  a15 leaves :bill ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v2/98
+  aJanuary 1998."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 14-15).
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aDecision trees.
+ 0aComputer algorithms.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v98/2.
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+  9ABO-3532
+  aNZNBcNZNB
+0 a006.31221
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.98/01
+1 aTing, Kai Ming.
+10aBoosting trees for cost-sensitive classifications /cby Kai Ming Ting and Zijian Zheng.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1998.
+  a[14] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v1/98
+  a"January 1998."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aDecision trees.
+1 aZheng, Zijian.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v98/1.
+
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+  a(nzNZBN)10187466
+  9ABL-6892
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/9
+10aTing, Kai Ming.
+10aStacking bagged and dagged models /cby Kai Ming Ting and Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a20 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/9
+  a"March 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 19-20).
+ 0aMachine theory.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/9.
+  cGratisf(spiral binding)
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+  ozbn97-25807
+  a(nzNZBN)10187470
+      s1997    nz ag    b          eng d
+  9ABL-6893
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/8
+ 0aSmith, Lloyd A.q(Lloyd Allan)
+12aA sight-singing tutor /cby Lloyd A. Smith and Rodger J. McNab.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a21 leaves :bill., music ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/8
+  a"March 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 14-16).
+ 0aSight-singingxComputer-assisted instruction.
+ 0aMusicxData processing.
+1 aMcNab, Rodger J.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/8.
+
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+  a(nzNZBN)10162757
+      s1997    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABL-5745
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/7
+10aHolmes, Geoffrey
+10aComputer concepts without computers :ba first course in computer science /cby Geoffrey Holmes, Tony C. Smith and William J. Rogers.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a[5] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/7
+  a"February 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves [4-5]).
+ 0aComputer sciencexStudy and teaching.
+1 aSmith, Tony C.
+1 aRogers, William J.q(William John)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/7.
+
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+      s1997    nz a     b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)10158151
+  9ABL-5568
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/6
+10aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+10aApplications of machine learning in information retrieval /cby Sally Jo Cunningham, James Littin and Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a48 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/6
+  a"February 1997."
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aInformation storage and retrieval systems.
+1 aLittin, James N.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/6.
+  cGratisf(spiral binding)
+
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+  ozbn97-29570
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+      s1997    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABL-4722
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/5
+10aHumphrey, Matthew C.q(Matthew Cameron)
+12aA graphical notation for the design of information visualisations /cby Matthew C. Humphrey.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1997.
+  a36 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/5
+  a"February 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 35-36)
+ 0aVisualizationxTechnique.
+ 0aComputer graphics.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/5.
+
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+  ozbn97-13855
+      s1997    nz       n          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)10103065
+  9ABL-4988
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/4
+20aNevill-Manning, Craig G.
+10aBrowsing in digital libraries :ba phrase-based approach /cby Craig Nevill-Manning, Ian H. Witten, Gordon W. Paynter.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c[1997]
+  a10 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/4
+  a"January 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 10).
+ 0aOnline bibliographic searching.
+ 0aOnline information services.
+ 0aDigital libraries.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+1 aPaynter, Gordon W.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/4.
+  cGratisf(spiral binding)
+
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+      s1997    nz a     b    00000 eng d
+  ozbn98018273 
+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  a(nzNZBN)10625217
+  9ABN-7979
+  aNZNBcCUMB
+0 a025.04221
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/31
+1 aJones, Steve,d1966-
+12aA graphical user interface for Boolean query specification /cby Steve Jones and Shona McInnes.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a18 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/31
+  a"December 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 17-18).
+ 0aDatabase searchingxComputer programs.
+ 0aGraphical user interfaces (Computer systems)
+ 0aAlgebra, BooleanxData processing.
+ 0aVenn diagramsxData processing.
+1 aMcInnes, Shona.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/31.
+
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+  ozbn97-38311
+  a(nzNZBN)10103051
+      s1997    bz a     b          eng d
+  9ABL-4987
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/3
+10aTing, Kai Ming.
+10aStacked generalization :bwhen does it work? /cby Kai Ming Ting and Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a20 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/3
+  a"January 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 18-20).
+ 0aCombinatorial analysis.
+ 0aNeural networks (Computer science)
+ 0aAlgorithms.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/3.
+
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+      s1997    nz a     b    10000 eng d
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+  a(nzNZBN)10650723
+  9ABN-8739
+  aNZNBcNZNB
+0 a004.019221
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/29
+2 aOZCHI '96.eIndustry Sessionn(6th :d1996 :cHamilton, N.Z.)
+10aOZCHI '96 Industry Session :bSixth Australian Conference on Human-Computer Interaction /cedited by Chris Phillips & Janis McKauge.
+30aSixth Australian Conference on Human-Computer Interaction
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  aiii, 18 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v97/29
+  a"November 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aHuman-computer interactionvCongresses.
+1 aPhillips, Chris,
+1 aMcKauge, Janis.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/29.
+
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+  a(nzNZBN)10606749
+  9ABN-7977
+  aCUMBcCUMB
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/28
+1 aLitten, Richard Henry.
+10aEffects of re-ordered memory operations on parallelism /cby Richard H. Litten & John G. Cleary.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a13 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/28
+  a"November 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 12-13).
+ 0aParallel processing (Electronic computers)
+ 0aMemory management (Computer science)
+1 aCleary, John G.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/28.
+
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+  aCUMBcCUMB
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/27
+00aConstraints on parallelism beyond 10 instructions per cycle /cby John G. Cleary ... [et al.].
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a15 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/27
+  a"November 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 15).
+ 0aParallel processing (Electronic computers)
+ 0aMemory management (Computer science)
+ 0aComputer architecture.
+1 aCleary, John G.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/27.
+
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+  ozbn97-112493
+  a(nzNZBN)10514049
+      s1997    nz       b          eng d
+  9ABN-2635
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/21
+10aYeo, Alvin.
+10aUsability testing :ba Malaysian study /cby Alvin Yeo, Robert Barbour & Mark Apperley.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a1 v. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/21
+  a"September 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aApplication softwarexEvaluation.
+ 0aComputer softwarexHuman factorszMalaysia.
+1 aBarbour, Robert H.
+1 aApperley, Mark D.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/13.
+  aa-my---
+
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+      s1997    nz       b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)10433317
+  9ABN-0743
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/20
+10aYeo, Alvin.
+10aLanguage use in software /cby Alvin Yeo and Robert Barbour.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a[8] leaves :c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v97/20
+  a"July 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves [7-8]).
+ 0aComputer softwarexDevelopment.
+ 0aSoftware localization.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+1 aBarbour, Robert H.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/20.
+  aam-----
+  cGratisfpbk.
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+  a(nzNZBN)10103045
+      s1997    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABL-4985
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/2
+10aCockburn, Andy.
+10aDesign issues for World Wide Web navigation visualisation tools /cby Andy Cockburn and Steve Jones.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a16 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v92/2
+  a"January 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 11-12).
+ 0aWorld Wide Web.
+ 0aHuman-computer interaction.
+1 aJones, Steve,d1966-
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/2.
+
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+      s1997    nz       b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)10433323
+  9ABN-0742
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/19
+10aBarbour, Robert H.
+10aStrategies of internationalisation and localisation :ba postmodernist's perspective /cby Robert Barbour and Alvin Yeo.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a[19] leaves :c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X :v97/19
+  a"July 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves [16-17]).
+ 0aComputer softwarexDevelopment.
+ 0aUser interfaces (Computer systems)
+ 0aSoftware localization.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+1 aYeo, Alvin.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/19.
+  cGratisf(pbk.)
+
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+      s1997    nz a     b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)10433327
+  9ABN-0741
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/18
+10aYeo, Alvin.
+10aLocalising a spreadsheet :ban Iban example /cby Alvin Yeo and Robert Barbour.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a[9] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v97/18
+  a"July 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf [7]).
+ 0aComputer softwarexDevelopment.
+ 0aSoftware localization.
+ 0aElectronic spreadsheetsxComputer programs.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+1 aBarbour, Robert H.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/18.
+  cGratisf(pbk.)
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+      s1997    nz       b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)10433342
+  9ABN-0740
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/17
+10aBarbour, Robert H.
+10aInternationalising a spreadsheet for Pacific Basin languages /cby Robert Barbour and Alvin Yeo.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a[19] leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v97/17
+  a"July 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf [14]).
+ 0aComputer softwarexDevelopment.
+ 0aSoftware localizationzPacific Area.
+ 0aElectronic spreadsheetsxComputer programs.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+1 aYeo, Alvin.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/17.
+  ap------
+  cGratisf(pbk.)
+
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+  a(nzNZBN)10421632
+      s1997    nz a     b    x     eng d
+  9ABM-7347
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/16
+20aINTERACT97 Combined Workshop on CSCW in HCI-worldwided(1997 :cSydney, N.S.W.)
+10aProceedings of the INTERACT97 combined workshop on CSCW in HCI-worldwide /c[edited] by Matthias Rauterberg, Lars Oestreicher & John Grundy.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1997.
+  a42 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/16
+  a"July 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aTeams in the workplacexData processingvCongresses.
+ 0aHuman-computer interactionvCongresses.
+1 aRauterberg, Matthias.
+1 aOestreicher, Lars.
+1 aGrundy, John C.q(John Collis)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/16.
+
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+20031029034050.0
+  ozbn97-72640
+      s1997    nz a     b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)10351374
+  9ABM-5849
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/14
+10aTing, Kai Ming.
+10aLearning from batched data :bmodel combination vs data combination /cby Kai Ming Ting, Boon Toh Low & Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a28 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/14
+  a"May 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 24-27).
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aMachine theory.
+ 0aCombinatorial analysis.
+1 aLow, Boon Toh.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/14.
+  cGratisf(spiral binding)
+
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+20041014034139.0
+  ozbn97-88852
+      s1997    nz       b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)10322067
+  9ABM-3430
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/13
+10aHolmes, Geoffrey
+10aDiscovering inter-attribute relationships /cby Geoffrey Holmes.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a[4] leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/13
+  aCONTRIBUTED CATALOGUING.
+  a"April 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aAlgorithms.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/13.
+  cGratisf(spiral binding)
+
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+  ozbn97-58928
+  a(nzNZBN)10308204
+      s1997    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABM-3432
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/12
+00aUsing model trees for classification /cEibe Frank .. [et al.].
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1997.
+  a11 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v97/12
+  a"April 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 11).
+ 0aRegression analysis.
+ 0aTrees (Graph theory)
+ 0aMachine learning.
+1 aFrank, Eibe.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/12.
+
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+20041014034140.0
+  ozbn97-50438
+      s1997    nz a     b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)10308206
+  9ABM-3433
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/11
+10aHolmes, Geoffrey
+10aFreezing rich fragments of the World Wide Web /cby Geoffrey Holmes and William J. Rogers.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a8 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v97/11
+  a"April 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 8).
+ 0aWorld Wide WebxComputer programs.
+1 aRogers, William J.q(William John)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/11.
+  cGratisf(pbk.)
+
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+20031029034051.0
+  ozbn97-40179
+      s1997    nz       b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)10264432
+  9ABM-0145
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/10
+20aNevill-Manning, Craig G.
+10aExtracting text from PostScript /cby Craig Nevill-Manning, Todd Reed and Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1997.
+  a[16] leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/10
+  a"April 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aPostScript (Computer program language)
+ 0aText processing (Computer science)
+1 aReed, Todd.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/10.
+  cGratisf(spiral binding)
+
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+  ozbn97-32459
+  a(nzNZBN)10103042
+      s1997    nz       b          eng d
+  9ABL-4982
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.97/1
+10aJones, Steve,d1966-
+12aA dynamic and flexible representation of social relationships in CSCW /cby Steve Jones and Steve Marsh.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a[14] p. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/1
+  a"January 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. [13-14]
+ 0aTeams in the workplacexData processing.
+ 0aTrust.
+1 aMarsh, Steve.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/1.
+
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+296337
+  ozbn96-62876
+  a(nzNZBN)9620985
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABI-7803
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/9
+10aNotes :ban experiment in CSCW / cby Mark Apperley ... [et al.]
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a42 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/9
+  a"April 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 42).
+ 0aAuthorshipxCollaborationxData processing.
+ 0aTeams in the workplacexData processing.
+ 0aMicrocomputer workstations.
+1 aApperley, Mark D.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/9.
+
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+  ozbn96-47494
+  a(nzNZBN)9612363
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABI-7785
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/8.
+10aMaulsby, David,d1957-
+10aLearning agents :bfrom user study to implementation /cby David Maulsby, Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a[12] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/8
+  a"April 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf [12]).
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aIntelligent tutoring systems.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/8.
+
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+  ozbn96-47555
+  a(nzNZBN)9612360
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABI-7782
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/7
+10aRogers, William J.q(William John)
+12aA non-linear, criterion-referenced grading scheme for a computer literacy course /cby Bill Rogers, Phillip Treweek, Sally Jo Cunningham.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a[9] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/7
+  a"April 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf [9]).
+ 0aComputer literacyxStudy and teaching (Higher)zNew ZealandzHamilton.
+ 0aGrading and marking (Students)zNew ZealandzHamilton.
+1 aTreweek, Phillip.
+1 aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/7.
+
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+  ozbn96-44534
+  a(nzNZBN)9569164
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABI-7777
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/6
+10aCleary, John G.
+10aConservative parallel simulation of ATM networks /cby John G. Cleary and Jya-Jang Tsai.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a9 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/6
+  a"March 1996."
+  aAt head of p. 1: In Parallel and Distributed Simulation (PADS'96).
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 7).
+ 0aAsynchronous transfer modexComputer simulation.
+ 0aBroadband communication systems.
+1 aTsai, Jya-Jang.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/6.
+
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+  ozbn96-41716
+  a(nzNZBN)9555707
+      s1996    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABI-5066
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/4
+10aGrundy, John C.q(John Collis)
+10aKeeping free-edited textual and graphical views of information consistent /cby John C. Grundy and John G. Hosking.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a19 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/4
+  a"March 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 18-19).
+ 0aData editing.
+1 aHosking, J. G.q(John G.)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/4.
+
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+  ozbn97-10910
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)10013566
+  9ABK-9126
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/32
+10aMcNab, Rodger J.
+10aMelody transcription for interactive applications /cby Rodger J. McNab & Lloyd A. Smith.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c]1996]
+  a24 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96-32
+  a"December 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 13-15).
+ 0aComputer composition.
+ 0aComputer sound processing.
+ 0aMusicxData processing.
+ 0aSight-singingxComputer-assisted instruction.
+ 0aSignal processing.
+1 aSmith, Lloyd A.q(Lloyd Allan)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/32.
+  cGratisf(pbk.)
+
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+20031029034054.0
+  ozbn97-36433
+  a(nzNZBN)10013595
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABK-9125
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/31
+10aFrank, Eibe.
+10aSelecting multiway splits in decision trees /cby Eibe Frank, Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a16 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/31
+  a"December 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 16).
+ 0aDecision trees.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/31.
+
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+  ozbn97-12257
+  a(nzNZBN)10005856
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABK-8292
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/30
+10aHumphrey, Matthew C.q(Matthew Cameron)
+10aReconstructing Minard's graphic with the relational visualisation notation /cby Matthew C. Humphrey.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a16 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/30
+  a"December 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 16).
+ 0aComputer graphics.
+ 0aVisualizationxData processing.
+ 0aNapoleonic Wars, 1800-1815xCampaignszRussiaxData processing.
+ 0aMoscow, Battle of, 1941-1942xData processing.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/30.
+  c(spiral binding)
+
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+  a(nzNZBN)9555713
+      s1996    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABI-5064
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/3
+10aCleary, John G.
+13aAn MDL estimate of the significance of rules /cby John G. Cleary, Shane Legg, and Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a11 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/3
+  a"March 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 8).
+ 0aMathematical modelsxEvaluation.
+ 0aMachine learning.
+1 aLegg, Shane.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/3.
+
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+308674
+  ozbn97-3423
+  a(nzNZBN)9986603
+      s1996    nz a     b    x     eng d
+  9ABK-7129
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/29
+20aOzCHI'96 Workshop on the Next Generation of CSCW Systemsd(1996 :cHamilton, N.Z.)
+10aProceedings of the OzCHI'96 Workshop on the Next Generation of CSCW Systems /cedited by John Grundy.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a53 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/29
+  a"November 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aTeams in the workplacexData processingvCongresses.
+1 aGrundy, John C.q(John Collis)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+30aOzCHI'96 Workshop on the Next Generation of CSCW Systems
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/29.
+  c(spiral binding)
+
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+  ozbn97-12213
+  a(nzNZBN)9954818
+      s1996    nz       b          eng d
+  9ABK-7128
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/28
+10aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+10aTeaching students to critically evaluate the quality of Internet research resources /cby Sally Jo Cunningham.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a[7] leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/28
+  a"November 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves [5-6]).
+ 0aDatabase searchingxStudy and teaching.
+ 0aInformation retrievalxStudy and teaching.
+ 0aInternetxEvaluation.
+ 0aWorld Wide WebxEvaluation.
+ 0aDocuments in machine-readable formxEvaluation.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/28.
+  c(spiral binding)
+
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+  ozbn97-6617
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)9955057
+  9ABK-7124
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/27
+10aCleary, John G.
+10aTimestamp representations for virtual sequences /cby John G. Cleary, J.A. David McWha, Murray Pearson.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a13 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/27
+  a"November 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 12-13).
+ 0aSequential processing (Computer science)
+ 0aComputer algorithms.
+1 aMcWha, J. A. David.
+1 aPearson, Murray William.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/27.
+  cGratisf(spiral binding)
+
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+  ozbn96-116448
+  a(nzNZBN)9943907
+      s1996    nz a             x  eng  
+  9ABK-5765
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/25
+20aNevill-Manning, Craig G.
+10aIdentifying hierarchical structure in sequences :ba linear-time algorithm /cby Craig G. Nevill-Manning and Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1996.
+  a21 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/25
+  a"November 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 21).
+ 0aComputer algorithms.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/25.
+
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+  ozbn96-116438
+  a(nzNZBN)9931896
+      s1996    nz       b       x  eng d
+  9ABK-5053
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/24
+10aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+10aAuthorship patterns in information systems /cby Sally Jo Cunningham and Stuart M. Dillon.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1996.
+  a[8] leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/24
+  a"October 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 7-8)
+ 0aInformation storage and retrieval systemsvPeriodicals.
+1 aDillon, Stuart M.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/24.
+
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+  ozbn96-122144
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)9931892
+  9ABK-5049
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/23
+10aWang, Yong.
+10aInduction of model trees for predicting continuous classes /cby Yong Wang and Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a[12] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/23
+  a"October 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf [12]).
+ 0aRegression analysis.
+ 0aTrees (Graph theory)
+ 0aMachine learning.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/23.
+  cGratisf(spiral binding)
+
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+20031029034100.0
+  ozbn96-121821
+  a(nzNZBN)9925159
+      s1996    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABK-3962
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/22
+10aHumphrey, Matthew C.q(Matthew Cameron)
+10aUnderstanding what machine learning produces.nPart II,pKnowledge visualization techniques /cby Matt Humphrey, Sally Jo Cunningham and Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1996.
+  a12 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/22
+  a"October 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 11-12)
+ 0aMachine learning.
+1 aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/22.
+
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+  ozbn96-122122
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)9925357
+  9ABK-3960
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/20
+10aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+10aVisual analogy in creative design :bcase study of fractals and crochet lace /cby Sally Jo Cunningham.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a[8] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/20
+  a"October 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf [8]).
+ 0aFractals.
+ 0aComputer-aided design.
+ 0aCrochetingxPatternsxData processing.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/20.
+  cGratisf(spiral binding)
+
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+  ozbn96-21520
+      s1996    nz       b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)9529020
+  9ABI-5063
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/2
+10aYeo, Alvin.
+10aSoftware for the rest of the world /cby Alvin Yeo and Robert H. Barbour.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a16 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/2
+  a"February 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 15-16).
+ 0aSoftware localization.
+ 0aComputer softwarexMarketing.
+ 0aComputer software industry.
+1 aBarbour, Robert H.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/2.
+  cGratisf(spiral binding)
+
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+  ozbn96-122091
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)9925365
+  9ABK-3956
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/19
+10aTing, Kai Ming.
+10aTheory combination :ban alternative to data combination /cKai Ming Ting, Boon Toh Low.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a22 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/19
+  a"October 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 19-22).
+ 0aCombinatorial analysis.
+ 0aLearning.
+ 0aEvaluation.
+1 aLow, Boon Toh.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/19.
+  cGratisf(spiral binding)
+
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+  ozbn96-97681
+  a(nzNZBN)9886320
+      s1996    n  a     b          eng d
+  9ABK-3948
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/18
+10aThomson, Kirsten.
+10aMachine learning applied to fourteen agricultural datasets /cby Kirsten Thomson, Robert J. McQueen.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  aii, 114 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/18.
+  a"September 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 114).
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aAgriculturexData processing.
+ 0aAgriculturezNew ZealandxData processing.
+ 0aAgriculturezNew ZealandxExperimentation.
+1 aMcQueen, Robert J.q(Robert John)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+3 aMachine learning applied to 14 agricultural datasets
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/18.
+  au-nz---
+
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+  ozbn96-98040
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)9834457
+  9ABK-0728
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/17
+10aGrundy, John C.q(John Collis)
+10aSerendipity :bintegrated environment support for process modelling, enactment and improvement /cby John C. Grundy, John G. Hosking.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a19 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/17
+  aCONTRIBUTED CATALOGUING.
+  a"August 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 17-19).
+ 0aTeams in the workplacexData processing.
+ 0aVisual programming languages (Computer science)
+1 aHosking, J. G.q(John G.)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/17.
+  cGratisf(spiral binding)
+
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+20031029034101.0
+  ozbn96-85224
+  a(nzNZBN)9809351
+      s1996    nz ag    b          eng d
+  9ABJ-8897
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/16
+20aNevill-Manning, Craig G.
+10aCompression and explanation using hierarchical grammars /cby Craig G. Nevill-Manning and Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a19 leaves :bill., music ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/16
+  a"July 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 12-13).
+ 0aData compression (Computer science)
+ 0aText processing (Computer science)
+ 0aComputer algorithms.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/16.
+
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+  ozbn96-84960
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)9804244
+  9ABJ-8908
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/15.
+10aBlackett, Colin.
+10aCSCW in New Zealand :ba snapshot /cby Colin Blackett and Steve Reeves.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a18, [6] leaves : bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/15
+  a"July 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 18).
+ 0aTeams in the workplacezNew ZealandxData processing.
+ 0aComputer conferencingzNew Zealand.
+ 0aMicrocomputer workstations.
+1 aReeves, Steve,d1957-
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/15.
+  au-nz---
+  cNot for salef(spiral binding)
+
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+20031029034101.0
+  ozbn96-86286
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)9804278
+  9ABJ-8903
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/14
+10aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+10aDigital libraries based on full-text retrieval /cby Ian H. Witten, Craig G. Nevill-Manning and Sally Jo Cunningham.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a[10] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v96/14
+  a"July 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf [10]).
+ 0aDigital libraries.
+ 0aDigital librarieszNew Zealand.
+ 0aInformation storage and retrieval systems.
+2 aNevill-Manning, Craig G.
+1 aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/14.
+  au-nz---
+  cGratisf(spiral binding)
+
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+  ozbn96-86359
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)9793600
+  9ABJ-7644
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/13.
+10aApperley, Mark D.
+10aTree browsing /cby Mark Apperley and Michael Chester.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a12 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v96/13
+  a"July 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 11-12).
+ 0aTrees (Graph theory)xData processing.
+ 0aComputer graphics.
+ 0aData structures (Computer science)
+1 aChester, Michaelq(Michael Eric)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/13.
+  cGratisf(spiral binding)
+
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+302205
+  ozbn96-79570
+  a(nzNZBN)9793598
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABJ-7640
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/12
+00aCurrent techniques for measuring and modeling ATM traffic /cby Murray Pearson ... [et al.].
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c[1996]
+  aii, 39 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/12
+  a"June 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 34-39).
+ 0aAsynchronous transfer modexMathematical models.
+ 0aWide area networks (Computer networks)
+1 aPearson, Murray William.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/12.
+
+00910cam  2200229 a 4500001000700000010001600007035002000023008004100043035001300084092002500097245009200122260008000214300004500294490004600339500001700385504004100402650005300443650002300496700002000519710005500539830008600594
+302187
+  ozbn96-79616
+  a(nzNZBN)9793595
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABJ-7622
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/11
+00aHigh performance simulation for ATM network development /cby John Cleary ... [et al.].
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c[1996]
+  aiii, 32, 16, 12 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/11
+  a"June 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aAsynchronous transfer modexComputer simulation.
+ 0aComputer networks.
+1 aCleary, John G.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/11.
+
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+  ozbn96-62759
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)9620989
+  9ABI-7804
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/10
+10aRogers, William J.q(William John)
+10aVisible-C :ba simple visualisation for C data structures /cby William J. Rogers.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a[7] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v96/10
+  a"April 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf [7]).
+00aVisible-C.
+ 0aUtilities (Computer programs)
+ 0aData structures (Computer science)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/10.
+  cGratisf(spiral binding)
+
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+20031029034029.0
+  ozbn96-18905
+  a(nzNZBN)9491847
+      s1996    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABI-0103
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.96/1
+10aInglis, Stuart.
+10aBi-level document image compression using layout information /cby Stuart J. Inglis and Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton [N.Z.] :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c[1996]
+  a9 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/1
+  a"January 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 8).
+ 0aData compression (Computer science)
+ 0aImage processingxDigital techniques.
+ 0aDocument imaging systems.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/1.
+  c(spiral binding)
+
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+276907
+  ozbn95-82245
+  a(nzNZBN)9026936
+      s1995    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABF-9091
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/9
+10aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+10aBibliomania :bwhat can we learn from the research literature /cby Sally-Jo Cunningham, Nic Empson, Rawinia Kamau.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1995.
+  a[12] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v95/9
+  a"April 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aBibliometrics.
+ 0aBibliometricsvCase studies.
+1 aEmpson, Nic.
+1 aKamau, Rawinia.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/9.
+
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+276906
+  ozbn96-64497
+  a(nzNZBN)9023140
+      s1995    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABF-9090
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/8
+10aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+10aObsolescence of computing literature /cby Sally-Jo Cunningham [and] David Bocock.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1995.
+  a[5] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/8
+  a"March 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 4-5).
+ 0aInformation sciencevBibliography.
+ 0aComputersvBibliography.
+ 0aElectronic data processingvBibliography.
+1 aBocock, David.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/8.
+
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+276905
+  ozbn96-64408
+                                        
+  a(nzNZBN)9021930
+  9ABF-9089
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/7
+10aIrvine, Sean A.
+14aThe subset sum problem and arithmetic coding /cSean A. Irvine, John G. Cleary, Ingrid Rinsma-Melchert.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1995.
+  a12 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/7
+  a"March 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 11-12)
+ 0aComputer arithmetic.
+ 0aNumerical calculationsxComputer programs.
+ 0aText processing (Computer science)
+1 aRinsma, Ingrid.
+1 aCleary, John G.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/7
+
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+20031029034105.0
+  ozbn95-64561
+  a(nzNZBN)9021926
+      s1995    nz       b       x  eng d
+  9ABF-9088
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/6
+02aA New Zealand digital library for computer science research /cby Ian H. Witten ... [et al.].
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1995.
+  a[8] leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v95/6
+  a"March 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves [6-8]).
+ 0aComputer sciencexResearchzNew Zealand.
+ 0aElectronic publishingxAbstracting and indexing.
+ 0aInternet addressesvDirectories.
+ 0aWide area networks (Computer networks)zNew Zealand.
+ 0aLibrary information networkszNew Zealand.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/6.
+  au-nz---
+
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+  ozbn96-37939
+  a(nzNZBN)8949268z(nzNZBN)8954103
+      s1995    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABG-9911
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/5
+10aGrundy, John C.q(John Collis)
+10aDeveloping CASE tools which support integrated development notations /cby John C. Grundy and John R. Venable.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science,cUniversity of Waikato,d1995.
+  a7 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/5
+  a"February 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 7).
+ 0aSystem analysis.
+ 0aSystem design.
+ 0aComputer-aided software engineering.
+ 0aIntegrated software.
+ 0aComputer softwarexDevelopment.
+1 aVenable, John R.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/5
+
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+20031029034102.0
+  ozbn96-64511
+  a(nzNZBN)8949151
+      s1995    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABJ-6245
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/4
+10aMaulsby, David,d1957-
+10aInteractive concept learning for end-user applications /cby David Maulsby and Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1995.
+  a13 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/4
+  a"February 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 13).
+ 0aInteractive computer systems.
+ 0aHuman-computer interaction.
+ 0aEnd-user computing.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/4
+
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+288595
+  ozbn95-118381
+  a(nzNZBN)9441984
+      s1995    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABH-5484
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/32
+10aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+10aHow Maui captured the sun :busing a MUD for educational simulation /cby Sally Jo Cunningham, Warren Williams.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c[1995]
+  a[10] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/32
+  a"December 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves [8-9]).
+ 0aLanguage and languagesxComputer-assisted instruction.
+ 0aComputer adventure gamesxStudy and teaching.
+ 0aComputer-assisted instruction.
+1 aWilliams, Warren.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/32.
+  c(pbk.)
+
+00939cam  2200229 a 4500001000700000010001700007035002000024008004100044035001300085092002500098100002600123245010300149260008000252300002500332490004600357500002100403504005300424650004700477650004400524710005500568830008600623
+287114
+  ozbn95-114702
+  a(nzNZBN)9420917
+      s1995    nz       b          eng d
+  9ABH-3195
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/31
+10aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+00aInformation retrieval programs on the Internet :btools for teaching IR /cby Sally Jo Cunningham.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1995.
+  a[9] leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/31
+  a"November 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 6-7)
+ 0aInformation retrievalxStudy and teaching.
+ 0aDatabase searchingxStudy and teaching.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/31.
+
+01147cam  2200277 a 4500001000700000010001600007035002000023008004100043035001300084092002400097100002900121245013300150260008000283300003200363490004500395500002000440504005500460650005200515650002700567650005200594650004500646700001700691700002200708710005500730830008400785
+301256
+  ozbn96-64413
+  a(nzNZBN)8903274
+      s1995    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABJ-6244
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/3
+10aPearson, Murray William.
+10aPICSIL :bintegrating graphic system design and automatic synthesis /cby Murray W. Pearson, Paul J. Lyons and Mark D. Apperley.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computing Science, University of Waikato,c1995.
+  a17 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/3
+  a"January 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 16-17)
+ 0aPICSIL (Computer hardware description language)
+ 0aComputer architecture.
+ 0aVisual programming languages (Computer science)
+ 0aComputer hardware description languages.
+1 aLyons, Paul.
+1 aApperley, Mark D.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/3
+
+00871cam  2200229 a 4500001000700000010001700007035002000024008004100044035001300085092002500098245010900123260007900232300003200311490004600343504005000389650002200439650002800461650002000489650002500509700002100534830008600555
+284024
+  ozbn95-109967
+  a(nzNZBN)9389114
+      s1995    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABG-9285
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/29
+00aTowards the digital music library :btune retrieval from acoustic input /cRodger J. McNab ... [et al.].
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1995.
+  a10 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/29
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 8).
+ 0aElectronic music.
+ 0aMusicxData processing.
+ 0aComputer music.
+ 0aDigital electronics.
+1 aMcNab, Rodger J.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/29.
+
+00795cam  2200205 a 4500001000700000010001700007035002000024008004100044035001300085092002500098100002100123245008700144260007900231300003200310490004600342504005500388650002100443650003900464830008600503
+282258
+  ozbn95-109996
+  a(nzNZBN)9346597
+      s1995    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABG-6372
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/28
+10aVenable, John R.
+10aTeaching novice conceptual data modellers to become experts /cby John R. Venable.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1995.
+  a10 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/28
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 9-10).
+ 0aDatabase design.
+ 0aData structures (Computer science)
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/28.
+
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+281651
+  ozbn95-98420
+  a(nzNZBN)9306097
+      s1995    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABG-5386
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/27
+10aReeves, Steve,d1957-
+12aA logic for specifying and reasoning about cooperative environments /cby Steve Reeves.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDepartment of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1995.
+  a9 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/27
+  a"August 1995"
+  a"In this paper we describe the current progress of an attempt to develop a logic which will allow us to specify required properties of systems which typically consist of a single interactive program being used, probably simultaneously, by several agents, usually people."--Abstract.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 9)
+ 0aLogic programming (Computer science)
+ 0aModality (Logic)
+ 0aComputer programming.
+ 0aComputer programming.
+ 0aTeams in the workplacexData processing.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/27
+
+01481cam  2200289 a 4500001000700000010001600007035002000023008004100043035001300084092002500097100002600122245011900148260008400267300002700351490004600378500033100424500001800755504004700773630002700820650003600847650005100883650003900934650004300973700003501016710005501051830008501106
+281653
+  ozbn95-98355
+  a(nzNZBN)9306099
+      s1995    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABG-5388
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/26
+10aReeves, Steve,d1957-
+10aTowards an integrated refinement environment for formal program development /cby Steve Reeves and John C. Grundy.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDepartment of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1995.
+  a8 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/26
+  a"This paper describes an integrated environment for for software development which embodies the aim of formal program development... presents the design for a new refinement environment which extends previous work by the authors in supporting formal Object-Z specification views in an integrated CASE tool environment."--P. 1.
+  a"August 1995"
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 8)
+00aSPE (Computer program)
+ 0aComputer softwarexDevelopment.
+ 0aObject-oriented programming (Computer science)
+ 0aOO (Computer system)xProgramming.
+ 0aSystems programming (Computer science)
+1 aGrundy, John C.q(John Collis)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/26
+
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+281654
+20041014034126.0
+  ozbn96-10587
+  a(nzNZBN)9301122
+      s1995    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABG-5391
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/25
+10aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+10aWriting anxiety in computer science students /cby Sally Jo Cunningham, Geoff Holmes.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1995.
+  a[5] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/25
+  aCONTRIBUTED CATALOGUING.
+  a"August 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves [4-5])
+ 0aWritten communicationxPsychological aspects.
+ 0aAnxietyzNew ZealandzHamiltonxTesting.
+ 0aCollege studentsxPsychological testingzNew ZealandzHamilton.
+1 aHolmes, Geoffrey
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/25.
+  au-nz---
+
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+20031029034023.0
+  ozbn95-95857
+  a(nzNZBN)9301124
+      s1995    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABG-5395
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/24
+10aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+10aBuilding a public digital library based on full-text retrieval /cby Ian H.Witten, Craig G. Nevill-Manning and Sally Jo Cunningham.
+0 aHamilton :bDepartment of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1995.
+  a6, [6] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/24
+  a"August 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aInformation storage and retrieval systems.
+ 0aText processing (Computer science)
+2 aNevill-Manning, Craig G.
+1 aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/24.
+
+01211cam  2200301 a 4500001000700000010001700007035002000024008004100044035001300085092002500098100002400123245015000147260007700297300002800374490004600402500001900448504005200467650002900519650004100548650004900589650003800638650002200676700003500698700002400733710005500757830008600812020001100898
+280942
+  ozbn95-113526
+  a(nzNZBN)9291551
+      s1995    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABG-4263
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/23
+10aMitchell, R. Scott.
+13aAn investigation into the use of machine learning for determining oestrus in cows /cby R. Scott Mitchell, Robert A. Sherlock and Lloyd A. Smith.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, Waikato University,cc1995.
+  a42 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/23
+  a"August 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 23-24).
+ 0aEstrusxData processing.
+ 0aCowsxReproductionxData processing.
+ 0aDairy cattlexReproductionxData processing.
+ 0aMilk productionxData processing.
+ 0aMachine learning.
+  aSmith, Lloyd A.q(Lloyd Allan)
+1 aSherlock, Robert A.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/23.
+  c(pbk.)
+
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+280940
+20031029034024.0
+  ozbn96-10515
+  a(nzNZBN)9291549
+      s1995    nz ag    b          eng d
+  9ABG-4261
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/22
+10aMcNab, Rodger J.
+10aSignal processing for melody transcription /cby Rodger J. McNab, Lloyd A. Smith and Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1995.
+  a15 leaves :bill., music ;cc1995.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/22
+  a"August 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 10-11).
+ 0aMusicxData processing.
+ 0aSight-singingxComputer-assisted instruction.
+ 0aSignal processing.
+  aSmith, Lloyd A.q(Lloyd Allan)
+10aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/22.
+
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+280676
+  ozbn95-113581
+  a(nzNZBN)9284201
+      s1995    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABG-3887
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/21
+10aReeves, Steve,d1957-
+12aA teaching and support tool for building formal models of graphical user-interfaces /cby Steve Reeves.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1995.
+  a8 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/21
+  a"August 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 8).
+ 0aGraphical user interfaces (Computer systems)
+ 0aComputer softwarexDevelopment.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/21.
+  c(spiral binding)
+
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+  a(nzNZBN)9178812
+      s1995    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABG-1655
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/20
+10aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+10aApplying machine learning to subject classification and subject description for information retrieval /cby Sally Jo Cunningham, Brent Summers.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1995.
+  a[5] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/20
+  a"June 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf [5]).
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aSubject headingsxInformation storage and retrieval.
+1 aSummers, Brent.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/20.
+
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+      s1995    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABG-1661
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/19
+20aNevill-Manning, Craig G.
+14aThe development of Holte's 1R classifier /cby Craig Nevill-Manning, Geoff Holmes and Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1995.
+  a[4] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/19
+  a"June 1995."
+  aBibliography: leaf [4]
+ 0aMachine learning.
+1 aHolmes, Geoffrey
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/19.
+
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+      s1995    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABG-1658
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/18
+10aMartin, Brent.
+10aInstance-based learning :bnearest neighbour with generalisation /cby Brent Martin.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1995.
+  avii, 76 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/18
+  a"May 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 73-75).
+ 0aMachine learning.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/18.
+
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+  a(nzNZBN)9113387
+      s1995    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABG-0481
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/17
+10aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+10aApplications for bibliometric research in the emerging digital library /cby Sally Jo Cunningham & Mahendra Vallabh.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1995.
+  a[14] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v95/17
+  a"May 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves [12-13]).
+ 0aBibliometrics.
+ 0aInformation sciencexTechnological innovations.
+ 0aLibrary sciencexTechnological innovations.
+ 0aLibrary information networks.
+1 aVallabh, Mahendra.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/17.
+
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+      s1995    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  a(nzNZBN)9113915
+  9ABG-0480
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/16
+10aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+13aAn empirical investigation of the obsolescence rate for information systems literature /cby Sally Jo Cunningham.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1995.
+  a[11 ] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/16
+  a"May 1995."
+  aBibliography: leaves [8-9]
+ 0aInformation sciencevBibliography.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/16.
+
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+  ozbn95-63714
+  a(nzNZBN)9113305
+      s1995    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABF-9093
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/15
+10aMitchell, Scott.
+14aThe application of machine learning techniques to time-series data /cby Scott Mitchell.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University Waikato,cc1995.
+  avii, 104 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/15
+  a"May 1995."
+  aBibliography: p. 68-72.
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aTime-series analysis.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/15.
+
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+  ozbn95-63741
+  a(nzNZBN)9111786
+      s1995    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABG-1659
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/14
+10aMasoodian, Masood.
+10aVideo support for shared work-space interaction : ban empirical study /cby Masood Masoodian, Mark Apperley and Lesley Frederikson.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1995.
+  a18 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1770-487X ;v95/14
+  a"May 1995."
+  aBibliography: leaves 17-18.
+ 0aCommunication in small groups.
+ 0aVideo recording.
+1 aApperley, Mark D.
+1 aFrederikson, Lesley.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/14.
+
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+  ozbn95-63766
+  a(nzNZBN)9098801
+      s1995    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABF-7994
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/13
+00aMachine learning in practice :bexperience with agricultural databases /cby Stephen R. Garner ... [et al.].
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1995.
+  a[10] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/13
+  a"May 1995."
+  aBibliography: leaf [10]
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aInformation storage and retrieval systemsxAgriculture.
+1 aGarner, S. R.q(Stephen Robert)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/13.
+
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+  ozbn95-64055
+  a(nzNZBN)9093773
+      s1995    nz       b       x  eng d
+  9ABF-7423
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/12
+10aSmith, Tony C.
+10aSubset selection using rough numeric dependency /cby Tony C. Smith & Geoff Holmes.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1995..
+  a5 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/12
+  a"April 1995."
+  aBibliography: leaf 5.
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aRegression analysis.
+ 0aLeast squares.
+1 aHolmes, Geoffrey
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/12.
+
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+  ozbn95-64035
+  a(nzNZBN)9093785
+      s1995    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABF-7417
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/11
+10aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+10aMachine learning and statistics :ba matter of perspective /cby Sally Jo Cunningham.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1995.
+  a[8] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/11
+  a"April 1995."
+  aBibliography: leaves [7-8]
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aStatistics.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/11.
+
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+20070215034041.0
+  ozbn95-68417
+  a(nzNZBN)8876048
+      s1995    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABG-2748
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.95/1
+10aDe War, Rhys.
+10aAnalysis of cow culling with a machine learning workbench /cby Rhys DeWar and Robert J. McQueen.
+0 aHamilton :bUniversity of Waikato, Department of Computer Science,cc1995.
+  a133 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/1
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aAgriculturexData processing.
+ 0aFarm managementxData processing.
+ 0aMachine learning.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+1 aMcQueen, Robert J.q(Robert John)
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/1.
+
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+20041014034120.0
+  ozbn94-83824
+  a(nzNZBN)8556071
+      s1994    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABD-9965
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.94/9
+10aHolmes, Geoffrey
+10aWEKA :ba machine learning workbench /cby Geoffrey Holmes, Andrew Donkin and Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1994.
+  a5 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v94/9
+  a"July 1994."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 5).
+ 0aMachine learning.
+10aDonkin, Andrew.
+10aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+01aWaikato Environment for Knowledge Analysis.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v94/9.
+
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+  ozbn94-83735
+  a(nzNZBN)8527101
+      s1994    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABD-9971
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.94/8
+10aReeves, Steve,d1957-
+12aA calculator for supporting derivation in constructive type theory :bPICTCalc /cby Steve Reeves.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1994.
+  a34 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v94/8
+  a"June 1994."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 34).
+ 0aPICTCalc
+ 0aComputer programming.
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v94/8.
+
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+  ozbn94-96794
+  a(nzNZBN)8511706
+      s1994    nz a                eng d
+  9ABE-2655
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.94/7
+10aCleary, John G.
+10aOn the insecurity of arithmetic coding /cby John G. Cleary, Sean Irvine, Ingrid Rinsma-Melchert.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1994.
+  a11 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v94/7
+  a"June 1994."
+ 0aComputer arithmetic.
+ 0aNumerical calculationsxComputer programs.
+ 0aText processing (Computer science)
+10aIrvine, Sean.
+10aRinsma, Ingrid.
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v94/7.
+
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+  ozbn94-44349
+  a(nzNZBN)8491323
+      s1994    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABD-0237
+00aCollaborative, integrated software development with multiple views /cby John C. Grundy ... [et al.]
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1994.
+  a10 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v94/6
+  aWritten by John C. Grundy, John G. Hosking, Warwick B. Mugridge, Robert W. Armor.
+  a"May 1994."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 10)
+ 0aComputer softwarexDevelopment.
+ 0aVisual programming (Computer science)
+10aGrundy, John C.q(John Collis)
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v94/6
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.94/6
+
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+  ozbn94-83830
+  a(nzNZBN)8453762
+      s1994    nz a                eng d
+  9ABD-9973
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.94/5
+10aGoldson, Doug.
+10aMiraCalc :bthe Miranda calculator : the Unix version /cby Doug Goldson, Mike Hopkins & Steve Reeves.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1994.
+  a21 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v94/5
+  a"April 1994."
+ 0aMiraCalc
+ 0aUNIX (Computer operating system)
+ 0aMiranda (Computer program language)
+10aHopkins, Mike,
+10aReeves, Steve,d1957-
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v94/5.
+
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+  ozbn94-83740
+  a(nzNZBN)8374758z(nzNZBN)8381222
+      s1994    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABD-9970
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.94/4
+10aGrundy, John C.q(John Collis)
+10aConstructing integrated software development environments with dependency graphs /cby John C. Grundy and John G. Hosking.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1994.
+  a22 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v94/4
+  a"March 1994."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 21-22).
+ 0aComputer softwarexDevelopment.
+ 0aGraphic methodsxComputer programs.
+10aHosking, J. G.q(John G.)
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v94/4.
+
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+  ozbn94-83767
+  a(nzNZBN)8409567
+      s1994    nz       b       x  eng d
+  9ABD-9969
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.94/3
+10aWilson, William J.,ccomputer consultant.
+10aChinks in the armor of public key cryptosystems /cby William J. Wilson.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c[1994]
+  a6 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v94/3
+  a"March 1994."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 6).
+ 0aCryptography.
+ 0aComputersxAccess control.
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v94/3.
+
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+  ozbn94-28152
+  a(nzNZBN)8347289
+      s1994    nz       b       x  eng d
+  9ABC-6198
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.94/2
+10aBarbour, Robert H.
+14aThe induction and professional development of academics /cRobert H. Barbour.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1994.
+  a18 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v94/2
+  a"February 1994."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 18).
+ 0aCollege teachersxTraining of.
+ 0aCollege teachersxTraining ofzNew Zealand.
+ 0aCollege teachingzNew Zealand.
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v94/2.
+  au-nz---
+  cAnnual subscription (pbk.)
+
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+284550
+  ozbn95-100142
+  a(nzNZBN)8816916
+      s1994    nz       b          eng d
+  9ABH-0093
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.94/17
+10aGrundy, John C.q(John Collis)
+00aProviding integrated support for multiple development notations /cby John C. Grundy and John R. Venable.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1994.
+  a11 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v94/17
+  a"November 1994."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 11)
+ 0aIntegrated software.
+ 0aComputer softwarexDevelopment.
+1 aVenable, John R.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v94/17.
+
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+  ozbn95-225
+  a(nzNZBN)8601447
+      s1994    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABE-0151
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.94/16
+10aCleary, John G.
+14aThe architecture of an optimistic CPU :bthe WarpEngine /cby John G. Cleary, Murray Pearson, & Husam Kinawi.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1994.
+  a[11] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v94/16
+  aReplaces earlier issue of the same title (no. 11 in series)
+  a"September, 1994."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aComputer architecture.
+1 aPearson, Murray William.
+1 aKinawi, Husam.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v94/16.
+
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+261310
+20031029034021.0
+  ozbn94-83747
+  a(nzNZBN)8666974
+      s1994    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABD-9975
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.94/15
+10aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+10aData transformation :ba semantically-based approach to function recovery /cby Ian H. Witten & Thong H. Phan.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1994.
+  a33 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v94/15
+  a"August 1994."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 33-34).
+ 0aNatural language processing (Computer science)
+ 0aLinear programmingxData processing.
+ 0aElectronic data processingxNumerical analysis.
+10aPhan, Thong Huy,d1963-
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v94/15.
+
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+260064
+  ozbn94-69641
+  a(nzNZBN)8612904
+      s1994    nz       b          eng d
+  9ABD-8476
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.94/14
+10aBarbour, Robert H.
+10aSurvival of the species vs survival of the individual /cby R.H. Barbour and K. Hopper.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1994.
+  a7 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v94/14
+  a"August 1994."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aHuman-computer interaction.
+ 0aHuman-machine systems.
+ 0aComputer softwarexHuman factors.
+ 0aComputers and civilization.
+ 0aArtificial intelligence.
+10aHopper, K.q(Keith)
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v94/14
+
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+261307
+20070215034045.0
+  ozbn94-83836
+  a(nzNZBN)8602702
+      s1994    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABD-9972
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.94/13
+00aApplying machine learning to agricultural data /cby Robert J. McQueen .... (et al.)
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1994.
+  a15 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v94/13
+  aWritten by Robert J. McQueen, Steve R. Garner, Craig G. Nevill-Manning & Ian H. Witten.
+  a"July 1994."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 14-15)
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aAgriculturexData processing.
+10aMcQueen, Robert J.q(Robert John)
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v94/13.
+
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+261303
+  ozbn94-83756
+  a(nzNZBN)8610702
+      s1994    nz a                eng d
+  9ABD-9968
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.94/12
+20aDe War, Rhys.
+10aWEKA machine learning project :bcow culling /cRhys de War & Donna Liane Neal.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1994.
+  a50 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v94/12
+  a"July 1994."
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aAgriculturexData processing.
+ 0aFarm managementxData processing.
+10aNeal, Donna Liane.
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+01aWaikato Environment for Knowledge Analysis machine learning project.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v94/12.
+
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+261302
+20041014034122.0
+  ozbn94-83844
+  a(nzNZBN)8571576
+      s1994    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABD-9967
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.94/10
+10aRogers, William J.q(William John)
+10aNavigating the virtual library :ba 3D browsing interface for information retrieval /cby Bill Rogers, Sally Jo Cunningham & Geoff Holmes.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c[1994]
+  a5 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v94/10
+  a"July 1994."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 4-5)
+ 0aLibrary information networks.
+ 0aComputer networks.
+ 0aLibrariesxAutomation.
+ 0aDocument delivery.
+ 0aInformation retrieval.
+10aHolmes, Geoffrey
+10aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v94/10.
+
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+249978
+  ozbn94-30941
+  a(nzNZBN)8332229
+      s1994    nz               x  eng d
+  9ABC-6385
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.94/1
+10aHopper, K.q(Keith)
+10aCharacter-less programming /cKeith Hopper, Robert H. Barbour.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1994.
+  a10 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v94/1
+  a"February 1994."
+ 0aComputer programming.
+ 0aProgramming languages (Electronic computers)
+11aBarbour, Robert H.
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v94/1.
+
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+249807
+20031029034108.0
+  ozbn94-30568
+  a(nzNZBN)8332231
+      s1993    nz ag    b       x  eng d
+  9ABC-6186
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.93/12
+10aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+10aMultiple viewpoint systems for music prediction /cIan H. Witten, Darrell Conklin.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1993.
+  a21 leaves :bill., music ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v93/12
+  a"December 1993."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 20-21)
+ 0aComputer music.
+10aConklin, Darrell.
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v93/12.
+  a(pbk.)
+
+00850nam  2200217 a 4500001000700000010001600007035002000023008004100043035001300084092002500097100002900122245007500151260007900226300003300305490004600338650004400384650004000428700002300468710005500491830008600546
+249979
+  ozbn94-30703
+  a(nzNZBN)8332233
+      s1993    nz a             x  eng d
+  9ABC-6386
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.93/11
+10aPearson, Murray William.
+10aParallel programming with PICSIL1 /cMurray Pearson, Matthew Melchert.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1993.
+  a[9] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v93/11
+ 0aParallel programming (Computer science)
+ 0aPICSIL1 (Computer program language)
+11aMelchert, Matthew.
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v93/11.
+
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+210433
+20031029034015.0
+  ozbn92-86540
+  a(nzNZBN)7166226
+      s1992    nz       b       x  eng d
+  9AAX-9099
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.5
+10aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+10aGetting research students started :ba tale of two courses /cIan H. Witten, Timothy C. Bell.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1992.
+  a[3] 11 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;vno. 5
+  a"July 1992."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 9-11)
+ 0aComputer sciencexGraduate work.
+ 0aComputer sciencexResearchxStudy and teaching, Graduate.
+ 0aGraduate studentsxResearch.
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.xGraduate work.
+10aBell, Timothy C.
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;vno. 5
+
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+206507
+20031029034016.0
+  ozbn92-70330
+  a(nzNZBN)6874267
+      s1992    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9AAX-4731
+10aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+10aComparing human and computational models of music prediction /cby Ian H. Witten, Leonard C. Manzara, Darrell Conklin.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1992.
+  a17, [2] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v1992/4
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 16)
+ 0aComputer music.
+ 0aElectronic music.
+ 0aMelodic analysis.
+10aManzara, Leonard Charles.
+10aConklin, Darrell.
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;vno. 4
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.4
+
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+205742
+20070215034048.0
+  ozbn92-65097
+  a(nzNZBN)6733830
+      s1992    nz               x  eng d
+  9AAX-3784
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.3
+10aMcQueen, Robert J.q(Robert John)
+10aVoice input and information exchange in asynchronous group communication /cR. J. McQueen.
+0 a[Hamilton] :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1992.
+  a9 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;vno. 3
+ 0aSpeech processing systems.
+ 0aAutomatic speech recognition.
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;vno. 3
+
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+589923
+20070323160218.0
+061204s2006    nz       b    000 0 eng d
+  a11275070
+  911275070
+  aHUcHU
+14aQA75.5b.W926 no.2006/10
+1 aTwidale, Michael.
+10aComputational sense :bthe role of technology in the education of digital librarians /cMichael B. Twidale and David M. Nichols.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2006.
+  a[7] leaves  ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v10/2006
+  a"October 2006."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aDigital libraries.
+ 0aLibrariansxEducation.
+1 aNichols, David M.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2006/10.
+
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+20070320085223.0
+061204s2006    nz       b    000 0 eng d
+  a11275068
+  911275068
+  aHUcHU
+  au-nz---
+14aQA75.5b.W926 no.2006/09
+1 aReeves, Steve,d1957-
+10aState- and event-based refinement /cSteve Reeves and David Streader.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c[2006]
+  a8 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v09/2006
+  a"September 20, 2006."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 7-8).
+ 0aObject-oriented programming (Computer science)
+ 0aData structures (Computer science)
+ 0aComputer programsxVerification.
+1 aStreader, David.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science : Online) ;v2006/09.
+
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+  a11102705
+  911102705
+  aHUcHU
+14aQA75.5b.W926 no.2006/08
+1 aReeves, Steve,d1957-
+10aLSB =bLive and Safe B : alternative semantics for Event B /cSteve Reeves and David Streader.
+33aLive and Safe B
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c2006.
+  a16 p. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v08/2006
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 15-16).
+ 0aB method (Computer science)
+ 0aParallel processing (Electronic computers)
+1 aStreader, David.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2006/08.
+4 uhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-08.pdfzhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-08.pdf
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+  aHUcHU
+14aQA75.5b.W926 no.2006/07
+1 aReeves, Steve,d1957-
+10aLiberalising Event B without changing it  /cSteve Reeves and David Streader.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c2006.
+  a11 p. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v07/2006
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 11).
+ 0aB method (Computer science)
+ 0aParallel processing (Electronic computers)
+1 aStreader, David.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2006/07.
+4 uhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-07.pdfzhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-07.pdf
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+  a11119154
+  911119154
+  aHUcHU
+14aQA75.5b.W926 no.2006/06
+1 aBittner, Sven.
+10aArbitrary Boolean advertisements :bthe final step in supporting the Boolean publish/subscribe model /cSven Bittner and Annika Hinze.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c2006.
+  a44 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v06/2006
+  a"June 9, 2006."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 42-44).
+ 0aBooksellers and booksellingxColportage, subscription trade, etc.xComputer programs.
+ 0aAdvertisingxComputer programs.
+00aAlgorithms.
+00aFilters (Mathematics)
+1 aHinze, Annika.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2006/06.
+4 uhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-06.pdfzhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-06.pdf
+
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+060622s2006    nz       b    000 0 eng  
+  a11118947
+  911118947
+  aHUcHU
+14aQA75.5b.W926 no.2006/05
+1 aHall, Mark Andrew.
+12aA decision tree-based attribute weighting filter for naive Bayes /cMark Hall.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c2006.
+  a12 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v05/2006
+  a"May 29 2006."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 10-12).
+ 0aDecision trees.
+ 0aFilters (Mathematics)
+ 0aBayesian statistical decision theory.
+ 0aComputer algorithms.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2006/05.
+4 uhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-05.pdfzhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-05.pdf
+
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+20060928135637.0
+060503s2006    nz a     b    000 0 eng  
+  c(pbk.)
+  a(NLNZils)1187462
+  a10790804
+  aNZNBcNZNB
+14aQA75.5b.W926 no.2006/04
+04a004.24222
+1 aUtting, Mark.
+12aA taxonomy of model-based testing /cby Mark Utting, Alexander Pretschner and Bruno Legeard.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2006.
+  a17 leaves :bill.  ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v04/2006
+  a"April 2006."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 15-17).
+ 0aSystems softwarexTesting.
+ 0aSystems softwarexEvaluation.
+1 aLegeard, Bruno.
+1 aPretschner, Alexander.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v04/2006.
+40uhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-04.pdfzhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-04.pdf
+
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+20060928141456.0
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+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  910712406
+  a(NLNZils)1180306
+  aCUcCU
+14aQA75.5b.W926 no.2006/03
+1 aBittner, Sven.
+10aEvent distributions in online book auctions /cSven Bittner and Annika Hinze.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2006.
+  a24 p. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v03/2006
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 8).
+  a"February 2006."
+ 0aBook auctionsxData processing.
+ 0aInternet auctionsxData processing.
+1 aHinze, Annika.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2006/03.
+4 uhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-03.pdfzhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2006/uow-cs-wp-2006-03.pdf
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+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  910712396
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+14aQA75.5b.W926 no.2006/02
+2 aComputing Women Congressn(2nd :d2006 :cHamilton, N.Z.)
+10aProceedings of the Second Computing Women Congress (CWC 2006) :bstudent papers, Hamilton, New Zealand, 11-19 February 2006 /ceditors, Annika Hinze, Doris Jung and Sally Jo Cunningham.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2006.
+  a1 v. (unpaged) :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v02/2006
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+  a"February 2006."
+ 0aElectronic data processingvCongresses.
+ 0aComputersvCongresses.
+ 0aWomen in computer sciencevCongresses.
+1 aHinze, Annika.
+1 aJung, Doris.
+1 aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2006/02.
+
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+10aSubscription tree pruning :ba structure-independent routing optimization for general-purpose publish/subscribe systems /cSven Bittner and Annika Hinze.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2006.
+  a30 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v01/2006
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 29-30).
+  aAlso available in an electronic ed.
+ 0aData transmission systems.
+ 0aElectronic data processingxDistributed processing.
+ 0aPush technology (Computer networks)
+1 aHinze, Annika.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2006/01.
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+10aConstructing programs or processes /cSteve Reeves and David Streader.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2005.
+  a[12] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v09/2005
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf [12]).
+ 0aParallel processing (Electronic computers)
+ 0aMachine theory.
+1 aStreader, David.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2005/09.
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+1 aHinze, Annika.
+10aTowards a TIP 3.0 service-oriented architecture :binteraction design /cAnnika Hinze, Petra Malik and Robi Malik.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2005.
+  a26 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v08/2005
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 25-26).
+ 0aTourismxData processing.
+ 0aComputer network architectures.
+1 aMalik, Petra.
+1 aMalik, Robi.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2005/08.
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+10aStepwise refinement of processes /cSteve Reeves and David Streader.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2005.
+  a[16] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v07/2005
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 15-16).
+  aAlso available in an electronic ed.
+ 0aParallel processing (Electronic computers)
+ 0aProgramming languages (Electronic computers)xSemantics.
+ 0aMachine theory.
+1 aStreader, David.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2005/07.
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+1 aHinze, Annika.
+10aApproXFILTER :ban approximative XML filter /cAnnika Hinze and Yann-Rudolf Michel.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2005.
+  a16 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v06/2005
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 16)
+ 0aAlgorithms.
+ 0aQuery languages (Computer science)
+1 aMichel, Yann-Rudolf.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2005/06.
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+1 aHinze, Annika.
+10aDesign and implementation of a filter engine for semantic web documents /cAnnika Hinze and Takamori Kozuka.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2005.
+  a79 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v05/2005
+  a"August 2005."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 40-42).
+ 0aSemantic Web.
+ 0aWorld Wide Web.
+ 0aMetadata.
+ 0aArtificial intelligence.
+1 aKozuka, Takanori.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2005/05.
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+10aAdvanced recommendation in a mobile tourist information system /cAnnika Hinze and Saijai Junmanee.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2005.
+  a33 p. :bill., map ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v04/2005
+  a"August 2005."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 32-33).
+ 0aTourismxData processing.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2005/04.
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+10aInvestigating the memory requirements for publish/subscribe filtering algorithms /cSven Bittner and Annika Hinze.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2005.
+  a30 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v03/2005
+  a"August 2005."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 29-30).
+00aAlgorithms.
+00aFilters (Mathematics)
+1 aHinze, Annika.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2005/03.
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+00aStoneD :ba bridge between Greenstone and DSpace /cIan Witten ... [et al.].
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2005.
+  a[10] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v01/2005 [i.e. 02/2005]
+  a"April 2005."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 10).
+00aGreenstone (Computer file)
+00aDSpace.
+00aStoneD.
+ 0aUser interfaces (Computer systems)zNew Zealand.
+ 0aDigital librarieszNew ZealandvSoftware.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2005/02.
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+1 aBuchanan, George.
+12aA distributed directory service for Greenstone /cGeorge Buchanan and Annika Hinze.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2005.
+  a18 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v01/2005
+  a"April 2005."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 18).
+00aGreenstone.
+ 0aDirectory services (Computer network technology)
+ 0aDigital librariesxSoftware.
+1 aHinze, Annika.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2005/01.
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+1 aBouckaert, Remco R.
+10aBayesian network classifiers in Weka /cRemco Bouckaert.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2004.
+  a23 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v014/2004
+  a"September 2004."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 23).
+  aAlso available in an electronic ed.
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aComputer algorithms.
+ 0aBayesian statistical decision theory.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2004/14.
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+1 aKeegan, Te Taka Adrian Gregory.
+10aLanguage switching in a digital library /cTe Taka Keegan, Sally Jo Cunningham and Katherine Don.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2004.
+  a6 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v13/2004
+  a"September 2004."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 6).
+  aAlso available in an electronic ed.
+ 0aUser interfaces (Computer systems)zNew Zealand.
+ 0aMaori languagexComputer network resources.
+ 0aDigital librarieszNew Zealand.
+ 0aComputer softwarexHuman factorszNew Zealand.
+ 0aOnline bibliographic searchingzNew Zealand.
+ 0aNew Zealand newspapersxComputer network resources.
+1 aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+1 aDon, Katherine.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2004/13.
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+1 aHinze, Annika.
+10aEvent notification services :banalysis and transformation of profile definition languages /cAnnika Hinze and Doris Jung.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2004.
+  a51 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v12/2004
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 49-51)
+ 0aClient/server computing.
+ 0aComputer networks.
+1 aJung, Doris.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2004/12.
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+10aDesign and analysis of an efficient distributed event notification service /cSven Bittner and Annika Hinze.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2004.
+  a43 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v11/2004.
+  a"December 2004."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 41-43).
+ 0aClient/server computing.
+ 0aElectronic data processingxDistributed processing.
+1 aHinze, Annika.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2004/11.
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+1 aGenet, Bryan.
+10aOpen issues in semantic query optimization in relational DBMS /cBryan Genet and Annika Hinze.
+3 aOpen issues in semantic query optimization in relational database management systems
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2004.
+  a29 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v10/2004.
+  a"August 2004."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 27-29).
+ 0aRelational databases.
+ 0aQuery languages (Computer science)
+ 0aProgram transformation (Computer programming)
+1 aHinze, Annika.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2004/10.
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+14aQA75.5b.W926 no.2004/09
+04a025.04222
+00aAnalyzing library collections with starfield visualizations /cAlfredo Sanchez ... [et al.].
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2004.
+  a[12] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v09/2004
+  a"July 2004."
+  aAuthors include Michael Twidale, David M. Nichols and Nabani Silva.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 11-12).
+  aAlso available in an electronic ed.
+ 0aOnline information services.
+ 0aInformation visualization.
+ 0aGraphical user interfaces (Computer systems)
+ 0aComputer softwarexHuman factors.
+ 0aVisual programming (Computer science)
+1 aSâanchez, Alfredo,d1962-
+1 aTwidale, Michael.
+1 aNichols, David M.
+1 aSilva, Nabani.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2004/09.
+4 uhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2004/uow-cs-wp-2004-09.pdfzhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2004/uow-cs-wp-2004-09.pdf
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+1 aTwidale, Michael.
+10aUsability discussions in open source development /cMichale Twidale and David Nichols.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2004.
+  a[11] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v08/2004
+  a"June 2004."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 11).
+  aAlso available in an electronic ed.
+ 0aComputer softwarexHuman factors.
+ 0aOpen source software.
+ 0aComputer softwarexDevelopment.
+1 aNichols, David M.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2004/08.
+4 uhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2004/uow-cs-wp-2004-08.pdfzhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2004/uow-cs-wp-2004-08.pdf
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+1 aJones, Matt,d1968-
+10aPlease turn on your mobile phone :bfirst impressions of text-messaging in lectures /cMatt Jones and Gary Marsden.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2004.
+  a[7] leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v07/2004
+  a"May 2004."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf [7]).
+ 0aTelephone in education.
+ 0aText messages (Telephone systems)
+ 0aLectures and lecturing.
+ 0aInteraction analysis in education.
+1 aMarsden, Gary.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2004/07.
+
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+1 aFrank, Eibe.
+10aEnsembles of nested dichotomies for multiclass problems /cEibe Frank and Stefan Kramer.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2004.
+  a15 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v06/2004
+  a"February 2004."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 14-15).
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aDecision trees.
+ 0aLogistic regression analysis.
+1 aKramer, Stefan.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2004/06.
+
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+00aDeepdocument :buse of a multi-layered display to provide context awareness in text editing /cMasood Masoodian ... [et al.].
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2004.
+  a[13] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v05/2004
+  a"May 2004."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves [12-13]).
+00aDeepDocument (Computer file)
+00aMicrosoft Word.
+ 0aWord processing.
+ 0aText editors (Computer programs)
+ 0aUser interfaces (Computer systems)
+ 0aHuman-computer interaction.
+1 aMasoodian, Masood.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2004/05.
+
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+1 aReeve, Greg.
+14aThe syntax and semantics of [mu]-charts /cGreg Reeve and Steve Reeves.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2004.
+  a64 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v04/2004
+  a"February 2004."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 39).
+ 0aStatecharts (Computer science)
+ 0aZ (Computer program language)
+1 aReeves, Steve,d1957-
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2004/04.
+
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+1 aHolmes, Geoffrey.
+10aMining data streams using option trees /cGeoffrey Holmes, Richard Kirkby and Bernhard Pfahringer.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2004.
+  aRev. ed. 2004.
+  a[13] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v03/2004.
+  a"August 2004."
+  aOriginally published 2003.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf [13]).
+ 0aData mining.
+ 0aAlgorithms.
+ 0aDatabase management
+1 aPfahringer, Bernhard.
+1 aKirkby, Richardq(Richard Brendon)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2004/03.
+4 uhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2004/uow-cs-wp-2004-03.pdfzhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/pubs/wp/2004/uow-cs-wp-2004-03.pdf
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+1 aReeves, Steve,d1957-
+10aUnifying state and process determinism /cSteve Reeves and David Streader.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2004.
+  a10 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v03/2004
+  a"February 2004."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 10).
+ 0aDeterminism (Philosophy)xMathematical models.
+ 0aMachine theory.
+ 0aParallel processing (Electronic computers)
+1 aStreader, David.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2004/02.
+
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+1 aReeves, Steve,d1957-
+10aAtomic components /cSteve Reeves and David Streader.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2004.
+  a9 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v01/2004
+  a"February 2004."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 7-8).
+ 0aModular programming.
+ 0aComputer algorithms.
+ 0aSystem design.
+ 0aMachine theory.
+ 0aPlug and play (Computer architecture)
+1 aStreader, David.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v2004/01.
+
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+1 aFrank, Eibe.
+10aApplying propositional learning algorithms to multi-instance data /cEibe Frank and Xin Xu.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2003.
+  a12 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v06/03
+  a"June 2003."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 11-12).
+ 0aMachine learningxMathematical models.
+ 0aComputer algorithms.
+1 aXu, Xin,d1975-
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v06/03.
+
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+1 aReeves, Steve,d1957-
+10aComparison of data and process refinement /cSteve Reeves and David Streader.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2003.
+  a[22] p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v05/03
+  a"April 2003."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. [21-22]).
+ 0aObject-oriented programming (Computer science)
+ 0aData structures (Computer science)
+ 0aComputer algorithms.
+ 0aComputer programming.
+1 aStreader, David.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v03/05.
+
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+00aFrom sit-forward to lean-back :busing a mobile device to vary interactive pace /cMatt Jones ... [et al.].
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2003.
+  a[15] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v03/03
+  a"March 2003."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves [13-15]).
+ 0aElectronic information resource searching.
+ 0aPocket computers.
+ 0aInformation storage and retrieval systems.
+1 aJones, Matt,d1968-
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v03/03.
+
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+1 aFrank, Eibe.
+10aVisualizing class probability estimators /cEibe Frank and Mark Hall.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2003.
+  a13 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v02/03
+  a"February 2003."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 12-13).
+ 0aMachine learningxMathematical models.
+ 0aComputer algorithms.
+ 0aVisualizationxData processing.
+ 0aDecision trees.
+1 aHall, Mark Andrew.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v03/02.
+
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+1 aFrank, Eibe.
+10aPredicting Library of Congress Classifications from Library of Congress Subject Headings /cEibe Frank and Gordon Paynter.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2003.
+  a23 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v01/03
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 21-23).
+ 0aClassification, Library of CongressxData processing.
+ 0aSubject headings, Library of CongressxData processing.
+ 0aSubject catalogingxData processing.
+1 aPaynter, Gordon W.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v03/01.
+
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+  aQA75.5.W926 no.2002/12
+  aUtting, Mark.
+10aObject-orientation in standard Z /cMark Utting and Shaochun Wang.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2002.
+  a20 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v12/02
+  a"December 2002."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 19).
+ 0aZ (Computer program language)
+ 0aObject-oriented programming (Computer science)
+1 aWang, Shaochun.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v02/12.
+
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+00aZML :bXML support for standard Z /cMark Utting ... [et al.].
+3 aZ Markup Language
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2002.
+  a20 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v11/02
+  a"December 2002."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 18-19).
+ 0aXML (Document markup language)
+ 0aZ (Computer program language)
+ 0aComputer softwarexDevelopment.
+  aUtting, Mark.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v11/02.
+
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+1 aNichols, David M.
+10aUsability and open source software /cDavid M. Nichols and Michael B. Twidale.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2002.
+  a[16] leaves  ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v10/02
+  a"December 2002."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves [12-15]).
+ 0aOpen source software.
+ 0aComputer softwarexHuman factors.
+1 aTwidale, Michael.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v02/10.
+
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+1 aThomson, Kirsten.
+10aResearch laboratory survey /cKirsten Thomson.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2002.
+  aiv, 30, 13 leaves:bill. ;c30 cm
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v09/02
+  a"This report represents the results of a survey conducted by the University of Waikato Usability Laboratory of the research laboratories at the Department of Computer Science"--Leaf i.
+  a"November 2002."
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aComputation laboratorieszNew ZealandzHamilton.
+ 0aHuman-computer interactionzNew ZealandzHamilton.
+ 0aHuman engineeringzNew ZealandzHamilton.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bUsability Laboratory.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v09/02.
+
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+  aQA75.5.W926 no.2002/08
+1 aThomson, Kirsten.
+14aThe Lids Research Project :bappendage to usability study report (1/2002) /cKirsten Thomson and Laurie McLeod.
+13aLids Research Project appendage to usability study report (1/2002)
+17aApplication of large interactive display surfaces (appendage to usability study report (1/2002))
+3 aLarge Interactive Display Surfaces Research Project
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2002.
+  avii, 33 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v08/02
+  a"July 2002."
+  a"Presents the decisions made with regard to the usability problems identified and design recommendations made within the first report."--P. i.
+20aLids Research Project.
+ 0aInformation display systems.
+ 0aUser interfaces (Computer systems)
+ 0aInteractive computer systems.
+ 0aComputer-assisted instruction.
+1 aMcLeod, Laurie.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v02/08.
+
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+  aQA75.5.W926 no.2002/07
+00aUse of video shadow for small group interaction awareness on a large interactive display surface /cMark Apperley ... [et al.].
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2002.
+  a[12] p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v07/02
+  a"July 2002."
+  a"Work done as part of the Large Interactive Display Surface (LIDS) project"-- p. [3].
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. [12]).
+20aLids Research Project.
+ 0aInteractive video.
+ 0aInformation display systems.
+ 0aUser interfaces (Computer systems)
+ 0aCommunication in small groups.
+ 0aComputer-assisted instruction.
+1 aApperley, Mark D.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v02/07.
+
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+  aQA75.5.W926 no.2002/06
+1 aThomson, Kirsten.
+14aThe Lids Research Project usability study report [1/2002] /cKirsten Thomson and Laurie McLeod.
+17aApplication of large interactive display surfaces.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2002.
+  a160 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v06/02
+  a"July 2002."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 160).
+ 0aInformation display systems.
+ 0aInteractive computer systems.
+ 0aTeachingxAids and devices.
+ 0aComputer graphics.
+ 0aEducational technology.
+1 aMcLeod, Laurie.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bLIDS Research Group.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v02/06.
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+1 aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+10aToward a theory of music information retrieval queries :bsystem design implications /cSally Jo Cunningham and J. Stephen Downie.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2002.
+  a[11] leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v05/02
+  a"June 2002."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf [11]).
+ 0aMusicxData processing.
+ 0aInformation storage and retrieval systemsvMusic.
+ 0aSystem design.
+1 aDownie, J. Stephen.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v02/05.
+
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+1 aBouckaert, Remco R.
+10aAccuracy bounds for ensembles under 0 - 1 loss /cRemco R. Bouckaert.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2002.
+  a19 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v04/02
+  a"June 2002."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 18-19).
+ 0aAlgorithms.
+ 0aSet theory.
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aData mining.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v02/04.
+
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+  aQA75.5.W926 no.2002/03
+00aRacing committees for large datasets /cEibe Frank ... [et al.].
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2002.
+  a[12] p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v03/02
+  a"June 2002."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. [12]).
+ 0aAlgorithms.
+ 0aData mining.
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aDatabase management.
+1 aFrank, Eibe.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v02/03.
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+1 aHall, Mark Andrew.
+10aBenchmarking attribute selection techniques for discrete class data mining /cMark Hall and Geoffrey Holmes.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2002.
+  a21 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v02/02
+  a"April 2002."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 20-21).
+ 0aData mining.
+ 0aAlgorithms.
+ 0aDatabase management.
+1 aHolmes, Geoffrey
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v02/02.
+
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+02aA logistic boosting approach to inducing multiclass alternating decision trees /cby Geoffrey Holmes ... [et al.].
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2002.
+  a[13] leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v02/01
+  a"March 2002."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf [13]).
+ 0aDecision trees.
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aComputer algorithms.
+1 aHolmes, Geoffrey
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v02/01.
+
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+1 aFrank, Eibe.
+12aA simple approach to ordinal classification /cby Eibe Frank and Mark Hall.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2001.
+  a[13] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v01/5
+  a"November 2001."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf [13]).
+ 0aRegression analysis.
+ 0aDecision trees.
+ 0aTrees (Graph theory)
+ 0aMachine learning.
+1 aHall, Mark Andrew.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v01/5.
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+1 aUtting, Mark.
+10aData structures for Z testing tools /cby Mark Utting.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2001.
+  a[12] leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v01/4
+  a"June 2001."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves [10-11]).
+ 0aZ (Computer program language)
+ 0aComputer softwarexTesting.
+ 0aComputer softwarexEvaluation.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v01/4.
+
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+1 aReeve, Greg.
+10aExperiences using Z animation tools /cby Greg Reeve and Steve Reeves.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2001.
+  a15 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v01/3
+  a"May 2001."
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 15).
+ 0aComputer simulation.
+ 0aZ (Computer program language)
+ 0aComputer softwarexDevelopment.
+1 aReeves, Steve,d1957- .
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v01/3.
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+1 aJones, Steve,d1966-
+10aHuman evaluation of Kea, an automatic keyphrasing system /cby Steve Jones and Gordon W. Paynter.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2001.
+  a[9] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v01/2
+  a"February 2001."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves [8-9]).
+ 0aKea (Computer program language)xEvaluation.
+ 0aComputer sciencexDigital libraries.
+ 0aKeyword searching.
+ 0aAutomatic indexing.
+1 aPaynter, Gordon W.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v01/2.
+
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+1 aJones, Steve,d1966-
+10aInteractive document summarisation /cby Steve Jones, Stephen Lundy and Gordon W. Paynter.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2001.
+  a[10] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v01/1
+  a"February 2001."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf [10]).
+ 0aAutomatic abstractingxEvaluation.
+ 0aComputational linguistics.
+ 0aElectronic information resource searching.
+1 aLundy, Stephen.
+1 aPaynter, Gordon W.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v01/1.
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+  aQA75.5.W926 no.2000/13
+1 aJones, Steve,d1966-
+10aHierarchical document clustering using automatically extracted keyphrases /cby Steve Jones and Malika Mahoui.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2000.
+  a[8] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v00/13
+  a"October 2000."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+00aCluster analysis.
+00aKeyword searching.
+00aElectronic records.
+1 aMahoui, Malika.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v00/13.
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+1 aMahoui, Malika.
+12aA comparative transaction log analysis of two computing collections /cby Malika Mahoui and Sally Jo Cunningham.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2000.
+  a[7] leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v00/12
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  a"July 2000."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+00aDigital librariesvUse studies.
+00aOnline bibliographic searching.
+  aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v00/12.
+
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+1 aReeve, Greg.
+10a[Mu]-charts and Z :bextending the translation /cby Greg Reeve and Steve Reeves.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2000.
+  a56 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v00/11
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  a"August 2000."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 30-31).
+00aStatecharts (Computer science)
+00aZ (Computer program language)
+1 aReeves, Steve,d1957-
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v00/11.
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+1 aHall, Mark Andrew.
+10aBenchmarking attribute selection techniques for data mining /cby Mark A. Hall and Geoffrey Holmes.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2000.
+  a1, [13] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v00/10
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  a"July 2000."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+00aData mining.
+00aDatabase management.
+1 aHolmes, Geoffrey
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v00/10.
+
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+  aQA75.5.W926 no.2000/09
+1 aHolmes, Geoffrey
+12aA development environment for predictive modelling in foods /cby G. Holmes and M. Hall.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2000.
+  a[14] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v00/9
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  a"July 2000."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+00aAlgorithms.
+00aMachine learning.
+00aFoodxQualityxData processing.
+1 aHall, Mark Andrew.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v00/9.
+
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+  aQA75.5.W926 no.2000/08
+1 aHall, Mark Andrew.
+10aCorrelation-based feature selection for discrete and numeric class machine learning /cby Mark A. Hall.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2000.
+  a[9] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v00/8
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  a"May 2000."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf [8]).
+00aMachine learning.
+00aAlgorithms.
+00aFilters (Mathematics)
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v00/8.
+
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+  9ABU-2623
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+04a006.696221
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.2000/07
+1 aMahoui, Abdelaziz.
+10aOne dimensional non-uniform rational B-splines for animation control /cby Abdelaziz Mahoui.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2000.
+  a2, v, 52 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v00/7
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  a"March 2000."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 51-52).
+00aComputer animation.
+00aSpline theoryxData processing.
+00aCurves, AlgebraicxData processing.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v00/7.
+
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+04a005.133221
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.2000/06
+1 aReeve, Greg.
+10a[Mu]-charts and Z :bhows, whys and wherefores /cby Greg Reeve and Steve Reeves.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2000.
+  a24 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v00/6
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  a"March 2000."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 23-24).
+00aStatecharts (Computer science)
+00aZ (Computer program language)
+1 aReeves, Steve,d1957- .
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v00/6.
+
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+00aKEA :bpractical automatic keyphrase extraction /cby Ian H. Witten ... [et al.].
+30aPractical automatic keyphrase extraction
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2000.
+  a[9] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v00/5
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  a"March 2000."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+00aMetadataxData processing.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+1 aPaynter, Gordon W.
+1 aFrank, Eibe.
+1 aGutwin, Carl.
+  aNevill-Manning, Craig G.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v00/5.
+
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+  aQA75.5.W926 no.2000/04
+00aInteractive machine learning :bletting users build classifiers /cby Malcolm Ware ... [et al.].
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2000.
+  a[7] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v00/4
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  a"March 2000."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+00aMachine learning.
+00aAutomatic classification.
+00aInteractive computer systems.
+1 aWare, Malcolm.
+1 aFrank, Eibe.
+1 aHolmes, Geoffrey
+1 aHall, Mark Andrew.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v00/4.
+
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+  9ABU-0974
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+  aQA75.5.W926 no.2000/02
+1 aFrank, Eibe.
+10aText categorization using compression models /cby Eibe Frank, Chang Chui and Ian H. Witten.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2000.
+  a10 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v00/2
+  a"January 2000."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 10).
+00aData compression (Telecommunication)
+00aText processing (Computer science)
+1 aChui, Chang.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v00/2.
+
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+  9ABU-0975
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+  aQA75.5.W926 no.2000/01
+1 aYeates, Stuart Andrew.
+10aUsing compression to identify acronyms in text /cby Stuart Yeates, David Bainbridge and Ian H. Witten.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2000.
+  a10  leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v00/1
+  a"January 2000."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 10).
+00aComputersvAcronyms.
+00aData compression (Telecommunication)
+00aText processing (Computer science)
+00aDiscourse analysisxData processing.
+1 aBainbridge, David I.
+1 aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v00/1.
+
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+205741
+  ozbn92-65106
+  a(nzNZBN)6733836
+      s1992    nz g             x  eng d
+  9AAX-3783
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.2
+10aHall, Mark Andrew.
+10aComputer improvisation of blues melodies /cMark Andrew Hall.
+0 a[Hamilton] :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1992.
+  a50 leaves :bmusic ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;vno. 2
+  aOriginally issued as the author's thesis (B.Comp.Math.Sc.), University of Waikato, 1991.
+ 0aComputer composition.
+ 0aImprovisation (Music)
+ 0aBlues (Music)xComputer programs.
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;vno. 2
+
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+20031029034109.0
+  ozbn94-17776
+  a(nzNZBN)8187004
+      s1993    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABC-3755
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.1993/9
+20aNevill-Manning, Craig G.
+10aCompression by induction of hierarchical grammars /cCraig G. Nevill-Manning, Ian H. Witten, David L. Maulsby.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1993.
+  a9 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;vno. 1993/9
+  a"October 1993."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aText processing (Computer science)
+ 0aData compression (Computer science)
+10aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+ 0aMaulsby, David,d1957-
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;vno. 1993/9
+
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+20031029034108.0
+  ozbn94-17732
+  a(nzNZBN)8187651
+      s1993    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABC-3764
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.1993/8
+10aInglis, Stuart.
+10aCompression-based template matching /cStuart Inglis, Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1993.
+  a9 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;vno. 1993/8
+  a"October 1993."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aData compression (Computer science)
+ 0aText processing (Computer science)
+10aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;vno. 1993/8
+
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+20031029034109.0
+  ozbn94-18134
+  a(nzNZBN)8187653
+      s1993    nz       b          eng d
+  9ABC-3754
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.1993/7
+10aDavies, Rod M.
+10aCompressing computer programs /cby Rod M. Davies and  Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1993.
+  a10 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;vno. 1993/7
+  a"October 1993."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aComputer programsxData processing.
+ 0aData compression (Computer science)
+ 0aText processing (Computer science)
+10aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;vno. 1993/7
+
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+247871
+  ozbn94-18377
+  a(nzNZBN)8182818
+      s1993    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABC-3910
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.1993/6
+10aCleary, John G.
+14aThe design of an optimistic AND-Parallel Prolog /cby John G. Cleary and Ian Olthof.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1993.
+  a9 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v1993/6
+  a"October 1993."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aProlog (Computer program language)
+ 0aBacktrack programming.
+ 0aParallel programming (Computer science)
+10aOlthof, Ian.
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;vno. 1993/6
+
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+247752
+  ozbn94-18293
+  a(nzNZBN)8182820
+      s1993    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABC-3753
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.1993/5
+10aCleary, John G.
+10aProving the existence of solutions in logical arithmetic /cby John G. Cleary.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1993.
+  a[11] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v1993/5
+  a"October 1993."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aArithmetic functions.
+ 0aNumerical calculationsxComputer programs.
+ 0aInterval analysis (Mathematics)
+ 0aProlog (Computer program language)
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;vno. 1993/5
+
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+244021
+20031029034110.0
+  ozbn94-889
+  a(nzNZBN)8091882
+      s1993    nz       b       x  eng d
+  9ABB-9366
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.1993/4
+10aSmith, Tony C.
+10aModels for computer generated parody /cTony C. Smith, Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1993.
+  a[10] leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;vno. 1993/4
+  a"August 1993."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aParodyxComputer programs.
+ 0aParodyxComputer simulation.
+ 0aLexical grammarxComputer simulation.
+10aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;vno. 1993/4
+
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+20031029034110.0
+  ozbn94-2264
+  a(nzNZBN)8091881
+      s1993    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABB-9811
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.1993/3
+10aSmith, Tony C.
+10aLanguage inference from function words/cTony C. Smith, Ian H. Witten.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1993.
+  a[25] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v1993/3
+  a"January 1993."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aGrammar, Comparative and generalxFunction words.
+ 0aLexical grammarxComputer simulation.
+10aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v1993/3
+
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+20031029034111.0
+  ozbn94-2131
+  a(nzNZBN)8019612
+      s1993    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABB-9365
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.1993/2
+10aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+10aDisplaying 3D images :balgorithms for single image random dot stereograms /cby Ian H. Witten, Stuart Inglis and Harold W. Thimbleby.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1993.
+  a11, [12] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v1993/2
+  a"August 1993."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aThree-dimensional display systems.
+ 0aComputer graphics.
+10aInglis, Stuart.
+10aThimbleby, Harold.
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v1993/2
+
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+249639
+  ozbn94-29673
+  a(nzNZBN)8332235
+      s1993    nz a                eng d
+  9ABC-5978
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.1993/10
+10aCleary, John G.
+10aInformal introduction to Starlog /cJohn G. Cleary.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1993.
+  a14 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v93/10
+  a"October 1993."
+ 0aLogic programming.
+ 0aStarlog (Computer program language)
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;vno. 1993/10.
+
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+20070215034046.0
+  ozbn93-81528
+  a(nzNZBN)7633351
+      s1993    nz a                eng d
+  9ABA-6140
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.1993/1
+00aPractical machine learning and its application to problems in agriculture /cIan H. Witten .. [et al.]
+0 aHamilton :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1993.
+  a[18] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v1993/1
+ 0aAgriculturexData processing.
+ 0aExpert systems (Computer science)
+ 0aMachine learning.
+10aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+10aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+10aHolmes, Geoffrey
+10aMcQueen, Robert J.q(Robert John)
+ 0aSmith, Lloyd A.q(Lloyd Allan)
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v1993/1
+
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+228344
+20031029034014.0
+  ozbn93-50199
+  a(nzNZBN)7327212
+      s1992    nz                  eng d
+  9ABA-0774
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.1992/8
+00aSemantic and generative models for lossy text compression /cIan H. Witten .. [et al.]
+0 aHamilton :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c1992.
+  a9 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v1992/8
+ 0aText processing (Computer science)
+ 0aData compression (Computer science)
+10aWitten, I. H.q(Ian H.).
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v1992/8
+
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+  ozbn92-103021
+  a(nzNZBN)7297247
+      s1992    nz af    b       x  eng d
+  9AAY-2712
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.1992/7
+10aBarbour, Robert H.
+10aData logging & performance analysis software for teachers of indigenous New Zealanders :bearly results.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1992.
+  a15 leaves, [2] leaves of plates :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series / University of Waikato, Department of Computer Science,x1170-487X ;v1992/7
+  a"Describes ... the Ta Kupu Tamariki project ... a Maori word processor designed for teaching literacy in the Maori language ... the accompanying data logging and log analysis software Tirohia ... provides a means for teachers to determine student activity and performance"--Leaf 2.
+  aPrepared by Bob Barbour, Sally Jo Cunningham and Greg Ford.
+  a"September 1992."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 14-15).
+ 0aMaori languagexComputer-assisted instruction.
+ 0aMaori languagexComputer-assisted instructionxEvaluation.
+ 0aMaori languagexComputer programs.
+ 0aMaori languagexStudy and teaching (Elementary)xData processing.
+ 0aComputer managed instructionzNew Zealand.
+10aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+10aFord, Greg.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v1992/7.
+  au-nz---
+  cPrice unknown (pbk.)
+
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+20041014034103.0
+  ozbn92-103288
+  a(nzNZBN)7290412
+      s1992    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9AAY-2641
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.1992/6
+10aHolmes, Geoffrey
+10aNatural language processing in speech understanding systems.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1992.
+  a13 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v1992/6
+  aPrepared by Geoffrey Holmes.
+  a"September 1992."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 12-13).
+ 0aNatural language processing (Computer science)
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v1992/6
+  cGratis, distribution limited to computer science depts. and libraries in N.Z. (pbk.)
+
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+20041014034059.0
+  ozbn92-56966
+  a(nzNZBN)6472187
+      s1992    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9AAX-3018
+  aQA75.5.W926 no.1
+10aRogers, William J.q(William John)
+10aDrawing diagrams in TEX documents /cW.J. Rogers and G. Holmes.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bUniversity of Waikato, Dept. of Computer Science,c[1992]
+  a12 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;vno. 1
+  a"TEX has facilities for drawing diagrams using the packages tpic and PiCTEX"--Abstract.
+  aOn t.p. TEX is printed as in the trademark, with the 'E' slightly subscript.
+  a"January 1992."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 12).
+ 0aTeX (Computer system)
+ 0aMathematics printing.
+ 0aComputer graphics.
+ 0aComputerized typesetting.
+10aHolmes, Geoffrey
+20aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;vno. 1.
+  c(pbk.)
+
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+20000216112308.0
+000201s1999    nz a     b    000 0 eng  
+  o5494132
+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  9ABT-4545
+  aNZNBcDUSdNZNB
+00aQA75.5.W926 no. 99/17
+00aHigh precision traffic measurement by the WAND Research Group /cby John Cleary, Ian Graham, Tony McGregor, Murray Pearson...[et al.].
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1999.
+  a[11] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v99/17
+  a"December 1999."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+00aAsynchronous transfer modexMathematical models.
+00aWide area networks (Computer networks)
+00aComputer networks.
+1 aCleary, John G.
+10aGraham, Ian D.
+10aMcGregor, A. J.q(Anthony James)
+10aPearson, Murray William.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v99/17.
+
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+333851
+      s1998    nz       b    00000 eng d
+  ozbn98035385 
+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  a(nzNZBN)10772602
+  9ABO-3461
+  aNZNBcNZNB
+0 a005.133221
+  aQA75.5.W926 no. 98/6
+1 aHenson, Martin C.
+10aNew foundations for Z /cby Martin C. Henson and Steve Reeves.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1998.
+  a20 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v98/6
+  a"March 1998."
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 20).
+ 0aZ (Computer program language)
+1 aReeves, Steve,d1957-
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v98/6.
+
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+      s1997    nz a     b    00000 eng d
+  ozbn98010435 
+  a(nzNZBN)10622749
+  9ABN-7978
+  aCUMBcCUMB
+  aQA75.5.W926 no. 97/30
+1 aTeahan, William John.
+10aAdaptive models of English text /cby W.J. Teahan and John G. Cleary.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a28 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/30
+  a"December 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 26-28).
+ 0aEnglish languagexData processing.
+ 0aLinguistic modelsxData processing.
+ 0aLexicologyxData processing.
+ 0aComputational linguistics.
+ 0aData compression (Computer science)
+1 aCleary, John G.
+  aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/30.
+
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+329824
+      s1997    nz a     b    00000 eng d
+  ozbn98013643 
+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  a(nzNZBN)10586188
+  9ABN-7859
+  aNZNBcCUMB
+0 a006.424221
+  aQA75.5.W926 no. 97/26
+00aCorrecting English text using PPM models /cby W.J. Teahan ... [et al.].
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a10 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/26
+  aCONTRIBUTED CATALOGUING.
+  a"November 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 10).
+ 0aEnglish languagexData processing.
+ 0aLexicologyxData processing.
+ 0aComputational linguistics.
+1 aTeahan, William John.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v27/26.
+
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+329912
+20031028105702.0
+      s1997    nz a     b    00000 eng d
+  ozbn98005311 
+  a(nzNZBN)10586243
+  9ABN-7975
+  aCUMBcCUMB
+  aQA75.5.W926 no. 97/25
+1 aBainbridge, David I.
+10aMusical image compression /cby David Bainbridge and Stuart Inglis.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997
+  a10 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/25
+  a"November 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 9-10).
+ 0aImage compression.
+ 0aMusical notationxData processing.
+ 0aScore reading and playingxData processing.
+1 aInglis, Stuart.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/25.
+
+01010cam  2200265 a 4500001000700000008004100007010001700048035002100065035001300086040001500099092002600114100002600140245007500166260008000241300003200321490004600353500002100399504005100420650004000471650003900511650003300550700002000583710005500603830008600658
+329910
+      s1997    nz a     b    00000 eng d
+  ozbn98005848 
+  a(nzNZBN)10586253
+  9ABN-7973
+  aCUMBcCUMB
+  aQA75.5.W926 no. 97/24
+1 aTeahan, William John.
+10aTag based models of English text /cby W.J. Teahan and John G. Cleary.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a10 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/24
+  a"November 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 10).
+ 0aData compression (Computer science)
+ 0aEnglish languagexData processing.
+ 0aLexicologyxData processing.
+1 aCleary, John G.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/24.
+
+00971cam  2200253 a 4500001000700000008004100007010001700048035002100065035001300086040001500099092002600114100001900140245009500159260008000254300003200334490004600366500002100412504005100433650004000484650003300524700001900557710005500576830008600631
+329909
+      s1997    nz a     b    00000 eng d
+  ozbn98005270 
+  a(nzNZBN)10586266
+  9ABN-7972
+  aCUMBcCUMB
+  aQA75.5.W926 no. 97/23
+1 aPeeters, Ross.
+10aFast convergence with a greedy tag-phrase dictionary /cby Ross Peeters and Tony C. Smith.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a10 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/23
+  a"November 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 10).
+ 0aData compression (Computer science)
+ 0aLexicologyxData processing.
+1 aSmith, Tony C.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/23.
+
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+325886
+      s1997    nz       b    00000 eng d
+  ozbn98000758 
+  a(nzNZBN)10515651z(nzNZBN)10522385z(nzNZBN)10579611
+  9ABN-2634
+  cGratisf(spiral binding)
+  aNZNBcPU
+0 a006.31221
+  aQA75.5.W926 no. 97/22
+1 aTing, Kai Ming.
+10aInducing cost-sensitive trees via instance-weighting /cby Kai Ming Ting.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a16 leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v97/22
+  a"September 1997."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 16).
+ 0aMachine learning.
+ 0aDecision trees.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/22.
+
+01024cam  2200277 a 4500001000700000008004100007010001700048020002800065035002100093035001300114040001500127082001600142092002600158100002200184245010700206260008000313300002000393490003900413500001700452500003200469504005200501650002700553650002500580710005500605830008600660
+333850
+      s1997    nz       b    00000 eng d
+  ozbn98035229 
+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  a(nzNZBN)10772601
+  9ABO-3460
+  aNZNBcNZNB
+0 a025.524221
+  aQA75.5.W926 no. 97/15
+1 aTurner, Kristine.
+10aInformation seeking, retrieving, reading and storing behaviour of library users /cby Kristine Turner.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1997.
+  a28 p. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper,x1170-487X ;v97/15
+  a"June 1997."
+  aReceived on Standing Order.
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (p. 16-27).
+ 0aInformation retrieval.
+ 0aLibrary use studies.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v97/15.
+
+00953cam  2200229 a 4500001000700000010001600007035002000023008004100043035001300084092002500097245013200122260008000254300003200334490004500366500001800411504005600429650002500485650003800510700003500548710005500583830008500638
+294920
+  ozbn96-41681
+  a(nzNZBN)9555704
+      s1996    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABI-5067
+  aQA75.5.W926 no. 96/5
+00aCoordinating collaborative work in an integrated information systems engineering environment /cby John C. Grundy ... [et al.].
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a12 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/5
+  a"March 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 10-12).
+ 0aIntegrated software.
+ 0aInformation resources management.
+1 aGrundy, John C.q(John Collis)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/5.
+
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+307800
+  ozbn96-123956
+  a(nzNZBN)9943914
+                                        
+  9ABK-5761
+  aQA75.5.W926 no. 96/26
+10aCunningham, Sally Jo.
+10aDataset cataloging metadata for machine learning applications and research /cby Sally Jo Cunningham.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDepartment of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1996.
+  a[8] leaves ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v96/26
+  a"November 1996."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves [7-8]).
+ 0aMetadata.
+ 0aCataloging of databases.
+ 0aDatabase management.
+ 0aMachine learningxResearch.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v96/26.
+
+00962cam  2200241 a 4500001000700000010001700007035002000024008004100044035001300085092002600098100002300124245008100147260008000228300003200308490004600340500002100386504005000407650004800457650002600505650004900531710005500580830008500635
+287113
+  ozbn95-116060
+  a(nzNZBN)9420915
+      s1995    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABH-3194
+  aQA75.5.W926 no. 95/30
+10aBarbour, Robert H.
+00aCharacter-less programming II :bthe spreadsheet /cby by Robert H. Barbour.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1995.
+  a14 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/30
+  a"November 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaf 14)
+ 0aElectronic spreadsheetsxComputer programs.
+ 0aComputer programming.
+ 0aProgramming languages (Electronic computers)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/30
+
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+296268
+  ozbn96-37307
+  a(nzNZBN)8902948
+      s1995    nz a     b          eng d
+  9ABI-7697
+10aGrundy, John C.q(John Collis).
+10aSupporting flexible consistency management via discrete change description propagation /cby John C. Grundy, John G. Hosking and Warwick B. Mugridge.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science,cUniversity of Waikato,d1995.
+  a19 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/2
+  a"January 1995."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 18-19).
+ 0aDatabase management.
+ 0aComputer architecture.
+ 0aComputer software.
+ 0aSystem design.
+1 aHosking, J. G.q(John G.)
+10aMugridge, Warwick B.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/2
+  aQA75.5.W926 no. 95/2
+
+00940cam  2200253 a 4500001000700000005001700007010001600024035002000040008004100060035001300101092002600114100002100140245011000161260008000271300003100351490004600382500001800428504002600446650002500472650001900497700002900516710005500545830008600600
+275516
+20041014034124.0
+  ozbn95-63791
+  a(nzNZBN)9093777
+      s1995    nz a     b       x  eng d
+  9ABF-7444
+  aQA75.5.W926 no. 95/10
+10aHolmes, Geoffrey
+10aFeature selection via the discovery of simple classification rules /cby G. Holmes & C.G. Nevill-Manning.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc1995.
+  a5 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v95/10
+  a"April 1955."
+  aBibliography: leaf 5.
+ 0aRegression analysis.
+ 0aLeast squares.
+2 aNevill-Manning, Craig G.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v95/10.
+
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+279753
+  ozbn95-70849
+  a(nzNZBN)8825062
+      s1994    n  a     b          eng d
+  9ABG-2630
+  aQA75.5.W926 no. 94/18
+20aNew Zealand Formal Program Development Colloquiumn(1st :d1994 :cUniversity of Waikato)
+10aProceedings of the first New Zealand Formal Program Development Colloquium /cedited by Steve Reeves.
+0 aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,c1994.
+  aii, 126 p. :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v94/18
+  aIncludes bibliographical references.
+ 0aComputer softwarexDevelopmentvCongresses.
+ 0aElectronic digital computersxProgrammingvCongresses.
+1 aReeves, Steve,d1957-
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+  aFormal program development.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v94/18.
+
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+20041014034135.0
+030926s2003    nz a     b    000 0 eng  
+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  a7977372
+  a(NLNZils)897523
+  aNZNBcDUdNZNB
+14aQA75.5b.W926 no. 2003/08
+04a005.741221
+1 aHolmes, Geoffrey
+10aMining data streams using option trees /cGeoffrey Holmes, Bernhard Pfahringer and Richard Kirkby.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2003.
+  a[11] leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v08/03
+  a"September 2003."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves [10-11]).
+ 0aData mining.
+ 0aAlgorithms.
+ 0aDatabase management.
+1 aPfahringer, Bernhard.
+1 aKirkby, Richardq(Richard Brendon)
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v03/08.
+
+01281cam  2200325 a 450Q001000700000005001700007008004100024020002800065035001200093035002000105040001900125050003000144082001500174100002500189245011700214260008000331300003200411490004600443500002200489504005600511530004000567650002300607650004700630650002400677700002400701700002000725710005500745830008600800856006900886
+478896
+20031008105617.0
+030926s2003    nz a     b    000 0 eng  
+  cGratis (spiral binding)
+  a7977363
+  a(NLNZils)897516
+  aNZNBcDUdNZNB
+14aQA75.5b.W926 no. 2003/07
+04a025.04221
+1 aJones, Steve,d1966-
+10aUsing keyphrases as search result surrogates on small screen devices /cSteve Jones, Matt Jones and Shaleen Deo.
+  aHamilton, N.Z. :bDept. of Computer Science, University of Waikato,cc2003.
+  a33 leaves :bill. ;c30 cm.
+1 aWorking paper series,x1170-487X ;v07/03
+  a"September 2003."
+  aIncludes bibliographical references (leaves 22-24).
+  aAlso available in an electronic ed.
+ 0aKeyword searching.
+ 0aElectronic information resource searching.
+ 0aElectronic records.
+1 aJones, Matt,d1968-
+1 aDeo, Shaleen J.
+2 aUniversity of Waikato.bDept. of Computer Science.
+ 0aWorking paper series (University of Waikato. Dept. of Computer Science) ;v03/07.
+41uhttp://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/~mattj/KeyphraseSurrogatesWPAPER.pdf
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/marc-e/marc-e.col
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/marc-e/marc-e.col	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/marc-e/marc-e.col	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GathererCollection [
+  <!ELEMENT GathererCollection (Argument*, GathererConfig, BuildConfig)>
+  <!ELEMENT GathererConfig    (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT BuildConfig       (Build, Import)>
+  <!ELEMENT Build             (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Import            (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Schedule          (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Argument          (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Argument
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				enabled           CDATA "true">
+]>
+<GathererCollection>
+    <Argument name="built">false</Argument>
+    <Argument name="imported">true</Argument>
+    <Argument name="skimfile">true</Argument>
+    <GathererConfig/>
+    <BuildConfig>
+        <Build/>
+        <Import>
+            <Argument enabled="true" name="removeold"/>
+        </Import>
+        <Schedule/>
+    </BuildConfig>
+</GathererCollection>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/marc-e/metadata/dublin.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/marc-e/metadata/dublin.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/marc-e/metadata/dublin.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1617 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet SYSTEM "http://www.greenstone.org/dtd/MetadataSet/1.0/MetadataSet.dtd">
+<MetadataSet contact="dcmi-feedback@dublincore.org" creator="Dublin Core Metadata Initiative" family="Dublin Core" language_dependent="label, definition, comment" lastchanged="Tue Sep 05 14:40:36 NZST 2006 - kjdon on kanuka" namespace="dc">
+    <!-- English Version sourced from http://www.dublincore.org/documents/dces/ -->
+    <SetLanguage code="en">
+        <Name language="en">Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, Version 1.1: Reference Description</Name>
+        <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.1 of the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set. This document supersedes the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, version 1.0. See the Dublin Core Home Page (http://dublincore.org) for further information about the workshops, reports, working group papers, projects, and new developments concerning the Dublin Core Metadata Element set</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Maori Version sourced from http://www.tki.org.nz/r/maori/pedagogy/dc_elements_m.php -->
+    <SetLanguage code="mi">
+        <Name>Dublin Core Huanga - Maori (He Tauira)</Name>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- French Version sourced from http://www-rocq.inria.fr/%7Evercoust/METADATA/DC-fr.1.1.html -->
+    <!--  by Anne-Marie Vercoustre, Inria -->
+    <SetLanguage code="fr">
+        <Name language="fr">ElÃ©ments de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es du Dublin Core, Version 1.1: Description de RÃ©ference</Name>
+        <Description language="fr">Ce document rÃ©sume les derniÃšres dÃ©finitions des Ã©lÃ©ments demÃ©tadonnÃ©es du Dublin Core originellement dÃ©finis dans le document[RFC2413]. Ces nouvelles dÃ©finitions seront officiellement connues comme la Version 1.1. Elles utilisent un standard dÃ©fini formellement pour la description d&apos;Ã©lÃ©ments de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es. Cette formalisation contribue Ã  amÃ©liorer la cohÃ©rence avec d&apos;autres communautÃ©s dÃ©crivant des mÃ©tadonnÃ©es et Ã  augmenter la prÃ©cision, la portÃ©e et la cohÃ©rence interne de la dÃ©finition des Ã©lÃ©ments du Dublin Core.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Russian Version sourced from -->
+    <!-- by Olga Barysheva, National Library of Russia -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ru">
+        <Name language="ru">ÐÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Dublin Core (ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐœÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŽÑÐ°) ÐÐµÑÑÐžÑ 1.1: Ð¡Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ</Name>
+        <Description language="ru">ÐÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐŸÐ±ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸÐ²Ð»ÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Dublin Core (ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐœÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŽÑÐ°), Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐŸÐœÐ°ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð² RFC2413 (ÐÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ Dublin Core ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐ¶ÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐŸÐ²). Ð­ÑÐž ÐœÐŸÐ²ÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŸÑÐžÑÐžÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÑÑÐœÑ ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐÐµÑÑÐžÑ 1.1.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Spanish Version sourced from http://www.rediris.es/metadata/. Please note that this is a translation for Dublin Core v1.0 -->
+    <!-- by Javi Masa, RedIRIS -->
+    <SetLanguage code="es">
+        <Name language="es">Elementos del conjunto de metadatas de Dublin Core: DescripciÃ³n de Referencia</Name>
+        <Description language="es">Este documento corresponde a una traducciÃ³n del original en lengua inglesa, con fecha 02/11/1997 que se encuentra en http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core_elements. Este documento es una descripciÃ³n de referencia de los elementos del conjunto de &quot;Dublin Core&quot;. Para mÃ¡s informaciÃ³n sobre reuniones de trabajo, documentos de trabajo, proyectos y nuevos desarrollos relacionados con el conjunto de elementos que aquÃ­ se describen consultar la &quot;Home Page&quot; de &quot;Dublin Core&quot; (http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core). Los elementos poseen nombres descriptivos que pretenden transmitir un significado semÃ¡ntico a los mismos. Para promover una interoperabilidad global, una descripciÃ³n del valor de algunos elementos prodrÃ¡ ser asociada a vocabularios controlados. Se asume que otros vocabularios controlados serÃ¡n desarrollados para asegurar esta interoperabilidad en dominios especÃ­ficos. Cada elemento es opcional y puede repetirse. AdemÃ¡s, los elementos pueden aparecer en cualquier orden. Aunque algunos entornos, como HTML, no diferencian entre mayÃºsculas y minÃºsculas, es recomendable escribir correctamente cada metadata segÃºn su definiciÃ³n para evitar conflictos con otros entornos, como XML (Extensible Markup Language) http://www.w3.org/TR/PR-xml</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Arabic Version sourced from http://haddouti.de/DC_arabic.html -->
+    <!-- maintained by Hachim Haddouti. -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ar">
+        <Name>Ø¯ØšÙÙÙ ÙÙØ±</Name>
+        <Description>ÙØ±Ø­Øš ØšÙÙ
+ ÙÙ ØµÙØ­Ø©  Ø¯ ØšÙÙÙ ÙÙ  Ø± ØšØ§ÙØ¹Ø±ØšÙ    ÙÙ  ÙØ°Ù Ø§ÙØµÙØ­Ø©  Ù ØšØ§ÙØªØ¹Ø§ÙÙ Ù
+Ø¹ Ø§ÙØ§Ø®ÙØ§Ù Ø§ÙØ¹Ø±Øš Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªØšØ§ØªØ Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø§ÙÙØŽØ±Ø Ø§ÙØšØ­ÙØ« Ø§ÙØ¹ÙÙ
+ÙØ© Ù    ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+ÙWorking Group On Multilingual Dublin Core (DC-International) Ø</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Chinese - Simplified Version from http://dc.library.sh.cn/DC/1-1.htm -->
+    <!-- by Liu Wei, Shanghai Library -->
+    <SetLanguage code="cn">
+        <Name>éœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ é1.1çïŒåèæè¿°</Name>
+        <Description>æ¬ææ¡£å
+³äºéœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ é1.1çæ¬çåèæè¿°ãæ­€æè¿°äžå·²ç»æäº€ç»ISOçšäºåœé
+æç¥šçNISOå®æ¹æ åä¿æäžèŽã    éœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®éæ¯äžç§è·šé¢åçä¿¡æ¯èµæºæè¿°æ åãè¿éçä¿¡æ¯èµæºè¢«å®ä¹äžºâä»»äœå
+·ææ è¯çäžè¥¿âãæ­€å®ä¹æ¥èªäºTim Berners-Leeç­äººæèçInternet RFC2396 &quot;Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax&quot;æä»¶ãéœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®çåºçšé¢åæ²¡ææ ¹æ¬çéå¶ã</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Czech Version from http://www.ics.muni.cz/dublin_core/DC-czech-1.1.html -->
+    <!-- Ustav vypocetni techniky Masarykovy univerzity v Brne -->
+    <SetLanguage code="cs">
+        <Name>Soubor metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core, verze 1.1: referenÄnÃ­ popis</Name>
+        <Description>Tento dokument je ÄeskÃœm pÅekladem anglickÃ© verze referenÄnÃ­ho popisu souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯  Dublin Core, verze 1.1 [DCEN1.1]. Tento dokument nahrazuje ÄeskÃœ pÅeklad souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core, verze 1.0 [DCCS1.0]. DalÅ¡Ã­ informace o pracovnÃ­ch seminÃ¡ÅÃ­ch (workshopech), zprÃ¡vÃ¡ch, studiÃ­ch pracovnÃ­ch skupin, projektech a dalÅ¡Ã­m vÃœvoji souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core najdete na domovskÃ© strÃ¡nce Dublin Core (http://purl.org/dc)</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Dutch Version from http://www.kb.nl/coop/donor/project-nl-index.html?/coop/donor/rapporten/DCsimpleformat.html -->
+    <!-- by ... -->
+    <SetLanguage code="nl">
+        <Name>Rapporten Dublin Core Simple Format</Name>
+        <Description>Dit document beschrijft welke Dublin Core metadata elementen er zijn en geeft een korte definitie van elk element. Voor uitgebreide uitleg en gebruik van de Dublin Core elementen wordt u verwezen naar de gebruikershandleiding. Deze vertaling geeft ook de keuzes aan voor standaarden (taalcodes, datum codes) die wij in DONOR verband gaan hanteren. In zoverre kan deze vertaling afwijken van het oorspronkelijke document &quot;Description of Dublin Core Elements&quot; http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core_elements&quot;</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Finnish Version from http://www.lib.helsinki.fi/dublin_core/dcref-fin.html -->
+    <!-- by Jani Stenvall and Juha Hakala, Helsinki University Library -->
+    <SetLanguage code="fi">
+        <Name/>
+        <Description/>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Interlingua Version sourced from http://www.nautilus.com.br/%7Eensjo/ia/purl.org/dc/documents/rec-dces-19990702.htm -->
+    <!-- by Emerson Jose` Silveira da Costa -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ia">
+        <Name>Collection de elementos de metadatos de Dublin Core, version 1.1: Description de referentia</Name>
+        <Description>Isto es un traduction de un Recommendation del Dublin Core Metadata Initiative. Le publication como un recommendation significa que le specificationes es stabile e su adoption es supportate per le communitate Dublin Core (http://purl.org/dc/).</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Marathi Version sourced from http://bioinfo.ernet.in/library/dc/ele.txt -->
+    <!-- by by Shubhada Nagarkar, Bioinformatics Centre, University of Pune -->
+    <SetLanguage code="mr">
+        <Name>à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿ à€žà¥à€ à€à€µà¥à€€à¥à€€à¥ à¥§.à¥§ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­ à€žà¥à€ªà€·à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£ à¥§.à¥§ à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿà€à€µà¥à€€à¥à€€à¥ à¥§.à¥§.</Name>
+        <Description>à¥§.à¥§ à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿ à€¹à¥ à€µà¥à€à€µà¥à€à€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€µà€¿à€·à€¯à€Ÿà€€à¥à€² à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€µà€Šà¥à€Šà€²à€à¥ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€Šà¥à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à€¹à¥.  à€¯à€Ÿà€€ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€®à¥à€¹à€£à€à¥ à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€²à€Ÿ à€à€³à€ à€à€¹à¥ à€
+à€žà€Ÿ à€à€žà€€à¥.  à€
+à€¶à€Ÿ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°à€à¥ à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€µà€°à¥à€² à€. à€à€«.à€žà¥. à¥šà¥©à¥¯à¥¬URI: Generic Syntax -- Tim Berners Lee et al. à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à¥à€£à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¹à¥ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥ à€µà€Ÿà€ªà€°à€€à€Ÿ à€¯à¥à€€à¥.  à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€žà€Ÿà€ à¥ à€à¥à€£à€€à€Ÿà€¹à¥ à€®à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€µ à€šà€Ÿà€¹à¥.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <Element name="Title">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Title</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A name given to the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Title will be a name by which the resource is formally known.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Taitara</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te ingoa ka tapaina tetahi rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ko te Taitara te ingoa ka mohio whanuitia te ingoa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Titre</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le nom donnÃ© Ã  la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, un titre sera le nom par lequel la ressource est officiellement connue.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐŒÑ, ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÑ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŒÑ, Ð¿ÐŸÐŽ ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ ÐŸÑÐžÑÐžÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÑÑÐµÐœ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">TÃ­tulo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">El nombre dado a un recurso, usualmente por el autor.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØ¹ÙÙØ§Ù</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ§Ø³Ù
+ ÙØ¹Ø·Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, Ù
+Ù ÙØšÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŽØ±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èµæºå</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµäºèµæºçåç§°ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èµæºåäžè¬æèµæºå¯¹è±¡æ­£åŒå
+¬åŒçåç§°ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">NÃ¡zev</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">JmÃ©no danÃ© zdroji.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">NÃ¡zev bude typicky jmÃ©no, pod nÃ­mÅŸ je zdroj oficiÃ¡lnÄ znÃ¡m.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Titel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De naam van de Internetbron. Meestal gegeven door de auteur, maker of uitgever</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Titulo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un nomine date al ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente se utiliza un nomine per le qual le ressource es formalmente cognite.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€ªà€°à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¯à¥ à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€žà€à€à¥à€·à€¿à€ªà¥à€€ ,  à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿà€à€€à€°à¥à€€  à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Creator">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Creator</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity primarily responsible for making the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Creator include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Creator should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaihanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi, nana, na ratou ranei i matua oti ai te hanganga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaihanga. Ko te tikanga, ko te Kaihanga te ingoa ka whakamahia hei tohu i te putahi na ratou te hanganga.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">CrÃ©ateur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">L&apos;entitÃ© principalement responsable de la crÃ©ation du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples de CrÃ©ateur incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, un nom du CrÃ©ateur devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© pour dÃ©signer cette entitÃ©.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, ÐœÐµÑÑÑÐµÐµ Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐžÑÐœÑÑ ÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÑ Ð·Ð° ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Autor o Creador</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La persona u organizaciÃ³n responsable de la creaciÃ³n del contenido intelectual del recurso. Por ejemplo, los autores en el caso de documentos escritos, artistas, fotografos e ilustradores en el caso de recursos visuales.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØ§ØªØš Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø£ÙÙØ§  Ø¹Ù ÙØŽØŠ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ± Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ø¹ÙÙ Ø³ØšÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø«Ø§Ù , Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€ÙÙÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ØŠÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªÙØšØ© , Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØ§ÙÙÙ , Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµÙØ±ÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ØŠÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">åå»ºè
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">åå»ºèµæºå
+å®¹çäž»èŠèŽ£ä»»è
+ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åå»ºè
+çå®äŸå
+æ¬äžªäººïŒç»ç»ææé¡¹æå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒçšåå»ºè
+çåç§°æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">TvÅ¯rce</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita primÃ¡rnÄ odpovÄdnÃ¡ za vytvoÅenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady TvÅ¯rce zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no tvÅ¯rce.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Auteur of maker</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De auteur, maker of organisatie die primair verantwoordelijk is voor de intellectuele inhoud van het werk. Bijvoorbeeld auteurs in geval van geschreven documenten, artiesten, fotografen of illustrators in geval van visuele bronnen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Creator</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le entitate primarimente responsabile pro producer le contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de creator include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de creator pro indicar iste entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€šà€¿à€°à¥à€®à€Ÿà€€à€Ÿ, à€à€šà€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€šà€¿à€°à¥à€®à€Ÿà€£  à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.  à€²à¥à€à€, à€²à¥à€à€¿à€à€Ÿ,  à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥, à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ,  à€žà€à€ªà€Ÿà€Šà€, à€žà€à€ªà€Ÿà€Šà€¿à€à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Subject">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Subject and Keywords</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The topic of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Subject will be expressed as keywords, key phrases or classification codes that describe a topic of the resource. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary or formal classification scheme.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaupapa</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te take/ nga take o te kaupapa, o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka whakaaturia te kaupapa o te rauemi e nga kupu matua, nga kimahi matua, nga tohu wehewehenga whakaahua ranei.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Sujet</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le sujet du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, le sujet sera dÃ©crit par un ensemble de mots-clefs ou de phrases ou un code de classification qui prÃ©cisent le sujet de la ressource. L&apos;utilisation de vocabulaires contrÃŽlÃ©s et de schÃ©mas formels de classification est encouragÃ©e.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ Ðž ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÐµ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¢ÐµÐŒÐ° ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ Ð²ÑÑÐ°Ð¶Ð°ÐµÑÑÑ Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐŸÑÑÑ ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ², ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÑÑÐ°Ð· ÐžÐ»Ðž  ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÐºÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ², ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÑÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÐŒÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑ
+ÐµÐŒÑ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Claves</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Los tÃ³picos del recurso. TÃ­picamente, Subject expresarÃ¡ las claves o frases que describen el tÃ­tulo o el contenido del recurso. Se fomentarÃ¡ el uso de vocabularios controlados y de sistemas de clasificaciÃ³n formales. Se pueden ver ejemplos de vocabularios controlados en: Controlled vocabularies, thesauri and classification systems available in the WWW. DC Subject</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§ÙØ±ØŠÙØ³ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ù
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±. ÙÙ
+ÙØ°Ø¬ÙØ§  ÙØ¹ØšØ± Ø¹Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ ØšØ§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+Ù
+ÙØªØ§Ø­  Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª  Ø§Ù Ø¬Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ  ØªØµÙ Ù
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ø§Ù Ù
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù ÙØ³ØªØ­Ø³Ù Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ù
+ÙØ±Ø¯Ø§Øª Ù
+Ø®Ø·Ø·Ø©Ù Ù
+Ø­ÙÙ
+Ø©  ÙØ§Ø¯ÙØ© ØªØµÙÙÙ ØŽÙÙÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">äž»é¢åå
+³é®è¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çäž»é¢æè¿°ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åŠæèŠæè¿°ç¹å®èµæºçæäžäž»é¢ïŒäžè¬éçšå
+³é®è¯ãå
+³é®å­ç­è¯­æåç±»å·ïŒæå¥œäž»é¢åå
+³é®è¯ä»åæ§    è¯è¡šæè§èçåç±»äœç³»äž­ååŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PÅedmÄt a klÃ­ÄovÃ¡ slova</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">TÃ©ma obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅedmÄt bude typicky vyjÃ¡dÅen pomocÃ­ klÃ­ÄovÃœch slov, klÃ­ÄovÃœch frÃ¡zÃ­ nebo klasifikaÄnÃ­ch znakÅ¯ popisujÃ­cÃ­ch tÃ©ma zdroje. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu prvku z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku nebo formÃ¡lnÃ­ho klasifikaÄnÃ­ho schÃ©matu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Onderwerp en trefwoorden</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het onderwerp van de Internetbron. Het onderwerp wordt beschreven in korte zinnen of door het gebruik van trefwoorden. Het gebruik van gecontroleerde trefwoorden of classificatie schema&apos;s wordt aanbevolen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Subjecto e parolas-clave</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le topico del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le subjecto es expresse per medio de parolas-clave, phrases-clave, o codices de classification que describe le topico del ressource. Le melior practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate o un schema formal de classification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€µà€¿à€·à€¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€µà€¿à€·à€¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ, à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€šà€žà€Ÿà€§à€šà¥ à€¯à€Ÿà€€à¥à€² à€à€¶à€¯ à€žà¥à€ªà€·à¥à€ à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à¥ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Š, à€µà€¿à€·à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€µà€°à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£ à€à€°à€€à€Ÿà€šà€Ÿ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Šà€žà€à€à¥à€°à€¹ à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Š à€à¥à€·à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€µà€Ÿà€ªà€° à€à€°à€Ÿà€µà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Description">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An account of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Description may include but is not limited to: an abstract, table of contents, reference to a graphical representation of content or a free-text account of the content.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Whakaaturanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He whakaaturanga o nga kaupapa o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ka uru atu, engari ehara noa ko: te whakarapopototanga korero, te ihirangi, te tohutanga o te kaupapa ma te whakaahua, te whakaaturanga kore kupu ranei, o te kauapapa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une description du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Une Description peut contenir, mais ce n&apos;est pas limitatif: un rÃ©sumÃ©, une table des matiÃšres, une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une reprÃ©sentation graphique du contenu, ou un texte libre sur le contenu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¡ÐŸÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÐž ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐŸ (Ð¿ÐŸ ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÑÑÐž) Ð² Ð²ÐžÐŽÐµ: ÑÐµÑÐµÑÐ°ÑÐ°, ÐŸÐ³Ð»Ð°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ, ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐž ÐœÐ° Ð³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">DescripciÃ³n</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una descripciÃ³n textual del recurso, tal como un resumen en el caso de un documento o una descripciÃ³n del contenido en el caso de un documento visual.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØµÙ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ ÙØµÙ ÙØµÙ  ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, ÙÙØ¶Ù
+ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ®ØµØ§Øª ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙØ«Ø§ØŠÙ Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø§ÙØ§ØŽÙØ§Ø¡ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªÙØšØ© Ø§Ù ØªÙØµÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ØŠÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">è¯Žæ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çè§£é</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">è¯Žæå¯ä»¥å
+æ¬äœäžéäºä»¥äžå
+å®¹ïŒææãç®åœãå¯¹ä»¥åŸåœ¢æ¥æ­ç€ºå
+å®¹çèµæºèèšçæå­è¯Žæãæè
+äž    äžªæå
+³èµæºå
+å®¹çèªç±ææ¬æè¿°ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Popis</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">VysvÄtlenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Popis mÅ¯ÅŸe obsahovat (mimo jinÃ©): abstrakt, obsah, odkaz na grafickÃ© nebo volnÃ© textovÃ© vyjÃ¡dÅenÃ­ obsahu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Omschrijving</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een omschrijving van de inhoud van de Internetbron. Abstracts of inhoudsomschrijvingen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un description del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le description pote includer, ma non se limita a: summario, indice, referentia a un representation graphic del contento o un texto libere a proposito del contento.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€µà€°à¥à€£à€š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥, à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€šà€žà€Ÿà€§à€šà€Ÿà€à¥à€µà€°à¥à€£à€š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€šà€¿à€µà¥à€Šà€š, à€à€²à¥à€, à€à€¿à€€à¥à€°à€°à¥à€ª</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Publisher">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Publisher</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity responsible for making the resource available.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Publisher include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Publisher should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaiwhakaputa</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi nana i whakaputa te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaiwhakaputa. Ko te tikanga, ka whakamahia te ingoa o te Kaiwhakaputa hei tohu i te putahi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Editeur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">L&apos;entitÃ© responsable de la diffusion de la ressource, dans sa forme actuelle, tels, un dÃ©partement universitaire, une entreprise.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples d&apos;Editeurs incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, le nom d&apos;une maison d&apos;Ã©dition devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© ici.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, ÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ Ð·Ð° Ð²Ð²ÐŸÐŽ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° Ð² ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Editor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">&gt;La entidad responsable de hacer que el recurso se encuentre disponible en la red en su formato actual, por ejemplo la empresa editora, un departamento universitario u otro tipo de organizaciÃ³n.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŽØ±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØŠØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø€ÙÙØ© Ø¹Ù ØµÙØ§Ø¹Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªÙÙØ± ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØªÙ Ø§ÙØ­Ø§Ø¶Ø±Ø©, Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø§ÙÙØŽØ±, ÙØ³Ù
+ Ø¬Ø§Ù
+Ø¹Ù Ø§Ù Ù
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§Ø¹Ù
+Ø§Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">åºçè
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">äœ¿èµæºæäžºå¯ä»¥è·åŸå¹¶å¯çšçèŽ£ä»»è
+ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åºçè
+çå®äŸå
+æ¬äžªäœïŒç»ç»ïŒææå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒåºè¯¥çšåºçè
+çåç§°æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Vydavatel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita odpovÄdnÃ¡ za zpÅÃ­stupnÄnÃ­ zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady Vydavatele zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no vydavatele.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Uitgever</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De entiteit die verantwoordelijk is voor het beschikbaarstellen van de Internetbron in de huidig vorm. Bijvoorbeeld een uitgeversbedrijf, een universiteitsafdeling.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Editor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un entitate responsabile pro disponibilizar le ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de editor include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de editor pro indicar le entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ  à€à€ªà€²à€¬à¥à€§ à€à€°à¥à€š à€Šà¥à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.à€ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€ , à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€š  à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ, à€žà¥à€µà€Ÿ    à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€² à€°à¥à€ªà€Ÿà€€  à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€à€à€à€°à€šà¥à€ à€µà€° à€à€ªà€²à€¬à¥à€§ à€à€°à¥à€š à€Šà¥à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Contributor">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Contributor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity responsible for making contributions to the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Contributor include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Contributor should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaiwhakaaro</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi nana, na ratou ranei nga whakakaupapatanga whakaaro o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaiwhakaaro. Ko te tikanga ka whakamahia te ingoa o te Kaiwhakaaro hei tohu i te putahi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Contributeur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une entitÃ© qui a contribuÃ© Ã  la crÃ©ation du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples de Contributeur incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, le nom d&apos;un contributeur devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© ici pour dÃ©signer l&apos;entitÃ©.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, Ð²ÐœÐµÑÑÐµÐµ Ð²ÐºÐ»Ð°ÐŽ Ð² ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Otros Colaboradores</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una persona u organizacion que haya tenido una contribuciÃ³n intelectual significativa en la creaciÃ³n del recurso pero cuyas contribuciones son secundarias en comparaciÃ³n a las de las personas u organizaciones especificadas en el elementeo Creator (por ejemplo, editor, ilustrador y traductor).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+ Ø§ÙØ§Ø®Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§ÙØºÙØ± Ù
+Ø°ÙÙØ± ØµØ±Ø§Ø­Ø© ÙÙ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù &quot; Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹ &quot; Ù Ø§ÙØ°Ù ÙØ¯Ù
+ Ù
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø§Øª ÙÙØ±ÙØ© ÙØ§Ù
+Ø© ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, ÙÙÙ Ù
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªÙØªØšÙÙ    Ø«Ø§ÙÙÙØ© Ù
+ÙØ§Ø±ÙØ© Ù
+Ø¹ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø£Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø°ÙÙØ±Ø© ÙØµØ§ ÙÙ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù &quot; Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØŽØŠ &quot; Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§Ù Ù
+ØµØ­Ø­, Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ±Ø¬Ù
+, Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ³Ø±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">å
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">å¯¹èµæºçå
+å®¹äœåºèŽ¡ç®çå
+¶ä»å®äœã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+çå®äŸå¯å
+æ¬äžªäººãç»ç»ææé¡¹æå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒçšå
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+çåå­æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PÅispÄvatel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita, kterÃ¡ pÅispÄla k vytvoÅenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady PÅispÄvatele zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no pÅispÄvatele.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Andere medewerkers</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een persoon of organisatie die een belangrijke bijdrage heeft geleverd, maar die secondair is aan de persoon of organisatie die bij &quot;Creator&quot; genoemd wordt. Gedacht kan worden aan editors, vertalers en illustrators.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Contribuente</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un entitate responsabile pro facer contributiones al contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de contribuente include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de contribuente pro indicar le entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label"> à€žà€¹à€¯à¥à€à€, à€žà€¹à€¯à¥à€à¥, à€žà€¹à€Ÿà€¯à¥à€¯à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€žà€à€à€²à¥à€€ à€à€°à€£à¥à¥à€Ÿà€ž  à€®à€Šà€€ à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à¥ à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.à€ à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥, à€žà¥à€µà€Ÿ, à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Date">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Date</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A date associated with an event in the life cycle of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, Date will be associated with the creation or availability of the resource.  Recommended best practice for encoding the date value is defined in a profile of ISO 8601 and follows the YYYY-MM-DD format.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ra</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He ra e whai panga ana ki te huringa ora o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka whai panga te ra ki te hanganga, te wateatanga ranei, o te rauemi. Ko te huarahi tino pai hei tohu i te uara o te ra (date value) kua whakaritea i roto i te whakaritenga IS0 8601 [W3CDTF], a, e whai atu ana ki te whakatakotoranga YYYY-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Date</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une date associÃ©e avec un Ã©vÃ©nement dans le cycle de vie de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, une date sera associÃ©e Ã  la crÃ©ation ou Ã  la publication d&apos;une ressource. Il est fortement recommandÃ© d&apos;encoder la valeur de la date en utilisant le format dÃ©fini par l&apos;ISO 8601 [W3CDTF] sous la forme AAAA-MM-JJ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ°ÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐ°ÑÐ°, ÑÐ²ÑÐ·Ð°ÐœÐœÐ°Ñ Ñ ÑÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐžÐµÐŒ Ð² Ð¶ÐžÐ·ÐœÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐžÐºÐ»Ðµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐÐ°ÑÐ° Ð°ÑÑÐŸÑÐžÐžÑÑÐµÑÑÑ Ñ ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÐŸÑÑÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. ÐÐ° Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÐºÐµ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐŸÐŽÐžÑÐŸÐ²ÐºÐž Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐžÐ»Ñ ISO 8601 (Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÑ ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐž W3C), ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐÐÐÐ-ÐÐ-ÐÐ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Fecha</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una fecha en la que el recurso se puso a disposiciÃ³n del usuario en su forma actual. Esta fecha no ha de confundirse con la que pertenece al elemento Coverage, que serÃ­a asociada con el recurso sÃ³lo en la medida en que el contenido intelectual estÃ¡ de algÃºn modo relacionado con esa fecha. Recomendamos la utiliazaciÃ³n de uno de los formatos definidos en el documento &quot;Date and Time Formats&quot;, http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime basado en la norma ISO 8601 que incluye, entre otras, fechas en el formato AAAA y AAAA-MM-DD. De esta forma la fecha 1994-11-05 corresponderÃ­a al 5 de Noviembre de 1994.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±Ø®</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹ÙÙ ØšÙÙØª ÙØŽØŠ Ø£Ù ØªÙÙØ± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ù ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØ§ ÙØ®ÙØ· ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§ØŠØ¯ ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© , Ù Ø§ÙØ° Ù ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù    ÙÙØ­Ù ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± ÙÙØ· Ù
+Ù ÙØ§Ø­ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙØ§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙÙÙ ÙÙØ¹Ø§ Ù
+Ø§ ÙÙ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®. Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø«Ø­Ø³ÙØ© ÙÙØ§Ø­Ø³Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹Ø§Ø±Ù Ø¹ÙÙÙ    Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙØªØ·ØšÙÙ ÙÙ Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø¯Ø© ÙÙ ØªØŽÙÙÙ (ISO 8601) ØµÙØºØ© ØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ (ISO 8601) Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§Ø­ØžØ© Ø§ÙÙÙÙØ© http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime, W3C. ÙÙÙ    ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙÙØ³Ù , Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§, ØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ 1994-11-04 ÙÙØ§ØžØ± ÙÙÙ
+ 5 ÙÙÙÙ
+ØšØ± 1994</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æ¥æ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">äžèµæºçåœåšæäž­çäžäžªäºä»¶çžå
+³çæ¶éŽã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæ¥æåºäžèµæºçåå»ºæåºçæ¥æçžå
+³ãå»ºè®®éçšçæ¥ææ ŒåŒåºç¬ŠåISO 8601 [W3CDTF]è§    èïŒå¹¶äœ¿çšYYYY-MM-DDçæ ŒåŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Datum</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Datum spojenÃ© s urÄitou udÃ¡lostÃ­ bÄhem existence zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Datum bude typicky spojeno s vytvoÅenÃ­m nebo zpÅÃ­stupnÄnÃ­m zdroje. DoporuÄenÃœ postup pro kÃ³dovÃ¡nÃ­ hodnoty data je definovÃ¡n v ISO 8601 [W3CDTF]: formÃ¡t RRRR-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Datum</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De datum van de totstandkoming of beschikbaarstelling van een Internetbron. Deze datum moet niet verward worden met de datum in &quot;Coverage&quot;. De datum in &quot;Coverage&quot; geeft de tijdsperiode van de inhoud van de Internetbron aan. Voorgeschreven wordt de ISO 8601 standaard voor datum, zoals beschreven in W3C Technical Note http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime. Hierin wordt het formaat YYYY-MM-DD beschreven. Het formaat YYYY-MM-DD wordt de voorgeschreven standaard. 3 September 1998 wordt in dit geval 1998-09-03.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Data</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un data associate a un evento in le cyclo vital del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le data es associate al creation o disponibilization del ressource. Le practica recommendate pro codificar le valor del datas es definite in un profilo de ISO 8601 [W3CDTF] e seque le formato AAAA-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€,  à€Šà€¿à€šà€Ÿà€à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€€à€¯à€Ÿà€° à€à¥à€²à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€  à€²à€¿à€¹à¥à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€žà¥à€µà€°à¥à€ª à€ à€µà€°à¥à€·. à€®à€¹à€¿à€šà€Ÿ. à€Šà€¿à€µà€ž à¥§à¥¯à¥«à¥Š. à¥Šà¥ª. à¥Šà¥ª</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Type">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Resource Type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The nature or genre of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Type includes terms describing general categories, functions, genres, or aggregation levels for content. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the working draft list of Dublin Core Types). To describe the physical or digital manifestation of the resource, use the FORMAT element.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Tumomo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te ahua, te tu-ahuatanga ranei o nga kaupapa o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Kei roto i te Tumomo nga kupu whakaatu i nga wehewehenga whanui, nga aheinga, nga tu-ahuatanga, te whakaritenga ranei o nga taumata o te/ nga kaupapa. Ko te huarahi tino pai kua tohua, ko te tipako i tetahi uara mai i nga kupu kua whakaritea (hei tauira, ko te tauira rarangi e whakamahia ana o nga Dublin Core Types [DCT1]. Hei whakaatu i te whakatinanatanga o te rauemi, whakamahia ko te huanga WHAKATAKOTORANGA (FORMAT).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La nature ou le genre du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Type inclut des termes dÃ©crivant des catÃ©gories, fonctions ou genres gÃ©nÃ©raux pour le contenu, ou des niveaux d&apos;agrÃ©gation. Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la valeur du type dans une liste de vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ© (par exemple, la liste provisoire de Types du Dublin Core[DCT1]). Pour dÃ©crire la matÃ©rialisation physique ou digitale de la ressource, il faut utiliser l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Format.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÑÐžÑÐŸÐŽÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¶Ð°ÐœÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐµÑÐŒÐžÐœÑ, ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÑÐ²Ð°ÑÑÐžÐµ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐžÐµ ÐºÐ°ÑÐµÐ³ÐŸÑÐžÐž, ÑÑÐœÐºÑÐžÐž, Ð¶Ð°ÐœÑÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐŽÐžÐœÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ ÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐœÐž ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐµÐºÑÐ° ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ° Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ÐŸÐ² Dublin Core DCT1). ÐÐ»Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐžÐ·ÐžÑÐµÑ-ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Tipo del Recurso</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La categorÃ­a del recurso, por ejemplo pÃ¡gina personal, romance, poema, minuta, diccionario. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, Type deberÃ­a ser seleccionado de entre una lista de valores que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo. En http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Metadata/types.html se puede consultar el estado actual de la discusiÃ³n en torno a este tema.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÙÙØ¹ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ ÙØŠØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§ Ø§ÙØµÙØ­Ø© Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+, Ø±ÙØ§ÙØ© , ÙØ·Ø¹Ø© ØŽØ¹Ø±ÙØ© , ÙØ±ÙØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù , ØªÙØ±ÙØ± ÙÙÙ , Ù
+ÙØ§Ù , ÙØ§Ù
+ÙØ³ . Ù Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù    ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØ®ØªØ§Ø± Ø§ÙÙÙØ¹ Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© ÙØ§ÙØªÙ ÙÙÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§ Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èµæºç±»å</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çç¹åŸæç±»åã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èµæºç±»åå
+æ¬æè¿°èµæºå
+å®¹çäžè¬èçŽïŒåèœïŒç§å±ïŒæèç±»å±æ¬¡çæ¯è¯­ãå»ºè®®éçšæ¥èªäºåæ§è¯è¡š    äž­çåŒïŒäŸåŠDCMIç±»åè¯æ±è¡š[DCMITYPE]ïŒãèŠæè¿°èµæºçç©çææ°å­åè¡šç°åœ¢åŒïŒè¯·äœ¿çšâæ ŒåŒïŒFORMATïŒâå
+çŽ ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Typ zdroje</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Povaha nebo druh obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typ obsahuje termÃ­ny popisujÃ­cÃ­ obecnÃ© kategorie, funkce, druhy nebo agregaÄnÃ­ ÃºrovnÄ obsahu. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. pracovnÃ­ nÃ¡vrh seznamu TypÅ¯ Dublin Core [DCT1]). K popisu fyzickÃ© nebo digitÃ¡lnÃ­ reprezentace zdroje uÅŸijte prvek FormÃ¡t.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bestands type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het soort Internetbron, bijvoorbeeld home page, gedicht, working paper, technical report, essay, woordenboek etc. De DC working groups zijn momenteel bezig met twee voorstellen; een minimalist draft: http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Metadata/minimalist.html en een structuralist draft: http://sunsite.berkely.edu/Metadata/structuralist.html. Het wordt sterk aanbevolen om &quot;Type&quot; van deze lijsten te selecteren.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Typo del ressource</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le natura o genere del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le typo del ressource include terminos que describe categorias general, functiones, generes, o nivellos de aggregation pro le contento. Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le lista de schizzos de travalio de typos de Dublin Core [DCT1]). Pro describer le manifestation physic o digital del ressource, utiliza le elemento Formato.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€µà€°à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£, à€µà€°à¥à€à€µà€Ÿà€°à¥à€®à€§à¥à€¯à¥ à€à€à€Ÿà€Šà¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€šà¥à€à€Šà¥à€à€Ÿ à€®à¥à€à¥à€¯ à€à€à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Format">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The physical or digital manifestation of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, Format may include the media-type or dimensions of the resource. Format may be used to determine the software, hardware or other equipment needed to display or operate the resource. Examples of dimensions include size and duration. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the list of Internet Media Types [MIME] defining computer media formats).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Whakatakotoranga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te whakatinanatanga, te whakaputanga a-mati o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka taea te Whakatakotoranga te whakamahi hei whakarite i te rawa-ngohe (software), te rawa-maro (hardware), ma etahi taputapu ranei me matua whiwhi, hei whakahaere i te rauemi. Ko te rahi me te roanga etahi tauira hanga. Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua ko te tipako uara mai i tetahi whakaritenga kupu (hei tauira, te rarangi o nga Tumomo Papaho Ipurangi (Internet Media Types [MIME]) e whakaatu ana i nga whakatakotoranga papaho rorohiko.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La matÃ©rialisation physique ou digitale de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, Format peut inclure le media ou les dimensions de la ressource. Format peut Ãªtre utilisÃ© pour prÃ©ciser le logiciel, le matÃ©riel ou autre Ã©quipement nÃ©cessaire pour afficher ou faire fonctionner la ressource. Exemples de dimensions incluent la taille et la durÃ©e. Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la valeur du format dans une liste de vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ©(par exemple, la liste des types de media dÃ©finis sur Internet [MIME]).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð€ÐžÐ·ÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐµ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ ÑÐžÐ¿ Ð°ÑÐŽÐžÐŸÐ²ÐžÐ·ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÐž (ÐŒÐµÐŽÐžÐ°-ÑÐžÐ¿) ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐžÐœÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ Ð°Ð¿Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, Ð¿ÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŒÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÐµÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÐŸÑÑÐŽÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ, ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐŸÑÐ¿ÑÐŸÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÑ Ñ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐŸÐŒ. ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð²ÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐžÐœÑ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŒÐµÑ Ðž Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶ÐžÑÐµÐ»ÑÐœÐŸÑÑÑ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ° ÐÐµÐŽÐžÐ°-ÑÐžÐ¿ÐŸÐ² ÐÐœÑÐµÑÐœÐµÑ MIME, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐ¿ÑÑÑÐµÑÐœÑÐµ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÑ Ð°ÑÐŽÐžÐŸÐ²ÐžÐ·ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÐž).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Formato</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">El formato de datos de un recurso, usado para identificar el software y posiblemente, el hardware que se necesitarÃ­a para mostrar el recurso. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, los valores de Format deberÃ­an ser seleccionados de entre una lista de valores que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ù ØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù ØªØ³ØªØ®Ø¯Ù
+ ÙÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ ØšØ§ÙØšØ±Ù
+Ø¬ÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØšÙ
+Ø§ Ø§ÙØµÙØš ÙÙØ­Ø§Ø³ÙØš Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø£Ù ÙØ­ØªØ§Ø¬    ÙÙØ§ ÙØ¹Ø±Ø¶ Ø£Ù ØªØŽØºÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù, ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ØªØ®ØªØ§Ø± Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙØªÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§    Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æ ŒåŒ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºçç©çææ°å­è¡šç°åœ¢åŒã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæ ŒåŒå¯èœå
+æ¬èµæºçåªäœç±»åæèµæºçå€§å°ïŒæ ŒåŒå
+çŽ å¯ä»¥çšæ¥å³å®å±ç€ºææäœèµæºæé    çèœ¯ç¡¬ä»¶æå
+¶ä»çžåºè®Ÿå€ïŒäŸåŠå€§å°å
+æ¬èµæºæå çå­åšç©ºéŽåæç»­æ¶éŽãå»ºè®®éçšæ¥èªäºåæ§è¯è¡š    äž­çåŒïŒïŒäŸåŠInternetåªäœç±»å[MIME]å®ä¹è®¡ç®æºåªäœæ ŒåŒïŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">FormÃ¡t</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">FyzickÃ¡ nebo digitÃ¡lnÃ­ reprezentace zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicky mÅ¯ÅŸe FormÃ¡t obsahovat typ mÃ©dia nebo rozmÄry zdroje. FormÃ¡t lze pouÅŸÃ­vat k urÄenÃ­ softwaru, hardwaru nebo dalÅ¡Ã­ho zaÅÃ­zenÃ­ potÅebnÃ©ho k zobrazenÃ­ nebo k manipulaci se zdrojem. PÅÃ­klady rozmÄrÅ¯ zahrnujÃ­ velikost a dobu trvÃ¡nÃ­. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. seznam typÅ¯ internetovÃœch mÃ©diÃ­ [MIME] definujÃ­cÃ­ formÃ¡ty poÄÃ­taÄovÃœch mÃ©diÃ­).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het data formaat van het Internetbestand. Dit gegeven kan gebruikt worden om systeemvereisten (hard- en software) te identificeren die nodig zijn voor raadpleging of bediening van de Internetbron. &quot;Format&quot; is nog in ontwikkeling bij de DC workshop. Uit compatibiliteitsoverwegingen wordt aanbevolen formaatgegevens te selecteren uit een gecontroleerde lijst. Formaten kunnen van de Internet Media Types (MIME types) lijst gekozen worden: http://www.isi.edu/in-notes/iana/assignments/media-types/media-types</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Formato</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le manifestation physic o digital del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le formato pote includer le typo de medio o dimensiones del ressource. Le formato pote esser utilizate pro determinar le software o le equipamento necessari pro exhibir o operar le ressource. Exemplos de dimensiones include grandessa e duration. Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le lista de typos de medios de Internet [MIME] que defini formatos de medios).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ, à€šà€®à¥à€šà€Ÿà€¬à¥à€Š à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€žà¥à€µà€°à¥à€ª, à€°à€à€šà€Ÿà€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€°à¥à€ª à€à€žà¥ à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€à€°à¥à€ª, à€žà€à€à€£à€à¥à€¯ à€°à¥à€ª, à€µà€¿à€Šà¥à€¯à¥à€€ à€ªà€°à€®à€Ÿà€£à¥à€à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€žà€¹à€Ÿà€¯à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€šà¥ à€žà€à€à€£à€à¥à€à¥à€€ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Identifier">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Resource Identifier</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Recommended best practice is to identify the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system. Example formal identification systems include the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (including the Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), the Digital Object Identifier (DOI) and the International Standard Book Number (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Taututanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro e hangai ana ki te rauemi i roto i tetahi horopaki.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tautu i te rauemi ma tetahi aho (string), tau ranei, e hangai ana ki tetahi punaha taututanga okawa. Ko etahi punaha taututanga okawa ko te Taututanga Rauemi Orite (Uniform Resource Identifier - URI), te Taututanga Rauemi Tohu-wahi (Uniform Resource Locator - URL), Te Mea A-mati (Digital Object Identifier - DOI) me te Tau Pukapuka Aro Whanui o te Ao (International Standard Book Number - ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Identifiant</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence non ambiguÃ« Ã  la ressource dans un contexte donnÃ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© d&apos;identifier la ressource par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšre ou un nombre conforme Ã  un sytÃšme formel d&apos;identification. Exemples de systemes formels d&apos;identification incluent le &quot;Uniform Resource Identifier&quot; (URI) (qui inclut le &quot;Uniform Resource Locator&quot; (URL)), le &quot;Digital Object Identifier&quot;(DOI) et le &quot;International Standard Book Number&quot;(ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐŽÐœÐŸÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÐœÐ°Ñ ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐ° ÐœÐ° ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð² Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°Ñ
+ ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐµÐºÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ. ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÑÑ
+ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð£ÐœÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ Ð ÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° (URI), (Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ñ Ð£ÐœÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÑÐ¹ ÐÐŸÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ Ð ÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° URL), ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÐŠÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ° (DOI) Ðž ÐÐµÐ¶ÐŽÑÐœÐ°ÑÐŸÐŽÐœÑÐ¹ Ð¡ÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐœÐžÐ¶ÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐŸÐŒÐµÑ (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Identificador del Recurso</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Secuencia de caracteres usados para identificar unÃ­vocamente un recurso. Ejemplos para recursos en lÃ­nea pueden ser URLs y URNs (cuando estÃ©n implementados). Para otros recursos pueden ser usados otros formatos de identificadores, como por ejemplo ISBN (&quot;International Standard Book Number&quot; - NÃºmero Internacional Normalizado para Libros)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ù
+Ø¬Ù
+ÙØ¹Ø© Ø­Ø±ÙÙØ© Ø£Ù Ø±ÙÙ
+ ÙØ³ØªØ®Ø¯Ù
+ ÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§Ø­Ø¯ÙØ§ : Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ÙØ°Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙØŽØšÙÙØ©ØªØ¶Ù
+ ) URNs, URLs Ø¹ÙØ¯ ØšÙØ§ØŠÙØ§ (    ÙØ°ÙÙ ÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø§Ø¹ØªØšØ§Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹Ø±ÙØ§Øª Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ§Ø­Ø§Ø¯ÙØ© Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø§ÙØ±ÙÙ
+ Ø§ÙØ¯ÙÙÙ ÙØªØµÙÙÙ Ø§ÙÙØ§ØªØš (ISBN) Ù
+Ø±ØŽØ­Ø© ÙÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èµæºæ è¯ç¬Š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">åšç¹å®çèåŽå
+ç»äºèµæºçäžäžªæç¡®çæ è¯ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å»ºè®®å¯¹èµæºçæ è¯éçšç¬Šåæäžæ­£åŒæ è¯äœç³»çå­ç¬Šäž²åæ°å­ç»åãäŸåŠæ­£åŒçæ è¯äœç³»å
+æ¬ç»äžèµ    æºæ è¯ç¬Š(URI) (å
+æ¬åäžèµæºå®äœç¬ŠURL)ãæ°å­å¯¹è±¡æ è¯ç¬Š(DOI)ååœé
+æ åä¹Šå·(ISBN)ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">IdentifikÃ¡tor zdroje</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">JednoznaÄnÃœ odkaz na zdroj v rÃ¡mci danÃ©ho kontextu.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄuje se identifikovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯. PÅÃ­klady formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯ zahrnujÃ­ Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (vÄetnÄ Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), Digital Object Identifier (DOI) a MezinÃ¡rodnÃ­ standardnÃ­ ÄÃ­slo knihy (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bestandsidentificatie</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een unieke string of nummer ter identificatie van de Internetbron. Voorbeelden zijn URL&apos;s of URN&apos;s Andere voorbeelden zijn International Standard Book Number (ISBN) of International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Identificator del ressource</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia inambigue al ressource intra un date contexto.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Se recommenda identificar le ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o numero conforme a un systema formal de identification. Exemplos de systemas formal de identification include le Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (includente le Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), le Digital Object Identifier (DOI) e le International Standard Book Number (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€à€³à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€à€ à€
+à€°à¥à€¥à¥ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ, à€µà€¿à€¶à€¿à€·à¥à€  à€žà¥à€¥à€³,  à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€à€à€€à€°à€°à€Ÿà€·à¥à€à¥à€°à¥à€¯  à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à¥à€°à€®à€Ÿà€à€,  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€à€³à€ à€ªà€à€µà€¿à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€à€à€à€°à€šà¥à€ à€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Source">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Source</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A Reference to a resource from which the present resource is derived.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">The present resource may be derived from the Source resource in whole or in part.  Recommended best practice is to reference the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Matapuna</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro ki tetahi rauemi koira te matapuna o te rauemi e tirohia ana.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Tera pea i puta te katoa, tetahi wahanga ranei o te rauemi, e tirohia ana, mai i te Matapuna rauemi. Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua ko te tohutoro ki te rauemi ma te aho, ma te tau ranei e hangai ana ki tetahi punaha taututanga okawa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Source</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une ressource Ã  partir de laquelle la ressource actuelle a Ã©tÃ© dÃ©rivÃ©e.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">La ressource actuelle peut avoir Ã©tÃ© dÃ©rivÃ©e d&apos;une autre ressource source, en totalitÃ© ou en partie. Il est recommandÃ© de refÃ©rencer cette source par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšre ou un nombre conforme Ã  un systÃšme formel d&apos;identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐœÐžÐº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¡ÑÑÐ»ÐºÐ° ÐœÐ° ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ, ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœ ÐœÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœ ÐžÐ· ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐœÐžÐºÐ° ÑÐµÐ»ÐžÐºÐŸÐŒ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÑÐœÐŸ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Fuente</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Secuencia de caracteres utilizado para identificar unÃ­vocamente un trabajo a partir del cual proviene el recurso actual. Por ejemplo, es posible usar Source con la fecha de 1603 como descripciÃ³n de una pelÃ­cula basada en una obra de Shakespeare, pero es preferible, en ese caso, usar Relation &quot;IsBasedOn&quot; con una referencia a un recurso distinto cuya descripciÃ³n contenga el elemento Date con valor 1603.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø«Ø§ÙÙ Ù Ø§ÙØ°Ù Ø§Ø³ØªÙ
+Ø¯ Ù
+ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ. Ù
+Ø¹ Ø£ÙÙ Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØµÙ ØšÙ Ø£Ù ØªÙØ¯Ù
+ Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§Ù
+Ù    Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø¹Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙØ· , ÙÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø£Ù ÙØ­ÙÙ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®, Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØŽØŠ , Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© , Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹Ø±Ù , Ø§Ù Ø§ÙØ© Ù
+ÙØ© - Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§Ø®Ø±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ÙÙ Ø¹ÙØ¯Ù
+Ø§ ØªØ¹ØªØšØ± Ù
+ÙÙ
+Ø© ÙØ§ÙØªØŽØ§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ , Ù ÙØ°Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙØµÙ Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙØªØ·ØšÙÙÙÙ Ø§Ø­Ø³Ù     Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹Ø§Ø±Ù Ø¹ÙÙÙ ØšØ§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æ¥æº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ç°æèµæºæ¥æºçåç
+§ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åœåèµæºå¯èœéšåæå
+šéšæºèªè¯¥å
+çŽ ææ è¯çèµæºïŒå»ºè®®å¯¹è¿äžèµæºçæ è¯éçšäžäžªç¬Šåæ­£åŒæ è¯ç³»    ç»çå­äž²åæ°å­ç»å ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Zdroj</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Odkaz na zdroj, z nÄhoÅŸ je popisovanÃœ zdroj odvozen.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PopisovanÃœ zdroj mÅ¯ÅŸe bÃœt zcela nebo zÄÃ¡sti odvozen ze zdroje uvedenÃ©ho v prvku Zdroj. DoporuÄuje se odkazovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bron</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Informatie over een tweede bron waar de huidige Internetbron is van afgeleid. Bij &quot;Source&quot; mag een datum, auteur of maker, formaat, identificatie of andere metadata voor de tweede bron worden ingevuld. Voorbeeld: het is mogelijk om een &quot;Source&quot; datum 1603 in een omschrijving van een 1996 film bewerking van een Shakespeare stuk te gebruiken. &quot;Source&quot; is niet bruikbaar wanneer de huidige bron de orginele is.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Fonte</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia a un ressource del qual se deriva le ressource presente.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le ressource presente pote derivar se del ressource-fonte in toto o in parte. Le practica recommendate es facer referentia al ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o un numero conforme a un systema formal de identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€à€à€®</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿ à€à€à€® à€žà€Ÿà€à€à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€à€à€
+à€°à¥à€¥à¥ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€, à€®à€Ÿà€žà€¿à€,  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿà€¯à€Ÿà€à€à€Ÿ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Language">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Language</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A language of the intellectual content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Recommended best practice for the values of the Language element is defined by RFC 1766 which includes a two-letter Language Code (taken from the ISO 639 standard, followed optionally, by a two-letter Country Code (taken from the ISO 3166 standard). For example, &apos;en&apos; for English, &apos;fr&apos; for French, or &apos;en-uk&apos; for English used in the United Kingdom.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Reo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te reo o te whakakaupapatanga o nga matauranga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua mo nga uara o te huanga Reo kua whakaritea ki te RFC 1766 [RFC1766] kei roto te Tohu Reo kupu-rua (two-letter Language Code) (no te aro whanui ISO 639 [ISO639], ka taea e tetahi tohu kupu-rua te whai atu (no te aro whanui ISO 3166) [ISO366]). Hei tauira, te &apos;en&apos; mo te English, te &apos;fr&apos; mo te French, &apos;te en-uk&apos; mo te English e whakamahia ana i Ingarangi (UK).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Langue</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La langue du contenu intellectuel de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© d&apos;utiliser comme valeur de l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Langue celles definies par la RFC 1766 [RFC1766] qui comprend un code de langage Ã  deux caractÃšres(venant du standard ISO 639 [ISO639]), Ã©ventuellement suivi d&apos;un code Ã  deux lettres pour le pays (venant du standard ISO 3166 [ISO3166] ou en franÃ§ais [ISO3166]). Par exemple, &apos;en&apos; pour l&apos;anglais, &apos;fr&apos; pour le franÃ§ais, ou &apos;en-uk&apos; pour l&apos;anglais utilisÃ© au Royaume-Uni.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº ÐžÐœÑÐµÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐµ RFC 1766 (Ð¢ÑÐ³Ðž ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ°), Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÐŒ ÐŽÐ²ÑÑ
+Ð±ÑÐºÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐŽ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ° (Ð²Ð·ÑÑÑÐ¹ ÐžÐ· ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐ° ISO 639 (ÐÐŸÐŽÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐŸÐ²)), Ð·Ð° ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÑÐµÑ (Ð¿ÑÐž ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÑÑÐž) ÐŽÐ²ÑÑ
+Ð±ÑÐºÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐŽ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÑ (Ð²Ð·ÑÑÑÐŒÐž ÐžÐ· ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐ° ISO 3166 (ÐÐŸÐŽÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°Ðœ)). ÐÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, &quot;en&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð°ÐœÐ³Ð»ÐžÐ¹ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, &quot;fr&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÑÐ°ÐœÑÑÐ·ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, &quot;en-uk&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð°ÐœÐ³Ð»ÐžÐ¹ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð² ÐÐµÐ»ÐžÐºÐŸÐ±ÑÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐž.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Lengua</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Lengua/s del contenido intelectual del recurso. Practicamente el contenido de este campo deberÃ­a coincidir con los de la RFC 1766 (Tags para la identificaciÃ³n de lenguas, http://ds.internic.net/rfc/rfc1766.txt); por ejemplo: en, es, de, fi, ja y zh.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØºØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ù ÙÙ ÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . ÙÙÙ
+Ø§ ÙØ§Ù  Ø¹Ù
+ÙÙØ§ , Ù
+Ø­ØªÙÙ ÙØžØ§ Ø§ÙØ­ÙÙ ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØªØ·Ø§ØšÙ Ù
+Ø¹ RFC 1766    ] Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ØªØ¶Ù
+ th, ja, fr, es, fi, de, en Ù zh ÙØ±Ù
+ÙØ² ÙÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ ØšØ§ÙÙØºØ© [</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">è¯­ç§</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æè¿°èµæºç¥è¯å
+å®¹çè¯­ç§ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å»ºè®®æ¬å
+çŽ çåŒéçšRFC 3066[RFC3066]ïŒè¯¥æ åäžISO 639 [ISO639]äžèµ·å®ä¹äºç±äž€äžªåäžäžªè±    æå­æ¯ç»æçäž»è¯­èšæ ç­Ÿåå­æ ç­ŸäŸåŠå
+æ¬âenâæâengâæ¥è¡šç€ºEnglish, &quot;akk&quot; æ¥è¡šç€º    &quot;en-GB&quot;è¡šç€ºè±åœè±è¯­ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Jazyk</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Jazyk intelektuÃ¡lnÃ­ho obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄenÃœ postup pro hodnoty prvku Jazyk je definovÃ¡n v RFC 1766 [RFC1766]: dvouznakovÃœ kÃ³d jazyka (pÅevzatÃœ z normy ISO 639 [ISO639]) volitelnÄ nÃ¡sledovanÃœ dvouznakovÃœm kÃ³dem zemÄ (pÅevzatÃœm z normy ISO 3166 [ISO3166]). NapÅÃ­klad &apos;en&apos; pro angliÄtinu, &apos;fr&apos; pro francouzÅ¡tinu, &apos;cs&apos; pro ÄeÅ¡tinu, nebo &apos;en-uk&apos; pro angliÄtinu uÅŸÃ­vanou ve SpojenÃ©m krÃ¡lovstvÃ­.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Taal</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De taal waarin het document is beschreven. Voorgeschreven wordt de ISO639-1 norm, een twee karakter taalcode van de ISO 639(639-1 en 639-2) norm. Taalcodes kunnen van een lijst worden gekozen: http://www.ics.uci.edu/pub/ietf/http/related/iso639.txt, Eventueel kan ISO3166 (landencodes) gebruikt worden om aan te geven in welk gebied de taal wordt gesproken. Deze kunnen ook van een lijst worden gekozen:  http://www.ics.uci.edu/pub/ietf/http/related/iso3166.txt.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Lingua</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le lingua del contento intellectual del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le practica recommendate pro le valores del elemento lingua es definite per RFC 1766 [RFC1766], que include un codice de lingua de duo litteras (prendite del standard ISO 639 [ISO639]), sequite optionalmente per un codice de pais de duo litteras (prendite del standard ISO 3166 [ISO3166]). Per exemplo, &apos;ia&apos; pro interlingua, &apos;fr&apos; pro francese, o &apos;en-uk&apos; pro le anglese del Regno Unite.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€®à€°à€Ÿà€ à¥ - à€­à€Ÿà€°à€€à¥à€¯ à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Relation">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A reference to a related resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Recommended best practice is to reference the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Whai Panga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro ki tetahi rauemi whai panga.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tohutoro ki te rauemi ma te aho, te tau ranei, e hangai ana ki te punaha taututanga okawa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une autre ressource qui a un rapport avec cette ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© de rÃ©fÃ©rencer cette ressource par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšres ou un numÃ©ro conforme Ã  un systÃšme formel d&apos;identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÐœÐŸÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">RelaciÃ³n</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un identificador de un segundo recurso y su relaciÃ³n con el recurso actual. Este elemento permite enlazar los recursos relacionados y las descripciones de los recursos. Por ejemplo: IsVersionOf - Incluye la ediciÃ³n de un trabajo, IsBasedOn - La traducciÃ³n de un trabajo, IsPartOf - Un capÃ­tulo de un libro, IsFormatOf - Un mecanismo de transformaciÃ³n de un conjunto de datos en una imagen. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, las relaciones deberÃ­an ser seleccionadas de una lista de elementos que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ø§ Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ÙÙ Ù Ø¹ÙØ§ÙØªÙ ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ . ÙØ³Ù
+Ø­ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù ØšØªÙØ¶ÙØ­ Ø§ÙØ±ÙØ§ØšØ· ØšÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹ÙÙØ©     ØšØšØ¹Ø¶ÙØ§ Ù ØªÙØµÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ØªØ¶Ù
+ Ø·ØšØ¹Ø© Ø§ÙØ¹Ù
+Ù ) ÙØ³Ø®Ø© Ù
+Ù ( ØªØ±Ø¬Ù
+Ø© Ø¹Ù
+Ù ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ ( ÙØµÙ Ù
+Ù ÙØªØ§Øš ) Ø¬Ø²Ø¡ Ù
+Ù (    Ù ØªØ­ÙÙÙÙ Ù
+ÙÙØ§ÙÙÙÙØ© ÙÙ
+Ø¬Ù
+ÙØ¹Ø© Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§ØªÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ ØµÙØ±Ø© ) ØµÙØºØ© Ù
+Ù ( Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù , ÙØ¬Øš Ø§Ø®ØªÙØ§Ø± Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ§Øª Ù
+Ù    Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙØªÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§ Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">å
+³è</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æ¶åççžå
+³èµæºã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èåœçžå
+³èµæºæ¶ïŒå»ºè®®äœ¿çšç¬Šåæ­£åŒæ è¯ç³»ç»çå­ç¬Šäž²æè
+æ°å­ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Vztah</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Odkaz na pÅÃ­buznÃœ zdroj.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄuje se odkazovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Relatie</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een identificatie van een tweede bron en de relatie met de huide Internetbron. Voorbeelden zijn een editie van een werk (IsVersionOf), een vertaling van een werk (IsBasedOn), een hoofdstuk van een boek (IsPartOf) en een mechanische transformatie van een dataset in een plaatje (IsFormatOf). De DC Working Groups zijn bezig met een lijst met de meest verwachte relaties. Aanbevolen wordt om de relaties van deze lijst te gebruiken: http://purl.oclc.org/metadata/dublin_core/wrelationdraft.html.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="definition">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia a un ressource correlate.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le practica recommendate es facer referentia al ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o numero conforme a un systema de identification formal.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€šà€Ÿà€€à¥ , à€žà€à€¬à€à€§</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¶à¥ à€žà€à€¬à€à€§ à€Šà€Ÿà€à€µà€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ(URL)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Coverage">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Coverage</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The extent or scope of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Coverage will typically include spatial location (a place name or geographic coordinates), temporal period (a period label, date, or date range) or jurisdiction (such as a named administrative entity). Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the Thesaurus of Geographic Names [TGN]) and that, where appropriate, named places or time periods be used in preference to numeric identifiers such as sets of coordinates or date ranges.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kapitanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te roanga, te whanuitanga ranei o te whakakaupapatanga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka uru atu te wahi mokowa (te ingoa o tetahi wahi, whakapiritanga matawhenua ranei), whakaritenga wa (he tapatanga wa (period label, ra, whakatakotoranga whanui o nga ra), te whakaritenga ture (penei i te putahi whakahaere). Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tipako uara mai i tetahi whakaritenga kupu (hei tauira, i tetahi Puna Kupu Ingoa Matawhenua (Geographic Names [TGN] i nga wahi tika, ko nga wahi me nga whakaritenga wa ka whakamahia i mua i te whakamahitanga o nga taututanga tau penei i nga huinga whakapiritanga me nga whakatakotoranga whanui o nga ra.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Couverture</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La portÃ©e ou la couverture spatio-temporelle de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">La couverture typiquement inclut une position gÃ©ographique (le nom d&apos;un lieu ou ses coordonnÃ©es), une pÃ©riode de temps (un nom de pÃ©riode, une date, ou un intervalle de temps) ou une juridiction (telle que le nom d&apos;une entitÃ© administrative). Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la  valeur de Couverture dans un vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ© (par exemple, un thÃ©saurus de noms gÃ©ographiques, comme[TGN]) et, quand cela est appropriÃ©, des noms de lieux ou de pÃ©riodes plutÃŽt que des identifiants numÃ©riques tels que des coordonnÃ©es ou des intervalles de dates. </Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑ
+Ð²Ð°Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÑÐŸÑÑÐ¶ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÑ Ðž Ð³ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑ
+Ð²Ð°Ñ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐºÐœÐŸÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐ¶ÐŽÐµÐœÐžÐµ (ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸÑÑÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð³ÐµÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÐµ ÐºÐŸÐŸÑÐŽÐžÐœÐ°ÑÑ), Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŒÐµÐ¶ÑÑÐŸÐº (ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÐµÑÐžÐŸÐŽÐ°, ÐŽÐ°ÑÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐŽ ÐŽÐ°Ñ) ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐžÑÐŽÐžÐºÑÐžÑ (ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐµÐŽÐžÐœÐžÑÑ Ð°ÐŽÐŒÐžÐœÐžÑÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐ²ÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ). ÐÐ° Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÐºÐµ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, Ð¢ÐµÐ·Ð°ÑÑÑÑÐ° Ð³ÐµÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÑ
+ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ TGN), Ðž, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐŸ ÑÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸ, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸÑÐŽÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÑÐŒ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸÑÑÐµÐ¹ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŒÐµÐ¶ÑÑÐºÐŸÐ² Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸ ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ², ÐºÐ°Ðº, ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒ ÐºÐŸÐŸÑÐŽÐžÐœÐ°Ñ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÑÐŽÐŸÐ².</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Cobertura</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La caracterÃ­stica de cobertura espacial y/o temporal del contenido intelectual del recurso. La cobertura espacial se refiere a una regiÃ³n fÃ­sica (por ejemplo, sector celestial); uso de coordenadas (por ejemplo, longitud y latitud) o nombres de lugares extraidos de una lista controlada. La cobertura temporal se refiere al contenido del recurso en vez de a cuando fue creado o puesto accesible ya que este Ãºltimo pertenece al elemento Date. Se usa el mismo formato basado en http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØ®ØµØ§ØŠØµ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§ÙÙØ© Ø§Ù Ø§ÙØ²Ù
+ÙÙØ© ÙÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§ÙÙØ© ØªØŽÙØ± Ø§ÙÙ Ø¬ÙØ© Ø·ØšÙØ¹ÙØ© )Ù
+Ø«Ù , ÙØ·Ø§Ø¹ Ø³Ù
+Ø§ÙÙ (    Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ø§ÙØ§Ø­Ø¯Ø§Ø«ÙØ§Øª ) Ù
+Ø«Ù  Ø®Ø· Ø§ÙØ·ÙÙ Ù Ø®Ø· Ø§ÙØ¹Ø±Ø¶ ( ÙÙ Ø£Ø³Ù
+Ø§Ø¡ Ø§Ù
+ÙÙØ© Ù
+Ø³ØªØ­ÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªØ¬ÙØ§Øª ØšØ§ÙÙØ§Ù
+Ù . Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ²Ù
+ÙÙØ©    Ø«Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙÙ Ù
+Ø§ ÙØ±Ø¬Ø¹ Ø§ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ù ÙÙØ³ Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªÙ ØªÙ
+ ØªÙÙÙØ±Ù ) Ø§ÙØ§Ø®ÙØ± ÙØªØ¹ÙÙ ØšØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® ( Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ ÙÙØ³ ØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®  Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª    ) Ø¹Ø§Ø¯Ø© Ù
+Ø¯Ù ] ( ØµÙØ§ØºØ§Øª Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ (ISO 8601 Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§Ø­ØžØ© Ø§ÙÙÙÙØ© [http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime, W3C    ÙÙ
+Ø§ ÙÙ Ù
+ÙØµÙ ØšÙ ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§Ù ÙØªØ±Ø§Øª Ø²Ù
+ÙÙØ© Ù
+Ù ÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ù
+Ø³ØªØ­ÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªØ¬ÙØ§Øª ØšØ§ÙÙØ§Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èŠçèåŽ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹ææ¶åçå€å»¶äžèŠçèåŽ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èŠçèåŽäžè¬å
+æ¬ç©ºéŽäœçœ®ïŒäžäžªå°åæå°çåæ ïŒãæ¶éŽåºéŽïŒäžäžªæ¶éŽæ è¯ïŒæ¥ææäžäžªæ¥æè    åŽïŒãæè
+æéïŒæ¯åŠåœåçææå®äœïŒæšèèŠçèåŽæå¥œæ¯åèªäºäžäžªåæ§è¯è¡šïŒäŸåŠå°åè¯åº    [TGN]ïŒïŒå¹¶åºå°œå¯èœå°äœ¿çšç±æ°å­è¡šç€ºçåæ ææ¥æåºéŽæ¥æè¿°å°åäžæ¶éŽæ®µã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PokrytÃ­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Rozsah nebo zÃ¡bÄr obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PokrytÃ­ bude typicky obsahovat prostorovÃ© umÃ­stÄnÃ­ (jmÃ©no mÃ­sta nebo zemÄpisnÃ© souÅadnice), ÄasovÃ© obdobÃ­ (oznaÄenÃ­ obdobÃ­, datum nebo ÄasovÃœ interval) nebo jurisdikci (napÅ. jmÃ©no administrativnÃ­ jednotky). DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. Thesaurus of Geographic Names [TGN]) a tam, kde je to vhodnÃ©, uvÃ¡dÄt mÃ­sta nebo ÄasovÃ© Ãºseky spÃ­Å¡e jmÃ©nem neÅŸ ÄÃ­selnÃœmi identifikÃ¡tory jako jsou soubory souÅadnic nebo ÄasovÃ© intervaly.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Dekking</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De ruimtelijke of tijdelijke karakteristieken van de intellectuele inhoud van de Internetbron. Ruimtelijke dekking verwijst naar een geografisch gebied. Gebruik coordinaten (longitude (lengtegraad) en latitude (breedtegraad)) of plaatsnamen die van een gecontroleerde lijst komen of volledig uitgeschreven zijn. Dekking in de tijd geeft de tijdsperiode aan waarop de inhoud van de Internetbron betrekking heeft en niet wanneer de Internetbron is gemaakt of beschikbaar is gesteld (dit laatste hoort ingevult te worden bij &quot;Date&quot;). Gebruik dezelfde datum/tijd formaat als bij &quot;Date&quot;; W3C Technical Note http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime of tijdsperioden die van een gecontroleerde lijst komen of volledig uitgeschreven zijn. Coverage is in ontwikkeling bij de Dublin Core Working group http://www.alexandria.ucsb.edu/docs/metadata/dc_coverage.html.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Copertura</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le extension physic o abstracte del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le copertura typicamente include un location spatial (un nomine de localitate o coordinatas geographic), un periodo de tempore (un etiquetta de periodo, data, o gamma de datas), o un jurisdiction (tal como un entitate administrative nominate). Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le Thesaurus of Geographical Names [TGN]) e que, quando appropriate, localitates o periodos de tempore nominate sia utilizate in preferentia a identificatores numeric tales como collectiones de coordinatas o gammas de datas.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€­à¥à€à¥à€²à€¿à€  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€­à¥à€à¥à€²à€¿à€ à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Rights">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Rights Management</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information about rights held in and over the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Rights element will contain a rights management statement for the resource, or reference a service providing such information. Rights information often encompasses Intellectual Property Rights (IPR), Copyright, and various Property Rights. If the Rights element is absent, no assumptions can be made about the status of these and other rights with respect to the resource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Motika</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ko nga mohiohio ki nga motika o tetahi rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, kei te huanga Motika e pupuri ana he korero mo te whakaritenga motika mo te rauemi, he ratonga tohutoro e whakarato ana ranei i enei tumomo mohiohio. He nui nga wa, puta ai i roto i te mohiohio Motika te Mana Whakairo Hinegaro (Intellectual Property Rights - (IPR)), te Manatarua me nga Tuahua Mana Taonga (Property Rights). Ki te kore te huanga Motika, kaore e taea te pohehe noa ki te mana o enei, nga motika ranei e pa ana ki te rauemi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Droits</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information sur les droits sur et au sujet de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, un Ã©lÃ©ment Droits contiendra un Ã©tat du droit Ã  gÃ©rer une ressource, ou la refÃ©rence Ã  un service fournissant cette information. Ces droits souvent couvrent les droits de propriÃ©tÃ© intellectuelle (IPR), Copyright, et divers droits de propriÃ©tÃ©. Si l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Droits est absent, aucune hypothÃšse ne peut Ãªtre faite sur l&apos;Ã©tat de ces droits, ou de tout autre, par rapport Ã  la ressource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐµ ÑÐµÐ³ÑÐ»ÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐ°ÑÑÑ Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐž Ðž Ð²ÐœÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð° ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐœÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ
+, ÑÐµÐ³ÑÐ»ÐžÑÑÑÑÐžÑ
+ ÑÑÐœÐºÑÐžÐŸÐœÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÑ ÐœÐ° ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐŸÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÑÑÑ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ. ÐÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²Ð°Ñ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐ²ÐµÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŸ ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+ ÐžÐœÑÐµÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÐž, ÐÐ²ÑÐŸÑÑÐºÐŸÐŒ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ðµ Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ ÐÐŒÑÑÐµÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+. ÐÑÑÑÑÑÑÐ²ÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð° ÐœÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ°ÐºÐžÑ
+-Ð»ÐžÐ±ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÑÐµ Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+, ÐºÐ°ÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÑ
+ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Derechos</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una referencia (URL, por ejemplo) para una nota sobre derechos de autor, para un servicio de gestiÃ³n de derechos o para un servicio que darÃ¡ informaciÃ³n sobre tÃ©rminos y condiciones de acceso a un recurso. Una especificaciÃ³n formal del elemento Rights se encuentra catualmente en discusiÃ³n y por lo tanto su uso se considera experimental.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø© Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© , Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ù
+Ø±ØªØšØ· ØšØ§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø© Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© , Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ù
+Ø±ØªØšØ· ØšØ®Ø¯Ù
+Ø© ØªÙØ¯Ù
+ Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø¹Ù Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æé</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æå
+³èµæºæ¬èº«ææçæè¢«èµäºçæéä¿¡æ¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæéå
+çŽ åºå
+æ¬äžäžªå¯¹èµæºçæéå£°æïŒæè
+æ¯å¯¹æäŸè¿äžä¿¡æ¯çæå¡çåç
+§ãæéäžè¬    å
+æ¬ç¥è¯äº§æ(IPR)ïŒçææå
+¶ä»åç§åæ ·çäº§æãåŠææ²¡ææéå
+çŽ çæ æ³šïŒäžå¯ä»¥å¯¹äžèµæºçžå
+³    çäžè¿°æå
+¶ä»æå©çæ
+åµäœåºä»»äœåå®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PrÃ¡va</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Informace o prÃ¡vech vztahujÃ­cÃ­ch se k popisovanÃ©mu zdroji.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Prvek PrÃ¡va bude typicky obsahovat ustanovenÃ­ o sprÃ¡vÄ autorskÃœch/vlastnickÃœch prÃ¡v ke zdroji nebo odkaz na sluÅŸbu poskytujÃ­cÃ­ takovÃ©to informace. Informace o prÃ¡vech Äasto zahrnujÃ­ prÃ¡va duÅ¡evnÃ­ho vlastnictvÃ­ (IPR), autorskÃ© prÃ¡vo a rÅ¯znÃ¡ vlastnickÃ¡ prÃ¡va. JestliÅŸe prvek PrÃ¡va chybÃ­, nelze odvozovat ÅŸÃ¡dnÃ© pÅedpoklady o stavu tÄchto a jinÃœch prÃ¡v vztahujÃ­cÃ­ch se k popisovanÃ©mu zdroji.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Copyright</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een copyright verklaring of een link naar een copyright verklaring of een link naar een service die informatie geeft over de copyright van de Internetbron.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Gestion de derectos</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information super derectos detenite super e a proposito del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le elemento derectos continera un declaration de gestion de derectos pro le ressource, o un referentia a un servicio que provide tal information. Information de derectos frequentemente involve derectos de proprietate intellectual (IPR), copyright e varie derectos de proprietate. Si le elemento Derectos es absente, necun hypothese pote esser facite quanto al stato de iste e altere derectos concernente ressource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€¬à¥à€§à¥à€Šà€¿à€ à€žà€à€ªà€Šà¥à€à€Ÿà€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€žà¥à€µà€€à€à€¹à€Ÿà€à¥ à€²à¥à€à€š à€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€š à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€° à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€¿à€€ à€à€°à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€²à¥à€à€ à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€²à¥à€à€¿à€à¥à€à€Ÿ à€¬à¥à€§à¥à€Šà€¿à€ à€žà€à€ªà€Šà¥à€à€Ÿà€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/marc-e/metadata/ex.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/marc-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/marc-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet SYSTEM "http://www.greenstone.org/dtd/MetadataSet/1.0/MetadataSet.dtd">
+<MetadataSet contact="nzdl.org" creator="New Zealand Digital Libraries Project: Greenstone" family="Extracted Greenstone" lastchanged="Tue Sep 05 14:40:36 NZST 2006 - kjdon on kanuka" namespace="ex">
+    <Name language="en">Extracted Greenstone Metadata 1.0</Name>
+    <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.0 of the automatically extracted Greenstone Metadata Element Set.</Description>
+    <Element name="Encoding">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Not always available.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The encoding of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="label">Encoding</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Language">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Not always available.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The language of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="label">Language</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Source">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Hidden in the Librarian Interface as it already shown by the various file trees.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The filename of the document imported by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="label">Source</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Title">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Not always available.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The title of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="label">Title</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/marc-e/metadata/profile.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/marc-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/marc-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE Profiles [
+<!ELEMENT Profiles (Action*)>
+<!ELEMENT Action (#PCDATA)>
+<!ATTLIST Action
+                source     CDATA #REQUIRED
+                target     CDATA "">
+]>
+<Profiles/>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/etc/collect.cfg
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,645 @@
+creator		greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+public		true
+
+
+acquire OAI -src rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl -getdoc
+
+indexes		document:dc.Description
+
+plugin		OAIPlugin -input_encoding iso_8859_1 -default_language en -document_field dc.Identifier
+plugin		ImagePlugin -screenviewsize 300 -OIDtype assigned -OIDmetadata dc.Title
+plugin		GreenstoneXMLPlugin
+plugin		MetadataXMLPlugin
+plugin		ArchivesInfPlugin
+plugin		DirectoryPlugin
+
+classify	AZCompactList -metadata dc.Subject -doclevel top 
+classify	AZCompactList -mincompact 5 -maxcompact 10 -metadata dc.Description -mingroup 10 -buttonname Captions -minnesting 7 
+
+format VList "<td>[link][thumbicon][/link]</td>
+<td valign=middle><i>[dc.Description]</i></td>"
+
+format CL1VList "<td>{If}{[numleafdocs],[link][icon][/link],[link][thumbicon][/link]}</td><td valign=middle>{If}{[numleafdocs],[Title],<i>[dc.Description]</i>}</td>"
+
+format CL2VList "<td>{If}{[numleafdocs],[link][icon][/link],[link][thumbicon][/link]}</td><td valign=middle>{If}{[numleafdocs],[Title],<i>[dc.Description]</i>}</td>"
+
+format DocumentHeading "<h3>[dc.Subject]</h3>"
+
+format DocumentText "<center><table width=_pagewidth_ border=1>
+<tr><td colspan=2 align=center>
+<a href=[dc.OrigURL]>[screenicon]</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>_Caption_:</td><td> <i>[dc.Description]</i> <br>
+(<a href=[dc.OrigURL]>_original_ [ImageWidth]x[ImageHeight] [ImageType] _available_</a>)
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td>_Subject_:</td><td> [dc.Subject]</td></tr>
+<tr><td>_Publisher_:</td><td> [dc.Publisher]</td></tr>
+<tr><td>_Rights_:<td> [dc.Rights]</td></tr>
+</table></center>"
+
+collectionmeta sampleoid "01dle6"
+
+# -- English strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=en] "OAI demo"
+
+collectionmeta	.document:dc.Description [l=en] "photo captions"
+
+collectionmeta	Caption [l=en] "Caption"
+collectionmeta	Subject [l=en] "Subject"
+collectionmeta	Publisher [l=en] "Publisher"
+collectionmeta	Rights [l=en] "Rights"
+collectionmeta	original [l=en] "original"
+collectionmeta	available [l=en] "available"
+
+
+# -- French strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=fr] "DÃ©mo OAI"
+
+collectionmeta	.document:Description [l=fr] "LÃ©gendes de photos"
+
+collectionmeta	Caption [l=fr] "LÃ©gende"
+collectionmeta	Subject [l=fr] "Sujet"
+collectionmeta	Publisher [l=fr] "Editeur"
+collectionmeta	Rights [l=fr] "Droits"
+collectionmeta	original [l=fr] "original"
+collectionmeta	available [l=fr] "disponible"
+
+
+# -- Spanish strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=es] "ColecciÃ³n de muestra OAI"
+
+collectionmeta	.document:Description [l=es] "leyendas de la foto"
+
+collectionmeta	Caption [l=es] "TÃ­tulo de la ilustraciÃ³n"
+collectionmeta	Subject [l=es] "Asunto"
+collectionmeta	Publisher [l=es] "Editorial"
+collectionmeta	Rights [l=es] "Derecho de autor"
+collectionmeta	original [l=es] "original"
+collectionmeta	available [l=es] "disponible"
+
+
+# -- Russian strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=ru] "ÐÐµÐŒÐŸÐœÑÑÑÐ°ÑÐž-ÐŸÐœÐœÐ°Ñ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ OAI"
+
+collectionmeta	.document:Description [l=ru] "ÐÐ°Ð³ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ²ÐºÐž ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÐ¹"
+
+collectionmeta	Caption [l=ru] "ÐÐ°Ð³ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐº (ÐÐ°ÐŽÐ¿ÐžÑÑ)"
+collectionmeta	Subject [l=ru] "ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ"
+collectionmeta	Publisher [l=ru] "ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ"
+collectionmeta	Rights [l=ru] "ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð°"
+collectionmeta	original [l=ru] "ÐÑÐžÐ³ÐžÐœÐ°Ð»"
+collectionmeta	available [l=ru] "ÐÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÑÐ¹"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=zh] "OAIæŒç€ºéŠè"
+
+collectionmeta	.document:dc.Description [l=zh] "ç
+§çæ é¢"
+
+collectionmeta	Caption [l=zh] "æ é¢"
+collectionmeta	Subject [l=zh] "äž»é¢"
+collectionmeta	Publisher [l=zh] "åºçå"
+collectionmeta	Rights [l=zh] "çæ"
+collectionmeta	original [l=zh] "åå§"
+collectionmeta	available [l=zh] "å¯çš"
+
+
+# -- English text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=en] "This collection demonstrates Greenstone\'s
+<i>ImportFrom</i> feature. Using the <a href=http://www.openarchives.org>Open
+Archive Protocol</a> (version 1.1), it retrieves metadata from
+<a href=http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix>rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix</a>,
+a collection of photographs taken at the inaugural
+<a href=http://www.acm.org/jcdl/jcdl01/>Joint Conference on Digital
+Libraries</a>. A Greenstone collection is built from the records exported
+from this OAI data provider. The implementation is flexible enough to
+cope with the minor syntax differences between OAI 1.1 and OAI 2.0.\n
+
+<h3>How the collection works</h3>\n
+
+<p>
+The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>collection
+configuration file</a> includes an <i>acquire</i> line that is
+interpreted by a special program called <i>importfrom.pl</i>. Like other
+Greenstone programs, this takes as argument the name of the collection, and
+provides a summary of other arguments when invoked with argument <i>-help</i>.
+It reads the collection configuration file, finds the acquire line, and
+processes it. In this case, it is run with the command:\n
+<pre>
+importfrom.pl oai-e
+</pre>\n
+
+<p>
+(the collection\'s name is <i>oai-e</i>).
+The <i>acquire</i> line in the configuration file specifies the OAI protocol
+and gives the base URL of an OAI repository. The <i>importfrom</i> program
+downloads all the metadata in that repository into the collection\'s
+<i>import</i> directory. The <i>getdoc</i> argument instructs it to also
+download the collection\'s source documents, whose URLs are given in each
+document\'s Dublin Core <i>Identifier</i> field (this is a common
+convention). The metadata files, which each contain an XML record for one
+source document, are placed in the <i>import</i> file structure along with the
+documents themselves, and the document filename is the same as the filename in
+the URL. The <i>Identifier</i> field is overridden to give the local filename,
+and its original value is retained in a new field called <i>OrigURL</i>.\n
+
+<p>
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/oai.txt\" target=oai.txt>Here</a>
+is an example of a downloaded metadata file.\n
+
+<p>
+Once the OAI information has been imported, the collection is processed in the
+usual way. Besides the four standard plugins (GreenstoneXMLPlugin, MetadataXMLPlugin, ArchivesInfPlugin and DirectoryPlugin), 
+the configuration file specifies the OAI plugin, which processes OAI
+metadata, and the image plugin, because in this case the collection\'s source
+documents are image files. The OAI plugin has been supplied with an
+<i>input_encoding</i> argument because data in this archive contains extended
+characters. It also has a <i>default_language</i> argument. Greenstone normally
+determines the language of documents automatically, but these metadata records
+are too small for this to be done reliably: hence English is specified
+explicitly in the <i>language</i> argument. The OAI plugin parses the metadata
+and passes it to the appropriate source document file, which is then processed
+by an appropriate plugin -- in this case <i>ImagePlugin</i>. This plugin specifies
+the resolution for the screen versions of the images.\n
+
+<p>
+Extracted metadata from OAI records are mapped to Dublin Core Metadata Set by default.
+As a result, classifiers and indexes in this collection are built with Dublin meatadata elements.
+
+<p>
+The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>collection
+configuration file</a> has a single full-text index containing
+<i>dc.Description</i> metadata. When a document is displayed, the
+<i>DocumentHeading</i> format statement puts out its <i>dc.Subject</i>. Then the
+<i>DocumentText</i> statement follows this with <i>screenicon</i>, which is
+produced by <i>ImagePlugin</i> and gives a screen-resolution version of the
+image; it is hyperlinked to the <i>dc.OrigURL</i> metadata -- that is, the original
+version of the image on the remote OAI site. This is followed by the image\'s
+<i>dc.Description</i>, also with a hyperlink; the image\'s size and type, again
+generated as metadata by <i>ImagePlugin</i>; and then <i>dc.Subject</i>,
+<i>dc.Publisher</i>,
+and <i>dc.Rights</i> metadata.
+<a href=_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&cl=search&d=_sampleoid_>This</a>
+is the result.\n
+
+<p>
+There are two browsing classifiers, one based on <i>dc.Subject</i> metadata and
+the other on <i>dc.Description</i> metadata (but with a button named
+\"captions\"). Recall that the <i>AZCompactList</i> classifier is like
+<i>AZList</i> but generates a bookshelf for duplicate items. In this
+collection there are a lot of images but only a few different values for
+<i>dc.Subject</i> metadata.\n
+
+<p>
+It\'s a little surprising that <i>AZCompactList</i> is used (instead of
+<i>AZList</i>) for the <i>dc.Description</i> index too, because <i>dc.Description</i>
+metadata is usually unique for each image. However, in this collection the same
+description has occasionally been given to several images, and some of the
+divisions in an <i>AZList</i> would contain a large number of images, slowing
+down transmission of that page. To avoid this, the compact version of the list
+is used with some arguments (<i>mincompact</i>, <i>maxcompact</i>,
+<i>mingroup</i>, <i>minnesting</i>) to control the display -- e.g. groups (represented by
+bookshelves) are not formed unless they have at least 5 (<i>mingroup</i>)
+items. To find out the meaning of the other arguments for this classifier,
+execute the command <i>classinfo.pl AZCompactList</i>. The programs
+<i>classinfo.pl</i> (for classifiers) and <i>pluginfo.pl</i> (for plugins) are
+useful tools for learning about the capabilities of Greenstone modules. Note
+incidentally the backslash in the configuration file, used to indicate a
+continuation of the previous line.\n
+
+<p>
+The <i>VList</i> format specification shows the image thumbnail, hyperlinked to
+the associated document, followed by <i>dc.Description</i> metadata; the result
+can be seen <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2\">here</a>. The <i>Vlists</i>
+for the classifiers use <i>numleafdocs</i> to switch between an icon
+representing several documents (which will appear as a bookshelf) and the
+thumbnail itself, if there is only one image.\n
+
+<h3>The Greenstone OAI server</h3>\n
+
+<p>
+Greenstone comes with a built-in OAI data provider. 
+This runs as a CGI program called \"oaiserver.cgi\", and is installed 
+in the Greenstone <i>cgi-bin</i> directory. It can be accessed via the same 
+URL as the Greenstone library (replacing \"library.cgi\" with \"oaiserver.cgi\"). If you 
+are using the Windows local library server, you must install a 
+web server (such as Apache) to run the OAI server.\n
+
+<p>
+Configuration of the server is done via the <i>oai.cfg</i> file in the 
+Greenstone <i>etc</i> directory. This file specifies general information 
+about the repository, and lists collections to be made accessible to OAI 
+clients. By default, collections are not accessible. To enable a 
+collection, add its name to the <i>oaicollection</i> list. Collections built 
+with versions of Greenstone earlier than 2.52 must be rebuilt before 
+they can be served.\n
+
+<p>
+Greenstone's OAI server currently supports Dublin Core, qualified Dublin Core and rfc1807 metadata sets. The <i>oaimetadata</i> line specifies which sets should be used. For collections that use other metadata sets, 
+metadata mapping rules should be provided to map the existing metadata 
+to the sets in use. See the <i>oai.cfg</i> file for details.\n
+"
+
+
+# -- French text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=fr] "
+Cette collection montre la fonctionnalitÃ© <i>ImportFrom</i> de Greenstone. Par le biais de <a href=http://www.openarchives.org>Open Archive Protocol</a> (version 1.1), elle rÃ©cupÃšre des mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es de <a href=\"http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix\">rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix</a>, une collection de photos prise lors de la cÃ©rÃ©monie inaugurale de <a href=\"http://www.acm.org/jcdl/jcdl01/\">Joint Conference on Digital Libraries</a>. Une collection Greenstone est crÃ©Ã©e Ã  partir d'articles exportÃ©s du pourvoyeur de donnÃ©es OAI. L'implÃ©mentation est assez flexible pour s'accomoder des diffÃ©rences nÃ©gligeables de syntaxes entre OAI 1.1 et OAI 2.0.
+
+<h3>Comment fonctionne cette collection ?</h3>
+
+<p>
+Le <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier de configuration de la collection</a> comprend une ligne <i>acquire</i> (acquÃ©rir) qui est interprÃ©tÃ©e par un programme spÃ©cial appelÃ© <i>importfrom.pl</i>. A l'instar des autres programmes Greenstone, celui-ci prend comme argument le nom de la collection et fournit un rÃ©sumÃ© des autres arguments quand ils sont appelÃ©s avec l'argument <i>-help</i>. Il lit le fichier de configuration de la collection, trouve la ligne <i>acquire</i> et en fait le traitement. Dans ce cas, il dÃ©marre avec la commande: 
+
+<pre>
+importfrom.pl oai-e
+</pre>
+
+<p>
+(le nom de la collection est <i>oai-e</i>). La ligne <i>acquire</i> dans le fichier de configuration spÃ©cifie le protocole OAI et donne l'URL de base d'un rÃ©pertoire OAI. Le programme <i>importfrom</i> tÃ©lÃ©charge toutes les mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es de ce entrepÃŽt dans le dossier <i>import</i> de la collection. L'argument <i>getdoc</i>  lui donne les instructions de tÃ©lÃ©charger aussi les documents sources de la collection dont les URL sont donnÃ©es dans le champ Dublin Core <i>Identifier</i> (Identificateur) de chaque document (ceci est une convention gÃ©nÃ©rale). Les fichiers de mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es, dont chacun contient un enregistrement XML pour un document source, sont placÃ©s dans la structure de fichiers <i>import</i> avec les documents eux-mÃªmes, et le nom de fichier du document est le mÃªme que le nom de fichier dans l'URL. Le champ <i>Identifier</i> est Ã©crasÃ© pour donner le nom de fichier local et sa valeur originale est retenue dans le nouveau champ appelÃ© <i>OrigURL</i>. 
+
+<p>
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/oai.txt\" target=oai.txt>Voici</a> un exemple de fichier de mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es tÃ©lÃ©chargÃ©.
+
+<p>
+Une fois que l'information OAI a Ã©tÃ© importÃ©e, la collection est traitÃ©e de faÃ§on usuelle. Le fichier de configuration prÃ©cise le plugin OAI, qui traite la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e OAI et le plugin de l'image, car dans ce cas les documents source de la collection sont des fichiers d'images. En plus des quatre plugiciels de base (GreenstoneXMLPlugin, MetadataXMLPlugin, ArchivesInfPlugin and DirectoryPlugin), le fichier de configuration dÃ©termine le comportement du plugiciel OAI, qui traite les mÃ©tadonnÃ©es OAI, ainsi que celui du plugiciel Image, puisque dans ce cas, les documents sources de la collection sont des fichiers images.  Il a aussi un argument <i>default_language</i>. Normalement,  Greenstone dÃ©termine automatiquement la langue des documents, mais ces enregistrements de mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es sont trÃšs insuffisants pour que ceci soit fait de maniÃšre fiable: dÃšs lors, l'anglais est spÃ©cifiÃ© explicitement dans l'argument <i>language</i>. Le plugin OAI analyse la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e et la transmet au fichier du document source appropriÃ©, qui est ainsi traitÃ© par un plugin appropriÃ© --- dans ce cas-ci par <i>ImagePlugin</i>. Ce plugin spÃ©cifie la rÃ©solution pour les versions Ã©cran des images. 
+
+<p>
+Par dÃ©faut, les mÃ©tadonnÃ©es extraites d'enregistrements OAI sont converties en mÃ©tadonnÃ©es Dublin Core. Par consÃ©quent, les classificateurs et les index de cette collection sont construits Ã  partir des Ã©lÃ©ments de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es Dublin Core.
+
+<p>
+Le <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier de configuration de la collection</a> a un index \"full-text\" unique contenant la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>dc.Description</i>. Quand un document est affichÃ©, la dÃ©claration de format <i>DocumentHeading</i> rÃ©vÃšle son <i>dc.Subject</i> (Sujet). Elle est ensuite suivie de la dÃ©claration <i>DocumentText</i> avec <i>screenicon</i> produit par <i>ImagePlugin</i> et qui donne une version rÃ©solution d'Ã©cran de l'image; elle est liÃ©e Ã  la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>dc.OrigURL</i>, c'est Ã  dire la version originale de 
+l'image sur le site OAI distant. Elle est suivie par <i>dc.Description</i> de l'image, aussi avec un lien; le type et la taille de l'image, gÃ©nÃ©rÃ©s Ã©galement comme mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es par <i>ImagePlugin</i>; et enfin les mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es <i>dc.Subject</i>, <i>dc.Publisher</i> et <i>dc.Rights</i>. <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&cl=search&d=_sampleoid_\">Voici</a> le rÃ©sultat. 
+
+<p>
+Il y a deux classificateurs de navigation, l'un basÃ© sur la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>dc.Subject</i> et l'autre sur la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>dc.Description</i> (mais avec un bouton dÃ©nommÃ© \"lÃ©gends\"). On rappelle que le classificateur <i>AZCompactList</i> est identique Ã  <i>AZList</i> mais produit un rayon pour dupliquer les articles. Cette collection contient plusieurs images mais seulement peu de valeurs diffÃ©rentes pour la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>dc.Subject</i>. 
+
+<p>
+C'est un peu surprenant que <i>AZCompactList</i> soit utilisÃ© (au lieu de <i>AZList</i>) pour l'index <i>dc.Description</i> aussi, car la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>dc.Description</i> est usuellement unique pour chaque image. Cependant, dans cette collection, la mÃªme description a Ã©tÃ© occasionnellement donnÃ©e Ã  plusieurs images, et certaines des divisions dans <i>AZList</i> contiendraient un grand nombre d'images, ralentissant la transmission de cette page. Pour Ã©viter cela, la version compact de la liste est utilisÃ©e avec quelques arguments (<i>mincompact</i>, <i>maxcompact</i>, <i>mingroup</i>, <i>minnesting</i>) pour contrÃŽler l'affichage ' c'est Ã  dire des groupes (reprÃ©sentÃ©s par les rayons de bibliothÃšque) ne sont formÃ©s qu'Ã  condition qu'il aient au moins cinq Ã©lÃ©ments (<i>mingroup</i>). Pour trouver la signification des autres arguments pour ce classificateur, il faut exÃ©cuter la commande <i>classinfo.pl AZCompactList</i>. Les programmes <i>classinfo.pl</i> (pour classificateurs) et <i>pluginfo.pl</i> (pour plugins) sont des outils prÃ©cieux pour connaÃ®tre les capacitÃ©s des modules de Greenstone. Il faut noter que le \"backslash\" (\\\\) dans le fichier de configuration est gÃ©nÃ©ralement utilisÃ© pour indiquer une continuation de la ligne prÃ©cÃ©dente. 
+
+<p>
+La spÃ©cification du format <i>Vlist</i> montre l'onglet de l'image, liÃ© (hyperlien) au document associÃ©, suivi de la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>dc.Description</i>; le rÃ©sultat peut Ãªtre vu <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2\">ici</a>. <i>Vlist</i> pour les classificateurs utilise <i>numleafdocs</i> pour commuter d'une icÃŽne reprÃ©sentant plusieurs documents (ce qui apparaÃ®tra dans le rayon de livres) Ã  l'onglet lui-mÃªme, si une seule image est prÃ©sente.
+
+<h3>Le serveur OAI de Greenstone</h3>
+
+<p>
+Greenstone inclus un fournisseur de donnÃ© de type OAI.
+Il fonctionne par le biais d'un programme CGI nommÃ© \"oaiserver.cgi\" lequel se trouve dans le fichier <i>cgi-bin</i> de Greenstone. On peut y accÃ©der au moyen de la mÃªme URL que la librairie de Greenstone (en remplacant \"library.cgi\" par \"oaiserver.cgi\"). Si vous utilisez le serveur local de librairie de windows, vous devez installer un serveur internet (tel qu'Apache) pour pouvoir utiliser ce serveur OAI.
+
+<p>
+La configuration du serveur est rÃ©alisÃ©e au moyen du fichier <i>oai.cfg</i> se trouvant dans le dossier <i>etc</i> de Greenstone. Ce fichier spÃ©cifie des informations gÃ©nÃ©rales sur le dossier et fait la liste des collections Ã  rendre accessibles aux clients OAI. Par dÃ©faut, les collections ne sont pas accÃ©ssibles.
+Afin de rendre une collection accessible, ajoutez son nom Ã  la liste <i>oaicollection</i>.
+Les collections construites avec des version de Greenstone antÃ©rieures Ã  la version 2.52 doivent Ãªtre recompilÃ©e avant de pouvoir Ãªtre utilisÃ©e par le serveur.
+
+<p>
+A ce jour, le serveur OAI de Greenstone gÃšre les jeux de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es Dublin Core, Dublin Core qualifiÃ©, et rfc1807. La ligne <i>oaimetadata</i> dÃ©finit les jeux de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es Ã  utiliser. Pour les collections utilisant d'autres jeux de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es, des rÃšgles de correspondance des mÃ©tadonnÃ©es peuvent Ãªtre ajoutÃ©es pour faire correspondre les mÃ©tadonnÃ©es existantes avec les jeux disponibles. Voir le fichier <i>oai.cfg</i> pour plus d'informations. \n
+"
+
+
+# -- Spanish text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=es] "
+Esta colecciÃ³n demuestra la funciÃ³n <i>ImportFrom</i> de Greenstone. Por medio del <a href=http://www.openarchives.org>Protocolo de Archivo Abierto</a> (versiÃ³n 1.1) recupera metadatos de <a href=http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix>rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix</a>, una colecciÃ³n de fotografÃ­as tomadas durante la <a href=http://www.acm.org/jcdl/jcdl01/>Conferencia inaugural conjunta de Bibliotecas Digitales</a>. Se creÃ³ una colecciÃ³n Greenstone a partir de los registros exportados por este proveedor de datos OAI. La implementaciÃ³n es lo suficientemente flexible para enfrentar diferencias menores de sintaxis entre OAI 1.1 y OAI 2.0.
+<p>
+
+<h3>CÃ³mo trabaja esta colecciÃ³n</h3>
+
+El <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n de la colecciÃ³n</a> incluye una lÃ­nea <i>acquire</i> (adquirir) que es interpretada por un programa especial llamado <i>importfrom.pl</i>. Al igual que otros programas Greenstone, este toma como argumento el nombre de la colecciÃ³n y proporciona un resumen de otros argumentos cuando se les llama con el argumento <i>-help</i>. El programa lee el archivo de configuraciÃ³n de la colecciÃ³n, busca la lÃ­nea <i>acquire</i> y la procesa. En este caso, se ejecuta por medio del siguiente comando:
+<p>
+
+<pre>
+importfrom.pl oai-e
+</pre>\n
+<p>
+
+(donde el nombre de la colecciÃ³n es oai-e). La lÃ­nea <i>acquire</i> en el archivo de configuraciÃ³n especifica el protocolo OAI y proporciona el URL base de un repositorio OAI. El programa <i>importfrom</i> baja todos los metadatos del repositorio en el directorio <i>importar</i> de la colecciÃ³n. El argumento <i>getdoc</i> lo instruye tambiÃ©n para que baje los documentos fuente de la colecciÃ³n, cuyos URLs estÃ¡n dados en el campo <i>Identificador</i> de Dublin Core de cada documento (Ã©sta es una convenciÃ³n). Los archivos de metadatos, cada uno de los cuales contiene un registro XML para un documento fuente, se colocan en la estructura de archivos <i>importar</i> junto con los documentos mismos y el nombre de archivo del documento es igual al nombre de archivo en el URL. El campo <i>Identificador</i> se sustituye por el nombre de archivo local y su valor original es conservado en un nuevo campo llamado <i>OrigURL</i>.
+<p>
+
+He <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/oai.txt\" target=oai.txt>aquÃ­</a> un ejemplo de un archivo de metadatos bajados del repositorio.
+<p>
+
+Una vez que la informaciÃ³n OAI se ha importado, la colecciÃ³n se procesa de forma normal. AdemÃ¡s de los cuatro plugins estÃ¡ndar (GreenstoneXMLPlugin, MetadataXMLPlugin, ArchivesInfPlugin y DirectoryPlugin), el archivo de configuraciÃ³n especifica al plugin OAI, el cual procesa metadatos OAI, y tambiÃ©n el plugin para imÃ¡genes, porque en este caso los documentos fuente de la colecciÃ³n son imÃ¡genes. El plugin OAI tiene una opciÃ³n llamada
+<i>input_encoding</i> porque los datos del archivo contienen caracteres extendidos. TambiÃ©n tiene un argumento <i>default_language</i>. Normalmente Greenstone determina el idioma de los documentos automÃ¡ticamente, pero estos registros de metadatos son demasiado pequeÃ±os para poder hacerlo de manera confiable, por lo que el inglÃ©s se especifica de manera explÃ­cita en el argumento <i>language</i>. El plugin OAI descompone y analiza los metadatos y los pasa al correspondiente archivo de documento fuente, el cual es procesado a continuaciÃ³n por un plugin apropiado, que en este caso es <i>ImagePlugin</i>. Este plugin especifica la resoluciÃ³n de las imÃ¡genes en pantalla.
+
+<p>
+Los metadatos extractados de registros OAI son mapeados al esquema de metadatos Dublin Core por defecto.
+Como resultado, los clasificadores y los Ã­ndices en esta colecciÃ³n son construÃ­dos con elementos de metadatos Dublin Core.
+
+<p>
+El <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n de la colecciÃ³n</a> tiene un solo Ã­ndice de texto completo, el cual contiene el metadato <i>dc.DescripciÃ³n</i>. Cuando un documento se despliega en pantalla el enunciado de formato <i>DocumentHeading</i> muestra su <i>dc.Asunto</i>. A continuaciÃ³n le sigue el enunciado <i>DocumentText</i> con <i>screenicon</i>, el cual es producido por <i>ImagePlugin</i> y proporciona una versiÃ³n en pantalla de la imagen. Ãsta cuenta con un hipervÃ­nculo al metadato <i>dc.OrigURL</i>, es decir, a la versiÃ³n original de la imagen en el sitio OAI remoto. Le sigue la <i>dc.DescripciÃ³n</i> de la imagen, tambiÃ©n con un hipervÃ­nculo, el tamaÃ±o y tipo de la imagen, nuevamente generados como metadatos por <i>ImagePlugin</i>, y finalmente los metadatos de <i>dc.Asunto</i>, <i>dc.Editorial</i> y <i>dc.Derechos de Autor</i>. <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&cl=search&d=_sampleoid_\">Ãste</a> es el resultado.
+<p>
+
+Existen dos clasificadores de exploraciÃ³n, uno basado en el metadato <i>dc.Asunto</i> y el otro en el metadato <i>dc.DescripciÃ³n</i> (pero con un botÃ³n llamado \"pies de foto\"). Recuerde que el clasificador <i>AZCompactList</i> es como <i>AZList</i>, pero genera un estante para los Ã­tems duplicados. En esta colecciÃ³n hay una gran cantidad de imÃ¡genes, pero sÃ³lo unos cuantos valores diferentes para el metadato <i>dc.Asunto</i>.
+<p>
+
+Resulta un tanto sorprendente que el clasificador <i>AZCompactList</i> tambiÃ©n se utilice (en vez de <i>AZList</i>) para el Ã­ndice de <i>dc.DescripciÃ³n</i>, ya que por lo general el metadato <i>dc.DescripciÃ³n</i> es exclusivo para cada imagen. Sin embargo, en esta colecciÃ³n la misma descripciÃ³n se emplea en ocasiones para varias imÃ¡genes, por lo que algunas de las divisiones en una <i>AZList</i> contendrÃ­an un gran nÃºmero de imÃ¡genes, haciendo que la transmisiÃ³n de esa pÃ¡gina fuera mÃ¡s lenta. Para evitarlo se utiliza la versiÃ³n compacta de la lista con algunos argumentos (<i>mincompact, maxcompact, mingroup, minnesting</i>)  para controlar la presentaciÃ³n en pantalla. Por ejemplo, los grupos (representados por estantes) no se forman a menos que tengan al menos 5 (<i>mingroup</i>) Ã­tems. A fin de conocer el significado de los otros argumentos para este clasificador ejecute el comando <i>classinfo.pl AZCompactList</i>. Los programas <i>classinfo.pl</i> (para los clasificadores) y <i>pluginfo.pl</i> (para los plugins) son herramientas sumamente Ãºtiles para conocer las funciones de los mÃ³dulos Greenstone. FÃ­jese ademÃ¡s en la barra de directorios en el archivo de configuraciÃ³n, usada para indicar la continuaciÃ³n de la lÃ­nea anterior.
+<p>
+
+La especificaciÃ³n de formato VList muestra la miniatura de la imagen con hipervÃ­nculos al documento asociado, seguida por el metadato <i>dc.Description</i>. El resultado se puede ver <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2\">aquÃ­</a>. Las <i>Vlists</i> para los clasificadores utilizan <i>numleafdocs</i> para cambiar entre un icono que representa varios documentos (el cual aparecerÃ¡ como un estante) y la miniatura, si sÃ³lo hay una imagen.
+
+<h3>El servidor OAI de Greenstone</h3>
+
+<p>
+Greenstone incorpora un servidor/proveedor de datos OAI.
+Se ejecuta mediante un programa CGI llamado \"oaiserver.cgi\", y se encuentra
+en el directorio <i>cgi-bin</i> de Greenstone. Se accede a Ã©l utilizando el mismo
+URL que para la biblioteca Greentone (reemplazando \"library.cgi\" por \"oaiserver.cgi\").
+Si usted estÃ¡ usando el servidor de biblioteca local, debe instalar un servidor
+web (como Apache) para poder ejecutar el servidor OAI.\n
+
+<p>
+La configuraciÃ³n del servidor se hace mediante el archivo  <i>oai.cfg</i> que se
+encuentra en el directorio <i>etc</i> de Greenstone. Este fichero especifica la informaciÃ³n
+general sobre el repositorio, e incluye un listado de las colecciones accesibles
+para los clientes OAI. En principio, las coleccciones no son accesibles. Para permitir
+el acceso a una colecciÃ³n, aÃ±ada su nombre a la lista <i>oaicollection</i>. Las colecciones
+construidas con versiones de Greenstone anteriores a la 2.52 deben ser reconstruidas
+antes de que puedan ser accesibles.\n
+
+<p>
+El servidor OAI de Greenstone actualmente soporta Dublin Core, qualified Dublin Core y rfc1807. La lÃ­nea <i>oaimetadata</i> especifica quÃ© conjuntos deberÃ­an ser usados. Para las colecciones que usan otros conjuntos de metadatos, deben indicarse reglas de mapeo de metadatos  para asociar los metadatos existentes con los esquemas utilizados. Vea el archivo <i>oai.cfg</i> para mayores detalles.\n
+"
+
+
+# -- Russian text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=ru] "
+Ð­ÑÐ° ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÐŽÐµÐŒÐŸÐœÑÑÑÐžÑÑÐµÑ ÐŸÑÐŸÐ±ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÐž  <i>ImportFrom</i> Greenstone, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÑ <a href=http://www.openarchives.org>ÐÑÐºÑÑÑÑÐ¹ ÐÑÑ
+ÐžÐ²ÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÑÐŸÑÐŸÐºÐŸÐ»</a> OAI (Ð²ÐµÑÑÐžÑ 1.1). ÐÐœÐ° Ð²ÐŸÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐžÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐžÐ· <a href=http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix>rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix</a>, ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÐ¹, Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐž ÐžÐœÐ°ÑÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐž <a href=http://www.acm.org/jcdl/jcdl01/>ÐÐ±ÑÐµÐŽÐžÐœÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐÐŸÐœÑÐµÑÐµÐœÑÐžÐž Ð¿ÐŸ ÐŠÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÑÐŒ ÐÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÑÐµÐºÐ°ÐŒ</a>. ÐÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ  Greenstone Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÑÐŸÐµÐœÐ° Ð¿ÐŸ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÑÐŒ, ÑÐºÑÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐŒ ÐžÐ· ÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ OAI Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐ°Ð²ÑÐžÐºÐ° ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+. ÐÐœÑÑÑÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐŸÑÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐœÐŸ Ð³ÐžÐ±ÐºÐžÐŒ, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÑÐ¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐžÑÑÑÑ Ñ ÐœÐµÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÐ»ÑÐœÑÐŒÐž ÑÐžÐœÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÐŒÐž ÑÐ°Ð·Ð»ÐžÑÐžÑÐŒÐž ÐŒÐµÐ¶ÐŽÑ Ð²ÐµÑÑÐžÑÐŒÐž OAI 1.1 Ðž OAI 2.0.
+<p>
+
+<h3>ÐÐ°Ðº ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ</h3>
+
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>ÐÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»</a> ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÑ <i>ÐžÐŒÐ¿ÐŸÑÑ</i> (<i>acquire</i>), ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐ°Ñ ÐžÐœÑÐµÑÐ¿ÑÐµÑÐžÑÑÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐžÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŒÐŸÐ¹, ÐœÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÐŒÐŸÐ¹ <i>importfrom.pl</i>. ÐÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸ ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÐŒ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŒÐ°ÐŒ Greenstone, ÐŸÐœÐ° Ð±ÐµÑÐµÑ Ð² ÐºÐ°ÑÐµÑÑÐ²Ðµ Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÐŒÐµÑÑÐ° ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ (ÐžÐŒÑ) ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž Ðž ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑ ÑÐµÐ·ÑÐŒÐµ ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸÐ², ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÑÑÐºÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÐŒÐµÑÑ <i>Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐŸÑÑ</i> (<i>help</i>). ÐÐœÐ° ÑÑÐžÑÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð» ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž, ÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÑ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÑ ÐžÐŒÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐ° Ðž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð±Ð°ÑÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÐµÑ. Ð ÑÑÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ðµ ÐŸÐœÐ° Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÑÑÐºÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐ°ÐœÐŽÐŸÐ¹:
+<p>
+<pre>
+importfrom.pl oai-e
+</pre>\n
+Ð³ÐŽÐµ oai-e - ÐžÐŒÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž.
+<p>
+
+
+Ð¡ÑÑÐŸÐºÐ° <i>acquire</i> Ð² ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ðµ Ð·Ð°ÐŽÐ°ÐµÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐºÐŸÐ» OAI Ðž Ð²ÑÐŽÐ°ÐµÑ Ð±Ð°Ð·ÐŸÐ²ÑÐ¹ Ð°ÐŽÑÐµÑ URL Ñ
+ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐ»ÐžÑÐ° OAI. ÐÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŒÐ° <i>importfrom</i> Ð²ÑÐ³ÑÑÐ¶Ð°ÐµÑ Ð²ÑÐµ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ ÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ñ
+ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐ»ÐžÑÐ° Ð² ÐŽÐžÑÐµÐºÑÐŸÑÐžÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž <i>import</i>. ÐÐ°ÑÐ°ÐŒÐµÑÑ <i>getdoc</i> ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐ°ÐœÐŽÑ Ð²ÑÐ³ÑÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÑ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ ÐžÐ· ÐžÑÑ
+ÐŸÐŽÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž, ÑÑÐž URL Ð¿ÑÐžÐ²ÐŸÐŽÑÑÑÑ Ð² ÐºÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÐŸÐŒ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»Ðµ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ° <i>Dublin Core</i> (ÑÑÐŸ -- ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐµ ÑÐŸÐ³Ð»Ð°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ). Ð€Ð°Ð¹Ð»Ñ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+, ÐºÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÑÐ¹ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÑ
+ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ XML-Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÑ ÐŸÐŽÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÑ
+ÐŸÐŽÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°, Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐµÑÐµÐœÑ Ð² ÑÑÑÑÐºÑÑÑÑ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ð° <i>import</i> ÐœÐ°ÑÑÐŽÑ Ñ ÑÐ°ÐŒÐžÐŒÐž ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°ÐŒÐž, Ðž ÐžÐŒÑ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ð° ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° ÑÐ°ÐºÐŸÐµ Ð¶Ðµ, ÑÑÐŸ Ðž ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ð° Ð² URL. ÐÐŸÐ»Ðµ <i>Identifier</i> Ð¿ÐµÑÐµÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐŸ, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ Ð»ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐµ ÐžÐŒÑ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ñ, Ð° ÐµÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐŸÐœÐ°ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐµ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÑ
+ÑÐ°ÐœÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð² ÐœÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐŒ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»Ðµ Ð¿ÐŸ ÐžÐŒÐµÐœÐž <i>dc.OrigURL</i>.
+<p>
+
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/oai.txt\" target=oai.txt>ÐÐŽÐµÑÑ</a> Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°Ðœ Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ ÑÐ°Ð·Ð³ÑÑÐ·ÐºÐž ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ð° ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+.
+<p>
+
+ÐÐ°Ðº ÑÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ· ÐAI ÐžÐŒÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐ°, ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð±Ð°ÑÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑÑÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÑÐŒ ÑÐ¿ÐŸÑÐŸÐ±ÐŸÐŒ. ÐÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð» ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœ OAI, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð±Ð°ÑÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ OAI, Ðž Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹, Ð¿ÐŸÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÑ Ð² ÑÑÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ðµ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ ÐžÑÑ
+ÐŸÐŽÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž  - ÑÑÐŸ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ñ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹. 
+<!-- _text1_ -->
+Besides the four standard plugins (GreenstoneXMLPlugin, MetadataXMLPlugin, ArchivesInfPlugin and DirectoryPlugin), 
+the configuration file specifies the OAI plugin, which processes OAI
+metadata, and the image plugin, because in this case the collection\'s source
+documents are image files.  
+Greenstone ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ ÑÐ·ÑÐº ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² Ð°Ð²ÑÐŸÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐž, ÐœÐŸ ÑÑÐž Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÐž ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÑÐ»ÐžÑÐºÐŸÐŒ ÐœÐµÐ±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐžÐŒÐž ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÑÑÐŸ ÑÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°ÑÑ ÐœÐ°ÐŽÐµÐ¶ÐœÐŸ: Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐŸÐŒÑ Ð°ÐœÐ³Ð»ÐžÐ¹ÑÐºÐžÐ¹ ÑÐ·ÑÐº ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœ ÑÐ²ÐœÐŸ Ð² Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÐŒÐµÑÑÐµ <i>ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ°</i> (<i>language</i>). ÐÐ»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœÑ ÐAI Ð°ÐœÐ°Ð»ÐžÐ·ÐžÑÑÑÑ  ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ Ðž Ð¿ÐµÑÐµÑÑÐ»Ð°ÑÑ ÐžÑ
+ Ðº ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐŒÑ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ñ ÐžÑÑ
+ÐŸÐŽÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ Ð·Ð°ÑÐµÐŒ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð±Ð°ÑÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐžÐŒ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœÐŸÐŒ -- Ð² ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ðµ <i>ImagePlugin</i>. Ð­ÑÐŸÑ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ ÑÐ°Ð·Ð»ÐžÑÐœÑÐµ Ð²ÐµÑÑÐžÐž ÑÐ°Ð·ÑÐµÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ° ÑÐºÑÐ°ÐœÐµ.
+
+<p>
+<!--_text2_-->
+Extracted metadata from OAI records are mapped to Dublin Core Metadata Set by default.
+As a result, classifiers and indexes in this collection are built with Dublin meatadata elements.
+
+<p>
+<!-- _text4_ -->
+The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>collection
+configuration file</a> has a single full-text index containing
+<i>dc.Description</i> metadata. When a document is displayed, the
+<i>DocumentHeading</i> format statement puts out its <i>dc.Subject</i>. Then the
+<i>DocumentText</i> statement follows this with <i>screenicon</i>, which is
+produced by <i>ImagePlugin</i> and gives a screen-resolution version of the
+image; it is hyperlinked to the <i>dc.OrigURL</i> metadata -- that is, the original
+version of the image on the remote OAI site. This is followed by the image\'s
+<i>dc.Description</i>, also with a hyperlink; the image\'s size and type, again
+generated as metadata by <i>ImagePlugin</i>; and then <i>dc.Subject</i>,
+<i>dc.Publisher</i>,
+and <i>dc.Rights</i> metadata.
+<a href=_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&cl=search&d=_sampleoid_>This</a>
+is the result.\n
+
+
+<p>
+ÐÐŒÐµÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ²Ð° ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ° Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐŸÑÑÐ°, ÐŸÐŽÐžÐœ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÑ
+ ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°Ðœ ÐœÐ° ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ <i>ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑÐ°</i>, Ð° ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐŸÐ¹ -- ÐœÐ° ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ <i>ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ</i>, ÐœÐŸ Ñ ÐžÐºÐŸÐœÐºÐŸÐ¹, ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ Â«ÐÐ°Ð³ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ²ÐºÐžÂ». ÐÑÐ¿ÐŸÐŒÐœÐžÑÐµ, ÑÑÐŸ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ <i>AZCompactList</i> Ð¿ÐŸÑ
+ÐŸÐ¶ ÐœÐ° <i>AZList</i>, ÐœÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐžÐ·Ð²ÐŸÐŽÐžÑ ÐºÐœÐžÐ¶ÐœÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐºÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŽÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÐ² ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ². Ð ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÐžÐŒÐµÐµÑÑÑ ÐŒÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹, ÐœÐŸ Ð»ÐžÑÑ ÐœÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÐžÐ· ÐœÐžÑ
+ ÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÑÐ°Ð·Ð»ÐžÑÐœÑÐµ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ <i>ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑÐ°</i>.
+<p>
+
+ÐÐŸÐ¶ÐœÐŸ ÑÐŽÐžÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ, ÑÑÐŸ <i>AZCompactList</i> ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸ  <i>AZList</i> ÑÐ°ÐºÐ¶Ðµ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÐ° <i>ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ</i> (<i>dc.Description</i>), Ð¿ÐŸÑÐŸÐŒÑ ÑÑÐŸ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ <i>ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ</i> ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÑÐœÐžÐºÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ. ÐÐŽÐœÐ°ÐºÐŸ Ð² ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐŽÐœÐŸ Ðž ÑÐŸ Ð¶Ðµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÐŽÐ°Ð²Ð°Ð»ÐŸÑÑ ÐœÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐžÐŒ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑÐŒ, Ðž ÐœÐµÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ ÐžÐ· ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐŸÐ² <i>AZList</i> ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°Ñ Ð±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐŸÐµ ÑÐžÑÐ»ÐŸ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹, Ð·Ð°ÐŒÐµÐŽÐ»ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÐµÐŽÐ°ÑÑ ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ. Ð§ÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÐžÐ·Ð±ÐµÐ¶Ð°ÑÑ ÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐ¿Ð°ÐºÑÐœÐ°Ñ Ð²ÐµÑÑÐžÑ ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ° Ñ ÑÑÐŽÐŸÐŒ Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸÐ² (<i>mincompact</i>, <i>maxcompact</i>, <i>mingroup</i>, <i>minnesting</i>), ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÑÐ¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·ÐŸÐŒ -- ÐÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, Ð³ÑÑÐ¿Ð¿Ñ, (Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐºÐœÐžÐ¶ÐœÑÐŒÐž Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐºÐ°ÐŒÐž), ÐœÐµ ÑÑÐŸÑÐŒÐžÑÑÑÑÑÑ ÐŽÐŸ ÑÐµÑ
+ Ð¿ÐŸÑ, Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ° ÐŸÐœÐž ÐœÐµ Ð±ÑÐŽÑÑ ÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸ ÐºÑÐ°Ð¹ÐœÐµÐ¹ ÐŒÐµÑÐµ 5 ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² (<i>mingroup</i>). Ð§ÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÑÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸÐ² ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ°, Ð²ÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐ°ÐœÐŽÑ <i>classinfo.pl AZCompactList</i>. ÐÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŒÑ <i>classinfo</i>.pl (ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ²) Ðž <i>pluginfo.pl</i> (ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœÐŸÐ²) ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐµÐ·ÐœÑÐŒÐž ÐžÐœÑÑÑÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°ÐŒÐž, ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÐœÐ°ÐŽÐŸ ÑÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÑ ÐŸ Ð²ÐŸÐ·ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐœÐŸÑÑÑÑ
+ ÐŒÐŸÐŽÑÐ»ÐµÐ¹ ÐÑÐžÐœÑÑÐŸÑÐœ. ÐÐ±ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµ ÐºÑÑÐ°ÑÐž Ð²ÐœÐžÐŒÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐœÐ° ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÑÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ»ÐµÑ Ð² ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ðµ, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÐŒÑÐ¹ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ° Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÐŽÑÑÐµÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž.\n
+<p>
+
+ÐÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ° <i>VList</i> Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ, ÐžÐŒÐµÑÑÐµÐµ Ð³ÐžÐ¿ÐµÑÑÐ²ÑÐ·Ñ Ñ ÐžÑÑ
+ÐŸÐŽÐœÑÐŒ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐŒ, Ð² ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐžÐž Ñ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐŒÐž <i>ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ</i>; ÑÐµÐ·ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ñ ÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐžÐŽÐµÑÑ <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2\">Ð·ÐŽÐµÑÑ</a>. <i>Vlists</i> ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ² ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑ <i>numleafdocs</i> ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÐµÑÐµÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŒÐµÐ¶ÐŽÑ ÐžÐºÐŸÐœÐºÐ°ÐŒÐž, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÑÑÐžÐŒÐž ÐœÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² (ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ²ÐžÑÑÑ Ð² Ð²ÐžÐŽÐµ ÐºÐœÐžÐ¶ÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐºÐž), Ðž ÐœÐµÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸ ÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÐŸÐœÐŸ ÑÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÐŸÐŽÐœÐŸ.
+
+<h3>Greenstone OAI ÑÐµÑÐ²ÐµÑ</h3>
+
+<p>
+Greenstone ÐŸÑÐ»ÐžÑÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÑÑÐŸÐµÐœÐœÑÐŒ OAI Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐ°Ð²ÑÐžÐºÐŸÐŒ ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+. Ð­ÑÐŸ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÑÑÐºÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ ÐºÐ°Ðº CGI Ð¿ÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŒÐ°, ÐœÐ°Ð·ÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÐŒÐ°Ñ \"oaiserver.cgi\", Ðž ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŸÐ²Ð»ÐµÐœÐ° Ð² <i>cgi-bin</i> ÐŽÐžÑÐµÐºÑÐŸÑÐžÐž Greenstone. Ð ÑÑÐŸÐŒÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐœÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÑÑÑ ÑÐµÑÐµÐ· ÑÐŸ Ð¶Ðµ ÑÐ°ÐŒÑÐ¹ URL ÐºÐ°Ðº Ð±ÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÑÐµÐºÐ° Greenstone (Ð·Ð°ÐŒÐµÐœÑÑÑÐžÐ¹ \"library.cgi\" Ñ \"oaiserver.cgi\"). ÐÑÐ»Ðž ÐÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÐµ Windows Ð»ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐµÑÐ²ÐµÑ Ð±ÐžÐ±Ð»ÐžÐŸÑÐµÐºÐž, ÐÑ ÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶ÐœÑ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŸÐ²ÐžÑÑ web ÑÐµÑÐ²ÐµÑ (ÑÐ°ÐºÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐ°Ðº Apache), ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÑÐ¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÑÑ OAI ÑÐµÑÐ²ÐµÑÐŸÐŒ.
+
+<p>
+ÐÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÐ²ÐµÑÐ° ÑÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°ÐœÐ° ÑÐµÑÐµÐ· <i>oai.cfg</i> ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð» Ð² ÐŽÐžÑÐµÐºÑÐŸÑÐžÐž Greenstone. Ð­ÑÐŸÑ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð» ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÑ Ð³Ð»Ð°Ð²ÐœÑÑ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐŸ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ Ñ
+ÑÐ°ÐœÐµÐœÐžÑ, Ðž ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ°Ñ
+ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐ¹, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ Ð±ÑÐŽÑÑ ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ OAI ÐºÐ»ÐžÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ². ÐÐŸ ÑÐŒÐŸÐ»ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ, ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÐœÐµ ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÑ. Ð§ÑÐŸÐ±Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐžÑÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ, ÐŽÐŸÐ±Ð°Ð²ÑÑÐµ ÑÑÐŸ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ(ÐžÐŒÑ) Ðº ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÑ <i>oaicollection</i>. ÐÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÑÐŸÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ Ñ Ð²ÐµÑÑÐžÑÐŒÐž Greenstone ÑÐ°ÐœÐµÐµ ÑÐµÐŒ 2.52 ÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶ÐœÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÐµÑÑÑÐŸÐµÐœÑ Ð¿ÑÐµÐ¶ÐŽÐµ ÐŸÐœÐž ÐŒÐŸÐ³ÑÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶ÐžÐ²Ð°ÑÑÑÑ.
+
+<p>
+<!-- _text3_ -->
+<p>
+Greenstone's OAI server currently supports Dublin Core, qualified Dublin Core and rfc1807 metadata sets. The <i>oaimetadata</i> line specifies which sets should be used. For collections that use other metadata sets, 
+metadata mapping rules should be provided to map the existing metadata 
+to the sets in use. See the <i>oai.cfg</i> file for details.\n
+"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese text ----------------
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+<a href=http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix>rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix</a>æ£çŽ¢å
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+³äºç
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+<p>GreenstoneçOAIæå¡åšç®åæ¯æéœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®ïŒéå®æ§éœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®ä»¥årfc1807å
+æ°æ®éã 
+<i>oaimetadata</i>è¡æå®åºè¢«äœ¿çšçå
+æ°æ®éãå¯¹äºäœ¿çšå
+¶ä»å
+æ°æ®éçéŠèïŒåºè¯¥æäŸå
+æ°æ®æ å°è§åå° 
+ç°æçå
+æ°æ®æ å°å°äœ¿çšçå
+æ°æ®éäžãè¯Šç»ä¿¡æ¯è¯·åè§<i>oai.cfg</i>æä»¶ã\n
+"
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/etc/oai.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/etc/oai.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/etc/oai.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<OAI-PMH
+    xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/2.0/"
+    xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance"
+    xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/2.0/
+             http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/2.0/OAI-PMH.xsd">
+<responseDate>2003-06-18T03:23:29Z</responseDate>
+<request verb="GetRecord" identifier="oai:celebration:struther" metadataPrefix="oai_dc">http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/OAI-celebration</request>
+<GetRecord>
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:celebration:struther</identifier>
+<datestamp>2002-10-18</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<oai_dc:dc   
+      xmlns:oai_dc="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/2.0/oai_dc/" 
+      xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" 
+      xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" 
+      xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/2.0/oai_dc/
+                          http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/2.0/oai_dc.xsd">
+<dc:title>Collected Works of Jan Struther</dc:title>
+<dc:creator>Struther, Jan</dc:creator>
+<dc:subject>PR6025 .A9 A1</dc:subject>
+<OrigURL>http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/struther/struther.html</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>.orig/struther.html</identifier>
+<dc:publisher>A Celebration of Women Writers</dc:publisher>
+<dc:date>2001-10-13</dc:date><dc:type>Text</dc:type>
+</oai_dc:dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+</GetRecord>
+</OAI-PMH>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/exportfrom.pl
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/exportfrom.pl	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/exportfrom.pl	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,319 @@
+#!/usr/bin/perl -w
+
+###########################################################################
+#
+# getoai.pl --
+# A component of the Greenstone digital library software
+# from the New Zealand Digital Library Project at the 
+# University of Waikato, New Zealand.
+#
+# Copyright (C) 1999 New Zealand Digital Library Project
+#
+# This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
+# it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
+# the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or
+# (at your option) any later version.
+#
+# This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
+# but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
+# MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
+# GNU General Public License for more details.
+#
+# You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
+# along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software
+# Foundation, Inc., 675 Mass Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
+#
+###########################################################################
+
+
+# This program will contact the named DL server
+#  and export its metadata and (optionally) it documents.
+
+# Currently only designed for OAI exporting
+
+
+BEGIN {
+    die "GSDLHOME not set\n" unless defined $ENV{'GSDLHOME'};
+    die "GSDLOS not set\n" unless defined $ENV{'GSDLOS'};
+    unshift (@INC, "$ENV{'GSDLHOME'}/perllib");
+}
+
+use colcfg;
+use util;
+use parsargv;
+use FileHandle;
+
+
+sub print_usage {
+    print STDERR "\n  usage: $0 [options] collection-name\n\n";
+    print STDERR "  options:\n";
+    print STDERR "   -verbosity number      0=none, 3=lots\n";
+    print STDERR "   -getid                 Also download if source document if present\n";
+    print STDERR "   -importdir directory   Where the original material lives\n";
+    print STDERR "   -keepold               Will not destroy the current contents of the\n";
+    print STDERR "                          import directory (the default)\n";
+    print STDERR "   -removeold             Will remove the old contents of the import\n";
+    print STDERR "                          directory -- use with care\n";
+    print STDERR "   -gzip                  Use gzip to compress exported documents\n";
+    print STDERR "                          (don't forget to include ZIPPlug in your plugin\n";
+    print STDERR "   -maxdocs number        Maximum number of documents to import\n";
+    print STDERR "   -debug                 Print imported text to STDOUT\n";
+    print STDERR "   -collectdir directory  Collection directory (defaults to " .
+	&util::filename_cat ($ENV{'GSDLHOME'}, "collect") . ")\n";
+    print STDERR "   -out                   Filename or handle to print output status to.\n";
+    print STDERR "                          The default is STDERR\n\n";
+}
+
+
+
+
+sub print_usage_old
+{
+    my ($prog_name) = @_;
+
+    print STDERR "Usage: $prog_name OAI-base-URL\n";
+    exit 1;
+}
+
+sub get_oai_ids
+{
+    my ($base_url, $out) = @_;
+
+    print $out "Requesting list of identifiers ...\n";
+
+    open (OAIIN,"wget -q -O - $base_url?verb=ListIdentifiers|")
+	|| die "wget request failed: $!\n";
+ 
+    my $li_record = "";
+
+    my $line;
+    while (defined($line=<OAIIN>))
+    {
+	$li_record .= $line;
+	# print $out $line;
+    }
+    
+    close(OAIIN);
+    print $out "... Done.\n";
+
+    return $li_record;
+}
+
+sub parse_oai_ids
+{
+    my ($li_record, $out) = @_;
+
+    # extract identifier list
+    $li_record =~ s/^.*?<identifier>/<identifier>/s;
+    $li_record =~ s/^(.*<\/identifier>).*$/$1/s;
+
+    my @ids = ();
+
+    while ($li_record =~ m/<identifier>(.*?)<\/identifier>(.*)$/s)
+    {
+	$li_record = $2;
+	push(@ids,$1);
+    }
+
+    return \@ids;
+}
+
+
+sub dir_file_split
+{
+    my ($file) = @_;
+
+    my @dirs = split("/",$file);
+    my $local_file = pop(@dirs);
+    my $sub_dirs = join("/",@dirs);
+
+    return ($sub_dirs,$local_file);
+}
+
+sub get_oai_document
+{
+    my ($doc_url,$output_dir, $out) = @_;
+
+    my ($id_dir,$id_fname) = dir_file_split($doc_url);
+
+    print $out "Getting document $doc_url\n";
+
+    `mkdir $output_dir/srcdocs` if (!-e "$output_dir/srcdocs");
+	
+    my $wget_cmd = "wget -q -O $output_dir/srcdocs/$id_fname \"$doc_url\"";
+
+    (system($wget_cmd)==0)
+	|| print STDERR "Error: failed to execute $wget_cmd\n";
+    
+}
+
+sub get_oai_records
+{
+    my ($base_url,$ids,$output_dir, $get_id, $maxdocs, $out) = @_;
+
+    my $doc_count = 0;
+
+    my $i;
+    foreach $i ( @$ids )
+    {
+	# wget it;
+	my $url = "$base_url?verb=GetRecord&metadataPrefix=oai_dc";
+	$url .= "&identifier=$i";
+	print $out "Downloading metadata record for $i\n";
+
+	my $file_i = "$output_dir/$i.oai";
+	$file_i =~ s/:/\//g;
+
+	# obtain record
+	my $wget_cmd = "wget -q -O - \"$url\"";
+
+	open (OAIIN,"$wget_cmd|")
+	    || die "wget request failed: $!\n";
+	my $i_record = "";
+	
+	my $line;
+	while (defined($line=<OAIIN>))
+	{
+	    $i_record .= $line;
+	}
+
+	close(OAIIN);
+	
+	# prepare subdirectory for record (if needed)
+	my ($i_dir,$unused) = dir_file_split($file_i);
+	`mkdir -p $i_dir`;
+
+	# look out for identifier tag in metadata section
+	if ($i_record =~ m/<metadata>(.*)<\/metadata>/s)
+	{
+	    my $m_record = $1;
+
+	    if ($get_id)
+	    {
+		if ($m_record =~ m/<identifier>(.*?)<\/identifier>/s)
+		{
+		    my $doc_url = $1;
+		    get_oai_document($doc_url,$i_dir, $out);
+
+
+		    my ($id_dir,$id_fname) = dir_file_split($doc_url);
+
+		    $i_record =~ s/<metadata>(.*?)<identifier>$doc_url<\/identifier>(.*?)<\/metadata>/<metadata>$1<OrigURL>$doc_url<\/OrigURL><identifier>srcdocs\/$id_fname<\/identifier>$2<\/metadata>/s;
+		}
+	    }
+	}
+
+	# save record 
+	open (OAIOUT,">$file_i")
+	    || die "Unable to save oai metadata record: $!\n";
+	print OAIOUT $i_record;
+	close(OAIOUT);
+
+	$doc_count++;
+	last if ($doc_count == $maxdocs);
+    }
+}
+
+
+sub main {
+    my ($verbosity, $importdir, $keepold, 
+	$removeold, $gzip, $groupsize, $debug, $maxdocs, $collection,
+	$configfilename, $collectcfg,
+	$out, $collectdir);
+
+    if (!parsargv::parse(\@ARGV, 
+			 'verbosity/\d+/2', \$verbosity,
+			 'getid', \$getid,
+			 'importdir/.*/', \$importdir,
+			 'keepold', \$keepold,
+			 'removeold', \$removeold,
+			 'gzip', \$gzip,
+			 'debug', \$debug,
+			 'maxdocs/^\-?\d+/-1', \$maxdocs,
+			 'collectdir/.*/', \$collectdir,
+			 'out/.*/STDERR', \$out)) {
+	&print_usage();
+	die "\n";
+    }
+
+    my $close_out = 0;
+    if ($out !~ /^(STDERR|STDOUT)$/i) {
+	open (OUT, ">$out") || die "Couldn't open output file $out\n";
+	$out = 'import::OUT';
+	$close_out = 1;
+    }
+    $out->autoflush(1);
+
+    # set removeold to false if it has been defined
+    $removeold = 0 if ($keepold);
+
+    # get and check the collection name
+    if (($collection = &util::use_collection(@ARGV, $collectdir)) eq "") {
+	&print_usage();
+	die "\n";
+    }
+
+
+    # get the list of export servers for this collection
+    my $export = [];
+    $configfilename = &util::filename_cat ($ENV{'GSDLCOLLECTDIR'}, "etc", "collect.cfg");
+    if (-e $configfilename) {
+	$collectcfg = &colcfg::read_collect_cfg ($configfilename);
+	if (defined $collectcfg->{'export'}) {
+	    $export = $collectcfg->{'export'};
+	}
+	if (defined $collectcfg->{'importdir'} && $importdir eq "") {
+	    $importdir = $collectcfg->{'importdir'};
+	}
+	if (defined $collectcfg->{'removeold'}) {
+	    if ($collectcfg->{'removeold'} =~ /^true$/i && !$keepold) {
+		$removeold = 1;
+	    }
+	    if ($collectcfg->{'removeold'} =~ /^false$/i && !$removeold) {
+		$removeold = 0;
+	    }
+	}
+    } else {
+	die "Couldn't find the configuration file $configfilename\n";
+    }
+    
+    # fill in the default import directory if none
+    # were supplied, turn all \ into / and remove trailing /
+    $importdir = &util::filename_cat ($ENV{'GSDLCOLLECTDIR'}, "import") if $importdir eq "";
+    $importdir =~ s/[\\\/]+/\//g;
+    $importdir =~ s/\/$//;
+
+    # remove the old contents of the import directory if needed
+    if ($removeold && -e $importdir) {
+	print $out "Warning - removing current contents of the import directory\n";
+	print $out "          in preparation for the export\n";
+	sleep(5); # just in case...
+	&util::rm_r ($importdir);
+    }
+
+    my $e;
+    foreach $e ( @$export )
+    {
+	print $out "Exporting from $e->[0]\n";
+
+	my $base_url = $e->[0];
+
+	my $li_record = get_oai_ids($base_url,$out);
+	my $ids = parse_oai_ids($li_record,$out);
+
+	get_oai_records($base_url,$ids,$importdir, $getid, $maxdocs, $out);
+    }
+    
+    close OUT if $close_out;
+}
+
+
+&main();
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla1.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla1.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla1.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:28:39-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200101dla1</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200101dla1</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dla1</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day One</subject>
+   <description>conference patricipants and attendees</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-24</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200101dla/01dla1.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dla1.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla10.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla10.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla10.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:29:47-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200101dla10</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200101dla10</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dla10</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day One</subject>
+   <description>more VT people</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-24</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200101dla/01dla10.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dla10.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla11.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla11.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla11.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:29:59-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200101dla11</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200101dla11</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dla11</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day One</subject>
+   <description>Ian Witten joining "No Strings Attached" to add to the festive atmosphere</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-24</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200101dla/01dla11.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dla11.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla12.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla12.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla12.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:30:05-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200101dla12</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200101dla12</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dla12</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day One</subject>
+   <description>more Ian Witten</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-24</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200101dla/01dla12.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dla12.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla13.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla13.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla13.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:30:10-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200101dla13</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200101dla13</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dla13</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day One</subject>
+   <description>the very orange Volunteer t-shirt :)</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-24</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200101dla/01dla13.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dla13.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla14.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla14.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla14.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:30:18-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200101dla14</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200101dla14</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dla14</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day One</subject>
+   <description>Chad Schennum and others chilling after a long day</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-24</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200101dla/01dla14.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dla14.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla15.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla15.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla15.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:30:25-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200101dla15</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200101dla15</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dla15</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day One</subject>
+   <description>Fernando Das Neves caught off-guard</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-24</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200101dla/01dla15.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dla15.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla2.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla2.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla2.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:28:48-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200101dla2</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200101dla2</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dla2</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day One</subject>
+   <description>conference patricipants and attendees</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-24</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200101dla/01dla2.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dla2.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla3.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla3.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla3.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:28:59-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200101dla3</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200101dla3</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dla3</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day One</subject>
+   <description>conference patricipants and attendees</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-24</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200101dla/01dla3.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dla3.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla4.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla4.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla4.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:29:08-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200101dla4</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200101dla4</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dla4</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day One</subject>
+   <description>Paul Mather and Ghaleb Abdulla</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-24</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200101dla/01dla4.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dla4.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla5.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla5.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla5.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:29:11-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200101dla5</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200101dla5</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dla5</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day One</subject>
+   <description>conference patricipants and attendees</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-24</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200101dla/01dla5.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dla5.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla6.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla6.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla6.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:29:22-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200101dla6</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200101dla6</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dla6</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day One</subject>
+   <description>Robert France kicking off the evenings proceedings</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-24</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200101dla/01dla6.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dla6.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla7.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla7.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla7.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:29:27-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200101dla7</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200101dla7</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dla7</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day One</subject>
+   <description>Ed Fox, general chair of JCDL, welcoming everyone</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-24</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200101dla/01dla7.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dla7.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla8.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla8.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla8.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:29:33-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200101dla8</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200101dla8</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dla8</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day One</subject>
+   <description>Dean Bates welcoming the participants on behalf of Virginia Tech</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-24</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200101dla/01dla8.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dla8.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla9.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla9.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200101dla9.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:29:39-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200101dla9</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200101dla9</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dla9</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day One</subject>
+   <description>conference patricipants and attendees</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-24</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200101dla/01dla9.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dla9.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb1.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb1.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb1.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:25:44-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb1</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb1</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb1</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>Keynote venue</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb1.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb1.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb10.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb10.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb10.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:27:08-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb10</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb10</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb10</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>demonstration and poster session</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb10.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb10.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb11.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb11.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb11.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:27:15-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb11</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb11</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb11</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>demonstration and poster session</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb11.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb11.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb12.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb12.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb12.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:27:22-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb12</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb12</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb12</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>demonstration and poster session</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb12.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb12.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb13.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb13.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb13.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:27:29-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb13</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb13</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb13</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>demonstration and poster session</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb13.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb13.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb14.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb14.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb14.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:27:43-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb14</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb14</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb14</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>demonstration and poster session</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb14.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb14.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb15.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb15.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb15.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:27:54-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb15</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb15</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb15</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>demonstration and poster session</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb15.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb15.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb16.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb16.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb16.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:28:02-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb16</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb16</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb16</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>demonstration and poster session</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb16.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb16.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb17.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb17.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb17.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:28:09-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb17</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb17</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb17</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>demonstration and poster session</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb17.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb17.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb18.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb18.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb18.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:28:16-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb18</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb18</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb18</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>demonstration and poster session</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb18.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb18.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb19.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb19.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb19.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:28:25-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb19</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb19</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb19</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>demonstration and poster session</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb19.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb19.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb2.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb2.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb2.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:25:51-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb2</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb2</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb2</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>Brewster Kahle speaks while Ed Fox looks on</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb2.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb2.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb20.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb20.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb20.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:28:32-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb20</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb20</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb20</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>demonstration and poster session</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb20.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb20.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb3.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb3.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb3.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:25:59-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb3</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb3</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb3</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>a rapt and rather large audience</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb3.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb3.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb4.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb4.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb4.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:26:09-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb4</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb4</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb4</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>Jeff Young speaking as part of the panel on OAI</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb4.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb4.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb5.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb5.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb5.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:26:22-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb5</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb5</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb5</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>panelists representing the OAI</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb5.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb5.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb6.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb6.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb6.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:26:31-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb6</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb6</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb6</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>another audience shot</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb6.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb6.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb7.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb7.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb7.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:26:43-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb7</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb7</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb7</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>demonstration and poster session</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb7.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb7.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb8.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb8.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb8.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:26:51-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb8</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb8</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb8</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>demonstration and poster session</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb8.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb8.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb9.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb9.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200102dlb9.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:27:00-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200102dlb9</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200102dlb9</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-26</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlb9</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Two</subject>
+   <description>demonstration and poster session</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-25</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200102dlb/01dlb9.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlb9.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc1.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc1.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc1.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:24:17-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200103dlc1</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200103dlc1</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlc1</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Three</subject>
+   <description>SMETE Panel</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200103dlc/01dlc1.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlc1.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc10.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc10.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc10.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:25:28-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200103dlc10</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200103dlc10</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlc10</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Three</subject>
+   <description>coffee break</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200103dlc/01dlc10.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlc10.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc11.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc11.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc11.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:25:35-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200103dlc11</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200103dlc11</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlc11</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Three</subject>
+   <description>Pamela Samuelson, keynote speaker on Digital Rights Management</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200103dlc/01dlc11.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlc11.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc12.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc12.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc12.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:25:39-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200103dlc12</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200103dlc12</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlc12</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Three</subject>
+   <description>more of Pamela Samuelson</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200103dlc/01dlc12.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlc12.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc2.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc2.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc2.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:24:24-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200103dlc2</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200103dlc2</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlc2</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Three</subject>
+   <description>SMETE Panel</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200103dlc/01dlc2.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlc2.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc3.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc3.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc3.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:24:30-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200103dlc3</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200103dlc3</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlc3</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Three</subject>
+   <description>a typical paper session</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200103dlc/01dlc3.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlc3.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc4.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc4.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc4.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:24:42-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200103dlc4</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200103dlc4</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlc4</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Three</subject>
+   <description>registration desk during a quiet moment</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200103dlc/01dlc4.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlc4.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc5.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc5.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc5.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:24:51-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200103dlc5</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200103dlc5</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlc5</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Three</subject>
+   <description>hob-nobbing in the foyer, complete with wireless network access</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200103dlc/01dlc5.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlc5.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc6.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc6.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc6.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:24:58-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200103dlc6</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200103dlc6</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlc6</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Three</subject>
+   <description>Unmil Karadkar, networking coordinator at the coffee break</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200103dlc/01dlc6.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlc6.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc7.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc7.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc7.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:25:07-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200103dlc7</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200103dlc7</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlc7</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Three</subject>
+   <description>coffee break</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200103dlc/01dlc7.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlc7.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc8.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc8.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc8.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:25:15-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200103dlc8</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200103dlc8</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlc8</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Three</subject>
+   <description>coffee break</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200103dlc/01dlc8.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlc8.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc9.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc9.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200103dlc9.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:25:21-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200103dlc9</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200103dlc9</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dlc9</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Three</subject>
+   <description>coffee break</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200103dlc/01dlc9.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dlc9.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld1.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld1.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld1.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:20:39-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld1</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld1</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld1</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>the O-gauge model train ... some LoC people skirting the exhibit while others pay more attention to the food</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld1.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld1.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld10.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld10.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld10.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:21:53-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld10</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld10</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld10</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>more conference attendees</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld10.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld10.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld11.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld11.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld11.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:22:00-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld11</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld11</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld11</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>even more conference attendees</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld11.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld11.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld12.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld12.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld12.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:22:08-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld12</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld12</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld12</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>Ed Fox introducing the evening's activities</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld12.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld12.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld13.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld13.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld13.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:22:16-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld13</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld13</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld13</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>Dennis Kafura, chair of VT-CS, welcoming participants</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld13.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld13.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld14.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld14.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld14.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:22:26-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld14</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld14</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld14</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>Rob Acksyn speaking on the history of the JCDL merger</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld14.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld14.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld15.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld15.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld15.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:22:35-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld15</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld15</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld15</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>... and how Hector Garcia-Molina had sworn to "eat his slide" if the merger was ever pulled off ...</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld15.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld15.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld16.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld16.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld16.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:22:42-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld16</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld16</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld16</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>... and version 2 of the slide - a "slide cake"</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld16.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld16.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld17.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld17.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld17.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:22:49-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld17</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld17</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld17</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>... presented by Robert France</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld17.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld17.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld18.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld18.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld18.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:22:58-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld18</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld18</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld18</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>Rob Acksyn, the sponsor of the Vannevar Bush award, introducing the award</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld18.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld18.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld19.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld19.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld19.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:23:06-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld19</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld19</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld19</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>Christine Borgman speaking about the process of selecting the awardee</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld19.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld19.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld2.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld2.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld2.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:20:48-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld2</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld2</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld2</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>more of the train and more people</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld2.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld2.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld20.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld20.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld20.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:23:14-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld20</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld20</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld20</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>people looking on</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld20.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld20.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld21.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld21.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld21.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:23:22-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld21</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld21</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld21</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>more people looking on</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld21.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld21.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld22.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld22.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld22.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:23:30-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld22</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld22</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld22</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>even more people looking on</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld22.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld22.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld23.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld23.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld23.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:23:39-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld23</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld23</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld23</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>getting the award ready ...</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld23.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld23.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld24.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld24.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld24.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:23:47-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld24</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld24</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld24</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>presentation of the Vannevar Bush award</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld24.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld24.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld25.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld25.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld25.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:23:54-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld25</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld25</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld25</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>a few words from the awardee</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld25.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld25.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld26.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld26.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld26.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:24:01-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld26</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld26</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld26</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>Erich Neuhold, the man who brought everyone together</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld26.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld26.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld27.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld27.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld27.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:24:10-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld27</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld27</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld27</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>the winners of the Vannevar Bush award of 2001</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld27.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld27.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld3.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld3.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld3.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:20:56-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld3</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld3</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld3</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>students and student volunteers tucking in</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld3.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld3.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld4.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld4.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld4.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:21:05-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld4</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld4</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld4</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>Robert France and Christine Borgman</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld4.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld4.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld5.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld5.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld5.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:21:15-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld5</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld5</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld5</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>at the performance arena</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld5.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld5.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld6.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld6.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld6.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:21:23-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld6</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld6</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld6</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>and inside the main building</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld6.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld6.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld7.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld7.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld7.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:21:31-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld7</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld7</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld7</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>food, music and good company ...</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld7.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld7.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld8.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld8.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld8.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:21:38-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld8</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld8</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld8</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>the band hard at work at their Irish folk music</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld8.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld8.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld9.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld9.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200104dld9.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:21:45-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200104dld9</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200104dld9</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dld9</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Banquet</subject>
+   <description>conference attendees</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-26</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200104dld/01dld9.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dld9.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle1.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle1.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle1.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:19:42-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200105dle1</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200105dle1</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dle1</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Four</subject>
+   <description>Jim French and Unmil Karadkar over lunch</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-27</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200105dle/01dle1.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dle1.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle2.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle2.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle2.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:19:50-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200105dle2</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200105dle2</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dle2</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Four</subject>
+   <description>lunch break</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-27</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200105dle/01dle2.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dle2.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle3.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle3.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle3.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:19:58-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200105dle3</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200105dle3</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dle3</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Four</subject>
+   <description>lunch break</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-27</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200105dle/01dle3.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dle3.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle4.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle4.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle4.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:20:05-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200105dle4</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200105dle4</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dle4</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Four</subject>
+   <description>lunch break</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-27</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200105dle/01dle4.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dle4.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle5.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle5.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle5.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:20:12-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200105dle5</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200105dle5</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dle5</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Four</subject>
+   <description>the most exciting and possibly most spoken about aspect of the conference - wireless networking :)</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-27</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200105dle/01dle5.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dle5.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle6.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle6.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle6.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:20:17-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200105dle6</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200105dle6</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dle6</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Four</subject>
+   <description>Ed Fox seeking assistance from the able volunteers</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-27</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200105dle/01dle6.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dle6.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle7.oai
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle7.oai	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/import/oai/JCDLPICS/200105dle7.oai	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+
+<GetRecord xmlns="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/OAI_GetRecord.xsd">
+
+<responseDate>2003-12-04T22:20:29-05:00</responseDate>
+<requestURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu:80/~jcdlpix/cgi-bin/OAI1.1/jcdlpix.pl?verb=GetRecord&amp;metadataPrefix=oai_dc&amp;identifier=oai%3AJCDLPICS%3A200105dle7</requestURL>
+
+<record>
+<header>
+<identifier>oai:JCDLPICS:200105dle7</identifier>
+<datestamp>2001-06-27</datestamp>
+</header>
+<metadata>
+<dc xmlns="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xsi:schemaLocation="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/ http://www.openarchives.org/OAI/1.1/dc.xsd" >
+   <title>01dle7</title>
+   <creator>Hussein Suleman</creator>
+   <subject>JCDL Day Four</subject>
+   <description>conference staff hard at work in the office</description>
+   <publisher>JCDL</publisher>
+   <date>2001-06-27</date>
+   <type>image</type>
+   <format>image/jpeg</format>
+   <OrigURL>http://rocky.dlib.vt.edu/~jcdlpix/pictures/200105dle/01dle7.jpg</OrigURL>
+   <identifier>srcdocs/01dle7.jpg</identifier>
+   <language>en-us</language>
+   <rights>unrestricted</rights>
+</dc>
+</metadata>
+</record>
+
+</GetRecord>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/metadata/dublin.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/metadata/dublin.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/metadata/dublin.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1713 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet SYSTEM "http://www.greenstone.org/dtd/MetadataSet/1.0/MetadataSet.dtd">
+<MetadataSet contact="dcmi-feedback@dublincore.org" creator="Dublin Core Metadata Initiative" family="Dublin Core" language_dependent="label, definition, comment" lastchanged="Tue Sep 05 14:40:36 NZST 2006 - kjdon on kanuka" namespace="dc">
+    <!-- English Version sourced from http://www.dublincore.org/documents/dces/ -->
+    <SetLanguage code="en">
+        <Name language="en">Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, Version 1.1: Reference Description</Name>
+        <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.1 of the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set. This document supersedes the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, version 1.0. See the Dublin Core Home Page (http://dublincore.org) for further information about the workshops, reports, working group papers, projects, and new developments concerning the Dublin Core Metadata Element set</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Maori Version sourced from http://www.tki.org.nz/r/maori/pedagogy/dc_elements_m.php -->
+    <SetLanguage code="mi">
+        <Name>Dublin Core Huanga - Maori (He Tauira)</Name>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- French Version sourced from http://www-rocq.inria.fr/%7Evercoust/METADATA/DC-fr.1.1.html -->
+    <!--  by Anne-Marie Vercoustre, Inria -->
+    <SetLanguage code="fr">
+        <Name language="fr">ElÃ©ments de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es du Dublin Core, Version 1.1: Description de RÃ©ference</Name>
+        <Description language="fr">Ce document rÃ©sume les derniÃšres dÃ©finitions des Ã©lÃ©ments demÃ©tadonnÃ©es du Dublin Core originellement dÃ©finis dans le document[RFC2413]. Ces nouvelles dÃ©finitions seront officiellement connues comme la Version 1.1. Elles utilisent un standard dÃ©fini formellement pour la description d&apos;Ã©lÃ©ments de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es. Cette formalisation contribue Ã  amÃ©liorer la cohÃ©rence avec d&apos;autres communautÃ©s dÃ©crivant des mÃ©tadonnÃ©es et Ã  augmenter la prÃ©cision, la portÃ©e et la cohÃ©rence interne de la dÃ©finition des Ã©lÃ©ments du Dublin Core.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Russian Version sourced from -->
+    <!-- by Olga Barysheva, National Library of Russia -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ru">
+        <Name language="ru">ÐÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Dublin Core (ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐœÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŽÑÐ°) ÐÐµÑÑÐžÑ 1.1: Ð¡Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ</Name>
+        <Description language="ru">ÐÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐŸÐ±ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸÐ²Ð»ÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Dublin Core (ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐœÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŽÑÐ°), Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐŸÐœÐ°ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð² RFC2413 (ÐÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ Dublin Core ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐ¶ÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐŸÐ²). Ð­ÑÐž ÐœÐŸÐ²ÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŸÑÐžÑÐžÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÑÑÐœÑ ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐÐµÑÑÐžÑ 1.1.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Spanish Version sourced from http://www.rediris.es/metadata/. Please note that this is a translation for Dublin Core v1.0 -->
+    <!-- by Javi Masa, RedIRIS -->
+    <SetLanguage code="es">
+        <Name language="es">Elementos del conjunto de metadatas de Dublin Core: DescripciÃ³n de Referencia</Name>
+        <Description language="es">Este documento corresponde a una traducciÃ³n del original en lengua inglesa, con fecha 02/11/1997 que se encuentra en http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core_elements. Este documento es una descripciÃ³n de referencia de los elementos del conjunto de &quot;Dublin Core&quot;. Para mÃ¡s informaciÃ³n sobre reuniones de trabajo, documentos de trabajo, proyectos y nuevos desarrollos relacionados con el conjunto de elementos que aquÃ­ se describen consultar la &quot;Home Page&quot; de &quot;Dublin Core&quot; (http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core). Los elementos poseen nombres descriptivos que pretenden transmitir un significado semÃ¡ntico a los mismos. Para promover una interoperabilidad global, una descripciÃ³n del valor de algunos elementos prodrÃ¡ ser asociada a vocabularios controlados. Se asume que otros vocabularios controlados serÃ¡n desarrollados para asegurar esta interoperabilidad en dominios especÃ­ficos. Cada elemento es opcional y puede repetirse. AdemÃ¡s, los elementos pueden aparecer en cualquier orden. Aunque algunos entornos, como HTML, no diferencian entre mayÃºsculas y minÃºsculas, es recomendable escribir correctamente cada metadata segÃºn su definiciÃ³n para evitar conflictos con otros entornos, como XML (Extensible Markup Language) http://www.w3.org/TR/PR-xml</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Arabic Version sourced from http://haddouti.de/DC_arabic.html -->
+    <!-- maintained by Hachim Haddouti. -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ar">
+        <Name>Ø¯ØšÙÙÙ ÙÙØ±</Name>
+        <Description>ÙØ±Ø­Øš ØšÙÙ
+ ÙÙ ØµÙØ­Ø©  Ø¯ ØšÙÙÙ ÙÙ  Ø± ØšØ§ÙØ¹Ø±ØšÙ    ÙÙ  ÙØ°Ù Ø§ÙØµÙØ­Ø©  Ù ØšØ§ÙØªØ¹Ø§ÙÙ Ù
+Ø¹ Ø§ÙØ§Ø®ÙØ§Ù Ø§ÙØ¹Ø±Øš Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªØšØ§ØªØ Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø§ÙÙØŽØ±Ø Ø§ÙØšØ­ÙØ« Ø§ÙØ¹ÙÙ
+ÙØ© Ù    ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+ÙWorking Group On Multilingual Dublin Core (DC-International) Ø</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Chinese - Simplified Version from http://dc.library.sh.cn/DC/1-1.htm -->
+    <!-- by Liu Wei, Shanghai Library -->
+    <SetLanguage code="cn">
+        <Name>éœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ é1.1çïŒåèæè¿°</Name>
+        <Description>æ¬ææ¡£å
+³äºéœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ é1.1çæ¬çåèæè¿°ãæ­€æè¿°äžå·²ç»æäº€ç»ISOçšäºåœé
+æç¥šçNISOå®æ¹æ åä¿æäžèŽã    éœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®éæ¯äžç§è·šé¢åçä¿¡æ¯èµæºæè¿°æ åãè¿éçä¿¡æ¯èµæºè¢«å®ä¹äžºâä»»äœå
+·ææ è¯çäžè¥¿âãæ­€å®ä¹æ¥èªäºTim Berners-Leeç­äººæèçInternet RFC2396 &quot;Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax&quot;æä»¶ãéœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®çåºçšé¢åæ²¡ææ ¹æ¬çéå¶ã</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Czech Version from http://www.ics.muni.cz/dublin_core/DC-czech-1.1.html -->
+    <!-- Ustav vypocetni techniky Masarykovy univerzity v Brne -->
+    <SetLanguage code="cs">
+        <Name>Soubor metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core, verze 1.1: referenÄnÃ­ popis</Name>
+        <Description>Tento dokument je ÄeskÃœm pÅekladem anglickÃ© verze referenÄnÃ­ho popisu souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯  Dublin Core, verze 1.1 [DCEN1.1]. Tento dokument nahrazuje ÄeskÃœ pÅeklad souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core, verze 1.0 [DCCS1.0]. DalÅ¡Ã­ informace o pracovnÃ­ch seminÃ¡ÅÃ­ch (workshopech), zprÃ¡vÃ¡ch, studiÃ­ch pracovnÃ­ch skupin, projektech a dalÅ¡Ã­m vÃœvoji souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core najdete na domovskÃ© strÃ¡nce Dublin Core (http://purl.org/dc)</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Dutch Version from http://www.kb.nl/coop/donor/project-nl-index.html?/coop/donor/rapporten/DCsimpleformat.html -->
+    <!-- by ... -->
+    <SetLanguage code="nl">
+        <Name>Rapporten Dublin Core Simple Format</Name>
+        <Description>Dit document beschrijft welke Dublin Core metadata elementen er zijn en geeft een korte definitie van elk element. Voor uitgebreide uitleg en gebruik van de Dublin Core elementen wordt u verwezen naar de gebruikershandleiding. Deze vertaling geeft ook de keuzes aan voor standaarden (taalcodes, datum codes) die wij in DONOR verband gaan hanteren. In zoverre kan deze vertaling afwijken van het oorspronkelijke document &quot;Description of Dublin Core Elements&quot; http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core_elements&quot;</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Finnish Version from http://www.lib.helsinki.fi/dublin_core/dcref-fin.html -->
+    <!-- by Jani Stenvall and Juha Hakala, Helsinki University Library -->
+    <SetLanguage code="fi">
+        <Name/>
+        <Description/>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Interlingua Version sourced from http://www.nautilus.com.br/%7Eensjo/ia/purl.org/dc/documents/rec-dces-19990702.htm -->
+    <!-- by Emerson Jose` Silveira da Costa -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ia">
+        <Name>Collection de elementos de metadatos de Dublin Core, version 1.1: Description de referentia</Name>
+        <Description>Isto es un traduction de un Recommendation del Dublin Core Metadata Initiative. Le publication como un recommendation significa que le specificationes es stabile e su adoption es supportate per le communitate Dublin Core (http://purl.org/dc/).</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Marathi Version sourced from http://bioinfo.ernet.in/library/dc/ele.txt -->
+    <!-- by by Shubhada Nagarkar, Bioinformatics Centre, University of Pune -->
+    <SetLanguage code="mr">
+        <Name>à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿ à€žà¥à€ à€à€µà¥à€€à¥à€€à¥ à¥§.à¥§ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­ à€žà¥à€ªà€·à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£ à¥§.à¥§ à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿà€à€µà¥à€€à¥à€€à¥ à¥§.à¥§.</Name>
+        <Description>à¥§.à¥§ à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿ à€¹à¥ à€µà¥à€à€µà¥à€à€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€µà€¿à€·à€¯à€Ÿà€€à¥à€² à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€µà€Šà¥à€Šà€²à€à¥ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€Šà¥à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à€¹à¥.  à€¯à€Ÿà€€ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€®à¥à€¹à€£à€à¥ à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€²à€Ÿ à€à€³à€ à€à€¹à¥ à€
+à€žà€Ÿ à€à€žà€€à¥.  à€
+à€¶à€Ÿ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°à€à¥ à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€µà€°à¥à€² à€. à€à€«.à€žà¥. à¥šà¥©à¥¯à¥¬URI: Generic Syntax -- Tim Berners Lee et al. à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à¥à€£à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¹à¥ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥ à€µà€Ÿà€ªà€°à€€à€Ÿ à€¯à¥à€€à¥.  à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€žà€Ÿà€ à¥ à€à¥à€£à€€à€Ÿà€¹à¥ à€®à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€µ à€šà€Ÿà€¹à¥.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Vietnamese Version from Greenstone Vietnamese Language maintainer -->
+    <!-- by Cao Minh Kiem, National Centre for Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam-->
+    <SetLanguage code="vi">
+        <Name>Yáº¿u tá» SiÃªu dá»¯ liá»u Dublin Core, phiÃªn báº£n 1.1: Tham chiáº¿u</Name>
+        <Description/>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <Element name="Title">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Title</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A name given to the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Title will be a name by which the resource is formally known.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Taitara</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te ingoa ka tapaina tetahi rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ko te Taitara te ingoa ka mohio whanuitia te ingoa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Titre</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le nom donnÃ© Ã  la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, un titre sera le nom par lequel la ressource est officiellement connue.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐŒÑ, ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÑ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŒÑ, Ð¿ÐŸÐŽ ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ ÐŸÑÐžÑÐžÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÑÑÐµÐœ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">TÃ­tulo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">El nombre dado a un recurso, usualmente por el autor.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØ¹ÙÙØ§Ù</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ§Ø³Ù
+ ÙØ¹Ø·Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, Ù
+Ù ÙØšÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŽØ±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èµæºå</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµäºèµæºçåç§°ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èµæºåäžè¬æèµæºå¯¹è±¡æ­£åŒå
+¬åŒçåç§°ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">NÃ¡zev</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">JmÃ©no danÃ© zdroji.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">NÃ¡zev bude typicky jmÃ©no, pod nÃ­mÅŸ je zdroj oficiÃ¡lnÄ znÃ¡m.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Titel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De naam van de Internetbron. Meestal gegeven door de auteur, maker of uitgever</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Titulo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un nomine date al ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente se utiliza un nomine per le qual le ressource es formalmente cognite.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€ªà€°à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¯à¥ à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€žà€à€à¥à€·à€¿à€ªà¥à€€ ,  à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿà€à€€à€°à¥à€€  à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Nhan Äá»</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">TÃªn ÄÆ°á»£c gÃ¡n cho nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurrence">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Creator">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Creator</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity primarily responsible for making the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Creator include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Creator should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaihanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi, nana, na ratou ranei i matua oti ai te hanganga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaihanga. Ko te tikanga, ko te Kaihanga te ingoa ka whakamahia hei tohu i te putahi na ratou te hanganga.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">CrÃ©ateur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">L&apos;entitÃ© principalement responsable de la crÃ©ation du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples de CrÃ©ateur incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, un nom du CrÃ©ateur devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© pour dÃ©signer cette entitÃ©.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, ÐœÐµÑÑÑÐµÐµ Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐžÑÐœÑÑ ÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÑ Ð·Ð° ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Autor o Creador</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La persona u organizaciÃ³n responsable de la creaciÃ³n del contenido intelectual del recurso. Por ejemplo, los autores en el caso de documentos escritos, artistas, fotografos e ilustradores en el caso de recursos visuales.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØ§ØªØš Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø£ÙÙØ§  Ø¹Ù ÙØŽØŠ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ± Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ø¹ÙÙ Ø³ØšÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø«Ø§Ù , Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€ÙÙÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ØŠÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªÙØšØ© , Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØ§ÙÙÙ , Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµÙØ±ÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ØŠÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">åå»ºè
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">åå»ºèµæºå
+å®¹çäž»èŠèŽ£ä»»è
+ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åå»ºè
+çå®äŸå
+æ¬äžªäººïŒç»ç»ææé¡¹æå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒçšåå»ºè
+çåç§°æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">TvÅ¯rce</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita primÃ¡rnÄ odpovÄdnÃ¡ za vytvoÅenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady TvÅ¯rce zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no tvÅ¯rce.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Auteur of maker</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De auteur, maker of organisatie die primair verantwoordelijk is voor de intellectuele inhoud van het werk. Bijvoorbeeld auteurs in geval van geschreven documenten, artiesten, fotografen of illustrators in geval van visuele bronnen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Creator</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le entitate primarimente responsabile pro producer le contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de creator include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de creator pro indicar iste entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€šà€¿à€°à¥à€®à€Ÿà€€à€Ÿ, à€à€šà€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€šà€¿à€°à¥à€®à€Ÿà€£  à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.  à€²à¥à€à€, à€²à¥à€à€¿à€à€Ÿ,  à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥, à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ,  à€žà€à€ªà€Ÿà€Šà€, à€žà€à€ªà€Ÿà€Šà€¿à€à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">TÃ¡c giáº£</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">PhÃ¡p nhÃ¢n chá»u trÃ¡ch nhiá»m chÃ­nh trong viá»c táº¡o ra ná»i dung cá»§a nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PhÃ¡p nhÃ¢n trong tÃ¡c giáº£ cÃ³ thá» lÃ  tÃªn ngÆ°á»i, tÃªn cÆ¡ quan, tá» chá»©c chá»u trÃ¡ch nhiá»m vá» nÃŽi dung tÃ i liá»u</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurrence">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Subject">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Subject and Keywords</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The topic of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Subject will be expressed as keywords, key phrases or classification codes that describe a topic of the resource. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary or formal classification scheme.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaupapa</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te take/ nga take o te kaupapa, o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka whakaaturia te kaupapa o te rauemi e nga kupu matua, nga kimahi matua, nga tohu wehewehenga whakaahua ranei.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Sujet</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le sujet du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, le sujet sera dÃ©crit par un ensemble de mots-clefs ou de phrases ou un code de classification qui prÃ©cisent le sujet de la ressource. L&apos;utilisation de vocabulaires contrÃŽlÃ©s et de schÃ©mas formels de classification est encouragÃ©e.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ Ðž ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÐµ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¢ÐµÐŒÐ° ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ Ð²ÑÑÐ°Ð¶Ð°ÐµÑÑÑ Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐŸÑÑÑ ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ², ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÑÑÐ°Ð· ÐžÐ»Ðž  ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÐºÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ², ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÑÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÐŒÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑ
+ÐµÐŒÑ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Claves</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Los tÃ³picos del recurso. TÃ­picamente, Subject expresarÃ¡ las claves o frases que describen el tÃ­tulo o el contenido del recurso. Se fomentarÃ¡ el uso de vocabularios controlados y de sistemas de clasificaciÃ³n formales. Se pueden ver ejemplos de vocabularios controlados en: Controlled vocabularies, thesauri and classification systems available in the WWW. DC Subject</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§ÙØ±ØŠÙØ³ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ù
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±. ÙÙ
+ÙØ°Ø¬ÙØ§  ÙØ¹ØšØ± Ø¹Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ ØšØ§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+Ù
+ÙØªØ§Ø­  Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª  Ø§Ù Ø¬Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ  ØªØµÙ Ù
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ø§Ù Ù
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù ÙØ³ØªØ­Ø³Ù Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ù
+ÙØ±Ø¯Ø§Øª Ù
+Ø®Ø·Ø·Ø©Ù Ù
+Ø­ÙÙ
+Ø©  ÙØ§Ø¯ÙØ© ØªØµÙÙÙ ØŽÙÙÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">äž»é¢åå
+³é®è¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çäž»é¢æè¿°ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åŠæèŠæè¿°ç¹å®èµæºçæäžäž»é¢ïŒäžè¬éçšå
+³é®è¯ãå
+³é®å­ç­è¯­æåç±»å·ïŒæå¥œäž»é¢åå
+³é®è¯ä»åæ§    è¯è¡šæè§èçåç±»äœç³»äž­ååŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PÅedmÄt a klÃ­ÄovÃ¡ slova</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">TÃ©ma obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅedmÄt bude typicky vyjÃ¡dÅen pomocÃ­ klÃ­ÄovÃœch slov, klÃ­ÄovÃœch frÃ¡zÃ­ nebo klasifikaÄnÃ­ch znakÅ¯ popisujÃ­cÃ­ch tÃ©ma zdroje. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu prvku z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku nebo formÃ¡lnÃ­ho klasifikaÄnÃ­ho schÃ©matu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Onderwerp en trefwoorden</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het onderwerp van de Internetbron. Het onderwerp wordt beschreven in korte zinnen of door het gebruik van trefwoorden. Het gebruik van gecontroleerde trefwoorden of classificatie schema&apos;s wordt aanbevolen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Subjecto e parolas-clave</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le topico del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le subjecto es expresse per medio de parolas-clave, phrases-clave, o codices de classification que describe le topico del ressource. Le melior practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate o un schema formal de classification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€µà€¿à€·à€¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€µà€¿à€·à€¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ, à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€šà€žà€Ÿà€§à€šà¥ à€¯à€Ÿà€€à¥à€² à€à€¶à€¯ à€žà¥à€ªà€·à¥à€ à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à¥ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Š, à€µà€¿à€·à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€µà€°à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£ à€à€°à€€à€Ÿà€šà€Ÿ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Šà€žà€à€à¥à€°à€¹ à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Š à€à¥à€·à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€µà€Ÿà€ªà€° à€à€°à€Ÿà€µà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Chá»§ Äá»</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Chá»§ Äá» vÃ /hoáº·c Äá» má»¥c chÃ­nh cá»§a ná»i dung cá»§a nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Chá»§ Äá» ÄÆ°á»£c thá» hiá»n báº±ng tá»« khoÃ¡, cá»¥m tá»«, kÃœ hiá»u phÃ¢n loáº¡i, chá» sá» Äá» má»¥c,...VÃªn sá»­ dá»¥ng tá»« vá»±ng cÃ³ kiá»m soÃ¡t</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurrence">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Description">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An account of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Description may include but is not limited to: an abstract, table of contents, reference to a graphical representation of content or a free-text account of the content.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Whakaaturanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He whakaaturanga o nga kaupapa o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ka uru atu, engari ehara noa ko: te whakarapopototanga korero, te ihirangi, te tohutanga o te kaupapa ma te whakaahua, te whakaaturanga kore kupu ranei, o te kauapapa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une description du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Une Description peut contenir, mais ce n&apos;est pas limitatif: un rÃ©sumÃ©, une table des matiÃšres, une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une reprÃ©sentation graphique du contenu, ou un texte libre sur le contenu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¡ÐŸÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÐž ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐŸ (Ð¿ÐŸ ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÑÑÐž) Ð² Ð²ÐžÐŽÐµ: ÑÐµÑÐµÑÐ°ÑÐ°, ÐŸÐ³Ð»Ð°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ, ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐž ÐœÐ° Ð³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">DescripciÃ³n</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una descripciÃ³n textual del recurso, tal como un resumen en el caso de un documento o una descripciÃ³n del contenido en el caso de un documento visual.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØµÙ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ ÙØµÙ ÙØµÙ  ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, ÙÙØ¶Ù
+ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ®ØµØ§Øª ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙØ«Ø§ØŠÙ Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø§ÙØ§ØŽÙØ§Ø¡ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªÙØšØ© Ø§Ù ØªÙØµÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ØŠÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">è¯Žæ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çè§£é</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">è¯Žæå¯ä»¥å
+æ¬äœäžéäºä»¥äžå
+å®¹ïŒææãç®åœãå¯¹ä»¥åŸåœ¢æ¥æ­ç€ºå
+å®¹çèµæºèèšçæå­è¯Žæãæè
+äž    äžªæå
+³èµæºå
+å®¹çèªç±ææ¬æè¿°ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Popis</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">VysvÄtlenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Popis mÅ¯ÅŸe obsahovat (mimo jinÃ©): abstrakt, obsah, odkaz na grafickÃ© nebo volnÃ© textovÃ© vyjÃ¡dÅenÃ­ obsahu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Omschrijving</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een omschrijving van de inhoud van de Internetbron. Abstracts of inhoudsomschrijvingen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un description del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le description pote includer, ma non se limita a: summario, indice, referentia a un representation graphic del contento o un texto libere a proposito del contento.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€µà€°à¥à€£à€š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥, à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€šà€žà€Ÿà€§à€šà€Ÿà€à¥à€µà€°à¥à€£à€š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€šà€¿à€µà¥à€Šà€š, à€à€²à¥à€, à€à€¿à€€à¥à€°à€°à¥à€ª</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">MÃŽ táº£</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Má»t thÃŽng bÃ¡o lÃ m rÃµ ná»i dung cá»§a nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">MÃŽ táº£ cÃ³ thá» bao gá»m: tÃ³m táº¯t ngáº¯n gá»n. má»¥c lá»¥c, ThÃŽng tin tham chiáº¿u vá» báº£ng biá»i. vá» nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurrence">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Publisher">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Publisher</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity responsible for making the resource available.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Publisher include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Publisher should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaiwhakaputa</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi nana i whakaputa te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaiwhakaputa. Ko te tikanga, ka whakamahia te ingoa o te Kaiwhakaputa hei tohu i te putahi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Editeur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">L&apos;entitÃ© responsable de la diffusion de la ressource, dans sa forme actuelle, tels, un dÃ©partement universitaire, une entreprise.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples d&apos;Editeurs incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, le nom d&apos;une maison d&apos;Ã©dition devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© ici.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, ÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ Ð·Ð° Ð²Ð²ÐŸÐŽ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° Ð² ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Editor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">&gt;La entidad responsable de hacer que el recurso se encuentre disponible en la red en su formato actual, por ejemplo la empresa editora, un departamento universitario u otro tipo de organizaciÃ³n.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŽØ±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØŠØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø€ÙÙØ© Ø¹Ù ØµÙØ§Ø¹Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªÙÙØ± ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØªÙ Ø§ÙØ­Ø§Ø¶Ø±Ø©, Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø§ÙÙØŽØ±, ÙØ³Ù
+ Ø¬Ø§Ù
+Ø¹Ù Ø§Ù Ù
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§Ø¹Ù
+Ø§Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">åºçè
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">äœ¿èµæºæäžºå¯ä»¥è·åŸå¹¶å¯çšçèŽ£ä»»è
+ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åºçè
+çå®äŸå
+æ¬äžªäœïŒç»ç»ïŒææå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒåºè¯¥çšåºçè
+çåç§°æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Vydavatel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita odpovÄdnÃ¡ za zpÅÃ­stupnÄnÃ­ zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady Vydavatele zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no vydavatele.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Uitgever</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De entiteit die verantwoordelijk is voor het beschikbaarstellen van de Internetbron in de huidig vorm. Bijvoorbeeld een uitgeversbedrijf, een universiteitsafdeling.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Editor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un entitate responsabile pro disponibilizar le ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de editor include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de editor pro indicar le entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ  à€à€ªà€²à€¬à¥à€§ à€à€°à¥à€š à€Šà¥à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.à€ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€ , à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€š  à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ, à€žà¥à€µà€Ÿ    à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€² à€°à¥à€ªà€Ÿà€€  à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€à€à€à€°à€šà¥à€ à€µà€° à€à€ªà€²à€¬à¥à€§ à€à€°à¥à€š à€Šà¥à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">CÆ¡ quan xuáº¥t báº£n</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Tá» chá»©c chá»u trÃ¡ch nhiá»m lÃ m cho nguá»n tin nÃ y cÃ³ thá» truy xuáº¥t ÄÆ°á»£c</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ghi tÃªn cÃ¡ nhÃ¢n, tá» chá»©c cÆ¡ quan chá»u trÃ¡ch nhiá»m vá» xuáº¥t báº£n nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurrence">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Contributor">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Contributor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity responsible for making contributions to the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Contributor include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Contributor should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaiwhakaaro</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi nana, na ratou ranei nga whakakaupapatanga whakaaro o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaiwhakaaro. Ko te tikanga ka whakamahia te ingoa o te Kaiwhakaaro hei tohu i te putahi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Contributeur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une entitÃ© qui a contribuÃ© Ã  la crÃ©ation du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples de Contributeur incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, le nom d&apos;un contributeur devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© ici pour dÃ©signer l&apos;entitÃ©.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, Ð²ÐœÐµÑÑÐµÐµ Ð²ÐºÐ»Ð°ÐŽ Ð² ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Otros Colaboradores</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una persona u organizacion que haya tenido una contribuciÃ³n intelectual significativa en la creaciÃ³n del recurso pero cuyas contribuciones son secundarias en comparaciÃ³n a las de las personas u organizaciones especificadas en el elementeo Creator (por ejemplo, editor, ilustrador y traductor).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+ Ø§ÙØ§Ø®Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§ÙØºÙØ± Ù
+Ø°ÙÙØ± ØµØ±Ø§Ø­Ø© ÙÙ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù &quot; Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹ &quot; Ù Ø§ÙØ°Ù ÙØ¯Ù
+ Ù
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø§Øª ÙÙØ±ÙØ© ÙØ§Ù
+Ø© ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, ÙÙÙ Ù
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªÙØªØšÙÙ    Ø«Ø§ÙÙÙØ© Ù
+ÙØ§Ø±ÙØ© Ù
+Ø¹ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø£Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø°ÙÙØ±Ø© ÙØµØ§ ÙÙ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù &quot; Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØŽØŠ &quot; Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§Ù Ù
+ØµØ­Ø­, Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ±Ø¬Ù
+, Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ³Ø±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">å
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">å¯¹èµæºçå
+å®¹äœåºèŽ¡ç®çå
+¶ä»å®äœã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+çå®äŸå¯å
+æ¬äžªäººãç»ç»ææé¡¹æå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒçšå
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+çåå­æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PÅispÄvatel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita, kterÃ¡ pÅispÄla k vytvoÅenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady PÅispÄvatele zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no pÅispÄvatele.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Andere medewerkers</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een persoon of organisatie die een belangrijke bijdrage heeft geleverd, maar die secondair is aan de persoon of organisatie die bij &quot;Creator&quot; genoemd wordt. Gedacht kan worden aan editors, vertalers en illustrators.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Contribuente</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un entitate responsabile pro facer contributiones al contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de contribuente include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de contribuente pro indicar le entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label"> à€žà€¹à€¯à¥à€à€, à€žà€¹à€¯à¥à€à¥, à€žà€¹à€Ÿà€¯à¥à€¯à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€žà€à€à€²à¥à€€ à€à€°à€£à¥à¥à€Ÿà€ž  à€®à€Šà€€ à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à¥ à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.à€ à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥, à€žà¥à€µà€Ÿ, à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Äá»ng tÃ¡c giáº£</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">PhÃ¡p nhÃ¢n tham gia ÄÃ³ng gÃ³p vÃ o viá»c táº¡o ra ná»i dung cá»§a nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PhÃ¡p nhÃ¢n trong Contributor cÃ³ thá» lÃ  tÃ¡c giáº£ cÃ¡ nhÃ¢n hoáº·c cÆ¡ quan, tá» chá»©c, dá»ch vá»¥ (lÃ  tÃ¡c giáº£ táº­p thá») cÃ³ vai trÃ² quan trá»ng, song lÃ  vai trÃ² thá»© yáº¿u trong viá»c táº¡o ra ná»i dung. Nhá»¯ng phÃ¡p nhÃ¢n nÃ y khÃŽng ÄÆ°á»£c lá»±a chá»n ÄÆ°a vÃ o yáº¿u tá»  Creator (tÃ¡c giáº£)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurrence">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Date">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Date</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A date associated with an event in the life cycle of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, Date will be associated with the creation or availability of the resource.  Recommended best practice for encoding the date value is defined in a profile of ISO 8601 and follows the YYYY-MM-DD format.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ra</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He ra e whai panga ana ki te huringa ora o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka whai panga te ra ki te hanganga, te wateatanga ranei, o te rauemi. Ko te huarahi tino pai hei tohu i te uara o te ra (date value) kua whakaritea i roto i te whakaritenga IS0 8601 [W3CDTF], a, e whai atu ana ki te whakatakotoranga YYYY-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Date</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une date associÃ©e avec un Ã©vÃ©nement dans le cycle de vie de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, une date sera associÃ©e Ã  la crÃ©ation ou Ã  la publication d&apos;une ressource. Il est fortement recommandÃ© d&apos;encoder la valeur de la date en utilisant le format dÃ©fini par l&apos;ISO 8601 [W3CDTF] sous la forme AAAA-MM-JJ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ°ÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐ°ÑÐ°, ÑÐ²ÑÐ·Ð°ÐœÐœÐ°Ñ Ñ ÑÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐžÐµÐŒ Ð² Ð¶ÐžÐ·ÐœÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐžÐºÐ»Ðµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐÐ°ÑÐ° Ð°ÑÑÐŸÑÐžÐžÑÑÐµÑÑÑ Ñ ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÐŸÑÑÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. ÐÐ° Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÐºÐµ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐŸÐŽÐžÑÐŸÐ²ÐºÐž Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐžÐ»Ñ ISO 8601 (Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÑ ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐž W3C), ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐÐÐÐ-ÐÐ-ÐÐ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Fecha</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una fecha en la que el recurso se puso a disposiciÃ³n del usuario en su forma actual. Esta fecha no ha de confundirse con la que pertenece al elemento Coverage, que serÃ­a asociada con el recurso sÃ³lo en la medida en que el contenido intelectual estÃ¡ de algÃºn modo relacionado con esa fecha. Recomendamos la utiliazaciÃ³n de uno de los formatos definidos en el documento &quot;Date and Time Formats&quot;, http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime basado en la norma ISO 8601 que incluye, entre otras, fechas en el formato AAAA y AAAA-MM-DD. De esta forma la fecha 1994-11-05 corresponderÃ­a al 5 de Noviembre de 1994.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±Ø®</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹ÙÙ ØšÙÙØª ÙØŽØŠ Ø£Ù ØªÙÙØ± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ù ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØ§ ÙØ®ÙØ· ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§ØŠØ¯ ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© , Ù Ø§ÙØ° Ù ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù    ÙÙØ­Ù ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± ÙÙØ· Ù
+Ù ÙØ§Ø­ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙØ§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙÙÙ ÙÙØ¹Ø§ Ù
+Ø§ ÙÙ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®. Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø«Ø­Ø³ÙØ© ÙÙØ§Ø­Ø³Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹Ø§Ø±Ù Ø¹ÙÙÙ    Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙØªØ·ØšÙÙ ÙÙ Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø¯Ø© ÙÙ ØªØŽÙÙÙ (ISO 8601) ØµÙØºØ© ØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ (ISO 8601) Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§Ø­ØžØ© Ø§ÙÙÙÙØ© http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime, W3C. ÙÙÙ    ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙÙØ³Ù , Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§, ØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ 1994-11-04 ÙÙØ§ØžØ± ÙÙÙ
+ 5 ÙÙÙÙ
+ØšØ± 1994</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æ¥æ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">äžèµæºçåœåšæäž­çäžäžªäºä»¶çžå
+³çæ¶éŽã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæ¥æåºäžèµæºçåå»ºæåºçæ¥æçžå
+³ãå»ºè®®éçšçæ¥ææ ŒåŒåºç¬ŠåISO 8601 [W3CDTF]è§    èïŒå¹¶äœ¿çšYYYY-MM-DDçæ ŒåŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Datum</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Datum spojenÃ© s urÄitou udÃ¡lostÃ­ bÄhem existence zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Datum bude typicky spojeno s vytvoÅenÃ­m nebo zpÅÃ­stupnÄnÃ­m zdroje. DoporuÄenÃœ postup pro kÃ³dovÃ¡nÃ­ hodnoty data je definovÃ¡n v ISO 8601 [W3CDTF]: formÃ¡t RRRR-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Datum</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De datum van de totstandkoming of beschikbaarstelling van een Internetbron. Deze datum moet niet verward worden met de datum in &quot;Coverage&quot;. De datum in &quot;Coverage&quot; geeft de tijdsperiode van de inhoud van de Internetbron aan. Voorgeschreven wordt de ISO 8601 standaard voor datum, zoals beschreven in W3C Technical Note http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime. Hierin wordt het formaat YYYY-MM-DD beschreven. Het formaat YYYY-MM-DD wordt de voorgeschreven standaard. 3 September 1998 wordt in dit geval 1998-09-03.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Data</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un data associate a un evento in le cyclo vital del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le data es associate al creation o disponibilization del ressource. Le practica recommendate pro codificar le valor del datas es definite in un profilo de ISO 8601 [W3CDTF] e seque le formato AAAA-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€,  à€Šà€¿à€šà€Ÿà€à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€€à€¯à€Ÿà€° à€à¥à€²à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€  à€²à€¿à€¹à¥à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€žà¥à€µà€°à¥à€ª à€ à€µà€°à¥à€·. à€®à€¹à€¿à€šà€Ÿ. à€Šà€¿à€µà€ž à¥§à¥¯à¥«à¥Š. à¥Šà¥ª. à¥Šà¥ª</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Thá»i gian</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Thá»i gian liÃªn quan Äáº¿n vÃ²ng Äá»i cá»§a nguá»n tin (táº¡o láº­p, sá»­a Äá»i, v.v..)</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">NgÃ y thÃ¡ng cÃ³ thá» lÃ  thá»i gian liÃªn quan Äáº¿n viá»c táº¡o ra, hiá»u ÄÃ­nh hoáº·c lÃ m cho nguá»n tin tiáº¿p cáº­n ÄÆ°á»£c. Khuyáº¿n nghá» sá»­ dá»¥ng cÃ¡ch trÃ¬nh bÃ y thá»i gian theo tiÃªu chuáº©n ISO 8601 vÃ  theo khá» máº«u Bá»n sá» nÄm-hai sá» thÃ¡ng-hai sá» ngÃ y (YYYY-MM-DD)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurrence">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Type">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Resource Type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The nature or genre of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Type includes terms describing general categories, functions, genres, or aggregation levels for content. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the working draft list of Dublin Core Types). To describe the physical or digital manifestation of the resource, use the FORMAT element.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Tumomo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te ahua, te tu-ahuatanga ranei o nga kaupapa o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Kei roto i te Tumomo nga kupu whakaatu i nga wehewehenga whanui, nga aheinga, nga tu-ahuatanga, te whakaritenga ranei o nga taumata o te/ nga kaupapa. Ko te huarahi tino pai kua tohua, ko te tipako i tetahi uara mai i nga kupu kua whakaritea (hei tauira, ko te tauira rarangi e whakamahia ana o nga Dublin Core Types [DCT1]. Hei whakaatu i te whakatinanatanga o te rauemi, whakamahia ko te huanga WHAKATAKOTORANGA (FORMAT).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La nature ou le genre du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Type inclut des termes dÃ©crivant des catÃ©gories, fonctions ou genres gÃ©nÃ©raux pour le contenu, ou des niveaux d&apos;agrÃ©gation. Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la valeur du type dans une liste de vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ© (par exemple, la liste provisoire de Types du Dublin Core[DCT1]). Pour dÃ©crire la matÃ©rialisation physique ou digitale de la ressource, il faut utiliser l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Format.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÑÐžÑÐŸÐŽÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¶Ð°ÐœÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐµÑÐŒÐžÐœÑ, ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÑÐ²Ð°ÑÑÐžÐµ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐžÐµ ÐºÐ°ÑÐµÐ³ÐŸÑÐžÐž, ÑÑÐœÐºÑÐžÐž, Ð¶Ð°ÐœÑÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐŽÐžÐœÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ ÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐœÐž ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐµÐºÑÐ° ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ° Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ÐŸÐ² Dublin Core DCT1). ÐÐ»Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐžÐ·ÐžÑÐµÑ-ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Tipo del Recurso</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La categorÃ­a del recurso, por ejemplo pÃ¡gina personal, romance, poema, minuta, diccionario. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, Type deberÃ­a ser seleccionado de entre una lista de valores que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo. En http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Metadata/types.html se puede consultar el estado actual de la discusiÃ³n en torno a este tema.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÙÙØ¹ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ ÙØŠØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§ Ø§ÙØµÙØ­Ø© Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+, Ø±ÙØ§ÙØ© , ÙØ·Ø¹Ø© ØŽØ¹Ø±ÙØ© , ÙØ±ÙØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù , ØªÙØ±ÙØ± ÙÙÙ , Ù
+ÙØ§Ù , ÙØ§Ù
+ÙØ³ . Ù Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù    ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØ®ØªØ§Ø± Ø§ÙÙÙØ¹ Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© ÙØ§ÙØªÙ ÙÙÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§ Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èµæºç±»å</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çç¹åŸæç±»åã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èµæºç±»åå
+æ¬æè¿°èµæºå
+å®¹çäžè¬èçŽïŒåèœïŒç§å±ïŒæèç±»å±æ¬¡çæ¯è¯­ãå»ºè®®éçšæ¥èªäºåæ§è¯è¡š    äž­çåŒïŒäŸåŠDCMIç±»åè¯æ±è¡š[DCMITYPE]ïŒãèŠæè¿°èµæºçç©çææ°å­åè¡šç°åœ¢åŒïŒè¯·äœ¿çšâæ ŒåŒïŒFORMATïŒâå
+çŽ ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Typ zdroje</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Povaha nebo druh obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typ obsahuje termÃ­ny popisujÃ­cÃ­ obecnÃ© kategorie, funkce, druhy nebo agregaÄnÃ­ ÃºrovnÄ obsahu. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. pracovnÃ­ nÃ¡vrh seznamu TypÅ¯ Dublin Core [DCT1]). K popisu fyzickÃ© nebo digitÃ¡lnÃ­ reprezentace zdroje uÅŸijte prvek FormÃ¡t.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bestands type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het soort Internetbron, bijvoorbeeld home page, gedicht, working paper, technical report, essay, woordenboek etc. De DC working groups zijn momenteel bezig met twee voorstellen; een minimalist draft: http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Metadata/minimalist.html en een structuralist draft: http://sunsite.berkely.edu/Metadata/structuralist.html. Het wordt sterk aanbevolen om &quot;Type&quot; van deze lijsten te selecteren.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Typo del ressource</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le natura o genere del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le typo del ressource include terminos que describe categorias general, functiones, generes, o nivellos de aggregation pro le contento. Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le lista de schizzos de travalio de typos de Dublin Core [DCT1]). Pro describer le manifestation physic o digital del ressource, utiliza le elemento Formato.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€µà€°à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£, à€µà€°à¥à€à€µà€Ÿà€°à¥à€®à€§à¥à€¯à¥ à€à€à€Ÿà€Šà¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€šà¥à€à€Šà¥à€à€Ÿ à€®à¥à€à¥à€¯ à€à€à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Thá» loáº¡i</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">MÃŽ táº£ báº£n cháº¥t hoáº·c thá» loáº¡i cá»§a ná»i dung cá»§a nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">MÃŽ táº£ thá» loáº¡i cá»§a nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurrence">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Format">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The physical or digital manifestation of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, Format may include the media-type or dimensions of the resource. Format may be used to determine the software, hardware or other equipment needed to display or operate the resource. Examples of dimensions include size and duration. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the list of Internet Media Types [MIME] defining computer media formats).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Whakatakotoranga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te whakatinanatanga, te whakaputanga a-mati o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka taea te Whakatakotoranga te whakamahi hei whakarite i te rawa-ngohe (software), te rawa-maro (hardware), ma etahi taputapu ranei me matua whiwhi, hei whakahaere i te rauemi. Ko te rahi me te roanga etahi tauira hanga. Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua ko te tipako uara mai i tetahi whakaritenga kupu (hei tauira, te rarangi o nga Tumomo Papaho Ipurangi (Internet Media Types [MIME]) e whakaatu ana i nga whakatakotoranga papaho rorohiko.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La matÃ©rialisation physique ou digitale de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, Format peut inclure le media ou les dimensions de la ressource. Format peut Ãªtre utilisÃ© pour prÃ©ciser le logiciel, le matÃ©riel ou autre Ã©quipement nÃ©cessaire pour afficher ou faire fonctionner la ressource. Exemples de dimensions incluent la taille et la durÃ©e. Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la valeur du format dans une liste de vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ©(par exemple, la liste des types de media dÃ©finis sur Internet [MIME]).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð€ÐžÐ·ÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐµ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ ÑÐžÐ¿ Ð°ÑÐŽÐžÐŸÐ²ÐžÐ·ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÐž (ÐŒÐµÐŽÐžÐ°-ÑÐžÐ¿) ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐžÐœÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ Ð°Ð¿Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, Ð¿ÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŒÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÐµÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÐŸÑÑÐŽÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ, ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐŸÑÐ¿ÑÐŸÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÑ Ñ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐŸÐŒ. ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð²ÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐžÐœÑ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŒÐµÑ Ðž Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶ÐžÑÐµÐ»ÑÐœÐŸÑÑÑ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ° ÐÐµÐŽÐžÐ°-ÑÐžÐ¿ÐŸÐ² ÐÐœÑÐµÑÐœÐµÑ MIME, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐ¿ÑÑÑÐµÑÐœÑÐµ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÑ Ð°ÑÐŽÐžÐŸÐ²ÐžÐ·ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÐž).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Formato</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">El formato de datos de un recurso, usado para identificar el software y posiblemente, el hardware que se necesitarÃ­a para mostrar el recurso. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, los valores de Format deberÃ­an ser seleccionados de entre una lista de valores que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ù ØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù ØªØ³ØªØ®Ø¯Ù
+ ÙÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ ØšØ§ÙØšØ±Ù
+Ø¬ÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØšÙ
+Ø§ Ø§ÙØµÙØš ÙÙØ­Ø§Ø³ÙØš Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø£Ù ÙØ­ØªØ§Ø¬    ÙÙØ§ ÙØ¹Ø±Ø¶ Ø£Ù ØªØŽØºÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù, ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ØªØ®ØªØ§Ø± Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙØªÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§    Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æ ŒåŒ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºçç©çææ°å­è¡šç°åœ¢åŒã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæ ŒåŒå¯èœå
+æ¬èµæºçåªäœç±»åæèµæºçå€§å°ïŒæ ŒåŒå
+çŽ å¯ä»¥çšæ¥å³å®å±ç€ºææäœèµæºæé    çèœ¯ç¡¬ä»¶æå
+¶ä»çžåºè®Ÿå€ïŒäŸåŠå€§å°å
+æ¬èµæºæå çå­åšç©ºéŽåæç»­æ¶éŽãå»ºè®®éçšæ¥èªäºåæ§è¯è¡š    äž­çåŒïŒïŒäŸåŠInternetåªäœç±»å[MIME]å®ä¹è®¡ç®æºåªäœæ ŒåŒïŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">FormÃ¡t</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">FyzickÃ¡ nebo digitÃ¡lnÃ­ reprezentace zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicky mÅ¯ÅŸe FormÃ¡t obsahovat typ mÃ©dia nebo rozmÄry zdroje. FormÃ¡t lze pouÅŸÃ­vat k urÄenÃ­ softwaru, hardwaru nebo dalÅ¡Ã­ho zaÅÃ­zenÃ­ potÅebnÃ©ho k zobrazenÃ­ nebo k manipulaci se zdrojem. PÅÃ­klady rozmÄrÅ¯ zahrnujÃ­ velikost a dobu trvÃ¡nÃ­. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. seznam typÅ¯ internetovÃœch mÃ©diÃ­ [MIME] definujÃ­cÃ­ formÃ¡ty poÄÃ­taÄovÃœch mÃ©diÃ­).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het data formaat van het Internetbestand. Dit gegeven kan gebruikt worden om systeemvereisten (hard- en software) te identificeren die nodig zijn voor raadpleging of bediening van de Internetbron. &quot;Format&quot; is nog in ontwikkeling bij de DC workshop. Uit compatibiliteitsoverwegingen wordt aanbevolen formaatgegevens te selecteren uit een gecontroleerde lijst. Formaten kunnen van de Internet Media Types (MIME types) lijst gekozen worden: http://www.isi.edu/in-notes/iana/assignments/media-types/media-types</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Formato</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le manifestation physic o digital del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le formato pote includer le typo de medio o dimensiones del ressource. Le formato pote esser utilizate pro determinar le software o le equipamento necessari pro exhibir o operar le ressource. Exemplos de dimensiones include grandessa e duration. Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le lista de typos de medios de Internet [MIME] que defini formatos de medios).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ, à€šà€®à¥à€šà€Ÿà€¬à¥à€Š à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€žà¥à€µà€°à¥à€ª, à€°à€à€šà€Ÿà€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€°à¥à€ª à€à€žà¥ à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€à€°à¥à€ª, à€žà€à€à€£à€à¥à€¯ à€°à¥à€ª, à€µà€¿à€Šà¥à€¯à¥à€€ à€ªà€°à€®à€Ÿà€£à¥à€à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€žà€¹à€Ÿà€¯à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€šà¥ à€žà€à€à€£à€à¥à€à¥à€€ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Dáº¡ng máº«u dá»¯ liá»u</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">MÃŽ táº£ loáº¡i hÃ¬nh váº­t lÃœ hoáº·c sá» (Äiá»n tá»­) cá»§a nguá»n tin.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Vá» cÆ¡ báº£n, Yáº¿u tá» Format cung cáº¥p thÃŽng tin vá» váº­t mang tin cá»§a nguá»n tin náº¿u lÃ  nguá»n tin khÃŽng trá»±c tuyáº¿n. Yáº¿u tá» cÃ²n cung cáº¥p thÃŽng tin vá» kiá»u dá»¯ liá»u hoáº·c kÃ­ch thÆ°á»c, quy mÃŽ cá»§a nguá»n tin. Dáº¡ng máº«u cÃ³ thá» sá»­ dá»¥ng Äá» xÃ¡c Äá»nh pháº§n má»m, pháº§n cá»©ng hoáº·c thiáº¿t bá» khÃ¡c cáº§n thiáº¿t Äá» hiá»n thá» hoáº·c thao tÃ¡c vá»i nguá»n tin. Khuyáº¿n nghá» sá»­ dá»¥ng tá»« vá»±ng cÃ³ kiá»m soÃ¡t Äá» chá»n lá»±a thuáº­t ngá»¯ phÃ¹ há»£p (thÃ­ dá»¥ sá»­ dá»¥ng danh má»¥c tá»« chuáº©n tÃªn gá»i loáº¡i hÃ¬nh dá»¯ liá»u Internet (MIME) Äá» xÃ¡c Äá»nh dáº¡ng máº«u dá»¯ liá»u Äiá»n tá»­)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurrence">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Identifier">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Resource Identifier</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Recommended best practice is to identify the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system. Example formal identification systems include the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (including the Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), the Digital Object Identifier (DOI) and the International Standard Book Number (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Taututanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro e hangai ana ki te rauemi i roto i tetahi horopaki.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tautu i te rauemi ma tetahi aho (string), tau ranei, e hangai ana ki tetahi punaha taututanga okawa. Ko etahi punaha taututanga okawa ko te Taututanga Rauemi Orite (Uniform Resource Identifier - URI), te Taututanga Rauemi Tohu-wahi (Uniform Resource Locator - URL), Te Mea A-mati (Digital Object Identifier - DOI) me te Tau Pukapuka Aro Whanui o te Ao (International Standard Book Number - ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Identifiant</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence non ambiguÃ« Ã  la ressource dans un contexte donnÃ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© d&apos;identifier la ressource par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšre ou un nombre conforme Ã  un sytÃšme formel d&apos;identification. Exemples de systemes formels d&apos;identification incluent le &quot;Uniform Resource Identifier&quot; (URI) (qui inclut le &quot;Uniform Resource Locator&quot; (URL)), le &quot;Digital Object Identifier&quot;(DOI) et le &quot;International Standard Book Number&quot;(ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐŽÐœÐŸÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÐœÐ°Ñ ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐ° ÐœÐ° ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð² Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°Ñ
+ ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐµÐºÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ. ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÑÑ
+ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð£ÐœÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ Ð ÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° (URI), (Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ñ Ð£ÐœÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÑÐ¹ ÐÐŸÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ Ð ÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° URL), ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÐŠÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ° (DOI) Ðž ÐÐµÐ¶ÐŽÑÐœÐ°ÑÐŸÐŽÐœÑÐ¹ Ð¡ÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐœÐžÐ¶ÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐŸÐŒÐµÑ (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Identificador del Recurso</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Secuencia de caracteres usados para identificar unÃ­vocamente un recurso. Ejemplos para recursos en lÃ­nea pueden ser URLs y URNs (cuando estÃ©n implementados). Para otros recursos pueden ser usados otros formatos de identificadores, como por ejemplo ISBN (&quot;International Standard Book Number&quot; - NÃºmero Internacional Normalizado para Libros)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ù
+Ø¬Ù
+ÙØ¹Ø© Ø­Ø±ÙÙØ© Ø£Ù Ø±ÙÙ
+ ÙØ³ØªØ®Ø¯Ù
+ ÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§Ø­Ø¯ÙØ§ : Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ÙØ°Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙØŽØšÙÙØ©ØªØ¶Ù
+ ) URNs, URLs Ø¹ÙØ¯ ØšÙØ§ØŠÙØ§ (    ÙØ°ÙÙ ÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø§Ø¹ØªØšØ§Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹Ø±ÙØ§Øª Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ§Ø­Ø§Ø¯ÙØ© Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø§ÙØ±ÙÙ
+ Ø§ÙØ¯ÙÙÙ ÙØªØµÙÙÙ Ø§ÙÙØ§ØªØš (ISBN) Ù
+Ø±ØŽØ­Ø© ÙÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èµæºæ è¯ç¬Š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">åšç¹å®çèåŽå
+ç»äºèµæºçäžäžªæç¡®çæ è¯ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å»ºè®®å¯¹èµæºçæ è¯éçšç¬Šåæäžæ­£åŒæ è¯äœç³»çå­ç¬Šäž²åæ°å­ç»åãäŸåŠæ­£åŒçæ è¯äœç³»å
+æ¬ç»äžèµ    æºæ è¯ç¬Š(URI) (å
+æ¬åäžèµæºå®äœç¬ŠURL)ãæ°å­å¯¹è±¡æ è¯ç¬Š(DOI)ååœé
+æ åä¹Šå·(ISBN)ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">IdentifikÃ¡tor zdroje</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">JednoznaÄnÃœ odkaz na zdroj v rÃ¡mci danÃ©ho kontextu.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄuje se identifikovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯. PÅÃ­klady formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯ zahrnujÃ­ Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (vÄetnÄ Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), Digital Object Identifier (DOI) a MezinÃ¡rodnÃ­ standardnÃ­ ÄÃ­slo knihy (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bestandsidentificatie</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een unieke string of nummer ter identificatie van de Internetbron. Voorbeelden zijn URL&apos;s of URN&apos;s Andere voorbeelden zijn International Standard Book Number (ISBN) of International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Identificator del ressource</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia inambigue al ressource intra un date contexto.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Se recommenda identificar le ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o numero conforme a un systema formal de identification. Exemplos de systemas formal de identification include le Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (includente le Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), le Digital Object Identifier (DOI) e le International Standard Book Number (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€à€³à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€à€ à€
+à€°à¥à€¥à¥ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ, à€µà€¿à€¶à€¿à€·à¥à€  à€žà¥à€¥à€³,  à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€à€à€€à€°à€°à€Ÿà€·à¥à€à¥à€°à¥à€¯  à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à¥à€°à€®à€Ÿà€à€,  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€à€³à€ à€ªà€à€µà€¿à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€à€à€à€°à€šà¥à€ à€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Äá»nh danh</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Má»t tham chiáº¿u khÃŽng trÃ¹ng láº·p Äáº¿n nguá»n tin trong khung cáº£nh cá»¥ thá»</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Khuyáº¿n nghá» sá»­ dá»¥ng cÃ¡c Äá»nh danh nguá»n tin theo nhá»¯ng chuáº©n ÄÆ°á»£c cháº¥p nháº­n quy Äá»nh cho nhá»¯ng há» thá»ng Äá»nh danh hÃ¬nh thá»©c. ThÃ­ dá»¥ vá» há» thá»ng Äá»nh danh bao gá»m: Äá»nh danh Nguá»n tin thá»ng nháº¥t (Uniform Resource Identifier hoáº·c URI, trong ÄÃ³ cÃ³ Äá»nh vá» nguá»n tin thá»ng nháº¥t URL - Uniform Resource Locator, TÃªn nguá»n tin thá»ng nháº¥t URN - Uniform Resource Name vÃ  Äá»nh vá» nguá»n tin thá»ng nháº¥t á»n Äá»nh PURL - Persistent URL),  Äá»nh danh Äá»i tÆ°á»£ng sá» DOI (Digital Object Identifier), Chá» sá» sÃ¡ch chuáº©n quá»c táº¿ ISBN (International Standard Book Number),...</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurrence">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Source">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Source</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A Reference to a resource from which the present resource is derived.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">The present resource may be derived from the Source resource in whole or in part.  Recommended best practice is to reference the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Matapuna</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro ki tetahi rauemi koira te matapuna o te rauemi e tirohia ana.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Tera pea i puta te katoa, tetahi wahanga ranei o te rauemi, e tirohia ana, mai i te Matapuna rauemi. Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua ko te tohutoro ki te rauemi ma te aho, ma te tau ranei e hangai ana ki tetahi punaha taututanga okawa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Source</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une ressource Ã  partir de laquelle la ressource actuelle a Ã©tÃ© dÃ©rivÃ©e.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">La ressource actuelle peut avoir Ã©tÃ© dÃ©rivÃ©e d&apos;une autre ressource source, en totalitÃ© ou en partie. Il est recommandÃ© de refÃ©rencer cette source par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšre ou un nombre conforme Ã  un systÃšme formel d&apos;identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐœÐžÐº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¡ÑÑÐ»ÐºÐ° ÐœÐ° ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ, ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœ ÐœÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœ ÐžÐ· ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐœÐžÐºÐ° ÑÐµÐ»ÐžÐºÐŸÐŒ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÑÐœÐŸ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Fuente</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Secuencia de caracteres utilizado para identificar unÃ­vocamente un trabajo a partir del cual proviene el recurso actual. Por ejemplo, es posible usar Source con la fecha de 1603 como descripciÃ³n de una pelÃ­cula basada en una obra de Shakespeare, pero es preferible, en ese caso, usar Relation &quot;IsBasedOn&quot; con una referencia a un recurso distinto cuya descripciÃ³n contenga el elemento Date con valor 1603.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø«Ø§ÙÙ Ù Ø§ÙØ°Ù Ø§Ø³ØªÙ
+Ø¯ Ù
+ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ. Ù
+Ø¹ Ø£ÙÙ Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØµÙ ØšÙ Ø£Ù ØªÙØ¯Ù
+ Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§Ù
+Ù    Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø¹Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙØ· , ÙÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø£Ù ÙØ­ÙÙ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®, Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØŽØŠ , Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© , Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹Ø±Ù , Ø§Ù Ø§ÙØ© Ù
+ÙØ© - Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§Ø®Ø±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ÙÙ Ø¹ÙØ¯Ù
+Ø§ ØªØ¹ØªØšØ± Ù
+ÙÙ
+Ø© ÙØ§ÙØªØŽØ§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ , Ù ÙØ°Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙØµÙ Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙØªØ·ØšÙÙÙÙ Ø§Ø­Ø³Ù     Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹Ø§Ø±Ù Ø¹ÙÙÙ ØšØ§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æ¥æº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ç°æèµæºæ¥æºçåç
+§ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åœåèµæºå¯èœéšåæå
+šéšæºèªè¯¥å
+çŽ ææ è¯çèµæºïŒå»ºè®®å¯¹è¿äžèµæºçæ è¯éçšäžäžªç¬Šåæ­£åŒæ è¯ç³»    ç»çå­äž²åæ°å­ç»å ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Zdroj</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Odkaz na zdroj, z nÄhoÅŸ je popisovanÃœ zdroj odvozen.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PopisovanÃœ zdroj mÅ¯ÅŸe bÃœt zcela nebo zÄÃ¡sti odvozen ze zdroje uvedenÃ©ho v prvku Zdroj. DoporuÄuje se odkazovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bron</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Informatie over een tweede bron waar de huidige Internetbron is van afgeleid. Bij &quot;Source&quot; mag een datum, auteur of maker, formaat, identificatie of andere metadata voor de tweede bron worden ingevuld. Voorbeeld: het is mogelijk om een &quot;Source&quot; datum 1603 in een omschrijving van een 1996 film bewerking van een Shakespeare stuk te gebruiken. &quot;Source&quot; is niet bruikbaar wanneer de huidige bron de orginele is.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Fonte</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia a un ressource del qual se deriva le ressource presente.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le ressource presente pote derivar se del ressource-fonte in toto o in parte. Le practica recommendate es facer referentia al ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o un numero conforme a un systema formal de identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€à€à€®</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿ à€à€à€® à€žà€Ÿà€à€à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€à€à€
+à€°à¥à€¥à¥ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€, à€®à€Ÿà€žà€¿à€,  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿà€¯à€Ÿà€à€à€Ÿ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Nguá»n trÃ­ch</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Tham chiáº¿u vá» nguá»n gá»c mÃ  tá»« ÄÃ³ nguá»n tin hiá»n ÄÆ°á»£c mÃŽ táº£ ÄÆ°á»£c rÃºt ra hoáº·c táº¡o ra tá»« ÄÃ³</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurrence">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Language">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Language</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A language of the intellectual content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Recommended best practice for the values of the Language element is defined by RFC 1766 which includes a two-letter Language Code (taken from the ISO 639 standard, followed optionally, by a two-letter Country Code (taken from the ISO 3166 standard). For example, &apos;en&apos; for English, &apos;fr&apos; for French, or &apos;en-uk&apos; for English used in the United Kingdom.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Reo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te reo o te whakakaupapatanga o nga matauranga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua mo nga uara o te huanga Reo kua whakaritea ki te RFC 1766 [RFC1766] kei roto te Tohu Reo kupu-rua (two-letter Language Code) (no te aro whanui ISO 639 [ISO639], ka taea e tetahi tohu kupu-rua te whai atu (no te aro whanui ISO 3166) [ISO366]). Hei tauira, te &apos;en&apos; mo te English, te &apos;fr&apos; mo te French, &apos;te en-uk&apos; mo te English e whakamahia ana i Ingarangi (UK).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Langue</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La langue du contenu intellectuel de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© d&apos;utiliser comme valeur de l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Langue celles definies par la RFC 1766 [RFC1766] qui comprend un code de langage Ã  deux caractÃšres(venant du standard ISO 639 [ISO639]), Ã©ventuellement suivi d&apos;un code Ã  deux lettres pour le pays (venant du standard ISO 3166 [ISO3166] ou en franÃ§ais [ISO3166]). Par exemple, &apos;en&apos; pour l&apos;anglais, &apos;fr&apos; pour le franÃ§ais, ou &apos;en-uk&apos; pour l&apos;anglais utilisÃ© au Royaume-Uni.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº ÐžÐœÑÐµÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐµ RFC 1766 (Ð¢ÑÐ³Ðž ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ°), Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÐŒ ÐŽÐ²ÑÑ
+Ð±ÑÐºÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐŽ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ° (Ð²Ð·ÑÑÑÐ¹ ÐžÐ· ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐ° ISO 639 (ÐÐŸÐŽÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐŸÐ²)), Ð·Ð° ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÑÐµÑ (Ð¿ÑÐž ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÑÑÐž) ÐŽÐ²ÑÑ
+Ð±ÑÐºÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐŽ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÑ (Ð²Ð·ÑÑÑÐŒÐž ÐžÐ· ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐ° ISO 3166 (ÐÐŸÐŽÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°Ðœ)). ÐÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, &quot;en&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð°ÐœÐ³Ð»ÐžÐ¹ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, &quot;fr&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÑÐ°ÐœÑÑÐ·ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, &quot;en-uk&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð°ÐœÐ³Ð»ÐžÐ¹ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð² ÐÐµÐ»ÐžÐºÐŸÐ±ÑÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐž.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Lengua</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Lengua/s del contenido intelectual del recurso. Practicamente el contenido de este campo deberÃ­a coincidir con los de la RFC 1766 (Tags para la identificaciÃ³n de lenguas, http://ds.internic.net/rfc/rfc1766.txt); por ejemplo: en, es, de, fi, ja y zh.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØºØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ù ÙÙ ÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . ÙÙÙ
+Ø§ ÙØ§Ù  Ø¹Ù
+ÙÙØ§ , Ù
+Ø­ØªÙÙ ÙØžØ§ Ø§ÙØ­ÙÙ ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØªØ·Ø§ØšÙ Ù
+Ø¹ RFC 1766    ] Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ØªØ¶Ù
+ th, ja, fr, es, fi, de, en Ù zh ÙØ±Ù
+ÙØ² ÙÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ ØšØ§ÙÙØºØ© [</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">è¯­ç§</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æè¿°èµæºç¥è¯å
+å®¹çè¯­ç§ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å»ºè®®æ¬å
+çŽ çåŒéçšRFC 3066[RFC3066]ïŒè¯¥æ åäžISO 639 [ISO639]äžèµ·å®ä¹äºç±äž€äžªåäžäžªè±    æå­æ¯ç»æçäž»è¯­èšæ ç­Ÿåå­æ ç­ŸäŸåŠå
+æ¬âenâæâengâæ¥è¡šç€ºEnglish, &quot;akk&quot; æ¥è¡šç€º    &quot;en-GB&quot;è¡šç€ºè±åœè±è¯­ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Jazyk</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Jazyk intelektuÃ¡lnÃ­ho obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄenÃœ postup pro hodnoty prvku Jazyk je definovÃ¡n v RFC 1766 [RFC1766]: dvouznakovÃœ kÃ³d jazyka (pÅevzatÃœ z normy ISO 639 [ISO639]) volitelnÄ nÃ¡sledovanÃœ dvouznakovÃœm kÃ³dem zemÄ (pÅevzatÃœm z normy ISO 3166 [ISO3166]). NapÅÃ­klad &apos;en&apos; pro angliÄtinu, &apos;fr&apos; pro francouzÅ¡tinu, &apos;cs&apos; pro ÄeÅ¡tinu, nebo &apos;en-uk&apos; pro angliÄtinu uÅŸÃ­vanou ve SpojenÃ©m krÃ¡lovstvÃ­.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Taal</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De taal waarin het document is beschreven. Voorgeschreven wordt de ISO639-1 norm, een twee karakter taalcode van de ISO 639(639-1 en 639-2) norm. Taalcodes kunnen van een lijst worden gekozen: http://www.ics.uci.edu/pub/ietf/http/related/iso639.txt, Eventueel kan ISO3166 (landencodes) gebruikt worden om aan te geven in welk gebied de taal wordt gesproken. Deze kunnen ook van een lijst worden gekozen:  http://www.ics.uci.edu/pub/ietf/http/related/iso3166.txt.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Lingua</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le lingua del contento intellectual del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le practica recommendate pro le valores del elemento lingua es definite per RFC 1766 [RFC1766], que include un codice de lingua de duo litteras (prendite del standard ISO 639 [ISO639]), sequite optionalmente per un codice de pais de duo litteras (prendite del standard ISO 3166 [ISO3166]). Per exemplo, &apos;ia&apos; pro interlingua, &apos;fr&apos; pro francese, o &apos;en-uk&apos; pro le anglese del Regno Unite.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€®à€°à€Ÿà€ à¥ - à€­à€Ÿà€°à€€à¥à€¯ à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">NgÃŽn ngá»¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">NgÃŽn ngá»¯ cá»§a chÃ­nh vÄn cá»§a ná»i dung cá»§a nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurrence">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Relation">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A reference to a related resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Recommended best practice is to reference the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Whai Panga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro ki tetahi rauemi whai panga.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tohutoro ki te rauemi ma te aho, te tau ranei, e hangai ana ki te punaha taututanga okawa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une autre ressource qui a un rapport avec cette ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© de rÃ©fÃ©rencer cette ressource par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšres ou un numÃ©ro conforme Ã  un systÃšme formel d&apos;identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÐœÐŸÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">RelaciÃ³n</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un identificador de un segundo recurso y su relaciÃ³n con el recurso actual. Este elemento permite enlazar los recursos relacionados y las descripciones de los recursos. Por ejemplo: IsVersionOf - Incluye la ediciÃ³n de un trabajo, IsBasedOn - La traducciÃ³n de un trabajo, IsPartOf - Un capÃ­tulo de un libro, IsFormatOf - Un mecanismo de transformaciÃ³n de un conjunto de datos en una imagen. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, las relaciones deberÃ­an ser seleccionadas de una lista de elementos que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ø§ Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ÙÙ Ù Ø¹ÙØ§ÙØªÙ ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ . ÙØ³Ù
+Ø­ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù ØšØªÙØ¶ÙØ­ Ø§ÙØ±ÙØ§ØšØ· ØšÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹ÙÙØ©     ØšØšØ¹Ø¶ÙØ§ Ù ØªÙØµÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ØªØ¶Ù
+ Ø·ØšØ¹Ø© Ø§ÙØ¹Ù
+Ù ) ÙØ³Ø®Ø© Ù
+Ù ( ØªØ±Ø¬Ù
+Ø© Ø¹Ù
+Ù ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ ( ÙØµÙ Ù
+Ù ÙØªØ§Øš ) Ø¬Ø²Ø¡ Ù
+Ù (    Ù ØªØ­ÙÙÙÙ Ù
+ÙÙØ§ÙÙÙÙØ© ÙÙ
+Ø¬Ù
+ÙØ¹Ø© Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§ØªÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ ØµÙØ±Ø© ) ØµÙØºØ© Ù
+Ù ( Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù , ÙØ¬Øš Ø§Ø®ØªÙØ§Ø± Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ§Øª Ù
+Ù    Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙØªÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§ Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">å
+³è</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æ¶åççžå
+³èµæºã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èåœçžå
+³èµæºæ¶ïŒå»ºè®®äœ¿çšç¬Šåæ­£åŒæ è¯ç³»ç»çå­ç¬Šäž²æè
+æ°å­ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Vztah</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Odkaz na pÅÃ­buznÃœ zdroj.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄuje se odkazovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Relatie</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een identificatie van een tweede bron en de relatie met de huide Internetbron. Voorbeelden zijn een editie van een werk (IsVersionOf), een vertaling van een werk (IsBasedOn), een hoofdstuk van een boek (IsPartOf) en een mechanische transformatie van een dataset in een plaatje (IsFormatOf). De DC Working Groups zijn bezig met een lijst met de meest verwachte relaties. Aanbevolen wordt om de relaties van deze lijst te gebruiken: http://purl.oclc.org/metadata/dublin_core/wrelationdraft.html.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="definition">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia a un ressource correlate.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le practica recommendate es facer referentia al ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o numero conforme a un systema de identification formal.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€šà€Ÿà€€à¥ , à€žà€à€¬à€à€§</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¶à¥ à€žà€à€¬à€à€§ à€Šà€Ÿà€à€µà€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ(URL)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Quan há»</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Tham chiáº¿u Äáº¿n cÃ¡c nguá»n tin liÃªn quan Äáº¿n nguá»n Äang mÃŽ táº£</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurrence">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Coverage">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Coverage</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The extent or scope of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Coverage will typically include spatial location (a place name or geographic coordinates), temporal period (a period label, date, or date range) or jurisdiction (such as a named administrative entity). Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the Thesaurus of Geographic Names [TGN]) and that, where appropriate, named places or time periods be used in preference to numeric identifiers such as sets of coordinates or date ranges.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kapitanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te roanga, te whanuitanga ranei o te whakakaupapatanga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka uru atu te wahi mokowa (te ingoa o tetahi wahi, whakapiritanga matawhenua ranei), whakaritenga wa (he tapatanga wa (period label, ra, whakatakotoranga whanui o nga ra), te whakaritenga ture (penei i te putahi whakahaere). Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tipako uara mai i tetahi whakaritenga kupu (hei tauira, i tetahi Puna Kupu Ingoa Matawhenua (Geographic Names [TGN] i nga wahi tika, ko nga wahi me nga whakaritenga wa ka whakamahia i mua i te whakamahitanga o nga taututanga tau penei i nga huinga whakapiritanga me nga whakatakotoranga whanui o nga ra.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Couverture</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La portÃ©e ou la couverture spatio-temporelle de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">La couverture typiquement inclut une position gÃ©ographique (le nom d&apos;un lieu ou ses coordonnÃ©es), une pÃ©riode de temps (un nom de pÃ©riode, une date, ou un intervalle de temps) ou une juridiction (telle que le nom d&apos;une entitÃ© administrative). Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la  valeur de Couverture dans un vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ© (par exemple, un thÃ©saurus de noms gÃ©ographiques, comme[TGN]) et, quand cela est appropriÃ©, des noms de lieux ou de pÃ©riodes plutÃŽt que des identifiants numÃ©riques tels que des coordonnÃ©es ou des intervalles de dates. </Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑ
+Ð²Ð°Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÑÐŸÑÑÐ¶ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÑ Ðž Ð³ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑ
+Ð²Ð°Ñ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐºÐœÐŸÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐ¶ÐŽÐµÐœÐžÐµ (ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸÑÑÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð³ÐµÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÐµ ÐºÐŸÐŸÑÐŽÐžÐœÐ°ÑÑ), Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŒÐµÐ¶ÑÑÐŸÐº (ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÐµÑÐžÐŸÐŽÐ°, ÐŽÐ°ÑÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐŽ ÐŽÐ°Ñ) ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐžÑÐŽÐžÐºÑÐžÑ (ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐµÐŽÐžÐœÐžÑÑ Ð°ÐŽÐŒÐžÐœÐžÑÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐ²ÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ). ÐÐ° Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÐºÐµ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, Ð¢ÐµÐ·Ð°ÑÑÑÑÐ° Ð³ÐµÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÑ
+ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ TGN), Ðž, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐŸ ÑÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸ, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸÑÐŽÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÑÐŒ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸÑÑÐµÐ¹ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŒÐµÐ¶ÑÑÐºÐŸÐ² Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸ ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ², ÐºÐ°Ðº, ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒ ÐºÐŸÐŸÑÐŽÐžÐœÐ°Ñ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÑÐŽÐŸÐ².</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Cobertura</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La caracterÃ­stica de cobertura espacial y/o temporal del contenido intelectual del recurso. La cobertura espacial se refiere a una regiÃ³n fÃ­sica (por ejemplo, sector celestial); uso de coordenadas (por ejemplo, longitud y latitud) o nombres de lugares extraidos de una lista controlada. La cobertura temporal se refiere al contenido del recurso en vez de a cuando fue creado o puesto accesible ya que este Ãºltimo pertenece al elemento Date. Se usa el mismo formato basado en http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØ®ØµØ§ØŠØµ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§ÙÙØ© Ø§Ù Ø§ÙØ²Ù
+ÙÙØ© ÙÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§ÙÙØ© ØªØŽÙØ± Ø§ÙÙ Ø¬ÙØ© Ø·ØšÙØ¹ÙØ© )Ù
+Ø«Ù , ÙØ·Ø§Ø¹ Ø³Ù
+Ø§ÙÙ (    Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ø§ÙØ§Ø­Ø¯Ø§Ø«ÙØ§Øª ) Ù
+Ø«Ù  Ø®Ø· Ø§ÙØ·ÙÙ Ù Ø®Ø· Ø§ÙØ¹Ø±Ø¶ ( ÙÙ Ø£Ø³Ù
+Ø§Ø¡ Ø§Ù
+ÙÙØ© Ù
+Ø³ØªØ­ÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªØ¬ÙØ§Øª ØšØ§ÙÙØ§Ù
+Ù . Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ²Ù
+ÙÙØ©    Ø«Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙÙ Ù
+Ø§ ÙØ±Ø¬Ø¹ Ø§ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ù ÙÙØ³ Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªÙ ØªÙ
+ ØªÙÙÙØ±Ù ) Ø§ÙØ§Ø®ÙØ± ÙØªØ¹ÙÙ ØšØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® ( Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ ÙÙØ³ ØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®  Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª    ) Ø¹Ø§Ø¯Ø© Ù
+Ø¯Ù ] ( ØµÙØ§ØºØ§Øª Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ (ISO 8601 Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§Ø­ØžØ© Ø§ÙÙÙÙØ© [http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime, W3C    ÙÙ
+Ø§ ÙÙ Ù
+ÙØµÙ ØšÙ ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§Ù ÙØªØ±Ø§Øª Ø²Ù
+ÙÙØ© Ù
+Ù ÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ù
+Ø³ØªØ­ÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªØ¬ÙØ§Øª ØšØ§ÙÙØ§Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èŠçèåŽ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹ææ¶åçå€å»¶äžèŠçèåŽ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èŠçèåŽäžè¬å
+æ¬ç©ºéŽäœçœ®ïŒäžäžªå°åæå°çåæ ïŒãæ¶éŽåºéŽïŒäžäžªæ¶éŽæ è¯ïŒæ¥ææäžäžªæ¥æè    åŽïŒãæè
+æéïŒæ¯åŠåœåçææå®äœïŒæšèèŠçèåŽæå¥œæ¯åèªäºäžäžªåæ§è¯è¡šïŒäŸåŠå°åè¯åº    [TGN]ïŒïŒå¹¶åºå°œå¯èœå°äœ¿çšç±æ°å­è¡šç€ºçåæ ææ¥æåºéŽæ¥æè¿°å°åäžæ¶éŽæ®µã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PokrytÃ­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Rozsah nebo zÃ¡bÄr obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PokrytÃ­ bude typicky obsahovat prostorovÃ© umÃ­stÄnÃ­ (jmÃ©no mÃ­sta nebo zemÄpisnÃ© souÅadnice), ÄasovÃ© obdobÃ­ (oznaÄenÃ­ obdobÃ­, datum nebo ÄasovÃœ interval) nebo jurisdikci (napÅ. jmÃ©no administrativnÃ­ jednotky). DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. Thesaurus of Geographic Names [TGN]) a tam, kde je to vhodnÃ©, uvÃ¡dÄt mÃ­sta nebo ÄasovÃ© Ãºseky spÃ­Å¡e jmÃ©nem neÅŸ ÄÃ­selnÃœmi identifikÃ¡tory jako jsou soubory souÅadnic nebo ÄasovÃ© intervaly.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Dekking</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De ruimtelijke of tijdelijke karakteristieken van de intellectuele inhoud van de Internetbron. Ruimtelijke dekking verwijst naar een geografisch gebied. Gebruik coordinaten (longitude (lengtegraad) en latitude (breedtegraad)) of plaatsnamen die van een gecontroleerde lijst komen of volledig uitgeschreven zijn. Dekking in de tijd geeft de tijdsperiode aan waarop de inhoud van de Internetbron betrekking heeft en niet wanneer de Internetbron is gemaakt of beschikbaar is gesteld (dit laatste hoort ingevult te worden bij &quot;Date&quot;). Gebruik dezelfde datum/tijd formaat als bij &quot;Date&quot;; W3C Technical Note http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime of tijdsperioden die van een gecontroleerde lijst komen of volledig uitgeschreven zijn. Coverage is in ontwikkeling bij de Dublin Core Working group http://www.alexandria.ucsb.edu/docs/metadata/dc_coverage.html.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Copertura</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le extension physic o abstracte del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le copertura typicamente include un location spatial (un nomine de localitate o coordinatas geographic), un periodo de tempore (un etiquetta de periodo, data, o gamma de datas), o un jurisdiction (tal como un entitate administrative nominate). Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le Thesaurus of Geographical Names [TGN]) e que, quando appropriate, localitates o periodos de tempore nominate sia utilizate in preferentia a identificatores numeric tales como collectiones de coordinatas o gammas de datas.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€­à¥à€à¥à€²à€¿à€  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€­à¥à€à¥à€²à€¿à€ à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Pháº¡m vi bao quÃ¡t</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">MÃŽ táº£ má»©c Äá» bao quÃ¡t cá»§a ná»i dung cá»§a nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Pháº¡m vi bao quÃ¡t cÃ³ thá» lÃ  vá» pháº¡m vi khÃŽng gian (tÃªn Äá»a danh, toáº¡ Äá» khÃŽng gian,..), thá»i gian (giai Äoáº¡n, chuá»i ngÃ y thÃ¡ng, ...), pháº¡m vi vá» tÃ i phÃ¡n (tÃªn lÃ£nh thá», nÆ°á»c,..). Khuyáº¿n nghá» sá»­ dá»¥ng tá»« vá»±ng cÃ³ kiá»m soÃ¡t Äá» chá»n lá»±a thuáº­t ngá»¯ phÃ¹ há»£p. ThÃ­ dá»¥ sá»­ dá»¥ng tá»« Äiá»n tá»« chuáº©n vá» tÃªn Äá»a lÃœ, tÃªn Äá»a danh,...</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurrence">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Rights">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Rights Management</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information about rights held in and over the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Rights element will contain a rights management statement for the resource, or reference a service providing such information. Rights information often encompasses Intellectual Property Rights (IPR), Copyright, and various Property Rights. If the Rights element is absent, no assumptions can be made about the status of these and other rights with respect to the resource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Motika</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ko nga mohiohio ki nga motika o tetahi rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, kei te huanga Motika e pupuri ana he korero mo te whakaritenga motika mo te rauemi, he ratonga tohutoro e whakarato ana ranei i enei tumomo mohiohio. He nui nga wa, puta ai i roto i te mohiohio Motika te Mana Whakairo Hinegaro (Intellectual Property Rights - (IPR)), te Manatarua me nga Tuahua Mana Taonga (Property Rights). Ki te kore te huanga Motika, kaore e taea te pohehe noa ki te mana o enei, nga motika ranei e pa ana ki te rauemi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Droits</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information sur les droits sur et au sujet de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, un Ã©lÃ©ment Droits contiendra un Ã©tat du droit Ã  gÃ©rer une ressource, ou la refÃ©rence Ã  un service fournissant cette information. Ces droits souvent couvrent les droits de propriÃ©tÃ© intellectuelle (IPR), Copyright, et divers droits de propriÃ©tÃ©. Si l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Droits est absent, aucune hypothÃšse ne peut Ãªtre faite sur l&apos;Ã©tat de ces droits, ou de tout autre, par rapport Ã  la ressource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐµ ÑÐµÐ³ÑÐ»ÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐ°ÑÑÑ Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐž Ðž Ð²ÐœÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð° ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐœÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ
+, ÑÐµÐ³ÑÐ»ÐžÑÑÑÑÐžÑ
+ ÑÑÐœÐºÑÐžÐŸÐœÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÑ ÐœÐ° ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐŸÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÑÑÑ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ. ÐÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²Ð°Ñ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐ²ÐµÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŸ ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+ ÐžÐœÑÐµÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÐž, ÐÐ²ÑÐŸÑÑÐºÐŸÐŒ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ðµ Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ ÐÐŒÑÑÐµÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+. ÐÑÑÑÑÑÑÐ²ÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð° ÐœÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ°ÐºÐžÑ
+-Ð»ÐžÐ±ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÑÐµ Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+, ÐºÐ°ÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÑ
+ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Derechos</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una referencia (URL, por ejemplo) para una nota sobre derechos de autor, para un servicio de gestiÃ³n de derechos o para un servicio que darÃ¡ informaciÃ³n sobre tÃ©rminos y condiciones de acceso a un recurso. Una especificaciÃ³n formal del elemento Rights se encuentra catualmente en discusiÃ³n y por lo tanto su uso se considera experimental.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø© Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© , Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ù
+Ø±ØªØšØ· ØšØ§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø© Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© , Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ù
+Ø±ØªØšØ· ØšØ®Ø¯Ù
+Ø© ØªÙØ¯Ù
+ Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø¹Ù Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æé</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æå
+³èµæºæ¬èº«ææçæè¢«èµäºçæéä¿¡æ¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæéå
+çŽ åºå
+æ¬äžäžªå¯¹èµæºçæéå£°æïŒæè
+æ¯å¯¹æäŸè¿äžä¿¡æ¯çæå¡çåç
+§ãæéäžè¬    å
+æ¬ç¥è¯äº§æ(IPR)ïŒçææå
+¶ä»åç§åæ ·çäº§æãåŠææ²¡ææéå
+çŽ çæ æ³šïŒäžå¯ä»¥å¯¹äžèµæºçžå
+³    çäžè¿°æå
+¶ä»æå©çæ
+åµäœåºä»»äœåå®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PrÃ¡va</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Informace o prÃ¡vech vztahujÃ­cÃ­ch se k popisovanÃ©mu zdroji.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Prvek PrÃ¡va bude typicky obsahovat ustanovenÃ­ o sprÃ¡vÄ autorskÃœch/vlastnickÃœch prÃ¡v ke zdroji nebo odkaz na sluÅŸbu poskytujÃ­cÃ­ takovÃ©to informace. Informace o prÃ¡vech Äasto zahrnujÃ­ prÃ¡va duÅ¡evnÃ­ho vlastnictvÃ­ (IPR), autorskÃ© prÃ¡vo a rÅ¯znÃ¡ vlastnickÃ¡ prÃ¡va. JestliÅŸe prvek PrÃ¡va chybÃ­, nelze odvozovat ÅŸÃ¡dnÃ© pÅedpoklady o stavu tÄchto a jinÃœch prÃ¡v vztahujÃ­cÃ­ch se k popisovanÃ©mu zdroji.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Copyright</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een copyright verklaring of een link naar een copyright verklaring of een link naar een service die informatie geeft over de copyright van de Internetbron.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Gestion de derectos</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information super derectos detenite super e a proposito del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le elemento derectos continera un declaration de gestion de derectos pro le ressource, o un referentia a un servicio que provide tal information. Information de derectos frequentemente involve derectos de proprietate intellectual (IPR), copyright e varie derectos de proprietate. Si le elemento Derectos es absente, necun hypothese pote esser facite quanto al stato de iste e altere derectos concernente ressource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€¬à¥à€§à¥à€Šà€¿à€ à€žà€à€ªà€Šà¥à€à€Ÿà€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€žà¥à€µà€€à€à€¹à€Ÿà€à¥ à€²à¥à€à€š à€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€š à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€° à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€¿à€€ à€à€°à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€²à¥à€à€ à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€²à¥à€à€¿à€à¥à€à€Ÿ à€¬à¥à€§à¥à€Šà€¿à€ à€žà€à€ªà€Šà¥à€à€Ÿà€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Quyá»n</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ThÃŽng tin vá» cÃ¡c quyá»n cÃ³ ÄÆ°á»£c Äá»i vá»i nguá»n tin hoáº·c Äá»i vá»i thÃŽng tin.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Yáº¿u tá» Quyá»n chá»©a thÃŽng bÃ¡o vá» cÃ¡c quyá»n liÃªn quan Äáº¿n nguá»n tin hoáº·c chá» dáº«n Äáº¿n má»t dá»ch vá»¥ cung cáº¥p thÃŽng bÃ¡o nhÆ° váº­y vá» quyá»n. ThÃŽng tin vá» quyá»n cÃ³ thá» bao gá»m thÃŽng tin vá» quyá»n sá» há»¯u trÃ­ tuá», báº£n quyá»n vÃ  cÃ¡c quyá»n liÃªn quan khÃ¡c.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurrence">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/metadata/ex.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet [
+
+  <!-- The outer tag of any metadata set. Contains some number of elements.             -->
+  <!-- @param contact     A contact address for the creator.                            -->
+  <!-- @param creator     The name of the entity resposibly for this set.               -->
+  <!-- @param family      The name of this sets family.                                 -->
+  <!-- @param lastchanged The full date, user name and machine name of the last editor. --> 
+  <!--   uses the form:                                                                 -->
+  <!--   Day Mon(th) dd hh:mm:ss yyyy '-' <username> on <machine>                       -->
+  <!-- @param namespace   The namespace of this metadata set.                           -->
+  <!ELEMENT MetadataSet ((Name|Description|Element)+)>
+  <!ATTLIST MetadataSet
+				contact     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				creator     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				description CDATA #REQUIRED
+            family      CDATA #REQUIRED
+				lastchanged CDATA #REQUIRED
+            name        CDATA #REQUIRED
+				namespace   CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- The name of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Name (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Name
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- The description of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Description (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Description
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- An element in the metadata set. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Element (Attribute*,OptionList?)>
+  <!ATTLIST Element
+            name       CDATA #REQUIRED
+				occurances CDATA "0">
+
+  <!-- Each element has several attribute children. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Attribute (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Attribute
+            name CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- For listing predefined values for this element. -->
+  <!ELEMENT OptionList (Value+)>
+  <!ATTLIST OptionList
+            restricted (true|false) "false">
+]>
+
+<MetadataSet 
+contact     = "nzdl.org"
+creator     = "New Zealand Digital Libraries Project: Greenstone"
+family      = "Extracted Greenstone"
+lastchanged = "Tue May 20 10:30:32 2003 - jmt12 on narya"
+namespace   = "ex" 
+>
+
+  <Name language="en">Extracted Greenstone Metadata 1.0</Name>
+
+  <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.0 of the automatically extracted Greenstone Metadata Element Set.</Description>
+
+  <Element name="Encoding">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The encoding of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Encoding</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Language">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The language of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Language</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Source">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Hidden in the Librarian Interface as it already shown by the various file trees.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The filename of the document imported by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Source</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Title">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The title of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Title</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/metadata/profile.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE Profiles [
+<!ELEMENT Profiles (Action*)>
+<!ELEMENT Action (#PCDATA)>
+<!ATTLIST Action
+                source     CDATA #REQUIRED
+                target     CDATA "">
+]>
+<Profiles/>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/oai-e.col
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/oai-e.col	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/oai-e/oai-e.col	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GathererCollection [
+  <!ELEMENT GathererCollection (Argument*, GathererConfig, BuildConfig)>
+  <!ELEMENT GathererConfig    (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT BuildConfig       (Build, Import)>
+  <!ELEMENT Build             (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Import            (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Schedule          (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Argument          (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Argument
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				enabled           CDATA "true">
+]>
+<GathererCollection>
+    <Argument name="built">false</Argument>
+    <Argument name="imported">true</Argument>
+    <GathererConfig/>
+    <BuildConfig>
+        <Build/>
+        <Import/>
+        <Schedule/>
+    </BuildConfig>
+</GathererCollection>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/etc/collect.cfg
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,288 @@
+creator		greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+maintainer	greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+public		true
+
+buildtype	mg
+
+indexes		section:text
+defaultindex	section:text
+
+plugin	GreenstoneXMLPlugin
+# We want the two types of paged documents to be treated differently: paged
+# and hierarchical. So include two PagedImagePlugin plugins and modify the
+# process_exp.
+plugin	PagedImagePlugin -process_exp xml.*\.item$ -create_screenview true -OIDtype assigned -minimumsize 100 -OIDmetadata ItemOID -documenttype hierarchy
+plugin	PagedImagePlugin -create_screenview true -OIDtype assigned -minimumsize 100 -OIDmetadata ItemOID -documenttype paged
+plugin	MetadataXMLPlugin
+plugin	ArchivesInfPlugin
+plugin	DirectoryPlugin
+
+classify	AZCompactList -metadata Series -sort Date
+classify	DateList
+
+# Format statements to display Series, Volume, Number and Date information
+
+format DocumentVList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td valign=top>{If}{[Series],[Series] {If}{[Volume],Vol. [Volume]} {If}{[Number],No. [Number]},[highlight]{Or}{[Title],[PageNum]}[/highlight]}</td>"
+
+format CL1VList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td valign=top>{If}{[numleafdocs],[Title],{If}{[Volume],Vol. [Volume]} {If}{[Number],No. [Number]} ([format:Date])}</td>"
+
+format SearchVList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td valign=top>[parent(Top):Series] {If}{[parent(Top):Volume],Vol. [parent(Top):Volume]} {If}{[parent(Top):Number],No. [parent(Top):Number]} Page [Title]</td>"
+
+format DateList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td valign=top>[Series] {If}{[Volume],Vol. [Volume]} {If}{[Number],No. [Number]}</td>"
+
+format HList "[link][highlight][ex.Title][/highlight][/link]"
+
+# We customise the document display, so use the extended options
+format AllowExtendedOptions true
+
+# We want to add in fullsize/preview/text buttons to switch between the
+# different versions of each page
+
+format DocumentHeading "<center><table width=_pagewidth_>
+<tr valign=top><td>{Or}{[parent(Top):Series],[Series]}</td></tr>
+<tr valign=top><td><table><tr><td>
+[DocumentButtonDetach][DocumentButtonHighlight]
+{If}{_cgiargp_ eq \'fullsize\',{If}{[screenicon],_document:viewpreview_}
+{If}{[NoText] eq \'1\',,_document:viewtext_},
+{If}{_cgiargp_ eq \'preview\',{If}{[srcicon],_document:viewfullsize_}
+{If}{[NoText] eq \'1\',,_document:viewtext_},
+{If}{[srcicon],_document:viewfullsize_}
+{If}{[screenicon],_document:viewpreview_}}}
+</td></tr></table></td>
+<td>[DocTOC]</td></tr></table></center>"
+
+# Document text display changes based on the p argument - this is not used
+#normally for document display, so we can use it here to switch between
+#fullsize/preview/text versions.
+format DocumentText "<center><table width=_pagewidth_><tr><td>
+{If}{_cgiargp_ eq \'fullsize\',[srcicon],
+{If}{_cgiargp_ eq \'preview\',[screenicon],{If}{[NoText] eq \'1\',,[Text]}}}
+</td></tr></table></center>"
+
+
+# -- English strings --------------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=en] "Paged Image example"
+collectionmeta	.section:text [l=en] "newspaper pages"
+
+# -- French strings --------------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=fr] "Exemple d'image mise en page"
+collectionmeta	.section:text [l=fr] "pages de journaux"
+
+# -- Spanish strings --------------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=es] "Ejemplo de imÃ¡genes paginadas"
+collectionmeta	.section:text [l=es] "pÃ¡ginas de diario"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese strings --------------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=zh] "åé¡µåŸçç€ºèéŠè"
+collectionmeta	.section:text [l=zh] "æ¥çºžé¡µé¢"
+
+# -- English text -----------------------
+
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=en] "This collection contains a few newspapers from the
+<a href=\'http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=niupepa\'>
+Niupepa</a> collection of Maori newspapers.
+
+<h3>How the collection works</h3>
+<p>Each newspaper issue consists of a set of images, one per page, and a set
+of text files for the OCR\'d text. An item file links the set of pages into a
+single newspaper document. PagedImagePlugin is used to process the item files.
+<p>There are two styles of item files, and this collection demonstrates both.
+The first uses a text based format, and consists of a list of metadata for the
+document, and a list of pages. Here are some examples:
+<a href=\'_httpcollection_/import/09/09\_1\_1.item\'>Te Waka o Te Iwi, Vol. 1, No. 1</a>,
+<a href=\'_httpcollection_/import/10/10\_1\_3.item\'>Te Whetu o Te Tau, Vol. 1, No. 3</a>.
+This format allows specification of document level metadata, and a single list of pages.
+<p>The second style is an extended format, and uses XML. It allows a hierarchy
+of pages, and metadata specification at the page level as well as at the
+document level. An example is <a href=\'_httpcollection_/import/xml/23/23\_\_2.item\'>Matariki 1881, No. 2</a>.
+This newspaper also has an abstract associated with it. The contents have been
+grouped into two sections: Supplementary Material, which contains the Abstract,
+and Newspaper Pages, which contains the page images.
+<p>Paged documents can be presented with a hierarchical table of contents
+(e.g. <a href=\'?a=d&amp;c=_cgiargc_&amp;d=23\_\_1.2.1&p=text\'>this one</a>),
+or with next and previous page arrows, and a goto page box
+(e.g. <a href=\'?a=d&amp;c=_cgiargc_&amp;d=10\_1\_2&p=preview\'>this one</a>).
+This is specified by the <tt>-documenttype (hierarchy|paged)</tt> option to PagedImagePlugin.
+The next and previous arrows suit the linear sequence documents, while the table of contents
+suits the hierarchically organised document. Ordinarily, a Greenstone collection
+would have one plugin per document type, and all documents of that type get
+the same processing. In this case, we want to treat the XML-based item files
+differently from the text-based item files. We can achieve this by adding two
+PagedImagePlugin plugins to the collection, and configuring them differently.
+<p><tt>plugin PagedImagePlugin -documenttype hierarchy -process_exp xml.*\.item$; <br/> plugin PagedImagePlugin -documenttype paged</tt>
+
+<p>XML based newpapers have been grouped into a folder called <tt>xml</tt>.
+This enables us to process these files differently, by utilising the
+<tt>process_exp</tt> option which all plugins support. The first PagedImagePlugin
+in the list looks for item files underneath the xml folder. These documents
+will be processed as hierarchical documents. Item files that don\'t match the
+process expression (i.e. aren\'t underneath the xml folder) will be passed onto
+the second PagedImagePlugin, and these are treated as paged documents.
+
+<p><b>Formatting</b>
+<p>We have modified the document formatting to display fullsized images,
+preview images or text, with buttons to switch between them. This involves
+modifications to the DocumentHeading and DocumentText format statements in the
+<a href=\'_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\' target=\'collect.cfg\'>collection configuration file</a>,
+and some macro definitions in the <a href=\'_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\' target=\'extra.dm\'>extra.dm macro file</a>.
+The extra.dm macro file provides definitions for the buttons (\_viewfullsize\_,
+\_viewpreview\_, \_viewtext\_) which are used by the format statement in the
+collect.cfg file. The format statement switches the document display and sets
+the buttons to be displayed based on the p argument, which is also set by the
+format statement.
+"
+
+# -- French text -----------------------
+
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=fr] "
+Cette collection contient quelques journaux de la collection de journaux Maori 
+<a href='http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=niupepa'>Niupepa</a>. 
+
+<h3>Comment fonctionne la collection</h3> 
+
+<p>Chaque numÃ©ro de revue est constituÃ© d'une sÃ©rie d'images, une par page, et d'une sÃ©rie de 
+fichiers textuels issus de l'OCR. Un fichier d'exemplaire fait le lien entre la sÃ©rie d'images 
+et le document du numÃ©ro du journal. Le plugiciel PagedImagePlugin est utilisÃ© pour traiter les 
+fichiers d'exemplaire. <p>Il y a deux styles de fichiers d'exemplaires, et cette collection les 
+utilise tous les deux. Le premier utilise un format textuel, et regroupe une liste de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es 
+et une liste de pages. 
+
+En voici quelques exemples : <a href='_httpcollection_/import/09/09\_1\_1.item'>Te Waka o Te Iwi, Vol. 1, No. 1</a>,  
+<a href='_httpcollection_/import/10/10\_1\_3.item'>Te Whetu o Te Tau, Vol. 1, No. 3</a>. 
+Ce format permet de spÃ©cifier des mÃ©tadonnÃ©es de niveau document, et une seule liste de pages. 
+
+<p>Le second style est un format Ã©tendu et utilise XML. Il permet de hiÃ©rarchiser les pages, 
+et de spÃ©cifier des mÃ©tadonnÃ©es aussi bien au niveau de la page que du document. 
+En voici un exemple : <a href='_httpcollection_/import/xml/23/23\_\_2.item'>Matariki 1881, No. 2</a>. 
+Ce journal a aussi un rÃ©sumÃ© qui lui est associÃ©. Les contenus ont donc Ã©tÃ© regroupÃ©s en deux sections : 
+matÃ©riaux complÃ©mentaires, qui contient les rÃ©sumÃ©s, et pages du journal, qui contient les images des pages. 
+Les documents paginÃ©s peuvent Ãªtre prÃ©sentÃ©s avec une table des matiÃšres hiÃ©rarchique (voir par exemple 
+<a href='?a=d&amp;c=_cgiargc_&amp;d=23\_\_1.2.1&p=text'>celle-ci</a>), ou avec des flÃšches de navigation pour 
+atteindre la page prÃ©cÃ©dente ou la page suivante, ainsi qu'une boÃ®te permettant d'atteindre une page en particulier 
+(par exemple <a href='?a=d&amp;c=_cgiargc_&amp;d=10\_1\_2&p=preview'>celle-ci</a>). Cela est dÃ©fini par l'option 
+<tt>-documenttype (hierarchy|paged)</tt> du plugiciel PagedImagePlugin. Les flÃšches de navigation suivent l'organisation 
+linÃ©aire des documents, tandis que la table des matiÃšres respecte l'organisation hiÃ©rarchique des documents. Normalement, 
+une collection Greenstone utilise un seul plugiciel par type de document, et tous les documents de ce type subissent le mÃªme 
+traitement. Dans ce cas, nous voulons traiter diffÃ©remment les fichiers d'exemplaires au format XML et les ficiers d'exemplaires 
+au format texte. Nous pouvons arriver Ã  ce rÃ©sultat en ajoutant deux plugiciels PagedImagePlugin Ã  la collection, et en 
+les configurant diffÃ©remment de la faÃ§on suivante : 
+<p><tt>plugin PagedImagePlugin -documenttype hierarchy -process_exp xml.*\.item$; <br/> plugin PagedImagePlugin -documenttype paged</tt>
+<p>Les journaux dÃ©crits en XML ont Ã©tÃ© regroupÃ©s dans un dossier 
+appelÃ© <tt>xml</tt>. Cela nous permet de traiter ces fichiers diffÃ©remment, en utilisant l'option <tt>process_exp</tt> 
+dont disposent tous les plugiciels. Le premier plugiciel PagedImagePlugin de la liste recherche les fichiers d'exemplaires 
+Ã  l'intÃ©rieur du dossier xml. Ces documents seront alors traitÃ©s comme des documents hiÃ©rarchisÃ©s. Les fichiers d'exemplaires 
+qui ne correspondent pas Ã  l'expression de recherche (c'est Ã  dire qui ne sont pas situÃ©s dans le dossier xml) seront traitÃ©s 
+par le second plugiciel PagedImagePlugin, comme des documents paginÃ©s. <p><b>Formatage</b> <p>Nous avons modifiÃ© le formatage 
+du document pour afficher les images en haute rÃ©solution, prÃ©visualiser les images ou le texte, avec un bouton pour passer 
+d'un mode Ã  l'autre. Cela implique des modifications dans les dÃ©clarations des formats DocumentHeading et DocumentText, 
+dans le <a href='_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg' target=\'collect.cfg\'>fichier de configuration de la collection</a>, 
+et la dÃ©finition de certaines macros dans le <a href='_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm' target=\'extra.dm\'>fichier de 
+macro extra.dm</a>. Le fichier de macro extra.dm dÃ©finit les boutons (\_viewfullsize\_,  \_viewpreview\_, \_viewtext\_) qui 
+sont utilisÃ©s par la dÃ©claration de format dans le fichier collect.cfg. La dÃ©claration de format change l'affichage du document 
+et dÃ©finit les boutons affichÃ©s en se basant sur l'argument p, qui est aussi dÃ©fini dans la dÃ©claration du format. 
+"
+
+# -- Spanish text -----------------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=es] "
+Esta colecciÃ³n contiene algunos diarios de la colecciÃ³n <a href=\"http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=niupepa\">
+Niupepa</a> de periÃ³dicos Maories.
+
+<h3>CÃ³mo funciona la colecciÃ³n</h3>
+<p>Cada diario consiste en un conjunto de imÃ¡genes, una por pÃ¡gina, y un conjunto de archivos de texto provenientes del OCR. Un archivo .item relaciona al conjunto de pÃ¡ginas con un Ãºnico diario. PagedImagePlugin se utiliza para procesar esos archivos .item.
+<p>Hay dos estilos para escribir esos archivos item. y esta colecciÃ³n demuestra ambos.
+El primero usa un formato bÃ¡sico de texto, y consiste en una lista de metadatos para el documento, y una lista de pÃ¡ginas. AquÃ­ hay algunos ejemplos:
+<a href=\'_httpcollection_/import/09/09\_1\_1.item\'>Te Waka o Te Iwi, Vol. 1, No. 1</a>,
+<a href=\'_httpcollection_/import/10/10\_1\_3.item\'>Te Whetu o Te Tau, Vol. 1, No. 3</a>.
+Este formato permite la especificaciÃ³n de metadatos a nivel de documento, y una lista simple de pÃ¡ginas.
+<p>El segundo estilo es un formato extendido y usa XML. Permite una jerarquÃ­a de pÃ¡ginas, y una especificaciÃ³n de metadatos a nivel de documento como tambiÃ©n de pÃ¡ginas. Un ejemplo es <a href=\'_httpcollection_/import/xml/23/23\_\_2.item\'>Matariki 1881, No. 2</a>.
+Este diario tambiÃ©n tiene un resumen asociado a Ã©l. Los contenidos han sido agrupados en 2 secciones: Material Suplementario, la cual contiene el resumen, y PÃ¡ginas del Diario, que contiene las imÃ¡genes de las pÃ¡ginas.
+<p>Los documentos paginados pueden presentarse con una tabla de contenidos jerÃ¡rquica (por ej. <a href=\'?a=d&amp;c=_cgiargc_&amp;d=23\_\_1.2.1&amp;p=text\'>esta</a>),
+o con flechas de avance o retroceso de pÃ¡ginas, y una opciÃ³n \"Ir a\" 
+(por ejemplo, <a href=\'?a=d&amp;c=_cgiargc_&amp;d=10\_1\_2&amp;p=preview\'>esta</a>).
+Esto se especifica con la opciÃ³n <tt>-documenttype (hierarchy|paged)</tt> del PagedImagePlugin.
+Las flechas de avance o retroceso permiten la recorrida secuencial del documento, mientras que la tabla de contenidos recorrer el documento organizado jerÃ¡rquicamente. Normalmente, una colecciÃ³n de Greenstone tendrÃ­a solo un plugin por tipo de documento, y todos los documentos de ese tipo tendrÃ¡n el mismo procesamiento. En este caso, queremos tratar a los archivos .item con formato XML de una manera diferente a los archivos .item con formato plano. Podemos lograr esto agregando 2 plugins PagedImagePlugin a la colecciÃ³n, y configurÃ¡ndolos de manera diferente.
+
+<p><tt>plugin PagedImagePlugin -documenttype hierarchy -process_exp xml.*\.item$; <br/> plugin PagedImagePlugin -documenttype paged</tt>
+
+<p>Los Diarios basados en XML fueron agrupados en una carpeta llamada <tt>xml</tt>.
+Esto permite procesar esos archivos de una forma diferente, utilizando la opciÃ³n <tt>process_exp</tt> que todos los plugin soportan. El primer plugin PagedImagePlugin de la lista busca archivos .item dentro de la carpeta xml. Estos documentos serÃ¡n procesados como documentos jerÃ¡rquicos. Los archivos item que no coincidan con ese criterio (p.e. no estÃ¡n dentro de la carpeta xml) serÃ¡n pasados al segundo PagedImagePlugin, y serÃ¡n tratados como documentos paginados.
+
+<p><b>Formateo</b>
+<p>Hemos modificado el formateo del documento para mostrar imÃ¡genes a tamaÃ±o completo, previsualizaciÃ³n de la imagen o el texto, con botones para intercambiar entre ellos. esto incluye modificaciones a las cadenas de formateo del DocumentHeading y del DocumentText en el <a href=\'_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\' target=\'collect.cfg\'>archivo de configuraciÃ³n</a>,
+y algunas definiciones de macros en <a href=\'_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\' target=\'extra.dm\'>el archivo extra.dm</a>.
+El archivo de macros extra.dm provee definiciones para os botones (\_viewfullsize\_, \_viewpreview\_, \_viewtext\_) que son usados por la cadena de formateo en el collect.cfg. Dicha cadena de formateo cambia la visualizaciÃ³n del documento y configura los botones de acuerdo al argumento p, el cual tambiÃ©n es configurado por la cadena de formateo.
+
+"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese text -----------------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=zh] "æ¬éŠèå
+å«è¥å¹²æºèª
+<a href='http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=niupepa'>Niupepa</a>éŠèçæ¯å©æ¥çºžã  
+ 
+<h3>æ¬éŠèåŠäœå·¥äœ</h3> 
+ 
+<p>æ¯ææ¥çºžç±äžç»åŸçç»æïŒæ¯é¡µå¯¹åºäžåŒ åŸçïŒä»¥åäžç»å
+å«OCRææ¬çææ¬æä»¶ã
+ç±äžäžªitemæä»¶å°äžç»é¡µé¢éŸæ¥èµ·æ¥ïŒåœ¢æäžäžªæ¥çºžææ¡£ãPagedImagePluginçšäºå€çè¿äºitemæä»¶ã 
+ 
+<p>itemæä»¶æäž€ç§æ ŒåŒïŒèæ¬éŠèå°æŒç€ºè¿äž€ç§æ ŒåŒãç¬¬äžç§æ¯åºäºææ¬çæ ŒåŒïŒç±äžäžªææ¡£å
+æ°æ®åè¡šå
+äžäžªé¡µé¢åè¡šç»æ. æ¯åŠïŒ <a href='_httpcollection_/import/09/09\_1\_1.item'>Te Waka o Te IwiïŒç¬¬1å·ïŒç¬¬1æ</a>ïŒ
+<a href='_httpcollection_/import/10/10\_1\_3.item'>Te Whetu o Te TauïŒç¬¬1å·ïŒç¬¬3æ</a>ã
+è¿ç§æ ŒåŒå
+è®žè®Ÿçœ®ææ¡£çº§çå
+æ°æ®ïŒä»¥åäžäžªé¡µé¢åè¡šã 
+ 
+<p>ç¬¬äºç§æ ŒåŒæ¯äžç§äœ¿çšXMLçæ©å±æ ŒåŒãè¿ç§æ ŒåŒå
+è®žè®Ÿçœ®å±çº§åŒé¡µé¢åè¡šïŒå¹¶äžå
+æ°æ®å¯ä»¥æ¯é¡µé¢çº§çä¹å¯ä»¥æ¯ææ¡£çº§çã
+æ¯åŠ<a href='_httpcollection_/import/xml/23/23\_\_2.item'>Matariki 1881ïŒç¬¬2æ</a>ãè¿ææ¥çºžè¿æéå±çææã
+è¿ææ¥çºžçå
+å®¹è¢«åäžºäž€äžªéšåïŒå
+æ¬ææåšå
+çè¡¥å
+
+ææïŒä»¥åæ¥çºžçé¡µé¢ïŒå³é¡µé¢åŸçã 
+ 
+<p>åé¡µææ¡£å¯ä»¥çšäžäžªå±çº§åŒçå
+å®¹å€§çº²æŸç€ºïŒäŸåŠ<a href='?a=d&amp;c=_cgiargc_&amp;d=23\_\_1.2.1&p=text'>è¿äžªææ¡£</a>ïŒ
+ïŒæè
+çšäžäžé¡µååäžé¡µçé¡µé¢ç®­å€Žä»¥åäžäžªè·³èœ¬é¡µé¢èŸå
+¥æ¡æ¥æŸç€º
+ïŒæ¯åŠ<a href='?a=d&amp;c=_cgiargc_&amp;d=10\_1\_2&p=preview'>è¿äžªææ¡£</a>ïŒã
+è¿æ¯éè¿è®Ÿå®PagedImagePluginç<tt>-documenttype (hierarchy|paged)</tt>éé¡¹æ¥å®ç°çã 
+äžäžé¡µååäžé¡µç®­å€Žéçšäºçº¿æ§åºåçææ¡£ïŒèå
+å®¹å€§çº²éçšäºå±çº§åŒçææ¡£ãäžè¬æ
+åµäžïŒäžäžªGreenstoneéŠèçšäžäžªæä»¶å€çäžç§ç±»åçææ¡£ïŒ
+å æ­€ææåç±»åçææ¡£éœå°ä»¥åäžç§æ¹åŒè¿è¡å€çãåšè¿ç§æ
+åµäžïŒæä»¬æ³çšäžåçæ¹åŒåå«å€çåºäºXMLçitemæä»¶äžåºäºææ¬çitemæä»¶ã
+è¿å¯ä»¥éè¿åšéŠèäž­æ·»å äž€äžªPagedImagePluginæä»¶æ¥å®æïŒå¹¶å¯¹å
+¶åå«è¿è¡äžåçè®Ÿçœ®ã 
+ 
+<p>
+<tt>plugin PagedImagePlugin -documenttype hierarchy -process_exp xml.*\.item$; <br/> plugin PagedImagePlugin -documenttype paged</tt> 
+ 
+<p>åºäºXMLçæ¥çºžè¢«éäž­çœ®äºäžäžªç§°äžº<tt>xml</tt>çæä»¶å€¹äž­ãè¿å
+è®žæä»¬çšäžåæ¹åŒå¯¹è¿äºæä»¶è¿è¡å€çïŒ
+è¿æ¯éè¿è®Ÿçœ®æææä»¶éœæ¯æç<tt>process_exp</tt>éé¡¹æ¥å®ç°çãåè¡šäž­çç¬¬äžäžªPagedImagePluginå°æ¥æŸxmlæä»¶å€¹äžçææitemæä»¶ã
+è¿äºææ¡£å°äŒæå±çº§åŒææ¡£è¿è¡å€çãäžå¹é
+å€çè¡šèŸŸåŒçitemæä»¶ïŒå³äžåšxmlæä»¶å€¹äž­çitemæä»¶ïŒå°è¢«äŒ éç»ç¬¬äºäžªPagedImagePluginïŒèè¿äºå°äŒæåé¡µææ¡£è¿è¡å€çã 
+ 
+<p><b>æ ŒåŒå</b> 
+<p>æä»¬å·²ç»ä¿®æ¹äºææ¡£çæ ŒåŒäœ¿å
+¶æŸç€ºå
+šå¹
+çåŸçïŒé¢è§åŸçæè
+ææ¬ïŒä»¥ååšäžåæš¡åŒä¹éŽè¿è¡èœ¬æ¢çæé®ã
+è¿æ¶åå°åšéŠèç<a href='_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg' target=\'collect.cfg\'>é
+çœ®æä»¶</a>äž­ä¿®æ¹
+DocumentHeadingåDocumentTextæ ŒåŒåéïŒä»¥å<a href='_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm' target=\'extra.dm\'>
+extra.dmå®æä»¶</a>äž­çäžäºå®ã 
+ 
+extra.dmå®æä»¶æäŸæé®ïŒ\_viewfullsize\_ïŒ\_viewpreview\_ïŒ\_viewtext\_ïŒçå®ä¹ïŒè¿äºå®ä¹åšcollect.cfgæä»¶çæ ŒåŒåéäž­çšå°ã
+æ ŒåŒåéæ ¹æ®påæ°çåŒèœ¬æ¢å°äžåçææ¡£æŸç€ºæš¡åŒä»¥åå¯¹åºçæé®ïŒèpåæ°ä¹æ¯ç±æ ŒåŒåæ°æè®Ÿå®çã
+"
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/09/09_1_1.item
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/09/09_1_1.item	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/09/09_1_1.item	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+# metadata has the name in a tag, followed by the value. 
+# Do not leave a space between the name and value
+<Series>Te Waka o Te Iwi
+<Volume>1
+<Number>1
+<Date>185710
+<ItemOID>09_1_1
+# pages use the following format:
+#page number:imagefile:textfile:r:
+# the r is optional and indicates that the image should be rotated 180 degrees
+# This is used if a page has been scanned upside down.
+# Page Numbers don't have to be in sequence, they can start at any number, 
+# and can contain letters and digits. But the order they appear 
+# here will be the order they are added to the document.
+# This document has no text files.
+1:images/09_1_1_1.gif::
+2:images/09_1_1_2.gif::
+3:images/09_1_1_3.gif::
+4:images/09_1_1_4.gif::
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/09/09_1_2.item
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/09/09_1_2.item	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/09/09_1_2.item	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+<Series>Te Waka o Te Iwi
+<Volume>1
+<Number>2
+<Date>185711
+<ItemOID>09_1_2
+5:images/09_1_2_5.gif::
+6:images/09_1_2_6.gif::
+7:images/09_1_2_7.gif::
+8:images/09_1_2_8.gif::
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/10_1_1.item
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/10_1_1.item	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/10_1_1.item	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+<Series>Te Whetu o Te Tau
+<Volume>1
+<Number>1
+<Date>18580601
+<ItemOID>10_1_1
+1:images/10_1_1_1.gif:text/10_1_1_1.txt:
+2:images/10_1_1_2.gif:text/10_1_1_2.txt:
+3:images/10_1_1_3.gif:text/10_1_1_3.txt:
+4:images/10_1_1_4.gif:text/10_1_1_4.txt:
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/10_1_2.item
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/10_1_2.item	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/10_1_2.item	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+<Series>Te Whetu o Te Tau
+<Volume>1
+<Number>2 
+<Date>18580701
+<ItemOID>10_1_2
+5:images/10_1_2_5.gif:text/10_1_2_5.txt:
+6:images/10_1_2_6.gif:text/10_1_2_6.txt:
+7:images/10_1_2_7.gif:text/10_1_2_7.txt:
+8:images/10_1_2_8.gif:text/10_1_2_8.txt:
+9:images/10_1_2_9.gif:text/10_1_2_9.txt:
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/10_1_3.item
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/10_1_3.item	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/10_1_3.item	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+# metadata has the name in a tag, followed by the value. 
+# Do not leave a space between the name and value
+<Series>Te Whetu o Te Tau
+<Volume>1
+<Number>3 
+<Date>18580901
+<ItemOID>10_1_3
+# pages use the following format:
+#page number:imagefile:textfile:r:
+# the r is optional and indicates that the image should be rotated 180 degrees
+# This is used if a page has been scanned upside down.
+# Page Numbers don't have to be in sequence, they can start at any number, 
+# and can contain letters and digits. But the order they appear 
+# here will be the order they are added to the document.
+# This document has image and text files.
+10:images/10_1_3_10.gif:text/10_1_3_10.txt:
+11:images/10_1_3_11.gif:text/10_1_3_11.txt:
+12:images/10_1_3_12.gif:text/10_1_3_12.txt:
+13:images/10_1_3_13.gif:text/10_1_3_13.txt:
+14:images/10_1_3_14.gif:text/10_1_3_14.txt:
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_1_1.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_1_1.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_1_1.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,140 @@
+TE WHETU O TE TAU.
+No. 1.
+AKARANA, HUNE 1, 1858.
+VOL. 1.
+HAERE atu ra e taku aroha i runga i nga hihi o te ra
+ki nga tangata katoa,ahakoa tane, ahakoa wahine,
+ahakoa tamariki,i aroha ki au, i atawhai ki au, i
+toku haerenga i roto o Waikato, o Rangiaohia, o Mo-
+kau. Haere e taku aroha ki nga tangata o Pukorokoro,
+ki nga tangata o Nakunaku, ki nga tangata o Takinga-
+wairua, ki nga tangata o Meremere, ki nga tangata o
+Rangiriri, ki nga tangata o Paetai, ki nga tangata o
+Kupakupa, ki nga tangata o Te Whakapaku, ki nga
+tangata o Karakariki, ki nga tangata o Whatawhata,
+ki nga tangata o Tiongahemo ki nga tangata o Kihi-
+kihi, ki nga tangata o Rangiaohia ki nga tangata o Te
+Kopua, ki nga tangata o Hangatiki hui katoa.
+E tai ma, tena ra ko koutou i runga i te atawhai o
+te Atua nana nei tatou i tiaki, i tohutohu taeanoatia
+tenei takiwa o to tatou haerenga manenetanga, i runga
+i te mata o te whenua.
+Na, kia rongo mai koutou ki taku, kahore aku utu
+ki a koutou mo ta koutou atawhai nui ki au. Heoi
+ano te utu ki a koutou ko te kupu o te Karaiti, e ki
+nei, " A, ko ia, e whakainu ana i tetahi o enei hunga
+nonohi ki to oko wai matao anake i runga i te ingoa o
+te akonga, he pono, e mea atu nei ahau ki a koutou,
+Kore rawa e kahore i a ia tona utu."Matiu x 42.
+E tai ma, i toka haerenga i roto i a koutou, i kite au
+i te tika, i kite au i te he; i kite au i te pai, i kite au
+i te kino; i kite au i te matau, i kite au i te kuare.
+Heoi, e rapu ana au i te take 1 whakauru ai te he ki
+te tika, i whakauru ai te kino ki te pai, i whakauru ai
+te kuaretanga ki te matauranga. Ki au ano e tai ma,
+tuhituhi "Kia tika koutou me to koutou matua i te
+rangi e tika ana.Matiu, v 48.
+E hoa ma, ekore au e hamu i nga he katoa i kitea e
+au, engari ko te he nui i pouri ai toku wairua, ko o
+koutou pakanga. I nga wa o te kuaretanga, i hoe te
+tangata, whaka-te-ihu etahi, i hoe whaka-te-kei etahi;
+ko tenei, he ao hou me ona ritenga ano. Tenei te kupu
+a Paora, "Kotahi ia taku, wareware ake i au nga mea o
+muri, totoro atu ana au ki nga mea o mua."Piripai
+iiii 13. ^ '
+Ko tenei e oku hoa aroha, me whakarere te he, me
+hopu nui i te tika; me whakarere te kino, mo hopu
+nui i te pai; me whakarere te kuaretanga, me hopu
+nui te matauranga. Kia maia, hia whaingoi, kia tara
+ki te rapu i nga tikanga e nui ai koutou. Kati te titiro
+ki te Pakeha hei tauira, engari kia mana ta te Atua i
+a koutou. Ko reira koutou e oku hoa aroha whiwhi ai
+ki te ngakau marama, ki to ngakau koa, ki te ngakau
+kaha. "
+Kia toa ki te inoi, a, taria ta te Atua 1 runga i te
+ngakau whakapono, ka oti hoki te tuhituhi "Ko ratou e
+tatari ana kia Ihowa ka hira ke ake to ratou kaha; ka
+rere whakarunga ratou i to parirau, me te ehara ; ka
+oma ratou, ekore e ruwha, ka haere ratou, ekore e
+ngaikore Ihaia, xi., 31.
+Heoi ano enei kupu. Kia tau ki a koutou te ata-
+whai o te Ariki.
+Akarana,' Mei 1858.
+NA HARE REWETI.
+KO NGA PUKAPUKA O NGA IWI.
+Kua roa tenei takiwa kihai nei i puta ki nga iwi
+"Te Waka o te Iwi." E hara i te mangere noku, ehara
+i to mahara kore noku; engari, he ware no nga kai ta
+ki te tini o a ratou nei mahi. Ko tenei, ekore-e
+mohiotia nga ra e tu ai tenei nupepa nga ra  take ai
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ra nei; ahakoa ra u a te iwi me timata te mahi i  te
+mea e ao ana te ra, e rere whakawairua mai nei te po
+e mutu ai te mahi o te kai tuhituhi, o te kai korero
+hoki. Ahakoa kotahi kupu ua nga hoa me tuku atu.
+Na Hare Reweti.]
+Makiri, Hanuere 29, 1858.
+Haere atu ra e to maua nei aroha ki a Hare Reweti
+e tae koe ki a ia, mihi atu ki a ia, a, korero atu ki a
+ia kua oti to whakatakoto he tikanga mo aotearoa.
+E hoa e Hare Reweti kua takoto to matou kapa ki
+waenga nui o nga iwi, puta ana £10 18s. U hui ki
+nga mea kua rongo koe i mua £28 13s.1d. Ka titiro
+te iwi katoa ka whiu i ta ratou kapa ki runga i taua
+moni kua takoto, puta ana £80 1s 1d pena ano me ta
+matou kohinga moni i Ihumatao
+E hoa, tenei matou ko te iwi te tu nei i roto i ta
+atawhai o to Atua, i te kaha o to Atua, i te aroha, o te
+Atua.
+E hoa tena koe. E Hare kia tika te tia i te waka,
+kei pakia e te ngaru. Kia maia, kia kaha, kia toa;
+koi tahuri te waka i te kaha o te ngaru. E pa, kia tu
+koe i runga i te kaha o te Atua, kia mau ai te tia o te
+waka o te iwi. E pa, kei te inoi te iwi ki te Atua mea.
+Kua tau te aroha o nga Hahi ki runga ki a koe.
+Heoi ano to maua aroha ki a koe.
+NA WIREMU TAMIHANA TARAPIPIPI.
+NA TE WETINI TAIPORUTU. 
+Ki a Hare Reweti kei Akarana.
+[Ka ora ianei te ngakau i nga korero aroha o tenei
+reta a Wiremu raua ko Te Wetini. He mea iti te
+moni he mea iti te taonga tena ko te aroha mawai ia
+e whakaiti? na Hare Reweti.]  
+Pakanae Hokianga, Hanuere 16, 1858.
+E mara e Hare Reweti, tena ra ko koa. KUA tae
+mai to pukapuka ki a Hemi. Ka miharo te hinengaro
+o te tangata, Erua nga kupu o to pukapuka. Ko te
+taha ki te Atua kua tika, i te Hahi ki Pakanae 200
+tangata, ka runangatia te ritenga o to kupu whakanui
+i Hokianga. Kia kaha mai koe ki te tuku mai i nga
+painga o tou whenua. Mau te whakaaro mo matou."
+NA RAWIRI TUKIATA.
+Ki a Haro Reweti, kei Akarana.
+Pakanae, Hokianga, Hanuere 16, 1858.
+E mara e Hare Reweti, tena ra ko koe. Kia rongo
+mai koe ki taku whakaaro. Ko nga kupu o te Atua
+kua oti nei te tuku mai e koe hei tiaki mo toku tinana,
+me toku wairua katoa, me toku kaha katoa. E hoa,
+ko nga tamariki me nga kaumatua koi runga kei te
+ritenga o to pukapuka.
+NA HORI TE HAUORA.
+Ki a Hare Reweti, kei Akarana.
+Pakanae, Hokianga, Hanuere 18, 1858.
+E mara o Hare Reweti, tena ra ko koe. Tene; ano
+to aroha to takoto nei i te ngakau, Kore hoki a taua
+noi whakaaro e mahue. Hei tiaki moku, tau kupu, i
+te roa o te tau;otira, mo matou katoa ko nga tama-
+riki e whakaaro aua ki a koe; otira, mo nga tangata e
+noho ana i runga i te ngakau tatu. Heoi ano te
+whakaaro, ko to Atua, inahoki, kua tae mai nei tau
+aroha ki a matou katoa. Kua oti nga awaawa katoa
+to whakaki ki te rongo pai. Heoi ano taku whakaaro.
+NA HEMI PIPIKO,
+KAIWHAKAAKONO PAKANAE
+Ki a Hare Reweti, kei Akarana.
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_1_2.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_1_2.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_1_2.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,156 @@
+
+
+TE WHETU O TE TAU.
+Nimaru, Waikato
+E hoa e Hare Reweti, tena koe Ka nui to matou
+aroha ki a koe E hoa, kua tae mai to nupepa ki a
+matou, kua kite matou. E pai ana nga korero o roto
+E hoa he raruraru to matou, kua rongo pea koe, mo
+Ngaruawahia otiia, kua oti He raruraru ano kei
+Rangiaohia kei i a Hoani Papata raua ko Toma Ka
+nui te raruraru ki Waikato ki Rangiriri, ki a te
+Ngaungau, ki te Matetakahia E hoa, me tahuri
+mai hoki koe me mahi ki enei hara, ta te mea hoki
+kua mo ko koe hei upoko mo enei tikanga pai. E
+hoa, kia kaha koe ki te patu i enei raruraru, o to iwi,
+ta te mea, ko koe hei kai whakatika mo matou mahi
+Heoi ano .Na o hoa aroha,
+NA TAKEPEI Te Rau
+NA PANAPA NOAUMU
+NA TE REWETI
+Ki a Hare Reweti, kei Akarana
+HE PUPURU WHENUA
+Whangape
+E hoa e Hare Reweti tena koe i runga i te atawhai
+o te Ariki, koia nei hoki te kai whakatika a o nga wha
+kawa Kua tae mai nei tau kupu ki ahau me tou aroha
+ka taea mai noi ahau e koe te rapu mai i te whenua
+tawhiti rawa E hoa, ho korero tenei naku u ki muri
+whenua, Epupuru ana ahau i taua pihi ki ahau, ua
+te mea, i matau ahau. no aku tupuna ia whenua
+Kore au e pai ma te tangata e tuku i tena whenua
+Tenei taku tikanga maku ano te ae te kahore ra nei
+Te mea i penei ai au, poto noa aka whenua te hoko
+hoko kahore i hoki mai ki au tetahi, koia taku e pupuru
+nei. E hoa purutia mai, ki te korero te tangata kia
+tukua kahaka e whakaaetia Mau e whakamau enei kupu
+ki te nupepa. Ko nga tangata enei e noho ana i tau i
+whenua i Muriwhenua 50, ko Te Hira te rangatira
+me ana tamariki Kei Ahipara etahi, kei Hokinga
+etahi Ka huihuia enei tangata katoa he nui noa atu
+Ko te iwi tenei o te whenua; no taua iwi ahau, koia
+au i pakeke ai ki taua whenua Ka mutu
+Na to hoa aroha,
+NA TE ANGA TE Huhu
+Ki a Hare Reweti kei Akarana
+[Ka tika te mahi o toku hoa o Te Anga, me panui ano
+kia ata kitea e te mano nga korero Na. Hare Reweti]
+TE WHETU O TE TAU.
+AKARANA, HUNE 1, 1858
+Ko " Te Waka o te Iwi " kua oti te to kauta Ko
+nga ra e manu ai ano ki ta moana, ekore e kitea
+Otiia, e takoto pai ana, kua oti te hipoki Ko ngakau
+o runga kua whakaratohia ki nga iwi, kua pakeha i a
+ratou, a, e kua mai nei ki te taringa, ko te ha o nga
+kai e mau tonu ana i te waha E pai ana na te iwi
+Na he whetu tenei ka ara i te takiwa o te rangi
+He hira nga whetu, ko Tawera, ko Meremere, ko Rehua,
+ko Matariki me te tini atu, otiia, i pokara noatia tenei,
+ko "Te Whetu o Te Tau " Ko te torengitanga ekore e
+matauria. Kowai ano tena tohunga ki te titiro i nga
+hau o te rangi ? I poka noa ake tana tiaho i te po,
+mawai e mihi tana rerenga ki te pae ? Ki te mea ka
+marama te huarahi o tetahi ruruhi, tamaiti ia nei i nga
+hihi o "Te Whetu o Te Tau" he mahi tena, a, i roto
+i taua mahi, ka koa te ngakau mona i "hikitia ki te
+ripa "
+TE HAERENGA A REWI RAUA KO Te- Wahere
+Me T0 RAUA PAKEHA
+No te 16 o nga ra o Maehe ka eke matou i te
+kaipuke o Ngatimaniapoto a "Aotearoa ' i Akarana,
+ahiahi rawa ake ka u ki Taupo hika atu e uhunga
+ana, ko Enoka te tupapaku he rangatira no Ngatipaoa
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Ka mutu ki te tupapaku, kei runga ko Hori Pokai
+Te Ruinga, kei runga ko Patara, kei runga ko
+Wiremu Te Raurowha wha, kei runga ko Patene, kei
+runga ko Ahipene, me ara atu rangatira o Ngatipaoa
+Ka mea i ratou,Ka tika kia tangi nga, manu o uta
+ki nga manu o tai, kia tangi o tai ki nga manu o uta
+Me whakatahe te wai o Waikato ki Hauraki Me
+moe te wahine, marena i aku ringaringa kei mahi
+totoro atu Ko Waikato te awa, ko Io Rauanganga
+te tangata, ko Taupiri te maunga ko Potatau te
+tangata, ko Taupo te whenua ko Ko Haupa me
+tangata Haere mai haere mai ki uta haere mai e
+Waikato, haere mai e to matou matua e Hare Reweti
+haere mai ki te kainga, haere mai ki te iwi
+Kei runga ko Hare RewetiKarangatia e te iwi
+e aku matua e aku tuakana, e aku teina 1 enei
+te haere nei He haere aha ta te he haere " kei nga 
+rangatira te korero Kaore au i kite i te tika i te
+tai tonga, i te tai marangai i te tai hauauru ra nei ko
+taku i matau ai ko te taura e maio iho ia e te rangi
+tatu noa ki te whenua Ko enei e to iwi kia mau
+ki te whakapono
+Muri iho o tenei ka tu te kohikohi mo te perehi
+No te putanga mai a Ngatipaoa ki a Tamati 
+te ruru ki te kawe nga moni ka whakahua te
+nge",
+Ko Tu.ko Rongo koia ko ngatai
+Ko Tu ko Rongo koia ko ngatai
+Potehe, potehe e potehe te kai -
+Ki te whenua potehe
+Na Ngatipaoa ki o te Paraone ngeri
+i te kawenga moni mai mo te penei!!
+Ka mate au ka mate au
+Ka mate au i te whakama
+I te kai kore o te oneone
+I te tuaruatanga ki te piwaiwai
+Piwai atu piwai atu
+Na Patene Puhina tenei i te -
+moni 
+te koha a rua tu mutu a tautahi
+Na Ngatipaoa ki a kini tenei ngeri i te-
+tanga o a ratou moni 
+Mawai ta ngaowhea
+Hei topetope ariki
+Ki moeiho ki te po ka ao te ra
+"Whiua te paipa ki a Kona rara 
+Tumu kau ana te kuku
+Ketekete kau ana te kaka
+Teoteo kau ana te kotare Teo 
+Haere ake nga moni £22 6
+Ka rere to matou kaipuke i te 180 nga ra tu rawa
+atu i Pohokuwao te motutere i mate nei nga ope a
+Ngapuhi i mua ai tukua ana i konei nga kai keri
+koma ki uta, haere ana etahi o matou ki te korero ki
+a Paoa Te Putu mo aua kai keu he tangata Maori
+Ka ai tika te a mahi a matou, ka rere ki Pukorokoro
+ki a Te Paraone tumukere ma .No te wiki ka 
+noa iho to matou puke, ki waho ake o -
+Haere ana etahi o matou kia -ki te
+karakia hoki
+No te a a o te mine Pukorokoro haere tonu
+i taua rangi, moe tawa ata i Matapu i waenga ara,
+ko Paraone to matou hoa haere i te ata, i te 5 o nga
+haora ka koke ano, kihai i mataka te haerenga 
+marere ki te awa o Maramarua Tae rawa atu
+tatahi, kaore he waka Na ka atarakina i -
+e to matou hoa o Tipene, a no te - i
+o tera ka tae matou ka Nakunaku -
+Piripi Te Aho raua ko tou i tuahine Ka tukua te kai
+nei a te tuna ki a matou ehara i te hanga Ka haere
+ka maruahiahi, ka marere ki tatahi ka eke ka te waka
+i te awa o Whakangutu Hoe tonu i te atarau a
+Meremere moe roa iho ki te waka kua mo hoki ika
+tangata o te kainga e whakarapopoto ana hoki nga
+iwi ki te whakawa whenua i Ranginui
+No te 21 u Maehe ka u matou ki Rangiriri a taua ra
+ka tu a Harepata ka mea 
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_1_3.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_1_3.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_1_3.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,169 @@
+TE WHETU O TE TAU.
+Haere mai e aku potiki, kawea mai te taonga
+kawea mai kiuta, kawea mai ki Waikato, kawea
+kia kite nga iwi. Haere mai e Hare Reweti,
+haere mai ki Waikato, haere mai ki to iwi; kawea
+mai te tika; kawea mai te marama. Haere mai kiuta
+haere mai te pai.
+Ka tu ko Hare Reweti;  "Karangatia e taku
+tamaiti karangatia. He tika ano kia tangi mai nga
+manu o tai ki nga manu o uta; he tika kia rere te
+waimaori ki te waitai. Ko Maramarua ano toku
+kaha, e whakaae ana au ki ta te iwi.
+" Hore te tukituki te tahu o taku
+A te whakama ra e tahu nei a
+Ku kamo aku rongo au raki
+Te makau a Torengi taku rawhi
+Nga mai te ngu i tona ihu e pono
+Tikanga kia hoe i runga ra ngonge
+Kei te here te hipi ra i a Rewi
+Nuku mai ki ahau he whakahau
+Ka pakaru ka wehe taku kiri
+Ho tunga ka ana mai nau e Hare
+Pata ki tahau tikanga hore ko a
+Ku mahi ka tuia e te ngutu te ao
+O ta ko runga ka pehi ki
+Te tonga wai roro tu ana te ngaru
+Ki kai waka rite i te tinana ka wai rori ianei."
+No te mutunga o te waiata ka haere ki te karakia.
+Moe iho ao ake ka kareretia mai matou e nga
+rangatira o Paetai. No taua ra ano ka haere matou,
+no te tatanga ki nga paenga kainga ka pa te karanga:
+Haere mai e te manuwhiri tuarangi
+Na taku potiki koe i tiki atu ki
+To taha tu o to rangi kukume mai ai
+Haere mai!
+No to matou taonga atu ki te nohoanga ka tu nga
+rangatira ki te ruru, me to ratou Pakeha me Amutiti 
+E tare ana nga kara a Kuini, e pao ana te mano
+Noho kau ano matou kei runga ko Te Wharepu:
+Haere mai, haere mai e Hare Reweti te matua o nga
+iwi; haere mai kiuta, haere mai ki Waikato kawea
+mai te maramatanga Kawea mai to ora haere mai. E
+te matua o nga iwi, kahore he whakaaro ke atu; koia
+ano tena; kei i a koe te whakaaro o te iwi. Haere
+mai iana kia kite i to iwi, takahia mai i Hauraki
+kawea mai te pai.
+Kei runga ko Hare Reweti:-Karangatia e taku
+tamaiti e Te Wharepu, karangatia. Tenei te haere
+nei. He haere aha ta te mokai? He whakarite kau
+tenei i te kupu o te iwi, kia mihi ki nga owha o nga
+tupuna i waiho iho. E ki te tangata ki a koe, te mea
+ra meatia, he teka rawa koe nei. Waiho atu ki a ia
+ona he; ko koe e taku tamaiti hei pai anake ano mou.
+titiro ki te rangi e heke mai ana i reira te tomairangi
+ki tenei otaota, ki tenei otaota; koia hoki ko tenei, ko
+te matua mo taua kei runga. E taku tamaitito taua
+matua, kia u te pupuri, ahu whakarunga te titiro.
+ehara i te ara pungawerewere i piki ai a Tawhaki
+engari kua maro to taua ara i a te Karaiti.
+Kei runga ko Waikato:-Haere mai te matua o te
+maramatanga, haere mai e Hare Reweti, ki Waikato
+haere mai te whetu marama o te ata. Haere mai; ka
+nga to haere mai kia kite koe i nga iwi. Haere mai
+ki Taupiri haere mai ki Pirongia ka ora tenei,
+ka kite atu na matou i a koe. Haere atu he
+iwi, haere atu he iwi, kawea to tika, a  te
+ngutu ra ano o te manu. [Ko te waiata pai a Waikato
+kihai i mohiotia kihai i tuhituhia
+Kei runga ko Hare Reweti Karanga mai o taku
+tamaiti, karanga mai ana. Ki au ano e taku tamaiti
+ne kupapa noa iho, ka po, he tangata aha te haua. E
+ki ana koe me haere au, a,-te ngutu ra ano o te manu.
+He whakaaetanga tenei naku ki to kupu Ko aku
+koiwi tenei kua oti te pupu, kua kawea mai ki a koe.
+E taea teaha?-Kua eke tenei kei runga kei o turi.
+E taku tamaiti ko te tika kei runga; ko te taonga nui
+ano tena ko te kupu o to matua i te rangi.
+E wero e te tonga wero tonu ki te kiri
+Katahi te mamae kaata rangona iho
+Ngau kinikini ana ki taku tinana nei
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Na Tiki ra e nana i hahau
+roa te taha tika i kawea mai ai
+Nga rae ka wero o Taupo i waho
+E peka kauta ra kiata tirohia
+He tuhinga pukapuka nau o Patene
+i Ka ai ha tutara ina te rau e pae"
+Ka mene ki awhea ko au tonu ano
+Te hara taua nei ki to poti o te ngutu
+Hui rua o te iwi te rongo whai makau
+Naku i kawe atu te whare i a Te Rau
+E hira taku rongo te rongo haere mai
+I a Po i uta e angi ana mai
+Kaiana ki te tihi o Taupiri i runga
+Mei tata ki te mate ka koraweke au
+Ka itiitiano aku rangi ki te ao
+Ka huri nei au ki taku moenga ia.
+Ka mutu te waiata a Hare Reweti ka tonoa ki te
+whare ka tukua ta kai. Muri ihowa tonoa matou e Te
+Wharepu kia haere kia kite i a Te Kihiringi Te Kanawa
+Tae atu ka korero a Te Wharepu, a Karaka Te Tani-
+wha me ara atu rangatira. Kei runga ko Te Kihi-
+ringi;Haere mai e Hare Reweti, haere mai ki Wai-
+kato, haere mai ki Kawhia, haere mai kiuta eto matou
+matua. Kawea mai te tika ki o tamariki. E pa e
+Hare Reweti, ko te tikanga tena kei i a koe
+Ka whakahua te waiata, kaore i matauria.
+Koi runga ko Hare Reweti:Ae e taku papa, ae,
+karangatia. He tangata aha ia i karangatia ai o koe.
+Me pewhea koa ianei i te aroha ki te iwi;' Kahore ho
+tikanga ke atu, kuia ano tena. E ki ana au ko te tika
+tenei. E ai ana tika i tenei hanga i to pakanga?E
+taea taeha ua taku papa
+Tera nga rae rehurehu ana mai e
+Kakarauri e ki Rewatemura e
+Kore e kitea atu i te korehutanga e
+I te ahi whakapo ki Waikato raia e
+Taua to pai kei tawhiti rawa, i.
+I te aonga ake o te ra ka tu te whakawa mo Rangi*
+riri, haere ake ana te Ngaungau ki Rangiriri; a,
+aratakina ana e Ngatimahuta ki runga ki te toropuke,
+e tu ana nga kara, e pae ana te Kaimatakitaki. Tenei
+nga korero o taua whakawakanga nui.
+Rangiriri, Maehe 26, 1858.
+Ko nga korero o te whakawakanga o Kumukumu.
+Ka rupeke ki te nohoanga, ka whakatika a Maneha
+Te Rotorua ka mea; ki a Kihi, "Haere mai e taku matua,
+haere mai, ta te mea, nau te take o te he. Ko tenei
+ki a koe te whenua." Ka mutu ta Maneha. Kei
+runga ko Waata Kukutai ka mea, "Kahore he kai
+korero i naianei, ko au anake. Whakarongo mai e
+aku matua, ko te tamaiti nei tenei, kua whanau hu
+tamaroa; kua tupu nga niho, kua kai i te kai. Na
+te Wairua Tapu pea tenei tamaiti; titiro hoki, kua
+haere tu." Ka patai a Waata ki a Wiremu Te
+Kumete, ka mea "E Wi, ki awai te tamaiti nei?"
+Ka ki atu a Wiremu "Ki a komako Kihi." Ka mea
+atu a Waata, "E aku matua ko te tamaiti nei tenei e
+hikitia atu nei e au Na, i naianei, ki a koutou te
+tamaiti nei; kia pai te atawhai, ta, te mea, he kauma-
+tua koutou, Ko te tamaiti nei, me oti atu ki a kou-
+tou." Ka mutu a Waata. Kei runga ko Te Kau,
+ka haere tuohu, ka mea. "Ehara au i te Kai whakawa
+kia kia te mai, kahore ano i tika noa taku tuara, no
+te toru o aku haerenga ka tika taku tuara, ka tu nei
+au ki runga. Ko tenei e taku potiki, ki a koe ano te
+whenua." Ka mutu. a Te Kau. Kei runga ko Wai-
+kato,' ka mea "Kaua e whakaroaina te korero, ka
+pahoahoa nga matenga i te ngaunga o to ra. Ka ora
+au, rara! ka ora au, ka ora au! Ko tenei tamaiti ka
+hemo i te kai, kahore aku waiu, engari me whakahoki
+ki tona whaea, kei taetae nga u o te whaea, ka mate."
+Ka mea ano a Waikato, "E Kihi, tangaengaetia to
+mokopuna." Ka tahuri a Waikato ki a Maneha, ka
+mea, "E toma ki a koe ano te tamaiti nei. Kei pa te
+he ki tenei tamaiti, ako, ake Amene." Ka mutu.
+Kei runga ko Kihi, ka mea, "E mea ma, e whakaae
+tika ana ra nei te tangata nei kia - taku moko-
+puna;'"' Ka oho -ake'"Ae." Ka patai ano. a Kihi,
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_1_4.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_1_4.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_1_4.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,213 @@
+TE WHETU O TE TAU.
+
+"Koia e whakaae tika ana kia tangaengaetia taku moko-
+puna?" Ka karanga ake"Ae." Ka patai ano a Kihi, "Me
+iriiri e au taku mokopuna,ne?" Ka oho katoa "Ae."
+
+Ka tu a Kihi i konei ka tuhi, ka tangaengae i te tamai-
+ti, ka tu ta tuahu ka whakahua i ana karakia, ana
+waiata:
+
+E tama kimihanga rau na te tini
+Tikina kahauria ki tawhiti i pu
+I tupu mai ai te ewa te muru
+Ka kukune & 
+Ka whakahua ano i tetahi:
+Homai, homai taku tamaiti
+Kia hikihiki au ki runga
+I aku turi, aue' ka mate au nei
+1 te whakataute 
+
+Ka mutu a Kihi, kei runga ko To Kereihi ka mea,
+"Heoi ano. Ka ora au i te pikitanga, haere tonu ake
+te wai ora i raro i taku waitohi mauri, ka ora au.
+"Tera te whetu takina mai o te ruru
+
+Ko taku tau pea tenei ka hoki mai e 1.
+
+Ki mai ki au kia hokona koe ki
+
+Toroa whakaura kai o tuakana
+
+Hei hoko akahu waero moho ki to uru e i
+
+Wetewete mai ra taku komutu karamea
+
+Nonutuai te tonga ma rau rangi e
+
+Haramai mana e homai horahia
+
+Mai taku taonga kia rahiri au e.
+Ka mutu a te Kereihi
+
+Na ko te hiri nei tenei; ko te kawanata nei tenei;
+
+ko te oati nei tenei- Na To Kau, na Waikato na Te
+Kihiringi tenei hiri o to tika. Ekore matou e pai kia
+wahia ake ake amene noa, ahakoa raruraru noa i muri
+iho, ekore rawa e pai kia wahia, no te mea he tikanga
+pai tenei, he tikanga whakaora tangata,
+
+(Tera atu ano te hiku o tenei korero.)
+
+TE HAHI O TE KARAITI ME ONA MANGANGATANGA
+
+He tokomaha nga rangatira. Maori kua ki mai ki au
+kia taia ki te nupepa, nga ingoa o nga Hahi i roto i te
+Pakeha. He whakaaetanga tenei ki. to tatou kupu.
+Na, kei poauau te whakaaro o nga iwi Maori ki te tika-
+
+nga o enei tini Hahi e tuahae nei, e ngangau nei ki a
+ratou ano; ehara i te mea i ahu mai i te Atua; a, ko
+te whakamangangatanga  o te Hahi o te Karaiti kihai
+i ritea mai i a ia, inahoki te kupu o tona pononga o
+Paora e mea nei"Ko taku korero tenei; o mea ana
+koutou, No Paora ahau; ko ahau no A? oro; no Kipa
+ahau; ko ahau no te Karaiti; Kua oti koia a te
+Karaiti te wehewehe? i ripekatia ra nei a Paora mo
+koutou? i mina ra nei koutou ki te ingoa o Paora?"
+1. Koroiti i12, 13.
+
+Waihoki," ko te whakarangatiratanga o nga minita
+o nga Hahi i a ratou ano, kihai i ahu mai i to Atua:
+
+engari, no te kikokiko tera ritenga, no te rewera hoki.
+Tenei te kupu, "Ko koe ia o te tama o te Atua, oma
+atu i enei; a, whaia te tika, te karakia pai, te whaka-
+pono, te aroha, ta manawanui, te ngakau marie."
+1. Timoti vi11.
+Ko nga ingoa o etahi o nga Hahi koia enei:
+
+1. Nga Hapariana 18. Nga Inipenara  
+
+2. Nga Materiarite 19. Nga Paraonihi
+
+3. Nga Karawinihi  20. Nga Papita
+
+4. Nga Aminiana 21. Nga Kueka
+
+5. Nga Paketenana 22. Nga Morewiana
+
+6. Nga Nehitoriana 23 Nga Weteriana Meterika
+
+7. Te Hahi Kirika 
+
+8. Te Hahi Pikopo 24. Nga Mohorika Niu
+
+9. Nga Ruteriana 25. Nga Meterika Pirimita
+
+10. Nga Hakaenota 26 Nga Hamipa
+
+11. Te Hahi o Ingarangi 27. Nga Hapateriana
+
+12. Nga Nonihuro 28. Nga Hutihoniana
+
+13. Nga Tihoneta 29. Nga Tungikora
+
+14. To Hahi o Katarangi 30. Nga Weronipohiana
+
+15. Te Hainora Rihama 31. Nga Iwingaiti
+
+16. Nga Hihira 32. Te Hahi Katorika Heamani-
+
+17. Te Hainora Riwhi
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ 
+
+[Ko enei e kitea nuitia ana; tera atu ano etahi.
+Ahakoa he tini ke enei Hahi, kihai i takina paitia te
+whakapono; e tupu nui ana te taru i roto i te witi.]
+
+KO TE HAHI O TE KARAITI Me Ona MANGANGATANGA
+
+UPOKO I,
+
+Ko te take o te Hahi tapu puta noa i te ao, ko Ihu
+Karaiti te tama a te Atua. I te takiwa i whakaritea ai
+
+e te Atua, i te mangai o ana Poropiti, ka puta a Ihu'
+te Ariki ki tenei ao. Tenei ano te kupu:"Otira, ka
+tino rite nga wa, ka tonoa mai e te Atua tona tamaiti
+i meatia e te wahine, i meatia i raro i te ture." iv4.
+
+I mahi ano a to Karaiti, i te tamarikitanga ai, i nga
+tikanga o tona matua i te rangi, inahoki, mo te 12 o
+ona tau, i rokohanga, e tona whaea, e Meri, i roto i te
+temepara o te Atua e patai ana ki nga kaumatua o nga
+Hurai, Pukai!46. Otira, no te 30 o nga tau o te
+Ariki ki tenei ao, ka timata 
+
+tana mahi kauwhau haere.
+
+Etoru nga tau o to Karaiti i rui haere ai i ana tika-
+nga whakaora tangata, ki whakawatea e nga Hurai ki
+Hiruharama Ko te tangata i whakaae ia ai ta reo i
+
+nga Hurai kia ripekatia a Ihu, ko Ponana Pirata, he
+Kawana ia no Huna, na Roma i whakanoho ki reira i
+te tau o te Ariki 27. E rua nga iwi i tino whakaao
+kia mate a te Karaiti, ko nga Hurai, ko Roma. Ko
+te tangata nana noi a te Karaiti i hoko, ko Hura, 
+Hurai; ko to tangata nana nei i whakaae kia kohu-
+ruhia) ko Parate, no Roma. Ko tenei hunga tokorua,
+ehara i to ringa tangata i mate ai; a, kihai raua i.
+mate kongenge, engari, na o raua ringa ake raua i patu.
+Ko Hura he mea tarona e ia ano ki Huna; ko Pirata,
+he mea wero ki to hoari, e ia ano, ki Rawhiti, i Parani,
+
+te whenua o nga Wiwi; no Romi ia taua whenua i
+tera takiwa.
+
+E 33 o nga tau o te Karaiti 3 hoki marama ka mate
+ia No te aranga i to mate, ka noho i te ao, ka whaka-
+kitekite ia ki ona akonga i nga ra 40. No te 6 o nga ra
+o Mei, i to Taite, ka arahina nga akonga, e te Karaiti,
+ki Maunga Oriwa; a, ka mutu tana mihi ki a ratou,
+me tana whakapai, "ka tangohia atu ia, a, na te kapua
+ia i whakangaro i o ratou kanohi."Nga Mahi i9
+Otira, kake rawa ako a Ihu ki te rangi, ki te noho i
+to ringaringa matau o tona matua kua waiho tika o ia
+nga ritenga o te whakapono ki ona akonga. Whaka-
+rongo ki te kupu o to Ariki:"Ko to mana katoa i to
+rangi, i te whenua, ka oti te tuku mai ki au. Mo
+konei ra, Haere koutou, akona nga tauiwi katoa,
+ratou ki te ingoa o to Matua, o te Tamaiti, o to Wairua
+Tapu: Akona ratou kia rongo ki nga mea katoa i
+korerotia e ahau ki a koutou: a. e noho ana i a
+koutou i nga ra katoa, taea noatia te -
+Matiu xxviii -18, 19, 20.
+
+NGA RONGO O TAWHITI.
+
+Kua manu ki te moana to tima nui o Ingarangi  
+te roa 692 putu, ko to raununui  83 putu.
+
+Whano mate a Ponupata te kohuru, no Roma nga
+tangata i whakangakau nei ki te kohura i a ia.
+
+Kua oti to whakawa te Kingi o Inia, kua wairua e te
+Ingarihi ki te motutere noho ai.
+
+Ko nga moni o tetahi peke i riro i te korero tini-
+hanga o tetahi keia,, £ 20, 000.
+
+Ko te pakanga a Haina raua ko Ingarangi kahore
+ano i oti noa, kotahi pa nui o Haina kua horo.
+
+Kua tao mai nga nupepa whakaatu o te hurihanga
+ru ki Nepara, haere ake nga taumata i mate, 30, 000;
+
+haere ake nga whare i hinga 50, 000.
+
+Ko nga tangata o Inia,te whenua e whawhai mai
+nei ki Ingarangi60; 000, 000.
+
+I taia tenei e Piripi Kuaha, ki Akarana.
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_2_5.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_2_5.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_2_5.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,175 @@
+
+
+TE WHETU O TE TAU.
+
+N0.2.
+
+AKARANA, HURAU. 1858.
+
+VOL. 1.
+
+Kenana, Maketu.
+
+Ki a Hare Reweti, ko te kai-atawhai i te tutua
+i te pani, i te pouaru, i te rawakore. Roma
+xiii8.
+
+E hoa tena ra ko koe i runga i te mahi tohu
+a to tatou matua i te rangi. E hoa, kua tae mai
+tau pukapuka ki ahau; kua kite ahau i au wha-
+karitenga tika; a, e hari ana toku ngakau ki tou
+rongo pai e takahi mai nei, i runga i nga ngaru
+whakaporaruraru o tenei ao;i runga i nga
+ritenga a te tangata, a te Pakeha.
+
+Ko tenei, e hoa, kia kaha koe, ki te whaka-
+marama i nga tikanga ki te ao. Matiu, ^
+15, 16. Ma te Atua koe o whakakaha;, mana
+koe e tiaki; mana koe e whakaora,
+
+Ka hari koe ki te mahi, ki nga mahi a tou
+rangatira. Matiu, xxi^46. Matiu, xx^16,
+
+ 17. Matiu, xx^21.
+
+Ko tenei, e hoa, ka tika to arahanga i nga
+matapo. Ki te kahore e arahina, ka mate, ekore
+e tika, i i te huarahi. Matiu, xv14.
+
+E hoa, tena ra ko koe. Kia manawanui ki nga
+anea whakapouri, kia tohe ki te inoi. Roma,
+xii1: 2.
+
+He waiata tangi tenei naku ki a koe
+
+Kia kaha ake ra to piko ki te ao
+Kai tamia koe te whakaruhia
+Patuparehe, to taonga i kimi ai ki tawhiti.
+I rangahaua e, o karihi ki te putere,
+O tapu tinitiaia mai te manu a
+Te Tipua ka purotu hine, te waka takohe-
+kohe rai.
+Naku na to hoa aroha,
+
+NA PAORA PARUHI.
+
+[Ka nui te aroha a o toku ngakau ki nga korero
+pai a Paora Paruhi, tapoko ana ki te hinengaro,
+me he kowhitanga marama te panga mai kei
+ahau.Na Hare Reweti.]
+
+Waiomio, Peiwhairangi, Hanuere 18, 1858.
+E hoa,
+
+Tenei taku kupu ki a koe,kia tukua e koe
+
+enei korero ki te perehi hei matakitaki mo nga
+iwi katoa, o runga, o raro nei. Otira, e hoa,
+kihai, i pau atu aku kupu; maku ano e rapu i
+muri nei, he 'kupu pono, kia mutu tenei mahi,
+te mahinga o te kara; ko reira ano matou huihui
+ai, whakaoti" ai i tenei mahi. Heoi ano ena kupu
+ki a koe.
+
+Kia tau te rangimarietanga ki a koe, i roto
+i nga ra katoa, ma te Ata» koe e tiaki, ake ake.
+E hoa tena koe. Tenei ano toku aroha ki a koe.
+Heoi ano tena kupu a tou hoa aroha.
+
+A MAIHI PARAONE KAWITI.
+
+Ki a Hare Reweti, kei Akarana.
+
+Peiwhairangi, Hanuere 18, 1858.
+No te huihuinga o Ngapuhi -ki Kororareka
+i te whakaarahanga o te kara ki Maiki, enei
+korero. I te putanga o te mahi & tenei ranga-tira, 
+
+Maihi Paraone Kawiti To Kuhanga, i tona
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+whakaaro nui i taea ai e ia te rapu nga whakaaro
+e tupu ai te pai ki runga ki te whenua. Kia
+rongo ra e te iwi katoa, i te kupu a Maihi
+Paraone Kawiti. Ka peia atu e ia e te Atua
+te kino ki te pouritanga i waho ko te wahi tera
+o te tangihanga, me te teteatanga o nga niho
+Matiu viii.12. Engari me tahuri nga iwi katoa,
+me tango i te kupu o te Atua kia tika ai to tatou
+awhi tanga atu ki a te Kuini, me toa araitanga
+mai ki a tatou.
+
+He kaha no tenei tangata ki te rapu i tetahi
+whakaaro e ora ai tenei motu, e tau ai te mahi
+tohu a te Atua, ki nga tauiwi katoa. Koia a
+Maihi Paraone Kawiti i mea ai, ko nga iwi katoa
+o tenei motu me tomo atu ki roto ki te ture o te
+Kuini.
+
+Ko nga tangata enei i whakaae ki Maiki kia
+whakaarahia te kara, 1379. Ko nga hapu enei
+32; ko nga moni enei £86 188. 3d. Heoi ano.
+NA MAIHI PARAONE KAWITI ENEI
+WHAKATAKI.
+
+Pakanae, Hokianga, Hanuere 16, 1858.
+
+E hoa e Hare Reweti, tena ra ko koe. Tenei
+ano taku kupu ki a koe- mo taku korero kua tae
+atu ki a koe i mua. Ekore e Hare Reweti, tena
+ra ko koe, i runga i te kaha o te Atua Heoi ano,
+NA TE MANGUMANGU KAIWHAKAWA.
+Ki a Hare Reweti, kei Akarana.
+
+Whangaruru, Hanuere 15, 1858.
+E hoa e Hare Reweti, tena ra ko koe. Ka nui
+
+toku aroha ki a koe ki tau kupu, i ho mai nei i
+
+tau pukapuka.
+
+Tekoreotehangameheumutuhiekeiia
+
+"Waiarikikarawetakuringateataotepiau
+
+TaongakiInienahakutaiterarangaitu
+
+KiaurutomoautewhareoHareRewitimekore
+
+Eriromaiemekoparetetaitongakawhiwhi
+
+Karawekahokiauei.
+
+NA WIREMU KOROKORO.
+NA PITORE HU.
+NA PEPENE.
+
+Ki a Hare Reweti, kei Akarana.
+
+Emara e Hare Reweti, tena ra ko koe. Etahi
+toku aroha atu ki a koe. Ko te rua tenei o aku
+taonga mai, kahore ano aku kupu ki a koe, katahi
+ano. Kei nga tai o te korekore ka whakaputa
+te toka i Rangitahu. Ehoa e Reweti, he huna
+ra nei te marama, he tirea ra nei te marama, he
+mawaru ra nei, he rakau nui ra nei. Ka hua te
+kai, ka hua te kupu. He waiata.
+
+Tenei e whakangaoko ana ra te ngakau
+Ka hara mai te ra a ka wananga kia uru
+Koutou i te hinga o kai, ka uru
+Rapea koutou, i te tokitokinga o kai.
+
+Heoi ano, ka mutu
+
+NA PARATENE TE MANU.
+Ki a Hare Reweti kei Akarana.
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_2_6.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_2_6.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_2_6.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+                        TE WHETU O TE TAU.
+
+        K  tama kimihanga rau na to tini
+        Tikina hahauria ki tawhiti i pu
+        I tupu mai ai te e wa to rauru
+       Ka kukune &c.
+   Ka whakahua ano i tetahi:
+       Homai, homai tuku tamaiti
+        Kia  hikihiki au ki runga
+        I aku turi, aue ! ka mato au nei
+        1 te whakataute &c.
+  Ka  mutu a Kihi, kei runga ko Te Kereihi, ka mea,
+''Heoi ano.  Ka ora au i te pikitanga, haere tonu ake
+te wai ora i raro i taku wai tohi mauri, ka ora au
+       "Tera  to whetu  takina mai o to ruru
+        Ko taku tau poa tenei ka hoki mai e i.
+        Ki mai ki au kia hokona koe; ki
+        Toroa  whakaura kei o tuakana
+        
+
+
+ 1. Timoti vi11.
+   Ko nga ingoa o etahi o nga Hahi koia enei :
+  1. Nga Hapariana      1S. Nga Inipenara
+  2. Nga Materiarite     1D. Nga  Paraonihi
+  3. Nga Karawinihi     20. Nga Papita
+  4. Nga Aminiana       21. Nga Kaeka
+  5. Nga Paketenana       21  Nga  Morewiana
+  G. Nga  Nehitoriana     23 Nga  Weteriana  Mete-
+  7. Te Hahi Kiriki          rika
+  8. Te Hahi Pikopo      24. Nga Metorika Niu
+  9. Nga  Ruteriana       25. Nga Motorike. Pirimita
+ 10. Nga Hukuenota     2 i. Nga Hamipa
+ 11. To Hahi o Ingarangi 27. Nga Hapateriana
+ 12. Nga Nonihuro       28. Nga Hutihoniana
+ 13. Nga Tiheneta        20. Nga Tungikera
+
+
+
+
+
+  
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_2_7.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_2_7.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_2_7.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+                    TE WHETU   O TE TAU
+  TE  HAERENGA A REWI RAUA  KO   TE
+      WAITERE ME TO RAUA   PAKEHA.
+
+   
+
+ Wiremu 
+
+
+
+Whatawhata
+
+
+ Waikato.
+
+
+Kawhia
+
+
+ Hare Reweti
+
+
+Mangapouri
+
+
+ Rewi o To Katea, 
+ ki a Hoani Papita raua ko Toma, ki te pehi i tera
+ pakanga whenua.
+  
+
+Hare Reweti
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  TE  WHETU   O TE  TAU,
+           AKARANA,  
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_2_8.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_2_8.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_2_8.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,112 @@
+TE WHETU  O TE TAU
+
+can't read the BW file - even the GS
+
+NGA RONGO
+
+Ko Potatau Te Wherowhero kua hoki ki
+
+Waikato ki tona iwi, ko Ngaruawahia te kainga e
+
+noho ana.
+
+TE MAHI HIPI
+
+Ko nga iwi e pupuru nei i te whenua, ka tika
+kia karanga koutou ki te mahi hipi ma koutou
+
+anake ano tena karanga, ta te mea hoki, e whiu
+papa ana hei haerenga Erua nga painga o te
+hui) i, ko nga tinana hei hoko ki nga taone, ko nga
+huruhuru hoki i roto i nga tau katoa Kia
+
+ te whakanoho i nga hipi, kia wawe kou
+tou te whiwhi ki nga painga e ahu mai ana i
+tenei tu mahi
+
+NGA KURA MAORI
+
+Kua tu te Kura Maori kei Whatawhata, e wha
+ te kua o nga tamariki Ko te whenua, na
+te tangata Maori ko nga kai me nga kakahu na
+te tangata Maori Ko nga whakaako he
+tangata Maori, ko Hami Ngai  ko Pera, ko
+Hohepa Kua tu to ratou whare pa', kua nga
+kia paina nga marae o te kainga Kahore he
+ a nga Pakeha i taua, kura Ka tia i ano e
+mara ma, ka tika.
+
+NGA TAONE MAORI
+
+E rua nga taone Maori i roto o Waikato kui
+rangona, ko Ngaruawahia, ko Te Kopua Ko te
+ -Ngaruawahia hei mahinga kai, kua ata
+kitea Ko maramarua, te awa mo nga kai o Nga a
+ ko. Maupu te ara mai ki Hauraki
+Ko nga whare o te taone ki te Kopua he
+papa ko enei ki Ngaruawahia he pipi etahi, he
+ Ka purero ano iwi Maori, ka purero
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+TE HOKO PUKU I TE WHENUA
+I roto i tenei mahi whakatau pakanga, i te
+hoko puku i te whenua, na te tangata Maori ra
+nei te he, na te Pakeha ra nei Ko tehea taringa,
+ano o te Pakeha kia rongo? Kua ti nga taringa
+i te korerotanga atu, ehara i te tangata kotahi te
+whenua, Kua rongo tuturu i ratou, no nga tangata
+katoa te whenua No nga rangatira, no nga
+tu ua, no nga tane, no nga wahine, no nga
+ tamariki I runga i tana
+mohiotanga i ta te Pakeha, ka anga, ka tuku
+moni ki nga tangata poka noa ki te tuku whenua
+Ki te mei ki mau te whenua kauaka ia e riri,
+e he ana hoki i tana ki te mea ka pau
+ki atu ina moni, auaka
+ano, i a te Pakeha te he
+
+TE HE O TE NAMA
+He mahi he te nanu He tikanga whaka
+he tikanga whakangoikore i nga ringaringa, he
+tikanga whakapouri i te wairua, he tikanga
+ tikanga whakamana
+ pakanga Ko koutou katoa e pai ana ki enei he nunui haere ki te
+nama ko koutou  katoa e kino ana ki enei he,
+whakamama  mahi nama, ahakoa
+ i nama taonga
+
+KO TE HAHI O TE KARAITI ME ONA
+
+UPOKO 11
+
+Hiruharama i runga i te inoi ki te Atua, i runga
+ i te ahua ki te kupu o te Ariki   atu ki a ratou,
+"Maku e tuku itu  a koutou te mea  korero
+me taku Mahu i otiia, kia noho koutou,  te pa,
+  nama, kia whiwhi ra ano koutou  te
+kaha o aunga" Ruki xx 1749 Kotahi te kau
+o nga ra i noho tatari 11 nga Apotoro  te kupu
+o te Ariki,  muri iho o te kakenga, a, no te 16
+o nga ra o Mei,  te wiki, "Puta whakarere mai
+ana  hau matangi  te tangi, ano he hau wha
+kaha ra e kii ana, a,  katoa te whare  noho
+ai ratou A, ka puta mai  i tatou nga arero
+manganga, ano ue ahi, tiu iho ana  a tatou
+katoa, a, whakaki! a  ana tatou kite
+Wairua Tapu Nga Mahi 112, 3, 4
+noa  nga 100 o nga tauiwi Kihai  roa 
+rangona taua mea ui iti iro, a, ka huihui te mano
+ki te aroaro o nga Apotoro Kotahi  tawai 
+nga akonga o, ka ana enei
+(unreadable text)
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_2_9.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_2_9.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_2_9.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,202 @@
+TE WHETU O TE TAU.
+
+Tapu, kua ringihia mai tenei e kite nei, o rongo
+nei koutou " Nga Mahi 1133
+
+Ko te kauwhau a Pita mana tonu, i reira, aue
+ana to mano, i te mamae mo a ratou hara, kara
+nga tonu mai ki a Pita ki nga Apotoro katoa, ' E
+nga tangata, me nga tuakana, me pehea e ma
+tou ? ' Nga Mahi 1136 Ka rongo a Pita ki
+enei kupu, ka mea atu ki te mano, "Ripeneta,
+kia mira koutou katoa, i te ingoa o Ihu Karaiti
+mo te murunga hara, a, ka riro mai ki a koutou
+te horomatanga o te Wairua Tapu ' Nga Mahi
+1138
+
+Whakaae ana te mano i konei ki te kupu o te
+Atua i whakapuakina ra e Pita, a, "Ko ratou i
+tango hari i te kupu, i mira, a huihuia ana ki a
+matene toru mano o nga wairua" Ngatahi
+1141
+
+UPOKO HI
+
+Na, ka kite nei tatou, ko Hiruharama te Hahi
+tuatahi, te matua o nga Hahi katoa o te ao, a,
+ka kite hoki tatou i te tika o nga minita i whaka
+rerea iho e te Karaiti, hei hapai i tana kupu
+No te mahinga paotanga o te Hahi ki Harahara
+ma, ka wawahi nga Apotoro Kawea ana te
+rongo pai ki Anatioka, ki etahi atu whenua o
+Ahia, ko etahi i pakaru mai ki Oropi, ki nga
+whenua o Kirihi, ki Roma, ki Paniora, ki Inga
+rangi hoki Haunga te taonga o te kupu ki
+Kateiha, me etahi atu whenua o Awherika.
+
+Ko te pihopa tuatahi o te Hahi i Hiruharama,
+ko Hemi tama a Arapiu he teina a Hemi ki te
+Ariki I taua takiwa, he kupu noa iho nei te
+pihopa, kahore i ahua ke nga kakahu, me nga
+tikanga, i rite te whakaaro o te Hahi katoa, a,
+ko nga pihopa me nga kaumatua i whakapononga
+i a ratou, na te Karaiti hoki tera tikanga pai i
+whakatakoto i mua atu o te matenga I tau-
+tohetohe hoki nga akonga i mea, ko tehea ra hei
+rangatira mo ratou Ka rongo te Ariki, ka mea
+atu, "Ko nga kingi o nga tauiwi hei rangatira mo
+ratou, ko o ratou kai tohutohu e meinga ana
+he hunga mahi pai Otira, kaua koutou e pena,
+engari, ko te mea nui o koutou hei muringa, a,
+ko te rangatira, kia pera mo ia e whakapononga
+ana " Ruka xxii25, 26
+
+Ko te runanga tuatahi o te Hahi o te Ariki, i
+tuna ki Hiruharama, i reira a Paora, a Pita, a
+Panapa, me te tini atu, ko Hemi ia te upoko o
+taua runanga, i a ia te kupu whakamutunga, a,
+ko tana kupu i mana i te mano Nga Hahi xv
+
+13 Ko te tau i tu ai tenei runanga, ko te 51
+Ko te take i tu ai taua runanga he korero no
+etahi o nga Parihi ki te Hahi o Anatioka, "ki te
+kore koutou e kotea ki te ritenga a Mohi, ekore
+koutou e ora " Nga Maki xv1
+
+Noho noa nei a Hemi hei kaumatua mo te
+
+Hahi matua i Hiruharama, taea noatia te tau 62,
+Ka mate ia, he mea kohuru na nga Hurai Tonoa
+ana e nga rangatira o nga Hurai, i kino nei ki te
+rongo pai, kia kake a Hemi ki tetahi o nga keo
+koanga o te temepara whakapuaki ai i ana kupu
+kia ata rangona e te mano No te ekenga, ka
+whakataka iho o ratou, a, akona ana ki te kohatu
+Ka whakaaio a Hemi ka mate ia, ka tuturi nga
+tini, kawea, "E te Ariki te Atua te Matua, ka
+mai atu nei ahau mo ratou, no te mea, ekore
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ratou e matau ki tenei mahi a ratou ' Puta kau
+ano enei kupu i te mangai o Hemi, ka rere atu
+he tangata me te pouwhenua, akona ana ki te
+matenga Na taua rakau, na te kohatu whiu
+mai o te tokomaha, ka mate a Hemi te Tika i to
+whenua i kohurutia ai tona Ariki a Ihu Ko te
+
+ roa tenei o nga Hemi i mate ki Hiruharama, i o
+Hemi te tama a Heperi, na Herora te kingi
+patu Nga Mahi xii2
+
+Ka mate a Hemi te Tika, ka tangotango wha
+kaaro te Hahi ki tetahi tangata hei whakakapi
+mo tona turanga, hei upoko mo te Hahi matua
+Ko ta ratou tangata i pai ai, ko Hamiora, tama
+a Kereopa raua ko Meri Ko nga tau i Kawana
+ai a Haimona i te Hahi i Hiruharama 43, no
+te tau o te Ariki 107 ka mate a Haimona te tua
+rua onga pihopa o Hiruharama, i kohurutia he
+mea ripeka Otira ko te mana anake o te Hahi
+i Hiruharama i kitea i te tau 107, ko te mana o
+te iwi kua ngaro noa atu kia rite ai hoki te
+poropititanga o te Ariki e kii nei, ' E tae mai nga
+ia ki a koe, e tu ai te maioro a o hoa riri i waho
+ake i a koe; a, ka kamapotia koe, a, ka tauaraitia
+koe i tetahi taha, i tetahi taha A, ka whaka
+horoa koe ki raro ki te whenua, me ou tamariki
+i roto i a koe, a, ekore e waiho tetahi kamaka i
+runga i tetahi kamaka i roto i a koe, no te mea
+kihai koe i matau ki te wa a to tirohanga '
+Ruka x1x43, 44.
+
+TE TANGI A RAWIRI MO HAORA RAUA KO
+
+HONOTANA
+
+Hinga ana te ataahua o Iharaira,
+
+Ki runga ra ki ou wahi tiketike,
+
+Ano te hinganga o nga nui'
+
+Kauraka ra e korerotia ki Kata,
+
+Kauaka ra nge e panuitia ki nga ara o Ahakorono
+
+Kei hari ra e nga tamahine a nga Parihitini
+
+Kei whakakoakoa nga tamahine a te kokoti kore
+
+E nga maunga o Karapoa, kauraka he tomairangi
+
+Kauaka ra he ua ki runga ki a koutou,
+
+Nga mara hoki mo nga whakahere,
+
+Na te mea koa, i whiua kinotia ki rena
+
+Te tauarai o nga nui, te tauarai o Haora,
+
+Engia ano ia kihai ia i whakamahia ki te hinu
+
+I te toto o nga mea mate, i te ngako e nga nui
+
+Kahore i hoki ki muri te kopere a Honatana,
+
+Te hoari ra a Haora kaore i hoki kau mai
+
+Ko Haora raua ko Honatana i humarie,
+
+I ahuareka i te oranga ai,
+
+A, i to raua matenga, kihai i wehewehea
+
+Hira ake to raua roto i nga nehera,
+
+Rahi ake te kaha i nga raiona
+
+E nga tamahine o Iharaira,
+
+Tangihia mai a Haora,
+
+Nana nei koma i hipoki
+
+Ki nga mei pakurakura,
+
+Me etahi atu whakahari,
+
+I whakapiri ki o korua kakahu
+
+Nga koma hei whakapai iho
+
+Ano te hinganga o nga nui,
+
+I waenga parekura'
+
+Patua iho koe e Honatana
+
+Ki ou wahi tiketike
+
+i, koera ana au ki a koe,
+
+E toku tuakana e Honatana
+
+Nui atu to ahuareka ki au,
+
+He aroha whakamiharo tau ki ahau,
+
+Hua ake i to aroha wahine
+
+Ano te hinganga o nga nui '
+
+Nga patu hoki o te whainga ngaro noa ia e
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_3_10.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_3_10.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_3_10.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,176 @@
+TE WHETU O TE TAU.
+
+No. 3.
+
+AKARANA, HEPETEMA 1, 1858.
+
+VOL 1.
+
+Haere atu ra e taku kupu i runga i te aroha wha-
+katohua ki oku hoa Maori katoa. E hoa ma, tena
+koutou. Kia mau mai te whakaaro ki te Atua,
+no te mea hoki, ko te matua ia mo te tangata.
+Tenei tana kupu. "E haere mai ratou i runga i
+te tangi, a, ka arahina e au i runga i te inoi; ka
+meinga ratou o ahau kia haere i te taha o nga
+awa wai, i roto i te ara tika, ekore e tutuki te
+wae i reira, no te mea, ko au hei Matua mo Iha-
+raira, ko Eparaina ano hei matamua ki ahau."
+Heremaia xxxi9.
+
+Ko tenei e oku hoa aroha kia piri pu ki te
+whakapono kia rokohanga noatanga e te he e
+noho tika ana i te aroaro o te Atua, i te aroaro o
+te tangata, ka oti hoki te tuhituhi, "E mau ki
+nga mea whawhai katoa a te Atua, kia taea ai e
+koutou te tu atu ki te riri i te ra kino a, te oti-
+nga o nga mea katoa kia tu."Epeha vi13.
+
+Kia tau ki a koutou katoa te atawhai o to tatou
+Ariki, ma ona toto tapu e horoi o koutou hara
+katoa, mana koutou katoa e whakawhiwhi ki tona
+Wairua Tapu, kia waiho ai koutou hei mangaro te
+Waina Pono i tenei ao, a, hei Tohunga, hei Kingi
+i tera ao atu. Ko taku inoi tenei mo koutou
+katoa.
+
+NA HARE REWETI.
+
+Akarana, Akuhata, 1858.
+
+KO NGA PUKAPUKA O NGA RANGATIRA.
+
+E hoa e Hare Reweti, tena koe. Ka nui toku
+aroha ki a koe no te mea koa tauwehe o taua
+tinana. E hoa o te whetu o te ata, tena koe.
+Tena koe te tangata nana i tui te waka kia mau.
+E hoa, e mohio ana koe ki nga tangata katoa. E
+hoa tena koe.
+
+NA POTATAU TE WHEROWHERO.
+Ki a Hare Reweti, kei Akarana.
+
+Rangiaohia.
+
+Haere ra e taku aroha ki a Hare Rewiti
+E hoa e Hare Reweti, tena koe. Ka nui taku
+mihi ki a koe i roto i nga marama i nga ra. E
+hoa tena koe, te mahi mai na i nga mahi tohu o
+te Atua. He waiata aroha.
+
+Taku turanga kei te ihi o te whare
+
+Me te kai aohia te roimata i ahau,
+
+Aroha i mahuki ki te tau ka wehea
+
+Ka ngaro ki te kore
+
+Naku koe i tuku atu i te mata i rarau
+
+Te rehia i te ara koa
+
+Te ringa toro, i te ringa horahora.
+
+Heoi ano,
+
+Na to hoa aroha,
+
+NA HOHEPA TAMAMUTU,
+
+Kei Taupo.
+
+Haere atu ra e taku aroha i nga hihi o te
+marama ka rakaunuitia ki a Hare Reweti. E
+hoa e Hare Reweti, tena koe. Ka nui toku aroha
+ki a koe. Katahi ano au ka tao mai i te kawe i te
+aroha kua honea e te Karaiti ki te ao ki a tatou
+hoa i Taranaki e mahi aua i nga ritenga pouri o
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ 
+
+te ao. E pa, i haere au i runga i nga ture i
+whakatakotoria  hei mahi mo nga tangata katoa
+kia whiwhi ki te kotahitanga. E ki ana hoki a
+Paora ko te mea nui ano o enei ko te aroha
+Koriniti xiii13. Me te kupu e mea ana, ka
+kawea hoki matou e te aroha o te Karaiti. Na
+konei au i mea ai kia mahia nga mahi pai ki to
+tangata. E hoa tena koe i roto i te ture atawhai.
+He waiata aroha.
+
+I muri ahiahi ka tata mai te aroha
+
+Ki te tau ra e i whakaepa
+
+I taku ohinga kei te ruru au
+
+E ko reira huaki nei to kai e anga
+
+Te wero hope te maringi nei
+
+Nana nei i hokirua mai ki te whare
+
+Taku whakara ki ngai mua ra
+
+I nga rangi raia.
+
+Heoi ano,
+
+Na to hoa aroha,
+
+NA KEREI KATEA.
+
+Kihikihi, 1858.
+
+Haere ra e taku rota ki a Hare Reweti. E
+hoa tena koe. Kia mau mai te whakaaro ki au
+tamariki i atawhainga ai e koe, i to po i te ao,
+ara i runga i te atawhai o te Ariki. Heoi ka
+mau tonu nei te aroha ki a koe me te tumanako
+tonu o te ngakau ki a koe i te po i to ao kia kite
+ra ano au i a Koe e Hare Reweti.
+
+NA HONE TERI TE PAERATA.
+Ki a Hare Reweti, kei Akarana.
+
+Rangiaohia, Mei 26, 1858.
+Nau mai ra e taku reta ki toku matua aroha
+ki a Hare Reweti. E pa tena ra koe te noho mai
+na i tou kainga. E hoa, kotahi te mea kua kitea
+e matou ko ta te Atua kupu i ki ai ia "rapua e
+koutou nga Karaipiture kei reira te orangatonu-
+tanga mo koutou." Kia rongo mai koe kua
+whakakahore matou i etahi o nga tikanga Pakeha
+i runga i to matou whenua ta te mea kua kite te
+Atua ko te moni te putake o nga kino katoa. E
+hoa kia mau mai te aroha ki nga tangata Maori
+katoa. Heoi ano
+
+NA PAORA MATENGA TE PAHUPAHU.
+Ki a Hare Reweti, kei Akarana,
+
+[Ae e te hoa aroha e Paora, mo rapu tonu te
+tangata i nga karaipiture ko te ora kei reira, ko
+te tika, ko te pai]
+
+Warau, Hurae 1, 1858.
+
+E hoa e Te Reweti, tena koe. E hoa ko au
+anake kei te pupuru i ta taua tikanga; otira, ko
+nga rangatira o Ngatitamatea  o Ngatimaru o
+pupuri nei i ta tatou tika. E hoa kia kaha mai.
+Ki a Te Reweti,
+
+Ngaruawahia.
+
+E hoa e Hare Reweti, tena koe i roto i te ata-
+whai o te Ariki.
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_3_11.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_3_11.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_3_11.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,169 @@
+TE WHETU O TE TAU.
+
+tonu nei ki a koe, no te mea, kua piri mai koe ki
+a matou i runga i te aroha o te Atua. E hoa,
+ekore e mutu taku whakawhetai mo tana homai-
+tanga i tenei pai e mahia nei e nga runanga. E
+hoa kua tae mai tau reta, ara tau kupu e rapu
+nei koe i te tika mo to iwi, to matou kitenga i
+tau reta hari ana etahi, ka pouri etahi no te mea
+e ngaro ana koe i o ratou kanohi. E hoa tena
+koe. Ko taku kupu ki a koe ka mau toku nga-
+kau ki a koe. E hoa ekore au e wareware ki a
+koe.
+
+NA TIPENE TAHATIKA,
+
+Kaiwhakaako.
+Ki a Hare Reweti, kei Akarana.
+
+[Kei hea hoki te mea nui u a te hoa u a Tipene,
+ka mea au koia ano tena ko te aroha.Na HARE
+REWETI.]
+
+No Mangere.
+
+E tama e Hare Reweti, tena koe, te whaka-
+puta na i te aroha, i te marama, o runga, i
+te wahi pouri o nga tangata; ara, o te whenua.
+E tama, kia rongo mai koe i taku whakaaro mo
+nga Maori. Rere! ka rito pea te Maori ki nga
+manu, ki nga ika. To nga ika wahi to nga manu,
+to nga kiore, to nga ngarara;he mea whaka-
+rite ano e te Atua o ratou whare. To te ika
+haerenga, he wai; to te manu he ngaherehere;
+
+to te kiore, he rua oneone. Ko onei mea katoa,
+kihai i rite te matau ki te tangata. Na, ki ta te
+manu mohio, he ngaherehere; kai ana, inu ana,
+hauhau ana, korero ana. Tena huakina te nga-
+here, ahu kau ana nga manu. Kua mutu te
+koroki o te manu i te ata, hua tangi 
+kao. Ko te rite tenei mo nga Maori. Ka mea,
+no nga Pakeha te he; kaore no ratou ano te he.
+He mea pea kia rite ki nga manu e haerere ana i
+te taha tai. Kua pari te tai, kua nekeneke kiuta;
+
+kua timu, kua matara atu te haerenga. Tera
+ano te tai punaha te haere mai ra, ngaro aua nga
+tahuna, ka kimi i te wahi hei nohoanga mo
+ratou:kua kitea te wahi i purero, kua popo ki
+reira, ke! ke! kau ana. Mou enei korero, e te
+tangata hoko whenua. E pai kia whiwhi koe ki
+te moni hei utu eka mou. E pai kia uri kore
+koe. Kua tupu o uri, o mokopuna, kua rongo
+ratou, no te Maori ano tenei whenua, i mua mo
+tau kupu e ki na koe, "Hei oneone mawai kia
+puritia, ka mate nei au." E tama e Hare
+Reweti, e penei ana nga whakaaro o te tangata
+hoko whenua. Kua reka hoki te maunu ki te
+waha. E hoa tena koe, E tama he whakaaro
+enei naku. Me he mea pea, e rongo ana nga
+tangata, ka riri ra nei, ka pai ra nei.
+Heoi ano.
+
+NA TO HOA TATA KEI MANGERE.
+
+Ki a Hare Reweti, o Niu Tireni, o Ingarangi, ra
+nei. E mahara ana au no tawahi ano pea
+koe i whanau ai, no konei ano ra nei.
+[Ekore e toku hoa tata, no tawahi ano au; he
+heka au nei ki tenei whenua ki Niu Tireni.Na
+HAKE REWETI.]
+
+Mangere, 1858.
+
+Tenei ano te Atua o namata ko Uenuku.
+Kahore he Hurihanga o te whakaaro o mua;
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+kotahi tonu te tikanga. E hoa ma, me tuku atu
+taku kupu i te muri raro, kia kite koutou katoa i
+taku timatanga, nohoanga ki te pakeha 1835 o
+nga tau. Ka noho au i runga i te ritenga
+pakeha. Ehara te matua poriro; engari tona
+matua tupu. Titiro hoki; no te Atua te wairua,
+no te Atua hoki te tinana. He whakaaro tupu
+enei korero. He waiata:
+
+Ra paki au ki runga ki te tawa
+
+Kia marama hau te titiro ki
+
+Wharekahokaho ki te tauira engia
+
+Ki te haramaitanga o te pai,
+
+Rakau ka tairi ia taua.
+
+Heoi ano
+
+NA HEMI KARENA,
+
+Kei Mangere.
+Ki a Hare Reweti, kei Akarana.
+
+TE HAERENGA A REWI RAUA KO TE -WAI
+
+TERE ME TO RAUA PAKEHA.
+(He roanga no tera nupepa.)
+
+Ko te atawhai a Hoani Papita, me tona hoa
+wahine, me nga tangata katoa me nga wahine,
+nui atu. Patua ana e Hoani he poaka ma matou,
+tukua ana te paraoa me era atu kai, ko te aporo
+he ope noa mai.
+
+No te otinga o nga korero ka hoki ki Kihikihi,
+ka noho ki te kainga a Rewi, ka tukua a Te
+Waitete kia haere ki Te Kopua ki Hangatiki ki
+te tirotiro i te iwi.
+
+No to matou nohoanga Ki .Kihikihi ka tu te
+runanga, etoru te kau o nga tane ki taua runanga
+ko; kupu nei waewae; ko nga Kai whakapono
+karaipiture tokorua, ko Hemi, ko Epiha hei
+ringaringa era; ko nga pane ko Te Katea, ko Te
+Ngahuru, ko Rewi; ko Manuera te kai tuhituhi
+Ka tu te runanga tuatahi he wahine puremu,
+puta ana nga moai £15 wahia ana mo te runanga
+etahi mo to tane o te wahine i he etahi. No te
+rua o nga turanga he hoiho te hara, puta ana ko
+te hoiho ko te wati. Ko te wati i te runanga ko
+te hoiho i te tangata nana te he. Ko te tuatoru
+he tahae, puta ana £5 wahia ana mo te runanga,
+mo te tangata nana te he. Te tuawha he ekenga
+no tetahi i te hoiho o tona hoa, puta ana erima
+hereni, wahia ana era. He tini nga ture i mahia
+e tenei runanga i to matou nohoanga ki reira,
+mo te waipiro, mo te korero teka, mo te puremu
+me te tini atu.
+
+He nui noa iho te mahi o tenei iwi i te ao i te
+po ki te whakatakoto tikanga hei pehi mo te he,
+hei whakatu mo te tika. I whakaae ano matou
+ki te kaha me te marama o ta ratou mahi.
+
+Ko te atawhai o nga tangata katoa o Kihikihi
+ki a matou heaha ra i korerotia ai! Kahore he
+mea i mahue, ko nga poaka, ko nga paraoa, ko
+nga heihei, ko nga ti, ko nga huka, me te tini atu
+o te kai he whiu noa mai tiketike ana. Ko to
+taonga nei ko te wahine ki te taka kai ma matou,
+ko tana mahi maori tera. Ko te hoa a Manuera
+ko etahi iho, ko etahi iho. Nawai hoki tau aroha
+e Kihikihi ki tenei hanga ki te Pakeha I
+
+No te po ka whakatomokia  te whare te tane,
+te wahine, te tamariki erua pea rau tangata. Ka
+puta te mihi o tana iwi, ka waiata mai ki a Hare
+Reweti.
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_3_12.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_3_12.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_3_12.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,191 @@
+TE WHETU O TE TAU.
+
+Kei runga ko Mare:
+
+Haere mai e Hare Reweti, haere mai e aku
+matua, kawea mai to kiri ma ki au ki to kiri
+pango. Katahi ano au ka mohio tenei te aroha
+nei te kiri ma ki au ki te kiri mangu, ki Niu
+Tireni. Kawea mai tou aroha e taku papa, ae,
+hei papa ano koe ki au.
+
+E titi te kowhiti tiaho i runga ra o
+
+Au ki raro nei whakaraupeka a i e
+
+Me pewhea ra e he mahara mahaku, e
+
+Me tahu tonu ra ki te ahi totara e
+
+Ki te ahi kapana ki a kawa i roto ra e
+
+Me aha koa ra nga mahi a te pito e
+
+Maku nei e titiro tautoru i runga ra e
+
+Matariki rahi nui ko te ahua ia e
+
+Ka whakapaiori au ka takoto kei te whare ra i a
+
+Kei runga ko Pahata;
+Haere mai e Hare Reweti me tou teina me
+Neri kawea mai nga pai. Haere mai ki te iwi
+i hutia ake i roto i te he. Haere mai te papa o
+nga iwi Maori.
+
+[Pa katoa i konei ki te waiata, te tane te
+wahine me te tamariki, ano te reo o te tangata
+me nga wai maha.]
+
+Kahore te aroha ki te kororia tapu
+
+E wawae ake ana i te ara kuiti,
+
+Nau mai e Hare ka haere taua
+
+Ki a Ihaia, kia monitatia,
+
+Kia huihui tatou koe nohoanga nui
+
+Kia hopukia iho te kupu o te Atua
+
+Kia ahu taua ki a Ihu Karaiti
+
+Kia murua te hara i taku tinana nei.
+
+Ka mutu tenei waiata ka tu ano etahi ki te
+korero, mo te tika o te mahi, me te aroha, mo te
+tapu, kia kauaka te he e tomo mai ki nga runa-
+nga. A ka whakahua tenei waiata tangi, te
+katoa te iti me te rahi.
+
+E ao mauru e rere pokai nei
+Tangi kau ana au ki aku nei tamariki e
+Ka wehe ra i nga tau ka wehe ra i nga nohoanga
+Tahuri mai ki muri kei te mihia atu koe
+Patua a i te moana tara i te rangi
+KIA maori kia puta taua  tai a Kupe
+Kai te tai hauhuru
+E mihi ana 'au e tangi ana au
+Ki taku tane naku i mataati i nga rangi ra
+Nau mai ra ka tu kia kawhakina koe
+E hara te kuri he iti tangata
+Tena te hanga kei tai e patu ana.
+
+Tenei ano tetahi:
+
+E au mahara iti e au mahara kore
+Ki te rau o te kaho e takoto mai noi
+Naku koe mau mai hei matua moku
+Hei whakawehi mai te tauranga kiuta
+Te atua i a koe te pa rawa mai
+To reo kia whitirere ake ko taku mauri ora
+Ki runga, ka riro ra koe i runga te au heke
+Te pae matua o Hawaiki
+
+Te hauhunuitanga awatea
+
+Ka tangi te aweawe i runga
+Mo ko uru ko ngangana
+Ka tau ana ko tawhiti, hoatu ai au
+I te tapuwae o taku waka, tuhikitia,
+Tahapainga atu, ka rere i opiki ake ai au
+Ki runga o "Whitireia ki te taumata o te ra
+Me te marama, i whatetu ai te uiratanga mai
+Tupe rawa atu au tupe i nuku
+Tupe i rangi, hihi haha, te uru
+O Tangaroa kiuta mangai nuku
+Mangai rangi, mangai papa, mangai tauaia
+Io tauranga te kutikuti ai
+Te tauranga te aweawe, aweawe nui o rangi
+Ka tapu au ka hoka ka hokahoka te manu "
+Nui a Tane tupea mai kia piri,
+Tupea mai kia tata, ka whitirere i manu
+Ka whiwhi au, ha rawe au, ka mau.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+NGA RONGO O TAWAHI.
+
+Ko te whainga i Inia e ngahau tonu ana, e kiia
+ana ekore e oti wawe.
+
+Kotahi pa nui o Inia i horo, ko Pokeno; i
+takiri te tangata whenua.
+
+Kua tae mai nga nupepa e ki ana, ka tata ka
+whawhai te Wiwi raua ko TE INGARIHI; kua manu
+nga manuwao.
+
+Ko te whawhai ki Haina e kaha tonu ana; ko
+te Wiwi raua ko te Ingarihi nga hoa riri o Haina.
+
+Kua puta mai nga rongo whawhai o Marikena
+raua ko Ingarangi.
+
+Kua whakahoa a Ruhia raua ko te Wiwi, e rere
+mai ana nga manuwao o Ruhia ki Parani.
+
+Kua hinga te parekura ki Monetenikoro, 2, 000
+o Takei i mate; ko te Wiwi kua whakakoa ki
+Monetenikoro.
+
+E riri puku ana a Ateria raua ko te Wiwi, o
+meinga ana ka tata te pakanga.
+
+KO TE HAHI O TE KARAITI Me ONA
+MANGANGATANGA.
+
+UPOKO IV.
+I te tau o te Ariki 67 ka hapainga mai te taua
+o Roma ki te patu i nga Hurai; ko nga rangatira
+o tenei ope, ko Weteriana, ko Titaha, tama ano
+ona. Ko nga hoia o to raua ope 60, 000. No te
+horonga o Kariri, me etahi atu wahi, i Huna, ka
+hoki a Weteriana ki Roma, waiho iho ana te
+tikanga a te taua ki tana tama, ki a Titaha. Ka
+taea etahi o nga pa e te ope o Roma, ka tae atu
+ki te tau i Hiruharama; a karapotia ana e ratou
+taua pa, keria ana ki te maioro a waho, te puta
+te tangata whenua ki te rapu kai. I ia whakae-
+kenga, i ia whakaekenga, ka hinga te parekura,
+mano tini ki te moenga o tetahi o tetahi. Nawai
+ra ka taea te taiepa tuatahi, te tuarua, te tuatoru.
+Nui atu te kaha o nga Hurai, me to ratou maia;
+
+ka taea tetahi wahi o te pa, rewa ana te toto,
+kauika ana te tupapaku, ka whati iti atu, ka
+tupu ano te whana. E toru marama, tango atu
+ki te wha, i kakawa ai i roto i te pa, ka tae nga
+hoia o Roma ki te taiepa kohatu o te Temepara.
+Ko tetahi mate o to tangata whenua i roto i tenei
+whawhai, ho hiakai. Ota noa to tangata i nga
+mea kai e takoto ana, hamu noa etahi ki nga
+otaota, ki nga paru o nga huarahi, a, ko etahi i
+kai tangata. No konei koa i rite ai te porotiti-
+tanga a Mohi i mua i ki nei, "A, ka kai koe i te
+hua o to kopu, i te kikokiko o o tama, o o tama-
+hine, i homai e Ihowa e tou Atua ki a koe, i te
+whakapaenga, i to kopaninga hoki o kopania ai
+koe e ou hoa riri." Tiuteronomi xx^iii53.
+Ko tetahi ho i roto i tenei whainga, he putu no
+nga Hurai i a ratou ano; puke ana te toto i roto
+i te pa i ta ratou mahi kohuru i a ratou ano.
+
+No te timatanga o te whawhai ka mahara nga
+akonga ki te kupu o to Ariki, i ki nei, "Ka kite
+koutou i te whakarikarika whakamarakerake i
+korerotia e Raniera te poropiti, e tu ana i to
+wahi tapu (ko ia e titiro pukapuka ana, ki a
+matau ia). Hei reira ko ratou i Huria, me  rere
+ki nga maunga." Matiu xxi^15, 16. A, oma
+ana ratou' ki tetahi pa i nga maunga, ko Pera
+tona ingoa, ka ora i te riri o te taua waiho iho
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_3_13.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_3_13.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_3_13.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,171 @@
+TE WHETU O TE TAU.
+
+nga he ki nga Hurai kihai nei i whakapono kiate
+Karaiti.
+
+No te marama o Mei, ka taea e te ope o Roma,
+te pito ki raro o te pa; a, no nga ra o Akuhata
+ka horo te pito i tu ai te temepara. No te eke-
+nga a nga hoia ki reira, ka whiua atu e tetahi he
+mounga ahi ki roto ki taua whare, inamata! ka
+pongere, ka mura, tinei noa etahi o ratou, kihai
+i mate, pa tonu atu te ahi ki nga rakau whaka'
+iro, ki nga koura, me nga hiriwa, a, haruru haere
+ana te ahi i roto i nga ruma katoa, i te wahi
+tapu hoki. I te toronga o to temepara he mano
+nga tangata i piki ki runga ki nga keokeonga, ki
+te tuanui, tena e tae ake te ahi ki reira, ka horo
+te tuanui, pau tonu ake ratou i te kapura. Hau-
+nga nga tangata i kohurutia i roto i te temepara,
+e tere ana te toto o nga Hurai, ano he wai i roto
+i te whare o te Atua.
+
+No te patunga o tenei hunga ki te temepara,
+ka rere nga morehu ki te pito whakarunga o te
+pa, tangi ana te aru e te taua, a, horoa ana tera
+wahi. Ka patua nei te tane, te wahine, te tama-
+riki, me te awa nei te toto, a, mano tini ki te
+moenga i nga marae o nga kainga, puta ana te
+haunga, kahore hoki he kai tanu. Ara i patu
+nga hoia o Roma, i patu, ka hoha noa iho, nge-
+nge aua te ringa i te patunga. Takoto rawa iho
+kotahi miri ona kotahi rau mano, 1, 100, 000; ko
+nga herehere hei hoko mo Roma, eiwa te kau ma
+whitu mano 97, 000. Na, murua ana nga tao-
+nga katoa i toe, tahutahu rawa nga whare katoa,
+turakina ana nga pa kohatu, whakahoroa katoatia
+ana nga whare taua, pakira kau ana taua pa, en-
+gia ano kihai i nohoia tera wahi e te tangata. Pa
+ana te he nui ki nga iwi o Hiruharama, whaka-
+ritea ana e te Atua ta ratou kupu i ki atu Ki a
+Pirato, "Ko ona toto, hei runga i a matou, me o
+matou tamariki." Matiu xx^u25.
+
+UPOKO V
+No te mutunga o to whawhai, ka, hoki a Ti-
+taha ki Roma ki te kawe i o ratou taonga, i nga
+herehere hoki. Ko nga hoia i waiho iho e Hiha
+hei tiaki mo Hiruharama, 800; ko te wahi i tu
+ai to ratou whare tiaki, ko maunga mona. A i
+roto i aua ra ka hapainga e nga Kiriki e nga
+Ratini hanga ana he pa mo ratou ki Hiruharama,
+tapa iho taua pa, ko Ena Kapitorina. I a ratou
+e noho ana, ka ngoki atu etahi o nga Hurai ki
+reira noho ai, takitahi nei.
+
+Noho noi nga Hurai i nga taone i pahaki atu i
+Hiruharama, a, ka whakatika tetahi tangata i
+roto i a ratou, ko Haimona Pukarara te ingoa.
+Mea ai taua tangata ko te Karaiti ia, whai tonu
+atu nga Hurai i a ia, haere rawa ake taea ope
+erua rau mano 200, 000. Huaki tonu atu taua
+ope ki Hiruharama, nohoia ana e aua Hurai te
+pa, me nga whare taua, me nga taone o reira.
+Ka rongo a Roma, ka hapainga mai e Hewara.
+Ka whakaekea e te taua, ka horo ho pa, ka horo
+he pa, a, turia ana ki waho, mimiti ana nga
+Hurai i a Roma, takoto rawa iho erima rau,
+e waru te kau mano 580, 000 haunga nga mea i
+tahuna ki te ahi, me nga mea i mato i te kai
+kore.
+
+I muri mai o tenei i nga ra o Anatonina Paura
+i te tau o te Ariki 138 ka waiho nga Hurai kia
+noho marire ana i etahi o nga whenua o Huria
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+otira, kihai a Hiha i whakaae kia noho ratou ki
+te pa o Hiruharama. I te tau 806 ka puta ki te
+karauna o Roma a Kanitaina nui. I whakaae tenei
+Ehara ki te whakapono, a, i roto i tana Ehara-
+tanga, mano tini te tangata i tahuri ki te Hahi.
+Tokorua raua ko tona whaea ko Herena ki te
+whakamana i te whakapono. Haere atu ana a
+Herena ki Hiruharama ki te titiro i nga wahi i
+haerea e te Karaiti, a, whakahaua iho e ia kia
+hanga he whare karakia ki te tini o te wahi i
+Hiruharama. Whakatakariri noa nga Hurai i to
+ratou kitenga i nga whare karakia o nga Karaiti-
+ana; otira, kahore he toa i kitea e ratou hei taki-
+taki i to ratou mate.
+
+I te Eparatanga o Huriana, i te tau 361 ka
+koa nga Hurai, no te mea, kahore tera Epara i
+whakaae ki a te Karaiti. I mea a Huriana kia
+whakakahoretia e ia nga korero poropiti o te
+Ariki, whakahaua ana e ia nga kai mahi kia
+hanga he temepara ki runga ki Maunga Moria;
+
+ko te ahua kia poka ke ake i te whare karakia i
+hanga e Herena ki runga ki Maunga Kaware.
+Ka rongo nga Hurai ki te whakaaro o Huriana te
+Ehara o Roma, ka whakarapopoto i a ratou ki
+Hiruharama ki te hanga i te temepara. Otira,
+kahore i puta ta ratou whakaaro, ko te whare
+karakia i tu ki Maunga Moria, na Takei, a, e tu
+mai nei ano. No konei i rite ai te kupu poro-
+piti o te Ariki i mea nei, "A ka takahia a Hiru-
+harama e nga tauiwi, kia rite ra ano te wa o nga
+tauiwi."-'Ruka xxi24.
+
+WAIATA A RAWIRI.
+
+Tau ana te manaakitanga ki te tangata
+
+Kaore e haere i roto i te korerotanga
+
+O te hunga kino,
+
+A, kaore e turia te ara
+
+O te hunga hara;
+
+A, kaore e nohoia te nohoanga
+O nga whakahihi.
+
+Otira, ko tana whakaahuarekatanga
+Kei te ture a Ihowa,
+
+A, ko ia e whakaaro ana ki. tona ture,
+I te ao, i te po,
+
+E pera ia we te rakau whakato
+Ki te parenga o nga awa wai,
+E puta nei nga hua i ona tau;
+
+Kaore he memengetanga o tona rau
+
+A, e mana nga mea katoa,
+
+E mahia ana e ia.
+
+Ko te hunga kino ia, ekore e penei,
+
+E rite ana ki te papapa
+
+E kahakina nei e te hau;
+
+Mo konei ra, kaore he turanga
+
+O te hunga kino, ki te whakawakanga;
+
+O te hunga hara hoki
+
+Ki te menenga o te hunga tika;
+
+E matau ana hoki a Ihowa
+Ki te ara o te hunga tika;
+
+Ko te huarahi ia o te hunga kino,
+E ngaro noa iho.
+
+I taia tenei e PIRIPI KUNITA, ki Akarana.
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_3_14.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_3_14.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/10/text/10_1_3_14.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+TE WHETU O TE TAU.
+nga he ki nga Hurai kihai nei i whakapono kiate Karaiti. No te marama o Mei, ka taea e te ope o Koma, te pito ki raro o te pa ; a, no nga ra o Akuhata ka horo te pito i tu ai te temepara. No te eke-nga a nga hoia ki reira, ka whiua ata e tetahi he mounga ahi ki roto ki taua whare, inamata ! ka pongere, ka mura, tinei noa etahi o ratou, kihai i mate, pa tonu atu te ahi ki nga rakau whaka-iro, ki nga koura, me nga hiriwa, a, haruru haere ana te ahi i roto i nga ruma katoa, i te wahi tapu hoki. I te toronga o to temepara be mano nga tangata i piki ki runga ki nga keokeonga, ki te tuanui, tena e tae ake te ahi ki reira, ka horo te tuanui, pau tonu ake ratou i te kapura. Hau-nga nga tangata i kohurutia i roto i te temepara, e tere ana te toto o nga Hurai, ano he wai i roto i te whare o te Atua. No te patunga o tenei hunga ki te temepara, ka rere nga morehu ki te pito whakarunga o te pa, tangi ana te ara e te taua, a, horoa ana tera wahi. Ka patua nei te tane, te wahine, te tama-riki, me te awa nei te toto, a, mano tini ki te moenga i nga marae o nga kainga, puta ana te haunga, kahore hoki he kai tanu. Ara i patu nga hoia o Roma, i patu, ka hoha noa iho, nge-nge ana te ringa i te patunga. Takoto rawa iho kotahi miri ona kotahi rau mano, 1,100,000 ; ko nga herehere hei hoko mo Roma, eiwa te kau ma whitu mano 97,000. Na, murua ana nga tao-nga katoa i toe, tahutahu rawa nga whare katoa, turakina ana nga pa kohatu, whakahoroa katoatia ana nga whare taua, pakira kau ana taua pa, en-gia ano kihai i nohoia tera wahi e te tangata. Pa ana te he nui ki nga iwi o Hiruharama, whaka-ritea ana e te Atua ta ratou kupa i ki atu ki a Pi ra to, "Ko ona toto, hei runga i a matou, me o matou tamariki." Matiu xxvii 25. UPOKO V. No te mutunga o to whawhai, ka hoki a Ti-taha ki Roma ki te kawe i o ratou taonga, i nga herehere hoki. Ko nga hoia i waiho iho e Hiha hei tiaki mo Hiruharama, 800 ; ko te wahi i tu ai to ratou whare tiaki, ko maunga Hiona. A i Toto i aua ra ka hapainga e nga Kiriki e nga Ratini, hanga ana he pa mo ratou ki Hiruharama, tapa iho taua pa, ko Eria Kapitorina. I a ratou e noho ana, ka ngoki ata etahi o nga Hurai ki reira noho ai, takitahi nei. Noho ooi nga Hurai i nga taone i pahaki ata i Hiruharama, a, ka whakatika tetahi tangata i roto i a ratou, ko Haimona Pukapara te ingoa. Mea ai taua tangata ko te Karaiti ia, whai toua atu nga Hurai i a ia, haere rawa ake tana ope erua rau mano 200,000. Huaki tonu atu taua ope ki Hiruharama, nohoia ana e aua Hurai te pa, me nga whare taua, me nga taone o reira. ka rongo a Roma, ka hapainga mai e Hewara. Ka whakaekea e te taua, ka horo ho pa, ka horo he pa, a, turia ana ki waho, mimiti ana nga Hurai i a Roma, takoto rawa iho erima rau, e waru te kau mano 580,000 haunga nga mea i tahuna ki te ahi, me nga mea i mato i te kai kore. I muri mai o tenei i nga ra o Anatonina Piura i te tau o te Ariki 138 ka waiho nga Hurai kia noho marire ana i etahi o nga whenua o Huria ;	otira, kihai a Hiha i whakaae kia noho ratou ki te pa o Hiruharama. I te tau 306 ka pata ki te karauna o Roma a Kanitaina nui. I whakaae tenei Epara ki te whakapono, a, i roto i tana Epara-tanga, mano tini te tangata i tahuri ki te Hahi. Tokorua raua ko tona whaea ko Herena ki te whakamana i te whakapono. Haere atu ana a Herena ki Hiruharama ki te titiro i nga wahi i haerea e te Karaiti, a, whakahaua iho e ia kia hanga he whare karakia ki te tini o te wahi i Hiruharama. Whakatakariri noa nga Hurai i to ratou kitenga i nga whare karakia o nga Karaiti-ana ; otira, kahore he toa i kitea e ratou hei taki-taki i to ratou mate. I te Eparatanga o Huriana, i te tau 361 ka koa nga Hurai, no te mea, kahore tenei Epara i whakaae ki a te Karaiti. I mea a Huriana kia whakakahore tia e ia nga korero poropiti o te Ariki, whakahaua ana e ia nga kai mahi kia hanga be temepara ki runga ki Maunga Moria ; ko te ahua kia poka ke ake i te whare karakia i hanga e Herena ki runga ki Maunga Kaware. Ka rongo nga Hurai ki te whakaaro o Huriana te Epara o Roma, ka whakarapopoto i a ratou ki Hiruharama ki te hanga i te temepara. Otira, kahore i puta ta ratou whakaaro, ko te whare karakia i tu ki Maunga Moria, na Takei, a, e tu mai nei ano. No konei i rite ai te kupu poro-piti o te Ariki i mea nei, "A ka takahia a Hiru-harama e nga tauiwi, kia rite ra ano te wa o nga tauiwi. "-'Ruka xxi  24. WAIATA A RAWIRI. TE I. Tau ana te manaakitanga ki te tangata Kaore e haere i roto i te korerotanga O te hunga kino, A, kaore e turia te ara O te hunga hara; A, kaore e nohoia te nohoanga O nga -whakahihi. Otira, ko tana whakaahuarekatanga Kei te ture a Ihowa, A, ko ia e whakaaro ana ki tona ture, I te ao, i te po E pera ia me te rakau whakato Ki te parenga o nga awa wai, E puta nei nga hua i ona tau; Kaore he memengetanga o tona rau A, e mana nga mea katoa, E mahia ana e ia. Ko te hunga kino ia, ekore e penei, E rite ana ki te papapa E kahakina nei e te hau ; Mo konei ra, kaore he turanga O te hunga kino, ki te whakawakanga . O te hunga hara hoki Ki te menenga o te hunga tika ; E matau ana hoki a Ihowa Ki te ara o te hunga tika; Ko te huarahi ia o te hunga kino, E ngaro noa iho. I taia tenei e PIRIPI KUNITA, ki Akarana.
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/23__1.item
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/23__1.item	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/23__1.item	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+<PagedDocument>
+  <Metadata name="Series">Matariki 1881</Metadata>
+  <Metadata name="Date">18810423</Metadata>
+  <Metadata name="Number">1</Metadata>
+  <Metadata name="ItemOID">23__1</Metadata>
+  <PageGroup>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Supplementary Material</Metadata>
+    <Page txtfile="abstracts/23__1abstract.txt">
+      <Metadata name="Title">Abstract</Metadata>
+    </Page>
+  </PageGroup>
+  <PageGroup>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Newspaper pages</Metadata>
+    <Page pagenum="1" imgfile="images/23__1_1.gif" txtfile="text/23__1_1.txt"/>
+    <Page pagenum="2" imgfile="images/23__1_2.gif" txtfile="text/23__1_2.txt"/>
+    <Page pagenum="3" imgfile="images/23__1_3.gif" txtfile="text/23__1_3.txt"/>
+  </PageGroup>
+</PagedDocument>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/23__2.item
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/23__2.item	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/23__2.item	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+<PagedDocument>
+  <!-- The overall document starts with PagedDocument tag - this should 
+  be the first line in the file -->
+  <!-- This file should be encoded as UTF-8-->
+  <!-- Metadata specified here applies to the whole document -->
+  <Metadata name="Series">Matariki 1881</Metadata>
+  <Metadata name="Date">18810515</Metadata>
+  <Metadata name="Number">2</Metadata>
+  <Metadata name="ItemOID">23__2</Metadata>
+  <!-- a PageGroup is used to group pages or groups together, and 
+  shows up as a node in the document tree hierarchy -->
+  <PageGroup>
+    <!-- A PageGroup should have a Title -->
+    <Metadata name="Title">Supplementary Material</Metadata>
+    <!-- A Page in the document. This page only has a text file -->
+    <Page txtfile="abstracts/23__2abstract.txt">
+      <!-- Pages can have metadata too -->
+      <Metadata name="Title">Abstract</Metadata>
+    </Page>
+  </PageGroup>
+  <PageGroup>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Newspaper pages</Metadata>
+    <!-- These pages have an image file and a textfile. 
+    pagenum gets stored as PageNum metadata, and will be used as the 
+    page Title if no Title metadata is specified -->
+    <Page pagenum="1" imgfile="images/23__2_1.gif" txtfile="text/23__2_1.txt">
+      <Metadata name="Title">Page One</Metadata></Page>
+    <Page pagenum="2" imgfile="images/23__2_2.gif" txtfile="text/23__2_2.txt">
+      <Metadata name="Title">Page Two</Metadata></Page>
+    <Page pagenum="3" imgfile="images/23__2_3.gif" txtfile="text/23__2_3.txt">
+      <Metadata name="Title">Page Three</Metadata></Page>
+    <Page pagenum="4" imgfile="images/23__2_4.gif" txtfile="text/23__2_4.txt">
+      <Metadata name="Title">Page Four</Metadata></Page>
+  </PageGroup>
+</PagedDocument>
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/abstracts/23__1abstract.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/abstracts/23__1abstract.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/abstracts/23__1abstract.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+Matariki
+
+Editorial explaining the principle of the newspaper as to be an evening star watching and reporting the deeds of the land-hungry.
+
+Advises that Maori who possess crown grants should retain those lands in individual titles rather than place them in trusteeship with a committee, trust or company because the lands will be sold with all their resources.
+
+A new law for trustees
+
+Subtitled: A defence against wrong.  Reports an article from the Herald of Gisborne concerning the devastation brought on Maori from misdeeds by trustees of the land.  Describes the introduction of legislation regarding succession by a public trust, to land formerly possessed by those who left no will.
+
+Judgement of the Supreme Court regarding Pouawa
+
+Report of a court case against Te Riihi [William Lee Rees] and two associates who acted as trustees for the Maori land block known as Pouawa.  Case overseen by Judges Te Hiira and Oparaina, and assessor Retireti Tapihana [Tapsell].  Judgement against the defendants with Te Riihi appealing to the Supreme Court, which supports the Maori Land Court judgement.
+
+A spider web
+
+Discussion of new legislation for corporatising Maori land, which is described as a Pakeha wrong.
+
+To all the Maori people of this land
+
+Notice of the Supreme Court judgement regarding the case between Tareha Te Moananui and Te Riihi [William Lee Rees], concerning Rees charging Tareha 819pounds 19s 3d as legal costs in relation to land.  Judgement made against Rees, who is ordered to repay the amount immediately.  Writer requests readers submit names of ethical lawyers.
+
+To our Maori friends of the East Coast
+
+Notice from Panera and Paerana, Gisborne, goods for sale.
+
+The sale of Whataupoko
+
+Notice from H.J.Wiini, lawyer, regarding 12,400 acres of the Whataupoko land block in the district of Gisborne, Poverty Bay, being available for sale.
+
+Notice from H.J.Wiini, lawyer, Gisborne, on behalf of Perihiwa Paaka to Wiremu Rii Riihi [William Lee Rees], Wiremu Pere and Riperata Kahutia, that land registered as 13175 is for sale.
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/abstracts/23__2abstract.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/abstracts/23__2abstract.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/abstracts/23__2abstract.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+The saviour in a dying land
+
+Editorial discussing benefits promised to Maori by a lawyer [William Lee Rees] for administering their land, which have not eventuated.  Cites as examples the case of Paaka [Parker] and Makitanara [MacDonald], the Whataupoko land block debacle.  Questions the ethics of lawyers' charges for administration of Maori land and asserts that 60,000 pounds charged for one block, had gone up in smoke.  Names other land blocks where Maori had suffered similar detrimental effects.  Questions the unnamed lawyer's ability to be a trustee for Maori land.
+
+A trustee for the trustees
+
+Discusses the role of a trustee and advises against the establishment of landholding companies.  Advises about the authority of government to purchase Maori land and the untrustworthiness of land-grabbers.
+
+Raetotara
+
+A story for children about a minister who becomes a lawyer to represent Maori in land deals.
+
+A story.  The doctor and the oysters
+
+An entertaining story about a doctor, his trainee and the result of possible ways to diagnose a patient's illness.
+
+To all the Maori people of this land
+
+Notice of the Supreme Court judgement regarding the case between Tareha Te Moananui and Te Riihi [William Lee Rees].
+
+Notice from H.J.Wiini, lawyer, Gisborne, on behalf of Perihiwa Paaka to Wiremu Rii Riihi [William Lee Rees], Wiremu Pere and Riperata Kahutia, that land registered as 13175 is for sale.
+
+To our Maori friends of the East Coast
+
+Notice from Panera and Paerana, Gisborne, goods for sale.
+
+The sale of Whataupoko
+
+Notice from H.J.Wiini, lawyer, that the Whataupoko land block is available for sale.
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__1_1.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__1_1.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__1_1.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,155 @@
+MATARIKI.
+
+
+
+" KO IA HE TARINGA ONA HEI WHAKARONGO ME WHAKARONGO."
+
+NO. 1. SUPPLEMENT TO THE " AUCKLAND FREE LANCE," APRIL 23, 1881.
+
+
+
+MATARIKI
+
+APERIRA 23, 1881.
+
+
+
+Ko ahau, ko MATARIKI, te whetu o te
+ahiahi, e tarewa atu nei i runga i te pae,
+
+e titiro atu ana, e whakina atu ana tau
+
+whetu ki nga mahi a nga Kaiwhakamate
+
+i a koutou whenua. E ara tonu ana
+ahau i te ra, i te po, e heteri aua ahau, i
+nga mahi kino, e mahi ana ki runga ki a
+koutou whenua. E karanga atu ana
+hoki ahau. Aue! E hika ma E! Ka
+mate koutou! Ka mate koutou! Ara
+o koutou whenua.
+
+E rite ana ki tetahi pukapuka u kore-
+rotia ana e koutou, i pena taku mohio-
+tanga ki to korero kia koutou i nga wha-
+kaaro a nga kaiwhakamate i o koutou
+whenua.
+
+I roto i nga tau kua pahure ake noi
+he nui nga mate mo nga whenua i kitea
+atu. I kitea atu e au nga tane, nga
+wahine, nga tamariki, nga pani, nga
+pouaru e tuku atu ana o ratou whenua
+ki te ringaringa o tetahi tangata ke pu-
+puri ai. Kia ki atu ahau, kaore e mau
+Aka hoki atu ano kia koutou.
+
+Whakina atu ana hoki taku whetu ki
+ana pononga-utu, e haere ana ki roto i a
+koutou, e whakawai ana ia koutou, e
+mea ana kia koutou " Tuhi tuhi! tuhi
+" tuhi! Kia matou pukapuka. Kei
+" konei he oranga mo a koutou whenua.
+" Ma reira hoki ka puta nui te moni kia
+" koutou. Ka pena tonu te nui o te
+
+" moni, me te hirere wai e maringi mai
+'' ana i runga i nga maunga."
+
+Katahi ano, ka tiro atu, E! Ka koa
+nga ngakau u tu hunga whakawai, a,
+mai ra.
+
+No taku kitenga atu i enei mahi he
+ki runga ki au, no tu mea, ko to koutou
+matua tenei i te ao nui, ku u koutou
+whenua, hei oranga mo koutou, ara, mo
+o koutou tamariki e tupu aku ana i rutu
+i te takiwa o tu Pakeha. Koia anu
+hoki te mea hei whakarangatira ia ratou
+hei whangai i a ratou, E mohio ana
+huki koutou ki nga tu tangata kaore
+nei o ratou whenua e haere noa aua i
+nga rori, a, kaore he taunga iho mona
+ki raro, a, matu noa ia. Na, E hika
+ma, ko taku mua, kia pena koutou inai-
+anei. Kaore he aroha e te tangata ke
+kia koutou. Kua hoatu e te Kawana-
+tanga he Karauna Karaati ki koutou,
+
+mo o koutou whenua. Puritia nga wahi
+hei oranga mo koutou. Ko nga wahi e
+toe ana, me he mea ka hiahia koutou ki
+te tuku, he huarahi marama ano mo
+tena. Kaua e tuku atu i o koutou
+whenua, ki etahi Komiti, ki etahi kaiti-
+aki noa iho ranei Kaua ano hoki e tuku
+i o koutou whenua i runga i nga ritenga
+Kamupene. Kia ki atu ahau kia kou-
+tou, he mate ano kei roto i ena mahi.
+Te mea tika anake ina ka hoko atu te
+whenua, me noti, me koura, me hirivva,
+Haere atu ana te whenua, haere mai ana
+te moni. Inakoa i runga i tetahi wha-
+kataua kia o koutou tupuna,' " Haere
+maaha, Waiho maaha." Tena, ko te
+
+tuku atu ki nga tangata ke noa iho wha-
+kahaere ai, kaore he tika mo koutou i
+roto. Ko te whenua te rawe i pahure?
+
+
+
+He Ture hou mo nga Kai-
+tiaki.
+
+He arai atu i te he.
+
+
+
+KUA kitea nuitia te he o te mea o to kai-
+tiaki. He nui nga tangata e mate ana i
+runga i tu ratou tukunga atu i o ratou
+whenua, taonga, ki etahi tangata hei tiaki
+ui. Kitea iho ana, tino pau atu aua whenua
+me nga huanga o roto i; ma kaitiaki. Ko
+nga tangata nona eke nga whenua, nga
+taonga, tino mate atu. Ko te mate hoki
+ra tenei, i tino poharu rawa atu nga ta-
+ngata nona tu whenua i runga i te whaka-
+haere he a nga kaitiaki.
+
+E ki ami te nupepa Pakeha, tu Herald
+o Turanga, kei te mohio noa atu nga ta-
+ngata o taua kainga ki nga mahi he i
+mahia e etahi o nga kaitiaki o Nui Tireni.
+E ki ana hoki taua niupepa, he nui rawa
+atu to mate o nga tangata nona nga
+whenua, ngu taonga, i runga i te pokanoa
+o nga kaitiaki ki te kai ngaro i nga moni
+u puta ana i roto i nga whenua nga taonga
+ranei e tiakina o ratou. Na, i tenei, ka
+titiro to Paremata a tenei tau, i enei he.
+Ka tu te Paremata, ia Mei ia Hune ranei e
+haere aku nei ka tahuri ratou ki te hanga
+i tetahi ritenga hou, mo tenei mahi, hei
+whakaora i nga tangata e tukuna atu ana
+o ratou whenua ki nga kaitiaki noa iho,
+kia taea ai hoki to titiro ki te tika ki te he
+ranei o nga mahi a nga kaitiaki noa iho.
+
+He whakaatu atu tenei ki nga Maori,
+tenei ano Te Tino Kaitiaki a te Kawana-
+tanga, he Kaitiaki mo Te Katoa, ara, mo
+nga tangata e mate wira-kore ana, mo nga
+tamariki e ona whanaunga kore ana, mo
+ngu whenua, me nga whenua taonga ranei
+kaore e mohiotia, nowai ranei, no wai
+ranei. Me hemea ka ho te mahi a taua
+Tino Kaitiaki ma te koroni tonu o Nui
+Tireni e utu to hunga no ratou te whenua
+tiaki i mahia hetia. Na, ko etahi kaitiaki
+noa iho, me he mea ka he o ratou, whaka-
+haere, mehemea ka tangohia ketia nga
+moni. mehemea kaore a ratou moni hei niu
+ia ratou hara, katahi ka tino mate rawa
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__1_2.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__1_2.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__1_2.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,216 @@
+MATARIKI.
+
+koutouara, te hunga na ratou i whaka-
+tu nga kaitiaki.
+
+Koia ra te takehei arai atu i tenei, tu
+mate, i whakaarohia nuitia, kia hangaia e
+te Paremata, tetahi ritenga hou, kia ahei
+ai te whiu i nga kaitiaki e mahi he ana.
+Ko te ritenga hou tenei; Mehemea ka
+tuku atu tetahi tono ki te Tino Kaitiaki
+mo te Katoa e whakaatu atu ana kiaaia
+nga take, katahi ka whaimana ia ki te tono
+atu ki aua kaitiaki kia whakaatutia mai e
+ratou kiaia, a ratou mahi Tiaki katoa, me
+nga moni katoa i riro mai kia ratou, me
+nga tikanga katoa o te ratou whakahaere.
+
+Na, mehemea, e kite ana, he e te wha-
+kahaere a aua Kaitiaki noa iho, ka whai-
+mana te Tino Kaitiaki kia tuku atu ratou
+kia tino whakawa kia, kia homai utu ranei
+aua kaitiaki noa iho mo a ratou he, kia
+tukuna atu ranei ratou ki te whareherehere
+mo to a ratou hara.
+
+Akuanei ka piri te ngakau o nga kaiti-
+aki e mahi he ana.
+
+
+
+Whakatunga a te Hupirimi
+Kooti mo Pouawa
+
+
+
+I ENEI ra kua hori ake i tuhituhi etahi
+tangata Maori no ratou Pouawa o ratou
+ingoa ki tetahi Pukapuka Tiaki e whaka-
+tutia ana ko Te Riihi me ona hoa tokorua
+hei kaitiaki mo taua whenua. Na, no te
+taenga mai o nga Kaiwhakawa o te Kooti
+Whenua Maori ki Turanganui katahi ka
+tono atu Te Ruhi kia wehewehe a taua
+whenua, kia whakataua ki a ia me ona hoa
+tokorua te kau ma rua mano eka o taua
+Poraka. He roa te whakarongotanga a
+nga kaiwhakawa ko Te Hiira raua ko Opa-
+raina, me to raua hoa Retireti Tapihana te
+Ateha ki nga korero a Te Riihi. Ko ta Te
+Riihi i tohe atu ai ki te Kooti, ko taua
+Pukapuka Tiaki a nga Maori ki a ia me
+ona hoa tokonui nga kaitiaki mo Pouawa,
+he tino hoko tika i runga i nga ritenga o te
+Ture. A, kia whakapumautia tonutia kia
+ratou tokotoru taua wahi, me te mea no
+ratou tonu ake te kainga. Heoi. Kaore
+te Kooti Whenua Maori e whakaae ki te
+tono a te Riihi. Na, ka tahi ka whakaaro
+te Riihi ki haere ki te Hupirimi Kooti, ma
+reira e whakamana mai ona tikanga
+Ehara. Kore ana te Hupirimi Kooti e
+whakaae. Ko te whakataunga a te Hupi-
+rimi kaore e whaimana taua Pukapuka.
+
+
+
+He Tukutuku Pungawere-
+ware.
+
+KUA rongo matou ko te tikanga hou e wha-
+kaarohia ana inaianei mo te taha ki nga
+whenua Maori, he mahi Kamupene. He
+Pakeha he. Maori nga tangata o taua
+hunga. Ma nga Maori e tuku atu o ratou
+whenua ki tana hunga. Na, he hoa ma,
+ko te mahi tenei a tenei hanga, te pure-
+hua, Ae rere tonu ki runga ki nga kanara i
+te tukuia e ka ana.
+
+
+
+Ki nga tangata Maori katoa
+o te Motu nei.
+
+HE whakaatu tenei kia kite mai koutou i
+te whakataunga a te Hupirimi  Kooti i te
+whakawa a TAREHA TE MOANANUI
+mua ko TE RUHI, Roia.
+
+Kotahi tau o tenei whakawa e haere anu
+i Poneke, a, tae mai ki Nepia. Na, whiri-
+whiritia ana e te Hupirimi Kooti, kitea ana
+KO TE RUHI TE MEA I HE. I TINO
+WHAKAHENGIA TE RUHI E TE
+HUPIRIMI KOOTI mo nga moni a Tare-
+ha i riro kia aia, ara, i puritia e iatana
+kii mo ana mahi roia, mo nga whenua a
+Tareha. Na, ki ana Te Hupirimi Kooti,
+me Tareha hoki, he he taua puritanga i
+taua moni, ara, i te waru rau pauna, i te te
+kau ma iwa hereni, me etoru kapa
+£819 19s 3d.
+
+Ko te kupu tenei a Te Hupirimi Kooti,
+kia utua e ia, e Te Riihi tenei moni £819
+198 3d kia Tareha INAIANEI.
+
+Kua tae atu hoki kia Te "Riihi, i Tura-
+nganui te tino tono a te Hupirimi Kooti
+kia utua taua monime te kupu ki hoki
+a Te Hupirimi Kooti kia Te Riihi, kaore e
+tika tana mau i te £819 19s 3d moni a
+Tareha.
+
+I ki ano hoki Te Hupirimi Kooti,
+Kaore i marama nga mahi i kiia e Te
+Riihi i mahia e ia ma Tareha.
+
+Kaore i marama te ra, te marama, te tau
+ranei, i mahia ai e Te Riihi ana mahi mo
+Tareha.
+
+Kaore hoki i marama i mahia ranei taua
+mahi mo Tareha, mo etahi Maori ke atu
+ranei.
+
+Kaore hoki i marama mo te
+whenua, mo te whenua ranei, aua
+mahi a te Riihi.
+
+I whakakorea rawatea e Tareha aua mahi
+a Te Riihi ki runga ki a ia. 1 ki hoki taua
+kaumatua, kaore rawa a ia i whakatu te
+Riihi hei mahi i nga mahi mo te taha ki te
+waru rau pauna. Na, tae noa ki ta kai-
+whakamaori a te Riihi o mua, ara, kia Te
+Waiti kaumatua, he kaiwhakawa hoki aia.
+Ko tona kupu tenei ki te Hupirimi Kooti,
+i tino whakakorea rawatia a Te Riihi e
+Tareha i runga i aua mahi.
+
+No muri mai i taua whakakoretanga
+tohetohe tonu te Riihi ki te tono utu kia
+Tareha, A, kitea ana e Te Hupirimi Kooti,
+e he ana te mahi a te Ruhi.
+
+KATI, KO TE TINO WHAKATAU-
+NGA TENEI A TE HUPIRIMI KOOTI
+ME UTU E TE RIIHI. KIA TARE-
+HA INAIANEI EWARU RAU PAUNA
+TE EAU MA IWI HERENI ME TE
+TORU KAPA£819 198 3d
+
+Na Tareha taua moni na Te Riihi i pu-
+puri pokanoa.
+
+Na, e haere atu ana tenei panui, i te
+Tonga nei. E ahu atu ana ki o ratou
+whanaunga ki o matou hoa i te Tai Ra-
+whiti, a rauna noa te Motu nei.
+
+E hoa ma i Kia noho tatou i runga i
+te matauranga, i te mohiotanga, Mehemea
+ana ka tono tatou ki te tahi roia kia mahia
+e ia a tatou mahi, tonoa ki a ia, kia mara
+
+ma tana utu mo tana mahi i te tuatahi, a,
+ka tiro atu tatou e pai ana, a, tuhia rawa-
+tia ki te pukapuka tana whakaaetanga-a-
+
+katahi tatou ka whakaae. Tenei, ko te
+kuhu noa i roto i te pouritanga. AUE!
+E hika ma E! Ka mate tatou! Ka mate
+tatou! Ko totatou tino takanga tena ki
+te ahi whanariki, mamae mutunga kore,
+ake tonu atu.
+
+
+
+KIA O MAUA HOA MAORI O TE TA
+RAWHITI.
+
+Ehoa ma,Tena koutou kua tae ki te
+takiwa he pupuhi manu. Na, Kanui te manu
+o tenei tau. Ka nui te momona. Kati Kia
+kaha koutou ki te pupuhi manu i tenei tau.
+Ki te hiahia koutou ki te Paura, ki te Hota,
+ki te Tingara, me haere mai koutou ki te
+whare maitai o Panera raua ko Paerana hoko
+ai. Kei a maua hoki nga pu tino pai, hei
+pupuhi manu, he pu tupara, he pu haki
+mana, me etahi tu pu atu. Mehemea e hia-
+hia ana koutou kia whakapaitia a koutou pu
+me haere mai ano koutou ki a Panera raua
+ko Panera. He maha hoki nga pu kei a
+maua. He ngawari te utu. Kia mohio
+koutou me haere mai koutou kia maua, kia
+Panera raua ko Paerena i te whare maita
+i Kihipane. Ko te tino whare tenei o te
+Tai Rawhiti hei hoko i nga Paura, Hota,
+Tingara, Pu, me aua tu mea katoa. Kei a
+maua hoki nga Kakahu Wahine, Kakahu
+tane, Kakahu tamariki nga hu tane nga hu
+wahine me nga nohoanga tane nohoanga wa-
+hine, me te Te Huka, Paraoa. Kei a maua
+hoko nga pamu, nga rakuraku me aua tu
+mea katoa hei mahi paamu.
+
+ENGAWARI ANA TE UTU.
+
+Kei wareware koutou, na o koutou hoa, na
+PANERA RAUA KO PAERANA,
+
+I TE WHARE MAITAI,
+KIHIPANE.
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__1_3.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__1_3.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__1_3.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,130 @@
+MATARIKI.
+
+TE HOKO O WHATAUPOKO.
+Ka tino hokona rawatia to
+
+12,400 nga eke o Whataupoko
+Poraka, nui atu, iti iho
+ranei.
+
+Ko taua whenua e takoto ana i te takiwa
+o Papati Pei, e tutata ana ki te taone o Kihi-
+pane.
+
+Ko tenei hoko i runga i te tono o Paaka,
+te kaitango mokete. Ka haere hoki tenei
+hoko i runga i te whakahaere o te Kai Rehi-
+ta o te Hupirimi Kooti i Nepia i raro i nga
+tikanga o te Ture whakatikatika i te ture
+hoko whenua, 1860, i raro hoki i nga tikanga
+o te Tare, 1870, e whakamana ana nga kai-
+tango mokete ki te hoko i nga whenua i
+moketetia kia ratou.
+
+Na, kua tae atu te tono ki a PITI raua ko
+PENETI, na Paora A.F. Paata, kai Rehita
+o te Hupirimi Kooti o Nepia i tuku atu taua
+tono kia rana I RUNGA I TE WHAKAAE-
+TANGA o ke kaitango o te mokete kia ho-
+kona, kia maketetia mutia i ta raua
+whare makete i te taone o Kihipane a
+TE PARAIRE, te 29 o nga ra o APEREIRA,
+1881, i te rua haora me te hawhe i muri iho
+i te tina.
+
+WAHI TUATAHI e hokona ana.
+Katoa o taua piihi whenua tona nuinga
+12, 400 nga eka, nui atu iti iho ranei, tetahi
+wahi o
+
+WHATAUPOKO,
+
+i te takiwa o Turanga, Papati Pei. Koia te
+
+whenua i whakahuatia i roto i tetahi puka-
+puka, a, i raro i te mana o taua pukapuka, i
+runga hoki i ana tikanga e hokona ana e te
+kai tango i te Mokete e PAAKA taua whenua.
+
+KO TE WAHI TUARUA.
+
+Te whaitaketanga, me te paanga tera e
+riro mai ki te kai tango i te mokete i runga
+i tetahi kotahi mano eka kaore i uru ki roto
+ki te 12, 400, i muri mai i te utunga atu i nga
+moni £6600 me nga inatareti i whakata
+turutia ki tetahi tangata ke (ko te wahi tenei
+e mohiotia ana kei a Makitanara) e nga kai
+tuku i te mokete.
+
+KO WHATAUPOKO
+
+Ko tenei whenua e hokona ana i runga i te
+tono a PAAKA e takoto ana ki te hangai-
+taunga ki te taone, a, ko te awa o Waimate
+te rohe i Waenganui i taua whenua, me nga
+whenua e mohiotia nuitia ana ko Pouawa me
+kaiti.
+
+Ko nga ritenga enei mo te hoko. Kotahi
+wahi o nga wahanga e wha o te moni, ara
+tetahi koata ka utua tonutia i te takiwa tonu
+ka hokona te whenua ko WHATAUPOKO.
+Ko te toenga o te moni me utu i te whakao-
+tinga o te pukapuka tuku i roto, i nga ra i
+whakaritetia i runga i nga tikanga o te hoko.
+
+Eo nga tangata e hiahia ana ki te patai mo
+nga tikanga mo te taha ki te hoko, me ui
+atu ratou ki te Roia mo Paaka i Kihipane
+ara kia.
+
+H. 3. WIINI,
+
+Roia, Kihipane.
+
+Kia WIREMU RII RIIHI, no
+Nepia aia i mua, engari, no Kihi-
+pane, Papete Pei, inaianei, i roto
+i te koroni o Nui Tireni, roia, kia
+WIREMU PERE, kia RIPE-
+RATA KAHUTIA, no tana
+Papeti Pei, ano raua, he tangata
+Maori.
+
+KIA MOHIO KOUTOU, kia kotahi
+marama i muri i ho i te panuitanga
+i tenei panui i roto i nga nupepa erua i taia
+i Kihipane me nga niupepa erua i taia i
+Poneke, ka hokona e au ka tukuna atu
+ranei e au kia hokona kia maketetia, nga
+whenua i whakaatutia i roto i tetaki puka-
+puka mokete i tuhia i te 25 o nga ra o Pepuere,
+1879, (i rehitatia i te tari Rehita Pukapuka
+i Nepia i raro i te nama 13175). Ko taua
+pukapuka i waenganui ia koutou o tetahi
+taha, me au ko PEREHIWA PAAKA, i
+whakahuatia i raro iho nei o tetahi taha.
+Na, ka hokona, ka makete tia aua whenua,
+ki te kore, koutou e utu mai ki au nga tino
+moni pukai i whakatuturitia mai ki au i runga
+i taua pukapuka mokete, te toenga ranei, me
+nga inataretenga moni whakapiki katoa,
+e tika ana kia utua ki au i runga i taua puka-
+puka, mokete.
+
+Na, tenei ano hoki tetahi, kia mohio
+koutou, ko te take i tukuna atu e au tenei
+panui kia panuitia, koia tenei,ara,kaore
+ano koutou i atu mai ki au nga tino moni
+pukai me nga moni inatereti  nga moni
+whakapiki i whakaaetia i ranga i nga ritenga
+i whakaatutia i roto i taua pukapuka mokete.
+
+I tuhia i tenei te 12 o nga ra o Maehe
+1881.
+
+NA PERIHIWA PAAKA.
+HIU J. WUNI,
+
+Roia, Kihipane.
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__2_1.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__2_1.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__2_1.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,172 @@
+MATARIKI
+
+" KO IA HE TARINGA ONA HEI WHAKARONGO ME WHAKARONGO."
+
+No. 2. TAURANGANUI, MEI 14, 1881.
+
+
+
+Matariki.
+
+MEI 14, 1881.
+
+
+
+Te Kaiwhakaora i nga
+Whenua mate.
+
+I nga tau e toru kua hori ake nei, ka
+tae mai te Roia hei whakahaere i nga
+Maori o tenei takiwa, ara, o Turanga.
+
+I ki ia i reira, he pirau rawa nga
+tikanga hoko i nga whenua Maori o
+tenei takiwa. A, hei mea, kia taea ai
+te tika me te pono, koia te take i kara-
+ngatia ai ia kia haere mai, mana e
+whakatikatika aua mea katoa, kia
+takoto ai nga mahi pera mo a muri ake
+i runga i nga huarahi marama. I mea
+ano ia " e hara taku i te whakahe, i te
+whakararuraru, erangi, he whakatika-
+tika i nga he katoa u mua, a, he hapai
+hoki i nga mea i tika."
+
+Na, e hoa ma, e haere ana tenei ki te
+toru o nga tau, He aha te mea kua
+pahure i a ia? Kaore noa iho. I pau
+tena takiwa roa i a ia ki te mahi wha-
+kawa tekateka noa iho i nga tangata e
+whakatete ana ki aia. He kai pakari
+nana te maua hara. Kua kitea he
+parati tona rupahu. I te tuatahi ra he
+tangata ia e mau ana ki te rangimarie. 
+He aha ra i hoa riri ai nga tangata o
+nga wahi kotoa ki aia? He aha ra i
+kore ai e taea e ia te whakaotioti nga
+mahi nunui i tangohia nei e ia ki roto
+ki tona ringaringa i tona taenga mai?
+Kua rite ano ranei ana mea i korero ai
+mo Whataupoko?
+
+I mangai nui ia, i ki, kaore rawa i tika
+te take o Paaka raua ko Makitanara,
+erangi ko te whenua ka hoki katoa mai
+i a ia. He aha ra i kore ai e tutuki
+tera kupu ana? Ehara ia nei i te mea
+na tona kore-roro ki te whakahaere
+ritenga mo runga i taua whenua i hore
+ai e puta ake he pai ki runga ki nga
+Maori?
+
+I whakaatu tetahi tino tohunga-mahi-
+whika i mua ra, he nui te mate mo nga
+Maori i roto i aua whakaritenga, no te
+mea, i runga i te haua o te Kaiwhaka-
+rite, tau ke ana te painga ki te taha
+Pakeha. A, tika tonu taua kupu. Kei
+whea koki a Whataupoko inaianei?
+Kei whea hoki ra te £60, 000 i kiia nei e
+taua Wahahuka, ka puta mai i roto i
+tana mahi, a,, ka whakahaerea hei oranga 
+mo nga tangata o te Karaati o Whatau-
+poko? Me he auahi te whakangaro-
+manga atu!te kitea
+
+Otira, ka pena katoa nga mahi a tena
+tangata i whakatu noa nei i a ia hei
+Kaitiaki. - Ko nga tangata kua ate
+mataki taki i nga mahi a tena Pakeha
+i nga wahi katoa e noho ana ia, kei te
+tino mohio he pera anake nga mahi e
+hangaia ana i roto i a Ia, ara, kaore rawa
+atu he paku kiko o roto. Kaore ia e
+mohio ki te whakahaere tikanga mo te
+ora. Ki tana mahara pena tonu te
+titiro atu a te katoa ki ana ritenga, me
+tana tonu ake. Nowhea hoki e pena te
+tangata marama? Ko nga tangata
+kore whakaaro anake e raru ana i tana
+tinihanga.* A, ko nga Maori ano hoki
+tetahi i te mea, kaore ano ratou i whi-
+whi ki nga matauranga o te Pakeha.
+Kaore e ahei ia ratou te whiriwhiri, te
+utu tika mo ana rawa. Heoi mo Wha-
+taupoko.
+
+Tena! He aha te oranga, te painga
+ranei, kua puta ki nga Maori i runga i
+Pakowai, i whakaaetia e Te Honehana
+kia whaka hokitia tonutia ki nga Maori
+hei whenua tuturu mo ratou Kei a
+wai a Pakowai inaianei? Kei nga
+Maori? Ehara. He aha te oranga, te
+painga ranei kua puta ki nga Maori i
+runga i Maraetaha, Te Kuri Te Kaiparo,
+nga poraka whenua Matawhero, ara, nga
+whenua katoa i tukuna e nga Maori kia
+ whakahaeretia e taua roia. Kei whea
+nga Heke i haere mai nei i tawahi hei
+noho mo Pouawa? A whea ra oti ai a
+Kaiti? Kua hoki ano ki nga Maori
+nga whenua i hokona nei kia Te Rire
+kua mate?"E hara i a nei hoki." Ka-
+tahi ano te waha huka, ko te Pakeha e
+
+tiaki nei i nga whenua o nga Maori,
+nana hoki te ki ka Taea katoatia e ia
+era mahi. Heoi. " E kore hoki te ra-
+kau ataahua e hua i te hua kino; e kore
+ano hoki te rakau kino e hua i te hua
+ataahua."
+
+
+
+He Kai Tiaki Mo Nga Kai
+Tiaki.
+
+No te nui rawa o te tikanga o rotu i
+tenei mea i te Kaitiaki, kitea ana e te
+Kawanatanga e tika ana kia whakaturia
+tetahi tangata whakaaro rangatira, whi-
+whi  matauranga hoki, hei tiaki, hei
+whakahaere i o nga rawa o era tangata, e
+noho haua ana, kaore nei e kaha ki te
+whakahaere ia ratou taonga. I peneitia
+te tikanga, no te mea i kitea te whaka-
+haere kino a nga kaitiaki whakatunoa 
+iho nei, ara, te tahuri ki te whakawhiwhi
+i nga tangata e whakahaera ana e ratou
+i runga i te tiaki, anga ke aua te kaitiaki 
+ki te whakapau, ki te whakangaro, ki te
+kai noa iho i nga mea i tukua ra ki te
+ratou ringa pupuri ai. No reira ka kitea
+
+he tikanga nui kei roto i tenei mea u
+Kai tiaki. He mana nui kei roto i tera 
+mea. E taea ana e te ngakau kino te 
+whakahaere kino, e te ngakau pai te
+whakahaere pai. Ko nga mea e hiahia
+ana ki te hoko i o ratou whenua, me
+hanga tonu te haere ki te kai hoko me
+riro rawa mai ki o ratou ringaringa te 
+utu o te ratou whenua, me nooti, ma
+hiriwa, me koura ranei. Kia tupato
+rawa i nga mahi. Kamupene, e noho
+nei he pukapuka ke, he kupu a waha ke 
+
+te moni ia ratou.
+
+Kaua rawa e moumou i nga moni utu
+o o koutou whenua. Ko nga whapu, ko
+nga pereti, ko nga mea hei painga mo te
+katoa, a, ma nga tangata katoa e utu,
+no te mea, ko te Kawanatanga ke to
+hunga whakahaere i era mea; a, ma nga
+tangata katoa, Pakeha, Maori, e whai
+kohaki a ia mo aua mahi.
+
+Ko nga tangata e whakahau aua ia
+koutou kia mahi i era mahi, a ma koutou
+tonu e utu, he kohuru tena ia koutou, e
+hara i te mea he whai ta ratou kia ora
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__2_2.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__2_2.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__2_2.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,265 @@
+MATARIKI.
+
+koutouKaorehe mea ke, kia whiwhi
+ko ratou, kia mate ko koutou.
+
+Heoi. Kia tupato i te wa e taea ana;
+
+kei maro tonu te haere, te whai okioki-
+nga, te aha.
+
+Whakakorea atu nga tikanga Kaitiaki
+inaianei tonu kei taka rawa ake ki ona
+ra a pouri nei, kua tureiti, te whai mahara.
+
+
+Rae-Totara.
+
+Rae-Totara. He korero tara mo nga
+tamariki.
+
+UPOKO I.
+
+Tena, ka noho matou, a, ka tahi ratou
+ka haere ki te moana ki te hi ika. Hi ana,
+a, ka ahiahi ka hoki mai. To matou unga
+mai ki uta ka totoia o matou waka ki
+tahaki. Ka tahi matou ka haere ki te
+kainga, me a matou ika. Haere atu ana, e
+ka ana nga hangi. Ka tae atu hoki nga
+ika, a, ka whakataona. Ka tao nga umu,
+ka tahi ka hui matou ki roto ki te whare
+runanga.
+
+Ka rokohanga atu o matou tetahi
+kaumatua, ko Te Toonga Ra tona ingoa,
+e korero ana tona korero ki te iwi kainga.
+Ka tae Ia tenei kupu, nana, " E hikama, i
+au e haere ana i te whenua i mua ra; ka
+rongo au i te korero mo tetahi tangata i
+whakaturia hei minita karakia.
+
+Na, mahi ana taua minita i taua mahi.
+A, kitea ana e tona hahi, tona he. Ka tahi
+ka nui te riri o nga tangata ki a ia. Ka
+tahi a ia ka whakatakatia  ki raro i te torona.
+Na, E hika ma, ka hinga taua tangata i
+runga i tona mahi karakia.
+
+Ko te ingoa o taua tangata ko RAE-
+TOTARA.
+
+UPOKO II.
+
+No te mutunga o te mahi a, Rae-Totara i
+reto o te hahi, katahi pa mai te wehi ki a
+ia. Katahi ka whakaaro a ia, " Me pehea
+ra, he oranga moku, ina hoki, kua hinga au
+i era i mahi karakia oku."
+
+UPOKO III.
+
+Na, i tahuri a ia kite mahi roia, ma reira
+ka whiwhi ai ki tatahi oranga mona. Na,
+mahi ana a ia i tana mahi. Kitea ana e
+nga tangata o tona iwi he he ana mahi.
+
+No te mohiotanga o nga tangata o tona
+
+ iwi ki a ia, katahi ka riri atu ratou ki a ia.
+Katahi ka omaoma haere a ia ki ia kainga,
+ki ia kainga. Na wai ra hoha noa iho taua
+roia i te nui o te whakatete ki a ia. Kaore
+he taunga iho mo ona waewae i te nui o te
+riri.
+
+UPOKO IV.
+Na, i te whenua i mahi ai taua roia.
+
+minita i tana mahi roia, e rua nga tino iwi e
+noho ana i* reira. Ko te Iwi Tawhito, ko
+te Iwi Hou. No te Iwi Hou Rae-Totara.
+Otira kihai tona iwi ake i whakaaro nui ki
+a ia. Kua marama hoki te take.
+
+Katahi ka pena te whakaaro a Rae-Totara
+
+Kua mutu taku mahi minita. Kua kore
+
+toku iwi i pai mai ki au, hei kaiwhakaako
+mo ratou i runga i taku mahi roia. Heoi.
+Me pehea ra ahau."
+
+UPOKO V.
+
+Ko taua iwi ko Iwi Tawhito nui noa atu
+to ratou, matauranga ki o ratou tikanga
+whakahaere, ki o ratou ture ake Otira,
+ngaro ana ia ratou etahi o nga tikanga nui
+o te Iwi Hou, koia hoki te tino iwi o aua
+iwi erua.
+
+Na, whakatika ana a Rae - Totara,
+whakaaro ana a ia i roto i aia, '"Kaore toku
+iwi ake i pai mai ki au hei minita hei kai
+whakaako ranei mo ratou. Heoi ka huri
+au ki te Iwi Tawhito ki te Iwi kaore ano
+mohio ki te kino o taku Iwi ki au."
+
+A haere atu ana a ia ki tetahi wahi ke, i
+roto i te Iwi Tawhito kauhau ai. Ko tona
+arero tona hoari.
+
+Ka mea atu aia ki te Iwi Tawhito i te
+kino o te mahi a tona iwi kia ratou. I mea
+atu ano hoki a ia kua tinihangatia ratou o
+te Iwi Hou, ara etahi o tona iwi ake. Ki
+tana ki i whanakotia  e etahi o ratou nga
+whenua o te Iwi Tawhito he kore kaore
+ratou e mohio ki nga ture o to Iwi Hou.
+
+A, tetahi ki ano ana, koia ko Rae-Totara
+te tangata kaha ki te whakaora i o ratou
+whenua mate, ara i nga whenua i tangohia
+hetia etona iwi ia ratou. I ki atu ano hoki
+a ia Ko te Atua Kaha Rawa tona hoa
+tautoko, ma te Atua a ia e whakakaha i
+runga i tana mahi whakatika i nga he o
+mua.
+
+UPOKO VI.
+
+Na, i to takiwa i uru ai a Rae-Totara i
+roto i nga mahi kauhau ki te Iwi Tawhito,
+kei te noho marire tatou, tena hapu i tona
+kainga, tena hapu i tona kainga.
+
+Kaore ho tangata i te mato. Erangi he
+torutoru ratou i te noho whakatete ki
+tetahi tangata kotahi o te Iwi mohio, mo
+etahi whenua. E ki ana tetahi nana etahi
+wahi o aua whenua; ki ta tetahi i ki
+na ratou. Otira, ko te iwi nui tonu, ora noa
+atu ratou i taua takiwa. Nui noa atu te
+whenua hei kainga noho mo ratou me o
+ratou tamariki i muri ia ratou
+
+UPOKO VII
+
+Pena ana te ahua o nga ritenga i te wa i
+whakatika ai a Rae-Totara ki te mahi whai-
+korero ki te Iwi Tawhito, ki to whakaora
+i o ratou mate.
+
+Korero nui ana a ia kia ratou. Huihui
+mai ana nga hapu katoa o taua iwi ki te
+whakarongo ki ana korero.
+
+Ko te tu o ana korero katoa koia tenei.
+" Ehoa ma o te Iwi Tawhito! Ka nui to
+koutou mate, ara, o koutou whenua.
+Kaore koutou e mohio ko enei papa whenua
+pai e whakaarohia ana e koutou kua riro
+ki te Iwi Mohio, a, e nohoia ano hoki e
+ratou, Na Koutou tonu ake aua whenua, nga
+whenua o koutou tipuna. He he te noho a
+taua iwi ki runga ki a koutou whenua.
+Maku o koutou whenua e whakaora e
+whakahoki.
+
+Me tuku mai ki au te whakahaere kia
+whiti mai ano te ra ki runga i a koutou,
+Te Iwi i arohaina nuitia e au. Na, i runga
+i taku mahi ka puta nui ai te moni mo
+koutou a muri atu. Ko te tangata, kaore
+he hikipene i roto i tana pakete ka whai
+
+koura a ia; ko te tangata kaore ona piihi
+whenua kotahi, ka whai eka a ia. Koia
+kaore he rapaki, ka riro ki a ia, he whare,
+he kiki, he kakahu. Ko nga tangata e
+mea ana kia haere i runga rerewe, ka
+hangaia ano he rerewe mo ratou. Ko nga
+tangata, e mea ana, mo nga whapu, hei
+unga kaipuke, timu, aha ranei, ka nui to
+ratou he, ki te kore ratou e haere wawe atu
+ki a ia, whakaatu ki a ia i o ratou mea
+katoa e hiahia ana kia meatia e ia."
+
+Ko nga korero ena a Rae-Totara ki te
+Iwi Tawhito.
+
+UPOKO VIII.
+
+No te rongonga o te Iwi Tawhito ki nga
+korero a Rae-Totara, mihi nui ana ratou ki
+te pai.
+
+Manawa reka ana ratou i tona kupu mo
+to nui o te moni kia puta mai kia ratou i
+runga i tona whakahaere i o ratou whenua,
+i o ratou taonga. Katahi ano ka marama
+kia ratou te nui o te he a ta Iwi hou e tau
+ana kia ratou mo to taha ki o ratou
+whenua.
+
+Kihai i roa o whiriwhiri ana, whakaae
+ana te nuinga o nga tangata o te Iwi
+Tawhito o taua takiwa ki nga korero katoa
+a Rae-Totara. Me te whakaae ano kia
+hoatu o ratou whenua mate, o ratou whenua
+ora, mo a ratou mea katoa ki a ia,
+whakahaere ai, pupuri ai, mo ratou.
+
+UPOKO IX.
+
+Na, i taua whenua i mahi nei a Rae-Totara
+i tana mahi, he nui nga taniwha o reira.
+Engari ho tu taniwha ke atu i a Pekehaua,
+ia Hotupuku, ia Kataore. Ko nga taniwha
+horo tangata enei o mua. Ko tetahi o nga
+tino Taniwha o te whenua i noho nei a
+Rae-Totara, ko tona ingoa ko te HUPI-
+RIMI KOOTI. Ko taua taniwha he mahi
+tika anake tana mahi. Ma taua taniwha
+e ki, kia pena, ka pena,kia
+pera, ka pera Kaore i kitea e ia te
+mahi he. Ko nga iwi katoa i noho ra a
+Rae-Totara i to ratou kainga e tino wha-
+karongo ana aua iwi katoa ki ki taua Tani-
+
+wha. Ko nga taniwha i raro iho i tenei
+ko HOKO, ko RETI, ko MOKETE me etahi
+atu. Ko HOKO, ko RETI, he taniwha ahua
+pai ano aua taniwha  Ko MOKETE, he
+taniwha whaiwhakaaro tora ki nga iwi u
+taua whenua. He taniwha whakaputa
+moni kia ratou. Otira, ko tona he, he nui
+rawa te pakeke o ana ritenga katoa.
+
+Me ho mea ka hoatu etahi moni ki te
+tangata, a, me he mea ka kore e whakaho- 
+kitia a tonutia aua moni i te takiwa tonu i
+whakaritetia ai; mehemea ka whakapuku-
+riritia ranei a ia, he tino autaia a ia, he tino
+nanakia, he taniwha horo whenua.
+
+Nui atu nga tangata i tae atu ki a ia i
+mate i runga i te pukuriritanga o taua
+taniwha o Mokete. Koia ano te take i
+ahua wehi ai nga tangata mohio ki te wha-
+katata atu ki a ia, kei mato ratou i a ia, kei
+horomia e ia o ratou whenua.
+
+UPOKO X
+
+Riro katoa ana ki te ringaringa o Rae-
+
+Totara nga whenua mate, me nga whenua
+ora o etahi o nga hapu rangatira o te Iwi
+Tawhito, i runga i nga ritenga whakahaere
+mo ratou.
+
+A, no te rironga mai ki a ia i aua whenua
+a te Iwi Tawhito, katahi ka haere tonu atu
+a ia ki te Ana o te taniwha Mokete.
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__2_3.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__2_3.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__2_3.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,307 @@
+MATARIKI.
+
+Tomo rawa atu a ia ki roto i taua Aua.
+UPOKO XI
+
+Heoi.
+
+Ka tohetohe, ka tohetohe a Rae-Totara
+
+ki te taniwha ki a Mokete kia hoatu he
+
+moni ki a ia. Kaore te taniwha e pai.
+
+I ki atu a Mokete ki a ia, "E Rae-Totara
+
+E matau ana ahau ki a koe, ki ou mahi
+
+kino katoa, ki ou mahi patipati ki te Iwi
+
+Tawhito, ki ou mahi tinihanga ki a ratou,
+
+mo o ratou whenua. E mohio ana hoki
+wha Tika, e te Hupuirimi Kooti mo ou
+
+hara.
+UPOKO XII.
+
+Pouri Kerekere te ngakau o Rae-Totara
+ki tenei korero a Te Taniwha ki a ia.
+
+Kaore rawa atu he moni a Rae-Totara,
+hei hoko kai mana, kaore he whare ona
+kaore he hoiho, kaore he kiki, he aha
+ranei. 
+
+Ka haere atu a ia, a, ka hoki atu ano a
+ia ki tu Taniwha  kia Mokete.
+
+Ka tahi ka whakaatu atu a Rae-Totara
+
+ki te Taniwha i etahi pukapuka he mea
+
+tuhituhi ki runga. Ka ki atu Rae-Totara
+
+ki te Taniwha, "Tirohia! Kia mohio koe
+
+ko enei pukapuka, na Te Iwi Tawhito i tuhi
+
+o ratou ingoa ki roto. Kua tukua mai 
+
+e ratou kia au o ratou whenua katoa, me
+
+nga mana whakahaere katoa, me te mea
+
+tonu naku tonu ake te whenua. Ka hiahia
+ahau ki etahi moni, heoi, ka hoatu enei
+pukapuka e au, ka tahi ka riro mai te moni
+ki au. Mawai hoki e whakaatu atu ki a
+ratou He tangata mohio hoki ahau ki
+nganga kopikopikotanga o te ture."
+
+Ka rongo te Taniwha ki enei korero, ka
+noho puku a ia. Ahua pouri ana a ia ki
+ena korero a Rae-Totara. He aroha nona
+ki te Iwi Tawhito, ki te iwi, na ratou i
+tuku atu o ratou whenua ki te roia-minita.
+
+UPOKO XIII.
+
+Katahi rawa ka whai kupu tu Taniwha.
+Ka ki atu a ia kia Rae-Totara, '' Kia
+mohio koe ka hoatu e au nga moni katoa e
+hiahiata ana e koe i runga i enei pukapuka
+tuku a te Iwi Tawhito i o ratou whenua ki
+a koe. Mau te whakaaro, mau to tikanga
+kia ratou. Kia mohio ana hoki Koe, ki te
+kore koe e whakahokimai i aku moni
+koura katoa e hoatu ana e au kia koe, tera
+ranei au e hoatu ki a koe i te ra tonu i
+whakaritetia e tana. Kore rawa atu toku
+ngakau aroha. Ka hamama toka waha, ka
+horomia e au nga whenua a te Iwi Ta-
+whito.
+
+Mo ratou, me a ratou tamariki a muri
+tonu atu te mate. E hara hoki "i au to
+ratou KAITIAKI."
+
+UPOKO XIV
+
+Na, tangohia ana e Rae-Totara, nga
+peeke koura, e hia ranei miriona pauna te
+moni, e hia ranei, a, haere atu ana.
+
+E ngari, puritia ana e Te Taniwha nga
+pukapuka tuku katoa mo te wa hei whaka-
+hokitanga mai i nga koura, nga moni katoa
+i namai a Rae-Totara.
+
+UPOKO XV
+
+Rekareka ana te manawa o Rae-Totara
+
+ki te nuinga o te moni i riro mai ki aia.
+Katahi ano a ia ka whiwhi ki te moni.
+Katahi ano ka noho a ia i roto i tetahi
+
+whare pai. Katahi ano ia ka haere i
+
+runga kiki hoiho ranei.
+
+E hika ma, ko Horomia i roto i ana
+
+kororia katoa kihai rawa i rite ki a Rae-
+
+Totara i nga takiwa e nama ana i nga
+
+moni ki te Taniwha Mokete i runga i nga 
+
+whenua o te Iwi Tawhito.
+
+UPOKO XVI
+
+"Rekareka, rangi tahi, ko Kararu tona
+
+mutunga iho."
+
+Pau katoa ia Rae_Totara nga moni i riro
+
+mai ki a ia i te Taniwha Mokete. 
+
+UPOKO XVII. 
+
+Tera ano etahi tino Taniwha i tana
+whenua kaore nei i whakahuatia i konei.
+
+Ko tetahi o ratou ko KAIWHAKAATU-
+HARA tona ingoa. Tetahi ingoa ona, ko
+NIUPEPA -PEREHI, he taniwha mohio ia.
+
+Na, pa mai ana te mataku kia Rae-
+Totara. Nui rawa atu tonu wehi koi
+whaaki atu te taniwha Nuipepa-Perehi i ona
+hara ki tu ao katoa. Tetahi kei whakatika
+ te taniwha tika ko Te Hupirimi Kooti ki te
+putu i a ia mo ona he. Kihai taua taniwha
+i aro mai kia Rae-Totara  ki ona mahi ranei.
+
+ UPOKO XVIII.
+
+No te taenga atu ki te? ra hei whaka hoki-
+tanga i nga moni kia Mokete, Aue!
+Tiro tiro kau una! Tahuri kau ana!
+Paki paki kau ana ki nga pakeke.
+Nowhea to pene kotahi? Kua rere noa
+atu ra hoki te weta o te mahi, o nga
+whenua hoki.
+
+Ko te rarunga tenei o te Iwi Tawhito.
+
+Riro ana o ratou whenua katoa ki te
+Taniwha Mokete hei whakangata  i tona
+puku. E hia ranei poraka nunui i horo-
+mia o ia, o hia ranei?
+
+Mate rawa atu te iwi i te Minita-Roia.
+UPOKO XIX.
+
+Ko te pakanga nui i taua whenua i muri
+ko te riri a te Taniwha ko Te Hupirimi  
+Kooti kia Rae-Totara, mo ona hara ki
+runga ki te Iwi Tawhito.
+
+A, mate ana ko Rae-Totara.
+UPOKO XX.
+
+No te mutunga o nga korero a Taonga-
+Ra, katahi ka whiriwhiri te iwi kainga.
+A, Ka tohe atu ratou ki a ia kia korero atu
+a tetahi po etahi korero atu mo nga mea i
+kitea e ia i ona haerenga. Whakaae ana
+a Te Toonga-Ra.
+
+
+
+He Korero Tara.
+Ko te Takuta me nga Tio.
+
+Na e noho ana ki tetahi Takuta, tetahi
+tamaiti tane, e akona ana a ia e Tu Takuta
+ki nga mahi rongoa, ki etahi mahi Takuta
+hoki. I whakatika taua Takuta i haere ki
+te toro) i tetahi turoro. I haere tahi raua
+ko taua tamaiti. Tae atu raua ki roto kia
+kite i taua turoro. Ka titiro te Takuta,
+katahi ka ki atu ki a ia, " E hoa, whatero
+to arero." Na, no te kitenga o te Takuta
+i te arero o taua turoro, katahi ka ki atu te
+Takuta ki a ia " E hoa, akuanei koe ka tino
+mate rawa atu. I te kai tio koe." Katahi,
+ka nai te wehi o te turoro. Ka '? wiriwiri
+tona tinana katoa. No te hokinga atu o te
+Takuta raua ko tona hoa te tamaiti raka,
+katahi ka patai atu te tamaiti ki te Takuta;
+
+" E hoa, na te aha koe i mohio ai i te kai
+tio te turoro." Katahi, ka kata atu taua
+
+Takuta  i a ia "Te take i mohio ai ahau, i
+kitea e au nga anga e tawheta una i raro i
+tona moenga.'' Katahi ka noho mohio
+tamaiti.
+
+Na, muri iho i tena, katahi ka tonoa atu
+te Takuta ki te toro i te turoro ra i etahi
+rangi noa o muri mai. Te taenga atu te
+tamaiti ra, ka ui atu a ia ki te turoro. '" E
+hoa kei te pewhea to mate." Katahi ki
+atu te tamaiti - 
+
+ki atu " E hoa, akuanei koe ka mate rawa
+atu, no te mea, i te kai hoiho koe, ki taku
+titiro atu ki te ahua o tou arero." Katahi
+ka tino mataku rawa taua turoro, muri iho
+ka puku riri. Ka tahi ka whakatika mai
+nga whanaunga' a taua turoro, me tona
+wahine, ka pana i taua tamaiti. Ka tahi ka
+hoki tangi tana tamaiti, ki tona rangatira,
+ara ki te tino Takuta. Te taenga atu o
+tiwa. tamaiti ki tona rangatira puhipuhi ana
+nga kanohi o te tamaiti. Katahi ka patai
+
+ano te Takuta ki a ia "E hika, heaha to
+
+mate, i puhipuhi na o kanohi? Me te
+
+mea tonu i te tangi koe" Katahi ano ka
+
+ki atu tana tamaiti ki tona rangatira. "E
+
+koro E! He mate tonu. No taku taenga
+
+atu kia kite i te turoro, katahi au ka ki atu,
+
+kia whatero tona arero. No tona whate-
+
+rotanga katahi au ka ki atu. "E hoa,
+
+akuanei koe ka tino mate rawa atu. Katahi
+
+ka ki mai te turoro ra ki au, na te aha koe
+
+i mohio ai. Ka ki atu au, i te kai hoiho
+
+koe." Katahi te Takuta ka ki atu ki tona
+
+tamaiti. Na te aha koe i -
+
+korero pena ki te whakawehi te turoro
+ra." Katahi te tamaiti ka ki atu. "E hoa
+
+he kitenga atu naku i tetahi nohoanga
+
+hoiho me te paraire i raro i te moenga ra o
+
+te turoro ra. Pena hoki me tahau i ki mai
+
+ki au i runga i taku patai ki a koe. "Na
+
+te aha koe e mohio ai, i te kai tio te turoro
+
+ra." A, ka ki mai ra koe ki au, no te
+
+kitenga atu i nga anga i raro i tona moenga.
+
+Ka waihoki me tenei, na reira au i mohio
+
+ki te korero pena ki taua turoro. Mai ra,
+
+ko ahau raru ana ahau te patu.
+
+
+Ki nga tangata Maori katoa
+o te Motu nei.
+
+HE whakaatu tenei kia kite mai koutou i
+tu whakataunga .1 te Hupirimi Kooti i te
+whakawa a TAREHA TE MOANANUI
+rami ko TE RIIHI, Roia.
+
+Kotahi tau o tenei whakawa e haere ana
+i Poneke, a. tao mai ki Nepia. Na, whiri-
+whiritia ana e te Hupirimi Kooti, kitea ana
+KO TE RIIHI TE MEA I HE. I TINO
+WHAKAHENGIA TE RUHI E TE
+HUPIRIMI KOOTI mo nga moni a Tare-
+ha i riro kia aia, ani, i puritia e iatana
+kii mo ana, mahi roia, mo nga whenua a
+Tareha. Na, ki ana Te Hupirimi Kooti,
+me Tareha hoki, he he tana puritanga e ia-tana
+taua moni, ara, i te waru rau pauna, i te te
+kau ma iwa hereni, me etoru kapa-
+£819 198 3 (d.
+
+Ko tu kupu tenei; i Te Hupirimi Kooti,
+kia utua e ia, o To Riihi tenei moni 819
+193 3d kia Tareha INAIANEI.
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__2_4.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__2_4.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/import/xml/23/text/23__2_4.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,233 @@
+MATARIKI.
+
+Kua tae atu hoki kia Te Riihi, i Tura-
+nganui te tino tono a te Hupirimi Kooti
+kia utua taua monime te kupu hoki
+a Te Hupirimi Kooti kia Te Ruhi, kaore e
+tika taua mau i te £819 19s 3d moni a
+Tareha.
+
+I ki ano hoki Te Hupirimi Kooti,
+
+Kaore i marama nga mahi i kiia e To
+Ruhi i mahia e ia ma Tareha.
+
+Kaore i marama te ra, te marama, te tau
+ranei, i mahia ai e i Te Riihi ana mahi mo 
+Tareha.
+
+Kaore hoki i marama i mahia ranei taua
+mahi mo Tareka, mo etahi Maori ke atu
+ranei.
+
+Kaore hoki i marama mo te
+whenua, mo te ahu ranei, aua
+mahi a te Riihi.
+
+I whakakorea rawatia e Tareha aua mahi
+a Te Riihi ki runga ki a ia. 1 ki hoki taua
+kaumatua, kaore rawa a ia i whakatu i a te
+Ruhi hei mahi i nga mahi mo te taha ki te
+waru rau pauna. Na, tae noa ki te kai
+
+whakamaori a te Riihi o mua, ara, kia Te
+Waiti kaumatua, he kaiwhakawa hoki ia.
+Ko taua kupu tenei ki te Hupirimi Kooti,
+i tino whakakorea rawatia a Te Riihi e
+Tareha i runga i aua mahi.
+
+No muri mai i taua whakakoretanga 
+tohe tonu te Ruhi ki te tono utu kia
+Tareha, A, kitea ana e Te Hupirimi Kooti,
+ehe ana te mahi a te Riihi.
+
+KATI, KO TE TINO WHAKATAU-
+NGA TENEI A TE HUPIRIMI KOOTI
+ME UTU E TE RUHI. KIA TARE-
+HA INAIANEI -
+
+Na Tareha taua moni ua Te Riihi i pu-
+puri pokanoa.
+
+Na, e haere atu ana tenei panui, i te
+Tonga nei. E ahu atu ana ki o matou
+whanaunga ki o matou hoa i te Tai Ra-
+whiti, a rauna noa te Motu nei.
+
+E hoa ma! Kia noho tatou i runga i
+te matauranga, i te mohiotanga,Mehemea
+ka tono tatou ki te tahi roia kia mahia
+e ia a tatou mahi, tonoa ki a ia, kia mara
+
+ma tana utu mo tana mahi i to tuatahi, a,
+ka tiro atu tatou e pai ana, a, tuhia rawa-
+tia ki te pukapuka tana whakaaetanga-a-
+katahi tatou ka whakaae. Tenei, ko te
+kahu noa i roto i te pouritanga. AUE!
+E hika ma E! Ka mate tatou! Ka mate
+tatou! Ko totatou tino takanga tena ki
+te ahi-whanariki, mamae mutunga kore,
+ake tonu atu.
+
+Kia WIREMU RU RIIHI, no
+Nepia aia i mua, engari, no Kihi-
+pane, Papete Pei, inaianei, i roto
+i te koroni o Nui Tireni, roia, kia
+WIREMU PERE, kia RIPE-
+RATA KAHUTU, no taua
+Papeti Pei, ano raua, he tangata
+Maori.
+
+KIA MOHIO KOUTOU, kia kotahi
+marama i muri iho i te panuitanga
+i tenei panui i roto i nga nupepa erua i taia
+i Kihipane me nga niupepa erua i taia i
+Poneke, ka hokona e au ka tukuna atu
+ranei e au kia hokona kia maketetia, nga
+whenua i whakaatutia i roto i tehaki puka-
+puka mokete i tuhia i te 26 o nga ra o Pepuere,
+1879, (i rehitatia i te tari Rehita Pukapuka
+i Nepia i raro i te nama 13175). Ko taua
+pukapuka i waenganui ia koutou o tetahi
+taha, me au ko PEREHIWA PAAKA, i
+whakahuatia i raro iho nei o tetahi taha.
+Na, ka hokona, ka maketetia aua whenua,
+kite kore koutou e utu mai ki au i nga tino
+moni pukai i whakatuturitia mai ki au i runga
+i taua pukapuka mokete, te toenga ranei, me
+nga inateretinga moni whakapiki katoa,
+e tika ana kia uta ki au i runga i taua puka-
+puka mokete. 
+
+Na, tenei ano hoki tetahi, kia mohio
+koutou, ko te take i tukuna atu e au tenei
+panui kia panuitia, koia tenei,arakaore
+ano koutou i utu mai ki au i nga tino moni
+pukai me nga moni inateretinga moni
+whakapiki i whakaaetia i runga i nga ritenga
+i whakaatutia i roto i taua pukapuka mokete.
+
+I tuhia i tenei te 12 o nga ra o Maehe
+1881.
+
+NA PEREHIWA PAAKA.
+Hiu J. WIINI.
+Roia, Kihipane.
+
+KI O MAUA HOA MAORI O TE TAI
+RAWHITI.
+
+Ehoa ma,Tena koutou kua tae ki te
+takiwa pupuhi manu. Na, Kanui te manu
+o tenei tau. Ka nui te momona. Kati Kia
+kaha koutou ki te pupuhi manu i tenei tau.
+Ki te hiahia koutou ki te Paura, ki te Hota,
+ki te Tingara, me haere mai koutou ki te
+whare maitai o Panera rana ko Paerana hoko
+ai. Kei a maua hoki nga pu tino pai, hei
+pupuhi manu, he pu tupara, he pu haki
+mana, me etahi tu pu atu. Mehemea e hia-
+hia ana koutou kia whakapaitia a koutou pu
+me haere mai ano koutou ki a Panera raua
+ko Paerana. He maha hoki nga pu kei a
+maua. He ngawari te utu. Kia mohio
+koutou me haere mai koutou kia maua, kia
+Panera raua ko Paerana i te whare maita
+i Kihipane. Ko te tino whare tenei o te
+Tai Rawhiti hei hoko i nga Paura, Hota,
+Tingara, Pu, me aua tu mea katoa. Kei a
+maua hoki nga Kakahu Wahine, Kakahu
+tane, Kakahu tamariki nga hu tane nga hu
+wahine me nga nohoanga tane nohoanga wa-
+hine, me te Te Huka, Paraoa. Kei a maua
+hoki nga parau, nga rakuraku me aua tu
+mea katoa hei mahi paamu.
+
+ENGAWARI ANA TE UTU,
+
+Kei wareware koutou, na o koutou hoa, na
+PANERA RAUA KO PAERANA,
+I TE WHARE MAITAI,
+KIHIPANE.
+
+TE HOKO O WHATAUPOKO
+Ka tino hokona rawatia
+
+12,400 nga eka o Whataupoko
+ Poraka, nui atu, iti iho
+ranei.
+
+Ko taua whenua e takoto ana i te takiwa
+o Papati Pei, e tutata ana ki te taone o Kihi-
+pane.
+
+Ko tenei hoko i runga i te tono o Paaka,
+te kaitango mokete. Ka haere hoki tenei
+hoko i ronga i te whakahaere o te Kai Rehi-
+ta o te Hupirimi Kooti i Nepia i raro i nga
+tikanga o te Tare whakatikatika i te ture
+hoko whenua, 1860, i raro hoki i nga tikanga
+o te Ture, 1870, e whakamana ana i nga kai-
+tango mokete ki te hoko i nga whenua i
+moketetia kia ratou.
+
+Na, kua tae atu te tono ki a PITI raua ko
+PENETI, na Paora A. F. Paata, kai Rehita
+o te Hupirimi  Kooti o Nepia i tuku atu taua
+tono kia raua I RUNGA I TE WHAKAAE-
+TANGA o ke kaitango o te mokete, e kia ho-
+kona, kia maketetia  nuitia i ta raua
+whare makete i te taone o Kihipane a
+TE PARAIRE, te 29 o nga ra o APEREIRA,
+1881, i te rua haora me te hawhe i muri iho
+i te tina.
+
+WAHI TUATAHI e hokona ana.
+Katoa o taua piihi whenua tona nuinga
+12, 400 nga eka, nui atu iti iho ranei, tetahi
+wahi o
+
+WHATAUPOKO,
+
+i te takiwa o Turanga, Papati Pei. Koia te
+whenua i whakahuatia i roto i tetahi puka-
+puka, a, i raro i te mana o taua pukapuka, i
+runga hoki i ana tikanga e hokona ana e te
+kai tango i te Mokete e PAAKA, taua whenua
+
+KO TE WAHI TUARUA.
+
+Te whaitaketanga, me te paanga, tera e
+riro mai ki te kai tango i te mokete i runga
+i tetahi kotahi mano eka kaore i uru ki roto
+ki te 12, 400, i muri mai i te utunga atu i nga
+moni 6500 me nga inatereti i whakatu
+turutia ki tetahi tangata ke (kote wahi tenei
+e mohiotia ana kei a Makitanara) e nga kai
+tuku i te mokete.
+
+KO WHATAUPOKO
+
+Ko tenei whenua e hokona aua i runga i te
+tono a PAAKA e takoto ana ki te hangai-
+tanga ki te taone, a, ko te awa o Waimate
+te rohe i Waenganui i taua whenua, me nga
+whenua e mohiotia nuitia ana ko Pouawa me
+Kaiti.
+
+Ko nga ritenga enei mo te hoko. Kotahi
+wahi o nga wahanga e wha o te moni, ara
+tetahi koata ha utua tonutia i te takiwa tonu
+ka hokona te whenua ko WHATAUPOKO
+Ko te toenga o te moni me utu i te whakao-
+tinga o te pukapuka tuku i roto, i nga ra i
+whakaritetia i runga i nga tikanga o te hoko.
+
+Ko nga tangata e hiahia ana ki te patai mo
+nga tikanga mo te taha ki te hoko. me ui
+atu ratou ki te Roia mo Paaka i Kihipane
+ara kia.
+
+H. J. WIINI.
+
+Roia, Kihipane.
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/macros/extra.dm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/macros/extra.dm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/macros/extra.dm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+package document
+
+_textfullsize_ {FULLSIZE}
+_textpreview_ {PREVIEW}
+_textfulltext_ {TEXT}
+
+_textviewfullsize_ {View the fullsize image of this page}
+_textviewpreview_ {View the preview image of this page}
+_textviewfulltext_ {View the text of this page}
+
+_viewfullsize_ {<div class="button"><span class="button"><a href="_httpcurrentdocument_&p=fullsize" title="_textviewfullsize_">_textfullsize_</a></span></div>}
+_viewpreview_ {<div class="button"><span class="button"><a href="_httpcurrentdocument_&p=preview" title="_textviewpreview_">_textpreview_</a></span></div>}
+_viewtext_ {<div class="button"><span class="button"><a href="_httpcurrentdocument_&p=text" title="_textviewfulltext_">_textfulltext_</a></span></div>}
+
+# -- Spanish text ----------------------- 
+_textfullsize_ [l=es] {TAMAÃO COMPLETO}
+_textpreview_ [l=es] {PREVISUALIZAR}
+_textfulltext_ [l=es] {TEXTO}
+
+_textviewfullsize_ [l=es] {Ver la imagen tamaÃ±o completo de esta pÃ¡gina}
+_textviewpreview_ [l=es] {Ver la imagen de previsualizaciÃ³n de esta pÃ¡gina}
+_textviewfulltext_ [l=es] {Ver el texto de esta pÃ¡gina}
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese text ----------------------- 
+_textfullsize_ [l=zh] {åå§å€§å°}
+_textpreview_ [l=zh] {é¢è§}
+_textfulltext_ [l=zh] {ææ¬}
+
+_textviewfullsize_ [l=zh] {æ¥çè¯¥é¡µé¢åå§å€§å°çåŸç}
+_textviewpreview_ [l=zh] {æ¥çè¯¥é¡µé¢çé¢è§åŸç}
+_textviewfulltext_ [l=zh] {æ¥çè¯¥é¡µé¢çææ¬}
+
+# -- French text ----------------------- 
+_textfullsize_ [l=fr] {GRAND FORMAT}
+_textpreview_ [l=fr] {PREVISUALISATION}
+_textfulltext_ [l=fr] {TEXTE}
+
+_textviewfullsize_ [l=fr] {Voir l'image de cette page en grand format}
+_textviewpreview_ [l=fr] {Voir l'image de prÃ©visualisation de cette page}
+_textviewfulltext_ [l=fr] {Voir le texte de cette page}
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/metadata/dublin.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/metadata/dublin.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/metadata/dublin.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1675 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet [
+
+  <!-- The outer tag of any metadata set. Contains some number of elements.             -->
+  <!-- @param contact     A contact address for the creator.                            -->
+  <!-- @param creator     The name of the entity resposibly for this set.               -->
+  <!-- @param family      The name of this sets family.                                 -->
+  <!-- @param lastchanged The full date, user name and machine name of the last editor. --> 
+  <!--   uses the form:                                                                 -->
+  <!--   Day Mon(th) dd hh:mm:ss yyyy '-' <username> on <machine>                       -->
+  <!-- @param namespace   The namespace of this metadata set.                           -->
+  <!ELEMENT MetadataSet ((Name|Description|SetLanguage|Element)+)>
+  <!ATTLIST MetadataSet
+	    contact            CDATA #REQUIRED
+	    creator            CDATA #REQUIRED
+	    description        CDATA #REQUIRED
+            family             CDATA #REQUIRED
+	    lastchanged        CDATA #REQUIRED
+            name               CDATA #REQUIRED
+	    namespace          CDATA #REQUIRED
+	    language_dependent CDATA "">
+
+  <!-- The name of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Name (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Name
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- The description of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Description (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Description
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- When used in conjuction with defer-node-expansion, allows for better memory use when dealing with several or more languages. -->
+  <!ELEMENT SetLanguage (Name, Description?)>
+  <!ATTLIST Language
+	    code CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- An element in the metadata set. -->
+  <!-- Note that the name attribute isn't really Dublin Core compliant - it was just the first thing I came up with. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Element (Attribute*,Language*,OptionList?)>
+  <!ATTLIST Element
+            name       CDATA #REQUIRED
+	    occurances CDATA "0">
+
+  <!-- Each element has several attribute children. -->	
+  <!-- Given that name was already used for an Element, I decided to use identifier for the language specific 'name', which I've been told isn't really compliant with Dublin Core. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Attribute (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Attribute
+            name CDATA "">
+
+  <!-- When used in conjuction with defer-node-expansion, allows for better memory use when dealing with several or more languages. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Language (Attribute*)>
+  <!ATTLIST Language
+	    code CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- For listing predefined values for this element. -->
+  <!ELEMENT OptionList (Value+)>
+  <!ATTLIST OptionList
+            restricted (true|false) "false">
+]>
+<MetadataSet contact="dcmi-feedback@dublincore.org" creator="Dublin Core Metadata Initiative" family="Dublin Core" language_dependent="identifier, definition, comment" lastchanged="Tue Jun 04 10:35:30 2002 - jmt12 on blackbird" namespace="dc">
+    <!-- English Version sourced from http://www.dublincore.org/documents/dces/ -->
+    <SetLanguage code="en">
+        <Name language="en">Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, Version 1.1: Reference Description</Name>
+        <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.1 of the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set. This document supersedes the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, version 1.0. See the Dublin Core Home Page (http://dublincore.org) for further information about the workshops, reports, working group papers, projects, and new developments concerning the Dublin Core Metadata Element set</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Maori Version sourced from http://www.tki.org.nz/r/maori/pedagogy/dc_elements_m.php -->
+    <SetLanguage code="mi">
+        <Name>Dublin Core Huanga - Maori (He Tauira)</Name>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- French Version sourced from http://www-rocq.inria.fr/%7Evercoust/METADATA/DC-fr.1.1.html -->
+    <!--  by Anne-Marie Vercoustre, Inria -->
+    <SetLanguage code="fr">
+        <Name language="fr">ElÃ©ments de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es du Dublin Core, Version 1.1: Description de RÃ©ference</Name>
+        <Description language="fr">Ce document rÃ©sume les derniÃšres dÃ©finitions des Ã©lÃ©ments demÃ©tadonnÃ©es du Dublin Core originellement dÃ©finis dans le document[RFC2413]. Ces nouvelles dÃ©finitions seront officiellement connues comme la Version 1.1. Elles utilisent un standard dÃ©fini formellement pour la description d&apos;Ã©lÃ©ments de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es. Cette formalisation contribue Ã  amÃ©liorer la cohÃ©rence avec d&apos;autres communautÃ©s dÃ©crivant des mÃ©tadonnÃ©es et Ã  augmenter la prÃ©cision, la portÃ©e et la cohÃ©rence interne de la dÃ©finition des Ã©lÃ©ments du Dublin Core.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Russian Version sourced from -->
+    <!-- by Olga Barysheva, National Library of Russia -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ru">
+        <Name language="ru">ÐÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Dublin Core (ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐœÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŽÑÐ°) ÐÐµÑÑÐžÑ 1.1: Ð¡Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ</Name>
+        <Description language="ru">ÐÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐŸÐ±ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸÐ²Ð»ÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Dublin Core (ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐœÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŽÑÐ°), Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐŸÐœÐ°ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð² RFC2413 (ÐÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ Dublin Core ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐ¶ÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐŸÐ²). Ð­ÑÐž ÐœÐŸÐ²ÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŸÑÐžÑÐžÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÑÑÐœÑ ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐÐµÑÑÐžÑ 1.1.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Spanish Version sourced from http://www.rediris.es/metadata/. Please note that this is a translation for Dublin Core v1.0 -->
+    <!-- by Javi Masa, RedIRIS -->
+    <SetLanguage code="es">
+        <Name language="es">Elementos del conjunto de metadatas de Dublin Core: DescripciÃ³n de Referencia</Name>
+        <Description language="es">Este documento corresponde a una traducciÃ³n del original en lengua inglesa, con fecha 02/11/1997 que se encuentra en http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core_elements. Este documento es una descripciÃ³n de referencia de los elementos del conjunto de &quot;Dublin Core&quot;. Para mÃ¡s informaciÃ³n sobre reuniones de trabajo, documentos de trabajo, proyectos y nuevos desarrollos relacionados con el conjunto de elementos que aquÃ­ se describen consultar la &quot;Home Page&quot; de &quot;Dublin Core&quot; (http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core). Los elementos poseen nombres descriptivos que pretenden transmitir un significado semÃ¡ntico a los mismos. Para promover una interoperabilidad global, una descripciÃ³n del valor de algunos elementos prodrÃ¡ ser asociada a vocabularios controlados. Se asume que otros vocabularios controlados serÃ¡n desarrollados para asegurar esta interoperabilidad en dominios especÃ­ficos. Cada elemento es opcional y puede repetirse. AdemÃ¡s, los elementos pueden aparecer en cualquier orden. Aunque algunos entornos, como HTML, no diferencian entre mayÃºsculas y minÃºsculas, es recomendable escribir correctamente cada metadata segÃºn su definiciÃ³n para evitar conflictos con otros entornos, como XML (Extensible Markup Language) http://www.w3.org/TR/PR-xml</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Arabic Version sourced from http://haddouti.de/DC_arabic.html -->
+    <!-- maintained by Hachim Haddouti. -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ar">
+        <Name>Ø¯ØšÙÙÙ ÙÙØ±</Name>
+        <Description>ÙØ±Ø­Øš ØšÙÙ
+ ÙÙ ØµÙØ­Ø©  Ø¯ ØšÙÙÙ ÙÙ  Ø± ØšØ§ÙØ¹Ø±ØšÙ    ÙÙ  ÙØ°Ù Ø§ÙØµÙØ­Ø©  Ù ØšØ§ÙØªØ¹Ø§ÙÙ Ù
+Ø¹ Ø§ÙØ§Ø®ÙØ§Ù Ø§ÙØ¹Ø±Øš Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªØšØ§ØªØ Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø§ÙÙØŽØ±Ø Ø§ÙØšØ­ÙØ« Ø§ÙØ¹ÙÙ
+ÙØ© Ù    ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+ÙWorking Group On Multilingual Dublin Core (DC-International) Ø</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Chinese - Simplified Version from http://dc.library.sh.cn/DC/1-1.htm -->
+    <!-- by Liu Wei, Shanghai Library -->
+    <SetLanguage code="cn">
+        <Name>éœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ é1.1çïŒåèæè¿°</Name>
+        <Description>æ¬ææ¡£å
+³äºéœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ é1.1çæ¬çåèæè¿°ãæ­€æè¿°äžå·²ç»æäº€ç»ISOçšäºåœé
+æç¥šçNISOå®æ¹æ åä¿æäžèŽã    éœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®éæ¯äžç§è·šé¢åçä¿¡æ¯èµæºæè¿°æ åãè¿éçä¿¡æ¯èµæºè¢«å®ä¹äžºâä»»äœå
+·ææ è¯çäžè¥¿âãæ­€å®ä¹æ¥èªäºTim Berners-Leeç­äººæèçInternet RFC2396 &quot;Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax&quot;æä»¶ãéœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®çåºçšé¢åæ²¡ææ ¹æ¬çéå¶ã</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Czech Version from http://www.ics.muni.cz/dublin_core/DC-czech-1.1.html -->
+    <!-- Ustav vypocetni techniky Masarykovy univerzity v Brne -->
+    <SetLanguage code="cs">
+        <Name>Soubor metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core, verze 1.1: referenÄnÃ­ popis</Name>
+        <Description>Tento dokument je ÄeskÃœm pÅekladem anglickÃ© verze referenÄnÃ­ho popisu souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯  Dublin Core, verze 1.1 [DCEN1.1]. Tento dokument nahrazuje ÄeskÃœ pÅeklad souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core, verze 1.0 [DCCS1.0]. DalÅ¡Ã­ informace o pracovnÃ­ch seminÃ¡ÅÃ­ch (workshopech), zprÃ¡vÃ¡ch, studiÃ­ch pracovnÃ­ch skupin, projektech a dalÅ¡Ã­m vÃœvoji souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core najdete na domovskÃ© strÃ¡nce Dublin Core (http://purl.org/dc)</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Dutch Version from http://www.kb.nl/coop/donor/project-nl-index.html?/coop/donor/rapporten/DCsimpleformat.html -->
+    <!-- by ... -->
+    <SetLanguage code="nl">
+        <Name>Rapporten Dublin Core Simple Format</Name>
+        <Description>Dit document beschrijft welke Dublin Core metadata elementen er zijn en geeft een korte definitie van elk element. Voor uitgebreide uitleg en gebruik van de Dublin Core elementen wordt u verwezen naar de gebruikershandleiding. Deze vertaling geeft ook de keuzes aan voor standaarden (taalcodes, datum codes) die wij in DONOR verband gaan hanteren. In zoverre kan deze vertaling afwijken van het oorspronkelijke document &quot;Description of Dublin Core Elements&quot; http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core_elements&quot;</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Finnish Version from http://www.lib.helsinki.fi/dublin_core/dcref-fin.html -->
+    <!-- by Jani Stenvall and Juha Hakala, Helsinki University Library -->
+    <SetLanguage code="fi">
+        <Name/>
+        <Description/>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Interlingua Version sourced from http://www.nautilus.com.br/%7Eensjo/ia/purl.org/dc/documents/rec-dces-19990702.htm -->
+    <!-- by Emerson Jose` Silveira da Costa -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ia">
+        <Name>Collection de elementos de metadatos de Dublin Core, version 1.1: Description de referentia</Name>
+        <Description>Isto es un traduction de un Recommendation del Dublin Core Metadata Initiative. Le publication como un recommendation significa que le specificationes es stabile e su adoption es supportate per le communitate Dublin Core (http://purl.org/dc/).</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Marathi Version sourced from http://bioinfo.ernet.in/library/dc/ele.txt -->
+    <!-- by by Shubhada Nagarkar, Bioinformatics Centre, University of Pune -->
+    <SetLanguage code="mr">
+        <Name>à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿ à€žà¥à€ à€à€µà¥à€€à¥à€€à¥ à¥§.à¥§ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­ à€žà¥à€ªà€·à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£ à¥§.à¥§ à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿà€à€µà¥à€€à¥à€€à¥ à¥§.à¥§.</Name>
+        <Description>à¥§.à¥§ à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿ à€¹à¥ à€µà¥à€à€µà¥à€à€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€µà€¿à€·à€¯à€Ÿà€€à¥à€² à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€µà€Šà¥à€Šà€²à€à¥ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€Šà¥à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à€¹à¥.  à€¯à€Ÿà€€ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€®à¥à€¹à€£à€à¥ à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€²à€Ÿ à€à€³à€ à€à€¹à¥ à€
+à€žà€Ÿ à€à€žà€€à¥.  à€
+à€¶à€Ÿ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°à€à¥ à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€µà€°à¥à€² à€. à€à€«.à€žà¥. à¥šà¥©à¥¯à¥¬URI: Generic Syntax -- Tim Berners Lee et al. à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à¥à€£à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¹à¥ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥ à€µà€Ÿà€ªà€°à€€à€Ÿ à€¯à¥à€€à¥.  à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€žà€Ÿà€ à¥ à€à¥à€£à€€à€Ÿà€¹à¥ à€®à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€µ à€šà€Ÿà€¹à¥.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <Element name="Title" remember_values="true">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Title</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A name given to the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Title will be a name by which the resource is formally known.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Taitara</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te ingoa ka tapaina tetahi rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ko te Taitara te ingoa ka mohio whanuitia te ingoa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Titre</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le nom donnÃ© Ã  la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, un titre sera le nom par lequel la ressource est officiellement connue.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐŒÑ, ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÑ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŒÑ, Ð¿ÐŸÐŽ ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ ÐŸÑÐžÑÐžÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÑÑÐµÐœ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">TÃ­tulo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">El nombre dado a un recurso, usualmente por el autor.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ø§ÙØ¹ÙÙØ§Ù</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ§Ø³Ù
+ ÙØ¹Ø·Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, Ù
+Ù ÙØšÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŽØ±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">èµæºå</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµäºèµæºçåç§°ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èµæºåäžè¬æèµæºå¯¹è±¡æ­£åŒå
+¬åŒçåç§°ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">NÃ¡zev</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">JmÃ©no danÃ© zdroji.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">NÃ¡zev bude typicky jmÃ©no, pod nÃ­mÅŸ je zdroj oficiÃ¡lnÄ znÃ¡m.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Titel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De naam van de Internetbron. Meestal gegeven door de auteur, maker of uitgever</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Titulo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un nomine date al ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente se utiliza un nomine per le qual le ressource es formalmente cognite.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€ªà€°à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¯à¥ à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€žà€à€à¥à€·à€¿à€ªà¥à€€ ,  à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿà€à€€à€°à¥à€€  à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Creator" remember_values="true">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Creator</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity primarily responsible for making the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Creator include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Creator should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Kaihanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi, nana, na ratou ranei i matua oti ai te hanganga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaihanga. Ko te tikanga, ko te Kaihanga te ingoa ka whakamahia hei tohu i te putahi na ratou te hanganga.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">CrÃ©ateur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">L&apos;entitÃ© principalement responsable de la crÃ©ation du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples de CrÃ©ateur incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, un nom du CrÃ©ateur devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© pour dÃ©signer cette entitÃ©.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, ÐœÐµÑÑÑÐµÐµ Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐžÑÐœÑÑ ÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÑ Ð·Ð° ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Autor o Creador</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La persona u organizaciÃ³n responsable de la creaciÃ³n del contenido intelectual del recurso. Por ejemplo, los autores en el caso de documentos escritos, artistas, fotografos e ilustradores en el caso de recursos visuales.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ø§ÙÙØ§ØªØš Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø£ÙÙØ§  Ø¹Ù ÙØŽØŠ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ± Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ø¹ÙÙ Ø³ØšÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø«Ø§Ù , Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€ÙÙÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ØŠÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªÙØšØ© , Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØ§ÙÙÙ , Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµÙØ±ÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ØŠÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">åå»ºè
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">åå»ºèµæºå
+å®¹çäž»èŠèŽ£ä»»è
+ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åå»ºè
+çå®äŸå
+æ¬äžªäººïŒç»ç»ææé¡¹æå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒçšåå»ºè
+çåç§°æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">TvÅ¯rce</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita primÃ¡rnÄ odpovÄdnÃ¡ za vytvoÅenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady TvÅ¯rce zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no tvÅ¯rce.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Auteur of maker</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De auteur, maker of organisatie die primair verantwoordelijk is voor de intellectuele inhoud van het werk. Bijvoorbeeld auteurs in geval van geschreven documenten, artiesten, fotografen of illustrators in geval van visuele bronnen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Creator</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le entitate primarimente responsabile pro producer le contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de creator include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de creator pro indicar iste entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">à€šà€¿à€°à¥à€®à€Ÿà€€à€Ÿ, à€à€šà€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€šà€¿à€°à¥à€®à€Ÿà€£  à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.  à€²à¥à€à€, à€²à¥à€à€¿à€à€Ÿ,  à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥, à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ,  à€žà€à€ªà€Ÿà€Šà€, à€žà€à€ªà€Ÿà€Šà€¿à€à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Subject" remember_values="true">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Subject and Keywords</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The topic of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Subject will be expressed as keywords, key phrases or classification codes that describe a topic of the resource. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary or formal classification scheme.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Kaupapa</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te take/ nga take o te kaupapa, o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka whakaaturia te kaupapa o te rauemi e nga kupu matua, nga kimahi matua, nga tohu wehewehenga whakaahua ranei.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Sujet</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le sujet du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, le sujet sera dÃ©crit par un ensemble de mots-clefs ou de phrases ou un code de classification qui prÃ©cisent le sujet de la ressource. L&apos;utilisation de vocabulaires contrÃŽlÃ©s et de schÃ©mas formels de classification est encouragÃ©e.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ Ðž ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÐµ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¢ÐµÐŒÐ° ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ Ð²ÑÑÐ°Ð¶Ð°ÐµÑÑÑ Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐŸÑÑÑ ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ², ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÑÑÐ°Ð· ÐžÐ»Ðž  ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÐºÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ², ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÑÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÐŒÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑ
+ÐµÐŒÑ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Claves</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Los tÃ³picos del recurso. TÃ­picamente, Subject expresarÃ¡ las claves o frases que describen el tÃ­tulo o el contenido del recurso. Se fomentarÃ¡ el uso de vocabularios controlados y de sistemas de clasificaciÃ³n formales. Se pueden ver ejemplos de vocabularios controlados en: Controlled vocabularies, thesauri and classification systems available in the WWW. DC Subject</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§ÙØ±ØŠÙØ³ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ù
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±. ÙÙ
+ÙØ°Ø¬ÙØ§  ÙØ¹ØšØ± Ø¹Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ ØšØ§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+Ù
+ÙØªØ§Ø­  Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª  Ø§Ù Ø¬Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ  ØªØµÙ Ù
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ø§Ù Ù
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù ÙØ³ØªØ­Ø³Ù Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ù
+ÙØ±Ø¯Ø§Øª Ù
+Ø®Ø·Ø·Ø©Ù Ù
+Ø­ÙÙ
+Ø©  ÙØ§Ø¯ÙØ© ØªØµÙÙÙ ØŽÙÙÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">äž»é¢åå
+³é®è¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çäž»é¢æè¿°ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åŠæèŠæè¿°ç¹å®èµæºçæäžäž»é¢ïŒäžè¬éçšå
+³é®è¯ãå
+³é®å­ç­è¯­æåç±»å·ïŒæå¥œäž»é¢åå
+³é®è¯ä»åæ§    è¯è¡šæè§èçåç±»äœç³»äž­ååŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">PÅedmÄt a klÃ­ÄovÃ¡ slova</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">TÃ©ma obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅedmÄt bude typicky vyjÃ¡dÅen pomocÃ­ klÃ­ÄovÃœch slov, klÃ­ÄovÃœch frÃ¡zÃ­ nebo klasifikaÄnÃ­ch znakÅ¯ popisujÃ­cÃ­ch tÃ©ma zdroje. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu prvku z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku nebo formÃ¡lnÃ­ho klasifikaÄnÃ­ho schÃ©matu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Onderwerp en trefwoorden</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het onderwerp van de Internetbron. Het onderwerp wordt beschreven in korte zinnen of door het gebruik van trefwoorden. Het gebruik van gecontroleerde trefwoorden of classificatie schema&apos;s wordt aanbevolen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Subjecto e parolas-clave</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le topico del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le subjecto es expresse per medio de parolas-clave, phrases-clave, o codices de classification que describe le topico del ressource. Le melior practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate o un schema formal de classification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">à€µà€¿à€·à€¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€µà€¿à€·à€¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ, à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€šà€žà€Ÿà€§à€šà¥ à€¯à€Ÿà€€à¥à€² à€à€¶à€¯ à€žà¥à€ªà€·à¥à€ à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à¥ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Š, à€µà€¿à€·à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€µà€°à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£ à€à€°à€€à€Ÿà€šà€Ÿ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Šà€žà€à€à¥à€°à€¹ à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Š à€à¥à€·à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€µà€Ÿà€ªà€° à€à€°à€Ÿà€µà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Description" remember_values="true">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An account of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Description may include but is not limited to: an abstract, table of contents, reference to a graphical representation of content or a free-text account of the content.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Whakaaturanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He whakaaturanga o nga kaupapa o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ka uru atu, engari ehara noa ko: te whakarapopototanga korero, te ihirangi, te tohutanga o te kaupapa ma te whakaahua, te whakaaturanga kore kupu ranei, o te kauapapa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une description du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Une Description peut contenir, mais ce n&apos;est pas limitatif: un rÃ©sumÃ©, une table des matiÃšres, une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une reprÃ©sentation graphique du contenu, ou un texte libre sur le contenu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¡ÐŸÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÐž ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐŸ (Ð¿ÐŸ ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÑÑÐž) Ð² Ð²ÐžÐŽÐµ: ÑÐµÑÐµÑÐ°ÑÐ°, ÐŸÐ³Ð»Ð°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ, ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐž ÐœÐ° Ð³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">DescripciÃ³n</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una descripciÃ³n textual del recurso, tal como un resumen en el caso de un documento o una descripciÃ³n del contenido en el caso de un documento visual.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ø§ÙÙØµÙ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ ÙØµÙ ÙØµÙ  ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, ÙÙØ¶Ù
+ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ®ØµØ§Øª ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙØ«Ø§ØŠÙ Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø§ÙØ§ØŽÙØ§Ø¡ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªÙØšØ© Ø§Ù ØªÙØµÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ØŠÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">è¯Žæ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çè§£é</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">è¯Žæå¯ä»¥å
+æ¬äœäžéäºä»¥äžå
+å®¹ïŒææãç®åœãå¯¹ä»¥åŸåœ¢æ¥æ­ç€ºå
+å®¹çèµæºèèšçæå­è¯Žæãæè
+äž    äžªæå
+³èµæºå
+å®¹çèªç±ææ¬æè¿°ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Popis</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">VysvÄtlenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Popis mÅ¯ÅŸe obsahovat (mimo jinÃ©): abstrakt, obsah, odkaz na grafickÃ© nebo volnÃ© textovÃ© vyjÃ¡dÅenÃ­ obsahu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Omschrijving</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een omschrijving van de inhoud van de Internetbron. Abstracts of inhoudsomschrijvingen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un description del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le description pote includer, ma non se limita a: summario, indice, referentia a un representation graphic del contento o un texto libere a proposito del contento.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">à€µà€°à¥à€£à€š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥, à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€šà€žà€Ÿà€§à€šà€Ÿà€à¥à€µà€°à¥à€£à€š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€šà€¿à€µà¥à€Šà€š, à€à€²à¥à€, à€à€¿à€€à¥à€°à€°à¥à€ª</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Publisher" remember_values="true">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Publisher</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity responsible for making the resource available.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Publisher include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Publisher should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Kaiwhakaputa</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi nana i whakaputa te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaiwhakaputa. Ko te tikanga, ka whakamahia te ingoa o te Kaiwhakaputa hei tohu i te putahi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Editeur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">L&apos;entitÃ© responsable de la diffusion de la ressource, dans sa forme actuelle, tels, un dÃ©partement universitaire, une entreprise.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples d&apos;Editeurs incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, le nom d&apos;une maison d&apos;Ã©dition devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© ici.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, ÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ Ð·Ð° Ð²Ð²ÐŸÐŽ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° Ð² ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Editor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">&gt;La entidad responsable de hacer que el recurso se encuentre disponible en la red en su formato actual, por ejemplo la empresa editora, un departamento universitario u otro tipo de organizaciÃ³n.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŽØ±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØŠØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø€ÙÙØ© Ø¹Ù ØµÙØ§Ø¹Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªÙÙØ± ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØªÙ Ø§ÙØ­Ø§Ø¶Ø±Ø©, Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø§ÙÙØŽØ±, ÙØ³Ù
+ Ø¬Ø§Ù
+Ø¹Ù Ø§Ù Ù
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§Ø¹Ù
+Ø§Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">åºçè
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">äœ¿èµæºæäžºå¯ä»¥è·åŸå¹¶å¯çšçèŽ£ä»»è
+ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åºçè
+çå®äŸå
+æ¬äžªäœïŒç»ç»ïŒææå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒåºè¯¥çšåºçè
+çåç§°æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Vydavatel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita odpovÄdnÃ¡ za zpÅÃ­stupnÄnÃ­ zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady Vydavatele zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no vydavatele.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Uitgever</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De entiteit die verantwoordelijk is voor het beschikbaarstellen van de Internetbron in de huidig vorm. Bijvoorbeeld een uitgeversbedrijf, een universiteitsafdeling.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Editor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un entitate responsabile pro disponibilizar le ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de editor include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de editor pro indicar le entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ  à€à€ªà€²à€¬à¥à€§ à€à€°à¥à€š à€Šà¥à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.à€ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€ , à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€š  à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ, à€žà¥à€µà€Ÿ    à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€² à€°à¥à€ªà€Ÿà€€  à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€à€à€à€°à€šà¥à€ à€µà€° à€à€ªà€²à€¬à¥à€§ à€à€°à¥à€š à€Šà¥à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Contributor" remember_values="true">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Contributor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity responsible for making contributions to the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Contributor include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Contributor should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Kaiwhakaaro</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi nana, na ratou ranei nga whakakaupapatanga whakaaro o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaiwhakaaro. Ko te tikanga ka whakamahia te ingoa o te Kaiwhakaaro hei tohu i te putahi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Contributeur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une entitÃ© qui a contribuÃ© Ã  la crÃ©ation du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples de Contributeur incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, le nom d&apos;un contributeur devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© ici pour dÃ©signer l&apos;entitÃ©.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, Ð²ÐœÐµÑÑÐµÐµ Ð²ÐºÐ»Ð°ÐŽ Ð² ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Otros Colaboradores</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una persona u organizacion que haya tenido una contribuciÃ³n intelectual significativa en la creaciÃ³n del recurso pero cuyas contribuciones son secundarias en comparaciÃ³n a las de las personas u organizaciones especificadas en el elementeo Creator (por ejemplo, editor, ilustrador y traductor).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+ Ø§ÙØ§Ø®Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§ÙØºÙØ± Ù
+Ø°ÙÙØ± ØµØ±Ø§Ø­Ø© ÙÙ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù &quot; Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹ &quot; Ù Ø§ÙØ°Ù ÙØ¯Ù
+ Ù
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø§Øª ÙÙØ±ÙØ© ÙØ§Ù
+Ø© ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, ÙÙÙ Ù
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªÙØªØšÙÙ    Ø«Ø§ÙÙÙØ© Ù
+ÙØ§Ø±ÙØ© Ù
+Ø¹ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø£Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø°ÙÙØ±Ø© ÙØµØ§ ÙÙ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù &quot; Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØŽØŠ &quot; Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§Ù Ù
+ØµØ­Ø­, Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ±Ø¬Ù
+, Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ³Ø±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">å
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">å¯¹èµæºçå
+å®¹äœåºèŽ¡ç®çå
+¶ä»å®äœã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+çå®äŸå¯å
+æ¬äžªäººãç»ç»ææé¡¹æå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒçšå
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+çåå­æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">PÅispÄvatel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita, kterÃ¡ pÅispÄla k vytvoÅenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady PÅispÄvatele zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no pÅispÄvatele.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Andere medewerkers</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een persoon of organisatie die een belangrijke bijdrage heeft geleverd, maar die secondair is aan de persoon of organisatie die bij &quot;Creator&quot; genoemd wordt. Gedacht kan worden aan editors, vertalers en illustrators.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Contribuente</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un entitate responsabile pro facer contributiones al contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de contribuente include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de contribuente pro indicar le entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier"> à€žà€¹à€¯à¥à€à€, à€žà€¹à€¯à¥à€à¥, à€žà€¹à€Ÿà€¯à¥à€¯à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€žà€à€à€²à¥à€€ à€à€°à€£à¥à¥à€Ÿà€ž  à€®à€Šà€€ à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à¥ à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.à€ à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥, à€žà¥à€µà€Ÿ, à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Date" remember_values="true">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Date</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A date associated with an event in the life cycle of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, Date will be associated with the creation or availability of the resource.  Recommended best practice for encoding the date value is defined in a profile of ISO 8601 and follows the YYYY-MM-DD format.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ra</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He ra e whai panga ana ki te huringa ora o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka whai panga te ra ki te hanganga, te wateatanga ranei, o te rauemi. Ko te huarahi tino pai hei tohu i te uara o te ra (date value) kua whakaritea i roto i te whakaritenga IS0 8601 [W3CDTF], a, e whai atu ana ki te whakatakotoranga YYYY-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Date</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une date associÃ©e avec un Ã©vÃ©nement dans le cycle de vie de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, une date sera associÃ©e Ã  la crÃ©ation ou Ã  la publication d&apos;une ressource. Il est fortement recommandÃ© d&apos;encoder la valeur de la date en utilisant le format dÃ©fini par l&apos;ISO 8601 [W3CDTF] sous la forme AAAA-MM-JJ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">ÐÐ°ÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐ°ÑÐ°, ÑÐ²ÑÐ·Ð°ÐœÐœÐ°Ñ Ñ ÑÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐžÐµÐŒ Ð² Ð¶ÐžÐ·ÐœÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐžÐºÐ»Ðµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐÐ°ÑÐ° Ð°ÑÑÐŸÑÐžÐžÑÑÐµÑÑÑ Ñ ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÐŸÑÑÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. ÐÐ° Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÐºÐµ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐŸÐŽÐžÑÐŸÐ²ÐºÐž Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐžÐ»Ñ ISO 8601 (Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÑ ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐž W3C), ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐÐÐÐ-ÐÐ-ÐÐ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Fecha</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una fecha en la que el recurso se puso a disposiciÃ³n del usuario en su forma actual. Esta fecha no ha de confundirse con la que pertenece al elemento Coverage, que serÃ­a asociada con el recurso sÃ³lo en la medida en que el contenido intelectual estÃ¡ de algÃºn modo relacionado con esa fecha. Recomendamos la utiliazaciÃ³n de uno de los formatos definidos en el documento &quot;Date and Time Formats&quot;, http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime basado en la norma ISO 8601 que incluye, entre otras, fechas en el formato AAAA y AAAA-MM-DD. De esta forma la fecha 1994-11-05 corresponderÃ­a al 5 de Noviembre de 1994.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±Ø®</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹ÙÙ ØšÙÙØª ÙØŽØŠ Ø£Ù ØªÙÙØ± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ù ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØ§ ÙØ®ÙØ· ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§ØŠØ¯ ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© , Ù Ø§ÙØ° Ù ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù    ÙÙØ­Ù ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± ÙÙØ· Ù
+Ù ÙØ§Ø­ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙØ§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙÙÙ ÙÙØ¹Ø§ Ù
+Ø§ ÙÙ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®. Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø«Ø­Ø³ÙØ© ÙÙØ§Ø­Ø³Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹Ø§Ø±Ù Ø¹ÙÙÙ    Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙØªØ·ØšÙÙ ÙÙ Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø¯Ø© ÙÙ ØªØŽÙÙÙ (ISO 8601) ØµÙØºØ© ØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ (ISO 8601) Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§Ø­ØžØ© Ø§ÙÙÙÙØ© http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime, W3C. ÙÙÙ    ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙÙØ³Ù , Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§, ØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ 1994-11-04 ÙÙØ§ØžØ± ÙÙÙ
+ 5 ÙÙÙÙ
+ØšØ± 1994</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">æ¥æ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">äžèµæºçåœåšæäž­çäžäžªäºä»¶çžå
+³çæ¶éŽã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæ¥æåºäžèµæºçåå»ºæåºçæ¥æçžå
+³ãå»ºè®®éçšçæ¥ææ ŒåŒåºç¬ŠåISO 8601 [W3CDTF]è§    èïŒå¹¶äœ¿çšYYYY-MM-DDçæ ŒåŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Datum</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Datum spojenÃ© s urÄitou udÃ¡lostÃ­ bÄhem existence zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Datum bude typicky spojeno s vytvoÅenÃ­m nebo zpÅÃ­stupnÄnÃ­m zdroje. DoporuÄenÃœ postup pro kÃ³dovÃ¡nÃ­ hodnoty data je definovÃ¡n v ISO 8601 [W3CDTF]: formÃ¡t RRRR-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Datum</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De datum van de totstandkoming of beschikbaarstelling van een Internetbron. Deze datum moet niet verward worden met de datum in &quot;Coverage&quot;. De datum in &quot;Coverage&quot; geeft de tijdsperiode van de inhoud van de Internetbron aan. Voorgeschreven wordt de ISO 8601 standaard voor datum, zoals beschreven in W3C Technical Note http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime. Hierin wordt het formaat YYYY-MM-DD beschreven. Het formaat YYYY-MM-DD wordt de voorgeschreven standaard. 3 September 1998 wordt in dit geval 1998-09-03.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Data</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un data associate a un evento in le cyclo vital del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le data es associate al creation o disponibilization del ressource. Le practica recommendate pro codificar le valor del datas es definite in un profilo de ISO 8601 [W3CDTF] e seque le formato AAAA-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€,  à€Šà€¿à€šà€Ÿà€à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€€à€¯à€Ÿà€° à€à¥à€²à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€  à€²à€¿à€¹à¥à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€žà¥à€µà€°à¥à€ª à€ à€µà€°à¥à€·. à€®à€¹à€¿à€šà€Ÿ. à€Šà€¿à€µà€ž à¥§à¥¯à¥«à¥Š. à¥Šà¥ª. à¥Šà¥ª</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Type" remember_values="true">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Resource Type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The nature or genre of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Type includes terms describing general categories, functions, genres, or aggregation levels for content. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the working draft list of Dublin Core Types). To describe the physical or digital manifestation of the resource, use the FORMAT element.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Tumomo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te ahua, te tu-ahuatanga ranei o nga kaupapa o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Kei roto i te Tumomo nga kupu whakaatu i nga wehewehenga whanui, nga aheinga, nga tu-ahuatanga, te whakaritenga ranei o nga taumata o te/ nga kaupapa. Ko te huarahi tino pai kua tohua, ko te tipako i tetahi uara mai i nga kupu kua whakaritea (hei tauira, ko te tauira rarangi e whakamahia ana o nga Dublin Core Types [DCT1]. Hei whakaatu i te whakatinanatanga o te rauemi, whakamahia ko te huanga WHAKATAKOTORANGA (FORMAT).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La nature ou le genre du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Type inclut des termes dÃ©crivant des catÃ©gories, fonctions ou genres gÃ©nÃ©raux pour le contenu, ou des niveaux d&apos;agrÃ©gation. Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la valeur du type dans une liste de vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ© (par exemple, la liste provisoire de Types du Dublin Core[DCT1]). Pour dÃ©crire la matÃ©rialisation physique ou digitale de la ressource, il faut utiliser l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Format.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÑÐžÑÐŸÐŽÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¶Ð°ÐœÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐµÑÐŒÐžÐœÑ, ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÑÐ²Ð°ÑÑÐžÐµ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐžÐµ ÐºÐ°ÑÐµÐ³ÐŸÑÐžÐž, ÑÑÐœÐºÑÐžÐž, Ð¶Ð°ÐœÑÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐŽÐžÐœÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ ÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐœÐž ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐµÐºÑÐ° ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ° Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ÐŸÐ² Dublin Core DCT1). ÐÐ»Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐžÐ·ÐžÑÐµÑ-ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Tipo del Recurso</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La categorÃ­a del recurso, por ejemplo pÃ¡gina personal, romance, poema, minuta, diccionario. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, Type deberÃ­a ser seleccionado de entre una lista de valores que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo. En http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Metadata/types.html se puede consultar el estado actual de la discusiÃ³n en torno a este tema.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">ÙÙØ¹ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ ÙØŠØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§ Ø§ÙØµÙØ­Ø© Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+, Ø±ÙØ§ÙØ© , ÙØ·Ø¹Ø© ØŽØ¹Ø±ÙØ© , ÙØ±ÙØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù , ØªÙØ±ÙØ± ÙÙÙ , Ù
+ÙØ§Ù , ÙØ§Ù
+ÙØ³ . Ù Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù    ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØ®ØªØ§Ø± Ø§ÙÙÙØ¹ Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© ÙØ§ÙØªÙ ÙÙÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§ Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">èµæºç±»å</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çç¹åŸæç±»åã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èµæºç±»åå
+æ¬æè¿°èµæºå
+å®¹çäžè¬èçŽïŒåèœïŒç§å±ïŒæèç±»å±æ¬¡çæ¯è¯­ãå»ºè®®éçšæ¥èªäºåæ§è¯è¡š    äž­çåŒïŒäŸåŠDCMIç±»åè¯æ±è¡š[DCMITYPE]ïŒãèŠæè¿°èµæºçç©çææ°å­åè¡šç°åœ¢åŒïŒè¯·äœ¿çšâæ ŒåŒïŒFORMATïŒâå
+çŽ ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Typ zdroje</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Povaha nebo druh obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typ obsahuje termÃ­ny popisujÃ­cÃ­ obecnÃ© kategorie, funkce, druhy nebo agregaÄnÃ­ ÃºrovnÄ obsahu. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. pracovnÃ­ nÃ¡vrh seznamu TypÅ¯ Dublin Core [DCT1]). K popisu fyzickÃ© nebo digitÃ¡lnÃ­ reprezentace zdroje uÅŸijte prvek FormÃ¡t.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Bestands type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het soort Internetbron, bijvoorbeeld home page, gedicht, working paper, technical report, essay, woordenboek etc. De DC working groups zijn momenteel bezig met twee voorstellen; een minimalist draft: http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Metadata/minimalist.html en een structuralist draft: http://sunsite.berkely.edu/Metadata/structuralist.html. Het wordt sterk aanbevolen om &quot;Type&quot; van deze lijsten te selecteren.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Typo del ressource</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le natura o genere del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le typo del ressource include terminos que describe categorias general, functiones, generes, o nivellos de aggregation pro le contento. Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le lista de schizzos de travalio de typos de Dublin Core [DCT1]). Pro describer le manifestation physic o digital del ressource, utiliza le elemento Formato.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€µà€°à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£, à€µà€°à¥à€à€µà€Ÿà€°à¥à€®à€§à¥à€¯à¥ à€à€à€Ÿà€Šà¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€šà¥à€à€Šà¥à€à€Ÿ à€®à¥à€à¥à€¯ à€à€à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Format" remember_values="true">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The physical or digital manifestation of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, Format may include the media-type or dimensions of the resource. Format may be used to determine the software, hardware or other equipment needed to display or operate the resource. Examples of dimensions include size and duration. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the list of Internet Media Types [MIME] defining computer media formats).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Whakatakotoranga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te whakatinanatanga, te whakaputanga a-mati o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka taea te Whakatakotoranga te whakamahi hei whakarite i te rawa-ngohe (software), te rawa-maro (hardware), ma etahi taputapu ranei me matua whiwhi, hei whakahaere i te rauemi. Ko te rahi me te roanga etahi tauira hanga. Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua ko te tipako uara mai i tetahi whakaritenga kupu (hei tauira, te rarangi o nga Tumomo Papaho Ipurangi (Internet Media Types [MIME]) e whakaatu ana i nga whakatakotoranga papaho rorohiko.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La matÃ©rialisation physique ou digitale de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, Format peut inclure le media ou les dimensions de la ressource. Format peut Ãªtre utilisÃ© pour prÃ©ciser le logiciel, le matÃ©riel ou autre Ã©quipement nÃ©cessaire pour afficher ou faire fonctionner la ressource. Exemples de dimensions incluent la taille et la durÃ©e. Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la valeur du format dans une liste de vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ©(par exemple, la liste des types de media dÃ©finis sur Internet [MIME]).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð€ÐžÐ·ÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐµ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ ÑÐžÐ¿ Ð°ÑÐŽÐžÐŸÐ²ÐžÐ·ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÐž (ÐŒÐµÐŽÐžÐ°-ÑÐžÐ¿) ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐžÐœÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ Ð°Ð¿Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, Ð¿ÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŒÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÐµÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÐŸÑÑÐŽÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ, ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐŸÑÐ¿ÑÐŸÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÑ Ñ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐŸÐŒ. ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð²ÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐžÐœÑ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŒÐµÑ Ðž Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶ÐžÑÐµÐ»ÑÐœÐŸÑÑÑ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ° ÐÐµÐŽÐžÐ°-ÑÐžÐ¿ÐŸÐ² ÐÐœÑÐµÑÐœÐµÑ MIME, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐ¿ÑÑÑÐµÑÐœÑÐµ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÑ Ð°ÑÐŽÐžÐŸÐ²ÐžÐ·ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÐž).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Formato</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">El formato de datos de un recurso, usado para identificar el software y posiblemente, el hardware que se necesitarÃ­a para mostrar el recurso. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, los valores de Format deberÃ­an ser seleccionados de entre una lista de valores que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ù ØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù ØªØ³ØªØ®Ø¯Ù
+ ÙÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ ØšØ§ÙØšØ±Ù
+Ø¬ÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØšÙ
+Ø§ Ø§ÙØµÙØš ÙÙØ­Ø§Ø³ÙØš Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø£Ù ÙØ­ØªØ§Ø¬    ÙÙØ§ ÙØ¹Ø±Ø¶ Ø£Ù ØªØŽØºÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù, ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ØªØ®ØªØ§Ø± Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙØªÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§    Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">æ ŒåŒ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºçç©çææ°å­è¡šç°åœ¢åŒã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæ ŒåŒå¯èœå
+æ¬èµæºçåªäœç±»åæèµæºçå€§å°ïŒæ ŒåŒå
+çŽ å¯ä»¥çšæ¥å³å®å±ç€ºææäœèµæºæé    çèœ¯ç¡¬ä»¶æå
+¶ä»çžåºè®Ÿå€ïŒäŸåŠå€§å°å
+æ¬èµæºæå çå­åšç©ºéŽåæç»­æ¶éŽãå»ºè®®éçšæ¥èªäºåæ§è¯è¡š    äž­çåŒïŒïŒäŸåŠInternetåªäœç±»å[MIME]å®ä¹è®¡ç®æºåªäœæ ŒåŒïŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">FormÃ¡t</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">FyzickÃ¡ nebo digitÃ¡lnÃ­ reprezentace zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicky mÅ¯ÅŸe FormÃ¡t obsahovat typ mÃ©dia nebo rozmÄry zdroje. FormÃ¡t lze pouÅŸÃ­vat k urÄenÃ­ softwaru, hardwaru nebo dalÅ¡Ã­ho zaÅÃ­zenÃ­ potÅebnÃ©ho k zobrazenÃ­ nebo k manipulaci se zdrojem. PÅÃ­klady rozmÄrÅ¯ zahrnujÃ­ velikost a dobu trvÃ¡nÃ­. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. seznam typÅ¯ internetovÃœch mÃ©diÃ­ [MIME] definujÃ­cÃ­ formÃ¡ty poÄÃ­taÄovÃœch mÃ©diÃ­).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het data formaat van het Internetbestand. Dit gegeven kan gebruikt worden om systeemvereisten (hard- en software) te identificeren die nodig zijn voor raadpleging of bediening van de Internetbron. &quot;Format&quot; is nog in ontwikkeling bij de DC workshop. Uit compatibiliteitsoverwegingen wordt aanbevolen formaatgegevens te selecteren uit een gecontroleerde lijst. Formaten kunnen van de Internet Media Types (MIME types) lijst gekozen worden: http://www.isi.edu/in-notes/iana/assignments/media-types/media-types</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Formato</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le manifestation physic o digital del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le formato pote includer le typo de medio o dimensiones del ressource. Le formato pote esser utilizate pro determinar le software o le equipamento necessari pro exhibir o operar le ressource. Exemplos de dimensiones include grandessa e duration. Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le lista de typos de medios de Internet [MIME] que defini formatos de medios).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ, à€šà€®à¥à€šà€Ÿà€¬à¥à€Š à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€žà¥à€µà€°à¥à€ª, à€°à€à€šà€Ÿà€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€°à¥à€ª à€à€žà¥ à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€à€°à¥à€ª, à€žà€à€à€£à€à¥à€¯ à€°à¥à€ª, à€µà€¿à€Šà¥à€¯à¥à€€ à€ªà€°à€®à€Ÿà€£à¥à€à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€žà€¹à€Ÿà€¯à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€šà¥ à€žà€à€à€£à€à¥à€à¥à€€ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Identifier" remember_values="true">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Resource Identifier</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Recommended best practice is to identify the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system. Example formal identification systems include the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (including the Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), the Digital Object Identifier (DOI) and the International Standard Book Number (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Taututanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro e hangai ana ki te rauemi i roto i tetahi horopaki.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tautu i te rauemi ma tetahi aho (string), tau ranei, e hangai ana ki tetahi punaha taututanga okawa. Ko etahi punaha taututanga okawa ko te Taututanga Rauemi Orite (Uniform Resource Identifier - URI), te Taututanga Rauemi Tohu-wahi (Uniform Resource Locator - URL), Te Mea A-mati (Digital Object Identifier - DOI) me te Tau Pukapuka Aro Whanui o te Ao (International Standard Book Number - ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Identifiant</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence non ambiguÃ« Ã  la ressource dans un contexte donnÃ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© d&apos;identifier la ressource par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšre ou un nombre conforme Ã  un sytÃšme formel d&apos;identification. Exemples de systemes formels d&apos;identification incluent le &quot;Uniform Resource Identifier&quot; (URI) (qui inclut le &quot;Uniform Resource Locator&quot; (URL)), le &quot;Digital Object Identifier&quot;(DOI) et le &quot;International Standard Book Number&quot;(ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐŽÐœÐŸÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÐœÐ°Ñ ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐ° ÐœÐ° ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð² Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°Ñ
+ ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐµÐºÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ. ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÑÑ
+ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð£ÐœÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ Ð ÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° (URI), (Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ñ Ð£ÐœÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÑÐ¹ ÐÐŸÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ Ð ÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° URL), ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÐŠÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ° (DOI) Ðž ÐÐµÐ¶ÐŽÑÐœÐ°ÑÐŸÐŽÐœÑÐ¹ Ð¡ÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐœÐžÐ¶ÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐŸÐŒÐµÑ (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Identificador del Recurso</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Secuencia de caracteres usados para identificar unÃ­vocamente un recurso. Ejemplos para recursos en lÃ­nea pueden ser URLs y URNs (cuando estÃ©n implementados). Para otros recursos pueden ser usados otros formatos de identificadores, como por ejemplo ISBN (&quot;International Standard Book Number&quot; - NÃºmero Internacional Normalizado para Libros)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ù
+Ø¬Ù
+ÙØ¹Ø© Ø­Ø±ÙÙØ© Ø£Ù Ø±ÙÙ
+ ÙØ³ØªØ®Ø¯Ù
+ ÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§Ø­Ø¯ÙØ§ : Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ÙØ°Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙØŽØšÙÙØ©ØªØ¶Ù
+ ) URNs, URLs Ø¹ÙØ¯ ØšÙØ§ØŠÙØ§ (    ÙØ°ÙÙ ÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø§Ø¹ØªØšØ§Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹Ø±ÙØ§Øª Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ§Ø­Ø§Ø¯ÙØ© Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø§ÙØ±ÙÙ
+ Ø§ÙØ¯ÙÙÙ ÙØªØµÙÙÙ Ø§ÙÙØ§ØªØš (ISBN) Ù
+Ø±ØŽØ­Ø© ÙÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">èµæºæ è¯ç¬Š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">åšç¹å®çèåŽå
+ç»äºèµæºçäžäžªæç¡®çæ è¯ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å»ºè®®å¯¹èµæºçæ è¯éçšç¬Šåæäžæ­£åŒæ è¯äœç³»çå­ç¬Šäž²åæ°å­ç»åãäŸåŠæ­£åŒçæ è¯äœç³»å
+æ¬ç»äžèµ    æºæ è¯ç¬Š(URI) (å
+æ¬åäžèµæºå®äœç¬ŠURL)ãæ°å­å¯¹è±¡æ è¯ç¬Š(DOI)ååœé
+æ åä¹Šå·(ISBN)ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">IdentifikÃ¡tor zdroje</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">JednoznaÄnÃœ odkaz na zdroj v rÃ¡mci danÃ©ho kontextu.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄuje se identifikovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯. PÅÃ­klady formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯ zahrnujÃ­ Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (vÄetnÄ Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), Digital Object Identifier (DOI) a MezinÃ¡rodnÃ­ standardnÃ­ ÄÃ­slo knihy (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Bestandsidentificatie</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een unieke string of nummer ter identificatie van de Internetbron. Voorbeelden zijn URL&apos;s of URN&apos;s Andere voorbeelden zijn International Standard Book Number (ISBN) of International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Identificator del ressource</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia inambigue al ressource intra un date contexto.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Se recommenda identificar le ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o numero conforme a un systema formal de identification. Exemplos de systemas formal de identification include le Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (includente le Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), le Digital Object Identifier (DOI) e le International Standard Book Number (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">à€à€³à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€à€ à€
+à€°à¥à€¥à¥ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ, à€µà€¿à€¶à€¿à€·à¥à€  à€žà¥à€¥à€³,  à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€à€à€€à€°à€°à€Ÿà€·à¥à€à¥à€°à¥à€¯  à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à¥à€°à€®à€Ÿà€à€,  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€à€³à€ à€ªà€à€µà€¿à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€à€à€à€°à€šà¥à€ à€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Source" remember_values="true">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Source</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A Reference to a resource from which the present resource is derived.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">The present resource may be derived from the Source resource in whole or in part.  Recommended best practice is to reference the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Matapuna</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro ki tetahi rauemi koira te matapuna o te rauemi e tirohia ana.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Tera pea i puta te katoa, tetahi wahanga ranei o te rauemi, e tirohia ana, mai i te Matapuna rauemi. Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua ko te tohutoro ki te rauemi ma te aho, ma te tau ranei e hangai ana ki tetahi punaha taututanga okawa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Source</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une ressource Ã  partir de laquelle la ressource actuelle a Ã©tÃ© dÃ©rivÃ©e.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">La ressource actuelle peut avoir Ã©tÃ© dÃ©rivÃ©e d&apos;une autre ressource source, en totalitÃ© ou en partie. Il est recommandÃ© de refÃ©rencer cette source par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšre ou un nombre conforme Ã  un systÃšme formel d&apos;identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐœÐžÐº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¡ÑÑÐ»ÐºÐ° ÐœÐ° ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ, ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœ ÐœÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœ ÐžÐ· ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐœÐžÐºÐ° ÑÐµÐ»ÐžÐºÐŸÐŒ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÑÐœÐŸ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Fuente</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Secuencia de caracteres utilizado para identificar unÃ­vocamente un trabajo a partir del cual proviene el recurso actual. Por ejemplo, es posible usar Source con la fecha de 1603 como descripciÃ³n de una pelÃ­cula basada en una obra de Shakespeare, pero es preferible, en ese caso, usar Relation &quot;IsBasedOn&quot; con una referencia a un recurso distinto cuya descripciÃ³n contenga el elemento Date con valor 1603.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø«Ø§ÙÙ Ù Ø§ÙØ°Ù Ø§Ø³ØªÙ
+Ø¯ Ù
+ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ. Ù
+Ø¹ Ø£ÙÙ Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØµÙ ØšÙ Ø£Ù ØªÙØ¯Ù
+ Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§Ù
+Ù    Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø¹Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙØ· , ÙÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø£Ù ÙØ­ÙÙ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®, Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØŽØŠ , Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© , Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹Ø±Ù , Ø§Ù Ø§ÙØ© Ù
+ÙØ© - Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§Ø®Ø±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ÙÙ Ø¹ÙØ¯Ù
+Ø§ ØªØ¹ØªØšØ± Ù
+ÙÙ
+Ø© ÙØ§ÙØªØŽØ§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ , Ù ÙØ°Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙØµÙ Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙØªØ·ØšÙÙÙÙ Ø§Ø­Ø³Ù     Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹Ø§Ø±Ù Ø¹ÙÙÙ ØšØ§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">æ¥æº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ç°æèµæºæ¥æºçåç
+§ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åœåèµæºå¯èœéšåæå
+šéšæºèªè¯¥å
+çŽ ææ è¯çèµæºïŒå»ºè®®å¯¹è¿äžèµæºçæ è¯éçšäžäžªç¬Šåæ­£åŒæ è¯ç³»    ç»çå­äž²åæ°å­ç»å ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Zdroj</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Odkaz na zdroj, z nÄhoÅŸ je popisovanÃœ zdroj odvozen.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PopisovanÃœ zdroj mÅ¯ÅŸe bÃœt zcela nebo zÄÃ¡sti odvozen ze zdroje uvedenÃ©ho v prvku Zdroj. DoporuÄuje se odkazovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Bron</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Informatie over een tweede bron waar de huidige Internetbron is van afgeleid. Bij &quot;Source&quot; mag een datum, auteur of maker, formaat, identificatie of andere metadata voor de tweede bron worden ingevuld. Voorbeeld: het is mogelijk om een &quot;Source&quot; datum 1603 in een omschrijving van een 1996 film bewerking van een Shakespeare stuk te gebruiken. &quot;Source&quot; is niet bruikbaar wanneer de huidige bron de orginele is.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Fonte</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia a un ressource del qual se deriva le ressource presente.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le ressource presente pote derivar se del ressource-fonte in toto o in parte. Le practica recommendate es facer referentia al ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o un numero conforme a un systema formal de identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">à€à€à€®</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿ à€à€à€® à€žà€Ÿà€à€à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€à€à€
+à€°à¥à€¥à¥ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€, à€®à€Ÿà€žà€¿à€,  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿà€¯à€Ÿà€à€à€Ÿ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Language" remember_values="true">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Language</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A language of the intellectual content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Recommended best practice for the values of the Language element is defined by RFC 1766 which includes a two-letter Language Code (taken from the ISO 639 standard, followed optionally, by a two-letter Country Code (taken from the ISO 3166 standard). For example, &apos;en&apos; for English, &apos;fr&apos; for French, or &apos;en-uk&apos; for English used in the United Kingdom.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Reo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te reo o te whakakaupapatanga o nga matauranga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua mo nga uara o te huanga Reo kua whakaritea ki te RFC 1766 [RFC1766] kei roto te Tohu Reo kupu-rua (two-letter Language Code) (no te aro whanui ISO 639 [ISO639], ka taea e tetahi tohu kupu-rua te whai atu (no te aro whanui ISO 3166) [ISO366]). Hei tauira, te &apos;en&apos; mo te English, te &apos;fr&apos; mo te French, &apos;te en-uk&apos; mo te English e whakamahia ana i Ingarangi (UK).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Langue</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La langue du contenu intellectuel de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© d&apos;utiliser comme valeur de l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Langue celles definies par la RFC 1766 [RFC1766] qui comprend un code de langage Ã  deux caractÃšres(venant du standard ISO 639 [ISO639]), Ã©ventuellement suivi d&apos;un code Ã  deux lettres pour le pays (venant du standard ISO 3166 [ISO3166] ou en franÃ§ais [ISO3166]). Par exemple, &apos;en&apos; pour l&apos;anglais, &apos;fr&apos; pour le franÃ§ais, ou &apos;en-uk&apos; pour l&apos;anglais utilisÃ© au Royaume-Uni.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº ÐžÐœÑÐµÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐµ RFC 1766 (Ð¢ÑÐ³Ðž ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ°), Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÐŒ ÐŽÐ²ÑÑ
+Ð±ÑÐºÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐŽ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ° (Ð²Ð·ÑÑÑÐ¹ ÐžÐ· ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐ° ISO 639 (ÐÐŸÐŽÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐŸÐ²)), Ð·Ð° ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÑÐµÑ (Ð¿ÑÐž ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÑÑÐž) ÐŽÐ²ÑÑ
+Ð±ÑÐºÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐŽ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÑ (Ð²Ð·ÑÑÑÐŒÐž ÐžÐ· ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐ° ISO 3166 (ÐÐŸÐŽÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°Ðœ)). ÐÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, &quot;en&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð°ÐœÐ³Ð»ÐžÐ¹ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, &quot;fr&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÑÐ°ÐœÑÑÐ·ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, &quot;en-uk&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð°ÐœÐ³Ð»ÐžÐ¹ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð² ÐÐµÐ»ÐžÐºÐŸÐ±ÑÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐž.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Lengua</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Lengua/s del contenido intelectual del recurso. Practicamente el contenido de este campo deberÃ­a coincidir con los de la RFC 1766 (Tags para la identificaciÃ³n de lenguas, http://ds.internic.net/rfc/rfc1766.txt); por ejemplo: en, es, de, fi, ja y zh.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ø§ÙÙØºØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ù ÙÙ ÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . ÙÙÙ
+Ø§ ÙØ§Ù  Ø¹Ù
+ÙÙØ§ , Ù
+Ø­ØªÙÙ ÙØžØ§ Ø§ÙØ­ÙÙ ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØªØ·Ø§ØšÙ Ù
+Ø¹ RFC 1766    ] Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ØªØ¶Ù
+ th, ja, fr, es, fi, de, en Ù zh ÙØ±Ù
+ÙØ² ÙÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ ØšØ§ÙÙØºØ© [</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">è¯­ç§</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æè¿°èµæºç¥è¯å
+å®¹çè¯­ç§ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å»ºè®®æ¬å
+çŽ çåŒéçšRFC 3066[RFC3066]ïŒè¯¥æ åäžISO 639 [ISO639]äžèµ·å®ä¹äºç±äž€äžªåäžäžªè±    æå­æ¯ç»æçäž»è¯­èšæ ç­Ÿåå­æ ç­ŸäŸåŠå
+æ¬âenâæâengâæ¥è¡šç€ºEnglish, &quot;akk&quot; æ¥è¡šç€º    &quot;en-GB&quot;è¡šç€ºè±åœè±è¯­ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Jazyk</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Jazyk intelektuÃ¡lnÃ­ho obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄenÃœ postup pro hodnoty prvku Jazyk je definovÃ¡n v RFC 1766 [RFC1766]: dvouznakovÃœ kÃ³d jazyka (pÅevzatÃœ z normy ISO 639 [ISO639]) volitelnÄ nÃ¡sledovanÃœ dvouznakovÃœm kÃ³dem zemÄ (pÅevzatÃœm z normy ISO 3166 [ISO3166]). NapÅÃ­klad &apos;en&apos; pro angliÄtinu, &apos;fr&apos; pro francouzÅ¡tinu, &apos;cs&apos; pro ÄeÅ¡tinu, nebo &apos;en-uk&apos; pro angliÄtinu uÅŸÃ­vanou ve SpojenÃ©m krÃ¡lovstvÃ­.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Taal</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De taal waarin het document is beschreven. Voorgeschreven wordt de ISO639-1 norm, een twee karakter taalcode van de ISO 639(639-1 en 639-2) norm. Taalcodes kunnen van een lijst worden gekozen: http://www.ics.uci.edu/pub/ietf/http/related/iso639.txt, Eventueel kan ISO3166 (landencodes) gebruikt worden om aan te geven in welk gebied de taal wordt gesproken. Deze kunnen ook van een lijst worden gekozen:  http://www.ics.uci.edu/pub/ietf/http/related/iso3166.txt.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Lingua</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le lingua del contento intellectual del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le practica recommendate pro le valores del elemento lingua es definite per RFC 1766 [RFC1766], que include un codice de lingua de duo litteras (prendite del standard ISO 639 [ISO639]), sequite optionalmente per un codice de pais de duo litteras (prendite del standard ISO 3166 [ISO3166]). Per exemplo, &apos;ia&apos; pro interlingua, &apos;fr&apos; pro francese, o &apos;en-uk&apos; pro le anglese del Regno Unite.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€®à€°à€Ÿà€ à¥ - à€­à€Ÿà€°à€€à¥à€¯ à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Relation" remember_values="true">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A reference to a related resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Recommended best practice is to reference the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Whai Panga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro ki tetahi rauemi whai panga.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tohutoro ki te rauemi ma te aho, te tau ranei, e hangai ana ki te punaha taututanga okawa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une autre ressource qui a un rapport avec cette ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© de rÃ©fÃ©rencer cette ressource par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšres ou un numÃ©ro conforme Ã  un systÃšme formel d&apos;identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">ÐÑÐœÐŸÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ï¿œÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">RelaciÃ³n</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un identificador de un segundo recurso y su relaciÃ³n con el recurso actual. Este elemento permite enlazar los recursos relacionados y las descripciones de los recursos. Por ejemplo: IsVersionOf - Incluye la ediciÃ³n de un trabajo, IsBasedOn - La traducciÃ³n de un trabajo, IsPartOf - Un capÃ­tulo de un libro, IsFormatOf - Un mecanismo de transformaciÃ³n de un conjunto de datos en una imagen. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, las relaciones deberÃ­an ser seleccionadas de una lista de elementos que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ø§ Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ÙÙ Ù Ø¹ÙØ§ÙØªÙ ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ . ÙØ³Ù
+Ø­ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù ØšØªÙØ¶ÙØ­ Ø§ÙØ±ÙØ§ØšØ· ØšÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹ÙÙØ©     ØšØšØ¹Ø¶ÙØ§ Ù ØªÙØµÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ØªØ¶Ù
+ Ø·ØšØ¹Ø© Ø§ÙØ¹Ù
+Ù ) ÙØ³Ø®Ø© Ù
+Ù ( ØªØ±Ø¬Ù
+Ø© Ø¹Ù
+Ù ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ ( ÙØµÙ Ù
+Ù ÙØªØ§Øš ) Ø¬Ø²Ø¡ Ù
+Ù (    Ù ØªØ­ÙÙÙÙ Ù
+ÙÙØ§ÙÙÙÙØ© ÙÙ
+Ø¬Ù
+ÙØ¹Ø© Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§ØªÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ ØµÙØ±Ø© ) ØµÙØºØ© Ù
+Ù ( Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù , ÙØ¬Øš Ø§Ø®ØªÙØ§Ø± Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ§Øª Ù
+Ù    Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙØªÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§ Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">å
+³è</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æ¶åççžå
+³èµæºã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èåœçžå
+³èµæºæ¶ïŒå»ºè®®äœ¿çšç¬Šåæ­£åŒæ è¯ç³»ç»çå­ç¬Šäž²æè
+æ°å­ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Vztah</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Odkaz na pÅÃ­buznÃœ zdroj.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄuje se odkazovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Relatie</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een identificatie van een tweede bron en de relatie met de huide Internetbron. Voorbeelden zijn een editie van een werk (IsVersionOf), een vertaling van een werk (IsBasedOn), een hoofdstuk van een boek (IsPartOf) en een mechanische transformatie van een dataset in een plaatje (IsFormatOf). De DC Working Groups zijn bezig met een lijst met de meest verwachte relaties. Aanbevolen wordt om de relaties van deze lijst te gebruiken: http://purl.oclc.org/metadata/dublin_core/wrelationdraft.html.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="definition">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia a un ressource correlate.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le practica recommendate es facer referentia al ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o numero conforme a un systema de identification formal.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">à€šà€Ÿà€€à¥ , à€žà€à€¬à€à€§</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¶à¥ à€žà€à€¬à€à€§ à€Šà€Ÿà€à€µà€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ(URL)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Coverage" remember_values="true">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Coverage</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The extent or scope of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Coverage will typically include spatial location (a place name or geographic coordinates), temporal period (a period label, date, or date range) or jurisdiction (such as a named administrative entity). Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the Thesaurus of Geographic Names [TGN]) and that, where appropriate, named places or time periods be used in preference to numeric identifiers such as sets of coordinates or date ranges.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Kapitanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te roanga, te whanuitanga ranei o te whakakaupapatanga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka uru atu te wahi mokowa (te ingoa o tetahi wahi, whakapiritanga matawhenua ranei), whakaritenga wa (he tapatanga wa (period label, ra, whakatakotoranga whanui o nga ra), te whakaritenga ture (penei i te putahi whakahaere). Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tipako uara mai i tetahi whakaritenga kupu (hei tauira, i tetahi Puna Kupu Ingoa Matawhenua (Geographic Names [TGN] i nga wahi tika, ko nga wahi me nga whakaritenga wa ka whakamahia i mua i te whakamahitanga o nga taututanga tau penei i nga huinga whakapiritanga me nga whakatakotoranga whanui o nga ra.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Couverture</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La portÃ©e ou la couverture spatio-temporelle de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">La couverture typiquement inclut une position gÃ©ographique (le nom d&apos;un lieu ou ses coordonnÃ©es), une pÃ©riode de temps (un nom de pÃ©riode, une date, ou un intervalle de temps) ou une juridiction (telle que le nom d&apos;une entitÃ© administrative). Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la  valeur de Couverture dans un vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ© (par exemple, un thÃ©saurus de noms gÃ©ographiques, comme[TGN]) et, quand cela est appropriÃ©, des noms de lieux ou de pÃ©riodes plutÃŽt que des identifiants numÃ©riques tels que des coordonnÃ©es ou des intervalles de dates. </Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">ÐÑ
+Ð²Ð°Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÑÐŸÑÑÐ¶ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÑ Ðž Ð³ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑ
+Ð²Ð°Ñ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐºÐœÐŸÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐ¶ÐŽÐµÐœÐžÐµ (ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸÑÑÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð³ÐµÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÐµ ÐºÐŸÐŸÑÐŽÐžÐœÐ°ÑÑ), Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŒÐµÐ¶ÑÑÐŸÐº (ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÐµÑÐžÐŸÐŽÐ°, ÐŽÐ°ÑÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐŽ ÐŽÐ°Ñ) ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐžÑÐŽÐžÐºÑÐžÑ (ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐµÐŽÐžÐœÐžÑÑ Ð°ÐŽÐŒÐžÐœÐžÑÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐ²ÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ). ÐÐ° Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÐºÐµ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, Ð¢ÐµÐ·Ð°ÑÑÑÑÐ° Ð³ÐµÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÑ
+ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ TGN), Ðž, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐŸ ÑÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸ, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸÑÐŽÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÑÐŒ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸÑÑÐµÐ¹ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŒÐµÐ¶ÑÑÐºÐŸÐ² Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸ ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ², ÐºÐ°Ðº, ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒ ÐºÐŸÐŸÑÐŽÐžÐœÐ°Ñ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÑÐŽÐŸÐ².</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Cobertura</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La caracterÃ­stica de cobertura espacial y/o temporal del contenido intelectual del recurso. La cobertura espacial se refiere a una regiÃ³n fÃ­sica (por ejemplo, sector celestial); uso de coordenadas (por ejemplo, longitud y latitud) o nombres de lugares extraidos de una lista controlada. La cobertura temporal se refiere al contenido del recurso en vez de a cuando fue creado o puesto accesible ya que este Ãºltimo pertenece al elemento Date. Se usa el mismo formato basado en http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØ®ØµØ§ØŠØµ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§ÙÙØ© Ø§Ù Ø§ÙØ²Ù
+ÙÙØ© ÙÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§ÙÙØ© ØªØŽÙØ± Ø§ÙÙ Ø¬ÙØ© Ø·ØšÙØ¹ÙØ© )Ù
+Ø«Ù , ÙØ·Ø§Ø¹ Ø³Ù
+Ø§ÙÙ (    Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ø§ÙØ§Ø­Ø¯Ø§Ø«ÙØ§Øª ) Ù
+Ø«Ù  Ø®Ø· Ø§ÙØ·ÙÙ Ù Ø®Ø· Ø§ÙØ¹Ø±Ø¶ ( ÙÙ Ø£Ø³Ù
+Ø§Ø¡ Ø§Ù
+ÙÙØ© Ù
+Ø³ØªØ­ÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªØ¬ÙØ§Øª ØšØ§ÙÙØ§Ù
+Ù . Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ²Ù
+ÙÙØ©    Ø«Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙÙ Ù
+Ø§ ÙØ±Ø¬Ø¹ Ø§ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ù ÙÙØ³ Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªÙ ØªÙ
+ ØªÙÙÙØ±Ù ) Ø§ÙØ§Ø®ÙØ± ÙØªØ¹ÙÙ ØšØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® ( Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ ÙÙØ³ ØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®  Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª    ) Ø¹Ø§Ø¯Ø© Ù
+Ø¯Ù ] ( ØµÙØ§ØºØ§Øª Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ (ISO 8601 Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§Ø­ØžØ© Ø§ÙÙÙÙØ© [http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime, W3C    ÙÙ
+Ø§ ÙÙ Ù
+ÙØµÙ ØšÙ ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§Ù ÙØªØ±Ø§Øª Ø²Ù
+ÙÙØ© Ù
+Ù ÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ù
+Ø³ØªØ­ÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªØ¬ÙØ§Øª ØšØ§ÙÙØ§Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">èŠçèåŽ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹ææ¶åçå€å»¶äžèŠçèåŽ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èŠçèåŽäžè¬å
+æ¬ç©ºéŽäœçœ®ïŒäžäžªå°åæå°çåæ ïŒãæ¶éŽåºéŽïŒäžäžªæ¶éŽæ è¯ïŒæ¥ææäžäžªæ¥æè    åŽïŒãæè
+æéïŒæ¯åŠåœåçææå®äœïŒæšèèŠçèåŽæå¥œæ¯åèªäºäžäžªåæ§è¯è¡šïŒäŸåŠå°åè¯åº    [TGN]ïŒïŒå¹¶åºå°œå¯èœå°äœ¿çšç±æ°å­è¡šç€ºçåæ ææ¥æåºéŽæ¥æè¿°å°åäžæ¶éŽæ®µã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">PokrytÃ­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Rozsah nebo zÃ¡bÄr obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PokrytÃ­ bude typicky obsahovat prostorovÃ© umÃ­stÄnÃ­ (jmÃ©no mÃ­sta nebo zemÄpisnÃ© souÅadnice), ÄasovÃ© obdobÃ­ (oznaÄenÃ­ obdobÃ­, datum nebo ÄasovÃœ interval) nebo jurisdikci (napÅ. jmÃ©no administrativnÃ­ jednotky). DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. Thesaurus of Geographic Names [TGN]) a tam, kde je to vhodnÃ©, uvÃ¡dÄt mÃ­sta nebo ÄasovÃ© Ãºseky spÃ­Å¡e jmÃ©nem neÅŸ ÄÃ­selnÃœmi identifikÃ¡tory jako jsou soubory souÅadnic nebo ÄasovÃ© intervaly.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Dekking</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De ruimtelijke of tijdelijke karakteristieken van de intellectuele inhoud van de Internetbron. Ruimtelijke dekking verwijst naar een geografisch gebied. Gebruik coordinaten (longitude (lengtegraad) en latitude (breedtegraad)) of plaatsnamen die van een gecontroleerde lijst komen of volledig uitgeschreven zijn. Dekking in de tijd geeft de tijdsperiode aan waarop de inhoud van de Internetbron betrekking heeft en niet wanneer de Internetbron is gemaakt of beschikbaar is gesteld (dit laatste hoort ingevult te worden bij &quot;Date&quot;). Gebruik dezelfde datum/tijd formaat als bij &quot;Date&quot;; W3C Technical Note http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime of tijdsperioden die van een gecontroleerde lijst komen of volledig uitgeschreven zijn. Coverage is in ontwikkeling bij de Dublin Core Working group http://www.alexandria.ucsb.edu/docs/metadata/dc_coverage.html.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Copertura</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le extension physic o abstracte del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le copertura typicamente include un location spatial (un nomine de localitate o coordinatas geographic), un periodo de tempore (un etiquetta de periodo, data, o gamma de datas), o un jurisdiction (tal como un entitate administrative nominate). Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le Thesaurus of Geographical Names [TGN]) e que, quando appropriate, localitates o periodos de tempore nominate sia utilizate in preferentia a identificatores numeric tales como collectiones de coordinatas o gammas de datas.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€­à¥à€à¥à€²à€¿à€  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€­à¥à€à¥à€²à€¿à€ à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Rights" remember_values="true">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Rights Management</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information about rights held in and over the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Rights element will contain a rights management statement for the resource, or reference a service providing such information. Rights information often encompasses Intellectual Property Rights (IPR), Copyright, and various Property Rights. If the Rights element is absent, no assumptions can be made about the status of these and other rights with respect to the resource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Motika</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ko nga mohiohio ki nga motika o tetahi rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, kei te huanga Motika e pupuri ana he korero mo te whakaritenga motika mo te rauemi, he ratonga tohutoro e whakarato ana ranei i enei tumomo mohiohio. He nui nga wa, puta ai i roto i te mohiohio Motika te Mana Whakairo Hinegaro (Intellectual Property Rights - (IPR)), te Manatarua me nga Tuahua Mana Taonga (Property Rights). Ki te kore te huanga Motika, kaore e taea te pohehe noa ki te mana o enei, nga motika ranei e pa ana ki te rauemi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Droits</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information sur les droits sur et au sujet de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, un Ã©lÃ©ment Droits contiendra un Ã©tat du droit Ã  gÃ©rer une ressource, ou la refÃ©rence Ã  un service fournissant cette information. Ces droits souvent couvrent les droits de propriÃ©tÃ© intellectuelle (IPR), Copyright, et divers droits de propriÃ©tÃ©. Si l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Droits est absent, aucune hypothÃšse ne peut Ãªtre faite sur l&apos;Ã©tat de ces droits, ou de tout autre, par rapport Ã  la ressource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">ÐÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐµ ÑÐµÐ³ÑÐ»ÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐ°ÑÑÑ Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐž Ðž Ð²ÐœÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð° ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐœÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ
+, ÑÐµÐ³ÑÐ»ÐžÑÑÑÑÐžÑ
+ ÑÑÐœÐºÑÐžÐŸÐœÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÑ ÐœÐ° ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐŸÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÑÑÑ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ. ÐÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²Ð°Ñ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐ²ÐµÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŸ ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+ ÐžÐœÑÐµÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÐž, ÐÐ²ÑÐŸÑÑÐºÐŸÐŒ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ðµ Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ ÐÐŒÑÑÐµÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+. ÐÑÑÑÑÑÑÐ²ÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð° ÐœÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ°ÐºÐžÑ
+-Ð»ÐžÐ±ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÑÐµ Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+, ÐºÐ°ÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÑ
+ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Derechos</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una referencia (URL, por ejemplo) para una nota sobre derechos de autor, para un servicio de gestiÃ³n de derechos o para un servicio que darÃ¡ informaciÃ³n sobre tÃ©rminos y condiciones de acceso a un recurso. Una especificaciÃ³n formal del elemento Rights se encuentra catualmente en discusiÃ³n y por lo tanto su uso se considera experimental.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø© Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© , Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ù
+Ø±ØªØšØ· ØšØ§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø© Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© , Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ù
+Ø±ØªØšØ· ØšØ®Ø¯Ù
+Ø© ØªÙØ¯Ù
+ Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø¹Ù Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">æé</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æå
+³èµæºæ¬èº«ææçæè¢«èµäºçæéä¿¡æ¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæéå
+çŽ åºå
+æ¬äžäžªå¯¹èµæºçæéå£°æïŒæè
+æ¯å¯¹æäŸè¿äžä¿¡æ¯çæå¡çåç
+§ãæéäžè¬    å
+æ¬ç¥è¯äº§æ(IPR)ïŒçææå
+¶ä»åç§åæ ·çäº§æãåŠææ²¡ææéå
+çŽ çæ æ³šïŒäžå¯ä»¥å¯¹äžèµæºçžå
+³    çäžè¿°æå
+¶ä»æå©çæ
+åµäœåºä»»äœåå®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">PrÃ¡va</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Informace o prÃ¡vech vztahujÃ­cÃ­ch se k popisovanÃ©mu zdroji.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Prvek PrÃ¡va bude typicky obsahovat ustanovenÃ­ o sprÃ¡vÄ autorskÃœch/vlastnickÃœch prÃ¡v ke zdroji nebo odkaz na sluÅŸbu poskytujÃ­cÃ­ takovÃ©to informace. Informace o prÃ¡vech Äasto zahrnujÃ­ prÃ¡va duÅ¡evnÃ­ho vlastnictvÃ­ (IPR), autorskÃ© prÃ¡vo a rÅ¯znÃ¡ vlastnickÃ¡ prÃ¡va. JestliÅŸe prvek PrÃ¡va chybÃ­, nelze odvozovat ÅŸÃ¡dnÃ© pÅedpoklady o stavu tÄchto a jinÃœch prÃ¡v vztahujÃ­cÃ­ch se k popisovanÃ©mu zdroji.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Copyright</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een copyright verklaring of een link naar een copyright verklaring of een link naar een service die informatie geeft over de copyright van de Internetbron.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="identifier"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">Gestion de derectos</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information super derectos detenite super e a proposito del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le elemento derectos continera un declaration de gestion de derectos pro le ressource, o un referentia a un servicio que provide tal information. Information de derectos frequentemente involve derectos de proprietate intellectual (IPR), copyright e varie derectos de proprietate. Si le elemento Derectos es absente, necun hypothese pote esser facite quanto al stato de iste e altere derectos concernente ressource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="identifier">à€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€¬à¥à€§à¥à€Šà€¿à€ à€žà€à€ªà€Šà¥à€à€Ÿà€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€žà¥à€µà€€à€à€¹à€Ÿà€à¥ à€²à¥à€à€š à€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€š à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€° à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€¿à€€ à€à€°à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€²à¥à€à€ à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€²à¥à€à€¿à€à¥à€à€Ÿ à€¬à¥à€§à¥à€Šà€¿à€ à€žà€à€ªà€Šà¥à€à€Ÿà€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/metadata/ex.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet [
+
+  <!-- The outer tag of any metadata set. Contains some number of elements.             -->
+  <!-- @param contact     A contact address for the creator.                            -->
+  <!-- @param creator     The name of the entity resposibly for this set.               -->
+  <!-- @param family      The name of this sets family.                                 -->
+  <!-- @param lastchanged The full date, user name and machine name of the last editor. --> 
+  <!--   uses the form:                                                                 -->
+  <!--   Day Mon(th) dd hh:mm:ss yyyy '-' <username> on <machine>                       -->
+  <!-- @param namespace   The namespace of this metadata set.                           -->
+  <!ELEMENT MetadataSet ((Name|Description|Element)+)>
+  <!ATTLIST MetadataSet
+				contact     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				creator     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				description CDATA #REQUIRED
+            family      CDATA #REQUIRED
+				lastchanged CDATA #REQUIRED
+            name        CDATA #REQUIRED
+				namespace   CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- The name of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Name (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Name
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- The description of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Description (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Description
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- An element in the metadata set. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Element (Attribute*,OptionList?)>
+  <!ATTLIST Element
+            name       CDATA #REQUIRED
+				occurances CDATA "0">
+
+  <!-- Each element has several attribute children. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Attribute (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Attribute
+            name CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- For listing predefined values for this element. -->
+  <!ELEMENT OptionList (Value+)>
+  <!ATTLIST OptionList
+            restricted (true|false) "false">
+]>
+<MetadataSet contact="nzdl.org" creator="New Zealand Digital Libraries Project: Greenstone" family="Extracted Greenstone" lastchanged="Tue May 20 10:30:32 2003 - jmt12 on narya" namespace="ex">
+    <Name language="en">Extracted Greenstone Metadata 1.0</Name>
+    <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.0 of the automatically extracted Greenstone Metadata Element Set.</Description>
+    <Element name="Encoding">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Not always available.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The encoding of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="identifier">Encoding</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Language">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Not always available.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The language of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="identifier">Language</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Source">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Hidden in the Librarian Interface as it already shown by the various file trees.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The filename of the document imported by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="identifier">Source</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Title">
+        <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Not always available.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="definition">The title of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="identifier">Title</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/metadata/profile.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE Profiles [
+<!ELEMENT Profiles (Action*)>
+<!ELEMENT Action (#PCDATA)>
+<!ATTLIST Action
+                source     CDATA #REQUIRED
+                target     CDATA "">
+]>
+<Profiles/>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/pagedimg-e.col
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/pagedimg-e.col	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/pagedimg-e/pagedimg-e.col	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GathererCollection [
+  <!ELEMENT GathererCollection (Argument*, GathererConfig, BuildConfig)>
+  <!ELEMENT GathererConfig    (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT BuildConfig       (Build, Import)>
+  <!ELEMENT Build             (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Import            (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Schedule          (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Argument          (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Argument
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				enabled           CDATA "true">
+]>
+<GathererCollection>
+    <Argument name="built">true</Argument>
+    <Argument name="imported">true</Argument>
+    <GathererConfig/>
+    <BuildConfig>
+        <Build>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="faillog"/>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="index"/>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="language"/>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="mode">all</Argument>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="verbosity">0</Argument>
+        </Build>
+        <Import>
+            <Argument enabled="true" name="removeold"/>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="maxdocs">1</Argument>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="groupsize">1</Argument>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="OIDtype">assigned</Argument>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="saveas">GA</Argument>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="sortmeta"/>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="removeprefix"/>
+            <Argument enabled="false" name="removesuffix"/>
+        </Import>
+        <Schedule/>
+    </BuildConfig>
+</GathererCollection>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/etc/collect.cfg
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,281 @@
+creator		greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+maintainer	greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+public		true
+
+buildtype	mgpp
+searchtypes	plain,form
+
+indexes		text dls.Title,Title dls.Subject dls.Organization dls.Keyword
+
+levels	section document
+
+plugin	GreenstoneXMLPlugin
+plugin	HTMLPlugin -description_tags
+plugin	MetadataXMLPlugin
+plugin	ArchivesInfPlugin
+plugin	DirectoryPlugin
+
+classify	List -metadata dls.Title
+
+classify	Hierarchy -metadata dls.Subject -sort dls.Title
+
+classify	List -metadata dls.Organization -sort_leaf_nodes_using dls.Title -bookshelf_type always
+
+classify	List -metadata dls.Keyword -buttonname Howto
+
+format CL4VList "<td>[link][icon][/link]</td><td>[link][dls.Keyword][/link]"
+
+format SearchVList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td><td>{If}{[parent(All\': \'):Title],[parent(All\': \'):Title]:}[link][Title][/link]</td>"
+
+format VList "<td valign=top>[link][icon][/link]</td><td valign=top>[highlight]{Or}{[Title],Untitled}[/highlight]{If}{[Date],<br><small><i>_textdate_[Date]</i></small>}{If}{[NumPages],<br><small><i>_textnumpages_[NumPages]</i></small>}{If}{[Source],<br><small><i>_textsource_[Source]</i></small>}</td>"
+
+format DocumentText "<h3>[Title]</h3>\\n\\n<p>[Text]"
+format DocumentImages true
+format DocumentButtons "Expand Text|Expand Contents|Highlight|Detach|Print"
+format DocumentSearchResultLinks true
+
+format HList "[link][highlight][Title][/highlight][/link]"
+
+format DocumentHeading "{Or}{[parent(Top):Title],[Title],untitled}<br>"
+
+format SearchTypes "plain,form"
+
+# -- English strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=en] "Cascading Style Sheets<br/> Demo collection"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=en] "text"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=en] "titles"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=en] "subjects"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=en] "organizations"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=en] "how to"
+
+collectionmeta	.document [l=en] "book"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=en] "chapter"
+
+collectionmeta	depositormetadata [l=en] "{\"name\":\"dls.Title\",\"label\":\"Title\",\"tooltip\":\"dls.Title: The title of this resource.\",\"type\":\"text\"}, {\"name\":\"dls.Organization\",\"label\":\"Organization\",\"tooltip\":\"dls.Organization: The organization responsible for producing this resource.\",\"type\":\"text\"}, {\"name\":\"dls.Subject\",\"label\":\"Subject\",\"tooltip\":\"dls.Subject: The subject of this resource.\",\"type\":\"text\"}, {\"name\":\"dls.Keyword\",\"label\":\"Keyword\",\"tooltip\":\"dls.Keyword: A more specific indication of what the resource can be used for.\",\"type\":\"text\"}, {\"name\":\"dls.Language\",\"label\":\"Language\",\"tooltip\":\"dls.Language: The language of this resource.\",\"type\":\"text\"}"
+
+# -- French strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=fr] "DÃ©mo de feuilles de styles en cascade (CSS)"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=fr] "texte"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=fr] "titres"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=fr] "sujets"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=fr] "organisations"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=fr] "comment faire"
+collectionmeta	.document [l=fr] "livre"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=fr] "chÃ¢pitre"
+
+# -- Spanish strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=es] "ColecciÃ³n de muestra CSS"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=es] "texto"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=es] "tÃ­tulos"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=es] "temas"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=es] "organizaciones"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=es] "cÃ³mo"
+collectionmeta	.document [l=es] "libro"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=es] "capÃ­tulo"
+
+# -- Russian strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	.text [l=ru] "ÑÐµÐºÑÑ"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=ru] "Ð·Ð°Ð³ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ²ÐºÐž"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=ru] "ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÑÐµÐ»Ðž"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=ru] "ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÐž"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=ru] "ÑÐ¿ÐŸÑÐŸÐ±Ñ"
+collectionmeta	.document [l=ru] "ÐºÐœÐžÐ³Ð°"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=ru] "Ð³Ð»Ð°Ð²Ð°"
+
+# -- Arabic strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	.text [l=ar] "ÙØµ"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=ar] "Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙÙÙ"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=ar] "Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹Ø§Øª"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=ar] "Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØžÙ
+Ø§Øª"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=ar] "Ø¥Ø±ØŽØ§Ø¯"
+collectionmeta	.document [l=ar] "ÙØªØ§Øš"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=ar] "ÙØµÙ"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=zh] "å±çº§æ ·åŒè¡š<br/>æŒç€ºéŠè"
+collectionmeta	.text [l=zh] "ææ¬"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=zh] "é¢å"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=zh] "äž»é¢"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=zh] "æºæ"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=zh] "åŠäœ"
+
+collectionmeta	.document [l=zh] "ä¹Š"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=zh] "ç« "
+
+# -- Brazilian Portuguese strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	.text [l=pt-br] "texto"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=pt-br] "tÃ­tulos"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=pt-br] "assuntos"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=pt-br] "organizaÃ§Ãµes"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=pt-br] "como fazer"
+
+collectionmeta	.document [l=pt-br] "livro"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=pt-br] "capÃ­tulo"
+
+# -- Thai strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	.text [l=th] "àžà¹àž­àžàž§àž²àž¡"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Title,Title [l=th] "àžàž·à¹àž­à¹àž£àž·à¹àž­àž"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Subject [l=th] "àž«àž±àž§à¹àž£àž·à¹àž­àž"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Organization [l=th] "àž«àžà¹àž§àž¢àžàž²àž"
+collectionmeta	.dls.Keyword [l=th] "àž§àžŽàžàžµà¹àžà¹"
+
+collectionmeta	.document [l=th] "àž«àžàž±àžàžªàž·àž­"
+collectionmeta	.section [l=th] "àžàž"
+
+
+# -- English text ---------------------------
+
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=en] "
+This collection demonstrates Greenstone\'s use of Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)
+for visual formatting in web browsers. (Greenstone uses CSS instead of HTML
+tables since version 2.63.) On every page, you can change the
+style-sheet in effect, to modify that page\'s appearance.
+</p>
+<p>This collection contains the same material as the original Greenstone demo collection.</p>
+<p>
+An <a href=\'_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\'>extra.dm</a> macro file is used by the collection to provide the stylesheet switching. This redefines a few macros from the <i>Style</i> package: <b>\_cssheader\_</b>, to link to multiple stylesheets; <b>\_optnavigationbar\_</b>, to display the links to click; and <b>\_pagescriptextra\_</b>, to facilitate the switching when a link is clicked.
+</p>
+<p>If you want to download any of these stylesheets for your own collections,
+here are links to them:
+<ul>
+<li><a href=\'_httpimages_/style.css\'>Default Greenstone Style</a></li>
+<li><a href=\'_httpcstyle_/style-blue.css\'>âOcean Blueâ theme</a></li>
+<li><a href=\'_httpcstyle_/style-red.css\'>âFire Redâ theme</a></li>
+<li><a href=\'_httpimages_/style-print.css\'>Printer</a></li>
+</ul>
+</p>
+<p>
+<b>Using a downloaded stylesheet</b>
+<ul>
+<li>To use a stylesheet as the default, place it in greenstone/web/style and rename it to style.css. This will affect all collections.</li>
+<li>To use a stylesheet for a particular collection, place it in the collection\'s style directory, add an extra.dm file to the collection\'s macros directory, and add a macro like the following (this uses style-red.css as the example):<br/>
+<small><tt>
+<br/>
+package Style<br/>
+<br/>
+\_cssheader\_ {<br/>
+&lt;link rel=\'stylesheet\' href=\'\_httpcstyle\_/style-red.css\'<br/>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;type=\'text/css\' title=\'Fire Red\' charset=\'UTF-8\'&gt;<br/>
+}<br/>
+</tt></small>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</p>
+"
+
+# -- French text ---------------------------
+
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=fr] "
+Cette collection montre l'usage que fait Greenstone des feuilles de style en cascace (CSS) 
+pour le formatage visuel dans les navigateurs Web. (Greenstone utilise les feuilles CSS Ã  la 
+place des tableaux HTML depuis la version 2.63.) Sur chaque page, vous pouvez changer la feuille 
+de style utilisÃ©e, pour changer l'apparence de la page. </p> 
+
+<p>Cette collection contient les mÃªmes matÃ©riaux que la collection de dÃ©monstration originale de Greenstone. </p> 
+
+<p>Un fichier de macro <a href=\'_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\'>extra.dm</a> est utilisÃ© par cette collection 
+pour permettre de changer de feuille de style. Cela redÃ©finit quelques macros du paquet <i>Style</i> : 
+<b>\_cssheader\_</b>, pour permettre le lien vers plusieurs feuilles de style; <b>\_optnavigationbar\_</b>, 
+pour afficher le lien Ã  cliquer; et <b>\_pagescriptextra\_</b>, pour faciliter le changement de feuille de style 
+quand on clique sur un lien.</p><p>Si vous voulez tÃ©lÃ©charger n'importe laquelle de ces feuilles de style pour 
+vos propres collections, voici les liens qui y renvoient : 
+<ul> <li><a href=\'_httpimages_/style.css\'>Style Greenstone par dÃ©faut</a></li> 
+<li><a href=\'_httpcstyle_/style-blue.css\'>thÃšme âOcean Blueâ</a></li> 
+<li><a href=\'_httpcstyle_/style-red.css\'>thÃšme âFire Redâ</a></li> 
+<li><a href=\'_httpimages_/style-print.css\'>Version imprimable</a></li> </ul> 
+</p> 
+
+<p><b>Utiliser une feuille de style tÃ©lÃ©chargÃ©e</b> 
+<ul> 
+<li>Pour utiliser une feuille de style par dÃ©faut, copiez-la dans le dossier greenstone/web/style 
+et renommez la en style.css. Cela aura un impact sur toutes les collections.</li> 
+<li>Pour utiliser une feuille de style pour une collection particuliÃšre, copiez la dans le dossier 
+style de cette collection, ajoutez un fichier extra.dm dans le rÃ©pertoire des macros de cette collection, 
+et ajoutez-y une macro comme celle-ci (qui utilise la feuille de style style-red.css comme exemple) : 
+<br/> <small><tt> <br/> package Style<br/> 
+<br/> \_cssheader\_ {<br/> &lt;link rel=\'stylesheet\' href=\'\_httpcstyle\_/style-red.css\'<br/> 
+&nbsp;&nbsp;type=\'text/css\' title=\'Fire Red\' charset=\'UTF-8\'&gt;<br/> }<br/> </tt></small> 
+</li> </ul> </p>
+"
+
+# -- Spanish text -----------------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=es] "
+Esta colecciÃ³n demuestra el uso de hojas de estilo (CSS) con Greenstone para el formateo visual en los navegadores web. (Greenstone usa CSS en vez de tablas HTML desde la version 2.63.) En cada pÃ¡gina, puede cambiar la plantilla usada, para modificar la apariencia de la pÃ¡gina.
+</p>
+<p>Esta colecciÃ³n contiene el mismo material que la colecciÃ³n de demo original de Greenstone.</p>
+<p>
+Un archivo <a href=\'_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\'>extra.dm</a> se utiliza para proveer el cambio de plantilla de estilos. Este archivo redefine algunas macros del paquete <i>Style</i>: <b>\_cssheader\_</b>, para enlazar mÃºltiples plantillas; <b>\_optnavigationbar\_</b>, para mostrar los links; y <b>\_pagescriptextra\_</b>, para facilitar el cambio cuando se selecciona un link.
+</p>
+<p>Si quiere descargar cualquiera de estas plantillas para sus propias colecciones, aquÃ­ estÃ¡n los links a ellas:
+<ul>
+<li><a href=\'_httpimages_/style.css\'>Plantilla por defecto de Greenstone</a></li>
+<li><a href=\'_httpcstyle_/style-blue.css\'>Tema âOcean Blueâ</a></li>
+<li><a href=\'_httpcstyle_/style-red.css\'>âTema Fire Redâ</a></li>
+<li><a href=\'_httpimages_/style-print.css\'>Impresora</a></li>
+</ul>
+</p>
+<p>
+<b>Usar una plantilla descargada</b>
+<ul>
+<li>Para usar una plantilla de estilos por defecto, copiela en la carpeta greenstone/web/style y renÃ³mbrela como style.css. Esto afectarÃ¡ a todas las colecciones.</li>
+<li>Para usar una plantilla para una colecciÃ³n en particular, copiela en la carpeta style de la colecciÃ³n, agregue un archivo extra.dm en la carpeta macros de la colecciÃ³n y edÃ­telo para agregar las siguientes lÃ­neas (aquÃ­ se usa la plantilla style-red.css como ejemplo):<br/>
+<small><tt>
+<br/>
+package Style<br/>
+<br/>
+\_cssheader\_ {<br/>
+&lt;link rel=\'stylesheet\' href=\'\_httpcstyle\_/style-red.css\'<br/>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;type=\'text/css\' title=\'Fire Red\' charset=\'UTF-8\'&gt;<br/>
+}<br/>
+</tt></small>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</p>
+"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese text -----------------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=zh] "
+æ¬éŠèæŒç€ºGreenstoneäœ¿çšå±çº§æ ·åŒè¡šïŒCSSïŒå®å¶çœé¡µæµè§æ ŒåŒãïŒèª2.63çæ¬åïŒGreenstoneäœ¿çšCSSæ¿æ¢HTMLè¡šæ ŒãïŒæ¯äžªé¡µé¢éœå¯éè¿ä¿®æ¹å¯¹åºçæ ·åŒè¡šæ¥æŽæ¹è¯¥é¡µé¢çå€è§ã</p> 
+ 
+<p>æ¬éŠèæå
+å«çææ¡£äžGreenstoneæŒç€ºéŠèäž­çäžæ ·ã</p> 
+<p>æ¬éŠèäœ¿çš<a href=\'_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm\'>extra.dm</a>å®æä»¶æ¥å®ç°äžåæ ·åŒè¡šçèœ¬æ¢ãè¯¥æä»¶éæ°å®ä¹äº<i>Style</i>å
+äž­çå äžªå®ïŒ<b>\_cssheader\_</b>ïŒä»¥éŸæ¥å°å€äžªæ ·åŒè¡šïŒ<b>\_optnavigationbar\_</b>ïŒä»¥æŸç€ºç¹å»çéŸæ¥ïŒä»¥å<b>\_pagescriptextra\_</b>ïŒä»¥å®ç°ç¹å»éŸæ¥æ¶çèœ¬æ¢ã 
+</p> 
+ 
+<p>åŠæäœ æ³äžèœœè¿äºæ ·åŒè¡šä»¥äŸ¿çšäºäœ èªå·±çéŠèïŒè¿éæ¯äžèœœçéŸæ¥ïŒ 
+<ul> 
+<li><a href=\'_httpimages_/style.css\'>çŒºççGreenstoneæ ·åŒè¡š</a></li> 
+<li><a href=\'_httpcstyle_/style-blue.css\'>æµ·èäž»é¢</a></li> 
+<li><a href=\'_httpcstyle_/style-red.css\'>ç«çº¢äž»é¢</a></li> 
+<li><a href=\'_httpimages_/style-print.css\'>æå°æº</a></li> 
+</ul> 
+</p> 
+ 
+<p> 
+<b>äœ¿çšäžèœœçæ ·åŒè¡š</b> 
+<ul> 
+<li>èŠå°äžäžªæ ·åŒè¡šè®Ÿçœ®äžºçŒºççæ ·åŒè¡šïŒå°è¯¥æ ·åŒè¡šæŸå
+¥greenstone/web/styleæä»¶å€¹å¹¶éåœåäžºstyle.cssãè¿å°åœ±åå°ææçéŠèã</li> 
+<li>èŠåšæäžªç¹å®éŠèäž­äœ¿çšäžäžªæ ·åŒè¡šïŒå°è¯¥æ ·åŒè¡šæŸå
+¥è¯¥éŠèçstyleç®åœïŒå¹¶åšè¯¥éŠèçmacrosç®åœäžæ·»å äžäžªextra.dmæä»¶ïŒç¶åæ·»å åŠäžçå®ïŒè¿éäœ¿çšstyle-red.cssäœäžºäŸå­ïŒïŒ<br/> 
+ 
+<small><tt> 
+<br/> 
+package Style<br/> 
+<br/> 
+\_cssheader\_ {<br/> 
+&lt;link rel=\'stylesheet\' href=\'\_httpcstyle\_/style-red.css\'<br/> 
+&nbsp;&nbsp;type=\'text/css\' title=\'Fire Red\' charset=\'UTF-8\'&gt;<br/> 
+}<br/> 
+</tt></small> 
+</li> 
+</ul> 
+</p>
+"
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/etc/collectionConfig.xml.good
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/etc/collectionConfig.xml.good	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/etc/collectionConfig.xml.good	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+<collectionConfig xmlns:gsf="http://www.greenstone.org/greenstone3/schema/ConfigFormat" xmlns:xsl="http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform"
+><metadataList
+><metadata name="creator"
+>greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz</metadata
+><metadata name="public"
+>true</metadata
+></metadataList
+><displayItemList
+><displayItem name="smallicon" lang="en"
+>en/style-e.gif</displayItem
+><displayItem name="description" lang="en"
+>This collection demonstrates Greenstone's use of Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) for visual formatting in web browsers. (Greenstone uses CSS instead of HTML tables since version 2.63.) On every page, you can change the style-sheet in effect, to modify that page's appearance. &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; An &lt;a href='_httpcollection_/macros/extra.dm'&gt;extra.dm&lt;/a&gt; macro file is used by the collection to provide the stylesheet switching. This redefines a few macros from the &lt;i&gt;Style&lt;/i&gt; package: &lt;b&gt;\_cssheader\_&lt;/b&gt;, to link to multiple stylesheets; &lt;b&gt;\_optnavigationbar\_&lt;/b&gt;, to display the links to click; and &lt;b&gt;\_pagescriptextra\_&lt;/b&gt;, to facilitate the switching when a link is clicked. &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The documents in the collection are the configuration file, the extra.dm file and all the stylesheets. &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;If you want to download any of these stylesheets for your own collections, here are links to them: &lt;ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href='_httpimg_/style.css'&gt;Default Greenstone Style&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt; &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href='_httpcollection_/styles/style-blue.css'&gt;âOcean Blueâ theme&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt; &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href='_httpcollection_/styles/style-red.css'&gt;âFire Redâ theme&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt; &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href='_httpimg_/style-print.css'&gt;Printer&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt; &lt;/ul&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;b&gt;Using a downloaded stylesheet&lt;/b&gt; &lt;ul&gt; &lt;li&gt;To use a stylesheet as the default, place it in greenstone/images and rename it to style.css. This will affect all collections.&lt;/li&gt; &lt;li&gt;To use a stylesheet for a particular collection, place it in the collection's images directory, add an extra.dm file to the collection's macros directory, and add a macro like the following (this uses style-red.css as the example):&lt;br/&gt; &lt;small&gt;&lt;tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt; package Style&lt;br/&gt; &lt;br/&gt; \_cssheader\_ {&lt;br/&gt; &amp;lt;link rel='stylesheet' href='\_httpcimages\_/style-red.css'&lt;br/&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;type='text/css' title='Fire Red' charset='UTF-8'&amp;gt;&lt;br/&gt; }&lt;br/&gt; &lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/li&gt; &lt;/ul&gt; &lt;/p&gt; </displayItem
+><displayItem name="name" lang="en"
+>Cascading Style Sheets&lt;br/&gt; Demo collection</displayItem
+><displayItem name="name" lang="es"
+>ColecciÃ³n de muestra CSS</displayItem
+><displayItem name="name" lang="fr"
+>DÃ©mo de feuilles de styles en cascade (CSS)</displayItem
+></displayItemList
+><search
+><index name="document:text"
+><displayItem name="name" lang="en"
+>text</displayItem
+></index
+><format
+><gsf:template match="documentNode"
+><td valign="top"><gsf:link type='document'><gsf:icon type='document'/></gsf:link></td> <td valign="top"><gsf:metadata name='srclink' /><gsf:choose-metadata><gsf:metadata name='thumbicon' /><gsf:metadata name='srcicon' /></gsf:choose-metadata><gsf:metadata name='/srclink' /></td> <td valign="top"> <gsf:choose-metadata><gsf:metadata name='dls.Title' /><gsf:metadata name='dc.Title' /><gsf:metadata name='Title' /><gsf:default>Untitled</gsf:default></gsf:choose-metadata> <gsf:switch><gsf:metadata name='Source' /><gsf:when test='exists' ><br /><i>(<gsf:metadata name='Source' />)</i></gsf:when></gsf:switch></td></gsf:template
+></format
+></search
+><browse
+><format
+><gsf:template match="documentNode"
+><td valign="top"><gsf:link type='document'><gsf:icon type='document'/></gsf:link></td> <td valign="top"><gsf:metadata name='srclink' /><gsf:choose-metadata><gsf:metadata name='thumbicon' /><gsf:metadata name='srcicon' /></gsf:choose-metadata><gsf:metadata name='/srclink' /></td> <td valign="top"> <gsf:choose-metadata><gsf:metadata name='dls.Title' /><gsf:metadata name='dc.Title' /><gsf:metadata name='Title' /><gsf:default>Untitled</gsf:default></gsf:choose-metadata> <gsf:switch><gsf:metadata name='Source' /><gsf:when test='exists' ><br /><i>(<gsf:metadata name='Source' />)</i></gsf:when></gsf:switch></td></gsf:template
+><gsf:template match="classifierNode"
+><td valign="top"><gsf:link type='classifier'><gsf:icon type='classifier'/></gsf:link></td> <td valign="top"><gsf:metadata name='srclink' /><gsf:choose-metadata><gsf:metadata name='thumbicon' /><gsf:metadata name='srcicon' /></gsf:choose-metadata><gsf:metadata name='/srclink' /></td> <td valign="top"> <gsf:choose-metadata><gsf:metadata name='dls.Title' /><gsf:metadata name='dc.Title' /><gsf:metadata name='Title' /><gsf:default>Untitled</gsf:default></gsf:choose-metadata> <gsf:switch><gsf:metadata name='Source' /><gsf:when test='exists' ><br /><i>(<gsf:metadata name='Source' />)</i></gsf:when></gsf:switch></td></gsf:template
+><gsf:template match="classifierNode" mode="horizontal"
+><gsf:link type='horizontal'><gsf:metadata name='Title' /></gsf:link></gsf:template
+></format
+><classifier name="CL1"
+><format
+><gsf:template match="documentNode"
+><td><gsf:link type='document'><gsf:icon type='document'/></gsf:link></td><td><gsf:metadata name='Title' /></td></gsf:template
+><gsf:template match="classifierNode"
+><td><gsf:link type='classifier'><gsf:icon type='classifier'/></gsf:link></td><td><gsf:metadata name='Title' /></td></gsf:template
+></format
+></classifier
+></browse
+><replaceListRef id="gs2-standard"
+ /></collectionConfig
+>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/b17mie/b17mie.htm
===================================================================
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+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/b17mie/b17mie.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,7650 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Microlivestock -  Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Microlivestock -  Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Tecnology for International Development </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competence and with regard for appropriate balance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Frank Press is president of the National Academy of Sciences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Robert M. White is president of the National Academy of Engineering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Samuel O. Their is president of the Institute of Medicine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Frank Press and Dr. Robert M. White are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID) of the Office of International Affairs addresses a range of issues arising from the ways in which science and technology in developing countries can stimulate and complement the complex processes of social and economic development. It oversees a broad program of bilateral workshops with scientific organizations in developing countries and conducts special studies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report was prepared by an ad hoc advisory panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Office of International Affairs, National Research Council. Staff support was funded by the Office of the Science Advisor, Agency for International Development, under Grant No. DAN-5538-G-SS-1023-00. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PANEL ON MICROLIVESTOCK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. PHILLIPS, Deputy Director General (Retired), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Senior Advisor to the President, African Development Bank, Abidjan, Ivory Coast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BONNIE V. BEAVER, Professor of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, Texas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT BENIRSCHKE, Professor of Pathology and Reproductive Medicine, University of California-San Diego, San Diego, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROY D. CRAWFORD, Professor of Animal and Poultry Genetics, Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONY J. CUNHA, Distinguished Service Professor Emeritus, University of Florida, Gainesville, and Dean Emeritus, School of Agriculture, California Polytechnic University, Pomona, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID E. DEPPNER, Director, New Forest Project, International Center, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELIZABETH L. HENSON, Executive Director, American Minor Breeds Conservancy, Pittsboro, North Carolina, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. HUSS, Menard, Texas, USA (Formerly Regional Animal Production Officer, FAO, Santiago, Chile)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID R. LINCICOME, Guest Scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS E. LOVEJOY, Assistant Secretary for External Affairs, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARNE W. NORDSKOG, Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LINDA M. PANEPINTO, Director, Miniature Swine Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT J. PETERS, Professor of Animal Breeding and Husbandry in the Tropics and Subtropics, University of Gottingen, Gottingen, West Germany, and Director of Research, International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN A. PINO, Senior Fellow, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Program in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL H. ROBINSON, Director, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KNUT SCHMIDT-NIELSON, James B. Duke Professor of Physiology, Department of Zoology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALBERT E. SOLLOD, Associate Professor and Head, Section of International Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, Massachusetts, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEE M. TALBOT, Visiting Fellow, World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAIR E. TERRILL, Sheep and Goat Scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHRISTEN M. WEMMER, Assistant Director for Conservation, National Zoological Park, Front Royal, Virginia, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DANNY C. WHARTON, Associate Curator Animal Departments, New York Zoological Park, Bronx Zoo, The Bronx, New York, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES A. WOODS, Professor and Curator, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS M. YUILL, Associate Dean for Research and Graduate Training, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* * *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID), National Research Council, Washington, D.C., Microlivestock Study Director and Scientific Editor </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL STAFF</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARK DAFFORN, Technical Writer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELIZABETH MOUZON, Senior Secretary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN VREYENS, MUCIA Intern</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONTRIBUTORS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following individuals have made general contributions to the development of this book. All of the persons listed as research contacts in Appendix B also contributed - usually on one or two species that are their scientific specialty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ASHIQ AHMAD, Wildlife Management Specialist, Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar, Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANGEL C. ALCALA, Division Research, Extension and Development, Silliman University, Dumaguete City, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARTI AMMANN, Basel, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PATRICK ANDAU, Forest Department, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.P. ARORA, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. AYYAPPAN, CIFRI, Kausabyaganga, Bhubaneswar Orissa, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER BAKHUIS, Caribbean Marine Biological Institute, Willemstad, Curacao, Netherlands Antilles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES R. BARBORAK, CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PUSHKAR NATH BHAT, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEVE BENNETT, Curepe, Trinidad, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.P. BLAND, Department of Physiology, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MELVIN BOLTON, Yeppoon, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOSEPH BONNEMAIRE, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D.S. BRANCKRAERT, Faculte des Sciences Agronomiques, Universite du Burundi, Bujumbura, Burundi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER BRAZAITIS, Herpetology, New York Zoological Society, The Bronx, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. DE LA BRETONNE, JR., Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. BRINCK, Department of Animal Ecology, University of Lund, Lund, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LESLIE BROWNRIGG, CIAT, Cali, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. HOMER BUCK, Illinois Natural History Survey, Kinmundy, Illinois, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GERARDO BUDOWSKI, Natural Renewable Resources Programme, CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BUTCHER, Taronga Zoo, Mosman, New South Wales, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JULIAN O. CALDECOTT, World Wildlife Fund Malaysia, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GARY CALLIS, Texline, Texas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. CAMOENS, Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. CHRISTOPHER CARMICHAEL, The Museum, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. CHABRECK, School of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.M. CHAGULA, Research, Ministry of Agriculture, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARAN CHANTALAKHANA, Department of Animal Science, Kasetsart  University, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER R. CHEEKE, Rabbit Research Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis,  Oregon, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.S. CHILD, Forest Resources Division, FAO, Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.S. CHOPRA, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation,  New Delhi, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Ross COCKRILL 29 Downs Park West, Bristol, England, BS6 7QH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CRISOSTOMO CORTES, Dairy Promotion and Extension Section, Dairy Development  Division, Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WYLAND CRIPE, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville,  Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. BEN DAVID, Holon, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. DEVENDRA, International Development Research Centre, Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODNEY DILLINGER, International Agency for Apiculture Development, Rockford,  Illinois, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DIRECTOR, Natal Parks Board, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLLANDE DUMONT, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques  Appliquees, Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.G. EHIOBU, Department of Agricultural Sciences, College of Education, Agbor,  Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD FARNER, Department of Zoology, University of Washington, Seattle,  Washington, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN A. FERGUSON, Overseas Development Administration, Eland House, London,  England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ABELARDO FERRER D., Quinta Nueva Exparta, San Bernardino, Caracas,  Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LYNWOOD A. FIEDLER, Section of International Programs, U.S. Fish and Wildlife  Service, Denver Wildlife Research Center, Denver, Colorado, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. FISCHER, Tropical Science Centre, Division of Tropical Veterinary Medicine,  Justus-Liebig University, Giessen, West Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. FURTADO, Commonwealth Science Council, London, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANK GOLLEY, Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. GONZALES J., Instituto de Produccion Animal, Universidad Central de Venezuela,  El Limon-Maracay, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GRAHAM GOUDIE, Mainland Holdings, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALISTAIR GRAHAM, Tanglewood, Crowborough, East Sussex, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GORDON GRIGG, Zoology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.R. DE GUMAN, JR., Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COLIN P. GROVES, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian  National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. HARDOUIN, Institut de Medicine Tropicale "Prince Leopold," Antwerp, Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEOFFREY HAWTIN, International Development Research Centre, University of  British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GORDON HAVORD, Technical Advisory Division, UNDP, New York, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TIN HLA, Veterinary Department, Director General's Office, Rangoon, Burma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES HENTGES, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. HOLLANDER, Department of Genetics, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RENE E. HONEGGER, Herpetology, Zurich Zoo, Zurich, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JACK HOWARTH, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUANG CHU-CHIEN, Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Beijing, China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANGUS HUTTON, Gympie, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. JASIOROWSKI, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MUHAMMAD YAQUB JAVAID, Directorate of Fisheries, Government of the Punjab, Punjab, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MANGALARAJ JOHNSON, Nudumalai Sanctuary, Vannarpet, Udagamandalani, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MATI KAAL, Tallinn Zoo, ESSR Tallinn, USSR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STELLAN KARLSSON, Simontorp Aquaculture AB, Blentarp, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JACKSON A. KATEGILE, International Development Research Centre, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT E. KENWARD, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Furzebrook Research Station, Wareham, Dorset, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES M. KEARNEY, Miami, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING, Florida State Museum, Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.-G. KLOS Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Berlin, West Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NELS M. KONNERUP, Boom International, Stanwood, Washington, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAVU KWAPENA, Office of Environment and Conservation, Boroko, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS E. LACHER, Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN K. LOOSLI, Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER LUTZ, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CRAIG MACFARLAND, CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE M. MCCORKLE, Department of Rural Sociology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT E. MCDOWELL, Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JEFFREY A. MCNEELY, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADRIAN G. MARSHALL, Institute of South-East Asian Biology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RICHARD R. MARSHALL, Veterinary Medicine, Sutter Hospitals Medical Research Foundation, Sacramento, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.H.G. MARTIN, Department of Zoology, Kenyatta University College, Nairobi, Kenya </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IAN L. MASON, Edinburgh, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN C. MASON, Pacific Biological Station, Nanaimo, B.C., Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MAYO MARTIN, Fish Farming Experimental Station, Stuttgart, Arkansas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">YOLANDA MATAMOROS, Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBIN MCKERGON, Livestock Development Corporation, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. MGHENI, Faculty of Agriculture, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. MONGIN, Station de Recherches Avicoles, INRA-Centre de Tours, Nouzilly, Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOSE ROBERTO DE ALENCAR MOREIRA, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, Belem, Para, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.L.R. OLIVER, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WERNER PAUWELS, Basel, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J.A. PAYNE, Worcester, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IAN PLAYER, Wilderness Leadership School, Bellair, Natal, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES H. POWELL, JR., Plainview, Texas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM R. PRITCHARD, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HECTOR HUGO LI PUN, International Development Research Centre, Bogota, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VICENTE T. QUIRANTE, Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Project, Bureau of Animal Industry, Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAN RATTNER, The Institute of Animal Research, Kibbutz Lahav, D.N. Negev, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.V. REDDY, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RHOEHEIT, Institute of Applied Science and Technology, University Campus, Turkeyen, Guyana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES T. ROBBINS, Department of Zoology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARMEN MA. ROJAS G., CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.H.L. ROLLINSON, Sardinia, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JULIO E. SANCHEZ P., Museo Nacional, San Jose, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JEFF SAYER, World Conservation Centre, Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. SEIFERT, Tropical Cattle Research Centre, CSIRO, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANDRES ELOY SEIJAS, Servicio Nacional de Fauna Silvestre, Maracay, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K. SHAH, Institute of Animal Sciences, National Institute of Health, Islamabad, Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SIEH CHENXIA, Department of Animal Science, Nanjing Agricultural College, Nanjing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.P. SINGH, College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Chandra Sekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. CATIBOG SINHA, Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna, Philippines </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. SMITH, Tropical Animal Health, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, Great Britain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. MITHAT EFENDI, Ankara, Turkey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HENRY STODDARD, Shamrock Veterinary Clinic and Fisheries, Cross City, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUKUT SULARSASA, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjalu Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. SUTTON, Agricultural Research and Education Center, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NICHOLAS SMYTHE, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. SZUMIEC, Polish Academy of Sciences, Experimental Fish Culture Station, Chybie, Poland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. TABUNAKAWAI, Ministry of Primary Industries, Suva, Fiji</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANK M. THOMPSON, Wild Animal Brokers, Bradenton, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALLEN D. TILLMAN, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DON TULLOCH, Winnellie, Northern Territory, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONRADO A. VALDEZ, Dairy Development Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LUIS VARONA, Havana, Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PRAN VOHRA, Department of Avian Sciences, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANTOON DE VOS Whitford, Auckland, New Zealand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GRAHAME WEBB, Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory, Winnellie, Northern Territory, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAGMAR WERNER, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GARY WETTERBERG, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES H. WHARTON, Clayton, Georgia, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.W. BERT WHEELER, College Station, Texas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROMULUS WHITAKER, Madras Crocodile Bank, Perur, Tamil Nadu, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILDLIFE CONSERVATION INTERNATIONAL, New York Zoological Society, The Bronx, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.R. YEO, USDA-ARS, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BRUCE A. YOUNG, Department of Animal Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHAROON YOUNGPRAPAKORN, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm and Zoo, Samutprakan, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS M. YUILL School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. ZEILLER, Miami Seaquarium, Miami, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The purpose of this report is to raise awareness of the potential of small livestock species and to stimulate their introduction into animal research and economic development programs. It is geared particularly towards benefiting developing nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Microlivestock" is a term we have coined for species that are inherently small, such as rabbits and poultry, as well as for breeds of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs that are less than about half the size of the most common breeds. These miniature animals are seldom considered in the broad picture of livestock development, but they seem to have a promising future. Wherever land is scarce it seems reasonable to assume that, things being equal, small animals would be more attractive than large ones. And land for livestock is becoming increasingly scarce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this report we have emphasized multipurpose species with promise for small  holders. In some species, the promise is immediate; in others, it is long term, and much research must be undertaken before that promise can be realized or even understood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We have included wild species that seem to have potential as future livestock. Some are threatened with extinction but are described here because their economic merits may be the key to acquiring support for their protection. Also we have highlighted rare breeds of domesticated species because the current tendency has been to concentrate on a small number of large breeds, and many potentially valuable breeds are becoming extinct through neglect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The book was prepared after an intensive survey of more than 300 animal scientists in 80 countries. They suggested more than 150 species for inclusion. The staff then drafted chapters on about 40 species and these drafts were reviewed by more than 400 researchers worldwide. The thousands of resulting comments, corrections, and additions were integrated into the drafts. The panel then met to review the product, to select the most promising species, and to rework the chapters based on their own experiences and joint conclusions. The result is the current 35 chapters. Most of the case studies and accounts of innovations highlighted in the various sidebars were developed by the staff study director. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collectively, this study covers many species, but it by no means exhausts all the microlivestock possibilities. Lack of space and time precludes discussion of creatures such as edible insects, snails, worms, turtles, and bats, which in some regions are highly regarded foods. Similarly, we have not included aquatic life. These decisions were arbitrary; perhaps invertebrates and aquatic species can be included in future volumes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report is addressed to government administrators, technical assistance personnel, and researchers in agriculture, nutrition, and related disciplines who are concerned with helping developing countries achieve a more efficient and balanced exploitation of their biological resources. Hence, we deal with the animals in a general way and do not cover details of biology, husbandry, or economics. A selection of readings that contains such technical information is cited in Appendix A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further goal of this project has been to explore the common ground between the disparate arms of animal science: to show that specialists in wildlife, zoology, and livestock science have much to learn from one another's field of expertise; to show that "fanciers" of pigeons, pheasants, chinchillas, iguanas, and other species may have much to offer livestock breeders - including germplasm; and that those who raise "obsolete" breeds are not only playing a vital role in the protection of rare genes but can offer the benefit of their experience to commercial livestock producers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout this report, the scientific names of mammals follow those in: Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. 1982. J.H. Honacki, K.E. Kinman, and J.W. Koeppl, editors. Published by Allen Press, Inc.; and the Association of Systematics Collections, Lawrence, Kansas, USA. All dollar figures are in U.S. dollars; all ton figures are in metric tons.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been produced under the auspices of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council. ACTI was mandated to assess innovative scientific and technological advances, with particular emphasis on those appropriate for developing countries. In this spirit, therefore, the current report includes some extremely unusual species. Whether these will eventually prove practical for widespread use is uncertain, but we present them here for researchers and others who look forward to challenges and enjoy the satisfaction of successful pioneering. The domestication of new poultry, as well as the management of rodents, iguanas, and small deer and antelope, should be viewed in this spirit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Current titles in the ACTI series on managing tropical animal resources are: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The production of these books has been supported largely by the Office of the Science Advisor of the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID), which also made this report possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WARNING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If misunderstood, this book is potentially dangerous. Because of the severity of the food crisis, the panel has selected some animals - mainly in the rodent section - that are highly adaptable and grow quickly. These seem appropriate for raising only in areas where they already exist, which are clearly identified in those chapters. Such potentially invasive animals should not be introduced to other environments because they could become serious pests. In any trials, local species should always be given priority.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to cite this report:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council. 1991. Microlivestock: Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cover Design by David Bennett </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the developing countries, there are over 100 million farms of less than five hectares, supporting about 700 million people, who represent about 17 percent of the world population. Even more significant is the fact that about 50 million farms have less than one hectare of land. C. Devendra and Marcia Burns Goat Production in the Tropics We may now be in the wind down stage of bigger is better animal selection trend and it has certainly been a wild ride.... the lesson now being learned is that the bigger breeding animals . . . cost more to maintain, are often slower to reproduce, and may even have a shorter lifespan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kelly Klober</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small Farmer's Journal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g001a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like computers, livestock for use in developing countries should be getting smaller and becoming more "personal." Conventional "mainframes," such as cattle, are too large for the world's poorest people; they require too much space and expense. "Miniframes," such as the conventional breeds of sheep and goats, have an increasingly important role to play. But tiny, "user-friendly" species for home use are the ones highlighted in this report. We have called them "microlivestock."'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two types of microlivestock. One consists of extremely small forms of conventional livestock - such as cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs. The other consists of species that are inherently small poultry, rabbits, and rodents, for instance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock are important because the developing world's animal production is only a fraction of what it should be. Throughout Latin America, Asia, and Africa, the poor eat almost no meat, milk, or eggs - the most nutritious foods. It is estimated, for example, that in Mexico 25 million campesinos cannot afford meat. In poor countries, even the middle class eats less meat in a year than the populations of North America and Europe eat in a month. Malnutrition is common and its effects, especially on children, can be debilitating. It is one of mankind's most serious imbalances - and most pressing problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural families in the Third World usually subsist mainly on the products from their homes or farms. Thus, if we are to help their livestock production, more attention must be given to animals that are sized for their situations. Examples discussed in the report are summarized here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microbreeds Small breeds of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs are common in the developing world. Because they are often raised for subsistence rather than for commerce, the national and global contribution that they make is often overlooked. These small, hardy animals deserve much greater recognition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Later chapters highlight dozens of promising microbreeds. All are less than half average size; some are far smaller than that. The "miniBrahman" cow of Mexico is only 60 cm tall and weighs 140 kg; the southern Sudan dwarf sheep of eastern Africa can weigh as little as 11 kg; the Terai goat of Nepal weighs less than 12 kg; and the cuing pig of Mexico weighs merely 10 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry The widespread use of poultry in Third World villages demonstrates the importance of small, easily managed, household livestock. Small size, the ability to forage for themselves, and a natural desire to stay around the house put chickens, ducks, guinea fowl, and other birds among the most vital resources of rural Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Scratching a living out of the dirt, dust, ditches, and debris, these often-scrawny creatures are a resource to be taken seriously. For the most poverty stricken, a bony bird may be the only source of meat during much of a lifetime. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among poultry, there are many underrated, but highly promising, species, including:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Pigeon. These birds forage widely but return home, thereby providing the farmers with squab, one of the tastiest of all meats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Quail. Small and efficient, they, too, are suited to home rearing, and in Japan and a few other countries, large numbers are raised commercially in very small space. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Muscovy. A native of South American rainforests, this bird is a major poultry resource of France, Taiwan, and a few other countries. Tame, tolerant, and tough, it deserves greater recognition everywhere. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Guinea Fowl. One of the most self-reliant of all domestic birds, this native of Africa is raised in huge numbers in Europe - notably France. Its potential for increased production elsewhere is exceptional. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Turkey. The traditional turkey of Mexico still exists as a scavenger bird in villages and household backyards. Unlike the highly selected modern breeds, it is self-reliant, robust, and disease-resistant. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits Like chickens, rabbits exemplify the vast possibilities that microlivestock offer for increasing meat production in the most poverty-stricken parts of the world. Captive rabbits have been popular as food at least since the time of the Romans. Rabbit rearing has been well established in Europe and China, and now national rabbit projects have begun in many developing nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents Some 7,000 years ago, guinea pigs were domesticated as a source of food for the high Andes; even today in the uplands of Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador, most Indians raise them inside their homes and regard them as an essential part of life. For many Indians, these indoor livestock are the main source of meat. Prolific, tractable, and easy to feed, house, and handle, guinea pigs are even kept in downtown apartment buildings - often in boxes under the bed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other rodents might also be suited to domestication; for instance, the potentially tamable, clean-living species of South American fields and woodlands - agouti, capybara, hutia, mare, coypu, pace, and vizcacha. Two remarkable domestication programs have been started in Africa: the grasscutter in West Africa and the giant rat in Nigeria. Both animals provide popular "bushmeat" and researchers are now learning to raise them in captivity. (Because of its tangy taste, Ghanaians actually pay three times more for grasscutter meat than for beef!)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antelope Another wild African mammal with potential for "household animal husbandry," the blue duiker, is a rabbit-sized antelope. In some areas of Central and Southern Africa the demand is so great that its population is declining at an alarming rate. Duiker rearing, if it can be made successful, might provide both food and an economic alternative to slaughtering the wild populations. It is reported that duikers are easy to maintain and they reproduce well in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat of several other tiny antelope species is also much sought in many African countries, and these animals are also suitably sized to feed the average family at one meal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer Several species of tiny deer - smaller than many dogs - might make useful microlivestock, although much research is needed before their true potential can be judged. Normal-sized deer were once considered too easily frightened to be reared as domestic livestock, but several species are now raised on thousands of deer farms in New Zealand as well as in at least a dozen other countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer and musk deer (which, strictly speaking, are not true deer at all) are of microlivestock size and are also possible future livestock. The musk deer produces one of the most valuable materials in the animal kingdom - more valuable, in fact, than gold. The musk from the male's glands is used in oriental medicines as well as in European perfumes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguanas Over much of the Caribbean and Latin America, iguanas are a traditional source of food. Indeed, the meat of these large herbivorous lizards is so delicious they are being hunted to extinction throughout their wide range. Their eggs are much enjoyed also. Programs in Panama, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Curacao, and Argentina have developed simple methods to hatch and rear three iguana species. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bees Honey bees are present almost everywhere, and honey and wax are high-value products that demand little processing and can be stored and transported easily. Innovations in equipment and technique have made beekeeping successful in the tropics without requiring sophisticated hives or elaborate training. Raising bees can also benefit the many crops that require pollination.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE MICROLIVESTOCK ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although animal science has traditionally emphasized bigness, smallness has its advantages. Some of these are summarized below.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock lend themselves to economic niches that are not easily filled by large livestock. Much of their potential is for subsistence production. They are promising for the many peasants who, being outside the cash economy, are now unable to purchase meat, milk, cheese, or eggs. These people can afford only animals that can be raised within the home or backyard under ambient climatic conditions and on feeds that are cheap and easily available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A subsistence farmer is likely to benefit more from small species than from large because of several factors:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The animals are less expensive to buy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They are less of a financial risk to maintain. (A farmer with several small animals is less vulnerable to loss than a farmer with a single large animal, a feature that is particularly important in subsistence farming where success determines whether the family will survive.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They give a faster return on investment. (Small size generally signifies high reproductive capacity and a fast turnover.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They provide flexibility. (Farmers can more easily change the size of their herd or flock to match the amount of feed available at a given time. Also, they can sell animals according to the family's fluctuating needs for cash or food.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They provide a steadier source of income.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They increase the chances of successful breeding because greater numbers are usually kept. (This also means that breeding stock is more likely to be retained in times of scarcity.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- They are more easily transported. (Who hasn't traveled in a Third World bus or train without chickens, ducks, or guinea pigs as fellow passengers?)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- In some cases they are more efficient converters of food energy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are also a number of other benefits to small species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reduced Spoilage. A portion of meat that comes in a "package" of a size that can be readily consumed by a family is important in areas where refrigeration is unavailable or uneconomic. A family can eat the meat produced by most microlivestock in one meal or in one day to minimize the risk of spoilage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Efficient Use of Space. The space required for handling and feeding microlivestock is proportionately less than that required for large animals. Low space requirements make many microlivestock (such as guinea pigs, rabbits, pigeons, and quail) available to landless rural inhabitants who have no room for a cow. This is particularly important with respect to feed production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Cheaper Facilities. Facilities and equipment required for microlivestock are, by and large, smaller and simpler than those required for large animals. They often can be made from local products or scrap material or both.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Ease of Management. Farmers and villagers can manage small animals more easily than large, which is an advantage in the many places where women and children are the main keepers of livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Increased Productivity. Small animals tend to fit well into existing farming systems, thereby expanding the resource base and recycling nutrients. Some - for example bees, ducks, and geese - can feed themselves by scavenging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- By-Products. Many species have fur, feathers, skins, and other by-products that are often more valuable than their meat, milk, or eggs. Examples include the feet and tails of rabbits, musk from musk deer, and pelts from rodents such as coypu. Processing such byproducts creates diversification for the farmer and perhaps jobs for the village.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RATIONALE FOR LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many have argued that livestock raising should be discouraged, that it is a primary cause of desertification through overgrazing and that it is an inefficient converter of basic material and energy into human food. "Grow more pulses, grow more grains," these people cry. Their arguments can be valid where the land has high potential for permanent cultivation. Much of the world's surface, however, does not fit into that category, and it is in these areas and for those people who have no access to arable lands that a convincing case for livestock can most easily tee mace. As W.J.A. Payne has written:*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Livestock, particularly ruminants, can process forage and waste crop materials inedible by man into nutritionally desirable food products, many of high protein, mineral and vitamin content and including some of high caloric value. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Approximately 40 percent of total land available in developing countries can be used only for some form of forage production and a further 30 percent is classified as forest with some potential for the production of forage. Some 12 percent of the world's total population live in areas where people depend almost entirely on the products obtained from ruminant livestock. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Livestock provide a range of extremely valuable by-products. Dung is not only a fertilizer and soil-stabilizer but also a fuel of often considerably greater value than the fodder consumed in its production. Other byproducts, especially hides and wool form the bases of rural enterprises that may provide significant incomes to the poorest members of society. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Animal plant and human life are ecologically interdependent. The establishment of agricultural systems in which livestock are integrated with crops, forestry and aquaculture is essential for the improvement of overall productivity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock produce food that adds to the nutritional quality and variety of human diets. Although it is possible for humans to exist without them, these foods are relished and sought after by the majority of humanity. These foods include meat, eggs and processed products such as biltong and cheese. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general, small species tend to expand the food base by using a wider array of resources than do major livestock such as cattle. Many can be raised on feeds that people discard: fibrous residues, industry by-products, or kitchen wastes. Some collect minute feeds that otherwise go unused. For example, chickens and pigeons gather scattered seeds, turkeys gobble up insects, geese graze water weeds, iguanas feed in the tops of trees, and bees collect nectar and pollen from flowers that may be miles away.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even some grazing microlivestock prefer different forages from those preferred by cattle. Antelope and deer, for instance, browse tree leaves; capybara and grasscutters eat reeds. Combining microlivestock with conventional livestock results in a more complete utilization of forage resources and greater animal production per hectare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under conditions of abundance, small size may be of no advantage in mammals, but if feed is limited, it is of great help. A small animal (or its keeper) needs to cover less area to fulfill its daily requirements, so that microlivestock may grow fat in areas where the forage is too sparse to support a larger animal. This is particularly vital when there are seasonal bottlenecks. For example, feed may be plentiful enough for most of the year to supply many large animals; however, the dry season may greatly restrict the numbers that can be kept.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although small animals generally require proportionately higher inputs of feed, they also grow proportionately faster (see sidebar opposite). In addition, species such as rabbits, guinea pigs, and grasscutters digest fibrous matter with surprising efficiency, even though they are not true ruminants like cattle, sheep, and goats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many small animals have high reproductive capacity with short gestation periods, large numbers of offspring, and rapid juvenile growth. They tend to reach sexual maturity at a younger age than large animals, and the interval between the generations can be very short. Thus, meat or other products can be produced more rapidly and more evenly throughout the year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cows, for example, produce a maximum of one calf per year. A pig, on the other hand, may produce 7 or more young; a rabbit, 30 or more; a chicken, more than 100.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adaptability and Hardiness</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The survival rates and manageability of many small breeds and species can be outstanding. Smallness is often an adaptation to harsh environment. Indeed, a major promise for microlivestock is in special environmental niches. Where cold, heat, temperature fluctuations, aridity, or humidity are extreme, microlivestock are likely to show their greatest advantage. Chickens, guinea fowl, goats, and many other small species already live in villages, homes, and backyards in harsh and disease-prone climates, and are usually given no care and sometimes no food: they have to scavenge for their sustenance and survive as best they can. Such selection pressures result in animals of remarkable adaptability, tolerance, and robustness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microlivestock can produce under conditions where conventional species die. The capybara, for instance, is at home in the Latin American lowlands, where the climate is hot and humid and floods cause seasonal inundations. Cattle, by contrast, die because of malnutrition, foot rot, or drowning. Other microlivestock species with a wide tolerance to ecological extremes include the turkey, pigeon, and bee. And some dwarf breeds of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs show surprising tolerance to trypanosomes, the parasites that make conventional breeds impossible to maintain throughout much of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some small species can be raised in cities, where poverty and malnutrition are often worse than in rural areas. It is estimated, for instance, that one million livestock exist in Cairo, not counting the pigeons that are raised on countless rooftops. Goats and cattle are common in urban India, and many Third World cities have far more chickens than people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p9a.png"></center><br>
+ Food utilization versus body size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICROLIVESTOCK LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raising microlivestock is not a panacea for the Third World's food problems. Efforts to develop them will not be without difficulties. Some likely problems are noted here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High Energy Requirements</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smaller animals tend to have a higher feed requirement per unit of body weight than large animals. Anatomical and physiological constraints prevent them from meeting their relatively high energy requirements simply by increasing the rate of food ingestion. Therefore, for optimum production, some small animals, particularly nonruminants, require feed that is higher in protein and lower in fiber than large animals. This is particularly true when the small animals are compared with ruminants such as cattle, sheep, and goats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increased Labor Requirements</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The advantages of low investment, fast return on capital, flexibility, and efficient resource utilization are offset by higher demands for labor. Keeping small animals often requires considerable effort, and its economic viability may depend on the availability of cheap and willing labor. Many small animals are raised at home by family members, such as children, the elderly, and the handicapped, who have time available and whose labor costs are nominally zero.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diseases</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some potential microlivestock are undomesticated, and resistance to diseases and parasites is one justification for their consideration. However, the general healthiness of a species when it is free-ranging can be a misleading guide for its husbandry. Confining any animal in high density invariably increases the potential for the spread of infectious diseases and parasites. Moreover, mismanagement can foster respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases (such as salmonella or coccidiosis) that are rare among scattered populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microlivestock are potential reservoirs for diseases that affect not only local animals but people as well. This may limit their successful development in some areas. Although the dangers are often exaggerated, controls may be needed, particularly of rinderpest, tickborne diseases, and those diseases communicable to humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Predation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small size makes microlivestock easy prey.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Techniques to manage some microlivestock species are not yet well established. The development of appropriate husbandry techniques, as well as a better understanding of the animals' particular biological and behavioral characteristics, will be needed before major progress can be made. These species (for instance rodents, deer, and iguanas) may require collection of different genotypes, as well as studies of diseases, nutrition, and management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Complex Logistics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is complicated and expensive to reach millions of widely scattered peasants, each having only a handful of small animals. Even though total production may far exceed that of commercial farms raising large animals, the smallholdings are often dispersed, their animals are often used for subsistence rather than commerce, and their managers are often ill-trained and illiterate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legislative Restrictions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The use of some microlivestock species may be restricted by legislation. For instance, some countries have meat and veterinary laws that work against the development of species other than cattle. Others have laws to protect wildlife, which could be important in the case of species such as antelope, deer, pace, and iguana.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of Markets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock need not be just for home or local consumption; they can also be raised for market. But some commercial programs, including some with rabbits and guinea pigs, have failed because no public demand was developed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resistance to New Species</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People have close associations with livestock, and in most cultures they do not easily accept animals or animal foods that are radically different from their traditional ones. In general, the ties between certain ethnic groups and a particular species or breed is very strong (one reason, for example, why European colonists introduced their own large breeds of cattle and sheep to Africa and Asia, paying little attention to small indigenous breeds). Moreover, people who are used to bringing the animal to the feed rather than the feed to the animal may resist a small animal that has to be penned up and fed by hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Opposition to Smallness</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, there seems to be an innate human trait that considers bigger to be better, especially among the common livestock. For example, because many tropical cattle are small, there is strong inclination on the part of those responsible for livestock improvement to dismiss them or to increase their size by crossing them with large breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FUTURE OF MICROLIVESTOCK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small animals are likely to become increasingly important. As human populations increase, the space available for growing forage decreases, and this phenomenon favors small animals. Many villagers already have little or no pastureland. Some live in areas (the rice-growing areas of Southeast Asia, for instance) where crops are grown on almost every square meter almost every month of the year. Microlivestock are potentially important for urban areas of developing countries as well. There, too, land is at a premium and is usually inadequate for raising conventional livestock. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, however, microlivestock have been largely ignored. Compared with cattle, they have been accorded little scientific effort. In the drive towards larger animals, stimulated by experience in the temperate zone, the virtually unstudied gene pool of small species and breeds has been mostly bypassed. There have been few attempts to assess or improve their farm productivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is unfortunate, and it is perhaps due to the fact that small animals may be less efficient at digesting certain foods and therefore technically less attractive than large, "modern" breeds. But to Third World peasants, an animal's efficiency is far less important than its survivability and manageability. If an animal cannot be raised under village conditions, its feed-use efficiency or milk yield is irrelevant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microlivestock production should be integrated into most ruraldevelopment projects. Small animals offer a way to improve the lives of people who are hard to reach by other methods. Only by expanding research on the husbandry, hygiene, nutrition, reproduction, physiology, and breeding can the promise of animals sized for small farms and villages be fulfilled. Moreover, the costs will be small compared with those of programs for large animals.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specifically, experiment stations should produce and promote methods and materials for use in rearing microlivestock. Donors and development institutions, planners, and policymakers should note the potentials of microlivestock and the benefits that can be derived from them. Teaching manuals and materials are needed, and classes in microlivestock husbandry should be included in rural school curricula.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raising personal livestock on weeds and table scraps in cages beside the house or boxes under the bed will, in many instances, get quality protein to the most poverty stricken more effectively than raising large livestock on pastures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although small size confers many advantages, the question is not whether the large or small animal is "best," but rather how well each can meet a person's varying requirements. In a given situation, livestock can be too small or too large. But the fact remains that not everyone who wants meat or money has the resources to acquire, keep, manage, or utilize a large animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key is balance. Both microlivestock and traditional livestock deserve serious attention. Indeed, it seems likely that the two will seldom compete. Most microlivestock complement traditional livestock because of unique physical, physiological, behavioral, or economic characteristics. They increase the range of options for the millions of poor for whom the choice may not even be between large and small livestock, but between microlivestock and no livestock at all. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It's an unfortunate fact that small animals don't have the prestige among Third World farmers that large animals do (perhaps this arose because children can look after goats and sheep but it takes men to look after cattle). Even sheep and goats are not accorded the same stature as cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hugh Popenoe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeds and varieties were created from mutant genes and thus haste become living reservoirs of these genes, holding them for use in future generations of mankind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g002a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part I : Microbreeds</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g003a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs supply millions of people around the world with the bulk of their cash and animal products. Yet scores of breeds - especially in the tropics - are left out of livestock development projects merely because they are considered too small. These "microbreeds"' have sometimes been considered genetic dead ends because they appear undersized and puny. Many of these traditional animals - some in local use for thousands of years - are disappearing, and even the small ancestors of large modern breeds are becoming extinct.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These small breeds deserve to be studied and developed in their own right. Throughout Africa, Asia, and Latin America, these usually hardy animals are especially adapted to traditional husbandry practices and harsh local conditions. Some have remarkable qualities and are well adapted to resist hostile weather, ravaging pestilence, and poor diets. In remote places and in areas of extreme climate, they are often vitally important for basic subsistence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, because of stress or disease, or insufficient forage, land, or money, microbreeds may be the only practical livestock in many settings. Their individual output may be low, but it can be efficient considering the lack of care and poor feeds they are given. Their availability and the growing number of small-sized farms in the developing world make them increasingly worthy of consideration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following chapters in this section describe microcattle, microgoats, microsheep, and micropigs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Microcattle</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g004a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the purposes of this report, "microcattle" are considered to be small breeds of cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus) with a mature weight of about 300 kg or less. In many areas of the developing world, these are actually the animals most widely held by farmers and pastoralists. They are often treasured because of their resilience and simple requirements. Many survive and produce under harsh conditions, grow rapidly, calve easily, show good maternal ability, yield lean meat, or have other advantages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle have generally been ignored in the push towards larger animals, but they seem inherently suitable for traditional and small-farm husbandry. As rural people in developing countries improve their own productivity, as they become more aware of nutritional needs, and as they depend more upon cash economies, microcattle could become vital means for improving personal, dietary, and economic status.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle have been classified in many ways, but they are generally designated as humped or humpless types. However, clear distinctions among them are sometimes difficult or impossible to make because they have intermingled for thousands of years. Representative microcattle types are listed at the end of the chapter. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than two-thirds of the world's 1.3 billion cattle are found in the developing world; one-third is in the tropics. As noted, a considerable number of these could be called "microcattle."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many strains of microcattle are threatened with extinction because of replacement or crossbreeding with larger types. This is in some respects shortsighted because promoting just a few breeds contributes to narrowing of the genetic base, and valuable traits may be lost when selection is done to conform to any preconceived standard, including large size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle are adapted to a wide variety of habitats. Many types thrive - even with little or no attention - in climates that are hot, humid, arid, or beset by diseases and parasites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle are ruminants and digest fiber well, although they are selective foragers and prefer tender grasses and low-growing legumes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with other tropical cattle, microbreeds generally reach physical and sexual maturity in 2 or 3 years. Many can breed year-round when conditions are favorable (gestation lasts about 9 months). Cows may remain fertile 10 years or more, and can live more than 20 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle usually graze from as few as four hours to as many as eight hours a day. If feed is of poor quality, they must forage (and ruminate) longer to receive adequate nutrition. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle are commonly docile and undemanding animals, and many small breeds are surprisingly responsive to humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like conventional breeds, microcattle produce the same well-known products: meat, milk, manure, hides, horn, blood, and bone. They are also used for traction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small cattle often produce only modest amounts of milk and meat per animal. However, given higher stocking rates, a herd of microcattle is often able to outyield larger, genetically improved animals on a per hectare basis, especially under stressful conditions. When their ability to survive adversity and poor management is taken into account, they may often be far and away the most efficient cattle for traditional husbandry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surprisingly, there is a place even for small draft animals. They tend to be active, thrifty (efficient), and more maneuverable in tight spaces, and so are adapted for use in the small fields, terraces, and paddies that are becoming increasingly common. The small hill cattle of Nepal, for instance, are valued because they can negotiate steep slopes and narrow terraces on Himalayan mountainsides. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle are handled like their larger counterparts, but herding, tethering, fencing, and hobbling are generally easier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle are familiar animals that are accepted in nearly all cultures; their meat, milk, manure, and leather are in demand almost everywhere. In many societies, beef is preferred over other meats, even by those who can rarely afford it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas, organized breeding, production, and marketing associations are already in place. Microcattle can also integrate well into traditional forms of husbandry, whether in pastoral herds of hundreds or as solitary backyard milk cows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under humid and hot conditions, microcattle probably suffer less than larger breeds because their greater ratio of skin area to body mass enhances their ability to shed heat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of cattle that can be kept on a given parcel of land may be increased, sometimes even doubled, with smaller animals. Microcattle can also be penned and fed cut-and-carry forage more easily than can larger cattle, and more of them can be maintained on the same amount of feed. This permits more continuous production and less financial hardship when an animal perishes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small cattle may require less labor because they are generally easier to handle, herd, confine, and transport. They usually have few problems with calving, and as a rule require little or no assistance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microcattle have unusual tolerances to disease. In Africa, for instance, there are breeds that tolerate or resist trypanosomiasis, a parasitic disease that makes large areas of that continent uninhabitable for most other cattle breeds. Others seem more tolerant of internal or external parasites, theileriosis (east coast fever), rinderpest, or other afflictions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle often lack the prestige of larger breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When given quality forage and supplemental feeding, small unimproved cattle may not match the overall productivity of the large, highly developed breeds. Their greatest potential may prove to be for traditional husbandry and for grazing marginal areas where survival is more important than feed efficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BONSAI BRAHMAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mexico, researchers are deliberately creating microcattle. Since 1970, Juan Manuel Berruecos Villalobos, former director of the Veterinary Medicine school at the National Autonomous University, has directed this enterprise. He and his colleagues have miniaturized cows by selecting the smallest specimens out of a herd of normal-sized Brahman cattle and breeding them with one another. After five generations, adult females average 15-180 kg adult males 20-220 kg. A few of the smallest cows are now only 60 cm tall and 140 kg in weight. Merely one-fifth of normal weight, they are shorter than the turkeys that share the barnyard with them. Indeed, they even get lost in the grassy pastures so that the farmers cannot see them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This program seems to have yielded a productive animal that can be cheaply and easily maintained in a small space. Berruecos has demonstrated that the tiny cows can be stocked on one-third the area needed to support one normal-sized cow. He reports that they are giving remarkable amounts of milk: up to four lifers a day, compared with six lifers from their full-sized counterparts. On a feed-intake to weight-gain basis, the tiny cattle are no less efficient than their normal-sized counterparts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although 17 years have gone into the selection of what Berruecos calls his "bonsai cattle," the process is not yet finished. Future goals include testing embryo transplants to see if one normal-sized cow can support multiple "microfetuses" (possibly as many as eight). This would help to rapidly increase the numbers of the miniature form, which weigh merely 4-5 kg at birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All in all, the Mexican researchers see miniaturization as a new option for governments and farmers increasingly squeezed by shrinking farm land and rising production costs. Small livestock they say, are a way to produce more food on less land faster. For example, a campesino with almost no land can have one or two bonsais, but could never maintain a standard-sized cow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their adaptability and robustness make microcattle worthy of preservation, study, and greater use, and they should be incorporated into many ongoing programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selective breeding, although infrequently attempted, can probably improve productivity significantly. Records of breed history should be established, and unusual or special characteristics noted and the information disseminated. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p24a.png"></center><br>
+ Original distribution of wild cattle and banteng (Based on Mason , 1984)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In areas where small, indigenous breeds are being replaced, representative populations should be maintained and studied to increase understanding of their adaptive diversity and to retain a genetic storehouse for the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MICROCATTLE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwarf West African Shorthorn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African coastal forests, and inland. Female 125 kg; male 150 kg. Adaptation to harsh, humid climates and good resistance to trypanosomiasis and other diseases allow these small animals to exist where other cattle die. They are perhaps the smallest cattle of all (often weighing less than 100 kg). In the areas of worst disease and highest rainfall, this hardy animal is often found thriving, but half wild. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muturu Nigeria. Female 160 kg; male 210 kg. This notable subtype is slightly larger. It is the most trypanotolerant of all cattle, showing no symptoms or loss of vitality. It is widely kept, mostly as a village scavenger and often as a pet, and yields a high percentage of meat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N'Dama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West Africa. 200-400 kg. These active, stocky animals utilize low-quality forage, produce good beef, and are used as light draft oxen. Milk production, though poor, improves with feeding level. N'Dama mature early and are exceptionally fertile, and they have already become important in breeding programs. They are resistant to trypanosomiasis, and can exist where temperatures average 30&Yacute; C with 1,500 mm annual rainfall. In the least hospitable areas, N'Damas ranging down to 200 kg are often the only cattle that can remain productive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodope</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southeastern Europe. Female 200 kg; male 350 kg. A humpless multipurpose breed - draft, milk, and beef - that is exceptionally hardy. The milk is high in butterfat. Possibly adaptable to the subtropics. It is rapidly being lost to crossbreeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zebu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zebus are among the most important tropical domestic animals. However, the dwarfs are not well known, although in many areas they are preferred, especially as draft animals. Zebus use less water, even though their sweat glands are larger and more numerous than those of most other cattle. All have a low basal metabolism and resist heat well. In general, they also have high resistance to ticks and other parasites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan Black Taiwan. Female 250 kg; male 250 kg. Well adapted to poor tropical conditions, these work animals are also used for meat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kedah-Kelantan Malaysia. Female 200 kg; male 250 kg. Hardy, well adapted cattle with exceptional fertility on a poor diet, both sexes are used as draft animals as well as sources of meat and cash. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sinhala (Dwarf Zebu) Sri Lanka. Female 200 kg; male 250 kg. An ancient type of zebu, preferred for its handiness in cultivating small paddies and terraced fields. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nuba Dwarf Sudan. 180-220 kg. These work animals are well proportioned but are not slaughtered for meat, and milk production is low. Although tolerant to trypanosomiasis, their numbers have dwindled because of crossbreeding. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small Zebu Somalia. 160-230 kg. These small native cattle are used for beef, milk, and for work. They are well adapted to poor feed in a desolate environment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abyssinian Shorthorn Zebu (Showa) Central highlands of Ethiopia. Female 225 kg; male 305 kg. These widespread, small-humped cattle are very hardy. They produce beef and are generally milked, with surplus production about 2-4 kg daily. Resistant to many parasites, they also have a gentle disposition and make good work animals. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwarf Zebu (Mongalla) Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya. Female 150 kg; male 250 kg. A highly variable, long-entrenched, small, East-African zebu with some nonzebu blood. Pastoralists favor it because of its hardiness. Although slow-maturing, it is well-fleshed, can yield excellent beef, and some types are milked. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mashona Zimbabwe. Female 200 kg; male 250 kg. This hardy zebusanga type (see below) is widespread in drier areas and has a high resistance to disease and parasites. Since the 1940s, it has been bred for beef production and selected animals now weigh more than 500 kg. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mini-Brahman Mexico. 135 kg. Downsized from 450-kg Brazilian zebus through selective breeding by Mexican researchers, these gentle animals are reported to yield two-thirds as much milk (3-4 liters daily) as the parent stock. Because of much higher stocking rates on grass, production per hectare is reportedly greater than with full-sized animals (see sidebar, page 22). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central and South America. Descendants of Spanish and Portuguese  cattle imported over 400 years ago, "criollo" cattle have adapted to a  wide range of harsh climates. Many varieties are small: mature females  often weigh 200-300 kg or less. They sometimes produce little beef or  milk under traditional conditions and management, but they are  extremely hardy and survive when other cattle perish. Through  importation and crossbreeding, many local types have been lost or are  threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chinampo Baja California, Mexico. 200-350 kg. Extremely tolerant of  wild desert conditions, these docile criollo cattle exist largely on scrub  and cactus. They get most of their water from succulent plants, have a  low metabolic rate and body temperature, and are mostly active at night. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Florida Scrub Florida, USA. 225-300 kg. Genetically isolated for more  than 300 years, the Florida Scrub is very hardy in harsh, subtropical  conditions. It has good resistance to ticks and screwworm, and can  subsist on forage with a high roughage content. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sanga</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This type - an ancient cross between longhorns or shorthorns and  humped animals - is found throughout eastern and southern Africa. It  weighs from 150 to 500 kg or more. Some types have been selectively  bred or crossed with European cattle and are quite productive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bavenda Transvaal, South Africa. 240-290 kg. This hardy and  disease tolerant tropical variety is small and prolific. It is generally used  for draft, barter, and beef. However, it has been crossbred with larger  animals so frequently that the smaller types are almost extinct; most  "Bavendas" now weigh more than 300 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ovambo' Northeastern Namibia. Female 160 kg; male 225 kg. A calm  and docile animal with a small hump, it is used by seasonal pastoralists  for beef and milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nilotic Sudan. 180-300 kg. These cattle of southern Sudan show great variation in size, partly due to environmental factors. They are generally resistant to local parasites and worms, have good potential for increased beef production, and their milk is very important locally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chadian "Native" and Dwarf Black Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad. Female 225 kg; male 275 kg. These two types are small, humped meat animals that graze the sparse savanna and are very drought resistant. Little scientific information exists about them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Arab Cattle"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East. Small types (female 225 kg; male 300 kg) are used for meat and some milk, especially in Lebanon. There are many local forms with variable appearance, but all have small humps. Well adapted to grazing sparse vegetation on rough land, they are becoming rare due to crossbreeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hill Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal. Female 160 kg; male 200 kg. A widespread type often recrossed with Indian zebu animals, they are bred to be small. They are thrifty creatures that maintain themselves well on poor forage. Bulls make sure-footed draft animals on rough ground and slopes, and the cows are milked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tibetan Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tibet. Less than 250 kg. These humpless cattle are used as pack animals and can tolerate poor forage and high altitudes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yellow Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southwest and south China. Female 220 kg; male 380 kg. In the subtropics and tropics, small multipurpose types of Yellow Cattle withstand high temperature and humidity. They are used mainly for work and meat, and seem well adapted to poor feed, harsh conditions, and rugged terrain. The Chowpei (190-380 kg) is a hardy working breed of more temperate areas in Hubei Province.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheju Hanwoo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Korea. Female 230 kg; male 280 kg. A yellowish-brown Cheju Island native that has almost no calving difficulty, it is well adapted to poor grazing conditions in harsh environments and is docile and obedient.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madura</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia. Female 220 kg; male 300 kg. An ancient cross between humped cattle and the banteng (see sidebar), these heat- and disease resistant hybrids also have good grazing and mothering ability, and are kept in the most extreme humid tropical environments. Breeding for fighting and racing has given them a poor disposition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dexter Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ireland and North America. 220-360 kg. This breed can be traced back to eighteenth-century Ireland and is believed to have been developed by peasant farmers living on rough land. It is exceptionally hardy and produces both milk and meat. In North America, it has become popular among city folk who acquire country property, as this microbreed is particularly well suited to their usually tiny farms. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BANTENG: THE CUTEST COW</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng (Bos Javanicus) is a small Southeast Asian bovine with a promising future.* It is a different species from cattle. The two will interbreed, but the hybrid offspring are normally sterile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although almost entirely neglected by the animal science community, the banteng is remarkable for an ability to thrive under hot, humid, and disease-ridden conditions where cattle often grow poorly. The sexes are easily distinguished: males are jet black, females are golden brown. Both have bright white socks and rumps as if they had been freshly whitewashed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng are found in remote areas of countries from Burma to Indonesia. But only Indonesia has used it as a farm animal so far. It has more than 1.5 million domesticated banteng - some 20 percent of the country's total "cattle" population. Indonesian farmers value the animal's agility, which allows them to cultivate Relds too narrow for cattle to turn the prow. In addition, gourmets consider banteng meat the tastiest of all. Indonesia appreciates the banteng so much that it has established a genetic sanctuary on the island of Bali - banning cattle in order to maintain the banteng's genetic purity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside Indonesia, only a few scientists have studied this animal, but it seems clear that it is particularly useful under tropical conditions. In heat and humidity, it thrives; even when cattle are starving, one rarely sees a skinny banteng. And demand for its meat is never ending.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Microgoats</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than 90 percent of the world's nearly half billion goats (Capra hircus) are found in developing countries; many weigh less than 35 kg fully grown.` Such "microgoats" are noted for their high reproductive rates, rapid growth, early maturity, tasty meat, and rich milk' as well as for their robust constitution, ease of handling, and tolerance of climatic stress and poor feeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To many people - especially where pigs and poultry are not common - meat and milk from microgoats are the primary animal proteins consumed during a lifetime. Perhaps the world's best foragers, goats eat practically anything made of cellulose, and are not dependent on grass. Because of their unselective feeding behavior, they are capable of living where the feeds - tree leaves, shrubs, and weeds - are too poor to support other types of livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such microgoats deserve wider recognition, for they are often the poor person's only source of milk, meat, and cash income. They are cheap to acquire and easy to maintain, even by people with little property and scarce resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, especially in arid and semiarid climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats generally have a long snout and an upright tail, by which they can be distinguished from most sheep. The mouth is unusual in having a mobile upper lip and a grasping tongue, which permits the animal to nibble even tiny leaves on spiny species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Common commercial goat breeds generally weigh between 60 and 100 kg, with some weighing more than 200 kg. Microgoats may weigh less than 15 kg. Representative examples are listed at the end of the chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, with half in Asia and one-third in Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The FAO projects that world numbers may nearly double by the turn of the century. Goats are thus not endangered, but in some areas select populations of feral goats are being deliberately eradicated, with the consequent loss of potentially valuable genes. Some small breeds are also threatened by excessive crossbreeding with larger types.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most adaptable of all livestock, goats can persist in conditions from arid to humid, and from sea level to high altitude. They are especially well adapted to hot, semiarid climates and to rocky, barren terrain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These ruminants can subsist on many feedstuffs that would otherwise be left to waste. Although selective browsers, they often prefer coarse leaves (including palm fronds) and shrubbery to palatable forage grass.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most microgoats mature quickly, and in the tropics they can generally breed year-round. Their reproductive potential has often been underestimated; kidding is rarely difficult, and many types produce twins and sometimes even triplets or quadruplets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In hot, dry areas, goats require less attention than other livestock, and smaller goats have the added advantage of better heat dissipation. Some microgoats may also show disease resistance. For example, tolerance to trypanosomiasis makes them an important livestock in many regions of Africa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are generally gentle, but can be easily frightened. They may become stubborn and aggressive when threatened or thwarted, and can prove hard to confine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If their feed smells of other animals - particularly of other goats -  they usually shun it unless nothing else is available. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoats mainly produce meat and form an important part of the diet in southern Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America, especially the Caribbean. Goat is sometimes a preferred meat, and there are few social or religious prohibitions against eating it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some microgoats are good milkers, and under stressful conditions they may keep producing when other livestock are dry. Goat milk is a valuable dietary supplement: it is nutritious, easily digestible, and usually commands premium prices. It makes excellent cheese and yogurt and can be used by people allergic to cow's milk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoats produce some of the finest and most valuable fibers in the world. Angora and Cashmere goats often weigh less than 30 kg fully grown, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats produce a fine-textured, durable leather that finds extensive uses both locally and internationally. Horns, hooves, blood, and bone meal also have commercial value. Manure is another important product, and comes in fairly dry pellets that are easy to collect, store, and distribute.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats perform important functions in land management. Seeds of many trees (Acacia and Prosopis, for example) are "scarified" by passing through the goats' digestive system, fostering germination and natural revegetation. With care, goats can also be used to clear land of weeds and brush.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are often allowed to roam and scavenge for their own food. They form strong territorial attachments and can be trained to stay within a designated area. However, they cannot be kept from investigating - and quite probably devouring - anything within that territory. They are persistent browsers, so it is essential to prevent overstocking as well as raids on crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Variety of diet is important, and goats show much individuality in feed preferences. They are often raised on crop residue and kitchen refuse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats can be run with other livestock without creating serious competition. The goats browse weedy shrubs, whereas the sheep and cattle graze more on grasses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although perhaps the hardiest of all livestock, most breeds benefit when they are provided shelter from rain and high-noon sun. Abrupt chilling and poor ventilation can cause severe respiratory problems. They are also susceptible to various maladies, such as internal parasites, especially when confined. The highest mortality, however, is caused when very young kids are not supplied with adequate feed and clean, dry shelter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most developing countries goats are already prominent in rural life. Common almost everywhere in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, they are dependable multi-use animals. They are particularly important in providing ready cash, such as for school fees, taxes, marriages, or funerals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats integrate well in mixed agriculture, for example, by consuming leafy wastes, clearing land, and contributing fertilizer. In many places they are raised almost exclusively by women and children. If confined, goats require only simple, inexpensive shelters or pens, which makes them especially important as subsistence animals. In many situations, they may be the most efficient and economic producers for smallholders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals have a relatively fast rate of growth and early reproductive age, even under harsh conditions. They can graze rougher terrain than cattle and most sheep, can go for longer periods without water, and forage well in wooded areas where grass is lacking. They can derive most or all of their diet from roughage unusable by humans; high-energy feeds, such as protein supplements or carbohydrate supplements, are usually not needed even to fatten them for slaughter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are generally healthy and are not affected by many of the parasites and diseases that ravage other livestock. Some resistance to mange, internal parasites, foot-and-mouth disease, and other livestock scourges has been reported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some places (notably, in industrialized nations) there is a strong prejudice against goats and goat meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smallness makes microgoats targets for predators and thieves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many small goats are poor milkers, especially under hardship conditions; however, even small amounts of milk can often fulfill a child's daily nutritional requirement or reinforce a nursing mother's diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are independent and may wander away if not watched, and they can be difficult to pen. They may also have an unpleasant odor when kept confined (males are particularly malodorous during rutting season). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goats are often disparaged for degrading land and destroying vegetation because they continue to survive on overutilized lands often laid waste by mismanagement of sheep or cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRESH GENES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A rare wild animal with spectacular horns, the bezoar (Capra aegagrus) is the goat's wild ancestor. People domesticated it before 7000 B.C., probably in the mountains along the Iran/ Iraq border. Until recent times, it remained widely scattered across the vast region between Greece and Pakistan, but it now exists only in pockets and is threatened with extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This would be a tragedy because the bezoar is a resilient wild species that crosses readily with domestic goats, and it could pass on its genetic inheritance for heat, drought, and cold tolerance: disease resistance; and other survival qualities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p39a.png"></center><br>
+ Distribution of the bezoar. The arrow indicates the area where it was probably first domesticated, resulting in the goat as we know it (From Mason 1984)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fascinating science and valuable results probably await those willing to study this hardy, handsome creature and to explore the reharnessing of its genetic endowment. Today the bezoar is considered merely a trophy for hunters. The power of its genes to refresh - perhaps even revolutionize - the world's 500 million goats has been lost to sight. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The microgoat's potential has hardly been realized. More research on performance and husbandry is needed to preserve and restore small breeds. Selective breeding for prolificacy, viability, and rapid growth, as well as more selective on-site culling, could greatly improve both meat and milk yields and quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management systems that exploit smallness, stabilize production, and preserve the environment should be introduced and publicized in appropriate goat-rearing areas. Careful assessments of indigenous management methods should be made, particularly emphasizing their desirable characteristics. Improving hygiene in the wet season and supplemental feeding in the dry season are also important, as are disease- and parasite-control measures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The undomesticated ibex and markhor could possibly be major contributors in the development of new, useful breeds for tropical and arid regions (see sidebar, page 42). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE BREEDS OF MICROGOATS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African Dwarf (Djallon)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West and Central Africa. Female 20 kg; male 30 kg. Adapted to humid lowlands, this widespread goat is particularly valuable for meat and skin production. Generally, it is bred for meat, but milk is sometimes an important secondary product. Sexual maturity is very early (3-6 months), and quadruplets occasionally occur (most goat breeds normally produce only single births). Related types go by the names "Cameroon Dwarf," "Dirdi," and "Nigerian Dwarf."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nubian Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States. 35-40 kg (often less). A stable miniature variety of the milking Nubian, this microgoat has been developed recently in the United States by crossing standard-sized Nubians with the West African Dwarf. It combines a good milk output with high levels of butterfat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American Pygmy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States. 15-25 kg. Derived from the West African Dwarf, it is noted for its hardiness and good nature, good milk production, and adaptability to various climates. There are several varieties, some for milking, others for meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudanese Nubian</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Sudan. 25-30 kg. Widespread milk goats of riverain and urban areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudanese Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Sudan. 11-25 kg. A very hardy desert goat similar to the West African Dwarf, it averages 15 kg, but some mature individuals may weigh as little as 11 kg. Used for meat and hides, it produces little milk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small East African</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania. 20-30 kg. A widely neglected meat and hide animal found over a wide range, it is fast growing (sexual maturity at four months) and extremely hardy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritian</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritius. 25-30 kg. A prolific, year-round breeder raised for meat production, it is often confined in simple shelters from birth to slaughter. Perhaps because of this isolation, mortality is less than 10 percent, even with little or no veterinary care.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin America. "Criollo" is a name given to several breeds of ancient Iberian blood with local adaptations to many unfavorable conditions. They are often small and hardy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Creole Caribbean. Females 20 kg; males 25 kg. Robust meat goats of Spanish or West African origin that are kept throughout the Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crioulo Brazil. 30-35 kg. A meat and skin goat derived from Portuguese ancestors, it is hardy, prolific, undemanding, and adapted to harsh environments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chapper</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan. Female 20 kg; male 24 kg. Originating in dry regions, this meat and milk goat is a nonseasonal breeder with outstanding potential.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbari</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan, India. Females 20-25 kg; males 20-40 kg. A prolific, fastgrowing "urban" goat with high twinning and low mortality. Often kept inside houses, they adapt well to confinement and are important for both milk and meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaddi (White Himalaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hill districts of northern India. 25-30 kg. Kept for meat and their long, lustrous white hair, they are pure-breeding and healthy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Changthangi (Ladakh)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kashmir, India. Male 20 kg. A pashmina (cashmere) goat of India, it is adapted to a high altitude, high humidity climate with extremes of temperature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Terai</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal. 8-12 kg. A very small, hardy animal of the southern lowlands, it kids year-round (sometimes twice), and often produces twins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Hill Goat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal. 12-16 kg. A small, mid-altitude goat resembling the Terai. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Bengal (Teddy, Bangladesh Dwarf)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eastern India and Pakistan. Female 10 kg; male 14 kg. A widespread, humid-area, meat goat that is early maturing and very prolific. It kids twice a year, and produces 60 percent twins and 10 percent triplets. It produces a superior leather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katjang</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southeast Asia, China, and Pacific Islands. In places, less than 20 kg. A widespread, highly variable, hardy goat adapted to humid conditions, it usually has twins or triplets. Used for meat and skins, with exceptional females being milked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chinese Dwarf (Tibetan, Jining, Fuyang, or Chengdu Grey)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China. 20-40 kg. Well adapted to the humid tropics, it normally twins and is a good meat producer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heuk Yumso</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Korea. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. A prolific cold-climate goat with a year-round breeding season. The meat is highly prized, and often sells at a premium due to its supposed health-giving effects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hejazi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East. Female 20 kg; male 20 kg. A meat goat, usually black, for harsh desert conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sinai (Black Bedouin)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sinai, Egypt and Negev Desert, Israel. Female 20 kg; male 50 kg. Native to dry, hot deserts, this milk and meat goat matures at 5-8 months and has a twinning rate over 50 percent. A most important characteristic is its drought tolerance. The female, for instance, can drink only once a day - at a pinch, once every other day - without losing appetite or reducing milk flow. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILD RELATIVES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several wild relatives will cross with the goat. Surprisingly, they have the same chromosome number (2n=60), and the offspring are frequently fertile. Although essentially unknown to agricultural science, these hybrids may offer a new gene pool for creating new farm animals and for improving the world's goats. They seem to combine the self-reliance of wild species with the usefulness of domestic ones. Artificial insemination and other modern techniques could make them easier to produce today than ever before.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ibex*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A project in Israel has already produced a cross between the goat and the Nubian ibex (Capra ibex). The Sinai Desert goat, the breed that was used, ranks next to the camel in its ability to go without water - it often drinks only twice a week - but its meat has such a strong flavor that most people consider it dreadful. On the other hand, the ibex is compact and muscular and produces tender, mild meat that steak lovers find delicious. The product from crossbreeding the two is a creature seemingly able to endure extreme temperatures and drought, make use of poor pasture, and produce wonderful steaks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A herd of several hundred of these hybrids (dubbed 'ya-ez") has been created at Kibbutz Lahav in the northern Negev Desert area. Both sexes are fertile, and they can be bred with each other or with either parent. The meat is already in demand on the menus of elegant Tel Aviv hotels. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Markhor**</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Pakistan's northern uplands, it is not uncommon to find hybrids between domestic goats and the mountain goat known as "markhor" (Capra falconeri). Each year in Chitral and Gilgit, they can be found in the goat markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Markhors inhabit high elevations in rugged mountains and thrive on diets so meager as to be useless to goats. The hybrids are produced when markhor males - perhaps ousted by more dominant males - come in contact with feral domestic goats. However, some farmers raise young markhor and goats together (to overcome mutual resistance) and produce their own hybrids,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For a single hybrid animal local goatherds pay up to 5,000 rupees, a princely sum in this impoverished region. Traditionally, villagers have kept them as stud animals. They appreciate the animal's genetic endowment. Markhors tolerate extremes of cold and snow, are nimble and skilled at escaping predators, and survive on scanty fodder, Moreover, they have a high reproduction potential because they generally produce twins. As a result, they also tend to give more milk and it is rich in nutritive value. Instead of long body hairs, markhors possess insulating underfur - a soft and valuable raw material for the famous Kashmiri shawls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apparently, the hybrids can possess many of these qualities together with a calm disposition. Thus they could be useful in themselves and as conduits for passing such traits on to goats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 Microsheep</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the hundreds of breeds of sheep (Ovis aries) in the world, those weighing less than 35 kg when mature have been largely ignored. Although these are common, the impression lingers that they are too small to be useful. Yet this virtually untapped gene pool is esnecially well adapted to traditional Third World animal husbandry. Given attention, these "microsheep" could boost meat, milk, skin, wool, and pelt production in many villages and small farms of Africa, Asia, and Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many microsheep thrive in environments that tax the ability of larger breeds to survive. They are adapted to poor feeds and can be grazed in uncultivated wastelands unsuited to any other livestock except goats or camels. Because of their size, microsheep can fatten in areas where forage is so scattered and sparse that larger animals cannot cover enough ground to fill their bellies each day. In addition, their foraging complements that of other livestock. For example, sheep can graze rough grasses and weeds that cattle find unpalatable. Some survive even the stress of extreme aridity and for this reason are the predominant livestock in North Africa and the Middle East.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many small breeds can be disease resistant. Some, for example, are widespread in the zones of Africa where trypanosomiasis is prevalent. They are generally less adversely affected by foot-and-mouth disease than are cattle, and some small native sheep seem to have fewer problems with insects and parasites than do most other livestock, including temperate-area sheep.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giving more attention to the management and improvement of microsheep could pay back abundantly in the form of food, income, and improved land utilization in many parts of the developing world. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, but notably in drier regions of the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An average weight for temperate sheep breeds is about 70 kg,' but the smallest microsheep weigh less than 20 kg fully grown. Many tropical microsheep are "hairless," and have little or no wool. These are often difficult to distinguish from goats, but (like all sheep) they generally have blunter snouts, more fat, and hanging tails. Some have greatly enlarged rumps or tails that store fat. Unlike goats, sheep have no odor-producing glands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some representative microsheep are described at the end of this chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than one billion sheep occur worldwide, and they occupy every climatic zone in which people live. At least half are in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although more than 1,000 breeds are recognized, only a handful dominate the world's sheep industries. Lesser-known breeds are rapidly becoming extinct (especially in developed countries, although scattered efforts are being made to preserve them). Elsewhere, genetic resources have not been properly evaluated, and potentially valuable stock is being lost before it is even understood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep are among the most adaptable animals. Various types are kept in areas of extreme heat, cold, altitude, aridity, humidity, and rainfall. They are especially widespread in hot, dry climates, but some breeds also thrive in humid areas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep make efficient use of a wide variety of fodder: tree leaves, fortes, grasses, crop residues, and agricultural by-products, for instance. They often survive privation by calling on their reserves of body fat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the tropics, sheep reach sexual maturity in about a year. Many breeds lamb year-round, which allows for a continuous production of premium meat. Gestation takes about five months, and lambing is usually timed to occur when feed is most abundant and nutritious. Microsheep often bear two or more young and, under good management, may produce lambs annually for more than five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These shy animals flock together and, in general, are managed with little effort. They are easily panicked, however, and rams can become aggressive during rutting or when threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE LITTLE SHEEP THAT COULD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dozens of the world's neglected breeds of tiny sheep should be preserved from extinction, for many will undoubtedely prove to have outstanding qualities. Current efforts to save the Navajo sheep in the United States exemplify what can be achieved</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Navajo is a microsheep, and is perhaps the oldest breed of sheep in the United States. It may have been introduced to North America in 1540 by the Spanish explorer Francisco Vazquez de Coronado, who was seeking the mythical Seven Golden Cities of Cibola in the region that is now Arizona and New Mexico. Smaller than many dogs, a full-grown Navajo sheep may weigh only 30 kg, but it became a big part of the culture of the Southwest. Although the Navajos and other local Indians had never seen sheep before the 1500s, they soon became shepherds and weavers, and their rugs made from the unique wool of this wiry little animal remain famous even today.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navajo sheep have white or brown wool hanging in ringlets around their bodies. The fleece is a double coat: long, coarse guard hairs on the outside and short wool on the inside. It yields warm, waterproof, and long-lasting products. Many of the sheep have four horns because the Indians believed that this trait was sacred, and they favored four-horned rams for breeding purposes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of Navajo sheep was reduced sharply between 1950 and 1950 because of severe overgrazing and replacement by improved wool breeds. In recent times there has been so little commercial and scientific interest in this microsheep that by the 1970s only a handful of purebred specimens survived. Since the late 1970s, however, Lyle McNeal, a Utah State University professor, has been working to save it from extinction. By 1988 he had a burgeoning flock at the university and was learning that this supposedly obsolete dwarf is amazingly useful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The breed originated in the arid south of Spain (where it is called the "churro"), and it thrives in the hot, dry climate. Unlike normal breeds, it can exist in the desert without supplementary food and with little water. As McNeal has pointed out, any sheep that can survive and raise a lamb in the aridity and searing heat of the American Southwest has to be superior. He has found that the ewes have a strong maternal instinct, which is vital for protecting lambs against the coyotes that are common in the region. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thanks to the efforts of McNeal and his colleagues, Indians are beginning to use Navajo sheep again; by 1988 there were more than 400 on the Navajo reservation, with their wool fetching premium prices. This tough little sheep could prove valuable not only for American Indians but for poor people in many other dry regions as well. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microsheep are mainly kept for meat production, but - especially in arid regions - for milk as well. Their meat is usually lean with little "muttony" taste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wool or hair is taken from many breeds, although the yield is often small. Skins from hair sheep' thinner than cowhide, are widely used and are in international demand. In some places, manure is considered an important product. In Nepal, thousands of small sheep are used as pack animals, especially to carry salt into mountain valleys.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most sheep are maintained in free-ranging flocks. Many are grazed (often tethered) over a small area during the day and confined in a "fold" at night. Others are penned or kept as village scavengers. These are usually fed supplements of household scraps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep form an integral part of a mixed farming economy; for example, they may graze pastures during the wet season, and survive on crop residues and field weeds during the dry season. They have excellent foraging capabilities and are often kept alongside goats. This broadens the variety of forages utilized and often increases total production from a single piece of land, for sheep and goats have complementary feeding habits and male goats help protect the sheep from some predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In spite of the heavy toll that predators (such as feral dogs) can take on lambs and ewes, the largest proportion of sheep in the tropics are lost through lack of basic care. Modest supplemental feeding of lambs and inexpensive preventive medicines can do much to lower mortality and boost production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep are multipurpose animals, and almost everywhere they produce several products. The rich milk is often preferred to that of cows or goats, especially for making cheese and yogurt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lambs form an important part of the household economy for much of the rural world, and only rarely is social or religious stigma attached to keeping or eating them. Indeed, sheep are the traditional feast animals of several religions, and in some places sheep meat is preferred to beef and sells at a premium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By and large, all sheep products can be processed, utilized, or marketed by the producer. In addition, sheep marketing and transportation systems exist in most countries, at least to some degree.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep are efficient producers and can provide a quick turnover for food and cash. On the brush and coarse grasses of marginal lands, they may be more productive than cattle, and on grass they may outproduce goats. As long as they are not overstocked, sheep do not degrade vegetation; unless starving they will not debark trees. Small breeds cause little erosion, even on steep slopes, heavily traveled paths, or near water holes.2 In South Asia, they have been continuously stocked on the same ground for thousands of years without causing apparent harm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because sheep have a natural tendency to accumulate fat, they "finish" well on grazing and usually do not require a high-energy finishing diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their general healthiness, sheep are affected by many internal parasites and diseases, a few of which are communicable to man. They are especially susceptible to infectious conjunctivitis (pinkeye).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Predators and thieves can be greater threats than sickness. Labor inputs can be high because of the almost continual protection sheep need.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some mutton has a strong taste that many find unappealing. However, the taste is carried mainly by the fat, and the generally lean microsheep are often commended for their fine-textured, sweet meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The numerous breeds of small sheep should be investigated. Assessments should be made for the animals' ability to thrive under adverse conditions and for resistance to particular diseases and parasites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, even minimal extension services and veterinary support for sheep could greatly decrease mortality, especially among lambs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving microbreeds without increasing their size is one of the most interesting challenges facing sheep scientists today. While efforts should be made to conserve and select within types, research should also be conducted on hybrid vigor. Efforts to improve the pelt and fleece of microsheep should also be encouraged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More studies on the interactions between sheep and cropping systems are needed. Sheep (and the manure they produce) could become important components of forestry (see sidebar), crop rotation, alley cropping, and other forms of sustainable agriculture. For instance, sheep are especially effective for weed control in plantation crops such as oil palm and rubber as well as in forests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SMALL SHEEP IN THE FOREST</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even in countries with long traditions of raising large sheep, there are opportunities for using small, agile, hardy breeds. The following is an example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seeking safer methods for stopping brush from smothering newly planted trees, U.S. government foresters have turned from chemical defoliants to flocks of sheep. Court decisions in 1983 and 1984 barred the use of herbicides along Oregon's Pacific Coast. Various alternatives were tried, and the animals proved the most successful. Sheep are now the favored method for controlling unwanted vegetation. Indeed, they have changed the foresters' whore approach to managing reforestation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Formerly, the U.S. Forest Service allowed the brush to grow on logged-over sites and then sprayed it down before planting tree seedlings. Now it plants grass to suppress brush and reduce erosion. The sites are later fertilized, tree seedlings are planted, and within a year sheep are brought in to graze. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, in the district around Alsea, Oregon sheep nimbly skirt old stumps to graze on the lush vegetation. Three times each summer since 1984, about 2,000 sheep have been guided across the replanted areas by a herder and a range conservationist. The sheep eat both the grass and the new buds on brush, but they leave most fir-tree seedlings untouched. The key, according to Rick Breckle, a forester, is to have enough sheep to graze an area evenly and to keep them moving so they don't resort to nibbling the young trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Previously, chemical brush treatments had annually cost $135-$353 per hectare. Now, sowing grass and grazing sheep costs about $300 per hectare. And there is a product to sell: the adult sheep don't fatten well, but the lambs bring a useful income at the end of the summer. What is more, Breckle reports that the trees seem to be growing faster - probably because of the manurings they receive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This method seems likely to be effective elsewhere - at least with trees that are unpalatable or too tall for their growing points to be nibbled. Malaysia, for instance, doubled its sheep population between 1986 and 1989, in part because it has begun raising sheep between the trees in rubber plantations. With the use of agroforestry increasing worldwide, small sheep could find a whole new application.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MICROSHEEP</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Senegal to Nigeria, and south to Angola. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. Well adapted to warm, humid conditions. Prolific, and good disease resistance. Major meat producer in West Africa. Fast growing: by six months of age they approach adult weight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Landim (Small East African)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">East and Central Africa. 23-40 kg. Prolific, adaptable, long fat-tailed type. Large litter size for a sheep. In one recent test, ewes averaged more than 1.4 lambs.3 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berber</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Atlas Mountains. 25-41 kg. Needing little feed and remaining constantly outdoors, these extremely hardy sheep are exploited for meat and their coarse, hairy wool. They fatten easily when well fed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arab</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">North Africa. 40-50 kg. This thin-tailed sheep is exceptionally robust, and is resistant to extremes of temperature, drought, and poor nutrition. Primarily a meat producer, its wool is used for coarse cloths and carpets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Sudan Dwarf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the many small breeds of eastern and southern Africa, its weight ranges from 15 to 25 kg, but it may weigh as little as 11 kg. Yielding a fine, short fleece, this hardy, frugal sheep is often run with cattle to maximize grazing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hejazi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deserts of Arabia. 32 kg. A popular and ancient fat-tailed meat producer that is highly acclimatized to drought and privation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zel (Iranian Thin-Tailed)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caspian region of northern Iran. Female 30-32 kg. Well adapted to subtropical regions, they produce coarse wool, milk, and excellent meat that lacks the "mutton taste" and odor of some sheep meats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greek Zackel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mountain and island types. Female 30 kg; male 40 kg. These common sheep are active, hardy, and resistant to extremes of climate and disease. Primarily a milking sheep, their wool is used locally and lambs are slaughtered for special occasions. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sitia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crete. Female 25 kg; male 30 kg. Another of the hardy, screwhorned "zackel" sheep common to the Balkans, they are adapted to poor pasturage and extensive herding. Quick maturing and highly fertile, they can be exploited for milk as well as for meat and coarse wool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Common Albanian</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. Similar to the Greek Zackel, they are used as triple-purpose animals: meat, milk, and wool. They survive in low, marshy areas where parasites are common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zeta Yellow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yugoslavia. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. A small, hardy sheep used for milk and some meat, its primary product is wool. Often unshorn for several years, the long fibers are woven into expensive carpets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pag</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yugoslavia. Female 20-30 kg; male 25-35 kg. These wool, milk, and meat sheep are frugal and well adapted to scant vegetation and rocky terrain. Although they have a low birth rate and carcass yield, their milk and wool are commercially exploitable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roccia (Steinschaf)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Italy, Austria. Female 30 kg; Male 30-35 kg. These "stone sheep" resemble a goat in their ability to exploit the poor pastures of high, steep, rocky mountains. Although not highly productive, they are hardy and frugal and commonly produce twins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corsican</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corsica (France). 25-30 kg. A hardy native breed that is well adapted to rather sparse feed conditions. Coarse wool, both white and black, is well suited for hand processing. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entre Douro e Minho</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Portugal. Female 15-18 kg; Male 20-25 kg. These independent sheep yield a good wool in mountainous terrain that would otherwise be nonproductive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Churra do Campo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Portugal. Female 20 kg; male 30 kg. A coarse-woofed sheep extensively kept in Portugal's dry interior for milk and wool. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Galician</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spain. Female 18 kg; male 25 kg. A milking breed that survives on  poor pasture, it also produces a marketable wool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scotland. Female 25 kg; male 30 kg. Adapted to wide temperature  variations. Possibly the most primitive domesticated sheep of Europe,  probably unchanged from Viking times. Immune to foot rot. A wool  sheep with short brown fleece that is shed annually.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">North Ronaldsay (Orkney)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Scotland. 27-32 kg. Surviving year-round on seaweed,  this rare breed is adapted to high salt intake and the associated digestive  problems. Yield 1-2 kg medium-coarse wool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin America. Derived from ''native'' Spanish Churro and Merino  sheep. Many are small and very hardy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navajo-Churro Southwestern United States. Female 45 kg; male 70  kg. Maternal, and very resistant to internal parasites and hoof rot.  Although the Navajo subsists and reproduces on little feed and scarce  water in desert regions, it was widely replaced by improved breeds  earlier in this century. Because of its hardiness, however, and the use of  its wool in traditional weaving, its numbers are rebounding (see sidebar,  page 50). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Florida Native Southeastern United States. Females 35-45 kg;  males 45-6O kg. This long-isolated and highly variable sheep is  adapted to harsh subtropical climates and is known for its ability to  forage. A medium-wool breed, it is very resistant to intestinal parasites.  Verging on extinction due to neglect and uncontrolled crossbreeding. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Virgin Islands White Hair (St. Croix)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean. Female 35-45 kg; male 45-55 kg. Hair sheep with  some wool in young animals. Well adapted to warm humid conditions, it has fairly good disease and parasite resistance and produces good meat. Prolific, it breeds most of the year and commonly has twins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Magra (Chokhla)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northwest India, Pakistan.4 20-25 kg. Adapted to hot, dry areas, the extremely white and shiny fleece is valued for carpet wool. Slowmaturing and low fertility (lambing at 45 percent) plus extensive crossbreeding have led to serious declines in population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marwari</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northwest India. 25-30 kg. A widespread, white-fleeced sheep that has a high resistance to disease and worms, good fertility, and low mortality. They do well in large flocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mandya (Bandur)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southwest India. Female 25 kg; male 35 kg. An outstanding meat breed with good mutton quality, it adapts well to mixed farming and has unusually low lamb mortality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hu (Huyang, Lake Sheep)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China. Female 35 kg; male 45 kg. These fat-tailed sheep have a six month lambing interval and are very prolific. They are used under intensive management to produce meat, wool, and a valuable lambskin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Javanese Thin-Tail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia. 25-40 kg. Widely held as a "bank account," these meat, manure, and skin sheep are well known for being prolific. Although single lambs are not uncommon, litters of six have also been recorded. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILD AND WOOLLY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Considering that dozens of countries depend on the productivity of more than a billion domesticated sheep, it is remarkable that their wild ancestor is accorded no attention. This fast-declining animal is now little more than a trophy for hunters, a fact that should be of vital intemational concern.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheep were domesticated in the Middle East and Central Asia in the Stone Age era between 8,000 and 11,000 years ago.* Their wild ancestor was almost certainly the mouflon (Outs orientalis). However, domestication may have occurred in more than one place, and two other wild creatures, the urial (Outs vignei) and the argali (Outs ammon), also possibly provided genes to some sheep breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mouflon, urial, and argali still exist in the mountains of Central Asia, and a European subspecies of mouflon is also found in the Mediterranean, but only on Corsica, Cyprus, and Sardinia.** Because they live in remote, rugged, upland areas, these wild sheep are usually undisturbed, but the numbers are decreasing everywhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This may be a serious loss because these animals could be extremely valuable. They are capable of crossing with domestic sheep, and the offspring are viable and fully fertile.*** For developing new meat-producing breeds, their potential seems almost limitless.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the thousands of years that sheep have been protected by humans, their wild ancestors have continued to face predators, parasites, disease, extreme cold and seasonal starvation. Their genetic endowment, forged and tempered in unforgiving harshness, could be a benefit for all future sheep generations. These animals appear to resist various diseases. Their meat is reported to be of excellent quality, notably lacking the strong mutton flavor that many people find objectionable. They have relatively short, thin tails - a feature that might eliminate the need for docking (tail removal) in the domestic flock. Some (for instance, the Asian mouflon and the urial) have rates of effective reproduction up to 1.6 lambs per ewe, more than twice the average of most domestic types, especially under the conditions where these wild creatures live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That mouflon and other wild sheep could have practical utility is suggested by research at Utah State University. Scientists there have mated mouflon with farm sheep to create sheep better able to defend themselves against coyotes and other natural dangers. Half-wild, half-tame sheep hybrids have existed on a ranch in southern Utah for the past decade. Also, in Cyprus similar mouflon x sheep hybrids have shown considerable promise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the very least, this wiry little mountain sheep could be a model for educating students and the public. It is a living reminder of the fantastic changes that can be induced in animals by selection for various traits. Also, it is a "map" to the history of sheep domestication. Studies of mouflon genes, blood immunology, morphology, physiology, horn structure, skeleton, fleece, temperament, and a host of other features would help unravel the ancestry. These studies and various biochemical analyses would be a fascinating contribution to agriculture, science, history, and the public perception of the origins of our natural resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genes from wild sheep are not likely to quickly benefit wool production. Lack of fleece is one reason why these creatures have been neglected but throughout most of Asia and in North Africa, sheep are bred primarily for meat and milk, and there is a growing worldwide interest in the use of hair sheep. All of this brings new possibilities for the use of this old resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Micropigs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g005a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most breeds of swine (Sus scrofa) are too large to be considered microlivestock, but there are some whose mature weight is less than 70 kg. These micropigs are particularly common in West Africa, South Asia, the East Indies, Latin America, and oceanic islands around the world. At least one, the Mexican Cuino, may weigh a mere 12 kg full-grown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many miniature swine have been developed for use in medical research, but their agricultural potential has been largely ignored. This is unfortunate, for micropigs of all types - native, feral, and laboratory - deserve investigation. Swine provide more meat worldwide than any other animal, and micropigs are potentially important sources of food and income for poor people in many parts of the developing world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smallness makes for nimble and self-sufficient pigs, in contrast to large, lethargic breeds. Small breeds are easier to manage and cheaper to maintain; the threat of injury from angry or frightened animals is lessened; and the sows are less likely to crush newborn piglets, often a major cause of mortality in large breeds. Some micropigs - particularly those from hot regions or wild populations - also have a higher resistance to heat, thirst, starvation, and some diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs adapt to a wide variety of management conditions, from scavenging to total confinement; some are even kept indoors.2 They gain weight quickly, mature rapidly, and help complement grazing livestock because they relish many otherwise unused wastes from kitchens, farms, and food industries, as well as other foods such as small roots, leafy trash, or bitter fruits that are not consumed by humans or ruminants. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For these reasons, micropigs could become useful household and village livestock in the developing world, and they deserve greater attention than they now receive. Although their growth may not be as rapid as that of improved breeds raised under intensive commercial production, with modest care and minimum investment, backyard micropigs can produce sizable yields of meat and other products, as well as improved income for rural and even urban populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, especially in warm, humid areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like full-sized breeds, micropigs are stout-bodied, short-legged animals with small tails and flexible snouts ending in flat discs. Examples of some micropigs are listed at the end of the chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic pigs are found all over the world, but their concentrations vary greatly. Africa has the fewest per capita, but in recent years they have gained increasing favor in the sub-Saharan regions. In Latin America, pigs have long been a major component of backyard agriculture. In the Middle East, an early center of domestication, pigs are not widely kept today because of religious dietary restrictions. In the Ear East, they are the major meat source, and China has more pigs than any other country. And in the Pacific region, pigs and chickens are often the only meat available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are becoming more popular: their worldwide numbers increased by about 20 percent in the 1970s. However, in most countries commercial pig production has focused on a mere handful of breeds, and much genetic diversity is unstudied or even threatened with extinction. Some microbreeds have already been lost, and others are dwindling in numbers.3 Many European breeds have been completely lost. The Cuino and some other Latin American criollo types are threatened, as are most of Africa's traditional breeds. China, however, has made notable efforts to preserve its native types. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although, as previously noted, pigs are found all over the world, they are in general adapted to warm, humid climates where many other livestock species are more susceptible to diseases and environmental stresses. They are also raised at high altitudes, such as in the Andes and Tibet. Although there are few climatic limitations to pig production, only about 20 percent of the world's pigs are currently kept in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are omnivores, willing and able to eat almost anything.4 Unlike most other livestock, they eat their fill and sleep as the food digests, allowing humans to establish a convenient eating and sleeping schedule.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are prolific; a few Chinese breeds routinely have litters of 20 or more. Micropigs are no exception; litters of 6-10 are common. Piglets gain weight rapidly and can be weaned after a few weeks. Sexual maturity is sometimes attained as early as 4-6 months, depending on breed and environment. Pigs are usually slaughtered at 67 months of age, allowing them to be produced on an annual cycle. They can live 10-20 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their smaller size, micropigs have a relatively greater skin-to-weight ratio than today's commercial breeds, and therefore they probably shed heat more effectively. Certainly they seem to perform better in tropical heat and humidity, which normally keep the heavier types from reaching their maximum productivity. Studies have suggested that an optimal size for some tropical environments - because of metabolic and feed efficiency - may be less than 65 kg.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are social animals; they enjoy companionship and ferociously defend their young and sometimes even the humans who care for them. They are employed as guard animals in some areas and have been used extensively in behavioral research.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contrary to common belief, pigs are clean and tidy if provided adequate space. Larger breeds, however, wallow in mud to stay cool in hot weather and require a wallow or shade (except for some Latin American types, which seem less susceptible to heat). Some lightcolored pigs sunburn easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs will dig up earth with their mobile snouts; some breeds do it constantly. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fresh pork is the major pig product in tropical areas. It usually fetches premium prices, and in many places (such as the Pacific Islands and China) it is the most important red meat available to rural people. Nutritious and tasty, it is one of the easiest meats to preserve, needing only salt or melted fat. Processed products such as bacon and sausages can be important for both home consumption and cash sales.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig fat (lard) is a good source of food energy, and can substitute for cooking fats and oils. It is easily melted and clarified, is widely used to make soap, and is a valuable commercial product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig skin, once degreased, is easily tanned into leathers that are popular for garments, shoes, and other products demanding soft, light, and flexible leathers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig manure is a good fertilizer. Because the animals are often kept in confinement, it can be easily collected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many places, pigs are kept as free-roaming scavengers. They can be trained (by coaxing with feed, salt, or affection) to keep close to home, thereby helping to minimize destructive scavenging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Herding is a higher level of management that requires more effort, but it allows pigs to be integrated into other types of agriculture while utilizing feeds that otherwise go to waste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because their exercise needs are minimal and dominance is quickly established within litters, pigs are the easiest hoofed livestock to raise in small enclosures (sties). However, fencing must be secure, and if sties are small, the animals must be moved frequently to prevent diseases and parasites from building up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are well-known, often traditional, animals in many areas, and people usually do not have to be taught how to manage and use them. Efficient scavengers, they can live, grow, and reproduce with a minimum of investment or specialized care. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs are highly efficient converters of feed to meat. They can provide the greatest return for the least investment of any hoofed livestock because of their fecundity, low management costs, broad food preferences, and rapid growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs normally accumulate fat during adolescent growth (making ''finishing" feeds less necessary). Some micropigs (especially those from feral ancestors) have the ability to quickly mobilize and store these body-fat reserves; in times of extreme scarcity, it aids their survival.6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigs work well in multiple-cropping schemes. They are often used to help clear small plots by uprooting weeds, shrubs, and even small trees. In Southeast Asia, they are frequently raised in conjunction with aquaculture, their manure providing food for the fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If improperly managed or maintained in filthy conditions, pigs may quickly succumb to disease and parasite epidemics. Most diseases are communicated only among pigs, but some can be transmitted to humans. For this reason, pork should always be fully cooked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some cultures never eat pork. Others do, but nonetheless accord pigs and their keepers low status.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young pigs are vulnerable to many predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major survey of small pig breeds is needed. They have the potential to be valuable producers in their own right, as well as to improve other pig breeds. For instance, they represent a little-known reservoir of disease resistance and climatic adaptation. Governments, research stations, universities, and individuals should make special efforts to preserve types that have outstanding or unusual qualities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When it is necessary to eradicate feral pig populations (as is common on Pacific islands), representative stocks should be preserved. These rugged animals have been genetically isolated for decades or even centuries and are likely to carry valuable traits for survival under adversity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large breeds may be promising candidates for genetic "downsizing," which has already produced the many types of miniature pigs that are used in medical research. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE LITTLEST PIG</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although this chapter highlights the world's smallest breeds, there exists a pig that is even smaller. It is, however, an entirely different species and it is on the brink of extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog (Sus salvanius) is a shy and retiring wild creature of northeastern India. It is merely 60 cm long with a shoulder height of 25 cm, and weighs less than 10 kg. It was once found widely along the southern foothills of the Himalayas. Today, however, it apparently occurs in only one area, the Manas National Park in Assam. Despite this protection and the fact that it is listed among the 12 most endangered species on earth, it still falls victim to hunters and to habitat destruction - especially illegal grass fires.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If saved from extinction, this minute species - barely reaching a person's calf - might become useful throughout the world. Its chromosome number is the same as that of the common pig and its physiological processes are probably also similar. Therefore, were its numbers to be built up, it might become a valued and well-known resource for laboratories and small farms. Its daily food intake and its space requirements are only a fraction of a normal pig's. It probably has exceptional tolerance to heat, humidity, and disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not a domesticated species, and there is therefore much to learn before its usefulness can be clearly seen. Indeed, whether it can be reared in captivity is uncertain. Some attempts have ended in disaster, but this seems to have been the result of mismanagement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before there is any possibility of developing it, however, the pigmy hog must be preserved from ultimate loss. The last specimen could go into a villager's pot at any time now. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g006a.png"></center><br>
+ Adult male of the common pig (wild boar) and pigmy hog draw to same scale. (W.L.R. OLIVER)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLES OF MICROPIGS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West African Dwarf (Nigerian Black, Ashanti)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West Africa. Mature weights of 25-45 kg are reported. In the humid lowland forests of West Africa this breed has long been kept by villagers, often as a scavenger. Indigenous to the hot, humid tsetse zones of West Africa, it seems resistant to trypanosomiasis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chinese Dwarfs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China (and Southeast Asian countries such as Vietnam) has long had small pigs - often characterized by numerous teats and large litters - associated with traditional intensive agriculture as well as scavenging conditions. Some Chinese pigs weighing less than 70 kg are adapted to tropical and subtropical conditions, but the smallest (20-35 kg) live in the cold climates and high altitudes of Gansu, Sichuan, and Tibet. Small black Chinese pigs were crossed with European types in the early 1800s and produced the foundation stock of many modern Western breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Criollo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are a number of "native" breeds throughout Latin America commonly known as "criollo." Many are quite small. Although, apparently, they are slow to mature and bear small litters, they adapt well to environmental extremes and are widely kept by rural inhabitants for food and income. Criollos are little studied and are being replaced by imported breeds before their possibly outstanding qualities can be quantified.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cuino This micropig from the highlands of central Mexico may be descended from small Chinese types and is the smallest domestic pig, weighing as little as 10-12 kg fully grown. Hardy and an efficient scavenger, it can grow quickly when feed - especially corn - is abundant. A century ago the cuing was a widespread household animal and was used for a time for experimental work in central Mexico. It is now little known and could be threatened with extinction. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Hairless (felon, Tubasqueno, Birish) These small pigs of central and northern South America survive in hot, humid, adverse climates. They are adapted to bulkier feeds than most pigs and can thrive on fruit wastes. Many local types exist. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nilo (Macao, Tatu, Canastrinha) This small, widespread, black, hairless pig of Brazil is often kept inside the house. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yucatan Miniature Swine A subtype of the black hairless from Mexico's hot, arid Yucatan Peninsula, it was imported into the United States in 1960. It has been downsized for laboratory use in the United States and is known as the Yucatan Micropig (registered). Weight at sexual maturity has been lowered through selective breeding from 75 kg to, currently, between 30 and 50 kg, with an ultimate goal of 20-25 kg. There is no evidence of "dwarfism," stunting, or loss of reproductive performance, and it appears to hold notable promise as microlivestock for developing countries. The parent stock, used for meat and lard production in Yucatan, is renowned for gentleness, intelligence, resistance to disease, and relative lack of odor. Exceptional docility, even in older boars and sows with litters, makes them easy to handle without the need for specialized housing or equipment.7 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Laboratory Breeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other miniature laboratory pigs have potential for tropical use. These include the Goettingen, Hanford, Kangaroo Island, Ohmini, Pitman-Moore, and Sinclair (Hormel). In general they weigh 30-50 kg when ready for slaughter and mature at less than 70 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ossabaw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States. 20-30 kg. Feral on Ossabaw Island, South Carolina, for more than 300 years, this pig is well adapted to environmental extremes. Unlike most domestic animals, it can maintain itself in coastal salt marshes. It has perhaps the highest percentage of fat of any pig. The piglets are very precocious, self-reliant, and robust.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kunekune (Pua'a, Poaka)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Zealand. Female 40 kg; male 50 kg. Perhaps of Chinese origin, these black-and-white spotted pigs are docile, slow, and easy to contain. Although late maturing, they can fatten on grass alone. Like other native breeds throughout the Pacific region (for example, the Pauta of Hawaii), stock is being lost through crossbreeding, displacement by other breeds, and eradication efforts. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To find certain disease-resistant genes in poultry it may be necessary to go looking in the backyard chicken flocks in Latin America, Africa, or Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kelly Klober</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small Farmer's Journal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. . . Policies are needed to encourage development of a labor-intensive small-scale livestock sector, which would increase employment and provide a major market for surplus cereals. This sector, however, is particularly restrained by poor technology, poor public support services, and poor marketing channels. Third World livestock production of this type could provide a natural focus for foreign assistance that earlier seemed inappropriate because of concerns about global food scarcity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John W. Mellor International Food Policy Research Institute</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Successful development of agriculture often requires an intimate understanding of the society within which it is to take place - of its systems of values, of its customary restraints.... It has been necessary to understand what incentives the farmer needs to change, what practical difficulties he encounters introducing change, what his traditional pattern of land use is and how this pattern or system can be upset by thoughtless innovation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John de Wilde</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experience with Agricultural Development in Tropical Africa </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part II : Poultry</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g007a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens, ducks, muscovies, geese, guinea fowl, quail, pigeons, and turkeys epitomize the concept of microlivestock. Throughout Africa, Asia, and Latin America they are (collectively) the most common of all farm stock. In many - perhaps most - tropical countries, practically every family, settled or nomadic, owns some kind of poultry. In the countryside, in villages, even in cities, one or another species is seen almost everywhere; in some places, several may be seen together. Although raised in all levels of husbandry, these birds occur most often in scattered household flocks that scavenge for their food and survive with little care or management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their size bestows microlivestock advantages, including low capital cost, low food requirements, and little or no labor requirements. They are also "family sized": easily killed and dressed, with little waste or spoilage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These poultry species help meet the protein needs of the poorest people in the world. Some are raised even in areas where domestic cattle cannot survive because of afflictions such as trypanosomiasis and foot-and-mouth disease. Some are maintained under conditions of intensive confinement - provided a source of feed is available - and can be produced in areas with insufficient land for other meat-producing animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, these birds grow quickly and mature rapidly. (For instance, a chicken can, under proper conditions, reach maturity in 26 months.) They adapt readily to being fenced or penned much, or all, of the time. And, compared with the major farm livestock, their life cycles are short and their production of offspring is high. Thus, farmers can synchronize production to match seasonal changes in the availability of feed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although poultry contribute substantially to human nutrition in the tropics, it is a small fraction of what it could be. The meat is widely consumed and is in constant demand. An excellent source of protein, it also provides minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, and iron, as well as the B-complex vitamins riboflavin, thiamine, and niacin. Nutritionally as complete as red meat, it is much lower in cholesterol and saturated fats. Poultry eggs are also important sources of nutrients. They are a renewable resource, easy to prepare, and are among the best sources of quality protein and vitamins (except vitamin C).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In spite of their numbers and potential, poultry are rarely accorded primary consideration in economic development activities. All in all, these small birds lack the appeal of large, four-legged livestock. Indeed, most countries have little knowledge of the contribution household birds actually make to the well-being and diets of their peoples. In some countries - even those where birds are widely kept - there is little or no poultry research or extension. And where such programs do exist they usually focus almost exclusively on the production of chickens under "industrial" conditions near cities (see sidebar, page 75).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most developing countries now have these intensive chicken industries, in which birds are kept in complete confinement. However, these commercial operations provide food for people in the cash economy, not for subsistence farmers. Moreover, grain is sometimes diverted or imported to maintain these operations, perhaps causing food shortages, higher prices, or depleted foreign exchange. Thus, in this section we focus on other, neglected, aspects of poultry production.,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The neglect of poultry that scavenge around the rural farmhouses and in village yards is understandable. The birds are scattered across the countryside where extension programs are difficult to implement. Their presence is often so ingrained in traditional village life that they are taken for granted and ignored by the authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet village poultry deserve greater attention. As converters of vegetation into animal protein, poultry can be outstanding. In fact, it is estimated that, in terms of feed conversion, eggs rank with cow's milk as the most economically produced animal protein, and that poultry meat ranks above that of other domestic animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most Third World poultry flocks live a wary, half-wild existence, scrounging for insects, earthworms, snails, seeds, leaves, and leftovers from the human diet. From dung and refuse piles they salvage undigested grains, as well as insects and other invertebrates. Often the persons who care for them are women or children. Some keep the birds around the house, penning them at night for protection from predators and thieves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This almost zero-cost production has, in spite of high losses, a remarkable rate of return. Any improvements that require the purchase of supplies cut severely into the profitability. The first step in improving the production of free-ranging poultry is vaccination against diseases (especially Newcastle disease, fowl pox, and Marek's disease) and a modest, supplemental feeding during times of seasonal scarcity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE INDUSTRIAL CHICKEN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout modem livestock farming the trend is toward more intensive methods, and poultry specialists have set the pace. In many countries, since the 1920s, barnyard fowl have given way to egg and broiler factories. The old-fashioned chicken reared outside on corn stubbles for 5 or 6 months has been replaced by the broiler, mass-produced in controlled environment houses in 7 - 10 weeks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a result of this revolution in poultry raising, small farmers who once made a comfortable living from a few laying hens have been forced out of business. These economic changes have also forced poultry men to have larger and larger flocks to survive. The largest broiler-chicken companies even control their own breed development, feed production, house construction, slaughtering, and freezing, many even have wholesale outlets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rapid changes in poultry farming methods can be attributed to the application of advanced technology. The development of the incubator to replace the mother hen sitting her seasonal clutch of eggs was the first mayor step toward intensive poultry farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, chickens were the first livestock to receive serious attention from geneticists. Before World War II, it was discovered that crossbreeding selected pure and inbred lines could result in dramatic increases in production. Hybrids tailor-made for egg or meat production quickly ousted the old pure breeds such as the Rhode Island Red White and Brown Leghorns, Light Sussex, and the various crosses among them. Chicken broilers made by crosses involving parents derived from Cornish and Plymouth Rock have supplanted all others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This situation now prevails in most industrialized countries. The breeding of commercial stocks is in the hands of a few corporations for each commodity (white eggs, brown eggs, chicken broilers, turkeys) and each has national or even global distribution of its hybrid stocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A BREAKTHROUGH IN POULTRY HEALTH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newcastle disease is endemic in developing countries and is a constant threat to poultry. Farmers dread this virus, first identified half a century ago in northern England that brings diarrhea, paralysis, and death to most poultry. It is severe, highly contagious, and can cause 100 percent mortality. When it strikes an area, farmers must kill all chickens - even healthy ones - to stop it from spreading.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only Australia, New Zealand, Northern Ireland and some Pacific islands are unaffected. But, although the disease is not found in Australia, certain strains of the virus are present in Australian chickens. These strains are completely harmless, but Australian researchers have found that they induce antibodies that are effective against Newcastle disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a joint project (funded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research), scientists from Malaysia's University of Agriculture and Australia's University of Queensland* have put this to good use. They have produced a live culture of the harmless virus that farmers can spray onto feed pellets to vaccinate their birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Field tests of the new vaccine, carried out in Southeast Asia, have been extremely promising. Simply coating feeds with the virus seems to be enough to immunize some chickens, which then pass the immunity on to the others in the flock as well as to new hatchlings. In Malaysia, which has 49 million chickens and a population willing to pay a premium for tasty village poultry meat, one economist estimates that the vaccine might increase rural incomes by 25 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conventional vaccines must be stored under refrigerated conditions, which most villages lack. But the Malaysian workers made the Newcastle disease vaccine tolerant of heat. By selective breeding, they now have strains that resist 56&Yacute;C for at least 2 hours. Thus, even in the tropics, the vaccine remains effective for several weeks without refrigeration. The researchers have also devised methods for coating the vaccine onto pelleted feeds. Because the virus can withstand heat, they use a machine designed for coating pharmaceutical tablets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At this stage, the project is showing every promise of producing a cheap means of reducing Newcastle disease losses among chickens throughout much of the world. Already inquiries have come from other Asian countries and from Africa, and it is hoped that the vaccine may eventually benefit many countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">5 Chicken</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g008a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens (Gallus gallus or Gallus domesticus)1 are the world's  major source of eggs and are a meat source that supports a food  industry in virtually every country. There may be as many as 6.5 billion  chickens, the equivalent of 1.4 birds for every person on earth.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No other domesticated animal has enjoyed such universal acceptance,  and these birds are the prime example of the importance of  microlivestock. Kept throughout the Third World, they are one of the  least expensive and most efficient producers of animal protein.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To the world's poor, chickens are probably the most nutritionally  important livestock species. For instance, in Mauritius and Nigeria more  than 70 percent of rural households keep scavenger chickens. In  Swaziland, more than 95 percent of rural households own chickens,  most of them scavengers. In Thailand, where commercial poultry  production is highly developed, 80-90 percent of rural households still  keep chickens in backyards and under houses. And in other developing  countries from Pakistan to Peru, a similar situation prevails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clearly, these chickens should be given far more attention. They  represent an animal and a production system with remarkable qualities;  they compete little with humans for food; they produce meat at low  cost; and they provide a critical nutritional resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scavenger chickens are usually self-reliant, hardy birds capable of  withstanding the abuses of harsh climate, minimal management, and inadequate nutrition. They live largely on weed seeds, insects, and feeds that would otherwise go to waste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, however, quantitative information about the backyard chicken is hard to obtain. Few countries have any knowledge of its actual contribution to the well-being and diet of their people. Notably lacking is an understanding of the factors limiting egg production, which is markedly low and perhaps could be raised dramatically with modest effort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are so well known and ubiquitous that they need no further description. Varying in color from white through many shades of brown to black, they range in size from small bantams of less than 1 kg to giant breeds weighing 5 kg or more. Scavenger chickens tend to weigh about I kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The indigenous chickens of Asia are probably descended directly from the wild junglefowl. Those of West Africa are believed descended from European birds brought by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century; those of Latin America probably descend from Spanish birds introduced soon after the time of Columbus.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p81a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All countries have chickens in large numbers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are not endangered, but industrial stocks are replacing traditional breeds to such an extent that much potentially valuable genetic heritage is disappearing. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although chickens derive from tropical species, they adapt to a wide  variety of environments. The modern Leghorn, for example, is found  from the hot plains of India to the frozen tundra of Siberia, and from  sea level to altitudes above 4,000 m in the Andes. (There are, however,  hatching problems at such high altitudes because of oxygen deficiency.)  They also occur in desert countries such as Saudi Arabia, which has a  vast poultry industry and even exports broilers. (However, the birds  need shade and a lot of water where it is hot and dry.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are omnivorous, living on seeds, insects, worms, leaves,  green grass, and kitchen scraps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A commercial bird may produce 280 eggs annually, but a scavenger  may produce close to none. Commonly, a farmyard hen lays a dozen  eggs, takes three weeks to hatch out a brood of chicks, stays with the  chicks six weeks or more, and only then starts laying again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Egg production depends on daylength. For the highest production  rate, at least 12 hours of daylight are needed. The incubation period is  21 days. A hen can begin laying at 5 months of age or even earlier, but  in scavengers it may be much later. The average weight of the eggs is  approximately 55 g from industrial layers and approximately 40 g from  scavengers. Hatching success from breeder flocks often exceeds 90  percent. Industrial broilers can be marketed as early as 6 weeks, when  they are called "Cornish hens."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These passive, gregarious birds have a pronounced social (pecking)  order. If acclimated, they remain on the premises and are unlikely to go  feral. If given a little evening meal of "scratch," they learn to come  home to roost at night.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens have multiple uses. They were probably first used for cock  fighting; later they were used in religious rituals, and only much later  were raised for eggs and meat. Today, chickens can provide a family  with eggs, meat, feathers, and sometimes cash.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In different parts of the world, people keep scavenging chickens in  different ways. The managers are often women and children because  they have more time to spend at home to feed the birds and repel  predators. Some people leave the birds entirely to their own devices.  Many house them at night. Others take the birds each day to the fields,  where they may find much more food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many ingenious local practices. In Ghana, for example,  farmers "culture" termites for poultry by placing a moist piece of cow  dung (under a tin) over a known termite nest. The termites burrow into  the dung, and some can then be fed to the chickens each day. Because  termites digest cellulose, this system converts waste vegetation into  meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A ratio of 1 male to 10-15 females is adequate for barnyard flocks.  Hens will lay eggs in the absence of a rooster - but of course the rooster  is needed if fertile eggs are wanted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Removing chicks stimulates the hen to lay more eggs. This results in  more chicks being hatched, but it requires that the chicks be nurtured  and fed until they are old enough to fend for themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are everywhere; every culture knows them and how to  husband them. They have been utilized for so many centuries that in  most societies their use is ingrained. Unlike the case with pork and beef,  there are few strictures against eating chicken meat or eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat is high in quality protein, low in fat, and easily prepared. In  many countries, the village chicken's meat is preferred to that of  commercial broilers because it has better texture and stronger flavor.  Even in countries with vast poultry industries there is a growing demand  for the tasty, "organically grown," free-ranging chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chickens are more suited to "urban farming" than most types of  livestock and can be raised in many city situations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds are conveniently sized, easily transported alive, and, by and  large, do not transmit diseases to humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout Asia, Africa, and Latin America, the problems of village  chickens are mainly those discussed below.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High Hatching Mortality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commonly, a hatch of eight or nine village chicks results in only two  or three live birds after a few days. A survey in Nigeria, for instance,  showed that 80 percent died before the age of eight weeks. Losses  elsewhere are known to be similar. This is mostly because of starvation,  cold, dehydration, predators (hawks, kites, snakes, dogs, and cats, for  example), diseases, parasites, accidents, and simply getting lost - all of  which can be prevented without great effort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chronic and Acute Disease</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry diseases can become epidemic in the villages because there  are few if any veterinarians. Newcastle disease, fowlpox, pullorum  disease, and coccidiosis, for example - all of which are endemic in the  Third World - can destroy the entire chicken population over large  areas. Lice and other parasites are also prevalent. Scavengers and  industrial birds seem to show no differences in their tolerance for such  diseases and parasites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Low Egg Production</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey in Nigeria showed that the annual production per hen was  merely 20 eggs. Such low production is common throughout the Third  World and is caused by a combination of low genetic potential,  inadequate nutrition, and poor management. Villagers rarely provide nest  boxes or laying areas, so that some eggs are just not found. Some birds  have high levels of broodiness, and eggs accumulating in a nest  stimulates this. There are indications, however, that some village  chickens (for example, some in China) have quite substantial egg-laying  potential when provided with adequate feed.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Low Egg Consumption</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the tropics, many people choose not to eat eggs. Often this is  because eggs are the source of the next generation of chickens;  sometimes it is because of superstition. Further, eggs do not keep well  because most are fertile and, exposed to constant tropical heat, undergo  rapid embryo development.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crop Damage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often necessary to confine the birds to protect young crops or  vegetable gardens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike the situation with small cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs, there are  few named and recognized breeds of Third World chickens. Yet, nearly  every country has at least one kind of village chicken. These have  survived there for centuries and are highly adapted to local conditions.  In village projects, these unnamed chickens deserve priority attention  before other types are sought from elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Generally speaking, improving the production of scavenging poultry  does not require sophisticated research. Instead, simple precautions are  sufficient. These are discussed below.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Disease Control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At a national or regional level, the initial approach to increasing  chicken production in tropical areas should be disease control. There are  several outstanding instances of success in this endeavor. For example,  the spectacular rise of poultry production in Singapore (from 250,000  birds in 1949 to 20 million in 1957) followed the control of Ranikhet  disease. Village flock-health programs, carried out regularly by visiting  veterinarians ("barefoot veterinarians"), might be the answer to some of  the routine health problems. Today, a prime target should be Newcastle  disease, for which there are good chances for success (see page 76).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first step in chicken production at the farm level is improved  management. With more care and attention, mortality can be greatly  reduced. Because incubating and brooding hens must spend the night on  the ground, they are extremely vulnerable. Even modest predator  controls can be highly beneficial. Building crude and inexpensive nest  boxes and constructing a simple holding area around them can  substantially raise production by ensuring that more chicks survive.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE CHICKEN'S WILD ANCESTOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although little known to most people, the red junglefowl has  contributed more to every nation than any other wild bird. It is  the ancestor of the chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given its descendants importance worldwide, the neglect of  this bird is baffling. If the cow's wild ancestor, the aurochs, had  not become extinct in the 1600s, it would now be worth millions  of dollars as the ultimate source of cattle genetic diversity. Yet  the world's chicken industry remains virtually unaware of the  origin of its source of livelihood.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the aurochs, the red junglefowl has a wealth of wild  genes, and it deserves more recognition and protection. For one  thing the modern chicken - selectively bred in the temperate  zone - is highly susceptible to heat and humidity; the junglefowl,  on the other hand, is not. It inhabits the warmest and most humid  parts of Asia: Sri Lanka, India, Burma, Thailand, and most of  Southeast Asia. It may also be resistant to various chicken  diseases and pests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not a rare species. Throughout the wide crescent  stretching from Pakistan to Indonesia, junglefowls are still seen  in the wild, especially in forest clearings and lowland scrub.  Although they are a prized bag for hunters, they survive by fast  running and agile flying. They are sometimes sold in village  markets, but can easily be mistaken for domesticated chickens,  which in this region are often very similar. The wild junglefowl,  however, has feathered legs, a down-curving tail, and an overall  scragginess.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Junglefowls should be under intensive study. They are easy to  rear in captivity and do well in pens, even small ones, as long as  they are sheltered from rain and wind. One drawback is their  craze for scratching unless provided plenty of space they  promptly tear up all grass and dirt. Another is that junglecocks  are violent fighters and must be kept apart. (Cockfighting is  probably a major reason why they were initially selected, and  thus their aggressiveness is perhaps the reason we have the  chicken today.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These highly adaptable creatures live in a variety of habitats,  from sea level to 2,000 m. Most, however, are found in and  around damp forests, secondary growth, dry scrub, bamboo  groves, and small woods near farms and villages. They are  amazingly clever at evading capture and thrive wherever there is  some cover.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other junglefowl species might also provide useful poultry.  They, too, can be raised in captivity with comparative ease, as  long as the cocks are kept apart. Perhaps they might be tamed with imprinting and could prove useful as domestic fowl,  especially in marginal habitats. They are everywhere considered  culinary luxuries and their meat commands premium prices.  Moreover, several have colorful feathers, giving them additional  commercial value. These other species are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- La Fayette's Junglefowl (Gallus lafayettei). Avery attractive  bird of Sri Lanka, it is little known in captivity, and only in the  United States are there any number in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gray or Sonnerat's Junglefowl (Gallus sonnerati). A native  of India, this colorful bird produces feathers that are used in  tying the most prized trout and salmon flies. Demand is so great  that certain populations have declined, and since 1968 India has  banned all export of birds or feathers. Nonetheless, there are  several hundred in captivity in various countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Green Junglefowl (Gallus varius). This is yet another striking  bird. The cock has metallic, greenish-black feathering set off by  a comb that merges from brilliant green at the base to bright  purple and red at the top. Native to Java, Bali, and the  neighboring Indonesian islands as far out as Timor, it is found  particularly near rice paddies and rocky coasts. This species, too,  can be raised without great difficulty, and there are at least 90 in  captivity in various parts of the world.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving poultry nutrition is also of prime importance. There are no quantitative data on the quality of a scavenging chicken's diet. Surveys are badly needed so that appropriate, low-cost supplements can be devised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chances are that the diet for chicks of scavenging poultry is almost always deficient in available energy. Minimal supplementation in the form of cereals or energy-rich by-products can greatly improve both egg and meat production. However, caution must always be exercised and the supplements given only to chicks. Overfed adults will give up scavenging and stay around the owner's house, without really producing much more meat or eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetic Improvement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it seems attractive to replace the scrawny village chicken with bigger, faster-growing imported breeds, it is a process fraught with difficulty. Exotic breeds lack the ability to tolerate the rigors of mismanagement and environmental stress. Many cannot avoid predators, as a result either of being overweight or of having a poor conformation for flight. The local birds, however, probably have a genetic potential that is much higher than can be expressed in the constraining environment. Thus, the environmental constraints should be tackled first.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, the village birds may have a feed-conversion efficiency that is far less than ideal because they are adapted to a scavenging existence. Modern breeds imported into Ghana, for instance, showed a feed-conversion efficiency of less that 3.5:1 (weight of food eaten: growth and eggs), but the local birds had efficiencies of 11:1.4 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need for preserving genetic variability is greater in poultry, especially in chickens, than in any other form of domestic animal. North America, for instance, which years ago had 50 or more common breeds, now relies on only 2 for meat production, and the others have been largely lost. Conservation of germplasm has become a matter of serious concern, and the saving of rare breeds in domestic fowl should not be delayed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE SOUTH AMERICAN CHICKEN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Early European explorers of South America were surprised to discover an abundance of unusual chickens that laid colored eggs and had feathers resembling earrings on the side of the head. While the origin of this bird - commonly called the araucanian chicken and classified as Gallus inauris - is debatable, scientists generally agree that it is pre-Columbian. There is archeological evidence that this bird is native to the Americas. It is reported to have occurred in Chile, Ecuador, Bolivia, Costa Rica, Peru, and Easter Island. It still occurs in the wild in southern Chile and on Easter Island.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The araucanian has been called the "Easter-egg chicken" because it lays light green, light blue, and olive colored eggs. It lays well and has a delicious meat. In areas such as southern Chile the eggs are preferred over those of normal chickens because of their flavor and dark yellow yolk. This unusual bird has a high degree of variability; however, specimens of similar genetic background have been grouped to create "breeds" such as the White Araucanian, Black Araucanian, and Barred Araucanian. These are homozygotes and breed true.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The araucanian has been the subject of much public interest,. clubs dedicated to its preservation have been formed in the United States, Great Britain, and Chile. Its possible exploitation as a backyard microlivestock deserves serious consideration. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">6 Ducks</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g009a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos)1 are well known, but still have much unrealized promise for subsistence-level production. Although a major resource of Asia, where there is approximately one duck per 20 inhabitants, they are not so intensively used elsewhere. On a worldwide basis, for instance, they are of minor importance compared with chickens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is unfortunate because ducks are easy to keep, adapt readily to a wide range of conditions (including small-farm culture), and require little investment. They are also easily managed under village conditions, particularly if a waterway is nearby, and appear to be more resistant to diseases and more adept at foraging than chickens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, the products from ducks are in constant demand. Some breeds yield more eggs than the domestic chicken. And duck meat always sells at premium. A few recently created breeds (notably some in Taiwan) have much lower levels of fat than the traditional farm duck. This development could open up vast new markets for duck meat, especially in wealthy countries, where consumers are both concerned over fat in their diet and eager for alternatives to chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks are also efficient at converting waste resources - insects, weeds, aquatic plants, and fallen seeds, for instance - into meat and eggs. Indeed, they are among the most efficient of all food producers. Raised in confinement, ducks can convert 2.4-2.6 kg of concentrated feed into I kg of weight gain. The only domestic animal that has better feed conversion is the broiler chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raised as village birds and allowed to forage for themselves, ducks become less productive but become even more cost effective because much of the food they scavenge has no monetary value. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several distinctive types have been developed in various regions. Most have lost the ability to fly any distance, but they retain a characteristic boatlike posture and a labored, waddling walk. The Indian Runner, however, has an almost erect stance that permits it to walk and run with apparent ease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic ducks range in body size from the diminutive Call, weighing less than I kg, to the largest meat strains (Pekin, Rouen, and Aylesbury, for example) weighing as much as 4.5 kg. For intensive conditions, the Pekin is the most popular meat breed around the world. In confinement it grows rapidly - weighing 2.5-3 kg at a market age of 78 weeks. In addition, it is hardy, does not fly, lays well, and produces good quality (but somewhat fatty) meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Khaki Campbell breed is an outstanding egg producer, some individuals laying more than 300 eggs per bird per year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Taiwan Tsaiya (layer duck) is also a particularly efficient breed. It weighs 1.2 kg at maturity, starts laying at 120-140 days, and can produce 260-290 eggs a year. Its small body size, large egg weight, and phenomenal egg production make Brown Tsaiya the main breed for egg consumption in Taiwan. More than 2.5 million Brown Tsaiya ducks are raised annually for egg production.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domestic duck is distributed throughout the world; however, its greatest economic importance is in Southeast Asia, particularly in the wetland-rice areas. For example, about 28 percent of Taiwan's poultry are- ducks. In parts of Asia, some domestic flocks have as many as 20,000 birds. One farm near Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, rears 40,000 ducks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although ducks are abundant, some Western breeds are becoming rare. Indigenous types are little known outside their home countries and have received little study, so their status is uncertain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These adaptable creatures thrive in hot, humid climates. However, during torrid weather they must have access to shade, drinking water, and bathing water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks are well adapted to rivers, canals, lakes, ponds, marshes, and other aquatic locations. Moreover, they can be raised successfully in estuarine areas. Most ocean bays and inlets teem with plant and animal life that ducks relish, but (unlike wild sea ducks) domestic breeds have a low physiological tolerance for salt and must be supplied with fresh drinking water. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks search for food underwater, sieve organic matter from mud, root out morsels underground, and sometimes catch insects in the air. Their natural diet is normally about 90 percent vegetable matter (seeds, berries, fruits, nuts, bulbs, roots, succulent leaves, and grasses) and 10 percent animal matter (insects, snails, slugs, leeches, worms, eels, crustacea, and an occasional small fish or tadpole). They have little ability to utilize dietary fiber. Although they eat considerable quantities of tender grass, they are not true grazers (like geese), and don't eat coarse grasses and weeds at all. Sand and gravel is swallowed to serve as "grindstones" in the gizzard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When protected from accidents and predation, ducks live a surprisingly long time. It is not unusual for one to continue reproducing for up to 8 years, and there are reports of exceptional birds living more than 20 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite large differences in size, color, and appearance, all domestic breeds interbreed freely. Eggs normally take 28 days to incubate, brooding and rearing is performed solely by the female.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Depending on breed, a female may reach sexual maturity at about 20 weeks of age. Most begin laying at 20-26 weeks, but the best egg- laying varieties come into production at 16-18 weeks and lay profitably for 2 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is generally well known that ducks are shy, nervous, and seldom aggressive towards each other or humans. Skilled and enthusiastic swimmers from the day they hatch, they spend many hours each day bathing and frolicking in any available water. However, most breeds can be raised successfully without swimming water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although wild ducks normally pair off, domestic drakes will mate indiscriminately with any females in a flock. In intensively raised flocks, I male to 6 females, and in village flocks, 1 male for up to 25 females, results in good fertility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most domestic ducks, particularly the egg-laying strains, have little instinct to brood. If not confined, they will lay eggs wherever they happen to be - occasionally even while swimming. To facilitate egg collection, some keepers confine ducks until noon. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p96a.png"></center><br>
+ Figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a meat source, ducks have major advantages. Their growth rate is phenomenal during the first few weeks. (Acceptable market weights can be attained under intensive management with birds as young as 6-7 weeks of age.) Yet, even in older birds, the meat remains tender and palatable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eggs from many breeds are typically 20-35 percent larger than chicken eggs, weighing on average about 73 g. They are nutritious, have more fat and protein, and contain less water than hen's eggs. They are often used in cooking and make excellent custards and ice cream. Eggs incubated until just before the embryos form feathers produce a delicacy known as balut in the Philippines. Salted eggs are popular in China and Southeast Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feathers and down (an insulating undercoat of fine, fluffy feathers) are valuable by-products. Down is particularly sought as a filler for pillows, comforters, and winter clothing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks have a special fondness for mosquito and beetle larvae, grasshoppers, snails, slugs, and crustaceans, and therefore are effective pest control agents. China, in particular, uses ducks to reduce pests in rice fields.3 Its farmers also keep ducks to clear fields of scattered grain, to clear rice paddy banks of burrowing crabs, and to clear aquatic weeds and algae out of small lakes, ponds, and canals. This not only improves the conditions for aquaculture and agriculture, it also fattens the ducks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Southeast Asia, droving is a traditional form of duck husbandry, much as it was in medieval Europe. The birds are herded along slowly, foraging in fields or riverbanks as they march to market. The journey might cover hundreds of kilometers and take as long as six months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This process, however, is generally declining, and most ducks are raised under farm conditions where they scavenge for much of their feed. Throughout Southeast Asia, ducks have been integrated with aquaculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks can be raised on almost any kitchen wastes: vegetable trimmings, table scraps, garden leftovers, canning refuse, stale produce, and stale (but not moldy) baked goods. However, for top yields and quickest growth, protein-rich feeds are the key. Commercial duck farms rely on such things as fish scraps, grains, soybean meal, or coconut cake. Agricultural wastes such as sago chips, palm-kernel cake, and palm-oil sludge are being used in Malaysia.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks have a very high requirement for niacin (a B vitamin). If chicken rations are used, a plentiful supply of fresh greens must be provided to avoid "cowboy legs," a symptom of niacin deficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of all domestic animals, ducks are among the most versatile and useful and have multiple advantages, including:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Withstanding poor conditions;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Producing food efficiently;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Utilizing foodstuffs that normally go unharvested;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Helping to control pests; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Helping to fertilize the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also, they are readily herded (for instance, by children).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excellent foragers, they usually can find all their own food, getting by on only a minimum of supplements, if any. Raising them requires little work, and they provide farmers with food or an income from the sale of eggs, meat, and down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks can grow faster than broiler chickens if they have adequate nutrients. Like guinea fowl and geese, they are relatively resistant to disease. They also have a good tolerance to cold and, in most climates, don't need artificial heat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING NEW DUCKS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many species of ducks adapt readily to captivity; it is surprising, therefore, that only the mallard and the muscovy have been domesticated so far. Several wild tropical species seem especially worth exploring for possible future use in Third World farms, Because of the year-round tropical warmth, their instinct to migrate is either absent or unpronounced, and the heavy layer of fat (a feature of temperate-climate ducks that consumers in many countries consider a drawback) is lacking. Moreover, because of uniform daylength, they are ready to breed at any time of the year. Candidates for domestication as tropical ducks include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Whistling ducks (Dendrocygna species). These large, colorful, gooselike birds are noted for their beautiful, cheerful whistle.* They are long-necked perching ducks that are found throughout the tropics. By and large, they are gregarious, sedentary, vegetarian, and less arboreal than the muscovy - all positive traits for a poultry species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The black-bellied whistling duck (D. auturunalis) seems especially promising. It is common throughout tropical America (southwestern United States to northwestern Argentina) and is sometimes kept in semicaptivity. Occasionally, in the highlands of Guatemala, for instance, Indians sell young ones they have reared as pets. When hand reared, the birds can become very tame. * * They eat grain and other vegetation, require no swimming water, and will voluntarily use nest boxes. In the wild, they "dump" large numbers of eggs so that even if substantial numbers were removed for artificial hatching, the wild populations should not be affected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Greater wood ducks (Cairina species). The muscovy (C. moschata) was domesticated by South American Indians long before Europeans arrived (see page 124). Its counterparts in the forests of Southeast Asia and tropical Africa are, however, untried as domesticates. The white-winged wood duck (C. scutulata) is found from eastern India to Java. Hartlaub's duck (C. hartlaubi) occurs in forests and wooded savannas from Sierra Leone to Zaire. Both are rare in captivity, but might well prove to be future tropical resources. Both are strikingly similar to muscovies in size and habits, being large, phlegmatic, sedentary, and omnivorous. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Predators are the most important cause of losses in farm flocks. Ducks are almost incapable of defending themselves, and losses from dogs and poachers can be high. Locking them in at night both protects the birds and prevents eggs from being wastefully laid outside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ducks do suffer from some diseases, mainly those traceable to mismanagement such as poor diet, stagnant drinking water, moldy feed or bedding, or overcrowded and filthy conditions. Of all poultry, they are the most sensitive to aflatoxin, which usually comes from eating moldy feed. They are also susceptible to cholera (pasteurellosis) and botulism, either of which may wipe out entire flocks. Duck virus enteritis (duck plague) and duck virus hepatitis also can cause severe losses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If not carefully managed, ducks can become pests to some crops, especially cereals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, ducks tend to be extremely poor mothers and can be helped by using broody chicken hens or female muscovies as surrogate mothers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Major limitations to large-scale, intensive production are mud, smell, and noise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Defeathering ducks is much more difficult than defeathering chickens because of an abundance of small pinfeathers and down feathers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds already function so well that no fundamental research needs to be done. Nonetheless, there are a number of topics that could improve their production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, different types of low-cost systems need to be explored and developed. These must be low-input systems since cash is a limiting factor for most subsistence farmers. One possibility is the integration of duck and fish farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of all breeds is needed to determine their status and likelihood of extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One need in countries that already have ducks is to encourage the consumption of duck meat. Indonesia, for instance, has 25 million egg-producing ducks, but little duck meat is consumed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research on economically significant diseases is needed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">7 Geese</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g010a.png"></center><br>
+ Brown Chinese Geese</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although geese (Anser spp.) were one of the first domesticated animals, they have yet to receive the level of commercial or industrial exploitation of chickens or even ducks. Thus, their global potential is far greater than is generally recognized today.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic geese are easily managed and well suited to small-farm production; they are among the fastest growing avian species commonly raised for meat, and they have immediate application in many developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are especially appropriate for providing farmers a supplemental income. With little extra work they supply nutritious meat, huge eggs, and rich fat for cooking, as well as soft down and feathers for bedding and clothing. Moreover, their strident voices sound the alarm when strangers or predators approach. They are especially well suited to aquatic areas and marshy lands and are completely at home in warm shallow waterways. Nevertheless, they can thrive away from water. In fact, wherever pasture is available geese readily adapt to captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are grazers, and can be raised almost exclusively on pasture. They are excellent foragers, and on succulent grass can find most or all of their own food. With their powerful bills they pull up grasses and underwater plants and probe soil and water for roots, bulbs, and aquatic animals. Their long necks make them adept at gleaning weeds from hard-to-reach places - such as fence rows, ditches, and swampy areas that baffle larger livestock. They will also feast on vegetable trimmings, garden and table leftovers, canning refuse, and stale baked goods. Like other poultry, they pick up shattered grains of rice, wheat, barley, and other crops, which can reduce the bothersome problem of weeds volunteering in subsequent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are available worldwide. In most climates, they require little or no housing. Given reasonable care and protection from predators, mortality can be extremely low. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic geese come in an assortment of colors, sizes, and shapes. There are two main types, however. Descendants of the wild greylag goose (Anser anser) make up the domestic breeds common in North America and Europe, including the Embden, Toulouse, Pilgrim, American Buff, Pomeranian, Sebastopol, and Tufted Roman breeds. These are generally best suited to temperate climates. On the other hand, descendants of the wild "swan goose" (Anser cygnoides) make up the geese of Asia, including the Chinese and "African" types. These breeds seem better suited to hot climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to these, many European and Asian countries have their own local breeds and types, and there are even several wild species that show some potential for captive production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With their long legs and webbed toes, geese are equally at home walking or swimming. Avid walkers, they march long distances to find forage, but return home at dusk. Accomplished and graceful swimmers, geese are able to take to water soon after they hatch. Despite their large size, some domestic breeds - especially the leaner ones - have retained the ability to fly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are found worldwide, but goose farming is nationally important only in Asia and Central Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic geese are not threatened, although much local variation among the breeds is being lost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most geese adapt well to hot climates - as long as some shade is available. Their waterproof feathers help them adapt well to high rainfall regions. They also tolerate extreme cold. (For instance, in Canada, geese are wintered outdoors in subfreezing temperatures, with merely 'e simple shelter from wind.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For tropical developing countries, the Chinese type, which is widely kept in Southeast Asia, is especially promising. Smaller than most geese (although ganders can weigh over 5 kg), they are the best layers, the most active foragers (making them economical and useful as weeders), the most alert and "talkative," and they produce the leanest meat. Some European breeds, such as Embden and Toulouse, have also been used in the tropics with notable success. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING GEESE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Temperate Zones)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today's domestic geese are descended from two species: the greylag (Anser anser) and the swan goose (Anser cygnoides). These were domesticated in Europe and China, respectively. Their domestication occurred in ancient times, long before people knew about genetics, microorganisms, veterinary science, or behavior modifications such as imprinting. Today, armed with such knowledge, more geese may be amenable to domestication. Most of the 15 other wild species adapt to captivity. Compared to most birds, geese spend much time walking and swimming and are less inconvenienced by pinioning (removing the tip of the wing). Thus, they can be kept outdoors rather than in cages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both of the ancestors of today's domestic geese are native to the northern temperate zone. Two more wild species that might make useful domesticates are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Canada goose (Branta canadensis). North America. People feeding these birds in city parks and wildlife refuges are causing many local flocks to develop. These birds no longer migrate. They are increasing in numbers each year and are well on the way to de facto domestication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- American swan goose (Coscoroba coscoroba). Southern South America. Although most closely allied to swans in shape and physiology, this bird resembles a muscovy (see page 124) in size and behavior. Its calm disposition, as well as its attractive red feet and bill that accent its white plumage, have made it much sought as an ornament for parks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In its diet, the goose utilizes large quantities of tender forage. It can break down plant-cell walls and digest the contents. Although it has no crop for storing food, there is an enlargement at the end of the gullet that serves as a temporary storage organ. Sand and small gravel are swallowed to aid the gizzard in grinding hard seeds and fibrous grasses. Research has shown that geese can digest 15-20 percent of the fiber in their diet, which is 3-4 times the amount that other poultry species can digest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The natural diet consists of grasses, seeds, roots, bulbs, berries, and fruits, normally supplemented with a little animal matter (mainly insects and snails) picked up incidentally. Most feeding takes place on land. They characteristically feed for prolonged periods, even at night.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females may lay for 10 years or more. It is generally believed that reproduction is best in the second year and that it remains good until the fifth year. Geese outlive other types of poultry; life spans of 1520 years are common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The eggs incubate in 27-31 days. The incubation time is more variable than in most poultry species, perhaps because geese have not been subjected to the selection pressure that is imposed by artificial incubators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most intelligent birds, the goose has a good memory and does not quickly forget people, animals, or situations that have frightened it. While personalities and habits vary among individual specimens, there are common behavioral patterns, such as the pecking order, that allow individuals to live peaceably together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless conditions are crowded or there are too many males, geese normally live harmoniously both with themselves and with other creatures. The bond between male and female is strong. Changing mates is difficult, although most geese will eventually accept a new mate after a period of "mourning."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese nest on the ground and prefer the water's edge, but they adapt readily to man-made nesting boxes. The gander usually stands guard while the goose incubates the eggs. He then assists in rearing the goslings. Most geese become irritated if intruders approach their nest or goslings, and will even attack people and large dogs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As previously noted, these birds provide meat, eggs, fat, and down. The meat is lean, flavorful, and of outstanding quality. The fat accumulates between the skin and the flesh and can be rendered into a long-lasting oil. The eggs are large and taste much like chicken eggs. The "down" (the small, fluffy feathers that lie next to the body of adult birds) is the finest natural insulating material for clothing and bedding, and can fetch a premium price. Worldwide markets exist for both down and other goose feathers. In France, in particular, some geese are raised for their livers (foie gras).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese can control many types of aquatic weeds in shallow water as well as grass and some types of palatable broad-leaf weeds on the banks of lakes, ponds, and canals. They can also be used as ''lawn mowers" and "weeders" among cotton, fruit trees, and other crops (see sidebar).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Elongated necks not only allow geese to reach many different foods, they also help them keep a watchful eye on the surroundings. With their exceptional eyesight they can see great distances, and the position of the eyes gives them a wide field of vision. Geese are among the most alert of all animals, and strangers cannot calm them into silence. In the high Andes, in Southeast Asia, and in many other locations, they replace guard dogs. In Europe, they are used to guard whiskey warehouses and sensitive military installations (see page 111).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Methods of caring for adult geese vary according to climate, breed, and people's experiences and needs. Overall, however, the birds cause little trouble and require little expense. They range freely without restriction, feeding themselves and returning home of their own accord. They have strong flocking instincts and can readily be herded from one area to another.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like all young poultry, goslings are fragile. The highest mortality is caused by predators. Until the goslings are 6-10 weeks old, it is prudent to confine the parents and their young at night in a secure pen or building.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are the only domestic fowl that can live and reproduce on a diet of grass. They cannot remain healthy on coarse dry fodder, but when grass is succulent they need little else other than drinking water. Many legumes also make excellent goose forage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the tropics, eggs can be laid year-round. The production seldom exceeds 40 eggs per year, although with feed supplement and simple management, the Chinese breed may yield more than 100 eggs. Geese go broody quickly. To break up broodiness, the goose can be confined for 4 6 days away from, but in sight of, the ganders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goslings grow rapidly and can reach market size as early as 10-12 weeks; most geese, however, are marketed at 20-30 weeks of age, when they may weigh from 5 to 7 kg, depending on type and breed. Some young birds (also called green or junior geese), force-fed for rapid growth, are marketed at 4-6 kg when they are 8-10 weeks old.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If fed a good diet to maximize growth and if slaughtered at, say, 10 weeks, the Embden, Chinese, or African will have a carcass low in fat. However, the carcass normally has much more fat than other poultry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese must have a constant supply of reasonably clean drinking water during daylight hours. Although swimming water is not necessary, it promotes cleaner and healthier birds because they find it easier to care for their plumage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING GEESE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Tropics)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese of the tropics have seldom if ever been considered for domestication, but they might provide poultry of considerable value. Presumably they are more heat tolerant and lack the layers of subcutaneous fat (which the ancestors of today's geese needed for warmth in the Arctic). They might thus produce lean birds that would fetch premium prices because excessive fat is the major drawback of today's commercial geese. Examples of tropical species that might be domesticable are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Egyptian goose (AIopochen aegyptiacus). Found throughout the African tropics, this bird is already partly domesticated. However, it is bad tempered and quarrelsome and, so far, this has limited its utility. It has therefore been kept only under semidomestication, without intensive breeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nene (Branta sandvicensis). A native of the Hawaiian Islands, this is one of the most endangered species on earth. So few specimens are in existence that farming enterprises cannot now be envisaged. Yet, should this bird prove amenable and suitable, the possibility of an economic future could boost efforts to build up its now meager populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Bar-headed goose (Anser indicus). India and Central Asia. These smallish geese are handsome, dainty, and have a musical horn-like call. They have distinct black bars across the nape, which gives them their popular name. Hand-reared specimens breed well in captivity. Despite heavy hunting they are still abundant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Northern spur-winged goose (Plectropterus gambensis gambensis). Tropical Africa (Senegal to Zimbabwe). This large bird is a ground nester, but it has long bony spurs on the wings that enable it to easily protect its eggs and young from predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Semipalmated (magpie) goose (Anseranas semipalmata). Australia and New Guinea. One of the most aberrant and primitive of all waterfowl, this long-legged sturdy-billed bird has only partially webbed feet. It perches high in trees and has a loud ungooselike whistling call. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE WADDLING WORK FORCE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because geese relish grasses and shun most broad-leafed plants, some enterprising U.S. farmers in the 1950s began using them to rid cotton fields of grassy weeds, which are difficult to kill with herbicides. The geese were put into the fields as soon as the crop came up. A brace of birds kept an acre of cotton weeded; a gaggle of 12 would gobble as many weeds as a hard-working man could clear with a hoe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This method of clearing fields was so effective that by 1960 more than 175,000 geese honked their way across the carefully tended farmland, mainly in the Southwest. Seven days a week, rain or shine, the feathered field hands slaved uncomplainingly from daybreak to dusk, even putting in overtime on moonlit nights. Many toiled so diligently that they worked themselves out of a job.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The geese cleared the fields more cheaply than hoe hands. They left the crop untouched and ate only the succulent young weeds. They did not damage crop roots (as hoes or tractors can), and they were safe and selective, unlike many herbicides. On top of all that they spread fertilizer for the farmer, and ultimately provided him meat for the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eventually, farmers found that geese could be used to weed nearly all broad-leafed crops: asparagus, potatoes, berry fruits, tobacco, mint, grapes, beets, beans, hops, onions, and strawberries, for example. Geese were used in vineyards and fruit orchards to eat both weeds and the fallen fruits that could otherwise harbor damaging insects. They were employed in fields producing trees for the forest industry and flowers for florists shops. Some growers turned goslings loose in cornfields to consume the "suckers" (cone, after all, is a grass) as well as the grain left on the ground. This eliminated the problem of corn as a weed when different crops were later planted in those fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the 1970s when cotton acreage dropped and herbicides selective for the troublesome grasses were developed, the use of geese declined. But today, some organic farmers are returning to the practice. From February to June in the Pacific Northwest, fields are resounding once more to the old-fashioned racket of White Chinese geese. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mature geese are independent creatures. When kept in small flocks and allowed to roam the farmyard or field, they require less attention than any other domestic bird with the possible exception of guinea fowl. In areas where grass is green for much of the year, they can be raised on less grain or concentrated feed than any other domestic fowl.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Durability is one of their most attractive features. Along with ducks, geese seem to be the most resistant of all poultry to disease, parasites, and cold or wet weather. They also do well in hot climates as long as drinking water and deep shade are available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Growth is not only rapid, it is also efficient. If managed properly, goslings can produce I kg of body weight for every 2.25-3.5 kg of concentrated feed consumed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are not usually thought of as prolific layers. However, as noted, some strains of the Chinese breed will yield well over 100 eggs per goose per year. At 140-170 g per egg, that compares favorably with the output of laying chickens. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p112a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are messy and their loud trumpeting is often irritating. However, unless they have been teased or mistreated or if they are nesting or brooding young, they are not aggressive. But kilo for kilo, they are stronger than most animals, and a harassed or angry adult can express its displeasure effectively with powerful bill and pounding wings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excessive concentrations of geese on ponds or along creeks encourages unsanitary conditions, muddies water, hastens bank erosion, and destroys plant life. Where sanitation is poor, salmonellosis can devastate geese and be transmitted, via meat and eggs, to humans. Coccidiosis and gizzard worm are other infections.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Defeathering geese is more difficult than plucking chickens because there are two coats (feathers and down) to remove.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some situations, geese may need a diet supplement (such as grain) if they are grazing vegetation exclusively. A balance must be struck: too much supplement and they will quit foraging and become too fat; too little and they grow slowly and may suffer malnutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese are not fully mature until two years of age. Their overall reproductive rate, therefore, is lower than that of other poultry. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry researchers worldwide should begin studies to clarify the role that geese could play in helping to feed Third World nations. Studies might include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Management practices for tropical areas;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Breeding and management for increased egg production;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Incubation techniques;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutrition supplementation (for example, vitamins, minerals, energy, specific amino acids) needed by grazing geese;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Physiology of digestion and reproduction;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Clarifying the inheritance of various traits;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Genetic selection for specific meat, eggs, growth factors, or disease resistance;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Comparative studies of the relative efficiency (especially of feed utilization) of the various types and breeds for specific climates in underdeveloped countries;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Weeding tropical crops with geese; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Studying diseases and cross-infection with other birds. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">8 Guinea Fowl</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g011a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Third World villages, the guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) could become much more valuable than it is today. The bird thrives under semi-intensive conditions, forages well, and requires little attention. It retains many of its wild ancestor's survival characteristics: it grows, reproduces, and yields well in both cool and hot conditions; it is relatively disease free; it requires little water or attention; it is almost as easily raised as chickens and turkeys; and it is a most useful all-round farm bird.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea fowl's potential to increase meat production among hungry countries should be given greater recognition. The birds are widely known in Africa and occur in a few areas of Asia, but they show promise for use throughout all of Asia and Latin America and for increased use in Africa itself. Strains newly created for egg and meat production in Europe - notably in France - show excellent characteristics for industrial-scale production. Also, many semidomestic types in Africa deserve increased scientific assessment as scavenger birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meat from domestic guinea fowl is dark and delicate, the flavor resembling that of game birds. It is a special delicacy, served in some of the world's finest restaurants. Several European countries eat vast amounts. Annual consumption in France, for example, is about 0.8 kg per capita.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl also produce substantial numbers of eggs. In Africa, these are often sold hard-boiled in local markets. In the Soviet Union, they are produced in large commercial operations. In France, guinea fowl strains have been developed that not only grow quickly but lay as many as 190 eggs a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside Europe, virtually all guinea fowl are raised as free-ranging birds. These find most of their feed by scratching around villages and farmyards. Their cost of production is small, and they yield food for subsistence farmers. In Europe, on the other hand, most are raised in confinement, with artificial insemination, artificial lighting, and special feeding. In the main, this is to produce meat for luxury markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl production is beginning to increase all over the world. During the last 20 years, for example, many of Europe's chicken farmers and breeders, wishing to diversify, have switched to this bird. The United States is now studying ways to establish industrial production, and both Japan and Australia are increasing their flocks. Nonetheless, there is still a vast untapped future for this bird.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide. This species is robust and resilient and adapts to many climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are somewhat larger than average scavenger-type chickens: adults weigh up to 2.5 kilograms. They have dark-grey feathers with small white spots. Their heads are bare with a bony ridge (helmet) on top, which makes them look something like vultures. The short tail feathers usually slope downwards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chicks, known as "keels," resemble young quail. They are brown striped with red beaks and legs. The sexes are indistinguishable until eight weeks of age. After that, the males' larger helmets and wattles and the cries of the different sexes can be identified. Both sexes give a one-syllable shriek, but females also have a two-syllable call.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the chicken, the guinea fowl is a gallinaceous species and possesses the characteristic sternum with posterior notches and a raised "thumb."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among domestic types are pearl, white, royal purple, and lavender. Pearl is the most common, and is probably the type first developed from the wild West African birds. Its handsome feathers are often used for ornamental purposes. The white is entirely white from the time of hatching and has a lighter skin. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p117a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe dominates industrial production. France, Italy, the Soviet Union, and Hungary all raise millions of guinea fowl under intensive conditions, just as they raise chickens. Elsewhere, guinea fowl have become established as a semidomesticated species on small family farms. Native flocks are found about villages and homes in parts of East and West Africa, and free-ranging flocks can be seen in many parts of India, notably Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, and Madhya Pradesh. During the slavery era, they were introduced from Africa to the Americas to be used for food. In Jamaica, Central America, and Malaysia, the birds have reverted to the wild state and are treated as game.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are abundant; in most places even wild populations are not threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are native to the grasslands and woodlands of most of Africa south of the Sahara where they occupy all habitats except dense forests and treeless deserts. Being native also to temperate South Africa, they appear to have an inherent adaptability to both heat and cold. However, in cool climates, regardless of daylength, they will not begin egg production until temperatures exceed 15&Yacute;C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl accept many foods: grains, leaves, ant eggs (for which they will tear anthills open), and even carrion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, they lay their first egg at about 18 weeks of age. Unlike many wild birds, which produce a single clutch a year, guinea hens lay continuously until adverse weather sets in.2 Free-range "domestic" guinea hens lay up to 60 eggs a season. And well-managed birds under intensive management lay close to 200. The eggs weigh approximately 40 g. Shells are stronger than those of chickens and are usually brown, but can be white or tinted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea hen goes broody after laying, which can be overcome by removing most of the eggs. A clutch of 15-20 is common. The incubation period is 27 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds never become "tame," but neither do they leave the premises. Although they stray farther than chickens do, they always return. They like to hide their eggs in a bushy corner, often in hollows scratched in the ground. They can fly, although even in the wild they do not fly far. They prefer to roost on high branches and (unless pinioned) can be hard to catch during the day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although wild guinea fowl live in groups, they are monogamous by nature and tend to bond in pairs. However, in domestication a single male may serve four or more females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, guinea fowl are valuable sources of both meat and eggs. They can also be used to control insect pests on vegetable crops.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are good "watch animals"; they have fantastic eyesight, a harsh cry, and will shriek at the slightest provocation. Their agitation on sighting dogs, foxes, hawks, or other predators have saved the lives of many a chicken, duck, and turkey. They are brave and will attack even large animals that threaten them.4 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl can be kept in confinement using the methods for raising battery chickens. In this system, breeding stock are housed in cages and artificially inseminated. It gives the best egg production and fertility but requires housing, equipment, and skilled labor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds can also be kept in a semidomestic state in and around the farmyard. In such cases they are penned until they are 12 weeks old. Unaccustomed to foraging for natural food, they constantly return to their artificial food supply. Eventually, however, they learn to subsist by scavenging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds have been called "the worst parents in the world," and are almost incapable of looking after their keets.5 Because the females are such indifferent mothers, the eggs are best hatched in incubators or under other birds, to avoid the keets' being lost by their natural mothers. In many African countries, eggs are hatched under chickens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keets are often kept indoors until they are 3-4 weeks old to protect them from predators and wet weather. Sexual maturity can be delayed to as late as 32 weeks of age by holding the birds in windowless housing and controlling the lighting. This improves egg size and hatchability and reduces early mortality. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GUINEA FOWL AND THE ANCIENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The earliest reference to guinea fowl can be found in murals in the Pyramid of Wenis at Saqqara in Egypt, painted about 2400 B.C. Aviaries were quite fashionable at the time, and wealthy landowners maintained guinea fowl within their walled gardens. A thousand years later, by the time of Queen Hatshepsut (about 1475 B.C.), the junglefowl (the ancestor of the chicken) had arrived, and from then on it was raised on a substantial scale. Records of this period refer to "walk-in" incubators, constructed of mud bricks and heated by cameldung fires. The largest could hold up to 90,000 eggs (mainly from junglefowl but some from guinea fowl) and hatching rates of up to 70 percent were claimed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 400 B.C., guinea fowl were well established on farms in Greece. Later, they rose to importance in ancient Rome. Pliny the elder (in his Natural History, published 77 A.D.) stated that they were the last bird to be added to the Roman menu and that they were in great demand, both eggs and flesh being considered great delicacies. The emperor Caligula offered them as sacrifices to himself when he assumed the title of deity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea fowl then died out in Europe but was reintroduced by the Portuguese navigators returning from their African explorations in the late 1400s. They gave it the name pintada or "painted chicken" and this changed to pintade in French, while the name "Guinea fowl" (fowl from Africa) stayed in English, and gallina de Guinea in Spanish. Coincidentally, guinea fowl and turkeys were both introduced to England between 1530 and 1550, and the English, smitten with the original French misnomers, were left sorting out "Ginny birds" and "Turkey birds" for the remainder of the century. Both birds were adopted with great enthusiasm, and within 150 years they had utterly displaced the peafowl and swan as the major table birds for festive occasions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adapted from R.H.H. Belshaw, 1985 Guinea Fowl of the World</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with the farmyard chicken the guinea fowl's advantages are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Low production costs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Premium quality meat;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Greater capacity to utilize green feeds;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Better ability to scavenge for insects and grains;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Better ability to protect itself against predators; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Better resistance to common poultry parasites and diseases (for example, Newcastle disease and fowlpox).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surprisingly, this semidomestic bird, which has been farmed for centuries, retains the characteristics (feather morphology, hardiness, social behavior) of its wild ancestor - even when subjected to the most modern intensive-rearing methods employing battery cages and artificial insemination. Thus, it thrives under semicaptive conditions and needs little special care. The birds forage well for themselves and do not require much attention; their meat is tasty and they produce substantial numbers of eggs. Unlike chickens, they don't scratch to get insects out of the soil, so they are less destructive to the garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In backyard production the guinea fowl is supreme, but when produced intensively it costs more to raise than chickens. In Europe, for instance, day-old keets cost about twice as much as day-old broiler chicks. (The major reason is that guinea fowl produce fewer hatching eggs and require a longer feeding period.) Guinea fowl are also more expensive to feed. Their feed conversion (for meat production at the marketing age) is about 3.3-3.6 as compared with a broiler's feed conversion of 1.8-1.9. Moreover, guinea fowl take about twice as long to reach marketable size: they are marketed for meat at age 12-14 weeks, compared with 7-8 weeks for the broilers. Therefore, the selling price of guinea fowl in the Western world is up to twice that of broilers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea fowl are nervous and stupid. They can be difficult to catch' and when panicking they can easily suffocate their keets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are susceptible to some of the common diseases of chickens and turkeys. Salmonella is the most prevalent, but others are pullorum disease, staphylococcus, and Marek's disease. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE GUINEA FOWL'S WILD COUSINS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domesticated guinea fowl is descended from just one subspecies of the family's seven known species and numerous subspecies. Some of the others may also have promise as poultry. They, too, generally occur in flocks in bushy grasslands and open forests in Africa. All feed on vegetable matter such as seeds, berries, and tender shoots, and on invertebrates such as slugs. They rarely fly except to roost. They acclimatize well are easy to maintain in captivity, and can survive long periods away from water.** Their disposition is tame and nonaggressive, and they mix well with other birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild subspecies closely related to the domestic guinea fowl that might make future poultry in their own right include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gray-breasted guinea fowl (Numida meleagris galeata). This subspecies is the principal ancestor of domestic guinea fowls. It is found throughout West Africa and probably has many valuable genetic traits. There is much variation in the size and other characteristics among the various individuals. People along the Gambia, Volta, and Niger rivers have long traditions of breeding these birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Tufted guinea fowl (Numida meleagris meleagris). This subspecies is quite large and has black plumage thickly spotted with white dots. It is the probable ancestor of the birds reared in ancient Egypt and in the Roman empire (see page 120). Hill farmers in the southern Sudan sometimes breed them in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Mitred guinea fowl (Numida meleagris mitrata). Probably the most popular game bird in East Africa, this type has a bright blue-green head and red wattles. It was once a common sight in the wild but it has now been decimated by overhunting. It is now most numerous in the Masai lands of Kenya and Tanzania. It has been kept in a semidomesticated form in Zanzibar for several centuries. Zoos and aviaries around the world have imported it, and it has bred well for them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild guinea fowl that are different species from the domestic one but that are still worth considering as potential poultry include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Black guinea fowl (Phasidus niger or Agelastes niger). This bird of the tropical rainforests of West and Central Africa is the size of a small chicken. It has sooty black plumage, a naked head, and a pink or yellow neck. It is seldom hunted because the meat tastes dreadful but this is probably because of a particularly pungent fungus they eat in the forest. Raised on fungus-free forages, these birds are probably very palatable. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Crested guinea hen (Guttera spp.). Three species. These strange-looking birds have a thick mop of inky black feathers above their black, naked faces. Widely distributed in the thickly forested areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Unlike the other species, they prefer the rainforest. They have a musical trumpeting call. At least one species has bred well in Europe. For example, a flourishing colony has been established in the Walsrode Bird Park in Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Vulturine guinea fowl (Acryllium vulturinum). The largest of all guinea fowl, this species is found in parts of Ethiopia, Somalia, and East Africa. One of the most striking looking of all birds, its head is bare and blue, its body black with white spots, and its breast bears long bright cobalt-blue patches on either side. This has been reared as an aviary bird in both Europe and America and might make a useful domesticate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agencies involved in international economic development should undertake guinea fowl assessment trials, evaluations, and coordinated introductions to stimulate programs for small farmers and for industries in dozens of countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeders have been working to improve guinea fowl only since the 1950s. There is a need for more information on growth rate, health, egg production, feed conversion, body weight, carcass yield, laying intensity, fertility, hatchability, and egg weight - especially under free-ranging conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Husbandry research should also be directed towards feeds and feeding systems for growing and breeding stock. Other efforts are needed to increase the hatchability of eggs under natural conditions (under guinea hens or surrogate mothers), and to identify the best lighting regimes (both sexual maturity and rate of lay are influenced by changes in daylength).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea fowl that has become an important domesticated bird throughout the civilized world is descended from just one of seven known species in the family. These birds generally occur in flocks in bushy grasslands and open forest in Africa and Madagascar, and some of the others may also have promise as poultry (see sidebar opposite). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">9 Muscovy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g012a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy (Cairina moschata), a unique ducklike species of the South American rainforest, belongs to a small group of waterfowl that perch in trees. In poultry science, however, it is normally grouped with domestic ducks for lack of a better classification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except in France, Italy and Taiwan muscovies have received little modern research. But their promise can be judged from the fact that they account for 50 percent of the duck meat consumed in France - about 60,000 tons per year - and they are often consumed in Italy and Taiwan as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Third World subsistence farming, muscovies have excellent possibilities. There is probably no better choice for a meat bird that requires minimal care and feed. Tame, quiet, and able to forage for much of their keep, they are inherently hardy, vigorous, and robust. They have heavily fleshed breasts and are highly prized for their meat, which is dark, more flavorful, and less fatty than that of common ducks. An average muscovy gives more meat than a chicken of the same age, and it also survives hot, wet environments better. In addition, muscovies are better parents than the domestic duck. Females are probably the best natural mothers of any poultry species, as measured by their success at incubating their eggs and caring for their young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All in all, this bird deserves more attention than it has received so far in Third World livestock projects. Dispersed around the warm and hot regions of the world, muscovies already exist in small numbers in backyards and villages, much like the domestic chicken in previous centuries. Despite a lack of research, the present unimproved stocks are already impressive meat yielders. Used more widely and more intensively, they could contribute much to poor people's meat supplies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossing the muscovy with the common duck produces a hybrid that combines many of the advantages of both. This cross, known as "mulard," or "mule duck" in English, is raised in France for its liver and meat and is produced in quantity in Taiwan (see sidebar, page 132). It, too, has a major future role.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies are suitable for use almost anywhere that chickens can be kept. Moreover, their tropical ancestry and inherent robustness give them an advantage in hot and humid climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although a muscovy somewhat resembles a goose, it is one of the greater wood ducks of tropical South America. It was domesticated in pre-Columbian times, most likely in the rainforests of Colombia. Related wild types, looking very much like the muscovy, still occur in South American wetlands, particularly mangrove swamps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males have mature live weights of 5 kg and females about 2.5 kg. Both have broad and rounded wings. The adults have patches of bare skin around the eyes, rather than feathers. Much of this is covered in "caruncles," which superficially resemble warty outgrowths. The feet have sharp claws. Both sexes raise a crest of feathers when alarmed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is much color variation among the various muscovy populations including types that are called white, colored, black, blue, chocolate, silver, buff, and pied.2 The most common types (they are not considered breeds) are the white and the colored. The white produces a cleaner looking carcass, but the colored is the most popular meat type in France. Its plumage is an iridescent greenish black, except for white forewings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The native range of the muscovy's probable wild ancestor covers much of Central America and northern South America. The domestic form also occurs over most of Latin America - from southern Chile to the northern limits of traditional culture in lowland Mexico - including the Caribbean, where it was present shortly after Columbus landed.3 The birds can be observed among the domestic fowl in the high Andes, for example, and are feral in southern coastal areas of the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carried across the Atlantic, probably in the early 1500s, the domesticated muscovy spread quickly in Europe, and thence to North America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania. Today, it finds favor with the food-loving French as "canard de Barbarie," and France has the greatest concentration of muscovies in Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Down the centuries the muscovy became popular in tropical Asia (especially the Philippines and Indonesia) and in China and Taiwan. Throughout Indonesia (where it is known as "entok") it is popular with villagers for incubating eggs from ducks, geese, and chickens. It is now spreading into Oceania, and has recently gained particular favor in the Solomon Islands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies are also known in Africa and can be found in many villages, especially in West Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not endangered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild muscovies occur mainly along tropical jungle streams, but domestic muscovies are found in many environments from the heat of Central America to the cold of Central Europe. They also tolerate dry conditions, but they thrive best where climates are both hot and wet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies utilize high-fiber feeds better than chickens and common ducks, and eat larger quantities of grass. They also consume other green vegetation and readily snap up any insects they can find. If quality forage is available, only a small daily ration of grain or pellets is required for them to reach peak production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy females normally hatch and raise large broods efficiently. It is not unusual to see them with a dozen or more fragile ducklings in tow - many of them adopted from other species. They bravely protect their young and have been known to beat off cats, dogs, foxes, and other marauders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, muscovies are healthy and live and breed for many years. They suffer few diseases, especially when free ranging. However, they seem to be more susceptible to duck virus enteritis (duck plague) than common ducks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p129a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While appearing to be slow and lethargic, muscovies can be quick and agile when one tries to catch them. Females are strong fliers and readily clear a standard fence. Males frequently become so ponderous that they cannot get airborne without an elevated perch or the aid of a strong wind. Although they forage over a larger area than chickens, they generally neither decamp nor wander as far as common ducks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated muscovies are either solitary or live together in small family groups, but sometimes in winter they flock together on bodies of water. They swim and dive well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds seldom make loud noises. A drake's voice resembles a muffled "puff"; females are almost mute. However, both can hiss or make a soft sound not unlike that of sleigh bells.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is polygamous (a young male will try to mate with almost any fowl, including chickens). Mating can occur on land or in water. Males are pugnacious and tolerate no opposition. Because of this, they do not do well in close confinement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A BETTER FLY TRAP</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is a voracious omnivore that is particularly fond of insects. For years, some Canadian farmers have sworn that a few muscovies took care of all fly problems on their farms. In 1989, Ontario biologists Gordon Surgeoner and Barry Glofcheskie (see Research Contacts) decided to put this to the test.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting with laboratory trials, the entomologists first put a hungry five-week-old muscovy into a screened cage with 400 living houseflies. Within an hour it had eaten 326. Later, they placed four muscovies in separate cages containing 100 flies each. Within 30 minutes over 90 percent of the insects were gone. It took flypaper, fly traps, and bait cards anywhere from 15 to 86 hours to suppress the populations that much.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moving to fleld tests, the researchers placed pairs of twoyear-old muscovies on several Ontario farms. Videotapes showed the birds snapping at houseflies and biting flies about every 30 seconds and being successful on 70 percent of their attempts. With that efficiency, they achieved 80-90 percent fly control in enclosures such as calf rooms or piggeries. The birds were given only water and had to scavenge for all their food. Females seemed to eat about 10 percent more flies than males, and individuals of any age between eight days and two years were equally effective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds fit the practical needs for farmyard fly control. They stayed close to piglets and calves, to which flies are particularly attracted. They even snatched flies off the hides of resting animals without waking them up. On one farm, the birds huddled between sleeping piglets and were accepted by the sow lying beside them. This was noteworthy because most fly-catching devices (chemical, electrical, or mechanical) must be kept far from animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To the Canadians, the economic advantages are clear. A 35-cow dairy needs $150-$590 worth of chemicals for controlling flies during the fly season; muscovy chicks, on the other hand, cost less than $2 each, eat for free, and can be sold for a profit of 200-400 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The researchers point out that employing muscovies does not eliminate all need for insecticides, but it reduces the amounts required. And muscovies are biodegradable, will not cause a buildup of genetic resistance, and taste better than flypaper. Indeed, their meat is excellent, and the naturally mute birds seldom make any noise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reportedly, muscovies are kept in some houses in South America to control not only flies, but also roaches and other insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is generally raised only for its meat, which is of excellent quality and taste. In stews it is hard to distinguish from pork; cured and smoked it is similar to lean ham.4 The fat content is low.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy eggs are as tasty as other duck eggs, and a muscovy female can supply a large number if she is kept from sitting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are useful for clearing both terrestrial and aquatic weeds.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Down feathers are used, like those of other ducks, in clothing and comforters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies may be raised like common ducks. An ideal grouping is one male to five or six females. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except in Taiwan, France, Hungary, and a few other European countries, they exist predominantly in small flocks in farmyards and village ponds. However, they can be reared under intensive conditions in a shed or pen that is well lighted and equipped with low roosts and bedding. Under such conditions, they may be fed diets recommended for rearing common ducks or given coarse feeds, including whole grain. If chicken rations are used, fresh greens must be provided to avoid "cowboy" legs, a symptom of niacin deficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they thrive in areas where there is abundant water, they do not require access to swimming water. They prefer to nest under cover and will use nesting boxes. A normal clutch size is 9-14 eggs; however, clutches of up to 28 can occur. There may be 4 clutches annually, and (when the hen does not have to brood the ducklings) some muscovies have laid 100 eggs in a year.6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The egg weight, which increases with the female's age, ranges from 65 to 85 g. The eggs require 33-35 days to hatch, a week longer than the common duck's. Hatching success of 75 percent or more is common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with domestic ducks early growth is slow, which is perhaps why muscovies have not enjoyed wider industrial use. However, after the slow period they grow rapidly and, because they forage on a broader range of vegetation than common ducks, they can scavenge a large proportion of their diet at little or no cost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When raised intensively, females average 2 kg and males 4 kg at 11-12 weeks of age. Females may reach sexual maturity by 28 weeks of age; males require a month more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE MULE DUCK OF TAIWAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In parts of Europe, hybrids between muscovies and common ducks are reared for fattening. However, Taiwan has made the most outstanding use of this "mule duck." Thanks in part to this muscovy hybrid, Taiwan's duck industry has grown rapidly in the last decade. The total value of duck products now exceeds $346 million per year. Much of the boom in duck production is due to improved feeding disease control and management systems, but much is also due to the performance of the mule duck. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This hybrid is now Taiwan's major meat-duck breed, and about 30 million are consumed each year. Indeed, the duck industry has been so successful that Taiwan is increasingly exporting frozen duck breast and drumstick meat to Japan. It now provides 24 percent of the duck meat eaten in Japan most of it coming from mule ducks. Also, Taiwan is exporting partially incubated mule-duck eggs throughout Southeast Asia. And mule ducks supply most of the raw material for Taiwan's large feather industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan farmers have been producing mule ducks for 250 years, but the recent jump in production is due to the use of artificial insemination to overcome the natural reticence of the different species to mate. Fortunately, artificial insemination is well developed and is a standard part of farming practice in Taiwan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mule ducks are successful because they have less fat than a broiler chicken and they grow faster. Indeed, they can reach a market weight of 2.8 kg at 65 - 75 days of age, depending upon the weather, season, and management. In part, this fast growth is because they are sterile and waste no energy in preparing for a sexual existence or in laying eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The usual cross employs a muscovy male and a domesticduck female. The domestic breeds most employed for muleduck production are White Kaiya (Pekin male x White Tsaiya female), Large White Kaiya (Pekin male x White Kaiya female) and colored Kaiya. Both sexes of the hybrid offspring weigh about the same.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crosses between a muscovy hen and a domestic drake are much rarer (traditionally, this was because of the different mating behavior of the two species, but even with artificial insemination available they are not much used) and the males of these hybrids are much heavier than the females. Females of this cross do lay eggs, but the eggs are small (about 40 g) and their embryos do not develop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are almost 300 duck-breeding farms in Taiwan, annually producing more than 600,000 female domestic ducks for use in producing mule ducks. Some farmers combine duck raising with fish farming. The excrete of 4,000 ducks on one hectare of pond can provide 30,000 tilapia with 20 percent of their feed. It helps the farmer get rid of waste as well as giving him fresh fish to sell. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the muscovy is an extremely good forager and thrives under free-ranging conditions. Unlike other ducks, it grazes on grass and leaves and will maintain itself on pasture. Apparently, it can digest bran and other fibrous feeds better than common ducks can.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The males are larger than all but the largest strains of table duck. They have exceptionally broad, well-muscled breasts and provide one of the leanest meats of any waterfowl.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy is apparently more resistant to diseases that regularly decimate other poultry. This is one reason why villagers favored them: when chickens die, muscovies often survive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The female's strong parental qualities help assure the survival of ducklings with a minimum of human intervention. Her ability to incubate and hatch most other poultry eggs is an added advantage to small farmers who have neither the capital to buy, nor the knowledge to operate, artificial incubators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike other ducks, muscovies are not easily alarmed, and fright does not affect their egg production and laying. Indeed, they are so phlegmatic that automobiles can be major causes of death.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they are a tropical species, these birds are much less tolerant of cold than common ducks and require more protection from freezing weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy's feed conversion is not as good as the chicken's. Also, compared with some other meat-duck breeds, muscovies have a slower rate of growth and require about 4 6 weeks longer to attain maximum development of breast muscles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies can be difficult to handle. If their legs are free, the handler may be badly lacerated by the claws.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although adults have a fair homing ability, muscovies may wander away when local forage is sparse, and young birds may be carried long distances downstream, never to return.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they feed on greenery, they can devastate gardens if the plants are very young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovies can be unsuspected carriers of poultry diseases, so that healthy-looking muscovies may infect the other species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry scientists should unite in efforts to advance technical knowledge and public appreciation of this bird. Governments and researchers should begin evaluations of local varieties and their uses and performances. The experiences of France, Italy, Eastern Europe, and Taiwan should be gathered and made available for a worldwide readership.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important that the many muscovy varieties within the countries of Latin America - where the bird has a centuries-long history of domestication - be maintained and studied. Many superior varieties and specimens may be awaiting discovery.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The muscovy's nutritional requirements, range and confined systems of management, and disease vulnerability are poorly understood and need study. Especially needed are ways to increase growth rate. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">10 Pigeon</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g013a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons (Columba livia)1 are durable birds that can be raised with little effort. Able to survive in inhospitable climates, they fend for themselves - often ranging over many square kilometers to locate seeds and edible scraps. They have been raised for centuries, especially in North Africa and the Middle East. In parts of North America and Europe, they are produced as a delicacy for the gourmet market. But raising pigeons for food is not nearly as widespread as it could be; indeed, in modern times its potential has hardly been touched. Farmed pigeons are particularly promising as urban microlivestock because they require little space and thrive in cities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young pigeons (squab) grow at a rapid rate. Their meat is finely textured, has an attractive flavor, and is often used in place of game fowl. Tender and easily digested, it commands premium market prices. In many areas, the continuing demand is unfilled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are traditionally raised in dovecotes - "houses" that protect the birds from the elements and from predators. This system allows free-ranging flight and requires almost no human intervention. Dovecotes are a good source of both squab and garden manure, and they continue to be used, especially in Egypt. On the other hand, pigeons can also be raised in confinement - usually in enclosed yards - with all their needs supplied by the farmer. There are, for example, pigeon farms in the United States with up to 35,000 pairs of breeding birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeon production may never rise enough to compete with commercial poultry as a major source of food, but for Third World villages these birds could become a significant addition to the diet as well as a source for substantial supplemental income. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons have small heads, plump, full-breasted bodies, and soft, dense plumage. They weigh from about 0.5 to nearly I kg. A few large breeds (Runts, for instance, which commonly weigh 1.4 kg) are the size of small domestic chickens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many breeds have been developed for meat production. They produce squab that grow quicker and have larger breasts than unselected birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild ancestor of the common pigeon - domestic, wild, or feral -  is thought to be the rock pigeon or rock dove of Europe and Asia. Today its domestic descendants are bred in virtually every country, and those that have gone feral (reverted to the wild) occur in most of the world's cities and towns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are abundant. However, as with most other domestic species there is concern over the decline and loss of certain breeds. Societies have been organized (notably in the United Kingdom) to preserve rare types.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p138a.png"></center><br>
+ Natural habitat of the rock dove ancestor of the domestic pigeon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domestic pigeon can be raised equally well in temperate and tropical zones. Indeed, this adaptable species can be kept anywhere that wild pigeons exist, including arid and humid regions. It should be noted, however, that cold climates do not favor squab production and hot climates promote vermin and disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigeon's natural diet consists mostly of seeds, but includes fruits, leaves, and some invertebrates. Feral pigeons consume a wide array of materials, including insects, bread, meat scraps, weed seeds, and many kinds of spilled grains at mills, wharves, railway yards, grain elevators, and farm fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the first four or five days of life, the young are fed "crop milk." This substance, common to pigeons and doves,2 is composed of cells from the lining of the crop and is very high in fats and nutritional energy. The phenomenal growth rate of young squab has been attributed to crop milk and to its early replacement (within 8-10 days) with concentrated foods, regurgitated by both parents. The parents feed the squab for about four weeks before pushing it out of the nest to prepare for the next clutch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In domestic birds, sexual maturity (as measured by age at first egg) is reached at 120-150 days. Life span can be 15 years, although growth and egg production decline rapidly after the third year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild pigeons often nest on cliff sides. Domestic pigeons prefer to nest around buildings, in nooks and shelves and under the eaves - that is, in "pigeonholes."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In domestic varieties, the pair-bond often lasts until severe illness or death. Sometimes, however, a vigorous male will "invade" a nest and mate with the females there. Both sexes take nearly equal part in nest building, incubation, and caring for the young. Typically, there are two eggs to a clutch. Eight clutches a year is not uncommon for a breeding pair. The incubation period is 17-19 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike most birds, pigeons drink by inserting their beaks into water and sucking up a continuous draft. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Courtship is characterized by cooing, prancing, and displays of spread, lowered tail feathers. "Bow and coo" exhibitions are unique to pigeons and doves and differ among species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are usually raised exclusively for meat. The squab are harvested just before full feather development and before the youngster has started to fly, usually at 21-30 days of age. At this time the ratio of flesh to inedible parts is highest; once flying begins, the meat becomes tougher. Weight depends upon breed, nutrition, and other factors, but usually ranges from 340 to 680 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are extensively used for scientific research, notably in physiology and psychology. They are also widely kept as pets for plumage and for racing. The pigeon's unique homing ability was recognized in Roman times, and the birds have been trained to return to the dovecote from as far away as 700 km. Even today, homing pigeons are used to carry messages, especially during war.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are easily trained to recognize "home." The wing feathers are clipped and the birds are fed close to the dovecote; by the time they refledge, their homing instinct has been developed. Alternatively, newly captured pigeons may be trained by confining them to the dovecote for at least one week. At first, a little grain is provided in the morning (this is to ensure the birds will return to the coop). The birds can obtain the rest themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any waterproof house that is easy to clean is suitable for keeping pigeons. Many traditional dovecotes are built of earthenware pots. In Asia and Europe, wooden pigeon towers are generally used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike chickens, pigeons do not prefer communal roosts. Instead, they prefer nesting shelves, of which there should be two for each breeding pair. The shelves are usually placed in dark corners and are fitted with low walls to keep eggs from rolling out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grit is important in the diet, both to provide minerals and to allow the birds to grind feed in their gizzards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commercial squab breeds are often kept permanently in pens, a process that requires care and experience. Growers expect an average of 12-14 squab per pair per year, although much depends on environment and management. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds need fresh water daily and water for bathing at least weekly. Since they feed their young by regurgitation, the adults must have a continuous supply of clean drinking water. Orphan squab can be fed egg yolk until old enough to consume adult feeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like all poultry, confined pigeons must be provided enough supplemental feed to ensure a balanced diet. A mixture of whole grains can be fed for maximum production. It is important that grains be dry and free of mold (pigeons will not thrive on mash). Peas, beans, or similar pulses make good supplements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARRIER PIGEONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most people consider message-carrying pigeons to be a quaint anachronism. But in a few countries (both developed and developing) carrier pigeons are making a comeback, and in the future they may be used routinely once again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New techniques are making this process far more practical than before. For example, in the past the pigeons would be flown in one direction only. They were transported away from home and at the appropriate time released to find their way back. That was very limiting. But it has since been found that pigeons can be trained to carry messages in two directions: flying from one point to another and then back again. They will do it twice a day, and with almost perfect reliability. The key is to place the feeding station at one end and the nest at the other. This limits the pigeon's range, but they still can handle round-trip distances up to 160 km.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a little ingenuity, there is no need for a person to monitor the stations to receive the messages as the bird arrives. One simple technique is to arrange the station with one-way doors - one opening inwards, the other outwards. Placing a bar across the outward door means that the bird cannot get out until someone releases it. Thus the message can always be retrieved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This system has been employed in Puerto Rico and Guatemala, but it could be used almost anywhere. In many parts of the Third World, in particular, there are remote areas with no phones and with hilly, rough terrain where delivering messages can take hours of strenuous travel. Some locations are subject to unexpected isolation by natural calamities or military or terrorist actions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Puerto Rico, for instance, we kept pigeons in a village 32 km from the capital. The pigeons could get downtown in 20-30 minutes. It took us 1.5-2 hours each way by road. What was easy for the birds was a major trip for us. Pigeons carried the villagers' requests for certain foods and medicines. Our contact in the city then sent up the supplies by bus. The birds never let us down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carrier pigeons are useful for more than just flying far and fast. They have been bred for racing and their large pectoral muscles make them excellent meat producers - much better than the common pigeons normally raised for food. A pair of carriers typically will raise 12 - 16 young each year, and those not needed for message carrying can be butchered at 28 days of age - yielding meat that is nutritious and considered a delicacy in many countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Holderread</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Every day on the northwest coast of France, Petit Gendamme, a black and white carrier pigeon, flies on average 23 km between hospitals on his blood delivery route. Trussed in tiny hand-sewn harnesses, he and a flock of carrier pigeons set out (except during the hunting season) with little red tubes of blood secured to their breasts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"It's a simple, effective, and cost-saving transport system," said Yves Le Henaff, head of the Avranches Hospital laboratory, Cotentin, France, a central blood-testing center that serves a number of isolated medical centers along the coast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The service becomes particularly valuable during the summer tourist rush, when travellers flock to the seashore to visit nearby Mont Saint Michel, crowding the small country roads and increasing the risk of traffic accidents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds' average flight time between the hospitals of Avranches and Granville, for example, a distance of about 27 km, is 20 minutes, including the time for harnessing up. And with a favorable western wind their best time can reach 11 minutes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While gasoline costs the equivalent of $0. 75 a lifer in France, hospital officials say that a few grains of corn is all it takes to run this operation. According to Le Henaff, who supervises the carrier pigeon operation, the hospital is saving up to $46 a day on gas and auto maintenance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 40-year-old Le Henaff got the idea five years ago from an article in a scientific journal describing a similar experiment in Britain. A year later, he and an associate called on the local seamstress to design a light harness that could hold a tube, which, when filled, weighs approximately 39 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The flock now consists of 40 veteran fliers and 20 carrier pigeons in training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And what if the winged creatures stray en route? Le Henaff has devised a fall-back option: two pigeons carry two different test tubes containing the same blood sample.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds fly every day of the year with the exception of the three-month autumn hunting season. Since the beginning of the experiment four years ago, there have been two casualties. Le Henaff believes the birds probably met their fate in some Normand's oven.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sometimes weather is a factor, and heavy fog can keep the delivery team grounded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, the new job seems to benefit the pigeons, too. Unlike sickly city pigeons, whose average life span is about four years, well-cared-for carrier pigeons can live up to 15 years, Le Henaff said. "And how many people do you know who are willing to stay with the same outfit for that long?"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sabine Maubouche</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Washington Post</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">December 2, 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under extensive conditions - where the birds are released each day to feed themselves - almost no land is needed. Under intensive conditions, where the birds spend their lives in confinement, a mere half hectare can be enough space to raise 2,000 pairs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free-ranging pigeons forage over a wider area than most domestic fowl because they fly out to find their feed. Nutrient requirements3 are similar to those of chickens and other fowl (making allowance for the energy needed for flying), so commercial feed and other supplements - if needed at all - are generally available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In dovecote culture, pigeons require little or no handling. They brood the young with little intervention. Although not continuous, the production of meat from these fast-growing, rapidly reproducing birds is more sustained than with most livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost nowhere are there taboos against consuming pigeon meat. Prices received for squab are normally high, and in most places the demand is constant. The only limitation in some areas is the absence of an effective market, which is usually easy to create.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Squab contains a larger proportion of soluble protein and a smaller proportion of connective tissue than most meats and is therefore good for invalids and people with digestive disorders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As many hobbyists can testify, raising pigeons can be gratifying.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeons are subject to few diseases. However, worms, lice, diarrhea (coccidiosis), canker (trichomoniasis), and salmonella (paratyphoid) occur at some time in most domestic breeds. Salmonella exists in low levels in most flocks and will flare up if birds are stressed. Treatments recommended for domestic chickens are usually suitable for pigeons. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By flying over a wide area and eating grains and other foods, pigeons can cause conflicts with farmers. Indeed, in the 13th century the aristocracy's pigeons became a major grievance of the peasants who saw their seed devoured. On the other hand, "croppers" (breeds with large crops) were developed to steal grain from the lord's fields. The pigeon returned home and his crop was emptied of the grain, which was used by the peasant to make bread.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds can become nuisances. They leave droppings in annoying places, some people find them too noisy, and a few people are severely allergic to "pigeon dust."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Every conceivable type of predator can be expected; therefore, precautions must be taken. The dovecote must be well protected against rats, which are the principal enemy of the eggs and the squabs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nesting birds need a high-protein diet to raise squab at the high rates of gain that are possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry researchers should study the increased role pigeons might play in Third World economic development. Nothing comparable to the sophisticated selection employed with the domestic chicken has so far been attempted. Given such attention the gains could be great.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among pressing research needs are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Breeding. This needs to be better understood. For example, the effects of hybridization and inbreeding need clarification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Environmental limits. Little work has been done outside the temperate regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Diseases. These deserve increased attention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also the potential of "dovecotes" for wild pigeons. Numerous local species are well adapted to local conditions, and these deserve to be tested for "domestication."4 Many wild species quickly lose their fear of man, and in time they can even become too fat to fly. Wild pigeons are already found throughout the humid tropics and are trapped for meat and rearing in New Guinea and other places. They are already an important food source for many subsistence farmers and shifting cultivators, and with some dovecote management could provide a greater, more dependable source of food and income. The potential for domesticating local pigeon species, especially those suited to the tropics, deserves exploration. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">11 Quail</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g014a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native to Asia and Europe, quail' (Coturnix coturnix2) have been farmed since ancient times, especially in the Far East. They reproduce rapidly and their rate of egg production is remarkable. They are also robust, disease resistant, and easy to keep, requiring only simple cages and equipment and little space. Yet they are not well known around the world and deserve wider testing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are so precocious that they can lay eggs when hardly more than 5 weeks old. It is said that about 20 of them are sufficient to keep an average family in eggs year-round. Quail eggs are very popular in Japan, where they are packed in thin plastic cases and sold fresh in many food stores. They are also boiled, shelled, and either canned or boxed like chicken eggs. Quail eggs are excellent as hors d'oeuvres and they also are used to make mayonnaise, cakes, and other prepared foods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In France, Italy, the United States, and some countries in Latin America (Brazil and Chile, for example) as well as throughout Asia, it is the meat that is consumed. It is particularly delicious when charcoal broiled. One company in Spain annually processes 20 million quail for meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the domesticated strains seem to have originated in China, and migrating Chinese carried them throughout Asia. Today, millions of domestic quail are reared in Japan, Indonesia, Thailand, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Indochina, Philippines, and Malaysia, as well as in Brazil and Chile. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commercial production is carried out, as in the chicken industry, in specialized units involving hatcheries, farms, and factories that process eggs and meat. However, quail have outstanding potential for village and "backyard" production as well. It is this aspect that deserves greater attention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail come in various sizes. The smaller types are used for egg production, whereas the larger ones are better for meat. Adult females of improved meat strains may weigh up to 500 g. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several color varieties. However, mature females are characterized by a tan-colored throat and breast, with black spots on the breast. Mature males, which are slightly smaller than females, have rusty-brown throats and breasts. All mature males have a bulbous structure, known as the foam gland, located at the upper edge of the vent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the United States, the Pharaoh strain is the bird of choice for commercial production. Other available strains tend to be bred more for fancy than for food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail eggs are mottled brown, but some strains have been selected for white shells. These eggs are often preferred by consumers and are easier to candle (the process of holding eggs up to a light to check for interior quality and stage of incubation). An average egg weighs 10 g - about 8 percent of the female's body weight. (By comparison, a chicken egg weighs about 3 percent of the hen's body weight.) Quail chicks weigh merely 5-6 g when hatched and are normally covered in yellowish down with brown stripes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ancestral wild species is widely distributed over much of Europe and Asia as well as parts of North Africa. Although domestic quail are now available almost everywhere, Japan is probably the world leader in commercial production; quail farms are common throughout its central and southern regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not endangered. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p149a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are hardy birds that, within reasonable limits, can adapt to many different environments. However, they prefer temperate climates; the northern limit of their winter habitat is around 38&Yacute;N.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A quail's diet in the wild consists of insects, grain, and various other seeds. To thrive and reproduce efficiently in captivity, it needs feeds that are relatively high in protein.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The females mature at about 5-6 weeks of age and usually come into full egg production by the age of 50 days. With proper care, they will lay 200-300 eggs per year, but at that rate they age quickly. The life span under domestic conditions can be up to 5 years. However, second-year egg production is normally less than half the first year's, and fertility and hatchability fall sharply after birds reach 6 months of age, even though egg and sperm production continue. Thus, the commercial life is only about a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crosses between the wild and domestic stocks produce fertile hybrids. Repeated backcrossing to either wild quail or domestic quail is successful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only females hatch the eggs and raise the chicks. Males go off and court other females when their partners begin the nesting process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail eggs taste like chicken eggs. They are often served hard boiled, pickled, fried, or scrambled. Because of their size they make attractive snacks or salad ingredients. They provide an alternative for some people who are allergic to chicken eggs. On frying, the yolk hardens before the albumen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail meat is dark and can be prepared in all of the many ways used for chicken. The two meats are similar in taste, although quail is slightly gamier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its hardiness, small size, and short life cycle, quail are now commonly used as an experimental animal for biological research and for producing vaccines - especially the vaccine for Newcastle disease, to which quail are resistant. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many fanciers and hobbyists have also become interested in raising this adaptable species as a pet. Science teachers find it an excellent subject for classroom projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">QUAIL IN JAPAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some areas of Japan, quail are widely raised for their eggs and meat. However, Japanese originally valued the quail as a songbird. Tradition has it that about 600 years ago people began to enjoy its rhythmic call. In the feudal age, raising song quail became particularly popular among Samurai warriors. Contests were held to identify the most beautiful quail song and birds with the best voices were interbred in closed colonies. Even photostimulation was practiced to induce singing in winter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Around 1910, enthusiastic breeders produced the present domestic Japanese quail from the song quail. It was created as a food source and became a part of Japanese cuisine. During World War II it was almost exterminated, but Japanese quail breeders restored it from the few survivors and from birds imported from China. The original song quail, however, were lost. In the 1960s, commercial quail flocks rapidly recovered and Japan's quail population again reached its prewar level of about 2 million birds. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A QUAIL IN EVERY POT: AN OLD DELICACY FINDS A NEW PUBLIC</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For centuries, quail were considered a great delicacy: a dish that only eminent chefs would cook and diners with an appreciative palate could enjoy. These small migratory birds, which are found in one variety or another throughout the world, were available until recently almost exclusively to hunters in the wild.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But now quail are in danger: in danger of becoming commonplace.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the last few years, quail have gone from being rarefied to a supermarket specialty item. They are on menus in the most elegant restaurants and the most casual cafes and bistros.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Why so much interest?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are now available semi-boneless, which makes them faster and easier to cook, and easier to eat as well. The breastbones are removed by hand before the birds are packaged and shipped to stores. The bones in the wings and legs remain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A stainless-steel V-shaped pin - invented and patented by a restaurant chef who wanted a way to keep quail flat for grilling is inserted into the breast. The pin can be left there throughout cooking and removed just before serving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While whole quail might require 45 minutes to cook, the semi-boneless variety can be grilled in less than 10 minutes, or pan-roasted, braised or sauteed in less than 20 minutes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The flavor of farm-raised quail has also helped bring them into the mainstream. Most farm-raised quail have tender meat like the dark meat of chicken, whose flavor is enjoyed by many people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And at a time when people are searching for foods, specifically animal protein, with low fat and cholesterol, quail fills the bill. The Agriculture Department says that quail skin has about 7 percent fat, about the same as dark meat of roasted chicken without the skin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Judith Banrett Adapted from The New York Times </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">June 21, 1989</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is necessary to keep quail in battery cages on wire floors because males secrete a sticky foam (from the foam gland) with their feces; on a solid floor, this adheres to the feet and collects dung, leading to crippling and breakage of eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult quail can live and produce successfully if they are allowed 80 cm2 of floor space per bird. However, for reproduction about twice that is needed to allow for mating rituals.3 If properly mated, high fertility rates and good egg hatchability can be expected. To obtain fertile eggs, one male is needed for roughly six females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eggs hatch in about 17 days. Chicks require careful attention. Brooding temperatures of between 31 C and 35 C  are needed for the first week and above 21 C for the second week. From the second week on, chicks can survive at room temperature. (These temperatures are similar to those required for common chickens.) In cold climates, supplemental heat may be needed as well as protection from cool drafts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clean water must be provided at all times, with care taken to prevent the chicks from drowning in their water troughs. Shallow trays, jar lids, or pans filled with marbles or stones may be used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail production can be started with little money. These easy-care birds can be housed in small, simple, inexpensive cages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, they are resistant to Newcastle disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SIX OF ONE, HALF A DOZEN OF THE OTHER</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that chickens can be crossed with quail has been known for some time, but there has been little attempt to develop the fertile hybrids. Now Malaysia has begun a project aimed at producing a new poultry bird - a cross between a cockerel and a hen quail. Zainal Abidin bin Mohd Noor, of the Department of Veterinary Services in Kuala Lumpur, is creating a strain that produces eggs of good quality and meat with the flavor of both parents. The new bird is intermediate in size between chicken and quail which is convenient because it is about right for an individual helping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The crossbreeding is done through artificial insemination. The progeny exhibit a range of appearances, sizes, and plumage colors, depending on the strains of cockerel and quail hens used. In the Malaysian research, cockerels have been local Ayam Kampung Bantam, Hybro, and Golden Comet hybrids. The quails have been local inbred Japanese quail (IJQ) and imported meat strain quail (IMSQ).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The trials show that the hybrids derived from the IMSQ flocks grew faster and bigger than those from the IJQ cross. The best have been the Hybro x IMSQ crosses, which weigh 475 g at 10 weeks of age. The best of the IJQ group weighed 290 g during the same period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This type of "tropical game hen" might be a way to introduce hybrid vigor into poultry production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The researchers who developed the hybrid have named it the "yamyuh." </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although generally disease resistant, quail are affected by several common poultry diseases, including salmonella, cholera, blackhead, and lice. They also suffer epidemic mortality from "quail disease" (ulcerative enteritis), which can, however, be controlled with antibiotics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail seem to require more protein than chickens, and produce best when given feed that is fairly high in protein.4 However, they also perform satisfactorily when fed rations designed for turkeys. They have high requirements for vitamin A, which they do not store.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail are not suitable as free-ranging "scavengers." They must be kept confined, which is a major constraint. Unlike chickens or pigeons, they have no homing instinct and will not remain on a given site; if released, they will be lost. In addition, since they nest on the ground, they are highly susceptible to predation; they must be protected, especially where certain animals, the mongoose for example, are common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Artificial incubation is essential. Natural incubation using the female is futile; the females do not go broody and rarely incubate their eggs. The shells are extremely thin, but the eggs can be incubated under a small chicken hen, such as a bantam.5 The eggs are also subject to minute fractures. However, the shell membrane is extremely tough and unfertilized eggs are generally unaffected, but the cracks cause fertilized embryos to dehydrate and die. This is a serious limitation. Whenever quail husbandry is introduced, artificial incubation should be included.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail deserve to be included in all poultry research aimed at helping the Third World. Through its international scientific program, Japan, in particular, could apply to developing nations its vast experience with quail farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiences with quail in the tropics (for example, Japanese farmers in the Amazon Basin) and in tropical highlands (for instance, in India, Nepal, or Central Africa) should be collected and assessed to improve understanding of the environmental limits to Third World quail farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cooperation between commercial and laboratory quail breeders should be encouraged. Mutants found at the commercial level would be useful for laboratory work. Conversely, introducing new stocks could help the farmer. In both cases, more genetic diversity might also lead to the production of hybrid vigor, and genetic variability would be conserved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sex-linked genes, if they can be found, would be useful to the commercial quail breeder for the rapid sexing of newly hatched chicks. This could lead to more efficient production techniques, like those in the chicken industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although virtually all work to date has been on the Japanese quail, other species and subspecies warrant research and testing. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">12 Turkey</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g015a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) is well-known in North America and Europe, but in the rest of the world, especially in developing countries, its potential has been largely overlooked. Partly, this is because chickens are so familiar and grow so well that there seems no reason to consider any other poultry. Partly, it is because modern turkeys have been so highly bred for intensive production that the resulting birds are inappropriate for home production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, there is a much wider potential role for turkeys in the future. There are types that thrive as village birds or as scavengers, but these are little known even to turkey specialists. These primitive types are probably the least studied of all domestic fowl; little effort has been directed at increasing their productivity under free-ranging conditions. However, they retain their ancestral self-reliance and are widely used by farmers in Mexico. That they are unrecognized elsewhere is a serious oversight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native to North America, the turkey was domesticated by Indians about 400 BC, and today's Mexican birds seem to be direct descendants.' Unlike the large-breasted, modern commercial varieties, they mate naturally and they retain colored feathers and a narrow breast configuration. Their persistence in Mexico after 500 years of competition with other poultry highlights their adaptability, ruggedness, and usefulness to people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds complement chicken production. They are able to thrive under more arid conditions, they tolerate heat better, they range farther, and they have higher quality meat. Also, the percentage of edible meat is much greater than that from a chicken. Turkey meat is so low in fat that in the United States, at least, it is making strong inroads into markets that previously used chicken exclusively. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkeys are natural foragers and can be kept as scavengers. Indeed, they thrive best where they can rove about, feeding on seeds, fresh grass, other herbage, and insects. As long as drinking water is available, they will return to their roost in the evening.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appreciation for the turkey could rise rapidly. Interest already has been shown by several African nations. A French company has created a strain of self-reliant farm turkeys and is exporting them to developing countries.2 Researchers in Mexico are displaying increased interest in their national resource. And as knowledge and breeding stock continue to be developed, it is likely that village turkeys will become increasingly popular around the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modern turkey breeding has been so dominated by selection for increased size and muscling that commercial turkeys have leg problems and cannot mate naturally (they are inseminated artificially). These highly bred birds are adapted for large-volume intensive production, and must be raised with care. As noted, this chapter emphasizes the more self-reliant, less highly selected turkeys found in Mexico and a few other Latin American countries. They do not require artificial insemination, and with little attention can care for themselves and their young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fully grown "criollo" turkeys of Mexico are less than half the size of some improved strains. Males weigh between 5 and 8 kg; females, between 3 and 4 kg.3 They vary in color from white, through splashed or mottled, to black. The skin of the neck and head is bare, rough, warty, and blue and red in color. A soft fleshy protuberance at the forehead (the snood) resembles a finger. In males it swells during courtship. The front of the neck is a pendant wattle. A bundle of long, coarse bristles (the beard) stands out prominently from the center of the breast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The unimproved domestic turkey is essentially limited to central Mexico and scattered locations throughout nearby Latin American countries. Some village birds are also kept in India, Egypt, and other areas, but these are descended from semi-improved strains exported from North America and Europe in earlier times. Generally speaking, few turkeys are found in tropical countries outside Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated turkeys are not endangered; there are estimated to be about 124 million in the world. However, the wild Mexican varieties, ancestors to the first domesticated turkeys sent to Europe, may now be endangered since their distribution in southwestern Mexico has been greatly reduced. Certainly, some primitive domestic strains in the uplands of central Mexico are also being depleted. A separate type, independently domesticated by the Pueblo Indians of the southwestern United States, seems to have disappeared entirely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkeys can be reared virtually anywhere. Their natural habitat is open forest and wooded areas of the North American continent, but in Mexico they are raised from sea level to over 2,000 m altitude, from  rainforest to desert, and from near-temperate climates to the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p159a.png"></center><br>
+ The original distribution of the turkey and the occellated</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The range of diet is broad. Turkeys eat greens, fruits, seeds, nuts,  grasses, berries, roots, insects (locusts, cicadas, crickets, and  grasshoppers, for example), worms, slugs, and snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction is generally seasonal and is stimulated by increasing  daylength. (A minimum daylength of 12 hours is required.) The birds  can reach sexual maturity at six months of age and may start breeding at  this time. Ten days after first mating, the hen searches out a nest and  commences laying. Industrial birds in temperate climates lay, on  average, 90 eggs a year. The nondescript type of turkey in the tropics  seldom lays more than 20 small eggs (weighing about 60 am) before  going broody.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic turkeys walk rather than fly, and find almost all their food  on the ground. They can, however, fly short distances to avoid  predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commercial birds have lost many abilities for survival in the wild;  they can no longer exist without human care. However, village types  can do well with little management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkeys prefer to make their own nests but can be induced to lay in a  convenient spot if provided with nest boxes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These birds are raised almost exclusively for meat. In many countries,  they are a treat for holidays, birthdays, and weddings. In their native  range of Mexico and Central America, the "unimproved" birds are  usually produced as a cash crop for market. They receive little care or  feed, and thus they are almost all profit - providing a significant income  supplement to many rural homes.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The principles of turkey management (nutrition, housing, rearing' and prevention of disease, for example) are basically the same as those for other poultry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mexico, turkeys are usually kept under free-ranging conditions around houses and villages. Some shelter and kitchen scraps are occasionally provided. A number of them, however, are confined in backyards as protection from marauders and for shelter against rain and wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One male can service up to 12 females. Roomy nests are needed. (As a rule, turkeys require three times the space occupied by chickens.) Most range turkeys are corralled when they begin to lay, so as to protect them from predators. Eggs may be gathered to prevent broodiness and thereby increase production. The eggs may be kept for several days (cool, but not refrigerated) if turned daily, and then may be placed under a chicken hen. (A setting chicken can be used this way to hatch up to nine eggs at a time.) Hatching takes 28 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As in other birds, newly hatched turkeys (poults) must be kept warm during the first weeks of life. Until they begin foraging and have full access to pasture they are usually fed broken grain or fine mash, as well as finely chopped, tender green feed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although free-ranging turkeys are simple to raise, confined turkeys require more complex management. The birds need uncrowded, well ventilated conditions and should be on a wire or slatted floor to reduce parasitic infections. Any feeds recommended for chicks are suitable, but the protein content should be somewhat higher; that is, about 27 percent. They can be fed mixed grains, corn, and chopped legume hay. It may be necessary to provide vitamin supplements and antibiotics and take steps to prevent coccidiosis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"AN INCOMPARABLY FINER BIRD"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The turkey was domesticated in Mexico some time before the Conquest. It is the one and only important domestic animal of North American origin. When the Spanish arrived, they found barnyard turkeys in the possession of Indians in all parts of Mexico and even in Central America. However, the Aztecs and the Tarascans, originating in west-central Mexico, seemed to have achieved the highest development of turkey culture, and it is probable that turkeys were domesticated in the western highlands, perhaps in Michoacan. Wild turkeys of that region are morphologically very similar to the primitive domestic bronze type. Both the Aztecs and Tarascans kept great numbers of the birds, including even white ones. They paid royal tribute to their respective kings in turkeys, according to the Relacion de Michoacan. The Tarascan king fed turkeys to the hawks and eagles in his zoo. The economy of some highland tribes was based on the cultivation of corn and the raising of turkeys.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Starker Leopold</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE INDUSTRIAL TURKEY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The modern domesticated turkey is thought to be descended from two differing wild subspecies, one found in Mexico and Central America and the other in the United States. The southern type is small, whereas the U.S. native is larger and has a characteristic bronze plumage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexican turkeys were exported to Europe soon after the Conquest, and spread rapidly. In the 17th century, some were returned to North America, where they interbred with the eastern subspecies of wild turkey, producing a heavier bird, which was then re-exported to Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These types underwent little change until this century, when the Englishman Jesse Throssel bred them for meat quality. In the 1920s, he brought his improved birds to Canada, where their large size and broad breasts quickly made them foundation breeding stock. Crossed with the narrow-breasted North American types, these heavily muscled meat birds quickly supplanted other varieties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About the same time, the U.S. Department of Agriculture began the scientific development of a smaller meat turkey derived from a more diverse genetic base. By the 1950s, the Beltsville Small Whites predominated in the home consumption market in the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds are efficient and generally take care of themselves. They tolerate dry, hot, or cold climates and forage farther than chickens. They are large, fast growing, highly marketable, low in fat, and tasty. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE TURKEY'S TROPICAL COUSIN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ocellated turkey (Agriocharis ocellata) occurs in Yucatan, Guatemala, and Belize. It is much like the common turkey in size, form, and behavior: however, unlike the common turkey, which in Mexico lives in the high mountain pine and oak forests, the ocellated turkey inhabits bushy, semiforested lowlands. This splendid bird lacks the kind of beard sported by the common turkey gobbler, is generally more metallic in appearance, and has brighter coppery colors. The chief character is a neck and head that are bare, blue, and profusely covered with coral-colored pimples. It also has a yellow-tipped protuberance growing on the crown between the eyes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is worthy of investigation by poultry researchers because it might prove to be domesticable. It was possibly domesticated by the Mayas, whose ruins often include appropriately sized stone enclosures whose soil has elevated levels of phosphorus and potassium. Even today, in the rural Peten area of Guatemala, ocellated turkeys are sometimes kept around houses as scavengers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young birds are readily affected by temperature changes and must be protected from the sun as well as from sudden chills, such as may occur at night. They are particularly susceptible to dampness, especially if associated with cold. One peculiarity is the turkey's aversion to any change in feeding routine or the nature of the food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young turkeys are susceptible to parasitic infestation as well as to the same type of bacterial and virus diseases as chickens (for example, fowlpox and coccidiosis). Blackhead, a devastating disease of young turkeys, is carried by a common parasitic nematode, and can be contracted from chickens. Medicines are available to prevent or treat most disease and pest problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkey development is almost nonexistent in the Third World (and much of the rest of the world, too). Although commercial turkeys are highly developed in some countries, little or no research has been conducted on the criollo turkey. Research on physiology, disease, and husbandry of the criollo turkey should be given high priority.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need for conservation of genetic variability is perhaps more critical in this species than in almost any other domesticated animal. The unimproved types in Mexico should be collected and assessed, and a program to conserve the stocks should be initiated. An analysis should also be made of the traditional management and performance of these birds. In addition, the four or five recognized turkey subspecies should be evaluated for their potential as seed stock for Third World countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">13 Potential New Poultry</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g016a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several preceding chapters have discussed the possibilities of domesticating certain wild birds.l Here, briefly, are highlighted other wild species with qualities that might make them suitable for sustained production. It should be understood that their practical use in the long run is pure speculation; they are included here merely to guide those interested in exploring the farthest frontiers of livestock science.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collectively, poultry have become the most useful of all livestock and the most widespread. Yet only a handful of species are employed. Of the 9,000 bird species, only a few (for instance, chickens, ducks, geese, muscovies, pigeons, and turkeys) have been domesticated for farm use. Strictly speaking, all birds are edible - at least none have poisonous flesh - so it seems illogical to conclude that these are the only likely candidates. Perhaps they are not even the best.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At first sight there may seem to be little need for new species, but poultry meat is in ever increasing demand and there are many niches where the main species are stricken by disease, or are afflicted by heat, humidity, altitude problems, or other hazards. For these areas, a new species might become a vital future resource. Perhaps some could even become globally important. The modern guinea fowl, for example, is a relative newcomer as a worldwide resource (see page 120).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The birds now used as poultry were domesticated centuries ago by people unaware of behavior modification, nutrition, genetics, microbiology, disease control, and the other basics of domestication. Today we can tame species that they couldn't. In particular, the new understanding of "imprinting" may make the domestication of birds easier today than ever before. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this highly speculative concept, the birds described on the following pages are worth considering. They all eat vegetation and tend to live in flocks, which makes them likely to be easy to feed and to keep in crowded conditions. Most are sedentary, nonmigratory, and poor fliers. All but three (tinamous, sand grouse, and trumpeters) are gallinaceous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gallinaceous birds are already the most important to people. The best known are chickens, turkeys, quail, and guinea fowl. But there are about 240 other species. Most are chickenlike: heavy bodied with short, rounded wings, and adapted for life on the ground. Although some are solitary, many are sociable. Basically vegetarian, they also eat insects, worms, and other invertebrates. The young birds are extremely precocious, walking and feeding within hours of hatching. All of these are advantageous traits for domestication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Game birds are also emphasized here. Many today are considered gourmet delights, and this should give them a head start in the marketplace. Indeed, some are already being raised in a small way on game farms and are at least partly on the way to domestication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHACHALACAS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These brownish birds (Ortalis vetula and nine other species) are found throughout Central and South America, and, given research, could possibly be raised on a large scale. A sort of "tropical chicken," they tame easily, live together in dense populations, and protect their chicks extremely well. They commonly scavenge around houses and people often put out scraps to feed them.2 The chicks are easily hatched, grow fast, and can be fed standard chicken rations.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is already considerable demand for these birds. Everywhere they are found, they are prized as food. In some areas they constitute the single most important game species, and are heavily hunted to supply local communities. Although they have less meat than a chicken, it is tastier and darker.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chachalacas are very adaptable. They occur mainly around forest edges and thrive in the thickets that appear after tropical forests have been felled. They do well close to humans, and their populations are not threatened, despite much hunting. Indeed, they seem well adapted to existence around villages and towns. Although not strong fliers, they are one of the few tree-roosting gallinaceous species. Primarily fruit eaters, they also consume tender leaves, twigs, and buds, and they scratch up the ground, presumably for insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although excitable and noisy, chachalacas become remarkably tame when fed by people. In a few cases, full domestication has almost been reached. Farmers like to have chachalacas around and have even used them to guard domestic chickens. These very raucous and fearless birds will take on all potential threats, even weasels.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GUANS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Close relatives of the chachalacas, guans5 are glossy black birds about the size of small geese. They are highly gregarious and perhaps could be raised in larger numbers. They commonly live around houses, farms, and settlements in their native region of tropical America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike most game birds, guans are chiefly tree dwellers, but they also feed on the ground. Some 12 species are known. All are relentlessly hunted for food and sport - their tameness and inability to fly far or fast making them easy targets. The rapid destruction of tropical forests threatens their populations in some parts of their range. Conservation projects and specific plans of action are being proposed for the most threatened species. Perhaps for the other species, game-ranching projects or even outright domestication might provide just the right incentive for their protection and multiplication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CURASSOWS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curassows are also relatives of guans and chachalacas, but they are even larger - up to 1 m tall and 5 kg in weight. At least seven species are found over the vast area from northern Mexico to southern South America.6 Among them are Latin America's finest game birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It might be possible to produce curassows in organized farming or ranching. They are commonly called "tropical turkeys" because they look like and run like turkeys. Indeed, Latin Americans normally refer to them as "pavos" or "pavones," as if they were the real thing. Their plumage ranges from deep blue to black, invariably with a purple gloss, and all have rather curly crests on their heads. They are not good fliers and spend most of their time on the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curassows are increasingly hunted; their tropical forest habitat is shrinking, and the subsequent loss of populations is a calamity. They are special targets, not only because they are large but also because their light-colored flesh makes exceptional eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is hope that these large wild fowls can be raised and managed in organized programs. Even now, people commonly keep them around their farms and villages. For example, on a number of Venezuelan ranches, yellow-raped curassows can be seen wandering around the cattle yards as if they were chickens.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOREST BIRD RANCHING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has intentionally focused on intensive farming - the type where people bring feed to animals in captivity. However, where this normal type of farming is of marginal value, `'ranching'' free-ranging birds may often be a more effective option. In this, the farmer simply monitors and improves the condition of the range and devises methods to harvest the birds on a sustainable basis. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Bird ranching" may today have outstanding merit, particularly in tropical rainforests. Hence, in this chapter we emphasize birds of the jungle. These might help make standing rainforests profitable producers of income, and thereby provide economic incentives to stop felling trees for cow pastures. Indeed, forest birds might become part of a whole new "salvation farming'' that makes forests more valuable than fields. It is a technique that may contribute to preserving both bird life and its vitally valuable habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MEGAPODES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Megapodes (family Megapodiidae) include some of the world's most interesting birds. They have temperature-sensitive beaks and employ nature's own heat sources as incubators. The best-known species build piles of leaves and use the heat of decomposition to incubate their eggs. The species of Papua New Guinea and Indonesia, however, take advantage of sun-warmed sand or even geothermal activity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People have long revered these birds. Aborigines in Australia, Melanesians in New Guinea, and many Micronesians all protect the bizarre nesting sites, and "farm" them for eggs. Local people consider the large eggs special delicacies, and sometimes the egg-laying sites are owned and exploited for generations without a single bird being killed for food.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Programs that provide sustainable supplies of eggs have been established in Papua New Guinea. One is near Mt. Tovarvar, a simmering volcano on the island of New Britain. Here, megapodes gather in large numbers to lay eggs in the hot sands. They dig until they locate sand that is exactly 32.7&Yacute;C, before laying their huge (more than 10 cm long and 6 cm wide) pink eggs. Each year the villagers dig up some 2O,OOO eggs, which are an important source of protein and cash income. The government now regulates the harvest in a way that protects the bird population while supplying a nourishing food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Megapodes are found in only a few parts of the world, but projects such as those in Papua New Guinea provide hope and guidance not only for the sustainable "ranching" of megapodes, but also for other species elsewhere. Many wild birds yield locally important products down, colored feathers, eggs, meat, and skins, and they make excellent songbirds and pets, for example. Their management on a sustainable basis may in certain cases be the key to turning local people into the most dedicated conservationists of all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PARTRIDGES AND FRANCOLINS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Partridges include many small game birds native to the Old World. They are robust, precocious, and larger than quails. Some lay many eggs - the European partridge, for example, lays up to 26 in a clutch. Newly hatched chicks are soon able to feed themselves and can fly within a few weeks, sometimes even within the first few days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species that may make useful poultry include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The European (or gray) partridge (Perdix perdix); </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The rock partridge (Alectoris), bantamlike birds of Africa; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The chukar (A. graeca). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A native of the vast area from southeastern Europe to India and Manchuria, the chukar is stocked as a game bird in many countries. It is now produced routinely under poultrylike husbandry in many parts of the United States, not only for hunting clubs, but also for expensive food markets. The birds are generally raised on turkey rations and dress out at about 500 g after 18 weeks. They sell for more than broiler chickens and are a profitable sideline for increasing numbers of poultry farmers.9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A group of closely related birds are the francolins (genus Francolinus), of which there are 34 species in Africa and 5 in West and South Asia. These adaptable birds are sturdy, live in a variety of habitats, and tend to be rather noisy. Basically, they are partridges with leg spurs. They are highly regarded as a food source and are hunted and trapped wherever they are found.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Francolins are much like quail, but are several times larger. Arabs introduced one of the most beautiful species (Francolinus francolinus) into southern Spain, Sicily, and Greece during the Middle Ages. However, it was hunted so heavily that it soon became extinct in Europe. More recently, francolins have been introduced to the Soviet Union.'&Yacute;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Francolins inhabit steppes, savannas, primeval forests, and mountains. They thrive in cultivated land with much cover. The clutch consists of 6-8 hard, thick-shelled eggs. In recent times at least one program to domesticate them for food has been started in Africa.11</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MALAYSIA'S MOBILE MOUSETRAP</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the report emphasizes microlivestock as food suppliers, it should be realized that small animals - even wild ones - can have other important uses as welt The following interesting example, with possible worldwide implications, comes from recent experiences in Malaysia. *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Certain rodents are major pests on farms and plantations. Now, however, Malaysian zoologists are finding that owls, particularly barn owls (Tyto alba), can help control them. An owl pair and its chicks annually consume 1,500 or more rodents. This is not new knowledge; indeed, on farms throughout the world the barn owl has always been a welcome guest. What is new is that Malaysians are showing how outstandingly effective this process is, and they have initiated major projects to attract and maintain these feathered friends. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barn owls are found in many parts of the world, but were formerly almost unknown in Peninsular Malaysia. In 1969, however, a pair began nesting in an oil-palm plantation in Johore State. Since then, these birds have steadily increased in numbers and have spread throughout most of the peninsula. Today, the population is increasing remarkably quickly as more and more managers erect nest boxes for the owls to live in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The owls are proving to be a good way to remove rats and are notably effective in plantations of oil palm. They perch on fronds and fly under and between the rows of trees. A cost of $1 - $2 per hectare per year is all that is required to install nest boxes, a negligible outlay for the control of such a serious and expensive problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is believed that the barn owls hunt mainly in plantations and other agricultural areas and not in the rainforest. Barn owls are, after all primarily adapted to open spaces and not dense forest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps this experience can be replicated and adopted in other locations and with other crops. Grain crops - notably rice - are particularly prone to the ravages of rodents, and one trial has commenced in Selangor State in a rice area. The concept of using owls for rodent control is also catching on in the United States. Indeed owl nest boxes are being erected in Central Park in the heart of New York City.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PHEASANTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One pheasant, the red junglefowl, gave the world the chicken (see page 86). The other 48 species may have some potential, too. These are rarely seen forest birds; all but one are confined to Asia.13 Because they are prolific they can sustain heavy predation, and many species, notably the ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), are constantly hunted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People in several countries have learned to exploit pheasants on farms and estates. As a result, there is a vast amount of information on how to rear and manage these birds. So far, however, it has been applied only to sport hunting in wealthy societies; the potential of raising pheasants for the mass market should now be seriously addressed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most dramatic-looking pheasant, the peacock (Pavo cristatus), is raised as a poultry species in Vietnam. The meat of the young birds is considered outstanding. In fine restaurants in New York, a peacock dinner is reputed to cost $150. Common peafowls are considered sacred in many parts of India, where they have become so tame that they are essentially domesticated. They also control snakes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">QUAIL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic quail have been previously described (page 146)J but dozens of wild quail species and subspecies occupy many different habitats and ecological niches in almost all parts of the world. Out of all this genetic wealth only one species - the Japanese quail - is widely used. Yet many other species seem easy to raise, becoming exceedingly tame after about the sixth generation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The management and even perhaps intensive production of these various local quails might provide long-term benefits for many developing nations. Quail meat ranks among the finest.14 Some of these lesser-studied birds are more meaty than the Japanese quail or have other possibly useful traits. Much is known about rearing a few of them because they are used in sport hunting or laboratory research. The possibility of domestication, therefore, is not farfetched.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Particular quail that might be considered for domestication are the lesser-known subspecies of Coturnix coturnix. These subspecies are found in various places, including the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Europe (C. c. coturnix breeds in the area ranging from northern Russia to North Africa and from the British Isles to Siberia. In winter it migrates to tropical Africa, Asia, and southern India.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Azores (C. c. conturbans) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands (C. c. confisa) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Cape Verde Islands (C. c. inopinata) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- East Africa (C. c. erlangeri) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Tropical Africa, southern Africa, Madagascar, and Mauritius (C. c. africana) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Japan (C. c. japonica, the most probable ancestor of the domesticated quail)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- China (C. c. ussuriensis, a possible ancestor of the domesticated Japanese quail)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TINAMOUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tinamous are quail-like birds of Central and South America's forests and grasslands. They are, however, much larger than quail and resemble small chickens, with plump bodies and no visible tail. There are more than 40 species, and all are much sought for food because their meat is tender and flavorful. The breast is surprisingly large, and its flesh is pale and translucent. One species, the great tinamou (Tinamus major), has been called "the most perfect of birds for culinary purposes." Frozen tinamous from Argentina were formerly sold in the United States under the name "South American quail."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tinamous are found mainly in tropical areas, but are also widely distributed in Argentina and Chile. They dwell in varied habitats: rainforests, thickets, bushlands, savannas, and grasslands up to 5,000 m altitude in the Andes. Some species sleep in trees, others on the ground. They spend their days creeping about in heavy cover, flying only when forced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At least some species tame readily. Indeed, during the nesting period males become so tractable that they can be picked up off the nest. At the turn of the century, many tinamous were raised as game birds in France, England, Germany, and Hungary. However, for reasons unknown, subsequent attempts to settle them in Europe have failed. Tinamous have been raised in Canada without undue difficulty; they showed little or no stress under captivity and there were few losses.15</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tinamous may also prove suitable for egg production. They lay clutches of 16-20 spectacular-looking shiny eggs that seem to be made of sky-blue and bright-green ceramic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAND GROUSE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sand grouse (mainly Pterocles species) are highly adapted to life in arid regions - desert, dry grasslands, arid savanna, and bushveld. Their entire body (including most of the bill and feet) is covered with dense down, which in the desert insulates them from the burning heat of midday and the freezing cold of night. It also protects the nostrils against blowing sand and dust.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These pigeonlike birds are found throughout the drier regions of Africa and Asia - for instance, the Sahara, Kalahari, Namib, Arabian, and Thar deserts. They live mainly on small seeds, and sometimes flocks of thousands may be seen at waterholes, flying in for a drink from up to 80 km away. For peoples of the driest spots on earth, these birds may make a useful food species: for one thing, they are not endangered. Indeed, they are proliferating as drought and overgrazing is increasing the amount of dry, desolate rangeland that they prefer. The bore holes provided for livestock have both boosted their populations and afforded a place where these wide-ranging birds can be easily captured. When nesting, sand grouse are highly vulnerable to foxes, jackals, mongooses, and other predators. Protection of the nesting sites may be the key to maintaining their populations if harvesting schemes are introduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TRUMPETERS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trumpeters (Psophia species) might prove to be a useful species for sustainable production within tropical forests. As "tree poultry," these relatives of cranes could help provide meat without destroying the trees, as is now done to raise cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These chicken-sized birds inhabit South America's jungles.16 They are nonmigrating, ground-dwelling, and are often kept as pets, notably by Amerindians. Under human protection, trumpeters become very tame. They recognize strangers and challenge them with a loud cackle. 17 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fully adapted to the forest environment, they can run fast, but fly poorly. In the wild, this makes them easy targets for hunters. Because of this and the fact that they make excellent eating, they are approaching extinction in some areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No attempts have been made to rear these birds in numbers, but this should be tried. They feed mainly on plant materials, particularly berries of all kinds. They also relish grasshoppers, spiders, and centipedes, and are particularly fond of termites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trumpeters require trees; they completely avoid cultivated land. Thus, as the destruction of forests in South America continues, their habitat is shrinking. Although their existence is not as yet threatened, the long-term prognosis is bleak. If managed in "forest-ranching" programs, however, they might be saved from extinction and thriving populations built up. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interest in rabbits continues to increase. It is now widely recognized that the raising of small animals in developing countries has great potential as a means of improving human nutrition and economic security. The famines in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia starkly illuminate the need for maximum efficiency in food production to maintain the quality of human life. Rabbit raising contributes to meeting these needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.R. Cheeke, N.M. Patton, S.D. Lukefahr, and J.I. McNitt Rabbit Production </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are especially well adapted to backyard rearing systems in which capital and fodder resources are usually limiting factors in animal production. When rabbits are reared according to the techniques appropriate to the environment they can do much to improve the family diet of many of the most needy rural families, while at the same time supplying them with a source of income. With more advanced technology rabbit production can also help to supply big city meat markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization The Rabbit: Husbandry, Health, and Production </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g017a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part III : Rabbits</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contrary to popular opinion, the domestic rabbit is a substantial part of the world's meat supply. Annual production of rabbit meat is estimated to be one million metric tons, and the total number of rabbits is approximately 708 million.' However, rabbits are now intensively raised for food only in temperate, mostly industrialized, nations. France, Italy, and Spain, for example, have long consumed rabbit meat; West German production was 20,000 tons each year; Hungary raises rabbits in large numbers (two of its commercial rabbitries have more than 10,000 does each); and the United States raises almost 8.5 million rabbits each year for consumption in homes and restaurants.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most developing countries, on the other hand, rabbits are not well known - at least compared with other livestock. But they have great promise there, and in recent years there has been a dramatic increase in interest. For those developing countries where information is available, rabbit meat production almost doubled between 1966 and 1980. For instance, several African countries - among them Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, and Zambia - now have national rabbit-raising programs. A number of Asian countries - such as the Philippines, Indonesia, India, and Vietnam - are also encouraging rabbit farming. And some Latin American countries - Mexico, Costa Rica, and El Salvador, for instance - are actively promoting rabbits for subsistence farmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana is also extensively promoting rabbit farming. Although able to produce all the cereals its population needs, it cannot produce enough meat to satisfy demand. In response, the government organized "Operation Feed Yourself." The National Rabbit Project was created </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hares</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The common hare (Lepus europus) has not been domesticated, but it is nevertheless a major cash crop of several countries. In Argentina, for example, there is a booming, million-dollar enterprise that exports hundreds of thousands of carcasses, mainly to Germany where they are sold as game meat. For Argentine campesinos, many of whom have few sources of livelihood, trapping hares provides a vital income. In New Zealand, too, hare has become an export item.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A closely related species (Lepus capensis) is native to Africa, and perhaps could be "ranched in the same fashion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rainforest Rabbit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forest rabbit, or tapeti (Sylvilagus brasiliensis), is commonly eaten in its native habitat, which extends from southern Mexico to southern Brazil. It occurs in various hot and humid areas of Central and South America and probably within the Amazon Basin itself. Thus, this creature seems a possible candidate for a "tropical rabbit" that can be raised under sweltering conditions, perhaps even in rainforest regions. Although it seems to be heat resistant, it has an especially fine fur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is now known about the tapeti. It is rather secretive and its natural history and even its range are still uncertain. However, its populations appear stable and it is not threatened with extinction. It produces litters of 1 - 5 young after a 44-day gestation, and may bear 4 litters a year. This may seem a lot, but compared with other wild rabbits, the litter size is small and the gestation period long. under this program to provide farmers with breeding stock and practical information on rearing rabbits. (To qualify for the purchase of new breeding stock, would-be rabbit raisers are required to take an intensive three-day course in rabbit husbandry, which is provided at no charge.) With both official and popular support, the rabbit's potential for Ghana has been enhanced through media campaigns complete with radio jingles (examples: "Get the bunny money!" "Grow rabbits - grow children." "Get into the rabbit habit!"), television spots, and large posters. Already, rabbit breeding is included in school curricula and rabbit meat is available in school lunches.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other countries have mounted similar campaigns. In Mexico, for instance, teachers raise rabbits in rural schools as a way of training students; scores of government officials have taken to breeding rabbits in their homes; and several army units are raising rabbits as mess-hall substitutes for costly beef, pork, and chicken. In Nigeria, farmers can now acquire rabbits from 18 government rabbit-breeding centers, which distribute thousands of animals each year. In Costa Rica, the government has similarly established a series of breeding, distribution, and rabbit-farming training centers. And in El Salvador, the technology of rabbit production is being transferred to farmers via the army.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although rabbits are ideal microlivestock in a general sense, rabbit rearing has many problems and limitations. Poor management is a common difficulty. Unlike the traditional method of keeping scavenger animals, rabbits have to be contained and cannot be left to find their own food. Raising rabbits requires more skills, more time, and much more effort than raising barnyard chickens or other familiar scavengers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For all that, rabbits produce more food than scavenging animals; they are less likely to damage crops because they are kept confined; they live exclusively on forage, which tends to grow vigorously in tropical zones; and they generally produce a more valuable product. The rabbit's potential is far from exploited, and rabbit farming will have to increase enormously before its promise for the small farms of the world is realized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is, however, an increasing concern over a recent outbreak of an exceptionally virulent viral rabbit disease - hemorrhagic tracheopneumonis, which attacks the lungs and lung tissue, killing 48 hours after the onset of symptoms. The virus, which has ravaged the animals in parts of Asia and Europe, was identified in China five years ago in Angora rabbits imported from Germany. It spread to Korea in 1986, and in early 1988 moved through southern and eastern Europe and spread as far as Egypt. It has also been identified in Mexico. Vaccination may become a future prerequisite of rabbit rearing in many countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAST FOOD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The order Lagomorpha includes more than 60 small quickmaturing, and rapidly reproducing species. It seems illogical to think that only one is useful as microlivestock. In principle, any rabbit, hare, or pike could be raised in captivity. All are clean, fast growing and rapid breeding. They are opportunistic feeders and can digest fibrous vegetation. Their meat tastes better than chicken and does not carry the stigma of rodent. The animals are small inoffensive, efficient at foraging, and generally tolerant of difficult environments. In theory, at least, they could be raised on vegetation not used by people or by many domesticated livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species worthy of exploratory research include the following.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">14 Domestic Rabbit</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g018a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)1 is suited to small-scale production and backyard farming. It is easily maintained, requires scant space, makes minimal demands on the family budget, and thrives on plant materials that are usually disdained by humans. It utilizes forage efficiently. even coarse vegetation that is high in fiber, and under ideal conditions it can grow so rapidly that its rate is only slightly lower than that of broiler chickens.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rabbit's capacity for reproduction is legendary. In theory, a single male and four females can produce as many as 3,000 offspring a year, representing some 1,450 kg of meat - as much as an average sized cow.3 The meat is pink, delicately flavored, and is usually considered a premium product that provides variety in the diet. It has more protein and less fat and calories per gram than beef, pork, lamb, or chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some breeds are raised for their wool. The long-haired Angora, for instance, yields a luxury fiber that makes a soft, lustrous fabric. It sells at high prices and makes these animals very valuable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbit pelts also bring cash. They are used in fur coats and other luxury garments. In addition, rabbit feet and tails are used in good luck charms and many curios.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are well known for their long ears, fluffy tails, and long hind legs. Many commercial breeds are white, although colored types are sometimes chosen because of special qualities in their meat or pelts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many breeds and much genetic diversity within and between breeds. (Almost 160 varieties are recognized by the American Rabbit Breeders Association.) However, in both North America and Europe, the New Zealand White has traditionally displaced most other breeds for commercial meat production. This medium-weight breed bears large litters, is a good milk producer, and has good mothering ability. It reproduces best under intensive farming and, among purebreds, yields the most meat. A full-grown New Zealand White weighs 4-5 kg, giving about 2 kg of meat at 8-10 weeks of age. Large breeds include the Flemish Giant or the Checkered Giant, which weigh more than 6 kg at maturity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids are rapidly replacing purebreds in Europe for commercial production. Specific crosses of breeds have been shown experimentally to be more productive overall compared with purebred New Zealand Whites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Different meat breeds are preferred in various countries. For example, in Ghana the most popular are Flemish Giants, New Zealand Whites, Yellow Silvers, and Checkered Giants; in Tanzania and Nigeria, New Zealand Whites and Dutch are preferred; in China, Chinchillas and Japanese Large Whites are the most widely consumed. Some smaller breeds - for instance, the Polish - are also valuable for husbandry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some Third World strains have already evolved. They show high tolerance to local conditions (for example, the Baladi - the main strain of the Sudan and the Near East - and the Criollo of Mexico). The Baladi has a small body and relatively low production, but it is hardy and tolerates harsh conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specialized breeds have been developed for wool, fur, and laboratory research. The Angora wool breed has already been mentioned. The Rex breed produces a high-quality pelt used in furs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild ancestor of the domestic rabbit was originally restricted to Spain and Portugal. Today, its descendants are found worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plentiful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic rabbits are best suited to temperate climates, but they do well in tropical and subtropical conditions if hutches are constructed and sited to take advantage of shade and cooling breezes. Ventilation is important (but care must be taken to avoid direct exposure to cold drafts). Prolonged exposure to temperatures higher than 30&Yacute;C reduces both fertility and growth. Apparently, all breeds tolerate heat equally well. However, heat is shed through the ears, and the longer the ear, the more heat a rabbit will tolerate. Lop-eared varieties withstand heat poorly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits eat fibrous vegetation. In addition to normal feces, they produce special droppings called cecotropes. Softer and smaller than the regular fecal pellets, they are excreted in clusters and are swallowed as soon as they are eliminated. Cecotropes are rich in bacterial protein, and this double digestion (coprophagy) enables the animals to utilize the fermentation products formed in the cecum. This process is rather like that of ruminants, and rabbits are sometimes called pseudoruminants.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding begins at 4-6 months of age and may continue up to age 4, occasionally to age 6. Gestation takes 28-32 days. Females can conceive within 24 hours after giving birth and can produce a second litter merely 4 weeks later. With good feed and early rebreeding, 9 or more litters a year are possible. (Such a rate is only achievable under exceptional management, however.) Litter size depends on breed and body weight. Small breeds average 4 young per litter; large breeds 810. Births occur at any time of the year, but production slackens when the weather is exceptionally cold or hot, when feed is scarce, or when days are short. Extremes of heat or cold can also affect the survival of the young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits raised under subsistence conditions are likely to produce 4 or 5 litters a year, with an average of 5-8 young per litter' depending on management and feed quality.5 Annual production of about 20 weaned offspring per female per year under tropical and subtropical conditions is common. The young remain in the nest until they are 2-3 weeks old. Their eyes open at approximately 10 days of age. About 4 months are required to produce a 2-kg market rabbit under subsistence conditions. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits that receive human handling are very gentle and can be trained to live inside people's houses and even use a "litter box."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are multipurpose animals yielding the following products:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Meat. Delicious hot or cold, fancy or plain, it can be breaded and fried, broiled, baked, or barbecued.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Wool. The fineness of rabbit hair is an asset in the production of wool, which is the plucked or shaved hair of the long-haired Angora breed. It is usually mixed with fine Merino sheep wool to give more substance and to improve its wearing quality. An average Angora rabbit produces about 850 g of wool each year. (Some specimens produce as much as 1,000 g.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Fur. The fur is dense.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Leather or vellum. Rabbit hide has the tension and strength required for tiny drive-belts in tape recorders and other delicate machines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Fertilizer. Rabbit manure often contains high proportions of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash, and it comes in convenient drypellet form.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Tourist charms. In many societies, rabbits are connected with good luck. Feet and tails are used for car decorations, key chains, charms, and mementos that appeal to tourists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are also used in biochemical and physiological research.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits can be housed in hutches ranging from sophisticated commercial cages to simple packing crates with a few ventilation holes and rough troughs for food and water. In all cases, watertight roofing is essential. A floor space of only 0.25 m&Yacute; is sufficient for one rabbit, but about 1 m&Yacute; is recommended for a female and her young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting small-scale rabbit production is generally inexpensive. An almost infinite variety of backyard feeding and drinking equipment can be made from various scrap items, such as old bottles. The main criteria are that cleaning should be easy and spillage minimized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In practice, diets can be based largely on herbage: grass, leaves, legumes, crop residues, and kitchen scraps. However, the diet must be wholesome, and caged rabbits fed on forage usually need some grain or agricultural by-products (rice bran, for instance) as a dietary supplement. Supplementation is particularly important for newborns and lactating females, whose diet must contain about 16 percent protein and at least 18 percent fiber. When "noncommercial" feeds are used, salt must be added to prevent salt deficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of higher protein content, legumes (for instance, alfalfa, cowpea, vetch, or pea) are better than grass. Alfalfa is particularly valuable, and in the Sudan and Mozambique it is already grown extensively for feeding rabbits. On diets consisting of alfalfa and rye grass, weaned New Zealand Whites have demonstrated growth rates of 38-39 g per day in animals weighing up to 2 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits, as mentioned, can utilize almost any type of edible vegetation. Also, despite their diminutive size, they can collectively produce as much meat per unit of forage as large livestock, or even more (see page 183).6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is much genetic diversity. Differences in growth rate, fertility, maternal ability, milk production, disease resistance, heat resistance, and other features have been noted. This is useful, since a wide genetic base enhances the likelihood of success of selection programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbits are easy to handle and can be raised under primitive conditions. They require little financial investment and their husbandry is easily accomplished in the home by women and children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal's rapid reproduction is a big advantage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical conditions produce special problems. There, rabbits must be protected from heat and rain. Stress brought on by high temperatures, high humidity, and wet conditions can lead to respiratory disorders and even sudden death.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most diseases are caused by poor management. Dirty or wet cages lead to diarrhea, sores, mites, and ringworm, all of which can cause serious losses. Enteritis (diarrhea) often kills 20 percent or more of all rabbits before they attain market age and weight. A major disease problem in most countries is coccidiosis, which is particularly harmful to young rabbits. Again, damp and unsanitary conditions increase the susceptibility; better management can control it. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries - notably Australia and New Zealand - escaping rabbits have become a serious menace and have destroyed crops and grazing lands. Because of this threat, it is illegal to import rabbits into some countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, many people are unaccustomed to eating rabbit. Indeed, where commercial ventures have been established in areas with an otherwise plentiful meat supply, there have been financial failures. However, where rabbit meat is familiar, there is usually great demand for it. Also, in poorer areas where animal protein is in short supply, the tasty pink meat is widely appreciated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HOW RABBITS WERE DOMESTICATED</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For 30 or 40 million years the wild species Oryctolagus Cuniculus lived only in the area that today is Spain. Caves there contain Stone Age drawings of it. Phoenician traders landing on the Iberian Peninsula in about 1100 B.C. found huge numbers of these wild rabbits. The little animals were unknown to them and they mistook them for the hyraxes they had seen in Africa. (Although small and rabbitlike, the hyrax is actually related to elephants.) Since the Semitic name for hyrax was shaphan ("one who hides"), the Phoenicians named the peninsula l-shepan-im, from which the Latin name Hispania developed. Thus, "Spain" actually means "island of hyraxes," even though these African animals have never occurred there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the rabbit's reproductive powers and adaptability it is surprising that it hadn't spread beyond Spain, but dense forests covered most of Europe after the last Ice Age. The rabbit, which is suited to open country, only spread rapidly after man had cleared most of the trees. Even then, the natural spread was slowed by the Pyrenees mountains blocking the way into the rest of Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ancient Romans became acquainted with rabbits after they invaded Spain, and they eagerly added wild rabbit meat to their banquets. The meat was so popular that around 1 A.D. Roman voyagers released a pair of rabbits onto the Balearic Islands. In time, these produced so many offspring that the islanders had to appeal to the Roman emperor for help. They even asked to be moved to another country if the emperor could not get rid of the plague of rabbits!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eventually, Romans in Italy, France, and other parts of the European mainland began raising rabbits for meat. They kept them in special cages called leporaria. Their rabbits were probably not truly domesticated; instead they were netted in the wild and caged for fattening before being prepared for the table. The Romans had little incentive to domesticate an animal that could be so easily captured.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tne rabbit was the last farm animal to be domesticated. It seems likely that this did not begin until the Christian era when monks in French monasteries began taming rabbits. In those days, rabbit embryos and newborn young were considered delicacies, called "laurices." In 600 A.D. the Pope declared that laurices were "not meatp," and permitted them to be eaten during fasts and in monasteries of strict discipline where meat was forbidden. Within a few years, the animal was domesticated, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government-sponsored rabbit-research stations and programs are found in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the United States, and the United Kingdom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabbit husbandry is well known, but much basic research is needed; for example, specific nutrient requirements, breed comparisons, disease control, reproductive management, and efficient housing and equipment. There is a particular need to reduce the labor required for feeding, breeding, caging, and cleaning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the increasing number of rabbit programs in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, there is a need to share information and ideas among the various countries. The exchange of experiences with rabbit breeding, health and nutrition, and the practical experiences and field studies could be of great value.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further research in rabbit nutrition is necessary to identify nutrient requirements more precisely. Moreover, links between nutrition and disease should be clarified.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further research into the cause and prevention of enteritis is needed. (At present, this condition is prevented by maintaining a fiber level in the diet of at least 18 percent and keeping the energy level relatively low.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legume shrubs could be an answer to the feed problems in the dry season. Deep-rooted shrubby legumes, such as gliricidia or leucaena, remain green well into the dry season and have high protein contents. Rabbits find the leaves of leucaena palatable (see companion report Leucaena: Promising Forage and Tree Crop for the Tropics. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C. 1984), and they are fairly resistant to mimosine (a sometimes toxic amino acid found in leucaena foliage). More research on this promising approach is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted earlier (page 181), a killer virus has recently appeared. Studies into its epidemiology and control are most important. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outsiders who hope to improve conditions in underdeveloped areas, sometimes . . . introduce new food avoidances to the communities they came to help [if outsiders] show repugnance toward consuming goats, . . . rats, . . . crows, insects, intestines and blood, then the people they are educating may likewise give up those . . . foods and lose valuable proteins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calvin W. Schwabe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unmentionable Cuisine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You can count on the fingers of one hand the domestic animals that produce virtually all of mankind's meat and milk - a selection made more than 10,000 years ago by our Neolithic ancestors. Yet the earth teems with thousands of species of animals; why limit ourselves to cattle, pigs, goats, and sheep? Given the world's shortages of energy and water and arable land, why not try to domesticate wild animals? The effort would save many species from extinction, provide the world with more food, and introduce gentle farming to fragile environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.D. Vietmeyer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g019a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part IV : Rodents</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents are the world's most widespread, adaptable, and prolific group of mammals. They reproduce well, grow fast, learn quickly, and adapt to a wide variety of local conditions. Many convert vegetation into meat efficiently, digesting some fiber, even though their stomach, like man's, is a simple one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems probable, therefore, that some species would make suitable microlivestock - a notion supported by the previous domestication of the guinea pig, laboratory rat and mouse, gerbil, and hamster. Indeed, "ranching" rodents might be an effective way to increase food supplies in remote areas. It could also be a mechanism to ensure the survival of rare rodents whose natural habitats are being rapidly destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODENTS AS FOOD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents are already common foods in many countries and are valued items of commerce. It has been estimated that 42 of 383 cultures eat rodents.! But the fact that they are a major meat source is almost unrecognized. This is due in part to cultural misunderstanding. Rodents suitable for human food or other products do not live in filth, like common rats. They are clean and vegetarian. Like rabbits, they eat grass and grains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some regions of the world, cooked rodent meat is regarded as the epitome of dining. In many countries, local rodent species are the most eagerly sought meats. City markets in different parts of Latin America carry guinea pig, pace, capybara, and vizcacha. Markets in Asia may carry rice rats, cloud rats, and bandicoot rats. Those of rural Africa are filled with "bushmeats" - usually including grasscutters, giant rats, and several other rodent species. These are often preferred to the meat of domestic stock and fetch higher prices than beef. And the amounts of rodent bushmeat available are not minor. In one year, for example, hunters in Botswana have brought to market 3.3 million kg of meat of the rodent called springhare (see page 278).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fondness for rodent meat is not restricted to the tropics. In the United States, squirrel was once a much sought treat. Fat, nut-fed grey squirrels went into Brunswick stew, which has been called the most famous dish to emerge from the campfires and cabins of Colonial America. Thomas Jefferson liked it. Today, squirrel is the country's number two game animal (after deer), and many are still eaten.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ancient Romans kept fat dormice in captivity, serving them as a delicacy. "The fat dormice are fattened up in barrel-like pots like those in country houses," wrote Varro (116-27 BC). "One feeds these animals large amounts of acorns, chestnuts, or other nuts."2 This small rodent remains a prized food in Europe and still appears on tables in certain areas. The meat is regarded as a delicacy because it tastes of almonds and other nuts. Often it is roasted, broiled, and cooked with its cracklings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodents have seldom been included in livestock programs or economic development plans. Yet human appetite has actually caused the extinction of a number of species. Caribbean Indians ate several endemic rodents (one of which was as big as a bear), and may have caused several species to become extinct just before the time of Columbus. Others may soon follow the same dismal route, including the beautiful cloud rat of the Philippines, the hare-like mare of Argentina, the vizcacha of southern South America, and the gentle hutias of the Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guinea pig is described in a later chapter, but as it is the epitome of a rodent microlivestock species, some historical background is given here. It was domesticated for food use at least 7,000 years ago, probably in what is now the central highlands of Peru and Bolivia. With only llama and deer available, the prehistoric Andean peoples had few readily available sources of meat. They adopted wild cavies, and found that these rangeland rodents (which are more closely related to porcupines than to rats or mice) were gentle, manageable, and easy to rear. By the time the Spaniards arrived in the 1500s, the "cuy"  (pronounced "coo-ee," like the faint cry it makes) was a major food from  Argentina to the Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This impressed the conquistadores, who introduced cuys into Europe,  where they also became a delicacy.3 Within a century, these easily  transported animals began to appear on tables in many parts of the  Spanish empire. Guinea pigs are now reared in campesino huts in the  mountains of central Mexico, in the Philippines, and in several African  nations, along with other areas of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Elsewhere, guinea pigs came to be used only as house pets and  laboratory animals. Although during World War II Mussolini's  government urged Italians to keep them to supplement their meager  meat rations, their use as food was largely ignored in most parts of the  world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The idea of domesticating rodents may seem radical, but  domestication projects are already under way with capybara in  Venezuela (see page 206), pace in Panama (see next page and page  262), giant rat in Nigeria (see page 224), and the grasscutter in Ghana  (see page 232). Rodent husbandry is not complicated and the animals'  environmental requirements seem relatively simple and easy to satisfy.  Moreover, rodents are not usually fastidious feeders, and being  essentially vegetarian will readily accept a wide variety of commonly  available foodstuffs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with most animals with which man is in close contact, rodents can  transmit human diseases.4 With care, however, managed rodents need  not be any more dangerous to care for or to eat than pigs or  horses - both of which are worldwide food resources.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DOMESTICATING RODENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To domesticate the pace (see page 262) would seem to be impossible. These large rodents of Central and South America are nocturnal and fiercely territorial; they have low fecundity and take 10 months to reach weaning, and they have tender skin that is easily damaged Most researchers have written them off as candidates for domestication. But at least two have undertaken to beat the odds. We present the findings of one of them here to show that, using modem techniques, even species that normally fight each other to the death on sight are potential farm animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through years of studying paces in Panama, Smithsonian biologist Nicholas Smythe has found that with care and planning the aggressive behavior can be so radically altered that the animals become calm. Indeed, some become almost loving. Newborns, Smythe found, undergo "imprinting" and when he places them with docile adults or with humans, the fierce territoriality never develops. He nurses newborns on "surrogate" mothers that have been imprinted on people. The youngsters then welcome human company and, if fumed out of the cage, return there voluntarily. "It's difficult to imagine a more manageable animal," Smythe said. "Technically speaking they are behaviorally indistinguishable from traditional domestic animals."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As of this writing, Smythe has three generations totalling about 50 individuals, and has several "families" of gentle paces living together in harmony. He has observed that they lose their nocturnal habit and, although they live mainly on fruits in the wild, they readily eat leafy vegetables and other foods in captivity. His captive specimens have recently begun to breed. The offspring remain docile, but they have so far averaged only a little more than two young per female per year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"If we can just double the reproduction rate, then raising paces can compete economically with raising cattle," Smythe explained. "The potential for a bigger brood is all in the animal's anatomy, and if successful, paces in the wet tropics could produce as much protein as cattle."*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas need the shade and protection of the forest. Thus, pace raising might provide an alternative to cutting down rainforests for cattle raising. Instead of toppling trees and planting pastures, people could farm paces in the forest, and perhaps make as much or more money at the same time. In tropical America, the ready acceptance of pace meat is a near guarantee that all they produce will be snapped up at premium prices. In the past, many territorial and aggressive species have been dismissed as being impossible to domesticate or manage. But Smythe has demonstrated that with imprinting and other methods of behavior modification, these need be dismissed no longer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, the pace may already be becoming a new domesticated species. In the first stage of his experiments, Smythe had to train his captive-born paces to be social and nonaggressive. Subsequent generations, however, need no training adopt the new behavior patterns of the parents, and do not revert to aggressive asocial behavior. By the third generation, they have become as accepting of, and indifferent to, people as cattle or sheep. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">15 Agouti</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g020a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the best known of all animals of the American tropics, agoutis (Dasyprocta species)' are prolific rabbit- or hare-sized rodents that are probably easily farmed. They are valued for food and are hunted throughout most of their range. Indeed, agouti meat, once common in Latin markets. is now difficult to find because of indiscriminate killing. Agouti hunting is already prohibited in Brazil; restaurants in Belem, for example, once offered a variety of "cotta" (agouti) dishes at prices equivalent to those of choice filet mignon, but since the early 1970s they have been banned from serving it. Other countries will probably have to institute similar bans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis are active, long-legged, and high-strung. They flee in panic at the slightest alarm. They do not climb but they do burrow occasionally, being essentially specialized ground-dwellers that live in tropical forest regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There have been no organized scientific attempts to raise these swift, shy animals in captivity, but Latin Americans sometimes keep them as "domestics," especially in parks and large gardens. (Agoutis are well known, for instance at the Goeldi Museum in Belem, Brazil.) These animals seem to tame easily, and could perhaps be mass produced on a large scale like rabbits or guinea pigs. They make affectionate pets, sometimes refusing to return to the wild. A research project on captive breeding of two local agouti species (Dasyprocta mexicana and D. punctata) for food is already under way in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of lowland, tropical Latin America and the Caribbean. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis are delicately built, graceful, nimble, and beautifully proportioned. They have slender bodies, short ears, and look somewhat like a rabbit that has been "jacked up" in back. Generally, adults are 40-60 cm long and weigh 2-5 kg. Some are even bigger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They run well and are good jumpers. From a standing start an agouti reportedly can leap as high as 2 m or as far as 6 m; however, as long as they are well fed, there is little problem keeping them behind a wall only 1 m high.2 Reportedly, they sometimes climb easy-sloping trees to collect green fruits, but researchers studying Central American agoutis report that they are strictly terrestrial.3 They swim well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The body hair is thick, coarse, and glossy: pale orange to black on the back, and white to yellow on the belly. Some species have faint stripes, and some have a rump that contrasts with the rest of the back. The short tail is partially concealed under the long body hair.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis occur over a vast area from southern Mexico to Paraguay, including many islands in the Caribbean.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they occasionally damage sugarcane plantings and because the meat is particularly tasty, people hunt agoutis relentlessly, especially near cities and towns. Now, in the l990s, they are becoming rare because of excessive hunting and habitat destruction. Many Latin Americans have never heard of them. In Mexico, for instance, there are few places where agoutis survive, and Dasyprocta mexicana may become extinct if habitat destruction and overhunting continue in its restricted range. In Costa Rica and Panama, agoutis occur only where there is little or no hunting or human interference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From sea level to elevations of at least 2,500 m, the adaptable agouti lives in many habitats: moist lowland forests, dry upland forests, thick brush, and savannas. However, although they thrive in secondary growth areas, they are mainly forest dwellers. Nonetheless, they often enter fields to forage, and young animals occasionally are seen in open areas such as grassy stream banks and cultivated fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis shelter in hollows among boulders, in riverbanks, or under tree roots. They also hide in heavy brush and sometimes in holes dug out by other species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These herbivores eat seeds, fruit, stalks, leaves, roots, and other succulent plant parts, as well as occasional insects and fungi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They seem to mate twice each year. The estrous cycle is variable, but is only about 34 days long. The young are born after a gestation period of 3.5-4 months. Usually, there are twins; however, single births and triplets have been recorded. Newborns are fully developed and are able to run around within hours. They start feeding on solids within a few days. Puberty occurs at about 9 months of age. Life expectancy is 10 years or more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild, agoutis are shy and retiring. Every sense seems constantly triggered for instantaneous action and sometimes they become hysterical. If danger threatens, they usually "freeze," but when discovered they stamp their feet as an alarm signal and dash away, nimbly dodging obstacles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite excessive timidity, they can be violent among themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In undisturbed forests, agoutis are diurnal and are often seen. But around villages they become nocturnal, as a means of self-preservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the most part, these rodents live in loosely formed pairs, with previous litters living around their territory as "satellites." There is some "bigamy," some "philandering," and some "divorce."5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their long claws, they display much finger dexterity. To eat, they usually sit erect, crouching on their haunches and holding the food in their forepaws. If it has a skin' they carefully peel it before starting their meal. They save some nonperishable foods (nuts, for instance) by digging holes in scattered locations, dropping each one in a separate location, stamping it down, and covering it over. This behavior helps disperse the seeds of many species of trees so that agoutis benefit tropical forests and reforestation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p203a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, agoutis are popular game animals. They are often hunted with dogs that even follow them into the burrows. Agouti meat is tasty, although it is usually said to fall short of the meat of the pace (see page 262) because it is leaner and gamier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis adapt well to captivity. With appropriate care they can be bred without difficulty.6 The nervousness that is pronounced in nature is quickly lost in captivity. The young become tame pets. They can be fed on foods such as leafy vegetables, fruit, potatoes, and bread scraps. Although many wild specimens have become nocturnal, captives readily readapt to daylight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Being entirely terrestrial, agoutis require no trees, but they do need space. Given enough area, they get on well (with each other and with different species), and they breed freely. To avoid fighting, it seems necessary to separate females from males at puberty. Probably removing progeny from breeding pens at weaning could also help avoid most of the interpersonal aggression. In large areas with plenty of cover (banana plants, for instance), groups can be kept, but breeding may be disappointing. Husbandry may be most appropriate in large enclosures (50-100 agoutis) with some animals then removed to small cages 0.5-1 m&Yacute; for selective feeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACOUCHIES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Close relatives, the green and red acouchies (Myoprocta acouchy and Myoprocta exilis) also deserve study. These are smaller animals with longer tails, bearing a little plume of white hairs. Although even more delicate and hypersensitive than agoutis, they can be kept in captivity and breed well. They then become less nervous and are easily handled. Acouchies. show remarkable intelligence and even some affection for those they trust. They frequent rainforests, but are rare or even absent in disturbed areas. Adults weigh up to 1.5 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The general biology (diet, reproduction, activity rhythm), is almost the same as that of the agouti, but they live in smaller home ranges (0.6-1.2 hectares versus 2.5 hectares for the agouti) and travel singly, although belonging to a well-established family unit. Adult males tolerate the juvenile males. They occur only in Colombia, the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farming methods would probably be the same as for the agoutis, but acouchies always need plant cover.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agoutis are appropriately sized: a dressed carcass can weigh 1-3 kg. The meat is good, and large commercial undertakings in urban centers could profit from the ready market that already exists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are prolific: females can produce up to two litters a year, each litter averaging two offspring. In protected areas, populations may grow fast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These forest dwellers might provide a source of meat and income without destroying the forests in favor of cattle pastures. Also, they thrive in disturbed areas as long as there is some cover. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiments in Brazil show that agoutis are highly susceptible to foot-and-mouth disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals might become pests: they eat the roots, leaves, and fruit of agricultural crops and occasionally damage sugarcane and banana plants. However, current experience suggests that if they escape captivity they are quickly caught by hunters and do not reach pest levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Live agoutis have strong-smelling anal glands that may be offensive to breeders or could contaminate the meat if the animals are carelessly handled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where the rainforest is destroyed, the agouti population is destroyed. The animals were once well known throughout Latin America, but not anymore. In some areas, therefore, wild breeding stock may not be locally available. Moreover, people may have become sufficiently unfamiliar with them that their value may no longer be appreciated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, they can be the prey of large birds such as eagles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The taxonomy of agouti species needs clarification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Husbandry experiments are required, including studies on topics such as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutrition;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Growth rate;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Shelters and enclosures;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reproduction; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Techniques for catching, moving, marketing, and managing the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One area where agoutis might profitably be raised is in enclosures in palm plantations. Palms such as the babassu provide food, shade, and shelter, while fallen and rotten logs offer secure retreats from predators. This deserves investigation.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instead of clearing vast areas of rainforest for cattle pasture, as is being done in much of Latin America, people might well "farm" agouties in the forests. Few of the settlers flooding into such regions can afford, let alone raise, beef. Small-scale agouti farming offers a promising and inexpensive alternative that would be gentle on the fragile land. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">16 Capybara</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g021a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), the world's largest rodent, can be as big as a sheep and weigh as much as a small person. Its natural habitat is the environs of South America's rivers, marshlands, and swamps, where it feeds on the grasses and reeds that grow near water.1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its size, tasty meat, valuable leather, and rapid reproduction, the capybara is a candidate for both ranching and intensive husbandry throughout the hot and humid lowland tropical regions of Latin America. It seems easy to handle. It is commonly raised in zoos or occasionally as a pet, and has, in at least one instance, been proven successful in large commercial herds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In floodplain ecosystems, capybaras complement cattle because they prefer to graze swamp grasses rather than the dryland grasses on which cattle feed. They have simple stomachs, but are one of the more efficient herbivores. Although they are "selective feeders" that eat lush waterside grasses "preserved in quality" by the water, they also graze pasture, usually selecting new growth that is often too short and scattered for cattle, with their large muzzles, to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The floodplains of the South American subtropics and tropics where the animal is indigenous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they have blunt, horselike heads, capybaras look like gigantic guinea pigs. They are ponderous, barrel shaped, and have a tail too small to be seen from a distance. Their skin is tough and covered by sparse, bristlelike hairs: the color above is reddish brown to gray; beneath, it is yellowish brown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The front legs are shorter than the back. Slightly webbed toes - four on the front feet and three on the back - make them good swimmers. They dive with ease and can stay underwater for up to five minutes. They also move nimbly on land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara is extremely large for a rodent. In size and color, it looks much like a pig. Often more than 100 cm long and 50 cm high at the shoulder, it can exceed 50 kg liveweight. Indeed, specimens weighing up to 90 kg have been reported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before livestock were introduced, the capybara grazed widely over riverine regions throughout South and Central America. Today, it is found in the flooded grasslands from Panama to Paraguay. Mainly, it occurs in the watersheds of the Orinoco, Amazon, Paraguay, and Parana rivers. High population densities exist in the Pantanal of western Brazil and on the Llanos floodplains of Venezuela and Colombia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are few precise population counts, but capybaras can occur in large numbers.2 However, in many areas they appear to be on the verge of extinction, being deliberately eradicated by farmers who think they compete with cattle and transmit diseases. Also, in some areas illegal hunting goes on year-round and great numbers are killed. The animals are particularly vulnerable during the dry season, when they concentrate around the diminished river channels and water holes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, most capybaras live in swampy or grassy areas bordering rivers. However, some are found in other habitats, ranging from open plains to tropical rainforests. But even here they stay near ponds, lakes, streams, and swamps, and never venture much more than 500 m from water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p210a.png"></center><br>
+ The capybaras native range</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara, like all rodents, is a simple-stomached animal, but it is a true herbivore. Its digestive system is especially adapted for fibrous materials. The large cecum - the site of enzymatic digestion serves a function like that of the rumen of sheep, cattle, and goats. It has a digestive capacity similar to that of a sheep's rumen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like rabbits and all the rodents, capybaras are coprophagous. That is, during the morning hours when they are resting, soft feces from the cecum are passed a second time through the digestive system.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributing to the animal's digestive ability is its efficient mastication. It chews its forage seemingly incessantly, reducing it to extremely small particles before it is swallowed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under natural conditions, the females annually bear 1 or 2 litters, each averaging from 4 to 6 offspring. Birth weight is between 1 and 2 kg, depending on litter size and sex. Both males and females reach sexual maturity when they reach a liveweight of 30 kg or more usually between the first and second year of life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras are intelligent, shy, inoffensive, and harmless. In undisturbed ecosystems, they are gregarious and live in family groups of up to 30. The young follow the mother about for many months after birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike most rodents, they do not construct dens, but the groups have specific resting areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are both diurnal and nocturnal and, like many herbivores, they graze at daybreak and dusk, and perhaps also at midnight. They spend the morning resting in weeds on riverbanks, and at noon they cool off by bathing for an hour or so before grazing. They may feed belly deep in water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras wallow in mud, allowing it to dry on their skin before bathing again. Mange can develop in captivity when they cannot take a mud bath.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When startled, a capybara barks loudly and dashes away, but after running 200 m or so it tires, slows down, and may lapse into hyperthermia. At that point a hunter can easily catch it. However, if the animal reaches water, it usually eludes the pursuer because it swims so well - especially underwater.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybara meat is white and has qualities and properties (such as high emulsification) that might allow it to compete with pork and other meats in the food industry. Spanish-style sausages, Italian-style mortadellas, frankfurters, and German-style smoked chops have been produced experimentally.4 However, at present, the meat is mainly consumed only in the dried and salted form. It is particularly popular in Venezuela, where more than 400 tons are sold every year, especially during Easter festivities.5 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara's hide is one of the best for glove making. This luxury product, known in international commerce as carpincho leather, fetches high prices on European markets because it is more heat resistant than most leathers and because it stretches in only one direction. This one way grain allows gloves to stretch sideways without lengthening and looking sloppy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The capybara appears suitable for raising as a livestock animal. Amerindians traditionally collected capybara orphans during the hunting season and raised them until needed for food. Capybara breeding was reported in Brazil as early as 1565.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modern attempts have been made towards domestication. Researchers at the Institute of Animal Production in Venezuela, for instance, started a breeding program in the 1970s using 20 females and 5 males. Since that time they have continuously kept capybaras in confinement. Through selection and management, they have improved the reproduction of captive animals. The current aim is to get 16 offspring per mother per year. Newborns are weaned after 5 weeks and the mother is returned to the breeding pen.6 In Colombia, similar work is in progress, and guidelines for raising capybaras on breeding farms have been published.7 In Brazil, research has been carried out to study capybara nutrition, genetics, management, reproduction, and social behavior in total confinement.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout South America, the price of beef has increased greatly within the last few years, thereby providing a new incentive for capybara husbandry. It has also forced many campesinos to eat more wildlife, which adds another incentive for producing capybara meat on farms and thereby perhaps helping to relieve pressure on the wild stocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When tame, the animals are amenable to handling without physical restraint. They are so tractable that in Surinam a blind man once used one as a guide animal. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras can be raised on a variety of readily available vegetation: leaves, roots, fruits, and vegetables. They thrive in coarse grasses, if given opportunity to select nutritious parts. Their large incisors allow them to bite off short grasses that many herbivores cannot use. For instance, they eat "capybara grass" (Paspalum fasciculatum) that is abundant on river edges in Venezuela and is normally too short for cattle to graze. This makes for low-cost feeding and utilization of a resource that is otherwise unused.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras are at home in hot, humid environments and are fully adapted to life on the tropical floodplains and seasonally flooded savannas. They thrive in extreme climates where cattle struggle, such as in the parts of the lower Paraguayan Chaco where summer temperatures reach 45&Yacute;C.9 An ecological benefit to raising capybaras is that there is no need to alter habitats by introducing exotic forage plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They reproduce quickly. Age at first conception for females is about 1.5 years, and the time between parturitions is generally shorter than that of goats or sheep in the tropics. Young capybaras grow so fast that in 18 months they can reach a liveweight of more than 40 kg. In their natural conditions, they are more disease resistant than cattle. The annual productivity is said to exceed that of cattle in many parts of its range.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is already so widely eaten in South America that the meat from farmed animals should be readily acceptable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybaras occasionally raid fields and can harm sugarcane, rice, bananas, sweet potatoes, cassava, corn, and other crops. In many parts of Brazil, they are considered agricultural pests and are shot.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Confining these animals in high density may create serious problems. Infectious diseases and parasite outbreaks seem to be worse than those that occur with conventional livestock. Aggression might prove a limitation to capybara husbandry: it is almost impossible to cage two adult males together or to introduce new animals to an existing group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals may transmit disease to people and livestock. They can harbor foot-and-mouth disease and are known to be susceptible to brucellosis. They also carry a form of trypanosome, Trypanosoma evansi. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with cattle, capybara use only a small proportion of the total plant biomass. They are largely selective feeders, and for satisfactory performance must have sufficient area to select the plants they need. If placed in a paddock of only coarse grass, most will eventually die. Like goats and gazelles, capybara probably select a diet that is at least 15 percent richer in crude protein than a typical cattle diet.'&Yacute;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High mortality has never been observed in Venezuela, but keeping the animals alive on a farm in some areas may not be easy. In one trial, more than half (55 percent) of the capybara died of disease, and a few of septicemia (the result of wounds incurred during fights), but most apparently of trypanosomiasis. Other losses were caused by speeding vehicles (29 percent), poaching (6 percent), and predation, mainly by jaguars (12 percent)."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important for researchers to undertake the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gather specimens from different regions for comparative evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Assess experiences of zoos and farms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Undertake nutritional trials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Initiate captive breeding trials - measurements of growth rates, space requirements, feed needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Characterize the animal's productivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Study the capybara's basic physiology and production potentials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Investigate biological factors, such as reproductive physiology, and social behavior (both in the wild and under controlled conditions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine the factors influencing capybara reproduction, growth, and development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine the animal's adaptability and economic merit in various farming systems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Study the influence of environment on reproduction rate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine their complementarily with water buffalo or other ruminants that normally use swampy habitats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determine relative causes of mortality (such as diseases specific to capybaras) and predation (especially of the young) by spectacled caiman, crested caracayes, black vultures, and others. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">17 Coypu</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g022a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu' (Myocastor coypus) is an aquatic rodent native to South America. It has been called the "South American beaver," but its size is actually closer to that of a small dog or an agouti. It seems suited to be a microlivestock species because, compared with most rodents' it has a large body size and a relatively high reproduction rate. Moreover, it is easy to manage, and there is much literature on how to raise it in captivity.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fur is the main item of commercial value. In the late 19th century, it was in such high demand that the animal was nearly exterminated. However, in 1922 Argentineans began raising coypu in captivity and this practice spread through South America and to other regions. In many European countries and in various locations in the United States some specimens escaped or were released, and coypu have become established in the waterways.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu meat is tasty and is consumed in many regions of South America as well as in parts of Europe. Because of the absence of musk glands, the meat is free of the "gamy" flavor found in squirrels and rabbits. It is moist, fine "rained, medium light in color, and firm. It is one of the mildest and tenderest of wild meats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal has been widely distributed, but its area of safest use is within its natural range in South America. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu is adapted to a semiaquatic existence and has webbed feet, valvular nostrils that can be closed to keep water out, and underfur that remains dry even under water. Its long, powerful claws on the forefeet are used for grooming, excavating burrows, and digging up and holding food. The tail is slender; the extremely large incisor teeth are orange-red.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An adult is 40-65 cm long and weighs 7-10 kg. Some occasionally weigh up to 17 kg. Males are larger than females. The pelage is thick, with coarse guard hairs overlying the underfur. The soft dense underfur (the commercially valuable pelt called "nutria") is about 2 cm long on the belly, and 2-5 cm long and less dense on the back. The color is yellowish to reddish brown on the back and pale yellow on the belly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu is distributed through southern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. It has been widely introduced in North America, Europe, northern Asia, and eastern Africa. As a result of escapes and releases from fur farms, the animals are now feral in Europe, North America, northern Asia, Japan, and East Africa. In the United States, they are abundant in Louisiana, Oregon, Florida, and the Chesapeake Bay region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In various countries, the animal's status ranges from that of a rarity to that of a pest. Wild coypu are protected by law in Argentina because of overhunting, but there are about 100 producers of farmed coypu.3 Elsewhere the animals are destroyed en masse to reduce the threat of damage to irrigation ditches, dams, and agricultural crops. In England a decade-long program has eradicated them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu mainly inhabit the banks of fresh or brackish waterways.4 They live in temperate zones and are highly sensitive to freezing conditions. Also, their heat tolerance is poor; lowland tropical regions may be too hot for them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p219a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coypu feeds mainly at night. The diet consists chiefly of plants, particularly water plants and reeds. Large amounts of fibrous vegetation is decomposed in the cecum, where bacteria break down cellulose particles. Mussels, snails, and other small organisms are also often eaten.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals burrow into soft soil or construct nests out of vegetation above ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu are relatively fast breeding. Females first give birth at ages ranging from 6 to 15 months. From then on, they produce 2 or 3 litters a year. They are able to mate and give birth at any time of the year, although more young are born during certain seasons. The gestation period is between 128 and 140 days. There are 5 or 6 (sometimes up to 12) young in each litter. Newborns are well developed, able to see, and fully covered with hair at birth. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The female's four or five pairs of mammae are located on the side of the body, an adaptation that permits the young to nurse while floating with their mothers in the water. In captivity, young are nursed for two months, but can survive if weaned at five days. The mean body weight at birth is about 225 g, but growth is rapid during the first five months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu have a potential life span of more than six years. However, they seldom survive more than three years, and in the wild probably no animals are older than five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are passive creatures, usually entirely lacking in aggression. They are shy and fearful; the slightest disturbance will send them scurrying to the shelter of water, a burrow, or other hiding place. With their large incisors they can bite viciously, but in captivity they tame down, even to where they can be carried around by hand. Compared with domestic animals, they are very sanitary in their feeding and living habits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In hot climates they are nocturnal, in cooler climates crepuscular, and in cold weather they become diurnal. Captive animals become conditioned to diurnal activity if fed during daylight hours. Most of the active period is spent feeding, grooming, and swimming. Grooming is done by scratching and "nibbling" the fur, and an oily secretion from glands located near the mouth and anus lubricates the pelage. Secretions from the anal glands are also employed for marking out territory.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Excellent swimmers, coypu spend most of their time in the water. They can remain submerged for five minutes or more. On land, they lumber about with awkward, clumsy movements; however, when the need arises they can run fast and jump short distances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they usually live together in pairs, coypu will form large colonies. They tend to remain in one area throughout their lives: their daily "cruising range" has been measured at less than 45 m.5 However, drought or freezing weather can induce mass migrations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The burrows, which are dug in sloping banks, are usually short with no branching tunnels and generally end in a simple chamber. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In South America, the coypu has a long history of use. Nutria fur was in such high demand and the animal was hunted so avidly at the beginning of the last century that it became rare and had to be protected by government decree. As a result, populations increased dramatically. Nowadays, coypu are protected in many areas, but widespread poaching has reduced their numbers and range.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many thousands are killed each year just for the guard hairs, which are used in making felt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu are used in marsh management to reduce infestations of aquatic weeds and to keep waterways open.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas where it is found, the coypu is trapped by commercial hunters. However, as noted, several countries have coypu farms. In Germany, the animals have been raised on diets consisting chiefly of potatoes supplemented with oats, clover, corn, hay, green forage, legumes, turnips, or cabbage. Elsewhere, feeds generally include such materials as hay, corn, crushed oats, greens, root vegetables, apples, bread, and rabbit feed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To confine coypu, a wall of stone or concrete or a fence of stout wire netting is necessary. It must be set 1 m deep into the ground and rise 1-1.5 m above ground. Water must be available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where selected strains of animals are kept, it is usual to house each female in separate small compartments, complete with pools and shelter boxes. Each is then paired with a male, which is removed after mating to leave the female to rear her brood in seclusion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fur is particularly valuable because the female's nipples are so high that the soft belly fur is unbroken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This herbivore is much cheaper to feed than the furbearing carnivores such as mink. Furs of coypu raised in captivity fetch a price about three times greater than furs from wild animals.6 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wherever the coypu has escaped it has damaged embankments and stream banks. The burrows sometimes weaken dikes that protect low lying areas from flooding. In northern Europe and eastern England, for example, it is considered a serious pest. In rice paddies, coypu could become particularly devastating. They can also damage crops and natural plant communities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu can carry viruses that result in toxoplasmosis, papillomatosis, rabies, and equine encephalomyelitis; bacteria that cause salmonellosis, paratyphoid, and leptospirosis; protozoans that produce sarcosporidiosis and coccidiosis; and rickettsia. Common diseases of captive specimens are bacterial pneumonia, hepatitis-nephritis, Strongyloides infection, and neoplasms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European winters often cause the coypu's tail (which is hairless) to freeze, but the animal hardly seems to notice. A more dangerous situation arises when lakes, streams, or rivers freeze over; beneath the ice, coypu cannot find their way as easily as beavers, and often drown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little research needs to be done. There is massive literature on farming coypu. Nonetheless, the animal's behavior is little studied, and there are few reliable published observations on its social organization. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">18 Giant Rat</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant rat, also known as the pouched rat, is one of Africa's largest rodents.! Two species have been distinguished: Cricetomys gambianus, which lives chiefly in savannas and around the edges of forests and human settlements; and Cricetomys emini, which occurs mainly in rainforests. Both are highly prized as food </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are solitary, but they are easy to handle, have a gentle nature, and make good pets. Researchers at the University of Ibadan in Nigeria have been developing techniques for managing them in captivity. Breeding stocks were established in 1973, and since then so many generations have been bred that this small population is considered domesticated. Commercial-scale giant rat farming is now being established in southern Nigeria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is a promising development because giant rats are a common "bushmeat" throughout much of Africa. Since these herbivores are well known there, and are acceptable as food, they may have as much or more potential as meat animals than the introduced rabbits that are getting considerable attention (see page 178).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The intertropical zone of Africa from the southern Sahara to the northern Transvaal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is among the most striking of all African rodents. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its large size, it often causes amazement - even alarm -  when seen for the first time. The body measures as much as 40 cm, and, on average, weighs about 1-1.5 kg. The record for a hand-reared specimen is 1.6 kg 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from its size, the best known species (Cricetomys gambianus) is noted for the dark hair around its eyes, a nose that is sharply divided into dark upper and pale lower regions, and a tail that has a dark (proximal) section and pale (distal) section. The overall body color is a dusky gray.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lesser known species (Cricetomys emini) has short, thin, and relatively sleek fur. Its upper parts are pale brown; the belly is white.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant rats are commonly found from Senegal to Sudan, and as far south as the northern region of South Africa. The main species is mostly found in moist savannas, patches of forests, and rainforests. However, it can also be found in all West African vegetation zones from the semiarid Sahel to the coast. It also exists at high altitudes up to about 2,OOO m in West Africa and 3,000 m in eastern Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rainforest species occurs in the great equatorial forest belts of Zaire and neighboring Central African countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are probably not threatened with extinction. However, they have been exterminated in some areas (such as in parts of eastern Zaire) where the human population is dense, the land fully cultivated, and the wildlife overhunted. Although common, they are not as well known as one might suppose from their bulk and from the fact that they are sometimes found around, and even inside, houses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant rats occur largely in lightly wooded dryland regions or in forested humid regions. They cannot tolerate high temperatures or truly arid conditions. They often live in farm areas and in gardens. Their burrows are commonly found inside deserted termite mounds and at the base of trees. Some have also been found in the middle of cassava fields. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p227a.png"></center><br>
+ The giant rats distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are herbivores with a tendency to omnivory. They prefer fruits, but also subsist on tubers, grains, vegetables, leaves, legume pods, and wastes (such as banana peels). However, they are not grasseaters. Giant rats also kill and eat mice, insects (caterpillars, cockroaches, and locusts, for example), and probably many other small animals.3 They are particularly fond of mollusks (such as snails).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction is prolific and year-round. The female attains puberty at 20-23 weeks and the gestation period is about 20-42 days. The young are weaned at 21-26 days of age but stay with their mother until 2-3 months of age. So far, the record for the most litters has been 5 in 9 months. It thus seems possible that a female can reproduce 6 times a year. Litter size ranges between I and 5, but 4 is most common. Thus, in 1 year a single female could produce 24 or more young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These strictly nocturnal animals usually lead solitary lives and forage alone. Mostly, they occupy a burrow by themselves, except when the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">young are being raised. The burrows can be complex. Below the entrances are vertical shafts leading to a system of galleries and chambers for storing food, depositing droppings, sleeping, or breeding. The home range is individual and limited (1-6 hectares). In the wild, one male "supervises" the home ranges of several females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, the animals are often seen sitting up and ramming large amounts of food into their spacious cheek pouches. With full cheeks, they return to their burrows and disgorge the food into a "larder." Food (chiefly hard nuts) is stored there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They swim and climb well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A study carried out in Nigeria showed that the giant rat produces about the same amount of meat as the domestic rabbit.4 The meat's nutritional value compares favorably with that of domestic livestock, and African villagers know how to preserve it by smoking or by salting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant rat has recently attracted attention as a potential laboratory animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farmers in Nigeria have traditionally trapped the juveniles and fattened them for slaughter. They usually keep the animals in wire cages and feed them daily with food gathered in the wild as well as with scraps from the household.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the program at the University of Ibadan indicates that the giant rat can be domesticated. Already, specimens are being bred and reared in an intensive program. They adapt to captivity after about a month. They are subsequently transferred into breeding cages, which are wooden boxes with a rectangular wire-mesh "playroom." Each cage holds a breeding pair or a nursing female with its young. Experimental feeding cages have also been designed.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food-preference trials show that palm fruits and root crops (especially sweet potato) are preferred to grains and vegetables. Nutritional studies show that the animals can tolerate up to 7 percent crude fiber in their rations. Although largely vegetarian, they eagerly consume dry and canned dog food. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals have several advantages:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They are well known and much sought after for food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They have adapted to life in lowland tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They are able to live on locally available plant materials, including vegetable waste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They reproduce rapidly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· They are more tolerant of captivity than the grasscutter (see next chapter). This is largely because omnivorous feeding makes them easier to feed than the grasscutter and other strict herbivores.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species could easily become a pest. It is recommended for rearing only in areas where it already exists. The crops it damages include cacao, root crops, peanuts, maize, sorghum, vegetables, and stored grains and foods. There is also the possibility that this rodent may transmit diseases to humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A project at the University of Kinshasa in Zaire reports problems in getting giant rats to reproduce in captivity. When two specimens were paired they sometimes fought so viciously that copulation was impossible.6 Special management may be required, such as housing animals in adjacent cages before actually introducing them to each other. Moreover, selection for docility may also be necessary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ratlike appearance is not attractive, and a few African tribes have taboos against consuming the meat of these animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout Africa south of the Sahara, giant rat domestication deserves experimentation and trials. Success would open up the potential for supplemental meat supplies in rural and urban areas where meat is now scarce. Tests are needed to determine the factors that favor breeding: temperature, aeration, light, privacy, and size and form of cages. Moreover, diets that are cheap and easy to make from local feedstuffs must be identified. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further research on the domestication of the giant rat might include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Identifying husbandry techniques that are applicable at low cost in rural areas;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Studying food digestibility and setting up various diets;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Illuminating social behavior: pairing of animals, the best moment for pairing, duration of pairing, age of partners;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Outlining the basics of husbandry (for instance, capital costs, food conversion ratios, growth rates) and making simple and cheap cages;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Studying biology (anatomy, physiology, birth records, growth rate); and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Testing the practical likelihood that this rodent may transmit diseases to people and other animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant rat has an interesting commensal relationship with Hemimerus, an insect that feeds on secretions in the skin. It seems to cause no irritation or damage, and may even benefit the host by helping to keep the skin clean. Caging these animals results in the general loss of the insect, but attempts should be made to maintain them and to determine their role and life cycle.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The potential of this species as a laboratory animal in nutritional, clinical, and pharmacological research also deserves exploration. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">19 Grasscutter</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g023a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus and Thryonomys gregorianus) is found in many forests and savannas of Africa. Its meat, said to resemble suckling pig, often sells for more per kilogram than chicken, beef, pork, or lamb. It is the preferred, and perhaps most expensive meat in West Africa. Indeed. in Ivory</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coast it sells for about $9 per kg. With prices like that, grasscutter is a culinary luxury that only the wealthy can afford.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If domestication of this wild species were successful in providing meat at a price similar to that of poultry (the second most popular meat), markets would be unlimited.2 However, as production costs are high, long-term research will be required before grasscutter production can be profitable to the small farmer. This research should now be undertaken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an effort to capitalize on the markets for this delicacy, agricultural extension services of Cameroon, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Togo, and particularly Benin are already encouraging farmers to rear grasscutters as backyard livestock. They furnish breeding stock and information, and maintain central offices for records. In addition, a bilateral cooperation project in Benin has started experimental work on improved breeding methods combined with the study of animal responses under domestication.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In future, this vegetarian animal might become the African equivalent of South America's guinea pig, playing an important role in reducing Africa's chronic protein shortage. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Humid and subhumid Africa south of the Sahara.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters are robust animals with short tails, small ears, and stocky bodies. Taxonomically, they are more closely related to porcupines than to common rats or mice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although many varieties have been described, there are probably only two species. The larger (Thryonomys swinderianus) weighs 9 kg or more and has a head-and-body length of up to 60 cm. The smaller species (Thryonomys gregorianus) may occasionally reach 8 kg and a body length of 50 cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species have yellow-brown to gray-brown bodies, with whitish bellies. The fur is extremely coarse, firm, and bristly - reflecting the animal's kinship to the porcupine. The tail is scaly and has short, sparse hairs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species have thick, heavy claws and enormous orange incisors that can chew through even the toughest vegetation. (Grasscutters have been known to tear holes in corrugated iron fences.) Nevertheless, they do not bite when handled, although their claws sometimes cause injuries.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters occur in grassland or in wooded savanna throughout the humid and subhumid areas of Africa south of the Sahara. They often live in forest-savanna habitats where grass is present. They do not inhabit rainforest, dry scrub, or desert, but they have colonized the road borders in forest regions. Distribution is determined by availability of adequate or preferred grass species for food. Specifically, Thryonomys swinderianus occurs in virtually all countries of west, east, and southern Africa. Thryonomys gregorianus occurs in savannas in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Zaire, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite heavy hunting, these animals are not threatened with extinction. Nonetheless, many individual populations are well below carrying capacity, or are extinct because of local overexploitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The larger grasscutter (T. swinderianus) generally lives in swampy, low-lying areas, especially along river banks and the borders of lakes and streams. Occasionally, it is found on higher ground among bushes and rocks, living where savanna grasses are dense and tangled enough to afford good cover. In Ivory Coast and southern Guinea, for instance, grasscutters are found (and hunted) throughout the savanna zones. And they can occur in close proximity to farmlands and people (for example, in southwest Nigeria).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the precise diet in the wild has not been determined, grasscutters are vegetarian. They consume nuts, bark, and the soft parts of grasses and shrubs. They particularly favor elephant grass and sweet potatoes. They commonly "raid" cassava and yam plantations, and are considered local pests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters reproduce year-round, although the births seem to peak at certain times of the year, correlated with weather conditions.5 Probably one male takes several females, and the family group possibly has more than one generation of young. The gestation is about 152 days. Apparently, litters normally contain between 2 and 4 young, but in Benin and Togo some litters of up to 11 or 12 are reported.6 Newborns are fully developed, their eyes are open, they weigh approximately 80 g, have thick fur, and quickly become accomplished runners.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p236a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they commonly forage in groups, grasscutters are generally solitary. They are nocturnal, and they travel at night through trails in reeds and grass, often to water. Most specimens seen in markets are males, possibly because males lead the groups and are thus most prone to being trapped.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When alarmed, these animals stamp their hind feet and give a strange booming grunt. When fleeing, they can run very fast and, given a chance, will take to water. They swim with ease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For shelter, grasscutters usually weave nests of matted vegetation or scoop out shallow burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a broad geographic band across sub-Saharan Africa, cattle raising is severely limited by trypanosomiasis. There, other sources of animal protein, including rodents, are traditionally used. Thus, grasscutter meat constitutes an important food for many Africans. The animals are mostly caught and eaten by families for their own use, but some are sold in markets and especially in roadside stalls. Many families depend exclusively on selling bushmeat, particularly that of grasscutters. In Accra, Ghana, during one year, 73 tons of grasscutter meat were sold in the local market. This represented more than 15,000 animals. In southern Africa, too, people find that these rodents make tasty food, although they may cut off the tail to make the carcass look less ratlike.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat is usually eaten smoked, and is so much in demand that grasscutters are hunted in organized drives with spears, dogs, and sometimes fire. It is considered excellent, especially when cooked in soups and stews or barbecued.7 It has been described as resembling venison in flavor, but it is dark like the meat of wild duck.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the savanna area of West Africa, people have traditionally captured wild grasscutters and raised them at home. As an extension of this, organized grasscutter husbandry has been initiated in West Africa. The animals are provided with marshy, tightly fenced areas with plenty of plant cover. The young are harvested from these areas and raised separately.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghanaian researcher Emanuel Asibey, a pioneer of this research, reports success at getting such captive stocks to reproduce. To this end, farmers are provided with breeding boxes and foundation grass cutter colonies. They are taught how to rear and feed the animals for home consumption or for cash income. Basically, the farmers make available large sheds where the animals can move freely. To prevent escape, the walls may be reinforced with cement plaster. The farmers also provide piles of grass, sugarcane, and other foods. A grasscutter reportedly takes about a month to adjust to such confinement. High mortality can occur in this period. The average weight of a mature, home-raised grasscutter is 4-7 kg. The average killing-out (dressed carcass) is 64 percent.8</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Wildlife Domestication Unit of Ibadan University in Nigeria, another pioneer of rodent domestication, has also reported the potential of domesticated grasscutter colonies.9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research on grasscutter breeding, husbandry, and feeding is similarly being implemented by the Ministry for Rural Development in Benin and at the Lacena in Ivory Coast (see Research Contacts).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The demand for grasscutter meat is so large that it is not being met. Markets for it already exist over much of Africa,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutters can devastate such crops as rice, sugarcane, soybeans, peanuts, yams, cassava, sweet potatoes, oil-palm seedlings, maize, young rubber, sorghum, and wheat. Therefore, as with most rodents, they should be reared only in areas where they already exist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In past years, captive animals in Benin have suffered fatal Clostridium infections during September and October. In 1986, a broad-spectrum antibiotic was given with outstanding results. During this season, the animals also suffered from ascarid worms, which were also successfully treated with standard drugs.10</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed in the following areas:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Digestive physiology, feeding habits, feed preferences, feed conversion and growth rate; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Diseases (pathogens and parasites);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Captive breeding and management (growth rates, space requirements, feed needs, etc);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Performance under different environments;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Productivity; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Basic biology (for example, chromosome type, reproductive physiology, and social behavior both in its wild state and under controlled conditions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, specimens should be gathered from different regions for comparative evaluation. A particular need is to select and breed docile specimens because today, even after several generations in captivity, the animal must still be handled with caution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although domestication of the grasscutter is encouraged, wild populations might also be managed to maximize and sustain production through habitat manipulation. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">20 Guinea Pig</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g024a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) are promising microlivestock because they require little capital or labor; provide an inexpensive, readily available, palatable meat; have no odor, and are suitable for keeping indoors. In the highlands of the Andes, many Indians raise them to supplement diets based on grains  and vegetables. Families eat them mostly on special occasions such as weddings and first communions, or they sell them to restaurants or peddle them in village markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The low cost of these small animals makes them available even to many landless peasants. For both the small farmer and apartment dweller, the guinea pig is a possible food reserve. It converts kitchen scraps and marginal wastelands into meat. According to estimates, 20 females and 2 males may produce enough meat year-round to provide an adequate meat diet for a family of 6.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since husbandry practices are simple and cheap, the guinea pig is an excellent source of supplementary income. An FAO study at Ibarra, Ecuador, showed that on small mountain farms the guinea pig provided more profit than either pigs or dairy cows, partly because its meat fetched high prices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although domesticated guinea pigs are mainly a food resource of Latin America, their use has also spread to parts of Africa and Asia. They are raised, for instance, in Nigeria, Cameroon, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Togo, and Zaire. In southern Nigeria, at least 10 percent of all households raise guinea pigs for food, with colonies of up to 30 animals per household. Guinea pigs are also raised in small cages or cardboard boxes by small farmers in the Philippines.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The feeding efficiency is high: studies have shown that it takes between 3.2 and 5.7 kg of forage to produce 1 kg of growth. This makes guinea pigs more efficient than most farm mammals. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs seem especially adapted to the climate and forages of high-altitude zones, but the fact that they are being raised in Central and West Africa indicates that they are also adapted to the lowland tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p243a.png"></center><br>
+ The native distribution of the guinea pigs wild ancestor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs have stocky bodies, fairly short hind legs, and short, unfurred ears. Adults can weigh up to 2 kg, but an average-sized specimen is about 0.5 kg. They are 20-40 cm long (average 28 cm) and have no tail. In domesticated forms, the pelage may be smooth or coarse, short or long, and in some types the hairs form rosettes.4 Domesticated types come in colors ranging from white to dark brown, as well as piebald.5 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The original home of the wild guinea pig is believed to have been the central highlands of Peru and Bolivia. Its domesticated descendants are important as meat animals mainly in that same area, but, as noted, they are also important in certain African and Asian countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few strains are distributed worldwide as laboratory animals and pets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated guinea pigs, as a whole, are in no danger of extinction, although some rare strains are threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These extremely adaptable animals are found in temperate zones and in the highland tropics, but they are usually kept indoors and protected from the extremes of weather. In Lambayeque and other departments of Peru, they are reared at elevations from sea level to more than 4,000 m. In areas where they are raised, daily temperatures fluctuate as much as 30&Yacute;C. In the Bolivian or Peruvian puna region, for instance, day temperatures can be 22&Yacute;C, while night temperatures are -7&Yacute;C. However, they cannot survive freezing temperatures and they may not perform well when exposed to the full tropical heat and sunlight. Many people of the Peruvian highlands keep the animals in darkness (for example, in wood boxes with little or no light).6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal's original wild habitat is believed to have been an area of grasslands, forest edges, swamps, and rocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These herbivores can be raised on kitchen scraps, garden wastes, and weedy vegetation plucked from backyards or roadsides. Andean peasants mainly feed them potato peels, scraps of cabbage, lettuce, carrot, wild grasses, corn stalks, and the foliage of miscellaneous wild plants. Some barley and alfalfa is grown specifically for guinea pigs; it is cut green and sold in small bundles in the markets. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs mate throughout the year except when climate is excessively adverse. Domestic breeds average 2-3 young per litter, although larger litters sometimes occur. The gestation period is 65-70 days with an average of 67. Females come into estrus every 13-24 days, and there is a fertile postpartum estrus.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females can become pregnant when merely 3 months old, and many produce 4 litters every year from then on. In principle, a farmer starting with 1 male and 10 females could see his herd grow to 3,000 animals in one year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newborns are so large that the female's pubic bones must separate for the birth. They emerge fully developed, with fur and open eyes. They look like miniature adults, and they start eating grass and other feedstuffs within hours. (For this reason, babies orphaned at birth have been known to survive.) Weaning may be reached as early as 21 days of age.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The life span in captivity is as long as 8 years, but animals used for breeding usually live only 3.5 years. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUPER GUINEA PIGS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even in their native region, guinea pigs have traditionally received little research attention. However, that began changing in the 1970s with the onset of meat shortages in Peru. (For a time the government restricted beef sales to only 15 days a month.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For instance, in 1972 Peru began a guinea pig improvement project. Researchers from i a Molina National Agrarian University traveled throughout Peru gathering many kinds of guinea pigs short haired long haired black, white, yellow, brown, and even purple. Practically all the guinea pigs eaten in Peru are home grown, and researchers observed that the bigger ones were generally winding up in the stew, leaving the smaller ones for breeding. The people inadvertently were making the animals smaller. (This is a common phenomenon for many animals.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To overcome it, the university research workers compared the mature size and growth rates of all the different guinea pigs. They selected and cross-bred the biggest, meatiest, and fastest-growing ones. This program, later taken over by Instituto Nacional de Investigacion y Promocion Agropecuaria (INIPA), produced remarkable results. The starting animals averaged little more than 0.5 kg, the resulting ones averaged almost 2 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru's "super guinea pigs" are now getting international recognition. They have been introduced into the highlands of Honduras, where the animal is also part of the Indian cuisine. The FAO has shipped some to the Dominican Republic. In addition, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Colombia have all begun their own guinea pig improvement programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within Peru the government has established 11 breeding stations to encourage the farming of guinea pigs for food. The goal is to provide better stud males to the people so that future animals will grow more quickly and reach a greater weight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs generally congregate in small groups, normally made up of 5-10 adults. In favorable areas, however, such groups may coalesce into large colonies. The animals communicate incessantly among themselves, emitting a variety of squeaks and other noises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males, although good-natured with other species, often fight fiercely among themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs are raised mainly for meat. Peru has about 20 million, which annually provide 16-17,000 tons of meat (only 4,000 tons less than Peru's sheep meat production).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs are used worldwide for studies on disease, nutrition, heredity, and toxicology, as well as for the development of serums and other biomedical research. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea pigs require so little space that a small cage or pit can house up to 10 females and 1 male. They can be raised in cages with wire floors of small mesh as well. The labor required is low. A colony of 1,000 females reportedly can be properly cared for by one person. A layer of wood shavings, shredded paper, straw, and dried corncobs is usually recommended for bedding. The droppings are odorless, so the bedding does not need changing as often as with other animals. When the diet mainly consists of greens, much urine is produced, and then the beds have to be changed frequently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When grown for meat, the young are weaned at 3-4 weeks and are ready for market in a matter of 10-13 weeks. Weight gain is rapid for the first 4-6 weeks, and then decreases. The carcasses normally dress out at about 65 percent, including the skin and legs. The meat's protein content is approximately 21 percent.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a few regions of Peru, guinea pigs are "herded" on the open range and retired at night into small adobe coops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This small, inoffensive animal rarely bites, is easy to manage, and has no smell. It is an excellent supplemental meat supply. The improved breeds cannot climb or jump so that they are easy to contain. (Primitive "criollo" types, however, can jump.) If kept dry and given green vegetation, grain, and water, it survives in many environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major constraint is consumer reluctance. Even in Latin America, attempts to promote guinea pig consumption outside the Indian communities have failed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When raised in a clean environment and under normal feeding conditions, guinea pigs thrive and reproduce and do not need routine vaccinations or antibiotics that cattle, sheep, and pigs often require. However, guinea pigs can be carriers of Chagas' disease and salmonella. Further, they are susceptible to pneumonia if temperatures change abruptly when conditions are wet. Coccidiosis and internal and external parasites are also common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green forages and surplus fruits or by-products are critical to provide vitamin C, which the animal is unable to synthesize for itself. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the greatest concentration of guinea pigs is found in the Andes, particular efforts should be directed towards this region. Already, research on guinea pigs has begun in some universities and government research stations in Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, and Bolivia, but more work is needed on matters such as:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Breeding "elite" stock for distribution;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Feeding and nutritional-requirement trials, especially for creating alternate feeds that peasants and commercial producers can use during seasons when conventional feeds are hard to get;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Diseases and parasites that may limit production in small farming systems;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Management practices concerning reproduction, housing, herd size, and feeding; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The genetic basis for weight gain and productivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some research should be directed towards developing rations or introducing drought-resistant forages for the dry season because green forage is needed year-round. A range of practical and economical diets needs to be created.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal geneticists in Latin American countries should establish "elite" populations that can provide superior stock throughout the world. It can be anticipated that applying modern breeding methods to existing improved strains will result in great advances in a relatively short period and at little cost (see sidebar).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three species of wild cavies (Cavia aperea, C. fulgida, and C. tschudii), close relatives of the guinea pig, are native to South America and are declining drastically. Research to preserve them is urgently needed. C. aperea is a widely used item of food in rural Brazil and other parts of South America. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">21 Hutia</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g025a.png"></center><br>
+ Hispaniolan Hutia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first meat Christopher Columbus tasted in the New World was probably hutia, a rodent avidly hunted by the Carib Indians. Hutia bones have been unearthed from kitchen middens of pre-Columbian inhabitants of all the Greater Antilles. Indians carried live hutias on voyages possibly in a semidomestic state as a source of food. On some islands, hutias were so eagerly sought that their populations were destroyed long before Europeans arrived. Slaves in the cane fields also hunted hutias for food. The surviving species later suffered when forests were cleared and cats, dogs, mongooses, and other predators were introduced. Consequently, the majority of hutia species died out, and today most surviving members of the family (Capromyidae) are facing extinction. Human predation continues in some areas (for instance, in Jamaica) where the tradition of "coneyhunting" still endures in a few regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias should be tested as possible microlivestock: success could create the incentive for their complete protection. The animals seem to take well to captivity. The Jamaican hutia is already overproducing in zoos, causing a local glut of animals. And hutias are, or were until recently, kept in barns by some people in Cuba, who fed them on banana and other vegetable waste and ate them regularly.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POTENTIAL AREA OF USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias are broad-headed, short-legged, robust animals with small eyes and ears. The various species are from 20 to 60 cm long and weigh from 1 to 9 kg - a size range from that of a guinea pig to that of a small dog. They walk with a slow, waddling motion, but can hop quickly if frightened or pursued. They also climb well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 10 1iving species are all big enough to be candidates for microlivestock. The best known and easiest species to keep in captivity are the Cuban hutia (Capromys pilorides) and Jamaican hutia (Geocapromys brownii). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Cuban hutia (also called hutia conga) is about 60 cm long, with coarse fur, a raccoon-shaped body, and a thick tail covered with sparse bristles. A forest dweller, it weighs up to 7 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The short-tailed Jamaican hutia is smaller: it is 33-45 cm long and weighs up to 2.5 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p252a.png"></center><br>
+ The hutias native range .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias are found only in the Caribbean (Greater Antilles and Bahamas). Most species are confined to a single island, where they represent the only remaining indigenous land mammals. The Cuban hutia is found only in Cuba. The Jamaican hutia is found only in Jamaica, although a close relative occurs on East Plana Cay, Bahamas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This once widely distributed and plentiful family is now failing. Of the 30 or so known recent taxa, more than half are already extinct, and the remainder all suffer from habitat alteration, predation by introduced animals, and hunting by man. With the exception of the Cuban hutia, all species are included on the list of the world's threatened mammals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia ranges have been so reduced that these animals survive only in the most inaccessible forests and rocky drylands. Both the Cuban and the Jamaican hutias occur in a variety of habitats from montane cloud forests to arid coastal semideserts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most species are terrestrial, but some live in trees. The Cuban and Jamaican species are terrestrial, but they can climb trees if circumstances demand. They maneuver well on trunks and larger branches, descending head first like squirrels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias are primarily vegetarian, their diets consisting of leaves, bark, fruits, and twigs, as well as incidental catches of small animals such as lizards and invertebrates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias seem to breed year-round, generally giving birth to litters of 1-4 offspring after a gestation period of 16-20 weeks. The young are well developed at birth, fully haired, open eyed, and capable of most adult movements. After 10 days they begin taking solid food, although they are not fully weaned for at least a month and a half (5 months for the Cuban hutia). Sexual maturity is at 10 months; life expectancy is 8-11 years in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Jamaican hutia has one of the highest diploid chromosome numbers (2n = 88) of any mammal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most hutias are wary and secretive and are easily displaced by human encroachment. They live like rabbits, hiding among tangled vegetation, in holes, and among rocks - communicating by voice and scent markings. They build shelters mainly in rock crevices, but also in the base of thick bushes or in natural cavities in trees. The Cuban hutia is often diurnal, whereas the Jamaican hutia is largely nocturnal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HISPANIOLAN HUTIA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Hispaniolan hutia, or zagouti (Plagiodontia aedium) as it is known in Haiti is smaller than the two Capromyids discussed here, weighing just 1.2 kg. It is difficult to breed in captivity and has a lower reproductive rate than either the Jamaican or Cuban hutia. It is therefore less suitable as an economic or food source.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, there is a significant need for supplemental protein sources in both Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It might be possible to develop a special captive-breeding program for this animal, but it should be done with great care. It is important that a hunting tradition for this animal not be reestablished in rural areas of Haiti or the Dominican Republic, and that local organizations not be misled into believing that there will be a rapid increase in the numbers of this species in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia meat is relished, especially in Jamaica. The animals are still hunted, often by using dogs that smell them out and retrieve them from a hole or hold them at bay in treetops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiences of zoos suggest that the Cuban and Jamaican hutias will thrive in captivity. The animals are generally long-lived and have survived up to 17 years. They are often friendly with their keepers and, when tame, can be held and carried about without any particular danger. However, if angered they can inflict deep bites and should normally be handled with considerable caution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are already much in demand. Their meat has an excellent flavor and they are big enough to provide a worthwhile quantity. If husbandry could be developed on a sustainable basis, it could be used as a mechanism for both economic development and for saving the remnant populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild populations are threatened. Any captive population must be built up without endangering them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All hutias are susceptible to predation by domestic cats, mongooses, dogs, and human poachers, so care must be taken to design predator-proof breeding facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are carriers of eastern equine encephalomyelitis, a serious disease of horses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutias deserve urgent conservation attention. In particular, the following steps should be taken:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Establish reserves in natural habitats containing breeding populations to ensure the survival of the genetic diversity of these animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Build up breeding populations in suitable zoos and livestock research centers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gather specimens from different regions for comparative evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Investigate hutia biology, including chromosome type, reproductive physiology, nutrition, and diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Assess experiences of zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Perform captive breeding trials, measuring growth rates, space requirements, food needs, and social behavior (both in its wild state and under controlled conditions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Study the social organization and tameability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colonies of some species could be established on uninhabited islands, as has been done with the Bahamian hutia Geocapromys ingrahami. Even this rare species might eventually be raised to yield meat for local inhabitants, as it is well adapted to dry and barren environments and was a regular food of the pre-Columbian Indians. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">22 Mara</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g026a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many wild relatives of the guinea pig are native to South America. Some, such as the guinea pig itself, are small; others, such as the mare, are much bigger. Maras1 (Dolichotis patagonum) are as tall as terriers and, at first glance, look like dwarf antelopes or huge hares They have large ears and eyes, long legs, and short tails. They generally behave like hares or wild rabbits, but, like deer, they run with a stiff-legged gait when pursued by predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These strange-looking creatures are found in temperate regions in the southern half of South America. They are dry-country animals, living on the thorn-scrub, desert plains of Argentina and the stony wastes of Patagonia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although exceedingly shy, restless, and watchful, mares tame easily, make good pets, and are much favored by the local populace. They were introduced to France last century, and in Victorian times Europeans sometimes bred them. These big, handsome rodents, grazing in little herds, were considered an attractive addition to the lawns of country estates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POTENTIAL AREA OF USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras are best kept in their native region of southern South America. With care, however, they could be used in other areas because they are slow breeders and their population growth is easy to control.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At first sight, these large rodents look like some weird hybrid. They have the long ears of a hare and the tidy body and spindly legs of a small antelope. Although related to guinea pigs, they are long legged. The tail is short; the ears are long and erect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Average-size mares weigh about 8 kg, but large ones can be 1 m long and weigh up to 16 kg.2 Females are larger than males. The coat is light in color, with grey upper parts and whitish underparts. The limbs and feet are tinged a yellowish brown. The pelage is dense, with individual hairs standing at nearly right angles to the skin. This gives a harsh texture, even though the hairs are soft and fine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals can hop, walk, gallop, or run. They are extremely swift and can reach 45 km per hour over long distances. They are also accomplished jumpers, often leaping 2 m high from a standing start. The feet are compact and rather hooflike, but with sharp claws. The hind foot has three digits; the front foot has four.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mare's range in the thorn-scrub desert and Patagonian steppe of Argentina extends from about 28&Yacute;S to 50&Yacute;S.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endangered. These animals, once plentiful, are now threatened because of the introduction of the European hare, which is more successful at competing for food. In many of the eastern parts of its distribution (see map) it is now extinct.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras inhabit open, dry plains and other treeless semidesert areas of coarse grass or scattered shrubs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras are pure vegetarians. They feed on short grasses and herbs that are sparsely distributed between patches of dry desert scrub. Usually, they are satisfied with a few coarse weeds and the shoots of bushes. However, their overall diet consists of any available vegetation: leaves, roots, fruits, and stems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female mares become sexually receptive within a few hours after giving birth. The estrous cycle is 35 days, plus or minus 5 days.3 The gestation period is 77 days. Each female gives birth to 1-3 young at the mouth of the den; the pups crawl inside to safety. Newborns are well developed, and within a few hours they begin grazing vegetation. They remain in the vicinity of the den for up to 4 months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially, at least, the young are nervous and easily frightened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras shelter in a burrow that they either construct for themselves or "borrow" from another animal that has abandoned it. They are active during the day and spend considerable time basking in the sun. They are always alert for danger. When alarmed, they flee at high speed. The white rump patch flashes a warning to the others, who then follow this "flag."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A fundamental element of their social system is the monogamous pair bond. Certainly in captivity, and probably in the wild as well, the bond between a pair lasts for life. When breeding, 20 or more pairs may band together temporarily to share a single den for the pups.4 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals stand on straight legs, sit on bent haunches with the forepart of the body resting on the fully extended front legs, or recline in a catlike position with the front legs folded under the chest, an unusual position for a rodent. They travel in single file, with the female usually leading. Members of a pair maintain contact by means of a low grumble. Although the long legs can quickly carry it to safety, a mare usually stops every 20-30 m and turns to peer at its pursuer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals clean themselves by licking their sides and apparently by "combing" their fur with their teeth. They wipe their faces as cats do, with the inside of a foreleg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p260a.png"></center><br>
+ The maras native range</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the light-colored meat is said to be dry and flavorless, it is widely consumed in South America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras have been successfully raised and bred in many zoos, and, as noted, have been kept as pets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adults make little use of any shelter; they seem fond of being out and about in all weather. As long as they have a protected burrow for the use of the pups, mare populations can thrive in severe climates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In zoos, diets include straw, vegetables, and crushed oats. Drinking water is supplied, although the animals rarely take it if they are feeding on fresh plant materials. They like to have salt blocks, however.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In South America, one mare lived in captivity for almost 14 years; most specimens do not live beyond 10 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maras are a good size for microlivestock. They have a short gestation period, and they are social and easy to maintain in groups. They can be successfully kept in pens and can be fed relatively low-quality forage. Colonies can grow to be quite large.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals can easily dig under the edges of cages and escape. Extra-deep foundations are needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following heavy rains, care must be taken to keep them from drowning in their subterranean burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If suddenly disturbed, mares can become hysterical, leaping away regardless of anything in the way, and often seriously injuring or even killing themselves as a result. They fear bodily contact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mare's monogamous nature in the wild is a likely limitation. But perhaps, like chinchillas, the animal will become polygamous in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are sensitive to tuberculosis when kept in humid conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research needs to increase understanding of the mare include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutritional trials;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Husbandry experiments - measurements of growth rates, space requirements, feed needs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Productivity tests;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Grazing-efficiency measurements;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Exploration of commercial details; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Determination of diseases and parasites. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">23 Paca</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas (Agouti paca)1,2 are large, white-spotted, almost tailless rodents with the potential to become a source of protein for the American tropics. They are found in lowlands from Mexico to northern Argentina. The meat is white and is considered the best of all Latin American game meat. It is common in local markets and restaurants. Tasting like a combination of pork and chicken, it sells at higher prices than beef and is a regular item of diet in some areas. In Costa Rica, pace is served on special occasions such as weddings or baptisms. It has a higher fat content than the lean meat of agoutis, rabbits, and chickens, and has no gamy taste.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paca has promise as a microlivestock. In several countries, Belize and Mexico for example, people already keep them in cages beside their homes and fatten them on kitchen scraps. In Costa Rica, some are bred on farms, under houses, and even in apartments. Research on raising paces in captivity is under way at the Universidad Nacional in Heredia, Costa Rica; at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Balboa, Panama (see page 196); and at the Instituto de Historia Natural in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico. In Turrialba, Costa Rica, an entrepreneur is already breeding and raising pace commercially.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the pace has potential as a food source, many problems still must be resolved before it can be recommended for mass rearing. If solved, however, this species would become an attractive microlivestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pace has potential for use throughout its vast geographical range in Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general appearance, paces are somewhat like giant guinea pigs. The legs are short, the forefeet have four "fingers," and the hindfeet have five small, hooflike "toes." The feet are partially webbed and are adapted both for digging and for swimming. Pacas burrow with all four feet as well as their teeth; even large roots are no obstacle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adults weigh 6-14 kg, males being somewhat larger than females. Although they may become bulbously fat, paces remain "one of the fastest things on four feet. " From a standing start, even a fat specimen can jump at least 1 m off the ground. Pacas are also agile. However, their skin's epidermal layer is thin and fragile, and large strips may be ripped off as they rush headlong through spiky undergrowth. However, such wounds heal astonishingly fast - frequently within days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas are chocolate brown in colon The head is somewhat lighter in shade than the body, and the underparts are whitish or buff colored. There are usually four longitudinal rows of white spots that may merge into stripes along each side of the body. The fur is coarse, spiny, and slippery, and has no underwool. Each hair is stiff, relatively sharp, and very smooth, which makes paces extremely difficult for predators to hang on to.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parts of the cheekbones are enlarged, and the cheeks can open to form special pouches. This is more developed in adult males than in females - indeed, adults can be readily sexed by head shape. The pouches are outside of the mouth and are fully haired. The animals use them mainly to create a resonating chamber for their booming bark and noisy tooth grinding. These enlarged cheeks push the large bulging eyes toward the top of the skull. The eyes are suited for nocturnal conditions, the senses of smell and hearing are uncannily acute, and there is an array of long whiskers that is used when maneuvering at night.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lowland paces are found throughout most of Latin America from east central Mexico to northern Paraguay, Argentina, and Minas Gerais, Brazil. This includes all of Central America and most of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, and the Guianas. The animal has also been introduced into Cuba.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p265a.png"></center><br>
+ The pacas native range</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burgeoning human populations are severely reducing many of Latin America's native animal resources, and the pace is one of the most persecuted. It has been exterminated within hunting range of virtually all cities, towns, and villages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several governments, recognizing the pace's plight, have passed laws prohibiting the hunting and marketing of its meat. Nevertheless, people continue to take it, usually at night, using trail dogs and headlights.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas thrive in a variety of tropical habitats but are most common in forests, swamps, and partly cleared grazing lands. They inhabit most types of forests from deciduous woodland to rainforest. Usually, they stay near streams or rivers, but they often live where there is no permanent water. They are abundant only in little-disturbed forest areas. Although preferring low, dense tree cover, paces sometimes inhabit open rocky areas and farmland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These herbivores feed mainly on fruits, young seedlings, and some seeds. However, when fruits are scarce they may switch to browsing leaves and roots. They probably sometimes eat large insects, and, on rare occasion, may perhaps eat small vertebrates. Captive paces, like many other "frugivores," seem to develop a protein deficiency and will eagerly eat meat scraps on occasion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The young are usually born singly after a gestation period of 146 days. There are probably 2 births a year. Females have an estrous period that begins shortly after giving birth. If mating does not take place at this time, the female becomes unreceptive until after the 3-month (sometimes 4- to 6-month) lactation is over. The length of the estrous cycle is 30 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During daylight hours, paces seclude themselves in brushy cover, in or under fallen logs, or in extensive underground burrows. The burrows, which may be several meters long, are dug in moist soil or taken over from other animals; they are often in river banks, on slopes, among tree roots, or under rocks. Usually, several exits are provided, often being plugged with leaves as a disguise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild, paces dig large holes and rummage about the forest floor at night, gnawing on fruits. Pairs inhabit a defended area, sometimes living together in the same burrow, sometimes not. Also, they usually travel alone, following paths that lead to feeding grounds and water. Individual home ranges are small (1-3 hectares).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although paces are terrestrial, they enter water freely, they swim well, they copulate in water, and, when alarmed, they generally attempt to escape by swimming. They are also lively and playful; however, they can be exceedingly obstinate. Sometimes fighting among themselves becomes very savage. When angered they growl, sometimes noisily, and they can suddenly jump on aggressors, real or imagined, delivering frightful wounds with their chisel-like front teeth thrust forward like a spear. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, pace meat is tasty and brings high prices in the markets. It is considered a delicacy in fine restaurants and was served to Queen Elizabeth during her October 1985 visit to Belize. In Mexico, paces, like pigs, are usually boiled unskinned. Even the skin is then edible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If treated appropriately when young, paces become manageable. They undergo "imprinting," a characteristic of most species that have been domesticated. An imprinted pace becomes so tame that it seeks out human company, follows people around like an amiable dog and, if turned out of its cage, returns voluntarily. (To achieve this degree of tameness it is necessary to remove the animal from its mother at an early age.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although wild paces are almost entirely nocturnal, tame paces are more active during daylight hours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young or partly grown paces are commonly exhibited in zoos. They eat prodigious quantities of almost any vegetation and have been called, "a good substitute for a large garbage pail." Diets can include rolled oats, raw vegetables, bananas, apples, and bread. They probably need additional protein occasionally, and seem to appreciate some fat in their diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If husbandry can be developed, the clamor for pace meat throughout tropical America would be a big economic incentive for farming these animals. The excellence and wide acceptance of the meat is an indication that pace farming would be taken up both in rural and urban areas and by many levels of society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacas can harbor human diseases, including leishmaniasis and Chagas' disease.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from the project in Panama (see page 194), paces have bred only sporadically in captivity, with few offspring surviving. However, successes have been recorded in zoos in London, San Diego, and Washington, D.C., and in a research project in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico. In Costa Rica, they are also reportedly breeding well, with a survival rate of 90 percent since 1982, and 80 percent of the females are reproducing.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All adult paces can be aggressive and dangerous. Their powerful incisors can inflict serious wounds. (They can even rip through planks.) Intraspecific aggression is one of the most serious impediments to captive breeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike the capybara, the pace not only has a long gestation but usually bears a single young. Thus, the output of a single breeding female may be, at best, two offspring per year (at least this is the expected production in the wild). This "slow" breeding is a limitation. In captivity, however, there is a possibility that it can be speeded up.4 The fact that paces bond together in pairs is a limitation. If every female has to be accompanied by a male, then many (otherwise unnecessary) males have to be fed and maintained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male paces are considered difficult to keep as household pets because they spray females (or human substitutes) with a mixture of urine and glandular secretions. This can occur several times a day. In addition, they have anal glands that produce a musky odor that some people find objectionable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although paces are common in some areas over the vast region from Mexico to Argentina, they are little understood, even by zoologists. In fact, most data concerning this animal have come from interviews with local hunters. Intensive field work is needed to develop an understanding of the pace's biology, status, and habitat requirements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The popularity of pace meat makes it urgent to start this work as well as to begin breeding paces on an organized basis. Such projects would lay the groundwork for preserving the species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Particular research needs concern the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Age structure and reproductive performance;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Growth rates and feeding habits;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Behavioral patterns in captivity;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Nutritional requirements;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Meat quality;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Helminth and arthropod parasites;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Role in transmitting or perpetuating diseases;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reproduction (such as external manifestations of estrus in females); and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Genetic variations that would allow the selection of animals adapted to captivity and females that produce multiple offspring - twins, triplets, or more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ways must be found to introduce more than one female to each male without inciting aggression. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">24 Vizcacha</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g027a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas (Lagostomus maximus) are soft-furred South American rodents that look like long-tailed guinea pigs. They can weigh as much as 8 kg and are resilient animals, inhabiting dry pampas and shrub lands in northern Argentina and neighboring countries. They seem to have promise for producing meat and hides in marginal zones whithin their native habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like chinchillas (page 277), these rodents provide a prized furry pelt. They also provide meat that reportedly tastes "as good as hare," which in Europe is considered the epitome of dining. They are easily trapped alive in cheap, homemade, multiple-catch, funnel traps. And they are thought to be suitable for farming on a large scale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, vizcachas are currently considered pests because they take grazing from cattle and sheep and because they build large burrows that undermine the land. Government campaigns have eradicated them in the richer agricultural areas of Argentina, but the animals are still common in marginal zones. There is evidence that they become more abundant when domestic livestock overgraze the land. In improverished marginal sites, where other livestock enterprises are unsuitable, the potential exists for game-ranching vizcachas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the potential hazard to new areas, vizcachas can be used only in the pampas regions of southern South America where they are already widespread.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas have short front legs, long, muscular hind legs, and round eyes and ears. Their heads seem oversized in proportion to their bodies. Males weigh 5-8 kg, females 2-4.5 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members of the same rodent subfamily as the chinchilla, they have a thick, soft, valuable fur that is grey or brown above, whitish or greyish below. They are, however, much larger than chinchillas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although basically running animals, vizcachas often jump bipedally (like kangaroos), and they sit erect while eating or grooming. The forefeet have four long flexible digits used to grasp food. Their soles and palms are naked and have fleshy pads (pallipes).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas once swarmed widely over the savannas of southern Paraguay, Bolivia, and Argentina, but they are being systematically exterminated. Today they inhabit isolated areas of north, central, and western Argentina and southern Paraguay.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1907, these animals have been mercilessly hunted. The governments of the Argentine provinces where they are mostly found, reward hunters for killing this "pest." However, the numbers are so reduced that now there is no need for a bounty system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas live in flat, dry, steppelike plains; in dry woodland (Chaco), and in low mountains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that these rodents eat their own droppings (coprophagy) augments their ability to utilize natural forages, and allows them to abound in degraded zones. They feed on any plant materials they can find near their colonies, particularly grasses. In feeding trials, their daily dry matter intake was 2-5 percent of the body weight. The metabolic efficiency (dry matter per kg) was 33-56 percent; the digestive efficiency was 50-60 percent.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male vizcachas become sexually mature at about seven months of age and remain fertile throughout the year. The gestation period is long: 154 days. Litters contain one or two young. Newborns are well developed, fully furred, and open eyed, although they cannot fend for themselves for at least three weeks. In the wild, one or two litters are reared each year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas are nocturnal and are active year-round. They inhabit underground burrows, living in colonies often containing many individuals. They collect a variety of materials (for example, bones, sticks, and stones), and heap them in piles above the entrances to their burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their hearing and sense of smell are acute. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p274a.png"></center><br>
+ Vizcachas native range</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas have long been hunted for food as well as for their fur. Their meat is often consumed in pickled form in southern South America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The skins are fabricated into table runners, rugs, bedspreads, slippers, and belts. The skins are also popular for overcoats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas can be kept in captivity without major difficulty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In zoos, vizcachas are fed the typical diets furnished for vegetarian rodents: rolled oats, green vegetables, bananas, apples, and bread. They are usually kept indoors in wire-fronted cages, about 1 x 2 m in size, and provided with sleeping boxes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about vizcacha husbandry, but in one trial, weight rose most rapidly in males until age 18 months (the average size was then 5.3 kg) and subsequently slowed. The heaviest male was 7.3 kg at 30-32 months. The female's weight gain was greatest until 16-18 months (average size 3.3 kg).3 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals seem well adapted to harsh sites where the climate and forage make raising conventional livestock difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The meat is white and has a good nutritive value because of its high digestibility, low levels of saturated fats, and high levels of proteins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In marginal zones of the pampas, these rodents appear far more productive than traditional livestock.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas may do considerable damage by foraging in cultivated crops. As noted, ranchers claim that they take grazing away from domestic animals, 10 vizcachas eating as much as a sheep. In addition, they claim, vizcachas destroy pasture with their acidic urine. And the large burrow systems sometimes create a hazard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because their reproductive rate is low and their growth rate is only moderate, their commercial breeding might not be profitable except in well-designed projects with clear markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas require sturdy pens, which implies a high initial cost for materials such as concrete and brick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcachas can be aggressive to one another, especially in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several possible research projects, including:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gathering specimens from different regions for comparative evaluation of characters such as biology, chromosome type, reproductive physiology, social behavior (both in its wild state and under controlled conditions);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Attempting captive rearing and small-scale husbandry;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Assessing performance under various environments; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Quantifying productivity and population dynamics in relation to rangeland use and improvement practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A rational cropping program based on wild stocks is perhaps more viable than captive breeding. This could be organized so as to keep vizcacha numbers in check while sustaining a small chain of processing plants by providing a constant supply of meat and skins. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">25 Other Rodents</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 10 previous chapters have described some rodent species that show promise as microlivestock. Rodentia, however, is one of the largest families of mammals, and the species highlighted by no means exhaust the possibilities. In this chapter we briefly mention others that deserve consideration and exploratory research. These might prove to be potential resources, at least in localized situations. Several are fast nearing extinction and they deserve protection and immediate attention from animal scientists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHINCHILLAS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the high Andes of South America are found the short-tailed chinchilla (Chinchilla brevicaudata) and the long-tailed chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera). These plump little rodents have fur that is possibly the thickest, softest, and warmest of any animal's.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the surface they would seem to be ideal candidates for microlivestock in Third World regions. Indeed, in recent years chinchilla-rearing has been successfully carried out in northern India. However, raising these animals for commercial markets is a highly specialized and costly business because only rare and expensive breeding stock produces top-quality pelts, and all other pelts are worthless in today's marketplace.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These guinea-pig-sized animals have round ears, a bushy tail, and range from 25 to 50 cm long. Adult males rarely weigh more than 500 g, but females may weigh up to 800 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PACARANA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pacarana (Dinomys branickii) is the third-largest living rodent only capybaras and some beavers are larger. But little is known about this seldom-encountered, forest-dwelling species. Nevertheless, pacaranas appear to be likely candidates for domestication. They are amazingly even-tempered and peaceful, and become surprisingly tame.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because these animals are endangered they are unlikely candidates for microlivestock in the short run, but their large size and good meat could be the stimulus for an international effort to study, protect, and rear them in large numbers before it is too late.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacaranas are found along the eastern foothills of the Andes, including parts of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Their area of potential use is in Latin America and the Caribbean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It would be advantageous for livestock scientists to investigate this species in captivity. Studies are needed of the animal's general biology, including its nutritional requirements, reproductive capacity, behavior, and physiology. For wildlife specialists, there is a compelling need to protect this species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SPRINGHARE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scattered through the dry lands of eastern and southern Africa - on numerous grasslands, plains, fossil lake beds, hill slopes, and floodplains - is the springhare (or springhaas). With its powerful hind legs, tiny forelegs, upright stance, and hopping gait, it looks something like a tiny kangaroo. It is commonly seen at night, eyes glowing a characteristic red in the headlights.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal is an important source of food and skins for rural peoples throughout southern Africa. In Botswana, it is the principal bushmeat in the human diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Springhares are 35-40 cm long and weigh 3-4 kg. There is one species (Pedetes capensis) and two subspecies: the East African springhare and the Cape springhare (formerly Pedetes cafer). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROCK CAVY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rock cavy (Kerodon rupestris) is closely related to the guinea pig and occurs in the impoverished semiarid region of northeastern Brazil. It is large and lean and has a face somewhat resembling a dog's. It is hunted extensively and is an important source of meat for country people, who consider it a delicacy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This creature might be suitable as a microlivestock. It consumes leaves and bark, and breeds well in captivity. Famine is a serious periodic problem in the often-drought-stricken area, and protein deficiency is common. The rock cavy, like the guinea pig, may be amenable to domestication and may be able to provide the people with better nutrition. However, it is difficult to keep in a cage because it moves fast, climbs well, and easily slips out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because these rodents occur in rare and patchily distributed habitats, they are in desperate need of protection, whether or not they prove to have any long-term utility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SALT-DESERT CAVY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A smaller relative of the mare (page 256), the salt-desert cavy (Dolichotis salinicola) is rabbitlike in appearance and behavior. It has large ears and eyes, long legs, and a short tail. It lacks the mare's white rump patch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal inhabits dry, salty areas of the Chaco desert, particularly areas of dry, woody brush. Specifically, it is found in the saline western Chaco of Paraguay and northwestern Argentina, as well as in the extreme south of Bolivia. It is about 45 cm long and weighs up to 4 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it might make a useful microlivestock in its native habitat, the salt-desert cavy breeds rapidly and can cause much devastation; it should never be introduced to new regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The salt-desert cavy's life in the wild is largely unknown; however, some have been successfully raised and bred in zoos. Exploratory research on keeping and managing these little creatures is warranted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OTHERS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted earlier (page 193), it has been estimated that 42 peoples of various cultures eat rodents. Most of these eat locally available species, some of which are listed below. Whether any have long-term usefulness is uncertain, but study of them in the wild and in captivity could result in some interesting and valuable scientific discoveries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solomon Islands Rodents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Solomon Islands in the southwest Pacific are home to a collection of six rare giant rodents that live in the rainforest canopy. At one time they were important food items. Archeologists have dug up tens of thousands of rodent bones on sites where people lived as long as 30,000 years ago. These mysterious animals were classified last century, but most have not been seen by biologists for decades. However, one, the thinking rat (Solomys sapientis), was rediscovered in 1987 - the first time it had been reported seen since 1901. The others may also be inhabiting the dense and undisturbed forests.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The thinking rat was located on the island of Santa Isabel. It proved to be gentle, unafraid, and friendly. It lives in the forest canopy, weighs up to 1 kg, and feeds on nuts and fruits. Efforts to build up the population are urgently needed. The other species should also be sought.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such animals could be a resource for rainforest production (perhaps in the manner of butterfly farming in Papua New Guinea2). They may never be plentiful enough to be food sources again, but they could nonetheless become valuable. Zoos the world over are likely first customers for these scientific curiosities if production can be boosted and the populations secured.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant New Guinea Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant New Guinea rat (Mallomys rothschildi) is often eaten in New Guinea. It is little known to science but is odorless and easily tamed. It grows so fast that it becomes as big as a guinea pig even before it is weaned. It feeds on a wide variety of tubers and vegetable products. An attractive species native to mountain forests, it has a long heavy tail and black fur with white ticking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porcupines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Porcupines, brush-tailed porcupines, and their relatives are distantly related to guinea pigs and are widely consumed as food in tropical regions. Examples are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Indian porcupine (Hystrix indica) and other species of South Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Cape porcupine (H. africaeaustralis) of southern Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Prehensile-tailed porcupine (Coendou prehensilis), which inhabits Central and South America. These nocturnal creatures live in the thick, leafy crowns of trees or in hollow trees or holes in the ground. Although often belligerent among themselves, they can be very friendly and tame toward humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kiore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kiore (Rattus exulans) was formerly an important component of  the diet of most Polynesians, including the Maoris of New Zealand. It  has been successfully reared in captivity in recent times. Unlike many  other rodents, this animal is normally not a scavenger; it is a clean,  even fastidious feeder that is basically a vegetarian (flowers, berries,  nuts, and seeds) and is reckoned remarkably good eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soft-Furred Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The soft-furred rat (Praomys) is relatively large and slender and is  found in the tropical forests of Africa from sea level to more than  3,000 m. Among the most common rodents of the African jungle, it is  trapped almost everywhere. It feeds largely on plants, but eats large  quantities of ants and other insects. It has been raised successfully in  captivity and is eaten by villagers in Malawi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant Squirrels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The giant squirrel (Ratufa bicolor) occurs throughout Indonesia,  Malaysia, and Sri Lanka. It is the largest squirrel on earth, almost the  size of a cat. A related species, the palm squirrel (Funambulus), also  gets very large. It can crop nuts in the very high treetops that are  inaccessible to people. It is widely used as food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Squirrels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Squirrels of the genus Callosciurus (notably C. notatus and C.  prevostii) are significant pests on cocoa, oil palm, and mixed fruit  plantations in Southeast Asia. They can be reared and bred on a diet of  most types of fruit as long as a little protein, in the form of insects or  cooked wheat, is available. The systematic use of this animal may  offer a chance to turn a pest to advantage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cloud Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two species of slender-tailed cloud rats (Phlocomys spp.) are found  only in southeastern Asia. They live in tree cavities, climb well, and  are well adapted to tree life.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of these (P. cumingi) lives in the northeastern part of Luzon in the Philippines, where it appears to be thriving. It has a large body and long tail and is the largest member of the mouse subfamily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other (Crateromys schadenbergi) has long, thick hair and a thick, bushy tail. It lives in the mountainous areas of northern Luzon. A nocturnal animal, it feeds on buds, bark, and fruits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both are attractive, even fascinating, creatures that are relentlessly hunted for food. They might make useful livestock in forest situations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spiny Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Cayenne spiny rat (Proechimys guyannensis) is found throughout most of South America. It is tasty, easily kept in captivity, and is popularly used in Colombia for food. A nocturnal animal, it is one of the most common mammals in many areas. It has been raised in captivity on bananas, sweet corn, coconut, grain, and various seeds.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bamboo Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The bamboo rat (Rhyzomys spp.) is the largest rodent on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia; it weighs 2-4 kg and the body can be as long as 45 cm. It prefers to live in bamboo thickets and is hunted and eaten by many local peoples.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a need - in considering any sort of game farming - to relate the animal's "preferred" conditions (range, feed, temperature, etc.) to the varying land and climate types not being effectively utilized. In other words, rather than looking at animals that might be farmed, it might be necessary to consider the terrain and climate and then seek animals that would "do" well under those conditions. One major fault with traditional farming has been the tendency to force traditional livestock onto unsuitable land. This has given rise to numerous serious problems. In many cases the most suitable use of an area is provided by several species grazing together to mutual benefit (e.g., goats and sheep on New Zealand hill country improve grazing for each other if ratios are right).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Yerex</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g028a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part V : Deer and Antelope</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several types of tropical deer' and antelope are no bigger than an average-size dog. These "microdeer" and "microantelope"2 are the smallest of all ruminants. Although there is considerable experience with rearing and utilizing the larger species, little is known about these miniature ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given research, mouse deer, muntjac, musk deer, pudu, brocket, huemul, and water deer, as well as half a dozen small antelope, might prove to have considerable potential. Collectively, they come from diverse habitats, ranging from equatorial to subarctic and from moist rainforest to arid savanna. They are adapted to some environmental conditions that are only marginal for production of conventional livestock because of drought, heat, diseases, altitude, or other constraints.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEER FARMING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer appear to be unlikely candidates for livestock, but reindeer were probably among the first domesticated animals and have been draft animals for perhaps 2O,OOO years. Even today, tens of thousands of reindeer pull sleighs in the European arctic. On military expeditions, the ancient Romans took along herds of fallow deer as a source of meat, and more than 1,000 years ago deer were annually herded off the Scottish Highlands for winter meat supplies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, there have been breakthroughs in the "domestication" of deer. Species already being [armed are: red deer (New Zealand, Australia, Taiwan, Korea, Russia, China, Scotland, the United States), elk (New Zealand, Canada, the United States), fallow deer (New Zealand, Australia, England, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, Germany, the United States), ruse deer (Australia, Mauritius, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea), sika deer (Taiwan, New Zealand), musk deer (China, India), and PFre David's deer (New Zealand). Although not truly domesticated, even the moose has been tamed in Scandinavia and the Soviet Union, the calves being bottle-raised from three days of age.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Zealand has made particular progress in domesticating large deer (see sidebar). It seems probable, therefore, that similar success with small deer could be achieved. For those seeking interesting, pioneering research, microdeer are good candidates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANTELOPE RANCHING AND FARMING</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The worldwide experiences in domesticating various deer species suggest that the organized production of small antelope should also be considered. Several large species have already been studied and are used in game farming in eastern and southern Africa. Similar research on the smaller species, which so far have received little or no attention, is one of the more speculative ideas in this report. We put it forward only for consideration by researchers, but if exploratory studies prove successful, this is a topic deserving international support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some parts of Africa there are large expanses of uninhabited lands, and producing any sort of livestock there is limited by aridity and by the presence of tsetse flies. But in this habitat live tiny antelope such as dikdik, suni, and klipspringer. In the rainforests and secondary forests are found duikers and the royal antelope. All these creatures have advantages that justify their consideration as microlivestock: they have a more rapid turnover than the big species, and they produce a high yield of quality meat. In addition, compared with cattle, these native ungulates make better use of the habitat. Cattle select a limited number of grass species; antelopes choose a wider range, and also include fortes, bushes, and trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More important perhaps is their resistance to many diseases. Most, if not all, are resistant to trypanosomiasis, the disease carried by the tsetse fly. They are not immune to this and other tropical diseases, but they are less susceptible than cattle. However, part of this may be owing to their ability to roam widely; if confined and treated like domestic animals, they may also require some protection against parasites and diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antelopes are also more productive than cattle; that is, they produce a given quantity of meat more quickly because they breed better in the African hinterlands and grow more rapidly on its existing forages. On the other hand, they generally require a richer diet than cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, in their favor, antelopes affect the habitat less than the same density of cattle does; they spread out more while feeding and thereby cause less erosion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two ways of exploiting this potential. One is by "cropping"taking a controlled offtake from free-ranging populations without depressing the overall population. Several methods for producing meat this way from large antelope have been attempted in countries such as Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique. Few have persisted. Often this has been due to opposition from the vested interests of the cattle industry and from stringent veterinary requirements. Nonetheless, game ranching offers a means by which marginal lands could produce food of a high nutritional quality on a sustained basis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other method is by farming - that is, domesticating or partially domesticating the animals, keeping them in pens or herding them like cattle. Experiments in farming antelopes have been less common than game ranching, but one of the most interesting is that conducted on the Galana Ranch in Kenya. Three wild species - buffalo, eland, and oryx - were selected for comparison with cattle. Half-grown animals were preferred for capture, and it was found that if they were kept in the dark for the first week after capture, and then gradually provided with more and more space while they became familiar with people, after about six weeks they could be released into the open and herded from place to place. Grazing during the day under the eye of a herdsman, they allowed themselves to be herded back to a pen at night in the traditional African manner, where they would sleep around the campfire. This was a promising advance in behavior modification leading toward domestication. The oryx, for example, gained weight on grazing that would not even sustain cattle, and it required only a quarter of the amount of water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At bottom, the question is not what contribution antelopes can make to the African larder, for they already make a significant contribution through (largely illegal) hunting. The question is whether farming could make them a sustainable asset rather than their being senselessly squandered, as is the case at present. Although its potential has yet to be realized, antelope farming is not a panacea for Africa's food problems, and certainly not the world's, but it might pave the way to a new and more gentle way to make savannas useful. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TAME GAME</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the 1970s, deer have taken the place of sheep on many New Zealand pastures, and today the country has more than 5, 000 deer farms carrying over one million head, mainly red deer. It is now common along country roads to see tall fences surrounding graceful deer quietly grazing ryegrass and clover. And there are all the appurtenances for deer that exist for cattle and sheep. Auctions and shows are held regularly. Deer farmers have a professional association and produce their own glossy magazine. Government scientists publish pamphlets on the care and management of deer. There are recognized stud stags, computerized recording schemes for breed improvement, and even veterinary services specifically for deer. Hybridization between wapiti and red deer, and PFre David's deer and red deer, is accepted practice. The animals are moved by use of dogs (which command by mere presence rather than by bark or bite), and herds of up to 80 are shifted by truck. Slaughter facilities specifically for deer are in operation throughout the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This transformation of a nervous, jumpy, and retiring wild species into a farm animal is a remarkable achievement. Once accustomed to people, many specimens become gentle, even affectionate, and will come at a farmer's call. Males are generally as easy to handle as females, except during the rutting season when they become aggressive and cannot be handled at all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, even at the best of times the farmed deer must be handled gingerly. If the causes of stress are not quickly suppressed, hysteria can erupt throughout a herd; in an instant, quiet animals can be leaping suicidally in all directions, disoriented, diving head-on into fences, charging gates. Chronic stress, the causes of which are not always obvious, can result in illness or death, although this trait diminishes in subsequent generations of farm-born stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A deer farm has to be laid out to certain special specifications. To prevent escapes, the boundary fences must be 2 m high with netting of 15- or 30-cm mesh. Inner fences need only be 1.5 m high. Water troughs are placed in the middle of the fields, and nothing is allowed to jut inwards from the fences because the animals tend to walk fencelines and take comfort from the illusion of openness. Because deer like to wallow in hot weather, some farmers also provide shallow waterholes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer yards can be of any design, but the sides of the passageways and holding pens should be solid, as deer do not see fences very well, particularly when under pressure, and may injure themselves in a leap towards what appear to be wide open space. (New Zealanders usually make the sides of plywood.) Also, the holding pens should be roofed, as semidarkness has a calming effect. Animals that in the sunlight become hysterical on seeing a person in the distance, can, in the relative darkness of a roofed shed, be touched and even given injections.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the special facilities, however, handling deer takes time and care and experience. The most successful farmers spend much time among the deer so that the animals become accustomed to human presence. This helps to make yard work easier. Also, new arrivals are allowed to wander through the yards on their own to become familiar with them. In addition, special tame deer are used as leads or decoys to encourage the rest of the herd to follow. Using such simple techniques, a formerly intractable species has become almost fully domesticated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">26 Mouse Deer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g029a.png"></center><br>
+ Lesser Malayan Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer1 (Tragulus spp. and Hyemoschus aquaticus) are among the smallest ruminants known. The lesser mouse deer of Southeast Asia is probably the smallest; an adult stands only 20 cm high and weighs a merc 1-2.5 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although they look vaguely like tiny deer, mouse deer differ in several particulars. The stomach is simpler and (like the camel's) has three instead of four effective compartments. Rumination occurs, but mouse deer are the most primitive of all ruminants. Indeed, they share a number of characteristics with nonruminants, including lack of horns or antlers; continually growing, tusklike upper canines in males; sharp-crowned premolars; and four fully developed toes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Virtually unchanged in 25 million years of evolution, these are solitary, nocturnal, retiring animals that have seldom received detailed research. Whether they might make suitable microlivestock is unknown. However, they seem to be tractable, and people in Southeast Asia (Sarawak, for instance) have traditionally kept at least one of the species as backyard pets. Moreover, mouse deer are indigenous to tropical lowland regions and withstand the heat and humidity that are stressful to most conventional livestock species. They probably also are resistant to many diseases of those torrid regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the United States, mouse deer are being raised as laboratory animals for basic research on ungulates. This is because the animals are easier to handle than large deer or goats.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are graceful, lithe, and look somewhat like large rodents. The Asian species are the shape and size of an agouti (see page 198); the African species is more like the pace (see page 262). All have short legs, a small head, and a pointed snout. Adults weigh from 1 to 5 kg, depending on species. The head and body are only 04-1 m long, and the shoulder height is merely 20-36 cm. Males are generally smaller than females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most species the body is a rich brown with white spots and stripes. The belly is usually white. The animals stand on the middle toes, so that the lateral ones do not touch the ground. Neither sex bears antlers. In males the upper canines form long tusks that may extend outside the lips and even to below the line of the jaw.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty-five million years ago, early forms of mouse deer existed throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe. Today's species are restricted to tropical forests and mangrove thickets of Southeast Asia and Central Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the three Asian species, the Indian mouse deer occurs in southern India and Sri Lanka; the larger Malayan mouse deer occurs on the mainland of Southeast Asia and the lesser Malayan mouse deer occurs on Java as well. The water chevrotain, a related African animal, is found from eastern Zaire to the Atlantic coast. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p292a.png"></center><br>
+ figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p293a.png"></center><br>
+ Range of water chevrotain .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, human encroachment into the forest has caused the destruction of the mouse deer habitats and has put various mouse deer species under a pressure that is causing their populations to decline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals inhabit equatorial forests and mixed secondary tropical forest. They generally live among undergrowth on the edges of dense lowland rainforests. They especially haunt rivers and swampy bush areas, seeking escape by water when in danger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little about these animals is recorded. Essentially vegetarians, they feed chiefly on fruits, supplemented by leaves. They also eat insects (for instance, ants), if available. They do not seem to eat grass.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The premolars of the mouse deer are designed for piercing and chopping food rather than for chewing. As noted, the stomach consists of three functional compartments: the rumen, the reticulum, and the abomasum. (The omasum of ruminants is represented only by a rudimentary area.) The stomach occupies almost the whole of the abdominal cavity, extending from the diaphragm to the pelvic inlet, which provides this small animal with large food-storage capacity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The blood has a very high erythrocyte (red blood corpuscle) count as well as the smallest erythrocyte size of any mammal. The flesh is "white" and the muscles contain little myoglobin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mature females reproduce almost continuously, and usually regardless of season. In the female larger Malayan mouse deer, mating occurs within 2 days of giving birth. In the African species, many births are synchronized with the rainy seasons, when fruits are plentiful. The gestation period is about 5-6 months, depending on the species. There is only one young per birth. Weaning normally occurs at 2-3 months, but can occur as early as 3 weeks, with sexual maturity achieved at 4-5 months (Asian species) and 10 months (African species). The young stay alone, hidden in vegetation during the first month or two.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are shy, keeping to dense jungle and depending on concealment for protection. Although often present in large numbers, they are seldom seen. Preferring to be near lakes, rivers, or streams, they can nevertheless wander I km or more from water. They feed mostly at dusk or at night, sheltering in undisturbed areas or under shady bushes during the day. They utter weak, bleating sounds, and when frightened, jump a meter or more in the air.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Communication is by scent and calls. The African species possess anal and preputial glands, with which, along with urine and feces, they mark their home ranges. Males of both Asian and African species possess a chin gland to mark either the vegetation or their mates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are among the most excitable, nervous, and jumpy animals. One must tread softly in their presence for fear of causing absolute pandemonium and mishap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are widely sought by native people for food, and their meat is highly regarded. Dressed carcasses have a high proportion of muscle (84 percent in Asian species), low proportion of bone (15 percent), and an insignificant amount of fat. The ratio of muscle to bone is large - 5.6:1. The mean dressing percentage of 62.1 percent is greater than that reported for cattle, water buffalo, or goat.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adults are wild, generally intractable, and "flighty," but young animals (at least of the Asian species) tame readily and make good pets. Nevertheless, these are delicate creatures and must always be handled gently. Individuals caught in the wild tend to bash against the sides of cages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite an unpromising temperament, Asian mouse deer are regularly bred in zoos, including those in Amsterdam, New York, and Zurich. They also have been reared successfully in small enclosures at several research institutes, such as the I.R.E.T. Institute, Makokou, Gabon; the Institute of Medical Research in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; and at Fort Detrick in the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps the best way to breed this animal is by using the battery system of small units comprising one male and two females per cage. The costs are mostly for obtaining suitable enclosures and for feeding and watering troughs.6 The cages must be covered with mesh because the mouse deer can jump. However, the covering must be sufficiently high to allow the male to stand with its body vertical during copulation.7 They can be fed a variety of foods and grow well on stems of bean plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, these are small, seemingly tractable creatures that are at home in the heat, humidity, and diseases of tropical lowlands. They might play a particularly important role as livestock for tropical rainforests; the forests could be left standing while the animal still produces meat. Today, in a widely condemned process, tropical rainforests are being felled in order to raise cattle for meat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small size makes mouse deer easy prey for various predators. In the wild, snakes, crocodiles, eagles, and forest cats feed on them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse deer are among the most excitable, nervous, and jumpy animals. One must tread softly in their presence for fear of causing absolute pandemonium and mishap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The different species are solitary, and it is difficult to keep many individuals (especially males) in a restricted space. They must be kept in a quiet enclosure, with cover or good shelters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The survival of these four "living fossils" depends on conserving their rainforest habitat and restricting hunting, especially night hunting. But studies of their propagation and management are also imperative.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In particular, research is warranted on various aspects of their husbandry, such as enclosure design, space requirements, and health. A special research need is to understand the animal's nutritional requirements and to develop diets for use in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">27 Muntjac</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g030a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac, or barking deer (Muntiacus species), are among the most widespread but least known of all Asian animals.1 They are almost the size of an average dog and they bark, but they are true deer. These little animals adapt well to captivity and have been introduced to zoos and wildlife collections throughout the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years one species, the Reeves' muntjac, has become established in England, and a few specimens have settled into semicaptivity - staying behind fences, accepting human presence, and even eating out of people's hands. In Sarawak, villagers have also been known to keep muntjac, feeding them a diet of rice with some leafy matter occasionally added.2 Such experiences show that these small, shy deer can be calm and adaptable. It also shows that they can be raised on practical, artificial diets and that they are not strictly browsers. This creates the possibility (admittedly highly speculative) that they might make future microlivestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac produce lean, palatable venison and perhaps could be farmed on an organized basis. They are native to severe environments where heat, humidity, and endemic diseases make raising conventional livestock difficult. In future, given research, muntjac might become widespread contributors to Asian economic development. The lessons learned in captive breeding could also be important for conserving endangered muntjac species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One species, the Indian muntjac, has an incredibly low chromosome number (2n=7 in males; 2n=6 in females), which makes them particularly promising candidates for mammalian genetic studies. This species has regularly bred well in both zoos and research institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are small and slender. Reeves' muntjac, the smallest, has a shoulder height of 45-60 cm. Fully grown, it weighs less than 20 kg; commonly it is merely 10-12 kg. The Java subspecies of the Indian muntjac is the biggest, with a shoulder height of 58 cm and a mature weight of 43 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antlers on the males usually include a main prong as well as a much shorter brow tine. Even the main prong is no larger than a finger, but its pointed tip is hooked and must be treated with caution. There are also two tusklike canine teeth that protrude from the mouth. These have sharp points and a knifelike posterior edge, capable of cutting to the bone a person's finger or another muntjac's rump.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coloration varies from deep brown to yellowish or greyish brown with cream or whitish markings, depending on the species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are native to a vast region from eastern China to Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost a century ago, Indian and Reeves' muntjac were introduced to a deer park in southeast England. Some escaped, and (as noted) the Reeves' muntjac has adapted, spread, and settled down to life in the countryside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the five muntjac species, the Reeves' and the Indian are well known and in no danger. For instance, recent estimates of annual game production have shown that there are about 650,000 Reeves' muntjac in China. The other three are threatened with extinction. Black, Roosevelt's, and Fea's muntjacs are virtually untried in captivity, but the success of raising Reeves' muntjac in English country gardens suggests that perhaps their populations could be saved through captive breeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In their native habitats, these small deer are usually found in dense vegetation on hilly ranges at elevations up to at least 3,000 m.3 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p301a.png"></center><br>
+ The native ranges of the various muntjacs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac seem to be primarily browsers. However, in captivity they eat fresh grass, alfalfa hay, and feed pellets. They also readily eat root crops such as potatoes, carrots, and parsnips. They are "concentrate selectors," preferring foods low in fiber and rich in protein and nutrients. Captive specimens reportedly need; a supply of cut browse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding may occur year-round, but in practice it is synchronized with certain seasons. The first conception can occur as early as 6 months of age. One, occasionally two, young are born after a gestation of about 200 days. They weigh around I kg at birth, and the fawns usually remain hidden until they can move about with the mother. The females mate within a few days of giving birth. Life spans up to 16 years have been recorded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the Indian muntjac is a species of great cytogenetic interest. It has the lowest diploid chromosome numbers yet found in a mammal.4 The large, easily distinguishable chromosomes are a great advantage in tissue culture, and many laboratories now have muntjac cell lines. The karyotypes of the different species' chromosomes are very different; the Indian and Reeves' muntjac can hybridize, but the offspring are infertile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are dainty and have a captivating charm. Always on the alert, they are active both day and night. Often they will bark for an hour or more, but typically they bark for only a minute or two. When panicked, captive muntjac may rush into fences or walls. They can easily leap barriers 1.5 m high.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males are highly territorial and defend their territories vigorously. Adult females also inhabit a specific territory, which they defend against strange individuals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males mark the ground at intervals by lowering the head and rubbing the frontal glands on the ground and by scraping their hooves against the ground. They mark trees by scraping the bark with the lower incisors and rubbing the base of their antlers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Asia, muntjac are hunted for meat, skins, and antlers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac thrive and, at least under ideal conditions, breed freely in captivity. However, they may stop breeding if they are crowded.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In England, zoos and private collections keep as many as six muntjac in an area of 40 x 20 m. Plenty of cover is provided for the animals to hide in. Fences almost 2 m high are used. (Lower fences are reportedly adequate where there is no risk of the deer being panicked by dogs or people.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like other deer, muntjac produce extremely lean meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They seem to be healthy animals. In Britain, wild and captive muntjac have few gastrointestinal worms, and ectoparasites such as ticks and lice are not a problem. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MUNTJAC</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In England, far from Asia's forests and mountains, the Reeves' muntjac is the subject of a peculiar chapter in the otherwise unhappy history of introduced species. Charmed by the deer's odd characteristics, the British have welcomed its invasion into gardens around the country. Now, there are tens of thousands of muntjacs on the loose, and some people have even adopted them as pets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although other alien species have wreaked havoc on native plants and animals, muntjacs appear to be a merciful exception. At least over the short term, muntjacs "have proven to be an almost innocuous asset to the countryside. They give pleasure to thousands and pain to few. Eating mostly ivy, grass, leaves, and prickly bushes, they rarely feed in one place long enough to do much damage except to an occasional suburban garden." </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life for many muntjacs is made soft by homeowners who find the deer's large, dewy eyes and tiny antlers irresistible. The kind-hearted suburbanites put out salt licks, water, and kitchen scraps, and they built snug little shelters against the cold north wind. "All our adult deer will take food from the hand," says Walter Buckingham, who has kept muntjacs for five years in his garden in the county of </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hertfordshire, just north of London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The adaptable immigrant is colonizing new areas so rapidly, say biologists, that soon there may be more in England than in Asia. "In time," predicts muntjac-researcher Oliver Dansie (pictured opposite), "it may eventually establish itself as our most widely distributed deer species."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild these animals are not gregarious and are generally found alone or in pairs. Because of their strong territorial instincts, large males may not be able to be kept together without fighting. The upper canine teeth can inflict serious wounds. Some females are intolerant of each other as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac are fragile; they cannot be held by the legs, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some infectious diseases may prove to be of epizootic importance: foot-and-mouth disease, mucosal disease, epizootic hemorrhagic disease, rinderpest, and tuberculosis (all three types). This may be a problem, especially when people are raising the animals by hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To ensure a better understanding of their potential as microlivestock, muntjac deserve research and recognition from animal scientists and conservationists from Nepal to China. The English experience shows how populations of the endangered species might be built up. At present, however, none are receiving any husbandry research; only the two most common species can generally be found in zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals deserve investigation into physiology, reproductive requirements, fertility, nutrition (for example, food preferences, feeding strategies, and food utilization), growth, adaptability and environmental tolerance, diseases, management, social structure, and selection for calm temperament. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">28 Musk Deer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The musk deer (Moschus species)1 is so small that (like other ungulates in this section) it is only as large as an average-size dog. A gland in males produces musk, a thick, oily secretion that is one of the most valuable substances in the animal kingdom. Musk is used in Oriental Medicine as well as in Europeans perfumes, and in recent year it has sometimes sold for as much as three times the price of gold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk is traditionally obtained by killing these deer and removing their glands. The dried glands, called pods, contain a reddish brown musk powder that has been a commodity in international commerce for more than 1,000 years. Despite bans in India (1972) and Nepal (1973), musk continues to be illegally exported, mainly via Hong Kong, for use in Japan and Europe. In Japan, for example, it is an ingredient in more than 200 different medicines.2 In Europe, musk goes into some of the most famous perfumes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international trade in Himalayan musk, originating from both northern and southern sides of the Himalayan divide, amounts to 200 kg per year, representing an annual slaughter of 20,000-32,000 male deer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commercial value of the animal makes it highly attractive for development as a livestock species. The economic force causing its slide toward extinction could be employed to protect and restore both the species and its habitat. Ranching these deer might put musk production on a sustainable footing. It might also encourage habitat protection, because in the harsh climate of the high Himalayas, rearing musk deer could be much more profitable to villagers than raising crops or cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer are already being farmed under primitive conditions in China, where techniques for extracting musk without killing the animal have been developed. In India, small collections of musk deer have been established by the forest departments of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. For several years authorities in Nepal have successfully extracted musk from an adult male at the Kathmandu Zoo' without apparent harm to the animal.3 These experiences suggest that musk might become a farmed product. So far, however, success has been limited. The Chinese animals, for example, have a high mortality rate and the musk is said to be of poor quality. Nonetheless, these examples are valuable pioneering case studies that deserve recognition, support, and further development.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With their long ears, arched back, and bounding gait, these diminutive deer remind one of large hares. The pointed face and large ears make their heads strikingly reminiscent of kangaroos. The coarse hair gives them a stocky appearance. The color varies according to species (and subspecies) from rich reddish brown to dark grey or black. The peculiarly brittle and wavy hair probably has good insulating properties, as it consists of air-filled cells arranged like a honeycomb.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer have an average mature weight of about 6-11 kg and a body length of 50-90 cm. They stand 50 60 cm high at the shoulder and 5 cm higher at the rump because the hind legs are longer than the forelegs. Some dwarf types are only 40-46 cm high. The tail is short, and in males it is naked, except for a terminal tuft of hair, because they mark their territories by constantly rubbing the caudal gland, which is located near the tail, onto objects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All four toes are flexible, which, compared to the rigid hoof of other ungulates, gives a firmer grip on precipitous slopes. The dew claws are enlarged and, together with the central digits, splay out, to minimize sinking in soft snow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Neither sex possesses antlers, but males have long upper canine teeth that project well below the lips. The lower front teeth have a spatulate form that probably helps the animals scrape lichens from the surfaces of rocks and trees in winter, when most vegetation is snow covered. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p309a.png"></center><br>
+ The musk deers native range.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The genus is distributed patchily throughout the forested mountainous parts of most of Asia. One population extends from just north of the Arctic Circle southward to the northern edge of Mongolia and Korea. Others occur in China, northern Vietnam, and the Himalayan region including Bhutan, Assam, Tibet, the Indian Himalayas, Nepal, and northern Pakistan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During this century, the musk deer has rapidly declined throughout its former regions. In many parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, and probably Tibet, it is already regarded as rare, with a distribution that is becoming increasingly localized. Possible exceptions are Bhutan and most of China, where its population is thought to be stable. In southern China, a recent estimate puts the musk deer population at 100,000 head. In western and northwestern China, the population is estimated at 200,000-300,000 head.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is the uncontrolled hunt for musk that in most places is driving this animal toward extinction, but its habitat is also being increasingly destroyed by livestock and woodcutters. Part of the loss to hunters is owing to the mindless way in which the animals are caught. Most are snared in traps or nets or killed by poisoned stakes set on trails. This kills all the animals indiscriminately, even females and fawns, which produce no musk. This waste of reproductive animals is extremely destructive to the populations and is senselessly hastening the musk deer's extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer mainly occur in upland woodland and scrub areas. They prefer remote, dense vegetation, especially birch-rhododendron forests in mountainous terrain. They are seldom found in treeless regions or areas thickly populated by people. In the Himalayas, the upper limit coincides approximately with the tree line, which is as high as 4,600 m at the eastern end.6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite its economic importance and wide distribution, little is known of the musk deer's biology. Nonetheless, it is known that musk deer have a gall bladder, a bovid feature that distinguishes it from the true deer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are browsers, relying on young leaves, buds, fruits, and flowers. During the winter, as snow deepens, they depend more on lichens growing above the snow on rocks or tree bark, although in shallow snow they scrape for vegetation with their hooves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The male's musk sac is unique among deer. Situated between the umbilicus and penis, it contains the gelatinous, odoriferous oil. The amount varies with the season and the age of the animal, but pods of adult males usually weigh about 30 g; occasionally up to 45 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males also have a caudal gland under the tail, which secretes a viscous yellow substance with a goaty smell. They mark vegetation with this secretion by rubbing their hindquarters against stems and branches.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Males become sexually mature at about 18 months, but females seem capable of reproducing in their first year. The estrous cycle is 18-25 days; the receptive period lasts 36 60 hours. Gestation varies from 178 to 192 days. Each female usually bears one or two fawns, rarely three. The fawn is precocious - able to stand and move within 15 minutes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk deer are shy, furtive animals with keen senses of hearing, smell, and sight. They are normally solitary and are most active at dawn and dusk. Only under cover of darkness do they frequent the more open spaces. Except in the rutting season, more than two animals are seldom seen together; groups usually consist only of a female and her young. The alarm call, a loud hiss, is often accompanied by a highstepping, springy gait.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the wild, musk deer lead "orderly" lives. They use well established trails connecting well-established feeding places, resting places, and "latrines" where they deposit their droppings. Migration is uncommon.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remarkably sure footed, musk deer climb cliffs and even the trunks of leaning trees. Being small and solitary, they rely on camouflage to avoid predators but flee through established escape routes when disturbed. If cornered, males defend themselves by slashing with their tusks, often inflicting deep cuts and severe injuries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The strong-smelling, reddish-brown musk is obtainable only from this animal.7 It is used as a fixative in expensive perfumes to increase the retention of the fragrance on the skin. In Oriental medicines it is used in stimulants, sedatives, and other products. Some medicinal properties appear to be genuine.8 Recently, highly purified musk has been selling for as much as $27 a gram.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade in the Himalayan musk deer or its products is banned by all countries that are parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). However, products from musk deer in the Soviet Union and China can be traded legally under license. It seems likely that if formal, self-sufficient, musk-deer farming projects can be established elsewhere, with safeguards to minimize poaching, a wider trade would be officially sanctioned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since at least 1919, Chinese scientists have been experimenting with the extraction of musk without killing the males. When the sexual activity is at its peak, the males are caught and musk removed from the pod with a runcible spoon (curved fork) inserted into the sac's aperture. The procedure takes only minutes. There are records of up to 9 g being recovered at a time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, China established formal musk deer farms in 1958. They are clustered in the Maerkang, Miyalo, and Manchuan areas of Sichuan Province; the Zhenping county of Shanxi Province; and the Fuziling area of Anhui Province. Despite heavy initial losses of animals, mainly during transportation and acclimatization, the Chinese now breed musk deer in considerable numbers. However, juvenile mortality is still high and longevity relatively short. Zoos in other parts of the world have also had difficulties maintaining the animals.9</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, musk deer readily accept many foods: lettuce, carrots, potatoes, apples, rolled oats, hay, alfalfa, bananas, some grass, bamboo leaves, and pumpkins, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The musk deer's social system may represent an impediment to its successful reproduction in captivity. It is irascible and scares easily. In close confinement, males fight and may have to be isolated from each other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is an inherent danger in any captive-breeding scheme in the Himalayas: resumption of legal trade in natural musk could damage the remaining populations by stimulating the market and providing an outlet for illicit musk from poached animals. Some biologists (notably in India) consider that a total ban on the trade in natural musk from all sources is essential.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, removing the musk without damaging the animals has not proved commercially successful because of market resistance. Most purchasers require the entire pod in order to be certain that they are receiving the genuine product. Given a regularized farming program, however, it seems likely that mutual trust would circumvent this lack of confidence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To protect this species will not be easy. It occurs in vast, remote areas that are difficult to patrol. The local people are poor and traditionally have used it as a source of income and food. The value of musk is so high that smuggling is already well organized and will be difficult to eradicate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is imperative that the status of existing musk deer populations be established. This is especially important in Nepal. The total population may be not more than 500 in the wild.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No matter what is achieved in farming, pressure on populations will only be reduced by protecting the wild specimens. Thus, the dietary requirements and behavior of musk deer should also be evaluated with a view to building up the wild populations directly. If the techniques of breeding and handling can be improved, farming the animal may also indirectly help wild populations by reducing the pressure to harvest them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An alternative to captive breeding might be ranching the wild animals. In this process, males would be caught periodically and the musk extracted before releasing them. The organized, sustainable harvesting is particularly attractive if developed at the rural level with revenue going directly to local people; it would provide them incentive to conserve not only "their" musk deer but also its habitat. For this purpose, today's musk deer hunters could be trained to extract musk from live animals, releasing and recapturing them on a controlled basis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another alternative could be controlled culling at a sustainable level, as is now done in the Soviet Union, where about 5 percent of the population is harvested each year. However, elsewhere annual culls at any level would not be feasible for at least 10 years because the populations are now so low. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g031a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">29 South America's Microdeer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g032a.png"></center><br>
+ Pudu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South America contains three types of tiny, indigenous deer. None are well known to science, yet they are of microlivestock size, and if given research attention at least two might respond to rearing in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PUDU</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pudu (pronounced "poo-doo") is native to temperate forests of the Andean region. It is among the smallest of all true deer, adult males being merely the size of small terriers and the females being smaller still. It is very shy and retiring and is endangered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All things considered, this animal would appear to be an unlikely candidate for microlivestock. But wherever it is found, the pudu is mercilessly hunted, and captive rearing might be the only way to save its populations from extinction. Indeed, it is already being raised in experimental herds in Chile and Argentina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pudus (also called the Andean dwarf deer) once ranged widely through the foothills, valleys, and lowlands of the Andes. They prefer the dark, dank underbrush of the cool rainforest, particularly thick bamboo stands. There are two species: Pudu pudu is distributed in parts of southern Bolivia and throughout much of southern Chile nearly to the Straits of Magellan. It is also found on islands off the Chilean coast. Pudu mephistophiles is distributed throughout the highlands of Ecuador, where it occurs only in cool areas at great height.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With their short legs, stocky bodies, and compact heads, pudus do not look much like deer - more like small antelopes with foxlike faces and spiky antlers. Full grown, they are only 40 cm tall and weigh less than 12 kg. They have thick fur ranging from reddish brown to pale gray.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the pudu's small size, shy and secretive nature, and forbidding habitat, few people have ever even seen one. Nonetheless, these animals tame easily and reportedly were once kept by South American Indians. Several generations were also once bred in a Paris apartment and were treated exactly like domestic dogs, which most people who saw them for the first time thought they were.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, habitat destruction has greatly reduced the range and numbers of these attractive and fascinating little creatures. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature already lists them as vulnerable to extinction. Pudu studies are highly recommended, and raising pudus promises to be an interesting and valuable activity that may one day lead to one of the most intriguing microlivestock of all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BROCKET</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brockets (Mazama spp.) are small deer that occupy the place in South America's environment that duikers occupy in Africa (see page 326). They typically reside in thick brush. They occur widely throughout South America and are found in every country except Chile and Uruguay. They also occur in Central America, the West Indies, and Mexico.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are four species:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Red brocket (Mazama americana), the most common and widespread, is found from Mexico to Argentina. It is also the largest species, with a mature weight of about 20 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Gray (brown) brocket (Mazama gouazoubira) is also found throughout Latin America. It is slightly smaller, weighing about 17 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Lesser brocket (Mazama rufina)2 resides in small and scattered locations in Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay. It weighs 10-20 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Dwarf brocket (Mazama chunyi) is found only in pockets of forest and brush on certain mountainsides in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and northern Peru. The smallest brocket, it weighs only 8-12 kg. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except for their size and color, all brockets look alike. The head,  neck, and tail are short; the ears are wide. The lumbar region is higher  than the shoulders, and this, together with an arched back, gives them a  hunched appearance not unlike a duiker's. The antlers are simple  spikes, never longer than a person's hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The different species are similar in behavior, too.3 They generally  wander around singly or in pairs. Although frequenting dense cover  during the day, they emerge at night to feed in open areas. Little is  known of their food preferences. But farmers know only too well how  fond they are of melons, beans, peppers, and corn. Doubtless, wild  forest fruits dominate their native diet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although extensively hunted, brockets are so adept at dodging into  dense brush that relatively few get caught. However, small size makes  them vulnerable to many other predators: puma, jaguar, ocelot, and  eagles and other large birds of prey. Near villages the domestic dog is  probably their worst enemy. (Infuriated vegetable growers commonly  set their dogs on them.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although at first sight these retiring, nervous, and agile creatures  seem unlikely to be even potential microlivestock, young brockets are  sometimes caught and raised by people. It is not uncommon to find  them as pets on farms and in gardens. They seem to become very  tame and might therefore make useful livestock at some future time.  At least one species, the grey brocket, adjusts particularly well to life in  and around human settlements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUEMUL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third type of South American microdeer, the huemul,4 is a much  less likely candidate. It is very rare, very shy, and has so far shown  little likelihood of settling into captivity. However, huemul conservation  is critical: without urgent attention, the animal will become extinct.  Although totally protected by law, it is declining owing to poaching,  farm dogs, habitat loss and diseases transmitted by cattle and other  livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two species:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Chilean huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus)5 occurs in high altitude forests, thickets, and grasslands in the Andes of southern Chile and Argentina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- The Peruvian huemul, or taruca (H. antisepsis), occurs in parts of the Andes of southern Peru and Bolivia as well as of northern Chile and Argentina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species live in small herds above the tree line. They are very shy, and even though the Chilean national seal bears the depiction of a huemul, almost no Chilean (or anyone else, for that matter) has ever seen a live one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At less than 85 cm tall and probably weighing under 15 kg, huemuls are sized to be microlivestock. However, previous attempts at rearing them in Chile have met with little success. Nevertheless, huemuls have been kept in zoos in Germany, and such experiences - together with the increasing knowledge of how to raise red deer and other species - may eventually provide the keys to their continued existence. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g033a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">30 Water Deer</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g034a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about the water deer' (Hydropotes inermis), but it should be considered along with mouse deer, muntjacs, musk deer, and others as a possible species for microlivestock development. It is comparable in size, and it is unusual among deer for producing large litters: births of triplets or more are common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with the other species in this section, this is a highly speculative notion; however, there is some justification for it. The Zoological Society of London has successfully established breeding colonies, and other zoos have also bred the animal in captivity. The water deer has the advantage of rapid growth, early maturity, and high fecundity. Indeed, given protection, its populations have been known to increase rapidly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal has a graceful and delicate appearance, its best known characteristic being the male's long tusks. Both sexes are about the same size, standing 45-55 cm at the shoulder and weighing up to 19 kg. Body length is up to about I m, and the tail is so tiny that it is barely noticeable. The round-tipped ears are characteristically held erect above the head.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water deer are somewhat like muntjacs, but they are longer in the leg and lighter in build. Their forelegs are shorter than their hindlegs so that they stand slightly higher at the haunches than at the shoulders. This gives them a hunched appearance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hair is generally thick and coarse, longest on the flanks and rump. The backs and sides are usually yellowish brown, finely stippled with black. In winter, the coat is thick and variable in color; pale fawn and peppery gray-brown are common shades. In summer, the coat is sleek and reddish. Fawns are white spotted at birth, but this dappling soon fades.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Neither sex has antlers. The upper canine teeth, especially in the males, are enlarged, forming curved tusks 7 cm long. These are much bigger than those in muntjacs and can protrude well below the jawline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In both sexes there is a small inguinal gland present between the hind legs, the only instance among deer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In China the water deer has a wide distribution range. It is mainly found in the provinces of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hunan, Hubei, and Fujian, the mid and lower Yangtze River Basin, and coastal areas and islands in central and eastern China. It is also found in Guilin, southern Sichuan Province, Guangxi Province, and Guangdong Province in the south.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Korea, the animal lives along the lower reaches of most rivers, except those in the extreme northeast. Its northern limit of distribution is probably about latitude 43&Yacute;N.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At Woburn Park in England, a few escaped from a herd early this century and have increased and become established in a number of counties, particularly Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire, Cambridgeshire, and Norfolk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In China, owing to increasing reclamation and cultivation of wetlands, the habitat of the water deer is gradually shrinking. At present the animal is protected by the government, which designates appropriate hunting seasons. It is estimated that about 10,000 are killed each year by hunters. In Korea the water deer is still plentiful. As noted, in England it is maintaining itself and is thriving in some protected parks. It is also reported to be present in France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In its home range, the water deer is usually found among reeds and rushes in swampy areas. It also frequents the tall grasses and sparse shrubs of mountainsides and cultivated fields. In England it has adapted to a variety of habitats, including woodlands. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p323a.png"></center><br>
+ Native range of the water deer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer is chiefly a grazer. It feeds mainly on reeds, coarse grasses, and some tree leaves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As previously mentioned, this is the most prolific species of deer. Up to seven fetuses have been observed in a single pregnant female, although the normal litters are two or three. The gestation period is about 176 days. Fawns are born in late spring or early summer, and weigh only about 0.5 kg at birth. Within 4 days the newborns can live almost exclusively on grasses. Usually, however, they are fully weaned after 4 8 weeks, but remain socially attached to the mother. They appear to become independent after about 4 months. Males become sexually mature at about 5-6 months; females at about 7-8 months.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water deer are generally seen alone. Even where abundant, they seldom congregate in herds. Females are sometimes intolerant of each other, as are adult males or young males. However, in captivity, several females can graze and rest in loose aggregations. The peak period of grazing activity occurs around dusk. Feeding sessions are interspersed with periods of passive cud-chewing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water deer "bark" at intruders. During the rut, males are especially noisy and aggressive, and defend their territories with vigor. Fighting involves striking their tusks into the shoulder or back of their opponents. 3 Information from Lu Houji. These are extremely excitable little animals. When upset, they often "hump" their backs and bound away like rabbits. They are also good swimmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In China the water deer are hunted for their meat and skins, and newly born fawns are killed to obtain the mother's colostrum for medicinal purposes. In a few localities in England, the species has become a game animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer is not yet known on "farms." However, it seems to be easily kept, has bred well in zoos, and has thrived in many British wildlife parks. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The assets of early maturity and high fecundity mean that the potential exists for rapid population expansion. Such an event occurred at Britain's Whipsnade Zoo. In 1929 and 1930, 32 deer were released into undeveloped pasture; by 1937, 120 fawns had been raised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they are relatively small, and because in the wild state they aggregate only under exceptional conditions, water deer are unlikely to have any appreciable impact on vegetation in forests, farms, or gardens. Nonetheless, they can damage crops, and Chinese farmers, who consider them pests, often illegally kill them out of season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are swift and adept at escaping captivity. It is possible that because of territoriality only a single pair will live in a given area. Moreover, males are aggressive and must be kept apart.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They seem able to withstand chilly weather well, but a combination of wet and cold is harmful. Their heavy winter coat, essential to survival in the Far East, renders the animal susceptible to dehydration and heat exhaustion in comparatively mild climates, such as England's.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At birth, the tiny fawns are extremely vulnerable to a variety of predators, both birds and mammals. The species may need areas of dense cover or some shelter from wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer has been successfully kept in semicaptivity for many years; however, for it to reach a level of domestication suitable for use as microlivestock, research is needed in the following areas:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Reproduction;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Performance under a range of environments;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Grazing efficiency;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Basic physiology;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Captive breeding and domestication - measurements of growth rates, space requirements, and feed needs; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Modifying behavior to overcome territoriality - for instance, imprinting on humans, selection of docile specimens, hand rearing, and castration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water deer is not an endangered species; however, efforts should be made to preserve the populations in their native ranges and habitats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">31 Duikers</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g035a.png"></center><br>
+ Red Duiker</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers (Cephalophus and Sylvicapra species) are small African antelopes. Although they are ruminants like cattle, sheep, and goats, some are hardly bigger than hares or rabbits. One, the blue duiker, is less than 40 cm high and usually weighs a mere 4-6 kg. It and some of the slightly larger duikers might be suitable for household husbandry because their meat is an extremely popular food throughout much of Africa. In West Africa, for example, it is one of the most common meats sold in both rural and urban markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This idea, however, is highly speculative because, despite their popularity, little is known about these tiny animals. Their husbandry has been attempted only a few times, but the results were encouraging, and rearing duikers deserves further investigation. They are already being raised in captivity in the United States,' Zimbabwe,2 Togo,3 and Gabon. Researchers in Nigeria have bred blue duikers to the fourth generation and found that, if the animals were first handled by people while young, they remained docile.4 Even blue duikers caught in the wild tame quickly if they are very young, but by the time they reach 3.5 months, they become barely tolerant of man's presence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If duiker husbandry can be developed, it might provide not only a more regular source of meat, but also a lessening of the hunting pressures, thereby giving the wild populations a better chance of survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These antelopes are suitable for testing as microlivestock only in their native region, sub-Saharan Africa. Eventually, they might prove to have wider applicability. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duiker species vary from about the size of a small dog to that of a small donkey. Most are similar in shape and are characterized by short front legs, arched back, and pointed hoofs. The tail is stubby, often with a terminal tuft. The coat varies from reddish brown to nearly black, although a few species are blue-grey and one is zebra striped.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females are slightly larger than males, but the sexes look alike. In most species, both sexes bear small straight horns that project backward from the skull, frequently hidden in a long tuft of hair.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers inhabit virtually all regions of Africa below the Sahara from Gambia in the west to Ethiopia in the east, and all countries as far south as South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are so shy that they are rarely encountered by people. But almost anywhere in Africa (other than North Africa), the observant traveler may glimpse them ducking into forests or thickets. Although there are still countless numbers, people are eating so many that in some localized areas the populations are fast heading toward extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All but one species are found in rainforests or dense woodlands. The grey duiker, however, is found in savannas. If the vegetation is juicy, only a few of the species need a separate water source, so they can thrive in very dry sites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main foods are fruits and seeds supplemented by leaves and shoots. Fruits, which they eat to a much greater degree than other antelopes, are an important part of their diet. Some rare species (for example, the red-flanked duiker, C. rufilatus) can graze. Occasionally (especially in captivity), duikers are also omnivorous, eating fish, crabs, insects, snails, frogs, small animals, or carrion; they also readily accept chopped meat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers reach sexual maturity at 9-15 months; gestation lasts about 7-8 months. In some species, females conceive a few days after calving on a 3- to 5-day postpartum estrus. Apparently one calf per birth is normal. A newborn blue duiker weighs between 0.4 and 0.7 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before one year of age, young duikers leave their parents to find their own mates and territories. Life expectancy is more than 10 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In spite of habitat differences, most duikers behave alike. In the wild they are nervous, shy, and retiring. When alarmed, they plunge into the protection of dense vegetation - hence the origin of the name duiker, which means "diver." Nonetheless, their behavior allows them to be easily netted. An experienced hunter can imitate duiker sounds and call the male out of the bush. Also, a startled animal freezes, thereby facilitating its capture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moving easily through dense vegetation, the head carried low, these tiny animals use regular runs. Forest duiker species are largely diurnal, although a few, such as the bay duiker, are nocturnal. Bush duikers are mainly nocturnal, feeding from early evening until morning. Such nocturnal species shelter during the day in holes (presumably dug by other animals) or inside fallen trees; the diurnal ones lie directly on the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blue duikers are the best-known species and are probably the most likely candidates for microlivestock (see page 332). They seem to be monogamous and apparently mate for life. Unlike most antelopes, their population densities can be high. The pairs reside in territories of 2-4 hectares, which both male and female stoutly defend against rivals. Other species appear to be polygamous and live in large territories (up to 80 hectares).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In captivity, the animals are generally calm. However, both males and females can be aggressive toward unfamiliar individuals of their own species. In an enclosure, one male can serve several females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large glands, located beneath each eye, exude a scent that is rubbed onto fences, trees, and other objects as territorial marking. In another form of marking the horns are rubbed against tree trunks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, duiker meat is much sought in many African countries, and the animals are regularly hunted. The meat is lean with little or no intramuscular fat (marbling). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers also have promise as experimental animals. They are true ruminants, with four-part stomachs, and they produce cud. Some are only rabbit size, they need far less room or feed than sheep, and thus are potentially an efficient test animal for determining the nutritional value of forages. Blue duikers, for instance, have a digestion efficiency comparable to that of sheep, but, because of their small size, a test needs only four rabbit cages and 5-10 kg of feed. Sheep, by comparison, require much more spacious facilities and 150 kg of feed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Nigeria, blue duiker pelts are used in making karosses, a traditional dress. A single garment may contain up to 60 pelts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost nothing is known about rearing duikers, but they seem to tame easily and perhaps may be kept in backyards like goats. Indeed, they reportedly make good house pets when hand raised. They are attractive, and from the day of capture young ones can be handled and petted.5</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Nigerian researchers who bred blue duikers to the fourth generation bottle-fed young specimens five times a day. Older animals were given feeds that included banana, plantain, and papaya; leaves of hibiscus, cassava, and banana; and dried corn. Variety seemed to be important, and the researchers could not predict the quantity of particular foods the animals would choose on any given day. In addition to varied vegetables, a small dish of salt or a salt lick was sometimes required.6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are unlikely to run away, except when startled. However, providing an enclosure is worthwhile. It enables them to establish a territory by marking poles, bushes, and fences. Although needing space in which to run, as little as 10 m&Yacute; is reportedly sufficient for 24 animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Satisfactory shelters include an open-ended oil drum laid on its side, a lean-to made of palm frond, or a small hut made of local matting. Apart from providing shade and protection, shelters should be built so that excited animals can run through them. When cornered, duikers tend to either flee for shelter or jump upwards; a run-through shelter can prevent a frightened one from accidentally leaping over the fence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Based on their own experiences, researchers at Pennsylvania State University in the United States report that blue duikers raised in captivity are easy to maintain, reproduce well, and are not fussy about environmental conditions. In fact, they say, blue duikers seem to enjoy living in cages.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In order to raise duikers successfully, post-pubertal males must be separated. A female should be bred with the same male throughout her productive life span.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE BLUE DUIKER</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In one sense, the blue duiker is the most important animal in Africa. It is the only one found throughout the continent south of the Sahara. It occurs at a greater range of altitudes than most - as low as sea level in many places to almost 5,000 m elevation in Kenya. It occurs in habitats from dense rainforests to dryland savannas. And, in sub-Saharan Africa as a whole, the blue duiker is eaten more than any other animal (although in West Africa it is generally called Maxwell's duiker).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This very small antelope, caught by snare or net, can be found in the meat markets of villages, towns, and cities in all countries from Senegal to Madagascar. It is a source of food for tens of millions. Bushmen, Pygmies, Dinkas, and Mandingos, thousands of miles apart; all share the same fondness for duiker meat and for duiker-skin clothes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, scientifically speaking, this is one of the world's least-known animals. And its numbers are diminishing rapidly. Areas that used to have plenty now have few or none. Overhunting and destruction of the rainforests are jointly contributing to their decline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the losses, people are snaring as many as they can, and there is no sense of concern - not even among most conservationists. However, in many locations there is already evidence that the animals won't be around much longer. Unless something is done - and soon - people will lose their major source of animal protein. If that happens, it is likely that they will move on to larger animals, such as gorillas, which would be an even worse disaster.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best long-term solution is to organize duiker husbandry. Learning to rear duikers would benefit people throughout Africa. The blue duiker is the most suitable species; it is the most common and the most important. Also, it inhabits the edges of the forest and could therefore become a suitable species for ranching without denuding the forest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blue duikers are easy to maintain in captivity. They tame readily and like to shelter and sleep In boxes or cages. They are good converters of vegetation and produce top-quality lean meat. In addition, they are neither affected by tsetse flies nor are very susceptible to diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key now is to learn how to keep these very timid creatures under different conditions. We need to know their foods (especially foods that might be harvested from forests) and reproductive biology. We need to know the right numbers to house together. Most of all, we need projects aimed at rearing and breeding them in captivity under village conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vivian J. Wilson</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many African countries already have a ready market for duiker meat. It is somewhat similar to goat meat, but most people agree that it is superior.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal can live on fibrous vegetation. Unlike conventional ruminant livestock, it is suitable for feeding an average family at one meal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ability to forage in undergrowth where other domestic livestock do not thrive makes duikers potential livestock for tropical forest and bushland regions. They can be raised for meat without cutting the trees or bushes to create pastures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are easy prey for predators: eagles, pythons, wildcats, and people, among others. Thus, they probably require more sophisticated management than common livestock such as goats. However, the quality of their meat could more than compensate for the extra effort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some species are territorial, which means that they may do poorly in captivity, unless their social organization can be altered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under good conditions, the ideal slaughtering age reportedly occurs at 8-10 months, when the blue duiker can weigh 4 kg. Compared to rabbits and guinea pigs, production is relatively slow because of long gestation and lack of multiple births.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers are resistant to trypanosomiasis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One general problem is that duikers have short, sharp horns designed specifically for jabbing. This could be a potential danger, especially since the males of some species become aggressive when their females are receptive. However, the horns can easily be clipped and taped to limit the danger. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the duikers' secluded lifestyle, much has still to be learned about their habits. Specific information on behavior and breeding is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal scientists in Africa should gather small herds for comparative studies. This will provide insights into whether duiker temperaments facilitate or hinder their utilization. In addition, assessments of diet, growth rates, behavior in captivity, reproductive rate, adaptability, and future potential can be made. Management considerations include clipping horns, trimming hooves, and controlling lice and fleas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research of particular value would be chemical analysis of duiker milk and of other characteristic glandular secretions. The latter lend themselves especially to a study of animal communication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parming duikers might help rescue the wild populations by relieving hunting pressures. Programs in this area are recommended for locations where overhunting is occurring. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g036a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">32 Other Small Antelope</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g037a.png"></center><br>
+ Klipspringer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The least known and most obscure of all antelope are the delicate African creatures called dikdik, suni, royal antelope, pygmy antelope, and klipspringer. The smallest is a West African form of the royal antelope that stands a mere 25 cm high and weighs less than 2 kg. The four-horned antelope of South Asia is a similarly tough, tractable animal that is also the size of a small dog.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None of these has previously been seriously considered for use as livestock, but they are possibly amenable to rearing in captivity and they provide some of the finest game meat in the world. Given New Zealand's experience with various deer species (see page 288) and Africa's experience with large antelopes, basic research to test out the possibility of organized dwarf-antelope production could prove to be rewarding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AREA OF POTENTIAL USE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The areas where these antelopes might be used are sub-Saharan Africa for the African species and South Asia for the four-horned antelope.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these animals, some, such as the pygmy antelopes, have a crouched appearance with an arched back and short neck; others have a more upright posture with a long neck and a raised head. In all species, the males are smaller than the females and bear tiny spikelike horns. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collectively, these antelopes have native ranges covering huge areas of Africa and part of Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dikdik: Six species occur in two discontinuous distributions - one from Somalia and Ethiopia southward through Kenya and Tanzania, the other in Namibia and Angola. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sunis: Eastern Africa, from Kenya to South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Royal antelope: West African forests. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pygmy antelope: Central Africa from southeastern Nigeria to Zaire. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Klipspringer: Ethiopia to the Cape of Good Hope. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four-horned antelope: India. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many forms are protected by local laws, but none of the species is on the international endangered-species list.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals occupy habitats from dense, moist forests to dry, rocky outcrops and even to deserts. Their ranges have almost certainly been affected by humans - sometimes for the better, since many prefer the secondary growth that invades disturbed areas, notably after overgrazing or slash-and-burn agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although dikdik and klipspringer usually frequent dry areas with scattered brush, the other dwarf antelopes normally stay in dense vegetation. All seem to live in definite areas and do not migrate. For instance:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Dikdik live near streambanks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Sunis inhabit dry country with thick bush, but they can also be found in reed scrub along rivers and in forests up to 3,000 m elevation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Klipspringers live on stony mountain slopes, rocky outcrops' or the sides of steep gorges at altitudes from sea level to 4,000 m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Four-horned antelopes live in undulating or hill country and shelter in tall grass and open jungle, a terrain more common to deer than to antelope. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of these antelope browse on shrubs. They are "concentrate selectors," taking easily digested vegetation such as buds, fruit, and succulent young leaves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also, most obtain much of their water requirement from dew and the vegetation they consume. Klipspringers, for example, are able to live for months without drinking. Sunis and four-horned antelope, on the other hand, drink regularly and seldom live far from water sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known of the reproduction and general performance of these animals. Females become sexually mature at about 6 months in the smaller species and 10 months in the larger. Males become sexually mature at about 14 months. The young are born throughout the year, but births peak with the vegetation flush following the first rains. Where there are two rainy seasons a year, two birth peaks occur. Usually a single calf is born. Dikdik is the only one whose reproduction has been studied in detail. Its pregnancy lasts 172 days, one young is born at a time, and the birth weight is 600-800 g.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Their longevity is unknown but is probably in the range of 10-12 years.l</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These tiny creatures have some of the habits of deer. They are shy and elusive and generally rely on concealment to escape detection. Their first response to a predator is to freeze, and then to flee like hares - dashing off in a series of erratic, zigzag leaps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They live alone, in pairs, or in small family groups, but sometimes congregate in larger groups in thorn thickets. The species that have been studied most (dikdik and klipspringer) are strongly pair bonded. (A male, a female, and one or two young is typical, and a klipspringer rarely moves more than 5 m from its mate.) However, the royal and pygmy antelopes and the suni are more solitary in their behavior. Four-horned antelope are usually seen alone or in pairs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals feed mostly in the early morning and late afternoon Some species deposit dung and urine on particular sites. And they repeatedly daub secretions from glands in front of the eyes onto plant stems, where a sticky mass accumulates. Glands near the hooves mark the ground along frequently traveled pathways. Males also mark females with the scent, thus reinforcing the bond. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The four-horned antelope has a whistling call, which helps keep the family group together. Males repeat it frequently in hot weather. Gestation is 8-8.5 months. If taken young, they reportedly tame easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Much more research needs to be done before attempts are made to convince anyone to domesticate these antelope. There are likely to be considerable difficulties. Guinea pigs, rabbits, and giant rats can successfully be kept in cages or small enclosures, but most antelope probably cannot. Larger enclosures will be needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The food habits and general behavior of these small animals must be studied closely. They are strictly monogamous, and it may be necessary to keep them in pairs. Reproduction, growth, and general performance must become understood under different environmental and nutritional conditions. Mixing species is another aspect to be examined - whether these antelope can be kept with other species in the same enclosure (typical of livestock farming in most poor nations) is not known.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To settle such questions, representative species of microantelope should be gathered for comparative assessment. Researchers should focus on the animals' social structure, on husbandry methods for maintaining them over generations, and on how best to breed them. If the findings are promising, then a campaign to domesticate these antelope could be mounted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Throughout most of their ranges these animals are highly sought "bushmeats." The meat is lean and of extremely high quality. In Zaire's Ituri Forest, for example, pygmies net and kill large numbers of pygmy antelope, hanging the carcasses on sticks by the roadside for sale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their small size, these species might make good laboratory animals for ruminant studies. The dikdik, for instance, becomes a fully functioning ruminant at a body weight of about only 1.5 kg.2 However, their digestive physiology is quite different from that of cattle, sheep, and goats, which makes them atypical ruminants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given organized production, it is likely that dwarf-antelope pelts could become commercially important. North Africa exports the hides of medium-size antelopes to Europe for use in fine sueded leathers. Hides of the small species would almost certainly be in demand as well if a steady supply could be obtained as a by-product of meat production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microantelope provide some of the finest game meat. They are small and perhaps tractable. Most are already widely eaten and are being eliminated over broad areas of their range. Turning them into a sustainable, economic food source could provide motivation for their conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These antelope can digest, and are adapted to, the indigenous forage over vast areas of Africa and South Asia. They are native to tropical habitats, where cattle and other livestock often grow poorly. They also appear to be resistant to trypanosomiasis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some African peoples (for example, the Kalahari Bushmen) have superstitions or social injunctions that prohibit the eating of some of these species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small antelope are probably not as efficient as larger ruminants in digesting fiber: the retention time in the rumen may be too short. On the other hand, quickly digestible cell walls of lush green plants can be used efficiently.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The territorial behavior of most of these species may limit their rearing in large numbers under captive conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, preliminary research on dwarf antelope husbandry is required. Specifically, studies should be conducted to assess:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Growth rates, feed efficiency, and reproductive rate;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Carcass quality;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Economics and the likely cost of production per animal unit; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Studies of digestion.4 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The few statistics available today on the use of wildlife as food are probably much below actual consumption. Most food consumption surveys record food obtained by hunting or trapping under the indiscriminate heading of "Bushmeat" and neglect to include the many small animals that are normally collected by children. In Africa, an amazing variety of wildlife is eaten, including all wild ungulates, primates, all cats, and many species of birds and reptiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Agriculture Organization Ceres magazine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All the world's people must begin to overcome in themselves - and even more so in their children - senseless taboos about what is edible and what is not. Only then can we stop today's universal animal-protein wastage. How ironic it would be, in this scientific age, for mankind to starve largely because of a bunch of old wives' tales, irational beliefs, silly associations, and the lack of a sufficient spirit of culinary and gustatory adventure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calvin W. Schwabe Unmentionable Cuisine </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguana is really good, a thousand times better than chicken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Omero Asinto, waiter Pochote Bar and Restaurant</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barranca, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part VI : Lizards</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large lizards have been important foods since prehistoric times and are still commonly hunted in parts of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.1 Some (such as the monitor lizards seen in markets in Indochina) are carnivorous species that may be difficult to feed and raise economically. However, the iguanas of the Americas offer promise as microlivestock. They are herbivorous and feed primarily on leaves, flowers, and fruits, including many that are too high in the trees to be gathered by man or by other livestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguana meat is popular throughout much of Latin America, where consumers willingly pay more for it than for fish, poultry, pork, or beef. To fill the demand, several iguana species are hunted by rifle, slingshot, trap, and noose; they are even run down by trained dogs. Villagers (often small children) catch them for food for the family; professional hunters snare and sell them to vendors. Iguanas are hauled around in gunny sacks and wicker baskets by car, boat, horseback, and people on foot. In parts of El Salvador they have been known to arrive at the market by the truckload.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a result of this indiscriminate hunting, iguanas are now steadily becoming more scarce, and the destruction of their habitat makes the situation even worse. At present, many parts of Latin America's tropical forests are being cleared. The green iguana in particular depends on trees, and as forests disappear its populations are destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, iguanas are forest-edge species: they will grow well on ranches and farms as long as patches of trees are left standing. This offers the hope that they can be raised as microlivestock. They reproduce so prolifically that, in principle, populations can build up exponentially. Mature females, for example, may produce 30 or more eggs a year for up to 10 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past few years, a notable research program in Panama and Costa Rica (see page 351) has laid the practical foundation for iguana farming. It has artificially incubated and raised thousands of green iguana hatchlings. With less than half a square meter of living space per animal, the hatchlings have grown as fast or faster than their wild counterparts. Unlike their kin in the wild - which in their first year of life suffer 95 percent mortality from birds, snakes, and other predators the captive-raised iguanas show almost 100 percent survival. This research project demonstrates that ranching iguanas both for food or for repopulating depleted habitats is feasible. In addition, experimental projects for farming green iguanas have begun in Curacao and El Salvador.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As livestock, lizards have advantages. Being cold-blooded they do not carry human diseases (except for those such as salmonella that result from gross mismanagement). They can be kept in captivity in fairly high densities without diseases breaking out. Although often aggressive in the wild, they coexist in dense populations with few problems as long as they are well fed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is an important conservation component as well. Farming these lizards may help check and may even reverse the downward trends of their populations by allowing large numbers to be released back to the wild at a size that inhibits predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three alternatives for utilizing iguanas:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To manage wild stocks as game animals;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To raise iguanas on farms, like chickens and pigs; or</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- To raise young iguanas in captivity and then release them into the wild where they can grow to full size and later be harvested on a sustainable basis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the green iguana has so far received the most attention, two other Latin American species are in farming trials. Black iguanas (garrobos) are being raised experimentally in El Salvador and Costa Rica. And the omnivorous tegu lizard, which produces a valuable leather, is beginning to be farmed in Argentina and is briefly described opposite. Both iguana species are described in the following chapters. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TEGU</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tegus (Tupinambis rufescens and T. teguixin) are large lizards of South America. They are highly prized for their skins, which are made into leather for handbags and similar items. Tegus are heavily exploited; on average, Argentina exports over one million skins a year - about $15 million worth. The 50-year-old tegu industry is estimated to support as many as 30,000 people, including tannery employees and people in rural areas who hunt the lizards full- or part-time. Poor agricultural conditions make farming difficult in the Chaco, and sale of a single tegu skin is worth more than a day's wages for a farmband. Some families also eat the tegu meat and use the fat for medicinal purposes. In many areas, the populations have already been driven to the verge of extinction. Husbandry, therefore, could be beneficial. Traders are hoping that captive operations run by families can eventually replace hunting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although usually associated with the arid regions of northern Argentina and Paraguay, the tegu's range actually covers much of South America - as far north as Colombia, including Trinidad and the Amazon basin. One species (T. rufescens) normally occurs in a dryland habitat, such as Argentina's Chaco region. It can occur in great numbers in pastures, probably because of the insects associated with cattle. But it also occurs in areas that are unsuitable for cattle. Some places where tegus are common are so dry that they can carry only a single cow in 10 hectares. There, farmers might find it profitable to raise tegus. This would maintain the native biological diversity while perhaps reducing the soil degradation that cattle cause.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other species (T. tegubixin) occurs in wet forests, such as those found in Argentina's Formosa Province.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tegus are scientifically interesting. Little is known about their biology, and basic studies are needed. They are not much eaten, but in some areas the tail is considered a delicacy. Indeed, deteriorating economic conditions are already making them more important as a food resource. Convincing campesinos that they can increase their cash income and their meat production by rationally exploiting these large lizards should not be difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable exploitation could also benefit tegu conservation. Large populations still exist in some areas in Argentina and Paraguay, but, overall, the species are declining. A welldesigned management project could ensure the maintenance and reestablishment of large populations where numbers have drastically decreased. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">33 Green Iguana</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g038a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the green iguana (Iguana iguana) is consumed throughout Central America. It is already subject to heavy commercialization and its populations are plummeting. This is not likely to change: as human population increases, so does demand for iguana meat and eggs as well as for live iguanas, thousands of which are kept as house pets. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its herbivorous diet, inoffensive nature, and high reproductive potential, this reptile is a prime species for intensive management. Alert, curious, and social, it is easily tamed from birth. Given minimal protection during the reproductive season, large populations can build up, and animals can be maintained in simple facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, although iguanas can be maintained as microlivestock, they may require three years to reach market size. Raising them to maturity entirely under captive conditions is thus probably uneconomic at present, when specimens can still be inexpensively (albeit often illegally) harvested from the wild. However, it has been found that if released into the wild, most will remain in nearby trees, especially if people erect simple feeding stations and keep them stocked with table scraps or weedy vegetation. This makes for very low-cost production during the years of waiting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given such findings, iguana farming has a promising future. With research, growth rates can undoubtedly be increased and maintenance costs reduced. Also, iguanas are becoming more valuable each year. Even now, farming them could be economic in some areas where wild iguanas are scarce, especially if the young are released into forested sites when they have grown to a size where mortality is low.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although green iguanas will happily graze pastures, they need trees. Iguana farming, therefore, provides a way to keep tropical forests standing while still providing people with meat and income. By growing lizards, farmers don't have to fell the forests to create space for growing food crops or cattle. Iguana farming thus gives an economic incentive to preserve the beleaguered tracts of remaining trees. It may even render reforestation economically attractive. And it may promote the use of shelterbelts and contour strips of trees in cattle-ranching areas. Today's researchers estimate that 200-300 kg of meat can be produced per year per hectare from iguanas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The green iguana can grow to more than 2 m long, but more than half of that length is in its whiplike tail. Adults of breeding size generally weigh 2-4 kg. The scaly skin is green, yellowish, or golden brown with dark markings; color is a function of age and reproductive stage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This large lizard is indigenous to a vast region stretching from Mexico to northern Brazil and Peru, including a number of Caribbean islands. In Mexico, it occurs in tropical forests along both coasts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green iguanas were formerly abundant throughout Central America, but no longer. In the mangrove forests along Mexico's Pacific coast, for instance, only 5 percent of the former population remains. In Guatemala's Pacific lowlands, mere remnants are left. In El Salvador's jungles, the animals have declined to 1 percent of their former density. And in both Panama and Costa Rica, the species is now officially classified as endangered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The green iguana usually lives near water in tropical lowland forests. It thrives only as long as some trees remain. The forests may be either humid or seasonally dry. The animal normally inhabits the treetops, feeding on tender shoots and fruits in the canopy; few other herbivores can convert such forest foliage into food for humans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like cattle and other herbivorous mammals, iguanas have a specialized digestive system with an enlarged fermentation chamber in which bacteria break down plant cells. Vegetation is converted into meat about as effectively as in cattle, but not as quickly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After reaching sexual maturity, at 2 or 3 years of age, females lay one clutch of 10 85 eggs each year. (For most specimens the average is probably about 35.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p349a.png"></center><br>
+ Native habitat of the green iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are generally slow moving and lethargic when cold, but during the heat of the day they become extremely alert and can run, swim, and climb with speed and agility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They have a complex social structure and a defined annual reproductive cycle. Hatchlings adapt easily to captivity both when artificially incubated and when captured in the wild. However, captured adults, used to living free, are hard to keep in small enclosures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green iguanas are used mainly for food. The meat tastes somewhat like chicken and in Latin America is typically cooked in a spicy stew. The eggs are also consumed. Small and leathery shelled, they are considered special delicacies and are said to cure various ailments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a sizable demand for live iguanas in the international pet trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exploitation has been mainly for the flesh; the skins are wasted in most cases. However, given organized production, green iguana skin could perhaps become a farm by-product. It sells in the international reptile-leather market under the trade name "chameleon lizard." The hide is typically up to 20 cm wide. Thin and relatively fragile, it is glued to a fabric or cowhide backing to prevent it from tearing. The prime uses are for ladies' accessories, belts, wallets, and shoes. It is inappropriate for uses that involve flexure because the scales overlap and repeated flexing causes them to separate. The skin then becomes rough to the touch and loses its glossy finish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IGUANA MAMA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The program that now offers hope for raising green iguanas as microlivestock is the brainchild of zoologist Dagmar Werner. She began in 1983 by collecting 700 iguana eggs and then learning what to do with them "on the job."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through a combination of luck and intuition, coupled with determination, she discovered appropriate conditions for incubating the eggs on the first try - no less surprising because her incubators (dirt-filled wooden boxes warmed with light bulbs) were in an apartment in a high-rise building in Panama City. Nonetheless, most of the eggs hatched and the several hundred squirming young lizards were quickly trucked to a forest park near the Panama Canal. Here, for five years, assisted by a steady stream of enthusiastic Panamanian biology students, Wemer experimented with cages, feeds, facilities, breeding genetic selection, and the myriad aspects of management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These dedicated researchers eventually devised what might be considered a production line, and they hatched and raised tens of thousands of green iguanas, reduced the animals' infant mortality rate, and created the basic underpinnings for economic production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1988, administration for the project was shifted to neighboring Costa Rica, where Werner established another research farm as well as a fund-raising foundation. From there, she hopes to catalyze all Central America to take up iguana production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Her immediate goal is, paradoxically, to preserve the lizards by putting an iguana in every pot. That will help reduce the indiscriminate hunting that is taking these animals toward extinction in the wild.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Her system is based on setting up feeding stations in the woods and releasing iguanas at seven months, an age at which they are virtually immune to predators. Iguanas need trees, and her ultimate goal is to help save the vanishing rainforests. With profitable iguana farming, she hopes to persuade farmers to save the trees as homes for iguanas, rather than clearing them for crops and cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Iguana management and an international marketing system will protect, rather than exterminate, the iguana," Werner says. "I don't think iguana farming will stop deforestation. But I do think it will contribute a great deal." </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The iguana farming project in Panama and Costa Rica (see sidebar) provides a model for what might be done elsewhere. In its first five years of operation, the project raised more than 10,000 green iguanas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To create the farms, enclosures are constructed with sheet-metal wails sunk 30 cm in the ground.' Inside, the animals sleep in shelters made of bamboo and vegetation. Each shelter has an adjustable entrance slit through which young lizards can slither, but predators, which usually are larger, cannot. Most are set on stilts and food is served in the shade underneath. With this system, from 20 to 60 young iguanas are kept in an area of 10 m&Yacute; (0.5-0.17 m&Yacute; of land area per individual). In another "high-intensity" design, 30 hatchlings are kept in cages I m&Yacute; in size (only 0.05 m&Yacute; per individual).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The iguana farms also include an artificial nest consisting of a "tunnel" leading to a sand-filled egg-laying chamber. (Both tunnel and chamber are made of concrete blocks or other predator-safe material.) Female iguanas (at least in captivity) prefer this to digging their own tunnels, and it is an important advance in iguana breeding because it produces a hatching success of close to 100 percent. Recent versions require no human intervention: the eggs incubate and hatch by themselves and the hatchlings climb out of the nest through a hollow bamboo "pipe" and fall into plastic bags, which can be easily emptied twice a day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The iguanas are fed mixtures of broken rice meal, meat meal, bone meal, fish meal, papayas, bananas, mangos, avocados, and a variety of leaves and flowers. Each day they receive fresh-cut leaves from plants such as beans, mustard, or hibiscus. Hatchlings are raised to an age of 6-10 months, when they are big enough to be released into forests, farmland with scattered trees, or into village backyards with almost no vulnerability to predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With each female producing an average of 35 eggs annually, these animals have inherently high reproductive potential. And if the young are protected from predators during their first few months, populations can build up rapidly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iguanas adapt well to second-growth forest and to backyard conditions and can feed on the leaves of fruit trees or timber trees while the farmer can harvest the fruits or wood. Unless grossly overstocked, they are unlikely to affect the productivity of the trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These lizards may take three years to reach marketable size,2 and the cost of raising them to usable size entirely in captivity is currently greater than their market value as food. Less-expensive methods of raising the animals must be found if large-scale commercial iguana farming is to become economically feasible. The main problem is the high cost of the enclosures, not the cost of food. The food costs no more than that for raising a chicken to marketable size, but iguanas do not grow as fast as chickens. For smallholders the only cost of raising them is labor, and that is often unimportant. Free-ranging herbivorous lizards can damage home gardens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For conservation purposes, the main need is to educate people throughout Latin America to the iguana's plight. For example, in Central America people catch pregnant females and cut out the eggs for food. (There is a widespread misconception that the females survive this brutality.) This is devastating to the iguana populations, yet by installing artificial nests, farmers could let the females live and still harvest the eggs. Moreover, people could eat half the eggs and incubate the other half to repopulate the trees around their farms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also important to develop an understanding of iguana reproduction in the wild. At present, the longevity, growth rate, and age of sexual maturity are not well known. Such information would provide baseline data for creating conservation measures to reverse the depletion of this natural resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further husbandry research is needed. Costs must be reduced. The effectiveness of artificial nests must be tested in village practice. Survival rates of captive-raised young after release must be studied. And harvesting and recruitment schemes should be developed to secure optimum exploitation of the repopulated forests. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">34 Black Iguana</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g039a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work on green iguana husbandry may apply also to the black iguanas' (Ctenosaura similis, C. acanthura, C. hemilopha, and C. pectinata). These are similar lizards that live in dry habitats throughout Central America </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exploitation of wild black iguanas for food began in ancient times and has continued in most places over hundreds of years without much harm to the natural populations. Until the 1970s, Latin Americans could obtain the meat and eggs with little effort, and the animals sold cheaply in city markets. In recent years, however, the lizards have become scarce and prices have risen sharply. For instance, in 1976 the central market of San Salvador was selling large specimens for the equivalent of 80 cents, but by 1979 prices were generally from three to six times as much. Today, black iguana meat costs more than fish, poultry, pork, or beef.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eating small game animals is deeply rooted in the traditions of Central America and cannot readily be changed by legislation or education. Despite official edicts, campesinos on a subsistence diet will not willingly forego the little meat they get by capturing and eating lizards. Moreover, legislation is seldom effective because there are too few enforcement officials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with the green iguana, it seems likely that when the factors causing hatchling mortality are reduced, a large harvestable annual surplus can be produced. Black iguanas efficiently convert vegetation into high-grade protein suitable for human consumption. Young ones, however, are insectivorous and carnivorous rather than purely herbivorous, and during their first weeks of life may require a more expensive diet (perhaps meat scraps) than green iguanas require. Moreover, most insectivorous lizards require moving prey. They may or may not accept meat scraps as food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black iguanas are smaller and more stocky than green iguanas, but weigh up to 3 kg. Their tails are spiny and short. The scales on the tail are enlarged, grow in spirals, and are sharp-pointed. Other than that (apart from being generally greyish black in color), the two animals are similar in appearance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The different black iguana species range from northern Mexico along both coasts of Central America to Panama and Colombia's Caribbean islands. Most tolerate moderate human presence well, often thriving around town garbage dumps and cemeteries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As recently as 1981, black iguanas were shipped to markets by the truckload. Today, they are generally limited or even absent over much of their original range. Nevertheless, they are still the major game animals across extensive areas of Central America. Many of those taken are gravid females, which is disastrous for the populations. Excessive insecticide spraying is also thought to be reducing their populations in some areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black iguanas thrive in dry, open woodland. They particularly like rocky hillsides, for they depend for shelter on crevices, rock piles, or soft soil in which they dig burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These omnivores feed on foliage, flowers, and fruits, but also on insects and small vertebrates. Adults spend some of their time climbing trees, but they are much less arboreal than green iguanas. Hatchlings are initially terrestrial but have a mostly arboreal stage in their early weeks of life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Females lay one clutch of 20-90 eggs each year. The eggs are much smaller than those of the green iguana and therefore are not as popular a food. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p357a.png"></center><br>
+ Distribution of the black iguana.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These lizards live in burrows or in holes in trees. A typical burrow has several entrances and is 1-2 m long. Several females may combine efforts to form a complex communal burrow with several individual nest chambers. They are such diligent diggers that many are caught while absorbed in the task of adding a new room.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some places, even where they are not common, black iguanas are still intensively hunted. Because their meat is valuable, the reward justifies the considerable effort involved in finding and killing them. Hence, where populations are so depleted that organized hunting is unprofitable, the animals are still subjected to relentless destruction by individuals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farming black iguanas is a novel idea. However, it is not a foolish one. In 1981 the Centro de Recursos Naturales (CENREN) in El </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Salvador started a black iguana farming project. Since then, its researchers have collected data on growth rates, feeding patterns, and the maintenance and reproduction of captive adults. The program offers some promise of maintaining breeding stock in large outdoor enclosures, of producing large numbers of hatchlings, and of restocking depleted areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">OTHER IGUANAS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other iguanas that deserve consideration for husbandry include the rock (rhinoceros) iguana (Cyclura cornuta), a herbivorous lizard of the Antillean region. This has been raised in considerable numbers at the National Zoo of Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. Captive-bred specimens have reproduced at the age of 32 months, average clutch size has been about 15, and the average incubation time has been 82 days (at 31&Yacute;C). The innate tameness of these island iguanas renders them better adapted for captive rearing than either the green or the black iguana, and their greater size is an advantage as well. On the other hand, the length of time required to reach maturity, and the relatively small egg clutch (about half that of the green iguana and one-third that of the black iguana) are definite disadvantages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A related species, Iguana delicatissima, also deserves research and conservation attention. It occurs in the Leeward Islands and Martinique, and (as its specific name implies) is even better eating than the green iguana.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latins believe that various ailments are cured or benefited by the flesh of these lizards, so they willingly pay much more for their meat than they would for equivalent amounts of other meats. In most places where the two occur together, the black iguana is preferred over the green iguana.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with green iguana, the black iguana reproduces readily in captivity and has an even higher reproductive potential (averaging 43 eggs per clutch). It has the additional advantage that it thrives in deforested and altered habitats. It can survive near human settlements despite the attacks of dogs and cats, and it attains dense populations in suburban lots or open spaces. (It survives even downtown in cities such as Managua, but not in dense populations because dogs, cats, and humans take so many.) Hence, even in towns and cities, there are habitats capable of supporting it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black iguanas will feed on weedy vegetation or garbage, and adults seem easier to maintain in captivity than their green iguana counterparts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The long delay (probably at least two years) before the animals reach marketable size might make it difficult for the grower to compete with common meats such as poultry or fish. Certain parasitic worms can make the flesh inedible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although smaller than green iguanas, black iguanas are much more aggressive and will defend what they perceive to be their territory. They can inflict a painful bite. They also tend to escape from captivity more readily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, these omnivores depend on animal matter during part of their life cycle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biology of the black iguana deserves much more study.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management techniques developed for the green iguana should be tested for their applicability for black iguana species. Harvesting and recruitment schemes must be developed to create sustainable populations in the wild. The specific needs for feeding the young also need to be addressed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I am convinced that in the Third World, it is only when poor people are assured of their livelihood that they will help us to safeguard their natural environments. So long as people remain hungry, it is very difficult to talk to them about conservation. As a result, I believe that development and conservation are inseparable. Only when conservation takes on a dimension of helping the poor, the downtrodden, the destitute, will it have an enduring impact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.S. Swaminathan International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I suspect that wildness is an inherited characteristic as was found for the turkey by Starker Leopold. So in attempting domestication one should expect to have difficulty until there are enough animals that you can select breeding stock for quietness and tractability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ian McTaggart Cowan Emeritus Professor of Zoology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of British Columbia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle will never be extinct for the simple reason that man eats cattle. The best way to preserve wild species is by demonstrating that they, too, can be a valuable resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ernie Matteram</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New York Times Magazine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife utilization should be considered a legitimate form of land use, just as much as livestock husbandry. In fact, what has happened in the past is that Man has domesticated a limited number of animals, mainly in the temperate zones, while overlooking a considerable potential of other animals, which could be domesticated or used with equal validity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antoon De Vos </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part VII Others</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted in the preface, this report by no means exhausts all the microlivestock possibilities. Lack of space and time precludes discussion of creatures such as edible insects, snails, worms, frogs, turtles, and bats, which in some regions are highly regarded foods. Similarly, we have not included fish, shrimp, and other aquatic life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not to say that these are less worthy of consideration. The decision to leave them out was arbitrary, but with several recent breakthroughs in tropical beekeeping it seems prudent to include bees. Accordingly, the final chapter of this book describes the smallest livestock of all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bees are one of the most promising microlivestock. They forage on flowers that are otherwise little utilized and produce honey, wax, and other products of high value. They are important as plant pollinators and can greatly increase the production of some crops. Bees can be kept virtually anywhere with little disruption of other activities, and they are easily available. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">35 Bees</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="g040a.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of all the livestock reviewed in this publication, bees are the smallest, the least demanding of space, probably the most familiar, and perhaps the most easily adapted to worldwide rural development efforts. For all that, however, they are an often forgotten component in agricultural programs. This is unfortunate because bees can be particularly valuable to tropical countries, providing pollination of crops, useful products, and a premium source of income.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost every village in every tropical country traditionally has had a beekeeper or two. Most use "seat-of-the-pants" methods and "rustic" hives, and this generally leads to low yields and inefficiencies. Today, numerous innovative methods and appropriate equipment are coming available. Many are still not widely known; however, their importance is slowly being recognized. Indeed, some developing countries are already turning bees into a valued natural resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, in less than 10 years Kenya has become self-sufficient in honey production and - despite increased local consumption - is now exporting. In seven years, Papua New Guinea has met its local honey requirements and now also exports its surplus. In only four years, Thailand increased yearly production from practically nothing to more than 1,000 tons. In Brazil, beekeeping is more widespread and production greater than before the outbreak of the African honey bee. These achievements can be largely attributed to the promotion of innovative equipment, modern beekeeping techniques, and extension support for small-scale beekeepers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">APPEARANCE AND SIZE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees are generally easily recognized and need no description here. The major species and subspecies are all roughly similar in appearance and size. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DISTRIBUTION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among several hundred species of bees that store honey and pollen in harvestable amounts, only two "social" species, Apis mellifera and Apis cerana, produce multiple combs and can be kept in hives.' Given adequate forage and proper management, they can build up a honey surplus that can be harvested without harming their colonies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apis mellifera, the most widely distributed and exploited honey bee, comes from Europe and Africa. The subspecies from Europe (especially the Italian type, A. mellifera ligustica) is normally preferred because of its docility and high honey yields. It is now the predominant honey bee throughout the temperate zones of Europe, North America, Australasia, and China. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the many subspecies in Africa, A. mellifera adansonii and A. mellifera scutellata have the widest native ranges. The latter was accidently released in Brazil in 1957. It has become naturalized and has dominated the European bees formerly kept by beekeepers. By l990, it had spread northwards to the southernmost areas of the United States and southwards deep into Argentina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The docile Asian hive bee, A. cerana, is found in Asia from the Middle East to Japan and as far south as Indonesia. Although it produces much less honey per hive than A. mellifera, its overall production in many Southeast Asian countries may be greater.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STATUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees do not face extinction. However, genetic diversity is disappearing due to loss of habitat, insecticides, displacement by massproduced, genetically uniform queens and exotic breeds, destructive harvesting, and the spread of diseases and pests such as protozoans, bacteria, insects, and mites.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HABITAT AND ENVIRONMENT</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees can exist in locations from deserts to rainforests and from near the Arctic to the tropics. They occur wherever there is nectar, pollen, tree resin (for nest building), shelter, and a little water. Heat, drought, and especially rain and humidity may curtail their activities, but a well-managed colony can survive periods of extreme adversity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BIOLOGY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bees live in rigidly hierarchical colonies. Normally there is a  single queen. After mating, she begins laying hundreds of eggs a day.  Those that are fertilized become sterile females, called workers; those  that remain unfertilized develop into males (drones), whose only role is  to fertilize future queens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After two or three years the queen, worn-out, starts laying fewer  and fewer eggs, and the colony may replace her. At that time a few  female larvae are raised on royal jelly, a nutritious, little-understood  secretion that causes them to develop into queens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Workers perform different tasks as they mature. Young ones tend  the queen, guard the hive, and raise the larvae. Older ones, comprising  the vast majority of a colony's population, gather pollen and nectar and  water. Pollen provides the protein and fats, and the nectar, converted  into honey in the bee's body, provides carbohydrates to feed the colony.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEHAVIOR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey bee activities are dictated by weather, availability of food,  genetics, and the overall strength of the colony. They are mediated by  chemical interactions between the queen and the workers that control  almost all behavior.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the Asian and European hive bees are relatively docile, most  of the African subspecies are unpredictable and may defend their  colonies in great numbers and with great persistence. The threat of  "killer bees" has been greatly exaggerated, however. Africans have  provided them nests and hives - and harvested their honey - for  thousands of years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Occasionally, large numbers of the bees in a colony split off from  their nest or hive. They usually cluster on a nearby tree or building,  calmly waiting for "scouts" to find a suitable new home. These  homeless swarms can be captured and will readily move into a hive  the simplest and cheapest way for beekeepers to acquire a colony.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey and beeswax are two of nature's best known and most  valuable products. Honey can be employed in hundreds of foods. It is  widely used in baking because, in addition to its flavor, it retains  moisture better than sugar or syrup, and the product keeps longer. Honey-based alcoholic beverages are popular in many parts of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beeswax also is used in many products, including candles, lubricants, polish, waterproofings, soaps, cosmetics, and electronics. Beeswax can be locally important for `'lost-wax" metal-casting and sculptures as well as batik-dyed clothing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both bee pollen and royal jelly are used in cosmetics and can be eaten. Bee venom is used medicinally, particularly in Europe and the developing world. Bee larvae are eaten raw or fried in many parts of Asia and Africa and are considered a delicacy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUSBANDRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keeping bees means managing a colony so that it produces surplus honey or wax. Specifically this requires:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Providing a suitable hive;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Obtaining bees by collecting a swarm, transferring a wild colony, or purchasing a colony complete with an active queen;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Maintaining the colony free from natural enemies in an area that allows it to produce excess honey; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Harvesting the excess honey without weakening the colony or causing it to flee (abscond).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADVANTAGES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Few other livestock enterprises require less capital, less space, or less attention. Moreover, scarcely any other provides higher quality, more marketable products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beekeeping is a respected and traditional activity in most areas of the world. It promotes self-reliance and requires little, if any, land or money. It is an easy-entry cottage industry that can be started with minimal equipment or training. It can be done by any member of a family as it requires no special strength or size. It is especially appropriate for increasing women's income in the many areas where men are away working.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beekeeping is suited to remote areas where many agricultural enterprises are at a competitive disadvantage because their products are bulky and far from the markets. Honey, wax, pollen, and other bee products can all be sold far from their point of origin, have high monetary value for their weight, and generally find a ready market. Local honeys often command premium prices (in part because many of them are considered medicinal). In addition, beekeeping encourages people to remain in rural areas rather than move to the city in search of an income.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pollination increases the productivity of many crops, and therefore a few hives can boost local food production. By rotating hives among farmers' fields and orchards, a beekeeper performs a valuable service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beekeeping is also an important adjunct to reforestation and desert reclamation projects. It can provide income during the long wait for the trees to reach marketable size. Many forests are potential reservoirs of honey and other products. In some cases, the bees also enhance the fruitfulness and standing value of forests. They also increase pollination in tree-seed orchards and tree nurseries. And in newly established forests, bees improve reseeding potential. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BETTER BEEHIVES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So many hives have been developed in recent years that a design now exists for almost any level of expertise. One of the most important for Third World beekeeping is the top-bar hive. This crate-like box, derived from an ancient Greek design, incorporates modern beekeeping principles but adds the innovation of sloping sides. Beneath its lid are removable boards (top bars) from which the bees hang the combs (because the sides are sloping the bees do not attach the edges of the comb to them). By lifting a top bar, the comb can be inspected and handled - and the honey harvested - with little disturbance to the colony.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This simple hive can make beekeeping accessible to even the poorest people. It is easy to build and use, and can be locally constructed from scrap lumber. It is well suited for raising most types of honey bees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More elaborate and productive is the African long hive. In addition to having top bars, this square-sided box has removable frames within which the bees build their comb.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most elaborate is the Langstroth hive - the type most common in temperate zones.* These yield the most honey. They can be made only where there are facilities for precise carpentry, where durable, nonwarping parts are available, and where there are good extension services to aid and assist beekeepers. Although traditional Langstroth hives are demanding to build and maintain, simplified designs have been created for use in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STINGLESS BEES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By far the most common bees in the tropics, perhaps in the  world, are bees that cannot sting. Their stingers are so akophied  as to be essentially nonexistent (but some can deliver a pretty  fierce bite). They live in colonies and store their honey in wax  pots, some as large as egg cups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stingless bees can be abundant. In a two-block area in  downtown Panama City, 150 nests have been counted. However,  many species depend on trees and their populations are  plummeting as more and more tropical forests are felled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like honey bees, stingless bees have been "domesticated." For  thousands of years in the tropical Americas, Indians have raised  them in special hives made out of logs, gourds, clay pots, and  other simple containers. Cortes reported in 1519 that Indians on  the island of Cozumel, the now popular tourist spot off the east  coast of Yucatan, practiced beekeeping. That was almost 300 years  before the European honeybee was introduced. A popular Mayan  drink was honey wine, and Mayan beekeepers carved stone  earplugs to keep these bees out of their ears.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honey from stingless bees has less sugar than normal honey.  However, it is usually more tasty. It is used throughout the  tropics: the Americas, Central Africa, and Southeast Asia, for  instance. Normally, the nests are just robbed, which devastates  the bees because the queen cannot fly, and when she is disturbed  the colony dies. In some areas people open a little hole in the nest.  By putting in a plug, they can then harvest honey a couple of  times a year without destroying the colony.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, a few scientists are reconsidering stingless beekeeping.  In the state of Maranhao in Brazil, an area of crushing poverty,  biologist Warwick Kerr is harnessing stingless bees. He began  after learning that peasants were spending a third of their meager  incomes buying sugar. As part of his experiments, he keeps 60  hives stacked in his garage on the outskirts of the city of San Luis.  (A notable feature of these bees is that there is no prohibition  against keeping them in populated areas.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kerr has found that stingless bees can be made to produce well.  After years of experimenting with different-sized boxes, he can  now obtain more than 4.5 lifers of honey per hive per year. He  reports that the stingless bees are easy to maintain, and can be  raised by poor peoole without land or equipment.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIMITATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared to raising four-footed livestock, beekeeping is inexpensive and fairly trouble free, but it is not without problems. Many things can go wrong, and include, for example:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Losses. Bees are susceptible to various predators, pests, and diseases. Although ways to avoid or control most afflictions are available, once a colony becomes infested it may have to be destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Theft. Hives or combs - usually kept in secluded areas - that are full of honey are tempting targets and may be stolen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Swarming and absconding. Some or all of the bees may leave a hive and start a new nest, taking even the honey with them.2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Bad management. Beekeeping requires certain skills and knowledge, and sometimes frequent attention (such as when the colony is stressed, diseased, or swarming).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Lack of equipment. Beekeepers need hives, smokers (to quiet and repel the bees), hive tools, and - advisable but not absolutely necessary - gloves and a veil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Inadequate storage. Some areas lack the knowledge or the bottles in which to store liquid honey.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Pesticides and herbicides. Nectar- and pollen-collecting bees are vulnerable to insecticides, which farmers may apply (often inappropriately) at the time their crops are flowering. Herbicides can destroy important sources of bee forage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Neighborhood concerns. Bees can sting people and livestock. Although wild bees (and other insects) are the principal culprits, the beekeeper is often blamed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Stressful conditions. When rainfall, aridity, heat, or cold are excessive, bees often cannot produce surplus honey.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION NEEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surprisingly, much remains to be learned about the natural science of bees. Although some of the research requires sophisticated equipment and facilities, much can (or must) be performed locally by beekeepers because many factors - such as colony behavior, foraging habits, and microclimatic adaptation - depend on the local conditions. This research may include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Adaptation. The provision of locally adapted bee varieties is an important basis for developing advanced beekeeping. This can be done by selecting an appropriate local queen. Further, local breeding of queens and workers lessens the probability of importing exotic diseases and pests. Recent developments promise to move the mass production of queens and workers from the realm of high technology to common practice.4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Integration. Continued developments in beekeeping cannot succeed without research, promotion, education, training, and extension services. These are essential for integrating beekeeping with agriculture and reforestation efforts. Thus, descriptions of agronomic plants should always include pollination requirements as well as nectar and pollen potentials. Planting nectar- and pollen-producing firewood species would increase the number of bees, which would in turn help ensure forest survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Bee plants. There is still much to be understood about the relative qualities that different plants bring to beekeeping. Recently, many valuable bee-forage plants have been identified.5 These deserve special consideration in any reforestation or beautification projects. Broad introduction of these plants may also encourage beekeeping that could produce high-value "specialty" honeys or ensure more continuous production of honey. There may also be a place for "bee farms," where every plant is bee forage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- New bee species. Nontraditional species of Apis as well as other members of the bee family (such as Anthophora, Bombus, Megachilae, Nomia, Osmia, Xylocopa, and especially Trigona and Melipona, which are stingless) should be studied to determine their role in pollination and - for some species - their further exploitation for honey. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A Selected Readings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A small selection follows of books and articles that are not too  difficult to locate and that will help readers explore each topic further. Obscure documents are accompanied by an address from which readers can obtain a reprint or photocopy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GENERAL</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grzimek, B. 1975. Animal Life Encyclopedia. Vol. 1-13. Van Nostrand Reinhold  Company, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robbins, C.T. 1983. Wildlife Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICROBREEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. 1988. A World Dictionary of Livestock Breeds, Types and Varieties.  Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK. Microcattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barnard, J.P. and J.P. Venter. 1983. Indigenous and Exotic Beef Cattle in South West  Africa - A Progress Report. Available from Department of Agriculture and Nature  Conservation, PB 13184, Windhoek 9000, Namibia. (Sanga)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu. 1984. Livestock Breeds of China. FAO Animal Production and Health  Paper 46. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 217 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cole, H.H. and W.N. Garrett, eds. 1974. Animal Agriculture. 2nd edition. W.H. Freeman  and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Epstein, H. and l.L. Mason. 1984. Cattle. Pages 6-27 in Evolution of Domesticated  Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Felius, M. 1985. Genus Bos: Cattle Breeds of the World. MSD-AGVET, Merck and Co.,  Rahway, New Jersey. 234 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gryseels, G. 1980. Improving Livestock and Farm Production in the Ethiopian Highlands:  Initial Results. ILCA study. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa,  Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1979. Trypanotolerant Livestock in West and Central Africa. Vol. 1, General Study.  International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joshi, N.R. and R.W. Phillips. 1953. Zebu Cattle of India and Pakistan. FAO Agricultural  Study No. 19. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 297 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joshi, N.R., E.A. McLaughlin, and R.W. Phillips. 1957. Types and Breeds of African  Cattle. FAO Agricultural Study No. 37. Food and Agriculture Organization of the  United Nations, Rome. 297 pp. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Koger, M., T.J. Cunha, and A.C. Warnick, eds. 1973. Crossbreeding Beef Cattle. Series 2. University of Florida Press, Gainesville, Florida, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Martinez Balboa, A. 1980. La Ganaderia en Baja California Sur. Vol. 1. Editorial J.B. La Paz, BCS: Mexico. 229 pp. (Criollo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. and J.P. Maule. The Indigenous Livestock of Eastern and Southern Africa. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maule, J.P. 1989. The Cattle of the Tropics. Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Edinburgh University, Edinburgh, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McDowell, L.R., ed. 1985. Nutrition of Grazing Ruminants in Warm Climates. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McDowell, R.E. 1972. Improvement of Livestock Production in Warm Climates. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McDowell, R.E. 1983. Strategy for Improving Beef and Dairy Cattle in the Tropics. Cornell International Agricultural mimeo. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miller, W.J. 1979. Dairy Cattle Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council. 1980. Animal Science in China. CSCPRC Report No. 12. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council. 1981. Effect of Environment on Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perry, T.W. 1980. Beef Cattle Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rollinson, D.H.L. 1984. Bali cattle. Pages 28-34 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rouse, J.E. 1970. World Cattle. Vol. 1, Cattle of Europe, South America, Australia, and New Zealand. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rouse, J.E. 1970. World Cattle. Vol. 2, Cattle of Africa and Asia. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rouse, J.E. 1973. World Cattle. Vol.3, Cattle of North America. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rouse, J.E. 1977. The Criollo-Spanish Cattle in the Americas. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, USA. 303 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shirley, R.L. 1986. Nitrogen and Energy Nutrition of Ruminants. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thrower, W.R. 1954. The Dexter Cow. Revised third impression, 1980. The Spaulding Press, Bethel, Vermont, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G. and W.J.A. Payne. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Acharya, R.M. 1982. Sheep and Goat Breeds of India. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 30. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ademosun, A.A. 1985. Capra spp.: The Emblem of Anarchy - The King-Pin of Man's Pastoral Life. Ife Lectures No. 3. University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu. 1984. Livestock Breeds of China. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 46. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 217 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cole, H.H. and W.N. Garrett. 1980. Animal Agriculture. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copland, J.W. 1985. Goat Production and Research in the Tropics. Proceedings of a workshop held at the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, February 6-8, 1984. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) Proceedings Series No. 7, 118 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C. and M. Burns. 1983. Goat Production in the Tropics. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK. 83 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C. and G.L. McLeroy. 1983. Goat and Sheep Production in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London. 271 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C. and J.E. Owen. 1983. Quantitative and qualitative aspects of meat production from goats. World Animal Review (FAO) 47:19-29.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fielding, D. Goat-keeping in Mauritius. Sonderdruck aus Zeitschrift fur Tierzuchtung und Zuchtungsbiologie. Vol 97(1)(1980):21-27.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gall, C., ed. 1981. Goat Production. Academic Press, London. 619 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haenlein, G.F.W. and D.L. Ace. 1983. Goat Extension Handbook. University of Delaware Cooperative Extension Service, Newark, Delaware, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Husnain, H.V. 1985. Sheep and Goats in Pakistan. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 56. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Development Research Centre (IDRC). Small Ruminant Production Systems in South and Southeast Asia, C. Devendra, ed. Proceedings of a workshop held in Bogor, Indonesia, October 6-10, 1986, cosponsored by the Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Program. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1983. Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in Sheep and Goats, D.H. Hill, ed. Proceedings of the International Workshop held at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria, September 24-26, 1980. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1985. Sheep and Goats in Humid West Africa. Proceedings of the International Workshop held in Ibadan, Nigeria, January 23-26, 1984. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1979. Trypanotolerant Livestock in West and Central Africa. Vol. 1, General Study. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">King, J.W.B., ed. 1988. Directory of Research on Sheep and Goats. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux International, Wallingford, Oxford, UK. 271 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. 1981. Breeds. Pages 57-110 in Goat Production, C. Gall, ed. Academic Press, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. 1984. Goat. Pages 85-99 in Evolution of the Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. and J.P. Maule. 1960. The Indigenous Livestock of Eastern and Southern Africa. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council, 1980. Animal Science in China. CSCPRC Report No. 12. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W., R.G. Johnson, and R.T. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Goat Production and Disease. January 10-15, 1982, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona. Copies can be obtained from Kent Leach, Dairy Goat Journal, P.O. Box 1808, Scottsdale, Arizona 85252, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G. and W.J.A. Payne. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilson, R.T., T. Murayi, and A. Rocha. 1989. Indigenous African small ruminant strains with potentially high reproductive performance. Small Ruminant Research 2: 107-117.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Winrock International, 1984. Sheep and Goats in Developing Countries. Winrock International Technical Paper. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Acharya, R.M. 1982. Sheep and Goat Breeds of lndia. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 30. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carles, A.B. 1983. Sheep Production in the Tropics. Oxford University Press, London. 213 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu. 1984. Livestock Breeds of China. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 46. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 217 pp. Cole, H.H. and W.N. Garrett. 1980. Animal Agriculture. W.H. Freeman and Company,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Francisco, Calffornia, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C. and G.L. McLeroy. 1983. Goat and Sheep Production in the Tropics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Longman, London. 271 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitzhugh, H.A. and G.E. Bradford, eds. 1983. Hair Sheep of Western Africa and the Americas. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Husnain, H.V. 1985. Sheep and Goats in Pakistan. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 56. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. International Development Research Centre (IDRC). 1987. Small Ruminant Production Systems in South and Southeast Asia, C. Devendra, ed. Proceedings of a workshop held in Bogor, Indonesia, October 6-10, 1986, cosponsored by the Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Program. IDRC, Ottawa, Canada. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1983. Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in Sheep and Goats, D.H. Hill, ed. Proceedings of the International Workshop held at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria, September 24-26, 1980. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1985. Sheep and Goats in Humid West Africa. Proceedings of the International Workshop held in Ibadan, Nigeria, January 23-26, 1984. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ILCA. 1979. Trypanotolerant Livestock in West and Central Africa. Vol. 1, Ceneral </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Study. International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">King, J.W.B., ed. 1988. Directory of Research on Sheep and Goats. Commonwealth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural Bureaux International, Wallingford, Oxford, UK. 271 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. 1980. Prolific Tropical Sheep. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 17. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, l.L.1967. Sheep Breeds of the Mediterranean. Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Nations. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. and J.P. Maule. 1960. The Indigenous Livestock of Eastern and Southern Africa. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK. Phillips, R.W., R.C. Johnson, and R.T. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ponting, K. 1980. Sheep of the World. Blandford Press, Ltd., Poole, Dorset, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ryder, M.L. 1984. Sheep. Pages 63-85 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ryder, M.L. 1983. Sheep and hIan. Monograph. Duckworth, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Terrill, C.E. 1970. Sheep breeds of the world. (505 breeds). USDA mimeo. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 163 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whitehurst, V.E., R.M. Crown, R.W. Phillips, and D.A. Spencer. 1947. Productivity of Columbia sheep in Florida and their use for crossing with native sheep. Florida Agricultural Experimental Station Bulletin 429. 34 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G. and W.J.A. Payne. 1965. An Introduotion to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilson, R.T., T. Murayi, and A. Rocha. 1989. Indigenous African small ruminant strains with potentially high reproductive performance. Small Ruminant Research 2: 107-117. Winrock International. 1984. Sheep and Goats in Developing Countries. Winrock International Technical Paper. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaltin, B.C. 1979. The Sheep Breeds of Afghanistan, lran, and Turkey. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Micropig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu. 1984. Livestock Breeds of China. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 46. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clutton-Brock, J. 1981. Domesticated Animals from Early Times. British Museum (Natural History), London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cole, H.H. and W.N. Garrett. 1980. Animal Agriculture. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, Calffornia, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cunha, T.J. 1977. Swine Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Epstein, H. and M. Bichard. 1984. Pigs. Pages 145-162 in Evolution of Domesticated </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Krider, J.L., J.H. Conrad, and W.E. Carroll. 1982. Swine Production. McGraw-Hill Company, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I.L. and J.P. Maule. 1960. The Indigenous Livestock of Eastern and Southern Africa. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire, UK. National Research Council. 1983. Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. National Research Council. 1980. Animal Science in China. CSCPRC Report No. 12. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panepinto, L.M. 1986. Miniature swine in biomedical research. LabAnimal 15(8)(November/December 1986):21-27.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panepinto, L.M., R.W. Phillips, L.R. Wheeler, and D.H. Will. 1978. The Yucatan miniature pig as a laboratory animal. Laboratory Animal Science 28(3):308-313.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W. and T.Y. Hou. 1944. Chinese swine and their performance compared with modern and crosses between Chinese and modern breeds. Journal of Heredity 35:365-79.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pond, W.G. and J.H. Maner. 1984. Swine Production and Nutrition. AVI Publishing Company, Westport, Connecticut, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G. and W.J.A. Payne. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. 2nd edition. Longman, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POULTRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World's Poultry Science Journal is published 3 times a year by the World's Poultry Science Association, (c/o Institut f-r Kleintierzucht, Dornbergstrasse 25/27, Postfach 280, C-3100 Celle, Germany). It has also published a multilingual poultry dictionary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry, an international journal on poultry, is published by Misset International, a department of Uitgeversmaatschappij, C. Misset b.v., Doetinchem-The Netherlands. (Address: Misset International, P.O. Box 4, 7000 BA Doetinchem, Netherlands.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poultry Science is published monthly by the Poultry Science Association, Inc., 309 West Clark Street, Champaign, Illinois 61820, USA. British Poultry Science, a quarterly, is available c/o Longman Group Ltd., Subscriptions (Journals) Department, Fourth Avenue, Harlow, Essex CM195AA, UK. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicken</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attfield, H.H.D. 1990. Raising Chickens and Ducks. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, Arlington, Virginia, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crawford, R.D. 1984. Domestic fowl. Pages 298-311 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ensminger, M.E.1971. Poultry Science. Interstate Printers and Publishers, Inc., Danville, Illinois, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fielding, D. 1984. The silent scavengers. African Farming September/October 1984: 11-13.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Howman, K.C. 1980. Pheasants: Their Breeding and Management. K&amp;R Books, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Huchzermeyer, F.W. 1973. Free ranging hybrid chickens under African tribal conditions. Rhodesian Agricultural Journal 70:73-75.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latif, M.A. 1985. In-Depth Analysis on the Successful Experience of Poultry Production in Bangladesh. Report submitted to FAO-APHC Regional Animal Production and Health Office. FAD/UN, Bangkok, Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matthewman, R.W. 1977. A Survey of Small Livestock Production at the Village Level in the Derived Savannah and Lowland Forest Zones of South West Nigeria. M.Sc. thesis, University of Reading, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MTrat, P. 1986. Potential usefulness of the Na (Naked Neck) gene in poultry production. [Vorld's Poultry Science Journal 42:124-142.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nesheim, M.C., R.E. Austic, and L.E. Card. 1979. Poultry Production. 12th edition. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W., R.C. Johnson, and R.J. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sainsbury, D. 1980. Poultry Health and Management. Granada, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scott, M.L., M.C. Nesheim, and R.J. Young. 1982. Nutrition of the Chicken. M.L. Scott and Associates, Ithaca, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smith, A.J. nd. Supplementation for scavenging animals. Unpublished paper. Copies available from A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somes, R. 1984. International Registry of Poultry Genetic Stocks. BuDetin 469, University of Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Storrs, Connecticut, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Araucanian</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilhelm, G.O.E. 1965-1966. La Gallina Araucana (Gallus inauris castelloi 1914). Universidad de Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile, Boletia de Concepcion 40:5-26.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duck</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A film, Duck Farmingan Indonesian Tradition, is available from the CSIRO Film and Video Unit, 314 Albert Street, East Melbourne 3002, Victoria, Australia. Soundtrack is in English or Indonesian and it is available in 16 mm or VHS/Beta Video.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attfield, H.H.D. 1990. Raising Chickens and Ducks. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, Arlington, Virginia, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clayton, G.A. 1984. Common duck. Pages 334-339 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farrell, D. and P. Stapleton, eds. 1986. Duck Production, Science and World Practice. Proceedingsofaduckproductionworkshop, November 18-22, 1985, Bogor, Indonesia. Central Research Institute for Animal Science. Available from Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Nutrition, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia. 430 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holderread, D. 1978. The Home Duck Flock. The Hen House, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97330, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kingston, D.K., D. Kosasih, and I. Ardi. 1979. The Rearing of Alabio Dt~cklings -nd Management of the Laying Duck Flocks in the Swamps of South Kalimantan. Report No. 9. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Ciawi, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Petheram, R.J. and A. Thahar. 1983. Duck egg production systems in West Java. Agricultural Systems 2:75-86.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W., R.G. Johnson, and R.J. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sainsbury, D. 1980. Poultry Health and Management. Granada, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scott, M.L. and W.F. Dean. 1991. Nutrition and Management of Ducks. M.L. Scott of Ithaca, Publisher (P.O. Box 4464, Ithaca, New York 14852, USA)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Warren, A.G. 1972. Ducks and geese in the tropics. World Animal Review 3:35-36.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yi Yung and Yu-Ping Zhon. 1980. The Pekin duck in China. World Animal Review 34:11-14.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crawford, R.D. 1984. Goose. Pages 345-349 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1983. The Goose and its Possible Use for Controlling Weeds. Small Animals for Small Farms. GAN-I. FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Casilla 10095, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holderread, D. 1981. The Book of Geesea Complete Guide to Raising the Home Flock. Hen House Publications, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R.W., R.G. Johnson, and R.J. Moyer. 1945. The Livestock of China. U.S. Department of State Publication No. 2249, Far Eastern Series 9. U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 174 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soames, B. 1980. Keeping Domestic Geese. Blandford, London. 159 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USDA Extension Service. 1983. Raising Geese. Farmer's Bulletin No. 2251. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Warren, A.G. 1972. Ducks and geese in the tropics. World Animal Review 3:35-36.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Fowl</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many research papers have been published in French, Italian, Spanish, and Russian, but few in English.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ayeni, J.S.O. 1983. Studies of Grey Breasted Helmet Guineafowl (Numida meleagris galeata Pallas) in Nigeria. World's Poultry Science Journal 39(2):143-151.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belshaw, R.H.H. 1985. Guinea Fowl of the World. Nimrod Book Services, P.O. Box No. 1, Liss, Hampshire, UK. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blum, J.C., J. Guillaume, and B. Leclercq. 1975. Studies of the energy and protein requirements of the growing guinea-fowl. Br-ish Poultry Science 16:157-168.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cauchard, J.C. 1971. La Pintade. Henri Peladan, UzFs, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chemillier, J. 1984. L'Alimentation de la Pintade. F. Hoffmann-La Roche and Cie, 52, Boulevard du Parc, 92521 Neuilly-sur-Seine, Cedex, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux. 1968. Guinea Fowl Breeding and Managernent. Annotated Bibliography No. 85. The Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics, King's Buildings, Edinburgh 9, Scotland, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leclercq, B. 1982. Alimentation des Futurs Reproducteurs Pintades. Pages 101-111 in FertilitT et Alimentation des Volailles. I.N.R.A. Edit.7 Versailles, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leclercq, R. and B. Sauveur. 1982. L'alimentation des reproducteurs pintades. Pages 113-135 in FertilitT et Alimentation des Volailles, I.N.R.A. edit., Versailles, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lukefahr, S. Raising guinea fowl. Paper available from author, c/o International Small Livestock Research Center, Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University. P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. 1985. Small-scale guinea-few! production. Pamphlet 934. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (Publications), Lion House, Alnwick, Northumberland NE66 2PF, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mongin, P. and M. Plouzeau. 1984. Guinea-fowl. Pages 322-324 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I . L. Mason, ed. Longman, London .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USDA. 1970. Raising Cuinea Fowl. Leaflet No. 519. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clayton, G.A. 1984. Muscovy duck. Pages 340-344 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">De Corville, H. 1972. La Production du Canard de Barbarie. Copies available from Institut nacional de la recherce agronomique (INRA), Nouzilly, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farrell, D. and P. Stapleton, eds. 1986. Duck Production, Science and World Practice. Proceedings of a duck production workshop, November 18-22, 1985, Bogor, Indonesia. Central Research Institute for Animal Science. Copies available from D. Farrell, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffreys, M.D.W. 1956. The Muscovy duck. The Nigerian Field21(3):108-11.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kingston, D.J., D. Kosasih, and I. Ardi. 1978. The Use of the Muscovy Drrck for Hatching of Alabio Duck &Yacute;ggs in the Swamplands of Kalimantan. Centre Report No. 7. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Richet, M. 1985. La production du canard de Barbarie. Techniques Agricoles 3770.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abs, M., ed. 1983. Pltysiology and Behavior of the Pigeon. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hawes, R.O. 1984. Pigeons. Pages 351-356 in Evolution of Domesticated Anirnals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hollander, W.F. and W.J. Miller. 1981. Hereditary variants of behavior and vision in the pigeon. Iowa State Journal of Research 55(4):323-331.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Levi, W.M. 1965. Encyclopedia of Pigeon Breeds. T.F.H. Publications, Jersey City, New Jersey, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Levi, W.M. 1981. The Pigeon. 2nd edition revised. Levi Publishing, Sumter, South Carolina, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murton, R.K., R.P.J. Thearle, and J. Thompson. 1972. Ecological studies of the feral pigeon (Columba livia). 1. Population, breeding biology and methods of control. II. Flock behaviour and social organisation. Ecology 9:835-889.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Wisconsin. 1977. Pigeons. Bulletin 4-H 135. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">USDA. 1963. Squab Raising. Farmers Bulletin No. 684. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bourquin, O. 1980. Biology of rhe Quail (Coturnix coturnix Linnaeus 1758). Ph.D. thesis, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, Republic of South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katoh, H. and N. Wakasugi. 1980. Studies on the blood groups in the Japanese quail: detection of three antigens and their inheritance. Developmental and Comparative Immunology 4:99-110.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kawahara, T. 1973. Comparative study of quantitative traits between wild and domestic Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Experimental Animals 22(supplement): 138-50.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marsh, A. Quail Manual. Marsh Farms, 7171 Patterson Drive, Garden Grove, Calffornia 92641, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Academy of Sciences. 1969. Coturnix (Coturnix coturnix japonica): Standards and Guidelines for the Breeding, Care, and Management of Laboratory' Animals. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail Production Technology. Leaflet No. 13/1982. Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar, India. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somes, R.G., Jr. 1981. International Registry of Poultry Genetic Stocks. Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Varghese, S.K. 1981. Coturnix Internationalat home and in the Caribbean. Poultry Science 60:1747.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Varghese, S.K. 1982. Coturnix production proves to be a profitable business. Poultry Science 61:1560.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Varghese, S.K. 1983. Processing and yield of coturnix (Japanese quail). Poultry Science 62:1517</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wakasugi, N. and K. Kondo. 1973. Breeding methods for maintenance of mutant genes and establishment of strains in the Japanese quail. Experimental Animals 22(Supplement): I 51 -9.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Woodard, A.E., A. Abplanalp, W.O. Wilson, and P. Vohra. 1973. Japanese Quail Husbandry in the Laboratory. Department of Avian Sciences, University of Calffornia, Davis, Calffornia 95616, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berg, R. and D. Halvorson. 1985. Turkey Management Guide. Minnesota Turkey Growers Association, 678 Transfer Road, St. Paul, Minnesota 55114, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crawford, R.D. 1984. Turkey. Pages 325-334 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ensminger, M.E. 1971. PoultryScience. InterstatePrintersandPublishers, Inc., Danville,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Illinois, USA. Sainsbury, D. 1980. Poultry Health and Management. Granada, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RABBITS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Rabbit Research Center has been established at Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA. It publishes the Journal of Applied Rabbit Research, whose purpose is to convey current research information to those with an interest in commercial rabbit production. The journal describes research conducted at the center and reviews rabbit research results reported in the world's scientific literature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Founded in 1976 in Paris, the World Rabbit Science Association (Typing House, Shurdington, Cheltenhem, Gloucestershire, GL51 SXF, UK) publishes a newsletter of coming events and chronicles the progress of rabbit farming in most countries of the world. Its aims are to facilitate the advancement of the various branches of the rabbit industry, disseminate knowledge, and study problems of production and marketing. Its members represent individuals and associations in 20 countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The American Rabbit Breeder's Association (1925 South Main Street, Bloomington, Illinois 61701, USA) has published a book, Guide to Producing Better Rabbits, which contains an abundance of information concerning management and diseases of the domestic rabbit. The organization also publishes a bimonthly magazine, Domestic Rabbit, that includes a great deal of updated information on rabbit raising.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asociacion Espanola de Cunicultura (Spanish Rabbit Science Association), Now, 23 08785 Ballbona d'Anoia, Barcelona, Spain, has a set of slides for training, covering breeds, handling, pathology, and commercialization.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Report of the Workshop on Rabbit Husbandry. Copies of this report are available free of charge from the International Foundation for Science, Sibyllegatan 47, S-114 42 Stockholm, Sweden. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Working Rabbit Literature Resources File. This materia, is directed at scientists working on some aspect of domestic rabbit research. It lists methods of computer searching for scientific reports in the world's scientific literature, various types of computer literature searches, including commerciaHy available ones, and government services. It a,so includes a list of prepared abstracts. The address is D.D. Caveny and H. L. Enos, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic Rabbit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ministry of Livestock Development. 1981. Rabbit Production. Kenya Ministry of Livestock Development. Copies can be obtained from the Agricultural Information Centre, P.O. Box 14733, Nairobi, Kenya.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attfield, H.H.D. 1977. Rabbit Raising. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, 1815 Lynn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Street, Arlington, Virginia 22209, USA. 90 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bennett, R. 1975. Raising Rabbits the Modern Way. Garden Way Publishing, Charlotte, Vermont 05445, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheeke, P.R. 1987. Rabbit Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Inc., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheeke, P.R., N.M. Patton, S.D. Lukefahr, and J.I. McNitt. 1986. Rabbit Production. Sixth edition. The Interstate, Danville, Illinois, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1986. Cooking Rabbits. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,  Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1986. Self-Teaching Manual on Backyard Rabb- Rearing. Food and Agriculture  Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Latin America and the  Caribbean, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1986. Backyard Rabbit Rearing: Some Basic Husbandry Practices. Small Animals  for Small Farms. GAN-16. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,  Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schlolaut, W., ed. 1985. A Compendium of Rabbit Production. Gesellschaft f-r  Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) Publication No. 169. TZ-Verlagsgesellschaft mbH,  Postfach 36, D6101 Rossdorf, Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sicivaten, J. and D. Stahl. 1982. A Complete Handbook on Backyard and Commercial  Rabbit Production. CARE/Philippines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vogt, D.W. 1982. Raising Rabbits in Hawaii. Circular 499, Cooperative Extension  Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at  Manoa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agouti</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A report summarizing preliminary results in a captive-breeding project in Mexico is available from A. D. Cuaron (see Research Contacts for address).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deutsch, L.A., and G. Santos. 1984. Contribuitao pare o conhecimento do gOnero  Dasyproctareprodutao de cutiasentre cruzamente das espTcies Dasyprocta aguti,  Dasyprocta azarae e Dasyprocta fuliginosa. Congresso Brasileiro de Zoologia, II,  BelTm, 1984. Resumos. . .BelTm, SBZ/UFPalMPEC, p. 383-4/(Resumos 390). Copies  available from the authors, see Research Contacts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clark, M.M. and B.G. Galef, Jr. 1977. Patterns of agonistic interaction and space  utilization by agoutis, Dasyprocta punctata. Behavioral Biology 20:135-140.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leopold, A.S. 1959. Pages 388-393 in Wildlife of Mexico. University of California Press,  Berkeley and Los Angeles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meritt, D.A., Jr. 1982. Bibliography of Dasyprocta (Rodentia). Brenesia 19/20:595-612.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meritt, D.A., Jr. 1983. Preliminary observations on reproduction in the Central  American agouti, Dasyprocta punctata. Zoo Biology 2:127-131.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morris, D. 1962. The behaviour of the green acouchi (Myoprocta pratti) with special  reference to scatter hoarding. Proceedings Zoological Society of London 139:701732.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smith N. 1974. Agouti and babassu. Oryx 12(5):581-582.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smythe, N. 1978. The Natural History of the Central American Agouti (Dasyprocta  punctata). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology No. 257. Smithsonian Institution,  Washington, D.C., USA. 52 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tribe, C.J., R. Leher, M.C.O. Doglio, M.I.L. Rebello, D.S. Mello, and E.M.M. Guimar es.  1985. Uma tentative de esclarecimento do uso de espato e estrutura social na cutia  Dasyprocta a. aguti (Rodentia). Pages 296-7 in Congresso Brasileiro de Zoologia, 12,  Campinas, 1985. Resumos. . .Campinas, SBZ/UNICAMP, 1985. (Resumo 614.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A capybara bibliography, Bibliograf a sobre Chiguires (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), is available from E. Gonzalez-Jimenez and JosT Roberto de Alencar Moreira (see Research Contacts for addresses).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aliaga Rodriguez, L. 1979. Produccion de Cuyes. Universidad Nacional del Centro del Peru, Puno.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baldizan, A., R.M. Dixon, and R. Parra. 1983. Digestion in the capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris). South African Journal of Animal Science 13(1):27-28.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gonzalez-Jimenez, E. 1977a. The capybara, an indigenous source of meat in tropical America. World Animal Review', 21:24-30.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gonzalez-Jimenez, E. 1977b. Digestive physiology and feeding of capybaras. Pages 167177 in Handbook Series in Nutrition and Food. Section G, Diets, Culture Media and Food Supplements, M. Rechcigl, ed. CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gonzalez-Jimenez, E. and R. Parra. 1975. The capybara, a meat-producing animal for the flooded areas of the tropics. Pages 81-86 in Proceedings of the Third World Conference on Animal Production, R.L. Reid, ed. Sydney University Press.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gonzalez-Jimenez, E. 1984. Capybara. Pages 258-259 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Macdonald, D.W., K. Krantz, and R.T. Aplin. 1984. Behavioural, anatomical and chemical aspects of scent marking amongst Capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) (Rodentia:Caviomorpha). Journal of Zoology (London) 202:341-360.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mones, A. and J. Ojasti. 1986. Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris. Mammalian Species 264: 1-7.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ojasti, J. 1968. Notes on the mating behavior of the capybara. Journal of Mammalogy 49:345-374.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ojasti, J. 1973. Estudio Biologico del Chiguire o Capybara. Fondo Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuaria, Caracas, Republica de Venezuela. 27 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zara, J.L. 1973. Breeding and husbandry of the capybara at Evansville Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 13:137-139.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Christen, M.F. 1978. Evaluacion nutritive de cuatro dietas mono especificas en la alimentacion del coipo (Myocastor coypus Molina 1782). Tesis. Faculty of Veterinary Science, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deems, E.F., Jr., and D. Pursley. 1978. North American Fur bearers. Maryland Wildlife Administration, Department of Natural Resources, Cheltenham, Maryland, USA. pp. 155.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CORFO. n.d. Pieles fieas. Especie coipos. Tomo 1, I! and III. Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murua, R., O. Newman, and J. Propelmann. 1981. Food habits of Myocastor coypus (Molina) in Chile. Pages 544-558 in Proceedings of rhe Worldwide Furbearer Conference, J.A. Chapman and D. Pursley, eds. Vol. 1. Worldwide Furbearer Conference, Inc., Frostburg, Maryland, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Willner, G.R. 1982. Nutria; Myocastor coypu. Pages 1059-1076 in Wild Mammals of NorthAmerica, J.A. Chapman and G.A. Feldhamer, eds. The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, USA. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ajayi, S.S. 1975. Domestication of the African Giant Rat. Department of Forest Resources, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faturoti, E.O., O.O. Tewe, and S.S. Ajayi. 1982. Crude fibre tolerance by the African giant rat (Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse) (Potential sources of protein, Nigeria.) African Journal of Ecology 20(4):289-292.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faturoti, E.O., O.O. Tewe, and S.S. Ajayi. 1983. Effect of varying dietary oil levels on the performance of the African giant rat (Cricetomys gambianus Waterhouse). Nutrition Reports International 27(3):525-530.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Den Hartog, A.P. and A. de Vos. 1973. The use of rodents as food in tropical Africa. Nutrition Newsletter (FAO) 11 (2):1-14.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Halcrow, J.G. 1958. The giant rat of East Africa. Nature (London) 181:649-650.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matthewman, R.W. 1977. A Survey of Small Livestock Production at the Village Level in the Derived Savanna and Lowland Forest Zones of South West Nigeria. Development Studies 24. Department of Agriculture and Horticulture, University of Reading, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tewe, O.O., S.S. Ajayi, and E.O. Faturoti. 1984. Giant rat and cane rat. Pages 291-293 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asibey, E.O.A. 1979. Some problems encountered in the field study of the grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus) population in Ghana. Pages 214-7 in Wildlife Management in Savannah Woodland, S.S. Ajayi and L. B. Halstead, eds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baptist, R. and G.A. Mensah. 1986. The Cane-RatFarm animal of the future? [Vorld Animal Review 60:2-6.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matthewman, R.W. 1977. A Survey of Small Livestock Production at the Village Level in the Derived Savanna and Lowland Forest Zones of South West Nigeria. Development Study 24. Department of Agriculture and Horticulture, University of Reading, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pich, S. and K.J. Peters. 1985. Possibilities of using the cane cutter for meat production in Africa. Unpublished manuscript. Copies available from K.J. Peters, Institute of Animal Breeding, Gottingen, Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tewe, O.O., S.S. Ajayi, and E.O. Faturoti. 1984. Giant rat and cane rat. Pages 291-293 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Let's Raise Guinea Pigs," a filmstrip on guinea pig farming, is available from World Neighbors International Headquarters, 5116 North Portland Avenue, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma73112, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aliaga Rodriguez, L. 1979. Produccion de Cuyes. Universidad Nacional del Centro del Peru, Huancayo, Peru. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aliaga Rodriguez, L. 1983. improvement of Guinea Pig Breeding as a Means of Increasing the Productivity and Production of Meat for Consumption oy the Rural Population in Peru. National University of Central Peru, Huancayo, Peru.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bolton, R. 1979. Guinea pigs, protein, and ritual. Ethnology 18(3):229-252.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Huss, D.L. 1982. Small animals for small farms in Latin America. World Animal Ret~iew (FAO) 43:24-29.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1982. The Guinea Pig and a Hypothetical Development Centre. Small Animals for Small Farms. FAO, Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loetz, E. and C. Novoa. 1983. Meat from the guinea pig. Span 26(2):84-86.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muller-Haye, B. 1984. Guinea-pig or cuy. Pages 252-257 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals I.L. Mason, ed. Longman, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stansfield, S.K., C.L. Scribner, R.M. Kaminski, T. Cairns, J.B. McCormick, and K.M. Johnson. 1982. Antibody to ebola virus in guinea pigs: Tandala, Zaire. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 146(4):483-486.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anderson, S., C.A. Woods, G.S. Morgan, and W.L.R. Oliver. 1983. Geocaprornys brownii. Mammalian Species 201:1-5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Canet, R.S. and V. Berovides Alvares. 1984. Ecomorfologia y rendimiento de la jutia conga (Capromys pilorides Say). Poeyana 279:1-19.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Canet, R.S. and V. Berovides Alvares. 1984. Reproduccion y ecolog~a de la jutia conga (Capromys pilorides Say). Poeyana 220:1-20.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Howe, R., and G.C. Clough. 1971. The Bahamian hutia Geocapromys ingrahami in captivity. international Zoo Yearbook 11:89-93.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Johnson, M.L., R.H. Taylor, and N.W. Winnick. 1975. The breeding and exhibition of capromyd rodents at Tacoma Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 15:53-56.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W.L.R. 1977. The hutias (Capromyidae) of the West Indies. International Zoo Yearbook 17:14-20.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W.L.R. 1985. The Jamaican hutia or Indian Coney (Geocapromys brownii). A model programme for captive breeding and reintroduction? Symposium of the Association of British Wild Animal Keepers, 10:35-52. (Copies available from author, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rowlands, I.W., and B.J. Weir, eds. 1974. The Biology of Hystricomorph Rodents. Symposium of the Zoological Society of London, 34:1-482.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. and H. Genest. 1974. Le comportement social d'une colonide mares, Dolichotis patagonum Z. dans le Parc de BranfTrT. Zeitschrift fin Tierpsychologie 35:225-302.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taber, A.B. and D.W. Macdonald. 1984. Scent dispensing papillae and associated behaviour of the mare, Dolichotis patagonum (Rodentia: Caviomorpha). Journal of Zoology (London) 203:298-302. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paca</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A report summarizing progress in the captive-breeding project in Panama is available from Nicholas Smythe, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Box 2071, Balboa, Panama. A report summarizing preliminary results in the captive-breeding project in Mexico is available from Alfredo D. Cuaron, (see Research Contacts).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collett, S.F. 1981. Population characteristics of Agouti paca (Rodentia) in Colombia. Michigan State University, Publications of the Museum, Biological Series 5(7): 485-602.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matamoros, Y. 1982. Investigaciones preliminares sobre la reproduccion, comportamiento, alimentacion y manego del tepezcuinte (Cuniculus paca, Brisson) en cautiverio. Pages 961-992 in Zoologia Neotropical, Actas del VIII Congreso Latinoamericano de Zoologia, P.J. Salinas, ed. (Copies available from Y. Matamores, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcacha</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jackson, J.E. nd. Growth rates in vizcacha (Lagostomus maximus) in San Luis, Argentina. Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria, San Luis, Argentina. (Copies available from author, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Llanos, A.C., and J.A. Crespo. 1952. Ecologia de la vizcacha (Lagostomus maximus maximus Blainv.) en el nordeste de la provincia de Entre Rios. Revista de Investigaciones Agricolas (Buenos Aires) 6:289-378.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Rodents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butynski, T.M. 1973. Lffe history and economic value of the springhare (Pedetes capensis Forster) in Botswana. Botswana Notes Record 5:209-213.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butynski, T.M. 1979. Reproductive ecology of the springhaas Pedetes capensis in Botswana. Journal of Zoology 189:221-232.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butynski, T.M. 1984. Nocturnal ecology of the springhare, Pedetes capensis, in Botswana. African Journal of Ecology 22:7-22.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butynski, T.M. and R. Mattingly. 1979. Burrow structure and fossorial ecology of the springhare Pedetes capensis in Botswana. African Journal of Ecology 17:205-215.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kofron, C.P. 1987. Seasonal reproduction of the springhare, Pedetes capensis, in southeastern Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology 25.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rosenthal, M.A., and D.A. Meritt. 1973. Hand-rearing springhaas at Lincoln Park Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 18:206-208.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smithers, R.H.N. 1983. The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. University of Pretoria, Pretoria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Velte, F.F. 1978. Hand-rearing springhaas Pedetes capensis at Rochester Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 18:206-208. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEER AND ANTELOPE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Deer Farmer, a quarterly magazine, is published by the New Zealand Deer Farmers' Association, P.O. Box 2678, Wellington, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deer Farming is the quarterly magazine of the British Deer Farmers Association (22 Levat Road, Inverness IV2 3NS, Scotland, UK).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaplin, R.E. 1977. Deer. Blandford Press, Poole, Dorset, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoffman, R.R. 1985. Digestion and feeding in deer: their morphophysiological adaptation. In Proceedings International Conference on Deer Biology and Production, eds. P.F. Fennessy and K.R. Drew. Royal Society of New Zealand Bulletin 22, Wellington, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fennessy, P.F. and K.R. Drew, eds. 1985. Biology of Deer Production. Proceedings of an international conference held February 13-18, 1983, Dunedin, New Zealand. Royal Society of New Zealand Bulletin 22, Wellington, New Zealand. Available from Royal Society of New Zealand, Private Bag, Wellington, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wemmer C., ed. 1987. The Biology and Management of the Cervidae. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yerex, D. 1982. The Farming of Deer. Agricultural Publishing, Box 176, Carterton, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kay, R.N.B. 1987. The comparative anatomy and physiology of digestion in tragulids and cervids and its relation to food intake. In The Biology and Management of the Cenvidae, C. Wemmer, ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1975. Le comportement du chevrotain africain, Hyemoschus aquaticus Ogilby (Artiodactyla, Ruminantia). Zeitschrift fdr Tierpsychologie 37:403-501.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1978. Un apertu sur l'Tcologie du chevrotain africain, Hyemoschus aquaticus Ogilby, Artiodactyle Tragulide. Mammalia 42:1-62.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralls, K., C. Barasch, and K. Minkowski. 1975. Behaviour of captive mouse deer, Tragulus napu. Zeitschrift Tierpsychology 37:356-378.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robin, K.P. 1979. Zum Verhalten des Kleinkantschils (Tragulus javanicus). Ph.D. dissertation, University of Zurich. (Copies available from K.P. Robin, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vidyadaran, M.K., M. Hilmi, and R.A. Sirimane. 1982. The gross morphology of the stomach of the Malaysian lesser mousedeer (Tragrrlus javanicus). Pertanika 5(1): 34-38.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vidyadran, M.K., S. Vellayan, and R. Karuppiah. 1983. Muscle weight distribution of the Malaysian lesser mousedeer (Tragulus javanicus). Pertanika 6(2):63-69. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wharton, D.C. 1987. Captive Management of Tragulids at New York Zoological Park. In Biology and Management of the Cervidae, C. Wemmer, ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anderson, J. 1981. Studies on digestion in Muntiacus reeves). M.Phil. thesis. Cambridge University. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barrette, C. 1977. The social behavior of captive muntjac Muntiacus reeves) (Ogilby  1839). Zeitschrift f-r Tierpsychologie 43: 188-213.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaplin, R.E. 1977. Deer. Blandford Press, Poole, Dorset, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chapman, D.I., N.G. Chapman, J.G. Mathews, and D.H. Wurster-Hill. 1983. Chromosome  studies of feral muntjac (Muntiacus sp.) in England. Journal of Zoology, London  201:557-559.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dansie, O. 1970. Muntjac. British Deer Society, Welwyn Garden City, England. 22 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1970. L'organisation spatiale et sociale de Muntiacus reeves) Ogilby 1839 en  semi-liberte. Mammalia 34:331-355.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1971. Observations Tthologiques sur le muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak  Zimmermann 1780 et Muntiacus reeves) Ogilby 1839) en captivitT et semi-libertT.  Zeitschrift fdr Tierpsychologie 28:387-427.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jackson, J.E., D.I. Chapman, and O. Dansie. 1977. A note on the food of muntjac deer  (Muntiacus reeves)). Journal of Zoology (London) 183:546-548.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lu Ho-gee and Sheng He-lin. 1984. Status of the black muntjac Muntiacus crinifrons, in  eastern China. Mammal Review 14(1):29-36.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oli, Madan K. 1986. Studies on stereotyped behavior of barking deer (Muntiacus  muntjak). M.S. dissertation, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhauvan  University, Kathmandu, Nepal. 84 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shi Liming, Ye Yingying, and Duan Xinsheng. 1980. Comparative cytogenetic studies on  the red muntjac, Chinese muntjac, and their Fl hybrids. Cytogenetics and Cell Genetics  26:22-7.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yonzon, Pralad B. 1978. Ecological studies on Muntaicus muntjack. Journal of Natural  History Museum (Nepal) 2(2):91-100.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1974. Feeding musk deer in captivity and collecting musk from the live  animal. Dongwuxue Zhazi, China 2:11-14.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1975. Preliminary experience in raising the survival rate of musk deer.  Dongwuxue Zhazi, China 1 :17-19.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bannikov, A.G., S.K. Ustinov, and P.N. Lobanov. 1980. The musk deer Moschus  moschiferus in the USSR. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural  Resources (IUCN), Gland, Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bi, S.Z., Y.H. Yan, Z.X. Qing, P.T. Sheng, Y.M. Wu, C.F. Chen, G.K. Yang, T.B. Yin,  and Y.J. Lu. 1980. Dissection and analysis of the musk gland of M. moschiferus and a  preliminary investigation into its histology. The Protection and Use of Wild Animals  (China) 1: 14-19.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green, M.J.B. 1978. Himalayan musk deer (Moschus moschiferus moschiferus). Pages  56-64 in Threatened Deer. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural  Resources (IUCN), Morges, Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green, M.J.B. 1985. The musk trade, with particular reference to its impact on the  Himalayan population of Moschus chrysogaster. In Conservation in Developir~g  Countries. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green, M.J.B. 1985. Aspects of the Ecology of the Himalayan Musk Deer. Ph.D.  dissertation, University of Cambridge, U.K. 280 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C.P. 1978. The taxonomy of Moschus, with particular reference to the Indian  Region. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 72:662-676.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holloway, C.W. 1973. Threatened deer of the world: conservation status. Biological  Conservation 5(4).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IUCN. 1974. Red Data Book: Mammalia. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), Morges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jamwal, P.S. 1972. Collection of deer musk in Nepal. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society 69(3):647-649.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seth, S.D., A. Muktiopadtiyay, K. Raghunatham, and R.B. Arora. 1975. Pharmodymamics of Musk. Central Council for Research on Indian Medicine and Homoeopathy, New Delhi, India.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zhang B. 1983. Musk-deer. Their capture, domestication and care according to Chinese experience and methods. Unasylva 35(139):16-24.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zhang, B.L., F.M. Dang, and B.S. Li. 1979. The Farming of Musk Deer. Agricultural Publishing Company, Peking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaplin, R.E. 1977. Deer. Blandford Press, Poole, Dorset, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cooke, A. and L. Farrell. 1983. Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis). British Deer Society Publication No. 2. Elvy and Gibbs, Canterbury, UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feer, F. 1982. Quelques observations Tthologiques sur l'Hydropote de chine, Hydropotes inennis (Swinhoe, 1870) en captivitT. Zeitschrift fitr Saeugetierkunde 47: 175-185.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheng Helin and L. Housl. 1984. A preliminary study on the river deer (Hydropotes inermis) population of Shoushau Island (China) and adjacent islets. Acta Theriologica Sinica 4:161-166.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dittrich, L. 1972. Beobachtungen bei der Haltung von Cephalophus-Arten sowie zur Fortpflanzung und Jugendentwicklung von C. dorsalis und C. rufilatus in gefangenschaft. Zoologische Garten Lpz (N.F.) 42:1-16.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubost, G. 1980. L'Tcologie et la vie sociale du cTphalophe bleu (Cephalophus monticola Thunberg), petit ruminant forestier africain. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 54: 205-266.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R.l.M. and E.P. Dunbar. 1979. Observations on the social organisation of common duiker in Ethiopia. African Journal of Ecology 17:249-252.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R.I.M. and E.P. Dunbar. 1980. Animal Behaviour 28:219.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ketelhodt, H.F. Von. 1977. The lambing interval of the blue duiker, Cephalophus monticola Gray in captivity, with observations on its breeding and care. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 7:41-43.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralls, K. 1975. Agonistic behavior in Maxwell's duiker, Cephalophus max~elli. Marnrnalia 39:241-249.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schweers, S. 1984. The reproductive biology of the banded duiker Cephalophus zebra in comparison with other species of Cephalophus. Zeitschrift fur Saeugetierkunde 49(1):21-36.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whittle, C. and P. Whittle. 1977. Domestication and breeding of Maxwell's duiker. The Nigerian Field 42(4):13-21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antelope</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Spinage, C.A. 1986. The Natural History of Antelopes. Christopher Helm, UK. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Klipspringer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R. and P. Dunbar. 1974. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 35:481-493.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R.I.M. 1979. Energetics, thermoregulation and the behavioural ecology of klipspringer. African Journal of Ecology 17:217-230.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunbar, R. I . M . and E. P. Dunbar. 1 980 . The pairbond in klipspringer. A nimal Beha vior 28:219-229.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dikdik</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hendricks, H. 1975. Zeitschrift fdr Tierpsychologie 38:55-69.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feer, F. 1979. Observations Tcologiques sur le neotrague de Bates (Neltragus bates) de Winton, 1903, Artiodactyle, ruminant, Bovide) du nord-est du gabon. Terre et vie 33: 159-239.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P.P. 1975. Acta Physiol. Scand. 95, 9A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P. P. 1 976 . Tritiated water turnover in Kirk' s dikdik, Madoqua (Rhynchotragus) kirk), Gunther, 1880. Zeischrift far Sadgetierkunde, Mitt. 24:318-319.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P.P. 1977. How to survive heat and aridity: ecophysiology of the dikdik antelope. Veterinary Medical Review 1:77-86.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P.P. 1977. Comparison of voluntary food and water intake and digestion in Kirk's dik-dik and suni. East African Wildlife Journal 15:41-48.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P.P. 1977. Rumen fermentation and body weight in African ruminants. Pages 141-150 in Proceedings 13th International Congress of Game Biologists, T.J. Peterle, ed. Wildlife Society, Washington, D.C., USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoppe, P. 1984. Strategies of digestion in African herbivores. Pages 222-243 in Herbivore Nutrition in the Tropics and Subtropics. F.M.C. Gilchrist and R.I. Machie, eds. The Science Press, South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hungate, R.E., G.D. Phillips, A. McGregor, D.P. Hungate, and H.K. Buechner. 1959. Microbial fermentation in certain mammals. Science 130:1192-1194.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Morat, P. and M. Nording. 1978. Maximum food intake and passage of markers in the alimentary tract of the lesser mouse-deer. Malaysian Applied Biology 7:11-17.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yalden, D.W., M.J. Largen, and D. Kock. 1984. Catalogue of the mammals of Ethiopia. 5. Artiodactyla. Monitore Zoologico Italiano Supplemento 19:67-221.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIZARDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burghardt, G.M. and A.S. Rand, eds. 1982. Iguanas of the World: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Noyes, Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitch, H.S. and R.W. Henderson. 1977. Age and Sex Differences, Reproduction and Conservation of Iguana iguana. Milwaukee Public Museum Press. Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hirth, H.F. 1963. Some aspects of the natural history of Iguana iguana on a tropical strand. Ecology 44:613-615.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Klein, E.H. 1982. Reproduction of the green iguana (Iguana iguna L.) in the tropical dry forest of southern Honduras. Brenesia 19/20:301-310. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lazell, J.D., Jr. 1973. The lizard genus Iguana in the Lesser Antilles. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University 145(1):1-28.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamsitt, J.R. and D. Valdivieso. 1963. The herpetofauna of the Caribbean Islands San Andres and Providencia. Revista de Biologfa Tropical 11(2): 131- 139. (Copies available from C. LardT, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Van Devender, R.W. 1982. Growth and ecology of spiny-tailed and green iguanas in Costa Rica. with comments on the evolution of herbivory and large body size. Pages 162-183 in Iguanas of the World. Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Noyes, Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Werner, D. and T. Miller. 1984. Artificial nests for female green iguanas. Herpetological Review 15(2):57-58.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Werner, D. 1986. Iguana management in Central America. BOSTID Developments 6(1). 4 pp. (Available from BOSTID Publications, HA 476, National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burghardt, G.M. and A.S. Rand, eds. 1982. Iguanas of the World: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Noyes, Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitch, H.S. and R.W. Henderson. 1978. Ecology and exploitation of Ctenosaura similis. University of Kansas Science Bulletin 51 :483-500. (Copies available from the authors, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitch, H.S., R.W. Henderson, and D.M. Hillis. 1982. Exploitation of Iguanas in Central America. In Iguanas of the World: Behavior, Ecology, and Consen~ation. Noyes, Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iverson, J.B. 1979. Behavior and ecology of the rock iguana, Cyclura carinata. Bulletin of the Florida State Museum Biological Science 24(3):175-358.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Martinez, M.G. 1986. Habitos alimenticios de iguanas y garrobos. La Prensa Grafica, San Salvador, May 5:55. (Copies available from G. LardT, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sanchez, S.A. 1985. El garrobo. El Diario de Hoy, San Salvador June 18:36. (Copies available from G. LardT, see Research Contacts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tegu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donadio, O.K. and J.M. Gallardo. 1984. Biologia y Conservacion de las Especies del GTnero Tupinambis (Squamata, Sauria Teiidae) en la Republica Argentina. Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales 'Bernardino Rivadavia" Zoologia, 13(11):117-127. Agosto.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Revision Bibliografica de algunos aspectos de la Biologfa conservacion y explotacion de los lagartos del gTnero topinambis (Daudin, 1803) by Laura Venturino, Dr. Thesis, Universidad de la Republic (Uruguay) 1983).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report to World Wildlife Fund, USA, Biologia y aprovechamiento de una poblacion de Tupinambis references, by Claudio Blanco and Leohor Pessina (1985).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the publications listed, many countries run beekeeping programs, and have literature and extension services available based on local experiences. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The International Bee Research Association (IBRA) publishes a Newsletter for Beekeepers in Tropical and Subtropical Countries twice each year. Its purpose is to provide a forum for exchange of information about beekeeping. The Newsletter is funded by the United Kingdom Overseas Development Agency (ODA) and is distributed free of charge to those in developing countries involved with beekeeping. Write to the International Bee Research Association, 18 North Road, Cardiff CFI 3DY, United Kingdom, for subscription information. The IBRA can also provide information on forthcoming conferences, grant programs, and the names of other beekeepers in your country. The International Agency for Apiculture Development (IAAD) publishes a quarterly newsletter called Cornucopia that contains articles from beekeepers around the world, especially from the developing world. It provides information on producing, selling, and manufacturing hive products on a local level and discusses agroforestry and the pest and pesticide problems of honeybees. Write to Cornucopia, c/o M. Coleman, 6N 909 Roosevelt Avenue, St. Charles, Illinois 60174, USA, for a free sample. Subscriptions are $12 a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adjare, S. 1984. The Golden Insect: a Handbook on Beekeeping for Beginners. Technology Consultancy Centre, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana, in association with Intermediate Technology Publications, Ltd., 9 King Street, Covent Garden, London, WC2 E8HN, UK. 103 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anderson, R.H., B. Buys, and M.F. Johannsmeier. 1983. Beekeeping in South Africa. Department of Agriculture BuHetin No. 394. Pretoria, South Africa. 207 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bradbear, N. and D. De Jong. 1985. The management of africanized honeybees. IBRA Leaflet No. 2. International Bee Research Association (IBRA). Available in English or Spanish from Hill House, Gerrards Cross, Buckinghamshire SL9 ONR, UK. 4 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clauss, B. 1982. A Beekeeping Handbook. Agricultural Information Service, Gaborne, Botswana. 65 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crane, E., P. Walker, and R. Day. 1984. Honey plants of the world. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO. 1984. Proceedings of the expert consultation on beekeeping with Apis mellifera in tropical and sub-tropical Asia. 9-14 April, 1984. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Tropical Region, Paliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok, Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gentry, C. 1984. Small Scale Beekeeping. Manual M-17. Peace Corps, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IBRC. 1976. Apiculture in Tropical Climates. E. Crane, ed. Full report of the First Conference. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IBRC. 1982. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Apiculture in Tropical Climates. New Delhi, 1980. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IBRC. 1985. Proceedings of the Third international Conference on Apiculture in Tropical Climates. Nairobi, Kenya, November 5-9, 1984. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IBRC. 1988. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Apiculture in Tropical Climates. Cairo, Egypt, November 1988. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kigatiira, K.I. 1974. Hive Designs for Beekeeping in Kenya. Proceedings Entomological Society of Ontario 105:118-128.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McGregor, S.E. 1976. Insect Pollination of Cultivated Crop Plants. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 496. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 411 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Razafindrakoto, C. 1972. Beekeeping in Madagascar. UniversitT Paul-Sabaier de Toulouse, France. 123 pp. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sammataro, D. 1985. Beekeeping in the Philippines. 2nd edition. International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sammataro, D. and A. Avitabile. 1986. Beekeepers Handbook. 2nd edition. Collier Books' MacMillan Co., New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saubolle, B.R, and A. Bachmann. 1979. Beekeeping: an Introduction to Modern Beekeeping in Nepal. Sahayogi Prahashan, Tripureshwar, Kathmandu, Nepal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Silberrad, Roger E.M. n.d. Beekeeping in Zambia. Apimondia. Available through the International Bee Research Association, London.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, S. 1964. Beekeeping in India. Silver Jubilee Publication of the Entomological Society of India. Entomological Society of India, New Delhi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Smith, Francis G. 1960. Beekeeping in the Tropics. Western Printing Service, Bristol UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Townsend, G.F. 1978. Preparation of Honey for Market. Ministry of Agriculture and Food Publication 544. Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Ontario, Canada.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Townsend, G.F. 1976. Transitional hives for use with the tropical African bee Apis mellifera adansonii. Pages 181-189 in Apiculture in Tropical Climates. E. Crane, ed. Full report of the First Conference. International Bee Research Association, London. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">B Research Contacts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section includes the names and addresses of individuals and institutions who are familiar with the animal listed. Each person has agreed to answer requests for information and advice. This personal follow-through is the main way this book can stimulate the development of microlivestock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICROBREEDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microcattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Ahunu, Animal Science Department, University of Ghana, P.O. Box 25, Legon, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Andres Poli, EEA San Luis INTA, CC 17, 5730 Mercedes (SL), Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.B. Bareeba, Department of Animal Science, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Bennett, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Berruecos V., School of Veterinary Medicine and Zoology, Universidad Nacional Aut6noma de MTxico, Ciudad Universitaria, Alvaro Obreg6n, 04510, Mexico D.F., Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cai Li, Animal Science and Veterinary Research Institute, Southwest College of Minority Nationalities, Chengdu, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), A.P. 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.L. Chan, B4-5 Nanyang Mansion, Shenzhen, Guangdong, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Y. Cheneau, Institut d'Elevage et de MTdecine VTtTrinaire des Pays Tropicaux, Laboratoire de Farcha, BP 433, N'Djamena, Chad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheng Peilieu, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.R. Cockrill, 29 Downs Park West, Bristol BS6 7QH, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.H. Conrad, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cunha, P.O. Box R, La Verne, California 91750, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.E. Deppner, Trees for the Future, 11306 Estona Drive, Silver Spring, Maryland 20902, USA (breeds of the Himalayas, East Indies)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Agriculture Food and Nutrition Sciences Division, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Tanglin P.O. Box 101, 9124 Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.l. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director, Agriculture and Forestry, PB 13184, Windhoek 9000, Namibia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.M.S. Duarte, Instituto de Investigatao Veterinaria, C.P. 7, Huambo, Angola</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Felius, Kerkhoflaan 47C, 3034 TA Rotterdam, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fleharty, American Dexter Cattle Association, R.R. #1, Box 378, Concordia, Missouri 64020. USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Garcia Lagombra, Animal Husbandry Department, Universidad Nacional "Pedro Henriquez Urena," Decanato Ciencias Agropecuarias, Km 5~/z Aut. Duarte, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Gebreab, College of Veterinary Science, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.F.W. Haenlein, Department of Animal Science and Agricultural Biochemistry University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19717-1303, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Z.B. Jensen, Animal and Dairy Science Research Institute, PB X02, Irene, Transvaal 1675, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jin Xizhen, Animal Science and Veterinary Research Institute, Southwest College of Minority Nationalities, Chengdu, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Kitsopanidis, Faculty of Agriculture, Aristotelian University of Thessaloniki, University Campus, Thessaloniki, Greece</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.E. Kodituwakku, Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.M. Konnerup, 74 North Sunrise Boulevard, Camano Island, Washington 98292, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.Y.L. Li, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, South China Agricultural College, Ghangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Loosli, 406 S.W. 40th Street, Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.B. Lwoga, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3000, Morogoro, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Martinez Balboa, Legaspy 1025, Apartado Postal 43, 23000, La Paz, Baja California Sur, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Masam, Livestock Training Institute, Tengeru, P.O. Box 3101, Arusha, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.P. Maule, Hannahfield Quarry House, 578 Lanark Road West, Balerno, Midlothian EH 14 7BN, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Mazid, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Aleppo, Aleppo, Syria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.R. McDowell, Department of Animal Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Morgan, College of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies, University of Juba, P.O. Box 82, Juba, Sudan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.B. Mpiri, Livestock Production Research Institute, Private Bag, Mpwapwa, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ni Shicheng, Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Zhejiang Agricultural University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Nikolov, Institute of Cattle and Sheep Breeding, 6000 Stara Zagora, Bulgaria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. Olson, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.W. Perry, Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Pirchner, Technical University of Munich, D-8050 Munich-Weihenstephan, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramamohana Rao, Postgraduate Studies, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soedomo Reksohadiprodjo, Department of Animai Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Sekip Blok N-42, Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.Y. Robles, Dairy Training and Research Institute, University of the Philippines at Los Banos, College, Laguna 3732, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sie Cheuxia, Department of Animal Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.D. Tillman, 523 West Harned Place, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.C.M. Trail, Livestock Productivity and Trypanotolerance Group, International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.C. Warnick, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microgoat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.A. Adebowale, Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, University of Ife, Moor Plantation, P.M.B. 5029, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.A. Adeloye, Faculty of Agriculture, Adeyemi College of Education, Onjo, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.A. Ademosun, Department of Animal Science, University of Ife, lle-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.F. Adu, N.A.P.R.I., Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.A. Akinbode, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Akinsoyinu, Department of Animal Science, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Akonji, Institut de Recherches Zootechniques, Office National de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique (ONAREST), B.P. 65, Yaounde, Cameroon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baik Dong Hoon, Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture, Jeonbug National University, JEONJU, 520, Republic of Korea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S.F. Barker, Department of Animal Science, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Boateng, Cooperative Extension Service, University of the Virgin Islands, Box L, Kingshill, St. Croix, Virgin Islands 00850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.E. Bradford, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.S. Browne, Nutrition Consulting Services, P.O. Box 788, St. Thomas, Virgin Islands 00801, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.D. Bunch, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.C. Cartwright, Department of Animal Science, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), A.P. 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Agriculture Food and Nutrition Sciences Division, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Tanglin P.O. Box 101, 9124 Singapore, Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. Fitzhugh, Winrock International, Route 3, Petit Jean Mountain, Morrilton, Arkansas 72110, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.C. Foote, Utah State University International Sheep and Goat Institute, UNC 48, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.R. Gerona, Department of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.F.W. Haenlein, Department of Animal Science and Agricultural Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19717-1303, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Essa Haid, Essa International, Inc., 2550 M Street, Suite 405, Washington, D.C. 20037, USA (small East African)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Harding, Agrarian Society, Palazzo de la Salle, Valletta, Malta</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.A. Hasnath, Department of Animal Husbandry, Bangladesh Agricultural University, P.O. Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.S. Hoversland, Division of Research Grants, National Institutes of Health, 5333 Westbard Avenue, Bethesda, Maryland 20205, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Hulse, National Pygmy Goat Association, RFD #1, Fern Avenue, Amesbury, Massachusetts 01913, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.P. Husband, Department of Natural Resource Science, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, USA (bezoar, agrimi) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Hutchins, 2535 Halsted Road, Apartment 1, Rockford, Illinois 61103, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Iba+ez Herrera, Paraguay 160-Urbanizacion, Apartado 315, El Recreo, Trujillo, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Karam Shah, Livestock Experimental Station Rakh Khairewala, District Muzaffergarh, Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Katongole, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Makerere University, PO Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Kiwuwa, Department of Animal Science, Makerere University, PO Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.Y.L. Li, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, South China Agricultural College, Ghangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.R. Lincicome, Animal Parasitology Institute, U.S. Department of Agric£lture, Building 1180, BARC-East, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Chengxiang, Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science Research Institute, Guang^ dong Agricultural Academy, Guangdong, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Loosli, 406 S.W. 40th Street, Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Mahyuddin Dahan, Department of Animal Sciences, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C.H. Mandari, Livestock Research Centre, West Kilimanjaro, P.O. Box 103, Hai, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Mann, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University of Giessen, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Martinez Balboa, Legaspy 1025, Apartado Postal 43, 23000, La Paz, Baja California Sur, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Mecha, Department of Animal Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Anambra State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Metcalf, School of Medicine, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Khusahry Mohd Yusuff, Malaysian Agricultural and Research Institute (MARDI), G.P.O. Box 12301, Kuala Lumpur 01-02, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Monsi, Departments of Animal Science/Food Science and Technology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, P.M.B. 5080, Port Harcourt, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Montsma, Klomperweg 79, 6741 PD, Lunteren, Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Moore, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.M. Munyabuntu, Department of Animal Science, P.O. Box 7062, Makerere University' Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Th. Murayi, Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda, P.O. Box 138, Butare, Rwanda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.N.M. Mwenya, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Zambia, Box 32379, Lusaka, Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Nivyobizi, FacultT des Sciences Agronomiques, UniversitT du Burundi, BP 2940, Bujumbura, Burundi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Norman, Tropical Development Research Institute, 56/62 Gray's Inn Road, London WCIX 8LU, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Okello-Lapenga, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Makerere University, PO Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ramahefarison, DTpartement de Recherches Zootechniques et VTtTrinaires tCENRADERU), BP 904, Amatobe, Antananarivo, Madagascar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramamohana Rao, Postgraduate Studies, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.K. Rastogi, Department of Livestock Science, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad, West Indies </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Rasul, District Forest Officer &amp; Wildlffe Warden, P.O. Box 501, Gilgit (northern area), Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Rattner, Institute of Animal Research, Kibbutz Lahav, Israel (Sinai goat, ya-ez hybrids)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soedomo Reksohadiprodjo, Department of Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Sekip Blok N-42, Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Repollo, Jr., Palawan National Agricultural College, Aborlan, Palawan, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.Y. Robles, Dairy Training and Research Institute, University of the Pbilippines, Los Banos, Laguna 3732, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Rocha, Instituto de Reprodutao e Melhoramento Animal, C.P. 25, Matola, Mozambique</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Rodriguez, Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), Autopista Duarte Km 24, Apartado 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Nasim Siddiqi, Zoology Department, University of Peshawar, N.W.F.P., Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Shelton, Texas A &amp; M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA (criollo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Shkolnik, Department of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.C. Simpson, Cameroon Road, Prairie View A&amp;M University, Prairie View, Texas 77445, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sie Chenxia, Department of Animal Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People's Republic of Cbina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Wahome, Department of Animal Production, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Watts, Animal Science Department, Natural Resources Development College, Lusaka, Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Wood, Highland Game Farm, Route 4, Box 450, Alexandria, Indiana 46001, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.P. Husband, Department of Natural Resources Science, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Microsheep</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.A. Adebowale, Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, University of Ife, Moor Plantation, P.M.B. 5029, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.F. Adu, N.A.P.R.I., Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.A. Akinbode, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Akinsoyinu, Department of Animal Science, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Amin, Jammu and Kashmis State Sheep and Shearing Products Development Board, Nowshera, Srinigar, Kashmir 190 011, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ahmad Mustaffa B. HJ. Babjee, Veterinary Services Department, Ibu Pejabat Perkhidmatan Haiwan, Kementerian Pertanian, Malaysia, Jalan Mahameru, Kuala Lumpur 10-02, Malaysia (grazing in rubber plantations)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S.F. Barker, Department of Animal Science, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, 2351, Australia (Indonesian breeds)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Boateng, Cooperative Extension Service, College of the Virgin Islands, Box L, Kingshill, St. Croix, Virgin Islands 00850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.E. Bradford, University of Calffornia, Davis, Calffornia 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Breckle, U.S. Forest Service, Alsea, Oregon 97324, USA (grazing sheep in forests)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. Bunch, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA (Iranian thin-tailed, Navajo, wild-sheep hybrids)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Carpio P., Departamento de Produccion Animal, Universidad Nacional Agraria, Apartado 456, La Molina, Lima, Peru </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), A.P. 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Cottrell, Pippin Farm, 3081 Goshen Road, Bellingham, Washington 98226, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Courtney, Veterinary Faculty, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Deller, Virgin Islands Department of Agriculture, St. Thomas, Virgin Islands 00820, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Dettmers, 5620 Longwood Avenue, Port Charlotte, Florida 33953, USA (West African dwarf)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Agricultural Food and Nutrition Sciences Division International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Tanglin P.O. Box 101, 9124 Singapore, Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.l. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Drew, Invermay Agricultural Research Centre, Private Bag, Mosgiel, New Zealand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. El Amin, Department of Animal Husandry, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Khartoum, P.O. Box 32, Khartoum North, Sudan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gholam-Hossein Erabi, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz, Tabriz 51664, Iran</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. Fitzhugh, Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development, Route 3, Petit Jean Mountain, Morrilton, Arkansas 72110, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Foote, Animal' Dairy, and Veterinary Science Department, UNC 48, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA (Virgin Islands white hair, wild-sheep hybrids)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.-H. Gueye, Centre de Recherches Zootechniques de Kolda, Institut SenTgalais de Recherches Agricoles, (ISRA), B.P. 53, Kolda, Senegal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Garcia Lagombra, Animal Husbandry Department, Universidad Nacional "Pedro Henriquez Urena," Decanato Ciencias Agropecuarias, Km 5 1/2 Aut. Duarte, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.F.W. Haenlein, Department of Animal Science and Agricultural Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19717-1303, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Henson, Bemborough, Guiting Power, Cheltenham, Gloucester, UK (rare breeds)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Ibanez Herrera, Paraguay 160 - Urbanizacion, Apartado 315, El Recreo, Trujillo, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Jewell, Department of Physiology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 ITN, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jones Sheep Farm, RR 2 Box 185-55, Peabody, Kansas 66866, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.E. Loggins, Animal Science Department, 108-D Suite, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Loosli, 406 S.W. 40th Street, Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C.H. Mandari, Livestock Research Centre, West Kilimanjaro, P.O. Box 103, Hai, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.P. Maule, Hannahfield Quarry House, 578 Lanark Road West, Balerno, Midlothian EH14 7BN, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.K. McNeal, Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Science Department, UNC 48, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Mecha, Department of Animal Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Anambra State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Monsi, Department of Animal Science, Food Science and Technology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, P.M.B. 5080, Port Harcourt, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.M. Munyabuntu, Department of Animal Science, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Th. Murayi, Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda, P.O. Box 138, Butare, Rwanda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.N.M. Mwenya, School of Agriculture Sciences, University of Zambia, Box 32379, Lusaka,  Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Ngendahayo, Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda, B.P. 138, Butare, Rwanda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Njwe, DTpartement des Sciences Animales, Ecole Nationale SupTrieure Agronomique, Centre  Universitaire de Dschang, B.P. 138, YaoundT, United Republic of Cameroon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J.A. Payne, 91 Bedwardine Road, London SE19 3AY, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington,  Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.V. Raghavan, Animal Science Department, College of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh  Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, Andhra Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramamohana Rao, Postgraduate Studies, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University,  Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.K. Rastogi, Department of Livestock Science, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine,  Trinidad, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soedomo Reksohadiprodjo, Department of Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Husbandry,  Universitas Gadjah Mada, Sekip Blok N-42, Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.Y. Robles, Dairy Training and Research Institute, University of the Philippines at Los Banos,  College, Laguna 3732, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Rocha, Instituto de Reprodutao e Melhoramento Animal, C.P. 25, Matola, Mozambique</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Ryder, c/o H.F.R.O., Bush Estate, Penicuik, Edinburgh, UK (Barbados blackbelly, wool)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sie Chenxia, Department of Animal Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, People's  Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. David Simpson, Range and Wildlife Department, Texas Tech University, P.O. Box 4349,  Lubbock, Texas 79409, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.E. Terrill, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Building 005, BARC-West, Beltsville, Maryland 20705,  USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.N. Turner, Genetics Research Laboratories, CSIRO, P.O. Box 184, North Ryde, New South  Wales 2113, Australia (Indonesian breeds)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Vaccaro, Universidad Nacional Agraria, La Molina, P.O. Box 456, Lima, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Wahome, Department of Animal Production, P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Wildeus, College of the Virgin Islands, Agricultural Experiment Station, R.R. 2, Box 10051  Kingshill, St. Croix, Virgin Islands 00850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wu Jitang, Animal and Veterinary Science, Jiangsu Province Academy of Agricultural Sciences,  Nanjing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Yenikoye, FacultT d'Agronomie, UniversitT de Niamey, B.P. 10662, Niamey, Niger</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Micropig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.A. Akinbode, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,  University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Andrews, Mesoamerican Ecology Institute, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118, USA (Yucatan pig)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Ashton-Peach, Box 17, Ohaeawai, Bay of Islands, New Zealand (kunekune)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Berruecos V. Muz, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico D.F., Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Blakely, Sedgwick County Zoo, Wichita, Kansas 67203, USA (Ossabaw)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Boateng, Cooperative Extension Service, University of the Virgin Islands, Box L., Kingshill, St. Croix, Virgin Islands 00850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.L. Brisbin, Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, P.O. Drawer E, Aiken, South Carolina 29801, USA (Ossabaw)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Bustad, Veterinary School, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, 99163, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Catibog-Sinha, Forest Products Research and Development Institute, College, Laguna 4031, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Investigaciones Pecuarias (CENIP), A.P. 227-9, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles River Laboratories, Inc., 251 Ballardvale Street, Wilmington, Massachusetts 01887-0630, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.H. Conrad, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cunha, PO Box R, LaVerne, California 91750, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Dederer, 712 Brown Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19123, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Dettmers, 5620 Longwood Avenue, Port Charlotte, Florida 33953, USA (miniature pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Agriculture Food and Nutrition Sciences Division, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Tanglin P.O. Box 101, 9124 Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Edgar, Greenhill, I R.D., Balfour, Southland, New Zealand (kunekune)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Hendricks, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-4815, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.J. Hepburn, Swine Program, Charles River Laboratories, 251 Ballardvale Street, Wilmington, Massachusetts 01887-0630, USA (laboratory pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Holbrook, Aria Road' via Te Kuiti, New Zealand (kunekune)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.R. Hook, Jr., Sinclair Medical Research Farm, University of Missouri, Route 3, Columbia, Missouri 65203, USA (laboratory pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.O. Ilori, Faculty of Agriculture, University of If e, Ile-Ife, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. E. Kodituwakku, Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Loosli, 406 S.W. 40th Street' Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.H. Maner, Winrock International, Route 3, Petit Jean Mountain, Morrilton, Arkansas 72110, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.J. Mayer, Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, P.O. Drawer E, Aiken, South Carolina 29801, USA (Ossabaw)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Monsi, Departments of Animal Science/Food Science and Technology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, P.M.B. 508O, Port Harcourt, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Mtimuni, Livestock Production Department, Bunda College of Agriculture, University of Malawi, P.O. Box 219, Lilongwe, Malawi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.G. Mugisa, c/o Insure Consult, P.O. Box 30002, Nakivubo, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mull, 2834 Hamner Avenue #208, Norco, California 91760, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.L.R. Oliver, Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group, Jersey Wildlife Prescrvation Trust, Les AugrFs Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, UK (pigmy hog) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Panepinto, Redstone Canyon, P.O. Box 105, Masonville, Colorado 80541, USA (miniature pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J.A. Payne, 91 Bedwardine Road, London SE19 3AY, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.C. Perdomo, Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Suinos e Aves, BR 153, km 110, CP D-3, 89700 Concordia, SC, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA (Chinese breeds)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.G. Pond, Meat Animal Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Box 166, Clay Center, Nebraska 68933, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Popenoe, International Programs in Agriculture, 3028 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA (New Guinea pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.S. Reddi, CoHege of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Tirupati 517 502, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Avendano Reyes, Instituto Nacional de las Investigaciones sobre los Recursos BiotTcnicos, (INIREB), Apartado Postal 97, MTrida, Yucatan, Mexico (Yucatan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Robinson, Robinson's Racing Pigs, 5809 20th Avenue South, Tampa, Florida 336195457, USA (miniature pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Arellano Sota, Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Casillo 10095, Santiago, Chile (Cuing)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Sriramamurty, College of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Tirupati 517 502, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.M. Swindle, Comparative Medicine/Lab Animal Resources, Medical University of South Carolina, 171 Ashley Avenue, Charleston, South Carolina 29425, USA (laboratory pigs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Tilakaratne, Veterinary Research Institute, Gannoruwa, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Wahome, Department of Animal Production, P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wu Jitang, Animal and Veterinary Science, Jiangsu Provincial Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yong Shen Lee, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">POULTRY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information on poultry can generally be obtained from local ministries of agriculture or veterinary and livestock services. However, another source is the World's Poultry Science Association (c/o Institut fur Kleintierzucht, Dornbergstrasse 25/27, Postfach 280, C-3100 Celle, Germany). It has over 5,000 members from 40 national groups. Its objectives are (1) to advance poultry science and the poultry industry, (2) to disseminate and facilitate the exchange of knowledge pertaining to all branches of the poultry industry, (3) to encourage the promotion of world poultry congresses and regional conferences, and (4) to cooperate with other international organizations. It maintains working groups to explore and assess research work on tropical poultry problems. The World's Poultry Science Journal is published 3 times a year. It has also published a multilingual poultry dictionary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicken</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ben-David, Poultry Production Specialist, 5, Azar Street, Holon 58291, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.L. Brisbin, Jr., Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, P.O. Drawer E, Aiken, South Carolina 29801, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Senior Livestock Specialist, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. Couch, Poultry Science Department, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Crawford, Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 0W0, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Cuca G., Institucion de Ensenanza e Investigacion en Ciencias Agricolas, Colegio de Postgraduados, Chapingo, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.O. Hawes, Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.H. Huang, Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Fifih Floor, 14 Wenchow Street, Taipei, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.H. Ketelaars, Department of Tropical Husbandry, P.O. Box 338, 6700 A.H. Wageningen, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.A. Latif, Department of Poultry Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Martoyo, Faculty of Animal Science, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Jalan Raya Pajajaran, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.T. Moran, Jr., Poultry Science Department, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849-4291, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ochetim, School of Agriculture, University of the South Pacific, Alafua Campus, Apia, Western Samo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Parks, Route 1, Box 47-C, Brookshire, Texas 77423, USA (Araucanian chicken)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apt.810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.L. Polley, Programme DTveloppement Plateau Bateke, CBZO, B.P. 4728, Kinshasa 2, Zaire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramakrishman, Center for Advanced Studies in Poultry Science, Kerala Agricultural University, Mannuthy 680 651, Kerala, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.V. Reddy, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Ross, Department of Animal Science, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Scott, 16 Spruce Lane, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Sexton, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Building 262, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Somes, Nutritional Sciences, Box U-17, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Sunde, Poultry Science Department, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duck</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.E. Abdelsamie, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Nutrition, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ahmed, Department of Poultry Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Bande, PATI, Popondetta Agricultural College, Box 131, Popondetta, Oro Province, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.S. Bird, Cherry Valley Farms Ltd., Rothwell, Lincoln LN7 6BR, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.D. Bulbule, Central Duck Breeding Farm, Government of India, Hessaraghatta, Bangalore 560 088, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.M. Cheng, Avian Genetics Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 2A2, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Dean, Cornell University Duck Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 217, Eastport, New York 11941, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Edwards, Agricultural and Food Engineering Division, Asian Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 2754, Bangkok 10501, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Fishelson, Department of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Ramat-ave, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Floresca, Department of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte 7127, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Godoy, Ingeniero Agronomio, Simon Bolivar 2397, Santiago, Chile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Hardjosworo, Fakultas Peternakan, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Henry, Cherry Valley Farms Limited, Divisional Offices, North Kelsey Moor, Lincoln LN7 6HH, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Hollander, Route 4, Box 168, Ames, lowa 5001O, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Hoffmann, Canning, Nova Scotia BOP IHO, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.H. Huang, Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Fifth Floor, 14 Wenchow Street, Taipei, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Ibanez H., Bolivar 451, Trujillo, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Z. Jungkaro, Research Institute for Inland Fisheries, Jalan Sempur No. 1, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A.R. Kamar, Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.H. Ketelaars, Department of Tropical Husbandry, P.O. Box 338, 6700 A.H. Wageningen, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I.P. Kompiang, BaliPenelitianTernak, P.O. Box 123, Bogor 16001, WestJava, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.A. Latif, Department of Poultry Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Martoyo, Faculty of Animal Science, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Jalan Raya Pajajaran, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Mongin, Station de Recherches Avicoles, I.N.R.A., Nouzilly 37380 Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.T. Moran, Jr., Poultry Science Department, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849-4291, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ochetim, School of Agriculture, University of the South Pacific, Alafua Campus, Apia, Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Pingel, Karl-Marx-Universitat, Sektion TV, Lehrstuhl Geflugel- und Pelztierzucht, 7010 Leipzig, Stephanstrasse 12, Germany </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Poernomo, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Jalan R.E. Martadinata 32, P.O. Box 52, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ramakrishman, Center for Advanced Studies in Poultry Science' Kerala Agricultural University, Mannuthy 680 651, Kerala, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Retailleau, Grimaud FrFres S.A., La CorbiFre, 49450 Roussay, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.S. Sandhu, Cornell University Duck Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 217, Eastport, New York 11941, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Scott, 16 Spruce Lane, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Shingari, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Tai, Taiwan Livestock Research Institute, 112 Farm Road Shin-hua, Tainan, Taiwan 71210</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Tangendjaja, Bali Penelitian Ternak, P.O. Box 123, Bogor 16001, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tian Fuh Shen, Department of Animal Husbandry, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10764, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.S. Tsai, Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, National Pintung Institute of Agriculture, Pintung, Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Romero Villanueva, Centro Tropical de Capacitaci6n Agropecuaria y Forestal, Apartado Postal #4S, Macuspana 86700 Tabasco, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildfowl Trust, Slimbridge, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yeong Shue Woh, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), G.P.O. No. 12301, 50774 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cha Tak Yimp, Poultry and Swine Unit, Department of Veterinary Services, Jalan Mahameru, 50630 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Geese</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many universities have a department of animal or poultry science that should know about the culture and management of these birds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Bande, PATI, Popondetta Agricultural College, Box 131, Popondetta, Oro Province, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.D. Chesterley, 4502 Loomis Trail, Blaine, Washington 98230, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Crawford, Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 0W0, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.l. Dim, Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Jackson, P.O. Box 3, Creenbank, Washington 98253, USA (weeder geese)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Fuan, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Mongin, Station de Recherches Avicoles, l.N.R.A., Nouzilly 37380, Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Ross, Department of Animal Science, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Shingari, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.R. Wilson, Poultry Science Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Fowl</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">American Guinea Club, c/o Angie Papp, 620 Payne Road, New Albany, Indiana 47150, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S.O. Ayeni, Kainji Lake Research Institute, P.M.B. 666, New Bussa, Kwara State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ben-David, 5, Azar Street, Holon 58291, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.S. Brah, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">X. Colonna C., 14 Cotham Road, Bristol BS6 6DR, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Dumont, Ecole Nationale SupTrieure des Sciences Agronomiques AppliquTes, 26, boulevard Docteur Petitjean 21100 Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Etches, Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NIG 2WI, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.F. Hutton, Garaina Farms, Scrubby Creek Road, Gympie MS: 115, Queensland 4570, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.N. Johnson, Natal Parks, Game and Fish Preservation Board, P.O. Box 661, Pietermaritzburg 3200, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;:M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Michie, Poultry Husbandry Division, North of Scotland College of Agriculture, Parkhead, Craibstone, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB2 9SX, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Mongin, Station de Recherches Avicoles, I.N.R.A., Nouzilly, 37380 Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ochetim, School of Agriculture, University of the South Pacific, Alafua Campus, Apia, Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. Okaeme, Wildlife/Range Division, Kainji Lake Research Institute, P.M.B. 666, New Bussa, Kwara State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S. Sandhu, Poultry Breeder, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Shingari, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Somes, Nutritional Sciences, Box U-17, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muscovy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.E. Abdelsamie, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Nutrition, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.P. Bilong, Department of Primary Industry, Monogastric Research Centre, P.O. Box 73, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. de Carville, Station de Recherches Avicoles, I.N.R.A., Centre de Tours, Nouzilly 37380, Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.D. Chesterley, 4502 Loomis Trail, Blaine, Washington 98230, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">X. Colonna C., 14 Cotham Road, Bristol BS6 6DR, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Dumont, Ecole Nationale SupTrieure des Sciences Agronomiques AppliquTes, 26, boulevard Docteur Petitjean 21100 Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.R. Gerona, Department of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barry Glofcheskie, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NIG 2WI, Canada (fly control)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread' P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Hollander, Route 4, Box 168, Ames, Iowa 50010, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Hoffmann, Canning, Nova Scotia BOP IH0, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.H. Huang, Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Fifth Floor, 14 Wenchow Street, Taipei, Taiwan (mule duck)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A.R. Kamar, Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Michie, Poultry Husbandry Division, North of Scotland College of Agriculture, Parkhead, Craibstone, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB2 9SX, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donald E. Mock, Department of Extension Entomology, 239 Waters Hall, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506-4004, USA (fly control)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Mongin, Station de Recherches Avicoles, I.N.R.A., Nouzilly 37380 Monnaie, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ochetim, School of Agriculture, University of the South Pacific, Alafua Campus, Apia, Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Pingel, Karl Marx Universitat, Sektion TV, Lehrstuhl Geflugel- und Pelztierzucht, 7010 Leipzig, Stephanstrasse 12, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Retailleau, Grimaud FrFres S.A., La CorbiFre, 494S0 Roussay, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Romboli, Le Quericole, Universita Delgi Studi di Pisa 56010 S. Piero A Grado, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.S. Sandhu, Cornell University Duck Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 217, Eastport, New York 11941, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Surgeoner, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NIG 2WI, Canada (fly control)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Tai, Taiwan Livestock Research Institute, 112 Farm Road Shin-hua. Tainan, Taiwan 71210</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigeon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.O. Alonge, Meat Hygiene and Preservation Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.M. Cheng, Avian Genetics Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 2A2, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Dillinger, 3201 Huffman Boulevard, Rockford, Illinois 61103, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.I. Dim, Animal Science Department, FacultyofAgriculture, AhmaduBello University, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.O. Hawes, Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469, U.S.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA (carrier pigeons) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.F. Hollander, Route 4, Box 168, Ames, lowa 5001O, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.A. Latif, Department of Poultry Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Y. Le HTnaff, Laboratoire de l'H(pital Avranches, Avranches, Cotentin, France (carrier pigeons)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A.R. Kamar, Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J. Miller, Department of Genetics, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Owen, 6520 Wiscasset Road, Bethesda, Maryland 20816, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Pena PTrez, Apartado Postal 23, La Nucia, Alicante, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Ross, Department of Animal Science, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.D. Roush, Green Valley Squab Farm, 1348 Green Valley Road, Folsom, California 9563O, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.S. Sandbu, Cornell University Duck Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 217, Eastport, New York 11941, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.S. Sim, Department of Animal Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta TOG 2P5, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.T. Wilson, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, North Devon EX37 9AS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many people raise Japanese quail. Probably the best way to locate a local source is to consult local pet stores, the county farm advisor's office, university faculty of agriculture, game-bird fanciers, and the like. Finding people with local research experience is usually most useful to beginners. Coturnix International, Inc., is a nonprofit organization with primary interests in promoting small domesticated food animal production for both youth training and improved nutrition. The use of coturnix (Japanese quail) for these purposes is already well established in a number of Michigan schools and in the Dominican Republic, with special emphasis on science projects, especially where nutritional inadequacies exist. The address is Coturnix International Inc., International Headquarters, 1111 Michigan Avenue, Box 250O, East Lansing, Michigan 48823, USA. Avian Sciences Department, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.M. Cheng, Avian Genetics Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 2A2, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.E. Deppner, Trees for the Future, 11306 Estona Drive, Silver Spring, Maryland 20902, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Holderread, P.O. Box 492, Corvallis, Oregon 97339, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Science and Animal Industries, Alabama AOcM University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.L. Marks, Genetics Unit, Room 107 Livestock-Poultry Building, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Marsh, Marsh Farms, 7171 Patterson Drive, Garden Grove, California 92641, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Martoyo, Faculty of Animal Science, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Jalan Raya Pajajaran, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Z. Abidin bin Mohd Noor, Department of Veterinary Services, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50630 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (chicken-quail hybrids)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.K. Pani, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar 243 122, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Pingel, Karl Marx Universitat, Sektion TV, Lehrstuhl Geflugel- und Pelztierzucht, 7010 Leipzig, Stephanstrasse 12, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Polin, Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.V. Reddy, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rodale Research Center, RD #1, Box 323, Kutztown, Pennsylvania 19530, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Ross, Department of Animal Science, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.K. Shingari, Department of Animal Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 006, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Somes, Nutritional Sciences, Box U-17, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Tempest, Heifer Project International, P.O. Box 808, Little Rock, Arkansas 72203, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. K. Varghese, Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1225, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Wakasugi, Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusaku, Nagoya, Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.R. Wilson, Poultry Science Department, Archer Road, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turkey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Berruecos V. Muz, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico D.F., Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Crawford, Department of Animaland Poultry Science, UniversityofSaskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Cuca G., Institucion de Ensenanza e Investigacion en Ciencias Agricolas, Colegio de Postgraduados, Chapingo, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.E. Nestor, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Pingel, Karl-Marx-Universitat, Sektion TV, Lehrstuhl Geflugel- und Pelztierzucht, 7010 Leipzig, Stephanstrasse 12, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Scott, 16 Spruce Lane, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.J. Sexton, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Building 262, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.G. Somes, Nutritional Sciences. Box U-17, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential New Poultry</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Duckett, P.O. Box 12378, 50776 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (barn owls)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.R. Marion, Department of Wildlife and Range Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA (chachalaca)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Smal, Wildlife Service, Sidmonton Place, Bray County, Wicklow, Ireland (barn owls) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RABBITS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic Rabbit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O. Aduku, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University,  P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Baselga, Departamento de Ciencia Animal, Escuela TTcnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agronomos, Camino de Vera 14, 46022 Valencia, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. de Blas, Departamento Alimentacion Animal, Escuela TTcnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agronomos, Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Castell6, Real Escuela Oficial y Superior de Avicultura (REOSA), Calle Plana Parafso, s/n  Arenys de Mar, Barcelona, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.B. Chawan, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and  Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.R. Cheeke, Rabbit Research Center, Department of Animal Science, Oregon State University,  Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Fekete, University of Veterinary Science, Department of Animal Nutrition, Budapest, Pf.2,  H-1400 Hungary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Fernandez C., Departamento de Ciencia Animal, Escuela TTcnica Superior de Ingenieros  Agronomos, Universidad PolitTcnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera, 14, 46022 Valencia, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Cervera Fras, Departamento de Ciencia Animal, Universidad PolitTcnica de Valencia, Apartado  22012, Valencia, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.J. Harris, Pel-Freez Rabbit Meat, Inc., P.O. Box 68, Rogers, Arkansas 72756, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A.B. Hundleby, Ciskei Agricultural Corporation Ltd., P.O. Box 59, Bisho, Ciskei, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. de Jong, Department of Tropical Animal Production, Marykeweg 40, 6709 P.G. Wageningen,  The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.A. Kamwanja, Bunda College of Agriculture, University of Malawi, P.O. Box 219, Lilongwe,  Malawi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Leyun, Instituto TTcnico Gesti6n Porcino (ITGP), Seccion Conejos, Ctra. del Sadar, s/n 31006  Pamplona (Navarra), Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Loliger, Lisztstrasse 20, 3100 Celle, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and  Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.P.E. Makhambera, Bunda College of Agriculture, University of Malawi, P.O. Box 219, Lilongwe,  Malawi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.I. McNitt, Center for Small Farm Research, Southern University, P.O. Box 11170, Baton Rouge,  Louisana 70813-1170, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Mgheni, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Animal Science and Production Department, P.O.  Box 3004, Morogoro, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Mitchell, Baptist Bible Institute, P.O. Box 301, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Norman, Tropical Products Institute, Culham, Abingdon, Oxfordshire OX14 3DA, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.N. Odonker, P.O. Box 11, Tsito-Awudome, Volta Region, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.C. Onwudike, Department of Animal Science, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.G. Partridge, Rowett Research Institute, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB2 9SB, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.M. Patton, Rabbit Research Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.J. Paya, Departamento de Microbiologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Avenida Puerta de Hierro, Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. PTrez, Departamento de Reproduccion Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias (INIA), Avenida Puerta de Hierro, s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.L. Polley, Programme DTveloppement Plateau Bateke, CBZO, B.P. 4728, Kinshasa 2, Zaire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Ramchurn, School of Agriculture, University of Mauritius, RTduit, Mauritius</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.E. Reed, Box 98, Markle, Indiana 46770, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Respaldiza, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias (INIA), Departamento de Higiene y Sanidad Animal, Calle Embajadores, 68, 28012 Madrid, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Retailleau, Grimaud FrFres S.A., La CorbiFre, 49450 Roussay, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Rodriguez, Departamento Microbiologia e Inmunologia, Facultad de Veterinaria, Calle Miguel Servet, numero 117, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Rodriguez de L., "Conejos" Centro de Investigacion Cientifica del Estado de MTxico A.C., Camino a Huexotla No. 5, San Miguel Coatlinchan, 56170 Texcoco, Estado de MTxico, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Schlolaut, Hessen Institute for Animal Production, Neu-Ulrichstein, 6313 Homberg, West Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.D. Semuguruka, Department of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3018, Chuo Kikuu Morogoro, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Sierra, Departamento Produccion Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Calle Miguel Servet, numero 117, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Valls, Institut de Recerce i Tecnologia Agroalimentaria (IRTA), Torre Marimon, 08140 Caldes de Montbui, Barcelona, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Zaragoza, Departamento de Genetica y Mejora, Facultad de Veterinaria, Calle Miguel Servet, numero 117, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODENTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agouti</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.J.R. Alho, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidade de Brasilia, 70910 Brazilia, DF, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.H. Baker, 302 North Strickland Street, Eagle Lake, Texas 77434-1841, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Bonilla Encizo, ICA Tibaitata, Apartado Aereo 151123, BogotG, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.D. Cuaron O., Instituto de Historia Natural, Apartado Postal No. 6, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas 29000, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.A. Deutsch, Parque Zoologico de Sao Paulo, SGo Paulo, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratorie d'Ecologie, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Frenkel, Department of Pathology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66013, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Escajadillo, Gorgas Memorial Laboratory, P.O. Box 935, APO Miami, Florida 340020012, USA OR Avenida Justo Arosemena 34-30, Apartado 6991, Panama 5, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Hallwachs, Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6018, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Hislop, Wildlife Section, Forest Division, Ministry of Food Production, Port-ofSpain, Trinidad and Tobago</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ingrand, I.N.R.A., Campus agronomique, B.P. 709, 97387 Kourou Cedex, French Guiana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.H. Janzen, Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Lavorenti, Animal Sciences Department, ESALQ Universidade de Sao Paulo, C.P. 9, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo 13.400, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.A. Meritt, Jr., 2200 North Cannon Drive, Chicago, IHinois 60614, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. de Alencar Moreira, EMBRAPA-CPATU, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, Caixa Postal 48, BelTm, Para 66000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.Ma. Rojas G., CATIE, 7170 Turrialba, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Santos, Fundatao Parque Zoologico de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smith, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smythe, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Box 2072, Balboa, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O. Sousa, Department of Microbiology, Cinuad Universitaria "Dr Octavio MTndez Pereira," El Cangregio, Apartado Estafeta Universitaria, Panama City, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.B. Taber, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. Woods, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capybara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.J.R. Alho, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidade de Brasilia, 70910 Brasilia, DF, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.P. Bland, Department of Veterinary Physiology, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Summerhall, Edinburgh EH9 IQH, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Bonilla Encizo, ICA Tibaitata, Apartado Aereo 151123, Bogota, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.R. Cheeke, Rabbit Research Center, Department of Animal Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cunha, P.O. Box R, LaVerne, California 91750, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.F. Eisenberg, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Golley, Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30601, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Gonzalez-Jimenez, Facultad de Agronomia, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Maracay, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Hemmer, Institute of Zoology, Johannes Gutenberg University, Anemonenweg 18, D-6500 Mainz-Ebersheim, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Howarth, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Ingrand, I.N.R.A., Campus agronomique, B.P. 709, 97387 Kourou Cedex, French Guiana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Konnerup, 74 North Sunrise Boulevard, Camano Island, Washington 98292, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Jackson, Terraza Turrado 80, 5730 Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Lavorenti, Animal Sciences Department, ESALQ Universidade de Sao Paulo, C.P. 9, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo 13.400, Brazil </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Lord, Biology Department, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, Pennsylvania 15705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.W. MacDonald, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. de Alencare Moreira, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, EMBRAPA-CPATU, Caixa Postal 48" BelTm, Para 66000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Muller-Haye, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Room F524, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Ojasti, Institute of Tropical Zoology, Apartado 47058, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas 1041A, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.L. Rondon, Departamento de Engenharia Florestal, Centro de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidada Federal de Mato Grosso, Cuiaba-MT, 78000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smith, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.E. Sollod, Section of International Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafton, Massachusetts 01536, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Sunquist, Route 1, Box 1434, Melrose, Florida 32666, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.B. Taber, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.D. Thelen, FAO Regional Of fice for Latin America and the Caribbean, CasiHa 10095, Santiago, Chile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coypu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.C. Carmichael, The Museum, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1045, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Chapman, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Contreras, Universidad Cat61ica de Valpariso, Avenida Brasi. 295O, Casilla 4059, Valparaiso, Chile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.-G. Klos, Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Aktiengesellschaft, Hardenbergplatz, 1000 Berlin 30, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Lutz, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Biology and Living Resources, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. de Alencar Moreira, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, Caixa Postal 48, BelTm, ParG, 66000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Szumiec, Experimental Fish Culture Station, Polish Academy of Sciences, Golysz 43-422 Chybie, Poland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. Woods, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giant Rat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Research Institute, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), P.O. Box 20, Achimota, Chana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.P. Bland, Department of Veterinary Physiology, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Summerhall, Edinburgh EH9 IQH, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Brinck, Ecology Building, Department of Animal Ecology, University of Lund, S223 62 Lund, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratorie d'Ecologie, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.C.D. Happold, Department of Zoology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.C. Heymans, BP 1910, Cotonou, Benin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Kamara, c/o Njala University College, Private Mail Bag, Freetown, Sierra Leone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.H. Knight, Kalahari Gemsbok Park, Private Bag X5890, Upington 8800, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Malekani, DTpartement de Biologie, FacultT des Sciences, UniversitT de Kinshasa, B.P. 190, Kinshasa XI, Zaire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Matthewman, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School for Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grasscutter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Alexander, Department of Biology, Natal University, King George V Avenue, Durban 4001, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.O.A. Asibey, Department of Game and Wildlife, Ministry Post Office, Accra, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.S. Ayensu, African Development Bank, 01 B.P. No. 1837, Abidjan 01, Ivory Coast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Baptist, Institute for Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics, University of Hohenheim (480), P.O. Box 700562, D-7000 Stuttgart 70, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.Y. Bimpong-Buta, Council for Law Reporting, P.O. Box M165, Accra, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Brinck, Department of Animal Ecology, University of Lund, Ecology Building, S223 62, Lund, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Dosso, Institut d'Ecologie Tropicale, Abidjan, Ivory Coast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.C.D. Happold, Department of Zoology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Hardouin, Institut de Medicine Tropicale "Prince Leopold," Nationalestraat 155, B2000 Antwerp, Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.C. Heymans, BP 1910, Cotonou, Benin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Hutton, Garaina Farms, Scrubby Creek Road, Gympie MS:115, Queensland 4570, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Kamara, c/o Njala University College, Private Mail Bag, Freetown, Sierra Leone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Laboratoire Centrale de Nutrition Animale (LACENA), B.P. 353, Abidjan 06, Ivory Coast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Food Science and Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.-P. Mack, Projet BTnino-Allemand Conseiller Technique auprTs du MDRAC, BP 504, Cotonou, Benin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.H.G. Martin, Department of Zoology, Kenyatta University College, P.O. Box 43844, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Matthewman, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Mensah, Responsable PBAA (Projet BTnino-Allemand d'Aulacodiculture), P.B. 2359, Cotonou, Benin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.A. Omole, Department of Animal Science, University of Ife, Ile-lfe, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.J. Peters, International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), P.O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Petter, MammifFres et Oiseaux, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle Zoologie, 55 rue de Buffon 75005, Paris, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Schr(der, Institute of Animal Breeding, Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 1, 3400 Gottingen, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.W. Thomas, Department of Biology, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec JIK 2RI, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">St. von Korn, Institute of Animal Breeding, Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 1, 3400 G(ttingen, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Walder, Presbyterian Rural Training Centre, P.O. Box 72, Bamenda, NW Province, Cameroon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.P. Bilong, Department of Pimary Industry, Monogastric Research Centre, P.O. Box 73, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.P. Bland, Department of Physiology, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Summerhall, Edinburgh EH9 IQH, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Bolton, Department of Anthropology, Pomona College, Claremont, California 91711, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Bonilla Encizo, ICA Tibaitata, Apartado Aereo 151123, Bogota, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Camoens, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila 2800, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Del Carpio R., Facultad de Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional "Pedro Ruiz Gallo," Calle Atahualpa No. 179, Apartado 48, Lambayeque, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.R. Cheeke, Rabbit Research Center, Department of Animal Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cunha, P.O. Box R, LaVerne, California 91750, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Descailleux, Laboratorio GenTtica Humana, C.P. 11010, Lima 14, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Ferguson, Overseas Development Administration, Eland House, Stug Place, London, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Fielding, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RC, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Frenkel, Department of Pathology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66013, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Hardouin, Institut de MTdecine Tropicale "Prince Leopold," Nationalestraat IS5, B2000 Antwerpen, Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.E. Honegger, Zurich Zoo, Zurichbergstrasse 221, CH-8044 Zurich, Switzerland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Howarth, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calffornia, Davis, Calffornia 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.L. Huss, P.O. Box 426, Menard, Texas 76859, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Jackson, Terraza Turrado 80, 5730 Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Jenkins, PNG Institute Medical Research, P.O. Box 60, Goroka, Eastern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. de Jong, Department of Tropical Animal Production, Marykeweg 40, 6709 PG Wageningen, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Kamara, c/o Njala University College, Private Mail Bag Freetown, Sierra Leone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.J. Kohun, Department of Agriculture, PNG University of Technology, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N.M. Konnerup, 74 North Sunrise Boulevard, Camano Island, Washington 98292, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.E. Lacher, Jr., Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington 98225, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.D. Lukefahr, International Small Livestock Research Center, Department of Feed Science and Animal Industries, Alabama A&amp;M University, P.O. Box 264, Normal, Alabama 35762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.C. Malik, Department of Agriculture, PNG University of Technology, Lae, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Matthewman, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.R. Moreno, Departamento de Produccion Animal, Universidad Nacional Agraria, Apartado 456, La Molina, Lima, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Muller-Haye, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Room F524, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.L. Polley, Programme DTveloppement Plateau Bateke, CBZO, B.P. 4728, Kinshasa 2, Zaire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V. Purizaga A., Alcalde del Concejo Provincial de Pacasmayo, Dos de Mayo 360, Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.T. Quirante, Bureau of Animal Industry, Research Center, Alabang 3124, Metro Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.V. Reddy, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.W. Robinson, Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, Box 7621 Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7621, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. Smith, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hutia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.C. Allen, Hope Zoo, Kingston, Jamacia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.S. Canet, Instituto de Zoologla, Academia Ciencias de Cuba, Calle 214, esq. a Avenida 19, No. 17A 09, Reparto Atabey, Havana 16, Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Jordan, Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.L.R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les AugrFs Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Ottenwalder, Parque Zool6gico Nacional (ZOODOM), Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Woods, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.T. Blankenship, Animal Resources Center, School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27858-4354, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Jackson, Terraza Turrado 80, 5730 Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Agentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.W. MacDonald, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.H. Pryor, Jr., School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27858-4354, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.B. Taber, Animal Behaviour Research Group, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paca</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.R. de Alencar Moreira, Agricultural Research Center of the Humid Tropics, EMBRAPA-CPATU, Caixa Postal 48, BelTm, Para 66000, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.J.R. Alho, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidade de Brasilia, 70910 Brasilia, DF, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.H. Baker, 302 North Strickland Street, Eagle Lake, Texas 77434-1841, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.D. Cuardn O., Instituto de Historia Natural, Apartado Postal No. 6, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas 29000, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. de Escalante, Zool6gico Nacional, Direccion del Patrimonio Natural y Cultural, San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.K. Frenkel, Department of Pathology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66013, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Hallwachs, Ecology and Systematics, Corson Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Hislop, Wildlife Section, Forest Division, Ministry of Food Production, Port-ofSpain, Trinidad and Tobago</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.H. Janzen, Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Kleiman, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Lavorenti, Animal Sciences Department, ESALQ Universidade de Sao Paulo, C.P. 9, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo 13.400, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Y. Matamoros, Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Nacional, Apartado 86, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Meritt, Jr., 2200 North Cannon Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60614, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.Ma. Rojas G., CATIE, 7170 Turrialba, Costa Rica </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O. Rosado, Ministry of Industry and Natural Resources, Belmopan, Belize</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smith, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Smythe, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Box 2072, Balboa, Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V. Solis, Union Internacional pare la Conservacion de la Naturaleza y de los Recursos Naturales, Oficina Regional pare Centro AmTrica, Apartado Postal 91-1009-FECOSA, San JosT, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. VaidTs, Centro Universitario del Norte Carrera ZootTcnica, Coban, A.V., Ciudad Guatemala 16001, Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vizcacha</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Bonilla Encizo, ICA Tibaitata, Apartado Aereo 151123, Bogota, Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Jackson, Terraza Turrado 80, 5730 Villa Mercedes, San Luis, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.L. Marmillon, Estancias del Conlara S.A., Casilla de Correo 451, 5800 Rio Cuarto, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.D. Thelen, FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Casilla 10095, Santiago, Chile</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. Wing, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Rodents</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.M. Butynski, Impenetrable Forest Conservation Project, Zoology Department, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. Flannery, Australian Museum, 6-8 College Street, Sydney, New South Wales 2000, Australia (Solomon Island rodents)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources, Maendeleo House, Monrovia Street, POB 30786, Nairobi, Kenya (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Jacobsen, Nature Conservation Division, Private Bag X209, Pretoria 0001, South Africa (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.P. Kofron, Museum of Zoology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70893, USA (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. Leary, Ministry of Natural Resources, Honiara, Solomon Islands (Solomon Island rodents)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. McLaughlin, San Diego Zoo, San Diego 92112, California, USA (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.P. Millar, Department of Chemical Pathology, Medical School, Observatory 7925, South Africa (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.D. Skinner, Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern African Wildlife Management Association, POB 413, Pretoria, South Africa ( s p ring hare )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chitton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Van der Merwe, University of Pretoria, Mammal Research Institute, Pretoria 0002, South Africa (springhare)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife Society of Zimbabwe, POB 3497, Harare, Zimbabwe (springhare) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEER AND ANTELOPE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mouse Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.O. Caldecott, World Wildlife Fund Malaysia, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 93200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Chaplin, Burnhouse, Fountainhall, Galashiels, Selkirk TDI 2RX, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.W.H. Davison, Zoology Department, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Grubb, 35 Downhills Park Road, London N17 6PE, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Ruiqing, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. MacNamara, Fauna Research, Inc., 11 Park Avenue, Ardsley, New York 10502, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Muul, Integrated Conservation Research, P.O. Box 920, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia 25425, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Nordin, Bureau of Research and Consultancy, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Pathak, Department of Genetics, M.D. Anderson Hospital and Tumor Institute, Houston, Texas 77030, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.T. Robbins, Wildlife Biology Program, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164-4220, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Robin, Tierpark Dahlholzli Bern, Dalmaziquai 149, CH-3005 Bern, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.R. Schmidt, Zoological Garden, CH-8044 Zurich, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.A. Sirimanne, Singapore Zooological Gardens, 80 Mandai Lake Road, Singapore 2572</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.K. Vidyadaran, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Department of Animal Science, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wang Yingxiang, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C. Whittow, Department of Physiology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, 1960 East West Road, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Muntjac</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Barrette, DTpartement de Biologie, FacultT des Sciences et de GTnie, UniversitT Laval, QuTbec, GIK 7P4, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Benirschke, 8457 Prestwick Drive, La Jolla, California 92037, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The British Deer Society, Church Farm, Lower Basildon, Reading, Berkshire RG8 9NH, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.O. Caldecott, World Wildlife Fund Malaysia, 7 Jalan Ridgeway, 933200 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Chapman, Larkmead, Barton Mills, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk IP28 6AA, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Coe, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3PS, UK </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O. Dansie, The Chapel, 2 Hobbs Hall, Welwyn, Hertsfordshire, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K. Dhungal, Department of Parks and Wildlffe, P.O. Box 860, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.J. Goss, Division of Biology and Medicine, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Grubb, 35 Downhills Park Road, London N17 6PE, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.P. Harding, Animal Ecology Research Group, Zoology Department, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PS, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Harris, Department of Zoology, University of Bristol, Woodland Road, Bristol BS8 JUG, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Heck, CatskiH Game Farm, Inc., RD #1, Box 133, Catskill, New York 12414, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. Jacobson, Fish and Wildlffe Department, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Ruiqing, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lu Houji, Department of Biology, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. MacNamara, Fauna Research, Inc., 11 Park Avenue, Ardsley, New York 10502, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.J.A. Manton, Zoological Society of London, Whipsnade Park, Dunstable, Bedfordshire LU6 2LF, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Miura, Department of Biology, Hyogo College of Medicine, Mukogawa-cho 1-1, Nishinomiya, Hyogo-ken 663, Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Muul, Integrated Conservation Research, P.O. Box 920, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia 25425, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Pathak, Department of Genetics, M.D. Anderson Hospital and Tumor Institute, Houston, Texas 77030, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.T. Robbins, Wildlife Biology Program, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Seidel, Tierpark Berlin, Tierklinik, DDR-1136 Berlin, Friedrichsfelde, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shi Liming, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Soma, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Tokyo Medical College Hospital, 1-7, Nishishinjuku 6, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160, Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Stadler, Fakultat fur Biologie, Universitat Bielefeld, 4800 Bielefeld, Universitatsstrasse 25, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.F. Taylor, Taylor Energy Company, The 2-3-4 Loyola Building, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wang Yingziang, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Wemmer, Conservation and Research Center, National Zoological Park, Front Royal, Virginia 22630, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wharton, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.M. Wurster-HiH, Department of Pathology, Dartmouth Medical School, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.H. Yahner, 320 Forest Resources Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Musk Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Chaplin, Burnhouse, Fountainhall, Galashiels, Selkirk TDI 2RX, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K. Dhungel, Department of Parks and Wildlife, P.O. Box 860, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.J. Gaston, Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa KIA OE7, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.J.B. Green, IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, 219C Huntingdon Road, Carnbridge CB3 ODL, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Grubb, 35 Downhills Park Road, London N17 6PE, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. Hunter, Jr., Wildlife Department, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.A. Jacobson, Fish and Wildlife Department, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Kattel, P.O. Box 3070, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Riqing, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lu Houji, Department of Biology, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. McNeely, Program and Policy Division, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, CH1196 Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.W. O'Gara, Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana 59812, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.T. Robbins, Wildlife Biology Program, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164-4220, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Seidel, Tierpark Berlin, Tierklinik, DDR-1136 Berlin, Friedrichsfelde, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shi Liming, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.F. Taylor, Taylor Energy Co., The 2-3-4 Loyola Building, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wang Yingxiang, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water Deer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Cooke, Nature Conservancy Council, Northminster House, Peterborough PEI I UA, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Farrell, Nature Conservancy Council, Northminster House, Peterborough PEI IUA, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Feer, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Crubb, 35 Downhills Park Road, London N17 6PE, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu Riuqing, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica. Kunming Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lu Houji, Department of Biology, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.J.A. Manton, Zoological Society of London, Whipsnade Park, Dunstable, Bedfordshire LU6 2LF, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Seidel, Tierpark Berlin, Tierklinik DDR-1136, Berlin, Friedrichsfelde, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R Smith, Department of Zoology, Whiteknights Park, University of Reading, Reading, Berkshire RG6 2AH, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Stadler, Fakultat fur Biologie, Universitat Bielefeld, 4800 Bielefeld, Universitats strasse 25, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.F. Taylor, Taylor Energy Company, The 2-3-4 Loyola Building, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Wemmer, Conservation and Research Center, National Zoological Park, Front Royal, VA 2263O, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South American Microdeer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Sampath, Trinidad and Tobago Wildlffe Breeders and Farmers Association, c/o 5 3/4 Mile Mark, Penal Rock Road, Penal, Trinidad, West Indies (red brocket)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. MacNamara, Fauna Research, Inc., 11 Park Avenue, Ardsley, New York 10502, USA (pudu)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duikers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Chardonnet, Projet Petits Ruminants, B.P. 65, Atakpame, Togo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.L. Cowan, 324 Henning Building, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Dubost, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RI.M. Dunbar, Department of Zoology, University of Liverpool, P.O. Box 147, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Feer, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.R. Kranz, Zoological Society of Philadelphia, 34th Street and Girard Avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Lumpkin, Department of Zoological Research, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Player, Wilderness Leadership School, P.O. Box 15036, BeHair 4006, Natal, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Pond, Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, Box 7621, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Schweers, Bahnhofstrasse 29, D-6744 Kandee, Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.D. Skinner, Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.E. SoHod, International Veterinary Medicine, Tufis University, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafion, Massachusetts 01536, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.C. Udell, 14934 VaHey Vista Blouvard, Sherman Oaks, Calffornia 91403, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.A. Varga, Department of Dairy and Animal Science, 225B Borland Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">V.J. Wilson, Duiker Research and Breeding Centre, Chipangali Wildlife Trust, P.O. Box 1057, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Small Antelope</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Asibey, Department of Game and Wildlife, Ministry Post Office, Accra, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Baranga, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.I. Boshe, College of African Wildlife Management, Mweka, P.O. Box 3031, Moshi, Tanzania (dikdik)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Chardonnet, Project Petits Ruminants, BP 65, Atakpame, Togo (oribi)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K. Dhungel, Department of National Parks and Wildife, Conservation, Babar Mahal, Kathmandu, Nepal (four-horned antelope)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.I.M. Dunbar, Department of Zoology, University of Liverpool, P.O. Box 147, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK (dikdik, klipspringer)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Feer, Laboratoire d'Ecologie GTnTrale, 4 avenue Petit ChGteau, 91800 Brunoy, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.M. Goebel, Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76019, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.P. Hoppe, Am Hauenstein 13, 6706 Wachenheim, Germany (dikdik, suni)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.R. Kranz, Zoological Society of Philadelphia, 34th Street and Girard Avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA (royal antelope, beira, dikdik, klipspringer, suni, four-horned antelope)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Player, Wilderness Leadership School, P.O. Box 15036, Bellair 4006, Natal, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.N.W. Oppong, UNDP/FGN/FAO Livestock Project, P.O. Box 6603, Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.R. Pritchard, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Skinner, Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa (otibi, steinbok)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.E. Sollod, International Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafton, Massachusetts 01536, USA (dikdik, klipspringer)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA (dikdik, klipspringer, four-horned antelope)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LIZARDS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Green Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Benirschke, 8457 Prestwick Drive, La Jolla, California 92037, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.M. Burghardt, Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ferreira, Parque Zoologico Nacional, Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.S. Fitch, Route #3, Box 142, Lawrence, Kansas 66044, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Hemley, World Wildlife Fund, 1255 23rd Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037, USA (for trade information)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Henderson, Milwaukee Public Museum, 800 West Wells Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Higginson, Voluntaria del Cuerpo de Paz, #156 6a Avenida 1-46, Zona 2 Guatemala, Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.B. Iverson, Department of Biology, Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana 47374, USA S.R. Kellert, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, 205 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.W. King, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Larde, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia Planes de Renderos, Km. 10 Col. Los Angeles 13, CP 01196 San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Marcellini, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Mora, 200 m sur Pulperia la Uni6n, Cinco Esquinas, Carrieal, Alajuela, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Ottenwalder, Parque Zool6gico Nacional, Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C. Packard, Department of Zoology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.J. Perez, Condominio Su. Antonio 7, C. San Antonio Abad, San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Phillips, Research Department, San Diego Zoo, Box 551, San Diego, Calffornia 92112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Werner, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Apa,-tado 1501-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.S. Fitch, Route #3, Box 142, Lawrence, Kansas 66044, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Henderson, Milwaukee Public Museum, 800 West Wells Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Higginson, Voluntaria del Cuerpo de Paz, #156 6a Avenida 1-46, Zona 2 Guatemala, Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.M. Hillis, Department of Biology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Larde, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Planes de Renderos Km. 10 Col. Los Angeles 13, CP 01196, San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Marcellini, National Zoologica, Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Mora, 200 m sur Pulperita La Union, Cinco Esquinas, Carrieal, Alajuela, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C. Packard, Department of Zoology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.J. Perez, Condominio Su. Antonio 7, C. San Antonio Abad, San Salvador, El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Phillips, Research Department, San Diego Zoo, Box 551, San Diego, Calffornia 92112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Werner, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Apartado 1501-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rock Iguana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Auffenberg, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Auth, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.J. Cullen, Cullen Vivarium, 3401 South 16th Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53215 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Ferreira, Parque Zool6gico Nacional, Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Henderson, Mi]waukee Public Museum, 800 West Wells Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.B. Iverson, Department of Biology, Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana 47374, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.A. Ottenwalder, Parque Zool6gico Nacional, Apartado 2449, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.A. Wiewandt, Wild Horizons, Inc., P.O. Box 5118, Tucson, Arizona 85703, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tegu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A. Blanco, Direccion Nacional de Fauna Silvestre, Avenida Paseo Colon 922 2&Yacute;piso, (1063) Buenos Aires, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.K. Donadio, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, CC 220, Avenida Angel Gallardo 470, Suc. 5, 1405 Buenos Aires, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.M. Gallardo, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, CC 220, Avenida Angel Gallardo 470, Suc. 5, 1405 Buenos Aires, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Hemley, World Wildlife Fund, 1255 23rd Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Marcellini, National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C. 20008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.L. Marmillon, Casilla de Correo 451, 5800 Rio Cuarto, Argentina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.C. Packard, Department of Zoology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Werner, Fundacion Pro Iguana Verde, Apartado 1501-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEES</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Local Agriculture Extension Services and beekeepers are often the best source of information for beginning beekeeping. In addition, the following organizations can provide information: International Bee Research Association, 16/18 North Road, Cardiff CF1 3DY, UK; International Agency for Apiculture Development, 6N 909 Roosevelt, St. Charles, Illinois 60174, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Abt, Centre for International Agricultural Development Cooperation, Tel Aviv, Israel M. Adey. International Bee Research Association, 16/18 North Road, Cardiff CFI 3DY, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.O. Adjare, Technology Consultancy Centre, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All India Beekeepers' Association, 817 Sadashiv Peth, Poono 411 030, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.K.N. Atuahene, Forest Product Research Institute (Ghana Forestry Commission), University P.O. Box 63, Kumasi, Ghana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.S. Brar, Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Bradbear, International Bee Research Association, North Road, Cardiff CFI 3DY, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.M. Caron, Department of Entomology and Applied Ecology, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19717, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.S. Chahal, Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Clauss, Beekeeping Survey, Kabompo, Zambia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.P. Coleman, International Agency for Apiculture Development, 6N 909 Roosevelt, St. Charles, Illinois 60174, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director, or Resident Bee Specialist, Apiary Studies, Zoological Institute, Leningrad, USSR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. DeJong, Departamento de Genetica, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirao Preto, Universidade Sao Paulo, 14.049Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.W. Dutton, Centre for Overseas Research and Development (CORD), University of Durham, South Road, Durham DHI 3LE, UK (Apisflorea) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.H. Erickson, Carl Hayden Bee Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2000 East Allen Road, Tucson, Arizona 85719, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirao Preto, Departamento de GenTtica, 14100Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Fell, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. Flottum, Gleanings in Bee Culture, 623 West Liberty Street, P.O. Box 706, Medina, Ohio 44258-0706, USA (editor)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Free, Rothamstead Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire L5 2JQ, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Wolde-Semait Gebre-Wold, P.O. Box 7505, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.B. Habarugira, AHO (Apiary), Mbara Stockfarm, Beekeeping Section, P.O. Box 4, Mbarara, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.A.M. Hassan, Njiro Wildlife (Beekeeping) Research Centre, P.O. Box 661, Arusha, Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Hoopingarner, Department of Entomology, University of Michigan, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1115, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.E. Kerr, Departamento de Biolgia, Universidade Federal de UberlGndia, 38400 UberlGndia, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.G. Kevan, or Resident Bee Specialist, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario NIG 2WI, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.K. Kigatiia, Beekeeping Branch, Ministry of Agriculture c~ Livestock Development, P.O. Box 30028, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.C. Killins, 163 Trowbridge Avenue, London, Ontario N6J 3M2, Canada</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.M. Kiwuwa, AHL (Apiary), Department of Veterinary Services, Headquarters, Beekeeping Section, P.O. Box 7141, Kampala, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Lanarolle, Apiculture Project, Bindunuwewa, Bandarawela, Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Y. Lensky, Triwaks Bee Research Center, Hebrew University Faculty of Agriculture, Rehovot 76-100, Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.D. Levin, Carl Hayden Bee Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2000 East Allen Road, Tucson, Arizona 85719, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Singh Limbu, Godavari Ashram, GPO Box 50, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. Mann, 14 Millimani Road, Box 20360, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.J. McGinley, Department of Entomology, NHB-105, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560, USA (Apoidea, except Apis) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. McKay, Peace Corps, American Embassy, Asunci6n, Paraguay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.D. Michener, Snow Entomological Museum, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.A. Morse, Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Morton, Morton Collectanea, University of Miami, Box 248204, Coral Gables, Florida 37724, USA (bee plants)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.G. Mugisa, c/o Insure Consult, P.O. Box 30002, Nakiuubo, Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Bin Muid, Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.C. Mulzac, International Agency for Apiculture Development, 393 Decatur Street, Brooklyn, New York 11233, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.S. Najar, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Aleppo, Aleppo, Syria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.E. Nightingale, Box 23, Njoro, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Patty, Foreign Agriculture Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 6095 South Building, Washington, D.C. 20250, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L.M. Phiri, Office of Chief Beekeeping Officer, P/BAC Mwekera, Kitwe, Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Pickard, Zoology Department, University College, P.O. Box 78, Cardiff CFI IXL, South Wales, UK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.W. Robins, GPO Box 50, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Roubik, Stop 105, Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560, USA (stingless bees)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. Sammataro, 7011 Spieth Road, Medina, Ohio 44256, USA (editor, Cornucopia) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Schechtel, Cnel. Bogado/Itapua, Paraguay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Shimanuki, Beneficial Insects Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, B-476 BARC-East, Beltsville, Maryland 20705, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">O.R. Taylor, Department of Entomology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.E. Tew, Agricultural Technical Institute, Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio 44691, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Tomasko, Pennsylvania State University, 106 Patterson Building, University Park7 Pennsylvania 16802, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. Torchio, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bee Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322-5310, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Wadlow, 8381 San Mateo, Ft. Myers, Florida 33907, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.W. Whitehead, International Agency for Apiculture Development, c/o 1000 Connecticut Avenue NW, #707, Washington, D.C. 20036, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siriwat Wongsiri, Department of Biology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok7 Thailand (Apis cerana) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wu Yan-ru, Department of Insect Taxonomy and Faunistics, Institute of Zoology, Academia Sinica, 7 Zhongguancun Lu, Haitien, Beijing, People's Republic of China </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">C BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF PANEL MEMBERS</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. PHILLIPS retired in 1982 from the post of deputy director general of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy, a post he held for four years. Among his earlier posts were that of professor and head, Animal Husbandry Department, Utah State University; senior animal husbandman in charge, Genetic Investigations, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA); chief, Animal Production Branch and deputy director, Agriculture Division, FAO; and executive director, International Organization Affairs, USDA. Among his special assignments were: serving as consultant on animal breeding to the governments of China and India for the U.S. Department of State in 1943-44; and as scientific secretary for agriculture of the United Nations Conference on Science and Technology for the Benefit of Developing Countries, in Ceneva, Switzerland, 1962-63. Dr. Phillips holds a B.S. degree in agriculture from Berea College (1930), M.A. (1931) and Ph.D. (1934) degrees from the University of Missouri, and Honorary D.Sc. degrees from Berea College and West Virginia University. He has been awarded the Berea College Distinguished Alumnus Award and the USDA's Distinguished Service Award. He is author or coauthor of some 240 scientific papers, review papers, chapters in books, and books on various aspects of physiology of reproduction, genetics, livestock production, and international agriculture. In his research, writings, and international activities, Dr. Phillips has given particular attention to breeding in relation to the environment and to the identification and conservation of valuable animal genetic resources. He is also the author of a definitive history of FAO entitled FAO: Its Origins, Formation and Evolution, 19451981 and an autobiography, The World Was My Barnyard. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU is currently senior advisor to the president of the African Development Bank. He is also president of ESA Associates, Washington, D.C., and former director of the Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. A citizen of Ghana, he received his B.A. in 1961 from Miami University in Ohio, M.Sc. from The George Washington University in 1963, and his Ph.D. in 1966 from the University of London. His research interests cover many areas of tropical biology. An internationally recognized expert on topics relating to science, technology, and development, especially in developing countries, he has also published extensively on tropical plants. Dr. Ayensu chairs and serves as a member of many international bodies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BONNIE V. BEAVER, professor of small animal medicine and surgery, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, is a specialist in animal behavior and problem behaviors, especially in domestic and laboratory animals. She received her B.S. and D.V.M. from the University of Minnesota and her M.S. from Texas A&amp;M. In addition to being a popular speaker at scientific meetings, she is the author of five books and numerous book chapters and articles. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT BENIRSCHKE, professor of pathology and reproductive medicine, University of California at San Diego, received his M.D. from the University of Hamburg, Germany, in 1948. He served on the faculties of Harvard and Dartmouth medical schools before coming to San Diego in 1970. At the San Diego Zoo he initiated a research department to advance knowledge in endangered species and now serves as a trustee of that organization. He has written on comparative mammalian cytogenetics, vanishing species, and human reproductive pathology. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROY D. CRAWFORD is professor of animal and poultry genetics at the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. He received his B.S.A. from the University of Saskatchewan in 1955, his M.S. in animal genetics from Cornell University in 1957, and his Ph.D. in poultry genetics from the University of Massachusetts in 1963. He was employed as a scientist with the Research Branch of Agriculture Canada from 1957 to 1964 in Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia. He joined the faculty of the University of Saskatchewan in 1964. He was made a fellow of the Agricultural Institute of Canada in 1986 in recognition of his teaching and research work. His research interests include single gene genetics of poultry, and conservation of genetic resources in poultry and livestock. He has discovered and studied many mutants in chickens; some of them have biomedical importance, including one shown to be an animal genetic model of human grand mal epilepsy; some of them are potentially useful in food production, including an albinism mutant that is being developed for autosexing of commercial chicken broilers. He maintains a very large conservation collection of poultry genetic resources at the University of Saskatchewan and has prepared an inventory and assessment of Canada's poultry and livestock genetic resources. Dr. Crawford is a member of the Expert Panel on Animal Genetic Resources Conservation and Management, FAO/UNEP, Rome, and is a member of the Animal Resources Committee, Canadian Council on Animal Care, Ottawa. He serves on the International Scientific Committee for the French journal GTnTtique, STlection, +volution. He is a member of the Rare Breeds Survival Trust (UK) and is a board member of the American Minor Breeds Conservancy (USA). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONY J. CUNHA, distinguished service professor emeritus, University of Florida, Gainesville, and dean emeritus, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, received his Ph.D. at the University of Wisconsin in 1944. He has given more than 100 lectures in livestock feeding and nutrition in 40 foreign countries. He served as chairman of the Animal Nutrition Committee of the National Academy of Sciences and as a member of the NAS-NRC Board of Agriculture and Renewable Resources, Latin American Science Board, and as chairman of the livestock committee of two world food studies by NAS-NRC. He served as a member of the organizing committee for the first two World Conferences on Animal Production in Rome (1963) and Washington, D.C. (1968). He served as a member of the Title XII Board of International Food and Agricultural Joint Committee on Research and as chairman of its research priorities committee 1977-1981. He is author, editor, coeditor, or contributor to 30 books and author of more than 1,423 scientific and professional articles. He is a winner of 42 campus, state, national, and international honors and awards. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID E. DEPPNER, director of Trees for the Future in Silver Spring, Maryland, has been a consultant for international development projects involving livestock and poultry management and marketing for the past 14 years. He has served in 17 countries of Asia, Africa, and Central America. He has written on processing livestock rations under tropical conditions and about the Madurese breed of cattle found in East Java, Indonesia, where he spent two years studying this ancient breed. He is currently providing technical assistance to projects in several countries for the development of improved forage production as an answer to destruction of natural resources of tropical uplands caused by overgrazing. He received his B.Sc. in animal science from Ohio State University in 1954 and M.Sc. in livestock economics from Araneta University, the Philippines, in 1977. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELIZABETH L. HENSON is the director of the American Minor Breeds Conservancy, based in Pittsboro, North Carolina. She received an M.A. in zoology from Oxford University in 1980 and an M.Sc. in domestic animal breeding from Edinburgh University in 1981. Her primary interests are in the conservation of rare and endangered breeds and varieties of domestic livestock as a genetic resource for changing agricultural needs. She represented Britain at the first international conference on domestic animal conservation in Hungary in 1982, and was a member of the Office of Technology Assessment Committee on grassroots strategies to maintain genetic diversity in 1985. She is executive secretary for four British breed associations and is a member of the British Rare Breeds Survival Trust Technical Panel. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. HUSS was regional animal production officer of the FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile, before his retirement. He received a B.S. in 1949, an M.A. in 1954, and a Ph.D. in 1959, all at Texas A&amp;M University. He was assistant professor of range management at Texas A&amp;M before joining the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in 1967. He founded the FAO Regional Office's Small Animals for Small Farms programme in 1980. Professional assignments and travels in Latin America, the Caribbean' Near and Middle East, and Africa have contributed to his knowledge and experience in microlivestock development. Dr. Huss was recognized by Texas A&amp;M University by being chosen as the recipient of the Memorial Student Center Appreciation and Distinguished Service Awards in 1958 and 196O, respectively, and Honour Professor in the College of Agriculture in 1966 67. He also received the Society for Range Management's Outstanding Service and Achievement Award in 1975 and its Fellow Award in 1978. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID RICHARD LINCICOME has been a guest scientist with the Animal Parasitology Institute, United States Department of Agriculture Experiment Station, Beltsville, Maryland, since 1978, having retired as professor of parasitology, Howard University, Washington, D.C., in 1970. He received the B.S. and M.S. degrees cum laude simultaneously in 1937 from the University of Illinois and a Ph.D. in tropical medicine from the Tulane Medical School, New Orleans, Louisiana, in 1941. His principal research interests have centered around morphologic studies on Acanthocephala, molecular exchanges of dependent cells and their environments, and diagnosis of parasitic diseases. He has been a breeder of Nubian and American pygmy goats for the past 20 years. Dr. Lincicome is currently a member of the Board of Directors of the American Dairy Goat Association and is past president of the National Pygmy Goat Association. He was founder and long time trustee of the American Dairy Goat Association Research Foundation. He is also past president of the Helminthological Society and currently serves the society as archivist. He received the Helminthological Society's Anniversary Award in 1975. He was founder and, for 27 years, editor of the journal Experimental Parasitology, and is the author and editor of more than 180 scientific contributions. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS E. LOVEJOY is a tropical biologist and ornithologist. He is assistant secretary for external affairs, Smithsonian Institution' Washington, D.C. He was formerly executive vice president for the World Wildlife Fund-U.S., chairman of the Wildlife Preservation Trust International, and a member of two commissions of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resources. At present, Dr. Lovejoy is a principal investigator of the world's largest controlled ecological experiment, which is attempting to determine the optimum size for parks and reserves. This project, conceived and designed by Dr. Lovejoy, is called "the Minimum Critical Size of Ecosystems" and is a joint program of World Wildlife Fund-U. S. and Brazil's National Institute for Amazon Research. Dr. Lovejoy is also the principal advisor for NATURE (WNET/THIRTEEN, New York), a series that he started in 1980. As principal advisor, he recommends program content and oversees the factual accuracy of the program scripts. A member of 11 scientific societies, Dr. Lovejoy has received grants from 16 foundations and institutions and written more than 100 articles for various national and International publications. He has published three books, Key Environments, Pergamon Press, Oxford; Nearctic Avian Migrants in the Neotropics, a Department of the Interior publication; and Conservation of Tropical Forest Birds, an ICPB publication. He is currently working on The Magnificent Exception, a book on people and the biosphere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARNE W. NORDSKOG is professor emeritus, Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University. He received his B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Minnesota between 1937 and 1943. His training and principal area of research has been in quantitative genetics, but by about 1960 his interests shifted to immunogenetics and more recently to molecular genetics. He has traveled widely, spending two years as an instructor in agriculture at the University of Alaska (1937-39), and has been an NSF Research Fellow at Cal Tech (1960), a visiting professor at the University of Minnesota (1966), an FAO lecturer at the Indian Veterinary Institute (1973), and an FAO-sponsored lecturer on poultry breeding in China (1979). He has acted as a consultant to a commercial breeder in Japan for 20 years. He has been the major professor at Iowa State for more than 60 M.S. and Ph.D. candidates and has published more than 150 scientific papers. Dr. Nordskog is an honorary member of the Norwegian Poultry Breeding Association, a fellow of the Poultry Science Association, and a fellow of the AAAS. In 1972, he was the recipient of the Poultry Science Distinguished Service Research Award. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LINDA M. PANEPINTO, swine research consultant, was director of the Colorado State University Swine Laboratory through 1988. She earned her B.S. in animal sciences at Colorado State University in 1972. In 1973 she joined the research team developing Yucatan miniature swine at Colorado State University, where she was given primary responsibility for colony management, protocol development, and genetic selection programs. In 1977, she designed an experimental research program for the development of a line of Yucatan pigs with a genetic propensity for exceptionally small size. She has continued her work in that area and has developed the Yucatan Micropig, described elsewhere in this publication. Her other major professional area of interest has been the design of facilities and equipment for swine with emphasis on animal comfort and minimizing stress. Her invention, known as the Panepinto Sling, has been widely adopted as the primary restraint method for numerous medical schools and research facilities using swine in the laboratory. She has published extensively in the field.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT J. PETERS is professor of animal breeding and husbandry in the tropics and subtropics, University of Gottingen, and is currently director of research at the International Livestock Centre for Africa. He received his Dr. Agr. degree from the Technical University of Berlin in 1975. He has undertaken research in livestock production development in Southeast Asia and Africa. The major focus of his research has been small animals, with special attention given to the potential of unconventional animals. Early in 1985 he assumed his present position directing research at the International Livestock Centre for Africa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN A. PINO is a senior fellow of the National Research Council, Board on Agriculture, and is currently the project director of the study "Managing Global Genetic Resources: Agricultural Imperatives." He received his B.S. in agriculture in 1944-47 and Ph.D. in zoology in 1951 from Rutgers University. As an associate professor he taught and did research in the Department of Poultry Science at Rutgers until 1955 when he accepted a position with the Rockefeller Foundation as animal scientist with the Mexican Agricultural Program, becoming the associate director of that program in 1960. In 1965 he was transferred to the Rockefeller headquarters in New York and became director of the Agricultural Science Program in 1970. Most of his career has been in international agricultural development. He retired from the Foundation in 1983 and went to Washington to become agricultural science advisor at the InterAmerican Development Bank until July 1986 when he accepted his present position. Dr. Pino has been a member of the Board on Agriculture since 1983 and previously from 1973 to 1977. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE is professor of soils, agronomy, botany, and geography, and director of the Center for Tropical Agriculture and International Programs (Agriculture) at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. from the University of California at Davis in 1951 and his Ph.D. in soils from the University of Florida in 1960. His principal research interest has been in the area of tropical agriculture and land use. His early work on shifting cultivation is one of the major contributions to this system. He has traveled and worked in most of the countries in the tropical areas of Latin America, Asia, and Africa. His current interests include improving indigenous agricultural systems of small landholders, particularly with the integration of livestock and crops. He was chairman of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation and a member of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development (under whose aegis this report is presented). He chaired the BOSTID report panels on water buffalo and little-known Asian animals. Currently, he is on the International Advisory Committee of the National Science Foundation and serves as U.S. Board Member for the International Foundation of Science.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL HILL ROBINSON, director of the Smithsonian Institution's National Zoological Park, is an animal behaviorist and a tropical biologist. Before his appointment to the National Zoo, Dr. Robinson served as deputy director of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Panama, which he joined in 1966 as a tropical biologist. He received his Ph.D. from Oxford University after being awarded his B.S., summa cum laude, from the University of Wales. His scientific interests include predator-prey interactions, evolution of adaptations, tropical biology, courtship and mating behavior, phenology of arthropods, and freshwater biology. In the course of his studies, Dr. Robinson has done research in the United States and throughout the developing world. Recent publications include articles on predator-prey interactions, tropical forest conservation, reproductive behavior in spiders, and the function and purpose of zoos in relation to education and conservation. Dr. Robinson's favorite animals are cats, of all kinds. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KNUT SCHMIDT-NIELSON, J.B. Duke Professor of Physiology in the Department of Zoology at Duke University, has studied animal responses to extreme environmental conditions. His major emphasis has been on life in hot deserts, and he is widely recognized for his studies of camels and other desert animals. His research has involved field studies in North and South America, Africa, Asia, and Australia. Dr. Schmidt-Nielson has written several books, which have been translated into more than a dozen languages, and he has published several hundred research papers. He has been elected to the National Academy of Sciences, the Royal Society, the French Academie des Sciences, and several other academies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALBERT E. SOLLOD, is associate professor and head of the international veterinary medicine section at Tufts University School of Veterinary Medicine. He is currently stationed in Niger as chief of party of the integrated livestock project and policy advisor in the Ministry of Animal Resources. He has consulted in 15 countries in Africa and Asia, and his research interests include interdisciplinary systems analysis, indigenous pastoral technologies, monitoring change in agricultural production systems, and monitoring and assessing drought impact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEE M. TALBOT received his Ph.D. in geography and ecology from the University of California at Berkeley in 1963 and has worked on environmental and natural resource ecology and management in over 110 countries. At present he is visiting fellow at the World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., and senior environmental consultant to the World Bank. He carried out pioneering research in Africa and elsewhere on the use of wild animals for food production. He has written more than 180 scientific and technical publications, including ten books and monographs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAIR E. TERRILL, animal scientist, collaborator, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Beltsville, Maryland, received his Ph.D. from the University of Missouri in 1936, served briefly at the Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station, and joined the USDA at the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station, Dubois, Idaho, in the same year. His research concerned genetics and reproduction of sheep, leading to national and international responsibility regarding research and production of sheep, goats, and other animals, with primary emphasis on increasing efficiency of production of meat, wool, and other products. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHRISTIAN M. WEMMER is assistant director for conservation and captive breeding programs at the National Zoological Park and is also in charge of the zoo's 3,100 acre Conservation and Research Center in Front Royal, Virginia. He is vice chairman of the IUCN Deer Specialist Group and a member of the Mustelid and Viverrid Specialist Group of the same organization. His interest in evolutionary and conservation biology has been motivated by frequent travel to South Asia and his role as scientific coordinator of the Smithsonian Nepal Terai Ecology Project. For the past 12 years he has coordinated the development of facilities and programs at the Conservation and Research Center and with Dr. R. Rudran has promoted conservation training and wildlife research in developing nations. He has published over 50 papers on various aspects of mammalian biology and conservation and has co-edited with Benjamin Beck one book on PFre David's deer. His edited volume "The Biology and Management of the Cervidae" was published by the Smithsonian Institution Press. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DANNY C. WHARTON is associate curator, Animal Departments, at New York Zoological Park, Bronx, New York. He received a B.S. from the College of Idaho and an M.Sc. in 1975 from the School for International Training in Brattleboro, Vermont. His Ph.D. in biology was earned at Fordham University. Dr. Wharton was a Peace Corps volunteer to Ecuador 1969-71 and a Fulbright scholar to Germany 1976-77. His research interests have been in the genetic and demographic management of small populations. He works on several committees including the IUCN/SSC Captive Breeding Specialist Group, Species Survival Plan Committee of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, and is species chairman for the North American Propagation Group for the Snow Leopard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES A. WOODS IS curator of mammals at the Florida State Museum and a professor of zoology at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. in zoology from the University of Denver and his Ph.D. in zoology from the University of Massachusetts. He worked at the University of Vermont from 1970 to 1979 when he assumed his present position at the University of Florida. His principle research interests have been in the areas of mammalian ecology (Rodentia) and systematics and evolution and he is especially concerned with island biology. He has spent many years working in the West Indies on a variety of projects and has worked closely with the government of Haiti in establishing a plan for the National Parks of Haiti and in completing a biogeophysical inventory of the natural resources of Hispaniola. He is the ecological consultant for the Institut de Sauvegarde du Patrimoine National in Haiti. He is the author of a number of scientific articles on the fauna of the Antilles including a multivolume series on the fauna of the mountains of Haiti. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS M. YUILL is associate dean for research and graduate training of the School of Veterinary Medicine, assistant director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, and professor of pathobiology and of veterinary science at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He received his B.S. in wildlife management from Utah State University in 1959 and his Ph.D. jointly in veterinary science and wildlife ecology in 1964 from the University of Wisconsin. His principal research interests are animal health and diseases of wildlife, including those transmissible to domestic animals and to man. He worked in Thailand for two years and has had active research programs in Colombia for 17 years, and Costa Rica for 5 years. He has recently become involved in animal health and production development in the Gambia, West Africa. Dr. Yuill is an executive committee member and immediate past president of the Organization for Tropical Studies and currently serves as president of the Wildlife Disease Association. He completed a five-year term as Chairman of the U.S. Virus Diseases Panel of the U.S.-Japan Cooperative Biomedical Sciences Program. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
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+    <Metadata name="Title">Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID)</Metadata>
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+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALEXANDER SHAKOW, Director, Strategic Planning and Review,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank, Washington, D.C., Chairman</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PATRICIA BARNES-MCCONNELL, Director, Bean/Cowpea CRSP, East Lansing, Michigan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JORDAN J. BARUCH, President, Jordan Baruch Associates, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER D. BELL, President, The Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, New York, New York</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BARRY BLOOM, Professor, Department of Microbiology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, The Bronx, New York</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANE BORTNTCK, Assistant Chief, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE T. CURLIN, The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, The National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DTRK FRANKENBERG, Director, Marine Sciences Program, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HARDY, Boyce-Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK HORNE, Dean, College of Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELLEN MESSER, Allan Shaw Feinstein World Hunger Program, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLEs C. MUSCOPLAT, Executive Vice President, Molecular Genetics, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES QUINN, Amos Tuck School of Business, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VERNON RUTTAN, Regents Professor, Department of Agriculture and Applied Economics, Saint Paul, Minnesota</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANTHONY SAN PIETRO, Professor of Plant Biochemistry, Department of Biology, Bloomington, Indiana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST SMERDON, College of Engineering and Mines, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GERARD P. DINEEN, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., ex officio </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES B. WYNGAARDEN, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., ex officio </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development Publications and Information Services (H A-476E)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of International Affairs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 20418 U SA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<!--
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/b17mie/metadata.xml
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+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Microlivestock - Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future (b17mie)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">introduce small animals and micro-livestock in your farm</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/b18ase/b18ase.htm
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+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Little Known Asian Animals With a Promising Economic Future</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Little Known Asian Animals With a Promising Economic Future</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation Board on Science and Technology for International Development Office of International Affairs National Research Council </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 1983</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the Councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the Committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropiate balance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Research Council was established by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and of advising the federal government. The Council operates in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy under the authority of its congressional charter of 1863, which establishes the Academy as a private, nonprofit, self-governing membership corporation. The Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in the conduct of their services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. It is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. The National Academy of Engineering and the Institute of Medicine were established in 1964 and 1970, respectively, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID) of the Office of International Affairs addresses a range of issues arising from the ways in which science and technology in developing countries can stimulate and complement the complex processes of social and economic development. It oversees a broad program of bilateral workshops with scientific organizations in developing countries and conducts special studies. BOSTID's Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation publishes topical reviews of technical processes and biological resources of potential importance to developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been prepared by an ad hoc advisory panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Office of International Affairs, National Research Council. Program costs for the study were provided by the Office of Technical Resources, Bureau for Asia, Agency for International Development, under Grant No. ASB-0249-SS-00-1026-00 and the Office of the Science Advisor, Agency for International Development, under Grant No. DAN/ 5538-G-SS-1023-00.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Funding for this printing was provided by the Office of Agriculture, Bureau for Science and Technology, Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C., under Grant No. DAN 1406-G-SS-4001-00.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First Printing, June 1983</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second Printing, July 1984</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 83-061909</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participants in the Study</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributors </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AMBAR ROESYAT, Research Institute for Animal Husbandry, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. B. ARKA, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Udayana University, Bali, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. S. F. BARKER, Professor of Animal Sciences and Head of Department, The University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KURT BENIRSCHKE, Research Department, San Diego Zoological Garden, San Diego, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BEN BERESKIN, Research Geneticist, Nonruminant Animal Nutrition Laboratory, Animal Science Institute, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALEIGH A. BLOUCH, World Wildlife Fund, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. BONGERS, Nature Conservation Department, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. BONNEMAIRE, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, Dijon, France </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. BOSMA, Vakgroep Funktionele Morfologie, Rijksuniversiteit, Utrecht, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. BUTCHER, Assistant Director, Western Plains Zoo, Dubbo, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. S. CHILD, Wildlife and Parks Management Officer, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. ROSS COCKRILL, International Animal Consultant, Almansil, Algarve, Portugal </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PAUL CONRY, Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources, Department of Agriculture, Guam </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD J. COOLIDGE, Former President, International Union for the Conservation of Nature, Beverly, Massachusetts, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. P. CROWCROFT, General Director, Metropolitan Zoo, Toronto, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONY J. CUNHA, Dean Emeritus, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. DEPPNER, Tropical Livestock Consultant, Washington, D.C., USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. DEVENDRA, Head, Feed Resources and Animal Nutrition Branch, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Selangor, Malaysia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. M. DOLAN, San Diego Zoological Garden, San Diego, California, USA DUKUT SULARSASA, Department of Tropical Veterinary Science, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. EPSTEIN, Faculty of Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, Israel (retired) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. FINNIE, Taronga Zoo, Mosman, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. FISCHER, Director, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, JustusLiebig-Universitat, Giessen, Federal Republic of Germany </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IAN FLETCHER, Project for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANNIE P. GRAY, Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Edinburgh, Scotland (retired) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. B. GRIFFITHS, Director, Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. R. GRiMWOOD, Nairobi, Kenya </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COLIN P. GROVES, Australian National University, Canberra, A.C.T., Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ULRICH HALDER, Swiss League for Nature Conservation, Basel, Switzerland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES G. HICKMAN, Livestock Consultant, A. Mithat Efendi Sokak No. 36/11, Cankaya, Ankara, Turkey </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. HOFFMAN, Veterinarian, Project for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. H. G. HOLMES, Department of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. HUITEMA, Veterinarian, Osterbeek, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. H. HUTASOIT, Director-General, Livestock Services, Jakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BENT JORGENSEN, Director, Copenhagen Zoo, Copenhagen, Denmark </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAT KlEFFER, Department of Animal Science, Texas A&amp;M University, College Station, Texas, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING, Director and Professor, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GRAHAM W. M. KIRBY, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Production, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HEINZ-GEORG KLOS, Director, Zoologischer Garten, Berlin, West Germany </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KUSMAT TANUDIMADJA, Professor of Veterinary Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institut Pertanian, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN K. LOOSLI, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN A. LUKAS, White Oak Plantation, Yulee, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. MACDONALD, Vakgroep Funktionele Morfologie, Rijksuniversiteit, Utrecht, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN MACKINNON, Representative, World Wildlife Fund, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT E. McDOWELL, Professor, Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JEFFREY A. McNEELY, Executive Officer, Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ADRIAN G. MARSHALL, Honorary Secretary, Institute of South-east Asian Biology, Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen, Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">[AN L. MASON, Animal Breeding Consultant, Edinburgh, Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEERT MONTSMA, Vakgroepen Veefokkerij, Veehouderij, Tropische Veehouderij, Wageningen, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. MORAN, Senior Research Officer, Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute, Kyabram, Victoria, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. MILLER, Chief, Milk Secretion and Mastitis Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAN NARI, Director, Central Research Institute for Animal Science, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARVEY NEESE, President, Agri-Food Systems International, Inc., Troy, Idaho, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. M. NITIS, Department of Animal Nutrition and Tropical Pasture Production, Udayana University, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM L. R. OLIVER, Chairman, lUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN PAYNE, Wildlife Section, Forest Department, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W.J.A. PAYNE, Tropical Animal Breeding Consultant, London, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. PHILLIPS, Arlington, Virginia, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Scientific Advisor, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C., USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID W. ROBINSON, Associate Dean, International Programs, University of California, Davis, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PATRICK J. ROBINSON, Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. H. L. ROLLINSON, Animal Production Officer, Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLIVE ROOTS, Director, Assiniboine Park Zoo, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. A. SAYER, Nature Conservation and National Parks Project, FAO, Rangoon, Burma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. E. SATTER, Nature Conservation and National Parks Project, FAO, Rangoon, Burma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORCE B. SCHALLER, New York Zoological Society, New York, New York, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN SCHOTTLER, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Industry, Lae, Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE SEIFERT, CSIRO, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROGER V. SHORT, Professor of Reproductive Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. C. SINHA, Outdoor Recreation and Wildlife Research Division, Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna, Philippines </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK J. SIMOONS, Professor, Department of Geography, University of California, Davis, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. D. SIMPSON, Senior Extension Specialist, Department of Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. SITORUS, Research Institute for Animal Production, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. J. SMITH, Royal School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. J. STOLP-DIEPEVEEN, Department of Tropical Animal Production, Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUBANDRlYO, Research Institute for Animal Production, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. SUMADI, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. M. TALBOT, World Wildlife Fund International, Gland, Switzerland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WARREN D. THOMAS, Director, Los Angeles Zoo, Los Angeles, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. L. THROP, Director, Taronga Zoo, Mosman, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALLEN D. TILLMAN, Private Consultant in Animal Production, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD G. TULLOCH, Division of Wildlife Research, CSIRO, Winnellie, Northern Territory, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HELEN NEWTON TURNER, Genetics Research Laboratories, CSIRO, North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. VAN PUIJENBROECK, Curator of Mammals, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. J. WARWICK, Visiting Professor, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WARTOMO HARDJOSUBROTO, Lecturer in Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. H. WHARTON, Chief Research Scientist, CSIRO, Long Pocket Laboratories, Brisbane, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. L. WHEELER, Project Manager, Project for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.H. WOODFORD, Wildlife Veterinarian, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B.A.YOUNG, Department of Animal Science, the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.ZULBARDI, Research Institute for Animal Production, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Professional Associate, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Asian Animals Study Director </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council Staff</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE RECKS, Administrative Secretary </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is high time that the world was made aware of the valuable, large ruminant genetic resources of Southeast Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. MORAN Livestock Specialist Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute Kyabram, Victoria, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Without utilization preservation is doomed to failure. Local breeds able to perform well in difficult habitats, such as in sparse vegetation, mountainous terrain, or the tropics, should be used for their agricultural potential. Breeds that demonstrate hybrid vigor on crossing with improved or exotic breeds also merit utilization. Genetically unique breeds should be retained for scientific studies of genetics, evolution, and biochemistry. And aesthetically attractive and historically important breeds should be maintained in parks and preserves for their educational and cultural values.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. L. MASON Animal Breeding Consultant Edinburgh. Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p00.png"></center><br>
+ YAK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report began as a brief examination of the domesticated banteng, a little studied bovine that is an important livestock resource in eastern Indonesia. But the study expanded to include other possibly useful but obscure bovines of Asia: the madura (a hybrid between banteng and cattle), gaur, mithan, kouprey, anoa, tamaraw, yak, and yakowshybrids formed by crossing yaks with cattle. Four pig species were also included (the bearded pig, the Sulawesi warty pig, the Javan warty pig, and the pygmy hog) that are important traditional resources in parts of Asia, as well as the babirusaa piglike, wild animal of Sulawesi that may have a rudimentary rumen. (Asia also has some interesting, little-known breeds of cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats, and the common pig, but in this report we have chosen to highlight unconventional species only.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are unfamiliar to international animal science. This report aims to kindle awareness of their possible promise and to stimulate their introduction into projects in the world's animal research facilities. Only through active investigation will the potential of these species - most of which are now familiar only to a small number of wildlife specialists - become clear. Many are threatened with extinction; their genetic merits should be assessed before it is too late.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development agencies and governments in the tropics should regard local species, such as those described in this report, as important genetic material for bolstering the long-term success of domestic livestock breeding programs. These indigenous resources can probably be improved genetically to compare favorably with imported livestock, particularly in difficult tropical environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report was prepared after Hugh Popenoe, Chairman of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI), and Noel Vietmeyer of the ACT! staff visited banteng researchers in Indonesia, northern Australia, and Papua New Guinea in May 1981. More than 90 researchers (see contributor's list) provided information to the report through correspondence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACTI is a committee of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council. It assesses unconventional resources and technologies that might prove especially applicable to problems of developing countries. Current titles in the ACTI series Managing Tropical Animal Resources are: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal (1981)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea (1983). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The production of these books has been supported largely by the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID). Program costs for this study were sponsored by AID'S Bureau for Asia, and staff costs by AID'S Office of the Science Advisor, which also made possible the free distribution of this report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is an exploratory volume. It will, perhaps, lead in a few years' time to a more complete book on indigenous Asian animals - and perhaps also to similar books on little-known animals of Africa and Latin America. If you have material to contribute to the future edition, please send it to Noel Vietmeyer, JH213, National Academy of Sciences, 2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington, D.C. 20418, USA, who will contact you when any new publication on this subject is planned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia has several domesticated animals about which little is known. Among them are the banteng ("Bali cattle") of Indonesia, the yak of Central Asia's high country, and the mithan of the border region of India, Burma, and Bangladesh.( *The promise of another Asian animal, the water buffalo, is described in companion report no 32. ) Some Asian farmers use domesticated bovine hybrids: the madura (banteng-cattle hybrid) in Indonesia and the yakow (yak-cattle hybrid) in Central Asia. In addition, domesticated forms of at least two Asian pig species (the Indonesian wild boar and the Sulawesi warty pig) are important husbandry animals in parts of Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among Asia's undomesticated animals are five interesting and potentially valuable species of wild bovines: the kouprey in Thailand, Laos, and Kampuchea; the gaur in India and much of Southeast Asia; two species of anoas in Indonesia; and the tamaraw in the Philippines. There are also three species of undomesticated Asian pigs: the bearded pig, the Javan warty pig and pigmy hog. Perhaps the strangest Asian animal of all is the babirusa, a piglike species of eastern Indonesia that may be a rudimentary ruminant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of these animals are either threatened or endangered species, and some will soon be extinct unless scientists, governments, and resource managers take forceful action to preserve them. Scientific management and a better understanding of the animals themselves is required.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important need is to investigate their potential as livestock resources. All seem to be disease resistant and well adapted to difficult natural conditions. Some will interbreed with conventional livestock and might thereby pass on important characters to hybrid progeny. A few of the wild species are ancestors of domestic livestock and could be important genetic reservoirs for maintaining or improving the quality of their domestic descendants. Others may make useful new domesticates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appreciation of their potential in the long-term for the world's agricultural development could create a momentum for the protection, preservation, and greater use of these little-known animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Imported Livestock</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, many thought that the best way to raise animal productivity in tropical developing countries was to introduce high-performing breeds from temperate industrialized areas. The fact that the exotic animals were much more productive than local stock made this seem very appealing. But many such importations ended in failure when the animals either quickly died or their growth or reproduction rates declined so drastically that the herds dwindled away or became uneconomic. These introductions had been made without adequate consideration of the local environment that was expected to support the imported animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More recently, some animal scientists have decried the idea of wholesale importing of temperate-zone livestock into tropical countries without also evaluating the indigenous livestock. In many cases the local animals' apparent poor performance results not from their lack of genetic potential, but from inadequate feeding, breeding, selection, management, and health care.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indigenous Animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until an objective evaluation of particular indigenous breeds is undertaken, governments should regard local animals as vitally important for the long-term development of their domestic livestock industries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To achieve an agriculture that is compatible with nature, we should try to raise an animal as much as possible within its own natural environment. Indigenous species are necessarily well adapted to their surroundings and have survival qualities that imported livestock often lack. They generally select food, either graze or browse, better than foreign species and can therefore exploit the habitat more efficiently and live within it more harmoniously.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But most of the livestock species the world depends on today are best adapted to temperate conditions. This is because Stone Age peoples in what today are Europe, the Middle East, and eastern China domesticated the prototypes of agricultural animals that were available in those places. The world's best-known breeds of cattle, wool sheep, and horses, for example, usually perform well in temperate regions and poorly in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The species described in this report offer promise as new and important alternative livestock resources for tropical regions. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Embryo Transplants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems likely that modern technology will substantially improve our ability to use new species and breeds of livestock. One of the most encouraging of the new biotechnology techniques is embryo transplantation. In this process multiple eggs (produced by hormonally stimulating female animals) are fertilized and transplanted to other female animals. The hormonal cycles of the donor and receiving animals are synchronized so that a pregnancy results.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This technique is widely used to transfer embryos between cattle, but researchers are now exploring transfers between different species and even between different genera. In 1981, for example, animal scientists at the New York Zoological Garden transplanted a fertilized gaur ovum into a Holstein cow, which carried the gaur calf to term. Now veterinarians at the University of Florida are attempting to transplant water buffalo embryos into both zebu and Holstein-Friesian cattle, and vice versa. If such pioneering work can become everyday practice, it will open possibilities of using common livestock to raise rare animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, because embryos are thought to be free of many diseases, their shipment between nations may soon be permitted without elaborate quarantine precautions. Methods for freezing embryos have been worked out so that the tiny bundles of cells can be air freighted inexpensively in small, insulated containers. This may make animals such as those discussed in this report available to Africans, Latin Americans, North Americans, and Europeans. It may vastly simplify the worldwide exchange of animal genetic material and become the animal counterpart of exchanging seeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An additional benefit of embryo transplants is that the surrogate mother's placental blood supply provides the fetus with natural immunity to some local diseases, thus perhaps reducing one of the most serious causes of failure when exotic animals are introduced to new environments. And at Utah State University it has been noted that raising wildsheep embryos in domestic ewes produces lambs that are more docile than if they were raised by their biological mothers. Embryo transplants may be a small step toward domesticating new animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With these possibilities on the horizon, it becomes even more important that all countries preserve their indigenous animals. The rest of this report suggests and discusses Asian species for protection and study. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part I : Domesticated Bovine Species</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems probable that two of our widely used livestock species were domesticated in the Asian tropics: the zebu or humped cattle in India and the water buffalo in the humid marshlands of northeastern India or Southeast Asia. (Both the chicken and some races of pig may also have a tropical Asian origin, but the exact sites of their earliest domestication is unclear.) There are, however, other, much more localized, domesticated bovines in Asia. These are not well studied and deserve greatly increased recognition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section highlights:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Domesticated banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Banteng-cattle hybrids</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Mithan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yak</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yakows. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is time for the world's scientific community to study the genetics, evolution, and biochemical parameters of the unique animal resources, that are found in Southeast Asia. ALLEN D. TILLMAN Animal Consultant Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Though well adapted for survival in their own harsh tropical environments, many domestic livestock breeds are being neglected in the race to achieve temperate zone levels of productivity. CHARLES HICKMAN Department of Dairy Cattle Breeding Ottawa, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies should be made of the present and potential role, productivity and efficiency of all domestic animals and birds, large and small, before they are replaced by imported types. Many wild species also could make important contributions to human welfare with proper management. J. K. LOOSLI Department of Animal Science University of Florida .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conservation of endangered genetic resources represents a genuine and welcome synthesis of the concerns of the agriculturalist and the wildlife enthusiast.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN TINKER British Journalist</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p06.png"></center><br>
+ MITHAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Domesticated Banteng</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng (*Bos javanicus is now the accepted name, but Bos sondaicus, Bibos banteng, and other synonyms have been used in the past. (See Hooijer, 1956.) The name "banteng" has traditionally referred to the wild form of Bos javanicus; the name "Bali cattle" to the domesticated form. This chapter describes the domesticated form, but we retain the name banteng to reinforce the fact that the animal is not a breed of cattle, but a distinct species. Despite a cattle-like appearance, the animals are at least as genetically remote from cattle as is the bison. Both produce sterile males when hybridized with European cattle. Australia. (N.D. Vietmeyer)) is a bovine that resembles a small cow. It is, however, an entirely different species from either European cattle (Bos taurus) or zebus (Bos indicus). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These docile animals thrive under hot, humid conditions and, like the water buffalo, have high resistance to ticks and tick-borne diseases. In parts of Southeast Asia they have proved acceptable for draft power and meat production, and they may have potential for many other regions of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng are remarkably uniform in type and have changed little from their wild ancestors (see chapter 6). Bulls stand from 1.3 to 1.5 m high at the shoulders, while cows are about 1.2 m high. They have the general conformation of beef cattle. The skin is tight, the neck short, and the dewlap inconspicuous. The face is narrow and is carried horizontally with the large ears pointing forward. There is no hump, but the male possesses a distinctive crest over the thorax because the spines of the thoracic vertebrae are unusually elongated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On both sexes a striking white oval patch covers the rump and all four legs have white stockings. Calves and females are usually light brown with a thin black line along the middle of the back. Bulls are brown when young but usually turn near-black at maturity, unless castrated. Thus, in a herd the sexes - black males and brown females - are strikingly apparent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male horns grow sideways, upward, and outward from a horny mass on the forehead. Females lack this horny shield and their horns usually grow upward and back, eventually curving down again toward the head. Polled animals have not been reported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mature banteng bulls can weigh from 450 to 500 kg. Under exceptional conditions they may reach 550 kg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly all the world's domesticated banteng are found in Indonesia. They are particularly important on the islands of Bali, Kalimantan, Lombok, Sulawesi, Sumbawa, and Timor. On Bali and Sumbawa, they are virtually uncontaminated by crossbreeding with other cattle and are thought to have been domesticated there in prehistoric times. Since 1913 government officials have enforced a law that prohibits crossbreeding so as to maintain the purity of the breed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small numbers of banteng have been introduced to Sumatra, Malaysia, and northern Australia, and there are experimental herds in Texas, USA, and New South Wales, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p09.png"></center><br>
+ DISTRIBUTION OF DOMESTICATED BANTEG</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated banteng account for about 20 percent of Indonesia's total population of "cattle." The banteng population increased from 1.1 million in 1967 to 1.4 million in 1975 and is now estimated to be more than 1.5 million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng are found mainly in lowland areas on Indonesian islands straddling the equator. The environment is monsoonal with mean annual temperatures ranging from 23° to 31°C. Most of the region receives heavy rainfall throughout the year, but dry spells as long as five months occur at some locations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng normally have high conception rates. In northern Australia they regularly achieve 80-90 percent conception, as compared with the 50-60 percent of Brahman-Shorthorn crossbred cattle. Similar conception rates have been recorded in Sulawesi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little basic information on the banteng's reproductive physiology has been reported. However, it appears that this differs little from that of cattle. Sexual maturity has been observed as early as 13 months and mating at 16 months.* The gestation period is about one week longer than that of cattle and twinning is not common. At birth, males weigh about 16-17 kg and females about 14-15 kg (about half the size of Brahman-Shorthorn calves). Calves are not weaned at any specific time, and dams may continue suckling a calf until the next birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng will crossbreed with domestic cattle, producing hybrids with notable vigor and heat tolerance (see chapter 2).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has been reported that banteng have the ability to drink water with high salinity," and in northern Australia they have even been seen grazing seaweed on coral reefs at low tide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On high-quality diets, feed-conversion ratios approach those of other bovine species. For example, banteng bulls on high-concentrate diets have shown daily growth rates of 0.7 kg, compared with 0.7 kg in water buffalo, 0.8 kg in zebu cattle, and 0.9 kg in British cattle bulls.:"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the banteng matures, its weight remains lower than that of cattle of similar age. However, relative to mature liveweight, this disadvantage is only about 8 percent.§</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behaviour</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng cannot be handled as roughly as domestic cattle. Cows and calves are timid and easily upset. When stressed they may run into fences and walls, incurring head and spinal injuries. They also easily get into a state of shock. Special squeeze chutes and other special facilities, along with much care in handling the animals, are essential. However, despite their lively temperament banteng are docile if reared, as in Indonesia, with frequent human contact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These animals are promising beef producers. Gourmets consider banteng cuts among the finest of meats, and Indonesia cannot export enough to satisfy the demand in Hong Kong and Japan alone. The meat's outstanding characteristics are its tenderness and leanness. When the animals are maintained and finished under traditional village management, total fat content of the meat (both on a liveweight and carcass basis) is usually less than 4 percent. Little of the fat is deposited among the meat fibers (marbling); about two-thirds of it is mesenteric and the remainder is subcutaneous, laid down in small globules. The carcasses have a high dressing-out percentage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng have proved to be useful as draft animals for the farm but are reportedly less suitable than zebus for hauling carts on roads. Traditionally, both male and female animals are worked, but Balinese farmers normally use females for cultivating light soils only. Banteng are trained when they are about 2 years old and are reportedly easier to train than zebus.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like water buffaloes banteng can utilize low-quality feeds; they are similar in that they can live off forage unpalatable to cattle. It is rare to see banteng in poor condition. Animals of all ages appear to have an ability to maintain weight and body condition even when pasture quality is poor. In this respect, they have been noted to outperform cattle in Australia's Northern Territory. Moreover, due to their lower milk production banteng cows lose less weight and condition during lactation than, for example, Brahman-Shorthorn cows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In comparison with cattle (European breeds) kept under similar circumstances in Australia, banteng are less infested with external parasites. Their hair is short and their hide tough, which helps them resist ticks. Under field conditions few adult cattle ticks (Boophilus microplus) are observed on the animals, except on malnourished individuals, and the incidence of tick-borne disease is said to be very low. Sarcoptic mange is known to affect the animals, but it has a low incidence as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng also appear to tolerate several internal parasites. Liver fluke is probably the most prevalent. Although the animals themselves appear healthy at slaughter, some 80 percent or more of carcasses are found to have partially infected livers. In addition, intestinal worms are often present.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are only slightly affected by Asian trypanosomiasis (Trypanosoma evansi). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are poor milkers; their udders are almost invisible. The lactation varies from 6 to 10 months and milk production is only 0.9-2.8 kg per day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To keep from reverting to the wild state, banteng may need close contact with humans or regular handling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An unidentified banteng disease first appeared on Bali in 1964. Known locally as "jembrana," it spread rapidly, causing mortalities from 10 to 60 percent in certain localities. It was originally thought to be rinderpest; it is now believed to be caused by a rickettsia transmitted by cattle ticks. Outbreaks have occurred with decreasing intensity and virulence since the original outbreak. The disease is under intensive investigation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Bali ziekte," a disease affecting only banteng, has also been noted. It is characterized by dry eczema, followed by severe necrosis of the skin and exposed mucous membrances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their high susceptibility to bovine malignant catarrhal fever, banteng must not be brought in contact with sheep and some other animals. This virus is widely disseminated in sheep and several domestic and wild hoofed mammals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There have been few scientific studies of banteng and no coordinated attempt to improve their performance. They deserve more recognition and they merit testing in tropical locations outside their traditional home in Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The herds in northern Australia (descendants of animals remaining from an abortive colonization attempt in the 1820s) are in a relatively disease-free zone, and although they are feral, they can potentially provide animals for breeding and use in other nations. Although these few hundred banteng are a valuable resource, they are vulnerable to destruction if adverse environmental conditions arise or exotic diseases break out in Australia. Representatives of the herd should therefore be distributed and viable breeding stock established at several new locations. (Their genes and gene combinations may even prove valuable for the indigenous herds in Indonesia, and banteng research and development would make a valuable topic for cooperative research between Australia and Indonesia.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is particularly needed to identify the reasons for the banteng's apparent ability to maintain weight and body condition on poor-quality grazing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problems of bovine malignant catarrhal fever, Bali ziekte, and jembrana need increased attention, particularly directed toward prevention and control. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p13.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Banteng Cattle Hybrids</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng and cattle have the same number of chromosomes, and they will interbreed. Few scientific details on the hybrid progeny are available, but on the Indonesian island of Madura they are a "stabilized crossbreed" because they seem to be genetically uniform. This hybridization took place some 1,500 years ago, when Indian invaders brought zebus of the Sinhala, or Ceylonese, type to Madura and crossed them with the banteng.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These maduras reportedly show better growth rate than the pure banteng species itself. They are thrifty, hardy, and able to perform well under extremes of heat and poor nutrition. Though a hybrid in origin, both sexes of the madura are fully fertile. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For more than 15 centuries the winners of the bull races ("kerapan sap)") have been the herd sires of Madurese villages. This long breeding history has led to an animal with the following characteristics:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Long legs and small feet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Elongated muscles of the rear legs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Heavy muscling over the back, loin, and shoulder</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Quick reactions and nervous temperament</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Great heat tolerance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The ability to perform well as a work animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng-cattle hybrids vary in appearance, depending on whether European or zebu cattle are used in the cross as well as on the amount of backcrossing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maduras (banteng x zebu) are graceful animals. Their bodies are neat, compact, and deep, with well developed forequarters. The cows attain an average weight of about 210 kg and bulls range from 350 to 375 kg at maturity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Superficially, maduras are like Jersey cattle, except for having a much smaller udder. In most of them the banteng dominates the body structure and coat color. Bulls have a well-developed hump; females have almost none. There is no distinct dewlap. Horns are medium sized and curve upwards and slightly backwards. Ears are medium length and horizontal. Breeders on Madura accept only red-brown animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, crossbreeds of banteng and zebu are distributed throughout Indonesia. On the other hand, hybrids between banteng and European cattle have been made only in small programs in the United States and Australia. For example, researchers in central Texas are producing a cross that is one-eighth banteng/seven-eighths Charolais. They believe this will result in a beef animal able to grow well in warm, humid conditions. In the Northern Territory of Australia, no problems have been encountered in mating banteng bulls to Brahman-Shorthorn cows. Calves that are one-fourth banteng/three-fourths Brahman-Shorthorn have since been produced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Virtually all of the 575,000 "cattle" on the Indonesian island of Madura are hybrid animals resulting from crossing indigenous domesticated banteng with zebus. More than 200 head of banteng/Charolais hybrids are found near Easterly, Texas, and a score or so banteng/ Brahman-Shorthorn hybrids are on a research station near Darwin, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The environment in Madura, where most of these hybrids occur, is monsoonal, with mean average temperatures as high as 31°C in the hot season, and dry spells as long as 5 months. It seems likely that judicious selection of the cattle breed could result in hybrids suitable for many other environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the animals on Madura are bred to be raced. They are probably the fastest running bovines. From a standing start, a yoked pair pulling a sled can reach 50 kph by the end of the 130-meter course. An unencumbered individual can approach the speed of a horse (about 68 kph).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When compared with other bovine genotypes in Indonesia, the performance of these hybrids is more closely related to the banteng than the zebu ancestry."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the cross between banteng and European cattle all F1 bulls are sterile; their sperm development ceases at the secondary spermatocyte stage. Infertility also exists in most one-fourth banteng (although some sperm are present) and in all three-fourths banteng bulls. The fertility of the F1 cows, on the other hand, is high - 90 percent as compared with 70 percent for Brahman-Shorthorn cows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hybrids have a lively temperament. However, when they are reared with other domestic cattle or handled on a regular basis, they are almost as docile as cattle. For instance, they remain calm even in Madura's extremely crowded towns. Nevertheless, personal contact probably must be maintained to keep them accustomed to human management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cows are very protective of their calves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several reports from the livestock service of the former Dutch colonial government, as well as several books on the East Indies, state that meat from the madura is the tenderest of any known breed. In addition, the hides are pliable and superior to those of cattle and are used in the highest quality leather goods. They command a price about 20 percent higher than zebu hides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The breed is reportedly one of the best draft animals for its size in the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maduras have several desirable traits, including those outlined below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Feed efficiency. With grain rations, yearling bulls can gain 1 kg on less than 7 kg of ration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Thriftiness. The breed can maintain its body condition on low quality forages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Heat tolerance. The madura has a high rate of cutaneous evaporation and is therefore well adapted to the tropical monsoonal climate. Teams of madura can plow or cultivate land for more than 6 hours, even at high temperatures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Carcass quality. The madura fattens readily on a high-quality diet and  produces carcasses with high dressing percentages, a large rib-eye area, and  high yields of lean meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· External fat thickness. A well-finished madura normally has only a slight  covering of fat over ribs and lower round. Maximum thickness (over the top  round) is less than 1.5 cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Intelligence. These animals are responsive and easily trained. The famous  dancing cattle of Madura, for instance, are actually these banteng-cattle  hybrids.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Parasite resistance. Despite often high levels of fluke infections, the  animals continue to work, reproduce, and maintain body condition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maduras have been bred for one thing - speed. Some of their genetic  limitations are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Low birth weight. The calves begin small, weighing 12-14 kg at birth, and  they continue to be slow weight gainers. [Feeding trials with yearling bulls  have shown daily gains of over 600 g for 180 days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Poor lactation. Milk production is normally less than 1.5 lifers per day and lactation ends after about 4 months. The cows often fail to produce milk. Much of this is probably caused by poor nutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the important features of the madura is that its genetic variation has been largely removed during 1,500 years of continuous breeding; with study much valuable information could be obtained that is beneficial to all bovine breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following topics need further study:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Fertility levels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crossbreeding to test the effect of using a wider range of cattle breeds*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Assessment of the hybrid's advantages over the pure banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Performance under a wide range of environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 Mithan</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan (Bos frontalis) is believed to be a domesticated form of gaur (see chapter 6).t (However, it resembles the banteng and some authors have proposed that it is a gaur-cattle cross, others a gaur-banteng cross.) The mithan is a domestic animal indigenous to parts of India, Burma, and Bangladesh. Because of large size and the high butterfat content of its milk it is widely used to crossbreed with cattle in Bhutan. It deserves greater recognition both in Asia and elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan is a handsome animal. Bulls may occasionally exceed 1.7 m at the shoulder and weigh 1,000 kg, but the average bull is about 1.5 m tall and weighs 540 kg. Cows are shorter and weigh less.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal has a dorsal ridge on the crest of the shoulders, a small but pronounced dewlap, and a generally flat forehead. Mithan horns are often of unusual girth; they are straight or gently curving, and many have an enormous base that practically covers the top of the skull.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most calves and females are brown, but adult males are generally black with white stockings on all four legs. Some, however, are light brown, white, or piebald.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the hill ranges of Assam, where gaur are still plentiful and interbreeding between mithan and gaur frequently occurs, the mithans are massive and gaurlike. But in the Chin Hills, where gaur are scarce, the mithans have lost their bulky proportions, probably by interbreeding with cattle. With them, the high dorsal ridge on the shoulder (which lends so much to the imposing stature of the gaur) has disappeared, the horns are cowlike, and the varied coloring of the domestic cow begins to appear.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithan are kept in a domesticated condition by the hill tribes of northeastern India (Mishmis, Mizo, Nagas), the Chittagong Hill tracts, and some Burmese hill ranges (Arakan and Chin Hills). It is the main domestic animal of the Nagas of Nagaland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In India feral herds totalling some 50,000 head roam the jungles of Arunachal Pradesh. Recently the Royal Government of Bhutan has established two herds by purchasing animals from Arunachal Pradesh. Bhutanese farmers have some 60,000 head of animals that are hybrids of mithan and the local breed of cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Bhutan is breeding mithans on government farms and distributing males to private breeders to improve the genetic base.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan is a grazing animal, but in some areas herds are allowed to browse freely in the woods; some return to the villages for protection at night, while others remain largely in the forests. The villagers keep the forest mithans nearby by providing salt, for which the animals have an insatiable craving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feral mithan live in the same habitat as gaurs and are said to move equally skillfully in mountainous terrain. Usually they are found at elevations from 600 to 3,000 m. However, in the Chittagong Hill tracts and the Mishmi country they descend to 300 m and lower, while in Bhutan they have been reported grazing in summer at altitudes as high as 3,300 m, for example around Thimphu.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p23.png"></center><br>
+ Mithan distribution. (after Simoons and Simoons, 1968)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithans are fully fertile amongst themselves. Also, they interbreed freely with the gaur, banteng, yak, and cattle of both the taurus and zebu types. Naga owners encourage the interbreeding with gaur, regarding it as an improvement of the race. (They arrange this by placing salt licks in the forest. After gaur bulls have formed a habit of coming to the licks, mithan cows are left there and in due course mating takes place.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The crosses between mithan and zebu are also encouraged in certain districts. Unlike most crosses between bovine species, those between mithan and cattle result in fertile male and female offspring (although some owners indicate that the F1 male is not a reliable breeder).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is an unusually gentle animal with a quiet disposition, as revealed in the Chin tribe's expression "gentle as a mithan." Normally even a stranger is safe to approach one; if he gives it a bit of salt, it will usually follow him about. Thus, mithans are easily managed in a regular cattlerearing operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many mithans are not domesticated in the strict sense. Their herds live in a semi-tame state near jungle villages and come to settlements only in the evening to lick salt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some regions of northern India, mithans are used for field work and as draft animals. They are also important as a meat supply. The Bhutanese government is establishing a national dairy-mithan breeding program, which could result in a valuable dairy animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To many tribes of northeast India and Burma, mithans serve mainly as sacrificial animals. The Nagas use them as a kind of "currency" to pay for goods, to buy brides, and to pay penalties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids resulting from backcrossing mithan with common cattle are also used as work animals. For at least a century, Bhutanese livestock breeders, particularly those in the eastern section, have mated mithan bulls to siri cows (Bos taurus) from India. This produces very profitable hybrid offspring that have high milk production. The milk is rich in total solids and produces exceptional yields of cheese and butter.* The male of the cross (called "jatsha") is a powerful draft animal, and the female ("jatshum") is a prized milk cow. To this day, extensive crossing continues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan is potentially an animal that can be used in difficult terrain where most domestic cattle breeds do not perform well. Mithans are superior when it comes to feeding on steep slopes and cliffs and for grazing native grass and the leaves of local fodder trees. They are also adapted to tropical and subtropical environments. And they are able to maintain themselves in small herds (6-10 head) in dense jungle.*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mithan could prove valuable in other parts of the world, and it could be important particularly for the genetic improvement of cattle in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If they are disturbed, mature mithans can be temperamental. They can be difficult to hold with normal fences or chutes, because of their size. When given injections or otherwise subjected to pain, they are liable to bolt to the jungle and not return.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The productivity of these animals needs to be better characterized and defined. Attention should be given to their grazing efficiency as compared with that of cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The two farms the Bhutan government has established for breeding mithans provide an opportunity to gather genetic information on the species and to have experimental matings take place to establish the most suitable animal for various conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The genetic relationship of mithan to gayal, gaur, and cattle needs to be clarified. Although it is believed that the mithan and gayal are the same animal, one of this report's reviewers points out that the mithan of Bhutan are strikingly different in color, body shape, and horn structure from gayals seen in zoos in Europe and India. Although the mithan is now considered a domesticated gaur, many in the past have claimed it as a gaur-cattle hybrid. Physiological research could remove lingering doubts. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p26.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Yak</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yak (Bos grunniens), is a grazing animal that is accustomed to traveling great distances in a harsh environment. Nothing is known about when it was first domesticated, but there has probably been a close association between man and yaks ever since the first humans migrated into the high mountains of Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated yaks are about the size of ordinary cattle and rarely exceed heights of 1.3 m at the shoulder. Their liveweight is generally 250-550 kg for the males and 180-350 kg for the females. They differ little from wild yaks except that they are smaller, have shorter and thinner horns, and may be rusty brown, black, silver grey, or piebald instead of black. Often they have whitish spots on their faces.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yak's hair is long, especially on the flanks, where it forms a shaggy fringe that often reaches the ground. This, together with an underlying layer of thick, fine wool, protects the animal from the bitter cold of its native region. The yak has an enormous tail with a brush of long hair coming from its root, which is rare in bovines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Long extensions of the thoracic vertebrae give the yak shoulders that look like a hump, but this is different from the boneless hump in zebus. The body is long, short-legged, and compact, with particularly large forequarters because, like the bison, the yak has 14 or 15 pairs of ribs instead of the 13 of domestic cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The horns spread outward and upward, and the head is held low, like that of the bison. While no hornless domestic yaks have been reported in Nepal, more than 90 percent of those found in Mongolia lack horns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most yaks are found especially in the mountains and plateaus of Tibet and western China, however they occur from northern Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and Bhutan to Mongolia, and the Soviet Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are more than one million domestic yaks in the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Himalayas the domestic yak is almost always found above 2,000 m elevation. Males are sometimes brought as low as 1,700 m for mating with cattle (see chapter 6), but they do not fare well at such altitudes. In Mongolia and Buryatiya (U.S.S.R.), however, they are found as low as 1,500 m elevation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p29.png"></center><br>
+ Yak distribution. (after J. Bonnemaire, 1976)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild yak lives in desolate mountain areas at altitudes of 4,000-6,000 m. Its habitat is the alpine tundra and the cold desert regions of the northern part of the Tibetan plateau. These barren mountain regions are remote and at higher elevations than the zones of human habitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks look ungainly, partly because they are covered with long hair, but they are agile climbers and can maneuver narrow mountain paths. Their long hair is one adaptation to the cold climate. Other adaptations are the small, compact scrotum of the male and udder of the female, the small teats (only 2-3 cm long) and covering of hair over the udder, and the covering of short hair over the muzzle, except just around the nostrils.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In early summer yaks graze the lush grass in valley bottoms, but for much of the year they live on dry, coarse mountain grass and for long periods obtain water by eating snow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gestation length is 258 days - slightly shorter than that of cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domestic yaks are docile and easily managed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks are especially useful as riding and pack animals; they can manage loads of more than 150 kg. At altitudes up to 6,000 m they may carry a pack or a person at a steady pace for days and still remain in good condition. In some regions they are the only feasible pack animal. Yak bulls (generally castrated) are also used for plowing and for threshing grain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Occasionally the yak is slaughtered for meat. The meat is particularly important in parts of the USSR and in Mongolia, where in the cold, high-altitude environments it reportedly costs only half as much to produce as beef.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas milk production is an essential aspect of yak husbandry. Yields vary considerably according to management and nutrition, but they average about 600 kg and can be more than 1,000 kg per lactation. Yak milk is golden colored. It is much richer than cow's milk; a typical analysis is: total dry matter, 17.35 percent; fat, 6.5 percent; protein, 5.3 percent; and sugars, 4.6 percent. The fat globules are much larger than those in cow's milk. People of Tibetan stock use yak butter as a food staple and as a lighting fuel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yak hide, though apparently not as good as that of cattle, is used for many purposes. It makes outstanding saddles. Yak hair is used for making ropes, saddle blankets (purportedly the best in the world), grainstorage bags, and tents. The fine wool that occurs beneath the long hair is used for making felt. The annual yield of adult females and males is about 750 g and 1,600 g of hair and about 350 g and 600 g of wool, respectively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because yaks are often found above the timberline their dung is an important fuel in many areas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks can live and work hard in a cold climate. They are the only bovines to thrive at high altitudes. In cold, high areas they can work and produce meat and milk more efficiently and cheaply than cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks are not well able to eliminate surplus heat because their heavy coat reduces their ability to sweat. In warm climates their respiration rate and body temperature increase and they become exhausted and susceptible to infections. At low altitudes in Nepal yaks die of a variety of diseases. Apparently not even yak-cattle hybrid animals (see next chapter) can successfully live below 700 m in that part of the world. This is probably due to overheating, since during the first half of this century yaks grew successfully in trials at low altitudes in Alaska and northern Canada.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yak improvement programs are much needed. It seems probable that the genetic potential of the species is far from realized because Buddhist beliefs oppose the deliberate killing of stock. Techniques for deep freezing yak semen have been successfully developed at Regents Park Zoo, London and should prove invaluable for improving the breed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· As a result of uncontrolled hunting the wild yak is endangered and is now restricted to remote barrens on upland plateaus and highlands in northern Tibet and Chinghai, inhospitable even to domestic yaks. The numbers of wild yak are unknown. They require total protection throughout their range and the establishment of adequately protected reserves with good pasture. To preserve their genetic purity, it is important to isolate wild yaks from domestic yaks and thus keep them pure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A primary need is to catalog the numbers and locations of purebred yaks. Today we have little idea of the total breeding population. Gathering such information is difficult, owing to the geographical isolation of the communities involved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It is also important to catalog the movement of yaks between different areas to see if enough genetic exchange occurs to prevent inbreeding of the population. Exchanges between local pastoralists were much more frequent in the past (for example, between Tibet and Nepal), but this is now more difficult because of border restrictions and because many yak </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">herders that used to move herds long distances have become sedentary farmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Breeding strategies, herd management, product processing, and herd hygiene in Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, northern India, and northern Pakistan, Tibet, Mongolia, and the Soviet Union all differ greatly. It is important to get an overall perspective so that the strengths of the different systems can be judged and the weaknesses reduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· There are clearly different domestic yak "breeds" in terms of their appearance, and these need to be identified and compared systematically. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p33.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">5 Yakows</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yaks and cattle have the same diploid number of chromosomes (60). And in the regions where yaks are found, they are often interbred with cattle, either the humpless cattle (Bos taurus) of Tibet and Mongolia or the zebu (Bos indicus) of South Asia. As with mules, the hybrid offspring of cattle and yak surpass their parents in strength and vigor. Yakows* grow faster than their parents, and they suffer less from high temperatures than yaks. The hybrid cow reaches sexual maturity earlier and yields larger quantities of milk than the yak cow. The males, however, are sterile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yakow's appearance varies with the type of cattle used in the cross. But because of the phenomenon of hybrid vigor (heterosis), the hybrids are considerably bigger than the mean size of their parents. (For instance, in one test the liveweight was approximately 18 percent higher than the average weight of the parents.) The hybrids also excel in hardiness, working ability, growth rate, and milk production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, their appearance and performance is closer to that of the mother than of the father. Because of this, the yakows can be "custom designed" for various altitude zones. For example, the farmer at lower altitudes may produce cattle-like yakows by breeding yak bulls to domestic cows, while farmers at higher altitudes would use the reverse cross.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yakows have shorter hair and a much less downy undercoat than purebred yaks. They are similar in color to yaks. (In Nepal, black is most frequent, but brown shades and even white may occur.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yakows are found in parts of northeastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, northeast and northwest India, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Tibet, western China, Mongolia, and southeastern Russia. They are found notably in the Himalayan region of Nepal, where they are bred by people of Tibetan culture and language. Sherpas, for instance, supply hybrid cows and heifers to dairy farmers throughout northeastern Nepal. Hybrids are also much bred in Ladakh (northern Pakistan) and Mongolia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whereas farmers in Nepal tend to use zebus to cross with yak, the inhabitants of the Tibetan plateau generally use Bos taurus cattle. People in some areas favor mating yak bulls to cows, while those in other areas prefer the reverse. But even within one village there can be a degree of specialization by different families, depending on wealth and the location of traditional grazing grounds. Generally, however, the crosses between domestic cattle bulls and yak cows are the predominant ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of yak-cattle hybrids in the world is unknown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the yak, the hybrid can live in cold, barren, upland terrain, but it has the advantage of being able to adapt to lower altitudes. In winter, caravans of hybrids may come down as low as 1,600 m in some parts of Nepal, and hybrid herds (especially those resulting from crossing yak bulls with zebu cows) can spend several weeks grazing at altitudes as low as about 1,700 m in winter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female hybrids are fertile when mated with either parent stock. Male hybrids, however, are sterile. Although they have fully developed secondary sexual characters and show libido, their testes do not produce spermatozoa because the seminiferous tubules are poorly developed and the spermatogonia and their nuclei are degenerate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few normal or motile spermatozoa may be found in the semen of backcrosses of the F1 hybrids to either parent, but as a rule the spermatozoa are normal and dead.* Backcrossing is reportedly not common, however, as the progeny do not retain hybrid vigor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tibetan farmers prefer the hybrids for plowing because of their docile temperament. The yak is said to be more stubborn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hybrids are valued as beasts of burden and draft, and are often preferred over yaks. Male hybrids are generally castrated at about 3 years of age so as to increase their strength and size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where pastures occur over areas of greatly varying altitude, the use of hybrid livestock is likely to be more efficient, in biological terms, than the use of yaks or cattle. By judiciously selecting cattle, yaks, or hybrids all altitudes from sea level to above 5,000 m can be utilized with best efficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hybrid's milk is intermediate in composition between that of its parents. However, hybrids yield up to 7 kg of milk per day against the yak's 3 kg. (It seems that the hybrid derived from cattle bull and female yak produces considerably more milk, with a higher fat content than that derived from yak bull x cattle female.) Also the female hybrids produce larger quantities of milk than Nepalese zebu cows on the same hill pastures. They also produce a calf each year, while under normal herd management yaks tend to produce a calf every 2 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids do not tolerate extremes of altitude or cold as well as purebred yaks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The normal gestation period for yaks is about 1 month shorter than that of cattle, and the gestation period for a hybrid is intermediate between that of the parents - hence there may be problems at calving when a female yak is sired by a bull from a large cattle breed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed to identify differences in altitude tolerance between various hybrids. This should include measurements of hemoglobin count, respiration rate, and pulse rates at different altitudes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies are also needed on all production characteristics, particularly on the meat and milk production potentials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cataloging the breeding strategies of different areas where hybrids occur would be useful, along with a historical perspective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research to determine the most productive hybrids by crossing different yak and cattle "breeds" in areas with different environmental conditions could be extremely useful. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part II : Wild Bovine Species</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In various parts of Southeast Asia there exist little-known relatives of cattle and water buffaloes. Many of these wild animals are close to extinction, and attention is drawn to them in hope their populations will be preserved. All of them survive in tropical regions subject to environmental extremes - flooding annual rains, searing droughts, and swarming pests and parasites. These are conditions to which conventional livestock are poorly adapted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None of Africa's bovines is threatened with extinction, and both the European and American forms of bison are being preserved by governments and individuals. In Asia, however, there has been an alarming drop in the numbers of wild water buffalo, wild yak, wild banteng, kouprey, gaur, and tamaraw in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This section describes:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wild banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Gaur</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Kouprey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tamaraw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Anoas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If not molested, many of these animals can thrive side by side with human settlements. They may therefore have an important future role in the development of the tropics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is little point in conservation for conservation's sake, but loss of irreplaceable resources through ignorance, greed, or thoughtlessness should be avoided. It may be that these Asian animals have little merit other than their uniqueness, but at the very least, sufficient numbers should be conserved until we have time to find out. A. J. SMITH Royal School of Veterinary Studies, Edinburgh, Scotland </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rapid human increase and relative poverty deny hope that any land can lie idle when so many would be robbed of an opportunity simply to exist. For wildlife to survive, let alone at its breathtaking best, we must think of new and better ways to justify its future, preferably by having it contribute to the welfare of those hard-pressed humans who inevitably are further disadvantaged by the creation of national parks. DAVID WESTERN New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is an urgency to conserve and study nontraditional animal species, especially for use in the environmentally challenging tropical areas of the world. The philosophy plant scientists apply to exploring the potential of the plant kingdom needs to be more enthusiastically adopted for the world's animal species. G. W. M. KIRBY, Principal Animal Production Officer Department of Primary Production Darwin, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p40.png"></center><br>
+ GAUR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">6  Wild Banteng</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The wild banteng (Bos javanicus)* are the most cowlike of all the wild bovines and are the parent stock of the 1.5 million domesticated banteng in Indonesia (see chapter 1). They have a scattered distribution throughout Southeast Asia, and three subspecies are recognized:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Java banteng Bos javanicus javanicus (Java and Bali)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Borneo banteng Bos javanicus lowi (Borneo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Burma banteng Bos javanicus birmanicus (Burma, Thailand, Indochina).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng have been called the most beautiful of all wild relatives of cattle. The cows are usually a vibrant reddish brown, while adult bulls are mostly blackish-brown and sometimes even blue-black (although in Burma and Indochina bulls remain golden brown like the cows, and in Thailand a few banteng have been recorded with white, deerlike spots on their brown coats). Both sexes have white "stockings" and a large white patch on their rumps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng are larger than their domesticated counterparts. Average-sized bulls of the Java and Burma subspecies stand 1.6 m high and weigh 635 kg, but bulls as large as 1.9 m and 825 kg have been recorded. Cows average 1.4 m in height and weigh 400 kg. The Borneo subspecies is smaller.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The horns of banteng bulls are angular, turning out and then up, with inward-pointing tips and reaching a spread of 60-75 cm. The horns of cows are short and crescent shaped. There is a patch of thick, naked skin between the horns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are found in restricted localities scattered over an area ranging from the northeastern edge of India, through Burma, Thailand, the northern Malay Peninsula, central and southern Indochina, and the islands of Borneo, Java, and Bali.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only a few thousand wild banteng survive, and their numbers are decreasing. Most populations are endangered because their habitats are being encroached upon by the growing human population. In Sabah, Malaysia, for example, the areas where an estimated 300-550 banteng (the last remaining herds) occur are scheduled for conversion to permanent agriculture. The animals are being forced to use smaller and smaller habitats, thus increasing losses caused by malnutrition, diseases, and parasites. In addition, throughout much of the animal's range, hunting, military operations, and perhaps interbreeding with domestic cattle are further reducing the original stocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p43.png"></center><br>
+ Distribution of wild banteng. (courtesy of C.H. Wharton)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng's general distribution lies in the zone of deciduous monsoon forest in Southeast Asia. Habitats vary between the extremes of dry wooded parkland with large grassy plains to tropical rain forest with small clearings. The animals prefer flat or undulating terrain. In northern Kampuchea and eastern Java, they inhabit grassland savannas. In western Thailand, they live in a belt of grass and bamboo thickets along upper slopes of dry mountains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng inhabit sites from sea level to around 2,000 m elevation. They avoid large human settlements and plantations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most areas there are no pronounced hot or cold seasons, but dry seasons can be long.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng prefer feeding on grass, but are fond of herbs, leaves, fruits and blossoms, as well as the sprouts of trees, brush, and young bamboo. Under favorable conditions they drink daily, preferring standing water. During droughts, they seem able to survive several days without water. In coastal areas where there are no mineral licks they can meet their need for salt by occasionally drinking seawater. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sex ratio at birth is 140 males to 100 females, but mortality of bulls is heavy and the adult ratio is about three cows for every bull.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calves are suckled until they are 14-16 months old.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In undisturbed conditions, the banteng's daily activity has a more or less fixed rhythm. During daytime, the animals alternate active and resting periods of 2-3 hours each. The active periods predominantly involve feeding, drinking, and social interactions. While resting, the animals commonly ruminate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a reaction to heavy rains or human disturbances, the animals retreat into dense vegetation. In regions with frequent human disturbance they generally appear in the open only at night. However, where they find particularly suitable localities they become somewhat accustomed to human presence and will venture out in daylight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng live alone or in small groups of up to eight members. Males separate from their mothers at an age of 2-3 years. Sometimes female calves continue living with their mother even beyond maturity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cows and dominant bulls command the best pastures, and young and weaker bulls roam widely, rarely leaving the protection of the thick forest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banteng bull has a reputation for extraordinary savagery, but stories of its lightning attack have been exaggerated. Wildlife biologists in Indonesia have not been able to document any such attacks and have no qualms about walking in banteng habitats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng show important promise for improving domesticated banteng (see chapter 1) or for interbreeding with cattle (chapter 2). Almost 170 years ago Sir Stamford Raffles, founder of Singapore, noted that in Java "The degenerate domestic cows are sometimes driven into the forest to couple with the wild benteng, for the sake of improving that breed."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tourism could be developed in areas where these magnificent animals occur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng are large, robust animals fully at home both in the heat and humidity of the wet season and in the hot dry season. Their genetic </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">endowment for such tolerance could be of significant value fin improving domestic stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Possible Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild banteng may prove to have a special susceptibility to diseases of domestic animals. Blackleg (Clostridium chauvoli) and mucosal disease have caused heavy losses in banteng in European zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capture of wild banteng may prove difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research on the physiology, production potential, and possible uses of wild banteng is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hunting and destruction of its habitats menace the wild banteng over all of its range. The only promising means for conservation is creation of nature reserves where hunting and forest destruction are forbidden. Conservation efforts should particularly include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Supporting government of Thailand efforts to conserve banteng in western Thailand and the Petchabun Range;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cooperating with the Burmese government in surveys to locate the best banteng habitats;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cooperating with the governments of Kampuchea and Laos to identify banteng habitats and establish appropriate protective measures; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Carrying out research in Java's nature reserves (Ujung Kulon National Park and Baluran Reserve) to ascertain the genetic distinctiveness of the banteng, its status, and its characteristics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Sabah and other areas of Southeast Asia there are cattle breeding projects that use imported stock exclusively. Experimental crossbreeding of local banteng with this stock should be encouraged. There are some feral and domestic banteng, as well as hybrids between wild banteng and feral cattle, that should also be tested.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p45.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">7 Gaur</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gaur (Bos gaurus) would seem to be an ideal meat-producing animal. It is a large bovine with massive muscular development, and it has already been domesticated (see mithan, chapter 3). Gaurs, which are threatened with extinction, deserve much greater attention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two subspecies of gaurs are recognized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bos gaurus gaurus (India, Nepal) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bos gaurus laosiensis (Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Kampuchea, West Malaysia). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With its huge head, massive body, and sturdy limbs, the gaur is the embodiment of vigor and strength. It is among the biggest of bovines. Bulls weigh 600-940 kg and stand 1.6-1.9 m tall at the shoulder, but a record bull of 2.2 m and 1,225 kg has been recorded. Cows are only about 10 cm shorter in height, but they are more lightly built and weigh 150 kg less.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On their shoulders gaur bulls have a striking muscular ridge that slopes down to the middle of the back, where it ends in an abrupt dip. The horns are crescent shaped, creamy yellow, and taper to a sharp point, which is usually tipped in black.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Newborns are a light golden yellow, but soon darken to coffee or reddish brown, the color of young bulls and cows. Old bulls are jet black, their bodies almost hairless. Gaurs have light colored forehead and yellowish or white stockings. Their eyes are brown but in certain lights, because of reflection, they appear blue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs excrete an oily, aromatic sweat, unique to this species and to the mithan. It gives the animals a strong bovine smell and may be an adaptation for keeping away insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once common throughout South and Southeast Asia, gaurs now survive only in scattered remnant herds of up to 30 animals in the hill forests of India, Nepal, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Kampuchea, Vietnam, and the Malay Peninsula.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p48.png"></center><br>
+ Gaur distribution. (courtesy of C.H. Wharton)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Historically, the largest concentrations have coexisted with farmers in areas of shifting cultivation. The animals adjust to disturbed land, and they also adapt to man's presence if not unduly harassed. For example, gaurs will feed in agricultural fields, along roadsides, and near occupied houses. Herds in national parks feed peacefully while tourists stand by. Gaurs in zoos also become quite tame and manageable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Populations not protected in parks and reserves are in immediate danger of extinction. Even in the remotest hill forests gaurs are harassed by hunting, exposed to the diseases of domestic cattle, and driven from their natural habitat by human invasion. Most herds outside of parks or wildlife reserves are threatened by agricultural development, hydroelectric dam projects, human settlement, or extensive logging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In India, large populations still exist in the larger sanctuaries such as </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mudumalai and Kanha Park. In Thailand diseases carried by domestic animals, poaching, and habitat destruction have reduced total gaur numbers to fewer than 500. In Malaysia, the population is estimated to be only 400 animals. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs typically live on gentle, undulating terrain with natural mineral licks. They inhabit gaps in the forest, such as abandoned clearings, where they can find grasses and shrubs. In the northern portions of their range, they inhabit deciduous and semideciduous hill and mountain forests with light brush and many grassy clearings. In the lowlands they live in open bamboo jungles, grassy plains near forests, or dense forests broken by glades or open meadows. (In the forest they probably depend to some extent on the slash and burn agriculture of hill people.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals appear to be adapting to increased human presence. They make use of such man-modified habitats as logged forests and fringe areas of agricultural estates that abound with grasses and early secondgrowth vegetation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs are combination grazers and browsers. They feed on the grasses of forest openings as well as on the young leaves, fruits, twigs, and bark of shrubs and juvenile trees. In one study in Malaysia, grasses comprised 41 percent of their diet, fortes 23 percent, and woody browse 36 percent."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs develop large muscular bodies and maintain excellent condition on relatively low-quality feed. In the Malaysian study, crude protein content of grass species varied from 7.0 to 7.6 percent and phosphorus content varied from 0.11 to 0.17 percent; yet calves reached weights of 300 kg or more during their first year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Birth and survival rates of up to 100 percent have been reported for wild gaur populations. Calves are born at any time of the year. The gestation period is 270 days, a little shorter than for banteng or domestic cattle and longer than for yak or kouprey.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Captive gaurs calve first at 2.5 years of age.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gaur interbreeds with the mithan, and both have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 58.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By nature gaurs are shy and timid. As with most wild bovines, their hearing and eyesight seem comparatively poor. Their defense lies in their massive size and acute sense of smell. When a herd with juveniles is threatened by a predator, the adults form a protective circle around the young. Although individuals retreat from danger if they can, they have a unique form of threat: they approach their opponents broadside instead of head on, displaying the huge muscular body and dorsal ridge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In common with other wild bovids, gaurs habitually visit mineral licks, which appear to be necessary to their habitat and influence the herd's movements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike water buffaloes, gaurs do not wallow. They take cover in the forest during the heat of the day and may feed at night and in the early morning during hot weather. In populated areas such as near agricultural estates, they may feed only at night to avoid people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, gaurs associated in loose herds of up to 400 animals, but today groups of only 5 to 12 animals are normally found. The herds, which are of more stable composition than those of banteng, are separated by sex for most of the year; however, during the rut stronger bulls form a series of "tending bonds" with estrous cows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs are thought to be interfertile with domestic cattle. If so, their attributes of size, massive muscular development, tolerance of heat and humidity, and resistance to diseases and parasites can contribute to beef production in the tropics. A gaur-cattle hybrid might also have immunity to some cattle diseases; if it retained the mild temperament of the domesticated parent, an extremely powerful beast of burden could be produced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gaur is a truly majestic animal. Its habit of using grassy forest clearings and salt licks makes it a likely tourist attraction in parks and reserves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a climate and environment where domestic cattle are susceptible to heat stress and parasite infestation, gaur thrive and maintain body condition. Further, they are able to develop large muscular bodies and maintain excellent body conditions on relatively low-quality forage by feeding on a variety of woody browse, grasses, and fortes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Retaining its wild instincts for survival, the gaur is better able to withstand predator attacks them domestic cattle. This could be an advantage when animals graze in remote areas. Adult gaurs are strong enough to defend themselves against a predator as powerful as a tiger. In addition, they are also very protective of their young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs have little immunity to some cattle diseases. In many regions of India, cattle driven into the forests to graze infect gaur herds with rinderpest, foot and mouth disease, cattle plague, and other contagious diseases. Severe losses occur. Gaurs also appear very susceptible to malignant catarrhal fever.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaur numbers are declining throughout their range. If this trend is not reversed, it could effectively prohibit the use of gaur for domestication or crossbreeding purposes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs are shy and excitable, making them difficult to catch, but once in captivity the animals calm down. Second generation zoo populations are easily worked and handled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaurs on occasion damage cultivated crops such as young rubber trees and cassava. They require sturdy and well-kept fences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Southeast Asia there is special need to support the efforts of the governments of Malaysia and Thailand to conserve this species and to identify important gaur populations. Similar protective measures are needed in Burma, Laos, Kampuchea, and Vietnam.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed to establish and manage new gaur herds in forest reserves and build up the gaur population in the world's zoos. Techniques have been developed to capture and release wild gaur safely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fertilized gaur ova have been successfully transferred into a foster Holstein cow. The cow carried the gaur fetus to a successful delivery. This could be the forerunner of an important means of rapidly expanding captive herds by transferring gaur embryos into cattle in different parts of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is also needed on the basic physiology and production potential of gaur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossbreeding experiments should be started immediately to establish the degree of interfertility between the gaur and other bovine species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p52.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">8 Kouprey</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey (Bos sauveli) is the most primitive of living cattle. Its features are typical of some forms that existed in the Pleistocene era, 600,000 years ago. Discovered by Western scientists only in 1937, the kouprey was the last large mammal to enter the biology books. It is perhaps the most primitive of living cattle and is closely allied to Bos namadicus, the wild ancestor of zebu cattle. In 1964 it was declared Cambodia's national animal. It is now perilously close to extinction, and for a decade no koupreys have been observed close enough for a positive identification by a specialist. In 1982, however, five of the animals were believed sighted in Thailand, near the border with Kampuchea. Thus there are hopes that the kouprey still exists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey is large. Males stand 1.5-2 m high at the shoulder and may weigh 900 kg. Females are approximately three-quarters the height and weight of the males. The body is slender and long-legged. The hump from the withers to the center of the back is smaller than that of the gaur, but larger than that of the banteng. There is a well-developed dewlap from the throat to the mid-chest, which in old animals is sometimes so pendulous that it drags through the grass in front of the forelegs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young bulls are gray, with black on the head and dewlap. Old bulls are entirely black and cows are mouse gray or dullish light brown. As in the gaur and the banteng, the lower parts of the legs have white stockings, but kouprey stockings have a streak of dark hair down the front.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey. (P. Pfeffer)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey horns are among the longest and widest of any bovine. The tips of the adult male horns are surrounded by rough, frayed tissue caused by the animals' habit of digging in the soil with their horns. The females have slender, lyre-shaped horns that corkscrew upwards, unlike those of any other wild or domesticated cattle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey are said to have a grace more reminiscent of deer than cattle. They move at a light trot, as fast as 32 kph.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey's prevalence in ancient times is evidenced by prehistoric cave-paintings in Kampuchea. The animal was also a favorite of the ancient Khmers, who carved kouprey statues and featured the animal in bas-reliefs on temples, including the monuments of Angkor Wat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, whatever kouprey exist are restricted to an area along both sides of the Mekong River in northern Kampuchea, the Dangrek Range, and other parts of eastern Thailand to the far south of Laos, and to the westernmost part of Vietnam. Although one or two small herds may still exist in remote pockets of Laos and Vietnam, the bulk of the population has always been centered in Kampuchea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are no koupreys in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of their large size, gregarious behavior, comparatively low reproductive rate, and preference for open areas, kouprey are vulnerable to hunting. The impressive horns and other tissues are valued as trophies and as medicinals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1964 it was estimated there were about 500 kouprey in Kampuchea, but by 1970 fewer than 70 were left. The subsequent fate of the species is unknown because of the years of warfare in the area. (Early in 1970, the three nominal kouprey reserves of Kampuchea were overrun by military forces.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p55.png"></center><br>
+ KOUPREY DISTRIBUTION. (AFTER C.H. WHARTON )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1975 the kouprey stocks in Laos and Thailand were estimated at only 50 and 20 animals, respectively. By now, hunting and habitat destruction probably have all but eliminated the kouprey from Thailand. However, a reported sighting of five animals that had strayed across the border from Kampuchea was made in July 1982. (By the time Thai zoologists arrived to investigate, the herd apparently had crossed back into Kampuchea.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the banteng, the kouprey inhabits open sites such as light savannas, woodland meadows, and scattered glades in the monsoon forests. It is adapted to dry country. This type of habitat is not widespread in Indochina, and the range of the kouprey is consequently limited.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey spend most of the year among low rolling hills in open areas where grazing and visibility are good. These open areas are a fire climax mosaic of dry dipterocarp savannas and patches of dense forest. Fires occur each dry season, most of them deliberately set by man. Kouprey capitalize on the young growth in burned-over areas. They feed primarily on grasses, sedges, and tree leaves. They also require salt licks and a supply of water in the dry season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The gestation period is thought to be about 8.5 months. Cows leave the herd before parturition and return with their calves after about a month. They nurse their calves for about 6 months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey are said to be even more shy than banteng and gaur. They feed in erratic patterns and are always alert and nervous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loose herds of 20 or more have been reported. These were of mixed composition, often with more than one adult male, and were usually led by an old female. Adult bulls sometimes form bachelor herds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey utilize some of the same feeds as wild banteng, and the two animals often live in a loose association. They graze together, and, especially after the mating season, solitary kouprey bulls often associate with banteng herds. The two species do not, however, interbreed in the wild. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey is a candidate for domestication and has important potential as breeding stock. It is a wild animal, but it may have been domesticated temporarily during the Khmer culture, 400-800 years ago.* Both Vietnam and Laos have cattle breeds that resemble kouprey, and a kouprey bull, reputed to be a domestic animal of the Stieng tribe, was exhibited in the Paris Menagerie in the mid-nineteenth century. It may be that kouprey are domestic even today in parts of Indochina.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey survival has worldwide significance. The animals could be important for studies of bovine evolution and as a genetic resource for crossbreeding to improve disease resistance and other characteristics of domesticated bovines. For instance, the kouprey is thought to be resistant to rinderpest, a killer disease of domestic cattle. Also, kouprey bulls are distinctive for their long dewlap, and they probably have more skin area for their weight than other bovines and are therefore better able to eliminate body heat. This genetic trait may help large cattle breeds survive in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kouprey's potential may be moot - there may be none left in the world. It is feared that the warfare of recent years may have caused its extinction. However, if enough animals survive and can be protected, the kouprey could probably recover its numbers, as a higher calf-to-cow ratio (1:3) was reported for this species than for either banteng (1:4) or gaur (1:10).*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If wild kouprey are found, their capture is likely to be difficult.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a long-term sequence of research needs for the kouprey, which includes the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">.  Working with the governments of Thailand, Laos, and Kampuchea to identify any remaining pockets of this species and to establish conservation programs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establishing one or more captive breeding herds (because there is little chance of the animal surviving in the wild owing to the fighting and turmoil in the area);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Studying the animal's basic physiology and production potential;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Exploring its possible commercial utilization; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Investigating the kouprey's genetic relationship to zebu cattle and the transferability of genetic characters through interbreeding. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p58.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">9 Tamaraw</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) is related to the water buffalo, one of Asia's most important animal resources, but it has never been domesticated or studied and is threatened with extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw looks rather like a miniature water buffalo of the swamp type that is found in Southeast Asia. It reaches about I m in height and 300 kg in weight. It is much more stockily built and is blacker than the swamp buffalo. The tamaraw has white marks on the fetlocks, instead of completely white lower legs like the banteng, gaur, and kouprey. It has short (35-50 cm), very stout horns that curve out and back slightly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Endemic to the Philippine island of Mindoro the tamaraw is now virtually restricted to three small areas (Mount Iglet/Mount Baco, Mount Calavita, and Sablayon) in Mindoro Occidental.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its limited distribution, the tamaraw's future is of concern to conservationists. Until World War II, hunting was carefully regulated in its native region and no serious concern was felt for the animal's safety. Since then, however, increases in human population, lumbering, and ranching have restricted the tamaraw's habitat, and the availability of rifles and automatic weapons has seriously threatened its numbers. In 1971, research teams counted 148 head, consisting of 116 adults and 32 calves. The latest estimate is 150-200 head.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these last remaining animals, about 80 are located at Mount Iglit, a game refuge established in 1961 primarily to protect the tamaraw. Recently an active tamaraw conservation program has been started in a 400-hectare enclosed area on the refuge. Stockade traps have been built and tamaraw are beginning to move into them. The goal is to establish a small, semicaptive population that can be properly guarded, studied, and managed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p61.png"></center><br>
+ Tamaraw distribution. (courtesy Wildlife magazine)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The habitat requirements of the tamaraw appear to be fairly flexible, and present habitat use reflects human pressures rather than the animal's preferences. In the past, tamaraw were found in virtually all parts of Mindoro, from sea level to mountain tops. They occupied open grasslands or glades, but hunting pressure and habitat change have forced it to retreat into forest environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present the tamaraw is found primarily in remote areas that have been partly cleared, largely by fire, so that only small pockets of trees remain among coarse grasses such as Imperata cylindrica (a widespread, unpalatable tropical weed commonly called cogon, kunai, alang alang, lalang, or blady grass), and "tahalib" (Saccharum spontaneum). The tamaraw uses the forest pockets for rest and retreat and the open land for grazing. It must have a supply of water for wallowing and drinking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to cattlemen, tamaraw eat both Imperata grass and tehalib but only when these are short and green. During the wet season when most forages are tall and unpalatable, the animals are known to feed on bamboo shoots.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy is about 20 years. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraw are reputed to be nocturnal, ferocious, and retiring. However, in earlier times they were reportedly relatively tame, diurnal animals of open areas. It was the continual hunting that made them increasingly nocturnal and secretive, and like other wild bovids they can become aggressive and dangerous when harassed or wounded. Given effective protection they doubtless would revert to placid, diurnal behavior.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw appears to be a possible livestock animal. Its meat and hides were highly regarded by local peoples, cattlemen, and visiting hunters. Because of its close relationship to the water buffalo, it may be able to provide genetic material for improving the health and hardiness of that valuable animal resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is renowned for hardiness and resilience to heat, humidity, and poor forage, as well as its capability to thrive in a variety of environmental conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraws have only once produced offspring in a zoo and may prove difficult to raise in captivity. However, they have been kept in captivity so seldom that the prospects are unclear. Experiences with other wild bovids suggests that captivity and captive breeding should be no problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tamaraw must be protected and preserved. There is urgent need, for example, to establish more secure parks in the Philippines to rebuild the wild population to safe levels. Other conservation measures should include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establishing and maintaining more reserves in natural habitats containing breeding populations, and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Building up breeding populations in suitable zoos and livestock research centers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed on the tamaraw's physiology, production characteristics, behavior, and genetic relationship to the water buffalo. None of these is well understood. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p63.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">10 Anoas</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lowland anoa (Bubalus depressicornis) and the mountain anoa (Bubalus quarlesi)* are small bovines that are related to the water buffalo but that are scarcely bigger than goats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with other bovines, the anoa is tiny. It stands only 0.75-1 m tall at the shoulder. The mountain anoa is smaller than its lowland counterpart. The limbs are short, the body plump, and the neck thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoa horns are short and straight, reaching a maximum length of about 380 mm; they are ringed and triangular in cross section at the base in lowland species and simple and conical in cross section in mountain species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the young are thickly covered with yellowish-brown woolly hair, the mountain anoa adults tend to have curly hair, while lowland anoa have straight hair or are hairless. Adults vary from dark brown to black, with frequent blotches of white on the face, nape, throat, and lower limbs. In mountain anoas the entire lower limbs are creamy white. The underbody parts are usually light brown. Males are generally darker than females.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The hide is exceptionally thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas are native to dense, mature forests of Sulawesi in eastern Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both species are abundant and well distributed on Sulawesi. Most of the northern, eastern, and southeastern peninsulas and the central area of Sulawesi are still forested and have anoa populations, and there are several large nature reserves to protect them. *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several of the world's zoos have anoa collections (see Research Contacts).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The climate of Sulawesi is hot, but tempered by sea winds; annual rainfall varies from 500 mm to 4,000 mm. The eastern and southeastern peninsulas have a sparse population and a scattering of subsistence agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lowland species is found in forests and was once common along the coasts. The mountain anoa is found in primary forests at high altitudes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p66.png"></center><br>
+ DISTRIBUTION OF ANOA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas have a wide-ranging diet that includes grasses, ferns, saplings, palm, ginger, and fallen fruit, especially figs. It is of particular interest that the animals can live on a diet that contains no grass.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas have a high requirement for minerals. They visit mineral-rich hot springs and salt licks, and they even drink from the sea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The San Diego Zoo in the United States and Surabaya Zoo in Indonesia have successfully bred and reared the animals in captivity. The gestation period is 276-315 days, and there is generally only a single birth. The life expectancy is about 20-25 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas are shy animals, but they can be aggressive. The sideways and upwards stab of their straight, sharp horns can be dangerous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Except when the cows are about to give birth, anoas apparently associate in pairs rather than in herds. They enjoy water and frequently wallow in mud. Their gait is a trot, but a times they make clumsy leaps. During the morning they feed alone. In the heat of the afternoon they seek refuge under shade trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On Sulawesi anoas are prized for their hide, horns, and meat. The flesh, especially that of calves, is tender and well flavored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although somewhat aggressive and pugnacious, anoas might make a suitable livestock animal. They grow and reproduce well in captivity and are adaptable and intelligent. Their small size makes them easier to handle than many other wild bovines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about the habits of these animals because of their wary nature, secluded environment, and restricted range. They can be tamed enough to obey commands ("lie down," for example) but they remain nervous and likely to butt strangers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surveys are needed throughout Sulawesi to determine the distribution and taxonomy of possible races of the two species, with a view to establishing a protected-area system that will ensure the survival of the genetic diversity of this group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is also needed on social organization and tameability, as well as on the anoa's biological relationship to the tamaraw and water buffalo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One target should be to build up the zoo populations of both species. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p68.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part IlI : Pig and Piglike Species</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In parts of Asia wild and feral pigs are often the most abundant source of meat. These animals are predominantly variants of the domestic pig, Sus scrofa, or of its ancestor, the Eurasian wild boar. Also contributing to the pig population are five Asian species:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Bearded pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Sulawesi warty pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Javan warty pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Pigmy hog</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Babirusa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Southeast Asia hybridization between these species and common pigs has resulted in a confusing diversity of forms and interrelationships. Because of their value, these pigs have been spread since prehistoric times by traders and migrating peoples, creating odd and unpredictable distribution patterns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The species listed represent a gene pool of potential importance for the further development of one of man's most important sources of food. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many areas of the world, one must start with the native animals adapted to that environment. In many cases, they are the only animals the native human population can afford to begin with. And it is amazing the increased animal production that can result from the use of better production practices with them. TONY J. CUNHA, Dean Emeritus California State Polytechnic University Pomona, California, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fitting the animal to the vegetation might be a better approach than trying to fit the vegetation to the animal, especially on ranges that have been changed or degraded by man. JAMES TEER, Director Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Austin, Texas, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is now widespread realization that breed importation is not necessarily the quickest route to increased animal production. Indigenous, adapted breeds should be examined more closely and, where necessary, steps should be taken to ensure conservation of at least some of them. HELEN NEWTON TURNER Genetics Research Laboratories, CSIRO, North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maximizing the animal harvest, essentially of animal protein, assumes in concept that all animals will be fully exploited in efficient and economic production systems. C.DEVENDRA Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Selangor, Malaysia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p70.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">11 The Bearded Pig</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it apparently has never been domesticated, the bearded pig (Sus barbatus) has a long history as an important resource in Southeast Asia. Human remains from the Niah Caves in Sarawak are accompanied by large numbers of its bones and teeth, indicating that 40,000 years ago it was the most commonly eaten large animal. Today in Sarawak and some other areas the bearded pig is still probably the most sought after source of wild meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bearded pigs are large. Boars measure 1-1.6 m in length (crown to rump), up to 1 m in height, and may weigh as much as 150 kg. Sows are smaller. Adult males have small facial warts (infraocular and preocular) and a bushy tuft of hair on the cheek. Both sexes vary in color from pale red-brown to yellow-brown or black. They have elongated skulls with longer, more flexible snouts than the common pig.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five subspecies are recognized. They range through the Philippines (Balabac, Palawan and offshore islands, Calamianes, Luzon, Mainit, Mindanao, Jolo, Mindoro, and Cebu) to Borneo, Bangka, Sumatra, the Riau Archipelago, and the Malay Peninsula.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Borneo subspecies (Sus barbatus barbatus) is still abundant in some parts of Sabah, Sarawak (including several wildlife reserves), and </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kalimantan. It remains an important food resource for some hill tribes, although with the spread of Islam, attitudes toward pork are changing in some areas. The Malayan subspecies (Sus barbatus of) is now rare in the Malay Peninsula. It is also becoming rare in Sumatra as the lowland forests are logged and broken up by commercial interests and as the human population expands. The status of the three Philippine subspecies is currently unknown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The bearded pig is most commonly found in both primary and secondary evergreen forests. However, it seems to have wide adaptability, and in Sarawak bearded pigs are found in virtually all habitats from the beaches to the upland rain forests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No biological research has yet been conducted on bearded pigs, but naturalists have made several observations. The pigs eat the seeds of trees (for example, those of species of Dipterocarpaceae and Fageceae), fallen fruits (of Moraceae, Bombacaceae, and other plant families), roots, stems of wild bananas, herbs, and probably earthworms, and along the coast they dig up and eat turtle eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Births occur throughout the year in Sabah, but the peak coincides with the fruiting season of forest trees, usually August-September. The litter size is from 3 to 11 piglets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p73.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No behavioral studies have been conducted, but observations suggest that bearded pigs are generally sedentary animals, although in some areas they congregate into large groups that may travel long distances together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The species might be used (alone or together with other pig species) as a local source of meat, or even as the foundation of a meat industry. The bearded pig is accustomed to living in groups, which may make it suitable for husbandry or game management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is evidence that the bearded pig will interbreed with the common pig, producing young in which both sexes are fertile.* The progeny might have considerable hybrid vigor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The bearded pig may have tolerance (if not actual resistance) to tropical diseases and conditions that affect the common pig. The species survives in areas of Southeast Asia where feral herds of common pigs are not common, apparently owing to their inability to cope with disease or other environmental challenges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No negative qualities have been reported, but the animal's biology, behavior, management, and potential uses are so far virtually unstudied.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aspects of the animal's general biology that should be investigated include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Chromosome type and variability, and chromosomal differences between the bearded pig and other wild and domesticated pig species</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Reproductive physiology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nutritional physiology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Social behavior (both in its wild state and under controlled conditions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To assist in the selective capture of young bearded pigs in the wild, external features that characterize the species at an early age need to be identified.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To assess the bearded pig's potential for contributing hybrid vigor, crossbreeding with other pig species should be attempted under controlled conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">12 The Sulawesi Warty Pig</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Sulawesi warty pig (Sus celebensis) is one of the world's few domesticated animals. It is maintained as a village or household animal in a few areas of Southeast Asia, such as on the Indonesian island of Roti. The common pigs of New Guinea and parts of the Moluccas group are hybrids between this species and the common pig.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sulawesi warty pigs are medium sized, averaging about 60 cm high and 40-70 kg. Boars are larger than females and have longer (10 cm) tusks on both jaws. Boars have three pairs of prominent facial warts: on the snout, the cheek, and on the angle of the jaw. In sows these warts are small or absent entirely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are usually red-brown with sharply marked white and yellow undersides; older animals have a round white spot (about 3 cm in diameter) on each side of the upper cheek. Piglets have horizontal stripes on the body, which disappear as they mature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The body is covered with scanty coarse hair, but stiff bristles, which become erect when the animal is alarmed, occur along the mid-dorsal line of the body. The longest and stiffest occur on the head and nape.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native to mainland Sulawesi and certain surrounding islands, the Sulawesi warty pig has been introduced to the Lesser Sunda Islands (Flores, Sumba, Roti, Semau, and Timor), the Moluccas (Malmahera and Buru), and Simaleue, a small island west of Sumatra. In some parts of the Philippines (for instance, Naujan and Mindoro Oriental) the animal either occur naturally or has been introduced. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrids between the Sulawesi warty pig and the common domestic pig occur on New Guinea, Ternate, Morotai, Bacan, Amron, Seram, Kei island, Aru island, and Sulawatti.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many islands of eastern Indonesia, this species is widespread and common. In a few places it is extremely abundant, particularly at higher altitudes; in others, it has been greatly reduced by overhunting, deforestation, and expanding human settlement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Overall, however, Sulawesi warty pig populations are declining, probably due to increased hunting and to human alterations of the animal's habitats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This pig inhabits varied environments, including rain forest, mountain forest, grasslands, and agricultural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p77.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the common pig, the Sulawesi warty pig has broad dietary preferences. It feeds on roots, fallen fruit, leaves, and young shoots. The bulk of its food consists of vegetable materials, but it also feeds on earthworms, insects, aquatic invertebrates, rats, birds, and even carrion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The uterus and placenta are anatomically indistinguishable from those of the common pig. The litter size is from 2 to 8 piglets, with an average of 5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sows can give birth throughout the year, but usually have their young in April or May. The gestation period is about 4 months.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding and farrowing occur in the forest and in open Imperata cylindrica grasslands. The pregnant female makes a nest of grasses, leaves, twigs, and branches, which she collects and places over a hole (approximately 2 m long) that she has previously dug. Here she gives birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Foraging is the main activity of the day and usually takes up several hours, mainly in the early morning and evening. In the wild the pigs travel in small groups, the young always traveling with an adult female. On the move, warty pigs feed and rest intermittently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a source of meat the Sulawesi warty pig has been recognized and exploited by local populations since prehistoric times. The presence of feral specimens far outside the pigs' natural range indicates that traders or migrants have long carried it with them on voyages, either as domestic stock or as wild specimens to be released for later capture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tusks, which can be carved like ivory, are a resource for local artisans. Wild specimens are suitable for sport hunting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a body of unrecorded indigenous experience with this animal as a domesticate, but the information needs to be collected and appraised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Sulawesi warty pig may be expected to possess resistance or tolerance to the many diseases prevalent in its native habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is promising potential for hybridization between this species and domestic pigs, which might lead to the improvement of common pigs in tropical regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from the unwritten knowledge of the indigenous people who raise the species, very little information is available on the characteristics and management of this animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The genetic variability within the species, as well as the karyotypic differences with common pigs and other Sus species, should be defined. Further, the hybrid vigor resulting from crossbreeding with other Sus species should be- quantified under controlled conditions. Apart from producing potentially important heat-tolerant livestock, crossbreeding may shed important light on the origins of the common pig in Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal's nutritional requirements and reproductive biology also need study. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p79.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">13 Javan Warty Pig</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Javan warty pig (Sus verrucosus) apparently has never been domesticated, but it has been a resource for hunting peoples for centuries. Now, however, the human population in its native region is predominantly Moslem, and all pigs are widely regarded as agricultural pests. Increasing numbers of them are poisoned each year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Javan warty pig can be up to 1.35 m long and 0.9 m tall. Mature males usually weigh between 80 and 120 kg; females are only half that weight - an unusually dramatic example of sexual dimorphism. The animal has a markedly elongated face with large warts, particularly the infraorbital wart and the smaller preorbital and mandibular warts. Body hairs can be black, red, or yellow, with black tips.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This species is found only on the Indonesian islands of Java and Bawean. It was formerly found on Madura as well, but because of deforestation it is now thought to be extinct there. Two extant subspecies are recognized. The nominate one, Sus verrucosus verrucosus, occurs on mainland Java. The second, Sus verrucosus blouchi, a smaller animal, has recently been described on Bawean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For years it was thought that the Javan warty pig was extinct in the wild, but in October 1981 a herd was found in a small area on Mount Penanggungan in East Java. This population may prove to be substantial, and there is reason to hope that other populations can be found. Overall, however, it is clear that the Javan warty pig is endangered and declining in numbers. In many areas the animals are subjected to uncontrolled poisoning and hunting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five new reserves have recently been proposed to protect the animal in a variety of habitats because it is not found in appreciable numbers in any of Java's nature reserves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Bawean subspecies is believed to be relatively secure since the establishment of a large reserve.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A breeding colony of 12 Javan warty pigs at the Surabaya Zoo includes 5 young ones born in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitats of the Javan warty pig appear to be confined to elevations below about 800 m. The animals prefer relatively large expanses of grassland or secondary vegetation, where human population is sparse. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p82.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The piglets can be born throughout the year; in one study of 8 sows the litter size ranged from 2 to 8, with a mean of 5.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The (diploid) chromosome number has been found to be 38, the same as that of the common pig. Hybridization between these species is thought to occur in the wild, but apparently not with enough frequency to contaminate the Javan warty pig gene pool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unreported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are omnivorous, adaptable animals that might make useful domesticates.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The small size of the sows could make this species particularly appropriate for households or smallholder farms. The animal's genetic "distance" from the domestic pig may make it a useful generator of hybrid vigor in crossbreeds. It could have particular value because its meat is much leaner than pork from the common pig.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The numbers in the wild are now too few to permit any cropping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efforts should be directed towards locating and breeding up the Javan warty pig populations that still exist. An immediate need is to isolate pure populations in reserves because it is essential to protect the animal from crossbreeding with other species. In addition, current specimens in zoos should be cataloged and a breeding program established. Other captive breeding colonies should also be started.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to determine the genetic differences between the Javan warty pig and the common pig, as well as the levels of existing hybridization between them. It is also necessary to determine what variation in karyotype may exist within the populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basic ecological and behavioral studies are needed, as well as studies of the dietary requirements, growth rates, and nutritional physiology of captive specimens. The reproductive biology of the animal should be studied, and the possibility of crossbreeding it with other Sus species should be examined under controlled conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Javan warty pig's potential for local meat production should be evaluated. The benefit to rural people of converting an agricultural pest into a profitable source of income should be explored within the local religious context. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p84.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">14 Pigmy Hog</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog (Sus salvanius), a shy and very small pig of northeastern India, is close to extinction because of hunters and the destruction of its habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog is only about 60 cm long, with a shoulder height of about 25 cm and a body weight of less than 10 kg. The hair is medium brown on the sides, darkening to blackish brown along the mid-dorsal line. A facial band of short, dark hair extends from the bridge of the nose to below the eye. The tiny tail is only 3 cm long.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This animal was once widely found along the southern foothills of the Himalayas; today, it is definitely known to occur in only one area, the Manas National Park in Assam.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy hogs are seriously endangered; in the wild they are close to extinction. Captive animals are now reduced to a single male in the Assam State Zoo and four male siblings in the Zurich Zoo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The few remaining pigmy hogs mainly inhabit tall-grass savannas, but it seems likely that they could adapt to other environments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy hog. (W.L.R. Oliver)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is omnivorous and consumes roots, tubers, grass, leaves, insects, earthworms, eggs, and carrion. While foraging, it undoubtedly consumes large quantities of earth as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chromosome number, 38, is the same as that of the common pig. The karyotype is similar to that the common pig, but small, significant differences have been demonstrated using chromosome banding techniques.*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The age at puberty, time of weaning, length of gestation and estrous cycle, and season of breeding are not yet known with certainty. However, the animal is known to have a single well-defined birth peak (April/May) that coincides with the onset of the rainy season when the food supply increases. The uterus and placenta are anatomically similar to those of the common pig. The litter size varies from 2 to 6. It is not known if the animal can be crossbred with the common pig.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p87.png"></center><br>
+ Distribution of pigmy hog. (W.L.R. Oliver)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals are shy, but can be tamed. They tend to forage and run in groups. Nest building is carried out by both males and females and is not restricted to pre-farrowing periods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is no evidence that the pigmy hog has ever been domesticated; it has, however, been extensively hunted and trapped, and recently it was still being sold for human consumption. There would probably be no inherent difficulty in maintaining this species in husbandry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pigmy hog's small size may make it useful in studies of the physiology of pigs and like mammals. In particular, a study of the uterine capacity may contribute to our understanding of the maternal factors that influence the number and size of mammalian young at birth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is unknown if the animal carries genetic resistance to diseases of the domestic pig, but given its habitat, such resistance seems likely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The small numbers of surviving pigmy hogs obviate any consideration of its use in husbandry at the present time. Moreover, its nervous temperament might restrict its potential as a domesticate. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is essential to ensure the survival of this animal. Efforts should be directed towards locating and breeding up the populations that still exist. If its habitat could be protected by preventing the annual dry-season burning of grasses, it is possible that substantial populations could be established. Attempts should also be made to acquire two or more females as mates for the male pigmy hogs at the Assam and Zurich zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also an urgent need to ensure that the animals breed successfully in captivity, and the wealth of international expertise in pig reproduction should be applied to that end. For example, the reproductive biology of the animal could be studied by swine experts; the age at puberty, the length of the estrous cycle, the season of breeding (and whether it is influenced by light or temperature), the length of gestation, and time of weaning all need to be determined.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is an omnivore, but the physiology of its digestion has not been studied. Thus, its nutritive requirements are not well enough known to ensure its survival in captivity or reserves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiments should be made to determine if pigmy hog embryos can be brought to term in the uterus of the common pig. If so, such embryo transfers could be used to distribute embryos and set up new herds, lessening the risk of this species" extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p88.png"></center><br>
+ Adult male of the common pig (wild boar Sus scrofa) and pigmy hog drawn to the same scale. (W.L.R. Oliver) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">15 The Babirusa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa) is a piglike animal whose closest relative appears to be an ancestral animal that lived in Europe 35 million years ago. It is easily tamed, and in its native area there is an ancient tradition of raising young babirusa for meat and for the males' unique tusks. The animal appears to reproduce well in captivity, and with good management techniques it might gain wide use in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appearance and Size</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male babirusa can be up to 110 cm long and 80 cm tall and weigh up to 100 kg; females are smaller. The male has large upper canines that grow upwards, piercing right through the flesh of the snout and curving back and downwards towards the forehead without ever entering the mouth. The female may sometimes have small upper canines projecting through the skin of the upper lip.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animal is more slender than a pig of similar size. It has a gray or brown-grey skin color, although one subspecies, Babyrousa babyrussa babyrussa, has light body hair that is fawn colored or black.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa is unique to a few islands of eastern Indonesia: north, central, and southeast Sulawesi, the Togian Islands, and the Sula (Taliabu and Sulabesi) and Buru Islands. On Sula and Buru it is probably not native but was introduced in prehistoric times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On Sulawesi the babirusa remains abundant, despite hunting and the widespread clearing of the forest. Nevertheless, disturbances created by wood and rattan collectors, hunters, loggers, and farmers threaten the babirusa's survival. Throughout the rest of its range, it is also vulnerable to extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biologists are particularly concerned about some of the babirusa subspecies. The one from the north of mainland Sulawesi, Babyrousa babyrussa celebensis, is still relatively abundant in places and is probably in no immediate danger. The Togian Islands' subspecies, Babyrousa babyrussa togeanensis, is abundant in small islands but is threatened by Indonesia's settlement programs and deforestation. The Buru and Sula Islands subspecies, Babyrousa babyrussa babyrussa, may already be extinct; there have been no confirmed sightings in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1981, there were 26 male and 27 female babirusa held in six zoo collections; 22 of these animals are in the Surabaya Zoo in Indonesia, where they breed well. Most, if not all, are believed to belong to the mainland Sulawesi race.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat and Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The animals mainly inhabit moist forests at low altitudes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p91.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Precise details of babirusa biology are unknown, but the stomach has an extra sac, suggesting that the animals may have some ability to break down cellulose. Indeed, they browse leaves, a behavior more often found in a deer than in a pig, and have been referred to as "ruminant pigs." Babirusa also live on roots, berries, and grubs, making them true omnivores. Compared to other pigs, they do little rooting, and in captivity their enclosures remain quite grassy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Babirusa are said to be sexually mature at 5-10 months, but this depends on nutrition. Gestation length is about 158 days. One or two young are produced although there are some reports of litters of three.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One specimen was kept for 24 years in captivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Behavior</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa is a social animal that moves in groups. A retiring native of the dense jungle, it is a fast runner and swims readily. Mating behavior in captivity generally resembles that of domestic pig. Evidence from zoo animals suggests that the male must be removed from the young at birth but that by the time they are a month old the young are safe from paternal attack.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uses</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When captured young or reared in captivity, the babirusa is easily tamed. It has potential as a domesticated species, and with appropriate management may provide a useful source of meat. The meat is tasty and of good quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its unique tusks, the skull of the male finds ready markets. This could provide additional income to farmers raising babirusa for meat. The ivory of the tusks could also be a resource for local artisans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Potential Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the anatomy of the stomach suggests that the babirusa may be able to make more efficient use of fibrous foodstuffs than other pigs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The babirusa produces only one or two young after a gestation period of just over five months; it may therefore take considerable time to build up herds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the babirusa is easily tamed, it is not known whether it can be husbanded in large groups. Also, present lack of knowledge of the animal's nutrition may restrict its husbandry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Conservation Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The number of animals in the wild is decreasing, and attempts should be made to determine their exact status. Particular attention should be paid to the subspecies Babyrousa babyrussa togeanensis and Babyrousa babyrussa babyrussa. Captive breeding programs for these subspecies should be started.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p93.png"></center><br>
+ When seen in longitudinal section, the stomach of babirusa presents striking similarities  to that of a relatively simple ruminant such as the domestic sheep. Every part except the  omasum, even including a rudimentary reticulum, is represented and occupies the same  relative position. The babirusa stomach differs from that of the domestic pig chiefly in  the enormous size of the diverticulum ventriculi, the prominence of the constrictions  that delimit its three main divisions, and in the size and complexity of the cardia. Regions  corresponding to parts of the ruminant stomach are labeled in brackets. (Information  from Davis, 1940; diagram courtesy Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild populations should be maintained in several regions to ensure that  the species" genetic base is retained. Advantage could be taken of the large  number of islands in eastern Indonesia to establish reserves for the different  babirusa subspecies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currently, little is known about the biology of the animal in the wild its  diet, social behavior, or reproductive performance are almost unstudied. In  view of the relatively small number of babirusa in zoos and the scarcity of  information about the animal's growth rate and general biology, coordinated  studies between zoos could provide much basic information. It has been  suggested that a studbook be initiated for this species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear from chromosome analysis that this pig differs markedly in  its karyotype from that of other pigs. However, more anatomical and  biochemical knowledge is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basic parameters of the animal's reproductive physiology are not known.  Questions to be answered include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can the babirusa be induced to reproduce twice per year?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can babirusa embryos be developed to term in the uterus of the domestic  pig? If so, can the number of babirusas be rapidly multiplied in this way?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Does the babirusa genotypic and gestation-length difference with the  common pig prevent the two from successfully crossbreeding? And if  crossbreeding can be achieved, will the progeny be fertile?  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p94.png"></center><br>
+ FIGURE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Part IV : Recommendations and  General Research  Needs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Asian animals described in this report are a natural resource whose  potential is barely glimpsed. They are virtually unknown to established  livestock interests and there has been little thought to developing them as  livestock. As a result, the research and trials that could lead to further use of  these animals is scattered, small scale, and conducted outside the mainstream  of livestock science, mainly by wildlife conservationists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet these animals seem worth considering for use in husbandry in many  tropical regions, especially where poor grazing and harsh environments limit  the performance of conventional livestock. There is a pressing need for  research to develop these species and to explore their potential. Only through  rapid action can many of them be kept available for study and possible  inclusion in agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One suggestion is that funds be provided to establish an Asian  native-livestock research-support team. Its primary purpose would be to  assist in the funding of research projects and to coordinate research being  done in various Asian countries. The team's goal would be to establish a  network of animal scientists based at institutions in Asia and elsewhere to  work cooperatively on the region's little-known bovines and pigs. In this  manner, relatively small sums of money could be used to stimulate and  coordinate Asia-wide research on indigenous animals.*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Basic Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The time has come for basic studies on each of the 15 animals discussed in  this book. For each species, the following areas should be investigated:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Physiology</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Reproductive requirements and fertility</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nutritional requirements (such as food preferences, feeding strategies, and food utilization)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Growth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Adaptability and environmental tolerance (for instance, water balance, sweat rate, and shade-seeking habits, as well as temperature, pulse, and respiration rates, both under normal conditions and heat stress)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Diseases</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. Management (including stocking rates and other production characteristics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Genetic selection for calm temperament, quick growth, and other desirable qualities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crossbreeding to take advantage of hybrid vigor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Social structure (for example population density and distribution, social organization, leadership, herding potential, aggressiveness of bulls)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Habitat characteristics (behavior-habitat interactions and herd dynamics, for instance).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies are also needed on better utilization of products, such as milk, meat, hides, horn, and hair, from these animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experimental transfer of fertilized eggs of all of these animals into domestic species should be explored with a view to establishing herds in secure and disease-free areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efforts specific to domesticated and wild species, and to hybrids of these species, are discussed below. The report concludes with brief discussions of a few promising species not taken up in the body of the text.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated Species Improving Performance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little data is available on the performance of the domesticated animals discussed in this report. Yet the main value of these species lies in the new and superior genes and gene combinations that can be adapted to animal production in the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies need to be conducted with the indigenous species and strains in their native countries to determine if they will respond to improved conditions with improved performance. These projects could provide opportunities for geneticists and animal breeders to improve livestock production while conducting challenging basic research. It would be helpful to establish studbooks of captive specimens and to select and breed for desirable genetic qualities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetic improvement must be directed towards remedying production deficiencies. Methods include selection of superior breeding animals, crossbreeding, and combinations of selection and crossbreeding. Different genetic improvement techniques will be required for each species. Progress should be regularly monitored against the unselected animals and the domestic livestock breeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Introductions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical countries should import breeding stock to evaluate the performance of some of these Asian animals in the local environment. Strict quarantine procedures must, of course, be observed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Special emphasis should be placed on the domesticated banteng of eastern Indonesia. These animals are already an important source of human food and they may have considerable potential for increasing production elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild Animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild animals contribute extensively to the welfare of people and economies of developing countries. In many areas they supply much of the animal protein consumed. But the contributions they make are largely unrecorded, and local officials and aid agencies seldom regard wildlife as an economic resource. As a result, few developing countries have analyzed how their people use indigenous animals for subsistence, and few nutritional studies recognize "bushmeat," although large numbers of people eat it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife's contribution justifies more detailed and precise evaluations. In many tropical regions few people even know what species are present, let alone in what numbers. Ecologists and animal scientists should be employed to identify and collect data on the fauna of the tropical forests and how it is used by local people. Their work will provide baseline information on the species present and on the potential utility of the undisturbed natural ecosystems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initial Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All wildlife utilization must be based on a thorough knowledge of the resource, its numbers, the animals' condition, annual recruitment in the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">various populations, and the seasonal movements of the herds. In addition, it is important to understand the interactions of the species with its habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thus, the immediate need is for action to assure the preservation of populations of these animals until research studies can be conducted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard, priority actions include the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establishing adequate preserves</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Providing total protection for remaining animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Preventing poaching.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With few exceptions, the wild species described in this report are under the pressures of agricultural and human expansion. Without efforts to preserve their habitats it will be difficult for these species to survive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing Wildlife Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments cannot stop hungry people from hunting game, but they can use this impetus to help protect some indigenous animals as well as forest and woodland habitats. Fostering the production and supply of wild animals such as those described in this book could open up a new: source of meat and other products, particularly for subsistence farmers in remote areas. In the last analysis, this may be the only way of protecting and maintaining these animals and developing local awareness of their value.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International economic development organizations have traditionally shown little interest in wildlife or wildlife habitats. Yet maintaining these animals and their habitats is crucial to the continuing supply of many indigenous food animals, the most important of which are often the smaller ones that flourish in secondary growth. And the forests that support wildlife also protect some of the huge investments that AID, the World Bank, and other other agencies have made to help developing countries. The forest is the sponge that absorbs the water from tropical rains. Without trees covering the watersheds, heavy rains cause rushing water that erodes the land, despoils highways, silts up dams and reservoirs, knocks out bridges, and inundates towns, villages, and farm fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In principle, the farming of tropical wildlife could become a force in preventing clear-felling of the tropical forests. Rational utilization of tropical animals offers productive alternative use of the land. In some cases, the farming of indigenous animals can fit smoothly into tropical habitats and into traditional village life, because the livestock and its needs are usually familiar to local people and are often ingrained in their traditions.( For successful examples see companion reports nos. 44 and 45, Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea and Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybrid Animals)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hybridization may offer new prospects for using underexploited tropical animal resources. This is a speculative notion, but it deserves serious attention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossbreeding between the animals mentioned in this report holds exciting possibilities for expanding livestock options in the tropics. Some of the crosses, known or envisaged, are:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· gaur x cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· banteng x cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· kouprey x cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· yak x cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· yak x banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· anoa x water buffalo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· tamaraw x water buffalo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· domestic pig x warty pigs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· warty pigs x bearded pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Care must be taken, however, to guard against the dilution of wild genes by the escape of hybrid or interbreeding domestic species, or the establishment of feral hybrid populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Exchange of Pig Germ Plasm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Present veterinary restrictions effectively prevent the movement of pigs between most countries. Relatively few species of wild pigs are therefore maintained in zoos outside their countries of origin. This stifles the promising potential for the species described in Part III, as well as for captive-breeding safeguards and research on the endangered species. It is important that attempts be made to identify channels for the future establishment of viable captive stocks both within Asia and elsewhere. Transfer of embryos should be verified as a means of permitting disease-free movement across frontiers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species Not Covered in this Report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This project, which began as a short report on banteng, quickly developed momentum as it brought in suggestion after suggestion of further species. Through pressures of time and budget, it was not possible to take up all of these interesting animals. Some of the omitted ones are listed below. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Takin (Budorcas taxicolor).* A heavily built, Southeast Asian hoofed mammal of the family Bovidae, the takin lives in small herds in the mountains, often above timberline. Though robust and short-legged, it can move about quickly and easily over difficult slopes. It stands up to about 1 m at the shoulder and has a shaggy yellowish- to blackish-brown coat. Both sexes have heavy horns that turn outward from the center of the forehead and then curve up and backward.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Goral (Naemorhedus goral).* This small Asian goatlike bovine has slightly backward curving cylindrical horns and a coarse brownish-grey coat. It is related to the chamois and serow (see below) but is distinguished from them by peculiarities in skull form, as well as by smaller size, shorter horns, and the absence of face glands. Gorals are native to a vast area, ranging from the Himalayas to eastern Siberia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serow (Capricorhis sumatrensis). The serow has been called a "goatantelope." Found in Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Vietnam, Thailand, Burma, the eastern Himalayas, and China, it lives on forest-clad slopes, such as the mountains of southern China that are the home of the giant panda. Serows have coarse black hair, long pointed ears, a distinct mane, and short, backward pointing horns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Native species of goats are also valuable genetic resources of Asia and examples include ibex (Capra ibex), markhor (Capra falconeri), and bharal (Pseudois nayaur). There are also various species of sheep, including the various races of argalis (Ovis ammon), which form small herds in the mountains, often above timberline. Although robust and short-legged, these animals can move about quickly and easily over difficult slopes. Soviet animal breeders apparently are exploring some of the possibilities of using argalis in animal husbandry. They are crossing domestic sheep with arkhar (Ovis ammon karelini) to produce a commercially viable hybrid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The marketable size of lamb might be increased appreciably to provide larger, leaner cuts of meat by crossing domestic sheep with the Marco Polo sheep (Ovis ammon polii), which is as big as deer and has a mature body weight of 400-500 pounds. Marco Polo sheep meat is reported to have none of the "mutton" favor of domestic sheep. Thus, crosses might enhance consumer acceptance of sheep meat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia also has several species of deer that could have been included.§ The musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) is now domesticated in China for musk production and is a resource with a promising future. Also, sambar deer (Cervus unicolor), Asia's largest deer, may prove useful in husbandry. Several deer species are being farmed in New Zealand and ruse deer (Cervus rusa), which are native to South and Southeast Asia, are being farmed in Mauritius, Australia, and Papua New Guinea for meat and medicinal by-products. Two small, goat-sized Asian deer, the hog deer (Cervus porcinus) and the barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), may also be worth considering. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p101.png"></center><br>
+ KOUPREY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Selected Readings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bohlken, H. 1961. Haustiere und Zoologische Systematik. Zeitschrift fur Tierzuchtung und Zuchtungsbiologie76:107-113.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul, and J. A. McNeely. 1977. Mammals of Thailand. Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand. 758 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corbet, G. B., and J. E. Hill. 1980. A World List of Mammalian Species. British Museum of Natural History, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gray, A. P. 1972. Mammalian Hybrids: A Check-List with Bibliography. Commonwealth Technical Communication No. 10 (Rev.). Bureau of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Edinburgh, Scotland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honacki, J. H., K. E. Kinman, and J. W. Koeppl. 1982. Mammal Species of the World. Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas, USA. 694 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mochi, U. and T. D. Carter. 1953. Hoofed Mammals of the World. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Payne, W. J. A. 1970. Cattle Production in the Tropics. Longman, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robbins, C. T. In Press. Wildlife Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, New York, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Walker, E. P. 1975. Mammals of the World. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, USA, and London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wharton, C. H. 1969. Man, fire and wild cattle in Southeast Asia. Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference 8: 107-167.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated and Wild Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appleton, D. C., G. Dryden, and A. C. Kondos. 1976. A comparison of the digestive efficiency of the water buffalo and Brahman and Banteng cattle. In Proceedings of the Australian Society of Animal Production 11.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Budiarso, I. T., and S. Hardjosworo. 1976. Jembrana disease in Bali cattle. Australian Veterinary Journal 52(2):97.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copland, R. S. 1974. Observations on banteng cattle in Sabah. Tropical Animal Health and Production 6(2):89-94.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Darmadja, D., and P. Sutedja. 1975. Gestation period and calving interval in Bali cattle. Majalah Ilmiah Universitas Udayana 9:61 -65.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Darmadja, D., and P. Sutedja. 1976. Masa kebuntingan den interval beranak padas sapi Bali. In Proceedings, Seminar Reproduksi den Performance Sapi Bali, April 5-6, 1976. Dinas Peternakan Daerah Ternak Institute, Bali, Indonesia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Devendra, C., T. Lee Kok Choc, and M. Pathmasingam. 1973. The productivity of Bali cattle in Malaysia. Malaysian Agricultural Journal 49(2):183-197.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holmes, J. H. C., J. H. Schottler, and T. F. Leche. 1977. Southeast Asian cattle, buffalo, and beef in Papua New Guinea. In Agriculture in the Tropics, B. A. C. Enyi and T. H. Varghese, eds. University of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoogerwerf, A. 1970. Udjung Kulan, The Land of the Last Javan Rhinoceros. E. J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hooijer, D. A. 1956. The valid name of the banteng Bibos javanicus d'Alton. Zoologische Mededelingenuitgegeven door het Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie te Leiden 34:223-226.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jellinek, P. J., J. Avenell, A. Thahar, and P. Sitorus. 1980. Infertility associated with crossbreeding of Bali cattle. In Proceedings, 2nd Ruminant Seminar, Ciawi, Indonesia. 79 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jenkinson, D. M., and T. Nay. 1975. The sweat glands and hair follicles of different species of Bovidae. Australian Journal of Biological Science 28:55-68.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kirby, G. W. M. 1979. Bali cattle in Australia. World Animal Review 31 :24-29.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, 1. L. In Press. Evolution of Domesticated Animals. Longman, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meijer, W. C. P. 1962. Das Balirind (Balinese Cattle). Die Neue Brehm-Bucherei, No. 303, A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg Lutherstadt, Federal Republic of Germany. (Translated from the Dutch by E. Mohr.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1973a. Liveweight changes of Brahman cross, Shorthorn, Banteng and buffalo steers grazing improved pastures at Darwin, Northern Territory. Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science 39:68-9.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1973b. Heat tolerance of Brahman cross, buffalo Banteng and Shorthorn steers during exposure to sun and as a result of exercise. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 24:775-782.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1978. Digestibility and water metabolism in Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers fed roughage diets. Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science 44: 57-59.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1980. The prediction of chemical content of the whole carcass from the physically-dissected rib in cattle and buffaloes. Proceedings of the Australian Society of Animal Production 13:503.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1981. Beef and buffalo production by smallholders in Indonesia. World Review of Animal Production 17:55-64.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1982. The performance of Indonesian beef breeds under traditional and improved management systems. Pp. 347-351 in Animal Production and Health in the Tropics, M. R. Jainudeen and A. R. Omar, eds. Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B., B. W. Norton, and J. V. Nolan. 1979. The intake, digestibility and utilization of a low quality roughage by Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 30:333-340.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Namikawa, T., and W. Widodo. 1978. Electrophoretic variations of hemoglobin and serum albumin in the Indonesian cattle including Bali cattle (Bos banteng). Japanese Journal of Zootechnical Science 49(11):817-827.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M., K. Rika, M. Supardjata, K. D. Nurbudhi, and L. R. Humphreys. 1976. Productivity of improved pastures grazed by Bali cattle under coconuts: a preliminary report. Universitas Udayana, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia. 18 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M., and K. Rika. 1978. Bali cattle grazing improved pasture under coconuts. 1. Effects of stocking rate on steer performance and coconut yield. In Seminar on Integration of Animals with Plantation Crops, April 13-15. Preprint No. 10. Penang, Indonesia. 8 pp</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M. 1979a. Effects of replacing 30 percent of the green roughage with concentrate on the performance of Bali steer. Progress report to the International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada. Centre file:3-P77-0087. 25 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M. 1979b. Performance of Bali cattle fed grass supplemented with stylosanthes. Progress report to the International Foundation for Science, Sweden. Project No. RR 76. 15 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nitis, 1. M., K. Lana, 1. B. Sudana, N. Sutji, and 1. C. N. Sarka. I980. Persediaan den kebutuhan hijauan ternak di Bali (Roughage supply and requirement of livestock in </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bali). Fakultas Kedokteran Hewan den Peternakan, Universitas Udayana, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia. 218 pp. (Report series mimeograph.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Norton, B. W., J. B. Moran, and J. V. Nolan. 1979. Nitrogen metabolism in Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers fed on low quality roughage. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 30:341.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nursamad, M. 1972. Berat lahir den petumbuhan anak sapi Bali selama 4 bulan di kecamatan Watang Pulu, kabupaten Sidenreng, Sulawesi Selatan. Laporan, Fakultas Peternakan Universitas Hasanuddin yang berafinasi dengan Fakultas Peternakan Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pastika, M., and D. Darmadja. 1976. Performance reproduksi sapi Bali. In Proceedings, Seminar Reproduksi den Performance Sapi Bali, April 5-6, 1976. Dinas Peternakan Daerah Ternak Institut, Bali, lndonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Payne, W. J. A., and D. H. L. Rollinson. 1973. Bali cattle. World Animal Review 7: 13-21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pulungan, H., and K. Ma'sum. 1977. Performance sapi Bali den hasil persilangannya dengan sapi Hereford den Shorthorn. Laporan Khusus Lembaga Penelitian Peternakan, Cabang Grati 1977 (Abstract).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977. Livestock in Indonesia. Research Report No. 1. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siebert, B. D., and W. V. MacFarlane. 1969. Body water content and water turnover of tropical Bos taurus, Bos indicus, Bibos banteng, and Bos bubalus bubalis. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 20:613-622.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Siregar, M. G., and 1. M. Suparjata. 1975. A half century existence of Bali cattle in South Sulawesi. Majalah llmiah Universitas Udayana 9: 13-21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Subandriyo, P. Sitorus, M. Zulbardi, and A. Roesyat. 1979. Performance of Bali cattle, as work animals and milk and beef producers. Indonesian Agricultural Research and Development Journal 1(1/2):9-10, 24.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sutedja, P., M. Kota, 1. B. Mantra, and D. Darmadja. 1976. Progress report beberapa performance pada sapi Bali. In Proceedings, Seminar Reproduksi den Performance Sapi Bali, April 5-6, 1976. Dinas Peternakan Daerah Ternak Institut, Bali, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thahar, A., J. B. Moran, and J. T. Wood. In press. Studies on the haemotology of Indonesian large ruminants. Tropical Animal Health and Production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thahar, A., J. B. Moran, and R. E. Soerifpo. In press. Observations on the hair and skin of Indonesian large ruminants and their relationships to heat tolerance. SABRAO Journal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vercoe, J. E., and J. E. Frisch. 1977. The importance of voluntary feed intake and metabolic rate to production in different genotypes of cattle in different environments. Pp. I(c)-42 in Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress of the Society for the Advancement of Breeding Researchers in Asia and Oceania, Canberra, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yeates, N. T. M., and P. J. Schmidt. 1974. Beef Cattle Production. Butterworths Pty Ltd., Chatswood, Sydney, Australia. 323 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng Cattle Hybrids</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Payne, W. J. A., and D. H. L. Rollinson. 1976. Madura cattle. Zeitschrift fur Tiezuchtung und Zuchtungsbiologie 93:89-100.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simoons, F. J., and E. S. Simoons. 1968. A Ceremonial Ox of India: The Mithan in Nature, Culture, and History. The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, 1. L. In Press. Evolution of Domesticated Animals. Longman, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scheurmann, E. 1975. Observations on the behaviour of the mithan (Bibos frontalis Lambert 1837) in captivity. Applied Animal Ethology I :321 -355. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yak and Yakow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Accolas, J. P., and J. P. Deffontaines. 1970. Quelques donnees sur l'elevage du Yak en Republique Populaire de Mongolie. Pp. 133-141 in The Yak: Its Role in the Economic and Cultural Life of Breeders in Central Asia. Societe d'Ethnozootechnie, 25 Boulevard Arago, 75013 Paris, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bonadonna, T. 1970. Nuove possibilita per la Zootechnia dei tropic). Zootecnica e Veterinaria 25:202-221.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bonnemaire, J. 1976. Le Yak domestique et son hybridation. Pp. 46-77 in The Yak: Its Role in the Economic and Cultural Life of Breeders in Central Asia. Societe d'Ethnozootechnie, Paris, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dor, R. 1976. Note sur le Yak au Pamir. Pp. 126-131 in The Yak: Its Role in the Economic and Cultural Life of Breeders in Central Asia. Societe d'Ethnozootechnie, Paris, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ekvall, R. B. 1968. Fields on the Hoof: Nexus of Tibetan Nomadic Pastoralism. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Epstein, H. 1974. Yak and chauri. World Animal Review 9:8-12.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Epstein, H. 1977. Yak and Yak-cattle hybrids. Chapter 3 in Domestic Animals of Nepal. Holmes and Meier Publishers, Inc., New York, USA, and London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivanova, V. V. 1938. K voprosu izucenija plodovitosti samvoc gibridov jaka s rogatym skotom (On the fertility of male yak x cattle hybrids). Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya Biologicheskaya 883-884.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R. W., R. G. Johnson, and R. T. Moyer. 1945. The livestock of China. Pp. 67-76 in United States Department of State Publication No. 2249; Far Eastern Series 9.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phillips, R. W., I. A. Tolstoy, and R. G. Johnson. 1946. Yaks and Yak-cattle hybrids in Asia. The Journal of Heredity 37(6): 162-170; 37(7):206-215.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schley, P. 1967. Der Yak und seine Kreuzung mit dem Rind in der Sowjetunion. Giessener Abhandlungen zur Agrar- und Wirtschaftsforschung des Europaischen Ostens, Vol. 44. Otto Harassowitz, Weisbaden, Federal Republic of Germany. 131 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shahrani, M. Nazif Mohib. 1979. The Kirghiz and Wakki of Afghanistan. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington, USA. 264 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vlasov, P., S. Gersenzon, and A. Poljakov. 1932. Gibridizacija mezdu jakom i krupnym rogatym skotom (Hybrids between yak and cattle). Problemy Zhivotnovodstva (1):48-57.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">White, W. T., R. W. Phillips, and E. C. Elting. 1946. Yaks and Yak-cattle hybrids in Alaska. Journal of Heredity 37:355-358.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zawadowsky, M. M. 1931. Zebu-Yak hybrids. Journal of Heredity 22:297.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zuitin, A. I. 1938. New data on the chromosome number in yak (Poephagus grunniens L.). Doklady Akademii Nauk Uzbekskoi SSR 19:201-202.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A unique, interesting film showing wild banteng, gaur and kouprey in Cambodia in 1951</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">is available for hire from The Coolidge Foundation, 38 Standley Street, Beverly, Massachusetts 01915, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul and J. A. McNeely. 1977. Mammals of Thailand. Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand. 758 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H., and E. Scheurmann. 1977. Cytogenetic investigations on domestic and wild animal populations in South and Southeast Asia. Animal Research and Development 6:63-71.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Halder, U. 1975. Okologie und Verhalten des banteng (Bos javanicus) in Java. Eine Feldstudie. Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg and Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany. 124 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoogerwerf, A. 1974. Report on a Visit to Wildlife Reserves in East Java. Mededelingen No. 21. Nederlandsche Commissie voor Internationale Natuurbescherming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McNeely, J. A. 1975. Wildlife and national parks in the Lower Mekong Basin. Unpub</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">lished report to the Committee for the Coordination of Investigations of the Lower  Mekong Basin, Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, Bangkok, Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sumardja, E. A. 1976. The relationships between banteng Bos javanicus (d'Alton) and  vegetation at the Pananjung-Pangandaran Nature Reserve. Research Grant No. 1237/  TF/VI/74. Preliminary Study Internal Report Biotrop. Bogor, Indonesia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wind, J., and H. Amir. 1977. Distribution of banteng (Bos javanicus) in Java and Bali,  Indonesia. Unpublished ms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wind, J., and H. Amir. 1977. Management Plan Baluran Reserve FAO INS/73/013.  Nature Conservation and Wildlife Management Project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaur</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul. 1965. The gaur. (Bos gaurus). Conservation News of South East  Asia 5:7-10.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul and J. A. McNeely. 1977. Mammals of Thailand. Association for the  Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand. 758 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conry, P. J. 1980. The impact of development and the behavioural response of the  Malaysian seladang. Pp. 279-286 in Tropical Ecology and Development, Proceedings  Fifth International Symposium of Tropical Ecology. International Society of Tropical  Ecology, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conry, P. J. 1981. Habitat selection and use, movements, and home range of Malayan  gaur (Bos gaurus hubbacki) in Central Pahang, Malaysia. M.S. thesis. University of  Montana, Missoula, Montana, USA. 120 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conry, P. J. (In press) Immobilizing Malayan gaur with etorphine. Journal of Wildlife  Management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H. 1975. The water buffalo and related species as important genetic resources:  their conservation, evaluation and utilization. In The Asiatic Water Buffalo.  Proceedings of an International Symposium, Khon Kaen, Thailand. Food and Fertilizer  Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H. 1980. Hybrids between Gaur and Gayal and between Gayal and Banteng as  zoological rarities in Thailand. Animal Research and Development 12:116-119.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fradrich, H., and H. G. Klos. 1976. Zur Haltung und Zucht des Gaurs, Bos gaurus.  Zoologische Garten 46(6):417-425.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hussain, M. Khader. 1969. The southern Asiatic gaur or Indian bison (Bos gaurus  gaurus H. Smith). Cheetal 12(1):29-47.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Krishnan, M. 1972. An ecological survey of the larger mammals of peninsular India.  Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 69:322-349.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Medway, Lord. 1978. The Wild Mammals of Malaya and Singapore. 2nd Edition. Oxford  University Press, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 128 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Momin Khan, M. K. bin 1973. Studies on the seladang (Bos gaurus) in the State of  Perak. Malaysian Nature Journal 26:163-169.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahai, R. C. 1972. Distribution, composition and herd size of Gaur (Bos gaurus) in  Palamau, Bihar. Cheetal 15:60-66.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schaller, G. B. 1967. The Deer and the Tiger. Chicago University Press, Chicago, USA.  370 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weigun, L. E. 1971. The last refuge. Malaysian Nature Journal 24:132-137.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Weigun, L. E. 1972. The problems in the preservation of the seladang in the Malaysian  National Park. M.S. thesis. Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.  55 pp</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul and J. A. McNeely. 1977. Mammals of Thailand. Association for the  Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand. 758 pp.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coolidge, H. J. 1940. The Indo-Chinese Forest Ox or Kouprey. Memoirs, Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College 54(6):421-431.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coolidge, H. J. 1955. The Forest Ox or Kouprey of South East Asia. P. 109 in Breeding Beef Cattle for Unfavorable Environments, A. O. Rhoad, ed. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Neese, H.C. 1976. Kouprey along the Laos/Cambodia border area. Unpublished report to the New York Zoological Society, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pfeffer, P., and O. Kim-San. 1967. Le kouprey, Bos(Bibos) sauvelli, Urbain, 1937: discussion systematique et status actuel. Hypothese sur l'origine du zebu (Bos indicus). Mammalia 31(4):521-536.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pfeffer, P. 1969. Considerations sur l'ecologie des forets claires du Cambodge oriental. Terre et Vie 23(1):3-24.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wharton, C. H. 1957. An Ecological Study of the Kouprey. Novibos sauveli (Urbain). Monograph No. 5. Institute of Science and Technology, Manila, Philippines. 111 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dolan, J. M. 1965. Breeding of the lowland anoa in the San Diego Zoological Garden. Zeitschrift Saugetierekunde 30(4):241-248.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Duplaix-Hall, N., ed. 1975. International Zoo Yearbook 15. Zoological Society of London</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fradrich, H. 1973. Einige Bemerkungen uber den Anoa. Zeitschrift des Kolner Zoo 16(3):101-105.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H., and H. Hohn. 1976. Der Karyotyp eines weiblichen Tamarau (Anea mindorensis) [The Karyotype of a Female Tamaraw (Anoa mindorensis)]. Giessener Beitrage zur Erbpathologie und Zuchthygiene 6:173.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. P. 1969. Systematics of the anoa (Mammalia, Bovidae) Beaufortia 17(223): 1-12.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Koulischer, L., J. Tyskens, and J. Mortelsmanns. 1972. The chromosomes of a male specimen of Anoa depressicornis quarlesi. Acta Pathologica, Antwerp 56:21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scheurmann, E., H. Hohn, and H. Fischer. 1977. The karyotype of a male Bubalus (Anoa) depressicornis quarlesi Ouwens 1911. In Symposium, Domesticated Animal Cytogenetics, Jouy en Josas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alvarez, J. B., Jr. 1970. Philippines tamaraw, here to stay. IUCN Publication, New Series 18:46-51.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grimwood, l. R. 1975. National Parks and Wildlife Conservation in the Philippines. FAO: PHI/72/006. UNDP/FAO, Rome, Italy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harrisson, T. 1969. The tamaraw and its survival. Conservation News of South East Asia 8:60-61, 70.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kuchn, D. 1975. Tamaraw at Mt. Iglit Came Refuge, Philippines. Tigerpaper 2(3):26.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sitwell, N. 1975. On the track of the tamaraw. Wildlife 17:428-430.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Talbot, L. M., and M. H. Talbot. 1966. The tamaraw, Bubalus mindorensis (Heude). Observations and recommendations. Mammalia 30(1): 1 - 12.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bearded </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Allen, E. F. 1948. The bearded pig. Malaysian Nature Journal 3(2):98-99.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cranbrook, Earl of. 1979. A review of domestic pig remains from archaeological sites in </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diong, C. H. 1973. Studies of the Malayan wild pig in Perak and Johore. Malaysian Nature Journal26(2):120-151.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Croves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Cenus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hertwig, P. 1936. Artbastarde bei Tieren. Handbuch Vererb Wissenschaften 2B:21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hislop, J. A. 1949. Field notes on the bearded pig. Malaysian Nature Journal 4(2):62-64.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hislop, J. A. 1952. More about the bearded pig. Malaysian Nature Journal 7:22-23.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Union for the Conservation of Nature. 1972. Red Data Book 1: Mammalia. IUCN, Cland, Switzerland. (This is a loose-leaf binder that is updated from time to time.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kempe, J. E. 1948. The riddle of the bearded pig. Malaysian Nature Journal 3(1):36-42.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lotsy, J. P. 1922. Die Aufarbeitung des kuhn'schen kreuzungsmaterials im Institut fur Tierzucht der Universitat Halle. Cenetica 4:32-61.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The distribution and status of wild pigs in Indonesia. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 9 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Medway, Lord. 1978. The Wild Mammals of Malaya and Singapore, 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohr, E. 1960. Wilde Schweine. Die Neue Brehm-Biicherei, A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg Lutherstadt, Federal Republic of Cermany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. First written report. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist group. Unpublished report. 14 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pfeffer, P. 1959. Bologie et migrations du sanglier de Borneo (Sus barbatus Muller 1869). Mammalia 23:277-303.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sulawesi Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appelman, F. J. 1955. Uber Sus celebensis Muller und Schlegel. Der Zoologische Garten 21:152-156.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Catibog-Sinha, C. S. 1981. The quantity and quality of wild food plants and the depredation of wild pigs in the Philippines. Ph.D. thesis. Oklahoma State University, Stillwater Oklahoma, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Croves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Cenus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hooijer, D. A. 1968. Pleistocene Vertebrates from Celebes. 8. Sus celebensis Muller and Schlegel, 1845. Beaufortia 16:215-218.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The distribution and status of wild pigs in Indonesia. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Croup. Unpublished report. 9 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohr, E. 1960. Wilde Schweine. Die Neue Brehm-Bucherei, A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg Lutherstadt, Federal Republic of Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. Interim report. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 14, pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Javan Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blouch, R. A. 1979. Proposed Bawean Island Wildlife Reserve Management Plan. World Wildlife Fund, Report to Directorate of Nature Conservation, Indonesia. Unpublished report. 63 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blouch, R. A. 1981. Results of a preliminary search for Sus verrucosus in the Mt. Arjuna area. World Wildlife Fund, Meru Betiri Project 1024. Unpublished report. 4 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hoogerwerf, A. 1970. Udjung Kulonthe Land of the Last Javan Rhinoceros. E. J. Brill, I.eiden. The Netherlands. Pp. 330-349. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The distribution and status of wild pigs in Indonesia. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 9 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. First written report. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 14 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy Hog</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bosma, A. A., W. L. R. Oliver, and A. A. MacDonald. In press. The karyotype, including g- and c- banding patterns, of the pigmy hog Sus (Porcula) salvanius (Suidae, Mammalia).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. T. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1980. The Pigmy Hog: The Biology and Conservation of the Pigmy Hog Sus (Porcula) salvanius, and the Hispid Hare, Caprolagus hispidus. Special Scientific Report No. I. Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust. 93 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. Pigmy hog and hispid hare: further observations of the continuing decline (or, a lament for Barnadi and a good cause for skepticism). The Dodo, Journal of the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust 18:10-20.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Babirus a</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bosma, A. A., 1980. The karyotype of the babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa); karyotype evolution in the Suidae. Fourth European Colloquium Cytogenetics Domestic Animals 1980:238-241.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bosma, A. A., and De Haan, N. A. 1981. The karyotype of Babrousa babyrussa (Suidae, Mammalia) Acta Zoologica et Pathologica Antverpiensia 76: 17-27.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Davis, D. D. 1940. Notes on the anatomy of the babirusa. Field Museum of Natural History-Zoology 22(5):363-411.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fradich, H. 1974. A comparison of behaviour in the suidae. Pp. 133-144 in The Behaviour of Ungulates and Its Relation to Management. V. Ceist and F. Walther, eds. IUCN Publication No. 24.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Groves, C. P. 1981. Ancestors for the Pigs, Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus. Department of Prehistory Technical Bulletin, No. 3. Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia. 96 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Croves, C. P. 1980. Notes on the systematics of Babyrousa (Artiodactyla, Suidae). Zoologische Mededelingen, Deel 55(3):29-46.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The structure and function of the tusks of babirusa. Mammal Review 1 1(1):37-40.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MacKinnon, J. 1981. The distribution and status of wild pigs in Indonesia. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 9 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oliver, W. L. R. 1981. First written report. IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group. Unpublished report. 14 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selmier, V. J. 1978. Only in Indonesia: the babirusa. Unpublished report to Directorate of Nature Conservation (P.P.A.), Bogor, Indonesia. 40 pp. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Research Contacts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because Asia contains many livestock breeds about which little is known, an expert committee on Animal Genetic Resources has been recently formed by the Society for the Advancement of Breeding Researchers in Asia and Oceania (SABRAO). Its chairman is Professor J. S. F. Barker of the University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Species Survival Commission of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature has a Wild Cattle Specialist Group that concerns itself with wild banteng, gaur, and kouprey. Its chairman is Mr. Mohd. Khan bin Momin Khan, Director-General, Wildlife and National Parks, West Malaysia, Kompleks Pejabat-Pejabat Kerajaan, Block K-20, Jalan Duta, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following have particular knowledge of the animals described in this book, have contributed to the various chapters, and (in most cases) have agreed to provide advice to bona fide researchers wishing to study further the animals in this report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Domesticated Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ida Bagus Arka, Faculty for Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Udayana University, Jalan Sudirman Sanglah, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia J. S. F. Barker, Department of Animal Science, University of New</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Bongers, Department of Nature Conservation, Wageningen Agricultural University, Ritzema Bosweg 32a, 6703AZ Wageningen, The Netherlands David Butcher, Western Plains Zoo, Box 813, Dubbo, New South Wales</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2830, Australia (Banteng are available for research projects and zoos.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quarantine for shipments between Australia and most countries are</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">straightforward)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. K. Camoens, Livestock Specialist, Asian Development Bank, P.O. Box 789, Manila, Philippines 2800</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Deppner, 1603 Dayton Road, Hyattsville, Maryland 20783, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Devendra, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.-M. Duplan, Institut Technique de l'Elevage Bovin, Section Amelioration Genetique, Maison Nationale des Eleveurs, 149, rue de Bercy F, 75595 Paris Cedex 12, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. I. Furtado, Universiti Malaya, Lembah Pantai, Kuala Lumpur 22-11, Malaysia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Hodges, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Huitema, Overzicht 60, 6862 CT, Oosterbeek, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham W. M. Kirby, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Production, P.O. Box 4160, Darwin, Northern Territory 5790, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moh. Zain Katoe, P.T. United Livestock, Jalan Bau Massepe 472, ParePare, South Sulawesi, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. -G. Klos, Director, Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Hardenbergplatz 8 , 1000 Berlin 30, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. Kusmat, Dean, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Jalan Oto Iskandardinata, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ian L. Mason, 8 Ramsay Garden, Edinburgh, EH1 1NA, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert E. McDowell, Department of Animal Science, Frank B. Morrison Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Montsma, Department of Animal Production, Wageningen Agricultural University, Ritzema Bosweg 32a, 6703 AZ Wageningen, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. Moran, Senior Research Officer, Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute, Kyabram, Victoria 3620, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jan Nari, Director of Central Research Institute for Animal Science, Jalan Raya Pajajaran, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. M. Nitis, Department of Animal Nutrition and Tropical Pasture Production, Udayana University, Jalan Sudirman Sanglah, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. J. A. Payne, 91 Bedwardine Road, London SE19 3AY, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donald L. Plucknett, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, 1818 H Street, Washington, D.C. 20433, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Institute for Animal Production, P.O. Box 123, Bogor, Indonesia (Amber Roesyat, Ian Fletcher, Dennis Hoffmann, P. Sitorus, Subandriyo, M. Zulbardi)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David W. Robinson, International Programs, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. H. L. Rollinson, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. Seifert, CSIRO, Tropical Cattle Research Centre, P.O. Box 5545, Rockhampton Mail Centre, N. Rockhampton, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. David Simpson, Senior Extension Specialist, Veld, Pastures and Wildlife, Agritex Box 363, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. J. Smith, Tropical Animal Health, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Summerhall, Edinburgh, EH9 1QH Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dukut Sularsasa, Department of Tropical Veterinary Science, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. Syamsul Arifin, Jalan Amin Jakfar 41, Pamekasan Madura, Jatim, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taronga Zoo, P.O. Box 20, Mosman, New South Wales 2088, Australia (T. Finnie and J. L. Throp)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frank M. Thompson, Wild Animal Brokers, 15605 S. R. #64, Bradenton, Florida 33508, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Allen D. Tillman, 523 West Harned Place, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Don Tulloch, P.O. Box 38841, Winnellie, Northern Territory 5789, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Helen Newton Turner, P.O. Box 184, North Ryde, New South Wales 2113, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antoon de Vos, P.O. Box 34, Whitford, Auckland, New Zealand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert Warren, Department or Range and Wildlife Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Everett J. Warwick, The Rockefeller Foundation, P.O. Box 63, Yogyakarta, D.I.Y., Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Woodward, 35AI, Sultan Hasanudin, Ujung Pandang, South Sulawesi, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Domesticated Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Askaniya-Nova, USSR (Zoologicheskii Park Askaniya-Nova)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park; banteng-mithan hybrid)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, German Democratic Republic (Tierpark Berlin)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copenhagen, Denmark (Zoologisk Have)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dubbo, New South Wales, Australia (Western Plains Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kiev, USSR (Kievskii Zoologicheskii Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madrid, Spain (Zoo de la Casa de Campo; mithan-banteng hybrid)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pretoria, South Africa (National Zoological Gardens of South Africa) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rome, Italy (Giardino Zoologico e Museo de Zoologia del Comune de Rome and Zoorama)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde; 2 male, 2 female, may be wild form)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banteng-Cattle Hybrids</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abubakar Aldjufri, Secretary, Asian Livestock Business Club, Kebun Pala I/79B Tanah Abang, Jakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saleh Aldjufri, Jalan Jakarta 42, Surabaya, Jawa Timur, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Deppner, 1603 Dayton Rd., Hyattsville, Maryland 20783, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Huitema, Overzicht 60, 6862 CT, Oosterbeek, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham W. M. Kirby, Principal Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Production, P.O. Box 4160, Darwin, Northern Territory 5790, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. B. Moran, Senior Research Officer, Animal and Irrigated Pastures Research Institute, Kyabram, Victoria 3620, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. J. A. Payne, 91 Bedwardine Road, London SE19 3AY, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David W. Robinson, International Programs, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. H. L. Rollinson, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Wheeler, 1000 Shady Lane, College Station, Texas 77840, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mithan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaichana Satrulee, Dusit Zoological Park, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. von Furer Haimendorf, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, London WC1, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles G. Hickman, Livestock Consultant, A. Mithat Efendi Sokak No. 36/11, Cankaya, Ankara, Turkey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frederick J. Simoons, 140 Bartlett Ave., Woodland, California 95695, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Mithan (Gayal)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aalborg, Denmark (Aalborg Zoologiske Have)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amsterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijk Zoologisch) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arnhem, The Netherlands (Burgers' Zoo and Safari)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, German Democratic Republic (Tierpark Berlin)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calcutta, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cologne, Federal Republic of Germany (Aktiengesellschaft Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heidelberg, Federal Republic of Germany (Tiergarten Heidelberg)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kolmarden, Sweden (Koemardens Djurpark)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madrid, Spain (Zoo de la Casa de Campo; mithan-banteng hybrid)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rabat, Morocco (Pare Zoologique National)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vienna, Austria (Schonbrunn Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tallin, USSR (Tallinna Loomaaed)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yak</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joseph Bonnemaire, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, 26, Bd. Docteur Petitjean, 21100 Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corneille Jest, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1, Place Artistide-Briand, 92190 Meudon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. A. Kazarova, Director, Riga Zoological Garden, Meza prospekt 1, Riga 14 226014, Latvian SSR, USSR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. K. Panday, Swiss Association for Technical Assistance (SATA), Box 113, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralph W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Patrick J. Robinson, Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Oxford, Commonwealth Forestry Institute, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">George B. Schaller, New York Zoological Society, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. B. Singh, Director General, Department of Livestock, HMG, Harihar Bhawan, Pulchowk, Laitpur, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Societe d'Ethnozootechnie, 25, Boulevard Arago, 75013 Paris, France (R. Laurans)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Yak</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arnhem, The Netherlands (Burgers' Zoo and Safari)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Baltimore, Maryland, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bronx, New York, USA (New York Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicago, Illinois, USA (Brookfield Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Denver, Colorado, USA (Denver Zoological Gardens)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Detroit, Michigan, USA (Detroit Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evansville, Indiana, USA (Meeker Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Granby, Quebec, Canada (Societe Zoologique de Granby, Inc.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA (John Ball Zoological Gardens)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kansas City, Missouri, USA (Kansas City Zoological Gardens)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Knoxville, Tennessee, USA (Knoxville Municipal Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rochester, New York, USA (Seneca Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Wild Animal Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sioux Falls, South Dakota, USA (Great Plains Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Bend, Indiana, USA (Potawatomi Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Syracuse, New York, USA (Burnet Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Metro Toronto Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Utica, New York, USA (Utica Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wichita, Kansas, USA (Sedgwick County Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">West Orange, New Jersey, USA (Turtleback Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada (Assiniboine Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yakows</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joseph Bonnemaire, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Sciences Agronomiques Appliquees, 26, Bd. Docteur Petitjean, 21100 Dijon, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Agriculture, Hari Har Bhawan, Pulchok, Lalitpur, Kathmandu, Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Kathmandu, Nepal (Tewari and Burathoky)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Livestock Development, Peking, China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Professor Karl Fredge, Department of Genetics, University of Uppsala, Uppsala, Sweden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian Veterinary Research Institute, P.O. Izatnagar 243 122, Uttar Pradesh, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Division, National Agricultural Research Center, Islamabad, Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Sheep and Yak Development Project, Dechhen Pelrithang, P.O. Bumthang, Bhutan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ralph W. Phillips, The Representative, Apartment 810, 1101 South Arlington Ridge Road, Arlington, Virginia 22202, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Patrick J. Robinson, Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Oxford, Commonwealth Forestry Institute, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whipsnade Zoo, Whipsnade, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bruce A. Young, Department of Animal Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta TOG 2P5, Canada </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wild Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Amir, c/o Ministry of Development Supervision and the Environment, JalanMirdekaBarat 15, Jakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. H. Blower, National Parks Project, c/o UNDP, Box 650, Rangoon, Burma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bonsong Lekagul, Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, No. 4 Customhouse Road, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaichana Satrulee, Dusit Zoological Park, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Z. Coto, Tropical Forest Biology, SEAMEO-BIOTROP, P.O. Box 17, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest Department, P.O. Box 311, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia (Patrick Andau, Assistant Chief Game Warden)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. R. Grimwood, P.O. Box 45079, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U. Halder, Swiss League for Nature Conservation, P.O. Box 73, CH4020 Basel, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Huitema, Overzicht 60, 6862 CT, Oosterbeek, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Wayne King, Director and Professor, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lembaga Biologi Nasional (LBN-LIPI), Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John A. Lukas, White Oak Plantation, Rt. 3 Box 224, Yulee, Florida 32097, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffrey A. McNeely, Executive Officer, Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, 1196 Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Payne, Wildlife Section, Forest Department, P.O. Box 311, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somtob Norapuckprutikorn, Captive Propagation Section, Wildlife Conservation Division, Royal Forest Department, Bangkhen, Bangkok 9, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Wheeler, 1000 Shady Lane, College Station, Texas 77840, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Wild Banteng</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albuquerque, USA (Rio Grande Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amsterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijk Zoologisch)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chicago, Illinois, USA (Brookfield Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cologne, Federal Republic of Germany (Aktiengesellschaft Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copenhagen, Denmark (Zoologisk Have)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Darmstadt, Federal Republic of Germany (Vivarium Darmstadt)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dortmund, Federal Republic of Germany (Tierpark Dortmund)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dresden, German Democratic Republic (Zoologischer Garten Dresden)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">St. Louis, Missouri, USA (St. Louis Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yogyakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yulee, Florida, USA (White Oak Plantation)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gaur</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Aspinal, Howlett's Wildlife Park, near Canterbury, Kent, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul, Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, No. 4 Customhouse Road, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paul Conry, Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources, Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 23367, GMF Guam 96921, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. R. Grimwood, P.O. Box45079, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohd Khan bin Momin Khan, Director-General, Department of Wildlife and National Parks, P.O. Box 611, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. A. Kazarova, Director, Riga Zoological Garden, Meza prospekt 1, Riga 14 226014, Latvian SSR, USSR</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.-G. Klos, Director, Zoologischer Garten Berlin, Hardenbergplatz 8, 1000 Berlin 30, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adrian G. Marshall, Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">George B. Schaller, New York Zoological Society, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lee Simmons, Omaha Zoo, Omaha, Nebraska 68108, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Janet Stover, Bronx Zoo, 185 and Southern Blvd., New York, New York 10460, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frank M. Thompson, Wild Animal Brokers, 15605 S. R. #64, Bradenton, Florida 33508, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Guar </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Berlin Zoo was assigned by the IUCN in cooperation with the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">lUDZG to keep the guar studbook records. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangkok, Thailand (Dusit Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bronx, New York, USA (New York Zoological Park; 7 male, 3 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brownsville, Texas, USA (Gladys Porter Zoo; 5 male, 10 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copenhagen, Denmark (Zoologisk Have; 1 male, 2 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Holiday Island, Eureka Springs, Arkansas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India (Nehru Zoological Park)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivey, Wilburton, Oklahoma, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kansas City, Missouri, USA (Kansas City Zoological Gardens; I male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kings Mill, Ohio, USA (Wild Animal Safari,; 1 male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Los Angeles, California, USA (The Los Angeles Zoo; I male, 3 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Memphis, Tennessee, USA (Memphis Zoo and Aquarium; I male, 2 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Munich, Federal Republic of Germany (Munchener Tierpark Hellabrunn Ag)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mysore, Karnataka, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA (Oklahoma City Zoo; 7 male, 7 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Omaha, Nebraska, USA (Henry Doorly Zoological Gardens; 7 male, 15 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Riga, Latvian SSR, USSR (Riga Zoological Garden)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Wild Animal Park; 6 male, 6 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Bend, Indiana, USA (Potawatomi Park Zoo; 1 male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">St. Louis, Missouri, USA (St. Louis Zoological Park; 1 male, 2 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Metro Toronto Zoo; 3 male, 1 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vienna, Austria (Schonbrunn Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kouprey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boonsong Lekagul, Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, No. 4 Customhouse Road, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harold Coolidge, 38 Standley Street, Beverly, Massachusetts 01915, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffrey A. McNeely, Executive Officer, Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, 1196 Gland, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harvey C. Neese, P.O. Box 332, Troy, Idaho 83871, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Anthony Parkinson, White House, San Roque 1, San Jose, Occidental Mindoro, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pierre Pfeffer, Zoologie, Mammiferes et Oiseaux Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle 55, rue de Buffon 75005 Paris, France</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. Kelly Shelton, 211-A North Cordova, Burbank, California 91505, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Henry Stoddard, Branford Veterinary Clinics, Inc., P.O. Box 548, Branford, Florida 32008, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles H. Wharton, Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA (Rt. 2, Clayton, Georgia 30525)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World Conservation Centre, Avenue du Mont-Blanc, CH 1196 Gland, Switzerland (David Mitchell, Elizabeth Kemf)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Kouprey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anoas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. M. Dolan, San Diego Zoological Garden, San Diego, California 92112, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Anoas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp; mountain anoa)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany (Zoologischer Garten; mountain anoa)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">London, England (lowland anoa)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leipzig, German Democratic Republic (Zoologischer Garten Leipzig; mountain anoa)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde; 1 male, 3 female)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Zoological Garden; 1 male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Diego, California, USA (San Diego Wild Animal Park; 1 male)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (Taronga Park Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tamaraw</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Natural Resources, Quezon City, Manila, Philippines (J. B. Alvarez, Jr., Assistant Director)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Fischer, Institute of Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 63 Giessen, Wilhelmstrasse 15, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I. R. Grimwood, P.O. Box 45079, Nairobi, Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Natural Resources Conservation Office, Ministry of Natural Resources, Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">David Anthony Parkinson, White House, San Roque 1, San Jose, Occidental Mindoro, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ian Player, P.O. Box 192, Howick 3290, Natal, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. Sitwell, c/o WWF(UK), 11-13 Ockford Rd., Godalming, Surrey GU7 lQU, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L. M. Talbot, 6656 Chilton Court, McLean, Virginia 22101, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna 3720, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bearded Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Julian Oliver Caldecott, Sub-Department of Veterinary Anatomy, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3DY, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The AustralianNationalUniversity, P.O. Box4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 10H, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Parks and Wildlife Office, Sarawak Forest Department, Jalan Gartak, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia (Kron Aken, David Labang, Mike Kavanagh)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Payne, Wildlife Section, Forest Department, P.O. Box 311, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Bearded Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore, Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manila, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sulawesi Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. Catibog-Sinha, Outdoor Recreation and Wildlife Research Division, Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna 3720, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The AustralianNationalUniversity, P.O. Box4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 10H, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Mackinnon, WWF/TUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, ChanneL Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Sulawesi Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">None.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Javan Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raleigh A. Blouch, 2125 Forest Glen, Lansing, Michigan 48906, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. Bosma, Department of Functional Morphology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, State University Utrecht, P.O. Box 80157, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Directorate of Nature Conservation (PPA), Jalan Ir. H. Juanda 9, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lembaga Biologi Nasional (LBN-LIPl), Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 10EI, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Werner Pauwels, Pfeffingerstrasse 48, CM-053, Basel, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perum Perhutani, Forest State Corporation, Jalan Jendral Gatot Subroto 17-18, Post Box 111, Jakarta, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M. H. Woodford, c/o FORW, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Javan Warty Pig</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pigmy Hog</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. Bosma, Department of Functional Morphology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, State University Utrecht, P.O. Box 80157, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. C. Gogoi, Adviser Forests, (Wildlife and Environmental Planning), Meghalaya, P.O. Shillong 793 001, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The AustralianNationalUniversity, P.O. Box4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 lOH, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Deb Roy, Manas National Park, P.O. Barpeta Road, Kamrup 781 315, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Pigmy Hog</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gauhati, India (Assam State Zoo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zurich, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Babirusa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. A. Bosma, Department of Functional Morphology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, State University Utrecht, P.O. Box 80157, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C. P. Groves, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, The Australian National University, P.O. Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alastair A. Macdonald, Department of Anatomy, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 lOH, Scotland, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. MacKinnon, WWF/IUCN Representative, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. L. R. Oliver, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands, United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Victoria Selmier, 353 10th Street, San Francisco, California 94103, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zoos with Babirusa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antwerp, Belgium (Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, W. de Meurichy)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bandung, Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany, (Zoologischer Garten)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copenhagen, Denmark, (Zoologisk Have)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jakarta, Indonesia, (Kebun Binatang Ragunan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nuremberg, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poznan, Poland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Stichting Koninklijke Rotterdamse Diergaarde)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stuttgart, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surabaya, Indonesia, (Kebun Binatang Surabaya)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas (member through 1981) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Native Plants, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOlS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (member through 1982) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGElARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAMUEL P. ASPER, Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BELL, Department of Population Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEONARD BERRY, Professor, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST.J. BRISKEY, Dean, School of Agriculture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON S. BROWN, Director, Resources Systems Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. BURRIS, Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAUDIA JEAN CARR, Associate Professor, Conservation and Resource Studies, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATE FIELDS, Director, Developing Markets, Control Data Corporation, Minneapolis, Minnesota </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND J. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN HOWARD GIBBONS, Director, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM HUGHES, Director, Engineering Energy Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM A. W. KREBS, Vice President, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Acorn Park, Cambridge, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE I. LYTHCOTT, University of Wisconsin, School of Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANICE E. PERLMAN, Executive Director, Committee for a New New York, New York City Partnership, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK C. ROBBINS, President, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER A. ROSENBLITH, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HERBERT SMUCKLER, Dean of International Studies and Programs, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GILBERT F. WHITE, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Assistant Dean for International Programs, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN G. HURLEY, Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Associate Director/Studies </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL P. GREENE. Associate Director/Research Grants </P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
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+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Little Known Asian Animals With a Promising Economic Future (b18ase)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">introduce little-known Asian farm animals with a promising future</Metadata>
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+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
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+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Managing Tropical Animal Resources - Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Managing Tropical Animal Resources - Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of International Affairs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Cooperation with the Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Washington, D.C. 1983</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development(BOSTID) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panel on Crocodile Farming</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director, Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HOWARD W. CAMPBELL (deceased) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, Jr., Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING, Director, Florida Museum, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS, Furzebrook Research Station, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Wareham, Dorset, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT M. PYLE, Species Conservation Monitoring Unit, Cambridge, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS, Representative, The Asia Foundation, Taipei, Taiwan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CAROL GABARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WASSAM GABARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KAROL KISOKAU, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Waigani </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAVU KWAPENA, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MIRO LAUFA, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GREG MITCHELL, Crocodile Farm, Lae </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEO NING, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Wewak </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MIGUEE AEVAREZE DEE TORO, Instituto de Historia Natural, Departamento de Zoologia, Chiapas, Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANGUS D'A.BELLAIRS, Department of Anatomy, St. Mary's Hospital Medical School, University of London, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER BRAZAITIS, Department of Herpetology, New York Zoological Society, Bronx, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H.CHABRECK, Louisiana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MAX C.DOWNES, The Game Conservation Centre, Melbourne, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KARLHEINZ FUCHS, hoechst Aktiengesellschaft, Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAIRE HACEN, Reptile Products Association, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RENEE.HONEGGER, Zurich Zoo, Zurich, Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TED JOANEN, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, Chenier, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN LEVER, Koorana Crocodile Farm, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM MAGNUSSON, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia, Manaus, Amazonia, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRY MESSEE, School of Physics, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRED PARKER, Kirwan Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANTHONY POOLEY, St. Lucia Estuary, Zululand, South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARLES A.ROSS, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.B.SALE, UNDP/FAO Crocodile Breeding and Management Project, Hyderabad, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LUISVARONA, La Habana, Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHAROON YOUNGPRAPAKORN, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm, Samutprakan, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UTAl YOUNGPRAPAKORN, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm, Samutprakan, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MYRNA WATANABE, Co-editor of ICUN Newsleter, Brooklyn, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROMULUS WHITAKER, Guindy Deer Park, Madras, India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Professional Associate, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Crocodile Study Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council Staff</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY lANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE REGES, Administrative Secretary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This publication is dedicated to the memory of panel member Howard W. "Duke" Campbell who devoted most of his professional life to the conservation of crocodilians. Dr. Campbell was Chairman of the Crocodilian Specialist Group of the Survival Commission of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources at the time of his death in 1981.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel that produced this report met in Papua New Guinea in May 1981. Its purpose was to consider the principles of the Papua New Guinea crocodile farming program and their implications for economic development and for the management and survival of crocodilians elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles are an integral part of the tropical fauna; they are ecologically important, biologically interesting, and, potentially, a renewable natural resource of considerable economic value. The panel hopes that through this report the possibility of saving and managing this animal throughout the tropics can be better assessed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members of the panel consulted officials of the Ministry of Wildlife and Conservation in Port Moresby and visited crocodile farms in Moitaka, Popondetta, and Lae. The panel is grateful to Karol Kisokau, Navu Kwapena, and Miro Laufa of the Division of Wildlife for arranging its itinerary and visits in Papua New Guinea. It also wishes to thank Yano Belo, Minister of Environment, for hosting an evening social at the Moitaka crocodile farm; Greg Mitchell and his wife Judy, who entertained the panel at their home in Lae and conducted a tour of their company's crocodile farm; and Wassam and Carol Gabara who acted as guides and hosts in Popondetta.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council, is assessing scientific and technological advances that might prove especially applicable to problems of developing countries. This report is one of a series that explores promising areas of science previously unknown, neglected, or overlooked. Current titles in the ACT! series on Managing Tropical Animal Resources include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal (1981) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These activities are supported largely by the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID). Program costs for this study were sponsored by AID'S Bureau for Asia, and staff costs by AID'S Office of the Science Advisor, which also made possible the free distribution of this report. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gavials ( Present-day crocodilians are grouped into three families: crocodiles, alligators and caimans, and gavials (gharials). The animals differ from one another only in minor characters such as shape of snout, arrangement of scutes, and dental features. This report focuses mainly on crocodile species, but its conclusions are generally applicable to alligators, caimans, and gavials.) have existed for some 200 million years - much longer than mammals - but they are now disappearing at alarming rates. Of the 21 or so species of crocodilians distributed in the warm waters of the world, at least 18 are threatened with extinction in most of the countries where they are found.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although some species, such as the American alligator, appear to be out of danger because of strict conservation measures, many of the others survive mostly in national parks, protected preserves, or a few breeding stations. This is true for the slender-spouted crocodiles of Africa and Asia, the saltwater crocodile of Australia and Southeast Asia, the black caiman and Orinoco crocodile of South America, the Chinese alligator, the Siamese crocodile, and other species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat destruction is a major contributor to crocodilian decline; each year more breeding areas are disturbed as swamps and marshlands are drained, rivers dammed, estuaries reclaimed, and riverine forests denuded. However, illegal poaching by tribal people with their simple but effective traps, snares, and set hooks, as well as professional hunters operating with power boats, spotlights, and modern firearms are also decimating the animals over most of their ranges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To a large extent these animals are being destroyed because of their market value. Crocodile is regarded as the costliest and most fashionable leather in western markets. Since World War II, demand for crocodile leather shoes, handbags, luggage, wallets, watchbands, and other expensive luxury articles has far exceeded supply. Even small items such as purses and handbags sell for many hundreds of dollars each. For instance, a ladies' purse or handbag made from crocodile skin can command prices as high as $4,000. A pair of men's shoes may cost from $500 to $900, and a wallet from $150 to $250.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The crocodile trade peaked in the mid-1960s, when world markets absorbed more than 2 million crocodile skins each year. Today it is still large. In 1979, for instance, 1,000,000 caiman hides and 300,000 true crocodile hides entered international commerce. In 1981 the United States itself imported 100,000 hides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International markets for reptile hides and leathers are centered in France, Italy, the Federal Republic of Germany, and Japan. France, the single largest buyer of raw crocodilian hides, uses an estimated 300,000 to 400,000 skins a year. The major buyers of finished crocodile leather products are Hong Kong, Japan, Thailand, Singapore, and the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unrestricted hunting and poaching for hides are wiping out the large breeding animals. Excessive hunting has a devastating effect on crocodile populations because their age distribution is like a pyramid: a small number of breeding animals dominates a large number of juveniles and hatchlings, most of which never survive to maturity. Such societies, in which the size of future populations depends on only a few animals, are highly vulnerable to extinction; once some of the mature members are killed the population can crash. And it takes a long time for a crocodilian population to rebuild because for most large species the females do not begin breeding until they are at least 8 years old.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rearing Crocodiles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there may seem to be no future for many crocodile populations, the situation is not hopeless. With intelligent intervention and under good conditions they can recover rapidly. Mature crocodiles have no enemies other than man, and, given some care and protection, a small number of breeders can produce a huge number of progeny each year. Mature females of the various crocodilian species usually lay between 30 and 70 eggs each year, and under normal conditions most of these eggs hatch successfully. The key to conserving the population is to protect the few mature animals and their habitats. Then, because of their fecundity, crocodilians can rapidly build up large numbers of young.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This has been exemplified by the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). Ten years ago its future seemed doubtful, but the legal protection of the populations has brought a remarkable recovery. Numbers are now so high that two states have lifted the ban on harvesting alligators, and between lo,ooo and 20,000 American alligator hides now enter commerce each year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The past few decades have seen several other examples of successful crocodile-rearing projects. Later chapters of this book highlight the national program in Papua New Guinea. In addition, three successful government-operated farms exist in India (where all the progeny is returned to the wild because current Indian law prohibits commercial crocodile farms). A remarkable farm with more than 3,000 breeding animals operates on the outskirts of Bangkok, Thailand. Australia has four crocodile farms, and a few African countries now have crocodile farms that are already beginning to supply hides internationally. For example, in 1982 Zambia had two such farms, Zimbabwe, five, South Africa, four (with five more planned or under construction), and Kenya, one. Appendix A lists these and other countries that are initiating farms for various crocodilian species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The early technical success of these projects offers the expectation that with an appropriate framework of safeguards and research, crocodiles might become a thriving resource for tropical nations. If such experiences can be replicated, crocodilians and their habitats may come to be considered as resources to be managed and treasured. This will require considerable investment, strict legislation and law enforcement, and international cooperation and research, as well as careful monitoring of the traffic in farmed hides. But national crocodile industries are a possibility, and they could result in thriving natural populations that are free from the danger of extinction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such prospects may also provide economic incentives for preserving the often-fragile ecosystem in which wild crocodilians live. Crocodile farming could play a part by slowing the uncontrolled draining of swamps and other wetlands that cover large areas of the lowland humid tropics of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles as a managed resource could economically benefit remote areas of the lowland tropics. Villagers there often have few alternative sources of income and possibilities for economic development are limited. Because the human population is relatively sparse, few opportunities exist for local trading; even where fish are abundant the problems of marketing are formidable. Indeed, in some areas crocodiles may constitute the only readily salvable resource.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles as Farm Animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Well-fed crocodiles grow quickly. Under ideal conditions they may reach lengths of 1 m or more in a year and 1.5 m in 2 years. They are normally harvested in the third year when they reach about 2 m in length. In this time their value may have risen from about $5 to as much as $200.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles have acquired a reputation as voracious feeders; investigations reveal this to be false. The animals actually have modest food requirements. Many hatchling animals have a food conversion rate of about 50 percent; that is, the crocodile adds 1 kg of weight for every 2 kg of food it consumes. Cattle, sheep, and pigs would have to eat 3-5 times as much food to achieve the same weight increase. After 2 years the crocodile's growth rate begins to slow down. During the third year the conversion falls to about 25 or 30 percent, which is still a high figure, and makes crocodiles probably the most nutritionally efficient land animal for commercial husbandry. Only the growth of some fish is comparable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The high food conversion efficiency is due to the fact that crocodiles have low metabolic rates and are normally extremely lethargic. They are active only in short bursts, spend hours immobile, and move only about one-third as much as mammals. Moreover, being reptiles, they spend almost no food energy maintaining body temperature. They bask in the sun to keep warm and seek shade or water to cool off. For these reasons crocodilians can thrive in marginal habitats unsuitable for mammals or birds (Investigations on the Nile crocodile showed that a pelican takes 3 days to consume food equal to its own weight, whereas a crocodile takes 125-160 days - Cott, 1961.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming is also space efficient. As long as they are sorted by size, hundreds of juveniles or dozens of larger animals can be penned together in a small area. Indeed crocodiles often choose to pile up on top of one another in stacks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about disease in reptiles. However, as farm animals, crocodiles have a major advantage: they produce antibodies readily and have few problems with external infections. In the wild it is common to find crocodiles missing limbs or tips of tails, with eyes gouged out, or enormous scars on the body. But the wounds heal readily, with little sign of infection (The American alligator is being used at the University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine as a model for studies on antibody formation.). This minimizes the need for veterinary services, a distinct benefit in remote village farms. Nevertheless, internal bacterial diseases, such as salmonella, can get out of hand and destroy a program by reducing growth rates, lowering hide quality, or killing the animals outright.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile Hides</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is the belly skin that is the valuable part of a crocodile, and the worth of a hide is determined by the size of the belly skin, the smallness of its scales, and the hide's general condition. (Holes, cuts, scars, and rot drastically reduce its value.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although international markets utilize any crocodile skin from 0.3 m to 6 m long, the most sought-after hides are not the biggest but the moderate-sized ones from animals about 1.5-2 m long. These hides are approximately 25-50 cm in belly width.( A crocodile's total length is approximately 4-4.5 times the width of its belly). Large hides, for example those more than 3 or 4 m in length, are suitable only for luggage and briefcases because their scales are large. Smaller hides, on the other hand, are suitable both for items such as shoes, handbags, and wallets and for larger items.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Internationally, the most desirable hides come from the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). It has proportionally the smallest belly scales of any crocodile, it lacks osteoderms,(Osteoderms are deposits of calcium carbonate under the skin. They are undesirable because they dissolve away during the tanning process, leaving a pitted surface),and on the side of its body the scales are uniformly small. The next most valuable hides probably come from Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii), the American alligator, the Siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis), and the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rest of this report highlights the program in Papua New Guinea, where during the last 10 years the government has made crocodile rearing an organized industry, much as poultry farming is elsewhere. This program, which is beginning to establish crocodiles as a significant natural asset, is designed both to protect the wild populations and to integrate traditional uses of these reptiles into a scientifically managed hide industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Papua New Guinea crocodile farming (In the official terminology of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the Papua New Guinea program is "ranching" rather than "farming" because the young livestock are mostly culled from wild populations and are not bred on the farm) has become the cornerstone for the economic improvement of some of the world's poorest people. It offers a means for bringing the rural poor into the process of economic development, and it can be blended into a traditional village structure where land and resources may be communally owned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The projects are small and many have had operational difficulties, but they suggest that conservation and economic development can be not only compatible, but also mutually reinforcing. The innovative idea is not that crocodiles can bring in money, but that sound conservation can be blended with marketing crocodile skins, meat, and by-products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important aspect of this approach to crocodile conservation is that it is based on protecting the existing landscape and resources. It provides a tool for conserving the species in their own wild habitats so that survival will not depend on a few captive specimens living under artificial conditions. It requires none of the bush clearing, fencing, forage planting or pesticide spraying that domestic animals often demand ,important advantages in an economic development project in a fragile tropical swamp or rain forest ecosystem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Papua New Guinea approach, then, provides an economic incentive for wildlife protection. Everyone ,from the villager to the minister of trade ,has a stake in keeping the wild populations healthy. Out of self-interest, in addition to natural respect, large numbers of people become the guardians of the resource and the habitat needed to keep it surviving and productive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The world's major conservation organizations have given Papua New Guinea's crocodile program their stamp of approval. In 1976 a team of scientists representing the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, one of the most prestigious conservation organizations in the world, inspected the program. As a result, Papua New Guinea was given special dispensation, and its crocodile skins can be legally traded internationally. For example, because of its endangered status the saltwater crocodile is banned from trade by the Convention on international Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). An exemption, however, is granted to Papua New Guinea in recognition of the fact that its crocodiles now are sufficiently well managed to sustain a skin industry without seriously damaging the wild stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This program serves as a model for nations of the Americas, Asia, and Africa where crocodilian resources are still unmanaged or managed poorly. Crocodiles are being destroyed so fast that within about five years Papua New Guinea and other countries that have organized crocodile farming operations may be the only ones supplying significant numbers of skins to the international market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the principles developed in Papua New Guinea deserve international attention, the recipe will not be a cure-all for problems of rural development or crocodile conservation. Instead, the Papua New Guinea experience suggests that local social, political, economic, and conservation goals can become the impetus for a successful blend of village improvement and wildlife protection.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Crocodile Farming in Papua New Guinea</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As recently as the l950s, crocodiles were abundant in Papua New Guinea. Hunting was a major occupation and was unrestricted. Some Australians and Europeans made fortunes by shooting thousands of crocodiles a year to make shoes and handbags in Europe and North America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it was obvious that wild populations could not sustain such wholesale slaughter, the destruction continued. By 1967 both the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) and the freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus novaeguineae) were threatened with extinction. By 1968, despite increased hunting, the yield of skins had dropped in half; along the easily accessible river systems, crocodile populations had been wiped out. By 1969 the saltwater crocodile had disappeared from much of its range throughout the country, and wildlife officers estimated that without protection most specimens of breeding size would be eliminated within five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But how could crocodiles be protected? Papua New Guinea is divided by mountain ranges, ravines, torrential rivers, forests, seas, malarial swamps, and more than 700 languages. It would take hundreds of trained wildlife officers to enforce a ban on crocodile hunting, particularly in the face of opposition from tribesmen who have traditionally harvested crocodiles for food, decorative items, and implements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge was given to the officers of the Wildlife Division. Under the leadership of Max C. Downes, these officials concluded that the best way to protect crocodile populations was to halt the slaughter of the large breeding adults and build up a new hide industry based on the increased numbers of young that would result.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Few young crocodiles ever reach breeding age in the wild. The tiny, virtually defenseless hatchlings are easy prey for large fish, birds, or other crocodiles. Almost all of them are killed by predators or by other natural causes, such as floods..</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main areas of crocodile distribution in Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What was needed, the wildlife officers concluded, were incentives to make these smaller animals economically attractive, incentives to encourage local people to raise small crocodiles to commercial size. If that could be accomplished, hundreds of hatchlings that would normally perish could be utilized without endangering the wild populations' future. Villagers could benefit by selling skins while the vital breeding-sized animals were being left alone to provide more hatchlings. The system could benefit both the villagers and the vulnerable crocodile populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="b20a.png"></center><br>
+ Main areas of crocodile distribution in Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The idea was viable partly because many Papua New Guineans - particularly those of the Sepik and Fly Rivers - have ancient spiritual and cultural attachments to crocodiles. To them, the idea of handling and managing the animals is not unusual. Crocodile motifs are common in their art and they live in harmony with the big beasts and do not consider them dangerous pests to be eliminated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legislation passed by the Papua New Guinea government in 1969 capitalized on this tradition by making the villagers themselves the real force in crocodile protection. The law did not ban crocodile hunting, but instead banned the possession, sale, and export of skins larger than 20 inches (51 cm) wide. In this way, it protected breeding-sized animals while allowing for the harvest of juveniles. It also allowed a person to kill a crocodile if attacked (but barred the selling of the skin, if it were oversized).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1980, the legislation was supplemented by a law banning the export of small skins. Together, the bans on possessing large skins and exporting small skins have created a stimulus for gathering small crocodiles from the wild and rearing them to moderate size on farms. The legislation has been the impetus for crocodile farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming officially started in Papua New Guinea in 1972. In the late 1970s, it was extensively supported by a UNDP/FAO assistance program that provided personnel and funds for technical support and program management. Today there are about 300 small village farms (The numbers vary, since some villagers go in and out of production depending on their need for income, seasonal variation in river levels, the cost of fuel, and the availability of government extension agents) supplying a number of larger business groups that rear crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife officers now teach crocodile farming, not crocodile conservation per se. They have introduced crocodile-rearing techniques to villagers all over Papua New Guinea. They help build pens and teach tribesmen how to care for the young reptiles, which are so vulnerable and timid that they can literally die of fright.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government loans of up to US$10,000, along with matching development bank loans, are available to help a farmer enter the crocodile farming business. The funds pay for pumps for changing the water in the pens and sometimes for an outboard motor used in gathering young crocodiles. Everything else a villager needs can be obtained from the forest, including materials for pen construction; a small farm can therefore be established inexpensively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Three Types of Farms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government's crocodile management program recognizes three levels of operation: village farms (up to 300 crocodiles), small-business farms (up to 1,000 crocodiles), and large-business farms (more than 1,000 crocodiles).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A village crocodile farm consists of a small pen fenced with posts lashed together with vines. This stockade fence is about 1.5 m high and is sunk about 60 cm in the ground so the crocodiles cannot burrow out. Much of the enclosure is planted with grass, cassava, and banana trees to provide secluded areas where the animals, which regulate their body temperature by the warmth of the sun, can find shade. A shallow pool is excavated in the center.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These village farms are usually run by only one or two people. Many are little more than pens scattered in the remote bush for holding young crocodiles until a buyer from a larger farm comes around. Small crocodiles bring less money than medium-sized animals, but the villager avoids having to feed and care for them for a long period.(Because of operational difficulties, many village farms were abandoned in 1982. Lack of proper husbandy - despite government efforts - were the main reason for these difficulties. Most villagers now collect and hold young only until buyers from commercial farms arrive. However, they are still earning money from crocodiles, and the concept of fully functioning village farms remains valid for the future in Papua New Guinea, as well as for appropriate sites elsewhere). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The small-business farm usually consists of a group of enclosures (each about 6 m x 6 m) constructed of bush materials. It is typically located near an airstrip. It buys crocodiles from the village farmer and, in turn, supplies them to the larger farms, which sometimes dispatch aircraft to pick the animals up (Special cardboard shipping containers have been devised. They can be folded to make cylinders of various diameters to fit crocodiles of different sizes). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Large-scale crocodile farms accommodate as many as 20,000 crocodiles and require a large investment. They serve to regulate the export of skins and are the major purchasers of live crocodiles from the smaller farms. During periods of drought, flooding, or diminished food supplies, the large-scale farms also act as emergency buyers. On the outskirts of Lae on Papua New Guinea's northern coast, there is a 100-hectare farm with nearly 8,000 crocodiles. It is associated with a poultry company, and the crocodiles are raised on the offal from the slaughterhouse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government Research and Extension</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Wildlife Division has constructed four demonstration farms across the country and one large research farm at Moitaka near Port Moresby, the capital city. After training at one of these, a tribesman can start his own farm alone or can call on the government for further assistance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moitaka is also the site of short courses in crocodile farming. Prospective farmers are brought in for several weeks' training. They learn how to build pens, to feed and care for crocodiles, to kill and skin them, and to prepare the hides for market. They also learn about the crocodile laws and the reason they were enacted. A farm at Lake Murray, in a remote and swampy area of the Western Province, serves the same purpose. It is built entirely from bush materials (see picture, pp. 6-7).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Wildlife Division provides instruction books, profusely illustrated for the illiterate. The books include vivid descriptions of all phases of farming the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic Gains</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 10 years, crocodile rearing has expanded remarkably in Papua New Guinea. It has already become the main source of income for the people of some swamp and river areas. The Ambunti area, for example, produces coffee and rice, but crocodile skins now bring in much of the area's income. By 1981 the farms nationwide contained a total of 30,000 crocodiles, ensuring a sustained production of at least 10,000 skins a year worth approximately US$ 1-2 million on the international market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because crocodiles are a familiar resource, villagers take to the program quickly. By contrast, introducing cattle or western-style crop raising requires massive education and training, in addition to some social and environmental disruption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On government farms in Papua New Guinea, fish-fed crocodiles have increased their belly width by 25 cm per year and are ready for slaughter in 2-3 years when the width approaches 50 cm. The selling price of the skin is then between $100 and $200, depending on species, flaws, and size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But skins are not the only product. A crocodile with a skin big enough to market can provide 20 kg of meat. The meat is white and is low in fat. Papua New Guinea is a net importer of meat, and crocodile farming is now augmenting local supplies. The large farm at Lae already sells frozen crocodile meat (including front and hind legs, tail steaks, ribs, and chops) both locally and on foreign markets. Some orders have come in from dealers in Paris who supply expensive French restaurants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 Conclusions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benefits of Crocodile Farming</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming seems to be singularly appropriate for rural, isolated, lowland communities in the tropics. The land there is often unsuitable for conventional agriculture, and the people lead a tenuous existence or drift to the cities looking for work. In such areas, there are few opportunities for people to earn cash without drastic and expensive modifications to the environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farming has many advantages over hunting the animal in the wild. For instance, crocodiles farms can:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Permit government monitoring of the crocodile industry. (Hunters are more difficult to regulate since they work in remote areas, often undetected and crossing borders at will.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yield a regular harvest of a specific number of animals of a selected size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Produce a standardized, premium product that better serves the needs of the international hide industry, making skins poached from the wild less desirable. (They may provide, for instance, a standard first grade 1-1.5 m long hide rather than hides of mixed size and quality.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Reduce the wasteful losses of hides from improper handling, the fate of a high proportion of skins now brought in from the wild.(*In remote areas, salt may become scarce late in the season as it is used for hides. This often results in insufficient salt being used when the supply runs out and hides subsequently rot or "slip". In some isolated areas, as much as 25 percent of the hides are lost or downgraded because of improper curing for lack of salt. However, skins produced on farms, especially near urban areas or large villages, are usually properly salted; if salt becomes scarce, killing of the animals can be delayed) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Educate the public about crocodile ecology and the animal's importance to the habitat and the local economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Provide sites for scientific studies on crocodilians. Studies conducted on alligators at the Rockefeller Refuge in Louisiana, USA, for example, have provided reproductive, nutritional, and growth data directed specifically towards developing efficient farming techniques.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For some farms the earnings from hides, meat, and by-products may be supplemented by tourism (through gate admissions and the sale of curios), as well as by selling eggs and young to other farms for breeding stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A long-term program of wise utilization of crocodiles can benefit governments by providing revenue from hides, curios, craftwork, and manufactured articles, as well as from export duties. Furthermore, in their natural state in parks and preserves, crocodiles are an important tourist attraction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an effort to preserve crocodile habitats, the Papua New Guinea program has encouraged the collection of eggs or young from the wild and has discouraged the breeding of crocodiles in captivity. This is because a reliance on the wild creates economic incentives to conserve crocodile habitats; if the habitats are drained for human settlement or conventional agriculture the farmers lose the source of their stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contrary to popular impression, preliminary observations indicate that crocodiles benefit commercial fisheries. The animals are important links in the ecosystems of rivers and lakes and are often the largest inhabitants of the freshwater wetlands. Their movements inhibit the growth of aquatic plants in the waterways, and, in areas with prolonged dry seasons, some species maintain residual waterholes that benefit small aquatic organisms that would otherwise perish. In estuaries and lakes, crocodiles enrich the nutrient content of the water by converting terrestrial prey into feces that in turn feed invertebrates and fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where crocodiles have been eliminated, reductions in the tonnage of fish caught for human consumption can usually be demonstrated. For example, in Brazil, Kenya, and India, a decline in the fishermen's catch has paralleled the decline in crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations of Crocodile Farming</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments and individuals seeking rapid returns on investments should realize that a crocodile farming industry is not a get-rich-quick scheme. To build a stable national industry may require 10 years and an investment of at least $500,000 before it is biologically and economically successful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, an organized industry is vital. A village crocodile-rearing pond is only profitable if there is someone to buy, grade, package, and ship the product with all its documentation. Services will be needed at all levels to advise on disease control, nutrition, skinning, and preserving the hides. In many parts of the world crocodile farms have been financial and conservation failures not just because of poor husbandry management, but also because of fiscal shortsightedness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selection of a suitable farm site is basic to the economics of the entire operation. Farms demand a steady supply of meat or fish to feed the crocodiles, and are most successful when located near a reliable source of inexpensive food. Some farms take advantage of offal from nearby chicken or cattle abattoirs; others use the fish by-catch from shrimping operations. In the absence of an inexpensive animal protein feed, the farm will have to raise its own food (tilapia is frequently used) or harvest it from the wild, both of which can be expensive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodile farms also require a steady year-round supply of clean water for the holding ponds and tanks. If this cannot be supplied by gravity flow from nearby sources, it must be pumped from wells or from nearby lakes or ponds. This, too, is likely to be expensive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the general hardiness of crocodiles, the farms must have access to veterinary care. Most disease problems stem from poor sanitation, low water temperatures, and poor diet, all of which can be easily corrected. But with large numbers of animals crowded together, disease problems, if not quickly diagnosed and treated, can wipe out the young captive animals in epidemic proportions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capturing and transporting large crocodilians is dangerous and difficult. Dealing with a large captive population of crocodiles of different age groups and sizes requires a great deal of experience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although crocodilians are common in zoos, successful breeding of these reptiles in captivity is so far a rare and remarkable event. However, researchers are now coming to understand the behavioral requirements for success. For instance, gravid females must have access to appropriate nesting sites, males must have ample space when they are penned in with other males, and juveniles and hatchlings must be separated from their parents and housed by size and feeding preferences. That prolific breeding can be achieved, however, is illustrated by the Samutprakan crocodile farm near Bangkok, Thailand, which reportedly has reared tens of thousands of its own animals and now aims for a population of 100,000 crocodiles by 1987.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The worldwide shortage of crocodile leather is becoming more acute each year, and it will be many years before any output from farms can significantly reduce pressure on wild populations. Thus, farming should be only one aspect of an overall conservation program that includes total protection of some populations in national parks and sanctuaries. In addition, the conservation of natural wetlands is an important part of overall economic planning. If wetlands are lost, many wild species in addition to crocodiles will be affected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Australia, Asia, Africa, and the Americas, many crocodilian populations are poorly protected because governments lack the manpower or the will to enforce conservation laws rigorously, especially in the remote areas where the last remaining crocodiles reside. Because most wildlife departments in the tropics are short staffed and have vast areas to police, their efforts at wildlife protection are frequently ineffective. Moreover, some countries have been slow to introduce protective legislation for an animal that does not engender public sympathy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea's program offers one of the best hopes for saving all endangered crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gavials. The methods developed there serve as a model for other nations. By providing an alternative, Papua New Guinea gives villagers the incentive to protect wild crocodiles that are breeding nearby so as to assure themselves of future supplies. The people themselves become the conservators of the local animals and habitats. In turn, watersheds, soils, and conventional agricultural development (including natural and forest products) can all benefit. The habitat is also preserved for many other wildlife species that share it, and genetic diversity can be maintained. Conversely, without a special incentive to conserve them, all these resources are normally degraded as a region develops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Regulations, Safeguards, and Research Needs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Papua New Guinea experience provides a model for other nations, but to implement such a program requires a foundation of legislation, government support, and legal safeguards. Prerequisites of any crocodile farming program are an overhaul of legislation, strict law enforcement, and reciprocal laws with neighboring countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The enforcement of wildlife regulations is so inadequate in most countries that crocodile farming is open to abuse. Farms can front for illegal poaching operations, and hides taken from the wild can be intermingled with hides produced on the ranch or farm unless government enforcement is stringent and inspection frequent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, the stimulation of world trade in crocodile hides through the sale of farmed hides might lead to increased poaching of wild crocodiles or eggs. Poachers have fewer operating expenses than farmers, and unscrupulous hunters and dealers can harvest hides, steal crocodile eggs or young, and subsequently sell them through countries that lack enforcement capabilities. This practice could be disastrous for countries where crocodile populations have almost disappeared.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government Regulations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before any farming scheme is attempted, protective legislation should be in operation throughout the country. This should make it unlawful to kill, capture by any means whatsoever, disturb willfully, or pursue any crocodiles, or to collect or gather any crocodile eggs without a permit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No crocodile eggs should be allowed to be imported or exported with out a permit. No persons should possess, sell, buy, donate, receive consequent upon a donation, convey, keep in captivity, or display any live crocodiles without being the holder of a permit. And no person should be allowed to import or export any crocodile, dead or alive, or any portion of a crocodile, processed or not, from any country without a permit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before granting a license for a commercial farm, the government should investigate the applicant's land tenure and financial resources, particularly since the farm will have to operate for three to four years before producing crocodiles suitable for culling. The applicant's ability and experience in rearing crocodiles should be determined. A plan of the proposed farm, including details of water and food supply and the proposed methods of harvesting food, should be examined.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is suggested that:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· No permit for egg harvesting should be issued until adequate rearing facilities have been prepared. The permit should state the name of the holder or his authorized representative, the annual total number of eggs allocated for harvesting, and the area where collection is permitted.(In some cases it is also important to specify a harvest time. Often it is best to take eggs laid early in the season because the female will then lay another clutch.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Permits should be issued on a year-by-year basis. The applicant should understand that the department may refuse to renew or issue further permits if the farm is not managed satisfactorily or if permit conditions have not been observed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The applicant should understand that the farm and all production records should be available for inspection by an official of the conservation department.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The farmer should be required to submit periodic reports detailing the total number of nests raided and eggs harvested, the egg mortality, and the number of eggs hatched. Thereafter, the number of animals held in captivity, the rate of mortality and its causes, if known, and the number of animals sold or culled should be included in each report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Furthermore, it is recommended that the permit holder release 5 percent of his annual crop of hatchlings in order to restock the natural habitat. In addition, a further 5 percent of the hatchling crop should be reared to a length of 1 m before being released, bringing the total release of young crocodilians to 10 percent of the annual crop of hatchlings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The distribution of hatchlings and young reared animals should be supervised by the conservation department.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless government agencies monitor the wild populations of crocodilians being harvested for hides, eggs, or young, the farms themselves could become a major drain on those populations, leading to their extinction. Therefore, before any farming program is started, a survey of the breeding grounds should be undertaken to determine the number of nests available and those from which eggs can be taken with least danger to the wild population (for example, from nests on grounds likely to be flooded).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These breeding grounds should be fully protected; tourists on foot, in vehicles, or in launches should not be allowed to visit or disturb crocodiles during the breeding season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Safeguards and Cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international traffic in millions of unmarked crocodilian hides and products poses one of the greatest obstacles to enforcement of national and international endangered species regulations. Hides and skins frequently cannot be traced to their source or country of origin. Legally harvested or farmed animals cannot readily be distinguished from those exported in secret from illegal sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need for internationally acceptable methods of marking individual hides and products is critical. Traffic in illegal crocodilian hides and products will continue as long as law enforcement agencies lack the means to detect them easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the United States a system has been developed in some states that enables conservation, police, and customs officials to monitor traffic in alligator hides. A conservation authority issues an official tag for each animal allowed by the license. All hides exported are tagged with a serially numbered plastic tag that cannot be removed without breaking it. The serial number is recorded on the export permit and with details of the buyer's and seller's name and address. This tag remains on the hide, right through the tanning process, until the hide reaches the manufacturer. Each tannery maintains a register of purchases that is available for inspection. This system also is being implemented in Zimbabwe and is worthy of trial in other countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tagging of all hides and products for individual identification is an important safeguard. Other safeguards include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The use of engraved stamps or seals to authenticate legal licenses and export permits and make it more difficult for documents to be forged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Internationally accessible data and a retrieval system that allows law enforcement personnel to corroborate the authenticity of documentation and the origin of hides and products;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Monitoring agencies to record and publish market statistics, traffic, and trends;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Laws limiting the sale of hides only to nations that cooperate in an internationally sanctioned program of safeguards; and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Research funding to monitor populations and develop new marking and identification techniques. (For instance, the use of dyes, roll marking, and infusion of detectable chemical tracers has yet to be fully explored.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Needs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is urgent need for tannery owners, manufacturers, and conservation authorities to jointly work out the rational exploitation of crocodile populations. Commercial interests have reaped a rich reward over many years, and if the crocodile industry is to continue, its entrepreneurs must invest in management and conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Clearly, research to improve farming techniques will be a wise investment for both commercial operators and the countries concerned. Surveys to determine population numbers and size as well as the structure of breeding stocks and recruitment rates are essential. Such surveys may indicate the need to establish sanctuaries to protect breeding stock and nesting grounds, or perhaps to ban hunting to allow populations to recover. A rearing program and restocking of suitable habitats might be necessary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix A: Crocodile Farming Around the World</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiences with crocodile farming in Papua New Guinea, the main subject of this report, are described in chapter 2. Here we summarize the status of similar efforts in other countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four crocodile farms have been established in Australia, one in the Northern Territory and three in Queensland. To date, only the Edward River farm, operated by the government as an aboriginal development project, has developed a successful breeding program. There, seven-yearold saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) hatched on the farm from wild eggs are now breeding and laying fertile eggs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A farm for Chinese alligators (Alligator sinensis) has been established at Xuancheng, Anhui Province. Its purpose is to breed alligators for conservation, although the hide of this species is not in great demand because it has many osteoderms in the belly scales. Recently the government has expressed interest in establishing a farm for saltwater crocodiles in southern China. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan has one crocodile farm or rearing station, but it is too far north to breed its own stock, except in heated indoor enclosures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several buyers in the Philippines who maintain pens of crocodiles for short periods. None of these is a farm. A new experimental farm for the Philippine freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus novaeguineae mindorensis) was established by Silliman University in an attempt to preserve that endangered species and to promote an economic interest in crocodile conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Micronesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A farm for saltwater crocodiles has been established on Palau, where a small population of these crocodiles occurs in a brackish interior swamp. In the past, the government hired a hunter to reduce the population whenever the local people felt it had become sufficiently large to present a danger, about once a decade. Presumably the nuisance crocodiles will now end up in the farm. The farm, which has been in existence only for a year or two, earns money from tourist admissions as well as hide production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few crocodile-rearing stations have operated for several decades in Java, Sumatra, and Kalimantan. These have been stocked with eggs and young animals collected from the wild in Sumatra and Kalimantan. In the early 1970s, three such operations in Samarinda, East Kalimantan, closed down for lack of wild stock. At least one operation in Jakarta, Java, continues to survive, but with virtually no output of stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of Irian Jaya (Indonesian New Guinea) in 1980 indicated a number of ranches in that region as well, but revealed that some were having difficulty obtaining stock because of overharvest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore has a famous crocodile farm that figures prominently in tourism. It breeds some of its stock, but also obtains wild stock from all over Southeast Asia. Singapore has a thriving crocodile hide trade. Many buyers and several tanneries are located there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singapore is not a member of CITES and openly trades in any and all species of crocodilians.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several crocodile farms in West Malaysia (at Penang, for example) and at least one in East Malaysia (near Sandakan, Sabah). These started out as rearing stations relying on wild young, but have moved slowly toward breeding their own stock. The Penang farm depends on tourism to pay many of its expenses. The Sandakan farm is operated in conjunction with a duck and pig farm that supplies it with offal. Its stock consists of saltwater crocodiles. Until at least 1980, it had very little production from captive animals, but the owner is hoping to broaden his stock from them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sarawak (East Malaysia) also used to have several rearing farms. The present status of these operations is unknown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm was started in 1950 with 20 wild crocodiles and an investment of US$500. Today it is reported to be the world's largest crocodile farm, with about 30,000 individuals. About 3,700 of these animals, placed in eight separate breeding ponds, are used for breeding stock, and there are plans for a population of 100,000 by 1987. The Samutprakan farm opened to the public 12 years ago and now receives about one million visitors annually.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of the farm's crocodiles are from the two species native to Thailand, the saltwater crocodile and the Siamese freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis). It also has hybrids of the two, as well as the indigenous false gavial (Tomistoma schlegelii) and five exotic species: South American caiman (Caiman crocodilus), New Guinea freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus novaeguineae), Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis), broad-spouted caiman (Caiman latirostris), and dwarf caiman (Paleosuchus palpebrosus). The farm has succeeded in breeding South American caiman (Caiman crocodilus); the other species are approaching maturity and it is hoped they will breed in the near future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The farm sells crocodile meat locally, mostly to restaurants as a delicacy (for US$5 per kg).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The commercial and biological success of the farm is largely due to favorable conditions at Samutprakan. The temperature and humidity are high year-round, and low costs of labor and building materials permit the physical plant to be profitably established and maintained. The main cost is for food; approximately 4,000-5,000 kg of by-catch fish are needed daily at a cost of US 20 cents per kg. If the supply of fish is inadequate, the diet is supplemented with chicken wings, legs, and necks from a slaughterhouse.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Rangoon there are some crocodile-holding pens operated by hide buyers. It is not clear whether breeding or farming of crocodiles occurs in them or whether the operation simply acts as a clearing center for wild hides. The government has expressed interest in establishing farms in the mangrove areas near the mouth of the Irrawaddy River. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1974 an FAO report on India's crocodiles noted that the Indian gavial (Gavialis gangeticus) was on the verge of extinction, the saltwater crocodile was extremely rare, and the Indian mugger (Crocodylus palustris was a depleted, although not threatened, species).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government, with United Nations assistance, then initiated a project for the conservation and management of all three species. This program aimed to protect and restock habitats. Animals for restocking were obtained by collecting eggs laid in the wild, incubating them under controlled conditions, raising the resulting hatchlings, and returning juveniles to specially selected sanctuaries when they reached about 1.2 m in length,at which time they are free from predation other than by man.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project has resulted in the comeback of the gavial. By March 1979, 200 gavials had been restored to the wild. The wild population now exceeds 1,000 animals of more than 2 m length, and the number is expected to increase rapidly through natural reproduction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project has also carried out extensive research on crocodiles, and since its founding in 1978 the Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute, located in Hyderabad, has trained many wildlife officers in crocodile protection. Crocodile-rearing facilities are also located near Madras, Lucknow, and Cuttack. All have had success in raising the animals and restocking their habitats.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Indian crocodile project has been a notable success and it coincided with (and perhaps helped create) a wave of local interest in India's wildlife and its conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Israel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A farm stocked with American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) was established at a popular hotwater spring resort area, using animals supplied by a Florida farm. The Israeli program will earn money from tourist admissions and from future production of hides. The first successful hatching of captive-bred alligators was reported in 1982.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Near Mombasa a farm for the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) has been set up to produce hides from captive-bred stock. The farm is a demonstration project of a large cement factory that is attempting to return its limestone-mined areas to productive agriculture. Some sophisticated experiments are under way on crocodile nutrition, with food for the animals produced in an intensive aquaculture project using tilapia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia is planning a series of farms patterned after those in Zimbabwe (described below).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe has made great strides in captive breeding. In 1979, 87 captive females at two farms produced 1,906 eggs, and a third farm has set aside 30 captive females for breeding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four of the country's five crocodile farms are on the shores of Lake Kariba and the other is at Victoria Falls. The government allows each farm an annual allotment of wild eggs (averaging 2,000 to 2,500 eggs) for stocking its rearing programs. Each farm is also striving to become self sufficient in egg production by developing successful breeding programs. The government is considering reducing each farm's allotment by the number of eggs produced annually in the farm so that each will eventually become independent of the wild populations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe farmers operate on a system that obliges them to return a small percentage of live animals to the wild if the government requires it. At present, this requirement is being waived because the wild population is increasing on its own.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe has built its crocodile conservation program on a broad base. Crocodiles are protected throughout the country, as game animals in the country at large and as totally protected species in parks and sanctuaries. Populations have increased dramatically, from endangered status in the l950s to over 50,000 individuals today. In the 1950s a survey of the Zambesi River and Lake Kariba revealed no crocodiles; today thousands are seen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe's Department of National Parks and Wildlife is striving to ensure that its legitimate international trade in farm-raised hides does not provide illegal operators in other countries with the opportunity to sell poached hides (for example, forging papers that claim their hides originated on legitimate Zimbabwe farms). To make poaching difficult, Zimbabwe, taking a clue from the state of Louisiana, plans to use serially numbered nonremovable plastic tags to mark legitimate hides. Numbers of the tags will be noted on export permits. In addition, every export permit will be validated by the government with an engraved security stamp that is difficult to forge and that shows ink damage if any erasures or modifications are attempted. The use of such stamps is recommended by CITES, and Zimbabwe is the first nation to put them into use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa has four crocodile farms, and another five are planned or under construction. Apart from the Natal Parks Board Crocodile Research Station at St. Lucia Estuary, which breeds Nile crocodiles for restocking and conservation purposes, all farms are for tourism and hide production. So far only one farm, outside Pretoria, is reported to produce many offspring. Only the provinces of Transvaal and Natal have wild crocodiles, and neither allows eggs, young, or adults to be collected for stocking farms. Both provinces, however, permit the killing of nuisance crocodiles on private land. Transvaal will allow one or two nuisance crocodiles to be taken captive by farmers, but it refuses permission for removing larger numbers of nuisance animals,presumably for fear that this would generate a flood of spurious nuisance complaints. Natal will not permit the removal of any wild crocodiles to farms, nor will it supply offspring from the St. Lucia station to farmers. This makes the Pretoria farm the only source of crocodiles in South Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following the example of Zimbabwe, the South African farmers (present and potential) formed a crocodile farming association in 1982.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several farms patterned after those in Zimbabwe are planned for the Okavango area. Petitions for approval are currently before the Botswana government.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1960s French businessmen established a farm for Nile crocodiles near Lake Chad. It collapsed after only a few years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivory Coast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Ivory Coast has obtained assistance from Zimbabwe to establish a conservation program for its three native crocodiles: the Nile crocodile, African slender-spouted crocodile (Crocodylus cataphractus), and Congo dwarf crocodile (Osteolaemus tetraspis). Recommendations were made for conserving the wild populations as well as for establishing farms. Field studies are under way.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A commercial farm for the South American caiman (Caiman crocodilus) was established in southern Italy in the late 1970s. Stock was obtained from Colombia. The animals, numbering in the thousands, arrived in Rome in winter and were transported south to the farm in an open truck. Most died from cold. Later shipments fared no better, and the few animals that survived died from poor husbandry. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Americas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are between 15 and 20 successful alligator farms in the United States. Most are located in Florida and Louisiana, and there is at least one in California. All earn a portion of their money from tourist admissions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the 1960s the Cuban government established at least two farms for crocodiles. One is located in the Zapata Peninsula National Park; the other is near Cienfuegos. The purpose of these farms is to breed crocodiles whose wetland habitat has been converted to sugar cane fields. Eventually, the farms will also produce a cash crop of hides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, what started out as an admirable effort created several conservation problems because the farm managers did not realize there were two crocodiles in Cuba ,the American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) in brackish waters, and the Cuban crocodile (Crocodylus rhombifer) in freshwater areas. The two were mixed in the farms and hybridization resulted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Mexican government has established several farms for Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii) in Chiapas and Veracruz. The purpose is to breed the species in captivity to relieve hunting pressure on the wild population and prevent its extinction. Original funding was provided by the World Wildlife Fund. At least one of these farms still exists. Breeding has been achieved, but there have been problems of survival in hatchlings. The cause of the deaths has not been discovered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years several businessmen in Mexico have expressed interest in starting one or more crocodile farms, but none has yet materialized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El Salvador</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1960s, the Louisiana Game and Fisheries Commission supplied specimens of the American alligator to a cattle rancher in El Salvador for the purpose of establishing an experimental farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Louisiana was interested in studying growth rates of American alligators in a tropical nation where the animals did not have to undergo winter hibernation. The husbandry on the farm followed methods worked out in Louisiana. The animals grew fast and presumably have started breeding. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A captive breeding program for the Orinoco crocodile (Crocodylus intermedius) was established in Venezuela in the late 1970s on the ranch of Tomas Blohm. The operation is not commercial; its purpose is to prevent extinction of the species. The offspring may be used for restocking wild habitats in the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Venezuelan law there can be no commercial export of any crocodilians. In addition, the Orinoco crocodile and the various caimans are protected. However, the reptiles are everywhere killed as vermin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru has proposed harvesting certain wild populations of caimans (Caiman crocodilus) to supply animals to a ranching operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BraziI</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Brazil is interested in establishing farms for several species of caiman, including the yacare (Caiman crocodilusyacare). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Latin American Nations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the past two years, other Central and South American nations that have indicated their intention to set up farms for crocodiles or caimans are Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, and Uruguay. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix B: Practical Crocodile Farming</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This appendix is adapted from a paper by A. Pooley that detailed the lessons learned from farming crocodiles to restock depleted habitats in Natal, South Africa. The information is presented here not as a blueprint for setting up a farm, but to show prospective farmers some of the points that they must first consider before attempting to rear crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farm Location</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reliable supplies of good water and suitable food are the most important considerations for establishment of a crocodile farm; the area selected must have both. Village farms also need to be close enough to wild crocodile populations for the animals to be obtained easily. Larger farms can be located farther from the source.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For small farms, a natural supply of food should also be readily available in the wild. Areas that have a fishing industry are ideal locations. For large farms, sites near slaughterhouses or fish-processing facilities are ideal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other considerations also include the volume of water available throughout the year, the distance over which water must be piped to the ponds, and pumping costs. The quality of the water should be established, with samples tested for salinity and acidity and, where the supply comes from mineral springs, analyzed for harmful chemicals. Chlorinated water must be tested regularly to ensure that the chlorine content is not too high, and the nature of any factory effluents present should be determined. It is important to establish whether fish, frogs, crabs, mollusks, or aquatic insects survive in the water intended for use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bacterial analysis is advisable where the water is drawn from a river that drains an area densely populated by humans and livestock. If the water is found to be contaminated, the stagnant pond rearing pen system should not be used, particularly when Salmonella spp. are present in high concentrations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A filter system has advantages if water is pumped straight from a river carrying a heavy silt load. Apart from enabling farmers to see the animals in the pools, filtered water makes the pools and pipes easier to clean. Filtration can be achieved by drawing water from a deep pit close to the river so that the water collected seeps through sand or mud.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A reservoir or a series of supply tanks is useful as an additional method of filtering water. In the event that pumping equipment fails, such a reserve supply may prove vital to the health and survival of the crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ponds should receive as much sun as possible, particularly during the winter months. A series of winter air temperature recordings would be useful in choosing the site of rearing pens, since valley temperatures are often several degrees lower than the temperatures some 50 to 100 m uphill. Preference should be given to the warmer locations, taking into account the direction of local winds and heavy rains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil types are the next consideration. If soils are sandy and porous, earth ponds are impractical and a concrete lining is required to retain water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Drainage of the ponds must be carefully considered. Drainage is far easier if the ponds are built on a slight rise. Water from the ponds must not be allowed to stagnate nearby; the drainage system must be efficient. It is recommended that pens be spaced at least 8 m apart and that their drainpipes lead underground at least 10 m before emptying.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pen Construction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pens with rounded corners are the most successful. Crocodiles frequently choose to lie together in a pile. Square corners allow them to pile up against the angle, smothering those on the bottom and sometimes allowing animals to climb over the fence. With rounded corners, the pile cannot grow very high before the crocodiles slide sideways and the heap collapses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experiments in South Africa indicate that natural pools containing rooted vegetation are less prone to become sources of disease than are concrete pools. The surface of the concrete seems to become impregnated with liquid and debris from food and to become a breeding ground for bacteria. For hatchlings and very small juvenile crocodiles, concrete has an added disadvantage; its rough surface can abrade the belly skin when the animals slide in and out of the water, which can foster infection. In 5 or 10 years, even smooth concrete will erode sufficiently to become a problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Researchers elsewhere, however, report better results with concrete lined ponds, which they find easier to clean. Concrete pools are useful for summer because they can be scrubbed clean and because the volume of water used is small. Normally they need only be emptied, cleaned, and refilled every third day, and there is no wastage through seepage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pools are best built as channels. This provides more bank for basking and enables the pools to accommodate more crocodiles. Because the larger males become belligerent only when they can see each other, floating logs, patches of grass, or channel corners are visual barriers that reduce interactions. The channel system also gives more water edge, and this appears to satisfy the territorial instinct.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles are famous for basking in the sun, but they die surprisingly easily of heat prostration. At least one-third of the land area of a farm pen should be shaded with vegetation. The amount of space around each pool is calculated to allow ample basking room for each animal, and an area of shade must likewise be provided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On land, crocodiles often seek contact with each other (thigmotaxis) and frequently lie piled on top of each other, but this should be a matter of choice rather than of overcrowding. There should be few enough animals in the enclosure to allow every crocodile to get out of the water if it chooses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ideally, only half the available number of pools should be occupied at a time, so that they can be used in rotation. In this system, the animals can be moved to fresh pools every two months (or as necessary), leaving the "used" pools to be drained and dried out to bake in the sun. After two months, the pools will then be clean and ready for use again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important requirement is that the pools be at least 60 cm in depth; otherwise, the water becomes too hot in summer. The pool floor should be sloped towards the drain outlet to facilitate cleaning and flushing away uneaten food. Also, the outlet pipe should be 10 cm in diameter, with a stopcock outside the enclosure, so that the pool can be cleaned and emptied efficiently. It is essential to place a screen in the drainpipe to prevent small crocodiles from escaping or being sucked out of the pool during cleaning. After some time, stagnant ponds may become difficult to clean because of the heavy growth of algae on their sides. Hard-bristle scrubbing brushes are needed to dislodge this growth. Small amounts of copper sulfate in the water will help control algae if used regularly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The entire pond and surrounding apron must be smoothly plastered to facilitate cleaning. It helps to have a water source close to each pool from which a hose pipe can be led to pressure spray and clean the pool and its apron.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important part of the design is a partly submerged, gently sloping ledge, some 45 cm in width, around the perimeter of the pool. This provides a shallow resting zone for the crocodiles and gives them easy access to the water. The crocodiles rest there when feeding, and the ledge prevents them from scraping their bellies and damaging their claws when they enter or leave the pool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For small crocodiles it is advisable to roof over the entire pen with wire netting or cries-crossed strands of wire. This protects against predators. Further, young crocodiles can climb vertical wire netting with ease and will escape unless the enclosure is either roofed or has side walls that slope inwards. A skirting board (planking, sheet iron, tin, or plastic sheeting) placed against the wire netting can also prevent this. If wire netting is used for the sides of the pens it should have mesh no larger than 1 cm so that hatchlings will not injure themselves by trying to climb through. While these pools are being cleaned, care must be exercised to prevent crocodiles from falling into the empty pool.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water can be passed continuously through the pools. The advantage of this is that during hot summer weather, when crocodiles are feeding at their maximum rate, small uneaten food particles, feces, and urine are carried away. Constant dilution of the pond's water also ensures a low bacteria level. However, the pool must be drained and scrubbed clean at least weekly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earthen pools are easy and cheap to build and are a "natural" habitat where vegetation can be planted and small live fish introduced; insects, frogs, and other creatures attracted to the dams will be an important addition to the diet and health of the crocodiles. Earthen pools are ideal in climates where low winter temperatures are likely to cause respiratory illness in the young animals. During cold weather the crocodiles burrow into the mudbanks and survive nights of heavy frost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the animal's burrowing capabilities, it is important to provide a strip of land 4 m wide between the pool's edge and the boundary fence. Otherwise, crocodiles may tunnel beyond the fence line. Fences must be buried at least 1 m deep to intercept the burrows and to prevent predators from burrowing in. Burrowing, however, can be hazardous, because the burrows can collapse and suffocate the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In areas where the soil is porous or sandy, the floor of an earth dam can be sealed with concrete or plastic irrigation sheets. A layer of earth can be used to conceal this artificial floor. The disadvantages of earth pools are that, because of seepage, they require more water than concrete ones and that they require more maintenance because they cannot be efficiently cleaned. Even if the pools are provided with constantly circulating water, they eventually become fouled, particularly during hot weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Removing crocodiles from an earth pond can prove difficult, since most will take refuge in their burrows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capturing Crocodiles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles are located at night, usually from a boat, by shining a light along the edges of rivers and lagoons. Because of a reflective tapetum, the eyes of crocodiles glow reddish or orange and are visible for a hundred meters or more. If the population has not become exposed to hunting and become wary of people, the animals will not submerge when the light strikes them. Dazzled by the beam, they tolerate a stealthy approach, and small animals can simply be grabbed by hand or scooped up in a net. They can then be transported in sacks to the rearing pens. Larger animals may be noosed or baited into cylindrical screen traps at places they frequent along the water's edge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Managing a Crocodile Farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a problem to sort the young crocodiles. From one clutch of eggs, some individuals will be aggressive and others may be shy or extremely timid; growth may vary from rapid to very slow, with a few individuals classed as runts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Larger animals can be so dominant that smaller individuals will not even attempt to feed. If sorting is not done, the smaller, less-aggressive individuals do not get a fair share of the food; they grow slowly and get bitten and harassed by the larger animals. At feeding time, some will flee to the opposite side of the pen and stop feeding altogether. Keeping the young animals sorted into classes of the same size avoids many of these problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition and Feeding</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the crocodilian's reputation as a man-eater, small wild crocodiles live mainly on invertebrates and larger ones live mainly on fish. Papua New Guinea's farmers feed a varied diet of locally caught fish, crab, shrimp, frogs, snails, grasshoppers, beetles, and slaughterhouse waste. Whole animals minced up should be used, if necessary, because crocodiles require a diet of bone, intestine, scales, and other tissues to provide calcium and minerals. Bones in chopped fish must be minced thoroughly for hatchlings or very young crocodiles, or they should be fed very small fish supplemented by tadpoles or insects. One village in Papua New Guinea has shown remarkable success in rearing hatchlings on a diet of chopped fish and live freshwater shrimp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fish is an excellent food for the bulk feeding of a large captive population. Whole fish chopped into pieces, including the livers and hearts, forms a balanced diet that may be supplemented by meat, if available, to make up bulk. Small whole fish are particularly suitable; the crocodiles derive calcium from the bones and scales, plus roughage to facilitate digestion, while the flesh, liver, and heart are rich in nutrients and protein The main difficulty usually lies in harvesting enough fish to meet the crocodiles' demands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any method of supplementing the diet with live creatures is recommended. For instance, a light can be left burning in each pen about 15 cm above the water for attracting insects. Various types of insect traps may also be used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles also can be fed on a variety of wastes such as offal or noncommercial fish. Ideally, a large-scale farm should be located near a poultry slaughterhouse. (Cattle offal is also satisfactory, but it is not nutritionally adequate as a sole ration for crocodiles.) Even crocodile offal itself can be fed back to crocodiles. However, the use of offal will necessitate dietary supplements to assure sufficient phosphorus and calcium. These minerals are generally provided by feeding bones to the crocodiles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crocodiles usually consume their food in the water, but they can also be fed on land. They will eat daily, but are able to remain active for weeks without food. If they are fed in the water of a farm pen, the water will become polluted unless there is considerable flow to carry away the debris. In extreme cases, the pools become septic. To ensure the health of the growing animals, constantly flowing water is far superior to standing water. (The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm in Thailand feeds some of its animals in water, but the small feeding pools are separate from the large regular breeding pools and at a lower level to prevent their overflowing into the breeding pools.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to feed pieces of food small enough to be swallowed without difficulty. Large fish should be cut into elongated rather than square pieces, since the bones can cause damage during swallowing. Similarly, whole live fish should not be so large that the dorsal fin may cause damage to the reptile's throat and gullet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to know the amount of food that each group of animals will consume at each meal. By feeding at the same time each day, it is easy to calculate how much is required. Moreover, the crocodiles become accustomed to a routine and the food is consumed while it is still fresh. In the hot summer months the animals will devour a full meal every 24 hours, but the feeding rate slackens with the onset of colder weather. It is then wise to start reducing frequency and quantities until food is required only every second or third day, depending on the climate. Generally, young crocodiles will refuse food when the air or water temperature falls below 60°F (15.6°C). Even in midsummer sudden cold spells may occur; at such times, it is usually futile to feed the animals or try to coax them to eat until the weather warms up again. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During hot weather conditions it is preferable to feed late in the afternoon or evenings, mainly to avoid placing the food on a hot cement surface. The food should be spread out around the edge of the pool under the shaded area so that the animals do not have to climb over one another to reach it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In cemented pens the area where the food is laid out should be cleaned and scrubbed two hours after feeding time and any uneaten food removed from the water with a hand net. In earthen pools, the food should be placed at a different spot along the bank at each feeding. A useful aid to hygiene is keeping a few predacious fish, such as barbel (Clarias spp.), in each pool to clean up scraps of uneaten food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population Density</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty-five crocodiles are considered the maximum manageable number per unit; staying within this limit reduces competition for food, bullying and fighting, and the number of injuries. A low stocking rate also results in a more even average growth rate. Most important is the fact that the overall health of the crocodiles is better than in a more crowded pen; disease problems are fewer and the symptoms easier to detect in a small group. If the units are spaced 8 m apart, there is also less danger of infectious disease spreading to other pens. The cleaning of pens is facilitated, and the disturbance caused by capturing crocodiles to be moved to other units is minimized. Housing 500 crocodiles in groups of 25 will require 20 separate pens, and an additional two pens should be provided to allow for intensive care of sick, injured, and weaker animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the first year, when animals are graded frequently, they will often be moved from one pen to another. Recording the number of animals housed in each pen will make it possible to keep track of numbers and movements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeding</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction is impossible when crocodiles are kept in large groups composed of different species and sizes and in more or less unnatural enclosures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Healthy, sexually mature pairs of crocodiles are usually not enough to start a breeding program. Genetic diversity to maintain a long-term breeding group must be considered, and certain environmental factors are vital for success. The distinct size and age classes of a free-living population must also be taken into consideration. Optimal sex ratios for breeding in enclosed compounds must be determined and adhered to. If a breeding unit is not based on regard for the animals' basic needs for space, nesting sites, and retreats, the larger specimens will disturb, injure, and often kill smaller specimens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diseases and Parasites</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Disease symptoms may be easily overlooked if the observer is not familiar with the behavior of crocodiles under a variety of conditions. It is essential to know how they normally walk, swim, sleep, feed, and bask in relation to the time of day, the air and water temperatures, and the amount of sunlight or rain, by day, by night, and at different seasons of the year. Caretakers should notice the appearance of feces from healthy animals to be able to detect evidence of diarrhea, and to identify misaligned teeth and weakened limbs to detect nutritional deficiencies. Eggs are critically dependent on specific temperature and moisture requirements if the embryos are to develop normally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often difficult to determine the cause of illness or death, and even if the ailment has been correctly diagnosed, it is not easy to capture and administer drugs to large numbers of sick animals. Some animals may be injured during the handling process. Emphasis on preventing disease, rather than curing it, is the best way of ensuring a healthy crop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost inevitably, the water in the pools will harbor concentrations of bacteria such as salmonella. If strict hygiene is observed, however, the bacterial level will not be harmful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is recommended that whenever possible animals found newly dead should be dissected and vital organs such as the brain, heart, lung, liver, spleen, kidney, and stomach removed for veterinary research. Blood slides should also be taken and feces samples collected. The various specimens must be carefully labeled, frozen as quickly as possible, and packed on ice in a vacuum flask for immediate dispatch to the nearest veterinary research institute or pathologist. Alternatively, dying animals may be sent live for research purposes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is helpful for the handler to become thoroughly acquainted with the animal's internal anatomy, in order to distinguish between healthy and diseased organs. This knowledge, coupled with the symptoms noted before the animal dies, and the veterinary report, will be useful in future diagnosis and treatment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One problem for the crocodile farmer is a roundworm (nematode) parasite that burrows into the belly skin. When the burrow collapses it produces an undulating track across the belly and throat scales that ruins the hide. These parasites have been found in crocodiles from Latin America, Africa, Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Asia. They seem more prevalent in some areas and some farms than in others. The organism has been identified, but no treatment or control has been discovered. It is, however, believed that damp, muddy conditions foster the nematode, and that to reduce it pens should have areas of dry land where the animals can bask.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Killing, Skinning, and Tanning</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some farmers kill the crocodiles themselves, but many rear the animals and then sell them to a larger concern that is better equipped to deal with the skins. Killing is done most quickly and humanely by catching the crocodile with a noose and severing the spinal cord just behind the skull.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many hides are ruined or severely damaged during skinning. Even a single hole resulting from a slip of the skinning knife may reduce a hide's value by 25 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After skinning, the hides are normally coated with about 0.5 cm of coarse salt and rolled up. Within 48 hours they are unrolled and resalted. If the hide is not sufficiently salted, it may become infected with bacteria or fungi that cause the epidermis of the scales to decay or slip. Although this layer is removed during tannage, scale slip is a symptom of rot and usually causes damage to the finished hide product. If the decay is intense, the salted hides may become reddish or brown in color. This is called "red heat."</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although salt remains the universally used preservative for raw hides, the reptile leather industry has developed chemical fixatives that are used in addition to salt for preserving hides for tanning. Most of these pretannage fixatives are liquid and require soaking the hide in a vat, which may not be feasible in remote areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A pretanned hide is called a crust. It is green-gray (chrome tanned) or tan (vegetable tanned) and is stiff. The hide is dyed and glazed to its final finish. To increase the workability and to remove as many of the osteoderms as possible (if they are present), the underside of the hide is shaved to an even thickness. The shaving is done by craftsmen. If they shaved too much, the hide will be thin and weak, especially over the suture between the scales.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix C: Selected Readings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information on the management and status of crocodiles can be found in the following:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IUCN/Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter. Available from the editors, Peter Brazaitis and Myrna Watanabe, c/o New York Zoological Park, Bronx Zoo, The Bronx, New York 10460, USA.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Field Guide of Captive Rearing and Management of Crocodiles in India is available from Mr. R. K. Rao, Director, Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute (Government of India), Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blake, D. K. 1974. The rearing of crocodiles for commercial and conservation purposes in Rhodesia. The Rhodesia Science News 8(10):315-324.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Blake, D. K., and J. P. Loveridge. 1975. The role of commercial crocodile farming in crocodile conservation. Biological Conservation 8(4): 261-272.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bolton, M. 1981. Crocodile Husbandry in Papua New Guinea. Field Document 4. FO: DP/ PNG/74/029. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 103 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bolton, M., and M. Laufa. 1982. The crocodile project in Papua New Guinea. Biological Conservation 22:169-179.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazaitis, P. (In press) Problems in the Identification of Commercial Crocodilian Hides and the Effect on Law Enforcement. Proceedings of the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group meeting in Zimbabwe September-October, 1982. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazaitis, P. 1973. The identification of living crocodiles. Zoologica 58(3-4):59-101.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cott, H. B. 1954. Ecology and economic status of the crocodile in Uganda. Record of the Symposium on African Hydrobiology and Inland Fisheries, Committee on Technical Cooperation for Africa South of the Sahara 6:119-122.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cott, H. B. 1961. Scientific results of an inquiry into the ecology and economic status of the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) in Uganda and Northern Rhodesia. Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 29(4):211-337.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Downes, M. C. 1978. An explanation of the National Policy for the Crocodile Programme. Wildlife Division, Department of Lands, Surveys and Environment, Konedobu, Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fuchs, K., nd. Die Krokodilhaut Eduard Roether Verlag Darmstadt, Frankfurt, West Germany.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham, A., 1981. Mapping the pattern of crocodile nesting activity in Papua New Guinea. Field Document No. 3, FO: DP/PNG/74/029. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 50 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joanen, T., and L. McNease. 1975. Notes on the Reproductive Biology and Captive Propagation of the American Alligator. Proceedings of the 29th Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners 29:407-415. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joanen, T., and L. McNease. 1979. Culture of the American alligator. International Zoo Yearbook 19:61-66.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">King, F. W., and P. Brazaitis. 1971. Species identification of commercial crocodile skins. Zoologica 56(2): 15-72.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loveridge, J. P. ed. 1982. The Zimbabwe Science News 16(9):196-219. Causeway, Zimbabwe. (Contains five articles on crocodilian research and conservation; from Zimbabwe, Australia the United States, and lndia.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Millichamp, N. J. ;980. Medical aspects of disease in reptile collections. In The Care and Breeding of Captive Reptiles, The British Herpetological Society, London, England.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parker, F. 1981. New Crocodile Laws for Papua New Guinea. Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu, Papua New Guinea. 50 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1969. Some observations on the rearing of crocodiles. Lammergeyer 10:45-59.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1971. Crocodile rearing and restocking. Pp. 104-130 in Crocodiles, IUCN Publications New Series Supplementary Paper 32. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1110 Gland, Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1973. Conservation and Management of Crocodiles in Africa. Journal of the South African Wildlife Management Association 3(2):101-103.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1977. A report on Crocodile Farming. Papua New Guinea. Wildlife leaflet No. 77/27. pp. 1-14.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. 1981. Disappearing African Crocodiles. Oryx 16(1):38-40.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C. (In press). The status of crocodiles in Africa. Paper Presented at 5th Meeting IUCN Survival Service Commission's Crocodile Specialist Group. Gainesville Florida, USA. September 1980.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pooley, A. C., and C. Gans. 1976. The Nile crocodile. Scientific American 234(4): 114-124.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wallis, B. E. 1980. Market prospects for reptile leathers. Report number ITC/DIP/12, International Trade Commission, Geneva, Switzerland. 50 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wermuth, Von H., and K. Fuchs. 1978. Bestimmen von Krokodilen und ihrer Haute. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart, New York.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whitaker, R. 1982. Export prospects from commercial crocodile farms in Bangladesh. ITC/UNCTAD, Geneva, Switzerland. 47 pp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whitaker, R., and M. Kemp. 1981. The crocodile industry in Papua New Guinea: Commercial Aspects. Field Document No. 2. FO:DP/PNC/74/029. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 35 pp. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix D: Research Contacts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following individuals are involved in crocodilian research. Most are biologists concerned with the conservation or natural history of the animals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Applied Ecology Crocodile Farm, Edward River, Queensland 4870</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shelley Burgin, Total Environment Center, 18 Argyle Street, Sydney, New South Wales 2000</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Melvin Bolton, Woodbury Farm, Woodbury Road, M.S. 142, Via Yeppoon, Queensland 4703</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Max C. Downes, The Game Conservation Center, 24 Queens Parade, North Fitzroy, Victoria 3068</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alistair Graham, P.O. Box41266, Darwin, Northern Territory 5792</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gordon Grigg, Zoology A08, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Lever, Koorana Crocodile Farm, M.S.F. 76, Rockhampton, Queensland 4702</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harry Messel, Head, School of Physics, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fred Parker, 717 Ross River Road, Kirwan, Queensland 4814</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grahame Webb, School of Zoology, University of New South Wales, Kensington 2033</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangladesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohd. Reza Khan, Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Dacca, Dacca 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">William Magnusson, Depto de Ecologia, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia, Caixa Postal 478, 69000, Manaus, Amazonia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ko Ko Gyi, Professor of Zoology, Rangoon Arts and Sciences University, Rangoon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nyan Taw, Research Officer, People's Pearl and Fishery Corporation, Myakhwanyo Street, Thaketa, Rangoon </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People's Republic of China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Huang Chu-Chien, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Swatow Prefecture Crocodile Farm, Shantou, Guang Dong Province</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federico Medem, Instituto Roberto Franco, Apartado Aereo 2261, Villavicencio (Meta)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gerado Budowski, Head, Natural Renewable Resources Programme, CATIE, Turrialba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cuba</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Luis Varona, Norte 29, Nuevo Vedado, La Habana 6</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jose Alberto Ottenwalder, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Plaza de la Cultura, Santo Domingo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Karlheinz Fuchs, Schillerstrasse 2, 6257 Hunfelder 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jaime Tres 1., Centro de Estudias Conservacionistas, Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, Avenida de la Reforma 0-63, Zona IO, Guatemala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. C. Choudhury and Lala A. K. Singh, Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute, 19-4-319, Lake Dale, Rajendranagar Road, Hyderabad 500 264, Andhra Pradesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian Board for Wildlife, c/o Department of Environment, Bikaner House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi 110 011</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Sale, UNDP/FAO Crocodile Breeding and Management Project, 19-4-319, Lake Dale, Rajendranagar Road Hyderabad 500 264, Andhra Pradesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Shanmugunathan, Chief Wildlife Warden, Vivekananda Road, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudhakar Kar, Saltwater Crocodile Research and Conservation Unit, Danginal 754 220 Via Rejkanika, District Cuttack, Orissa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Romulus Whitaker, Madras Snake Park Trust, Guindy Deer Park, Madras, Tamil Nadu, 600 002</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. S. Child, Wildlife and Parks Management Of ficer FAO, Rome</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wataru Kimura, Proprietor, Atagawa Tropical and Alligator Garden, Atagawa Higashi Zlu Town, Shizuoka Prefecture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.D. Haller , Bamburi Portland Cement Co. ,Ltd., P.O. Box 90202 ,Mombasa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paul R. Wycherley, President, Malayan Nature Society, P.O. Box 150, Kuala Lumpur</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miguel Alvarez del Toro, Director, Instituto de Historia Natural, Departamento de Zoologia, Apartado Postal No. 6, Tuxtle Gutierrez, Chiapas, 29000</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marco Antonio Lascano B., INIREB, Apdo. No 281, Merida</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tirtha Maskey, National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Office, Thapathali, P.O. Box 107, Kathmandu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Zealand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antoon de Vos, Box 34, Whitford, Auckland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Milton G. Camacho B., Instituto Nicaraguense de Recursos Naturales y del Ambiente (IRENA), Depto. de Fauna Silvestre, Kim 12 1/2 Carreterra Norte, Managua.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ashiq Ahmad, Wildlife Management Specialist, Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abdul Latif Rao, Conservator of Wildlife, National Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, U.G. St. 51, Sector F 6/4, Islamabad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miro Laufa, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, P.O. Box 2585, Konedobu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Karol Kisokau, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Central Government Offices, Waigani</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navu Kwapena, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Graham Goudie, Crocodile Farm, Lae</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Martin Hollands, Monitoring Ecologist, National Crocodile Project, P.O. Box 2585 Konedobu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pedro Vasques Ruesta, Departamento de Manejo Forestal, Universidad Nacional Agraria, Apdo. 456, La Molina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angel C. Alcala, Division Research, Extension and Development, Silliman University, Dumaguete City, 6501, Negros</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">School of Agriculture, Silliman University, Dumaguete City, 6501, Negros.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. B. Anthony, The Natal Parks, Game and Fish Preservation Board, Box 662, Pietermaritzburg, Natal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antony Pooley, P.O. Box 42, St. Lucia Estuary, 3936 Zululand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Switzerland</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rene E. Honegger, Curator, Zurich Zoo, Zurichbergstrasse 221, 8044 Zurich</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">U. Srisomboon, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Livestock Development, Bangkok Utai Youngprapakorn and Charoon Youngprapakorn, The Samutprakan Crocodile Farm and Zoo Co., Ltd., Talban Road, Samutprakan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angus d'A. Bellairs, Department of Anatomy, St. Mary's Hospital Medical School University of London, Paddington, London W2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Robert Bustard, Isle of Man</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Behler, New York Zoological Society, 185th Street &amp; Southern Blvd., The Bronx, New York 10460</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peter Brazaitis, New York Zoological Society, 185th Street &amp; Southern Blvd., The Bronx New York 10460</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gary Callis, Rt. I, Box 360, Clayton, New Mexico</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert H. Chabreck, Louisiana State University, School of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Michael Davenport, Department of Herpetology, National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20008</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Claire Hagen, Representative, Reptile Products Association, 120 Cabrini Blvd., New York, New York 10033</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fred Hauptfuhrer, Director of Planning and Development, World Wildlife Fund, Inc., 910 17th Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20006</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Howard Hunt, Atlanta Zoological Park, 518 Atlanta Ave. S.E., Atlanta, Georgia 30315</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ted Joanen, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, Route 1, Box 20-B, Grand Chenier, Louisiana 70643</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. Wayne King, Director, Florida State Museum, Gainesville, Florida 32611</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeffrey W. Lang, Biology Department, University of North Dakota, University Station, Grand Forks, North Dakota 58202</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles J. Lankester, UNDP, I United Nations Plaza, New York, New York 10017</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">James H. Powell, 1110 Kokomo Street, Plainview, Texas 79072</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles A. Ross, Division of Reptiles and Amphibians, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Myrna Watanabe, 141 Columbia Heights, Brooklyn, New York 11201</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uruguay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federico Achaval, Departamento de Zoologia (Vertebrados), Universidad de la Republic Cerrito73, Montevideo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tomas Blohm, Apartado 69, Caracas 1010-A</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andres Seijas Y., Servicio Nacional de Fauna Silvestre, MARNR, Apartado 184, Maracay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. K. Blake, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, P.O. Box 8365, Causeway, Harare</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John Loveridge, Zoology Department, University of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kevin van Jaarsveldt, Crocodile Farmers Association of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box 2569, Harare </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix E: Biographical Sketches of Panel Members</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director of the Office of Biological Secretary General Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., is currently the Secretary General of the International Union of Biological Sciences. He received his B.A. in 1961 from Miami University in Ohio, M.Sc. from The George Washington University in 1963, and his Ph.D. in 1966 from the University of London. His research interests are in comparative anatomy and phylogeny of flowering plants, commercial timbers, histology of monocotyledons, economic botany, and tropical biology. An internationally recognized expert on tropical plants, he has published extensively in these areas and on topics relating to science, technology, and development, especially in developing countries. Dr. Ayensu was co-chairman of the Panel on Underexploited Tropical Plants of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation and chairs and serves as a member of many international bodies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, JR., is Graduate Research Professor in the Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville. As Technical Director of the Caribbean Conservation Corporation, he has directed a seasonal research program at the breeding ground of the green turtle at Tortuguero, Costa Rica, since 1952, with continuous grants from the National Science Foundation from 1955 to 1980, and has carried out investigations of marine turtle ecology and navigation in various parts of the world. The author of numerous papers, articles, and books, he received the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal of the National Academy of Sciences for Handbook of Turtles and the John Burroughs Medal for The Windward Road. He is Research Associate of the American Museum of Natural History; Affiliate Curator of Natural Sciences, Florida State Museum; Chairman of the Marine Turtle Specialist Group of the Survival Service Commission, International Union for the Conservation of Nature; Honorary Consultant of the World Wildlife Fund; Fellow of the Linnean Society of London; Fellow of the American Fisheries Society; and a member of Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi.In 1973 he was awarded a gold medal from the World Wildlife Fund for the application of scientific findings to the conservation of marine turtles. In 1975 he received the Edward W. Browning Award for achievement in biological conservation. In 1978 Dr. Carr was awarded the Gold Medal of the New York Zoological Society for contributions to natural science and conservation; in 1978 he became Officer of the Order of the Golden Ark (The Netherlands).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING is the Director of the Florida State Museum, Gainesville. He received a B.S. in 1957 and an M.S. in 1961 from the University of Florida and a Ph.D. from 1966 from the University of Miami. His research interests are in wildlife conservation and habitat preservation, impact of international trade on wildlife populations, and ecology and behavior of reptile populations. He worked at the New York Zoological Society from 1967 to 1975. As an international wildlife consultant, Dr. King has received honors from the Dominican Republic, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, and from H.R.H. Prince Bernhard of The Netherlands. He has served on committees advising the State Department and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources on policies regarding the trade of crocodile skins, turtle products, and other wildlife materials. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry and Professor of Forest Genetics, Yale University, was Dean of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale from 1965 to 1975. He received a B.A. from Luxembourg College and a B.Sc.F. from the University of New Brunswick in 1950, an M.F. in ecology in 1951, and a Ph.D. in forest genetics from Yale in 1954. He is especially knowledgeable about francophone Africa and was chairman of the Sahel program of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development and a member of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation. From 1960 to 1965 he was research collaborator at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. In 1966 he was the recipient of the Award for Outstanding Achievement in Biological Research from the Society of American Foresters and in 1975 was Distinguished Professor (Fulbright-Hays Program) in Yugoslavia. Before joining the Yale faculty, he served as project leader in forest genetics for the U.S. Forest Service in Florida. He has served as a consultant to FAO, various foreign governments, and private forestry companies, and he has traveled extensively in the tropical countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS is head of the Furzebrook Research Station of the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (National Environment Research Council, U.K.). He received a B.A. in natural sciences (zoology) at the University of Cambridge of 1958, M.A. in 1962, and received his Ph.D. from London University in research on the integrated control of orchard pests. Dr. Morris worked at Monks Wood Experimental Station on the effects of grassland management on populations of invertebrates and developed a strong interest in community and applied ecology, particularly the conservation of insect populations. Recently he has become involved with problems of butterfly conservation and resource utilization. He is Secretary of the Joint Committee for the Conservation of British Insects, a Vice-Chairman of the Lepidoptera Specialist Group of lUCN'S Survival Commission, and Chairman of the Habitat and Species Protection Committee of SEL (Societal Europaea Lepidoptero-Logica). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH L. POPENOE is Professor of Soils, Agronomy, Botany, and Geography and Director of the Center for Tropical Agriculture and International Programs (Agriculture) at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. from the University of California at Davis in 1951 and his Ph.D. in soils from the University of Florida in 1960. His principal research interest has been in the area of tropical agriculture and land use. His early work on shifting cultivation is one of the major contributions to this system. He has traveled and worked in most of the countries in the tropical areas of Latin America, Asia, and Africa. He is past Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Escuela Agricola Panamericana in Honduras, Visiting Lecturer on Tropical Public Health at the Harvard School of Public Health, and a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Society of Agronomy, the America Geographical Society, and the International Soils Science Society. He is Chairman of the Advisory Committee for Technology Innovation and a member of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT MICHAEL PYLE, a writer and consulting lepidopterist based in Gray's River, Washington, has served since 1979 as Co-Compiler of the lUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book. In this capacity he is consultant to the Conservation Monitoring Center in Cambridge, England. After receiving his B.S. and M.S. at the University of Washington, he took his Ph.D. through the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University in 1976. He worked for the Government of Papua New Guinea on the conservation and utilization of insect resources and then with the Nature Conservancy as Northwest Land Steward. A former Fulbright Scholar to the United Kingdom, Dr. Pyle subsequently founded the Xerces Society for conservation of beneficial insects and their habitats. He has been chairman of IUCN'S Lepidoptera Specialist Group (Species Survival Commission) since 1976. His publications include the Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Butterflies. A comprehensive book on insect conservation in his next project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS received his Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1977 in natural resources management. He has worked on various wildlife research projects in Asia since 1964 and is representative for the Asia Foundation in Taiwan. He has published articles on butterfly conservation and wildlife industries in Taiwan, where he has been studying the butterfly and wildlife farming projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, staff officer for this study, is Professional Associate of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. A New Zealander with a Ph.D. in organic chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley, he now works on innovations in science that are important for developing countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas (member through 1981) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Native Plants, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (member through 1982) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGLIARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAMUEL P. ASPER, Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BELL, Department of Population Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEONARD BERRY, Professor, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST I. BRISKEY, Dean, School of Agriculture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON S. BROWN, Director, Resources Systems Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. BURRIS, Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAUDIA JEAN CARR, Associate Professor, Conservation and Resource Studies, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATE FIELDS, Director, Developing Markets, Control Data Corporation, Minneapolis, Minnesota </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND J. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN HOWARD GIBBONS, Director, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM HUGHES, Director, Engineering Energy Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM A. W. KREBS, Vice President, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Acorn Park, Cambridge, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE I. LYTHCOTT, University of Wisconsin, School of Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANICE E. PERLMAN, Executive Director, Committee for a New New York, New York City Partnership, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK C. ROBBINS, President, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER A. ROSENBLITH, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HERBERT SMUCKLER, Dean of International Studies and Programs, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GILBERT F. WHITE, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Assistant Dean for International Programs, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN G. HURLEY, Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Associate Director/Studies </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL P. GREENE, Associate Director/Research Grants </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/b20cre/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/b20cre/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/b20cre/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Managing Tropical Animal Resources - Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (b20cre)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/b21wae/b21wae.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/b21wae/b21wae.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/b21wae/b21wae.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1888 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; The Water Buffalo: New Prospects For An Underutilized Animal (1984)</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Water Buffalo: New Prospects For An Underutilized Animal (1984)</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Original editon 1981</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second printing 1984</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission on International Relations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Panel on Water Buffalo</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of  Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">STEVE P. BENNETT, Bennett's Animal Clinic, Port of Spain, Trinidad, West Indies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CHARAN CHANTALAKHANA, Dean, Department of Animal Science, Kasetsart  University, Bangkok, Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD D. CHARLES, Senior Lecturer, Meat Production, Department of Animal  Husbandry, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. ROSS COCKRILL, Livestock Expert, Food and Agriculture Organization (retired),  Rome, Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WYLAND CRIPE, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TONY J. CUNHA, Dean, School of Agriculture, California Polytechnic University,  Pomona, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. JOHN DE BOER, Winrock International Livestock Research and Training Center,  Morrilton, Arkansas, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MAARTEN DROST, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MOHAMED ALI EL-ASHRY, Department of Animal Production, Faculty of  Agriculture, Shoubra el Khiema, Cairo, Egypt </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ABELARDO FERRERD ., Former Director, Breeding Administration Centers,  Animal Sciences Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Caracas, Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JEAN K. GARDNER, Former Chief, Logistics Division USAID/Philippines, Jackson,  Mississippi, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES F. HENTGES, Department of Animal Science,University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JACK HOWARTH, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis,  California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NELS M. KONNERUP, Livestock Expert, Agency for International Development  (retired), Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. P LEONARDS, Water buffalo breeder, Lake Charles, Louisiana, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN K. LOOSLI, Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville,  Florida, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOSEPH MADAMBA, Director, Asian Institute of Aquaculture, Iloilo, Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CRISTO NASCIMENTO,Director, Brazilian Agriculture Research Corporation  (EMBRAPA), Agriculture Research Center for Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem,  Para, Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural  Research, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM R. PRITCHARD, Dean, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. THOMAS REID, (deceased), Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN H. SCHOTTLER, Animal Production Officer, Department of Primary Industries, Lae, Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DALBIR SINGH DEV, Dean, Animal Science Department, College of Agriculture, Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT W. TOUCHBERRY, Dean, Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD G. TULLOCH, Division of Wildlife Research, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Winnellie, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., Staff Study Director </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., Staff Associate </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is an animal resource whose potential seems to have been barely recognized or examined outside of Asia. Throughout the world there are proponents and enthusiasts for the various breeds of cattle; the water buffalo, however, is not a cow and it has been neglected. Nevertheless, this symbol of Asian life and endurance has performed notably well in recent trials in such diverse places as the United States, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Trinidad, Costa Rica, Venezuela, and Brazil. In Italy and Egypt as well as Bulgaria and other Balkan states the water buffalo has been an important part of animal husbandry for centuries. In each of these places certain herds of water buffalo appear to have equaled or surpassed the local cattle in growth, environmental tolerance, health, and the production of meat and calves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although these are empirical observations lacking painstaking, detailed experimentation, they do seem to indicate that the water buffalo could become an important resource in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate zones in developing and developed countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If this is the case, then it is clear that many countries should begin water buffalo research. Serious attention by scientists could help dispel the misperceptions and uncertainties surrounding the animal and encourage its true qualities to emerge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report describes the water buffalo's attributes as perceived by several animal scientists. It is designed to present the apparent strengths of buffaloes compared with those of cattle, to introduce researchers and administrators to the animal's potential, and to identify priorities for buffalo research and testing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel that produced this report met at Gainesville, Florida, in July 1979. It was composed of leading water buffalo experts (particularly those from outside Asia who have directed the beginnings of water buffalo industries in their countries) and leading American animal scientists, many of whom are also familiar with the animal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report complements The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. Ross Cockrill and published in 1974 by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Cockrill's 933-page book is a "bible" of water buffalo knowledge and provides details of breeds, world distribution, physiology, and an extensive bibliography.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The present report is an introduction to the water buffalo and its potential. It is written particularly for decision makers, as well as scholars or students, in the hope that it will stimulate their interest in the animal and thereby increase the appreciation of, and funding for, buffalo research. The report includes much empirical observation, largely from the panel members. Some of these observations may, in the long run, prove not to be universally applicable. Much benchmark information needs to be obtained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since its creation in 1971, the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) has investigated innovative ways to use current technology and resources to help developing countries. Often this has meant taking a fresh look at some neglected and unappreciated plant or animal species. The committee assembles ad hoc panels of experts (usually incorporating both skeptics and proponents) to scrutinize the topics selected. The panel reports serve to draw attention to neglected, but promising, technologies and resources. (For a list of ACTI reports, see page 115.) ACTI reports are provided free to developing countries under funding by the Agency for International Development (AID).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Program costs for this study were provided by AID'S Office of Agriculture, Development Support Bureau, and staff support was provided by the Office of Science and Technology, Development Support Bureau.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The final draft of this report was edited and prepared for publication by F. R. Ruskin. Bibliographic editing was by Wendy D. White. Cover art was by Deborah Hanson.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The domesticated water buffalo Bubalus bubalis numbers at least 130 million-one-ninth the number of cattle in the world. It is estimated that between 1961 and 1981 the world's buffalo population increased by 11 percent, keeping pace with the percentage increase in the cattle population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there are some pedigreed water buffaloes, most are nondescript animals that have not been selected or bred for productivity. There are two general types-the Swamp buffalo and the River buffalo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swamp buffaloes are slate gray, droopy necked, and ox-like, with massive backswept horns that make them favorite subjects for postcards and wooden statuettes in the Far East. They are found from the Philippines to as far west as India. They wallow in any water or mud puddle they can find or make. Primarily employed as a work animal, the Swamp buffalo is also used for meat but almost never for milk production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">River buffaloes are found farther west, from India to Egypt and Europe. Usually black or dark gray, with tightly coiled or drooping straight horns, they prefer to wallow in clean water. River buffaloes produce much more milk than Swamp buffaloes. They are the dairy type of water buffalo. In India, River buffaloes play an important role in the rural economy as suppliers of milk and draft power. River buffaloes make up about 35 percent of India's milk animals (other than goats) but produce almost 70 percent of its milk. Buffalo butterfat is the major source of cooking oil (ghee) in some Asian countries, including India and Pakistan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although water buffaloes are bovine creatures that somewhat resemble cattle, they are genetically further removed from cattle than are the North American bison (improperly called buffalo) whose massive forequarters, shaggy mane, and small hindquarters are unlike those of cattle. While bison can be bred with cattle to produce hybrids,( This is not, however, very successful, the male progeny (at least of the F 1 generation) are sterile).there is no well-documented case of a mating between water buffalo and cattle that has produced progeny.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parts of Asia and even Europe have depended on water buffaloes for centuries. Their crescent horns, coarse skin, wide muzzles, and low-carried heads are represented on seals struck 5,000 years ago in the Indus Valley, suggesting that the animal had already been domesticated in the area that is now India and Pakistan. Although buffaloes were in use in China 4,000 years ago, they are not mentioned in the literature or seen in the art of the ancient Egyptians, Romans, or Greeks, to whom they were apparently unknown. It was not until about 600 A.D. that Arabs brought the animal from Mesopotamia and began moving it westward into the Near East (modern Syria, Israel, and Turkey). Water buffaloes were later introduced to Europe by pilgrims and crusaders returning from the Holy Land in the Middle Ages. In Italy buffaloes adapted to the area of the Pontine Marshes southeast of Rome and the area south of Naples. They also became established in Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, and Bulgaria and have remained there ever since.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Villagers in medieval Egypt adopted the water buffalo, which has since become the most important domestic animal in modern Egypt. Indeed, during the last 50 years, their buffalo population has doubled to over 2 million head. The animals now supply Egypt with more meat-much of it in the form of tender "veal"-than any other domestic animal. They also provide milk, cooking oil, and cheese.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other areas have capitalized on the water buffalo's promise only in very recent times. For instance, small lots of the animals brought to Brazil (from Italy, India, and elsewhere) during the last 84 years have reproduced so well that they now total about 400,000 head and are still increasing, especially in the lower Amazon region. Buffalo meat and milk are now sold widely in Amazon towns and villages; the meat sells for the same price as beef. Nearby countries have also become familiar with the water buffalo. Trinidad imported several breeds from India between 1905 and 1908, while Venezuela, Colombia, and Guyana have been importing them in recent decades. During the 1970s Costa Rica, Ecuador, Cayenne, Panama, Suriname, and Guyana introduced small herds. By 1979 the buffalo in Venezuela numbered more than 7,000 head.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Across the Pacific, the new nation of Papua New Guinea has found the water buffalo well suited to its difficult environment. For 9 years the government has attempted to run cattle on the Sepik and Ramu Plains on Papua New Guinea's north coast, where the temperatures are high and the forage of poor quality. But the cattle remain thin and underweight. In the 1960s animal scientists began evaluating water buffaloes already living in Papua New Guinea and, encouraged by the results, introduced additional buffaloes from Australia. These have performed remarkably well, producing greater numbers of calves and much more meat than the cattle in the region. The buffaloes appear to maintain appetite despite the heat and humidity, whereas cattle do not. The government of Papua New Guinea has since imported more water buffaloes and today has thriving herds totaling almost 3,500 head. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United States has been slow to recognize the water buffalo's potential, but the first herd (50 head) ever imported for commercial farming arrived in February 1978.(Air-freighted from the wilds of Guam, the U.S. island possession on the western Pacific, by panel member Tony Leonards. Prior to that time (in 1974), four head of water buffalo were imported to the Department of Animal science' university of Florida, for study. The only other water buffaloes in North America were a few animals in zoos.) The humble water buffalo, normally considered fit only for the steamy rice fields of Asia, is now proving itself on farm fields in Florida and Louisiana. As a result, interest in the animal is on the rise in U.S. university and farm circles.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From experience accumulated in Asia, Egypt, South America, Papua New Guinea, Australia, the United States, and elsewhere, animal scientists now perceive that many general impressions about the water buffalo are incorrect.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, it is widely believed that the water buffalo is mean and vicious. Encyclopedias reinforce this perception, and in the Western world it is the prevalent impression of the animal. The truth is, however, that unless wounded or severely stressed, the domesticated water buffalo is one of the gentlest of all farm animals. Despite an intimidating appearance, it is more like a household pet-sociable, gentle, and serene. In rural Asia the care of water buffaloes is often fumed over to small boys and girls aged about four to nine. The children spend their days with their family's gentle buffalo, riding it to water, washing it down, waiting while it rolls and wallows, and then riding it to some source of forage, perhaps a grassy field or thicket. It is not uncommon to see a buffalo patiently feeding, with a young friend stretched prone on its broad gray back, asleep.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps the notion about the viciousness of water buffaloes stems from confusing them with the mean-tempered African buffalo Syncerus caffer, actually a distant relative with which they will not interbreed and which is classified in a different genus.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ferocity is the most blatant misconception concerning the water buffalo, although other fallacies are widely reported as well.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One generally held belief is that water buffaloes can be raised only near water. Actually, buffaloes love to wallow, but they grow and reproduce normally without it, although in hot climates they must have shade available.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another belief is that the water buffalo is exclusively a tropical animal. River-type buffaloes, however, have been used to pull snow plows during Bulgarian winters. They are found in Italy (over 100,000 head), Albania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Turkey, the Georgia and Azerbaijan areas of the Soviet Union (almost 500,000 head) and other temperate-zone regions as well. They are also found in cold, mountainous areas of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Nepal.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p04to05.png"></center><br>
+ World Distribution of Water Buffaloes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet another misconception is that the water buffalo is just a poor man's beast of burden. In addition to providing fine lean meat, buffaloes in fact provide rich milk. Mozzarella cheese, one of the most popular in Europe, comes from the buffaloes in Italy. Buffalo milk has a higher content of both butterfat and nonfat solids than cow's milk does. It therefore often brings higher prices than cow's milk. Throughout much of India it is in such demand that cow's milk is sometimes hard to sell.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the misconceptions generally held about buffaloes are based on little data and much prejudice. For instance, it is widely believed that water buffalo meat is tough and less desirable than beef. However, when the animals are raised for meat, buffalo steaks are lean, as tender as beef, and in appearance it is difficult to distinguish the two. In taste-preference tests at the University of Queensland, buffalo steaks were preferred over those from Angus and Hereford cattle. Tests conducted in Trinidad, Venezuela, the United States, and Malaysia produced similar results.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia has shipped water buffalo meat to Hong Kong, the United States, Germany, and Scandinavia. Buffalo meat is now available in stores in Australia's Northern Territory, where demand exceeds supply. It sells at competitive prices and is particularly sought for barbecues and the famous Australian meat pie. In the Philippines, two-thirds of the meat consumed in homes and restaurants is actually water buffalo, a fact that many Filipinos do not realize.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Compared with cattle,waterbuffaloes apparently have an efficient digestive system, one which extracts nourishment from forage so coarse and poor that cattle do not thrive on it. Thin cattle are commonly seen in Asia and northern Australia, for example, but it's rare to see a protruding rib on a buffalo, even though it uses the same source of feed.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, water buffaloes live on coarse vegetation on the marginal land traditionally left to the peasants. They help make human survival possible. An old Chinese woman in Taiwan once told panelist W. Ross Cockrill: "To my family the buffalo is more important than I am. When I die, they'll weep for me; but if our buffalo dies, they may starve."  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A better understanding of the water buffalo could be invaluable to many developing nations. In particular, improved production of water buffalo meat offers hope for helping feed India, the second most populous nation on earth. Although India for religious reasons forbids the slaughter of cows, it has no prohibitions regarding slaughter of water buffaloes or the consumption of buffalo meat.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most developing countries are in the tropics, and the water buffalo is inherently a tropical animal. It is comfortable in hot, humid environments. In the Amazon, for example, buffaloes are now common on the landscape and may even replace cattle completely.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical countries have more serious disease problems than temperate countries do. Although susceptible to most cattle diseases, the water buffalo seems to resist ticks and often appears to be more resistant to some of the most devastating plagues that make cattle raising risky, difficult, and sometimes impossible in the tropics. Several researchers report that when water buffaloes are allowed to wallow, their mud-coated skin seems to deter insect and tick ectoparasites and they consequently require greatly reduced treatment with insecticides. Although the buffalo fly (Siphona exigua) affects the animals, other pests such as the warble fly and the screwworm, for example, seldom affect healthy buffaloes. AIso, despite their inclination for living in swamps, Avers, and ponds, diseases of the feet such as foot rot and foot abscesses are rare.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another benefit to developing countries is the water buffalo's legendary strength. A large part of the total farm power available in South China, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, the Indochina states, India, and Pakistan comes from this "living tractor." Dependable and docile, the animals pull plows, harrows, and carts with loads that weigh several tons. In the Amazon buffalo teams pull boats laden with cargo and tourists through shallows and swamps.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The petroleum crisis has forced many farmers to reconsider animal power even in some of the technically advanced countries. Buffaloes are not only extraordinarily strong, they can also work in deep mud that may bog down a tractor. Even up to their bellies they forge on, dragging both plow and driver through the mud. Although its average walking speed is only about 3 kilometers per hour, the buffalo, unlike its mechanical competition, doesn't need gasoline or spare parts and its working life is often 20 years or more.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As already noted, the major genetic divisions of the water buffalo are the Swamp buffalo of the eastern half of Asia, which has swept-back horns, and the River buffalo of the western half of Asia, which usually has curled horns. There is also the Mediterranean buffalo, which is of the River type but has been isolated for so long that it has developed some unique characteristics. (Records of the buffalo in Italy date back 1,000 years, during which there have been no reported imports.) Mediterranean buffaloes are stocky, high yielding animals that combine both beef and dairy characteristics.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there is only one breed of Swamp buffalo, certain subgroups seem to have specific inherited characteristics. For example, the buffaloes of Thailand are noted for their large size, averaging 450-550 kg, and weights of up to 1,000 kg have been observed. Elsewhere, Swamp buffaloes range from 250 kg for some small animals in China to 300 kg in Burma and 500-600 kg in Laos.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only in India and Pakistan are there well-defined breeds with standard qualities. There are eighteen River buffalo breeds in South Asia, which are further classified into five major groups designated as the Murrah, Gujarat, Uttar  Pradesh, Central Indian, and South Indian breeds. These are the five groups and  main breeds:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=484>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Group</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breeds</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murrah</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murrah, Nili/Ravi, Kundi</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gujarat</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surti, Mehsana, Jafarabadi</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uttar Pradesh</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhadawari, Tarai</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Indian</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nagpuri, Pandharpun, Manda, Jerangi, Kalahandi, Sambalpur</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Indian</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="79%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toda,  South Kanara</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The best-known breeds are Murrah, Nili/Ravl, Jafarabadi, Surti, Mehsana, and  Nagpuri. Most of the buffaloes of the Indian subcontinent belong to a nondescript  group known as the Desi buffalo. There is no controlled breeding among these  animals and most are quite small, yield little milk, and are variable in color.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Swamp buffalo has 48 chromosomes, the River buffalo, 50. The chromosomal  material is, however, similar in the two types and they crossbreed to produce fertile  hybrid progeny. Cattle, however, have 60 chromosomes and although mating  between cattle and buffaloes is common, hybrids from the union are unlikely to  occur.( In 1965 a reputed hybrid was born at Askaniya Nova Zoopark in the Soviet Union  (see Gray, A., 1971. Mammalian Hybrids, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux,  Slough, England, p. 126). Hybrids have also been reported from China (Van  Fu-Czao 1959, Gibridy buivolc i krupnogo  i rogatogo skota(buffalo and  cattlehybrids)Zhivotnovodstro, Mosk., 21:92). Both of these reports seem doubtful  because despite many attempts, no other hybrids have ever been claimed to have  been produced). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Individual buffaloes show large variation in milk yield, conformation, horn shape,  color, meat production, temperament, growth rate, and other characteristics.  Selection for survival under adverse conditions has occurred naturally (those that  could not stand adversity died early) and farmers have probably tended to select  animals of gentle temperament. But systematic genetic improvement has almost  never been attempted. It seems likely that further selection could quickly improve  their productivity.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, the large bulls that would be best for breeding purposes are often  being selected as draft animals and castrated, or sent to slaughter, or (as with  some feral animals in northern Australia and on the Amazon island of Marajo) shot  by hunters. The result is that the buffalo's overall size in countries such as Thailand  and Indonesia has been decreasing as the genes for large size and fast growth are  lost.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Limitations  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo is still largely an animal of the village, and many of its reported  limitations are caused more by its environment than by the animal itself. Moreover,  much of the animal's genetic potential is obscured by environmental influences. For  example, for many breeds and types the genetic variations in milk yield and growth  cannot be accurately determined because they are overwhelmed by the effects of  inadequate nutrition and management.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, some inherent limitations of buffaloes can be identified. For instance,  buffaloes suffer if forced to remain, even for a few hours, in direct sunlight. They  have only one-tenth the density of sweat glands of cattle and their coating of hair is  correspondingly sparse, providing little protection from the sun. Accordingly,  buffaloes must not be driven over long distances in the heat of the day. They must  be allowed time for watering and, if possible, for wallowing. Driving under a hot sun  for long hours will cause heat exhaustion and possibly death; losses can be very  high and can occur suddenly. Young calves are particularly affected by heat.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are also sensitive to extreme cold and seem less able than cattle to  adapt to truly cold climates(A rule of thumb is that buffaloes don't do well where the sun is inadequate to ripen,  say, cotton, grapes, or Ace. Kaleff, B., 1942. Der Hausbuffel und seine  Zuchtungsbiologie im Vergleich zum Rind. Zeitschsift Tierzucht Biologze,  51:131-178). Sudden drops in temperature and chill winds may lead  to pneumonia and death.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is usually found m areas where there is ready access to a wallow  or shower. This is not a necessity, but when temperatures are high the availability of  water is important for maintaining buffalo health and productivity. It seems clear,  then, that the buffalo is not suitable for arid lands.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing buffalo productivity through breed improvement is just now beginning.  Throughout Asia buffalo mating is almost completely haphazard, and so the animal  lacks the quality improvement through breeding that most cattle have had.  Therefore, most buffaloes are of nondescript heritage and genetic potential.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On poor quality feed water buffalo grow at least as well as cattle, but under intensive  conditions they probably won't grow as fast as the best breeds of cattle. In feedlots,  therefore, the buffalo is likely to be less productive than improved cattle. Weight  gains of about 1 kg per day have been recorded, some exceptional cattle may gain  at almost twice that rate.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo has long been considered a poor breeder-slow to mature sexually,  and slow to rebreed after calving. Accumulated experience now shows, however,  that this is mainly a result of poor management and nutrition. Buffaloes are not  sluggish breeders. Nevertheless, their gestation period is about a month longer  than that of cows, buffalo estrus is difficult to detect, and many matings occur~at  night so that~ farmers are likely to encounter more problems breeding buffaloes  than cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are gentle creatures, but if roughly or inexpertly handled they can, through fear or pain, become completely unmanageable. Buffalo behavior sometimes differs from that of cattle. For example, most buffaloes are not trained to be driven. Instead, the herdsman must walk alongside or ahead of them; they then instinctively follow. Also, because of their innate attachment to an individual site or herd it is more difficult to move buffaloes to new locations or herds. In addition, buffaloes respect fences less than cattle do and when they have the desire to move they are harder to contain. (Electric fences, however, will stop them.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their general good health, buffaloes are probably as susceptible as cattle to most infections. However, the buffalo seems to be peculiarly sensitive to a few cattle diseases and resistant to a few others (see chapter 7). Reactions to some diseases seem to vary with region, environment, and breed, and the differences are not well understood.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Destruction of the environment is sometimes attributed to buffalo wallowing. This danger seems to have been overstated, except in cases where stocking rates were unreasonably high.(An ongoing study in Northern Australia of environmental degradation widely attributed to buffalo has now shown that the effects are caused by man and climatic changes and only very slightly by buffaloes. (information supplied by D. G. Tulloch.) ) However, buffaloes rub against trees more often than cattle do, and they sometimes de-bark the trees, causing them to die.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, some of the best genetic stocks of water buffaloes exist in areas where certain infections and viral and other diseases sometimes occur. Thus, many countries are reluctant to permit importation of water buffaloes, despite the fact that modern quarantine procedures under conditions of maximum security can essentially eliminate the risk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, it must be emphasized that because buffalo research has been largely neglected, most results reported in this and other buffalo writings cover small numbers of animals and short periods of time. Many are merely empirical observations that have not been subjected to independent confirmation.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1972.Buffalo at the crossroads. World Farming 14(n:l0-l3.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asian and Pacific Council. 1979. Priorities in buffalo research identified.ASPAC News letter No. 43.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bowman, J. c. 1977. Animals for Man. Edward Arnold Publishers, Ltd., London, United Kingdom.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo Bulletin. Newsletter published by the Buffalo Research Committee of Kasetsart University, Bangkok' Thailand. (In English and Thai.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo World. Newsletter published by the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132001, Haryana, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chantalakhana, C. 1975. The buffaloes of Thailand-their potential, utilization and conservation. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chantalakhana, C., and Na Phuket, S. R. 1979. The role of swamp buffalo in small farm development and the need for breeding improvement in Southeast Asia. Extension Bulletin No. 125. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1967. The water buffalo. Scientific American 217:118.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R., ed. 1974. The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill W. R. 1975. The domestic buffalo. Blue Book for the Veterinary Profession No. 25. Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1976. The Buffaloes of China. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R., ed. 1977. The Water Buffalo. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1977. The water buffalo: domestic animal of the future. Bovine Practitioner 12:92-98.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1978. Domestic water buffaloes. In: The Care and Management of Farm Animals, edited by W. N. Scott. Bailliere TindaU, London, United Kingdom.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1980. The ascendant water buffalo-key domestic animal. World Animal Review 33:2-13.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DeBoer, A. J. 1972. Technical and economic constraints on bovine production in three villages in Thailand. Dissertation Abstracts International 33(5):1935.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DeBoer, A. J. 1975. Livestock and Poultry Industry in Selected Asian Countries. Report of Survey on Diversification of Agriculture: Livestock and Poultry Production. Asian Productivity Organization, Tokyo, Japan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">de Guzman, M. R., Jr. 1979. An overview of recent developments in buffalo research and management in Asia. Extension Bulletin No. 124. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Documentation Center on Water Buffalo. 1978. Abstract Bibliography on Water Buffalo, 1971-1975. Documentation Center on Water Buffalo, University of the Philippines at Los Banos Library, College, Laguna 3720, Philippines.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fahimuddin, M. 1975. Domestic Water Buffalo. Oxford and IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi, India  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fischer, H. 1975. The water buffalo and related species as important genetic resources: their conservation, evaluation and utilization. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6  1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ford, B. D., and Tulloch, D. G. 1977. The Australian buffalo-a collection of papers. Technical Bulletin No.18. Department of the Northern Territory, Animal Industry and Agriculture Branch, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, Australia.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gupta, H. C. 1977. Possibilities and realities of developing buffalo's performance, breeding and feeding. Indian Dairyman 29(6):337-346.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kartha, K. P. R.1965. Buffalo. In: An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics edited by G. Williamson and W. J. A. Payne. Longman, London, United Kingdom.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McKnight, T. L. 1971. Australia's buffalo dilemma. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 61(4):759-773.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madamba, J. C., and Eusebio, A. N. 1979. Developments in the strengthening of buffalo research in Asia. Buffalo Bulletin 2(3):7-16.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mahadevan, P. 1978. Water buffalo research-possible future trends. World Animal Review 25: 2-7.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oloufa, M. M. 1979. Buffaloes as producers of meat and milk. Egyptian Journal of AnimalProduction 19:1-10. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pant, H. C., and Roy, A. 1972. The water buffalo and its future. In: Improvement of Livestock Production in Warm Climates, edited by R. E McDowell. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research. 1978. The Philippines Recommends for Caraboo Production, PCARR, Los Banos, Laguna 3732, Philippines.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ranjhan, S. K., and Pathak, N. N. 1981. Management and Feeding of Buffaloes. Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, India  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977a. Livestock in Indonesia. Research Report No. 1. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia. (In English and Indonesian.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977b. Preliminary Observations on the Productivity of Porking Buffalo in Indonesia. Research Report No. 2. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia. (In English and Indonesian.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sundaresan, D. 1979. The role of improved buffaloes in rural development. Indian Dairyman 31(2):73-78.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1978. The water buffalo, Bubalus bubalis, in Australia: grouping and home range.Australian Wildlife Research 5:327-34.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wahid, A. 1973. Pakistani buffaloes. World Animal Review 7:22~28. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Meat</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo offers promise as a major source of meat, and the production of buffaloes solely for meat is now expanding.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because buffaloes have been used as draft animals for centuries, they have evolved with exceptional muscular development, some weigh 1,000 kg or more. Until recently, however, little thought was given to using them exclusively for meat production. Most buffalo meat was, and still is, derived from old animals slaughtered at the end of their productive life as work or milk animals. As a result, much of the buffalo meat sold is of poor quality. But when buffaloes are properly reared and fed, their meat is tender and palatable.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are exported for slaughter from India and Pakistan to the Middle East and from Thailand and Australia to Hong Kong. Demand for meat is so great that Thailand's buffalo population has dropped from 7 million to 5.7 million head in the last 20 years, a period in which the human population has more than doubled.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carcass Characteristics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All buffalo breeds-even the milking ones-produce heavy animals whose carcass characteristics are similar to those of cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite heavier hide and head, the amount of useful meat (dressing percentage) from buffaloes is almost the same as in cattle. Mediterranean type buffalo and Zebu cattle steers in Brazil yielded dressing percentages of 55.5 and 56.6 percent respectively. Swamp buffalo dressing percentages have been measured in Australia at 53 percent. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are lean animals. Although a layer of subcutaneous fat covers the carcass, it is usually thinner than that on comparably fed cattle. Even animals that appear to be fat prove to be largely muscle. Australian research on Swamp buffaloes reveals that buffaloes with more than 25 percent fat are difficult to produce, whereas average choice-grade beef carcasses may contain  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general, the buffalo carcass has rounder ribs, a higher proportion of muscle, and a lower proportion of bone and fat than beef has.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo hide is so thick that it can be sliced into two or three layers before tanning into leather.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meat Quality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo meat and beef are basically similar. The muscle pH (5.4), shrinkage on chilling (2 percent), moisture (76.6 percent), protein (19 percent), and ash (1 percent) are all about the same in buffalo meat and beef. Buffalo fat, however, is always white and buffalo meat is darker in color than beef because of more pigmentation or less intramuscular fat (2-3 percent "marbling," compared with the 3-4 percent in beef).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eating Quality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taste-panel tests and tenderness measurements conducted by research teams in a number of countries have shown that the meat of the water buffalo is as acceptable as that of cattle. Buffalo steaks have rated higher than beefsteaks in some taste tests in Australia, Malaysia, Venezuela, and Trinidad.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In taste-panel studies in Trinidad, cooked joints from three carcasses Trinidad buffalo, a crossbred steer (Jamaica-Red/Sahiwal), and an imported carcass of a top-grade European beef steer-were served. The 28 diners all had experience in beef production, butchery, or catering and were not told the sources of the various joints. All the carcasses were held in cold storage for one week before cooking. The buffalo meat was rated highest by 14 judges; 7 chose the European beef; 5 thought the crossbred beef the best; and 2 said that the buffalo and crossbred were equal to or better than the European beef. The buffalo meat received most points for color (both meat and fat), taste, and general acceptability. There was little difference noted in texture.( Information supplied by P. N. Wilson.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo veal is considered a delicacy. Calves are usually slaughtered for veal between 3 and 4 weeks of age; dressed weight is 59-66 percent of live weight.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is some evidence that buffaloes may retain meat tenderness to a more advanced age than cattle because the connective tissue hardens at a later age or because the diameter of muscle fibers in the buffalo increases more slowly than in cattle(Joksimonc, 1979) In one test the tenderness (measured by shearing force) of muscle samples from carcasses of buffalo steers 16-30 months old was the same as that from feedlot Angus, Hereford, and Friesian steers 12-18 months old. This gives farmers more flexibility in meeting fluctuating markets while still providing tender meat.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anonymous. 1976. Livestock Production in Asian Context of Agricultural Diversification. Asian Productivity Organization, Tokyo, Japan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arganosa, F. C., Sanchez, P. C., Ibarra, P. I., Gerpacio, A. L., Castillo, L. S., and Arganosa, V. G. 1973. Evaluation of carabeef as a potential substitute for beef. Philippine Journal of Nutrition 26(2).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arganosa, F. C., Arganosa, V. G., and Ibarra, P. I. 1975. Carcass evaluation and utilization of carabeef. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bennett, S. P. 1973. The "buffalypso"-an evaluation of a beef type of water buffalo in Trinidad, West Indies. Paper presented at the Third World Conference on Animal Production, Melbourne, Australia.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Borghese, A., Gigli, S., Romita, A., Di Giacomo, A., and Mormile, M. 1978. Fatty acid composition of fat in water buffalo calves and bovine calves slaughtered at 20, 28, and 36 weeks of age. In: Patterns of Growth and Development in Cattle: A Seminar in the EEC Programme of Coordination of Research on Beef Production, held at Ghent, October 11-13,1977. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles, D. D., and Johnson, E. R. 1972. Carcass composition of the water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Australian Journal of Agriculture Research 23:905-911.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles, D. D., and Johnson, E. R. 1975. Live weight gains and carcass composition of buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) steers on four feeding regimes. Australian Journal of Agriculture Research 26:407-413.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1975. Alternative livestock: with particular reference to the wafer buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). In: Meat. Proceedings of the 21st Easter School in Agricultural Science, University of Nottingham, edited by D. J. A. Cole and R. A. Lawrie. Butterworth, London, England.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El-Ashry, M. A., Mogawer, H. H., and Kishin, S. S. 1972. Comparative study of meat production from cattle and buffalo male calves. Egyptian Journal of Animal Production 12:99-107.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El-Koussy, H. A., Afifi, Y. A., Dessouki, T. A., and El-Ashry, M. A. 1977. Some chemical and physical changes of buffalo meat after slaughter. Agriculture Research Review 55:1-7.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Johnson, E. R., and Charles, D. D. 1975. Comparison of live weight gain and changes in carcass composition between buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and Bos taurus steers. Australian Journal of Agriculture Research 26:415- 422.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joksimovic, J. 1979. Physical, chemical and structural characteristics of buffalo meat. Arhiv za Polloprivredne Nauke 22:110.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joksimovic, J., and Ognjanovic, A. 1977. A comparison of carcass yield, carcass composition, and quality characteristics of buffalo meat and beef Meat Science 1:105 -110.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mai, S. C., and Wu, T. H. 1974. TSC's intensive feed-lot system for cow-calf and beef production program. Taiwan Sugar 21(6):198-211.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matassino, D., Romita, A., Cosentino, E., Girolami, A., and Cloatruglio, P. 1978. Myorheological, ohemical, and colour characteristics of meat in water buffalo and bovine calves slaughtered at 20, 28 and 36 weeks. In: Patterns of Growth and Development in Cattle: A Seminar in the EEC Programme of Coordination of Research on Beef Production, held at Chent, October 11-13, 1977. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mogawer, H. H., El-Ashry, M. A., and Mahmoud, S. A. 1976. Comparative study of meat production from cattle and buffalo male calves. II. Effect of different roughage concentrate ratios in ration on carcass traits. Journal of Agriculture Research {Tanta University) 2:6-12.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ognjanovic, A. 1974. Meat and meat production. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. CockrilL Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rastogi, R., Youssef, F. G., and Gonzalez, F. D. 1978. Beef type water buffalo of Trinidad-Beefalypso. World Review of Animal Production 14(2) :49 -56.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Romita, A., Borghese, A., Gigli, S., and Di Giacomo, A. 1978. Growth rate and carcass composition of water buffalo calves and bovine calves slaughtered at 20, 28 and 36 weeks. In: Patterns of Growth and Development in Cattle: A Seminar in the EEC Programme of Coordination of Research on Beef Production, Held at Chent, October 11-13, 1977. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wilson, P. N. 1961. Palatability of water buffalo meat. Journal of the Agricultural Society of Trinidad 61:457, 459-460. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 Milk</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than 5 percent of the world's milk comes from water buffaloes. Buffalo milk is  used in much the same way as cow's milk. It is high in fat and total solids, which  gives it a rich flavor. Many people prefer it to cow's milk and are willing to pay more  for it. In Egypt, for example, the severe mortality rate among buffalo calves is due in  part to the sale of buffalo milk, which is in high demand, thus depriving calves of  proper nourishment. This also occurs in India, where in the Bombay area alone an  estimated 10,000 newborn calves starve to death each year through lack of milk.  The demand for buffalo milk in India (about 60 percent of the milk consumed; over  80 percent in some states) is reflected in the prices paid for a liter of milk: about  130 paisa for cow's milk compared with about 200 paisa for buffalo milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twelve of the 18 major breeds of water buffalo are kept primarily for milk production  (although males may be used for traction and all animals are eventually used for  meat). The main milk breeds of India and Pakistan are the Murrah, Nili/Ravi, Surti,  Mehsana, Nagpuri, and Jafarabadi. The buffaloes of Egypt, Eastern Europe  (Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia, and the USSR), and Italy are used for milk  production and there are also herds used principally for this purpose in Iran, Iraq,  and Turkey.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Composition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk contains less water, more total solids, more fat, slightly more lactose,  and more protein than cow's milk. It seems thicker than cow's milk because it  generally contains more than 16 percent total solids compared with 12-14 percent  for cow's milk. In addition, its fat content is usually 50-60 percent higher (or more)  than that of cow's milk. Although the butterfat content is usually 6-8 percent,( An analysis of 7,770 records of Nili/Ravi buffaloes in herds at the Pakistan  Research Institute showed that average butterfat content was 6.40 (a mean based  on 10 tests over 10 months). of all the samples tested, 77 percent ranged between  5 and 8 percent butterfat and 12 percent were below 5 percent butterfat.  -information supplied by R. E. McDowell.)  it can  go much higher in the milk of some well fed dairy buffaloes and in the milk of  Swamp buffaloes (which are not normally used for milking). Cow's milk butterfat content is usually between 3 and 5 percent.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of its high butterfat content, buffalo milk has considerably higher energy value than cow's milk. Phospholipids are lower but cholesterol and saturated fatty acids are higher in buffalo milk. Studies have shown that digestibility is not adversely affected by this. Because of the high fat content, the buffalo's total fat yield per lactation compares favorably with that of improved breeds of dairy cattle; it is much higher than that of indigenous cows.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally the protein in buffalo milk contains more casein and slightly more albumin and globulin than cow's milk. Several researchers have claimed that the biological value of buffalo milk protein is higher than that of cow's milk, but this has not yet been proved conclusively.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p27.png"></center><br>
+ Tables 1 and 2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mineral content of buffalo milk is nearly the same as that of cow's milk except for phosphorus, which occurs in roughly twice the amount in buffalo milk. Buffalo milk tends to be lower in salt.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk lacks the yellow pigment carotene, precursor for vitamin A, and its whiteness is frequently used to differentiate it from cow's milk in the market. Despite the absence of carotene, the vitamin A content in buffalo milk is almost as high as that of cow's milk. (Apparently the buffalo converts the carotene in its diet to vitamin A. The two milks are similar in B complex vitamins and vitamin C, but buffalo milk tends to be lower in riboflavin.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Milk Products</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk, like cow's milk, can provide a wide variety of products: butter, butter oil (clarified butter or ghee), soft and hard cheeses, condensed or evaporated milks, ice cream,yogurt, and buttermilk. It is of great economic importance in India in preparing "toned" milk-a mixture of buffalo milk and milk made by reconstituting skim milk powder.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The richness of buffalo milk makes it highly suitable for processing. To produce 1 kg of cheese, a cheese maker requires 8 kg of cow's milk but only 5 kg of buffalo milk. To produce 1 kg of butter requires 14 kg of cow's milk but only 10 kg of buffalo milk. Because of these high yields, processors appreciate the value of buffalo milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo cheese is pure white. It many countries it is among the most desirable cheeses (mozzarella and ricotta in Italy, gemir in Iraq, the salty cheeses of Egypt, and pecorino in Bulgaria, for example). In Venezuela all the cheese produced from the small La Guanota milking herd in the Apure River basin (about 100 kg a day) is bought by the Hilton Hotel and sells for 15 bolivars per kg compared with 8 bolivars per kg for cheese made from cow's milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although much in demand for making soft cheese, buffalo milk is less desirable for making hard cheeses such as cheddar or gouda. During cheesemaking it produces acid more slowly than cow's milk, retains more water in the curd, and loses more fat in the whey.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cheeses are becoming increasingly popular throughout the world. Demand is rising at a rate that is among the highest for any food product. Cheese offers particular benefit to areas where refrigeration is not widely available, where transporting high-protein foods to remote areas is difficult, and where seasonal fluctuations affect milk supplies. Buffalo milk may make cheesemaking profitable on an even smaller scale than conventional dairying; it is more concentrated than cow's milk and requires relatively less energy to transport and process (an increasingly important factor where fuels are limited).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p31.png"></center><br>
+ Table 3 Highest Milk Yield (kg per Day) Recorded in the All India Milk Yield</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yield</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In countries like India and Egypt, the milk yield of buffaloes is generally higher  (680-800 kg) than for local cattle (360-500 kg). However, since selection for  exceptional milk production is not conducted systematically, large variations in yield  occur between individual animals, and milk production of dairy buffaloes falls short  of its potential.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nonetheless, some outstanding yields have been recorded. On Indian government  farms, average yields for milking buffaloes range from 4 to 7 kg per day in  lactations averaging 285 days. Daily yields of 12 kg have been reported for some  Bulgarian buffalo cows and a daily production of over 20 kg has been reported for  some remarkable animals in India. A peak milk yield of 31.5 kg in a day has been  recorded from a champion Murrah buffalo in the All India Milk Yield Competition  conducted by the Government of India (see Table 3).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At Caserta, Italy, a herd of 1,600 machine-milked, pedigreed dairy buffaloes has  produced average yields of 1,500 kg during lactations of 270 days. In Pakistan an  analysis of over 6,000 lactations of Nili/Ravi buffalo cows showed an average yield  of 1,925 kg during lactations averaging 282 days(Average adjusted for year and  season and calving. Cady et al., in press.) . In India the average milks yield of  Murrah buffaloes in established herds is also reported to be about  1,800kg(*"Williamson and Payne, 1965.)Table 4 lists some outstanding lactation  yields reported from different parts of the world. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with cattle, the percentages of fat, protein, and total solids decrease as the milks yield increases.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Swamp buffaloes of Southeast Asia are usually considered poor milk producers. They are used mainly as draft animals, but it may be that their milk potential has been underestimated. In the Philippines Swamp buffalo cows with nursing calves have produced 300-800 kg of milk during lactation periods of 180-300 days(*Philippines Council for Agriculture and Resources Research (PCARR). 1978. The Philippines Recommends for Caraboo Production, PCARR, Los Banos, Philippines)In Thailand Swamp buffaloes selected and reared for milk production have yielded 3-5 kg per day during 305-day lactations.(Information supplied by Charan Chantalakhana.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p32.png"></center><br>
+ Table 4 Milk Production of Some Outstading Buffalo Cows and Dairy Herds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Nanning Livestock Research Institute and Farm in Kwangsi Province,which is representative of many others in South China, is upgrading the native  Swamp buffaloes (or Shui Niu) by selective breeding for size and weight and by  crossbreeding with dairy breeds such as the Murrah and Nili/Ravi. The crossbreeds  that are milked yield 4-5 kg daily.(*CockriH, W. R. 1976. The Buffaloes of China.  FAO, Rome.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dairy Management</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The characteristics of the dairy buffalo so closely approximate those of the dairy cow that successful methods of breeding, husbandry, and feeding for  milks production for the cow can be applied equally to the dairy buffalo. Buffaloes,  however, have not been bred for uniform udders and it is more difficult to milk them  by machine.(Some thousands of buffaloes are machine milked in Bulgaria and Italy, however. At  Ain Shams University in Egypt, buffaloes have adapted to machine milking. The  calves are separated from their dams immediately after birth and no problems of  milk letdown have been observed. -information supplied by M. El Ashry.)Also, some buffaloes have more of a problem with milks letdown than  dairy cows (although not as much of a problem as some native cattle breeds in the  tropics). Frequently, a calf is kept with the cow and is tied to her foreleg at milking  time. In India, Burma, and other countries a dummy calf may be provided; playing  music seems to work, too.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Addeo, F., Mercier, J. C., and Ribadeau-Dumas, B. 1977. The caseins of buffalo  milk. Journal of Dairy Research 44(3):455-468.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agarwala, O. P. 1962. Certain factors of reproduction and production in a water  buffalo herd. Indian Joumal of Dairy Science 15(2):45-51.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albourco, F., Mincione, B., Addeo, F., and Ameno, M. 1969. Buffaloes' milk. II.  Variations in composition during lactation of milk produced without change in  feeding. Industrie Agraria 7(5):210-219.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associazione Italiana Tecnici del Latter. 1970. Buffaloes' milk and cheese. Scienza  e Tecnica 21(3):175-196.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhatnagar, V. K., Lohia, K. L., and Monga, O. P. 1961. Effect of the month of  calving on milk yield, lactation length and calving interval in Murrah buffaloes. Indian  Journal of Dairy Science 14(3): 102-108.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhasin N. R., and Desai, R. N. 1967. Effect of age at first calving and first lactation  yield on life time production in Hariana cattle. Indian Veterinary Journal 44:684694.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cady, R. A., Shah, S. K., Schermerhorn, E. C., and McDowell, R. E. In Press.  Factors affecting performance of Nili-Ravi buffaloes in Pakistan. Journal of Dairy  Science.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Castillo, L. S. 1975. Production, characteristics and processing of buffalo milk. In:  The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at  Khon Kahn, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology  Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dassat, P. M., de Paolis, P., and Sartore, G. 1966. Environmental effects on milks  yield in Italian buffalo.Acta Medica Veterinaria 12(6):587-593.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dave, B. K., and Taylor, C. M. 1975. A study on relationship of persistency with other first production traits in Indian water buffaloes. Indian Journal of Animal Health 14(1) :77-80.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deshmukh, S. N., and Choudhury, P. N. R. 1971. Repeatability estimates of some economic characteristics in Italian buffaloes. Zentralblatt fuer Veterinaer-medizen 18:104-107.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ganguli, N. C. 1979. Buffalo milk technology. World Animal Review 30:2-10.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gomez, I. V. 1977. The manufacture of semihard cheese (Danish type) from carabao milk. Philippine Agriculturalist 61(3/4) :78-86.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gurnani, M., and Nagarcenkar, R. 1971. Evaluation of breeding performance of buffaloes and estimation of genetic and phenotypic parameters. Annual Report of the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katpatal, B. G. 1977. Dairy cattle crossbreeding in India. I. Growth and development of crossbreeding. World Animal Review 22: 15-21.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kay, H. D. 1974. Milk and milk production. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kohli, M. L., and Malik, D. D. 1960. Effect of service period on total milk production and lactation length in Murrah buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 13(3): 105-111.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nascimento, C. N. B., Moura Carvalho, L. O. D., and Lourenco, J. B. 1979. Irnportancia do Bufalo para a Pecuarfa Brasileira. Agricultural Research Center for Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem, Para, Brazil.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raafat, M. A., El-Sayed, Abou-Hussein, Abou-Raya, A. K., and El-Shirbiny A. 1974. Some nutritional studies of colostrum and milk of cows and buffaloes E:gyptian Journal of Animal Production 14(1) :137-148.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ragab, M. T., Asker, A. A., and Kamal, T. H. 1958. The effect of age and seasonal calving on the composition of Egyptian buffalo milk. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 11(1):18-28.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saudi Arabia Standards Institution. 1978. Raw milk. Saudi Arabia Standard 98.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sebastian, J., Panthulu, P. C, and Bhimasena, M. 1971. Composition of Surti buffalo milk. Annual Report of the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sekhon, G. S., and Gehlon, M. S. 1966. Repeatability estimates of some economic traits in the Murrah buffalo. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 14:18-22.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, B. B., and Singh, B. P. 1971. Comparative study of lifetime economics of Hariana versus Murrah buffaloes. Indian Veterinary Journal 48:485-489.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, R. P. 1966. A study of production up to ten years of age in buffaloes maintained at military farms. Indian Veterinary Journal 43:986-992.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, S. B., and Desai, R. N. 1962. Production character of Bhadawari buffalo cow. Indian Veterinary journal 39:332-343.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venkayya, D., and Anantakrishnan, C. P. 1957. Influence of age at first calving on the performance of Murrah buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 10(1):20-24.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Williamson, G., and Payne, W. J. A. 1965. An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. Longman, London, United Kingdom. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Work</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is the classic work animal of Asia, an integral part of that  continent's traditional village farming structure. Probably the most adaptable and  versatile of all work animals, it is widely used to plow; level land; plant crops; puddle  rice fields; cultivate field crops; pump water; haul carts, sleds, and shallow-draft  boats; carry people; thresh grain; press sugar cane; haul logs; and much more.  Even today, water buffaloes provide 20-30 percent of the farm power in South  China, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, and Indochina(Figures provided by A. J. de veer. In India water buffaloes contribute much less to  farm power (6-12 percent); bullocks are more commonly used. In Pakistan  buffaloes are little used for farm power (1-2 percent) but provide much of the road  haulage. Papua New Guinea has no tradition of using any work animal, but villagers  are increasingly using buffaloes for farm work and the government is employing  Fillipinos to train them) . Millions of  peasants in the Far East, Middle East, and Near East have a draft buffalo. For them  it is often the only method of farming food crops.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As fuel becomes scarce and expensive in these countries, the buffalo is being used  more frequently as a draft animal. ln 1979 water buffalo prices soared in rural  Thailand because of the increased demand.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although Asian farms have increasingly mechanized in the last 20 years, it has  often proved difficult to persuade the farmer to replace his buffalo with a tractor  since the buffalo produces free fertilizer and does not require diesel fuel. Now there  is renewed official interest in draft power. Sri Lanka has recently opened up large  new tracts of farmland in the Mahawali Valley, creating such a demand for work  animals that buffalo shortages have become a national development problem.  Indonesia's transmigration schemes are also handicapped by shortages of animal  power.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For many small farmers the buffalo represents capital. It is often the major  investment they have. Buffalo energy increases their productivity and allows them to  diversify. Even small farms have work animals that, like the farmer himself, subsist  off the farm. Tractors usually require at least four hectares for economical operation,  which precludes their use on most peasant farms. Further, the infrastructure to  maintain machinery is often not readily available.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are also used for hauling. Buffalo-drawn carts carry goods between  villages where road surfaces are unfit for trucks. The animals easily traverse  ravines, streams, paddies, and narrow and rocky trails. In the cities carts can  compete economically with trucks where the road surface is unprepared, where  loading or unloading takes longer than the journey itself, or where the loads are too  small and distances too short to make trucking economical. For road haulage  buffaloes are generally shod: the shoes are flat plates fitted to each hoof.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capacity for Work</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo is a sturdy draft animal Its body structure, especially the  distribution of body weight over the feet and legs, is an important advantage. Its  large boxy hooves allow it to move in the soft mud of rice fields. Moreover, the  buffalo has very flexible pastern and fetlock joints in the lower leg so that it can bend  back its hooves and step over obstacles more easily than cattle. This water-loving  animal is particularly well adapted to paddy farming because its legs withstand  continual wet conditions better than mules or oxen(Australian animal scientists working in Bogor, Indonesia, found that the puddling  effect of buffalo hooves on the soil was critical for rice cultivation in the local soils.  Tractors produced fields so porous that they drained dry. (Information supplied by  A. F. GurnettSmith.) On one research station near Darwin, Australia, buffaloes were  used to prevent water draining from a dam. (Information supplied by D. G. Tulloch.). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although buffaloes are preferred by farmers in the wet, often muddy lowlands of  Asia, mules, horses, and cattle move more rapidly and are preferred in the dryer  areas.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes do not work quickly. They plod along at about 3 km per hour. In  most parts of Southeast Asia they are worked about 5 hours a day and they may  take 6-10 days to plow, harrow, and grade one hectare of rice field. Their stamina  and drawing power increase with body weight.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because they have difficulty keeping cool in hot, humid weather (see next chapter),  it is necessary to let working buffaloes cool off, preferably in a wallow, every 2 hours  or so. Without this their body temperatures may rise to dangerous levels.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A pair of 3-year-old buffaloes costs about the same as a small tractor in Thailand.  But many farmers raise their own calves and there is no investment beyond labor.  The "fuel" for the animals comes mainly from village pastures and farm wastes such  as crop stubble and sugarcane tops. Buffaloes have an average working life of  about 11 years, but some work to age 20.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harness</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The yoke used on working buffalo in Asia has changed very little in the last 1,500 years. It is doubtful that a working buffalo can exert its full power with it. The hard wooden yoke presses on a very small area on top of the animal's neck, producing severe calluses, galls, and obvious discomfort. The harness tends to choke the animal as the straps under the neck tighten into the windpipe. Since the traditional hitch is usually higher than the buffalo's low center of gravity, the animal cannot pull efficiently. Considerably more pulling power and endurance can be obtained by improving the harness. The situation is not unlike that in Western agriculture in the twelfth century when the horse collar-one of the most important inventions of the Middle Ages first appeared. Before that, horses were yoked like buffalo and the harness passed across their windpipes and choked them as they pulled. Use of the horse collar improved pulling efficiency and speeded the development of transportation and trade.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The curved yoke now universally used on water buffalo contacts an area of the neck that is only about 200 cm2 (little more than half the size of this page). The entire load is pulled on this small area and causes the wood to dig into the flesh.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A horse collar is a padded leather device that encircles the animal's neck. One modified in Thailand for use on water buffalo (see page 43) had a contact area of 650 cm2, more than three times that of the yoke it replaced. The collar's padding pressed against the animal's shoulders, not its neck, and  therefore did not choke it. Attached to the collar were wooden hames with the traces for hitching the animal to a wagon or plow. In trials a buffalo pulled loads 24 percent heavier with the collar than with the yoke, and the horsepower it developed increased by 48 percent(These trials were conducted by J. K. Garner in Thailand in 1958. In the maximum-load test the yoked buffalo failed to move a load of 570 kg, but it moved a load of 640 kg when fitted with the horse collar. In an endurance test the yoked animal took 35 minutes to pull a load 550 m, but harnessed with the collar it took only 21 minutes). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another potentially valuable harness is the breast strap, a set of broad leather straps that pass over the animal's neck and back. One breast strap modified for water buffalo use had a contact area of 620 cm2, almost as much as that of the horse collar, and in trials the buffalo pulled a load 12 percent heavier than with a yoke and the horsepower it developed increased by almost 70 percent( The same animal used in the horse collar trials pulled 700 kg with the breast strap, in the endurance test it took 18.5 minutes to travel the 550-m distance). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These seem very good innovations. In the humid tropics, however, leather collars and breast straps may decay rapidly. To make them widely practical may require experimentation with, or development of, special leather treatments or more durable materials.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1974. The working buffalo. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domes tic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1976. The Buffaloes of China. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">de Guzman, M. R., Jr. 1975. The water buffalo-Asia's beast of burden and key to progress. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Garner, J. K. 1958 (Reprint 1980) Increasing the Work Efficiency of the Water Buffalo Through Use of Improved Harness. (Copies available from Office of Agriculture, Development Support Bureau, Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C. 20523)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kamal, T. H., Shehata, O., and Elbanna, I. M. 1972. Isotope Studies on the Physiology of Domestic Animals. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977. Preliminary Observations on the Productivity of Working Buffalo in Indonesia. Research Report No. 2, Center for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vaugh, M. 1945. Report on a detailed study of methods of yoking bullocks for agricultural work. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 15:186-198.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ward, G. M., Sutherland, T. M., and Sutherland, J. M. 1980. Animals as an energy source in Third World agriculture. Science 208:570. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">5 Adaptability and Environmental Tolerance</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Heat Tolerance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the buffalo is remarkably versatile, it has less physiological adaptation to extremes of heat and cold than the various breeds of cattle. Body temperatures of buffaloes are actually lower than those of cattle, but buffalo skin is usually black and heat absorbent and only sparsely protected by hair. Also, buffalo skin has one-sixth the density of sweat glands that cattle skin has, so buffaloes dissipate heat poorly by sweating. If worked or  driven excessively in the hot sun, a buffalo's body temperature, pulse rate, respiration rate, and general discomfort increase more quickly than those of cattle(Failure to appreciate this has caused many buffalo deaths in northern Australia when the animals were herded long distances through the heat of the day as if they were cattle).. This is particularly true of young calves and pregnant females. During one trial in Egypt 2 hours' exposure to sun caused temperatures of buffalo to rise 1.3°C, whereas temperatures of cattle rose only 0.2-0.3°C.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes prefer to cool off in a wallow rather than seek shade. They may wallow for up to 5 hours a day when temperatures and humidity are high. Immersed in water or mud, chewing with half-closed eyes, buffaloes are a picture of bliss.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In shade or in a wallow buffaloes cool off quickly, perhaps because a black skin rich in blood vessels conducts and radiates heat efficiently (Tests at the University of Florida have shown that buffaloes in the shade cool off more quickly than cattle. -Robey, 1976).  Nonetheless, wallowing is not essential. Experience in Australia, Trinidad, Florida, Malaysia, and elsewhere has shown that buffaloes grow normally without wallowing as long as adequate shade is available.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cold Tolerance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although generally associated with the humid tropics, buffaloes, as already noted, have been reared for centuries in temperate countries such as Italy, Greece, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, and in the Azerbaijan and Georgian republics of the USSR. In 1807 Napoleon brought Italian buffaloes to the Landes region of southwest France and released them near Mont-deMarsan. They became feral and multiplied prodigiously in the woods and dunes of the littoral, but unfortunately the local peasants found them easy targets, and with the fall of Napoleon the whole herd was killed for meat(In the twelfth century Benedictine monks introduced buffaloes from their possessions in the Orient to work the lands of their abbey at Auge in northeastern France. In the thirteenth century a herd was introduced to England by the Earl of Cornwall, the brother of Henry III. Nothing is known about how well either herd survived). Buffaloes are also maintained on the high, snowy plateaus of Turkey as well as in Afghanistan and the northern mountains of Pakistan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo has greater tolerance of cold weather than is commonly supposed. The current range of the buffalo extends as far north as 45° latitude in Romania and the sizable herds in Italy and the Soviet Union range over 40° N latitude(Philadelphia and Peking are at comparable latitudes. In the Southern Hemisphere the 40° line of latitude easily encompasses Cape Town, Buenos Aires, Melbourne, and most of New Zealand's North Island).  Cold winds and rapid drops in temperatures, however, appear to have caused illness, pneumonia, and sometimes death. Most of the animals in Europe are of the Mediterranean breed, but other River-type buffaloes (mainly Murrahs from India) have been introduced to Bulgaria and the Soviet Union, which indicates that River breeds, at least, have some cold tolerance.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Altitude</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although water buffaloes are generally reared at low elevations, a herd of Swamp buffaloes is thriving at Kandep in Papua New Guinea, 2,500 m above sea level. And in Nepal, River buffaloes are routinely found at or above 2,800 m altitude.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wetlands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are well adapted to swamps and to areas subject to flooding. They are at home in the marshes of southern Iraq and of the Amazon, the tidal plains near Darwin, Australia, the Pontine Marshes in south-central Italy, the Orinoco Basin of Venezuela, and other areas.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Amazon, buffaloes (Mediterranean and Swamp breeds) are demonstrating their exceptional adaptability to flood areas. Buffalo productivity outstrips that of cattle, with males reaching 400 kg in 30 months on a diet of native grasses( Information supplied by C. Nascimento). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The advantage of water buffaloes over Holstein, Brown Swiss, and Criollo cattle was demonstrated in a test at Delta Amacuro, Venezuela, when the cattle developed serious foot rot In the wet conditions of the Orinoco Delta and had to be withdrawn from the test. The area of Venezuela is flooded 6 months of the year and creates constant problems for cattle, yet the buffalo seems to adapt well(*Information supplied by A. Ferrer). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High humidities seem to affect buffaloes less than cattle. In fact, if shade or wallows are available, buffaloes may be superior to cattle in humid areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In southern Brazil, trials comparing buffalo and cattle on subtropical riverine plains have favored the buffalo also. This work is being carried out on native pastures, mostly in  the State of Sao Paulo.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hafez, E. S. E., Badreldin, A. L., and Shafei,M. M. 1955. Skin structure of Egyptian buffaloes and cattle with particular reference to sweat glands. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 46:19-30.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Katyega, P. M. J., Masoud, A. J., and Kobo, E. 1980. Information on body and carcass characteristics of Egyptian water buffalo and Mpwapwa x Friesian steers raised in central Tanzania. Tanzania Veterinary Bulletin 2:86-90.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mason, I. L. 1974. Environmental physiology. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moran, J. B. 1973. Heat tolerance of Brahman cross, buffalo, Banteng and Shorthorn steers during exposure to sun and as a result of exercise. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 24(5) :775 -782.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nair, P. G., and Benjamin, B. R. 1963. Studies on sweat glands in the Indian water buffalo. 1. Standardization of techniques and preliminary observations. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 33:102.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pandey, M. D., and Roy, A. 1969a. Studies on the adaptability of buffaloes to tropical climate. I. Seasonal changes in the water and electrolyte status of buffalo cows. Indian Journal of Animal Science 39:367.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pandey, M. D., and Roy, A. 1969b. Studies on the adaptability of buffaloes to tropical climate. II. Seasonal changes in the body temperature, cardio-respiratory and hematological attributes in buffalo cows. Indian Journal of Animal Science 39:378.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prusty, J. N. 1973. Role of the sweat glands in heat regulation in the Indian water buffalo. Indian Journal of Animal Health 12(1):33-37.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robey, C. A., Jr. 1976. Physiological Responses of Water Buffalo to the Florida Environment. M.S. Thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">6 Nutrition</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most buffaloes are located in countries where land, cultivated forage crops, and pastures  are limited. Livestock must feed on poor-quality forages, sometimes supplemented with  a little green fodder or byproducts from food, grain, and oil seed processing. Usually  feedstuffs are in such short supply that few animals have a balanced diet, but the buffalo  seems to perform fairly well under such adverse conditions.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Growth Rate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insufficient measurements have been taken to allow unequivocal state. meets about the  relative growth rates of cattle and buffaloes. However, many observations made in  various parts of the world indicate that the buffalo's growth is seldom inferior to that of  cattle breeds found in the same environments. Some observations are given below.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Trials in Trinidad in the early 1960s involved buffaloes grazing pangola grass (Digitaria  decumbens) together with Brahman and Jamaican Red cattle. Over a period of 20  months the buffaloes gained an average of 0.72 kg per day, whereas the cattle on a  comparable nearby pasture gained 0.63 per day(Experiments performed by P. N. Wilson. -Information supplied by S. P. Bennett.).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the Orinoco Delta of Venezuela unselected Criollo/Zebu crossbred cattle gained  0-0.2 kg per day on Paspalum fasciculatum, whereas the water buffaloes with them  gained 0.25-0.4 kg per day(Cunha  et al., 1975).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the Apure Valley of Venezuela, 100 buffalo steers studied in 1979 reached an  average weight of 508 kg in 30 months, whereas the 30-month old Zebu steers tested  with them weighed 320 kg. The feed consumed was a blend of native grasses (25  percent of the diet) and improved grasses (such as pangola, pare, and guinea grass)( Information supplied by A. Ferrer). In  the same valley 200 buffalo heifers (air freighted from Australia) produced weight gains  averaging 0.5 kg per day over a 2-year period (and 72 percent of them calved). Government statistics for the area record average weight gains in crossbreeds between Zebu and Criollo cattle as 0.28 kg per day (with 40 percent calving).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the Philippines, buffaloes showed weight gains of 0.75-1.25 kg per day, the same as those of cattle. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Daily weight gains of over 1 kg have been recorded for buffaloes in Bulgaria and Yugoslavia.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Liveweight gains of 0.80 kg per day have been recorded for buffaloes in Papua New Guinea. In a very humid, swampy area of the Sepik River coastal plains liveweight gains by males averaged 0.47 kg per day and females 0.43 kg per day for more than a year. The average weight of 30 4-year-old female buffaloes was 375 kg, while the average weight of 4-year-old female Brahman/ Shorthorn crossbred cattle was 320 kg.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· At the research station near Belem in the Brazilian Amazon weaned Murrah buffaloes, pastured continuously on Echinochloa pyramidalis (a nutritious grass), gained 0.8 kg daily and reached 450 kg in about 18 months. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Liveweight gains of 0.74-l.i kg per day have been obtained in Australia. Buffalo steers grew as fast or faster than crossbred Brahman cattle on several improved pastures near Darwin, but on one very poor pasture, 40-year-old buffaloes each weighed only 400 kg, whereas the Brahman crossbred steers reared with them weighed 500 kg. The reason for this is not clear.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efficiency of Digestion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian animal nutritionists have investigated water buffaloes intensively over the past two decades. Many have reported that buffaloes digest feeds more efficiently than do cattle, particularly when feeds are of poor quality and are high in cellulose.One trial revealed that the digestibility of wheat straw cellulose was 24.3 percent for cattle and 30.7 percent for buffalo. The figures for berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) cellulose were 34.6 percent for cattle and 52.2 percent for buffalo. In another trial the digestion of straw fiber was 64.7 percent in cattle, 79.8 percent in buffalo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other nutrients reported to be more highly digested in buffaloes than in cattle (Zebu) are crude fat, calcium and phosphorus, and nonprotein nitrogen.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recent experiments in India suggest that buffaloes also are able to utilize nitrogen more efficiently than cattle. Buffaloes digested less crude protein than cattle in one trial but increased their body nitrogen more (and they were being fed only 40 percent of the recommended daily intake of crude protein).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ability of buffaloes to digest fiber efficiently may be partly due to the microorganisms in their rumen. Several Indian research teams have published data indicating that the microbes in the buffalo rumen convert feed into energy more efficiently than do those in cattle (as measured by the rate of production of volatile fatty acids in the rumen).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also, in laboratory studies samples of buffalo rumen contents produced volatile fatty acids more quickly from a variety of animal feedstuffs than did samples from the rumen of cattle  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No single reason alone explains the buffalo's success in using poor quality forages. Rather, it is a combination of reasons that differ with the breed and conditions used. Studies by other researchers suggest that additional causes might include:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Higher dry matter intake; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Longer retention of feed in digestive tract;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Ruminal characteristics more favorable to ammonia-nitrogen utilization;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Less depression of cellulose digestion by soluble carbohydrates (e.g., starch or molasses);  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Superior ability to handle stressful environment; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A wider range of grazing preferences.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Calf Growth Rates</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the buffalo's gestation period is more than a month longer than that of cattle, the calves are born weighing 35-40 kg, or about the same as that of a newborn Holstein calf. But because buffalo milk has about twice the butterfat of cow's milk, the calves grow very quickly. They also suffer more shock at weaning and have to be slowly changed to their new feeding program. Buffaloes can be marketed as full-grown animals for beef at the age of 2-3 years, sometimes even earlier.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p59.png"></center><br>
+ Table 5 Some Coarse Grasses and Forages Palatable to Buffaloes but Less Readily</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, in Indonesia it has been found that buffalo steers can be marketed 6 months before Zebu steers because they may be 100 kg heavier. In Egypt some buffalo calves given feed supplemented with concentrates weighed 360 kg at 1 year of age. At Ain Shams University near Cairo, buffalo calves weaned at 7-14 days of age gained 0.7 kg per day from weaning to slaughter at 18 months of age and weighed 400 kg. Rice straw comprised 50 percent of the finishing diet.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes on Italian farms have reached 350 kg in 15-18 months and some year-old calves weighed 320 kg. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grazing trials on native pasture (with mineral supplementation) in the Brazilian Amazon indicate that buffalo calves grew faster than cattle. At 2 years of age Mediterranean-type buffaloes averaged 369 kg, Swamp type, 322 kg, and Jafarabadi type, 308 kg. The Zebu cattle tested with them averaged 265 kg and the crossbred Zebu/Charolais, 282 kg. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feed Preferences</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes graze a wider range of plants than cattle. During floods near Manaus in the  Brazilian Amazon when cattle become marooned on small patches of high ground,  many suffer from foot rot and many starve to death. Their buffalo companions on the  other hand-bodies sleek and full-swim out to islands of floating aquatic plants and eat  them, treading water. Also, they dive almost 2 m to graze beneath the floodwaters. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Florida buffaloes in a lakefront voluntarily consumed vines, sedges, rushes, floating aquatic weeds, and the leaves and shoots of willows and other  trees along the water's edge. Few of these plants are voluntarily grazed by cattle. In  northern Australia water buffaloes graze the very pickily leaves of pandanus; they also  graze sedges, reeds, floating grass, and aquatic weeds. Hungry buffaloes will eat bark,  twigs, and other unpalatable vegetation.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the variety of their tastes they have been used in northern Queensland,  Australia, to clear pastures of woody weeds left untouched by cattle. In some countries  cattle are used to graze the palatable tops of pasture plants and are followed by  buffaloes to graze the less desirable lower parts.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afifi, Y. A., El-Koussy, H. A., El-Khishen, S. S., and El-Ashry, M. A. 1977. Production of  meat from Egyptian buffaloes. I. The effect of using different sources of roughages on  rate of gain, gross and net efficiency during the growth and finishing periods. Egyptian  Journal of Animal Production 17(2).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appleton, D. c., Dryden, G., and Kondos, A. C. 1976. A comparison of the digestive  efficiency of the water buffalo and the Brahman and Banteng cattle. Proceedings of the  Australian Society of Animal Production 11.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhatia, L S. 1967. The Study of Factors Affecting the Utilization of Low Grade  Roughages and Production of Volatile Fatty Acids in the Rumen of Indian Cattle. Punjab  Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chalmers, M. 1.1974. Nutrition. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo  edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome,  Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Charles, D. D., and Johnson, E. R. 1975. Live weight gains and carcass composition of  buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) steers on four feeding regimes. Australian Journal of  Agricultural Research 26:407-413.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chaturvedi, M. L, Singh, u. B., and Ranjhan, 5. K 1973. Comparative studies on the  efficiency of feed unitization in cattle and buffaloes. Indian Journal of Animal Science  43(12):1034.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chutikul, K. 1975. Ruminant (Buffalo) nutrition. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kacn, Thailand, March 31April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cunha, E., Alvarez, F., Larez, O., and Bryan, W. B. 1975. Pasture and Livestock Investigations in the Humid Tropics: Orinoco Delta, Venezuela. 4. Beef Cattle and Water Buffalo Grazing Trials with Native and Introduced Grasses. IRI Research Institute, New York, New York, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Davendra, C. 1979. The potential value of grasses and crop by-products for feeding buffaloes in Asia. Extension Bulletin No. 126. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">de Guzman, M. R., Jr. 1975. A summary of research into buffalo feeding in the Philippines. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dunkel, R. 1981. Animal production using nutrient-deficient fodders in the tropics and subtropics. Animal Research and Development 13:32-39.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">El-Ashry, M. A., Mogawer, H. H., and Kishin, S. S. 1972. Comparative study of meat production from cattle and buffalo male calves. I. Effect of roughage: concentrate ratio in ration for rate of gain and feed efficiency of native cattle, Friesian and buffalo calves. Egyptian Journal of Animal Production 12(2) :99 -107.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Grant, R. J., Van Soest, P. J., McDowell, R. E., and Perez, C. B. 1974. Intake, digestibility and metabolic loss of Napier grass by cattle and buffaloes when fed wilted, chopped and whole. Journal of Animal Science 39(2):423.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ibrovic, M., Cvetkovic, A., Smrcek, A., and Janevski, K. 1972. A contribution to the knowledge of metabolism of carotene and seasonal dynamics of vitamin A in the buffalo. Veterinaria 21(4) :511.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., Sidhu, G. S., and Moxin, A. L. 1962. Cellulose digestion in water buffaloes and Zebu cattle. Journal of Animal Science 21:1001.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1966. Effect of urea on the voluntary intake of wheat skew in Zebu cattle and the buffalo. Indian Veterinary Journal 43:880-886.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1969. Biochemical processes in the rumen. 111. Effect of different carbobydrates on in vitro digestion of cellulose and utilization of urea nikogen by rumen micro-organisms from zebu and buffalo. Indian Journal of Animal Science 39 :27-32.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1971a. Studies on the biochemical process in the rumen. Vl. In vivo digestion of cellulose in buffalo and cattle. Indian Veterinary Journal 48:267-271.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1971b. Studies on the biochemical process in the rumen. VII. In vitro digestion of cellulose in cattle and buffalo. Indian Veterinary Journal 48:583-586.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1972. Studies on the biochemical processes in the rumen. VIIL The significance of molar proportions of acetic and propionic acids in the rumen on the growth rate of buffalo and Zebu. Indian Veterinary Journal 49:995-1000.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ichhponani, J. S., Gill, R. S., Makkar, G. S., and Ranjan, S. K. 1977. Work done on buffalo nutrition in India-a review. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 30(3): 173-191.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Langar, P. N., Sidhu, G. S., and Bhatia, I. S. 1969. Utilization of nitrogen and production of volatile fatty acids in the rumina of buffalo (Bos bubalis) and zebu (Bos indicus) at different time intervals, under a feeding regimen deficient in carbohydrates. Indian Veterinary Journal 46:593-598.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ludri, R. S., and Razdan, M. N. 1975. Effect of level and source of dietary nitrogen on water metabolism in cows and buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 28:107109.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ludri, R. S., and Razdan, M. N. 1980. Efficiency of nitrogen utilization by Zebu cows and buffaloes. I. Nutrient utilization and nitrogen balances on preformed protein diets. TropicalAgriculture (Trinidad) 57:83-90. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Makkar, G. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1964. The fractionation of carbohydrates in Indian feedstuffs and the digestion of different fractions in the rumina of cattle and buffalo. Journal of Research, Ludhiana 1:56-66.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Misra, R. K., and Ranhoka, G. S. 1969. Influence of energy levels on the utilization of peanut protein-urea nikogen by cattle and buffalo. Journal of Animal Science 28: 107-109.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mullick, D. N. 1964. Review of the investigations on the physiology of Indian buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Saience 17:45-50.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Naga, M. A., El-Shazly, K., Deif, H. I., Abaza, M. A., and El-Faham, R. H. 1975. Relationship between nitrogen balance, digested nitrogen and dry matter digestibility in ruminants. Journal of Animal Science 40(2):366-373.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nangia, O. P., Aggarwal, V. K., and Singh, A. 1972. Studies on the utilization of dietary protein in cattle and buffaloes. Indian Joumal of Dairy &amp;ience 25: 1-5.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nascimento C. N. B., Moura Carvalho, L. O. D., and Lourenco, J. B. 1979. Importdneia do Bufaio para a Pecubria Brasileira. Agricultural Research Center for Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem, Para, Brazil.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nascimento, C. N. B., and Velga, J. B. 1973. Weight gains in stabled buffaloes of the Mediterranean breed. Boletim Tecnico do Instituto de Pesqutsas e Experimentacao Agropecuarias do Norte 58:24-72.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ponnappa, G. G., Nooruddin, M. D., and Raghavan, G. V. 1971. Rate of the passage of food and its relation to digestibility of nutrients in Murrah buffaloes and Hariana cattle. Indian Journal of Animal Science 41:1026-1030.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Punj, M. L., Kochar, A. S., Bhatia, I. S., and Sidhu, G. S. 1968. In vitro studies on the cellulolytic activity and production of volatile fatty acids by the inocula obtained from the rumen of Zebu cattle and Murrah buffalo on different feeding regimens. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 38 :325-332.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raghavan, G. V., Kakkar, B., Rao, M. V. N., and Mullick, D. N. 1963. Effects of air temperature and humidity on the metabolism of food nutrients in cattle and buffalo bulls. Annals of Biochemistry and Experimental Medicine 23 :23-28.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ray, S. N., and Mudgal, V. D. 1962. Rumen metabolism studies in cattle and buffalo. Proceedings of the 16th International Dairy Congress, Copenhagen. A:105-l11.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahai, L., Johri, P. N., and Kehar, N. D. 1955. Effect of feeding alkali and water-treated cereal straws on milk yield. Indfan Journal of Veterinary Science 25:201-212.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Saini, B. S., and Ray, S. N. 1964. Comparative utilization of coarse fodders in cattle and buffalo. Annual Report of the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schottler, J. H., Boromana, A., and Williams, W. T. 1977. Comparative performance of cattle and buffalo on the Sepik Plains, Papua New Guinea.AustralianJournal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 17(87) :550 -554. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sebastian, L., Mudgal, V. D., and Nair, P. G. 1970. Comparative efficiency of milk production by Sahiwal cattle and Murrah buffalo. Joumal of Animal Science 30:253256.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, C. B., and Mugdal, V. D. 1966. Studies on the lignin and cellulose contents of fedder crops and effect of lignification of cellulose digestion. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 19:100.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sidbu, G. S., Kochar, A. S., and Makkar, G. S. 1967. Effect of supplementing Bajra stalks with lucerne and concentrates and their part replacement by urea on the production of volatile fatty acids in the rumen of cows and buffaloes. Journal of Research, Ludhiana 4:104-110.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, B. K., and Mudgal, V. D. 1967. The comparative utilization of feed nutrients from lucerne hay in buffalo and crossbred zebu heifers. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 20: 142-145.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tandon, R. N.' Sharma, D. D., and Mugdal, V. D. 1972. Effect of feeding urea with different levels of energy on the biochemical changes in the rumen of cows and buffaloes. Indian Journal of Animal Science 42: 174-179  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Upadhyaya, R. S., Singh, U. B., and Ranjhan, S. K. 19i3. Digestibilit of nutrients and VFA concentation in zebu cattle and buffalo calves fed on green cowpea and maize. Indian Journal of Animal Science 43 :5 83-s 88.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Verma, M. L., Sidhu, G. S., and Kochar, A. S. 1968. Effect of frequency on the production of VFA in the rumen by zebu cattle and buffalo. Journal of Research, Ludhiana 5(3) :1 -6.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Verma, M. L., Singh, N., Sidhu, G. S., Kochar, A. S., and Bhatia, I. S. 1970. The in vitro cellulose digestion and VFA production from some of the common Indian feeds using rumen inocula from Zebu cattle and buffalo. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 23:155 -160. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">7 Health</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When compared with other domestic livestock, the water buffalo generally is a healthy animal. This is particularly impressive because most of them live in hot, humid regions that are conducive to disease, and the buffalo is a bovine susceptible to most diseases and parasites that afflict cattle. Although the reasons are not specifically known, the effect of disease on the buffalo and its productivity is often less deleterious than on cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antibiotics and vaccines developed for cattle work equally well on buffaloes. As a result, treatments are available for most of the serious diseases of buffaloes, although some are not very effective for either animal.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The greatest buffalo losses are often among calves. Newborn buffalo calves, like bovine calves, can succumb in large numbers to viruses, bacteria, and poor nutrition. This is largely due to poor management during the calf's frst 2 months of life. For example, as noted previously, villagers in some countries often sell the valuable buffalo milk, thus depriving the calves.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo calf losses are often similar to those of the cattle around them, but the animal's proclivity for wallowing exposes calves to waterborne diseases. Further, a young one occasionally drowns when an adult rolls on top of it.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reactions to some specific diseases and parasites are discussed below.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pasteurellosis- Probably the water buffalo's most serious disease, pasteurellosis, or hemorrhagic septicemia, is caused by the bacterium Pasteurella multocida (P. septica). Buffaloes are more susceptible to it than cattle and die in large numbers where pasteurellosis occurs. A vaccine against pasteurellosis is effective in protecting both buffaloes and cattle; it is cheap and easily made.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tuberculosis- Despite some claims to the contrary, the water buffalo is susceptible to the bovine strain of tuberculosis (Alycobacterium bovis). Scattered reports from different parts of India indicate no difference in the incidence of infection between cattle and buffaloes(Information supplied by S. K. Misra, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India).  Other strains of mycobacteria have been isolated from feral buffaloes and cattle in northern Australia but seem to have little effect on the animals. Tuberculosis occurs among the buffalo herds of the world only because most are kept under unsanitary conditions(In 1905 buffaloes were introduced to Trinidad because the cattle herds (Zebu and srahman breeds) were infected with tuberculosis and, in those days, it was thought that buffaloes were resistant to the disease. Most were housed in muddy, ill-kept pens and forced to eat sugarcane tops off the ground; consequently, in 1949 over 30 percent of the buffaloes reacted to the tuberculin test. (The cattle herds had 80 percent reactors.) Tuberculosis was eliminated in Trinidad's buffaloes by improving the sanitary conditions: installing concrete floors and mangers and cleaning the pens regularly. This, together with regular tuberculin testing and removal of reactors, led to such a dramatic improvement that buffalo tuberculosis is now virtually unknown. -Information supplied by S. K. Bennett.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brucellosis-Buffaloes and cattle are equally susceptible to brucellosis. Although seldom reported as a problem elsewhere, brucellosis in Venezuela is increasing more rapidly among buffaloes than among cattle. In India the disease is no more prevalent among buffaloes than among cattle.  As many as 57 percent of some Venezuelan herds are infected with the disease. It is a frequent cause of abortion in buffaloes. Serologic procedures and measures developed for the control of the disease in cattle are also effective means of curbing this infection in buffaloes. (Consumption of raw milk or contact with aborted fetuses may cause undulant fever in humans.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mastitis- Among milking buffaloes mastitis is a problem as it is in dairy cows, but to a lesser extent. It is likely to increase, however, as the milk production per individual buffalo is increased. The bacteria that cause mastitis in the buffalo are similar to those in cattle. Treatment and control programs used for cattle are equally effective for buffaloes.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Diseases -Among the epizootic diseases, rinderpest and piroplasmosis seem to affect buffaloes as much as cattle. Foot-and-mouth disease also affects buffaloes, but to a lesser degree than cattle, producing smaller lesions and having a lower incidence. In northern Australia buffaloes deliberately infected with bovine pleuropneumonia bacteria exhibited slight fever, but the disease never appeared. No naturally occurring eases have been reported in buffaloes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ticks -Buffaloes are notably resistant, although not immune, to ticks. In a tick-infested area of northern Australia only 2 engorged female ticks were found on 13 adult buffaloes during a 2-year test. Accordingly, healthy buffaloes are not commonly affected by diseases borne by ticks nor are the hides damaged by their bites. Since ticks are rarely found on buffaloes, anaplasmosis, theileriasis, and babesiosis, which are tick-borne, have little effect on buffaloes in the field. (Buffaloes and cattle are equally susceptible, however, if inoculated with East Coast fever, a form of theileriasis.) This is important because tick infestations in cattle are particularly troublesome in the tropics and the pesticides used to control them are becoming ineffective as the ticks develop resistance. The pesticides are also becoming expensive.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The basis of the buffalo's tick resistance is not known, but wallowing and rubbing may play a role in it; animals kept in experimental concrete pens in Australia have developed heavy tick infestation. (rials carried out on Magnetic Island by R. H. V/harton, Commonwealth Scientiflc and Industrial Research Organisation, Townsville, Queensland, Australia). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p68to69.png"></center><br>
+ Table 6 Some Infections and Parasites of Buffalo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Screwworm- Larvae of the screwworm fly (Callitroge species), a major pest of livestock in Central and South America and some other tropical areas, do not affect adult water buffalo. In Venezuelan areas where cattle (Zebu type) are severely infested, adult water buffaloes are virtually free of screwworm larvae and the umbilicus of newborn calves seldom if ever becomes infected. ( Information supplied by A. Ferrer). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The same is true in Papua New Guinea. It is thought that the mud plaster produced by wallowing suffocates the larvae, but in India screwworms do not affect water buffaloes either, and there they wallow in fairly clear water and the farmer usually washes them off. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roundworm- The heavy losses of young buffalo calves throughout the world are caused, in large measure, by the roundworm Toxocara vitulorum. The calves seem more susceptible than mature animals and they become infected before birth or within 24 hours after birth through the mother's colostrum. The roundworm is the most serious buffalo parasite and in untreated calves the small intestine can get packed with worms to the point of complete occlusion. Although huge numbers of calves die each year, anthelmintic drugs that control roundworms are highly effective and widely available.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The adult water buffalo appears to have a high degree of resistance to strongyloid nematodes. Being such excellent converters of rough fodders they do not suffer the nutritional deficiency and the resulting liability to these roundworms experienced seasonally by cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liver Fluke- During wallowing, water buffaloes can easily become infected with the waterborne infective stages of liver fluke (Fasciola gigantica). Although the number of flukes in a buffalo may be phenomenally high, no clinical signs of the disease are usually evident. It seems likely that the resulting liver damage reduces the growth and the work and milk production of buffaloes more than is generally appreciated.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trypanosomiasis- The water buffalo is susceptible to trypanosomiasis and is reportedly more susceptible than cattle to Trypanosoma evansi.Experience with the animal in Africa is limited, but trypanosomiasis may be the reason why Egypt is the only African country that has traditionally employed water buffalo.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Parasites- The wallow and its resulting mud cake seem to protect water buffalo from many biting flies, but the main ectoparasite in Australia and Southeast Asia is the buffalo fly (Siphona spp.). Pediculosis, caused by the sucking louse (Hematopinus tuberculatus), occurs widely among buffalo, and sarcoptic mange (Sarcoptes scabiei var. bubalus) is a serious disease, especially among calves and during dry seasons when wallowing opportunities are restricted. The lung worm Dictyocaulus ririparus thrives in warm, humid areas and sometimes infects buffaloes heavily, although its outward manifestations are rare.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barlow, J. N. 1977. Toxicology and safety evaluation of Phosvel to Egyptian water buffalo. Pages 517-522 in: Pesticide Management and Insecticide Resistance, edited by D. L. Watson and A. W. A. Brown. Academic Press, New York, New York, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhowmik, M. K., and Iyer, P. K. R. 1977. Studies on the pathology of chronic lesions in the mammary glands of buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). 1. Actinomycosis, nocardiosis and lesions simulating tuberculosis. Indian Veterinary Journal 54(5):342-346.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhowmik, M. K., Singh, S. P., and Iyer, P. K. R. 1977. Studies on chronic mastisis in buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). lndian Journal of Animal Health 16(2) :157-160.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1974. Aspects of disease. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dhar, S., Bhattacharyulu, Y., and Gautam, O. P. 1973. Susceptibility of Indian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) to Theileria annulata infection. Haryana Agricultural University Journal of Research 3(1):27-30.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dwivedi, S. K., Mallick, K. P., and Malhotra, M. N. 1979. Babesiosis: clinical cases in Indian water buffaloes. Indian Veterinary Journal 56(4):333-335.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Griffiths, R. B. 1974. Parasites and parasitic diseases. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hafez, S. M., and Krauss, H. 1979. Detection of antibodies against some respiratory pathogens in the sera of domestic animals in Egypt. Bulletin of Animal Health and Production in Africa 27(3):209-214.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ho, T. M. 1976. Animal disease control program in Republic of China for better animal production. Korean Journal of Animal Science 18(4):317-321.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iannelli, D. 1978. Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis Arnee) allotypes: identification of a multiple allelic system. Animal Blood Groups and Biochemical Genetics 9(2):105113.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kapur, M. P., and Singh, R. P. 1977. Diagnosis of mastitis: a comparative study of four indirect tests.Haryana Veterinarian 16(2):69-73.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leue, A. 1971. Buffaloes in Nepal. Tierartliche Umschau 26(4):173-178.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mohan, R. N. 1968. Diseases and parasites of buffaloes. I. Viral, mycoplasmal, and rickettsial diseases. II. Bacterial and fungal diseases. III. Parasitic and miscellaneous diseases. Veterinary Bulletin 38:567-576, 647-659, 735-756.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Murthy, D. K., and Sharma, S. K. 1974. Studies on reactivity and immunogenecity of cell-culture rinderpest vaccine in different species of ruminants. Indian Journal of Animal Science 44(6):359-365.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">San Agustin, F. 1973. Important diseases and parasites of Carabaos. Philippine Journal of Nutrition 26(2):68-79.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schneider, C. R., Kitikoon, V., Sornmani, S., and Thiachantra, S. 1975. Mekong schistosomiasis. III. A parasitological survey of domestic water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) on Khong Island, Laos. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 69(2):227-232.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, K. N. S., Jain, D. K,, and Noble, D. 1975. Calf mortality in pure and crossbred Zebu cattle and Murrah buffaloes reared artificially from birth. Animal Production 20(2):207-211.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, S. K., Banegee, D. P., and Gautam, O. P. 1978. Anaplasma marginale infection in Indian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Indian Journal of Animal Health 17(2): 105-110.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shaw, J. J., and Lainson, R. 1972. Trypanosoma vivax in Brazil. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 66(1):25-32.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shukla, R. R., and Singh, G. 1972. Studies on tuberculosis amongst Indian buffaloes. Indian Veterinary Journal 49(2):119-123.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soni, J. L. 1978. Suitability of different serological tests for diagnosis of brucellosis in buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). Indian Journal of Animal Science 48(12) :873-881. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tantawi, H. H., Fayed, A. A., Shalaby, M. A., and Skalinsky, E. I. 1979. Isolation, cultivation and characterization of poxviruses from Egyptian water buffaloes .Journal of the Egyptian Veterinary Medical Association 37(4):15-23.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thomson, D. 1977. Diseases of water buffalo in the Northern Territory of Australia. Australian Veterinary Practioner 7(1):50-52.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young, P. L. 1979. Infection of water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) with bovine ephemeral fever virus. Australian Veterinary Journal 55(7):349-350. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">8 Reproduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo has a reputation for being a sluggish breeder, but the average animal is so poorly fed that its reproductive performance is unrepresentative of its capabilities. Without reasonable nutrition the animals cannot reach puberty as early in life or reproduce as regularly as their physiology or genetic capability would normally allow.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Actually, adequately nourished buffaloes reach puberty at about the same age as cattle, as early as 18 months of age in buffalo bulls. In northern Australia Swamp females have conceived even as early as 14 months of age and feral buffaloes routinely conceive at 16 months of age. In the herd at Punjab Agricultural University in Ludhiana, India, 11 River buffalo heifers showed estrus at ages less than 18.5 months and a few came into heat when less than 15 months old. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo also can calve at an age comparable to that of cattle. At the Ain Shams University in Egypt a well-fed Egyptian buffalo herd of several hundred animals has an average age at first calving of 27 months, 22 days(Information supplied by M. El Ashry. Because of nutritional uncertainties, El Ashry and his colleagues believe that body weight is a better indicator of sexual preparedness than age is. These researchers at Ain Shams University recommend mating heifers when they weigh 365 kg no matter what their age. Research at Punjab Agricultural University shows that buffalo heifers can be bred when they weigh over 270 kg and manifest estrus).Most animals in the Punjab Agricultural University River buffalo herd calved before 35 months, one at 28.3 months.! In one Venezuelan herd almost all heifers 20-24 months old were pregnant; virtually all calved before age 38 months, most by 30 months, and one at age 23 months. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In trials in Queensland, Australia, and in Papua New Guinea buffaloes produced more calves over a 3-year period than the cattle tested with them. In the hot, humid Sepik Plains in northern Papua New Guinea it was noticed that female buffaloes (Swamp breed) came into estrus even while they were losing weight because of inadequate nutrition, whereas cattle did not. Under these stressful conditions the buffalo calves also reached sexual maturity earlier and the buffaloes had a higher calving percentage and a shorter calving interval because they came back into estrus more quickly than cattle(Information supplied by J. Schottler. The age at first calving of more than 60 nutritionally poor buffaloes was 38 months in one herd and 45 months for Brahman cross cattle) . Similar observations have been made in Florida, Trinidad, the Brazilian Amazon, Venezuela, and elsewhere. Although these are exceptions to the normal observations in Asia, where buffaloes seem to breed more slowly than cattle, they do demonstrate the buffalo's potential for improved breeding.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estrus in buffalo cows usually lasts about 24 hours, but duration varies and may range from 11 to 72 hours. It occurs on an average 21-day cycle. Determination of when a cow is in estrus is difficult because often the animal shows few outward signs of "heat." This increases the chances of missing a cycle, especially for artificial insemination. Unclean surroundings, poor nutrition, and poor management, cause a high death rate among calves; this also contributes to the buffalo's often low reproductive rate.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many areas, calving is seasonal. This seems to be largely due to changes in nutrition. It may also be caused by heat stress, in either males or females, which results in a low breeding rate during the hot season. However, when buffalo cows are well fed, they come into estrus and will breed in any season.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many matings take place at night and are therefore unobserved. In one set of pregnancy diagnoses in northern Australia, the buffalo's conception rate (81 percent) was higher than that of the Brahman crossbreeds (70 percent) they were with. In India, artificial insemination of water buffaloes began in the late 1950s. Deep-frozen semen is now available and its use is spreading. Overall conception rates of 70-80 percent are obtained. It is estimated that some 100,000 buffaloes are now being artificially inseminated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo's gestation period is about one month longer and is more variable than that of cattle. Whereas cattle give birth after about 280 days (Angus, 279, Holstein, 279-280, Brown Swiss, 286), buffaloes take 300334 days (average 310) or roughly 10 months and 10 days (differences between breeds are unknown). In Punjab, India, River buffaloes have been observed to come into estrus as early as 40 days after calving. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nonetheless, only under uncommon circumstances can a buffalo cow produce a calf each year. In one herd of 800 cows in Venezuela the average female buffalo over age 4 produces 2 calves every 3 years. In response to a recent questionnaire, the majority of Indonesian farmers estimated that the calving rate was between 3 and 4 calves in 5 years. A few claimed a calf a year, some only 1 or 2 calves In 5 years. In Florida it has been noted that some buffalo cows having just calved became pregnant more quickly than cattle, so that a calf may indeed be produced each year. Regular yearly breeding has been noted also in northern Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The incidence of abortion, dystocia, retained placenta, and other parturition problems in buffaloes is similar to that in cattle. Twinning is very rare; probably no more than 0.01 percent of buffalo pregnancies produce twins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Preliminary results in northern Australia indicate that weaning can be carried out as late as 12 months of age without any effect on conception time of the buffalo dam.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bhattacharya, P. 1974. Reproduction. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chauhan, F. S., Singh, N., and Singh, M. 1977. Involution of uterus and cervix in buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 30(4):286-291.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eusibio, A. N. 1975. Breeding, management and feeding practices of buffaloes in the Philippines. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Animal Production and Health Paper. 1979. Buffalo Reproduction and Artificial Insemination. Proceedings of the Seminar Sponsored by FAO/SIDA/Government of India, held at National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132001-India, December 4-15, 1978. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghanem, Y. S. 1955a. Environmental causes of variation in the length of gestation of buffaloes. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 25 :301-311.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghanem, Y. S. 1955b. Genetic causes of variation in the length of gestation of buffaloes. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science 25:307-311.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health, E., and Gupta, R. 1976. Ultrastructure of water buffalo (Bos bubalis) spermatozoa. Zentralblatt fuer Veterinaerrnedizin 23(2):106-120.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Liu, C. H. 1978. The preliminary results of crossbreeding of buffaloes in China. Research Institute for Animal Science of Kwangsi, People's Republic of China.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Matharoo, J. S., and Singh, M. 1980. Revivability of buffalo spermatozoa after deepfreezing the semen using various extenders. Zentralblatt fuer Veterinaermedizin 27(5): 385-391.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rao, A. V. N., Murthy, T. S., and Dutt, K. L. 1979. Effect of lunar cyclicity on oestrus rhythmicity in the Indian water buffalo. Livestock Advisor 4(7):29-30.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rawal, C. V. S. 1978. A study on correlations of weight of pituitary gland and reproductive organs in males of Indian water buffalo. Indian Journal of Heredity 10(3):11-12.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robinson, D. W. 1977. Livestock in Indonesia. Research Report No. 1. Centre for Animal Research and Development, Bogor, Indonesia. (In English and Indonesian.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roy, A. 1974. Observations on the physiology of reproduction. In: The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. CockrilL Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahai, R., and Singhal, R. A. 1977. The sex chromatin profile of water buffaloes of Murrah breed. Indian Journal of Animal &amp;Science 11(2):63-67.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sharma, A. 1978. Studies on the process of spermatogenesis and epididymal sperm reserve in water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Thesis Abstracts, Haryana Agricultural University 4(4):331.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, M., Matharoo, J. S., and Chauhan, F. S. 1980. Preliminary fertility results with frozen buffalo semen in Tris extender. Theriogenology 13(3):191-194.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singh, N., Chauhan, F. S., and Singh, M. 1979. Postpartum ovarian activity and fertility in buffaloes. Indian Journal of Dairy Sefence 32(2): 134-139.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sunkaporn Ratanadilok Na Puket. 1975. The improvement of buffalo production through breeding and management under Thailand conditions. In: Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Takkar, P. O., Chauhan, F. S., Tiwana, M. S., and Singh, M. 1979. Breeding behaviour of buffalo cows. Indian Veterinary Journal 56: 168-172.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toelihere, M. R. 1975. Physiology of reproduction and artificial insemination of water buffaloes. In: The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1968. Incidence of calving and birth weights of domesticated buffalo in the Northern Territory. Proceedings of the Australian Society for Animal Productlon 7: 144-147.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1979. The water buffalo in Australia: reproductive and parent-offspring behaviour of buffalo. Australian Wildlife Research 6:265-287. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">9 Management</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are adaptable and are managed in many ways. In general, they are raised like cattle. But in some operations they must be handled differently. This chapter highlights these differences.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Millions of water buffaloes are managed in "backyards" in Asia. They exist on the resources of small holdings. Management and expenditures are minimal. Care of the family buffalo is usually entrusted to children, old people, or women not engaged in other farm duties; the buffalo allows them to be useful and productive.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo fits the resources available on the farm, but it is also an urban animal. Thousands of herds of 2-20 buffaloes may be found in the cities and towns of India, Pakistan, and Egypt-all fed, managed, and milked in the streets.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, the buffalo has important qualities as a feedlot animal; it can be herded and handled with relative ease because of its placid nature. The Anand Cooperative in India's Gujarat State, which daily contributes thousands of gallons of milk to Operation Flood (the world's largest nutrition project), involves more than 150,000 Surti buffaloes that are fed, managed, and milked by their owners under feedlot-like conditions in their villages. Many of Italy's 100,000 buffaloes are maintained under similar conditions.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes can also be managed on rangelands. In Brazil, Venezuela, Trinidad, the United States, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and elsewhere there is rising interest in raising buffalo beef on the range. The production practices for raising them are similar to those used for range cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes in the humid tropics must be able to cool off. Shade trees are desirable, and although a wallow is not essential, it is probably the most effective way the animal has of coping with heat. Alternatively, water showers may be provided to wet down the animals 3-5 times during the hottest part of the day.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are intelligent animals. Young ones learn patterns quickly and often are reluctant to change their habits. Feral animals-even those born in the wild-tame down after a week or two in a fenced enclosure to the point where many can be handled, haltered, and hand fed(In one example, loo feral buffalo were captured in Northern Territory, Australia. With in 14 days all the animals-males and females, young and old-had become docile and amenable to handling. -Information supplied by D. G. Tulloch) . Among feral herds of northern Australia it has been observed that buffaloes have clans and families. A female calf seems to remain with its family and mother for many years (possibly for life). A male calf stays until it is about 2 years old, when it is driven from the group by an adult bull. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has also been noted in northern Australia that free-ranging buffaloes instinctively select clean water areas to drink from, other areas to wallow in, and still others as "toilet areas." In addition, China's buffaloes reportedly are being "toilet trained" to defecate only at specific sites to avoid contaminating waterways with schistosome eggs.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another interesting observation from northern Australia is that most buffalo dams readily adopt a calf that has been orphaned by the death of its mother. In fact, females will allow several calves to nurse (including calves of other mothers and sometimes even adults).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes are also self-reliant. For several months each year in Vietnam and Malaysia, for instance, they are turned loose in the forests to fend for themselves.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Provision of adequate fencing is one of the great problems of buffalo management. The  animals have strong survival instincts and if feed runs short, such as in the dry season,  they will break through fences that would deter cattle who would remain and starve. They  will also break through fences if their family unit is split up. Barriers must be stronger  than those used for cattle and the wires closer together and lower to the ground because  buffaloes lift fences up with their horns rather than trample them down. In northern  Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Costa Rica it has been found that buffaloes are  particularly sensitive to electric fences (a single wire is all that is needed), and in Brazil a  special suspension fence has been devised(Moura Carvalho et al., 1979). Both of these  seem to be cheap and efficient answers to the fencing problem.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are easily handled from horseback and easily worked through a corral.  Actually, because of their docility they can be mustered on foot, even on ranges where  cattle require horses. Unless they come from different areas they tend to herd together  and can be mustered like sheep.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the major management adjustments to be made by cattlemen is understanding  and capitalizing on the buffalo's placid nature. Buffaloes are naturally timid and startle  easily; they must be handled quietly and calmly. Rough handling, wild riding, and loud  shouting make handling them more difficult and training them much harder.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village buffaloes are led and managed by a ring threaded through the septum between  the nostrils. The technique is frequently applied crudely and cruelly, often resulting in a  ripped septum.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The identification of individual buffaloes is difficult. Fire brands do not remain legible on  the skin for long. Cryobranding (freeze branding) is more durable. Most types of ear tags  are not very successful; the numbers wear off and mud covers up the tag's color. In  northern Australia ear tattooing has been the most successful identification technique,  with tattoos remaining legible for at least 8 years(Between 1958 and 1962 hundreds of  Australian buffalo were shipped on the hoof to the meat markets in Hong Kong without  trouble, despite crowded shipboard conditions and the long sea voyage. But in 1962 one  roughly treated bull went berserk in Hong Kong and killed a handler, and the Hong Kong  authorities stopped the trade as a result, although the problem was really one of  mismanagement. Buffalo have since been sent by air from Australia to Venezuela,  Nigeria, and Papua New Guinea and by barge to Papua New Guinea. No handling  problems have been experienced en route).  When they pasture together, cattle and  buffaloes coexist satisfactorily. They segregate themselves into their own groups and do  not interfere with one another. The buffaloes, however, usually dominate the cattle and  tend to monopolize the areas with the best feed supply.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Feed troughs and mineral boxes used for cattle are suitable for buffaloes, but chutes and  crushes must be widened to accommodate the buffalo's broader body and, when  necessary, the Swamp buffalo's greater horn spread. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes are powerful  swimmers. In Brazil they have been known to escape by swimming down the Amazon River. An unusual management difficulty is caused by piranha in the rivers and swamps of Venezuela. In one herd of 100 heifer buffaloes, 40 have lost all or part of a teat to these voracious fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The horns of water buffaloes are seldom removed or prevented from growing, a  testament to the animal's docility. (When questioned, one Thai villager said that he wouldn't  allow it because it would be a disgrace to the buffalo.) However, the animals can be  dehorned as calves in the same manner as cattle. They are then easier to handle In  chutes and cause less accidental injury to neighboring animals, handlers, walls, and  trees.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benya, E. G. 1972. Cattle and buffalo production in Vietnam. Dairy Science Mimeo  Report, Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, Gainesville, Florida, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cockrill, W. R. 1974. Management, conservation and use. In: The Husbandry and Health  of the Domestic Buffalo, edited by W. R. Cockrill. Food and Agriculture Organization of  the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">De Boer, A. J. 1976. A further report on the Taiwan livestock industry: general policy  conclusions and further research needs. Journal of Agricultural Economics 19:116129.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lin, C. H. 1975. The breeding, management and feeding of water buffaloes in Taiwan. In:  The Asiatic Water Buffalo. Proceedings of an International Symposium held at Khon  Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, Taipei,  Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">McDowell, R. E. 1972. Improvement of Livestock Production in Warm Climates. W. H.  Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moura Carvalho, L. O. D., LouIenco, J. B., Nascimento, C. N. B., and Costa, N. A. 1979.  Cerca de Contencao pare Bubalinos e Bovinos. Comunicado Tecnico No. 28,  Agricultural Research Center for the Humid Tropics (CPATU), Belem, Para, Brazil.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rufener, W. H. 1975. Management and productive performance of water buffalo in  northeast Thailand. In: The Asiatic TVater Buffalo. Proceedings of an International  Symposium held at Khon Kaen, Thailand, March 31-April 6, 1975. Food and Fertilizer  Technology Center, Taipei, Taiwan.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1978. The water buffalo in Australia: grouping and home range. Australian  Wildlife Research 5:327-354.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1979. Redomestication of water buffaloes in the Northern Territory of  Australia. Animal Regulation Studies 2(1):5-20.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">10 Environmental Effects</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The grazing and wallowing habits of water buffaloes may have unexpected consequences when the animals are introduced to new, perhaps fragile environments. The presence of several thousand feral buffaloes on the coastal plains of northern Australia, for example, has become a very emotional issue among Australian environmentalists, some of whom foretell the complete destruction of the environment if the uncontrolled feral herds are not destroyed( It is not at all clear, however, that the buffaloes (which have existed in the area for 150 years) are causing the observed environmental degradation. Other possibilities include: fire, climatic stress, overgrazing, and a variety of farming, hunting, and other human activities, especially the use of four-wheel-drive vehicles. Thousands of wild pigs also share the area, along with crayfish that burrow into and weaken the levees that keep out the sea, something for which the buffaloes have been blamed). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soil Compaction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes have larger hooves than cattle of comparable size and thus they compact the soil less. But buffaloes often live in damp, boggy areas where their feet may compact soft soils. Also, buffaloes are creatures of habit and, when able, they set up fixed points for drinking, feeding, defecating, wallowing, and sleeping. Between the points they wear sharply defined trails in the vegetation and soil.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wallowing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Possibly the water buffalo's greatest environmental limitation is its propensity to build wallows. In hot climates every buffalo will wallow at some time during the heat of the day if water is available. When they can, buffaloes will make their own wallows, enlarging a mud puddle by rolling in it or even using their heads to flip water out of a drinking trough and muddying the ground nearby.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pasture in the immediate area of the wallow is usually damaged by trampling and waterholes may become fouled, but buffaloes return to the same wallow day after day and do not build new ones indiscriminately. Thus, the muddied area is not a large proportion of the location in which they graze unless a large number of animals are confined in a small space(At Gainesville, Florida (possibly because of its subtropical but not hot climate), a herd of 52 buffaloes concentrated in a one-hectare field did not attempt to build a wallow at ale -Information supplied by H. Popenoe.) . In addition, man-made wallows can be dug at safe sites and the animals will use them. The problem of wallowing is therefore not generally a serious one.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Damage to Waterways</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because buffaloes often live near and enter water freely, they may cause erosion in ditches, river banks, canals, and levees. Also, their wallowing muddies the water, which may adversely affect some fish species and reduce the growth of algae. Buffaloes commonly urinate and defecate in the water, possibly creating a pollution hazard, although in most situations this contamination is likely to be minor.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The presence of this herbivore in natural waterways may reduce the number of water plants. Some plants are trampled, some eaten, and some underwater species are suppressed because the muddied water transmits less light. This (and several other of the buffalo's environmental effects) can be turned to advantage (see picture page 85) when, as often occurs, aquatic plants grow out of control and become obnoxious weeds.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Damage to Pastures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water buffaloes have very strong jaws, and when forage is sparse they graze it close to the ground; this overgrazing can destroy a pasture. In addition, they eat virtually all available plant material (including many species that cattle shun), so that a densely stocked pasture can become completely defoliated. In northern Australia it has been found that, with time, buffaloes become accustomed to a given pasture, and unless fences are strong they will instinctively return to it until the forage has been depleted.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The buffalo's inclination to eat many plants can be used to improve the environment and suppress growth of coarse weedy species of plants. On the Sepik Plains in Papua New Guinea buffaloes are being used to graze and suppress sedges (Cyperus species), as a result, the more desirable Paspalum species are beginning to appear. At Mount Bundy in northern Australia native pastures are being improved on a commercial scale by overstocking them with buffaloes. The animals reduce or completely eliminate spear grass and other weeds-even those with thorns-and thus foster the survival and growth of introduced forage legumes such as stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis). In Sri Lanka buffaloes have been used to graze out the vigorous tropical grass Imperata cylindrica.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Damage to Trees</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffaloes instinctively rub against trees (and walls and fences), eagerly browse leaves, and sometimes nibble bark, so they damage trees more so than cattle. In northern Australia it has been noted that each "family herd" of feral buffaloes selects one or two trees for rubbing against so that the rubbing damage is confined to them. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Selected Readings</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rajapske, G., 1950. Death of illuk. Ceylon Coconut Quarterly, 1:7-9.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1969. Home range in feral water buffalo. Australian Journal of Zoology 17:143-152.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1970. Seasonal movement and distribution of the sexes in the water buffaloes in the Northern Territory. Australian Journal of Zoology 18:399-414.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1975. Buffalo in the northern swamplands. Proceedings III of the World Conference on Animal Production. Theme 1, Paper 7.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tulloch, D. G. 1977. Some aspects of the ecology of the water buffalo in the Northern Territory. In: The Australian buffalo-a collection of papers, edited by B. D. Ford and D. G. Tulloch. Technical Bulletin No. 18, Department of the Northern Territory, Animal Industry and Agriculture Branch, Australian Government Printing Service, Canberra, Australia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">11 Recommendations and Research Needs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has outlined the water buffalo's apparent merits, but most of the statements made about the animal are based on empirical observations. Many of its most exciting and potentially valuable features have not been subjected to the careful scrutiny needed to confirm their validity.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the fact that there are 130 million or more water buffalo in the world, research on the animal is scanty and limited to only a few situations and sites. Quantitative information (especially for the various breeds), tests, trials, and comparison studies are needed.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The research to be done on the water buffalo offers scientific challenges that can be undertaken in laboratories and experiment stations in most parts of the world and in many disciplines: breeding, physiology, microbiology, veterinary science, nutrition, food science, dairy science, and other fields. Water buffalo research is an area worthy of financial support by philanthropic institutions and international development agencies concerned with problems of food and resource shortages. The dominant role of the buffalo in the rural economies of Egypt and Asian countries offers the opportunity for buffalo research that can bring improvements quickly and easily to the rural poor. For other countries the water buffalo is an untapped resource, and they should test its productivity on native pasturelands, marshy lowlands, hot and humid areas where cattle do not thrive, and on areas prone to cattle diseases and parasites that are difficult to control.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Specific recommendations follow.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Comparison with Cattle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal scientists worldwide should undertake trials to compare growth rate, feeding, nutrition, breeding, and other aspects of buffalo and cattle performance.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cattle and water buffaloes are obviously different animals. Each has its own limitations and advantages, and each deserves to be studied in its own right. Perhaps the quickest way for animal scientists to experience for themselves the merits of the water buffalo is to conduct their own comparative trials with buffaloes and cattle in their areas. The results will provide local guidance and will help extend recognition of the buffalo's value, especially under difficult conditions where it may exceed cattle in productivity and profitability.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Germ Plasm Preservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Urgent action is needed, especially in Southeast Asia, to preserve and protect outstanding buffalo specimens.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In some countries (Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia, for example) buffalo populations are decreasing dramatically. High demands for meat are causing slaughter at younger and younger ages. Much of the meat is exported to restaurants and markets in Singapore and Hong Kong. Unfortunately, the largest and quickest growing animals are often selected for slaughter. This results in the loss of a major genetic resource, which is compounded by the practice of castrating the largest males to make them more tractable as work animals. Ten years ago in Thailand it was common to find buffalo weighing 1,000 kg; now it is hard to find 750-kg specimens. A similar situation exists in the Philippines where there is no dearth of good breeding stock, but butchers are paying such high prices that farmers are selling even quality animals for slaughter. In northern Australia, where some of the bulls weigh almost 1,200 kg, the largest animals are being shot for meat, hides, pet food, or sportsmen's trophies,  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A large number of high-yielding buffaloes are taken each year to big cities in India (for example, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras) for milking. At the end of lactation many are returned to the villages, but many others are slaughtered, rather than being fed and retired. This creates a huge loss of valuable germ plasm. In many locations most of the largest animals have already been lost. Only urgent action will protect those remaining.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International Shipment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo quarantine stations should be organized in "disease-free" areas to develop buffalo germ plasm pools for international exchange.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The importation of buffaloes presents difficulties for any government, researcher, or farmer wishing to obtain the animals for the first time or for breeding purposes. Quarantine laws make it extremely difficult and expensive to exchange genetic resources.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia is one of the few nations where there are large numbers of water buffalo in an area free of the major animal diseases. Papua New Guinea, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria, Colombia, Venezuela, and other nations have taken advantage of this and have  imported Australian buffaloes. But Australian herds are all Swamp buffaloes(The island  of Guam is also a safe source of Swamp animals, although the feral herds there are  depleted, only 300 or 400 animals were left on Guam in 1978) and so breeding centers  should be set up also (in Sri Lanka and Italy perhaps) where importers can obtain  River-type (including Mediterranean) buffaloes.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genetic Improvement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide efforts should be made to select superior buffalo bulls and cows for breeding.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Performance testing, leading to the mass selection of superior animals, deserves high  priority. Virtually all buffalo breeding is haphazard and unplanned. Village animals graze  together and matings are usually not con" trolled, observed, or recorded. Thus, the full  genetic potential of the water buffalo is not being realized.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A massive selection program is needed to bring about genetic progress. For each breed,  bulls and cows with the potential for improving production of meat and milk and  increasing draft power should be identified and used for breed improvement. However,  the wide variations between the characteristics of individual animals may make  exceptional genetic advances difficult to achieve quickly.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Important traits for culling and selection include behavior, temperament, reproduction  rate, easy milk letdown, average daily gain in weight or weight at a given age, carcass  quality (for example, large hindquarters), and milk production, as well as strength and  endurance for work.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Crossbreeding of Swamp and River buffaloes is a potentially important route to genetic  improvement. The progeny reportedly show hybrid vigor (heterosis) in milking ability,  fertility, meat production, and working ability. Infusing genes for high milk production into  the Swamp buffalo, now used mainly for meat and work, creates the potential for a  triple-purpose animal.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The use of artificial insemination and deep-frozen semen should be a major help in  upgrading the buffalo. Moreover, the transport of live embryos (rather than neonatal  animals) for implantation in the uterus of surrogate mothers could be important for water  buffalo. It seems unlikely, however, that buffalo embryos can be implanted in cattle.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most genetic selections should be made in Asia where 97 percent of the world's water  buffaloes are located. The improvements will depend on how accurately bulls can be  identified, selected, and mated. Performance and  progeny testing is sorely needed at research stations as well as "on the farm." Governments should also institute bull-loan or artificial-insemination programs as a means for upgrading the village herds.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Comparison of Breeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The relative merits of the various buffalo breeds should be determined,  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little or no information is available on the comparative performance of the different buffalo breeds in various environments, especially the 17 or so River breeds in the Subcontinent and the Egyptian and Mediterranean breeds. Comparison trials of the breeds and breed-crosses are needed in a wide range of climates from the humid tropical to the temperate. In addition, the cytogenetic, immunogenetic, and inheritance relationships of breeds should be clarified.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel encourages countries such as India and Pakistan that have a number of buffalo breeds (for example, Murrah, Surti, Jafarabadi, Mehsana, and Nili/Ravi) to set up experimental farms for scientific reproduction of superior specimens. Substantial research benefits as well as profitable economic returns from using and exporting some of them would be realized.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meat and Milk Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and demonstration is needed to foster the widespread consumption of buffalo meat and milk.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo milk, cheese, and other dairy products are considered outstanding foods in all locations where they are produced. Taste tests so far have indicated that buffalo meat is similar or slightly superior to beef produced under the same conditions.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A specific need is to feed the male calves and use them for meat. Many are now slaughtered at a young age and light weight. Research that provides either a partial or complete milk substitute for feeding calves would have a major impact on meat supplies and farmer income. Diets being developed for calves in Egypt incorporate such ingredients as whey, soybean meal, corn flour (corn starch), and yeast.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other research topics include:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The effect of climate, thermoregulation, and wallowing on meat and milk production;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The meat characteristics of each of the breeds and the differences between them,  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Milk production and quality for each of the breeds;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Adapting buffaloes to machine milking by genetic selection or by designing new milking  machinery;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Developing new or improved milk products (such as yogurt, cottage cheese, and hard  cheese); and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Banking genetically superior germ plasm for later use.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Work Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel recommends research on new harnesses to replace the omnipresent yoke.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As already noted, the wooden yoke, which has not changed in 1,500 years or more, is an  inefficient harness. Research is needed to adapt horse collars, hames, breast straps,  and other devices for the buffalo. Because much of the farm power in Asia comes from  buffaloes, the impact of improved harness could be dramatic, widespread, and of  enormous value to millions of small farmers there. If the experiments in Thailand  described earlier are an indication, the farm power in Asia could be increased by 25  percent overnight with the adoption of an improved harness. The buffalo will continue to  be the small farmer's "tractor," so the benefits from improved harnesses are likely to  continue for a long time.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are 13 million buffalo and bullock carts in India and 20 million Indians are engaged  in the business of road haulage. Application of appropriate technology would eliminate  the archaic wooden wheels, axles, and heavy carts and substitute lightweight carts,  perhaps with such features as metal wheels, pneumatic tires, ball bearings, and fixed  axles. With such improvements, loads might be increased and hauled over longer  distances at greater speed and with less work.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trials in New Areas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Testing of water buffalo production is needed in many areas where the animal is not  known.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A seemingly adaptable animal, the water buffalo should be productive throughout the  earth's warm temperate, subtropical, and tropical zones. Different breeds may adapt  differently to extremes of heat, humidity, and cold, and this needs further study.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United States, the Mediterranean Basin of Europe, and some of the more temperate  European areas like southern England are worth considering for water buffalo trials. In the Southern Hemisphere River buffaloes are already found as far south as 25° latitude in Brazil's Sao Paulo State (where large herds are raised); an experimental herd of Swamp buffaloes has performed outstandingly in Brisbane, Australia (27°S); and there are a few Swamp buffalo in South Australia and Victoria (35°S or more). There is good reason to believe that water buffaloes may be productive in all of the states in Australia, New Zealand's North Island, South Africa, Argentina, and other warm temperate areas of the Southern Hemisphere.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biggest void in the water buffalo map is virtually the entire continent of Africa. It seems a paradox that the buffalo-Egypt's most important domestic animal-is not farmed commercially in any other African country. Experimental herds have been introduced to Nigeria, Uganda, Mozambique, Tanzania, and other countries in the past, and the initial success of three of them is described in Appendix A.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The water buffalo, with its tolerance for heat, disease, poor-quality feed, and mismanagement, appears to have outstanding promise for African nations such as Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco, Senegal, and The Gambia as well as all nations south of the Sahara (Nambia perhaps being an exception).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More specific aspects of environmental tolerance deserving research attention are:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The physiology of the buffalo's response to heat, cold, humidity, and other environmental factors;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The effect of climate on growth, reproduction, milk production, health, respiration rate, behavior, and carcass quality; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Measurement of the calorific efficiency and chemical composition of all breeds of buffaloes and cattle to determine the environments best suited to each breed.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nutrition Research</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite observations of the buffalo's ability to utilize poor quality forage, research is needed to learn how the animal does it.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This research should:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Establish the buffalo's nutrient requirements by breed, sex, age, and weight for maintenance, growth, reproduction, lactation, and work;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Determine voluntary forage consumption and the nutrient utilization of different forages in various stages of maturity;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Examine rumen microbiology and fermentation, the rate of digestion, production, and absorption of volatile fatty acids produced in the rumen, and utilization of energy, nitrogen, vitamins, and minerals; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Develop milk replacements for early~weaned calves;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Observe the current village-level feeding of low~uality forages to learn their nutrient requirements, nutrient deficiency diseases, and nutrient supplementation needed;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Study the utilization of concentrated, high-energy feeds (especially byproduct feeds) to determine the upper limits of buffalo growth and productivity (milk, meat, and work) and carcass quality;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Compare various breeds of water buffaloes and other ruminants to determine possible differences in nutritional requirements and performance; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Apply economic research to production practices, including night feeding of cut forage and the use of improved pastures.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Management</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research to improve management practices could benefit small farmers, ranchers, and feedlot feeders alike.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Little is known about the farm management factors that influence water buffalo productivity. Studies and extension literature for farmers are needed on subjects such as:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Proper fencing;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Procedures for dehorning and for preventing horn growth in calves;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Grazing management methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Preservation of forages;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Methods and effect of castration;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Methods and effect of spaying;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Breeding methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Milking methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Artificial insemination, methodology and use;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Methods of handling animals under grazing conditions or in feedlots;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Age for weaning under different conditions;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Mineral and protein supplementation methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Semen freezing;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Ova transplantation methods;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cryobranding and other methods of animal identification;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Control of internal parasites; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Disease prevention and treatments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed in areas where uncertainties about buffalo diseases are hindering  the animals' use.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The research should:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Develop control and management practices to prevent specific infections and parasites  for buffalo groups such as calves, yearlings, heifers, pregnant cows, newly calved cows,  and bulls;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Elucidate the factors (genetic, nutritional,management, disease) causing losses of  newly born calves;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Prevent and control the major diseases and parasites of the buffalo: hemorrhagic  septicemia, brucellosis, tuberculosis, foot-and-mouth disease, sarcoptic mange,  fascioliasis, nematode parasites, rinderpest and "rinderpestlike" diseases, nephritis, and  conjunctivitis;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Develop herd-health programs and specific disease-control programs for the various  production systems;  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Determine the level of susceptibility to trypanosomiasis, a disease that might mitigate  against introducing the animal widely to Africa; and  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Define the buffalo's role in malarial ecology.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproduction</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research is needed to improve water buffalo reproduction.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research topics should include:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Physiology and deep-freezing of buffalo semen. (Although it is possible to freeze the  buffalo semen now, further improvements are needed to achieve higher conception  rates.)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Incidence of sub-estrus and anestrus. This is fairly high in buffaloes. Work is needed to  determine the factors contributing to this problem and find solutions applicable in the  field. A simple, inexpensive test for the routine diagnosis of estrus is needed. It could  ensure that buffaloes are inseminated at the optimal time and could lead to the possible  synchronizing of estrus in groups of animals as well as the elimination of seasonal  breeding.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Seasonality of breeding. Investigations are needed into seasonal effects on the intensity  and deviation of estrus in buffaloes. Most of the buffaloes in northern India and Pakistan,  for example, calve between July and December, causing scarcity of milk in the summer  season and a flush of production in the winter months (this phenomenon causes serious  marketing problems).  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Low libido and low semen yield in buffalo bulls. Semen yield in buffalo bulls is less than half of the yield from cattle bulls.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Effect of season and other factors on semen quality.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Variation in the freezability of semen from different bulls.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dissemination of Information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel recommends that two water buffalo publications be produced.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These should be:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· An international water buffalo newsletter. It is important to maintain communication among researchers working with the water buffalo in far flung research stations, universities, missions, and villages. Research findings may not be widely shared if technical animal science journals and the one or two national newsletters now available remain the only source of water buffalo information. A newsletter would bring together results from different parts of the world. It would provide rapid exchange of information as well as a forum for informal opinions, observations, and preliminary experimental data that are usually not accepted by journals.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A formal journal of water buffalo research.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, other methods for disseminating water buffalo information are to be encouraged. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix A</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Water Buffalo in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the water buffalo, Africa is the unknown continent. Apart from Egypt, where the  "gamoosa" is a major livestock resource, there have been few recorded experiences  with the animal in Africa. While this may be attributed to disease, chances are it is  because of historical oversight.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small herds of buffaloes were recently introduced to Uganda, Tanzania, and Nigeria, but  because there were so few animals no firm conclusions can be drawn. Initial  observations, however, suggest that the water buffalo could have an important future role  in Africa, south of the Sahara. There seems little reason to believe that they won't thrive  there as they have done elsewhere in the tropics.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The following statements were provided by researchers involved in the enterprises.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"Uganda imported a herd of 12 buffalo cows and one bull in 1969. Grazed on poor-quality  unimproved pasture they received neither supplementary feeding nor any preferential  treatment over the East African zebus kept with them. The herd stayed 7 years at  Entebbe before being moved to another part of the country. They proved to be very  efficient converters of the low protein, high-fber fodder. During this time the herd grew to  40 adult cows and 2 bulls (all other steers were slaughtered). The cows calved every  year. The calves matured at 2 to 21/2 years; the zebu calves took at least 3 years to  mature. Buffalo calves were much heavier than the zebus of comparable age.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"The buffalo cows averaged 7 liters of milk per milking. In taste it was preferred to zebu  milk. Also, the quality of the meat after slaughter was much better than that of the zebus.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">"A major advantage the buffaloes had over the cattle was that they were remarkably  unaffected by diseases endemic to the area. Apart from a few calves that died of  diseases that also killed cattle on the farm at Entebbe, the buffaloes resisted tick-borne  diseases, the biggest killers of cattle in Uganda, and were unaffected by the virulent  strains of East Coast Fever (Theileriosis), Uganda's most serious endemic animal  disease."(Information supplied by G. L. Corry, Director, Veterinary Research Services, Entebbe  Uganda)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Early in 1976, 194 buffaloes aged 6-9 months were imported from the environs of Darwin in Australia's Northern Territory. The animals settled down quite well, and by the end of 1978 the stock population had risen to about 320, the adults weighing about 400 kg with about 80 percent fertility. The animals were in excellent health when an outbreak of streptothricosis occurred early in 1979. Because of the intractable nature of this rare disease of cattle, sheep, and pigs, the apparent spread of the disease in the confined area of the ranch, and the persistence of the organism, the animals were slaughtered(nformation supplied by Dr. J. E. Erhiaganoma, Chief Veterinary Officer, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Benin City, Bendel State of Nigeria)..  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania introduced 21 buffalo heifers and 2 buffalo bulls from Egypt in 1968 and 1970. By 1977 the herd had grown to 150 animals. They were kept at the Livestock Production Research Institute at Mpwapwa, a site representative of central Tanzania(Mpwapwa is located at an elevation of 1,000 m. It receives an annual rainfall of 700 mm during a single season between late November and early May. Mean minimum temperatures of 13°C occur in June, and mean maximum temperatures of 26°C occur in November). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over a period of 10 years the buffalo were studied and compared with crossbreeds of local Mpwapwa cows and Friesian steers. On average, the buffaloes conceived and calved 4 months earlier than the cattle, their mean calving intervals were about a month shorter, their birth and weaning weights were 1.5 times higher, and their daily weight gain was about double that of the crossbred cattle. The milk yield from the buffaloes was only about two thirds that of the crossbred cattle, but their rnilk's high butterfat content meant that the overall butterfat production was higher in buffaloes.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Figures reported are shown below:  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p98.png"></center><br>
+ Table</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a second study (Shoo, R A. 1980. A study of the performance of Egyptian water buffaloes. Student project, Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Medicine, University of Dar-Es-Salaam, Morogoro, Tanzania.), 30 buffaloes and 34 Mpwapwa cattle (not the crossbreeds) were compared(Mpwapwa cattle are a Tanzanian breed with 55 percent Asian, 35 percent African, and 10 percent European blood). The calving intervals were 396 + 126 days for buffaloes and 437 + 109 days for cattle. The buffaloes first conceived at mean ages of 23-25 months (matings occurred in both wet and dry seasons), the cattle at 27-36 months. The buffaloes calved at 35 months, the cattle at 46 months.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On farms at Ruvu and Mabuki the calving rate was 63 percent, and the mortality rate 1.2-6.9 percent(Rakha, A. 1980. water buffalo Production, Tanzania. Report of the technical Cooperation Program TCP/URT/9002, Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations, Rome, Italy). The buffalo's overall milk yields averaged 1,237 kg in 225 days, or 5.5 kg per day.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results of the introduction of buffalo to Tanzania are considered "quite encouraging and the future of buffaloes in Tanzania will be bright." (Oloufa, M. M. 1981. The future of water buffaloes in Tanzania Paper presented at the Tanzania Society of Animal Production Eighth Scientific Conference, Arusha, Tanzania May 26-29, 1981.) Future plans call for increasing the herd to about 200 animals with a view toward establishing another buffalo herd. In addition, 5 buffalo sires have been selected in Egypt for shipment to Tanzania.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix B</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Contacts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A directory of names in buffalo studies and research is available from the International Buffalo Information Center, Kasetsart University Library, Bangkhen, Bangkok 10900, Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Industry Branch, Department of Primary Production, P.O. Box 5160, Darwin, Northern Territory 5790 (D.R. Thomson, B. Ford)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Berrimah Agricultural Research Station, Darwin, Northern Territory</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coastal Plains Research Station, near Darwin, Northern Territory</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D. G. Tulloch, P.O. Box 38841, Winnellie 5789, Northern Territory</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Queensland, Department of Animal Husbandry, St. Lucia, Queensland (D.D. Charles)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associacao de Criadores de Bufalos do Brasil, Cx Postal 832, Sao Paulo (President, Dr. Paulo Joaquim Monteiro da Silva)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centro de Pesquisa Agropecuaria do Tropico Umido (Agricultural Reseach Center of the Humid Tropics), Caixa Postal, 48, Belem, Para, 66000  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faculdade de Medicina Veterinaria e Zootecnia (Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnology), Universidade Estadual "Julio de Mesquita Filho," Campus de Botucatu, Estado de Sao Paulo  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto de Zootecnia (Institute of Zootechnology), Nova Odessa, Sao Paulo (Prof. Alberto Alves Santiago)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr. Geraldo Mosse, Rua Apinages 716-CEP, 05017, Sao Paulo, S.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr. Walmore Muller Lacort, Ministerio de agriculture Explanada des Ministerios, Bloco 8-50 Andar Sala 518, 70.000 Brasilia, D.F.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bulgaria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Sofia (P. Ivanov, Z. Zahariev)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Buffalo Basis, Livestock Breeding Research Institute, Shumen (Dr. D. St. Polikhronov, Director; Dr. A. Alexis)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">China</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Nanking Agricultural College, Nanking (Professor Sieh Chen-Hsia)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kwangsi Agriculture College, Nanning, Kwangsi (Professor Wang Pei Chien</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Farm, Lu Hsu, Pinyang County, Kwasngsi Chang Autonomous Region</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Institute for Animal Science, Nanning, Kwangsi (Dr. Chou Chi-Sheng)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Singchow Dairy Farm, Kwangtung Province</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Costa Rica</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jose Luis Pacheco, Director, Dept Formento, 8502 JAPDEVA, Puerto Limon</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Egypt</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ain Shams University, Kasr-EI-Zaafran, Abbasiyah, Cairo (M.A. El-Ashry, A.M. El-Serafy)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Production, College of Agriculture, Cairo University, Cairo (Dr. M.T. Ragab)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Alexandria, 22 Al-Gueish Avenue, Shatby, Alexandria (K. El-Shazly)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Federal Republic of Germany</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr. R. Dunkel, Herzeleidstrasse 39, 5330 Konigswinter 41, Bonn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. Dr. H. Fischer, Insitut fur Tropische Veterinarmedizin, Wilhelmstr. 15, 6300 Giessen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gesellschaft fur Agrarentwicklung (GAE), Meckenheimer Allee 113, 5300 Bonn 1</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hungary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Kovacs, Department of Animal Husbandry, Agricultural University, Deak F. -u16, 8361Keszthely  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">India</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Hyderabad, A.P. (Director of Research)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Husbandry Commissioner, Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Sciences, Director General, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Buffalo Breeding Farm, Sambalpua, PO: Sunbeda, Distt. Kerapur, Orissa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Frozen Semen Bank, Hessarghatta, Bangalore, Kamataka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Murrah Breeding Farm, Almadi, Tamil Nadu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Surti Buffalo Farm, Dhamrod, Gujarat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chief Superintendent, Govenment Livestock Farm, Hissar, Haryana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Chandra Sekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Mathura Campus, Mathura, U.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Co-ordinator, All India Buffalo Improvement Project, Natioal Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, (Dr. V. N. Tripathi)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director, Military Dairy Farm, Army Headquarters, Quatermaster, General Branch, DHQ PO New Delhi 11  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G.B. Pant, University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, U.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government Livestock Farm, Anjora Distt: Durg, Madhya Pradesh</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gujarat Agricultural University, Reproductive Biology Research Unit, PO Anand Agricultural Institute, Anand, Gujarat  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haryana Agricultural University , Hissar, Haryana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Barcilly, V.P. (Dr. S.K. Ranjan)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, 482004, M.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kaira District Cooperative Milk Producers Union Ltd., Anand, Gujarat (Dr. V. Kurien, Chairman)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Dairy Development Board, Anand, Gujarat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Dairy Research Institute (ICAR), Karnal 132002, Haryana (S.P. Arora, Dr. D. Sundaresan, Director)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab (Dr. J.S. Ichhponani, Dr. S.K. Misra)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwar Campus, Dharwar, Karnataka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">University of Udaipur, Udaipur, Rajasthan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balai Inseminasi Buatan Lembang, Jawa Barat (Dr. R.D. Simangunsong)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Directorate of Animal Husbandry, Department of Agriculture, Jl Salemba Raya 16, Jakarta (Dr. Jaman Zailani)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pusat Penelitian den Pengambangan Ternak (Centre for Animal Research and Development), Bogor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iraq</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Rearing Station, Abu Ghraib, Baghdad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Italy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Production and Health Division, FAO,00100 Rome</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associazione Provinciale Allevatori, via Redentare, Caserta (Professore de Franciscis,Presidente)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto de Ricerche soll'Adattamento Bovini e dei Bufali, Ponticelli, Napoli (Director: Pro£ Lino Ferrara)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto Sperimentale per la Zootecnica, via Onofrio Panvino, Rome (Prof. A. Pilla)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Instituto Sperimentale per la Zootecnice di Roma, via Salaria 31, 00016, Monterotondo Scalo (Dr. Augusto Romita)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ugo Jemma, Torre Lupara, 81050 Pastorano, near Caserta</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Japan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. Shimuzu, The University of Tsukuba, Sakura-mura niihar gun ibaraki-ken 300-311</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Animal Husbandry Station, Kluang</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University Pertanian, Serdang, Selangor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Serdang, Selangor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Artificial Insemination Project, Tfipureshwar, Kathmandu (Dr. A.C. Gupta)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Division, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Kathmandu (Dr. N.D. Joshi)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pakistan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">College of Animal Husbandry, Lahore (Dr. Mohammad Shafi Chaudhry)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Reproduction, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad (Dr. Rashid Ahmad Chaudhary)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock Production Research Institute, Bahadurnagar District, Sahiwat, Punjab (Dr. S.K. Shah, Director)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Punjab Veterinary Research Institute, Lahore 13</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panama</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hugo Giraoud, Apartado 60-2745, El Dorado</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Primary Industry, ERAP, P.O. Box. 348, Lae (John H. Schottler)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sepik Plains Livestock Station, Ufimo via Wewak, E.S.P.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Science Department, Central Luzon State University, Muiloz, Nueva Ecija</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">College of Veterinary Medicine, University of the Philippines Systems, Diliman, Quezon City Dairy Development Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, Sta. Mesa, Metro Manila (Dr. Conrado A. Valdez)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dairy Training and Research Institute, University of the Philippines at Los Banos, College, Laguna 3720  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Science, University of the Philippines at Los Banos, College, Laguna 3720 (Dr. V. C. Momongon)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Documentation Center on Water Buffalo, University of the Philippines at Los Banos Library, College, Laguna 3720  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research, Livestock Research Division, Los Banos, Laguna 3732 (Dr. Alfonso N. Eusebio)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Portugal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">W. Ross CockriII, 591 Vale do Lobo, Almansil, Algrave 8100</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sri Lanka</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Animal Production and Health, Peradeniya (Dr. K. Balachandran)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">School of Veterinary Science, University of Sri Lanka, Peradenlya Dr. B.M.A.O. Perrera)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taiwan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, P.O. Box 22-149, Taipei City</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Medicine, University of Dar es Salaam, Morogoro (M.L. Kyomo)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAFCO Farm, Ruvu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director, Livestock Development Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Dar es Salaam</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.M.J. Katyega, Director, Livestock Production Research Institute, Private Bag, Mpwapwa M.M. Oloufa, FAO, Morogoro  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kasetsart University, Department of Animal Science, Bangkok (Dr. Charan Chantalakhana) Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Henri Dunant Street, Bangkok 5 (Dr. Maneewan Kamonpatana)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Henri Dunant Road, Bangkok 10500  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FAO Regional Office, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 2 (Dr. B. K. Soni)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of Livestock Development Project, Tha Phra, Khon Kaen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Buffalo Research and Training Center, Surin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trinidad</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Steve Bennett, 61 Mucurapo Road, Port-of-Spain</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uganda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">G. L. Corry, Director, Veterinary Research Services, P.O. Box 24, Entebbe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S. Mugerwa, Faculty of Agriculture, MaKerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Kingdom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T. B. Begg, Resident Veterinary Surgeon, Howletts and Port Lympne Estates, Ltd., Port Lympne, Lympne, Kent CT21 4PD  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P. N. Wilson, BOCM Silcock Ltd., Basing View, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2EQ</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wyland Cripe, Asst. Dean for Public Services, College of Veterinary Medicine, Box J-125, JHMHC, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J. Harrington, IRI Research Institute, Inc. One Rockefeller Plaza, New York, New York 10020 James Hentges, Department of Animal Science, Room 2104 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jack Howarth, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nels M. Konnerup, 609 East Iverson Road, Camano Island, Washington 98292</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A. P. Leonards, P.O. Box 1094, Lake Charles, Louisiana 70602</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John K. Loosli, Department of Animal Science, Room 2103 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert E. McDowell, Department of Animal Science, Frank B. Morrison Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hugh Popenoe, International Programs in Agriculture, 3028 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">William R. Pritchard, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abelardo Ferrer D., Quinta Nueva Exparta, Avenida Jose Felix Rivas, San Bernardino, Caracas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix C</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANDREW HAY, President, Calvert-Peat, Inc., New York, New York (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Institute of Land Rehabilitation, Utah State University, Logan, Utah  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGLIARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director, Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PEDRO BARBOSA, Department of Entomology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FLETCHER L. BYROM, Chairman, Koppers Company, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON BROWN, Director, Resource Systems Institute, The East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DORIS GALLOWAY, Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, California  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY E. CARTER, Associate Administrator, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELIZABETH COLSON, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley, California  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BREWSTER C. DENNY, Dean, Graduate School of Public Affairs, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND I. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii, ex-officio  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HERBERT I. FUSFELD, Director, Center for Science and Technology Policy, Graduate School of Public Administration, New York University, New York, New York (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARTIN GOLAND, President, Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LINCOLN GORDON, Senior Fellow, Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C. (member through September 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JAMES P. GRANT, President, Overseas Development Council, Washington, D.C. (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, ax-officio  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE R. HERBERT, President, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM N. HUBBARD, JR., President, The Upjohn Company, Kalamazoo, Michigan (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT N. KREIDLER, Private Foundation Consultant, New York, New York  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RICHARD LASTER, Executive Vice President, General Foods Corporation, White Plains, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN LISTON, Director, Institute for Food Science &amp; Technology, College of Fisheries, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THOMAS F. MALONE, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, ex-officio  FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODNEY W. NICHOLS, Executive Vice President, Rockefeller University, New York, New York (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DANIEL A. OKUN, Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E. RAY PARISER, Senior Research Scientist, Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAMES BRIAN QUINN, Amos Tuck School of Business Administration, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PRISCILLA C. REINING, Director, Project on Desertification, International Division, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C. (member through 1980)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH W. RICHARDSON, JR., Department of Horticulture, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania (member through 1979)  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, Rockefeller University, New York, New York  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H. GUYFORD STEVER, Consultant, Washington, D.C.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Program Officer, Africa and the Middle East, International Agricultural Development Service, New York, New York  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VICTOR RABINOWITCH, Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Deputy Director  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN G. HURLEY, Deputy Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
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+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">The Water Buffalo: New Prospects For An Underutilized Animal (1984) (b21wae)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Cattle</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">utilize the Water Buffalo more effectively</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
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+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea </TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Managing Tropical Animal Resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First Printing, June 1983 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second Printing, May, 1985 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"><A NAME="Acknowledgements"></A></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Board on Science and Technology for International Development </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Office of International Affairs </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Cooperation with the Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Bulolo, Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing  Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the Councils of  the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the  Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were  chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to the  procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the  National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute  of Medicine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The National Research Council was established by the National Academy of Sciences in  1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's  purposes of furthering knowledge and of advising the federal government. The Council  operates in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy under the  authority of its congressional charter of 1863, which establishes the Academy as a  private, nonprofit, self-governing membership corporation. The Council has become the  principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National  Academy of Engineering in the conduct of their services to the government, the public,  and the scientific and engineering communities. It is administered jointly by both  Academies and the Institute of Medicine. The National Academy of Engineering and the  Institute of Medicine were established in 1964 and 1970, respectively, under the charter  of the National Academy of Sciences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Board on Science and Technology for International Development (BOSTID) of the  Office of International Affairs addresses a range of issues arising from the ways in which  science and technology in developing countries can stimulate and complement the  complex processes of social and economic development. It oversees a broad program of  bilateral workshops with scientific organizations in developing countries and conducts  special studies. BOSTID's Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation publishes  topical reviews of technical processes and biological resources of potential importance to  developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report has been prepared by an ad hoc advisory panel of the Advisory Committee  on Technology I innovation, Board on Science and Technology for International  Development, Office of international Affairs, National Research Council. Program costs  for the study were provided by the Office of Technical Resources, Bureau for Asia,  Agency for International Development under Grant No. ASB-0249-SS-00-1026-00 and  the Office of the Science Advisor, Agency for International Development, under Grant  No DAN/5538-GSS- 1023-00.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First Printing, June 1983 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second Printing, May, 1985 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Panel_on_Butterfly_Farming_in_P"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Panel on Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT M. PYLE, Chairman, Lepidoptera Specialist Group, International  Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland,  Switzerland, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director, Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian  Institution, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, JR., Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Florida,  Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING, Director, Florida State Museum, C;ainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOlS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, Yale University, New  Haven, Connecticut </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS, Head of Subdivision of Invertebrate Ecology,  Furzebrook Research Station, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Wareham,  Dorset, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University  of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS, Representative, The Asia Foundation, Taipei,  Taiwan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Contributors_"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Contributors</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PETER CLARK, Manager, Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Bulolo </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CAROLE GABARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WASAM GARARA, Wildlife Division, Department of Oro Province, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">KAROL KISOKAU, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Waigani </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NAVU KWAPENA, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and  Environment, Konedobu </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MIRO LAUFA, Crocodile Section, Department of Lands and Environment,  Konedobu </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEO NING, Division of Wildlife, East Sepik Province, Wewak </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RODERICK ORARI, Butterfly farmer, Popondetta </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL PARSONS, Ecologist, Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Bulolo </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BLU RAIRI, Butterfly farmer, Maprik  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Countries </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K. S. BROWN, JR., Department of Zoology, State University of Campinas, Sao  Paulo, Brazil </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. M. COLLINS, Co-compiler, Invertebrate Red Data Book, International Union  for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Cambridge, England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WAYNE GAGNE, Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ANGUS HUTTON, Garaina Farms, Gympie, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ASHLEY C. MORTON, Department of Biology, The University, Southampton,  England </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRED PARKER, Kirwan, Queensland, Australia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* * *</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, Professional Associate, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Butterfly Study Director </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National Research Council Staff </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. R. RUSKIN, BOSTID Editor </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MARY JANE ENGQUIST, Staff Associate </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CONSTANCE REGES, Administrative Secretary </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Preface_"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly farming is a growing new industry in Papua New Guinea, and by  turning irdwings, mauve swallowtails, and other insects into a cash crop  villagers are both earning money and practicing sound wildlife conservation.  In this unique program butterfly farming is being used to complement the  preservation of species and of habitats. In balancing the utilization of  common butterflies with the protection of the most threatened species, Papua  New Guinea is providing a model for other countries, particularly those in the  tropics. The program demonstrates how village development can become an  integral part of conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel that produced this report convened in Papua New Guinea in  May 1981. Its purpose was to investigate the concepts underlying this  project and to assess their potential for application elsewhere. Panel members  met with staff of the government's Division of Wildlife in Port Moresby and  later visited butterfly farms in Popondetta and the insect trading agency in  Bulolo. The panel is grateful to Karol Kisokau, Navu Kwapena, and Miro  Laufa of the Division of Wildlife for arranging the itinerary in Papua New  Guinea and to Peter Clark and Michael Parsons for hosting the Bulolo and  Popondetta visits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report is one of the National Research Council series, Managing  Tropical Animal Resources. Current titles in the series are:*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal (  1981 ) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Little-Known Asian Animals with a Promising Economic Future  (1983) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Crocodiles as a Resource for the Tropics (1983)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea ( 1983)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These activities have been conducted under the auspices of the Advisory  Committee on Technology Innovation (ACTI) of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development, National Research  Council (see page 29). The purpose of ACT}iS the assessment of  unconventional scientific advances that might prove especially applicable to  problems of developing countries. Since its founding in 1971, it has produced  about 30 reports covering subjects as diverse as ferrocement construction  materials, the winged bean (a high-protein tropical food crop), and techniques  to provide more water for arid lands. This study adds the dimension of  conservation and ecosystem protection to ACTI'S principal concerns of  promising but neglected resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACTI activities are supported largely by the U.S. Agency for International  Development (AID). Program costs for this study were supported by AID'S  Bureau for Asia, and staff costs by AID'S Office of the Science Advisor, which  also made possible the free distribution of this report.  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"><A NAME="BM1_Introduction_and_Summary_"></A></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">1 Introduction and Summary</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international demand for tropical butterflies is much greater than is  generally recognized. Each year millions of them are caught and sold  throughout the world. Many buyers are scientists engaged in research on  aspects of systematics, ecology, ethology, evolution, and conservation.  Others are individuals who like expensive curios that incorporate butterflies,  such as display cases, coffee tables, wall hangings, or other objects. But  increasingly, the fragile, iridescent creatures, mounted in plastic or glass, are  used to decorate less-expensive items such as purses, trays, platters, screens,  and other common objects in Europe, North America, and Japan. In addition,  amateur butterfly collecting, which reached a peak in Victorian times, is again becoming popular.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this has produced a strong and active market. The current trade is  estimated to be between US $10 and $20 million annually, and the demand is  rising.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Remote regions of Papua New Guinea are benefiting from this burgeoning  interest in tropical insects, and several hundred villagers are rearing or  collecting butterflies, beetles, and other insects for export. The Papua New  Guinea government now considers insects a national resource, and it has  made butterfly farming part of the nation's village economic development. At Bulolo it has established an Insect Farming and Trading Agency (IFTA) to  handle the business details of a growing international trade. And Papua New  Guinea is the only country so far to specify insect conservation as a national  objective in its constitution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botanical research is the key to Papua New Guinea's butterfly farming  program. Local botanists and ecologists have identified the plants that the  various butterfly species use during their life cycle. The butterfly farmers  then build up their "livestock" by clearing small areas of ground  and planting leafy food plants for larvae, together with the nectar-producing  flowering plants that adult butterflies feed on. The combination of flowering  and leafy plants provides a complete habitat where butterflies find everything  they need to grow and reproduce. Therefore, most remain, and the farmer  retains his livestock without fences or walls.*</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are among the most unusual farms in the world. Around their edges  are hibiscus and bougainvillea that attract the adult butterflies, whose  mouthparts are adapted for drinking nectar from flowers. And inside are leafy  plants, such as the strange Dutchman's pipe vine (Aristolochia tagala), on  which the caterpillars of several birdwing butterflies feed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The enriched butterfly habitat in the villager's garden attracts and holds a  breeding population that becomes a self-renewing resource. By varying the  plant species the farmer can even maintain colonies of different butterfly  species. And because insects are so prolific, some butterfly farmers are  beginning to have problems with overstocking and have had to shift larvae  from plant to plantrather like moving cattle from one field to the next as the  grazing runs out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic Development </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The IFTA program started in 1974 with fewer than 30 Papua New Guineans  from villages in two provinces. By 1978, more than 500 villagers in 10  provinces had been introduced to farming or collecting butterflies for export.  Since then, business has been increasing about 40 percent a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gram for gram, exotic butterflies are far more valuable than cattle. Prices  paid by dealers in Europe, North America, and Japan range from 30 cents for  individuals of common species to around $10 for the two birdwing species  whose export is allowed. A specimen of a rarer species (for example, a female  of the mauve swallowtail Graphium weiskei) may bring as much as $50.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project is still an embryonic activity; it is not large, as development  programs go. IFTA has only one professional staff person and two local  technicians to handle the distribution of specimens. The agency's goal is to  export between 5,000 and 10,000 specimens a month, from which the villages  can expect a return of $10,000 or more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency purchases butterflies from villagers and uses them to fill orders from overseas buyers. Colorful beetles, strange-looking stick and leaf insects, and some moths and cicadas are also caught in the wild and sent to Bulolo. The profits, less 25 percent, are returned to the villagers. At the time of the panel's visit, IFTA had received about 4,000 shipments of butterflies and other insects from the rural people and had paid out about US $180,000 to purchase them. In 1979, the average farmer or collector received about $37 per box of specimens. By 1980, this had risen to about $50 per box. In 1981 it was estimated that a diligent butterfly farmer could earn an annual income of about $1,200.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even so small an annual income is substantial in rural areas where the mean annual per capita income may be only $50. In many remote areas it is difficult to create income-producing opportunities because of illiteracy, dispersed population, and, in some cases, resistance to foreign ways.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through butterfly farming many rural Papua New Guineans are for the first time participating in a cash economy. The product is a highvalue, low-volume crop. It brings needed or supplementary income to the people of the predominantly rural areas. Compared with farming coffee, another possible industry in Papua New Guinea's rural regions, it requires far less effort or land, and it involves minimal costs to the producer. And where a few expatriate opportunists once made small fortunes exploiting Papua New Guinea's butterflies, the profits now go to the villagers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat loss is by far the most critical issue in butterfly conservation. If habitat changes, the animals must change, leave, or die. Usually they die, since alternative habitats are already occupied or too distant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly all the world's butterfly species have suffered diminished ranges, and an estimated half of the world's butterfly populations face threats from human development. From Britain to Bhutan, the insects' habitats have come under siege. In Europe, perhaps one-third of all butterfly species are threatened, owing chiefly to the reductions in their various habitats. In California, half-a-dozen coastal butterflies have been lost since the 1860s, and an equal number are now endangered. In Madagascar and Rwanda, swallowtails and some species that occur nowhere else are being sacrificed to the clearing of forests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The losses are much more than aesthetic, for many butterflies benefit people. They pollinate crops, are a major link in the food chain, and serve as sensitive indicators of ecological health.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A striking feature of the Papua New Guinea butterfly farming program is that it is designed to conserve and increase the species being traded. It is a pioneering conservation effort that has been endorsed by the Lepidoptera Specialist Group of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. The program helps relieve pressure on endangered populations, because for successful butterfly farms the villagers must retain - and even foster - a healthy wild population on or near their land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insect farming also helps preserve habitats because it leaves the bulk of the land intact and it helps landowners earn money without requiring them to cut down the rain forest as they would for timber or for cocoa, coffee, or oil palm plantations. Similarly, villagers can retain their traditional hunting grounds while cropping the insects that rely on these grounds for survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The existence of the butterfly farming project has served to focus attention on the status of all butterfly species. In 1968 this led to a law banning the taking of even a single specimen of the seven birdwing species threatened with extinction in Papua New Guinea. These large, brilliantly colored creatures can bring as much as $1,000 each in international trade, but there is a stiff fine in Papua New Guinea for even possessing one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enriching habitats with butterfly food plants (notably the Dutchman's pipe vine, Aristolochia tagala) has greatly increased the numbers of Papua New Guinea's two common birdwing species, Ornithoptera priamus and Troides oblongomaculatus. Now the country is taking on the challenge of increasing the seven endangered birdwing species that are protected and banned from trade. Already the IFTA staff has found that at least one of these rare species (Ornithoptera victoriae) is easily reared on the Dutchman's pipe vine. Farms are now being designed and sited with a view to building up the populations of this giant endangered species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conclusions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At this stage, the importance of this pioneering activity lies not in its size, but in the new vistas it opens up for the use of tropical resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Village Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In farming butterflies, Papua New Guinea is showing that indigenous wildlife resources (especially those being depleted because of their commercial value) can contribute to economic development and that the farming of indigenous animals can be fitted smoothly into traditional village life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Providing employment in rural areas is a major problem of developing countries. And in a sense, butterflies are an "appropriate" livestock, particularly for remote areas of the tropics where other income-producing activities are difficult to establish or are harmful to traditional lifestyles and fragile environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterflies may seem unusual farm animals, but to villagers in the Papua New Guinea jungle it is cattle that are exotic. The villagers live in close contact with their local insects; invariably they know much about butterfly locations, behavior, habits, life cycle, and the food eaten by the caterpillars.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Farming butterflies is proving a business to which villagers quickly adapt. Butterflies do not require the equipment or financing of a conventional farm; no capital is required, except for postage on the first shipment of specimens. Insect farming allows people to participate in the cash economy without causing disruptive changes in traditional village life. The villagers can work long and hard if they wish or they can put in only enough time to produce a little cash for necessities, leaving plenty of time for raising crops and other village activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often claimed that economic development is necessarily destructive to the environment and detrimental to conservation - that as rural societies develop, their natural surroundings must suffer. The Papua New Guinea butterfly farming project is an innovative program that demonstrates this need not be true.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The program also shows that where human needs are given attention, conservation can be successful. Elsewhere in the tropics, attempts to conserve habitat without considering the needs of the people who live nearby have often failed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In sum, the butterfly farming program demonstrates that certain natural resources can be used profitably in a way that protects the environment. The program offers a culturally appropriate use of the land; on a broad scale, it could become a force in preventing clear-felling of the forest for timber exports or the wholesale conversion of rain forest to cash-crop monocultures such as coconut, coffee, or oil palm. Most of Papua New Guinea is still covered by primary rain forest; exploiting the economic value of the insects that live there is helping safeguard this increasingly rare habitat, which is fast disappearing in most parts of the tropics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Species Conservation </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The knowledge gained from farming Papua New Guinea's butterflies has already contributed to relieving the threat of extinction from seven endangered species of birdwings. This experience could be replicated in other places where there are endangered butterfly species. Indeed, the program provides a model for nations that could profitably farm butterflies while protecting their threatened butterfly species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extension to Other Organisms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This project has a strategy and organizational structure that could well be applied to plants, such as rare orchids, and animals, such as crocodiles, that are endangered because of their commercial value. Indeed, using similar concepts of combining village income and conservation, the Papua New Guinea Division of Wildlife is farming crocodiles,* ruse deer, wallabies, and two native birds, the megapode and cassowary.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through such husbandry practices, many species elsewhere might be saved from extinction, while providing income to the local people who traditionally have used the resource. Other countries should look with interest at the way Papua New Guinea is handling its wildlife enterprises. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM2_Butterfly_Status_and_Conserva"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">2 Butterfly Status and Conservation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">About 100,000-150,000 species of butterflies have been described; perhaps half that number remain to be discovered. Although there are important concentrations in the Arctic and temperate regions, most species are found in the tropics. There, the diversity of colors and forms is dazzling; every imaginable combination of hue and color is displayed. And many tropical butterflies are enriched with "structural" colors, which cause the wings to flash iridescently in the sun as they bend the light they reflect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although butterflies have long been admired and often depicted in art, they have been seriously studied only since the end of the seventeenth century. Linnaeus, in his Systema Naturae, placed the small number of butterflies then known in the single genus Papilio. Today that genus is restricted to the true swallowtails, and more than 700 genera of butterflies are recognized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Butterfly Trade</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Last century, as knowledge of butterflies grew and methods of preserving them improved, they become popular collectors' items. Wealthy naturalists such as Rothschild and LeMoult dispatched collectors to all parts of the world for specimens. Today the trade in butterflies is even more extensive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three major kinds of butterfly and insect trade. In one, large numbers of common species are collected in the wild and processed for use in ornamental objects such as coasters, mats, and lampshades. This is a low-value, high-volume industry that is both labor- and capital-intensive. It frequently uses "chipped" or slightly damaged butterflies. It often sells butterflies with paper bodies and only the wings of actual insects, which seem to be acceptable to a large part of the buying public.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Taiwanese butterfly trade is an example. It operates on a large scale. At least a dozen Taiwanese factories employ scores of workers to capture and process butterflies. Estimates of annual sales vary from 15 million to 500 million butterflies. Taiwanese butterfly wings pasted onto paper bodies with pig-bristle antennae are used in ornaments and household objects from wall hangings to clear-plastic toilet seats. The bodies are recycled as pig feed. Despite this massive trade, Taiwan's wild butterfly populations seem to be remaining steady.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Similar, though smaller, industries trafficking in common butterflies are found in Korea, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Brazil, Honduras, and several African nations. The famous blue morpho butterflies of the American tropics enter the trade at the rate of some 50 million per year. Nearly all of these are the brilliant iridescent males, and biologists believe the number sold could be doubled without harming the overall population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second type of trade involves higher value and lower volume. This produces a vastly different product from the paper-bodied butterflies bound for novelty stores. It is exemplified by the operation in Papua New Guinea where sales are to collectors, museums, and students, and the specimens are high-quality insects in good to perfect condition, usually bearing scientific data. Because of the relatively high value per specimen, this trade can be carried on by fewer individuals in a nonfactory setting, and it is well suited to village industry, provided there is supervision and a quality-control checkpoint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third type of butterfly trade is for high-quality, expensive ornamental items, such as glass cases, domes, wall mounts, or jewelry containing beautiful insects. Brazil, for example, has a thriving jewelry trade based on the iridescent blue morpho butterfly. This type of trade can also furnish high-paying outlets for village-farmed insects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p08.png"></center><br>
+ Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In all three divisions of the butterfly trade, dealers fulfill an essential role. Few collectors and scientists can travel the world collecting their own specimens. Some dealers have established reputations for honesty, some have not. Exploitation of suppliers and customers alike has been rife. Few dealers are careful to attach accurate locality data to their specimens; some make serious mistakes in identifying them. (To combat this problem, British insect dealers have formed an association to monitor conservation-related activities and improve professional practice.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Generally, dealers supply specimens bred from the caterpillar or chrysalis and described as "ex pupa." Unless butterflies are caught immediately after emerging from the pupa the fragile wings tear and the scales detach to produce "worn" specimens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Taxonomy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Classifying butterflies is difficult. Their most obvious features, the color and pattern of the wings, vary greatly; individuals and populations of the same species often look quite different. This has led to the dubious naming of many species and subspecies. And the uncertainties it causes have led some biologists, especially those working in ecology and genetics, to name populations rather than species or subspecies. However, populations frequently evolve, and this introduces a further uncertainty. Much additional work on basic butterfly systematics is needed. The knowledge gained should contribute particularly to the conservation of endangered species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Conservation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly conservation is still in an early state of development, bedeviled by scarce or incomplete information. The conservation status of even the most thoroughly studied butterfly species is known in only a few areas. The distribution and status of most species is essentially unknown, and proposals for conservation measures are largely based on guesswork. Nevertheless, some conservation programs have been enacted. Most have concentrated on designating endangered species and banning their collection.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The greatest threat to butterflies and other insects, however, is habitat alteration. On several continents some species have already become extinct or endangered when humans altered the special environment they require. The importance of protecting butterfly habitats should not be underrated. Many species are restricted to very small areas, particularly to individual islands (Corsica, Sardinia, Jamaica, Madagascar, Sumba, the Comoros, Fiji, the Solomon Islands, Manus, and the Duke of York Islands, for instance). Such species are vulnerable to extinction because nearly all island habitats are fragile and are changing rapidly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it is uncommon for insect species to be dangerously reduced merely by the capture of specimens, renewed commercial interest in butterflies gives rise to concern for their conservation. Most insects reproduce rapidly, and their high fecundity enables them to replace such losses in a generation or two - provided the basic environment has not been altered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But there are certain species of butterfly that reproduce slowly and are therefore more threatened by collection. The unusual birdwing butterflies of New Guinea, for example, produce only small broods. Moreover, these rare species command higher prices. Because this makes them particularly vulnerable, legislation to protect birdwing butterflies has been instituted in both parts of New Guinea - Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Accordingly, to save Queen Alexandra's birdwing (the largest and most threatened of the birdwings) from extinction, several wildlife management areas have been set up in Popondetta on Papua New Guinea's north coast. The government is also setting up refuges, administered by village councils, to preserve and protect other birdwing butterflies and wildlife resources. This habitat conservation is an important adjunct to the butterfly farming program. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM3_History_and_Government_Policy"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">3 History and Government Policy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Soon after Europeans discovered New Guinea's remarkable insect fauna around the turn of the century, collectors began arriving, and they have been coming ever since. Many were reputable professional or amateur scientists, gathering modest numbers of specimens for study and for museums, including Papua New Guinea's own national collection. Others, however, were plunderers who carried away large numbers of rare butterflies, giving little or no compensation to the local people and showing no concern for survival of the species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1966 the Papua New Guinea government responded to excessive collecting by designating seven rare birdwing butterflies as protected species. It became illegal to collect these huge, colorful birdwings, and strong measures were instituted - fines for nationals, deportation of expatriates - to halt black market trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1960s and early 1970s commercial collecting of the other butterfly species continued piecemeal and unsupervised. Income was erratic, and expatriate dealers often paid their Papua New Guinean suppliers only a few cents for specimens that retailed for several hundred dollars in Europe and Japan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Insect Farming and Trading Agency</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When Papua New Guinea achieved independence in 1975, the new government decreed that only nationals should profit from the country's butterfly resource. Since that time only Papua New Guineans have been able to export butterfly specimens (nonprotected species) for profit. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1978, to guarantee Papua New Guineans fair prices and stable sales, a marketing agency was established. Its purpose was to protect the resource, to foster butterfly farming, and to ensure a high-quality export product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modest in its beginnings, the Insect Farming and Trading Agency (IFTA) was organized by Angus Hutton, a former tea planter and amateur lepidopterist. The business side of the agency was later developed by Peter Clark, who had worked with Hutton. Identification and production of food plants was advanced by Michael Parsons, Robert Pyle, and others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IFTA provides a market for those Papua New Guinea nationals who farm and collect butterflies and other insects. The agency allows them to obtain fair and fixed prices, maintains quality control, and ensures that current data accompanies all specimens. It also pools the insects from many sources and fills large orders from overseas dealers. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of the butterflies IFTA exports, about 30 percent are from village farms and 70 percent are collected in the field. However, more than 50 percent of the revenue is made up of the farmed butterflies because of their better quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Quality Control</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency strives to sell only highest-quality insects; it rejects many butterflies as substandard. Most specimens are sold as named subspecies and to identify and name them requires much skill. Staff members have been specially trained to do this. (To a large extent, the area of origin, particularly in the case of the offshore islands, defines the subspecies concerned.) Locality data, usually consisting of village, province, and month and year of collecting or emergence, is affixed to all butterfly envelopes before they are pooled at the agency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IFTA stores its collection by species, in simple wooden boxes kept in cupboards lit from below (to lure potential pests away from the insects and to warm the cupboards and prevent mold). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Marketing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency makes up orders and dispatches them (with the required export permits) to customers "on trust." Although this is open to abuse, most buyers pay promptly and the system is easy and convenient. Careful records are kept of all suppliers, customers, and species in stock.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the time of the panel's visit, about 80 percent of the agency's business consisted of responding to requests from dealers. However, less than 10 percent of the orders received from all sources could be filled.Some requests were too small and others too specialized; in some cases the agency simply didn't have the specimens on hand (for example, a request for all the subspecies of a given butterfly). Furthermore, the agency has neither the office staff nor space to cope with every order in a business whose volume is almost doubling every two years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Field Extension</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wildlife extension officers periodically visit clients and new villages to sustain or develop enthusiasm for insect farming. They explain and demonstrate the procedures of butterfly farming and collecting and teach potential farmers how to recognize a valuable species in each of its life stages. Above all, they demonstrate how to prepare specimens for sale. This is because it is often difficult to convince farmers of the need for extreme care and delicacy in handling, and many inexperienced farmers send in bruised or hopelessly damaged specimens. Although about 500 villagers were farming butterflies at the time of the panel's visit, fewer than 50 were supplying good material regularly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These contacts are also important because the butterfly farmers easily become discouraged if no interest is shown in their work. In the Papua New Guinea countryside there is often little need for cash; people can obtain all their food, clothes, shelter, and resources from their gardens or from the bush. Money received from one shipment of butterflies may last a subsistence farmer for months, making it difficult for the agency to sustain his interest in providing regular shipments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency's extension officers have initiated a number of butterfly farming projects at primary, secondary, and vocational schools. These projects have proved most successful. Apart from the practical education they give students, they provide early insight into one of Papua New Guinea's most useful resources. Several vocational schools also provide training in mounting butterflies and beetles as souvenirs for tourists, as well as in the construction of hatching cages and solar driers. Beautiful wooden cabinets to hold butterflies have also been made by some teenage students.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research and Monitoring</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to teaching Papua New Guineans to collect and farm insects, IFTA promotes research both to conserve species and to make them available in quantity. Success has already been achieved in farming the common birdwing butterflies by planting large numbers of the Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia tagala) vines that they feed on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agency's staff includes an ecologist, indicating the importance of the scientific basis for conservation in this project. The ecologist is at hand to conduct research on life histories, farming methods, and management measures for rare species.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">IFTA staff are now identifying new food plants that will permit more species to be farmed. Research into the life histories of many butterflies with economic potential is well under way, so that an increasing number of species will become "farmable" and will be available in future in perfect ex pupa condition. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sources of all specimens received by IFTA are recorded on a map so that a butterfly's range and rarity or abundance can be assessed and conservation measures implemented where necessary. In this way, even insects too damaged for sale at least have value to conservation efforts. All specimens of unusual scientific interest are lodged in the national insect collection for future study. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM4_Operating_a_Butterfly_Farm"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">4 Operating a Butterfly Farm</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Planting the Farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key to farming butterflies is to establish a garden of the plants the various species need for their life cycles. The ideal farm area is about 0.2 hectares. This is spacious enough for growing food plants for adults and larvae and small enough to keep the plants watered, weeded, pruned, and generally well tended. Such a farm can contain about 500 vines, grown like bean plants on poles or shade trees.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important to surround the site with a thick hedge of hibiscus, bougainvillea, ixora, poinsettia, or other nectar-bearing plants whose flowers attract adult butterflies and encourage them to remain in the area. The hedges also keep out pigs and other livestock that may damage the leafy plants inside the farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A good way to start a farm is to establish it in a vegetable garden. (Papua New Guinea butterfly farmers often plant butterfly vines between their rows of sweet potato or tarot) By the time the vegetables are ready to harvest, the area already has some thriving butterfly food plants and probably some winged livestock as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most successful butterfly food plants in Papua New Guinea is Aristolochia tagala, a vine on which the larvae of more common birdwing butterflies feed. Another is Evodea - a food plant of the large blue ulysses swallowtail and many colorful weevils.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shade trees also can be food plants for butterflies other than birdwings and for beetles or weevils. Examples are species of Annona (such as soursop), Citrus (such as lemon), Cerbera, and Graptophyllum. Wallace's Longhorn Beetle feeds on breadfruit (Artocarpus communis). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, one area of the farm is kept aside for growing seeds or cuttings. (IFTA sells seed of some suitable species.) In this nursery the butterfly food plants are watered and cared for, and unhealthy ones are easily spotted and weeded out. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p16.png"></center><br>
+ Stylized diagram of a butterfly farm:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A Hedge of hibiscus, ixora, and poinsettia to keep pigs out and provide nectar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B Fruits trees (such as lemon).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C The aristolochia vine grown on the branches of others trees (such as leucaena), to feed    caterpillar larvae.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D Nursery area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E A hut for tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Diagram courtesy IFTA, Bulolo)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Life Cycle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Normally, each butterfly species has a preferred food plant for its larvae. After the female has mated she searches for the correct plant and lays her eggs on or near it. In a few days the eggs hatch, and the young caterpillars usually eat their own eggshells and begin feeding on the softer leaves and shoots of the food plant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As they grow, the caterpillars shed their skins. Each molt is called an instar, and five instars occur before a larva is big enough to pupate. Pupation is a resting stage during which the adult butterfly develops inside the hard, protective chrysalis. For pupation the larva selects the underside of a stem or leaf to protect it from rain and predators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After 10 days to 3 weeks, depending on the type of butterfly, the pupal case splits open and the adult insect emerges. This usually occurs before 9 o'clock in the morning. The freshly emerged adult then takes from 3 to 4 hours to expand and dry its wings before flying off to feed on nectar and to search for a mate to begin the life cycle once again. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Harvesting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the farm is well established, pupae can be collected daily. Ideally, about 50 percent should be left or released. At least as many females as males should be released. Pupae that are too high to reach are usually left to emerge naturally and repopulate the farm. Others are left because they are not quite perfect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The farmer can usually see that emergence will occur on the next day, since the pupa becomes darker in color as the adult wing and body colors develop. He then plucks off the stem or leaf to which the pupa is attached. (The soft, new pupae are not touched because this damages the adult.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He pins the leaf to a board or puts it in a net or in a small cage. Often these are kept inside to protect the pupae against pests and large predators. However, some farmers construct small houses out of bush materials to hold pupae ready for hatching. Others keep their pupae in the open and count on being able to collect the adults before they have flown away.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Care is taken to protect the specimens from ants and rats. For example, the legs of the cage are placed in bowls of water to deter ants from climbing up. The pupae are sprayed with water 2-3 times a week to speed up the hatching process and to prevent them from drying out. (Only a light spray is used; otherwise the pupa develop mold.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The pupae are best kept in a shady place so the butterflies will remain calm after hatching and will not flap and damage their wings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Processing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the newly emerged butterfly has completely dried its wings, it is carefully caught by the thorax and injected with a small amount of a killing agent such as ethyl acetate or boiling water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small butterflies are particularly easily damaged if handled, so they are placed for about 10 minutes in a killing jar containing cotton (cotton wool) soaked with a little ethyl acetate. A layer of cardboard is placed above the cotton so that the butterflies are not stained by the solvent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The farmer places the dead butterflies in paper envelopes, being careful at all times not to touch or damage the wings. The envelopes are easily made from grease-proof paper, which the agency supplies on request.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To ensure that the butterflies will not mold, they are placed on a black plastic tray and dried in the sun, in their papers, for about 4 days. During this time they are protected from pests such as ants, and the drying trays have a screen on top to prevent the envelopes from blowing away or from being rained on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once properly dried, the insects, still in their envelopes, are stored in boxes, preferably airtight to prevent condensation and molding. When enough specimens have been collected, the villager packs them carefully in strong cardboard boxes (which the agency also supplies) with cotton or kapok. A few naphthalene crystals are added to keep away pests, and the box is wrapped and sent to Bulolo. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="BM5_Application_to_Other_Nations"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">5 Application to Other Nations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As noted, the essence of the Papua New Guinea approach is the cultivation of food plants that the butterflies need to complete their life cycles. This is a process that could be replicated elsewhere, and the potential for butterfly farming exists in many countries. In fact, although Papua New Guinea is rich in butterfly species - some 700 of them - it is not unusually so. Other countries also have large numbers of species. There are, for instance 2,500 species known in Costa Rica.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are some 14,000 species of true butterflies in the world. Although there is possible competition, many countries have no overlap in species at all. As collectors and specialists usually want butterflies from many different parts of the world, the likely competition among countries exporting farmed or wild-caught butterflies is minimal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterflies are supplied to the trade from nearly every part of the world. But because they are most diverse in the tropics, it is likely that the best chance for success in farming them lies there. However, some temperate countries also have an abundance of particular species, and in Europe, the United States, and Japan, butterfly farming is already established on a small scale. This is mainly because many collectors like to rear their own material and they purchase eggs, caterpillars, or chrysalids instead of killed adults. Many dealers in these countries supply a few tropical species that are easy to rear, such as the orchard swallowtail (Papilio aegeus). However, this trade is generally low in volume and value, and temperate-zone butterfly farms are little more than a sideline to normal dealerships.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some general comments follow on the potential of butterfly farming in various parts of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Temperate regions of the Old World (Palaearctic Realm). East palaearctic species are in great demand internationally and obtainable with great difficulty. China, in particular, has species of both Parnassius and Papilio that might be farmed. However, all Parnassius species are montane to some degree and none has been farmed yet. Eurasian arctic satyrids, lesser fritillaries, and sulphurs are also in great commercial demand and could perhaps be farmed. Swallowtails are few and are frequently protected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tropical Africa and associated islands (Afrotropical Region). The potential for butterfly farming has not yet been considered in Africa, although the diversity of desirable species is great and the potential market extensive. This area has important swallowtails and Charaxes species (Nymphalidae), but so far as is known, no farming enterprises exist. Experimental or trial farms for butterflies are needed in different parts of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asian tropics (Oriental Realm). Silk moths, such as Bombyx mori, are commercially farmed in Asia, and butterfly farming would seem to be a natural extension of this. Many Asian butterflies are supplied to dealers, especially from Taiwan and the Philippines, but there is little farming. A very large trade originates in Malaysia, especially for Rajah Brooke's birdwing (Trogonoptera brookiana). Farming is reputed to take place, but most specimens are actually collected. Desirable species of swallowtails, including the black and gold birdwings (Troides species), occur throughout the region. Species belonging to the families Nymphalidae and Pieridae are good candidates for farming, as they are in much demand from dealers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Australia, New Guinea, and associated islands to the west (Australasian Realm). Australia is not rich in butterflies, but it has some important endemic species. At least one "farm" exists in Australia, but this appears to be an offshoot of a normal dealership, which rears a few local species to supply at early stages to collectors. Farming is to be encouraged here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Guinea's most coveted butterflies, which it shares with Irian Jaya, are the Ornithoptera birdwings. But almost equally desired by collectors and specialists are the Troides birdwings, concentrated to the west of New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Temperate regions of the Americas (Nearctic Realm). There is a considerable trade in New World butterflies from nearly every family (few Lycaenidae and Hesperiidae), but almost all are caught in the wild. There is a strong market for far-northern species (Boloria, Colias, Erebia, Oenesis). Farming these might be possible among Canadian and Alaskan Indian or Eskimo groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Tropical regions of the Americas (Neotropical Realm). This is a likely area for the development of butterfly farming, particularly as its species are completely different from those of the tropics elsewhere. The Morpho and Agrias species of South America are much desired by collectors. It is possible that some of the highly prized morpho butterflies are already farmed (as the law, in fact, requires), but evidence is conflicting, and most biologists believe that the major supply of specimens is from wild populations. Other groups that lend themselves to farming include the swallowtails, nymphalids (including Agrias), and certain members of the family Satyridae. There are large fauna of Riodinidae and Lycaenidae that are potentially suitable for farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A dealer in preserved butterflies has recently set up business in the Dominican Republic, and butterfly farms have been established in Costa Rica.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· General. Butterflies in the family Riodinidae and, especially, Lycaenidae seem to be a neglected resource. Many species are relatively small but brightly colored. A major difficulty is that many Lycaenidae have to live with ants for part of their lives and this complicates their rearing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly Parks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some regions with tourist industries are showing interest in establishing "butterfly zoos" or "butterfly jungles." These displays have live butterflies (usually farmed or reared) in artificial habitats resembling the natural ones. Some species, such as the orchard swallowtail (Papilio aegeus), respond well to such conditions. One British dealer has a "tropical jungle" in an enclosed environment in which both temperature and atmospheric pressure are regulated. A large British butterfly zoo has been established and a smaller one has been proposed. The New York Zoological Society is developing a butterfly component in its Wild Asia Hall at the Bronx Zoo, and San Francisco, Portland, Cincinnati, and Tokyo all have thriving insect zoos. Also, the Colombo Zoo in Sri Lanka has a live display and a successful program of butterfly rearing. Similar enterprise could be shown in other places with tourist industries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting a Butterfly Farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Butterfly farming is initially an ecological and botanical challenge. One must first observe, identify, and propagate the plants that the various species use for food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Success for butterfly farmers rests on their choosing commercially attractive species. Unfortunately, ecological details of the life histories of suitable species are known in only a few cases. The prospective farmer will be largely on his own and must first develop this information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the most desirable species are native to primary tropical forests, and they may need protection because of the rate at which their habitat is being destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any program to commercially exploit butterflies and other insects must either bypass the rarest, most restricted, and slowest reproducing species; farm them cautiously with a high percentage of adults released; or take them with the greatest of care. Further, there must be adequate habitat protection both in the natural state and in mixed land uses (rather than just agricultural croplands) to support the insects and furnish a continuing supply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some competition could occur if live butterflies were exported between countries and used to establish farming enterprises. In general, however, butterflies are easier to farm in their native habitats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Appendix_A"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendixes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A Selected Readings</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carvalho, J. C. M., and O. H. H. Mielke. 1972. The trade of butterfly wings in Brazil and its effect upon survival of the species. Proceedings 19th International Congress of Entomology (Moscow) 1 :486-488.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fenner, T. L. 1976. Aspects of butterfly conservation in Papua New Guinea, Pp. 121-127 in Ecology and Conservation in Papua New Guinea, K. P. Lamb and J. L. Gressitt eds. Pamphlet 2. Wau Ecology Institute, Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parsons, M. n.d. Insect Farming and Trading Agency Farming Manual. Insect Farming and Trading Agency, Division of Wildlife, P.O. Box 129, Bulolo, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pyle, R. 1981. Butterflies: now you see them.... International Wildlife I I (1):4- 11.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pyle, R., M. Bentzien, and P. Opler. 1981. Insect conservation. Annual Review of Entomology 26:233-258.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pyle, R. M. and S. A. Hughes. 1978. Conservation and utilization of the insect resources of Papua New Guinea. Unpublished report, copies available from the author, see Research Contacts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Severinghaus, S. R. 1977. The butterfly industry and butterfly conservation in Taiwan. Atala 5(2):20-23.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unno, K. 1974. Taiwan's butterfly industry. Wildlife 16: 356-359.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vietmeyer, N. D. 1979. Butterfly ranching is taking wing in Papua New Guinea. Smithsonian 10(2):119-135. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Appendix_B"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix B</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Research Contacts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wayne Gagne, Bishop Museum, P.O. Box 6037, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96818 USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angus Hutton, Garaina Farms, Scrubby Creek Road, Gympie 4570, Queensland, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insect Farming and Trading Agency, P.O. Box 129, Bulolo, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea (Peter Clark, Manager; Michael Parsons, Ecologist)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Karol Kisokau, Director, Office of Environment and Conservation, Central Government Offices, Waigani, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Navu Kwapena, Division of Wildlife, Department of Lands and Environment, Konedobu, Papua New Guinea</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rudi Mattoni, 9620 Heather Road, Beverly Hills, California 90210, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Michael G. Morris, Chairman, Butterfly Specialist Group, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Furzebrook Research Station, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Wareham, Dorset BH20 5AS, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ashley C. Morton, Department of Biology, Building 44, The University, Southampton S09 5NH, England</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fred Parker, 717 Ross River Road, Kirwan, Queensland 4814, Australia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert M. Pyle, Chairman, Monarch Project, Xerces Society, 369 Loop Road, Gray's River, Washington 98621, USA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sheldon R. Severinghaus, Representative, The Asia Foundation, 42, Chien Kuo North Road, Taipei 104, Taiwan, Republic of China </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Appendix_C"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Appendix C</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Biographical Sketches of Panel Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDWARD S. AYENSU, Director of the Office of Biological Conservation, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., is currently the Secretary-General of the International Union of Biological Sciences. He received his B.A. in 1961 from Miami University in Ohio, M.Sc. from The George Washington University in 1963, and his Ph.D. in 1966 from the University of London. His research interests are in comparative anatomy and phylogeny of flowering plants, commercial timbers, histology of monocotyledons, economic botany, and tropical biology. An internationally recognized expert on tropical plants, he has published extensively in these areas and on topics relating to science, technology, and development, especially in developing countries. Dr. Ayensu was co-chairman of the Panel on Under exploited Tropical Plants of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation and chairs and serves as a member of many international bodies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ARCHIE F. CARR, JR., is Graduate Research Professor in the Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville. As Technical Director of the Caribbean Conservation Corporation, he has directed a seasonal research program at the breeding ground of the green turtle at Tortuguero, Costa Rica, since 1952, with continuous grants from the National Science Foundation from 1955 to 1980, and has carried out investigations of marine turtle ecology and navigation in various parts of the world. The author of numerous papers, articles, and books, he received the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal of the National Academy of Sciences for Handbook of Turtles and the John Burroughs Medal for The Windward Road. He is Research Associate of the American Museum of Natural History; Affiliate Curator of Natural Sciences, Florida State Museum; Chairman of the Marine Turtle Specialist Group of the Survival Service Commission, International Union for the Conservation of Nature; Honorary Consultant of the World Wildlife Fund; Fellow of the Linnean Society of London; Fellow of the American Fisheries Society; and a member of Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1973 he was awarded a gold medal from the World Wildlife Fund for the application of scientific findings to the conservation of marine turtles. In 1975 he received the Edward W. Browning Award for achievement in biological conservation. In 1978 Dr. Carr was awarded the Gold Medal of the New York Zoological Society for contributions to natural science and conservation; in 1978 he became Officer of the Order of the Golden Ark (The Netherlands).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. WAYNE KING is the Director of the Florida State Museum, Gainesville. He received a B.S. in 1957 and an M.S. in 1961 from the University of Florida and a Ph.D. from 1966 from the University of Miami. His research interests are in wildlife conservation and habitat preservation, impact of international trade on wildlife populations, and ecology and behavior of reptile populations. He worked at the New York Zoological Society from 1967 to 1975. As an international wildlife consultant, Dr. King has received honors from the Dominican Republic, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, and from H.R.H. Prince Bernhard of The Netherlands. He has served on committees advising the State Department and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources on policies regarding the trade of crocodile skins, turtle products, and other wildlife materials. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOlS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry and Professor of Forest Genetics, Yale University, was Dean of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale from 1965 to 1975. He received a B.A. from Luxembourg College and a B.Sc.F. from the University of New Brunswick in 1950, an M.F. in ecology in 1951, and a Ph.D. in forest genetics from Yale in 1954. He is especially knowledgeable about francophone Africa and was chairman of the Sahel program of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development and a member of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation. From 1960 to 1965 he was research collaborator at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. In 1966 he was the recipient of the Award for Outstanding Achievement in Biological Research from the Society of American Foresters and in 1975 was Distinguished Professor (Fulbright-Hays Program) in Yugoslavia. Before joining the Yale faculty, he served as project leader in forest genetics for the U.S. Forest Service in Florida. He has served as a consultant to FAO, various foreign governments, and private forestry companies, and he has traveled extensively in the tropical countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. MORRIS is head of the Furzebrook Research Station of the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (National Environment Research Council, U.K.). He received a B.A. in natural sciences (zoology) at the University of Cambridge of 1958, M.A. in 1962, and received his Ph.D. from London University in research on the integrated control of orchard pests. Dr. Morris worked at Monks Wood Experimental Station on the effects of grassland management on populations of invertebrates and developed a strong interest in community and applied ecology, particularly the conservation of insect populations. Recently he has become involved with problems of butterfly conservation and resource utilization. He is Secretary of the Joint Committee for the Conservation of British Insects, a Vice-Chairman of the Lepidoptera Specialist Group of lUCN'S Survival Commission, and Chairman of the Habitat and Species Protection Committee of SEL (Societal Europaea Lepidoptero-Logica). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH L. POPENOE is Professor of Soils, Agronomy, Botany, and Geography and Director of the Center for Tropical Agriculture and International Programs (Agriculture) at the University of Florida. He received his B.S. from the University of California at Davis in 1951 and his Ph.D. in soils from the University of Florida in 1960. His principal research interest has been in the area of tropical agriculture and land use. His early work on shifting cultivation is one of the major contributions to this sytem. He has traveled and worked in most of the countries in the tropical areas of Latin America, Asia, and Africa. He is past Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Escuela Agricola Panamericana in Honduras, Visiting Lecturer on Tropical Public Health at the Harvard School of Public Health, and a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Society of Agronomy, the America Geographical Society, and the International Soils Science Society. He is Chairman of the Advisory Committee for Technology Innovation and a member of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT MICHAEL PYLE, a writer and consulting lepidopterist based in Gray's River, Washington, has served since 1979 as Co-Compiler of the lUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book. In this capacity he is consultant to the Conservation Monitoring Centre in Cambridge, England. After receiving his B.S. and M.S. at the University of Washington, he took his Ph.D. through the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies at Yale University in 1976. He worked for the Government of Papua New Guinea on the conservation and utilization of insect resources and then with the Nature Conservancy as Northwest Land Steward. A </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">former Fulbright Scholar to the United Kingdom, Dr. Pyle subsequently founded the Xerces Society for conservation of beneficial insects and their habitats. He has been chairman of IUCN'S Lepidoptera Specialist Group (Species Survival Commission) since 1976. His publications include the Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Butterflies. A comprehensive book on insect conservation in his next project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SHELDON R. SEVERINGHAUS received his Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1977 in natural resources management. He has worked on various wildlife research projects in Asia since 1964 and is representative for the Asia Foundation in Taiwan. He has published articles on butterfly conservation and wildlife industries in Taiwan, where he has been studying the butterfly and wildlife farming projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NOEL D. VIETMEYER, staff officer for this study, is Professional Associate of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. A New Zealander with the Ph.D. in organic chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley, he now works on innovations in science that are important for developing countries. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Advisory_Committee_on_Technolog"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM BRADLEY, Consultant, New Hope, Pennsylvania </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HAROLD DREGNE, Director, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid Land Studies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas (member through 1981) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L.GADEN,JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CARL N. HODGES, Director, Environmental Research Laboratory, Tucson, Arizona </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CYRUS MCKELL, Native Plants, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FRANCOIS MERGEN, Pinchot Professor of Forestry, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (member through 1982) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DONALD L. PLUCKNETT, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THEODORE SUDIA, Deputy Science Advisor to the Secretary of Interior, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+</FONT><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2 COLOR="#0000ff"><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><A NAME="Board_on_Science_and_Technology"></A></P>
+</FONT><B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Board on Science and Technology for International Development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE BUGLIARELLO, President, Polytechnic Institute of New York, Brooklyn, New York, Chairman </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Members</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAMUEL P. ASPER, Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DAVID BELL, Department of Population Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEONARD BERRY, Professor, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ERNEST J. BRISKEY, Dean, School of Agriculture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HARRISON S. BROWN, Director, Resources Systems Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROBERT H. BURRIS, Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CLAUDIA JEAN CARR, Associate Professor, Conservation and Resource Studies, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, California </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NATE FIELDS, Director, Developing Markets, Control Data Corporation, Minneapolis, Minnesota </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ROLAND J. FUCHS, Chairman, Department of Geography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ELMER L. GADEN, JR., Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN HOWARD GIBBONS, Director, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N. BRUCE HANNAY, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM HUGHES, Director, Engineering Energy Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WILLIAM A. W. KREBS, Vice President, Arthur D. Little, Inc., Acorn Park, Cambridge, Massachusetts </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GEORGE 1. LYTHCOTT, University of Wisconsin, School of Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JANICE E. PERLMAN, Executive Director, Committee for a New New York, New York City Partnership, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUGH POPENOE, Director, International Programs in Agriculture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK C. ROBBINS, President, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WALTER A. ROSENBLITH, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FREDERICK SEITZ, President Emeritus, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RALPH HERBERT SMUCKLER, Dean of International Studies and Programs, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GILBERT F. WHITE, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BILL C. WRIGHT, Assistant Dean for International Programs, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">JOHN C. HURLEY, Director</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL G. C. McDONALD DOW, Associate Director/Studies </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MICHAEL P. GREENE, Associate Director/Research Grants </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/b22bue/metadata.xml
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--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/b22bue/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
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@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Butterfly Farming in Papua New Guinea (b22bue)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing|Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">BOSTID</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">start a butterfly farm</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/ec158e/ec158e.htm
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--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/ec158e/ec158e.htm	(revision 21010)
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+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; The Courier - N°158 - July - August 1996 Dossier Communication and the media - Country report Cape Verde</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Courier - N°158 - July - August 1996 Dossier Communication and the media - Country report Cape Verde</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFRICA-CARIBBEAN-PACIFIC - EUROPEAN UNION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dossier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Communication and the media</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Press freedom, regarded as a fundamental human right, is also a key component in the democratization process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the help of experts in the field, we look at what various organizations are doing to combat censorship and promote a free press in ACP countries and elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We also highlight the new trend of donor support for projects aimed at promoting press freedom. These include, notably, provisions for the training of journalists. And as new means of communication, such as the World Wide Web, develop, we consider what is being done to prevent the opening up of a new divide - this time between the 'information rich' end the 'information poor'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the least-developed countries, Cape Verde is seen as a model of good governance and stable democracy. It is also admired for its perseverance in the struggle against the exigencies of history and climate. The country suffers from almost permanent drought and has virtually no regular supplies of fresh water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Its history has been punctuated by serious famines and while the people are no longer hungry, they still face formidable economic difficulties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde produces just 10% of what it consumes and its exports are one fifteenth of its imports. The one bright spot is in services, where it enjoys a positive trade balance. This sector (in particular, international transport and tourism), together with the country's cultural industries, offer the best hope for future development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Meeting point</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Robert M&eacute;nard, Director of 'Reporters sans fronti&egrave;res'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Combating attacks on press freedom</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Reporters sans fronti&egrave;res' was founded in June 1985 in Montpellier where Robert M&eacute;nard was working as a journalist with Radio France. Now based in Paris, RSF has two main policy areas. In the first place it alerts international public opinion and the media to situations involving violations of press freedom (via publications such as 'RSF News letter' the Annual Report and specific books and reports). Secondly, RSF actively intervenes by sending letters of protest to official bodies and assisting victims. Last year RSF dealt with more than 350 cases involving the press throughout the world. The organisation's ambition, according to Mr M&eacute;nard, is to be a kind of Amnesty International in the press field. The interview began with Mr M&eacute;nard giving a detailed description of RSF's work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We do two things - we report violations of press freedom and help journalists who are the victims of such violations. Take the former Yugoslavia, for example. It would have been unthinkable to monitor what was going on in that war-torn country without, at the same time, helping the media who were victims of the repression. So we sent over lawyers to help in trials involving the press, helped the families of imprisoned journalists and gave general assistance to the media. In the case of Oslabodenje, the Sarajevo daily, this went on for four years. We did similar work in Rwanda where RSF helped the media to get back on its feet after the genocide. In Algeria at the moment we are involved in aiding  journalists who are obstructed when doing their work. We also give help in Europe - currently to refugee journalists in Belgium, France, Spain, Switzarland and Germany. That's basically what we do; reporting violations of press freedom and helping those who are the victims of it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you work with other organisations, for example the United Nations ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We work with various types of organisations. We have daily contact with other NGOs specialising in press freedom, such as Article 19 in London and the Committee for the Protection of Journalists in New York, to give just two examples. We also have contacts with NGOs involved in human rights issues in general and, above all, with Amnesty International.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then there are our links with international organisations and, first and foremost, with the UN system. RSF has submitted reports in response to requests from various organisations, ranging from the UN Committee for Human Rights to UNESCO. We also work with the Council of Europe and the Organisation of African Unity. But our closest  relationship is with the European Union, or two reasons; firstly because it is RSF's main financial backer and secondly Because the EU enables us to do three things. It has helped us set up and has Financed a vast network of correspondents in 130 different countries and, to my mind, this is the most important thing in terms of defending human rights and press freedom. We also publish reports, which we write in response to EU requests, on press freedom in one country or another and which are made available to the EU and European Parliament. Our third \ink comes in the form of assistance. We manage an aid fund to help where the press is in difficulties, and the money is provided by the Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-You have mentioned a network of correspondents which has been set up. How does it operate ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is a network of people who are in daily contact with RSF and who tip us off when a situation requiring our attention arises. Whenever there is a violation of press freedom in a country where the network operates, our correspondent lets us know - that's the first priority. Then, they make enquiries at our request. The third stage is to set up events. For example May 3 was World Press Freedom Day and, on that day, in about 20 countries in Africa, our correspondents organised events on the theme of press freedom. A fourth aspect of our correspondents' work is that they are often responsible on the ground for helping journalists in difficulty. They also help the media in general because we give them documents and supply them with information which they distribute in their particular country. Their task, therefore, is to alert us to a situation, meet our requirements for information and, on our behalf, physically to assist people on the ground, set up events and disseminate information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Are the correspondents all nationals of the countries in which they work ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. Also, about 90% of them are joumalists and they are all paid for what they do. Their relationship with us is clear-cut. It is very important for them to be paid because this means that   we can ask certain things of them. If you   work as a volunteer no-one can give you  a deadline to produce such and such a   document. In our case, we pay them to   do this work for RSF.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you choose countries where the situation is already problematic ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Unfortunately, problems exist in many countries. Less than half the countries in the world show any degree of respect for press freedom and that means we have a great deal of work. In addition, information arriving at RSF from the correspondents is distributed to other organisations. We have set up a system called Infex which is an electronic mailbox.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All RSF's information is put on a computerised system and immediately disseminated to all the organisations involved in the defence of human rights, and press freedom in particular.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So the technological revolution is a positive thing as far as you are concerned ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Absolutely. Both the Imais and Internet systems are unbelievably useful tools which have completely revolutionised our work. For example, RSF might protest about the situation in some country or other. Take China, for example - we regularly lodge protests against the lack of press freedom there. There are 17 journalists in jail, no freedom for the press and a great many problems. However, people in China are not aware of what we do and in order to get information they have to listen to international radio stations. On the Internet, RSF's services are available in French, English and Spanish and it is consulted by people the world over. It is thus one of their sources of information. Another example would be a case where we set up an operation and inundate a number of people in a particular country with faxes, in order to pass on the information. Modern technology enables us to break down the fortresses which totalitarian or dictatorial regimes attempt to construct around themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- RSF has just published its 1996 Report. What do you have to say regarding the current position of press freedom ? Has progress been made ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I would say two things. In the long term, the situation is improving. If you remember, 25 years ago, the regimes in half the countries in Latin America were dictatorships, communism dominated half of Europe and nearly all of Africa had single-party systems. Even in Europe, there were dictatorships - in Spain, Portugal and Greece. So we cannot deny that there has been progress. The problem is that, for three or four years now, there has been a noticeable rise in new threats to press freedom, and this is a great source of concern to us. Here I am thinking of the rise in power of fundamentalist movements, particularly religious fundamentalism. In a number of countries nowadays - the best example, or perhaps I should say the worst example, is Algeria - journalists are not only threatened by the state but are being killed by armed Islamic groups. The rise in religious fundamentalism is indeed a real danger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second type of threat confronting the press is the increased influence of mafia-type criminals. You will, of course, have heard about drug trafficking in places like Colombia or Peru. Nowadays, in some countries where communism has been overthrown, the big threat comes from these criminal gangs. Not so long ago in Russia, the star presenter on the main TV channel was killed because he got in the way of 'Mafia' interests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third threat comes from uncontrolled actions by groups fighting for autonomy or independence, like the Kurdish movement in Turkey (the PKK), and a number of separatist groups in India. The EU is no stranger to this either</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ETA poses a continual threat to the press, as do members of the FLNC in Corsica. It is only a few months since members of the latter group machine gunned a journalist's house. A fourth and new kind of threat, particularly in countries with a democratic system, comes from the rise of the extreme right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lastly, a point I draw particular attention to in our recent report is, in fact, a dual phenomenon. On the one hand there are states which pass laws under which any criticism is a crime and may lead to prosecution. An example of this is Egypt where the government has enacted a law which has led to charges being brought against some 60 journalists since summer 1995. On the other hand, there are states where justice simply does not operate and there is no will to make it function.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Last year, 51 journalists were killed and a number of others were attacked, but there has not been a single trial or conviction. It is a real culture of impunity. In some countries, the justice system either does not operate, or it is not independent. In such places, the authorities are reluctant to identify and prosecute those responsible for attacks on journalists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· RSFcurrently has project running in Rwanda, in collaboration with the EU. Could you tell us something about this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The EU is helping us to meet a wide range of needs in Rwanda, as well as in Burundi, where sadly, the situation is rather similar. In Rwanda, there are those who governed the country before the genocide and those in power at the moment. There was a specific problem there in that nearly half of Rwanda's journalists were killed during the genocide - 49 out of about 100. We had virtually to reconstruct the press system and the EU gave us the means to do this.The press currently has difficulties vis-&agrave;-vis the authorities but it is attempting to do its job.  in Burundi, where our work is of a more conventional type, we see continuing attacks on press freedom. There, RSF is trying to resist the pressure, again supported by the EU. In fact, thanks to the EU, we are helping a   number of countries' media to survive despite difficult conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another quite new problem is that before and during the genocide in Rwanda, the media were used as vehicles for disseminating hatred. They issued calls for people to kill their compatriots, in this instance the Tutsis, and the language they used was unbelievably violent. On Radio Mille Collines, presenters would say - and I quote; 'The graves are not full yet'. They would give out the addresses of people who had to be killed and when the murders had been carried out they would actually say, 'You killed them too quickly - you should have killed them more slowly to make them suffer more', or, 'You didn't kill the children, go back and kill the childreni. We actually have recordings of statements like this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In such a situation, journalists must be made to answer for what they have done and be brought to justice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has helped us conduct a number of surveys which will enable the international criminal court in The Hague to charge Rwandan journalists with complicity or incitement to genocide. We expect this to take place in the very near future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course in Rwanda, all that is in the past but the same thing is happening today in Burundi where there is a radio station called 'Radio Democracy' - what a joke! A number of journalists there are issuing calls for people to be killed and we have a copy of one of their newspapers whose front page offers a cash reward to anyone who kills such and such a person. This is not journalism. RSF has lodged complaints against these people and one of these 'journalists' has just been charged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We are doing three things in Rwanda and Burundi: denouncing violations of press freedom by the authorities, helping media victims and - something new - reporting what has come to be known as 'the media of hatred'. Unfortunately, this type of media is not restricted to Rwanda and Burundi. it is a phenomenon that we see in a number of African countries, in the former Yugoslavia, the Caucasus and the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East. Perhaps you are aware that the 50th anniversary of the Nuremberg trials has just passed ? But did you know that there were two journalists among the accused? The press has forgotten that journalists played a part in the rise of Nazism. RSF is pointing out that the same thing is happening today in many countries and we have to fight it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 'The EU is a  perfect partner</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Given what you have just said, should restrictions be placed on press freedom ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - This is a very complex subject. You have to remember that international texts, particularly the convention on civil and political rights, place restrictions on press freedom. Article 19, which defines press freedom, stipulates that there are certain limits to this and Article 20 forbids any dissemination of racist or antisemitic ideas and any incitements to violence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RSF has two things to say. First, governments which have signed the agreements must ensure they are observed. These set limits. Journalists are not above the law and they must be punished when they say certain things. So states must face up to their responsibilities and apply the treaties they have signed. Second, I feel that the international community, and Europe in particular - when it signs agreements or gives aid to third countries - should demand that they respect press freedom but clamp down on the media of hatred.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· RSF has just published a draft model legislation governing the press. In preparing this, were you influenced by your experience of the extremist media ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Perhaps we were influenced too much. I am my own worst critic. We sent a mission to Rwanda before the genocide but did not appreciate the full effects of the evil disseminated by the media of hatred, particularly Radio Mille </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collines. We underestimated the situation and are concerned at what is happening. We believe there must be express limits on press freedom and this draft framework law is one way of formulating such restrictions. It is not necessarily the best way of going about things, but our profession has to ask itself questions regarding the definition of press freedom and the limits we must not exceed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Are you satisfied with what the EU is doing in this area ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The EU is a perfect partner and has never exerted any pressure. With the Union, we are able to do things that would not be possible with individual Member-State government because the latter conduct foreign policy in defence of certain interests. Each country has its own cultural history linguistic links or links arising out of former colonial times which prevent it financing RSF's studies unconditionally. As far as our missions are concerned, RSF decides what it wants to do and we send our reports to the EU. They have also granted us a budget enabling us to give immediate aid to people in difficulty. This is the most positive action possible If the EU were not there, there would unfortunately be no-one else to finance an organisation like ours. 60% of our budget comes from the Union, 20%from various companies. We generate the remaining 20% ourselves through sales of books and contributions. Because the EU is a grouping of governments, the Commission has some room for manoeuvre. This is the only possible kind of support for organisations like RSF and, if it were not there, it would be the end for the people whom RSF supports.  interview by Dorothy Morrissey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ACP</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The economy of Cameroon: Better prospects but still a long way to go</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is an astonishing sight to behold during the rainy season. As you drive along the road from Yaound&eacute; to Bamenda, you come to a point where human habitation starts - and it then continues unbroken for more than 100 kiLom&eacute;tres. Just before Bafoussam, and as far as the eye can see, every patch of land is cultivated. Bananas, oranges, mangoes, sugarcane, cassava, palm trees, groundnuts and maize grow luxuriantly in open fields and in the front and back gardens of many houses. This route, of course, takes you mainly through the western part of Cameroon, home to the Bamilelr&eacute;s, recognised as one of the country's most enterprising and industrious ethnic groups. The population density here is 200 per km2 as opposed to 1 per km2 in the East.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The impact of this widespread farming, carried out by a large number of smallholders, is visible in the local markets, whether in Bafoussam, Mbouda or Bamenda. There, the stalls overflow with fruits and vegetables and prices are very low - a virtual paradise for the middlemen whose unmistakable presence is signalled by the significant number of trucks loading the produce for distribution throughout the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These scenes come as no surprise to the long-time observer of Cameroon's economy. The country achieved virtual self-sufficiency in food over 15 years ago. It is one of the few African countries to have been able to do this, thanks both to its physical  endowments and an early recognition of its agricultural vocation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon is often described as a microcosm of Africa, not just in terms of its make-up of English- and French speaking communities, but because it enjoys almost all the continent's climatic conditions. The south is equatorial, with two rainy seasons and two dry seasons of equal duration, the centre is Savannah country with one rainy season and one dry season, while the extreme north (part of the Sahel) is hot and dry. The country has a very good supply of rainfall - from 5000 mm annually in the southwest to around 600 mm near Lake Chad.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such varied climates favour the cultivation of a variety of crops. Timber is  produced mainly in the southern provinces while palm oil, tea, cocoa, coffee, rubber, timber and foodcrops are produced in the southwestern and western areas. The central and north provinces specialise in cattle and cotton production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concentration on agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon has, not surprisingly, concentrated on agriculture. Indeed the government has given top priority to the sector in all its development plans   since independence in 1960. It has been involved in the marketing of the main export crops and has provided subsidies to farmers in the form of low-priced fertilisers and pesticides for their cocoa, coffee, rubber, palm oil, etc. Almost three-quarters of the working population (the majority of whom are smallholders) are engaged in farming. And despite a low level of mechanisation, they are very efficient. The rate of growth in food outstrips the rate of population growth. Only a few largescale farmers or firms are involved in the production of cash crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until the early 1980s, when oil came into the picture, these large scalefarmers and firms amounted for more than 70% of export earnings, 40% of state revenue and 32% of the Gross Domestic Product. The plan initially was to use oil revenues to further boost and transform agriculture. However, the dramatic increase in the country's oil production, combined with much higher world petroleum prices during the first half of the 1980s, made the sector not only Cameroon's biggest export earner, but also, in a certain sense, a 'spoiler' for agriculture. Increased revenues enabled the government to maintain the level of prices paid to farmers, even though world prices had slumped to disastrous levels. This created distortions in the market. (Later, when the oil price slumped, and revenues dropped sharply, producer prices were also reduced, bringing them closer into line with international prices.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture's contribution to GDP declined steadily to around 21 % in 1985, rose to 27% in 1989 and has hovered around 30% ever since. The sector's share of export earnings has also fallen to about 40% of total exports by value.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite this, Cameroon's agriculture remains, comparatively, in a much better shape than that of most African countries. Indeed, it contributed in large measure to the country's reputation as one of Africa's economic successes in the 1980s. During that decade, growth averaged 8% per annum. However, the period was also marked by dramatic increases in oil revenues which induced  significant policy changes as well as leading to maladministration. The government paid less attention to taxation and customs duties as sources of income and turned a virtual blind eye to smuggling which harmed the manufacturing sector. The civil service, on the other hand, expanded beyond reason, a phenomenon that some have attributed to patronage by the ruling single party.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Boom in public expenditure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Protected somewhat against fluctuations in earnings from export crops, by a strong but overvalued CFA franc, the government embarked on a wide range of capital expenditure and imports. Then, in 1987, international oil prices fell as dramatically as they had risen earlier in the decade. At the time, public spending was running at CFAF 8 billion - well above the CFAF 5.6bn the country actually earned. Revenues from oil continued their downward slide to CFAF4.5 bn in 1988, CFAF 2.8 bn in 1991 and CFAF 2.5 bn in 1994. 1995 saw a modest rise to CFAF 3 bn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1987 thus marked the beginning of a rapid deterioration in Cameroon's financial situation. In the period which followed, civil servants' salaries were unpaid for months, several of the country's foreign missions were left without resources and both domestic and foreign debts worsened. In 1993, the government owed commercial banks around CFAF 3.3bn. Its external debt stood at around $7.5bn with a service ratio of more than 25% of foreign exchange earnings. The devaluation of the CFA franc in January 1994 improved the internal debt situation significantly. In February, the government signed a letter of intent with the IMF after agreeing to a series of reforms which included, among other things, rationalising the banking and insurance sectors, raising revenue from non-oil sources, bringing inflation down and reducing the budget deficit. In return the IMF provided a stand-by loan equivalent to CFAF 1.4bn. However, the agreement was suspended just a few months later when the Fund reached the conclusion that the government lacked the will to carry the reforms through. The 1994/95 budget foresaw a deficit of 4.5% of GDP - well above the IMF's guideline of 1.5%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meanwhile the country's financial situation had become so critical that it could no longer service its debts, most notably, those it owed to the World Bank. France, which had traditionally been ready to come to the rescue, refused to bail Cameroon out and it finally dawned on the authorities that structural adjustment was unavoidable. When, in September 1995, talks resumed with the IMF, the commitment to adjustment was no longer in doubt. The government agreed, in addition to fiscal reforms, to liberalise trade in cocoa, coffee and timber, to prune the civil service and to privatise state enterprises which dominate the industrial sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commitment to reforms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since then the reform process has been in full swing. The first and most important task has been to improve the government's financial position. The civil service, which employs more than 175000 people, is gradually being reduced and salaries have been cut. Trade is also being liberalised and subsidies are being removed. The 1995/96 budget, unveiled in June last year, was welcomed by the IMF. It included, for the first time in a long while, increases in income tax and a widening of tax bands. A series of measures have also been introduced to combat tax evasion and fraud. External signs of wealth, water and electricity consumption, and telephone bills are now being used as means of assessing income tax.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Responsibility for the collection of customs duties has been removed from the Customs Department which was often accused in the past of corruption and inefficiency. The task has been given instead to a Swiss-based preshipment inspection company. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The donor community has responded positively. With French assistance, the government has been able to clear its outstanding debt to the World Bank. The IMF has provided a stand-by credit facility of $101 million in support of the adjustment programme for 1995/ 96 and debts to the Paris Club covering the same period have been rescheduled. In addition, now that Cameroon has been reclassified as a poor country, it is entitled to benefit from the terms of the Naples Agreement, which allow for up to 67% of debts to western govemments to be written off. A number of creditor nations have either forgiven the country its debts or have reduced them substantially. More loans have come from France and a number of other donors, including the World Bank and the European Community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EC is financing a series of projects within the framework of the adjustment programme, including the restructuring of the civil service and preparation of the ground for privatisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lately though, the donor community has been showing signs of disenchantment, following allegations of misuse of funds and perhaps even outright embezzlement. Last March, an IMF mission to Yaound&eacute; failed to obtain an adequate explanation concerning the allocation of certain sums. The result, at the time The Courier went to press, was that an IMF loan for settlement of Cameroon's debt to the African Development Bank was being held up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dealing with the negative social impact</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p07a.png"></center><br>
+ Figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sudden devaluation of the CFA franc in January 1994 halved Cameroon's purchasing power overnight. The government has since cut wages twice. The average salary of a top civil servant, which stood at around CFAF 300 000 before devaluation, is now less than CFAF 180 000 while the lowest paid government employees receive just CFAF 30 000. At the same time, prices, particularly of imported manufactured goods and inputs, have risen sharply. Increases of up to 150% have been  recorded. By way of example, the price of a baguette (french bread), which was only CFAF 80 in January 1994 had risen to CFAF 130 by March 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there is considerable hardship, Cameroonians are a great deal more fortunate than fellow Africans in many other countries undergoing a similar adjustment process. Staple food remains cheap and affordable to the vast majority, thanks to the continuing strength of agriculture. As a result, there are few, if any, cases of malnutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of donors, including China, Belgium and the EC, are concentrating on health and education with the specific aim of reducing the negative social impact of adjustment. The EC, for example, has a project designed to strengthen health provision at the grassroots. This entails rehabilitating  infrastructures (health centres and district hospitals in particular) and establishing medical supply centres in areas that are not covered by other donors. The project is governed by the principle of cost-recovery to ensure viability and sustainability. But one area where the donors cannot do much is in the field of job creation. There is growing unemployment and job prospects in the formal sector, at least in the short term, are not good.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In macro-economic terms, things are locking up slightly for Cameroon. After recording economic growth of 3% in 1994/95, the hope is for a 5% increase in 1995/96. However, Cameroon's main economic operators, grouped under the umbrella of GICAM (Groupement inter-patronal du Cameroun), expressed fears late last year   that the country would not achieve this level of growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon exports a variety of primary commodities, most of whose prices have recovered in recent years, and devaluation has had a positive impact on the country's balance of trade. Specifically, it has helped make exports more competitive and in 1994/ 95 the trade surplus was a healthy CFAF 349bn, almost double the CFAF 128bn recorded in the previous year. There was a noticeable slowdown in the export of timber in the latter half of last year and the qualities of coffee and cocoa being sold were not up to the usual standard, a situation that led to both crops being shunned in the world market. Bananas exported to France were also meeting stiffer competition from French Caribbean bananas. However, the fact that rubber production has risen by more than 10%, while aluminium output and sales have increased, should help Cameroon to record another positive trade balance when the figures are next published.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forestry sector, which has huge foreign-exchange earning and employment potential, is being rationalised as part of the current structural adjustment programme. The Canadian Agency for International Development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(CAID) has a five-year project to conserve and regenerate some 30 000 hectares. In fact, half of Cameroon is covered by forest and less than 500 000 ha is currently being exploited. The objective is to ensure that forest resources are exploited in the future at a sustainable level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The private sector</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industry, which is still in its infancy, has been developed by the government since independence largely with a view to import-substitution, although with some gearing towards the regional market. It accounts for about 14% of GDP and is currently dominated by aluminium smelting. Although devaluation has lately improved the competitiveness of those enterprises that add value to locally available raw materials, the manufacturing sector as a whole faces two major challenges now that the government has accepted the idea that the economy is best driven by the private sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first relates to private investments, which have been sluggish  over the past ten years; a clear illustration of a lack of confidence in the economy. This was amply demonstrated when Cameroonians with funds abroad failed to repatriate them to take advantage of the CFAF devaluation as was widely expected. This phenomenon puts the whole privatisation exercise in jeopardy as it means that the government is more likely to have to rely on foreign entrepreneurs. The best the authorities can therefore expect in the short term, some observers say, is to convert those state enterprises that are not already joint-ventures into ones where private investors become the majority shareholders. Complete divestment will then take place gradually over a longer timescale. Overall, 150 state enterprises have been earmarked for sale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to Andr&eacute; Siaka, director of Cameroon's Brewery, who is also Chairman of GICAM, another reason for the lack of investment was high interest rates. These hovered around 20% for many years. Even now, after the reform of the banking sector, interest rates remain very high and there are no borrowers, he told The Courier. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donors again have been conscious of this and some of their interventions have reflected this concern. For example, Canada is providing funds for the establishment in Douala (the commercial capital) of a centre for the development of private enterprises. Meanwhile, the Chinese have promised to provide CFAF 7bn to enable a line of credit to be opened for small and medium sized enterprises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government itself is puting in place a number of incentives, according to Minister of Trade and Industry Eloundou Mani Pierre. The liberalisation of the economy and the reform of the customs regime in collaboration with UDEAC, to which Cameroon belongs, are part of these. Mr Mani told The Courier that with a population of under 12 million, Cameroun's most important market was Central Africa. He also, perhaps surprisingly, has high hopes for the new World Trade Aareement. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon meanwhile is reviewing its plan for the establishment of export processing zones with the help of its main donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also looking at other ways of attracting foreign investment, particularly in 'value-added' enterprises involved in the processing of locally available raw materials such as cotton, cocoa, coffee and timber.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social and political peace</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second, and by far the more serious challenge facing manufacturing, is the problem of large-scale smuggling by petty traders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evidence of this abounds in the booming central market of Douala, where goods of all kinds can be found at very reasonable prices. Ironically the measures which were being taken and judged to be relatively effective against smuggling in recent years have had to be abandoned under structural adjustment rules imposed on the government.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As Mr Siaka pointed out, petty traders dealing in smuggled goods put pressure on enterprises, 'because they do not pay tax', and threaten to render domestic manufacturing uncompetitive. It is also widely acknowledged, however, that the small-scale traders, who dominate the informal sector, provide job opportunities to Cameroonians, which is important at a time of economic austerity. Indeed petty trading has arguably been the safety-valve, helping to ease the social pressures brought about by structural adjustment, and thus preventing civil unrest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the extent to which that safety-valve can withstand the emerging political pressures is a different matter. Democratisation, understandably, was one of the conditions imposed by donors for assistance to Cameroon. After a series of elections - presidential, legislative and municipal - which were marred by violence and deaths, there are still doubts about the health of democracy in the country. Indeed, there are signs that tension is  mounting. And few would dispute that if Cameroon is to succeed economically, it needs both social peace and political stability. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Jacques Santer commends regional  initiative</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Alex Kremer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission President's visit to West Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union's commitment to regional development in sub-Saharan Africa is as strong as ever, but sustainable development can only come from Africa's own initiative. This was the message delivered by Jacques Santer, President of the European Commission, in his address to African heads of state at the UEMOA (Economic and Monetary Union of West Africa) summit in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, on May 10.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'I wish to emphasise from the start,' Mr Santer declared to the Presidents of Benin, Burkina Faso, C&ocirc;te d'lvoire, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo, 'that the European Commission and the European Parliament are both determined to make our partnership even more dynamic and in tune with today's rapidly changing world.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The presence of the Commission President at the UEMOA summit marks a milestone in the European Community's support for regional integration in the developing world. With its own Commission, Council of Ministers and Court of Justice, the UEMOA appears to be consciously  following the supranational model of regional integration pioneered by the European Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sequencing of UEMOA integration, however, is almost the reverse of the European model. Already linked by a single currency in the CFA franc, the West African Union's member states are now pressing ahead with plans for integration of their 'real' economies. The implementation timetable agreed in Ouagadougou covers freedom of establishment, free movement of capital, mutual macroeconomic monitoring and the first steps to customs union with the harmonisation of external tariffs and the lowering or removal of intra-regional barriers to trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President Santer indicated that the European Commission is keen to discuss how the European Development Fund (EDF) can support these initiatives. Such aid could take the form of technical assistance and training as well as direct budgetary support to mitigate the short-term costs of customs union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UEMOA is not, however, an aid project. Its member states have designed it to stand on its own feet financially from the start. A 'community solidarity levy' was due to come into effect on 1 July 1996. The money will be used for a structural fund programme beginning in late 1997, as well as to finance the Union's operating costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meeting with the President of Burkina Faso, Blaise Compaor&eacute;, Mr Santer said that it was particularly significant that his first official visit to Africa as President of the European</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission was to Ouagadougou. Not only was it a reaffirmation of the partnership between Africa and the EU, and a statement of the EU's willingness to support regional integration in the developing world. It was also a tribute to the determination of the people of Burkina Faso and other African countries to promote their own development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community is Burkina Faso's second largest donor, contributing 10% of total aid payments in 1994. Since 1991, the EC has committed an average of ECU 45 million each year to development cooperation with this country, rising to a peak of ECU 100m in 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Santer visited the EDF-financed road improvement site at Tougan, close to the frontier with Mali, and noted that intra-regional transport links were an essential complement to the legislative programme of the UEMOA. He concluded his tour of regional cooperation projects with a visit to a photovoltaic pumping system financed by the EC under its West African solar energy programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, on a more personal note, the Commission President was able to drop in on a project managed by the charity Chr&eacute;tiens pour le Sahel. Mr Santer worked for this Luxembourg-based organisation before starting his career in politics and he was visibly pleased to see that it was still going strong - supporting home-grown African initiatives with a little financial help from the European Community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.K. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA - moving with the times</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) was inaugurated 11 years ago in Ede, Prince Claus of the Netherlands - whose interest in development issues is well-known - attestded as guest of honour. On 19 April, he returned to take part in the official opening of the CTA's new building in neigh bouring Wageningen in the Dutch province of Gelderland. The siting of the purpose built premises is significant. The town of Wageningen has long been an important European centre for agricultural research and the Dutch, of course, are renowned for their commitment to cooperation with developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CTA may only have moved a short distance from its previous headquarters, but the Centre's 38-strong staff are also aware of the need to move with the times when it comes to fulfilling  their role in the field of agricultural information. This point was particularly emphasised by CTA Director, Dr. R.D. Cooke in his presentation at the opening ceremony. Recalling the Centre's main tasks (see box) Dr Cooke spoke of the 'changing horizons and challenges' which they faced, and he focused on four specific aspects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first of these is the big change taking place in national agricultural systems, with the state withdrawing more and more in favour of the private sector and NGOs. This is being accompanied by a trend towards decentralisation with the result that the CTA has many more potential partners to cater for and work with.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Global liberalisation has also had an effect on the kind of information being sought by the CTA's 'customers'. In the past, demand was almost exclusively for scientific or technical information, notably aimed at increasing productivity. Dr Cooke reported that while this remained important, there was now  an increasing interest in marketing and socio-economic aspects to facilitate decision-taking.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It came as no surprise to hear the Director highlight the challenge posed by new technologies such as electronic networking and digital storage. The key point here, he stressed, was to find ways of adapting these to ACP needs and realities. 'In the next century,' he argued, 'the haves and the heve-nots will be defined by their access to information.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, Dr Cooke referred to the growing significance of regional linkages. He indicated that the CTA was locking at ways in which it could help its partners to devise regional development programmes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The declaration signalling the official opening of the building was made in the preceding presentation by E.F.C. Niehe who is Deputy DirectorGeneral for European Cooperation at the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In his speech, Mr Niehe emphasised the relevance of the CTA, pointing out that while the world food situation had improved, 'we are now on the threshold of structural food insecurity'. He also spoke in more general terms about the future of ACP-EU cooperation and acknowledged that 'partnership, sovereignty and equality had been somewhat neglected' by donors. However, he suggested that these concepts were now 'coming back'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the ACP side, the Swaziland ambassador, CS. Mamba,who is co-President of the Committee of Ambassadors, took up the theme of food shortages in sub-Saharan Africa and identified some of the difficulties encountered by African producers, particularly in respect of new technologies and marketing. He also referred to the environmental challenges facing ACP countries, especially in the Caribbean and Pacific. He was keen, however, to stress that the picture was 'not entirely negative'. Thus, for example, new technologies and methods had had a positive impact on grain production in Zimbabwe, horticulture in Kenya, and cocoa and coffee in West Africa. Mr Mamba echoed Dr Cooke in stressing the advantages of regional markets, and concluded with a firm statement of support for continuing ACP-EU cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'History,' he said, 'will show that the Lom&eacute; Convention played a central role in the momentum of development.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The final speaker was Steffen Smidt, Director-General for Development at the European Commission, who suggested that the CTA had played a pioneering role in developing a sectoral  approach at a time when the focus of development cooperation tended to be on individual projects. 'The Centre', he said, 'has become a well-respected international institution in the field of agricultural information.' The Director General focused on the need for ACP countries to develop their own capacities and on the gap that exists 'between potential and reality', because of capacity limitations. The Centre, he believed, could 'help bridge this gap.' Mr Smidt also reiterated a point made earlier that the information flow should not just be in one direction. 'Information from South to North is vital,' he argued, to ensure better targeting of programmes in future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the speeches, guests had an opportunity to learn more about the CTA's work by speaking to the Centre's personnel and visiting a special exhibition illustrating the nature and purpose of the Centre's activities. _</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer About the CTA </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CIA's tasks are: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - to develop and provide services which improve access to information for agricultural and rural development ; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - to strengthen the Opacity of ACP countries to produce, acquire, exchange and utilise information in these areas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Programmes are organised around three principal themes: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strengthening information centres - designing strategies for improving agricultural information services; - promoting use of new information technologies; - providing training; - donating books. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Promoting contact and exchange of: experience among CTA's partners in rural development - seminars; - study visits. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Providing information on demand - publication s; - radio and audiovisual materials; - literature services for researchers; - Question and answer service. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(The address of the Technical Centre for Agriculture and Rural cooperation can be found in the CTA section towards the end of the white pages in   this issue.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bananas, Hamlet and the Windward IsIands</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Martin Dihm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What do the Windward Islands' banana industry and Hamlet have in common ? Both are intrigued by the same question: 'To be or not to be.' But unlike Hamlet, whose fete was decided rather quickly and tragically, the future of Windward Canibbean banana production is still open. And what is more, Windward producers have a distinct advantage over Hamlet. They can hire consultants to analyse their problem and come up with fresh solutions. That is what has happened. But before turning to the solutions, what have the problems been ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The four Windward Islands; Dominica, St Lucia, St Vincent and Grenada, have long enjoyed preferential market access to the UK. This first permitted the creation of the industry and then secured its survival, even with production costs that are much higher than those of other producers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A traumatic moment came when the European Community had to decide on a common market regime for bananas. Coming into effect in mid 1993 the regime maintained the principle of preferential access for traditional ACP producers. Nevertheless, it introduced a move towards greater market liberalisation. Fierce attacks on the regime by certain of the EU's trading partners have raised doubts about its viability. The system is due, in any case, to expire in 2002 when even further liberalisation seems likely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this could cause great difficulties for the Windward Islands which still depend substantially on banana exports to the EU. A decline in prices since mid-1993 and the appearance of new competitors in the previously protected UK market have further underlined the need for the Windwards to compete in a more liberal arena. The Islands commissioned a study, funded by the UK and the EC, into the competitiveness of their industry and on ways of improving its position. It was not the first study of this type, but earlier ones had had no real impact on the industry which had always been sufficiently protected to avoid swallowing the bitter pill of adjustment. This time, it was clear from the outset that action would have to be taken if the industry were to master the new situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The study provided a wealth of interesting insights and recommendations. The first big surprise - at least for outsiders - was the discovery that the industry was wasting considerable amounts each year through certain deficiencies in governance, management and production methods. The second theme of the study was the poor banana quality resulting from an inappropriate pricing system. In effect, price differences paid to farmers were not sufficient to reward extra attention to quality aspects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The study's recommendations pertaining to management, production and quality were all agreed in a meeting on 29 September 1995, which brought together the Prime Ministers, the EC and other donors. Prime Minister Mitchell of St Vincent labelled this chance for the industry to get its business right as 'the last train to San Fernando'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What has happened since then ? After some hesitation, the industry has indeed begun to 'take up arms against its sea of troubles' (to return to the Hamlet analogy). The EC, for its part, has taken the part of Horatio, the faithful friend. Its role is a delicate one though - for the EC has a lot of money available. Take, for example, the ECU 25m allocated to St Vincent in the 1994 STABEX exercise (roughly five times that  country's national indicative programme). How are such funds to be injected reasonably into the islands without undermining their own strength and sense of purpose in pursuing the right strategy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To answer this, one has to look at the actual requirements. Streamlining the banana industry is less a question of big infrastructure projects than of providing expertise to guide the necessary structural changes. It also means fewer people will be employed in the sector. Aid should, therefore, focus on technical assistance, promoting diversification, and social 'cushioning'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge, of course, remains considerable and the outcome will not be known for some time. But it is clear that the Windwards have taken bold steps in the right direction and that further steps are on the agenda. There is also little doubt that the islands small, sweet bananas can only be competitive in their market segment if they are produced and marketed professionally, and with dedication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So what could Hamlet have learnt from this experience ? In short - get sound analysis and fresh advice from outside - and then boldly implement. And stick close to your good old friend, Horatio! </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.D.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">British beef overshadows Development Council</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most recent meeting of the EC`s Development Council was one of the first to be hit by the non-cooperation policy adopted by the UK in protest at the export ban on British beef. The Overseas Development Minister, Linda Chalker, announced at the outset to her fellow ministers: 'I will not be able to agree today to the adoption of those texts... on which unanimity is required'. Britain is seeking agreement 'for a step-by-step lifting of the export ban', which was imposed after scientific evidence suggested a link between Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) - and its human 'equivalent', Creuzfeld Jakob Disease. Cases of BSE have been recorded across Europe, but the vast majority have been in the UK.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Texts which were approved included a regulation on refugees in non-Lom&eacute; developing countries. This makes available ECU 240 million over a four-year period (19961999) for longer term assistance to refugees and displaced persons - mainly in Asia and Latin America. Also agreed were two three-year programmes covering Aids control and environmental projects respectively. They will cover the period 1997-1999, and each has been allocated the sum of ECU 45m. In addition, ministers confirmed a regulation on the criteria for disbursing humanitarian aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the British stance meant that a number of important resolutions were blocked, including a text on mounting projects which link emergency, rehabilitation and longer-term aid. Rino Serri, Italy's Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs who presided the Council meeting, said that once adopted, this approach would represent a 'qualitative leap for the EU's development policy.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other resolutions awaiting approval relate to the strengthening of coordination between Member States, evaluation of the environmental impact of development policies, decentralised cooperation, and migration and development. Since good headway was made on these subjects despite the British attitude, the texts are expected  to be speedily agreed once the UK lifts its veto. Ministers also had an initial discussion on a paper presented by Commissioner Pinheiro on preventing conflicts in Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As is customary at these biannual meetings, several delegations raised points of particular national concern. Belgium, for example, is worried about the Commission's proposal which would finally establish the single market in chocolate products while leaving Member States the choice of adapting their legislation to allow a vegetable oil content of up to 5% in chocolate. Belgium feels that this approach could ultimately prove harmful to cacoa-producing countries and claims that it will be difficult to control the exact percentage of oil used. Sweden, meanwhile, wants action to reform the UN institutions while Italy is keen to increase public awareness of development policies. Finland emphasised the need for better coordination between the European Community and its Member States on environmentally sustainable projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Great Lakes region</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was backing for the June Round Table meeting on Rwanda organised by the UNDP, as well for the various diplomatic initiatives aimed at bringing stability to the Great Lakes region. On 27 May, the ministers dined  with Emma Bonino, the European Commissioner responsible for humanitarian issues, and with former US President, Jimmy Carter, who has played a major role in the search to find a solution to the region's problems. Others active in this effort include South Africa's Archbishop Tutu, and former Presidents Nyerere and Tour&eacute; of Tanzania and Mali respectively. Ministers also commended the efforts of the UN and the OAU.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Serri said there was a 'desperate need for a ceasefire' in Burundi and called for a 'speeding up of the peace process and full deployment of available humanitarian and development aid.' He told journalists it was vital for the EU to make special efforts to strengthen the judicial systems in Rwanda and Burundi - 'so that the justice system can work properly and identify those responsible for the genocide.' He pledged that 'substantial resources' would be made available once peace is secured. Ministers also called for a control of arms sales to the region, although they have no power to legislate in this area, which remains the preserve of the Member States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside the meeting place, Senegalese fishermen and NGOs joined forces to mount a protests against the effects of traditional EU fisheries agreements. These provide financial compensation to governments in exchange for access to their waters for EU vessels, but the protesters claim that they harm local fishing industries and disrupt food supplies. A significant number of agreements are due to come up for renewal later this year. NGOs are lobbying for a new and 'fairer' type of accord which provides for catch reductions, more selective fishing methods and the employment of locally-hired fishermen on EU boats. These proposals are all set out in a paper entitled 'The Fight for Fish: Towards Fair Fisheries Agreements,' published by Eurostep, a Brussels-based NGO. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Country report</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Cape Verde</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Making the best of history</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde has been shaped by the harmattan, the hot dry wind which blows from Africa, strong ocean currents and five hundred years of Portuguese colonialisation. Portugal has been a constant presence in the archipelago's history since the fifteenth century, when it granted the colonists who were to settle on the islands of Cape Verde a monopoly over the slave trade. The country became an interface between Africa, Europe and the Americas, at the centre of the triangle of trade in slaves, hardware and gold. The intermingling of black populations of every origin who  passed through the islands meant that the country was unable to present a united face against the colonialist culture. The colonists were therefore able to impose their own culture, with their fervent and proselytzing Catholicism becoming the principal ingredientin the mixture that is Cape Verde. Strong, scorching winds from the desert have shaped the islands' landscape and inhospitable ocean currents mean that approaches to the islands are difficult, their rocky cliff faces plunging into the sea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mythical Portuguese colonial oasis</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Up to the eighteenth century, Cape Verde was no more than a commercial centre for Portugal, its population at the end of that century barely exceeding 50,000, to be halved by the great drought between 1773-75. Other periods of drought regularly decimated the population and the arrival of new colonists and slaves did not offset such losses or compensate for the massive exodus which began in the early nineteenth century with the arrival of American whalers in search of crew members for their ships. Seven hundred thousand Cape Verdians currently live abroad, half of these in the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only four hundred thousand  have stayed in their own country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the beginning of the twentieth century, a period which signalled a turning point in the country's history, the population still numbered no more than 150 000. At the time, major sea voyages were being undertaken and Cape Verde's geographical location was highly valued. Mindelo, on the island of S&atilde;o Vicente in the north of the archipelago, developed as a coal-and-watersupply port for English vessels plying the route between India and the Americas, and England helped construct this port. However, Portugal's policy towards Cape Verde was double-edged. On the one hand, the islands were regarded as a natural extension of the home country, but as a competitor in terms of port activities. This led to Mindelo's slow development, although the trade in  skins, fishery produce, coffee and salt  could have made it a thriving centre. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mixing of races in Cape Verde has often been held up as, so-to-speak, 'humane colonisation', but this opinion is not corroborated by the under-developed state of the country at the time of independence and the fact that Portugal implemented food security measures to combat the ravages of catastrophic famines only when under pressure from public opinion, at the end of the first half of the twentieth century. The island's colonists had always used slave labour to produce food or fabrics which enabled them to purchase more slaves and it was only when the slave based economy began to decline, which   resulted in the impoverishment of the colonists, that a major grouping of free Blacks and rebel or emancipated slaves came into being. That is when the intermixing of races began. Therefore, before the abolition of slavery (18641869-1878), the vast majority of the black population of the island was free; both unmarried and married colonists would generally emancipate their children born of a secret relationship with female slaves. The aristocracy and white upper-middle classes continued to live a cloistered, aloof life and did not mix with other races. A second factor which would suggest that Portuguese colonisation of Cape Verde was sympathetic in outlook is the reputation of this small country's intellectuals; although colonisation created only a small intellectual elite which was the product of a single institution, the Mindelo College, opened in 1917. In a quote by Michel Lesourd, Deirdre Meintel refers to this phenomenon as the mythical 'cultural oasis'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A nation born of a middle class in tatters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through its contradictions, it was this black, mulatto and 'petty white' middle class which was to forge the mixed-race culture and national identity, caught between its own privileges and its aspirations of aristocracy, between its rejection of African culture (they sought a 'lusotropical' culture) and the need to find allies amongst the lower classes who retained African cultural values. In order to acquire the wealth and attributes of power, this middle class was to take over the lands vacated by the decline of the slavebased economy and which were often much improved by the former slaves (renamed 'tenant farmers' without a major change in their living conditions) preventing a major economic upheaval which could have put an end to this iniquitous system. Their wholesale appropriation of land explains why, today, there is a very high proportion of landless farmers in Cape Verde, seasonal agricultural workers who survive only thanks to the State's welfare system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This petty bourgeoisie was to give birth to growing awareness which would lead to calls for independence. Officially, Cape Verde was not a colony but a province, and its inhabitants in theory had the same rights or lack of rights as Portuguese citizens in Salazar's 'New State', where the right to vote depended on social and cultural status. In other Portuguese territories, members of the petty bourgeoisie held the rank of colonial administrators and, from their ranks, the pro-independence movements emerged. Such was the case of the PAIGC (Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde pro-lndependence Party), created by Amilcar Cabral, a symbolic figure in Africa's striuggles for independence and Cape Verde's national hero. He was assassinated in mysterious circumstances in Guinea-Conakry in 1973. His brother, Luiz Cabral, was to become president of Guinea-Bissau, and Aristides Pereira his successor as Party leader and Cape Verde's first president.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's uneventful transition to independence in July 1975 mirrored Portugalts Carnation Revolution and was quite unlike the fierce war entered into by Portugal in Mozambique and Angola. There was a clandestine struggle during which a number of combatants were imprisoned, but there was never any real guerilla warfare. The Portuguese governor remained at his post until he was replaced by an ambassador. The PAIGC was to govern both Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde until the coup d'&eacute;tat against Luiz Cabral in Guinea-Bissau in 1980, when it adopted the name of PAICV in Cape Verde, thereby signalling the end to any dream of a union between the two countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diplomatic ventures</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new state pursued an even-handed diplomatic approach and accomplished the considerable diplomatic feat of remaining equidistant between the Cold wer's principal adversaries, adapting over time to all the changes which occurred on the world  scene. Post-independence, embassies were opened by the United States, China and the Soviet Union. Cape Verde, with its marxist leanings, maintained the former links created with apartheid South Africa by Portugal. The arrival in power of a liberal party had no effect on this diplomatic tightrope-walking act. It was South Africa which was to provide aid to build the international airport at Sal. Ironically, after the establishment of democracy in South Africa, it was at this very airport that President Mandela was to stress his desire for strengthened links with the archipelago. Latterly, Cape Verde has demonstrated this flexible in its recent decision to Join the group of, French-speaking countries whilst still regarding itself as a mouthpiece for the Portuguese-speaking world, enjoying a privileged relationship with Portugal, the Azores, Brazil and African countries where the official language is Portuguese. It is also a very active member of the CEDAO (Community of West-African States) and its President is currently chairman of the CILSS (Inter  national Commitee to Combat Drought). Cape Verde receives as much aid from China as from the US, from Russia and Sweden as from Cuba and Japan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This diplomacy is in keeping with the atypical 'Marxist' Party which first initiated it. With its interventionist approach to economics, its highly developed social policy which gives priority to education, health and combating unemployment through public welfare, this party could be regarded as a socialist party, yet it opted decisively for a market economy. Its single-party structure mirrored the example of would-be popular democracies, but it never set up a system of repression and terror: only one opposition member's death is said to have taken place in suspicious circumstances on the island of Santo Antao. The population was able to discuss politics at popular assemblies and held no fear of openly criticising the government and, in the case of the well-off, of displaying its wealth. A mudan&ccedil;a (change) was implemented calmly and collectedly by the PAICV when it was in power, sowing the seeds of its own downfall. With no pressure from street demonstrations and no insistent demands from political classes, the government of President Aristides Pereira and Prime Minister Pedro Pires adapted to the new situation created by the fall of the Berlin Wall. In early 1990, the PAICV gave up its privileged position as the single party and, one year later, at the legislative elections in January 1991 and presidential elections in February 1991, Africa witnessed the first democratic overthrow of a single-party government which had achieved independence. After the legislative elections, the PAICV, which had placed too great a reliance on being credited for its good governance, was silenced. The desire for change was too great and the position adopted by the Catholic church, anxious to punish a party which had dared to opt for a referendum on abortion, did the rest. President Aristides Pereira's personal prestige stood for little in the full face of this onslaught.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What change?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister Carlos Veiga, who had founded the MPD only eight months before his overwhelming success in the 1991 elections, became the new figurehead in Cape Verde politics. His power sharing with Antonio Mascarenhas Monteiro was again successful at the most recent elections (December 1995 and January 1996). Shortly before the poll, the MPD experienced a near-fatal split, but the new party which emerged, the PCD, had only one representative as against 50 (an absolute majority) for the MPD and 21 for the PAICV, which continued to exist. Three other parties taking part in the elections fell by the wayside and the polarisation of Cape Verde's politics into two camps locks set to continue. This is the second time that the MPD has surprised its opponents - this time, the political adversaries had attacked the MPD's attempt to curry favour, but the majority of the electorate, concentrated on the island of Santiago, continued to show their appreciation of the visible signs of modernisation in their lives and also the government's seductive politics, particularly in the ran-up to the elections. The country had also had a good harvest and, although this was unconnected with the MPD, that party could only benefit from it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite what MPD leaders might say, there has been no real ideological split, any political reorientation having been instigated in 1990 by the previous regime when it threw off its socialist trappings. Diplomacy remains  pragmatic and the new government's liberal rhetoric and social policy, particularly in the areas of education and health, has essentially been maintained. Suspension of the State's collective works programme, the symbol of the State's interventionist social policy, is only temporary, according to statements issued by the Prime Minister, counter to several rumours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More visible changes have taken place in the economy: partial liberalisation of the banking system; legislation relating to foreign investment; suspension of the requirement for preliminary import authorisation; despite the government's backtracking as regards certain basic products; privatisation of State assets, particularly in the hotel business, etc. Here, too, the PAICV government engineered the changes, but it can surely not be criticised for maintaining a delicate balance between the new demands of the global village and the social practices of a country which is very poor, but which is succeeding in putting an end to its poverty and creating a modest quality of life, but a secure one. Given its bleak geographical location, Cape Verde is simply  continuing to make the best of history. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The economy: too weak to worsen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The arrival in Praia on 30 April of a throng of IMF officials cannot have failed to cause the government some concern, despite its air of calm. Ministers repeated publicly that Cape Verde had already carried out its own programme of structural adjustments, that they were on the same wavelength as the Bretton Woods institutions, and that they could not, therefore, see any reason why any further adjustments  should be imposed upon them. Nevertheless, the fact that the Cape Verde escudo has had rather a bumpy ride since last year's elections, trading sometimes by as much as 15% under its official rate on the parallel market, caused a certain degree of anxiety within financial circles, with the banks taking action by freezing certain credit facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government insists that this situation has by no means arisen because of a sudden anxiety raised by opposition parties as to the effects of possible devaluation The truth is that there is a genuine structural imbalance caused by the trade deficit, a disequilibrium which is only being partially offset by official development assistance and the transfer of currency by Cape Verde emigres. As a percentage of the GDP, the overall budgetary deficit has tripled between 1993 and 1994 (increasing from 3.3% to 13.6%). For a country which could always be relied upon to pay its debts promptly, Cape Verde is now, for the first time, in arrears with its payments (see the 1995 report of the Bank of Portugal). The servicing of external debts represents 25.7% of goods and services exported - although these are relatvely small compared with neighbouring countries - the country's total outstanding debt is now nearing $200 million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although Cape Verde is one of the LDCs (least developed countries) with a total GNP of approximately $850 per capita, out of a total of 174 States, it actually ranks 123 in the Human Development Indicator Tables, which take into account various factors such as life expectancy, education, etc. Its position near the middle of these tables clearly shows that, although the country is poor, its affairs are nevertheless being managed fairly efficiently. Boasting an adult literacy rate of 66% and a life expectancy of 64.7 years, Cape Verde is well ahead of those countries at the bottom of the list, which include a number of its Sahelian neighbours. Efficient administration of the State and the absence of rampant corruption are further feathers in the nation's cap. These achievements have earned Cape Verde much esteem from its sponsors, which goes to explain the prudence of the Bretton Woods institutions and their relative sympathies towards the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unkind Mother Nature</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's history has been punctuated by great famines. Between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries the country suffered no less than 30 famines, with this century seeing some of the cruellest: 16 000 people died in 1903-1904, the death toll in 1921 was 17000, in 1941-43 it was 25000 and between 1946-48 famine claimed 20 000 lives - a figure which at the time represented 20% of the total population of the archipelago. After the last famine, the colonial authorities, under pressure from international opinion, adopted food programmes which made the country more able to cope with the consequences of subsequent droughts. The last great famine ended 50 years ago. The nation may no longer be hungry, but the factors which make its inhabitants' lives so difficult remain. The  main reason lies in the country's geography. Cape Verde has virtually no permanent springs and the topography of most of the islands, which are very mountainous, means that heavy rain simply runs down to the sea, the parched soil being unable to absorb it sufficiently. What is more, these downpours simultaneously wash away the little arable land that do" exist, thereby aggravating erosion. The whole situation is further worsened by the fact that the winter in this Sahelian region is very short. Despite huge efforts by successive governments, barely half the population has access to drinking water, with this figure barely reaching 25% in rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a population of less than 400 000, there are just not enough people to pull off the miracle of making such an unforgiving soil bear fruit. Hence, although providing 50% of all jobs, agriculture represents only 17% of the nation's gross domestic product and produces only 10% of food consumed locally. The mountainous islands that make up Cape Verde are like teeth jutting out of the sea, and with virtually no continental shelf to speak of, small scale fishing is extremely difficult. Even with industrial equipment such as that installed on board large trawlers, catches are small - so small in fact that the country's fisheries agreement with the European Commission brings it only one million ECU over three years, one tenth of the proportional amount earned by neighbouring Senegal. Fishing thus represents less than 4% of the GDP.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mere survival - a</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Herculean task</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Transport difficulties are another handicap for the economy. The sheer force of the harmattan, the strong ocean currents and the fog which often covers the region, make journeying by boat between the islands frequently hazardous. In addition, the volcanic relief of the islands makes them difficult to reach and means that there are very few locations that make suitable har  bours. construction is both complex and costly due to the steep rocky barriers that seal off deep valleys. Those roads which have been built under the FAIMO scheme (Highly Labour-lntensive Projects) have sometimes turned into real labours of Hercules, and many areas, especially those on sparsely-populated islands, remain completely cut-off. The use of aeroplanes only partly solves the problem. Although competitive, the prices charged by the national airline, TAICV, are still too high for the average inhabitant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not only does the soil on Cape Verde contain very little water, it has virtually no natural resources: a few stones, lime, pozzolana and a little salt. Within the manufacturing sector (which makes up less than 20% of the GDP), only the construction and civil engineering industries, representing more than 10% of the GDP, contribute in any significant way to the economy, thanks partly to the transfer of currency from emigres who invest in the construction  sector and works with wide public interest. These works, known as FAIMO schemes, have to some extent given this impoverished country a gloss that masks its poverty. Launched after Cape Verde gained its independence, they employ more than 25 000 people for up to ten months of the year in the construction of paved roads or in reafforestation projects, and ensure the survival of one hundred thousand people - over one quarter of the population. The workers are on the whole recruited from among farm labourers, with another large section of the workforce being made up of 'Solteiras' or 'single women', numerous in a country where the male population is constantly emigrating. Unfortunately, the liberal option adopted by the present government has cast some doubt as to whether these projects will continue and this year, for the first time, work ceased in April - three months ahead of the usual termination date. Yet the poor wages which these seasonal jobs pay (ECU 2 per day) are sometimes the only source of income for some families.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only the tertiary sector shows a healthy balance of trade, accounting for  more than 60% of the country's gross domestic production, with the biggest slice of the sector going to the hotel industry, followed by the transport industry. Although, overall, Cape Verde's balance of trade records a large deficit, the balance of trade for the services sector generally shows a profit, with the transport services provided by the international airport, Amilcar Cabral de Sal, alone accounting for 13% of exports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Barely 10% of commercial goods are domestically produced and this has at times fallen below 5%. Cape Verde is therefore genuinely dependent upon foreign aid. Official development assistance represents 27.8% of the GNP (1989 figures), having risen from 17.7% to 27.2% of the GNP between 1980 and 1986. Cape Verde also relies on a second source of income - its emigrant population. In 1990 the currency transfers of its emigres represented nearly 20% of the GNP. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The colonial heritage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contributing too to the country's poverty are relatively low educational standards. In this area too, successive governments have continued their predecessors' efforts to improve standards of education. However, at the time the country achieved independence, it was in a deplorable state. The reputation of a small intellectual elite of Cape Verdians had, over several decades, led the world to believe that Portuguese colonial rule had been 'enlightened'. This was a mere illusion. It was not until 1917, when the Mindelo grammar school was founded, that the country was able to claim an educational establishment of any cultural sophistication. The Mindelo school was the first state school in the country and it was to provide the nation with its first batch of 'home-grown' intellectuals. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, the Church, which was in charge of all matters educational, had provided basic primary education; then, at the end of the last century, it opened two secondary schools with the purpose of training students for positions in government and the civil service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even so, the Mindelo school remained an exception until the middle of this century. In 1950, no more than 5000 children received primary education and no more than 400 went to secondary school. Thirty years earlier, the figure was slightly higher, but Salazar, with his retrograde ideologies, saw education as dangerous and threatening and trimmed the number of schools on the islands from 150 to 60. True, Cape Verde was undoubtedly in a better state than other Portuguese colonies, but, with an illiteracy rate of 80% at the beginning of the 1960s, its position was nevertheless far from enviable. It was not until independence that any real progress was made, with 60% of children attending primary school in 1989 (the average for LDCs is 54%). However, this figure is still well below the average for developing countries, which stands at 90%, and even now, only 13 % of children have access to secondary education. As for higher education, this is virtually only available abroad; in Europe, Brazil, USA and Cuba, in particular.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serious health problems still exist, exacerbated in particular by the scarcity of water. The cholera epidemic which has struck several African countries over the last two years has killed over 150 people in Cape Verde. The prevalence of AIDS exceeds the average for sub-Saharan Africa, with more than 2000 people being HIV positive and with some one hundred having developed the full-blown disease. According to official figures, 70 have died of the disease. The cholera epidemic which, unlike previous epidemics has affected towns much more than rural areas, is a sign of the deterioration of sanitary conditions in towns - particularly in Praia - affected by a lack of water, a dilapidated sewerage system and overcrowding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anchoring the country's economy in its culture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet, through all the doom and gloom, a small miracle is taking place in Cape Verde. Despite such a heavy burden of poverty, the country has, since gaining independence 20 years ago, managed to clamber up the league tables notably in the essential areas of health and education. Life expectancy at birth, which was only 52 years in 1950,  had increased in 1992 to 64.7 years, better than the average for developing countries and 13 years more than the average for sub-Saharan Africa. The infant mortality rate which stood at 110 per thousand in 1960, had dropped drastically to 50 per thousand by 1992, while virtually all children now receive essential vaccinations. Malaria is also now rare. In 1988 the GDP of Cape Verde amounted to only C.V.Esc 20 billion ($289 million), in other words, 6.9% of the GDP of Trinidad and Tobago, and 16.6% of that of Mauritius. But it is growing steadily. From 1980 to 1988, it grew by 6% per annum, compared with 3% per annum for the Sahel, and since 1980 the GDP per capita has doubled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The solution the nation's leaders should be seeking is greater integration in the global economy context by encouraging foreign investment. They do not need to create free zones but free enterprise, such as the shoe manufacturing concerns which, over the last two years, have contributed to achieving a considerable increase in exports. Various steps have been taken to attract investors, such as the adoption of the principle of tacit acceptance of applications for investment within 30 days. The Prime Minister, Carlos Veiga, and the 'Super-Minister' for Economic Coordination, Antonio Guelberto do Rosario, have highlighted the service, tourism and fishing industries as top government priorities. In order to develop these areas they intend to invest in infrastructures, with the aid, of course, of foreign backers. The modernisation of the port of S&atilde;o Vicente and of the international airport of Sal are currently underway, and the telecommunications project to link the islands by cable has also already been launched. The government's short-term plans also include the development of industries connected with the islands' culture. In the words of Mr Veiga: 'We in Cape Verde should develop our culture and use it as our anchor, to prevent our country drifting into oblivion. That way, our tiny country, which is fortunate enough to have a strong cultural identity, will be a Nation rather than a just a State'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.G. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with President Antonio Mascarenhas Monteiro</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A wealth of culture and a realistic approach to diplomacy: Cape Verde's two major assets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- How the current government differ from the former administration which had Marxist leanings ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The two eras are distinct from each other in that, since 1990, the Cape Verde people have been able to choose a life of freedom and democracy. Before that, for the   first fifteen years after independence, there was a single-party system. So it is also valid to speak of a break - a break with the way in which institutions used to function at a political level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The single-party era does not seem to have been as strict as in other countries and the current regime appears to be continuing along the same lines in some areas. Was the former administration not, to some extent, responsible for initiating the change which has taken place ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No, that's something else entirely. I often say that we had a civilised single party, and I assume that is what you are referring to. However, it is not possible to speak of continuity when formerly we had a single party and now we have moved on to a system where there is freedom of expression and new parties can be set up. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Admittedly, the single party did initiate a change when it created the conditions necessary for the advent of democracy. It removed the infamous Article 4 from the constitution, which seates that the PAICV was the guiding force of society and the state. In fact, it was the PAICV which drew up the country's first electoral laws whereby we were elected. When I say 'we', I mean the party which is in power and also myself, President of the Republic. The single party thus opened the way to  democracy here: that much is undeniable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Am I also right in thinking that many of those who are in power today received their training in that single party ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - You are quite correct. When a change such as this comes about, one has to appreciate, and I do not wish to be elitist here, that it is the higher echelons of a party which lead the move towards change. Such people were there, working in the administration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Since politics gives direction to economic affairs, has there been a total turnaround in this sector, with a clear decision to opt for liberalisation and privatisation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Before 1990, we had a staterun economy. After that, the country's economy was opened up with a number of privatisations, fewer import restrictions, and so on. The word 'break' is also applicable in this area in that we now have a market economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Do you feel that the economy has really shaken off state control given that the govemment still manages important sectors, such as the price of raw materials ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That is necessary a market economy does not mean that the state is entirely absent. I am in favour of a market economy, but with state monitoring. As far as possible, the state has to correct the injustices which are necessarily generated by competition. This is not, as some would have it, ultraliberalism. The government is still entitled to monitor the economy, but the change has been greatest in terms of attitude, in terms of the way things are done.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Do you, like many leaders of developing countries, believe that the requirements set by international institutions as regards structure/ adjustment are too great ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We are not subject to compulsory adjustment - it is on a voluntary basis here. However, I do feel that adjustment, as implemented in Africa, sometimes has regrettable aspects. On occasion, it is asking a little too much to impose the same requirements on countries whose actual situations are very different. What is applicable to Nigeria is not necessarily suitable for S&atilde;o Tome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The 1992 constitution switched Cape Verde over from a presidential system to a parliamentary system. As President of the Republic, do you fee/ trapped by this constitution ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Cape Verde's constitution was never a presidential one. The system under which I was elected is effectively 'semi-presidential'. Admittedly, the constitution which was approved by Parliament in 1992 reduced the powers of the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President, particularly as regards the right to dissolve Parliament - which was unrestricted in the 1980 text. The revision was made to permit democratisation and ensure the proper functioning of the institutions, and it was therefore fairly wide-ranging. Now, in order to dissolve Parliament, the President has to have the support of the Council of the Republic, which means that his hands are tied to some extent. Previously, the President could also dismiss the government, without too many restrictions. I would say that the President's prerogatives have undergone a substantial reduction in comparison with those exceptional powers. As for the rest, things are as they were. In a semi-presidential regime as that envisaged by the 1980 constitution, the President has no executive role.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You seem to have chosen to play the role of 'wise man' Some observers think you give the Prime Minister too much leeway.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - They are wrong. The Prime Minister's post is conferred on him by the constitution. He is Head of Government and it is he who governs. I cannot govern in his place. What is true is that there is a great deal of ignorance - people do not restrict themselves to their own fields and attempt to teach lessons in subjects they are unfamiliar with. Germany has a parliamentary  regime like we do - what is the position of the President of the Republic in Germany? If you were to ask a Cape Verde intellectual for the name of the President of Germany, he would be unable to answer you. The parliamentary regime does not give the President of the Republic any powers to run the country. I do not know what the Prime Minister can have taken away from me because I have no power for him to take over. However, I would say that, here, the President of the Republic does have a fairly high profile, in spite of his reduced powers, because all the country's citizens know him. In terms of foreign policy, he plays a significant role in that he represents the country abroad. I attend international conferences like the Rio Summit, go to meetings of the OAU and sign international undertakings on behalf of my country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The President is also the guarantor of the new democracy, which observers seem to regard as well-established. But there still seem to be some bad habits. For instance, I have heard criticism of MPD power and of the fact that state  resources are made available to one party at election time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Look, this is criticism from the government's opponents - it is a normal state of affairs and happens everywhere. Any party, in any country, which has a parliamentary majority, can govern easily. This is possible, even when the majority is very small - and even in Europe. Look at Portugal when Cavaquo Silva was Prime Minister. There were people who said it was a PSD State. You will be familiar with France when Pompidou and even de Gaulle were in power, and Francis Mitterrand used to speak of a Gaullist state. As far as the election campaign is concerned, I am not aware of the government here having monopolised state resources and I don't believe this has happened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Another important factor involved in democracy is the press. Several journalists from the private media sector are awaiting a decision from you on a number of points - for example the lack of pubic support for the private press - in contrast to thestate-run press which has access to all that it needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - What decision are they waiting for ? Do they want me to decide in favour of resourcess being given to the private media ? I have already done that on a number of occasions. Recently, I had a meeting with the Prime Minister and I brought this matter up. He told me that it was something that was currently being considered. Sometimes, however, I get the impression that some of my critics want me to do the work of an opposition leader and to oppose the Government. That is not my job. I think that the President of the Republic, in a regime such as ours, ought to be a unifying force and not someone who foments political tension and instability. That is something I have always tried to avoid, but I do have sufficient courage to tell the government and the Prime Minister exactly what I think and I have actually dared to criticise them publicly several times. I am sole judge of the criticism I make, and I decide if it is appropriate and also when the time is right. Sometimes, people would have   me criticise the government according to a timetable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A number of journalists in the private sector are currently being prosecuted and these actions nearly all originate from sources close to the government Surely if they were actually acting unprofessionally, we would see legal actions from parts of society, such as business, and not just from the political class.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The reason for this is very simple. It is the political class that they vilify. I myself have been insulted on a number of occasions and, despite having put up with it for five years, I have not instigated any lawsuits. There was one case which was taken seriously by the Attorney General's office and there  were other cases when the Prime Minister was called a thief. I would ask you, is this a normal state of affairs ? Does freedom of the press mean that it can call a Minister or the Mayor of Praia a thief? Is that what is meant by democracy ? You have to be aware of the background to these court cases - and there are a good many of them, some dating from 1991. They are not designed to 'get at' any particular newspaper. The reason many of these cases have been brought is because serious insults of the kind we are talking about are a crime. That is true of even the most advanced democracies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In economic terms, Cape Verde does not appear too badly off. But some economic indicators do give rise to concern, notably the big gap between the export and import figures. How do you see your country's future when it no longer relies so much on international aid ? Do you believe in the dream of many of your fellow countrymen, that Cape Verde will be Africa's 'little dragon'?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Unlike some people, I have never spoken of becoming a dragon. I don't like this expression. I do believe that, despite our enormous problems - Cape Verde has few resources and we have been in the grip of drought for many years - it does have a number of assets. We are capable of making progress and I believe that there are a number of promising areas which have already been identified: for example, fisheries, tourism and even 'foreign' investment. We have to be optimistic about Cape Verde's future. We are in a difficult situation, everyone knows that, but we are a hard-working and courageous people and our prospects are good. The country will be able to forge ahead.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-On the diplomatic front, Cape Verde appears something of an expert at maintaining good relations with different regimes: for instance, with both Israel and the Arab countries, with China, and with South Africa before and after apartheid. How do you manage this ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - There is no magic formula. Since independence, Cape Verde has tried to adopt a realistic and pragmatic foreign policy. We are a small country with no great influence on the international scene and we have to be on good terms with everyone. That is the principle on which we base our foreign policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Cape Verde and Guinea Bissau used to be fairly close - do you foresee any future rapprochement, perhaps in some form of federation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is difficult to say. I feel that there is already a degree of rapprochement in progress, particularly in economic terms. Recently, we signed a civil aviation cooperation agreement, and there are opportunities for similar achievements in the fisheries and shipping sectors as well. Relations between the Cape Verde and Guinea Bissau governments are excellent but, to my mind, the idea of our forming a federation is out of date. It would not be in our interests nor in those of Guinea Bissau. We do, however, intend to develop a closer economic relationship and our political relations are very good indeed. I would wager that our partners in Guinea Bissau would give you a similar analysis of the situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-In cultural terms, can it be said that your country has succeeded in becoming a multi-ethnic state ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The important thing is that the Cape Verde people should have their own identity; that there should be a specific Cape Verde culture. What I would say is that all the citizens of Cape Verde are proud of their culture and citizenship. This constitutes a great source of strength for a country such as ours which has major challenges to overcome. Our culture is also an asset in our country's development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview with Aristides Lima, leader of the Opposition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'The government owes its victory to abuse of the electoral system'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· As main leader of the Opposition, what are your views on the fact that the governing party has recently been reelected ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I believe the country's economy is in crisis. Growth rates are not very high, just like in the 1980s, for example, and there is a high level of structural imbalance. Unemployment has increased: in 1990, unemployment stood at approximately 25% and now it is 30%. There used to be 25 000 people who worked in what we call the high intensity labour sector and who had a job for about 10 months of the year. They were recently laid off early. Such jobs were part of a social programme which, amongst other things, enabled us to build roads. The prices of staple products, such as sugar, maize and rice, which were stable, have just gone up, and the price of cement, which was also controlled to promote economic growth, is no longer subject to the same control and I can foresee this giving rise to many problems in areas outside the towns and cities. In Praia, a 50-kg bag of cement used to cost 440 escudos and, although that price will stay more or less the same, on islands like Fogo, it will go up to about 660 escudos. This will generate problems for economic growth and a number of major projects in the tourism sector, for example, will suffer. The balance between exports and imports has also been adversely affected in that the level of coverage of imports by exports has fallen, despite announcements to the contrary made by the government.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· From 1993 to 1995, exports tripled in volume, if the government is to be believed. What are your thoughts on that ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The problem is that, in this country, some exports rely on the import of considerable amounts of raw materials. For example, in S&atilde;o Vicente, there is a shoe-manufacturing plant which gets its supplies of raw materials from abroad. The same applies to fishing and a number of fisheries products, such as anchovies, which are still canned in S&atilde;o Vicente but which have to be imported from Chile or elsewhere. This causes great problems when it comes to managing the country's foreign currency reserves, which have fallen markedly. In 1990, reserves provided over 6 months' coverage for imports, but now we have to operate in terms of weeks or even days.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nevertheless, the government could say that it is not responsible for the economic picture you have just painted because the world economic situation is hitting all small countries harder.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No, the government is responsible, because it has been unable to implement the appropriate liberalization policy. For example, this should have been applied gradually to the trade sector, but the government rushed in and has now had to backtrack on goods which needed import authorization. What happened was that it lifted this authorization requirement but has now  had to bring it in once again. And another thing, the policy of liberalization has not been accompanied by very high levels of foreign investment and, in addition, the country's skilled workers feel marginalised, all of which goes to make the situation worse. As for structural adjustment, the government has always supported the idea of 'less State equals a better State', but, in practice, we have seen spending on the State's everyday activities go up and up. Civil service staff levels have now risen to about 12 000, compared with the former 10 000. However, increased spending is also a result of a not always equitable wages policy - the difference between the highest and lowest salaries is huge and, in some public bodies, one worker might be earning 15 times as much as another.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· According to the Minister for Economic Coordination, the currency is under pressure as a result of the Opposition's irresponsible scare tactics of announcing a future devaluation, leading to the stock-piling of currency and goods, a kind of artificial speculation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's a very good way of offloading one's responsibilities - the Opposition did no more than criticise the government's policy and point to the   facts of the situation. It was members of the government themselves who acknowledged the low levels of currency reserves and the State bank which suspended transfers abroad. The Minister would have people believe that the Opposition lacks any credibility so how could this same Opposition have any influence on peoples' behaviour? The problem is actually extremely basic: economic operators, society and foreigners are not really au fait with the country's real economic situation because the government does not issue information, which is one of our basic criticisms. Parliamentary representatives and political parties no longer receive the figures they need and the latter are sometimes forced to consult foreign sources or to rely on their personal links with people who are close to sources of information. I myself criticised the Prime Minister for adopting this attitude of regarding information as subversive. I asked the Prime Minister for a copy of the study on Cape Verde's economy by a Portuguese professor, which had been paid for with tax payers' money. I never received it. For our part, we hope that Cape Verde's partners will be able to recognise the true situation and persuade the government to act in a more equitable manner.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Nonetheless the people cannot be too disappointed, because they reelected the government for another term.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That could be explained in many ways - the government controls information and therefore holds the reins of power. It controls television, radio, part of the print media, and the private-press sector is fairly weak, so it has been able to manipulate information and give people the idea that the country is on the right track. The government did do things to change peoples' lives, but it exaggerated its achievements using the State social communication means available to it. In fact, it did not achieve the major objectives it set itself: firstly its fight against unemployment - a failure. Balancing foreign economic relations - another failure. Balancing the domestic  economic situation: differences between our various islands have become more acute. In matters of health, Cape Verde made major advances when our party was in power and, although, to all intents and purposes, the health sector is just as good when compared with other African countries, it has, in fact, deteriorated. Diseases which had been eradicated from the country are returning, like malaria, for example, cholera, etc. Health services are concentrated in the capital city, Praia, and there is no decentralisation, which has negative effects on even links between carers and patients. Humanism shows the effects of a situation such as this, and it applies not only to health: there is an unfair distribution of State financial resources between the central government and local government. The State has been unable to reform local finances and has politicised transfers of funds to those districts which are closest to it. The government has also profited from the structural problems encountered in the working of our democracy. One of these structural problems is Parliament's weakness: it sits only three times a year and the representatives do not work full-time - they are sometimes employed by the administration which they are supposed to monitor. Democracy has a price and although savings can be made in other spheres, when one is  seeking good governance, one of the conditions for which is a strong, functional and effective Parliament, this is not possible. The weakness of the private-press sector is yet another problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-And are you continuing to work in the administration ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I am a 'full-time' parliamentary representative. There are now about 10 out of 79 representatives who work on a full-time basis. They are members of Parliament's office, chairmen of committees and parliamentary leaders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The government says that it inherited a serious state of affairs when it took over power from the PAICV.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is simply not true that the good life began with this government's accession to power. Here's a little history lesson: think back to colonial times. Admittedly, there were negative aspects to our time in power but you must remember that the PAICV did, in fact, leave in place the subjective.  physical basis for the new policy direction. When we achieved independence, Cape Verde had no ports or airports, apart from small-scale port facilities at S&atilde;o Vicente. We built the port at Praia, the port at Sal, the port at S&atilde;o Nicolau and a number of airports. The telecommunications system was also set up by the PAICV government and we implemented the initial educational reforms. In the 1980s, the GDP growth rate was 7%and the per capita income was one of the highest in Africa, more than $820.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The party in power describes the PAICV as marxist and non-democratic claiming that it was they, not the PAICV, who introduced democracy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That is nothing more than rhetoric, because all of the current governing party's members were in the PAICV - they were radicals, more marxist than anyone. Everyone knows that here, in Cape Verde, we had a pragmatic party, not a marxist party, although marxism was a source of ideas for many people. The idea was not to build socialism here. In those days, we had an open, not a centralised economy and all trade was private. We always had a market economy and to describe us as non-democratic is idle rhetoric. The PAICV's ideology has always been one of national liberation based on political and economic independence, with power vested in the people. This was a normal state of affairs during a national liberation struggle and, although it would be true to say that we were influenced by a certain single-party model which had gained widespread acceptance in Africa, the single party here could not be compared with any other. Both the PAIGC and later the PAICV attempted to force people into taking part in citizens' assemblies in order to put forward suggestions to the candidates. The current Prime Minister, Mr Veiga, for example, was put forward by a militants' assembly - he was on the PAICV's lists and they used to sit one beside the other on the benches in Parliament. The regime was, I suppose, slightly paternalistic but it was the people themselves who were really responsible for national liberation, it was they who had an idea of justice, patriotism, of being African, which explains the total commitment of Cape Verde's people to our party in the struggle for independence and also the good results we achieved when in power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Why, then, were you not re-elected ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The party had been in power for a long time, with the same president, the same prime minister, the same president of the national assembly and virtually all the same ministers. People were hungry for change because the ruling elite had been in place for so long. The international scene, also, did not favour the old single-party system. Another element, too, was the Church, which fought us over the question of abortion. Perhaps I should point out that, from the very beginning, a section of the Catholic church was not in favour of independence, but younger members of the clergy, with more sympathetic feelings towards the population, supported us and, thus, we changed peoples' attitudes. The Church in Africa is a phenomenon worthy of greater analysis, particularly in Cape Verde, where, I feel, the current government was able to take advantage of the Cape Verde peoples) essentially religious nature to criticise us and present us as an anticlerical party. In fact, the situation is quite different: most PAICV leaders and militants are Roman Catholics and some church" were damaged by opponents in an attempt to discredit the party. Another example of abuse of the electoral system, apart from taking advantage of the peoples' religious nature, is the country's poverty. During election campaigns, the government make it easier for people to obtain food, and it also creates more jobs, en masse, but these disappear again after the elections - precisely as is happening at the moment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· As it is governed at the moment, Cape Verde is regarded by other countries as a 'star pupil'. Surely this is another success for the government ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Cape Verde has always been regarded as a star pupil because, here, our society is fairly homogeneous and there are no major social or ethnic imbalances. However, in my opinion, the future depends on changes at a structural level and such changes cannot take place unless we have a functioning parliament and a strong private press. I cannot deny that the government has had some successes, but I also believe that the people will have an opportunity to judge how it keeps its promises.  interview by Hegei Gouger</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A portrait of towns and cities with atmosphere</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It suffices for an unruly little bird to escape</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For, suddenly, Fire to spark, Night to dissolve</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The walls of every prison to cave in</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the tidal-wave battering</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amassed, in its untamed heart,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By a tiny breathless bird.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Mario Fonseca in 'La Mer a tous les coupe')</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most cities in the Third World devote all their energy to mere survival and there are few imbued with the same atmosphere as Mindelo - the very air  appears to brim over with art and good taste, beauty and sensuality. Our guide to the city speaks slowly, measuring his words, his delivery not an indication that he is searching for a translation, although it could be interpreted as an affectation, but matching the modulation of the language which is closest to his heart: 'I believe the air in this city is imbued with hedonism. Here, we mix work and pleasure - today is a holiday, but I am working. However, my day is not so rigidly timetabled that I cannot do some work and, since you have invited me out for a drink, take some time off to accept'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antonio Firmino, director of the Craft Centre, continues to tell us about his favourite city in the same steady language, a dreamy look in his eyes and wearing a Che Guevara-style beret. The tale he tells is the story of a tiny country which has fallen in love with culture: the actual building housing the Craft Centre used to be a school, the 'Mindelo Technical College', founded in 1917, the first secular educational institution. It was to transform the city into a cultural haven. The story goes that a certain senator named Vera Cruz, who represented the island of S&atilde;o Vicente in the Portuguese Senate, wanted to establish Cape Verde's first college. His peers objected, arguing that Mindelo had no building worthy of housing an institution of such a high standing but</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vera Cruz straight away replied: 'So, why not use mine?'. Thus, he casually handed over his private residence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Art even in the fish market</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How many inhabitants are there in Mindelo? According to Antonio Firmino, 'Just me and my friends'. How right he is. It would be impossible not to become part of such a captivating place. And so a long journey began, which included the creation of Claridade, a review (and cultural movement) established in 1938 by Balthasar Lopes, a writer and essayist of world renown who was born in S&atilde;o Nicolau but taught in Mindelo, and other great artists who were to make up the country's literary and artistic roll of honour. Claridade was to be followed by Certeza which was also to influence the cultural elite. Although historians and other commentators feel that Claridade did no more than praise Cape Verde's 'latinity', rejecting its African side, artists are unanimous in regarding it as the cradle of Cape Verdian intellectual culture and the soil which was to nurture Mindelo and make it such an extraordinary little town. The impression is that everyone here is interested in art - the local authorities encourage and help sculptors in their creative activities all over the town, making it a living museum: here, there is a painting by Antonio Concei&ccedil;&auml;o and, over there, a huge flat sculpture of couples in languorous embraces, by Ro and Anildo, an illustration of the marvellous hedonism evoked by our host.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The same assured but delicate touch of these two artists can be seen in the lobby of Fishpackers, an anchovy- and tunapacking company, this time in the form of a celebration of fishermen. One of the finest examples of this type of art, which can be seen everywhere in the streets and public places, is the sequence of four huge decorative-tile frescoes in the fish market. When Bela Duarte showed them to us, it was such a delight to see how much at ease this famous artist was in the company of the staliholders, to whom both she and her work seemed so familiar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over and above this hedonistic atmosphere, there is, in Mindelo, an eclecticism which can be detected just as widely in other towns and cities, which means that you can talk about painting with the President of the Republic, dancing with a factory manager and decorative tiles with the man in the street. And the latter is literally 'in the street' - the inhabitants of S&atilde;o Vicente, the capital, derive immense pleasure from strolling in its squares and narrow streets, and around the port. A little stall, looking like a sugar loaf in the middle of one of the city's many squares, opposite a grand hotel, opens up in the early evening just like a flower, attracting hundreds of people to it who come to quench their thirst, to converse or woo, and to dance to the music escaping from the terrace of the Porto Grande Hotel, which has just reopened after being privatised and modernised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is as if a dress ball were taking place on two different levels, one in front of the other, dancing to the same music and with equal pleasure: above, in an enormous gallery open to the sky, elegant guests (who include a small gathering of government officials and pretty Brazilian actresses who are here to film television soaps) and, down in the square, the dancing promenaders, full of admiration, almost stimulating those above.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verdian nights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like all the island's intellectuals, Antonio Firmino has a number of different jobs. In addition to running the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Craft Centre, he teaches 'nautical' English to would-be sailors, is an amateur painter and musician (he plays and composes for his wife, who is a singer). His spare time is devoted to writing a column. The Craft Centre exhibits, amongst other things, a large number of tapestries, an art form much prized in Cape Verde. These admirable examples are by Ju&auml;n Fortes, Juamo Pento, and a good many others, in particular Bela Duarte, Tchal&ecirc; Figueira, Lucia Queiros and Miguel Figueira, Mindelo's top artistic foursome who appear to be  involved in everything, including the frescoes at the fish market. Bela, who showed us her studio, her house and the fish market, does not conceal the joy she derives from colour and allusion in her pictures, tapestries or decorative tiles, ranging from the most distant abstraction to an anecdotal figuration, using her native land with its doleful nuances, soft cries and romantic strength as raw  material. Above all, there is convivial artistic writing: 'Resistencia', which is at first sight a tapestry and then a patchwork of colour and sinuous lines. Scarcely has the artist begun to explain her work than everything becomes clear: this is a story, in threads and colours, about drought, representing roots, energy, space and struggle, all part of the Cape Verdian soul. She is also paying homage to those weavers of traditional African loincloth (badiu) from Cape Verde from whom today's artists inherited their technique.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So, where to meet Antonio's friends? To find them, look no further than the Cape Verdian nights (noite caboverdiana), those gatherings which take place everywhere and resemble both a nightclub and an artistic association, all those present sharing a fondness for Cape Verde mingled with nostalgia and yearning. One such place is the Piano Bar, which was closed on account of the departure of its owner Chico Serra, another notable in local society, who was accompanying a friend, C&eacute;saria Evora, in her attempt to conquer new lands. Mission accomplished, Chico Serra is back and will soon be open for business again, his club's atmosphere just as intimate and warm as before - just enough room for his piano, his musician friends and others who come to sample grog and music.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa nonetheless</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mario Fonseca also adores Mindelo but he would not agree that that wind-blown city has a monopoly on art and culture. He is from an island in the lee of the wind, from Praia, capital of the island of Santiago and of the country. In his opinion, it is the whole of Cape Verde which is bubbling with creativity and he will enchant you with his tales of Praia and its old colonial district, the 'Plateau', which still retains much of the nostalgic character to be seen in the now yellowing photographs taken 50 years ago when the city was not so sprawling and the ambience of Sucupira market was almost tangible. He will also tell you everything about the island of Santiago, with Cidade Velha, the ancient capital  which was too difficult to defend against repeated pirate attacks. It bowed to Praia's supremacy and, today, has an old-fashioned feeling, nestling within a cove around the ruins of its castle, and dominated by the fort which perches above a cliff face. The architecture owes much of its charm to the predominant Creole style which is vaguely reminiscent of Portugal, in every pastel shade. Cidade Velha's central square is caressed by a gentle breeze and groups of young people can always be seen lazing around the monument to the slaves. Time seems to stand still. The pretty little white church whose walls are decorated with sheaves of bougainvillaea, Santa Maria do Rosario, is the oldest on the island and, indeed, along the entire West African coast. It was built in 1460 and the white marble paving in the central nave conceals the final resting place of grandees from colonial times, their epitaphs erased over five hundred years by the soles and knees of penitents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The director of the INAC (National Cultural Institute), responsible for Praia National Museum (which is soon to open its doors), is Mario Alberto de Almeida Fonseca, who once taught French in Portugal; he is a former administrator who has worked in Mauritania and Turkey, a translator and also a former regional manager of the national airline. In addition he is a poet whose works have been translated into several languages, including Serbo-Croat and Russian. Above all, he is an amateur connoisseur of the art and artists of his country. As the INAC's director, he is responsible for cultural events, exhibitions, shows, publishing and also the compilation of an oral record of the country's history and the preparation of  a Creole dictionary. The INAC's work also involves a major history of Cape Verde, the first volume of which has already been published. He will show you the future National Museum's collection, moving from one painting to another, from an old photograph to an antique cimboa, a type of locally-manufactured violin from the 1 9th century, or to an old Massachusetts galleon, testament to the past explorations of his people. You will first of all discover the works of artists from Praia such as Mito and Kiki Lima, not on account of Fonseca's chauvinism but because he feels he has to 'convert' the visitor who may have left Mindelo with the impression that that city is Cape Verde's premier cultural centre. There is also the music from the island of Santiago - the funana, the batuque, the fina&ccedil;o - all more African than the languid style so influenced by the Portuguese fado of this island's musical groups (Fina&ccedil;on, Bulimundo, Tuvaroes, Kod&eacute; di Dona or the great traditional style singer Nha Inacia Gomes). Gomes is a 'women of the people' whose musical heritage consists of no more than local tradition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was she who 'reinvented' jazz and whom Alberto Fonseca admires a great deal. Cesaria Evora, moreover, is not the first musician to publicise Cape Verdian music abroad: Fina&ccedil;on or Kod&eacute; di Dona, for example, have captivated many music-lovers, particularly musicians, in Europe and America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Chamber and the stage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Daniel Brito is not from Mindelo either. He is from Sal but confesses to having to pay regular visits to Mindelo, to immerse himself in that city's hedonistic atmosphere. For three years he has been director of the National Cinematographic Institute which was established in 1967 and is currently exhibiting newfound dynamism on account of the 'production tax' (4% of the filming budget, paid to the Institute and generally converted into a holding, which the State supplements to make the sum up to slightly more than 10% in co-productions). There is also an agreement with Portugal which encourages co-productions between the two countries, thereby enabling Cape Verdian technicians to receive their training. Brito is working on a local video-film-production project (TV viewers are very fond of such things) and wants to set up a major production centre to be made available to lusophone African countries and, perhaps, others. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Daniel Spencer Brito is also Sal's parliamentary representative (10 000 inhabitants), musician, writer/composer and guitarist in his own group, Madrugada. His talents include the composition of morna and coladeira pieces, as well as jazz-rock. At the end of May, the MP was due to appear in his own production at the Cirque d'Hiver in Paris, as part of the lusophone music festival. You could say that he divides his time between the Institute, the Chamber and the stage; however, he is also involved in research into copyright protection in Cape Verde. Daniel (it would never occur to you to call him anything else, even five minutes after making his acquaintance) always gives the same advice to anyone wishing to discover Cape Verde, namely to get to know the atmosphere of a tocatinha, spontaneous jam sessions which take place at one location or another, usually even more intimate than the 'Cape Verdian nights'. By the way, I almost forgot - by training, Brito is a vet, having studied in Romania. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Cape Verd-EU Cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sponsors are delighted at the full use of aid</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's physical characteristics - its small size, the fact that its territory is scattered over a number of islands and islets, its Sahelian climate (continually rendering it vulnerable to drought), the arid nature of the soil and its low population (under five hundred  thousand inhabitants) - might explain its high levels of poverty and mean that, in order to survive and develop, it requires considerable amounts of foreign aid. However, it is the effort made by this small country to stabilise its economy and to gain maximum profit from foreign aid which has attracted special attention from sponsors. Last year the European Commission decided to increase its contribution to Cape Verde's National Indicative Programme, within the framework of the Lom&eacute; Convention (tome IV, first protocol 199-95, seventh EDF) by 7%, i.e. an extra ECU 1.7 million. Cape Verde had already put virtually all the ECU 23 million allocated to it to good use, an indication of the government's desire to use the aid granted to the full.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When realism is a luxury</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is difficult to imagine an island inhabited by 160 000 people - the island of S&atilde;o Vicente, where the country's second largest city, Mindelo, with its population of 70 000, is located - having no source of drinking water. In former times, water was shipped in from the neighbouring island of Santo Antao, but Mindelo now has a number of seawater desalination plants, most of these provided by Israel, which meet 100% of its supply needs. The supply of both water and electricity is managed by</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Electra, a publicly-owned company, which, within the framework of the EDF (European Development Fund), has received European Commission aid to increase its electricity-generating capacity. It has set up three wind pumps, of Danish manufacture, which alone supply 13% of the island's non-industrial requirements. Elsewhere, such solutions as sea-water desalination and wind pumps might appear to be unrealistic but, for 160 000 people with no indigenous supply, realism is sometimes a luxury.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the island of Santiago, which is home to Praia, the capital city, does have some natural water sources, these are far from sufficient for its needs. One of the projects recently financed by the European Union concerned improvements to water-distribution systems, water purity and rainwater drainage. Amongst other things, this work involves the recycling of waste water which the island cannot afford to let drain away. Cape Verde's Achilles' heel is definitely its lack of water, its strong point unquestionably the dynamic outlook of its population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has an office on Cape Verde where the work done at Praia (water distribution and purity, support for poorer districts of the capital threatened with overpopulation) is regarded as symbolic of the EU's desire to take account of both weaknesses and strengths and represents the overall intention behind Community aid to this country. Generally speaking, such aid is geared towards infrastructures (water and electricity production and distribution, urban development) on the one hand and education and health on the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Praia's historic old town, the 'Plateau', with its wealth of fine colonial and neo-classical architecture, risks losing many of its buildings which have been abandoned by their owners who lack the means to maintain them. Community aid has also been provided to help save this part of the country's heritage. Funds are insufficient to finance a complete restoration of the 'Plateau', but, following the example of the Cape Verde government, which has maintained administrative buildings in good condition, the Commission will probably assume responsibility for renovation of a superb nineteenth-century building, the 'Case Cor-de-Rosa'. The purpose of this project is two-fold; not only will the building be restored, but also it will become the core of a more general project to train professionals in building techniques and restoration and it will serve as an example to motivate future purchasers, institutions, businesses and individuals to preserve the historic old town.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Community has also funded a study into the preservation of the capital's historic old town, which has been used as a basis by Praia Town Council. A project is currently underway, costing 1 million ECU, to restore an islet. The principal aim of this project is to train Cape Verdian technicians. Other work in the field of training has induded the building of the Praia Technical College. The next phase of this project, worth almost ECU 1 million, will fund the supply of equipment and teacher training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Still within the context of the overall project to develop Praia city, an EDF programme worth ECU 1.3 million has been created for the development of a designated area as an industrial site. A rural electrification project in the area around Praia was, at the end of 1995, granted a budget of ECU 1.5 million and will benefit a population of 7500 people living in the three most densely populated rural centres on the island of Santiago. The technical side of the works will be entrusted to Electra, with the private sector being responsible for supplying equipment and monitoring the works. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's 'essence' as a resource</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cape Verde's leaders regularly point to the richness, which they term the 'essence', of Cape Verde, contrasting this with the fact that their country is so poor. Indeed, despite limited resources, this country devotes a great deal of energy and ingenuity to 'cultivating' its culture. Two projects, financed within the framework of the National Indicative Programme and amounting to ECU 500 000, concern two feature-length films and will play a part in lessening the island's isolation by publicising its culture and people abroad. The first film, made during 1995 and entitled 'llh&eacute;u de Contenda', is the first fiction-based feature film to be made in Cape Verde and is the work of Leao Lopes, a director who has drawn his inspiration from the work of another Cape Verdian citizen, Teixeira de Sousa, and which centres on the history of Cape Verde and the birth of its national identity. The EDF contribution (approximately ECU 250 thousand) amounts to 14% of the total production cost. The film is currently being shown in a number of European countries. Virtually the same amount of  money has been set aside to fund another production, this time by a Portuguese director, Francisco Manso, based on a novel by a Cape Verdian author, Germano de Almeida, and entitled 'O Testamento do Sr. Napuceno', which was being filmed on the island of S&atilde;o Vicente at the time of our visit. 50% of the finance for this film comes from Portuguese producers, the other co-producers being French and Belgian.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Others EDF projects recently completed or being completed include one for improving roads on the islands of Santiago, S&atilde;o Nicolau and Maio (ECU 3 million) and a micro-project programme (ECU 1 million). In addition to funds from the EDF, Cape Verde has received further finance under the Lom&eacute; Convention, including ECU 700 000 within the context of the Stabex transfer schemes to offset loses in the banana-production sector during 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Design a micro climate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extemal food aid is essential in a country which cannot meet its own requirements and the Commission's most recent food-aid-budget contribution amounted to nearly ECU 2 million. Other special budget lines include funds provided under 'Human Rights and Democratisation in Developing Countries'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To an attentive foreign visitor, one of Cape Verde's most interesting achievements is the progress it has made in reforesting such an infertile soil. One of these reforested areas, covering 5000 hectares (1990-94) forms the basis of a regional project to disseminate knowhow accumulated in this sphere in Cape Verde. Training course. have enabled technicians and others involved in the reformtation of the Sahel countries to gain experience in methods which have proved succesful here. The production and distribution of teaching tools (books, posters, films, etc.) supplement the project. Since independence, Cape Verde has achieved a tenfold increase in the amount of land which is forested - admittedly there was little to start with, but since climatic conditions are so hostile this result can be regarded as a major accomplishment. There is even a hope that a micro-climate might form. On the island of Santiago, in some of these new green areas, wild duck which had long since disappeared have returned. It is nice to dream but the country cannot afford to rest on its laurels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 4 033 km2 Population: 390 000 (1990) Population density: 97 per km2 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population growth rate: 2.8 % (forecast for the period 19922000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Praia (pop. 75 000)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other main town: Mindelo (pop. 65 000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Languages: Portuguese, Creole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currency: Cape Verde Escudo (CVE). In May 1996,1 ECU was worth CVE 104 ($1 = CVE 83 approx.) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government: Mixed presidential/parliamentary system. The President is not the head of the executive but he represents the country and is guarantor of national unity and the Constitution. Unicameral Parliament. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President: Antonio Mascarenhas Monteiro (elected in 1991 and reselected at the beginning of this year) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Carlos Veiga (since 1991) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Political parties represented in Parliament:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Movimento pare a Democracia (MPD)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Partido Africano pare a Independencia de Cabo Verde (PAICV)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Partido da Convergencia Democratica (PCD) - formed as a result of a break away from the MPD</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Party representation in Parliament: MPD 50, PAICV 21, PCD 1 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1992 figures)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP: CVE 23.9 billion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP per capita: US $840</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Origin of GDP by sector: agriculture 13%, industry 17%, services 70% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Real GDP growth (estimate 1995): 4% Balance of payments: deficit of CVE 11.9 billion </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main trade partners: Portugal, Spain, Netherlands, Brazil. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual inflation rate: 9.1%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth: 64.7</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Infant mortality per 1000 live births: 56 Adult literacy: 66.4% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education (primary, secondary and tertiary): 59% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.536 (123rd out of 174) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: UNDP Human Development Report, 1995; Economic Intelligence Unit 1995; 'Etat et soci&eacute;t&eacute; aux iles du Cap Vert, by Michel Lesourd. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p32a.png"></center><br>
+ Figure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Europe</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Lom&eacute; Convention in focus</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Poll results and new brochure launched in Brussels</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new poll of Europeans high lights a deficit of information about the European Community's development policies. A brochure just published on the Lom&eacute; Convention, available in all EU languages, seeks to fill some of the gaps.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At a press conference on May 21, Development Commissioner, Joso de Deus Pinheiro, unveiled the findings of a survey commissioned from the Brussels consultancy, International Research Associates (INRA). The aim of the exercise was to sound out how Europeans perceive developing countries. The sample was 16 346 people, of 15 years and upwards, who were polled in the 15 Member States during December 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The survey shows that since 1991, helping the poor in the developing countries has slipped in the 'league' of issues of most concern to Europeans. The subject now ranks eighth in a table topped by the fight against unemployment. But the better news is that Europeans believe development of these regions should be the fourth most important priority for joint actions between Member States. This comes just below combating terrorism, environmental questions and defending Europe's economic interests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While 82% of Europeans are favourable to development cooperation, 12% are against. The degree of support varies, as one would expect, from one EU country to another. Interestingly, the survey shows that Member States facing an economic squeeze are the most reticent, irrespective of their past track record in development aid. In Belgium, only 65% are in favour while in</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Austria and France, the figures are 69% and 72% respectively. At the other end of the scale, Greece comes out top with 97% just ahead of Spain on 96% and Ireland on 91%. INRA's explanation for this variation is that it reflects the economic problems which are increasingly being felt in northern states of the Community. It is also worth pointing out that nations on EU's southern flank may be more convinced of the effectiveness of aid since they themselves are recipients of EC structural funds allocated to modernise the Union's disadvantaged regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But INRA's report also reveals some misconceptions about European development aid. These, says Commissioner Pinheiro, may be attributed to the lack of visibility of the relevant development policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">57% of those questioned believe that the bulk of the Community's assistance consists of emergency aid, rather than longer-term project support. The reverse is actually true. More people answer 'no' then 'yes' to the question: 'Does aid contribute to reducing poverty in developing countries'? And most consider that United Nations agencies (UNICEF, UNESCO etc.) do more in the  field of helping developing countries than the EC. Non-governmental organisations also have a high profile, with the EU Member States and Bretton Woods institutions (IMF and World Bank) trailing behind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other key findings from the poll - which Professor Pinheiro says will provide much food for thought in the coming months as thoughts turn to cooperation after Lom&eacute; IV - are highlighted in the box.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mid-term review and beyond</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Professor Pinheiro feels that some of results, which signal the need to tighten up on the management of development aid, have already been addressed in the mid-term review of the Lom&eacute; Convention which will come on stream from the beginning of 1997. The programming of the eighth European Development Fund (EDF) is already well under way and, with a view to increasing the effectiveness of aid, just 70% of resources earmarked for each ACP state will be allocated at the outset (for a three year period). An analysis of how the remainder should be spent will take place at the end of the three years. In addition, Professor Pinheiro indicated that a 'strategic' document was being drawn up on each of the 70 ACP states prior to allocation of funds. This was being done in 'permanent consultation with Member States and Commission delegations, in the interests of achieving a real synergy between the two.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More sweeping changes to the relationship are likely after the current</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some key findings from the INRA report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Aid must reach its intended destination and arrive where it is needed 93.2%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Aid must meet the needs of the local people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90.7%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The beneficiary state must raspect human rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">85.1%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Transparency, effective public management and the fight against  corruption are essential</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The beneficiary state must respect an overall development plan put forward by an  international aid organisation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">78.3%  plan  put  forward</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by an  internati onal  aid  organisa tion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Aid must be used to fund action by local NGOs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The beneficiary state must have a democratic system of government</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">59.3%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">56.0%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Convention expires at the turn of the century. Professor Pinheiro indicated that a first draft (green paper) on the possible shape of the ACP-KU relationship after 2000 will be published by the Commission by the end of the year. This, however, is likely to offer more questions than answers about future cooperation. 'I am not sure if we should keep the Lom&eacute; structure for every country, in the third millennium,' the Commissioner told the assembled journalists, highlighting the different levels of development now apparent between Lom&eacute; nations. Mauritius, now well on the way to becoming the 'Singapore' of Africa, was a case in point. He also pointed out the small island states of the Caribbean are at a very different stage of development from countries such as the Central African Republic or Burundi. He added that, in deciding what to do in future it would also be necessary to take stock of regional developments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Questions about Lom&eacute; answered</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the meantime, efforts are under way to boost the image of Community aid. With this in mind, the Information Unit of the Development Directorate-General has just published a brochure entitled 20 Questions and Answers about the Lom&eacute; Convention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides explaining in a nutshell what the Convention is, it answers some of the questions most frequently asked by sceptics about the benefits of development aid and trade preferences, highlighting the positive aspects for developing and developed economies alike. It points out, for example, that for every ECU 100 spent on aid, the Community recovers ECU 48 in the form of projects, supplies and technical assistance purchased from European companies!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The brochure provides a succinct explanation of how the Commission monitors aid to stop embezzlement and corruption. It highlights the right of the European Court of Auditors to check accounts of projects and fund transfers - and to investigate documents in the Lom&eacute; states, without the permission of the country concerned. Another precaution is that once a project is under way, financing is by banker's transfer. This involves a paper specifying that the holder of contract X, whose bank account number is Y. should be credited with Z amount of money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An explanation is given as to why the European Commission is involved in development aid when the Member States have their own bilateral development policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The brochure explains the advantages of EC assistance over bilateral arrangements and details how the Lom&eacute; system has been evolving in line with the increasing globalisation of the economy, in particular since the fall of the Berlin Wall.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It also contains some pocket statistics on official development assistance (ODA) flows which help to underline the message that the European Union (Community plus Member States) digs deeper into its pocket than its industrialised competitors in providing development aid. In 1994, the Community and its then 12 member states (excluding Austria, Sweden and Finland), contributed an average of 0.40% of their gross national product in ODA. The individual percentages varied from 1.03% in the case of Denmark to 0.20% in Italy. This compared with figures of 0.29% and 0.15% for Japan and the United States respectively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, total ODA from the Twelve reached $26.59 billion. Of this, $4.83 billion came from the European Community in its own right. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The content of chocolate</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Months of heated debate in the EU over the maximum allowable content of vegetable fats in chocolate have culminated in a Commission proposal for a revised Directive which, claim officials, should be to the taste of most interested parties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has proposed that the 'subsidiatity' principle should apply to the content of chocolate. This means leaving it to individual Member States to decide whether they will allow the use of vegetable oil - up to a maximum of 5% by weight - in their chocolate-making. The eight EU countries where this practice is currently prohibited  are free to modify their laws to take account of this 5% rule. The other cocoa butter and dry cocoa contents specified in the Directive - 18% and 35% respectively - may not be reduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The addition of up to 5% vegetable fats was authorised under Directive 73/241 for the UK, Ireland and Denmark when they first joined the EC. Other Member States who acceded later - Austria, Finland, Portugal and Sweden - also use these oils in chocolate production. The remaining EU countries have continued to prohibit the use of vegetable fats - and the sale of chocolate containing such fats. The result has been a partitioning of the EU market, in direct conflict with the Single Market principle.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the proposal is approved by the Council and the Parliament, all 15 Member States will be free to decide whether vegetable oil can be used in making chocolate. Whatever their individual decisions, however, the barriers will come down, thus opening up the 'pure' chocolate markets to competition from less expensive varieties containing vegetable oil. Stricter labelling rules will also be introduced, with the precise nature of any substitute oils being clearly indicated. The simple mention 'vegetable oil' will no longer suffice. Martin Bangemann, the Commissioner responsible for industry, stressed the significance of revising the Directive in allowing  chocolate products to circulate freely throughout the KU. This, he argued, would be in the interests of consumers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Winners and losers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Traditional cocoa producers such as Cote d'lvoire, Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon are fearful that the proposal may prompt some of Europe's 'pure' chocolate countries to change their laws - and that they will lose trade as a result. On the other hand, sheanut exporters in Burkina Faso, Mali, Ghana, Togo and Benin are hoping for higher sales if the 5% rule is adopted by more EU countries. Sheanuts account for 20% of Burkinabe exports and 98% of these are used to make vegetable oil substitute for chocolate products. The sheanut price is just 10% of the cocoa bean price. The Commission calculates that the maximum saving a manufacturer could expect by substituting vegetable fat for cocoa butter is around 1.5% of the ax-factory price.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In weighing up what to do, the Commission also considered the objectives of the International Cocoa Organisation (ICCO). These include taking 'all practical measures to increase the cocoa consumption in their countries by eliminating or reducing all obstacles to the growth of consumption in cocoa.' The ICCO estimates that if the 5% rule is applied in the remaining eight states - Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain - it will lead to a reduction in cocoa butter usage of 36 000-50 000 tonnes, which amounts to a drop in demand for cocoa beans of between 88000 and 125000 tonnes. This represents between 9-12% of current consumption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some producers suggest that these estimates are too high since they assume that manufacturers will go for  almost full substitution, which is not necessarily seen as inevitable. In addition, there is a belief that overall demand for chocolate products may grow as a result of the legal change.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was not the view taken by NGOs who reacted promptly - and critically - to the Commission text. The Brussels NGO Liaison Committee issued a statement claiming that it would lead to a drop of between 6.25% and 12.5% in the main exporting countries' cocoa receipts - and an additional burden on the European Community's Stabex fund. But chocolate producers and others argue that this is speculative. The impact, they say, will depend on the legal response of the eight Member States, as well as on the reaction of manufacturers. There are signs that the latter may well stick to their traditional and distinctive methods. A spokesperson for the Belgian-based Cote d'Or/ Suchard, pointed out that the proposal had a long way to go before it was approved, and stressed that his company had no intention of changing their 'winning recipes which had served them well since 1883. At the same time, he admitted, vegetable oil could be useful in a more diversified range of chocolate products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The vegetable oil 'lobby' argues that the addition of vegetable fat makes chocolate easier to mould and less likely to melt in warm climates. And for those who fear the elimination of 'pure' chocolate from the market, they point to manufacturers in Britain, where vegetable oil has traditionally been used, who still exclude such fats from some of their brands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The proposal must now be debated by the Council and it is clear that the arguing is not over yet. But it is beginning to look as if the consumers may be the final arbiters. Through their purchasing habits, they are likely to be the ones who finally determine the winners and losers in the great chocolate debate. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Minority businesses in the UK</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In no country in Europe are ethnic minorities more organised than in the United Kingdom - though they are still not adequately organised, in the opinion of many, to pool their considerable resources together and overcome stereotypes, racism and unenployment. But this may  change if the morale engendered by a recent exhibition of minority businesses in the UK is anything to go by.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The statistics speak for themselves. There are 3.3 million Asians, Africans and Afro-Caribbeans in Britain, about 5% of the population (and the figure is projected to double in the next 25 years). They have six elected Members of Parliament - five Labour and one Conservative - as well as numerous personalities in the world of sports and the media. According to the 1994 Labour Force Survey, 48% of ethnic minorities are graduates or are in full time studies and 55% earn salaries well over &amp;15 000 (ECU 18 000) annually. They have a combined gross annual income estimated at f42 billion and an annual spending power of at least f26 ten.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past 15 years, ethnic minority-owned businesses have grown considerably. In the last two years alone, they were responsible for more than 30 000 new business concerns throughout the country, according to the Commission for Racial Equality (CRE). Although many are in the retail trade, the 10% or so involved in production or manufacturing are extremely dynamic,  particularly those connected with the clothing industry or operating franchises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are considerable differences between Asians on the one hand and Africans and Afro-Caribbeans on the other. The former are more business oriented and account for well over 80% of all ethnic enterprises. This success in business is often attributed to Asians' industriousness, but there is another crucial and often neglected factor: Asians have a stronger sense of group solidarity and patronage than Africans and Afro-Caribbeans. Whereas the former spend virtually all their earnings within their community, the latter (who are mainly Christians and are known to make greater efforts at integration into the British society) spend theirs in the society at large.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unemployment among the black population in general is 19% compared to 8% for whites (in London it is three times higher). They are much more likely to be turned down by employers even when they have better qualifications than their white counterparts. Often self-employment is the only way out. This explains why there has been a boom in business start-ups by ethnic minorities over the past two years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although several black profffsional associations have come into being in recent years, it has been clear for some time to black leaders that the community's energies are dispersed and that these needed to be harnessed for the benefit of ethnic minorities as a whole. Blacks clearly have political and business clout to be exploited.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The idea for an exhibition of black businesses in the United Kingdom was mooted by a black business couple who, were influenced by a similar event  held annually in the United States called 'Black Expo USA'. But the impetus came from the 'Race for Opportunity Campaign' launched in October last year by the Conservative Government through the Department of Trade and Industry. The campaign has so far seen more than 20 big British companies pledge to do business with ethnic minority enterprises. These include British Airways, British Gas, British Telecom, British Aerospace and several high-street banks and finance houses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Held at the Barbican Centre in London on 4 and 5 May, the exhibition was aimed at creating awareness among ethnic minorities of their potentialities, showing the opportunities available to them not only in the UK but also in Europe, and at promoting networking amongst their businessmen and women. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cross-party support</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The exhibition, which had a cross-party support, could not have come at a more favourable time. Both the Tory government and opposition Labour Party have expressed support for policies favourable to small and medium-sized enterprises, which means that there should be continuity in this area if Labour comes to power in the next general election.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was borne out by the enthusiasm with which the shadow minister for small business, Mrs Barbara Roche greeted the exhibition. To her, the event should be seen in the context of Labour's overall policy on small businesses. Speaking at one of the seminars which was run alongside the exhibition to discuss various aspects of minority business problems, Mrs Roche explained that there were three important reasons why her party was promoting small enterprises, especially those involved in exports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first was that large companies were downsizing, and job-creation towards the end of this century and into the next would be largely by small and medium-sized enterprises. The second was that small businesses were efficient distributors of wealth and the third was that they were good at innovation and using new technologies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because a large number of small businesses are folding, or are struggling to survive in the UK today (often as a result of late payment of bills by large companies), Mrs Roche said a Labour government would introduce a statutory limit of 30 days for the settlement of bills by large companies. The latter would then have to pay interest to small businesses for any late payments. Ethnic minority businesses, she also said, were part and parcel of Labour's strategy for economic growth and jobs in Britain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Barbican exhibition attracted more than 80 exhibitors mainly in retailing, finance, telecommunications, consultancy, arts and crafts, publishing, electronics and education. There were  very few exhibitors from the manufacturing sector (a disappointment considering the number of Asians in the clothing industry) and virtually none in engineering. Some of the big companies connected with the 'Race for Opportunity Campaign' like British Airways and British Gas, as well as the newly created government-backed Business Link, the Customs and Excise department, the Inland Revenue, the Army and the Metropolitan Police were there. Also present was Louis Farrakan's 'Nations of Islam', (not necessarily on a recruitment drive, though that must have been part of the game), but as a reminder of its campaign for greater self-reliance by the black community which culminated late last year in the 'Million-Man' march on Washington DC. Video tapes of the march and speeches by Farrakan and other black leaders in the United States were on sale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Difficulties</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The seminar run concurrently with the exhibition attracted many notable speakers, among them Members of Parliament, Keith Vaz, Bernie Grant and Barbara Roche and Commissioner Dr Zaka Khan of the Commission for Racial Equality. Jessie Boseman, vice-president of 'Black Expo USA, who was also scheduled to speak, did not turn up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was general agreement on the main factors inhibiting the growth of ethnic minority businesses, the most obvious being racism and  discimination. Ethnic businesspeople not only have difficulties obtaining public contracts, but they are often denied access to finance, market and even premises. Furthermore, they suffer from lack of management skills, networks and feedback. Dr Khan of the Commission for Racial Equality highlighted mounting racist attacks, mostly against Asianowned shops, which have claimed a number of lives in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Integration into mainstream economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is no longer a hidden fact that banks discriminate against black businesses. Surveys carried out by the NatWest and Midland banks have confirmed that fact. The latter though, it must be acknowledged, has a laudable Fellowship Programme, designed to encourage ethnic minority university students to take up careers in the Midland Bank on graduation. Lack of access to the market has effectively meant that black businesses have been left out of the mainstream of the British economy. Everyone agreed that it makes good economic sense to see them integrated into it. This was particularly   the position of both Barbara Roche and Zaka Khan. The question was: would it be possible ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some of the issues raised on the floor by businesspeople revealed that many were sceptical that racism and discrimination could be overcome in multiracial Britain. The Commission for Racial Equality symbolises the fight against these two evils and Dr Khan had a hard time defending its role. The CRE was criticised for constantly quoting statistics on improvements in the living conditions of ethnic minorities which, it was argued, were totally removed from reality. Despite this, Dr Khan remained upbeat. To him the future promises great things for ethnic minorities. He promised to look into the grievances aired by some businespeopie during the seminar. Barbara Roche, for her part, promised that a Labour government would encourage the banks to offer packages of assistance to small enterprises, in particular, black-owned ones. They would also ensure that local councils offered minority enterprises a share of local government contracts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greater self-reliance and global trade</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In view of the problems black businesspeople have had to contend with over the years, Bernie Grant, the Member of Parliament for Tottenham in North London, did not devote much time to the idea of integrating them into mainstream British economy. He felt that racism and discrimination were so prevalent that there was little chance of that happening. For him, the future for black businesspeople in Britain lay in greater self-reliance and entry into international trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a speech entitled 'political responsibility, and black import and export business', the M.P. set the Barbican exhibition in the context of the global economic situation - one where he said, 'the countries of the North are exploiting those of the South, in particular African countries.' Africa's heavy debts to the West should in fact be the other way round. He argued that the new world trade agreement, which  opens up the developing countries to competition, was unfair. 'This means that countries where minorities in the UK came from are going to have problems, and it is the duty of thee minorities to ensure that their countries have a fair deal,' he said. Mr Grant cited, by way of example, the EU's banana protocol under the Lom&eacute; Convention which gives preferential treatment to small Caribbean island producers and which is currently being 'unfairly' challenged by South American producers under the WTO rules. The role of multinationals, which are effectively acting es 'middleman', was, he believed, pernicious for developing countries. There was a need for black businessmen to step in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Minority enterprises in the UK do not exist in isolation from the rest of the world, he elaborated. They should seek to engage in international trade and take advantage of their connection with their countries of origin. To facilitate this, Mr Grant said that a group under his chairmanship had set up a Global Trade Centre in his constituency in North London with the aim of helping black and minority enterprises establish direct trade links with Africa, the Caribbean and black America. The Centre was already in contact with a number of African countries which have expressed interest in the idea. Such a link would not only ensure a better deal for African producers but also favour the growth of minority businesses across the world. This was, he confessed, 'a political agenda' designed to reduce the excessive profits of multinationals, if not put an end to their 'outright exploitation' of Africa and the Caribbean. Mrs Roche expressed support for the Centre for the role it could play in boosting British exports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UK minorities and the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European Union</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A self-confessed Eurosceptic, who would have preferred the UK to strengthen economic ties with the Commonwealth rather than with Europe, Mr Grant displayed an extraordinary understanding of the European</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Union's affairs. What worried him most about greater European integration, he said, was racism and the fact the UK job market, where black and ethnic minorities are already heavily disadvantaged, will be exposed to further competition from other Europeans most of whom speak several languages. However, he had no alternative but to support the Labour Party's line on Europe and work to secure the best advantage of British membership for ethnic minorities. He contrasted Tory 'divisions' on Europe with Labour's 'united' policy and condemned the British Government's attitude generally towards the Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development of the Union, Mr Grant said, was of great significance to black people. He was sure the Government's Immigration and Asylum bill, which had come up against strong opposition in the House of Lords, was aimed at harmonising immigration laws with other countries in the Union. The bill, if passed, will change the UK's visa regime and have serious implications for ethnic minorities and their businesses in Britain. He revealed that, with the support of ethnic minority members of the British Parliament, Bill Morris, the black General Secretary of the Transport and General Workers Union (the second biggest trade union in the UK) and other European trade union leaders, the Intergovernmental Conference was being lobbied for the inclusion of a stronger clause against racism in the Treaty of Rome. The aim, ultimately, is to see measures in line with the UK's laws against racism and discrimination enacted at the Union level. This would include the establishment of a European equivalent of the Commission for Racial Equality - with similar powers - so as to establish a level-playing field for ethnic minorities in competition for jobs and in business throughout Europe. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dossier</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Communication and the media</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Dossier coordinated by Debra Percival)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Press freedom is widely acknowledged as the cornerstone of democracy with a clamp-down anywhere in the world frequently interpreted as a sign of government repression. The rash of multi-party elections in African nations at the beginning of the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1990s brought new publications to news-stands. Many of these have since folded - often because of a lack of funds and sometimes because of government censorship.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many organisations are campaigning vigorously in the public eye for a free press in developing nations. These include Reporters Sans Frontieres, Article 19 and the International Federation of Joumalists - all of which are featured in this Dossier. The US-based Freedom House has also been monitoring the state of press freedom worldwide since 1979. In its recently published 1996 survey, it says that even today, only 22% of the world's population live in countries with a free press. 38% have a press sector that is 'partly free' while the description 'not free' is applied to the remaining 40%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are also regional organisations such as The Media Institute of Southern Africa (MISA), which are playing a part in keeping media issues to the fore. David Nthengwe, a researcher with MISA, highlights the fact that democratisation does not necessarily guarantee a free media or free expression more generally. He also draws attention to the difficulties faced by private and community organisations in obtaining adequate finance. These are  typical of the problems facing the media in many countries, both in the ACP group and elsewhere in the developing world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In seeking to tackle these issues, donors are showing increasing interest in backing media programmes with development finance (linked to democratisation and human rights). The European Union, UNESCO and a number of bilateral donors have expanded their activities in this area with a variety of projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One big change has been the rapid growth of the 'Information Superhighway'. This has prompted fears that the developing countries may fall further behind, although donors have indicated a willingness to help ensure this does not happen. One NGO closely monitoring the development of the Internet for the South is the PANOS Institute. Meanwhile, multilateral donors (notably the World Bank, through its INFODEV programme) are also becoming involved. A number of EU personalities lent their support to the development of the information society in the developing world, at a major conference staged in South Africa in May on the initiative of the country's Vice President, Thabo Mbeki. A work programme of projects was drawn up with the aim of making sure, in the words of European Commissioner, Martin Bangemann, that there is no divide between the 'information-poor' end the 'information-rich'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, although the world is undergoing an information revolution, the more traditional media (the press and above all, radio) will, for the foreseeable future, continue to have a central part in informing, educating and entertaining people in many developing  countries. It is important that those of us who increasingly communicate via our computer screens do not lose sight of this essential fact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this Dossier, we examine a number of the key issues affecting the media and highlight some innovative projects in this area - with the help of a series of experts. The subject has clearly moved higher up the development agenda, but there is still a long way to go, as the figures cited above show. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Aidan White of the IFJ</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Confronting the age-old problem</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the chance, 'governments would like to run and manipulate the media'. This is the view of Aidan White, General Secretary of the Brusselsbased International Federation of Journalists (IFJ), who says it is an 'ageold problem'. And the Federation, which has member organizations in 93 countries, works to prevent it from happening. It also provides a range of services to journalists throughout the world. We recently spoke to Mr White, who used to write for the British daily, The Guardian. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He began by outlining to us the Federation's key areas  of activity which include, in particular, the professional conditions in which journalists work and the defence of human rights. On the first of these, Mr White focused on the problem of economic pressures and difficult social conditions. 'We take a strong view that you can't have press freedom if journalists work in conditions of poverty or technical deprivation. It is a nonsense,' he stressed, 'to talk about a free press in a situation where journalists aren't paid, or if they are unable to function properly.' In seeking to tackle this, he spoke, in particular, of the 'need for independent organisations of journalists defending professional and social interests.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards human rights, the IFJ is active in the international community, working with bodies such as UNESCO and the UN Human Rights Commission. 'We are very interested in issues such as the legal environment in which journalists and the media operate, and are extremely active in the defence of physical safety.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr White went on to give more detailed information about the IFJ's work in Algeria, where many journalists have been killed in recent years. This country clearly has a bad international reputation and the General Secretary was anxious to offer a more balanced picture of the situation. 'In my view, there is a real malformation of Alaeria's  image in Europe and elsewhere. The view we get is of a paralysed society where nothing can function properly - a kind of international basket case. It is not like that. In Algeria, life continues. There is a form of democracy. There are a dozen newspapers which appear every day. The streets are full of traffic and people walking about. The reality is that there is a particularly horrifying and barbaric form of terrorism which is targeted against intellectuals including journalists. This means that the media has a terrible problem.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aidan White explained the strategy of the IFJ in seeking to confront this. 'We began by going to Algeria to investigate what was going on. Then we established an international office on the spot. This is a direct contact point of solidarity for local journalists and the local media. So we don't report Algeria through Paris. We don't see the need to go through some sort of middleman in order to find out what's going on in the country or have contact with Algerian journalists.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'And then we have two specific programmes which are very important', he continued. One involves providing humanitarian assistance to journalists and their families. The other is a series of practical activities in Algeria. Thus, for example, we are organising a round table on terrorism and information.' He pointed out that the Algerian government had resorted to the traditional method of press censorship in the face of ,the terrorist threat and stressed the 'need to counter this. 'We are also organising a practical seminar on personal safety, as well as one on professional social rights, the need for ethical standards and better social conditions.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The point, he emphasised was that events were being organised on the spot. Algeria may pose terrible difficulties 'but it doesn't mean we walk away from it.' The IFJ's emphasis was firmly on being a 'functional organisation working directly with the people who need help.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Funding and the EU link</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tuming to the issue of the IFJ's funding, Mr White explained how the core activities - his own salary and administrative costs - are paid for by the subscriptions of member organisations, which amount to roughly $1 million. On top of that, the Federation carries out projects with the EU and other donors. They also distribute funds, offering their expertise as a representative body to help other organisations that want to undertake work.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asked in what way the EU could do more, the General Secretary stressed the political dimension. 'It should intervene,' he argued, 'to establish certain standards in international relations. We say, for instance, that political, economic and military cooperation with any state outside the Union should be based on a commitment to and respect for freedom of expression and opinion.' He underlined the 'responsibility' of the EU to take a stand against countries that locked up journalists, implicitly criticising those who argued that freedom of expression was very important but who then shelved the issue when economic relations were involved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He also urged a more proactive approach 'moving away from the strategy of counting bodies, complaining, and making reports about how bad the situation is' towards one based on comprehensive programmes of assistance. He described the IFJ's Media for Democracy programme in Africa as a 'first attempt' in that direction. Mr </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">White highlighted what he saw as a difficulty with existing projects. 'The problem is that the EU is confronted by all sorts of different NGOs who come and say: 'we have got this good project - give us support for it'. This is fine but it inevitably means that resources are spread very diffusely and often to no effect.' A lot of activities, he suggested, such as one-off seminars and conferences, were 'like fireworks in the night sky: they glow bright for a brief period and then they disappear.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He went on to plead for an integrated, comprehensive strategy. 'Until that exists, you will not be able to solve the fundamental problems facing journalists.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training and status</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The discussion moved on to the subject of training. Perhaps surprisingly, Aidan White did not see this as an important priority in itself. As he explained: 'It's no use training journalists to be very high quality if they go off to work in a country where the legal environment does not allow them to function properly. And it's no use training them to be ethical if they go somewhere that is steeped in political or financial corruption, and where there is no culture which appreciates the media's role in democratic society.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With this in mind, he believes that training should be directly related to the strategic approach he referred to earlier. 'Yes, we need professional, well trained journalists, but it should be part of a range of programmes. And professional training is not just important for journalists. It should also be provided for managers, editors, advertisers... and perhaps even for politicians!'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The General Secretary noted that the status of journalists in most countries was quite high. They are seen as a filter for information 'coming from the government to the governed'. This was important, he thought, but 'tine real question is how the filter functions. On the one hand journalists have a relatively high status, and what they do is extremely important, but they work close to the political elites, which means they  are subject to pressure. They must retain their independent role, scrutinising and investigating what governments are doing.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the subject of access to information in developing countries, Aidan White observed that the situation is now better than it was ten years ago but pointed to the 'age-old problem of people in power wanting to control the media.' He gave the example of journalists in Indonesia, 'who really want to speak independently of the government, but who are being killed because they represent independent strands of opinion.' Overall, however, he believes the situation has been improving. 'This is partly due to changes in information technology. A government can no longer simply take a journalist out and beat him up. There are half a dozen press freedom organisations around the world watching for and reporting on such events.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a tendency in Europe to assume that 'everything in the garden is rosy' in terms of press freedom, and we were interested to hear what the Secretary General thought of this proposition. He was quick to offer a less complacent view. 'We have just issued a very strong statement against the EU about their secrecy policy,' he pointed out. 'You cannot claim the moral high ground for democracy in Africa or elsewhere if you have a system of secrecy in Europe which operates at the highest political level and which denies citizens access to information.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He was also concerned about the concentration of the media in enormous congLom&eacute;rates. This trend, he argued, 'is actually profoundly damaging to the culture of information.' He cited, in this context, the action of the Murdoch organisation 'in banning all news from his cable channels going into China.' Mr White continued: 'They banned the BBC and they banned news coverage in the Chinese language in order to make a business arrangement with the Beijing government. That sort of activity, in our view, is direct censorship from the heart of western democracy.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, Aidan White gave some more detailed information about the Media for Democracy programme in Africa which he described as 'ground-breaking.' The Federation has used it to develop key themes, including the coverage of elections. 'The real test of press freedom,' he continued, 'is at an election, because that is when the political pressure is toughest and the professional quality of journalism is exposed. For Africa, we developed a manual on election reporting and, interestingly, it has become the source document worldwide for election reporting.' He explained how it formed the basis for developing a text which is universal. This has been translated into various European languages, and Arabic, and has been employed in Poland, Romania, Albania and Latin America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the first phase of the Media for Democracy programme, the Federation held a serf. of seminars and conferences on how the media covered elections. As Mr White stressed, this was a crucial time in Africa. Political change was taking place, multi-party democracy was being introduced and there was a need to clarify how elections operated and how they should be reported. 'People didn't have the experience. They wanted the information, and to discuss how things should be done.' The seminars covered aspects such as financial corruption, the organisation of journalists and the role of ethics. And what the IFJ found was that the same kind of things happen in Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique and South Africa - and indeed across the world. In the words of the Secretary General, 'they have an echo everywhere because, at its root, the problem is the same - those in power want to manipulate the media and use whatever pressures they can.' The lesson learnt from the IFJ's experience in Africa is that common solutions are also valid. Or as Aidan White put it, 'there is no part of the world that can't teach the rest of the world something.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.M. &amp; S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Freedom of expression: the first freedom</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Frances d'Souza</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frances d'Souza who is Executive Director of AROSE 19, a nom governmental organization which campaigns against censorship globally, explains why Freedom of Expression is for her the most important human right</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the absence of freedom of expression, it is almost impossible to protect other rights, including the right to life. Once governments can draw a cloak of secrecy round their actions and remain unaccountable, massive human rights violations can, and do, take place. For this reason alone, the right to free expression, specifically protected in international human rights treaties, must be considered a primary right. It is significant that one of the first indications of a government's intention to depart from democratic principles is when it increases its control over information, usually by gagging the media. At the one end of the spectrum, supposedly minor infringements of this fundamental right occur daily in western democracies; for example the abuse of national security laws to prevent publication of information which might embarrass the authorities. At the other end of the scale are regimes of terror which brutally suppress opposition, information and even the freedom to exercise religious beliefs. Without free speech and an independent media, it is easier for governments to employ propaganda to promote ethnic conflict, war and genocide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right to freedom of expression is formally protected in major international treaties including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">* This text is an abridged version of a submission made by the author to a public hearing hosted by the European Parliament's Committee on Foreign Affairs, Security and Defence and the Sub-Committee on Human Rights and the Committee on Culture, Youth, Education and the Media, April 25, 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Political Rights (Article 19), and the European Convention on Human Rights (Article 10). It is also enshrined in many national constitutions, although this does not always guarantee its protection. Freedom of expression is something which applies even in countries which have not ratified the relevant international treaties. This is because the Universal Declaration is so widely accepted that its provisions now form part of customary international law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While it is generally agreed that freedom of expression is the cornerstone of democracy, international treaties permit certain restrictions. Unlike the American First Amendment rights which allow few, if any, checks on free speech, the international treaties aim for a balance between competing rights. Thus, for example, free speech may be limited where it impinges on the individual's right to privacy, or where it involves incitement to violence or hatred. Given that the permitted restrictions are necessarily broad, the limits of free speech are constantly being tested in national courts and in regional tribunals such as the European Commission and Court of Human Rights. In recent years, several landmark cases have helped define what restrictions may be imposed by governments and under what circumstances. In particular, it has been emphasised by the European Court that any restriction should 'pass' a threepart test; it should be prescribed by law (and thus not be arbitrarily imposed), it should be proportionate to the legitimate aims pursued, and it should be demonstrably necessary in a democratic society in order to protect the individual and/or the state.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Who censors what?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the rules governing restrictions on free speech, many justifications are still invoked by governments in suppressing information which may be inimical to their policies or interests. These include arguments in defence of national security or the 'public interest'. The mechanisms used to restrict the free flow of information range from subtle economic pressures, and devious methods of undermining political opponents and the independent media, to the enactment of restrictive press laws and rules for licensing journalists. In extreme cases, they may involve the illegal detention, torture and disappearance of journalists and others associated with the expression of independent views.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right of free speech may appear less important than, for example, freedom from torture or extrajudicial killing. It is also sometimes difficult to persuade the public that censorship, generally associated with banning obscene materials, is a bad thing! It requires a recognition of some of the fundamental principles of democracy to understand why censorship is so dangerous. Democracy implies that people can make choices about the issues that affect their lives, including what they wish to see, read, hear or discuss. While this may seem a luxurious freedom, mainly preoccupying the wealthy West, it is a comparatively short distance between state censorship of an offensive book to the silencing of political dissidents. And the distance between this and the use of violence to suppress opposition is even shorter. Censorship tends to grow rapidly from small beginnings. Allowing a government the power to deny people information, however trivial, not only leads to laws and procedures which can and will be used by those in authority against those with less authority. It also denies people the information they need to render their governments accountable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There have been some terrible examples of the role of censorship in recent years. We have seen it in the republics of the former Yugoslavia   where the media were manipulated for propaganda purposes. We have seen it in Rwanda where the government associated radio incited citizens to kill each other in the name of ethnic supremacy. And we have seen it in Iran which maintains the threat of murder against a citizen of another country because he wrote a book which displeased the authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are clear links between access to information (or rather the lack of it), and war. Democracy empowers people by increasing participation in decision-making at all levels. The poor, who are denied access to information on decisions which deeply affect their lives, are powerless and have no voice. They cannot influence the ruling elites whose interest in consolidating their own power and position may be served by initiating conflict.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is significant that of the 126 developing countries listed in the 1993 Human Development Report, wars were being waged in 30 and a further 33 were suffering severe civil conflicts. 55 of these 63 countries were to be found at the lower end of the Human Development Index which is an indicator of poverty. It is reasonably safe to assume that most people never welcome war. They may be coerced into supporting 'their' side in a conflict by their governments, using propaganda designed to whip up fear and extreme nationalist sentiment. If the majority had a democratic voice, they would undoubtedly object to war. But voices are silenced. Thus, the freedom to express one's views, to challenge government decisions and to insist upon political rather than violent solutions, are necessary aspects of democracy which can, and do, avert war.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">State-sponsored propaganda in Rwanda, as in the former Yugoslavia, succeeded because there were no ways of challenging it. One can conclude that it is impossible for a country to wage war in the absence of a compliant media willing to indulge in government propaganda. Governments needs civilians to fight wars for them and the media is needed to reinforce government policies and intentions at every turn. In a  totalitarian state where the expression of political views, let alone the possibility of political organisation is suppressed, one has to ask what other possibilities are open to a genuine political movement intent on introducing justice. All too often, terrorism and violence are the only perceived options available to communicate the need for change.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What NGOs can do</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work of human rights organizations has to become much more proactive and should be concerned with providing early warning and preventive action. Monitoring freedom of exprmsion, especially freedom of the press, offers an excellent context because it is widely recognised that would-be dictators always seek to silence people's voices through banning newspapers or other methods of censorship. One has to assume that when censorship begins in earnest, worse human rights abuses will follow and this should be the point for action. Had there been a greater international lobby for an independent media, for access to information and for participation in decision-making in the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Nigeria, Burma and many other countries, some of the gross violations which continue to occur, could have been prevented.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Censorship is the first instrument of a government intent on departing from democratic procedures. In this sense it is an early warning signal and at ARTICLE 19, we believe we have a special responsibility to understand better how democracy is destroyed through censorship and how we can alert the international community to act to prevent it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By way of conclusion, anything which can build strong and sound media infrastructures, at the earliest to pportunity, in transitional democracies, is both a gift and a great investment. A crusading press, prepared to separate fact from opinion and to verify its sources, can create a level playing field in which all sectors of society have a voice. This would preclude political control and manipulation for nationalistic power purposes. There is also a need to strengthen local monitoring groups which have the capacity to verify information. International organisations should amplify the voices of local organisations and bring them to the attention of the international community. It is only where there is a strong human rights culture in a given country, whether it has achieved democracy or not, that political changes can be seized upon and shaped into the democratic process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To achieve these objectives, NGOS need to work with governments which are obliged by international law to uphold fundamental rights. We need organisations such as the KU, the UN, ASEAN, and others, to insist on respect for human rights in their dealings with third countries. We also need the general public to be aware of what fundamental rights are, what are the consequences of infringement, and how they can, as individuals, successfully challenge restrictionss imposed on them by their governments. Above all, NGOS need to work with multilateral organisations to determine where slender resources can most fruitfully be targeted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.d'S.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Commission support for democratisation through the media</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Mark Leysen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Amongst the many cooperation activities in which it is involved, the Lom&eacute; Convention covers cultural cooperation, which includes information and communication, yet European Development Fund support for the media in ACP countries is negligible. Although considerable and increasing amounts of aid are granted for the cinema in such countries, EU support for TV, radio and the printed media is small.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, for some years now, the Commission has provided considerable aid to the printed media and radio in ACP countries under its 'Support for democratisation and respect for human rights' budget, which heralds a new approach to media questions. The EDF does not participate in the vast majority of big communications projects in Africa, namely PANA (Panafrican News Agency), URTNA (African National Television and Radio Union, the African equivalent of the European Broadcasting Union), the Programme Exchange Centre, Afrovision, Cierro, etc. The reluctance of EU and ACP partners to embark on such media projects can be explained both by EDF procedures and by the worldwide political context including the situation in most African countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until recently, the media was a matter for the State in Africa. The 'New World Information and Communications Order', announced in the 1 970s, foresaw the participation of not only African citizens, but also of their governments in the world information highway. However, the democratic credentials of such governments were open to question - they controlled the printed media, radio, television and press agencies and any support for such media amounted to a strengthening of the State monopoly and this is why the EDF did not take part.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, aid to the independent media was impossible because such entities did not exist in most African countries and the authorities were not prepared to back a request for aid to the press which they regarded as contrary to their country's interests. If support for the media did exist, it was indirect and restricted to backing of means of communication servicing development projects: literacy campaigns, the fight against AIDS, increasing awareness of ecological problems, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was not until the advent of the democratisation movement and the support that Europe decided to grant to it that a media-aid strategy was to take root. As a kind of 'Fourth Estate', the media monitor executive power and report any abuse of it. In parallel, they play a key role in strengthening civil society by providing information (if not objective information, then at least information from many sources) on current political, social, economic and cultural issues and by providing a medium which offers an opportunity to speak out on matters of importance to society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Commission focuses its media support in five areas in agreement with representatives of African press and specialist European . organisations in this area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Freedom of expression It provides direct aid to national, regional and international organizations to defend freedom of expression, specifically financing monitoring, surveys and the reporting of any violation of press freedom (censorship, intimidation, arrests and arbitrary trials, etc.), and direct assistance to the media and any journalists who are victims of such attacks on press freedom. This direct aid is channelled to, inter alia, the activities of Reporters sans frontieres (see 'Interview with Mr Robert Menard', in this issue), 'Article XIX' and Index on Censorship, all organisations which operate like an Amnesty International for the press.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new independent press is often run by journalists who have had no journalistic training and the former State media often require being updated after many years of professional 'distortion' responding to 'his master's voice'. The Commission hence finances programmes offering training in basic journalistic techniques, election coverage; professional codes of ethics, etc. In this area, it is working with a number of European and African organizations, giving priority to long-term actions which are likely to spawn others and to programmes aimed at achieving a higher level of professionalism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid for vocational organizations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vocational organizations for journalists have a role to play in improving the profession's social standing, in strengthening its cohesion in the face of political division, in defending its interests and in coming to the aid of journalists who have been victims of repression. The Commission finances a vast 'Media for Democracy' programme conducted by the International Federation of Journalists and its affiliated regional and national organisations (see interview with Aidan White, in this issue). The programme aims to strengthen or create national and regional associations of journalists, but is also involved in more general actions to   increase the professional standing of the media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access to sources of information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A credible and responsible press requires sources of information which the new and financially precarious press cannot allow itself. The Commission supports the creation or updating of documentation centres, North/South  and South/South exchanges between publications and radio stations, access to international press agencies or photographic libraries, etc., being shared between several media bodies. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legislative framework and code of ethics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not enough merely to guarantee freedom of expression in the   constitution. This principle must be embodied in all legislative and regulatory texts to prevent a journalist being prosecuted arbitrarily for 'defamation' or 'a breach of State security'. Moreover, to appear credible, the profession must observe a code of ethics. The Commission backs the drafting of press codes, codes of ethics and regulations to govern the air waves. It also backs the creation of press and air wave regulatory bodies as well as the provision of training in journalistic ethics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is obvious that the 'Democracy and Human Rights' budget cannot alone meet the needs of Africa's multi-faceted media scene. Moreover, although the media are a key element in any democratisation process, they are also much more than that - as a means of information and recreation, they have a role to play in the human development of society; as an instrument to create greater awareness, they can contribute to the strengthening of a civil society which is gradually taking charge; and as an economic sector in the full throes of development, they can make a contribution to the GDP and create jobs. All the more reason for national sponsors and the EDF to take more of an interest. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National television, victim of  democracy </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than the other media, television in Africa is controlled by the State and serves, first and   fore most, to disse minat e news about the leade r and his govern ment. The state of equip ment depen ds on when it was suppl ied by a friend ly count ry from the North, and as it was almos t certai nly offere d to the count ry's leade rs 'as a perso nal gift', it usual ly consi sts of oversi zed equip ment which the nation al televis ion statio n canno t maint ain correc tly owing to a lack of resou rces. Whils t Europ e is movin g over to digita l Betac am and 1619 forma t, many Africa n TV statio ns are still opera ting with Umat ic and with mach ines that are impos sible to maint ain. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With such deriso ry mean s, nation al TV statio ns have to conte nd with unfair comp etition from the intern ationa l statio ns which, from their satell ites, are inund ating the contin ent with their broad casts . The worldbroad castin g chann els of Europ ean statio ns are receiv ed clearl y (CFI, TV5 Afriqu e, BBC World Telev ision, Deut sche Welle, etc.). The numb er of religio us statio ns (gene rally Islam ic) contin ues to increa se and comm ercial televi sion is develo ping apace - CN N, MTV, Cana l Horizo ns, M-Ne t and others can be picke d up just about every where and can thus cream off the best of a comm ercial mark et which is still virtual ly non-e xisten t and awaiti ng better days . </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The URTN A is unabl e to defen d the intere sts of its memb ers, prope rly and its initiat ives (which are, nevert heles s, lauda ble) are stagn ating: the -progr amme rexch ange centre in Nairob i does not excha nge very much at all and Afrovi sion, . the syste m for excha nging news betw een   nation al TV statio ns via satell ite, is strugg ling to Get off the aroun d. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Never theles s, Africa n TV statio ns do not lack talent or motiva tion and many of them are capab le of produ dng more qualit y progra mmes . What can be done to help them ? Firstly, a decis ion has to be made regar ding who is to be helpe d. Certa inly not intern ationa l TV statio ns' be they private or public, which have their own strate gy (comm ercial or politic al and produ ce televis ion progra mmes for impor t which make only a very margi nal contri bution to the expre ssion of Africa n talent . It would also be wrong to rely or, privati sation and comm ercial statio ns in order to obtain quali ty televis ion - t his much has been demo nstrat ed by the Europ ean exper ience . As for direct aid to nation al televis ion, this would mere ly reinfo rce the State mono poly over inform ation. Wha t is requir ed is greate r suppo rt for the transi tion of State televi sion into a genui ne public servic e. with the benef it of an indep enden t statut e and also true editor ial indep enden ce. Conse quent ly, as things curre ntly stand, aid for trainin g teievis ion' profes siona ls, suppo rt for qualit y progra mme produ ction and any aid aimed at draftin g a public -servic e televis ion Statu te, are usefu l forms of suppo rt which are neutra l with regard to State -medi a contro l. Any direct aid to nation al </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> televis ion statio ns in the form of   hardw are and equip ment shoul d be </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> subje ct to their conve rsion into an auton omou s public servic e. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.L. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Images of Africa in the Western media</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Geoff Mungham</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It seems difficult to find an African leader or African journalist who has not, at some time, been either fiercely critical or quietly despairing of the way in which the continent is depicted by the western media. Their grievances have come to form part of a now familiar litany. Claims are made that the reporting of Africa is now almost entirely in terms of what has been called a'coup, crisis and famine syndrome', and that the western media focus only on 'bad news' out of Africa and ignore the 'positive' achievements of many African countries. These criticisms go hand-in-hand with accusations that Africa cannot ' tell its own story, in its own way', because the global news market is dominated by powerful, westerr-owned corporations, who have their own agenda for reporting Africa. For many Africans, their continent is becoming increasingly invisible in the trade in global news. For them, Rupert Murdoch's cynical remark that 'the Third World sells no newspapers' would appear to have been uttered with Africa specifically in mind. Finally there are those Africans who are concerned about 'western cultural imperialism' undermining traditional African values and culture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How true are these claims? Is Africa becoming once again a dark continent; one largely excluded from the glare of western media coverage? Are some of the correctives suggested by different African leaders worse than the problems they are complaining about? And if Africa is in danger of becoming a 'disappearing world' for news, to what extent are many African countries themselves to blame?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To begin with, there is no doubt that African critics have a case. First and most obvious, is the undeniable brute fact that global news and information flows are dominated by a small number of multinational operators, nearly all of whom - especially since the end of the Cold War - are western owned and controlled. This is true of the great international news agencies, whether the traditional wire services like Reuters or Agence France-Press, or the newer global television news services represented by WTN and CNN, among others. The major clients for their output are western news organizations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, most African countries are in no position to mount a challenge to this world news order. The continent has recently been described as one of the 'least dynamic regions in the global economy, where buying power of consumers is low' and in which many countries are burdened with crippling debt payments. In the same vein, a 1991 World Bank report not only pointed to the increasing 'communications gap' between Africa and the developed world, but went on to suggest that most of the continent offered poor prospects for those wanting to invest in telecommunications projects. These are among the reasons why Africa scores so poorly in terms of putting in place viable national communications infrastructures, let alone being able to take on the global market leaders in securing a higher profile for Africa in the world's news rooms. The same factors also help explain why most African countries remain so dependent on western-controlled news sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This dependency is not simply a question of the easy availability of copy or other material from the western news agencies. Puri (a Tanzanian journalist and Managing Editor of Newslink Africa)  presents other reasons why African editors are interested in what's happening in the West. These include the links between many African countries and their former colonial rulers, the realities of global and economic relations and his claim that African editors often have little interest in other parts of the continent. As he puts it, '...a newspaper reader in Botswana, for example, is not much interested in reading detailed reports from Morocco.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, there is plenty of evidence to support the criticisms of the 'coup, crisis, famine' coverage. Examples are too numerous to cite here, but the following small selection is fairly representative of the broader picture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Introducing the findings of a 'Global News Agenda Survey', Malik and Anderson noted: 'For the rest of the world, Africa means coupe, and largescale killings (covered usually only in the first few days), almost ritualistic famine relief... and the occasional travelogues in the guise of saving something or other'. Similar claims were made by Okigho when he wrote that while CNN and other satellite organisations have 'revolutionised international news coverage', the most common images of Africa still depict internecine warfare (in Angola, Liberia, Somalia), pogroms in Rwanda, political violence in Sierra Leone and ethnic conflicts in Kenya and elsewhere in Africa. In contrast, says Okigho, the 'many positive developments' are routinely ignored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A limited review that I made of wire service copy from the main international news agencies during the week of 13-20 May 1996, produced findings that seemed to echo some of these complaints. In this period, hard news stories were concentrated on a handful of the 50 plus countries of Africa; Burundi, the Central African Republic (C.A.R.), Egypt, Liberia, Somalia, Sudan and South Africa - together with stories of alleged financial irregularities in the World Health Organisation in Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Copy about Burundi dealt with ethnic violence and attacks inside Zaire   on Burundi by Hutu 'rebels'. Reports from the C.A.R. focused on an army mutiny, street battles and looting, but were angled on the mediating role of French troops (the C.A.R is a former French colony) and the fate of 100 Americans trapped in the capital, Bangui. Egypt was featured after its government accused Sudan of harbouring a 'vipers' nest of terrorists'. Out of Liberia came a torrent of wire copy about fighting in Monrovia along with assorted atrocity stories, but pinning the emphasis on the plight of foreign nationals (especially Britons and Americans) and the role being played by the USS Guam in air-lifting them to safety. Somalia rated a mention because of the release of two foreign aid workers (British and German) held by an unidentified 'rebel faction'. On South Africa, the wire services were fixed on further violence and killings in KwaZuluNatal, the result of ongoing struggles between rival supporters of the A.N.C and the Inkatha Freedom Party.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'agenda for Africa' sent out by the wire agencies, was replicated by  the menu offered by Reuters TV and APTV. For instance, on one day during the study period, the former was offering ten picture feeds; only one was from Africa (on the C.A.R.) while the rest included such compelling visuals as the British Queen's visit to the Chelsea Flower Show. For the fifteen picture feeds being touted by the APTV on a single day, one featured Africa ('news pictures to offer on the airlift by US marines'), which competed for the attention of western news rooms alongside visuals of a US woman who collected hubcaps (140 000 of them, no less!), Hugh Grant arriving by boat at the Cannes Film Festival, footage of the Monaco Grand Prix and a 'fun run' in Sarajevo (whether or not pictures are available, the idea of a 'fun-run' in Bosnia still seems a difficult concept to grasp) But what these studies show is not the whole picture about Africa which circulates in the West. Nor should they necessarily be used to support the usual criticisms about the performance of the western media in relation to the continent. In the first place, not all news  out of Africa fits into the syndrome the critics complain about. For example, a great deal of the coverage of South Africa has been 'positive' (if we trace the reporting of that country's transition to majority rule). So, too, have the moves towards multi-party politics in African states like Zimbabwe. Similarly, there is plenty of reporting of Africa's sporting successes (such as South Africa's Rugby World Cup triumph). Nor is the West unaware of the work of certain African musicians and film makers - indeed, it has been influenced by them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And even if 'positive' coverage is sometimes hard to find, the critics may still be missing some key points. The first is to do with western 'news values' or rather a failure to appreciate how they work - whether in relation to Africa or anywhere else. The staple diet of much of the global news flow is about 'bad news' and, in this respect, Africa prob  ably fares no worse or better than other parts of the developing world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, a more 'systematic' reporting of much of Africa is still difficult. My point here is about a lack of efficient and developed communication infrastructures, but also a reluctance by many African leaders to tolerate - let alone actively encourage - free and honest open reporting. Too many African journalists have been, and are being, harassed, imprisoned or killed by their own governments. Much of the media in Africa - especially the broadcast media - remains under state control. Newspapers that show a 'lack respect' for the ruling party are frequently shut down. These realities help explain why some of the maligned western media are turned to by those Africans who want something more than state propaganda from their newspapers or broadcasters. This is why the BBC World Service has come to enjoy such a high reputation in many parts of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Third, the attempts made by the African states to try and take on western dominance of global news and information flows, have been misjudged. Two failed initiatives in particular are worth mentioning in this context; the launch in 1983 of the Pan African News Agency (PANA) and the long-time obsession with setting up a 'New World Information Order' (NWIO).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the start, PANA has been dogged by financial and management problems. African governments owe $18 million, journalists have gone unpaid, lines have been disconnected and in 1992 a UNESCO-funded audit found evidence of financial mismanagement. The main source of information PANA traded in was material from the domestic news agencies of OAU member states. Since most of these are state-controlled, the 'news' they were offering was never likely to attract many western users. To try and give PANA a new lease of life, UNESCO are backing a rescue package, which would allow for private investors to be shareholders along with state-owned African national news agencies. But the pro  posed partnership funding is unlikely to work, especially in one-party states where the ruling groups have always been suspicious of any media not under their direct ownership.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The NWIO project has chased even more impossible dreams. Any attempt fundamentally to change the global news order was always going to be beyond countries with severe national communication 'deficits'. Most African countries, with weak and undercapitalised information infrastructures were never in a position to take on the market leaders in the global news business. In pursuit of the NWIO idea, endless international conferences were held, declarations passed and ritual attacks made on ' western media dominance'. Nothing came of it all. If the sense of frustration which kept the concept alive was understandable, less easy to grasp was why African leaders focused on the NWIO idea, while their own grassroots communication systems remained impoverished and under-resourced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most recent attempt to develop 'top-down' communications facilities in parts of Africa comes with the attempts to push satellite-delivered payTV on the continent. Among the 'players' here are Multi-Choice (which will be offered to subscribers in over 30 countries in sub-Saharan Africa), Canal Horizons (targeted on North Africa and Francophone West Africa) and Panafnet (also aimed at buyers in Francophone West Africa). Because these enterprises are subscription-based there will be a clear bias in take-up towards upperincome groups; and - certainly in the case of Multi-Choice - the output will have a 'strong UK/USA programming flavour'. It is hard to see how these initiatives will ever meet the real news and information needs of the vast majority of African consumers, who have limited spending power and are often deprived of the most basic communication tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As Hans Dieter Klee (former Head of the Africa Service of Deutsche Welle) has rightly argued, what Africa urgently needs is large-scale international media aid to help strengthen its own media. This aid should not be targeted at projects designed somehow to allow Africa to 'compete' with Western media congLom&eacute;rates. It should, instead, be aimed at building up diverse, viable and professional local and national media enterprises in African countries themselves. In this, the EU can play a leading role, working through the links established under the Lom&eacute; Convention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robust national communication structures in Africa will not, of course, alter the balance of global media power. They will be able to do little to stop the international news agencies reporting Africa in the way they have done in the past. And it will be a long time before most Africans becomes travellers on the 'information superhighway', since this, in essence, is an extension of existing computer and telephonic communications, which the continent lacks. But a vigorous local and national media, Africa-wide, would be good for Africa and the best barrier for resisting outside media influences. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6.M.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">References</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Okigho: 'National Images in the Age of the Information Super Highway </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African Perspectives', African Media Review, vol. 9,1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R. Malik and K. Anderson: 'TV: The Global New Agenda Survey', intermedia, January-February 1992. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B. Hicks 'North of the Limpopo', Cable and Satellite Europe, April 1996. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A message of hope on the Burundi airwaves</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Parliament may seem an unlikely launch pad for a radio station, but two members of this elected body, who are committed to a free and fair press as one of the cornerstones of democracy, have set up Radio Espoir (Radio Hope) in Burundi with backing of the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Parliamentarians, Pierre Pradier (ERA-F) and Bernard Kouchner (PSE-F) are co-founders of Radio Espoir (Radio Umwizero, in Kirundi) which brings together a French association and a local Burundi radio station. Three expatriates are working on the Bujumbura-based project; an editor, a radio technician and an administrator. They have teamed up with local journalists who, for the moment, are providing their services free of charge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The station, which broadcasts in Kirundi, is targeted at an audience in the 15-25 age group. In a country with an 80% illiteracy rate, radio is the only way of reaching the population. 'The idea came to us in 1994, with Rwanda and Radio Libre des Mille Collines' says Pierre Pradier. 'If so much harm could be done with radio, then why equally could good not be achieved.' RLMC was the radio set up in July 1993 on the eve of the genocide in Rwanda. It became a mouthpiece  for the Akazu, a clan of Hutu extremists grouped around the then President's wife, Agathe Habyarimana, and it undermined the Arusha agreements by whipping up ethnic conflict in Rwanda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Pradier explains that Radio Hope journalists intentionally avoid speaking about Hutus and Tutsis. He also highlights the problems encountered in providing news coverage when local conditions are so difficult. As he points out; 'When you speak about the situation of a woman who has lost her husband in Burundi, you are talking politics.' Security considerations are important too while the MEP stresses that a proper analysis of events can only come with time: 'At the moment we are limited to reporting the facts. And it is only when the facts are verified that one can begin to interpret them.' The news items broadcast by the station rely on agency dispatches confirmed by a network of local people who call in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of such sensitivities and in an effort to find as much common ground as possible, the radio station gives music top billing. This has the added advantage of helping to attract listeners. It also offers general programmes on African roots, sport, culture and educational themes, in addition to its news items. It is currently broadcasting for six hours a day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pierre Pradier says he would like to see an end to the 'navel gazing' of Burundi's population. 'We want to show that peace is possible, by showing how it is progressing elsewhere: in Haiti, for example, where there is a legitimate President now, and amongst the Chiapas in Mexico.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But, like many fledgling stations, finding enough funds from donors to guarantee its future is a worry. The station's current ECHO grant runs out in September 1996. Indeed, the project, classified under emergency aid, was atypical for the humanitarian aid office. But Mr Pradier is hoping that continued support will come from one of the EU's budget lines. He believes that the Union is a particularly suitable donor because it tends to be less 'colonialistic' than some others. He also raises the possibility of seeking funds from private donors such as the Fondation de France. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking to the future of the station, Pierre Pradier argues that they cannot let the project 'drop' and hopes eventually to see it being handed over to local broadcasters, assuming 'they are people we can depend on'. The signs so far are encouraging. He would also like to see Radio Hope's programme content broadened to include game shows, with radios offered as prizes for the winners. As far as he is concerned, the more people who tune in, the better! _</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joint Assembly resolution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ACP/Ku Joint Assembly is pushing for EC institutions and Lom&eacute; signatories to be more supportive of media issues. A resolution on the role of communications media in the development and consolidation of democracy in ACP states. passed by the Assembly in March, contained the following points:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - freedom of expression and free communications and media are vital to the development of a democratic society;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - more ACP countries should give opposition parties access to the media' notably where this is controlled by the state;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - all candidates and political parties should be given access to the media in a 'balanced and fair manner'; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - laws which restrict press freedom and the electoral process should be repealed;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - any threat of physical attack against media organisations or their employees should be investigated by the authorities, with those responsible being brought to justice;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the media should be impartial, providing accurate information during elections, helping to educate the electorate, explaining the importance of elections, giving information on where, when and how to vote, and explaining the secret ballot;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - EU assistance for free and a fair elections - and a free media sector in ACP countries - should be increased. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Catholic radio in Southern Africa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Antonio Pacheco</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this abridged article, the author, who is a Portuguese journalist, gives details of two church-supported local radio projects in Southern Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the end of the 1980s, the Social Communication Department of IMBISA, the conference of Catholic bishops in Southern Africa (a kind of SADC for Roman Catholics) embarked on a local radio project. It had a two-pronged approach. First, it involved setting up a network of small community radio stations. The local population were involved, sharing responsibility for making programmes and broadcasting information and news about everyday life in the remotest places. In some cases, the programme content was retransmitted at a provincial or even national level. The second aspect was that it was supplemented by the creation of flexible and independent associations of journalists/presenters. They formed information agencies operating as a network to link up local radio stations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At that time, the main concern in Southern Africa was to rid South Africa of apartheid. There was also a desire to promote freedom of expression in Angola and Mozambique. Given that radio was (and still is) the most important means of communication in the region, the idea was to set up a regional network capable of overcoming all the constraints ranging from legal bans and restrictions on broadcasting to widespread illiteracy. The ultimate objective was to set up a Catholic radio station based in Swaziland. This project did not go ahead, however, because it was too expensive to finance and, above all, because it was dependent on the regional Catholic hierarchy. It proved difficult to reconcile the various ideological views and sensitivities of bishops in the various countries of the region. There was also a growing feeling amongst the Christian communities that the underlying need was not for a radio station which would be a vehicle for bishops' views, but rather a media system that served the people, offering recreation, training and information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio Pax</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another local radio project of interest, which is now up and running, involved reviving Radio Pax, the private Catholic radio station which made a significant contribution during the 1 960s to the struggle for a free Mozambique. The operation closed down in 1977 but the experience was not forgotten and 16 years later, the decision was made to bring the station back on air. Those behind the new project took advantage of the trend towards greater political openness in the country. Their aim was to offer a credible and informative alternative, which, they hoped, would be up and running in time for the elections scheduled for October 1994. A course was run between July and September 1994 which brought together young presenters chosen by small communities on the outskirts of Beira, Chimoio, Nampula, Quelimane and Maputo. The course involved honing the participants' presentation skills and providing practical training in technical subjects, and programme and information preparation. This was how the first association of young independent Christian journalists came into being.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For various reasons, including red-tape and customs regulations, the  new Radio Pax was unable to broadcast in the run-up to the general election. However, the young journalists, who received their training at various locations, were able to act as important independent sources of information. This was channelled to Maputo and used as backup for a number of international press officials and observers. The information relayed by the young presenters in the provinces made it possible to publish a newsletter which was circulated throughout the country, using fax, religious channels and a variety of other means.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio Pax is now in operation, although it faces major technical problems. It is based in a community centre in Inhamizua, 20 km from Beira. The station has already done important work in gathering information about local traditions, and has broadcast programmes aimed particularly at women and young people in suburban areas. The network also incorporates Mozambique's Radio Encontro, which broadcasts from Nampula in conjunction with the Anchilo training centre. There are plans for further local radio stations in Maputo in the south, Quelimane and Chimolo in the centre and Pemba in the north.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio Pax is managed entirely by the Association of Independent Young Christian Journalists in Beira. In terms of training, the current preoccupation is to teach the young people involved how to manage the small radio stations which have been made available to them, and to set up local self financing systems. Although equipment is important, what really counts in this project is the training of the presenters. Working in close collaboration with the community, it is they who are in the front linepromoting the inalienable right of free expression.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Voice of the Disabled in Chad!</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Mand Rya&iuml;ra Ngarara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Support Group for the Disabled in Chad (AEHPT) was set up in 1987 with the assistance of the International Christian Service for Peace (EIRENE), which has its headquarters in Germany. By coming together to form a group, disabled people hoped to take charge of their lives and break down the wall of silence that surrounds them. However, despite setting up various workshops (welding workshops, small printing works, musical groups) and publishing an information newsletter, entitled 'Perspectives'. the AEHPT has been unable to improve the image of disabled people within Chad society and has failed to  raise awareness that the work done by the disabled is not only of value, but deserves due recognition. From this status quo sprang the idea of broadcasting a national weekly radio programme called 'The Voice of the Disabled'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are two reasons why radio was chosen as the communication medium: firstly, the very strong oral tradition of the country, together with the population's weak purchasing power, which make access to newspapers difficult, means that radio remains the most appropriate medium for reaching a wide audience; and secondly, radio programmes are not difficult to produce, since they do not require vast technical, financial or human resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Letting the disabled have their say</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially launched by the AEHPT, The Voice of the Disabled is now jointly produced and broadcast by four associations actively involved in defending the interests of those with disabilities. It is broadcast nationwide every Monday at peak listening times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The programme is not, however, aimed solely at those with disabilities but, on the contrary, seeks to increase awareness in Chad society as a whole. It also acts as a platform from which to urge the authorities to take concrete measures to help this section of the population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, more than a year after its launch, The Voice of the Disabled is enjoying tremendous success, with ever larger numbers of people, from all walks of life, tuning in. For the disabled themselves it provides a vast source of information, explaining the facts behind the causes of their disabilities and giving advice on how to prevent such disabilities and what can be done to treat them, and it keeps people informed about  what is happening within the various associations for the disabled, giving information about the activities, projects and special events that are taking place. As far as the rest of the population is concerned, The Voice of the Disabled has helped to raise the profile of disabled people in Chad. Slowly but surely, people's preconceptions are beginning to change and one of the programme's greatest achievements has been to eradicate gradually the negative image which people used to have of disabilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless, the lamentable fact remains that this programme is broadcast solely in French, and this is why plans are now in the pipeline to broadcast The Voice of the Disabled in both Arabic and Sara - Chad's two national languages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.R.N. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">TV documentaries and development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Africa Express experiment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Richard Synge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'Africa Express' documentory series mounted by Channel4, an independent British TV station, has done more than just put a new slant on news provided by state-run African channels. it has also created jobs for African producers and reporters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Television viewers in Africa will soon get the chance to see documentaries on African current affairs and development topics which have hitherto only been seen on British TV sets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Channel Four's Africa Express programme has recently concluded its third series to much critical acclaim in Britain. it included items on a surprisingly diverse range of topics. One film showed how a cash-strapped Congolese prison saves money by sending its prisoners home one day in every month, and included lively interviews with the governor and the prisoners themselves as well as footage of the grim prison conditions. Others focused on the flourishing free currency market in Zaire, the spread of South Africa's 'shebeen' culture into the country's upmarket suburbs, political battles in Namibia over the rights to manage historic tourist sites and the Nigerian military government's blatant attempts to censor television reporting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The latest series supplemented the work of British film crews by incorporating several documentaries that were made entirely by African production teams. Special funding for this element of the Africa Express project came from the environmental television distribution agency TVE. As a result, Africa Express hired four African directors and used African-based crews to film half of the 24 films in the series.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other innovative part of the project was that the programmes are now becoming available to viewers in Africa at the lowest possible cost. To promote this concept of 'media feedback', TVE has been actively marketing the series to non-governmental organisations and facilitating arrangements for the distribution of the cassettes to African broadcasting stations, both state-owned and private.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'It is a way forward for us, because nothing like this has been done before,' says Raphael Tuju, a Kenyan film producer who runs a video resource centre in Nairobi, marketing documentaries to local broadcasting stations and the educational sector. 'There are too few opportunities for producers in African countries to break into the international networks. The subjects we cover are rarely of interest to the distribution companies, the differences in technology are too wide and getting wider, and there are not enough African producers who have reached the professional level to compete with their counterparts abroad.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peter Gill, who edited Africa Express for Channel Four, welcomed the opportunity to help promote the independent film industry in Africa. 'It was thoroughly stimulating,' he says, adding that one of the constant challenges was 'finding ways to bridge the gap between what is technically possible in Africa and the standards required for a European television production.' The four African directors hired for the series were two South Africans, Eddie Mbalo and Teddy Mattera, a Zimbabwean, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Albert Chimedza, and a Namibian, Bridget Pickering. They all worked directly under Peter Gill's management and in contact with a producer in the field. Gill was impressed with the level of journalistic and technical expertise available in Africa and the dedication of the teams working in difficult situations. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Even where the production teams were British, all the 24 films in the latest Africa Express series used African journalists and presenters. They researched and organised most of the films in advance of the actual shoot by the visiting film crews. Cameroonian journalist, Emmanual Wotany, played a prominent role in the films on Congo and Zaire. Kenyan reporter Joseph Warungu proposed and presented a film on the hazards of skin-bleaching in The Gambia. The presenter of the programme on Nigeria, Toyin Fane-Kayode, bravely challenged the censorship of the country's military regime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An all-African camera and sound team led by Lawrence Mbada and Mandla Mlambo was responsible for the four films in the series that were shot by the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC). In the extremely difficult conditions of Angola and Namibia, an experienced SABC cameraman was used. Here there was a need to ensure that the less experienced directors were not further challenged by having to work with an inexperienced crew.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For TVE's Robert Lamb, one of the main breakthroughs made by Africa Express was in the agreement of Channel Four to collaborate both with the SABC and with TVE itself, which insisted on the involvement and participation of African journalists, film-makers and technicians. He was impressed by the results and hopes that thee could be 'an even greater African involvement in another series, if one is commissioned.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The latest series was a success, being regularly watched by up to two million viewers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Channel Four granted broadcasting rights for the series in lowincome countries to TVE and Worldview International Foundation as well as the non-broadcast rights to TVE and its partners in the third world. These   agreements allow TVE to provide the tapes at nominal cost to a network of video resource centres, similar to that run by Raphael Tuju in Nairobi. Such centres seek to get development-oriented documentary films shown by the local broadcasting stations but survive by supplying the needs of schools, colleges, non-governmental organisations and other categories of 'multipliers'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most successful documentary centres is the Film Resource Unit (FRU) in Johannesburg. From its origins as a way of sharing bootlegged foreign films and TV programmes during the political repression of the 1980s, FRU is now a major distributor of educational and documentary films.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To overcome the inexperience of state-owned African broadcasting networks in showing programmes of developmental relevance to their societies, video resource centres have to provide their own sponsorship. 'It is difficult for us to compete with the likes of Coca Cola, which will sponsor programmes like soap operas,' says Raphael Tuju, 'but one way round this obstacle is to sponsor a programme and at the same time advertise our services. The business we generate this way usually means that we can at least break even.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Film-making capacity in Africa has been severely limited by most governments' domination of the broadcasting media and a deep and institutional reluctance to encourage independent local productions. The mainly government-owned television stations rarely have a policy to buy in locallymade programmes and tend to look to Britain, France or the US for outside material, which is often dumped on the market at low prices, making it an even harder challenge for local producers to generate the funds to make their own programmes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decline of the once-active film industry in Nigeria, in particular, means that in English-speaking Africa, the field is now dominated by South Africa and Zimbabwe. In French-speaking Africa, the continuation of subsidies  has kept an 'art house' tradition alive, especially in Senegal and Burkina Faso. In most of the continent, however, the only development-oriented programmes shown to the public tend to be made by the governments' own propaganda departments rather than by independent film-makers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where there is a lack of access  to local broadcasting media, African film-makers continue to experiment with making their own dramas and documentaries, showing their work on video in village halls and schools. 'At the grassroots, African film-making can be stimulated simply by consumer demand,' says Russel Honeyman, who publishes the African Film and TV Yearbook in Harare. 'But local products do not usually translate into international products. Film and television is a global industry and film-makers should not insist on being too parochial. There is room for greater international collaboration.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Based on the experience of the latest Africa Express series, TVE now plans to build on its achievements. In May 1996, it exhibited the series to the directors of African television stations at a conference in Windhoek, Namibia, and discussed arrangements for distribution of the cassettes. It is also planning to  participate in a workshop for French speaking West African nations in Senegal under a grant from the European Union's human rights division. The consultative process will continue with a meeting of the African video resource centre network at the end of 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TVE's Robert Lamb hopes that the success of Africa Express might encourage international funding agencies in Europe to take up the challenge of funding films made in Africa for African consumption. He doubts that Channel Four on its own would take such a risk. Constraints are, perhaps inevitably, imposed on TVE's concept by the fact that programmes produced for European audiences use a production and editorial structure that requires 'post production' in European capitals. 'Although we came out owning the rights to the programmes in Africa, Channel Four still had 80% of the control over the production and editorial decisions,' he acknowledges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Robert Lamb is fully aware of the challenges that lie ahead. 'National broadcasters are in a parlous financial position and are still, for the most part, stifled by government controls,' he notes. 'Africans who have received formal training rarely find the funds to apply their newly-acquired skills.' But Mr Lamb and his TVE organisation are convinced that there will be increasing demand for more programmes like Africa Express, as much from Africa itself as from European audiences. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.S. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Internet and the South</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Renaud de la Brosse</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, who works at the Panos Institute in Paris, reflects on the pros and cons of new information technology for countries in the South and on their chances of success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Internet has become such a craze amongst users in Third-World countries (researchers, teachers, businesses,, liberal professions, etc.) that it amply demonstrates that a real and genuine need is being met, despite adverse comments from its detractors. The rapid increase in the number of connections to the network in the North is mirrored by an exponential growth in the South. Africa is a good example of the possibilities offered by access to the global network whilst at the same time revealing the technical and financial restrictions facing countries in the South.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Almost all of Africa's 55 countries are today connected to the network, from South Africa, which has over 800.000 computers, to Uganda, which has just a few thousand. The importance of the Internet in Africa must be viewed less in terms of the number of computers (means of access to the Internet) and more in terms of the constant increase it represents in numbers of subscribers to the network. In the last six months alone, the number of subscribers increased by over 50%, whilst the increase in France, for example, was only 20%. Another telling figure is the number of host computers per 1.000 inhabitants, which rose by 147% in South Africa between 1994 and 1995 whereas the increase for Taiwan and Australia was 83% and 50%, respectively!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because it is under-supplied in communications equipment, Africa is starting out with a disadvantage compared with other continents. However, the recent G7 Conference on Information and Development, which took place in mid-May in Midrand in South Africa, brought together 40 countries and 18 intergovernmental organizations and made it possible 'to build a bridge between developed countries and developing countries' so that the latter are not excluded from the world of new information technologies. The benefit to be gained from the Net for the Black Continent lies in the fact that African surfers are anxious to break free  from their scientific, cultural or economic isolation which comes not only from relationships between Africa and the rest of the world, but often from relationships between regions and countries on the African continent itself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Precursors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As in Europe and the United States, scientists and researchers in Africa are the first to have understood the importance of the Net and there are now - in French speaking Africa - networks such as the Intertropical Computer Network, which groups together approximately 3000 surfers in 11 countries. The importance of the Internet for these researchers is manifold; in most countries, the education system is in grave crisis, essentially because of diminishing budget resources which for years, on account of structural adjustment measures, have been melting away. This explains the absence of libraries or documentation centres. The Internet is therefore becoming a stopgap measure, offering access to all current scientific production and giving African researchers the chance to publicise and gain recognition for their work outside their own continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interesting experiments in North/South cooperation are also being set up, with the French-speaking Agency for Higher Education and Research currently establishing what it calls a 'virtual French-speaking campus', a kind of vast library to which affiliated universities will be connected. The project is also justified in economic terms since, through the medium of electronic mail (e-mail), which goes hand in hand with the Internet, exchanges of information will be cheaper than by fax, for example, which costs at least five times as much for the same amount of information transmitted. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Outside the academic community, heads of African businesses are also launching themselves into cyberspace, particularly in the case of several hundred of them who have grouped together within a West-African Business Network. Internet's financial viability in the South is dependent on membership of African businesses and multinational companies established in Africa. The cost of subscription is still beyond the means of private individuals and only 'institutional' subscribers are currently able to guarantee payment in the short term.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A useful tool</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the possibilities on offer remain to be explored, so the Internet can therefore be an important medium for promoting African culture - Niger has set up a Web via which it is possible to visit its archaeological sites and Benin has just set up a server dedicated to voodoo. In general terms, there is the challenge of mastering content, in other words the African suffers should not restrict themselves to a  passive use (sleeking information from the North) but should, on the contrary, move progressively as players providing content and information. For the countries of the South, it is a matter of mastering information and preserving their culture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The range of possibilities offered by the Net is limitless. Its development in Africa or in the South in general does, however, run up against a number of obstacles, including those of both a technical and financial nature. The importance of the Internet lies in being able to transmit greater quantities of information more cheaply than by using other communications techniques. However, the required technology is expensive and therein lies the principal difference between the North and the South.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The infrastructure which would permit rapid, longterm expansion of the Internet is nowhere near being installed in Africa, just as in the other developing countries. The continent is still under-equipped in terms of telephone lines; according to a survey by the BDT (Telecommunications Development Office), the number of main telephone lines per 100 inhabitants is less than 0.5 in sub-Saharan Africa, and in terms of equipment providing access to the Net (computer, modem, etc.). In real terms, this makes access to the network much more expensive for a user in the South than for one in the North. All these imported electronic goods are much more expensive than in the West, and this is without taking account of the additional cost, in most African countries, imposed by tariff barriers on IT goods, which are regarded with great suspicion by the authorities who perceive them as a potential danger more than as essential development tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fear is that the remote transmission of data might pose a threat to less than democratic regimes. Under the pretext of 'the control of information-based wealth', a State may decide to interfere with the 'consent' or even 'suppress' a site for producing and exchanging information deemed contrary to its interests. Once more, the question of freedom of expression arises in different terms in the South and North. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Panos Institute</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Panos Institute is a non-profit-making association set up in 1988. Together with its counterparts in London and Washington, the Paris Panos Institute founded Panos International The Institute's aim is to strengthen, particularly in Africa, local expression and information capabilities. Within the context of sustainable and  better-shared development, it aims to promote the emergence of a more democratic culture and of more democratic debate. To this end, the Panos Institute runs two main programmes in west Africa from Paris and its branch offices (Senegal, Mali, Chad and Ghana).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The programme to support pluralism in matters of information, which has four major objectives: - to expand and consolidate the legal, institutional and statutory framework of pluralist-type information - to increase professionalism in the media - to give institutional support to authors in west Africa who promote pluralism in information - to contribute to the production and circulation of more diversified and more qualified information on certain priority topics such as the environment, human rights, management and prevention of conflict, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The migration and cooperation programme seeks to enhance the value of the contribution made by citizens from Third World countries residing in the rich nations to development in their countries of origin. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union, UNESCO and the ACCT, American foundations (Ford, Rockefeller) or German foundations, and bilateral cooperation agreements (Denmark, Netherlands, Norway, Germany, France) support the actions of the Panos Institute. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The press in Africa as a tool in the democratic  process</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Florence Win&eacute;ry</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although radio is 'king of the media' in Africa, the press is increasingly becoming an active player in the democratic process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This has been seen particularly over the last six years in the French-speaking African states where a burgeoning of political parties has been matched by the appearance of an unusually large number of  newspapers. In these countries, the press still requires rudimentary political stability - in contrast to English-speaking countries, where it has a much longer tradition and can nowadays be generally regarded as the 'Fourth Estate'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria is a good illustration of this. One need only cite the press campaigns mounted there to protest against the Federation's membership of the Islamic Conference Organisation in 1986, and more recently, the support given to Moshood Abiola. The vitality of the Nigerian press is something that deserves to be emphasised. Despite a series of measures over the years aimed at suppressing it (not exclusively by the military authorities) it is still much in evidence. There are demonstrations to support it, and it has 'gone underground' at times, continuing to publish clandestinely. The journalists' struggle intensified in June 1993, when it was recommended that they should exercise 'discretion and self-regulation'. In spite of the problems, the Nigerian press endeavours to remain a source of pressure in Nigeria's political and social arena.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Returning to the French-speaking media, we see that the pace of expansion varies considerably from one country to another. In Benin, for example, current discussions are centred  strongly on opening up the country's airwaves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Is a private press a partisan press?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is debatable whether the private press is truly independent. In the political sphere, it is often highly partisan while 'economic' independence - in the sense of access to the materials needed to produce a newspaper - is not always possible. Printing and distribution are often subject to monopolies which may constitute a form of disguised censorship for the publishers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initiatives aimed at setting up press associations in one form or another have been launched in an attempt to overcome these problems. This helps explain why the SEP (publishers' Society) was established. This group, which hopes to extend its activities throughout the region, is based in Benin where the democratisation process (and the proliferation of press titles) first begun. In many countries, media associations have already been formed covering specific areas such as radio, the press and publishing. There are plans for similar organisations in the field of television. Sometimes, they have printing facilities which are available to other private publications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The principal challenge facing a general information-based newspaper is that it should appear regularly and on time. The next stage, ideally, is for it to be able to increase its distribution. Initially, a number of newspapers only came out monthly or even every two months. After appearing regularly for several months - and thereby achieving  relative financial stability - they then moved to weekly publication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most countries, a new legal framework was also adopted, although the application of the legislation has often proved laborious. This is particularly true of the setting up of regulatory authorities. In Senegal, where the media was previously governed by a law passed in 1979 (and amended in 1986), new legislation was enacted at the beginning of 1996. The measure was prompted by concerns over ethical standards, a demand for a more 'responsible' approach, a desire to prevent monopolies developing, and fears of excessive foreign involvement. This year has also seen the implementation of media law amendments in Cote d'lvoire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The focus of the work of many newly-formed organisations has been the drawing up of a professional code of ethics, with a view to defining the basis of the journalist's profession. In Cote d'lvoire, the OLPED (Press Freedom and Professional Ethics Monitor) was created in September 1995 in Yamoussoukro at a seminar on journalists' responsibilities during elections. The OLPED is made up of 13 members representing publishers, civil society and the nation's journalists. Although the 'Monitor' has only moral authority, it has had considerable influence on journalists' professional consciences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The OLPED held weekly working sessions up to March 1996 and now meets every two months. One of its main achievements has been to define the criteria whereby a responsible attitude can be guaranteed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vigilance</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The press can expect to be subject to rigorous supervision during an election campaign - as happened recently in Benin. Indeed, Benin's press has attracted special attention from various national institutions including, most notably, the NGO community. This interest resulted In the organisation of seminars on journalism during an election period, designed to avoid incitements to violence. The HAAC (Audi  ovisual and Communications High Authority), responsible for statutory control of the media in the run-up to and during the campaign, took part in these meetings which were aimed at increasing awareness and highlighting the heavy responsibility carried by the media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite a number of incidents during the campaign (which were immediately reported) and although the situation threatened to get out of hand while the country was obliged to wait for the publication of the results of the second round, the press conducted itself in a fairly moderate manner. It should be recalled that there was a great deal of apprehension in Benin before the results were announced with a widespread fear that violence might break out. These fears were given extensive coverage by the media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The HAAC proved to be central to the electoral process and, ultimately, the press was congratulated by most political leaders in Benin, and by those from abroad who were involved in organising and observing the poll, for the role that it played in the process. By and large, it concentrated on portraying popular expectations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During an election period, the print media is an essential vehicle of opinion and power, justifying the creation of special titles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, the private press is playing an increasingly important role in the democratic process and the question of its survival appears to have attracted more serious attention from the authorities. In Senegal, a subsidy has been granted to a number of newspapers, subject to certain conditions, and Mali set an example this year by establishing a private press aid fund, with Cote d'lvoire about to follow suit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The political context which has favoured this flourishing of the private press has had a marked influence on the way it has developed and on the editorial content of most journals - which is strongly focused on politics and 'national' issues. The press has barely had a chance to find its feet on the media scene and in the political process, and it has had to contend with huge  economic constraints. Low circulation figures are one key reason for its precarious position - newspapers are read only by an educated, urban minority. However, the press is now embarking on a new course, attempting to establish a loyal readership with a view to guaranteeing its long-term survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Independence and integrity ought, of course, to be the hallmark of journalism, although currently it is not  possible to say that the profession is dissociated entirely from political militancy. In the past, the press has played  a part in undermining the national consensus by promoting division and, on occasion, fomenting exclusion and confrontation. The issue today is whether the sector can now take its place in states governed by the rule of law, representing public opinion and helping to bring about a rapprochement of ideas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.M. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Benin's press on parole?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Richard Lawson T&egrave;vi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When President Mathieu K&eacute;rekou of Benin granted permission to set up private newspapers in his country, the result was an upsurge of new titles. The following article is written by a journalist who works on  one of these publications ('Tam-Tam Express'). He offers an assessment of the way the private press has developed in Benin, and in particular of the ethical and economic challenges it needs to overcome in the new democratic order.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1988, President K&eacute;r&eacute;kou's revolutionary regime authorised the setting-up of private newspapers in Benin. At the beginning, only a limited degree of freedom was granted to new publications but things have evolved quickly. 'La Gazette du Golfe' and 'Tam-Tam Express', the first independent weeklies to be set up (two years prior to the 1990 national conference), went beyond what the Marxist regime had in mind and effectively achieved press freedom in the face of opposition from the Ministry of Information and Propaganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalists took advantage of their initial limited freedom to publish reports about political and financial scandals and this, not surprisingly, gave a new lease of life to the media more generally in Benin. In particular, journalists from the national radio and television  channels were quick to switch their style of reporting, dispensing with the stereotyped formal language which had previously characterised the public-service media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meanwhile, several politically oriented publications came into being ('L'Opinion', 'La Recade', 'Le Canard du Golfe'). This development gave newfound dynamism to the emergence of a free and independent press in the crucial period prior to Benin's national conference, which was held in February 1990.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To date, 170 titles have been registered with the Ministry of the Interior, although barely half of these have been published more than five times. Some appeared only once and many have existed in name only. Publications which have had only a sporadic existence are legion and, in the years between 1991 and 1996, when political power alternated between Presidents Soglo and Kerekou, independent privatepress titles flourished. Unfortunately, they faced a number of problems - such as prohibitive paper and printing costs and poor distribution networks. The result was that many operators were financially ruined as a result of their decision to venture into this area of publication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currently, the Benin market has only 20 or so titles which appear on a   reasonably regular basis. For the most part, these are two-weekly and monthly publications which concentrate their activities in Cotonou. The audiovisual media are conspicuous by their absence, despite the provisions of the Constitution adopted in December 1990, which gave special powers to the HAAC (Audiovisual and Communications High Authority), particularly as regards guaranteeing 'press freedom' and 'opening up the audiovisual sector'. No one knows when this law will actually be implemented, but it does appear that the Benin Parliament, which sits in Porto Novo, has been giving more attention to this issue since General K&eacute;r&eacute;kou's accession to power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The relationship between the press and the state</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governmen/press relationships are not particularly healthy at the moment. The usual reflex of authorities in any country is to control or manipulate the press wherever possible. At the ORTB (Benin Broadcasting and Television Office), a branch of the public sector, journalists often complain of the pressures they face in processing information. The same is said at the national daily, 'La Nation'. Fortunately, such pressures have not always shaken the resolve of the professional journalists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The private press has a different problem. In this case, it is the newspaper proprietors who look to collaborate with the political parties. As one publishing editor has said, 'Our problem is more one of allegiance than of harassment'. Virtually all publications are political vehicles for one or other group - which makes nonsense of the code of ethics that is supposed to govern the profession. This phenomenon was most marked during the election period. All the titles that had been in 'hibernation' came to life again and new titles were born, only to disappear once the poll was over. This is also a reflection of the very meagre resources available to most private publishers. Those who do have sufficient means are usually quick to offer allegiance - for example to particular businesses - in order to position themselves more favourably from an economic  standpoint. Thus, some of the press rather overtly promotes particular economic interests. Others assiduously woo politicians and, in some cases, use blatant blackmailing techniques. In the latter situation, the 'market' operates on the basis that a file (sometimes assembled from a number of documents) will not be published if an endorsement is given or - what is worse - in return for hard cash. The justification for this shameful practice is that the market is highly restricted, sales of newspapers bring in very little income and advertising is non-existent but the newspaper has to keep going nonetheless. This situation also explains why defamation actions are frequently settled 'out of court' by the parties to the dispute.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A profession fraught with difficulties</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another explanation for the existence of blackmail is the lack of training. The majority of journalists working for private publications come into the profession for want of something better to do, after they have finished their university courses. One experienced journalist refers to these people as mere 'hirelings'. It is only once they have entered the profession that they learn the basics through joining journalists' associations and by receiving support from some of the bilateral-cooperation missions and foundations that are operating in Benin. The country does not, itself, have any colleges of journalism to speak of. Only recently, the national daily newspaper inaugurated a course for young journalists receiving their training on the country's various publications. This course will be spread over one year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Young journalists working at the national agency, the Benin Press Agency, are trained by WANAD (the West-African National Agencies Development) centre, under the auspices of UNESCO, which is subregional in vocation. The 20 or so trainees have no clear idea of what awaits them when they finish their course - whether all, or just some of them, will be taken on full-time by the agency. Those who are not kept on at the end of their training period are likely to  swell the ranks of the 'hirelings' - who seem fated to remain at that level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new administration will have to tackle the more general question of aid to the press in order to give a fresh boost to the private sector. This has been facing a real struggle since the devaluation of the CFA franc. The effect of the devaluation was to increase the cost of all the inputs needed for publishing newspapers. A new initiative of the part of the authorities would make it possible to offer more work to journalists and to improve considerably the quality of work they produce. To quote the publisher of a private newspaper: 'The influence of money must be curbed. To do this, the state must grant genuine aid to the press so that the profession can be genuinely free and objective and thereby fulfil the important role it has to play in the consolidation of democracy'. R.L.T. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Current media in the English-speaking Caribbean</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Dr Marjan de Bruin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this abridged article, who leaches et the Caribbean institute of Media and Communication (CARIMAC) at the Mona (Jamaica) Campus of the University of the West Indies, focuses on some of the peculiarities of press and media development in small island Caribbean states.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The English-speaking</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean comprises thirteen independent nations that are members of Caricom (the Caribbean Community) and a few  remaining small dependent territories. The total population is about six million. In most of these countries, the majority of the population is of African descent although in Trinidad and Guyana, about half the people are of Asian (Indian) origin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sea, whose name unites the islands, is a serious barrier to communication and social interchange between them. it takes as long to go by plane from Barbados to Jamaica (1200 miles direct, but 2000 miles via Miami) as it takes to cross the Atlantic from Paris to New York (3600 miles) - and the latter journey is usually cheaper! And until fairly recently, telephone calls from neighbouring Caribbean countries without a common language were routed through London, Paris or Miami.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The distances make communications difficult. Mail can take weeks, telephone circuits are often overloaded and, in some countries, unscheduled power cuts often disrupt computer systems at the most inopportune moments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Communication and the media</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Caribbean has a strong oral tradition. This, together with poverty and an estimated general literacy rate of about 80%, makes radio the most popular medium. Recent studies show,  for instance, that 99% of Jamaican households reported having at least one radio at home. In Jamaica alone, three large national radio stations between them broadcast nine hours of prime time call-in radio.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In all Caribbean countries, alongside the mass media, 'alternative' medias play an important role in communication for social change. In some countries, the term simply connotes non mainstream operations. In others it refers to alternative formats which are found in the mainstream media. The term also represents the use of other communication behaviour - popular theatre, dance, music, oral history, story telling. It has been suggested that the increased use of alternative media and alternative uses of mainstream media are an indication of the audience's dissatisfaction with the mainstream mass media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most English-speaking Caribbean countries, the government owns some of the major mass media, especially electronic. Only recently has the private sector developed its own strongholds in radio and television. Print has always been an area of mainly private ownership. Only the larger countries have daily newspapers; morning or evening papers - although usually not more than two or three. In the smaller countries the press consists of weeklies, or bi-weeklies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government ownership</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ownership or control of media houses by governments is recognised as  a serious obstacle to true investigative journalism.The economies of all Caribbean countries are heavily dependent on tourism. Stories on environmental hazards and crises which might affect this essential source of income are subject to explicit or implicit (selfl censorship.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government ownership in some instances means policy discontinuity over time; each new regime imports its own set of administrators and sometimes even entire newsroom staffs. In other instances, where the same party has ruled for a long time, positions within the media are very stable because they are tied to political loyalty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Private ownership, however, does not mean an absence of potential pressure or political influences. In Trinidad &amp; Tobago, the country's oldest daily - The Trinidad Guardian - recently lost its Managing Director, its editor and six of its top editorial executives, after the owners - a supermarket chain - pressurised the editor to moderate criticisms of the country's new administration. The owners also tried to convince the managing director and editor to dismiss a columnist who was a disaffected and now hostile former member of the new ruling party. In apparent justification, the owners produced a document which suggested that it was the policy of the Guardian not to endanger the commercial prospects of its owners by injudicious criticism of the powers that be. Caribbean journalists attacked the Guardian ownership for what some saw as an attempt to turn a respected newspaper into the public relations arm of a commercial congLom&eacute;rate. Despite the protests, the Guardian's new editor, a veteran of forty years in journalism, argued that the proprietors had good reason to interfere with his predecessors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The region's oldest daily, The Jamaica Gleaner (established in 1834) went even further. In an editorial it said: 'In our view the owners have a right to oppose the way in which the judgment of the Editor and others is exercised. The right of the Guardian Board to query content cannot be questioned. It is impossible for a newspaper to be run   without the input of the Board of Governors.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small markets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most English-speaking Caribbean countries are relatively small in population as well as area. The number of media organizations is limited. The limited size of the market has important implications for the financial basis of the media, especially the part that is privately-owned. It limits the horizontal mobility of media workers - there are simply not that many options - and it makes the relationship between media and sources extremely vulnerable. There are not that many sources either. It also means that most Caribbean media houses have very limited resources. Many reporters have to cover a wide range of topics. Specialised reporting for instance on the environment, or health, is usually not feasible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the major problems in the Caribbean media is the high proportion of imported television programming. The region is geographically close to the United States and satellite broad  casting makes access to the Northern networks even easier. In the ten years from 1976 to 1986, the imported content of four large television stations in the region moved from an average of 78.5% to 87%. When the amount of imported content carried by the smaller stations was included, the average increased to 90% of all material televised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Privatisation and new technologies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several of the larger Caribbean countries have seen an explosive growth in the electronic media. Jamaica, which has a population of about 2.5 million living in some 620 000 households, and per capita GDP of $1563, has seen the number of radio stations grow from three to nine and TV stations from one two, in a period of just five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trinidad &amp; Tobago, with 1.2 million inhabitants in 300 000 households, and per capita GDP of $4049, went through a similar process, with seven new radio stations and two new, privately-owned TV stations being set up over the last five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Barbados, with a population of 260000 living in about 50000 households has long supported two daily newspapers. There are also two TV stations on the island, while viewers can receive television signals from neighbouring islands. This country has the highest per capita GDP in the region ($5562) after The Bahamas ($10,308).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One positive effect of this intensive growth is certainly to be found in the increased employment opportunities for broadcasters. In the past, journalists risked their careers if they disagreed with their employers. Now people have more options. However, increased competition in a relatively small market also enlarges the risk of commercialisation and a lowering of standards. One does not need to undertake in-depth research to discover that locally-produced television is scarce and not always of the highest standard. It is cheaper to buy foreign programming than to produce original content. Some   of the graduates of the Caribbean Institute of Media and Communication, who performed above average during their training and education in print journalism, can be seen sliding down the standards scale once they enter the mass media as working journalists. Similarly, the standards of newsrooms are not always high. In fairness to the professionals, it must be said that the decline in standards is partly due to the lack of resources in editorial departments. The major newsrooms in radio and television in Jamaica, still depend on typewriters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development of new technologies has contributed to two almost opposite movements. On the one hand, greater access to worldwide networks has widened horizons. On the other, the introduction of cable TV offers, at least in principle, the possibility for small-scale communication initiatives, such as community radio stations either for geographical communities or communities of interest (for example, people or groups interested in the environment).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Satellite dishes, VCRs and computers are breaking down traditional communication borders. In the Jamaican capital, Kingston, 28% of households have a dish and 21% a computer. The picture is very different just 20 miles away, in the neighbouring but rural parish of St Thomas, where the figures are just 1% and 2% respectively. New technologies are affordable for the happy few and are increasing the gap between the 'haves' and 'have-nots' of information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In all of these societies, computers sit uneasily in otherwise nondigital environments. The information that one works with is usually not computerised. Many records are still handwritten, with data kept on index cards. Computerisation is a costly process for which there is rarely a budget.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Once the hardware is available, it is easy to retrieve data from non Caribbean sources. At the same time, it is barely possible - at least at the moment - to tap into Caribbean data sources. There is no commercial Caribbean software. Page make-up and layout programmes, for instance, rely on  non-Caribbean electronic clip-art-images and symbols. It may simply be a matter of time before local products develop, but currently, the main constraints are to do with lack of funds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalism</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How is journalism faring in this environment ? The Caribbean context gives journalism a special professional profile. The small size of Caribbean societies has implications for the use of sources. Access is easier, but it also creates sharper dilemmas where loyalty is concerned: most sources are people you know personally and who know you. Anonymity is almost impossible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because the societies are so small, you will meet many of the same people in different roles on different occasions. The small scale of the market makes all enterprises in media and journalism very vulnerable to market forces: the withdrawal of one or two major advertisers would endanger the chances of survival of some media houses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The situation of the press is most marginal in the smaller countries. In Antigua (population 66000), radio and television are controlled either by the Government or by people with close links to those in power. One opposition paper, a trade union publication, has survived several legal assaults by the authorities over the years. The other, little more than a newsletter, has managed to survive into its second year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Grenada (population 91000), journalists complain about police harassment of reporters on duty, and in most of the smaller countries, journalists are uneasily aware of the continuing hostility of long-ruling political parties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The working environment of journalists in Caribbean media organisations is usually more modest compared to that of journalists in rich countries. There is less technology, smaller staffs and lower salaries. In the smaller Caribbean countries, it is not unusual for journalists to have to combine two jobs. Journalism alone cannot pay the bills.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a sharp difference between rich and poor in most developing countries. For large sections of the population, the big decisions will have nothing to do with buying a second or a third television set.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is more likely to be a simple matter of whether there is food on the table tonight. These different priorities obviously influence a journalist's agenda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In developing economies, this can create serious dilemmas for the journalists: if you know your story is likely to hurt the tourist industry - which happens to be the main national income earner of your country - will pursuing it be a waste of valuable time ? And how do you decide on the relevance of a scoop when people - some of whom are your friends - could lose their jobs ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.d.B.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Sources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hilary Brown (1995): American Media Impact on Jamaican Youth: The Cultural Dependency Thesis in 'Globalization, Communications and Caribbean identity', Edited by Hopeton S. Dunn, Kingston, Jamaica, lan Randle Publishers. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aggrey Brown and Roderick Sanatan !1987). Talking With Whom ? A Report a the State of the Media in the Caribbean. Caribbean Institute of Media and Communication (Carimac), Kingston, Jamaica. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aggrey Brown (1995). Caribbean Cultures and Mass Communication Technology: Re-examining the Cultural/ Dependency Thesis, in 'Globalization, Communications and Caribbean Identity'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Doctoring' the image</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With modern computer technology, it is now very easy for publishers (and film-makers) to dabble with reality. Whereas in the past, you could be reasonably sure that what you saw was a fair representation of what actually happened, today there is no such guarantee.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recently in the United Kingdom, one of the country's regional newspapers came in for criticism when it published a 'doctored' photograph of a well-known opposition politician. He was captured on  film at a social function sitting at a table with a glass of beer in front of him. By the time the paper's computer experts had finished with the photo, it looked as if he was drinking champagne ! When the story broke, the journal thought it expedient to issue an immediate apology. For while  this kind of misrepresentation may appear trivial, in the modern age, image is crucial for those who are involved in public life. Put simply, voters' are more likely to look kindly on beer-drinking politicians than on those whose favourite tipple is champagne.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was a similar case involving an advertisement issued by a well-known car manufacturer. For their publicity in Britain, the company used a landscape photo portraying a selection of their employees. In Poland, the same picture was used but black and Asian workers were no longer to be seen. Their places in the line-up were miraculously taken by people of Caucasian appearance. The advertisers' rather surprising explanation was that this had been a 'mistake'!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other recent victims of 'doctored' pictures or socalled 'photo collages' have included members of the European Parliament and a senior EC official, although these particular misrepresentations received very little publicity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Should consumers of printed or broadcast material be entitled to assume that images are never tampered with ? And if some doctoring is acceptable, where do you draw the line ? The answer to the first question is clearly no. There are certain situations where photo or film enhancement techniques are unobjectionable. We sometimes use them on The Courier cover pages to remove blemishes or fill in gaps which may detract from the main image. In fashion  advertising, it is common for the 'look' of the model to be altered. The aim here is to draw the reader's eye to the page so that their attention can then be focused on the product. More dramatic alterations may even be acceptable if it is evident to the reader that a change has been made. Satirical articles, for example, can sometimes be amusingly illustrated with obviously altered images.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Where the practice is reprehensible is where the picture has been changed in a way that leads the reader to draw false conclusions about what he or she is observing. The  classic example of this is where the image of a person captured in one setting is placed against a different backdrop, without the reader being informed. This may be done to give either a more positive or a more negative impression (the latter approach is more usual) but in either case, it is dishonest. If a politician allows himself to be photographed on a Caribbean beach while on mission at the taxpayers' expense, even if he was only there during the lunch break for a quick dip, then he can't really complain. But if the picture was actually taken when he was on holiday in Majorca, and superimposed against a more exotic back  ground, then both the 'victim' and the reader are being cheated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There will always be borderline cases, but in principle, it ought to be possible to draw a reasonably clear distinction between 'right' and 'wrong' in this area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nonetheless, it is likely that distorted images will continue to be presented to us in the future. In pluralist societies, newspapers and broadcasters operate in a fiercely competitive environment and in theory, this should provide a deterrent. If one media organisation is found to have doctored images in a dishonest way, there will always be plenty of others willing to expose the misbehaviour.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In practice, however, the only real deterrent is the likelihood of a drop in circulation, or lower viewing figures. And while consumers may say they disapprove of journalistic dishonesty (whether in photographs or the written word), there is little evidence to suggest that they react by taking their custom elsewhere. Indeed, in some developed countries, the closer a journal sails to the wind, the more likely it is to enjoy a high circulation!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It used to be said that 'the camera never lies'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nowadays, we can't be so certain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Analysis</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Broadening the debate</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In issue 156 of The Courier, we announced the launch of a programme by the European Centre for Development Policy Management on the future of KU-ACP relations beyond Lom&eacute; IV. Here, we publish an abridged text supplied by the ECDPM reporting on progress.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After 20 years, the Lom&eacute; Convention is thought by some not to have lived up to expectations and now that East West rivalry is no longer an issue, many doubt its continued relevance. Questioning, as such, is no bad thing, provided it takes place in a fair and unbiased manner and is not used as a pretext to abandon the acquis  of more than 20 years of cooperation. This is the rationale behind a number of private and official initiatives to redefine KU-ACP cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Consultations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ECDPM's post-tome IV exercise has now been up and running for more than a year. Consultations have been held in more than 20 ACP countries, involving representatives from the private and non-governmental sectors, officials in the National Authorising Offices, EC delegations, regional organisations and research centres. A number of strong impressions have emerged from these interviews. In the first place, the initial comment of many NGOs and private sector representativ  was essentially 'what is in it for us ?'. This points to a lack of knowledge of the Convention in non-governmental circles and suggests that this complicated instrument is not entirely 'user-friendly'. Its government to government character was also criticised. There were calls for ACP-KU relations to be opened up to the private sector and civil society. In this context, experience with decentralised cooperation was seen as encouraging.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, the benefits of the Lom&eacute; trade provisions were highlighted with fears being expressed about what would happen after the year 2000. It was felt that at a time when many ACPs  are undergoing structural adjustment, and the private sector is getting its act together, a clearer European commitment in this area would benefit both sides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Various actors from the private, NGO and research communities indicated a willingness to engage in debate on redefining mutual ACP-KU interests and on the design of a new cooperation contract. Some of them had an opportunity to present their views at an ECDPM conference on the future of KU-ACP relations held on 12-14 June.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear that the process of reflection is now firmly under way. At the institutional level, the Joint Assembly began as far back as February 1995, when it launched an action plan to revitalise KU-ACP cooperation. This year, it asked Senator Jean-Louis Firmin of Haiti to draw up a report on the future of the Lom&eacute; Convention. It also requested the Social Partners to tackle the issue at their next annual meeting in November 1996. On the European side, the Commission will present a Green Paper later this year while the ACPs are also studying the question. Last November, the ACP Council resolved that Heads of State should meet before the end of 1997 to agree on a joint position.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Obstacles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this activity suggests a real awareness of what is at stake. Many obstacles have to be overcome, however, if a new type of partnership is to emerge. The main pillars of Europe's commitment to the ACP countries - aid and trade - both appear under threat. It will be necessary to redefine mutual interests - beyond the negative interdependencies - so that they can serve as a basis for a more modern and effective partnership. Greater creativity  will also be required to find new forms of EU support on ACP trade issues that are compatible with World Trade Organisation obligations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An in-depth rethink of ACP-KU cooperation will significantly benefit from inputs by actors traditionally excluded from the discussions - who are anxious to participate in redefining cooperation ties. For instance, in Namibia, NGOs called for formal consultation mechanisms for non-governmental actors. Similarly, economic operators meeting in Trinidad in November called for a new Europe-Caribbean partnership. There should also be a role for applied research conducted in ACP centres. There is already a joint research project on the future of West Africa Europe relations and similar initiatives are being formulated elsewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The plea for a debate that is open to the key ACP actors should be taken on board by decision-makers and negotiators - and thus far, they have proved receptive. However, two conditions are needed to maintain this fruitful exchange. First, ACP stakeholders need to be able to base their views on full knowledge of the facts and issues. It is essential that the Convention's authors make a major effort to provide more and better information. The ECDPM is willing to play a part in this. Initiatives already under way include the development of EUFORIC - a Forum on the Internet for specialised information on European development cooperation - and the preparation of practical guides to the Lom&eacute; Convention. Enhanced access to information can help all partners move towards a real dialogue. Second, forms and channels for dialogue. need to be devised to ensure that an open debate is sustained beyond the initial reflections taking place within the EU and ACP groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ECDPM</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Re-compromising' development aid for the future</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Jos Jonckers</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this article offers an academy critique of *e challenges facing the global system of development cooperation in the post-cold War era. He argues that the old compromises that have shaped development assistance since the Second World War have broken down and pleads for a radical re-think of the strategy in order to 'enable' fess affluent societies to gain from the advent of global 'free market democracy'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let us face it. International development early 50 years, the developed world has taken aid for granted. It no longer does. In real terms, it has started to give less. The expected 'peace dividend' has not materialised and scepticism is rising. Aid and solidarity are considered old-fashioned concepts. Progress and development, it is increasingly argued, must come from cooperation based on mutual interest and a businesslike approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid scepticism is at its highest in the USA. A conservative majority in Congress promotes radical 'winner' recipes and aid has been slashed. Slowly but surely, America is getting out of the development business. Lacking domestic support, the Clinton administration seeks to 'rescue' the country's aid programme by seeking more cooperation with other donors - particularly the KU, whose solidarity horizons do not yet stop at its own borders. But even here, horizons are shrinking. European aid to its immediate neighbours in the East and the southern Mediterranean basin has risen. Happy and prosperous neighbours suddenly seem more important than distant friends in need.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Has the end of the cold war marked the beginning of a cold world - where international solidarity is being dismantled together with the nuclear warheads ? Or could we be experiencing the beginning of a fundamental reshaping of international solidarity and aid between nations?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond altruism - self interest</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International aid has always involved a compromise within affluent society. People and nations are not normally disposed to give something away unless they receive something in return. Any attempt at understanding and reshaping the future of development aid must therefore start from the premise that those providing development aid do so as a result of a complex and evolving compromise between altruism and self-interest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Affluent countries are usually only interested in assisting poorer ones when the effect is to strengthen their international leadership, and in some way to enhance their security and material wellbeing. Looked at in this context, we must recognise that development aid, whatever its altruistic aims, will only exist if it also serves the legitimate, albeit more selfish agenda of the donor. It also means that the compromise which gives aid its rationale in affluent society changes over time: aid is regularly 'recompromised'. In secure and prosperous times, donors are  more inclined to forego self-interest and to cooperate in the interest of less affluent countries. In times of insecurity, the altruistic dimension is likely to diminish in importance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In colonial times, systematic aid flows first emerged as a result of a compromise between expansionist Northern governments and Christian society with its own 'colonizing' clergy. Decolonisation had the effect of increasing insecurity in most former colonial powers. In an attempt to safeguard the capital they had 'invested' in their overseas territories, following the latter's independence, they increasingly shaped aid with a view to 'buying' goodwill from the new rulers. This process, which 'recompromised' aid from a colonial into a neocolonial form, resulted in the secular, institutionalised arrangement now known as 'bilateral aid'. In addition, during the Cold War, Western aid was used increasingly as a device to stop the Third World joining the Second World (the communist bloc). The result was an aid system which was both more internationalised and more politicised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The next stage came with the end of the Cold War. Communism had joined colonialism and fascism in the dustbin of history. Affluent Western society had emerged as the winner. With it came the Western vision for stability, peace and progress: a world of sovereign nations, organised on the basis of democratic and capitalist market principles and committed to respect for each other's territory and for basic human rights. Today, capitalism has become the norm in most nation states. Long-time sceptics such as India, and even convinced opponents such as China and Vietnam, have embraced it. Democracy has not yet achieved the same coverage, but it is sailing forward under favourable conditions. Political pluralism is steadily being consolidated in much of East and Central Europe, while dictatorial regimes in Africa, Asia and Latin America are now the exception.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The effect of all of this has been a speedy erosion of the terms of the compromise on which development aid thrived for so long. In a rapidly globalis  ing,multi-polar world, the old approaches appear increasingly redundant. From this perspective, the current aid crisis is not surprising and is not necesarily a bad thing. Western affluent society is essentially trying to come to terms with the demystification of its development aid, as part of a process of reshaping it for the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three 'recompromising' strategies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As in the past, the recompromising process is influenced by both self-interest and altruism in affluent society. Three trends can be identified.. The first, which is the most idealistic, involves restoring altruism. This approach seeks to 'purge' aid of the perverse political and economic compromises and contradictions caused by decades of neocolonial and Cold-War self-interest. It has impacted on aid in several ways. First, it has given a significant boost to humanitarian aid - the most altruistic form - at the expense of development assistance. Second, it has led to a 'decentralisation' of aid - with more assistance being channelled through organisations such as NGOs, that have an 'uncompromised' altruistic profile. Third, it has led to a 'deconstruction' of development aid along idealistic-altruistic lines. 'Women in development', 'child health', 'environment'and 'poverty alleviation' are all examples of deconstructed labels around which aid is increasingly being structured and justified. Finally, it has prompted an 'intellectualisation' of development aid with the particular purpose of tightening its altruistic aims. For example, the Logical Framework Approach, the concept of 'sustainable development', the UNDP's Human Development Index and various experiments with more 'accountable' project management systems, have all essentially been devised as ways of encapsulating and supporting the altruistic intentions that lie behind aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second recompromising strategy, which may be summed up in the expression be businesslike, approaches development cooperation  much more skeptically. Aid, it is argued, only makes sense if it leads to real progress and development - and the prevailing view is that this is not happening. The approach is fueled by the obsession of trying to measure progress with the help of business tools such as 'output', 'impact', 'efficiency', 'rates of return' and so on. This has led to burgeoning aid 'evaluation'. It has also probably contributed to the discovery of aid failures which, in turn, has prompted growing criticism of aid agencies and operators. The businesslike strategy has gained further ground because of the failure of many countries to achieve any real progress in recent decades. Its advocates argue that the compromises which undermined aid's development impact in the past are inherently linked with its altruistic nature. The conclusion is that altruistic aid will seldom or never work. The strategy has impacted on aid in a number of ways being, for example, the major cause of so-called 'aid fatigue'. It has also prompted a search for ways to enhance cooperation for mutual benefit, indeed transforming the narrow, pre Cold War trade cooperation link with developing countries into a much broader and rapidly growing economic cooperation approach. Finally, it has sought to enhance aid's impact on the economic conditions and growth prospects of developing countries through more ambitious, structural-oriented forms of aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regionalism, the third major strategy, is linked to globalisation. Rooted in human survival psychology, this approach prompts nations in close proximity to form 'strategic' coalitions. In the post-Cold War era, development aid is one of the instruments used by affluent regions to strengthen their position in a 'globalising' environment. The strategy entails promoting 'open' regionalism elsewhere in the world and capitalising on this to create linkages and interactions which enhance their own influence or hegemony. From the point of view of the international political economy, this makes perfect sense. Having succeeded in making the 'world of nations' accept capitalism and democracy, it is through the consolidation   process of free market democracy in other countries and regions that powerful affluent nations will seek to gain maximum advantage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Need for a vision</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With this improved insight into the dynamics that have been reshaping development aid, is it now possible to go further and develop a more political vision of relations between affluent and less affluent nations in future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free market democracy, having endured the 'crises' of decolonisation, fascism and communism, has succeeded in promoting stability and peace within and between nations. Its main strength has probably been its crucial enabling function, with an increasing number of people and nations now in a position to 'earn' a better future. It appears that the model has the capacity to generate fairly equitable growth and progress, which is presumably why more and more countries are turning to it. As is so often the case, however, the strength of the system also contains the seeds of its weakness. Conceived as an 'enabling' mechanism, it results in the categorisation of those who fail to 'be enabled' as 'unable'. Marginalised because they cannot participate and perform in the   system, the excluded (whether individuals or states) are dubbed 'losers'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are seen as a burden and a threat by the 'winners'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The result is disparity in society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experience in most affluent nations suggests that despite the enabling environment created by free market democracy, up to a quarter of the population finds itself unable to perform effectively, and is marginalised as a result. Moreover, there seems to be an upward trend in the numbers affected by unemployment, underemployment and poverty. Disparity never occurs without some cost to society, which is a good reason why it ought to be minimised. The costs come mainly in the form of internal transfers earned (but foregone) by the active, 'winning' section of society. In more sociallyinspired, free market democracies, it is accepted that marginalisation resulting from the model's shortcomings must be minimised and/or adequately compensated for. In more conservative free market democracies, exclusion is seen more as a weakness of individuals than of the system. Compensatory transfers are generally kept to a minimum to induce people to 'break out' of their situation. But while such societies may save on 'empathetic' transfers, they will generally need to spend much more of their wealth defending against threats posed by growing disparity, such as crime, drug-trafficking and political extremism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The costs of disparity are political as well as financial. Genuine democracy is based on the participation of a representative majority of citizens. In affluent societies, however, a growing minority no longer participates. The real danger stems from the fact that this is highly skewed. It is the same, growing, marginalised minority that is 'unable' to participate which is also withdrawing from democratic involvement. The result is alienation from the political system and an erosion of democracy to the extent that its very survival may be threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is really at stake </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having conquered most of the world's nations, free market capitalism is now set to conquer the world of nations, helped by technological advances in communications, transport and computer technology. Economists have amply shown that the interdependence resulting from free international competition need not be detrimental. Indeed, because global capitalism ensures that ideas, initiatives and resources can be 'put to work' anywhere in the world - wherever they generate most profit - interdependence is usually seen as mutually beneficial. In essence, it confirms what might be called the global enabling effect of free-market capitalism. The basic thesis is that the adoption by less affluent nations of free market democracy should 'enable' many more of them to improve the lives of their people in the coming decades. The boost engendered by this 'enabling effect' will, in turn, help to sustain progress in the more affluent countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If this is the aim, then a new vision should progressively inspire future cooperation between the affluent and less affluent countries. The first concern should be to define 'purpose' and 'interest' much more in terms of system and process, than of output. What really matters is the 'enabling potential' of free market democracy in the specific context of the less affluent countries. How something is achieved and by whom should take precedence over what is achieved. The ultimate aim must be to ensure that free-market democracy 'takes root' in less affluent nations and is able to determine who does what and how.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A second major concern should be to maximise the 'enabling potential' of free market democracy for the most vulnerable sections of individual populations. As mentioned earlier, up to a quarter of the people in affluent societies are excluded. In poorer countries, the figure is much higher. If free market democracy fails to enable a significant proportion of this marginalised group, then it will not take root. And if the poor cannot be mobilised, the  growth that does occur will be highly skewed, leading to growing disparity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A third point is to ensure that the 'global enabling' effect of free market capitalism does not become the exclusive preserve of deregulated capital and the 'winners' who control it, leading to new forms of exploitation and disparity. The concern must be to find a way of directing the combined forces of 'capitalism without borders' and 'democracy within borders' in such a way that it leads to a genuinely better world in which the number of 'losers' is dropping and disparities are diminishing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A historic perspective</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is useful at this stage to take a look at the history of capitalism. Freemarket democracy delivered affluence to about a third of the global population over the last century mainly because of the 'accommodation' between labour and capital in an enabling environment created by 'Fordist' mass-production and consumption. A similar accommodation is now needed to enable global free market democracy to extend material wellbeing to the remaining two thirds of the (continually growing) world population, while at the same time sustaining it among the existing affluent third. It is no longer an accommodation between capitalists and workers that is required, however, but one between the affluent and the less affluent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fordism basically transformed the 'interdependent' stake of capital and labour in the economic pie, into a 'joint stake' - leading to the production of a larger pie. By analogy, what is needed today is to ensure that affluent and less affluent societies develop a joint stake in the production of a larger 'global pie' as a result of new technologies and more efficient, globalised modes of production. Attracting and sustaining capitalist investment in such modes will increasingly depend on demand and consumption structures which guarantee that poorer societies share with affluent ones the benefits of such global production systems. In the same way that a larger 'mess-produced pie' was dependent on higher and more   equitable mass consumption, so will a larger 'globally-produced pie' depend increasingly on higher and more equitable global consumption. In this context, the principal policy aim of development cooperation should be to ensure that growth resulting from globalisationis both enabling and disparity-reducing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The disabling effect of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'poor' competition</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Driven by the powerful motive of capital accumulation, globalisation has the tendency to promote competition. In principle, this should be a good thing, but left unchanneled, it can have negative effects. One might draw an analogy between the conquering of the global market and the spread of water during a flood. The water always takes the easiest route, entering the most vulnerable areas first where it causes the most damage. Likewise, globalization, fueled by 'deregulated' capital, often tends to promote competition where it is easiest, but where it is not necessarily beneficial. This is the case, for example, in less affluent countries, where poverty is exploited to achieve what might be dubbed a 'poor' competitive advantage - in the sense that it is based on disparity, but also in that, far from 'enabling', it may actually have the opposite effect. Child labour, sex tourism, environmentally destructive tourism, tropical forms logging, the export of industrial pollution and misuse of intellectual property are all examples of 'disabling' competition resulting from global disparity. In a rapidly globalising world this is ultimately damaging to all concerned, which is why both affluent and less affluent nations have an interest in reducing the gap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All of this points to the need for a major redefinition of society's role in general and of aid in particular. During the colonial and Cold War periods, development cooperation was progressively uprooted and alienated from society. Serving an increasingly complex and non-transparent agenda, it became more and more a 'cockpit' affair, piloted by a small specialised crew - and it  found itself flying higher and higher above society. In short, affluent society lost touch with development cooperation and aid. Occasionally, the media intervened to 're-establish contact' but the result was that development aid usually only attracted mainstream public attention when things had gone terribly wrong.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning vision into action</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the aim is to have affluent and less affluent society working together to ensure that the latter adopts 'free market democracy'- and can adapt it in a way which benefits both - it is vital that the former be reconnected to the business of development cooperation. The affluent must be challenged to help transform their less affluent partners, in the interested and creative manner of a minority stakeholder. They must be ready to share the wealth of knowledge and experience generated in their own process of development. Representatives of all walks of affluent life should therefore be provided with greater opportunity for dialogue and cooperation with their less affluent counterparts. Increasingly easy and cheap communications and transport should facilitate this. This new form of stakeholdership will not happen, however, unless affluent society can be imbued with the new vision.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Donors should actively support the process. Instead of spending most of their time and resources determining the scope and content of development cooperation, they should step down from their cockpit. Their new role should be as brokers and facilitators of cooperation. An initial priority must be to extol the vision itself. As this gathers momentum, they should then turn to 'brokering' it in practice - acting as a catalyst between the affluent and less affluent in order to facilitate 'enabling' cooperation between them. The development of an effective brokerage profile and methodology will probably entail important changes in the way that donors work. They need to move much closer to their  constituency, and to be made democratically accountable again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As mentioned earlier, the concept of enabling cooperation concentrates on who does what, and how. Essentially, therefore, it should be seeking to mobilise democratic and free market forces in less affluent societies. The advantage of working this way is that change and progress will be determined primarily from within the society in question - with cooperation as a source of encouragement. Such an approach also entails acceptance of the fact that the pace of progrms must be left much more to the enabling forces of the maturing democracies and free markets, however weak and imperfect these may still appear. Indeed, the central purpose of cooperation should be to help these fore" become stronger. To achieve this, cooperation will need to move away from an emphasis on engineering outputs to one which involves 'messaging' the system and process. And it is not just methodologies that need to be altered; there must also be a radical change in cooperation mentality. Thus, for example, donors should attempt to broker cooperation which is 'small but smart'. Advancing 'best practice' might be another creative way to pursue cooperation which is enabling. And while some output-related decision techniques can still be used, these must be creatively reshaped to support a more 'enabling' approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, this enabling vision entails an awareness of the imperfections of free-market democracy, combined with a conviction that it offers enormous potential for the less affluent countries of the world. 'Recompromising' development aid for the future will mean reshaping it to support a process of adoption and adaptation of free market democracy in less affluent countries which is highly 'enabling'. The result should be a system of international solidarity which is working for free-market democracy, rather than as a substitute for it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J.J.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The effects of corruption on development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Dieter Frisch</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corruption - defined as 'the abuse of public power for personal ends' - has always existed. During recent decades, however, it has grown both in terms of geographic extent and intensity. Since the mid 1970s, it has infiltrated virtually every country in the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was hoped that the easing of political and economic restrictions that characterised the 1990s after the end of the Cold War would have gone some way to reducing this phenomenon. Through increased openness resulting from political pluralism and the freedom of the press, the process of democratisation should, under normal circumstances, mobilise efforts to overcome corruption. However, emergent democracies are still fragile and seem to find the task of tackling established self interests a formidable one.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By reducing state intervention and therefore the opportunities for corruption, economic liberalisation should improve matters. In the short term, however, the opposite would appear to be true. Weakened state structures, a lack of appropriate legislation, powerlessness on the part of the judicial system to combat corruption, the pursuit of easy money - mistakenly perceived by some as being equivalent to a market economy - all these factors together contribute to aggravating the phenomenon, at least in the transitional stages. Such a state of affairs cannot fail to have some effect on those who are involved in and concerned by development issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Needless to say, corruption and its effects can be seen from a multitude of viewpoints. There is always the ethical angle - but how can we possibly presume to preach to countries of the South and East when bribery is just as rife in the North and when, as far as corruption within international economic relations is concerned, it is in fact, virtually by definition, the North who is the corrupter and the South and East who are the corrupted ? The only possible reply to such an argument - and one which is morally disputable even though economically valid - would be that the rich North can afford the luxury of wasting some of its wealth whereas in the case of developing countries, their sparse financial resources need to be used in the best way possible! Other lines of reasoning emphasise the distortions that corruption causes in the fair application of conditions of competition by penalising successful, yet honest, undertakings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major obstacle in the path of development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In my opinion, corruption should be approached from the point of view of the effects it has on development. I say this because long professional experience has taught me that corruption is one of the major obstacles to progress, and that its effects on development are disastrous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some people would no doubt counter this assertion with the 'cultural' argument whereby they would have us believe that, in certain cultures, corruption is quite normal and morally acceptable. Well I do not know of a single place on earth where growing rich through taking bribes is considered lawful or morally acceptable! I should like to quote Olusegun Obansanjo,  former President of Nigeria, on the subject: 'In the African concept of appreciation and hospitality, a gift is a token. It is not demanded. The value is in the spirit of the giving, not the material worth. The gift is made in the open for all to see, never in secret. Where the gift is excessive, it becomes an embarrassment, and is returned. If anything, corruption has perverted the positive aspects of this age-old tradition'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then there are the cynics - including renowned professors - who claim that corruption oils the wheels of progress and enables development to take place. In this respect again, and putting all ethical aspects aside, it would be worthwhile distinguishing between the small baksheesh which 'helps' certain administrative procedures along ('acceleration fees') and large-scale corruption which perverts the course of de  velopment. This does not of course mean that we should underestimate the destructive effects that even small-scale corruption can have on society!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet others have simply resigned themselves to the situation. For them, corruption is intrinsically linked to underdevelopment. As long as a person's normal income does not provide him with a decent living, the door will always be open to bribes. It is, therefore, through development that we should be attempting to eradicate corruption. Yet this argument is reminiscent of the debate on the population explosion. It is only through development, some say, that the problems of population growth will be resolved. But by then, the planet will be inexorably overpopulated! In my opinion, the same argument is just as valid as far as corruption is concerned. We simply cannot wait for it to be stamped out through development. (In any case, development is hardly a miracle cure: true, we have the examples of Singapore and Hong Kong where corruption is extremely uncommon, but we could also mention Italy, where it was precisely at the height of the country's development that corruption became the norm). We must act therefore, and without delay, focusing our efforts on eradicating large-scale corruption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If we analyse some of the effects that corruption has on development, the first thing we notice is that it increases the cost of goods and services, and not insignificantly either. Although a 5% reduction in the profit margin might, at a pinch, be absorbed by the supplier, corruption levels of 10% to 20%, which have become commonplace, will inevitably be reflected in the price and will, consequently, be paid for through the national or foreign (in the case of foreign aid) resources of a country. It is therefore the national economy that ultimately suffers the consequences of an unjustified surcharge on the goods or services, with the difference being pocketed by some government official or politician who has abused his power for his own personal gain. Given that such operations are generally financed by bank  loans or, in the case of foreign aid, by concessional loans, these surcharges inevitably bring about a proportionate increase in that country's debts. In fact it is now assumed that the exchange value of sums paid out in backhanders makes up a considerable proportion of the foreign debts of developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, the damaging effects of such practices do not stop there. The corrupt decision-maker may well be tempted to accept a substandard quality of service which will make his personal profit all the greater. Thus, with a road building project for example, complicity between government departments and contractors may result in corner-cutting with regard to agreed standards of quality so that the savings made may be shared out between the two parties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At their very worst, the disastrous effects of corruption mean that the conception of a project, and ultimately its very choice, are determined by corruption. As far as conception is concerned, a good example would be the purchase of a technology which is wholly unsuited to the particular needs of a country or the choice of a capital intensive project - more lucrative in terms of corruption - rather than a labour-intensive one which would nevertheless be far more beneficial to that nation's development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The absolute peak of perversion, however, is when the very choice of priorities - and therefore of projects - is determined by corruption. What we are referring to here are those situations in which the real development priorities of a country are neglected in favour of operations which generate the greatest personal gain for the decision-makers. At this point I would like to quote R&eacute;mi Godeau, writing in Jeune Afrique: 'These currency-guzzling abortive projects have become a graveyard of white elephants. Africa is littered with vast deserted motorways which are being eroded by the Savannah, with fully functional but empty factories which have been left to fall into ruin only a few years after they were opened, with railway lines which are now impassable  through a lack of maintenance, and with hydroelectric dams abandoned because they cost too much to run'. Let us pick up on the point about empty factories. These 'follies of development' are to be found in many developing countries and in Africa in particular. Some have never produced, others have failed to reach full production capacity while others still face such prohibitive costs that big state subsidies are needed to keep them going. If we follow the thread right back to the beginning we find, more often than not, that factories have been sold without ensuring real competition between suppliers. Admittedly, such projects usually have only private-sector backing (they are rarely financed through official aid), but the funding is nonetheless backed by state-controlled bodies. The existence of corruption in such cases must be more than mere presumption - what other reason could there be for making decisions which run so counter to the interests of development ? In his work 'Grand Corruption in Third World Development', George Moody-Stuart identified those areas which are especially vulnerable to corruption. These are most notably, the procurement of military and other   technically sophisticated equipment, and large-scale works (in other words, any major, capital-intensive project and any scheme where objective valuation and comparison is hampered because of the technical sophistication involved).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is worthwhile mentioning at this point that a country which borrows money to finance projects that do not satisfy its real needs, and which may indeed be considered economically futile or absurd, will see its debt burden increase - and not simply by the 10% to 20% that is used to fund 'backhanders'. The loss will ultimately be 100% if one views it in terms of the cost of the unproductive investment to the national economy. Discussions about the debts of developing countries rarely focus on the mechanisms which have produced these debts. Yet in most cases, they have become unserviceable on account of the ineffective use of overseas aid - the sort of bad management to which corruption contributes considerably.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is more, by deflecting the sparse resources which do exist towards non-priority or low-priority areas, corruption contributes to a large extent to ensuring that fundamental needs such as food, health and education, are not met. It is therefore one of the causes of under development and of poverty in general. Needless to say, official aid is often called upon to make good the deficit left by the irresponsible management of otherwise available resources. Is it any surprise if, in the long run, public opinion in the countries of the North begins to grow weary of bridging gaps which efficient management of resources should never have allowed to appear in the first place ? How are we to convince European taxpayers that it is they who need to provide the money to fund bush clinics in countries which put their funds in prestige projects, if not directly into Swiss bank accounts?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A vicious circle that must be broken</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effectively, we find ourselves in a 'catch-22'situation. Corruption is one of the causes of under development and poverty, yet poverty is in part responsible for its continuation. If a person cannot earn an honest living for himself and his family, then he is more or less forced into earning it by less honest means. Hence corruption is both the cause and the consequence of under development. In order to break the pattern we must therefore combat large-scale corruption inasmuch as it is a significant cause of underdevelopment and we must work gradually to eradicate the reasons for its propagation in society, and in particular to remedy the notorious lack of adequate income to ensure a decent standard of living.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In general terms, we can say that corruption also kills off the spirit of development. Nothing is more destructive to a society than the pursuit of 'a fast and easy buck' which makes honest people who work hard appear naive or foolish. That is why, in the context of economic reforms under the heading of 'structural adjustment', it is vital that the model advocated be one of a market economy based on a sound framework of legislation and on an efficient state. It should not allow free rein to the sort of ruthless capitalism which is aimed at immediate profit at all costs. The example of certain transition countries in the East, where a market economy has become synonymous with the law of the jungle, the Mafia and corruption, really should make us stop and think.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the final analysis, an economy undermined by corruption has the effect of discouraging potential foreign investors and public donors. Yet if development is to succeed, countries have to be able to attract a flow of capital. As Serge Michailof put it: 'Success attracts money. Waste, failure and chaos drive it away'. And although investors are very keen to do business, with the exception of a few opportunists, they all look for host countries that have a stable and predictable climate. Entrepreneurs have been known to withdraw from certain African countries - which are nevertheless rich in resources - because of the constraints imposed on them by corruption on a scale which they considered to be unacceptable. As for public donors, they are increasingly reluctant to offer financial aid to those countries that manage their own resources poorly. It is precisely this failing which is one of the causes of what we now refer to as 'aid fatigue'. Financial aid institutions should go as far as suspending their cooperation in blatant cases of corruption and bad management, just as they do in cases of serious violation of human rights. Conversely, 'good governance' should be the determining factor when allocating aid, and it would appear that Article 5 of the revised Lom&eacute; IV Convention does in fact foresee such an approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, far from reserving the foregoing criticisms for countries of the South, I believe that the partners of the North have their part to play in the ravages wrought by corruption, be it only as a result of the inconsistencies between their development cooperation policies and their export promotion policies. Basing our assumptions on the principle that cooperation efforts are genuinely motivated by concerns for development - and I can attest that this is precisely the motivation behind the policies of the European Union, which I have served for a great many years - we should not forget that Western countries have a tendency to promote exports, by other means, without any consideration for the effects this has in terms of development. They thus contribute to the dishonest practices which we have been discussing. The fact that they tolerate, or even go as far as to encourage corruption as a means of promoting exports - restricting the application of the criminal law to acts committed on their own territory and allowing corruption to be taxdeductible under the heading of 'necessary expenses' - seems to me to be absolutely scandalous. In the AlortR too, the battle against the canker of international corruption is a formidable one. But it is a fight to which we are committed in the context of 'Transparency International' This NGO, which was created in 1993, makes its services available to any country which genuinely wishes to eradicate the scourge of corruption. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> D.F. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Close-up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">National park  restoration in Chad: luxury or necessity ?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Phllippe Dejace</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Terms like 'democracy' and 'sustainable development' are increasingly used to keep donors happy, and to present new development projects in the most favourable possible light. With this in mind, it is interesting to look at an example from 'the field' to see how genuine the commitment actually is. Adherence to these concepts has undoubtedly made a positive contribution to environmental protection, but there is also a negative side</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1989, the Zakouma National Park in south-east Chad has been undergoing restoration in a   programme supported by the KU. Devastated by a decade of conflict, this wildlife sanctuary of nearly 3000 square kiLom&eacute;tres was little more than a huge graveyard in 1986 when Pierre Pfeffer of the Paris Natural History Museum visited it and decided to campaign for its restoration. Today, this is recognised to have been a sensible decision. It is acknowledged that wildlife are better off when they have a reasonably large area in which to live, away from human activity. Aerial counts made in 1986, 1991 and 1995 confirm that animal numbers are on the increase in the park and that irreversible destruction has been averted. Currently, Zakouma is the only area effectively being protected in Chad. The other designated sites (one park and seven reservations) remain impoverished and in a state of near devastation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recognising the challenge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One should not be lulled into complacency. Even when a process involving local village communities is initiated, the low standard of living of the inhabitants, their educational level, and the progressive deterioration of vegetation around protected areas in  variably make the latter a tempting 'target'. In these circumstances, it is very hard to preserve their integrity. At Zakouma, a busy time lies ahead. The local people must be educated and informed as quickly as possible. This presents us with the first hurdle given the inadequacy of the education sector. The Ministry of Education is underfunded and with growing numbers of pupils in the system, it is virtually impossible to plan special programmes aimed at increasing awareness of this particular problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are other reasons why there should be short-term investment in this sector. There are good arguments for preserving a few control sites while the awareness programme is under way, since these will one day serve to illustrate what can be achieved. It is also much less difficult to preserve an area than to try to reconstitute it, once desertification has set in. The site is part of the national heritage whose value can only increase. Moreover, in most cases, the protected areas ensure the survival of fish stocks in lakes and rivers downstream and act as a reservoir for game: many of the animals which breed there provide food for the people living at the zone's edges. Even frequent wholesale slaughter of wildlife, as happens during a war, is reversible if the vegetation remains intact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the park is cut off from human activity (the area is flooded and therefore closed, to all intents and purpose, for four months of the year), it has an uncertain future. It faces pressure  from itinerant herdsmen and poachers, the latter tracking giraffe right up to the outskirts of Zakouma village, which is in the middle of the park. Although located in a wildlife reserve of 20 000 km2 - which is supposed to be a buffer zone - the park is not truly protected because human activity inside the reserve is not controlled. In the dry season, the park teems with wildlife. A clear density gradient has been identified with the animal population dropping as you move from the centre to the periphery. Indeed, only about a third of the 3000 km2 is intensively exploited by the wildlife which lives there - and even this area is relatively insecure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enclosure would give those who are keen to defend the park a grace period in which to set up long-term awareness strategies. Ironically, one danger results from the striking democratisation that has taken place in Chad. To win votes, some politicians have called for the bans applying to the park to be lifted. This approach has the potential to succeed because, owing to shortfalls in the education system, the electorate is insufficiently mature in political terms. Another factor is that traditional leaders, seeing their power progressively diminish, are inclined to 'revolt'. Thus, they may fail to intervene when stockmen deliberately invade the park, encouraged by demagogues in search of votes. When the grasslands are invaded by cattle, few wild animals can compete and they are forced to retreat to the central area of the park. Against this background of a need for urgent action, the Zakouma Park team is concentrating its awareness-raising efforts on traditional leaders and the administrative authorities - rather than on teaching schoolchildren about environmental protection (although such a campaign is also envisaged).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some argue that setting up a 'sustainable and participation-based development' strategy would make it possible to avoid the situation that now exists in Zakouma. The idea behind such a strategy - which clearly has its   attractions - is that man is perfectly capable of managing his native territory. All that is needed is for him to be granted land and to receive support for his initiatives. Many who espouse this approach continue to despatch teams to demonstrate that this is the ideal response. Unfortunately, in the particularly complicated case of managing the environment on the fringes of a national park, the local people are usually reluctant to make the investment. The more normal inclination is to reap a short-term profit from resources that are within reach. The inhabitants are also tired of the lectures they get from specialists who visit for just a few hours. The scope of the problem is such that expertise needs to be available on an ongoing basis. Considerable resources are also needed to ensure.that the effort is sustained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not easy to halt environmental destruction in a market economy which has overturned traditional values and gives priority to increasing personal wealth and consumption. A natural environment's potential for exploitation is always limited. Yet stock-rearing involves the use of animals 'selected' over thousands of years to take maximum advantage of the least scrap of vegetation. By contrast, a wild animal is much more selective and never ruins the environment it exploits. It may even be able to adapt its reproductive cycle to the available food resources! We are nowhere near this situation in domestic stockbreeding!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is where 'sustainable development', which sounds highly reassuring, appears at odds with reality. Beyond a certain threshold, one cannot avoid depleting the resource. If one is to adopt an approach that involves the population actively, one must acknowledge that their response may fall short of what is needed. Indeed, they may do things which provoke migration, and are thus damaging. Thus, for example, the opening-up of a water source may attract more nomadic herdsman, thereby undermining rather than enhancing the surrounding area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Awareness programme</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The single most significant step towards protecting the park would be to ease population pressure, but progress in this area is very limited. We can only wait for the birthrate to decrease; something which invariably happens as a country develops. But what will become of the national parks in the meantime ? In Zakouma, an eco-development team is currently listening to the villagers' claims. As elsewhere, an attempt is being made to gain time. Unfortunately, the current climate of transparency in Chad, which is one of the positive aspects of democratisation and should be a major asset, has not had much impact in this area. The awareness programme suffers from a serious lack of trained workers and when meetings are held, they usually turn into interminable discussions, simply increasing the level of frustration. On the other hand, a convincing discussion-leader can advance matters considerably and discussion is surely the right approach to adopt. Furthermore, the process must lead to concrete results. Otherwise, decisions taken may end up being postponed indefinitely because they conflict with the interests of political decision-makers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the difficulties, the Zakouma team is placing heavy reliance on this desire for transparency. Although the project's initial aims have essentially been to restore infrastructures and thereby promote an increase in wildlife, the addition of an ecodevelopment aspect and ecological monitoring has made it possible to create an important 'reservoir' of knowledge. A computerized map of the vegetation has been produced with the help of a microlight equipped with a GPS (satellite positioning) system. There have also been aerial inventories tracking the seasonal density and distribution of wildlife, as well as in-depth sociological surveys in the villages most hostile to the park's existence. This major database makes it possible to organise meetings, conferences and discussions to demonstrate that the park's contribution is greater than it seems. One big frustration for local people living on the  park's fringes concerns the redistribution of the income it generates. Looking first at tourism, Chad hardly qualifies as a major holiday destination and those who do visit the park are too few to make a significant contribution (the income raised barely covers the cost of replacing their bedlinen !)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One interesting conclusion has been drawn from studies of the animal distribution in the different seasons. It appears that when pressure from nomadic herdsman is at its strongest, during the dry season, the wildlife take refuge in the park and numbers multiply in safety. When the stockmen return northward, the wild animals then go beyond the park boundaries where they are hunted and eaten by villagers. This is surely a form of income redistribution! Moreover, many young fish in the park's only river (the bahr Salamat), take advantage of the flooding of the area during the rains. This releases huge volumes of nutrients back into the ecosystem. In the park, the fish are safe from the fishermen who work downstream and they can swim back to their spawning grounds. This guarantees the renewal of stocks depleted during the dry season. The level of fish stocks in Lake Iro - and probably in the River Chari as well - is thus linked to the existence of the Zakouma Park! When this version of income redistribution is explained, it often helps to convince traditional leaders who then use their influence to limit incursions by stockmen or poachers. However, a lot remains to be done because demographic pressure and standards of living both make it more difficult to get the message across.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We know that excessive human activity always results in environmental deterioration. Zakouma, although under pressure, has been 'spared' to some extent, and as such, it represents an important resource. But some see it as a luxury and it faces a suspended death sentence. If people stop regarding its conservation as something that is necessary, the sentence will end up being carried out. In my opinion, the most reliable way of guaranteeing its preservation would be to enclose it completely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P.H.D. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Developing World</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">European NGOs look ahead at annual meeting in Brussels</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Agostino Ambrogetti</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 22nd annual General Assembly of European Development Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), and a thematic conference entitled 'A Europe open to the world', were held in Brussels from 18 - 20 April. Representatives of more than 800 NGOs attended, with the Assembly adopting 14 resolutions as well as issuing specific appeals on the European Union's Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) and on Lebanon. The Assembly renewed its approval of the development NGOs' 'Strategic Priorities', adopted the Work Plan for the 1996-98 period, and looked at the overall impact of the Lom&eacute; Convention with an eye to likely future developments. The subsequent Conference focused, among other things, on the issue of coherence between the EU's development cooperation and its other policies (notably trade and agriculture). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A general impression that emerged from the two events was that the NGO movement was attaching increasing importance to its role as advocate for the developing countries. A fundamental aspect of this is the ongoing dialogue that NGOs have with the European institutions, and the lobbying they carry out on policy issues. Commission representatives who spoke at the Assembly indicated their understanding and appreciation of this. For example, Development Commissioner, Jao de Deus Pinheiro, referred warmly to 'the very active role played by the NGO community in the debate on the mid-term revision of the Lom&eacute; Convention,' and acknowledged that the NGOs had mounted an 'important political lobby' in favour of increased funding for the next five-year period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commissioner was keen to emphasise the complementarily that existed between the European Commission and the NGO movement in support of emerging societies in the South. He also urged his audience to continue in their task of challenging the general apathy towards development cooperation. This, he said, entailed appealing directly to public opinion in order to influence political leaders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A similar tone was adopted by Bernard Ryelandt, who heads the unit responsible for cofinancing NGO projects in the Commission's development directorate-general (DG VIII) He spoke of the 'decisive' action of European NGOs in balancing other lobbies such as the agricultural one. This, he believed, had the effect of improving the coherence of EU policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Delegates from a number of countries set out their views on the advocacy issue, and what they saw as the growing NGO role in this area. Andy Rutherford from the United Kingdom said that he saw increased lobbying as necessary, complementing the work carried out in the field through development projects. He pointed out that Southern NGOs had themselves requested their Northern partners to pressurise European governments in the hope that the latter would adopt external policies more favourable to the developing world. Mr Rutherford also raised the thorny question of structural adjustment. The view that adjustment policies were not succeeding in eradicating poverty, had, he said, been acknowledged by the EU's Development Council in its resolution adopted in June 1995. With this in mind, the NGOs would be raising the issue with the World Bank and the IMF - where the EU Member States are among the most substantial contributors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guido Barbera, who headed the Italian delegation to the Assembly, took up this point, calling for more pressure to be exerted on the Bretton Woods institutions by European NGOs and indeed, by the European Commission itself. This was necessary, he believed, to promote coherent macroeconomic policies favouring the development of economic relationships with the less-developed countries. In more general terms, Mr Barbera applauded the growing NGO participation in the political arena, stating that this was both 'positive' and fundamental'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evaluation of the Liaison</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Committee's work</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A document was presented to the Conference by the NGDO-EU Liaison Committee containing an evaluation of its activities. The aim, in drawing up the document, was to 'review and critically assess the work and organization of the Committee, and evaluate whether it meets the expectations of its stake holders.' In order to do this, NGO members were consulted through questionnaires.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The evaluation revealed that support for the Liaison Committee as the representative umbrella organization of European NGOs remains strong, although there is widespread uncertainty about the future. This is reflected in the perception that the Committee has   gradually been losing momentum. There were also some doubts expressed about its representativeness. Large NGOs, it was noted, were able to spread their efforts across different networks. The fact that small NGOs tended not to be involved in the Committee emerged as one of the critical issues for discussion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Attention was also focused on the alleged weakness of many national platforms (the documents containing proposals drawn up by the various national NGO assemblies) in representing the aspirations of their member organizations. This issue, and the question of voting on resolutions without debating the documents in question gave rise to controversy. Some delegates boycotted the vote while others submitted a written protest and there is clearly some demand for reforms designed to make the Assembly's procedures more democratic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General conditions of cm  financing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another highly topical subject on the Assembly's agenda was the proposed revision of the General Conditions for the Co-financing of NGO </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Projects in Developing Countries. Commission speakers who touched on this subject included Professor Pinheiro and Jacob Houtman who is a Director in DG VIII Both referred to the revision process that was currently under way, and emphasised the higher priority that would be attached to capacity building for Southern NGOs. This involves providing support to strengthen the organisational structure of the bodies in question, and to improve the skills of their staff in managing and implementing projects. Such an approach is now recognised as essential for the long-term sustainability of NGO activities. As Mr Houtman was keen to stress, the principles underpinning the KU-NGO relationship (recognition of NGO independence and specificity, freedom of initiative for European NGOs in cooperation with their Southern partners) would be safeguarded in the revised conditions. Other priorities to be set out in the conditions would include the promotion </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Notice at the site of a non governmental organisation in</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe devoted to improving agricultural productivity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Crucial to provide more institutional support for Southem</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGOs' of democracy and human rights through reinforced structures of civil society, and a greater emphasis on the fight against poverty, income-generating activities and social development programmes. With these objectives in mind, it was all the more crucial to provide more institutional support for Southern NGOs. They, unlike their Northern partners, had a permanent presence in society in the developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The revised general conditions would also reflect the new orientation which favours a long-term programme approach over the traditional project by-project method. This should lead to a reduced administrative burden, and benefit long-standing NGO partners who have demonstrated viable approaches in working with their Southern counterparts, as well as good management and accountability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'A Europe open to the world'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Conference which took place following the NGO General Assembly focused on assessing the coherence of different EU policies and on ways of achieving coherence where it might be lacking. As the title of the Conference suggests, the question which was never far from participants' minds was 'what sort of Europe is being created.' Is it a Europe which stands in solidarity with the South (and East), or is it one which retreats into its fortress, concerned only with its own prosperity ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the outset, EU policy - or rather its mode of implementation - came in for criticism. It was claimed, on the bask of the experience of both European and Southern NGOs, that the principles of development cooperation set out in the Maastricht Treaty (Title XVII) were not being applied universally and consistently. These principles include the sustainable economic and social development of developing countries, their integration into the world economy, the fight against poverty, and the development and consolidation of democracy, human rights and the rule of law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this connection, three specific discussion topics were selected: the EU's common foreign and security policy (CFSP), its common commercial and agriculture policies (CCP and CAP) and its immigration and asylum policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regarding the first of these, it was suggested that the EU's definition of 'security' tended to be viewed solely in terms of common defence, and that the concept of 'human security' drawn up by the UNDP had been neglected. The latter seeks to define the concept on a broader basis including aspects such as equitable and sustainable development, as well as human rights and democracy. The view was also expressed that a more firm and coordinated CFSP was needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the second topic - trade and agriculture - there was a strong feeling that the policies of the EU (and the USA) were heavily weighted in favour of 'home' producers and that this had the effect of undermining local production and food security in the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing countries. The Union was urged to remove the policy 'contradictions' that allowed this situation to arise bearing in mind the specificity and sensitivity of the food trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, several speakers were highly critical of what they viewed as negative trends in the approach to immigration and asylum adopted by the EU and its Member States, with increasingly strict rules being implemented. There were also calls for measures designed to integrate resident migrants into society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, integration may well be seen as the key message to have emerged from the NGOs' gathering. The call was for the people and governments of the European Union, acting in the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC), to integrate the needs of the rest of the world's people into their actions and programmes. The talk was of common values of human rights and solidarity, in both internal and external polices. And it was clear from the commitment of those who attended that the NGOs are determined to maintain and strengthen their role - as active partners in the development of the South, as advocates for the developing countries and perhaps indeed as keepers of the European conscience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Workshops</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As part of the proceedings of the NGO General Assembly, three workshops were organised dealing with specific themes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Workshop 1 was entitled Beyond Lom&eacute; IV. There was a general consensus among those taking part that the Convention's underlying philosophy helped to protect developing countries in today's global commercial environment. Without the Lom&eacute; system, it was felt that the ACP countries would have suffered even more from the deterioration in their terms of trade. With this in mind, the World Trade Organisation came in for criticism for its stance against regional preferential agreements (even if this does not apply to the least developed countries).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The major finding of Workshop 2, which dealt with Poverty in the North and the South, was that  poverty is the result of interactions at a global level - and is not 'nation specific'. It was therefore important to adopt a global approach in  seeking to tackle the causes of poverty, and to develop further North-South exchanges of experience for the benefit of both sides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third workshop was devoted to making the most of EU Presidencies. Here, the aim was to evaluate past experience of lobbying undertaken by the NGO community in those countries holding the EC Council Presidency, during the six-month period in question. The main recommendation to emerge was that more needed to be done in establishing contacts and exchanging information between the relevant national NGO communities. Such exchanges, it was felt, were needed before, during and after the six month Presidency period, in order to facilitate continuity of lobbying on key themes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resolutions </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Resolutions adopted by the NGO General Assembly, considerable emphasis was placed on human rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> issues, with texts being agreed on Nigeria, the peoples of the Western</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sahara and the child sex 'industry'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade (in the widest sense of the word) also featured prominently. In addition to a general resolution on world trade, representatives passed motions on the arms trade, traffic in landmines and the production of the drug coca.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also adopted were resolutions on preventive diplomacy, cooperation with Cuba, the Euro-Mediterranean partnership and the 'deterioration' of the situation in the Great Lakes region of Africa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Africans seek bigger share of tourist dollar</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Godfrey Karoro</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe's government is under pressure to encourage greater African involvement in the predominantly white-run tourism industry, which is facing intense competition from neighbouring South Africa. 'Black participation in all sectors of tourism is a priority,' says Environment and Tourism Minister Chen Chimutengwende. 'Blacks have waited in the wings long enough,' he adds, 'and their entry on to centre stage is inevitable. The solution lies in nurturing black entrepreneurship and giving it the material and technical backup to ensure its growth.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Only 38 of the country's 436 tour operators are indigenous, and most focus on provision of goods and services, particularly transport. African interest in the business was kindled last year when the government identified tourism as one of the sectors which could benefit from an international $74 million credit facility. This prompted enquiries from  about 500 potential entrepreneurs. Interest was heightened during the election campaign earlier this year, when President Mugabe's government made an issue of the continuing economic domination of the white community which constitutes  less than 1% of the country's 11 million population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Chimutengwende pledged support for greater black participation, but the government itself is under fire for not doing enough. 'We have a time-bomb and the government should do something about it quickly before it explodes,' says Colin Blythe-Wood, managing director of a tour company and chairman of the Zimbabwe Association of Tour and Safari Operators (ZATSO), referring to the black-white imbalance in the whole economy. 'We are indeed fortunate that this industry, which has perhaps the greatest potential in our economy, is still in its infancy,' he says. He argues that the government holds the trump card, through its ownership of vast tracts of land in national parks, forests and communal areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 1994 Zatso report identified more than 100 sites on state-owned land suitable for development by African tourism ventures. At least half, says Mr Blythe-Wood, were in areas of abundant wildlife, including the 'big five' - elephant, lion, rhinoceros, hippopotamus and buffalo. Other opportunities could be provided he suggests, if the National Park service got out of the accommodation business and concentrated on flora and fauna conservation. 'The government cannot be a referee and a player at the same time. It should sell off its shares in the Rainbow Tourism Group' - a wholly-owned government company which is the third largest operator in the tourism sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the industry's problems is that South Africa, too, has found tourism to be an unexpectedly good economic performer. Arrivals there rose by 50% in 1995, and a new government discussion document suggests that tourism could double its foreign exchange earnings by the year 2000 and triple its contribution to national income. South Africa's parks and beaches are well developed, but entrepreneurs are also fostering attractions such as Boer War battle sites and 'Road to Freedom' tours in which visitors have breakfast with former freedom fighters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fear is that South Africa will be the regional hub for visitors, siphonino off  most of the earnings, with</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zimbabwe merely getting the overspill from short side-trips.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zatso chief executive, Elias Nyakuni, points out that South</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa is already using Zimbabwe's top attraction to lure visitors, urging them 'to come to South Africa to see the</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Victoria Falls'! Efficient train, luxury bus and air services connect several South African cities to the Falls, which are on the Zimbabwe-Zambia border. Mr Nyakuni says that Zimbabwe  could also lose out if things go wrong in their southern neighbour. 'Violence in South Africa could deter people from coming to Zimbabwe.' He accuses the government of not taking marketing in Europe and North America sufficiently seriously. 'The 4-5% annual growth is, in essence, through word of mouth. We need to investt more in marketing.' He says that the Zimbabwe Council for Tourism is underfunded and that it operates 'without brochures or pamphlets.' Neverthelms,  with 1.25 million visitors last year spending $252m (up from 1.04m spending $203m in 1994) - tourism is a growth area in which black people could take a bigger share - and not just, as at present, as guides, drivers, mechanics and cooks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lovemore Chihota, who runs a booming Victoria Falls safari business, has shown the way. He admits that there is a lot of money to be made from tourism, but warns that careful preparation is needed, as well as determination, commitment and, a realisation that there are no quick returns. He also points to the need to have some equity. 'The promoter,' he stresses, 'must put his money where his mouth is.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> G.K.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Culture and society</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dak'Art 96</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most important exhibitions of African art, the Biennial Festival of Conternporary African Art, opened its doors to the public in Dakar, Senegal, on 8 May 1996. The 'Pan-African Art Exhibition', as it is still called, was being staged for the third time although it almost failed to take place at all, having been postponed several times over the last four years. All those who participated - from the artists who exhibited to the directors of art galleries and cultural  institions - were pleasantly surprised. The next edition of me Courier will include a more comprehensive account of the exhibition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President Abdou Diouf of Senegal inaugurated the event at the Daniel Sorano National Theatre in the company of a number of VlPs, including BartoLom&eacute; Amat Armengol who represented the European Commission. The Commission was Dak'Art 96's main financial partner providing support to the tune of CFAF 200 million (ECU 300 000 approx). The Biennial Festival aims to be a showcase for African artists allowing them to break into the international plastic arts market. Hitherto, this has remained relatively closed to them despite the general recognition that Africa has a contribution to make to the art world in this area. Mr Ousmane Sow Huchard, chairman of the Festival's scientific board, stressed that success lay first in stimulating the art market in Africa itself. He gave the example of his own country which had voted the so-called '1 % law', which stipulated the proportion of works of art that should be used to decorate all new public buildings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Festival's main exhibition, at the Ifan Museum of African Arts, was devoted to major trends in African sculpture. 42 artists selected by an international panel took part and, despite some criticism, their choice was a  judicious one. The same cannot be said, unfortunately, of the second major exhibition, at the National Art Gallery. This was devoted to contemporary Senegalese art and the skill involved in producing the exhibits was not of a consistently high standard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were also five individual exhibitions featuring artists chosen by internationally famous judges. These might be expected to have a dynamic effect in setting standards on the market. Zeribun Yempeta of Ethiopia offered a quite original style, working on a support of leather straps fastened to a trellis of fine strips of wood. He draws his inspiration from a combination of African design, Coptic and Greek influences, and ancient Egyptian art. Ethiopian painting was one of the major revelations of the 'Africa 95' exhibition in London last year and the Festival gave a further opportunity for such art to be displayed. Another display presented work by the Moroccan painter, Mohamed Kacimi, whose pictures have been hung in various exhibitions - although the term 'pictures' is not always appropriate to this artist's work. It is perhaps more fitting to say that he 'occupies space'. In Dakar, he covered three walls of a large room with 'rolling art'. His skill, particularly in monumental works, is to offer excitement and calm simultaneously, through the use of animated forms and soft, rhythmic harmonies. Ezrom Legae of South Africa, Moustapha Dime of Senegal and Pascale Martine Tayou of Cameroon were the three other artists granted individual exhibitions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the trends which came to the fore at Dak'Art was the use of alternative media and recycled material. The latter, in a sense, is the man in the street's legacy to art. Initially, recycling was used predominantly in the informal sector to produce utilitarian objects. The 'Biennial Festival Village' was set aside for informal sculptors, and in an open area beside the Village, both inside a marquee and outdoors, one of the most individually striking exhibitions was presented. This combined a variety of artistic forms ranging from painting to video, not to mention Adeagbo's unusual montages, including 'African artists and AIDS'. This had already been exhibited in a number of countries and was staged by the Revue Noire team in parallel with its 'AIDS' issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Festival included dozens of on-site exhibitions as well as all the 'fringe' presentations. The AIDS exhibition was one of the boldest but the display entitled 'Love' offered the greatest degree of unity and uniformity of design. Dak'Art 96 also made an attempt to integrate other forms of creativity such as dance, design and fashion. The latter two, for example, were presented at the Espace Vema, a fine metal structure where the creations of the Senegalese designer Claire Kane were in perfect harmony with the highly original furnishings. The European Union's prize for creativity, one of the Festival's four major prizes, was awarded to Vincent Namien, a designer from Cote d'lvoire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hege'Goueier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">On creativity... in Africa and elsewhere</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> by Alain Nicolas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this article is head curator and director of the Museum of African, Oceanic and Amerindian Arts in Marseilles. Here he offers his thoughts on the (partially unconscious) reluctance of the 'official' art world in the West - museums, critics and art historians - to accept contemporary African artists. Even now, they tend to be relegated to the sphere of 'alternative' art. However, he believes that the abundance of creative Africans, and the pressure they are exerting on the art world and market will, sooner or later, generate a 'new revolution' in the museums. This iswhat happened in the early20th century when traditional African art first arrived in the West. This article is linked to the dossier on African creativity published in our previous issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When I was asked to make this small contribution on African creativity, I was happy to oblige since, as a non-specialist, I am able to content myself with a few generalisations. I believe that there are still barriers, sometime not very visible, but nonetheless real, which have to be broken down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, writing just a few lines on creativity is a difficult exercise given the amount of literature on the subject and so many divergent opinions. So, what line should I adopt? About 15 years ago - in the wake of hordes of specialists in the humanities from sociology, psychology, ethnology, anthropology and so on - a rational approach, known as 'the anthropology of art', was at last proposed. The term 'rational' should be seen here in the context of the distinction between exact or 'hard' sciences such as mathematics, physics and astronomy, and the humanities, which are essentially inexact or 'soft' disciplines. And in brief, the West tends to take a scientific approach, relying on empirical evidence, even when it seeks to study such subjects as human creativity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Creativity obviously is to be found in many different spheres. It is needed in technology, it is fundamental to story-telling, it underpins all forms of social organisation and has a part to play in religion. Similarly, what we term 'art'  is one of the spheres of creative endeavour. The anthropology of art seeks to document artistic creativity and to analyse the conditions surrounding its expression in various cultures. This is a laudable enterprise insofar as art is regarded as another means of expression, used in one form or another by all human groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The creative function is universal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The basic postulate is that any society - and any individual - possesses creative potential which may be expressed in any way. The first thing to examine, therefore, is the context of choice. There are various modes of artistic expression ranging from music, poetry, prose and dance to architecture, painting and fashion. Some individuals or societies may have no choice, perhaps because of socio-economic constraints. Others may favour a particular mode of expression while nonetheless dabbling in more than one area. The expression of creativity is, therefore, like an identifying mark, claimed by the group or by the individual. The concept of 'style' now comes into play. The expression of one group is different from that of another and no two can ever be the same. Fundamental elements are at work in this materialisation of creativity. Some  are due to the natural environment. Thus, for example, a society located in a place where wood is abundant may favour sculpture. Others come from the group or individual themselves. And in the final analysis, it is the groups or individuals that decide what to portray (or not) on the basis of their own social norms and what they want to express.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These few limited thoughts should be supplemented by the observation that sculpture or the plastic arts more generally can also be examined from at least two angles: as a means of conveying information, and as a form of linguistic expression.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards the former, some have proposed analysing any work of art, from whatever culture, as a message. Analysis of the work therefore includes an examination of the conditions surrounding the production and transmission of the message. What message is broadcast ? How does it function ? What does the addressee gain from it? This approach is fine in hypothetical terms but does not allow one to go beyond theoretical and formal data, teaching us nothing about the content of the message under study. It refers back to the originator who holds the keys to the way in which it was sent and thus to its form and meaning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linguistically speaking, we assume that all expression through sculpture is a language and that the techniques for studying language can therefore be applied to the work of art. This approach is more rewarding because it brings us closer both to the sources and to the function of communication.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Be that as it may, all methods involve knowledge of the group or of the individual (but also of the relationships between them) and thus of any organised knowledge. Art cannot be separated from perception. This is the position of the majority of scientists. Yet we are not completely certain of this. Briefly, we are led to imagine that art could be irreducible at a certain level. When we look at a sculpture or listen to a piece of music, aside from the emotional content which is at least   partly quantifiable, what are we able to understand about the culture which produced them ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having travelled widely throughout the world and kept my eyes open, without having become the 'observer-participant' which the ethnologist should be, I am certain that the same creative function can be seen everywhere, and it is not difficult to identify.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Frequent visits to the world's museums and, perhaps above all, to their vaults, further reinforces the impression that constants do exist and are worthy of more and better investigation. Art, and more particularly the art of others, from other continents, is still the domain of a happy few.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are usually highly literate people, and are seldom activists expounding a cause.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contemporary African art must find its niche</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The above statements relate as much to contemporary art as to what we term 'traditional' art. How many of the world's museums really show contemporary art from Africa ? It is as if this sector were cut off from current cultural reality. This is despite the fact that each week, new artists, musicians, designers, painters, sculptors, dancers, film-makers, stylists and photographers emerge from Africa, to be 'recognised' in the West (if anyone knows what 'recognition' really means!). The museums are, in fact, confused by this burgeoning of talent because they have no idea how to manage it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has been said that contemporary African art is an urban phenomenon aimed at those living in towns and cities - and that it rebels against essentially rural, traditional art.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The argument is that the usual methods for analysing traditional art cannot be fully mobilised because 'urban civilisation' conforms to a set of universal norms (more or less), which are distinct from those studied by ethnologists. It would, therefore, be more appropriate to consider contemporary art in the context of sociology and aesthetics. This may be true, but it still comes down to a matter of observation. Confusion reigns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When we staged an exhibition in Marseilles by the Senegalese sculptor, Ousmane Sow, the first individual showing of his works came as a major shock to many people, including the specialists. I can remember the reactions of at least   two colleagues from museums of contemporary art. What they said was almost identical, and was along the following lines:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What's the name of this sculptor ? I am not familiar with him...</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. Do you like his work ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, I do, but what's his name ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. Ousmane Sow </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I don't know him. Astonishing! Where's he from ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. Senegal - he lives in Dakar. Are you interested in his sculptures ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but..</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. You can buy one of his works - he's not very expensive yet and it would be good for your museum. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The problem is he's African.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AN. I see... </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· His works are more your sphere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. But they don't have anything to do with traditional art which is what I have in my museum. Ousmane Sow is a contemporary artist, isn't he ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but he's African, and your museum is a museum of African art.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A N. You're correct, I would love to buy one of his works. But it would be the only example of contemporary art in my museum and would represent a change of policy for me. You wouldn't have anything by Ousmane Sow. And we would then be rivals! </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Critics, artists and art historians have begun discussing contemporary African art, more and more good reviews of it are being published, talks are being given and some major exhibitions have been mounted. There are pioneers and supporters in France, Germany and elsewhere, and there is even a great museum - Washington's Smithsonian - which took it on board several years  ago - but we still seem to be a long way from a commitment from most institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I hope this statement will soon be proved wrong. Institutions do not like taking risks. Either they create 'ghettos' ('let's set up a museum of contemporary African art'), or they set up committees to consider the subject. It is up to us to set our houses in order, but we must not be too naive. This is the art market, after</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although we tend to cling to this somewhat short-sighted administrative view that there should be different institutions depending on whether we are dealing with heritage or contemporary creativity, museums of contemporary art must integrate all the world's sculptural expression. If not, they will be in conflict with the above; postulate which claims that creative  potential is the same everywhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for so-called museums of anthropology and also a few rare museums such as the Museum of African, Oceanic and Amerindian Art in Marseilles, the systematic exhibition of contemporary art does generate a number of problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When I have wanted to do this in the past, I have been reminded of the 'museographic landscape' and advised to consult the authorities, to organise a major debate on the topic: who, what, where ? That is the rational approach, we are told. There is no great hurry!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, the recent arrival of African artists comes at a moment in our history when we are questioning the existence of our museums. When I say 'we', I mean the West in general.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So, what might happen ? Traditional African art caused an explosion in Western art and traditional art history at the very beginning of the 20th century, with the cubists and their research which led them to develop a passion for African sculpture. We are all aware of what we owe to Africa and its traditional artists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Contemporary art from Africa is knocking on the closed door of Western museums, but the arrival of contemporary African artists and the pressure they exert on the art world and  market might trigger a new revolution in the museums, which are also the archives. Certainly, all the usual followers are ready to take up the cause, and that is how it should be. Let's be optimistic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.N. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The works of Ainsley Yearwood: Bombarded with colour</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Claude Smets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ainsley Yearwood is a Trinity dadian artist based in London. me Courier had the opportunity to meet him recently when an exhibition of his works was staged at his country's embassy in Brussels. Brought up in Trinidad, he moved to London to study fine arts at the Chelsea Art School. Feeling unable to express himself fully in this discipline, he ended up taking a degree in graphic design. Mr Yearwood is still based in the UK capital where, in addition to his work as a painter, he also designs costumes for the Notting Hill Carnival, a cousin of the famous Trinidad Carnival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The artist is fortunate to be able to live from his work. Besides the present exhibition which is touring Europe (Manchester, Brussels, Geneva and London), he has other works currently on show at three galleries in the US. He finds that the reaction of the American public is different from the European one. Americans, he believes, are more spontaneous and openminded. 'Europeans tend to stick more to things they already know; to which they are more accustomed.' The titles he gives to his art pieces are for him 'a basis for artistic conversation' with his audience. They express his emotions, feelings, and thoughts, but do not try to impose a specific interpretation of the painting on the viewer. Ainslie Yearwood dislikes the idea of being labelled or categorised - or as he describes it, 'to  be put into a box'. As such, he rebels against people who try to make him conform.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A world citizen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although Ainsley Yearwood recognises his African roots within Trinidadian society, he sees himself as 'a world citizen'. The influences in his paintings are many and varied - deriving from the multicultural background of Trinidad and Tobago, European art and graphic design, the memories of his own childhood and his recent experiences. 'I am like a sponge', he says. 'Everything influences me in my work... people, places and all that I see around me. They help me to view things from a different perspective.' These all then flow together to be visualised through his 'inner eye' (expressed, for example, by two blue dots in his work In the Company of Nature which represents the Grand Canyon). By paying particular attention to what he sees, his 'visual view' is transformed into an 'emotional view'. Thus, for example, his painting Evolution appears to be a landscape. A :loser look reveals that the rocks are in the shape of hands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The artist also uses symbols in dome of his work, as a personal means 'or him to express life. The butterfly :rapped in a jar, for example, in Love lost, is a symbol of the fragility of life. The glass of water in Soul of a Mother symbolises the way a child looks at the world as something exciting and new. he also draws strongly on the imagery of candles, inner eyes and doorways.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strong colours, strong emotions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What unifies Mr. Yearwood's work, is his use of colours. As he says, they are 'strong colours to express strong emotions'. In this, he has been inspired by his childhood in Trinidad which, in his own words, 'was an environment that constantly bombarded you with colour - from crystal to aquamarine, sapphire and emerald - a perpetual rainbow of red, yellow, green and blue'. One painting where colour is used to striking effect is Carnival Bacchanal. This depicts Trinidad's Carnival and reflects both the island's multicultural society and its vividness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ainsley Yearwood has also produced more surrealist and psycho-biographical works, under the influence of artists such as Salvador Dali and Francis Bacon. Emotions are revealed through the use of darker though still vivid colours. These works (such as Evolution, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Translucent State and Suspended in Limbo) show a fragmented self, stuck between past, present and future, looking for a way forward. They come in stark contrast to the brighter mood of paintings of island scenes - which are in a more African style - or of jazz musicians (such as Soul of a City or The Musician). According to the artist, this is being realistic. If he wants to paint life, he must show the different and contrasting emotions a human being experiences. 'You get up in the morning and you are feeling a little bit happy. You come home in the evening and you are feeling a little bit down. So emotions are continuously changing. If I said that I was always happy, that wouldn't be true.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As mentioned above, a number of Ainsley Yearwood's pieces portray jazz players. He enjoys going to New Orleans to listen to jazz bands and in Soul of a City he portrays one of the musicians. The title underlaines the importance of performers in a place like New Orleans - where indeed, they form an integral part of city life. In A Musical Love affair, the painter uses techniques learned as a graphic designer to help him express his feelings. By drawing graphic lines, the cello player and the instrument flow into one another. He explains: 'The cello player was not just playing the instrument. She was actually part of it. It is as if she were making love to the cello.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear from the foregoing that Mr. Yearwood's art is primarily visual. The onlooker is bombarded with strong colours - which are used, together with abstraction and symbolism, to express both optimistic and pessimistic feelings. The artist uses his multicultural background to great effect, drawing on influences from Trinidad, Africa and Europe, to create different modes of expression. These are the essential factors which make his paintings interesting and refreshing to look at.  c.s. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA-Bulletin</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Fairness on the livestock field of play</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Sarah Reynolds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the town of Thies one of Senegal's regional capitals, there is an abattoir where nothing goes to waste. Even the horns of cattle are sold for making carvings for sale to tourists while the tips of the horns are exported to Japan. In a rural area of Chad, small-scale livestock farmers are preserving meat by the age-old process of cutting it into strips and drying it in the sun. Careful attention to hygiene and quality control has resulted in a product so consistently good that it has found an export market as far away as Gabon. Livestock producers in sub-Saharan Africa are responding to market opportunities, not because they recognise the need to improve national food requirements, but in pursuit of profit. Therein lies the best chance for stimulating the livestock sector's production capacity. The challenge is to design policies that protect consumers without crushing entrepreneurial potential for producers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than half the population of sub-Saharan Africa is likely to be living in a town or city within the next 30 years. These city dwellers will have neither the skill, the time nor the space to raise livestock. There are indications on present trends that their demand for food of animal origin will increase. Where will they get it from ? Imported meat is more expensive than it used to be, largely as a result of the change in policies of the European Union. These have also affected the supply of low-cost milk powder and butter oil. Imports from countries outside the continent will  undoubtedly continue but intra-African   trade and local production will become   far more significant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has been estimated that the production of animal products in sub-Saharan Africa would have to increase by 4% per year to ensure an adequate supply of animal protein for the region's growing population, and to end the need for imports. This presents a major challenge to policy-makers. Already, the current pressure on land resources is causing conflict in some areas and the prospect of more people, more animals, and more strain on already inadequate resources, is perturbing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Information vacuum  in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of value</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Decisions on how to achieve sustainable and yet more productive land-use, while at the same time ensuring fair access to resources for other interested users, cannot be soundly based if made in an information vacuum. It was in recognition of the lack of information about the livestock sector that the CTA organised and sponsored a seminar on Livestock development policies in the humid and sub-humid zones of sub-Saharan Africa. This was held in Abidjan, Cote d'lvoire on 5-9 February 1996. It was attended by participants from 17 countries within the region and by representatives from international institutions and from Europe. The objective was to contribute to the ongoing debate on policies aimed at bringing about sustainable livestock development while respecting natural resources in developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of value</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effective planning of government action on issues such as import policy, provision of inputs and services, marketing and research priorities requires quantitative information on livestock production systems. Why is this information lacking when it is estimated that livestock products contribute about 25% of total agricultural GDP in subSaharan Africa? The livestock sector is too important to ignore and yet it is consistently undervalued. The reason is that economists and statisticians like to deal with a tangible unit that can be counted. Ideally, this should be a monetary unit but, failing that, it should at least be a unit that can be easily converted to money, such as the number of animals potentially available to the market. But if animals are used to sustain a traditional way of life, for people who do not have to pay before they can eat, it is difficult to put a monetary value on the food they consume. Similarly, if a herd of animals is sustained by forage that has no other use, on land that can be used for no other purpose, the cost of feeding cannot easily be measured in financial terms. Indeed producers have little to gain from allowing government   departments to acquire information about their assets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Livestock owners have their own objectives when deciding whether and how to increase production. Livestock provide energy in the form of draught power, and dung for fuel or biogas. Their manure restores structure and fertility to the soil. Social prestige may be measured in the quantity and quality of the animals one possesses. For some livestock owners, their animals are their 'barking' system. They represent a deposit account for accumulated wealth and a current account when an animal is sold to raise cash. Indeed it may be impossible to obtain credit from an orthodox bank. There is an added advantage in that there are no interest charges to pay when you raise cash by selling your own animals as opposed to taking out a loan from a bank. It may be difficult to measure real production when animals are treated as a capital reserve. For example, an increase in meat prices, perhaps as a response to a change in economic policy, may result in a short-term reduction rather than increase, in the number of animals being marketed. This is because producers are able to maintain their income by selling fewer animals and can simultaneously  increase their breeding herds. Alternatively, there may be little incentive to producers to sell more animals if they have no use for the extra money they earn. It is of course true that more people are joining the cash economy as they become aware of the desirability of consumer goods, or of services such as schooling. Governments may aspire to design policies which will develop the livestock sector for the economic welfare of society as a whole, but if these policies ignore the objectives of livestock owners, they will fail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fair play</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a football match, the referee is there to see fair play. In the livestock sector, governments have to ensure fair play between the 'demand team' and the 'supply team', in other words the -consumers and the producers. Governments often make two mistakes. Either they help one team at the expense of the other, or else they join in the game themselves. The role of the authorities should be to make the rules that protect both teams from unfair or unsafe practices. For example, health and hygiene regulations must be in place, and  enforced, but not be so onerous that illegal and totally unregulated marketing channels are established.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Private traders have considerable power to manipulate markets if they collude to form cartels and prevent outsiders from entering their ring. Governments should ensure that this is not allowed to happen, that markets are open and that traders are free to operate provided that they observe health and hygiene regulations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Veterinary services</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most countries are no longer able to supply even minimum standards of veterinary support to their livestock producers. The efforts that have been made in recent years have been largely in the form of donor-funded projects where continuity is rarely guaranteed. The only viable alternative seems to be to transfer activities of this kind to service providers in the private sector. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work that they do under contract to the government, for example relating to the control of epidemic diseases, must be funded by government or other central agencies since cost-recovery from individual livestock owners is not feasible when participation has to be compulsory. The work that they do on behalf of individuals, or associations of livestock owners, should, however, be paid for by those who benefit directly from the increased productivity that should result - the farmers. The greatest difficulty lies in managing what will be a long and difficult transition period. The success of ventures to privatise veterinary services depends on whether the profession can deliver a decent living in the private sector, particularly in rural areas where the need is undoubtedly greatest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is in the rural areas that livestock production needs to be intensified. On the outskirts of Africa's major cities, intensive pig and poultry production is already being supported by commercial, joint venture capital. Dairy units, in which exotic, high performance cattle breeds are managed in a controlled environment, are producing fresh milk for cash-paying consumers in nearby towns and cities. Urban areas create the demand but it is the rural areas that need the development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Animal products are seasonal and prices fluctuate accordingly. However, consumers are more likely to develop the habit of using products that are consistently available at stable prices. Government intervention to stabilise  prices risks favouring the consumer at the expense of the producer. For example, if imports are used to counter temporarily high prices during periods of drought, then producers will receive less for their reduced output at the very time when they need support. The most effective policy of price stabilization is to encourage the adoption of production systems that are less vulnerable to seasonal changes. Processing achieves this to some degree and brings benefits to both producers and consumers. Furthermore, because animal products are perishable, and dangerous to human health when they deteriorate, processing extends storage life, and may even have an effect in improving food security.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most countries, the time of greatest food shortage is at the beginning of the rainy season. This is also the time when milk production soars because cattle have good feed; and yet much of that milk is wasted because there is more than required for home consumption. If that surplus milk can be fumed into cheese, potential customers in more distant markets may be reached. Provided that the product is acceptable to the consumer, cheese-making reduces wastage, diversifies the producer's source of income and may also provide employment, and therefore income, to those brought in to help with the production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A technology that has been exhaustively tested by FAO for its suitability for use in Africa is lactoperoxydase. This is an enzyme which extends by three hours the length of time before milk begins to curdle and clot. This effectively doubles the time available for milk to reach the cooling centre, and thereby extends the catchment areas for producers wishing to supply fresh milk to urban markets. The trials that have been conducted show that it is entirely safe. When milk is brought to rural collecting points, it is the responsibility of the cooling centre employee, not the farmer, to add the enzyme at the prescribed rate as the milk is transferred into cans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On current trends, it seems probable that there will be more than 20 capital cities in Africa that have a population of 10 million people by the year 2010. How many other cities and towns will have developed by that time ? There are so many people migrating to the urban areas, and they are doing so because the type of activities that ought to be taking place in the countryside do not exist. If the livestock industry, both primary production and processing, can be encouraged in rural areas, and if the infrastructure is in place to ensure that animal products, in whatever form, can reach urban markets, rural dwellers will find it more comfortable to stay where they are rather than going to the cities to look for jobs that do not exist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge for policy-makers is to deal even-handedly, not only in the interests of the livestock sector, but in the interests of other farmers, consumers, the national economy and the long-term sustainability of the nation's natural resources. For this task, reliable information, which is accessible to all countries within the region, is essential. The database structure of this information should be standardised so that it can form the basis of regional cooperation on trade and the sustainable use of land resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.R. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Couriers Mailbag</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WCL seeks a wider  expression views</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We refer to the article published by The Courier in issue no 156 (March-April 1996) entitled The changing face of trade unionism in Africa, which reflects the views of the ICFTU (AFRO) and OATUU.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We are surprised that you have not taken pains to solicit the views of the World Confederation of Labour (WCL) and its regional organisation, the Democratic Organisation of African Workers Trade Unions (DOAWTU) - which participated on the same footing as the two other trade union organisations at the ACP-KU Social Partners meeting in December last year. We strongly believe this omission on your part should be corrected in future in order to allow a wider expression of the views and stands of all representative trade unions in Africa on such important issues as structural adjustment programmes, the social clause, labour standards and working conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carlos L. Custer, Secretary-General, World Confederation of Labour, Brussels, Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linked destinies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The continuing dialogue between the ACP and EC Groups has exposed many mutual concerns about world affairs and has promoted a more complete understanding of the problems of both advanced and developing  nations. I am confident that in the future, we shall see further progress in our efforts to create a favourable financial climate for the resolution of our economic problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Global political and economic events have brought home to all of us how inextricably our social and economic destinies are linked. This is true of a whole range of subjects from human rights and political reform to economic development, conservation, health education and industrial promotion. None of these subjects can be put into independent boxes. We must seek more effective integration of our social and economic policies - both internally and internationally - if we are to serve the welfare of the people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I rejoice in your initiative in publishing The Courier. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Teddyiniovo, International institute for Global Cooperation, Benin City, Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Scope for energy selfsufficiency</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">May I congratulate you on the new layout of The Courier, which is a great deal clearer and which you have instituted as a result of comments made by a number of your readers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I am surprised to discover that you have not said anything about the question of energy dependence in the Lom&eacute; Convention countries. Energy self sufficiency is an extremely important issue. ACP countries face a famine in this area which is rarely mentioned. Most are majors exporters of petroleum, which is  costly and absorbs a significant proportion of their foreign exchange earnings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Practically all the Lom&eacute; countries are in a position to produce alcohol from crops such as sugar cane and manioc without any negative impact on their food resources. These crops could be distilled to produce big-ethanol which is an excellent fuel. All that is needed - and it is a major challenge admittedly - is for production to be organised in each country, and for the required national and international financing to be set up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also required is the political will in these countries to overcome the various obstacles, including those lobbies who oppose this kind of production because they want petrol imports to be maintained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pierre Mariotte Consultant, Paris, France </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bibliography</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jean Monnet - 1888-1979  </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Eric Roussel. Published by Fayard, Paris. 1996. 1004 pages. FFR 198.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jean Monnet was almost 91 years old when he died and, despite the fact that he had no higher education qualifications and at times did not hold any official post, his public role was legendary. From the very first page of his book, Eric Roussel stresses the fact that, from the moment Jean Monnet met the Prime Minister, Rene Viviani, in September 1914 until 9 May 1975, the day the Action Committee for a United States of Europe was dissolved, he worked constantly for the European cause.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He applied the same tireless enthusiasm to all his duties, in whatever sphere of activity he was involved - and these were many and varied. Despite his provincial origins, Jean Monnet was, among other things, a cognac merchant, an advocate of the Allied coordination effort during the First World War, Deputy Secretary General of the League of Nations (for a short time), a banker in America and China during the 1930s and in charge of the Victory Program in the USA in 1941. From 1947 to 1952, he was the first Commissioner-General of the Economic Plan in France. He and Robert Schuman were the architects of the famous Declaration of 9 May 1950 which was to form the basis of European construction. He went on to become the first President of the ECSC's High Authority and, until 1975, he was the driving force behind the Action Committee for a United States of Europe. And that is just to highlight his renowned roles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, Jean Monnet was both a visionary and a pragmatist, who was to become adviser to some of the greatest names of his day. General de Gaulle, another great visionary, albeit with a very different ideology, called him 'the inspiration' behind European integration, although such an accolade was not completely devoid of irony given that the two men could hardly be said to see eye to eye.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jean Monnet was a purveyor of new ideas, but also an eternal realist who never failed to recognise the importance of the status quo. Indeed, he could have stepped right out of the pages of a Paul Morand novel. And yet, despite the fact that he was held in the highest esteem by world political heavyweights (Clemenceau, Roosevelt, Churchill, Adenauer, de Gasperi, Brandt, Pompidou, John Kennedy, Henry Kissinger, Heath and Giscard d'Estaing, to name but a few), in his private life he was a simple man, of modest disposition - in fact a bourgeois in the best sense of the word.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 'workaholic', like many great men, Jean Monnet defied categorization. He has recently been described as 'a man of fringe ideologies who was nevertheless always at the centre of things'. During the latter part of his life, he settled comfortably into his role as 'rather' of Europe. His fundamental thoughts on that topic could be summed up in one line from the Declaration of 9 May 1950, (now a public holiday in the European institutions). 'Europe will not be built in a day, nor as a single structure, but will come about through concrete actions which, first and foremost, create a de facto solidarity'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Monnet, nationalism meant only war and, from 1942 onwards, he set his sights on preparing for the future, surrounding himself with a team of extraordinary talent - people such as Etienne Hirsch, Herve Alphand, Rene Mayer and Robert Marjolin. These men strove to find ways to avoid war between the countries of Western Europe, to define the objectives of European unification and to establish European institutions which would be equal to such a task.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eric Roussel is a journalist with an arts degree and a doctorate in law, and this is an outstanding work on the 'pragmatic visionary' that was Jean</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Monnet. The book is comprehensive, extremely well-written and impressively documented. Most notably, the author had access, for the first time, to the famous journal kept by Jean Monnet in which he recorded his countlles conversations with the key players and set out his own thoughts. Today, his dream of 'a united Europe complemented by a partnership with the United States' is still one of the big issues. And as the arguments rage, we should perhaps recall some other famous words from Jean Monnet's Memoires: 'We do not seek to form a coalition of States, we seek to unite men . </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alain Lacroix </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Le Choix de l'Europe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Opting for Europe)  by Laurent Cohen-Tanugi. Pub/ished by Fayard, Paris. 225 pages. FFR 110 - BFR 748.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Laurent Cohen-Tanugi successfully reminds us of the modernity of the European project; that there are aspects of it that are essential to our independence and our prosperity, to preserving our model of society and maintaining our influence on the international stage. By urging Europeans and European leaders to look to the future so as to be better able to manage the risks and seize the opportunities that it offers and, ultimately, to be in a better position to change things, he brings us all hope'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was how Jacques Delors described this book, and, basically, there you have it in a nutshell. It would, however, be worthwhile adding that 'opting for Europe' is not quite as simple as it sounds - a fact which has not escaped the attention of the author, who is a graduate of France's elite Ecole normale superieure and of the Harvard Law School. He is also a barrister and member of a renowned firm of international lawyers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the Treaty of Rome, European progress has very often come about because Member States have set themselves deadlines for achieving particular objectives. 1996 sees the opening of the Intergovernmental Conference, an event of major importance, which is expected to continue at least until the spring of 1997 (with parliamentary elections planned in several Member States in 1997 and 1998). Among the items on the agenda for the IGC is the need to adapt the European institutions - which in essence have hardly changed since 1958 - and to open up the way for the third phase of Economic and Monetary Union in 1999 for those States which have fulfilled the economic convergence criteria set out in the Maastricht Treaty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, besides the technical and financial problems involved, there are also differences between certain Member States about the political future of Europe. The author rightly stresses, in this respect, that the situation has become even more complex since the demise of the Soviet Union. In particular, some politicians support an expansion of the EU towards Central and Eastern Europe, so as to avoid strengthening European integration. The author believes that, broadly speaking, there are two distinct positions. On the one hand, there is the United Kingdom, which would be happy with a large free trade area guided by a 'Secretariat-Commission'and with flexible and relatively loose inter-State cooperation structures at a political level. On the other hand, there is Germany, which wants expansion of the Union towards the East as well, but also wants a swift and concrete consolidation of a common monetary and political 'hard core'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In his book, the author expresses his view that France will play a vital role in maintaining and advancing the essential elements that form the basis of the European enterprise. And he nails his own colours firmly to the mast as someone who hopes to see the continent moving towards some form of federal structure. As one observer commenting   on the work has noted, 'This little Bible, brimming with faith in the concept of a unified Europe, will be invaluable - even to the doubting Thomases among us'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publications received</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Et.... qu'en pensent les villageois? Projets de developpement durable et be veins de base b&eacute;n&eacute;ficiaires</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(But... what do the villagers think about it ? Sustainable development projects and basic needs of aid recipients)  by Myriam Bacquelaine. Published by Ured (Research, Education and Development Unit) of the K.U. Brussels (17, avenue de la Liberte, B- 1080 Brussels). 1995. 3Z2 pages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Les problemes du monde rural vus par les habitants - Portraits de villages de Haute-Guinee</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(me problems of rural life as seen by the inhabitants - Profiles of villages in Upper Guinea)  by Myriam Bacquelaine. Published by Ured (Research, Education and Development Unit) of the KU. Brussels (17, avenue de la Liberte, B- 1080 Brussels). 1995. 222 pages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, who has a PhD in educational sciences and is a researcher at Ured, has written these two works on the basis of a study she carried out on behalf of the European Commission in Guinea (Conakr,v). This aimed at identifying the most urgent priorities of village communities within the context of an environment restoration project.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conclusion of the first book underlines research results which point to the adoption of a different approach to development at local level: one which respects the wishes of the recipients and which finally breaks free from western ethnocentrism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the second volume, the author presents the results of the survey conducted in the villages of Upper Guinea. Six villages with varying characteristics in terms of size, geographical location and administrative status are featured in more detail. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Informations pour le Developpement: Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Information on development: Agriculture)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Published by Ibiscus (ibis, rue du Havre, F-75008 Paris) and by the Agency for Cultural and Technical Cooperation. 1995. 271 pages. FFR 150.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More than just an index, this publication is a useful working tool for anyone seeking reliable information about development in the agricultural sector. It includes a list of the main organisations specialising in agriculture in 40 French-speaking countries and a list of the principal places and means from which to obtain information (documentation centres, data banks, optical discs, CDs and on-line data services). There is also a selection of periodicals, a bibliographic section (with more than 300 references, including abstracts) and contributions by specialists relating to major topics connected with rural development: landownership systems, links between cash crops and food crops, agricultural funding, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda - Trois jour qui ont fait basculer l'histoire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Rwanda - Three days that shook history)  by Filip Reyntjens. Published by L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole-Polytechnique, F75005 Paris). Cahiers africains no. /6! 1995. 148 pages FFR 9O. ISBN 2-738437044.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although much has been written about the tragic events in Rwanda, this work examines an aspect of the story which is still largely a mystery: the brief period which began on 6 April with the missile attack on the presidential jet and ended on 9 April, when the 'caretaker government' was swam into office. According to the author, these 72 hours were of critical importance since it was during  this time that the country's killing machine was set in motion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Essentially based on eye-witnffs accounts, it is a tale which is far from complete. The book, however, does provide some hitherto undocumented information which allow us to delve deeper in search of the truth behind one of the darkest pages of recent human history.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Les refugies rwandais a Bukavu au Zaire - De nouveaux Palestiniens?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(The Rwandan refugees in Bukavu, Zaire - the new Palestinians ?)  by Philippe de Dorlodot Published by L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole-Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris) and by the Jeremie Group. 1995. 253 pages. FM 150. ISBN 2-7384-3698-6.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author has brought together various stories, appeals, communiques, analyses and thoughts to write this book about the crisis facing the Rwandan refugees. The accounts cover the period from April 1994 to October 1995 and relate to the situation in South Kivu, Zaire, where an already volatile position has been greatly exacerbated by the arrival of the refugees. The people living in the regional centres of Goma and Bukavu are having to live with the tragedy of gross overcrowding and all its consequences - environmental deterioration, price increases, general insecurity and the threat of war on the border between Rwanda and Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire now wants the refugees to leave as quickly as possible, but their return to Rwanda is still problematic. Rejected at every turn, are these Rwandan refugees set to become the new Palestinians? In the postscript to the work, Filip Reyntjens (the author of the book reviewed previously) states that 'These new refugees will not accept eternal exile. H voluntary repatriation is not possible, and if forced repatriation is unacceptable, the only way left open to them may be armed repatriation... The civil society of South Kivu... is well aware of this, and the international community would do well to listen to their cries of alarm... If  it does not, the tragic events of the past year will have been merely a prelude, with the worst still to come'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La tragedie rwandaise - Historique et Perspectives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(The Rwandan tragedy - historical background and future prospects)  by Emmanuel Nkunzumwami. Published by L'Harmaffan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1995. 480 pages. FFR 250. ISBN 2-7384-3697-8.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, a teiecommunications engineer and economist, was born and raised in Rwanda. He now lives in France and has had several articles about the situation in his country published. In this work, he seeks to Reconstruct the machine of central Rwandan power which first appeared in the eleventh century, seeking answers to questions such as: Who ruled the country and how? What alliances were forged and according to what criteria? What kinds of social structure existed and what forms did conflict take? He then goes on to describe the trauma of colonial rule which 'deliberately' fanned the flames of socio-ethnic conflict so that the people could be more easily controlled. From there, he takes us through the era of an 'independent' Rwanda under a dictatorial regime. Its power was progressively stripped away, initially under the pressure of internal calls for democracy, and then by the demands of Western aid donors. Finally, he recounts the events since April 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having given the historical background, the author examines the country's future prospects. He believes that the 'siege mentality' of the new government does nothing to induce the return of the 2 million refugees who shuffle back and forth across the border and who find themselves stuck between a 'rock and a hard place'. Finally, the author poses a straightforward question - but one which has yet to be answered: How can we rebuild a country that has witnessed genocide on such a scale ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">News round-up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In brief</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNCTAD Report on the least-developed countries (LDCs)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to the annual report of UNCTAD (The UN Conference on Trade and Development), the 48 least developed countries of the planet, after several years of stagnation - and indeed, decline in some cases - enjoyed an average growth rate of 3% in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 1994-95. The figure was 4.6% for LDCs in Asia and 2.2% for those in Africa (33 out 48).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNCTAD says that the renewed grovvth rate for Africa's least developed nations is due to an increase in commodity prices, to improved political and social stability in certain countries and to economic reforms which have been implemented. If these favourable conditions are maintained, further modest progress can be anticipated for 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the positive impact of these factors on the development of countries, notably in Asia, UNCTAD believes that there is still a short-term danger that the world's weakest economies will suffer further marginalisation. It is pointed out, in this context, that the LDCs' share of total world trade - which stood at 1.7% in 1970 - had fallen to 0.4% for exports and 0.7% for imports, by 1994.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the longer term it is thought that the LDCs, with their reliance on basic commodities for export receipts, may benefit from the globalization of their economies. This should happen notably through the regional trade agreements to which they are parties, alongside other developing countries. These regional markets, which are more attractive for investors, offer an opportunity for LDCs to try out their products and can, in time, help improve their competitiveness. In the  meantime, however, UNCTAD has noted that the immediate effects of the Uruguay Round have tended to be more negative, with reductions in the preferences enjoyed by LDCs in export markets and increases in the price of foodstuffs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, because they are dependent on official development aid (ODA) to finance investment, and even for their national budgets, LDCs are faced with possible further marginalisation as such aid flows are reduced. The figures show that, in terms of total resource flows, the amount of ODA provided by the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the OECD fell to 23% in 1994 from a figure of 27% a decade previously.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Likewise, the amount of aid, expressed as a proportion of the GDP of the donor countries, has been falling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNCTAD suggests a bolder policy as regards external debt - which, in 1994, amounted to 73% of the entire Gross Domestic Product of the LDCs. The organisation believes that the establishment of a new mechanism with sufficient resources to reduce multilateral indebtedness, combined with the expansion of existing mechanisms, could have the effect of reducing the overall debt burden to a more reasonable level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the subject of globalisation, UNCTAD argues that the international community should work to ensure that the LDCs' export markets do not become blocked by protectionist measures. It also believes that extensions to regional trade agreements, taking in the main industrialised countries, should not be allowed to have a damaging effect on the commercial interests of the LDCs. It points out that these countries have only limited scope for pursuing independent, national economic policies and that</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No agreement over banning landmines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Humanitarian organisations have expressed disappointment over the outcome of a recent United Nations conference, convened in Geneva to draw up a convention on 'Inhumane weapons). Both NGOs, and public agencies such as UNICEF, are particularly unhappy that state representatives at the meeting were unable to agree to an immediate and comprehensive ban on anti-personnel mines. These devices, which often lie hidden in the soil for many years, kill and maim thousands of civilians in current (and former) conflict areas across the globe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diplomats attending the Geneva conference were keen to emphasise what had been achieved. So-called 'dumb' mines, which do not self-destruct after a certain time will eventually be phased out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seif-destructing devices, which are still permitted under international law, will be subject to strict new standards, designed notably to ensure that they can be detected. And there will be new rules to ensure that minefieids are properly marked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Critics point out that signatories to the Convention will not be obliged to phase out 'dumb' mines immediately and that their use will remain legal for a further nine years after the agreement enters into force.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also an exception to the rule about marking the location of mines, 'where direct military action makes its impossible to comply' - a not uncommon circumstance in conflict situations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since the Geneva Conference, a number of countries, including the United States, have announced their intention to reduce their stockpiles of mines. Few nations, however, seem willing to renounce their use altogether. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.  their governments have little choice but to adopt the prevailing market oriented approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Long-term food security</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A seminar on 'Long-Term Food Security Policies' was held in Brussels on 1-3 April at the initiative of the European Commission. The meeting, which was opened by Professor Pinheiro, Commissioner with responsibility for relations with the ACP countries, brought together about a hundred participants representing Member States, third countries, international organisations and major cooperation agencies. It was also attended by experts and researchers in the field of food security.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fulfilling a promise made by the Commission, the aim of the seminar was to clarify the long term strategic issues and take a closer look at food security policies with a view to preparing a European position for the World Food Summit scheduled for Rome in November under the auspices of the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community and its Member States are the world's main donors of food aid having spent ECU 1.089 billion on this in 1994. This amounted to 53% of the global total with the United States providing 44% and Japan 3%. Despite the large amounts being given, the FAO, the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the World Bank are all predicting that unless global food donations are boosted significantly, certain Asian and African countries will face an alarming food deficit by the beginning of the next century.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between 600 million and 800 million people are likely to be facing hunger by the year 2010 and the cereal needs  of the developing countries could well double between now and then.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This projected scenario coincides with a period of market difficulty. World stocks are low and grain prices have risen by 40% in just one year. Whether or not this is a portent of future food shortage, it has given rise to renewed debate on the ability of certain countries and regions of the world to supply themselves and the extent to which they will have to have recourse to the international markets. Closer attention is also being paid to the wider strategies that need to be implemented to ensure food security in the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If one looks at the issue solely in terms of increasing supply, the projections are gloomy. Experience shows that the 'right' of access to a sufficient food supply for each of the planet's inhabitants cannot be guaranteed whether through world economic growth, food self-sufficiency at the national level, or the international markets and trade liberalisation. There is, therefore, a need for food security policies, in the developing countries in particular, which act on the conditions of demand as well as supply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In his presentation opening the seminar, Commissioner Pinheiro stressed the fact that of the ECU 7 billion allocated by the EU for development cooperation last year, ECU 1 billion was in the form of food aid. He also noted that this aid 'category' had evolved over the last decade in the context of the search for food security and explained how the Commission, in revising the policy towards the end of 1994, had set out three essential aspects:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the use of food aid as a policy instrument designed to achieve longterm food security with the emphasis on local purchases and 'triangular' operations - thereby encouraging the growth of the agricultural sector in the developing countries: this entailed developing a new aid instrument in which funds are available to import basic food products (as a way of encouraging the private sector to  take a more active part in the economic life of those countries facing a structural food deficit);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the integration of aid instruments into the actual development efforts of the beneficiary countries;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - improved access for the people who suffer most from food shortages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Professor Pinheiro indicated that the Commission would shortly be presenting a communication on the strengthening of the link between development aid on the one hand and emergency, rehabilitation and food aid on the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He stressed the important role that food aid operations could play in preventing conflicts and easing social tensions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to the Commissioner, the challenge in this area have been clearly identified but he believes that additional thinking is needed, notably on the impact of events in China and the countries of the former Soviet Union, and on the effect of US and EC agricultural policies on the world markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In conclusion, Professor Pinheiro expressed the view that food security was, above all, a national responsibility with all civil society actors having a role to play.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Citing the rise in the price of cereals during the second half of 1995 - which had prompted concerns about the availability of food aid and its impact on the balance of payments (notably in sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian sub-continent) - he gave an assurance that the Commission would remain vigilant about this. At the same time, he was concerned not to see a return to situations where aid in the form of straightforward transfers of food increased. These, he observed,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· had at least partly contributed to food costs, the destabilisation of local production and constraints on intra-regional trade. As such, they had set   back or undermined the reforms in this sector in the countries concerned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean rice exporters fear changes in OCT . rules</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guyana and Suriname, together with a number of Overseas Countries and Territories (OCTs), have expressed concern over the European Commission's recently announced intention to change the shape of its relations with the OCTs. In particular, they are worried that proposed new rules could harm their rice sales to the 15 European Union nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guyana currently exports 180 000 tonnes of rice (80% of its exports) to the KU. This is shipped initially to the Netherlands Antilles (Cura&ccedil;ao, Aruba and Bonaire) to be partially milled. It then enters the EU market duty-free by virtue of the Union's existing trade rules with the OCTs. But Caribbean exporters fear that this 'OCT route' could soon be blocked by changes currently being considered in Brussels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As already announced in issue no 157 of The Courier (May-June 1996), in the context of the mid-term review of the association with the OCTs, the Commission published a text on February 14 proposing some fine tuning to the trade preferences it grants to these territories. This has now gone forward to the Council of Ministers for decision. The Commission proposal is that while agricultural produce may continue being processed in the OCTs - and hence still benefit from the more relaxed rules - this should happen in future on a case-by-case basis, and only if priority is given to the least developed OCTs and the operations are economically justified.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, preferential arrangements do apply to direct rice exports from Guyana and Suriname to the KU, but it is argued that the levies are still too high to make the trade viable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to Yesu Persaud, who is Chairman of Guyana's Institute of Private Enterprise; 'it is only via the OCTs that we can export to the European Union.' Mr Persaud was speaking to journalists during a lobby visit to Brussels on April 16. He was accompanied by Charles P Kennard, Chairman of the Guyana Rice Development Board and David Jessop, director of the London-based Caribbean Council for Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Justifying the need for derange, some EU officials point to evidence that non-tome developing countries are 'abusing' the OCT rice route. Rice is a sensitive product for some EU nations such as Spain and Italy, who grow their own.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Persaud said that Guyana and Suriname were lobbying either for their own duty-free quota under the Lom&eacute; trade rules, or for 'a more reasonable levy'. At the same time, however, he indicated that the Caribbean rice growers were keen on keeping the route open via the Dutch and other OCTs (such as Montserrat and the Turks and Caicos) where major investments have been made on the  strength of the existing arrangements. A representative of the Turks and Caicos told reporters that his country earned half a million dollars a year from the trade, and that a new jetty had been built with British government support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guyana's rice exports have climbed from less than 39 000 tonnes in 1986 to more than 200 000 tonnes in 1995. And as Mr Persaud also stressed, the trade has done so well that Guyana is now investing in high-yielding varieties. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fight against locusts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fipronil, a recently developed pesticide, is said to be 10 times more effective than other products on the market in the control of locusts, according to representatives of the pharmaceutical giant, Rhone-Poulenc who organised a seminar on locust control </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Links between emergency, rehabilitation and development aid </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European commission has recently approved a communication </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> (COM(96) 153) which was due to be presented to the Development Council on 28 May. The document seeks to respond tO the challenge of I maintaining and improving the effectiveness of emergency aid  rehabilitation assistance and development cooperation with third countries - in the face of a wide variety of political, economic and social circumstances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Communication suggests ways of strengthening the links between the three types of aid within a strategic planning framework which includes intensified dialogue and political cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This initiative follows extensive consultations, both within the Commission (i_ service groups) and with representatives of numerous outside bodies (Member State experts, USAID, UN agencies, NGOs, academic institutions etc.). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the key phrase in the Communication may be 'strategy and global planning', emphasis is also placed on 'coordination' end 'opportunity'. This underlines a commitment to adapting procedures, where necessary, so that measures can be taken at the right time and the transition from emergency aid, to rehabilitation and subsequently to development cooperation can take place in the best possible conditions.  with the 70-member African, Caribbean and Pacific group. The event took place in Brussels in April.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new product, claims the company, fills a big gap that was left in the war against locust infestation when DDT was banned in 1986 (toxic residues from the chemical having been found to enter the food chain and damage the ecosystem).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is stated that Fipronil causes 99% mortality among locusts and gives complete protection for up to three weeks when applied in doses of six grammes per hectare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Its developers claim that it is three times cheaper than any other form of anti-locust pesticide used between 1987-1995, a calculation which includes the logistical costs involved in distributing the pesticide. It is said to be very effective in preventing locust infestations in countries in the Sahel that are particularly at risk.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Sahel has some 250 acridian species. Of these, about 15, are known regularly to attack crops in large numbers, according to Michel Launois, who heads the French agricultural research body, CIRAD-GERDAT-PRIFAS.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the Brussels seminar, emphasis was placed on the need for donors to set aside more funds for the prevention of locust infestations. It was also stressed that locust control must be at a regional level because of the migratory nature of the species, and the link between locust control and food security was underlined.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CIRAD-GERDAT-PRIFAS has just published an educational cartoon strip entitled 'Les Dents du Ciel 11' (available from Cirad-Gerdat-Prifas, B.P. 5035, F34032 Montpellier Cedex 1). This is intended to explain to a wide audience the need for an integrated approach to locust control.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I New fishing agreement between Angola and the EU</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new fisheries agreement between Angola and the EU was initialled on 2 May. It is due to run for three years (as opposed to two years for the previous one) and should ensure greater stability and better programming of the Community fleet's fishing activities in Angolan waters. The EU will pay Angola the sum of ECU 13.35 million per annum in exchange for improved fishing rights for European fishermen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is worth noting that the agreement contains certain innovations. These concern, for example, the legal status of catches (which are given Community origin). This should help to avoid the kind of dispute that has arisen in the recent past. There is also the possibility of imposing an annual biological 'rest-period' for shrimp fishing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I African conference on consumer protection</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first African conference on consumer protection was held in Harare, Zimbabwe from 28 April to 2 May. This resulted from a joint initiative by the organization Consumers international and the United Nations, and it was supported financially by the European Commission. The latter was represented at the event by Mrs Emma Bonino, the Commissioner responsible for Consumer Policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The aim of the conference was to lay down the basis for a genuine consumer policy in Africa. Representatives of 45 African governments attended, together with officials from various regional and sub-regional organizations and delegates from a large number of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African consumer bodies. Coinciding with the tenth anniversary of the adoption by the UN of the guiding principles for the protection of consumers, the Conference offered an opportunity to track progress on the application of these principles in African countries. It also saw the adoption of 'model' legislation setting out the essential rights which should be guaranteed to consumers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In her speech, Mrs Bonino stressed the Commission's commitment to supporting the efforts of African governments and consumer organisations in seeking to establish, in a clear and pragmatic way, the link between consumption and development. Evidence of this commitment, she pointed out, was to be seen in her very presence at the conference. She also lent her support to the broad application of the UN's guiding principles in Africa. This would ensure that the health, security and economic rights of African consumers could be protected.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the European Commissioner stressed that legislation, while important, was not enough in itself to tackle the fundamental problem - which was the satisfaction of basic needs. She appealed for global action in Africa deigned to break the vicious circle of poverty - based on voluntary action at all levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mrs Bonino added that the Commission would seek ways of supporting projects, in particular in the fields of food and health. This should assist citizens to meet their essential needs - with the opportunity to consume products which were different, 'local' and of better quality, and with risks to health and security minimised. The approach should avoid the exhaustion of scarce resources and respect nature. She indicated that an action plan would be drawn up by the Commission in collaboration with Consumers International. This, it was hoped, would allow financing of pilot programmes under a separate budget line which would be sought from the European Parliament for 1997. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE INSTITUTIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AT WORK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COMMON FOREIGN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> AND SECURITY POLICY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), the European Union has recently issued a number of statements, details of which are set out below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Towards national reconciliation in Angola</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 4 April 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Troika of the European Union Ambassadors in Luanda made a formal demarche with both the Government of Angola and UNITA in order to welcome the positive outcome of the Libreville Summit between the President of Angola, Jose Eduardo dos Santos, and the President of UNITA, Jonas Savimbi, and in particular their commitment to establish an integrated national army by June and the creation of an appropriate institutional structure, including the formation of a government of unity and national reconciliation by June/July. The Government and UNITA were encouraged to continue to refrain from military activity and hostile propaganda and to provide for free circulation of persons and goods as soon as possible. The EU Ambassadors underlined also the importance of securing human rights as well as transparency in financial management, economic stabilisation and reforms. Having recalled the terms of reference of the EU Joint Position adopted on 2 October, 1995, the Ambassadors underlined that the Union will continue to monitor, with the greatest attention, the development of the situation particularly as regards respect for the implementation of the calendar agreed in Libreville. Welcoming the recent steps taken by UNITA, the EU expressed concern at the slow pace of the quartering and disarming of UNITA troops and urged UNITA to proceed with its commitments, in full cooperation with UNAVEM ill. The EU encouraged the Government to continue the quartering of the rapid intervention police and the disengagement and pulling back of the FAA to the nearest barracks. The importance of disarming the civilian population was also emphasised. The EU also reiterated their call to the Government and UNITA to refrain from acquiring lethal material and to cooperate fully with the de-mining process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has reiterated its full support to the Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General, Maitre Blondin Beye, to the Joint Commission and to the United Nations Angola Verification Mission (UNAVEM).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia and Malta align themselves with this declaration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free elections in Sierra Leone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 4 April 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union welcomes the fact that presidential and parliamentary elections took place in Sierra Leone in a free and fair atmosphere and in fulfilment of the established timetable for the return to democracy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results reflect the will of the people of Sierra Leone to achieve a democratically elected civilian government despite attempts at intimidation by armed elements and the ongoing fighting in various parts of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU welcomes the peace talks between the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) and the Freetown authorities as well as the intention expressed by President Kabbah to meet Mr Sankoh at the earliest possible opportunity. The EU calls on all the parties to work for peace and national reconciliation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serious threat to peace process in Liberia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 11 April 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses its deep concern at the outbreak of fighting in Monrovia, which represents a serious threat to the peace process in Liberia. The EU is firmly convinced that the AbuJa agreement provides the right framework for resolving the crisis and calls upon the Council of State, the Liberian national transitional government and the Liberian factions to implement it, and to put the peace process back on track, in order to avoid further deterioration of the situation, and the violation of human rights. The EU condemns the loss of human life and the harassment of the civilian population and humanitarian workers. All parties concerned should prove their willingness to re-establish and maintain the ceasefire which represents the necessary prerequisite to disarmament and demobilization. The relevant measures and the necessary preparations can no longer be delayed. The EU asks the factions to return all weapons seized during the fighting to ECOMOG. The EU will base its attitude to Liberia on the concrete steps taken by all parties concerned to implement the Abuja agreement and bring the conflict to an end.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Treaty of Pelindaba on a nuclear weapon-free zone in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 12 April 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union welcomes the signature in Cairo on 11 April 1996 of the Pelindaba Treaty establishing the African Nuclear Weapon Free Zone. The Treaty is in line with the Decision on Principles and Objectives for Nuclear Non-Proliferation and Disarmament issued by the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference which   recognised that the creation of Nuclear Weapon Free Zones enhances global and regional peace and security.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU considers that Nuclear Weapon Free Zones are welcome complementary instruments to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, the universality of which the EU continues to promote.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Central and Eastern European countries associated with the EU and the associated countries Cyprus and Malta align themselves with this declaration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appeal for the 'boat people' of Liberia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 14 May 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses its deep concern at the grave humanitarian situation caused by the ongoing fighting in Monrovia and condemns the violence against the civilian population and the harassment of aid operations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While recognising the enormous efforts already made by neighbouring countries to assist the hundreds of thousands of existing Liberian refugees, the Council deplores the fact that the thousands of people crammed in precarious conditions on ships in the area are still in search of a friendly port.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It appeals on humanitarian grounds to the neighbouring countries to give at least temporary shelter to these victims of the fighting and affirms its own willingness to give humanitarian aid to cover their most urgent needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Council calls on all the Liberian factions to stop the fighting immediately and put the peace process back on track in order to avoid further suffering.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">VISITS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Prime Minister of Rwanda</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Prime Minister of Rwanda, Pierre Celestin Rwigema, visited Brussels from 26 to 29 March in the course of a tour aimed at informing the main donors about the work undertaken by his government in recent months and about the policies which would be implemented in the future. He was accompanied by the Minister of Planning and the Minister for Rehabilitation. The Prime Minister was received by Commissioner Pinheiro, who is responsible for relations with the ACP countries and by Mrs Bonino, the Commission member in charge of humanitarian actions. He also spoke at meetings of the External Relations and Development Committees of the European Parliament. Professor Pinheiro took the opportunity to highlight to the Prime Minister his concerns about the current situation in Rwanda, reiterating the Commission's commitment to the country and its people. He also spoke of the need for the authorities to pursue policies and implement measures leading to the restoration of normality. He said it was essential to have a dialogue with the Rwandan refugees in neighbouring countries (there are now about 1.7 million) and to pursue the pacification process under the auspices of the United Nations and the Organisation of African Unity, with the involvement of all the heads of government in the Great Lakes region. Mr Rwigema's visit came at a crucial time for Rwanda. Even if the immediate crisis had passed, there was still a dire need for rehabilitation and development assistance, on top of the existing emergency aid programmes. The political situation remained delicate and the future was by no means secure, notwithstanding some encouraging signs of a progressive improvement as exemplified by the Tunis summit. The recent nomination of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aldo Ajello as the EU's special envoy to the Great Lakes region underlined the political and moral dimension of the EU's commitment to the peace process in this troubled part of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SUPPORT FOR HUMAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RIGHTS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently decided to provide the following financing for projects under the budget line 'Support for. democratisation and human rights'. Non-ACP countries </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central America: ECU 180.000 to support seven national and one regional fore aimed at providing training in the field of human rights for instructors. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central America: ECU 100.000 for a democracy consolidation training programme for 30 teams from various organisations in Nicaragua, Guatemala and El Salvador. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central America/Colombia: ECU 263.000 for a series of actions, notably in Colombia, involving the provision of information on human and citizens' rights. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil: ECU 190.000 for a project designed to boost the civil rights of black people in the country, through the training of judicial personnel and the strengthening of legislation against race discrimination. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil: ECU 145.000 for a training programme for magistrates, prosecutors and the police aimed at facilitating the uniform application of the law in the State of S&atilde;o Paulo. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil: ECU 290.000 for a training programme in the sphere of democratic municipal management, in the cities of Recife, Porto Alegre, Santos and Fortaleza. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala: ECU 308.000 for a project to collect and make available the case law of the Constitutional Court, and  to train officials and members of civil society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honduras: ECU 326.000 to support the National Human Rights Commission with a view to promoting such rights in the Departments of Comayagua and Olancho. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honduras: ECU 131.000 for an education programme dealing with civic and electoral issues and the rights of children. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mexico: ECU 20.000 to support an initial Latin-American colloquium on the subject of the Ombudsman (in the face of the objectives and challenges of the region). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua: ECU 285.000 to support the social rehabilitation of minors in custody. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panama: ECU 125.000 for a training action in the field of the defence of human rights. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Panama: ECU 250.000 to support a communication campaign designed to strengthen the image of the 'people's ombudsman'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela: ECU 160.000 to strengthen the institution of Justices of the Peace in the country's municipalities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela: ECU 100.000 ECU for a training and promotion action in the field of human rights and the strengthening of civil society. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EUROPEAN</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DEVELOPMENT FUND</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following, where required, favourable opinions from the EDF Committee, the Commission has decided to provide grants and special loans from the 5th, 6th and 7th EDFs to finance the following operations (grants unless otherwise stated). Major projects and programmes are highlighted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic and social infrastructure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon: ECU 7.3 million for a programme aimed at protecting the urban boundary of the city of Kousseri from the encroachments of the Logone river, to improve sanitation and for the upgrading of an urban access route towards Chad. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 54 million for a transport infrastructure programme aimed at facilitating the social and economic development of the people living in the recisions in question (Western region, Brong Afaho, the Ashanti region). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 3.8 million for a human resource development programme designed to achieve better planning, management and implementation of development projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 1.9 million for a project to support the development of tourism. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 385 000 to extend the water supply system in the town of Mantola </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 13.5 million to upgrade the Ere-Kelo road </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade promotion/ structural adjustment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benin-Cameroon C&ocirc;te-d'lvoire-GhanaGuinea-Togo: ECU 1.99 million for a regional programme of trade activities and training with a view to relaunching the pineapple business in West and Central Africa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burkina Faso: ECU 180 000 for the construction of an 'export and creativity' pavilion at the Salon international de l'artisanat in Ouagadougou. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Papua-New Guinea: ECU 5.3 million for the fourth structural adjustment support programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madagascar: ECU 1.9 million for a rice irrigation project. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enterpris</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana: ECU 33.7 million from the Sysmin fund, to support the work of the BCL, Tati and FEB mining companies in the SelebiPhikwe region. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominican Republic: ECU 1.3 million to support the STD-HIV-AIDS prevention programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madagascar: ECU 1.9 million for a decentralised training project in favour of regional tourism operators. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tuvalu: ECU 300 000 for the rehabilitation of primary schools on the islands of Nukutetau and Nanumea. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Central Africa (Cameroon-Central African Republic-Congo-GabonEquatorial Guinea): ECU 16 million for phase 2 of the ECOFAC project (Conservation and rational utilisation of forest ecosystems in Central Africa). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Institutional support</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi: ECU 1 million towards a study aimed at allowing the government to implement its land reform policy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea: ECU 4.5 million for a study aimed at allowing the government to undertake proper planning in the area of water resources and irrigation. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miscellaneous</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacific region: ECU 4.9 million for a project designed to improve the efficiency and security at certain airports. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUMANITARIAN AID</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali: ECU 1 million towards the reintegration of some 200 000 Malians who fled to Algeria and Mauritania during the rebellions of the 1980s. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 317 000 for victims of the severe floods that struck the centre and south of the country recently. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria: ECU 850 000 to help fight the meningitis epidemic affecting seven provinces of the country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sierra Leone: ECU 700 000 in urgent food and medical assistance for some 250 000 refugees who fled to the areas around the towns of Bo and Kemena following the fighting. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 200 000 to help fight the meningitis epidemic. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 145 000 to help victims of the cholera epidemic and to assist in preventing its further spread (following the course of the Zaire river). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia: ECU 60 000 to help fight cholera in the municipality of Silvia, where some 40 000 are under threat due to a lack of drinking water and deficiencies in basic hygiene. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala: ECU 1.52 million to provide food aid and basic essentials to returnees from other parts of the country, and from Mexico, following years of civil war. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Armenia/Azerbaijan: ECU 11.57 million (ECU 4.07m for Armenia and ECU 7.5m for Azerbaijan), for food and medical assistance, targeted at the most vulnerable sections of the population, and for the provision of agricultural materials with a view to reducing progressively the dependence of the refugees, who are victims of the conflict in Nagomo-Karabakh.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caucasus-Georgia-Tadilkistan: ECU 3.2 million for food aid to be targeted at the most vulnerable sections of the population. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Georgia: ECU 7.43 million for victims of the internal conflict in this country where the loss of the Russian market has seriously undermined the rural economy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lebanon: ECU 600 000 for displaced people, to allow for the purchase of basic essentials including food, medicines, shelter and blankets. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afghanistan: ECU 600 000 for health infrastructures in the refugee camps   around Jalalabad, and for medical aid to refugees in the town of Herat. Indonesia: ECU 120 000 for toots and materials to construct shelters for the victims of the earthquake that struck in February. China (Tibetan nomads): ECU 550 000 for food aid, medicines and blankets for some 72 000 people living in the mountainous regions who have been badly hit by severe weather and a food shortage.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AID </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p95a.png"></center><br>
+ The Commission has recently taken decisions to finance food aid as set out in the chart which follows: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Aknowlegments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa - Caribbean - Pacific - European Union</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Address: Postal address (mail only) 'The ACP-KU Courier' Commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 Brussels Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier office address (visitors) First floor Astrid Building 1, rue de Geneve Evere - Brussels Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publisher Steffen Smide commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 - BRUSSELS (Belgium) Tel. 00-32-2-299 11 11 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Publications</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assistant editors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeanne Remade</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associate assistant  editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Joumalist:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Production Manager:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dorothy Morrissey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secretariat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carmela Peters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: 299-30~02</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Margriet Mahy-van der Werf</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/ec158e/metadata.xml
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+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">The Courier - NÂ°158 - July - August 1996 Dossier Communication and the media - Country report Cape Verde (ec158e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Communication, Information and Documentation|Communication, telecommunication, mass communication, mass media, film-making</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Development Periodicals and Magazines|The Courier ACP 1990 - 1996 Africa-Caribbean-Pacific - European Union</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">EC Courier</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
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+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; The Courier - N°159 - Sept- Oct 1996 Dossier Investing in People Country Reports: Mali ; Western Samoa</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Courier - N°159 - Sept- Oct 1996 Dossier Investing in People Country Reports: Mali ; Western Samoa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFRICA-CARIBBEAN-PACIFIC - EUROPEAN-UNION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali, which used to be the centre of great appears hemmed in by its frontiers, colonisation having culminated in the break-up of the old 'French Sudan'. Following the marxist regime of Modibo Keita (the 'founder' of the nation) and the dictatorship of Mousse Traor&eacute;, Mali has discovered democracy. It is still one of the world's poorest countries but recent macro-economic trends are highly encouraging and there is a new dynamism. It seems that the ending of the Tuareg conflict has provoked a surge of optimism- even among ordinary citizens whose wallets have yet to feel the effects of an improving national economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacific island nations have a reputation for idyllic scenery and rich cultural traditions. Western Samoa has both of these assets in abundance, but it also faces many development challenges. With a population of just 165 000, the country has a limited local market, and it is a very long way from potential overseas customers. It is also susceptible to destructive tropical storms. Despite these constraints, there have been some promising signs of economic progress in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dossier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Investing in people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To say that investing in people makes economic sense is to state the obvious. But to what extent are the implications of this statement fully understood in the developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, in these days of constantly shifting development theories? We look at this subject in our Dossier. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acnowledgements</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa - Caribbean - Pacific - European Union</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Address: Postal address (mail only) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'The ACP-EU Courier' Commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1049 Brussels </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belgium </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier office address (visitors) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First floor Astrid Building 1, rue de Gen&egrave;ve </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evere - Brussels </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publisher Steffen Smidt </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Commission of the European communities </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">200, rue de la Loi </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1049 - BRUSSELS </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Belgium) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. 00-32-2-299 11 11 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Publications</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assistant editors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeanne Remacle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associate assistant editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H&eacute;gel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalist:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Production Manager:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dorothy Morrissey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secretariat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carmela Peters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: 299-30-02</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Margriet Mahy-van der Werf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(299-30-12)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cower page:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cover photo by</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">John and Penny Hubley</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Meeting points</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Ieremiah Tabai, Secretary General of the Forum Secretariat</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Pacific Forum: 'responding to the needs of the Member States'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although an accountant by training, leremiah Tabai has never had the opportunity to practise his profession, having pursued a successful political career instead since 1974. In 1978, he was annointed head of government in Kiribati and a year later he became his country's first President, when it achieved independence. He held this position for 12 years. In 1991, he took up the top post in one of the South Pacific's key regional bodies, the Forum Secretariat, which is based in Suva, Fiji. During a recent Courier visit to the region, we had the opportunity to interview the Secretary General. Our discussion was wide-ranging, covering issues such as the Forum Secretariat's role, the economic challenges facing the South Pacific, and the development of regional links with Australia, New Zealand and Asia. We began by asking Mr Tabai to outline the objectives of the organisation that he heads.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Like many other organisations in the region, the Forum was established essentially to try and assist the development process of the Member States. At the time it was set up, there was already an organisation in existence - the South Pacific Commission - which dates back to 1947. But there was a feeling that we needed an organisation that was not just restricted to economic issues; that could talk about other matters with a bearing on the development of the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the early years, when the organisation was called the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Cooperation (SPEC), the focus was heavily on trying to assist the trade and economic development of the member countries. Later, the name was changed to the Forum Secretariat and its role evolved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In what way ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It has evolved in seeking to respond to the needs of the Member States. It started as a very small bureau essentially dealing, as I said, with trade and economic issues. Subsequently, it moved into areas like energy, civil aviation, maritime questions and telecommunications. It also became more involved in political issues. We have a division which deals specifically with these.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1995 was a very important year in the history of the Forum. We had a review of the organisation, looking at ways we could perform better and taking account of the changes in the region and the world at large. The fundamental recommendation in the report which came out of that review was that the Secretariat should focus mainly in future on poliy-related issues, in the areas of trade and investment, economics and international relations. This report was discussed and endorsed at the last Forum in Madang, Papua New Guinea. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Does this mean, in practice, a withdrawal from project activity ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It may. The essential focus of the work will be providing policy advice to countries. Having said this, there should still be some project work. For instance, we will be engaged in a programme to provide assistance for importers, particularly in the small island countries. The idea is to help people- who may not be familiar with all the legal requirements-to learn how to get into the business. This will involve running a workshop and inviting people with expertise to pass on their knowledge. So even though the focus will be on policy issues, there will still be room for project-type activities where needed -so long as these fit in with the policy priorities. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mentioned the fact that the Forum now deals with political questions. Although the issue may now be seen as 'water under the bridge' to what extent was the Forum Secretariat involved in the diplomatic disagreement over French nuclear testing ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- We were very much involved from the beginning. In 1991, when the French testing was not underground but atmospheric, the region, at a Forum meeting, came out strongly in opposition to the tests. Right up to our last meeting in Madang, the subject was always a major item on the agenda, and we left France in no doubt as to the resolve of our region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the new President took the decision to resume testing after a gap of several years, I was in the group from the South Pacific that went to France to express our views to French ministers, face-to-face. Our team was led by the then Australian Foreign Minister, Gareth Evans, who was President of the Forum. And when the tests began again, the Chairman took a decision suspending the dialogue and partner status of France with the Forum. So, as you see, we have been heavily involved in the issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What resources does the Forum have at its disposal and where does the money come from ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- An important source of funds is our members' contributions. These tend to be used to cover the operational costs of the organisation. Then of course, there are the funds made available by our donors. The main ones are obviously Australia and New Zealand but there are many other countries and international organisations who provide assistance. The EU, of course, is an important partner. There was also a private donor who funded our conference centre.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How many people are employed in the Secretariat ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Around 80, all based here in Suva. Most of these are support staff.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is the current state of relations between the Forum Secretariat and the main donors ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I would say our relations are good. We have an extensive mechanism for consultation with the donors. Every two years, we invite them here for a dialogue. We talk about the key issues and discuss ways in which they can assist us. There is also usually a dialogue associated with the Forum (ministerial) meetings. In September this year, after the Forum meeting, we will have more discussions with our main partners such as the EU, Canada, France, Japan and the UK. I should mention too the close links we have with international organisations like the Asian Development Bank, the World Bank and the IMF.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I think it is fair to say that the Forum Secretariat is seen as a particularly important organisation in the region. That is why donors are quite keen to be seen assisting us in what we do.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are the key development issues facing the South Pacific nations ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Development is quite a difficult process for our region. There are various international reports (particularly from the World Bank) - that describe how we have fared over the last few years. If you compare our performance with the Caribbean countries, for example, you find that we have not done nearly so well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We face a number of problems. First, there is the fact that we are so small. Small communities find it much more difficult than large ones to achieve development. You need to have the market and the critical mass to do all the things that are needed and we lack these. A second, related point is that our countries are very isolated from the rest of the world. It is true that here in Fiji, there are quite good connections, but if you go to Tuvalu, Kiribati or Niue, you will soon discover how difficult it is to get out. And if you are so isolated in terms of communication, how can you hope to increase your exports ? How can you airfreight your fish to Japan when there is no aircraft available-or the one that is available is not fast enough to ensure that the product is still fresh when it arrives?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On this question, one of the things we are increasingly realising is the need to do more in terms of human resource development. We all recognise that, without an educated population and workforce, it is very hard to achieve the development that we are aiming for. To be fair, if you compare the literacy rates here with those of many other countries, say in Africa, they are not at all bad. Our literacy levels are quite high. But I think we have a long way to go in acquiring problem-solving skills of the type needed to compete internationally. We are now talking with the EU about how we can utilise funding from the second protocol of Lom&eacute; IV. And I suspect that human resource development will remain high on the agenda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is that view shared by the European side ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think so. l have a feeling that they will support it because it is so obvious. If you develop human skills, you are better placed when it comes to problem-solving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Going back to the key development issues, another point is the lack of natural resources. This is less of a difficulty for countries like Fiji or Papua New Guinea, but it certainly affects the small island states. It hardly needs saying that if you don't have the resources in the first place, it is much harder to develop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, I think there is a question of how the Pacific region can get a better return on the resources it does have. This theme of 'managing our resources' was discussed by the Forum in Brisbane two years ago. Fisheries is probably the most important area here. The question is how we can earn more from this than we are currently doing- and there is no easy answer. Likewise in the forestry sector. We have to ensure that logging is done on a sustainable basis. But we must also recognise that leaders of the Pacific nations are under pressure. On the one hand, they are trying to take a lona-term view. but they are also striving to tackle the immediate problems. In an ideal world, our region would obtain a far better return on our resources, and that is something that we have to work on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having said all this, I don't think one should be too pessimistic. This region is still a very good place to live in. That is clearly reflected in the number of visitors we get. The 'South Seas' still have a special connotation that draws people here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You effectively have two 'genera/' regional organisations, with overlapping memberships, covering the South Pacific -the Forum, and the South Pacifc Commission (SPC). Do you think there is room for bath ? Do you complement each other or is there a rivalry ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We have more than two regional organisations. We also have SPREP (South Pacifc Regional Environment Programme), the FFA (Forum Fisheries Agency)....</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but these are specialist bodies with distinct sectoral responsibilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, that's true. In answer to your question, my view is that we have no problem with things as they stand. I was very involved in the debate some years back on the question of what we called an SRO - a single regional organisation. There was a strong push to try and achieve an SRO. The subject was debated for a few years and, in the end, it was possible to resolve the question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mean it was resolved by the idea being abandoned ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I suppose it depends on the way you look at it. The outcome was a decision to leave the regional organisations as they are but with the establishment of a mechanism to ensure they work together more effectively. This mechanism is called SPOCC-the South Pacific Organisations Coordinating Committee. It is a meeting of heads of regional organisations which happens at least once a year. We talk about the issues that are common to our mandate and work out ways of doing things better. SPOCC has been operating for six or seven years now and I think it works fairly well. There is, after all, no conflict in our underlying objectives. So my answer here is no, I don't see any problem. I don't see any rivalry between us. It is a question of seeing how we can work together to achieve the goals that we share.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In the European Union, the fundamental goal, set out in the Treaty, is to move towards 'ever-closer union' We have been doing this in fits and starts over the past 35 years. Do you see the Forum perhaps taking on a similar role here-as the focus for economic, and perhaps ultimately, political integration in the South Pacifc ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- I think it is too early to speculate. We already have a number of sub-groups in the region like the MSG, the Melanesian Spearhead Group, whose members are the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu and Fiji (admitted last year). Further north, we have the Micronesian grouping which brings together Nauru, Tuvalu, the Marshall Islands and Kiribati. These groups meet outside the Forum framework and they essentially have a common aim which is to work more closely together. I think they feel it is easier to do it at this level because they are closer to each other and have more in common.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for the Forum Secretariat, you can never tell what may come in the future. On balance, however, I think at the moment that integration is a long way off. Having said this, you do sometimes hear people putting the idea forward. There is, for example, something called the CER system, which stands for 'closer economic relations' between Australia and New Zealand. There have been suggestions that it might be possible to enlarge this grouping.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking at closer economic cooperation, and the general dismantling of trade barriers, we also need to recognise the growing importance of APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) for the region. We are trying strengthen our links with the APEC countries and in October, we will be establishing a trade office in Japan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mean a Forum Secretariat office ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, in Tokyo. We are also talking with the Chinese and will probably end up with an office in Beijing. This is all part of our attempt to integrate ourselves with the Asean region. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by Simon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mission statement of the Forum Secretariat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mission of the Forum Secretariat is to enhance the economic and social well being of the people of the South Pacific, in support of the efforts of the national governments. The Secretariat has particular responsibility to facilitate, develop and maintain cooperation and consultation between member governments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Secretariat must pursue its mission in accordance with the directives of the Forum and within its mandated areas of operation. it undertakes political and economic activities, regional in nature and complementary to the activities of the member governments. Its role requires it to act as the secretariat to the Forum and to disseminate the Forum's views, to coordinate activities with other regional institutions in particular through the SPOCC process, and to represent the Forum's interests intemationally, as required. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ACP</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Investment symposium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A success story for African mining</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The MIGA (Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency) symposium was held in Montreal from 22-24 May. It brought together some 40 African mining ministers, most of the important donor agencies and representatives of around 25 mining companies. MIGA, which is a specialised agency of the World Bank, promotes the flow of private investment to developing countries. It provides insurance against political risks and assists member countries in attracting foreign investment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The purpose of the symposium was to attract investors from all over the world in order to exploit the rich mining possibilities offered by many African states. Several of the countries that attended went to considerable effort to present themselves well, and it was evident that some are quickly learning what it takes to attract foreign investors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The climate for mining investment in most African states has improved tremendously over the last two to three years. Most countries have introduced new mining codes, clearly defining the rights and obligations of foreign investors. State-owned companies are also being privatised, taxation has been made more reasonable and institutions in the mining sector, such as geological surveys, are becoming more efficient.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All this has led to a big increase in exploration for new deposits and a substantial increase in investment. At present, the activity is particularly heavy in West Africa, where many countries have very good gold potential. The European Community is contributing to this development in several ways. The biggest success so far has been the exploration campaign in Mali, funded under that country's Lom&eacute; National Indicative Programme (NIP), which led to the discovery of the Sadiola gold deposit. A world-class gold mine will be built here, bringing substantial benefits to the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank has also supported many African countries in their efforts to reform the legal and administrative framework for the mining industry. An important element, however, in attracting mining companies is the availability of good geological data. This is a very expensive activity, which does not bring immediate returns, if at all. So it is not appropriate to finance this through bank loans. The NlPs and SYSMIN Fund, on the other hand, are instruments that are well-suited to this kind of work. The Community has already financed a series of airborne geophysical surveys in Botswana and Namibia -to mention just two examples-and a new Sysmin project is currently being prepared for Burkina Faso.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission Unit responsible for Mining Cooperation and Sysmin (VIIIl.B.5) was represented at the symposium. Its main purpose for being there was to present the functioning of Sysmin and the Community's cooperation in the field of mining to ACP ministers, mining companies and other donor agencies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Current state of the mining sector</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mining sector is currently very active. Exploration in West Africa doubled between 1993 and 1995 and new mines are being opened all the time. A lot of this new activity is to be found in the gold sector. This is mainly due to the development of cheaper production methods combined with a much more positive investment climate in many African countries. A gold mine takes less time to reach the production stage than, for example, a copper mine, with the former being far less dependent on good infrastructure. Outside the gold sector, activity is much more subdued. While base-metal prices are at a reasonable level, the pay-back period is much longer and the lack of suitable infrastructure kills many projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For many countries, mining is a key area in the growth of the private sector. State-ownad mines are being privatised and the new mines that are being opened have little or no state participation. Foreign investors are bringing in the most up-to-date mining technologies and business methods, and they are faced with the need to train local people in technical and business skills. Supporting the mining sector is clearly an efficient way of supporting private sector development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SYSMIN's future role</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given that most metals are currently fetching quite high prices, it is probable that relatively few ACP countries will be eligible for SYSMIN assistance over the next two to three years. The viability of most existing mines is not thought to be under threat and they should continue to be profitable. Thus, countries that are heavily dependent on mining should not experience severe losses in export income, which in turn means that relatively few SYSMIN requests are expected during the period of Lom&eacute; IV's second financial protocol. At the same time, the financial allocation for SYSMIN has been increased from ECU 48Om to ECU 575m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When trying to attract new mining investors, it is essential for a country to have good geological information. Private companies are normally unwilling to undertake much general prospect ion, such as airborne geophysical surveys, because it is very expensive and, if they do, it is usually limited to very small areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, companies are tending to restrict their activities to areas for which general information is already available. These points were raised by several of the mining companies that attended the symposium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the present mining boom is not going to last for ever. Metal prices are volatile and, with the next downturn in the business cycle, a decline in metal prices will surely follow. So it is essential to prepare the basis for future mining activities by collecting general data. Given that a significant part of the SYSMIN allocation may remain unused because of a lack of requests, it would be worthwhile to consider whether a part could be reallocated to prepare general geological data for mining activities in the next century. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F. B.-H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Joint Assembly to consider climate problem</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Hans van de Veen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Can the EU-ACP relationship be used to strengthen the dialogue between Europe and the main victims of climate change ? And can the Lom&eacute; Convention be one of the tools to promote climate protection measures, as well as the implementation of the Climate</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Treaty? These questions will be considered in depth at a hearing on climate derange scheduled for the next ACP-EU Joint Assembly, to be held in the last week of September 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Periods of heavy rain have always been part of normal life in Fiji. But the latest rains were different, says counsellor Taina Tudau of the Fiji Embassy in Brussels. 'They were much more extreme than what we were used to, and caused heavy damage. Normally it took several days of heavy rain before the floods came up. This time, the water flooded the islands almost immediately the rain began to fall.' Mrs Tudau sees two main causes for the recent flooding. First, there is heavy deforestation on the islands, causing widespread erosion. But she is sure there was another reason for the recent damage: 'In the Pacific we know the local climate is changing. We see that the sea is rising. We are experiencing more extreme weather events. There can be no doubt that global warming is already going on.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji is a prominent member of the Alliance of Small Island States (Aosis), the group of 36 nations which feel particularly threatened by global warming. At the first Conference of Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, held in Berlin in March 1995, Aosis called for industrialised nations to reduce their C02 emissions by 20% by 2005 (based on 1990 levels). At the end of the conference, the 150 national delegations agreed to begin negotiations on targets for industrialised nations to cut emissions in the early years of the next century.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So intentions may be good, but in practice not much has been done yet. The EU, for its part, risks losing credibility if firm action is not taken soon. According to a recent Commission White Paper on energy policy, the use of energy within the Union will increase by 1% a year up to 2020. Failing 'any strong policy interventions', the paper says, emissions of carbon dioxide are likely to show a 'substantial increase' during this period. Says Fiji-counsellor Tudau: 'As small island states we know what's at stake, but there seems to be no feeling of urgency in the rest of the world. We really wonder how long it will take before there is a definite move towards reduction of greenhouse gases.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EU-ACP cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the Berlin conference, the ACP countries-led by Aosis but with support from most of the African states -took a constructive and moderate position in the G77. The position adopted by the EU could also be described as moderate, certainly compared to that of other OECD countries. Several observers have pointed to the fact that these two moderate approaches by important blocks within the Climate Convention negotiations offer possibilities for some form of cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'No doubt the EU represents the most progressive group of countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">within the OECD, although its position is far from sufficient', says Sible Schone, a representative of the World Wide Fund for Nature. 'Besides that, the EU has a special relationship with a large group of developing countries. Quite obviously it will be significant to get a dialogue started between the EU and the ACPs on the subject of climate change.' Currently, there is no such dialogue. 'At the moment we are not in a dialogue with ACP countries on climate change', says Bertil Heerink of the European Commission's Environment Directorate-General who is a member of the EU delegation to the climate negotiations. 'I'm convinced this will happen some day, but first we have to agree on our own goals and measures. I am sure developing countries want us to give priority to this too.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The special ACP subcommittee to deal with tropical timber, the environment and fisheries, formed after the signing of the revised Lom&eacute; IV, only recently started its work. With respect to the global warming issue, it is waiting for the Joint Assembly hearing, according to ambassador Michael King of Barbados, who is a committee member. 'The specific interests of the different regions have to be articulated there, and then some kind of sustained effort has to be initiated.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The unit for Sustainable Development and Natural Resources in the Development Directorate-General of the Commission (DG VIII) not at present dealing with the subject of climate change. Says Head of Unit, Amos Tincani: 'We have worked on biodiversity and desertification, and we want to do more on the specific environmental problems of small island states. But we have done nothing similar on climate change. This is partly because it is so much a global problem, but the main reason is we simply lack the people and the time to go into it.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assembly hearing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At its meeting in Windhoek in March this year, the Joint Assembly adopted a resolution which had been proposed by representatives of 13 small island states. This urged the EU to take the lead in combating climate change and the adverse effects thereof. More specifically, the Commission is being asked to update its climate change strategy for the period post-2000 and to achieve significant reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases over the coming decade and thereafter. The resolution riches on to call for extra assistance to ACP countries in the Caribbean, Pacific and Indian Ocean to help them improve their disaster preparedness. The Commission is also urged to accelerate the transfer of appropriate technologies and practices, to enable ACP states to develop coastal zone management strategies and to rehabilitate and protect areas stricken by drought and desertification as well as by hurricanes and floods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two representatives of the European Parliament, Maartje van Putter (PES) and Peter Liege (EPP), have been active on the situation of the small island states and climate change for several years. According to Mrs Van Putten, the main effect of the coming Assembly hearing should be to put extra pressure on the Commission to take its responsibility seriously. 'Talking about climate change,' she says, 'one should never forget who is to blame and who, therefore, must take decisive action. A European tax on energy or carbon dioxide would be an important first step, but no more than that.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides influencing the Commission's energy policy, Mrs Van Putten hopes the Assembly hearing will raise public awareness on the climate problem in those ACP countries which are not in the 'small island' category. 'If you are talking about rising sea levels, the African states with low-lying coastal zones face the same problems as the small island countries,' she points out. 'And they also face the problem of desertification and declining food production.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Integrating the climate dimension</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a recent briefing paperto the Commission, the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) concluded that, hitherto, the aid community (including the EU) had not incorporated measures on global warming into their strategic thinking on sustainable development. 'Indeed, the possibility of climate change has been considered of minor importance in comparison to other environmental concerns.' This is hardly surprising, says the London-based institute, as the climate issue has only recently been placed on the international agenda. Moreover, the long-term threat of global warming raises some difficult questions regarding priorities in circumstances where resources are limited. In other words: who wants to spend scarce funds on problems the full effects of which will probably not be felt for another 25 to 50 years? The best way forward, suggests the IIED, is to tackle the apparent conflict between shortterm development priorities and longterm climate protection, by 'integrating the climate dimension' rather than considering climate change as an issue in isolation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Technology transfer could be a central point, according to WWF's Sible Schone. 'Developing countries see technology transfer as a central theme in the Climate Convention, but the industrialised countries don't give enough weight to these There are a lot of paragraphs about technology transfer in the Convention as well as in Lom&eacute;. Now it's time to fill in these commitments.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strangely, there are hardly any Lom&eacute; projects currently under way in the field of energy efficiency. It is strange because experts have pointed to the large potential in developing countries for cost-effective energy improvement and energy conservation. Improved management could save at least 25% of the energy now being consumed. Quick realisation of this potential would significantly contribute to alleviating environmental &agrave;nd development problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Henri Martin, energy specialist in DG VIII, agrees a lot more could be done in this field, but he points out: 'We are dependent on requests. If you look at the wording of the Convention, everything has already been said. There are chapters on energy and technology transfer. The problem is that we don't get enough signals back from the ACP countries that these items are a priority for them. I'm afraid sustainable energy or energy efficiency is not high on the agenda of most countries.' Taina Tudau disagrees strongly: 'Our experience is that the projects that could make a difference and contribute to sustainable development, protection of the environment and local sustainable energy production, are found to be too small. It is the donor that sets the conditions for the projects, not us, the small island states.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New funding?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Can the EU build a credible policy linking climate and development cooperation, without reserving extra money? Not surprisingly, there is disagreement on this question. In Brussels, officials are inclined to point to possibilities that are already there but not being used. Amos Tincani, for instance, observes that 'there are budgets for this kind of problem under Lom&eacute;. We have provisions specially targeted for the islands'. He mentions regional budgets in particular: 'A lot can be started at the regional level which then trickles down to the national level. But after producing fine resolutions, everybody seems to forget the work still needs to be done. The idea is: 'oh yes, we can do it, provided it is with fresh money'. We say: a lot more can be done with existing budgets and instruments.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maartje van Putten, from the Parliament, says the discussion should not be 'dominated by southern demands for additional money'. She agrees that ACP countries could make better use of existing funds and possibilities, such as, for instance, the funds for intra ACP cooperation. But counsellor Tudau points to the fact that the Climate Convention urges industrialised countries to support the response of developing countries to climate problems through 'new and additional' money, besides the transfer of environmentally sound technologies and expertise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a financial mechanism built into the Climate Convention, which is administered by the Global Environmental Facility, to cover additional costs of appropriate measures. But much more could be done by the aid community, including the EU, according to Mrs Tudau. 'Most European countries will not succeed in stabilising, let alone reducing, their emissions. In reaction to this, as ACP countries we should say: European Union, you are not fulfilling your obligations. You have to try harder and you have to set extra money aside to compensate for the damage this is doing to us. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.v.d.V.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ACP-EU Council in Apia</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were no real surprises or unexpected developments at the ACP-EU Council meeting which took place in Apia, Western Samoa, on 27 and 28 June, 1996. The session was preceded by an ACP Council, which saw the adoption of three important decisions. The first of these was the appointment of a new ACP Secretary-6eneral, Mr Ng'andu P. Magande of Zambia. The post had been vacant for some time, following deadlock within the ACP Group over a successor to Berhane Ghebray (see issue 155 of The Courier, p.6). The ministers also agreed to hold a summit of ACP heads of government in Libreville, Gabon, during the second half of 1997. This meeting is expected to focus heavily on the future of ACPEU relations once the present Lom&eacute; Convention has expired.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the substantive area, the ACP Council adopted a resolution deploring the suspension of cooperation with Equatorial Guinea. Ministers urged the European Union to make use of the procedure in Article 366a of the revised Lom&eacute; Convention, and to set in train the consultation procedure envisaged in this provision.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This issue was raised again by the ACP side at the subsequent ACP-EU Council. This meeting, which was presided over by Mrs Toya (Italian Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs) and Mr Syamujaye (Zambia's Trade Minister) had a relatively light agenda. There was a discussion about the Commission proposal for a directive on the use of vegetable fats, other than cocoa fat, in chocolate (see issue 158 of The Courier, p.35). Somalia also featured in the debate, with representatives agreeing on the need to find ways of allowing this country to benefit from Lom&eacute; Convention provisions. The civil conflict in Somalia, and the absence of an effective central administration have prevented the deployment of regular development aid for many years, although significant amounts of emergency assistance have been and are still being provided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, the ACP-EU Council approved two reports drawn up by the development finance cooperation subcommittee and commodities sub-committee respectively. Representatives were able to reach a compromise on two outstanding points of contention in the resolution on development finance relating to tenders and the dissemination of the user's guide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note was taken of the number of countries that have so far lodged instruments of ratification for the revisad Lom&eacute; Convention (Mauritius agreement). At the time of the Apia meeting, only nine countries had ratified: seven on the ACP side (Barbados, Dominica, Equatorial Guinea, Jamaica, Malawi, Mauritius and Solomon Islands) and two EU Member States (Denmark and Sweden). Appeals were made for the contracting parties to speed up their ratification procedures so that the Eighth European Development Fund can come on stream as speedily as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The next ACP-EU Council meeting will take place in Luxembourg on 24 and 25 April 1997.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government of Western Samoa deserves a special mention for the warmth of their hospitality and the efficient way in which they organised the Council meeting. Delegates from all sides were keen to express their appreciation of the host country's efforts, which ensured the smooth running of the various meetings and gave the visitors a real taste of this Pacific country's unique culture. ed. S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New ACP Secretary-General</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ng`andu Peter Magande, is no stranger to the challenge of development at the grassroots. The new Secretary-General of the ACP Group, who was born in 1947, began his working career as a provincial development officer, planning and supervising projects in the Southern Province of his native Zambia. He is an economics graduate of the University of Zambia and also holds a master's degree in agricultural economics from Makerere university, Uganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From working in the field, he moved into government administration, rising to the position of Permanent Secretary-a post which he held in a number of ministries. Since the mid-1980s, he has had key jobs in a number of Zambian enterprises (including Managing Director of the Zambia National Commercial Bank) His most recent work has been on a project to develop private sector participation in agricultural input and produce marketing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Kenya's economy in the 1990s</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Elisabeth Pape</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya has enjoyed rare political stability since independence in 1963. It is one of the most famous holiday destinations in Africa, with abundant wildlife, fine beaches and stunning scenery. But despite having the most advanced economy in East Africa, it is still one of the world's poorest countries. Over 11 million Kenyans live below the poverty line. But better times may be ahead. The Government has embarked on an ambitious reform programme which promises to lay the foundations for strong growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The early 1990s marked the worst time in Kenyan history, in economic development terms. Real GDP growth dropped from 4.3% in 1990 to 2.1% in 1991 and was almost zero in 1992 and 1993. This poor performance was due to drought, structural rigidities, lack of monetary discipline, non-enforcement of banking regulations, and reduced donor assistance. While Kenya was used to receiving substantial foreign aid inflows, the present decade began with growing tensions between Government and donors. In the new post-Cold War atmosphere, the latter wanted to see political and economic reforms, and in November 1991 they decided to halt guick-disbursing aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Multi-party elections in December 1992 did not immediately restore relations with the donors, in particular as they were accompanied by a lack of fiscal and monetary discipline whose effects threatened economic ruin. Monetary expansion was fuelled, among other things, by discretionary exemptions to Banking Act provisions, which enabled over-borrowing by certain 'political' banks from the Central Bank. In early 1993, things came to a head. Foreign currency reserves were down to just a few weeks of imports, the banking system was on the verge of collapse, and consumer prices had shot up. Against this background, the Government went for a comprehensive, IMF-supported structural adjustment programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of far-reaching reforms were implemented with unprecedented speed. Exchange restrictions were removed, import licensing was ended, import procedures were made easier and tariffs were reduced. The export license requirement was also lifted and price controls were abolished. In March 1993, the Central Bank (CBK) began to tighten monetary policy. By issuing large amounts of treasury bills, it soaked up most of the excess liquidity which had been injected the previous year. There was also stricter bank supervision and a number of weak financial institutions were closed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Structural reforms</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Government began structural reforms aimed at reducing its own role in the economy in favour of the private sector. The privatisation programme, begun in 1991, was accelerated. By the end of 1995, the authorities had divested more than half of the 211 non-strategic parastatals-though critics complained the process often lacked transparency. The Government also substantially reduced its fiscal deficit through, above all, an improved revenue policy. The deficit fell from 11.4% of GDP in 1992/93 to 2.5% in 1994/95. The number of civil servants was reduced, mainly through voluntary early retirement, so that, by the end of 1995, the service had been trimmed by more than 30 000 (10% of the payroll).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1995, the reform programme lost momentum as proponents of the old and the new systems locked horns. Vested interests stood in the way of more radical reforms. Temporary import bans on maize and sugar were reimposed, key parastatal reforms were delayed and expensive but economically dubious projects were approved outside normal budgetary procedures. These included an international airport in Eldoret, a presidential jet and an identity card project. These further delayed the resumption of balance of payments support by the Bretton Woods Institutions and contributed to the frustration of efforts to improve relations with donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The economic crisis peaked in early 1993 and the shilling was sharply devalued. The official rate went from about KSh 36 to the dollar at the end of 1992 to KSh 60 in April 1993. On the market, the currency was being traded at a premium of more than 30% and that continued until July-i.e. about two months after the removal of exchange restrictions. The market premium then started to decline and the two rates converged in mid-October when the shilling stood at 69 to the dollar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The high interest rate on treasury bills under the liberalised foreign exchange regime was the main reason behind strong currency inflows which began in October 1993. Other factors, whose exact impact is difficult to gauge, included capital flight from neighbouring crisis-torn countries, the international money laundering one normally finds in places with newly liberalised foreign exchange regimes, and a surplus in the current account position. The shilling then started to rise, despite the CBK's massive currency purchases which led to a build up of reserves to the equivalent of six months of imports. The appreciation continued up to October 1994: indeed, at one point, the shilling reached a high of 35 to the dollar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That was the turning point. Strong import demand, fuelled in particular by a surge in oil imports in the wake of petroleum market liberalisation, and an outflow of portfolio investments due to lower interest rates, weakened the currency. By mid-1995, after two sharp falls, it reached a rate of 56 to the dollar. Since then, it has been relatively stable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic recovery</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Real GDP grew by 3% in 1994 and an estimated 5% in 1995. Good weather certainly helped, but the economy also benefited from the Government's reforms. Agriculture, the mainstay, grew by 2.8% in 1994 and by more than 5% in 1995. This compares with negative growth rates in 1992-93, when the sector was hard hit by bad weather. Elsewhere, the trends were more mixed. Many producers for the local market were affected by trade liberalisation and, in 1994, by the strong shilling. The former created a highly competitive environment almost overnight-after years of cosy protectionism. For cloth manufacturers, the liberalisation of imports of second-hand clothing further aggravated the problem. In 1994, the clothing sector's output dropped 35%. Tourism, the main foreign exchange earner, fared quite well in volume terms in 1994 despite the strong shilling. But while turnover may have gone up, it is likely that many operators did not earn enough extra to cover their increased local currency costs. In 1995, visitor arrivals fell by 20% to the lowest figure since 1988. In consequence, tourism earnings fell by a quarter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As intended, liberalisation led to higher trade volumes. In 1994, exports ( + 16%) rose by more than imports ( + 13%) in value terms, but the position was reversed in 1995 when the latter jumped by 35% while the former were 14% lower. One good sign was that the highest import growth was in industrial supplies and machinery (60% up) but the fact that the deficit almost doubled to reach record levels was obviously a cause for concern.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major revolution has also taken place in trade flows. In 1994, for the first time, Uganda overtook the UK as the biggest importer of Kenyan goods. In the same year, the value of Kenya's exports to African countries moved ahead of its combined exports to Europe and North America.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During 1994, the Nairobi Stock Exchange proved to be one of the worid's best-performing stock markets, the value of shares rising by 80%.1995 was disappointing, however. Although foreigners were allowed to invest for the first time, the index nonetheless fell by 25%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fighting inflation has been the CBK's main objective since 1993 and a tight monetary policy has brought the problem under control. Inflation dropped from 46% in 1993 to 29% in 1994 and to below 2% in 1995. Recently, however, an upward trend has bean observed. This follows a money supply increase far in excess of the expansion of economic activity, and is mainly due to a substitution of treasury bills for borrowing from the Central Bank since the end of 1994. If inflation is to remain within the 5% target for 1996-which already seemed highly unlikely by the middle of the year - the trend needs to be speedily reversed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially, the main way of mopping up excess liquidity was through the sale of treasury bills. When the sales began in March 1993, there was a huge liquidity overhang and high interest rates had to be offered to take money out of the market quickly. The rate earned on 90-day bills-which became the lead interest rate in the economy- rose from 17% to 80% between March and July 1993. It then declined steadily, reaching 18% at the end of 1994. This prompted an outflow of short-term capital, leading to currency depreciation and lower foreign reserves. Since mid 1995, treasury bill rates have been back above 20% and this seems to have stabilised the foreign exchange situation. It is generally believed that the high prevailing real interest rates are a major obstacle to investment and economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interest on domestic debt is still a big item in the state budget, although, the situation is much improved, thanks to the reduction in the stock of treasury bills and lower interest rates. In fiscal year 1993/94, interest payments on domestic debt alone swallowed one third of total gavernnnent expenditure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agriculture sector employs 70% of the total labour force and generates more than a quarter of Kenya's GDP. Much of industry is linked to agricultural processing, and tea, coffee and horticultural products are Kenya's major foreign exchange earners after tourism. The marketing of key farm products is dominated by large parastatals and cooperatives which are often run like parastatals. Most marketing organisations have been hard hit by the liberalisation, which brought both inefficiency and corruption to light. Tea growers have complained about improprieties at the Kenya Tea Development Authority. Imported sugar flooded the local market, often without paying import duties, leaving the mills with huge stocks. This, in turn, created severe cash flow problems. Most sugar farmers have not been paid for months. Kenya Cooperative Creameries was not able to pay farmers for milk deliveries for up to half a year, and could only start servicing the arrears when the Government came to its rescue with KSh 800 million in January 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Formidable challenges</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya's labour force, around 12.5 million in 1996, is growing at more than 4% a year. This means that at least half a million people enter the job market annually. The challenge of absorbing the new workers is formidable. Studies show that any strategy to deal with this must be based on three pillars: smallholder agriculture (to absorb most of the growth in the rural labour force), continuing substantial job creation in the informal sector, and high real GDP growth (+8% per year is needed to ensure that the modem sector absorbs a significant number of workers).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Informal sector employment has risen rapidly (up by 15-20% a year since 1991). By 1994, for the first time, there were more people working here than in the modern economy. The informal sector covers semi-organised and unregulated activities largely under taken by self-employed people or employers with just a few workers. Typically, they do not comply fully with tax, registration, and licensing rules, and this sometimes leads to conflict with the authorities. Workers are often paid below the minimum wage and have no social security. For many, the informal sector is, therefore, an 'employer' of last resort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is estimated that almost 50% of rural people and 30% of urban residents live in absolute poverty- unable to meet their minimum requirements for food and essential non-food items. While the percentage has remained fairly stable in recent decades, the increase in the number of 'absolute' poor is alarming. So too is the extent of the poverty: the gap between these people's minimum needs and their actual disposable income has reportedly increased over the last ten years. The bulk of the poor live in the central and western parts of the country, which have the best agricultural potential, the rich soils having always attracted settlers. For decades there was enough land to go around, but demographic trends have finally started to take their toll. The size of landholding has declined continuously, in many cases reaching levels which are no longer capable of sustaining a family.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There has been some progress in restructuring parastatals, but much remains to be done. The performance of key parastatals has been unsatisfactory by international standards and this has constrained growth. At Mombasa port, which is managed by the Kenya Ports Authority, handling charges are 50% higher than the global average, while container turnover is three times slower. Rail transport is unreliable, slow and more expensive than road haulage. The Kenya Power and Lighting Company has a shortage of generating capacity which means periodic power cuts. And intervention in the maize market by the National Cereals and Produce Board- at above-market prices-has prevented private sector involvement as well as placing a heavy burden on government finances. The Board has posted annual operating losses of between KSh 1.8bn and KSh 2.5bn each fiscal year since 1992/93.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corruption, misuse of funds, and the politics of patronage remain endemic and these clearly distort development. Elimination of corruption has been an aim of most reform programmes but it seems that the effect so far has only been to change its form. Trade liberalisation has killed cash cows such as import and foreign exchange licences, and the commercialisation of parastatals has stopped them from doing deals with cronies which were profitable only for the latter. But other forms of non-acceptable wealth accumulation have emerged. In the early 1990s, alleged exports of gold and diamonds are thought to have resulted in a loss of KSh 7 billion of public funds. Land grabbing has also become widespread. This either involves land being sold to individuals or companies with well-established political connections at well below market prices, or the purchase of land by public institutions from the same individuals or companies at inflated prices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After delays because of political differences, cooperation between the three states of the former East African Community (Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya) was revived in early 1996. The EAC Secretariat, based in Arusha, is headed by a Kenyan, Francis Muthaura, a former ambassador in Brussels. For the three countries, the new cooperation aims at facilitating movements of people, capital and trade within the region, and harmonisation of external tariffs and investment regulations. Currencies will be fully convertible. This revived cooperation is expected to have a major growth impact. The Nairobi Stock Exchange is currently assisting Kampala and Dar es Salaam to set up their own exchanges. And the NSE Chairman, Jimnah Mbaru, sees the future not only in a cross-listing of companies in the three places, but in a regional stock exchange.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy framework</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Policy Framework Paper (PFP) for 1996-1998, which was published in February ahead of the donors' Consultative Group (CG) Meeting, was highly applauded for both its content and form. The programme, which the media has dubbed 'the big push', promises finally to crack most of the 'hard nuts' of previous reform agendas, in particular in the parastatal and public sector. It also lays down measures aimed at supporting fiscal and monetary discipline through the next elections. These include cutting the budget deficit to 1.5 % of GDP by 1997/98, a tight monetary policy, and more autonomy for the Central Bank. In addition, it tackles some areas'that have emerged as avenues of corruption in recent years, such as the National Social Security Fund. While previous PFPs were highly confidential, this one was published, and the President appointed a Commission chaired by himself to oversee its implementation. These are seen as important steps in bridging the credibility gap which threatened to open up again in 1995. Donors are prepared to support the reform agenda and are eager to see it implemented speedily. Shortly after the positive outcome of the CG meeting, the IMF approved a three-year Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility programme for a total of $220m. The World Bank is expected to follow suit with a credit of $85m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An increasing number of donors, however, have pointed to the link between democratic governance/ human rights issues on the one hand, and aid and investment flows on the other. If Kenya is to meet its ambitious targets and turn into a newly-industrialising country by 2010, foreign inflows will be vital. The point was succinctly put by a delegate to the CG meeting. 'If its (the Government's) economic successes are matched by a commitment to democracy and human rights, Kenya may yet prove that surging economic growth is not just for Asian tigers, but for African lions, too.' The period leading up to the next general election will be the acid test. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E.P. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Country report</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Mali : An omnipresent sense of history</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some countries have a strong folk memory. Despite its size, Mali appears hemmed in by its frontiers. For more than a thousand years, this state was a splendid empire, constantly spreading outward and reflecting the history of the African continent with its conquests and alliances, reversals of fortune and moments of glory. At its height, it extended from the Atlantic to the Sudanese border, from the south of Morocco to the north of Nigeria. Mali's history rests in the minds of its people rather than in any structures inherited from the past. This acts as an antidote to the 'amnesia' often brought on by colonisation, which has the effect of paralysing the future. Although poor, the country has a well-established sense of its place in the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A racial melting pot</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">`</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the eve of colonisation, Mali was known es 'west Sudan'. In 1924, the territory then known as 'French Sudan' was split up and small portions of the Malian nation were incorporated into the seven states bordering it-a move certainly not calculated to have a cohesive effect on the remnants of the old empire. Mali has long been a melting pot of races, ethnic groups and cultures. They have learned to live together- intermingling, sometimes forming unexpected alliances, and occasionally fighting one another. The result today is a potpourri where true racial or ethnic confrontation is difficult to imagine. The interplay of history and the mixing of ethnic groups, families and individuals, has created what one intellectual de scribed to us as 'the anti Rwanda vaccine'. Historical mythology offers, perhaps, further evidence of the fusion of cultures in this country. As in ancient Greece or Rome, to take European examples, each ethnic group and each Malian empire, was 'backed' by a host of gods, spirits and totems. In this nebulous world, where dreams beget history and where vastly differing ethnic groups can trace themselves back to a common ancestor, the result was a multiplicity of interrelationships. Under various names, the python totem belongs to many different peoples, including the Peal, Ma/inke and Sarakolle. A study of the migrations of the peoples who make up Mali also reveals a great many relationships - for example, between the Dogon, who are black, and the Shongoi; who are more half-caste. They regard one another as cousins, originating from Aswan in Egypt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malians appear to share a genuine sense of belonging in keeping with their shared culture. The 'people' of Mali came into being long before the state of the same name. The guerilla war fought in recent years by the Tuaregs (this is the English plural, Tuareg already being the plural form of Targul) against the Malian army, is often viewed abroad as a struggle between whites (or Arabs) and blacks. But this is an illusion. Although the Tuaregs are probably the only 'white' minority in the country, they are an integral ingredient in the melting pot. They are also known as 'Kel-Tamasheq' - those who speak Tamashek, which was originally the language of their Bella slaves. Like all the country's ethnic groups, they have dominated and have in turn been dominated. They have forged alliances with one another, and, more commonly, have united against Arab or Berber invasions. The relative absence of bitterness overall is probably due to the fact that each of Mali's peoples has had its era of glory and imperial dominance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali is lucky to have such knowledge of its history. For centuries, the most precise details have been collected by the griots. The same role has also been played by the many secret societies which have initiation periods lasting, in some cases, up to 50 years. They were, and sometimes still are, repositories for the secrets of history, magic, astrology and science, and also for the symbols of power-the religious objects and artefacts of the former emperors. There are written sources as well, something which is quite rare in Africa. These have been transcribed since the beginning of the millennium and, in recent decades, close collaboration between historians, griots and members of traditional societies has enabled a deeper knowledge to be gained of Mali's history.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A rich empire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asselar Man, discovered near Timbuktu in the centre of Mali, was a contemporary of Cro Magnon Man. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cave paintings from five thousand B.C. reveal similarities with those in Egypt and are probably the work of migrant populations from the east, who moved into Mali as the Sahara Desert expanded. Less reliable sources state that interbred populations of Jews and Egyptians under the command of an officer of the Pharaoh Dinga created the Soninke dynasty (originating from Aswan). These people probably laid the found ations of the first great Malian empire, that of Ouagadou. Other sources, equally unreliable, report that they were probably Judaeo-Syrians who arrived at the end of the third century A.D. and found a population already in place. What is more or less certain is that, during the first millennium, a Soninke dynasty was installed around the current frontier between Mauritania and Mali and that 40 princes ruled it in succession in the period prior to 750 A.D. Initially, these rulers were white but, with increasing intermarriage, their skins became darker and darker. To Arab chroniclers, Mali came to be known as Bafour or Bilad es-Soudan (the country of the blacks). At the beginning of the second millennium, the Ouagadou empire held sway over several kingdoms in the south, including the Nigerian delta and a number of Berber principalities. Documents dating from this period have replaced the name Ouagadou with that of Ghana, by analogy, perhaps, with the emperor's title. The empire was already very rich, the richest in the world according to an Arab chronicler who visited it in 970. A work by the writer A/ Bakri, which appeared a century later (1087) went into great detail about the empire's organisation-the system of matrilinear succession, the role of councils of dignitaries, and the capital, Koumbi (whose foundations were discovered in 1914 in southern Mauritania). This city was divided into two districts, one of these being the sacred, imperial city, home to the empire's python totem to which a young girl was sacrificed every year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A story of courage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The killing of the snake totem is the most significant myths in the country's history. The hero of the story is Amadou Sefedokete whose love for his beautiful fiancee Sia (who was about to be offered in sacrifice), prompted him to descend into the monster's lair and confront it. By killing the totem, he broke the thread of countless generations before him, who had carried out the ritual sacrifice. He is still remembered for this magnificent action, based on love and a sense of nobility, and he remains a subject for artists of all types. His brave action still causes young lovers in Africa to shudder in admiration. However, this act of deicide brought about a reversal of fortunes. The monster's seven heads, which the young hero is said to have cut off one after the other, are reputed to have been scattered to the four comers of the earth, thereby dispersing the empire's riches and leaving it penniless. The true story is more prosaic. Ghana's wealth was eyed greedily by the Arabs and Berbers who had long traded with it. The empire's resistance in the face of Islam gave Moroccan religious fanatics a pretext for organising a jihad. It was invaded by an army of 30000 devotees supported by forces from some of the empire's black vassal states. The 'holy war' began in 1042 ending 34 years later with the occupation of Koumbi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The occupation did not last long but was followed by internal clan wars which brought about the end of an era. Restoration came about at the end of the 72th century , in the small Sosso kingdom, south of Ouagadou (also set up by a small group of Sonink&eacute;). One of the minor kings called Soumangourou Diarasso dreamed of recreating Ghana's empire, and, in 1203, he succeeded in sacking the ancient capital of Koumbi in a move designed to establish his own dynasty. This was an important symbolic act and in the fierce war which followed, Soumangourou subjugated Mand&eacute;, a region which was overflowing with wealth. One of Africa's greatest heroes, Soundjata, rose up against him. He was supposedly the legitimate heir to the Mandingo throne, but was unable to walk, having been born an invalid of a deformed mother who had been married at the recommendation of the king's sorcerer. His young half-brother took his place on the throne and sent the paralysed prince into exile. At the age of 18, Soundjata decided to seize his own place in history and a 'giant' was thus bom. In 1235, his army fought that of the bloodthirsty Sosso monarch whom he himself is said to have cut down in an extraordinary battle. It was a fight which, according to the legends, saw the use of all types of weapon, including magic. Soundjata had forged a grand alliance in order to gain victory. Rather than reducing to vassalage the small kingdoms which had allied themselves with him, the new emperor decided to form them into a federation-although he wisely declared that from Niani (his capital), 'I shall see all'. His empire took the name of 'Mali' (the hippopotamus) on account of that animal's strength and mastery of bath water and land. For 20 years, the empire was to stretch as far as the Atlantic Ocean. Its structure, based on a number of warrior clans, craftsmen, freemen and marabous, is still characteristic of Mali and neighbouring countries today. The empire was rich in gold once again but also in terms of agricultural organisation with the development of cotton and groundout farming. Soundjata disappeared mysteriously in 1255, leaving a prosperous empire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Conquest' of America?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1285, there was a struggle for succession between two princes and a third, Prince Sakoura (a freed slave), took advantage of the quarrel to take power for himself. Sakoura expanded the empire by subjugating the Timbuktu Tuaregs and the Gao Shongoi: After his short reign, a genuine heir of Soundjata, Aboubakar II, ascended the throne. He had his eye on conquests over the seas and, according to the story, he set sail westwards leading a fleet of 2000 vessels. He was never seen again. However, recent studies favour the hypothesis that he was not lost at sea as had always been supposed' but did, in fact, reach the Americas. A series of ineffective monarchs succeeded this 'conqueror of the impossible', who preceded Christopher Columbus by 200 years, leaving little real impression on history other than the records of their exuberant behaviour. One of them, for example, went on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 with a reported retinue of 60 000 and distributed considerable amounts of gold to all the dignitaries he encountered in that holy place. These kings, however, are acknowledged as having preserved the empire's unity, guaranteeing order without repression and allowing wide religious, moral and sexual tolerance, even for married women. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The kingdom centred on Gao dates back to at least the first millennium but it was usually a vassal of the Ouagadou empire and of Mali. One of its kings, Sonny Ali Ber (known as Sonny the Great), came to the throne in 1464, profiting from the decay of the Mali empire. His reign was marked by a bitter struggle against the Ul&eacute;mas of Timbuktu who, over a period of four centuries following the Almoravid conquest, had converted a large portion of the empire to Islam. The circumstances of Sonny's disappearance are uncertain, but he is thought to have drowned in 1492, the year when a certain Genoese navigator was to achieve the ancient goal of 'discovering' the Malian empire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sonny Ber's successor did not last long in the face of Islamic expansion. The new Askia dynasty was installed to lead the Shongoi empire, and this expanded with the annexation of Dahomey and part of Nigeria. However, a small part of the former Mali empire never passed under their rule. The Askia dynasty blew hot and cold in terms of religious fervour. Tyrannical at first, it later took a softer line. Under the reign of one monarch, the Gao court based in the university city of Timbuktu became a place of exceptional refinement-only to slide once again into a state of intolerance. One of the Askias, having destroyed the last symbols of the former Mali empire, the city of Niani, set upon his former Moroccan allies. Another emperor, Askia Daoud (1549-1582), turned out to be a fine administrator. He developed agriculture and set up a genuine bank in Gaol War with Morocco continued throughout his reign and beyond. In 1584, imperial force defeated 20 000 Moroccan soldiers, winning a victory which might have been decisive had it not been for internal dissent. This weakened the Askia side and enabled Morocco, with a band of Spanish mercenaries, to take over the empire, following a battle in April 1591. Success was due, above all on this occasion, to the firearms deployed by the winning side. Such weapons were unknown to the 45 000 Malian cavalry and infantry who were engaged. It also turned out to be a Pyrrhic victory. The occupying troops sent the great scholars from Timbuktu University to Morocco, where their peers took up their cause. Moreover, the foreign soldiers were won over by the easy life in Mali-and one of the first results of their presence was a big increase in the half-caste population. In 1612, the troops rejected the Moroccan command: the occupation was at an end and the last few Moroccans were later expelled from Timbuktu by the Tuaregs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Black religious proselytism and colonisation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To each dog his day. In the 17th century, the Bambaras set up an empire around Segou, but the debauched lifestyle of several of the sovereigns and disapproval of the part they played in the slave trade proved to be their downfall. Once again, the history of the country was to be shaped by a slave- Ngolo Diarra-who founded his dynasty in 1766. He was able to restore a degree of prestige to the kingdom, but his efforts were undermined after his death. As a reaction, a proselytising Black Islam then began to evolve.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Massina became a theocratic state around the beginning of the 19th century, in common with other kingdoms which appeared at the same time. One of their most famous rulers, the conqueror El Hadj Oumar, was defeated by the troops of the French General Faidherbe who forced him to give up West Senegal. The days of Malian independence were now numbered. The courage of his successor only delayed the progress of French colonisation, which finally prevailed at the end of the century.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Resistance fighters carried on the war from other points in the old empire, particularly from what is now Guinea. The country was dismantled by the colonial system and pacified, but the end of the Second World War and the return of African soldiers brought a renewed desire for independence. French Sudan became the rallying point for freedom fighters in the French colonies-the old dream of reunification was not dead and buried. In 1946, the Rassemblement Democratique Africain was set up, later to become the USRDA (Union soudanaise-Rassemblement democratique africain). In 1956, the future architect of Mali's independence, Modibo Keita, was appointed leader of the movement and elected to represent the 'Sudan' in the French Assembly. A 'Malian Federation' project was drawn up to include Dahomey (Benin), Upper Volta (Burkina Faso), Senegal and 'Sudan' (Mali). A constituent assembly of independence movement representatives was set up in 1959. However, the constitution adopted by the local Malian and Senegalese assemblies was rejected by the other two. The Federation now had only two members but was nonetheless proclaimed independent on 20 June 1960. In the event, the spirit of unity was lacking and, on the pretext of a rivalry between the two leaders (the 'Sudanese' Modibo Keita and the Senegalese Mamadou Dia), Senegal withdrew from the union in August. On 22 September 1960, the 'Sudan', now without an outlet to the sea, adopted one of the most prestigious names in its history: Mali.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new state was landlocked not only geographically but also, very soon, politically. Modibo Keita's socialist agenda prompted foreign investors to pull out, and the country was organised increasingly as a 'people's democracy'. Fortunately, the repression was not excessive but a sizeable proportion of the population disapproved of the system that had been chosen. Mali and Guinea still had modest aspirations to their old dream of unification. The founder of the Republic, Modibo Keita, was overthrown by a military coup on 19 November 1968. More than the break-up by colonisation, which left dreams of Sudan being reconstituted, this military putsch sounded the knell of the old empire. Mali became just another state whose colonial and post-colonial eras have been marked by a lack of success. Nevertheless, a sense of history is still omnipresent. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goueier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Three republics to create one democracy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is just something you have to get used to-in French-speaking Africa, virtually all countries have imitated France in assigning a number to each republic formed under a new constitution. At the time of its independence on 20 June 1960, Mali was a federation of two states; Senegal and the former 'French Sudan'. It was an alliance which failed after only a few weeks'existence end 'French Sudan' then adopted one of its most prestigious former names- Mali. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first regime, under Modibo Keita, became increasingly unpopular as its form of 'tropical' marxism caused it to become more and more isolated. One of its main shortcomings was its unrealistic five-year plans, none of which were ever implemented. Discontent became rife among various social groups. including the farmers who, opposed collectivisation and were adept at passive resistance which they employed to disrupt the supply of produce. The regime also modelled itself on the so-called 'people's democracies' in certain respects. For instance, it made a determined effort to improve education, health and social justice, while refraining from the more dictatorial excesses that often characterised such systems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initially welcomed by some sections of the population, the November 1968 putsch, by Lieutenant Moussa Traore quickly fumed into dictatorship although it was to be more than 10 years before there were any significant anti-government protests. At the end of 1990, opponents of the regime openly set up organisations which claimed opposition-party status. One of these was ADEMA (the Alliance for Democracy in Mali), formed by the current President of the Republic, Alpha Oumar Konare. Marches calling for a multi-party state attracted the support of tens of thousands of people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The dictator then sought to neutralise the opposition, beginning with the Tuaregs in the north who had been waging a guerilla war. This conflict was viewed by many as the 'front line' in the people's struggle against dictatorship, and the Tuareg cause was supported by opposition movements. The government, which had for some time opted for 'soft' repression, now revealed its claws and in January 1991 it began to imprison student leaders. The streets were filled with armoured vehicles and the first death amongst the students brought condemnation. Repression reached its height on 22 March 1991, when several dozen students were killed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prior to this, in February 1991, Moussa Traore's UDPM (Democratic Union of the Malian People) came out in support of a multi-party system - a move which marked the beginning of the end of the regime. The day after the students were killed, a democracy coordination committee launched an appeal for a general strike, to last until the dictator was overthrown. This began on 26 March, and amounted, in effect, to a 'democratic' coup d'etat. Its instigator was Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Toure, who took charge of the transition to-tether with the democratic movements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The former dictator was arrested and put on trial for his crimes. He was later condemned to death but his sentence was recently commuted by President Konare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Tuareg guerilla war continued despite the government's conciliatory attitude. The new administration also had to deal with a number of social claims which had long been stifled by the dictatorship. However, popular support for the regime remained firm. The new constitution was adopted virtually unanimously in a January 1992 referendum and, a week later, ADEMA won the municipal elections, the first in a series of electoral victories for Alpha Oumar Konare. He went on to win the Presidential election (for the Third Republic) in April, with almost 70% of the vote. Meanwhile, negotiations with the Tuareg rebels resulted only in signatures on agreements which were not observed. The situation grew worse with the Ghanda Koy counter-offensive, but this in turn led to a seemingly viable accord between the Azawad Arab Islamic front, the most important guerilla movement, and the Malian government. Last March, President Konare presided over an enormous bonfire of weapons seized from the former guerilla fighters. The flames lit up the skies above Timbuktoo, the symbol par excellence of rapprochement between the peoples of Mali.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the beginning of January 1994, the regime suffered the effects of the devaluation of the CFA franc. Economic liberalisation had enabled Mali to improve its macroeconomic position, but social discontent, particularly in the towns and cities, demonstrated that the average citizen was continuing to suffer economic hardship. The President still enjoys considerable support, and political democracy is greatly appreciated. Obviously, the government cannot be blamed for all the difficulties facing the country. There is, for example, a lack of professionalism in the press. However, it could have given a lead in the case of the State media, which still studiously avoids criticising the government's actions. The administration has also been taken to task for its apparently lax attitude towards 'economic' misdemeanours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Next year will see a series of elections. The government views these with apprehension, although it has stolen a march over its rivals by signing a political accord with several small parties. Opposition is centred around the MPR (Patriotic Movement for Renewal), the revamped former party of the dictator Moussa Traore. This has undergone a 'facelift, and now seems to be regaining support. lts trump card is decentralisation. Its former leaders, who held total power for a quarter of a century, can take advantage of the network of contacts they built up. The US-ADA, the party of the Republic's founder, Modibo Keita, which until recently appeared to be the herald of change, seems lately to have restricted its role to that of arbiter. Surprises are in the offing, but one thing is certain: the Third Republic's constitution will remain the guarantee of democracy in Mali. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">H.G.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with Ali N. Diallo, President of the National Assembly</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mali, the army has learnt if from the past</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali's institutions were radically remodelled in the wake of the recent vote on decentralisation. This is aimed at allowing, among other things, a degree of autonomy for the north of the country-which is essential to guarantee national reconciliation. The sudden growth in the number of small towns and villages may result in some political surprises during the long e/ection campaign period which is due to begin early next year. The President of the National Assembly, Ali N. Diallo, finds himself in a pivotal position: his Adema (A/fiance for Democracy in Mali) party current/y holds a comfortable majority in Parliament. With democracy being consolidated in Mali, he must find this an exhilarating time. Our frst question touched on this</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is certainly an excellent time to be in Mali, but freedom is the most difficult of man's needs to satisfy. Our National Assembly has 12 parties and most people in our country are inspired by ideas based on tolerance and respect for the right to be different. The main concern of those of us who lead the party currently in the majority, is to question constantly whether we are necessarily always right. We have a comfortable majority-72 members out of 115-but this certainly doesn't mean that the National Assembly is just a rubber stamp.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· There is, of course, another stumbling block when one has such a large majority, which is the possibility of internal divisions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, I would agree with you there. Mali's MPs have to realise that they came into this business after a three-stage process. First there was a popular uprising, then the army intervened to put an end to the bloodbath.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, we had the high level national conference to draft the constitution, the electoral code and the charter for the country's parties. MPs, therefore, must always bear in mind that, though they can claim legitimacy on the basis of the revolution, there is also a republican legitimacy they ought to respect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The second phase in the process was the intervention of the army-are you not a*aid that the 'Niger syndrome'will raise its ugly head in Mali, too ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Naturally, MPs have seen what happened in Niger and elsewhere, but fear is tempered here because officers in Mali's forces have also given a great deal of thought to the effects of military dictatorship. Democrats and republicans within the armed forces are very aware that only a minority of men in uniform profited to any degree from the previous regime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think that because Mali had what might be called a 'moderate' dictatorship, it is now in a better position than it would have been had the previous administration been more repressive ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Let me put it this way. The military dictatorship went through three different stages. During the first stage, just after the coup on 19 November 1968, the junta chose Mao Tse Tung as a model, hammering home the idea that power could be won by force of arms-and it was carried away by the popular acclaim it initially received. Subsequent popular resistance then took them by surprise. People wanted more freedom, but they also wanted to keep what they had gained in social matters. Army officers asked the protestors to abandon their action so that normal constitutional life could be resumed, but the trade unions had their own ideas. They advocated things which the people in power opposed. The ensuing repression was therefore fierce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was a second phase during which the military were at odds with one another over the leadership question. The popular view was that the country had fourteen different heads of state at that time. This went on until 28 February 1978 when there was a brief Iuli and they were tempted to return power to the civil authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then came the third phase when, despite appearances, poverty was on the increase. At first, Malians said that there were two 'IMFs' on the loose in Mali-the International Monetary Fund and the intimate circle surrounding the Moussa family. When the social foundation of the regime contracted, and all the country's business became concentrated in the hands of Moussa, his wife and her relations, the popular forces went on the offensive. This was a period of vociferous protest. Moussa Traore reacted with brutality: hence the 200 dead amongst the schoolchildren and students who were protesting- we will never know the exact number.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yet, the former regime could be said to have made the crucial economic choices which your government has continued with. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I wouldn't agree with that. There was a half-hearted discussion at the time about liberalising the economy but, in reality, bureaucracy got in the way. It is the economic laws voted in by ourselves which form the true basis of a liberal economy. However, if you really want to look to the past, I would say that it was the February 1967 accords signed between Mali and France, when we came back into the franc zone, which set the whole process rolling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Tuaregs and the government have just signed an agreement but the question of the north of the country is still a sensitive one. What are your views on this subject ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The problem in the north of Mali is extremely complex. First, the Malian nation is made up of a patchwork of minorities, the largest being the Ban Mana (Ed. 'Bambara' in the colonial vocabulary), but no ethnic group is larger than all the others put together. Second, all groups have, at one time or another, held supremacy. But the fact is that the peoples involved have all lived in the same area throughout history- they have shared joys and sorrows, and their blood has mingled on Malian soil. l would accept that the Malian nation is not as well consolidated as it should be, but it is arguably one of the most advanced in the sub-region in terms of its constitution-though I don't mean to sound chauvinistic here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anyway, the problem in the north of the country seems to me to be one of development. The various regions have not all developed at the same rate on account of climate differences. In addition, the dictatorship did not show any great respect for minorities - although it did not direct its actions solely against the Tuaregs, who resorted to arms. The Tuaregs exaggerated the mistreatment they had suffered because they were unfamiliar with what was happening in the rest of the country. In fact, Moussa Traore oppressed everyone: the French-style Jacobin state we inherited did not allow for regional differences. After independence, the regime redoubled its efforts to centralise the state. both because it was Jacobin in outlook and because of Modibo Keita's communist leanings. In 1959, the French forced the Tamashek (ea. 'Tuaregs') to secede-Max Lejeune and Houphouet Boigny were mixed up in all that. This was when oil was first discovered in Algeria and the war with Algeria had been in full swing since 1954. Modibo Keita set up the Malian Federation and declared in 1959 that, upon independence, he would withdraw all soldiers from the Algerian front. Since the Malian Federation was dismantled, Gao virtually became an Algerian willaya, a base camp for its fighters. Mali did not accept this. Moreover, Algeria, around the time it achieved independence, took retaliatory measures and sealed off its borders, mercilessly sending back huge numbers of refugees. It mobilised them through humiliation, telling them that they were the last members of the white race-the only ones to allow themselves to be under black rule.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· But when Ganda Koy's militia halted the Tuareg movement, they appeared to have been supported by the black population. Doesn't that also suggest a racist attitude ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I addressed the Tuaregs in October 1992, and pointed out that their wish to regard themselves as overlords and the other peoples in Mali as vassals who ought to pay tribute would provoke a general uprising, with the risk of a slide into civil war. I told several of the Tuareg chiefs seated around me the legend of Ouagadou- about the serpent of the well who each year demanded that the Soninke people should sacrifice an 18-year-old girl in its honour. Then the day came when a young man refused to accept the sacrifice of his fiancee. He went down into the monster's lair, watched by a horrified crowd who saw his recklessness as folly, and cut off the serpent's head. In the beginning, the Malian people's sympathies in fact lay with the rebellion. On 26 March, when the rebellion against the dictatorship took place, the president at the time, Konare, asked for all the Tuareg chiefs to be brought to him so that they could set up a transition body. He got a nasty surprise when the Tuaregs resorted to arms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Was the government, as rumoured, behind the Ganda Koy ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Not the government as such. To my mind, it would be wrong to applaud when one faction of the people one governs wants to exterminate another faction.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It appears that some of the people are unhappy with the concessions that have been made to the Tuaregs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is a myth. The idea that we are frustrated because the Tuaregs were once our masters, is a story put about by Europe. The situation is quite the reverse. At the time of colonisation, they were unwilling to ream, like other nomads, such as the Peul people, for example. There were splits with them, of course, but no actual, all-out war. Forging a nation always requires tears, sweat and mourning. Those who return will find what they left broken or stolen and will want land which is less barren than that impoverished by the encroaching desert. However, those who stayed put in the face of rebel attacks had their houses smashed and their animals taken away. There will be problems when some Peals, for example, identify their cows which were stolen. We will have to negotiate, but I have confidence in the people. Just as they ended the war, they will be able to heal the wounds-of this I am sure. And the process has already started.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I gather that you continue to practice as a doctor, on top of your political duties. Is this to teach a moral lesson to your political colleagues ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I would say that it is more of a weakness, an inability to abandon a passion, even for supposedly good reasons. l am an 'internalist' and I have a passion for mechanisms. If you cure an infection and it returns, you have to look elsewhere to solve the problem. There are those in authority who spend money on trying to tackle problems without troubling to locate the cause. I would like to think that the analytical rigour of clinical science might also be put to good use in promoting understanding in politics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 1 240 190 km²</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 10 million</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population density: 8.15 per km²</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population growth rate: 3.1 % </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Bamako (pop.700 000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other main towns: S&eacute;gou (65 000), Mopti (52 000), Sikasso (50 000), Koutiala (37 000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Languages: French (official language), Bambara, Peul, Shongoi, Tamashek </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Curreny: CFA franc. In July 1996,1 ECU was worth CFAF 647.5 ($1 = CFAF 515) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government: Mixed presidential and parliamentary system. Greater powers are due to be transferred to the regions after the next elections. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Head of State: Alpha Oumar Konar&eacute;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Ibrahim Boubacar Keita Political parties represented in Parliament: ADEMA (absolute majority). 'Opposition' - CNID, USRDA and numerous other smaller groupings. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p021.png"></center><br>
+ Map</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1993 figures unless otherwise stated) GDP: CFAF 753.8 billion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP per capita: $530</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Origin of GDP by sector: agriculture 42%, industry 11 %, services 47% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Real GDP growth: 2.4%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balance of payments: deficit of CFAF 84.1 billion (estimated) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main trade partners (% of total trade) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exports: Thailand (24.2%), Brazil (19.1%), Ireland (9.7%), Belgium/Luxembourg (9.7%) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Imports: C&ocirc;te d'lvoire (22.2%), France (14.5%), Senegal (9.7%), Hong Kong (4.6%)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main exports: cotton 40%, livestock 28%, gold 17.5%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual inflation rate: 3%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth: 46.2 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Infant mortalityper 1000 live births: 158 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult literacy: 28.4% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education (primary, secondary and tertiary): 16% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.223 (171st out of 174)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with Amadou Seydou Traor&eacute;, opposition leader and USRDA spokesman</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Macro-economic indicators tell you nothing about the distribution of the country's resources'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It cannot be easy to be in opposition when Parliament is dominated by a majority which is given a good press and is regarded abroad as a good pupil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We do not really find it a problem. If one is familiar with Mali's current situation, the people's views, reactions and judgments count for more than outside opinion, despite the fact the latter may seem important. However, we do take account of others' opinions. We are pleased to be able to speak to you-to express our ideas and points of view- so that outsiders can see that the USRDA offers a credible alternative for Mali. We feel quite secure in our current position because the principles and values we stand for are those closest to the Malian people. So we have no problem in being the opposition party. We are not the kind of hysterical opposition which resorts to foul means as well as fair ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Given that most Malian political trends stem from the revolutionary democratic movement, what are your party's special features ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Our party's origins are in the movement which dates from 26 March 1960-which itself grew out of an underground movement. The main component of this was the USRDA whose government was overthrown by a reactionary military putsch. Adema won the last elections, and we do not contest this fact despite a number of irregularities. Indeed, we supported the Adema government's initial actions. We were one of seven parties who regarded the Third Republic as our own offspring. Between 1992 and 1994, even when we faced grave difficulties and they were asking for suggestions, the government ignored our proposals. This happened, for example, at the time the World Bank threatened to pull out. As it functions at the moment, the government is not meeting the Malian people's basic aspirations. They want to see a change from the previous regime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are your essential criticisms of the way Adema works ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We are critical on a number of fronts. Looking at it first from an institutional standpoint, when the Malian people rejected the old regime, they wanted the existing set-up to be changed into a democratic one. The few institutions that have been established since then do not reflect this desire. They are virtually no different from what we had under the single-party system. True, we have an opposition party, but its views are ignored. Second, in terms of the management of democracy, a number of bodies, such as the State Commission on the public media, simply do not function. You have been in Mali for a week now, so you must have heard Adema spokesmen on the TV or radio. But you will never hear a member of the opposition. The space reserved for that -formerly an open forum for free political discussion-has been removed and the state-controlled TV and radio stations do not allow political parties to have a say. In the economic sphere, our approach is also completely different. We believe that support for the development of the private sector means that the state has to act as regulator. Economic development cannot simply be left to run its course as a kind of 'rat race'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Could you give us a few practical examples of what you describe as Use selling-off of the family jewels ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-With pleasure. Before the 26 March revolution, there was a general consensus that, in the process of privatisation, the state sector should be managed in a way that benefited the Malian economy. But the reality is that privatisation methods have not changed. They are no different from what they were in Moussa Traor&eacute;'s time. The electricity sector, for example, which has not yet really been privatised, is now managed by the Bouyges group of France. And it costs more, which will hardly help the country's economic development. The state airline has simply been absorbed by Air Afrique. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· If you were in power, how much economic scope do you think you would have, given the prevailing trend towards international liberalisation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I recognise that there is a dominant international lobby which has drawn up its own conditions, laws and principles. Even if one does not agree with this approach, one has to take it into account. However, it should be feasible to achieve privatisation in a different way. We know what we are talking about because we used to run this country. Indeed, we set up the national economy. Before 1960, there was no economic system to speak of. l am currently completing the text of a work which looks at our economic position at the time of independence. The plain fact is that we had nothing at the time of independence. There were only three pharmacists, fewer than ten doctors, and about ten people qualified to teach in our grammar schools-not much to write home about after 70 years of colonialism! After 1960, we had to set everything up from scratch. If you trace the history of every country in the world, whether under a monarchy or a republic, you see that the state has always made the first move in bringing about industrialisation, developing the maritime sector, and stimulating imports and exports. If you think about it, at the outset, the main manufactured activities were the domain of royalty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You claim that your party left a legacy, but some might say that the highly interventionist regime of your hero, Modibo Keita, who brought about independence, contained the seeds of Moussa Traore's dictatorship.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-These are just fairy stories. When a regime is overthrown by a coup d'etat, it always becomes the victim of systematic defamation campaigns in the press. We were maligned for 23 years with no right of reply and no right to issue a statement to set the record straight. In a way, we are talking today about a past which did not exist. You know the saying 'you are not only what you are but also what people say you are'. This reference to dictatorship is one of the most serious calumnies. But no matter what lies are told, something of the truth will always remain. If our regime had been dictatorial or inquisitorial, a coup d'etat would not have been possible. Before the 1968 coup, Modibo Keita was given a file by the security services warning him of the plot by Moussa Traore, and giving a list of his accomplices. He was advised to arrest the conspirators and put them on trial. His response was that he would not agree to a Malian citizen being deprived of his liberty without a scrap of evidence. I knew Keita very well. It will be a long time before we have another head of state with such democratic convictions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The ordinary people, the farmers, say that they did better under Traore, than under Keita.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Yes, but it depends who you talk to. With Traore, there was an atmosphere of moral decline. We were free to plunder, steal and murder, but it was not real freedom. The farmers see it from a different perspective. However, l can still show you a copy of the 'Summary Report on the Seminar on Cooperation in the Rural Environment' which we drew up in 1968, just a few months before the coup d'etat. This highlighted the fact that socialism had not penetrated into the countryside during the seven or eight years we were in power. So you see our own self criticism appeared in a document published in May 1968. This demonstrates the fact that we were not complacent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is your view of the compliments the current government is receiving from many foreign observers, and the good marks it has been given in the macro-economic field by international institutions ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Good macro-economic results which are due to good management of public finances are beneficial for the country. However, such management must be accompanied by greater welfare and an improved standard of living for the people. There is no point hailing a GDP increase of 3-4% if more than 10% of the population does not have enough to eat. You have been through Bamako and other towns and cities and you have seen the construction sites and big buildings. But in their daily life, people are now more ill at ease. They have been disappointed by the Adema regime. The welfare of the ordinary citizen cannot be defined by reference to the personal wealth of someone who is having a seven-storey building put up. All of this new construction is reflected in the higher GDP. But the macro-economic indicators tell you nothing about the distribution of the country's resources-and the scales are currently tipped towards injustice. Those who are working are earning less but those who do not work are earning more. Embezzlement and corruption are currently worse than under Moussa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is the likelihood of a changeover of political power given that the opposition groups are at odds? The union between yourselves and Parena appears to have been suspended.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We are capable of winning the forthcoming elections without entering into an agreement with any other party. Having said this, we are the party to which most groupings in Mali are now turning and we are currently in the process of forming an alliance which will carry a great deal of weight. l am not one to speculate but I am sure that Parena's supporters will, in time, reach the same conclusions as ourselves regarding the timeliness and suitability of an alliance between us. We have contacts with a number of other parties but we do not want to form an electoral pact in the way one would make preparations for a coup-forming a group, ousting the regime and then shooting at each other! Moreover, it is important not to confuse change with restoration. There are those who advocate the restoration of Moussa's regime. Opposition of that kind would suit the current government very well because it would allow them to raise the spectre of our former dictator in the hope of attracting support from those who are frightened by such a pro spect. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by H.G.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The magnetism of the unfamiliar... but unexotic</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In West Africa, there is a dry, desert-like region which a river tried to bring under its sway. Instead of flowing seawards, the river's path went in the opposite direction to find this region, impulsively tracing a majestic loop of 2000 kiLom&eacute;tres before heading seawards. The Niger may not have provided an ideal site for Mali's major towns and villages, but it was considerate enough to form a major waterway between them which is navigable over almost its entire course. Its network of tributaries has resulted in the formation of large landlocked lakes whose waters are full of fish-a reminder of the times when the Sahara was one huge expanse of water. It has also resulted in the extraordinary Niger basin, a central delta area the size of Belgium, criss-crossed by lesser tributaries which reach into the smallest valleys. The river has created a diverse landscape which entices the visitor back. The land is steeped in history and if one wishes to learn its secrets, one has no choice but to study the empires of the past, forged it is said, by mythological deities and heros.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the dry season, visitors marvel at the beauty of the plains, which stretch as far as the eye can see. They will be tempted to return to view the waters that will cover them for just a few months during the rains. This is when the towns and villages appear as islands in the flooded landscape. Later in the seasonal cycle, Nature divests itself of its watery raiment and prepares to welcome the egrets, pink flamingos and all the other richly coloured birds which have flown in from afar. The cultural life of this region is also imbued with a rare richness, combining mystery and individuality. Mali has a distinctive character: it is accessible but not adulterated by frippery, welcoming but not taken over, affable but able to treat everyone as its equal. There is no need to make constant reference to the past which existed before colonial times-the past simply exists, eloquent in its tranquil humility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of Mali should logically begin in Bamako, the likely port of arrival. But if one immediately journeys to the towns and villages that were the cradles of empire, one is better able to appreciate this young capital, barely 250 years old, whose history owes much to its smaller forebears. We arrived in the evening and departed at dawn the next day. So Bamako was no more than a blur. The River Niger, still known as the Djoliba in the capital, is crossed by two long bridges which offer a view over the wild river banks. Most of the constructions are brand-new and some have a style borrowed from their thousandyear-old 'Sudanese' architectural heritage. It would have been more romantic to travel by river to the central part of the delta but, despite the welcoming nature of the Niger as it flows through Mali, it is difficult to navigate over the Sotuba rapids, between Bamako and Koulikoro approximately 50 km away. When the waters are in spate from July to December, it takes no more than two days to reach Segou, three to reach Mopti, five to reach Gao and an extra day to arrive in Timbuktu.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Segou, the rebel</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Our first stop after Bamako is Koulikoro, the departure point for Niger cruises. After the unusual houses of the bazo fisherman on the banks of the river, as one leaves Bamako, it is the river itself which is a source of curiosity, transforming the voyage into a wonderful promenade through a forest abounding in game. Then there are the thatched, circular mud huts. Those without a roof are built on piles and are often ovens for preparing karite-nut oil whose bitter-sweet fragrance mingles with the fruity scent of the mango trees which line our route. In Koulikoro, every day is market day. The market spills out into the road and then shrinks back to allow vehicles to pass. It is also a centre for hunters and poachers who come here to seek customers. Above all, it is the centre for the guilds of masons who jealously guard the secrets of traditional Sudanese building skills. For the visitor who cares to linger, the griots will sing the praises of the old magician-king Soumangourou whose spirit has haunted this small town for eight-and-a-half centuries. When he was overthrown by the hero Soundjata, he just vanished into thin air-in the land of mystery that is Mali, great kings do not die, they simply disappear.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first 250 kiLom&eacute;tres of the river's course from Bamako are enchanting. One's first real encounter with Mali's past come at Segou-when the balanzans come into view. The charming, independent city is close by. Segou, the Bambara capital, did not form part of most of Mali's empires. Indeed, the word Bambara comes from 'Ban-Mane', which means 'those who reject a master'. There are 4444 + 1 balanzans to announce the city, all of which are numbered except the last one, which still guards its secret. The balanzans conceal another secret: during the dry season they are covered with leaves, which they lose during the winter. A curious traveller might arrive at Segou with memories of Maryse Conde's fine prose (Segou, Robert Laffont, France, 1984). Her work is an epic fresco of life at the court of the Bambara kingdom in the nineteenth century. The city itself stretches for eight kiLom&eacute;tres along the river bank, with a promenade high above the river on an embankment from where there is an uninterrupted view over the water to the horizon. The richly coloured fabrics of the washer women create a dreamlike atmosphere, giving an impression of the shimmering tunics worn by princes, and the women who swim in the river are not given to excessive prudishness, another reminder of the city's enduring rebellious nature. The charm and cleanliness of the town are striking, its administrative buildings stretching along a grand boulevard lined with modern structures. We see in their profiles, the traditional architectural styles as well as a variety of colours. The whole scene is shaded by gardens full of flowers. It is easy to forget that Segou has retained none of its former architectural wealth. This was all destroyed by the organisers of a jihad who sacked this city of infidels who had never been won over to Islam or, later, to Catholicism. The city walls and the regal courtyards are all gone, so what remains is jealously protected: the sceptre and regal symbols of King Diarra, the kingdom's treasures and its secrets. On Mondays, market day, it is possible to see people kneeling at the feet of an old man. He is the custodian of the town's remaining riches, but will never reveal where they are held. Oumar Santara, one of Segou's intellectuals, is attempting to gain an insight into these mysteries in order to protect them better because, he says, the pillage is still going on. Mali's cultural heritage is being ransacked by outsiders. In some villages on the opposite bank of the river, it is still possible to find 13th-century coins in the village squares.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trial marriage</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly 500 kiLom&eacute;tres separate Segou from Mopti. Midway between the two is San, barely more than a large village. San is bathed by the waters of the Bani, a major tributary of the Niger which it flows into it at Mopti. In the market, fine cotton fabrics can be bought, as can the skills of the blacksmiths. Here, however, there is above all an air of secrecy. The town's inhabitants are members of the Bobo people. The name translates es 'stammering', 'mute' being implied. This is the town which holds the secrets of fatal poisons- cocktails of poisonous plants and snake venom. There are also unguents of all kinds to relieve pain, alleviate scarring, and so on. San has another reputation, that of handing out severe punishment to adulteresses. This seems paradoxical when one discovers that women here enjoy exceptional sexual freedom during adolescence and up to the time of their marriage, and even afterwards. They enter into a trial marriage for three or four years, during which time they are free to 'play the field'. At the end of this period, on the occasion of a feast, they reveal whether or not they will accept their 'provisional' husband. If not, the woman regains her freedom and can start all over again as many times as she wishes. If she decides to become the man's wife, she chooses some of her husband's friends with whom she may 'have a fling' for two weeks, the aim being that she thereby lays to rest her unmarried freedom. She will then swear an oath of fidelity to her husband which she breaks on pain of being cast out of society and even, it would appear, at the risk of losing her life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 1 2-kiLom&eacute;tre dyke, which seems to float on the water during the winter season, links Sevare, the crossroads of the major routes across Mali, to Mopti. Situated below water level, Mopti owes its existence to the embankments which protect it. The dyke offers a fine promenade which opens out onto the quayside of this bustling town. The streets are crowded and the settlement has a vitality and beauty, with coloured lights mirrored in the water. On land, the crowds drift in much the same way as the multitude of boats anchored in staggered rows along the riverbank. These stretch for hundreds of metres- as far as the eye can see. All this wealth of detail forms a tableau punctuated by the outlines of the slender fishing smacks (pirogues or dugout canoes). Despite their size, these vessels retain their uncluttered lines, always giving the impression that they are slicing through the water. The biggest of them are perhaps 50 metres long, carrying cargoes of up to 150 tonnes. This strange, animated scene, which resembles no other in the world, seems to have been staged as a way of reviving the buried images of the Mali of legend-provoking a memory of things unseen and prompting new sensations. Despite the fact that it is replete with Malian influences, Mopti did not develop until colonial times. Like Segou, it never really belonged to any of Mali's great empires, although it became their meeting point. It is a place where all the country's languages are spoken. Indeed, the word 'mopte' in Peal means 'place of assembly'. At Zigui's restaurant or in a cafe down by the port, one find groups of beribboned Tuareg artisans still with their belle servants (former slaves) in tow. One can watch the Peals, also followed by their servants, negotiating their deals. Some trade in gold jewellery, dogon or other ethnic sculptures. Others buy and sell the magnificent Segou carpets or cotton fabrics. Others still dabble in ancient archaeological artifacts (which it is forbidden to sell) and in sacred objects from all over the country. The town itself is an artifact: the apparent hotchpotch is regulated by an internal, almost natural organisation. The hundreds of boats, fishing smacks and other small craft are arranged along the river banks according to the goods they are importing. There is one place for fishing boats, another for furniture imports, and so on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mopti merits an overnight stay. In the curve of the great arc which forms the port, a soft light lingers on the congested river banks. It is not just the people who seem to tire of the day's hustle and bustle. The biggest boats with their gentle backwash, anchored in the mud until the next incoming tide, grow too lazy for their images to be reflected in the water and they seem to hold on to the last of the sun's glow, awaiting the first glimmers of moonlight</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Dogon region, poetry in stone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As one approaches Bandiagara, on the threshold of the cliff faces which bear the name of this town, the landscape changes. Most of Mali is flat, but here, we find ourselves in the high land. In fact, the altitude is only a few hundred metres, but the landscape is dominated by sheer and rugged rock faces. This is Dogon country where everything seems to be made of stone: the roads, houses and hills appear in matching tones of salmon pink. The inhabitants, too, seem to have been hewn from the very rock. At first glance, the landscape is unremarkable apart from the sight of all this rock, but as one's perception grows keener, shapes can be made out. At the foot of the slopes are caves that are still lived in. And in the most vertical part of the cliff faces, we can pick out regular, sculpted barrel shapes, combining to form an impressive design. These stone cylinders are the ancient dwellings of the Telems, a mysterious people who preceded the Dogons and were conquered by them. Nothing is known about their disappearance. Today, the cylinders are used as Dogon graves. Access is gained to them during funeral services, by means of a system of ropes. At the top of the cliff is Shanga, the beauty of the Dogon region. It stands atop a 400metre sheer drop which extends over a length of 200 kiLom&eacute;tres. Reaching Shanga from Bandiagara involves picking one's way through the rocky landscape and sliding over sandstone scree.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before the Europeans arrived to colonise the country, no one had succeeded in subjugating the Dogon region. Was it really ever under the sway of the colonists ? This region, whose beauty lies in its harshness, has no embellishments. And its language is as hard on the ears as the rock is underfoot. As everywhere, to feed themselves, the Dogons till the soil. But this must be carried on the backs of men and women over distances of several kiLom&eacute;tres and then deposited on the rock. Every onion bulb and every root pulled from this thin layer is a testament to the tenacity of humankind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Dogon region is like a magnet-it attracts pilgrims from afar who come to venerate El Hadj Oumar, the founder of the Islamic brotherhood of the African Tidjani-a military and religious leader whose life and disappearance are shrouded in mystery. It also attracts people because of the beauty of its works of art. Some of these, apparently of recent manufacture, are actually centuries old. For the custodians of the sacred objects, the interest of outsiders is viewed as a catastrophe. The artefacts are constantly pilfered and sometimes, their keepers commit suicide in their horror at such desecration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fine regalia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djenne translates as 'the beloved of the waters' and is surrounded by two strekhes of the Bani river. Thus, apart from a short time in the dry season, when the river can be forded, it is an island accessible only by boat. The town has always been a rival of Timbuktu, the 'daughter' of the desert. Before Mopti was created, Djenne was the country's meeting point. The town is dominated by its mosque which is a masterpiece of Sudanese architecture. This imposing clay structure has been a magnet for the faithful since the thirteenth century. It has always been rebuilt in the same style, each version scrupulously identical to the previous one. The most recent reconstruction dates from the early 1900s.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Centre of the Malian empire, Djenne has retained all its finery, magnificence and prestige. It was annexed by the Shongoi empire at the end of the Middle Ages and its conquerors have always been seduced by the town's beauty. The mosque has been designated a World Heritage Site, and the entire town has protected status. For centuries, its architecture influenced other towns and cities in the Sahel and it continues to do so. The secrets of the knowledge and skills of its master masons are still jealously guarded, passed on only reluctantly to the initiated. The whole town is built around the mosque, revealing an interplay of balance and power. There are magnificent inner courtyards to which entry is gained through massive, ornate studded gates. The elaborate and finely carved windows, the intertwined leaves and scrolls of the arabesques and the moucharabies, all bear witness to the Moroccan influence. This has, however, been toned down and it now blends in with Djenne's indigenous forms of decoration and architecture. Whilst all Mali's former great towns and cities were known for their power and military glory, Djenne takes pride in having dispensed with brute force, its spirit protecting it from subjugation. All those who pass through take something of Djenne's spirit away with them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coca Cola kept at bay</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Returning to the capital from where we started, we discover that it was colonisation that turned Bamako from a village into the large city that it is today. It inhabitants now number approximately one million. Although a city of recent origin, the site on which it is built dates back to the dawn of time. The hills overlooking the city are home to cave paintings and the underground tombs provide more evidence of a human presence dating from ancient times. There is then a gap of several thousand years in Bamako's history. In early colonial times, just two centuries ago, the village had no more than 700 inhabitants. Bamako began to be developed at the beginning of the 1900s and it is the only city in Mali to have a colonial atmosphere. It has not, however, lost out to change. The ministerial buildings at Koulouba hill, one of five dominating the city, or the Point G houses in the National Museum area, may not equal the beauty of Sudanese architecture, but they are elegant nonetheless. Their plain style is softened by their leafy gardens. The administrative buildings in the lower part of the city are often a fusion of colonial or modern styles and traditional architecture. These edifices are also made more attractive by fine gardens, which lend originality to the city. One of the most successful combinations is the great market, unfortunately in the process of restoration at the time of our visit and whose beautiful interior we were unable to appreciate. It is interior beauty which characterises this city in comparison with other African capitals. Despite its congestion and the density of its population, Bamako still has the atmosphere of a lively village. There is little of what one might term a 'social scene', but it is enough to be invited into the 'squares' or respectfully to visit the block-shaped houses which are still home to entire families and where discussion sessions (grins) last into the small hours. These sessions are enhanced with food and the omnipresent cup of tea. Bamako still prefers tea to imported beverages and to receive guests in the family home rather than joining in the social round in the hotel foyers so characteristic of major capital cities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For those hesitant to venture into the traditional life of Bamako (although they would be assured of a welcome), there are many restaurants which make a good attempt at recreating a homely atmosphere. One is not, however, required to take part in the conversations. Two restaurants (the Djenne and the Santoro), which have opened recently, allow one to enjoy the pleasures of art and history. They are part of a wider project to promote Malian art and set up an organisation for artists and craftsmen. They contain areas modelled on the refinement of former imperial furnishing, interior design and architecture, as well as exhibits by Mali's greatest artists. Their creator, Aminata Traore, is an intellectual, art connoisseur and international expert. In Dakar or Abidjan, patrons of such establishments would probably be expatriates with perhaps a few local dignitaries. But at the Santoro and Djenne, prices have been kept reasonably low (no account having been taken of the 50% devaluation in the CFA franc) and the art remains accessible to middle-class Malians. Thus, the spirit of the 'grins' is preserved. The preferred beverage is still a cup of fragrant tea or perhaps a glass of refreshing juice. Whisky will never replace tea, nor will Coca Cola replace fruit juices. Mali is not a country which rejects other people, but it resists cultural encroachment, preferring the </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">familiar to the exotic. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Mali-EU cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Roads and adjustment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Theo Hoorntje</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For 1990-95, ECU 151.7m was allocated (mainly in project aid) under the seventh EDF National Indicative Programme (NIP). This is equivalent to about 1.5% of Mali's GDP and 13% of its public-sector investment programme for the period in question. European funds from sources other than the NIP-emergency aid, Stabex, European Investment Bank (EIB) venture capital and resources from the structural adjustment facility- reached ECU 87.2m over the same five-year period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1995, support for the structural adjustment programme represented 5.4% of the balance of payments deficit and 7.8% of the budget deficit. Looking at all instruments together, the amount involved in financing decisions taken by the Commission last year was ECU 42m, with the disbursement figure rising to ECU 40m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The NlP's primary commitment level under the 7th EDF rose from 76% at the beginning of the financial year to 92% at the end, which means that virtually all available programmable resources are now allocated to projects and programmes. The secondary commitment level, which involves the conversion of proposals into concrete agreements and contracts, rose from 33% to 45% by the end of the financial year. Disbursement rates remain relatively low (32% of available resources).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Allocations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid is distributed to the various sectors, as follows:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Roads (29% of the total);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Support for structural adjustment (20%);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Rural development / Environment (1 4%);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Support for the private sector (12%);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Decentralisation (9%); </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Public health (9%); </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Water supplies (4%); </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Education/Culture (3%).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear that Community aid concentrates mainly on road infrastructures-covering both maintenance and the opening-up of remote regions. Support for structural adjustment, which comes second, is used to finance the State budget's current expenses, particular emphasis being placed on improvement of fiscal and customs income and greater efficiency in health-policy matters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In other areas, such as rural development, Community aid also makes an attempt to consolidate gains from previous actions, particularly through the development of rice growing and stock rearing, which should improve supplies to the domestic market and offer further export potential. As far as the environment is concerned, the aim is to contribute to the sustainable management of natural resources on the part of basic users, such as farmers, breeders, etc.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The private sector is supported by actions in key areas and by a programme that was recently set up which involves directing resources through a financial institution (Credit Initiative SA). The objective is to promote lending to SMEs, which is in keeping with the general aim of achieving economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the context of administrative reform, priority is given to the decentralisation process which aims to promote the emergence of new local decision making centres (which should, in the long term, become key players in project development and implementation), and to give such decentralised bodies the means they require to fulfil these new public-sector missions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for health, Community aid has contributed to the PSPHR project financed by other donors. Its main focus is initially on infrastructures and on the policy relating to the supply of essential medicines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the water-supply sector, actions are aimed at strengthening village infrastructures, particularly in the Bankass and Koro areas. A solar-pump programme has also been set up in the Mopti and Koulikoro regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to a school reconstruction programme in the north of the country, the Commission has been able to support education and culture through a dozen or so film projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the general 'heading' of non-programmable resources, there have been a number of interventions. These include extra support for structural adjustment, Stabex transfers, deployment of the balance from the 5th EDF and EIB projects. Emergency aid has been deployed in the north of the country where, despite difficult conditions, programmes have been able to continue without interruption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, Community regional aid is helping to combat rinderpest, as well as being directed towards road maintenance, and the provision of training and information on environmental protection. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">T.H. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">NGOs finally achieve tangible results</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Catherine Beauraind and her five colleagues in the small team of foreigners and Malians, woke early. It had been a short night: our fault, since we had arrived at Bandiagara on the edge of the Niger valley much later than expected having taken the Sevare route. This is the gateway to the rocky Dogon region and travellers on the road occacionaliy fall victim to bandits-which probably made our hosts somewhat apprehensive about our late arrival. The people we had come to see are road builders, working without sophisticated equipment in a region of rocks and cliffs. They seem very youth froml, particularly those who have come from afar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are 'Progress Volunteers', the name given to the many young people who come to this very poor African country to offer their commitment and dynamism, if not perhaps their experience. On this particular morning, still feeling fatigued, Catherine was having to coordinate the departure of escorts for seasonal workers who were being dispatched to various locations. Their job is to ensure the upkeep of the rocky roads, and the equipment they use is rudimentary to say the least. The Bandiagara-Dourou stretch is maintained by the AFVP (French Association of Progress Volunteers) and is one in a long list of NGO projects. In 1995 alone, the European Commission supported over 50 NGO schemes, to the tune of ECU 1.5 million. Most EU countries and a number of others also have their own projects. On top of this, there is the emergency help provided by the European Commission Humanitarian Office (ECHO), which has just approved a grant of ECU 1 million for the north of Mali. Now that a peace accord has been signed between the government and the Tuareg rebels, this region is likely to see a huge influx of refugees returning to villages that are ill prepared to receive them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali is a least-developed nation and one of the most highly subsidised countries in terms of per capita aid, though recently, its political fortunes have been boosted by the democratisation process. And the efforts of the NGOs now seem to be paying off. The recent times of famine have faded in people's memories even in the Dogon region, where many families ate calabashes in desperation before succumbing to starvation. Mother nature is playing a part in the country's renewal: there has been ample rain over the last Many NGO projects are aimed at helping the population use its meagre resources to exploit the natural wealth of the River Niger and its tributaries. At Konna, for example, a striking village at the confluence of two rivers, the Regional Literacy and Self-Management Project is up and running. Financed, among others, by the European Development Fund, this is being implemented at a number of localities, and it has played a part in the renewal which can now be seen. Fresh coats of paint, repairs to houses, fewer starving children and the return of many migrants all underline this new vitality. Each of the 17 small cultivated areas in the village that are covered by the project (worked by about 60 people), receives no more aid than a motorised pump, a few cereals and a small amount of cash in the first year. A basic course in management is also provided. It is up to the villagers to use these resources to yield a profit. Results tend to be good, proof of success being the growing number of such schemes which are being set up without aid from the organisation. The project is now in its seventh year. It did experience one bad year-1992-when, despite bumper harvests, rice imports into Mali were excessive and prices dropped. The village has therefore made an attempt to diversify its crops. Its objective is to sell onions in Cote d'lvoire, where the inhabitants are very fond of this vegetable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most villages have been able to save money which was initially placed in banks and then invested elsewhere in the wake of devaluation's harsh lessons. Konna opted for purchasing livestock. In nearby Kotaka, surpluses partially funded the construction of an impressive mosque. Kotaka was one of the places most affected by the recent meningitis epidemic, but a hospital would probably have been too expensive. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Western Samoa</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A new spirit of enterprise</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Small countries with a limited resource base are frequently buffeted by economic forces over which they have no control. If you live in Western Samoa, however, you are likely to be preoccupied by forces of a different kind. For while most of the time, Mother Nature presents a benign face in this attractive and fertile Pacific state, every once in a while, she loses her temper.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tropical storms are an unavoidable reality in much of the Pacific and they breed a special form of resilience which should impress the inhabitants of more temperate climes. The people of Samoa, and other cyclone prone countries in the region, are adept at picking themselves up and, if necessary, starting all over again, once the winds have passed. But between 1989 and 1993, the Samoans' capacity for renewal was to be tested more than ever before. Like a plucky boxer facing a much stronger opponent, the country would just be struggling back to its feet when another hammer blow would send it reeling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The closest to a knock-out punch came in December 1991 in the shape of Cyclone Val-the worst storm to hit the islands in more than a century. This brought death and injury, as well as widespread economic devastation. The coconut and coffee trees on which the country depends for much of its export income were either swept away or stripped bare. Many homes were also destroyed and infrastructures were severely damaged. (The 1993 cyclone, although less powerful, caused further crop destruction.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the last five years, virtually all the damage has been repaired. Indeed, a great many facilities have been upgraded with plans for further improvements in the pipeline. To some extent, the credit for this remarkable recovery must be shared. Overseas donors played an important part in restoring key infrastructures while expatriate Samoans, whose remittances are an important 'invisible' earning for the country in normal times, also rallied round. But the key players, of course, were the people themselves, who rose to the challenge of reconstructing their country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, Western Samoa - which has a population of 165 000-is experiencing an economic mini-boom. Growth during 1996 is expected to be between 5% and 6% for the second consecutive year and there are encouraging signs of a new, home-grown entrepreneurial spirit. This is not to say that everything in the garden is rosy. The latest growth figures need to be set against the unavoidable recession caused by Cyclones Val and Ofa (which struck in 1990) and a mediocre economic performance throughout the 1980s. And while there is some evidence of diversification, the economy is still very narrowly based. There is also considerable room for improvements in health care and education provision. Doubts have been expressed, for example, as to the accuracy of the official literacy figures. Finally, there is a high level of dependence on foreign aid (the country's main donors are the Asian Development Bank, Japan, Australia and the European Community).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economists will tell you how notoriously difficult it is to express the wealth of a developing nation in statistical form. GDP figures can offer a pointer, but they do not present the whole picture as they take no account of the informal economy. Western Samoa provides a particularly good illustration. At US $950, the estimated per capita GDP is very low by Pacific standards. Yet there is clearly no starvation. A great deal of the food consumed by the Samoans simply does not 'show up' in the cash economy. The term subsistence agriculture seems peculiarly inappropriate here since locally available food sources are many and varied.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Similarly, many of the materials used to build the 'fares' (traditional houses) in the villages are obtained without recourse to builders' merchants. And when a Samoan wants a new house, he builds it himself-with the help of his family and neighbours. This involves skilled carpentry work-for which people would pay highly in industrialised societies - and which does not register either in the country's economic statistics. So it is clear that the basic GDP figures do not paint a complete picture. Nonetheless, they illustrate the relatively underdeveloped state of the formal economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking at exports, Western Samoa's traditional agricultural sector has gone through some rough times, for a variety of reasons. In the past, the mainstays were copra and coconut products (oil and cream), cocoa and tarot</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The storms destroyed or damaged many of the coconut and cocoa trees, wiping out exports for a number of years until new plantings could reach maturity. The market in food products derived from the coconut had been depressed in any case. One reason for this was negative publicity over the high cholesterol content of coconuts, although more recent research, suggesting that not all types of cholesterol are bad for you, has at least partly restored the reputation of this highly flexible crop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taro, which is Western Samoa's staple food crop, was exported in ever increasing quantities during the 1980s but the trade has suffered badly in recent years because of an outbreak of taro leaf blight.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, Western Samoa's most important primary exports are, once again, coconut-based (oil and cream). With the new trees reaching maturity, production recommenced on a small scale towards the end of 1994. The following year saw a big jump in exports and the figures for 1996 are expected to - come close to pre-cyclone levels,The marketing situation has also improved as a result of privatisation. The old Copra Board, a parastatal with a reputation for inefficiency, was abolished in 1990, its assets being bought for a nominal sum by a Samoan businessman who has invested heavily in refurbishment. This has all been achieved despite continuing low prices for coconut products in the world markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cocoa takes longer to recover but harvesting of the first new crop is due to take place this year with the emphasis on a high value, fine tasting variety. A new chocolate factory (Wilex C.C.P. Ltd), also masterminded by a local entrepreneur, Eddie Wilson, has been built with assistance from the EU's Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) and a credit from the European Investment Bank (EIB) channelled through the Development Bank of Western Samoa (DBWS). This is a particularly significant venture since it aims to maximise added value before export. The factory is currently operating well below full capacity, awaiting the arrival of the first local crop, but there are high hopes for its long term success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other main crops exported are bananas and kava. The latter is a mild narcotic based on the root of the pepper plant, which is used in pharmaceutical preparations. It also has an important place in Samoan (and wider Pacific) culture, being drunk in diluted form on ceremonial occasions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a view to achieving further export diversification, a number of other agricultural/horticultural export possibilities have also been identified. These include asparagus, mangos and cut flowers. The most likely potential market for new tropical production is New Zealand-already the destination for more than half of Western Samoa's exports. However, this country has stringent health rules with rigorous controls on the import of plant and animal material. The understandable aim is to protect the local farming sector from diseases introduced from outside, but it creates an additional hurdle for potential exporters in the developing countries of the Pacific. In particular, Western Samoa needs to come to grips with the fruit fly problem, if it wishes to make inroads into the New Zealand market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Timber also once featured prominently in the trade statistics before declining at the end of the 1980s. There are hopes for a revival here with the authorities keen to encourage value added processing of wood products within the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite its obvious association with the sea, Western Samoa has never really gone in for commercial fishing. While the Exclusive Economic Zone is small by Pacific standards, the country being 'hemmed in' by other island nations and territories, it is still more than 40 times the land area. The government would particularly like to attract foreign investment in fish processing and canning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industry</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is probably unrealistic to expect a small and geographically isolated nation such as Western Samoa to develop a highly diversified industrial base but there have been one or two notable ventures which show signs of potential. The above-mentioned chocolate factory is one such. The country also has a highly successful brewery. It is not uncommon for developing nations to produce their own local beer but Western Samoa's Vailima brand has managed to break out successfully into the regional market, bringing in useful foreign exchange in the process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biggest industrial success story-dwarfing all other manufacturing ventures-has been the establishment of a factory by the Japanese company Yazaki to produce wire harnesses for cars. The business employs some 2500 people (mainly women) in a highly labour-intensive operation-and it makes a significant contribution to the trade balance. The value-added electrical components are re-exported for incorporation into cars sold mainly in Australia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The company was attracted by a number of factors including low labour costs in this non-unionised society, and the political stability of Western Samoa. Perhaps most important, however, were the incentives offered by the government. These went well beyond the usual tax holidays provided by developing countries to attract foreign investors. Indeed, it was the government that built the factory and the company was allowed to occupy it rent-free. Some observers have expressed concern at such largesse but the authorities are insistent that it was still a good deal. They point to the jobs that were created (a huge number by Samoan standards) at a time when many people's livelihoods were threatened by taro blight. They also argue that the profits of the operation are retained in Western Samoa, thereby helping to boost the wider economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Services</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The service sector offers perhaps the best potential for expansion of Western Samoa's formal economy. Top of the list here comes tourism (featured in a separate article), which has been expanding much faster than the underlying rate of economic growth. Despite the increase in both visitors and income, tourism is still underdeveloped. The government (supported by the opposition) believes that this is one field where Western Samoa definitely has a 'comparative advantage'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linked to tourism, of course, is the air transport business. Although it might still be possible to obtain passage on a merchant ship bound for the South Sea islands, the vast majority of visitors arrive by plane, and good air connections are obviously essential. The history of the country's national carrier, Polynesian Airlines, offers two object lessons. The first is how not to run an airline and the second, more recent and encouraging one, is how to grasp the nettle when the crisis finally breaks. In 1992, with tourism in mind, the government owned airline decided to expand its operations substantially. It leased three long-haul aircraft which it hoped to fill with visitors in search of a new tropical haven. The market research was clearly inadequate and the planes flew with many empty seats. Other aspects of the company's management proved deficient and there was a chronic lack of financial. Debts mounted at such a frightening rate that the budgetary position of the entire country was threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, the government took decisive action, bringing in Richard Gates, the experienced airline entrepreneur, who is credited with having turned Air New Zealand around. Relatively small airline businesses in the Pacific are not likely to make a.fortune for anyone, but with proper management, they should at least be able to break even and perhaps even turn in a small profit. This was not something that even the prodigious talents of Mr Gates could achieve, however, with the crushing burden of debt accumulated by Polynesian Airlines. So the government assumed responsibility for the debts and then gave the new manager a free hand, on the firm understanding that the taxpayer would not come to the rescue again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the airline side, the operation was drastically slimmed down. The leases on the large aircraft were terminated, staff 'down-sizing' took place and bath ticketing and financial management were tightened up. The positive impact of these measures was soon evident, with a small operating profit registered in 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Left with huge debts, the action of the authorities was equally impressive, although it entailed discomfort for most Western Samoans. In order to restore its own financial position, the government instituted 15% public expenditure cuts across the board. In macro-economic terms, it is generally acknowledged that this strong medicine was needed, but the social consequences were all too clear as well: reduced funds for health and education, and pressure on important capital investment budgets. Perhaps fortuitously for the country, the financial crisis caused by the Polynesian Airlines debacle coincided with the payment of a substantial Stabex payment from the European Community. The country's was eligible for Stabex funds because of the collapse in agricultural export receipts following the cyclones, and the money-which was directed mainly into infrastructure projects-could hardly have come at a better time. Meanwhile, the government has paid off a large portion of the airline's debt with the residue rescheduled for payment over a five-year period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government has taken a number of steps aimed at attracting offshore finance business to the country. Western Samoa now has a comprehensive legal framework governing such activities, including crucial provisions guaranteeing secrecy. Another vital factor in attracting offshore funds, which has already been mentioned, is political stability. There is even the suggestion that the country's time zone, which puts it almost a day behind Australia and New Zealand, might somehow be turned to its advantage in global financial dealings (although it is not clear how the benefit would be derived in otherwise legitimate transactions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The last three years have seen a big increase in company incorporations and there are now more than 2500 offshore companies (including 15 banks and eight insurance companies) registered. It is difficult to imagine Western Samoa ever challenging the likes of Liechtenstein, the Bahamas or Jersey in this market, given its geographical distance from the main industrialised nations, but even a successful 'niche' operation could bring some useful income to the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five years ago, when the Courier last covered Western Samoa, the emphasis was heavily on recent constitutional changes and most notably, the introduction of universal franchise. At the time, there was a lot of interest in how the traditional Samoan way of life (faa-Samoa) would be affected. This is based on the village structure and the matai system which vests considerable authority in family heads. There is also a strong attachment to the Christian faith, as exemplified by strict Sunday observance rules (also found in Tonga and other Pacific countries).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, the Samoans appear to have embraced their more 'westernised' system of government without any difficulty. Although everyone over 21 has a vote, one still has to be a matai to be eligible to stand for Parliament. In contrast to hierarchical structures elsewhere in the Pacific, however, the system here seems to be based largely on merit and it is not particularly exclusive (there are an estimated 19 000 matai). The matai, nonetheless, exercise considerable authority in village affairs, most notably over the use of customary land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In short, the change seems to have caused few problems because Western Samoa already had its own decentralised form of democracy. It was not a question of educating people about hitherto alien concepts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that change in Western Samoa is slow and progressive rather than sudden and violent, is recognised by most observers to be a good thing. An illustration of this evolutionary approach is the arrangement governing the position of Head of State. The post, which is held by His Highness Malietoa Tunamefili 11, currently appears to be a cross between a presidency and a monarchy. Under the 1962 independence constitution, two of the country's four paramount chiefs were given the position, to be held jointly, for life. With the death of Tupua Tamasese Meaole in 1963, the surviving incumbent became sole Head of State. There will be no automatic succession, however, and Parliament will decide who should have the post in future, with the term of office limited to five years. There is obviously a great deal of respect for the Head of State and his office among Western Samoans, although it should be stressed that his role is largely ceremonial, with political authority being vested in the elected government. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for party politics, there are two groupings represented in Parliament, the ruling Human Rights Protection Party and the opposition Samoa National Development Party. The party system is not particularly strong, however, being based more on personalities than ideology. Corruption is not seen to be a major problem although a major row did blow up recently over a critical report issued by the Auditor-General for 1994. This led to him being suspended and this issue had not yet been resolved at the time The Courier went to press.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa is not unique in having to adapt to a rapidly changing world. The phenomenon affects all societies, with modern communications technology increasingly breaking down the 'protection' that geographical isolation used to afford. In Westem Samoa, as elsewhere, there must be concern about the impact of this on the country's traditional way of life. Yet the indications are that this Pacific nation is managing the transition rather better than many other developing countries. The people seem to combine an unselfconscious pride in their traditions and cultural assets with a pragmatic welcoming of ideas from outside which help to improve their material wellbeing. The hope must be that this process can continue as we approach the third millennium. S'imon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Historical summary</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to archaeological evidence, the islands of Samoa were first settled about 3000 years ago, after gradual migration within the Pacific from people originally from South East Asia. Samoa, it seems, was the cradle of the Polynesian culture, and settlers from there spread to other islands of Polynesia in the east, north and south.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first European to sight the group in 1722 was Jacob Roggeveen, and although there was intermittent contact between European sailing vessels and the islanders during the 18th century, more permanent contact was established with the arrival of the European missionaries in the early 1980s. They were soon followed by traders looking for copra, beche de mer, sandalwood and other products. Later, some of the trading firms, notably German, fumed to large-scale production of copra and other products such as cotton, cacao and rubber, which also led a corresponding increase in interest on the part of colonial powers. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1800s, the Samoan group became the focus of colonial rivalry between Great Britain, the USA and Germany, leading, in 1900, to the partitioning of the islands between Germany and the United States. The eastern part of the group came under American control and has remained so to this day, while Germany controlled the western islands. Britain received territorial concessions elsewhere in the Pacific. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the outbreak of World War I, New Zealand took over what had come to be known as German Samoa, and became the administrative power there under the League of Nations and later the United Nations until Western Samoa became the first Patific island nation to become an independent state in 1962.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Source: Government of Western Samoa. this text is taken from the information brochure prepared by the authorities for distribution to delegates at the recent ACP-EU Council of Ministers meeting). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dream ticket ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Depart Nuku'alofa-12.00, January l 2000 Arrive Apia - 14.00, December 37 1999</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People with cash to burn are often ready to spend surprising amounts of money in their pursuit of the unusual. Tonga has already recognised this as it begins preparing for the third millennium Lying just to the west of the International Dateline, it believes it will the first country to see the sun rise on the new millennium, although other Pacific territories have also made the claim. (For this purpose, we ignore the purists who point out that the third millennium will not actually begin until January 1, 2001.) Celebrations are planned and bookings are already being taken.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Westem Samoa is obviously not in the running for this distinction since it is east of the dateline, but what this means is it will be the last nation in the world to say goodbye to the old millennium. This surely presents an opportunity for the local tourist industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And what about those intrepid voyagers who fancy greeting the year 2000 in Tonga and then 'seeing out' the old millennium 24 hours later in Samoa. If i were an airline manager, I would be examining the possibility of extra flights from Nuku'alofa on the big day. (Let's hope it's not a Sunday I)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">An interview with Tuilaepa Sailele Malielegaoi, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Economic future in tourism end manufacturing'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier visited Western Samoa at the end of June while the country was hosting the ACP-EU Council of Ministers meeting. At the time, veteran Prime Minister, Tofilau Eti Alesana, was recovering from an operation, and his duties were being carried out by his deputy, Tuilaepa Sailele Malielegaoi, who is also the Minister of Finance. Despite a hectic schedule, the Deputy Prime Minister kindly managed to find a slot for a keynote interview with The Courier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· There is growing evidence of a new economic dynamism in this island nation, which has managed to find its feet remarkably speedily after the destruction wrought by cyclones in 1989 and 1990. With this in mind, we began by asking the Minister about the economic prospects for the country ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think they are excellent. Our country suffered a major catastrophe as a result of the cyclones, coming, as they did, in two successive years. There was major damage to our infrastructure and forestry resources- coconuts and cocoa. At the time, we estimated the bill at more than $600m. But the rehabilitation of the infrastructure went ahead quickly, thanks to the major support provided by bodies like the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and of course, the European Union, not to mention the bilateral donor countries who answered our call for help. So in some ways, it was a blessing in disguise. We suffered badly, but with the assistance that came, we have been able to improve our roads and electricity supply, and the protection of our foreshore. It also encouraged us to embark on replanting to replace the trees-mainly cocoa and coconut -that had been destroyed. Last year, for the first time since the cyclones, our copra exports came back in strength. We have, at last, started to approach the pre-cyclone export levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are likely to be the key sectors for future economic activity ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We believe that the economic future of our country now lies more in tourism and in manufacturing industries. Dealing with the latter first, we have already succeeded in attracting some industries. The major investment so-far has come from Yazaki, a Japanese company that produces wire harnessing systems (electrical components) for vehicles. This employs almost 3000 people in Western Samoa. In fact, the company set up here before the cyclones and it did not take long for us to see the benefits. The value added equivalent provided by just that one plant is roughly equivalent to our total agricultural exports for last year. So you can see the importance of manufacturing industry for us. We have provided very generous incentives and have also allocated sufficient government land to provide space for factories.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other industry which is now in the forefront, in terms of foreign exchange earnings, is tourism. We now earn four times more from this sector than we do from agriculture-and agriculture is supposed to be the mainstay of our economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course, we mustn't reduce the priority that we give to agriculture. It is one area where we have the resources. More specifically, I think that we have great potential for beef production. If we should have another cyclone, the trees will be damaged but cattle should not be affected. So I think we should look more towards beef production and other forms of agricultural diversification. We do have some good commercial farming in place at the moment, but it is not enough. We need to do more.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about the chocolate industry ? You have traditionally grown cocoa but you now also have a factory to process the raw material right up to the end product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is a direct result of our drive to promote more manufacturing - whether it is export-oriented or geared towards import substitution. The chocolate venture is a new one and I think there are good, prospects here as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An important point is that we are moving back into growing the fine flavour variety of cocoa here. We used to be one of the 14 producers of fine flavoured cocoa in the world, and we got premium prices for it. But somehow, over the years, we switched to producing inferior quality bulk cocoa. We regretted doing that and are now switching back to the higher quality variety-which is just coming back into production following the cyclones. So here we have another potential area for exports. On the other hand, taro which used to be our major export prior to 1993 is facing difficulties. It is affected by a disease, the taro blight, which seems to be uncontrollable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Thinking in particular of the impact of tourism, are you concerned that an influx of foreign visitors might damage Western Samoa's unique and very special culture ? I see, for example, that you now have a 'McDonalds' restaurant in the centre of Apia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- No. I am not really concerned. In 1992, we set up our own tourism festival. This takes place in the first week of September and is quite clearly intended to be a feature event with an emphasis on promoting tourism. All the activities at the festival focus on the various aspects of our culture-the arts, the dances, the preparation of food, the singing and so on. It seems to me that our drive for tourism is actually helping to revive some of the cultural aspects that would otherwise have been dvina out. So I believe there is a complementarily between culture and tourism, so long as we ensure that the relationship between the two is maintained. I think this point is backed up, if you look at the growing popularity of ecotourism nowadays. This is very much concerned with preservation-of both the environment and of local cultures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In international circles, Western Samoa is deemed to be a least-developed country on account of its low GDP per head figures. Yet nobody is starving here and you appear to have a very 'rich' lifestyle, even if people don't have a great deal of cash in their pockets. Do you think the international classification is a fair one ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- I think the first point to emphasise is that a lot of the signs of development you see here are of recent origin. They date back only to 1992-93. Infrastructures have improved considerably over a very short time and this could well create a certain impression about the people's standard of living. On the other hand, it is true that our economy is not completely based on cash. And, of course, our earnings are in Tala which go a lot further here than their dollar equivalent in the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Presumably, it is to your benefit to be classified as an LDC because it gives you access to more sources of foreign funding ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I am happy to leave the classification to the experts. They are the ones who come and estimate our average per capita income, which is then used as the yardstick for placing a country in one or other category. I think it is ironic though, that if you go to a country like the USA, which is supposed to be very rich, you find beggars on the street. It certainly makes you wonder. Perhaps it is not really the statistical wealth of a country that is important, but its social system. And our social system here ensures that no-one goes hungry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· That leads on rather neatly to my next question. What do you think are the main social challenges that need to be tackled here ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-We still have quite a lot of 'service care' needs in the villages that we need to attend to. That is why we have placed the highest priority on social services over the next five years. I am talking here in particular about health, education and water supplies. There are still a lot of villages that need to have piped water brought into the home. Education-wise, we have reasonable access, but we need to improve the teaching material that is available in the classes and upgrade the general level of village schooling. We need to dissuade families from moving to the capital in the belief that they can get better education for their children here. So we still have a lot of work to do to ensure that the primary schools in the villages are upgraded. It is not simply a question of ensuring that competent teachers are available, but also as I say, providing good teaching materials and laboratory equipment for science subjects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· All of this obviously needs to be paid for, which entails healthy government finances. You recently had a serious problem over the debts run up by Air Polynesia, and you took very stringent measures to tackle this which resulted in expenditure cuts. What do the figures look like today ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-They are OK. We are running a budget deficit which means we have to borrow both overseas and locally, but we try to keep the deficit at a reasonable level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What has been the effect of introducing the Value Added Goods and Services Sales Tax (VAGST) ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It has helped enormously. Of course, in order to sell the idea, we had to reduce other taxes and duties. As you know, there is an international trend towards removing customs duties and shifting revenue-raising in the direction of consumption taxes. Customs levies, which are the traditional source of revenue are diminishing. So what we have done is to lay the foundation for the eventual shift in our revenue base. Also, we promised to cut income taxes even more-from 38% to 25% within two years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Has this measure been implemented yet ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-No, it is due to be introduced in 1998.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Finally, I would like to turn to a constitutional question. Western Samoa introduced universal franchise some five or six years ago, but you still have a system in which only matai (family heads) are entitled to stand as candidates in elections. Do you envisage any further changes to the system ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I cannot really see that we will ever change again. The Constitution stipulates that our government is based on Samoan traditions and Christian principles. When we introduced universal suffrage, we were applying something that had always been there in any case. Samoans have always taken part in the process of choosing their leaders and voting is simply another way of doing this. The only difference is that we would arrive at a decision by getting together through our village structures and talking, whereas your system involves marking a ballot. So the change was quite in accordance with our customs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let me say something about the way villages choose their matai. When there is a question of succession, everyone has a right to take part in the process. There is no age limit. So in that sense, you could argue that we are more advanced. And we always had female matai, even before the arrival of the Europeans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this respect, I believe we are quite different from Fiji and Tonga. In Tonga, the dividing line is quite clear. If you are born a noble, you remain a noble and if you are born a commoner, you will always be a commoner. It is the same in Fiji. There, you are automatically a ratu K your father was one. By contrast, here in Samoa, my son cannot automatically succeed to my title. So to become a matai, a person has to earn it, and to put his case at the family meeting which is convened to choose a successor. Usually, the person chosen is the one who displays the best leadership qualities. I think I should also point out that becoming a matai is not that difficult. If you want to be one, you inform the family and if they think you have matured sufficiently, you will generally get the position and then become eligible to be a parliamentary candidate. It is typical that when a family sees a fellow has matured, he becomes a matai.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 2934 km² (Exclusive Economic Zone of 130 000 km²)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 165000</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population density: 57 per kiLom&eacute;tres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Apia (situated on the island of Upolu)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">National language: Samoan (English is the business language)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currency: Tala (WS$) made up of 100 sene. In June 1996, 1 ECU was worth approximately WS$ 3. (US$1 = WS$ 2.3)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">System of government: A unicameral constitutional democracy with strong traditional elements. The current Head of State is one of the country's four paramount chiefs, and he holds the office for life. Thereafter, the Fono (Legislative Assembly) will elect the Head of State for five-year terms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is universal franchise (introduced in 1991) but in order to be a Parliamentary candidate, one has to be a matai (family head). Western Samoa is said to have about 19000 matai. The minimum voting age is 21.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Head of State: HH Malietoa Tanumafili II</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Tofilau Eti Alesana</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main political parties: Human Rights Protection Party (HRPP), Samoa National Development Party (SNDP)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Party representation in Parliament: HRPP 35, SNDP 11, Independent 3. (The HRPP total includes 11 members elected as independents in the April 1996 election who subsequently joined the governing party).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p038.png"></center><br>
+ Map</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy (1995 figures unless otherwise stated)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual GDP per capita: approx US$ 950</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP growth rate: 7%. The target for 1996 is 34%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Principal exports: coconut oil (WS $8m), coconut cream (WS $4.8m), copra (WS $2.2m).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balance of payments: exports - WS $21.7m, imports - WS $228.1m. 'Invisible' earnings, officially described as 'net foreign earnings' amounted to WS $171m, leaving a current amount deficit of WS $36.8m in 1995 (20%lower than the previous year). The main 'invisibles' are private transfers (remittances from Western Samoans living abroad), tourism, income from services and the value added trade of the Yazaki electrical components firm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inflation rate (end 1995): 1 %. Inflation tends to fluctuate a great deal. The figure for 1994 was 18.4%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government budget (projected for 1996/97): revenue WS $288.4m, expenditure WS $312.7m, deficit WS $24.3m.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Accumulated government debt: WS$ 389 m</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth (1993): 67.8 years</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult literacy (1993): 98% (A UNESCO report in 1994 suggested that real literacy levels were significantly below those indicated in official figures) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education: all levels from age 6-23: 74%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.700 (88th out of 174) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Marketing a tropical idyIl</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Folasaito Joe Annandale and his wife Tui are the brains behind Western Samoa's latest tourist facility- the Sinalei Reef Resort, which has just opened on the beautiful south coast of Upolu island. They are among a growing number of Samoan entrepreneurs who are injecting new dynamism into the country's economy although they are somewhat unusual in the tourist trade. With the notable exception of the famous 'Aggie Grey's Hotel' in Apia, tourist accommodation in Western Samoa has tended to be the preserve of foreign investors, including some of the major international hotel chains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At first sight, it is surprising to discover how underdeveloped the tourism sector is in Western Samoa. Tour operators may be inclined to use the phrase 'tropical paradise' a little too freely but this island nation certainly seems to meet most of the essential criteria. It has the obligatory golden beaches fringed with palm trees, extensive coral reefs and striking mountain scenery overlaid with lush vegetation. The vivid colours leave a particularly strong impression. Greens predominate but there are also many copper-leafed trees and bushes, and an abundance of red, orange and yellow flowers. Western Samoa can also offer a number of special features which are important in marketing terms. There is, of course, the legendary hospitality of the Samoans and their distinctive and vibrant traditions. This must be one of the most musically 'literate' populations in the world, a talent which is reflected in the numerous choirs/dance groups. The harmonies are impressive and the traditional dances are both expressive and entertaining. There is also the unique 'fare' architecture which is a particular source of fascination to outsiders, not to mention the Robert Louis Stevenson connection. The famous author spent the last four years of his life in Western Samoa and the house where he lived- which used to be the Head of State's residence - has recently been converted into a museum.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Good prospects</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The potential for expanding tourism is something that has not escaped the government. In today's highly competitive free-market world, countries are being urged to exploit their 'comparative advantage' and the Western Samoan authorities recognise that this sector offers some of the best prospects for future growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like most other economic activities, the tourist trade was badly hit as a result of cyclone devastation in 1989 and 1990. However, visitor numbers have increased substantially since then. Indeed, looking at year on year earnings, the tourist sector is performing better than any other area of the economy. In 1994, income was WS$.58 million (50 000 + visitors). The following year, it reached WS$.78m and there are hopes that it could top WS$.100m in 1996. Of course, no-one in Samoa is talking about 'mass' tourism. The country is too far from the main industrialised nations to be able to offer traditional package holidays (perhaps fortunately !), and too small to absorb the cultural and environmental impact without lasting damage. Having said this, the market can be divided into two very distinct portions. At one end of the scale are the low spending 'back-packers'-often taking advantage of relatively cheap 'round the world' airline tickets to stop off and sample the pleasures of Western Samoa. These tourists may not spend very much on a daily basis but they are reasonably significant from a financial standpoint because they tend to stay for quite lengthy periods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the other end, you find the high-spending, 'exclusive' customer willing to pay for high quality accommodation and catering. Perhaps not surprisingly, the Government is more interested in attracting the latter, which is why they are keen to encourage investors such as the Annandales.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier spoke to Joe Annandale about his business strategy when we recently visited the country. The Sinalei Reef Resort, which has received EIB loan financing channelled through the Development Bank of Western Samoa, has just 20 rooms (including four suites) giving it a capacity of less than 50. Customers will be offered a tropical idyll and a chance to escape completely from the pressures of modern living. The long term aim, according to Mr Annandale, is to entice Europeans in general and Germans in particular. The latter, it is said, have a preference for environmentally-friendly, 'escapist' vacations and, of course, there is a historical link between Germany and Western Samoa. Until a European clientele can be built up, the focus will be on attracting guests from Australia and New Zealand. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Culture clash?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there is no question of Western Samoa being swamped by visitors from overseas, even a modest increase in tourist numbers is bound to have an impact in this country of just 165000 inhabitants. On the negative side, the Samoan system of customary (village) land ownership sometimes appears at odds with entrepreneurship founded on individual ownership of property and resources. In the early stages, Joe and Tui Annandale encountered local difficulties-including squatters-when they bought the land to develop the resort. The usual arrangement is for overseas tourism operators to lease customary land, a process which may involve protracted and ultimately fruitless negotiations with the matai (village heads) who have traditionally used the land for other purposes. Of course, the clash between traditional land tenure systems and 'modern' capitalism is not restricted to tourist ventures-as mining operators in Papua New Guinea have discovered. But while one understands the frustrations for developers, who may find themselves embroiled in complex and interminable land disputes, we should also recognise the concerns of local people who see a possible threat to their way of life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the positive side, new tourism developments mean jobs and trading opportunities. In the building of the Sinalei Resort, the Annandales drew heavily on local labour, employing 35 people from the neighbourhood. As Mr Annandale pointed out, this was essential for a complex designed to fit in with the local environment. The Samoans have always built their own houses and only they had the required carpentry skills. The resort also employs 35 regular staff for catering, housekeeping etc. and again, the majority are local people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, there is one criticism often levelled against tourist ventures which certainly does not apply at the Sinalei Reef (or other Samoan hotels). This is that most of the food and drink consumed by visitors is imported. The Annandales make a point of purchasing their fish, meat and fruit locally, thereby ensuring that some of the financial benefits of their venture flow back to their own community: in short, a happy combination of astute public relations and good economics. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with opposition leader Tupua Tamasese Efi</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Revive the agricultural base'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tupua Tamasese Efi a former Prime Minister of Western Samoa, is leader of the opposition Samoa National Development Party which won 11 of the 49 seats in the parliamentary elections held in April 1996. In this interview, he outlines his own and his party's views on some of the key political and economic issues in his country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In what ways does your party offer a different agenda from that of the governing HRPP ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think the differences are mainly of emphasis. The present government tends to focus on law-making and exploiting the country's least developed status. Our focus would be more on developing our indigenous agricultural industries. If you scrutinise the economic picture in Samoa, you will find that there has been a very substantial decline in agricultural exports in the last fifteen years. Our economy, if you can call it that, is increasingly sustained by largesse-the donations that we get from overseas. This has complicated our situation. Our relative economic independence has been sabotaged to a point where, suddenly, we are getting a proletariat. That might be unavoidable in a lot of places, but it doesn't have to happen in a small country like ours which has self-sustaining village units, and a potentially secure agricultural base supported by products like cocoa, copra and bananas. If you look at what is happening today, you see that, all of a sudden, we have a new class of under-privileged people with absolutely no income at all. And the tragedy is that it has happened without anyone really noticing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So our emphasis is to try and revive our agricultural base, and to seek out exports. In the past, our economy was sustained by cocoa and copra exports, and a lot of our food was sold to New Zealand. Now, you find that there are hardly any exports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So your focus would be more on boosting the traditional aspects of the Samoan economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Not necessarily traditional. Our party is not bound to cocoa, or copra or whatever. But we are committed to improving our agriculture. It matters little whether it is traditional or other crops. But we need to break back into the New Zealand market. This is the best place to aim for. Australia has its own tropical sector and nothing that we can produce is needed by them. New Zealand is different. One of the biggest challenges we have to overcome in getting back into that market is our fruit fly problem. It would seem sensible for us to channel substantial resources into overcoming this hurdle so that we can sell to New Zealand again. There is a tremendous potential market-and not just for copra. There are also products such as flowers, and a whole number of other possibilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Given what you have just said,what emphasis would you place on sectors like manufacturing and tourism ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-I think that tourism is an obvious way to go and this is where we are in agreement with the government. Of course, you will have heard of the debacle of the Air Polynesia finances. When you compare the losses that were run up with our foreign exchange reserves you get some idea of how enormous the problem was. It was a situation that went badly awry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This issue aside, we agree that we need to get into tourism-but it must be within reason. Part of the explanation for people gravitating towards tourism is that they see it as the only available avenue-or at least the most visible way of making money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another economic point I want to raise concerns debt. Loans can be a quick fix, but when your whole economy is tied to indebtedness, you are creating something that is built on sand. You end 'A potentially secure agricultural base' up acquiring more and more capital items that are totally unrelated to your present or likely future resources. This is one of the most destructive things that can happen to a society, and it is very clearly happening here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have a rich and vibrant living culture here in Western Samoa. Are you concerned that globalisation could ultimately pose a threat to this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-No, I am not worried. You have to accept it as a natural development. The things that are distinctive in our culture have to find their place in adapting to the new realities. There is no point putting your head in the sand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Turning to political aspects, you now have universal franchise, but you still have to be a matai to be eligible to stand for Parliament Does your party have any plans to change this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Some years ago, we had a constitutional convention which led to changes in the system. Attached to that was a provision requiring a further constitutional convention to be convened in 20 or 25 years (I can't remember the exact period). So we are committed to that. We have to sit down and look at the overall picture. We have gone a long way in terms of universal franchise and it is possible that we need to go even further.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But if one takes the United Kingdom as a model, I think the important lesson is that you should 'make haste slowly'. The genius of the Westminster model is that it involves careful evolution. I hope that this tradition will be followed by our country. The constitution, as it was put together some 30 or 40 years ago, has served its purpose very well but there are quite a few anomalies appearing now.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is your view about regional cooperation in the South Pacific What future do you see in working together with the other countries of the region- perhaps presenting a more united front to the outside world ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-There is a lot of sense in the SAS approach-I am referring here to the Scandinavian countries getting together to form an airline. It is sensible to take a common stand where we have a common interest. But there are obviously intricacies resulting from historical, economic and social factors. At the moment I am reading a book on lain Macleod, the British Conservative statesman. His experience in the failed attempt to form a federation in the Caribbean is very revealing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When you enter a common endeavour, there is always the pull of your own particular interests. And there can be a suspicion that the 'bigger boys' will use the others to promote their own interests. A lot of this may be perception rather than reality. Also, traditional rivalries can intrude. Sometimes you need to fall flat on your face before you Let me give you an example from the world of rugby. It took Rupert Murdoch to get Fiji, Tonga and Western Samoa to realise that our fates are intertwined. He has come in with a commercial package that has taken over the entire rugby scene in the region- with a heavy emphasis on Australia and New Zealand-and this has hit us in a big way. For example, we find ourselves being cut out of traditional rugby tours. There is no point in us trying to claim that we are self-sufficient in this area. The big lesson is that we need to cooperate a lot more with the Tongans and Fijians in order to make an impact on the wider rugby scene._ </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Western Samoa-EU cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Focus on utilities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Mylanwy van de Velde</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Western Samoa's cooperation with the European Community began in 1975 with its accession to the Lom&eacute; Convention. From the start, the sector to benefit most from programmable funds (ECU 4.6 m under Lom&eacute; I and ECU 6m under Lom&eacute; II) was the energy sector, with the financing of the Samasoni Hydroelectric Scheme in the late 1970s and the Sauniatu Hydropower Scheme in the early 1980s.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In parallel, a programme of 260 microprojects was funded involving the development of poultry and pig farming, and fisheries, covering 96 villages on the main islands of Upolu and Savai'i. A further ECU 890 000 was allocated to the Western Samoa Development Bank, in the form of a credit line, to increase the Bank's lending capacity. In addition, at a time when copra exports were still considerable, the Community financed storage and handling facilities for coconut oil and copra pellets (ECU 900 000).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On top of programmable aid, Western Samoa received 12 Stabex transfers totalling ECU 9.3m for export losses on copra, wood, bananas and cocoa in the period 1975-84.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Lom&eacute; III, the development of the country's substantial hydroelectric power potential continued, and Western Samoa began to make considerable steps towards self-sufficiency in energy needs. While in 1980 some 78% of the electricity generated came from diesel plants, by 1986 this percentage had dropped to 26%. The volume of petroleum imports for electricity generation dropped to 36% in the period 1982-86. With the building of the Afulilo Hydropower Plant (Lom&eacute; III and IV), these volumes have decreased further, with positive benefits in terms of foreign exchange savings. The scheme (which was co-funded by the Asian Development Bank, the EIB, the World Bank and the Western Samoa Electric Power Corporation) involved the construction of a 10 million cubic metre reservoir, a penstock, a powerhouse, and the installation of mechanical equipment and transmission lines, and has contributed substantially to the quality of electricity supply on the island of Upolu.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p043.png"></center><br>
+ Community aid to Western Samoa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Additional work has been done with Lom&eacute; IV funds to address the question of rural water supply: a water master plan and design study for a number of rural areas have been completed, and a public awareness programme on the rational use of water resources has been designed for implemention at such time as planned infrastructural work goes ahead.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, an ECU 1 m microprojects programme has been initiated with the aim of financing the renovation of infrastructure for rural communities in the fields of water supply, health, education, tourism, agriculture and fisheries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Stabex payments under Lom&eacute; 111 (1985-1989) and Lom&eacute; IV (1990-1994) amounted to ECU 11.1 m and ECU 5.7m respectively. These were paid to compensate for losses in coconut oil and copra products, especially, but also for losses on exports of cocoa beans and of wood in the rough.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the above grant aid, the EIB has provided a total of some ECU 9m in risk capital in the years since 1981, the bulk of which was used in connection with the Sauniatu and Afulilo Hydropower Schemes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further total of ECU 660 896 has been allocated in emergency aid to Western Samoa, in 1983 after a serious fire on Savai'i, and in 1990 and 1991 after the disastrous cyclones Ofa and Val.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Programming of the next tranche of EC funding under the eighth EDF has still to be completed, but the indications are that prominence will be given to extending and upgrading the water supply network. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">M.v.d.V.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new health-centre for Tafua</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sight that greeted the people of Tafua when they emerged from shelter in 1990, following the passage of Ccyclone Ofa,was one of complete devastation. The tropical storm had been one of the worst in living memory and this village community on the island of Savai'i, together with many others in the Samoas, found themselves having to start almost from scratch. Homes had been swept away' crops destroyed and much of the essential infrastructure Iay in ruins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a testament to the resilience and determination of the people in these communities that there are few signs today of the havoc wrought by the winds just six years ago. In some places, rows of dead trees still stand in silent witness to the power of Mother Nature, although the scene is softened : by the new crops and lush vegetation growing beneath. But the villagers have rebuilt their houses and, with some help from outside, they have been able to re-establish i the essential community facilities as well. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through its micro-projects programme, the EC was able to offer a helping hand in the task of reconstruction. For the modest sum of just ECU 10 000, Tafua now has a new community health clinic adjacent to the site of the old one which was swept away by Ofa. In keeping with the rules of the scheme, the villagers were obliged to contribute 25% of the cost-which they provided in kind, in the shape of the labour for rebuilding the clinic. The Courier visited Tafua in June and was shownaround the facility by Nurse Agata Leuelu who provides primary health care for the 600 villagers. We also met local Methodist minister, the Rev. Siaosi Selesele, who explained how the people had taken shelter in the neighbouring school when the storm reached Samoa. It turned out to be the right choice as it was one of very few structures left standing in the neighbourhood. Villagers are obviously hoping that there won't be another 'Ofa' for a very long time' but if and when the next big wind does strike, the new ctinic-which has been built to withstand a lot more strain-should hopefully be able to weather the storm. In the meantime, it provides an important service in the delivery of health care to the people of the area. The European Community has also provided micro-project funding to help rebuild the health clinic at Taga on Savai'i. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">S.H.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dossier</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Investing in people</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Dossier coordinated by Augustine Oyowe)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Previous editions of The Courier have dealt, separately and at length, with various aspects of human resource development, especially in the context of recent dossiers on population and social development, education and training, public health, women, and poverty. Our current dossier looks at the issue from the investment perspective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To say that investing in people makes economic sense is to state the obvious. But to what extent are the implications of this statement fully understood in the developing countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa in these days of constantly shifting development theories?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Labour or 'human capital' has long been recognised as a key factor of economic growth. As opposed to sustainable human development, which places human beings at the centre of economic activities (the recipient of the fruits of economic progess), 'human capital' places them at the beginning of the process. The difference of approach is thus evident even though the objective is the same. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Investing in people is a concept which simultaneously combines 'human welfare' with the 'human capital' approach at the beginning of the economic development process. It encompasses nutrition, health and education, and should, under the right investment climate or conditions, enable any investor, whether State or individual, to reap an adequate return .</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After three decades of considerable efforts at investment in health and education by sub-Saharan African countries, the returns in terms of standards of living, economic grovvth and rate of development have been extremely disappointing. The conclusion which can be drawn is that the conditions necessary for adequate returns on these investments have been absent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colonial legacy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sub-Saharan Africa inherited from the colonial regimes, infrastructures in health delivery and education that were not only alien to its culture and traditions, but also totally inadequate for nation building. It is a well known fact that in 1960, there were no more than 1200 university graduates in Capital redefined</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is important when thinking of investnent in human resources to understand the real concept of capital. Below is an extract of a definition given by Stefan de Vylder (taken from his UNDP discussion paper: 'Sustainable Human Development and Macroeconomics strategic links and implications' . </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A child in the North is born wealthy. His or her share of the capital accumulated by earlier generations is worth a fortune. The higher wages and salaries in the North, compared with those in the South, largely reflect differences in endowment of the country, rather than of the individual. The fact that, for example, a nurse in Germany earns 30 times more than one in Bangladesh or Zambia has little to do with individual differences in training or skills; the higher salaries in the North simply reflect the higher dividend on the capital bestowed from the past. Part of this wealth or heritage is easily visible: factories, roads, schools hospitals, universities, telecommunications, and other infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, there are other, less tangible, forms of capital that constitute a crucial complement to physical and infrastructural capital; parliamentary democracy, a free press, respect for human rights' norms for social interaction, systems of rapid dissemination of new ideas, trade unions and a myriad of other large or small social organisations, a judiciary system which, by and large, defends law and justice, and other institutions. This latter form of capital may be called institutional or social capital. It is also highly unevenly distributed in the world, with large differences both between the North and the South and within individual countries of the North as well as in the South the region as a whole. Indeed, some countries had no graduates at all and in others, they could be counted on the fingers of one hand. In what was effectively a race against time, African leaders understandably responded by investing massively in human resource development. This was made possible partly by small, but steady rates of economic growth and partly by sustained foreign assistance. Between 1960 and 1980, sub-Saharan African governments consistently allocated high proportions of their annual budgets to health and education. Households and individuals made similar efforts (accounting for nearly 75% of all spending on health). They made sacrifices and gave a high premium to the education of their children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The results were tangible and very significant. By the late 1980s, sub-Saharan Africa was producing over 70 000 graduates a year. Major cities had hospitals and health centres and the rural areas, clinics and dispensaries. Amid a general improvement in nutrition and health-care delivery, the incidence of infectious disease, and maternal and infant mortality were considerably reduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite these achievements, the approach to manpower building by the post-independent African leaders was, to say the least, haphazard. As a result, a number of problems, such as the appropriateness of school curricula, under staffing and the long-term budget implications of recurrent expenditures, were overlooked (although reform efforts have since been attempted in some countries with varying degrees of success).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The consequences were felt in the 1980s when Africa's economic crisis was only just beginning. Health and school infrastructures deteriorated for lack of maintenance. There were shortages of qualified teachers and teaching materials leading to falls in educational standards as well as in primary school enrolments. And health systems failed for lack of personnel and drugs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The situation has worsened as the continent's economic crisis has deepened-a crisis characterised by huge budget deficits, high inflation rates, sluggish growth rates and a heavy debt burden. Structural adjustment programmes (SAPs), introduced in response to this, have only served to undermine further the gains made in human resource development. SAPs have been aimed mainly at macroeconomic stabilisation, deregulation and privatisation of state enterprises, and the social sectors have lost out in the process. Subsidies on basic commodities, especially food, have been removed, civil servants and employees of state enterprises have been made redundant and cost-recovery has become the standard practice in medical services. These measures have all combined to produce a level of poverty never before seen in the region, a situation which has adversely affected nutritional standards, provoked malnutrition in many countries and reduced resistance generally to infectious diseases. Because of the rise in unemployment, large sections of the educated population have been rendered unproductive, a waste of several years investment by both the state and the individuals in question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Appropriateness of skills</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although sub-Saharan Africa produced a large number of graduates before the economic crisis began, few had the kinds of skills needed for industry and agriculture. The evidence of this lies in the unsuccessful attempts by some governments in the late 1970s to indigenise executive positions, most of which required high levels of technological knowledge or experience. The 1980s saw a dramatic increase in the number of foreign technical assistants working on the continent and, paradoxically, in the number of qualified African professionals leaving, mainly for Western Europe, the United States and Canada.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International technical assistance to, or cooperation with, subSaharan Africa has intensified. Organisations such as the World Bank, IMF, UNDP, UNCTAD, UNESCO, European Union and Commonwealth are all involved in one form or another. The effectiveness of this assistance varies, however. This dossier features articles on the work of three of these bodies (the Commonwealth, UNDP and VNESCO). The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation was set up more than 25 years ago to mobilise Commonwealth skills to meet the needs of member states as required. The UNDP's TOKTEN programme is designed to reduce the negative impact of the brain drain by getting highly qualified developing country expatriates to contribute their skills to the development of their home countries without necessarily having to return permanently. Finally, UNESCO's university twinning programme is designed as a mechanism for the rapid transfer of technology and sharing of knowledge. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While international assistance or cooperation is indispensable, it is surely no substitute for Africa's own efforts at human resource development. Three years ago, Edward Jaycox, then World Bank Vice-President for the Africa Region, announced what appeared to be a change of policy at the annual conference of the African-American Institute in Washington DC. He said that the Bank would no longer pay for foreign technical assistants to help resolve African economic problems but would instead help African governments build their own capacity. Although the Bank has traditionally had enormous influence on development thinking and policy worldwide, the apparent policy change does not appear to have influenced other donors. Nor, indeed, is there any evidence that the Bank itself is implementing it vigorously. The number of foreign experts being sent to Africa continues to grow. There were over 100 000 in 1988.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rationality of investing in people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the negative social impact, ten years of structural adjustment have not produced the sought-after stabilisation or the economic growth that was initally anticipated. Even the World Bank and IMF, who spearheaded the structural adjustment idea, have admitted that it has flaws and the need for a new approach to sub-Saharan Africa's economic problems could hardly be more urgent. In the Dossier, Giovanni Andreas Cornia argues for a new focus for structural adjustment, based on restoring adequate levels of public spending on health, education, social welfare and water supplies, so as to enable sub-Saharan Africa to restore and develop its human resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evidence of the impact of a healthy and educated population on economic growth and development abound. Studies on the economies of the East Asian 'tigers' have all concluded that big investments in education in the late 1950s and 1960s were largely responsible for the rapid growth they have experienced in recent years. Malaysia, although a latecomer, appears to be following in the footsteps of its neighbours. After nearly two decades of investment in human resource development, and the introduction of a foreign investment policy which requires some technology transfer, the Government now predicts Malaysia will achieve 'fully developed' status by 2016-twenty years from now.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A relatively well-educated workforce and a certain amount of physical capital or natural resources are all a country needs to succeed economically. Sub-Saharan Africa has sufficient natural resources as is often pointed out. The other side of the equation-a relatively well-educated workforce-is missing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sub-Saharan Africa lags behind other regions in human resource development for a complex variety of reasons. The natural and political environment are not conducive to the delivery of social services: low population density and weak transport infrastructures make such delivery expensive and the achievement of economies of scale impossible. The region's climate favours a variety of diseases (such as malaria and sleeping sickness) and many areas have little or no access to natural water sources. Political instability and weak institutions also continue to cast a long shadow. Although these constraints are long-term, appropriate policy measures could reduce their negative impact significantly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Giovanni Cornia analyses the distributive effects of appropriate health care, nutrition and education on economic growth. He suggests ways of making rational use of available resources for maximum returns and of mobilising funds through taxation, foreign aid and other sources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an age of increasing globalisation, where technology is more easily transferable across borders, a healthy and educated population is essential, not only for the absorption and use of new technology but also for meaningful participation in international trade.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is insufficient, however, to have an educated workforce. Sub Saharan Africa must acquire the institutional and managerial capacity to make the right decisions, both in the public and private sectors. This is essential in the quest to eliminate poverty, achieve sustained and sustainable economic growth and ensure a realistic integration of the region into the global economy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A much needed new focus for SAPs</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Giovanni Andrea Cornia </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two decades, a clear consensus, supported by a growing amount of empirical evidence, has emerged on the growth and distributive effects of appropriate health care, nutrition and education, and on the rationality of investing in human resources to promote development in low-income economies, and in sub-Saharan Africa in particular. It is now clear that public and private rates of return on investment in primary and secondary education are substantially greater than those in most industrial sectors. Similarly, it is now well demonstrated that nutritional interventions in favour of workers at low levels of food intake has a very large impact on labour productivity. Also, provision of simple but adequate nutrition and health care at an early age has been shown to spare substantially greater health outlays over the longer term. While the number of these examples can be multiplied, the lesson is overwhelmingly clear: investing in people is a sound development policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the same two decades, a broad political consensus has also emerged on the need to establish realistic targets in these areas and mobilise adequate resources to achieve them. The latter decade, however, has also been characterised by a widespread and acute recession which has reached its lowest point in the African continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While there has been a general recognition of the link between the deterioration of the social sector and Africa's economic decline, the interpretations of the causes of this decline and how best to address them vary considerably.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1980s also witnessed the advent of structural adjustment, an approach aiming at revitalising economies affected by severe crises and which calls, amongst other things, for a reduction in public spending, including on social services. With sharp falls in revenues, it was argued, African governments could no longer afford to provide health and education free of charge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments were to encourage instead the role of the private sector (since competition between state, private and non-governmental agencies fosters efficiency and enhances quality) and make households bear a greater share of the cost of publicly provided social services (as-it was alleged-households had a strong 'willingness to pay' for better quality health care and education).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a debate characterised by an overwhelming concern for expenditure reduction, little thought was given to protecting the provision and effectiveness of basic health care and education for all. Nor was sufficient attention paid to the mobilisation of additional revenue through taxation, foreign aid or other measures Even the introduction of rationalisation measures, which would have allowed for use and preservation of limited resources, received scant attention. During this period, public policies often ignored a number of well-known public finance arguments concerning market failures, externalities, natural monopolies, etc. typical of basic health and education. It was all too often forgotten, for instance, that the market systematically undersupplies 'quasi-public goods' like education, safe water, immunisation and collective infrastructure (i.e. goods which produce benefits not only for consumers but also for society as a whole); that incomplete or non-existent markets alone are unable to provide complete insurance coverage against the risks of sickness and disability; that the free play of market forces can generate levels of poverty that are socially unacceptable, and that competition among many small providers does not allow for the realisation of the economies of scale which only the public sector can realise because of its size, administrative infrastructure and revenue raising ability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greater and better government involvement</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this paper, I will attempt to point out the main distortions in the social sector in sub-Saharan Africa and the major reforms, part of an alternative policy paradigm to the standard approach focusing on large expenditure reductions. My main line of argument is for more efficient and renewed but, in most cases, greater rather than less government involvement. I do not deny the important role of communities, nongovernmental bodies and private providers of social services, but the retreat of the state, which has been underway for several years in most of Africa, is palpably wrong: it may be a good survival strategy, it is definitely not a good development strategy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any approach to revitalisation of the social sector in Africa must aim at increasing both the quality and the relevance of services to the life, health and productivity of the population; enhancing efficiency; reducing distributive biases in the use of public expenditure, and improving the flow of both public and private resources to the social sector. These sets of measures are briefly discussed here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Raising relevance, reducing unit costs and enhancing quality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two basic initiatives are essential to the achievement of this goal. Firstly, it is necessary to adapt the content of services to the demands placed on the child, the adolescent and the family by the external environment. Secondly, in doing so, it is necessary to provide minimum resources, particularly recurrent inputs, for every unit of service offered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Much can be done to improve the relevance of education in Africa. A key element in this is the wider use of African languages in the educational system. Admittedly such a step would probably encounter obstacles, but the results of pilot projects in the continent and experiences in several English speaking countries have been encouraging. The use of African languages should be expanded throughout primary and at least part of secondary schooling. And the curriculum of basic education should include basic health science, agriculture, food and nutrition, basic technological science, ecology and environmental studies as well as reading, writing, arithmetic, history, geography and elementary civics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While responding more appropriately to the life and developmental needs of children and adolescents, these measures offer the potential to improve substantially the cost effectiveness of the educational system by reducing the number of drop-outs and repeaters, particularly if the measures are accompanied by school-based nutritional support programmes and by steps to ensure a steady, if basic, supply of teaching materials such as books, chalk, slates, pens, exercise books and so on. Minimum expenditures for the latter, estimated at $5-10 per child per year, have been shown to have a profound impact on the quality and attractiveness of education.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving the relevance and quality of African secondary and higher education will require an increase in the number of courses in science, engineering, agronomy, management and other fields. Given the limited success of vocational training and yet the profound need for this type of education, a more flexible approach may be appropriate. Business associations and ministries of labour, rather than ministries of education, for example, could organise the type of vocational training that responds more closely to labour market conditions. Much needs to be done to gear university research to local and national needs. Rather than maintaining the model of independent residential universities, faculties could interact more with and rely upon local institutions and non-governmental organisations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the health sector, a more vigorous approach is necessary to implement the 'Health for All' strategy. In particular, more attention must be paid to the quality of the training imparted to village health workers, the provision of minimum supplies of essential drugs, adequate supervision, the mobilisation of communities and the strengthening of family planning services in the first tier of the primary health care pyramid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Greater efforts are needed to contain unit costs through the mobilisation of community resources (such as materials and time) and the introduction of 'product standards' and 'production techniques' more in line with local factor endowments. With respect to capital expenditure, one major source of potential savings is the substitution of imported materials with local ones in the construction of schools, clinics and other public health facilities. Through this approach, capital costs per student could be more than halved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In health care, savings are also possible, in some cases, in wages and other recurrent expenditures. The potential for savings through increased efficiency in the procurement, management, storage, distribution and prescription of pharmaceuticals is substantial. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And there is a need for more carefully articulated manpower policies, with recognition of the cost implications of alternative skill mixes. Many tasks carried out by senior professionals can be performed by auxiliary personnel. In this regard, there is substantial scope for the application of nominal fees as a tool to guide demand for health care and thus increase efficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Similar considerations are valid in the education sector. Despite considerable declines during the 1980s in both French-speaking and Eastern and Southern Africa, teacher salaries in the late 1980s were still considerably higher than per capita GNP in several countries. While a cutback may be possible in some countries, reductions below the 'efficiency wage' should be avoided as they affect the quality of teaching.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are, of course, other approaches to reducing unit costs such as using teachers trained on crash courses and- paid salaries lower than that of fully trained ones, multi shift education to increase teaching hours, multigrade classes to increase class sizes and the creation of regional training centres with donor support. In addition, in most of sub-Saharan Africa, all university students receive fellowships to cover living expenses while at school. In many cases these fellowships represent a substantial proportion of total unit costs at the tertiary level. They add, in effect, to the regressive nature of educational subsidies and should be suppressed for all except for those who are least able to pay.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Substantial improvements in the distribution of benefits of public expenditure could be obtained through its restructuring towards basic services which benefit the poor more than they do the rich. This would mean, typically, the reallocation of part of the expenditure on hospitals to primary health care activities and part of the expenditure on universities to primary education. It would also mean that a greater share of investments in water supply and sanitation should be assigned to rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Correcting existing misallocation, however, is not simple, as capital and labour resources are only partially mobile. This is particularly true of capital expenditure which has already been invested in physical infrastructure. Inter sect oral reallocation is easier for recurrent expenditure, particularly when budgets are expanding, and it can lead to the achievement of more efficient and distributive gains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government subsidies need to be improved through effective targeting on 'merit goods' (such as food and shelter). Targeting is distributionally and administratively more effective when it is accomplished according to some objective criteria such as geography (the poorest areas), type of commodity ( low quality foods not consumed by the rich), easily identifiable population group (like pregnant women, young children, children in elementary school in poor areas, etc.) or season. It is less effective when carried out by means-testing or by targeting individuals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decentralisation of health care and education in the African context is likely to improve the geographical distribution of services. Poor communications and transport systems, population dispersion and the fact that the supervision of personnel, resource distribution and operations is easier at lower levels of administration, are all arguments in favour of such decentralisation. Nonetheless, where it means loss of control over the implementation of national policies (in curriculum development, manpower training, drug procurement and so forth) and excessive additional financial burdens on households and communities, decentralisation is potentially damaging. This was the experience of Kenya when the purchase of drugs was decentralised at the district level. It subsequently had to reverse this policy because of the problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing the flow of resources to basic social services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the considerable scope for protecting and, in some cases, expanding the delivery of cost-effective and high-impact social services, even during periods of declining resources, there are limits to what can be achieved through the measures discussed above, particularly in countries where the share in GDP of public health and education expenditure is already low. Indeed in most African countries, the flow of resources to these sectors must be vastly increased. The options available include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Increasing the share of government expenditure on key social services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Top priority should be given to a radical restructuring of government expenditure involving the shifting of resources towards those sectors with high social rates of return. Expenditure on defence can be cut substantially, while subsidies to chronically lossmaking public and private enterprises and interest payments on debt (the relief effect on foreign-debt interest payments of current provisions is utterly inadequate) should be reduced. If realistic expenditure restructuring like that proposed here were implemented, 1015% of overall public spending in many countries could be redirected to social activities with high rates of return. One half to two-thirds of these savings could be allocated to health care, nutrition, training, education and welfare, thus raising the share of these activities to about 30-35% of total expenditure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Increasing taxation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between the late 1970s and the mid-1980s, the average tax to GDP ratio for sub-Saharan Africa fell from 18% to 16-17%. (Only recently are there signs of recovery, but these are confined to only a few countries). This resulted mainly from the recession affecting the region and from the limited priority attached to revenue collection in most adjustment programmes implemented during the first part of the 1980s. In these 'first generation' programmes, the stabilisation of deficits was achieved mainly by cutting expenditure and raising excise duties. Increases in income taxes and progressive indirect taxes were far less frequent and land and property taxes were almost never introduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While taking effect rapidly, the measures implemented led to excessive drops in public expenditure on 'quasi public goods' and have had a regressive distributive impact. It is now widely recognised that a more active tax policy is needed. Such a policy should aim at improving revenue generation and enhancing the efficiency and equity of the overall tax system. This would permit a controlled rise in specific 'socially efficient' public expenditures, particularly basic health, primary and secondary education and public infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the 1980s, a number of countries, including Burkina Faso, Kenya, Malawi and Zimbabwe, initiated efforts to reform their tax systems. While the choice of optimal tax instruments has depended on specific country conditions, a few general principles of tax reform apply to all countries. First, colonial type tax systems emphasising the taxation of exports (and to some extent, of imports) should evolve towards systems which focus on income taxes, progressive and efficient indirect taxes and increases in the prices of such public utilities as telephone and electricity which benefit mainly the wealthier sections of society. Second, purchases of goods and services consumed by the poorest should be exempted from indirect taxes. Third, efforts should not concentrate on raising marginal tax rates but rather on broadening the tax base by reducing tax evasion and tax elusion, and fourth a low, uniform and broad-based tax on wealth (such as on land or other assets) should be introduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A non-distortionary and equitably-spread increase in the tax ratio equivalent to 2-3% of GPD is technically feasible in a good number of African countries and would by itself add to the real flow of resources to health care and education by about 15%, even assuming no growth and no shift in priorities towards the social sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Introducing 'earmarked' taxes or raising local ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The flow of tax resources to the social sector could be augmented more readily if the new tax revenue thus generated, or at least part of it, were directly earmarked for specific health and education activities (for which there are guarantees that tax money is spent efficiently), or if these taxes were raised directly by district and provincial authorities, who are usually entrusted with responsibility for social services at the local level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Mobilising additional resources from households and communities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In sub-Saharan Africa, as in most other developing regions, households have long borne a substantial share of the national expenditure on health, education, water supply and so on by contributing resources (in kind, cash and time) for the construction of health and education facilities, covering direct and indirect costs (transport uniforms, fees, drugs etc.) associated with the provision of public services and making payments to private providers. Despite these already considerable contributions, user charges have been introduced or raised on a large scale in recent years in many countries to alleviate the burden on public expenditure imposed by the economic crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, while the small but significant contribution of user charges to health and education budgets should be acknowledged, the negative effects of the indiscriminate application of these charges should also be emphasised. Indeed, in many African countries the need for health care, education and other social services rarely coincides with the ability to pay. The implementation of user charges can have adverse effects in three ways. First, it may lead to a contraction in the demand for services. Second, in the health sector, it tends to discourage the use of preventive services for which potential patients may not see an immediate relevance (such as ante natal care and immunisation). Third, it may adversely affect a household's ability to meet other basic needs, such as the purchase of food, particularly if fees are charged simultaneously for health, education and other services and if the household's income declines. In addition to these problems, there is little evidence that the revenue from user charges is actually reinvested to improve the quality or expand the coverage of local services, as those who promote user charges argue. Despite recent attempts at keeping a share of the user fees at the local level (e.g. at the collecting facilities), in most cases revenue merely flows to the public treasury. Moreover, user charges usually generate a relatively small proportion of the total operating cost of the health care sector, with gross yields at around 5%. If the costs of fee collection are included, the yields are lower and, in some cases, negative.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, health care, education and the provision of water include different types of services, some clearly geared to the needs of the poor and others catering more for middle and upper-income groups. While user charges are not well suited to primary education, disease control programmes, basic curative services and communal water supply, the same cannot be said of university education and other 'income elastic' services. For the latter, cost recovery measures would be advisable, although subsidised access for the deserving poor must be assured. For the intermediate category, which includes most curative health services and secondary education, selective cost-recovery measures might be desirable, with low income individuals exempted or charged only a nominal fee.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While direct user fees (levied on patients at the moment of their treatment) are problematic from several perspectives, there are other indirect ways to mobilise resources from communities (generally before episodes of illness), such as various kinds of prepayment schemes, health insurance, lotteries, mutual funds and the sale of produce from community fields, in addition to their contributions in kind. These schemes have two main features which are attractive for health-care: they shift the moment of payment, so that individuals are not burdened with relatively more significant expenditure at the time of illness, and they spread the burden of costs (e.g. for drugs) over a larger group.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Increasing the volume of international aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There has been a considerable shift in official development assistance (ODA) in favour of Africa over the past two decades. Africa's share in total ODA rose from 19.4% in 1975/6 to 25.1% in 1980/1, and to 34.2% in 1988/9. However, the share assigned to human resource development has dropped, while- debt-service obligations have often absorbed a growing share of ODA. Greater flows are therefore needed. In the late 1980s, the World Bank estimated that additional annual aid of about $1 billion was required during the 1990s to halt social retrogression and ensure reasonable progress. But this flow of aid has not materialised on any appreciable scale. Indeed the trend in the 1990s has been towards an absolute decline in aid flows. The simplest and the most cost-effective way to effect such aid transfer would be through debt relief, although some increases in ODA are needed. Improvement in the quality of aid, including substantial shifts to programme aid, greater participation in the financing of recurrent costs and more focus on primary health care and education and on rural water supply are also required.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What role for NGOs and private providers?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While private providers, including church missions, have always been important in Africa, much of the market oriented literature tends to be very optimistic about the scope for expanding private services in order to replace government ones. Although a multiplicity of providers is desirable (and frequently unavoidable), there are several reasons why such optimism should be tempered. First, private sector services in Africa are typically concentrated in urban areas, and because of their cost, cater for upper-income groups. Although non-governmental providers (especially missions) are often located in rural areas, and they generally provide valuable services, they are seldom able to guarantee extensive coverage and in some cases may duplicate government services. Second, private providers are not without costs to governments; they often receive subsidies or preferential treatment in the allocation of foreign exchange and typically offer higher salaries and better working conditions which draw manpower away from the public sector. In Zambia, for instance, a teacher in a primary school run by the Consolidated Copper Mines can earn more than a lecturer at the University of Zambia. In countries with extremely limited numbers of doctors, certified nurses, qualified teachers and so on, greater privatisation would exacerbate the 'brain drain' from the public to the private sector and the undersupply of 'quasi public goods' for the majority, leading to harmful social differentiation. Third, quality is not necessarily an important incentive in the private sector in developing countries. The view that private institutions in health care and education are more efficient tends to be based largely on analyses in developed countries. Fourth, the growing pressure for pluralism in social service provision often gives scant attention to the problems of central coordination and planning and the development of an adequate 'regulatory framework' for private sector activities. While playing an important complementary role, the private sector and, to a lesser extent, the NGO sector, are thus affected by important objective limitations. Indeed, ironically, their proper functioning and social utility depends crucially on the existence of a stronger, not weaker, state able to regulate, coordinate and ensure that basic social services are provided - possibly through a multitude of public, NGO and private providers-to all citizens of a nation. G.A.C</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Capacity building for management and development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Franklyn Lisk</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development experience of much of sub-Saharan Africa in past decades provides ample illustration of the importance of capacity building in the development process. The importance is related to the ability to manage economic and social processes, including the analysis and formulation of policy options, for attaining development objectives such as employment generation and poverty reduction. The consequences of failures in domestic economic management, compounded by the effects of a prolonged economic crisis in the region have, inter alla, contributed to high and rising levels of open unemployment and underemployment, declining per Capita incomes and real wages, and an increase in the incidence and intensity of poverty in a number of African countries. The persistence of these adverse consequences, which represent a serious threat to economic growth and sustainable development, are somehow linked-either as a cause or an effect -to weaknesses and instability in the institutional framework for management and public administration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem of weak institutional and general capacity for management in Africa today can be traced to the colonial legacy. This left many countries in the region, at the time of independence, with insufficient institutional and human capacity to cope with the transition from colony to independent sovereign state, particularly with respect to the responsibility for economic management. More specifically, this related to the unequal and disadvantageous manner of Africa's incorporation into the international economic system in the late 1950s and the early 1960s. Lack of technological know-how, inadequate infrastructure and limited investment resources compounded the immediate post-independence problem of weak institutional capacity, and left many African countries highly vulnerable to external shocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was extremely difficult for the majority of African countries to break out of the old 'protected' colonial production and trade systems and rapidly to diversify their economies in line with the requirements of participating effectively in a competitive world economy. Since independence, institutional and human capacity for management in many African countries has not grown fast enough to keep up with the requirements of changing socioeconomic circumstances at the national level and to face the challenge of increasing globalisation. Critical skill shortages in public administration and private sector management in Africa can hardly be addressed in the context of the current economic crisis. The consequences of this crisis can be seen, for example, in underfunded and poorly equipped training and management development institutions, and in low-paid and demoralised civil services. At the same time, the 'brain drain' from the continent, partly as a consequence of poor pay and career prospects, has further undermined capacity in Africa. The interaction of foreign donors and African governments has not always served the interest of capacity building. It has been admitted, even by the World Bank that 'aid has done much less than one might have hoped to reduce poverty (in Africa)'. There is now more or less a consensus in the international donor community that expatriate technical assistance does not and cannot solve all kinds of development problems in the region. Far from solving problems, the imposition of foreign technical assistance has, in some cases, become a destructive force which undermines the development of domestic capacity that is critical to solving local development problems. Where donor assistance is inappropriate in terms of project concept and design, or there is a mismatch between design and domestic implementation and management capacity, technical assistance could end up becoming part of the problem rather than the solution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conceptual issues</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Before examining the requirements for institutional capacity building in developing countries, and particularly African countries, it is necessary to clarify salient issues pertaining to the concept. Broadly speaking, capacity building in a development context refers to a comprehensive process which includes the ability to identify constraints and to plan and manage development. The process usually involves the development of human resources and institutions, and a supportive policy environment. Ideally, it aims at improving on existing capabilities and resources and using them efficiently to achieve sustainable economic and social development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Narrowing the concept to focus on institution-building, the emphasis will be on the development of particular institutions, their human and material resources, their organisational management and their administrative capacities. More specifically, the aim of institutional capacity building is to improve significantly the outputs and impacts of institutions concerned with economic management, public administration (including project management), enterprise development and so on-in both the public and private sectors. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is obvious that relevant development-oriented institutions within an economy can exert a decisive influence on economic growth and employment prospects, and indeed on the attainment of sustainable economic and social development. From a macro standpoint,planning and similar development institutions are required for better management of the economy including, more crucially, the ability to mobilise, allocate and utilise human and material resources in an efficient and productive manner. At the micro level, human and institutional capacity is critical to sound project management and public administration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The framework</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The general situation in Africa today suggests that capacity building is required in relation to the following priority areas:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- good governance, to ensure stability;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-economic management, to maximise resource mobilisation and promote sustainable development;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- human resource development, to support employment creation and income generation, and reduce poverty;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- science and technology, to increase the efficiency of the population and facilitate infrastructural development;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-enterprise development, to enhance the critical role of the private sector in overall development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The degree of emphasis given to each of the above in a given context would vary according to the level and complexity of existing human and institutional capacities, the economic and financial means to support capacity, the relative roles of the public and private sectors, and the degree of involvement of civil society in the decision-making process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The policy context for institutional capacity building should be multi-sectoral and flexible, but coherent in relation to the desired objectives of development. This is to ensure that the process of capacity building is adaptable to changing circumstances-an issue that is particularly relevant in the context of countries undertaking structural adjustment and economic reform programmes when there is a need effectively to nurture and utilise local skills and to mobilise investment resources efficiently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the light of the development challenge facing African countries, the process of capacity building in the region requires, above all, appropriate and adequate human and institutional capabilities to plan and manage economic and social development processes. These capabilities should include the means of assessing the achievements and impact of capacity building on poverty reduction, employment creation, etc. Existing public sector institutions for development planning and management could provide the operational framework for national capacity building, but the process should also include the participation of diverse social forces, the private sector and non-governmental institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regarding the role of external donors and technical assistance agencies, the approach should be based on the concept of 'partners in development', which implies consultation and dialogue between donor and recipient on all aspects of project planning, design and implementation- with project 'ownership' resting with national authorities. Technical assistance from foreign donors should therefore go mainly towards developing the necessary domestic capacity, rather than contributing to the undermining of existing or potential capacity. Furthermore, assistance provided by external donors should be directed towards the building of capacity for promoting regional economic cooperation and integration through support for the development of viable African regional and sub-regional development organisations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Support initiatives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The issue of domestic capacity building in Africa has more recently been the focus of attention by the international community as a whole. Indeed, the former World Bank vice-president for Africa, Edward Jaycox, has described 'capacity building' es the 'missing link in African development' which is 'critical to the development effort (of the region) and the chances of success'. UN agencies, spearheaded by the UNDP, have been active in promoting capacity building as a major requirement for attaining sustainable development. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1991, the UNDP Governing Council took a decision which resulted in the development of guidelines covering assistance to governments in the formulation and implementation of national capacity building strategies relating to all stages of the project cycle in the developing countries. The decision coincided with the introduction of the 'programme approach' by the UNDP which emphasised the centrality of national development programmes as the hub for the integration of UN technical assistance activities with national efforts. Emphasis on the use of national skills in the development process was consolidated within the general operational framework for 'national execution', which implied that overall responsibility for management of UN operational activities and accountability remained with the government and other national institutions and beneficiaries who 'owned' these activities. Under these new arrangements, a high priority was thus placed on the strengthening and sustaining of development management and administrative capacities on a long-term basis as an integral part of UNDP technical assistance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank's interest in capacity building in Africa has been more closely linked to the need for administrative and technical capacity at the national level to carry out policy analysis and economic management in the context of on-going structural adjustment and economic reform programmes. In a trailblazing address to the African American Institute Conference in 1993, Mr Jaycox came out strongly in favour of a new approach to lending to African countries which gave top priority to the development of critical human and institutional capacity. He admitted that the Bank's $4 billion a year lending programme in sub-Saharan Africa had not had the desired impact on development in the region because not enough attention had been paid to national capacity in the past. He went on to criticise the international donor community and financial institutions, including the World Bank itself, for designing and carrying out technical assistance activities which not only fail to solve problems but end up undermining the development of capacity in Africa. Mr Jaycox accordingly pledged to give direct support to capacity building in the Bank's lending programmes, mainly through human resource development and the creation of a 'demand for professionalism in Africa.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNDP, the African Development Bank and the World Bank, collaborated in the early 1990s to set up the 'African Capacity Building Foundation' (ACBF), based in Harare, Zimbabwe, with initial seed money of about $30 million and another $70 million attracted from bilateral donors and African governments themselves. The fund is to be used by the Foundation to support capacity building in Africa through training and institution building. Particular attention will be paid to the rehabilitation and strengthening of selected research and training institutions to meet the challenge of indigenous capacity building. Another initiative set up with foreign donors and African support, the Africa Research Consortium in Nairobi, is a good example of collaboration at regional level that is contributing to capacity building in the critical area of economic policy analysis and management. Similarly, the African Development Bank helped establish the African Business Round table which promotes entrepreneurship and enterprise development based on African ownership and control.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Role of the ILO</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For well over three decades the ILO, as part of its technical cooperation programme in Africa, has been involved in a wide range of management development, productivity and institution building initiatives at both national and regional levels. This is consistent with the need to strengthen African training institutions to play a crucial role in providing development managers with the necessary skills to analyse and formulate policy options and manage public and private enterprises efficiently.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most successful initiatives undertaken by the ILO, in collaboration with the UNDP and the Economic Development Institute (EDI) of the World Bank, is the UNEDIL programme for strengthening management training in Africa. Since its inception in 1987, the UNEDIL programme has proven to be a worthwhile initiative in institutional capacity building in the management field. Support for the programme has also come from national and regional management development institutes (MDIs) in Africa, regional and sub-regional organisations such as SADC and the Commonwealth Secretariat, and major bilateral donors such as USAID, CIDA, NORAD, the Netherlands and France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from aiming at strengthening institutional capacity, the UNEDIL programme has been instrumental in fostering networking among African development institutes and promoting professional contacts and the exchange of experience. One outcome of the programme has been the revival of three subregional MDI associations which enjoy the direct support of UNEDIL and serve as focal points for UNEDIL's subregional networking arrangements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Networking on a subregional basis has made it possible to optimise the use of scarce resources and talents, and this has helped to increase managerial capacity in the region as a whole. Collaboration has also permitted an exchange of experience among African institutions, and has brought together expertise both from within Africa and from outside to assist in the development of managerial capacity across the continent. This fits in with the goals of technical cooperation in general, and of South-South cooperation in particular. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.L. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The role of international academic cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing demands and diminishing resources in higher education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Professor Dumitru Chitoran</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As we approach the end of the millennium, higher education world-wide finds itself in a paradoxical situation. On the one hand, it is witnessing unprecedented growth. Enrolments are on the increase and so are the expectations placed on it by society. The correlation between investment in higher education and research, and the level of social, economic and cultural development of nations is well-established and is gaining increasing ground at a time when all development has become knowledge-intensive. On the other hand, higher education is in a state of crisis in practically all countries of the world, under the pressure of serious financial constraints. It has to compete for public funds with many other sectors and very often it is among the first to undergo severe cuts. These cuts have reached a dramatic threshold in the developing countries. As a result, the gap between the developing and the developed countries with regard to higher learning and research is wider than ever and it continues to grow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inter-university cooperation has emerged as a major tool for the support of higher education in the developing countries and as a flexible mechanism for the rapid transfer and sharing of knowledge, channelled via university links and exchanges. As emphasised in the Policy Paper for Change and Development in Higher Education issued by UNESCO in 1995, 'the most pressing need for international cooperation in higher education is to reverse the process of decline of institutions in the developing countries, particularly in the least developed.' The internationalisation of higher education has advanced steadily, reinforced by current processes of economic and political integration and facilitated by the steady advances in information and communication technologies. But, as indicated in the UNESCO World Education Report (1993), it is increasingly subject to the competitive laws of the market. Universities have been urged to develop an entrepreneurial, commercial attitude and to regard international cooperation mainly as a source of additional income. Fees for foreign students have risen considerably in many countries. As a result, academic mobility is becoming more North-North and less South-North or South-South. The benefits of study abroad, of exchanges, networking and access to data are recognised, but the costs involved render them increasingly a privilege, restricted to those who can afford it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An innovative programme</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO's response to these trends was the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme, launched in 1991. While serving as an instrument to foster overall inter-university cooperation, it was aimed at giving a clear direction and goal, namely to support higher education in the developing countries. It was meant to mark a return to the spirit of international academic solidarity, through twinning, networking and other linking arrangements among universities. The programme was also designed as an innovative form for the rapid transfer of knowledge, and for institutional development in higher education, including the establishment of transnational centres for advanced studies and research, as a means of redressing the widening knowledge gap between industrially developed and developing countries. One other aim of the Programme was to alleviate the negative effects of the brain drain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme has seen steady and dynamic development from the very beginning, and has emerged as the major thrust of UNESCO's action in the field of higher education. The favoured institutional framework for carrying out activities is a UNESCO Chair. The programme's activities are extremely diverse. They include the appointment of visiting professors, provision of scholarships and fellowships, facilitating of staff and student exchanges and undertaking of joint research. The 'chairs' are typical of basic units of research and training, with a strong international dimension, since either the chairholder, or some of the professors or researchers associated with its programme come from abroad. Other projects involve complex inter university networks, varying in size from three to more than 50 institutions. Within networks, certain institutions serve as focal points, responsible for initiating activities and securing broad participation in their execution. Also included are cooperation programmes established by UNESCO with major university associations and networks in order to carry out UNITWIN-related activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, there are 163 established UNESCO Chairs (a further 84 are under consideration) and 34 largescale networks (18 more are being developed). A total of over 750 teachers, researchers and other support staff are involved in their activities. It is estimated that 350 courses (mainly at the graduate level), attended by more than 7500 students, were organised by the established UNESCO Chairs during the 1992-1996 period. Also, 120 seminars, training workshops, symposia and colloquia were staged over the same period, attended by more than 6000 participants. Some 580 academics from developing countries spent short periods of time at partner universities in the developed countries to upgrade their training. In addition, 355 scholarships have been granted to students and young academics from developing nations within the framework of the Programme. Research has been encouraged through 240 projects (mainly joint ones) resulting, according to progress reports received so far, in the publication of 55 volumes, some 100 published articles and over 150 monographs and progress reports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ACPs in the programme</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A large number of these projects (UNESCO Chairs and networks) concern ACP countries. Africa has been given top priority. Over 30 of the established Chairs are located there and 18 more are under consideration for subSaharan Africa, in order to reinforce the contribution of the programme to the development of higher education in this region. In addition, certain projects located at institutions in Europe and North America carry on activities which are designed to support African universities. A few examples illustrate this. Starting from its bilateral links with several African universities, the University of Utrecht proposed developing these into a broader, multilateral project under the umbrella of UNITWIN. For this purpose, it joined forces with three other European institutions: the University of Lund in Sweden, the Ruhr University in Bochum, Germany and the University of Porto in Portugal. The result was the establishment of the Utrecht/Southern Africa/UNITWIN (USU) network. It includes, at its southern pole, the universities of Harare, Maputo, Namibia, and Western Cape, where UNESCO Chairs have been established in different fields. The aim is to develop each of them into (sub)regional centres of advanced study and research. This is well under way in the case of the UNESCO Chair in Mathematics and Science Education at Western Cape University in South Africa. A first step was to link its activities to those of the MESA (Mathematics Education in South Africa) project, a cooperation project between the Utrecht-Freundenthal Institute for Mathematics Education and the University of the Western Cape. A school for Science and Maths Education is to be established at the University of Western Cape.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another large scale project is the Network of African Teacher Training Institutions, built around a UNESCO Chair at the Ecole Normale Superieure in Dakar. This is designed to serve as a regional centre for postgraduate training and research in the field of education. After several years preparation, activities were launched in 1995. The strength of networking is illustrated by a number of other linking arrangements in support of African higher education institutions. These include the network initiated by the NATURA Group of European universities in the field of agriculture, the ORBICOM Network in the field of Communication, which is a global network but pays particular attention to the needs of African universities, and the UNESCO/John Hopkins University Networking and Partnership in Adolescent Youth Health and Development. The last-mentioned focuses on HlV/AIDS-related research, and includes institutions such as Addis Ababa and Makerere Universities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The agreement signed by UNESCO with the Association of African Universities (AAU) within the framework of UNITWIN provides for support of the latter's staff development and management programme. A UNESCO Chair in Educational Management and Administration is to be established. It will function on a rotating basis at several universities in South Africa, Botswana and Malawi. There are also a number of 'tailor-made' chairs which respond to more specific needs of institutions, notably to develop training and research capabilities in areas such as human rights, democray and peace (at the Universities of Namibia, Addis Ababa and Fianarantsoa in Madagascar), or in the field of Water Resources and Water Culture (at the Universities of Malawi and Omdurman in Sudan). In the latter field, an interesting example is the UNESCO Chair established at the University of Nice, which, although located in France, carries out its activities in Mauritania and has produced the most comprehensive study so far on water resource management in that country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The programme has also made a good start in the Pacific and the Caribbean, even if achievements there are on a more modest scale. There are already 22 established chairs with 14 more under consideration. They cover a wide spectrum of priority fields, including the sustainable use of rain forest resources at the University of Guyana, higher education management and information technology at the University of Havana in Cuba, educational sciences in Fiji, and the use of drugs in Chulalongkorn University in Thailand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO works closely with the University of the South Pacific and the University of the West Indies, with which it has established four UNESCO Chairs. Moreover, it has signed a cooperation agreement, in the framework of UNITWIN, with the Commonwealth Secretariat and the Association of Commonwealth Universities for activities in both regions. There is great potential for the further development of the Chairs programme in the Pacific and Caribbean, given the existence of the two regional universities mentioned above and the strong interest of universities in a number of developed countries (such as Australia, Canada, Japan and Spain) in supporting the programme. It appears to be particularly well suited for the systems of higher education in the two regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Funding</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cost of international cooperation in higher education has risen steadily and this is currently one of the major obstacles preventing the full use of the potential of academic links. New information and communication technologies help reduce costs, but universities in the least-developed countries would first need considerable investment in order to procure and maintain the necessary equipment. That is why UNESCO has based the Chairs programme on funding principles aimed at lowering costs and sharing them in a genuine spirit of academic solidarity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the outset, UNESCO made it very clear that, since it was not a funding agency, it could not, by itself, assume the financial burden of such an ambitious programme, involving several hundred institutions and thousands of university teachers, researchers and students. However, it decided to make a commitment by providing some initial funds. Rough estimates indicate that, over the 1992-1995 period, UNESCO has contributed some $2.5 million (from its Regular and Participation Programmes, Fellowship Bank and Funds-in-Trust) to the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme. At the same time, it has pressed for increased international development aid for higher education, particularly from the developed countries, and from international organisations, including the UN specialised agencies. A strong case is made for the benefit of pooling resources and for involving directly the higher education institutions themselves </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNITWIN-based projects, including UNESCO Chairs, are usually initiated through the direct contributions of UNESCO (the range is generally between $15 000 and $25 000 per individual project). This is meant to help prepare and launch projects and to secure further funding from other sources. The institutions themselves must include allocations for the respective projects in their own budgets and request their appropriate national authorities to make contributions. This applies equally to universities in the developing countries, however poor their resources may be. It serves to indicate that the project in question is indeed seen as a priority by them and by their national authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Experience of the UNITWIN funding formula so far gives cause for cautious optimism. Many projects have been able to secure funds by having recourse to the various sources mentioned above. Thus, the Utrecht/ Southern Africa/UNITWIN Project received a first UNESCO allocation of $50 000 in 1993, in order to launch its activities. The fact that it concerned a large-scale project (a network of eight universities, with four chairs established at four African universities and one at the University of Utrecht) explains the larger UNESCO allocation. This was followed by a second allocation of $70 000 in 1994 for the actual implementation of activities in Africa. The UNESCO seed money led to additional funding-$600 000 annually, for the 1992-1995 period, from various Dutch donors (mainly the Ministry of Development Cooperation, through NUFFIC) and from the European Union, and $450 000 from the University of Utrecht budget, including the total cost for the functioning of the UNESCO Chair on African Studies established at that university. The other three European universities participating in the network (Bochum, Lund and Porto) have also made contributions and are now looking for donor funding in their countries. It is important to mention that the four African universities belonging to the network have also allocated funds from their own budgets to the UNITWIN projects and are actively seeking additional resources from aid and development programmes established for their countries by various donor agencies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It can be fairly argued that in terms of cost-effectiveness, efficiency and the ability to generate funding from various sources, UNITWIN compares favourably with existing cooperation schemes in higher education and research. But it is still too early to conclude that the Chairs Programme can continue and develop further on the basis of the present funding arrangements. The needs are arguably too big for the institutions and individuals involved, who may find themselves in a perpetual search for funds. An evaluation of the programme is under way and this will be submitted to the Member States for their decision. UNESCO is hoping that its efforts to revive academic solidarity, and its campaign in favour of higher education in the developing countries will receive the support of the international community. More than ever before, these countries need to develop their capacity for advanced training and research in order to achieve self sustainable development. The academic community has already indicated its willingness to join forces with UNESCO in this undertaking. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Brain drain : Colossal loss of investments for developing countries</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a highly qualified professional chooses to leave his own country for another, he does so for one or several legitimate political or economic reasons: peace and security for himself and his family, job satisfaction, better pay and conditions. a higher standard of living, etc. Throughout history, countries and centres of academic excellence which offer these attractions have received the largest numbers of professional migrants and these have, in turn, made substantial contributions, not only to the economic growth of their host countries, but also to the scientific and technological advancement of humanity. The wave of German scientists who moved to the United States after the Second World war, and their discoveries and inventions, come readily to mind. On a global level, therefore, the free movement and interaction of highly skilled people is a positive thing. But the costs to the home countries of losing their professionals is incalculable-in terms of both development opportunities and loss of investment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whereas Western Europe was the main loser, especially to the United States, up until the 1960s, the developing countries have emerged in recent years as the biggest suppliers of qualified professionals to the industrialised world as a whole. Today there are more than a million and a half skilled expatriates from the developing countries settled in Western Europe, the USA, Japan and Canada. The USA's educational system and its research institutions are heavily dependent on them. These migrant professionals contribute in no small way to increasing the disparities between the world's rich and poor nations. And it is the developing countries that need them most.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa, which has serious shortages of manpower, has been worst hit. It is said to have lost 60 000 professionals (doctors, university lecturers, engineers, surveyors, etc) between 1985 and 1990 and to have been losing an average of 20 000 annually ever since.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are more than 21 000 Nigerian doctors practising in the United States alone. Meanwhile, Nigeria's own health system suffers a cruel lack of medical practitioners. 60% of all Ghanaian doctors trained locally in the 1980s have left the country, according to the UNDP's 1992 Human Development Report, while, in Sudan, 17% of doctors and dentists, 20% of university lecturers, 30% of engineers and 45% of surveyors have gone to work abroad.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it is difficult to calculate the cost of an expatriate professional in terms of the nutrition, health care and education provided by households and the State, it is clear developing countries are losing colossal amounts of investment annually to the developed countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The US Congressional Research Service, for example, computed in 197172 that the USA gained $20 000 annually on each skilled migrant from the developing countries. If this rather conservative amount is extrapolated for Africa, then the continent lost more than $1.2 billion of investment between 1985 and 1990 on the 60 000 or so African professionals who emigrated during that period. Much closer perhaps to the truth today would be the estimate made by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), using 1979 prices, which put a cash value of $184 000 on each African professional migrant (and this only for those between the ages of 25 and 35).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, expatriate remittances, particularly from skilled workers who earn higher salaries than the average migrant, constitute an important source of funds for development in their home countries. Throughout Africa, households are being maintained by remittances from relatives working abroad. Also, fine buildings are being put up and small-scale projects are financed in villages and cities across the continent with funds sent from overseas. But taken together, these will never be large enough to compensate Africa for the loss of investment suffered as a result of the 'brain drain'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Serious flaw in international cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The migration of highly qualified professionals from the developing countries is an extremely complex problem which presents the international community with a major dilemma. First, the 'brain drain' cannot be stopped by force nor can it be legislated against. It is linked to fundamental human rights- the right of individuals to move from one country to another, although the exercise of that right is governed by the immigration policies of individual countries. Second, it is fundamentally a national problem which can only be resolved at the national level by providing enough incentives for qualified nationals to remain at home. Third, some industrialised countries like the USA and Canada, have historically operated liberal immigration policies. Even European states, whose immigration policies tend to be more restrictive, have a good number of third world professionals, but there are over a million in the USA and Canada. It is arguable whether, under the circumstances, the liberalisation of the international labour market under the World Trade Organisation, as is being suggested (even by some developing countries), will actually be in Africa's interests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The reasons for Africa's brain drain problem are legion and easily identifiable, being both structural and economic. The most often cited cause is the continent's school curricula which many see as still largely modelled on the systems of the former colonial masters. This, it is argued, has led to the production of graduates in disciplines that have little or no relevance to the socio-cultural and economic milieux of the continent. This is a highly debatable assertion, given the large numbers of the technical assistants currently working in Africa who are products of the educational systems of the former colonial powers-at least some of whom are having a positive impact on the continent's development. This, however, must not distract from the fact that African higher schools systems are illequipped to produce the right skills for Africa's development needs. Because of shortages of both science equipment and teachers, the system instructs the vast majority of pupils in arts rather than in science and technology-and it is the latter which hold the key to economic growth and development. Thus, there is overproduction of graduates in areas where there are few employment opportunities. This results in high levels of migration, even, paradoxically among the few trained scientists because of the absence of an environment conducive to full professional expression and satisfaction. It is not uncommon for things as simple as electricity and water supply to provide reasons for emigration. Examples abound of frustrated African scientists who have had their experimental work of several years destroyed overnight through power failures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Powerful factors in the brain drain include Africa's poor rates of economic growth over the past 30 years (worsened by structural adjustment measures which have resulted in dramatic falls in living standards) and political instability (disturbances in Nigeria and Zaire, civil war in Liberia, Sierra Leone and Somalia etc). Thousands of qualified professionals have been forced unwillingly into exile, and the majority of those left behind, in these times of serious economic crisis, are engaged in unskilled pursuits-in petty trading and taxi driving-far removed from their professional training. The loss of investment associated with this situation cannot be underestimated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sub-Saharan Africa is in the paradoxical situation today of having large numbers of graduates in various disciplines -from medicine and engineering to architecture and accountancy-who have either emigrated or are simply unemployed, while it hosts a large army of foreign technical assistants. Indeed, Africa receives more advice per capita than any other continent. In 1988, there were more than 80 000 technical assistants, and today the figure is well over 100 000. These experts are believed to cost donors a total of $4bn annually to maintain, a figure which represents nearly 35% of Africa's total official development aid. This situation reveals a serious flaw in the operation of international development cooperation. Would it not be more efficient and cost effective to employ qualified African expatriates in the place of many of these foreign technical experts. The former, after all, have both linguistic and cultural links with the continent. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has a programme in this area which points to a possible way forward. The article on that programme, TOKTEN, follows. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Brain gain' : A cost - effective UNDP programme</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the scale of the brain drain problem facing the developing countries, the UNDP's Transfer of Knowledge Through Expatriate Nationals (TOKTEN) project may not amount to much, but it has proved, in its 19 years of existence, to be a cost-effective way of getting highly qualified expatriates from the developing countries to contribute to the development of their countries of origin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It all started in Turkey in 1977 by pure accident. A Turkish mineral expert in Alberta, Canada, was asked by a compatriot if he would be kind enough to come over to Turkey and explain his innovative coal cleaning process to the staff and students of his old university in Ankara-the Middle East Technical University. He expressed his interest in the project. Soon afterwards he was contacted by the UNDP which offered to fund part of his trip to Ankara. The expert spent one month in Turkey giving a series of seminars, not only at the Middle East Technical University, but also at the Istanbul and Dokuz Eylul Universities. During these lectures, he made recommendations on resolving Turkey's specific coal utilisation problems. His impact was immense and such that the UNDP was inspired to set up the TOKTEN project along similar lines to help developing countries gain from the knowledge of their expatriate professionals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The system is simple. Member States of the United Nations can apply to join the project. The latter is administered in each country by a National Working Commitee (NWC) which is made up of representatives from the government, local organisations, the private sector and the UNDP. Institutions of that country (government ministries and agencies, private and public sector enterprises, universities, research and development institutions, hospitals, etc) can apply for assistance in a variety of areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Applications are processed by the NWC and recruitment of experts is usually in one or more of the following ways:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> through consultants with lists of experts recognised by the Government as having extensive contacts within their expatriate communities;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> through embassies and missions, alumni associations and research institutions;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> through prominent members of the country's expatriate community who identify and alert other high level expatriates of the opportunities to return home and serve their countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the Working Committee chooses a consultant, an offer of assignment is made. The beneficiary organisation and the consultant will then determine the timing of the mission and inform the UNDP.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOKTEN assignments last between one and three months depending on the ability of the consultant and the needs of the beneficiary'. They are not meant to be highly remunerative. Consultants are only entitled to round trip economy fare tickets (by the most direct route) and a daily subsistence allowance at the prevailing UN rate. The costs are paid out of the beneficiary country's 'Indicative Planning Figure'(IPF) which is the amount of assistance the UNDP makes available to a developing country over a five-year programming cycle. Health insurance cover and accommodation is not provided. Usually these are the responsibilities of the beneficiary government or organisation. The salaries of the consultants during their absence are paid by their affiliated employers whose agreement is often necessary for the projects to go ahead.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TOKTEN consultants are thus not motivated by money but by a genuine desire (with a modicum of patriotism) to contribute to the development of their countries of origin to which they retain strong cultural and linguistic ties. And their impact on the ground is usually immediate and measurable. Pressures are not put on volunteers to return permanently to their countries, although many have chosen to do so since the programme began in 1977.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The system is not only low-cost and cost-effective. It covers a great variety of specialised fields and enables programmes to be implemented with speed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conditions for success</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A UNDP assessment of the programme in 1987, ten years after it began, concluded that regular monitoring of its operation had enabled information garnered to be applied to increase its effectiveness. It had been found, for example, that short-term expatriate consultancies were especially beneficial when the problem tackled was specific and the consultant selected was of international standing, when both the requesting organisation and the expatriate were well prepared in advance, and when the initial mission was followed up by a series of measures, often including a return visit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 1992, 35 countries were participating in the programme and over 3800 consultancies had been run. Since then, the number of countries has increased dramatically to 51 and con</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">sultancies to 5000. In 1994 and 1995 alone, 28 countries reported over 700 consultancies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It has also become clear that, whereas the main recipient institutions have been government agencies, science and technology research institutions, universities and organisations, the private sector is increasingly showing interest in the programme. The number of female specialists is also increasing: in 1991, 40 consultants were women and last year this figure rose to over 100.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So far, the ACP countries participating in the programme are; Benin, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Dominica, Ethiopia, Fiji, Guinea, Guyana, Haiti, Liberia, Nigeria, Sao Tome &amp; Principe, Sierra Leone, St Lucia, Trinidad &amp; Tobago and Uganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Success stories include a highly skilled Guyanese medical practitioner in the United States who returned home after 17 years to assume the post of minister of health. He had been sent to oversee the introduction of certain aspects of health care such as preventive medicine (immunisation, general child care and nutrition), treatment of trauma (victims of accidents and violence etc) and the establishment and management of the physical facilities for emergency patients. During his stint, his recommendation on the upgrading of the emergency room facilities was rapidly implemented and this contributed significantly to improving patient care. Another story involved a Guinean banker who, after a consultancy stint in Guinea, abandoned a lucrative job in France to return home permanently to work at the Central Bank of Guinea, helping to set up a new loan system for commercial imprt and export businesses. Guinea, in fact, has been one of the greatest beneficiaries of the TOKTEN programme with numerous consultancies involving the University of Conakry, covering more than 20 disciplines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For very small sums the programme is ensuring that developing countries which have invested enormously in the education of their expatriate nationals have a return, at least, in the form of the knowledge they oquired.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A.O </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Mobilising Commonwealth skills for Commonwealth development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The role of the Commonwealth in the economic and social progress of its member states is neither widely known nor widely publicised. Yet for over 25 years, the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation (CFTC) has made significant contributions to the efforts of its developing member countries to accelerate the pace of their economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The recognition by the Commonwealth that people are its greatest resource forms the basis of its approach to development assistance-providing, in the short term, specialist technical skills which are either not available or are in short supply to governments to enable them to fill key positions in areas as diverse as export and industrial promotion, high-level economic and legal services etc, and in the longer term, a wide range of training programmes in areas that are crucial for economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation is funded by voluntary financial contributions from member governments which, as has just been mentioned, can also draw on it according to their needs and priorities. As a pioneer of technical cooperation between developing countries, the Fund recruits its experts from these countries and encourages South/South cooperation. It is thus not uncommon to see West Africans serving, on short-term contracts, as legal officers in remote Pacifc island states or Sri Lankans or Indians advising on new agricultural techniques in Africa. The Fund is administered by four separate divisions within the Commonwealth Secretariat: the management and training division; the general technical assistance division; the export and industrial development division, and the economic and legal advisory services division. In 1994-95 the CFTC's financial resources stood at around f23.6 million (ECU 30m).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human resource development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nearly one-third of the CFTC's budget is spent on human resource development, helping enhance people's skills through a mix of training workshops, study visits and individual attachments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some 4000 training fellowships were awarded in 1993-95 to enhance technical skills. These were given to middle and senior professional, technical and administrative managers to study at some of the Commonwealth's best institutions or to take up work attachments (63% of training takes place in less-developed countries).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Fund also enables universities and other institutions to become centres of excellence and upgrade the tuition they offer by appointing academic and technical specialists. In 1993-95, for example, it helped five universities in Africa and the Caribbean to run applied Masters courses through collaboration with other Commonwealth universities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the CFTC is usually able to meet only 60% of the requests it receives for specialised training, its programmes are held on a regional and pan-Commonwealth basis to maximise impact, especially in topics such as administrative reform, financial management and strategic planning.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Fund's training priorities include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- first and foremost, identifying needs (consultants are sent to countries to examine their development plans and help them to prioritise training needs).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- providing education and training in key areas that reflect CFTC concerns such as well-managed economic and financial reform by government, sustainable development, participation of women and application of technology.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- ensuring an integrated package of consultancy, advice and training to help managers in government, and public and private sector enterprises to coordinate and manage reforms and restructuring.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- organising policy workshops and seminars that bring together senior government officials, executives and academics from Commonwealth countries to pool experiences, learn examples of best practice, discuss problems and reflect on emerging issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- giving support to institutions to offer new and specialised education and training programmes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- providing technical and vocational training under the Commonwealth Industrial Training and Experience Programme (between 1993 and 1995, workshops were held in hospital equipment repairs, railway repairs and maintenance and computer-assisted manufacturing).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- providing training in information systems, new technologies and environmental issues (governments are helped to develop management information systems and apply information technology). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-setting up programmes for women with a particular focus on entrepreneurs and community managers (among other initiatives, the CFTC is helping three African universities develop specialised programmes in entrepreneurship for women in non-traditional sectors).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-coordinating wider linkages among professional networks to facilitate exchanges of information and examples of best practice (the CFTC recently helped to set up the Commonwealth Association for Public Administration and Management to assist in improving public service performance and in raising ethical standards).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Expertise on tap</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shortage of skills is one of the biggest stumbling-blocks facing countries trying to raise the living standards of their people. Providing experts accounts for about one-third of the CFTC's budget.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because its assistance is relatively small and carefully targeted, it avoids the potential waste associated with larger scale projects and poor technical planning. In 1993-95, the cost both of a typical long-term expert and an average project was around £50 000 (ECU 62 000) a year. Experts can be in place within three or four weeks of project approval.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the same period, over 200 long- and short-term experts were provided to 43 developing Commonwealth countries, six dependent territories and 18 regional organisations. The expertise requested is extremely diverse, from hydrography and agroforestry to tourism, statistics, legal affairs, health, social planning and computer science.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assignments for short-term experts can range from a few days to six months. Their role is advisory, helping governments to introduce new systems or technologies. Long-term experts stay usually from six months to two years; others may stay up to four years. Experts assist in the development and implementation of policies or in the provision of managerial skills and the training of counterpart staff to take over in due course. Some long-term experts are trainers in specialist fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CFTC makes every effort to appoint women experts. In 1993-95, they made up 13% of experts that were sent to the field. These included a consultant anaesthetist in Ghana, an agricultural economist in Mozambique, an information specialist in Barbados, a fisheries development officer in Papua New Guinea and an environmental lawyer in Seychelles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A scheme to allow suitably qualified and experienced people to volunteer as short-term experts for a maximum of three months was launched in mid-1995. The scheme draws on experts from the Commonwealth who are willing to give their services on a voluntary basis to developing countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entrepreneurs come first</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In its help to small businesses, the CFTC focuses on those who manage the businesses and identify new entrepreneurial talent. Most assistance is given to small states, especially in the Pacific. The programme has three phases: the first relates to 'surveys of opportunity' which is aimed at identifying suitable entrepreneurs, investment opportunities and potential for expansion as well as specific problems. Next comes 'workshops on entrepreneurship development' during which business owners and operators are helped to think creatively, to become more aware of opportunities that are available and to act strategically when planning expansion. And the last are what we call 'business clinics' in which one-to-one counselling is provided to an entrepreneur at his or her business. This personal support has proved very successful in helping individual entrepreneurs to become more efficient and competitive and, by implication, adapt to changing world economic conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing exports</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CFTC has pioneered the use of Contact-Promotion programmes and 'Buyer-Seller Meets' forums to help small exporters. These forums allow company representatives, often from small Commonwealth countries, to display their wares and meet prospective buyers from other countries. CFTC consultants plan these activities well ahead, short listing producers that are likely to succeed, identifying suitable foreign markets and advising on redesigning of products. Sometimes exporters and factory staff also receive training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The CFTC funds a special 'export development programme' for women entrepreneurs. This includes detailed country studies of women engaged in exporting as well as sales promotions abroad. Studies of this type have recently been conducted in Cyprus, Sri Lanka and Zambia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are helped, under the programme, to adapt their handicrafts for export, improve their manufacturing techniques and undertake sales missions abroad. Training is also given in export marketing, product development, costing and pricing. If necessary, changes to government policy are recommended. In 1994, the assistance given to Ghanaian women to develop markets for their basket ware and handicrafts is estimated to have helped generate sales worth US$3.1 million (ECU 2.4m). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">EU's investments in education and training in the ACP states</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Digby Swift</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community's investments in human resource development-health, nutrition and education-in ACP states have regularly been covered in the pages of this magazine whether in the context of dosiers or of country resorts. Here we present a brief description of how the EU's policy in education and training evolved under the Yaounde and Lom&eacute; Convemntions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Educating all the people. This is not just a slogan. In a poor, underdeveloped country, there may be some short-term gains from supplying high quality education and training to an elite few. But, as the 'Asian Miracle' has proved, major long-term gains in development and wealth are possible only if the entire population possesses a reasonable level of education.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Now for the problem. For many countries, notably those of sub-Saharan Africa, a large proportion of school age children receive no education at all. Of those who do attend school, many receive little benefit from their education because of the very low quality of provision. Only a small minority reach secondary education. And yet a higher proportion than ever of national budgets is now going to the education sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem is urgent because of the time it will take to resolve. Even if we could wave a magic wand to provide all children with a good primary education, it would take a decade to see the benefits.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How is European aid helping to tackle this problem? What have been the guiding principles of European aid to education in the past? And why is the problem still acute in, for example, subSaharan Africa, despite decades of investment in aid to education ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid mirrors developments</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aid to education has mirrored developments in the education sectors of the countries concerned. For example, the low-income countries of Africa, which account for 73% of Africa's population, have seen a rapid expansion in their education systems followed by a collapse of funding. This has resulted in a serious decline in standards of provision. European aid, which began by providing piecemeal assistance to infrastructure and manpower, shifted to a 'project approach' to tackle these emerging problems and is now moving towards a coordinated sectoral approach to help tackle the reform of whole education systems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From 1970 to 1980, the number of pupils enrolling in the primary schools of developing countries more than doubled, and the numbers in secondary and tertiary education quadrupled. Even relative to the increasing population, there was a 90% increase in the proportion of primary-aged children in school, and a large increase in the proportion of girls. This growth was accompanied by a doubling of government budgetary resources made available to education.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the massive general economic decline between 1980 and 1985, the money made available for education from the public purse fell by 40%, yet the education systems continued to grow. The result was that teachers' salaries plummeted, and funds for non-salary recurrent costs such as teaching materials and maintenance virtually dried up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1985, the financial situation has somewhat improved and funding is now at an all-time high. Nevertheless, for many African states, the education sector is in a state of crisis. Buildings are crumbling and inadequate; teachers are untrained or undertrained and often absent because of low incentives and weak supervision. There are few books and other teaching materials. Consequently, many pupils leave school virtually illiterate and innumerate. Moreover, because of the low quality of instruction and increasing costs to parents, many parents are no longer bothering to send children to school even when places are available. Primary enrolment fell by around 10% between 1990 and 1992. Thus in many countries, a fundamental reform of the sector is seen as the only way forward.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Evolution of aid</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the early days of European aid, education and training were seen as suppliers of manpower for countries to modernise their economies. The priority themes of the 1970 Yaounde Convention for European Community aid were industrialisation, regional cooperation and international trade. Community support to education and training focused on the construction of colleges and university faculties to serve industrialisation and regional cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1975 Lom&eacute; I Convention referred specifically to 'the establishment of regional institutions of advanced technology, in the context of training programmes to enable nationals to participate fully in economic development'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1980 Lom&eacute; II Convention introduced multiannual training programmes, and support in the form of training awards and courses/seminars; experts and instructors; teaching equipment; collaboration between training or research establishments and universities. The emphasis was still on vocational training for other sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A significant proportion of European bilateral aid to education and training took the form of European teachers for secondary schools, colleges and universities. These helped to cover the shortage of locally trained teachers, whilst educating an elite able to fill senior and middle positions in the public and private sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 1985, problems were becoming all too apparent within the education systems being supported. As in other sectors, there was increased emphasis on the 'project approach' towards tackling these problems. Thus the Lom&eacute; Ill Convention includes support to education and training 'in the form of integrated programmes aimed at a well defined objective'. This could include, for example, 'assisting the ACP States' own efforts to restructure their educational establishments and systems and to update curricula, methods and technology employed, in order to step up the effectiveness and cut back the cost of all types of training'. A concern for under-represented groups, particularly women, was also becoming explicit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By 1990, the concept of investing in people through education and training had moved high on the donor agenda, and alongside it, a growing concern for sectoral reform. According to the 1989 Lom&eacute; IV Convention, 'Cooperation shall be aimed at supporting development in the ACP States, a process centred on man himself and rooted in each people's culture. It shall back up the policies and measures adopted by those States to enhance their human resources, increase their own creative capacities and promote their cultural identities. Cooperation shall also encourage participation by the population in the design and execution of development operations.' In a chapter entitled Operations to enhance the value of human resources, a section on Education and Training refers to supporting the ACP State's efforts to 'reform their basic education institutions and systems, in particular by providing overall primary education coverage and adjusting imported systems as well as building them into development strategies'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the late 1980s and early 1990s, European states and the Community joined the World Bank in support of structural adjustment. In a 1991 communication to the European Development Council, the Commission stated that it 'will give absolute priority to the social dimension of adjustment, in particular ensuring that the health and education sectors are adequately covered, in conjunction with sectoral reforms introduced or planned in these two areas.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balancing this concern for system reform has been a growing appreciation of the importance of decentralised cooperation. An example is the cost-sharing microprojects for grassroots development first introduced in Lom&eacute; I with explicit mention of support to primary schools. Another example is the need to support the activities of nongovernmental organisations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A new policy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two events in the early 1990s have had a profound impact on European support for education and training. The first was the World Conference on Education for All: Meeting the Basic Learning Needs held in Jomtien in 1990. This emphasised the need for universal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">primary education and adult literacy to be firmly placed on the political agenda, and has resulted in a profound swing of donor support away from higher education and towards primary education. The second important event was the 1992 Treaty of European Union which requires the coordination of Member States' policy and operations, particularly in the social sectors. Guidelines are contained in the 1994 Council Resolution on support to education and training in developing countries in which 'the Council emphasises that education, in particular basic education, is a fundamental right'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to the Resolution, 'the priority for the Community and the Member States must be both to maximise access to education within the limits of the resources available and to ensure that the quality of education provided is suited to the needs of the majority of students. 'This is to be achieved through 'a balanced, programme-based strategy, tailored to the specific circumstances of the individual developing country', with pride of place accorded to basic education. It should provide 'support to the developing countries' own policies and efforts', not acting as a substitute for local initiative, and should involve better integration of action under structural adjustment with education sector priorities and aid activities. The Council also recommends a special emphasis on coordination in a number of pilot countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the outset, Community aid to education and training in African, Caribbean and Pacific countries has been in response to requests from the ACP states with an emphasis on ownership of the resulting programme by those states. What the new policy introduces into this process is a dialogue between government and all donors on needs, priorities and approaches set in the context of the education sector as a whole. Only through such a comprehensive approach can developing countries and European states reach a true partnership in realising the education and training needs of all citizens on which the future of their countries so crucially depends. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.S.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Analysis</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">EU-ACP relations : Building for tomorrow</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Kenneth Karl</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1989 saw the end of the Yalta inspired twin-superpower dominance. Nations had to examine their priorities in their desire for integration in an international environment in which geostrategic and economic realignment would be unavoidable. The philosophy which had served as a basis and reference point for North/South relations throughout the Cold War period is now being called into question and necessary adjustments in ideas have been triggered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Lom&eacute; Convention, which governs the development-cooperation relationship between the EU and the 70 ACP countries, is a unique North/South cooperation agreement on account of its contractual nature, its durability, the funds it allocates and the fact that it provides for a permanent dialogue. But it is also now at a decisive point in its history.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Those who regard the Convention as out-of-date and in need of renovation, and those more radical critics who believe that it no longer serves any useful purpose and must be phased out, both argue that a new direction is needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Beyond all the criticism formulated against this system, the fundamental question remains as to whether the Lom&eacute; Convention will be able, given the necessary changes, to carry on after its fourth version expires.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The years between now and the end of the century will, naturally, see the application of the revised Lom&eacute; IV, including the substantial improvements made to it. However, this same period must also be used to prepare the ground for ACP/KU development cooperation in the future, whatever form it might take.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shortly after his nomination as European Commissioner for relations with the ACP countries and South Africa, Professor Pinheiro commented, realistically, that the ACP countries are no longer 'in fashion'. The change of emphasis can be seen clearly if one looks at the EU's burgeoning relations with its eastern neighbours from the former Communist bloc (illustrated by the wide range of European programmes now benefiting these countries). One might also cite the strengthening of ties with countries in the Mediterranean basin. Economic and security concerns underpin this development, but it undoubtedly reduces the significance which was once accorded to the ACP states.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, the economic objectives of virtually all EU countries, as they seek to reduce budget deficits and deal with increasing internal social problems inevitably put pressure on the amount of development aid being granted to the Third World.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This situation is, of course, not restricted to the European Union - which in fact remains the world's main contributor of official development aid. At the instigation of a Republican dominated Congress, the United States is planning much more swingeing cuts in its contribution, both to certain international agencies and to certain regions (including Africa).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This undeniable cutback in public development aid has been offset in recent years by net increases in private capital flows, but the geographical distribution is highly skewed. Only a few of the poorest developing countries have benefited from the trend, the main 'winners' being the emerging states of Asia. These include countries such as China, India and Indonesia which, it is worth noting in passing, do not have particularly good human rights records, in the sense that the term is understood in Europe. Despite the fact that ACP countries have identified potential for attracting foreign investment, they have not actually benefited from this change in resource flows.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this climate, with official development aid in inaeasingly short supply, innovative methods for making optimum use of the available resources must be devised within the context of the Lom&eacute; Convention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On current indications, it is quite possible that in the year 2000, the Lom&eacute; Convention will be filed away in the archives. ACP/KU relations will certainly have to be more in step with recent developments on the international scene. The initial reasons for the establishment of a cooperative relationship between Europe and the ACPs, following the signature of the Rome Treaty, are now outmoded. As Paul Valery has commented: 'One of the worst mental aberrations is to think that things can survive when the reasons for their existence have gone'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So, what type of development cooperation should the countries of the European Union and their ACP partners aim for in the future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Alternative trends</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has stated that it is in favour of a globalisation of aid within an innovative framework. One of the first questions to be asked is whether uniform cooperation with regions whose monolithic character is being increasingly called into question is still desirable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Variable geometry in development cooperation relations is increasingly being seen as the trend to be followed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If this option is chosen, there is a risk of the following scenario being created: The EU's relationship with the Caribbean could become diluted within its relationship with Latin-American countries and links with the Pacific countries could become confused with economic relations with Asia. What would then become of Africa, the continent needing most attention on account of the wide range of its difficulties and its increasing marginalisation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1990, the United Nations General Assembly, aware of the African question, adopted a new agenda on development in Africa, thus making that continent its number-one priority. Europe, on the other hand, must not simply focus on Africa but must invent new modes of action which are more concrete and more effective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secondly, recent trends imply greater conditionality. This has been taken on board not just by EU Member States. A number of multilateral aid agencies have also included it in their strategy. The OECD's Development Aid Committee believes that future relationships between North and South will be greatly influenced by conditionality and, indeed, the Organisation goes so far as to advocate this approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, conditionality in terms of development is a strategic element which must be handled with extreme caution. If cooperation, whether today or in the future, is to be based on conditionality, then it can only be rendered effective if aid recipients (both governments and the governed) are genuinely committed to the idea. They must be convinced, in a climate of resource-scarcity, than the approach is motivated above all by a desire for greater success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union thus has a vital role to play, making full use of its advantages in terms of dialogue and consultation in order to prevent conditionality being perceived as a condescending mechanism. Thereby, it can help to prevent conditionality from generating the well-known perverse effects of 'tied' aid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course, conditionality raises the thorny question of national sovereignty, but it is important to observe that modern international relations have moved on, both de jure and de facto, from a concept of absolute sovereignty to one of relative sovereignty. This is illustrated by the trend towards humanitarian intervention as a right, the requirements of the Bretton Woods institutions, supranationality in certain regional international organisations, and the very fact of world economic interdependence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This does not mean that the developing states should sell off their sovereignty to the highest bidder but that conditionality should be the subject of negotiation. Donors must be more flexible in their demands and thereby give the country in question such room to manoeuvre as is necessary for programmes to succeed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thirdly, development of the private sector appears now to be approved by all parties. Since independence, the State has been omnipresent and omnipotent in most productive areas of ACP economies. Given the failures of the public sector, private enterprise is now being called in to help. Its development is one of the sector specific policies which will and must receive most support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development of the private sector must permit better distribution of the fruits of the growth that it generates and promote integration of the ACP countries into the market economy. There can be no question of pitting private enterprise against the public sector, because any Manichean approach in this sphere might prove to be risky. It is important also to stress that free market development cannot take place overnight and that it is subject to inescapable macro and microeconomic preconditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indeed, the birth and expansion of a dynamic private sector depends on the politico-economic fabric. This includes reliable financial bodies, functioning financial intermediation, adequate infrastructures, technical qualifications and training, a suitable legal/ regulatory framework, institutions to support private businesses, the channelling of the informal sector and a public sector which is prepared to play fair, aware of its regulatory role. These, in short, are the necessary ingredients for the adjustment of the private sector to permit the development of a true enterprise culture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The development of a harmonious private sector will make it possible more easily to achieve the transformation and export objectives required by international competitiveness. It should, therefore, help to counteract the erosion of commercial preferences generated by the Uruguay Round. The latter's time limits should, in any case, be extended, because it seems clear that the ACP countries will be unable to fulfil their obligations by the end of the moratorium obtained by the EU during the negotiations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The notion of compensating for inequality that is found in international development law, implies the adoption of a normative system to counteract the weak trading position of developing countries vis-a-vis their competitors in the North. But in recent times, this idea has been losing ground and it is unlikely to cut much ice with the WTO authorities. Legal equality in a situation where there is structural inequality is not, in fact, equitable, and it is therefore necessary to find some other way of mitigating the adverse effects, looking at it in a global context.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Promotion of domestic and foreign investment should be better supported. People talk of the 'risk/ country' threshold that deters foreign investors. It may be that this can be measured objectively by looking at economic and other indicators, but even if this is not possible, it clearly exists as a psychological barrier. This is a problem for many ACP countries and it needs to be crossed, using measures which tackle the many obstacles to investment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Changing the culture of development cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Besides all the technical aspects, one could argue that the shortcomings of the Lom&eacute; Convention stem also from the perceptions of those involved in development cooperation. In short, it is the actual concept and culture of development aid which must be changed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the European side, the colonial legacy has conditioned attitudes, imprinting on them a dominant patemalism which is prejudicial to the aim of development. This European concept of cooperation must be overturned. Moreover, development cooperation must not be seen as the art of the possible but as the art of making possible what is strictly necessary, by virtue of genuine negotiation with the countries which have resolved to move forward.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, it is desirable to have a better developed policy of informing European public opinion about development cooperation. An effort is needed to counter false impressions, such as the one left by the French journalist who wrote: 'Official development aid is like taking money from the poor in rich countries to give it to the rich in poor countries'. Better information is needed to ensure that the public can decide such matters for itself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coordinating the Union's policies with those of the Member States now presents an enormous challenge. The political obstacles are huge and development cooperation may well suffer as a result of them if the objectives of coordination, coherence and complementarity contained in the Maastricht Treaty are not achieved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for the ACP countries, success in their economic development depends on many factors, cooperation being only one of them. Many political leaders in these nations have too often described cooperation with the North as the only way in which they can develop. In fact, this should be seen as nothing more than an additional factor - supporting the national effort and a genuine desire for development. It is pure fantasy to believe that development can be set in motion solely on the basis of an external impetus. To succeed, it must come from within a country. This is why future cooperation between the EU and the ACP countries must progress towards reinforcing the aptitude of the latter to devise, master and control their own development process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the future, the ACP countries must propose concrete and responsible solutions to their partners, doing so by means of the dialogue system. They must also promote development based on participation, particularly with the involvement of young people and women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that the ACPs can offer a credible prospectus for development must be acknowledged. It is undoubtedly a challenge, but it can successfully be overcome if a climate of stability, security and confidence is created, matched by an unambiguous political will.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In KU/ACP relations, programmes must include the long-term vision necessary for sustainable development. Too often in the past, the strategy has been aimed at an immediate and ostentatious result. Successful development in the future will depend crucially on a change in such attitudes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">K.K. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let us know what you think</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The debate about the future of cooperation between the European Union and the ACP states is now beginning to gash' pace. Last year, we established the 'Analysis' section in The Courier to report on this debate-and give readers an opportunity to express their own views on the subject.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The response so far has been encouraging, but it has come mainly from the European side. We are keen to receive contributions from ACP readers as well. If you have you own ideas or opinions about what should happen after Lom&eacute; IV expires, why not put them on paper and send them to us. Our address is on the inside front cover of the magazine. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The view of civil society on the future after Lom&eacute; IV</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was the subject of a conference which took place in Maastricht from 12-14 June, under the auspices of the European Centre for Development Policy Management (ECDPM). It brought together participants from ACP countries and Europe, including representatives of civil society (NGOs, the private sector, etc.). Four major topics were addressed:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How can a new KU/ACP commercial relationship be constructed ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was agreement that some form of preferential trade regime should continue after 2000. Some participants stressed the need to Promote 'fair trade', which would contribute not only to growth but also to development. The impact of individual trade preferences is not always clear-cut, but obviously there cannot be a single solution covering all problems in all ACP countries. An analysis of negative constraints demonstrated the difficulties involved in reconciling the rules of the Lom&eacute; Convention and those of the World Trade Organisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How can the private sector become involved in development ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most important aspect of this topic is knowing how to create a favourable and business-friendly environment which will enable the private sector to play its part-and the role the European Union could play in this process. The private sector was defined as both formal and informal, encompassing large, medium and small enterprises, whether local or foreign. The importance of a strong local private sector in guaranteeing long-term stability was particularly emphasised. In this respect, the view was expressed that the role of the state and its relationship with the European Commission should be redefined. There was also a call for time to be set aside time for effective dialogue, and to create the space for a partnership between the public and private sectors. It was felt that the role of Economic and Social Councils should be expanded and specified more clearly. As for the specific issue of privatisation, the point was made that this should not be seen as a panacea and that it should be approached on a country-by-country basis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards current instruments, it was noted that their objective is essentially to meet public-sector requirements. The role of the Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) attracted some criticism. Speakers felt that the private sector should be more involved in the preparation and implementation of cooperation programmes with the European Community. Direct financial support to the private sector was seen as desirable, including backing from the European Investment Bank.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What partnership ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The partnership concept was seen to have been eroded over the past two decades, with the pretext of efficiency resulting in a more paternalistic approach. Mechanisms needed to be found to enable EU priorities and the prerogatives of ACP countries to be reconciled. Reference was made to the political nature of the origin of the partnership and the need to find a new political raison d'etre for this type of relationship. The problems of cohesion within the ACP group and its relations with the EU were also raised, and there was a discussion about the possibility of giving the Convention a regional character-although a number of speakers expressed reservations about this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the European side, two lacunae emerged, namely coordination between donors, and consistency between Lom&eacute; and other Community policies (including relationships with the Bretton Woods institutions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the principle of partnership, some participants were keen to stress the motives of solidarity and common interest that lay behind cooperation. It was not simply a matter of 'negative' interdependence. The appropriateness of the term 'partnership' was questioned, if this was only to mean financial and technical cooperation. The politicisation of Lom&eacute; appears to be on the agenda, involving a move from the current partnership to a genuine 'contractual approach' through political dialogue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As for the role of partnership in cooperation policy management, it was felt essential that civil society and the private sector be involved. There was also a discussion of the debt problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How can financial and technical cooperation be improved ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As usual, reference was made to the need to simplify and differentiate management of Lom&eacute; Convention instruments, particularly in the context of the programming process. As regards the role of non-state actors, a cautious approach was recommended. Finally, new instruments were called for to prevent conflict.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Conclusions</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This conference, coming after several others of the same type, was characterised essentially by private sector and NGO calls for greater participation in Community cooperation policy. Moreover, the need for 'politicisation' of the Lom&eacute; policy, shifting from purely financial and technical aid to a genuine cooperation contract, seems to have attracted the support of all participants. These questions are sure to figure in the 'Green Paper' on 'tome after 2000', which the European Commission plans to publish before the end of 1996. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Democratising democracy'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 6 and 7 June, the Belgian Par/iament hosted a UN seminar on 'me future of international development cooperation: new communication challenges' 'Democratising Democracy' was the succinct, journalistic way in which one of the speakers at the meeting summed up his solution to the problem of underdevelop meet. He was Jean-Bertrand Aristide, former President of Haiti, who observed that democracy, as advocated by the developed world, and increasingly accepted by developing countries, does not prevent the latter's slide into even greater poverty. The Courier had the opportunity to interview Mr Aristide. We began by asking him whether his statement implied that democracy is failing in a world striving to 'globalise' it J-B.A.-The word democracy comes from the Greek words 'demos', meaning people and 'kratein', meaning to govern. In other words, it signifies government of the people, for the people by the people-but if we take a look at the world today, the impression we get is that not all so-called democratic governments are in fact what they purport to be. Hence the need to 'democratise democracy', so as to create a situation in which all citizens can help set governments on a course towards such a model.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Concepts usually generate conflict and, therefore, when speaking of revolution, democracy or globalisation, it is necessary to be au fait with the subject matter so as not to become involved in a dialogue of the deaf. In the specific case of globalisation, my opinion is that this has a tendency to make what is an already precarious situation even more unbalanced. Concepts cannot be applied everywhere without thought being given to their harmful consequences. This does not mean to say that we should give up completely. It's one thing to speak of the globalisation of peace, as if an ineluctable need existed to promote peace on a world scale, but I'm not sure that everyone would define the globalisation of peace in the same way as I do.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Could we turn now to your own country, Haiti. How do you view the future of democracy there, bearing in mind the economic circumstances ? At the seminar, you mentioned several factors which demonstrate democracy's *agility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Democracy is indeed fragile. 1% of Haiti's population owns 48% of the country's wealth and it is estimated that about 65% of the working population is employed in agriculture as against 5.1% in the 'industrial' sector. But is this really the true picture ? Reality for most people is poverty-unacceptable and sub-human poverty. A man needs work to earn his daily crust by the sweat of his brow, but unemployment has reached catastrophic proportions. When people are unable to earn their living, there is little point in discussing the positive influence of democracy. What is needed is for those with a great deal of wealth and those with less wealth to talk to each other; a dialogue between the private and public sectors, so that we can head off futile conflicts and devote all our efforts to economic growth coupled with human development. I do believe that this is possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yet, the rich are so rich and the poor so poor. Is it not fantasy to think that the gulf which separates them, and their mutual mistrust, can simply be set aside so that genuine dialogue can take place ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-This is one of the challenges we have faced ever since 1960 and, although we have not yet reaped the harvest of this process, we have to carry on. It's not too late. We just have to approach the subject logically and with all the facts to hand, and we must have the intelligence to be patient. If we continue with dialogue, we will achieve real results. Only the citizens of Haiti can play a part in Haiti's development-this is not a task for outsiders. We, on the other hand, have to be more receptive to international cooperation, while maintaining mutual respect and dignity. But what we also need is for our own people to act together in order to enhance our own growth. This is not to say that geopolitical reality can be disregarded. Other countries have to be taken into account, but, as a starting point, we have to consider Haiti's human and material resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Thereisdialogueata world level, but there are rules to be applied. I am thinking, here, of free competition. Haiti has to play by the rules, just like any other country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-Since we gained independence, our history has seen a succession of coups d'etat and people have been over-eager in brandishing weapons to solve economic, political or social problems. Now that democracy has been restored in Haiti, weapons are not the solution to our problems-I cannot stress this enough. What we need is for those with money to sit down and negotiate with those who have none: for the government to get people round the table and devise a common plan to accommodate all interested parties- looking at both the nation's interests and the interests of investors. I do believe that it is possible to achieve this. We have, in fact, already begun to prepare the ground. I am not basing my words, here, on pure theory, but am speaking from experience. In concrete terms, we have to transcend class and racial differences to recognise that Haitian men and women, regardless of their colour and the country they might live in outside Haiti, regardless of their nationality, even, are still part of Haiti's indigenous population. The way must be kept open for dignified and balanced cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The other point you mentioned today was that there can be no development without the effective involvement of the population. Are you not leaving yourself open to accusations of having socialist or even communist tendencies ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-As I have just said, we have to be scientific in our approach and check our facts over and over again. I fail to see how anyone can claim to be working towards peace without looking at poverty which is the greatest threat to social cohesion. Of course, there are those who would deny this assertion, and that is their right. However, rational analysis of the situation can help us alleviate poverty and promote security. It needs to be underlined that security is also one of the essential factors in economics. The UN Security Council is called in to prevent or resolve conflicts. To my mind, we should also be talking about an economic security council to deal with the economic realities. The deeper one plunges into poverty, the greater one's feelings of insecurity-the two always go hand in hand. And insecurity can crop up anywhere in the world. Nor is it a question of charity. It is a real, rational question which must sharpen our awareness, stimulate our common sense and set us on a course to protect the world by alleviating poverty. That, at least, is one approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, you have to recognise that politics is essentially a question of power while economics is influenced by interests. Everyone uses the means at their disposal to defend their personal interests and we know perfectly well that there are no free gifts. The so-called developed countries allocate just 0.3% of their GDP to development aid, yet we are losing our tropical forests at the rate of the area of a football pitch every second. In Haiti, forests now cover only a small area of the country. But in the final analysis, environmental catastrophe threatens us all, rich and poor alike, even if certain countries do not face specific ecological risks. We either deal with it as reasonable people, or we close our eyes to the 'cause and effect' realities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Yes, but are we reasonable people ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-The crisis of ethics is indeed a reality and a great many values are now being called into question. These days, we have to love in order to prove we are not contradicting ourselves. If we believe in God, we might call this love 'God', just as we might call it 'justice'. It all depends on your philosophy, religion or beliefs. If I feel love, I cannot be indifferent to the situation of victims of injustice, both in Haiti and elsewhere. If a man is humiliated, crushed, exploited or marginalised, then 1, too, am humiliated, crushed and marginalised. It is love which makes us fight for justice everywhere. Either one is a demagogue revelling in big words or one is sincere and ready to die so that another might live-this brings immortality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· One final question. You were speaking just now of insecurity and economics. Is there a link, here, with one of your most recent decisions, the abolition of Haiti's army ? Could you tell us how you were able to pull off this 'coup'? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- I am perfectly happy to answer such an important question and would like to be able to give a clear and direct reply. But given that the struggle is still going on, I don't think I should go into too much detail. A decision was made. The Haitian people opted to rid themselves of the army. Supporting their democratic wish, it was our job to help bring about this dissolution. The army, it is worth recalling, had about 7000 men, absorbed 40% of the national budget-and had killed many of our compatriots. We have had to be logical and patient in achieving this goal, bearing in mind that the guarantors of the agreement which led to my return had their own views, which were different from ours. We also needed courage and wisdom and, above all, the determination of the people. My motto has always been that it is better to fail with the people than to succeed without them, and in this we did not fail. Our task now is not to bask in our own glory but to continue the work of structuring the police force, to prevent it becoming another army. To achieve this, we have to make steady progress and use sound judgment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interview by Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Close-up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Growing rice at high altitude in Burundi</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Jean-Pierre Tilquin and Miguel Amado</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This tiny country tucked away at the heart of Africa has, as is well known, been convulsed over the last three years by an acute socio-political crisis. The tragic consequences have included loss of human life, damage to the economic and social infrastructure, and a movement of refugees to neighbouring countries. Burundi, already one of the most densely populated nations in Africa, also has high population growth. It could be argued that it is only thanks to the hard work and perseverance of the farmers (admittedly, 90% of the population) that the country manages to keep going at all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture in Burundi follows traditional lines and is based on a farming system divided between food crops for consumption by the farmer and his family, and cash crops (mainly coffee, tea and cotton). Although at the beginning of the decade the crops grown for food were sufficient to meet the population's needs, today demographic pressures are forcing farmers to increase food-crop production. It is these pressures that have prompted them to descend into the marshlands which cover approximately 110 000 hectares (8% of cultivable land in Burundi). These marshes are flooded during the rainy season and so allow rice to be cultivated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population growth has also meant that fields cannot be left fallow for long periods. This has resulted in more intensive use of marginal land and an increase in forest clearing. Such practices exacerbate erosion of cultivated areas. The loss of organic matter and nutrients leads to reduced soil fertility and lower yields. Although rainfall in Burundi is high, the soil is only moderately fertile, because of factors such as acidity, aluminium toxicity, and phosphorus immobilisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While 20% of land suitable for cultivation is currently given over to growing dry beans-a staple in the Burundi diet - various factors now point towards farming the low-lying marshlands, with a particular emphasis on rice. This is one way of increasing the useful agricultural surface area of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The events of 1993 (democratic elections, followed by the assassination of President Ndadaye), have created a period of instability which has been highly damaging for the country's agriculture. Some people lost their property and livelihood, and are only now slowly re-establishing themselves. The environment has also suffered as a result of the sheer numbers of displaced people. They occupy areas, both urban and rural, which were completely unprepared for the flood of people. it is estimated that 50 000 hectares of forest have been destroyed as a result-with devastating consequences for the country's ecosystem. What is more, the rate of demographic growth has led to overfarming and to a reduction in the average surface area of farms (to 0.7 ha per household).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice-a crop for the future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Against this background, the prospect of farming low-lying marshland offers some hope for the people of Burundi. In fact, the marshy valleys have long been used to grow beans, maize and sweet potatoes during the long dry season for later consumption during the short dry season. This practice, which was environmentally sound, provided a regular harvest, but also ensured the preservation of the marshlands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The practice of growing rice during the rainy season, followed by a crop of maize and beans during the dry season, is a form of integrated agriculture. It should be economically viable and environmentally sustainable while ensuring product quality, delivering a good yield, limiting any risks involved and allowing a high degree of social integration. These are the criteria which need to be examined in determining whether high-altitude rice cultivation in Burundi succeeds or fails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice crops have been grown in this region, on the shores of Lake Tanganyika and in the Ruzizi valley (altitude 800 m), for more than 200 years, having been introduced by successive migrations of people travelling along the old slave route from Zanzibar. Certain varieties, known as 'pandabilima' (which in Swahili means 'he who climbs the mountain') can be grown on land up to a height of 1300 metres. They cannot, however, be planted on the higher central plateau because low temperatures at night render them completely infertile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not surprising that the new scheme to grow rice at high altitudes was greeted with interest. Indeed, it became almost a craze among farmers -to the extent that in 1990, rice crops covered more than 20 000 ha of Burundi. The area planted with rice fell subsequently, and in some regions the crop disappeared altogether. This was due largely to the appearance of the fungal 'rice blast disease', which can wipe out an entire crop, and to inadequate planning and misguided husbandry. The extensive planting of only one variety left the crop particularly vulnerable and once the disease did take hold, it was virtually impossible to eradicate. Needless to say, in a country where access to pesticides is non-existent, the introduction of a new crop cannot be based on a single variety; if it is to establish itself successfully, varietal diversification is vital. We should point out here that attempts were made in 1984 to improve varietal diversification </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">in the framework of the EU's Scientific and Technical Programme run by DG XII of the Commission. At that time, it was necessary to familiarise farmers with the techniques for growing the new crop and this aspect of the programme was funded by the EDF, in particular through three integrated projects. These related to agriculture and pastoral forestry and were initiated during 198889 in three provinces of Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Without going into the technical details of the programme, it suffices to say that growing rice at high altitude in the tropics differs from rice-growing in temperate regions. The low night-time temperatures characteristic of high altitudes mean that the crop is subject to constant stress. In temperate regions, the stress caused by cold weather is a problem only at the beginning and end of the growing cycle. As for selection methods, rice varieties have been produced that are resistant to rice blast disease - which remains the main problem. Also, by mixing the varieties grown, the farmers have created a wide diversity which offers a stable basis for a sustainable crop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Transformation of an ecosystem</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the viewpoint of development aid specialists, turning marshland into cultivable land means draining it (digging a ditch and fitting pipes). But this leaves the land open to erosion, causes silting in rivers and ultimately leading to desertification. By changing water levels in a region and disturbing the thermal equilibrium, marshlands cease to be marshlands. The method may have been justifiable before rice growing became possible. Indeed, it was employed in the natural marshlands of Buyenzi by some experts who specialised in upland rice. But it also resulted in large-scale destruction of one ricevariety-Yunnan 3-by rice blast disease in 1990.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development projects which set themselves spectacular objectives can involve major alterations to the landscape. More often than not, these need to be rectified later. Thus, when it was decided to cultivate vast expanses of papyrus, the plants were moderately successful only thanks to constant artificial assistance. Put simply, the land could not sustain the crop on its own. In the process, the marshes were turned into floating peat bogs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The option chosen here was to adapt the small valleys for rice cultivation and teach the farmers the relevant techniques. Together with their families, they have eagerly embarked on the work needed to prepare the terrain for cultivation, although there are still some land tenure issues that need resolving. (Some people have refused to commit themselves to marshland reclamation projects as long as the land does not belong to them). It should be stressed that growing rice along a strip of water is an option which is in harmony with environmental needs. It promotes percolation of the water, thereby restoring underground water levels and preventing pollutants from being washed down towards the Nile or Zaire basins. It is therefore in keeping with global strategies for conserving resources and ensuring sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the marshlands, farmers traditionally plant beans and maize in banked-up beds during the dry season (from June to November). By skilfully selecting and growing different bean varieties, the farmer can stagger his crops and thereby ensure a continuous harvest from September until the time the maize is harvested. The marshes are then left fallow during the heavy rains which reach their peak in April. A rice variety which can be harvested in six months could thus be fitted in during this perriod with out disturbing the traditional hill-farming work schedule.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since farmers on the high plateaux had not traditionally grown rice, it was necessary to teach them the techniques needed to produce a successful crop. They were also informed of the benefits that improvements such as dykes, water supply pipes and drainage pipes could have on crop productivity. They have since applied this knowledge in their cultivation. During the dry season, without disrupting the infrastructures on which their rice cultivation is based, they have rebuilt banked-up beds and grown the traditional bean and maize crop. The system has been in place for about ten years and no drop in yield has been recorded. The yield averages 4.5 t/ha for rice, 1 t/ha for beans and 0.4 t/ha for maize-figures which are quite remarkable when compared with the yields of crops grown on the hills in acid soil with increasing levels of aluminium toxicity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By alternating two different farming systems, the problem of weeds -and therefore hoeing-and of pests is greatly limited. The extensive mixing of the soil that takes place accelerates the recycling of biogenic material-and the marshlands stay as marshlands!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Manageable land development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are three main types of marshy valley, each requiring specific programmes. The first consists of valleys lying above 1400 m with a rainfall in excess of 1500 mm. These areas are characterised by a clay soil, are constantly fed with water (with a high iron content) from the mountains, and are often very rich in organic matter. They require drainage using ditches and filtration channels, with changes of gradient so that the mountain water tables can be tapped and the water levels controlled. This is important to prevent a build-up of ferrous toxicity in the soil, which is extremely harmful to rice. A farming system involving paddy fields and banked-up beds can be accommodated perfectly in these types of valleys. Then there are the valleys lying between 800 and 1400 m with a rainfall of between 1100 and 1500 mm. These are known as 'dambos' in Swahili, and they extend from Northern Kenya right down to Southern Zimbabwe. Strewn with giant termite nests, the land here is well-suited to rice cultivation as long as water levels are carefully controlled. All the available water needs to be harnessed via filtration canals dug into the hillside. These allow the paddies to be irrigated speedily and, during the dry season, they can also be used to irrigate between the rows of ridgeplanted crops. It would, however, be very difficult to irrigate the entire valley during the dry season and so it is pointless digging a drainage ditch. The third and final type consists of small alluvial plains tucked away between the hills and stretching along the escarpments. Here, the level of soil fertility is determined by the heavy erosion resulting from farming on burnt land, and the practice of setting fire to the hills in order to 'regenerate' pastures. To grow rice in such locations, a filtration canal needs to be dug into the hillside, into which water then collects from the water table. The paddy fields also need to be terraced. These alluvial plains lend themselves perfectly to a farming system in which paddy fields are alternated with banked-up beds. All these land-adaptation schemes can be easily implemented and maintained by the farmers themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A sociological revolution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although rice grows quickly, it is highly labour-intensive. Thus, when</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">the young rice plants need to be planted out-which happens to coincide with the end-of-year school holidays-the whole family takes part. What is more, rice has become extremely important in sociological terms: reserved in days gone by for special occasions, it now forms part of the nation's staple diet, being mixed together with beans and dressed with palm oil and tomato sauce. The rice harvest is also a time for merrymaking and festivities which go on for the best part of a week.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rice cultivation has also engendered a vital sense of solidarity among farmers as far as sharing water is concerned, and rice-growing cooperatives have been a runaway success. These enable farming operations to be synchronised and running costs to be reduced, in particular by reducing the number of bird scarers needed. The crop, furthermore, can be harvested when fully ripe. On individual plots, farmers usually only allow the rice to mature to 75% before harvest for fear of theft. Finally, the cooperative helps to ensure that infrastructures such as drains and canals are properly maintained and that water supply installations are treated with respect. Each cooperative is run by a representative appointed by the group of farmers. These supervisors are then responsible for organising all operations: choosing and storing seed for the following season's crops, getting information about new varieties, consulting each other and pointing out any problems they may have to those in charge of research and advisory services. The area allotted to each cooperative depends on the number of households in the group and also takes into account the area available, with 10 ares per family being the usual maximum for planted-up paddy fields. Cooperatives may range in size from 5 to 25 families.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cooperatives like this are just the beginning. Networks of rural organisations, in which the farmers club together to buy equipment and fertilisers, need to be developed on a larger scale and they could provide a springboard for the development of the secondary sector, which is vital to the development of the country as a whole.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We would do well to recall that the cassava mills which have been so successful in Burundi and which still run today without any 'technical assistance' had equally humble beginnings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It must be acknowledged that the people who migrated to this 'wild frontier' of rice cultivation in Burundi also introduced into these regions diseases such as bilharzia and malaria (the mosquitoes carrying the parasite were transported in the luggage of people travelling from the capital to the provinces). Despite this, rice cultivation at high altitude has proved a veritable lifesaver for Burundi. In the year that the FAO plans to stage a summit on famine, it is appropriate to highlight the important role of rice-growing in the food production strategy of this country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until recently, Burundi ensured that it had enough to feed its people through a delicate balancing act between growing food crops, leaving land fallow and rearing livestock which produced manure. At present, however, increased agricultural production is only possible by increasing the surface area of the country under cultivation-at the expense of fallow land and livestock farming. Such a move risks reducing soil fertility and could lead to the substitution of crops of high nutritional value, such as beans, with higher yield crops such as cassava or sweet potatoes which suck the subsoil dry of minerals and nutrients.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In short, traditional farming methods in Burundi are arguably now out of balance and the situation is getting worse. This may, indeed, be a root cause of the ethnic crisis. A systematic policy of re-establishing marshlands and organising rural communities around high-altitude rice cultivation would allow the country to look ahead with optimism to the next 20 years. Suitable varieties are currently available and the altitudes at which rice can be grown have been pushed back in Burundi as far as 1700 m. What is now needed is the funds! </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">J-P.T. &amp; M.A.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Developing world</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Freedom of expression: the heartbeat of democracy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A view from UNESCO.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The article which follows is an abridged version of a text compiled by Carlos Amaldo, who heads UNESCO's research into communication and the free flow of information. Mr Arnaldo highlights some of the main aspects of the UN agency's support for the development of a free press in the African, Caribbean and Pacific regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution passed by the ACP/KU Joint Assembly in March 1996 in Windhoek, Namibia, reflected the spirit of many of UNESCO's communication programmes in these regions. Echoing the principal tenets of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the resolution declares: 'freedom of expression is a precondition for holding free and fair elections'; 'the monopoly of information media is a barrier to the development of democracy,'; 'there is a need to create a climate in which all part)" can participate fully in political life.' It further holds: 'communication media must not only inform the electorate in an impartial and objective manner' but also; 'freedom of expression and the existence of free communications media are vital preconditions for the development of a democratic society.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution was timely, responding to a need to remind political leaders, as well as civic society, of the relation between free communication media and truly democratic practices. Just five years ago, on 3 May 1991,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African journalists and media adopted the Windhoek Declaration at the UN/ UNESCO seminar on promoting an independent and pluralistic African press. Likewise, journalists and media practitioners of each major region adopted the Declarations of Alma Ata (October 1992), Santiago (May 1994) and Sana'a (January 1996), all of which affirmed the unwavering belief of professional communicators in freedom of expression, press freedom, independence and pluralism of the media, and the contribution of such freedoms to democratic processes. At their 28th General Conference, UNESCO Member States further declared that, 'press freedom is an essential component of any democracy.' All these declarations contain action programmes to strengthen press freedom in these regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning to look at some practical initiatives, a media project entitled 'Independent Press in Africa', which was put in place after the signing of the Windhoek declaration, soon attracted the interest of a number of donors (Italy, USA, France). Under this project, the International Programme for the Development of Communication (IPDC) organised four sets of courses for journalists in 1994. In April 1995, IPDC arranged a multi-theme workshop for 33 English-speaking journalists and editors from Central and West Africa on marketing, distribution techniques, managing mass media enterprises in Africa, new communication technologies, journalism and ethical issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are now plans afoot to study the situation of the press in Mauritius, Madagascar and Comoros, and to publish several handbooks about press enterprises. Efforts will also be made to attract increased donor contributions so that the successes achieved by these initial training activities can be strengthened and shared with other regions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further example of positive action in support of the media is the work of MISA (the Media Institute of Southern Africa-featured in more detail in the following article). This organisation has been receiving UNESCO support since 1994 under a funding arrangement with the Danish International Development Agency. The project seeks to strengthen links among the region's independent media so as to enhance the free flow of information. It also aims to boost cooperation and information-sharing with similar groups in developing and developed countries worldwide, to strengthen the ability of the region's independent media to stand on its own feet and to improve professional standards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MlSA, which was set up in 1992, has been monitoring and safeguarding press freedom in the region, facilitated by an electronic network for distribution of information on press freedom issues. It has mounted seminars and training workshops for professional journalists on computer-aided design, strategic financial management, journalism ethics and advertising management. MISA's campaigning material includes a bi-monthly magazine, Free Press: the Media Magazine of Southern Africa and a booklet, So this is Democray, which is a compilation of its 'action alerts' curing 1994 and 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another UNESCO initiative is the 'Communication and Good Governance in West and Central African Countries' project, supported by Germany. This aims to strengthen the human and technical capacity of the media in these regions so that they can make a contribution to good governance. The three year project is to be implemented in 10 countries - Benin, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Sao Tome &amp; Principe and Togo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Together with other institutions such as legislatures, the judiciary and civic organisations, media bodies like MISA have a useful role to play. They can enhance transparency and accountability by systematic analysis and reporting of government programmes, policies and pledges, and by encouraging public discussions which help people to make informed decisions about public issues and about how their leaders discharge the power vested in them. Fulfilment of these functions requires access to the media, and qualified, well-trained practitioners who can effectively use the media for information, education and communication on good governance issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning our attention now to the Caribbean, the question of media freedom recently came to the fore in Trinidad and Tobago when 13 editors and journalists on The Guardian lost their jobs following publication of a number of controversial articles (some reports said they 'constructively resigned'). The events cast a shadow over the famous Carnival. Indeed, as one journalist put it, the Carnival quickly ceded to the 'sacrificial rites' of Holy Week. Six of the paper's youngest reporters were among those who lost their jobs-but out of the furore, a new newspaper was born.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 'Comparative Study of Media Laws in the CARICOM countries' by Ainsley Sahai, commissioned earlier by UNESCO, became a reference in the debates that followed. The study highlighted that all Caribbean countries guaranteed freedom of expression in their national constitutions. Indeed, Trinidad and Tobago's constitution explicitly guarantees press freedom as well. The Media Association of Trinidad and Tobago (MATT) organised two meetings. The first of these, on 10 April 1996, was a public forum on issues of press freedom. Although a full cross-section of society was not present, and not all the issues at stake were fully debated, it was nevertheless a start. Those who took the floor came from many sectors of society -women, the unemployed, workers, community organisations and at least three different religious groups. About a quarter of those who contributed spoke as individuals. While many criticised the press for errors in reporting, all confirmed the need to uphold a free press vis-a-vis both political pressures and economic and financial interests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The public gave strong support to MATT and demanded that the forum be replicated in other parts of the country. It was the first time that the public had been given the opportunity to speak out on these issues. It was not so much the content of the discussion which counted, but the very fact that the event took place, bringing the media closer to its 'customers'. The meeting gave the public an opportunity to put over their own perceptions of press freedom, impartial reporting and the strengthening of democratic processes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two days later, with support from UNESCO, the Media Association staged a journalists' symposium, moderated by George John, consulting editor at The Guardian. David de Caires, publisher of Guyana's Stabroek News was invited by MATT as an external consultant. Drawing on past and more recent examples of uneasy relations between a free press and governments, Mr de Caires concluded with a headlinehitting statement; the relations of the press with government should not be too cosy, the press must maintain its adversarial position.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many journalists took the floor to stress Trinidad and Tobago's constitutional guarantees for both freedom of expression and press freedom. They also stressed the need to safeguard editorial independence, not only in the printed press, but also in broadcasting, and urged the repeal of 'antiquated' libel laws-a point also made in the Sahai study. The preparation of a Freedom of Information Act was strongly urged to ensure access to public information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These events appear to have strengthened the resolve of the jobless journalists. They grouped together to set up a new weekly newspaper, called The Independent. The new publication focuses on investigative articles, comment and reviews. In addition, a monthly called The Formatt was launched by MATT to disseminate specialised news on press freedom issues and to provide print support for future public fore. Both newspapers brought out their first editions in early May amidst the celebrations of World Press Freedom Day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pacific</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Pacific, issues of freedom of expression and press freedom are no less salient, although a key issue for practitioners there is the modernisation of infrastructures. This is needed to ensure that this vast island region does not find itself in the slow lane of the information highway.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The computerisation of radio newsrooms, in places such as the Cook Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, Solomon Islands and Tonga, is a priority. The Cook Islands already has a fully computerised newspaper operation. Indeed, this is the first newspaper in the Pacific with the capacity to transmit photographs from various parts of the country to the newsroom electronically by phone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Considerable concern has been expressed about the inadequacy of national television programming. There is a need for the people of the Pacific to see themselves and their culture, and not just the imported fare distributed by most international TV services. With UNESCO support, women media producers from seven island countries were able to meet to work out ways of cooperating on a series of television documentaries that they themselves produced and exchanged within the region. Preparations are now under way for the annual evaluation and awarding of prizes at the end of 1996. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C.A.A. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Campaigning for free expression in the SADC region</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by David Nthengwe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Media Institute of Southern Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Officially launched in September 1992, the role of the Media Institute of Southern Africa is primarily that of coordinator, facilitator and communicator in the promotion of media freedom and diversity, (as envisaged in the 1991 Windhoek Declaration). MISA operates in 11 of the 1 2 SADC countries and is currently investigating setting up a chapter in the twelfth-Mauritius- which joined the Community 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chapters are serviced by a regional secretariat based in the Namibian capital, Windhoek. The secretariat is accountable to a policy-making governing council of elected representatives from each national chapter, while funding for MISA and its projects is channeled through the MISA Education and Production Trust, overseen by a board of independent trustees. The organisation is currently almost entirely donor-funded, with UNESCO, NORAD, SIDA, the KU, the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, IBIS, and the Australian and German governments being the main contributors. Other income is generated through the sale of subscriptions to MISA publications and services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Institute's main work is in the field of advocacy; highlighting violations of media freedom and free expression, and exploring ways of ensuring that these fundamental freedoms become entrenched throughout Southern Africa. In 1994, MISA became a member of the International Freedom of Expression Exchange (IFEX) network in a bid to increase international awareness of media freedom violations in Southern Africa. Membership of IFEX has enabled MISA to distribute as well as receive information on media freedom issues in a quick and relatively cheap way via the Internet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Action alerts'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994 and 1995, MISA issued via IFEX and its own electronic mail network, the MISANET (see below), more than 190 'action alerts' relating to media freedom infringements in Southern Africa, and effective campaigns against some of these violations have resulted. In August 1994, Lesotho journalist, Rabuka Chalatse, was shot by soldiers while covering a demonstration. An alert issued by MISA triggered a swift response, and within 24 hours, funds had been raised to pay for emergency treatment which saved the young journalist's leg. In November 1995, Angolan freelance journalist, Mario Paiva, had his life threatened by people who, it was alleged, were state security agents. MlSA's alert prompted protest from throughout the world, and resulted in several governments offering Paiva sanctuary in their embassies in Angola. The threat against the journalist was subsequently lifted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">MlSA's advocacy work has also shown that democratisation does not necessarily result in guaranteed media freedom and free expression. In Zambia, for example, which had a multi-party election in 1991, arcane laws inherited from previous regimes have been used against the private media in particular, and free expression, in general. As this article was being written, Fred M'membe, the Editor-in-Chief of Zambia's privately-owned daily 'The Post', and two of his colleagues, were starting an indefinite prison term for contempt of Parliament. The sentence was passed not by a court of law, but by the Speaker, under legislation inherited from British colonial rule. Their 'crime' was to comment on criticism made in Parliament of a Supreme Court decision which declared unconstitutional, laws requiring anyone wishing to stage a demonstration to obtain police permission first.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Five months prior to his arrest, M'membe received the MISA Press Freedom Award, which is presented annually to individuals or institutions considered to have made an outstanding contribution to the advancement of media freedom in Southern Africa. M'membe was the third recipient of the award.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Free flow of information essential</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the Windhoek Declaration points out, 'the establishment, maintenance and fostering of an independent, pluralistic and free press' is essential to economic development, as well as for the growth of democracy. Accordingly, MISA argues that the free flow of information is vital to the development process. Effective communication within SADC-a 'development community'- has been hampered by the region's poor postal and telecommunications services. MISA considers that these logistical barriers to the free flow of information are a form of censorship. In a bid to break through the information voids which have kept Southern African media workers and their audiences isolated from each other for so long, it has made particular use of advances in information technology, including, most notably, the Internet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two years, MISA has been linking member organisations up to electronic mail (e-mail). This allows members throughout the region to exchange news, photographs and other information. To date, 25 MISA member organisations are linked to this network, called the MISANET, although further growth has been hampered by members' unfamiliarity with e-mail, and the lack of local technicians to train people and provide user support. Nonetheless, computerised communications have proved to be an appropriate technology, and development of the MISANET remains a top priority. By making some services available to non-MISA subscribers, MISA also intends to generate income and thus reduce its current dependency on donor funding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Focus on training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The coordination of training and material support to independent media is another area where MISA looks to develop media freedom and diversity. The region's independent media sometimes operates in politically and economically hostile environments. Its survival-and thus the sustenance and growth of media diversity-hinges on these organisations becoming highly professional, well-managed concerns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Working through training institutions based primarily in the region, MISA coordinates workshops and other training programmes aimed at improving the skills of media workers, particularly in the fields of management and finance. Workshops in strategic and financial management, project management, advertising, marketing, sales and subscription management, ethics, subediting, and computerised design were staged during 1994 and 1995. For 1996, training is scheduled in economic reporting, project management, photography, advertising sales, circulation and sales management, computer-aided design, developing world and financial and strategic management. Instruction will also be provided to media workers without formal training. Meanwhile, research is to be carried out into setting up a media ombudsman for Southern Africa, printing press initiatives, media training needs, and the difficulties faced by women media workers in the region. The last-mentioned is in line with MlSA's policy of encouraging gender awareness and equality within the Southern African media.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Private and community-based media organisations face constant problems securing adequate finance. As businesses, they often do not qualify for donor support, while banks are reluctant to lend them money. Therefore, MISA is looking to set up of a Media Development Fund to which independent media can apply for loans, credit guarantees and grants. A study is currently being conducted into the feasibility of such a fund, which MISA hopes to have up-andrunning by early 1997.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Broadcasting in Southern Africa is still largely state-controlled. Moves by some of the region's governments to 'deregulate' broadcasting have been erratic, and many private broadcasting licenses granted in the process have gone to organisations or individuals closely linked to the authorities. MISA is now drawing up a policy aimed at seeking the effective liberalisation of broadcasting legislation covering public, private and community broadcasting throughout the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As part of this process, MISA will, this year, stage a conference on broadcasting and community media, to coincide with its Annual General Meeting-which has become one of the largest gatherings of media workers on the African continent. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.N.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Volunteers show their worth</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Thomas M. Neufing</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Volunteers have become a major component in international development efforts. They make up a significant proportion of the total human resources available for development cooperation (up to a fifth of the skilled international personnel serving in developing countries). In the early days, volunteer service was strongly influenced by the idea of oneway technical assistance. Specialists, mainly from the North, served in developing nations where their expertise was desperately needed but not yet found among local citizens. Much has changed since.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After the US Peace Corps, the UN Volunteers Programme (UNV) ranks as the second largest volunteer-sendina agency with some 4000 professionals in the field every year. Its universality and internationality is reflected in the high number of UNV specialists (74%) who come from developing countries. The scope and size of the international volunteer contribution to development cooperation (notably areas such as HIV/AIDS and the environment), has increased significantly over the years as a result of the changing development challenge. The re-thinking of the role of technical cooperation is equally central to the volunteer debate and this has led to much greater flexibility in the ways in which volunteer services are provided. The important role volunteers can play in peace building efforts with a long-term development dimension, complementary to humanitarian relief, is increasingly being recognised.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Working with rather than for people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the UNV's 25th anniversary, and the relocation of its headquarters to Bonn this summer, it is an appropriate time both to assess and to acknowledge the contribution made by these volunteers. Since the programme began in 1971, some 14 000 professionals have dedicated a period of their lives to serve as a UNV. The programme is administered by UNDP, and is therefore intimately linked to its structures, particularly in the field. Regarding community-based initiatives, the comparative advantage of UNVs is that of working with rather than for people over an extended period, thus facilitating their initiatives. The experience of many development agencies shows that in promoting socio-economic change at the village level, the type of person needed is one who-through long-term commitment and sensitivity -can learn as much from local partners as offer advice to them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International volunteers are engaged mainly in rural development tasks. Those working through specialised NGOs such as the Red Cross, and Medecins Sans Frontieres have proved to be highly effective agents, supporting governments faced with disaster situations. In the case of UNV, the value of using volunteer specialists from other developing nations, as a way of encouraging technical cooperation amongst developing countries, is particularly recognised. Most volunteers- perhaps two-thirds - serve in least developed and small island countries. And about three-quarters serve in rural areas, working mostly in programmes of agricultural and community development, health, education and the supply of basic services. Since the end of the Cold War, a growing number have been deployed in emergency relief, refugee and rehabilitation programmes. UNVs make up 10% of the UN's civilian component in Cambodia; 4096 of the field staff of the World Food Programme and almost 100% of outreach workers attached to the UN Mission in Guatemala. UNVs are increasingly involved in human rights promotion, the organisation of elections and conflict resolution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a consensus among the main international humanitarian and development actors that their programmes should be mutually supportive. For example, development efforts must respond to humanitarian crises by remaining on the scene and supporting immediate needs, as well as aiding in the prevention of crises which are known to be looming. Emergency humanitarian assistance should also pave the way for longer term development by viewing the immediacy of the moment through the lens of future sustainable rehabilitation. Both sets of activities should, ideally, be launched and implemented in tandem with local bodies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">External assistance efforts must include strengthening local capacity to cope with problems. Empowerment strategies which inform, educate and facilitate the people's own vision of peaceful and sustainable living environments (including respect for human rights) are fundamental to the future of communities coping in the aftermath of crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Relief, rehabilitation and development?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNV programme has been active in exploring the efficacy of volunteer support to communities in crisis in order to bridge the gap between immediate needs and longer term developmental goals. In 1994, the UNV held its 4th Special Consultation, entitled, Between Crisis and Development - Volunteer Roles and UNV's Contribution. At this event, donor governments, UN agencies and cooperating partners from civil society had an indepth discussion of the issues surrounding volunteer efforts, and the complementary nature of emergency interventions and follow-up measures. The participants reconfirmed the need for local capacity building. They also affirmed the usefulness of the UN Volunteer contribution in crisis prevention, emergency rehabilitation and 'building bridges' to sustainable development. The work of UNVs in preventive action and promoting post-conflict development was highlighted. There has been a significant increase in demand for specialist volunteer services in all types of crisis. These may be economic, natural or man-made, but they all have in common the need to provide essential relief and rehabilitation services for basic survival (to refugees and resident populations). In many countries, disasters and internal strife have put so much pressure on essential public services that the longterm capacity of the people to recover may be threatened. Governments in developing countries and donors both believe it is fully justified to use volunteer specialists to help provide such services during the adjustment period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Mixed' teams</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The contribution of both international and national volunteers is often essential to link immediate relief efforts to future long-term development. National volunteers-people working in their own countries within the UN framework-complement the international approach by providing the key grassroots perspective. UN Volunteers who speak local languages, live and work in remote communities, are familiar with community structures and are known to local leaders, play a key part in facilitating preventive action and providing follow-up in the aftermath of a crisis. UNV specialists are well-placed to build effective partnerships with national and local actors. In the last two years, some 2000 UN Volunteers have worked in various parts of the world in prevention and preparedness, peacekeeping, electoral support, human rights, rehabilitation and reconstruction, and humanitarian relief.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi offers an example of an initiative designed to stem a crisis through local capacity-building. The UNV is financing a project there which supports the mediation and dialogue efforts of the UN Secretary General's Special Representative (SRSG) through the recruitment of UNV peace advisers and conflict resolution facilitators. This project is being run successfully out of the SRSG's office, extending public awareness of the reconciliation process. It includes use of the mass media to promote understanding, and brings local actors together to work for peaceful solutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The tasks undertaken by UN volunteers all fit into the spectrum which has 'crisis' et one end end 'development' at the other. The work, moreover, is undertaken in partnership-with civil society (NGOs and community-based organisations), government departments, UN agencies and regional international organisations (such as the KU).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through efforts that aim to link relief, rehabilitation and development, new productive partnerships are emerging to enhance coherence, coordination and complementarily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The growth of professionalism</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30 years ago, the typical profile of an international volunteer was that of a generalist graduate from an industrialised country seeking first-time experience abroad before settling down to a career. Over time, the governments of developing countries made clear their need for practical and often specialised skills aimed at giving them the ability to manage their own programmes. They increasingly expressed impatience at hosting untrained volunteers. Professionalism became the key word. Unfortunately, the word 'volunteer' is still a source of confusion: it is often equated with 'amateur'. This is a perception that now needs to be corrected. The personnel sent out by most agencies that supply volunteers are likely to be in their thirties, with post-graduate qualifications and several years' practical experience in their fields. The typical UNV specialist is an example par excel/ence of this trend: 39 years of age, holding a Master's degree and with more than ten years of experience in a particular discipline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It was not just the dedication, but also the professionalism of the hundreds of UN Volunteers serving in Mozambique that impressed Aldo Ajello, the former UN Special Representative in Mozambique (now EU Special Envoy for the Great Lakes Region). 'If I were to run another mission,' he said, 'I would ask immediately for volunteers.' In terms of monitoring-which was vital in building up the trust and confidence needed to ensure the election results were accepted-'UNV electoral officers were our only real presence and they proved to be extremely professional.' ~ T.N. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Study by the World Wide Fund for Nature</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Structural adiustment, the environment, and sustainable development</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by David Reed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 29 May, David Reed of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) was in Brussels to present the results of a study undertaken by the WWF, with the support of the European Commission, the longterm consequences of structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) on the environment and the use of nature/ resources. Conclusions were drawn from nine country case studies from Cameroon, Mall Tanzania, Zambia, El Salvador, Jamaica, Venezuela, Vietnam and Pakistan. We publish here an abridged version of Mr Reed's general presentation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SAPs, often implemented at the instigation of the international financial institutions, have responded to the pervasive economic problems of the 1980s and to profound changes in the economy in recent decades. The programmes have generally been successful in improving macroeconomic indicators in developing countries. The marketorientation of economies has been increased through liberalised trade and capital flows, privatisation, reductions in regulation and price setting, and cuts in government budgets and programmes. For most developing countries, these changes were essential to economic recovery and adjustment to the new global marketplace.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sustainable development in the social, economic, and environmental sense, has, however, been ignored in SAPs. Many reform programmes have been accompanied by increases in poverty and unemployment, worsening income distribution, and the collapse of social services, environmental protection and state institutional capacities. These immediate costs of adjustment inhibit countries' long-term ability to expand productivity and employment opportunities, as natural resources are exploited indiscriminately to meet short-term needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environmental impacts</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The environmental effects of structural adjustment vary from country to country depending on the specific components of the reform package, the structure of the economy, and the implementation process. The WWF's country case studies reveal particular mechanisms through which structural adjustment has altered resource-use patterns. Some more general patterns also emerge from the studies. Everywhere, cuts in government institutions and funding have reduced the state's capacity to facilitate the transition process, to compensate for market failures, and to provide for long-term and social sustainability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many reforms associated with structural adjustment have the potential to improve both environmental and economic outcomes. However, the failure to implement complementary environmental policies or strengthen institutions and regulations, has created a very mixed environmental record. Increases in poverty, greater production incentives, and the loss of government regulatory capacity, have all aggravated patterns of poor resource use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Extractive and agricultural economies generally increased production in response to greater exposure to global markets. Without proper policies in place, this increase has put a strain on fragile ecosystems. Environmental pressures include increased land degradation and deforestation for agriculture, livestock and timber production; increased production of non-renewables without long-term investment of the proceeds or environmental safeguards; and increased pollution and damage to the ecosystem from unregulated tourism.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The burden of fiscal retrenchment and price changes under structural adjustment have fallen most heavily on the poor, particularly women. The strong association between poverty and environmental degradation has been revealed, as efforts to maintain livelihoods have led to deforestation, land degradation, overhunting and other pressures on endangered species, as well as the unmanaged extraction of nonrenewable resources. Increasing poverty and unemployment associated with adjustment has also added to population pressures in urban areas with insufficient infrastructure exacerbating problems of pollution, disease and congestion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The implications of disregarding the environmental and social impact of adjustment are examined in the various case studies. Structural adjustment has been sustained by the promise that market-orientation and export-led - growth will raise living standards. Evidence from the studies, however, strongly suggests that long-term productive capacity is being destroyed by short-term exploitation of natural resources. Not only environmental but also economic and social sustainability are threatened by the loss of environmental goods and services. Drawing down natural capital has been encouraged by government policies that promote exports and open resources up to international markets. And the process is accelerated by the growing population of poor and unemployed who rely on natural resources for survival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recommendations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following its study, the WWF offers a series of recommendations to reduce the environmental costs of structural adjustment and economic integration, and to reorient structural adjustment aims towards sustainable development. Most urgently, environmental issues must be integrated into structural economic reforms - environmental assessments must become part of the programmes. A strategic vision of the role that natural resources and environmental goods and services could play in the transformation of developing economies is essential to designing appropriate strategies. Efforts to industrialise economies must include consideration of the environmental implications. Social services and environmental institutions must be maintained during the adjustment process to prevent increases in poverty and environmental degradation that have both short-term and long-term consequences for development. Essential services include credit and marketing support to small farmers, income-generating opportunities for women, food-assistance programmes, and promotion of distributional equity. The state's role in providing services which neither the private sector nor civil society can provide, must be maintained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the great variety in economic structures and in the capacity of markets and civil society among developing countries, adjustment strategies and government roles must be tailored to each case. Everywhere, countries must implement national institutional reforms for environmental management. Civil society must be strengthened to allow participation in the adjustment process. International financial institutions promoting and designing SAPs must reform their policies and approaches to implementation in the light of the clear evidence that macroeconomic reforms are having a profound effect on the environment and on the possibilities for sustainable development. Continuing failure to correct these problems on a national level accentuates the concern for addressing issues of sustainability on a global level. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.R. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Culture and society</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Why a Biennial Festival of Contemporary African Art?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dak'Art 96</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first World Festival of Negro Art, held in 1966, was essentially a political exercise. In the post-independence period, it was felt necessary to show the world that the people of Africa (both the continent and the diaspora), had a rich culture which had long been suppressed. The festival - which has never been repeated-is viewed with a great deal of nostalgia by supporters of modern African art and black intellectuals. The better, brighter future, which seemed at the time to be just over the horizon, never quite lived up to expectation. Even before financing problems had surfaced, the festival's fate had already been sealed by petty political rivalries and a greedy pursuit of the limelight. Years later, attempts to relaunch the event met with a lukewarm reception. It was already the beginning of the end as far as ideologies were concerned. In complete contrast, Dak'Art 96 (Dakar, 915 May 1996) set its sights firmly on the market place, nowadays the yardstick by which all success is measured. Its goals were simple: to break into the art market and overcome the generally held prejudice that contemporary African art lacks modernity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An international market for African art does exist, but it concerns itself solely with ancient art- and Africa itself profits little from such trade. Indeed, it would be more accurate to speak of plundering than of trade. The seminar, organised last year by the Terveuren Museum in Brussels on the looting of African works of art, revealed the true extent of the phenomenon. Despite the fact that pirated works fetch considerable sums on the black market, contemporary African artists are faced with a 'Catch-22' situation. Major galleries in Europe, America and Japan do not exhibit their work because African art is ignored by the leading art periodicals; and their work never appears in these publications because it is never exhibited. One reason for the fact that African art is not put on show is that virtually no funds are allocated by international institutions to sponsor exhibitions by the artists in question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many third-world governments do not dare, are unwilling or are unable to include culture on their list of priorities within international cooperation agreements. One exception is Burkina Faso which now boasts a cinema industry as a result. Senegal is trying to follow in its footsteps. But there are not many places in Africa where artists are promoted for the quality of their creative output. The majority of initiatives have, in fact, been on a voluntary basis. The magazine Revue Noire is one of the most significant examples of this approach. A group of aficionados of contemporary African art - indeed with a passion for art pure and simple, whether African or European-decided to try and break the vicious circle. They looked at two options: the establishment of an art gallery of worldwide renown or of an equally prestigious arts publication, and came down in favour of the latter. Thus Revue Noire was born. However, its success was generally given very slim odds: it was seen as too glossy, too expensive and too intellectual. The sub-text here of course, is that a publication about African art had no right to be glossy, expensive or intellectual, especially since the money could have been used for something far more 'useful' to the development of these countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Others, such as Marie-Claire Mwanza from l'Espace Alizes in Brussels, have attacked the problem from a different angle-by exhibiting contemporary African art. Prior to her initiative, there was not a single gallery in Brussels that specialised in this sector of the market, and there are still none that figure on the shopping lists of the world's great collectors. Whatever the price set for a contemporary African work, it is generally perceived as being too high. The contrast with the prices demanded for works by even the youngest European or American artists, even for their very first exhibitions, speaks volumes. African art is too expensive in relation to what exactly ? The answer is in relation to the status accorded to it, which is of course determined by the art world. In other words, a big fat zero if one considers the fact that African art is never exhibited.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thanks to Revue Noire, African art has been brought to the major galleries of the Western world. Similar projects have been launched or are in the process of being launched in various countries of the West, such as the magazine NKA in Brooklyn, for example. Exhibition organisers, museums, galleries and those looking to stage art festivals now know on whose door to knock, and the last few months have proved extremely promising. The Guggenheim Museum in New York is currently hosting a major exhibition of African art, and Africa 95, held in London, was swiftly followed by Copenhagen 96. The Guggenheim Museum, moreover, is in a completely different league to the Museum of African and Oceanic Art in Paris or the Museum of Central Africa in Tervueren, Belgium (formerly the Colonial Museum)-it is one of the world's most prestigious temples of modern art. What is more, London's Africa 95, which was so disparaged by African art specialists, who considered it nothing more than a meeting place for traders, did, whether we like it or not, act as a significant catalyst. And what about pirated works of art, such as those plundered from the Niger Valley ? These have found a 'home' in public as well as private collections, pointing to a real need to 'clean out the Augean stables'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A few African artists are beginning to get themselves known within 'the market', but there are still not enough of them. It was with great foresight that the organisers of Dak'Art placed these artists at the top of their invitation list. Another shrewd move was to invite the art market's arbiters of taste to select those African artists who should present solo exhibitions, and to ask celebrated art critics and collectors to form part of the international panel of judges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is probably true to say that Africa has rarely known such a dynamic period of creativity which places it at the forefront of global aesthetic trends. The aim of the Biennial Festival was to underline this fact beyond any doubt. Among those artists who are currently in a position to break into the market, the Senegalese sculptor, Ousmane Sow, probably heads the list. Paradoxically, however, Ousmane Sow's work was not presented at Dakar although he himself was there, his tall, striking figure standing out from the crowd. Despite the fact that he lent his support to Dak'Art 96 and that the opening gala was partly dedicated to him with the magnificent film of Beatrice Soule, Ousmane Sow resolutely refused to display his own work. He has no wish to take part in gatherings of 'African artists'. He is an artist and he is African, but he is not an 'African artist'. 'A Japanese artist is a contemporary artist in this universal world', he argues, 'so why should I allow myself to be pigeon-holed in a ghetto ?' No matter how satisfied and pleased champions of contemporary African art may be with the organisation behind the Biennial Festival, they cannot deny that Ousmane Sow has a point. Having said this, there is no contradiction here, but rather a complementary vision. Sow's stance and the idea behind Dak'Art are part of a two-pronged attack, to borrow a military term. The organisers of the Biennial and Sow himself doubtless saw it in this way, and decided to join forces.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Each time Beatrice Soule tackles the work of an artist, she explores it in a very unusual way, reinventing the arts documentary. Her films are reminiscent of the music of Nino Rota in Fe//ini's films, Rota subjugating himself to the service of the director's work, sublimating his own originality through this extreme humility. It is impossible to picture the images of Federico Fellini without Rota's haunting music. Beatrice Soule saw in Sow's work a love affair between an artist and his sculpture, coming up with the idea of placing Sow's sculptures in the savannah and imagining the intimate interaction between Africa's natural world, which is at the heart of the artist's inspiration, and his works, which the natural world is able to absorb back into itself. The result of this juxtaposition is that the physical work of art is eclipsed by sheer creative force and spirit. The genius behind the work becomes the work, merges with it and is reincarnated in it. The one thing that Soule did not film was Ousmane Sow himself, her images concentrating solely on the creative act. It would be illusory to attempt to explain a Beatrice Soule film, especially this film. When she unveils how the artist tames physical matter, reinventing materials in order to create a work of art, technique simply recedes into the background, becoming blurred and intangible. Whereas others would have adopted a scientific or factual approach, her camera perceives the abstract aspects of the piece-and its gestation. The film was due to be broadcast on the international FrancoGerman arts channel Arte. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If Ousmane Sow's sculptures are characterised by their gigantic proportions, then those of Georges Adeagbo, a Beninois artist whose name is also beginning to be heard in the commercial art establishment, are characterised by their 'fugacity'. Adeagbo's artistic constructions are as fleeting as puffs of smoke, like voodoo symbols scratched out in the sand. His art is symbolic and ephemeral. Once one of his works has been exhibited, all that remains of it is a hollow shell which he has to reinvent over and over again. Adeagbo constructs ideas, using a host of assorted materials which he painstakingly selects over months, even years. Yet despite the meticulous care with which they are put together, as far as the artist is concerned, the materials per se are of no importance. He could convey exactly the same idea using other elements. An Adeagbo piece is not merely a pile of objects. It is neither conceptual art, nor scrap art. It consists rather of 'installations' which rise and spread outwards. Sometimes, he uses specially constructed sculptures. At other times he employs everyday objects- shoes, saucepans, stones, spectacles or footballs. He also works with written material; manuscripts, parchment, pieces of newspaper and books, portraying the written word as both a creative force and a deceptive screen. Adeagbo himself is a man of few words. Perpetually crouched on the ground, he constructs, modifies, touches and observes his creations. Why should these constructions remind us so much of paintings? They are as much a pile of objects as a painting is an accumulation of layers of paint. It is by forgetting the paint that we are able to admire the picture and it is by looking beyond the materials used by Adeagbo that his work truly reveals itself. Indeed, it is a sign of his genius as an artist that the materials never intrude upon our contemplation of his work. In Dakar, Adeagbo's work was shown in the AIDS exhibition organised by Revue Noire. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another artist who took part in the AIDS exhibition, and whose art could well be the impetus behind the new universal aesthetic, the avant-garde (if such a concept has a meaning), is Pascale Marthine Tayou from Cameroon. He was given the honour of presenting one of the five solo exhibitions. Tayou was sponsored by Yakuyi Kawagushi, the curator of the Setagaya Museum in Tokyo, who exhibited his work at the forum organised within the overall framework of the exhibition. While the term 'installation' may best describe the works of Georges Adeagbo's, Tayou's work falls unquestionably under the heading of sculpture. This is despite the fact that the two artists use virtually identical materials. Tayou sculpts from wood, covering his pieces with all manner of manufactured and salvaged objects such as shoes, nails, plastic bags and enormous condoms, or with natural objects such as bits of roots and stones. He then paints the arrangement. The work is dense, unyielding and mesmerising, often etching itself into the onlooker's mind. His sculpture lacks heavy ornamentation, yet its starkness has a rich quality, the theme encompassed by a jumble of material standing out clearly, like the outline of a silhouette. Take his work 'Fight against AIDS'. The piece consists of a wooden frame in the shape of figure-of-eight, with each horizontal line doubled, defining a key element in a tragic body with bulging eyes and a Pere Ubu belly. In contrast to this suffocatingly tragic figure, the brightly-coloured shoes of a Harlequin with a faded costume offer a comical note.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were other creators who could well ruffle a few feathers in the art market that ultimately makes or breaks an artist: Tamsir Dia of Cote d'lvoire (whose screaming figures are reminiscent of Munch), Cheikh Niass of Senegal, Mathilde Moro of Cote d'lvoire and Abdoulaye Konate of Mali. The last mentioned was honoured with the highest award of the festival.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A decision was taken that Dak'Art 96 should encompass other areas of creativity, such as music, design and fashion, in addition to the visual arts. At the gala evening held to inaugurate the Festival, there was a fashion show choreographed in the manner of a ballet. The staging of this can only be described as mawkish. The audience were treated neither to a real performance, nor to a good fashion show. The second fashion spot, which was supposed to present an overview of African design, was also quite pitiful. If the event's organisers decide to keep these parallel areas of creativity in the Festival, then their decision will be solely thanks to the success of the International Design Exhibition. Apart from two or three 'exotic' pieces, this was generally of a very high standard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Community's choice in awarding the prize for creativity to a designer, Vincent Amian Namien from the Cote d'lvoire, was particularly revealing. This artist strips everything down to its bare essentials, creating a line that is so purified as to leave only the quintessence of form. Thus, he creates a chair that is nothing more than a perfect metal triangle, with four boards and four metal wires-and yet offers perfect comfort.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Claire Kane, a fashion designer of Franco-Senegalese descent, had the verve to go it alone and show her collection at the prestigious Salon of Design. Her clothes are characterised by the rejection of all superfluous detail, achieving a fluid line that stylises movement. Following an aesthetic code that has been decanted from the melting pot of the collective costume heritage of the entire continent, Claire Kane is directly involved in the creation of her designs, from the weaving of the cloth to the last finishing touches. In fact, she admits that her true passion is fabric rather than fashion, her favourite material being woven pagne. She often uses silk-screen printing to introduce pattern. She then adds words to the patterns in her designs and, abracadabra, one would think that this is the way it has always been done in Africa. A subtle modernity, combining both past and future, seems to be a recurring motif in African creativity. International artists, still few in number, travel from Dakar to be dressed by her.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If, in the future, the Festival's organisers decide to concentrate solety on the visual arts, this would come as no surprise. On the other hand, it would also make sense to continue to include design and fashion. A country's cultural heritage should be considered one of its raw materials and a source of economic wealth, and unimaginative accountants may have to resign themselves to this fact. Herein lies a possible answer to the question: 'why hold a Biennial Festival of Contemporary African Art?'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegei Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acting against AIDS</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Robert Rowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many ways of raising money to fight AlDS have been tried, but one of the most unusual must surely be the approach taken by an official of the European Commission. Robert Rowe, who until last year was an assistant editor on The Courier, put on a oneman show in Brussels and then rook it to the other side of the world to raise money for a voluntary organisation working on AIDS prevention and care in Malaysia. Here is his story of fighting the virus with the power of the theatre.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'By the year 2000, South-East Asia will be host to the majority of the world's AIDS cases.' So runs a stark prediction from the World Health Organisation, quoted in a recent paper from a grouping of NGOs affiliated to the Malaysian AIDS Foundation. It goes on to predict that 'the region faces a potential HIV spread of titanic proportions.' In Thailand, a country with a large population and a sad reputation for prostitution, the HIV threat was recognised relatively early and effective public awareness campaigns have successfully reversed the rise in the incidence of infection. But in neighbouring Malaysia, where stricter religious and social attitudes have inhibited wide public discussion of the disease and its methods of transmission, over 13000 people were HIV-positive at the last count-and that is just the figure derived from the small percentage of the population who have been tested. Activists say the true number is certainly higher and it is growing every day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first cases of HIV in Malaysia were found among intravenous drug users and sex workers, and one of the earliest organisations to begin working with people engaged in these high-risk activities was Pink Triangle. This is a voluntary, non-profit-making body which started up in 1987 by setting up AIDS prevention and support programmes for and with the general public and the gay community. Its name, in fact, refers to the pink triangle badge which men sent to concentration camps in Nazi Germany for homosexuality were made to wear. The group has always depended heavily on volunteers to plan and carry out its programmes, which now also involve running a support group for people with HIV or AIDS and a street outreach programme and drop-in centre providing AIDS information, basic medical care, temporary shelter and food for sex workers, injecting drug users and transsexuals. The centre can also provide legal referrals for members of these groups summonsed to appear in court. For the general public, talks, workshops and poster and photo exhibitions are held in schools, hospitals, factories, youth and corporate organisations and other NGOs. Pink Triangle trains its volunteers, too, to provide counselling and information about AIDS and sexuality to anyone who calls up on a confidential telephone line.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The work is serious and vital, but the atmosphere is far from gloomy in Pink Triangle's premises in a lively part of the Malaysian capital, Kuala Lumpur. Though funding comes from several sources at home and abroad, including the European Union, the organisation still has to generate a lot of its own money, and one successful method they have used is to put on imaginative events where fund-raising can be combined with an opportunity to raise public awareness. Last December, for example, they marked the week surrounding World AIDS Day with a string of shows, dance parties, talk-ins and street activities called Pinkfest '95. In venues all over the town, and on television and radio, well-known personalities joined a hundred of Pink Triangle's own speakers and performers to provide education without moralising. The aim was to personalise the issue of AIDS by showing how anyone could be at risk, but at the same time dealing in facts, not fear. Thousands of attractively designed and very frank leaflets and posters put across the virus-busting message in catchy graphics and pithy phrases in several languages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I happened to be in Kuala Lumpur around New Year and saw a video of some of the Pinkfest highlights which set me thinking how admirable an impression of solidarity and self-help the anti-AIDS struggle in Malaysia conveys, and to wondering whether, back in Brussels, it might not be possible for us in Europe to do something to help. It particularly impressed and touched me that while Pink Triangle delivers its message to every single member of Malaysian society, it makes quite clear, even by its name, that it has a special care for some of that society's most downtrodden members, people for whom no one else had ever ventured to speak. Public silence, opprobrium and ridicule make it especially hard to get the safe-sex message through to gay men, especially the young, to transsexuals and sex workers, and as long as there is no cure the only way of containing the spread of infection is by education- and by changing social attitudes. The many women whose husbands or partners are careless about infection also stand to benefit from greater openness and more factual information. But organising all this takes money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It happens that among the multinational English-speaking expatriate community in Brussels there is a thriving amateur theatre scene-in fact they say that if two British people found themselves on an otherwise deserted island, one would immediately put on a play for the other, and the same seems to hold true of the Irish and the North Americans. However, it was less certain that anyone apart from me would want to exert themselves, for the many weeks required to stage a production, on behalf of an AIDS charity in a remote Asian country, so l decided to go ahead by myself and perform a one-man comedy. The play was Brief Lives; it has nothing whatever to do with AIDS, but in its day it was a huge success in London and New York. Adapted in the 1960s by the British actor Patrick Garland from the dusty old memoirs of a real historical figure, John Aubrey, it depicts a day in the life of this 1 7th-century English scientist, historian and wit. As he potters about, an extremely old man, in a garret full of manuscripts and curios, he reminisces about his contemporaries in hilarious and touching vignettes, the potted biographies which give the play its name. Aubrey died in penury, but the picture he gives of a vanished age is now reckoned to be the equal of the record we find in the diary of the better-known Samuel Pepys.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also a great deal funnier, and when I showed the script to various friends I was astounded and moved to discover how many of them wanted to be involved in the project. Eventually we put together a team headed by the director, Anne Wilkinson, a music impresario married to a coal expert from the European Commission, with production, design, stage management, lighting, sound effects, costume, music and offstage voices-not to mention publicity and box office-provided by other friends from the European institutions or the private sector. The five performances were given in June in a small theatre just adapted from a pottery workshop, and altogether the Brussels showing made a profit of some 110 000 Belgian francs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We had expected just to send this donation to Pink Triangle through the post, but to our immense pleasure they said they would like to see not just the money but, if possible, the play too. By ingenious compression the designer, Burt Baum, managed to cut the essentials of the set down to three sheets painted to give a three-dimensional effect, we put the voices and music on cassette, rolled up the costume tightly and worked out that the whole play, thus reduced, could be got into one suitcase. There is a little theatre company in the Pacific ACP state of Vanuatu called Wan Smol (One Small) Bag which actually gave me this idea. So off I went to Kuala Lumpur with this bag, and did the play another five times there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The staging in Malaysia was done by an adventurous outfit called Instant Cafe Theatre. This young company has a reputation for pushing forward the boundaries of public discussion with topical plays and supports Pink Triangle's aims and work. Brief Lives was well outside their usual repertoire, as well as being spoken in the English of 300 years ago. My worry was that bringing such a Western and Eurocentric entertainment might be resented as cultural imperialism in a country with three great and fascinating cultures of its own, Malay, Chinese and Indian, each with its own style of drama. But it turned out there was a local tradition of amateur dramatics in English, particularly Shakespeare, and that English is the usual lingua franca for speakers of different Asian languages. What went down unexpectedly well was the depiction of an old man nearing death and reviewing the best moments of his life; as the character puts it in the play, 'When a boy, I did always love to converse with old men, as living histories,' and Maiaysians have a particular regard and affection for the elderly. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I came away from Kuala Lumpur with many charming memories: the unfailing, sweet-natured enthusiasm of the audience; the relief on the first night as I stood on stage in a floor-length costume of three layers, designed to suggest London in midwinter rather than to cope with the equatorial heat of the Malay peninsula, and realised that the stage was air conditioned. The night when this air conditioning blew out a vital candle on the stage, and a man in the front row lent me his highly un-17th-century lighter to get my clay pipe going. The Chinese friend who gave me a genuine antique opium pipe to add to John Aubrey's collection of exotic curios. The delicious succession of Asian chicken dishes which the stage manager produced for me to eat on stage, cooked in very un-English coconut milk or glazed with rice wine. The work permit which specified I could perform as an artiste but must not 'sit out' or dance with the audience! The theatre's resident singer asking if she could add the play's Elizabethan theme song, with lute accompaniment, to her repertoire.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taking this play to another continent was a fascinating cultural experience for me as a European, and I hope for the audiences too it was something more than just a painless way of being relieved of money in a deserving cause. At any rate the theatre asked if they could have another play soon, one in which Malaysian actors could be incorporated as well. As for Pink Triangle, some of its leading lights were packing their bags to go to Vancouver for this year's International AIDS Conference, but before they left it was a pleasure to hand over the proceeds of the whole venture and to hear that the organisation will use the money to develop a drop-in centre for people approaching them in person for the first time. Some first-timers are understandably timid about coming to the unfamiliar (and clearly signposted) premises for help or information, and a private space where they can talk in confidence is something Pink Triangle has always wanted to provide but could never find the funds for, as the project or programme money they get from their regular donors is invariably tied to what outsiders might think were more urgent priorities. It is not only the headline grabbing schemes which have useful effects: a quietly welcoming space where someone can be himself or herself may do more to dispel an individual's fear and ignorance than publicly visible campaigning, especially where religious and social pressures against certain types of nonconformity are strong. In fighting HIV/AIDS, we must try whatever works. And empowerment must begin with the self. It was a great privilege to be welcomed in like any other volunteer wanting to help bring about a necessary change. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">R.R. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA-Bulletin</Metadata>
+  </Description>
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+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Earthen architecture</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Materials, techniques and knowledge at the service of new architectural applications</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Hugo Houben and Hubert Guilland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major building material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The importance - both in quantity and quality- of unbaked earth constructions in the world is very little known. Believed to be of ancient origin, (it is associated with the early civilisations of the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Indus and Huang He), nowadays, earth is not usually regarded as a major building material. This is despite the fact that it continues to leave an undeniable and distinctive imprint on the architectural landscapes, both rural and urban, of many countries. Unbaked earth is still, in fact, a major building material, being used extensively by people to erect homes and other buildings. Although sites of human occupation have seen constant regeneration with the passage of time, unbaked earth construction has persisted. Excavated from the soil itself, and moulded by the hand of man (or trampled by beasts of burden), the result is a building material which is used in all forms of construction-from simple huts and modest homes, to farm buildings, large houses, urban blocks, religious edifices, castles and palaces. The skills employed are based on knowledge acquired and refined over a long period of time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A contemporary building material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the use of earth in so called 'advanced' countries has declined in the 40 years since the end of the Second World War, in the developing countries it has continued unabated. In the former, the industrialisation of construction and other sweeping changes have rendered obsolete ancient techniques based on the use of local skills and materials, and on mutual help within communities. In the latter, various factors have dictated the continuing use of locally available solutions, materials and knowledge. These include shortages of processed materials (which are costly in both foreign currency and imported energy terms), the widening of the development 'gap', the accumulation of debt contracted within the international monetary system and the survival of local life-styles in which people are accustomed to coming to get her for mutual help for survival. In these countries, which have no industrial means, and which are to be found in various latitudes across the world, earth remains the main-if not the only- building material. Do these circumstances mean that it is a poor material, fashioned using outmoded techniques and unsuitable for promoting the development which is so necessary? The answer to this question is a clear 'no'. On the contrary, the materials and techniques involved are generally of a high standard. They can ensure true architectural quality, allowing communities to continue creating their private or public living environments, and to integrate their buildings into a coherent framework of self-generated development which makes the most of the resources available, both human and material. In fact, scientific and architectural research into earth as a building material, and on related building techniques, has made considerable progress in recent decades. Combined with investments made by industrialists and construction companies, the result is that we now have a wide range of properly mastered production procedures and technical solutions available. These offer great flexibility in meeting a wide range of possible applications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Making a mark on world architecture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recent global surveys, although partial (covering about 30% of the world's housing), have given us an indication of how extensively earth is used in construction. In developing countries alone, 50% of the rural population and 20% of those living in urban areas are believed to be concerned. The figures, which are drawn from the combined data of statistical surveys in various areas, and from bibliographical information, almost certainly underestimate the true position. They show, for example, that 60% of the housing in Peru is in moulded bricks or rammed earth. 83% of the houses in Kigali, the capital of Rwanda, are made of earth. More than 70%of India's housing stock is constructed out of moulded earth bricks or using successive layers of earth, and these buildings provide shelter for nearly six hundred million people. In France, many rural dwellings are built from unbaked earth and one finds, for instance, that in the Dauphine region, up to 90% of the buildings in certain villages are made out of rammed 'pise' earth. Finally, in California, there were estimated to be almost 200 000 'adobe' (sun-dried earth brick) dwellings by 1980 and the use of this material was growing at the rate of 30% a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Closer examination reveals that the whole world bears the indelible stamp of earthen architecture. Earth is used in Africa-in humble shelters built on leased land and in the great granaries of the continent. It is found in the palaces of the Hausa emirs of Nigeria, the ksours and kasbahs of Morocco and the mosques of Mali. In the Middle East, you come auoss it in the tightly-packed neighbourhoods of Ispahan and Iran, the fortified dwellings of Najran in Saudi Arabia, the multi-storey earth blocks of Shibam and the valley of the Hadramaut in Yemen. In Europe, there are the mouded brick farms of Aquitaine and the baroque and neo-classical castles of the Saone valley. And bringing in other parts of the world, we might mention the pueblos of the New Mexico Indians, and the houses built by the Hakkas in the Chinese province of Fujian, laid out in their characteristic concentric circles. The use of unbaked earth in building may be seen as a vestige of past history, but it is actually a living framework for history in the making.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Realistic uses for the future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Confronted with the energy crisis of the 1970s, oil-dependent industrialised countries were forced to look again at tried and tested technical solutions which were now proving to be too 'energy-greedy'. The building sector did not escape this reappraisal and the search began for ways of reducing energy consumption both at source (covering the production and use of building materials) and further down the production chain (maintenance). Research on biomass and solar energy ran in parallel with experiments to update traditional materials and to attempt to rationalise the production process. Earth again became a focus of interest, with government institutions supporting a considerable amount of new research and experimentation. This covered applications in both the industrialised world and in developing countries, research for the latter being undertaken in the context of bilateral or multilateral cooperation. With the threat to the ecological balance posed by pollution, degradation and the plundering of natural areas, this interest in developing materials and techniques that are inherently friendly to the environment has not lessened. In many places, people are becoming increasingly involved in controlling and managing their living environment. The field has been opened up by qualitative research, a new awareness of the available options and an increase in leisure time. With techniques now at hand that are easy to use and economical, a greater measure of (partial or complete) selfhelp building is now possible. The USA, Australia and Germany all encourage new forms of intervention in building which give greater responsibility to the occupier in the creation of his living environment. Viewed from this perspective, earth as a building material has definite advantages and plays an important role.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In developing countries, burdened by debt and confronted by an urgent need to build on a scale unprecedented in history, imported materials, techniques and energy are largely inaccessible to the majority of people, and their use may contribute to promoting 'bad' development. Building with earth emerges as an efficient shortterm way of producing houses or public buildings such as schools, which are both economical and of high quality (being culturally and climatically suitable). Decision-makers in these countries are well aware of this and have mobilised 'upstream' feasibility studies in their education and public housing programmes. The research covers local resources and knowledge, and the use of labour intensive techniques that generate employment and enable the population gradually to become 'monetarised'. The days of costly experimentation, often with no practical result, are now over. A new confidence in the resources that are available must be encouraged. There needs to be an increase in building completions and those who built them need more training. Today, this is happening in Mexico (850 earthen houses recently built in the state of Zacatecas) and in Burkina Faso (6000 school classrooms constructed by 1995.) No fewer than forty million homes will have to be built between now and the year 2000 for the urban population of Africa alone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Studies show that for most of the people involved, there is no choice but to employ local materials, most often earth. One can thus predict that at least 20% of urban and pert-urban housing in African countries (about eight million units), will be built in earth over the next ten years, at a rate of eight hundred thousand units per year. If demand from rural areas is added to this, one gets some idea of the scale of the task facing decision-makers and builders. The use of earth and other locally available materials is unavoidable, and should be encouraged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environmental advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is particularly important to enumerate the many advantages of building in unbaked earth from the point of view of the environment. This issue, one of the contemporary problems facing society, is increasingly moving centre-stage, and in the future, it is sure to play a greater part in political, economic, social and cultural strategies linked to the planning and improvement of the quality of life. Here we refer to the concept of the environment in the widest sense of the word, ecological, economic, technical, health-wise and psychological, cultural and human.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the ecological environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In terms of pollution and degradation, unbaked earth offers a highly positive picture:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not contribute to the deforestation which results, for example, from the use of organic resources for firing baked earth materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not consume any nonrenewable energy (oil, gas, etc.) at source for the processing and production of materials, or further down the production line in their application. This is in sharp contrast to the production of cement, lime and other conventional binding materials, and steel.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- By exploiting strata on construction sites, it allows a considerable saving in energy for the transport of materials.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not contribute to a degradation of the landscape as does the extraction of minerals and ores which hollows out hillsides and creates open cast sites. A great deal of the earth excavated in the course of large public works (notably roads and motorways) can be recycled and used in building (allowing very easy decentralised distribution).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It does not contribute to the diminution of resources of aggregates such as gravel and sand, excavated either from quarries or from water courses, in insular sites or lagoons. The latter can endanger the ecological balance of these natural environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It uses very little water which is essential for the life of the people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It produces no industrial or chemical waste and has the additional advantage of being almost entirely recyclable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the economic environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It is often comparable in cost with, or indeed more economic than competing technologies and requires no major financial mobilisation for its generally light production infrastructure. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It guarantees rapid amortisement thresholds for bankable investments thanks to its low infrastructure requirements for usable production.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It contribution to local flexibility, being readily susceptible to a decentralised approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Throughout the production process, it creates employment and monetary added-value which can be injected for development purposes into other sectors of the economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- By allowing savings in energy and foreign currency, it contributes at the macro and micro economic levels of the building sector, to a considerable reduction in developing countries' debt and to the balance of payments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the technical environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It has thermophysical and hydric properties (good conductivity, energy retention capacity, thermal differential, delayed temperature differences etc.) which help ensure comfortable temperatures:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It normally only requires simple production and application tools (moulds, presses, light shuttering, normal masonry tools, etc.) which are widely accessible to masons and self-help builders.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of health and the psychological environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Not only non-polluting in its use, it also guarantees the absence of harmful effects in the context of daily life (no gaseous emissions or other toxic chemical components, radioactive emissions etc.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It contributes to psychological wellbeing by the architectural exploitation of its inherent characteristics; these include the surface texture, colour, form and luminosity of the material. It thus makes an active contribution to the beauty of the living environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From the point of view of the cultural and human environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-It maintains the traditional architecture heritage of the area in question through the use of local materials and thus plays a part in the respect for, as well as the survival and updating of, cultural, architectural and urban environments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- It allows local populations to take charge of the production of their built environment and thus contributes to the expression of the democratic rights of all to control their living environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future of earth on the move</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In her work entitled 'A Fate Worse than Debt' (Penguin Books, 1988), the famous political commentator, Susan George, analysed the debt situation of developing countries and attempted to determine the basis for a positive resolution of the problem. Her approach focused in particular on solutions involving repayment in creative values or 'in kind' rather than in strictly monetary means. At the end of her analysis, she put forward eleven potential solutions to allow this repayment in kind and to launch a coherent approach for the development of less advanced societies. One of these recommendations was that it would be necessary to develop 'the study and survey (and if necessary the improvement) of local building techniques, in particular earth architecture ('pise' or 'banco').' Ms George argued that new buildings, particularly public ones, should be constructed using these techniques.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is clear that various solutions are being considered for the future: one in which building with earth, using a wide range of local techniques, will have a new technological, social, cultural, ecological, economic and political role of paramount importance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Various methods of utilisation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The technical, constructional and architectural possibilities of earth are very extensive. The study of popular traditions and of traditional knowledge throughout the world has enabled some 18 different methods of utilisation of the material to be identified, each in itself capable of being applied in a wide variety of ways. This wide construction potential has enabled the building of modest shelters, village houses, urban blocks, religious edifices and palaces. This is not to say that other traditional materials do not have an important role, but the sheer diversity and flexibility of earthen architecture probably cannot be equalled.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As was indicated earlier, the use of earth as a building material has given rise to numerous applications using a wide variety of production and construction techniques. Some of these techniques are still used in traditional construction many countries, some have been abandoned, while others have only recently been the subject of developmental experimentation. It is worth noting that there is a register of the principal techniques, mainly associated with processes using moulds, shuttering and direct shaping. The six most widely used techniques are: 'adobe', 'rammed earth', 'straw clay', 'wattle and daub', 'cob' and 'compressed blocks'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these six, three (wattle and daub, straw clay, and cob), are highly traditional, while the others (adobe, rammed earth and compressed earth blocks) have recently been the subject of spectacular evolution linked to the modernisation of production machinery and methods of application. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p094.png"></center><br>
+ The use of earth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The couriers mailbag</Metadata>
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+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plea for African solidarity</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thank you sincerely for your report on the second plenary of the Global Coalition for Africa which appeared in the March-April 1996 edition. As a 'displaced' Liberian, I would like to comment on some of the issues reported in the article.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First, I hope that Africans recognise and appreciate all that former President Jimmy Carter has done and continues to do for our beloved continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, I support the view of Ms Johnson-Sirleaf and President Afwerki of Eritrea that we, as Africans, must invest in ourselves and in productive endeavours in our own countries. However, given the number of civil wars, that have resulted in displacement of our peoples and migration of the labour force, it is imperative that we also begin to think of and recognise each other as Africans first - and only then as members of whatever ethnic group we belong to. As a Liberian with professional qualifications who relocated to Ghana in 1992, I met with opposition and resentment because of my nationality and sex. I subsequently went to the Caribbean where my acceptance as an African was easier.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When there is a population movement, the psychological impact associated with feelings of rejection and intimidation is severe. Sub-Saharan Africa will never develop or reach its fullest potential until we begin to think and act as a united, yet diverse group of people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I agree that it is important to develop our homelands first, but in the case of Liberia, Burundi or Rwanda, where no one seems to understand the concept of peace or the idea of having a future, it is crucial that the displaced be respected and accepted as fellow Africans. It would be even better if we were afforded the opportunity to integrate and assimilate into society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ciata A. Bishop, Grand Cayman.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What about Guinea-Bissau ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I am a student from Guinea-Bissau reading international law and political science at the Social Science University in Toulouse. I have also been a faithful Courier reader for more than seven years. In the March-April issue of 1996, you published an article on fisheries by Anthony Acheampong entitled 'A vital food source in West Africa'. You gave the figures for fish production in 16 West African countries-but did not mention my native country! I should point out that Guinea-Bissau consumes and exports a great deal of fish, and the product is an important source of foreign exchange to the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">F.J. Alves d'Almada, Toulouse, France.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Media and democracy in Southern Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I refer to the article with the above title by Francis Caas which appeared in issue no. 154 of The Courier (November-December). I enjoyed reading the text which examined the emergence of a free press due to the advent of political liberalisation in the Southern African region. However, I wish to make a correction as to what I think is a misrepresentation of fact. The author said, and I quote: 'The installation of a democratic regime in 1994 (in Malawi) enabled the MBC to begin broadcasting in all languages spoken in the country'. This is not actually correct although the Malawi Broadcasting Corporation, apart from broadcasting in English and Chechewa, has since introduced Tumbuka on the radio. I felt it was important to put the record straight on this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Disher G.DJ. Pindani Lecturer in Public Administration, Chancellor College, Zomba, Malawi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Corrigenda </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In issue no 157, a number of 'author' footnotes were inadvertently omitted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pascal Dotchevi, author of 'Togo: the victory of the taxi. bikes' (p.11) is a journalist on Kpakpa Desenchante, a satirical weekly published in Lom&eacute; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Piritta Sorsa, author of 'Banking and securities' (p.13) works at the IMF office in Geneva.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yves Delafon, author of 'Developing consultancy work in the ACP countries' (p.15) is the director of a consultancy and President of the Federation of External Trade Associations in Provence/ Cote d'Azur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">N'Gone Fall, author of 'Fashion; Out of Africa.. the breath of inspiration' (p.53) is a journalist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also in issue 157, some errors appeared in the article entitled 'Sparks fly in Namibia'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the introductory section it was stated that secret harlots were held on resolutions relating to Nigeria, Niger and Sudan. This should have read Nigeria, Niger and Equatorial Guinea; a resolution on Sudan was passed by normal, open vote procedure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the heading 'The future of Lom&eacute;' the ACP Generai Rapporteur vvas refered to as Mr Firmin, which is the forename. The General Rapporteur's surname is Mr Jean-Louis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the fifth paragraph under the same heading, there was a reference to Helena Torres Couto. This should have read Mr Jose Manuel Torres Couto. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bibliography</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">L'Afrique est-elle protectionniste- Les chemins buissonniers de la liberation exterieure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Is Africa protectionist ? Greater economic freedom via the maze)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Beatrice Hibou. Karthala Publications (22-24, boulevard Arago, F-75013 Paris). 1996. 334 pp. ISBN 286537-633-8.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This volume offers a clearsighted analysis of the foreign trade policies of African states, fraud, smuggling and the way in which the franc zone operates, giving a definitive, reformulated account of structural adjustment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In her approach, the author is critical of both the liberal political economy and the new trends (the 'new political economy' end the neoinstitutionalist trends) which perpetuate the division between the economy and society. She refers to K Polanyi for whom Man's social relationships include economics and in whose opinion the economic system is managed as a function of non-economic motives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">From this starting point, Beatrice Hibou demonstrates the part played by the unexpected and the unintentional in economic policies as they currently exist, revealing that coherence in foreign-trade policies on the part of African countries is not an economic priority but a socio-political one. In this connection, she shows that structural adjustment programmes have been unsuccessful in making any real impact on protectionist practices, at least in terms of their political and historical bases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After an overview of (legal or illegal) foreign-trade practices in contemporary Africa, protectionism is clearly alive and well, although much less widely applied and effective than about a decade ago. The reduction in the State's legal powers has meant increased freedom for 'informal networks', various types of dispensation, and an increase in fraud and smuggling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the basis of Jean-Francois Bayart's opinion, dating from 1989, the author suggests that the explanation is to be found in the specific nature of Africa's economic history, which is one of independent means, a lack of production and management of dependency without the way in which it operates being affected. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Reality of Aid</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Independent review of international aid. Pub.: J. Randel and T. German. Earthscan Publications Ltd. (120, Pentonville Road, UK London N1 9JN). 1996. 244 pp. ISBN 1 85383 292 8.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Reality of Aid (now an annual publication) compiled by two NGOs; Eurostep and ICVA, aims to highlight the extent to which donor aid helps developing nations, looking beyond the official publications of governments, banks and inter-governmental bodies. It contains a useful critique of the European Union's various aid policies and the respective bilateral policies of each of its 15 member states, as well as those of other Western nations like Australia, New Zealand, Switzerland and the United States. This year's review highlights, in particular, the need to mount more projects to alleviate poverty, despite aid commitments becoming more scarce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It says, for example, 'Too much aid is being squandered by governments on projects which have more to do with commercial and political advantage than poverty eradication. Rigorous evaluation needs to identify those programmes which can make an impact -and aid must increasingly be directed only to these areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">International aid to developing nations has fallen off over the years. In 1994, members of the OECD's Development Assistance Committee-21 of the world's richest countries-allowed their aid to fall to just 0.3 % of GNP, the lowest level for more than 20 years. The review stresses the need for donors to address in particular; policy coherence (environment, agriculture and consumption policies are all linked to poverty), the effectiveness of aid, the failure thus far to invest in people and the fact that the amount of assistance going to health and education is stagnating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The review also features analytical case studies of various donor activities in selected developing nations (India, Fiji, Cambodia, Peru, Zimbabwe) and looks at Western assistance to post communist countries in transition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A chapter on the European Union's current development policies, edited by Mirjam van Reisen, a Brussels-based Eurostep researcher, criticises the lack of coherence of EU aid with its Member States bilateral programmes-an issue which is likely to come more to the fore as other European nations join the Union in the next millennium. Ms van Reisen also claims that there are too few staff running the EU's development policies and suggests, in particular, that there is a lack of expertise in the social and poverty areas. She stresses the importance for the EU's political leaders of giving more political clout to the EU's development policies at the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC), which is currently engaged in revising the EU's treaties. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">News round-up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">In brief</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trafficking of women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European Commissioner for immigration policy and legal affairs, Anita Gradin, will set to work with fellow Commissioners over the coming months to draw up a European Union action programme to clamp down on the trafficking of women which she describes as, 'the modern slave trade'. This comes hot on the heels of the Vienna European conference on trafficking of women, held on June 10 and 11, which was co-hosted by the European Commission, the Austrian government and the International Organisation for Migration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ms Gradin told journalists on June 12: 'I will put forward to the Council and the European Parliament a communication on the trafficking in women for sexual exploitation. This will cover migration policy, police and judicial cooperation, and social aspects to support and protect the victims. It will also consider European relations with the source countries, where the women are recruited.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Vienna conference highlighted the need for cooperation between Member States and third countrie from which women are lured into prostitution in Western Europe. Recommendations, which are expected to be part of the EU policy, include setting up central national units in each Member State to exchange information.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commissioner told the participants in Vienna: 'The slave trade in women is growing, a slave-trade that aims at sexual exploitation. No part of the world seems to be free from this degrading treatment of women. Women are bought and sold like cattle or commodities. They are deprived of their rights and their dignity. And the direction of the trade is the same all over-it is women from poor conditions that are forced into a deplorable life by men in richer countries.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">She cited a typical case of one woman from the Dominican Republic from the book 'Stolen Lives' by Sietske Altinks: 'One day I went to visit a friend who was going to discuss job opportunities in Europe. I went with her and met a schoolteacher who knew somebody called Juan who could get me a job in the Netherlands. When I went to see him, his associates told me that I would easily find employment in a beauty parlour.' She ended up in prostitution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ms Gradin continued: 'The consequences for the women are dreadful. Often, they find themselves deprived of their freedom to move and decide for themselves; they are often locked up and subjected to violence and sexual exploitation. And should they be able to free themselves, they are regarded as illegal residents and expelled.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Aid for development in the field of communication</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A seminar was held under the auspices of the United Nations in the Belgian Parliament on 6 and 7 June, on 'the future of international development cooperation: new challenges for communication'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union was represented at the event, among others, by Colette Flesch and Steffen Smidt, the directors general respectively of DG X and DG VlII of the Commission. Mrs Flesch gave a presentation at the opening session in which she highlighted the various communication approaches adopted by the European Community in its efforts to counter what appears to be a growing lack of interest in development aid on the continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Smidt, who spoke in the second session of the seminar, began his presentation with an anecdote, citing a text displayed at the entrance to a Federal building in Washington. This states: 'Taxes are what we pay to have a civilised society'. Paraphrasing this sentiment, the Director-General argued that, 'development assistance is what we pay to have a civilised European Union.' The question, he went on to pose, was whether we were paying enough ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of the participants painted a discouraging picture of the situation facing the world's poorest countries in a world of advanced communications and increasing globalisation. Almost all were pessimistic about the impact of the socalled 'information super highways' on the least-developed nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the most striking interventions came from Mabbub Ul Haq, the former Finance Minister of Pakistan, who spoke just after Mr Smidt in the plenary meeting, as well as at one of the discussion workshops. Mr Ul Haq urged the creation of a UN Economic Security Council, arguing that the main risk of global conflagration lies in the disparity that exists between rich and poor, now that the dangers associated with the Cold War have receded. One of the most acute issues under discussion was the growing challenge to the received wisdom that technical assistance is essential for consolidating national capacities. The evidence of 40 years of technical assistance would suggest otherwise (with 95% of funds set aside for this purpose going to foreign experts). Indeed, it was argued that those countries receiving most technical assistance per capita, had 'benefited' least from the system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In his second contribution, Mr Ul Haq painted a somewhat more encouraging picture, pointing out that the shaky 0.3% share of GNP allocated to development aid by the industrialised countries had achieved miracles in terms of increased life expectancy (up by 17 years) and the doubling of school enrolments in the countries of the South.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Round one of the South Africa-EU talks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa gave no immediate response to the European Union's proposals for a bilateral trade agreement at the first round of high level negotiations in Brussels on June 20. The talks were headed by Dr L. T Links who is South Africa's new Ambassador in Brussels and for the KU, by the Director General for Development, Steffen Smidt. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most difficult subject to negotiate will be future terms of access for South Africa's farm produce. The European mandate, which was agreed by EU Member States on March 25, foresees the exclusion of 39% of South Africa's farm produce currently sold to the EU from the planned free trade area. Applying World Trade Organisation (WTO) rules, the EU wants a scaled dismantling of barriers to trade in both farm and manufactured goods over a 10-year period, with a maximum of 12 years for a few highly sensitive items. But the EU has agreed to 'asymmetry' whereby, in some areas, it will open up its market to South Africa at a faster pace than vice versa. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Abdul Minty, deputy Director General at the Foreign Affairs Department in Pretoria, who is one of ,the chief negotiators, explained that South Africa had not yet responded to the terms because it is still consulting internally with the National Economic Development and Labour Council and with its partners of the Southern African Customs Union (Botswana, Swaziland, Namibia and Lesotho). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During a recent visit to Brussels, South Africa's former agriculture minister, Dr Kraai van Niekerk and his deputy, Mrs Thoko Didiza, told reporters that as it stood, the EU's mandate was 'anti-developmental'. Dr van Niekerk said he would like to see citrus fruit, in particular, removed from the list of exclusions. He also sought to dispel the fears of some EU Member States who wish to omit a larger proportion of South Africa's farm produce from the FTA, for fear of competition with equivalent EU produce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr van Niekerk stressed the 'complementary' nature of South Africa's farm production. He pointed out that his country's growing season was at the opposite time of year to that of the EU and noted that South Africa's output of farm produce could only increase by about 2%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EU spokesman, Joao Vale de Almeida, said that progress had been made during the Brussels talks on aspects of South Africa's 'tome protocol'. This is aimed at giving South Africa certain benefits from the Lom&eacute; Convention- some eligibility for South African companies to tender for Lom&eacute; contracts and the partial extension of the Lom&eacute; rules of origin to South African exports. It was originally planned that the Lom&eacute; protocol should be implemented at the same time as a bilateral trade accord, (on January 1 1997). Mr Vale de Almeida spelt out that although it would not be technically and legally impossible for the Lom&eacute; protocol to come on stream without the bilateral pact, it would be more practical if the two could be implemented at the same time. A second round of talks is expected to take place in the autumn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Echo Media Awards</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On 29 June, the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO) launched a Television and Radio awards scheme to reward high-quality coverage of humanitarian affairs. Prizes will go to programmes produced or co-produced by independent production companies and/or broadcasting stations in the 15 EU countries which have been transmitted in a Member State on terrestrial or satellite television or radio between January 1 1995 and September 1 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Judging by a panel made up of NGOs, environmentalists, politicians and the media will be in six categories:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People on the move-a television documentary on the humanitarian consequences of sudden or forced population movements; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the minds of the people-a TV documentary on the psychological trauma in crisis situations; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forgotten conflicts-TV coverage of a long-running crisis forgotten by the mainstream; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vulnerable groups-TV coverage of the hazards encountered by women, children and the elderly in rebuilding their lives; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Broadcast commitment-to a radio or TV station for consistent, high-quality coverage of humanitarian issues; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Radio award-for the most incisive and analytical coverage of an emergency or humanitarian crisis. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Announcing the scheme, EC Commissioner, Emma Bonino, said: 'These awards give us an opportunity to acknowledge the vital role that broadcasters play in raising awareness of the issues at stake in imaginative, accurate and moving ways. They also serve to remind us of some of the basic European values such as solidarity and humanitarianism that have sometimes been eclipsed by barrages of headlines about mad cows and fish wars.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Entries for this inaugural year must be submitted by September 19, 1996. Details can be obtained from: Mandy Duncan-Smith, Media Natura (UK), tel: (44 171) 240 4936 fax: (44171) 240 2291 E-mail: medianatura@gn.apc.org</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Posters featuring contemporary Bantu art</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the framework of its cooperation programme with the Commission, CICIBA (Centre international des civilisations bantu-B.P. 770-Libreville- Gabon) has recently launched a series of large format reproductions featuring contemporary Bantu art. Thirteen works have been chosen, displaying a representative selection of art forms-painting, sculpture, engraving and moulded leather. The posters, more than 5000 of which have been printed in quadrichromic colour, have a 40 x 60 format. They are also available as postcards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The artists featured are Marcela Costa (Angola), Assouambo (Cameroon), Daikou (Central African Republic), Mouanga Nkodia (Congo), Abdou Moeou (Comoros), Pambou Boulaz (Gabon), Jose Menan (Equatorial Guinea), Protais Hakizimfura (Rwanda), Protasio Pina (Sao Tome &amp; Principe), Silu Kinanga and Munyenz Tshibangu (Zaire) and Mulenga Chafilwa (Zambia).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CICIBA has also put together a similar series on ancient Bantu art. The fourth bi-annual exhibition of contemporary Bantu art, which has received some support from the European Commission, was due to be staged in Luanda (Angola) during July and August.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Links between technology and society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For more than 50 years, technological innovation has been regarded by many writers in the field as the motor of economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, with rapid developments in the media sector and the emergence of 'information super-highways', the whole world is talking about the emergence of a new society dominated by 'smart' technology linked with research and creativity. This trend gives rise to many questions. Will the information be made available to all, and if so, when ? Will it lead to a change in North-South relations? Can we imagine what a world of 'tale-working', 'tale-education' and video on demand will be like ? What will the cost of all this be? Will biotechnology rescue the world or be the cause of its downfall ? What will the consequences be for the environment ? And in a globalised world, what standards and norms will be used ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In short, what is the real nature of the relationship between technology and society; between science and humankind ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fifteen universities of the EEA (European Economic Area) from Oslo to the Basque country and from London to Athens (taking in Roskilde, Maastricht, Louvainla-Neuve, Namur, Strasbourg, Lausanne, Sienna, Bari, Madrid, Valencia and Lisbon), have come together to offer a multidisciplinary course focusing on these key questions. During the first term, classes in theory and seminars are offered (in the local language of the institution) by experts from the academic world and the public and private sectors. Visits are also planned to multinational companies and laboratories. For the second half of the course, the students gain a wider European dimension by 'changing' university (with grants from the Socrates programme). The bulk of their time at this stage will be spent preparing a research dissertation in English on a topic which fits in with the specialisation of the host institution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For further information on the ESST</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">programme, contact:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. E Lints (UCL-Belgium)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. (32) 01047.82.60</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prof. T. Nguyen (FUNDP-Belgium)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. (32) 081-72.49.09</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The institutions at work</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Common foreign and security policy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), the European Union has recently issued a number of statements, details of which are set out below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Antipersonnel mines</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 13 May 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the closure of the Review Conference of the States Parties to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, the European Union recalls that it has, in recent years, redoubled its efforts to combat the severe consequences caused to civilians by the indiscriminate use of land mines, in particular anti-personnel mines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The KU, which adopted joint action in May 1995 in order to reconfirm its commitment to the objective of an overall strengthening of Protocol 11 of the CCW, considers that the achievements of the Review Conference (such as the extension of the scope of Protocol II; the strengthening of restrictions on the use of mines; the new and immediate prohibitions regarding transfers; the provisions on technological cooperation and assistance; the regular review mechanism, etc), taken together, are significant steps forward, both in terms of the land mines protocol itself and of the development of international humanitarian law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The KU, however, underlines that the resuits of the Review Conference fall short of its expectations and of some of the goals set out in its joint action. In particular, the EU should have liked an effective and binding verification mechanism and no periods of deferral of compliance, or at least much shorter ones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is convinced that the conclusion of this Review Conference is only the beginning of a challenging process which requires constant and widespread efforts and persistence in order to fully achieve its basic humanitarian objectives. The EU will continue to seek solutions to the problems caused by antipersonnel land mines and will strive towards the goal of their eventual elimination as stated in UN Resolution 50/70 (O). In the meantime, the Member States of the EU will seek early ratification of the amended Protocol II, as well as of the new Protocol IV on blinding laser weapons, and will take urgent steps to ensure their compliance with all the provisions of these two protocols pending their entry into force.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU will also continue to make active efforts with a view to achieving universal adherence to the CCW, since its objectives can only be effectively attained through implementation of its provisions by the widest number of states and parties to conflicts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Furthermore, the EU recalls its determination to pursue its contribution to the international mine clearance efforts. The EU has already contributed to the UN Voluntary Trust Fund, financing, in particular, projects in Angola and Mozambique as well as in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. In addition, the EU will consider the possibility of conducting specific demining actions and will continue to seek to that effect the contribution of the WEU to the elaboration and implementation of such actions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Central and Eastern European countries associated with the EU (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania and Slovakia) and the associated countries Cyprus and Malta, as well as the EFTA country members of the EEA, Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway, align themselves with this statement.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Great Lakes region and the situation in Burundi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 24 June 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU's objectives and priorities with regard to the Great Lakes region are to secure peace, to consolidate the process of national reconciliation in the countries concerned, to facilitate a return to normal democratic life, in particular by restoring the rule of law, and to encourage economic and social recovery.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Aware as it is of the close links between the various political, economic and humanitarian problems in the region and of the serious risk of destabilisation which remains, the EU would emphasise the need for a comprehensive approach and a regional dimension in the search for lasting solutions to the crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It considers that the presence of over a million and a half refugees in the region constitutes a major factor of destabilisation and that their return to their countries of origin in safety and with dignity is essential if peace is to be restored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It appeals to the Heads of State who signed the Cairo and Tunis Declarations to comply with the undertakings they gave, so as in particular to stop trafficking in arms and the training of the various militia and armed groups which serve only to increase insecurity in the region. It would point to United Nations Resolution 1053 in this regard and also the measures in the plan of action adopted by the Bujumbura Conference (12 to 17 February 1995) for the prevention of subversive activities in countries of asylum. The EU also emphasises the importance of deploying United Nations observers in airports and at frontiers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is increasingly concerned at the deteriorating political and human rights situation in Burundi and at the increase in violence. The persistent clashes, spreading over different parts of the country, and the killings and atrocities committed against the civilian population could well involve Burundi in a spiral of permanent conflict.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU strongly condemns all recourse to violence, which will never bring about a solution to the country's problems, and appeals to all the factions in the country to begin negotiating a resolution of their differences and to agree on an immediate, general cessation of violence. It supports the initiatives taken by the United Nations and the Organisation of African Unity to restore peace, as well as former President Nyerere's current efforts in this area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It fervently hopes that the talks taking place will result in a national dialogue open to all factions within the country. It also expresses its support for the ongoing efforts made by various bodies and eminent figures such as former Presidents Carter and Toure, and Archbishop Tutu.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU would point out that it too has taken initiatives aimed at resolving the crisis and recently appointed a special envoy for the Great Lakes region, Mr Aldo Ajello, to assist the current efforts of the United Nations, the Organisation of African Unity and other bodies and individuals, and specifically to lend support to the organisation of a regional conference under the joint aegis of the UN and the OAU to examine and resolve the deep-rooted causes of the crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU remains convinced that such a conference must be convened as soon as possible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reiterates that it is prepared to assist with specific measures to promote peace and reconciliation in Burundi, in particular the organisation of a national dialogue, support for action to promote human rights and the restoring of the rule of law. It is furthermore willing to continue funding the presence of OAU observers and United Nations human rights observers in the country. It is also prepared to help with the economic and social recovery of Burundi as soon as political and security conditions allow rehabilitation programmes to be set up in the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: progressive restoration of aid</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 28 June 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union takes note of the fact that the regime in Niger has announced the results of the country's constitutional referendum and has lifted the state of emergency and the ban on political parties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU takes the view that Niger has thus met the conditions set out by the Council on 13 May 1996 for the progressive restoration of cooperation. In the first instance, this will take the form of: -support for the electoral process; -aid for structural adjustment which, at present, needs to be focused exclusively on the most pressing needs in the social sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Council will continue to follow closely the situation in Niger, in particular as regards the preparation and conduct of the presidential and legislative elections.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arusha summit on Burundi</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 5 July 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recalling its declaration of 25 June 1996, the European Union congratulates President Mkapa on the organisation of the Arusha regional summit, which has produced constructive proposals on the conflict in Burundi. It expresses appreciation for the untiring efforts of former President Nyerere and reiterates its support for his peace initiative.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU encourages the region's Heads of State and the Organisation of African Unity to commit themselves resolutely to supporting and giving substance to the Arusha recommendations and to contribute to the restoration of security in Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU expects the President and the Prime Minister of Burundi to fulfil the undertakings they gave at the Summit to overcome the crisis in Burundi and, with the help of the countries of the region, to put an end to the violence which is destroying the people of Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU calls on all the political forces of Burundi to seek a political solution and to give a favourable reception to regional initiatives to restore peace to their country. It calls the attention of all the parties to the conflict in Burundi to the fact that it condemns all forms of violence and that it will not recognise a government that has taken power by force of arms. Only peace, a peace consolidated at regional level, can guarantee the security of all and lay the foundations for economic and social development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is prepared to support the realisation of the Arusha objectives with a view to restoring peace and security in Burundi. It reiterates its readiness to help Burundi in its economic and social recovery when political and security conditions make it possible to begin its rehabilitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reiterates the need to convene the Conference on Peace, Security and Stability in the Great Lakes Region under the joint aegis of the United Nations and the OAU.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: support for the OAU Resolution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 15 July 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recalling its previous Declarations and Common Position on Burundi and, in particular, the Declarations of 25 June 1996 and 5 July 1996, the European Union warmly welcomes the Resolution on Burundi adopted by the Organisation of African Unity's Assembly of Heads of State and Government in Yaounde on 8 -10 July 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Union particularly welcomes the reaffirmation by the OAU of its support for the Mwanza Peace Talks under the facilitation of former President Nyerere and its encouragement to him to continue with his efforts based on and incorporating the principles of sustainable democracy and security for all the people of Burundi and an all-inclusive negotiation process. The Union reiterates its appreciation of the untiring efforts of former President Nyerere and its support for his peace initiative in this context.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The declaration in the Resolution of the OAU's full support for the outcome of the Arusha Summit of 25 June 1996, especially the acceptance of the request by the Government of Burundi for security assistance in order to complement and reinforce the Mwanza peace talks, as well as creating conducive security conditions for all parties to freely participate in the Mwanza process is also welcomed by the Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reaffirms its willingness to support the realisation of the Arusha objectives with a view to restoring peace and security in Burundi. It remains ready to help Burundi in its economic and social recovery when political and security conditions make it possible to begin its rehabilitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Visits</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The President of Haiti</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The President of the Republic of Haiti, Rene Preval, visited the Commission on 11 June. He met with President Jacques Santer, Commissioner Joao de Deus Pinheiro (responsible for relations with the ACP States) and Commissioner Emma Bonino (responsible for humanitarian aid).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President Preval thanked the European Union for all the support it had provided both for the restoration of democracy in Haiti and for the country's economic development. He spoke in particular of the discussions that are currently under way with the Bretton Woods institutions aimed at restoring Haiti's economy. The President indicated that an economic recovery programme would need balance of payments support to the tune of $119m during 1996, as well as assistance for a range of economic sectors amounting to a billion dollars over a three-year period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For his part, Professor Pinheiro expressed satisfaction at being able to welcome the President at a time when the democratic process in Haiti was functioning normally and institutional consolidation was taking place. In a statement to the press, he said it was an appropriate moment 'to evaluate our cooperation and to strengthen it in a way that will contribute to economic and social development' in Haiti. He added that it was essential for the Haitian people to recognise that democracy was worthwhile. Professor Pinheiro also welcomed the normalisation of relations between Haiti and its neighbour, the Dominican Republic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The President of the Dominican Republic</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The newly-elected President of the Dominican Republic, Leonel Fernandez Reyna, had a working session at the Commission on 15 and 16 July.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This trip to Brussels was the President's first overseas visit in his new capacity, following his election on 30 June. Indeed, he had not yet formally assumed office at the time of his visit. His inauguration was due to take place on 16 August and the President-elect extended an invitation to the Commission to attend the ceremony. Mr Fernandez Reyna's subsequent itinerary included visits to Spain, France and the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Support for human rights</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently approved the financing of the following projects under the budget line 'Human Rights and Democracy in the Developing Countries):</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea: ECU 120 000 for a project aimed at actively involving members of the National Assembly in the institution's functioning, and in the democratisation process taking place in the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: ECU 72 000 for a human rights training programme in schools in both urban and rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria: ECU 118 000 for a human -rights training programme to be run in educational establishments and through itinerant projects in regions lacking education infrastructures. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji: ECU 119 000 for a project to support a non-partisan, multi-ethnic civic forum, aimed at contributing to the achievement of a consensus among various social groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal: ECU 59 112 to safeguard texts which are essential to the preservation of Tibetan culture. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nepal: ECU 30196 for the archiving of slides and photographs depicting art objects in order to preserve the culture and traditional techniques of Tibet. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines: ECU 61 750 for a mission to identify the areas in which strategies for human rights and democracy could lead to positive and lasting changes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sri Lanka: ECU 84 314 for a programme of information in the field of promoting equal opportunities and non-discrimination </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Aid for rehabilitation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently decided to finance the following projects in developing countries affected by serious civil disturbances or natural disasters:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: ECU 847 000 for an integrated programme covering the rehabilitation of agriculture and basic infrastructures, training in demining, hygiene and self sustaining development in Kipungo. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: ECU 185 000 for the rehabilitation of basic infrastructures (water, health, education and housing) In the province of Luanda. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea: ECU 353 947 to support the rehabilitation and development of basic </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">health care services in the south-west of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea: ECU 575 197 for the rehabilitation of water supplies and community development in the town of Hagaz. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 515.685 for the rehabilitation of primary care and water supplies in the Warder area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 455 630 to help the rehabilitation of repatriated people and displaced persons in the Borena area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 308 475 for the rehabilitation of health care and water supplies in the Hararghe area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 848 000 for a programme of support to upgrade medical infrastructures. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 590 000 to consolidate the water sector and rehabilitate livestock infrastructures in Maputo and Gaza provinces. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 500 000 for the second phase of a programme to help reestablish and reintegrate displaced people in Milange. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 241 259 for a project designed to revitalise livestock producer groups, make available essential veterinary products and support cattle production in the landward prefecture of Kigali. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 411 751 to provide professional training in primary health care. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 805 475 for an environment rehabilitation project in the prefecture of Kibungo. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 437 622 for the rehabilitation of primary schools in the southwest of the country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rwanda: ECU 94 650 to train laboratory technicians. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 626 439 for the rehabilitation of wells and water points in the Nugal region. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 423 687 for the creation of enterprises involved in making bricks and earth blocks in order to assist in the rehabilitation of rural habitats. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 1 491 117 for a tree-planting project around the Virungas National Park as part of a rehabilitation programme directed at Rwanda's immediate neighbours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 213 536 for operational and methodological support for rural development projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 645 120 for technical assistance in the follow-up and evaluation of rehabilitation projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 551980 for a programme to rehabilitate schools and provide support for the education sector. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">European development fund</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following, where required, favourable opinions from the EDF Committee, the Commission has decided to provide grants and special loans from the 5th, 6th and 7th EDFs to finance the following operations (grants unless otherwise stated). Major projects and programmes are highlighted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic and social infrastructure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi: ECU 1.9 million for the rehabilitation and construction of customs facilities. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 11 million for resurfacing and improvements to the runway at Lusaka international Airport. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji ECU 1.8 million for the rebuilding of three bridges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade promotion/ structural adjustment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Member states of SADC (Southern Africa), ECOWAS (West Africa) and ECOCAS (Central Africa): ECU 500 000 for a follow-up pilot project relating to industrial fore in different sectors. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana: ECU 1.9 million for a tourism development programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djibouti: ECU 4.1 million to support the 1996-97 structural adjustment programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Netherlands Antilles/Aruba: ECU 5 million for a tourism promotion programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture/ rural development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Madagascar: ECU 1.9 million to support professional organisations in the field of rural credit. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swaziland: ECU 1.4 million to build a bridge at Maphobeni, to facilitate rural development in this area. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swaziland: ECU 1.5 million to improve the storage and commercialisation of maize. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Health</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Benin: ECU 700 000 to enhance the security of blood supplies in the Oueme, Mono and Atlantique departments. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education/training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Botswana: ECU 15 million for a training programme directed at SMEs, independent operators and the unemployed. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 1.05 million for a programme designed to strengthen training and research capacity in the economic field. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Member states of IGAD (Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, Uganda): ECU 1.9 million for a training programme for the commercialisation of cereals. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lesotho: ECU 1.3 million for a community reforestation programme in the Lesotho Highlands. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Institutional support</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djibouti: ECU 250 000 to provide technical support for the computerisation of the National Bank's accounting system. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: ECU 1.8 million to support the electoral process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 1.7 million for an assistance programme for the National Authorising </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Officer covering the management of funds allocated by the European Community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 1.5 million for the first phase of a tourism development programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cariforum countries-Antigua &amp; Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, Bahamas, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, St Kitts &amp; Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent &amp; the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad &amp; Tobago): ECU 725 000 in technical assistance for the programming unit of the Cariforum General Secretariat. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Miscellaneous</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All ACPs: ECU 5 million to strengthen fisheries management and biodiversity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 1.5 million for a pilot project in the field of decentralised cooperation. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 12.5 million for a community development programme in the battle against poverty. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 47 million for the second rehabilitation programme. The focus will be on productive activities (livestock, agriculture and fisheries), the social sectors (health, water, sanitation systems and education), the private sector (revenue generation, job creation, SMEs), the public sector (training, establishment of institutions), demobilisation, and the integration of former combatants </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 1.6 million for a programme to combat poverty including, in particular, the provision of credit to micro-enterprises. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zaire: ECU 2 million to support the integration of displaced people in Kasai. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">European investment bank</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Africa: A loan of ECU 56 million for Eskom, the public electricity company, for the modemisation of part of its electricity distribution network.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Humanitarian aid</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: ECU 14 million for a global assistance programme covering food and medical aid, the distribution of equipment and demining operations. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 500 000 for the distribution of essential food products and to meet the special nutritional needs of children in the north of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cote d'lvoire: ECU 340 000 to help combat cholera and yellow fever among refugees from Liberia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ghana: ECU 140 000 towards the setting up of a camp for 'boat people' arriving from Liberia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guinea: ECU 160000 for the distribution of food to refugees from Liberia and Sierra Leone. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Senegal: ECU 250 000 towards the fight against cholera, notably in the town of Touba.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sierra Leone: ECU 4.2 million for food and emergency medical aid (to combat cholera) for people displaced by the civil war. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 1.5 million for a measles vaccination programme and for medical and food aid for victims of the internal conflict. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Southern Sudan: ECU 13 million to finance ECHO flights, and for food, medical aid and the provision of water supplies, for civilian victims of the conflict, notably in Khartoum and its environs and in the refugee camps in the north of Uganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non - ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua: ECU 1.5 million for medicines, essential provisions, drinking water supply equipment and training actions in the area of epidemic prevention. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peru: ECU 800 000 for shelters and medical assistance to people in the process of reestablishing their homes having fled from the violence that has occurred over the past ten years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ex-Yugoslavia: ECU 102 million for various emergency operations. The breakdown of this aid, by country, is as follows: Bosnia-Herzegovina-ECU 77.45 million; Croatia-ECU 11.95 million; Serbia-Montenegro-ECU 12,6 million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Russian Federation: ECU 900 000 for street children in St Petersburg and homeless people in Moscow. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Afghanistan: ECU 7 million for a coordinated aid programme covering public health measures, the provision of drinking water, hygiene and refuse collection. The aid will be directed both at the people of Kabul and at other provinces of the country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kirghizistan: ECU 3.6 million for the purchase and distribution of food. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tadilkistan: ECU 8.9 million for a food and medical programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Bangladesh: ECU 300 000 to help victims of the tropical storm that struck in the middle of May. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Food aid</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Angola: 15 000 tonnes of cereals, 2000 tonnes of oils and 3000 tonnes of beans amounting to a total value of ECU 20.075 million. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/ec159e/metadata.xml
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--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/ec159e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/ec159e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
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+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">The Courier - NÂ°159 - Sept- Oct 1996 Dossier Investing in People Country Reports: Mali ; Western Samoa (ec159e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Society, Culture, Community, Woman, Youth, Population|Social sciences, sociology (works comprising several subgroups) incl. participatory research and training</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Development Periodicals and Magazines|The Courier ACP 1990 - 1996 Africa-Caribbean-Pacific - European Union</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">EC Courier</Metadata>
+        </Description>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/ec160e/ec160e.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/ec160e/ec160e.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/ec160e/ec160e.htm	(revision 21010)
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+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; The Courier - N°160 - Nov - Dec 1996 - Dossier Habitat - Country reports: Fiji , Tonga</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Courier - N°160 - Nov - Dec 1996 - Dossier Habitat - Country reports: Fiji , Tonga</Metadata>
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+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa - Caribbean - Pacific - European Union </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country reports</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji is home to people of a variety of cultures but it would not be accurate to describe this Pacific island country as a 'melting pot'. Politics here are dominated by the difficult relationship between indigenous Fijians and the descendants of indentured Indian labourers brought in to work the sugar cane fields. We look at how this situation affects the economy -  which everyone acknowledges has considerable potential, and examine the prospects for ethnic rapprochement as the nation begins a 'great debase' on the future shape of its Constitution. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga appears like a haven of tranquility in a turbulent world. A society which respects hierarchies and is strongly attached to 'traditional values', it is also one of the few remaining places with a hereditary ruler who wields substantial power. But outside influences cannot be ignored altogether and nations everywhere are having to adapt to living in the 'global village'. Our report focuses on the possible consequences of this for the 'Friendly Islands' as the new millenium approaches. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dossier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Habitat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of 'habitat' conjures up different things to different people - from the right to a roof over one's head to the way in which we manage the flora and fauna of the planet. In our dossier, we consider the legacy of the United Nations 'Habitat' Conference held in Istanbul earlier this year. We also highlight some of the initiatives being taken to improve the quality of people's living environment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgements</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier: Africa  - Caribbean - Pacific - European union</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Address: Postal address (mail only) 'The ACP-EU Courier' Commission of the European Communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 Brussels Belgium </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Courier office address (visitors) First floor Astrid Building 1, rue de Geneve Evere- Brussels Belgium</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publisher Steffen Smidt commission of the European communities 200, rue de la Loi 1049 - Brussels (Belgium) Tel. 00-32-2-299 1111 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Director of Publications</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominique David</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Simon Homer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Assistant editors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Augustin Oyowe</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeanne Remacle</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Associate assistant editor</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hegel Goutier</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Journalist:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Debra Percival</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Production Manager:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dorothy Morrissey</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Secretariat:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Carmela Peters</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fax: 299-30-02</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Circulation:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Margriet Mahy-van der Werf (299-30-1 2)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Meeting point</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Jacques Bugnicourt, Executive Secretary of Enda Tiers Monde</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main development battle must be fought in the towns and cities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Founded in 1972, Enda Tiers Monde ('Enda' stands for 'environment and development') is one of the few large international NGOs to be based in a developing country. It has a presence in a number of states in Africa, Latin America and Asia and has been concentrating its efforts on towns and cities, in the belief that this is where deprived populations can be best assisted. Jacques Bugnicourt, who is Enda's Executive Secretary, has some strong views about what needs to be done to tackle the problem of urban deprivation. When we interviewed him at the Enda headquarters in Dakar, Senegal, we began by asking him about the history of the organisation that he heads.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - When we launched Enda, I am not sure that we had any particular goal in mind. You would have to go back to the end of the 1950s, with the war in Indochina, the approaching conflict in Algeria, the independence of countries in Africa and the last-ditch struggles of the colonial powers, notably France. It was in Paris that links were forged between activists from many Third-World countries - in particular, we all took part in the street demonstrations mounted by people from the French colonies. There were some very strong groupings like the Federation of Students from Black Africa, and its equivalents set up by students from the Maghreb, Latin America and Asia. Ten years later, in the 1970s, we could see that the independence experiment was turning sour and the hopes we vested in the actions of determined and brilliant people had come to nothing. The United Nations was becoming increasingly bureaucratic. Some of our friends and colleagues who had government posts had their hands tied, while others were in prison and were equally powerless. In addition, the communists were disappointed at not being able to apply their doctrine to local conditions. Some did, in fact, manage to achieve small-scale results locally when working at the grass-roots, but by and large, their efforts were not successful. I came to Dakar, where I taught in a United Nations institute.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A lot of people had theories. But you cannot take up the battle for the poor without the poor themselves, or for those under the yoke of colonial rule without the participation of the subjugated population. To begin with, you have to appreciate the diversity of the various peoples in developing countries, and be aware of their daily life and struggle. Cesaire wrote that you had to ask questions about the soil, about cities, about men and about the sun. Later, once you have done this, you can act.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We need to dismantle the barriers. There can be no agronomy without economics, and no economics without sociology. If you are talking about jobs in Senegal, you also must talk about jobs in Mali and Guinea - treat Africa as a whole. Another thing is that you have to stand up for yourself and not allow yourself to be manipulated by people from the developed countries. One of the major problems we have noticed is that part of Africa's elite is out of touch with the general population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These are the underlying reasons for the foundation of Enda. Nowadays, it is a non-profit-making international organisation working with various communities - an 'INGO', if you like, with the 'I' standing for 'international'. We have bases almost everywhere in the Third World, from Ho Chi Minh City to La Paz.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is each section of Enda independent, then ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. We took the view that there was a danger of becoming too centralised and acting like a small-scale UNICEF or UNESCO, so we decided to guard our independence very carefully. We opted for the widest-ranging autonomy possible. This has its drawbacks of course, but these are far outweighed by the advantages.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mention drawbacks. Would it be true to say that the original enthusiasm which greeted the creation of Enda has fallen off somewhat ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's something we are always concerned about. It is not structures which maintain cohesion, but the sharing of goals and the channelling of our actions towards the common good.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the various sections get together, we find that we have a great many things in common. But there is no good reason why those of us in Dakar should try to influence the way people work in working-class districts in Santo Domingo, for example, where they are trying to tackle problems like AIDS and unemployment. We simply tell them what we are doing here and vice versa. If you want to serve the people, you have to have a decentralised set-up. It would be wrong to deal with a problem centrally, and to do so would be against our instincts. Most of us have no particular liking for institutions. An institution must be of service in the battle, not the other way round.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· How do you guarantee cohesion in practice ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It costs a great deal to travel of course, but we do have a lot of joint programmes. For example, the cities programme includes people from Bogota, Santo Domingo, Rabat, Dakar, Ho Chi Minh City and Bombay, all working together. They meet from time to time and, when they do, it is to get down to practical work. Together, their work is, say, three-quarters practical and one quarter reflective. Nevertheless, there is ongoing tension, particularly in the relationship between overall policy and local demands. Another conflict arises between grass-roots action and reflection.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The impression one gets is that you yourself are the 'cement' between the various groups which make up Enda. Could this not be seen as a weakness which may make things difficult in the future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's what other people say, not what I think. I try to make my presence useful and those who come after me will do the same. What really holds us together is our belief in what we are doing. It is not a question of adhering to some kind of 'monolithic' faith. We simply believe that we can be of use, recognising that there are many limitations. Let me give you a practical example. If someone involved in recycling in Bogota were to meet up with someone from a poor district in Dakar who works at the rubbish tip, they would have a great deal in common and would find it useful to compare their problems and consider practical ways of solving them together.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What are your most important activities in Senegal ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - By far the most important is the one covering the city of Dakar. As well as being a focus for the country itself, Dakar is a metropolitan centre for the entire sub-region, with influence over Bamako, Conakry, Bissau and perhaps even Praia in Cape Verde and Nouakchott in Mauritania. What happens here has repercussions in all those cities. I do not want to sound too dramatic, but the decisive factor in our destiny will be the fate of young people and the poor in the major cities. Two-thirds of these people are facing chronic problems. Those under twenty make up more than half the population and their lives are continuing to spiral down into poverty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enda should obviously be operating in those areas where it can be of most use. And in the context of towns and cities, we have completely reviewed our strategy. For some years we gave priority to the countryside. For a long time, in fact, we believed that rural development would permit a much improved urbanisation process. There was even the view that people in developed countries would not object to paying a little more for agricultural produce, because they could be certain that the money was going to those who actually grew the cotton, groundnuts, cocoa or whatever.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the last fifteen years or so, though, we have come round to the view that our actions must be directed principally at towns and cities. We found initially that there were some interesting projects involving small groups - working to improve the position of children or banding together in cooperative savings ventures. It was good, long-term work which gave results. But that is all out of date now. We have to speak in terms of much larger numbers  -  tens of thousands and not tens or hundreds. Otherwise, there is no chance of making a real difference. That is why we have considerably altered our strategy. Three years ago, approximately two thousand children were able to go to holiday camps. Most of these holidays were paid for by companies, but fewer than 10% of the beneficiaries were genuinely poor. Last year, no fewer than 10 000 children were sent away on five days' holiday -  to the coast near Dakar. Enda was involved in this programme working with 200 local cultural and sports associations. The idea was to give the children the chance to splash about in the sea, but also to use African resources to help them become full citizens and learn that our diversity is the source of our wealth. There are at least 100 000 children living in misery and many of them could end up joining the ranks of the street children. If you can give these youngsters five days holiday plus a bit of follow-up, you allow friendships to be built. It offers a brief escape from everyday reality. It may not be paradise, but it is something tangible.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another example is the tontines that have been formed into a federation. We currently have nineteen thousand women participating in these and if you bear the large family sizes in mind - there are perhaps ten people in every family - that represents a lot of people. The women pay into the tontines and the money is used, not just for the security of their immediate family, but also to help young people set themselves up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Then there is rubbish collection. Enda runs its own scheme but there are also a number of groups that have turned rubbish collection into a profession. The young people collect the rubbish and recycle it. There are about 50 000 people in the biggest district where we are involved in rubbish collection. There are also some young people in that district who are engaged in water recycling and although it only involves supplying about a hundred people at the moment, I believe this scheme will grow. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We also organise schools and are currently involved in making films for schools on the subjects of the environment, hygiene and solidarity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Enda has just opened an 'eco-centre'. If I understand it correctly, this is a showcase to promote a horizontal link between Enda's various activities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That is right. We want it to be a place of passage, meeting, exhibition, permeation and redistribution. We hope people will feel comfortable there, and that it will be a tool symbolising a new way of working. So the centre offers an experience, but we also want it to be used to promote activity. A variety of events have been organised there simultaneously - recently for example, a meeting of shoe-shiners, a gathering of teachers from a long-standing educational centre, an exhibition for the Biennial Festival of Contemporary African Art, and a local-community meeting about setting up a small production facility. Two days earlier, there was a preliminary holiday-camp meeting where the instructors got together to look at the best available teaching methods designed to make children more aware of the importance of solidarity. We believe that solidarity is essential in tackling problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So the centre has a multitude of uses, all of which contribute to the vitality of the local economy. You have to understand the crucial importance of the local economy. It responds to all the basic needs of the poorest people, who want to live their lives just like the rest of us.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You talk of depending on the local (what some would call the informal) economy to live - or at least survive. But this sector is not viewed with enthusiasm by the international authorities ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Their policy is based on domination and fear: fear of those who accumulate assets. To see these hordes of people in the developing countries frightens them. It's a bit like the horror of the wealthy classes at the end of the nineteenth century when faced with a working class which dared to aspire to wealth. They will give to charity but are not prepared to make a long-term investment. The lack of support for the local economy stems from the fact that foreign aid is geared, first and foremost, towards major projects or emergency aid. Four or five years ago, the UN conducted a survey in 10 towns and cities in West Africa, but the results were not published because they showed that the average rate of growth of the local economy was 7.5%. So, you see, we are far from just muddling along. Great things could be achieved if only there were a change in attitude. It also requires a change of terminology. How can one justify the use of the word 'informal' and, worse still, treat the work of the poorest people and fraudulent activities under the same heading. Fraud may be formal or informal. Knowing African society as I do, I am aware that fraud is statistically more widespread amongst the prosperous and highly respected. So we must not cast stones at the little man selling socks who has no trading licence because he cannot afford one, or at the woman who sets up a stall at a school entrance without complying with the law which requires a recent certificate stating that she does not have tuberculosis. What is the bottom line here ? Must we respect the law or the people who want to live without being thieves, beggars or prostitutes ? It is unacceptable for force to lie with the law and for the majority to be cast into wretchedness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Senegal, there used to be fixed prices for milk. The World Bank protested, declaring that this was a restriction on free competition. Now we have to pay much more and many people can no longer afford to give their children-milk every day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To put it in perspective, Senegal's economy is about the same size as that of the city of Bordeaux. So we must use all the available potential. Highly qualified managers should do their job looking after the high-tech sectors. But, at the same time, we should not be driving out the poor people who are just trying to eke out a living. The informal sector creates services for a very small investment, and people also require services. Economic policy must allow society to walk on two legs, not just one. What that means is that we need a great deal of flexibility, and perhaps a complete review of the law. Contraceptive implants have to be licensed so that there are no more back-street abortions. And it must be possible for girls to attend school even if they do not have a proper birth certificate - why should they be excluded from education for want of a piece of paper. It should be possible to trade with a simple one-day ticket which people should be able to buy in post offices or cinemas. What would be wrong with that? And we should have a moratorium on a number of regulations. We need to wage war on the destitution that we are suffering and that means taking decisive measure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ACP</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Joint Assembly begins discussions on future ACP-EU relations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the agenda was, as usual, heavily laden with a variety of long-standing issues ranging from regional cooperation, fisheries, the cocoa content of chocolate and bananas to the situation in several ACP states (in particular Rwanda and Burundi), the future of ACP-EU relations was at the forefront of discussions at the ACP-EU Joint Assembly, which was held in Luxembourg from 23-26 September 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Opened in the presence of the Grand Duke and Grand Duchess of Luxembourg, the Assembly's general attitude was not one of speculation as to whether or not the European Union would abandon the ACP states when the Lom&eacute; IV Convention expires in the year 2000 - a feeling that was rife shortly after the signing of the revised version in Mauritius in November 1995. Instead, it was one of positive thinking and of exploring the kind of agreement that would succeed it. 'There is no question of the European Union getting out of a relationship which took decades to build', Luxembourg's Prime Minister Jean-Claude Junker, told participants in his welcoming address.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As pessimism gives way to guarded optimism, ACP-EU parliamentarians have taken an important initiative, even before the Commission's Green Paper is published, in what is bound to be a long and passionate debate. A special summit of ACP Heads of State is planned for Gabon later in 1997 to discuss the issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Options for the future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A general report, introduced by Mr Firmin Jean-Louis (Haiti), provided the main platform for the Joint Assembly's deliberation. Although presented too late for representatives to have the opportunity to examine it in detail, the exchange of views on the floor was wide-ranging and reflected the report's content to a considerable degree.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report encapsulates all the ideas that have emerged so far in various fore. It analyses framework options for future ACP-EU relations  -  bilateral, regional and multilateral - and raises pertinent questions and concerns. Noting that international cooperation is increasingly dictated by economic and security considerations, and that North-South solidarity is, as a result, being pushed to the background, it regrets the fact that certain EU member states appear to indicate a preference for bilateral over multilateral cooperation. The author of the report warns that this trend would not only diminish the credibility of the Union but also its international influence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any instrument of cooperation, the report says, should take into account the different levels of development among ACP states as well as the regional vocation of many others. Its objective must be poverty eradication, sustainable economic and social development, and the harmonious integration of the ACP states into the global economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It recognises the need to secure the support of European public opinion which is largely unconvinced that EU aid to ACP states has been effective over the past 20 years. Not enough publicity; it says, has been given to its positive aspects. The report goes on to warn that solidarity and development are at stake and that the debate on the future of ACP-EU relations should not be left to politicians and technocrats. It should also involve wider civil society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Joint Assembly debate, the commitment of EU political leaders to the development of the ACP states was often called into question. Francis Wurtz (EUL-F) summed it up when he said there were worrying signs that the EU intends to downgrade its relationship with the ACP states - signs which go back to the negotiations on the Lom&eacute; IV second financial protocol, when several countries refused to increase their contributions to the 8th EDF. The EU draft budget for 1997, which he said revealed a substantial reduction in the funds allocated to the developing countries outside the Mediterranean region, provided further evidence of this. 'We must be vigilant,' he told his colleagues, 'and must not allow the Lom&eacute; Convention to be revised downwards.' Mr Wurtz agreed that greater efforts were needed to create awareness and mobilise European opinion in favour of development. The European public should know that EU development policy was not based on charity but on self-interest. 'Without Africa developing, Europe has little chance of maintaining growth in the long run.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lord Plumb (EPP-UK), the European Co-President of the Joint Assembly, admitted that it would not be easy to influence European public opinion. 'One of the roles of the Joint Assemby,' he said, however, 'must be to ensure that the peoples of Europe have confidence in the progress being made by the countries of the South. We must all help in this task of confidence-building.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Glenys Kinnock (PES-UK) urged that there should be as much participation as possible in the ongoing dialogue over future ACP-EU relations in order to bridge what she saw as 'the gap between rhetoric and reality.' Equity, she argued, should be the main objective.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP Co-President, Sir John Kaputin (Papua New Guinea), said there was no doubt that the EU was forging closer ties with the former Eastern bloc countries at the expense of the ACPs. He pointed out, however, that the Lom&eacute; Convention had always encouraged a 'forward-looking' approach and argued that whatever succeeded the current ACP-EU relationship should be 'the most important' agreement ever.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The representative from Barbados, Dr Richard Cheltenham, was of the opinion that whatever the outcome of the discussions, efforts were needed to avoid 'chaos'. There should, for example, be no immediate abandonment of the trade preferences that ACP states had acquired. Transformation must be gradual to enable them to adjust and restructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">European Commissioner, Professor Pinheiro, chose, first of all, to underline the importance of the role of 'the state and civil society' in development. He indicated that he saw this as growing more and more in importance. This was reflected in the agreement signed in Mauritius -  an agreement which seeks to encourage the consolidation of democracy, the rule of law, good governance and transparency, and which emphasises decentralised cooperation and the role of the private sector. the Commissioner spoke about the current programming exercise, reminding the Assembly that resources were being allocated in two tranches in accordance with the provisions of the revised Convention, to take account of each ACP state's development strategy and the objectives and priorities of the Community's development policy. He revealed that only 16 ACP countries and two EU Member States had ratified the revised Convention and urged those that have not done so to accelerate the process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He welcomed the Joint Assembly's initiative in debating future ACP-EU relations. The Commission's Green Paper, he told representatives, will be published in November. He was, therefore, not in a position to enter into detailed discussions with members on the subject at this stage. He stressed, nonetheless, that the document 'will not be a blueprint for future EU strategy towards the ACP countries. It will be a discussion paper.' there were a number of key questions that needed to be addressed regarding strategy, the scope of future relations and the use of the traditional instruments of aid and trade. 'This is not to say that we should start afresh', he argued. 'We should build on what has been achieved so far, and adapt where necessary.' Professor Pinheiro was certain that whatever the outcome of the discussions, there were a number of 'unchallengeable principles' on which ACP-EU relations should continue to be based. These were: partnership, ownership by ACP countries of their development policies, security in terms of EU support and predictability of relations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New areas of concern</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This session of the Joint Assembly saw the emergence of two new areas of concern: urban development, and the effects of climate change on small island states. An initial report on the former was presented by the rapporteur, Daby Diagne (Senegal). It did not give rise to much debate. The report emphasises the pivotal role towns play in economic development and urges the Community to adopt an integrated policy on urban development (See our interview with Mr Daigne in the Dossier). The latter was the subject of a full morning hearing, involving a panel of ACP-EU experts who are closely involved with the problem. They warned of the threat posed by global warming to the survival, and even existence, of many islands in the Caribbean and the Pacific. The emission of greenhouse gases, the Assembly was told, has reached levels never before experienced (see the article which follows). Representatives agreed on the need to integrate climate change considerations into sustainable development strategies. A Working Group on the issue was set up with Karin Junker (PES-G) as general rapporteur.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cocoa and babanas</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was no avoiding the intractable problems of cocoa and bananas. On cocoa, opinions were divided as usual. There were those who felt that the Commission's proposed new directive allowing chocolate to contain vegetable oils (up to 5% of total volume) in place of cocoa butter, was reasonable. The proposal also involves a labelling system to ensure that the exact contents of the product are clearly indicated Advocates of this strategy argued that it would not only widen consumer choice but would also promote the export of shea-butter and other vegetable oils which a number of ACP countries produce. Opponents were worried that if implemented, the directive could lead to a big fall in cocoa exports and a commensurate loss of earnings for ACP cocoa producers. Magda Aelvoet (Greens-B) argued in favour of maintaining the status quo, saying that this was preferable to what was being put forward in the draft directive. She warned that the Commission propose' would almost certainly result in everyone (cocoa producers, shea-butter producers and consumers) losing out. There was no guarantee that menu facturers would choose shea-butter given that they would be free to use whatever vegetable oils they liked She was certain they would go for the cheapest substitute or even for synthetic products. Accordingly, Mrs Aelvoet proposed a 'freeze' on all proposals. This view was reflected in the resolution passed by the Assembly, which called on the Council to reject the proposed directive. It also requested the sever member countries which currently authorise the use of vegetable oil to comply gradually with the existing directive  -  which bans their use altogether.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The banana issue proved even thornier. There is a dispute at the World Trade Organisation, where the Lom&eacute; Protocol is being challenged by the United States and Latin American banana producers. Mrs Kinnock expressed anger at the fact that the arbitration panel set up by the WTO is made UP of three countries known to advocate free trade. The panel, she said, is chaired by Hong Kong - which the Organisation told her was representing the 'developing countries!' The general feeling among representatives was that the odds were stacked against the European Union and the ACPs. The Assembly passed a resolution asking the Union to stand firm in defence of the banana regime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Democracy, human rights, peace and security</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty-seven questions were addressed to the Council of Ministers and a further 28 to the Commission. More than a third of these dealt with issues relating to emergency relief operations, democracy, human rights, peace and security  -  recurring themes throughout the four-day meeting. The emphasis, in this context, was on Burundi, Rwanda, Liberia and Nigeria, all of which were considered individually under the agenda item 'the situation in ACP states'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the detailed answers given by Commissioner Pinheiro to questions on Burundi and Rwanda, the Assembly had a long session with Aldo Ajello, the EU's Special Representative to the Great Lakes. The discussion focused on efforts to restore democracy and legitimate government in Burundi, national reconciliation, and the repatriation of refugees from neighbouring countries to both Burundi and Rwanda. Mr Ajello gave members a comprehensive picture of the complex political and humanitarian situation in the region. He spoke of the sanctions imposed on Burundi by neighbouring countries and the efforts of the former Tanzania President, Julius Nyerere, to bring about dialogue and a just political settlement in Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria was again in the dock. Its representative, Dada Olisa, acting Charge d'affaires at the Embassy in Brussels, gave an account of what he considered was the progress made by the Abacha regime on human rights and democracy since the Joint Assembly met in Windhoek last March. He mentioned the repeal of the decree under which Ken Saro-Wiwa and other minority activists were executed, the release of detainees and the transitional programme for a return to democracy by 1998. He pleaded for the Assembly's understanding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">His explanation cut no ice with any of the seven political groupings in the European Parliament, who came together to present a compromise draft resolution on Nigeria. They wish to see all political prisoners released immediately, and the restoration of civil and political rights, as well as a democratically elected civilian government, by the end of 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution on Nigeria was again passed by secret ballot - the very last act of the session. It calls, among other things, for a total arms embargo (preventing the trade in future but also covering existing supply agreements) and for the financial assets of the Nigerian government and of members of the country's ruling councils (and of their families), to be frozen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The resolution does not differ very much from the previous one. Mrs Junker, Johanna Maij-Weggen (EPP-NL) and Mrs Kinnock all expressed disappointment that the EU Council had failed to implement this fully. However, by repeating the demand for sanctions, they said, the Assembly was sending a very strong message to the Council that it was determined to see Nigeria return to democracy as quickly as possible. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Alarm bells sound on small island states</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Climate change</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A morning session of the ACP-EU Joint Assembly was devoted to a public hearing on the effects of climate change on small island states. It was appropriate that the issue should be brought to the attention of the Assembly by Maartje van Putten (PESNL). Representing a country much of which lies below sea-level. she is familiar with the devastating effects of sea flooding. At the hearing, which was very well attended, a panel of invited ACP-EU experts was on hand to enlighten the audience on the extent of the problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although global warning has been on the international agenda for more than 10 years, the seriousness of the threat it poses to the survival of small island states is only now beginning to be taken seriously - and it might already be too late, if some of the most apocalyptic scientific predictions are to be believed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is now growing evidence that global warming is taking place. In recent years, we have experienced more extreme weather conditions - heatwaves, floods and increasingly destructive tropical storms - while there are signs that icecaps are melting and sea levels rising. The increasing incidence of malaria in Africa has been linked to these changes. And it is all happening because of the influence our style of living is having on the planet - in particular the huge emissions of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane, from our factories, vehicles and so on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That the public hearing attracted a large audience was not only a reflection of the interest the problem is now commanding. It also symbolised the mounting international pressure for reductions in CO2 levels in the atmosphere, and for the adoption of more realistic strategies of sustainable development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel of experts comprised Dr Leonard Nurse, Manager of the Coastal Conservation Project in Barbados, Donald Stewart, Acting Director of the South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme (SPREP), Dr Robert Watson, Senior Scientific Adviser at the Environment Department of the World Bank and Chairman of the second Working Group of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and Neroni Slade, Vice-Chairman of the Association of Small Island States (AOSIS) and AOSIS Coordinator on Climate Change. A separate workshop on climate change was also organised on the same afternoon outside the formal Joint Assembly setting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to Dr Nurse, current estimates based on most reliable models, suggest sea level is rising at the rate of 5mm a year (the 'range of uncertainty' is between 2mm and 9mm). This is two to five times the rate experienced in the last 100 years. This rise is expected to continue beyond the year 2100 even if greenhouse gases are stabilised. The implications for small island states, particularly the low-lying ones, would be severe. 'Atolls such as Tokelau, Marshall Islands, Tuvalu and the Maldives could possibly disappear', he said. 'Major population displacement would be experienced in Micronesia, Palau, Nauru, French Polynesia, the Cook Islands and Tonga.' Meanwhile, small islands with extensive coastal plains and limited upland areas such as Barbados, the Bahamas and Antigua, 'would be highly vulnerable to social and economic disruptions', as major cities, ports and tourist facilities, industries, freshwater sources, fertile agricultural lands and even coral reefs are destroyed by typhoons and cyclones, or washed away in floods. 'Given the limitations of climate models,' Dr Nurse said, 'it is not possible to state with certainty at this stage whether there will be a change in the behaviour of tropical storms and hurricanes. However, it is highly probable that an increase in the frequency and intensity of these phenomena could occur in a 'warmer world'. One study, he claims, predicts tropical storms would have a potential destructive force at least twice what they have today.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr Watson, similarly, struck a pessimistic note when he said that the potential for irreversible damage was great. He agreed with Dr Nurse that even if we took measures now to reduce CO2 emissions, stabilisation of the situation will take centuries. He pleaded for climate change to be taken into consideration 'in our everyday decisions.' Governments must not wait for cause and effect to be established before taking action. 'It is,' he said, 'economically feasible to reduce CO2' by introducing appropriate policy measures: looking at supply of and demand for energy, resorting to new and renewable energy sources, nuclear power, etc. and ensuring more efficient land management.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The question of 'burden-sharing' in the reduction of emissions between the industrialised world and the developing countries was debated at length. It was noted, for example, that small islands states are responsible for a very small proportion of the emissions, yet they bear the brunt of the consequences. There was a general consensus that burden-sharing should be based on equity and justice.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It should be noted that the Alliance of Small Island States (which was formed during the Second World Climate Conference in 1990) has called on the industrialised world to achieve a 20% reduction in their greenhouse gas emissions by the year 2005 (The 'Toronto objective'). This, it hopes, would bring CO2 in the atmosphere down to 1990 levels. Whether this is realistic is debatable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, a number of strategy options are being closely examined by the European Commision and the Council with a view to adopting Community-wide measures to reduce emissions significantly by 2005-2010. Member States have made phasing-out proposals with targets of 5-10% by 2005, 15-20% by 2020 and 50% by 2030. This works out at an average reduction of 196 2% annually from the year 2000.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Several parliamentarians wanted to know what the Commission, in particular, had done and will do to help small ACP island states overcome the effects of climate change. It was soon discovered during the discussion that a number of African countries were equally concerned. A Commission representative referred the Assembly to the provisions in the Convention which covered global warming and the special problems of island states. Although there is no specific reference to climate change, the Commission had dealt and would continue to deal with the issue in the broader context of its environmental action. Studies, projects and programmes are being implemented in the Caribbean and Indian Ocean in particular. Furthermore, DG VIII has drawn up internal briefing papers aimed at making departments aware of the issues of climate change and the environment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Country reports</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Fiji</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Political stability is the key to economic success</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In most of the ACP states featured in our Country Reports, the vital issues are usually economic and social ones. How is a nation with a poor natural resource base to achieve lasting development ? What can be done to improve the skills of the people? How can a vibrant private sector be created ? Can better health care be delivered and how should it be paid for? Some of these questions might well be valid for Fiji but the visiting journalist soon discovers that they are all secondary issues. For this is a country whose political system itself dominates the agenda. The fundamental issue here is the relationship between the indigenous people of Fiji and the descendants of indentured Indian labourers brought in by the British between 1879 and 1916 to work in the sugar cane fields.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji, in fact, is home to people of a variety of cultures. On the indigenous side, the majority are Melanesians but there are also some Polynesians (living on the island of Rotuma). The country even plays host to Banabans, from Kiribati, who were displaced from their homes on Ocean Island to make way for the phosphate diggers. They hold a freehold to the island of Rabi and enjoy a special self-governing status. And while the Indians form the bulk of the non-indigenous population, there are also small Chinese and European communities as well as a number of inhabitants of mixed race.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite this diversity, it would be inappropriate to describe Fiji as a melting pot. Ever since the rapid expansion of the Indian population, official policy has tended to accentuate the divisions. In the early days, it was the British who were responsible for this, although one has to be careful to avoid value judgments. The colonial administrators, it seems, were aware of the tensions that would arise by bringing in large numbers of people of a different culture, language and religion. Their eventual response was to provide guarantees for the local population, notably as regards land rights. The effect was to preserve the traditional land tenure system which was based on villages and families. At the time, it seemed a logical thing to do, but several generations on, the country now has a settled population of Indian origin (43% of the total) who have limited opportunities to own land - even though many of them work on it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the economy has developed, each of the two main communities has found itself 'specialising' in different fields. For example, cane farmers and retailers tend to be of Indian origin while the public service has traditionally attracted more native Fijians. Significantly, the army is almost exclusively filled by indigenous people - a crucial factor in the 1987 military coup.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the political front, as Fiji moved towards independence, the idea of providing separate representation for each ethnic group also took hold. The independence constitution of 1970 reflected this with the two main communities being given parity (22 seats each) in the House of Representatives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Shattered illusion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there was no real assimilation between 1970 and 1987, Fiji was seen by many as a model of a successful multiracial society. It was only when the country got its first Indian-dominated administration (sustained in power by a smaller native Fijian party) that this illusion was shattered. There was a military coup led by Lieutenant-Colonel Sitiveni Rabuka, who is now the elected Prime Minister,. Shortly thereafter, Fiji became a republic (Queen Elizabeth was formerly Head of State) and in 1990, a new Constitution was adopted giving political primacy to the indigenous Fijians. Needless to say, it was a time of greatly heightened communal tension.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1987 coup and the events that followed have been well covered elsewhere (including our previous Country Report which was published in 1991). It suffices to say here that while the last few years have been a lot less turbulent, tensions remain. In 1997, the country must adopt a new set of constitutional proposals and a big debate is currently under way about the shape of the system of government for the 21st century. This subject is covered in a later article and also features prominently in our interviews with the Prime Minister and Opposition Leader.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main focus of this article is therefore on economic and social aspects although, as one soon discovers, this frequently leads us back to the ethnic question. This is particularly the case when one considers the overall economic performance of the country. Fiji is not poor by developing nation standards and it has enjoyed modest growth during 1995 and 1996, but there is a widespread view that it could be doing a great deal better were it not for the political uncertainties. The problem is summed up by the Economic Intelligence Unit in its Fiji Country Report for the first quarter of 1996: 'Political instability will continue to deter investment, other than that on highly favourable tax terms.' In other words, Fiji is paying a high economic price for its internal difficulties.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General unease about the future and, in particular, the outcome of the constitutional review process is compounded by specific concerns over land tenure. The long-term leases granted to (mainly Indian) farmers are approaching their end and the government must soon decide what it should do next. Will any of the sugar cane farmers be evicted and if so, how many ? What alternative arrangements will be made for them? These questions remained to be answered when The Courier visited Fiji in July although, as our keynote interviews show, the subject was clearly exercising the minds of the politicians.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A long-term strategy for agriculture?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The way in which the land question is dealt with will have a crucial impact on the sugar industry - still the country's most important product in terms of its contribution to GDP and the jobs that it generates (see the article entitled 'Sugar definitely has a future'). With other uncertainties facing this sector - in particular, the process of global liberalisation - there is a growing recognition of the need for a long-term strategy. The government has a two-pronged approach  -  improving efficiency within the sector and diversifying into other agricultural products. To learn more about this, we spoke to Luke Ratuvuki, who is the Permanent Secretary for Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Ratuvuki began by stressing the scope for increasing the sugar yield per hectare by as much as 75% (and by even more with irrigation). If productivity could be boosted on this scale, Fiji sugar would be in a much better position to compete in open world markets. He admitted, however, that the country would still face a struggle in maintaining market share and, looking ahead ten years, foresaw a slimmed down industry providing high quality sugar with more of a focus on niche markets. This inevitably meant looking at other agricultural products as possible long-term substitutes. The coconut (or as the Permanent Secretary dubbed it, 'the tree of life') is traditionally grown here and seems poised to enjoy a new lease of life following a period of decline. Fiji has also picked up the taro trade at the expense of Western Samoa, which is affected by taro blight, while there are significant exports of ginger to Australia, New Zealand, Canada and Europe. Mr Ratuvuki spoke enthusiastically about branching out into other areas such as pawpaws, mangoes, bananas and aubergines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji has potential for growth in a range of non-agricultural sectors, but farming is sure to play a vital part in the economy for many years to come. Currently, sugar represents almost three quarters of all crops by value (excluding subsistence growing) and the Fijians are only too aware that this makes the country particularly vulnerable to external shocks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The other primary sectors are all present in Fiji, albeit on a more modest scale. There is some deep-sea fishing backed by Asian investors. This provides useful employment although perhaps not the best possible financial return to the country. As one would expect in a nation of three hundred islands, there is also extensive artisanal and subsistence fishing in the inshore areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The forestry sector divides into two parts: artificial softwood plantations which are said to be managed sustainably and the naturally growing hardwoods. As regards the latter, the EU is helping with a mapping project. Although Asian loggers do not operate in Fiji, there is considerable land clearance taking place, leading to problems of erosion and silting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prospects for mining</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gold is the main mineral being exploited with important deposits around Vatukoula. The sector has had its ups and downs but the Emperor Gold Mining Company has now embarked on an expansion project aimed at raising production from the current level of about 4000 kilos per annum to 6000 kilos by the year 2000. A huge copper and gold mine is also planned for Namosi, some 35 km from Suva. Other minerals discovered but not exploited include bauxite, iron, lead, zinc, phosphates and marble. Mining currently makes a modest contribution to overall GDP but represents an important component in the export earnings figures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With one key exception, manufacturing is on a fairly small scale with an emphasis on staple items (butter, beer, soft drinks, paint, soap etc.) for the local market. The exception is the garment industry which provides some 20% of the country's export income and a considerable amount of employment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The investments in garment manufacturing and mining have been important in jobs terms and in improving the trade figures, but there are those who criticise the fact that the government appears to derive little revenue from the operations. The exact fiscal benefits are not easy to determine, prompting some observers to suggest that official secrecy should be eased (see the article on the Constitutional Review later in this Country Report).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the service sector, long-term growth is foreseen in the key area of tourism. The number of holidaymakers choosing Fiji dipped sharply at the time of the coup, illustrating the importance of political stability in attracting visitors. Tourist arrivals bounced back once Fiji's internal difficulties had receded from the international headlines. The politicians must be hoping that nothing will occur during the current period of constitutional discussion and negotiation to put Fiji back on the front pages. It is worth mentioning here that Fiji's national carrier, Air Pacific, is an example of a relatively rare bird - an airline that makes money ! According to journalist Avin Rahish, writing in the July 1996 issue of The Review (the news and business magazine of Fiji): 'It is one of the few government investments that is profitable on its own.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If tourism is a success story, there is something of a shadow over the financial services sector, which is more extensive here than in most developing countries. The reason is the collapse last year of the National Bank of Fiji with losses of US$ 142m (equivalent to 10% of the annual GDP). The authorities were accused of a failure in supervision and the taxpayers have had to pick up some of the bill. More serious, however, is the undermining of confidence in the system and it will take time for this to be restored.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social challenges</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As a middle-income country, Fiji has relatively favourable social indicators in the areas of health and education. Medical facilities are provided by the government but it is said that the public health system is not as good as it once was. This is attributed, among other things, to the emigration of highly qualified staff in the aftermath of the events of 1987. Nonetheless, the country does have 27 hospitals and one doctor for approximately every 1900 people. At 72 years, life expectancy is high compared to the ACP average.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The education sector is well-developed with more than 800 primary and secondary schools (for a population of less than 800 000) and 41 technical or vocational institutions. As a result, primary school enrolment is close to 100% while the 1986 census revealed that 60% of 15-year olds were still in education. On the other hand, there are concerns over the proportion of teachers lacking qualifications, notably in the primary school system. In practice, there is considerable racial segregation at both primary and secondary levels, although there is no official policy to this effect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Educationally, the jewel in the crown is almost certainly the University of the South Pacific whose main campus is in Suva. This regional institution, which has departments in a number of other countries of the South Pacific, draws students from various island nations. Dr Vijay Naidu, who is the USP's Pro-Vice Chancellor, outlined some of the special features of this unique university which has to cater for a highly dispersed population. Like traditional tertiary institutions, it provides a wide range of degree programmes on campus, catering for 3500 students. It has a further 9000 who are being educated using the 'distance mode'. Distance learning is organised through centres in each of the participating countries. Students can attend these centres from time to time but much of their work is done through radio and telephone linkages and, increasingly nowadays, by e-mail and satellite communications. The University, Dr Naidu stressed, also provides continuing education at non-degree level 'in everything from computing to basket-weaving'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Like the health sector, the USP suffered a loss of highly qualified staff after 1987  -  and not just among employees of Indian origin. As the Pro-Vice Chancellor pointed out, the coup created 'a new sense of insecurity' all round and teachers who decided to emigrate were quickly accepted in Australia and New Zealand. The loss has been particularly serious in the scientific disciplines.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90% of the USP's recurrent expenditure is covered by member government contributions with the remainder coming from Australia and New Zealand. For capital investments, there is heavy reliance on external donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In both of Fiji's main ethnic communities, a strong commitment to the family ensures that there is relatively little absolute poverty although things may be changing as the country become more urbanised. It is rare to see beggars in the streets in the South Pacific but Suva, sadly, has a number of these.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall picture is of a country with very considerable potential in both human and natural resource terms which needs to overcome a number of challenges to secure a more prosperous future. Some of these challenges - adapting to the world of free markets, tackling bureaucratic impediments, bringing development to rural villages, improving the infrastructure, and so on - are familiar to all developing countries. The single most important constraint, however, is the big ethnic divide, and the political uncertainty which flows from this. And this is something which can only be solved by the people of Fiji themselves. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with Prime Minister Sitiveni Rabuka</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'The last ten years have been very educational for me'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is almost ten years since Sitiveni Rabuka led the military coup which toppled the newly-electerl coalition government The stormy events of 1987 are long gast end Fiji has returned to more peaceful ways, but the country is arguably not yet at peace with itself. Major-General Rabuka is now the erected Prime Minister, having led the SVT to victory at the polls in 1992 and 1994. But the gulf between the native Fijians end citizens of Indian descent remains -  indeed, it is institutionalised in a political system which ensures a parliamentary majority for the former. A constitutional review is currently under way end a new text must tee adopted by July 1997. For both sides, the stakes are high. In this interview, Prime Minister Rabuka speaks frankly about the crucial issues facing Fiji as the nation gears up for the great constitutional debate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji also faces some formidable economic challenges and we began by asking the Prime Minister about these.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The main challenge is the one that everybody faces: achieving an acceptable rate of growth to ensure job creation and address the unemployment problem. We also want to improve the standard of living of the people, to upgrade our infrastructure, and to develop both the urban and rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What sectors do you see as offering the best hope for future growth ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  We are looking particularly at tourism and the agro-based industries. In the international sphere, we are aiming to boost trade, particularly with our traditional trading partners, Australia and New Zealand, and with new partners that we are trying to cultivate in Asia.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We are very grateful for the Lom&eacute; Convention and the various arrangements associated with it - particularly as regards access to the EU market for our sugar products. Although it would be desirable for us not to have to rely on preferential pricing for sugar, for the moment, there is no alternative. And while we are looking for alternatives and seeking to diversify our economy, we will need that system to remain in place. We would like to continue the dialogue to ensure that this happens. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the area of trade, as I say, our focus is on Australia and New Zealand, and the regional trade agreement that the Pacific island territories have with them. This agreement is currently under review. One important aspect is the clause governing the rules of origin. If we can convince Australia and New Zealand to reduce the local input requirement from 50% to 35%, then we won't need any aid from them. The effect will be to secure existing jobs and, indeed, to increase employment, particularly in the garment industry. At the moment, most of the textiles we import for further processing come from Australia. Because of the market we have to sell to, it is very good quality material. This means the costs are high, in comparison with the local input needed to turn it into finished products, and this makes it difficult for us to get up to the required 50%.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If we don't get that reduction, things could go in the opposite direction. Manufacturers might relocate and we could be facing jobs losses. You have to remember that we are competing with Asian producers who have very low wage costs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is this proposal for a reduction in the local input requirement on the agenda with the Australians and New Zealanders ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The review actually excludes the clause on the rules of origin. Having said this, we have effectively raised the calculation of our local input in negotiations on a series of other points. On paper, the 50% figure is unchanged but in fact, there has been a reduction of about 5%, thus giving us a little margin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· On the sugar issue you said you were hopeful that some form of preferential access to the EU market would be maintained. Isn't there a concern that this may not last beyond the year 2000, particularly given the increasingly liberal world trading system ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, and we are looking at that. We should be gearing ourselves up for what happens at the end of the current Lom&eacute; agreement. It remains to be seen whether, with the WTO and the new trends, the curtain will suddenly be brought down on 1 January 2000, or whether there will be a grace period in which we are given time to consolidate our diversification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The other big issue in the sugar sector concerns the impending expiry of the land leases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That is a local issue and a very important one. It has high priority on our government agenda. We are currently talking to the landowners and lessees, explaining what will happen. The legislation (the Agricultural Landlord and Tenant Act) makes no provision for further extensions to the leases, which are now nearing their end. Do we need a new act or should we amend the present law to allow extensions beyond the 50 years originally allowed for ? And if we are to do that, what happens to the compensation provisions? At the moment, these are viewed in a rather one-sided way. The emphasis is on the situation where the landlord compensates the tenant for improvements made to the land. But the rules also provide for compensation in the other direction where the value has been reduced. This may be due to constant cultivation over 50 years. What if the owner wants to return the land to its original use, planting taro, yams or cassava, as his father may have done fifty years ago, and finds he can no longer do so ? There has to be a balancing act here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hopefully, most of the land will be leased again under a new agreement or under an amendment to the existing law - because we will need to continue sugar production. It is also worth noting that some sugar farmers are beginning to diversify into other crops, both subsistence and commercial.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What arrangements do you envisage for those farmers who do not have their leases renewed ? Will they be relocated ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Right now, we are looking at the use of state land. There are two basic categories here - what used to be known as 'Crown Land under Schedule A' and 'Crown Land under Schedule B'. Schedule A covers the land not claimed by anybody during the Commission that was set up to determine the ownership of land in the very early colonial years. Schedule B is land that belonged to a community or landholding unit that has since died out: in other words, where there is no surviving member of the land-owning unit. So we have those parcels of land available. My party's policy is to restore land to the traditional owners where possible, but in those cases where you cannot identify the original owners, there will be land available for resettlement - although resettlement is perhaps not a very good term to use. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It is somewhat emotive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It implies taking a person, family or community from somewhere and planting them somewhere else -  and I hope we can avoid that. On the other hand, if you look at what people are doing nowadays, everybody's relocating. People are always resettling, moving away from home and setting up elsewhere. In this case it is perhaps a necessity, in the sense that the legislation has caught up with us. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can I turn now to the sensitive issue of the constitution. This is another area where decision day is looming. You currently have a constitutional review under way with the Commission's report due out soon. What do you think will emerge from this process over the next 12-18 months ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I don't feel that the constitutional issue is a sensitive one and do not think anyone should feel restrained in asking questions about it. It reflects the reality of the situation in Fiji. There is a requirement that the 1990 Constitution be reviewed and we have a Review Commission chaired by Sir Paul Reeves. He is a very capable man who is a former Governor-General of New Zealand and a very eminent constitutional lawyer. Assisting him, we have two party nominees - one from the main Fijian party and one nominated jointly by the Indian parties in Parliament. I have total confidence in that Commission. I believe they will come up with very objective observations and recommendations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let me explain the timetable to you. The report is expected by the end of August. It will be presented first to the President and then to me for submission to Cabinet. I envisage it being tabled in Parliament towards the end of September. We cannot debate it until three months have elapsed from the date it was tabled - which takes us to the end of the year. A lot of work will be needed during the first half of 1997. The Joint Parliamentary Select Committee, made up of members of both the upper and lower houses, will have to work on the report and try and build consensus on the various issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given that the house is racially divided, and the possibility that a premature discussion on the floor of the house may raise the temperature, I would prefer not to have a full parliamentary sitting in the early part of next year. Instead, we should go into committee and deal with it there. And then when we are satisfied that the issues can be brought out into the open, we will debate them fully in Parliament. As soon as we start talking next year, the legislative craftsmen should begin their work. On the basis of this programme, I believe we can meet the deadline to the day, promulgating a new Constitution which has been accepted by both houses on 25 July 1997. So I am very hopeful.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Without prejudging the final outcome, do you envisage a move away from strict communal separation ? I am thinking here, in particular, of the separate voting lists ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think there may be provision for some cross-communal voting. There was something like this in the 1970 Constitution which had both communal and national rolls.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about the longer term. Do you foresee a political system developing in Fiji where ethnic origin is irrelevant -  perhaps a 'right-left' divide, if that is still a meaningful concept ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I am not bold enough to say that that will happen. I have seen the darkest side of Fijian nationalism. I have seen the fear that was in the Indian population in 1987. But if we move too quickly to remove the racial safeguards that are in the Constitution, we may run the risk of prolonging the bad relationship between the races that we now have. So I would say we should proceed very cautiously and let the natural healing process take its course. We also need to look beyond the Constitution at aspects such as our education system and enhancing the ability of the Fijians to compete.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I believe the education system is also very divided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Some schools are reserved for Fijians although, slowly, there are Indians from families close to the schools who are beginning to enter them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think that this is a promising sign for the future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think so. I went to a purely Fijian school and when I came out of that, everything was Fijian for me. I went straight into the army which is another Fijian-dominated institution. It was not planned that way. It is just the way it happened. My tolerance level of other races was very low. But you cannot expect somebody who gets to this level of leadership to have a low racial tolerance level. I must admit that the last ten years have been very, very educational for me - very good for my own being. I consider what I used to think before and the way I used to feel before. I have never been threatened by an Indian, but I had always been in Fijian 'safe' areas - a Fijian school and then in the army. But since coming out of that sort of cocoon, I have managed very well to accept that I have to compete with them, I have to look after them, and I have to devise policies and programmes that will be good for them as well as being good for us.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· One final question. Do you envisage Fiji seeking to rejoin the Commonwealth in the near future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think seeking is the wrong word. We will do what we feel is good for Fiji and its people. The people of Fiji are those who are here now but it will include some of those who have moved on looking for greener pastures and who are willing to come back. We were not expelled from the Commonwealth; our membership lapsed. It is up to the Commonwealth to say whether they are prepared to reconsider our member ship. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 18 272 km². Fiji has two main islands (Viti Levu and Vanua Levu) and about 300 smaller ones. It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of approximately 1.3 million km²). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 790 000</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population density: 43 per kilometre² </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Suva (situated on the island of Viti Levu) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main languaqes: English, Bauan </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(main Fijian language)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Currency: Fiji dollar (F$). In June 1996, 1 ECU was worth approximately F$ 1.80. (US$1 = F$ 1.40) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p15.png"></center><br>
+ Fiji</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Politics</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">System of government: A bicameral parliamentary system consisting of an appointed Senate and an elected House of Representatives. The President is a non-executive head of state chosen by the Great Council of Chiefs. The President appoints the Prime Minister. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the Constitution, adopted in 1990, the Parliament is divided along racial lines. The Senate has 34 members, 24 of whom are indigenous Fijians. In the 70-member House of Representatives, 37 seats are reserved for native Fijians, 27 for Indo-Fijians, 5 for 'general voters' (other ethnic groups) and 1 for Rotuma Island (whose inhabitants are Polynesian). The 1990 Constitution provides for a review within seven years and discussions are currently under way with a view to amending the Constitution by the 1997 deadline.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">President: Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Major General Sitiveni Rabuka </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Main political parties: Soqosoqo ni Vakavulewa ni Taukei (SVT - Fijian), National Federation Party (NFP  -  Indian), Fiji Labour Party (FLP - Indian),  Fijian Association (FA - Fijian), General Voters Party (GVP).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Party representation in Parliament (1994 election result): SVT 31, NFP 20, FLP 7, FA 5, GVP 4, Others 3. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP: (1995) F$ 2.85 billion</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual GDP per capita: approx US$ 2600 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP growth rate (1995): 2.2% (2.9% predicted for 1996) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Principal exports (1994): Sugar (US$ 182m), Garments (US$ 96m), Gold (US$ 43m), Fish (US$ 38m), Timber (US$ 21 m) Main trading partners (in order of importance):</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exports - Australia, UK, USA, Japan, New Zealand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Imports - Australia, New Zealand, USA, Japan, Singapore.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade balance (1994): exports - US$ 547m, imports - US$ 826, deficit - US$ 279m. The current account figures also usually reveal a deficit but this is much smaller due to tourism earnings and official transfers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inflation rate (1995): 2.2%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Government budget (1996): revenue -  F$ 759m, expenditure  -  F$ 851 m, deficit - F$92 (about 3.5% of GDP) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Forma/sector employment: 98 112 (out of a total economically active population of about 265 000) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social indicators</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth (1993): 71.6 years </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adult literacy (1993): 90.6%</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enrolment in education: all levels from age 6-23: 79% </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Human Development Index rating: 0.853 (47th out of 174) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: Economic Intelligence Unit, UNDP Human Development Report, 1996, EC Commission. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">An interview with opposition leader Jai Ram Reddy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'We need to move to a more racially neutral system'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji is not unique in having a political system that is heavily influenced by racial or communel issues In places as diverse as Northern Ireland, Belgium, Guyana and Trinidad - not to mention many parts of Africa - people vote for parties which claim to represent the particular ethnic, religious or linguistic group to which they belong. Where Fiji is different, however, is in having a Constitution that gives primacy to one particular community. Since the 1987 coup, native Fijians have held the upper hand with a guaranteed majority in Parliament and a firm grip on the levers or power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1990 Constitution, adopted when communal feelings were still running high, contained a requirement for a constitutional review within seven years. When The Courier visited Fiji (July 19961 the work of a three-member Commission appointed to carry out the review and make recormmendations was nearing completion. All sides seem to accept the need for reforms designed to help bridge the sharp racial divide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The big question is how radical these reforms are likely to be. We sought the views of Jai Ram Reddy, the leader of the opposition National Federation Party (NFP) which has the support of most of the country's Indian (Indo-Fijian) community.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You are the first opposition leader I have met who cannot, constitutionally, become Prime Minister. How do you feel about that ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is something that rankles with me - the mere thought that I am not equal with my fellow citizens of other races. I think that's generally the way the Indians feel here. All the constraints and limitations, the denial of basic human rights, are the source of a great deal of unhappiness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You talk about basic human rights. Obviously, the political aspects are very important but I get the impression that, in other respects, this is a fairly free and easy society: there is free expression, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, but free expression is only one aspect of human rights. The fact is that discrimination based on race is widespread and institutionalised. About 45% of the population is Indo-Fijian but you will find they are not fairly represented in the higher levels of the public service. At the Permanent Secretary level, there is definitely a government policy to have a limited number of Indians - and there are hardly any in the more crucial ministries. The same is true of managerial positions throughout the public sector. In the statutory bodies and major public undertakings, there is a deliberate policy of excluding Indians. So we are very much a marginalised community in the public sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Wouldn't it be true to say that Indians have quite a lot of economic power ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No, I don't agree. There is a tendency for people who come here, end for some people in Fiji, to project this image of Indians controlling the economy. It is a fallacy. It all boils down to how you define economic power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let's take natural resources. The land, and therefore the forests, are almost exclusively owned and controlled by native Fijians. Even in the corporate sector, the largest business undertaking is the manufacture of sugar, and 80% of the shares are owned by the government. The Indians don't own this industry. They are the small sugar cane producers working on ten-acre plots. And who controls banking and insurance ? Certainly not the Indians. Most of the financial services companies are foreign-owned.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The area where the Indians are most visible is in the retail sector. But those little shops you see in the towns are small family businesses. The shopkeepers work up to 15 hours a day, and you will discover that many of them do not even own their premises; they are tenants. So the idea that Indians control the economy is a bit of a myth. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Constitution, and in particular the system of racial differentiation for voting and holding certain offices, is obviously a key issue for you. With the Constitution currently under review, what is your party's policy in this area ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The first elections under the current Constitution took place in 1992 and we took part in them under protest. We made clear that our participation should not be construed as acceptance of the system. Indeed, the sole issue on which we campaigned was our rejection of the Constitution. But we accepted the fact that we needed to get into the system as it was, and to try and create an environment where there would be widespread appreciation that it had to change. The 1990 text, in fact, laid down that it had to be reviewed by the seventh anniversary of its promulgation. I think the architects of the Constitution realised themselves that it was deficient. And we laid great emphasis on the need for dialogue; a general recognition that the country would be much better off with everybody working together and that there was nothing to be gained by oppressing or marginalising a community. And that is the kind of environment we have tried to create.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The Constitutional review will shortly be published. What do you hope will come out of that exercise ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I am reasonably optimistic. I think the environment is more favourable now and there is a general recognition that the system has to change. I am sure you will get confirmation of this when you talk to the government side. We need to move away from this very polarised, compartmentalised political system to a more racially neutral one. I think views may diverge as to how far we should go. That will be the contentious issue. But I believe we will make progress.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I certainly think we will get a good report from the Constitutional Review Commission. One of our fears, when we started on this journey, was whether it would be independent and be given fair terms of reference. Largely because of the cooperative and accommodating attitude that we ourselves adopted, and to which the government responded, we were able to get a Commission that was well-balanced. We are very fortunate to have Sir Paul Reeves, a former Governor-General of New Zealand. His independence is taken for granted. The Commission also has one nominee from the indigenous side and one from the Indo-Fijian side. So we certainly expect a good report. There is already a kind of acceptance I think on all sides that political parties need to prepare themselves for a more multiracial approach to governance in the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· On this point, I see that the SVT (the governing party) is looking at the idea of opening up its membership to other groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - That's right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think there will be many nonnative Fijians interested in joining ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Not straight away but at least it is a beginning. It is an acceptance that they can't remain racially exclusive. If, for example, the Commission recommends a move toward a racially neutral system - at least for a certain number of seats - then it would be important for the SVT to have non-Fijians in their party.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can I turn to economic issues, which I presume cannot be divorced altogether from political ones ? There is a lot of discussion about the future of the sugar industry which is tied in with the question of renewing the land leases This is an issue which is due to be resolved soon. How concerned are you about the impending decision on the leases ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - This is something that concerns us very deeply. As you correctly observe, you can't separate the political and economic aspects. The two are very closely interlinked here - perhaps more so than in other countries - because of the land situation. The bulk of Indian peasant farmers, both within and outside the sugar industry, are on leases that will begin to expire next year. If these are not renewed, the problem will not just be an economic one but an enormous human one. What do we do with these people who all belong to a particular racial group. It really boils down to our very survival. Despite the growth in the towns, the bulk of the people are still rurally based. They are small subsistence farmers, living in the country areas with no more than 10 or 12 acres to cultivate. So the social implications of non-renewal in terms of poverty, dispossession and hardship are enormous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· But how real is the concern ? Surely, the overwhelming economic logic is for the leases to be renewed. After all the land is being put to productive use at the moment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Yes, but unfortunately, when you have a communal dimension to the problem, logic does not always prevail. If you think about it, there was no logic in the events of 1987. The trouble is that every issue here has a racial twist. After the coup, communal sentiments were aroused and sharpened. There was a prolonged period of anti-lndian propaganda and in that environment of anger, a highly racial constitution was adopted. There were people in positions of influence openly advocating non-renewal, threatening to take all the land back. Now they need to undo all this and it will not be easy, given the enormous strength of feeling that has been aroused. Having said this, I believe that we are now in the process of restoring sanity to our public life. It is also beginning to dawn on everybody that the sugar industry is vital for Fiji and it will continue to be so for some years to come.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· I have heard that view expressed on all sides, but I wonder if people are sufficiently aware of the implications of global liberalisation. It has been suggested that this will make sugar increasingly unviable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think a lot of people are unaware of the implications, because there has been very little public education in this field. But amongst those 'in the know', there is certainly an appreciation. I am a member of the Parliamentary Select Committee on Sugar and we were recently addressed by the head of the marketing company and the head of the Sugar Commission. At that level, there is an awareness, but if you speak to the average farmer who has been growing and selling sugar for many years, he will probably assume that life will just go on as before.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Isn't it true to say that sugar depends heavily on the Lom&eacute; Convention arrangement with the European Community ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Very much so. In my view, the sugar industry is run so inefficiently that but for the huge subsidy we get from the European Community, it would not be viable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Presumably, this means that measures must be taken to improve efficiency ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, absolutely. But the first issue to resolve is the land question.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is no point talking to the farmers about efficiency  -  asking them to improve their husbandry and focus on sugar content rather than the quantity of cane produced - when they don't know if they will have land to cultivate after next year. So you see all other issues have become completely subsidiary to the tenure question. At the moment, we are in a limbo. The government and the people urgently need to resolve this problem. Then we can put it behind us and address the other concerns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Are there any other economic sectors which you feel offer promise for the future of the country ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Any growth outside of tourism will, I think, have to be centred on the agricultural sector. We need more agro-based industries and more diversification. We could grow a lot of other crops here - mangoes for example. We also need to improve extension services to farmers, and make an aggressive effort to identify markets. The farmers will grow the crops but they must be sure that somebody will buy them. Every year, for example, we have a glut of tomatoes - so many that they can't even give them away in the markets. This kind of problem kills the incentive to produce.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is obviously heavy state involvement in the running of agriculture. Do you see scope for more privatisation or 'corporatisation' in line with global trends ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think that growth, even in the agricultural sector has to be private-sector driven. At the same time, you have got to create the right environment and infrastructure for this to happen. Unfortunately, it keeps coming back to this question of land. If big investors, for instance, want to come here and invest in agriculture, they need to know what sort of tenure they are going to get and whether they can buy the freehold. I am sure there are people, particularly now from the Asian region, who would be interested in investing in agriculture, but the land problem is a big constraint.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do you think Fiji will rejoin the Commonwealth at any point ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Well, we hope so. You know we are all very strongly in favour of rejoining. One of the things that I personally feel very strongly about is the unfortunate severance of our link with the Queen. I don't know, constitutionally, whether it can be restored. Obviously, there are difficulties in that area, but I think a large majority of ordinary people in this country would like at least to see Fiji back in the Commonwealth. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Seeking a lasting constitutional settlement</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When The Courier visited Fiji in July, the report of the Constitutional Review Commission headed by Sir Paul Reeves (former Governor-General of New Zealand) had not yet been completed  -  and what it would contain was a major topic of speculation. As readers will see from the interview we publish with the Prime Minister and Opposition Leader, the impartiality of the three-member Commission was not in question  -  at least within the political mainstream on both the native Fijian and Indian sides. Nonetheless, there were doubts about whether a consensus could be found. For the Indo-Fijians, a scaling down of the 'racial' features in the Constitution was seen as a prerequisite. Yet the ruling SVT, in its own submissions to the Commission, had effectively supported the status quo. In view of this apparently unbridgeable gulf, could the compilers of the Report come up with recommendations capable of forming the basis for a lasting constitutional settlement ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The long-awaited Report was formally transmitted to President Ratu Mara on 6 September and a few days later, it was tabled to a joint session of the Senate and the House of Representatives. It now falls to a joint select committee of the two Houses to thrash out a new set of constitutional proposals. These will be presented to Parliament for debate and decision in the first half of next year with a view to meeting the July 1997 deadline foreseen in the 1990 Constitution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Report of the Review Commission is lengthy (almost 800 pages) and contains no fewer than 697 separate recommendations. The key ones, however, relate to the system for electing members of the House of Representatives. Currently, separate electoral lists based on race are used to fill all 70 seats (37 native Fijians, 27 Indo-Fijians, 1 Rotuman and 5 'General Electors', covering all other races). It was widely expected that the Commission would propose a mixture of 'reserve' seats and 'open' ones, with the latter, as their name implies, being chosen by the whole electorate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">45 'open' seats proposed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is precisely what they have done - but the suggested breakdown may have come as a surprise to some. The proposal is for 45 open seats (15 three-member constituencies) and 25 single-member 'reserve seats (12 native Fijian, 10 Indo-Fijian, 1 Rotuman and 2 'General Electors'). If adopted, the new system would no longer legally guarantee a majority for people of Fijian origin in the country's legislature. What would happen in practice would depend on a number of factors including the nature of the voting system in the three member open constituencies, the willingness of people to cast their ballots across the ethnic divide and the actual turnout of voters from the different communities. It should be pointed out, however, that native Fijians now constitute half the population, large numbers of Indians having emigrated over the past nine years. So long as communal voting patterns persist, this will presumably be reflected in the Parliamentary arithmetic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is also proposed that the bulk of the 35-member Senate (Bose e Cake) should be made up of elected representatives of Fiji's provinces. In the field of local government, it is suggested that the present system based on villages and provinces, which applies only to native Fijians, might be replaced by an arrangement applicable to all races. In this context, the rote of the Council of Chiefs (Bose Levu Vakaturaga) would be reduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the sections of the Report relating to representation are bound to attract most attention, the Commission also put forward a series of other proposals aimed at improving the governance of Fiji. One idea, which appears designed to alter the political culture, is for the 'Official Secrets Act' to be replaced by a 'Freedom of Information Act'. The presumption of secrecy would be replaced by a rule that official information should be accessible to the public except where there is good reason to withhold it. In a similar vein, the Report recommends an 'integrity code' to govern the behaviour of holders of public office.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Initial reactions to the outcome of the Commission's work were mixed. Key players, including the President, Prime Minister and opposition spokespersons broadly welcomed the Report but more nationalistic elements were quick to reject it and one group even mounted a ceremonial burning of the document.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is obvious that a great many more words will be exchanged - and some of them will no doubt be heated  - in the coming months. It is difficult to see how everyone can be 'brought on board' but the hope must be that a compromise can be crafted that is acceptable to the majority on both sides of the communal divide. The people of this Pacific island nation are well aware that prosperity and stability go hand in hand. The single most important achievement in ensuring stability for the longer term would be to secure a satisfactory settlement of the constitutional issue. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Sugar definitely has a future'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was the key sentiment expressed by Isimeli Bose, Fiji's Trade Minister, when he spoke to The Courier earlier this year. Mr Bose insisted that 'no matter what anybody says, sugar will be the backbone of this country's economy for years to come.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When we discussed Fiji's current economic situation and future prospects with the Minister, it was not surprising that sugar should have featured so prominently. The sector faces a difficult future for both internal and external reasons. At home, the long-term leases granted to the farmers (mainly Fiji Indians) under the Agricultural Landlord and Tenant Act are due to expire over the next few years. No provision was made for their renewal and the resulting uncertainty has provoked widespread concern, not least among the leaseholders themselves. The external 'threat' comes from new international trade rules administered by the World Trade Organisation. At present, Fiji's sugar industry is heavily dependent on the preferential access to the EU market which was granted under the Lom&eacute; Sugar Protocol. No one is quite sure what will happen when Lom&eacute; IV expires at the turn of the century but it is clear that the stakes are high.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mr Bose was quick to acknowledge the importance of ending the uncertainty facing the sugar farmers. 'But the real challenge', he said, 'is to ensure the maintenance of our markets for sugar.' He was aware of the encroachment of global trade liberalisation but stressed that the industry's leaders and the government were 'doing the work now and planning for the future.' At the same time, the authorities are clearly hoping that the European Union will be able to continue with some form of preferential arrangement after the year 2000, if only to buy time so that the industry can adapt and farmers can diversify.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the subject of trade diversification, Mr Bose pointed out that 'the field is very limited'. He continued; 'However, since 1988, we have seen garment production picking up from very humble beginnings. By 1995, we had about F$185 million-worth of exports in this area.' He also spoke enthusiastically about the government policy of encouraging manufacturing in tax-free factories and zones. 'This developed well between 1989 and 1992 and then there was something of a slowdown.' Tax-free factories have been established in a number of locations and the first real tax-free zone is now being set up in Kalabo. Mr Bose indicated that EU assistance was being provided in this area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Privatisation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Our conversation then turned to the changing economic role of governments - throughout the world, they are withdrawing from active involvement in industrial and commercial operations. We asked how far this process had occurred in Fiji and, in particular, whether there was a privatisation policy. The Minister replied in the affirmative, pointing out that government departments 'do not usually make very good businesspeople.' The policy, therefore, was to 'corporatise' and 'privatise', although the process is still in its early stages. The Trade and Commerce Ministry has a public enterprise unit which is responsible for drawing up a policy framework for the government. In 1995, Mr Bose explained, a public enterprise bill was presented to Parliament, 'but there were so many concerns expressed to the previous Minister that it was referred to a select committee -  which, in fact was chaired by me before I took up my present poet.' The committee had now completed its work and the Minister indicated that the issue would go back to Parliament in September.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the legislative delay, Mr Bose was keen to stress that his department was already working on individual programmes. The post and telecoms business, for example, had just gone through another stage towards privatisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is, of course, an important distinction between 'corporatisation' and 'privatisation' - the former implies staying within the state sector but at arms-length from the administration. This point was acknowledged by our interviewee who explained that the approach was a step-by-step one. The first stage was to reorganise a department along commercial lines. Corporatisation came next 'and then finally you have privatisation by disposing of shares.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He stressed that the most important aim was to ensure an element of competition wherever possible. 'There is no point simply moving from a government monopoly to a private monopoly', he insisted, 'although obviously, there are utilities like water, electricity and even telephones where this may not be easy.' The minister concluded; 'Where they are natural monopolies, we will regulate them.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Our final topic of discussion was the possibility of regional integration in the Pacific.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How far had the South Pacific countries gone in this direction and did the Minister think there was a need for closer economic cooperation? Mr Bose replied that he thought economic integration was a good thing. He pointed to a document on his desk containing a draft proposal for a bilateral trade agreement with Papua New Guinea. 'We will soon be holding negotiations with them, and have also just signed an agreement with Tonga.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The focus on bilateral trade arrangements at this stage suggests that the region still has some way to go on the regional integration path.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But the Minister nonetheless insisted that it was something 'that can and will happen'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Our daily bread - courtesy of a remarkable Fijian businesswoman</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How can a businesswomen succeed in Fiji's patriarchal society? Mere Samisoni, the entrepreneur behind the 'Hotbread Kitchen' gave us an appropriate answer when she said 'I roll with it', although the pun was probably unintentional In fact, it is difficult to imagine this dynamic lady being pushed around. Anybody who manages to build up a chain of bakeries from scratch, capturing 35% of the country's urban consumer market in the process, must have a lot of determination. At the same time, Mrs Samisoni displays a strong sense of social commitment. She believes in community values, advocates group decision-making and consensus, and even describes the tax system as 'reasonably fair'. In short, she contradicts the widely-held view propagated by lurid American TV series, that a dogeat-dog attitude is needed for business success.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, Mrs Samisoni started out with the idea of working with one of the caring professions. Trained in nursing administration in Australia and New Zealand, she returned to Fiji only to find that there were no openings available. That was when she decided to go into the private sector, establishing 'Samisoni Enterprises'. And over the years, she has succeeded in building up one of the largest bread-making operations in the country. The Hotbread Kitchen operation is highly decentralised with the bread being baked in different locations for sale through the company's local outlets. Her business is also the first Fijian one to franchise out its operations. And having already won a big chunk of the urban market, she is now looking to expand operations in the rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Samisoni Enterprises, of course, is not simply a bread-making operation. The company now offers a line of 62 separate bakery products, with some local adaptations to suit varying tastes. It employs some 275 staff with perhaps another 50 working in the related franchise operations. And the business had an important breakthrough when it won the contract for 'MacDonalds' in Nadi. With branches of the famous hamburger chain likely to open in other parts of Fiji, this could be the start of something big. In fact, there is even a suggestion that Fiji could be used to source Macdonalds' operations in New Zealand, the rolls (or buns, as the Americans like to call them) being exported frozen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Constant quality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For Mrs Samisoni, the key to a successful and profitable operation is 'constant quality' and unfailing attention to customer service. As she puts its, 'if you let quality slip just once, you can end up losing customers for a very long time.' Baking is a labour-intensive business and she is keen to stress the importance of developing people's abilities - in particular, the human relaitons skills of those who deal direct with the customer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As if running a business wasn't enough, Mere Samisoni is also busy completing a Masters in Business Administration (MBA) at the University of the South Pacific, with a thesis on indigenous business. From what we discovered, speaking to this remarkable Fijian entrepreneur, she should have been helping to teach the course! </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Viti Levu - island of contrasts</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Anyone from overseas who is travelling to the Fijian capital, Suva, will soon discover that the country's largest island is a very diverse place. Roughly circular in shape, Viti Levu provides more than half of Fiji's total land area and is home to about three-quarters of the population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The journey to Suva on the south-east coast will almost certainly involve transiting through Nadi International Airport (pronounced Nandi) which is situated in the west. This is the country's only major international gateway and while it is ideal for tourists heading for the resort hotels, it is less convenient for business travellers whose destination is Suva. Their journey has to be completed either by road (which takes several hours) or on one of the small commuter planes which ply regularly between Nadi and Nausori (itself a half-hour drive from the capital).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The biggest surprise to those who are unfamiliar with the country is that the west and the south-east have very different weather patterns. When your aircraft lands at Nadi, the chances are high that the sun will be shining. On reaching Suva, you are more likely to encounter rain. This part of the country enjoys - if that is the correct term - a micro-climate which is good for tropical vegetation but less appealing to human beings. The 'blame' for locating the Fijian capital in such a spot is said (not too seriously) to lie with the country's former colonial rulers. According to the story, a British envoy visited Suva on one of its rare sunny days and, on the strength of this, designated it as the seat of administration. The British can hardly deny their involvement since it was in 1882, during the early years of colonial rule, that the capital moved from Levuka (situated on the much smaller island of Ovalau). But the key reason was almost certainly the fact that Suva, with its large bay, could be developed as a port. Whatever the explanation, one must have some sympathy with the foreign diplomats who keep a raincoat or umbrella to hand at all times, and yet are viewed with envy back home because they have a 'paradise' posting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To be fair, Suva has attributes other than its weather which make it an interesting place. It has, for example, some very attractive architecture, both local and colonial. The views across the bay can be dramatic - and, in this respect, the rolling cloud formations may actually enhance the picture. And the centre of the city buzzes with activity (except on Sunday because of the Sabbatarian influence).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The population of the greater Suva area is about 160 000. This may not be enormous, but it is the largest concentration of humanity to be found between Hawaii and Australia. In some ways, it is the 'capital' of the South Pacific - a point which is underlined by the fact that the Forum Secretariat is based here. It is also the site of the University of the South Pacific's main campus. The local population is mainly ethnic Fijian but there are Indo-Fijians as well as citizens of Chinese and European extraction. Add to this the diplomatic corps, foreign businesspeople and students from other parts of the region, and you get a very cosmopolitan mix. This is reflected in the variety of cuisines available in the local restaurants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The western part of Viti Levu is also cosmopolitan but in a very different way, with a stronger Indian influence and, of course, a constantly changing tourist population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most of the island's inhabitants live a relatively short distance from the sea. Thus, in demographic terms, Viti Levu is like a doughnut with a thick layer of humanity around the edge and a hole in the middle. The analogy may not be entirely apt since the 'hole' is, in fact, a spectacular mountainous area. This makes the road that runs round the island a key arterial route. Meanwhile, those who choose to fly from Nadi to Suva, assuming they are not of a nervous disosition, can enjoy the experience of travelling below the height of the surrounding peaks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The few people who do occupy the central region live in traditional Fijian villages and have a lifestyle far removed from either the town dwellers or the sugar cane farmers. Its size may be little more than ten thousand square kiLom&eacute;tres but Viti Levu is truly an island of contrasts. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Fiji-EU cooperation: comprehensive package</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Ernst Kroner</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji was a signatory of the first Lom&eacute; Convention in 1975 and, to date, the country has been allocated some ECU 190m in EU development cooperation funds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Starting with a relatively modest ECU 9.9m under Lom&eacute; I, the national indicative programme rose to ECU 13m under the following Convention. Without neglecting rural development (feeder roads in Vanua Levu), under Lom&eacute; I most of the resources were devoted to transport infrastructure (a main road on Vanua Levu). Under Lom&eacute; 11, cooperation concentrated clearly on agriculture and rural development, in particular by means of the funding of microprojects, with infrastructural programmes (the extension of the Vanua Levu road, social infrastructure) taking second place. Under this Convention, a new field of action was also addressed: trade development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tax free zone</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade development was addressed further under Lom&eacute; III (6th EDF, ECU 20m, of which ECU 5m in special loans), with support given to an Investment and Trade Development Programme. The longer-term objective of the project was to widen the economic base of Fiji and to create employment. The more immediate objective was the i establishment of a Tax Free Zone near Suva. In order to promote this scheme and to secure markets for exporting the goods which would eventually be produced, the project included a programme of trade and investment promotion to be implemented by the Fiji Trade and Investment Board. Due to problems linked with identifying an appropriate site, the project, which had been given the go-ahead in 1990, only came on stream in 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural and agricultural development continued to be one of the main sectors of cooperation, with the funding of three major projects. The first was a coconut rehabilitation and development project, situated on the island of Taveuni, which aimed at improving the productivity of coconut plantations through the introduction and multiplication of high yield hybrids. The project also provided for the establishment of a 30 hectare coconut nursery centre, which was expected to finance itself through the sales of seedlings. EC support for this project ended in 1992, since when the scheme has been taken over by the Government. A second project (a large-scale microprogramme divided into two sub-programmes) aimed on the one hand at the construction of access roads to facilitate the development of cocoa plantations, and on the other at the introduction and development of pineapple plantations in Vanua Levu. The first component was closed after disappointing results. The second component, however, produced very interesting and promising results, which will, however, need private and governmental support in order to become sustainable. A rural electrification project involving 28 rural electrification schemes and the supply and installation of a small power plant is still ongoing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing human resources</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Lom&eacute; III, the formerly prominent transport infrastructure sector lost some importance. The Kubulau Peninsula road project on Vanua Levu brought to an end the work started under previous Conventions. This road, which filled the last gap in the circuminsular road, was opened on in July 1994. Lom&eacute; III also saw the beginning of human resources development as a new theme of cooperation, with Technical Assistance funded for the logging school. This area, embodying strong links with forestry and environmental issues, has been further developed under Lom&eacute; IV with the reconstruction of the school burnt down in 1993, and the enlargement of the training and education provided to what now constitutes a Forest Training Centre.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The national indicative programme relating to the first protocol of Lom&eacute; IV (7th EDF, ECU 22m in grant aid) identifies rural development and social infrastructure as the sectors of concentration to which 65% of resources are to be devoted. The remaining 35% will be used for non-focal activities, including trade and services, tourism, cultural cooperation, training and technical cooperation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Building bridges</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately, it was only following the very destructive cyclone Kina in January 1993 that cooperation activities could start in the form of the rebuilding of four bridges either severely damaged or completely destroyed by the post-cyclone floods.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Work on two smaller bridges of major importance to Viti Levu (Korovou and Vunidawa, ECU 1.135m) was started in 1994 by the Public Works Department and completed in January 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Financing Agreement for the two major bridges (ECU 10.24m) was signed in June 1994 and provides for the rebuilding of the bridges of Ba and Sigatoka. These form part of the main road around the island of Viti Levu and are therefore vital for the movement of people and goods on Fiji's main island. The new bridges, 190 and 182 metres long respectively, will be two-lane, and will provide for footpaths and utilities. To enable the traffic to by-pass the often congested towns of Ba and Sigatoka, new sites for both bridges have been chosen, which also call for the building of new approach roads. Building works were under way in early 1996 and completion is expected by April 1997.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non programmable aid for Fiji has been considerable over the years. While Stabex transfers for losses on coconut oil (totalling ECU 5.4m under Lom&eacute; I - Lom&eacute; III) came to a halt under Lom&eacute; IV (because levels of exports fell below the required dependency threshold), emergency aid (total ECU 9.5m) has continued, unfortunately, to be needed. Time and again the islands have been hit by cyclones (the most recent occasion being in January 1993, when the EU made available ECU 1 m for food rations following cyclone Kina).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, a significant feature of EU-Fiji cooperation was the credits provided by the European Investment Bank. It was very active under Lom&eacute; I to Lom&eacute; III, providing loans from its own resources to a total value of ECU 87.5m with a further ECU 6.1 m allocated in risk capital. Loans went to the energy sector (hydropower scheme), industry (wood processing) and services (telecommunications, sea and air transport). Considerable interest rate subsidies (totalling ECU 14.1m) have also been made available under the various EDFs in support of these loans. More recently, the EIB has financed an aircraft maintenance centre (1991) and a telecommunications project (1995).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade cooperation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over and above financial cooperation, Fiji benefits from the second largest quota (165348 tonnes per annum) under the Sugar Protocol annexed to the Lom&eacute; Conventions. This covers some 45% of its total sugar exports. The yearly benefit from this provision is estimated at between ECU 45m and ECU 55m - in other words, only slightly less than the total of all programme aid granted since Lom&eacute; I (ECU 64.9m). About two-thirds of these benefits reach the farmers, so that the EU subsidises every sugar smallholder, on average, to the extent of some ECU 1500 a year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recently, Fiji's quota under the Sugar Protocol was increased by 881 tonnes, as a result of the reallocation of the shortfall of deliveries by Barbados. Furthermore, Fiji benefits from an annual special tariff quota to the tune of some 30 000 tonnes up to the year 2001.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industrial development and external trade have been supported by the relaxation of the rules of origin for exports to the EU of canned tuna to the extent of 500 tonnes a year from 1993 to 1996. A similar arrangement, applicable for certain quantities of garments up the end of 1993 was recently extended to the end of 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fiji's main exports to the EU (sugar, fish and garments) - and the resulting surplus in its trade relations with the EU - are consequently highly dependent upon the continuity of these preferences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Support for tourism</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the field of services, and specifically in tourism, the EU - through its support of the Tourism Council of the South Pacific - has contributed to the fact that every sixth tourist or so arriving in Fiji comes from a member country of the Union. Tourism being by far Fiji's most important source of foreign exchange earnings, receipts from European tourists amount at present to some ECU 30m, and are greater than those from the export of fish and fish products</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Taking the Sugar Protocol into consideration, the EU is by far the most important of Fiji's development partners, followed by Australia. The country also benefits from bilateral cooperation arrangements with EU Member States (UK, France, Germany). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Tonga</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Hoping to maintain harmony</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'None of the most civilised nations have ever exceeded these islanders in the great order and regularity maintained on every occasion, in ready and submissive compliance with the commands of their chiefs, and the perfect harmony that subsists among all ranks.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These were the words of Captain Cook who visited the Tonga archipelago several times on his voyages around the world in the eighteenth century. The famous explorer was obviously impressed by the social organisation of this island nation and, although it is more than two centuries since he undertook his Pacific voyages, many of his observations hold true today. Talk of submissive compliance may no longer be appropriate, but in contrast to the turbulence of much of the outside world, Tonga certainly ranks as a peaceful society, which is respectful of hierarchies and strongly attached to 'traditional values'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The reference to harmony is particularly apposite, as The Courier discovered when we visited Tonga earlier this year. It was fortunate that our trip coincided with the King's birthday celebrations and we had the opportunity to enjoy the superb choral music which plays a central part in many important ceremonies here. Like their Polynesian cousins in Western Samoa (featured in our last issue), the Tongans seem to have a natural flair for music and a talent for spontaneous harmony. The question is whether these 'Friendly Islands' - a name they certainly deserve  -  can maintain their reputation for social harmony into the third millenium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In order to answer this, one has to identify where discordant notes could creep in. The biggest challenge appears to come from the process of globalisation. New technologies, particularly in the field of communications, are rapidly breaking down barriers. The tide of the international economic system, with its emphasis on mass production, con sumerism and free trade, is lapping at the islands' shores And political systems everywhere are under pressure to con form to a 'democratic' model which some would argue places the individual above the community. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of course, external influences can be both positive and negative Cultural exchanges can be enriching, and new ideas and techniques may offer opportunities for improving the quality of life. The key is to adapt without undermining the social fabric. And in Tonga, as in other countries, a harmonious future will ultimately depend on the way the country evolves both politically and economically.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking first at the current political set-up in Tonga, one cannot fault the use of the term constitutional monarchy which is the preferred description locally. It is important, however, to recognise that the constitution - which dates back to 1875 - gives considerable power to the monarchy. There is a measure of democracy in that all adults over 21 have a vote, but they only elect nine of the 30 Members of Parliament A further nine are chosen by the country's 30+ nobles while the twelve Cabinet Ministers, who sit in the House ex officio are nominated by the King. Tonga may' be small (it has fewer than 100 000 inhabitants) but it nonetheless attract: the interest of political scientists as one of the few remaining states with a hereditary ruler who wields substantial power.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Critics of the system view it as an anachronism, although their emphasis is on reform rather than revolutionary change. Defenders argue that the arrangement works well in a small, homogenous nation which values its unique culture and traditions (even if the constitution contains many 'British' elements). The latter also point, with some justification, to the attitude of the population. There are dissenting voices but the majority appears to be happy with the existing set-up, thereby lending it democratic legitimacy  -  at least indirectly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There may not, at present, be any overwhelming demand for constitutional reform but things can change. In particular, a people's view of their political system and how it might evolve is likely to be influenced by the prevailing economic conditions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic outlook</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga's economy is not exactly booming with the most recent estimates suggesting a 2% GDP drop in 1995-96. Several of the traditional problems faced by developing countries are to be found writ large here. The local market is not just small but tiny by global standards, and this makes it exceptionally difficult to achieve economies of scale. There is heavy demand for imported manufactured items and few viable export opportunities to balance the equation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The education system compares favourably with those of other developing nations but the pool is so small that Tonga inevitably suffers from human resource shortages. This is exacerbated by a steady 'brain drain'. Qualified Tongans, who may already have experienced life abroad at college or university, are tempted by a range of attractions including higher salaries, better housing and more extensive career prospects. The skills shortage is particularly severe in the medical profession. In a recent issue of Matangi Tonga (the 'national news magazine'), it was reported that the country would only have one anaesthetist by 1997 - with a local doctor observing wryly that there was no need for one since the main hospital's only specialist surgeon had recently left to take up a post abroad.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although it would be better for Tonga to retain its qualified people, the fact that the country 'exports' labour does have its positive side. Tongans have a strong sense of family and community, and overseas workers send significant amounts of money back home. This injection of 'foreign' funds boosts the local economy and reduces the overall balance of payments deficit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture is by far the most important economic sector, with most crops being grown for local consumption. The islands benefit from a fertile soil and a tropical climate, allowing the cultivation of a wide variety of fruit and vegetables. All land is vested in the Crown, with estates allocated to the nobles. By law, each adult male is also supposed to be allotted three hectares although there is not enough land to go round. Despite this difficulty, which means that some people do not receive their allocation, the result is that most Tongans are involved in farming. The advantage of the arrangement is that it guarantees a living for the bulk of the population even if their cash income is low. On the other hand, it is obviously a feudal system which favours the upper echelons of Tongan society. In addition, it tends to hinder the development of larger units which could benefit from economies of scale. While anxious to make farming more efficient (and export-oriented), the government currently has no plans to introduce land reform.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In export terms, the main crop is squash (pumpkins). Production increased dramatically in the early 1990s when a market niche was identified in Japan and it soon became the country's biggest foreign exchange-earner. More recently, income has been depressed, with overproduction in 1994 leading to a drop in prices, and poor rainfall the following year reducing yields. The November export figures for the last three years (November is the month when squash deliveries peak) illustrate the extent of Tonga's reliance on this single product. In November 1993, the country's overall export income was T$15m - more than half of the annual total. Twelve months later, the figure had dropped to T$9m and last year, it fell below T$6m. When The Courier visited Tonga, the authorities were talking about limiting the amount of squash exported to Japan this year to 15 000 tonnes, in the hope of maintaining premium prices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government is also acutely aware of the risks of mono-dependence and is looking for other outlets for its agricultural produce. Demand for copra, Tonga's traditional export, has apparently been reviving, but the price has not been high enough to attract local farmers back into the market. Other crops sold abroad include vanilla, cocoa, coffee, black pepper and ginger.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One farmer who is doing his bit in the quest for export diversification is Masao Soakai, a former general manager of the Copra Board. He is now the managing director of a company that specialises in the import and export of produce. This energetic 73 year-old gave us a guided tour of the plots he had rented. He cultivates an astonishing range of different crops which include potatoes (for Fiji), cassava, taro, yams, carrots, broccoli, cauliflowers, strawberries, bananas and capsicums. He also rears cattle and pigs (a Tongan tradition). Masao Soakai stresses the importance of rotation in maintaining yields and believes strongly in planting for the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other sectors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wherever you happen to be in Tonga, the Pacific Ocean is never far away. Evidence of the country's maritime tradition can be found in accounts of the appropriately named William Mariner (see box article on this page). But while, in the past, Tongan vessels sailed far and wide, and the country has a huge exclusive economic zone (EEZ), the fishing industry is relatively undeveloped. The sector generates about 5% of GDP. A project sponsored jointly by the FAO and the UNDP revealed that there was considerable scope for expansion, both in the inshore and reef zones and in the deep sea area. The main species which could be exploited commercially are albacore, skipjack and yellowfin tuna. Tonga has received assistance to develop its fisheries from the USA and Japan, and the government has offered tax advantages in the hope of promoting investment, but there is still a long way to go before the country realises its full potential in this area. Hitherto, the country has not licensed foreign vessels to fish in its waters but there is talk of this policy changing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tourism could also generate a lot more income although it currently faces a number of infrastructural and practical constraints. The government is committed to expanding the sector but Mrs Papiloa Bloomlield Foliaki, the owner and manager of Nuku'alofa's third largest hotel (the 'Friendly Islander') feels that a lot more could be done. She pointed out to The Courier that a healthy tourist sector would provide employment as well as stimulating new business for food producers, builders and craft industries. She focused, in particular, on deficiencies in training and marketing, and suggested that some of the resources allocated to agriculture might be better spent in tackling these.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga's natural assets make it a 'dream' location for visitors looking for a complete change of scene - particularly if they happen to be keen on sailing, snorkelling or scuba diving. The problem is that the country is so far off the beaten track that it is expensive to get to (some would see this as an advantage in deterring mass tourism). Nothing much can be done to change this but it does mean that they have to aim at the upper end of the market. This requires top quality accommodation  -  of which there is a distinct shortage at the moment. As regards marketing, Mrs Foliaki was hopeful that the recent formation of a hotel association would enable the Tongan tourist industry to raise its profile abroad. Despite her optimism - echoed by all those we spoke to in official circles - the latest figures for visitor arrivals show a downturn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the manufacturing sector, the story is, sadly, one of long term decline. Clothing production ceased in 1994 and the output of leather items has been falling. There are very few industrial activities in which Tonga has a comparative advantage (whether actual, or potential) and this is something which is recognised locally. There may be some scope for adding value to agricultural products through processing but it is unlikely that industry will take off in a big way in the foreseeable future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sale of passports (see the interview with Prime Minister Baron Vaea) is an issue which attracted publicity - not all of it favourable - some years ago, when the government launched the TPPP (Tonga Protected Person's Passport). This was designed to be a travel document which did not confer the right of residence in the country. The authorities adopted the scheme with an eye firmly on Hong Kong, a British colony which is due to be transferred to China in 1997. Some passports were sold but the project never really took off as the immigration authorities of other countries refused to accept the document. Now there are suggestions that the idea may be revived, although this time involving normal passports.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The foregoing survey of Tonga's economy does not paint a particularly happy picture but it should be stressed that there is very little real poverty in the islands. In many ways, the informal economy is more important, and subsistence agriculture and fishing ensure that people do not go hungry. With their traditional family structures and strong attachment to the Christian faith, the Tongans have not yet encountered many of the social problems associated with more consumption-oriented societies. But to paraphrase a famous saying, 'no nation is an island' nowadays - even if it happens to be surrounded by water! In an era of increasing globalisation, the key question is how to manage change. Let us hope that the people of Tonga can find the right answer. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview, Prime Minister Baron Vaea</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Constrained by our geography'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">No-one can accuse Tonga's Prime Minister of being a starry-yed optimist. As the following interview reveals, Baron Vaea, who heads a twelve-member ministerial team, is refreshingly honest about the economic difficulties facing his small island country. The Courier interviewed him in July, at his office in Nuku'alofa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have suffered a GDP drop and a general slowdown of activity in recent years. What is the government doing to restore the situation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is true that the economy has been declining. The main cause is the excessive demand from the private sector for imports from New Zealand and Australia, combined with diminishing exports. Our exports fell when the price of copra dropped. Another problem is New Zealand's quarantine rules. New Zealand is very particular on quarantine against insects, notably fruit flies, which may damage their own export trade. We have endeavoured to balance this out by selling squash to Japan and indeed, it has been a saviour as far as our economy is concerned. Squash is something our farmers know how to grow. Of course, the market goes up and down. Recently, we made the mistake of over-producing and quite a lot of the crop could not be sold abroad. I think our farmers are now realising this, and that they have to plant according to the quota that we ourselves have imposed. Tourism is another important area although levels of room occupancy are very dependent</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">on the economic situation in other countries. Then there are passport sales.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is this something you are still doing ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, but it has been hit by technical difficulties. A number of Hong Kong Chinese bought our Tongan Protected Persons Passport (TPPP) in the hope that they could travel. The immigration authorities in other countries decided they would not accept the document so this source of income dried up. We have changed to national passports which people can use to travel. We are hoping to revive this in order to suit the conditions of the Hong Kong people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Is this being done on the assumption that the people who purchase such a passport would not ultimately settle here ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. The main reason people in Hong Kong want a passport is to keep open the option of leaving after the changeover.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Has this policy prompted any criticism from other countries ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - No. The main problem is the Chinese themselves who are due to take over Hong Kong next year. It is possible that they will not recognise these passports. We are planning to have discussions with the Chinese on this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Going back to the agricultural sector, are you not putting too many eggs in one basket in focusing so heavily on squash. What efforts are you making to diversify ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We have just signed a trade agreement with Fiji. They are such a close neighbour yet we have had virtually no trade with them. This should change with the agreement, to the benefit of our economy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What products are we talking about here ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Mainly vegetables, particularly those that are favoured by the Indian community, such as chills and spices. A trade mission has just returned from Fiji where they picked up a number of orders. The representative of a group of growers also recently returned from Japan. He took a sample of dried pawpaw, a crop which is popular with the Japanese, and apparently received an excellent response. This is an area which is promising.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The key issue, however, is the amount of space available in the aeroplane. You can't ask everyone to grow pawpaw when the airline tells us that they can only take eight tonnes at a time. Only a limited number of farmers can be involved, so that we can continue to supply the tonnage that the airline can handle. We will encourage the rest of the farmers to concentrate on other products.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What is your policy regarding foreign investment ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - We encourage overseas investors to engage in activities that local people are not involved in. Land leases are available for anything they want to do which fits in with this policy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga has an extremely limited manufacturing sector and there appears to have been a long-term decline. What prospects are there for reversing this trend ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - For many years, the policy of the government has been to encourage exports. We have had entrepreneurs here who have exported things like woollen garments, small boats, horse saddles and so on - but it didn't last. The sad fact is that hardy anything is exported from Tonga. The main reason is that we are constrained by our geography. We are so far away from the main markets. The raw materials have to be brought in and by the time the article is finished, there is no way that it can compete in price terms. This has always been our problem. We are always looking for new markets but it is not easy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A second limitation is the private sector in Tonga. This is weak in terms of technology, marketing and product quality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about further processing of local products - perhaps value-added agricultural activity ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, this is something that we would hope to do, though the same kinds of problem arise. People don't set up the processing plant because they say there isn't enough local cultivation to make it worthwhile. And the farmers don't grow the crop because they say there is no market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So it is 'chicken and egg' situation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. The result is that people only grow for home consumption.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I should mention here that there are other resources we have yet to exploit, notably in our waters. We have reserved these for ourselves and do not allow foreign fishing vessels. So we are trying to recover resources from the sea.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is also the possibility of drilling for oil. Research ships operating in the Pacific have found a limited number of locations where it would be worth looking for oil reserves and two of them are in our waters. We have been publicising this with a view to encouraging further exploration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· This would presumably involve drilling licences for oil multinationals.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes. Some companies have done this in the past although only on a small scale. The answer we got from the oil companies is that they are interested in exploitation - but not now because of the low oil price. When the price goes up, I think we may attract interest again but that is clearly only a long term possibility.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· A lot of young Tongans leave the islands to work overseas. What is the explanation for this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is true that a high percentage of our population migrates. These are people in search of a better life, who seek to reap the benefits of their abilities by working overseas. They can have a nice house and get a good education for their children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I should stress that we have a good education system here but there is a heavy emphasis on gaining qualifications in order to get into the civil service. Where we are lacking is in the field of technical education. We have some facilities of course - an Institute of Science and Technology and a Marine Institute to train people to go to sea. This is very much in its infancy and we hope it will help for the future. But even some who have gone through this system end up looking for jobs overseas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Turning to political issues, you have a monarchy here which is still very powerful. Do you anticipate any changes in the system ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - There has been some public pressure for change. I don't think people want a radical upheaval but there is a feeling in certain quarters that the present system could be improved upon. As you probably know, Parliament has nine members elected by the people and a further nine selected by the 28 nobles from among their own number. The third component is the government -  12 ministers who are appointed by the King. It has been suggested that qualified people who don't presently sit in Parliament should be there to help deal with the economy. One idea is to change the Constitution so that whole population elects 30 members. The King would then choose his ministers from these 30.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Has this idea made any headway ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  No, not so far. We are maintaining the old system. The proposal has been aired but it hasn't been passed in the House. There are a lot of people, I think, who prefer the present system because they feel the monarchy works for the benefit of all the people. Would a new team necessarily stick to this principle? There must be a danger that they would tend to favour just one section of the population.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Can you comment, finally, on Tonga' relations with its partners in development cooperation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - As you know, we have good relations with the EU through the Lom&eacute; Convention. We also have strong bilateral links with Australia and New Zealand which have been giving us assistance. But I think we have to face up to the fact that the aid cannot continue. The UK, for example, used to provide us with our judges. That has been taken over by Australia and New Zealand -  but for how long ? I think it is bound to be phased out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So we will continue to have relations with our partners, but we need to recognise that they are concentrating their efforts now and adapt accordingly. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Profile</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">General information</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Area: 669 km². Tonga has about 170 small islands and four main island groups (Tongatapu, Ha'apai, Vava'u and the Niuas). It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of approximately 700 000 km,). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Capital: Nuku'alofa (situated on Tongatapu) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population: 99 000 (1994 census) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population density: 149 per kilometre² </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy at birth (1992): 68 years Official languages: Tongan and English Currency: Pa'anga (T$) made up of 100 seniti. The currency is pegged to the Australian dollar. In September 1996, 1 ECU was worth T$ 1.57 (US$1 T$ 1.22)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p32.png"></center><br>
+ Tonga</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Polities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">System of government: Constitutional monarchy based on the Constitution promulgated in 1875. Considerable powers remain vested in the King. The Parliament has 31 members  -  the Speaker, 12 ministers (including the Governors of Vava'u and Ha'apai) who are appointed by the King, 9 nobles chosen by the 33 members of the nobility and 9 People's Representatives elected by universal suffrage. There are no political parties although there has been talk of setting up a 'people's Party'. The twelve cabinet ministers hold office until they reach retirement age.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Head of State: King Taufa'ahau Tupou IV</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prime Minister: Baron Vaea of Houma</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economy (estimated 1995 figures unless otherwise stated) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Annual GDP per capita: approx US $1900</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">GDP growth rate: -2% (1995/96)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Principal exports: squash, vanilla, manufactured goods and fish. In the early 1990s, squash accounted for more than half the country's total export income. In 1995, however, the harvest was affected by drought and exports dropped significantly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Balance of payments: A trade deficit of US $38.8m (exports  -  US $18.3m, imports  -  US $57.1 m). The current account deficit is much smaller thanks to 'invisible' earnings, notably from tourism and remittances from Tongans living overseas. Inflation rate (April 1995): 4.5%. Total external debt: T$ 44m (1993)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: Tonga in Profile (on the Internet -  http: 11l www. netstorage. com/kami/ tonga) Economic Intelligence Unit Country Report 1996. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Interview with peoples representative, Teisina Fuko</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'There is much more political awareness'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">People's representative, Teisina Fuko offers an alternative view</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While Tonga has no political parties, and the main levers of power remain in the hands of the monarch, it would be a mistake to conclude that there is no questioning of the status quo in this small Pacific kingdom. As The Courier discovered on its recent visit, Tongans are happy to speak openly about their political system and to criticise (or praise) aspects of it me local media may not be particularly extensive but it nonetheless allowe for different viewpoints to be expressed, including criticism of the authorities. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Those who advocate political reforms in Tonga face something of an uphill struggle. There is no overwhelming demand for change and although the lever of popular support for the current system is not easy to judge, there appears to be widespread acquiescence  -  which effectively amounts to the same thing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, the focus of 'opposition' has tended to be within the ranks of the people's representatives who sit in Parliament We spoke to one of these elected members, Teisina Fuko, who comes from the Ha'apai island group and began by asking how democratic the thought the system was.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I would say about 50%. Up until the 1970s, the system was very traditional but we now seem to be westernising quite quickly. People are returning from overseas with different ideas and this is having an impact on the way we are governed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think you will ultimately have a Parliament whose members are all elected by universal franchise ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I would say it is more certain now than ever before. There is much more political awareness. We see it in the schools, where children are being taught to think independently. There are also the new economic trends -  commercialisation and the focus on foreign earnings which imply the need for modernisation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You sound quite enthusiastic about the 'westernisation' process. Are you not concerned about the possible negative aspects in terms of the survival of your traditional culture ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think we have to strike a balance. We mustn't go to extremes. Our culture and traditions are important but there are new things we need to take on board and some old habits we should drop. Take business opportunities: we have to be more democratic in this area. If one group has all the power then they will tend to favour their friends which isn't necessarily efficient. What it boils down to is a lack of checks and balances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the present economic difficulties, I also think we need to move quite quickly. I recently wrote an article arguing that the King should transfer his power to appoint ministers to the people. Ministers should be elected so that they can be accountable to the taxpayer. We are a close-knit family here and there is no question of getting rid of the monarchy. But we need to sit down and hammer out a compromise which will allow us to improve our economy and make it more competitive.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Let me give you a practical example. Defence is now third on our list of priorities. That doesn't make sense to me. We would be better spending the money on economic development. We also need to boost the private sector so it can create jobs, instead of tying its hands. At present, 50% of our revenue goes on paying civil servants. What for 7 It may create employment, but it is not productive. So the government has to be minimised. Having said this, there are some positive signs. I am glad, for example, to see new blood being brought into the ministerial team.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Parliament is currently composed of three groups - twelve ministers, nine nobles and nine people's representatives. On paper, that suggests that no group can dominate ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- Yes, but the ministers and nobles often work together and we are  outvoted. It is difficult to imagine the nobles saying 'no' to the King although, to be fair, they do sometimes abstain and some of them recognise the need for certain reforms to the system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Turning to the economy, which areas do you think offer the best development prospects ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">-  Tonga's potential lies in fishing. We are an island nation that has always depended on the resources of the sea and we have the necessary labour force. What the people need is the know-how  -  advanced technologies to develop this sector. We also have to set up credit programmes so that people can invest in boats and equipment. I believe we should spend a lot more on fishing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unfortunately the government does not take the same view. It has put a lot of resources into small industries, airlines and so on. Yet the reality is that these sectors are in decline. Manufacturing has fallen and so have agricultural exports. Fishing is the only sector that is expanding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· What about the prospects for agriculture ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think we have reached the limit in this sector. There is very little scope for expansion. I also believe we should be concentrating on what we can produce to use locally. There is very little more we can do in terms of commercial exploitation. Tonga is somewhat overcrowded and we cannot use too many chemicals because the water table is so low.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· One local issue, which presumably has economic implications, concerns the possible expulsion of foreigners who have been here for a certain amount of time. Apparently, the decision has been taken not to renew certain residence permits. What is your view on this ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think Tonga should encourage skilled people who are here to stay. We should use make use of their skills, particularly where they have expertise that is lacking locally. At the same time, there are some people here who just came for a visit and ended up staying without doing anything very productive. There are also a number who came after the coup in Fiji and I think we should give them some leeway.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the whole, I don't think it is a big problem. Tonga has traditionally been very liberal in the application of its immigration law. We have never been colonised so we tend not to have a suspicion of foreigners. And whatever we do must be in accordance with the law.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Could you sum up your vision for the future ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  You only need to look around you to see that we have a youthful population here: a lot of young people who need to be catered for. We are investing heavily in education which I think is good but we need to do more to adapt to the changing world. We were peaceful in the past because most Tongans were on roughly the same level in terms of wealth. Now the poor are getting poorer while the rich get richer. This could lead to an increase in social tensions. With a more democratic system, we should be able to close the gap and work for a peaceful and more prosperous future. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Seeking business overseas</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">New Minister outlines economic strategy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the policy of appointing Ministers for life - or at least until retirement age - is maintained, then Dr Giulio Masasso Tu'ikolongahau Paunga can look forward to a long career in the Tonga Cabinet. At just 32, he has recently been been given the job of Minister for Labour, Commerce and Industries (with responsibility also for tourism). He may be relatively young, but the new minister has impressive academic credentials. He took a master's degree in Japan (in Japanese) and as we soon discovered, he has some new ideas about how to achieve economic development in his country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dr Masasso's portfolio covers a wide range of economic activities and we began by asking what he thought the main focus of his work would be. He identified three areas  -  agriculture, which is the single most important sector; fisheries which has potential for growth; and tourism. He would also like to see more manufacturing, particularly for export, but acknowledged that the current prospects in this area were very limited.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Looking first at agricultural production for export, we noted that a significant change had taken place over the last decade. Coconut-related products had been largely replaced by squash, a 'gap' in the Japanese market having been identified when other sources of supply were not available. Tonga may have been the first to spot the opportunity but was there not a danger that other countries might 'muscle in'? The government was 'very aware of this danger', said the Minister and was trying very hard to diversify its export products. He mentioned vanilla, papaya, beans and, in particular, carrots. The last-mentioned crop grows well in the islands and there is apparently a growing taste for carrot juice in Japan. A list of products with export potential, which could be grown successfully in Tonga, had been drawn up in cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture, and Dr Masasso's department would be actively seeking new business overseas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The government is obviously interested in developing trade with Japan and other countries in Asia, but the Minister felt that New Zealand and Australia were likely to remain the principal markets for Tongan farm products in the future. He was looking forward to easier access to New Zealand once new quarantine facilities had been set up at the international airport on Tongatapu. This, he said, should allow for a larger throughput of export crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efficiency, of course, is the key to winning and keeping overseas customers. With this in mind, our discussion turned to the land tenure system. The allocation (at least in theory) of parcels of land to all male Tongans discourages the development of larger farms or plantations. Was this the most effective way of exploiting the country's fertile lands? Dr Masasso acknowledged that the system hampered efficiency but stressed that the question was a very sensitive one. The right to cultivate a plot of land is deeply rooted in Tongan culture, and radical changes to the property laws are not on the agenda. As the Minister put it; 'We are trying to maximise our efficiency under the present system of land tenure.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Turning to tourism, Dr Masasso observed that 'this has been the most stable industry over the past ten years,' bringing an average of T$ 12 million into the country every year. In looking at possible growth, however, he stressed the need to take account of the environmental and cultural impact. 'Tonga is a very small country, and it would not be right to build too many hotels and related facilities. It might be possible, but the long-term effects would be a little too much for the country.' Dr Masasso said he favoured tourism which has 'e closer relationship with people -  a cultural exchange, targeting people who really wish to understand our country.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fishing is a sector which appears to have huge potential given the size of Tonga's exclusive economic zone. Dr Masasso explained how Japanese assistance was being used in a boat building scheme designed to produce vessels that local people could afford. He also spoke enthusiastically of the research that had been carried out to determine the nature and size of the fish stocks. He recognised, however, that while most of Tonga's fishing was inshore, there was scope for a great deal more revenue from deep-sea fishing. In this connection, negotiations were underway with the United States, Taiwan and Japan, to allow vessels from these nations to fish in Tongan waters. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The conversation then moved on to the more general issue of entrepreneurship and the role of the state in the economy. The Minister indicated that the government believed in privatisation but stressed that this was not simply 'because other countries are doing ft.' The main issue at this stage, he said, was to create a sufficiently large pool of well-trained people to take over activities currently run by the authorities. 'The government wishes it didn't need to get involved but we are a small developing nation, and to get things started, you need capital and know-how  - which locals sometimes don't have access to.' In these circumstances, the state had to activate projects which could later be privatised once the necessary skills had been built up. Another 'major strategy' was to develop a much closer relationship between the Ministry and the private sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This led us into a discussion about Tonga's attitude to foreign investors who might also be in a position to supply capital and know-how. The authorities had recently threatened that a number of residence permits would not be renewed. Was this not a disincentive to potential overseas investors ? Dr Masasso was keen to offer clarification. 'The media makes it look as if Tonga doesn't like investors but they have misinterpeted the situation. He insisted; 'we want the foreign investment here and are encouraging it in those areas where locals cannot get involved.' Defending the actions of the immigration authorities, the Minister stressed that what they were doing was normal practice. 'Those who stay here illegally and do not extend their visa have to be deported.' The action, he argued, was not directed against foreign investors and indeed, the latter should be encouraged by the government's commitment to upholding the law.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Tonga-EU cooperation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Developing the Vava'u islands</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Myfanwy van de Velde</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EC-Tonga cooperation began in 1975 with the first Lom&eacute; Convention, soon after Tonga gained full independence in 1970. Grant aid totalling ECU 19.8m (Lom&eacute; I - Lom&eacute; IV) has been allocated to the country during its 20-year membership of the Convention.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Lom&eacute; I, funds were directed principally towards two main projects: the construction of the wharf at Neiafu, Vava'u, and funding for the Ministry of Works to procure road maintenance equipment and build schools, rural health centres and small wharves at Ha'apai and Vava'u. Remaining funds were used to finance studies involving dredging, trade promotion and designs for Vava'u and Faua fisheries harbours. The EIB also financed a line of credit of ECU 130 000, under Lom&eacute; I, to the Tonga Development Bank.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lom&eacute; II funds focused on the fisheries sector, and on initiating works relating to the upgrading of the Vava'u airport. There were also projects in the fisheries sector, aimed at encouraging fishermen to undertake commercial fishing to meet local demand. To this end, the Faua Fisheries Harbour for small boats was built, and marketing and cold storage facilities were provided.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By the time Lom&eacute; III funds came on stream, Tonga had adopted a regional development approach with regard to its various island groups. The aim was to have a coherent development programme taking account of the specific constraints and potential of each. The Vava'u group of islands became identified as the focal area for the use of EC assistance, and Lom&eacute; III resources (ECU 6.5m in grants and ECU 0.5m in the form of risk capital to be managed by the EIB) as well as Lom&eacute; IV funds (ECU 6m and ECU 1 m respectively) have duly focused on its development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Located in the north of the Kingdom, Vava'u is the second group of islands both in terms of population (16 000) and land area. With an abundance of natural resources, the group is thought to have greater potential for agriculture and tourism than other parts of the Kingdom. However, this potential was largely untapped at the time Lom&eacute; III was initiated. This was due to a variety of constraining factors including relatively low productivity, undeveloped marketing infrastructures, substantial import levels and poor distribution of utilities and other public services. One particular constraint preventing the development of tourism was limited access caused by a lack of transport infrastructures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two main projects aimed at addressing these problems have been implemented. The first, costing ECU 1.24m, involved completing the upgrading of the local airport at Lupepau'u (begun under Lom&eacute; II). In addition to runway improvements, a new terminal building was provided, complete with safety and navigational equipment. Passengers began using the new facilities in early 1995. The second project, entitled the 'Vava'u Development Programme', was allocated the sum of ECU 5m. This money is being used to pay for a series of activities including road upgrading, the provision of photovoltaic equipment for household energy needs and the supply of equipment for vocational training colleges. New buildings being funded include health clinics, a market and an agricultural quarantine building. The funds also cover the cost of establishing the Vava'u Development Unit as the monitoring and implementing agency for the programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Programme continues under Lom&eacute; IV, with about 85% of programmable resources for Tonga (approximately ECU 5m) set aside for activities in the focal area. Funds will be directed towards developing the Neiafu urban area, in recognition of the need to upgrade access and services in the commercial centre of Vava'u. The projects envisaged include upgrading the town centre and urban roads, port improvements, and measures to increase the capacity and improve the distribution of piped and rain water to households. In addition, a multi-annual micro-projects programme will lead to the construction of jetties on the inhabited outer islands of Vava'u, thereby improving access to Neiafu which is the main centre of the archipelago.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to the above grant aid, Tonga has received funds in the form of Stabex transfers for losses in export earnings in respect of coconut products, bananas and vanilla. It also received emergency aid in 1977, following an earthquake, and in 1982 following Hurricane Isaac.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EIB interventions have contributed to the share capital of the Tonga Development Bank and have increased the Bank's lending capacity to small and medium-sized enterprises. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Switching on the Iights</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Uelingatoni Tevita Vaea (known as 'T' to his friends), proved to be a mine of information for The Courier, when we visited the Vava'u island group in northern Tonga recently. 'T' is a Tongan engineer who returned to his native land from Australia to work as assistant project manager in the Vava'u Development Unit. His help was particularly useful during the highlight of our visit - a traditional celebratory feast laid on by the villagers of Nuapapu. This is one of Vava'u's inhabited outer islands and the celebration was staged to mark the installation of solar powered lighting, courtesy of Lom&eacute; Convention funds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nuapapu is one of a number of outlying villages to receive solar installations under the Vava'u Development Programme. In all, some 350 homes have been wired up. Units attached to individual buildings collect the power and convert it into electricity which is stored in a battery. When night falls, the lights can then be switched on. Although the bulk of the installation costs are covered by the project, each participating household is required to pay a lump sum to have a unit fitted. They are also contracted to pay a modest amount each month towards maintenance of the system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It may all seem rather prosaic to those of us accustomed to electrical power at the flick of a switch, but for the people of the villages in the Vava'u group, the project is little short of revolutionary. For centuries, their daily rhythm has been governed largely by the rising and setting of the sun. The only 'artificial' light available after darkness came from fuel-burning (and more recently, battery) torches or lamps  - enough perhaps to reveal a path or highlight the position of an object, but certainly not to read or do intricate work with one's hands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The formal 'switching on' ceremony was performed by the Dutch Ambassador, Mr van Thessen and Jonathan Rodwell, who is the European Commission's resident advisor in Tonga. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This was preceded by a courtesy visit to the village chief and the above-mentioned feast, which gave the European visitors an authentic and memorable taste of traditional Tongan hospitality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The food was brought from all quarters of the village on long rectangular trays covered with leaves. Each was laden with food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fare was predominantly local: the famous roast pigs featured prominently along with fish, chicken, bananas, coconuts and a variety of root and tuber vegetables.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were also some 'imported' items: the corned beef which is so popular here, some packets of crisps to add colour to the guest 'table' and boiled sweets woven into garlands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The trays were laid end to end, stretching perhaps 20 metres and woven mats were placed all around. Having received our garlands of flowers, we were invited to sit down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The feast was interspersed by various speeches and 'T' helped out with a translation and explanation of the proceedings. We began with a prayer in Tongan, delivered by the local minister. This was followed by a speech of welcome and thanks by the matapule (spokesman) of the village chief.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">High ranking people in Tonga always have a matapule to speak on their behalf on such occasions. Ambassador van Thessen and Mr Rodwell then replied on behalf of the guests, (in English, with consecutive translation provided).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They expressed thanks to the people of Nuapapu for their hospitality and wished them success with their new electric lighting. There was then a short discourse by the District Officer followed by a closing prayer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">References to all this speechmaking could leave a false impression that this was a formal and stilted affair.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact the reverse was very much the case: the mood was relaxed throughout and there is no doubt that the villagers know how to enjoy themselves. Music was supplied by a group of men playing a variety of instruments and the women joined in the festivities with what appeared to be spontaneous bursts of dancing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were also special solo dances performed by two young ladies whose bodies had been smeared with coconut oil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As tradition dictates, once their performances (involving highly expressive hand and finger movements) were complete, the audience expressed their appreciation by slapping banknotes on the oily exposed surfaces of the dancers' bodies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The light was fading as the feast ended and we moved to the brief 'lighting up' ceremony, carried out to the accompaniment of applause.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The guests (including the staff of the Vava'u Development Unit who have guided the project through its various stages) then took their leave of this hospitable community and set off by boat on the return journey to Neiafu. As the vessel drew away from the shore, we were able to look up and see, for the first time, the twinkling lights of Nuapapu. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dossier</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Habitat</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Livable cities and rural rights</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(Dossier coordinated by Debra Percival and  Claude Smets)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The United Nations Conference, Habitat 11, on human settlements (Istanbul, June 3-14 1996) exposed the Herculean task of addressing the problems of ever-growing cities and called for 'shelter for all.' The special contribution of civil society in making cities more liveable was acknowledged at the conference - but the big question is, who will foot the bill ? The meeting also spoke of improving dwellings in rural areas to keep people on the land and halt the mass exodus to the cities. But the right to remain and prosper from one's habitat can be at odds with outside pressures for environmental conservation. The dossier looks at some of the issues raised by the conference, and the wider significance of 'Habitat II' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second UN gathering on the theme of 'habitat', staged two decades after the first conference in Vancouver, took place against a backdrop of rapid and alarming urban growth. In 1900, one person in ten lived in a city. By 1948, the ratio was three in ten and by the year 2000 half the world's population are expected to be urban dwellers. 25 years after that, the figure is expected to have climbed to 60%. Africa is the region that currently has the highest rate of urban growth. In 1950, it had only one city with a population of one million. By the end of this decade there could be 60 cities of this size, according to UN figures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The focus on human settlements and liveable cities inevitably meant that Habitat II covered some of the same ground as other UN conferences convened during the 1990s to explore the big issues facing mankind: the 1992 'Earth Summit' on environmental matters in Rio de Janeiro, the 1994 Population Conference in Cairo, the 1995 Social Summit in Copenhagen and the 1995 Women's Conference in Beijing. Issues common to all the agendas included rapid population growth, environmental degradation, access to clean water, poor sanitation, lack of infrastructures, and women's issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The rallying calls of Habitat II, set out in the Conference's conclusions, were 'shelter for all' and 'sustainable human settlements in an urbanising world.' The Nairobi-based Centre for Human Settlements is to be the focus for the follow-up. But as delegates dispersed, one of the pressing questions was where the money will come from to meet the host of agreed objectives -  which include clean water with improved technology, conservation and protection of the environment, and better health and education. In this dossier, European Commission officials from the Development Directorate General, who attended the conference, reflect on Istanbul and its likely followup.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whereas in the past, cities were associated with economic development, innovation and the diffusion of new ideas, nowadays they conjure up the vision of urban poverty, environmental degradation, poor sanitation and a host of health hazards. Urbanisation is the direct consequence of rapid population growth, according to the 1993 Human Development Report. In 1965, agriculture provided 77% of employment in developing countries and represented more than 41 % of Gross Domestic Product. By 1985, this sector was contributing a lot less to GDP but was still providing 72% of all employment. So a large number of people continue to depend on agriculture although its share of the global economy is declining. In these circumstances, it not surprising that many of the world's poorest people are migrating to cities - the annual estimate is 20-30 million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The dossier looks, in particular, at the environmental cost of rampant urbanisation and at the problems of city living for more vulnerable groups such as women. They are often among the poorest urban dwellers and can fall victim to exploitation and crime.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Paradoxically, poor people in cities are becoming even poorer as economies improve. Additional pressures on these marginalised groups living in cities are neatly summed up by Jeremy Seabrook, author of 'In the Cities of the South.' In a recent article for Gemini news agency: 'Tougher Struggle for Survival in the Concrete Jungle,' he writes; 'As the pace of development quickens, with high economic growth and increased migration to urban areas, land price in most big cities have soared. Poor people are being increasingly removed from their hoary" - by mysterious fires, explosions and 'accidents'. Meanwhile, the urban poor's ability to mobilise and achieve has been used against them. The capacity of people to create homes and secure local communities has been used as a justification for the withdrawal of government services.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He continues: 'As inequalities become more glaring, enclaves of prosperity are sealed off from the slums by checkpoints, guards and fences - like frontiers to another country. Despite this, people are still flocking to the city  -  often refugees from intensifying, industrialised agriculture and.. megaprojects in the countryside...' Mr Seabrook points out that without decent jobs, they fall prey to sub-contractors, who exploit them, offering them low pay and demanding that they work long hours.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Civil society</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the cities of many developing nations, 'civil society' is taking a lead, with projects to bridge the gap between the 'haves' end the 'have note'. Numerous participants at the Istanbul conference applauded the urban programmes undertaken by various elements of civil society, which include NGOs, community groups and individuals. Their significance was recognised in Istanbul, where their voice came through loud and clear. Nigerian journalist, Paul Okunlola, writing in this dossier notes a move towards 'bottom up' projects in Lagos as a result of the tough times.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agostinho Jardim Gon&ccedil;alves, the President of the NGO-EU Liaison Committee, was particularly pleased at the input of civil society to the conference's committees and conclusions. The debate, he said, had not just been about the macroeconomic aspects. Instead, it had come 'within the reach of the populations themselves.' The people, he argued, were both victims of the anomalies of inhumane settlement and the key players in efforts to construct a humane, dignified habitat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeremy Seabrook describes some of the inspiring international initiatives undertaken by civil society. Examples include the Society for the Promotion of Area Resource Centres (SPARC) in Bombay, which works with pavement dwellers; the Association of Basic Needs (ARBAN), and 'Health for All' in Dhaka; the Eddie Guazon Foundation in Manila, which seeks to protect the poor against private interests; and the Foundation for Women, which is trying to tackle the trafficking of girls for Bangkok's brothels. But Mr Seabrook also warns against overestimating the strengths of popular organisation. As he points out: 'They require an enabling and positive framework, which the free market can never provide. Government intervention, of a more benign and positive kind than hitherto, is vital if people are to help themselves. As it is, too often they are forced to struggle against the people elected to govern them.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The chair of the Habitat Conference, Wally N'Dow, emphasised local solutions. The conference, he said, 'recognised the changing global patterns of life' and that solutions must be found at the local level. 'National governments and international agencies', he argued, were not in a position to solve massive urban problems or to pay to put them right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were a number of donor pledges at the conference. The European Union countries, for example, reiterated their long-standing commitment to provide 0.7% of GNP for development by the year 2000  -  though many of the 15 member states are still well short of this target.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One scheme which has attracted the particular interest of donors is South Africa's Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP). To a considerable extent, the success of President Mandela's government is likely to be judged on the success of this programme. It aims, among other things, to improve health, education, housing and sanitation and as such, it mirrors many of the 'Habitat II' goals. Launched in 1994, it is the centrepiece of the South African government's efforts to create a more democratic, prosperous, non-racial and non-sexist society. In the dossier, we look at the RDP's objectives, how it is faring and what sort of support the EU is giving.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond the city, the dossier looks at what is happening to some rural dwellers who have not taken flight to the city. Although, largely focused on the city, Habitat II acknowledged the importance of urban and rural linkages in its conclusions: 'Rural and urban settlements are interdependent... governments must work to extend adequate infrastructure and opportunities to rural areas to increase their attractiveness and thereby minimise... migration.' There was mention too of the need for more jobs and housing for rural areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But in some rural areas, the inhabitants have found themselves in dispute with conservationists. The latter seek to protect wildlife and the rural habitat by setting up national parks - a solution which is not necessarily in the interests of local people struggling to maintain their livelihood. We take a look at such dilemmas and the possible solutions being developed so that rural dwellers can continue to make the most of their habitat. This rural struggle, where solutions are also being called for at a local level, is not unlike the battle being waged for a better quality of life in the cities. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Towards a global concept of urban development - an interview with Daby Diagne</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Deputy mayor of the city of Louga, Daby Diagne is also President of the Finance Committee of Senegal's National Assembly, General Secretary of the Association of Mayors of Senegal and President of the World Federation of United Cities. He is the ACP-EU Joint Assembly's General Rapporteur on urban development and The Courier had the opportunity to interview him in September at the Assembly's meeting in Luxembourg.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have just submitted an initial report on urban development to the Joint Assembly. In it, you recommend that the Community adopt a specific and consistent global policy in this field, notwithstanding the fact that successive Lom&eacute; Conventions have contained a number of significant provisions relating to the subject. What is the reasoning behind your recommendation ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - There are several reasons. First, there is the fact that, in the past, cities were often viewed solely in terms of infrastructures and sectors. Experience shows that this approach is not effective. Specialists are increasingly opting for a more global 'city' concept. The Commission must therefore adapt itself to the new situation. It is true that it has financed infrastructures and launched health and clean-up programmes, but the problem is that this has been done in a somewhat unsystematic way without being linked to long-term regional development or a zonal policy. There is now an increasing need for an integrated regional development approach. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think ACP countries are aware of the importance of cities ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That's another question altogether. Obviously, the ACP countries are in the process of changing their views on this subject and a number have appointed ministers to look after urban affairs. The reality of city life has to be taken into account. The rate of urban growth in the ACPs far exceeds that in other parts of the world and it is in the towns and cities that one sees the most glaring instances of poverty and under-development. People have therefore been forced to take the 'city' phenomenon into account in the ACP countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The political will must exist for a policy to be successful. Do the ACP countries have a genuine will to implement an urban policy ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I don't think it is possible to speak of a uniform trend in all ACP states. However, in certain regions - for example in West Africa, which I know well - a municipal culture is beginning to take shape. There is a growing political will, which is illustrated by the discussions on decentralisation, and people are increasingly recognising that central government cannot do everything by itself. One can find regional development and planning policies designed to create the fabric of mediumsized cities. Not everyone has them but it is something we are seeing more and more of.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· ACP countries face complex challenges and there are people who say that the actions of the European Community are too dispersed owing to the number of sectors it is involved in. Doesn't your recommendation simply add to this problem ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - On the contrary. I regard my recommendation as being pro-integration and therefore pro-globalisation  - which is not the complete opposite of a sectoral, diversified approach. I believe it would allow the Union's activities in certain fields to be better interlinked. I am thinking here of water, health, clean-up operations and infrastructures  - all of which are major problems for society. Naturally, a more global concept will require greater dedication, and if there are additional resources, so much the better, but, in my view, the situation could be improved even with what we currently have available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The rate of urbanisation in Africa is higher than elsewhere and the living conditions of city dwellers - particularly those in the shanty towns  -  are becoming increasingly difficult in terms of health, education, environment and so on. What, in your opinion, would be the optimum strategy for reversing the decline, at least in the short-term ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - First of all, I think we have to make a distinction here. Let's take the actual rate of urbanisation. Contrary to what is generally thought, this is lower than in the rest of the world. In other words, Africa has fewer towns and cities than the rest of the world. It is the rate of growth in the urban population that is higher. Populations are becoming increasingly concentrated in the cities, with the drift of people from the countryside. In addition, the phenomenon is being fed by demographic trends. You ask me if there is anything we can do to halt this. There are actions that can be taken to restore some balance. For example, we could make investments in the rural environment to keep people in the countryside, and we could implement suitable agricultural policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But we must not labour under too many illusions, because life in towns and cities will be an inevitable characteristic of the next century. Economists and urban planners have been considering the phenomenon for a long time now - perhaps 30 or 40 years. It is  something that cannot be halted, because it is a fact of civilisation. So, what should we do? Above all, we should devote our efforts to regional development, achieving a balanced distribution of human resources, and a more equitable exploitation of natural resources. Power has to be decentralised so that people do not abandon their roots but face up to local challenges. And we have to implement urban policies which are satisfactory in terms of investment, management and popular participation. In simple terms, urbanisation has to be managed. We cannot hope to reverse the trend overnight, particularly in the case of a continent like Africa where everything happens quickly. Africa is enormous and its population has not yet reached its maximum levels. We have to take all this into account.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We must acknowledge that scientific progress and improvements in the field of health have contributed to population growth, and a reduction in mortality rates. This means that urban civilisation is a reality that we have to manage. There is a risk of uncontrolled growth in urban centres. When infrastructures are lacking, when there is no water, when hygiene cannot be guaranteed and when there is no work, a country's security is threatened.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You have mentioned democracy end the decentralisation of government This also requires adequate financial resources. Where do you think the ACP countries will find the money to implement decentralisation strategies ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Democracy involves a search for freedom - freedom of opinion and expression, independent of material or financial problems. The problem with decentralisation lies in administrative method. It is not purely a matter of money. In the first instance, it is a question of choosing the right approach. It has been demonstrated that without any extra resources, one can still act differently by delegating and decentralising. And success is much more likely because the people are involved in the process. Admittedly, it requires an internal reallocation of resources. A proportion of everything that was formerly centralised has to be allocated to development and to basic needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To answer your question more directly, there is a great deal of talk of this alternative method of governing. It is inspiring new hope and a thirst for something better. It is even being viewed as an 'ideal' solution - which it cannot be entirely. However, by decentralising human and economic resources, and by allowing people to participate, hope can be inspired at local level. This should make for better administration and support, which is an improvement in itself. Of course, this may make people more demanding. Will it satisfy their requirements? As I have already said, internal resources will have to be reallocated, but resources must also come from outside. One cannot make an allout effort for decentralisation without doing something to improve international cooperation. This cooperation, however, must be adaptable, and the state must retain its pre-eminent position and its role as guarantor and arbiter. But in addition, local communities should have access to international cooperation either directly or indirectly through their organisations, municipal structures and so on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· In this context, what role do you see for international organisations - not just in terms of financial resources, but also of human resources ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I think what we now need to do is build up a pool of skills in each municipal area. The developed countries have experience in this field. We have to take their processes as a model without necessarily copying their experience. This is something which will be discussed. Secondly, in the context of relationships between towns and cities, I believe it is possible to make access to experts more flexible and that this can take place very quickly, with the provision of training and fairly basic technology transfers. General training is also extremely important. In order to build up a pool of skills in towns and cities, local government must form a dynamic, management-oriented team. The approach has to be one of business-like management and objectives have to be targeted using private-sector methods, although public-service requirements always have to be borne in mind. A great deal, therefore, can be done at international level, in terms of support for networks of associations and committees of locally elected representatives, enabling them to discuss matters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We could, for example, carry out a comparative study of legislation in a particular area, thereby gaining access to other types of experience. Internationally, aid can be given to associations to help them buy equipment and attain a degree of freedom of manoeuvre vis-&agrave;-vis the authorities. In the field of decentralised cooperation, the international community can help elected representatives to implement their projects through partnerships, conducting studies, and providing personnel. Cooperation is possible in all spheres -  implementation, management, financing and so on. I believe that a new type of cooperation will gradually come into being. It is not a question of creating 'white elephants', but rather small and medium-scale projects which are of genuine use to the population. And I am not talking here about acts of charity, such as the donation of medicines, but sustainable projects. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Habitat II: taking stock</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Christian Cure'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future of towns and cities is not what it was. In the 20 years between the first United Nations conference on human settlements (1976) and Habitat II which took place in Istanbul in June 1996, the situation has changed a good deal. The significance of urbanisation  - and its irreversible nature -  are now acknowledged, as is the powerlessness of the authorities to deal single handedly with the complex phenomena which result The author of this article points out that civil society has suddenly broken into a field hitherto the preserve of official agencies and qualified experts, claiming a 'right to the city' based on research into more equitable development models.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vancouver to Istanbul: two symbols for two eras</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Vancouver was the 1976 host of the first conference on human settlements organised by the United Nations. At that time, the UN was celebrating 30 years of existence and Vancouver, a model of urban development and modernity, provided inspiration for the developers and experts needed to plan the cities of the future. 'Appropriate technologies' heralded the possibility of mass-produced, cheap housing for everyone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Twenty years later, the UN chose Istanbul as the host city for the Habitat II conference on human settlements, forcing us to face up to a quite different situation: uncontrollable urban growth (400 000 migrants arrive there every year), social and environmental problems, and intercultural and political tensions (amply illustrated by the Turkish politicians' inability to form a government at the very time the Conference was taking place). In brief, Istanbul presents us with the usual list of problems facing most of the world's major cities - and those of developing countries in particular.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Against this backdrop, the international community  -  180 countries, 500 local dignitaries, a few thousand professionals and even some ordinary citizens - came together from 3 to 14 June to discuss a 'settlement action plan'. This document, which had been in preparation for two years, contains 183 articles. It sets out a series of goals, principles and undertakings as well as providing an action plan for cities, the initial results of which should begin to be seen by the year 2001.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The preparatory committee selected two basic topics for discussion: securing adequate shelter for all, a basic but nonetheless controversial theme; and sustainable urban development The latter encompasses housing, demographic factors, infrastructure, services, the environment, transport, energy, social and economic development, the future of underprivileged groups and combating exclusion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cycle initiated at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 (followed by the Copenhagen, Beijing and Cairo meetings) was continued by Habitat II. Two major handicaps had to be overcome - 'conference fatigue' (with the resulting fact that there were fewer delegates than anticipated) and ensuring that what had been accomplished at earlier conferences was not undermined. Given that the subject of the meeting was human settlements, it was inevitable that sensitive issues already debated at previous summits, relating to the environment and social aspects, would keep recurring.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Civil society as an active force</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of conclusions arose from the official sessions (hearings, dialogues and various forums) which took place over the two weeks of the conference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First, Habitat II represented a recognition of the fact of urbanisation. In the past, there was a tendency on the part of the international community to play down, or even ignore, the phenomenon of urban growth and this was reflected in the meagre resources allocated to this area by donors. Today, the issue is better understood than it was 10 or 20 years ago, and it is acknowledged that the growth trend is unstoppable. Statistical studies and a set of 'urban indicators' drawn up for Habitat II confirm the scale of the problem. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second, the Istanbul summit was a lesson in modesty. The obvious powerlessness of public authorities to deal single-handedly with the challenge of burgeoning towns and cities is recognised. The result was an understanding that a more pragmatic view is needed -  one which pays more attention to the complexities of urbanisation, to the wide variety of possible responses and, above all, to the multi-faceted nature of the players involved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Conference therefore became a genuine forum for debate. One of its most significant aspects was the emergence of 'civil society' as an active force. Hitherto, the field has largely been the preserve of official agencies and qualified experts. For the first time in a UN forum, local authorities, community leaders, private sector representatives and other dynamic forces in civil society were invited to give their views and take part in discussion groups. Whereas in the past, the debate was dominated by macroeconomic and technical questions, in Istanbul, the political and social aspects were given prominence as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The effect of this was to improve the quality of the debate. The outlines of a new relationship between governments and civil society (NGOs, ordinary citizens and popular urban groups) were defined - with the local authorities slotting in somewhere in the middle. And there was a particular focus on the question of dimension or scale: what should be the basis for urban democracy and citizenship. Both of these are seen as essential if one is to have successful and sustainable urban development policies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A right to the city?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first stage of the analysis is to look at urban life from a macroeconomic standpoint. Urban growth is determined by the evolution of the world economic system and, in particular, by the globalisation of markets. This has generated increased competition, including competition between cities themselves. Since the end of the 1980s, cities have been responsible for between 50% and 80% of the GDP of most countries. In other words, they represent more than mere links in the global economy; they are, in fact, pivotal points.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Hence the principles which broadly underpin the Habitat 11 programme. In fundamental terms, public policies must promote the capital, housing, property and employment markets, with a view to improving the efficiency of urban management (living conditions, infrastructures, services, environment, etc.). This is not just desirable in human terms but also essential if urban productivity is to be improved. Many decision-makers at the meeting agreed that privatisation of services, partnerships involving the authorities, the community and the private sector, and decentralisation were all part and parcel of a new standard for good local governance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Representatives of 'social' interests, on the other hand, were successful in focusing the debate on fundamental rights and principles, including individual and social rights. Indeed, these issues dominated the Conference and gave rise to the most difficult negotiations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There were prolonged talks, for example, on the central issue of the right to a roof over one's head. The outcome was a commitment by governments to promote 'the full and progressive acceptance of the right to adequate shelter'. The NGOs had been hoping for a more clear-cut undertaking. Questions relating to the status of vulnerable groups, women's rights and their equal access to land, and protection against eviction, were also the subject of heated exchanges.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Perhaps the most important step forward, however, was the success of civil society representatives in sowing the seeds of a new idea - the 'right to the city'. This concept has been devised on the basis of research into more equitable and soundly-based development models to which local authorities are increasingly giving practical support. Thousands of individual experiences and issues were highlighted in Istanbul by NGOs and community groups. Thus, there is a mass of evidence that populations are capable of responding through local initiatives and of taking responsibility for improving their living and housing conditions. If this 'resource' is to be exploited to the full, urban politicians must develop a deeper understanding of the scale of micro-territories and local societies within cities. They also need to promote and coordinate their decision-making in a way which involves consulting and involving the local populations. In the modern era, this is the key to ensuring social cohesion.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond Istanbul</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There may have been a lot of new thinking on the basic principles, but there was no reference to financial undertakings in the Habitat 11 programme. On the latter issue, the international community was highly circumspect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The World Bank took the initiative, announcing the launch of an 'urban compact', involving an additional $15 billion in loans for urban projects over the next five years. It also revealed that it would triple its aid to NGOs involved in the urban environment. Recent World Bank estimates suggest that just 0.2% to 0.5% of a country's GDP would need to be set aside for the poor to gain access to basic urban services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As regards monitoring, the NGOs and local authorities won the right to sit on the Human Settlements Committee which will be responsible for implementing the habitat programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The most important points to emerge from Istanbul, however, were that local authorities were given both formal recognition, and a major practical role - in keeping with their current responsibilities. The habitat programme is, in fact, a powerful call for decentralisation and increased local autonomy, its action plan being built on the implicit principles of 'subsidiarily' and 'proximity'. To a large extent, the successful implementation of the programme will depend on the mobilisation of municipal politicians and officials - and on the policies they adopt at local level. The agenda for cities in the 21 st century that was adopted at the Rio Summit must now be fleshed out and become the future reference for action by local authorities, NGOs and citizens' associations. Finally, the importance of decentralised cooperation and the role of local councils in international cooperation have been reconfirmed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Local authorities and their international organisations decided to form a worldwide coordinating group to continue structured dialogue with the international community and to guarantee that the Istanbul resolutions are followed up.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some people predicted that Habitat 11 would be 'the revenge of the cities'. To quote P. Maragall, chairman of the Committee of the Regions, the conference at least provided the opportunity to build, and to give a wider audience to 'the voice of the United Cities within the United Nations'. That itself is a major step forward. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'A house to call my own'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tackling violence against women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Rosemary Okello</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author of this article is a journalist with the Nairobi-based Women's Feature Service (WFS) She contends that the Habitat 11 conference skirted around some of the issues affecting women city dwellers in Africa, such es violence and sexual abuse. Improving their lives, she argues, starts with a roof over their heads</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The lofty ideals set during this year's UN Conference on Human Settlements in Istanbul meant little to African women like Catherine Kaberu. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As she recalls the misery of living on the streets of Nairobi, she is just happy now to have a safe, secure room for her family. 'I thought by running away from home and coming to Nairobi, I would find a better life" says Ms Kaberu. Instead, the streets became her home and her life was defined by the fear of violence against her. Her two children were born during that difficult period, following rapes. She cannot identify their father. There are an estimated 30 000 street people in Nairobi and Catherine Kaberu says that all street women and girls are regularly abused.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Every day we had to look for a place to sleep and we bribed the watchmen to guard us.' Often it was the same watchmen, employed to guard office blocks in the city's central district, who took advantage of the women's desperate situation. Not even age could protect them says 63-year old Felista Nyambura, herself a veteran of the streets. 'I suffered all manner of humiliation,' she states, referring to ten years spent on the streets with her seven children. 'The watchmen would rape me if I refused to give in to them - after they had offered me a place to sleep for the night with my children. I am just so happy to be off the streets. I will never go back,' she states firmly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The confidence of the two women comes from their new security as owners of simple one-roomed houses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'Having a house to call my own is the most important thing that ever happened to me,' says Ms Nyambura as she explains how she ended up on the street after the piece of land her husband left in their rural home was taken over by her in-laws.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The two women are part of a group of 114 who have benefited from the Urban Destitute Programme, a project of the African Housing Fund which is involved in participatory community development with the homeless women of Nairobi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Catalina Trujillo, the 'Women in Development' coordinator for the Habitat conference stresses: 'If a woman's place is in the house, we had better make sure she owns it.' These sentiments were supported in Istanbul by the conference Secretary General, Wally N'Dow: He stated: 'By conviction, by analysis and even by instinct, women's rights to ownership and inheritance of property is right. If Habitat II... does not also contribute to social progress by addressing some of the issues like property rights for women, then it will have failed.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the women of-Africa in particular, the most important thing that should have come out of Istanbul was an affirmation of their right to own and inherit property, and to security.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These issues affect most African women regardless of their status and they were presented to ministers concerned with shelter and settlements when they met in Johannesburg last year to prepare an African agenda for the Istanbul meeting.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Most African countries accept the theoretical premise that women must have access to land, credit and inheritance, and recognise that certain types of violence are targeted primarily at women. South Africa's President Mandela affirmed: 'When we talk about people-centred development, we should understand that the involvement of women is often the difference between success and failure.' Yet in reality, customary law and insensitivity to gender concerns continue to predominate. Unfortunately, when the African ministers adopted their declaration, the point on the "unencumbered access of women to credit and land ownership' appeared in only 20th place. And while forced evictions were highlighted in Istanbul, violence against women did not feature at all among the 'key priorities'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet in parts of Africa these are major concerns affecting women every day. 'In South Africa, a women is raped every 83 seconds and in some areas, a girl can expect to be raped four times in her life,' says Emelda Boikanyo of the Johannesburg-based Women's Health Project. Idah Matou remembers how one Sunday morning in 1992, five men stormed into her shop in Alexandria township. They seized the day's earnings and anything else they could carry away before raping her 1 5-year old daughter. A few weeks earlier, they had called to demand protection money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Violence in the home is also a growing problem. Mmatshilo Motsei, Director of Agisanang Domestic Abuse Prevention and Training, an NGO based in Alexandria, South Africa, says the problem is so pervasive, 'it must be raised as a national concern.' Habitat II turned a deaf ear on these women's concerns. This was not their forum. Shawna Tropp of the NGO Women's Caucus criticised those attending the conference who claimed that it was not about women but cities. 'Women live in cities,' she says and adds: 'By and large, human settlements are still very much seen in terms of bricks and mortar'. She calls for greater understanding of the role played by women, usually in an unpaid capacity, in the management of communities. 'Everything begins with having a house in a secure neighbourhood where the dignity of women is protected.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Megacities</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The megacity personifies human misery for many in developing nations. As agglomerations proliferate in the twenty-first century, the United Nations Population Fund's 1996 report - The State of the World Population  -  considers how one might go about remedying the ills of city dwelling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The UNFPA's figures for urban growth make worrying reading. Over half the world's people will live in cities within ten years (3.3 billion out of a total of 6.59 billion). Between 1970 and 2020, the urban population will have risen by more than two billion - and 93% of these will be in developing nations. These increases will add to the strain of an estimated 600 million people already living in urban areas of developing nations without the resources to meet their basic housing and health needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Back in 1950, New York was the only city with more than 10 million inhabitants. Today, there are 14 in this category. Tokyo, which is home to 26.5 million people, is the largest. And by 2015, many others are expected to join the megacity 'club'  -  Djakarta (Indonesia), Karachi (Pakistan), Dhaka (Bangladesh), Delhi (India), Tianjin (China), Manila (Philippines), Cairo (Egypt), Istanbul (Turkey), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Lahore (Pakistan), Hyderabad (India), Bangkok (Thailand), Lima (Peru), Teheran (Iran) and Kinshasa (Zaire).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the majority of the world's people will be living in cities by 2005, it will take a little longer for the 50% threshold to be crossed in the less developed regions. However, this is expected to happen before 2015. Looking specifically at Africa, the current estimates reveal significant regional variations. In Southern Africa the rate of urbanisation is 48%. The figures for North, West, Central and East Africa are 45%, 36%, 33% and 21 % respectively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Expanding populations are likely to add to the widely reported list of horrors emanating from cities that are bursting at their seams. Problems include the collapse of basic services such as water and waste management, escalating social conflict, millions of urban children open to labour exploitation, sexual exploitation, environmental degradation, traffic congestion and environmental hazards such as increased air pollution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the other hand, the UNFPA report acknowledges that cities are also 'concentrations of human creativity and the highest form of social organisation'. It continues: 'Cities provide capital, labour and markets for entrepreneurs and innovators at all levels of economic activity'. Indeed, between 60% and 80% of developing countries' GNP is generated by their major conurbations. Social transformation occurs at a faster pace in urban areas. Thus, health indicators tend to be better, literacy is higher and there is more social mobility. And there are more opportunities for women. The city presents fewer obstacles for women's education and female city dwellers are less likely to be constrained by traditions which may stifle their creativity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But harnessing this potential is no easy task. The final chapter of the UNFPA report, entitled 'Policies, strategies and issues for improving cities', argues that urban dwellers in developing nations have been badly affected by structural adjustment policies. These have resulted in the elimination of subsidies on food and other commodities, increases in school fees and job losses in the public sector. Cities will also be required to adapt to the 'mass global experience in decentralisation' involving the shifting of local decisions from central government to municipal authorities, parastatal bodies and the private sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p48.png"></center><br>
+ Regional distribution of urban population</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women - a priority</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report stresses the importance of improving education and health, with a particular focus on women. As Dr Nafis Sadik, who is Executive Director of the UNFPA, observes; 'If urban centres are to be made liveable, and the quality of life of the poorer members of society is to be improved, women should be given the chance to play their role in the process.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report reiterates the specific targets for improving the lives of women that were drawn up by the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development held in Cairo.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the field of education, these include 100% primary school enrolment (for both girls and boys) by 2015, improving access for girls and women to secondary, tertiary and vocational education, and closing the gender gap in the primary and secondary sectors by 2005.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other goals include a progressive reduction in infant and maternal mortality, making reproductive health services accessible to all through the primary health care system by 2015, greatly improved provision for family planning (allowing couples to make free and informed decisions on the number, spacing and timing of births) and providing better protection against sexually transmitted diseases.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The State of the World Population Report concludes: 'A successful urban future depends, as much as anything else, on engaging all members of the community - especially women and the poor  -  in a constructive political process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There will have to be partnerships struck between governments, nongovernmental organisations, the private sector, and local and community organisations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And global urbanisation will require that the international community  -  governments, NGOs and international institutions - act to exploit the potential of cities to improve the lives of the world's people and to establish the foundations of sustainable development in the 21st century.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Lagos under stress</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Paul Okunlola</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With a present population of some 7.5 million, the new millenium will propel Lagos to megacity status. The United Nations Population Fund predicts that 24 million people will live in the city by 2015, making it the third most populous conurbation on the globe. Whilst the donor community has supported urban projects in the past, tough times mean more reliance on 'bottom up' schemes backed by N60s and community-based groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When it began to rain in the small hours of Thursday 18 July 1996, residents of Lagos -  Nigeria's largest city and economic nerve centre -  merely stirred in their slumber. The gentle, but persistent showers, didn't rank among the heaviest downpours experienced by this coastal city, which gets rain on average for eight months in every year. Nor are Lagosians unfamiliar with spells of rain lasting up to seven days without break.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But by the time of the early morning 'rush hour', the traffic-laden streets of metropolitan Lagos were being swept with rampaging floods. Until well after noon, the city's social and economic life was at a standstill. Already difficult road conditions were rendered impossible for motorists, marooned at the wheel for hours. Exhausted school children eventually made it back home after spending the better part of the day in traffic. Crowds of commuters waited interminably at bus-stops for vehicles that never came.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The economic toll was expected to be heavy, with offices in both government and the private sector remaining empty all day. Commercial activities were put on hold as shops remained shuttered until well after noon. The communications network and electricity supply to key areas of the city were shut down for hours, to protect equipment. One state government official commented: 'It has never been so bad.' By the time the water receded and life had returned to normal, both government engineers and private sector consultants were in agreement: the main reasons for the flooding were illegal development along the natural courses of inner-city waterways, and the reduced drainage capacity of the overdeveloped metropolitan area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Exploding metropolis</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both the flood itself, and the acknowledgement of the human limitations of the city officials, illustrate the frustrations that have attended the management of this exploding metropolis over the last three decades. In the months leading up to the July flooding, a major controversy erupted over plans to landfill the inland Kuramo lake in the highbrow Victoria Island district and develop it as a housing estate. This pitted state government officials and a firm of developers on the one hand, against a motley band of citizens groups, non-governmental organisations and concerned environmentalists on the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The unusual strength of local feeling against the project reflects growing fears that the island itself could be submerged. Five years ago, this was thought to be a remote prospect but today it is seen as a real threat, given the increasing frequency of flooding incidents and ocean surges along the coastal area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More and more people are arguing that there is a correlation between the growing frequency of flooding incidents and the massive sandfilling activity that has taken place over the years. The Kuramo issue remains contentious but it is just one example of the wider dilemma facing the city's development planners. They have the daunting task of providing for legions of migrants to Lagos - whose swelling numbers are placing great stress on the failing infrastructure. The problem may be particularly acute in the Nigeria's largest city, but it reflects a wider trend of urbanisation in the country over the past half century, as the overall population has increased.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1921, Nigeria had just 18.7 million inhabitants. Current estimates put the population in the region of 103.5 million. And the growth in the proportion of urban dwellers has been equally dramatic. In 1931, fewer than 7% of the people lived in urban centres. The figure had risen to 10% by 1952,19% by 1963, 33% by 1984, and 42% at the last count, in 1991. Current figures suggest that there are now seven Nigerian cities with more than a million inhabitants and no fewer than 78 whose population exceeds 100 000.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The changing structure of the country's human settlement profile has been linked to broader economic and social changes. The situation has been exacerbated by the economic depression of the last two decades. Analysts have noted a trend of declining primary production in such areas as agriculture, mining, quarrying and exploitation of natural resources. This has resulted in greater attention being paid to secondary and tertiary economic activities -  which are generally city-based. The figures illustrate the dramatic nature of the change that has taken place. In 1952, the ratio of primary to secondary/ tertiary economic activity, as measured in Nigeria's GDP, was 68:32. Four decades later, the ratio was 38:62.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">According to World Bank consultant, Prof. Akin Mabogunje, the trend is exemplified by the expansion of a whole range of activities located in urban centres -  large, medium and small-scale enterprises in manufacturing and construction, utilities, transport and communications systems, wholesale and retail outlets, hotels, restaurants, finance and insurance companies, and estate agencies. Then there is the whole range of government activity. Until 1991, Nigeria's huge federal bureaucracy was located in Lagos, operating alongside a state administration and some 15 local authorities. Add to this the major docks and airports of Lagos, and you get an urbanisation phenomenon which has, to say the least, been intimidating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lagos, which only occupies 0.4% of the country's land area, gains an extra 300 000 inhabitants every year on top of its natural growth rate. That the city is a 'pole of attraction' is hardly surprising. It is clearly the economic nucleus of the country, reputed to account for about 57% of total value added in manufacturing and about 40% of the nation's most highly skilled manpower.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Urban toll</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The costs have also been high. Professor Poju Onibokun, a human settlements expert, enumerates these: grossly inadequate housing and infrastructure with millions dwelling in slums; social amenities under enormous pressure with a shortage of schools and poor health facilities; endemic crime and juvenile delinquency; the breakdown of traditional values, family cohesiveness and community spirit. The capacity of law enforcement institutions is also increasingly hampered by technological and resource limitations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Of these ills, the shortage of housing and lack of infrastructure are seen as the most acute. This is borne out by a recent World Bank study which notes that:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the quality of life and living conditions have deteriorated;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - economic production has plunged;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the inadequate provision of infrastructural services has negatively affected the operations of most private sector investors, who now need to spend between 22% and 25% of their capital outlay on providing their own infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over 90% of the city's housing is provided by the private sector. But this has been handicapped in recent times by spiralling development costs and a general shortage of funds. New private housing has consisted largely of thousands of individual units, built mainly in areas of existing large scale developments. The authorities have made their own efforts to plug the gap and over the last 15 years, no fewer than 6000 hectares of marshland have been sandfilled and reclaimed in six separate development schemes (some of which have proved controversial). The Land Use Act of 1978 vested all urban land in the state authorities, although the administration of the legislation has not always proved satisfactory.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public transport is another problem for Lagos residents. There is no integrated system of mass transport and the sector is essentially made up of hundreds of privately operated buses and a dwindling taxi fleet. Massive currency devaluations have meant that the purchase price of new vehicles has rocketed. Maintenance costs for the increasingly dilapidated fleet have also spiralled. As a result, the system is stretched to beyond its capacity and it is the commuters who bear the brunt.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public sector spending obviously has an important part to play in maintaining urban structures. The downturn in international aid flows has, therefore, had a visible impact with decline in infrastructure provision and maintenance, leading to a less favourable operating environment for private investors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the past, Lagos has been a notable beneficiary of urban support programmes with multi-million dollar schemes for water supply, storm water drainage, and infrastructure. Most of these have been World Bank-led but the support of the European Union and its Member States in this area is also considered crucial.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the positive side, adversity has proved a catalyst for greater community-based and NGO activity in environmental and human settlement issues over the last decade. This is a fresh approach, based on 'bottom-up' strategies, which should open up muchneeded new avenues to urban management in Nigeria more generally and in Lagos in particular. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A Eurocrat in Istanbul</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Gilles Fontaine</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, a specialist in urban development, offers us his thoughts on the Istanbul conference. This event, he believes, was a landmark in the collective process of raising awareness which was begun at the Rio Conference on the environment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14 June 1996 - last day of Habitat II</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Night fell a long time ago. A feeling of hope permeates the hall. Most of the work is completed but there are still disputes over a few paragraphs of the text of the Habitat 11 Agenda. Some delegates have not slept for two days and they can be seen standing around, afraid they might fall asleep. The sense of fatigue increases further when, at midnight, the symbolic 'stopping of the clocks' (to permit a successful outcome of the final negotiations) is announced over the PA system.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At two in the morning, the wait has become almost unreal. It is virtually unimaginable that the Conference should come to nothing, after two years of intense work. Since Wednesday evening, the general atmosphere has been almost euphoric. Agreement has been reached on all the essential points within the allotted time and the Conference is already being heralded as another success story. All that remains to be done is to finalise the 'Istanbul Declaration', a four-page policy text broadly summarising the work of the Conference. The Conference would finally close about two hours later, amid general relief - but why the impasse?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Breaking new ground... and remaining steadfast</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some problems arose where they were least expected! To everyone's surprise, 'informal' working sub-groups had to be set up to discuss nuclear testing and anti-personnel mines! These themes were a far cry from the Habitat Agenda, but this sort of thing inevitably happens at major international conferences.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other stumbling blocks appeared without any real warning, when some delegates attempted to renegotiate the conclusions of the Beijing and Cairo conferences. The negotiators had to stand firm on two counts. The hard-won recognition of women's rights needed to be defended all over again. And, more importantly, the attempt in Istanbul to reopen the debate on everything that had been gained at previous conferences had to be avoided. The European Union's negotiators took an aggressive stance on both these issues.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The fact that so much negotiating effort is expended is a good illustration of the political significance governments attach to the topics debated on such occasions. A conference may be seen as resembling the proverbial half-bottle of water  - some regard it as half empty and others as half full. One's viewpoint depends on one's expectations  -  and much disappointment is caused by a misunderstanding of how such conferences operate.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meeting the delegates</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although I am no anthropologist, I think I was able to identify three major groups of participants. First, there were the 'negotiators', who have built up a common language from conference to conference. I was surprised at the extent to which reference was constantly made, in the negotiating groups, to the 'Languages' of Rio, Copenhagen or Beijing. This is not just a question of vocabulary or syntax, but represents a genuine revolution in thought at international level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second group, to which I myself belonged, was made up of national and international officials. These are the people who, to a greater or lesser extent, prepare the conference. They then attend it and, ideally, write a mission report on returning to their offices (bemoaning the fact that few people will read their words of wisdom !)'These delegates tend to offer the harshest judgments. A common refrain is: 'We have long argument about words in parenthesis in a huge document that no one will ever read!'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third group, which nowadays is the largest, consists of representatives of so-called civil society. Since Rio, every United Nations conference has seen the parallel organisation of an NGO Forum, and the latter's influence has constantly increased. At Beijing, the authorities banished the NGO Forum to a site 60 km from the capital, but Istanbul welcomed it with open arms on the same footing as the 'Cities Summit' and the meetings of researchers and industrialists. A more fundamental development was the invitation to NGOs and local authorities to take an active part in the working groups and at meetings. This was a 'first' in international conference history and I was struck by the motivation and competence of many of the participants, as well as by the ease with which they have adapted to the information society. Gone are the days when addresses are exchanged on scraps of paper, accompanied by the ritual 'We must keep in touch!'. These days, your business card must include your Internet Email address. Contacts are organised through networks connected to databases, and people swap CD ROMs with each other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What did Habitat II achieve?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'official' end most visible result of the Conference was obviously the adoption of the Habitat Agenda - the final fruit of long hours of work within the national committees set up for the occasion. This document, over a hundred pages in length, contains a 'World Action Plan', accompanied by the 'Istanbul Declaration'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is not so well-publicised is the fact that many countries  -  including a number of ACPs  -  took the opportunity to publish their own national reports containing individual action plans. The amount of preparation that went into these reports revealed a high degree of motivation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Having looked at them more closely since, I have gained a somewhat better understanding of the months of work put in tens of thousands of people across the world. This reassures me that the majority of state participants will monitor the Habitat 11 follow-up very closely.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One has to recognise that the mere adoption of a text, however significant it may be, cannot be regarded as a magic formula which will change the face of the world overnight. To the impatient among us who want everything straight away, and to unrepentant sceptics, I would say this. In environmental matters there are two major periods in our recent history - the period before Rio and the period after Rio. The Rio meeting, and each subsequent conference, have been milestones in a long, coherent process of collective reflection and growing awareness. Istanbul did, in fact, keep its promises: the right to adequate shelter is now recognised internationally as the fundamental right of every human being.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The exploding city</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Stephane Yerasimos</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Istanbul. Ten million inhabitants - with double that number expected in 20 years time. Financial irregularities, a chaotic house-building sector, a lack of infrastructure and rampant speculation. One needed to look no further than the host city to find the key issues facing the Habitat Conference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Istanbul is a city steeped in history. It is also one of the Third World's biggest conurbations. Over the last 16 centuries, it has been the capital of two great empires - the Byzantine and the Ottoman - resulting in a rich legacy of monuments and a historic centre on a par with that of Rome. From the Middle Ages to the beginning of the modern era, it was regarded as Europe's largest city. On the eve of the Second World War, it had a population of one million, but that figure has now multiplied tenfold. Almost half of its ten million inhabitants are living on a knife edge, and many are in 'illegal' housing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first big transformation of the city came in the middle of the 19th century when the Ottoman authorities opted for westernisation and embarked on an extensive management programme. By the time the Empire collapsed in 1922, much of the ancient fabric - and traditional housing -  of the city had already been lost. Under the new republic, the capital was transferred to Ankara, and the authorities stepped up their efforts at modernisation. In 1937, Ataturk gave Frenchman Henri Prost, a city planner who had helped preserve the old centres of a number of Moroccan towns, the job of devising major public works in the heart of the old city. The infrastructure was also updated and taken together, these works (which were completed during the 1950s) transformed the old walled city and its ancient suburbs (Galata and Uskudar) into a modern aggLom&eacute;ration, interspersed with ancient monuments.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mass immigration</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unlike the colonial powers who attempted to preserve the traditional character of old city centres around the Mediterranean rim and in the rest of the Islamic world, the desire of successive Turkish governments to modernise the country resulted in the disappearance of most of Istanbul's ancient fabric, and the city no longer has a compact area of old districts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The transformation of the city centre was matched, after the Second World War, by an explosion of building on the outskirts - a phenomenon characteristic of Third World countries. Improved sanitation and hygiene standards led to a natural population increase of between 2.5% and 3% per year. Meanwhile, the modernisation of agricultural practices caused a mass rural exodus. Marginalised in both economic and social terms. the people who flooded into Istanbul soon over whelmed the resident population. Today, the bulk of the people living in the city have rural origins.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The new residents began by occupying the edges of the old quarters and taking over the open spaces which remained after the ravages of an earlier fire. They then began to settle in ever-increasing circles around Istanbul, establishing the first gecekondu districts (groups of huts constructed overnight). These have been incorrectly described as shanty towns. In fact, most buildings are permanent structures and they rapidly develop into multi-storey dwellings. Most of the land on which these illegal buildings have sprung up was originally privately owned. But the elected multi-party government in power at the time was quick to spot the electoral possibilities in these areas. Each district was a reservoir of potential voters and, on the eve of each election, the parties in power would distribute property titles to the illegal occupants. They, in turn hastened to consolidate and increase their assets. This explains the emergence of increasingly densely populated districts without infrastructure during the 1950s and early 1960s</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Industrialisation, and the arrival in the city of people who used to be rural landowners (driven out by the new market economy) later created a demand for housing which the normal market was unable to meet. This has given rise to a new phenomenon of urban marginalisation, involving the illegal division of land into plots. The system involves the purchase of agricultural properties by developers and speculative builders. These are divided into small plots and resold, quite legally, to purchasers  -  who then build unauthorised structures in contravention of the normal planning rules. Often, benefiting from political alliances, the developers take control of these districts and 'convert' the votes of the people living there into cash, in return for urban investments. This enables them to consolidate their power and increase the value of their remaining stock of plots.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An uncontrolled population increase</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, a third phenomenon, linked to the growth of a middle class, began to occur in the mid-1980s, when building cooperatives came into being. Their predecessors were the corporate associations which grouped together public officials (beginning with the army and the police). These developed into ad-hoc associations enabling a group of developers to tap people's savings, thereby dispensing with the need for loans in a country where chronic inflation makes credit prohibitive. Several thousands of dwellings are often constructed at the same time, in the form of tightly packed, multiple-occupancy blocks. The requirements of multi-storey construction mean that these buildings are of acceptable quality, but the related infrastructures are sorely lacking. Entire districts are built 'in the wilds' without any infrastructural investment by the developers or local authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The city is continuing to expand, without reference to any development plan. The fifteen or so major urban schemes drawn up since the 1950s have all remained in desk drawers and the only significant construction work has been on roads (notably bridges and ring roads). These generate further uncontrolled population increases on the outskirts of the city.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the natural rate of demographic growth is slowly declining - it has just dropped to under 2% per year -  the most recent census (in 1990) reveals that Turkey now has more people living in its cities than in its rural areas. Yet the statistics also show that half of the country's people are still involved in agriculture. Given the continuing natural growth, and the fact that in semi-industrialised countries, the rural population tends to settle at around a third or even just a quarter of the total, we can assume that the drift to towns and cities will continue for the next 30 or 40 years. This trend will affect all Turkish towns and cities, be they large, small or medium-sized. But Greater Istanbul, where the majority of the country's economic and social activity is concentrated, is set to experience a doubling of its population within the next twenty-five years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dilemma for urban planners</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem caused by demographic changes is exacerbated by economic constraints. For a number of years now, Turkey has suffered a high (albeit stable) inflation rate of about 70% per year. This situation discourages investment in industry, and makes people take refuge in ownership of land that they can build on. Land has thus become the target of speculation by people in all social classes. Against this background, it is virtually impossible to regulate the use of land  - something which must be at the heart of any urban-development programme. An alternative is to discuss the possibility of developing a social consensus involving a more liberal approach to property speculation, recgnising that land is a source of revenue at all levels. This might entail releasing central and local authorities from any responsibility to provide services or other infrastructural investment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the present circumstances, however, any scheme to redevelop Istanbul effectively would seem doomed to failure. The only intervention which might succeed would be at the 'cleaning-up' stage - coming in after the construction of the dwellings under the conditions described above. It is only once the new inhabitants' dream of having a roof over their heads is realised that they come face to face with the harsh daily realities of living in a self-built city of nearly ten million people. They may then be prepared to make some sacrifices in order to improve their living conditions. The moment when harsh reality replaces emotion, is the only time the urban planner has the slightest chance of being listened to. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Adequate housing in the EU: rights and realities</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Misia Coghlan</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are 2.7 million homeless people in the European Union and many millions more are badly housed. But the EU is said to be lagging in taking measures to provide adequate housing - one of the internationally recognised human rights. An expert from a leading campaign group for the homeless explains.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the weeks and months leading up to the Second United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II), much argument and debate centred around the existence of the right to adequate housing. The legal basis of this right was challenged by a handful of delegates and the arguments continued right through the Conference itself. The outcome is that the final Declaration includes a reaffirmation of states to a 'commitment to the full and progressive realisation of the right to adequate housing as provided for in the international instruments.' (see first box)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The political impact of Habitat II as the culmination of the recent series of UN Conferences has been disappointing. The Istanbul Conference was originally heralded with the catch-phrase 'housing for all'. In the course of the preparatory process, this was watered-down to become 'shelter for all' and, as has been seen, the wording of the final Declaration simply refers to existing international commitments and allows for the 'full and progressive realisation of the right.' This of course begs the question of how such a right was ever supposed to have been achieved other than 'progressively' and how meaningful such a commitment can be in the absence of parallel undertakings as to implementation and enforcement. In short, very little has been achieved in progressing international commitment to the realisation of the right.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right to adequate housing has in fact been recognised for some time now by the Member States of the European Union, all of whom have ratified the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (the most important legal basis of housing rights found in international law). Under article 11(1), the parties to the Covenant recognise, 'the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family, including adequate food, clothing and housing...'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The concept of 'adequacy', it is generally acknowledged, is determined at least in part by social, economic, cultural and climatic factors. Adequate housing can be understood as including the following components: legal security of tenure, affordability, habitability, accessibility, location and availability of services, materials, facilities and infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It hardly needs pointing out that commitments in international law, whether legally binding or not, remain statements of intent and are of limited practical use unless accompanied by a comprehensive legislative framework in domestic law which will secure both the access to the right as well as providing enforcement mechanisms. What, then, is the reality ? Has the right to adequate housing been enacted into national legislation and, most importantly, is the right actually being respected across the European Union?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Realities</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FEANTSA, the European Federation of National Associations Working with the Homeless, has been conducting the European Observatory on Homelessness with the support of the European Commission since 1991. FEANTSA's research findings have increasingly demonstrated both the extent and the gravity of the housing crisis in Europe: in what is one of the wealthiest subregions of the world, a large and growing group of the population is being excluded from adequate housing. (see box on next page)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Moreover, FEANTSA's 1995 transnational research report (Home/essness in the European Union) has found that the right to housing does not exist in any Member State as a legally enforceable claim. Although the right is recognised in the constitution of several Member States, this remains a statement of intent and does not create any entitlement. Other Member States have adopted a different approach - housing legislation in the United Kingdom, for example, does create an obligation on the local authorities to provide housing for those homeless people assessed to be in priority need and found to be unintentionally homeless. There is no sign of convergence in the ways EU Member States address the right to housing and housing exclusion in their national legislation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The right to housing is not addressed in EU legislation as a legal principle and Member States have exclusive competence to deal with housing issues themselves. There is thus no overall European housing policy, nor is there yet any European policy on homelessness. FEANTSA has, however, identified common trends throughout Europe which have contributed to the escalation of homelessness and the lack of adequate housing provision.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall European trend has been an increased reliance on the competitive market to meet all housing needs, with an unwillingness on the part of government to commit public resources to assist lower income groups, who are therefore confronted with the limited choice available to them on the open housing market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The supply of housing has been undergoing change throughout Europe. In all countries, owner-occupation is on the increase, with tax relief generally being offered as an incentive. The private rented sector, on the other hand, has continued to decline. Social housing has generally suffered from cuts in funding. The result is that there is a shortfall in the supply of affordable housing for rent and rents have become correspondingly higher. It is clear that the competitive housing market cannot and will not meet the needs of the increasing numbers of people without the resources to afford market rents.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The type of housing required has also changed: demographic trends have meant that households are getting smaller but more numerous - thus, there is a need for more but smaller dwellings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The problem has been exacerbated by the lack of an overall strategy either at European level or, indeed, often at national level, to meet the realities of structural changes on the labour market. Indeed, in some countries, the increase in long-term unemployment has been accompanied by an erosion of social protection systems. Faced with escalating demand for longterm welfare assistance, the authorities have often responded by tightening up on eligibility criteria in an attempt to cut or limit benefit payments, with shortterm palliative measures to deal with emergency cases. Thus, increasing numbers of people living on or under the poverty threshold, coupled with the deregulation of the housing market, have led to severe housing stress and increased vulnerability to homelessness.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finland sets an example</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finland is one EU country tackling the housing problem. In 1987, the International Year of the Homeless, the Finnish government announced its intention to eliminate homelessness. At that time, the number of homeless people was put at close to 20 000. The programme for the development of housing set the objective of making 18 000 homes available for the homeless over a period of five years. Special funds were set aside in the national budget to permit the local authorities and other organisations to purchase housing for the homeless. State loans for the construction of housing for rent were made available to municipalities with a large homeless population. In under ten years, the number of homeless people in Finland has been reduced to half what it was in the mid-1980s. Finland now enjoys a comprehensive system of carefully targeted housing supply, housing subsidies, benefits and allowances and housing is seen as an integral part of a multi-dimensional strategy to combat poverty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For one in twenty citizens of the European Union, the criteria which, as a whole, constitute adequate housing remain inaccessible. Yet at Istanbul, the EU voiced its determination to make an important and constructive contribution to the implementation of the Habitat objectives. This included an acknowledgement that increased attention should be paid to people living in poverty and that appropriate action should be taken by governments at all levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European housing ministers were due to meet informally in Dublin, on 24 and 25 October of this year, specifically to tackle the question of 'housing for socially excluded people'. The time has come to devise and implement coherent strategies to prevent housing exclusion for low income groups. The market has neither the ethics nor the long-term planning capacity to do this; it remains the responsibility of the state. It can only be hoped that the housing ministers will recognise this and agree on the necessity of protecting housing as a product and as a service from the competitive market, at least for vulnerable groups. The housing ministers have been holding informal meetings since 1989. This year's meeting provides the opportunity, particularly in the light of the Habitat II debate, to exchange information on effective measures to help low income groups access and maintain a home. The result should be the drafting of a number of concrete goals to be achieved within a realistic time-scale.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Homelessness in Europe is not on the scale seen in other regions of the world - with the development and reinforcement of effective preventive policies, based on proven and cost-effective welfare models existing in some Member States, the housing crisis can still be contained. In short, where there is a political will, there is a way. Europe has the potential to serve as a model of good practice to the rest of the world and should do so, more especially in the light of all that was - and wasn't  - achieved at Istanbul. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">References</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Is the European Union Housing its Poor ? Dragana Avramov, Catherine Parmentier and Brian Harvey, FEANTSA, Brussels 1995 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Homelessness in the European Union, Dragana Avramov, FEANTSA, Brussels 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Invisible Hand of the Housing Market, Dragana Avramov, FEANTSA, Brussels 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Cities of the Third World</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Francis Cass</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In ten or so years' time, more than half the world's population will be living in built-up areas and, according to UN figures, by 2025 nearly two thirds of us will live in towns and cities. This is not a complete surprise -  over the last few decades, the ratio of city dwellers to rural people has consistently moved in 'favour' of the former. In 1950, 29% of people were city dwellers. Since 1985, the urban population has exceeded 40% of the global total.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Today, we are witnessing an acceleration in demographic growth, especially in developing countries. Of the 2.6 billion people who currently live in towns, 1.6 billion live in the world's least developed regions. By 2025, the urban population of the Third World will have risen to 3.2 billion, out of a global urban population of just over 4 billion. On the basis of these figures, it is estimated that the number of urban dwellers in developing countries is increasing by approximately 150 000 people each day! In Cape Town in South Africa, for example, as in many towns and cities of the Third World, this demographic explosion can actually be seen happening. All you need to do is drive regularly along the N2 motor way  - which passes through the shanty towns of Khayelitsha and Guguletu -  to see how, week by week, the makeshift dwellings are spreading - gradually expanding to every available plot of land. The same scene is repeated in all of Africa's large towns. In Cot&eacute; d'lvoire, the population of Abidjan rises by 400 inhabitants a day on average. In Gabarone, the capital of Botswana, whose population was barely 3000 at the time of independence in the 1960s, the population is increasing by 18% each year and today 160 000 people live there. Such growth is often accompanied by widespread indifference on the part of local authorities. Such indifference is due, in particular, to a shortage of financial resources, but it also reflects an absence of political will to do anything to tackle the problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Demography and poverty</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The demographic explosion which has taken place in the urban areas of developing countries is due to three main factors: natural population growth, rural emigration to towns and cities, and (less importantly) the redefinition of the administrative boundaries of built-up areas. The first two factors are equally to 'blame' but in future, it is predicted that rural depopulation in Africa will become the single most important element in urban population growth. This will be especially true of countries where there is rampant rural poverty. In this context, we need to recognise other circumstances, such as famine, desertification, a shortage of cultivable land and conflicts, which serve to exacerbate the phenomenon. If people living in the countryside decide to migrate to towns, it is because they are looking for a better life and hope to improve their standard of living. Few succeed. According to a World Bank study, 50% of people in abject poverty will be living in urban areas by the year 2000.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The effects that urban poverty has on the environment are often dramatic. The reverse is also true. A damaged environment constitutes a daily hazard for town and city dwellers, in particular the most destitute. The precarious nature of their living conditions means that only in extremely rare cases are these people able to guard against the degeneration of their immediate surroundings. Driven to the outer limits of the towns - where even basic infrastructures such as sewers and the collection of household waste are often lacking, the poorest sections of society are left to fend for themselves. Local authorities have neither the means nor (often) the inclination to do anything to help them. Even those who are comfortably off and who can afford to give part of their income to safeguard their immediate environment (thereby protecting themselves to some extent) cannot escape the consequences of more general ecological problems such as air pollution and the contamination of water supplies. Living in a modern house in a well-to-do district is simply not enough. It is not possible to shield oneself completely from the problems created by environmental destruction. For example, even an unofficial rubbish tip, located several kilometres away from a residential area, can have disastrous effects on groundwater - meaning that sooner or later, the quality of the drinking water will suffer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Towns gasping for water...</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At present, the vast majority of Third World towns are facing a series of ecological problems which directly or indirectly, affect the lives of their inhabitants. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), 220 million city dwellers have no access to drinking water and 420 million have no latrines. It does not take much to imagine the potentially catastrophic health consequences of such a situation - in which people are forced to drink and irrigate their land with water from contaminated sources. The WHO has estimated that three million children died during 1993 as a direct result of diarrhoea, and that nearly two million of these victims had consumed drinking water contaminated with faecal matter. In developing countries, 90% of waste water is poured, completely untreated, into rivers, lakes and coastal waters. Again, one can easily imagine the impact on marine flora and fauna, and on the health of those who eat the products fished from these waters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">...and gasp for breath</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As far as air quality is concerned, the WHO intimates that more than a billion city dwellers throughout the world breathe highly polluted air. For the most part, this pollution is generated by industry and motor vehicles. A small improvement has been recorded in the urban areas of developed countries, but air quality in the towns and cities of the South has deteriorated considerably during recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are many reasons for this. First, there has been an increase in industrial activity, mainly concentrated around towns and cities. This is a result of economic development, but also of the fact that many factories - including some with the worst pollution records  - have relocated from the North to the South, where legislation governing emissions is less stringent. Second, in contrast to the trends seen in developed countries - where cars are usually well-maintained, (running on unleaded petrol and rarely more than five years old) motor vehicles in the Third World -  whose numbers are increasing significantly  -  are frequently old, badly maintained and run on leaded fuel. According to the World Bank, 95% of the lead polluting the air in the towns and cities of developing countries comes from vehicles which run on leaded petrol and studies carried out on the subject have revealed concentrations of up to 1.5 microgrammes of lead per cubic metre of air. In North America and Europe the concentration varies between 0.2 and 0.8 microgrammes per cubic metre.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another problem facing towns and cities in the southern hemisphere arises from the enormous amounts of waste they produce and from the fact that they have few treatment facilities. In many cases, the rubbish is not even collected and is left to accumulate into the piles which can often be seen on the edges of shanty towns. This accumulation of refuse encourages the proliferation of certain diseases and poses a real threat to the health of residents both nearby and further away. In addition to this ordinary, everyday waste, the countries of the Third World have to deal with problems generated by toxic waste  - not just their own, but also that which is 'exported' there by industrialised countries. Needless to say, the towns which actually have the means and facilities needed to treat this highly polluting waste are few and far between.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Linking development with environmental protection</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While environmental problems have a direct impact on human health and on the natural world, they also entail huge economic costs. The effect of pollution on human health translates into ever-increasing health costs and a decline in productivity. And it is not only city dwellers who suffer the consequences of a deteriorating urban environment. Depending on their size, the degree of industrial activity and population concentration, towns and cities pollute and destroy areas well beyond their own administrative boundaries. They swallow up enormous amounts of natural resources, suck their hinterlands dry and spit out 'what is left'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nowadays, there is an increasing global consensus over the need to tackle these growing problems rapidly. This was seen clearly at the Habitat II Conference in Istanbul. Most cities of the southern hemisphere urgently need to get to grips with their numerous ecological problems - the alternative is to sink further into chaos. In a similar vein, it has become obvious that some sort of balance must be found between economic development and safeguarding the environment - and that considerable investments are needed to achieve this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Solutions do exist. Recycling projects, for example, could provide jobs for large numbers of town and city dwellers, as well as cleaning up the environment. Governments of industrialised nations should take the necessary steps to ensure that their toxic waste does not end up in the rubbish dumps of the countries of the South. Authorities in urban areas in the Third World should set aside more of their budgets to help the most underprivileged sections of their populations, so that they can manage their own environment. Local authorities should also respond more efficiently to the basic needs of impoverished districts, not least by building roads and sewer systems, by ensuring that rubbish is collected and by guaranteeing all people access to drinking water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Last but not least, a concerted effort - especially a concerted financial effort - should be made by decision-makers at the local, national and international levels. We need to recognise that environmental damage is a phenomenon which rarely confines itself to the local level. Sooner or later, it becomes a problem for all of us. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When conservation is at odds with the local population</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Hendrik Smets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The clash between the interests of people living on the edges of the Zakouma National Park in Chad and the authorities' attempts at conservation illustrates the situation facing many other nature reserves in Africa. This article argues in favour of a form of eco-development to suit everyone.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the Zakouma National Park (PNZ) WAS officially set up in 1963 (it had been at the planning stage since 1956), the area it covered meant that local people had to be moved -  but the promised compensation was never paid. During the second phase of the PNZ's relaunch, financed by the European Development Fund (EDF), a perimeter path following the 1963 boundaries was marked out, but local villagers opposed this, regarding it as an extension of the Park's area. Subsequently, they rejected a move to build a dispensary in a village located at the edge of the park on the pretext that such a structure would again constitute an extension to the reserve's land.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Conflict between the itinerant stockbreeders of the region and the authorities has simmered for many years. The latter have shrunk from enforcing the 1963 law on transhumance corridors which applies to the fringes of the national park. Under this law, it is prohibited (in principle) to gather wood, hunt for game, fish, or gather honey and other natural produce. The result is a tendency among locals to view the PNZ as an adversary rather than a potential partner in development. Safari tourism is developing too slowly and is not leading to sufficient benefits for example, from a craft industry, or more general redevelopment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the second phase of the project was at the planning stage, its organisers recognised that, in order to guarantee the park's future, support had to be given to the people living on its edges. A high-level 'cooperation committee' was therefore proposed. The membership of this committee, which would sit in N'Djamena, was to include ministers, directors-general, park authorities and Commission representatives. Unfortunately it has not yet been brought into operation. By contrast, the local authorities and park management have been able to set up their own committee which met for the first time in January 1996. This body has helped to tackle some of the most sensitive problems.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The second phase also saw the implementation of a series of microprojects. - school renovations, a dispensary, a bridge, the sinking of wells, a dam, a mill and a nursery. But these were set up without preliminary study, and no arrangements were made to sound out the views of the local people, or the form of development they would like promoted. Understandably, local hostility was encountered and the projects cannot, in any real sense, be viewed as offshoots of the wider PNZ scheme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project has not been extended to a third phase. Because of this, there is a risk that the capital invested -  and the positive results that have been achieved - could be lost altogether. Should any donor choose to 'pick up the baton' in future, they will need to recognise the key imperative of creating a symbiotic relationship between the park and the local population. To do this, there must be an awareness-raising effort, undertaken in parallel with any eco-development programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the first instance, a higher profile should be given to institutional issues. In particular, the cooperation committee in N'Djamena must be able to act, where necessary, as an appeal or arbitration chamber to deal with any disputes which cannot be resolved by the local authorities' committee. The latter, of course, would continue to meet on a regular basis to discuss any problems encountered.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, there should be campaigns to disseminate information and train local people who are in daily contact with the park's environment. The aim here would be to make them progressively more accountable for conservation and the exploitation of natural resources (cutting wood, gathering produce, hunting, fishing, and so on). They must also gain a better understanding of the effects of poaching and desertification. Above all, such campaigns should seek to convince the people of the benefits they stand to gain from the park, if they continue to respect its integrity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this context, some lessons might be drawn from a regional project dating from April 1987 (which was never fully implemented). This was aimed at halting the advance of the desert in the northern Central African Republic and southern Chad. The component of the project which is of interest to the present discussion was its programme to increase public awareness  -  which involved training organisers, preparing and disseminating information (posters, videos, films), organising information tours and giving support to the Training and Environmental Information Programme of the CILSS (Inter-State Committee to Combat Drought in the Sahel), of which Chad is a member.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One could also learn something from the approach adopted by the Manda National Park which is situated 270 km from Zakouma. This has 'volunteer villagers' appointed by the chiefs of the four cantons making up the park zone, who know the territory well. The volunteers take part in information, awareness and monitoring operations alongside national park and animal reserve employees. Dressed in pale olivegreen uniforms, they cycle between the villages and encampments, providing a link between the villagers and officials in N'Djamena. They have an invaluable role in convincing village people of the advantages of cooperating in the development of the park and its surrounding areas. And the cost of a volunteer is just CFAF 5 000 (ECU 7.5) per month.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eco-development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Returning to the PNZ, it is true that a small proportion of the population already benefits from the park's existence. Wages are paid to the patrols, and the permanent and seasonal workforce, while micro-projects have been set up. The park pays traders, artisans, farmers and stockbreeders for certain services and there are some tourists. But the bulk of the population does not see these advantages having been largely excluded up to now.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any future eco-development programme should therefore aim at reducing pressure on the park in order to guarantee its long-term integrity. This would obviously need to be preceded by a clear definition of the action to be undertaken, but in the meantime, it might be useful to offer a few guidelines. The programme should include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - a series of flanking or support activities providing infrastructure and equipment, such as a dispensary, a school, paths, wells and carts;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - a food-security programme providing for the conservation of agricultural areas, as well as measures to prevent erosion and safeguard harvests (cereal banks, stores, gardens, agro-forestry systems and pest control);</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a project to promote natural resources such as fisheries, gum arable, honey, and straw fodder;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- a wood/energy management programme providing improved hearths and brick ovens, and the organised gathering and use of supplies;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- development of the craft industry and training of tourist guides.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If, in a third phase, an awareness and eco-development programme could be successfully implemented, the Zakouma National Park should be able to look forward to a brighter future. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">A new 'eco-centre' in West Africa: Two Presidents amid the dust</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In April, on the eve of the International Conference on Human Settlements, the first West-African eco-centre ('Ecopole`) was opened in Dakar. It was set up by Enda, one of the few international non-governmental organisations of significant size based in a developing country. The 'eco' refers to two things - the economic life of the ordinary people and the ecological aspect of the centre. One of the most memorable images of the opening ceremonies was the sight of two Presidents  -  Abdou Diouf of Senegal and his Malian counterpart, Alpha Oumar Konare  -  striding through the dust in a working-class district of the Senegalese capital. For supporters of the 'Ecopole', the event epitomised the fight back of the popular urban economy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The dust which settled on the Presidents' fine clothes was that of the Rail district, so called on account of the railway which cut through it in former times. Built in an old, disused factory, the airy, clean 'eco-complex' adds a touch of style to this semi-industrial, semi-shanty town district. The old buildings were redeveloped with the help of members of some two hundred cultural and sports associations, working in partnership with the NGO. They used recycling techniques of which they are past masters.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The complex had, in fact, been in operation for some time prior to its formal inauguration, but the ceremony  -  which attracted the interest of international press agencies - provided an opportunity to publicise the venture. Since its formation in 1972, Enda has been working to give a higher profile to the 'popular' economy (they eschew the term 'informal') in Senegal and elsewhere. The NGO has focused, in particular, on trying to encourage those involved in the popular economy to collaborate more closely and integrate their activities, as well as on boosting awareness of what is happening in similar communities elsewhere. The opening of the 'Ecopole' provided a showcase for the achievements of the popular economy in West Africa, as well as a forum for dialogue. And it now has the seal of approval of two Heads of State, not to mention other VlPs who made supportive statements at the opening.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The popular economy fights back</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For the inaugural ceremony, the former sheds - now converted into airy vaults clustered around a central structure - hosted a major presentation of the popular economy in a series of exhibitions. It is a kind of 'eco-museum' with pride of place going to recycling. Exhibits ranged from 'fabrics' made of old plastic bags crocheted together, to toy sports cars fashioned from wire and tin cans. And the reaction to the exhibition went beyond the usual, somewhat condescending appreciation of 'the skill of these people'. There were, of course, some curios of interest to tourists such as the aforementioned children's toys, small metal suitcases and papier-mache boxes. But there were also works of art, masks and sculptures, which captured something of the nature of this 'recycling culture'. Indeed, international art critics at the Biennal Festival of Contemporary African Art, taking place in Dakar, were talking of a new artistic trend, also seen in the work of artists from other regions, based on reclamation. This, of course, begs the question: 'Has art not always been based on reclamation?'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Interesting though the subject may be, the artistic and aesthetic qualities of the fruits of recycling are of only secondary importance when one is dealing with everyday objects. The important thing is for deprived populations to use what means they have to survive and to improve the quality of their lives. Tourists may choose to buy decorative and unusual objects on the reclamation market, but more significantly, families can obtain essential items such as kitchen utensils, ploughing implements, carpentry tools and stoves  - all cast from vehicle wheels and bits of scrap metal. They are made using small forges and furnaces the size of a large saucepan, or cut from otherwise unusable pieces of metal sheet. The craftsmen can also supply somewhat more sophisticated equipment: ploughs, brick-moulding machines or soldering irons. One of the exhibitions staged at the 'eco-centre' was a co-production with the Quebec Museum of Civilisation and the Canadian Embassy in Senegal, which had previously toured Canada and four African countries. Entitled 'Africa's ingenuity', it covered a wide variety of styles, ranging from the utilitarian to the artistic. It will, in due course, form the eco-museum's centrepiece. Another temporary exhibition was called 'Antuka: Kinshasa, the art of living in the city', and this paid homage to the Zairean capital - a place which, of necessity, has become one of the 'capitals' of resourcefulness. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jet engines and donkeys</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One hopes that the two Heads of State found time to admire the jet engine constructed by a young Zairean from nothing but reclaimed materials: parts taken from cars, mopeds and unwanted metal sheet. And it works -  not on an aircraft, naturally, but on the bench. This engine is now a legend. Its constructor has apparently already been spotted by a European head-hunting company and offered a job in France. This is part of the 'fight-back' referred to by Enda officials, in which some recognition is finally being given to the economies of the world's poorest populations. During his visit, the President of Senegal issued a plea for greater integration of the informal sector into the overall economic fabric. His remarks were revealing: the West-African 'Ecopole', as its name implies, covers an entire region, and assumption of responsibility by the local people for the shanty towns and poorer districts has lifted a significant burden from central government.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another example of this trend is found in the Malian capital, Bamako, where a hundred or so local community associations have banded together to take over full responsibility for the collection of domestic waste. This organisation, whose initial efforts were ridiculed, is now fully operational. One wonders whether the authorities in other cities have heard about Bamako's scheme. What about Port-au-Prince in Haiti, for example, where they are struggling with mountains of rubbish which they cannot deal with owing to a lack of resources ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since their inception, economic interest groupings (ElGs) such as the one in Bamako have helped bridge the gap between the 'formal' and 'informal' economies. They rely on collaboration and their enterprise is exemplary. At the outset, the inhabitants of poor districts, acting on the initiative of the ElGs, expressed the desire to improve their neighbourhoods by organising refuse collection. They used whatever means were available - which in most cases meant donkeys and carts. In more central districts, delivery tricycles were employed for collection. Specially constructed, tipper-style carts, each costing CFAF 200 000 (ECU 300) have since been brought into service. The price of a donkey, by contrast, is about CFAF 50 000 (ECU 75). The animals and equipment belong to the ElGs and are looked after and maintained by them, with carters receiving a monthly income and social security benefits. A number of groups were set up eight years ago, promoted by young technicians, academics, architects and economists. Those who benefit are known as 'subscribers', with each family paying a contribution towards the service. Managing equipment and collecting contributions both require a well-structured administrative department, but the administrators are not confined to their offices. As employees of the business, they see nothing wrong in lending a hand and assisting the carters. In short, it is an enterprise based on a whole new approach. The contribution made by families varies according to the EIG and the district in question, but it is generally set at around CFAF 750 (ECU 1.2) per family per month. The price of the service may be up to twice this sum in the so called 'quartier des Blancs' (the 'white' district). In theory, the state ought to be subsidising the ElGs, but in practice, this does not happen. The authorities do not even fulfil the task allocated to them under agreements signed with the ElGs, which is to transport the refuse from temporary dumps to a final site. According to local people, the problem is not that the local authorities do not have the trucks available for the task. The vehicles, they allege, are used instead for the officials' own private purposes. The ElGs are forced to plug the gap as far as possible. At present, they appear to be the only ones taking any interest in waste recycling, aware as they are of the risk to the environment posed by permanent dumping grounds, and of the specific danger that the water table will be polluted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A modern concept of the 'informal' economy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'informal' economy is increasingly becoming the norm. According to an Enda survey, 90% of businesspeople in Senegal started out in the informal sector. The conclusion would seem to be that the necessary training for dealing with current conditions is not to be found in the formal education system. The popular economy is not out of step with the modern economy as some would claim. Indeed, one could argue that it is the modern economy, as adapted to today's conditions. The increasing involvement of ordinary people in the economic circuit, which they enter via parallel routes, should also guarantee the continuation of Africa's experiment with democracy. We have seen attempts by former dictators to backtrack in this respect. They cite as evidence, the failure of technicians trained abroad - the 'darlings' of the West who, they claim, are at the beck and call of international institutions. But a return to the past, as exemplified by the regime of Nicephore Soglo, strikes fear into many people. Their response is to generate productivity, social cohesion and political stability through the popular economy, by way of compensation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is suggested that small-scale traders, who distribute hardware from south-east Asia, constitute an obstacle to the development of local production. But there is a confusion here between cause and effect. In fact, the popular economy appears more as a response to the lack of consumer goods. The problem lies with the so-called 'major' local entrepreneurs who favour the import/ export business over production, and with the banks that prefer to focus on larger businesses (influenced by anonymous officials or major economic interests) and have no time for small-scale operators.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Rail district in Dakar has a long history. It is overpopulated, having been settled by workers and artisans, and their influx made it the most expensive poor district. It is a place where the rents, for even the humblest hut without water or electricity, accounted for most of the inhabitants' meagre income. This situation led to the appearance of squatters who built their own shacks on waste ground. For these people, the threat of eviction loomed constantly like a sword of Damocles. The district is also home to a large number of maids and other household employees. Two thousand of these people (from Rail and other parts of the city) set up their own friendly society to which they pay regular contributions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is a world which has always teemed with good ideas: artisans recycling materials, blacksmiths working at the forge and so on. In this sense, nothing much has changed, but the big difference now is that the people have organised themselves. In so doing, they have been able to provide training for adults and children in makeshift schools, and to purchase and renovate old huts  - having extracted a guarantee from officials that such moves would not be opposed. Nowadays, those who live in the district no longer pay rent. However, it will only be possible to measure the true success of the Rail district when there is no longer a need for an organisation like Enda to ensure that it operates effectively.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some years ago, a former sailor, who always dreamed of being a teacher, set up his own school in the main street which runs through the district. He worked on the pavement and in the car park in front of a furniture store, teaching children in the morning before the offices opened and adults in the evening after they had closed. Enda recently offered him a few pieces of furniture, but for many years, he received no help other than a few pieces of chalk, worn-down pencils and the remains of exercise books from his 'colleagues' in regular education. This is a man who has to supply his pupils not just with teaching materials but also sometimes with food. This year, with his voice catching in his throat, he told us that one of his former 'street pupils' is going to college. How can the learned economists calculate the value of this devoted 'academic'? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The RDP challenge</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Professor Willie Esterhuyse</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The cornerstone of South Africa's Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) announced by President Nelson Mandela on May 24 1994, shortly after taking office, is people-centred development with an accent on modern infrastructure, health, education, housing and sanitation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lessons have already been learnt from teething troubles.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The RDP is the government's response to the massive socio-economic needs of the bulk of the South African population. It is foremost a strategic framework aimed at human development and restructuring the country's economy. It involves housing projects and programmes to improve the socioeconomic infrastructure covering clean water, electricity, public works, schools, urban renewal and primary health care. Empowerment programmes have been developed, for example; micro and small businesses, support for emergent farmers and skills training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of the main achievements of the RDP has been to sensitise South Africans to the plight of the poor. Apartheid, amongst other things, succeeded in keeping this out of sight, effectively locking the poor out of the system. A veil of ignorance prevailed among the privileged class. The RDP tore away the veil and has led to a willingness to participate in development and reconstruction programmes, especially in private sector circles. It is succeeding in prioritising South Africa's socio-economic challenges, as well as mobilising funding and organising a common and sustainable approach. Its most important achievement to date is probably the idea of partnerships in development between the state, private sector institutions and non-governmental organisations. Through the RDP, South Africans have accepted that they will have to 'run with the development ball'. They are also aware that the state cannot go it alone, nor should it act as a 'super' development agency. Thus, a very high premium is put on involving the private sector and other actors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Problems</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But many problems have already been encountered. Unfortunately, the RDP was seen by some as a quick-fix solution to South Africa's socio-economic difficulties. Expectations over delivery were too high. Red tape and a growing bureaucracy stifled the initiative early on. Frustrations among the poor quickly surfaced. Many of those who wanted to participate, and applied for RDP funding, were unable to develop viable business plans - a strict requirement to get funds. The launch of projects was further complicated by the absence, at one stage, of legitimate local and governmental structures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But important lessons were learnt from the initial phases, in particular the need to involve people on the ground from day one - starting with the identification of needs, the design of a specific project and its execution. It was accepted that process is more decisive than the product. A second lesson was that a separate RDP office, with its own Ministry, complicated matters as far as delivery was concerned, tending to centralise development. This led to the announcement by President Mandela on March 28 1996 that the RDP office would be closed down. RDP programmes were thereafter integrated into the main budget administered by functional government agencies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another very important lesson was that socio-economic development and reconstruction had to go hand in hand with a dynamic macro-economic strategy - made public earlier this year. It was realised that one cannot have good projects in a bad policy environment - to quote a World Bank report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fact, it is generally accepted that the RDP, on its own, cannot launch South Africa on a road to sustainable and vigorous economic growth. We needed a twin-track approach.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Progress</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The RDP has notched up a number of successes. The provision of clean water to rural and urban communities has gone a long way under the leadership of Minister Kadar Asmal -  highlighting the fact that leadership strengthened by solid management, does make a difference. The electrification programme for low-income households, involving the parastatal, Eskom (Electricity Supply Commission), is another success story. The same goes for the Presidential projects, such as free health care for expectant mothers and infants, and some of the nutrition programmes. But the provision of housing for low-income groups has been less successful than anticipated. Rent and services boycotts, as well as unemployment, are some of the reasons for slow progress. Job creation is another problem area. It is envisaged that visible progress in these areas will emerge in the course of next year. Establishing a culture of learning is another great challenge. A restructuring of the educational system is underway, but progress is restricted by severe financial constraints.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Implementation of the RDP, the best strategic framework for socioeconomic development South Africa has ever had, will be a long process. Courage and sustainability are key issues. How to lead and manage expectations, without undermining hope, is a great challenge. The meaningful involvement of donors is another issue. Joint ventures between donors, the private sector, government agencies and communities are happening. Most of these, having been carefully negotiated and executed, are already making a significant difference.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But spectacular progress should not be expected. Development, reconstruction, and growth of the kind that South Africa needs, will take time. However, the lessons and achievements of the past two years have put South Africa in an excellent position to change the country's socio-economic environment. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Targeting South Africa's poor</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Christine Thompson</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The provision of basic amenities for the urban and rural poor rank high on the agenda of the EU's aid policy towards South Africa. In this respect, European cooperation has been tailored to fit with the government's own Reconstruction and Development Programme.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Programme for Reconstruction and Development (EPRD) is the name of the current EU development assistance package to South Africa and it seeks to help improve living conditions for all South Africans. The programme earmarks ECU 125 million a year until 1999. It has evolved from the so-called 'positive measures' programme launched in 1985 to help counter the negative effects of sanctions and to help the victims of apartheid.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under a Declaration of Intent drawn up with Minister Jay Naidoo, then at the helm of South Africa's Reconstruction and Development Programme, it was decided that EU aid should be channelled to the key sectors of education and training, health, rural development, water supply, urban development, economic cooperation, trade and investment promotion, and the promotion of good governance and democracy. In each of these areas, the EU actively encourages a partnership effort between governmental structures and NGOs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.5 million homes wanted</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over 60% of South Africa's population is urbanised. The apartheid government's restrictions on home ownership in urban areas for the past four decades resulted in a housing backlog estimated at 2.5 million units, with demand growing by 200 000 units per year. Estimates vary, but approximately seven million people are believed to be living in informal settlements throughout South Africa on land occupied both legally and illegally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improved housing and sanitation are seen as priority areas in urban and rural development. Between 1991 and 1996, the EU has funded 18 projects in the urban development sector valued at approximately R303.1 m (ECU 52m). The Urban Sector Network (USN) and the Cato Manor Development Programme are typical.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is providing the USN with a total of R26.2m (ECU 4.5m) between 1995 and 1998. The USN is a national network of nine affiliate NGOs, and its aim is to improve living conditions for the urban poor. The beneficiaries of the programme are city dwellers earning less than R2000 (ECU 344) a month and there is a particular emphasis on households with monthly incomes of under R800 (ECU 137) a month.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Through integrated, community-based development, the USN and its affiliates provide technical support and service provision to urban development projects, focusing on housing, local government transformation, skills transfer, project planning, facilitation, information dissemination, education and training.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Cato Manor Development Programme received funding in 1995, also for a three year period. The EU has contributed R117.6m (ECU 20.2m) to the project. Cato Manor, an area in Natal near Durban, was the location of the largest forced resettlement scheme implemented under apartheid. Today, it is the first area targeted for integrated housing in a former white township.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall objective of the programme is to improve living conditions through a policy that strengthens the delivery system for infrastructure and housing. The programme anticipates providing the community with primary and secondary schools, sports fields, community halls, libraries and a community health centre. Access to housing finance will be improved and opportunities for income generation provided through a vocational training centre and small-scale industry workshops. In addition, provision is being made to improve management and general policy-making capabilities. By continuing to fund such projects, the EU is working with the South African government to improve the living conditions of the urban and rural poor. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'Guardians of Eden'</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Theatre for Africa, a performing group from Southern Africa, went on tour this autumn to put across the message that the exploitation of Africa's fauna should remain in the hands of rural communities. They did this with a powerful mix of words, dance, mime and song, in a play entitled Guardians of Eden '. The Courier met the author and cast on the Brussels leg of their tour. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The setting for the Brussels' performance was the 'Grand Place' (Grote Markt). With its ornate mediaeval architecture, this famous square in the centre of the Belgian capital could hardly have been more removed from the theme of the play - which is about conservation and development problems in Africa and empowering rural people to manage, use and benefit from the wildlife around them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The play was commissioned by the Southern Africa Sustainable Use Specialist Group (SASUSG) and the idea was that it should reach as many people as possible in the run-up to the World Conservation Congress planned for Montreal in October 1996. South African writer and former economist, Nicolas Ellenbogen, travelled throughout Southern Africa to recruit the all-African cast. Many examples of cultural imperialism leading to the destruction of habitat, highlighted in the production, were actually encountered by Mr Ellenbogen as he travelled through the region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The play opens with a spirit medium summoning representatives from villages in several African countries to discuss the threat to their survival. The actors display their athletic skills performing mimes of the abundant wildlife with simple props, as the history of Africa is recalled from the dinosaurs to the present day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A parable is then told. An old chief informs his three sons that to prosper in the 21st century, the village must change. He instructs them to return a year later with ideas for prosperity, which will be discussed in an indaba (debate). Each chooses a different path. The wheeling and dealing first son seeks out quick fix schemes with NGOs and various city authorities. The second son learns from the difficulties of city life and comes up with a blend of simple wisdom and new ideas. The third spends his time in beer halls -  and his revelry provokes roars of laughter throughout the performance.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Arriving back in his village after almost a year has elapsed, the second son finds that his older brother returned several months earlier to implement his money raising projects. Enjoying the cash benefits of the scheme, the men of the village do not want to hold an indaba. They are forced to do so by the women and Midzimu - the old chief. The audience is then asked to vote and there is a unanimous show of hands for the second son who symbolises the sustainable use of natural resources. The dissolute third son, meanwhile, is eaten by a crocodile.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ivory ban fury</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the message goes out to developers and donors to respect rural autonomy, the play also raises serious questions for Europe's politicians. The frequent appearance of the destructive elephant, in the course of the play, allows Mr Ellenbogen to vent his anger at the ivory import ban imposed by many European states. 'I am furious about the ban', be told The Courier, 'as it is having a profound effect on the daily needs of the people.' He rejects the argument that it helps conservation, insisting that; 'with a stroke of a pen, you reduced the value of the elephant.' The playwrite argues that local people need to see wildlife as economically and socially valuable. Otherwise, they will adopt new forms of land use which will result in the extinction of the species. He also draws attention to the growing black market in ivory in Southern Africa since the ban was introduced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'token' South African - symbolically played by the only woman in the cast - is given a 'rough time as the baby of Africa', says Ellenbogen. The play also contains numerous swipes at the donor community which frequently gives grants, without, it is said, any respect for local traditions. The Swiss doctoral student researching the potential for producing goat's cheese in Africa exits the stage squealing after asking a goat herder what he does with his animals. 'We slit their throats', is his reply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guardians of Eden was first launched at the Grahamstown Arts Festival in South Africa in July. It was performed in Zimbabwe and Kenya, and won a prize at the Edinburgh Festival 'Fringe' in August. From there, it moved to Frankfurt and Geneva before reaching Brussels. It was due to be performed in Antwerp, London and several American cities before a final staging at the Montreal Congress in October.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The play is in English and the languages of Southern Africa, but Nicolas Ellenbogen believes it can be readily understood by his multinational audiences. For him, the message - that local people must have the power to manage their own wildlife on their own land - needs no translating. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Analysis</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Europeans and development cooperation: there are opportunities too!</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Stelios Christopoulos</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If politicians in Europe see jobs as their primary concern, it is probably because the citizens regard unemployment as their most serious problem. In the Europe of the Fifteen, the average unemployment rate was about 10% in 1985 dropping to 7.5% in 1990. By 1994, it had risen to a record high of more than 11%. By contrast, unemployment in the United States fell below 6.5% in 1994 and the figures for 1995 reveal a continuing downward trend. In Japan, the proportion of people without work remained below 3% in 1994. Assuming there is no change in current trends, the most recent demographic projections suggest that there will be 70 million people over the age of 65 in the EU by the year 2020, out of a total population of 348 million. This is 18 million more than there are today. The proportion of over-65s is, thus, projected to rise from 15% at present to 20% in less than 25 years. These two elements  -  an ageing population and ongoing structural unemployment - clearly reveal that European society lacks a degree of dynamism compared with its competitors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In an attempt to address this problem, albeit partially, the President of the European Commission, Jacques Santer, launched a European employment pact in April 1996. There are three underlying reasons for this initiative -  Europe's endemic unemployment, the need to reestablish a climate of confidence as a prerequisite for renewed investment and consumption, and the need to fit the creation of the single currency into an overall economic strategy aimed at increasing growth, competitiveness and employment in Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'I'm young, help me find a job', is the heartfelt plea of many of young Europeans. But what chance is there that their cry for help will be answered in a difficult global environment?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We have seen the globalisation of strategic relationships in a range of key areas including the environment, the management of energy resources, health, demography and security. The trend has been accelerated by rapid technical progress in the fields of transport and telecommunications. This process has not taken the big multinational companies by surprise - they were already free of the constraints of sovereignty or space, and were quick to globalise their structures. These enterprises have become more competitive by taking advantage, wherever possible, of the most favourable production conditions, particularly regarding raw materials and employment conditions. More spectacular still has been the growth of international trade: in 1990, the volume of world trade was 11.5 times as great as it had been 40 years earlier. During the same period, global production only increased fivefold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What this means nowadays is that employment in the EU Member States is directly affected (and some would say threatened) by the world situation. Productivity and growth conditions in Europe are no longer sufficient to ensure full employment. Competition from developing countries, with their low wage bills and undervalued currencies, is too great for countries in the EU. Their position is not the same as that of the multinational companies. They do not have the structures to deal with swiftly evolving events, nor are they capable of controlling the process of globalisation. This is demonstrated, inter alia, by their inability to respond to the financial speculation which turns capital away from productive investment. Today, for example, for every US dollar in circulation, there are at least 30 dollars which are the product of financial speculation. This is not money from productive work by any particular person, but money which is the product of a financial 'virtual reality' and which is usually reinvested in financial speculation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Countries are beginning to realise the need to pool their national skills and cooperate at a regional level, in order to enhance their business competitiveness and take on the challenges of the globalised trading system. But the level of integration implied by this strategic choice must be sufficiently comprehensive if it is to make up for the reduced capability of countries to respond on an individual basis. This process of regionalisation may well be a prerequisite for regulating the world economy in such areas as exchange parities and financial speculation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">And what of Europe in particular? Despite having a head-start on other regional groupings (such Asean, Nafta and Mercosur), the situation is not too rosy. Owing to the lack of a full internal market, Europe is unable to compete on equal terms with the United States or Japan. The internal market still comes up against blocks in important areas, as evidenced by problems over the European employment pact. And there are a number of other defects which make the internal market insufficiently competitive in the context of globalisation. It is true that a more coherent environment has been created for European companies, with common regulations and rules of competition enabling them to distribute their goods and services among the EU's consumers. But despite the appearance of a domestic, or single, market, it is one which is devoid of a genuine internal policy in keeping with its size. This is what distinguishes it from the internal markets of the United States or Japan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The explanation for the disparity may lie in the fact that the most recent moves towards the single market, through 'Single Act', date from 1987. This was before the upheavals which so decisively signalled the globalisation trend. Despite the criticisms sometimes levelled at it, it is a genuine single market which is largely open to the outside world (with only a few exceptions, notably as regards the Common Agricultural Policy, where it is recognised that there is a need for progressive adaptation). But there is still no single currency, nor is there a genuine common commercial and economic policy. The EU is unable to react to change at world level in the same way as its competitors. The common customs tariff, together with protective measures such as the anti-dumping regulations, are still not sufficient to solve all the Union's problems. What is needed on top of this is an active common policy component.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yet, as the European employment pact makes clear, the EU holds a trump card in an increasingly interdependent world. The proviso is that it must speak with one voice, enforce multilateral rules and open up new markets for itself, because, as the document points out 'exports create jobs...'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, the developing world received 37% of global direct foreign investment ($84 billion) as against less than 20% at the beginning of the 1980s (the flow of foreign exchange is regarded nowadays as the principal factor influencing development). This is a spectacular increase but the resources are not 'fairly' distributed from the point of view of either the investing countries or the recipients. For example, southeast Asia is currently the world's most dynamic region. Yet, not to put too fine a point on it, it is virtually ignored by European investors. Only 3% of European overseas investment is directed towards this zone. Likewise, Europe's market share in the region is no more than 5%. The US has invested between two and three times more in south-east Asia while Japanese investment is four times higher.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1994, sub-Saharan Africa attracted just 0.8% of direct foreign investment ($1.8 billion). And there is no evidence that Europeans have invested more than the Japanese or Americans in this region. This is despite the highly optimistic outlook for the situation in Africa offered by the late Ron Brown, the former US Trade Secretary. On returning from a tour of Africa with American businesspeople in February 1994, he remarked that major opportunities were opening up in that continent, with spectacular returns on investments  - at the time, the best in the world. His regret was that so few people were aware of the situation. Undoubtedly more significant still was the declaration made in Washington before his departure for Africa to the effect that the United States would no longer leave African markets exclusively to the former colonial powers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">So although others are beginning to explore the possibilities offered by Africa, Europe is still sceptical. A similar scepticism prevailed during the 1960s when it was assumed that the lot of south-east Asia would be famine, and few development prospects. Given the historical links between Europe and Africa, the geographical proximity of the two continents, and the pressing problems faced by the 'old' continent vis-&agrave;-vis its competitors, such an attitude appears difficult to explain. In the years since the former European colonies in Africa gained independence - and despite the creation of an institutional cooperation framework (the Lom&eacute; Convention, which many regard as a model of development cooperation)  -  many Europeans clearly no longer wish to be involved in Africa. The explanation for this lack of interest may be the difficult conditions within African countries -  obstacles preventing access to markets, the lack of liberalisation or political instability.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But this analysis in not entirely convincing. More ACP countries are democracies than ever before in the post-independence era. As for Africa - a much-debated ACP region  -  it is wrong to talk purely in terms of internal conflict, famines or the AIDS epidemic. There are countries in this continent with growth rates of between 5% and 6%, and several examples of where European companies have successfully penetrated local markets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The need to highlight the existence of genuine business opportunities in ACP countries and to make the European public aware of development aid success stories, were among the main conclusions to come out of the first meeting of a television delegates' network, organised by the European Commission's Development Directorate-General on 31 January 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Any European company chairman interested in expanding into an ACP country - thereby enlarging the company's market and enhancing its competitiveness - is likely to acknowledge the possibilities, if offered back-up from the EU or from national governments. But they will then probably point to the complications which remain -  and with some justification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With this in mind, it is worth reiterating the fact that specialised institutions exist for facilitating contact with the ACP countries. In 1995, for example, the Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) was involved in 367 projects, assisting, free of charge, in the expansion or rehabilitation of industrial companies in ACP countries, in partnership with European business. Although the number of such projects is constantly increasing (190 in 1993,229 in 1994), it is still a long way short of what is needed. But it should be stressed that the CDl's approach, which involves promoting the creation of networks, appears to work. The establishment OF ACP contact networks in ACP countries makes it easier to identify potential areas for involvement and to prepare better for European institutional and sectoral networks. There are several successful projects which have led to the creation or safeguarding of jobs in Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Also in 1995, the European Investment Bank (EIB) granted ECU 430 million in loans to businesses in various sectors in 29 ACP countries. This includes an increase in the Bank's activity in Africa over previous years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What, then, of the effect of Europe's development cooperation policies on the European market ? According to the most conservative estimates, for every ECU 100 granted in aid, the Community 'gets back' ECU 48 in the form of jobs, supplies and technical assistance. This figure does not take account of additional 'secondary' business generated by, for example, the supply of spare parts or the provision of technical advice. This business can be quite significant given the degree of penetration achieved by European companies in the markets of many developing countries. Nor does the estimate include any new business opportunities directly arising from the links established between the companies involved in aid projects and the recipient countries. Thus, it is clear that when a project is set up, it may well have extra beneficial effects for Europe through additional flows of goods and services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 'return' on aid is even greater in Member States' individual bilateral programmes. For example, tied aid from countries such as Belgium, Italy and the United Kingdom leads to a payback of more than 70%. Another point is that as Europe's industrial rules are harmonised, the success of a single European company in penetrating a particular developing country market may pave the way for companies in other EU Member States, thus benefiting the Union as a whole. Tied aid creates favourable conditions for setting up European companies and for placing European goods and services in other markets. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While the return on aid may be described as satisfactory, the same is not true of the number of companies that benefit or of the actual turnover involved. One wonders whether this weakness is due to a lack of information about existing resources and facilities, or whether there still a lack of confidence about countries which, despite the progress they have made, are still politically unstable and therefore unpredictable.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One might also wonder whether the time is right for investment. Our answer would be that, even though financial speculation is currently governed by global economic considerations, which prevent productive targeting of capital, this situation cannot last. There is a worldwide move to rectify the situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We all need to be aware that time is no longer on our side. In many sectors, European companies still have a competitive edge over businesses from third countries, owing to their degree of specialisation and technological expertise. But if they are to survive, they must take on a worldwide dimension. In particular, they should pay attention to the comparative advantage that they have in the ACP countries on account of their special skills, historic links, geographical location and, above all, the institutional connections between these developing nations and the 'old' continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although problems do exist and although both European and ACP bureaucracy can sometimes discourage private operators from exploring the potential of the developing world (and more particularly the ACP region), they should not give up. Europe's challenge is to help them to exploit this potential whilst not raising false hopes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nothing can take the place of the shared experience and confidence which arises spontaneously in full knowledge of the facts. In this regard, we feel, there is still much to be done. In both Europe and the ACP countries, one way to succeed is to increase the number of networks representing industrial, economic and financial interests at various levels, and to assist them in identifying opportunities more effectively. This would help to create a new dynamism and renewed vigour in Europe. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Close - up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Eritrea: the start of a renaissance ?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the Courier's issue of July-August 1994, we published a country report on Eritrea. This country became independent in 1993 after almost 30 years of fighting which had bled the county white. Loss of human life, displaced persons, socio-economic disruption and environmental damage have been Eritrea's sad fate in recent times. However, there has now been peace for three years and the Eritrean people are attempting to pick up the threads. Alfonso Artico, a freelance journalist who recently travelled to Eritrea, now offers us a few on-the-spot impressions of his trip, focusing on some current projects which offer hope to this sorely afflicted people</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fisheries at Massawa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The port of Massawa is located on the Red Sea, whose blue waters are teeming with fish. In 1986, the European Union suggested that it would be a suitable place for fisheries development. At the time, the city was a maze of back streets, baking in the sun. Few could have predicted the fate that would befall it five years later. For in 1991, war came to Massawa and 80% of the city was destroyed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Italians, it is said, have 'always' been here, and they once had great plans for the city. Together with Assab, further to the south, Massawa was to be a key point of access to the sea, and a potential launch pad for the, country's struggling economy. The colonial days are long past but, when the Eritrean Popular Liberation Army took over the country after the recent war, the Italians came back to help tackle an immense task. The city, by then, was little more than a pile of rubble.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Help also came from somewhat further afield, in the shape of Professor Seichi Etoh, a Japanese specialist in marine biology. He had made a study of the city in 1989 and he chose to return in 1992 to help in fisheries development. At the outset, his working methods disconcerted the Eritreans who were used to a slightly more relaxed attitude to labour, under the hot sun and eternally blue sky.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Armed with the experience of working in Kenya and a number of other developing countries, Professor Etoh arrived in Massawa and installed himself in a house looking over the sea. After a period of adaptation, to gain his bearings, he took up his new challenge.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge in question is a fisheries project whose main funders are the UNDP, Japan, Italy and the African Development Bank. A total of $7 million has been committed with payments spread over a five-year period. The project began operating in January 1993.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main problem at the outset was one of skills and qualifications. Important posts were often filled by high-ranking former solders, whose administrative skills were less than satisfactory. Conversely, those with the right qualifications - some of whom were criticised for spending the war years in the lecture theatres of European universities  -  had problems finding work. This was particularly true in the closed and conservative world of the fisherman. After a few teething troubles, Etoh was able to announce that he had the confidence of the government, and his efforts rapidly bore fruit thereafter. He set about reorganising the fishermen's cooperative - a task which entailed overcoming the reluctance of members to adopt new practices. He also arranged for the construction of jetties where vessels could take on supplies. Fish were to be unloaded at one spot, and their diesel tanks would be refilled at a different location. The cost of diesel is 1.41 birr (ECU 0.17) per litre. The fishermen's cooperative, which has 440 members, has 35 000 birr (ECU 4000) in its funds. It is also making repayments on a 1.8 million-birr (ECU 200 000) loan.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'In the beginning, there was frenzied activity, which some regarded as chaos', Seichi Etoh recalls. However, in less than two years, the jetties have been completed and the ice plants -  essential for preserving the fish - are running flat out. Now they are producing eight tonnes of ice a day. The daily catch is about two tonnes of fish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The real revolution occurred when Seichi Etoh decided to try and organise cooperatives for women, who represent 25% of the workforce in the production chain. He followed up with an even more radical scheme, offering them paid work in the relatively unrewarding but essential field of ship maintainance and repair. This freed the fishermen, most of whom had no remunerative activity outside the fishing season (November to March), to seek work elsewhere during the other seven months of the year. Eritrea, a country where women's potential has not traditionally been acknowledged (or tapped) had never seen the like before. Nowadays, of the 200 who fish out of Massawa, 50 are women who have formed their own organisation - and they generate a considerable profit. They have even opened up a fish restaurant!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The overall standard of living has increased considerably. This year, fisheries-related production has risen 120% compared with 1995. And the port is doing reasonably well in quality terms. Using the international scale, which ranks the catches from 0 to 10, the quality of fish landings by the Massawa fishermen is rated 6 overall - as against 8 for Japan. 5 for China and 6.5 for Europe. The local market has expanded as a result of efforts to modify local eating habits. People have been taught to grill fish instead of frying it in expensive (and somewhat unhealthy) oil. The message - 'eat grilled fish' - is going out daily on national radio, and women are going into the schools and villages to teach this 'latest' cooking technique.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The local market may be important, but the main target for the increased production is Ethiopia. With the purchase of four refrigerated lorries, it is now possible to transport fish products over long distances. Another important customer is Italy, which currently takes about a third of the total production. Seichi Etoh is hopeful that, following this example, new markets can be found in other parts of Europe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The success of the Massawa project has exceeded all expectations and, although he downplays the achievement with typical oriental modesty, it is clear that Etoh's bet has paid off. The fishermen have come to understand the advantages to be gained in reorganisation and maintaining their 'tools' of production. And as anticipated, the bulk of the profit from the project is going back to the fishermen. The government has taken care not to cream off too much for itself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other projects are now under way. Etoh is attempting to persuade the fishermen to give up their wooden craft in favour of ferro-cement vessels but after centuries of doing things in a certain way, it will take more than a few months for the new plans to be adopted. The monthly meetings with representatives from the cooperatives are stormy and animated. However, two vessels are already being built, on the assumption that a practical demonstration is worth far more than a long speech. The 60 people working directly on the project are awaiting the outcome.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This change has become necessary owing to the cost of wood - which is one of the reasons why the fishermen have grown progressively poorer. Timber prices have been rising sharply for some years, particularly in Dubia, the regional centre of the wood trade. The war, in the meantime, sent incomes spiralling downwards.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Overall, the Eritrean fishing fleet has 500 vessels, all made of wood, of which 250 have Massawa as their home port. In previous years, the wood (known as tengi in Eritrean) came from Ethiopia. But this country is facing ecological problems and fishermen have been forced to search elsewhere for building and maintenance materials for their unstable and costly vessels (a 13-metre boat requires 8 m³ of wood). Etoh explains that the new boats, while slower, glide more easily over the water on account of their stability. However, the first attempts at change have not been easy. Indeed, things got so bad that Etoh went on holiday 'for longer than expected', he said, though he took advantage of the break to visit Singapore and buy Chinese tricycles  -  which can now be seen in the streets of Massawa. The reign of the bicycle with a simple wicker basket which could carry just 20 kilos is over. Now, each tricycle can deliver 100 kg of fresh fish, packed in ice. All in all, the programme is running smoothly. Etoh has only to check it from time to time. After all this labour, will the smiling Japanese professor be taking a well-earned rest? 'Probably not,' he says, adding 'I am currently thinking about a chain of restaurants. Fish restaurants of course !'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An unusual 'bank'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The road leading to Gersteti village is so beautiful that it takes your breath away. Multicoloured birds fly lazily above the vehicle carrying the journalists and humanitarian aid workers - who are deep in discussion about the kind of world they wish to create. However, there is a switch in the conversation once they reach the Seraye plateaux. Their attention is drawn to the fields which stretch as far as the eye can see. It doesn't take long to discover that demand for land here far outweighs supply. The situation, which is already critical, has not been helped by the influx of refugees returning from neighbouring countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When the war ended in 1991, everyone's prime concern was to relaunch an agricultural sector ruined by 28 years of combat. Farmers and farming communities, the lifeblood of the countryside, had been mobilised to fight on the front line. In 1990, agricultural production was at such a low level that the word 'negligible' featured prominently in the Ministry of Agriculture's statistics.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Oxfam, which first came to Eritrea in 1978, has been running an unusual project on the Seraye plateaux. Located to the south of Asmara, the capital, this region is the second most densely populated part of the country. Five districts containing 65 villages and 17000 families, were chosen for the project  -  on account of their low rainfall and the fact that it is difficult, and in some cases, impossible, to cultivate the exhausted soil. Local communities, village leaders and politicians all understood that only full-scale collaboration could prevent a food-supply disaster in the province. An organisation was therefore created: the villagers elected 13 representatives (12 men and one woman) and began by setting up a seed bank. There was a severe shortage of seed materials in this devastated country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project got off the ground in November 1995 and is set to run for three years. Its objective is simple: to guarantee self-sufficiency in seeds and to provide a reserve during hard times. The 'Seed Bank Committee' has also given training to 40 farmers in seed conservation, terracing and basic agricultural economics. Two wells have been sunk, but these are insufficient for the 40 square kiLom&eacute;tres that require irrigation. Oxfam is putting up the money for the various initiatives while the local community is providing the labour force. It is worth noting that a bag of averagequality cement costs 35 birrs (ECU4), equivalent to one third of a worker's monthly wage. Fourteen different varieties of seed have been stored in sheds - which the locals visit to obtain their supplies. The purchase of 230 quintals of local seeds and the donation of 70 quintals from elsewhere have started the programme off. Next year, Individual farmers will have to repay this 'loan' in kind, with a 10% 'interest payment', also in the form of seeds. The surplus generated will be retained by the bank as a resource to be drawn upon, if necessary, when times are hard.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Advantages</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The local community was quick to understand the advantages to be gained from this system. They were all too aware of the low productivity of their land and up to then, were powerless to resolve the situation. The possibility of falling back on traditional resources to offset production difficulties no longer existed. And the skills they had acquired over the generations were now insufficient, given the poor condition of the soil. In these circumstances, one can well understand their enthusiasm when they saw that 100 kg of seeds per hectare yielded a harvest six times larger than previously. Other elements which contributed to a progressive improvement in conditions were the sinking of new wells, a reduced influx of refugees from Sudan, and a slow but appreciable improvement in the country's general economic situation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As well as being involved in this project, Oxfam is an active member of Acord, an NGO association which extends cash loans at rates much lower than those demanded by the banks. (Acord's rate is 12% per annum with a minimum repayment of 5 birrs per month). Targeted mainly at the most deprived sections of the population, the loans enable the poor to set up small businesses or, more commonly, to purchase agricultural implements, repair irrigation channels and buy cattle. Once again, a village committee manages the transactions. The scheme has brought renewed hope to the most deprived groups. Individual loans have been available since 1994 and the association currently has 163 clients. The total amount lent so far is 878 000 birrs (ECU 110 000).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The combined effects of these programmes - seed banks and preferential loans - are already visible. It would take months to visit all the farms and fields, workshops and stores, where men and women have invested their energies and hopes. Seraye province now produces a third of Eritrea's cereals, a telling illustration of the fact that one does not need billions of dollars for development and humanitarian aid for the work to be effective. In the final analysis, a country's wealth lies in its citizens. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An up-to-date printing plant</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As one strolls down Liberation Avenue, which cuts the city of Asmara in two, one might be forgiven for thinking that 28 years of war have already been forgotten. Surveying the multi-coloured neon signs of the shops, it certainly appears as if the country has turned the corner and the wounds are healing rapidly. One building whose restrained frontage stands outs in sharp contrast is the Adulis printing-works. Adulis was the name of a semi-mythical city founded by the Greeks on the Red Sea in the third millennium before Christ. 'But there is nothing insubstantial about this place', comments Mohamad Shiffa Osman, with a smile. He is one of three expert typesetters who went on a training course in Belgium earlier this year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The Adulis printing works has its own particular memories of the Eritrean people's struggle for independence. As far back as the 1960s, when the first shots were being fired, the resistance recognised that their fighters and the civil population both had to have access to information. However, it was not until the 1980s that a true propaganda structure came into being. During the war, the Eritrean People's Liberation Army ran a clandestine ministry of information. In Eritrea and elsewhere, this became the channel for conveying practical information, and providing the latest news from the front. It was also used to transmit personal messages, which were delivered to the heart of areas occupied by the Ethiopian Army. 'Our presses were hidden in caves, up in the mountains, and everything was run on generators', Mohamed remembers. The initial amateur approach was quickly replaced by a more professional one. 'We did have professional printers working for us, but it was mainly self-taught comrades'. On-the job apprenticeships had to be fitted in between bouts of fighting!</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'At the time of liberation, in 1991, we set about restoring this printing works, which was founded in 1896 by the Italians', Mohamed explained as he gave us a guided tour of the works. The effort put into relaunching this essential activity soon bore fruit. Within the year, the printing operation was running at a profit - indeed it had a virtual monopoly of printing in the country. The presses were brought down from the mountains on the backs of camels and then taken to Asmara by truck. 'You see this Aurelia 48?', asks Mohamed, pointing to a machine. 'Well, it was up in the north, hidden away in a village'. Throughout our visit, Mohamed draws attention to equipment from an earlier age  -  candidates for the museum which are still in operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some items have their own story to tell, like the press donated years ago by Oxfam which still churns out thousands of sheets every day. During the war, it was taken from cave to cave, following the army's advance as it conquered new terrain. Most of the Adulis machines, however, were already there, when the decision was taken to restart the operation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The initial budget for the works was a tidy five million birr (ECU 620 000). Today, Adulis has an annual turnover of 20 million birr. Monthly salaries range from 400 birr (ECU 50) for maintenance staff to 1800 birr (ECU 225) for the director, Michael G. Bakhli. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The printing works also acts as a testing ground for workers' social progress. According to Mohamed and the director, the 350 or so people employed at the works benefit from exceptional social cover. If a worker falls ill, his wage is guaranteed for one month, then it drops to 50% in the second month and stops altogether at the end of the third. if a woman is pregnant, she has to take a month's statutory leave and is granted a further two months on full pay. In the event of dismissal, an employee receives two months' wages, although this latter arrangement is gradually changing to one month's wages for each year of service.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Far from resting on the laurels of their success, the Adulis works' directors have appealed for assistance. In order to be at the cutting edge of technology and to have the resources to break into new markets, they need to supplement their knowledge. Therefore, three 'volunteers' spent the three months from January to March this year working in Belgian companies, to the satisfaction of everyone, both hosts and visitors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under Mohamed's gaze, the walls of the workshop have been brightened up with posters which provide a splash of colour. Although the noise from the presses often drowns out conversation, you cannot escape the feeling of hope here. It is like a breath of fresh air, and one leaves with the strong impression of a country that is rising from the ashes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Developing world</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">ECHO fine-tunes disaster preparedness strategy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Eva Kaluzynska</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a cyclone strikes in the Caribbean, beware of giant flying razorblades - airborne sheets of corrugated iron that kill and maim unsuspecting victims every time. 'The use of galvanised iron sheeting for roofing is extremely dangerous in cyclone-prone areas,' says Professor Debarati Guha-Sapir, Director of the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) at the Universite Catholique de Louvain. 'We know this, and we need to encourage the use of lighter materials, such as thatching, which doesn't kill if it flies off in a gale,' she adds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">That is the kind of issue facing people exposed to unavoidable natural disasters  -  in the Caribbean's case, every year. In 1995, there were 27 tropical storms in the region. CRED has been in the vanguard of monitoring natural disasters and in coming up with solutions to the problems they create since it was set up in 1973. Now it is assisting the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO) in developing its new Disaster Prevention, Mitigation and Preparedness Programme (DIPECHO) to cover the next two years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since 1994, ECHO has spent almost ECU 7 million on 50 disaster prevention operations, at both national and regional levels. Now, instead of just responding to requests for funding from non-governmental organisations, international organisations and governments, ECHO has decided to fine-tune its strategy. It will concentrate its efforts on specific regions known to be particularly vulnerable and prone to natural disasters. We may not know exactly when disasters will strike, but we certainly know where to expect them. The regions selected at present are: the Caribbean, Central America, South East Asia and Bangladesh.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All of them are exposed to repeated emergencies. All of them have a struggle to develop when their efforts are disrupted so frequently. They cannot just pick up where they left off. Loss of life and property is just the most visible aspect of what happens when disaster strikes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The infrastructure, such as it is, takes a hammering. Road and rail links are severed. Communications, electricity and water supplies break down. Add loss of health care and sanitation, and you get populations exceedingly vulnerable to epidemics. Add loss of education facilites, and a vicious spiral of poverty sets in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An expert in emergency aid cites the sad example of the Aetas, a tribal group that used to live a secluded life on the remote slopes of Mount Pinatubo, the volcano that erupted spectacularly in 1991 in the Philippines. Though the volcano was known to be menacingly active, the Aetas were not evacuated and resettled in time. They fled in panic as disaster struck, to the plains, where they faced a deadly, invisible enemy: measles, a disease to which they had never been exposed. Measles claimed more victims than the volcano itself did in the months that followed. They could have been resettled earlier. And they could have been immunised years before, but weren't.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It's easy to be wise after the event. DlPECHO aims to encourage action before it's too late. The idea behind ECHO's new policy is to take each region, and to identify its hazards and capacity for dealing with disasters. This will help to pinpoint the gaps. Then it will draw up Action Plans that slot into the wider picture of potential development in each case.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DIPECHO projects will involve training personnel in the regions affected to handle disasters, and to strengthen the institutions that can contribute to effective prevention, preparedness and mitigation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some of the solutions are ingenious, low-cost, low-tech ideas. Take, for instance, the use of light, widely-available, inexpensive materials for roofing in earthquake or cyclone-prone zones - an idea poorer countries could adapt from wealthy Japan's experience. Or the construction of safe, raised 'islands' that will stay above the waterline amid flooding in Bangladesh to offer shelter. Or adapting drainage, and changing cropping patterns in Andhra Pradesh, India, to mitigate the effects of cyclones.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In earthquake-prone Central America, protecting roads and bridges, or building schools less prone to collapse is very important. Using the radio or even neighbourhood watch systems to sound the alarm when disaster is imminent can make a big difference to its impact in terms of injuries. Drilling all at risk, from school-age up, to know what to expect and to know what to do is vital.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">DIPECHO did not include Africa in its first selection of regions for Action Plans. This is not to underestimate the gravity or scale of the disasters experienced there, says Professor Guha-Sapir: 'Floods, drought and famine are very frequent events there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">They are often killers.' Overexploitation of scarce resources and political turmoil compound situations that lead to disasters which seem less dramatic than a volcano eruption, but are no less far-reaching in impact.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The instability in many of the areas worst affected means that African countries lack the institutions needed to prepare for disasters in an organised way, she says. 'There are limits on ECHO's ability to intervene. It's unrealistic to expect the kind of grassroots, technical preparedness we are talking about in the current situation.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ECHO's Jean-Claude Heyraud sums up the new policy: 'As far as preventing, mitigating and preparing for catastrophes goes, the new proactive approach reflects the importance ECHO attaches to this type of action. The DIPECHO programme meets the growing need to evaluate risks in order to reduce loss of life and damage to property. If and when emergency aid is needed, preparation and prevention can help to reduce the scale and cost of such actions.' </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Culture and society</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">African reflections</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by Seydou Sarr</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The third Festival of African Cinema was held in Brussels on 15-22 June. For one week, film-goers in the Belgian capital filled the auditoria of the Palais des Beaux-Arts, where they discovered new images of an alternative Africa. And as always, when the time came to assess how the Festival had gone, professionals and organisers alike were left pondering the problems facing the African film industry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Organised for the first time in 1994, on the initiative of Diaspora Productions, the Festival had a number of objectives, including that of bringing Africa's finest films to wider public notice. The initiative stemmed from two observations. In the first place, the European public's opinion of Africa is based on what it sees on television -  and that image is of a continent so ravaged by famine, misery and strife that it is incapable of progress. Second, from a professional standpoint, there is no effective distribution network in Belgium for African films. Samba Traore by Burkina Faso's Idrissa Ouedraogo and Hyenes by the Senegalese Djibril Diop Mambety were two rare exceptions in succeeding in getting on to the circuit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A forum for reflection</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In setting up film-industry meetings, the organisers of the Brussels Festival wanted the event to be a forum for reflection on the problems facing African cinema. In the 40 years it has existed, there has undoubtedly been some progress. It is even possible to speak of genuine mastery of images and cinematographic language. But there are also many problems -  involving production and distribution, a lack of official support, a shortage of private capital and limited access to international markets. At home, meanwhile, African firms face fierce competition from multi-million dollar productions coming out of the USA, Europe and Asia. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe has traditionally offered the only feasible route for those seeking technical and financial resources. The principal donors are the European Union, the ACCT (Cultural and Technical Corporation Agency) and the French Ministry of Cooperation. There are, of course, many instances of African directors producing films without taking this route, but these ventures usually have smaller budgets, and insufficient funds to devote to promotion (press releases, trailers etc). As regards distribution in Belgium, directors face an additional difficulty - they have to take the language issue into account (particularly when films are shown in Flanders).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African professionals are looking at various ways of solving these problems, including the possibility of coproduction with European operators. For some years now, public and private bodies have also been considering the idea of establishing combined co-production teams in a form of partnership, as a way of supporting African cinema. This topic has been on the agenda of other African film festivals (notably in Amiens) and it came up for discussion in Brussels as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A colloquium on the subject of ACP/Europe co-production was staged on the fringe of the Brussels event. This served to highlight a number of successful experiments in North/South collaboration. One example was the Cape Verdian film Ilheu de Contenda, by Leao Lopes which was made with support from a Belgian production company, Saga Films. This film was screened at the Festival. It also gave an opportunity to discuss a range of other topics. African journalists accredited to the Festival were given the task of drafting a resolution whose conclusions will be submitted to various contributors including FEPACI (the Pan-African Federation of Film-Makers), the European Union, producers and other donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There was general agreement that a coherent legal framework for organising relationships between directors and producers, on the basis of mutual trust, was badly needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Positive results</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is worth making a brief assessment of the efforts made by the organisers of the Brussels Festival to offer an improved programme. The showing of shorts at the beginning of a performance is undoubtedly a formula they should employ again. These works are a specialised genre which give young directors the chance to present their first work. The bulk of the shorts that were screened this year were in the form of 'documentaries' based on fiction - but with one foot in the real world. They dealt with people's lives, their daily concerns, and a variety of social phenomena. Thus, we were presented with films dealing with Aids, urban delinquency, the role of women in society and so on.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another positive point the organisers should concentrate on is the space resewed for English and Portuguese-language films. There were eight performances in this category including four feature films in English and two in Portuguese. A further worthwhile element was the space allocated to African women (from Nigeria, Kenya, Zimbabwe and Burkina Faso) who have chosen to use the cinema as a means of expression.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Diaspora Productions' managers are said to be reasonably satisfied with the way the Festival went. They hope it can continue to be held at the Palais des Beaux-Arts, since they see this as one way of liberating African cultural events from the Afro-Brussels 'ghetto' where they have often been held. They are also keen, in future years, for African films to be shown in Brussels cinemas while the Festival is under way. If this happens, film-goers in Brussels will have the pleasure, from next year, of seeing quality works in their usual cinemas. The timing is appropriate since the 1997 Brussels event will follow the Ouagadougou Festival (Fespaco) which traditionally sees the launch of a number of new films.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Family meeting</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The organisers chose to close the 1996 Festival with a fashion parade which gave Pathe 'O, the designer from Cot&eacute; d'Ivoire, the chance to present his collection to the Brussels audience.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the fringes of the Festival, there was also a musical offering in the shape of the Toure Kunda brothers who came to lend their support to filmmakers and other African artistes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are those who would argue that the Brussels Festival has now entered the category of a 'not-to-bemissed' event. Every year, it attracts significant numbers of film-makers from Africa and the diaspora, even when they have no current projects or films to present. There was a real family atmosphere in the corridors of the Palais des Beaux-Arts, due in no doubt to the absence of competition. From the outset, the Diaspora Productions team chose to stage an event at which prizes were not awarded, thereby promoting reflection and contact with the public. It is generally agreed that the Brussels Festival offers a rare opportunity for film-makers to meet and discuss their productions and projects in a relaxed atmosphere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The credit for this, in the view of many of the participants, lies with Pape Mbaye Sene, one of the guiding lights of the event, who has also been dubbed the 'high priest' of African cinema. It has, in fact, been suggested tongue-in-cheek that 'in Brussels, they award a Pape, not an Oscar'. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">'We make films... but we do not exist!' - interview with Souleymane Cisse</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The future of African cinema seen through the eyes of the Malian film maker, </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In April, The Courier had the opportunity of meeting Souleymane Cisse, one of Africa's most celebrated film-makers, who has won several awards at major international film festivals. His films, such as Yeelen, which was awarded the Prix du Jury in Cannes in 1987 (the first African film to receive such a prestigious accolade), Waati, which was entered at the same festival, and Finye, have already become classics. Cisse is not just a director, he also produces his own films. In 1972, he impressed international critics by single-handedly producing a short film of exceptionally high quality Cinq jours d'une vie -  which won an award at the Carthage Film Festival. By relying, above all, on his own limited resources, combined with a powerful determination to develop and promote Africa's film industry, Souleymane Cisse has an implied but powerful message for the entire African continent. When he went on stage at the Palais des Festivals in 1987 to receive his award for Yeelen, he said that he was accepting it on behalf of all those who did not have the opportunity to speak for themselves. In particular, he dedicated the film to all the South African technicians who had worked together with him on the project. His has made spirited efforts to boost the African film industry and it was in this context that he helped set up the 'Union of African cinema and audiovisual producers and entrepreneurs' last March. This organisation aims to encourage African countries (especially in West Africa), to take the necessary political decisions to ensure the survival and grouwth of African cinema. When we spoke to Souleymane Cisse, our discussion ranged far and wide. We began by asking the film director whether African art gets the recognition it deserves in Europe? He seemed surprised at the question but then, without hesitation, proceeded to explain his own approach - with the emphasis on the political rather than the aesthetic.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The recognition that African art gets in the West has more to do with politics than aesthetic discernment. Such recognition evolves from the spirit of Africa's relations with the other continents, a spirit which is often devoid of all honesty. We stand at the threshold of the 21st century. We should be looking to develop ways of communicating with each other and finding common ground. We should be able to look each other in the eye. When, for example, people in France debate whether or not the Louvre should have a gallery of African art, it begs the question, 'who is asking for what ?'. When some people wonder whether or not African art really is art, they are asking themselves a pointless question. African art is. Nothing more, nothing less. In any case, the West has some highly contradictory views as far as the whole idea of art in Africa is concerned. On the one hand they dispute the fact that the culture of the Ancient Egyptians was, in essence, an African one, and yet on the other hand the characters of Ancient Egypt - in films for example - are always portrayed as dark-skinned. African art is the 'in' thing at the moment, despite the current tendency to belittle Africa. They think that today's Black Americans and Afro-Caribbeans can be made to forget their African roots, but that just will not happen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Generally speaking, do you think that African politicians should devote time and energy to this battle to defend African culture when their countries face such insurmountable material problems ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> -  Once they have gained power, the obsessive preoccupation of our politicians has been to concentrate on economic policies, neglecting their countries' cultural needs. But without a deeply-rooted culture, you cannot discuss matters on equal terms with representatives of other nations. In their heart of hearts, they will not respect you fully. There have been two or three countries which have tried to combine economic development with cultural development - I'm thinking of Guinea under Sekou Toure, Mali under Modibo Keita and Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah, but in one way or another, all three have been thwarted, for their perceptiveness. I am not now commenting on, or necessarily agreeing with, their domestic policies, but rather with the broad vision they shared for Africa as a whole. The fact that Europe is currently in the process of forging the European Union will be an instrumental force in the opening up of other regions of the globe. It was Europe, after all, which divided much of the world into English speakers, French speakers, Portuguese speakers, Spanish speakers and so on. Now that Europeans are themselves seeking to unite their countries, how could they possibly object to a similar union in Africa - for the sake of its cultural identity. This idea of a United Europe is, therefore, a welcome one. What is more, I believe that the issue has already been tackled within relations between the European Union and ACP countries. Not only is Africa the continent closest to Europe; it is in helping to develop the African continent that Europe has most to gain.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· The cultural aspect has already been incorporated into Lom&eacute; IV, but it seems that ACP countries do not attach as much importance as they should to such matters when drawing up their lists of priorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Many of the politicians in charge of these countries themselves lack any sort of culture. Alternatively, stripped of their own culture, they flaunt that of a foreign land. They say that health care is a priority, that food is a priority, but cultural needs do not figure on their list. Yet culture forms part of an urgent need. You'll see - as soon as any sort of cultural development takes place in a country, or wherever a country already has a viable, thriving culture, its economy will also flourish; of that there is no doubt. A nation which has a highly developed culture will always be able to stand on its own two feet economically. Take, for example, the nations of the former Soviet Union  - their economies may be unstable at the moment. It's only natural that they have to start from scratch, but as long as they manage to hold on to their cultures, they will pull through. These countries will not lag behind as Africa has done.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· It costs money to operate a film industry. Have you found that your reputation as a director has made the financial side of things any easier for you ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - I don't honestly think much has changed in the way we finance our films. Perhaps I should only speak for myself, but I do not believe it is any easier for me than it is for young filmmakers. Mali has no film production facilities, so we are all in the same boat. That is why we organised a colloquium in March this year, aimed at getting a picture of the exact state of West Africa's film industry. What we learned was that it is in pretty bad state. We make films but, in a certain sense, we don't really exist as a film industry. I would dearly like my works to be screened, for example, in Mali, Guinea and Senegal, but that is not possible because the distribution and screening networks are no longer there. Even the most liberal Western countries have passed laws to promote and protect their local film industries, so why don't we do the same ? I cannot make films in the United States without first going through various unions and other professional associations. In France, I cannot distribute my films the way I want, and if I want to make a film, I have to make it through French producers. If people come to work here, they should have to use national producers. The relevant laws were drawn up three or four years ago, but they still haven't been passed. We want all those involved in the film industry to have the opportunity to be true professionals. There should be assistance available to modernise projection rooms and theatres. We are currently in the process of setting up the 'Union of African cinema and audiovisual producers and entrepreneurs' which should help to persuade governments to take our requests into account.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Isn't African cinema also a victim of television ? </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - The problem in Mali is a very simple one. We live in a country where people like to get out and about. The cinema is somewhere they can do that quite easily. So people use it as a place where they can meet up in the evening, just as they like to congregate around the fire to sing and dance. So why are our cinemas empty ? Because when people do go to the cinema, they cannot see the screen properly or they cannot hear the soundtrack, or they are uncomfortable sitting on broken and rickety chairs. If you can provide a suitable and comfortable environment for them, people will start going to the cinema again. That doesn't mean that television doesn't have its place, but people like to go out. This is especially the case with our open air cinemas, which are the perfect places for people to come together, have a chat, enjoy each other's company and relax. A nice auditorium, a good film, and you'll see how the queues will form. All we need to do is upgrade the auditoria, re-equip the projection rooms, overhaul the sound systems, put new chairs in - just a few basic comforts. When people go out to the cinema, it's because they want to escape from their humdrum routine for a while, to dream and unwind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">African governments should do what they can to enable people to relax and enjoy themselves like this. Going to the cinema is like going to school. People go there to learn something - whether consciously or subconsciously - and to see something different. We really must get rid of this purely commercial vision of the cinema, especially in Africa. It should, first and foremost, be a cultural experience, and only subsequently a commercial exercise. But we also need to be realistic. When helping those involved in promoting the film industry, the government should lay down a precise set of conditions, specifying how and when the loans should be repaid and requiring something in return for their subsidies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· So you think that if the Ministries of Culture in African countries were given greater powers, they would be in a position to carry out this task ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - It is not something solely for the Ministry of Culture. This is the type of approach which should be adopted by the state as a whole, in each country. For example, the government should provide a support fund for the film industry and certain other branches of the arts. Even if they were increased substantially, the meagre budgets allocated to the Ministry of Culture in our countries would still represent paltry sums. In Africa, the department of culture is at the bottom of everybody's list.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· But if you look at the number of African films that have been shown in recent years at Cannes and other international festivals, surely one can afford to be a little more optimistic than you are ? More and more young African filmmakers are releasing films.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - True, but as I said earlier, no progress has been made as far as film production is concerned. In that respect, contrary to what people may think, we are still at square one. Young filmmakers are put off and, as more and more avenues are closed to them, they gradually lose their fighting spirit. A film director has no choice but to be his own producer, his own manager - to do everything himself in fact. The result is that he becomes a jack of all trades and a master of none. During our recent colloquium, we decided to set up smallscale facilities which will deal solely with film production and where young people can go and use their services, thus leaving them free to channel their energies into actually directing their films. In the same way, we intend to set up other structures which will deal exclusively with other aspects of the cinema industry. The goal we have set ourselves is that of fostering professionalism in the West African film industry. Maybe then our governments will listen to us.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· Do you think there is any difference between African countries as far as opportunities are concerned ? For example, Burkina Faso would appear to be the cinema capital of Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - Yes, and no. More often than not, it is African film-makers who have chosen Burkina Faso to stage events connected with the cinema industry because it is a landlocked country. This is what has made it the film capital of Africa, not any deliberate move on the part of the politicians. Having said this, the government in Burkina Faso is also making great efforts, despite its limited resources. But each country has its own potential. We must stop trying to tear this continent apart.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">· You mentioned the former President of your own country, Modibo Keita, as one of those far-sighted enough to appreciate the importance of nurturing African culture. Where does Mali stand at the moment in terms of strengthening its own cultural heritage identity ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - After independence, in the years from 1960 to 1968, there was a time when young people would get together and become involved in various biennial art festivals. We had a series of events which encouraged a kind of a 'cultural vision' nationwide. They were so successful that other countries were soon following our example. After the coup in 1968, however, everything fell apart. In the following 23 years there was a total cultural vacuum, in which young people felt completely disorientated, despite superficial attempts to relaunch the festivals. We are now only just trying to rediscover our cultural roots after a long period of upheaval. What we in Mali do have working in our favour, is the fact that our country is a harmonious patchwork of different peoples, all living together without the slightest trace of bitterness or hatred. We are lucky here because our rulers rarely tried to manipulate our ethnic loyalties to set one group against another. A Malian, irrespective of his roots, will always rejoice in the success of his fellow countrymen, whatever tribe they happen to belong to. We owe our good fortune to a heritage in which our peoples have always respected one another - even when they have faced each other as enemies. It is only as a result of this historic mutual respect that we can now speak of a Malian culture where each individual group of people has its own idiosyncrasies, its own customs, is sensitive towards other cultures and actually rejoices in their differences. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA Bulletin</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">CTA and the promotion of rural development through book distribution</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One of CTA's tasks is to provide information on request to researchers, extension workers, planners, farmers' organisations, trainers and information specialists involved in agricultural development in ACP states. In addition to requested publications, CTA also distributes publications on its own initiative to its target groups. These publications, some 550 titles, are also supplied free of charge and consist of books published by CTA, co-published, or purchased specially because of their relevance. In 1995, almost 65 000 books were posted to ACP countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The people who receive the publications to some extent select themselves, because they write to CTA with requests for information. They find out about its existence through attending CTA seminars held in ACP countries or in Europe, or through seeing copies of Spore (CTA's bi-monthly bulletin in English, French and Portuguese which goes to around 50 000 addresses and is seen by many more), or by word of mouth. Over the years, CTA has built up a mailing list of 42 500 addresses of people and organisations active in some way in agriculture and rural development. Of the total, 37 800 are in ACP countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But there are questions. Are our books getting to those who need them and is the targeting accurate enough? And, most importantly, is this the best way of doing things ? For CTA does not - and cannot - satisfy the total demand for books on agriculture and rural development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">What is the best way?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the number of addresses on the mailing list, many more people could in theory still be added. Should CTA even try to satisfy this demand ? The publications are free and, if CTA increased its coverage of the demand, it might in some countries hold back the development of local bookselling with a consequent detrimental effect on local publishing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The majority of those now on the mailing list are 'individuals' rather than institutions, libraries, documentation centres, associations, organisations, etc. On the face of it, more people could be reached by sending CTA publications to groups rather than to individuals, but it's not always clear who is an individual in the sense of information not being shared with others. Some individuals are teachers, some are extension agents, some receive publications on behalf of a cooperative, for example.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Because of the importance of information - the driving force behind development  -  CTA has been investigating and giving support to technical publishing and book distribution in Africa over the last few years and is currently examining its own policy on book distribution over the ACP countries as a whole. Part of the context for this policy re-appraisal is the state of bookselling.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Difficulty of book distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Everyone involved in the books business in and for the ACP countries knows that getting books where you want them to go, book distribution, is not straightforward. The reasons for the difficulty are not straightforward either. One development officer remarked of Papua New Guinea that the lack of books outside the capital, Port Moresby, couldn't simply be explained by lack of roads, because in the most out of the way places you could be sure of finding Coca Cola. Is it, then, that the Coca Cola company has superior marketing and distribution arrangements ? Probably so, but it is the nature of the two products which also determines how far they get. Traders will more readily take goods which they know they will be able to sell easily and the immediate satisfaction given by cigarettes or Coca Cola tends to put them before books in the list of priorities for purchase.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Among the ACP countries where CTA sends books and information, many have under-developed road and rail networks while the postal facilities provide a reliable service only to a relatively small part of the country. The local book publishing and bookselling industries are often themselves developing. Potential readers often cannot afford to buy the books and consequently book distribution is the weak link in the chain from writing and publishing a book to selling it. If books can't be sold, new ones can't be published, for the investment finance for a new publishing project has to come from somewhere.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Africa, the lack of a strong local book sector was attributed in part to the traditional oral culture of the continent which left little need for reading. The majority of students would read in order to pass their exams, after which they hardly sought books again to buy or to read.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main books distributed were therefore textbooks for schools, colleges and for higher education. As long as these were distributed through booksellers, a forum still existed for displaying and raising interest in other books.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Booksellers could also function as sources and conduits of information about the variety of books in print and of their interest to particular groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This development was stunted because of the low purchasing power of many people, lack of foreign exchange (except in the CFA franc states), high cost of importing (either books or the raw materials, print machinery and spare parts to manufacture books) and, consequentially, shortage and lack of variety of locally-published books.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition, in some countries the state intervened in school book publishing and supply (for example in Tanzania), so that the bread and butter of the bookselling business disappeared.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Booksellers then either diversified their stock so that they became bookseller-stationers or worse - books came after groceries, footballs, hats, etc., or the booksellers ceased trading in books or closed down.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The publishing-distribution chain in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Book distribution is part of a chain of activities in the book sector which depend on each other and support each other. The chain starts with an idea for a book which may come from an author or from potential readers who make known their needs and it ends with the published books being bought. The lack of a good book distribution infrastructure in Africa is linked to the lack of a wide variety of books from a good number of publishers and the lack of a market for the books.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At least until South Africa became a democracy, Nigeria probably had the most active publishing industry in Africa with a high level of publishing professionalism. In such a huge country this may not be surprising: there is a large market, state administrations with urban headquarters, and a variety of arrangements for publishing and distributing books. But publishers suffer from a scarcity of investment funds, with high costs of borrowing, which affects their ability to keep books in print and to start new publishing projects. Relatively few technical books are published locally because of the risks when compared with, for example, publishing school textbooks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In such a vast country, the state of book distribution varies from place to place, with cities and large towns obviously having a greater variety of books available for sale than small towns and rural areas. Small traders carry books to the latter; they do not take orders and the books they carry are those that they can get hold of which they think will sell. Would-be readers are frustrated unless they or their friends visit a city. Mail order is not a possibility because the domestic postal service is not trusted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the urban areas, where there are booksellers, an indeterminate number of potential readers cannot afford to buy books, especially those that have been imported. Book piracy is a consequence of this. Booksellers' sales have declined, their turnover has been reduced as has their ability to stay in business. Some institutions in the country buy direct from publishers or from overseas suppliers rather than from booksellers, which further damages them. Booksellers buy books from publishers in small quantities for a fast turn-round which affects publishers' ability to build up investment funds for the next publishing project or for a large reprint with its possibility of reducing unit book costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This is not to say that technical books are totally unavailable from Nigerian booksellers, but it is clear that only specialised outlets which know their book-buying customers well can risk stocking some of them. Rural dwellers have no chance of buying them without making a big effort in time and money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In contrast, Senegal has a less developed publishing and bookselling industry than Nigeria, with about a dozen professional publishers and a small network of booksellers, mostly in Dakar and the larger towns in the regions. The most important publishing opportunities in Senegal are in the field of primary school textbooks - where there is competition both within the country, with publishers from other developing states, and from the North. Senegal being a lot smaller than Nigeria, there is only room for one textbook, and primary school book production is not therefore the mainstay of local publishers. The publisher which used to supply all primary and secondary school textbooks for the Ministry of National Education is an exception and is still probably dependent upon educational publishing for its turnover. Few technical books are published; as with books for higher education, they are imported.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The network of booksellers has been decreasing and it is difficult to make a living just by selling books without the back-up of other products to sell. Thus there are bookseller-stationers, bookseller-grocers, kiosks and street sellers, especially of secondhand books. Booksellers tend to order titles in small quantities because they cannot risk being left with unsold stock which ties up their capital. They order little and often. Most school textbooks are distributed through the Ministry of National Education, but booksellers still sell a variety of textbooks, some official and approved and some not. Before the devaluation of the CFA franc, booksellers ordered more from abroad. These books have now doubled in price, making them unaffordable, with a consequent opportunity opened for local publishers to fill a gap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Apart from the professional publishers, various sorts of publications are being produced and distributed by literacy and post-literacy organisations and a delegated literacy ministry. Some organisations promote literacy for its own sake, while others use the attainment of literacy as the means through which development can spread in rural areas. The publications concern rural development, agriculture, health and nutrition, and rural democracy, amongst others. There is a good variety of different titles and a good supply of cheap and affordable books. Some are sold through booksellers, but most people buy them when they take their literacy courses, while small traders carry them up-country to sell and buy more copies from the publishers with the proceeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Book aid schemes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A whole literature exists on book aid schemes. Briefly, book aid comes in two forms, one using the local book sector and the other not to any great extent. The British Government's Educational Low Prices Books Scheme (sadly scheduled to end, at least in its present form, in April 1997) and the French Government's Programme Plus both use the local bookselling industry to make available standard tertiary textbooks and others at subsidised rates. Not all students could afford to buy them, but the two schemes nonetheless promote bookselling and commercial life within ACP countries and beyond. To some extent they safeguard the continuation of fore where up-to-date books can be seen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CTA's books aid scheme does not use the local book sector in terms of book distribution, although cooperation in co-publishing is beginning. The FAO, in distributing publications to ACP and other developing countries, is similar. Books supplied under multilateral and bilateral agencies' projects have tended to sidestep the local book sector, although this has been changing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As with food aid, the question to be answered is whether continuing the aid prolongs the condition ? Or does the analogy with food aid break down in certain circumstances because books are different ?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improving book distribution in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Various efforts are being made to improve book markets for African publishers. For example, the African Books Collective, based in Oxford, UK, markets and sells both anglophone and francophone African publishers' selected books in the North and also to other African countries. It is often easier for publishers in the North to sell their books in Africa than it is for African publishers to sell their books across frontiers and in the continent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publishers Associations have been formed in about a dozen countries with APNET, the African Publishers' Network, celebrating its fourth year as a continental association. CTA supported APNET in the production of the first catalogue of agricultural books published by African publishers. Very recently, an Africa-wide booksellers association has been created.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CTA and future book distribution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since CTA started distributing books on agriculture and rural development, publishing and bookselling activities in many ACP countries have multiplied and the context has changed somewhat. As noted at CTA's Montpellier conference in 1995, there is now much information and many documents going from North to South, suited to the planners, research workers and extension agents who process the information and pass it down to the small-scale farmers. Rather, a two-way information route would be more efficient, between farmers who have information to offer as well as information needs and information providers. The growth in requests to CTA for publications from co-operatives and farmer associations and from non-academic libraries and documentation units is evidence that the publications distribution service is fulfilling a need. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The Couriers mailbag</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earthen architecture</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">I read your article on 'Earthen Architecture', published by the CTA Bulletin in the September-October 1996 issue of The Courier (n° 159) with a great deal of interest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The article presents such traditional products as rammed earth and adobe which have been used by man since time immemorial as witnessed by constructions and monuments to be found in the countries cited by the authors of the article, as well as industrial products such as the compressed earth block (CEB), which have provoked much interest in many parts of the world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The authors also demonstrate that the use of the compressed earth block has a distinct advantage in that it valorises local raw materials, encourages the setting up of local enterprises and creates employment.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard, I would particularly wish to inform you that the Centre for the Development of Industry (CDI) has, for the last ten years, been working on the industrial development of the CEB sector through support to ACP promoters at various levels:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - diagnostic studies of projects and setting-up of production units;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - search for EU technical partners who have economically advantageous technologies and are ready to transfer their know-how;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- training of enterprise personnel in CEB production and in the utilisation of this product;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- support in the manufacturing of brick presses such as is currently the case in Nigeria.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some 100 small and mediumsized enterprises and non-governmental organisations in ACP countries involved in the CEB sector have benefited from direct CDI assistance. This assistance has, notably, led to the improved technical and economic performance of these enterprises.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Beyond support to projects, the CDI in collaboration with CRATerre actively participates in the industrial promotion of this technology. The Centre recently disseminated 2000 copies of a technical guide entitled 'CEB: Production Equipment' throughout the ACP countries. An exhibition on the compressed earth block and its application took place during the Industrial Mining Forum held in Lusaka, Zambia, in December 1994. Similar exhibitions were held during the Matconstruct Forum (Libreville, Gabon, October 1995) and at the Industrial Partnership event (Bordeaux, France, February 1995). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The standardisation of the compressed earth block is a prerequisite for the development of this sector. The Centre therefore organised a workshop on this topic in Yaounde in 1996 as a follow-up to the Matconstruct Forum. This seminar brought together some 40 ACP and EU participants to discuss the 'CEB: Standardisation' guide currently being prepared by CRATerre for publication in December 1996.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main objective of the guide is to encourage ACP promoters to manufacture products in conformity with accepted norms and thus facilitate CEB integration in the industrial construction market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Efforts made by the CDI, in collaboration with CRATerre, to develop the CEB sector deserve to be better known. We would therefore look forward to an opportunity to present the Centre's activities in this sector in a future issue of me Courier. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Surendra Sharma, Director, Centre for the Development of Industry,</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brussels, Belgium.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Map insets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thank-you for your informative magazine. I wish you all the best in your endeavours to improve me Courier further. May I suggest that in the Country Report profiles, you include an inset map of the region highlighting the country in question for those readers who may not be familiar with the area.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Andrew Frederick Meya, Kampala, Uganda.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A number of readers have raised this point with us since we have rearranged the cover pages and transferred the ACP and Europe 'regional' maps to the inside back cover. In future, we will endeavour to ensure that there is a cross-reference to this page in the Country Report profile. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Bibliography</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Publications received</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La politique etrangere du Cameroun (Cameroon's foreign policy) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Narcisse Mouelle Kombi. Pub. L'Harmattan, Collection «Points de vue» (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1996. 238 pp. ISBN 2-73843701-X.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cameroon belongs to the zone formerly called the 'Third World' which is nowadays labelled the 'South'. This region of great diversity currently faces major socio-economic and political conflict, and receives 'multiform' and 'tied' aid from the developed countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This does not, however, prevent it from having a degree of freedom of action in diplomatic terms.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author, who is a specialist in international law, believes that as a player on the world scene, Cameroon puts its foreign-policy skills to good advantage and has acquired a certain respect in international relations and in global institutions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He argues that Yaounde is attempting to implement a realistic and pragmatic foreign policy, reflecting its own sovereign status and the imperatives of development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, the country is endeavouring to implement the changes forced upon it by modern circumstances.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Le developpement institutionnel - Les organisations a l'epreuve de la specificite et de la concurrence (Institutional development - Organisations based on specificity and competition) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Arturo Israel. Translated from the English by Alain Claisse. Pub. L'Harmattan (5-7, me de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1996. 235 pp. 140 FF. ISBN 2-73844322-2.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A graduate of the University of Chile and the London School of Economics, the author has devoted most of his career (particularly within the World Bank) to examining the problems of economic and social development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He has been one of the pioneers of institutional development, a field which is nowadays seen as essential to all development strategies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He argues that institutional development requires not bureaucratisation but the promotion and recognition of two principles in both public and private organisations. These are competition and specificity. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The former induces those involved to improve the quality of their work, whilst forcing them to listen to the 'consumer'. The latter involves qualifications, specialisation and a precise definition of objectives, tasks, resources and results.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">After a critical review of assessment reports produced over a 15-year period by the World Bank in the field of institutional development, Arturo Israel tells us why such development is one of the keys to success in development projects. He demonstrates that a good project being implemented in an unfavourable institutional environment has little chance of achieving positive long-term effects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">La justice internationale face au drame rwandais (International justice confronted by the Rwandan crisis) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the direction of Jean-Fran&ccedil;oise Dupaquier, with William Bourdon, Pierre-Serge Heger, Frederic Mutagwera, Fran,cois-Xavier Nsanzuwera, Rakiya Omaar, William A. Schabas and Anne-Marie Swartenbroekx. Pub. Karthala (22-24, boulevard Arago, F-75013, Paris). 1996. 248 pp. FF 130. BF. 715. ISBN 2-86537-662-1.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is two years since the genocide and political massacres which resulted in the death of a million people in Rwanda. In this work, the authors describe and analyse the progress made in various legal proceedings in Rwanda itself, in the international arena and in the jurisdictions of Belgium, France, Canada and Switzerland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some countries have been slow and apparently reluctant to fulfil their international obligations and this has resulted in disappointment and impatience on the part of the victims' families, jurists and human rights activists.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the example of the Nuremberg trials, the authors suggest there are good grounds for concluding that international human rights have become less important over the last 50 years. This work allows one to reach a considered opinion. Modern legal instruments provide for the punishment of those responsible for the appalling tragedy in Rwanda. These instruments could be seen as a significant advance in the recognition of human rights by the international community. But what is missing at the moment is the political will (and public pressure) to implement them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Methodologies d'analyse de la mortalite des enfants - Applications au Cameroun (Analytical methodologies in child mortality as applied to Cameroon) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Amadou Noumbissi. Pub. Braylant-Academia (25, Grand Rue, B-134B Louvainla-Neuve) and L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F-75005 Paris). 1996. 305 pp. ISBN 2-87209389-3 (Academia-Braylant) and ISBN 2-7384-3722-2 (L'Harmattan).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Child mortality, always very high in sub-Saharan Africa, varies according to social class, habitat and region. The identification of the social, economic and cultural factors which influence the survival of children depends on the quality of data, and on the relevance of the indicators and statistical models used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With the aid of specific examples, this work attempts to demonstrate the origin of a number of sources of bias in so-called classical approaches and the distortion of the truth which a poor choice or detrimental manipulation of statistical models can give rise to.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A teacher and researcher at the Demographic Institute of the Catholic University of Louvain (Belgium), the author proposes methods to take account of the interdependence and synergy which exist between the factors which affect the risk of mortality. He applies these methods to the data gained in two national surveys which were carried out in Cameroon in 1978 and 1991.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Revue Region et Developpement (Region and Development Journal)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pub. L'Harmattan (5-7, rue de l'Ecole Polytechnique, F75005 Paris). 1995. 238 pp. ISBN 2-7384-4125-4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This half-yearly journal, first launched in 1995, deals with the various socio-economic aspects of regional development. The second issue contains articles which may be of interest to our readers, including: 'Regionalisation, globalisation and polarisation of the world economy: is there room for developing countries?', and 'Housing models in developing countries'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Structural adjustment and ethnicity in Nigeria</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By Eghosa E. Osaghae. Pub. The Nordic Africa Institute (P.O. Box 1703, S-751 47 Uppsala, Sweden). 1995. 66 pp. ISBN 91-7106373-0.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The author is a lecturer who heads the politics department at the University of Transkei in South Africa. A significant conclusion from his study, undertaken at the Nordic Africa Institute, is that from the ethnic standpoint, the implementation of structural adjustment (with its corollary of reduced state involvement in public life), has had positive effects in Nigeria. This contrasts with the usual perception of the structural adjustment process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The migration experience in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collection prepared under the direction of Jonathan Baker and Tade Akin Aina. Pub. The Nordic Africa Institute (P.O. Box 1703, S-751 47 Uppsala, Sweden). 1995. 353 pp. ISBN-91-7106366-8.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This volume aims to take stock of migration in Africa. The causes of the phenomenon are varied and complex, and the authors have chosen an approach which illustrates the diversity of the theories, and methodological and analytical trends involved.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The book offers an empirical assessment of migration in contemporary Africa, focusing particularly on the problem of women migrants. Migration is an important element in the wider development equation and this work fills a gap in the literature.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Challenges to the Nation-State in Africa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collection prepared under the direction of Adebayo O. Olukoshi and Liisa Laakso. Pub. The Nordic Africa Institute (P.O. Box 1703, S-751 47 Uppsala, Sweden) in collaboration with the Institute of Development Studies, University of Helsinki. 1996. 213 pp. ISBN 91-7106381-1.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The challenge confronting the nation state in contemporary Africa are of great interest to specialists attempting to understand how deconstruction and recomposition of the political identity of populations affects the post-colonial unitarian project. The studies offered in this volume show that this process has often taken ethno-regionalist, religious or separatist forms -  reinforced by economic crisis and the negative effects of structural adjustment, not to mention the legacy of years of political authoritarianism and exclusion dating from the colonial period.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The authors believe that in order to promote national unity and a sense of citizenship in Africa, priority should be given, inter alia, to more representative forms of government, power-sharing and decentralisation, multi-party elections, the reinvention of the post-colonial social contract and cultural autonomy for minority groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agenda for Africa's economic renewal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Collection prepared under the direction of Benno Ndulu and Nicolas van de Walle. Pub. Overseas Department Council (1875 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 1012, Washington, DC 20009, USA). 1996. 246 pp. ISBN 1-56000900-4.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For 20 years, sub-Saharan Africa has been experiencing a severe economic crisis. Growth has been stagnant and the result has been reduced living standards for much of the population, and ever-increasing pressure on the continent's political structures. Structural adjustment, advocated by international organisations in an attempt to restore growth in Africa, has not had the anticipated results and has given rise to a number of disputes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this book, 10 African, US and European experts attempt to look beyond the immediate horizon and identify strategies which could be implemented to give renewed vigour to the African economy. They analyse the choices which should be made in key areas such as agriculture, trade and industry, the role of the state and the social sectors. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">News round - up</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">In brief</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">World congress against the sexual exploitation of children</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first international congress dealing with the problem of the sexual exploitation of children for profit was held in Stockholm from 27 to 31 August. The initiative for the meeting came from ECPAT (End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism), working in collaboration with the Swedish government, the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and a group of NGOs supporting the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The congress was attended by government representatives from most of the UN countries, participants from various international and regional organisations (including the UN Centre for Human Rights, the International Labour Organisation, the World Health Organisation, UNESCO, UNHCR and Interpol), NGOs, health professionals and media representatives from across the globe.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The aim of the congress was to draw the international community's attention to the issue of the sexual exploitation of children and to promote the development of national plans to tackle all forms of abuse in this area. It focused particularly on three aspects: child prostitution, the 'trade' in children for sexual purposes, and child pornography.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although there are a number of legal instruments which refer to these problems, the key one for the purposes of the Stockholm meeting was the Convention on the Rights of the Child. In Article 34 of this multilateral treaty, which has been ratified by 186 countries, the signatory states commit themselves to protect children against all forms of exploitation and violence of a sexual nature. For the purposes of the Convention, a child is defined as any human being less than 18 years old, except where the age of majority is lower than 18 in the relevant local legislation (Article 1).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The committee that was responsible for planning the Congress drew up documents on a number of themes including: the revision and application of laws; psycho-social prevention; tourism and child prostitution; those who engage in abuse; hygiene and health; the role of the media; child pornography; education; and human values. These subjects were all examined by working groups during the two-day session.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The congress was addressed by Anita Gradin, Member of the European Commission with responsibility for internal and judicial affairs, and matters relating to immigration. She took the opportunity to underline the point that the traffic in women and children was international. Organised crime, she said, lay at the heart of the 'trade' and it was closely linked to a whole range of other criminal activities. She cited, in this context, kidnapping, forging of documents, 'false' marriages and adoptions, clandestine immigration, violence and forced labour. these, in turn were associated with the drug trade, extortion and murder. The conclusion was that a global action plan and more international cooperation were needed. Ms Gradin acknowledged that existing arrangements had been successful in exposing the existence of paedophile networks but she was convinced that international cooperation should be strengthened further, and that organisations such as Interpol and Europol would be called upon to play a bigger part in the future. The European Commissioner went on to declare that a commitment to the protection of children ought to be a priority. The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child - which is now eight years old -  should not merely tee 'adopted' by all countries. It should, rather, be applied in full and integrated into the legislation of every nation. There was no point, she suggested, in enacting new laws, if the existing ones were not being implemented and the financial resources had not been provided. Ms Gradin reaffirmed the European Commission's commitment to the fight against the exploitation of children. This would be reflected in communications to be drawn up by the Commission for presentation to the Council of Ministers and European Parliament, on the following subjects:  - the treatment of women (on the basis of the recommendations made by the Vienna Conference on this subject, which was held in June 1996);  - sex tourism, notably in certain countries in Asia and Latin America;  - actions designed to eliminate paedophile rings and child pornography networks which make use of new information technologies such as the Internet. During the congress, the Belgian Minister of Foreign Affairs announced that his country would be launching an initiative at the EC's Justice and Internal Affairs Council meeting scheduled for 26 and 27 September. They would be proposing common action designed to strengthen police and judicial cooperation in the fight against the sexual exploitation of children for profit. He believed that it should be possible to take measures both within the framework of the Europol Convention, and by means of new and specific cooperation instruments. The culmination of the Stockholm congress was the adoption of a declaration and an action plan. These foresee strengthened cooperation and coordination among local and national authorities, and a series of measures to protect children, prevent abuse and provide rehabilitation. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1997: European year against racism </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In a resolution adopted on 23 July, the Council of Ministers formally designated 1997 as the European year against racism. The aims, set out in the resolution, include:  - highlighting the threat posed by racism, xenophobia and antisemitism, in terms of both respect for fundamental rights, and in ensuring the economic and social cohesion of the European Community;  - encouraging reflection and discussion of the measures needed to tackle racism, xenophobia and antisemitism in Europe;  - promoting a sharing of experiences, best practice, and effective strategies drawn up at the local, national and European levels;  - disseminating information on the aforementioned best practice and strategies amongst those most closely involved in the fight against racism, xenophobia and antisemitism, with a view to enhancing the effectiveness of their actions in this area;  - highlighting the advantages of integration policies implemented at the national level, in particular in the fields of employment, education, training and housing;  - taking account, wherever possible, of the experiences of victims of racism, xenophobia and antisemitism, and promoting the participation of these people in society. ECU 6 million will be spent on a series of activities designed to help achieve these objectives during the 'year against racism'. A logo and slogan will be devised, and seminars and conferences will be staged with the aim of strengthening international cooperation (themes will include the role of education in eliminating racism, ways of establishing dialogue, and establishing mutual respect between different communities living in towns and cities). Documents and audiovisual material will be distributed, and an effort will be made to get the message across in the media. There will also be action to encourage information exchanges on best practice, and to increase public awareness of the issue. Prizes will be awarded to media organisations which safeguard the quality of the information they put out and which seek to promote tolerance. A specific effort will be made to counter the racist propaganda now appearing on the Internet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">WTO banana challenge</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union has set out its legal defence of duty-free preferences for African and Caribbean banana producing countries that are members of the Fourth Lom&eacute; Convention. This took place in September at an initial hearing of a World Trade Organisation (WTO) panel  - convened at the request of a number of competing banana producer nations. African and Caribbean states were permitted to voice their opinion as third part)" in the case, despite an objection from the United States. The EU's banana market arrangements  - notably Protocol 5 of the Lom&eacute; Convention, which sanctions duty-free access  - have twice before come under attack in the Geneva body. Two earlier hearings in the WTO's forerunner, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), concerned the EU's previous state-to-state regime, and the new single market arrangements which have been in operation since July 1993. The present panel was set up at the request of four Latin American banana producer nations - Ecuador, Honduras, Mexico and Guatemala - together with the United States which is arguing that its domestic banana companies are losing out. The complainants jointly claim that the tariff quota for Latin American nations, the core of regulation 404/93 establishing the EU regime, discriminates against them. They also challenge the licensing arrangements of the so-called 'framework agreement' made under the GATT framework in 1994 with four Latin American nations (Colombia, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Venezuela). In return for a bigger share of the EU market, these four agreed to refrain from further challenges in the WTO against the EU's banana arrangements.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The panel is expected to give its verdict in March 1997. The hearings are taking place behind closed doors, but it is understood that EU and ACP nations can count on the support of Japan - which currently imposes its own quotas on imports of other items and does not want to be challenged for these - and that of India which wants to show solidarity with the ACP countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Speaking in Geneva, Cot&eacute; d'lvoire's Commodities Minister, Alain Gauze, stressed the heavy dependence of many African and Caribbean states on banana growing. 90% of Dominica's commodity exports are bananas and the crop accounts for 70% of its export receipts and 25% of its Gross Domestic Product.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One ACP representative in Brussels described the task ahead es 'convincing them (the panel) that the banana regime and regulation 404/93 are required to fulfil the obligations of the EU under the Lom&eacute; Convention and the subsequent waiver.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The waiver to which he referred was accorded by GATT to the Lom&eacute; Convention's various non-reciprocal trade preferences in 1994, but it is up for renewal at the end of the year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU has already put in a request for its extension until February 29, 2000, coinciding with the expiry date of Lom&eacute; IV.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The WTO was expected to rule on the renewal of the waiver in mid-October ahead of the panel's decision. If the renewal of the waiver were to be disallowed, the EU and ACP 'defendants' at the panel could find themselves on shaky legal ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the meantime, the EU has fixed its 1996 tariff quota, allowing a maximum of 2.553 million tonnes of Latin American bananas to be imported into the Union with a tariff of ECU 75 per tonne.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A further quota of 72 440 tonnes has been allocated to this region following tropical storms Iris, Luis et Marilyn. The damage caused by these storms led to the suspension of supplies of bananas from several Caribbean islands. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EU banana production is expected to reach 750 000 tonnes in 1996, while preferential imports from the African and Caribbean members of the ACP group have been fixed at 680 000 tonnes. According to latest predictions, the total consumption of this fruit in the European Union in 1996 will be 4030440 tonnes. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">D.P.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Trade and labour standards</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ahead of the first ministerial meeting of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) to be held in December in Singapore, the European Commission has published a discussion paper (COM (96) 402 final) on whether labour standards should be linked to trade - which could mean sanctions for nations which do not comply with globally recognised labour clauses. What is at stake is to draw up globally recognised criteria and implement them without accusations of protectionism from some developing nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At an informal meeting of EU trade ministers in Dublin on September 18, EC Trade Commissioner, Sir Leon Brittan, said that, in supporting an international code, the European Union had no intention of damaging the competitive advantage of developing nations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many Asian countries, who view the move of the EU and of other industrialised nations as veiled protectionism, do not even want the subject broached at the Singapore meeting. However, mention was made of the link between trade and internationally recognised labour standards in the conclusions of the Uruguay Round of GATT in Marrakesh in 1994, which requested that the WTO do more work on this issue.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The recent Commission paper advances the reasons for an international code: 'Workers in certain sectors in particular perceive that their jobs are under threat from imports from countries which allow unfair or unacceptable working practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These concerns cannot be ignored and should be addressed by the world trading system. Otherwise the perception will be - wrongly - that trade liberalisation is the problem and not the solution to the challenge to all societies to create a higher standard of living for all their citizens.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It further makes the point that such a policy is in line with others such as the promotion of democracy, respect for human rights and adherence to the rule of law. The EU has always upheld the view that there is a positive correlation between social progress, economic growth and trade liberalisation. According to the paper: 'There is no question of imposing on developing countries the higher wage levels and better working conditions which pertain in the industrialised world. Nor is this an action designed to re-erect new barriers to trade under cover of a social agenda.'</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU and international bodies are already looking at the kind of global criteria that might be adopted. A report of the International Labour Organisation (ILO), published in 1994, as well as the conclusions of the 1995 World Social Summit in Copenhagen, both suggest that freedom of association, collective bargaining, prohibition of forced labour and the elimination of child labour are top of the list.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A report entitled: 'Trade, Employment and Labour Standards - a study of core workers' rights and international trade', produced this year by the Paris-based Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), looks at the options in depth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jeff Atkinson, trade policy advisor for the NGO, Oxfam UK, suggests that initial negotiations should be limited to matters covered in ILO Conventions 87 and 98. The former deals with freedom of association and protection of the right to organise, while the latter is on the right to organise and collective bargaining. He argues that other Conventions, covering such matters as the right to equal renumeration for men and women workers, freedom from discrimination and the abolition of forced labour, depend on the first two. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A notable omission from Jeff Atkinson's list is ILO Convention 138 on child labour. He does not feel that this Convention adequately addresses the issue. While international concern has focused on the most abusive forms of child labour such as slavery and prostitution, he points out not all child labour is so grossly abusive. Some forms can bring in money for food and shelter, which would otherwise not be available.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">He argues that if conditions are right, employment (say on a family farm or business) can contribute positively to a child's development, by providing an informal learning environment in which social and physical skills can develop.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">'To tackle the symptoms, for example by banning child labour, without addressing the underlying cause is likely to be counterproductive', says Mr Atkinson. He argues that it might induce children to seek illegal work in order to survive, or alternatively that they may end up becoming destitute.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some bodies are already trying to enforce improved standards. Although the ILO cannot implement sanctions, if an ILO member fails to comply with Conventions, a dialogue can be instituted with the defaulting country. It is also running an extensive public campaign against child labour and is assisting the development of social labelling for goods produced which fully respect ILO Conventions.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under its new Generalised System of Preferences (GSP), the EU can remove some trade preferences if goods imported from non-Lom&eacute; developing nations are found to have been made with forced or slave labour. And from January 1, 1998, extra preferences can be given to countries which so request and comply with Conventions 87, 98 and 138. But if the enforcement of a socalled 'Social Clause' does reach the WTO level, some voices are already calling for joint monitoring involving the WTO and that long-time champion of human rights, the ILO. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The 1996 UNCTAD Report</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A slow world growth rate is revealed in this year's annual report of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), published in September. The global economy expanded by only 2.4% in 1995 compared with a 2.8% increase in 1994. And production is below what it could be, says the report. On the whole, developing nations achieved higher growth rates than their industrialised counterparts in 1995.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1996, world growth is expected to slow further although there will still be 'star performers' in some regions, and particularly slow movers in others. Asia is the continent currently doing best and China has the fastest expanding economy - despite this having slackened in recent years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1995, Africa recorded higher growth than Latin America, according to the Rubens Ricupero, UNCTAD Secretary General. It also managed the first real increase in average per capita income for a long time. This was partly due to commodity prices picking up - they rose 10% on average.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">But not such good news for the continent was a drop in private capital flows, notably direct investment. And the growth rate was highly variable across Africa. In some countries it was above 5% but in others, the economic situation was hit badly by political and armed conflicts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Meanwhile, drought led to lower production in the Sahel. The prospects for 1996 are uncertain according to the report. It noted that even countries whose economies have expanded during 1995 and 1996 will need another ten concurrent years of good economic results to get back to the per capita income they enjoyed 20 years ago.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report highlights the tremendous difficulties facing many of the heavily-indebted, least developed nations. This is despite the fact that a number of donors have recently written off substantial amounts of some countries' public debts while the Paris Club has rescheduled repayments from other nations. Even if the new arrangements are followed through, UNCTAD is predicting that debt will remain a major burden for many countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One worrying factor is the weight of their multilateral debt and bilateral obligations to creditors other than the Paris Club. Multilateral institutions have implemented a number of measures, but these are of very limited scope. The UNCTAD Secretary General is encouraging multilateral creditors in particular, to put more muscle behind their debt relief plans.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The authors of the report are also recommending the establishment of an agency, within UNCTAD itself, to help developing nations achieve trade diversification and industrialisation strategies for economic growth. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Seminar on NGOs and government relations in humanitarian emergencies</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The British Council is organising an international seminar on the above subject in Oxford, UK, from 12-17 December 1996. The main themes to be covered at the meeting will include:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - the actors in humanitarian assistance;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - funder and donor policy;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- government sovereignty;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- rights and obligations of intervention;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- the role of the beneficiary;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- conflicts of interest and areas of cooperation between donor NGOs and host governments, and;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">- accountability and evaluation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Further information can be obtained from the Marketing Manager, International Seminars, The British Council, 1 Beaumont Place, GB-Oxford, OX1 2PJ.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tel. (44) 1B65 316 636, Fax. (44) 1865 57368.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">E-mail: International. Seminar@britcoun.org </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<I><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The institutions at work</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</I><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">COMMON FOREIGN AND SECURITY POLICY</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of its Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), the European Union has recently issued a number of statements, details of which are set out below:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: condemnation of the massacre on 19 July</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 23 July 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses grave concern at the deteriorating situation in Burundi especially at the killing of civilians and other gross violations of human rights which continue to be perpetrated in that country. It vehemently condemns the massacre of civilians in the Bugendana camp for displaced persons on 19 July last and deplores the expulsions of Rwandan refugees against their will. This massacre, following as it does those at Gishubi, Kivyuka, Teza, Mutoyi, Songa and Kamenge, represents a new stage in the vortex of violence, action and reaction putting Burundi at risk of being drawn ever further into a full civil war, the effects of which would be catastrophic for the people of Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU calls on all Burundians to turn away from violence and move singlemindedly along the road to a peaceful and negotiated solution of their problems. It would point to the undertakings given on 25 June 1996 at Arusha during the Summit of Heads of State of the region in favour of dialogue open to all sectors of Burundi's population together with provision of the security measures needed to create the conditions for such dialogue. It would also point out that these undertakings were given formal backing by the Heads of State and Government of the entire continent of Africa when they met from 8 to 10 July at Yaounde under the aegis of the Organisation for African Unity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU believes that only compliance with the undertakings given at Arusha and their swift implementation can restore a climate of confidence and prevent Burundi becoming embroiled in a generalised conflict. As it has already stressed in the Council's statement of 15 and 16 July, the EU reiterates that it is prepared to assist in pursuit of the Arusha objectives in order to restore peace and security in Burundi and it supports the efforts of former President Nyerere and the countries of the region to achieve this.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: appeal for reconciliation following the coup d'Etat </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 26 July 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union shares the deep concern of the Secretary General of the United Nations, and others, about yesterday's military coup in Burundi.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU urges all sides to avoid recourse to violence and to take all steps to resolve the crisis by exclusively peaceful means.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU believes that the main immediate priority is the humanitarian situation. There must be no further loss of life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An immediate beginning of a national debate is essential, leading to a real process of national reconciliation, founded on democracy and security for all sections of society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard, the EU commends the efforts of former President Nyerere and regional leaders to broker an all-inclusive, negotiated settlement in Burundi, in peaceful conditions, and urges them to examine the possibility of continuing their efforts in this respect.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU reiterates its firm commitment to the re-establishment of peace in Burundi. The Union is following developments in the country closely, in active consultation with partners in the UN, with the OAU and others, towards the goal of restoring peace and security in Burundi. The EU Special Envoy, Mr Ajello, who is in the region, is actively assisting in this process.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Niger: doubts about the first round election results</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 1 August 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union expresses deep concern about the way in which the first round of the presidential elections in Niger on 7-8 July was conducted. In particular, it deplores the decision taken by the Niger authorities to dissolve the independent national electoral commission during the voting process and to replace it with an alternative body. It is the view of the EU that this decision, by the Niger authorities, casts serious doubts on the credibility of the election results. It requests the Niger authorities to explain this decision and why observers found it impossible to assist in gathering and collating the election results.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU urges the Niger authorities, in dealing with the critical situation which has resulted from their decision, to respect fully the fundamental freedoms of movement, expression and association of the Niger people. It attaches great importance to the restoration of all civil rights.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU will examine, in the light of recent developments, its policies of economic and development cooperation with the Niger authorities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU calls for the full restoration of democratic civilian government in Niger through transparent processes. Free and fair elections will be crucial in this respect. The EU will continue to follow the situation in Niger closely and in particular the preparation, holding and transparency of the forthcoming legislative elections on 22 September. Iceland, the Central European countries associated with the EU and the associated countries Cyprus and Malta align themselves with this declaration.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Swaziland: revision of the Constitution</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 6 August 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The European Union welcomes the announcement by King Mswati III of the names of the new Prime Minister of Swaziland and of the Constitutional Review Commission and is pleased that its membership represents all shades of political opinion in Swaziland.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU wishes to encourage all members of the Constitutional Review Commission to participate fully in its work and expresses confidence that their endeavours will bring about the adoption of a draft democratic constitution acceptable to the people of Swaziland as a whole. It hopes that the Commission will pursue its task energetically and is ready to offer appropriate assistance to the Commission if it so wishes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burundi: appeal for talks and reconciliation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Declaration of 19 August 1996</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recalling its declarations of 25 June and 5, 15, 23 and 26 July 1996, the European Union reiterates its deep concern about the situation in Burundi. It urges all sides to refrain from violence and to commit themselves to, and work actively towards, a negotiated and peaceful resolution of the crisis.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU wishes to express its support for the regional leaders, the Organisation of African Unity and the former President of Tanzania, Mr Julius Nyerere, in the efforts which they have been making to assist Burundi to overcome peacefully the grave crisis which it is experiencing, and encourages them to continue their efforts to facilitate the search for a political solution.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU considers it essential for a dialogue to be organised without delay, bringing together all of Burundi's political forces without exception, including representatives of civil society, in order to negotiate a democratic, institutional consensus ensuring security for all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU is convinced that national reconciliation and civil peace in Burundi can be restored on a lasting basis only through the participation of all sections of society in the principal institutions and bodies of the State.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The EU urges all sides in Burundi to call an immediate halt to the violence and respect the safety of all Burundians.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It reaffirms its willingness to support Burundi's recovery efforts, once the necessary national reconciliation is embarked upon with all the resolve required.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AID FOR REHABILITATION</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Within the framework of the 'European Programme for Reconstruction and Development in South Africa', the Commission has recently decided on financing for the following ten projects:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 19.2 million for a development programme covering the management of the public service;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 17.2 million for technical assistance to the Ministry of Education;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 16 million for a support programme for Parliament;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 15 million for the electrification of rural schools;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 9 million to support the reform process in the police services of the Eastern Cape province;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 8.9 million for a financing and investment development programme for SMEs;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 5 million for a programme of rural water supply and sanitation projects to be implemented </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">by the NGO Mvula Trust; </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 4.3 million to support the trade union movement;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 2.3 million for the 'Soul City 1996' project designed to make full use of the mass media to promote health and development issues;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> - ECU 1.9 million to support the 'Truth and National Reconciliation Commission'.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EUROPEAN DEVELOPMENT FUND</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Following, where required, favourable opinions from the EDF Committee, the Commission has decided to provide grants and special loans from the 5th, 6th and 7th EDFs to finance the following operations (grants unless otherwise stated). Major projects and programmes are highlighted.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Economic and social infrastructure</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burkina Faso: ECU 4.125 million for studies relating to certain road infrastructures. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritius: ECU 9 million for an irrigation programme in the northern plains. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dominica: ECU 1.65 million towards the establishment of refuse treatments systems.  Trade promotion/ structural adjustment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cot&eacute; d'lvoire: ECU 25.5 million to , support the structural adjustment programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lesotho: ECU 8.6 million for the fourth structural adjustment programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agriculture/rural development</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia-Kenya-Uganda: ECU 20 million for a programme to coordinate national activities aimed at achieving sustainable rural development in the region (notably involving the fight against the Tsetse fly)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Education/training</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Caribbean region: ECU 5.9 million towards a post-secondary education training programme in the countries of the OECS (Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States - Antigua &amp; Barbuda, British Virgin Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St Kitts &amp; Nevis, St Lucia, St. Vincent &amp; the Grenadines). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Environment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi: ECU 4.4 million for a social/ participatory programme in the forestry sector as part of the implementation of a national forestry policy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Institutional support</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">SADC member states: ECU 1.7 million to support the SADC (Southern African Development Community) secretariat in order to strengthen the SADC-EU regional programme. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UEMOA (West Africa Economic and Monetary Union): ECU 12 million to support the regional integration process in the member states (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cot&eacute; d'lvoire, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 1.5 million for a support programme for the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EUROPEAN INVESTMENT  BANK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the first half of 1996, the Bank has provided the following loans from its own resources or in the form of risk capital:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Africa/Madagascar: ECU 30 million for ASECNA (I'Agence pour la securite de la navigation aerienne en Afrique et a Madagascar) for the renewal and modernisation of air safety equipment. Botswana: ECU 6.6 million to the Botswana Power Corporation to help increase electricity-generating capacity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burkina Faso: ECU 6 million to SOFITEX (Societe burkinabe des fibres textiles) for the renewal and extension of its cotton ginneries facility. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mali: ECU 5.3 million to the Societe Energie du Mali for the financing of the Balingue thermal power station. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritania: ECU 2 million to SNIM (Societe rationale industrielle et miniere) for the setting up and operation of a mechanical workshop. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mauritania: ECU 1.4 million to the Societe arabe du fer et de l'acier (Arab iron and steel company) for the construction of a foundry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mozambique: ECU 500 000 to Grafites de Ancuabe for the exploitation of a graphite mine.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia: ECU 2 million to the Zambia Venture Capital Fund, set up to subscribe for minority equity stakes in SMEs. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Jamaica: ECU 40 million to Telecommunications of Jamaica Ltd for expansion and modernisation of the domestic and international telecommunications network. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">British Virgin Islands: ECU 600 000 to the government for the design and feasibility study of the main airport at Beef Island, Tortola. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tonga: ECU 3.7 million to the Tonga Telecommunications Commission for the development of the country's domestic telecommunications network.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HUMANITARIAN AID</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia: ECU 5 million for the purchase and distribution of vegetable oils and cereals to refugees living in the country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya: ECU 420 000 for emergency medical assistance in the fight against cholera in the Mandera region.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Somalia: ECU 1.9 million for emergency food aid to the victims of the continuing factional fighting. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudan: ECU 2.5 million for the purchase and distribution of maize in a transit camp close to the capital (154 000 people) and in the south of the country (1 million people), and for the distribution of sorghum to Ethiopian and Eritrean refugees in the east (200 000 people). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Chad: ECU 150 000 to help tackle the cholera epidemic. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Haiti: ECU 10 million for a programme to counter malnutrition and improve basic health care, in particular for women and children in isolated locations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Montserrat: ECU 380 000 to help evacuees in the wake of the recent volcanic eruption. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Non-ACP countries</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia: ECU 1 million for people displaced as a result of drug terrorism and the fighting that has been taking peace between government forces and guerillas. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Costa Rica: ECU 400 000 for the victims of Hurricane Cesar. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Guatemala: ECU 220 000 to train teachers in order to improve education among repatriated communities in the department of Alta Verapaz. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nicaragua: ECU 440 000 to improve conditions for the social and economic reintegration of uprooted populations (people who have been repatriated, displaced or demobilised) in the department of Rio San Juan. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Northern Caucasus: ECU 4.18 million for civilian victims of the war in Chechnya and for refugees in Ossetia and Dagestan. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Iraq: ECU 9 million for food aid, medical provisions, rehabilitation of drinking water systems, sanitary equipment and educational material to assist 3 million people in the north and centre of the country.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Yemen: ECU 150 000 for flood victims. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Cambodia: ECU 290 000 for a programme to construct and distribute artificial limbs to land-mine victims. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand (Burmese refugees): ECU 220 000 for 'Mon' refugees from Burma (Myanmar) who have fled the violence in their country. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand (Burmese refugees): ECU 500 000 for medical aid in favour of 'Karen' refugees from Burma (Myanmar). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AID</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Commission has recently decided to allocate the following aid: </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p90.png"></center><br>
+Table</P>
+
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/ec160e/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/ec160e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/ec160e/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">The Courier - NÂ°160 - Nov - Dec 1996 - Dossier Habitat - Country reports: Fiji , Tonga (ec160e)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Settlements, Housing, Building - Infrastructure Construction (Roads etc)|Settlements and housing: general works incl. low- cost housing, planning techniques, surveying, etc.</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Development Periodicals and Magazines|The Courier ACP 1990 - 1996 Africa-Caribbean-Pacific - European Union</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">EC Courier</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/fb33fe/fb33fe.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/fb33fe/fb33fe.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/fb33fe/fb33fe.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,890 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Farming snails 1: Learning about snails; Building a pen; Food and shelter plants</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Farming snails 1: Learning about snails; Building a pen; Food and shelter plants</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rome 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P-69</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISBN 92-5-102396-4</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&copy; FAO 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Introduction</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Did you know that many kinds of snails are good to eat?</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Snail meat tastes good and it is also good for you. If you have snail meat to eat, it will help to keep you and your family strong and healthy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p60a.png"></center><br>
+ Family kept strong and healthy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. If you want to have snails to eat you can get them in different ways.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Many people gather wild snails that live nearby. Sometimes you can buy snails at the market or from people who gather them to sell to others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. You can also raise your own snails. This is called snail farming. Today, a great many people all over the world farm snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. If you farm your own snails, you will always have a supply of fresh snail meat whenever you want it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. Then, if your family is not too big and you grow more snails than you need to eat, you can sell what you do not use to your neighbours or at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61a.png"></center><br>
+ Selling snails at the market</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. With more food to eat and the money you get by selling snails, you and your family can live better.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9. However, if your family is big you will need to grow many more snails if you are going to have enough to eat and to sell at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61b.png"></center><br>
+ You need to grow more snails if your family is big</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">What do you need to start?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You will need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> enough snails to start your snail farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61c.png"></center><br>
+ Snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> a place near your house with the right kind of soil and the right amount of water for snails to live and grow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p61d.png"></center><br>
+ A place near your house</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the kinds of plants that snails need for food and shelter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the materials to build a pen for the snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p62a.png"></center><br>
+ Plants that snails need; The materials to build a pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10. If you have or can get all of these things, you can raise snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Learning about snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">11. To farm snails is not hard; however, it is quite different from keeping chickens or ducks or from growing crops such as maize, rice, cassava or groundnuts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12. Since farming snails is so different from other kinds of farming, you will have to learn a lot of new things.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">13. One way to learn about snails so that you will be able to farm them is to watch the wild snails that live near you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p62b.png"></center><br>
+ Watch the wild snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">14. Try to see how they live, how they move and where they go, what plants they like best and what they eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15. You can learn many things by watching wild snails that will help you later if you decide to start a snail farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p63a.png"></center><br>
+ Wild snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">16. Another way to learn about snails is to ask an older farmer who knows a lot about your area. If there are people near you who gather snails to sell to others, they may be able to help you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">17. In the next part of this booklet, you will begin to learn some things that you need to know to farm snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">What kind of snails can you farm?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">18. The kind of snails that you can farm are snails that live on land, and there are many kinds of land snails that are good to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">19. However, some kinds of land snails are not good to eat and they may even make you very, very sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20. So, you must be very careful when you choose snails to farm. If you are not sure that a snail is good to eat, do not use it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p63b.png"></center><br>
+ Do not use snail unless you are sure it is good to eat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">21. Now look at the drawings on pages 8 to 11 and you will see four kinds of good snails that live in different places.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">22. You may be able to find one of these kinds of snails where you live. Notice that two of them are small and two of them are large.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">23. The smaller kinds of snails, shown on pages 8 and 9, can often be found in places where part of the year is warm and part of the year is cold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">24. The larger kinds of snails, shown on pages 10 and 11, can often be found in places where it is warm all year round.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64a.png"></center><br>
+ Helix pomatia</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of small snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can be found in places where part of the year is warm and part of the year is cold</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 weighs from 15 to 25 grams and measures from 40 to 50 millimetres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 has a strong shell which is pale brown and off- white</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in two to three years if it is well fed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from 30 to 50 eggs each growing season</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64b.png"></center><br>
+ Helix Pomatia - 30 to 50 small eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64c.png"></center><br>
+ Helix aspersa</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of small snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can often be found in places where part of the year is warm and part of the year is cold</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 weighs from 4 to 20 grams and measures from 30 to 45 millimetres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 has a weak shell with broken stripes which are light brown to black</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in one year if it is well fed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from 40 to 170 eggs one to three times each growing season</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p64d.png"></center><br>
+ Helix aspersa - 40 to 170 small eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65a.png"></center><br>
+ Achatina achatina</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of large snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can often be found in places where it is warm all year round</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 weighs from 150 to 200 grams or more and measures from 90 to 130 millimetres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 has a very strong brown shell</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in two years if it is well fed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from 100 to 300 eggs one to two times each growing season</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65b.png"></center><br>
+ Achatina achatina - 100 to 300 small eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65c.png"></center><br>
+ Archchatina marginata</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This kind of large snail</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 can often be found in places where it is warm all year round</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 weighs from 150 to 200 grams or more and measures from 90 to 130 millimetres</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 has a very strong brown shell</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 grows to full size in two years if it is well fed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 lays from five to ten eggs four to eight times each growing season</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p65d.png"></center><br>
+ Archchatina marginata - five to ten large eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">25. If you cannot get one of these snails, you may be able to get others very much like them where you live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">26. There are many other kinds of good snails. There may even be several kinds of good snails that are eaten where you live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">27. If snails are eaten where you live, you can farm one of these. Then you will be sure that it is good to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Where can you get snails?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">28. When you are ready to get snails, perhaps you can get them by gathering wild snails that live near you.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p66a.png"></center><br>
+ Gathering wild snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">29. Perhaps you can buy them from people who gather wild snails to sell to others.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p66b.png"></center><br>
+ Buying from one who gathers wild snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30. You may even be able to buy them from another snail farmer.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p66c.png"></center><br>
+ Buying from another snail farmer</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Never term snails that you buy at the market. Snails at the market may have been washed, kept too cold or hurt and they may die soon.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Where can you farm snails?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">31. A good place for a snail farm is one where there already are snails. If there already are snails, you will know that the soil and the water in the soil are right for snails to live and grow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">32. However, if there are no snails near where you live it does not mean that you cannot raise snails there.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">33. If you have the right kind of soil with the right amount of water, you can bring good snails from another place to start your snail farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The soil and the water in the soil</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">34. Soil is important for snails. Part of the time they live on the soil and part of the time they live in the soil, and to live well, snails need good soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p67a.png"></center><br>
+ Snail on the soil; Snail in the soil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">35. When snails are not on the soil or in the soil, they are on plants which grow in the soil. So, the soil must also be good for the kinds of plants that snails need.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p67b.png"></center><br>
+ Snail on plant</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">36. When snails are in the soil, they are resting or laying their eggs. If the soil has the right amount of water, snails will live well, the eggs they lay will hatch well and the baby snails will come out of the soil easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">37. Snails cannot live in hard soil such as heavy clay soils. When heavy clay soil is too dry, snails cannot dig into it to rest and lay their eggs. When heavy clay is too wet, snails and the eggs they lay may die.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">38. Snails cannot live in loose soil such as soils that have a lot of sand. Sandy soils do not hold enough water for snail eggs to hatch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">39. The drawings on the next page show how a snail digs a hole, lays its eggs, closes the hole and how the baby snails come out when they have hatched.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">40. Snails need calcium from the soil to make their shells. All snails grow better and have stronger shells when there is a lot of calcium in the soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">41. So, if you are going to farm snails, you must have a good medium soil that has neither too much clay nor too much sand. It must also have enough calcium and the right amount of water for your snails to live and grow.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you have a garden, you can easily tell if your soll is good for snails. If your green leafy vegetables grow well, snails will also grow well in the same kind of soil</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68a.png"></center><br>
+ Snails will grow well in a garden</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 snail digging a hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68b.png"></center><br>
+ 1 snail digging a hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 laying the eggs and closing the hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68c.png"></center><br>
+ Snail laying eggs</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 baby snails hatching and coming out of the hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p68d.png"></center><br>
+ Baby snails hatching and coming out of the hole</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Plants for food and plants for shelter</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">42. Snails need plants for both food and sheller. Most kinds of snails use several kinds for food and several other kinds for shelter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p69a.png"></center><br>
+ Plants for food and plants for shelter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">43. They may also use different plants for food and shelter at different times of the year. Sometimes during the growing season snails eat and find shelter on the same plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">44. Snails usually hide on shelter plants during the day when it is dry and move to food plants to eat at night or early in the morning when they are wet with dew. However, sometimes snails do eat during the day after it has rained.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">45. If you live in a place which has a season when plants do not grow, snails will dig into the soil to rest and they do not eat then.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">46. During the growing season snails will eat a lot and grow very fast if they have food plants that they like.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">47. So, before you begin you will have to find out exactly what plants they like to eat. To do this you will have to watch snails at night when they eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p69b.png"></center><br>
+ See what snails eat at night</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">48. You can tell that snails are eating when you see their heads moving as they scrape food into their mouths. You can also tell when a snail has been eating by the holes it makes in the leaves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p69c.png"></center><br>
+ Snail on leaf</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">49. You will also have to find out what plants they like for shelter. To do this you will have to watch snails during the day when they rest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p70a.png"></center><br>
+ See where snails rest during the day</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50. It is often difficult to find snails on shelter plants because they are hiding. So, you will have to look very carefully.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p70b.png"></center><br>
+ Snails are hiding on shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">51. In addition to the food plants, there are many other kinds of foods that you can put into a pen for your snails to eat. You will learn about these foods and when you should use them in the next booklet in this series.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Dew and rain</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">52. Dew at night in the growing season helps the plants to grow and makes the leaves and the ground wet so that snails can move about.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">53. Rain in the growing season also helps the plants to grow and it cleans the plants of dust and the dirt that snails leave when they move about. The dirt that snails leave may make them sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">54. So, it is very important that the food and shelter plants are wet and clean.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">55. When the leaves are wet, snails move easily, eat more and grow well. When the leaves are dry, snails move very little, or not at all, and they grow poorly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p70c.png"></center><br>
+ Wet leaves are good for snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">56. When it rains and the plants are clean, the snails will be healthy. When it does not rain and the plants are dirty, the snails may get sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">57. Dew and rain also keep the ground moist so that the snails can move easily and dig into it to rest and to lay their eggs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">58. In the next booklet, you will be told how to wet the leaves of plants and moisten the ground when it is too dry.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Land that is wet</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">59. Land that is very wet, low land that does not drain well or land that floods in the rainy season is not good for snail farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p71a.png"></center><br>
+ Low, wet land is bad for snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Wind</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60. Wind during the growing season is bad because it dries the dew and dries out the snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p71b.png"></center><br>
+ Wind is bad for snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">61. If you decide to farm snails, try to keep them in a place that is protected from the wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p71c.png"></center><br>
+ Snails should be farmed in a place protected from the wind</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Where do you keep snails when you farm them?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">62. If you decide to farm snails you must keep them in a pen. Snails kept in a well- built pen will not get away easily and you can watch them and take care of them well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">63. After the first year you will need at least two pens. If you decide to farm more snails you may want even more pens. You will learn how to use two or more pens in the next booklet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p72a.png"></center><br>
+ Two pens the second year</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">64. In each pen you can give your snails the right kinds of plants for them to eat and to use as shelter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">65. In each pen you can put the food and shelter plants near each other so that the snails can move easily from one to the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">66. Each pen you build must also keep the snails safe from their enemies. Snails have many enemies. You must be careful to protect them from</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> mice and rats</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> shrews and moles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> walking insects that live on the ground such as ants and beetles</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> slugs and other snails that eat snail meat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> birds that eat snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> frogs and toads</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> thieves</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p72b.png"></center><br>
+ Protect them from
+</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">67. A snail pen can be small or large depending on how many snails you want to raise. However, when you first begin, start with a small pen. You will need fewer materials. It will be easier to take care of.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">68. In addition, with a small pen you will need fewer snails to begin. When you know more about raising snails, you can build a bigger pen and get more snails to raise.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">69. A good size for a pen is 5 x 5 metres. Later in this booklet you will learn how to build a small pen of this size.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How many snails will you need when you first begin?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70. If you are using small snails like those you have seen on pages 8 and 9 in this booklet, you will need more snails to begin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">71. If you are using large snails like those you have seen on pages 10 and 11 in this booklet, you will need fewer snails to begin.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">72. With a pen of 5 x 5 metres (25 square metres) you will need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 150 snails if you use the small kind (6 for each square metre)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 25 snails if you use the large kind (1 for each square metre).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p73a.png"></center><br>
+ 150 small snails; 25 large snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How much snail meat can you expect to get?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">73. The amount of snail meat that you will get from small snails will be about the same as what you would get from large snails. This is because you will use many more small snails than large snails and the meat will be about equal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">74. With one 5 x 5 metre pen you will get 12 to 13 kilograms of snail meat each year and with two 5 x 5 metre pens you will get 24 to 26 kilograms each year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p73b.png"></center><br>
+ 12 to 13 kilograms each year; 24 to 26 kilograms each year</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Now you must decide</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">75. In the first part of this booklet you have learned many things about snails and farming snails. You have learned</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> why it is good to farm snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> what you need to farm snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> what kinds of snails you can farm</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> how to find plants near you that are good for food and shelter</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> what kind of soil and how much water in the soil snails need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> where to keep snails and how many you need to start</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">76. You may also have been able to learn a lot about snails by watching the wild snails near where you live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">77. An old farmer may have told you what he knows about snails. Someone who gathers snails to sell to others or another snail farmer may have helped you to learn.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">78. So, now that you know a lot about snails it is time to decide if you would like to start your own snail farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">79. If you would like to begin you will learn exactly what to do in the rest of this booklet and in the next booklet.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How to begin</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Choose a place on your land to put your snail farm</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">80. Try to choose a place that is close to your house. That way you will be able to watch your snails, protect them from their enemies and take care of them easily</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p74a.png"></center><br>
+ Close to your house</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">81. In Items 34 to 41 you were told that to farm snails you must have the right kind of soil with the right amount of water.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">82. Remember, if green leafy vegetables grow well in your soil, snails will also grow well in the same kind of soil.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p74b.png"></center><br>
+ If your garden grows well, so will your snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">83. In Items 59 to 61 you were told that low, wet land and wind are bad for snails. So, avoid low, wet places and try to put your snail farm where it is protected from the wind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p75a.png"></center><br>
+ Avoid low, wet land; Find a place protected from wind</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">84. In Item 63 you were told that after the first year you will need at least two pens and later you may want even more. In Item 69 you were told that it is best to start with a small pen of 5 x 5 metres.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">85. So, try to find a place where you can put at least two or three 5 x 5 metre pens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p75b.png"></center><br>
+ two or three 5 x 5 metre pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Clean the site and prepare the ground</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">86. Clean the site and prepare the ground a little before the growing season so that you can build the pen in time to plant the food and shelter plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">87. First, mark out a square of 8 x 8 metres on the place that you have chosen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p75c.png"></center><br>
+ Mark and clear the 8 x 8 metre square</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">88. That way, with a pen of 5 x 5 metres in the centre of the square, you will have a path of 1.5 metres all the way around it (see Item 92). If you have enough land, the path can be even wider.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">89. Clear the square of trees, bushes grass, creeping grass and weeds. Take away all of the roots and the big stones that you can.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p76a.png"></center><br>
+ Take away roots and big stones</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90. Spread the plant material that you have cleaned evenly on the ground and cover the whole square. If there is not enough, bring more plant material from another place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p76b.png"></center><br>
+ Cover the square with plant materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">91. When the plant material is dry, burn it. This will kill the insects, the weed seeds and the roots of creeping grass, and rid the ground of mice, rats and shrews.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p76c.png"></center><br>
+ Burn the plant materials</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Insecticides and poisons can also be used to rid your pen of insects, mice, rats and other enemies of snails. However, if you use them, do not use them by yourself because they are very dangerous. Ask someone who knows how to use them, such as your extension agent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">92. Now mark out a smaller square of 5 x 5 metres inside the big square. This is for your first snail pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p77a.png"></center><br>
+ Mark the 5 x 5 metre square</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">93. Dig the ground in the smaller square to a depth of 20 centimetres and turn it over well. As you dig, remove any rubbish or roots that you find.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p77b.png"></center><br>
+ Dig in the ground</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">94. While you are digging, if you see any more insects or any of the enemies of snails, bring more dry plant material and burn the ground again. To farm snails, the area must be free of insects, mice, rats and other enemies.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">95. When you have finished digging, the ground in the 5 x 5 metre square should be as smooth and well worked as it would be if you were planting a vegetable garden.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p77c.png"></center><br>
+ The 5 x 5 metre square should be smooth</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">96. However, do not use any fertilizer, animal manure or compost as you might with a vegetable garden. Fertilizers may burn the snails and animal manure or compost may bring in insects and weed seeds.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Building a pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">97. Build a pen for your snails as soon as you can after you have burned the plant material. This is to keep other insects, mice, rats or shrews from getting into your pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">98. A snail pen is a simple fenced- in area and you can build a fence using</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> corrugated sheet metal or plastic sheets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> woven plant material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> woven plant material with chicken wire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p78a.png"></center><br>
+ Materials for fence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using corrugated sheet metal or plastic sheets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">99. A fence of corrugated sheet metal or plastic sheets makes the best pen for snails because it keeps out their enemies very well. However, sheet metal or plastic costs a lot of money.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p78b.png"></center><br>
+ A fence of corrugated sheet metal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">100. If you are going to build a pen using corrugated metal or plastic, you must build it in such a way that the enemies of snails cannot get in between the sheets.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using woven plant material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">101. To save money, you can build a fence of woven plant material such as split bamboo. If the woven material is tight, it will keep out enough of enemies for you to farm snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79a.png"></center><br>
+ Woven material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Using woven plant material with chicken wire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">102. If you can get fine- mesh chicken wire, you can improve a fence that is made of woven material.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79b.png"></center><br>
+ Chicken wire</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">103. To do this, first make the fence of chicken wire and then cover it with woven material.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79c.png"></center><br>
+ First use chicken wire then cover it with woven material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">104. The chicken wire will keep out rats and other small animals. The woven plant material will keep most of the insects out and keep the snails in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p79d.png"></center><br>
+ Keep out small animals</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">With any kind of pen animals such as rats may get in, and this is especially true with pens made only of woven plant material. So, you must always watch for rats and other animals and keep them out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">How to build the fence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">105. Build the fence as you would any fence, by driving posts into the ground. Use posts 1.40 metres long. When the posts are in place they should be 1.00 metre above and 0.40 metre below the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p80a.png"></center><br>
+ Drive posts into the ground</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">106. Whatever material you use for the fence of your pen, it should be buried 0.40 metre below the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">107. If you are using woven material you will have to change the bottom of the fence when it rots.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">108. This can be done more easily by making the woven material in two parts, one for the top and one for the bottom. When the bottom part rots, you can change it without having to change the whole fence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p80b.png"></center><br>
+ Attach top parts first; attach bottom parts second</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Keeping your snails in the pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">109. Many of your snails may crawl over the fence and get out of the pen. If you build a flap on the inside at the top of the fence, it will be more difficult for your snails to get out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">110. However, even with a flap some snails may get out, and for this reason many snail farmers put two flaps on their fence. With two flaps they find that fewer snails get out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p81a.png"></center><br>
+ With two flaps, your snails will not easily crawl out of the pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If you make your pen using galvanized sheet metal, you will not need flaps. Snails will not crawl on galvanized sheet metal.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">111. The drawings show you how to build a 5 x 5 metre pen using woven plant material, with and without chicken wire and how to build flaps to keep your snails in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p81b.png"></center><br>
+ How to build a 5 x 5 metre small pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 if you are using woven material only, attach it as you were told to do in Item 108</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82a.png"></center><br>
+ Attach woven material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 If you are using chicken wire and woven material, attach the chicken wire first and then the woven material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82b.png"></center><br>
+ Attach the chicken material first</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 be sure that the fence cover goes all the way to the bottom of the 0.40- m trench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82c.png"></center><br>
+ 0.40- m trench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6 fill in the trench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p82d.png"></center><br>
+ Fill in the trench</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7 attach the flaps to the inside of the pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: use woven material 0.25 m wide for the flaps</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8 first attach the bottom flap using heavy cord</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p83a.png"></center><br>
+ Use heavy cord</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9 then attach the top flap</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Plant the food and shelter plants</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">112. You have already been told that you should clean and prepare the site and build your snail pen in time for the planting season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">113. If it has been only a short time since you dug the ground and worked the soil in your pen, you can begin to plant.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">114. If it has been a long time, dig and work the soil again before you plant. However, as you were told in Item 96, do not use fertilizer, animal manure or compost.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">115. Now you can begin to plant the food and shelter plants. Remember that you should use</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> plants that grow well where you live</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> plants that last a long time</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> plants that snails like</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">116. The drawings, show you two ways to plant food and shelter plants in a 5 x 5 metre pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">117. On pages 50 to 55 you will see some food and shelter plants that snails are known to like. Look at them carefully. Perhaps you can find some of them where you live.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two ways plant food and shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 if your shelter plants are small, plant your pen like this</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84a.png"></center><br>
+ Mark three places for small shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 plant the shelter plants first and then plant the food plants all around the shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84b.png"></center><br>
+ First plant the shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 if your shelter plants are large, plant your pen like this</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84c.png"></center><br>
+ Mark only one place for large shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 plant the shelter plants first and then plant the food plants all around the shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p84d.png"></center><br>
+ Leave a path inside the fence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">RAMPE</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p85a.png"></center><br>
+ Some plants for food</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rape is one of many kinds of smooth- leaved cabbage. It grows from seed and lasts a number of months. Rape is the best food plant for Helix snails (see pages 8 and 9 in this booklet). Many of the other kinds of smooth- leaved cabbage also make good food plants for snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p85b.png"></center><br>
+ Rape</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AFRICAN SPINACH (Amaranthus)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This green leafy vegetable is a good food plant for young Achatina and Archachatina snails. However, if you plant African spinach for your snails, they will need other kinds of food plants as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p85c.png"></center><br>
+ African spinach</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PAPAYA</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You have already been told that snails can be given food to eat other than the food plants that you have planted in the pen (see also Items 175 to 179 in the next booklet). The tender green leaves and cut- up fruit of the papaya tree are very good for Achatina and Archachatina snails. However, the papaya should not be planted inside the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p86a.png"></center><br>
+ Papaya</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HORSE- RADISH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Horse- radish is a good food and shelter plant for young Helix snails. However, when they are older they will need other kinds of food plants as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p86b.png"></center><br>
+ Horse- Radish</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">LEAF BEET</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leaf beet grows well from seed and lives for one year. It can be used with He/ix snails for both food and for shelter. As a food plant alone it is not the best and you will have to give your snails other food plants as well. However, as a shelter plant it is very good for Helix snails. These snails lay eggs under the beet plants and find shelter around the roots in cold weather.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p86c.png"></center><br>
+ Leaf Beet</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BURDOCK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Burdock grows from seed and lives for more than a year. It grows very slowly and you should plant it as soon as you can so that it can grow big enough for your snails. However, once it has grown it makes a good food and shelter plant for almost any kind of snail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p87a.png"></center><br>
+ Burdock</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BANANA and LOOFAH</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Banana and loofah plants together provide both food and shelter for Achatina and Archachatina snails. Ripe bananas can be cut up and fed to the snails and they can use the loofah plant for food and for shelter. However, your snails will need other food plants as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p87b.png"></center><br>
+ Banana and Loofah</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">PLANTAGO</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Plantago grows well from seed and lasts about two years. It is the best shelter plant for Helix snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p87c.png"></center><br>
+ Plantago</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ASPARAGUS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Asparagus lives for many years and it is a good shelter plant for young Achatina and Archachatina snails. However, it is not good for older snails because they are too heavy for asparagus plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When are the plants big enough for food and for shelter?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">118. The food plants must be big enough to feed your snails and the shelter plants tall enough to cover them and to protect them from the sun.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">119. Depending on the kind of snails that you are raising, most plants will be big enough after they have been growing for about five to six weeks or when they have reached a height of 10 to 20 centimetres.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f33p88a.png"></center><br>
+ Plants will grow to a height of 10 to 20 cm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">120. When you are sure that the plants are big enough to provide food and shelter, you can begin to collect the snails and put them into the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">121. In Booklet No. 34, Farming snails 2, you will learn</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> how to choose good snails and how to put them in the pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> how to take care of your snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when and how to harvest snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> how to prepare snails for cooking</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">122. You will also be told some things that you can do to improve your snail farm so that later when you have more experience you can raise more and better snails.</P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/fb33fe/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/fb33fe/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/fb33fe/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
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+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Farming snails 1: Learning about snails; Building a pen; Food and shelter plants (fb33fe)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Agriculture and Food Processing|Better Farming series of FAO and INADES - 46 booklets</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Settlements, Housing, Building - Infrastructure Construction (Roads etc)|Settlements and housing: general works incl. low- cost housing, planning techniques, surveying, etc.</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">FAO Better Farming series</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/fb34fe/fb34fe.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/fb34fe/fb34fe.htm	(revision 21010)
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@@ -0,0 +1,672 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Farming snails 2: Choosing snails; Care and harvesting; Further improvement</TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT FACE="Arial" SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Farming snails 2: Choosing snails; Care and harvesting; Further improvement</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rome 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">P-69</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISBN 92-5-102397-2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&copy; FAO 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preface</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first twenty- six volumes in FAO's Better Farming Series were based on the Cours d'apprentissage agricole prepared in C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire by the Institut africain de d&eacute;veloppement &eacute;conomique et social for use by extension workers. Later volumes, beginning with No. 27, have been prepared by FAO for use in agricultural development at the farm and family level. The approach has deliberately been a general one, the intention being to constitute basic prototype outlines to be modified or expanded in each area according to local conditions of agriculture.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many of the booklets deal with specific crops and techniques, while others are intended to give the farmer more general information which can help him to understand why he does what he does, so that he will be able to do it better. Booklets No. 33 and 34 were added to the series owing to a growing interest in small- scale snail farming for food and profit in many countries where FAO's Better Farming Series is widely used.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adaptations of the series, or of individual volumes in it, have been published in Amharic, Arabic, Bengali, Creole, Hindi, Igala, Indonesian, Kiswahili, Malagasy, SiSwati, Thai and Turkish.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Requests for permission to issue this manual in other languages and to adapt it according to local climatic and ecological conditions are welcomed. They should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">The snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Choosing your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">123. All of the snails that you choose for your pen must be of the same kind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p093a.png"></center><br>
+ All of the snails that you farm must be the same kind</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">124. You may have found one of the kinds of snails shown on pages 8 to 11 in the last booklet living in your area. You may also have found a different kind of snail.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">125. Now you must learn to choose the beat of the kinds of snails that you have found. When you first begin you will need fully grown snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">126. Remember, that all snails are both male and female and all snails lay eggs. So, when you are looking for snails, you can choose any one that is fully grown.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">127. You can tell that a snail is fully grown because it has a lip on the mouth of its shell. The drawings below show two fully grown snails with lips.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p094a.png"></center><br>
+ Snails which fill and which does not fill their cells</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">128. Look at the drawings again. Notice that although both snails are fully grown, one of them fills its shell and one of them does not.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">129. The snail that does not fill its shell may be sick or it may have lost its water because of dry weather. This snail may not grow well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">130. Choose only snails that fill their shells. Snails that fill their shells will usually grow well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">131. Choose snails that have good, strong shells. Strong shells protect snails from their enemies, and snails with strong shells sell better at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">132. Choose the largest of the fully grown snails that you can find from the kind of snail that you are going to farm.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p094b.png"></center><br>
+ Choose the largest snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">133. The larger snails of any kind of snail will be better and healthier and lay more eggs than a snail that is smaller.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">134. In addition, the eggs of large, healthy snails hatch better and the baby snails grow bigger and faster.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">135. Later, when you have more experience in choosing snails, you will learn just how large a fully grown snail should be. You will also learn the different colours of the kind of snail that you are farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">136. Then you can choose snails that are the same size and colour that you want your baby snails to be.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As you collect your snails, handle them very gently and put them carefully into a container such as a basket so that you can carry them to the pen without hurting them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p095a.png"></center><br>
+ Handle your snails carefully</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Putting your snails in the pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">137. Just before you put your snails in the pen, take out all the grass, the creeping grass and the weeds that may have grown while the food and shelter plants were growing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p095b.png"></center><br>
+ Take out all grass, creeping grass and weeds</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">138. Never put snails in a pen in the morning or during the day when the sun is hot. Always put them in the evening when it is cool. This is when they begin to move about and to eat.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p095c.png"></center><br>
+ Always put snacks in the pen in the evening</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">139. If there is no dew and leaves of the plants and the ground are dry, wet them. Items 160 to 165 in this booklet will tell you how.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p096a.png"></center><br>
+ Wet the plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">140. When you put snails in the pen, put an equal number of them in four different places.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">141. In the last booklet you were told that for a 5 x 5 metre pen you would need 150 snails if you use the small kind, and 25 snails if you use the large kind. So, if you need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 150 snails, put 35 to 40 snails in four places</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> 25 snails, put 6 snails in three places and 7 snails in one place.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">142. The arrows in the drawing at the top of the next page will show you where to put snails in a 5 x 5 metre pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p096b.png"></center><br>
+ Where to put the snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When you put snails in a pen, never put them near the fence or in a corner of the fence. If you put them near the fence it is easier for them to get out than it is if you put them near the centre of the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p096c.png"></center><br>
+ Do not put snails in the corner or near the fence</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">143. The morning after you have put your snails in the pen, look to see that they have all moved. If any of them have not moved, put them under shelter plants.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">144. If any snails die, take them out and put in the same number of new snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p097a.png"></center><br>
+ Take out the dead snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">145. At first your snails will try to crawl out of the pen. During this time, go around the pen each morning and put them back.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">146. After about two weeks your snails will become used to their new home and most of them will not try to crawl out.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">147. However, it is a good idea, even after the first two weeks, to check from time to time and put back any of the snails that may have got out of the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When to take out the fully grown snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">148. When you see a lot of baby snails in your pen, you will no longer need to keep the fully grown snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">149. So, take out all of the fully grown snails that you first put into your pen. You can either eat them or sell them at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p097b.png"></center><br>
+ Take out all fully grown snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">150. Now, with only the baby snails left, the food plants in the pen will be more likely to last until the baby snails are big enough to harvest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">151. Later in this booklet, you will be told when the baby snails are big enough to harvest and how to harvest them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Taking care of your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">152. After you have put your snails in their pen, watch them carefully to see that they are eating well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">153. If you have given them enough of the right kinds of food plants, they will eat a lot and you will have very little to do for them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">154. However, here are some things that you must do</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> wet the plants and moisten the ground</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> take care of the plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> take away the weeds and the creeping grass</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></DIR>
+
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Wet the food and shelter plants and moisten the ground</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">155. You have already been told that the leaves of the food and shelter plants must be wet and clean and that the ground must be moist (see Items 52 to 58 in the last booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">156. If there is too lime dew and not enough rainfall during the time when the plants and the snails are growing, you will have to water the plants and the ground yourself.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">157. If it is dry, you should water the plants and the ground at least every second day. However, if it is very dry, you may have to water them every day.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">158. Never water in the morning or during the day when the sun is hot. Always water in the evening at about sunset.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">159. If you water when the sun is hot, the snails will begin to move away from the shelter plants and the hot sun may kill them before they can find shelter again.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">160. An easy way to wet the plants and moisten the ground is by hand. First fill a bucket with water and wrap a piece of cloth around your hand.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p098a.png"></center><br>
+ Wrap a cloth around your hand</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">161. Then, dip your hand with the cloth into the bucket of water and gently splash the plants and the ground.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p099a.png"></center><br>
+ Gently splash plants and ground</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">162. Continue to splash the plants and the ground gently until you have watered the whole pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">163. When you have finished, the leaves of the plants should be wet and the ground should be moist.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">164. You can tell when the plants are wet enough and the ground is moist enough when you can see your snails moving about easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p099b.png"></center><br>
+ Snails move about easily</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">165. Remember: the soil must be moist and not wet in order for snail eggs to hatch.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">You have already been told that if you live in a place that has a dry season when the plants do not grow, snails dig into the ground to rest. Never water at this time or your snails may come out of the ground when they should not.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Tend the food and shelter plants</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">166. Watch all of your plants to see that they are growing well and that they do not get too tall or too thick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">167. Plants that are too tall or thick stop the dew from reaching the leaves and stop the rain from washing away the dust and the dirt that snails leave when they move about.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">168. If you see that the plants are not being wet or washed by dew or rain, cut them back.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p101a.png"></center><br>
+ Cut back the plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Take away the weeds and creeping grass</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">169. After your snails are in their pen you must be sure to take away all weeds and especially creeping grass as soon as you see them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">170. Creeping grass grows very fast and so thick that it can kill the food and shelter plants. If this happens, your snails will have no food and no place to find shelter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">171. Taking away weeds and creeping grass when snails are in the pen is very difficult. So, you must be very careful not to hurt them or step on them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">172. If the weeds and creeping grass get too thick, it may be better to move the snails before you take weeds and creeping grass away (see Item 183 in this booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">173. Keep the path around the pen clear of weeds, grass and creeping grass. This will help to keep weed seeds and unwanted plants out of the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p101b.png"></center><br>
+ Keep the path clean</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">174. If the path is clean, insects will be less likely to cross it to get into the pen and you will be able to see signs of mice, rats and shrews.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Feeding your snails other kinds of food</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">175. There are a number of reasons for giving your snails other kinds of food. Here are a few</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when you have not planted the right kinds of food plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when you have too many snails for the number of food plants that you have planted</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> when most of the food plants in the pen have been eaten by the snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">176. If you decide for any of these reasons that you must give your snails other kinds of food, here are some foods that snails like to eat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the outside leaves of vegetables such as cabbage or cauliflower</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> the tops of vegetables such as carrots or beets</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> ripe banana fruit</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> most waste fruit and vegetables</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> cut- up papaya, melon or squash</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p102a.png"></center><br>
+ Food snails eat</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">177. There are many other foods that snails like to eat. If you have some food that you think might be good, try it with your snails and see if they like it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">178. If your snails are not eating their food plants well, you also can try some others. Cut pieces from the plant that you want to try and put them in the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">179. If you see that your snails like the new food plants better, you can use these plants when you build the second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Building the second pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">180. In the last booklet you were told that to farm snails you will need at least two pens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p103a.png"></center><br>
+ Two pens needed</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">181 . With two pens you can move your snails from one pen to the other to get rid of any enemies that may have got in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">182. You can also move your snails to dig the ground and work the soil so that they can dig into the soil to rest and can lay their eggs easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">183. With two pens you can move your snails from one pen to the other if the weeds and creeping grass get too thick to take away with snails in the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">184. You can also plant new food plants when the old ones have been eaten. When you are moving the snails, you can get rid of any of them that have not grown well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When to build the second pen and how to build it</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">185. Build your second pen a little before the growing season and exactly one year after you built the first pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">186. Begin just as you did before, by cleaning and preparing the ground (see Items 86 to 96 in the last booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">187. However, if you put your second pen near your first pen, be very careful when you burn the plant material not to burn your first pen or harm the snails in it.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">188. For this reason it is best to leave an open space of at least 3 metres between your first and second pens.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p103b.png"></center><br>
+ Be very carefull when you burn the plant material</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">189. Now you are ready to build the second 5 x 5 metre pen and to plant the food and shelter plants (see Items 97 to 117 in the last booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Putting snails in your second pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">190. When the plants in your second pen have grown big enough to provide food and shelter, you can put in the snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p104a.png"></center><br>
+ When the plants are grown, you can bring the snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">191. If the snails in your first pen have grown well, you can use some of them for your second pen. So, collect the right number of the biggest and best snails from your first pen to put in your second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">192. If the snails in your first pen have not grown well, you will have to begin again with new fully grown snails for your second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">193. Remember, with your first pen you put in 150 snails if you used the small kind and 25 snails if you used the large kind.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">194. However, different snails lay different amounts of eggs. So with your second pen you may want to change the number of snails that you put in.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">195. If there were too many baby snails for the food plants in your first pen, put fewer fully grown snails in your second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">196. If there were too few baby snails for the food plants in your first pen, put more fully grown snails in your second pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">197. If you are not sure how many snails to use, it is best to continue to put in 150 if you use small snails and 25 if you use large snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p104b.png"></center><br>
+ 25 Large snails; 150 small snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">198. Later, when you have learned more about the kind of snails that you are using and how many baby snails they have, you will be better able to judge just how many fully grown snails that you should use.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Do not forget to take out all of the fully grown snails that you have put in after you see a lot of baby snails in your second pen (see Items 148 to 151 in this booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Harvesting your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER">&nbsp;</P>
+<P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">When to harvest your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">199. If your snails have grown well, some of them will be big enough to harvest about one year after you have first put snails in the pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">200. If you need any snails to put in another pen, collect them first. So, choose the right number (see Items 193 to 198 in this booklet) of the biggest and best snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">201. Carefully put these snails into a container so that you can carry them to the other pen without hurting them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p105a.png"></center><br>
+ Put snails into a container</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">202. Now you are ready to harvest the rest of your biggest snails. Remember, the best way to harvest is a few snails at a time when you want some to eat or to sell at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">203. However, harvest all of the snails by the end of the second year so that you can plant the pen in time for the next growing season.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">How to harvest your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">204. Harvesting snails is done by hand. It is often hard work to find them because they may be hiding.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p105b.png"></center><br>
+ Harvesting snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">205. The easiest time to find the snails is when the plants are wet, after it has rained or at night when there is dew and they are moving about or eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">206. You can also put out some of the food that snails like and when they come to eat it, you can collect them easily.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p105c.png"></center><br>
+ Put out some food</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">207. When you are harvesting, handle your snails carefully and put them into a container such as a box or basket or a net sack. However, do not put more than 10 kilograms in a container or you may hurt them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106a.png"></center><br>
+ Put snails in a container</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">What to do with the snails you harvest</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">208. If you are going to sell the snails, you can carry them to the market in containers like the ones above. However, you must be very careful not to hurt them or break their shells.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">209. Remember, snails with clean shells and well- cared- for snails will sell better at the market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">210. If you want to keep the snails for you and your family to eat later, you can store them alive in containers filled with material such as sawdust or chopped maize husks.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">211. That way you can keep them for as long as six to eight weeks before you use them. The drawings below show you how to store snails this way.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1 a box is a good container to store snails in</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106b.png"></center><br>
+ A box</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2 cover the bottom of the box with about 5 cm of sawdust or chopped maize husks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106c.png"></center><br>
+ Cover the bottom of the box with sawdust</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3 carefully put in a layer of snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4 cover the snails with about 3 cm of sawdust or chopped maize husks</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p106d.png"></center><br>
+ Cover the snails</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5 continue to do this until the box is full</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: be sure that the top layer of snails is covered</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Preparing snails for cooking</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">212. Before snails can be used you must be sure that there is no food in them. They must be clean inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">213. Snails that have been stored in a container (see Items 210 and 211 in this booklet) for more than four days will have no food left in them. They are clean inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">214. However, snails which have just been taken from the pen have been eating and are usually full of food.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">215. So, before you can use them you must wait for them to become clean inside. To do this you need only to keep them from eating.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">216. Put them in a container where they can get no food but plenty of air. You can use a covered basket or a net sack.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p107a.png"></center><br>
+ Use a covered basket or a net sack</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">217. Put the basket or sack in a cool place away from the sun. After four days the snails will be clean inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p107b.png"></center><br>
+ Put the container away from sun</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">218. All snails must be washed and boiled just before cooking them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">219. First, put them in clean, cool water with a little salt and vinegar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p107c.png"></center><br>
+ Put them in clean water</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">220. After a short time the water will begin 10 turn white and you will know that the snails are being washed inside.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">221. When the water is very white, take the snails out and empty out the old water. Then put them again in clean, cool water with a little salt and vinegar.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p108a.png"></center><br>
+ Empty out dirty water; wash snails again</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">222. Continue to wash them this way until the water no longer turns white. Then you will know that the snails are completely washed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">223. Now put the snails in boiling water, again with salt and vinegar, and boil them at least five minutes. The snails are now ready to be cooked.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p108b.png"></center><br>
+ Boil snails with salt and vinegar for five minutes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Snail meat can be cooked like any meat or it can be cut into pieces and added to a stew or vegetables. If snails are eaten where you live, there will be many ways to cook them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Further improvement</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">224. After you have been farming snails using two pens for some time, you may find that you and your family could eat or sell more snails if you had them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">225. You can raise more snails by building another pen. You can either build another 5 x 5 metre pen or you can build a still bigger pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">226. You can also raise more snails by taking better care of the snails that you have. If you take better care of your snails, year after year they will become bigger, healthier and stronger and produce more baby snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Building the third pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">227. Perhaps the most important thing that you can do to improve your snail farm is to build a third pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p109a.png"></center><br>
+ Build a third pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">228. Up until now, using only two pens, you have had to use both of them all of the time so that you could take fully grown snails from one after you had harvested the other.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p109b.png"></center><br>
+ Using two pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">229. Today, farmers know that it is not good to grow the same crops in the same place all of the time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">230. This is also true if you grow the same food and shelter plants in the same pen all of the time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">231. However, if you plant vegetables in one of your three pens for a year, the vegetables will grow well because of the snail manure in the soil. Afterwards, your food and shelter plants will also grow better because the soil has had a rest.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">232. Also, if you raise snails in the same place all of the time, the sicknesses that they may get would do more harm year after year.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">233. So, if you plant something else for a year or two and then start with snails again, they will be less likely to get sick.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">234. The diagram below shows you how to improve a snail farm by planting a vegetable garden in each pen from to time.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p110a.png"></center><br>
+ Diagram</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Building a bigger pen</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">235. You may want to build a still bigger pen for your third pen so you can grow many more snails.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">236. If you build a 5 x 10 metre pen, you can grow two times as many snails. If you build a 10 x 10 metre pen, you can grow four times as many snails as you did in a 5 x 5 metre pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p110b.png"></center><br>
+ Pens</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">237. However, building a bigger pen is a lot more work and you will need</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P><DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> more land</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> more materials to build it</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> more food and shelter plants</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> more fully grown snails to begin</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></DIR>
+
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">238. You must also be sure that you and your family have enough time to take care of a bigger pen.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">239. If you do decide to build a bigger pen, build it exactly the same way that you built your first 5 x 5 metre pen (see pages 43 to 46 in the last booklet).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p111a.png"></center><br>
+ Building a bigger pen</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Taking better care of your snails</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">240. The better you understand the snails that you are farming, the better you can take care of them. So, you should always watch them and learn as much as you can.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">241. When you have learned the exact kinds of food plants that your snails like to eat, you will see that they grow well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">242. Then, if you always choose the biggest and best snails each time you begin, you will improve the quality of the snails that you are farming.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">243. So, with bigger and better snails and with more pens or bigger pens, you will be able to raise many more snails to eat or to sell and you arid your family will be able to live better.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="f34p111b.png"></center><br>
+ Your family will be able to live better</P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/fb34fe/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/fb34fe/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/fb34fe/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Farming snails 2: Choosing snails; Care and harvesting; Further improvement (fb34fe)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Agriculture and Food Processing|Better Farming series of FAO and INADES - 46 booklets</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Settlements, Housing, Building - Infrastructure Construction (Roads etc)|Settlements and housing: general works incl. low- cost housing, planning techniques, surveying, etc.</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">FAO Better Farming series</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">farm snails</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/wb34te/metadata.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/wb34te/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/wb34te/metadata.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE DirectoryMetadata SYSTEM "http://greenstone.org/dtd/DirectoryMetadata/1.0/DirectoryMetadata.dtd">
+<DirectoryMetadata>
+    <FileSet>
+        <FileName>.*</FileName>
+        <Description>
+            <Metadata name="dls.Title">Development in practice: Toward Gender Equality (wb34te)</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Language">English</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Subject">Women, gender and development, women&apos;s organizations</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Organization">World Bank</Metadata>
+            <Metadata mode="accumulate" name="dls.Keyword">achieve gender equality</Metadata>
+        </Description>
+    </FileSet>
+</DirectoryMetadata>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/wb34te/wb34te.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/wb34te/wb34te.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/import/wb34te/wb34te.htm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1910 @@
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=windows-1252">
+<META NAME="Generator" CONTENT="Microsoft Word 97">
+<TITLE>&lt;&lt;TOC1&gt;&gt; Development in practice: Toward Gender Equality </TITLE>
+</HEAD>
+<BODY>
+
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Development in practice: Toward Gender Equality</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Role of Public Policy</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">@ 1995 The Intentional Bank for Reconstruction and Development / THE WORLD BANK</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing July 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Development in Practice series publishes reviews of the World Bank's activities in different regions and sectors. It lays particular emphasis on the progress that is being made and on the policies and practices that hold the most promise of success in the effort to reduce poverty in the developing world.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This book is a product of the staff of the World Bank. and the judgments made herein, do not necessarily reflect the views of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Photo credits: Maurice Asseo</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Library of Congers Cataloging-in-Publication Data</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toward gender equality: the role of public policy.  p. cm-(Development in practice)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Includes bibliographer references (p. 70)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ISBN 0-8213-3337-2</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Women-Government policy. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Women's rights. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. Sex discrimination against women. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Series:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Development in practice (Washington. D.C.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HQ 1 236.T68; 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">305.4-dc20 95-631</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">CIP</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Foreword</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">TWENTY years ago in Mexico the First World Conference on Women inspired a movement that has helped to reduce gender inequality worldwide. Illiteracy among women is declining, maternal mortality and total fertility rates are beginning to fall. and more women are participating in the labor force than ever before. However. much remains to be done.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In low-income countries women are often denied health care and basic education. Worldwide. women face limited access to financial services, technology. and infrastructure. They are locked into relatively low-productivity work. In addition to performing household tasks and child-rearing duties, women work longer hours for lower pay than most men. And. most discouraging of all. hundreds of thousands of women each year are subject to gender-related violence.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Persistent inequality between women and men constrains a society's productivity and, ultimately slows its rate of economic growth. Although this problem has been generally recognized evidence on the need for corrective action is more controlling today than ever.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report written for the Fourth World Conference on Women is intended as a reference to strategies for promoting gender equality and. consequently enhancing economic efficiency. It pulls together evidence, including case studies, that demonstrates the need for governor action to improve the economic status of women. It points out how public policy can and should support services and infrastructure that provide the highest social returns and that are most heavily used by women. The report also aims to stimulate creative solutions to the problem of gender inequality by high lilting innovative and sometimes not obvious strategies that have proved successful. A study in Morocco, for instance, shows that paving public roads to schools increases by 40 percent the probability that local girls will attend classes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy reform that provides an enabling environment for economic growth goes hand in hand with investing in people. The success of one strategy draws on the success of the other. No efforts at gender equality. however, can be successful without the participation of women themselves.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As the international community gathers in Beijing for the Fourth World Conference on Women, the World Bank stands ready to assist client governments in response to the challenges ahead. The Bank believes that by advancing gender equality, governments can greatly enhance the future well-being and prosperity of their people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Armeane M. Choksi Vice President Human Capital Development and Operations Policy The World Bank</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Acknowledgments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THIS REPORT was prepared by a team led by Kei Kawabata and comprising Alison Evans, Zafiris Tzannatos. Tara Vishwanath, and Rekha Menon. The work was carried out under the direction of Minh Chau Nguyen and the overall guidance of K. Y. Amoako. Valuable contributions were made by Joyce Cacho, Lionel Demery, Shahid Khandker, and Kalanidhi Subbarao.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Background papers for the report were prepared by team members and by Anjana Bhushan; Lynn Brown and Lawrence Haddad; Florencia Castro-Leal, with Ignacio Tavares and Ramon Lopez; Roberta Cohen; Monica Fong: Roger Key, with Beverly Mullings; Andrew Mason; and Veena Siddharth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">An external review group and a Bankwide advisory committee provided valuable guidance at all stages of the report's preparation. Kalpana Bardhan. Pranab Bardhan, Nancy Folbre. and T. Paul Schultz were the external reviewers. Harold Aldennan, Jean-Jacques Dethier, Louise Fox, Sunita Gandhi, Chris Grootaert, Jeffrey Hammer, Tariq Husahl, Elizabeth King, Augusta Molnar, Helena Ribe, and Paula Valad made up the advisory committee. The report was edited by Jo Bischoff, Richard M. Crum, and Fiona Mackintosh; Benjamin Crow provided word-processing and graphics support.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The report also reflects the contributions of the participants in consultations held with nongovenamental organizations on March 1S, 1995, in New York. Data supplied by the United Nations and its agencies. particularly the International Labour Organization, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Statistical Office, and the World Health Organization, were invaluable for the preparation of the report.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The production of the report was made possible by the assistance of the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which has given unwavering support to the protnotion of gender equality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Definitions and Data Notes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Definitions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Expected number of years of formal schooling The total number of years of schooling that a child of a certain age can expect to receive if current enrollment patterns remain unchanged.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Literacy rate. The proportion of the adult population that can read or write. This indicator is not always accurate because it is self-reported and represents past investments in schooling. It is often defined only with respect to selected languages and may not take into account the progress being made in many countries through literacy campaigns.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Life expectancy AT BIRTH The number of years a newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of birth were to remain unchanged throughout the child's life.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maternal mortality ratio. The number of women who die in pregnancy and childbirth per 100,000 live births: A measure of the risk that women face of dying from pregnancy-related causes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Data Notes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless otherwise specified, dollar amounts are current U.S. dollars. A billion is a thousand million.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The data used in this report cover a range of time periods and are from more than 100 countries (both developing and industrial).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unless otherwise specified, geographic regions are those used by the World Bank in its analytical and operational work and are defined as follows:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">sub-Saharan  Africa countries south of the Sahara except Africa.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">East Asia and the Pacific: low- and middle-income economies of East and Southeast Asia and the Pacific.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Europe and Central Asia. middle-income European countries and the countries that formed the former Soviet Union.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Latin America anti the Caribbean all American and Caribbean economies south of the United States.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Middle East and North Africa all the economies of North Africa and the Middle East.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">South Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India. Myantnar, Nepal, Pakistan. and Sri Lanka.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Summary</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THREE messages echo throughout this document:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> The causes of gender inequality are complex, linked as they are to the intrahousehold decisionmaking process. However the decisions are made. the intrahousehold allocation of resources is influenced by market signals and institutional norms that do not capture the full benefits to society of investing in women. Low levels of education and training. poor health and nutritional status, and limited access to resources depress women's quality of life and hinder economic efficiency and growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> It is therefore essential that public policies work to compensate for market failures in the area of gender equality. These policies should equalize opportunities between women and men and redirect resources to those investments with the highest social returns. Of these investments. female education, particularly at the primary and lower-secondary level, is the most important, as it is the catalyst that increases the impact of other investments in health, nutrition, family planning, agriculture, industry, and infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Women themselves are agents for change because they play a key role in shaping the welfare of future generations. Public policies cannot be effective without the participation of the target group-in this case. women, who make up more than half the world's people. Their views need to be incorporated into policy formulation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Progress to Date</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two decades considerable progress has been made in reducing the gender gap world wide.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> In 1960. for every 100 boys enrolled in primary school. there were 65 girls. In 1990 the ratio had risen to 85.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> In 1980 an average six-year-old girl in a developing country could expect to attend school for 7.3 years. By 1990 this figure had Increased to 8.4 years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Since the 1950s the female labor force has grown twice as last as the male labor force. Worldwide, more than 40 percent of women over 15 years of age are now in the labor force; in developing countries women account for 30 percent of the labor force (These figures. it should be noted, do not fully reflect women's participation in the informal sector as unpaid family members in agriculture.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nevertheless. inequalities between men and women persist in many important areas.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Despite women s biological advantage, their mortality and morbidity rates frequently exceed those of men, particularly during childhood and the reproductive years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Traditionally women are employed in lower-pay jobs and in a narrower range of occupations than are men. Women's wages are typically only 60-70 percent of wages earned by men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Whether in private sector employment or public sector decisionmaking, women are less likely to be in positions of responsibility than are men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Why Do Gender Inequalities Persist?</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The causes of the persistent inequality between men and women are only partially understood. In recent years attention has focused on inequalities in the allocation of resources at the household level. as seen in the higher share of education, health. and food expenditures boys receive in comparison with girls. The decisionmaking process within households is complex and is influenced by social and cultural norms market opportunities, and institutional factors. There is considerable proof that the intrahousehold allocation of resources is a key factor in determining the levels of schooling. health. and nutrition accorded household members.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inequalities in the allocation of household resources matter because education, health. and nutrition are strongly [hiked to well-being, economic efficiency. and growth. Low levels of educational attainment and poor health and nutrition aggravate poor living conditions and reduce an individual's capacity to work productively. Such economic inefficiency represents a significant loss to society and hampers future economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social returns to investments in women's education and health  a? e significantly greater than for similar investment in men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The social and economic losses are greatest when women are denied access to basic education and health care. Data from around the world show that private returns to investments in education are the same for women as for men and may even be marginally higher (Psacharopoulos 1994). More importantly. social returns (that is, total benefits to society) to investment in women's education and health are significantly greater than for similar investments in men, largely because of the strong correlation between women's education, health, nutritional status. and fertility levels and the education. health, and productivity of future generations. These correlation are even stronger when women have control over the way resources are allocated within the household.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wage differentials between women and men in the market are closely linked to educational levels and work experience. since on average. women earn 30-40 percent less than teen' it is not surprising that fewer women than men participate in the labor force. This wage disparity, reinforced by discriminality institutional norms, in turn influences the intrahousehold division of resources. A vicious circle ensues as households invest less in daughters than in sons in the belief that investment in girls yields fewer benefits. As a result. many women are unable to work outside the household because they lack the education or experience that men have.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decision not to participate in the labor force does not necessarily reflect a woman's own choice, no' does it always correspond to the optimum use of household resources. Furthermore. the market wage does not take into account the social benefits of educating and hiring women. Discrimination in households and in the market carries not only private costs for individuals and households but social costs for society as well.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public policies for reducing gender inequalities are therefore essential for counteracting market failure and improving the well-being of all members of society. Investing in women's education and health expands their choices in labor markets and other income-generating activities and increases the rate of return on a household's most valuable asset-its labor.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The decision to allocate women's time to the type of non wage work women typically carry out within the household. such as child care. food preparation, and, in low-income countries especially, subsistence farming and the collection of fuel wood and water, has less to do with economics than with social conventions and norms. These nones can have a strong influence on the household division of labor, even in industrial economies, where women's levels of human capital are equal to-and some times higher than those of most men</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The economy pays to this inequality in reduced labour productivity today and diminished national output tomorrow</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Whether this division of labor is appropriate is, essentially, for society to decide. However. there is no doubt that women's entry into the labor market and other spheres of the economy is directly affected by the extensive amounts of time they traditionally devote to household maintenance and family care. Most men do not make similar allocations of time in the home. Such inequality constrains women's employment choices and can limit girls' enrollment in schools. The economy pays for this inequality in reduced labor productivity today and diminished national output tomorrow. Public policy can address inequalities in the household division of labor by supporting initiatives that reduce the amount of time women spend doing unpaid work. Examples of such interventions include improved water and sanitation services, rural electrification, and batter transport infrastructure.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Constraints on female employment opportunities arising from the household division of labor are compounded by institutional norms operating within the labor market. Although overt wage discrimination is illegal in many countries, employers frequently segregate jobs or offer less training to women workers. Employers often perceive the returns to investing in women workers as lower than those for men mainly because of women's primary role in childbearing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of access to financial services, to land, and to intonation and technology compounds the unequal treatment of women. Requirements for collateral, high transaction costs, and limited mobility and education contribute to women s inability to obtain credit. When women do have access to credit, the effect on household and individual well-being is striking. Bon-owing by women is linked to increased holdings of non-land assets, to improve in the health status of female children, and to an increased probability that girls will enroll in school. Independent access to land is associated with higher productivity and. in some cases, with greater investments by women in land conservation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Strategies for the Future</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">If the benefits from investing in girls and women are so great and can be quantified. why do households and employers underinvest in women? The main reason is that. as discussed above. markets fail to capture the full benefit to society of' investing in women and girls. Where the market fails or is absent. government must take the lead Public policy can contribute directly and indirectly. to reducing gender inequalities by, for example:</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Modifying the legal and regulatory framework to ensure a opportunities </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Ensuring macroeconomic stability and improving, microeconomic incentives</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Redirecting public policies and public expenditures to those investments with the highest social returns</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"> Adopting targeted interventions that correct for gender inequalities at the micro-level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modifying the law to eliminate gender discrimination and equalize opportunities for women and men is an important first step. However. legal reform by itself does not ensure equal treatment. Further public action is required to make sure that gender-neutral laws are enforced at the national and local levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sound economic policies and well-functioning markets are essential for growth, employment generation, and the creation of an environment in which the returns to divesting in women and owls can he fully realized. Economic instability and price distortions can hinder the process. Consequently. sound macroeconomic management is critical. In general. two sets of policies are necessary: one emphasizing macroeconomic stability and the elimination of price distortions. the other focusing on labor-demanding growth and a reorientation in public spending toward basic services with high social returns- such as education. health care and water supply.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender inequalities in the distribution of the benefits of public spending frequently arise because of a bias within households that limits women's access to publicly provided services. In addition, the services provided by public spending often are of less benefit to women than to men. Public policy can help remedy this problem by rearranging expenditure priorities among sectors and within the social sectors. It can ensure support for those services and types of infrastructure that offer the highest social returns to public spending and that are most heavily used by women and children. such as water supply anti sanitation services and rural electrification.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally general policy interventions may not be enough. and programs that specifically target women and girls may be required. Targeting is justified. Governments can no longer afford not to invest in women gable on two grounds. First. because women are disproportionately represented among the poor. targeting women can be an effective strategy for reducing poverty (broadly defined to include limited access to services. re sources, and other capability-enhancing factors). Second. where gender differences are wide, targeting-for example. the provision of stipends so that girls can attend school-they be needed to capture social gains and increase  internal efficiency</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Conclusion</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments can no longer afford not to invest in women. The evidence on the high private and social returns to investments in women and girls cannot be ignored. By directing public resources toward policies and projects that reduce gender inequality. policymakers not only promote equality but also lay the groundwork for slower population growth, greater labor productivity, a higher rate of human capital formation, and stronger economic growth However, none of these developments can be sustained without the participial of women themselves. Governments and collaborating institutions must listen more carefully to the voices of individual women. including policymakers. and to women's groups. By working with others to identity and implement policies that promote gender equality, governments can make a real difference to the future well-being and prosperity of their people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Chapter one</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Gender Inequalities Persist</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">ALTHOUGH the gap between opportunities for men and women is narrowing. inequalities persist, especially in certain regions. This report examines four major development indicators: educational attainment, maternal mortality. life expectancy. and economic participation outside the household. All four are closely related to each other and in turn are closely correlated with individual well-being. These indicators provide a broad picture of trends in gender inequality and their impact on the relative well-being of women and of men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Education</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite the progress in raising educational enrollment rates for both males and females across all regions in the past three decades, growth in educational opportunities at all levels for females lags behind that for males (figure 1.1). In 1990 an average six-year-old girl in a developing country could expect to attend school for 8.4 years. The figure had increased from 7.3 years in 1980-but an average boy of the same age in a developing country could expect to attend school for 9.7 years The gender gap in expected years of schooling is widest in some countries in South Asia, the Middle East, and Sub-Saharan Africa (see figure 1.2). Gender differences in access to education are usually worse in minority populations such as refugees and internally displaced persons. of which only a few children go to school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p16.png"></center><br>
+ School enrollment ratios in developing countries </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The latest available figures show that 77 million girls of primary school age (6-11 years) are not in school, compared with 52 million boys (figure 1.3). Moreover, even these gross enrollment rates often mask high absenteeism and high dropout rates. Dropout rates are notably high in low-income countries but vary by gender worldwide and within regions. The rates for girls tend to be linked to age, peaking at about grade 5 and remaining high at the secondary level (Herz and others 1991) Cultural factors, early marriage, pregnancy, and household responsibilities affect the likelihood that girls will remain in school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the gross enrollment rate is an acceptable indicator of progress in education, most studies use literacy rates as an indicator of well-being. Overall illiteracy rates have decreased among adults in low- and middle-income countries, but the percentage of illiterate women in the world is still higher than the percentage of illiterate men. Older women constitute the largest share of the illiterates in the world today, a consequence of past inequalities in access to education. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia more than 70 percent of women age 25 and older are illiterate (United Nations 1991).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At post-secondary levels. where the gap in enrollment between women and men is wider, there is implicit "gender streaming," or sex segregation, by field of study, even in areas with snore female than male enrollees. Gender streaming. which is widespread in both developing and industrial countries, prevents women from acquiring training in agriculture, forestry, fishing, "hard" sciences, and engineering (figure 1.4).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p17.png"></center><br>
+ Expected years of schooling </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Health</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past two decades life expectancy at birth has increased for both men and women in all regions of the world. In industrial countries women tend to outlive men by six to eight years on average: in low-income countries gender differences are much narrower (two to three years). Despite women's biological advantage, female mortality and morbidity rates frequently exceed those of men, particularly during early childhood and the reproductive years.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">During the reproductive period the most Important causes of morbidity and mortality among women are high fertility and abortion rates, vulnerability to sexually transmitted diseases (STDS), genital mutilation. and gender violence. Each year, about 500,000 women worldwide die from the complications of pregnancy and childbirth. Maternal mortality ratios for developing and industrial countries vary greatly: the rates in parts of South Asia are among the world's highest, in some cases exceeding 1,500 per 100.000 live births. In Sub-Saharan Africa where the ratio is 700 maternal deaths per 100.000 live births, a woman runs a 1 in 22 lifetime risk of dying from pregnancy-related causes, but in northern Europe the risk falls to 10 in 100,000 (United Nations 1993). In the transition economies of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, the rates are around 40 to 50 per 100,000 live births</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p18.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 1.3 children not in school 1990 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A major cause of maternal deaths is complications from unsafe abortions. Abortion-related deaths are highest in South and Southeast Asia. followed by Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean. Lack of access to contraceptives can mean that abortion, is used as a form of birth control. For example, in parts of Eastern Europe and Central Asia abortions are more numerous than live births (World Bank 1994b), and abortion rates were as high as 1.76 per live birth in Russia prior to the transition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As increasing numbers of women become aware of and learn to use contraceptives, total fertility rates are falling worldwide. The exception is Sub-Saharan Africa where the total fertility rate averaged 6.4 between 1985 have been infected by HIV. The World Health organization (WHO 1994) estimates that more than 13 million women will have been infected by HIV by 2000 and that about 4 million of that number will have died (figure 1.5 In Atrica, where 10 million adults are infected with the virus, ode-half of all newly infected adults are women, and more than 5 million are women of childbearing age. In Asia almost half of all adults newly infected with the virus are women, compared with less than 25 percent just six years ago.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p19.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 1.4 fields of study</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p20.png"></center><br>
+  Figure 1.5 HIV infected women 1995 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The mortality risk for females is high during the reproductive years. but it is even higher during infancy and early childhood. Between 1962 and 1992 INFANT mortality in the developing world decreased by 50 percent (UNICEF 1993 However, in seventeen of the twenty-nine developing countries for which recent survey data are available, female children age 1-4 were found to have higher mortality rates than male children. despite girls? biological advantage (World Bank 1994b). In many of these countries the underlying cause of high mortality among girls is the parents' bias toward boys, who receive the best food and medical care.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Genital mutilation, prevalent in twenty-eight countries, is performed on 2 million young girls yearly. The practice leads to long-term morbidity, complications during childbirth, mental trauma, and even death. Table 1.1 summarizes the best available statistics on this practice for selected countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Employment Work</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The time women spend on paid and unpaid work is typically greater than the time men spend in the labor market (see table 1.2 for an example). Unpaid family work is rarely recorded in official statistics. It manifests itself only indirectly in the labor market in the form of gender differences in labor force participation rates. sector of employment, hours of work, and wage level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">On the whole. labor force participation rates for women are lower than those for men (figure 1.6). However. these differences are often exaggerated because the definition of the participation rate fails to capture many aspects of women's work, particularly time spent on childbearing, childbearing. and other household tasks. Men are usually in the labor force throughout the prime working years (age 20-60), and their participation rates are typically more than 90 percent in virtually every country. Female participation rates vary widely across countries. In 1990, for every ten men in the labor force there were two women in the Middle East and North Africa, three in South Asia. six in Sub-Saharan Africa, and seven in Southeast Asia (United Nations 1991). Worldwide, 41 percent of women age 15 years or over are in the labor force, but in developing countries the corresponding figure is 31 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">These numbers are deceptive, however, because they do not take into account the agricultural work for which women in developing countries are responsible within the family For example, the Dominican census of 1981 reported that only 21 percent of rural women participated in the labor force, but just three years later a special study suggested a figure of 81 percent. The census had omitted such activities as cultivating gardens and caring for domestic animals In India different definitions of what constitutes "work" have resulted in estimated participation rates as low as 13 percent and as high as 88 percent (Beneria 1992).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tens of Millions of Women Suffer Female Genital Mutilation.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 1.1 female genital mutilation</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=468>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estimated prevalence (percent)</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Estimated number of women affected (millions)</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Djibouti</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">98</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Egypt</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">13.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Eritrea</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Ethiopia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">22.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6.3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">29.2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sierra Leone</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.0</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sudan</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">89</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="36%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">118</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Sri Lanka's Dry Zone, Women Work Longer Hours than Men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 1.2 distribution of monthly work hours per month)</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=451>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="31%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Peal. Season</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="29%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Slack season</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Activity </B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Male</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural production</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">298</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">299</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">245</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">235</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Household tasks</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">90</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">199</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">220</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Fetching water and firewood</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">:30</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social and religious duties</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">12</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">15</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Total work hours</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">426</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">560</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">350</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">530</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="40%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Leisure and sleep</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">294</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="17%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">160</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="10%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">370</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">190</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are usually employed in different sectors than men. Most of women's nonagricultural employment is in the service sector. but in developing countries female employment in manufacturing has been increasing and is catching up with female employment in services (ILO/ INSTRAW 1985). Women in manufacturing tend to be concentrated in only a few sub sectors: more than two-thirds of the global labor force in garment production is female. and this subsector absorbs almost one-fifth of the female labor force in manufacturing (UNIDO 1993). Men's employment is more evenly distributed across other sectors such as mining manufacturing, construction, utilities, and transport.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over their lifetime, women change their employment status more often than do men. They are also more likely to be self-employed or employed in occupations with flexible house such as subcontracted home work. Regardless of the sector in which they are employed, women tend to work in a narrow range of occupations. Only a few women are in high-paying jobs or in positions with significant responsibility. Nearly two-thirds of the women in manufacturing ate laborers, machine operators. and production workers; only 5 percent ate professional and technical workers and only 2 percent are administrators and managers (UNIDO 1993). However. there are regional differences: women occupy nearly 60 percent of clerical, sales. and service jobs in Latin America and the Caribbean but fewer than 20 percent of similar positions in South Asia North Africa. and the Middle East (figure 1.7).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p23.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 1.6 rates of participation in the labor force by gender</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Wages paid to women are typically about 60-70 percent of those paid to men. About one-quarter of the gender wage gap is explained by differences in educational levels, labor market experience, and other human capital'' characteristics (Psacharopoulos and Tzannatos 1992 Horton 1994). The gender wage gap can also be explained in part by women's lower participation in the labor market-a consequence of domestic and other demands on their time and, possibly, of discriminatory employment practices.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Significant changes in the global economy have affected patterns of employment and working conditions for men and women worldwide. "Globalization" is associated with the deregulation of product and labor markets, with regionalization. and with the liberalization of international trade. In turn. these processes at-e associated with increased female participation in the labor force and with the at-owing "casualization'' of employment, as seen in the growth of part-time work in industrial economies. However, the net effect of globalization on women workers is not yet clear. Growth in the international traded service sector (for example, banking and telecommunications) seems to have offered women in developing countries greater employment opportunities. In addition, the participation rate of women in manufacturing jobs has increased faster than that of men. Women's average participation in the manufacturing labor force is now around 30 percent for both developing and industrial countries.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p24.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 1.7 types of jobs held by women </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Worldwide, the number of women employed in export manufacturing has been increasing rapidly, even though this sector employs only a small fraction of all women workers. In Mexico, for example, the number of women employed in export manufacturing rose by nearly 15 percent a year in the 1980s (Jurisman and Moreno 1990). However, employment in this sector has been increasing more rapidly for men than for women, partly because of</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">technological upgrading over time and partly; because women are less educated and tend to remain in low-skill occupations (Baden 1992).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women now account for a growing share ret wage employment they tend to stay longer in the labor force than ever before</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite persistent gender inequalities in the labor market. some recent trends  are encouraging. Increasing educational opportunities and decreasing fertility  rates have fed to an increase in the number of women entering the labor market. since the 1950s the female labor force has expanded twice as fast as the male  labor force. Women now account for a growing share of wage employment. and they tend to stay longer in the labor force than ever before The narrowing of the gender gap in labor force participation is enabling women to accumulate the work experience necessary tot- improving their job opportunities and increasing their amines. In the formal sector more and more women are working in occupations and sectors once dominated by men. and in many countries women s wages relative to men s have increased over time</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The data in this chapter illustrate some aggregate trends but they cannot tell US anything about the processes behind the persistence of gender inequality. For a more detailed look at these processes. We turn in the next chapter to a growing body of empirical evidence generated at the household and enterprise level. These studies provide a telling insight into the way in which gender inequalities are being challenged particularly by women At the same time these inequalities are reinforced by economic, legal. and cultural incentive systems that discriminate against women Discrimination continues despite compelling evidence showing that less inequality especially within the household. is associated with heftier welfare outcomes for children and better economic outcomes for the household as a v hole.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Chapter two</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Gender Inequalities Hamper Growth</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inequality women and men limits productivity ultimately slows economic growth. early empirical studies (for example, Kuznets 1955) suggested that income inequality would increase with economic growth during the initial phases of development. This chapter, however. starts with the hypothesis that there is not necessarily a tradeoff between inequality and growth and. indeed that high inequality especially as it affects human capital. hampers growth (Fields 1992: Birdsall and Sabot 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Both theory and empirical evidence point to the importance of human capital in creating the necessary conditions for productivity growth and in reducing aggregate inequality in the future. In addition. women s human capital generates benefits for society in the form of lower child mortality.  higher educational attainment improved nutrition. and reduced population growth. Inequalities in the accumulation and use of human capital at-e related to lower economic and social well-being for all.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Household and Intrahousehold Resource Allocation</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In recent years, attempts to explain persistent gender inequalities in the accumulation and use of human capital have focused on the key role of household decisionmaking and tile process of resource allocation within household Households do not make decisions in isolation. however: their decision are linked to market prices and incentives and are influenced by cultural legal and state institutions. These institutions indirectly affect not only the returns on household investment but also access to productive resources and employment outside the house hold.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Household decisions about the allocation of resources have a profound effect on the schooling, health care, and nutrition children receive. The mechanisms used to make these decisions and the effect of the decisions on the well-being of individual household members are not fully understood. Two frameworks for thinking about household decisions are the unitary household model and the collective household model (see box 3.1)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BOX 2.1 </P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Two models of household members having their own prefer decisionmaking encase. Decisions on allocating resources reflect market rates of return. The unitary household model assumes but they also mirror the relative bar that household members pool regaining power of household members sources and allocate them according within the collective (Manser and to a common set of objectives and Brown 1980: McElroy and Homey goals. Households maximize the joint 1981). Bargaining power is a function welfare of their members by allocating of social and cultural norms. as well income and other resources to the in as of such external factors as opposed individuals and enterprises that promise "unities for paid work, laws governing the highest rate of return as reflected inheritance, and control over producing prices and wages. An increase initiative assets and property rights. These household income increases the well factors influence the terms governing being of all household members.</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy interventions based on the sources and decisions about how unitary household model aim to in those resources are used within the crease household welfare, but they household. Thus, an increase in do not necessarily affect all household income may benefit some hold members in the same way. Some household members but leave others household members may be worse unaffected or worse off. The outcome off, for example, if they lose control depends on a member's ability to exover certain resources; others may excise control over resources both in be better off. in which case house-side and outside the household, and it hold welfare is not maximized. cannot be assumed that individual well</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Under the collective household being increases as household income model. the welfare of individual house-rises. (Collective household models do hold members is not synonymous with not exclude the possibility that the universal household welfare. Resources unitary model may be the best approximate not necessarily pooled, and the motion of household decisionmaking household acts as a collective, with in some contexts.)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The collective household model helps explain why gender inequalities persist even though household becomes increase over time The next sections adopt a collective household framework to explain how these inequalities exact costs in forgone productivity, seduced welfare for individuals and households, encl. ultimately. slower economic growth.(fender Inequalities in Human Capital )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are strong complementaires between education. health. and nutrition on the one hand, and increased well-being, labor productivity, and growth. On the other. Inequalities in resource allocation that limit household members' educational opportunities. access to health care, or nutrition are costly to individuals, households, and the economy as a whole.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Linkages between Education Health, and Nutritious</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the household level. gender differences in access to education are closely related to inequalities in the shares of household education expenditures allocated to boys and to girls This finding stands even though private returns to girls' schooling are similar to or marginally higher than. those to boys' schooling (figure 2.1; see also Schultz 1988: Mwabu 1994). In this case. parental choice reflects the relatively greater restrictions on educational opportunities and employment choices for girls. in comparison with boys. and cultural norms on the appropriate role for girls within the household.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p28.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 2.1 private returns to education</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p29a.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 2.2 education, fertility. and child mortality (a)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"><center><img src="p29b.png"></center><br>
+ Figure 2.2 education, fertility. and child mortality (b)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">More importantly. the social externalities linked to female education are crucial. Evidence from a large number of countries shows that female education is linked with better health for women and their children and with lower levels (figure 2.2). This link stems from the direct effect of education on the value of a woman's time and consequently. on private returns to her labor. It also stems from the indirect effect of education on the average age at which women marry on their knowledge of basic health care and nutrition, and on reproductive choices (Rosenzweig and Schultz 1982, 1987).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Educating girls and women reduces maternal mortality and fertility rates and increases the demand for health services. A simulation study of seventy two developing countries shows that, with all other factors held constant, a doubling of female secondary school enrollments in 1975 would have reduced tile average fertility rate in 1985 from 5.3 to 3.9 children per household and would have lowered the number of births by 29 percent (Subbarao and Raney 1992. Studies for individual countries have found that one additional year of female schooling can reduce the fertility rate. on average, between 5 and 1 (i) percent (Summers 1994)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are more vulnerable than men to micronutrient deficiencies that aggravate poor health (World Batik 1994b). Poor health and nutrition reduce productivity and the chances of reaping gains from investment in education. Intrahousehold inequalities in consumption and nutritional allocations can therefore be a signal of inefficiency Recent estimates suggest that the com effects on morbidity and mortality of just three types of deficiency-in vitamin A, iodine. and iron-could waste as much as 5 percent of gross domestic product (GDP), yet correcting these deficiencies would cost less than 0.3 percent of low-income countries' GDP (World Bank 1994c, pp. 50-51). Studies of women tea producers in Sri Lanka and of women workers in Chinese cotton mills document the reduction in productivity associated with iron deficiencies and the positive effects of in-on supplementation on work and output (Edgerton and others 1979). A study of six villages in Andhra Pradesh, India, found that disabling conditions caused by malnutrition and the prevalence of diseases reduced female labor force participation by 22 percent (Chatterjee 1991).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Physical anti mental abuse can also have deleterious effects on the well-being and productivity of women (table 2.1). Violence against women is widespread in all cultures and cuts across all age and income groups Its consequences. include unwanted pregnancy. infection with STDs, miscarriage partial or permanent disability. and psychological problems such as depression anti low self-esteem. Recent World Bank estimates indicate that in both industrial and developing countries domestic violence and rape cause women of reproductive age to lose a significant percentage of really days. Domestic violence appears to be an example of how the relatively weaker bargaining power of women and the paucity of options for them outside the home can affect the intrahousehold distribution of welfare.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Violence against Women Starts in the Womb and Continues  trough Life</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.1 Violence against women through the life cycle</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Phase</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Type of violence</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Pre birth</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Battering during pregnancy (emotional and physical effects on the ottoman) effects on birth outcome</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Infancy</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female infanticide: emotional and physical abuse</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Girl hood</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sexual abuse by family members and strangers: forced child prostitution</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Adolescence</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Dating and courtship violence: economically coerced sex: sexual abuse in the workplace: rape: farce prostitution and trafficking in women</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="22%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reproductive</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="78%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Coerced pregnancy: rape: abuse of women by male partners: down abuse and murder partner homicide psychological abuse sexual abuse of unmarried and childless women: abuse of women with disabilities</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Heise 1993 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Prospects for gainful employment. as well as the availability of basic social services such as water supply and sanitation. also influence women's well-being. The survival chances of female children in India appear to increase as the employment rate for women rises and the earnings differential between men and women decreases Battilan 1988 Dowry and marriage practices. along with household ownership of land are closely linked to women's chances of survival The effect of such practices cannot be over late. Sen's (1990) comparison of female-male mortality rates in China. India. and Sub-Saharan Africa suggest that more than 100 million women are "missing"</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public spending on social services affects the ability of individuals and households to benefit from their own private spending on human capital. In most industrial countries mortality rates decreased even before modern medical care became widely available, mainly because of improved water supplies and sanitation. The same is likely to hold for the developing world. Public interventions that address market under provision of water and sanitation facilities and shortages of health set-vices such as immunization and family planning-have a significant effect. and one that is probably greater for women than for men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Lack of data makes it difficult to evaluate the effects of public spending on the educational attainment and health of women and men Very little empirical evidence in this area exists, but there is some indication that the proportion of public subsidies for education that benefits females is lower than the proportion that benefits males. In Kenya in 1992-93. for example. public spending on education amounted to the equivalent of an annual subsidy of 605 Kenyan shillings per capita: males received. on average. 670 shillings and females only 543 shillings. In Mexico the gender difference in public education subsidies was somewhat less: in Pakistan males received almost twice the female subsidy. Gender inequalities in the distribution of subsidies are greater at high than at primary levels. In Pakistan girls receive, on average. only 96 rupees a year for secondary school bag. compared with 58 rupees for boys. Box 2.2 explains how these figures are calculated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Supply-side differences are partly a function of poorly targeted resources (as. for example, when more is spent on tertiary than on primary schooling). More importantly. they reflect differences in household demand for education for girls and boys. If more girls attended anti stayed in school. the proportion of public subsidy going to girls would he greater.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In health care assessing the incidence of public spending by gender is particularly difficult because of the marked differences in the health needs of women and men. These differences are related to different biological re</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main advantage of this type of analysis is that it measures how well public  services are targeted to certain groups in the population, including women, the  poor, and residents of regions of interest.  Requirements anti to women's reproductive and childbearing roles. Some evidence suggests that because of these differences. per capita health cat-e subsidies to women are the same as and sometimes larger than those to men What is clearer is that women are less likely than men to seek health care. including in many countries. hospital care when it is netted and ate mote likely to consult a non medical health cat-e worker (lather than a qualified medical practitioner). Education tends to increase the likelihood that women will seek health care. whether public or  ace the likelihood that women will seek health care. whether public or private (World Bank 1994b). </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The importance of private and public investments in education and health services that will improve women's well-being is cleat. These services at-e also important for another season: these is important evidence that increases in women's well-being yield important intergenerational benefits and productivity gains in the future World Bank Living Standards Measure Study (LSMS) surveys car-tried out in Nicaragua (1993 Viet Nam 1993) Pakistan (1991), and Cote (1988) suggest that the probability of children being enrolled in school increases with their mother's educational level and that (controlling, for income and household size) girls. particularly those in non poor households. are mote likely to attend school if their mothers attended school. Other studies show that households with educated mothers lend to provide children with greater quantities of mote nutritious food often at a lower cost. than households with poorly educated mothers (Thomas 1990b)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Data from Brazil show that giving women more control over nonlabor income has a larger impact on child measures, nutritional intakes, and the proportion of the household budget devoted to human capital inputs than if men had control of this income (Thomas 1993) Other studies indicate that women spend proportionately mote of the income they control on health care for children than do men. Women also spend more on food products (as opposed to such goods as alcohol and tobacco) than men do (Duraiswamy 1992: Hoddinot and Haddad 1992) But fathers education is also important especially in interaction with mothers' education (Thomas 1990a) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other studies have shown that children's educational attainment is lowest in households whet-e the male head has no schooling In Ghana the impact of a mother's education on her children's schooling is reduced when  their father has no schooling. even after controlling for income and household size (Lavy 1992).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Material health (which is linked to education) also has important intergenerational effects. Children of mothers who are malnourished or sickly or receive inadequate prenatal and delivery cat-e face a greater risk of disease and premature death. Iodine-deficient mothers run a greater risk of giving birth to infants with severe mental retardation and other congenital abnormalities than do healthy mothers. Reduced fertility and improved health for women can increase individual productivity and improve family well-being. When good health is combined with education and access to jobs. the result is higher rates of economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Household and Labor Market Linkages</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The link between the household and the labor market is particularly important. Specialization of labor within the household-whether individually chosen. socially determined. or legally induced-can accentuate gender inequalities in the formal and informal labor markets by leaving most of the unpaid work to women. This situation arises from convention rather than  from comparative advantage Inadequate public and community services.  transport. and housing also often have an uneven effect on the way men and women spend their time and can increase the demand for goods produced at home using unpaid labor (Moser 1994) Thus women may spend its much (or more time on unpaid work as on market work. In some countries this unpaid work contributes as much as one-third to the economy recorded GDP-and even mote to the welfare of poor families.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The amount of time women contribute to household production and maintenance, direct income generation. and family care combined is widely held to exceed that of men Analysis of data from Bangladesh. Botswana. Ghana. Kenya. Pakistan. the Philippines. and Zambia on how rural women spend their time confirms that, although use of time by women, and by different generations of women varies according to location. available technology. household characteristics. and cultural norms. gender bias in time use is widespread.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are generally responsible for collecting fuelwood and carrying water. Girls and alder women often do most of this work, although cultural norms in some countries affect women s mobility. The amount of time allocated to these activities is influenced by seasonal patterns of agricultural activity. the availability of substitute goods and services. and environmental changes. A study in Nepal, for instance, found that deforestation associated with a 75 percent rise in the time per trip would increase the time spent gathering fuelwood by 45 percent for all adults and by 50-60 percent for women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In addition to fuel and water collection, child care is another activity that dominates women s time-although. considering the importance of children to future household welfare, the amount of direct time spent with children is limited. The seven-country study suggests that more time is spent on child cat-e in female-headed households. Female-headed households tend to have high dependency ratios and relatively large numbers of children, Implying more child-care time overall, but not necessarily on a per child basis. (Kumar and Hotchkiss 1988).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">When a large proportion of women's use of time goes unrecorded the design of projects and policies can yield false evaluations of costs and benefits. For example, women's unpaid work may be assumed to have zero value. As a result, women's response to changing incentives may be predicted as being higher than their time constraints actually allow. Project benefits-such as the time saved by locating piped water close to homes or by expanding rural electrification-may also be undervalued. Conversely, the benefits of treeing up time may be far more significant than might have been thought. A study in Tanzania, for example. shows that relieving certain time constraints in a community of smallholder coffee and banana growers increases household cash incomes by 10 percent, labor productivity by 15 percent, and capital productivity by 44 percent (Tibaijuka 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Formal Sector Employment</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Unpaid work and family responsibilities. as well as lack of investment in women's education. are strongly associated with women's relatively low rates of participation and their limited earnings in formal sector labor. Women's participation rates usually dip in the childbearing years, and earnings tend to decline following an interruption in employment. Younger on average, work more hours than older women, and married women with young children tend to work less than childless women and mothers of grown children. The correlation of marriage and childbearing with labor market outcomes can be seen even in industrial countries, where wage differences between married women and men are larger than those between single women and men Similarly, in some developing countries relative earnings decline with age (table 2.2) Children are not the only treason for interruptions in women's labor force participation; caring for ill or aged family members is often a womans responsibility. A study from Hungary estimates that half of all absenteeism by women workers is the direct result of the need to care for sick relatives (Einhorn 1993).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Countries, Single Women Earn More Than Married Women and Younger Women More Than Older Women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.2 female-male earnings (adjusted for hours worked) by marital status and age (percent)</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=345>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female-male</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Earnings ratio</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">By marital status</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Married </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Single</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Australia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">69</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">91</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Austria</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">66</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">97</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Germany</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">57</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">103</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Norway</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">72</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">92</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sweden</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">72</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">94</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Switzerland</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">58</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">94</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United Kingdom</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">95</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">United States</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">59</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">96</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Age</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A 25 </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">B 45</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">75</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">63</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">94</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">81</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malaysia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">82</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">61</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="38%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Venezuela</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="27%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">92</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="35%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Sources: Blau and Kahn 1992 Sedlacek Gutierrez. and Mohindra 1993 </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thus. women s labor market outcomes can be substantially poorer than those of men because women's employment opportunities are constrained by social arrangements at the family or household level. These social demands are reinforced by legal conventions. Within the labor market itself, social or employer discrimination can affect women and men differently. and these differences are reflected in the resource allocation decisions taken within the household. Although wage discrimination is illegal in many countries, employers may respond to an increase in the supply of workers by segregating jobs by gender or offering less training to women who they perceive as being temporarily attached to the labor force (even if in fact most women never drop out). For example, women in the former Soviet Union are fairly well educated and have high labor force participation. but they are concentrated in occupations requiring fewer skills and less vocational training than men, and, on average. they earn less than men (Fong 1993).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female Wages Are Lower than Male Wages, but This Is Changing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.3 female-male earnings ratio over time Female-male earning 1 ratio (percent) </P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=2 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=496>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">First observation</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="25%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second observation</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A v Average annual percentage change</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">50.2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1981) </FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">51.6</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1990)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.7</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Colombia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">67.2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1984)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70 2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1990)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.7</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">C&ocirc;te d'Ivoire</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">75.7</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1985)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">81.4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1988)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.4</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Indonesia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">55.6</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1986)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60.0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1997)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Philippines</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70.9</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1978)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">80.0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1988)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.2</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="21%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Thailand</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">73.5</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="15%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1980)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="11%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">79.8</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="13%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(1990)</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0.8</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Note: Monthly earnings for Indonesia and Thailand rural and urban: for all others urban only</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Source: Tzanntors 1995</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women's earnings relative to men's tend to increase over time. A study of six developing countries shows that female earnings relative to male earnings increased by 1 percent a year in the 1980s (table 2.3). There were two reasons for this increase: over the years women entered higher-paying sectors. and within sectors, their pay increased in relation to that of men. This gain would have been even greater had it not been for the effect on wages of increased female participation in the labor force. However, the most visible dimension of gender inequality in the formal labor sector remains the wage difference between men and women. Women's wages are. on average lower those of men by about 30 to 40 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social or employer discrimination can affect women and men difference and these difference are reflected i/? the resource allocation decisions taken within the household</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A recent study of the gender wage gap in Russia shows that after controlling for education differences, the ratio of women's to men's average hourly earnings stands at just over 71 percent: it has remained at that level since the 1960s. Part of the reason for women s lower hourly earnings in Russia and many other countries lies in patterns of occupational segmentation by ,gender. Some analysts argue that women-who do most of the household work in Russian households and also have high participation in the formal labor market cope with the burdens imposed on them by taking less demanding work and devoting less time to advancing their careers (Newell and Reilly 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Informal Sector</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One difficulty analysts face in interpreting trends in women's labor force participation and employment in developing economies is the large number of women engaged in informal sector activities, many of which overlap with subsistence - orientated household or community-based activities. Informal sector employment in most developing countries. whether in microentreprises or in casual work, is an important source of livelihood for women and their households.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The L competitiveness of women's informal sector activities is  constrained by women's limited mobility and lack of access to financial and public sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A recent study in Mexico estimates that 41 percent of the work force in Mexico's major-cities is employed in the informal sector (World Bank 1995c). Data from a 1989 survey show that 60 percent of men working in the sector are salaried workers' compared with only 18 percent of women. By contrast. 80 percent of women working in the sector are unpaid family members, as against 27 percent of men. By far the most common activity in the informal sector is commerce (fixed-location or itinerant), followed by repair works food preparation. and sales, and small-scale manufacturing. The sectoral distribution of informal employment reflects the hey role informal workers play in supplying goods and services to low-income consumers. Women tend to be concentrated in commerce and men in services and manufacturing, although the percentage differences are relatively small. Two generalizations can be made on the basis of this study: informal sector workers earn less than workers in large firms and women earn less than men.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another recent study of tour communities in Lusaka. Guayaquil (Ecuador), Metro Manila, and Budapest shows that informal sector activities ate especially important for during periods of economic reform Although the numbers both of men and of women in the labor force tend to increase during these times women rely more on the informal sector than men clot The competitiveness of womens informal sector activities is informal by women's limited mobility and lack of access to financial and public services. Women also tend to specialize in non traded goods and services that show relatively low average returns to labor. Across the tour cities in the study, women earn between 46 and 68 percent of men's wages (Moser 1994)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ability of informal sector workers to increase their returns depends on access to physical and human capital and their relationship to the institutional and regulatory environment. Contrary to the common belief, many microenterprises face considerable costs associated with the regulatory environment, including registration and licensing fees, as well as outlays for contracts with public authorities concerning zoning regulations and use of public utilities. In Argentina regulatory costs are estimated to absorb as much as 21 percent of the average microfirm's operational expenses. In some sectors, such as manufacturing and construction, the costs of regulation are about 44 percent (World Bank 1994d). In Mexico real regulatory costs. including the costs of compliance and evasion, are about 20 percent of total costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Regulatory costs also inhibit Job creation in the informal sector. In Argentina across-the-board deregulation could generate as many as 170,000 jobs in small-scale manufacturing alone. Furthermore. poor workers in family-based firms or micro enterprises and particularly women entrepreneurs-often lack access to such basics as water and power. Targeting infrastructure investments to the poor, which takes account of the needs of women entrepreneurs s. can significantly enhance their productivity and earnings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In rural area where formal markets often are not well developed. informal employment activities play a vital role. In Asia the proportion of female rural wage laborers increased sharply in the 1960s and 1970s. In India women make up a larger proportion of rural wage laborers than of the entire labor force, probably because of growing landlines and poverty among rural households. Rural household labor accounts for a disproportionately large share of employment among the poor and an even larger share among women. Furthermore, a larger proportion of female than male laborers are hired on a casual basis, largely because family arrangements, especially lack of control over property, limit women's ability to work (Hart 1986: Bardhan 1993). Low status in the labor market is also linked to low female indicators in education, health, and nutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Providing credit directly to women has a positive effect on  household and individual welfare and improved gender equality.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Social norms affecting decisions within the family about occupational choices or migration can also lead to differential patterns of male and female earnings in informal markets (Bhiswanger and Rosenzweig 1984). Family responsibilities hinder women's geographic mobility, constraining their ability to command high wages and limiting them to certain areas or industries. The concentration of women in certain sectors, especially nontraded goods and set-vices. intensifies competition between women entrepreneurs and wage workers and lowers the returns to female labor. These effects are compounded by women's lack of access to credit. training, and technology.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(fender Inequality in Access to Assets and Services )</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Access to Financial Markets</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The availability of financial services and access to them are considered important for several reasons. First. savings provide a kind of self-insurance. Second, credit helps households maintain a certain level of consumption at those times when their income fluctuates temporarily. Third, credit can be used to fund investments in capital or other inputs that will yield relatively high returns to production. if households cannot finance such investments from their own savings. A fourth and no less important reason is the role of savings and credit in increasing household members' options outside the home.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Inequalities between women and men in access to financial services- particularly credit--are widely documented. Collateral requirements, high transaction costs. limited mobility and education, and other social and cultural barriers contribute to women's inability to obtain credit (Holt and Ribe 1991). The implications tot household efficiency and individual well-being differ, however, depending on whether the household pools its financial resources. If, as the unitary household model assumes. a household pools its resources the characteristics of individual borrowers are less important than if there is little or no pooling. In the first case. credit resources will be used to meet household needs that have been jointly determined, regardless of who the borrower is. In the second case, the use credit is put to and the needs it then satisfies depend on which household member is borrowing.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A recent study of credit programs in Bangladesh sponsored by the World Bank shows that providing credit directly to women has a positive effect on variables typically associated with household and individual welfare and improved gender equality (Pitt and Khandker 1995). The study looks at three programs in Bangladesh: the Grameen Bank. the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), and the Bangladesh Rural Development Board (BRDB). in 1992, women accounted for 94 percent of Grameen Bank members. 82 percent of BRAC members. and 68 percent of BRDB members (Khandker and Khalily 1995; Khandker, Lavy, and Filmer 1994). Only the results for the Grameen Bank are presented here.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.4 presents the impact of credit obtained by women and men on a variety of social and economic indicators. The results show a clear and positive impact of both male and female borrowing on all indicators of Toward gender equality family welfare especially through an increase in per capita expenditures increases in both boys' and girls schooling, anti a reduction in fertility. Females borrowing has a greater effect on girls' schooling anti per capita expenditure than does male loot-rowing: male borrowing has a greater effect on boys' schooling and fertility than does female borrowing. Interestingly. female borrowing also results in mote female ownership of nonoland assets and an increased supply of female labor to cash - income -earning activities (Pitt and Khandker 1995).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Loans to Women and Men Have Important Welfare Implications.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2 4 welfare effects of Grameen Bank loans (percentage increase)</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=545>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Welfare e change</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effect of male borrowing</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effect female borrowing</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in boys' schooling</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7.2</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6.1</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in girls schooling</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3.0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4.7</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in per capital expenditure</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.8</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4.3</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reduction in recent fertility</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7.4</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in women's labor supply to cash-income earning activities</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10.4</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="47%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increase in women nonland assents</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="28%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">0</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="26%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">19.9 </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The introduction of programs such as the Grameen Bank in a village has a positive effect on agricultural and nonagricultural production (Khatidketati Chowdhuty 1994: Rahman and Khandke 1994 The probability that women will be self-employed rather than work for wages increases by 52 percent. The latter finding is important because much of the wage employment open to women in rural areas is very poorly remunerated and can be quite exploitative. Self employment can bring the opportunity of higher returns for women, plus the freedom to integrate their earning activities into other work as they see fit.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access to financial services alone cannot reduce gender inequalities in the allocation of household resources. A qualitative study reviewing several targeted credit programs in Bangladesh cautions against overgeneralizing about the benefits of giving women access to credit. The study finds that it is difficult to infer that increased borrowing alone improves women's bargaining power because in many rural Bangladesh households the question of who controls the resources is quite complex (Goetz and Sen Gupta 1994). Nevertheless. the possibility of receiving credit (or similarly of working for wages) may give women greater bargaining power within the household. This bargaining power can be used to improve child health and nutrition and may increase the likelihood that children will attend school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Access to Lund and Property</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The ownership of land and the distributions of land rights influence the productivity of labor and capital resources and the incentive to invest in resource management Private property rights. in particular. are associated with increased access to product and factor markets. especially credit markets. and to public services such as public utilities and agricultural extension. However. relatively little direct evidence exists to link independent owner of land by women with increased access and productivity. One obstacle to empirical work is that women s access to land and property is often mediated trough marriage (A married woman land rights are frequently limited to use rather than ownership.) Future more. complex systems of land tenure make it difficult to generalize about the effects of owner ship on productivity. None some evidence suggests that independent land rights for women could enhance both the efficiency with which resources are used and the well-being of women and their households: (Agarwal 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The possibility of receiving credit may give e women   greater bargaining power within the  household which  can be used to improve child health and nutrition.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">While independent land rights may increase efficiency and household welfare, lack of secure land  appears to be associated with low investments by women in land conservation. In Zimbabwe's communal areas, land that a women acquires is often allocated to her only temporarily: for example, the location of land allotment received from husbands or borrowed from neighbors is usually subject to periodic change (Jackson 1993). The same is true in parts of West Africa (David 1992 Jackson 1994). Uncertainly about the permanence of their control over the land means that women may be reluctant to invest in improvements that will benefit the landowner rather than the user.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A significant trend in recent decades in developing countries has been the move toward private ownership In some countries this trend has been encoulagecl by reforms dealing with land redistribution tenancy or land titling Such reforms are considered important for promoting long-term investments and the adoption of the latest technology They also provide the collateral people need to gain access to credit and other factor markets Ironically, evidence also suggests that perform inequalities in male and female land rights are reinforced by land reform programs For example, in Latin America most reforms are based on the premise that the man of the household its the household head. This presumption means that women (except for widows  and ownership. Even where women and men benefit equally from land reform differences exist between nominal and real land rights (see box 2.3).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the central part of European Russia and in Moldova the lands and assets of state and collective farms are being parceled out in allotments as part of wider economic reforms. Every person who lived and worked on a collective farm receives a share of the land Data show that although on average, women have received a slightly higher proportion of land shares than men, the nonland capital assets of the old farms ale being distributed as property shares on the basis of a formula heavily weighted toward an individual's wage rate and years of employment. Such criteria favor men over women and give men more valuable property chares. Dividends paid on these property shares also tend to be higher than those paid 011 land shares Holt 1995).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Land reform programs that fail to account for gender differences in rights</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 2.3 who gets access to land? Honduras and Cameroon</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Honduras' Agrarian Modernization Law of 1974 includes a provision giving men age 16 or older the right to access to land, independent of any other qualification. For women. however, this right is restricted to unmarried mothers or widows with dependent children. Furthermore. if a male beneficiary dies or becomes incapacitated. the law gives preference in inheritance rights to a male child over the child's legally married mother. Some 30 percent of rural Honduran households are headed by women at least part time because of the seasonal migration of men to look for work (Saito and Spurling 1992). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the northwest and southwest provinces of Cameroon. an estimated 50 percent or more of those who claimed land within the first ten years of land registration (1974-85) were classified as public servants. Over 32 percent of all the remaining land titles went to businesses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women make up more than 51 percent of Cameroon s population and do more than 75 percent of the agricultural work. but they are virtually absent from land registers. Only 3.2 percent of all land titles issued in the Northwest Province were given to women; in the Southwest Province the figure was 7.2 percent. For the country as a whole. it is estimated that women obtained under 10 percent of all land certificates (World Bank 1995a).  to own. use, and transfer land may actually exacerbate the insecurity of women's land claims and. as a result, harm household welfare. For example, there is evidence that land titling focused on male household heads has adversely affected women's ability to farm independently. Moreover. intrahousehold inequalities in income and decisionmaking have increased (FAO 1993) In Africa some titling programs have allowed men to take advantage of their control over land to redesignate land formerly cultivated by women as household land. This switch provided the opportunity for men to increase the amount of work they expect from women on household plots. In other cases women have received smaller and less fertile plots than they had before for their personal crops (FAO 1993).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Recognizing women's independent claims to land is therefore an important issue in property reform. In poor households. having rights to land could alleviate both women's own poverty and the household's risk of remaining poor. The season is mainly that women s access to economic resources has a positive effect on household welfare (Agarwal 1994). From the point of view of efficiency, secret land tenure increases the incentive to manage resources efficiently and expands access to formal credit markets. Because secure land tenure can mean greater productivity, it may also increase the household's incentives to invest in women's human capital.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Access to Extension Services</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Agricultural extension services provide information training and technology to agricultural producers. Extension services have always been regarded as necessary for agricultural modernization. Given the importance of women's labor to agriculture in most regions, providing women with access to agricultural extension services is essential for current and future productivity. Types of agricultural extension services vary, hut in most countries publicly provided services dominate. Evidence suggests that women have not benefited as much as men have from publicly provided extension services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Given the importance of women's labor to agriculture it is in most regions providing women with access to agricultural extension services is essential for current  and future of productivity.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A review of five African countries shows that extension agents are most likely to visit male farmers than female farmers (table 2.5) The impact of this inequity on female productivity depends in part on whether women and men within households pool information. There is, however. little evidence to suggest that this happens (see box 2.4). It is important to ensure that extension services reach omen directly, not only to redress gender inequalities but also to maximize productive efficiency. omen play a critical role in production of food and cash crops for the household. in postharvest activities. and in livestock care Men and omen perform different tasks they can substitute for one another only to a limited extent. and this imitation creates different demands for extension information Also, as men leave farms in search of paid employment ill urban areas. women are increasingly managing and operating farms on a regular and full-time basis. Hence. omen are becoming a constituency for extension and research services in their own right (World Bank 1994e)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.5 visits by agricultural extension agents (percentage of households visited)</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=439>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Country and year</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Households with female head</B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Households with male head</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Kenya. 1989</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">112</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Malawi, 1989</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">70</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">58</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Nigeria 1989</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">37</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">22</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tanzania, 1984</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">40</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">20</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="37%" VALIGN="TOP" COLSPAN=2>
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Zambia</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="4%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1982</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">57</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">29</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="4%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD WIDTH="33%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1986</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">60</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="32%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">19</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 2.4 do women farmers learn from their husbands?</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A survey of women farmers in Burkina Faso found that 40 percent had some knowledge of modern crop and livestock production technologies. For most of these women, relatives and friends were the source of information; nearly one-third had acquired their knowledge from the extension service, and only 1 percent had heard of the technologies from their husbands.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Men are less likely to pass information on to their wives when crops and tasks are gender specific. In Malawi women claimed that their husbands rarely passed on advice to them: if their husbands did tell them something. the women did not find it relevant to their needs. In India women learned from friends, relatives. neighbors. and sometimes from their husbands. but this second-hand information seldom changed their production patterns (Saito and Spurling 1992). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The expansion of agricultural services beyond the public sector is a growing phenomenon in developing economies. The inadequacies of public funding plus the need to provide snore client-oriented services, suggest that the private sector has an important role to play However, women's limited access to land and credit put the many potential benefits offered by extension services out of reach. For example in Kenya's Meru and Maranga areas more than half the women surveyed cited a shortage of cash as their reason for not adopting, technologies that would maximize their output and increase their efficiency. The amount of education omen receive and the efficiency with which they run their farms are also closely linked This tie is particularly significant in light of the fact that one purpose of extension services is to advise farmers on use of modern technology.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three studies of Kenya found that the gender of the farm manager was, by itself. an insignification factor in output per hectare but that the manager's educational level had a significant effect on farm productivity (Moock 1976: Saito and Spurling 1992: Bindlish and Evenson 1993). Simulations based on these studies suggest that significant gains could accrue to increased investment in women's physical and human capital. As the data in table 2.6 show, if women and men shared the same educational characteristics and input levels. farm-specific yields would increase between 7 and 22 percent. Giving women primary schooling, by itself. would increase yields by 24 percent. Thus under investment in women's education limits growth of agricultural productivity. Well-targeted extension services can help to narrow the differences in productivity that arise from educational inequalities (Schultz 1988)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Increasing Human Capital and Input Levels Would Increase tile Yield for Women Farmers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Table 2.6 effects of increasing women farmers' human capital and input levels Increase  yields</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policy experiment </B></FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">(percent)</B></FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Maize farmers Kenya, 1976</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of giving female farmers sample mean characteristics and input levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of giving female farmer s men's education and input levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">9</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of giving women primary schooling</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">24</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Food maize (maize beans and cow pears) farmers</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">&nbsp;</TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of giving female farmer men's education and input levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2.0</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of increasing land area to male farmers' levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">10.5</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+<TR><TD WIDTH="82%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effects of increasing fertilizer to male farmers' levels</FONT></TD>
+<TD WIDTH="18%" VALIGN="TOP">
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1.6</FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Conclusion</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Analysts must look beyond market outcomes to identity the sources of persistent inequality between women and men. The search must focus on the household and its role in the formation of present and future human capital and on institutions beyond the household that reinforce and perpetuate gender inequalities. Gender inequalities within the household affect market outcomes, and these feed back; into household decisionmaking. This process is reinforced by inequalities in access to assets and services beyond the household. Improving the relative status of women within the household and increasing their access to assets and services will increase the returns to investment in human resources and improve the prospects for sustainable economic growth.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">We must look for that which we have been trained not to see  Ann Scales, Yale Law Journal 1986</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Chapter three</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Public Policies Matter</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As CHAPTER 2 has shown underivesting in girls and women is inefficient for society as a whole. Correcting for past underinvestment will require a "genders" approach to public policy. How this can be concretely achieved is the topic of this chapter.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Equalizing Opportunities by Modifying, the Legal Framework</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Laws form tile functional framework of the economy and of civil society. Equality in the legal treatment of men and women creates the legitimacy policymakers need to seek change. Legal and regulatory provisions that discriminate against women-that. for example bar married women from seeking employment or prevent women from holding legal title to land-perpetuate gender inequalities and severely restrict women's ability to participate fully in social and economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Modifying the legal framework to  eliminate discrimination and equalize opportunities for women and men is an important goal for public policy at the national and international levels. A supportive legal environment is also vital for other aspects of public policy that have a direct bearing on the opportunities available to women. such as regulations affecting the formal and informal sectors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Four areas of the law are particularly important for equalizing the opportunities available to men and women: land and property rights; labor market policies and employment law: family law: and financial laws and regulations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Land and Property Rights</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Policymakers should ensure that women and men are treated equally in the public allocation of land. Eligibility for land reform programs, for example. should not discriminate against women's perform claims whether the women are heads of households or members of households headed by men. When communities have been resettled or when a project allocates land to participating producers, women should have the same rights to land as men For refugee and displaced women returning to their homelands. often as de facto heads of households. need fair and equal treatment to allow them to establish a Farming or enterprise base as soon as possible. Whet-e land is in short supply, it may be necessary to recognize the land rights of certain groups, as well as their individual rights. The Indian National Sericulture Project is an example; it has leased land to women's groups and promoted women's access to land under state land-grant schemes (Quisumbilig 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Some countries have enacted legislation to ensure gender equality in property and contractual rights. Under China's Law of Succession, for example males and females have equal rights to inheritance. Complementary measures are needed to ensure that women know their rights. Such measures include legal programs and campaigns to make judges and administrators sensitive to gender issues in the area of property rights (see box 2.1)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Labor Market Policies and Employment Law</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Discriminatory labor market policies and employment laws are widespread: examples are bans on hiring married women and restrictions on the type of work pregnant women may pet-form. Labor laws may also restrict female participation in jobs and deny women access to work settings. Even legislation that seeks to promote equal opportunity can have outcomes tot women workers. For example, generous maternity and child-care benefits tot women workers may make hiring women relatively mote costly than hiring men. perpetuating the gender wage gap.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The main issue for public policy its to ensure that fair and equal employment laws exist and are enforced.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.1 some NGO efforts to promote women's legal literacy</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Schuler and Kadirgamar - Rajasingham (1992) describe innovative approaches by  non governmental organizations to provide women with useful legal knowledge and tools.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Caribbean Association for Feminist Research and Action (CAFRA) has launched "women and the law" projects in five English-speaking Caribbean countries. Using a participatory methodology. the projects aim to create awareness of the law. provide women with legal information that will be useful to them in their daily lives, identify specific areas for action, and influence overall legislative policy. The projects develop educational materials for legal literacy and offer topic specific paralegal training for women's organizations.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The legal literacy program of the Ugandan Women Lawyers' Association (FDA-Uganda) conducts legal literacy campaigns on specified dates each month in different districts. Pairs of FIDA volunteers conduct sessions, using role playing and discussions, on legal topics of relevance to women's lives and provide advice on contacting the FIDA legal clinic for advice and representation. In addition, FIDA and Action for Development broadcast regular radio and television programs on women and the law and publish pamphlets on legal issues of interest to women. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In India the Self - Employed Women's Association (SEWA) holds worker education meetings to provide members with legal information and offers one day training sessions on specialized legal information for community leaders. Members of SEWA paralegal staff research cases, prepare briefs, and argue all cases in labor courts for members. SEWA'S legal literacy efforts are part of its overall strategy of action for supporting self-employed women and women in the informal sector.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In this regard. the main issue for public policy is to ensure that fair and equal employment laws exist and are enforced. Such laws should cover employment and employment-related benefits and should not be applied in a way that restricts women's access to the labor market.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many countries women are protected by special standards in the workplace. These safeguards are of two types. The first includes measures intended to end discrimination in the labor market by requiring equal pay for work of equal value or by prohibiting the exclusion of workers from certain jobs because of gender. The second type protects women in their role as mottles by requiring employers to pay the full cost of maternity leave and provide childcare facilities. restricting night work, and limiting work categorized as dangerous or hazardous.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The first type of labor standard is often difficult to enforce. although nearly 120 countries have enacted equal opportunity laws. In most cases the law is in place but is not enforced. Furthermore. it often applies only to the formal sector of the labor market. leaving large number of women in the informal sector with little protection. More concerted public and private action is required to devise appropriate for enforcement. In additions complementary measures are needed to increase womens chances of entering the labor force. Such measures would include mote met-it-based hiring of women in the public sector and the creation of an appropriate regulatory framework that encourages the establishment of day-care centers private nursery schools. and kindergartens for the children of workers in both the formal and informal sectors. (Box 3.2 describes a day-care projects in Bolivia)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many countries have laws that limit night work. over theme and the use of heavy machinery by women. While well intentioned. these laws. too. can reduce women's employment options by raising the employer's cost of hiring women and perpetuating the notion that women workers are less flexible than male workers. This adverse result occurs because women already tend to have lower levels of capital than men and are limited by traditional notions of what womens work. Devising effective protective legislation for women is thus a difficult balancing act.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Effective laws to protect women must honor the fine line between ensuring sate working conditions for all workers, including women in the informal sector. and providing equal opportunities for all workers seeking employment. Standards relating to maternity leave and child-care benefits are common in the formal sector. To ensure that such standards do not raise the costs of female labor unnecessarily employment legislation should avoid having employers pay benefits directly. Maternity benefits should be funded through general revenue taxes</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.2 day-care center in Bolivia to enhance the status of women by increasing their employment opportunities in other Latin American countries, and their knowledge of women in Bolivia are over represented , health, and nutrition. The project among the poor, and many live in will establish day-care centers to proficult circumstances. They are twice vice non formal,  home-based, integrals likely as men to be illiterate, their child development for children unaccess to child care is limited, they the age of 6 in thirty-four poor subject to discrimination in hiring ban and purebred areas. Women and wages, and they are restricted benefit from the project either as by law from engaging in certain procure givers employed at the minimum ductive activities. wage or as clients of the centers. The Integrated Child Development children in day care gives women Project, financed by a credit from the more time to search for jobs or to in World Bank's International Development their current situations (Winkler opponent Association designed and Guedes 1995).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Or social security systems rather than by direct contributions from individual employers. In Eastern Europe and Latin America, however, this method of funding benefits has imposed a significant cost on the treasury, raising the question of how much should be paid and for how long.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">One way of addressing this issue is for governments to encourage women and men to share the responsibility for childrearing by adopting legislation allowing either parent to qualify for the leave and benefits associated with having a child (Folbre 1994). Such legislation can be supported by changes in the tax system to ensure equal treatment of workers within the household and a margin tax rate on the earnings of additional workers in the household low enough to avoid creating a disincentive to women's participation in the labor force (Mac Donald 1994). These tax changes can be complemented by legislation that encourages absent to pay child support. Such laws are in place in many Latin American and Caribbean countries. but none systematically monitors transfers (Folbre 1994). Greater efforts to enforce the law are needed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Family Law</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender inequality in family law can worsen women's bargaining position within and outside the household and affect household welfare and efficiency. As noted in chapter women's bargaining position in relation to Household resource allocation is often a key factor in determining the wellbeing of household members. particularly children. Reforms of family law can enhance women's economic and social opportunities while still respecting cultural norms. For instance the minim age of marriage for women  should be set high enough so that girls can complete secondary schooling: this would help lower fertility rates. (Allowing for exceptions such as parent consent negates the potential fertility benefit.) Marriage contracts should include stipulations guaranteeing the wife's rights. especially on separation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Women's bargaining position in relation to household</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Legal and policy measures can have a direct bearing on the health of women. The law and its enforcement are essential for combating domestic violence against women. If the laws on violence against women are to be enforced, women need to be made aware of the legal recourse available to them and the judiciary and police need to be sensitized to the existence and</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.3 innovative approaches to combating gender violence</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Brazil's women-only police stations are an innovative approach to the problem of violence against women. They have been so successful that other countries-including Argentina, Colombia, Costa Rica, India, Peru, and Uruguay-have emulated them. The police stations have made it easier for women to report gender based crimes of violence, and, with that experience, women are now demanding more support from the police, such as legal counseling and advice. Despite the program's success, the number of convictions for gender-based crimes has not increased, largely because similar innovations have not been made in the  judicial system (Heise, Pitanguy, and Germain 1994). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Zimbabwe the Mussasa project provides support and counseling to abused women and sensitizes police and prosecutors to the issues of domestic violence and rape. To ensure the credibility and acceptability of the training, legal professionals are involved in the program. One branch of the criminal justice system-the police department, for example-often hosts training for another, such as prosecutors (Stewart 1992).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Costa Rica El Instituto Legal de las Naciones Unidas y Desarrollo runs gender sensitization training for prosecutors, judges, lawyers, and other professionals who deal with crimes of violence against women (Heise, Pitanguy, and Germain 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Implication of violence against women. Affirmative action policies can increase the number of women police officers lawyers, and judges. Trading police, lawyers, and judges can increase their gender sensitivity. making the legal system more responsive to women's needs. Legal literacy efforts can make women aware of their rights and show them how to use these rights to mobilize for change. Some approaches to dealing with domestic violence are illustrated in box 3.3</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Financial Laws and Regulations</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Access to credit is vital for women, allowing them to manage fluctuations in income and expenditures and to expand their businesses. As we saw in the preceding chapters, credit can be an important source of economic empowerment for women within the household. But in many countries. underdeveloped financial markets, controlled interest rates, and overly rigid backings regulations have led to systems of credit that tend to shut out the pool. many of whom are women If financial institutions are to lend to those unable to obtain credit in the current environment. interest rates must be liberalized. Positive interest rates have important effects on informational money markets, which tend to be more exploitative when formal sector credit is rationed.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Changes in the laws governing access to credit are also vital because women's business profiles often differ from men's. Compared with men. women are more likely to work in low-risk small, and home-based businesses (Rhyne and Holt 1994). This situation creates a demand for small loans that can be obtained without formal, legally secured collateral and that offer relatively flexible repayment terms. Legislation that encourages broad access to financial institutions can increase the availability of these types of loans. but legal changes may also be needed to extend the range of acceptable collateral.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In many countries the regulatory framework contains provisions that are especially punitive to small firms. This adds an additional constraint on women, whose businesses are concentrated at the small end of the size The deregulation of the microentreprise sector would remove implicit disincentives to small-film activity and would relieve some of these Such action would enhance women entrepreneurs' prospects of benefiting from training or credit programs targeted to the microentreprise sector (World Bank 1994d. 1995c).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Redirecting Public Policies and Expenditure to Promote (tender Equality)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is unlikely that legal reform by itself will be sufficient to ensure that women and men ate treated equally. Further public action may be required to guarantee that gentler-neutral laws are enforced at both national and local levels.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Macroeconomic: Policies</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Many developing countries are implementing important policy and institutional reforms to address changing economic conditions on both the domestic and international fronts. These reforms are often supported by international financial institutions and bilateral donors. The pace of reform has varied across countries Those countries that have implemented reforms early on, carried them out consistently, and received adequate financial support have generally enjoyed faster and stronger economic growth than count ties that have undertaken reforms too slowly, too intermittently, or not at all. Where implementation has been slow or the government's commitment weak, economic distortions have tended to multiply and economic trowels to slow. limiting the government's ability to invest in physical and human capital for the future.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is often the poorest groups in society that stand to lose the most from economic distortions. High and rising inflation places a disproportionate tax burden on the poor including low-paid wage workers and those with fixed incomes. For this and other reasons, inflation tends to hit women harder than men. An overvalued currency is also regressive; it keeps the price of goods artificially low. crowding out many locally produced goods. Women's businesses. which ate often concentrated in the informal sector, can be particularly vulnerable to competitions from cheap snorts. An overvalued currency reduces international competitiveness. limiting the availability of foreign exchange for domestic entrepreneurs and constraining business expansion and employment creation. A firm commitment to policy refortify is therefore essential to economic growth and sustainable initiatives for alleviating poverty.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Inflation tends to hit women harder than men.</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Such reforms generally include two kinds of necessary policies. The first emphasizes macroeconomic stability and the removal of price distortions: the second promotes labor-demanding growth in agriculture and industry and better. mote accessible basic social services. mightily in education, health care and water supply. Macroeconomic stability can be achieved by reducing large current account and government budget deficits and by curtailing excessive money and credit expansion. Correct pricing of foreign exchange and of domestic goods and services facilitates trade and investment and promotes growth Reforms of trade and price incentives encourage job creation and higher earnings.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In shots. broadly based economic reforms benefit the poor, as the experiences of diverse countries have shown. Data from the LSMS and similar studies confirm that in Costa Rica, Ethiopia. Than Indonesia, Peru, the Philippines, and Tanzania, declines in poverty rates have accompanied economic reforms. Because of underlying gender inequalities, reductions in poverty do not necessarily improve the economic status of women. Nonetheless. although empirical evidence on changes in women's welfare following reforms is scarce, data from the Philippines suggest that for women. economic reform is by improvements in social indicators and important employment gains (box 3.4). An analysis of household data from Peru indicates that reforms there have not only led to renewed growth and reduced poverty but have also improved the status of female-headed households (box 3.5).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Despite their seminal role in encouraging sustainable. long-term growth. some economic reforms involve transitional costs. for two reasons: the need to implement radical shifts in government policy, and the lag. perhaps of years, between acceleration of economic growth and the realization of the 
+</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.4 social progress and labor force gains for women in the Philippines</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The Philippines began implementing economic reforms in the early 1980s. While political turmoil and some policy slippage have weakened GDP growth over the period and led to the need for further reforms, quality of life indicators have improved during adjustment. For example, by 1990 the incidence of absolute poverty had declined by about one-third (to approximately 20 percent of the population). Maternal and infant mortality rates also declined over the period: in 1980 the infant mortality rate was 52 per 1,000 live births, but by 1990 it had fallen to 41 per 1,000 births (Johansen 1993). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The percentage of the population with access to safe drinking water increased between 1980 and 1990, from 65 to 93 percent of the urban population and from 43 to 72 percent of the rural population. The figures for sanitation services showed the same increase, climbing from 81 percent with access in 1980 to 98 per  cent in 1990 among urban dwellers and from 67 to 85 percent among those in rural areas. Secondary school enrollment rates for boys and girls also showed gains. Girls and boys have traditionally reached similar educational levels in the Philippines, a trend that contributed to women's gains in the labor market during adjustment in the 1980s. While labor force participation rates for men rose only slightly, the rates for women increased dramatically, from 23 to 37 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">At the same time, women's wages as a percentage of men's grew from 71 to 80 percent between 1978 and 1988 (Tzannatos 1995). A recent study of a low-income community in Manila found that in some private sector jobs women earn more than men, reflecting in part the high educational level among women in the sector. Earnings in the informal sector are generally low for both women and men. although some women have been so successful in their informal sector businesses that their spouses have opted to leave low-paying jobs in the formal sector to participate in their wives enterprises (Moser 1994).  benefits of growth by large segments of the population. The short-term costs can include increases in food prices as subsidies are removed temporary restrictions on credit to control monetary expansion, and cuts in public spending as governments attempt to control budget deficits and reorient spending toward the most important public services. Moreover, inequalities in access to and control over resources and in entry into markets hamper some groups in taking advantage of the opportunities created by economic reform For example, people who are unable to acquire new skills may remain for some thee. Gender inequalities in access to and control over land in rural areas can keep women farmers from taking advantage of changes in the relative prices of tradable and non tradable crops.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.5 macroeconomic reform and improved living standards in Peru</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Between 1985 and 1990 Peru's economic regime was marked by expansionary monetary and fiscal policies and high levels of government intervention in most areas of the economy. Although these policies led to an initial period of growth, the approach proved unsustainable: by late 1987 growth had given way to hyperinflation and deep recession. During 1988-90 real GDP dropped by an average of 8 percent a year. Real wages and consumption expenditure also fell sharply as inflation soared to 7,600 percent a year in 1990.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In 1990 the new government of President Alberto Fujimori introduced macroeconomic reform measures designed to stabilize the economy, reduce fiscal deficits and inflation, increase market efficiency, and improve the country's competitiveness. Under this reform program inflation declined dramatically, falling to 57 percent in 1992 and to 17 percent in 1994. Real GDP grew by about 20 percent between 1991 and 1994, while real per capita consumption expenditure grew by more than 18.5 percent. LSMS data show that poverty declined by 11 percent-from 55 percent of the population in 1991 to 49 percent in 1994. Although the country experienced a brief contractionary period following the introduction of reform measures, household data from Lima for 1990, 1991, and 1994 indicate that in 1994 per capita expenditure was well above, and the incidence of poverty well below, 1990 levels. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Improvements in living standards have been widespread, and the largest gains have been made in some of the country's poorest regions, such as the urban and rural sierra (mountain areas). In most parts of the country, increases in per capita expenditure among households headed by women have been above the national average. In the urban and rural sierra, for example. consumption expenditure by these households increased by 47.7 and 44.8 percent. respectively-figures that compare favorably with increases in per capita expenditure among households headed by men (35 and 28 percent for the same regions).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although both women and men are expected to gain from economic reform in the long run. gender inequalities at the household and market levels can mean that the benefits of reform reach women, especially poor women. only slowly. Reforms must incorporate measures aimed at counter acting shot-term transitional costs. Among the most important are safety nets specifically targeted to vulnerable groups. For example, in fiscal 1994 seventeen of the twenty-three reform programs supported by the World Bank included components aimed specifically at reducing poverty: fourteen of them targeted programs or safety net measures such as labor-intensive public works projects. targeted and social assistance programs, and unemployment and social security schemes (see box 3.6).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7 WIDTH=590>
+<TR><TD VALIGN="TOP">
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.6 food coupons improve nutrition in Honduras</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The food coupon program in Honduras, part of a social safety net supported by the World Bank and financed by IDA and other donors, was put in place in 1990 to protect the country's most vulnerable people during economic reforms. Starting with about 182,000 participants, by 1994 the program had expanded its coverage to 345.000 of the estimated 430,000 children at risk of malnutrition. The effort also supports nutrition education for health workers, community groups, and mothers. Because coupons are used instead of food. the government saves some 30 percent over traditional food distribution costs, and the beneficiaries are able to choose the food  they will consume. Beginning in 1995, an adjustment for inflation will maintain the value of the coupons, enabling participants to satisfy a constant proportion of their food needs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The project also supports the development and implementation of a long-term nutrition assistance strategy for Honduras. Although attempting to measure changes in malnutrition is difficult in the short term, there have already been noticeable benefits. Between 1990 and 1993 the number of first-graders with severe or moderate malnutrition dropped by 4 percent. Organizers are now trying to graduate women participants from the program by offering training in basic skills such as food processing and helping them find assembly work in local factories (World Bank 1995b). </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However, safety nets are not a substitute for a mote integrated approach to economic and social policy that includes appropriate levels of harvest in social services and infrastructure. Recognizing this fact, governments and donors are increasingly incorporating into their reform packages antipoverty initiatives and measures to reduce gender inequality. In Pakistan, for example, the FIDA-financed Public Sector Adjustment. Program provides much needed the financial support for the balance of payments account and reinforces the emphasis on government investment in the social sectors. The program promotes increased access to and improvements in basic education. health. and water supply services that benefit girls and rural areas. It also supports a shift it government education and health spending toward the primary level.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In fiscal 1994 twelve of twenty-three World Bank economic reform pro emphasized the restructuring public expenditure, primarily to and increase spending on education. health care, and other areas important to poverty reduction such as water supply and sanitation. The Burkina Faso reform program is typical; it supports an increase in the total budgeted amounts for primary education and health services, which are particularly beneficial to the poor and to women. Uganda s program seeks to protect and enhance public expenditures for basic social services. including water supply primary health care and primary education. In the long term, the reform of public spending-especially in the social sectors, physical infrastructure and agricultural research and extension-promises significant benefits) trot women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Sectoral Investments</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In principle. public expenditures on social services and infrastructure are allocated on a gender-neutral basis; in practice men and women use these services differently. The resulting inequalities frequently perpetuate gender based differences in the accumulation and distribution of human capital within households. Public policy can address this problem by public expenditure priorities between secrets and within social sectors. Further it can support services and types of infrastructure that provide the highest social returns to public spending and are most heavily used by women  and children.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">EDUCATION. Estimations of the private returns to education for a number of countries (Psachatopoulos 1994) show that returns are at least equal for girls anti boys and are often higher for girls. Moreover, these rates do not capture the externalities generated by providing education to girls. The combination of private and social returns provides a clear signal for restructuring the allocations of public resources so as to support female education. Yet incidence analysis for a number of countries for which the necessary data are available reveals that educational subsidies per capita are higher for males than for females This difference is partly a result of the bias in allocation of subsidies toward higher levels of education, where female enrolled is lowest. Distortions in the allocation of public resources, such as the provision of mote money foe male-dominated tertiary institutions than for education that benefits girls, should be corrected by reallocating spending toward basic (primary and lower-secondary) schooling. Targeting these educational levels will have the maximum effect on girls' education and will yield higher social returns for society as a whole. In countries where universal basic education has been achieved and capital markets are unable to help households finance higher education, continuing subsidize higher education may be warranted. The rationale for the subsidy would be the productivity gains associated with a better-trained labor force.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">To correct the bias against enrollment of girls more targeted interventions are need to influence household (see decisionmaking)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">However reallocating public spending toward primary education and later toward higher levels is not sufficient to erase the gender gap in education The bias against enrolling girls in school is evident in both poor and no poor households and applies even at the primary level. To correct this bias, more targeted interventions are needed to influence household decision making</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">HEALTH. Correcting the gender bias in the public financing of health care IS a more complex process than correcting the bias in education. for two main reasons: the marked differences between the health needs of men and women, and the unreliability of household data on demand for health services in comparison with the data on demand tot education). However it is cleat that targeting health services to women implies provision of adequate funding for prenatal care. infant immunization, and mother and child health services. Because of the significant social benefits of providing women with appropriate health care, governments should make basic services ices that benefit women a top priority among, public health care expenditures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There is a critical link between the public provision of health care and women's access to educational opportunities. A mother educated to seek preventive care and early treatment of illness for herself and her children (particularly girls) will reduce the cost of health care and in many cases. prevent premature death. Most of these highly cost-effective services can be supplied in rural clinics and health centers. Public spending should be so allocated as to ensure sufficient funding for these primary health facilities.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICES. Agricultural extension and research services are widely considered vital to increasing and sustaining agricultural productivity. Many of these services are being provided by the private sector. but in some countries private services need public support, either because certain markets have not yet been developed or because the infrastructure is poorly developed. However. women farmers and small holders are often not served as effectively by public agricultural extension systems as ate and male farmers (FAO 1993). This disparity stems paltry from expend priorities within agricultural extension services. which concentrate resources on the crops and the technology controlled primarily by male commercial farmers. Reallocating public spending on agricultural extension and research services toward crops and technology raised by or used by small holders and women farmers could yield high social returns to public investment and could increase private returns by improving the skills and productivity of small agricultural producers.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reallocating public spending on agricultural extension  and research services toward crops and technology </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Techniques for small holders and women farmers should take into account the need for quality and cost-effectiveness in public services, Economies of scale can be achieved if extension agents deal with groups of farmers instead of with individuals. This approach also provides a valuable forum for exchanging information. fostering peer learning. sharing expensive equipment. and pooling resources for- credit. Mobile trailing units and flexible hours that fit the crowded schedules of women farmers should also be considered. and more female extension agents should be trained to deal directly with female farmers. Such measures can be introduced without large additional resources if existing expenditures are carefully reallocated.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">INFRASTRUCTURE, Public investment in economic and social infrastructure is vital in facilitated individual and household investment in physical and human capital. However, public expenditures on roads, water supply, and sanitation infrastructure frequently do not meet the needs of those who use the services most heavily. Women are the main users of water services, and it is essential to involve them in designing and implementing water projects. For example. in areas where transport is inadequate and water collection is a daily burden for women and children, the population tends to use the closest available facility rather than the safest one. In such cases. projects that ensure a safe water supply and take into account the specific needs and constraints of the users often have a significant effect on users' health. In two villages in Zaire where a piped water network was installed to provide safe drinking water, the median incidence of diarrhea was halved among children in households located less than a five-minute walk from a public standpipe. Spending allocations that favor public water supply and sanitation improve the general health of the population, save time for women and children. and increase school attendance. A study from Morocco chows that access to tap and well water instead of pond or river water raised school enrollment for both boys and girls (Khandker, Lavy, and Filer 1994).</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Women are the main users of water services and it is essential  to involve them in designing and implementing water projects.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Public spending on roads and energy-related facilities (for instance electrification or energy conservation) or other infrastructure is usually assumed to be gander neutral. Yet women and men use these facilities differently The Morocco study cited above found that the availability of electricity increased the rate for girls substantially more than for boys. The study also showed that the presence of a paved road increased by 40 percent the probability that girls would attend school and reduced by 5 percent their probability of dropping out. Overall, improved road conditions increased the probability of school attendance for girls by 32 percent and for boys by 20 percent.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Rural electrification can also ease the time constraints on women who must balance household and productive work. Lack of time is often a primary season for women's weak response to economic incentives. especially in rural areas. The case for making public investments in infrastructure would be stronger if gender differences in the use of projects and services, as well as the potential effect of such investment on productivity and social development. were taken into account.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Using Targeting Measures to Narrow the Gender</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">As we have seen. policies that specifically target women or girls can address the needs or this group more efficiently and with greater cost-effectiveness than general policy measures. Female household members tend to allocate resources more directly to children. while men tend to allocate more resources to adults. In households in which resources are not pooled. targeting programs to the household as a where will not necessarily benefit all members equally.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Targeting women directly is justifiable on two grounds. First, to the extent that gender inequalities prevent an economy from realizing its full potential. targeting to women can be an effective strategy for increasing productivity and output Second, where gender differences are wide, targeting may be needed to capture social gains and to increase internal efficiency.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Targeting women is especially when doing so contributes directly to reducing poverty; or when women have particular needs-for example. when maternal mortality is very high. The exceptionally high gender gap in educational enrollments in some countries can be reduced only by policies (including subsidies) that target girls. An obvious example would be policies that affect the private costs of schooling. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Female household members tend to allocate resources more  directly to children it while men</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Reducing these direct costs to households Will mean setting new public spending priorities. For example. education institutions for girls especially at the primary level, might be exempted from cost recovery measures. thus increasing the implied public spending subsidy to girls. Similarly. a far; number of publicly funded scholarships can be provided for girls' as has been done in and Guatemala.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Opportunity and travel costs can discourage parents from enrolling especially daughters in school. Some counties have tried to overcome the constraints imposed by opportunity costs by introducing flexible school hours and calendar years and providing child care for younger siblings (box 3.7). In some cases girls who are responsible for looking after their younger brothels and sisters ate allowed to bring them to school.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In countries where cultural values may prevent girls from traveling alone to school. measures are needed that will increase access to safe transport.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<TABLE BORDER CELLSPACING=1 CELLPADDING=7>
+<TR><TD>
+<B><FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Box 3.8 economic reforms and gender targeting in Mongolia</P>
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Since Mongolia began its transition to a market economy in 1990, the living conditions of the population have deteriorated dramatically. According to the government's estimates, a quarter of all Mongolians are now living below the poverty line. Single women with young children are among the "new" vulnerable groups that have emerged in the wake of the transition. As of December 1993 nearly 72 percent of households headed by single persons, usually women, were estimated to have incomes below the poverty line. (About 28 percent of all households in Mongolia are headed by women). The Mongolian Women's Federation reports that the divorce rate is rising among jobless low-income couples, increasing the number of single-parent households. </FONT></TD>
+</TR>
+</TABLE>
+
+<FONT SIZE=2><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Along with job loss women are affected by the decline in services such as day care and maternity homes.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Mothers now have to look after their children at home, which restricts their ability to participate in the labor market and, ironically, increases their dependence on welfare. When herds were privatized, priority was given to people who, according to the government, could take better care of the animals. Unfortunately, this policy adversely affected female-headed households.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The maternal mortality rate has doubled over the past three years. in part because many more babies are being delivered at home. Other factors that have contributed to the rising maternal mortality rate include a decrease in the number of ambulances and the need for patients to pay for the food they consume while they are hospitalized.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In Mongolia, targeting female-headed households, pregnant women, and children is essential for reducing poverty. Social assistance, health care. education, and help in finding employment are particularly important (Subbarao and Ezemenari forthcoming).  change the geographic distribution of primary schools, of provide more boarding facilities. Projects in Pakistan are using school mapping techniques to establish criteria for placing new schools in currently underserved areas. Such programs benefit both girls and boys.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It may be necessary to target women when economic reforms of systemic transitions are occurring. For example, in Mongolia, as well as in other countries making the transition from a socialist to a market economy, women are disproportionately represented among the unemployed and otherwise disadvantaged (box 3.8). Thus, in designing safety nets to mitigate the short negative effects or economic transitions. policymakers need to recognize and evaluate the specific adverse effects on women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">It is not always necessary to restrict a particular program of benefit exclusively to women: the objective can sometimes be achieved indirectly.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Techniques based on self-selection appear to be particularly efficient. In Zambia. where men have a strong preference for cash wages, offering wages in kind (food) attracted more women workers than men to public works programs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the financial sector. women entrepreneurs are enabled to borrow at market rates of interest when banking institutions adopt innovate collateral requirements, reduce transaction costs, and offer small loans at repeated intervals The Grameen Bank in Bangladesh and Badan Kredit Kecaman in Indonesia do not reserve loans for women specifically: instead. they adopt innovative lending policies the result of which is that women snake up the majority of participants-is 96 percent in a new branch of the Grameen Bank.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Involving Beneficiaries in Public Policy</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Until recently. the absence of input from beneficiaries often let's ignorant about how the costs and benefits of policy changes would be distributed among the population Today the views and needs of potential beneficiaries are being taken into account at both the macroeconomic and sectoral levels. This trend should make it possible to determine who benefits. who does not, and why. A good example of a situation in which a beneficiary's point of view can make a significant difference is in public expenditure reviews. Governments with unsustainable budget deficits must make difficult decisions about the allocation of public resources. Their task can of ten be facilitated by suggestions from the potential beneficiaries themselves, since one of the key questions policymakers face is whether investments as presently allocated are reaching the intended populations efficiently and effectively</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Three broad approaches can be used to guarantee that the views of women and other intended beneficiaries are adequately reflected in policy and project formulation. First. surveys and other methods of collecting statistical data can be designed to ensure that gender-desegregated data are properly collected and analyzed. Second, beneficiary assessments, which use a range of qualitative research methods such as direct observation. selected individual of group interviews. and case studies. can be used to ensure that the views of all groups are adequately represented.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A third approach involves a range of participatory planning and management techniques that reflect a significant transfer of control to the community and local levels. Participatory evaluations use innovative research that allow illiterate and otherwise voiceless groups to express their concerns and priorities. Small grants and credits managed at the local level by NGOs or governments agencies permit a community to choose the projects that best reflect its OWN priorities. Social funds. whereby resources are channeled to demand-driven projects, are one such mechanism While these participatory approaches have been implemented primarily at the local level, they are also beginning to be used to involve the community in regional and national planning. Participatory methods, by helping to create local capacity. ensure the sustainability of projects and programs. They also help establish rational criteria for making public investment choices that incorporate both social and efficiency objectives.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Generating and Analyzing Gender-Desegregated Data</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender-desegregated data and the capacity to analyze these data provide public policymakers with essential information and enhance the dialogue with agents outside government. One of the most valuable instruments for collecting desegregated data is the household survey. which can provide detailed information that is invaluable in policymaking. Obtaining full gender information in many instances entails only a small increase in costs. since the desegregation itself involves little extra work. However additional resources ate often needed to analyze the data and make it useful to policymakers. Public statistical agencies might analyze gender-desegregated information in partnership with private and academic institutions in order to share the costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">There are several important steps in collecting useful and accurate data. First. in places where gender -desegregated household data have not yet been collected. special efforts should be made to obtain them. At a minimum data on how individuals use health and educational services should be collected routinely as part of national consumption and expenditure surveys. If household consumption. income or production surveys have already been carried out but little or no gender--desegregated data have been collected, the marginal cost of collection is likely to be quite modest-perhaps on the order of 10 percent of total costs.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Participatory methods help establish rational criteria  for making public investment choose that incorporate  both social and efficiency objectives. </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Second. in places where basic gender-desegregated data have already been collected, it is important to gather more data from individuals on consumption and. as much as possible. on income and the ownership of assets. Such data ate vital for developing a deeper understanding of how access to and allocation and control of resources are determined within households. More data on men's and women's access to credit and information services, such as agricultural extension programs, are needed for an understanding of women's limited access to important production inputs. The data also indicate the effectiveness of projects and programs in providing such services to women.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Third, there should be an increased emphasis on collecting panel data (thee series) to facilitate snore detailed analyses of changes in household behavior over time. Because full panel surveys are costly, it may be necessary to adopt less-expensive panel methods and combine them with flexible data collection. Anthropological and participatory research methods can be used to enhance the quality and relevance of formal survey questions, as well as to provide a "reality check" on formal survey responses.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Finally, greater priority needs to be given to gender-disaggregated analysis of existing data sets. This analysis should be carried out not only in social sectors such as health and education but also on such issues as the intrahousehold allocation of time and labor and access to and use of productive resources.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Working in Collaboration</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments' ability to identify and implement policies that promote gender equality is greatly enhanced by the active participation of other players from the development community and civil society. These agents include individual women and men, community-based groups, private-for-profit firms, trade unions, non governmental organizations, and multilateral and bilateral agencies. Interaction between public institutions and other actors provides the basis for a more informed policy dialogue on gender issues. It also lays the foundation for operational collaboration and for broadly based support for public policy measures.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Over the past several decades NGOs have become major players in international development. NGOs are by no means homogenous. In the field of development, they range from large volunteer and charity organizations, many of them based in industrial countries, to community-based self-help groups. They also include research institutes, volunteer-sending agencies, religious organizations, professional associations, and lobbying groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">NGOs concerned with gender issues have had a particularly important role in designing and implementing gender programs, especially at the grassroots level, and in advocating policy change at the national level NGOs have been effective in providing information and education to women and in helping community-based women's organizations lobby for change. In many countries collaboration between NGOs and governments is still relatively new. Nonetheless, it is growing rapidly-most visibly in the delivery of social and financial services.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">For example, in Peru a proposed basic health and nutrition project aims to improve the quality and accessibility of health and nutritional services, with an emphasis on poor women and children. NGOs are expected to play a major role in implementing the project and will be responsible for 75 percent of training and research, 40 percent of education, and 20 percent of service delivery (World Bank 1994g). In Africa many HIV/AIDS support programs are managed by NGOs with assistance from governments and funds from international donors.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the long run choices made by private sector agents are profoundly important for the persistence  or reduction of gender inequalities </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">In the financial services sector NGOs have found innovative ways of overcoming barriers that women face in access to credit and savings facilities. Among the better-know programs are the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, ACCION International in Latin America, and the NGO consortium ACCORD in Africa. NGOs have been very successful in organizing village banks and mobile banking systems to reach the rural poor. These credit programs provide women not only with the funds to finance income-generating activities but also with opportunities to acquire basic business skills and to assume leadership positions within their peer groups.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments also seek to collaborate with a range of institutions from the private sector. In the long run the choices made by private sector agents- whether households, firms, or trade unions-are profoundly important for the persistence or seduction of gender inequalities. Joint public-private sector initiatives can be vital in changing peoples perceptions about the benefits of investing in or hiring women. The private sector has a comparative advantage in providing certain kinds of services to women-for example, vocational education and training. Collaboration with the private sector- often means that public resources can be reallocated to those investments that offer the highest rate of social return. such as basic education and health care.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Strengthening International Policies to Meet New Challenges</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Not all issues that bear on gender equality can be effectively addressed by individual nations. For example, refugee and displaced women and children account for up to 80 percent of the 50 million refugees and displaced persons worldwide. The sheer numbers of refugee and displaced women and children highlight the urgent need to devise international strategies for dealing with this problem.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The sheer numbers of refugee and displaced women and  children (estimated at 4 million) </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The constraints that refugee and displaced women lace are similar to those faced by other women, only magnified many times. They lack access to health services, even though their health risks are high. Girls often have less access to basic education than in their home countries. With little access to family planning, women s fertility rates may be extraordinarily high at a time when the burden of additional children hinders the chances of survival for both mothers and infants. In the absence of professional abortion services, women may rely on self-induced and unsafe abortions. The proportion of female-headed households is highest in refugee situations, yet the women's income-generating activities and skills are minimal</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">The international response to this type of crisis is usually limited to emergency relief measures. Although vital, these measures often fail to recognize the long-term economic and social costs involved in restructuring the lives of displaced women when they return to their home countries. International public policy has an important role in preparing refugee and displaced women for their future role in rebuilding their societies. Long-term repatriation and development on a regional basis along the lines of the International Conference on Central American Refugees (CIREFCA) in Central America is one approach to involving governments, NGOs and development agencies in a coordinated response to refugee problems. Governments and agencies must make every effort to collaborate in making repatriation viable by establishing development programs that explicitly take account of refugees' needs. Otherwise, chances are high that people will once again be forced to leave their countries. putting at risk national reconciliation efforts.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Another area that demands an international response is the establishment of legal conventions for the enforcement of social justice and human rights. Equality under the law creates the legitimacy policymakers and private individuals need to seek change that will increase well-being and encourage economic opportunity. In certain instances, legitimacy needs to be established at the international level. For this reason it is vitally important that governments ratify the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. This convention. adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979, provides a framework for action by countries to reduce discrimination against women in political and public life, law and education, employment, health care. commerce. and domestic relations. International conventions of this type provide an important policy lever for women's organizations and other groups in civil society.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Conclusions</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This chapter has presented the rationale for public interventions to promote gender equality. Such interventions are needed because of market failures and social externalities that extend beyond the individual household to affect society in general. For resources to be allocated efficiently, public spending should focus on those investments with the highest social returns. Given the evidence of high social and private returns to investments in women's human capital, public expenditures should give priority to the investments that have the largest impact on the welfare of girls and women, especially in basic education and reproductive and other health care services. Policymakers also need to identify areas in which actions can be taken that would have gender neutral outcomes, including sectoral programs addressing transport and infrastructure, water supply. and sanitation</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">BY directing  public resource toward policies and projects  that reduce gender inequality policy markers are promoting  not only equality today but also higher labor productivity </P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governments can no longer afford not to invest in women. The evidence on private and social returns to investments in women and girls cannot be ignored. By directing public resources toward policies and projects that reduce gender inequality, policy makers are promoted not only equality today but also higher labor productivity, a higher rate of human capital formation, slower population growth. and stronger economic growth tomorrows However, none of these goals can be reached without the participation of women  themselves. Governments and collaborating institutions must listen carefully to the voices of individual women, to women s groups, and to woman policymakers By working with others to identify and implement policies for greater gander equality, governments can take actions that will make a real difference to the future well-being and prosperity of their people.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">Notes</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">1. Birdsall and Sabot (1994) use earlier findings by Barro (1991) to test the relationship between inequality and growth. They find that in Latin America unequal distribution of education. in terms of both quality and quantity, constrained economic growth in the region by reducing opportunities for increasing labor productivity. In East Asia open and relatively equal access to high-quality basic education led to a virtuous circle of high educational performance that stimulated growth and reduced inequality</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">2. Subbarao and Raney (1993) estimate that a doubling of family planning services in 1982 would have reduced the fertility rate from 5.5 to 5 0 and the number of births by 3.5 percent</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">3. The Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS) is a series of multitopic surveys designed to study multiple aspects of household welfare</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">4. Deforestation is represented by the time required to collect a standard load of fuelwood</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">5. It would be more illuminating to compare wage differences across three categories of women workers: women without children: women with children but with no interruption in employment except for statutory maternity leave: and women with children and with interrupted employment</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">6. Among women workers. 53 percent are in commerce. compared with 33 percent of men. In manufacturing. 16 percent of the workers are men. compared with 14 percent for women. In services, 37 percent are men anti 33 percent are women (World Bank 1995c)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">7. In Bolivia informal moneylenders require borrowers to write postdated checks. If borrowers tail to make timely repayments, these checks are deposited and, as the lender knows will bounce for lack of funds A bounced check is a criminal offense in Bolivia. and the lender can have the borrower arrested The World Bank estimates that about 20 percent of all Bolivian prison inmates-and 40 percent of female inmates imprisoned for 'bouncing' checks and for other collateral-related crimes. In many cases children must live in prison with their mothers (winkler and Guedes, 1995)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">8. The International Conference on Central American Refugees (CIREECA) was held in Guatemala City in May 1989 A total of 126 projects in seven countries were introduced. with an overall investment of $365 million Areas with high densities of returnees were targeted. and special attention was given to projects to support displaced women</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">&nbsp;</P>
+<B><P ALIGN="CENTER"></P>
+<!--
+</Section>
+<Section>
+  <Description>
+    <Metadata name="Title">References</Metadata>
+  </Description>
+-->
+</B><P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
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+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Toubia, Nahid 1993. Female Genital Mutilation: A Call for Global Action. New York: United Nations</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Tzannatos, Zafiris 1995. "Growths, Adjustment, and the Labor Market: Effects on Women Workers." World Bank, Poverty and Social Policy Department, Washington. D.C.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization). 1991. 1991. Paris</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">. 1993b Trends and Projections of Enrollment by Level of Education by Age and Sex, 1960-2025. Paris</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund! 1993. The Progress of Nations. New York</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">UNIDO (United Nations Industrial Development Organization). 1993 11 Women in Manu</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Other Recent Development in Practice Books</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Priorities and Strategies for Education: A World Bank Review (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Better Urban Services: Finding the Right Incentives (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Strengthening the Effectiveness of Aid: Lessons for Donors</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Enriching Lives: Overcoming Vitamin and Mineral Malnutrition in Developing Countries (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">A New Agenda for Women's Health and Nutrition (also available in French)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Population and Development: Implications for the World Bank</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">East Asia's Trade and Investment: Regional and Global Gains from Liberalization</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Governance: The World Bank's Experience</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Higher Education: The Lessons of Experience (also available in French and Spanish)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Better Health in Africa: Experience and Lessons Learned (also available in French)</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Argentina's Privatization Program: Experience, Issues, and Lessons Sustaining Rapid Development in East Asia and the Pacific</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">THE WORLD BANK A partner in strengthening economies and expanding markets to improve the quality of life for people everywhere, especially the poorest</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Gender equality is not only a matter of social justice but also good economics. It is of foremost importance to women's wellbeing and development. Discrimination means losses in productivity and lower welfare of women, their families, and society at large.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">Although the gender gap is narrowing in education, health, and many other areas, women are still less educated than men, work more hours, and are paid less. The reasons why gender disparities persist are complex, having to do with social and institutional norms, relationships within households, and even lack of information about the benefits of educating and employing women. Despite the weight of social and cultural factors, public policy can influence women's status and well-being. Governments have a leading role in widening the opportunities available to women and extending the services that are vitally important to them.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY">This report outlines what governments and development agencies can do to work toward greater gender equality- one of the best investments a society can make. Public policy can affect investments in health, education, and infrastructure through laws and regulations. It can also affect land ownership, financial services, and access to employment. Not least important, public  policies can affect macroeconomic performance and create a favorable climate for economic development.</P>
+<P ALIGN="JUSTIFY"></P></FONT>
+<!--
+</Section>
+</Section>
+-->
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/macros/extra.dm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/macros/extra.dm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/macros/extra.dm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+#documented extra.dm macro file for Greenstone CSS/style demo collection
+
+package Style
+
+# we override the default cssheader macro here so we don't get the
+# hard-coded background images. This is the place to make your customisations
+# This collection has a copy of the default CSS in _httpcstyle_ 
+# (_httpcollection_/style) instead of _httpimages_
+
+_cssheader_ {
+<link rel="stylesheet" href="_httpcstyle_/gs.css" type="text/css" 
+   title="Default Greenstone Style" charset="UTF-8">
+<link rel="alternate stylesheet" href="_httpcstyle_/style-blue.css"
+    type="text/css" title="Ocean Blue" charset="UTF-8" media="screen">
+<link rel="alternate stylesheet" href="_httpcstyle_/style-red.css"
+    type="text/css" title="Fire Red" charset="UTF-8" media="screen">
+<link rel="alternate stylesheet" href="_httpimages_/style-print.css"
+    type="text/css" title="Printer" charset="UTF-8" media="print, screen">
+<link rel="stylesheet" href="_httpimages_/style-print.css"
+    type="text/css" charset="UTF-8" media="print">
+}
+
+#### extra code to allow changing stylesheet
+
+# extra javascript, for our demo toggle buttons
+# go through all styles and disable them all except the wanted one
+# For some reason, this macro overrides the _query:pagescriptextra_ even
+# though it's for the Style package only, so we need a defined initialize()
+# function or else we get a javascript error.
+
+_pagescriptextra_ {
+
+function SetStyle(stylename) \{
+  var body = document.getElementsByTagName('body')[0];
+  body.style.backgroundImage = "";
+  
+  styles = document.styleSheets;
+  var i;
+  for (i=0;i<styles.length;i++) \{
+    style = styles[i];
+    if (style.title == stylename)
+      style.disabled = false;
+    else
+      style.disabled = true;
+  \}
+\}
+
+function initialize() \{ \}
+
+}
+
+_navbarspacer_ {<span class="spaceextra"></span>}
+
+# override the default navigation bar to add demo style toggle buttons
+
+_optnavigationbar_ {
+<p class="choose_style">
+Choose a style: <a href="#" onclick="SetStyle('Default Greenstone Style');return false;">Default Greenstone</a>,
+<a href="#" onclick="SetStyle('Ocean Blue');return false;">Blue</a>,
+<a href="#" onclick="SetStyle('Fire Red');return false;">Red</a>,
+<a href="#" onclick="SetStyle('Printer');return false;">Printer</a>,
+<a href="#" onclick="SetStyle('');return false;">None</a>
+</p>
+<div class="navbar">
+<p class="navbar">
+_navigationbar_
+</p>
+</div>
+}
+
+#### some text strings 
+#_choosestyle_ "Choose a style"
+#_choosestyle_ [l=fr] "choisissez un style"
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/metadata/ex.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet SYSTEM "http://www.greenstone.org/dtd/MetadataSet/1.0/MetadataSet.dtd">
+<MetadataSet contact="nzdl.org" creator="New Zealand Digital Libraries Project: Greenstone" family="Extracted Greenstone" lastchanged="Tue May 20 10:30:32 2003 - jmt12 on narya" namespace="ex" >
+
+  <Name language="en">Extracted Greenstone Metadata 1.0</Name>
+
+  <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.0 of the automatically extracted Greenstone Metadata Element Set.</Description>
+
+  <Element name="Encoding">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The encoding of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Encoding</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Language">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The language of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Language</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Source">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Hidden in the Librarian Interface as it already shown by the various file trees.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The filename of the document imported by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Source</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Title">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The title of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Title</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/metadata/profile.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE Profiles [
+<!ELEMENT Profiles (Action*)>
+<!ELEMENT Action (#PCDATA)>
+<!ATTLIST Action
+                source     CDATA #REQUIRED
+                target     CDATA "">
+]>
+<Profiles/>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/style-e.col
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/style-e.col	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/style-e.col	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GathererCollection [
+  <!ELEMENT GathererCollection (Argument*, GathererConfig, BuildConfig)>
+  <!ELEMENT GathererConfig    (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT BuildConfig       (Build, Import)>
+  <!ELEMENT Build             (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Import            (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Schedule          (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Argument          (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Argument
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				enabled           CDATA "true">
+]>
+<GathererCollection>
+    <Argument name="built">false</Argument>
+    <Argument name="imported">true</Argument>
+    <GathererConfig/>
+    <BuildConfig>
+        <Build/>
+        <Import/>
+        <Schedule/>
+    </BuildConfig>
+</GathererCollection>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/style/gs.css
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/style/gs.css	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/style/gs.css	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+/* The default style settings as normally set by style.dm. (They are in
+   there so that the image paths are resolved at run-time instead of being
+   hard-coded, but this means that they are there for all styles). */
+
+@import url(/greenstone/web/style/style.css);
+
+
+body.bgimage {
+   background: url("/greenstone/web/images/chalk.gif") scroll repeat-y left top;
+ }
+
+div.navbar { background-image: url("/greenstone/web/images/bg_green.png"); }
+div.divbar { background-image: url("/greenstone/web/images/bg_green.png"); }
+a.navlink { background-image: url("/greenstone/web/images/bg_off.png"); }
+a.navlink_sel { background-image: url("/greenstone/web/images/bg_green.png"); }
+a.navlink:hover { background-image: url("/greenstone/web/images/bg_on.png"); }
+p.bannertitle {background-image: url("/greenstone/web/images/banner_bg.png"); }
+p.collectiontitle {background-image: url("/greenstone/web/images/banner_bg.png"); }
+
+
+span.spaceextra {
+ padding: 0 ;
+ margin: 0 0 0 200px;
+}
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/style/style-blue.css
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/style/style-blue.css	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/style/style-blue.css	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,189 @@
+/* bluish colour theme - Alternate stylesheet for greenstone.
+   Written by John McPherson, 2006. Feel free to copy/modify this for
+   any purpose.
+*/
+
+body.bgimage {
+  background: #80a0fb; /* light blue */
+  color: #000000;
+  height: 100%;
+}
+
+a:link { color: #006666; } 
+
+a:hover { color: #000066; }
+
+a:visited { color: #666633; } 
+
+img.link { border: 0; }
+
+/* for unesco/human info etc logos on home page */
+img.logo {
+  border: 0;
+  float: right;
+  margin-left: 10px;
+}
+
+div.v_list {
+  padding: 10px;
+  font-size: smaller;
+}
+/* specific columns, named in the format string */
+div.vlist_entry {
+  clear: both; /* comes after any previous floating divs */
+  border-bottom: 1px grey solid;
+  margin-top: 10px;
+  margin-bottom: 5px;
+}
+div.vlist_entry div {
+  width: 15%;
+  padding-left: 1%;
+  padding-right: 1%;
+  float: left;
+}
+
+div.vlist_entry div.descr { width: 45% }
+
+#banner {
+  margin: 0 0 5px 0;
+  padding: 0;
+ }
+
+/* this div contains the bannerlinks and bannerimage paragraphs */
+div.pageinfo {
+  float: right;
+  text-align: right;
+  width: 45%;
+}
+/* home, help, preferences links */
+p.bannerlinks {
+  font-family: arial;
+  font-size: 10pt;
+  font-weight: bold;
+}
+/* the image based on the page action */
+p.bannerimage {
+  display: none;
+}
+/* the image for the collection, shown in the banner */
+div.collectimage {
+  float: left;
+  text-align: left;
+  width: 45%;
+  margin: 0;
+  padding:0;
+}
+/* link for collection name - will have text if there is no image */
+div.collectimage a {
+  text-decoration: none;
+  color: #666666;
+}
+
+/* make sure this is shown under the other divs (which may be floating) */
+div.bannerextra {clear:both;}
+
+/* blankiconbar */
+div.section p.bar {
+  text-align: center;
+}
+
+div.navbar {
+  background: #39657b;
+  white-space: nowrap; 
+  border-left: 1px solid white;
+  border-top: 1px solid white;
+  border-bottom: 1px solid black;
+  border-right: 1px solid black;
+  margin: 0px;
+  min-width: 400px; /* stop it wrapping in skinny windows */
+  font-size: 10pt;
+}
+
+div.divbar { /* for "select a collection" */
+  font-family: arial;
+  font-size: 10pt;
+  font-weight: bold;
+  text-align: top;
+  border: 0;
+}
+p.navbar { /* opt navbar text inside a divbar div */
+  text-align: center;
+  margin: 0px;
+}
+
+a.navlink {
+  padding: 0 10px;
+  background: #508090;
+  color: white;
+  text-decoration: none;
+}
+
+
+a.navlink:hover {
+  background: #6090a0;
+ 
+}
+
+a.navlink_sel { }
+
+a.navlink:visited {
+  color: white;
+}
+
+
+span.spaceextra {
+ padding: 0 ;
+ margin: 0 0 0 200px;
+
+}
+
+
+/* content inside the pages */
+/* this contains everything - all the other divs */
+div#page {}
+
+/* document content after nav bar */
+div.document {
+  border: 5px #cccccc solid;
+  padding: 5px;
+  background: #aae;
+  margin-top: 5px;
+}
+
+img.icon { border: 0; }
+
+div.queryform {
+  text-align: center;
+}
+span.textselect { white-space: nowrap; }
+
+div.section p {
+  text-align: justify;
+}
+
+div.h_list {
+  text-align: right;
+  padding: 5px;
+  background: #637d7d;
+}
+
+/* A-Z entries other than the current one */
+span.h_item a {
+  text-decoration: none;
+  color: #cccccc;
+}
+span.h_item a:hover {
+  text-decoration: none;
+  color: red;
+}
+
+/* for the home page - auto-generated _homeextra_ macro */
+table.collections {
+  width: 100%;
+  max-width: 800px;
+  text-align: center;
+  /* centres a block element for gecko and opera. (IE 5.5 needs parent
+   * text-align) */
+  margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;
+}
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/style/style-red.css
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/style/style-red.css	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/style-e/style/style-red.css	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,233 @@
+/* brick-red colour theme - Alternate stylesheet for greenstone.
+   Written by John McPherson, 2006. Feel free to copy/modify this for
+   any purpose.
+*/
+
+body {
+  background: #770000;
+  color: #000000;
+  height: 100%;
+}
+
+/* this is only used by the CSS demo collection */
+p.choose_style { color: white; }
+p.choose_style a:link { color: #f99; }
+p.choose_style a:visited { color: #f99; }
+
+
+a:link { color: #f00; text-decoration: none; } 
+
+a:hover { color: black; background-color: #a77; }
+
+a:visited { text-decoration: none; } 
+
+img.link { border: 0; }
+
+/* for unesco/human info etc logos on home page */
+img.logo {
+  border: 0;
+  float: right;
+  margin-left: 10px;
+}
+
+div.v_list {
+  padding: 10px;
+  font-size: smaller;
+}
+/* specific columns, named in the format string */
+div.vlist_entry {
+  clear: both; /* comes after any previous floating divs */
+  border-bottom: 1px grey solid;
+  margin-top: 10px;
+  margin-bottom: 5px;
+}
+div.vlist_entry div {
+  width: 15%;
+  padding-left: 1%;
+  padding-right: 1%;
+  float: left;
+}
+
+div.vlist_entry div.descr { width: 45% }
+
+/* this div contains the pageinfo div and the collectimage div */
+#banner {
+  margin-bottom: 5px;
+}
+/* this div contains the bannerlinks and bannertitle paragraphs */
+div.pageinfo {
+  float: left;
+  width: 15%;
+}
+/* home, help, preferences links */
+p.bannerlinks {
+  font-family: arial;
+  font-size: 10pt;
+  font-weight: bold;
+}
+/* the title set by the receptionist based on the page action */
+p.bannertitle {
+  color: white;
+  text-weight: bold;
+  border-top: 1px solid white; 
+  border-bottom: 1px solid white; 
+  text-align: center;
+  width: 10em;
+}
+/* the image (or text) for the collection, shown in the banner */
+div.collectimage {
+  float: right;
+  margin: 0;
+  padding: 0;
+  width: 80%;
+  font-size: 30px;
+  font-weight: bold;
+  text-align: right;
+  color: #ccf;
+}
+/* link for collection name - will have text if there is no image */
+div.collectimage h2 {
+  margin: 0;
+  padding: 0;
+  text-align: right;
+  color: #ccf;
+}
+/* the link inside the h2 tag, if there is no image */
+div.collectimage a {
+  text-decoration: none;
+  color: #fcc;
+  -moz-border-radius: 10px;
+  background: #822;
+  padding-left: 8px;
+  padding-right: 8px;
+}
+
+div.collectimage a:hover {
+  color: white;
+  background: #a77;
+}
+
+/* make sure this is shown under the other divs (which may be floating) */
+div.bannerextra {clear:both;}
+
+/* blankiconbar */
+div.section p.bar {
+  text-align: center;
+}
+
+div.navbar {
+  background: #772222;
+  white-space: nowrap; /* so 'buttons' don't wrap */
+  border: 1px solid black;
+  margin: 4px 10px 10px 2px;
+  padding: 5px 5px 5px 5px; /* internal */
+  float: left;
+  font-size: 12pt;
+  width: 20%;
+
+ }
+
+p.navbar { /* opt navbar text inside a divbar div */
+  text-align: center;
+  margin: 0px;
+}
+/* each link inside the navigation bar, and home/help/preferences links */
+a.navlink {
+  background: #a77;
+  border-right: 2px solid #400;
+  border-bottom: 2px solid #400;
+  /* this only works in mozilla/firefox-based browsers */
+  -moz-border-radius: 10px;
+  text-align: center; /* for home/help/prefs buttons */
+  display: block; /* so we can set a width */
+  max-width: 12em;
+  width: 12em;
+  margin: auto; /* horizontally centre */
+  padding: 0;
+  color: white;
+  text-decoration: none;
+  /* make the a wider so that the whole 'button' is clickable */
+  display: block; /* so we can give it a fixed width */
+}
+
+/* for the selected link */
+a.navlink_sel {
+  display: block;
+  max-width: 12em;
+  width: 12em; /* needed for MSIE6 */
+  margin-left: auto;
+  margin-right: auto;
+  color: white;
+  text-weight: bold;
+}
+
+a.navlink{
+ 
+}
+a.navlink:visited {
+  color: white;
+  /* use the parent object's background instead of the default <a> background */
+}
+a.navlink:hover {
+  background-color: #c67; /* #6090a0; */
+}
+
+div.divbar { /* for "select a collection" */
+  font-family: arial;
+  font-size: 10pt;
+  font-weight: bold;
+  text-align: top;
+  border: 0;
+}
+/* content inside the pages */
+/* this contains everything - all the other divs */
+div#page {}
+
+/* document content after nav bar */
+div.document {
+  border: 5px #cccccc solid;
+  padding:0 0 0 0;
+  background: #fdd;
+  margin: 0px 0 0 0; 
+}
+div.documenttext {
+  clear: left; /* so we are under the floating navigation bar */
+}
+
+img.icon { border: 0; }
+
+div.queryform {
+  text-align: center;
+ }
+span.textselect { white-space: nowrap; }
+
+div.section p {
+  text-align: justify;
+}
+
+div.h_list {
+  text-align: right;
+  padding: 5px;
+  background: #637d7d;
+}
+
+/* A-Z entries other than the current one */
+span.h_item a {
+  text-decoration: none;
+  color: #cccccc;
+}
+span.h_item a:hover {
+  text-decoration: none;
+  color: red;
+}
+
+/* for the home page - auto-generated _homeextra_ macro */
+table.collections {
+  width: 100%;
+  max-width: 800px;
+  text-align: center;
+  /* centres a block element for gecko and opera. (IE 5.5 needs parent
+   * text-align) */
+  margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;
+}
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/text-for-translation.txt
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/text-for-translation.txt	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/text-for-translation.txt	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,227 @@
+#Strings for translation:
+These need to be translated into French, Spanish, Russian, except where indicated.
+
+bibtext-e._text1_:Apart from the standard plugins, this collection uses <i>BibTexPlugin</i>, 
+which processes references in the BibTeX format (well known to computer 
+scientists). Two options have been set for BibTexPlugin: 
+<i>-OIDtype assigned -OIDmetadata Number</i>. This means the metadata 
+element \"Number\" will be used as the record identifier, instead of 
+Greenstone's default hash identifiers. These options are available for 
+all plugins.\n
+
+bibtext-e._text2_:This groups 200 documents together into a single archive file. 
+bibtext-e._text3_:The <i>buildtype</i> option shows that the default search engine <i>mgpp</i> is
+used. The <i>indexes</i> line specifies indexes for \"text\", and \"metadata\". In this case, \"text\" will be the original BibTeX record. \"metadata\" is a special keyword signifying that an index should be built for any metadata item found in the collection. 
+
+bibtex-3._text4_:An additional keyword, \"allfields\", could also be used in the <i>indexers</i> line, specifying that combined searching over all indexes should be available. 
+<p>
+The <i>levels</i> lines specifies only document level, as bibliographic records don't have internal structure.
+
+#russian only
+bibtex-e._text5_:Fielded searching, with a form-based interface, is selected by <i>format SearchTypes \"form,plain\"
+</i> in the configuration file. In fact, a plain textual full-text search
+index is included in this collection as well (since <i>form</i> comes first, 
+it is the default interface; you reach the <i>plain</i> search through 
+the <i>Preferences</i> page).\n
+
+bibtex-supp-e._text1_:The \"documented-examples/\" parts of the collection names are necessary 
+because these collections reside in the \"documented-examples\" collection 
+group subfolder in the collect directory.\n
+
+wrdpdf-e._text1_:If you encounter these problems, you
+can either remove the offending documents from your collection, or try using
+some of the advanced plugin options to process the documents in different ways.
+For more information, see the Enhanced PDf and Word tutorials on the  
+<a href=\'http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises\'>Greenstone wiki</a>.
+
+# the following string has only changed a little, so have put the original strings hee too.
+isis-e._text1_:These databases have several files, but ISISPlugin uses just three: CDS.fdt (where CDS is the name of the database), containing the field names used in the database, CDF.xrf (a cross-reference file), and CDS.mst, containing the actual records. Whenever ISISPlugin encounters an \".mst\" file, it looks for the corresponding \".fdt\" and \".xrf\" files.
+isis-e._text1_ [l=fr] Ces bases de donnÃ©es ont plusieurs fichiers, mais ISISPlugin en utilise seulement deux: CDS.fdt (oÃ¹ CDS est le nom de la base de donnÃ©es) contenant les noms de champ utilisÃ©s dans la base de donnÃ©es, et CDS.mst qui contient les enregistrements. A chaque fois que ISISPlugin rencontre un fichier \".mst\", il cherche le fichier \".fdt\" correspondant. 
+isis-e._text1_ [l=es] Estas bases de datos contienen varios archivos, pero ISISPlugin solo utiliza dos: CDS.fdt (donde CDS es el nombre de la base de datos), el cual contiene los nombres de los campos usados en la base de datos, y CDS.mst, el cual contiene los registros. Cada vez que ISISPlugin encuentra un archivo \".mst\", busca el archivo \".fdt\" correspondiente.
+isis-e._text1_ [l=ru] Ð­ÑÐž Ð±Ð°Ð·Ñ ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÑÑ ÐžÐ· ÐœÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐžÑ
+ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»ÐŸÐ², ÐœÐŸ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœ ISISPlugin ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑ ÑÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÐŽÐ²Ð°: CDS.fdt , (Ð³ÐŽÐµ CDS -- ÐžÐŒÑ Ð±Ð°Ð·Ñ ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ), ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐžÐ¹ ÐžÐŒÐµÐœÐ° Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐµÐ¹, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÐŒÑÑ
+ Ð² Ð±Ð°Ð·Ðµ ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+, Ðž CDS.mst, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐžÐ¹ ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÐµ Ð·Ð°Ð¿ÐžÑÐž. ÐÑÑÐºÐžÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð·, ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ISISPlugin ÑÑÐ°Ð»ÐºÐžÐ²Ð°ÐµÑÑÑ Ñ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»ÐŸÐŒ \".mst\" ÐŸÐœ ÐžÑÐµÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐœÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð» \".fdt\".
+isis-e._text2_:The <i>-OIDtype incremental</i> plugin option was used to give identifiers
+that are consistent across different operating systems (which may not happen with HASH identifiers), so that we can link to a document in
+this description.
+authen-e._text1_:The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>collection
+configuration file</a> is exactly the same as for the original demo collection apart from the authentication directives, one plugin option (and this description).
+authen-e._text1_[l=fr] Ce <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\"
+target=collect.cfg>fichier de configuration de collection</a> est
+exactement le mÃªme que celui de la collection de dÃ©monstration originale
+sauf pour les directives d'authentification (et cette description).
+authen-e._text1_[l=es] El <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n</a> es exactamente el mismo que el de la demo original salvo las directivas para la autenticaciÃ³n (y su descripciÃ³n).
+authen-e._text1_[l=ru]<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>Ð€Ð°Ð¹Ð» ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž</a> ÑÐŸÑÐœÐŸ ÑÐ°ÐºÐŸÐ¹ Ð¶Ðµ ÐºÐ°Ðº Ðž Ð² ÐŸÑÐžÐ³ÐžÐœÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐŽÐµÐŒÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÐºÑÐŸÐŒÐµ ÐŽÐžÑÐµÐºÑÐžÐ² Ð°ÑÑÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž (Ðž ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ).
+
+authen-e._text2_:In this case, we have used the <i>-OIDtype dirname</i> option to HTMLPlugin,
+which specifies that directory names should be used as identifiers. This works 
+for collections where each document is in a separate directory. We have used 
+this option to ensure that identifiers remain the same across different 
+platforms (which may not be the case for HASH identifiers), as we need to 
+specify identifiers here for the authentication directives.
+
+#russian only
+dls-e._text1_:The DLS collection is fairly complex.
+
+dls-e._text2_:this text is part of it
+
+marc-e._text1_:The <i>dc.Title</i> classifier is an AZList, while the other two are AZCompactList, which groups items with the same metadata into a bookshelf. The <i>-removesuffix</i> argument for the <i>Title</i> and <i>Creator</i>
+classifiers removes suffixes from the metadata string (<i>dc.Title</i> and
+<i>dc.Creator</i> respectively).
+
+marc-e._text2_:The <i>VList</i> format statement controls the display of search results and all classifiers. For bookshelves, the number of leaf documents is displayed on the right-hand side. For documents, <i>dc.Title</i> is displayed, along with <i>dc.Creator</i> and <i>dc.Publisher</i>. <i>[sibling:dc.Creator]</i> is used as dc.Creator has multiple values, and specifies that all values be output, not just the first one.
+
+marc-e._text3_:Multiple MARC fields may map to a single Dublin Core field. 
+For example, fields 720 (\"Uncontrolled name\"), 100 (\"Personal name\"), 
+110 (\"Corporate name\") and  111 (\"Meeting name\") all map to 
+<i>dc.Creator</i>. Actual MARC records normally
+define only one of these fields, and anyway Greenstone allows
+multi-valued metadata.\n
+<p>
+Some mappings are dependent on subfields. For example, MARC field 260 contains
+information about publication and distribution. Subfields \"c\" (Date of Publication) and \"g\" (Date of manufacture) are mapped to <i>dc.Date</i>, using the following mapping line:
+<blockquote>
+260$c$g     -&gt; dc.Date
+</blockquote>
+
+Greenstone also provides a file for mapping MARC to <b>qualified</b> dublin core: <a href=\"_httpprefix_/etc/marc2qdc.txt\" target=marc2qdc>greenstone/etc/marc2qdc.txt</a>. This can be used by the MARC plugin by setting the <i>-metadata_mapping_file</i> option to \"marc2qdc.txt\".
+
+
+#####################
+The entire description (and collection meta)  needs translating into chinese and arabic if possible for all collections.
+
+pagedimg-e, style-e, wiki-e have no translations yet, so entire thing needs to be done for fr, es, ru.
+
+pagedimg-e has strings in extra.dm that need translating.
+
+the two strings in the top level (group) etc/collect.cfg also need translating.
+
+In particular to check translations: bibtex-e in russian.
+
+collections I have done (I think):
+
+authen-e
+bibtex-e & bibtex-supp-e
+garish-e
+image-e
+isis-e
+pagedimg-e
+style-e
+wiki-e
+wrdpdf-e
+marc-e
+
+don't send off the others yet!!
+
+I haven't checked all colls yet for search meta using _labeltext_. 
+You probably won't have time either...
+
+
+############################################################
+Next installment:
+
+gsarch-e._text1_:This is a collection of email messages 
+from the Greenstone mailing list archives, from November/December, 2008.
+gsarch-e._text2_:In this case, there is a file per month per mailing list, and each file contains many email messages. 
+gsarch-e._text3_:The <i>Email</i>
+plugin splits these into individual documents, and produces <i>Title</i>,
+<i>Subject</i>, <i>From</i>, <i>FromName</i>, <i>FromAddr</i>,
+<i>Date</i>, <i>DateText</i>, <i>InReplyTo</i>, and optionally <i>Headers</i>, metadata.
+gsarch-e._text3_ [l=fr]Le plugin <i>E-mail</i> les Ã©clate en documents individuels et produit les mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es
+<i>Title</i>, <i>Subject</i>, <i>Headers</i>, <i>From</i>, <i>FromName</i>, <i>FromAddr</i>, <i>Date</i> et <i>DateText</i>.
+
+gsarch-e._text3_ [l=es] El plugin <i>Email</i> los divide en documentos individuales y produce metadatos de <i>TÃ­tulo, Asunto, Encabezados, Remitente, Nombre del Remitente, DirecciÃ³n del Remitente, Fecha y Texto de la Fecha (Title, Subject, Headers, From, FromName, FromAddr, Date y DateText</i>, respectivamente).
+gsarch-e._text3_ [l=ru] ÐÐ»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœ Ðmail ÑÐ°Ð·Ð±ÐžÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÐžÑ
+ ÐœÐ° ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐ²ÐžÐŽÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÑÐµ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ Ðž ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐµÑ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ: <i>ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ (Title), ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ (Subject), ÐÐ°Ð³ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ²ÐºÐž (Headers), ÐÑ (from), ÐÐŒÑ ÐŸÑÐ¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ (FromName), ÐÐŽÑÐµÑ ÐŸÑÐ¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ (FromAddr), ÐÐ°ÑÐ° (Date)</i> Ðž <i>DateText</i>.
+gsarch-e._text4_:Otherwise the node\'s label starts with the
+<i>Subject</i> which links to the document, then gives <i>FromName</i> metadata, with a link to \"Search by Sender\", followed by the <i>DateText</i>.
+gsarch-e._text5_:For
+document nodes the <i>FromName</i>, with a link to \"Search By Sender\", <i>Subject</i> (linked to the document), and <i>DateText</i> metadata is
+shown.
+gsarch-e._text6_:Finally, the document text is formatted to show the header fields (<i>FromName</i>, <i>DateText</i>, <i>Subject</i>, <i>InReplyTo</i>), followed by
+the message text (written as <i>[Text]</i> in the format statement). FromName is linked to a search on that name, while InReplyTo links to the email message that it refers to. 
+
+collections I have done:
+gsarch-e
+
+## next installment
+
+dls._text3_:Note that setting \"public\" to \"false\" only removes it from the home page; it will still be accessible in the library to anyone that knows the URL (a=p&p=about&c=coll-shortname).
+
+dls._text4_:The \"plugin\" lines in the
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>configuration file</a>
+give the plugins used by the collection.
+dls._text4_ [l=fr] Le troisiÃšme bloc de lignes dans le <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier de configuration</a> donne les plugins utilisÃ©s par cette collection.
+dls._text4_ [l=es] El tercer bloque de lÃ­neas en el <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n</a> proporciona los plugins que usa esta colecciÃ³n.
+dls._text4_ [l=ru] Ð¢ÑÐµÑÐžÐ¹ Ð±Ð»ÐŸÐº ÑÑÑÐŸÐº Ð² ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ðµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÐµÑ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœÑ, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÐŒÑÐµ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐµÐ¹.
+
+dls._text5_: For example, this book has two dls.Subject classifications.
+
+dls._text6_:The second classifier provides access by title. It is also a <i>Hierarchy</i> classifier, this time based on
+<i>dls.AZList</i> metadata, whose hierarchy is defined in <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.Title.txt\" target=text>dls.AZList.txt</a>. This file is discussed below.
+
+#russian only
+dls._text7_:The third provides access by organization: it is a <i>List</i> classifier based on <i>dls.Organization</i> metadata.
+
+dls._text8_:The <i>-bookshelf_type always</i> option creates a new bookshelf for each organization, even if only one document belongs to that category.
+
+dls._text9_:The fourth provides access by \"Howto\" text: it is a <i>List</i> classifier based on <i>dls.Keyword</i> metadata. The <i>-bookshelf_type never</i> option prevents bookshelves being created even if two documents share the same keywords.
+
+dls._text10_:The lines beginning with <i>format</i>, called \"format statements\", govern how various parts of the collection should be displayed. The <i>VList</i> format statement applies to lists of items displayed vertically, such as the lists of titles, subjects and organisations, and the table of contents for the target documents. It is overridden for the search results list by the <i>SearchVList</i> format statement, and also for the <i>Howto</i> classifier by the <i>CL4VList</i> statement (CL4 specifies the fourth classifier). 
+
+dls._text11_:The <i>DocumentText</i> statement governs how the document text is formatted,
+with <i>Title</i> metadata ([<i>Title</i>]) in HTML &lt;<i>h3</i>&gt; format
+followed by the text of the document [<i>Text</i>]. Setting the <i>DocumentImages</i> format statement to <i>true</i> ensures that cover images are shown with each document. The <i>DocumentButtons</i> statement calls for the <i>Expand
+Text, Expand Contents, Detach</i> and <i>Highlight</i> buttons to be shown with each document.
+
+dls._text12_:Hierarchy files contain a
+succession of lines each of which has three items. The first item is a text string which is matched against the metadata that occurs in the <i>metadata.xml</i> file described above. The second item is a number that defines the position in the hierarchy. The third item is a text string that describes the node of the hierarchy on the web pages that Greenstone generates.
+
+dls._text13_:For example, the following shows three lines from the subject hierarchy file <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.Subject.txt\" target=text>dls.Subject.txt</a>.
+
+dls._text14_:These three lines define one top level bookshelf (at position 7), titled \"Animal Husbandry and Animal Product Processing\", with two bookshelves underneath it, titled \"Cattle\" and \"Other animals (micro-livestock, little known animals, silkworms, reptiles, frogs, snails, game, etc.)\" respectively.
+
+dls._text15_:In this case, the first strings (and therefore the entries in metadata.xml files) contain the entire hierarchy values. Levels in the hierarchy are separated by \"|\". They could be used directly by a <i>Hierarchy</i> classifier without the use of the hierarchy file. However, then the entries would be ordered alphabetically, not in the special order defined by the file.
+
+dls._text16_:The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/dls.AZList.txt\" target=text>dls.AZList.txt</a> hierarchy file used by the titles classifier contains a similar structure. Ordinarily, a titles browser would use a <i>List</i> (or <i>AZList</i>) classifier. In this case, we want to predefine the A-Z groupings, and include a separate entry for periodicals, as can be seen <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL2.7\">here</a>.
+
+image-e._text1_:The images in this collection have been produced by members of the Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato.
+The University of Waikato holds copyright. They may be distributed freely, without any restrictions.
+
+
+oai._text1_:Besides the four standard plugins (GreenstoneXMLPlugin, MetadataXMLPlugin, ArchivesInfPlugin and DirectoryPlugin), 
+the configuration file specifies the OAI plugin, which processes OAI
+metadata, and the image plugin, because in this case the collection\'s source
+documents are image files. 
+
+oai._text2_:Extracted metadata from OAI records are mapped to Dublin Core Metadata Set by default.
+As a result, classifiers and indexes in this collection are built with Dublin meatadata elements.
+
+# for russian only, to check and update
+ÐÐŸÐ¶ÐœÐŸ ÑÐŽÐžÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ, ÑÑÐŸ <i>AZCompactList</i> ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸ  <i>AZList</i> ÑÐ°ÐºÐ¶Ðµ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÐ° <i>ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ</i> (<i>dc.Description</i>), Ð¿ÐŸÑÐŸÐŒÑ ÑÑÐŸ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ <i>ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ</i> ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÑÐœÐžÐºÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑ. ÐÐŽÐœÐ°ÐºÐŸ Ð² ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐŽÐœÐŸ Ðž ÑÐŸ Ð¶Ðµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÐŽÐ°Ð²Ð°Ð»ÐŸÑÑ ÐœÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐžÐŒ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÑÐŒ, Ðž ÐœÐµÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ ÐžÐ· ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐŸÐ² <i>AZList</i> ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°Ñ Ð±ÐŸÐ»ÑÑÐŸÐµ ÑÐžÑÐ»ÐŸ ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹, Ð·Ð°ÐŒÐµÐŽÐ»ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÐµÐŽÐ°ÑÑ ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ. Ð§ÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÐžÐ·Ð±ÐµÐ¶Ð°ÑÑ ÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐ¿Ð°ÐºÑÐœÐ°Ñ Ð²ÐµÑÑÐžÑ ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ° Ñ ÑÑÐŽÐŸÐŒ Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸÐ² (<i>mincompact, maxcompact, mingroup, minnesting</i>), ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÑÐ¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·ÐŸÐŒ. Ð¢Ð°Ðº, Ð³ÑÑÐ¿Ð¿Ñ, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐºÐœÐžÐ¶ÐœÑÐŒÐž Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐºÐ°ÐŒÐž, ÐœÐµ ÑÑÐŸÑÐŒÐžÑÑÑÑÑÑ ÐŽÐŸ ÑÐµÑ
+ Ð¿ÐŸÑ, Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ° ÐŸÐœÐž ÐœÐµ Ð±ÑÐŽÑÑ ÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸ ÐºÑÐ°Ð¹ÐœÐµÐ¹ ÐŒÐµÑÐµ 5 ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² (<i>mingroup</i>). Ð§ÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÑÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸÐ² ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ°, Ð²ÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐ°ÐœÐŽÑ <i>classinfo.pl AZCompactList</i>. ÐÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŒÑ <i>classinfo</i>.pl (ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ²) Ðž <i>pluginfo.pl</i> (ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœÐŸÐ²) ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐµÐ·ÐœÑÐŒÐž ÐžÐœÑÑÑÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°ÐŒÐž, ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÐœÐ°ÐŽÐŸ ÑÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÑ ÐŸ Ð²ÐŸÐ·ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐœÐŸÑÑÑÑ
+ ÐŒÐŸÐŽÑÐ»ÐµÐ¹ Greenstone. ÐÐ±ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµ ÐºÑÑÐ°ÑÐž Ð²ÐœÐžÐŒÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐœÐ° ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÑÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ»ÐµÑ Ð² ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ðµ, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÐŒÑÐ¹ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ° Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÐŽÑÑÐµÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž.
+<p>
+
+oai._text3_:Greenstone's OAI server currently supports Dublin Core, qualified Dublin Core and rfc1807 metadata sets. The <i>oaimetadata</i> line specifies which sets should be used. For collections that use other metadata sets, 
+metadata mapping rules should be provided to map the existing metadata 
+to the sets in use. See the <i>oai.cfg</i> file for details.\n
+
+oai._text4_:The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>collection
+configuration file</a> has a single full-text index containing
+<i>dc.Description</i> metadata. When a document is displayed, the
+<i>DocumentHeading</i> format statement puts out its <i>dc.Subject</i>. Then the
+<i>DocumentText</i> statement follows this with <i>screenicon</i>, which is
+produced by <i>ImagePlugin</i> and gives a screen-resolution version of the
+image; it is hyperlinked to the <i>dc.OrigURL</i> metadata -- that is, the original
+version of the image on the remote OAI site. This is followed by the image\'s
+<i>dc.Description</i>, also with a hyperlink; the image\'s size and type, again
+generated as metadata by <i>ImagePlugin</i>; and then <i>dc.Subject</i>,
+<i>dc.Publisher</i>,
+and <i>dc.Rights</i> metadata.
+<a href=_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&a=d&c=_cgiargc_&cl=search&d=_sampleoid_>This</a>
+is the result.\n
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/etc/collect.cfg
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,167 @@
+creator		greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+maintainer	greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+public		true
+
+buildtype	mgpp
+
+#indexes	document:text document:Title document:Source
+indexes		text Title Source
+defaultindex	text
+
+levels	document
+
+plugin	GreenstoneXMLPlugin
+plugin	PDFPlugin
+plugin	WordPlugin
+plugin	NulPlugin
+plugin	MediaWikiPlugin -show_toc -toc_exp <table([^>]*)id=(\"|')toc(\"|')(.|\n)*?</table>\n -delete_nav -nav_div_exp <div([^>]*)id=(\"|')p-navigation(\"|')(.|\n)*?</div> -delete_toc -searchbox_div_exp <div([^>]*)id=(\"|')p-search(\"|')(.|\n)*?</div> -delete_searchbox -remove_title_suffix_exp " - (.*)"
+plugin	MetadataXMLPlugin
+plugin	ArchivesInfPlugin
+plugin	DirectoryPlugin
+
+classify	AZList -metadata Title
+classify	AZList -metadata Source
+
+format VList "<td valign=\"top\">[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td valign=\"top\">[ex.srclink]{Or}{[ex.thumbicon],[ex.srcicon]}[ex./srclink]</td>
+<td valign=\"top\">[highlight]
+{Or}{[dc.Title],[exp.Title],[ex.Title],Untitled}
+[/highlight]{If}{[ex.Source],<br><i>([ex.Source])</i>}</td>"
+
+format HList "[link][highlight][ex.Title][/highlight][/link]"
+
+format DocumentHeading "{Or}{[parent(Top):Title],[Title],untitled}<br>"
+
+format DocumentText "[Text]"
+
+format DocumentButtons "Detach|Highlight"
+
+format SearchTypes "plain"
+
+collectionmeta	.text [l=en] "_labeltext_"
+collectionmeta	.Title [l=en] "_labeltitle_"
+collectionmeta	.Source [l=en] "_labelSource_"
+
+# -- English text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=en] "MediaWiki collection"
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=en] "
+This demonstration collection is made from the Greenstone Wiki website.
+It shows off the new feature of building a Greenstone collection from a
+MediaWiki website in Greestone.
+
+<h3>How the collection works</h3>
+
+<p>
+The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>collection
+configuration file</a> contains the plugins <i>MediaWikiPlugin</i>,
+<i>ImagePlugin</i>, <i>ZipPlugin</i>, <i>PDFPlugin</i>,
+<i>PowerPointPlugin</i>, <i>WordPlugin</i> (along with the standard
+plugins <i>GreenstoneXMLPlugin</i>, <i>ArchivesInfPlugin</i> and
+<i>DirectoryPlugin</i>). The <i>MediaWikiPlugin</i> handles the HTML pages
+downloaded from a MediaWiki website, while <i>ImagePlugin</i>,
+<i>ZipPlugin</i>, <i>PDFPlugin</i>, <i>PowerPointPlugin</i> and
+<i>WordPlugin</i> handle the image, zip, PDF, PowerPoint and Word
+files associated with the Greenstone Wiki.
+
+<p>
+To build a collection from a MediaWiki website, first download the wiki
+files using the <i>MediaWiki</i> option on the <i>Download</i> panel of GLI.
+This download type works in a similar way to a the <i>Web</i> download, but
+is specially designed for crawling MediaWiki websites.\n
+
+<p>Once the files are downloaded, copy them into a collection using the <i>Gather</i>, dragging them from the <i>Downloaded Files</i> folder in the Workspace tree on the left-hand side.
+
+<p>
+In the <i>Document Plugins</i> section of the <i>Design</i> panel,
+add <i>MediaWikiPlugin</i>. <i>MediaWikiPlugin</i> has several specific
+options which control aspects of page presentation, such as whether or not
+the table of contents, navigation toolbars and search box are shown on each
+page. Configure these options based on how you want the pages to appear. You can see the options used by this collection in its
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>collection
+configuration file</a>.
+"
+
+# -- French text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=fr] "Collection d'Ã©lÃ©ments au format MediaWiki"
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=fr] "
+Cette collection de dÃ©monstration est constituÃ©e Ã  partir du site web du wiki Greenstone. 
+Elle montre la nouvelle possibilitÃ© de crÃ©er une collection Greenstone Ã  partir d'un site web MediaWiki. 
+
+<h3>Comment fonctionne la collection</h3> 
+<p>Le <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier de configuration de la collection</a> 
+contient les plugiciels <i>MediaWikiPlugin</i>,  <i>ImagePlugin</i>, <i>ZipPlugin</i>, <i>PDFPlugin</i>, 
+<i>PowerPointPlugin</i>, <i>WordPlugin</i> (de mÃªme que les plugiciels standards <i>GreenstoneXMLPlugin</i>, <i>ArchivesInfPlugin</i>
+ et <i>DirectoryPlugin</i>). Le plugiciel <i>MediaWikiPlugin</i> traite les pages HTML tÃ©lÃ©chargÃ©es Ã  partir d'un site MediaWiki, 
+tandis que les plugiciels <i>ImagePlugin</i>,  <i>ZipPlugin</i>, <i>PDFPlugin</i>, <i>PowerPointPlugin</i> et <i>WordPlugin</i> 
+traitent les images, et les fichiers ZIP, PDF, PowerPoint et Word  associÃ©s au Wiki Greenstone. <p>Pour construire une collection 
+Ã  partir d'un site MediaWiki, il faut d'abord tÃ©lÃ©charger les fichiers du wiki en utilisant l'option <i>MediaWiki</i> du panneau 
+<i>TÃ©lÃ©charger</i> du GLI. Ce type de tÃ©lÃ©chargement fonctionne d'une faÃ§on similaire au tÃ©lÃ©chargement <i>Web</i>, mais il est 
+spÃ©cialement conÃ§u pour parcourir les sites MediaWiki.\n 
+
+<p>Une fois que les fichiers sont tÃ©lÃ©chargÃ©s, il faut les copier dans une collection en utilisant l'onglet <i>Rassembler</i>, 
+en les faisant glisser du dossier <i>Fichiers tÃ©lÃ©chargÃ©s</i> dans l'arborescence de l'espace de travail, situÃ© sur la gauche 
+de l'Ã©cran. <p>Dans la section <i>Document Plugins</i> du panneau <i>Concevoir</i>, ajoutez le plugiciel <i>MediaWikiPlugin</i>. 
+Le plugiciel <i>MediaWikiPlugin</i> a de nombreuses options spÃ©cifiques qui dÃ©terminent des aspects de la prÃ©sentation des pages, 
+comme la prÃ©sence ou non d'une table des matiÃšres, l'affichage ou non de barres de navigation et de boÃ®tes de recherche sur chaque 
+page. Configurez ces options en fonction de l'apparence que vous souhaitez pour vos pages. Vous pouvez voir les options utilisÃ©es 
+par cette collection dans son <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier de configuration de collection</a>.
+"
+
+# -- Spanish text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=es] "CoilecciÃ³n MediaWiki"
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=es] "
+Esta colecciÃ³n de demostraciÃ³n estÃ¡ hecha en base al sitio Wiki de Greenstone.
+Muestra la nueva caracterÃ­stica que permite la construcciÃ³n de una colecciÃ³n de Greenstone desde el sitio MediaWiki de Greenstone.
+
+<h3>CÃ³mo funciona la colecciÃ³n</h3>
+
+<p>
+El <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n de la colecciÃ³n</a> contiene los plugins <i>MediaWikiPlugin</i>,
+<i>ImagePlugin</i>, <i>ZipPlugin</i>, <i>PDFPlugin</i>,
+<i>PowerPointPlugin</i>, <i>WordPlugin</i> (junto a los plugins estÃ¡ndar <i>GreenstoneXMLPlugin</i>, <i>ArchivesInfPlugin</i> y
+<i>DirectoryPlugin</i>). El <i>MediaWikiPlugin</i> manipula pÃ¡ginas HTML descargadas desde el sitio MediaWiki, mientras que <i>ImagePlugin</i>,
+<i>ZipPlugin</i>, <i>PDFPlugin</i>, <i>PowerPointPlugin</i> y
+<i>WordPlugin</i> manejan los archivos de imÃ¡genes, los zip, PDF, PowerPoint y Word
+asociados con la Wiki de Greenstone.
+
+<p>
+Para construir una colecciÃ³n desde el sitio MediaWiki, primero descargue los archivos del wiki usando la opciÃ³n <i>MediaWiki</i> en el panel <i>Descarga</i> del GLI.
+Este tipo de descarga funciona de manera similar a la descarga <i>Web</i>, pero estÃ¡ diseÃ±ado especÃ­ficamente para descargar  sitios MediaWiki.\n
+
+<p>Una vez que los archivos fueron descargados, copielos en la colecciÃ³n usando el panel <i>Reunir</i>, arrastrÃ¡ndolos desde la carpeta <i>Archivos descargados</i> en el Ã¡rbol izquierdo del espacio de trabajo del GLI.
+
+<p>
+En la secciÃ³n <i>Plugins del documento</i> del panel <i>DiseÃ±o</i>, agregue <i>MediaWikiPlugin</i>. <i>MediaWikiPlugin</i> tiene varias opciones especÃ­ficas que controlan los aspectos de presentaciÃ³n de la pÃ¡gina, tales como si se deben mostrar o no la tabla de contenidos, las barras de navegaciÃ³n y el recuadro de bÃºsqueda en cada pÃ¡gina. Configure estas opciones basÃ¡ndose en cÃ³mo quiere que aparezcan esas pÃ¡ginas. Puede ver las opciones usadas por esta colecciÃ³n en su <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n de la colecciÃ³n</a>.
+"
+
+# -- Simplified Chinese text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=zh] "MediaWikiéŠè"
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=zh] "
+æ¬æŒç€ºéŠèæå»ºäºGreenstoneç»Žåºçœç«ãå®æŒç€ºGreenstoneä»äžäžªMediaWikiçœç«äž­åå»ºéŠèçåèœã 
+ 
+<h3>åŠäœåå»ºæ¬éŠè</h3> 
+ 
+<p>æ¬éŠèç<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>é
+çœ®æä»¶</a>å
+å«åŠäžçæä»¶ïŒ
+<i>MediaWikiPlugin</i>ïŒ<i>ImagePlugin</i>ïŒ<i>ZipPlugin</i>ïŒ<i>PDFPlugin</i>ïŒ<i>PowerPointPlugin</i>ïŒ
+<i>WordPlugin</i>ïŒä»¥åæ åæä»¶<i>GreenstoneXMLPlugin</i>ïŒ<i>ArchivesInfPlugin</i>ä»¥å<i>DirectoryPlugin</i>ïŒã
+<i>MediaWikiPlugin</i>æä»¶å€çä»MediaWikiçœç«äžèœœçHTMLé¡µé¢ïŒè<i>ImagePlugin</i>ïŒ<i>ZipPlugin</i>ïŒ
+<i>PDFPlugin</i>ïŒ<i>PowerPointPlugin</i>ä»¥å<i>WordPlugin</i>å€çGreenstoneç»ŽåºéåžŠçåŸçïŒ
+zipïŒPDFïŒPowerPointä»¥åWordæä»¶ã 
+ 
+<p>èŠä»äžäžªMediaWikiçœç«äž­åå»ºäžäžªéŠèïŒéŠå
+èŠçšGLI<i>äžèœœ</i>é¢æ¿äž­ç<i>MediaWiki</i>éé¡¹è¿è¡äžèœœã
+è¿äžªäžèœœç±»åäž<i>HTTP</i>äžèœœç±»äŒŒïŒäœäžéšéå¯¹MediaWikiçœç«ã\n 
+ 
+<p>äžæŠæä»¶è¢«æåäžèœœïŒå°å
+¶å€å¶å°éŠèäž­ïŒå³åš<i>æ¶é</i>é¢æ¿äž­ïŒå°è¿äºææ¡£ä»å·ŠèŸ¹ç<i>äžèœœæä»¶</i>æä»¶å€¹äž­ææœè¿æ¥ã 
+ 
+<p>åš<i>è®Ÿè®¡</i>é¢æ¿ç<i>ææ¡£æä»¶</i>éšåïŒæ·»å <i>MediaWikiPlugin</i>ã<i>MediaWikiPlugin</i>æå äžªçšäº
+æ§å¶é¡µé¢åç°æ ŒåŒçéé¡¹ïŒæ¯åŠæ¯åŠåšæ¯é¡µäžæŸç€ºå
+å®¹å€§çº²ãæµè§å·¥å
+·æ¡åæçŽ¢æ¡ãè¿äºéé¡¹çé
+çœ®åå³äºäœ ææ³èŠçé¡µé¢æŸç€ºæ ŒåŒã
+æ¬éŠèç<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>é
+çœ®æä»¶</a>æŸç€ºäºæ¬éŠèå¯¹è¿äºéé¡¹çè®Ÿçœ®ã
+"
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/Greenstone_history.htm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/Greenstone_history.htm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/Greenstone_history.htm	(revision 21010)
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+<body bgcolor=white lang=EN-AU style='tab-interval:36.0pt'>
+
+<div class=Section1>
+
+<h1 style='tab-stops:36.0pt'><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:12.0pt;
+color:red'><b><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></b></span></h1>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='color:red'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span lang=EN-US
+style='font-size:24.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><b>A brief history
+of the <br>
+Greenstone Digital Library Software<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span lang=EN-US><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span lang=EN-US
+style='font-size:12.0pt'>Ian H. Witten and David Bainbridge<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span lang=EN-US
+style='font-size:12.0pt'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Subhead1 align=center style='text-align:center'><span lang=EN-US
+style='text-transform:none;letter-spacing:0pt;font-weight:normal'>University of
+Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand</span><span lang=EN-US style='letter-spacing:
+0pt'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Subhead1><span lang=EN-US style='letter-spacing:0pt'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Subhead1><span lang=EN-US style='letter-spacing:0pt'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>At the time of writing (January 2007)
+Greenstone&#8212;a versatile open source multilingual digital library environment
+with over a decade of pedigree&#8212;has a user base hailing from over 70
+countries, is downloaded 4,500 times a month, runs on all popular operating
+systems (even the iPod!), and has a readerÕs interface in over 40 languages.
+How did this software project and the research team behind it reach this point?
+Team members often give anecdotal stories about life behind the scenes at
+conferences and workshops; this article gives a more definitive and coherent
+account of the project.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>The New Zealand Digital Library project grew
+out of research on text compression (Bell <i>et al</i></span><span lang=EN-US>.,
+1990) and, later, index compression (Witten <i>et al.</i></span><span
+lang=EN-US>, 1994). Around this time we heard of digital libraries, and pointed
+out the potential advantages of compression at the first-ever digital library
+conference (Bell <i>et al.</i></span><span lang=EN-US>, 1994). The New Zealand
+Digital Library Project was established in 1995, beginning with a collection of
+50,000 computer science technical reports downloaded from the Internet (Witten <i>et
+al</i></span><span lang=EN-US>., 1995). At the time several research groups in
+computer science departments collecting technical reports and making them
+available on the web: our main contribution was the use of full-text indexing
+for effective search. We were assisted by equipment funding from the New
+Zealand Lotteries Board and operating funding from the New Zealand Foundation
+for Research, Science and Technology (1996&#8211;1998 and 2002&#8211;2007).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>In 1997 we began to work with Human Info NGO
+to help them produce fully-searchable CD-ROM collections of humanitarian
+information. This necessitated making our server (and in particular the
+full-text search engine it used), which had been developed under Linux, run on
+Windows machines&#8212;including the early Windows 3.1 and 3.11 because,
+although by then obsolete, they were prevalent in developing countries. This
+was demanding but largely uninteresting technically: we had to develop
+expertise in long-forgotten software systems, and it was hard to find suitable
+compilers (eventually we obtained a Òsecond-handÓ one from a software auction).
+The first publicly available CD-ROM, the <i>Humanity Development Library 1.3</i></span><span
+lang=EN-US>, was issued in April 1998. A French collection, UNESCOÕs <i>Sahel
+point Doc</i></span><span lang=EN-US>, appeared a year later; all the
+documents, along with the entire interface, help text, and full-text search mechanism,
+were in French. The first multilingual collection came six months later: a
+Spanish/English <i>Biblioteca Virtual de Desastres</i></span><span lang=EN-US>/<i>Virtual
+Disaster Collection</i></span><span lang=EN-US>. Since then about 40 CD-ROM
+collections have been published. They are produced by Human Info in Romania: we
+wrote the software and were heavily involved in preparing the first few
+CD-ROMs, and then transferred the technology to them so that they could proceed
+independently. At this point we realized that we did not aspire to be a digital
+library site ourselves, but rather to develop software that others could use
+for their own digital libraries. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>Towards the end of 1997 we adopted the term <i>Greenstone</i></span><span
+lang=EN-US>: we decided that ÒNew Zealand Digital Library SoftwareÓ was not
+only clumsy but could impede international acceptance and therefore sought a
+new name. ÒGreenstoneÓ turned out to be an inspired choice: snappy, memorable,
+and un-nationalistic but with strong national connotations within New
+Zealand&#8212;a form of nephrite jade, greenstone is a hallowed substance for </span><span
+style='mso-ansi-language:EN-AU'>M&#257;ori, valued more highly than gold.
+Moreover, it is easy to spell and pronounce. Our earlier <i>Weka</i></span><span
+style='mso-ansi-language:EN-AU'> (think <i>mecca</i></span><span
+style='mso-ansi-language:EN-AU'>) machine learning </span><span lang=EN-US>workbench,
+an acronym that in </span><span style='mso-ansi-language:EN-AU'>M&#257;ori</span><span
+lang=EN-US> spells the name of a flightless native bird, suffers from being
+mispronounced <i>weaka</i></span><span lang=EN-US> by some. And the term
+Greenstone is not overly common&#8212;today we are the number one Google hit
+for it. The decision to issue the software as open source, and to use the GNU
+General Public Licence, was made around the same time. We did not discuss this
+with University of Waikato authorities&#8212;New Zealand universities are
+obsessed with commercialization and we would have been forced into an endless
+round of deliberations on commercial licensing&#8212;but simply began to
+release under GPL. Early releases were posted on our website <i>greenstone.org</i></span><span
+lang=EN-US> (which was registered on 13 August 1998), but in November 2000 we
+moved to the SourceForge site for distribution (partly due to the per-megabyte
+charging scheme that our university levied for both outgoing and incoming web
+traffic). Our employers were not particularly happy when our licensing <i>fait
+accompli</i></span><span lang=EN-US> became apparent years later, but have
+grown to accept (and perhaps even appreciate) the status quo because of our
+evident international success. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>An early in-house project utilizing
+Greenstone was the Niupepa collection of </span><span style='mso-ansi-language:
+EN-AU'>M&#257;ori</span><span lang=EN-US>-language newspapers. We began the
+work of OCRing 20,000 page images in 1998, and made an initial demonstration
+collection. In 2000&#8211;2001 we received (retrospective!) funding from the
+Ministry of Education to continue the work. Virtually the entire Niupepa was
+available online early in 2001, but the collection was not officially launched
+until March 2002 at the Annual General meeting of Te R&#363;nanga o Ng&#257;
+Kura Kaupapa M&#257;ori (the controlling body of M&#257;ori medium/theology
+schools). Niupepa is still the largest collection of on-line </span><span
+style='mso-ansi-language:EN-AU'>M&#257;ori</span><span lang=EN-US>-language
+documents, and is extensively used; Apperley <i>et </i></span><span lang=EN-US>al.
+(2002) gives a comprehensive description of how it was developed. On 13
+November 2000, in a moving ceremony, the M&#257;ori people presented our
+project with a ceremonial <i>toki</i></span><span lang=EN-US> (adze) as a gift
+in recognition of our contributions to indigenous language preservation (see
+Figure 1).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>In 1999 the BBC in London were concerned
+about the threat of Y2K bugs on their database of one million lengthy metadata
+records for radio and television programmes. They decided to augment their
+heavy-duty mainframe database with a fully-searchable Greenstone system that
+could run on ordinary desktop machines. A Greenstone collection was duly built
+and delivered (within two days of receiving the full dataset). We tried to get
+them to the point where they could maintain it themselves, but they were not
+interested: instead we updated it for them regularly (incidentally providing us
+with a useful small source of revenue). They eventually moved to different
+technology in early 2006, with the aim of making the metadata (and ultimately
+the programme content) publicly available online in a way that resembles what
+Amazon does for books&#8212;something that we think requires a tailor-made
+portal rather than a general-purpose digital library system.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
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+ stroked="f">
+ <v:textbox>
+  <![if !mso]>
+  <table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 width="100%">
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+     <tr>
+      <td width=147 valign=top style='width:147.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+      <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
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+      <td width=296 valign=top style='width:295.65pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+      <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span style='mso-ansi-language:
+      EN-AU'>This <i>toki</i></span><span style='mso-ansi-language:EN-AU'>
+      (adze) was a gift from the M&#257;ori people in recognition of our
+      projectÕs contributions to indigenous language preservation, and resides
+      in the project laboratory at the University of Waikato. In M&#257;ori
+      culture there are several kinds of <i>toki</i></span><span
+      style='mso-ansi-language:EN-AU'>, with different purposes. This one is a
+      ceremonial adze, <i>toki pou tangata</i></span><span style='mso-ansi-language:
+      EN-AU'>, a symbol of chieftainship. The <i>rau</i></span><span
+      style='mso-ansi-language:EN-AU'> (blade) is sharp, hard, and made of <i>pounamu</i></span><span
+      style='mso-ansi-language:EN-AU'> or greenstone&#8212;hence the Greenstone
+      software, at the cutting edge of digital library technology. There are
+      three figures carved into the <i>toki</i></span><span style='mso-ansi-language:
+      EN-AU'>. The forward-looking one looks out to where the <i>rau</i></span><span
+      style='mso-ansi-language:EN-AU'> is pointing to ensure that the <i>toki</i></span><span
+      style='mso-ansi-language:EN-AU'> is appropriately targeted. The
+      backward-looking one at the top is a sentinel that guards where the <i>rau</i></span><span
+      style='mso-ansi-language:EN-AU'> canÕt see. There is a third head at the
+      bottom of the handle which makes sure that the chiefÕs decisions&#8212;to
+      which the <i>toki</i></span><span style='mso-ansi-language:EN-AU'> lends
+      authority&#8212;are properly grounded in reality. The name of this <i>taonga</i></span><span
+      style='mso-ansi-language:EN-AU'>, or art-treasure, is <i>Toki Pou
+      Hinengaro</i></span><span style='mso-ansi-language:EN-AU'>, which
+      translates roughly as Òthe adze that shapes the excellence of thought.Ó <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+      </td>
+     </tr>
+    </table>
+    <p class=MsoNormal align=center style='margin-top:6.0pt;text-align:center'><span
+    lang=EN-US style='font-size:11.0pt'>Figure 1. The Greenstone <i>toki<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
+    </div>
+    <![if !mso]></td>
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+  <![endif]></v:textbox>
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+</v:shape><![endif]--><![if !vml]><img width=438 height=245
+src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/Greenstone_history_files/image002.gif" align=left hspace=9
+alt="Text Box:  &#9;This toki (adze) was a gift from the M&#257;ori people in recognition of our projectÕs contributions to indigenous language preservation, and resides in the project laboratory at the University of Waikato. In M&#257;ori culture there are several kinds of toki, with different purposes. This one is a ceremonial adze, toki pou tangata, a symbol of chieftainship. The rau (blade) is sharp, hard, and made of pounamu or greenstone&#8212;hence the Greenstone software, at the cutting edge of digital library technology. There are three figures carved into the toki. The forward-looking one looks out to where the rau is pointing to ensure that the toki is appropriately targeted. The backward-looking one at the top is a sentinel that guards where the rau canÕt see. There is a third head at the bottom of the handle which makes sure that the chiefÕs decisions&#8212;to which the toki lends authority&#8212;are properly grounded in reality. The name of this taonga, or art-treasure, is Toki Pou Hinengaro, which translates roughly as Òthe adze that shapes the excellence of thought.Ó &#13;Figure 1. The Greenstone toki&#13;"
+v:shapes="_x0000_s1032"><![endif]><span lang=EN-US>We became acquainted with
+UNESCO through Human InfoÕs long-term relationship with them. Although they
+supported Human InfoÕs goal of producing humanitarian CD-ROMs and distributing
+them in developing countries, UNESCO were really interested in <i>sustainable</i></span><span
+lang=EN-US> development, which requires empowering people in those countries to
+produce and distribute their own digital library collections&#8212;following
+that old Chinese proverb about giving a man fish versus teaching him to fish.<a
+style='mso-footnote-id:ftn1' href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/Greenstone_history.htm#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title=""><sup><span
+style='mso-special-character:footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]>[1]<![endif]></span></sup></a>
+We had by then transferred our collection-building technology to Human Info,
+and tried (though without success) to transfer it to the BBC, but this was a
+completely different proposition: to put the power to <i>build</i></span><span
+lang=EN-US> collections into the hands of those other than IT specialists,
+typically librarians. We began by packaging up our PERL scripts and documenting
+them so that others could use them, and slowly, painfully, came to terms with
+the fact that operating at this level is anathema for librarians. In 2001 we
+produced a web-based system called the ÒCollectorÓ that was announced in a
+paper whose title proudly proclaimed ÒPower to the people: end-user building of
+digital library collectionsÓ (Witten <i>et al.</i></span><span lang=EN-US>,
+2001). However, this was never a great success: web-based submission to
+repository systems (including Greenstone collections) is commonplace today, but
+we were trying to allow users to design and configure digital library
+collections over the web as well as populate them. The next year we began a
+Java development that became known as the Greenstone Librarian Interface
+(Bainbridge <i>et al.</i></span><span lang=EN-US>, 2003), which grew over the
+years into a comprehensive system for designing and building collections and
+includes its own metadata editor.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>From the outset, UNESCOÕs goal was to
+produce CD-ROMs containing the entire Greenstone software (not just individual
+collections plus the run-time system, as in Human InfoÕs products), so that it
+could be used by people in developing countries who did not have ready access
+to the Internet.<a style='mso-footnote-id:ftn2' href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/Greenstone_history.htm#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2"
+title=""><span class=MsoFootnoteReference><span style='mso-special-character:
+footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]>[2]<![endif]></span></span></a> These were
+the tangible outcomes of a series of small contracts with UNESCO: we felt that
+the CD-ROMs were more of symbolic than actual significance because in practice
+they rapidly became outdated by frequent new releases of the software appearing
+on the Internet. They were produced every year from 2002 to 2006. The CD-ROMs
+contained all the auxiliary software needed to run Greenstone as well, which
+are not included in the Internet distributions because they can be obtained
+from other sources (links are provided). When we and others started to give
+workshops, tutorials, and courses on Greenstone we adopted a policy of putting
+all instructional material&#8212;PowerPoint slides, exercises, sample files for
+projects&#8212;on a workshop CD-ROM, and began to include this auxiliary
+material on the UNESCO distributions. This ultimately led to their downfall,
+for the company producing the CD-ROMs began to question the provenance of some
+of the sample files they contained, and ultimately demanded explicit proof of
+permission to reproduce all the information and software. Although everything
+was, in principle, open source, so much had to be stripped out that the 2006
+CD-ROM distribution was seriously emasculated. CD-ROM distributions for workshops,
+however, continue because they are produced on a far more limited scale. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>Good documentation was (rightly!) seen by
+UNESCO as crucial. They were keen to make the Greenstone technology available
+in Spanish, French, and Russian (Arabic and Chinese are also official UNESCO
+languages, but for some reason never figured in our discussions). We already
+had versions of the interface in these (and many other) languages, but UNESCO
+wanted <i>everything</i></span><span lang=EN-US> to be translated&#8212;not
+just the documentation, which was extensive (four substantial manuals) but all
+the installation instructions, README files, example collections, etc. We might
+have demurred had we realized the extent to which such a massive translation
+effort would threaten to hobble the potential for future development, and have
+since suffered mightily in getting everything&#8212;including last-minute
+interface tweaks&#8212;translated for each upcoming UNESCO CD-ROM release. The
+cumbersome process of maintaining up-to-date translations in the face of
+continual evolution of the software&#8212;which is, of course, to be expected
+in open source systems&#8212;led us to devise a scheme for maintaining all
+language fragments in a version control system so that the system could tell
+what needed updating. This resulted in the Greenstone TranslatorÕs Interface, a
+web portal where officially registered translators can examine the status of
+the language interface for which they are responsible, and update it
+(Bainbridge <i>et al</i></span><span lang=EN-US>., 2003). Today the interface
+has been translated into 43 languages (with a further 8 in progress), 28 of
+which have a designated volunteer maintainer.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>Most people are surprised by the small size
+of the Greenstone team. Historically, for most of the duration of the project
+we have employed 1&#8211;2 programmers, although recently the number has crept
+up to 3&#8211;4. Several faculty involved in aspects of digital library
+research are associated with the project, but only two have viewed the
+Greenstone software as their main interest&#8212;partly because although the
+work is ground-breaking the research outputs are of questionable value in the
+university evaluation and promotion process. Graduate students rarely
+contribute to the code base directly because of concerns about retaining the
+production-level code quality and programming conventions painstakingly
+acquired over many years, although several students work in areas cognate to
+digital libraries. Our external users tend to be librarians rather than
+software specialists and we have received few major contributions or bug fixes
+from them. To summarize, the Greenstone digital library software has been
+created by a couple of skilled people working over a 10-year period&#8212;and
+along the way there have been several changes of personnel. ItÕs amazing what
+excellent programmers can do.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>With UNESCOÕs encouragement (and occasional
+sponsorship), we have worked to enable developing countries to take advantage
+of digital library technology by running hands-on workshops. This has enabled
+team members to travel to many interesting places. In what other area, for example,
+might a computer science professor get the opportunity to spend a week giving a
+course at the UN International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in Arusha,
+Tanzania, at the foot of Mount Kilimanjaro&#8212;or in Havana, Cuba?
+Recognizing that devolution is essential for sustainability, we are now
+attempting to distribute this effort by establishing regional Greenstone
+Support Groups: the first, for South Asia, was launched in April 2006.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>Greenstone won the 2004 IFIP Namur award,
+which recognizes recipients for raising awareness internationally of the social
+implications of information and communication technologies; and was a finalist
+for the 2006 Stockholm Challenge, the worldÕs leading ICT Prize for
+entrepreneurs who use ICT to improve living conditions and increase economic
+growth. Our project received the Vannevar Bush award for the best paper at the <i>ACM
+Digital Libraries Conference</i></span><span lang=EN-US> in 1999, the Literati
+Club Highly Commended Award in 2003, and the best international paper award at
+the <i>Joint Conference on Digital Libraries</i></span><span lang=EN-US> in
+2004. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>Greenstone is promoted by UNESCO (Paris)
+under its <i>Information for All</i></span><span lang=EN-US> programme. It is
+distributed with the FAOÕs (Rome) <i>Information Management Resource Kit</i></span><span
+lang=EN-US> (2005), along with tutorial information on its use. It forms the
+basis of the Institute for Information Technology in EducationÕs course on <i>Digital
+Libraries in Education</i></span><span lang=EN-US> (2006). An extensive early
+description appears in Witten and BainbridgeÕs book <i>How to build a digital
+library </i></span><span lang=EN-US>(Witten and Bainbridge, 2003). In
+2002&#8211;2003 our principal developer at that time left the project to form
+DL Consulting, an enterprise that specializes in building and customizing
+Greenstone collections and has won several awards as the regionÕs
+fastest-growing exporter and ICT company. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>Many early digital library projects focused
+on interoperability. Although this is clearly a very important issue, we felt
+that this attention was premature&#8212;we well remember a digital library
+conference where interest was so strong that there were two panel discussions on
+interoperability, the only catch being that they were parallel sessions, which
+permitted no É er É interoperability. We adopted the informal motto Òfirst
+operability, then interoperabilityÓ; and focused on other issues such as
+ingesting documents and metadata in a very wide variety of formats. More
+recently we have added many interoperability features, which, as we had
+expected, were not hard to retrofit: communication with Z39.50, SRW, OAI-PMH,
+DSpace, and METS are just a few examples (Bainbridge <i>et al.</i></span><span
+lang=EN-US>, 2006).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>We continually struggle with the fundamental
+conflict between stability and evolution. We place a strong emphasis on
+backwards compatibility: it is rare for new software releases to have any
+effect at all on existing collections, and then only in minor respects. Only
+recently we have made a concession to hardware obsolescence by making
+alterations that no longer allow standard Greenstone collections to be served
+on Windows 3.1/3.11. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>In order to take advantage of new
+developments in software technology we began a new project, Greenstone 3, which
+is a complete redesign and reimplementation of the original digital library
+software (Greenstone 2). It incorporates all the features of the existing
+system, and is backwards compatible: that is, it can build and run existing
+collections without modification. It is structured as a network of independent
+modules that communicate using XML: thus it runs in a distributed fashion and
+can be spread across different servers as necessary. This modular design increases
+the flexibility and extensibility of Greenstone. However, although initial
+versions of Greenstone 3 have been released, continual demands from users for
+further development of Greenstone 2 have delayed progress on the new version. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>Greenstone 3 was originally envisaged purely
+as a research framework: backwards compatibility would be possible but required
+IT skills. We have achieved this aim: it is now much easier for graduate and
+undergraduate project students to build upon the digital library core (e.g. the
+Language Learning Digital Library, Wu and Witten 2006). However, we have found
+that maintaining two independent versions of Greenstone&#8212;in particular,
+ensuring backwards compatibility when new and enhanced features are added to
+Greenstone 2&#8212;is beyond our resources. Consequently we have committed to a
+new vision: to develop Greenstone 3 to the point that, by default, its
+installation and operation is, to the user, indistinguishable from Greenstone
+2. This work will be included in the next release of Greenstone 3, slated for
+release in March 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Subhead1><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:14.0pt;letter-spacing:0pt'>References<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>Apperley, M., Keegan, T.T., Cunningham, S.J.
+and Witten, I.H. (2002) ÒDelivering the Maori-language newspapers on the
+Internet.Ó <i>Rere atu, taku manu! Discovering history, language and politics
+in the Maori-language newspapers</i></span><span lang=EN-US>, edited by J.
+Curnow, N. Hopa and J. McRae. Auckland University Press: 211-232.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>Bainbridge, D., Thompson, J. and Witten,
+I.H. (2003) ÒAssembling and enriching digital library collections.Ó <i>Proc
+Joint Conference on Digital Libraries</i></span><span lang=EN-US>, Houston,
+Texas.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>Bainbridge, D., Edgar, K.D., McPherson, J.R.
+and Witten, I.H. (2003) ÒManaging change in a digital library system with many
+interface languages.Ó <i>Proc European Conference on Digital Libraries ECDL2003</i></span><span
+lang=EN-US>, Trondheim, Norway.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>Bainbridge, D., Ke, K.-Y.J. and Witten, I.H.
+(2006) ÒDocument level interoperability for collection creators.Ó <i>Proc Joint
+Conference on Digital Libraries</i></span><span lang=EN-US>, pp. 105-106,
+Chapel Hill, NC.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>Bell, T.C., Moffat, A. and Witten, I.H.
+(1994) ÒCompressing the digital library.Ó <i>Proc Digital Libraries '94</i></span><span
+lang=EN-US>, pp. 41-46, College Station, Texas, June.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>Bell, T.C., Cleary, J.G. and Witten, I.H.
+(1990) <i>Text compression</i></span><span lang=EN-US>. Prentice Hall,
+Englewood Cliffs, NJ.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>Witten, I.H., Moffat, A. and Bell, T.C.
+(1994) <i>Managing gigabytes: compressing and indexing documents and images</i></span><span
+lang=EN-US>. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>Witten, I.H., Cunningham, S.J., Vallabh, M.
+and Bell, T.C. (1995) ÒA New Zealand digital library for computer science
+research.Ó <i>Proc Digital Libraries '95</i></span><span lang=EN-US>, pp.
+25-30, Austin, Texas, June.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>Witten, I. H., Bainbridge, D. and Boddie,
+S.J. (2001) ÒPower to the people: end-user building of digital library
+collections.Ó <i>Proc Joint Conference on Digital Libraries</i></span><span
+lang=EN-US>, Roanoke, VA.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>Witten, I.H. and Bainbridge, D. (2003) <i>How
+to build a digital library</i></span><span lang=EN-US>. Morgan Kaufmann, San
+Francisco, CA.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US>Wu, S. and Witten, I.H. (2006.Ó Towards a
+digital library for language learning.Ó <i>Proc European Conference on Digital
+Libraries</i></span><span lang=EN-US>, Alicante, Spain.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=Bodytext><span lang=EN-US><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:11.0pt'><b>Timeline of
+significant events<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US><b><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
+
+<table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 style='border-collapse:collapse;
+ mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>2007<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Greenstone distributed with IITEÕs course <i>Digital
+  Libraries in Education<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>2006<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>May<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Finalist for the Stockholm Challenge<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Apr<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Greenstone Support Group for South Asia launched<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>2005<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Nov<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Initial release of Greenstone3<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Feb<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Greenstone distributed with FAOÕs <i>Information
+  Management Resource Kit<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>2004<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Jan<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>IFIP Namur award<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>2002<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Jun<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>DL Consulting incorporated<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Begin development of the Greenstone TranslatorÕs
+  Interface<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>2002<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Apr<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Began development of Greenstone3<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Mar<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Official opening of the Niupepa collection<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Begin development of the Greenstone Librarian Interface<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Jun<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>First UNESCO Greenstone CD-ROM<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>2001<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Development of the <i>Collector</i></span><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>2000<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Nov<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Begin to distribute software on SourceForge <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Nov<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'><i>Toki</i></span><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:
+  9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'> presented to the NZ Digital Library
+  project on behalf of the entire </span><span style='font-size:9.0pt;
+  color:black;layout-grid-mode:line;mso-ansi-language:EN-AU'>M&#257;ori</span><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'> people<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Aug<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Formally established cooperative effort with UNESCO
+  and Human Info NGO<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Apr<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Greenstone mailing list started<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>1999<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Dec<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>BBC collection established<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>1998<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Aug<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Greenstone.org website established<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Apr<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>First CD-ROM collection released: <i>Humanity Development
+  Library</i></span><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>1997<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Decision to use the GPL; name ÒGreenstoneÓ adopted<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Began work with Human Info NGO to produce humanitarian
+  CD-ROMs<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>1995<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=28 valign=top style='width:27.8pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>May<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=348 valign=top style='width:347.85pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  layout-grid-mode:line'>Digital library of Computer Science Technical Reports <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:11.0pt'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:11.0pt'><b>Greenstone
+releases<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US><b><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
+
+<table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 style='border-collapse:collapse;
+ mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2006<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Dec<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.72<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Oct<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.71<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Mar<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.70<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Jan<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.63<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2005<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Jun<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.62<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Apr<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.60 <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Mar<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.53<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2004<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Oct<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.52<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=DE style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  mso-ansi-language:DE'>Jun<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=DE style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  mso-ansi-language:DE'>2.51<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span lang=DE
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;mso-ansi-language:DE'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=DE style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  mso-ansi-language:DE'>Feb<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=DE style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  mso-ansi-language:DE'>2.50 <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=DE style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  mso-ansi-language:DE'>2003<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=DE style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  mso-ansi-language:DE'>Dec<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=DE style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  mso-ansi-language:DE'>2.41<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span lang=DE
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;mso-ansi-language:DE'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=DE style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  mso-ansi-language:DE'>Jun<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=DE style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  mso-ansi-language:DE'>2.40<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span lang=DE
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;mso-ansi-language:DE'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=DE style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  mso-ansi-language:DE'>Mar<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=DE style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+  mso-ansi-language:DE'>2.39 <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2002<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Jan<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.38 <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2001<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Oct<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.37<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Jun<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.36<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>May<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.35<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Apr<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.33<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Feb<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.31<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Feb<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.30<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2000<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Dec<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.30<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Sep<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.27<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Jul<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.25<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Jun<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.23<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Jun<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.22<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Apr<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.21<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:34.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Feb<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=57 valign=top style='width:2.0cm;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>2.12<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:11.0pt'><b><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:11.0pt'><b>UNESCO
+Greenstone CD-ROMs<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US><b><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+layout-grid-mode:line'>These contain the entire Greenstone software, and are
+intended for use in developing countries with limited access to the Internet.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+layout-grid-mode:line'>2006<span style='mso-tab-count:1'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>May<span
+style='mso-tab-count:1'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>UNESCO
+CD-ROM v2.7 (Greenstone v2.70)<span style='mso-tab-count:1'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>English/French/Spanish/Russian<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+layout-grid-mode:line'>2005<span style='mso-tab-count:1'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>May<span
+style='mso-tab-count:1'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>UNESCO
+CD-ROM v2.6 (Greenstone v2.60)<span style='mso-tab-count:1'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>English/French/Spanish/Russian<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+layout-grid-mode:line'>2004<span style='mso-tab-count:1'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Mar<span
+style='mso-tab-count:1'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>UNESCO
+CD-ROM v2.0 (Greenstone v2.50)<span style='mso-tab-count:1'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>English/French/Spanish/Russian<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+layout-grid-mode:line'>2003<span style='mso-tab-count:1'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Mar<span
+style='mso-tab-count:1'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>UNESCO
+CD-ROM v1.1 (Greenstone v2.39)<span style='mso-tab-count:1'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>English/French/Spanish<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;
+layout-grid-mode:line'>2002<span style='mso-tab-count:1'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Jun<span
+style='mso-tab-count:1'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>UNESCO
+CD-ROM v1.0 (Greenstone v2.38)<span style='mso-tab-count:1'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>English<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:11.0pt'><b><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:11.0pt'><b>Human Info NGO
+CD-ROMs<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US><b><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Prior to the year
+2000 we worked with Human Info NGO to help them produce humanitarian CD-ROMs
+using Greenstone. (Many more have been produced since; a total of about 40 to
+date)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 style='margin-left:4.8pt;
+ border-collapse:collapse;mso-table-layout-alt:fixed;mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>2006<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Apr<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Appropriate Technology
+  Knowledge Collection<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>2005<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>May<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Gender and HIV/AIDS
+  Electronic Library<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>???<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=FR style='font-size:
+  9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line;mso-ansi-language:FR'>Textes de Base
+  sur LÕEnvironment au Senegal (French)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=FR style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line;mso-ansi-language:
+  FR'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Jan<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Educational
+  Aids/Lehr- und Lernmittel/Moyens didactiques/Material didctico v3.0
+  (English/German/French/Spanish)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>2004<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Nov<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Africa Collection
+  for Transition: From Relief to Development v1.01<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Sep<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>UNECE Committee for
+  Trade, Industry and Enterprise Development (English/French /Russian)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>???<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>INEE Technical Kit
+  on Education in Emergencies and Early Recovery<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Jan<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Educational
+  Aids/Lehr- und Lernmittel/Moyens didactiques/Material didctico v2.0
+  (English/German/French/Spanish)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>2003<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>???<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Education, Work and
+  the Future/Education Travail et Avenir (English/French) v2.0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Oct<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Revised Curricula
+  for Technical Colleges and Polytechnics<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Jul<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>UNAIDS Library v2.0
+  (English/French/Spanish/Russian)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>May<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Biblioteca Virtual
+  de Salud para des Desastres/Health Library for Disasters v2.0
+  (Spanish/English)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Mar<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Food and Nutrition
+  Library v2.2<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>???<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Educational
+  Aids/Lehr- und Lernmittel/Moyens didactiques/Material didctico v1.0
+  (English/German/French/Spanish)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Jan<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>ICT Training Kit
+  and Digital Library for African Educators<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>2002<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Aug<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Community
+  Development Library for Sustainable Development and Basic Human Needs v2.1<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Jul<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Food and Nutrition
+  Library v2.0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Mar<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>UNDP Energy for
+  Sustainable Development Library<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>2001<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Dec<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>UNAIDS Library of
+  Current Documents v1.1 (English/French/Spanish/Russian)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Oct<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>East African
+  Development Library<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>???<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Safe Motherhood
+  Strategies (English/French/Spanish)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Jul<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Researching
+  Education Development<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Jun<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Biblioteca Virtual
+  de Salud para des Desastres/Health Library for Disasters (Spanish/English)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Jun<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>WHO Medicines
+  Bookshelf<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Jan <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Africa Collection
+  for Transition<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>2000<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Dec<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>World Environmental
+  Library v1.1<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>???<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Sahel point Doc
+  v2.0 (French)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Jan<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Food and Nutrition
+  Library v1.0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>1999<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Dec<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Medical and Health
+  Library v1.0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Dec<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=FR style='font-size:
+  9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line;mso-ansi-language:FR'>Bibliothque
+  pour le Dveloppement Durable et des Besoins Essentials v1.0 (French)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=FR style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line;mso-ansi-language:
+  FR'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Nov<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Biblioteca Virtual
+  de Desastres/Virtual Disaster Library (Spanish, some English)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>???<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>UNU Collection on
+  Critical Global Issues v2.0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Mar<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Sahel point Doc
+  (French)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Feb<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Humanity
+  Development Library v2.0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>1998<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>???<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>UNU Collection on
+  Critical Global Issues v1.0<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=32 nowrap valign=top style='width:32.35pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=39 nowrap valign=top style='width:39.15pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Apr<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=349 valign=top style='width:348.95pt;padding:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Humanity
+  Development Library v1.3<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+style='font-size:11.0pt'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:11.0pt'><b>Greenstone workshops<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US><b><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>As well as tutorials
+at conferences in the US and Europe, many workshops have been given on
+Greenstone in developing countries. Here are some that have been given by
+people closely associated with the project; there have been many others. They
+range from half a day to 6 days; most are 1&#8211;3 days. Many have been
+sponsored by UNESCO.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><b><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
+
+<table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 width=269 style='width:269.35pt;
+ margin-left:.4pt;border-collapse:collapse;mso-padding-alt:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>2007<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>May <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Trinidad and Tobago
+  National Library<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Feb<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Vellore, India<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>2006<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Dec<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Calcutta, India<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Dec<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>New Delhi, India<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Nov&#8211;Dec<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Kozhikode, India<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Oct<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Vladimir, Russia<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Aug<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Tirunelvelli, India<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Jun<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Hawaii, US<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Mar&#8211;Apr<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Madras, India<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Mar<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Durban, South
+  Africa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Feb<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Bangkok, Thailand<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>2005<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Nov<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Cape Town, South
+  Africa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Nov&#8211;Dec <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Arusha, Tanzania<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Sep<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Suva, Fiji<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Aug<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Bangalore, India<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>July <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Siena, Italy<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>May<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Ho Chi Minh City,
+  Vietnam<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>May<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Kozhikode, India<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>2004 <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>???<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Bombay, India<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Havana, Cuba<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>???<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Trirandom, Kerala<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Aug&#8211;Sep<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Windhoek, Namibia <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Jul<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Suva, Fiji<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Jun<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Cape Town, South
+  Africa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Mar<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Dakar, Senegal<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Mar<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Cape Town, South
+  Africa<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Feb <o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Gaborone, Botswana<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Feb<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Almaty, Kazakhstan<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>2003<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Nov<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Dakar, Senegal<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Nov<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Suva, Fiji<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td width=35 valign=top style='width:35.45pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><span
+  lang=EN-US style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=43 valign=top style='width:42.55pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>May<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+  <td width=191 valign=top style='width:191.35pt;padding:0cm 4.25pt 0cm 0cm'>
+  <p class=MsoNormal style='text-align:justify'><span lang=EN-US
+  style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black;layout-grid-mode:line'>Bangalore, India
+  (IISC)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+  </td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class=MsoNormal><span lang=EN-US><![if !supportEmptyParas]>&nbsp;<![endif]><o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div style='mso-element:footnote-list'><![if !supportFootnotes]><br clear=all>
+
+<hr align=left size=1 width="33%">
+
+<![endif]>
+
+<div style='mso-element:footnote' id=ftn1>
+
+<p class=MsoFootnoteText><a style='mso-footnote-id:ftn1' href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/Greenstone_history.htm#_ftnref1"
+name="_ftn1" title=""><span class=MsoFootnoteReference><span lang=EN-US
+style='font-size:8.0pt'><span style='mso-special-character:footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]>[1]<![endif]></span></span></span></a><span
+lang=EN-US style='font-size:8.0pt'> </span><span lang=EN-US>In New Zealand, by
+the way, they say Ògive a man a fish and heÕll eat for a day; teach a man to
+fish and heÕll sit in a boat and drink beer for the rest of his life.Ó<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div style='mso-element:footnote' id=ftn2>
+
+<p class=MsoFootnoteText><a style='mso-footnote-id:ftn2' href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/Greenstone_history.htm#_ftnref2"
+name="_ftn2" title=""><span class=MsoFootnoteReference><span lang=EN-US><span
+style='mso-special-character:footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]>[2]<![endif]></span></span></span></a><span
+lang=EN-US> Incidentally, UNESCO refused to use our <i>toki</i></span><span
+lang=EN-US> logo on the CD-ROMs because they feel that in some developing
+countries axes are irrevocably linked to genocide. Our protests that this
+object is clearly ceremonial fell on deaf ears. Dealing with international
+agencies is sometimes very frustrating.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div style='mso-element:comment-list'><![if !supportAnnotations]>
+
+<hr class=msocomoff align=left size=1 width="33%">
+
+<![endif]></div>
+
+</body>
+
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/A_basic_introduction_to_using_CSS_in_Greenstone.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/A_basic_introduction_to_using_CSS_in_Greenstone.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/A_basic_introduction_to_using_CSS_in_Greenstone.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,207 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="A basic introduction to using CSS in Greenstone" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>A basic introduction to using CSS in Greenstone - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">A basic introduction to using CSS in Greenstone</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p>Contributed by Richard Managh, DL Consulting
+</p><p>The macros in greenstone help to generate the html for each page that greenstone displays. As a simple example, lets say for a certain page greenstone spits out the contents of the following macros, which form an html page.
+</p>
+<pre>_header_ {
+&lt;html&gt;
+&lt;head&gt;
+&lt;title&gt;Sample page&lt;/title&gt;
+&lt;/head&gt;
+&lt;body&gt;
+}
+</pre>
+<pre>_content_ {
+&lt;p&gt;This is some content&lt;/p&gt;
+}
+</pre>
+<pre>_footer_ {
+&lt;/body&gt;
+&lt;/html&gt;
+}
+</pre>
+<p>You need to change the macros to change the way the page looks. But whether you use css or not, is up to you. (You might use &lt;b&gt; &lt;/b&gt; tags which are not considered css)
+</p><p>Lets say you wanted to change the color of the text in the content of the page to blue. This is an example of changing the look of the page using css, but with an inline style, that is without using an external stylesheet. You might change the <tt>_content_ macro</tt> to be as follows
+</p>
+<pre>_content_{
+&lt;p style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;This is some content&lt;/p&gt;
+}
+</pre>
+<p>Here are a few more examples: Changing the content text color to blue <b>using an internal style sheet</b>: You would change the <tt>_header_ macro</tt> to something like:
+</p>
+<pre>_header_ {
+&lt;html&gt;
+&lt;head&gt;
+&lt;title&gt;Sample page&lt;/title&gt;
+&lt;style type="text/css"&gt;
+&lt;/style&gt;
+&lt;/head&gt;
+&lt;body&gt;
+}
+</pre>
+<pre>_content_ {
+&lt;p class=&quot;bluetext&quot;&gt;This is some content&lt;/p&gt;
+}
+</pre>
+<p>You need the  if you want to be compatible with older browsers.
+</p><p><b>Using an external stylesheet</b>: Contents of lets say a file called <i>style.css</i>
+</p>
+<pre>--------Start Contents----------
+.bluetext { color: blue; }
+--------End Contents-----------
+</pre>
+<p>You could have header and content macros like:
+</p>
+<pre>_header_ {
+&lt;html&gt;
+&lt;head&gt;
+&lt;title&gt;Sample page&lt;/title&gt;
+&lt;link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="_httpprefix_/collect/apples/macros/style.css" /&gt;
+&lt;/head&gt;
+&lt;body&gt;
+}
+</pre>
+<pre>_content_ {
+&lt;p class=&quot;bluetext&quot;&gt;This is some content&lt;/p&gt;
+}
+</pre>
+<p>In the above example the collection name is "apples", and the <i>style.css</i> file would be placed in the <tt> greenstone-install-dir\collect\apples\macros\</tt> directory.
+</p><p>If at all possible prefer external stylesheets before internal stylesheets before inline styles. This is because external stylesheets are more powerful, as they can be used to change hundreds of pages, by just modifying the one css file that all of those pages specify as their stylesheet. For more information on stylesheets see     <a href="http://www.w3schools.com/css/css_howto.as" class='external free' title="http://www.w3schools.com/css/css howto.as" rel="nofollow">http://www.w3schools.com/css/css_howto.as</a> or <a href="http://www.w3schools.com/css/default.asp" class='external free' title="http://www.w3schools.com/css/default.asp" rel="nofollow">http://www.w3schools.com/css/default.asp</a>
+</p><p>So, from the above examples, you can see that if you want to use css to change the look of your page, you need to modify the macros to apply css to the final generated html.
+</p><p>Collection specific macros should be placed in a file called <i>extra.dm</i> in the macros directory of the collection. To link to a collection specific style sheet, you would put something like the following into your <i>extra.dm</i> (assuming that the collection is called apples).
+</p>
+<pre>package Style
+-----------------------------------------------------
+_htmlhead_ [c=apples] {
+&lt;html&gt;
+&lt;head&gt;
+&lt;title&gt;_pagetitle_&lt;/title&gt;
+&lt;link rel="stylesheet" href="_httpprefix_/collect/apples/macros/style.css"&gt;
+_globalscripts_
+&lt;/head&gt;
+&lt;body&gt;
+}
+</pre>
+<p>There are different macro "packages" which control display for different pages in greenstone. Here we are "overriding" the default <tt>_htmlhead_ macro</tt> in the Style package, when it applies to the apples collection <tt>[c=apples]</tt>. This would change many of the pages of greenstone (the Style macro package applies to many pages) to have your style.css cascading stylesheet available, you would of course need to override other macros such as <tt>_content_ macros</tt> to apply your css rules to your content. You might look at the <tt>_content_ macros</tt> of different default macro files, such as <i>query.dm</i> or <i>document.dm</i> in your <tt>greenstone-install-dir\macros</tt> directory. In these files, you can find many macros that you might override in your collection to get the desired display results in your collection.
+</p><p>For more information about working with macros, see Section 2.4 of the Greenstone Developers guide, available here: <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faq-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=docs" class='external free' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faq-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=docs" rel="nofollow">http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faq-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=docs</a>. There is also a link to customising the greenstone interface on this page.
+</p><div class="printfooter">
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/All_about_macros.html
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+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/All_about_macros.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,373 @@
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+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">All about macros</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/All_about_macros.html#What_is_a_macro"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">What is a macro</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/All_about_macros.html#Where_and_how_to_define_macros"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Where and how to define macros</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/All_about_macros.html#Reference_a_macro"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Reference a macro</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/All_about_macros.html#How_macros_work"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">How macros work</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/All_about_macros.html#Macros_used_on_a_general_page"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Macros used on a general page</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/All_about_macros.html#Learn_more_about_macros_using_the_expand_macros.pl_script"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Learn more about macros using the expand_macros.pl script</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/All_about_macros.html#Miscellaneous_things"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Miscellaneous things</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/All_about_macros.html#.27I.27m_feeling_lucky.27_facility"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">'I'm feeling lucky' facility</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=All_about_macros&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="All about macros">edit</a>]</div><a name="What_is_a_macro"></a><h2> What is a macro </h2>
+<ul><li>Macros define either strings on the interface or variables utilized in C++ codes. By using macros, users can easily customize the user interface without changing any C++ code.
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=All_about_macros&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="All about macros">edit</a>]</div><a name="Where_and_how_to_define_macros"></a><h2> Where and how to define macros </h2>
+<ul><li>Macros can be explicitly defined in a macro file which is a .dm file, in greenstone/macros
+<ul><li>english.dm and english2.dm contain all the text strings of the interface, in English. french.dm, spanish.dm etc contain the same in other languages.
+</li><li>query.dm contains macros defining html utilized on the search pages.
+</li></ul>
+</li><li>Macros are grouped into packages in a macro file.
+<ul><li>eg. package Global, package home in the english.dm file
+</li></ul>
+</li><li>One macro can include other macros.
+</li><li>Macros can be generated during the run time by C++ codes.
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=All_about_macros&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="All about macros">edit</a>]</div><a name="Reference_a_macro"></a><h2> Reference a macro </h2>
+<pre>_package:macroname_
+</pre>
+<p>eg. _home:textpagetitle_
+The package name can be omitted if you are referencing a macro from the same package.
+Check a macro from the defined package. If this macro is not existing, a warning message "macro is not defined" is returned.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=All_about_macros&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="All about macros">edit</a>]</div><a name="How_macros_work"></a><h2> How macros work </h2>
+<ul><li>Once an action (eg. a=p&amp;p=home) is sent to cgi-bin/library, external macros used for all actions are firstly defined (eg. navigation bar). Then the internal macros of this paticular action is defined. All macros are stored in a kind of hash structure.
+</li><li>Set macro(macroname,package,content) when the action is executed. 
+</li></ul>
+<p>OutputStream&lt;&lt;converter&lt;&lt;display&lt;&lt;"macros+text"
+</p><p>Finally disply results on the web page.	
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=All_about_macros&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="All about macros">edit</a>]</div><a name="Macros_used_on_a_general_page"></a><h2> Macros used on a general page </h2>
+<ul><li>_:header_
+</li><li>_:content_
+</li><li> optional dynamic content which is not set as macros, but output directly
+</li><li>_:footer_
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=All_about_macros&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="All about macros">edit</a>]</div><a name="Learn_more_about_macros_using_the_expand_macros.pl_script"></a><h2> Learn more about macros using the expand_macros.pl script </h2>
+<p><b>Thanks to Jens Wille</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li> get a list of all macros and where they are defined (in order to have macros defined in the c++ source included as well, you may specify the path to your greenstone source directory; see the usage information of the script for details):
+</li></ul>
+<pre> expand_macros.pl -s '.*'
+</pre>
+<ul><li> get definition of _query:pagescriptextra_
+</li></ul>
+<pre> expand_macros.pl _query:pagescriptextra_
+</pre>
+<p>output:
+</p>
+<pre> *** macro: query:pagescriptextra ***
+
+ * query:pagescriptextra [v=0] (/usr/local/gsdl/stable/macros/query.dm, line 68)
+   { _If_(&quot;_cgiargqt_&quot; eq &quot;1&quot;, _formpagescriptextra_, _selectpagescriptextra_) _If_(&quot;_cgiarghd_&quot; ne &quot;0&quot;,_historypagescriptextra_) } }
+ 
+</pre>
+<ul><li> get macros that are used by _query:pagescriptextra_ ('-s' for short output, omit for display of definitions; '-d' for depth, increase to see more levels):
+</li></ul>
+<pre> expand_macros.pl -s -d 2 _query:pagescriptextra_
+</pre>
+<p>output:
+</p>
+<pre> *** macro: query:pagescriptextra ***
+
+ * query:pagescriptextra [v=0] (/usr/local/gsdl/stable/macros/query.dm, line 68)
+   * query:formpagescriptextra [v=0] (/usr/local/gsdl/stable/macros/query.dm, line 76)
+     * query:formfunctions [v=0] (/usr/local/gsdl/stable/macros/query.dm, line 178)
+     * query:searchfunctions [v=0] (/usr/local/gsdl/stable/macros/query.dm, line 478)
+     * preferences:standardfunctions [v=0] (/usr/local/gsdl/stable/macros/pref.dm, line 82)
+     * query:standardfunctions [v=0] (/usr/local/gsdl/stable/macros/query.dm, line 143)
+   * query:historypagescriptextra [v=0] (/usr/local/gsdl/stable/macros/query.dm, line 101)
+   * query:selectpagescriptextra [v=0] (/usr/local/gsdl/stable/macros/query.dm, line 71)
+     * query:dummypagescriptextra [v=0] (/usr/local/gsdl/stable/macros/query.dm, line 72)
+     * query:formpagescriptextra [v=0] (/usr/local/gsdl/stable/macros/query.dm, line 76)
+
+</pre>
+<ul><li> get macros that use "any" _pagescriptextra_ ('-r' for reverse search):
+</li></ul>
+<pre> expand_macros.pl -r _pagescriptextra_
+</pre>
+<p>output:
+</p>
+<pre> *** macro: pagescriptextra (reverse) ***
+
+ * Style:globalscripts [v=0] (/usr/local/gsdl/stable/macros/style.dm, line 142)
+   { &lt;script&gt; &lt;!-- _imagescript_ _pagescriptextra_ // --&gt; &lt;/script&gt; } }
+
+ * homepref:pagescriptextra [v=0] (/usr/local/gsdl/stable/macros/home.dm, line 198)
+   { _preferences:pagescriptextra_} }
+</pre>
+<ul><li> get macros whose definitions contain "blank.gif" (a search in the definition contents will be performed if the argument doesn't start, and end, with an underscore (actually, it's a bit more complicated, but that should suffice for the moment); is actually treated as full perl regular expression):
+</li></ul>
+<pre> expand_macros.pl "blank.gif"
+</pre>
+<p>output:
+</p>
+<pre> *** query: blank.gif ***
+
+ * collector:iconblank [v=0] (/usr/local/gsdl/stable/macros/collect.dm, line 42)
+   { &lt;img src=&quot;_httpimg_/blank.gif&quot;&gt;} }
+</pre>
+<ul><li> get a macro that is defined in the c++ code (you need to extract a greenstone source archive and point to its base location, either via the '--source' parameter or via a GSDLSOURCE environment variable): 
+</li></ul>
+<pre> expand_macros.pl --source=/usr/local/gsdl/src/stable/ _collector:pagescriptextra_
+</pre>
+<p>output:
+</p>
+<pre> *** macro: collector:pagescriptextra ***
+
+ * collector:pagescriptextra [v=0] (SERVER: /usr/local/gsdl/src/stable/src/src/recpt/collectoraction.cpp, line 1058)
+   { &quot;_&quot; + collector_page + &quot;scriptextra_&quot; }
+
+</pre>
+<ul><li> additionally, you can use expand_macros.pl to explore macros interactively ('-i' or '-b' for "interactive", or "browse", mode)
+</li></ul>
+<pre> expand_macros.pl -i
+</pre>
+<p>output:
+</p>
+<pre> entered 'expand_macros.pl' in ***interactive browse mode*** (v0.22)
+ [you can get help at any time by typing '.h', '.?', or '.help']
+
+ enter macro name (without package specification) [leave empty to quit]
+ &gt; pagescriptextra
+   
+ select package for macro 'pagescriptextra' [leave empty to return]
+   [1]    Style
+   [2]    browse
+   [3]    collector
+   [4]    homepref
+   [5]    preferences
+   [6]    query
+ &gt; 6
+
+ * query:pagescriptextra [v=0] (/usr/local/gsdl/stable/macros/query.dm, line 68)
+ { _If_(&quot;_cgiargqt_&quot; eq &quot;1&quot;, _formpagescriptextra_, _selectpagescriptextra_)
+ _If_(&quot;_cgiarghd_&quot; ne &quot;0&quot;,_historypagescriptextra_) } }
+
+ [press key to continue]
+
+ select macro [leave empty to return]
+   [1]    formpagescriptextra
+   [2]    historypagescriptextra
+   [3]    selectpagescriptextra
+ &gt; 1
+
+ select package for macro 'formpagescriptextra' [leave empty to return]
+  [1]    query 
+ &gt; 1
+
+ * query:formpagescriptextra [v=0] (/usr/local/gsdl/stable/macros/query.dm, line 76)
+ { // query scripts generated by \_query:pagescriptextra\_
+ _standardfunctions_
+ _formfunctions_
+ _searchfunctions_
+ function getsearchargs () \{
+   var args=&quot;&quot;;
+   args = &quot;&amp;fqa=0&amp;fqv=&quot;+argfqv+&quot;&amp;fqf=&quot;+argfqf;
+  _If_(_cgiargqf_,args += &quot;&amp;fqk=&quot;+argfqk+&quot;&amp;fqs=&quot;+argfqs+&quot;&amp;fqc=&quot;+argfqc;)
+ return args;
+ \}
+ function getqueryargs () \{
+   return &quot;&amp;fqa=1&quot;+&quot;&amp;q=&quot;+argq+&quot;&amp;fqv=&quot;+argfqv+&quot;&amp;fqf=&quot;+argfqf+
+     &quot;&amp;fqk=&quot;+argfqk+&quot;&amp;fqs=&quot;+argfqs+&quot;&amp;fqc=&quot;+argfqc ;
+ \}
+ } }
+
+ [press key to continue]
+
+ select macro [leave empty to return]
+  [1]    formfunctions
+  [2]    searchfunctions
+  [3]    standardfunctions
+ &gt;
+
+ select package for macro 'formpagescriptextra' [leave empty to return]
+  [1]    query
+ &gt;
+
+ select macro [leave empty to return]
+  [1]    formpagescriptextra
+  [2]    historypagescriptextra
+  [3]    selectpagescriptextra
+ &gt;
+
+ select package for macro 'pagescriptextra' [leave empty to return]
+  [1]    Style
+  [2]    browse
+  [3]    collector
+  [4]    homepref
+  [5]    preferences
+  [6]    query
+ &gt;
+
+ enter macro name (without package specification) [leave empty to quit]
+ &gt;
+
+</pre>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=All_about_macros&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="All about macros">edit</a>]</div><a name="Miscellaneous_things"></a><h2> Miscellaneous things </h2>
+<ul><li>macro IF statement syntax 
+</li></ul>
+<pre>_If_(_cgiargs_,_trueStatement_,_falseStatement_)
+</pre>
+<ul><li>String comparison: (eq,ne,lt,gt,sw,ew)
+</li></ul>
+<p>eg. _cgiargc_ eq "demo" (the collection is demo)
+</p>
+<ul><li>Numeric comparison (!=,==,&lt;,&gt;,&gt;=,&lt;=)
+</li><li>Edit main.cfg file to load a new macro file
+</li><li>macroprecedence	"c,v,l"
+</li></ul>
+<p>[more...?]
+</p>
+<ul><li>Frequently used macros:
+</li></ul>
+<p>_gwcgi_("/cgi-bin/library")
+</p><p>_httpprefix_("/gsdl")
+</p><p>_httpimg_("/images")
+</p><p>_gsdlhome_
+</p><p>_navigationbar_
+</p><p>_homeextra_
+</p><p>_thisOID_
+</p><p>_compressedoptions_
+</p><p>_cgiargc_
+</p><p>[more...?]
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=All_about_macros&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="All about macros">edit</a>]</div><a name=".27I.27m_feeling_lucky.27_facility"></a><h3> 'I'm feeling lucky' facility </h3>
+<p>There is a _useifeellucky_ macro in query.dm;
+</p>
+<ul><li><ul><li> if you set this to "_ifeellucky_" then there will be an "I'm feeling lucky" checkbox in the search form. 
+</li><li> If you tick this then "&amp;ifl=1" goes into the search URL, and code in the C++ redirects you to the first matching document rather than the normal search results page.
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<p>(Thanks Michael)
+</p>
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+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,281 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Building Greenstone collections</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#What_is_the_.22Greenstone_Librarian_Interface.22.3F"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">What is the "Greenstone Librarian Interface"?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#What_is_.22the_Collector.22.3F"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">What is "the Collector"?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#How_do_I_build_a_collection_from_the_command_line_or_DOS_prompt.3F"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">How do I build a collection from the command line or DOS prompt?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#I_built_a_new_Greenstone_collection_on_my_Windows_machine._Everything_appeared_to_work_fine_while_building.2C_however_when_I_tried_to_view_the_collection_some_of_the_documents_contained_no_text._Sometimes_Greenstone_appeared_to_crash_completely._What_have_I_done_wrong.3F"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">I built a new Greenstone collection on my Windows machine. Everything appeared to work fine while building, however when I tried to view the collection some of the documents contained no text. Sometimes Greenstone appeared to crash completely. What have I done wrong?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#Why_won.27t_the_Collector.27s_.22export_to_CD-ROM.22_function_work.3F"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Why won't the Collector's "export to CD-ROM" function work?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#I.27m_trying_to_use_the_Collector_on_Windows_2000_but_it.27s_running_extremely_slowly._Is_this_normal.3F"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">I'm trying to use the Collector on Windows 2000 but it's running extremely slowly. Is this normal?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#What_is_.22the_Organizer.22.3F"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">What is "the Organizer"?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#Where_do_I_get_the_Organizer.3F"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Where do I get the Organizer?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#I.27m_attempting_to_build_a_collection_with_the_collector_but_it_keeps_failing_with_an_error._What_am_I_doing_wrong.3F"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">I'm attempting to build a collection with the collector but it keeps failing with an error. What am I doing wrong?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#What_options_are_available_for_the_collect.cfg_file.3F"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">What options are available for the collect.cfg file?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#Where_can_I_find_some_example_collect.cfg_configuration_files.3F"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Where can I find some example collect.cfg configuration files?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#How_can_I_build_my_collection_using_MGPP.3F"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">How can I build my collection using MGPP?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#How_do_I_fix_XML::Parser_errors"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">How do I fix XML::Parser errors</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#Are_there_any_limits_to_the_size_of_collections.3F"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">Are there any limits to the size of collections?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#How_do_I_enter_non-English_metadata_in_GLI.3F"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">How do I enter non-English metadata in GLI?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#How_do_I_change_the_search_results_order.3F"><span class="tocnumber">16</span> <span class="toctext">How do I change the search results order?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#What.27s_the_difference_between_MG.2C_MGPP.2C_Lucene.3F"><span class="tocnumber">17</span> <span class="toctext">What's the difference between MG, MGPP, Lucene?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#How_do_I_build_my_collection_incrementally.3F"><span class="tocnumber">18</span> <span class="toctext">How do I build my collection incrementally?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html#Can_I_build_collections_using_the_Librarian_Interface_on_a_remote_server.3F"><span class="tocnumber">19</span> <span class="toctext">Can I build collections using the Librarian Interface on a remote server?</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<a name="What_is_the_.22Greenstone_Librarian_Interface.22.3F"></a><h2>What is the "Greenstone Librarian Interface"?</h2>
+<p>The Greenstone Librarian Interface (GLI) is a graphical tool for building new collections, altering or deleting existing collections, and exporting existing collections to stand-alone CD-ROMs. It allows you to import or assign metadata, and has an interactive collection design module. Launch the GLI under Windows by selecting <i>Greenstone Digital Library</i> from the <i>Programs</i> section of the <i>Start</i> menu and choosing <i>Librarian Interface</i>. Under Linux, run <i>gli.sh</i> from the <i>gsdl/gli</i> directory. For details on using the Librarian Interface see the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html" title="Manual"> Greenstone User's Guide</a>.
+</p>
+<a name="What_is_.22the_Collector.22.3F"></a><h2>What is "the Collector"?</h2>
+<p>The Collector is a web interface for collection building, altering and exporting. It predates the Librarian Interface and for most practical purposes, the Librarian Interface should be used instead. To begin using the Collector, click the "The Collector" button on your Greenstone home page. For further details on using the Collector see the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html" title="Manual"> Greenstone User's Guide</a>.
+</p>
+<a name="How_do_I_build_a_collection_from_the_command_line_or_DOS_prompt.3F"></a><h2>How do I build a collection from the command line or DOS prompt?</h2>
+<p>It's occasionally preferable to build your Greenstone collections from the command line rather than from the Librarian Interface. This allows you greater control over how your new collection turns out. <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Command_Line_Building" title="Command Line Building"> This page</a> has an overview of the collection building process. Or see the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html" title="Manual"> Greenstone Developer's Guide</a> for detailed step by step instructions on building collections from the command line.
+</p>
+<a name="I_built_a_new_Greenstone_collection_on_my_Windows_machine._Everything_appeared_to_work_fine_while_building.2C_however_when_I_tried_to_view_the_collection_some_of_the_documents_contained_no_text._Sometimes_Greenstone_appeared_to_crash_completely._What_have_I_done_wrong.3F"></a><h2>I built a new Greenstone collection on my Windows machine. Everything appeared to work fine while building, however when I tried to view the collection some of the documents contained no text. Sometimes Greenstone appeared to crash completely. What have I done wrong?</h2>
+<p>Are you running Norton Anti-Virus? There are some incompatibilities between Norton and the Greenstone collection building process that cause unpredictable things to happen if you build your collection while Norton is running. Try disabling Norton and rebuilding the collection.
+</p><p>If you do not have Norton or disabling Norton does not solve the problem please <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqbuild-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=support" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqbuild-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=support" rel="nofollow">contact us</a> for further help.
+</p>
+<a name="Why_won.27t_the_Collector.27s_.22export_to_CD-ROM.22_function_work.3F"></a><h2>Why won't the Collector's "export to CD-ROM" function work?</h2>
+<p>If you downloaded Greenstone from the web you will not have all the components required to make the "export to CD-ROM" function work. These extra components have been made available in a separate download which you can get from the <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqbuild-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=download#packages" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqbuild-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=download#packages" rel="nofollow">download</a> page.
+</p>
+<a name="I.27m_trying_to_use_the_Collector_on_Windows_2000_but_it.27s_running_extremely_slowly._Is_this_normal.3F"></a><h2>I'm trying to use the Collector on Windows 2000 but it's running extremely slowly. Is this normal?</h2>
+<p>Are you using a Netscape web browser with the local library? If so, try using Internet Explorer instead. There are some socket connection problems that show up on Windows 2000 when using Netscape.
+</p>
+<a name="What_is_.22the_Organizer.22.3F"></a><h2>What is "the Organizer"?</h2>
+<p>The Organizer (also called the "Collection Organizer") is a Windows utility used for automatically generating some of the configuration files (metadata.xml, sub.txt etc.) used by complex Greenstone collections.
+</p>
+<a name="Where_do_I_get_the_Organizer.3F"></a><h2>Where do I get the Organizer?</h2>
+<p>From the <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqbuild-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=download#packages" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqbuild-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=download#packages" rel="nofollow">download</a> page.
+</p>
+<a name="I.27m_attempting_to_build_a_collection_with_the_collector_but_it_keeps_failing_with_an_error._What_am_I_doing_wrong.3F"></a><h2>I'm attempting to build a collection with the collector but it keeps failing with an error. What am I doing wrong?</h2>
+<p>There are several reasons that the collector might fail to build a collection and the error messages it produces are not always very helpful.
+</p><p>If you changed the default configuration during the <i>configure collection</i> stage you'll need to make sure the changes were valid. For example, if you added a new <i>classify</i> or <i>plugin</i> line you'll need to make sure that the classifier and/or plugin names and arguments are all correct. If they're not the collector will fail. A good test is to build your collection without changing the configuration. If it builds ok with the default configuration but fails after you change the configuration you'll need to look closely at the changes you're making.
+</p><p>Another good thing to do if having problems with the collector is to build your collection from the command line instead. You'll get much more feedback to help debug problems when building in this way. For details on how to build a collection from the command line see the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html" title="Manual">Greenstone developer's guide</a>.
+</p>
+<a name="What_options_are_available_for_the_collect.cfg_file.3F"></a><h2>What options are available for the collect.cfg file?</h2>
+<p>See <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Configuration_file_options" title="Configuration file options">here</a> for a list of all configuration file options.
+</p>
+<a name="Where_can_I_find_some_example_collect.cfg_configuration_files.3F"></a><h2>Where can I find some example collect.cfg configuration files?</h2>
+<p>The collect.cfg files for many of the collections at <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/" rel="nofollow">www.nzdl.org</a> have been made available <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Sample_collectcfg.html" title="Sample collectcfg">here</a>.
+</p>
+<a name="How_can_I_build_my_collection_using_MGPP.3F"></a><h2>How can I build my collection using MGPP?</h2>
+<p>The <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/docs/mgpp_user.pdf" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/docs/mgpp user.pdf" rel="nofollow">MGPP user manual</a> gives some instructions.
+</p>
+<a name="How_do_I_fix_XML::Parser_errors"></a><h2>How do I fix XML::Parser errors</h2>
+<p>Our Mac OS X Greenstone distributions are built on machines using Perl 5.6, and these distributions contain a few binary perl modules. These cause problems if you are using a recent version of perl like 5.8 or 5.8.1 (you can type "perl -v" from the command line to see the version).
+</p><p>On the Mac, our distribution contains modules for both perl 5.6 and 5.8 and the correct one should (hopefully) be installed.
+</p><p>A typical error message during import.pl would be:
+</p>
+<dl><dd><p style="background:#E6E6FA;"><tt>Uncaught exception from user code: Can't load <br />'/home/httpd/gsdl/perllib/cpan/auto/XML/Parser/Expat/Expat.so' for module XML::Parser::Expat:/home/httpd/gsdl/perllib/cpan/auto/XML/Parser/Expat/Expat.so:<br />undefined symbol:PL_sv_undef at /usr/lib/perl5/5.8.0/i386-linux-thread-multi/DynaLoader.pm line 229. at /home/httpd/gsdl/perllib/cpan/XML/Parser.pm line 14</tt></p>
+</dd></dl>
+<p>To remedy this, you need to remove the "gsdl/perllib/cpan/perl-5.8/XML" and "gsdl/perllib/cpan/perl-5.8/auto" directories. (For versions earlier than 2.52, remove "gsdl/perllib/cpan/XML" and "gsdl/perllib/cpan/auto".) Then you need to install the perl XML::Parser natively for your system.
+</p><p>On redhat or mandrake, install the .rpm named "perl-XML-Parser", on debian, install the "libxml-parser-perl" package. For other Linuxes, use your distribution's package, or you can get it from <a href="http://search.cpan.org/~msergeant/XML-Parser-2.34/" class='external free' title="http://search.cpan.org/~msergeant/XML-Parser-2.34/" rel="nofollow">http://search.cpan.org/~msergeant/XML-Parser-2.34/</a>.
+</p><p>You may also need to get Expat, available from <a href="http://sourceforge.net/projects/expat/" class='external free' title="http://sourceforge.net/projects/expat/" rel="nofollow">http://sourceforge.net/projects/expat/</a>.
+</p>
+<a name="Are_there_any_limits_to_the_size_of_collections.3F"></a><h2>Are there any limits to the size of collections?</h2>
+<p>The largest collections we have built have been 7 Gb of text, and 11 million short documents (about 3 Gb text). These built with no problems. We haven't tried larger amounts of text because we don't have larger amounts of text lying around. It's no good using 7 Gb twice over to make 14 Gb because the vocabulary hasn't grown accordingly, as it would with a real collection.
+</p><p>There are three main limitations:
+</p>
+<dl><dd><ol><li> There is a file size limit of 2 Gb on Linux (soon to be increased to infinity, the Linux people say). I don't know about corresponding figures for Windows; we use Linux for development. There are systems that go higher, but we don't have access to them. <p>The compressed text will hit the limit first. MG stores the compressed text in a single file. 7 Gb will compress to just under 2 Gb, so you can't go much higher without splitting the compressed-text file (hacky, but probably easy).</p>
+</li><li> Technical. There is a Huffman coding limitation which we would expect to run into at collections of around 16 Gb. However, the solution is very easy, we just haven't bothered to implement it until we have encountered the problem.
+</li><li> Build time. For building a single index on an already-imported collection, extrapolations indicate that on a modern machine with 1 Gb of main memory, you should be able to build a 60 Gb collection in about 3 days. However, there are often large gaps between theory and practice in this area! The more indexes you have, the longer things take to build.
+</li></ol>
+</dd></dl>
+<p>In practice, the solution for very large amounts of data is not to treat the collection as one huge monolith, but to partition it into subcollections and arrange for the search engine to search them all together behind the scenes. However, while you can amalgamate the results of searching subcollections fairly easily, it's much harder with browsing. Of course, A-Z lists and datelists and the like aren't really much use with very large collections. This is where new techniques of hierarchical phrase browsing come into their own. And the really good news is that you can partition a collection into subcollections, each with individual phrase browsers, and arrange to view them all together in a single hierarchical browsing structure, as one coordinated whole. We haven't actually demonstrated this yet, but it seems quite feasible.
+</p><p>A test collection was built by "Archivo Digital", an office that depends on the "Archivo Nacional de la Memoria" (National Memory Archive in English), in Argentina. It contained sequences of page images with associated OCR text.
+</p><p><i>Setup details</i>
+</p>
+<dl><dd><ul><li> Greenstone version: 2.52
+</li><li> Server: Pentium IV 1.8 GHz, 512 Mb RAM, Windows XP Prof.
+</li><li> Number of indexed documents: 17,655
+</li><li> Number of images (tiff format): 980,000
+</li><li> Total size of text files: 3.2 Gb
+</li><li> Built indexes: section:text document:Title
+</li><li> Used Plugin: PagedImgPlug
+</li><li> 5 classifiers
+</li></ul>
+</dd></dl>
+<p><i>Statistics</i>
+</p>
+<dl><dd><ul><li> Time to import the collection: Almost a week was spent collecting documents and importing them. No image conversion was done.
+</li><li> Time to build the collection (excluding import): almost 24 hours. The archives and the indexes were on separate hard disks, to reduce the overhead that reading and writing from the same disk would cause.
+</li><li> Time to open a hierarchy node that contains 908 objects: 23 seconds
+</li><li> Average Time to search only one word in text index: 2 to 5 seconds
+</li><li> Average Time to search 3 words in text index: 2 to 5 seconds
+</li><li> Average Time to search exact phrases (includes 4, 5 and 6 words): 30 seconds
+</li></ul>
+</dd></dl>
+<a name="How_do_I_enter_non-English_metadata_in_GLI.3F"></a><h2>How do I enter non-English metadata in GLI?</h2>
+<p>Metadata in the GLI should be entered in UTF-8. If your system doesn't allow typing directly in UTF-8 (your metadata looks like&nbsp;??? in GLI), then type your metadata in another application such as Notepad, save it as UTF-8, then open it again and cut and paste into GLI. If the metadata has been properly entered in UTF-8, then it should appear fine in a browser once the collection is built.
+</p><p>If your metadata appears as square boxes in GLI, then you will need to use a different font to display it. You can change the font in GLI by going to File-&gt;Preferences. The font that you will need to use depends on what language you are using and what fonts are installed on your computer. A good one to try is Arial Unicode MS, PLAIN, 12.
+</p>
+<a name="How_do_I_change_the_search_results_order.3F"></a><h2>How do I change the search results order?</h2>
+<p>The order of search results is dependent on the kind of query you are running. For simple (MG) collections, search results are either ranked (for a 'some' or ranked search) or in build order (for an 'or' or boolean search). MG cannot do ranking and boolean searching at the same time. For advanced (MGPP) collections, search results can be in ranked or build order as above, but this doesn't depend on the kind of search you are doing. Boolean searches may be ranked.
+</p><p>Build order is the seemingly random order that documents are processed during import. This can be changed by using the <b>sortmeta</b> option to import.pl. If a metadata element is specified here, then documents will be sorted during import by that metadata.
+</p><p>This option can be specified as an option to import.pl (in GLI Expert mode), or specified in the collect.cfg file. Note that it needs to be added manually to collect.cfg like e.g.:
+</p>
+<pre>sortmeta dc.Date
+</pre>
+<p>It cannot be added to the config file using GLI at this stage.
+</p><p>For MGPP collections, in advanced searching mode, the query form has a drop down box specifying "display search results in ranked/natural order". If you have sorted the documents by metadata, then you may like to change the text for this box, e.g. have it display "ranked/date order". To achieve this, add the following line to the collection's collect.cfg file:
+</p>
+<pre>collectionmacro query:textnatural "date"
+</pre>
+<a name="What.27s_the_difference_between_MG.2C_MGPP.2C_Lucene.3F"></a><h2>What's the difference between MG, MGPP, Lucene?</h2>
+<p>Greenstone gives you a choice of three indexing tools to index your collection. MG is the default indexer, MGPP and Lucene can be used by turning on "Enable Advanced Searching" in the "Search Types" section of the "Design" panel in the Librarian Interface.
+</p>
+<dl><dt>MG</dt><dd> This is the original indexer used by Greenstone, developed mainly by Alistair Moffat and described in the classic book <a href="http://www.cs.mu.oz.au/mg/" class='external text' title="http://www.cs.mu.oz.au/mg/" rel="nofollow">Managing Gigabytes</a>. It does section level indexing, and searches can be boolean or ranked (not both at once). For each index specified in the collection, a separate physical index is created. For phrase searching, Greenstone does an "AND" search on all the terms, then scans the resulting hits to see if the phrase is present. It has been extensively tested on very large collections (many GB of text).  <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/html/mg.html" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/html/mg.html" rel="nofollow">MG in Greenstone</a>. 
+</dd><dt>MGPP</dt><dd> This new version of MG (MG plus plus) was developed by the New Zealand Digital Library Project. It does word level indexing, which allows fielded, phrase and proximity searching to be handled by the indexer. Boolean searches can be ranked. Only a single index is created for a Greenstone collection: document/section levels and text/metadata fields are all handled by the one index. For collections with many indexes, this results in a smaller collection size than using MG. For large collections, searching may be a bit slower due to the index being word level rather than section level. <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/docs/mgpp_user.pdf" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/docs/mgpp user.pdf" rel="nofollow">MGPP user guide</a>
+</dd><dt>Lucene</dt><dd> Lucene was developed by the Apache Software Foundation. It handles field and proximity searching, but only at a single level (e.g. complete documents or individual sections, but not both). Therefore document and section indexes for a collection require two separate indexes. It provides a similar range of search functionality to MGPP with the addition of single-character wildcards and range searching. It was added to Greenstone to facilitate incremental collection building, which MG and MGPP can't provide. <a href="http://lucene.apache.org/" class='external text' title="http://lucene.apache.org/" rel="nofollow">Lucene home page</a>
+</dd></dl>
+<p><br />
+</p>
+<a name="How_do_I_build_my_collection_incrementally.3F"></a><h2>How do I build my collection incrementally?</h2>
+<p>At the moment, its best to create and configure your collection using the Librarian Interface, but then do the building phase using the command line. For a brief introduction to command line building, see <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Command_Line_Building" title="Command Line Building"> this page</a>.
+</p><p>You need to use Lucene as your indexer (set this on Design-&gt;Search Indexes).
+</p><p>We only support incremental addition, so if you want to change the documents or metadata, then you will need to do a full import and build.
+</p><p>If you change the design of the collection (plugin options, search indexes, classifiers) then you will need to do a full rebuild.
+</p><p>Once you have set up the collection using GLI, it will live in greenstone/collect/collname, where collname is the short collection name shown in brackets in the GLI title bar.
+</p><p>The source documents and metadata live in the import subfolder.
+</p><p>To build the collection the first time, do:
+</p>
+<pre>import.pl collname
+buildcol.pl collname
+rename building to index
+</pre>
+<p>Next time you need to update the collection, you can add documents and metadata for those documents directly into the import directory, or using the Librarian Interface.
+</p><p>To add these into the collection, do:
+</p>
+<pre>import.pl -incremental collname
+buildcol.pl -incremental -builddir &lt;path-to-index-dir&gt; collname
+</pre>
+<p>The -incremental option to both import and buildcol tells it not to delete the current archives/building directory, and to only import/index those documents that are new.
+The builddir option to buildcol is necessary if the building directory has been deleted or renamed. buildcol by default puts the output into building. If you have renamed the initial building directory to index, then you need to tell buildcol to use that directory instead.
+</p><p><br />
+</p>
+<a name="Can_I_build_collections_using_the_Librarian_Interface_on_a_remote_server.3F"></a><h2>Can I build collections using the Librarian Interface on a remote server?</h2>
+<p>The Greenstone installation running on the server will need to be set up for remote collection building. Full instructions on how to set this up and use it can be found on the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html" title="Remote Greenstone"> remote building</a> page.
+</p><div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
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+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Building_Greenstone_collections&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Changing_the_prefix_for_incremental_OIDs.html
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--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Changing_the_prefix_for_incremental_OIDs.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Changing_the_prefix_for_incremental_OIDs.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,154 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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+    <title>Changing the prefix for incremental OIDs - GreenstoneWiki</title>
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+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
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+
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+
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+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Changing the prefix for incremental OIDs</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p>This is useful when you are using greenstone to ingest into DSpace, and want a slightly shorter identifier. (the HASH ones are wider than the screen, making citation of items difficult) 
+</p>
+<hr />
+<p>I worked out the quick and dirty way of changing the prefix when doing an incremental OID
+</p><p>Note: This seems to work...use at own risk.
+</p><p>the file that needs to be changed
+greenstone/perllib/doc.pm
+</p><p>Just look for the "D" and replace it with whatever you want.
+In my case this was in greenstone/perllib/doc.pm (about a third of the way down)
+</p>
+<pre>   } elsif ($self->{'OIDtype'} eq "incremental") {
+       $OID = "QUILT" . $OIDcount;
+       $OIDcount ++;
+</pre>
+<p>(sorry no line numbers)
+</p><p>The dreaded "D" also appears in greentone/bin/scripts/import.pl - but it is commented out.
+</p><p>Please let me know if this doesn't work, breaks your collection, greenstone, your computer or sets fire to your house.
+</p><p>Cheers,
+</p><p>Stephen
+</p>
+<hr />
+<p>Michael Dewsnip provided the following note, just in case you were tempted to leave the prefix blank.
+</p>
+<pre>Hi Stephen,
+
+Your change should be fine.
+
+Just in case you're curious, the reason that the OIDs can't be purely
+numerical is that they might conflict with the indexer document numbers.
+</pre>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Collection_specific_plugins.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Collection_specific_plugins.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Collection_specific_plugins.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
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+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
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+</div>
+
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+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
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+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Collection specific plugins</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p>Some notes on adding collection-specific plugins and
+macros.
+</p><p><b>Plugins</b> go into <b>collect/<i>colname</i>/perllib/plugins</b>
+</p><p><b>Macros</b> go into <b>collect/<i>colname</i>/macros</b>
+</p>
+<ol><li> It's best to put modified plugins into <b>collect/<i>colname</i>/perllib/plugins</b> , so any
+</li></ol>
+<p>other collections can still use the standard ones.
+</p>
+<ol><li> A collection specific plugin has to have the same name as an existing plugin if you are over-riding the system-wide version of the plugin.
+</li><li> The collection-specific one is used instead the system-wide one.
+</li><li> The 'collection specific' plugin appears in the gli when you have that collection loaded.
+</li></ol>
+<p>Collection specific macro files go into <b>collect/<i>colname</i>/macros</b>, and are used instead of the system ones.
+</p><p>Thanks to Wendy Osborn for most of this text.
+</p><div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Collection_specific_plugins.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Collection_specific_plugins</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Collection_specific_plugins.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Collection_specific_plugins&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-edit"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Collection_specific_plugins&amp;action=edit">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Collection_specific_plugins&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Collection_specific_plugins">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Collection_specific_plugins">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Collection_specific_plugins">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Collection_specific_plugins&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 00:36, 5 February 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 660 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
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+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.14 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,304 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
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+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Compiling Greenstone" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
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+    <title>Compiling Greenstone - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
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+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Compiling Greenstone</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#Platforms"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Platforms</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#Unix_Compilation_notes"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Unix Compilation notes</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#Platform-Specific_Issues"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Platform-Specific Issues</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#Cygwin"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Cygwin</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#Darwin.2FMac_OS_X"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Darwin/Mac OS X</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-3'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#Issues"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Issues</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#GNU.2FLinux"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">GNU/Linux</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#FreeBSD"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">FreeBSD</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#Solaris"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Solaris</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#Windows_.28Visual_C.2B.2B.29"><span class="tocnumber">3.6</span> <span class="toctext">Windows (Visual C++)</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#64_bit_processors"><span class="tocnumber">3.7</span> <span class="toctext">64 bit processors</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<a name="Platforms"></a><h2> Platforms</h2>
+<p>We have tested Greenstone on the following platforms:
+</p>
+<dl><dd><ul><li> GNU/Linux:
+</li></ul>
+<dl><dd><ul><li> Debian 3.0 (potato) (i386), gcc 2.95.4
+</li><li> Debian sid/unstable (i386), gcc 3.2
+</li><li> Debian 2.2 (potato) (i386 and ppc rs/6000) (gsdl 2.38)
+</li><li> Red Hat 7.3 (i386), gcc 2.96
+</li><li> Slackware 8.0.0 (i386), gcc 2.95.3
+</li><li> Slackware 7.1.0 (i386) (gsdl 2.38)
+</li></ul>
+</dd></dl>
+<ul><li> Solaris 2.8 (sparc), gcc 2.95.2 and gmake.
+</li><li> Solaris 2.6 (sparc) using gcc and gmake. (gsdl 2.38)
+</li><li> FreeBSD 4.2 (i386) (gsdl 2.38)
+</li><li> Cygwin (minor fiddling needed)
+</li><li> Darwin / Mac OS X (G4/ppc7400)
+</li><li> Microsoft Visual C++ 4.2 and 6.0
+</li></ul>
+</dd></dl>
+<p>If you would like to add other platforms to this list, or inform us of any portability changes required, send mail to the Greenstone mailing list.
+</p>
+<a name="Unix_Compilation_notes"></a><h2>Unix Compilation notes</h2>
+<p>(we include cygwin here). The "standard" commands of
+</p>
+<pre>$ ./configure
+$ make all
+$ make install
+</pre>
+<p>should (hopefully) be all that is required. Currently, Greenstone does not honour the `--prefix' flag, but the directories are self-contained, so should be able to be moved after installation.
+</p><p>You will probably need to use GNU make.
+</p><p>Version 2.38 of Greenstone compiles with gcc version 3.0 (as well as earlier versions of gcc). Earlier versions of Greenstone will require earlier versions of the compiler -- we have successfully used versions egcs-2.91.66 and gcc-2.95.
+</p><p>The Greenstone Librarian Interface (GLI) code is written in Java, and compiling it requires a suitable version of the Java Software Development Kit (version 1.4.0 or newer). To compile this source code, run makegli.sh from the gsdl/gli directory.
+</p>
+<dl><dd><p><b>Note</b>! - version 2.41 of Greenstone (released in December 2003) requires slight modification to compile cleanly with gcc version 3.x. The "Isis" package in greenstone's "packages" directory requires 3 files to be changed. You can download the 3 files from: <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/tmp/isis-gdl-fixes.zip" class='external free' title="http://www.greenstone.org/tmp/isis-gdl-fixes.zip" rel="nofollow">http://www.greenstone.org/tmp/isis-gdl-fixes.zip</a> which contains:</p>
+</dd></dl>
+<pre> isis-gdl/CRC32.cpp
+ isis-gdl/IsisTypes.h
+ isis-gdl/Master.cpp
+</pre>
+<dl><dd><p>If you copy these over the 3 files with the same name in gsdl/packages/isis-gdl then it should all compile ok with gcc 3.</p>
+</dd></dl>
+<p>The GDBM library and headers are needed - Linux distributions typically come with the library, but may or may not come standard with the header file. Darwin does not come with either. If it is not installed in /usr or /usr/local then you will have to specify where it is by using the configure flag --with-gdbm=/path/to/gdbm/dir.
+The GDBM library can be downloaded from <a href="ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/gdbm/gdbm-1.8.3.tar.gz" class='external free' title="ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/gdbm/gdbm-1.8.3.tar.gz" rel="nofollow">ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/gdbm/gdbm-1.8.3.tar.gz</a> or a closer mirror.
+</p><p>The following configure flags add extra functionality to Greenstone:
+</p>
+<p><tt>--enable-corba</tt> Creates a CORBA server as well as the .cgi server. This is currently still developmental, and compilation hasn't been tested on many platforms. A java CORBA client is available from our subversion repository -</p>
+<pre>svn co http://svn.greenstone.org/other-projects/trunk/java-client
+</pre>
+<p><tt>--with-micodir</tt> Use an existing MICO compiler for the CORBA server instead of compiling our included version.<br />
+<tt>--enable-z3950</tt> Enable rudimentary Z39.50 client support in the .cgi server.
+</p>
+<a name="Platform-Specific_Issues"></a><h2>Platform-Specific Issues</h2>
+<a name="Cygwin"></a><h3>Cygwin</h3>
+<p>Greenstone does not currently compile under cygwin "out-of-the-box". We had to manually edit some of the Makefiles. More specifically, the packages/mg subtree needed "-ansi" in the CFLAGS, while some parts of the src/mgpp subtree fails with "-ansi", as their version of the standard header files don't include any (eg) POSIX or XPG/OPEN functions that aren't ANSI if -ansi is supplied, even if flags like "_XOPEN_SOURCE" are defined.
+</p><p>Also some of the third-party packages required some manual attention.
+</p><p>Make sure you have the gdbm package installed.
+</p>
+<a name="Darwin.2FMac_OS_X"></a><h3>Darwin/Mac OS X</h3>
+<p>All compilation is currently done through a terminal.
+</p><p>Note that the default filesystem is case-insensitive.
+</p><p>Mac OS X uses a compiler based on gcc version 3, so read the above section on Unix Compilation Notes for changes required to the source code for greenstone version 2.41.
+</p><p>darwin doesn't come with gdbm, so:
+</p>
+<ol><li> Download the gdbm source code from ftp.gnu.org into your home folder, as mentioned previously.
+</li><li> Unpack it using the command "tar -zxf gdbm-1.8.3.tar.gz" (without quotes)
+</li><li> If you used the older gdbm-1.8.0 (instead of 1.8.3), you will need to update some files that can't figure out what the system type is. Eg: "cp /usr/libexec/config.sub /usr/libexec/config.guess gdbm-1.8.3"
+</li><li> Make (and install) the library:<p><tt>cd gdbm-1.8.3 &amp;&amp; make all install</tt><br />(When we did this, we did not have permission to install in a system directory)</p>
+</li></ol>
+<p>If the "make install" command fails to install libgdbm into the default "/usr/local" folder due to permissions:
+</p>
+<ol><li> Remove the dynamic libraries, so that the Greenstone files are only linked using the "static" gdbm libraries using the following command (without the quotes):<p><tt>"rm ~/gdbm-1.8.3/.libs/*.dylib"</tt></p>
+</li><li> when you configure Greenstone you should add <tt>--with-gdbm=/Users/&lt;username&gt;/gdbm-1.8.3</tt> (or wherever you installed it to) to the command. Note that this means that the compile option in the CD-ROM distribution Install script will fail, since it will only look in the default locations (/lib, /usr/lib/ and /usr/local/lib)
+</li></ol>
+<p>Also see the <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/docs/Install-Notes-osx.html" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/docs/Install-Notes-osx.html" rel="nofollow">OSX Install Notes</a> page.
+</p>
+<a name="Issues"></a><h4>Issues</h4>
+<dl><dd><ul><li> Due to "upgrades" of the config.guess and config.sub files, version 2.37 of Greenstone might not recognise Mac OS X during the configure. You can either overwrite these files (as above) from /usr/libexec, or try to fake it by adding <tt>--host=powerpc-apple-machten </tt> (or similar) to the configure line. This has been resolved in gsdl-2.38.
+</li><li> If the make fails when compiling a file called "display.cpp", you need to work around a compiler bug. This only seems to occur when "-O2" is part of the compiler flags, so changing this to "-O1" or removing it from the flags will work. This seems to have been fixed with version 10.1 and later of the developer tools.
+</li><li> "There is a known bug in the version of gcc shipped with MacOS X 10.2." Version 2.38 of greenstone fails to build the pdftohtml converter, with the error message <p><tt>FontFile.h:27: storage size of `_ZTI8FontFile' isn't known<br />FontFile.h:46: storage size of `_ZTI13Type1FontFile' isn't known<br />FontFile.h:67: storage size of `_ZTI14Type1CFontFile' isn't known<br />FontFile.h:144: storage size of `_ZTI16TrueTypeFontFile' isn't known</tt></p><p>The work-around is to remove all lines with "#pragma" from the source-code of the pdftohtml package. See the <a href="http://sourceforge.net/tracker/index.php?func=detail&amp;aid=631593&amp;group_id=45839&amp;atid=444239" class='external text' title="http://sourceforge.net/tracker/index.php?func=detail&amp;aid=631593&amp;group id=45839&amp;atid=444239" rel="nofollow">bug report</a> on pdftohtml's site. This will be fixed in Greenstone version 2.39 and later.</p>
+</li></ul>
+</dd></dl>
+<a name="GNU.2FLinux"></a><h3>GNU/Linux</h3>
+<p>As mentioned above, version 2.38 of Greenstone compiles with gcc3. If you are using an earlier version of Greenstone, you will need to make sure you are using an older version of gcc, and not gcc2.96 or gcc3. Red Hat &gt;= 7.0 comes with the newer versions of gcc by default.
+</p><p>You will need the gdbm.h header file. If you don't already have it, it is in the libgdbmg1-dev (debian) or gdbm-devel-1.8.0 (rpm) package.
+</p><p>We have had a couple of reports from SuSE users that one of our third-party packages (wget) fails to configure as it uses GNU msgfmt for translation catalogues - this is resolved by installing the gettext package. This seems to be already installed on other distributions.
+</p><p><b>Alpha architectures:</b>
+Well, the good news is that it compiles OK (for versions of gsdl &gt;= 2.37 - earlier versions need updated config.sub files), the bad news is that it fails to build collections. One possibility is that mg (the backend code) doesn't like the 64-bit ints.
+</p>
+<a name="FreeBSD"></a><h3>FreeBSD</h3>
+<p>Everything should go smoothly... you might need to install lib gdbm if it is not already installed.
+</p>
+<a name="Solaris"></a><h3>Solaris</h3>
+<p>We no longer have solaris machines running in our department. However, Greenstone built and ran the last time I could log on (about version 2.33?), and we have reports of people getting current versions working, with minor changes.
+</p><p>Greenstone includes a perl module from CPAN, XML::Parser (+Expat), which has caused problems on some machines during the make. This is because perl uses it's own config file to get compiler settings, etc. We think we have worked around this. If you get compilation problems, you can do one of the following:
+</p>
+<ol><li>After doing the toplevel ./configure, edit gsdl/packages/cpan/XML-Parser-2.27/Makefile and XML-Parser-2.27/Expat and change <tt>CC = cc</tt> to <tt>CC = gcc.</tt> (Assuming you are using gcc). <b>Or:</b>
+</li><li>You could install the perl XML::Parser module manually, and comment out or remove any mention of the cpan/XML-Parser-2.27 directory from gsdl/packages/Makefile(.in).
+</li></ol>
+<p>You might need to manually install the gdbm library. In which case, add the <tt>--with-gdbm=&lt;gdbm-dir&gt;</tt> option to the configure command.
+</p><p>You probably need to use gcc:
+</p>
+<pre> $ setenv CC gcc
+ $ setenv LD gcc
+</pre>
+<p>You probably need to use GNU's make. Try setting the MAKE variable when you run the configure script, such as:
+</p>
+<pre>$ MAKE=gmake ./configure [options]
+or
+$ ./configure [options]
+...
+$ gmake all
+</pre>
+<p><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Solaris_Install" title="Solaris Install"> Here</a> is a summary of installing Greenstone 2.70 on Solaris, kindly provided by Courtney Grimland.
+</p>
+<a name="Windows_.28Visual_C.2B.2B.29"></a><h3>Windows (Visual C++)</h3>
+<p>We have tested with versions 4.2 and 6.0. Our distribution includes a cut-down port of the gdbm library for windows.
+</p><p>We compile Greenstone from the Windows command prompt. You must manually unzip files in the <tt>gsdl\packages\crypt</tt> and <tt>gsdl\packages\gdbm </tt>directories. After setting up the VC++ environment, simply type <tt>nmake /f win32.mak</tt> and everything should compile OK. For us, setting up the environment requires running the <tt>vcvars32.bat</tt> script, found in the VC++ installation directory (for us this is in <tt>C:\Program Files\Microsoft Visual Studio\VC98\bin</tt>.)
+</p><p>The third-party packages (pdftohtml, wvWare, rtftohtml, xlhtml, etc) were compiled using cygwin.
+</p><p>The Greenstone Librarian Interface (GLI) code is written in Java, and compiling it requires a suitable version of the Java Software Development Kit (version 1.4.0 or newer). To compile this source code, run <tt>makegli.bat</tt> from the <tt>gsdl\gli</tt> directory.
+</p>
+<a name="64_bit_processors"></a><h3>64 bit processors</h3>
+<p>John has tried once to compile Greenstone on a 64 bit processor (Opteron, Amd64) running 64 Ubuntu. He reported several problems which are listed below. These have yet to be resolved.
+1. When trying to build anything using mg (i.e. mg_passes) I'm suffering a seg fault somewhere deep in the malloc code (mallopt). From what I can tell the mg stuff uses some library wrapper (gsdl/packages/mg/lib/memlib) which has some prototypes which override the stdlib.h ones. If I let them do this, I believe malloc might be using 32 bit ints to hold pointers (which are 64 bit under X86_64 architecture). If I prevent memlib overriding by setting the STD_MEM precompiler flag I get a bazillion warnings - and it still seg faults in the same place (again implying a pointer&nbsp;!= int problem).
+</p><p>Below is a dump of the error messages I encountered when trying to debug the malloc problem.
+</p>
+<pre>(gdb) file  /var/www/projects/john/gsdl/bin/linux/mg_passes
+</pre>
+<pre>(gdb) run -D
+-f /var/www/projects/john/gsdl/collect/demo/building/text/demo -b 12000
+-T1 -M 4 -d / &lt; /tmp/output.txt
+</pre>
+<pre>(gdb) backtrace
+#0  0x0000002a95c7bab6 in mallopt () from /lib/libc.so.6
+#1  0x0000002a95c7aa63 in malloc () from /lib/libc.so.6
+#2  0x0000000000402bf5 in process_text_1 ()
+#3  0x0000000000401fb1 in driver (in_fd=0, Trace=0x0,
+file_name=0x7fbffffb5d
+"/var/www/projects/john/gsdl/collect/demo/building/text/demo") at
+mg_passes.c:336
+#4  0x0000000000402617 in main (argc=11, argv=0x7fbffff918) at
+mg_passes.c:626
+</pre>
+<p>2. When trying to search a collection which was imported/built using mgpp I get this cool error message:
+Couldn't load index information for "idx"
+and no results. Strangely enough browsing works just fine. I tracked the problem back to the loading of the index files in (gsdl/src/mgpp/text/IndexData.c) and in particular these lines
+</p>
+<pre>// blocked dictionary
+...
+fseek (dictFile, bdh.wblk_idx_start, SEEK_SET);                        
+if (!ReadBlockIdx (dictFile, biWords)) { UnloadData (); return false; }
+...
+</pre>
+<p>This always returns false. So the fseek to the start of the dictionary is failing. Weird eh? Any ideas? Currently I suspect a bogus pointer to int cast somewhere in the mgpp code during import/building is resulting in an equally bogus index file.
+</p><p>3. So... believing I didn't have quite enough problems to sort out I attempted to fix the second problem and thus created another wonderful problem. Whenever I browse to my custom collection I get the "Opps! An error occurred..." page - but with no error message. However if I run the binary from the cgi-bin it works just peachy. It sounds like a permissions problem - but it isn't. I've triple checked all the permissions. Running the plain-jane greenstone library, then going to the custom collection works just fine (bar the searching problem outlined above).
+</p>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Contributing_to_GreenstoneWiki.html
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@@ -0,0 +1,137 @@
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+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Contributing_to_GreenstoneWiki">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Contributing_to_GreenstoneWiki">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Contributing_to_GreenstoneWiki">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Contributing_to_GreenstoneWiki&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 22:02, 19 August 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 3,921 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.13 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,159 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Creating CD/DVD-ROM collections" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>Creating CD/DVD-ROM collections - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Creating CD/DVD-ROM collections</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p><i>Creating CD/DVD-ROM's from Collections</i>
+</p>
+<table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections.html#Installing_the_Plugin"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Installing the Plugin</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections.html#Creating_Collections_From_the_GLI"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Creating Collections From the GLI</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections.html#Creating_Collections_From_the_Command_Line_.28exportcol.pl.29"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Creating Collections From the Command Line (exportcol.pl)</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections.html#Adding_Additional_Content"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Adding Additional Content</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Creating CD/DVD-ROM collections">edit</a>]</div><a name="Installing_the_Plugin"></a><h2>Installing the Plugin</h2>
+<p>NB - the plug-in does not work from remote machines - you must use the GLI on the server itself, or alternately use the commandline.
+</p>
+<ul><li>For All Platforms - Unix, OSX, Windows Download one of the Following
+<ul><li><a href="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-2.7-export.zip" class='external text' title="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-2.7-export.zip" rel="nofollow">Version 2.7</a>
+</li><li><a href="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-2.63-export.zip" class='external text' title="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-2.63-export.zip" rel="nofollow">Version 2.63</a>
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li>Install into gsdl\bin\windows
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> For Remote Machines (not recommended since plugin only works on server)
+</li></ul>
+<ol><li> unzip your gsdl-2.xx-export.zip file on local machine
+</li><li> ftp the contents of the gsdl-2.xx... onto the hosting machine
+</li></ol>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Creating CD/DVD-ROM collections">edit</a>]</div><a name="Creating_Collections_From_the_GLI"></a><h2>Creating Collections From the GLI</h2>
+<ul><li><a href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/export_to_CDROM.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/export to CDROM.htm" rel="nofollow">Export Greenstone to CD-ROM Tutorial</a>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Creating CD/DVD-ROM collections">edit</a>]</div><a name="Creating_Collections_From_the_Command_Line_.28exportcol.pl.29"></a><h2>Creating Collections From the Command Line (exportcol.pl)</h2>
+<ol><li> source setup.bash (in the Greenstone directory)
+</li><li> perl -S bin/script/exportcol.pl -nonetscape &lt;collection-name&gt;
+</li></ol>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Creating CD/DVD-ROM collections">edit</a>]</div><a name="Adding_Additional_Content"></a><h2>Adding Additional Content</h2>
+<p>Creating multimedia presentations with an embedded Greenstone distribution
+</p><div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Talk:Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-edit"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections&amp;action=edit">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 16:18, 21 April 2006.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 1,561 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.14 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Current_Release_and_patches.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Current_Release_and_patches.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Current_Release_and_patches.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,125 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Current Release and patches" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
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+    <title>Current Release and patches - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
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+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
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+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
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+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Current Release and patches</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <ul><li><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-home-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=download" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-home-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=download" rel="nofollow">Greenstone v2.72</a> released! An "stable" release with lots of new features and bug fixes; see the <a href="http://sourceforge.net/project/shownotes.php?group_id=12123&amp;&amp;release_id=470858" class='external text' title="http://sourceforge.net/project/shownotes.php?group id=12123&amp;&amp;release id=470858" rel="nofollow">release notes</a> for more information.
+</li></ul>
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Current_Release_and_patches.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Current_Release_and_patches</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
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+	  </div>
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+      </div>
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+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
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+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Current_Release_and_patches.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Current_Release_and_patches&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
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+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Current_Release_and_patches&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
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+	    title="Main Page"></a>
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+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
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+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
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+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
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+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
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+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
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+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Current_Release_and_patches">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Current_Release_and_patches">Related changes</a></li>
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+	      	    </ul>
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+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customising_export.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customising_export.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customising_export.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,133 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Customising export" />
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+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>Customising export - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Customising export</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p>Some notes on customising export - specifically for DSpacePlugout, but also applicable elsewhere;
+</p>
+<ol><li> you can create a folder for modified plugouts for a specific collection in the same way you do for collection specific plugins
+</li></ol>
+<pre>collects/&lt;collectname&gt;/perllib/plugouts
+</pre>
+<ol><li> export.pl is very similar to import.pl with many similar options.
+</li><li> <b>sub get_dc_metadata</b> in <b>BasPlugOut.pm</b> can be modified to handle qualified dublin core. ( see <a href="https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/2007-February/001586.html" class='external free' title="https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/2007-February/001586.html" rel="nofollow">https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/private/greenstone-devel/2007-February/001586.html</a> )
+</li><li> try <b>export.pl</b> at the prompt fro a list of options not available when exporting from the gli (note that gli defaults are sensible)
+</li></ol>
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customising_export.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customising_export</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customising_export.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Customising_export&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-edit"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Customising_export&amp;action=edit">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Customising_export&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Customising_export">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Customising_export">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Customising_export">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Customising_export&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
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+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Customizing collections</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_collections.html#How_can_I_customize_the_appearance_of_my_Greenstone_collection.3F"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">How can I customize the appearance of my Greenstone collection?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_collections.html#What_are_the_formatting_options_available_for_my_collection.3F"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">What are the formatting options available for my collection?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_collections.html#How_can_I_hyperlink_individual_metadata_elements.3F"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">How can I hyperlink individual metadata elements?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_collections.html#How_can_I_hide_the_dummy_text_.22This_document_has_no_text.22.3F"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">How can I hide the dummy text "This document has no text"?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_collections.html#How_do_I_suppress_the_link_to_the_Greenstone_text_version_of_a_document.3F"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">How do I suppress the link to the Greenstone text version of a document?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_collections.html#How_do_I_add_cover_images_for_my_documents.3F"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">How do I add cover images for my documents?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_collections.html#How_do_I_link_to_other_sections_of_my_document.3F"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">How do I link to other sections of my document?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_collections.html#How_do_I_link_to_the_next_or_previous_search_result_in_a_document_page.3F"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">How do I link to the next or previous search result in a document page?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_collections.html#How_do_I_search_multiple_collections_at_the_same_time.3F"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">How do I search multiple collections at the same time?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_collections.html#How_to_handle_diacritics"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">How to handle diacritics</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Customizing_collections&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Customizing collections">edit</a>]</div><a name="How_can_I_customize_the_appearance_of_my_Greenstone_collection.3F"></a><h2>How can I customize the appearance of my Greenstone collection?</h2>
+<p>Since version 2.63, Greenstone has moved from a table-based layout to using CSS (Cascading Style Sheets). The default stylesheet is specified in the style.css file in the "images" directory of your installation, and any change you make there will affect all collections, as well as the home page.
+</p><p>If you want to specify a different style file for a collection,
+you need to overwrite the "cssfilelink" macro from the style.dm macro file for your collection. There are two ways to do this:
+</p><p><b>1.</b> Modify (or create) the collection-specific macro file called "extra.dm" in the collection's "macro" directory. (You may need to create this directory). In this file, put the following lines:
+</p>
+<pre> package Style
+ _cssfilelink_ {/url/to/style/file.css}
+</pre>
+<p><b>2.</b> Since greenstone 2.63, you can set macros on a per-collection basis in the collect.cfg file, with a line such as:
+</p>
+<pre> collectionmacro Style:cssfilelink "/url/to/style/file.css"
+</pre>
+<p>For the URL, you can use greenstone's "_httpimg_" macro to refer to the installation's image directory, or "_httpcollection_" to refer to the collection directory. This means that you can create a directory called "styles" in your collection's directory, put a file in there called "mystyle.css", and set the macro to point to "_httpcollection_/styles/mystyle.css".
+</p><p>If you override the Style:cssfilelink macro, greenstone will still set the background image for several of the HTML page's elements. To completely override all the default style-related settings, you need to specify your own HTML for the "Style:cssheader" macro. For example, in the collect.cfg file:
+</p>
+<pre> collectionmacro Style:cssheader '
+  &lt;link rel="stylesheet" href="_httpcollection_/styles/mystyle.css"
+    type="text/css" title="My Style" charset="UTF-8" media="screen"&gt;
+  &lt;link rel="alternate stylesheet" href="_httpimg_/style.css" type="text/css" 
+    title="Default Greenstone Style" charset="UTF-8"&gt;
+ '
+</pre>
+<p>An example collection demonstrating how the appearance of a collection can be modified just by changing the CSS is online at
+<a href="http://puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;c=style-e&amp;p=about" class='external free' title="http://puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;c=style-e&amp;p=about" rel="nofollow">http://puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;c=style-e&amp;p=about</a>&nbsp;; you can copy the stylesheets used in that collection - <a href="http://puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz/gsdl/collect/style-e/styles/style-blue.css" class='external text' title="http://puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz/gsdl/collect/style-e/styles/style-blue.css" rel="nofollow">blue</a> and 
+<a href="http://puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz/gsdl/collect/style-e/styles/style-red.css" class='external text' title="http://puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz/gsdl/collect/style-e/styles/style-red.css" rel="nofollow">red</a>.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Customizing_collections&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Customizing collections">edit</a>]</div><a name="What_are_the_formatting_options_available_for_my_collection.3F"></a><h2>What are the formatting options available for my collection?</h2>
+<p>Section 2.3 of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html" title="Manual"> Greenstone Developer's Guide</a> discusses how to format the output of your collection. However, the list of options is incomplete. The full list of formatting options is shown <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_format_the_output_of_your_collection.html" title="How to format the output of your collection">here</a>. But for more information about how to use these options, the developer's guide is the place to go.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Customizing_collections&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Customizing collections">edit</a>]</div><a name="How_can_I_hyperlink_individual_metadata_elements.3F"></a><h2>How can I hyperlink individual metadata elements?</h2>
+<p><i>[contributed by Axel Schild]</i>
+When a metadata element has only one value, it is easy to make a hyperlink out of the value. In the format statement, you just put an &lt;a&gt; tag around the metadata item, for example:
+</p>
+<dl><dd><p style="background:white;"><tt>&lt;a href=&quot;url to link to&quot;&gt;[dc.Subject]&lt;/a&gt;</tt></p>
+</dd></dl>
+<p>When the metadata item has multiple values, and you want to link each one separately, it is a bit more difficult. The following is Axel's solution to his particular problem: display all the Creator elements, each one hyperlinked to a search of that Creator in the Creators index.
+</p><p>Use the format string below in the collect.cfg file (in this case, as part of the "format DocumentText" statement)
+</p>
+<dl><dd><p style="background:white;">{If}{[dc.Creator],<br />&lt;tr&gt;<br />&lt;td align=right valign=top&gt;&lt;b&gt;Authors:&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br />&lt;td align=left valign=bottom&gt;&lt;label name=AuthorField id=AuthorField&gt;<br />_httpquery_;[cgisafe:sibling(All:\'&nbsp;;\'):dc.Creator];[sibling(All:\'_\'):dc.Creator]<br />&lt;/label&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br />&lt;/tr&gt;}</p> 
+</dd></dl>
+<p>This statement includes a label definition with the name "AuthorField". "_httpquery_" is a macro which resolves into the http-address of the query page of the collection. "[cgisafe:sibling(All:\'&nbsp;; \'):dc.Creator]" displays all Creators, separated by&nbsp;; and with any special characters escaped for use within a web address. [sibling(All:\'_\'):dc.Creator] produces a similar string without escaping the special characters. Notice the different separation symbols, these are needed later on.
+</p><p>Additional changes have to be made in order to make this whole thing work. You further need to change the _header_ or _textheader_ macro in the package of the page the format string will be displayed in (in this case the document package). The change is that _htmlhead_ has to be parametrized with _htmlhead_(onload="ExtractAuthors();"), where ExtractAuthors(); is a Javascript function that is called on loading the corresponding page (the document display page). Since you do not want to mess in the standard macro files, create an extra.dm file (in gsdl/collect/&lt;collname&gt;/macros) and override the chosen macro with a collection specific macro. In this example this is done by the code sequence
+</p>
+<dl><dd><p style="background:white;">package document<br /><br />###document display<br /><br />###HTML-Page Header<br />_textheader_ [c=exacol] {_cgihead_<br />_htmlhead_(onload="ExtractSubjects();ExtractAuthors();")<br />&lt;center&gt;<br />&lt;table width=537&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;<br />_icontab__javalinks_&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;<br />&lt;/center&gt;<br />}</p>
+</dd></dl>
+<p>Now all that is missing is the Javascript function which has to be included into the _pagescriptextra_ macro of the same package. Copy this macro out of the corresponding standard macro file and paste it into your extra.dm file. Make the necessary modification which is in this case
+</p>
+<dl><dd><p style="background:white;">### Self-made Javascript functions<br />_pagescriptextra_{<br />function ExtractAuthors() \{<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;var res;<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;a = AuthorField.outerText.split(";");<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;resolver = a[0]+"&amp;q=";<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;b = a[1].split("+%3b+");<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;c = a[2].split("_");<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;res = "";<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;for (i = 0; i &lt; b.length&nbsp;;i++)<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\{<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;res = res + "&lt;a href=" + resolver + b[i]+ "&amp;h=dd0&amp;t=0&gt;" + c[i] + "&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br/&gt;";<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;\}<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;AuthorField.outerHTML = res;<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;\}<br />}</p>
+</dd></dl>
+<p>This Javascript function evaluates the string of the defined label, splits it into several strings and composes a string out of those values, which is then set to the "outerHTML" element of the label. "&amp;h=dd0" indicates which index to search in; dd0 should be replaced with the name of the appropriate index. The file gsdl/collect/&lt;collname&gt;/index/build.cfg gives the names of the various indexes.
+</p><p><i>[update from Katherine Don]</i>
+I have just tried this with version 2.72, and I needed to make a few changes. Here are my versions of the format statement and extra.dm file (this worked in Mozilla):
+</p><p>Format statement:
+</p>
+<dl><dd><p style="background:white;">{If}{[dc.Creator],<br />&lt;tr&gt;<br />&lt;td align=right valign=top&gt;&lt;b&gt;Authors:&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br />&lt;td align=left valign=bottom&gt;&lt;label name=AuthorField id=AuthorField&gt;<br />_httpquery_:[cgisafe:sibling(All:\':\'):dc.Creator]:[sibling(All:\'_\'):dc.Creator]<br />&lt;/label&gt;&lt;/td&gt;<br />&lt;/tr&gt;}</p>
+</dd></dl>
+<p>Extra.dm:
+</p>
+<dl><dd><p style="background:white;">package document<br /><br /># header overridden for text pages<br />_textheader_ {_cgihead_<br />_htmlhead_(onload="ExtractAuthors();")<br />_startspacer_<br /><br />&lt;!-- document:textheader --&gt;<br />&lt;div id=&quot;banner&quot;&gt;<br />&lt;div class=&quot;pageinfo&quot;&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;bannerlinks&quot;&gt;_globallinks_&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;<br />&lt;div class=&quot;collectimage&quot;&gt;_imagecollection_&lt;/div&gt;<br />&lt;/div&gt;<br />&lt;div class=&quot;bannerextra&quot;&gt;_pagebannerextra_&lt;/div&gt;<br />}<br /><br />### Self-made Javascript functions<br />_pagescriptextra_{<br />function ExtractAuthors() \{<br />  &nbsp;var res;<br />  &nbsp;var author = document.getElementById("AuthorField");<br />   &nbsp;a = author.innerHTML.split(":");<br />   &nbsp;resolver = a[0]+"&amp;q=";<br />  &nbsp;b = a[1].split("%3a%5c");<br />  &nbsp;c = a[2].split("_");<br />  &nbsp;res = "";<br />  &nbsp;for (i = 0; i &lt; b.length ;i++)<br />    &nbsp;\{<br />       &nbsp;&nbsp;res = res + &quot;&lt;a href=&quot; + resolver + b[i]+ &quot;&amp;h=dd0&amp;t=0&gt;&quot; + c[i] + &quot;&lt;/a&gt; &quot;;<br />    &nbsp;\}<br />  &nbsp;author.innerHTML = res;<br />  \}<br />}<br /></p>
+</dd></dl>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Customizing_collections&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Customizing collections">edit</a>]</div><a name="How_can_I_hide_the_dummy_text_.22This_document_has_no_text.22.3F"></a><h2>How can I hide the dummy text "This document has no text"?</h2>
+<p>Instead of [Text] in the DocumentText format statement, use
+</p>
+<dl><dd><p style="background:white">{If}{[Text] ne 'This document has no text. ',[Text]}</p>
+</dd></dl>
+<p>If you have installed Greenstone in a different language, then you need to put the correct language string into the If statement. (Since version 2.62.)
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Customizing_collections&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Customizing collections">edit</a>]</div><a name="How_do_I_suppress_the_link_to_the_Greenstone_text_version_of_a_document.3F"></a><h2>How do I suppress the link to the Greenstone text version of a document?</h2>
+<p>Files such as Word and PDF get converted to HTML during processing, and the original file is stored as an associated file. The default display for search results and browsing lists is two icons:  a "text" icon, linking to the Greenstone version of the document, and a pdf or word icon, linking to the original file.
+</p><p>In format statements, 
+</p>
+<dl><dd><span style="background:white"><tt>[link][icon][/link]</tt></span> links to the greenstone version
+</dd><dd><span style="background:white"><tt>[srclink][srcicon][/srclink]</tt></span> links to the original file
+</dd></dl>
+<p>The default VList format statement starts off like
+</p>
+<dl><dd><p style="background:white"><tt>&lt;td valign=top&gt;[link][icon][/link]&lt;/td&gt;<br />&lt;td valign=top&gt;[srclink][srcicon][/srclink]&lt;/td&gt;</tt></p>
+</dd></dl>
+<p>To suppress either of the icons, you can delete the relevent line from the format statement.
+</p><p>If you are suppressing the link to the original, then remove 
+</p>
+<dl><dd><p style="background:white"><tt>&lt;td valign=top&gt;[srclink][srcicon][/srclink]&lt;/td&gt;</tt></p>
+</dd></dl>
+<p>from the format, and you are done.
+</p><p>If you want to suppress the link to the greenstone version, there are a few complications. Firstly, bookshelf nodes in classifiers must have <span style="background:white"><tt>[link][icon][/link]</tt></span> to display the bookshelf. And secondly, you may want to display different icons for different document types.
+</p><p>Here are a few scenarios, and the appropriate format to replace the two lines specified above.
+(For PDF documents, you can substitute any that get converted)
+</p>
+<ul><li>Collection with only PDF documents, and no bookshelves in classifiers:
+</li></ul>
+<dl><dd><p style="background:white"><tt>&lt;td valign=top&gt;[link][icon][/link]&lt;/td&gt;</tt></p>
+</dd></dl>
+<ul><li>Collection with only PDF documents, and bookshelves in classifiers:
+</li></ul>
+<dl><dd><p style="background:white"><tt>&lt;td valign=top&gt;{If}{[numleafdocs],[link][icon][/link]<br />,[srclink][srcicon][/srclink]}&lt;/td&gt;</tt></p>
+</dd></dl>
+<ul><li>Collection with PDFs for which you want to suppress the text link, and other types where you want to show the text link, and classifiers with bookshelves. The first option will only work if the other document types don't have srcicon metadata.
+</li></ul>
+<dl><dd><p style="background:white"><tt>&lt;td valign=top&gt;{If}{[srcicon],[srclink][srcicon][/srclink], [link][icon][/link]}&lt;/td&gt;</tt></p>
+</dd></dl>
+<dl><dd><p style="background:white"><tt>&lt;td valign=top&gt;{If}{[FileFormat] eq "PDF",[srclink][srcicon][/srclink],[link][icon][/link]}&lt;/td&gt;</tt></p>
+</dd></dl>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Customizing_collections&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Customizing collections">edit</a>]</div><a name="How_do_I_add_cover_images_for_my_documents.3F"></a><h2>How do I add cover images for my documents?</h2>
+<p>To add a cover image for a document, you need to create the image and add it to the collection in the same folder as the document. It must be a JPEG file (with file extension .jpg) and have the same name as the document. For example, the cover image for farming.doc must be named farming.jpg. Greenstone automatically looks for jpg files of the same name to assign as cover images. (To disable this, you need to add the -no_cover_image option to the plugins.)
+</p><p>Once you have the cover images, setting the format statement <span style="background:white"><tt>DocumentImages</tt></span> to <span style="background:white"><tt>true</tt></span> (or enabled in GLI) will result in them being displayed on the document page.
+</p><p>You can also use them as thumbnails in search results and browsing lists, by replacing <span style="background:white"><tt>[icon]</tt></span> with something like the following in the appropriate format statement:
+</p>
+<dl><dd><span style="background:white"><tt>&lt;a href='[DocImage]' height='40'/&gt;</tt></span>
+</dd></dl>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Customizing_collections&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Customizing collections">edit</a>]</div><a name="How_do_I_link_to_other_sections_of_my_document.3F"></a><h2>How do I link to other sections of my document?</h2>
+<p>The <span style="background:white"><tt>_httpdocument_</tt></span> macro is used to provide a link to a document. For example, if xxx is a document identifier, then the following would link to it:
+</p>
+<pre>&lt;a href="_httpdocument_&amp;d=xxx"&gt;...&lt;/a&gt;
+</pre>
+<p><span style="background:white"><tt>[DocOID]</tt></span> gives the OID of the current section, while <span style="background:white"><tt>[DocTopOID]</tt></span> gives the top level OID of the document. For documents without internal sections, these two format elements return the same Identifier. (Note, [DocTopOID] available from version 2.72)
+</p><p>So, <span style="background:white"><tt>_httpdocument&amp;d=[DocOID]</tt></span> links to the current section of the document, and <span style="background:white"><tt>_httpdocument_&amp;d=[DocTopOID]</tt></span> links to the top section of the document.
+</p><p>Document identifiers can be used in conjunction with some modifiers to get different parts of the document. Modifiers include:
+</p>
+<ul><li><b>.pr</b> parent
+</li><li><b>.rt</b> root (top level) (from 2.72)
+</li><li><b>.ns</b> next sibling
+</li><li><b>.ps</b> previous sibling
+</li><li><b>.fc</b> first child
+</li><li><b>.pc</b> previous child
+</li></ul>
+<p>Here are some examples:
+</p>
+<table cellpadding="4">
+
+<tr valign="<i>top</i>" align="center">
+<td><b>Identifier</b></td><td><b>Description</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td> [DocTopOID] or [DocOID].rt</td><td> The top level section of the document
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td> [DocOID].ns </td><td> The next section of the document (used for next arrow)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td> [DocOID].ps </td><td> The previous section of the document (used for prev arrow)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td> [DocTopOID].fc or [DocTopOID].1 </td><td> The first subsection of the document
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td> [DocTopOID].1.2 </td><td> The second subsection of the first section of the document
+</td></tr></table>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Customizing_collections&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Customizing collections">edit</a>]</div><a name="How_do_I_link_to_the_next_or_previous_search_result_in_a_document_page.3F"></a><h2>How do I link to the next or previous search result in a document page?</h2>
+<p><b>Since Greenstone 2.72</b>
+</p><p><b>Important Note</b>: This option should not be used due to a bug in this release. It will be fixed in the next release.
+</p><p><b>Enable the links</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li> In GLI -&gt; Format Panel -&gt; Format Features -&gt; Choose Feature 
+<ul><li> select <i>DocumentSearchResultLinks</i>
+</li><li> click the <i>Add Format</i> button
+</li><li> tick the Enabled checkbox
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<p>Or
+</p>
+<ul><li> In your collection's <i>collect.cfg</i> (in GSDLHOME/collect/your_collection/etc)
+<ul><li> add 
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<pre>format DocumentSearchResultLinks true
+</pre>
+<p><b>Format the links</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li> In document.dm (in GSDLHOME/macros)
+<ul><li> the next and previous search result link are defined in _nextsearchresult_ and _prevsearchresult_ correspondingly, you can put them wherever you want in a document page and customize their apprearance in style.css (in GSDLHOME/images)
+</li><li> the text for those links are defined in _textnextsearchresult_ and _textprevsearchresult_ in english.dm. Add your corresponding language entries in your_language.dm for languages other than English
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Customizing_collections&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Customizing collections">edit</a>]</div><a name="How_do_I_search_multiple_collections_at_the_same_time.3F"></a><h2>How do I search multiple collections at the same time?</h2>
+<p>You can do this using Greenstone's cross collection search facility. In the GLI, go to Cross-collection search on the format panel, and select the collections you want to search together. These collections should have the same index specifications for this to work properly.
+On the preferences page for each collection the user will be given the option to select which collections should be searched.
+Individual search results will be formatted specific to the collection the result comes from. If you want all the search results to use the format statement of the collection the user is based in, then add the following line to the collect.cfg file:
+</p>
+<pre>supercollectionoptions uniform_search_results_formatting
+</pre>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Customizing_collections&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Customizing collections">edit</a>]</div><a name="How_to_handle_diacritics"></a><h2> How to handle diacritics </h2>
+<p>MGPP comes with an "accent folding" option. This is implemented similarly to case folding. For case folding, A and a match. In accent folding, Ã  and a match. If an accent folding index is built, then the user will be able to turn it on in preferences, just like casefolding and stemming.
+</p>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_your_Greenstone_library.html
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+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Customizing your Greenstone library</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_your_Greenstone_library.html#How_do_I_change_the_logo_on_the_front_page_of_my_library_.28.22greenstone_digital_library_software.22.29.3F"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">How do I change the logo on the front page of my library ("greenstone digital library software")?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_your_Greenstone_library.html#Where_can_I_get_more_information_about_customizing_my_Greenstone_library.3F"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Where can I get more information about customizing my Greenstone library?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_your_Greenstone_library.html#How_can_I_add_a_new_page_to_my_Greenstone_library.3F"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">How can I add a new page to my Greenstone library?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_your_Greenstone_library.html#What_do_the_cgi_arguments_used_by_library_stand_for.3F"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">What do the cgi arguments used by library stand for?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_your_Greenstone_library.html#How_do_I_change_the_default_settings_for_the_cgi_arguments.3F"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">How do I change the default settings for the cgi arguments?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_your_Greenstone_library.html#How_do_I_get_rid_of_the_external_link_page.3F"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">How do I get rid of the external link page?</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<a name="How_do_I_change_the_logo_on_the_front_page_of_my_library_.28.22greenstone_digital_library_software.22.29.3F"></a><h2>How do I change the logo on the front page of my library ("greenstone digital library software")?</h2>
+<p>You can change the logo that appears at the top of the front page of your library by editing the home.dm file in your Greenstone "macros" folder and replacing all instances of "gsdlhead.gif" with the name of your logo image file.
+</p>
+<a name="Where_can_I_get_more_information_about_customizing_my_Greenstone_library.3F"></a><h2>Where can I get more information about customizing my Greenstone library?</h2>
+<p>Try <a href="http://www.wrlc.org/dcpc/UserInterface/interface.htm" class='external text' title="http://www.wrlc.org/dcpc/UserInterface/interface.htm" rel="nofollow">this document</a>. There is also a basic introduction to using CSS in Greenstone in <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/docs/basic_customisation.html" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/docs/basic customisation.html" rel="nofollow">this document</a>.
+</p>
+<a name="How_can_I_add_a_new_page_to_my_Greenstone_library.3F"></a><h2>How can I add a new page to my Greenstone library?</h2>
+<p>Adding a new static page to Greenstone is relatively simple and involves only customizations to macro files (found in gsdl/macros). (Adding a dynamic page is more difficult and involves adding a new action to the C++ receptionist.)
+</p><p>Lets look at the example of adding a new static page called mypage.
+</p>
+<dl><dt>Link to the new page from the home page
+</dt><dd>Edit the <tt>_content_</tt> macro in home.dm, adding the link where you want it. The link will look something like <p style="background:white;"><tt>&lt;a href="_httppagex_(mypage)"&gt;My Page&lt;/a&gt;</tt>.</p>
+</dd><dt>Create the macro file</dt><dd>Create a new file called mypage.dm in gsdl/macros.
+</dd><dt>Tell the library about the new file</dt><dd>Edit gsdl/etc/main.cfg. Add mypage.dm to the macrofiles list
+</dd></dl>
+<p>mypage.dm will contain all the content on the page. A basic mypage.dm might look something like the following.
+</p>
+<dl><dd><p style="background:white;">package mypage<br /><br />_pagetitle_ {My New page}<br /><br />_content_{<br />&lt;h2&gt;My New Page&lt;/h2&gt;<br />This is the content of the page.<br />}</p>
+</dd></dl>
+<p>The URL for the new page can be specified internally as _httppagex_(mypage): this maps to your library address with cgi arguments a=p&amp;p=mypage.
+</p><p>If this is not a page that belongs to a collection, you should modify the 'home help prefs' buttons. You may like to add the following to your mypage.dm.
+</p>
+<dl><dd><p style="background:white;">_javalinks_ {_imagehome_ _imagehelp_ _imagepref_ }<br /><br />_imagehelp_{_gsimage_(_home:httppagehomehelp_,_httpiconchelpof_,_httpiconchelpon_,help,_textimagehelp_)}<br /><br />_imagepref_ {_gsimage_(_home:httppagehomepref_,_httpiconcprefof_,_httpiconcprefon_,pref,_textimagepref_)}</p>
+</dd></dl>
+<p>This will give you the standard home button, and the help and preferences buttons that link to the same pages as those on the home page. Help and preferences are different depending on whether you are in a collection or not.
+</p><p>If you are using the Windows local library server you probably need to restart it for the changes to take effect.
+</p>
+<a name="What_do_the_cgi_arguments_used_by_library_stand_for.3F"></a><h2>What do the cgi arguments used by library stand for?</h2>
+<p>CGI arguments encode the parameters of each page, for instance, what kind of page to display, what query to carry out etc. <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Actions_and_Arguments" title="Actions and Arguments"> This page</a> gives a list of the most common arguments and what they are used for.
+</p>
+<a name="How_do_I_change_the_default_settings_for_the_cgi_arguments.3F"></a><h2>How do I change the default settings for the cgi arguments?</h2>
+<p>You can set the default value of any cgi argument in the Greenstone\etc\main.cfg file. Add a line like
+</p>
+<pre>cgiarg shortname=a argdefault=p
+</pre>
+<p>This will set the default value of argument 'a' to 'p'. To find out which argument you need to change, see <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Actions_and_Arguments" title="Actions and Arguments">this page</a> for a list of common arguments, or look at the page source of the page in the browser.
+</p>
+<a name="How_do_I_get_rid_of_the_external_link_page.3F"></a><h2>How do I get rid of the external link page?</h2>
+<p>Clicking on a link to an external resource from a Greenstone document takes the user to an intermediate page that says something like the following:
+</p>
+<pre>"External Link
+The link you have selected is external to any of your currently selected
+collections. If you still wish to view this link and your browser has access to
+the Web, you can go forward to this page; otherwise use your browsers "back"
+button to return to the previous document.â
+</pre>
+<p>To get rid of this intermediate page, add the following to greenstone/etc/main.cfg
+</p>
+<pre>cgiarg shortname=el argdefault=direct
+</pre><div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_your_Greenstone_library.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_your_Greenstone_library</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_your_Greenstone_library.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Customizing_your_Greenstone_library&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Customizing_your_Greenstone_library&amp;action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Customizing_your_Greenstone_library&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Customizing_your_Greenstone_library">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Customizing_your_Greenstone_library">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Customizing_your_Greenstone_library">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Customizing_your_Greenstone_library&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 20:36, 19 October 2006.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 3,602 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.15 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Ecommerce.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Ecommerce.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Ecommerce.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,134 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Ecommerce" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>Ecommerce - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Ecommerce</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p>Making money (or at least cutting the cost) from library and archive collections. 
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Ecommerce&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Ecommerce">edit</a>]</div><a name="By_referral"></a><h2>By referral</h2>
+<p><i>Amazon.com</i> integration can be a nice revenue stream, generating 20% returns on every sale made through a link from your site.  <a href="http://www.koha.org" class='external text' title="http://www.koha.org" rel="nofollow">Koha</a> is an ILS system that can import CDS/ISIS format exported from greenstone.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Ecommerce&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Ecommerce">edit</a>]</div><a name="In_House_sales"></a><h2>In House sales</h2>
+<p>Sometimes downloading huge files, especially if there are many of them, can be a hastle.  Providing duplication services can help both the library and the end-user.  CD / DVD duplication using the greenstone export to cd function can be a great way to publicize your library as well as make some mooney on the side.  Creating a versatile structure to support this feature is lacking from the end-user end, however it can be done with a versed librarian behind the wheel of the collections
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Ecommerce&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Ecommerce">edit</a>]</div><a name="Out_source_sales"></a><h2>Out source sales</h2>
+<p>Sometimes media, such as posters, maps, videos, and even complete books can be integrated with websites like <a href="http://www.allposters.com" class='external text' title="http://www.allposters.com" rel="nofollow">Allposters.com</a> and <a href="http://www.zazzle.com" class='external text' title="http://www.zazzle.com" rel="nofollow">Zazzle.com</a> to create a high-end product.  Libraries can sell directly from their site, or purchase duplicates for sale in the gift shop.
+</p><p><a href="http://books.google.com" class='external text' title="http://books.google.com" rel="nofollow">Google books</a> provides an interesting opportunnity along these lines
+</p><div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Ecommerce.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Ecommerce</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Ecommerce.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Ecommerce&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-edit"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Ecommerce&amp;action=edit">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Ecommerce&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Ecommerce">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Ecommerce">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Ecommerce">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Ecommerce&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,146 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
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+    <title>Example collections - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
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+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Example collections</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <ul><li>To help learn how to write a configuration file for your collection, there are several fully-documented example collections placed at <a href="http://nzdl.org" class='external text' title="http://nzdl.org" rel="nofollow">nzdl.org</a> which explain, on the collections' home pages, just how they have been put together.
+<ul><li> <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=image-e" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=image-e" rel="nofollow">Simple Image</a> This very basic image collection contains no text and no explicit metadata -- which makes it rather unrealistic. The configuration file is about as simple as you can get.
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=wrdpdf-e" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=wrdpdf-e" rel="nofollow">Word and PDF</a> This contains a few documents in PDF, MSWord, RTF, and Postscript formats, demonstrating the ability to build collections from documents in different formats. The collection configuration file is very simple.
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=gsarch-e" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=gsarch-e" rel="nofollow">Greenstone Archives</a> A collection of email messages from the Greenstone mailing list archives, this uses the Email plugin, which parses files in email formats. The collection configuration file is very simple.
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=cltbib-e&amp;ct=1&amp;qt=1" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=cltbib-e&amp;ct=1&amp;qt=1" rel="nofollow">Bibliography</a> With about 4,000 bibliography entries, this collection incorporates a form-based search interface that allows fielded searching. It is fairly complex.
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=cltext-e&amp;ct=1&amp;qt=1" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=cltext-e&amp;ct=1&amp;qt=1" rel="nofollow">Bibliography supplement</a> This tiny collection of 10 bibliography entries illustrates the <b>supercollection</b> facility which searches several collections together, seamlessly. It operates together with the bibliography collection, and its configuration file is almost the same.
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=pagedimg-e" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=pagedimg-e" rel="nofollow">Paged Image</a> This collection contains some newspapers from the Niupepa Maori Newspaper collection. Each newspaper consists of a series of scanned images and (optionally) the corresponding OCR text. PagedImgPlug is used to group the images into documents, and extended formatting is used to switch between image and text versions of each page.
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=isis-e&amp;ct=1&amp;qt=1&amp;qto=3" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=isis-e&amp;ct=1&amp;qt=1&amp;qto=3" rel="nofollow">CDS/ISIS</a> This collection is built from a CDS/ISIS database of about 150 bibliography entries. It uses the ISISPlug plugin, which reads the standard ISIS .mst and .fdt files and converts them to Greenstone metadata.
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=MARC-e" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=MARC-e" rel="nofollow">MARC</a> Based on some MARC records from the Library of Congress, this is a simple collection (and does not allow form-based searching).
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=oai-e" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=oai-e" rel="nofollow">OAI</a> Using the Open Archive Protocol and the Import-From feature, this retrieves metadata from an archive and builds a collection from the records. In this case they are images, so both the OAI and Image plugins are used.
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=dls-e" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=dls-e" rel="nofollow">Development Library Subset</a> Like the Greenstone Demo, this is a subset of the HDL -- but much larger.  It contains 25 publications -- books, reports and magazines -- in various areas of human development (the full HDL contains 1,230 publications). It has the same structure as the Greenstone Demo. 
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=authen-e" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=authen-e" rel="nofollow">Authentication and Formatting</a> With the same material as the original Greenstone demo collection, this shows off two independent features: non-standard document formatting, and controlled access to the documents via user authentication.
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=garish" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=garish" rel="nofollow">Garish</a> This collection also contains the same material as the Greenstone demo. Its appearance has been altered to show how the pages generated can be set out differently. It relies on a non-standard macro file. 
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=style-e" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=style-e" rel="nofollow">CSS demo</a> This collection demonstrates Greenstone's use of Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) for visual formatting in web browsers. On every page, you can change the style-sheet in effect, to modify that page's appearance.
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=dspace-e" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=dspace-e" rel="nofollow">DSpace</a> A collection based on records exported from a DSpace institutional repository. 
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li>The collect.cfg files for many of the collections at <a href="http://www.nzdl.org" class='external free' title="http://www.nzdl.org" rel="nofollow">http://www.nzdl.org</a> have been made available <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Sample_collectcfg.html" title="Sample collectcfg">here</a>.
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li>If you download and install Greenstone v2.62, the language pack, and the documented example collections, it will look exactly like <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/gsdl-2.62/library" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/gsdl-2.62/library" rel="nofollow">this</a>. If you install Greenstone from the UNESCO CD-ROM, it will look similar but with just the four languages English, French, Spanish and Russia
+</li></ul>
+
+<!-- Saved in parser cache with key gswikidb:pcache:idhash:1292-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20070905015143 -->
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+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections</a>"</div>
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+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
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+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Example_collections&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
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+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
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+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Example_collections">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
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+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
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+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
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+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Example_collections">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Example_collections">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Example_collections&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 00:38, 26 October 2006.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 10,238 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Explaining_Plugins.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Explaining_Plugins.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Explaining_Plugins.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,202 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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+    <title>Explaining Plugins - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
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+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
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+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Explaining Plugins</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p>An outline of program flow when using import.pl for developers writing their own plugins:
+</p><p>import.pl calls the methods begin, read then end.
+</p><p>This starts at the import directory.
+</p><p>RecPlug handles directories, and will look through a directory to see what files are there. 
+These files get passed to the <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Plugin_pipeline&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="Plugin pipeline">plugin pipeline</a>, first using metadata_read, then read. 
+</p>
+<ul><li> The metadata_read method only gets called from RecPlug. (and MetadataCSVPlug)
+</li></ul>
+<p>All plugins inherit from BasPlug. 
+</p>
+<ul><li> BasPlug inplements the metadata_read and read methods. 
+</li><li> BasPlug read calls the process method.
+</li></ul>
+<p>Most plugins call the BasPLug read method, then do the format specific stuff using their own process method. 
+</p>
+<ul><li> Some plugins override read. 
+</li></ul>
+<p>Plugins can implement either read or process (or both).
+(Note to self - give examples)
+</p>
+<hr />
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Explaining_Plugins&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Explaining Plugins">edit</a>]</div><a name="Types_of_Plugin"></a><h2> Types of Plugin </h2>
+<p><br />
+There are two types, metadata and document plugins. 
+</p>
+<ul><li> no distinction currently made between them by the system 
+</li><li> All plugins process files, some 
+<ul><li> group several files into one document,
+</li><li> some split one file into several documents, and 
+</li><li> some have a one to one mapping.
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> Plugins that split files up generally inherit from splitplug.
+</li><li> Plugins that process XML files generally inherit from XMLPlug. (They don't need to, it just avoids rewriting all the same code.)
+</li></ul>
+<hr />
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Explaining_Plugins&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Explaining Plugins">edit</a>]</div><a name="Operational_summaries_of_example_plugins"></a><h2> Operational summaries of example plugins </h2>
+<p>for basic information about plugins see <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Plugins.html" title="Plugins">Plugins</a>
+Another good section is 
+<a href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins#How_do_I_get_my_XML_files_into_Greenstone.3F" class='external free' title="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php/More about plugins#How do I get my XML files into Greenstone.3F" rel="nofollow">http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins#How_do_I_get_my_XML_files_into_Greenstone.3F</a>
+</p><p>MetadataCSVPlug
+</p>
+<ul><li> takes comma separated (.csv) files, extracts metadata (using the metadata_read method) 
+</li><li> assigns metadata to the documents which are then processed by their normal plugin.
+</li><li> The first line is a list of metadata names
+</li><li> subsequent lines, one per record, contain the values. 
+</li><li> Requires a <b>filename</b> field which contains the file name of the document to which the record metadata will be assigned.
+</li></ul>
+<p>ImagePlug
+</p>
+<ul><li> uses the imagemagic utilities to 
+<ul><li> create derivatives(thumbnail images) and,
+</li><li> extract image metadata (width height format)
+</li></ul>
+</li><li> ImagePlug can easily be extended to extract more extensive image metadata if required
+</li></ul>
+<p>ReferPlug
+</p>
+<ul><li> takes Refer format Bibliographies reads them in (using the process method) 
+<ul><li> assigns metadata and text with the add_utf8_metadata or add_metadata methods 
+</li><li> assigns text with the add_text
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Explaining_Plugins&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Explaining Plugins">edit</a>]</div><a name="NOTE_on_methods-_order_called"></a><h3> NOTE on methods- order called </h3>
+<ul><li> <b>metadata_read</b>: first to be called - usually by RecPlug - but also by MetadataCSVPlug 
+<ul><li> in RecPlug greenstone metadata.xml files are read by the metadata_read method
+</li><li> in MetadataCSVPlug a .csv text file with the first line containing field names is read by metadata_read
+</li></ul>
+</li><li> <b>read</b>: called after metadata read
+</li><li> <i>process</i>: called last?
+</li></ul>
+<p>Adding metadata
+</p>
+<ul><li> add_utf8_metadata adds metadata that is already in utf8
+</li><li> add_metadata converts to utf8 before adding metadata that is not already in utf8
+</li></ul>
+<p>- Thanks to Katherine Don for this text <i>Which I have only edited slightly.</i>
+</p>
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+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
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+	     	    </ul>
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+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 00:35, 30 October 2006.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 1,610 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Forming_your_own_regional_support_group.html
===================================================================
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@@ -0,0 +1,139 @@
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+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
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+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Forming your own regional support group</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p>Do you want to form a support group for Greenstone users in your own country or region? Here are some activities you might consider.
+</p>
+<ul><li> Build a network of institutions in your region that are using Greenstone
+</li><li> Introduce Greenstone awareness and capacity building in the library and information science training programmes in the region
+</li><li> Exploit and encourage any existing support networks
+</li><li> Set up a website for Greenstone promulgation and support
+</li><li> Start an email list that provides regional support and help for Greenstone users in your own language (use the main Greenstone mailing list as a backup for difficult questions)
+</li><li> Undertake an inventory of Greenstone experts and collections in the region, and maintain it on the website
+</li><li> Organize a survey of existing and potential needs for Greenstone by institutions in the region
+</li><li> Consider a feasibility study of a regional Greenstone support organisation, identifying the human resources, equipment, financial and other operational requirements for its establishment and including a detailed implementation plan (business plan, implementation schedule and institutional/governance mechanisms)
+</li><li> Organize a meeting of Greenstone experts and potential sponsors in the region to discuss, modify as appropriate and adopt the feasibility study
+</li><li> Arrange to get the Greenstone interface translated into local languages.
+</li></ul>
+<p>It may be possible for you to obtain external funding for some of these activities. However, it should be clear from the outset that the Greenstone team has no sources of funding for this kind of thing in New Zealand, although we could certainly write a supporting letter if you were contemplating applying for external funding.
+</p>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2005.html
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+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Four day course 2005</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p style="font-size: 150%;">Workshop on the<br />
+Greenstone Digital Library Software</p>
+<p style="font-size: 125%;">Suva, Fiji<br />
+September 12 - 15, 2005</p>
+<table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2005.html#Introduction"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Introduction</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2005.html#Instructors"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Instructors</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2005.html#Approximate_Schedule"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Approximate Schedule</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2005.html#Day_1:_Beginner"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Day 1: Beginner</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2005.html#Day_2:_Advanced"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Day 2: Advanced</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2005.html#Day_3:_Advanced"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Day 3: Advanced</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2005.html#Day_4:_Advanced"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Day 4: Advanced</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2005.html#Download"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Download</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<a name="Introduction"></a><h2>Introduction</h2>
+<p>This workshop will promote the development and sharing of digital library collections using the freely available Greenstone Digital Library software. The aim is to train trainers, and participants are expected to promote digital library collection development by conducting similar programmes in their countries. 
+</p>
+<a name="Instructors"></a><h3>Instructors</h3>
+<p>Mrs Katherine Don <br /> 				
+Mr Michael Dewsnip <br />                 							  
+Dr Chi-Yu Huang <br />
+<i>Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato, New Zealand</i>
+</p>
+<a name="Approximate_Schedule"></a><h2>Approximate Schedule</h2>
+<p><i>(we may alter the schedule depending on how things go)</i>
+</p>
+<a name="Day_1:_Beginner"></a><h3>Day 1: Beginner</h3>
+<ul><li> 08:30-09:00 <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-title.ppt" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-title.ppt" rel="nofollow">Welcome, introduce participants and instructors</a>
+</li><li> 09:00-10:00 <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-0-overview.ppt" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-0-overview.ppt" rel="nofollow">Lecture 0: Introduction: What is a digital library; Greenstone: Overview of features</a>
+</li><li> 10:00-10:15 Tea
+</li><li> 10:15-11:00 <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-1-install.ppt" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-1-install.ppt" rel="nofollow">Lecture 1: Greenstone installation; browsing example collections</a>
+</li><li> 11:00-12:15 <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/lab1-install.doc" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/lab1-install.doc" rel="nofollow">Lab 1: Greenstone installation; browsing example collections</a>
+</li><li> 12:15-13:15 Lunch
+</li><li> 13:15-14:45 <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-2-GLI-build.ppt" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-2-GLI-build.ppt" rel="nofollow">Lecture 2: Librarian Interface: Building collections and adding metadata</a>
+</li><li> 14:45-15:00 Tea
+</li><li> 15:00-17:00 <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/lab2-build.doc" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/lab2-build.doc" rel="nofollow">Lab 2: Librarian Interface: Building collections and adding metadata</a>
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Day_2:_Advanced"></a><h3>Day 2: Advanced</h3>
+<ul><li> 08:30-10:00 <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-3-GLI-configure.ppt" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-3-GLI-configure.ppt" rel="nofollow">Lecture 3: Librarian Interface: Using metadata, simple collection configuration</a>
+</li><li> 10:00-10:15 Tea
+</li><li> 10:15-12:15 <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/lab3-configure.doc" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/lab3-configure.doc" rel="nofollow">Lab 3: Librarian Interface: Using metadata, simple collection configuration</a>
+</li><li> 12:15-13:15 Lunch
+</li><li> 13:15-14:45 <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-4-GLI-advanced.ppt" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-4-GLI-advanced.ppt" rel="nofollow">Lecture 4: Librarian Interface: Advanced features</a>
+</li><li> 14:45-15:00 Tea
+</li><li> 15:00-17:00 <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/lab4-advanced.doc" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/lab4-advanced.doc" rel="nofollow">Lab 4: Librarian Interface: Advanced features</a>
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Day_3:_Advanced"></a><h3>Day 3: Advanced</h3>
+<ul><li> 13:00-14:45 <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-5-formatting.ppt" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-5-formatting.ppt" rel="nofollow">Lecture 5: Advanced formatting; creating a CD-ROM</a>
+</li><li> 14:45-15:00 Tea
+</li><li> 15:00-17:00 <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/lab5-format.doc" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/lab5-format.doc" rel="nofollow">Lab 5: Advanced formatting; creating a CD-ROM</a>
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Day_4:_Advanced"></a><h3>Day 4: Advanced</h3>
+<ul><li> 08:30-10:00 <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-6-documents.ppt" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-6-documents.ppt" rel="nofollow">Lecture 6: Advanced document types</a>
+</li><li> 10:00-10:15 Tea
+</li><li> 10:15-12:15 <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/lab6-documents.doc" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/lab6-documents.doc" rel="nofollow">Lab 6: Advanced document types</a>
+</li><li> 12:15-13:15 Lunch
+</li><li> 13:15-16:30 For the afternoon, we will be flexible about content. You can use this time to work on your own collections, or ask any questions you have. There are several topics we can cover if there is interest, including:
+</li></ul>
+<dl><dd><dl><dd><ul><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-ex-website.ppt" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-ex-website.ppt" rel="nofollow">Setting up Greenstone for your organization</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-ex-multilingual.ppt" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-ex-multilingual.ppt" rel="nofollow">Multilingual support and interface languages</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-ex-access.ppt" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-ex-access.ppt" rel="nofollow">Restricting access to documents</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-ex-scan-ocr.ppt" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-ex-scan-ocr.ppt" rel="nofollow">Scanning and OCR</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-ex-building.ppt" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/sep2005Fiji/workshop-materials/workshop/gsdl-ex-building.ppt" rel="nofollow">How collection building works</a>
+</li></ul>
+</dd></dl>
+</dd></dl>
+<ul><li> 16:30-17:00 Concluding session
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Download"></a><h2>Download</h2>
+<ul><li> <a href="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-workshop-notebook-4day-sep2005.zip" class='external text' title="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-workshop-notebook-4day-sep2005.zip" rel="nofollow">Lectures and labs</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-workshop-sample-files-4day-sep2005.zip" class='external text' title="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-workshop-sample-files-4day-sep2005.zip" rel="nofollow">Sample files</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-workshop-materials-4day-sep2005.zip" class='external text' title="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-workshop-materials-4day-sep2005.zip" rel="nofollow">Entire workshop</a> (lectures, labs, and sample files)
+</li></ul>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2006.html
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+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Four day course 2006</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p style="font-size: 150%;">UNESCO IITE Specialized Training Programme<br />
+Digital Libraries in Education</p>
+<p style="font-size: 125%;">(Training Session in Bangkok, Thailand, 21 â 24 February 2006)</p>
+<p><i>The content of this course is similar to the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2005.html" title="Four day course 2005">2005 Fiji course</a>, although the material was presented in a slightly different order.</i></p>
+<table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2006.html#Day_1_.28Tuesday_February.2C_21st.29"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Day 1 (Tuesday February, 21st)</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2006.html#Introduction"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Introduction</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2006.html#Module_1:_The_Concept_of_Digital_Libraries"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Module 1: The Concept of Digital Libraries</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2006.html#Module_2:__Document_Representation"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Module 2:  Document Representation</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2006.html#Day_2_.28Wednesday_February.2C_22nd.29"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Day 2 (Wednesday February, 22nd)</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2006.html#Module_3:_Working_with_Metadata"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Module 3: Working with Metadata</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2006.html#Module_3_.E2.80.93_continued"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Module 3 â continued</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2006.html#Day_3_.28Thursday_February.2C_23rd.29"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Day 3 (Thursday February, 23rd)</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2006.html#Module_4:_Multimedia_Digital_Libraries"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Module 4: Multimedia Digital Libraries</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2006.html#Module_5:_Open_Standards_.26_Case_Studies"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Module 5: Open Standards &amp; Case Studies</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2006.html#Day_4_.28Friday_February.2C_24th.29"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Day 4 (Friday February, 24th)</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<a name="Day_1_.28Tuesday_February.2C_21st.29"></a><h2>Day 1 (Tuesday February, 21st)</h2>
+<a name="Introduction"></a><h3>Introduction</h3>
+<ul><li>8:00 â 8:30	Registration of participants
+</li><li>8:30 â 8:45	Welcome speeches from UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education and UNESCO IITE
+</li></ul>
+<dl><dd><ul><li>Mr. Sheldon Shaeffer<p><i>Director, UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education</i></p>
+</li><li>Mr. Clive Wing, <p><i>Chief of Information and Knowledge Management, UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education</i></p>
+</li><li>Mr. Azat Khannanov<p><i>Deputy Team Leader for the UNESCO CCT project âMethodologies for Digital Librariesâ, UNESCO IITE</i></p>
+</li></ul>
+</dd></dl>
+<ul><li>8:45 â 9:00 Presentation of UNESCO Cross-Cutting Project âMethodologies for Digital Librariesâ
+</li></ul>
+<dl><dd><ul><li>Mr. Azat Khannanov <p><i>Deputy Team Leader for the UNESCO CCT project âMethodologies for Digital Librariesâ, UNESCO IITE</i></p>
+</li></ul>
+</dd></dl>
+<ul><li>9:00 â 9:15 About UNESCO IITEâs Specialized Training Programme: introduction and general logistics
+</li></ul>
+<dl><dd><ul><li>Dr. Marina Moiseeva <p><i>Coordinator of UNESCO IITEâs Educational Programme</i></p> 
+</li></ul>
+</dd></dl>
+<ul><li>9:15 â 9:30	Meet the trainers: University of Waikato and Greenstone International Initiative
+</li></ul>
+<dl><dd><ul><li>Dr. David Bainbridge <p><i>Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato</i></p>
+</li><li>Dr David M. Nichols <p><i>Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato</i></p>
+</li></ul>
+</dd></dl>
+<a name="Module_1:_The_Concept_of_Digital_Libraries"></a><h3>Module 1: The Concept of Digital Libraries</h3>
+<ul><li>9:30 â 10:15	Introduction to the course
+</li><li>10:15 â 10:30	Coffee-break
+</li><li>10:30 â 11:15	Installation &amp; Exploration of Existing Collections 
+</li><li>11:15 â 11:45	Case Studies: DLESE &amp; NLVM, presentation
+</li><li>11:45 â 12:00	Unit 1.1: Assignment 1: discussion
+</li><li>12:00 â 13:00	Lunch
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Module_2:__Document_Representation"></a><h3>Module 2:  Document Representation</h3>
+<ul><li>13:00 â 13:30	Summary of Common Document Formats: presentation 
+</li><li>13:30 â 14:30	Installation of Greenstone, building simple HTML collection
+</li><li>14:30 â 15:00	Unit 2.1: Assignment 1: discussion
+</li><li>15:00 â 15:15	Coffee-break
+</li><li>15:15 â 15:45	Overview of the Librarian Interface
+</li><li>15:45 â 17:00	Building Word &amp; PDF Collection
+</li></ul>
+<p><br />
+</p>
+<a name="Day_2_.28Wednesday_February.2C_22nd.29"></a><h2>Day 2 (Wednesday February, 22nd)</h2> 
+<a name="Module_3:_Working_with_Metadata"></a><h3>Module 3: Working with Metadata</h3>
+<ul><li>8:00 â 8:30	Markup &amp; Metadata: presentation
+</li><li>8:30: â 9:30	Building Tudor Collection
+</li><li>9:30 â 10:0	Unit 3.1: Assignment 1: Organization and Access Mechanisms: discussion
+</li><li>10:00 â 10:15	Coffee-break
+</li><li>10:15 â 10:45	Export to CD-ROM, Web links, Downloading source material
+</li><li>10:45 â 11:45	Enhancing the Tudor Collection
+</li><li>11:45 â 12:00	The Reality of the Web: Google survey results presentation
+</li><li>12:00 â 13:00	Lunch
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Module_3_.E2.80.93_continued"></a><h3>Module 3 â continued</h3>
+<ul><li>13:00 â 13:30	Image Formats: discussion. 
+</li><li>13:30 â 14:00	Image Collection
+</li><li>14:00 â 14:30	MARC: presentation
+</li><li>14:30 â 15:00	Bibliographic Collection: MARC
+</li><li>15:00 â 15:15	Coffee-break
+</li><li>15:15 â 15:45	Format statements and macro files: a walk through
+</li><li>15:45 â 16:15	LOM &amp; SCORM: presentation and demonstration
+</li><li>16:15 â 17:00	Educational Metadata: LOM and SCORM
+</li></ul>
+<p><br />
+</p>
+<a name="Day_3_.28Thursday_February.2C_23rd.29"></a><h2>Day 3 (Thursday February, 23rd)</h2> 
+<a name="Module_4:_Multimedia_Digital_Libraries"></a><h3>Module 4: Multimedia Digital Libraries</h3>
+<ul><li>8:00 â 8:30	Video Formats: presentation. Hauraki Video Collection demonstration 
+</li><li>8:30 â 9:30	Advanced Beatles: âLook at what can be done!â, A Basic Collection
+</li><li>9:30 â 10:00	Unit 4.1: Assignment 1: Multimedia in Education: discussion
+</li><li>10:00 â 10:15	Coffee-break
+</li><li>10:15 â 11:15	Advanced Beatles: Hand correcting metadata Simple Customization
+</li><li>11:15 â 12:00	Advanced Beatles: Advanced Customization Expert Customization Fancy Customization
+</li><li>12:00 â 13:00	Lunch
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Module_5:_Open_Standards_.26_Case_Studies"></a><h3>Module 5: Open Standards &amp; Case Studies</h3>
+<ul><li>13:00 â 13:45	Open Standards &amp; Interoperability: MODS and METS, presentation
+</li><li>13:45 â 15:00	Exporting as METS; From DSpace to Greenstone; From Greenstone to DSpace
+</li><li>15:00 â 15:15	Coffee-break
+</li><li>15:15 â 15:45	Open Archives Initiative: presentation
+</li><li>15:45 â 17:00	OAI Collection; Download OAI. Scanned Image Collection. Niupepa Collection: demonstration. Improved Image Collection
+</li></ul>
+<p><br />
+</p>
+<a name="Day_4_.28Friday_February.2C_24th.29"></a><h2>Day 4 (Friday February, 24th)</h2>   
+<ul><li>8:00 â 8:30	Case Studies: MERLOT &amp; Doomsday, presentation
+</li><li>8:30 â 10:00	Personal Collections
+</li><li>10:00 â 10:15	Coffee-break
+</li><li>10:15 â 11:15	Personal Collections
+</li><li>11:15 â 11:45	Summary: presentation
+</li><li>11:45 â 12:45	Lunch
+</li><li>12:45 â 14:00	Training on using UNESCO IITEâs Distance Education Platform
+</li><li>14:00 â 14:30	Objectives and plans for follow-up distance learning session
+</li><li>14:30 â 15:00	Closing discussion
+</li></ul>
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+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Four_day_course_2006">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Four_day_course_2006">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Four_day_course_2006&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
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+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 04:16, 10 March 2006.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 1,315 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
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+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2007.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2007.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2007.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,149 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
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+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
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+      <div id="column-content">
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+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Four day course 2007</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p style="font-size: 150%;">Workshop on the<br />
+Greenstone Digital Library Software</p>
+<p style="font-size: 125%;">Suva, Fiji<br />
+June 25 - 28, 2007</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Four_day_course_2007&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Four day course 2007">edit</a>]</div><a name="lectures"></a><h2>lectures</h2>
+<ul><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/lectures/Introduction.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/lectures/Introduction.pdf" rel="nofollow">Introduction</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/lectures/Greenstone_tutorial.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/lectures/Greenstone tutorial.pdf" rel="nofollow">Greenstone tutorial </a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/lectures/workshop1.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/lectures/workshop1.pdf" rel="nofollow">Installing, browsing, building</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/lectures/workshop2.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/lectures/workshop2.pdf" rel="nofollow">Adding metadata and using it</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/lectures/workshop3.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/lectures/workshop3.pdf" rel="nofollow">Advanced collection configuration</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/lectures/workshop4.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/lectures/workshop4.pdf" rel="nofollow">Examples:Multimedia and scanned images</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/lectures/workshop5.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/lectures/workshop5.pdf" rel="nofollow">Interoperability</a>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Four_day_course_2007&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Four day course 2007">edit</a>]</div><a name="labs"></a><h2>labs</h2>
+<ul><li> Tutorial exercise index: <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/Tutorial_exercise_index.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/Tutorial exercise index.pdf" rel="nofollow">[PDF]</a><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/Tutorial_exercise_index.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/Tutorial exercise index.htm" rel="nofollow">[HTML]</a>
+</li><li> Installing, browsing, building: <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab1.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab1.pdf" rel="nofollow">[PDF]</a><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab1.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab1.htm" rel="nofollow">[HTML]</a>
+</li><li> Adding metadata and using it: <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab2.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab2.pdf" rel="nofollow">[PDF]</a><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab2.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab2.htm" rel="nofollow">[HTML]</a>
+</li><li> Advanced collection configuration: <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab3.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab3.pdf" rel="nofollow">[PDF]</a><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab3.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab3.htm" rel="nofollow">[HTML]</a>
+</li><li> Ttwo examples:Multimedia and scanned images: <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab4.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab4.pdf" rel="nofollow">[PDF]</a><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab4.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab4.htm" rel="nofollow">[HTML]</a>
+</li><li> Interoperability: <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab5.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab5.pdf" rel="nofollow">[PDF]</a><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab5.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/labs/lab5.htm" rel="nofollow">[HTML]</a>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Four_day_course_2007&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Four day course 2007">edit</a>]</div><a name="Download"></a><h2>Download</h2>
+<ul><li><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/gsdl-workshop-notebook-4day-jun2007.zip" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/gsdl-workshop-notebook-4day-jun2007.zip" rel="nofollow">Lectures and labs</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/gsdl-workshop-sample-files-4day-jun2007.zip" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/gsdl-workshop-sample-files-4day-jun2007.zip" rel="nofollow">Sample files</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/gsdl-workshop-materials-4day-jun2007.zip" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2007Fiji/gsdl-workshop-materials-4day-jun2007.zip" rel="nofollow">Entire workshop</a> (lectures, labs, and sample files)
+</li></ul>
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2007.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2007</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
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+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
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+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
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+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
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+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
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+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Four_day_course_2007">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Four_day_course_2007">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Four_day_course_2007&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 04:21, 1 August 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 392 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,181 @@
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+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">General Documentation</h1>
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+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
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+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html#About_Greenstone"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">About Greenstone</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html#Greenstone_users"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Greenstone users</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html#Greenstone_developers"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Greenstone developers</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html#User_Supplied_Documentation"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">User Supplied Documentation</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=General_Documentation&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="General Documentation">edit</a>]</div><a name="About_Greenstone"></a><h2>About Greenstone</h2>
+<ul><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/Greenstone_history.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/Greenstone history.htm" rel="nofollow">A history of the Greenstone Digital Library Software.</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqgen-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=factsheet" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqgen-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=factsheet" rel="nofollow">Greenstone Fact Sheet</a>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=General_Documentation&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="General Documentation">edit</a>]</div><a name="Greenstone_users"></a><h2>Greenstone users</h2>
+<ul><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html" title="Remote Greenstone"> Building collections on a remote Greenstone server</a> (<a href="http://tramullas.com/greenstone/gsdlremoto.pdf" class='external text' title="http://tramullas.com/greenstone/gsdlremoto.pdf" rel="nofollow">En EspaÃ±ol</a>). <p>This scheme allows users to augment and edit collections that are held on a remote Greenstone server. Users work with a modified version of the Greenstone Librarian Interface but do not need to have Greenstone running locally. Multiple users can collaborate on the same collection (though not at the same time).</p> 
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html" title="Compiling Greenstone">Compiling Greenstone from a source or SVN distribution.</a>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_SVN.html" title="Greenstone SVN"> Obtaining Greenstone source code via SVN </a>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/make-classifier-images.html" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/make-classifier-images.html" rel="nofollow">Creating and adding the navigation bar images.</a>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Plugins.html" title="Plugins"> The Plugins that Greenstone v2.61 supports</a>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Explaining_Plugins.html" title="Explaining Plugins">All about plugins</a>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/A_basic_introduction_to_using_CSS_in_Greenstone.html" title="A basic introduction to using CSS in Greenstone"> A basic introduction to using CSS in Greenstone.</a>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_format_the_output_of_your_collection.html" title="How to format the output of your collection"> Formating the output of your collection</a>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/All_about_macros.html" title="All about macros">All about macros</a>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/CDS-ISIS_to_DL.doc" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/CDS-ISIS to DL.doc" rel="nofollow">Creating digital libraries based on CDS/ISIS databases</a> (<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/CDS-ISIS_to_DL-cor-sp.doc" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/CDS-ISIS to DL-cor-sp.doc" rel="nofollow">En EspaÃ±ol</a>) <i>John B. Rose and Pablo Morete</i> 
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/images/4/4e/GSDL_Beginners_Guide.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/images/4/4e/GSDL Beginners Guide.pdf" rel="nofollow">Building up a Digital Library with Greenstone: a Self-Instructional Guide for Beginners</a> <i>K Rajasekharan</i> and <i>K M Nafala</i>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/images/c/cb/Customizing_GSDL.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/images/c/cb/Customizing GSDL.pdf" rel="nofollow">Easy Ways to Customize the Display of Greenstone Pages</a> <i>K Rajasekharan</i> and <i>K M Nafala</i>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/images/e/e9/WINISIS_to_GSDL_Guide.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/images/e/e9/WINISIS to GSDL Guide.pdf" rel="nofollow">Creating a Greenstone Digital Library with Winisis Database</a> <i>K Rajasekharan</i> and <i>K M Nafala</i>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/images/7/78/Converting_winisis_to_GSDL.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/images/7/78/Converting winisis to GSDL.pdf" rel="nofollow">Converting a Winisis database into a Greenstone digital library</a> <i>K Rajasekharan</i> and <i>K M Nafala</i>
+</li><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Time_taken_to_explode_bibliography_records.html" title="Time taken to explode bibliography records">Time taken to explode bibliography records</a>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone3.html" title="Remote Greenstone3"> Building collections on a remote Greenstone3 server</a>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=General_Documentation&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="General Documentation">edit</a>]</div><a name="Greenstone_developers"></a><h2>Greenstone developers</h2>
+<ul><li><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/feedback.doc" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/feedback.doc" rel="nofollow">User Feedback Mechanism Documentation</a><p>This is detailed documentation of the user feedback software incorporated into Greenstone under the âSend Feedbackâ button. It covers the design rationale and the artifact and is intended for those wishing to extend or modify the software.  It is a companion document to the âGreenstone Developersâ Guideâ.  If you want to know the purpose of the software, you should read the papers listed as âfurther readingâ at the end of this report.</p> 
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/testplan.doc" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/testplan.doc" rel="nofollow">Iâd like to complain: system test plan</a><p>Having developed some usability reporting software for Greenstone, it is necessary to test it.  This document is broken up into two parts: a description of the software, and a description of the ideal test circumstances.  To examine the system discussed in this document go to <a href="http://nzdl2.cs.waikato.ac.nz/cgi-bin/dana/library" class='external free' title="http://nzdl2.cs.waikato.ac.nz/cgi-bin/dana/library" rel="nofollow">http://nzdl2.cs.waikato.ac.nz/cgi-bin/dana/library</a>; to examine the source go to /nzdl/public_html/dana/gsdl on nikau.</p>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=General_Documentation&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="General Documentation">edit</a>]</div><a name="User_Supplied_Documentation"></a><h2>User Supplied Documentation</h2>
+<ul><li><a href="http://www.wrlc.org/dcpc/UserInterface/interface.htm" class='external text' title="http://www.wrlc.org/dcpc/UserInterface/interface.htm" rel="nofollow">Customizing the Greenstone User Interface</a><p>An illustrated guide to customizing the Greenstone user interface. Written by Allison Zhang of the Washington Research Library Consortium</p>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li><a href="http://eprints.iimk.ac.in/archive/00000040/01/naclin2005-sreekumar-sunitha-01.pdf" class='external text' title="http://eprints.iimk.ac.in/archive/00000040/01/naclin2005-sreekumar-sunitha-01.pdf" rel="nofollow">Essential Strategies and Skill Sets Towards Creating Digital Libraries Using Open Source Software</a><p>National Convention on Library and Information Networking (NACLIN) 2005. By M. G. Sreekumar and T. Sunitha, Center for Development of Digital Libraries (CDDL), Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode.</p>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li><a href="http://tramullas.com/greenstone/gsdlUbuntuHowTo.pdf" class='external text' title="http://tramullas.com/greenstone/gsdlUbuntuHowTo.pdf" rel="nofollow">Greenstone Ubuntu HowTo (in Spanish)</a><p>By JesÃºs Tramullas, <a href="http://greenstone.docunautica.com" class='external free' title="http://greenstone.docunautica.com" rel="nofollow">http://greenstone.docunautica.com</a></p>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> <a href="http://eprints.rclis.org/archive/00010081/" class='external text' title="http://eprints.rclis.org/archive/00010081/" rel="nofollow">Converting a Winisis library Catalogue into a Greenstone Digital Library Application</a><p>by Rajasekharan and Nafala (2007). <a href="http://eprints.rclis.org/" class='external text' title="http://eprints.rclis.org/" rel="nofollow">E-prints in Library and Information Science</a></p>
+</li></ul>
+
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+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
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+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
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+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
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+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
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+	        value="Search" />
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+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 22:14, 12 August 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 8,079 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_information.html
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+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>General information - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">General information</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_information.html#What_is_Greenstone.3F"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">What is Greenstone?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_information.html#How_is_Greenstone_licensed.3F"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">How is Greenstone licensed?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_information.html#What_platforms_will_Greenstone_run_on.3F"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">What platforms will Greenstone run on?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_information.html#Are_there_any_mailing_lists_concerned_with_Greenstone.3F"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Are there any mailing lists concerned with Greenstone?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_information.html#Are_the_mailing_lists_archived_anywhere.3F"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Are the mailing lists archived anywhere?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_information.html#How_do_I_contribute_to_Greenstone.3F"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">How do I contribute to Greenstone?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_information.html#Are_there_any_commercial_support_options_for_Greenstone.3F"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Are there any commercial support options for Greenstone?</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<a name="What_is_Greenstone.3F"></a><h2>What is Greenstone?</h2>
+<p><b>Greenstone</b> is a suite of software which has the ability to serve digital library collections and build new collections. It provides a new way of organizing information and publishing it on the Internet or on CD-ROM. For more information, read the <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqgen-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=factsheet" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqgen-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=factsheet" rel="nofollow">Greenstone Fact Sheet</a>. There is a brief history of the Greenstone project <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/Greenstone_history.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/Greenstone history.htm" rel="nofollow">here</a>.
+</p>
+<a name="How_is_Greenstone_licensed.3F"></a><h2>How is Greenstone licensed?</h2>
+<p>Greenstone is open-source software, distributed under the terms of the <a href="http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/gpl.html" class='external text' title="http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/gpl.html" rel="nofollow">GNU General Public License</a>.
+</p>
+<a name="What_platforms_will_Greenstone_run_on.3F"></a><h2>What platforms will Greenstone run on?</h2>
+<p>Greenstone has been tested on Windows 3.1/3.11/95/98/Me/NT/2000, most distributions of GNU/Linux, Darwin (Mac OS X), Solaris, and FreeBSD. It should in fact work on any Windows or Unix system. If you use a system other than those mentioned and you find Greenstone doesn't run, please <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqgen-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=support" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqgen-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=support" rel="nofollow">contact</a> us.
+</p><p>Please note that the downloadable Windows distribution of Greenstone comes with an installer that will not work on 16 bit Windows. If you need to use Greenstone on Windows 3.1/3.11 please <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqgen-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=support" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqgen-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=support" rel="nofollow">contact</a> us.
+</p>
+<a name="Are_there_any_mailing_lists_concerned_with_Greenstone.3F"></a><h2>Are there any mailing lists concerned with Greenstone?</h2>
+<p>There are two Greenstone mailing lists. You can subscribe to them from the <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-home-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=support" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-home-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=support" rel="nofollow">Greenstone support</a> page.
+</p>
+<a name="Are_the_mailing_lists_archived_anywhere.3F"></a><h2>Are the mailing lists archived anywhere?</h2>
+<p>The most popular mailing list (greenstone-users@list.scms.waikato.ac.nz) is archived as a Greenstone collection at <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=gsarch" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=gsarch" rel="nofollow">www.nzdl.org.</a> Note that this collection is updated only sporadically so may not always be completely up to date.
+</p>
+<a name="How_do_I_contribute_to_Greenstone.3F"></a><h2>How do I contribute to Greenstone?</h2>
+<p>We welcome contributions or improvements to the Greenstone software!
+</p><p>Before you send in any contribution, you first need to make sure that your changes are compatible with the latest snapshop of the Greenstone source code. To get the latest code you'll need to use Subversion (see the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_SVN.html" title="Greenstone SVN">Greenstone_SVN</a> page for details).
+You should then send the modified files, along with details of the modifications you've made, to <a href="mailto:greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz" class='external text' title="mailto:greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz" rel="nofollow">greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz</a>.
+</p><p>Before beginning work, you should announce what you're doing on the <a href="mailto:greenstone-devel@cs.waikato.ac.nz" class='external text' title="mailto:greenstone-devel@cs.waikato.ac.nz" rel="nofollow">greenstone developer's list</a> to tell us what you plan to do and get some feedback.
+</p>
+<a name="Are_there_any_commercial_support_options_for_Greenstone.3F"></a><h2>Are there any commercial support options for Greenstone?</h2>
+<p>Yes, contact <a href="http://www.dlconsulting.com" class='external text' title="http://www.dlconsulting.com" rel="nofollow">DL Consulting</a> for commercial Greenstone support.
+</p><div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_information.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_information</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_information.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:General_information&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=General_information&amp;action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=General_information&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/General_information">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/General_information">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/General_information">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=General_information&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 03:27, 4 July 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 6,454 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.15 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,133 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Greenstone3" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>Greenstone3 - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Greenstone3</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p>Greenstone3 is a complete redesign and reimplementation of the original Greenstone digital library software (Greenstone2). It retains all the advantages of Greenstone2 - for example, it is multiplatform, highly configurable, and soon-to-be multilingual software. It incorporates all the features of Greenstone2, and is backwards compatible: that is, it can build and run existing collections without modification. Written in Java, it is structured as a network of independent modules that communicate using XML: thus it runs in a distributed fashion and can be spread across different servers as necessary. This modular design increases the flexibility and extensibility of Greenstone.
+</p><p><br />
+Useful links:
+</p>
+<ul><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html" title="Greenstone3 for Greenstone2 Users"> Greenstone3 for Greenstone2 users</a>: How to migrate, advantages and disadvantages to Greenstone3.
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/greenstone3.html" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/greenstone3.html" rel="nofollow">Greenstone3 home page</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/docs/greenstone3/manual.pdf" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/docs/greenstone3/manual.pdf" rel="nofollow">Greenstone3 manual</a>
+</li></ul>
+
+<!-- Saved in parser cache with key gswikidb:pcache:idhash:1297-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20070905030348 -->
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Talk:Greenstone3">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone3&amp;action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone3&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
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+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Greenstone3">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Greenstone3">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone3&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
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+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 02:25, 20 February 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 3,136 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html	(revision 21010)
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@@ -0,0 +1,313 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
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+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Greenstone3 for Greenstone2 Users</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Introduction"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Introduction</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Q_.26_A"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Q &amp; A</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Installation"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Installation</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Windows"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Windows</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Linux"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Linux</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Server_Options"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Server Options</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Moving_Greenstone2_collections_to_Greenstone3"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Moving Greenstone2 collections to Greenstone3</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Windows_2"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Windows</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Linux_2"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Linux</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Advantages"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Advantages</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Documented_Example_Collections"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Documented Example Collections</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Tutorial_Exercises"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Tutorial Exercises</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Known_Problems"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Known Problems</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Greenstone3 for Greenstone2 Users">edit</a>]</div><a name="Introduction"></a><h2>Introduction</h2>
+<p>Greenstone3 is a complete redesign and reimplementation of the original Greenstone digital library software (Greenstone2). It retains all the advantages of Greenstone2 - for example, it is multiplatform, highly configurable, and soon-to-be multilingual software. It incorporates all the features of Greenstone2, and is backwards compatible: that is, it can build and run existing collections without modification. Written in Java, it is structured as a network of independent modules that communicate using XML: thus it runs in a distributed fashion and can be spread across different servers as necessary. This modular design increases the flexibility and extensibility of Greenstone.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Greenstone3 for Greenstone2 Users">edit</a>]</div><a name="Q_.26_A"></a><h2> Q &amp; A </h2>
+<ul><li> <b>Where are my collections?</b> - In Greenstone3, collections are stored in the <tt>web/sites/&lt;sitename&gt;/collect</tt> folder of your Greenstone3 installation. <tt>&lt;sitename&gt;</tt> can refer to any site in your Greenstone3 installation, the default site being <tt>localsite</tt>. If you accept all the defaults in a Windows install, your collections will be in <tt>C:\Program Files\Greenstone3\web\sites\localsite\collect</tt>.
+</li><li> <b>How can I get my Greenstone2 collections into Greenstone3?</b> - Basically you just copy them across then rebuild (easiest) or run a conversion script (fastest). See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Moving_Greenstone2_collections_to_Greenstone3" title="">Porting Greenstone2 collections to Greenstone3</a>.
+</li><li> <b>What can go wrong?</b> - Some problems remain in Greenstone3. See the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Known_Problems" title="">Known Problems</a> list for details. If you have other problems, you should join the <a href="https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone3" class='external text' title="https://list.scms.waikato.ac.nz/mailman/listinfo/greenstone3" rel="nofollow">Greenstone3 mailing list</a> and ask your questions there.
+</li><li> <b>Building new collections - is it different to Greenstone2?</b> - No. You still use the same GLI, and create and  build collections in the same way. The only differences are internal software differences.
+</li><li> <b>Can I make a Greenstone CD-ROM that contains my collections?</b> - No. There is no export to CD/DVD-ROM functionality in Greenstone3.
+</li><li> <b>What are the advantages of moving to Greenstone3?</b> - See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Advantages" title="">Advantages</a> for a list. 
+</li><li> <b>What are the disadvantages of moving to Greenstone3?</b> - See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Known_Problems" title="">Known Problems</a> for a list.
+</li><li> <b>Is there anything Greenstone2 can do that Greenstone3 can't?</b> - Very little, except for exporting to CD-ROM and authentication. (One other example is that the collage image browser is not yet supported.)
+</li><li> <b>What about the tutorial exercises?</b> - They work just the same way as they did with Greenstone2; see the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Tutorial_Exercises" title=""> Tutorial Exercises</a> for details.
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Greenstone3 for Greenstone2 Users">edit</a>]</div><a name="Installation"></a><h2>Installation</h2>
+<p>Installing Greenstone3 is just as easy as installing Greenstone2. Simply run the appropriate installer for your system and follow the on-screen instructions. Greenstone3 is distributed as an InstallShield installer program, allowing it to be installed easily and in a familiar way. Installation guides for <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Windows" title="">Windows</a> and <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Linux" title="">Linux</a> are available.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Greenstone3 for Greenstone2 Users">edit</a>]</div><a name="Windows"></a><h3> Windows </h3>
+<p>To install Greenstone3, locate the file <b>greenstone-3.XX-win32.exe</b> and run it by double-clicking. After a delay, you will be asked to choose a language for the installation. Choose a language, then follow the on-screen instructions and click 'Finish'. Details about the installation instructions are below:
+</p>
+<ul><li> <b>Install Directory</b> <p>This is the directory (folder) to install Greenstone to. The default option, <tt>C:\Program Files\Greenstone3</tt>, is usually appropriate.</p>
+</li><li> <b>Tomcat Port and Tomcat Shutdown Port</b> <p>Greenstone3 runs the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Tomcat" class='external text' title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache Tomcat" rel="nofollow">Apache Tomcat</a> Web Server in the background, to make your Greenstone library available in a web browser. This option specifies the port number which Tomcat runs on. The default for this option is <tt>8080</tt>, and this is suitable for most users. However, if you have another web server or other server already running on port <tt>8080</tt>, you will have to choose another, free port. Tomcat also opens a shutdown port, for receiving shutdown signals. Once again, the default port number <tt>8005</tt> is a good choice here, unless you are running another server on that port.</p>
+</li><li> <b>Setup Type</b> <p>You are able to customise which parts of Greenstone3 are installed. The 'Standard' installation is recommended for most users. A 'Source Code' option has also been provided, for people who wish to compile Greenstone themselves. And a 'Custom' option has been provided to enable users to select which features of Greenstone3 are installed.</p>
+</li></ul>
+<p>Greenstone3 is now installed, and a new start menu group called <b>Greenstone3 Digital Library Software v3.02</b> has been set up. There are four items in the start menu group, explained below.
+</p>
+<ul><li> <b>Greenstone3 Digital Library</b> <p>This is the Greenstone3 Server - the main attraction of Greenstone! Run this to browse and search your collections.</p>
+</li><li> <b>Greenstone Editor for Metadata Sets</b> <p>This is a link to the <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=GEMS&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="GEMS">GEMS</a> program. Use this to edit metadata sets or  create new ones.</p>
+</li><li> <b>Greenstone Librarian Interface</b> <p>This is a link to the <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=GLI&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="GLI">GLI</a> program. Use this to create and build your Greenstone collections.</p>
+</li><li> <b>Documentation</b> <p>This is a submenu which contains three documents - manuals for Greentone2 and Greenstone3, and a README File.</p>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Greenstone3 for Greenstone2 Users">edit</a>]</div><a name="Linux"></a><h3>Linux</h3>
+<p>These instructions are for versions of desktop Linux with windowing support. If you meet these requirements but are unable to install, please <a href="mailto:some@email.address?subject=Unable%20to%20Install%20Greenstone%203" class='external text' title="mailto:some@email.address?subject=Unable to Install Greenstone 3" rel="nofollow">let us know</a>.
+<b>To install Greenstone3</b>, using the command line, locate and run the file <tt>greenstone-3.XX-linux.bin</tt>. Running these commands will achieve that:
+</p>
+<pre>cd ~/Desktop/                         #change directory to wherever the setup file is
+./greenstone-3.XX-linux.bin</pre>
+<p>After a delay, a window appears with instructions for installation. Follow these instructions and click 'Finish'. Details about each option are below:
+</p>
+<ul><li> <b>Install Directory</b> <p>This is the directory (folder) to install Greenstone to. The default is <tt>/opt/greenstone3/</tt>, which is a good choice if you have write permission to the <tt>/opt/</tt> directory. Be sure to remember the path where you installed Greenstone3, as this is needed for running the Greenstone server and <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=GLI&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="GLI">GLI</a>.</p>
+</li><li> <b>Tomcat Port and Tomcat Shutdown Port</b> <p>Greenstone3 runs the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Tomcat" class='external text' title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache Tomcat" rel="nofollow">Apache Tomcat</a> Web Server in the background, to make your Greenstone library available in a web browser. This option specifies the port number which Tomcat runs on. The default for this option is <tt>8080</tt>, and this is suitable for most users. However, if you have another web server or other server already running on port <tt>8080</tt>, you will have to choose another, free port. Tomcat also opens a shutdown port, for receiving shutdown signals. Once again, the default port number <tt>8005</tt> is a good choice here, unless you are running another server on that port.</p>
+</li><li> <b>Setup Type</b> <p>You are able to customise which parts of Greenstone3 are installed. The 'Standard' installation is recommended for most users. A 'Source Code' option has also been provided, for people who wish to compile Greenstone themselves. And a 'Custom' option has been provided to enable users to select which features of Greenstone3 are installed.</p>
+</li></ul>
+<p>Greenstone3 is now installed and you can proceed to run the Greenstone3 server and the <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=GLI&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="GLI">GLI</a>.
+</p>
+<ul><li> <b>To run the Greenstone3 server</b> <p>First change to the directory where you installed Greenstone, then run the <tt>gs3-server.sh</tt> script. To do that, execute the following commands: </p>
+</li></ul>
+<pre>
+cd /opt/greenstone3/    (or wherever you installed greenstone3)
+./gs3-server.sh</pre>
+<ul><li> <b>To run the <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=GLI&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="GLI">GLI</a></b> <p>Run the <tt>gli4gs3.sh</tt> script. To do that, execute these commands: (from the path where you installed Greenstone3)</p>
+</li></ul>
+<pre>cd gli/
+./gli4gs3.sh</pre>
+<ul><li> <b>To run <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=GEMS&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="GEMS">GEMS</a></b> <p>Run the <tt>gems4gs3.sh</tt> script. To do that, execute these commands: (from the path where you installed Greenstone3)</p>
+</li></ul>
+<pre>cd gli/
+./gems4gs3.sh</pre>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Greenstone3 for Greenstone2 Users">edit</a>]</div><a name="Server_Options"></a><h2>Server Options</h2>
+<p>After you have <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Installation" title="">installed Greenstone3</a> and started the Greenstone server, you can change a number of server options. <b>Most users will probably not need to do this.</b> For those who do, the options can be viewed and changed by clicking <b>File &rarr; Settings...</b> in the Greenstone server window. 
+</p>
+<ul><li> <b>Tomcat Port</b> <p>This option selects the port number for running tomcat. For more information and for help choosing a Tomcat Port, see <i>Tomcat Port and Tomcat Shutdown Port</i> in the  <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Installation" title="">Installation</a> section.</p>
+</li><li> <b>Enter the library automatically</b> <p>Check this option if you want your Greenstone library to be opened automatically in your selected browser each time you start up the Greenstone3 server.</p>
+</li><li> <b>Servlet</b> <p>This option specifies how your Greenstone library will be viewed. The <b>library</b> option views the Greenstone library with the new Greenstone3 look-and-feel. The <b>classic-library</b> option views the library with the 'classic' Greenstone2 look-and-feel. The <b>tester</b> option should only be used to test the installation of Greenstone and the Tomcat web server, to ensure that servlets can be run properly. And the <b>gateway</b> option views collections hosted on a SOAP web service. This option is helpful for developers who want to see an example of collections being accessed via the SOAP protocol. For more information, see section 6.1 of the Greenstone3 manual located at <tt>docs/manual/manual.pdf</tt> of your Greenstone3 installation directory.</p>
+</li><li> <b>Enter library using</b> <p>This option chooses what happens when you click the 'Enter Library' button in the Greenstone3 server window. You can choose to have the library launched in the default web browser for you computer system, or another browser located on your computer. If you choose the latter option, click browse and open the web browser executable file (e.g., for Mozilla Firefox, open the 'firefox'(Linux) or 'firefox.exe'(windows) binary file.</p>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Greenstone3 for Greenstone2 Users">edit</a>]</div><a name="Moving_Greenstone2_collections_to_Greenstone3"></a><h2>Moving Greenstone2 collections to Greenstone3</h2>
+<p>If you are a Greenstone2 user, you can move your collections from Greenstone2 to Greenstone3. Simply copy the appropriate folders from the Greenstone2 <tt>collect</tt> folder to the Greenstone3 <tt>collect</tt> folder, and then rebuild the collections in the GLI. For large collections, you can avoid rebuilding by running a conversion script instead.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Greenstone3 for Greenstone2 Users">edit</a>]</div><a name="Windows_2"></a><h3>Windows</h3>
+<p>These instructions assume Greenstone2 is installed to <tt>C:\Program Files\Greenstone2</tt> and that Greenstone3 is installed to <tt>C:\Program Files\Greenstone3</tt>, so please make the necessary adjustments if you installed either version of Greenstone to a different folder.
+</p><p>To port a collection called <i>mycoll</i>, you would use a file browser to copy the folder <tt>C:\Program Files\Greenstone2\collect\mycoll</tt> to the folder <tt>C:\Program Files\Greenstone3\web\sites\localsite\collect</tt>. Then, open the collection in the <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=GLI&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="GLI">GLI</a> and rebuild it.
+</p><p>If the collection is very large, you may prefer to just run the <tt>convert_coll_from_gs2.pl</tt> conversion script, to avoid a lengthy rebuild. To do this, open up an MS-DOS box (Start &rarr; (All) Programs &rarr; Accessories &rarr; Command Prompt) and execute these commands.
+</p>
+<pre>cd &quot;C:\Program Files\Greenstone2&quot;
+setup
+[Alternatively, 
+cd &quot;C:\Program Files\Greenstone3\gs2build&quot;
+setup
+]
+cd &quot;C:\Program Files\Greenstone3&quot;
+gs3-setup
+gs2build\bin\windows\perl\bin\perl.exe bin\script\convert_coll_from_gs2.pl \
+     -collectdir &quot;C:\Program Files\Greenstone3\web\sites\localsite\collect&quot; mycoll</pre>
+<p>If you need you collections to appear with the classic Greenstone2 look-and-feel, see the 'Servlet' section of <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Server_Options" title="">Server Options</a>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Greenstone3 for Greenstone2 Users">edit</a>]</div><a name="Linux_2"></a><h3>Linux</h3>
+<p>These instructions assume Greenstone2 is installed to <tt>/opt/greenstone2/</tt> and that Greenstone3 is installed to <tt>/opt/greenstone3/</tt>, so please make the necessary adjustments if you installed either version of Greenstone to a different folder.
+</p><p>To port a collection called <i>mycoll</i>, you would copy the folder <tt>/opt/greenstone2/collect/mycoll/</tt> to the folder <tt>/opt/greenstone3/web/sites/localsite/collect/</tt>.
+</p>
+<pre>cd /opt/greenstone2/
+cp -r collect/mycoll/ /opt/greenstone3/web/sites/localsite/collect/</pre>
+<p>Then, you would open the collection using the <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=GLI&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="GLI">GLI</a> and rebuild it. Or if you collection is very large and a rebuild would take too long, run the conversion script <tt>convert_coll_from_gs2.pl</tt> instead. On the command line, execute these commands: (from the Greenstone2 installation directory)
+</p>
+<pre>cd /opt/greenstone2/
+source setup.bash
+[alternatively
+cd /opt/greenstone3/gs2build
+source setup.bash
+]
+cd /opt/greenstone3/
+source gs3-setup.sh
+bin/script/convert_coll_from_gs2.pl -collectdir /opt/greenstone3/web/sites/localsite/collect mycoll</pre>
+<p>You need to do this for each collection you wish to port. To see a list of available Greenstone2 collections, run this command:
+</p>
+<pre>ls /opt/greenstone2/collect/</pre>
+<p>You may need to close and re-open the Greenstone3 server before the ported collections are available in Greenstone3.
+</p><p>If you need you collections to appear with the classic Greenstone2 look-and-feel, see the 'Servlet' section of <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#Server_Options" title="">Server Options</a>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Greenstone3 for Greenstone2 Users">edit</a>]</div><a name="Advantages"></a><h2>Advantages</h2>
+<p>There are a number of advantages to using Greenstone3 instead of Greenstone2. These include:
+</p>
+<ul><li> <b>Distributed Computing Support</b> <p>It is easy for different Greenstone3 installations to communicate with each other and serve each others collections. SOAP connections allow the library to run in a distributed fashion. </p>
+</li><li> <b>Web Service</b> <p>Greenstone3 allows collections to be served in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML" class='external text' title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML" rel="nofollow">XML</a> format over <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOAP" class='external text' title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOAP" rel="nofollow">SOAP</a>, which makes the information in Greenstone collections not only human-readable but also machine-readable.</p>
+</li><li> <b>Interface Customisation</b> <p>Greenstone3 replaces macros with XML and XSLT for customising the visual appearance of your collections. This affords users more power over the look-and-feel of collections. The library program generates page data in XML, which is converted to HTML using XSLT. All formatting is done using XSLT, so it makes it easier to customize than Greenstone2 in which some of the HTML is output by the library, and some by the macro files. It is very easy to get back the data in XML, if you want to use it for other purposes.</p>
+</li><li> <b>Development </b> <p>Greenstone3 is being actively developed, with new features being added and stability increasing all the time.</p>
+</li><li> <b>Berry Baskets</b> <p>Berry Baskets offer a way to gather documents of interest (juicy berries) while browsing Greenstone collections. When you turn the facility on from the Preferences page, a basket appears in your browser  window. Now, whenever you see a document that interests you, you can drag-and-drop it into the basket - just like picking a berry! Later, you can review the basket's contents, and cut-and-paste them into an email. (Note, the "Send email to a friend" button does not work yet. Also, it works best under Firefox, rather than Internet Explorer)</p>
+</li><li> <b>Cross Collection Search</b> <p>Cross collection searching in Greenstone3 is provided across all collections by default. The requirement that collections must have the same indexes is no longer there as the default index is used for each one. However, this means that you can't select which indexes to search, and search result ranking may not be valid as different indexers rank results differently.</p>
+</li><li> <b>Multiple sets of collections and multiple interfaces</b> <p>A single Greenstone3 installation can have multiple sets of collections and multiple interface definitions. Greenstone2, on the other hand, has a single collect directory, and a single set of macros. Greenstone3 has multiple "sites" each of which has its own collect directory, and multiple "interfaces" each of which has its own set of XSLT files. Any site can be served using any interface.</p>
+</li><li> <b>Addition of New Features</b> <p>The library runtime is written in Java and is modular, making it a lot easier to add new features should they be needed.</p>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Greenstone3 for Greenstone2 Users">edit</a>]</div><a name="Documented_Example_Collections"></a><h2>Documented Example Collections</h2>
+<p>The documented example collections work in Greenstone3 with the following exceptions:
+</p>
+<ul><li> Some of the 'How this collection works' text is not relevant to the Greenstone3 context, and some of the links in this text don't work properly.
+</li><li> The style, formatting and authentication collections are not relevant:
+<ul><li> Formatting and authentication demo
+</li><li> Garish version of demo collection
+</li><li> Cascading style sheets demo collection
+</li></ul>
+</li><li> Cross collection search is handled globally not at a collection level, so the Bibliography supplement collection is not relevant.
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Greenstone3 for Greenstone2 Users">edit</a>]</div><a name="Tutorial_Exercises"></a><h2>Tutorial Exercises</h2>
+<p>Most of the tutorial exercises work exactly the same with Greenstone3. Some have steps that only work in Greenstone2; these are listed below:
+</p>
+<ul><li> <b>Scanned image collection</b>, and
+</li><li> <b>Advanced scanned image collection</b> <p>The Niupepa collection on which these exercises are based uses nested <i>if</i> s in its format statements. Nested <i>if</i> statements are not supported, so lists in these exercises do not display correctly.</p>
+</li><li> <b>Customization: macro files and stylesheets</b> <p>Macros are no longer used in Greenstone3, so much of this tutorial does not apply.</p>
+</li><li> <b>Formatting the Word and PDF collection</b> <p>The step entitled <b>Opening PDF files with query terms highlighted</b> causes the collection to break and become unavailable in your library. This is a case of <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#collection-disappears" title=""> a collection disappearing after a change to format statements</a>. Skip this step, or undo it if you have already done it.</p>
+</li><li> <b>Building a multimedia collection</b>
+<ul><li> The step <b>Using non-standard macro files</b> does not apply because Greenstone3 does not use macros, so should be skipped.
+</li><li> The step <b>Using different icons for different media types</b> contains a format statement with a <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users.html#nested-ifs" title=""> nested <i>if</i> statement</a>.
+</li><li> The step <b>Adding an image collage browser</b> does not apply as Greentsone3 does not yet have a collage browser.
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Greenstone3 for Greenstone2 Users">edit</a>]</div><a name="Known_Problems"></a><h2>Known Problems</h2>
+<p>As Greenstone3 is still in its early stages of development, a number of problems and bugs remain. If your Greenstone2 collections do not work under Greenstone3, or if you are experiencing some unexpected behavior from Greenstone3, please read this list before contacting us.
+</p>
+<ul><li> <b>Conversion of <i>collect.cfg</i> </b> <p>Greenstone3 still uses Greenstone2-style <tt>collect.cfg</tt> files internally, and converts these to Greenstone3-style <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML" class='external text' title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML" rel="nofollow">XML</a> files called <tt>colletionConfig.xml</tt>. Unfortunately, the conversion is not always perfect, and may cause some unexpected errors with your collection. As development continues, the conversions will get better. Eventually, Greenstone3 will work solely with <tt>collectionConfig.xml</tt> files, eliminating the need for this problematic conversion process.</p>
+</li></ul>
+<div id="collection-disappears"></div>
+<ul><li> <b>Collections sometimes disappear after changes to format statements</b> <p>After changing a format statement in a collection, the collection may become unavailable.  This is because the conversion of the <tt>collect.cfg</tt> file after the new format statement is introduced produces a <tt>collectionConfig.xml</tt> file containing malformed XML. A collection cannot be hosted in Greenstone3 without a valid <tt>collectionConfig.xml</tt> file, so the collection disappears from the library. The solution is to undo the edits which caused the problem.</p>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> <b>Need to click preview after changes to format statements</b> <p>Unlike in Greenstone2, format statements are not applied automatically to their collections. To apply changes to format statements, you must click the 'Preview' button in the GLI to invoke an internal conversion script which applies the changes.</p>
+</li></ul>
+<div id="nested-ifs"></div>
+<ul><li> <b>Nested <i>if</i>s and <i>or</i>s</b> <p>At this stage, Greenstone3 can only handle <i>if</i> and <i>or</i> statements in its format strings which don't contain other <i>if</i> and <i>or</i> statements. If you try to nest <i>if</i> or <i>or</i> statements, some of the control characters (like the curly brace '{') will be interpreted as literal characters and will appear on the pages of your collection.</p>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> <b>Refresh Error in the <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=GLI&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="GLI">GLI</a></b> <p>After building a new collection in GLI, it may not appear in your Greenstone library. If this happens, check that your <b>Greenstone Web Path</b> is set correctly (File &rarr; Preferences... &rarr; Greenstone Web Path). For the default installation, this should be set to <tt>http://localhost:8080/greenstone3</tt></p>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> <b>Export to CD/DVD-ROM</b> <p>Exporting collections to CD-ROM and DVD-ROM is not supported in Greenstone3.</p>
+</li></ul>
+<p><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=User:Oran&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="User:Oran">Oran</a> 18:09, 14 February 2007 (PST)
+</p>
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+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
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+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone3_for_Greenstone2_Users&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 03:56, 12 March 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 11,934 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.13 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,196 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="GreenstoneWiki" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>GreenstoneWiki - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
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+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">GreenstoneWiki</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p style="font-size: 150%;"><b>Welcome to GreenstoneWiki: Documentation for <a href="http://www.greenstone.org" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org" rel="nofollow">Greenstone</a></p> </b>
+<p>Are you a Greenstone user? Looking for documentation to help you build better collections?? This is the place for you!</p> 
+<p>(Greenstone is produced by the New Zealand Digital Library Project at the University of Waikato, and developed and distributed in cooperation with <a href="http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13639&amp;URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&amp;URL_SECTION=201.html" class='external text' title="http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL ID=13639&amp;URL DO=DO TOPIC&amp;URL SECTION=201.html" rel="nofollow">UNESCO</a> and the <a href="http://humaninfo.org/home_flash.html" class='external text' title="http://humaninfo.org/home flash.html" rel="nofollow">Human Info NGO</a>. To learn more about it, visit <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/" rel="nofollow">greenstone.org</a> or read the <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-home-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=factsheet" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-home-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=factsheet" rel="nofollow">Greenstone Fact Sheet</a>) </p> 
+<p>This documentation was prepared by the Greenstone team at the University of Waikato in New Zealand. If you're a Greenstone user, you can help us with the documentation project. <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Using_GreenstoneWiki.html" title="Using GreenstoneWiki">Here's how</a></p> 
+<table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html#Documentation"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Documentation</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html#Greenstone_FAQ"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Greenstone FAQ</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html#General_Documentation"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">General Documentation</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html#Greenstone3"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Greenstone3</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html#Tutorial_exercises"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Tutorial exercises</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html#Example_Collections"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Example Collections</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html#Manuals"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Manuals</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html#Greenstone_workshops"><span class="tocnumber">1.7</span> <span class="toctext">Greenstone workshops</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html#Internationalization"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Internationalization</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html#Greenstone_Development"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Greenstone Development</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html#Other_links_for_Greenstone_users"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Other links for Greenstone users</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<a name="Documentation"></a><h2>Documentation</h2> 
+<a name="Greenstone_FAQ"></a><h3><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html" title="Greenstone FAQ">Greenstone FAQ</a></h3> 
+<p>The FAQ (<b>Frequently Asked Questions</b>) pages consist of a set of commonly asked questions and their answers. These cover issues such as installing, building collections, formatting etc. Part of the FAQ is <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html" title="User contributed">user contributed</a>, and registered users may add new entries there. 
+</p>
+<a name="General_Documentation"></a><h3><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html" title="General Documentation">General Documentation</a></h3>
+<p>General documentation about Greenstone, for users and developers. A work in progress.
+</p>
+<a name="Greenstone3"></a><h3><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3.html" title="Greenstone3"> Greenstone3</a></h3>
+<p>Information about our new version of Greenstone.
+</p>
+<a name="Tutorial_exercises"></a><h3><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html" title="Tutorial exercises">Tutorial exercises</a></h3> 
+<p><b>Tutorial exercises</b> will teach you about many aspects of Greenstone, from installation to format statements; from writing a collection to CD-ROM to serving it on OAI, exporting it as METS, or converting it to and from DSpace; from harvesting Web documents to harvesting metadata over OAI. It will also take you through the detailed steps of building collections of html, word, pdf, images, mp3, marc records, and many more, including OCR'd newspaper images. Download the tutorial text and most of the sample files needed for the exercises. 
+</p>
+<a name="Example_Collections"></a><h3><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html" title="Example collections">Example Collections</a></h3> 
+<p><b>Example Collections</b> contains 11 documented example collections whose "about" page describes how they are constructed. They are fully documented in English, French, Spanish and Russian, and are an excellent resource for learning how to build common types of collections. Also, by choosing in the GLI to base a new collection on one of these collections you can inherit the style and formatting of the collection without having to recreate it. 
+</p>
+<a name="Manuals"></a><h3><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html" title="Manual">Manuals</a></h3> 
+<p>Seven <b>Greenstone manuals</b> are available in PDF format for download. There are official UNESCO versions in English, French, Spanish and Russian. There are also versions in Kazakh (thanks to UNESCO Almaty) and Vietnamese (thanks to Integrated e-Solutions Ltd., Saigon).</p> 
+<a name="Greenstone_workshops"></a><h3><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html" title="Greenstone workshops">Greenstone workshops</a></h3> 
+<p><b>Greenstone workshops</b> focus on installing Greenstone and building collections with the Librarian Interface. Includes: 
+</p>
+<dl><dd><ul><li> Introduction to the workshop (.html or .pdf) 
+</li><li> Presentations (.pdf) 
+</li><li> Lab instructions (.pdf) 
+</li><li> Lab screenshots (.pdf) 
+</li><li> Test files for several collections (including Word, PDF, HTML, JPG and GIF files)  
+</li></ul>
+</dd></dl>
+<p>Please feel free to use these materials for learning -- or teaching! -- about Greenstone.
+</p>
+<a name="Internationalization"></a><h2>Internationalization</h2>
+<ul><li> <a href="http://greenstonesupport.iimk.ac.in/" class='external text' title="http://greenstonesupport.iimk.ac.in/" rel="nofollow">Greenstone support for South Asia</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://greenstone.docunautica.com/" class='external text' title="http://greenstone.docunautica.com/" rel="nofollow">Grupo de Usuarios EspaÃ±oles de Greenstone</a> 
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.greenstone.fr/" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.fr/" rel="nofollow">Greenstone en FranÃ§ais</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_language_support.html" title="Greenstone language support">Greenstone language support</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Information_for_language_maintainers.html" title="Information for language maintainers">Information for language maintainers</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Language-dependent_text_in_Greenstone.html" title="Language-dependent text in Greenstone">Language-dependent text in Greenstone</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Forming_your_own_regional_support_group.html" title="Forming your own regional support group">Forming your own regional support group</a>
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Greenstone_Development"></a><h2> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_Development.html" title="Greenstone Development">Greenstone Development</a> </h2>
+<ul><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Install_GSDL_from_SVN_in_Linux.html" title="Install GSDL from SVN in Linux">Install GSDL from SVN in Linux</a>
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Other_links_for_Greenstone_users"></a><h2>Other links for Greenstone users</h2>  
+<ul><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Current_Release_and_patches.html" title="Current Release and patches">Current Release and patches</a> 
+</li><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3.html" title="Greenstone3">Greenstone3</a> 
+</li><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Miscellaneous_links.html" title="Miscellaneous links">Miscellaneous Links</a>
+</li></ul>
+
+<!-- Saved in parser cache with key gswikidb:pcache:idhash:1315-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20070905232256 -->
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+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:GreenstoneWiki&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=GreenstoneWiki&amp;action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=GreenstoneWiki&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/GreenstoneWiki">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/GreenstoneWiki">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=GreenstoneWiki&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 01:36, 6 June 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 50,808 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.13 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_Development.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_Development.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_Development.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,137 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Greenstone Development" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>Greenstone Development - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Greenstone Development</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p>Examples of facilities we'd like to add to Greenstone
+</p>
+<dl><dt>Internationalization</dt><dd> We'd like to work with you to provide full support for your language, including stemming (when searching), word segmentation (for oriental languages), and appropriate alphabetic or other sorting for browsing lists.
+</dd></dl>
+<dl><dt><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Plugins.html" title="Plugins">Plugins</a></dt><dd> Greenstone incorporates plugins for many different file formats. But we are always looking for more! We can write specific plugins on a contractual basis. And of course, we welcome contributions of code to enable us to extend Greenstone.
+</dd></dl>
+<dl><dt>Flexible workflow model</dt><dd> Extend the Greenstone Librarian Interface to allow remote users to prepare metadata and submit documents to a central site, and enable a librarian at that site to receive documents and check and correct the metadata before including it in a centralized collection.
+</dd></dl>
+<dl><dt>Exporting documents</dt><dd> Extend Greenstone to allow the user to export selected documents and metadata in a variety of formats.
+</dd></dl>
+<dl><dt>User-friendly format statements</dt><dd> Create an interactive editor in the GLI for format statements.
+</dd></dl>
+
+<!-- Saved in parser cache with key gswikidb:pcache:idhash:1337-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20070905054720 -->
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_Development.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_Development</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_Development.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Greenstone_Development&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_Development&amp;action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_Development&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_Development">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Greenstone_Development">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Greenstone_Development">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_Development&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 00:22, 6 April 2006.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 2,107 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.15 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,259 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Greenstone FAQ,Building Greenstone collections,Contributing to GreenstoneWiki,Customizing collections,Customizing your Greenstone library,General information,Greenstone interoperability,Installing Greenstone,More about classifiers,More about plugins" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>Greenstone FAQ - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Greenstone FAQ</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html#General_Information"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">General Information</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html#Obtaining_Greenstone"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Obtaining Greenstone</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html#Installing_Greenstone"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Installing Greenstone</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html#Running_Greenstone"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Running Greenstone</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html#Building_Greenstone_Collections"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Building Greenstone Collections</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html#More_About_Plugins"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">More About Plugins</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html#More_About_Classifiers"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">More About Classifiers</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html#Customizing_your_Collection"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Customizing your Collection</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html#Customizing_Your_Greenstone_Library"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Customizing Your Greenstone Library</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html#Greenstone_interoperability"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Greenstone interoperability</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html#User_Contributed_Information"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">User Contributed Information</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<a name="General_Information"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_information.html" title="General information"> General Information</a></h2>
+<ul><li>  What is Greenstone?
+</li><li> How is Greenstone licensed?
+</li><li> What platforms will Greenstone run on?
+</li><li> Are there any mailing lists concerned with Greenstone?
+</li><li> Are the mailing lists archived anywhere?
+</li><li> How do I contribute to Greenstone?
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Obtaining_Greenstone"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Obtaining_Greenstone.html" title="Obtaining Greenstone"> Obtaining Greenstone</a></h2>
+<ul><li> Where do I get Greenstone from?
+</li><li> Are there binary distributions of Greenstone available?
+</li><li> Is Greenstone available on CD-ROM?
+</li><li> Is the Greenstone source code available through a Version Control System?
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Installing_Greenstone"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone.html" title="Installing Greenstone"> Installing Greenstone</a></h2>
+<ul><li> How do I compile Greenstone from a source or SVN distribution?
+</li><li> What is the difference between Greenstone's local library and web library?
+</li><li> How do I use Greenstone's web library with IIS?
+</li><li> How do I install the Greenstone Librarian Interface as an applet?
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Running_Greenstone"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Running_Greenstone.html" title="Running Greenstone"> Running Greenstone</a></h2>
+<ul><li>  OK, I've installed Greenstone. Now how do I make it go?
+</li><li> What web browser do I need to view Greenstone collections?
+</li><li> When I start the Windows local library there are two buttons in the dialog box, "Enter Library" and "Restricted Version". They both seem to do the same thing, what's the difference?
+</li><li> So when should I use the "Restricted Version" of the local library?
+</li><li> When I start the Windows local library my computer asks me to dial up my Internet Service Provider. Do I really need to be online to run Greenstone?
+</li><li> I'm trying to use the Windows local library. My web browser is starting up as expected but the Greenstone home page never gets loaded or gives an error message. What's wrong?
+</li><li> Where can I get more Greenstone collections?
+</li><li> When I attempt to access certain parts of Greenstone I'm asked for a username and password. What do I enter?
+</li><li> When I use the large query box function I occassionally get a Not Found error.
+</li><li> How do I get usage information for my library?
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Building_Greenstone_Collections"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Building_Greenstone_collections.html" title="Building Greenstone collections"> Building Greenstone Collections</a></h2>
+<ul><li>  What is the "Greenstone Librarian Interface"?
+</li><li> What is "the Collector"?
+</li><li> How do I build a collection from the command line or DOS prompt?
+</li><li> I built a new Greenstone collection on my Windows machine. Everything appeared to work fine while building, however when I tried to view the collection some of the documents contained no text. Sometimes Greenstone appeared to crash completely. What have I done wrong?
+</li><li> Why won't the Collector's "export to CD-ROM" function work?
+</li><li> I'm trying to use the Collector on Windows 2000 but it's running extremely slowly. Is this normal?
+</li><li> What is "the Organizer"?
+</li><li> Where do I get the Organizer?
+</li><li> I'm attempting to build a collection with the collector but it keeps failing with an error. What am I doing wrong?
+</li><li> What options are available for the collect.cfg file?
+</li><li> Where can I find some example collect.cfg configuration files?
+</li><li> How can I build my collection using MGPP?
+</li><li> How do I fix XML::Parser errors during import.pl?
+</li><li> Are there any limits to the size of collections?
+</li><li> How do I enter non-English metadata in GLI?
+</li><li> How do I change the search results order?
+</li><li> What's the difference between MG, MGPP and Lucene?
+</li><li> How do I build my collection incrementally?
+</li><li> Can I build collections using the Librarian Interface on a remote server?
+</li></ul>
+<a name="More_About_Plugins"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins.html" title="More about plugins"> More About Plugins</a></h2>
+<ul><li> Does Greenstone have a plugin for my data format?
+</li><li> What metadata is available for each plugin?
+</li><li> I'm having problems with my PDF files! What's wrong?
+</li><li> How do I use UnknownPlug to handle my new format?
+</li><li> How do I get my CDS/ISIS database into Greenstone?
+</li><li> How do I get my XML files into Greenstone?
+</li><li> How do I use DBPlug?
+</li><li> How do I build collections of documents with images and OCR text (PagedImgPlug)?
+</li></ul>
+<a name="More_About_Classifiers"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_classifiers.html" title="More about classifiers"> More About Classifiers</a></h2>
+<ul><li> I've added a new type of classification to my collection. 
+<ul><li> How do I create and add the navigation bar images (2.62 and earlier)?
+</li><li> How do I translate the navigation bar labels (2.71 and later)?
+</li></ul>
+</li><li> How can I do Unicode collation for my classifier?
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Customizing_your_Collection"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_collections.html" title="Customizing collections"> Customizing your Collection </a></h2>
+<ul><li> How can I customize the appearance of my Greenstone collection?
+</li><li> What are the formatting options available for my collection?
+</li><li> How can I hyperlink individual metadata elements?
+</li><li> How can I hide the dummy text "This document has no text"?
+</li><li> How do I suppress the link to the Greenstone text version of a document?
+</li><li> How do I add cover images for my documents?
+</li><li> How do I link to other sections of my document?
+</li><li> How do I link to the next or previous search result in a document page?
+</li><li> How do I search multiple collections at the same time?
+</li><li> How do handle diacritics?
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Customizing_Your_Greenstone_Library"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customizing_your_Greenstone_library.html" title="Customizing your Greenstone library"> Customizing Your Greenstone Library</a></h2>
+<ul><li> How do I change the logo on the front page of my library ("greenstone digital library software")?
+</li><li> Where can I get more information about customizing my Greenstone library?
+</li><li> How can I add a new page to my Greenstone library?
+</li><li> What do the cgi arguments used by library stand for?
+</li><li> How do I change the default settings of the cgi arguments?
+</li><li> How do I get rid of the external link page?
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Greenstone_interoperability"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_interoperability.html" title="Greenstone interoperability"> Greenstone interoperability</a></h2>
+<ul><li> Does Greenstone support z3950?
+</li><li> Does Greenstone support OAI?
+</li><li> How do I use DSpace with Greenstone?
+</li><li> How do I use the Greenstone Corba interface?
+</li><li> How do I use METS with Greenstone?
+</li></ul>
+<a name="User_Contributed_Information"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html" title="User contributed"> User Contributed Information</a></h2>
+<p><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Contributing_to_GreenstoneWiki.html" title="Contributing to GreenstoneWiki">Registered users</a> may enter their own FAQ entries in this section.
+This page is not monitored or edited by Greenstone staff.
+</p>
+<ul><li> How to use the filter_text() function to handle diacritics
+</li><li> How to build CD/DVD-ROMs from collections for redistribution
+</li><li> How to integrate Greenstone collections into LOCKSS systems
+</li><li> Moving data into and out of METS formated data
+</li><li> Documentation for creating media streaming video library in Greenstone
+</li><li> E-commerce and Greenstone, monetizing library and archive collections
+</li><li> Lucene configuration - the Lucene command interface to access proximity search, fuzzy search, and soundex search]].
+</li><li> Installing Imagemagick on OS X
+</li><li> Explaining Plugins
+</li><li> Collection specific plugins
+</li><li> MetadataCSVPlug notes
+</li><li> Converting very large CDS/ISIS databases to Greenstone Collections
+</li><li> Changing the prefix for incremental OIDs a quick hack that is occasionally useful.
+</li><li> Title, ex.Title and dc.Title notes some helpful details.
+</li><li> customising export
+</li><li> Installing Greenstone3 for OS X users
+</li><li> Useful searching methods in Greenstone2 (<i>in French</i>)
+</li></ul>
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Greenstone_FAQ&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_FAQ&amp;action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_FAQ&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Greenstone_FAQ">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Greenstone_FAQ">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_FAQ&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 00:36, 24 August 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 27,905 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.17 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_SVN.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_SVN.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_SVN.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,145 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Greenstone SVN" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>Greenstone SVN - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Greenstone SVN</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p>To checkout the Greenstone source code from our server do the following:
+</p>
+<pre>svn co http://svn.greenstone.org/gsdl/trunk gsdl
+</pre>
+<p>Then you need to checkout a supplementary package. Change to the gsdl directory and run: 
+</p>
+<pre>svn co http://svn.greenstone.org/indexers/trunk indexers
+</pre>
+<p>To checkout the Greenstone Librarian Interface source code, change to the gsdl directory and do the following:
+</p>
+<pre>svn co http://svn.greenstone.org/gli/trunk gli
+</pre>
+<p>Once you have the code you may update it at any time by changing to the gsdl directory and typing:
+</p>
+<pre>svn update
+</pre>
+<p>Please see our <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html" title="Compiling Greenstone"> compiling page</a> for notes about compiling Greenstone.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_SVN&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Greenstone SVN">edit</a>]</div><a name="Installing_SVN"></a><h3> Installing SVN </h3>
+<p>For notes on installing SVN, read <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Install_SVN_on_Linux" title="Install SVN on Linux">Install_SVN_on_Linux</a>.
+</p>
+<!-- Saved in parser cache with key gswikidb:pcache:idhash:1403-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20070905112147 -->
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_SVN.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_SVN</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_SVN.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Greenstone_SVN&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-edit"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_SVN&amp;action=edit">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_SVN&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_SVN">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Greenstone_SVN">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Greenstone_SVN">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_SVN&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 23:12, 21 June 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 451 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.13 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_and_LOCKSS.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_and_LOCKSS.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_and_LOCKSS.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,126 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Greenstone and LOCKSS" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>Greenstone and LOCKSS - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Greenstone and LOCKSS</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p><a href="http://www.lockss.org" class='external text' title="http://www.lockss.org" rel="nofollow">LOCKSS</a> <i>Lots of Copies Keeps Stuff Safe</i> - a plain acronym for an elegant method of redistributing data and enabling community-wide data structures to reside on mediocre machines.
+</p>
+<!-- Saved in parser cache with key gswikidb:pcache:idhash:1348-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20070905072800 -->
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_and_LOCKSS.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_and_LOCKSS</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_and_LOCKSS.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Talk:Greenstone_and_LOCKSS">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-edit"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_and_LOCKSS&amp;action=edit">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_and_LOCKSS&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_and_LOCKSS">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Greenstone_and_LOCKSS">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Greenstone_and_LOCKSS">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_and_LOCKSS&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 17:12, 17 April 2006.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 681 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.13 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_interoperability.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_interoperability.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_interoperability.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,151 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Greenstone interoperability" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>Greenstone interoperability - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Greenstone interoperability</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_interoperability.html#Does_Greenstone_support_z3950.3F"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Does Greenstone support z3950?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_interoperability.html#Does_Greenstone_support_OAI.3F"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Does Greenstone support OAI?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_interoperability.html#How_do_I_use_DSpace_with_Greenstone.3F"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">How do I use DSpace with Greenstone?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_interoperability.html#How_do_I_use_the_Greenstone_Corba_interface.3F"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">How do I use the Greenstone Corba interface?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_interoperability.html#How_do_I_use_METS_with_Greenstone"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">How do I use METS with Greenstone</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_interoperability&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Greenstone interoperability">edit</a>]</div><a name="Does_Greenstone_support_z3950.3F"></a><h2> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Z3950_support" title="Z3950 support">Does Greenstone support z3950?</a> </h2>
+<p>Greenstone has support for z3950, both as a client and a server. This support is not enabled by default, and recompilation is needed to enable it. Please see the <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Z3950_support" title="Z3950 support">z3950 support page</a> for details about enabling and using z3950 with Greenstone. 
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_interoperability&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Greenstone interoperability">edit</a>]</div><a name="Does_Greenstone_support_OAI.3F"></a><h2> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/OAI_support" title="OAI support">Does Greenstone support OAI?</a></h2>
+<p>Greenstone has support for OAI, both as a client and a server. The <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/OAI_support" title="OAI support">OAI support page</a> discusses using OAI with Greenstone. 
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_interoperability&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Greenstone interoperability">edit</a>]</div><a name="How_do_I_use_DSpace_with_Greenstone.3F"></a><h2> How do I use DSpace with Greenstone? </h2>
+<p>There are two tutorials that deal with DSpace: 
+</p>
+<ul><li> <a href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/dspace_to_greenstone.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/dspace to greenstone.htm" rel="nofollow">Moving a collection from DSpace to Greenstone</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/greenstone_to_dspace.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/greenstone to dspace.htm" rel="nofollow">Moving a collection from Greenstone to DSpace</a>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_interoperability&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Greenstone interoperability">edit</a>]</div><a name="How_do_I_use_the_Greenstone_Corba_interface.3F"></a><h2> How do I use the Greenstone Corba interface? </h2>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_interoperability&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Greenstone interoperability">edit</a>]</div><a name="How_do_I_use_METS_with_Greenstone"></a><h2> How do I use METS with Greenstone </h2>
+<p>Please see <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/METS_in_Greenstone" title="METS in Greenstone"> this page</a>.
+</p>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_language_support.html
===================================================================
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@@ -0,0 +1,326 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Greenstone language support</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p>There are several different levels of Greenstone language support.
+</p>
+<ol><li> <b>Core languages</b><p>English, French, Spanish, and Russian are Greenstone core languages. For these there is a full translation, including interface, documentation, sample collections, and installation instructions. They have been produced in conjunction with UNESCO and are distributed with all versions of Greenstone, including the CD-ROM version. They are updated whenever the CD-ROM is re-issued (so far, approximately once a year).</p>
+</li><li> <b>Supported languages</b><p>The Greenstone interface has been translated into many languages. However, the system is growing and language interfaces become out-dated as new features are added to the software. For each language, we are hoping to find a <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Information_for_language_maintainers.html" title="Information for language maintainers">volunteer</a> who undertakes to periodically maintain the interface for that language. Typically only the Greenstone interface is translated, but for some languages the Greenstone Librarian Interface and other documentation is also translated.</p>
+</li><li> <b>In progress</b><p>For some languages, a translator has volunteered, but the translated interface is not yet available.</p> 
+</li></ol>
+<p>When you download Greenstone, all the language interfaces come automatically. (For UNESCO CD-ROMS, only English, French, Spanish and Russian are activated. To activate the others, please see the "Enabling other languages" section of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/update_greenstone_installation.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/update greenstone installation.htm" rel="nofollow">Updating a Greenstone installation</a> tutorial.)
+</p><p>Multilingual facilities are only maintained for the latest version of Greenstone. Users who have an older version without the desired language should upgrade to the latest version. Note that some language interfaces are incomplete; non-updated text appears in English.
+</p><p>Here is a summary of the languages currently supported:
+</p>
+<table cellpadding="3">
+
+<tr valign="top">
+<td><b>Language</b></td><td><b>Maintainer</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>English</td><td>(NZDL Project)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>French</td><td>(UNESCO)<br />Georges Braoudakis
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Spanish</td><td>(UNESCO)<br />JesÃºs Tramullas<br />Isabel GarcÃ­a Soler
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Russian</td><td>(UNESCO)<br />Galina Bachmanova
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Arabic</td><td>Usama Salama<br />Kamal Salih
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Armenian</td><td>Tigran Zargaryan
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Bengali</td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Catalan</td><td>Universitat de les Illes<br />Balears
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Chinese (Simplified)</td><td>Andrew Yan Han<br />Kevin Fong
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Chinese (Traditional)</td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Croatian</td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Czech</td><td>Martin Schulz
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Dari</td><td>Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Dutch</td><td>Elke Duncker-Gassen
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Farsi</td><td>Mohammad Karimi Yazdi
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Finnish</td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Gaelic (Scottish)</td><td>Rita Campbell and <br />Laurinda Matheson
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Galician</td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Georgian</td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>German</td><td>Sheshagiri R. Kulkarni<br />LIS Departement of Humboldt University
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Greek</td><td>Maria Tsoni
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Hebrew</td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Hindi</td><td>K.T Anuradha
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Hungarian</td><td>Ferenc Katai
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Indonesian</td><td>Paul Mundy<br />Dewa Asmara Widjaksana
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Italian</td><td>Julian Fox
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Japanese</td><td>Kazuhiro Takeuchi
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Kannada</td><td>K. T. Anuradha<br />Pradeep Kumar.U.M.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Kazakh</td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Kirghiz</td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Latvian</td><td>Raitis Brodezhonok
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Malayalam</td><td>K.T Anuradha<br />Sanjo Jose
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Maori</td><td>Te Taka Keegan
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Marathi</td><td>Shubhada Nagarkar
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Mongolian</td><td>Mendbayar Ichinkhorlo
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Polish</td><td>Maciej Jaros
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Portuguese (Brazil)</td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Portuguese (Portugal)</td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Pushto</td><td>Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Romanian</td><td>Constantinescu Nicolaie
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Serbian</td><td>Bogdan Trifunovic
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Slovak</td><td>TomÃ¡Å¡ Fiala
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Tamil</td><td>K.T Anuradha<br />Maruthu Pandiyan<br />Suralinathi.M.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Telugu</td><td>K.T Anuradha<br />Shobha Ran.P
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Thai</td><td>Yenruedee Chanwirawong<br />Neelawat Intaraksa
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Turkish</td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Ukrainian</td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Urdu</td><td>Ata ur Rehman<br />Tayyab Jan
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Vietnamese</td><td>Integrated e-Solutions Ltd. Saigon<br />Cao Minh Kiem
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><br />
+</p><p>Here is a summary of the languages in progress:
+</p>
+<table cellpadding="3">
+
+<tr valign="<i>top</i>">
+<td><b>Language</b></td><td><b>Translator</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Azeri</td><td>Shahram Sedghi
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Amharic</td><td>Yohannes Mulugeta
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Bulgarian</td><td>Krum Kelov
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Burmese</td><td>Kyaw Lwin
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Gujarati</td><td>Vivek Bhatt
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Kiswahili (Swahili)</td><td>Jason Githeko
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Khmer (Cambodian)</td><td>Kosona Chriv, Smart Consulting
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Oneida (Iroquoian)</td><td>Indigenous Language Institute
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Sinhala (Sinhalese)</td><td>Harsha Balasooriya<br />H.G.P S.Chaturika Dilhani
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>Samoan</td><td>South Pacific Hosting (a Lost Samoan business)
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><br />
+</p><p><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/gti/status.html" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/gti/status.html" rel="nofollow">This page</a> shows the current translation status of the languages.
+</p><p>We gratefully acknowledge the help of the many people who have done translations in the past, including Jakub Åehan (Czech), Tamara Butigan (Serbian), Maruf Hasan (Japanese and Thai), Prasenjit Majumder (Bengali), Boris Bosancic (Croatian), Steve Legrand (Finnish), XaquÃ­n Lores (Galician), George Varamishvili (Georgian), Dimitris Gavrilis (Greek), B. S. Shivaram (Hindi and Kannada), Marco Michelino (Italian), Massimo Pesenti (Italian), Bolatbek Amanbekov (Kazakh), Fedor Bakalov (Kirghiz), Lech Borkowski (Polish), Eliel Carneiro de Oliveira (Portuguese - Brazil), JosÃ© Borbinha (Portuguese - Portugal), Ãzcan KabakÃ§Ä±oÄlu (Turkish), UÄur Bulgan (Turkish), Vasyl Tanovsky (Ukrainian), Anup Poudyal (Nepali), Shu-Jen Show (Chinese - Traditional).
+</p><div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_language_support.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_language_support</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_language_support.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Greenstone_language_support&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_language_support&amp;action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_language_support&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_language_support">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Greenstone_language_support">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Greenstone_language_support">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_language_support&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 21:03, 23 August 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 18,695 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.18 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Greenstone workshops" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>Greenstone workshops - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Greenstone workshops</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <ul><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2007.html" title="Four day course 2007">Four day course</a> Given at Suva, Fiji in June 2007. This workshop used Greenstone version 2.73. 
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2006.html" title="Three day course 2006">Three day course</a> Given at Honolulu, Hawaii in June 2006. This workshop used Greenstone version 2.70w.
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li>Four day course Given at Bangkok, Thailand in February 2006 <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2006.html" title="Four day course 2006">(schedule only)</a> . This workshop used Greenstone version 2.63.
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li>Four day course Given at Suva, Fiji in September 2005<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Four_day_course_2005.html" title="Four day course 2005">(schedule only)</a>. This workshop used Greenstone version 2.61. 
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li>Three day course Given at Suva, Fiji in September 2004 <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2004.html" title="Three day course 2004">(schedule only)</a> . This workshop used Greenstone version 2.51f.
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li>One day course Given at JCDL in Tucson in June 2004 <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/One_day_course_2004.html" title="One day course 2004">(schedule only)</a> . This workshop used Greenstone version 2.51. 
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li>Three day course Given at Suva, Fiji in November 2003 <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2003.html" title="Three day course 2003">(schedule only)</a> . This workshop used Greenstone version 2.41.
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Generating_your_own_workshop"></a><h3> Generating your own workshop </h3>
+<p>You can download most of these workshops by following links from the individual workshop pages. We recommend you start with the latest version and modify it to suit your time frame rather than choosing an older workshop.
+</p><p>You can generate a custom set of exercises for your workshop by downloading the latest <a href="https://sourceforge.net/project/showfiles.php?group_id=12123&amp;package_id=152231" class='external text' title="https://sourceforge.net/project/showfiles.php?group id=12123&amp;package id=152231" rel="nofollow">tutorial exercises source package</a>. Full instructions about generating a subset of the exercises are detailed in the README.html that is included with the package.
+</p>
+<!-- Saved in parser cache with key gswikidb:pcache:idhash:1295-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20070905014620 -->
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Greenstone_workshops&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_workshops&amp;action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_workshops&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Greenstone_workshops">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Greenstone_workshops">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Greenstone_workshops&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 02:59, 1 August 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 5,910 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.14 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_format_the_output_of_your_collection.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_format_the_output_of_your_collection.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_format_the_output_of_your_collection.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,429 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
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+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">How to format the output of your collection</h1>
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+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
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+	    <p>The full list of formatting options is shown here. But for more information about how to use these options, the <a href="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/Develop-en.pdf" class='external text' title="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/Develop-en.pdf" rel="nofollow">developer's guide</a> is the place to go.
+</p><p><br />
+</p>
+<table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_format_the_output_of_your_collection.html#Site-wide_formatting_options"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Site-wide formatting options</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_format_the_output_of_your_collection.html#Collection-specific_formatting_options"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Collection-specific formatting options</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_format_the_output_of_your_collection.html#Formatting_Lists"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Formatting Lists</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_format_the_output_of_your_collection.html#Formatstring_items"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Formatstring items</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_format_the_output_of_your_collection.html#Extended_metadata_names"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Extended metadata names</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_format_the_output_of_your_collection.html#Extended_Formatstring_items"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Extended Formatstring items</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_format_the_output_of_your_collection.html#Conditional_expressions_in_formatstrings"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Conditional expressions in formatstrings</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<a name="Site-wide_formatting_options"></a><h2>Site-wide formatting options</h2>
+<p>These should be placed in <tt>gsdl/etc/main.cfg</tt>.
+</p><p>Syntax: <b>SiteFormat &lt;option-name&gt; &lt;option-value&gt;</b>
+</p>
+<table cellpadding="4">
+
+<tr valign="<i>top</i>" align="center">
+<td><b>Item</b></td><td><b>Description</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>HomePageCols int</td><td>Set the number of columns used to display collections on the home page. Default: 3
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>HomePageType pulldown </td><td>Display the collection list on the home page as a pulldown menu, rather than using the default table of collection images. This alters the html that appears in the dynamically generated _homeextra_ macro. You can then move this macro around in home.dm. Default: not set
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><br />
+</p>
+<a name="Collection-specific_formatting_options"></a><h2>Collection-specific formatting options</h2>
+<p>These should be placed in gsdl/collect/&lt;collname&gt;/etc/collect.cfg.
+</p><p>Syntax: <b>format &lt;option-name&gt; &lt;option-value&gt;</b>
+</p>
+<table cellpadding="4">
+
+<tr valign="<i>top</i>" align="center">
+<td><b>Item</b></td><td><b>Description</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>DocumentImages true/false</td><td>If true, display a cover image at the top left of the document page Default: false
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>DocumentTitles true/false</td><td>If DocumentImages is false, and this is true, use DocumentHeading to display the title. Default: true
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>DocumentHeading formatstring</td><td>This is used for a document heading at the top left if DocumentImages is false and DocumentTitles is true. Default: <tt>{Or}{[parent(Top):Title],[Title],untitled} &lt;br&gt;[Title]</tt>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>DocumentContents true/false</td><td> Display table of contents (if document is hierarchical), or next/previous section arrows and "page k of n" text (if document is paged) Default: true
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>DocumentButtons string</td><td>. Default: "Detach|Highlight"
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>DocumentText formatstring</td><td>Format of the text to be displayed on a document page Default: <tt>&lt;center&gt; &lt;table width=537&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[Text]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; &lt;/center&gt;</tt>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>DocumentArrowsTop true/false</td><td>	Display next/previous section arrows at top of document, underneath the navigation bar, on document page Default: false
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>DocumentArrowsBottom true/false</td><td>Display next/previous section arrows at bottom of document page Default: true
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>DocumentSearchResultLinks true/false</td><td>Display <i>next search result link</i> /<i>previous search result link</i> at top of a document page Default: false
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>DocumentUseHTML true/false</td><td>If true, each document is displayed in a separate frame. The Preferences page will also change slightly, adding options applicable to a collection of HTML documents. Default: false
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>NavigationBar pulldown</td><td>If set, provides a drop down list in place of the usual navigation bar (that contains search and classifier options). This alters the html that appears in the dynamically generated <tt>_navigationbar_ macro</tt>. Default: not set
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>AllowExtendedOptions true/false</td><td>This allows the entire content of the document page to be controlled by format statements. Use DocumentHeading and DocumentText to format the document. This option prevents the other hard coded stuff (table of contents, buttons etc) from being output. It effectively disables the DocumentContents, DocumentButtons, DocumentImages format options. New format items are provided for use in format statements if AllowExtendedOptions is true (see table below) Default: false
+</td></tr></table>
+<a name="Formatting_Lists"></a><h2>Formatting Lists</h2>
+<p>The standard use of format statements is for the lists in search results, classifiers etc. Here is a list of the various lists available for format, and what they control. Note that classifiers are numbered from 1 upwards, in the order that they appear in the config file.
+</p>
+<table cellpadding="4">
+
+<tr valign="top" align="center">
+<td><b>Item</b></td><td><b>Description</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>VList</td><td>Applies to all vertical lists, unless overridden by a more specific format item. These include search results, classifier lists, and document table of contents
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>HList</td><td>Applies to all horizontal lists. Horizontal lists are often used in classifiers, particularly AZ[Compact][Section]Lists
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>DateList</td><td>Applies to all date lists - these are the vertical lists generated by a DateList classifier.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>SearchVList</td><td>The vertical list of search results
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>DocumentVList</td><td>The document table of contents
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>CL1VList</td><td>Applies only to the vertical list of classifier 1
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>CL1HList</td><td>Applies only to the horizontal list of classifier 1
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>CL1DateList</td><td>Applies only to the DateList in classifier 1
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><br />
+</p>
+<a name="Formatstring_items"></a><h2>Formatstring items</h2>
+<table cellpadding="4">
+
+<tr valign="top" align="center">
+<td><b>Item</b></td><td><b>Description</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[link][/link]</td><td>Link to the document (Greenstone version)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[href]</td><td>The href of the link to the document (Greenstone version), without the &lt;a&gt; tag
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[srclink][/srclink]</td><td>Link to the original document (only if the original was converted to another form)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[icon]</td><td>An appropriate icon for a classifier/document node. E.g. bookshelf, book, chapter, page
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[srcicon]</td><td>An appropriate icon for the original source document. E.g. Word, PDF, PS icon.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[num]</td><td>The document number (position in the search results - useful for debugging)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[numleafdocs]</td><td>The number of documents below the current classifier node. This is often used as a test for classifier nodes, as numleafdocs will not be set for documents. This allows different formatting for classifier nodes and document nodes in a hierarchy.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[Text]</td><td>The text of the current section
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[RelatedDocuments]</td><td>Related Documents info (if available). This is a vertical list of Titles (or Subjects if Titles aren't available) that link to the related documents. It is based on "relation" metadata, which is a space separated list of collection,OID pairs.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[highlight][/highlight]</td><td>These are used for 'highlighting' (actually bolding) the selected section in a hierarchical table of contents, and the selected node in a classifier. Apart from those two cases, this has no effect. If you actually want to highlight/bold/italicise something in a list, and have it apply to all items in the list, then either use actual html tags, like &lt;b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;, &lt;u&gt;&lt;/u&gt; and &lt;i&gt;&lt;/i&gt;, or use the <tt>_starthighlight_</tt> and <tt>_endhighlight_</tt> macros (defined in <i>macros/base.dm</i>).
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[Summary]</td><td>Displays Summary metadata if available, otherwise displays a short summary created on the fly.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[DocOID]</td><td>The internal identifier of the current section of the document
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[DocTopOID]</td><td>The (top level) internal identifier of the current document (available 2.72)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[DocRank]</td><td>The rank of the current document - used in search results
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[DocImage]</td><td>The URL to the cover image of the document
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[collection]</td><td>The directory name of the collection this document is from - useful in cross-collection searching. (version 2.61)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[collection:meta-name]</td><td>A collection metadata for the collection this document is from - useful in cross-collection searching. E.g. [collection:collectionname]. This will display in the current language if an appropriate version is available. (version 2.61)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[metadata-name]</td><td>The value of this metadata element for the document
+</td></tr></table>
+<a name="Extended_metadata_names"></a><h2>Extended metadata names</h2>
+<p>There are a few options for displaying metadata. The basic way is to specify e.g. [Title] or [dc.Title]: this displays the value of that particular metadata element for the current document/section. Metadata names can be prefixed by parent: or sibling. The following examples all use Title or Subject metadata, but any metadata could be used, including ones with namespaces (e.g. dc.Title). Any metadata name can also be prefixed by "cgisafe:". This results in the value being formatted so that it is safe to put in a URL.
+</p>
+<table cellpadding="4">
+
+<tr valign="top" align="center">
+<td><b>Item</b></td><td><b>Description</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[parent:Title]</td><td>The Title of the immediate parent section
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[parent(Top):Title]</td><td>The Title of the topmost parent section
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[parent(All):Title]</td><td>All Titles of the parent sections, separated by nothing
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[parent(All': '):Title]</td><td>All Titles of the parent sections, separated by ": " (or whatever appears inside the ' ')
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[child:Subject]</td><td>The Subjects of all child nodes of the current node, separated by ' '. (child modifier avilable from version 2.61)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[child(All'xxx'):Subject]</td><td>The Subjects of all child nodes of the current node, separated by xxx
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[child(2):Subject]</td><td>The Subject of the second child of the current node. Child numbering starts from 1.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[child(last):Subject]</td><td>The Subject of the last child of the current node. 'first' is also a valid option.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[sibling:Subject]</td><td>All Subjects of the current section, separated by " ". This is used for displaying metadata where there is more than one value. [Subject] will just display the first value.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[sibling(All'&lt;br&gt;'):Subject]</td><td>All Subjects of the current section, separated by &lt;br&gt;.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[sibling(2):Subject]</td><td>The second Subject metadata value for the current node. Numbering starts from 1.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[sibling(last):Subject]</td><td>The last Subject metadata value for the current node. 'first' is also a valid option.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[parent:sibling:Subject]</td><td>sibling can be combined with parent to give all (or specific) values for the parent node(s). All parent and sibling qualifiers can be used. (since version 2.61)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[child:sibling:Subject]</td><td>sibling can be combined with child to give all (or specific) values for the child node(s). All parent and child qualifiers can be used. (since version 2.61)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[cgisafe:parent(Top):Title]</td><td>The Title of the topmost parent section, made safe for URLs.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[cgisafe:sibling(All'&lt;br&gt;'):Subject]</td><td>All Subjects of the current section, separated by &lt;br&gt;, made safe for URLs.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[format:Date]</td><td>A nicely formatted version of Date metadata. format: can also be used with Language metadata (since version 2.71)
+</td></tr></table>
+<a name="Extended_Formatstring_items"></a><h2>Extended Formatstring items</h2>
+<p>These items are only available if AllowExtendedOptions is true.
+</p>
+<table cellpadding="4">
+
+<tr valign="top" align="center">
+<td><b>Item</b></td><td><b>Description</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[DocumentButtonDetach]</td><td>The Detach button
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[DocumentButtonHighlight]</td><td>The Highlight button
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[DocumentButtonExpandText]</td><td>The Expand Text button
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[DocumentButtonExpandContents]</td><td>The Expand Contents button
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>[DocTOC]</td><td>The table of contents for a hierarchical document, or the next/previous and go to page x bits for a paged document.
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><br />
+</p>
+<a name="Conditional_expressions_in_formatstrings"></a><h2>Conditional expressions in formatstrings</h2>
+<table cellpadding="4">
+
+<tr valign="top" align="center">
+<td><b>Item</b></td><td><b>Description</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>{If}{[metadata], action-if-non-null, action-if null}</td><td>If there is a value for this metadata element, then output the first clause, otherwise output the second clause. Either clause is optional: if empty, nothing will be done for that case.This is useful for displaying classifier nodes differently to document nodes: {If}{[numleafdocs],format for classifier,format for document}
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>{If}{[metadata] op value, action-if-true, action-if-not-true}</td><td>Can do tests on metadata values. These can be string comparisons, or numeric comparisons. Valid operators are:
+<table cellpadding="2">
+<tr>
+<td><b>String</b></td><td><b>Numeric</b></td><td><b>Meaning</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>eq</td><td>==</td><td>equals
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>ne</td><td>!=</td><td>not equals
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>gt</td><td>&gt;</td><td>greater than
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>ge</td><td>&gt;=</td><td>greater than or equal to
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>lt</td><td>&lt;</td><td>less than
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>le</td><td>&lt;=</td><td>less than or equal to
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>sw</td><td> </td><td>starts with
+</td><td>ew</td><td> </td><td>ends with
+</td></tr></table>
+<p>Note that only eq and ne are available for Greenstone versions 2.60 and earlier.
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>{Or}{[metadata], [metadata2], [metadata3]...}</td><td>Each metadata is evaluated in turn, and the first one that exists is output Useful for cases where there are different namespaced version of the same metadata, e.g. {Or}{[dc.Title],[dls.Title],[Title],Untitled}. The last item can be plain text.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td>nested If/Or</td><td>{Or} can have another conditional as its final option, eg {Or}{[BookTitle],[Title],{If}{[XXX],aaa,bbb} }. The following is not valid: {Or}{[BookTitle],[Title]{If}{[XXX],aaa,bbb} }.
+<p>{If} can have nested conditionals at either true/false option. eg. {If}{[numleafdocs],[Title],[BookTitle]{If}{[Subject],[Subject],unclassified} } 
+</p>
+</td></tr></table>
+
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+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">How to handle diacritics</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_handle_diacritics.html#Problem_statement"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Problem statement</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_handle_diacritics.html#Preliminaries"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Preliminaries</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_handle_diacritics.html#Instructions"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Instructions</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_handle_diacritics.html#Perl_modules"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Perl modules</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_handle_diacritics.html#Macro_files"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Macro files</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_handle_diacritics.html#Epilogue"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Epilogue</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_handle_diacritics.html#TODO"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">TODO</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=How_to_handle_diacritics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="How to handle diacritics">edit</a>]</div><a name="Problem_statement"></a><h3>Problem statement</h3>
+<p>In any collection with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diacritic" class='external text' title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diacritic" rel="nofollow">diacritics</a> in searchable/browsable metadata the problem occurs that (international) users might not be able to search (or at least are inhibited from searching) for these terms since they don't have those characters on their keyboards or that the sorting behaviour might appear improper.
+</p><p>In such cases the <i>filter_text()</i> function can be used to map "unwanted" characters onto less problematic ones. This How-to is intended to aid with the necessary modifications.
+</p><p>NOTE: Since version 2.71, MGPP comes with an "accent folding" option. This is implemented similarly to case folding. For case folding, A and a match. In accent folding, Ã  and a match.
+If an accent folding index is built, then the user will be able to turn it on in preferences, just like casefolding and stemming. [Katherine Don]
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=How_to_handle_diacritics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="How to handle diacritics">edit</a>]</div><a name="Preliminaries"></a><h3>Preliminaries</h3>
+<p>The following is tailored to v2.62 but applies to other (only newer?) versions as well. Regarding modifications to classifiers an example for AZCompactList is given.
+</p><p>In order for users still being able to enter diacritics into the search form additional modifications to some macros are required. However, this might not be necessary in any case, depending on what you want to offer to your users. Besides this gets quite complicated if mgpp is used (maybe I'll add that later).
+</p><p>The instructions are organized as follows:
+</p><p><b>file name</b> [line number/position]:
+</p>
+<dl><dd>description
+</dd></dl>
+<pre>original code snippet
+</pre>
+<p>modify to:
+</p>
+<pre><b>modified</b> code snippet
+</pre>
+<p>Where the file names are given relative to the installation's perllib directory ($GSDLHOME/perllib).
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=How_to_handle_diacritics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="How to handle diacritics">edit</a>]</div><a name="Instructions"></a><h3>Instructions</h3>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=How_to_handle_diacritics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="How to handle diacritics">edit</a>]</div><a name="Perl_modules"></a><h4>Perl modules</h4>
+<p><b>mgbuildproc.pm</b> [49-55] and <b>mgppbuildproc.pm</b> [142-148]:
+</p>
+<dl><dd>Comment out in order to have the <i>filter_text()</i> function from basebuildproc.pm applied to both mg and mgpp collections.
+</dd></dl>
+<pre>sub filter_text {
+    # $self->filter_text ($field, $new_text);
+    # don't want to do anything for this version, however,
+    # in a particular collection you might want to override
+    # this method to post-process certain fields depending on
+    # the field, or whether we are outputting it for indexing
+}
+</pre>
+<p>modify to:
+</p>
+<pre><b>#</b>sub filter_text {
+<b>#</b>    # $self->filter_text ($field, $new_text);
+<b>#</b>    # don't want to do anything for this version, however,
+<b>#</b>    # in a particular collection you might want to override
+<b>#</b>    # this method to post-process certain fields depending on
+<b>#</b>    # the field, or whether we are outputting it for indexing
+<b>#</b>}
+</pre>
+<p><b>basebuildproc.pm</b> [near end of file]:
+</p>
+<dl><dd>Use this <i>filter_text()</i> function for both mg and mgpp.
+</dd></dl>
+<p>add:
+</p>
+<pre>sub filter_text {
+    # only filter if we are indexing
+    return unless shift->{'indexing_text'};
+
+    &amp;sorttools::filter_characters($_[1]);
+}
+</pre>
+<p><b>sorttools.pm</b> [43-45]:
+</p>
+<dl><dd>Filter characters for sorting.
+</dd></dl>
+<pre>    if ($metaname eq "Language") {
+        $metavalue = $iso639::fromiso639{$metavalue};
+        return $metavalue;
+    }
+
+    my $lang;
+    if (defined $doc_obj) {
+        $lang = $doc_obj->get_metadata_element ($doc_obj->get_top_section(), 'Language');
+    }
+    $lang = 'en' unless defined $lang;
+</pre>
+<p>modify to:
+</p>
+<pre>    if ($metaname eq "Language") {
+        $metavalue = $iso639::fromiso639{$metavalue};
+        return $metavalue;
+    }
+
+    <b># filter characters for sorting</b>
+    <b>filter_characters($metavalue, 1);</b>
+
+    my $lang;
+    if (defined $doc_obj) {
+        $lang = $doc_obj->get_metadata_element ($doc_obj->get_top_section(), 'Language');
+    }
+    $lang = 'en' unless defined $lang;
+</pre>
+<p><b>sorttools.pm</b> [near end of file, but before <code>1;</code>]:
+</p>
+<dl><dd>This is where the action takes place&nbsp;;-)
+</dd></dl>
+<p>add:
+</p>
+<pre># filter characters for searching and sorting
+# NOTE: keep in sync with the filter_characters
+# function in _query:dummypagescriptextra_
+
+# for searching (will also affect sorting)
+my %indx_charmap = (
+    'Ã ' =&gt; 'a',   # A WITH GRAVE
+    'Ã¡' =&gt; 'a',   # A WITH ACUTE
+    'Ã¢' =&gt; 'a',   # A WITH CIRCUMFLEX
+    'Ã£' =&gt; 'a',   # A WITH TILDE
+    'Ã¥' =&gt; 'a',   # A WITH RING ABOVE
+    'ÃŠ' =&gt; 'a',   # AE
+    'Ã§' =&gt; 'c',   # C WITH CEDILLA
+    'Ãš' =&gt; 'e',   # E WITH GRAVE
+    'Ã©' =&gt; 'e',   # E WITH ACUTE
+    'Ãª' =&gt; 'e',   # E WITH CIRCUMFLEX
+    'Ã«' =&gt; 'e',   # E WITH DIAERESIS
+    'Ã¬' =&gt; 'i',   # I WITH GRAVE
+    'Ã­' =&gt; 'i',   # I WITH ACUTE
+    'Ã®' =&gt; 'i',   # I WITH CIRCUMFLEX
+    'Ã¯' =&gt; 'i',   # I WITH DIAERESIS
+    'Ã°' =&gt; 'dh',  # ETH
+    'Ã±' =&gt; 'n',   # N WITH TILDE
+    'Ã²' =&gt; 'o',   # O WITH GRAVE
+    'Ã³' =&gt; 'o',   # O WITH ACUTE
+    'ÃŽ' =&gt; 'o',   # O WITH CIRCUMFLEX
+    'Ãµ' =&gt; 'o',   # O WITH TILDE
+    'Ãž' =&gt; 'o',   # O WITH STROKE
+    'Ã¹' =&gt; 'u',   # U WITH GRAVE
+    'Ãº' =&gt; 'u',   # U WITH ACUTE
+    'Ã»' =&gt; 'u',   # U WITH CIRCUMFLEX
+    'Ãœ' =&gt; 'y',   # Y WITH ACUTE
+    'ÃŸ' =&gt; 'th',  # THORN
+    'Ã¿' =&gt; 'y',   # Y WITH DIAERESIS
+
+    # now we want to break umlauts
+    'Ã€' =&gt; 'ae',  # A WITH DIAERESIS
+    'Ã¶' =&gt; 'oe',  # O WITH DIAERESIS
+    'ÃŒ' =&gt; 'ue',  # U WITH DIAERESIS
+    'Ã' =&gt; 'ss'   # SHARP S
+);
+
+# for sorting in classifier lists (won't affect searching)
+my %sort_charmap = (
+    'Ã€' =&gt; 'a',   # A WITH DIAERESIS
+    'Ã¶' =&gt; 'o',   # O WITH DIAERESIS
+    'ÃŒ' =&gt; 'u',   # U WITH DIAERESIS
+    'Ã' =&gt; 'ss'   # SHARP S
+);
+
+# "duplicate" maps for utf8 representations
+$indx_charmap{&amp;unicode::ascii2utf8(\$_)} = $indx_charmap{$_}
+    foreach keys %indx_charmap;
+$sort_charmap{&amp;unicode::ascii2utf8(\$_)} = $sort_charmap{$_}
+    foreach keys %sort_charmap;
+
+# join charmaps ('sort' overwriting 'indx')
+my %charmap = (
+    'indx' =&gt; { %indx_charmap },
+    'sort' =&gt; { %indx_charmap, %sort_charmap }
+);
+
+# create OR lists of characters
+my %or_chars = (
+    'indx' =&gt; join('|' =&gt; sort keys %{$charmap{'indx'}}),
+    'sort' =&gt; join('|' =&gt; sort keys %{$charmap{'sort'}})
+);
+
+# and now the actual filter function -- simple, eh?&nbsp;;-)
+# with a true second argument %sort_charmap is taken
+# into account (taking precedence over %indx_charmap)
+sub filter_characters {
+    my $arg = $_[1]&nbsp;? 'sort'&nbsp;: 'indx';
+
+    my $chr = $or_chars{$arg};
+    my $map = $charmap{$arg};
+
+    $_[0] =~ s/($chr)/$map-&gt;{$1}/g;
+}
+</pre>
+<p><b>classify/AZCompactList.pm</b> [555-557]:
+</p>
+<dl><dd>Filter characters before sorting.
+</dd></dl>
+<pre>sub alpha_numeric_cmp
+{
+    my ($self,$a,$b) = @_;
+
+    my $title_a = $self-&gt;{'reclassifylist'}-&gt;{$a};
+    my $title_b = $self-&gt;{'reclassifylist'}-&gt;{$b};
+
+    if ($title_a =~ m/^(\d+(\.\d+)?)/)
+    {
+        my $val_a = $1;
+        if ($title_b =~ m/^(\d+(\.\d+)?)/)
+        {
+            my $val_b = $1;
+            if ($val_a&nbsp;!= $val_b)
+            {
+                return ($val_a &lt;=&gt; $val_b);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    return ($title_a cmp $title_b);
+}
+</pre>
+<p>modify to:
+</p>
+<pre>sub alpha_numeric_cmp
+{
+    my ($self,$a,$b) = @_;
+
+    my $title_a = $self-&gt;{'reclassifylist'}-&gt;{$a};
+    my $title_b = $self-&gt;{'reclassifylist'}-&gt;{$b};
+
+    if ($title_a =~ m/^(\d+(\.\d+)?)/)
+    {
+        my $val_a = $1;
+        if ($title_b =~ m/^(\d+(\.\d+)?)/)
+        {
+            my $val_b = $1;
+            if ($val_a&nbsp;!= $val_b)
+            {
+                return ($val_a &lt;=&gt; $val_b);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    <b># this makes it quite slow -- but we need it to get proper sorting</b>
+    <b>&amp;sorttools::filter_characters($title_a, 1);</b>
+    <b>&amp;sorttools::filter_characters($title_b, 1);</b>
+
+    return ($title_a cmp $title_b);
+}
+</pre>
+<p><b>classify/AZCompactList.pm</b> [689-691]:
+</p>
+<dl><dd>Get proper sorting for browsing list nodes.
+</dd></dl>
+<pre># first split up the list into separate A-Z and 0-9 classifications
+    foreach my $classification (@$classlistref) {
+        my $title = $self-&gt;{'reclassifylist'}-&gt;{$classification};
+
+        $title =~ s/&amp;(.){2,4};//g; # remove any HTML special chars
+        $title =~ s/^\W+//g; # remove leading non-word chars
+</pre>
+<p>modify to:
+</p>
+<pre># first split up the list into separate A-Z and 0-9 classifications
+    foreach my $classification (@$classlistref) {
+        my $title = $self-&gt;{'reclassifylist'}-&gt;{$classification};
+
+        <b># we should do filtering here as well</b>
+        <b>&amp;sorttools::filter_characters($title, 1);</b>
+
+        $title =~ s/&amp;(.){2,4};//g; # remove any HTML special chars
+        $title =~ s/^\W+//g; # remove leading non-word chars
+</pre>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=How_to_handle_diacritics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="How to handle diacritics">edit</a>]</div><a name="Macro_files"></a><h4>Macro files</h4>
+<p>In your collection's <b>extra.dm</b> or in the appropriate system macro files (applies to <b>mg only</b>):
+</p>
+<dl><dd>1. Overwrite/modify the _queryform_ macro in order to have the <i>filter_characters()</i> function called when submitting the query.
+</dd><dd>2. Add said function to the page script (NOTE: This function has to correspond to the above perl function!).
+</dd><dd>3. Have these scripts appear for the about page, too.
+</dd></dl>
+<p>add/modify:
+</p>
+<pre>#############
+package query
+#############
+
+_queryform_ {
+<br />&lt;form name=QueryForm method=get action="_gwcgi_" onSubmit="filter_characters();"&gt;
+&lt;input type=hidden name="a" value="q"&gt;
+&lt;input type=hidden name="r" value="1"&gt;
+&lt;input type=hidden name="hs" value="1"&gt;
+&lt;input type=hidden name="e" value="_decodedcompressedoptions_"&gt;
+_queryformcontent_
+_optdatesearch_
+
+&lt;/form&gt;
+}
+
+_dummypagescriptextra_{
+function initialize() \{
+\}
+
+function filter_characters() \{
+  var query = document.QueryForm.q;
+
+  var oldval = query.value.toLowerCase();
+  var newval = "";
+
+  var chars = [
+    ["224", "a"],   // A WITH GRAVE
+    ["225", "a"],   // A WITH ACUTE
+    ["226", "a"],   // A WITH CIRCUMFLEX
+    ["227", "a"],   // A WITH TILDE
+    ["229", "a"],   // A WITH RING ABOVE
+    ["230", "a"],   // AE
+    ["231", "c"],   // C WITH CEDILLA
+    ["232", "e"],   // E WITH GRAVE
+    ["233", "e"],   // E WITH ACUTE
+    ["234", "e"],   // E WITH CIRCUMFLEX
+    ["235", "e"],   // E WITH DIAERESIS
+    ["236", "i"],   // I WITH GRAVE
+    ["237", "i"],   // I WITH ACUTE
+    ["238", "i"],   // I WITH CIRCUMFLEX
+    ["239", "i"],   // I WITH DIAERESIS
+    ["240", "dh"],  // ETH
+    ["241", "n"],   // N WITH TILDE
+    ["242", "o"],   // O WITH GRAVE
+    ["243", "o"],   // O WITH ACUTE
+    ["244", "o"],   // O WITH CIRCUMFLEX
+    ["245", "o"],   // O WITH TILDE
+    ["248", "o"],   // O WITH STROKE
+    ["249", "u"],   // U WITH GRAVE
+    ["250", "u"],   // U WITH ACUTE
+    ["251", "u"],   // U WITH CIRCUMFLEX
+    ["253", "y"],   // Y WITH ACUTE
+    ["254", "th"],  // THORN
+    ["255", "y"],   // Y WITH DIAERESIS
+
+    // now we want to break umlauts
+    ["228", "ae"],  // A WITH DIAERESIS
+    ["246", "oe"],  // O WITH DIAERESIS
+    ["252", "ue"],  // U WITH DIAERESIS
+    ["223", "ss"]   // SHARP S
+  ]
+
+  for (var i = 0; i &lt; oldval.length; i++) \{
+    var c = oldval.substr(i, 1);
+    var z = 0;
+
+    for (var j = 0; j &lt; chars.length; j++) \{
+      if (z&nbsp;!= 1 &amp;&amp; c == String.fromCharCode(chars[j][0])) \{
+        newval += chars[j][1];
+        z = 1;
+      \}
+    \}
+
+    if (z&nbsp;!= 1) \{
+      newval += c;
+    \}
+  \}
+
+  query.value = newval;
+\}
+}
+
+#############
+package about
+#############
+
+_pagescriptextra_ {_query:dummypagescriptextra_}
+</pre>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=How_to_handle_diacritics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="How to handle diacritics">edit</a>]</div><a name="Epilogue"></a><h3>Epilogue</h3>
+<p>Hopefully, this can be of help to anybody&nbsp;;-) If you encounter problems or errors or have suggestions for improvement feel free to edit this article or drop me a line on my talk page. cheers, <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=User:Jw&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="User:Jw">jens</a> (<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=User_talk:Jw&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="User talk:Jw">talk</a>) 16:29, 21 March 2006 (PST)
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=How_to_handle_diacritics&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="How to handle diacritics">edit</a>]</div><a name="TODO"></a><h3>TODO</h3>
+<ul><li> Add macro modifications for mgpp.
+</li><li> Address further problems:
+<ul><li> Elimination of articles in <b>sorttools.pm</b>.
+</li><li> Tidying up of use of white space in <b>classify/AZCompactList.pm</b>.
+</li></ul>
+</li><li> Upload complete files.
+</li></ul>
+
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Information_for_language_maintainers.html
===================================================================
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+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Information_for_language_maintainers.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,131 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
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+    <title>Information for language maintainers - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
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+  <body                 class="ns-0">
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+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Information for language maintainers</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p>To register as a designated Greenstone language maintainer, please send a request to Anna Huang (lh92@cs.waikato.ac.nz).
+</p><p>There are two methods for working with Greenstone language interface (apart from editing the macro files directly, which is not recommended).
+</p>
+<ol><li> Spreadsheet <p>We send you an Excel spreadsheet that contains all the English text strings, with empty cells for the translation. You fill it in and return it, and we install it in Greenstone. This method is probably the best for large-scale translation, but requires Microsoft software.</p>
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/gti/library?a=gti&amp;p=home" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/gti/library?a=gti&amp;p=home" rel="nofollow">Greenstone Translator's Interface</a> <p>The Greenstone translator's interface is a Web tool that presents the English text strings needing translation, and provides boxes for entering the translated text. Once submitted, translations are stored in the appropriate language file. The system automatically determines which text strings need translating or updating, and can easily be used to update a language interface.</p> 
+</li></ol>
+<p>Generally it is best to use the spreadsheet to create the basic interface and the translation interface to fine tune or update it in the future. In either case you need a username and password, which we supply to designated Greenstone language maintainers. 
+</p><p>As soon as you log in, the front page of the translator's interface is presented to you. Read the instructions and start translating! You don't have to translate all the strings in one session -- you can stop and continue work later.
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+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Install GSDL from SVN in Linux</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p>NB: These instructions will apply from 7th June 2007
+</p>
+<table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Install_GSDL_from_SVN_in_Linux.html#Getting_Greenstone2_running_under_linux.2C_using_SVN_and_Apache"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Getting Greenstone2 running under linux, using SVN and Apache</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Install_GSDL_from_SVN_in_Linux.html#1._Get_Greenstone_from_SVN"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">1. Get Greenstone from SVN</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Install_GSDL_from_SVN_in_Linux.html#2._If_you_want_to_use_the_GLI"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">2. If you want to use the GLI</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Install_GSDL_from_SVN_in_Linux.html#3._Install_Apache"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">3. Install Apache</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Install_GSDL_from_SVN_in_Linux.html#4._Tell_apache_about_greenstone"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">4. Tell apache about greenstone</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Install_GSDL_from_SVN_in_Linux.html#Updating_your_installation"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Updating your installation</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Install_GSDL_from_SVN_in_Linux&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Install GSDL from SVN in Linux">edit</a>]</div><a name="Getting_Greenstone2_running_under_linux.2C_using_SVN_and_Apache"></a><h2> Getting Greenstone2 running under linux, using SVN and Apache </h2>
+<p>My sample user is <tt>xxx</tt> - substitute your username for <tt>xxx</tt> in the following instructions.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Install_GSDL_from_SVN_in_Linux&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Install GSDL from SVN in Linux">edit</a>]</div><a name="1._Get_Greenstone_from_SVN"></a><h3> 1. Get Greenstone from SVN </h3>
+<p>We generally advise people to install greenstone on the research partition of your computer - some people have had problems installing in their home directory. But you can try in your home directory if you like. Assuming you will use the research partition:
+</p>
+<pre>
+mkdir /research/xxx (create a place for your research files if you haven't already)
+cd /research/xxx 
+svn co http://svn.greenstone.org/gsdl/trunk gsdl
+</pre>
+<p>Change to the <tt>gsdl</tt> directory and check out the indexers:
+</p>
+<pre>
+cd gsdl
+svn co http://svn.greenstone.org/indexers/trunk indexers
+</pre>
+<p>Still in the <tt>gsdl</tt> directory, compile the code:
+</p>
+<pre>
+./configure
+make
+make install
+</pre>
+<p>Now greenstone is installed in <tt>/research/xxx/gsdl</tt>&nbsp;:-)
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Install_GSDL_from_SVN_in_Linux&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Install GSDL from SVN in Linux">edit</a>]</div><a name="2._If_you_want_to_use_the_GLI"></a><h3> 2. If you want to use the GLI </h3>
+<p>In the <tt>gsdl</tt> directory, run:
+</p>
+<pre>
+svn co http://svn.greenstone.org/gli/trunk gli
+cd gli
+./makegli.sh
+</pre>
+<p>To start the GLI, in the <tt>gli</tt> directory run:
+</p>
+<pre>
+./gli.sh
+</pre>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Install_GSDL_from_SVN_in_Linux&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Install GSDL from SVN in Linux">edit</a>]</div><a name="3._Install_Apache"></a><h3> 3. Install Apache </h3>
+<p>You will need to install Apache to be able to run the cgi executable.
+</p><p>Download a recent Apache2 binary from <a href="http://httpd.apache.org/download.cgi" class='external free' title="http://httpd.apache.org/download.cgi" rel="nofollow">http://httpd.apache.org/download.cgi</a>
+(Apache1.3 will also work, but Apache2 is much better.)
+</p><p>Unpack the tar file:
+</p>
+<pre>
+cd /research/xxx
+tar -xzf apache_2.x.x.tar.gz
+</pre>
+<p>Compile the source:
+</p>
+<pre>
+cd apache_2.x.x
+./configure --prefix=/research/xxx/httpd
+make
+make install
+</pre>
+<p>Now apache is installed in <tt>/research/xxx/httpd</tt>&nbsp;:-)
+</p><p>To start and stop apache, type
+</p>
+<pre>
+ /research/xxx/httpd/bin/apachectl start
+ /research/xxx/httpd/bin/apachectl stop
+</pre>
+<p>To change the port that apache runs on, edit the <tt>/research/xxx/conf/httpd.conf</tt> file and change the Port or Listen directive to the correct port - <tt>8080</tt> is a good choice. After restarting apache you will then be able to access your apache installation at <a href="http://localhost:8080/" class='external free' title="http://localhost:8080/" rel="nofollow">http://localhost:8080/</a>.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Install_GSDL_from_SVN_in_Linux&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Install GSDL from SVN in Linux">edit</a>]</div><a name="4._Tell_apache_about_greenstone"></a><h3> 4. Tell apache about greenstone </h3>
+<p>There are different ways of setting this up. This is the way I used.
+</p>
+<pre>
+cd /research/xxx/httpd/cgi-bin
+ln -s /research/xxx/httpd/gsdl
+ln -s /research/xxx/gsdl/cgi-bin/library
+cp /research/xxx/gsdl/cgi-bin/gsdlsite.cfg .
+cd /research/xxx/htdocs
+ln -s /research/xxx/gsdl
+</pre>
+<p>You may need to edit the <tt>gsdlsite.cfg</tt> file.
+Make sure the following are uncommented and set like this:
+</p>
+<pre>
+gsdlhome /research/xxx/gsdl
+httpprefix /gsdl
+httpimg /gsdl/images
+</pre>
+<p>Now you need to edit apaches config file <tt>/research/xxx/httpd/conf/httpd.conf</tt>
+</p><p>In the <tt>&lt;Directory "/research/xxx/httpd/cgi-bin"&gt;</tt> bit, change 'Options None' to 'Options FollowSymlinks'
+</p><p>After editing the <tt>httpd.conf</tt> file, you will need to restart apache for the changes to take effect.
+</p><p>You should now be able to access your greenstone installation at
+<a href="http://localhost:8080/cgi-bin/library" class='external free' title="http://localhost:8080/cgi-bin/library" rel="nofollow">http://localhost:8080/cgi-bin/library</a>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Install_GSDL_from_SVN_in_Linux&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Install GSDL from SVN in Linux">edit</a>]</div><a name="Updating_your_installation"></a><h2> Updating your installation </h2>
+<p>To update your gsdl installation, or gli, do an <tt>svn update</tt> in the appropriate directory and then recompile the source code. For example, to update the main gsdl installation, run:
+</p>
+<pre>
+cd /research/xxx/gsdl 
+svn update
+make clean
+./configure
+make
+make install
+</pre>
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Install_GSDL_from_SVN_in_Linux.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Install_GSDL_from_SVN_in_Linux</a>"</div>
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+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 04:07, 6 June 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 889 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,169 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
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+    <title>Installing Greenstone - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
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+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Installing Greenstone</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone.html#How_do_I_compile_Greenstone_from_a_source_or_SVN_distribution.3F"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">How do I compile Greenstone from a source or SVN distribution?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone.html#What_is_the_difference_between_Greenstone.27s_local_library_and_web_library.3F"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">What is the difference between Greenstone's local library and web library?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone.html#How_do_I_use_Greenstone.27s_web_library_with_IIS.3F"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">How do I use Greenstone's web library with IIS?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone.html#How_do_I_install_the_Greenstone_Librarian_Interface_as_an_applet.3F"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">How do I install the Greenstone Librarian Interface as an applet?</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<a name="How_do_I_compile_Greenstone_from_a_source_or_SVN_distribution.3F"></a><h2>How do I compile Greenstone from a source or SVN distribution?</h2>
+<ul><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#Unix_Compilation_notes" title="Compiling Greenstone"> General Unix compilation notes</a>
+</li><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#Cygwin" title="Compiling Greenstone"> Cygwin</a>
+</li><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#Darwin.2FMac_OS_X" title="Compiling Greenstone"> Darwin/Mac OS X</a>
+</li><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#GNU.2FLinux" title="Compiling Greenstone"> GNU/Linux</a>
+</li><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#FreeBSD" title="Compiling Greenstone"> FreeBSD</a>
+</li><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#Solaris" title="Compiling Greenstone"> Solaris</a>
+</li><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#Windows_.28Visual_C.2B.2B.29" title="Compiling Greenstone"> Windows (Visual C++)</a>
+</li><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone.html#64_bit_processors" title="Compiling Greenstone"> 64 bit processors</a>
+</li></ul>
+<a name="What_is_the_difference_between_Greenstone.27s_local_library_and_web_library.3F"></a><h2>What is the difference between Greenstone's local library and web library?</h2>
+<p>Firstly, the <i>local library</i> is only available if you're running Greenstone under Windows. It's not yet available on Unix.
+</p><p>The major difference between the two is that the <i>local library</i> contains it's own built-in webserver. The <i>web library</i> however, requires an external webserver like Apache or Microsoft IIS. This makes the <i>local library</i> much easier to install and configure than the web library.
+</p><p>For this reason, it's recommended that Windows users install the <i>local library</i> unless they're sure that they need the <i>web library</i>. Even if you think you might need the <i>web library</i>, try installing the <i>local library</i> first. You can always uninstall it later and install the <i>web library</i> if you then decide you need it.
+</p><p>A situation where the <i>web library</i> may be preferable is if you plan to serve your Greenstone collections as a full-time service on the web. In this case you'll probably want the added stability that running the web library in conjunction with an external webserver can provide.
+</p><p>Please note that the <i>local library</i> is quite capable of serving Greenstone collections over a local area network or the web (despite its rather misleading name).
+</p>
+<a name="How_do_I_use_Greenstone.27s_web_library_with_IIS.3F"></a><h2>How do I use Greenstone's web library with IIS?</h2>
+<p><i>Note: we don't use IIS, test Greenstone with it, or recommend it (Apache has a much better security record, and of course it's open source).</i></p>
+<p>After installing the web library version of Greenstone, configure IIS by following these steps:
+</p>
+<dl><dd><ol><li> Visit <i><a href="http://localhost" class='external free' title="http://localhost" rel="nofollow">http://localhost</a></i> in a web browser to check that IIS is running
+</li><li> Run the IIS configuration program (Control Panel -&gt; Administrative Tools -&gt; Internet Information Services)
+</li><li> Double-click on the local computer, then Web Sites. Right-click on Default Web Site, choose New -&gt; Virtual Directory. Set the Alias to "gsdl", the Content Directory to the directory where you installed Greenstone (eg. C:\Program Files\Greenstone), and allow "Read" and "Browse" permissions only.
+</li><li> Open the new "gsdl" entry, right-click on the "cgi-bin" folder and choose Properties. Enter "Greenstone" as the Application name and choose "Scripts and Executables" for Execute Permissions. Untick "Directory browsing".
+</li><li> IIS 6: Copy the gsdlsite.cfg file from the Greenstone "cgi-bin" folder into the main Greenstone folder.
+</li><li> IIS 6: expand Local Computer, click "Web Service Extension", then right-click "All Unknown CGI Extensions" and choose Allow. (Thanks to Victor T. Jones, Jr.)
+</li><li> Close the IIS configuration program.
+</li><li> Make the Greenstone "etc\error.txt", "etc\key.db" and "etc\users.db" files world-writeable by opening a DOS prompt (Start -&gt; Run -&gt; cmd.exe) then running: <br /><tt>  cacls "C:\Program Files\Greenstone\etc\error.txt" /P Everyone:F</tt><br /><tt>  cacls "C:\Program Files\Greenstone\etc\key.db" /P Everyone:F</tt><br /><tt>  cacls "C:\Program Files\Greenstone\etc\users.db" /P Everyone:F</tt><br />
+</li></ol>
+</dd></dl>
+<p>You should now be able to access your Greenstone library at <a href="http://localhost/gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe" class='external free' title="http://localhost/gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe" rel="nofollow">http://localhost/gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe</a>.</p>
+<a name="How_do_I_install_the_Greenstone_Librarian_Interface_as_an_applet.3F"></a><h2>How do I install the Greenstone Librarian Interface as an applet?</h2>
+<p>Install the GLI applet by following the instructions on <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html" title="Remote Greenstone"> this page</a>.
+</p>
+<!-- Saved in parser cache with key gswikidb:pcache:idhash:1285-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20070905052128 -->
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+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone</a>"</div>
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+	  <h5>Views</h5>
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+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Installing_Greenstone&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
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+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
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+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
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+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Installing_Greenstone">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Installing_Greenstone">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Installing_Greenstone&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
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+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 02:48, 9 July 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 8,456 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
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+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone3_for_OS_X_users.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone3_for_OS_X_users.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone3_for_OS_X_users.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,164 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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+    <title>Installing Greenstone3 for OS X users - GreenstoneWiki</title>
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+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Installing Greenstone3 for OS X users</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Installing_Greenstone3_for_OS_X_users&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Installing Greenstone3 for OS X users">edit</a>]</div><a name="requirements"></a><h4> requirements </h4>
+<p>Java 1.4 or greater (tick)
+Set the environment variable JAVA_HOME  
+</p>
+<pre>sp:~/greenstone3 spdegabrielle$ sudo emacs /etc/profile
+</pre>
+<p>My current /etc/profile
+</p>
+<pre>#For Tomcat
+export JAVA_HOME=/System/Library/Frameworks/JavaVM.framework/Versions/1.5.0/Home
+export CATALINA_HOME=/usr/local/tomcat
+export JAVA_OPTS="-Xmx512M -Xms64M -Dfile.encoding=UTF-8"
+</pre>
+<p>Ant 1.6.2 or later 
+</p>
+<ul><li> install XCode tools from the apple developer site
+</li></ul>
+<pre>ant -version
+Apache Ant version 1.6.5 compiled on September 12 2006
+</pre>
+<p>GDBM...
+</p><p><a href="http://www.gnu.org/software/gdbm/gdbm.html" class='external free' title="http://www.gnu.org/software/gdbm/gdbm.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.gnu.org/software/gdbm/gdbm.html</a>
+follow the  instructions at
+<a href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone#Darwin.2FMac_OS_X" class='external free' title="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php/Compiling Greenstone#Darwin.2FMac OS X" rel="nofollow">http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php/Compiling_Greenstone#Darwin.2FMac_OS_X</a>
+you will also need to add the path to the <tt>gdbm.installed.path</tt> property (in <tt>build.properties</tt>)
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Installing_Greenstone3_for_OS_X_users&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Installing Greenstone3 for OS X users">edit</a>]</div><a name="Install_Procedure"></a><h4> Install Procedure </h4>
+<pre>svn co http://svn.greenstone.org/greenstone3/trunk greenstone3
+{wait for it...}
+cd greenstone3/
+ant prepare
+{read then agree to default build settings <b>y</b>}
+</pre>
+<p>hopefully:
+</p>
+<pre>BUILD SUCCESSFUL
+Total time: 6 minutes 6 seconds
+</pre>
+<p>see if this works...
+</p>
+<pre>ant install
+</pre><div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone3_for_OS_X_users.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone3_for_OS_X_users</a>"</div>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Imagemagick_on_OS_X.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Imagemagick_on_OS_X.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Imagemagick_on_OS_X.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,140 @@
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+    <title>Installing Imagemagick on OS X - GreenstoneWiki</title>
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+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
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+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Installing Imagemagick on OS X</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p>The quickest way to get ImageMagick running on OS X for greenstone.
+</p>
+<ol><li> Download Image magick <a href="http://www.entropy.ch/software/macosx/#imagemagick" class='external autonumber' title="http://www.entropy.ch/software/macosx/#imagemagick" rel="nofollow">[1]</a>
+</li><li> open .dmg
+</li><li> install package
+</li><li> open term
+</li><li> type sudo bash
+</li><li> edit /etc/profile to include /usr/local/bin in the path (you will have to use and editor in term - try vi or emacs) so it looks something like this PATH="/bin:/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/local/bin" 
+</li><li> save and exit 
+</li><li> Restart the GLI in a new term window.
+</li></ol>
+<p>No more 'imagemagick not installed' complaints!
+</p><p>Happy image collection building. 
+</p><p>Stephen
+</p><p>PS your /etc/profile should have these two lines:
+</p><p>PATH="/bin:/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/local/bin"
+</p><p>export PATH
+</p><div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Imagemagick_on_OS_X.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Imagemagick_on_OS_X</a>"</div>
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+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 04:16, 17 October 2006.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 729 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
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+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Language-dependent_text_in_Greenstone.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Language-dependent_text_in_Greenstone.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Language-dependent_text_in_Greenstone.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,177 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Language-dependent text in Greenstone" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
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+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>Language-dependent text in Greenstone - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
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+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Language-dependent text in Greenstone</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p>For your information and interest, the language-dependent text in Greenstone comes in these places. We do not attempt to translate the comments that appear in program code, scripts, or configuration files. Our guideline is that non-programming users doing standard things with Greenstone should be able to work entirely in their own language.
+</p>
+<table cellpadding="3">
+
+<tr valign="top">
+<td colspan="3"><b>User interface</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td> </td><td>Core</td><td>Text used in the basic digital library interface for Greenstone>br>On-line help for the basic digital library interface<br />
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td> </td><td>Auxiliary</td><td>Text that is generally directed at the library maintainer (e.g. the Administration pages and the Collector)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td> </td><td>GLI</td><td>Text used in the Greenstone Librarian Interface<br />Text in scripts for running (and compiling) the GLI<br />The gli.txt help file<br />On-line help for the GLI
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td> </td><td>Collection building</td><td>Option descriptions and error messages in perl scripts, and plugins and classifiers
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td> </td><td>Images</td><td>Text strings that appear in images that form part of the user interface
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td colspan="3"><b>Documentation</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td> </td><td>Manuals</td><td>Installer's guide (35 pp.)<br />User's guide (50 pp.)<br />Developer's guide (115 pp.)<br />    From Paper to Collection (45 pp.)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td colspan="3"><b>Installation</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td> </td><td>Unix</td><td>Text in install.sh and setup.bash. We do not translate text strings that appear during the configuration process (./configure), because people installing programs on Unix usually do so using English.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td> </td><td>Windows</td><td>Text in the InstallShield installer used for Greenstone, and setup.bat. InstallShield comes with many different languages, and we are not responsible for these translations.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td> </td><td>Both</td><td>The install.txt file
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td colspan="3"><b>Licence</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td> </td><td colspan="2">The GNU General Public Licence is written in English, and official translations into other languages do not exist. However, an unofficial translation is appended to the licence text that is presented during the installation process.
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td colspan="3"><b>Sample Collections</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td> </td><td colspan="2">Collection configuration files for sample collections supplied with Greenstone.
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<!-- Saved in parser cache with key gswikidb:pcache:idhash:1343-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20070905101139 -->
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Language-dependent_text_in_Greenstone.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Language-dependent_text_in_Greenstone</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Language-dependent_text_in_Greenstone.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Language-dependent_text_in_Greenstone&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-edit"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Language-dependent_text_in_Greenstone&amp;action=edit">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Language-dependent_text_in_Greenstone&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Language-dependent_text_in_Greenstone">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Language-dependent_text_in_Greenstone">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Language-dependent_text_in_Greenstone">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Language-dependent_text_in_Greenstone&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 02:14, 6 April 2006.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 1,408 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.13 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Lucene.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Lucene.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Lucene.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,126 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Lucene" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>Lucene - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Lucene</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p>Lucene is a search engine built in to Greenstone.  It is part of the <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Apache&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="Apache">Apache</a> project and has full text and metadata indexing capabilities.
+</p>
+<!-- Saved in parser cache with key gswikidb:pcache:idhash:1364-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20070905044015 -->
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Lucene.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Lucene</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Lucene.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Lucene&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-edit"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Lucene&amp;action=edit">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Lucene&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Lucene">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Lucene">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Lucene">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Lucene&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 21:35, 1 August 2006.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 589 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.13 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,194 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Main Page,GreenstoneWiki,Current Release and patches,Example collections,Forming your own regional support group,General Documentation,Greenstone3,Greenstone Development,Greenstone FAQ,Greenstone language support" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>GreenstoneWiki - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">GreenstoneWiki</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub">(Redirected from <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page&amp;redirect=no" title="Main Page">Main Page</a>)</div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p style="font-size: 150%;"><b>Welcome to GreenstoneWiki: Documentation for <a href="http://www.greenstone.org" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org" rel="nofollow">Greenstone</a></p> </b>
+<p>Are you a Greenstone user? Looking for documentation to help you build better collections?? This is the place for you!</p> 
+<p>(Greenstone is produced by the New Zealand Digital Library Project at the University of Waikato, and developed and distributed in cooperation with <a href="http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13639&amp;URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&amp;URL_SECTION=201.html" class='external text' title="http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL ID=13639&amp;URL DO=DO TOPIC&amp;URL SECTION=201.html" rel="nofollow">UNESCO</a> and the <a href="http://humaninfo.org/home_flash.html" class='external text' title="http://humaninfo.org/home flash.html" rel="nofollow">Human Info NGO</a>. To learn more about it, visit <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/" rel="nofollow">greenstone.org</a> or read the <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-home-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=factsheet" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-home-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=factsheet" rel="nofollow">Greenstone Fact Sheet</a>) </p> 
+<p>This documentation was prepared by the Greenstone team at the University of Waikato in New Zealand. If you're a Greenstone user, you can help us with the documentation project. <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Using_GreenstoneWiki.html" title="Using GreenstoneWiki">Here's how</a></p> 
+<table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html#Documentation"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Documentation</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html#Greenstone_FAQ"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Greenstone FAQ</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html#General_Documentation"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">General Documentation</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html#Greenstone3"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Greenstone3</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html#Tutorial_exercises"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Tutorial exercises</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html#Example_Collections"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Example Collections</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html#Manuals"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Manuals</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html#Greenstone_workshops"><span class="tocnumber">1.7</span> <span class="toctext">Greenstone workshops</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html#Internationalization"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Internationalization</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html#Greenstone_Development"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Greenstone Development</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html#Other_links_for_Greenstone_users"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Other links for Greenstone users</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<a name="Documentation"></a><h2>Documentation</h2> 
+<a name="Greenstone_FAQ"></a><h3><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html" title="Greenstone FAQ">Greenstone FAQ</a></h3> 
+<p>The FAQ (<b>Frequently Asked Questions</b>) pages consist of a set of commonly asked questions and their answers. These cover issues such as installing, building collections, formatting etc. Part of the FAQ is <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html" title="User contributed">user contributed</a>, and registered users may add new entries there. 
+</p>
+<a name="General_Documentation"></a><h3><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html" title="General Documentation">General Documentation</a></h3>
+<p>General documentation about Greenstone, for users and developers. A work in progress.
+</p>
+<a name="Greenstone3"></a><h3><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3.html" title="Greenstone3"> Greenstone3</a></h3>
+<p>Information about our new version of Greenstone.
+</p>
+<a name="Tutorial_exercises"></a><h3><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html" title="Tutorial exercises">Tutorial exercises</a></h3> 
+<p><b>Tutorial exercises</b> will teach you about many aspects of Greenstone, from installation to format statements; from writing a collection to CD-ROM to serving it on OAI, exporting it as METS, or converting it to and from DSpace; from harvesting Web documents to harvesting metadata over OAI. It will also take you through the detailed steps of building collections of html, word, pdf, images, mp3, marc records, and many more, including OCR'd newspaper images. Download the tutorial text and most of the sample files needed for the exercises. 
+</p>
+<a name="Example_Collections"></a><h3><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html" title="Example collections">Example Collections</a></h3> 
+<p><b>Example Collections</b> contains 11 documented example collections whose "about" page describes how they are constructed. They are fully documented in English, French, Spanish and Russian, and are an excellent resource for learning how to build common types of collections. Also, by choosing in the GLI to base a new collection on one of these collections you can inherit the style and formatting of the collection without having to recreate it. 
+</p>
+<a name="Manuals"></a><h3><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html" title="Manual">Manuals</a></h3> 
+<p>Seven <b>Greenstone manuals</b> are available in PDF format for download. There are official UNESCO versions in English, French, Spanish and Russian. There are also versions in Kazakh (thanks to UNESCO Almaty) and Vietnamese (thanks to Integrated e-Solutions Ltd., Saigon).</p> 
+<a name="Greenstone_workshops"></a><h3><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html" title="Greenstone workshops">Greenstone workshops</a></h3> 
+<p><b>Greenstone workshops</b> focus on installing Greenstone and building collections with the Librarian Interface. Includes: 
+</p>
+<dl><dd><ul><li> Introduction to the workshop (.html or .pdf) 
+</li><li> Presentations (.pdf) 
+</li><li> Lab instructions (.pdf) 
+</li><li> Lab screenshots (.pdf) 
+</li><li> Test files for several collections (including Word, PDF, HTML, JPG and GIF files)  
+</li></ul>
+</dd></dl>
+<p>Please feel free to use these materials for learning -- or teaching! -- about Greenstone.
+</p>
+<a name="Internationalization"></a><h2>Internationalization</h2>
+<ul><li> <a href="http://greenstonesupport.iimk.ac.in/" class='external text' title="http://greenstonesupport.iimk.ac.in/" rel="nofollow">Greenstone support for South Asia</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://greenstone.docunautica.com/" class='external text' title="http://greenstone.docunautica.com/" rel="nofollow">Grupo de Usuarios EspaÃ±oles de Greenstone</a> 
+</li><li> <a href="http://www.greenstone.fr/" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.fr/" rel="nofollow">Greenstone en FranÃ§ais</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_language_support.html" title="Greenstone language support">Greenstone language support</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Information_for_language_maintainers.html" title="Information for language maintainers">Information for language maintainers</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Language-dependent_text_in_Greenstone.html" title="Language-dependent text in Greenstone">Language-dependent text in Greenstone</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Forming_your_own_regional_support_group.html" title="Forming your own regional support group">Forming your own regional support group</a>
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Greenstone_Development"></a><h2> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_Development.html" title="Greenstone Development">Greenstone Development</a> </h2>
+<ul><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Install_GSDL_from_SVN_in_Linux.html" title="Install GSDL from SVN in Linux">Install GSDL from SVN in Linux</a>
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Other_links_for_Greenstone_users"></a><h2>Other links for Greenstone users</h2>  
+<ul><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Current_Release_and_patches.html" title="Current Release and patches">Current Release and patches</a> 
+</li><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone3.html" title="Greenstone3">Greenstone3</a> 
+</li><li><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Miscellaneous_links.html" title="Miscellaneous links">Miscellaneous Links</a>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:GreenstoneWiki&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=GreenstoneWiki&amp;action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=GreenstoneWiki&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Main_Page">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/GreenstoneWiki">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/GreenstoneWiki">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=GreenstoneWiki&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 01:36, 6 June 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 50,809 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.16 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,139 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Manual" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>Manual - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Manual</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <dl><dt><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/manuals/gsdl2/" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/manuals/gsdl2/" rel="nofollow">General Greenstone Manuals</a>
+</dt><dd>Include the latest version of <b>Installer's Guide</b>, <b>User's Guide</b>, <b>Developer's Guide</b>, and the manual of <b>From Paper to Collection</b> for English, Spanish, French, and Russian.
+</dd><dd>Some of the manuals are also availble in Kazah and Vietnamese (with Greenstone version 2.39 and higher):
+</dd><dd><b>Installer's Guide <a href="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/Install-2.39-kz.pdf" class='external text' title="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/Install-2.39-kz.pdf" rel="nofollow">kazakh</a>  <a href="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/Install-2.39-vi.pdf" class='external text' title="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/Install-2.39-vi.pdf" rel="nofollow">vietnamese</a></b>
+</dd><dd><b>User's Guide <a href="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/User-2.39-kz.pdf" class='external text' title="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/User-2.39-kz.pdf" rel="nofollow">kazakh</a> <a href="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/User-2.39-vi.pdf" class='external text' title="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/User-2.39-vi.pdf" rel="nofollow">vietnamese</a></b>
+</dd><dd><b>From Paper to Collection <a href="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/Paper-2.39-kz.pdf" class='external text' title="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/Paper-2.39-kz.pdf" rel="nofollow">kazakh</a>   <a href="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/Paper-2.39-vi.pdf" class='external text' title="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/Paper-2.39-vi.pdf" rel="nofollow">vietnamese</a></b>
+</dd></dl>
+<dl><dt>Inside Greenstone Collections <a href="http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/~ihw/greenstone/inside.htm" class='external text' title="http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/~ihw/greenstone/inside.htm" rel="nofollow">english(HTML)</a> <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/docs/inside_greenstone.pdf" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/docs/inside greenstone.pdf" rel="nofollow">english(PDF)</a>
+</dt><dd>The document presents and explains the configuration files for a few actual Greenstone collections, and also gives an example of how Greenstone's appearance can be customized. (Note, this document is intended to be used with Greenstone version 2.40 and higher.)
+</dd></dl>
+<dl><dt><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/html/mg.html" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/html/mg.html" rel="nofollow">MG</a>/<a href="http://www.greenstone.org/docs/mgpp_user.pdf" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/docs/mgpp user.pdf" rel="nofollow">MG++</a> 
+</dt><dd>Information about the underlying indexing and retrieval systems used by Greenstone.
+</dd></dl>
+<dl><dt><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/howto/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=howto&amp;nw=utf-8" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/howto/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=howto&amp;nw=utf-8" rel="nofollow">How to build a digital library</a>
+</dt><dd>A book authored by two of the group's project members.
+</dd></dl>
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Manual&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Manual&amp;action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Manual&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Manual">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Manual">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Manual">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Manual&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 23:37, 6 February 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 15,181 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.14 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/MetadataCSVPlug_notes.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/MetadataCSVPlug_notes.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/MetadataCSVPlug_notes.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,131 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="MetadataCSVPlug notes" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>MetadataCSVPlug notes - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">MetadataCSVPlug notes</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <ul><li> Ensure that excel has <b>not quoted</b> Filename and other field headings in the first line of your .csv metadata file. 
+<ul><li> The default behaviour on excel is to quote everthing, so you may need to inspect your .csv file with a text editor before ingest.
+</li><li> Quoted heading get passed through and you end up with build errors due to invalid XML 
+</li><li> <b>It's OK - and often necessary - for you actual data do be quoted</b>
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> if your .csv file is in the same folder as your files, then ensure you rename it so it is seen before all other files '0000metadata.csv' worked for me. Note: The default behaviour is to read files in order - so if your .csv file isn't read first you end up with two seperate records; one with metadata and no file, the other file and no metadata.
+</li></ul>
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/MetadataCSVPlug_notes.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/MetadataCSVPlug_notes</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/MetadataCSVPlug_notes.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:MetadataCSVPlug_notes&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-edit"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=MetadataCSVPlug_notes&amp;action=edit">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=MetadataCSVPlug_notes&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/MetadataCSVPlug_notes">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/MetadataCSVPlug_notes">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/MetadataCSVPlug_notes">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=MetadataCSVPlug_notes&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 00:31, 5 February 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 1,039 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.14 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Miscellaneous_links.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Miscellaneous_links.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Miscellaneous_links.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Miscellaneous links" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>Miscellaneous links - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Miscellaneous links</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <ul><li> Images of the Toki: <a href="http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/~nzdl/toki/images.html" class='external free' title="http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/~nzdl/toki/images.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/~nzdl/toki/images.html</a> 
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> Greenstone servers: 
+<ul><li> New Zealand Digital Library Project <a href="http://www.nzdl.org" class='external free' title="http://www.nzdl.org" rel="nofollow">http://www.nzdl.org</a>
+</li><li> North American mirror <a href="http://www.sadl.uleth.ca/nz/cgi-bin/library" class='external free' title="http://www.sadl.uleth.ca/nz/cgi-bin/library" rel="nofollow">http://www.sadl.uleth.ca/nz/cgi-bin/library</a> (or <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/ca" class='external free' title="http://www.nzdl.org/ca" rel="nofollow">http://www.nzdl.org/ca</a>)
+</li><li> Greenstone web site <a href="http://www.greenstone.org" class='external free' title="http://www.greenstone.org" rel="nofollow">http://www.greenstone.org</a>
+</li><li> Southern Alberta Digital Library <a href="http://www.sadl.uleth.ca" class='external free' title="http://www.sadl.uleth.ca" rel="nofollow">http://www.sadl.uleth.ca</a>
+</li><li> Internal Greenstone collections <a href="http://nzdl2.cs.waikato.ac.nz" class='external free' title="http://nzdl2.cs.waikato.ac.nz" rel="nofollow">http://nzdl2.cs.waikato.ac.nz</a>
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> Greenstone image generation: <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/make-images.html" class='external free' title="http://www.greenstone.org/make-images.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.greenstone.org/make-images.html</a>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> User survey form: <a href="http://www.ils.unc.edu/~sheble/greenstone/survey.html" class='external free' title="http://www.ils.unc.edu/~sheble/greenstone/survey.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.ils.unc.edu/~sheble/greenstone/survey.html</a>
+</li><li> Survey results: <a href="http://www.ils.unc.edu/~sheble/greenstone/survey-report.html" class='external free' title="http://www.ils.unc.edu/~sheble/greenstone/survey-report.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.ils.unc.edu/~sheble/greenstone/survey-report.html</a>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> Greenstone also has interfaces in many <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_language_support.html" title="Greenstone language support"> other languages</a>. We are looking for <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Information_for_language_maintainers.html" title="Information for language maintainers"> volunteers</a> to add new language interfaces and help maintain existing ones.
+</li></ul>
+
+<!-- Saved in parser cache with key gswikidb:pcache:idhash:1298-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20070905220124 -->
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Miscellaneous_links.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Miscellaneous_links</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Miscellaneous_links.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Miscellaneous_links&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Miscellaneous_links&amp;action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Miscellaneous_links&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Miscellaneous_links">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Miscellaneous_links">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Miscellaneous_links">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Miscellaneous_links&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 00:01, 21 July 2006.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 1,696 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.14 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_classifiers.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_classifiers.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_classifiers.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,141 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="More about classifiers" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
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+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">More about classifiers</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=More_about_classifiers&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="More about classifiers">edit</a>]</div><a name="I.27ve_added_a_new_type_of_classification_to_my_collection._How_do_I_create_and_add_the_navigation_bar_images.3F"></a><h2>I've added a new type of classification to my collection. How do I create and add the navigation bar images?</h2>
+<p>Visit <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/make-images.html" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/make-images.html" rel="nofollow">this page</a> and follow the instructions. Note: this is only necessary for Greenstone v2.62 and earlier (newer versions use CSS to generate the navigation bar automatically).
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=More_about_classifiers&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="More about classifiers">edit</a>]</div><a name="I.27ve_added_a_new_type_of_classification_to_my_collection._How_do_I_translate_the_navigation_bar_labels_.282.71_and_later.29.3F"></a><h2>I've added a new type of classification to my collection. How do I translate the navigation bar labels (2.71 and later)?</h2>
+<p>By default, the Title of a classifier is used as the button label in the navigation bar. The Title given to a classifier depends on the options used when creating it. In general, the -buttonname option will be used first, or the -metadata option if no buttonname is specified.
+The library looks for alternative text or translations in the macro files. If the Title is XXX, if the macro _labelXXX_ is defined, then this will be used for the label. If it is not defined, then the Title will be used as is. _textXXX_ and _textdescrXXX_ are used for the roll over text and help text on the about page. Provide translations of these macros to get translations of the label and help text.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=More_about_classifiers&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="More about classifiers">edit</a>]</div><a name="How_can_I_do_Unicode_collation_for_my_classifier.3F"></a><h2> How can I do Unicode collation for my classifier?</h2>
+<p>GenericList is the only classifier that supports non [a-z0-9] metadata values. It will handle creating horizontal lists using different scripts. Support for Unicode collection has been added to GenericList since 2.72. To set this up, you need to do the following:
+</p>
+<ul><li> Make sure you're using Greenstone 2.72.
+</li><li> Download the updated version of GenericList.pm from <a href="http://vulcan.nz.dlconsulting.com/~michael/GenericList.pm" class='external free' title="http://vulcan.nz.dlconsulting.com/~michael/GenericList.pm" rel="nofollow">http://vulcan.nz.dlconsulting.com/~michael/GenericList.pm</a> and overwrite your existing version in the Greenstone "perllib/classify" directory.
+</li><li> Download the <a href="http://www.unicode.org/Public/UCA/4.1.0/allkeys.txt" class='external free' title="http://www.unicode.org/Public/UCA/4.1.0/allkeys.txt" rel="nofollow">http://www.unicode.org/Public/UCA/4.1.0/allkeys.txt</a> file and put this in your system Perl "lib/Unicode/Collate" directory (Unix) or in the Greenstone "bin/windows/perl/lib/Unicode/Collate" folder (Windows).
+</li><li> Specify the "-sort_using_unicode_collation" option for your GenericList.
+</li><li> Rebuild the collection.
+</li></ul>
+
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+	        value="Go"
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,340 @@
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+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
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+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">More about plugins</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins.html#Does_Greenstone_have_a_plugin_for_my_data_format.3F"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Does Greenstone have a plugin for my data format?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins.html#What_metadata_is_available_for_each_plugin.3F"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">What metadata is available for each plugin?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins.html#I.27m_having_problems_with_my_PDF_files.21_What.27s_wrong.3F"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">I'm having problems with my PDF files! What's wrong?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins.html#How_do_I_use_UnknownPlug_to_handle_my_new_format.3F"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">How do I use UnknownPlug to handle my new format?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins.html#How_do_I_get_my_CDS.2FISIS_database_into_Greenstone.3F"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">How do I get my CDS/ISIS database into Greenstone?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins.html#How_do_I_get_my_XML_files_into_Greenstone.3F"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">How do I get my XML files into Greenstone?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins.html#How_do_I_use_DBPlug.3F"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">How do I use DBPlug?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins.html#How_do_I_build_collections_of_documents_with_images_and_OCR_text_.28PagedImgPlug.29.3F"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">How do I build collections of documents with images and OCR text (PagedImgPlug)?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins.html#How_do_I_use_CONENTdmPlug.3F"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">How do I use CONENTdmPlug?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins.html#How_do_I_build_a_collection_from_a_MediaWiki_website.3F"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">How do I build a collection from a MediaWiki website?</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<a name="Does_Greenstone_have_a_plugin_for_my_data_format.3F"></a><h2>Does Greenstone have a plugin for my data format?</h2>
+<p>See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Plugins.html" title="Plugins"> this page</a>.
+</p>
+<a name="What_metadata_is_available_for_each_plugin.3F"></a><h2>What metadata is available for each plugin?</h2>
+<p>"Default" means that the metadata fields will be automatically assigned (or extracted if possible), while the "Available fields" lists other items of metadata that the plugin may be able to assign based on any arguments given to that plugin in the collect.cfg file. All plugins are derived from BasPlug, and have following metadata fields:
+</p>
+<table border="1">
+
+<tr>
+<td> </td><td><b>Default fields</b></td><td><b>Available fields</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td> BasPlug</td><td>Language, Encoding, Source</td><td>FirstNNNN, Keyphrases, Acronym
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><br />
+In addition, many plugins have additional fields available:
+</p>
+<table border="1">
+
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> <b>Plugin name</b></td><td><b>Default fields</b></td><td><b>Available fields</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> BibTexPlug</td><td>Title, Creator, Abstract, Author, Booktitle, Chapter, Copyright, Date, Edition, Editor, EntryType Journal, Keywords, Month, Note, Number, Pages, Publisher, PublisherAddress, Volume, Year</td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> DBPlug</td><td> </td><td>(arbitrary metadata field names based on Database configuration file)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td>  EMAILPlug</td><td>Date, DateText, From, FromAddr, FromName, Headers, Subject, Title (based on subject, from, and date), To</td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> ExcelPlug</td><td> </td><td>(all fields as in HTMLPlug)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> HTMLPlug</td><td>Title, URL</td><td>Author, Creator, Email (others as found in the <tt>-metadata_fields</tt> option)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> ImagePlug</td><td>Image, ImageHeight, ImageSize, ImageType, ImageWidth, ScreenHeight, screenicon, ScreenSize, ScreenType, ScreenWidth, Source, srclink, srcicon, Thumb, ThumbHeight, ThumbType, ThumbWidth</td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> IndexPlug</td><td>as in the index.txt file</td><td>(use <tt>metadata.xml</tt> files instead of using this plugin)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> MARCPlug</td><td>Creator, Description, MarcIdentifier, MarcSource, URL, Publisher, Relation, Rights, Subject, Title, Type</td><td>(Metadata fields as in the <tt>marctodc.txt</tt> file)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> OAIPlug</td><td>URL, (all metadata in .oai markup file)</td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> PagedImgPlug </td><td>Image, ImageHeight, ImageSize, ImageType, ImageWidth, ScreenHeight, screenicon, ScreenSize, ScreenType, ScreenWidth, Source, srclink, srcicon, Thumb, ThumbHeight, ThumbType, ThumbWidth </td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> PDFPlug</td><td> </td><td>(all fields in HTMLPlug)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> PPTPlug</td><td> </td><td>(all fields in HTMLPlug)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> PSPlug </td><td>Title </td><td>Date, Pages, (all fields in TextPlug)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> ReferPlug </td><td>Abstract, BookConfOnly, Booktitle, Copyright, Creator, Date, Editor, Keywords, Journal, JournalsOnly, Number, Pages, Publisher, Publisheraddr, Report, Title, Volume </td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> RTFPlug </td><td> </td><td>(all fields in HTMLPlug)
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> SRCPlug </td><td> Title, filename, includes, class, classdecl </td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> TEXTPlug </td><td> Title
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> UnknownPlug </td><td>(as given in the <tt>-assoc_field</tt> plugin argument)</td><td>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="center">
+<td> WordPlug </td><td> </td><td>(all fields in HTMLPlug)
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><br />
+See section two of the Developer's Guide for information about options to plugins, or run the pluginfo.pl command on the plugin name after setting up your environment for Greenstone. (For example, "perl -S pluginfo.pl BasPlug".)
+</p><p>In addition, every document can be manually assigned arbitrary metadata fields and values through use of metadata.xml files, as discussed in the manual.
+</p>
+<a name="I.27m_having_problems_with_my_PDF_files.21_What.27s_wrong.3F"></a><h2>I'm having problems with my PDF files! What's wrong?</h2>
+<p>PDF is a "page description language". This means that the document contains objects and commands such as "draw this text here" and "draw this image here".
+</p><p>Greenstone uses an external program called "pdftohtml" to extract text out of PDF files. Sometimes, there is no text that can be extracted. This often depends on how the PDF was created.
+</p>
+<dl><dd><ol><li> Adobe Acrobat Writer can be used to create PDFs from paper documents that are scanned in by a scanner. In this case, the PDF file contains images of text, rather than computer-readable text. Therefore, pdftohtml cannot find any text to extract.
+</li><li> Some programs (such as older versions of GNU ghostscript, which is used by ps2pdf on Unix computers) sometimes create "bitmap fonts", which means that every character in the document is really an image rather than a computer readable letter. The LaTeX type-setting program sometimes does this when the "Computer Modern Roman" font is used.
+</li><li> Certain characters and character combinations may be extracted incorrectly, depending on the program that generated the PDF file. For example, "ligatures" such as "fi", "fl", "ff" and "ffl" are often rendered using a special glyph rather than as individual characters, and this information may be lost in the textual representation. Also, some PDF generating programs may not correctly encode accented characters. For example, to draw a lowercase "u" with an umlaut accent, LaTeX draws a "u" and then draws an umlaut accent over it. This means that pdftohtml will extract two separate characters (Âš and 'u') rather than a single accented character (ÃŒ).
+</li><li> PDF contains pieces of text, and coordinates for where that text should be displayed. This means that pdftohtml may incorrectly guess the order that the text fragments are supposed to occur in. For example, for text that is in two or more columns, the text may be extracted as the first sentence of each column, then the second sentence of each column, and so on. In this case, the extracted text is still usable for indexing purposes, but should not be displayed. In this case, a format statement should be added to the collect.cfg file to provide a link to the original PDF file but not to the extracted text, such as:<p style="background:#E6E6FA;">format SearchVList "&lt;td valign=top&gt;[srclink][srcicon][/srclink]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[srclink][Title][/srclink]&lt;/td&gt;"</p>
+</li><li> Because of the way that images are embedded in PDF files, pdftohtml occasionally extracts an image upside-down, or mirrored. This appears to be a bug in the program.
+</li></ol>
+</dd></dl>
+<a name="How_do_I_use_UnknownPlug_to_handle_my_new_format.3F"></a><h2>How do I use UnknownPlug to handle my new format?</h2>
+<p>UnknownPlug is a simple plugin for importing files in formats that Greenstone doesn't know anything about. A dummy document will be created for every such file, and the file itself will be passed to Greenstone as the "associated file" of the document.
+</p><p>Here's an example where it is useful: A collection has pictures and includes a couple of quicktime movie files with names like DCP_0163.MOV. Rather than write a new plugin for quicktime movies, add this line to the collection configuration file:
+</p>
+<dl><dd><p style="background:#E6E6FA;"><tt>plugin UnknownPlug -process_extension "MOV" -assoc_field "movie"</tt></p>
+</dd></dl>
+<p>A document is created for each movie, with the associated movie file's name in the "movie" metadata field. In the collection's format strings, use the {If} macro to output different text for each type of file, like this:
+</p>
+<dl><dd><p style="background:#E6E6FA;"><tt>{If}{[movie],&lt;HTML for displaying movie&gt;}<br />{If}{[Image],&lt;HTML for displaying image&gt;}</tt></p>
+</dd></dl>
+<p>You can also add extra metadata, such as the Title, Subject, and Duration, using the Librarian Interface (or with metadata.xml files and RecPlug).
+</p><p>The <tt>-process_extension</tt> option tells UnknownPlug which file extension it should look for. Alternatively, you can use the <tt>-process_exp</tt> option which specifies a regular expression to match against entire filenames. You can have several UnknownPlugs specified for a collection, each processing a different kind of file.
+</p><p>The <tt>-assoc_field</tt> option is the name of the metadata field that will hold the associated file's name. This can be used to test for these files. You can also specify the mime type of the files to be processed using the <tt>-mime_type</tt> option. To display the original file, use <tt>[srclink][/srclink]</tt> metadata.
+</p>
+<a name="How_do_I_get_my_CDS.2FISIS_database_into_Greenstone.3F"></a><h2> How do I get my CDS/ISIS database into Greenstone? </h2>
+<p><a href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/others/CDS-ISIS_to_DL.doc" class='external text' title="http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/others/CDS-ISIS to DL.doc" rel="nofollow">Creating digital libraries based on CDS/ISIS databases</a> (<a href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/others/CDS-ISIS_to_DL-cor-sp.doc" class='external text' title="http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/others/CDS-ISIS to DL-cor-sp.doc" rel="nofollow">En EspaÃ±ol</a>) is a detailed guide for using CDS/ISIS databases in Greenstone.
+</p>
+<a name="How_do_I_get_my_XML_files_into_Greenstone.3F"></a><h2> How do I get my XML files into Greenstone? </h2>
+<p>There are two main options for getting XML files into Greenstone: using XSL or writing a customised plugin.
+</p><p><font size="+1">XSL</font>
+</p><p>Outside of Greenstone, you can use XSL (or other procedure) to generate either HTML, which can be processed by HTMLPlug, or <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_Archive_Format" title="Greenstone Archive Format"> Greenstone Archive</a> files. If you generate archive files, you will not need to run the import phase of collection building. You will also not be able to build the collection in the Librarian Interface. You can use the Librarian Interface to configure your collection, but you will need to build it on the command line. See <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Command_Line_Building" title="Command Line Building"> here</a> for information about command line building.
+</p><p><font size="+1">New Plugin</font>
+</p><p>The other option is to write a new plugin to process your particular XML format. This plugin will inherit from XMLPlug. You need to implement the <b>new</b> method, as well as the XML parsing call back methods, such as  <b>xml_doctype</b>, <b>xml_start_tag</b>, <b>xml_end_tag</b>, <b>xml_text</b>.
+The plugin will parse the source XML file and build up a <b>doc</b> object in memory, which gets written out as an archive file. greenstone/perllib/plugins/GAPlug.pm is an example of a plugin that inherits from XMLPlug---you can use this as an example.
+</p>
+<a name="How_do_I_use_DBPlug.3F"></a><h2>How do I use DBPlug? </h2>
+<p>DBPlug uses Perl's DBI module to getting records out of databases, such as mysql, postgresql, comma separated values (CSV), MS Excel, ODBC, sybase etc.
+You will need to have the DBI module installed, as well as the appropriate back end module(s).
+</p><p>Assuming you have got all the necessary modules installed, then the basic way to use DBPlug is:
+</p>
+<ul><li> Add DBPlug to the list of plugins for your collection.
+</li><li> Copy greenstone/etc/packages/example.dbi into the import directory of your collection.
+</li><li> Modify this file appropriately
+</li><li> You may want to have more than one copy of the file, for different database connections/queries. The name does not matter, but the file extension should be .dbi
+</li><li> Import and build the collection.
+</li></ul>
+<p><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/CSV_Processing_using_DBPlug" title="CSV Processing using DBPlug"> Here</a> is what I had to do to process a comma-separated-value file.</p>
+<p><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Mysql_Processing_using_DBPlug" title="Mysql Processing using DBPlug"> Here</a> is what I had to do to use DBPlug to get records out of a Mysql database.</p>
+<p><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Excel_Processing_using_DBPlug" title="Excel Processing using DBPlug"> Here</a> is what I had to do to process a excel file.</p>
+<p><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Access_Processing_using_DBPlug" title="Access Processing using DBPlug"> Here</a> is what I had to do to use DBPlug to get records out of a MS Access database.</p>
+<a name="How_do_I_build_collections_of_documents_with_images_and_OCR_text_.28PagedImgPlug.29.3F"></a><h2> How do I build collections of documents with images and OCR text (PagedImgPlug)? </h2>
+<p>Please see the following tutorials:
+</p>
+<ul><li><a href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/scanned_image_collection.htm" class='external text' title="http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/scanned image collection.htm" rel="nofollow">Scanned image collection</a>
+</li><li><a href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/advanced_scanned_image_collection.htm" class='external text' title="http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/advanced scanned image collection.htm" rel="nofollow">Advanced scanned image collection</a>
+</li></ul>
+<p><br />
+</p>
+<a name="How_do_I_use_CONENTdmPlug.3F"></a><h2> How do I use CONENTdmPlug? </h2>
+<p>The CONTENTdm is a commerical digital library (<a href="http://www.dimema.com/" class='external free' title="http://www.dimema.com/" rel="nofollow">http://www.dimema.com/</a>) that provides tools for organizing, managing and searching digital collections over the Internet.
+</p><p>Collections in CONTENTdm digital library can be exported in the RDF format. CONTENTdmPlug is implemented to process the RDF file only. It identifies each &lt;rdf:Description&gt; element in the RDF file as a document and transformes it into the Greenstone archieve file. Meanwhile Metadata are collected. In CONTENTdmPlug, XML::parser class has been modified, it can process both well-formed and not-well-formed RDF files. A warning message will be output if the RDF file is not well formed. The image files are taken care by the pagedImg plug which is the secondary plugin of CONTENTdmPlug.
+</p><p>Four parameters are created in the CONTENTdm plugin:
+</p>
+<ul><li> convert_to 
+</li></ul>
+<p>(html(default)|text|pagedimg) <b>Compulsory option</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li> xslt apply 
+</li></ul>
+<p>xslt file is applied on the RDF file to avoid some content
+</p>
+<ul><li> process_exp 
+</li></ul>
+<p>CONTENTdmPlug only handle .rdf file in default
+</p>
+<ul><li> block_exp 
+</li></ul>
+<p>CONTENTdmPlug blocks (jpg|jpeg|gif) files in default
+</p><p>For example: 
+</p>
+<pre>  plugin          CONTENTdmPlug -convert_to html -keep_original_filename
+</pre>
+<a name="How_do_I_build_a_collection_from_a_MediaWiki_website.3F"></a><h2> How do I build a collection from a MediaWiki website? </h2>
+<p>MediaWiki is a MediaWiki is a free software for building and maintaining a wiki website. MediaWikiDownload plug and MediaWikiPlug are created for mirroring a Mediawiki website into a Greenstone collection. The MediaWikiDownload plug downloads HTML pages and associated files like stylesheets from a given wiki website. The MediaWikiPlug processes the HTML pages, supress unnecessary fragments such as tabs, toolbox, edit links, and convert into Greenstone internal format.
+</p><p>MediaWikiDownload plug has six parameters, four of them are the same with WebDownload plug:
+</p>
+<ul><li> url, depth, below, and within
+</li></ul>
+<p>Two parameters are new created:
+</p>
+<ul><li> reject_files
+</li></ul>
+<dl><dd> list of filenames separated by comma, file that matches any of the expressions will be excluded from downloading, for example: *action=*,*diff=*,*oldid=*,*printable*,*Recentchangeslinked*
+</dd></dl>
+<ul><li> exclude_directories
+</li></ul>
+<dl><dd> list of directories to exclude, separated by comma. For example: /wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked,/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere
+</dd></dl>
+<p>MediaWikiPlug has eight parameters:
+</p>
+<ul><li> show_toc: diplay the table of contents on the website's main page on the collection's home page
+</li><li> delete_toc:  supress the table of contents on each page
+</li><li> toc_exp: Perl regular expression for matching the table of contents
+</li><li> delete_nav: supress the navigation box on each page
+</li><li> nav_div_exp: Perl regular expression for matching the navigation box
+</li><li> delete_searchbox: supress the search box on each page
+</li><li> searchbos_div_exp: Perl regular expression for matching the search box
+</li><li> remove_title_suffix: remove the suffix in extracted title
+</li></ul>
+<p>Here is an example that uses all the options: 
+</p>
+<pre>  plugin          MediaWikiPlug -show_toc -delete_toc -toc_exp &lt;table([^&gt;]*)id=(\&quot;|')toc(\&quot;|')(.|\n)*?&lt;/table&gt; 
+                   -nav_div_exp &lt;div([^&gt;]*)id=(\&quot;|')p-navigation(\&quot;|')(.|\n)*?&lt;/div&gt; -delete_nav
+                   -searchbox_div_exp &lt;div([^&gt;]*)id=(\&quot;|')p-search(\&quot;|')(.|\n)*?&lt;/div&gt; -delete_searchbox 
+                   -remove_title_suffix_exp \s-(.*)$
+</pre>
+<!-- Saved in parser cache with key gswikidb:pcache:idhash:1288-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20070906003601 -->
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:More_about_plugins&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=More_about_plugins&amp;action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=More_about_plugins&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/More_about_plugins">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/More_about_plugins">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/More_about_plugins">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=More_about_plugins&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 01:02, 3 August 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 6,639 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
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+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Obtaining_Greenstone.html
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+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
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+  <body                 class="ns-0">
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+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
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+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Obtaining Greenstone</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Obtaining_Greenstone.html#Where_do_I_get_Greenstone_from.3F"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Where do I get Greenstone from?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Obtaining_Greenstone.html#Are_there_binary_distributions_of_Greenstone_available.3F"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Are there binary distributions of Greenstone available?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Obtaining_Greenstone.html#Is_Greenstone_available_on_CD-ROM.3F"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Is Greenstone available on CD-ROM?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Obtaining_Greenstone.html#Is_the_Greenstone_source_code_available_from_a_Version_Control_System.3F"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Is the Greenstone source code available from a Version Control System?</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<a name="Where_do_I_get_Greenstone_from.3F"></a><h2>Where do I get Greenstone from?</h2>
+<p>From the greenstone.org <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqob-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=download" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqob-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=download" rel="nofollow">download</a> page.
+</p>
+<a name="Are_there_binary_distributions_of_Greenstone_available.3F"></a><h2>Are there binary distributions of Greenstone available?</h2>
+<p>Yes. At present there are binary distributions for 32 bit Windows, PowerPC Mac OS X, and i386 linux. They can be downloaded from the <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqob-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=download" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqob-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=download" rel="nofollow">download</a> page.
+</p>
+<a name="Is_Greenstone_available_on_CD-ROM.3F"></a><h2>Is Greenstone available on CD-ROM?</h2>
+<p>While some version 2.37 and 2.38 CD-ROMs have been produced they're not currently being made widely available. You are encouraged to download the latest release of Greenstone from the <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqob-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=download" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqob-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=download" rel="nofollow">download</a> page. If your internet connection is such that downloading Greenstone isn't possible please <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqob-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=support" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqob-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=support" rel="nofollow">contact</a> us and we may be able to arrange for a CD-ROM to be sent out.
+</p>
+<a name="Is_the_Greenstone_source_code_available_from_a_Version_Control_System.3F"></a><h2>Is the Greenstone source code available from a Version Control System?</h2>
+<p>Yes, namely Subverion. See our <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_SVN.html" title="Greenstone SVN">Greenstone_SVN</a> page for details.
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+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
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+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
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+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
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+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Obtaining_Greenstone">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Obtaining_Greenstone">Related changes</a></li>
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+	      	    </ul>
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+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 22:58, 21 June 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 2,705 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/One_day_course_2004.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/One_day_course_2004.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/One_day_course_2004.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,169 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>One day course 2004 - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
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+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
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+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
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+</div>
+
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+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">One day course 2004</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p style="font-size: 150%;">Greenstone Digital Library Software<br />
+One-day Workshop</p>
+<p style="font-size: 125%;">JCDL in Tucson in June 2004</p>
+<table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/One_day_course_2004.html#Introduction"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Introduction</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/One_day_course_2004.html#Instructors"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Instructors</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/One_day_course_2004.html#Schedule"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Schedule</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/One_day_course_2004.html#DownLoad"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">DownLoad</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<a name="Introduction"></a><h2>Introduction</h2>
+<p>This workshop will promote the development and sharing of digital library collections
+using the freely available Greenstone Digital Library software, developed at the
+University of Waikato and sponsored and promoted by UNESCO.
+</p>
+<a name="Instructors"></a><h3>Instructors</h3>
+<p>Dr. Ian H. Witten <br />
+Dr. David Bainbridge <br />
+Dr. Sally Jo Cunningham <br />
+Ms Katherine Don <br />
+Mr Michael Dewsnip
+</p>
+<a name="Schedule"></a><h2>Schedule</h2>
+<ul><li>8:30â 9:00 Registration, coffee
+</li><li>9:00â10:30 Lecture/demonstration: Greenstone: overview, installation, example collections; the Librarian Interface
+</li><li>10:30â11:00 Coffee
+</li><li>11:00â12:15 Lab: Accessing example collections; building simple collections 
+</li><li>12:15â13:30 Lunch
+</li><li>13:30â14:15 Lecture/demonstration: Adding and using metadata; bibliography collections
+</li><li>14:15â15:00 Lab:Adding metadata, building an image collection, a collection of MARC records
+</li><li>15:00â15:30 Tea
+</li><li>15:30â16:15 Lab: Build your own collection
+</li><li>16:15â16:45 Lecture/demonstration: Advanced features: customizing collections; creating a CD-ROM
+</li><li>16:45â17:15 Questions, discussion, wrapup
+</li><li>18:00 (optional) User-pays dinner with other workshop participants and Greenstone team members
+</li></ul>
+<a name="DownLoad"></a><h2>DownLoad</h2>
+<ul><li><a href="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-workshop-sample-files-1day-jun2004.zip" class='external text' title="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-workshop-sample-files-1day-jun2004.zip" rel="nofollow">Sample files</a> [zip, M]
+</li><li><a href="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-workshop-materials-1day-jun2004.zip" class='external text' title="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-workshop-materials-1day-jun2004.zip" rel="nofollow">Entire workshop</a> (lectures, labs and sample files) [zip, M]
+</li></ul>
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/One_day_course_2004.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/One_day_course_2004</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/One_day_course_2004.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:One_day_course_2004&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=One_day_course_2004&amp;action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=One_day_course_2004&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/One_day_course_2004">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/One_day_course_2004">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/One_day_course_2004">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=One_day_course_2004&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 22:15, 20 June 2006.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 993 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.15 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Plugins.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Plugins.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Plugins.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,278 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Plugins" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>Plugins - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Plugins</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p>Greenstone incorporates plugins for many different file formats, listed below. But we are always looking for more! If there is a specific plugin you would like us to write on a contractual basis then contact us. Also, we welcome contributions of code to enable us to extend Greenstone. A list of plugins we would like appears below.
+</p>
+<a name="Existing_plugins_in_Greenstone_v2.61"></a><h2>Existing plugins in Greenstone v2.61</h2>
+<table cellpadding="2">
+
+<tr>
+<td><b>Plugin name</b>	</td><td><b>Description</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>BibTexPlug.pm	</td><td>BibTex files
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>DBPlug.pm	</td><td>Extract records from databases (requires additional Perl setup)
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>DSpacePlug.pm	</td><td>Processes DSpace archive format
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>EMAILPlug.pm	</td><td>Saved email files (not MS OutLook format though)
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>ExcelPlug.pm	</td><td>Microsoft Excel files
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>FOXPlug.pm	</td><td>FOX database files
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>FavouritesPlug.pm	</td><td>Internet Explorer Favourites files
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>HTMLPlug.pm	</td><td>HTML files
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>ISISPlug.pm	</td><td>ISIS database files
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>ImagePlug.pm	</td><td>JPEG, GIF etc see <a href="http://www.imagemagick.org/www/formats.html" class='external free' title="http://www.imagemagick.org/www/formats.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.imagemagick.org/www/formats.html</a>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>LaTeXPlug.pm	</td><td>LaTeX files
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>MARCPlug.pm	</td><td>MARC metadata
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>METSPlug.pm	</td><td>Greenstone format METS files
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>MP3Plug.pm	</td><td>MP3 audio files
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>OAIPlug.pm	</td><td>Open Archives data
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>OggVorbisPlug.pm	</td><td>Ogg Vorbis Files
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>PagedImgPlug.pm	</td><td>Sequences of image files (formats as for ImagePlug), with optional associated plain text
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>PDFPlug.pm	</td><td>PDF files
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>PPTPlug.pm	</td><td>Microsoft Powerpoint
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>PSPlug.pm	</td><td>Postscript
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>ProCitePlug.pm	</td><td>ProCite files
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>RealMediaPlug.pm	</td><td>RealMedia files
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>ReferPlug.pm	</td><td>Refer files
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>RogPlug.pm	</td><td>.rog or .mdb files
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>SRCPlug.pm	</td><td>Source code (C/C++, Perl, Shell)
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>TEXTPlug.pm	</td><td>Plain text (.txt)
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>WordPlug.pm	</td><td>Microsoft Word documents
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>XMLPlug.pm	</td><td>XML files
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td>ZIPPlug.pm	</td><td>Unzips tar, jar, zip, gzip and bz files and sends content down plugin pipeline
+</td></tr></table>
+<a name="Potential_New_Plugins"></a><h2>Potential New Plugins</h2>
+<p><b>Documents/Office formats:</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li> AbiWord
+</li><li> Gnumeric Spreadsheet
+</li><li> Kword (all Koffice formats)
+</li><li> OpenOffice file formats:
+<ul><li> Writer (.sxw)
+</li><li> Calc (.sxd)
+</li><li> Impress (.sxi)
+</li><li> Draw (.sxd)
+</li></ul>
+</li><li> StarOffice formats (.sdc, .sdw etc)
+</li><li> Wordperfect
+</li></ul>
+<p><b>Video:</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li> MPEG
+</li><li> Quicktime (.mov)
+</li><li> AVI (Audio Video Interleave), Microsoft video
+</li></ul>
+<p><b>Audio:</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li> Windows Media Audio (.wma)
+</li><li> Windows audio (.wav)
+</li><li> Sun Audio (.au)
+</li><li> Audio Interchange File Format (.aiff)
+</li><li> MIDI (.mid)
+</li><li> MIDI karoke (.kar)
+</li><li> CD Audio (.cda)
+</li><li> Shorten (.shn)
+</li></ul>
+<p><b>Bibliographic:</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li> Endnote
+</li></ul>
+<p><b>Images:</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li> DjVu (.djvu)
+</li><li> Photoshop (.psd)
+</li><li> PaintShopPro (.psp)
+</li></ul>
+<p><b>Macintosh archives:</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li> .hqx Mac archive
+</li><li> .sit
+</li><li> Self extracting Archive (.sea)
+</li></ul>
+<p><b>Others:</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li> Scalable Graphics Format (.svg)
+</li><li> Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language SMIL (.smil)
+</li><li> Macromedia Flash (.fla)
+</li><li> Macromedia shockwave (.swf)
+</li><li> OpenGL
+</li><li> VRML/X3D
+</li><li> TrueType fonts (TTF)
+</li></ul>
+
+<!-- Saved in parser cache with key gswikidb:pcache:idhash:1338-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20070905035157 -->
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Plugins.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Plugins</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Plugins.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Plugins&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Plugins&amp;action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Plugins&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Plugins">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Plugins">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Plugins">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Plugins&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,325 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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+    <title>Remote Greenstone - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
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+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
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+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
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+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Remote Greenstone</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html#Building_Greenstone_collections_remotely"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Building Greenstone collections remotely</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html#Installation"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Installation</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-3'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html#Server"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Server</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-3'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html#Client"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Client</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-3'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html#General"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">General</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-3'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html#Authentication"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Authentication</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-3'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html#Collection_locking"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Collection locking</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-3'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html#E-mail_notifications"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">E-mail notifications</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-3'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html#Missing_functionality"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Missing functionality</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html#Troubleshooting"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Troubleshooting</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-3'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html#Miscellaneous_problems"><span class="tocnumber">1.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Miscellaneous problems</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone.html#Future_Work"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Future Work</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Remote Greenstone">edit</a>]</div><a name="Building_Greenstone_collections_remotely"></a><h1>Building Greenstone collections remotely</h1>
+<p>Until now, using the GLI has required either a complete Greenstone installation, or the GLI applet to be installed on a server machine. In both cases, collaboration on collections is not possible.
+</p>
+<p>
+This new functionality keeps the collections on a remote Greenstone server, thus allowing users to collaborate on collections (at different times), and without a local Greenstone installation.
+</p>
+<p><br />
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Remote Greenstone">edit</a>]</div><a name="Installation"></a><h2>Installation</h2>
+<p>This section describes how to install the remote building functionality on server and client.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Remote Greenstone">edit</a>]</div><a name="Server"></a><h3>Server</h3>
+<p>The server can be a Linux, Mac OS X or Windows machine. It must have the <a href="http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.4.2/download.html" class='external text' title="http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.4.2/download.html" rel="nofollow">Java run-time</a> installed (version 1.4 or newer).
+</p>
+<p>
+To install the server-side functionality:
+</p>
+<p><ol>
+</p>
+<li><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=download" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=download" rel="nofollow">Download Greenstone v2.72</a> and install it. Choose the "Web Library" installation option.
+
+
+<li>Configure your webserver for use with Greenstone:
+
+  <dl>
+    <dt><b>Apache v2.0</b> (<a href="http://httpd.apache.org/download.cgi" class='external text' title="http://httpd.apache.org/download.cgi" rel="nofollow">Download</a>)</dt>
+    <dd>After installation, configure Apache by editing the conf\httpd.conf file as described in the Greenstone Installer's Guide or in the library.txt file installed in the Greenstone directory. Start Apache.</dd>
+
+    <dt><b>Apache v1.3</b></dt>
+    <dd>Apache v1.3 is not suitable for this application; use Apache v2.0 instead.</dd>
+
+    <dt><b>IIS</b> (Not recommended)</dt>
+    <dd>See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone.html#How_do_I_use_Greenstone.27s_web_library_with_IIS.3F" title="Installing Greenstone"> this page</a>. Then right-click on the "cgi-bin" folder, choose Properties, and click Configuration. Add an extension for ".pl", specifying the Greenstone "bin/windows/perl/bin/perl" binary as the executable, with arguments "%s" %s.<br /><b>IIS 6</b>: Edit the Greenstone "cgi-bin/gliserver.pl" file and set the "iis6_mode" option to "1".</dd>
+  </dl>
+
+  Check that your webserver and Greenstone are working correctly by visiting <pre>http://&lt;your-machine-name&gt;:&lt;port&gt;/gsdl/cgi-bin/library</pre> (library.exe on Windows). The port will be "80", unless this is already in use.
+<li>Edit the first line of the Greenstone "cgi-bin/gliserver.pl" file and specify the full path of the perl binary.<br />
+On Unix it is likely to be:
+  <pre>    #!/usr/bin/perl -w</pre>
+<p>On Windows this will be (if installed in the default location):
+</p>
+  <pre>    #!C:\Program Files\Greenstone\bin\windows\perl\bin\perl -w</pre>
+<li>Visit <pre>http://&lt;your-machine-name&gt;:&lt;port&gt;/gsdl/cgi-bin/gliserver.pl?cmd=check-installation</pre> in a web browser. You should get a message saying "Java found" and "Installation OK!". If you get a message saying "Java failed", check that the Java run-time is installed and on the webserver's path. If you get a "500 Internal Server Error", check the error log of your webserver for the cause.<br /><b>Important: You cannot continue with these instructions until this is successful, as nothing will work without it!</b>
+<li>Make the Greenstone "collect" directory writeable by the webserver user.<br />
+On Unix, use chmod.<br />
+On Windows, run in a DOS prompt:
+  <pre>    cacls &quot;C:\Program Files\Greenstone\collect&quot; /P Everyone:F</pre>
+<li>Add some user accounts by visiting the Greenstone home page and clicking the "Administration Page" button, then "add a new user". See the Authentication section below for more information.
+</ol>
+
+<p>
+If your end users will use the stand-alone GLI client, this is all that is required on the server, and you can skip the next section.
+</p>
+<p>
+If your end users will be using the GLI applet, you also need to do the following four steps. These require the Java SDK -- if you don't already have this you can download it from <a href="http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.4.2/download.html" class='external text' title="http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.4.2/download.html" rel="nofollow">here</a>.
+</p>
+<p><ol>
+</p>
+<li>In the Greenstone "gli" directory, run
+  <pre>    keytool -genkey -alias privateKey -keystore appletstore -storepass greenstone</pre>
+  Enter the appropriate details for your organization. When it asks to enter the key password for &lt;privateKey&gt;, choose your own password or hit Enter to use "greenstone".</li>
+<li>Run
+  <pre>    jarsigner -keystore appletstore -signedjar SignedGatherer.jar GLI.jar privateKey</pre>
+  When it prompts, enter the password you used above.</li>
+<li>Move the created SignedGatherer.jar file into the Greenstone "bin/java" directory.</li>
+<li>Edit the Greenstone "etc/main.cfg" file and set the "gliapplet" field to "enabled".</li>
+<p></ol>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Remote Greenstone">edit</a>]</div><a name="Client"></a><h3>Client</h3>
+<p>The clients can be Linux, Mac OS X or Windows machines. To use the stand-alone GLI client:
+</p><p><ol>
+</p>
+<li>Download <a href="http://downloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gli-client-2.72.zip?modtime=1165977964&amp;big_mirror=1" class='external text' title="http://downloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gli-client-2.72.zip?modtime=1165977964&amp;big mirror=1" rel="nofollow">gli-client-2.72.zip</a> (5MB) and unzip it.
+<li>Run "client-gli.bat" (Windows) or "client-gli.sh" (Linux/Mac OS X).
+  The first time you run the GLI client on a machine it will ask for the Greenstone library and gliserver URLs. These will be <pre>http://&lt;your-machine-name&gt;:&lt;port&gt;/gsdl/cgi-bin/library</pre> (library.exe if the server is Windows) and <pre>http://&lt;your-machine-name&gt;:&lt;port&gt;/gsdl/cgi-bin/gliserver.pl</pre> respectively.
+<p></ol>
+</p><p>To use the GLI applet:
+</p><p><ol>
+</p>
+<li>Visit your Greenstone library homepage and click "The Librarian Interface", half-way down the page. The GLI applet will begin loading, and after a short wait a "Launch Greenstone Librarian Interface" button will become available. Click this to start using the GLI applet.
+</ol>
+
+<p>
+You can now use the GLI to edit collections on the server or create new collections. The first time a collection is opened on a particular machine the GLI will read the plugin and classifier information from the server (this may take a minute or two).
+</p>
+<p><br />
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Remote Greenstone">edit</a>]</div><a name="Notes"></a><h2>Notes</h2>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Remote Greenstone">edit</a>]</div><a name="General"></a><h3>General</h3>
+<p>There can be a lot of data transferred between the client and the server. This can make using the client impractical if you don't have a high speed connection between it and the server.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Remote Greenstone">edit</a>]</div><a name="Authentication"></a><h3>Authentication</h3>
+<p>The existing Greenstone user account system is used for authentication. User information is stored in the etc/users.db file, and the Administration pages (linked from your Greenstone library homepage) are used for adding, editing and removing users.
+</p>
+<p>
+Groups are used to control the actions that users are allowed to perform on collections. <b>The group settings have changed for Greenstone v2.71, and you will need to edit your existing users if you are upgrading.</b> The possible group settings are:
+</p>
+<ul>
+<li><b>all-collections-editor</b>: Users in this group can create new collections and edit all collections. (Equivalent to the "remote-superuser" group of Greenstone v2.70w and earlier).
+
+<li><b>personal-collections-editor</b>: Users in this group can create and edit "personal" collections. Personal collections have the user's username at the start of the internal collection name, and are created when the "this is a personal collection" option is ticked in the GLI "New Collection" dialog.
+
+<li><b>&lt;collection-name&gt;-collection-editor</b>: Users is this group can create and edit the "&lt;collection-name&gt;" collection. (Equivalent to the "&lt;collection-name&gt;-maintainer" group of Greenstone v2.70w and earlier).
+</ul>
+<p>For example, a user who needs to create and edit their own collections, and collaborate with others on a shared "papers" collection, should be in the "personal-collections-editor", and "papers-collection-editor" groups.
+</p><p><br />
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Remote Greenstone">edit</a>]</div><a name="Collection_locking"></a><h3>Collection locking</h3>
+<p>Each collection may only be open by one person at a time, to prevent synchronization problems. When a request is sent to the server to perform an action on a collection, the server will check for a gli.lck file in the collection directory. This file contains the username of the person who has the collection locked. When the collection is closed, this lock file is deleted.
+</p>
+<p>
+If the collection is locked by someone other than the person making the request, the action fails. This is reported to the user on the client side, and this user is given the option of "stealing" the lock. Generally this is not recommended, since work may be lost if multiple users are editing a collection at one time. Stealing the lock should only be done in the case where the GLI has exited abnormally and the lock file was not deleted, and only after consulting with the user who has the collection locked.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Remote Greenstone">edit</a>]</div><a name="E-mail_notifications"></a><h3>E-mail notifications</h3>
+<p>The server can be configured to e-mail the system administrator whenever a collection finishes building. To enable this, edit the Greenstone "cgi-bin/gliserver.pl" file and set "$mail_enabled" to "1", and "$mail_to_address", "$mail_from_address", and "$mail_smtp_server" appropriately.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Remote Greenstone">edit</a>]</div><a name="Missing_functionality"></a><h3>Missing functionality</h3>
+<p>There are a few items of functionality that are available in the standalone GLI but not in the client/applet version. These are:
+</p>
+<ul>
+<li>The Download pane
+<li>The File &rarr; Write CD/DVD Image... menu item
+<li>The File &rarr; Export... menu item
+<li>The Rename option when right-clicking on a file or folder in the collection tree <i>(will be available in Greenstone 2.73)</i>
+<li>The Replace option when right-clicking on a file or folder in the collection tree
+</ul>
+<p>
+This functionality may be added in the future.
+</p>
+<p><br />
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Remote Greenstone">edit</a>]</div><a name="Troubleshooting"></a><h2>Troubleshooting</h2>
+<p>If you are experiencing problems or error messages when using the client/server version of the GLI, please follow these steps:
+</p><p><ol>
+</p>
+<li>Make sure you are using the latest version of Greenstone and have downloaded any patches on this page.
+<li>Record any popup GLI error messages, and the last action you performed.
+<li>Check for Java exceptions. If you're using the client version of the GLI, these will appear in the black GLI window (Windows) or in the terminal where you ran the GLI (Unix). If you're using the applet version of the GLI, these will appear in the Java Console (available from one of your browser menus -- for Firefox you may have to download <a href="https://addons.mozilla.org/firefox/141/" class='external text' title="https://addons.mozilla.org/firefox/141/" rel="nofollow">this extension</a>).
+<li>Check for errors at the bottom of the log files of your webserver. If you're using Apache (recommended), look in the "error_log" file in the Apache "logs" directory.
+<li>If you are having problems with the applet version, please check if you have the same problems with the client version.
+</ol>
+
+If you think you have found a bug, or still can't get this functionality working, send a message to the Greenstone Users mailing list. Please include the following information:
+
+<ul>
+<li>The operating system of the server machine
+<li>The version of Greenstone installed on the server machine
+<li>The version of Java installed on the server machine
+<li>The operating system of the client machine
+<li>Whether you are using the client or applet version of the GLI
+<li>The actions you performed leading up to where the error or problem occurs
+<li>The complete text of any popup GLI error messages, exceptions or errors in the webserver log file
+</ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Remote Greenstone">edit</a>]</div><a name="Miscellaneous_problems"></a><h3>Miscellaneous problems</h3>
+<ul>
+<li>"Premature EOF" errors when building collections are caused by the webserver timing out when no output is generated by the build scripts for some time. The solution is to increase the webserver's timeout setting. For Apache this means increasing the "Timeout" value in the conf/httpd.conf file (don't forget to restart Apache).
+</ul>
+<p><br />
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Remote Greenstone">edit</a>]</div><a name="Future_Work"></a><h2>Future Work</h2>
+<ul>
+<li>When trying to load the dictionary (in Dictionary.java: ResourceBundle.getBundle(...)), the applet looks in the wrong place initially, causing errors in the Apache error_log. Finding some way of telling Java to look in the JAR file immediately would be nice.
+
+<li>Pressing the "Cancel Build" button during the importing or building process doesn't have an immediate effect. The GLI code needs to be changed so GShell (and at a further level, RemoteGreenstoneServer) is a listener on the Cancel button. This will mean the cancel event can be processed much quicker.
+
+<li>When the GLI is quit with jobs still on the remote Greenstone server queue, it will wait until these are finished before exiting. A dialog telling the user what is happening would be nice. This should probably have a "force quit" button, even if this is not recommended.
+
+<li>Loading the options for DBPlug.pm causes an exception when using a Windows server. If you need to use DBPlug then you must install the DBI and DBD modules that it requires.
+</ul>
+
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+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
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+	  </div>
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+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
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+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
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+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
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+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
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+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Remote_Greenstone">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Remote_Greenstone">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
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+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 04:09, 12 July 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 2,816 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone3.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone3.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone3.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,309 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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+    <title>Remote Greenstone3 - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
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+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Remote Greenstone3</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone3.html#Building_Greenstone_collections_remotely_on_Greenstone3"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Building Greenstone collections remotely on Greenstone3</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone3.html#Installation"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Installation</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-3'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone3.html#Server"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Server</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-3'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone3.html#Client"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Client</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone3.html#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-3'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone3.html#General"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">General</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-3'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone3.html#Authentication"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Authentication</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-3'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone3.html#Collection_locking"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Collection locking</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-3'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone3.html#E-mail_notifications"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">E-mail notifications</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Remote_Greenstone3.html#Troubleshooting"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Troubleshooting</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone3&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Remote Greenstone3">edit</a>]</div><a name="Building_Greenstone_collections_remotely_on_Greenstone3"></a><h1>Building Greenstone collections remotely on Greenstone3</h1>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone3&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Remote Greenstone3">edit</a>]</div><a name="Installation"></a><h2>Installation</h2>
+<p>This section describes how to install the remote building functionality on server and client.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone3&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Remote Greenstone3">edit</a>]</div><a name="Server"></a><h3>Server</h3>
+<p>The server can be a Linux, Mac OS X or Windows machine. It must have the <a href="http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.4.2/download.html" class='external text' title="http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.4.2/download.html" rel="nofollow">Java run-time</a> installed (version 1.4 or newer).
+</p>
+<p>
+To install the server-side functionality:
+</p>
+<p><ol>
+</p>
+<li>Download Greenstone v3 and install it. 
+
+<li>Open the "greenstone3/packages/tomcat/conf/web.xml" file with a text editor, and then search for "CGI". Specify the full path of the Perl library of parameter "executable" of CGIServlet. On Linux, it may look like:
+ <pre>&lt;init-param&gt;
+ 	&lt;param-name&gt;executable&lt;/param-name&gt;
+        &lt;param-value&gt;/usr/bin/perl&lt;/param-alue&gt;
+  &lt;/init-param&gt;</pre>
+<p>for Windows, it may look like:
+</p>
+<pre>&lt;init-param&gt;
+	&lt;param-name&gt;executable&lt;/param-name&gt;
+        &lt;param-value&gt;c:\perl\bin\perl.exe&lt;/param-value&gt;
+&lt;/init-param&gt;</pre>
+  Check that Tomcat and Greenstone3 are working correctly by visiting <pre>http://&lt;your-machine-name&gt;:&lt;port&gt;/greenstone3/library</pre> The port will be "8080", unless this is already in use.
+<li>Edit the "greenstone3/web/WEB-INF/cgi/gsdl3site.cfg" file and set full paths of two home directories.
+On Linux, it may look like:
+<pre>gsdl3srchome    /research/greenstone3
+gsdlhome    /research/greenstone3/gs2build</pre>
+<p>On Windows, it may look like:
+</p>
+<pre>gsdl3srchome    c:\Program Files\greenstone3
+gsdlhome    c:\Program Files\greenstone3\gs2build</pre>
+<li>Edit the first line of the Greenstone3 "greenstone3/web/WEB-INF/cgi/gliserver4gs3.pl" file and specify the full path of the perl binary.<br />
+On Unix it is likely to be:
+  <pre>    #!/usr/bin/perl -w</pre>
+<p>On Windows this will be (if installed in the default location):
+</p>
+  <pre>    #!C:\Program Files\Greenstone\bin\windows\perl\bin\perl -w</pre>
+<li>Visit <pre>http://&lt;your-machine-name&gt;:&lt;port&gt;/greenstone3/cgi-bin/gliserver4gs3.pl?cmd=check-installation</pre> in a web browser. You should get a message saying "Java found" and "Installation OK!". If you get a message saying "Java failed", check that the Java run-time is installed and on the webserver's path. If you get a "500 Internal Server Error", check the error log of your webserver for the cause.<br /><b>Important: You cannot continue with these instructions until this is successful, as nothing will work without it!</b>
+<li>Make the Greenstone "collect" directory writeable by the webserver user.<br />
+On Unix, use chmod.<br />
+On Windows, run in a DOS prompt:
+  <pre>    cacls &quot;C:\Program Files\Greenstone3\web\sites\localsite\collect&quot; /P Everyone:F</pre>
+<li>Edit the Greenstone3 "greenstone3/web/interfaces/default/transform/home.xsl" file and uncomment the line below to display an authentication link on the home page.
+<pre>&lt;xsl:for-each select=&quot;service[@type='authen']&quot;&gt;
+      &lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;{$library_name}?a=g&amp;rt=r&amp;sa=authen&amp;s={@name}&amp;s1.aup=Login&amp;s1.un=&amp;s1.asn=&quot;&gt;
+&lt;xsl:value-of select=&quot;displayItem[@name='name']&quot;/&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;xsl:value-of select=&quot;displayItem[@name='description']&quot;/&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
+&lt;/xsl:for-each&gt;</pre>
+<li>Add some user accounts by visiting the Greenstone home page and clicking the "Administration Page" button, then "add a new user". See the Authentication section below for more information.
+</ol>
+
+<p>
+If your end users will use the stand-alone GLI client, this is all that is required on the server, and you can skip the next section.
+</p>
+<p>
+If your end users will be using the GLI applet, you also need to do the following four steps. These require the Java SDK -- if you don't already have this you can download it from <a href="http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.4.2/download.html" class='external text' title="http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.4.2/download.html" rel="nofollow">here</a>.
+</p>
+<p><ol>
+</p>
+<li>In the Greenstone "gli" directory, run
+  <pre>    keytool -genkey -alias privateKey -keystore appletstore -storepass greenstone</pre>
+  Enter the appropriate details for your organization. When it asks to enter the key password for &lt;privateKey&gt;, choose your own password or hit Enter to use "greenstone".</li>
+<li>Run
+  <pre>    jarsigner -keystore appletstore -signedjar SignedGatherer.jar GLI.jar privateKey</pre>
+  When it prompts, enter the password you used above.</li>
+<li>Move the created SignedGatherer.jar file into the Greenstone "greenstone3/web/applet" directory.</li>
+<li>Edit the Greenstone3 "greenstone3/web/interfaces/default/transform/home.xsl" file and uncomment the line below to display a applet gli link on the home page:</li>
+<pre>&lt;a href=&quot;{$library_name}?a=p&amp;sa=gli4gs3&quot;&gt;The Librarian Interface&lt;/a&gt;</pre>
+<p></ol>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone3&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Remote Greenstone3">edit</a>]</div><a name="Client"></a><h3>Client</h3>
+<p>The clients can be Linux, Mac OS X or Windows machines. To use the stand-alone GLI client:
+</p><p><ol>
+</p>
+<li>Download gli-client-3.zip and unzip it.
+<li>Run "client-gli4gs3.bat" (Windows) or "client-gli4gs3.sh" (Linux/Mac OS X).
+  The first time you run the GLI client on a machine it will ask for the Greenstone3 library. It will be <pre>http://&lt;your-machine-name&gt;:&lt;port&gt;/greenstone3</pre>
+<li>If the URL of the Greenstone3 library is not given, it will ask for the Greenstone3 gliserver URL. The Greenstone3 gliserver URL will be
+<pre>http://&lt;your-machine-name&gt;:&lt;port&gt;/greenstone3/cgi-bin/gliserver4gs3.pl</pre>
+<p></ol>
+</p><p>To use the GLI applet:
+</p><p><ol>
+</p>
+<li>Visit your Greenstone3 library homepage and click "The Librarian Interface", half-way down the page. The GLI applet will begin loading, and after a short wait a "Launch Greenstone Librarian Interface" button will become available. Click this to start using the GLI applet.
+</ol>
+
+<p>
+You can now use the GLI to edit collections on the server or create new collections. The first time a collection is opened on a particular machine the GLI will read the plugin and classifier information from the server (this may take a minute or two).
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone3&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Remote Greenstone3">edit</a>]</div><a name="Notes"></a><h2>Notes</h2>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone3&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Remote Greenstone3">edit</a>]</div><a name="General"></a><h3>General</h3>
+<p>There can be a lot of data transferred between the client and the server. This can make using the client impractical if you don't have a high speed connection between it and the server.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone3&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Remote Greenstone3">edit</a>]</div><a name="Authentication"></a><h3>Authentication</h3>
+<p>The existing Greenstone3 user account system is used for authentication. User information is stored in /etc/usersDB of each site, for example, the "web/sites/localsite/etc/usersDb" dirtory stores users' infomation at site "localsite" , and the Administration pages (linked from your Greenstone library homepage) are used for adding, editing and removing users.
+</p>
+<p>
+Groups are used to control the actions that users are allowed to perform on collections. <b>The group settings have changed for Greenstone v2.71, and you will need to edit your existing users if you are upgrading.</b> The possible group settings are:
+</p>
+<ul>
+<li><b>all-collections-editor</b>: Users in this group can create new collections and edit all collections. (Equivalent to the "remote-superuser" group of Greenstone v2.70w and earlier).
+
+<li><b>personal-collections-editor</b>: Users in this group can create and edit "personal" collections. Personal collections have the user's username at the start of the internal collection name, and are created when the "this is a personal collection" option is ticked in the GLI "New Collection" dialog.
+
+<li><b>&lt;collection-name&gt;-collection-editor</b>: Users is this group can create and edit the "&lt;collection-name&gt;" collection. (Equivalent to the "&lt;collection-name&gt;-maintainer" group of Greenstone v2.70w and earlier).
+</ul>
+<p>For example, a user who needs to create and edit their own collections, and collaborate with others on a shared "papers" collection, should be in the "personal-collections-editor", and "papers-collection-editor" groups.
+</p><p>Note: After the greenstone3 environment has been set, use commands below to export the users table to text or import user records from a txt file.
+</p>
+<ul><li>Export a users table</li>
+<pre>java org.greenstone.gsdl3.util.usersDB2txt full_path_of_usersDB</pre>
+<li>Import user records from a text file to a users table</li>
+<pre>java org.greenstone.gsdl3.txt2usersDB full_path_of_the_text_file full_path_of_the_usersDB</pre>
+</ul>
+<ul><li>config3Remote.xml stores configuration of the gli. On linux, it is located at:</li>
+<pre>~/.gli</pre>
+<p>On Windows, it is located at:
+</p>
+<pre>c:\Documents and Settings\username\Application Data\Greenstone\GLI</pre>
+<p>Check two arguments ("general.gliserver_url", "general.library_url") of the file if the remote gli couldn't connect to the server. They are like to be:
+</p>
+<pre> &lt;Argument name=&quot;general.gliserver_url&quot;&gt;http://localhost:8080/greenstone3/cgi-bin/gliserver4gs3.pl&lt;/Argument&gt;
+ &lt;Argument name=&quot;general.library_url&quot;&gt;http://localhost:8080/greenstone3&lt;/Argument&gt;</pre>
+</ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone3&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Remote Greenstone3">edit</a>]</div><a name="Collection_locking"></a><h3>Collection locking</h3>
+<p>Each collection may only be open by one person at a time, to prevent synchronization problems. When a request is sent to the server to perform an action on a collection, the server will check for a gli.lck file in the collection directory. This file contains the username of the person who has the collection locked. When the collection is closed, this lock file is deleted.
+</p>
+<p>
+If the collection is locked by someone other than the person making the request, the action fails. This is reported to the user on the client side, and this user is given the option of "stealing" the lock. Generally this is not recommended, since work may be lost if multiple users are editing a collection at one time. Stealing the lock should only be done in the case where the GLI has exited abnormally and the lock file was not deleted, and only after consulting with the user who has the collection locked.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone3&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Remote Greenstone3">edit</a>]</div><a name="E-mail_notifications"></a><h3>E-mail notifications</h3>
+<p>The server can be configured to e-mail the system administrator whenever a collection finishes building. To enable this, edit the Greenstone "cgi-bin/gliserver.pl" file and set "$mail_enabled" to "1", and "$mail_to_address", "$mail_from_address", and "$mail_smtp_server" appropriately.
+</p><p><br />
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Remote_Greenstone3&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Remote Greenstone3">edit</a>]</div><a name="Troubleshooting"></a><h2>Troubleshooting</h2>
+<p>If you are experiencing problems or error messages when using the client/server version of the GLI, please follow these steps:
+</p><p><ol>
+</p>
+<li>Make sure you are using the latest version of Greenstone and have downloaded any patches on this page.
+<li>Record any popup GLI error messages, and the last action you performed.
+<li>Check for Java exceptions. If you're using the client version of the GLI, these will appear in the black GLI window (Windows) or in the terminal where you ran the GLI (Unix). If you're using the applet version of the GLI, these will appear in the Java Console (available from one of your browser menus -- for Firefox you may have to download <a href="https://addons.mozilla.org/firefox/141/" class='external text' title="https://addons.mozilla.org/firefox/141/" rel="nofollow">this extension</a>).
+<li>Check for errors at the bottom of the log files of your webserver. If you're using Apache (recommended), look in the "error_log" file in the Apache "logs" directory.
+<li>If you are having problems with the applet version, please check if you have the same problems with the client version.
+</ol>
+
+If you think you have found a bug, or still can't get this functionality working, send a message to the Greenstone Users mailing list. Please include the following information:
+
+<ul>
+<li>The operating system of the server machine
+<li>The version of Greenstone installed on the server machine
+<li>The version of Java installed on the server machine
+<li>The operating system of the client machine
+<li>Whether you are using the client or applet version of the GLI
+<li>The actions you performed leading up to where the error or problem occurs
+<li>The complete text of any popup GLI error messages, exceptions or errors in the webserver log file
+</ul>
+<p>&lt;/pre&gt;
+</p>
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+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
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+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
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+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Remote_Greenstone3">What links here</a></li>
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+	      	    </ul>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Running_Greenstone.html
===================================================================
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+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Running_Greenstone.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,187 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
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+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
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+
+	<div id="meat">
+
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+      <div id="column-content">
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+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Running Greenstone</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Running_Greenstone.html#OK.2C_I.27ve_installed_Greenstone._Now_how_do_I_make_it_go.3F"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">OK, I've installed Greenstone. Now how do I make it go?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Running_Greenstone.html#What_web_browser_do_I_need_to_view_Greenstone_collections.3F"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">What web browser do I need to view Greenstone collections?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Running_Greenstone.html#When_I_start_the_Windows_local_library_there_are_two_buttons_in_the_dialog_box.2C_.22Enter_Library.22_and_.22Restricted_Version.22._They_both_seem_to_do_the_same_thing.2C_what.27s_the_difference.3F"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">When I start the Windows local library there are two buttons in the dialog box, "Enter Library" and "Restricted Version". They both seem to do the same thing, what's the difference?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Running_Greenstone.html#So_when_should_I_use_the_.22Restricted_Version.22_of_the_local_library.3F"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">So when should I use the "Restricted Version" of the local library?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Running_Greenstone.html#When_I_start_the_Windows_local_library_my_computer_asks_me_to_dial_up_my_Internet_Service_Provider._Do_I_really_need_to_be_online_to_run_Greenstone.3F"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">When I start the Windows local library my computer asks me to dial up my Internet Service Provider. Do I really need to be online to run Greenstone?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Running_Greenstone.html#I.27m_trying_to_use_the_Windows_local_library._My_web_browser_is_starting_up_as_expected_but_the_Greenstone_home_page_never_gets_loaded_or_gives_an_error_message._What.27s_wrong.3F"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">I'm trying to use the Windows local library. My web browser is starting up as expected but the Greenstone home page never gets loaded or gives an error message. What's wrong?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Running_Greenstone.html#Where_can_I_get_more_Greenstone_collections.3F"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Where can I get more Greenstone collections?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Running_Greenstone.html#When_I_attempt_to_access_certain_parts_of_Greenstone_I.27m_asked_for_a_username_and_password._What_do_I_enter.3F"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">When I attempt to access certain parts of Greenstone I'm asked for a username and password. What do I enter?</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Running_Greenstone.html#When_I_use_the_large_query_box_function_I_occassionally_get_a_Not_Found_error."><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">When I use the large query box function I occassionally get a Not Found error.</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Running_Greenstone.html#How_do_I_get_usage_information_for_my_library.3F"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">How do I get usage information for my library?</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<a name="OK.2C_I.27ve_installed_Greenstone._Now_how_do_I_make_it_go.3F"></a><h2>OK, I've installed Greenstone. Now how do I make it go?</h2>
+<p>If you're using the Windows local library you should be able to simply select "Greenstone Digital Library" from within the programs in your start menu.
+</p><p>If you're using the web library things are a little less obvious however. First make sure your webserver is configured correctly and is running (see the <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqrun-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=docs" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqrun-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=docs" rel="nofollow">Greenstone Installer's Guide</a> and your webserver's documentation for details). You can then simply open your web browser and point it at the URL of Greenstone's library executable. This is dependant on the way you configured Greenstone and your webserver. Typically it might be something like <a href="http://localhost/gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe" class='external free' title="http://localhost/gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe" rel="nofollow">http://localhost/gsdl/cgi-bin/library.exe</a>.
+</p>
+<a name="What_web_browser_do_I_need_to_view_Greenstone_collections.3F"></a><h2>What web browser do I need to view Greenstone collections?</h2>
+<p>Greenstone relies on a web browser that supports tables, javascript, and in some places, frames. Any reasonably modern browser will do. Examples are Microsoft Internet Explorer 4, Netscape 4, and Mozilla. Newer releases of all these browsers will also work.
+</p><p>If you find that your favourite web browser does not work with Greenstone, please <a href="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqrun-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=support" class='external text' title="http://www.greenstone.org/cgi-bin/library?e=p-en-faqrun-utfZz-8&amp;a=p&amp;p=support" rel="nofollow">contact us</a>.
+</p><p><i>Note that there is an exception to the rule that any modern browser will do when running Greenstone. That is when you're using the restricted version of the Windows local library when you must use Netscape. See the discussion below on the differences between the "Restricted Version" and the standard "Enter Library" version of the local library for details</i>.
+</p>
+<a name="When_I_start_the_Windows_local_library_there_are_two_buttons_in_the_dialog_box.2C_.22Enter_Library.22_and_.22Restricted_Version.22._They_both_seem_to_do_the_same_thing.2C_what.27s_the_difference.3F"></a><h2>When I start the Windows local library there are two buttons in the dialog box, "Enter Library" and "Restricted Version". They both seem to do the same thing, what's the difference?</h2>
+<p>The webserver built into the local library uses the networking software built into your Windows operating system in order to function. If your computer has never been connected to a network this networking software may not be installed however. For this reason Greenstone comes with some networking software of it's own that it will use if it can't find any installed on your computer.
+</p><p>When you click the "Enter Library" button, Greenstone first checks to see if your computer has it's own networking software. If it does, it starts up using that, if not it starts up using it's own networking software.
+</p><p>When you click the "Restricted Version" button, Greenstone doesn't bother checking your system for networking software, it just goes ahead and uses it's own.
+</p><p>The catch is that there are several limitations with using the Greenstone supplied networking software. The most important limitations are that the local library won't be accessible from the network if run in this way (that is, it really will be "local" to the machine on which it's running) and that it must use a Netscape web browser. Using your computer's built-in networking software is therefore the prefered option.
+</p>
+<a name="So_when_should_I_use_the_.22Restricted_Version.22_of_the_local_library.3F"></a><h2>So when should I use the "Restricted Version" of the local library?</h2>
+<p>Since Greenstone will automatically use it's own networking software if it can't find any installed on your computer it should not normally be necessary to run the "Restricted Version" explicitly.
+</p><p>Times when it may be necessary are.
+</p>
+<dl><dd><ul><li> If your computer's networking software has been installed incorrectly.
+</li><li> If Windows keeps attempting to dial up your internet service provider when you click the "Enter Library" button.
+</li></ul>
+</dd></dl>
+<a name="When_I_start_the_Windows_local_library_my_computer_asks_me_to_dial_up_my_Internet_Service_Provider._Do_I_really_need_to_be_online_to_run_Greenstone.3F"></a><h2>When I start the Windows local library my computer asks me to dial up my Internet Service Provider. Do I really need to be online to run Greenstone?</h2>
+<p>No you don't need to be online. This is caused by the webserver built into Greenstone's local library sending a message to your computer's networking software to make sure it's functioning correctly. On many Windows systems this causes the familiar dial up dialog box to appear. In most situations you can simply cancel the dialog box and (if required) press your browser's reload button to continue.
+</p><p>If this does not solve the problem, try starting the local library by clicking the "Restricted Version" button rather than the "Enter Library" button. See the discussion above on the differences between the standard and restricted versions of the local library for further details.
+</p>
+<a name="I.27m_trying_to_use_the_Windows_local_library._My_web_browser_is_starting_up_as_expected_but_the_Greenstone_home_page_never_gets_loaded_or_gives_an_error_message._What.27s_wrong.3F"></a><h2>I'm trying to use the Windows local library. My web browser is starting up as expected but the Greenstone home page never gets loaded or gives an error message. What's wrong?</h2>
+<dl><dd><ol><li> Check your web browser's internet proxy settings and turn proxies off (use Edit preferences on Netscape or Internet options on Explorer).
+</li><li> If Internet Explorer gives a message saying "The page cannot be displayed" and "Cannot find server or DNS error" at the bottom of the page, check in your network settings that your computer's name is set up correctly. For example, if there is a DNS suffix entered in your TCP/IP properties (in the Control Panel), make sure that your host name and suffix are correct for your computer. If the server is running correctly, you should be able to connect by visiting <a href="http://127.0.0.1/" class='external free' title="http://127.0.0.1/" rel="nofollow">http://127.0.0.1/</a> in a web browser on the same machine that the local library is running on.
+</li></ol>
+</dd></dl>
+<a name="Where_can_I_get_more_Greenstone_collections.3F"></a><h2>Where can I get more Greenstone collections?</h2>
+<p>Collections like those at <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/" rel="nofollow">www.nzdl.org</a> will soon be made available for download.
+</p>
+<a name="When_I_attempt_to_access_certain_parts_of_Greenstone_I.27m_asked_for_a_username_and_password._What_do_I_enter.3F"></a><h2>When I attempt to access certain parts of Greenstone I'm asked for a username and password. What do I enter?</h2>
+<p>The initial username required here is <i>admin</i>.
+</p><p>If you installed Greenstone using the InstallShield installer on Windows or the Install.sh script on Unix you should have been asked to set a password during the installation procedure.
+</p><p>If you didn't, don't worry, the password defaults to being <i>admin</i>.
+</p><p>So if you don't know what to enter you should try username = <i>admin</i>, password = <i>admin</i>.
+</p>
+<a name="When_I_use_the_large_query_box_function_I_occassionally_get_a_Not_Found_error."></a><h2>When I use the <i>large query box</i> function I occassionally get a <i>Not Found</i> error.</h2>
+<p>This may be caused by the URL becoming too long for your web browser. Because Greenstone currently stores all state information in the URL, if you do a search for a long phrase the URL can become very long. Different browser's on different platforms have different maximum URL lengths but in general it seems that Netscape can handle longer URLs than can Microsoft Internet Explorer.
+</p><p>There is very little you can do to avoid this problem with the way Greenstone is currently implemented (aside from not searching for long phrases). Future versions of Greenstone may store some state information on the server rather than in the URL but this has yet to be implemented.
+</p>
+<a name="How_do_I_get_usage_information_for_my_library.3F"></a><h2>How do I get usage information for my library?</h2>
+<p>You can enable usage logging by setting the logcgiargs option to true in greenstone/etc/main.cfg. This saves a log in greenstone/etc/usage.txt. The log entry is basically a list of cgi arguments. One entry is generated for each page request to the library.
+</p><p>You can find out what the cgi arguments mean by going to the Administration page of your Greenstone installation, or from <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Actions_and_Arguments" title="Actions and Arguments"> this page</a>.
+</p><div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Running_Greenstone.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Running_Greenstone</a>"</div>
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+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
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+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
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+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Running_Greenstone">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Running_Greenstone&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Sample_collectcfg.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Sample_collectcfg.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Sample_collectcfg.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,266 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
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+    <title>Sample collectcfg - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
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+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
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+
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+
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+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Sample collectcfg</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table cellpadding="2">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=acrodemo" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=acrodemo" rel="nofollow">Acronym Extraction Demo</a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/acrodemo/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/acrodemo/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=aginfo" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=aginfo" rel="nofollow">Agricultural Information Modules</a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/aginfo/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/aginfo/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=arabic" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=arabic" rel="nofollow">Arabic Collection</a>  	</td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/arabic/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/arabic/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=tulane" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=tulane" rel="nofollow">Bibliotheque pour le Developpement</a> </td><td> <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/tulane/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/tulane/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=chinese" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=chinese" rel="nofollow">Chinese Demonstration collection</a> </td><td> <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/chinese/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/chinese/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=ccgi" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=ccgi" rel="nofollow">Collection on Critical Global Issues (2nd edition)</a> </td><td> <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/ccgi/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/ccgi/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=coltbib" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=coltbib" rel="nofollow">Colt Bibliography</a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/coltbib/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/coltbib/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=csbib" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=csbib" rel="nofollow">Computer Science Bibliographies</a> </td><td> <a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/csbib/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/csbib/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=tcc" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=tcc" rel="nofollow">The Computists' Weekly</a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/tcc/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/tcc/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=gtz" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=gtz" rel="nofollow">Crystal</a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/gtz/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/gtz/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=faodocs" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=faodocs" rel="nofollow">FAO document repository</a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/faodocs/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/faodocs/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=fi1998" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=fi1998" rel="nofollow">FAO on the Internet (1998)</a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/fi1998/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/fi1998/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=fnl1_1" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=fnl1 1" rel="nofollow">Food and Nutrition Library 1.1</a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/fnl1_1/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/fnl1 1/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=gsarch" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=gsarch" rel="nofollow">Greenstone Archives </a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/gsarch/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/gsarch/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=hcibib" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=hcibib" rel="nofollow">HCI Bibliography</a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/hcibib/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/hcibib/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=hdl" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=hdl" rel="nofollow">Humanity Development Library</a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/hdl/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/hdl/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=ipc" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=ipc" rel="nofollow">Indigenous Peoples</a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/ipc/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/ipc/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=aircraft" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=aircraft" rel="nofollow">Kiwi Aircraft Images </a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/aircraft/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/aircraft/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=folktale" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=folktale" rel="nofollow">Language Extraction Demo</a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/folktale/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/folktale/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=mhl" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=mhl" rel="nofollow">Medical and Health Library </a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/mhl/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/mhl/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=wordpdf" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=wordpdf" rel="nofollow">MSWord and PDF Demonstration</a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/wordpdf/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/wordpdf/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=musvid" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=musvid" rel="nofollow">Music Videos </a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/musvid/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/musvid/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=rocky" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=rocky" rel="nofollow">OAI Plugin demo</a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/rocky/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/rocky/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=povsem" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=povsem" rel="nofollow">Poverty Alleviation </a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/povsem/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/povsem/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=gberg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=gberg" rel="nofollow">Project Gutenberg</a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/gberg/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/gberg/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=tidbits" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=tidbits" rel="nofollow">TidBITS</a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/tidbitsetc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/tidbitsetc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file </a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=paho" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=paho" rel="nofollow">Virtual Disaster Library </a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/paho/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/paho/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=whist" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=whist" rel="nofollow">Women's History</a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/whist/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/whist/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=envl" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=envl" rel="nofollow">World Environment Library </a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/envl/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/envl/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=ohist" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=ohist" rel="nofollow">Youth Oral History</a> </td><td>
+<p><a href="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/ohist/etc/collect.cfg" class='external text' title="http://www.nzdl.org/gsdl/collect/ohist/etc/collect.cfg" rel="nofollow">collect.cfg file</a>
+</p>
+</td></tr></table>
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Sample_collectcfg.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Sample_collectcfg</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
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+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Sample_collectcfg&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-edit"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Sample_collectcfg&amp;action=edit">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history"
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+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Sample_collectcfg">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
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+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
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+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
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+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
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+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
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+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
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+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Sample_collectcfg">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Sample_collectcfg">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Sample_collectcfg&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2003.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2003.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2003.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,191 @@
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+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
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+</div>
+
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+
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+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Three day course 2003</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p style="font-size: 150%;">UNESCO-USP Workshop on the<br />
+Greenstone Digital Library Software</p>
+<p>University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji<br />
+November 24 - 26, 2003</p>
+<table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2003.html#Introduction"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Introduction</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2003.html#Instructors"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Instructors</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2003.html#Schedule"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Schedule</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2003.html#Day_1"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Day 1</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2003.html#Day_2"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Day 2</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2003.html#Day_3"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Day 3</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2003.html#Download"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Download</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<a name="Introduction"></a><h2>Introduction</h2>
+<p>This workshop will promote the development and sharing of digital library collections using the freely available Greenstone Digital Library software. The aim is to train trainers, and participants are expected to promote digital library collection development by conducting similar programmes in their countries. The workshop is sponsored by the UNESCO Communication and Information (CI) programme, together with USP Library in Suva, Fiji.
+</p>
+<a name="Instructors"></a><h3>Instructors</h3>
+<p>Dr. Ian H. Witten<br />
+Dr David Bainbridge<br />
+Mr Michael Dewsnip<br />
+</p>
+<a name="Schedule"></a><h2>Schedule</h2>
+<a name="Day_1"></a><h3>Day 1</h3>
+<ul><li> 08:30-09:00   Welcome, introduce participants and instructors
+</li><li> 09:00-10:30 	Greenstone: Overview of features, capabilities, applications
+</li><li> 10:30-11:00	Tea
+</li><li> 11:00-12:00 	Platforms, installation, configuration; accessing example collections
+</li><li> 12:00-13:00	Lunch
+</li><li> 13:00-15:00 	Lab: Installing Greenstone, browsing collections   
+</li><li> 15:00-15:15	Tea
+</li><li> 15:15-17:00 	Librarian interface: Building collections
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Day_2"></a><h3>Day 2</h3>
+<ul><li> 08:30-10:15   Lab: Building collections with the Librarian interface    
+</li><li> 10:15-10:30	Tea
+</li><li> 10:30-12:00 	Librarian interface: Adding and using metadata
+</li><li> 12:00-13:00	Lunch
+</li><li> 13:00-14:45 	Lab: Adding and using metadata    
+</li><li> 14:45-15:00	Tea
+</li><li> 15:00-17:00 	Librarian interface: Advanced features
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Day_3"></a><h3>Day 3</h3>
+<ul><li> 08:30-10:15   Lab: Configuring collections    
+</li><li> 10:15-10:30	Tea
+</li><li> 10:30-11:15 	Customizing your collection, creating a CD-ROM
+</li><li> 11:15-12:00 	Lab: Customizing your collection; creating a CD-ROM     
+</li><li> 12:00-13:00	Lunch
+</li><li> 13:00-14:00 	How building works; bibliography collections
+</li><li> 14:00-14:15	Tea
+</li><li> 14:15-15:15 	Multilingual support; interface languages; Niupepa
+</li><li> 15:15-16:00	Concluding session
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Download"></a><h2>Download</h2>
+<ul><li> <a href="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-workshop-sample-files-3day-nov2003.zip" class='external text' title="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-workshop-sample-files-3day-nov2003.zip" rel="nofollow">Sample files</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-workshop-materials-3day-nov2003.zip" class='external text' title="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-workshop-materials-3day-nov2003.zip" rel="nofollow">Entire workshop</a> (lectures, labs, and sample files)
+</li></ul>
+
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2004.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2004.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2004.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,195 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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+    <title>Three day course 2004 - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
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+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
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+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Three day course 2004</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p style="font-size: 150%;">Workshop on the<br />
+Greenstone Digital Library Software</p>
+<p style="font-size: 125%;">Suva, Fiji<br />
+September 2 - 4, 2004</p>
+<table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2004.html#Introduction"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Introduction</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2004.html#Instructors"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Instructors</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2004.html#Schedule"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Schedule</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2004.html#Day_1"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Day 1</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2004.html#Day_2"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Day 2</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2004.html#Day_3"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Day 3</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2004.html#Download"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Download</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<a name="Introduction"></a><h2>Introduction</h2>
+<p>This workshop will promote the development and sharing of digital library collections using the freely available Greenstone Digital Library software. The aim is to train trainers, and participants are expected to promote digital library collection development by conducting similar programmes in their countries. 
+</p>
+<a name="Instructors"></a><h3>Instructors</h3>
+<p>Dr David M Nichols <i> <a href="http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/~daven/" class='external free' title="http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/~daven/" rel="nofollow">http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/~daven/</a></i><br />
+Mr Michael Dewsnip <i> Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato, New Zealand</i><br />
+Mr Richard Manargh <i> DL Consulting <a href="http://dlconsulting.co.nz" class='external free' title="http://dlconsulting.co.nz" rel="nofollow">http://dlconsulting.co.nz</a></i>
+</p>
+<a name="Schedule"></a><h2>Schedule</h2>
+<p><i>(we may alter the schedule depending on how things go)</i>
+</p>
+<a name="Day_1"></a><h3>Day 1</h3>
+<ul><li> 08:30-09:00 Wecome, introduce participants and instructors
+</li><li> 09:00-10:30 Greenstone: Overview of features, capabilities, applications
+</li><li> 10:30-11:00 Tea
+</li><li> 11:00-12:00 Platforms, installation, configuration; accessing example collections
+</li><li> 12:00-13:00 Lunch
+</li><li> 13:00-15:00 Lab: Installing Greenstone, browsing collections   
+</li><li> 15:00-15:15 Tea
+</li><li> 15:15-17:00 Librarian interface: Building collections
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Day_2"></a><h3>Day 2</h3>
+<ul><li> 08:30-10:15 Lab: Building collections with the Librarian interface 
+</li><li> 10:15-10:30 Tea
+</li><li> 10:30-12:00 Librarian interface: Adding and using metadata
+</li><li> 12:00-13:00 Lunch
+</li><li> 13:00-14:45 Lab: Adding and using metadata]  
+</li><li> 14:45-15:00 Tea
+</li><li> 15:00-17:00 Librarian interface: Advanced features
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Day_3"></a><h3>Day 3</h3>
+<ul><li> 08:30-10:15 Lab: Configuring collections     
+</li><li> 10:15-10:30 Tea
+</li></ul>
+<p>From the rest of Day 3 we will be flexible about the content, there are several labs and topics we can cover: 
+</p>
+<dl><dd><dl><dd><ul><li> How building works; bibliography collections
+</li><li> Multilingual support; interface languages; Niupepa
+</li><li> Lab: Heterogeneous Documents and Multimedia
+</li><li> Customizing your collection, creating a CD-ROM
+</li><li> Lab: Customizing your collection, creating a CD-ROM 
+</li></ul>
+</dd></dl>
+</dd></dl>
+<ul><li>15:15-16:00 Concluding session
+</li></ul>
+<p><br />
+</p>
+<a name="Download"></a><h3>Download</h3>
+<div class="printfooter">
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2006.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2006.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2006.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,317 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Three day course 2006</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p style="font-size: 150%;">Conference and Workshop on the<br />
+Greenstone Digital Library Software</p>
+<p style="font-size: 125%;">Honolulu, Hawaii<br />
+June 6-8, 2006</p>
+<table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2006.html#Introduction"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Introduction</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2006.html#Instructors"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Instructors</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2006.html#Approximate_Schedule"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Approximate Schedule</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2006.html#Day_1"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Day 1</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2006.html#Day_2"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Day 2</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2006.html#Day_3"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Day 3</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Three_day_course_2006.html#Download"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Download</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Three_day_course_2006&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Three day course 2006">edit</a>]</div><a name="Introduction"></a><h2>Introduction</h2>
+<p>This was a two part event. The conference, held on the morning of the first day, consisted of a general introduction to Greenstone, including system overview, requirements, functionality; examples and demos;
+</p><p>The workshop took place over two and a half days, and consisted of lectures and labs dealing with various aspects of the Greenstone software.
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Three_day_course_2006&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Three day course 2006">edit</a>]</div><a name="Instructors"></a><h3>Instructors</h3>
+<p>Prof Ian Witten <br />
+Mrs Katherine Don <br />
+<i>Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato, New Zealand</i>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Three_day_course_2006&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Three day course 2006">edit</a>]</div><a name="Approximate_Schedule"></a><h2>Approximate Schedule</h2>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Three_day_course_2006&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Three day course 2006">edit</a>]</div><a name="Day_1"></a><h3>Day 1</h3>
+<p><b>09.00-13.00 Conference: Greenstone: an open source software for building digital collections</b> 
+</p><p>This talk introduces the capabilities of the Greenstone software and shows many example collections that have been built all over the world. Then the Greenstone Librarian Interface is demonstrated, which allows users to build their own collections of textual and multimedia information.
+</p>
+<ul><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/Conference_lecture.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/Conference lecture.pdf" rel="nofollow">Lecture</a> agenda:
+<ul><li> Overview
+<ul><li> What does Greenstone do?
+</li><li> Greenstone facts; standards
+</li><li> Reader's interface: examples of collections
+</li></ul>
+</li><li> Librarian Interface
+<ul><li> Build a collection in 30 sec (hobbits)
+</li><li> Build a multimedia collection (Beatles)
+</li><li> Adding and using metadata
+</li><li> Browsing classifiers, search indexes
+</li><li> Building a collection manually (for masochists only)
+</li></ul>
+</li><li> Advanced stuff
+<ul><li> Under the hood: collection configuration file
+</li><li> Customizing with macros
+</li><li> Personalizing your home page
+</li><li> Different interface languages
+</li><li> Examples of what others have done
+</li></ul>
+</li><li> Reaching out
+<ul><li> Serving and acquiring OAI
+</li><li> DSpace and METS
+</li><li> Greenstone3
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<p><b>14.00-17.00 Workshop session 1: Installing, browsing and building</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lecture_one.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lecture one.pdf" rel="nofollow">Lecture</a> agenda:
+<ul><li> Documentation and help
+</li><li> Installing pre-built collections
+</li><li> Greenstone: platforms
+</li><li> What's on the CD-ROM?
+</li><li> Installing Greenstone
+</li><li> Running Greenstone
+</li><li> Collection building
+</li><li> Downloading HTML
+</li><li> WORD documents
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lab_one.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lab one.htm" rel="nofollow">Lab</a> contents:
+<ul><li> Working with a pre-packaged collection (UNAIDS)
+</li><li> Installing Greenstone
+</li><li> Updating a Greenstone installation
+</li><li> Building a small collection of HTML files
+</li><li> A collection of Word and PDF filesâPart A
+</li><li> A large collection of HTML filesâTudor
+</li><li> Downloading files from the web
+</li><li> Enhanced Word document handling
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Three_day_course_2006&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Three day course 2006">edit</a>]</div><a name="Day_2"></a><h3>Day 2</h3>
+<p><b>09.00-12.30 Workshop session 2: Adding metadata&mdash;and using it</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lecture_two.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lecture two.pdf" rel="nofollow">Lecture</a> agenda:
+<ul><li> Overview of collection building
+</li><li> Metadata sets
+</li><li> Adding metadata in GLI
+</li><li> GLI tricks
+</li><li> Review: searching and browsing
+</li><li> General Options
+</li><li> Plugins
+</li><li> Searching - indexes
+</li><li> Browsing - classifiers
+</li><li> Simple formatting
+</li><li> Form search
+</li><li> Partitioning indexes
+</li><li> PHIND phrase index
+</li><li> CDS/ISIS
+</li><li> GEMS: metadata set editing
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lab_two.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lab two.htm" rel="nofollow">Lab</a> contents:
+<ul><li> A collection of Word and PDF filesâPart B
+</li><li> A simple image collection
+</li><li> Enhanced collection of HTML filesâTudor
+</li><li> Bibliographic collectionâPart A
+</li><li> CDS/ISIS collection
+</li><li> Editing metadata sets
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<p><b>13.30-17.00 Workshop session 3: Advanced collection configuration</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lecture_three.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lecture three.pdf" rel="nofollow">Lecture</a> agenda:
+<ul><li> Formatting
+</li><li> Formatting extended metadata
+</li><li> Changing metadata sets
+</li><li> Collection configuration file
+</li><li> GLI modes
+</li><li> PDF documents
+</li><li> PPT documents
+</li><li> Exploding metadata databases
+</li><li> Cross collection searching
+</li><li> Translate text
+</li><li> Full-text tagging
+</li><li> Creating a CD-ROM
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lab_three.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lab three.htm" rel="nofollow">Lab</a> contents:
+<ul><li> Formatting the Word and PDF collection
+</li><li> Formatting the HTML collectionâTudor
+</li><li> Pointing to documents on the web
+</li><li> Section tagging for HTML documents
+</li><li> Exporting a collection to CD-ROM/DVD
+</li><li> Enhanced PDF handling
+</li><li> Bibliographic collectionâPart B
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Three_day_course_2006&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Three day course 2006">edit</a>]</div><a name="Day_3"></a><h3>Day 3</h3>
+<p><b>09.00-12.30 Workshop session 4: Two examples&mdash;multimedia and scanned images</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lecture_four.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lecture four.pdf" rel="nofollow">Lecture</a> agenda:
+<ul><li> Multimedia and UnknownPlug
+</li><li> Scanned images
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lab_four.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lab four.htm" rel="nofollow">Lab</a> contents:
+<ul><li> Looking at a multimedia collection
+</li><li> Building a multimedia collection
+</li><li> Scanned image collection
+</li><li> Advanced scanned image collection
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<p><b>13.30-17.00 Workshop session 5: Interoperability</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lecture_five.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lecture five.pdf" rel="nofollow">Lecture</a> agenda:
+<ul><li> Interface customization
+</li><li> Customizing parts of a page
+</li><li> Greenstone in your organization
+</li><li> Installing the web library
+</li><li> Administration pages
+</li><li> User management
+</li><li> Restricting access to documents
+</li><li> Building a collection
+</li><li> The dreaded black screen
+</li><li> More on building
+</li><li> Multilingual support
+</li><li> Language interfaces
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lab_five.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/workshops/jun2006hawaii/lab five.htm" rel="nofollow">Lab</a> contents:
+<ul><li> Customization: macro files and stylesheets
+</li><li> Open Archives Initiative (OAI) collection
+</li><li> Downloading over OAI
+</li><li> Use METS as Greenstone's Internal Representation
+</li><li> Moving a collection from DSpace to Greenstone
+</li><li> Moving a collection from Greenstone to DSpace
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<p><br />
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Three_day_course_2006&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Three day course 2006">edit</a>]</div><a name="Download"></a><h2> Download</h2>
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+</li><li> <a href="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-workshop-notebook-3day-jun2006.zip?download" class='external text' title="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-workshop-notebook-3day-jun2006.zip?download" rel="nofollow">Workbook</a>: Contains just lectures and labs, no sample files
+</li><li> <a href="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-workshop-sample-files-3day-jun2006.zip?download" class='external text' title="http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/greenstone/gsdl-workshop-sample-files-3day-jun2006.zip?download" rel="nofollow">Sample files</a>: Sample files only, no lectures or labs
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Time_taken_to_explode_bibliography_records.html
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@@ -0,0 +1,165 @@
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+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Time taken to explode bibliography records</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <table cellpadding="4" border="1">
+
+<tr valign="top" align="center">
+<td><b>Number of records</b></td><td><b>Averge size (chars)</b></td><td><b>GLI Memory</b></td><td><b>Time to explode (min:sec)</b></td><td><b>Time to switch to Enrich panel (min:sec)</b></td><td><b>Time to modify a metadata entry (min:sec)</b>
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top" align="center">
+<td>1000</td><td>200 - 300</td><td>standard (128 M)</td><td>0:10 - 0:15</td><td>0:02 - 0:05 </td><td>0:02 - 0:05
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top" align="center">
+<td>2000</td><td>350 - 450 </td><td>standard (128 M)</td><td>0:15 - 0:20 </td><td>0:02 - 0:05 </td><td>0:02 - 0:05
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top" align="center">
+<td>4000</td><td>500 - 600 </td><td>standard (128 M)</td><td>0:40 - 0:45 </td><td>0:05 - 0:10 </td><td>0:05 - 0:10
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top" align="center">
+<td>6000</td><td>200 - 300 </td><td>standard (128 M)</td><td>1:10 -1:20 </td><td>0:05 - 0:10 </td><td>0:05 - 0:10
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top" align="center">
+<td>8000</td><td>400 - 500 </td><td>standard (128 M)</td><td>2:30 - 3:00 </td><td>0:05 - 0:10 </td><td>0:10 - 0:15
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top" align="center">
+<td>10000</td><td>300 - 400 </td><td>Increased to 256 M</td><td>2:30 - 3:00 </td><td>0:05 - 0:10 </td><td>0:10 - 0:15
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top" align="center">
+<td>12000</td><td>300 - 400 </td><td>Increased to 256 M</td><td>2:30 - 3:00 </td><td>0:05 - 0:10 </td><td>0:15 - 0:20
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top" align="center">
+<td>14000</td><td>400 - 500 </td><td>Increased to 256 M</td><td>4:30 - 5:00 </td><td>0:10 - 0:15 </td><td>0:20 - 0:25
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top" align="center">
+<td>16000</td><td>400 - 500 </td><td>Increased to 256 M</td><td>6:30 - 7:00 </td><td>0:10 - 0:15 </td><td>0:25 - 0:30
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top" align="center">
+<td>19000</td><td>350 - 450 </td><td>Increased to 256 M</td><td>9:30 - 10:00 </td><td>0:10 - 0:15 </td><td>0:25 - 0:30
+</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top" align="left">
+<td colspan="6">Note: This experiment was carried out on a 2.16 GHz computer with 1 GB RAM. Results will vary on different computers.
+<p>We plan to add a progress bar during the exploding operation.</p>
+<p>We hope to speed up the times taken to switch into the Enrich panel and edit metadata there.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Time_taken_to_explode_bibliography_records.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Time_taken_to_explode_bibliography_records</a>"</div>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Title,_ex.Title_and_dc.Title_notes.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Title,_ex.Title_and_dc.Title_notes.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Title,_ex.Title_and_dc.Title_notes.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,178 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
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+    <title>Title, ex.Title and dc.Title notes - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
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+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
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+</div>
+
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+
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+      <div id="column-content">
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+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Title, ex.Title and dc.Title notes</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <pre>> Would someone be kind enough to tell me the differences between dc.Title
+> and title? 
+>
+>   &lt;Metadata name="dc.Title"&gt;Gilmour, Gordon, Sapper; 7 Aust. Field Survey
+&gt; Sect., Darwin, Adelaide River&lt;/Metadata&gt;
+&gt;   &lt;Metadata name="Title"&gt;10&lt;/Metadata&gt;
+&gt;
+&gt; Where do they come from, what is the difference and how are they used?
+</pre>
+<p>Title is actually the ex.Title metadata, which is automatically extracted
+(if any) by plugins. Therefore [Title] or [ex.Title] in a format statement
+means the same thing. 
+</p><p>dc.Title is the Title element of the dublin core metadata set, which is normally manually assinged, for example, by the
+collection creator.
+</p>
+<pre>&gt; And how do they interact with the 'extended metadata names'?
+&gt; [parent:Title]The Title of the immediate parent section
+&gt; [parent(Top):Title]The
+&gt; Title of the topmost parent section
+</pre>
+<p>[parent:Title] is the value of the extracted title (ex.title) of the
+immediate parent section
+Likewise, [parent:dc.Title] is the value of dc.Title of the immediate
+parent section
+</p>
+<pre>&gt; and more generally - where can I find out more about how greenstone
+&gt; handles qualified dublin core metadata?
+&gt; [isn't there some use of the ^ symbol?]
+</pre>
+<p>1. Greenstone can use the qualified dublin core metadata set (or other
+metadata sets, even your own one):
+</p><p>In the Enrich panel -&gt;
+</p>
+<pre>click "Manage Metadata Sets" -&gt;
+click "Add" -&gt; 
+select "[Title] or [ex.Title],
+"dublin core metadata element set" from the "available Metadata Sets" list -&gt;
+click "add",  
+</pre>
+<p>then it will be added into the table (on the right hand side of the Enrich panel) where the metadata values can
+be entered.
+</p>
+<pre>Note: [Title] or [ex.Title] in a format statement means the same thing.   
+</pre>
+<p>2. Then the metadata elements of qualified dc can be used in a way as
+other metadata elements are, for example, [dc.Title^Alternative]
+</p><p>3. You can create your own metadata set using GEMS.
+</p><p>In the gli directory, run gems.bat or gems.sh.
+</p><p>Or In the Enrich panel -&gt; 
+</p>
+<pre>click "Manage Metadata Sets" -&gt; click "Add" -&gt; click "New".
+</pre>
+<p>4. The available metadata sets are stored in GSDLHOME/gli/metadata
+</p><p><br />
+Thanks Shaoqun!
+</p><div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Title,_ex.Title_and_dc.Title_notes.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Title%2C_ex.Title_and_dc.Title_notes</a>"</div>
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+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
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+	        value="Go"
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+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
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+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Title,_ex.Title_and_dc.Title_notes">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Title,_ex.Title_and_dc.Title_notes">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Title,_ex.Title_and_dc.Title_notes&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
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+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 01:34, 18 January 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 477 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
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Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,308 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
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+    <title>Tutorial exercises - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
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+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
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+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
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+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Tutorial exercises</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p><b>Greenstone tutorial exercises (August 2007)</b>
+</p><p>These work with Greenstone 2.74. <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/all_tutorials.html" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/all tutorials.html" rel="nofollow">Print version</a>
+</p><p>Translations of March 2006 version (for Greenstone 2.70):
+<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/es/index.html" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/es/index.html" rel="nofollow">Spanish</a>
+<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/fr/index.html" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/fr/index.html" rel="nofollow">French</a>
+<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/ru/index.html" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/ru/index.html" rel="nofollow">Russian</a>
+</p><p><br />
+</p>
+<table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Working_with_a_pre-packaged_collection_.28UNAIDS.29"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Working with a pre-packaged collection (UNAIDS)</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Working_with_a_pre-packaged_collection_.28Digital_Libraries_in_Education.29"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Working with a pre-packaged collection (Digital Libraries in Education)</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Installing_Greenstone"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Installing Greenstone</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Updating_a_Greenstone_installation"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Updating a Greenstone installation</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Building_a_small_collection_of_HTML_files"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Building a small collection of HTML files</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#A_simple_image_collection"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">A simple image collection</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#A_collection_of_Word_and_PDF_files"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">A collection of Word and PDF files</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Formatting_the_Word_and_PDF_collection"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Formatting the Word and PDF collection</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Enhanced_PDF_handling"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Enhanced PDF handling</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Enhanced_Word_document_handling"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Enhanced Word document handling</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Exporting_a_collection_to_CD-ROM.2FDVD"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Exporting a collection to CD-ROM/DVD</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#A_large_collection_of_HTML_files.E2.80.94Tudor"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">A large collection of HTML filesâTudor</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Enhanced_collection_of_HTML_files.E2.80.94Tudor"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">Enhanced collection of HTML filesâTudor</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Formatting_the_HTML_collection.E2.80.94Tudor"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">Formatting the HTML collectionâTudor</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Section_tagging_for_HTML_documents"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">Section tagging for HTML documents</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Downloading_files_from_the_web"><span class="tocnumber">16</span> <span class="toctext">Downloading files from the web</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Pointing_to_documents_on_the_web"><span class="tocnumber">17</span> <span class="toctext">Pointing to documents on the web</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Bibliographic_collection"><span class="tocnumber">18</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliographic collection</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#CDS.2FISIS_collection"><span class="tocnumber">19</span> <span class="toctext">CDS/ISIS collection</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Customization:_macro_files_and_stylesheets"><span class="tocnumber">20</span> <span class="toctext">Customization: macro files and stylesheets</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Looking_at_a_multimedia_collection"><span class="tocnumber">21</span> <span class="toctext">Looking at a multimedia collection</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Building_a_multimedia_collection"><span class="tocnumber">22</span> <span class="toctext">Building a multimedia collection</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Scanned_image_collection"><span class="tocnumber">23</span> <span class="toctext">Scanned image collection</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Advanced_scanned_image_collection"><span class="tocnumber">24</span> <span class="toctext">Advanced scanned image collection</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Open_Archives_Initiative_.28OAI.29_collection"><span class="tocnumber">25</span> <span class="toctext">Open Archives Initiative (OAI) collection</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Downloading_over_OAI"><span class="tocnumber">26</span> <span class="toctext">Downloading over OAI</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Use_METS_as_Greenstone.27s_Internal_Representation"><span class="tocnumber">27</span> <span class="toctext">Use METS as Greenstone's Internal Representation</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Moving_a_collection_from_DSpace_to_Greenstone"><span class="tocnumber">28</span> <span class="toctext">Moving a collection from DSpace to Greenstone</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Moving_a_collection_from_Greenstone_to_DSpace"><span class="tocnumber">29</span> <span class="toctext">Moving a collection from Greenstone to DSpace</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html#Editing_metadata_sets"><span class="tocnumber">30</span> <span class="toctext">Editing metadata sets</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<a name="Working_with_a_pre-packaged_collection_.28UNAIDS.29"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/unaids_cdrom.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/unaids cdrom.htm" rel="nofollow">Working with a pre-packaged collection (UNAIDS)</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Installing a pre-packaged Greenstone collection
+</li><li>Browsing around a Greenstone collection
+</li><li>Searching within a Greenstone collection
+</li><li>Leaving the Greenstone digital library
+</li><li>Exercise: Use the UNAIDS collection to answer these questions
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Working_with_a_pre-packaged_collection_.28Digital_Libraries_in_Education.29"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/IITE_cdrom.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/IITE cdrom.htm" rel="nofollow">Working with a pre-packaged collection (Digital Libraries in Education)</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Installing a pre-packaged collection
+</li><li>Browsing around a Greenstone collection
+</li><li>Exercise: Read the Help page; then answer these questions
+</li><li>Exercise: Use the How to build a digital library collection to answer these questions.
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Installing_Greenstone"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/install_greenstone.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/install greenstone.htm" rel="nofollow">Installing Greenstone</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Installing Greenstone on a Windows system
+</li><li>Installing ImageMagick on a Windows system
+</li><li>Installing Ghostscript on a Windows system
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Updating_a_Greenstone_installation"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/update_greenstone_installation.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/update greenstone installation.htm" rel="nofollow">Updating a Greenstone installation</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Removing Greenstone from a Windows system
+</li><li>Reinstalling Greenstone on a Windows system
+</li><li>Amalgamating different Greenstone collections
+</li><li>Installing the Greenstone language pack (2.62 and earlier)
+</li><li>Enabling other languages (2.63 and later)
+</li><li>Installing the Classic Interface Pack (2.63 and later)
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Building_a_small_collection_of_HTML_files"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/small_html_collection.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/small html collection.htm" rel="nofollow">Building a small collection of HTML files</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Running the Greenstone Librarian Interface
+</li><li>Starting a new collection
+</li><li>Adding documents to the collection
+</li><li>Building the collection
+</li><li>Viewing the extracted metadata
+</li><li>Viewing the internal links and external links
+</li><li>Setting up a shortcut in the Librarian interface
+</li></ul>
+<a name="A_simple_image_collection"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/simple_image_collection.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/simple image collection.htm" rel="nofollow">A simple image collection</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Adding Title and Description metadata
+</li><li>Change Format Features to display new metadata
+</li><li>Changing the size of image thumbnails
+</li><li>Adding a browsing classifier based on Description metadata
+</li><li>Creating a searchable index based on Description metadata
+</li></ul>
+<a name="A_collection_of_Word_and_PDF_files"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/word_pdf_collection.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/word pdf collection.htm" rel="nofollow">A collection of Word and PDF files</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Viewing the extracted metadata
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Formatting_the_Word_and_PDF_collection"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/formatting_word_pdf.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/formatting word pdf.htm" rel="nofollow">Formatting the Word and PDF collection</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Tidying up the default format statement
+</li><li>Linking to Greenstone version or original version of documents
+</li><li>Making bookshelves show how many items they contain
+</li><li>Displaying multi-valued metadata
+</li><li>Advanced multi-valued metadata
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Enhanced_PDF_handling"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/enhanced_pdf.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/enhanced pdf.htm" rel="nofollow">Enhanced PDF handling</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Modes in the Librarian Interface
+</li><li>Splitting PDFs into sections
+</li><li>Using image format
+</li><li>Using process_exp to control document processing (advanced)
+</li><li>Opening PDF files with query terms highlighted
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Enhanced_Word_document_handling"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/enhanced_word.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/enhanced word.htm" rel="nofollow">Enhanced Word document handling</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Using Windows native scripting
+</li><li>Modes in the Librarian Interface
+</li><li>Defining styles
+</li><li>Removing pre-defined table of contents
+</li><li>Extracting document properties as metadata
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Exporting_a_collection_to_CD-ROM.2FDVD"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/export_to_CDROM.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/export to CDROM.htm" rel="nofollow">Exporting a collection to CD-ROM/DVD</a></h2>
+<a name="A_large_collection_of_HTML_files.E2.80.94Tudor"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/large_html_collection.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/large html collection.htm" rel="nofollow">A large collection of HTML filesâTudor</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Extracting more metadata from the HTML
+</li><li>Blocking the stray images
+</li><li>Looking at different views of the files in the Gather and Enrich panels
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Enhanced_collection_of_HTML_files.E2.80.94Tudor"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/enhanced_html_collection.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/enhanced html collection.htm" rel="nofollow">Enhanced collection of HTML filesâTudor</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Adding hierarchically-structured metadata and a Hierarchy classifier
+</li><li>Adding a hierarchical phrase browser (PHIND)
+</li><li>Partitioning the full-text index based on metadata values
+</li><li>Controlling the building process
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Formatting_the_HTML_collection.E2.80.94Tudor"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/formatting_tudor.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/formatting tudor.htm" rel="nofollow">Formatting the HTML collectionâTudor</a></h2>
+<a name="Section_tagging_for_HTML_documents"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/section_tagging.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/section tagging.htm" rel="nofollow">Section tagging for HTML documents</a></h2>
+<a name="Downloading_files_from_the_web"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/downloading_from_internet.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/downloading from internet.htm" rel="nofollow">Downloading files from the web</a></h2>
+<a name="Pointing_to_documents_on_the_web"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/web_linking.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/web linking.htm" rel="nofollow">Pointing to documents on the web</a></h2>
+<a name="Bibliographic_collection"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/bibliography_collection.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/bibliography collection.htm" rel="nofollow">Bibliographic collection</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Using fielded searching
+</li><li>Exploding the database
+</li><li>Reformatting the collection to use the exploded metadata
+</li></ul>
+<a name="CDS.2FISIS_collection"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/cds_isis.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/cds isis.htm" rel="nofollow">CDS/ISIS collection</a></h2>
+<a name="Customization:_macro_files_and_stylesheets"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/using_macro_files.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/using macro files.htm" rel="nofollow">Customization: macro files and stylesheets</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Collection specific customisation
+</li><li>Changing the colour of the page title and page text
+</li><li>Make your own Greenstone home page
+</li><li>How to determine which images to replace (advanced)
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Looking_at_a_multimedia_collection"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/multimedia_collection_explore.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/multimedia collection explore.htm" rel="nofollow">Looking at a multimedia collection</a></h2>
+<a name="Building_a_multimedia_collection"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/multimedia_collection_build.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/multimedia collection build.htm" rel="nofollow">Building a multimedia collection</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Manually correcting metadata
+</li><li>Browsing by media type
+</li><li>Suppressing dummy text
+</li><li>Using AZCompactList rather than AZList
+</li><li>Making bookshelves show how many items they contain
+</li><li>Adding a Phind phrase browser
+</li><li>Branding the collection with an image
+</li><li>Using UnknownPlug
+</li><li>Cleaning up a title browser using regular expressions
+</li><li>Using non-standard macro files
+</li><li>Using different icons for different media types
+</li><li>Changing the collection's background image
+</li><li>Building a full-size version of the collection
+</li><li>Adding an image collage browser
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Scanned_image_collection"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/scanned_image_collection.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/scanned image collection.htm" rel="nofollow">Scanned image collection</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Grouping documents by series title and displaying dates within each group
+</li><li>Displaying scanned images and suppressing dummy text
+</li><li>Searching at page level
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Advanced_scanned_image_collection"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/advanced_scanned_image_collection.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/advanced scanned image collection.htm" rel="nofollow">Advanced scanned image collection</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Adding another newspaper to the collection
+</li><li>XML based item file
+</li><li>Using process_exp to control document processing
+</li><li>Switching between images and text
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Open_Archives_Initiative_.28OAI.29_collection"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/OAI_collection.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/OAI collection.htm" rel="nofollow">Open Archives Initiative (OAI) collection</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Tweaking the presentation with format statements
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Downloading_over_OAI"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/OAI_downloading.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/OAI downloading.htm" rel="nofollow">Downloading over OAI</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Downloading using the Librarian Interface
+</li><li>Downloading using the command line
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Use_METS_as_Greenstone.27s_Internal_Representation"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/METS_export.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/METS export.htm" rel="nofollow">Use METS as Greenstone's Internal Representation</a></h2>
+<a name="Moving_a_collection_from_DSpace_to_Greenstone"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/dspace_to_greenstone.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/dspace to greenstone.htm" rel="nofollow">Moving a collection from DSpace to Greenstone</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Adding indexing and browsing capabilities to match DSpace's
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Moving_a_collection_from_Greenstone_to_DSpace"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/greenstone_to_dspace.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/greenstone to dspace.htm" rel="nofollow">Moving a collection from Greenstone to DSpace</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Using Greenstone from the command line
+</li></ul>
+<a name="Editing_metadata_sets"></a><h2><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/gems.htm" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/tutorial/en/gems.htm" rel="nofollow">Editing metadata sets</a></h2>
+<ul><li>Running GEMS
+</li><li>Creating a new metadata set
+</li><li>Adding a new element to a metadata set
+</li></ul>
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Tutorial_exercises&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Tutorial_exercises&amp;action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Tutorial_exercises&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Tutorial_exercises">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Tutorial_exercises">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Tutorial_exercises&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 21:49, 3 September 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 14,443 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.18 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,144 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="User contributed,Changing the prefix for incremental OIDs,Collection specific plugins,Contributing to GreenstoneWiki,Creating CD/DVD-ROM collections,Customising export,Ecommerce,Explaining Plugins,Greenstone and LOCKSS,How to handle diacritics" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>User contributed - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">User contributed</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p>Only registered users can edit this page. To become a registered user, please see instructions <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Contributing_to_GreenstoneWiki.html" title="Contributing to GreenstoneWiki">here</a>.
+</p>
+<ul><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/How_to_handle_diacritics.html" title="How to handle diacritics">How to use the <i>filter_text()</i> function to handle diacritics</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Creating_CD/DVD-ROM_collections.html" title="Creating CD/DVD-ROM collections">How to build CD/DVD-ROMs from collections for redistribution</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_and_LOCKSS.html" title="Greenstone and LOCKSS">How to integrate Greenstone collections into LOCKSS systems</a>
+</li><li> <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=METS_Plugin&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="METS Plugin"> Moving data into and out of METS formated data</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Video_Library.html" title="Video Library"> Creating media streaming video library in Greenstone</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Ecommerce.html" title="Ecommerce"> E-commerce and Greenstone, monetizing library and archive collections</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Lucene.html" title="Lucene">Lucene</a> configuration - the Lucene command interface to access <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Proximity_search&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="Proximity search">proximity search</a>, <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Fuzzy_search&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="Fuzzy search">fuzzy search</a>, and <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Soundex_search&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="Soundex search">soundex search</a>.
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Imagemagick_on_OS_X.html" title="Installing Imagemagick on OS X">Installing Imagemagick on OS X</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Explaining_Plugins.html" title="Explaining Plugins">Explaining Plugins</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Collection_specific_plugins.html" title="Collection specific plugins">Collection specific plugins</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/MetadataCSVPlug_notes.html" title="MetadataCSVPlug notes">MetadataCSVPlug notes</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/large-cds-isis-databases.doc" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/large-cds-isis-databases.doc" rel="nofollow">Converting very large CDS/ISIS databases to Greenstone Collections</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Changing_the_prefix_for_incremental_OIDs.html" title="Changing the prefix for incremental OIDs">Changing the prefix for incremental OIDs</a> a quick hack that is occasionally useful.
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Title,_ex.Title_and_dc.Title_notes.html" title="Title, ex.Title and dc.Title notes">Title, ex.Title and dc.Title notes</a> some helpful details.
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Customising_export.html" title="Customising export">customising export</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Installing_Greenstone3_for_OS_X_users.html" title="Installing Greenstone3 for OS X users">Installing Greenstone3 for OS X users</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/French_manual_Greenstone.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/French manual Greenstone.pdf" rel="nofollow">Useful searching methods in Greenstone2 (in French)</a>
+</li><li> <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/A_Case_Study_of_the_AREU_Collection.pdf" class='external text' title="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/gsdoc/others/A Case Study of the AREU Collection.pdf" rel="nofollow">A case study of customizing the AREU collection</a>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:User_contributed&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-edit"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=User_contributed&amp;action=edit">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=User_contributed&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/User_contributed">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/User_contributed">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/User_contributed">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=User_contributed&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 00:50, 27 July 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 9,302 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.17 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Using_GreenstoneWiki.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Using_GreenstoneWiki.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Using_GreenstoneWiki.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,135 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Using GreenstoneWiki,Contributing to GreenstoneWiki,User contributed" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>Contributing to GreenstoneWiki - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
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+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Contributing to GreenstoneWiki</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub">(Redirected from <a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Using_GreenstoneWiki&amp;redirect=no" title="Using GreenstoneWiki">Using GreenstoneWiki</a>)</div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <ul><li> Anyone can read this Wiki, but not write to it (to prevent graffiti)
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> Registered Users are able to edit discussion pages, unprotected pages, and create new pages. To become a registered user, please create an account for this wiki, then <a href="mailto:Oranfry@cs.waikato.ac.nz" class='extiw' title="Email:Oranfry">email us</a> your username and we will add you to our list of registered accounts. Note, merely creating an account does not automatically make you a registered user. 
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> Greenstone project members can edit all pages in the wiki. If you have been contributing to this Wiki and want to join the documentation project, just let us know!
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> To add information or comment on protected pages in the wiki, please edit the associated discussion pages. Remember to look at these when searching for help about Greenstone.
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> The <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html" title="User contributed">User contributed</a> page is unprotected, and is the starting point for users to add their own documentation. We recommend that each new topic is added as its own page, and a link added to it from this page. <br />The easiest way to add a new page is to add a link to it from the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html" title="User contributed">User_contributed</a> page. Links look like [[Page_Name|Link text]]. All page names must be unique, and should describe the contents of the page in some way. Once the link is added into the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html" title="User contributed">User_contributed</a> page, clicking the link will create a new page that can be edited.
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li> If you already have some documentation about Greenstone, for example a web page or a PDF document, then please add in a link to it from the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html" title="User contributed">User contributed</a> page. External links look like [URL Link text]. Note the space between the URL and the text to display, and the single [] (internal wiki links have double [[  ]]).
+</li></ul>
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Contributing_to_GreenstoneWiki.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Contributing_to_GreenstoneWiki</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Contributing_to_GreenstoneWiki.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Contributing_to_GreenstoneWiki&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Contributing_to_GreenstoneWiki&amp;action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Contributing_to_GreenstoneWiki&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Using_GreenstoneWiki">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Contributing_to_GreenstoneWiki">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Contributing_to_GreenstoneWiki">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Contributing_to_GreenstoneWiki&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 22:02, 19 August 2007.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 3,920 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.14 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Video_Library.html
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Video_Library.html	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Video_Library.html	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,230 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta name="KEYWORDS" content="Video Library" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://greenstone.sourceforge.net/wiki/favicon.ico" />
+<link rel="copyright" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" />
+    <title>Video Library - GreenstoneWiki</title>
+    <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="print" href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css" />
+    <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://www.greenstone.org/style/intersite.css" />
+    <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="/wiki/skins/common/IEFixes.js"></script>
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]-->
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=-&amp;action=raw&amp;gen=js"></script>    <script type="text/javascript" src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js"></script>
+    <style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&smaxage=18000";
+@import "/wiki/index.php?title=-&action=raw&gen=css&maxage=18000";
+/*]]>*/</style>              </head>
+  <body                 class="ns-0">
+
+	<div id="topbun">
+	<a id="sitesbar_greenstoneorg" class="dim" href="http://www.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone.org</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_wiki" href="http://wiki.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone wiki</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_trac" class="dim" href="http://trac.greenstone.org/"><div><div>greenstone trac</div></div></a>
+	<a id="sitesbar_planet" class="dim"  href="http://planet.greenstone.org/"><div><div>planet greenstone</div></div></a>
+	<div class="clear"> </div>
+	<div class="rule"> </div>
+</div>
+
+	<div id="meat">
+
+    <div id="globalWrapper">
+      <div id="column-content">
+	<div id="content">
+	  <a name="top" id="top"></a>
+	  	  <h1 class="firstHeading">Video Library</h1>
+	  <div id="bodyContent">
+	    <h3 id="siteSub">From GreenstoneWiki</h3>
+	    <div id="contentSub"></div>
+	    	    	    <!-- start content -->
+	    <p><b>Documentation for creating streaming video library in Greenstone</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li>For collection based on audio/video media files including MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-4, MPA, WMV, WMA, ASF, MP3, QuickTime etc.
+</li></ul>
+<ul><li>This documentation gives brief instructions for developing a Media Streaming Video Library in Greenstone. For media streaming Unreal Media Server is required at the server end and Streaming Media Player is required to be installed at enduser's desktops. TCP protocol is used for communication between client and server. This protocol may not work satisfactorily if a firewall is installed on server. For more information about such and another aspects of Unreal Media Server and Steaming Media Player please visit website of Unreal Media Server at <a href="http://www.umediaserver.net" class='external free' title="http://www.umediaserver.net" rel="nofollow">http://www.umediaserver.net</a>
+<ul><li>Please note that this documentation works for Windows platform.
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Video_Library.html#Prerequisites_at_server_end"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Prerequisites at server end</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Video_Library.html#Installation_process"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Installation process</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Video_Library.html#Creating_Greenstone_collection"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Creating Greenstone collection</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Video_Library.html#Testing_phase"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Testing phase</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Video_Library.html#Example_collection"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Example collection</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p><script type="text/javascript"> if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } </script>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Video_Library&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Video Library">edit</a>]</div><a name="Prerequisites_at_server_end"></a><h2>Prerequisites at server end</h2>
+<p><b>1. Unreal Media Server</b>
+Downloaded from <a href="http://www.umediaserver.net/download.html" class='external free' title="http://www.umediaserver.net/download.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.umediaserver.net/download.html</a>
+</p><p>Downloaded file: UmediaServer.zip
+</p><p><b>2. Streaming media player</b>
+Downloaded from <a href="http://www.umediaserver.net/download.html" class='external free' title="http://www.umediaserver.net/download.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.umediaserver.net/download.html</a>
+</p><p>Downloaded file: StreamingMediaPlayer.zip
+</p><p><b>3. Sample audio/video media files in  MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-4, MPA, WMV, WMA, ASF, MP3, QuickTime format.</b>
+</p><p><b>4. A simple collection in Greenstone based on HTML documents.</b>
+</p>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Video_Library&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Video Library">edit</a>]</div><a name="Installation_process"></a><h2>Installation process</h2>
+<p><b>1.0 Setting up Unreal Media Server</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li>Extract the downloaded UmediaServer.zip file. Following two files will be extracted
+<ul><li><i>a. UmediaServer.msi</i>
+</li><li><i>b. UhttpProxy.msi</i>
+</li></ul>
+</li><li>1.1 Installing Unreal Media Server Version 4.0
+<ul><li>Double click UmediaServer.msi
+</li><li>Follow default installation procedure. (If using Windows 2000 or later, install it for everyone)
+</li></ul>
+</li><li>Where to store video files?
+<ul><li>Create a folder on a drive of your computer e.g E:\videofiles
+</li><li>Open Media Server Configurator (To do this, Click Start > Programms > Unreal Streaming )
+</li><li>Right click File Resources to create a virtual folder. Give folder name as videofiles.
+</li><li>Browse for folder location i.e E:\videofiles and enter videofiles in description field.
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<pre><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Image:Unreal.jpg" class="image" title="Image:unreal.jpg"><img src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/images/c/c0/Unreal.jpg" alt="Image:unreal.jpg" width="554" height="415" longdesc="/wiki/index.php/Image:Unreal.jpg" /></a>
+</pre>
+<p><b>2.0 Installing Unreal Http Proxy IIS extension Version 4.0</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li>Double click UhttpProxy.msi
+</li><li>Follow default installation procedure.
+</li><li>This installation should make a virtual directory uhttpproxy in Default Website Menu of Microsoft IIS (web server).
+<ul><li><i><b>Important</b></i>: Verify c:\inetpub\wwwroot\uhttpproxy directory for uhttpproxy.dll file. If it doesnot exist there, then follow below mentioned uhttpproxy.dll file installation procedure.
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<p>2.1 Installing uhttpproxy.dll file (Please read above instruction before proceeding)<b><i></i></b>
+</p>
+<ul><li>Download uhttpproxy.dll file from  <a href="http://www.umediaserver.net/bin/uhttpproxy.zip" class='external free' title="http://www.umediaserver.net/bin/uhttpproxy.zip" rel="nofollow">http://www.umediaserver.net/bin/uhttpproxy.zip</a> and copy it to c:\inetpub\wwwroot\uhttpproxy directory. (The necessity of this file is discussed at 
+</li></ul>
+<p><a href="http://www.umediaserver.net/faq.html" class='external free' title="http://www.umediaserver.net/faq.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.umediaserver.net/faq.html</a>)
+</p><p><b>3.0 Installing Streaming Media Player Version 4.0</b>
+</p>
+<ul><li>Extract the downloaded StreamingMediaPlayer.zip. Following file will be extracted StreamingMediaPlayer.msi
+</li><li>Double click StreamingMediaPlayer.msi and follow the default installation procedure.
+<ul><li>NB: Streaming Media Player will be required at client end.
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Video_Library&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Video Library">edit</a>]</div><a name="Creating_Greenstone_collection"></a><h2>Creating Greenstone collection</h2>
+<ul><li>This collection will be based on simple HTML documents
+</li><li>Copy the downloaded and extracted StreamingMediaPlayer.msi file in E:\videofiles folder so that users can download Streaming Media Player on their desktops.
+</li><li>Create a separate HTML web page for every available video file. Create a link to the video and files and Streaming Media Player. An example of this follows: 
+</li></ul>
+<p>http://ip_address/videofiles/hrdvideo.mpg
+</p>
+<ul><li>Create a link for downloading the Streaming Media Player i.e. 
+</li></ul>
+<p>http://ip_address/videofiles/StreamingMediaPlayer.msi
+</p>
+<ul><li><b>A outline of such HTML page is given below.</b>
+</li></ul>
+<pre><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Image:Html_code.jpg" class="image" title="Image:html_code.jpg"><img src="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/images/2/26/Html_code.jpg" alt="Image:html_code.jpg" width="554" height="415" longdesc="/wiki/index.php/Image:Html_code.jpg" /></a>
+</pre>
+<ul><li>Include this file in collect/collection_name/import directory
+</li><li>Build the newly created collection
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Video_Library&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Video Library">edit</a>]</div><a name="Testing_phase"></a><h2>Testing phase</h2>
+<ul><li>Browse for the newly created collection
+<ul><li>Select the desired title from the collection by performing search or browse. Click the desired links such as link for download Streaming Media Player or displaying the video file. Before viewing please ensure that Streaming Media Player is installed on the desktop.
+</li></ul>
+</li></ul>
+<div class="editsection" style="float:right;margin-left:5px;">[<a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Video_Library&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Video Library">edit</a>]</div><a name="Example_collection"></a><h2>Example collection</h2>
+<ul><li> For viewing an example collection built on the above approach, you can visit the Digital Library at IIMK <a href="http://iimk.ac.in/gsdl/cgi-bin/library" class='external free' title="http://iimk.ac.in/gsdl/cgi-bin/library" rel="nofollow">http://iimk.ac.in/gsdl/cgi-bin/library</a> and take a look at the 'Videos' collection 
+</li></ul>
+<p><a href="http://iimk.ac.in/gsdl/cgi-bin/library?site=localhost&amp;a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=avideo&amp;ct=0&amp;l=en&amp;w=utf-8" class='external free' title="http://iimk.ac.in/gsdl/cgi-bin/library?site=localhost&amp;a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=avideo&amp;ct=0&amp;l=en&amp;w=utf-8" rel="nofollow">http://iimk.ac.in/gsdl/cgi-bin/library?site=localhost&amp;a=p&amp;p=about&amp;c=avideo&amp;ct=0&amp;l=en&amp;w=utf-8</a>
+</p>
+<ul><li>Note&nbsp;: This collection is strategically built as a bibliography collection, keeping the Digital Library server relieved of the intensive server-loads in dealing with the hefty audio/video files.
+</li></ul>
+<p><br />
+</p>
+<hr />
+<ul><li>Hope this documentation works for you.
+</li></ul>
+<p><b>All trademarks are acknowledged.</b>
+</p>
+<hr />
+<div class="printfooter">
+Retrieved from "<a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Video_Library.html">http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Video_Library</a>"</div>
+	    	    <!-- end content -->
+	    <div class="visualClear"></div>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+      </div>
+      <div id="column-one">
+	<div id="p-cactions" class="portlet">
+	  <h5>Views</h5>
+	  <ul>
+	    <li id="ca-nstab-main"
+	       class="selected"	       ><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Video_Library.html">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk"
+	       class="new"	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Video_Library&amp;action=edit">Discussion</a></li><li id="ca-edit"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Video_Library&amp;action=edit">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history"
+	       	       ><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Video_Library&amp;action=history">History</a></li>	  </ul>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-personal">
+	  <h5>Personal tools</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+	    <li id="pt-greenstoneorg"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/">Go to greenstone.org</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/login?forward=http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Video_Library">Log in</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="http://www.greenstone.org/developers-register">Create an account</a></li>	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-logo">
+	  <a style="background-image: url(/wiki/skins/common/images/toki_small.png);"
+	    href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Main_Page.html"
+	    title="Main Page"></a>
+	</div>
+	<script type="text/javascript"> if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha(); </script>
+		<div class='portlet' id='p-navigation'>
+	  <h5>Navigation</h5>
+	  <div class='pBody'>
+	    <ul>
+	    	      <li id="n-mainpage"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki.html">Main Page</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-FAQ"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_FAQ.html">Greenstone FAQ</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-General-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/General_Documentation.html">General documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Tutorial-exercises"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises.html">Tutorial exercises</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Example-collections"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Example_collections.html">Example collections</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Manuals"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Manual.html">Manuals</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-User-contributed-documentation"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/User_contributed.html">User contributed documentation</a></li>
+	     	      <li id="n-Greenstone-workshops"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Greenstone_workshops.html">Greenstone workshops</a></li>
+	     	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+		<div id="p-search" class="portlet">
+	  <h5><label for="searchInput">Search</label></h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <form name="searchform" action="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Search" id="searchform">
+	      <input id="searchInput" name="search" type="text"
+	        accesskey="f" value="" />
+	      <input type='submit' name="go" class="searchButton" id="searchGoButton"
+	        value="Go"
+	        />&nbsp;<input type='submit' name="fulltext"
+	        class="searchButton"
+	        value="Search" />
+	    </form>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	<div class="portlet" id="p-tb">
+	  <h5>Toolbox</h5>
+	  <div class="pBody">
+	    <ul>
+		  		  <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Whatlinkshere/Video_Library">What links here</a></li>
+		  		  <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Recentchangeslinked/Video_Library">Related changes</a></li>
+		                	      	      	      	      	      	      	      <li id="t-upload"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Upload">Upload file</a></li>	      	      <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/Special:Specialpages">Special pages</a></li>	      	      	      <li id="t-print"><a href="http://greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php?title=Video_Library&amp;printable=yes">Printable version</a></li>
+	      	    </ul>
+	  </div>
+	</div>
+	      </div><!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->
+      <div class="visualClear"></div>
+      <div id="footer">
+    <div id="f-poweredbyico"><a href="http://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/images/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="MediaWiki" /></a></div>		<ul id="f-list">
+	  <li id="f-lastmod"> This page was last modified 05:50, 1 June 2006.</li>	  <li id="f-viewcount">This page has been accessed 4,136 times.</li>	  	  	  <li id="f-copyright">Content is available under <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:The GNU Free Documentation License"></a> the terms of the <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:The_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.html">GNU Free Documentation License</a>. (See <a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:Copyrights.html">Copyrights</a> for details.)</a>.</li>	  <li id="f-about"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:About.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:About">About GreenstoneWiki</a></li>	  <li id="f-disclaimer"><a href="/home/lh92/.gli/cache/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/index.php/GreenstoneWiki:General_disclaimer.html" title="GreenstoneWiki:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li>	  	</ul>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+	</div>
+    <!-- Served by puka.cs.waikato.ac.nz in 0.16 secs. -->  </body>
+</html>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/commonPrint.css	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,277 @@
+/*
+** MediaWiki Print style sheet for CSS2-capable browsers.
+** Copyright Gabriel Wicke, http://www.aulinx.de/
+**
+** Derived from the plone (http://plone.org/) styles
+** Copyright Alexander Limi
+*/
+
+/* Thanks to A List Apart (http://alistapart.com/) for useful extras */
+a.stub,
+a.new{ color:#ba0000; text-decoration:none; }
+
+#toc { 
+    /*border:1px solid #2f6fab;*/
+    border:1px solid #aaaaaa;
+    background-color:#f9f9f9;
+    padding:5px;
+}
+.tocindent {
+	margin-left: 2em;
+}
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+	margin-bottom: 0px;
+}
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+	font-size: smaller;
+}
+
+/* images */
+div.floatright { 
+    float: right; 
+    margin: 0;
+    position:relative;
+    border: 0.5em solid White;
+    border-width: 0.5em 0 0.8em 1.4em;
+}
+div.floatright p { font-style: italic;} 
+div.floatleft { 
+    float: left; 
+    margin: 0.3em 0.5em 0.5em 0;
+    position:relative;
+    border: 0.5em solid White;
+    border-width: 0.5em 1.4em 0.8em 0;
+}
+div.floatleft p { font-style: italic; } 
+/* thumbnails */
+div.thumb {
+    margin-bottom: 0.5em;
+    border-style: solid; border-color: White;
+    width: auto;
+    overflow: hidden;
+}
+div.thumb div {
+    border:1px solid #cccccc;
+    padding: 3px !important;
+    background-color:#f9f9f9;
+    font-size: 94%;
+    text-align: center;
+}
+div.thumb div a img {
+    border:1px solid #cccccc;
+}
+div.thumb div div.thumbcaption {
+    border: none;
+    padding: 0.3em 0 0.1em 0;
+}
+div.magnify { display: none; }
+div.tright {
+    float: right;
+    border-width: 0.5em 0 0.8em 1.4em;
+}
+div.tleft {
+    float: left;
+    margin-right:0.5em;
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+}
+
+/* table standards */
+table.rimage {
+    float:right; 
+    width:1pt; 
+    position:relative;
+    margin-left:1em; 
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+
+body {
+    background: White;
+    /*font-size: 11pt !important;*/
+    color: Black;
+    margin: 0;
+    padding: 0;
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+
+.noprint,
+div.top,
+div#column-one,
+#colophon,
+.editsection,
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+.tochidden,
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+{
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+
+div.townBox {
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+    background:White;
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+    width: 200px;
+    overflow: hidden;
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+table.gallery {
+        border:  1px solid #cccccc;
+        margin:  2px;
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+}
+td.diff-context {
+    background:#eeeeee;
+    font-size: smaller;
+}
+span.diffchange { color: silver; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: underline; }
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/common/wikibits.js	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,497 @@
+// Wikipedia JavaScript support functions
+// if this is true, the toolbar will no longer overwrite the infobox when you move the mouse over individual items
+var noOverwrite=false;
+var alertText;
+var clientPC = navigator.userAgent.toLowerCase(); // Get client info
+var is_gecko = ((clientPC.indexOf('gecko')!=-1) && (clientPC.indexOf('spoofer')==-1)
+                && (clientPC.indexOf('khtml') == -1) && (clientPC.indexOf('netscape/7.0')==-1));
+var is_safari = ((clientPC.indexOf('AppleWebKit')!=-1) && (clientPC.indexOf('spoofer')==-1));
+var is_khtml = (navigator.vendor == 'KDE' || ( document.childNodes && !document.all && !navigator.taintEnabled ));
+if (clientPC.indexOf('opera')!=-1) {
+    var is_opera = true;
+    var is_opera_preseven = (window.opera && !document.childNodes);
+    var is_opera_seven = (window.opera && document.childNodes);
+}
+
+// add any onload functions in this hook (please don't hard-code any events in the xhtml source)
+function onloadhook () {
+    // don't run anything below this for non-dom browsers
+    if(!(document.getElementById && document.getElementsByTagName)) return;
+    histrowinit();
+    unhidetzbutton();
+    tabbedprefs();
+    akeytt();
+}
+if (window.addEventListener) window.addEventListener("load",onloadhook,false);
+else if (window.attachEvent) window.attachEvent("onload",onloadhook);
+
+
+// document.write special stylesheet links
+if(typeof stylepath != 'undefined' && typeof skin != 'undefined') {
+    if (is_opera_preseven) {
+        document.write('<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="'+stylepath+'/'+skin+'/Opera6Fixes.css">');
+    } else if (is_opera_seven) {
+        document.write('<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="'+stylepath+'/'+skin+'/Opera7Fixes.css">');
+    } else if (is_khtml) {
+        document.write('<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="'+stylepath+'/'+skin+'/KHTMLFixes.css">');
+    }
+}
+// Un-trap us from framesets
+if( window.top != window ) window.top.location = window.location;
+
+// for enhanced RecentChanges
+function toggleVisibility( _levelId, _otherId, _linkId) {
+	var thisLevel = document.getElementById( _levelId );
+	var otherLevel = document.getElementById( _otherId );
+	var linkLevel = document.getElementById( _linkId );
+	if ( thisLevel.style.display == 'none' ) {
+		thisLevel.style.display = 'block';
+		otherLevel.style.display = 'none';
+		linkLevel.style.display = 'inline';
+	} else {
+		thisLevel.style.display = 'none';
+		otherLevel.style.display = 'inline';
+		linkLevel.style.display = 'none';
+		}
+}
+
+// page history stuff
+// attach event handlers to the input elements on history page
+function histrowinit () {
+    hf = document.getElementById('pagehistory');
+    if(!hf) return;
+    lis = hf.getElementsByTagName('li');
+    for (i=0;i<lis.length;i++) {
+        inputs=lis[i].getElementsByTagName('input');
+        if(inputs[0] && inputs[1]) {
+                inputs[0].onclick = diffcheck;
+                inputs[1].onclick = diffcheck;
+        }
+    }
+    diffcheck();
+}
+// check selection and tweak visibility/class onclick
+function diffcheck() { 
+    var dli = false; // the li where the diff radio is checked
+    var oli = false; // the li where the oldid radio is checked
+    hf = document.getElementById('pagehistory');
+    if(!hf) return;
+    lis = hf.getElementsByTagName('li');
+    for (i=0;i<lis.length;i++) {
+        inputs=lis[i].getElementsByTagName('input');
+        if(inputs[1] && inputs[0]) {
+            if(inputs[1].checked || inputs[0].checked) { // this row has a checked radio button
+                if(inputs[1].checked && inputs[0].checked && inputs[0].value == inputs[1].value) return false;
+                if(oli) { // it's the second checked radio
+                    if(inputs[1].checked) {
+                    oli.className = "selected";
+                    return false 
+                    }
+                } else if (inputs[0].checked) {
+                    return false;
+                }
+                if(inputs[0].checked) dli = lis[i];
+                if(!oli) inputs[0].style.visibility = 'hidden';
+                if(dli) inputs[1].style.visibility = 'hidden';
+                lis[i].className = "selected";
+                oli = lis[i];
+            }  else { // no radio is checked in this row
+                if(!oli) inputs[0].style.visibility = 'hidden';
+                else inputs[0].style.visibility = 'visible';
+                if(dli) inputs[1].style.visibility = 'hidden';
+                else inputs[1].style.visibility = 'visible';
+                lis[i].className = "";
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// generate toc from prefs form, fold sections
+// XXX: needs testing on IE/Mac and safari
+// more comments to follow
+function tabbedprefs() {
+    prefform = document.getElementById('preferences');
+    if(!prefform || !document.createElement) return;
+    if(prefform.nodeName.toLowerCase() == 'a') return; // Occasional IE problem
+    prefform.className = prefform.className + 'jsprefs';
+    var sections = new Array();
+    children = prefform.childNodes;
+    var seci = 0;
+    for(i=0;i<children.length;i++) {
+        if(children[i].nodeName.toLowerCase().indexOf('fieldset') != -1) {
+            children[i].id = 'prefsection-' + seci;
+            children[i].className = 'prefsection';
+            if(is_opera || is_khtml) children[i].className = 'prefsection operaprefsection';
+            legends = children[i].getElementsByTagName('legend');
+            sections[seci] = new Object();
+            if(legends[0] && legends[0].firstChild.nodeValue)
+                sections[seci].text = legends[0].firstChild.nodeValue;
+            else
+                sections[seci].text = '# ' + seci;
+            sections[seci].secid = children[i].id;
+            seci++;
+            if(sections.length != 1) children[i].style.display = 'none';
+            else var selectedid = children[i].id;
+        }
+    }
+    var toc = document.createElement('ul');
+    toc.id = 'preftoc';
+    toc.selectedid = selectedid;
+    for(i=0;i<sections.length;i++) {
+        var li = document.createElement('li');
+        if(i == 0) li.className = 'selected';
+        var a =  document.createElement('a');
+        a.href = '#' + sections[i].secid;
+        a.onclick = uncoversection;
+        a.appendChild(document.createTextNode(sections[i].text));
+        a.secid = sections[i].secid;
+        li.appendChild(a);
+        toc.appendChild(li);
+    }
+    prefform.insertBefore(toc, children[0]);
+    document.getElementById('prefsubmit').id = 'prefcontrol';
+}
+function uncoversection() {
+    oldsecid = this.parentNode.parentNode.selectedid;
+    newsec = document.getElementById(this.secid);
+    if(oldsecid != this.secid) {
+        ul = document.getElementById('preftoc');
+        document.getElementById(oldsecid).style.display = 'none';
+        newsec.style.display = 'block';
+        ul.selectedid = this.secid;
+        lis = ul.getElementsByTagName('li');
+        for(i=0;i< lis.length;i++) {
+            lis[i].className = '';
+        }
+        this.parentNode.className = 'selected';
+    }
+    return false;
+}
+
+// Timezone stuff
+// tz in format [+-]HHMM
+function checkTimezone( tz, msg ) {
+	var localclock = new Date();
+	// returns negative offset from GMT in minutes
+	var tzRaw = localclock.getTimezoneOffset();
+	var tzHour = Math.floor( Math.abs(tzRaw) / 60);
+	var tzMin = Math.abs(tzRaw) % 60;
+	var tzString = ((tzRaw >= 0) ? "-" : "+") + ((tzHour < 10) ? "0" : "") + tzHour + ((tzMin < 10) ? "0" : "") + tzMin;
+	if( tz != tzString ) {
+		var junk = msg.split( '$1' );
+		document.write( junk[0] + "UTC" + tzString + junk[1] );
+	}
+}
+function unhidetzbutton() {
+    tzb = document.getElementById('guesstimezonebutton')
+    if(tzb) tzb.style.display = 'inline';
+}
+
+// in [-]HH:MM format...
+// won't yet work with non-even tzs
+function fetchTimezone() {
+	// FIXME: work around Safari bug
+	var localclock = new Date();
+	// returns negative offset from GMT in minutes
+	var tzRaw = localclock.getTimezoneOffset();
+	var tzHour = Math.floor( Math.abs(tzRaw) / 60);
+	var tzMin = Math.abs(tzRaw) % 60;
+	var tzString = ((tzRaw >= 0) ? "-" : "") + ((tzHour < 10) ? "0" : "") + tzHour +
+		":" + ((tzMin < 10) ? "0" : "") + tzMin;
+	return tzString;
+}
+
+function guessTimezone(box) {
+	document.preferences.wpHourDiff.value = fetchTimezone();
+}
+
+function showTocToggle() {
+  if (document.createTextNode) {
+    // Uses DOM calls to avoid document.write + XHTML issues
+
+    var linkHolder = document.getElementById('toctitle')
+    if (!linkHolder) return;
+
+    var outerSpan = document.createElement('span');
+    outerSpan.className = 'toctoggle';
+
+    var toggleLink = document.createElement('a');
+    toggleLink.id = 'togglelink';
+    toggleLink.className = 'internal';
+    toggleLink.href = 'javascript:toggleToc()';
+    toggleLink.appendChild(document.createTextNode(tocHideText));
+
+    outerSpan.appendChild(document.createTextNode('['));
+    outerSpan.appendChild(toggleLink);
+    outerSpan.appendChild(document.createTextNode(']'));
+
+    linkHolder.appendChild(document.createTextNode(' '));
+    linkHolder.appendChild(outerSpan);
+
+    var cookiePos = document.cookie.indexOf("hidetoc=");
+    if (cookiePos > -1 && document.cookie.charAt(cookiePos + 8) == 1)
+     toggleToc();
+  }
+}
+
+function changeText(el, newText) {
+  // Safari work around
+  if (el.innerText)
+    el.innerText = newText;
+  else if (el.firstChild && el.firstChild.nodeValue)
+    el.firstChild.nodeValue = newText;
+}
+  
+function toggleToc() {
+ 	var toc = document.getElementById('toc').getElementsByTagName('ul')[0];
+  var toggleLink = document.getElementById('togglelink')
+  
+ 	if(toc && toggleLink && toc.style.display == 'none') {
+     changeText(toggleLink, tocHideText);
+ 		toc.style.display = 'block';
+     document.cookie = "hidetoc=0";
+	} else {
+    changeText(toggleLink, tocShowText);
+		toc.style.display = 'none';
+    document.cookie = "hidetoc=1";
+	}
+}
+
+// this function generates the actual toolbar buttons with localized text
+// we use it to avoid creating the toolbar where javascript is not enabled
+function addButton(imageFile, speedTip, tagOpen, tagClose, sampleText) {
+
+	imageFile=escapeQuotesHTML(imageFile);
+	speedTip=escapeQuotesHTML(speedTip);
+	tagOpen=escapeQuotes(tagOpen);
+	tagClose=escapeQuotes(tagClose);
+	sampleText=escapeQuotes(sampleText);
+	var mouseOver="";
+
+	// we can't change the selection, so we show example texts
+	// when moving the mouse instead, until the first button is clicked
+	if(!document.selection && !is_gecko) {
+		// filter backslashes so it can be shown in the infobox
+		var re=new RegExp("\\\\n","g");
+		tagOpen=tagOpen.replace(re,"");
+		tagClose=tagClose.replace(re,"");
+		mouseOver = "onMouseover=\"if(!noOverwrite){document.infoform.infobox.value='"+tagOpen+sampleText+tagClose+"'};\"";
+	}
+
+	document.write("<a href=\"javascript:insertTags");
+	document.write("('"+tagOpen+"','"+tagClose+"','"+sampleText+"');\">");
+
+	document.write("<img width=\"23\" height=\"22\" src=\""+imageFile+"\" border=\"0\" alt=\""+speedTip+"\" title=\""+speedTip+"\""+mouseOver+">");
+	document.write("</a>");
+	return;
+}
+
+function addInfobox(infoText,text_alert) {
+	alertText=text_alert;
+	var clientPC = navigator.userAgent.toLowerCase(); // Get client info
+
+	var re=new RegExp("\\\\n","g");
+	alertText=alertText.replace(re,"\n");
+
+	// if no support for changing selection, add a small copy & paste field
+	// document.selection is an IE-only property. The full toolbar works in IE and
+	// Gecko-based browsers.
+	if(!document.selection && !is_gecko) {
+ 		infoText=escapeQuotesHTML(infoText);
+	 	document.write("<form name='infoform' id='infoform'>"+
+			"<input size=80 id='infobox' name='infobox' value=\""+
+			infoText+"\" readonly='readonly'></form>");
+ 	}
+
+}
+
+function escapeQuotes(text) {
+	var re=new RegExp("'","g");
+	text=text.replace(re,"\\'");
+	re=new RegExp("\\n","g");
+	text=text.replace(re,"\\n");
+	return escapeQuotesHTML(text);
+}
+
+function escapeQuotesHTML(text) {
+	var re=new RegExp('&',"g");
+	text=text.replace(re,"&amp;");
+	var re=new RegExp('"',"g");
+	text=text.replace(re,"&quot;");
+	var re=new RegExp('<',"g");
+	text=text.replace(re,"&lt;");
+	var re=new RegExp('>',"g");
+	text=text.replace(re,"&gt;");
+	return text;
+}
+
+// apply tagOpen/tagClose to selection in textarea,
+// use sampleText instead of selection if there is none
+// copied and adapted from phpBB
+function insertTags(tagOpen, tagClose, sampleText) {
+
+	var txtarea = document.editform.wpTextbox1;
+	// IE
+	if(document.selection  && !is_gecko) {
+		var theSelection = document.selection.createRange().text;
+		if(!theSelection) { theSelection=sampleText;}
+		txtarea.focus();
+		if(theSelection.charAt(theSelection.length - 1) == " "){// exclude ending space char, if any
+			theSelection = theSelection.substring(0, theSelection.length - 1);
+			document.selection.createRange().text = tagOpen + theSelection + tagClose + " ";
+		} else {
+			document.selection.createRange().text = tagOpen + theSelection + tagClose;
+		}
+
+	// Mozilla
+	} else if(txtarea.selectionStart || txtarea.selectionStart == '0') {
+ 		var startPos = txtarea.selectionStart;
+		var endPos = txtarea.selectionEnd;
+		var scrollTop=txtarea.scrollTop;
+		var myText = (txtarea.value).substring(startPos, endPos);
+		if(!myText) { myText=sampleText;}
+		if(myText.charAt(myText.length - 1) == " "){ // exclude ending space char, if any
+			subst = tagOpen + myText.substring(0, (myText.length - 1)) + tagClose + " ";
+		} else {
+			subst = tagOpen + myText + tagClose;
+		}
+		txtarea.value = txtarea.value.substring(0, startPos) + subst +
+		  txtarea.value.substring(endPos, txtarea.value.length);
+		txtarea.focus();
+
+		var cPos=startPos+(tagOpen.length+myText.length+tagClose.length);
+		txtarea.selectionStart=cPos;
+		txtarea.selectionEnd=cPos;
+		txtarea.scrollTop=scrollTop;
+
+	// All others
+	} else {
+		var copy_alertText=alertText;
+		var re1=new RegExp("\\$1","g");
+		var re2=new RegExp("\\$2","g");
+		copy_alertText=copy_alertText.replace(re1,sampleText);
+		copy_alertText=copy_alertText.replace(re2,tagOpen+sampleText+tagClose);
+		var text;
+		if (sampleText) {
+			text=prompt(copy_alertText);
+		} else {
+			text="";
+		}
+		if(!text) { text=sampleText;}
+		text=tagOpen+text+tagClose;
+		document.infoform.infobox.value=text;
+		// in Safari this causes scrolling
+		if(!is_safari) {
+			txtarea.focus();
+		}
+		noOverwrite=true;
+	}
+	// reposition cursor if possible
+	if (txtarea.createTextRange) txtarea.caretPos = document.selection.createRange().duplicate();
+}
+
+function akeytt() {
+    if(typeof ta == "undefined" || !ta) return;
+    pref = 'alt-';
+    if(is_safari || navigator.userAgent.toLowerCase().indexOf( 'mac' ) + 1 ) pref = 'control-';
+    if(is_opera) pref = 'shift-esc-';
+    for(id in ta) {
+        n = document.getElementById(id);
+        if(n){
+            a = n.childNodes[0];
+            if(a){
+                if(ta[id][0].length > 0) {
+                    a.accessKey = ta[id][0];
+                    ak = ' ['+pref+ta[id][0]+']';
+                } else {
+                    ak = '';
+                }
+                a.title = ta[id][1]+ak;
+            } else {
+                if(ta[id][0].length > 0) {
+                    n.accessKey = ta[id][0];
+                    ak = ' ['+pref+ta[id][0]+']';
+                } else {
+                    ak = '';
+                }
+                n.title = ta[id][1]+ak;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+function setupRightClickEdit() {
+	if( document.getElementsByTagName ) {
+		var divs = document.getElementsByTagName( 'div' );
+		for( var i = 0; i < divs.length; i++ ) {
+			var el = divs[i];
+			if( el.className == 'editsection' ) {
+				addRightClickEditHandler( el );
+			}
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+function addRightClickEditHandler( el ) {
+	for( var i = 0; i < el.childNodes.length; i++ ) {
+		var link = el.childNodes[i];
+		if( link.nodeType == 1 && link.nodeName.toLowerCase() == 'a' ) {
+			var editHref = link.getAttribute( 'href' );
+			
+			// find the following a
+			var next = el.nextSibling;
+			while( next.nodeType != 1 )
+				next = next.nextSibling;
+			
+			// find the following header
+			next = next.nextSibling;
+			while( next.nodeType != 1 )
+				next = next.nextSibling;
+			
+			if( next && next.nodeType == 1 &&
+				next.nodeName.match( /^[Hh][1-6]$/ ) ) {
+				next.oncontextmenu = function() {
+					document.location = editHref;
+					return false;
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+function fillDestFilename() {
+	if (!document.getElementById) return;
+	var path = document.getElementById('wpUploadFile').value;
+	// Find trailing part
+	var slash = path.lastIndexOf( '/' );
+	var backslash = path.lastIndexOf( '\\' );
+	var fname;
+	if ( slash == -1 && backslash == -1 ) {
+		fname = path;
+	} else if ( slash > backslash ) {
+		fname = path.substring( slash+1, 10000 );
+	} else {
+		fname = path.substring( backslash+1, 10000 );
+	}
+
+	// Capitalise first letter and replace spaces by underscores
+	fname = fname.charAt(0).toUpperCase().concat(fname.substring(1,10000)).replace( / /g, '_' );
+
+	// Output result
+	var destFile = document.getElementById('wpDestFile');
+	if (destFile) destFile.value = fname;
+}
+	
+
+function considerChangingExpiryFocus() {
+	if (!document.getElementById) return;
+	var drop = document.getElementById('wpBlockExpiry');
+	if (!drop) return;
+	var field = document.getElementById('wpBlockOther');
+	if (!field) return;
+	var opt = drop.value;
+	if (opt == 'other')
+		field.style.display = '';
+	else
+		field.style.display = 'none';
+}
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/monobook/IE50Fixes.css	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+/*
+** IE5.0 Fix Stylesheet
+*/
+
+#wikispecificstyle #column-content {
+    margin: 0 !important;
+    float: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #column-content #content { 
+    margin-top: 3em; 
+    height: 1%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #column-one {
+    position: absolute;
+    overflow: visible;
+    top: 0;
+    left: 0;
+    z-index: 3;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #footer {
+    margin: 0 0 0 13.6em;
+}
+
+/* IE 5 & 5.5 interpret keyword sizes one off */
+#wikispecificstyle body { font-size: xx-small; }
+/*
+** the edit tabs
+*/
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li {
+    float: left;
+    padding-top: 0;
+    padding-bottom: 0 !important;
+    height: 0.9em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li a {
+    display: block;
+    padding-bottom: 0.045em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li.selected a {
+    padding-bottom: 0.17em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li a:hover {
+    padding-bottom: 0.17em;
+}
+/* 5.0 doesn't like the background icon for external links and user */
+.link-external,
+#wikispecificstyle .external {
+    background: none;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal ul { float: right }
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal li { float: left }
+li#pt-userpage,
+li#pt-anonuserpage,
+li#pt-login,
+#wikispecificstyle li#pt-logout {
+    background: none;
+    padding-left: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .visualClear {
+    width:100%;
+    height: 0px;
+    padding:0;
+    margin:0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .firstHeading { margin-bottom: 0.3em; }
+#wikispecificstyle /*div{ border:1px solid Red !important;}*/
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/monobook/IE55Fixes.css	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
+/* IE5.5/win- only fixes */
+
+#wikispecificstyle #column-content { 
+    float: none; 
+    margin-left: 0;
+    height: 1%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #column-content #content {
+    position: relative;
+    z-index: 5;
+    margin-left: 12.2em;
+    margin-top: 3em;
+    height: 1%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #column-one {
+    position: absolute;
+    top: 0;
+    left: 0;
+    z-index: 4;
+    width: 100%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #footer {
+    margin-left: 13.6em;
+    border-left: 1px solid #fabd23;
+}
+
+/*#bodyContent div,
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent pre { overflow: auto; }*/
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal { padding-bottom: 0.1em; }
+
+#wikispecificstyle body { font-size: xx-small; }
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions {
+    width: 76% !important;
+    z-index: 3 !important;
+    float: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li {
+    padding-bottom: 0 !important;
+    border: none;
+    background-color: transparent;
+    cursor: default;
+    float: none !important;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li a {
+    display: inline-block !important;
+    vertical-align: top;
+    padding-bottom: 0;
+    border: solid #aaa;
+    border-width: 1px 1px 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li.selected a {
+    border-color: #fabd23;
+    padding-bottom: 0.17em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li a:hover {
+    padding-bottom: 0.17em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .portlet {
+    overflow:hidden;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a.external {
+    background: url(external.png) center right no-repeat;
+    padding-right: 13px;
+}
+/* show the hand */
+#wikispecificstyle #p-logo a,
+#wikispecificstyle #p-logo a:hover {
+    cursor: pointer;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .visualClear {
+    width:90%;
+    height: 1px;
+    padding:0;
+    margin:0;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #editform {
+    width: 100%;
+}
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/monobook/IE60Fixes.css	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+/* 6.0 - only fixes */
+/* content area */ 
+/* workaround for various ie float bugs */
+#wikispecificstyle #column-content { 
+    float: none; 
+    margin-left: 0;
+    height: 1%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #column-content #content {
+    margin-left: 12.2em;
+    margin-top: 3em;
+    height: 1%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #column-one {
+    position: absolute;
+    top: 0;
+    left: 0;
+    z-index: 4;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #footer {
+    margin-left: 13.6em;
+    border-left: 1px solid #fabd23;
+}
+
+/* the tabs */
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions {
+    z-index: 3;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li {
+    padding-bottom: 0 !important;
+    border: none;
+    background-color: transparent;
+    cursor: default;
+    float: none !important;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li a {
+    display: inline-block !important;
+    vertical-align: top;
+    padding-bottom: 0;
+    border: solid #aaa;
+    border-width: 1px 1px 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li.selected a {
+    border-color: #fabd23;
+    padding-bottom: 0.17em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li a:hover {
+    padding-bottom: 0.17em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #portal-personaltools {
+    padding-bottom: 0.1em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a.external {
+    background: url(external.png) center right no-repeat;
+    padding-right: 13px;
+}
+
+/* show the hand */
+#wikispecificstyle #p-logo a,
+#wikispecificstyle #p-logo a:hover {
+    cursor: pointer;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.visualClear {
+    width:100%;
+    line-height: 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle textarea {
+    width: 96%;
+}
+
+div.editsection,
+#wikispecificstyle #catlinks,
+div.tright,
+#wikispecificstyle div.tleft {
+    position: relative;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle /*{ border:1px solid Red !important;}*/
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/import/greenstonewiki.cs.waikato.ac.nz/wiki/skins/monobook/main.css	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1237 @@
+/*
+** MediaWiki 'monobook' style sheet for CSS2-capable browsers.
+** Copyright Gabriel Wicke - http://wikidev.net/
+** License: GPL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/gpl.html)
+**
+** Loosely based on http://www.positioniseverything.net/ordered-floats.html by Big John
+** and the Plone 2.0 styles, see http://plone.org/ (Alexander Limi,Joe Geldart & Tom Croucher,
+** Michael Zeltner and Geir BÃŠkholt)
+** All you guys rock :)
+*/
+
+#wikispecificstyle #column-content {
+    width: 100%;
+    float: right;
+    margin: 0 0 .6em -13.5em;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #content {
+    margin: 3.0em 0 0 13.5em;
+    padding: 0 1em 1.5em 1em;
+    background: #E0F0E0;
+    color: black;
+    border: 1px solid #2E8B57;
+    border-right: none;
+    line-height: 1.5em;
+    position: relative;
+    z-index: 8;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #column-one {
+    padding-top: 160px;
+}
+/* the left column width is specified in class .portlet */
+
+/* Font size:
+** We take advantage of keyword scaling- browsers won't go below 9px
+** More at http://www.w3.org/2003/07/30-font-size
+** http://style.cleverchimp.com/font_size_intervals/altintervals.html
+*/
+
+#wikispecificstyle /*body */{
+    font: x-small sans-serif;
+    background-color: #f9f9f9; 
+    background-image: url(chalk.gif);     
+    background-position:0 30%;
+    background-repeat:repeat-y;	
+    color: black;
+    margin: 0;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+
+/* scale back up to a sane default */
+#wikispecificstyle #globalWrapper {
+    font-size: 127%;
+    width: 100%;
+    margin: 0;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .visualClear {
+    clear: both;
+}
+
+/* general styles */
+
+#wikispecificstyle table {
+    font-size: 100%;
+    background: white;
+    color: black;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle a {
+    text-decoration: none;
+    color: #002bb8;
+    background: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle a:visited {
+    color: #5a3696;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle a:active {
+    color: #faa700;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle a:hover {
+    text-decoration: underline;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle a.stub {
+    color: #772233;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle a.new, #p-personal a.new {
+    color: #ba0000;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle a.new:visited, #p-personal a.new:visited {
+    color: #a55858;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle img {
+    border: none;
+    vertical-align: middle;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle p {
+    margin: .4em 0 .5em 0;
+    line-height: 1.5em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle p img {
+    margin: 0;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle hr {
+    height: 1px;
+    color: #aaa;
+    background-color: #aaa;
+    border: 0;
+    margin: .2em 0 .2em 0;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 {
+    color: black;
+    background: none;
+    font-weight: normal;
+    margin: 0;
+    padding-top: .5em;
+    padding-bottom: .17em;
+    border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;
+}
+
+
+#wikispecificstyle h1 { font-size: 188%; }
+#wikispecificstyle h2 { font-size: 150%; }
+#wikispecificstyle h3, h4, h5, h6 {
+    border-bottom: none;
+    font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle h3 { font-size: 132%; }
+#wikispecificstyle h4 { font-size: 116%; }
+#wikispecificstyle h5 { font-size: 110%; }
+#wikispecificstyle h6 { font-size: 80%;  }
+
+#wikispecificstyle ul {
+    line-height: 1.5em;
+    list-style-type: square;
+    margin: .3em 0 0 1.5em;
+    padding: 0;
+    list-style-image: url(bullet.gif);
+}
+#wikispecificstyle ol {
+    line-height: 1.5em;
+    margin: .3em 0 0 3.2em;
+    padding: 0;
+    list-style-image: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle li {
+    margin-bottom: .1em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle dt {
+    font-weight: bold;
+    margin-bottom: .1em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle dl {
+    margin-top: .2em;
+    margin-bottom: .5em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle dd {
+    line-height: 1.5em;
+    margin-left: 2em;
+    margin-bottom: .1em;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle fieldset {
+    border: 1px solid #2f6fab;
+    margin: 1em 0 1em 0;
+    padding: 0 1em 1em;
+    line-height: 1.5em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle legend {
+    background: white;
+    padding: .5em;
+    font-size: 95%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle form {
+    border: none;
+    margin: 0;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle textarea {
+    width: 100%;
+    padding: .1em;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle input.historysubmit {
+    padding: 0 .3em .3em .3em !important;
+    font-size: 94%;
+    cursor: pointer;
+    height: 1.7em !important;
+    margin-left: 1.6em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle select {
+    vertical-align: top;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle abbr, acronym, .explain {
+    border-bottom: 1px dotted black;
+    color: black;
+    background: none;
+    cursor: help;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle q {
+    font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;
+    font-style: italic;
+}
+/* disabled for now
+#wikispecificstyle blockquote {
+    font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;
+    font-style: italic;
+}*/
+#wikispecificstyle code {
+    background-color: #f9f9f9;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle pre {
+    padding: 1em;
+    border: 1px dashed #2f6fab;
+    color: black;
+    background-color: #f9f9f9;
+    line-height: 1.1em;
+}
+
+/*
+** the main content area
+*/
+
+#wikispecificstyle #siteSub {
+    display: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #contentSub {
+    font-size: 84%;
+    line-height: 1.2em;
+    margin: 0 0 1.4em 1em;
+    color: #7d7d7d;
+    width: auto;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle span.subpages {
+    display: block;
+}
+
+/* Some space under the headers in the content area */
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent h1, #bodyContent h2 {
+    margin-bottom: .6em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent h3, #bodyContent h4, #bodyContent h5 {
+    margin-bottom: .3em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .firstHeading {
+    margin-bottom: .1em;
+}
+
+/* user notification thing */
+#wikispecificstyle .usermessage {
+    background-color: #ffce7b;
+    border: 1px solid #ffa500;
+    color: black;
+    font-weight: bold;
+    margin: 2em 0 1em;
+    padding: .5em 1em;
+    vertical-align: middle;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #siteNotice {
+    text-align: center;
+    font-size: 95%;
+    padding: 0 .9em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #siteNotice p {
+    margin: 0;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .error {
+    color: red;
+    font-size: larger;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #catlinks {
+    border: 1px solid #aaa;
+    background-color: #f9f9f9;
+    padding: 5px;
+    margin-top: 1em;
+    clear: both;
+}
+/* currently unused, intended to be used by a metadata box
+in the bottom-right corner of the content area */
+#wikispecificstyle .documentDescription {
+    /* The summary text describing the document */
+    font-weight: bold;
+    display: block;
+    margin: 1em 0;
+    line-height: 1.5em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .documentByLine {
+    text-align: right;
+    font-size: 90%;
+    clear: both;
+    font-weight: normal;
+    color: #76797c;
+}
+
+/* emulate center */
+#wikispecificstyle .center {
+    width: 100%;
+    text-align: center;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle *.center * {
+    margin-left: auto;
+    margin-right: auto;
+}
+/* small for tables and similar */
+#wikispecificstyle .small, .small * {
+    font-size: 94%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle table.small {
+    font-size: 100%;
+}
+
+/*
+** content styles
+*/
+
+#wikispecificstyle #toc,
+#wikispecificstyle .toc {
+	border: 1px solid #aaa;
+	background-color: #f9f9f9;
+	padding: 5px;
+	font-size: 95%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #toc h2,
+#wikispecificstyle .toc h2 {
+	display: inline;
+	border: none;
+	padding: 0;
+	font-size: 100%;
+	font-weight: bold;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #toc #toctitle,
+.toc #toctitle,
+#wikispecificstyle #toc .toctitle,
+#wikispecificstyle .toc .toctitle {
+	text-align: center;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #toc ul,
+#wikispecificstyle .toc ul {
+	list-style-type: none;
+	list-style-image: none;
+	margin-left: 0;
+	padding-left: 0;
+	text-align: left;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #toc ul ul,
+#wikispecificstyle .toc ul ul {
+	margin: 0 0 0 2em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #toc .toctoggle,
+#wikispecificstyle .toc .toctoggle {
+	font-size: 94%;
+}
+
+
+/* images */
+#wikispecificstyle div.floatright, table.floatright {
+    clear: right;
+    float: right;
+    position: relative;
+    margin: 0 0 .5em .5em;
+    border: 0;
+/*
+    border: .5em solid white;
+    border-width: .5em 0 .8em 1.4em;
+*/
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.floatright p { font-style: italic; }
+#wikispecificstyle div.floatleft, table.floatleft {
+    float: left;
+    position: relative;
+    margin: 0 .5em .5em 0;
+    border: 0;
+/*
+    margin: .3em .5em .5em 0;
+    border: .5em solid white;
+    border-width: .5em 1.4em .8em 0;
+*/
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.floatleft p { font-style: italic; }
+/* thumbnails */
+#wikispecificstyle div.thumb {
+    margin-bottom: .5em;
+    border-style: solid;
+    border-color: white;
+    width: auto;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.thumb div {
+    border: 1px solid #ccc;
+    padding: 3px !important;
+    background-color: #f9f9f9;
+    font-size: 94%;
+    text-align: center;
+    overflow: hidden;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.thumb div a img {
+    border: 1px solid #ccc;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.thumb div div.thumbcaption {
+    border: none;
+    text-align: left;
+    line-height: 1.4em;
+    padding: .3em 0 .1em 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.magnify {
+    float: right;
+    border: none !important;
+    background: none !important;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.magnify a, div.magnify img {
+    display: block;
+    border: none !important;
+    background: none !important;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.tright {
+    clear: right;
+    float: right;
+    border-width: .5em 0 .8em 1.4em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.tleft {
+    float: left;
+    margin-right: .5em;
+    border-width: .5em 1.4em .8em 0;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle .hiddenStructure {
+    display: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle img.tex {
+    vertical-align: middle;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle span.texhtml {
+    font-family: serif;
+}
+
+/*
+** classes for special content elements like town boxes
+** intended to be referenced directly from the wiki src
+*/
+
+/*
+** User styles
+*/
+/* table standards */
+#wikispecificstyle table.rimage {
+    float: right;
+    position: relative;
+    margin-left: 1em;
+    margin-bottom: 1em;
+    text-align: center;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .toccolours {
+    border: 1px solid #aaa;
+    background-color: #f9f9f9;
+    padding: 5px;
+    font-size: 95%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.townBox {
+    position: relative;
+    float: right;
+    background: white;
+    margin-left: 1em;
+    border: 1px solid gray;
+    padding: .3em;
+    width: 200px;
+    overflow: hidden;
+    clear: right;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.townBox dl {
+    padding: 0;
+    margin: 0 0 .3em;
+    font-size: 96%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.townBox dl dt {
+    background: none;
+    margin: .4em 0 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.townBox dl dd {
+    margin: .1em 0 0 1.1em;
+    background-color: #f3f3f3;
+}
+
+/*
+** edit views etc
+*/
+#wikispecificstyle .special li {
+    line-height: 1.4em;
+    margin: 0;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+
+/* Page history styling */
+/* the auto-generated edit comments */
+#wikispecificstyle .autocomment {
+    color: gray;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #pagehistory span.user {
+    margin-left: 1.4em;
+    margin-right: .4em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #pagehistory span.minor {
+    font-weight: bold;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #pagehistory li {
+    border: 1px solid white;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #pagehistory li.selected {
+    background-color: #f9f9f9;
+    border: 1px dashed #aaa;
+}
+
+/*
+** Diff rendering
+*/
+#wikispecificstyle table.diff, td.diff-otitle, td.diff-ntitle {
+    background-color: white;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle td.diff-addedline {
+    background: #cfc;
+    font-size: smaller;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle td.diff-deletedline {
+    background: #ffa;
+    font-size: smaller;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle td.diff-context {
+    background: #eee;
+    font-size: smaller;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle span.diffchange {
+    color: red;
+    font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+/*
+** keep the whitespace in front of the ^=, hides rule from konqueror
+** this is css3, the validator doesn't like it when validating as css2
+*/
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a[href ^="http://"],
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a[href ^="gopher://"] {
+    background: url(external.png) center right no-repeat;
+    padding-right: 13px;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a[href ^="https://"],
+#wikispecificstyle .link-https {
+    background: url(lock_icon.gif) center right no-repeat;
+    padding-right: 16px;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a[href ^="mailto:"],
+#wikispecificstyle .link-mailto {
+    background: url(mail_icon.gif) center right no-repeat;
+    padding-right: 18px;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a[href ^="news://"] {
+    background: url(news_icon.png) center right no-repeat;
+    padding-right: 18px;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a[href ^="ftp://"],
+#wikispecificstyle .link-ftp {
+    background: url(file_icon.gif) center right no-repeat;
+    padding-right: 18px;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a[href ^="irc://"],
+#wikispecificstyle .link-irc {
+    background: url(discussionitem_icon.gif) center right no-repeat;
+    padding-right: 18px;
+}
+/* disable interwiki styling */
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a.extiw,
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a.extiw:active {
+    color: #36b;
+    background: none;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a.external {
+    color: #36b;
+}
+/* this can be used in the content area to switch off
+special external link styling */
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent .plainlinks a {
+    background: none !important;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+/*
+** Structural Elements
+*/
+
+/*
+** general portlet styles (elements in the quickbar)
+*/
+
+#wikispecificstyle .portlet {
+    background:white;
+    border: none; 
+    margin: 0 0 0 0 ;
+    padding: .2em 0 .4em;
+    float: none;
+    width: 12.8em;
+    overflow: hidden;
+        	
+ }
+
+#wikispecificstyle .portlet h4 {
+    font-size: 95%;
+    font-weight: normal;
+    white-space: nowrap;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle .portlet h5 {
+    background: white;
+    color:black;
+    padding: 0 1em 0 .5em;
+    display: inline;
+    height: 1em;
+    text-transform: lowercase;
+    font-size: 120%;
+    font-weight: bold;
+    white-space: nowrap;
+  
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .portlet h6 {
+    background: #ffae2e;
+    border: 1px solid #2f6fab;
+    border-style: solid solid none solid;
+    padding: 0 1em 0 1em;
+    text-transform: lowercase;
+    display: block;
+    font-size: 1em;
+    height: 1.2em;
+    font-weight: normal;
+    white-space: nowrap;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle .pBody {
+    font-size: 95%;
+    background-color: white;
+    color: black;
+    border-collapse: collapse;
+    border: 1px solid #2E8B57;
+    padding: 0 .5em .3em .2em;
+}
+.portlet h1,
+.portlet h2,
+.portlet h3,
+#wikispecificstyle .portlet h4 {
+    margin: 0;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle .portlet ul {
+    line-height: 1.5em;
+    list-style-type: square;
+    list-style-image: url(bullet.gif);
+    font-size: 95%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .portlet li {
+    padding: 0;
+    margin: 0;
+}
+
+/*
+** Logo properties
+*/
+
+
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-logo{
+    z-index: 3;
+    position: absolute; /*needed to use z-index */
+    top: 0;
+    left: 0;
+    height: 155px;
+    width: 12em;
+    overflow: visible;  
+        	 
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-logo h5 {
+    display: none;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-logo a,
+#wikispecificstyle #p-logo a:hover {
+    display: block;
+    height: 155px;
+    width: 11.2em;
+    background-image: url(toki_chalk.png) !important;
+    background-repeat: no-repeat;
+    background-position: 35% 50% !important;
+    text-decoration: none;
+   
+    }
+
+/*
+** the navigation portlet
+*/
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-navigation {
+    position: relative;
+    z-index: 3;
+}
+
+/*
+** Search portlet
+*/
+#wikispecificstyle #p-search {
+    position: relative;
+    z-index: 3;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-search .pBody {
+    text-align: center;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle input.searchButton {
+    margin-top: 1px;
+    font-size: 95%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #searchGoButton {
+    padding-left: .5em;
+    padding-right: .5em;
+    font-weight: bold;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #searchInput {
+    width: 10.9em;
+    margin: 0;
+    font-size: 95%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-search .pBody {
+    padding: .5em .4em .5em .4em;
+}
+
+/*
+** the personal toolbar
+*/
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal {
+    width: 100%;
+    white-space: nowrap;
+    padding: 0;
+    margin: 0;
+    position: absolute;
+    left: 0;
+    top: 0;
+    z-index: 0;
+    border: none;
+    background: none;
+    overflow: visible;
+    line-height: 1.2em;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal h5 {
+    display: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal .portlet,
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal .pBody {
+    padding: 0;
+    margin: 0;
+    border: none;
+    z-index: 0;
+    overflow: visible;
+    background: none;
+}
+/* this is the ul contained in the portlet */
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal ul {
+    border: none;
+    line-height: 1.4em;
+    color: #2f6fab;
+    padding: 0 2em 0 3em;
+    margin: 0;
+    text-align: right;
+    text-transform: lowercase;
+    list-style: none;
+    z-index: 0;
+    background: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal li {
+    z-index: 0;
+    border: none;
+    padding: 0;
+    display: inline;
+    color: #2f6fab;
+    margin-left: 1em;
+    line-height: 1.2em;
+    background: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal li a {
+    text-decoration: none;
+    color: #005896;
+    padding-bottom: .2em;
+    background: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal li a:hover {
+    background-color: white;
+    padding-bottom: .2em;
+    text-decoration: none;
+}
+
+/* the icon in front of the user name, single quotes
+in bg url to hide it from iemac */
+li#pt-userpage,
+li#pt-anonuserpage,
+#wikispecificstyle li#pt-login {
+    background: url(user.gif) top left no-repeat;
+    padding-left: 20px;
+    text-transform: none;
+}
+
+/*
+** the page-related actions- page/talk, edit etc
+*/
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions {
+    position: absolute;
+    top: 1.3em;
+    left: 13.5em;
+    margin: 0;
+    white-space: nowrap;
+    width: 76%;
+    line-height: 1.1em;
+    overflow: visible;
+    background: none;
+    border-collapse: collapse;
+    padding-left: 1em;
+    list-style: none;
+    font-size: 95%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions .hiddenStructure {
+    display: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions ul {
+    list-style: none;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li {
+    display: inline;
+    border: 1px solid #2E8B57;
+    border-bottom: none;
+    padding: 0 0 .1em 0;
+    margin: 0 .3em 0 0;
+    overflow: visible;
+    background: white;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li.selected {
+    border-color: #fabd23;
+    padding: 0 0 .2em 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li a {
+    background-color: white;
+    color: #002bb8;
+    border: none;
+    padding: 0 .8em .3em .8em;
+    text-decoration: none;
+    text-transform: lowercase;
+    position: relative;
+    z-index: 0;
+    margin: 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions .selected a {
+    z-index: 11;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions .new a {
+    color: #ba0000;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li a:hover {
+    z-index: 11;
+    text-decoration: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions h5 {
+    display: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li.istalk {
+    margin-right: 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li.istalk a {
+    padding-right: .5em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions #ca-addsection a {
+    padding-left: .4em;
+    padding-right: .4em;
+}
+/* offsets to distinguish the tab groups */
+#wikispecificstyle li#ca-talk {
+    margin-right: 1.6em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle li#ca-watch, li#ca-unwatch, li#ca-varlang-0, li#ca-print {
+    margin-left: 1.6em;
+}
+
+/*
+** the remaining portlets
+*/
+#wikispecificstyle #p-tbx,
+#wikispecificstyle #p-lang {
+    position: relative;
+    z-index: 11;
+}
+
+/*
+** footer
+*/
+#wikispecificstyle #footer {
+    background-color: white;
+    border-top: 1px solid #2E8B57;
+    border-bottom: 1px solid #2E8B57;
+    border-left: 1px solid #2E8B57;	
+    margin: 0.6em 0 1em 6em;
+    padding: 0.4em 0 1.2em 0;
+    text-align: center;
+    font-size: 90%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #footer li {
+    display: inline;
+    margin: 0 1.3em;
+}
+/* hide from incapable browsers */
+#wikispecificstyle head:first-child+body #footer li { white-space: nowrap; }
+#wikispecificstyle f-poweredbyico, #f-copyrightico {
+    margin: 10px 8px;
+    position: relative;
+    top: -2px; /* Bump it up just a tad */
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #f-poweredbyico {
+    float: right;
+    height: 1%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #f-copyrightico {
+    float: left;
+    height: 1%;
+}
+
+/* js pref toc */
+#wikispecificstyle #preftoc {
+    float: left;
+    margin: 1em;
+    width: 13em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #preftoc li {
+    border: 1px solid white;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #preftoc li.selected {
+    background-color: #f9f9f9;
+    border: 1px dashed #aaa;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #preftoc a,
+#wikispecificstyle #preftoc a:active {
+    display: block;
+    color: #0014a6;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #prefcontrol {
+    clear: both;
+    float: left;
+    margin-top: 1em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.prefsectiontip {
+    font-size: 95%;
+    margin-top: 1em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle fieldset.operaprefsection {
+    margin-left: 15em;
+}
+
+/*
+** IE/Mac fixes, hope to find a validating way to move this
+** to a separate stylesheet. This would work but doesn't validate:
+** @import("IEMacFixes.css");
+*/
+/* tabs: border on the a, not the div */
+#wikispecificstyle * > html #p-cactions li { border: none; }
+#wikispecificstyle * > html #p-cactions li a {
+    border: 1px solid #aaa;
+    border-bottom: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle * > html #p-cactions li.selected a { border-color: #fabd23; }
+/* footer icons need a fixed width */
+* > html #f-poweredbyico,
+#wikispecificstyle * > html #f-copyrightico { width: 88px; }
+* > html #bodyContent,
+#wikispecificstyle * > html #bodyContent pre {
+    overflow-x: auto;
+    width: 100%;
+    padding-bottom: 25px;
+}
+
+/* more IE fixes */
+/* float/negative margin brokenness */
+#wikispecificstyle * html #footer {margin-top: 0;}
+#wikispecificstyle * html #column-content {
+    display: inline;
+    margin-bottom: 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle * html div.editsection { font-size: smaller; }
+#wikispecificstyle #pagehistory li.selected { position: relative; }
+
+/* Mac IE 5.0 fix; floated content turns invisible */
+#wikispecificstyle * > html #column-content {
+    float: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle * > html #column-one {
+    position: absolute;
+    left: 0;
+    top: 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle * > html #footer {
+    margin-left: 13.2em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .redirectText {
+    font-size: 150%;
+    margin: 5px;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle .printfooter {
+    display: none;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle .not-patrolled {
+    background-color: #ffa;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.patrollink {
+    font-size: 75%;
+    text-align: right;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle span.newpage, span.minor, span.searchmatch {
+    font-weight: bold;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle span.unpatrolled {
+    font-weight: bold;
+    color: red;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle span.searchmatch {
+    color: red;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .sharedUploadNotice {
+    font-style: italic;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle span.updatedmarker {
+    color: black;
+    background-color: #0f0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle span.newpageletter {
+    font-weight: bold;
+    color: black;
+    background-color: yellow;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle span.minoreditletter {
+    color: black;
+    background-color: #c5ffe6;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.gallery {
+    border: 1px solid #ccc;
+    margin: 2px;
+    padding: 2px;
+    background-color: white;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.gallery tr {
+    vertical-align: top;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.gallery td {
+    vertical-align: top;
+    background-color: #f9f9f9;
+    border: solid 2px white;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle div.gallerybox {
+    margin: 2px;
+    width:  150px;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle div.gallerybox div.thumb {
+    text-align: center;
+    border: 1px solid #ccc;
+    margin: 2px;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle div.gallerytext {
+    font-size: 94%;
+    padding: 2px 4px;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle span.comment {
+	font-style: italic;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle span.changedby {
+	font-size: 95%;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle .previewnote {
+	text-align: center;
+	color: #cc0000;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .editExternally {
+	border: 1px solid gray;
+	background-color: #ffffff;
+	padding: 3px;
+	margin-top: 0.5em;
+	float: left;
+	font-size: small;
+	text-align: center;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .editExternallyHelp {
+	font-style: italic;
+	color: gray;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle li span.deleted {
+	text-decoration: line-through;
+	color: #888;
+	font-style: italic;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle .toggle {
+	margin-left: 2em;
+	text-indent: -2em;
+}
+
+/* Classes for EXIF data display */
+#wikispecificstyle table.metadata {
+	font-size: 0.8em;
+	margin-left: 0.5em;
+	margin-bottom: 0.5em;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.metadata caption {
+	font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.metadata th {
+	font-weight: normal;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.metadata td {
+	padding: 0.1em;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.metadata {
+	border: none;
+	border-collapse: collapse;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.metadata td, table.metadata th {
+	text-align: center;
+	border: 1px solid #aaaaaa;
+	padding-left: 0.1em;
+	padding-right: 0.1em;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.metadata th {
+	background-color: #f9f9f9;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.metadata td {
+	background-color: #fcfcfc;
+}
+
+/* filetoc */
+#wikispecificstyle ul#filetoc {
+	text-align: center;
+	border: 1px solid #aaaaaa;
+	background-color: #f9f9f9;
+	padding: 5px;
+	font-size: 95%;
+	margin-bottom: 0.5em;
+	margin-left: 0;
+	margin-right: 0;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #filetoc li {
+	display: inline;
+	list-style-type: none;
+	padding-right: 2em;
+}
+
+/* @bug 1714 */
+#wikispecificstyle input#wpSave, input#wpDiff {
+	margin-right: 0.33em;
+}
+
+
+/* Classes for article validation */
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.revisionform_default {
+	border: 1px solid #000000;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.revisionform_focus {
+	border: 1px solid #000000;
+	background-color:#00BBFF;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle tr.revision_tr_default {
+	background-color:#EEEEEE;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle tr.revision_tr_first {
+	background-color:#DDDDDD;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle p.revision_saved {
+	color: green;
+	font-weight:bold;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #mw_trackbacks {
+	border: solid 1px #bbbbff;
+	background-color: #eeeeff;
+	padding: 0.2em;
+}
+
+
+/* Allmessages table */
+
+#wikispecificstyle #allmessagestable th {
+	background-color: #b2b2ff;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #allmessagestable tr.orig {
+	background-color: #ffe2e2;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #allmessagestable tr.new {
+	background-color: #e2ffe2;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #allmessagestable tr.def {
+	background-color: #f0f0ff;
+}
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/macros/extra.dm
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/macros/extra.dm	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/macros/extra.dm	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,115 @@
+# extra.dm file
+# You can add collection specific macros in here
+# Lines starting with a '#' are comments.
+# Remember to include the package declaration
+
+
+package about
+_content_{
+_optnavigationbar_
+
+<div class="document">
+_If_("_cgiargqt_" ne "1",
+     _If_("_cgiargu_" ne "1",_aboutqueryform_)
+    )		   
+_If_(_Global:collectionextra_,<p>_textabout_)
+_textsubcollections_
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3>_help:textsimplehelpheading_</h3>
+_help:simplehelp_
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="section">
+<table id='toc' class='toc'><tr><td><div id='toctitle'><h2>Contents</h2></div>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="_httpquery_&a=extlink&rl=1&href=http%3A%2F%2Fgreenstonewiki%2Ecs%2Ewaikato%2Eac%2Enz%2Fwiki%2Findex%2Ephp%2FMain%5FPage%2Ehtml#Documentation"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Documentation</span></a>
+<ul>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="_httpquery_&a=extlink&rl=1&href=http%3A%2F%2Fgreenstonewiki%2Ecs%2Ewaikato%2Eac%2Enz%2Fwiki%2Findex%2Ephp%2FMain%5FPage%2Ehtml#Greenstone_FAQ"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Greenstone FAQ</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="_httpquery_&a=extlink&rl=1&href=http%3A%2F%2Fgreenstonewiki%2Ecs%2Ewaikato%2Eac%2Enz%2Fwiki%2Findex%2Ephp%2FMain%5FPage%2Ehtml#General_Documentation"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">General Documentation</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="_httpquery_&a=extlink&rl=1&href=http%3A%2F%2Fgreenstonewiki%2Ecs%2Ewaikato%2Eac%2Enz%2Fwiki%2Findex%2Ephp%2FMain%5FPage%2Ehtml#Greenstone3"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Greenstone3</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="_httpquery_&a=extlink&rl=1&href=http%3A%2F%2Fgreenstonewiki%2Ecs%2Ewaikato%2Eac%2Enz%2Fwiki%2Findex%2Ephp%2FMain%5FPage%2Ehtml#Tutorial_exercises"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Tutorial exercises</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="_httpquery_&a=extlink&rl=1&href=http%3A%2F%2Fgreenstonewiki%2Ecs%2Ewaikato%2Eac%2Enz%2Fwiki%2Findex%2Ephp%2FMain%5FPage%2Ehtml#Example_Collections"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Example Collections</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="_httpquery_&a=extlink&rl=1&href=http%3A%2F%2Fgreenstonewiki%2Ecs%2Ewaikato%2Eac%2Enz%2Fwiki%2Findex%2Ephp%2FMain%5FPage%2Ehtml#Manuals"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Manuals</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-2'><a href="_httpquery_&a=extlink&rl=1&href=http%3A%2F%2Fgreenstonewiki%2Ecs%2Ewaikato%2Eac%2Enz%2Fwiki%2Findex%2Ephp%2FMain%5FPage%2Ehtml#Greenstone_workshops"><span class="tocnumber">1.7</span> <span class="toctext">Greenstone workshops</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="_httpquery_&a=extlink&rl=1&href=http%3A%2F%2Fgreenstonewiki%2Ecs%2Ewaikato%2Eac%2Enz%2Fwiki%2Findex%2Ephp%2FMain%5FPage%2Ehtml#Internationalization"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Internationalization</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="_httpquery_&a=extlink&rl=1&href=http%3A%2F%2Fgreenstonewiki%2Ecs%2Ewaikato%2Eac%2Enz%2Fwiki%2Findex%2Ephp%2FMain%5FPage%2Ehtml#Greenstone_Development"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Greenstone Development</span></a></li>
+<li class='toclevel-1'><a href="_httpquery_&a=extlink&rl=1&href=http%3A%2F%2Fgreenstonewiki%2Ecs%2Ewaikato%2Eac%2Enz%2Fwiki%2Findex%2Ephp%2FMain%5FPage%2Ehtml#Other_links_for_Greenstone_users"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Other links for Greenstone users</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+}
+
+package Style
+_cssheader_ {      
+  <style type="text/css" media="screen,projection">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "_httpcollection_/images/main.css"; /*]]>*/</style>  
+  
+  <!--<link rel="stylesheet" href="_httpcollection_/images/main.css" type="text/css" charset="UTF-8" media="screen">-->
+  <!--<link rel="stylesheet" href="_httpcollection_/images/IE55Fixes.css" type="text/css" charset="UTF-8" media="screen">-->  
+  <!--[if lt IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "_httpcollection_/images/IE50Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+  <!--[if IE 5.5000]><style type="text/css">@import "_httpcollection_/images/IE55Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+  <!--[if gte IE 6]><style type="text/css">@import "_httpcollection_/images/IE60Fixes.css";</style><![endif]-->
+  <!--[if lt IE 7]><script type="text/javascript" src="_httpcollection_/images/IEFixes.js"></script><meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="no" /><![endif]--> 
+  <link rel="stylesheet" href="_httpcollection_/images/mystyle.css" type="text/css" _linktagend_
+  <link rel="stylesheet" href="_cssfilelink_" type="text/css" title="Greenstone Style" charset="UTF-8" _linktagend_
+  <link rel="alternate stylesheet" href="_httpimg_/style-print.css"
+   type="text/css" title="Printer" charset="UTF-8" media="print, screen" _linktagend_
+  <link rel="stylesheet" href="_httpimg_/style-print.css" type="text/css" 
+   title="Printer" charset="UTF-8" media="print" _linktagend_
+
+  <style type="text/css">
+    body.bgimage \{ background: url("_httpimg_/chalk.gif") scroll repeat-y left top; \}
+    div.navbar \{ background-image: url("_httpimg_/bg_green.png"); \}
+    div.divbar \{ background-image: url("_httpimg_/bg_green.png"); \}
+    a.navlink \{ background-image: url("_httpimg_/bg_off.png"); \}
+    a.navlink_sel \{ background-image: url("_httpimg_/bg_green.png"); \}
+    a.navlink:hover \{ background-image: url("_httpimg_/bg_on.png"); \}
+    p.bannertitle \{background-image: url("_httpimg_/banner_bg.png"); \}
+    p.collectiontitle \{background-image: url("_httpimg_/banner_bg.png"); \}
+  </style>
+  
+}
+
+
+
+package query
+_content_ {
+_optnavigationbar_
+<div class="document">
+<div class="queryform">
+_If_(_cgiargct_,_selectqueryform_,_queryform_)
+</div>
+
+_If_(_searchhistorylist_,<center>_searchhistorybar_</center><br>
+<center>
+_searchhistorylist_
+</center>)
+_If_(_cgiargq_,_queryresultsbar_
+<small>
+_freqmsg_
+_textpostprocess_
+_If_(_stopwordsmsg_,(_stopwordsmsg_))</small><br />
+_resultline_
+,<div class="divbar">&nbsp;</div>)
+_If_("_cgiargq_" ne "", <div id="wikispecificstyle"><div id="content_vlist">)
+}
+
+
+_pagefooterextra_ {
+_If_(_about:numdocs_, </div></div>)
+<center>
+<table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="_pagewidth_">
+<tr>
+<td align="left">_If_(_prevfirst_,<a href="_httpquery_&r=_prevfirst_">_iconprev__textmatches__prevfirst_ - _prevlast_</a>)</td>
+<td align="right">_If_(_nextfirst_,<a href="_httpquery_&r=_nextfirst_">_textmatches__nextfirst_ - _nextlast__iconnext_</a>)</td>
+</tr></table>
+</center>
+
+</div> <!-- document -->
+}
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/metadata/dublin.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/metadata/dublin.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/metadata/dublin.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1713 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet SYSTEM "http://www.greenstone.org/dtd/MetadataSet/1.0/MetadataSet.dtd">
+<MetadataSet contact="dcmi-feedback@dublincore.org" creator="Dublin Core Metadata Initiative" family="Dublin Core" language_dependent="label, definition, comment" lastchanged="Tue Sep 05 14:40:36 NZST 2006 - kjdon on kanuka" namespace="dc">
+    <!-- English Version sourced from http://www.dublincore.org/documents/dces/ -->
+    <SetLanguage code="en">
+        <Name language="en">Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, Version 1.1: Reference Description</Name>
+        <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.1 of the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set. This document supersedes the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set, version 1.0. See the Dublin Core Home Page (http://dublincore.org) for further information about the workshops, reports, working group papers, projects, and new developments concerning the Dublin Core Metadata Element set</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Maori Version sourced from http://www.tki.org.nz/r/maori/pedagogy/dc_elements_m.php -->
+    <SetLanguage code="mi">
+        <Name>Dublin Core Huanga - Maori (He Tauira)</Name>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- French Version sourced from http://www-rocq.inria.fr/%7Evercoust/METADATA/DC-fr.1.1.html -->
+    <!--  by Anne-Marie Vercoustre, Inria -->
+    <SetLanguage code="fr">
+        <Name language="fr">ElÃ©ments de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es du Dublin Core, Version 1.1: Description de RÃ©ference</Name>
+        <Description language="fr">Ce document rÃ©sume les derniÃšres dÃ©finitions des Ã©lÃ©ments demÃ©tadonnÃ©es du Dublin Core originellement dÃ©finis dans le document[RFC2413]. Ces nouvelles dÃ©finitions seront officiellement connues comme la Version 1.1. Elles utilisent un standard dÃ©fini formellement pour la description d&apos;Ã©lÃ©ments de mÃ©tadonnÃ©es. Cette formalisation contribue Ã  amÃ©liorer la cohÃ©rence avec d&apos;autres communautÃ©s dÃ©crivant des mÃ©tadonnÃ©es et Ã  augmenter la prÃ©cision, la portÃ©e et la cohÃ©rence interne de la dÃ©finition des Ã©lÃ©ments du Dublin Core.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Russian Version sourced from -->
+    <!-- by Olga Barysheva, National Library of Russia -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ru">
+        <Name language="ru">ÐÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Dublin Core (ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐœÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŽÑÐ°) ÐÐµÑÑÐžÑ 1.1: Ð¡Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ</Name>
+        <Description language="ru">ÐÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐŸÐ±ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸÐ²Ð»ÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Dublin Core (ÐÑÐ±Ð»ÐžÐœÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŽÑÐ°), Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐŸÐœÐ°ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð² RFC2413 (ÐÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ Dublin Core ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐ¶ÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐŸÐ²). Ð­ÑÐž ÐœÐŸÐ²ÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŸÑÐžÑÐžÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÑÑÐœÑ ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐÐµÑÑÐžÑ 1.1.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Spanish Version sourced from http://www.rediris.es/metadata/. Please note that this is a translation for Dublin Core v1.0 -->
+    <!-- by Javi Masa, RedIRIS -->
+    <SetLanguage code="es">
+        <Name language="es">Elementos del conjunto de metadatas de Dublin Core: DescripciÃ³n de Referencia</Name>
+        <Description language="es">Este documento corresponde a una traducciÃ³n del original en lengua inglesa, con fecha 02/11/1997 que se encuentra en http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core_elements. Este documento es una descripciÃ³n de referencia de los elementos del conjunto de &quot;Dublin Core&quot;. Para mÃ¡s informaciÃ³n sobre reuniones de trabajo, documentos de trabajo, proyectos y nuevos desarrollos relacionados con el conjunto de elementos que aquÃ­ se describen consultar la &quot;Home Page&quot; de &quot;Dublin Core&quot; (http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core). Los elementos poseen nombres descriptivos que pretenden transmitir un significado semÃ¡ntico a los mismos. Para promover una interoperabilidad global, una descripciÃ³n del valor de algunos elementos prodrÃ¡ ser asociada a vocabularios controlados. Se asume que otros vocabularios controlados serÃ¡n desarrollados para asegurar esta interoperabilidad en dominios especÃ­ficos. Cada elemento es opcional y puede repetirse. AdemÃ¡s, los elementos pueden aparecer en cualquier orden. Aunque algunos entornos, como HTML, no diferencian entre mayÃºsculas y minÃºsculas, es recomendable escribir correctamente cada metadata segÃºn su definiciÃ³n para evitar conflictos con otros entornos, como XML (Extensible Markup Language) http://www.w3.org/TR/PR-xml</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Arabic Version sourced from http://haddouti.de/DC_arabic.html -->
+    <!-- maintained by Hachim Haddouti. -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ar">
+        <Name>Ø¯ØšÙÙÙ ÙÙØ±</Name>
+        <Description>ÙØ±Ø­Øš ØšÙÙ
+ ÙÙ ØµÙØ­Ø©  Ø¯ ØšÙÙÙ ÙÙ  Ø± ØšØ§ÙØ¹Ø±ØšÙ    ÙÙ  ÙØ°Ù Ø§ÙØµÙØ­Ø©  Ù ØšØ§ÙØªØ¹Ø§ÙÙ Ù
+Ø¹ Ø§ÙØ§Ø®ÙØ§Ù Ø§ÙØ¹Ø±Øš Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªØšØ§ØªØ Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø§ÙÙØŽØ±Ø Ø§ÙØšØ­ÙØ« Ø§ÙØ¹ÙÙ
+ÙØ© Ù    ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+ÙWorking Group On Multilingual Dublin Core (DC-International) Ø</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Chinese - Simplified Version from http://dc.library.sh.cn/DC/1-1.htm -->
+    <!-- by Liu Wei, Shanghai Library -->
+    <SetLanguage code="cn">
+        <Name>éœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ é1.1çïŒåèæè¿°</Name>
+        <Description>æ¬ææ¡£å
+³äºéœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®å
+çŽ é1.1çæ¬çåèæè¿°ãæ­€æè¿°äžå·²ç»æäº€ç»ISOçšäºåœé
+æç¥šçNISOå®æ¹æ åä¿æäžèŽã    éœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®éæ¯äžç§è·šé¢åçä¿¡æ¯èµæºæè¿°æ åãè¿éçä¿¡æ¯èµæºè¢«å®ä¹äžºâä»»äœå
+·ææ è¯çäžè¥¿âãæ­€å®ä¹æ¥èªäºTim Berners-Leeç­äººæèçInternet RFC2396 &quot;Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax&quot;æä»¶ãéœæææ žå¿å
+æ°æ®çåºçšé¢åæ²¡ææ ¹æ¬çéå¶ã</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Czech Version from http://www.ics.muni.cz/dublin_core/DC-czech-1.1.html -->
+    <!-- Ustav vypocetni techniky Masarykovy univerzity v Brne -->
+    <SetLanguage code="cs">
+        <Name>Soubor metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core, verze 1.1: referenÄnÃ­ popis</Name>
+        <Description>Tento dokument je ÄeskÃœm pÅekladem anglickÃ© verze referenÄnÃ­ho popisu souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯  Dublin Core, verze 1.1 [DCEN1.1]. Tento dokument nahrazuje ÄeskÃœ pÅeklad souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core, verze 1.0 [DCCS1.0]. DalÅ¡Ã­ informace o pracovnÃ­ch seminÃ¡ÅÃ­ch (workshopech), zprÃ¡vÃ¡ch, studiÃ­ch pracovnÃ­ch skupin, projektech a dalÅ¡Ã­m vÃœvoji souboru metadatovÃœch prvkÅ¯ Dublin Core najdete na domovskÃ© strÃ¡nce Dublin Core (http://purl.org/dc)</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Dutch Version from http://www.kb.nl/coop/donor/project-nl-index.html?/coop/donor/rapporten/DCsimpleformat.html -->
+    <!-- by ... -->
+    <SetLanguage code="nl">
+        <Name>Rapporten Dublin Core Simple Format</Name>
+        <Description>Dit document beschrijft welke Dublin Core metadata elementen er zijn en geeft een korte definitie van elk element. Voor uitgebreide uitleg en gebruik van de Dublin Core elementen wordt u verwezen naar de gebruikershandleiding. Deze vertaling geeft ook de keuzes aan voor standaarden (taalcodes, datum codes) die wij in DONOR verband gaan hanteren. In zoverre kan deze vertaling afwijken van het oorspronkelijke document &quot;Description of Dublin Core Elements&quot; http://purl.org/metadata/dublin_core_elements&quot;</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Finnish Version from http://www.lib.helsinki.fi/dublin_core/dcref-fin.html -->
+    <!-- by Jani Stenvall and Juha Hakala, Helsinki University Library -->
+    <SetLanguage code="fi">
+        <Name/>
+        <Description/>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Interlingua Version sourced from http://www.nautilus.com.br/%7Eensjo/ia/purl.org/dc/documents/rec-dces-19990702.htm -->
+    <!-- by Emerson Jose` Silveira da Costa -->
+    <SetLanguage code="ia">
+        <Name>Collection de elementos de metadatos de Dublin Core, version 1.1: Description de referentia</Name>
+        <Description>Isto es un traduction de un Recommendation del Dublin Core Metadata Initiative. Le publication como un recommendation significa que le specificationes es stabile e su adoption es supportate per le communitate Dublin Core (http://purl.org/dc/).</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Marathi Version sourced from http://bioinfo.ernet.in/library/dc/ele.txt -->
+    <!-- by by Shubhada Nagarkar, Bioinformatics Centre, University of Pune -->
+    <SetLanguage code="mr">
+        <Name>à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿ à€žà¥à€ à€à€µà¥à€€à¥à€€à¥ à¥§.à¥§ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­ à€žà¥à€ªà€·à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£ à¥§.à¥§ à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿà€à€µà¥à€€à¥à€€à¥ à¥§.à¥§.</Name>
+        <Description>à¥§.à¥§ à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à¥à€à€Ÿà€¡à¥à€à€Ÿ à€¹à¥ à€µà¥à€à€µà¥à€à€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€µà€¿à€·à€¯à€Ÿà€€à¥à€² à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€µà€Šà¥à€Šà€²à€à¥ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€Šà¥à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à€¹à¥.  à€¯à€Ÿà€€ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€®à¥à€¹à€£à€à¥ à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€²à€Ÿ à€à€³à€ à€à€¹à¥ à€
+à€žà€Ÿ à€à€žà€€à¥.  à€
+à€¶à€Ÿ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°à€à¥ à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€µà€°à¥à€² à€. à€à€«.à€žà¥. à¥šà¥©à¥¯à¥¬URI: Generic Syntax -- Tim Berners Lee et al. à€¡à€¬à¥à€²à€¿à€š à€à¥à€° à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à¥à€£à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¹à¥ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à¥à€€à¥ à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥ à€µà€Ÿà€ªà€°à€€à€Ÿ à€¯à¥à€€à¥.  à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€žà€Ÿà€ à¥ à€à¥à€£à€€à€Ÿà€¹à¥ à€®à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€µ à€šà€Ÿà€¹à¥.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <!-- Vietnamese Version from Greenstone Vietnamese Language maintainer -->
+    <!-- by Cao Minh Kiem, National Centre for Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam-->
+    <SetLanguage code="vi">
+        <Name>Yáº¿u tá» SiÃªu dá»¯ liá»u Dublin Core, phiÃªn báº£n 1.1: Tham chiáº¿u</Name>
+        <Description/>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <Element name="Title">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Title</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A name given to the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Title will be a name by which the resource is formally known.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Taitara</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te ingoa ka tapaina tetahi rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ko te Taitara te ingoa ka mohio whanuitia te ingoa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Titre</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le nom donnÃ© Ã  la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, un titre sera le nom par lequel la ressource est officiellement connue.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐŒÑ, ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÑ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŒÑ, Ð¿ÐŸÐŽ ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ ÐŸÑÐžÑÐžÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÑÑÐµÐœ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">TÃ­tulo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">El nombre dado a un recurso, usualmente por el autor.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØ¹ÙÙØ§Ù</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ§Ø³Ù
+ ÙØ¹Ø·Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, Ù
+Ù ÙØšÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŽØ±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èµæºå</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµäºèµæºçåç§°ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èµæºåäžè¬æèµæºå¯¹è±¡æ­£åŒå
+¬åŒçåç§°ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">NÃ¡zev</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">JmÃ©no danÃ© zdroji.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">NÃ¡zev bude typicky jmÃ©no, pod nÃ­mÅŸ je zdroj oficiÃ¡lnÄ znÃ¡m.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Titel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De naam van de Internetbron. Meestal gegeven door de auteur, maker of uitgever</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Titulo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un nomine date al ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente se utiliza un nomine per le qual le ressource es formalmente cognite.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€ªà€°à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¯à¥ à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€žà€à€à¥à€·à€¿à€ªà¥à€€ ,  à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿà€à€€à€°à¥à€€  à€¶à¥à€°à¥à€·à€</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Nhan Äá»</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">TÃªn ÄÆ°á»£c gÃ¡n cho nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Character String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Creator">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Creator</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity primarily responsible for making the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Creator include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Creator should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaihanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi, nana, na ratou ranei i matua oti ai te hanganga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaihanga. Ko te tikanga, ko te Kaihanga te ingoa ka whakamahia hei tohu i te putahi na ratou te hanganga.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">CrÃ©ateur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">L&apos;entitÃ© principalement responsable de la crÃ©ation du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples de CrÃ©ateur incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, un nom du CrÃ©ateur devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© pour dÃ©signer cette entitÃ©.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, ÐœÐµÑÑÑÐµÐµ Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²ÐžÑÐœÑÑ ÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÑ Ð·Ð° ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Autor o Creador</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La persona u organizaciÃ³n responsable de la creaciÃ³n del contenido intelectual del recurso. Por ejemplo, los autores en el caso de documentos escritos, artistas, fotografos e ilustradores en el caso de recursos visuales.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØ§ØªØš Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø£ÙÙØ§  Ø¹Ù ÙØŽØŠ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ± Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ø¹ÙÙ Ø³ØšÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø«Ø§Ù , Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€ÙÙÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ØŠÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªÙØšØ© , Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØ§ÙÙÙ , Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµÙØ±ÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ØŠÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">åå»ºè
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">åå»ºèµæºå
+å®¹çäž»èŠèŽ£ä»»è
+ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åå»ºè
+çå®äŸå
+æ¬äžªäººïŒç»ç»ææé¡¹æå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒçšåå»ºè
+çåç§°æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">TvÅ¯rce</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita primÃ¡rnÄ odpovÄdnÃ¡ za vytvoÅenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady TvÅ¯rce zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no tvÅ¯rce.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Auteur of maker</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De auteur, maker of organisatie die primair verantwoordelijk is voor de intellectuele inhoud van het werk. Bijvoorbeeld auteurs in geval van geschreven documenten, artiesten, fotografen of illustrators in geval van visuele bronnen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Creator</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le entitate primarimente responsabile pro producer le contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de creator include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de creator pro indicar iste entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€šà€¿à€°à¥à€®à€Ÿà€€à€Ÿ, à€à€šà€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€šà€¿à€°à¥à€®à€Ÿà€£  à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.  à€²à¥à€à€, à€²à¥à€à€¿à€à€Ÿ,  à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥, à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ,  à€žà€à€ªà€Ÿà€Šà€, à€žà€à€ªà€Ÿà€Šà€¿à€à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">TÃ¡c giáº£</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">PhÃ¡p nhÃ¢n chá»u trÃ¡ch nhiá»m chÃ­nh trong viá»c táº¡o ra ná»i dung cá»§a nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PhÃ¡p nhÃ¢n trong tÃ¡c giáº£ cÃ³ thá» lÃ  tÃªn ngÆ°á»i, tÃªn cÆ¡ quan, tá» chá»©c chá»u trÃ¡ch nhiá»m vá» nÃŽi dung tÃ i liá»u</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Subject">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Subject and Keywords</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The topic of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Subject will be expressed as keywords, key phrases or classification codes that describe a topic of the resource. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary or formal classification scheme.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaupapa</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te take/ nga take o te kaupapa, o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka whakaaturia te kaupapa o te rauemi e nga kupu matua, nga kimahi matua, nga tohu wehewehenga whakaahua ranei.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Sujet</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le sujet du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, le sujet sera dÃ©crit par un ensemble de mots-clefs ou de phrases ou un code de classification qui prÃ©cisent le sujet de la ressource. L&apos;utilisation de vocabulaires contrÃŽlÃ©s et de schÃ©mas formels de classification est encouragÃ©e.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ Ðž ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÐµ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¢ÐµÐŒÐ° ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐÑÐµÐŽÐŒÐµÑ Ð²ÑÑÐ°Ð¶Ð°ÐµÑÑÑ Ñ Ð¿ÐŸÐŒÐŸÑÑÑ ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ², ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÑÑÐ°Ð· ÐžÐ»Ðž  ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÐºÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ², ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÑÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÐŒÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÑ
+ÐµÐŒÑ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Claves</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Los tÃ³picos del recurso. TÃ­picamente, Subject expresarÃ¡ las claves o frases que describen el tÃ­tulo o el contenido del recurso. Se fomentarÃ¡ el uso de vocabularios controlados y de sistemas de clasificaciÃ³n formales. Se pueden ver ejemplos de vocabularios controlados en: Controlled vocabularies, thesauri and classification systems available in the WWW. DC Subject</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§ÙØ±ØŠÙØ³ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ù
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±. ÙÙ
+ÙØ°Ø¬ÙØ§  ÙØ¹ØšØ± Ø¹Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ ØšØ§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+Ù
+ÙØªØ§Ø­  Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª  Ø§Ù Ø¬Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ  ØªØµÙ Ù
+ÙØ¶ÙØ¹ Ø§Ù Ù
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù ÙØ³ØªØ­Ø³Ù Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ù
+ÙØ±Ø¯Ø§Øª Ù
+Ø®Ø·Ø·Ø©Ù Ù
+Ø­ÙÙ
+Ø©  ÙØ§Ø¯ÙØ© ØªØµÙÙÙ ØŽÙÙÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">äž»é¢åå
+³é®è¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çäž»é¢æè¿°ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åŠæèŠæè¿°ç¹å®èµæºçæäžäž»é¢ïŒäžè¬éçšå
+³é®è¯ãå
+³é®å­ç­è¯­æåç±»å·ïŒæå¥œäž»é¢åå
+³é®è¯ä»åæ§    è¯è¡šæè§èçåç±»äœç³»äž­ååŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PÅedmÄt a klÃ­ÄovÃ¡ slova</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">TÃ©ma obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅedmÄt bude typicky vyjÃ¡dÅen pomocÃ­ klÃ­ÄovÃœch slov, klÃ­ÄovÃœch frÃ¡zÃ­ nebo klasifikaÄnÃ­ch znakÅ¯ popisujÃ­cÃ­ch tÃ©ma zdroje. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu prvku z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku nebo formÃ¡lnÃ­ho klasifikaÄnÃ­ho schÃ©matu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Onderwerp en trefwoorden</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het onderwerp van de Internetbron. Het onderwerp wordt beschreven in korte zinnen of door het gebruik van trefwoorden. Het gebruik van gecontroleerde trefwoorden of classificatie schema&apos;s wordt aanbevolen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Subjecto e parolas-clave</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le topico del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le subjecto es expresse per medio de parolas-clave, phrases-clave, o codices de classification que describe le topico del ressource. Le melior practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate o un schema formal de classification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€µà€¿à€·à€¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€µà€¿à€·à€¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ, à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€šà€žà€Ÿà€§à€šà¥ à€¯à€Ÿà€€à¥à€² à€à€¶à€¯ à€žà¥à€ªà€·à¥à€ à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à¥ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Š, à€µà€¿à€·à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€µà€°à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£ à€à€°à€€à€Ÿà€šà€Ÿ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Šà€žà€à€à¥à€°à€¹ à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€¶à€¬à¥à€Š à€à¥à€·à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€µà€Ÿà€ªà€° à€à€°à€Ÿà€µà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Chá»§ Äá»</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Chá»§ Äá» vÃ /hoáº·c Äá» má»¥c chÃ­nh cá»§a ná»i dung cá»§a nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Chá»§ Äá» ÄÆ°á»£c thá» hiá»n báº±ng tá»« khoÃ¡, cá»¥m tá»«, kÃœ hiá»u phÃ¢n loáº¡i, chá» sá» Äá» má»¥c,...VÃªn sá»­ dá»¥ng tá»« vá»±ng cÃ³ kiá»m soÃ¡t</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Description">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An account of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Description may include but is not limited to: an abstract, table of contents, reference to a graphical representation of content or a free-text account of the content.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Whakaaturanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He whakaaturanga o nga kaupapa o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ka uru atu, engari ehara noa ko: te whakarapopototanga korero, te ihirangi, te tohutanga o te kaupapa ma te whakaahua, te whakaaturanga kore kupu ranei, o te kauapapa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une description du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Une Description peut contenir, mais ce n&apos;est pas limitatif: un rÃ©sumÃ©, une table des matiÃšres, une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une reprÃ©sentation graphique du contenu, ou un texte libre sur le contenu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¡ÐŸÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÐž ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐŸ (Ð¿ÐŸ ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÑÑÐž) Ð² Ð²ÐžÐŽÐµ: ÑÐµÑÐµÑÐ°ÑÐ°, ÐŸÐ³Ð»Ð°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ, ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐž ÐœÐ° Ð³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">DescripciÃ³n</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una descripciÃ³n textual del recurso, tal como un resumen en el caso de un documento o una descripciÃ³n del contenido en el caso de un documento visual.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØµÙ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ ÙØµÙ ÙØµÙ  ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, ÙÙØ¶Ù
+ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ®ØµØ§Øª ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙØ«Ø§ØŠÙ Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø§ÙØ§ØŽÙØ§Ø¡ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØªÙØšØ© Ø§Ù ØªÙØµÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ØŠÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">è¯Žæ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çè§£é</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">è¯Žæå¯ä»¥å
+æ¬äœäžéäºä»¥äžå
+å®¹ïŒææãç®åœãå¯¹ä»¥åŸåœ¢æ¥æ­ç€ºå
+å®¹çèµæºèèšçæå­è¯Žæãæè
+äž    äžªæå
+³èµæºå
+å®¹çèªç±ææ¬æè¿°ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Popis</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">VysvÄtlenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Popis mÅ¯ÅŸe obsahovat (mimo jinÃ©): abstrakt, obsah, odkaz na grafickÃ© nebo volnÃ© textovÃ© vyjÃ¡dÅenÃ­ obsahu.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Omschrijving</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een omschrijving van de inhoud van de Internetbron. Abstracts of inhoudsomschrijvingen.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Description</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un description del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le description pote includer, ma non se limita a: summario, indice, referentia a un representation graphic del contento o un texto libere a proposito del contento.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€µà€°à¥à€£à€š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥, à€à¥à€à€Ÿà€šà€žà€Ÿà€§à€šà€Ÿà€à¥à€µà€°à¥à€£à€š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€šà€¿à€µà¥à€Šà€š, à€à€²à¥à€, à€à€¿à€€à¥à€°à€°à¥à€ª</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">MÃŽ táº£</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Má»t thÃŽng bÃ¡o lÃ m rÃµ ná»i dung cá»§a nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">MÃŽ táº£ cÃ³ thá» bao gá»m: tÃ³m táº¯t ngáº¯n gá»n. má»¥c lá»¥c, ThÃŽng tin tham chiáº¿u vá» báº£ng biá»i. vá» nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Publisher">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Publisher</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity responsible for making the resource available.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Publisher include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Publisher should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaiwhakaputa</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi nana i whakaputa te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaiwhakaputa. Ko te tikanga, ka whakamahia te ingoa o te Kaiwhakaputa hei tohu i te putahi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Editeur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">L&apos;entitÃ© responsable de la diffusion de la ressource, dans sa forme actuelle, tels, un dÃ©partement universitaire, une entreprise.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples d&apos;Editeurs incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, le nom d&apos;une maison d&apos;Ã©dition devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© ici.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, ÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ Ð·Ð° Ð²Ð²ÐŸÐŽ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° Ð² ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ ÐÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Editor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">&gt;La entidad responsable de hacer que el recurso se encuentre disponible en la red en su formato actual, por ejemplo la empresa editora, un departamento universitario u otro tipo de organizaciÃ³n.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŽØ±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØŠØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø€ÙÙØ© Ø¹Ù ØµÙØ§Ø¹Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªÙÙØ± ÙÙ Ø­Ø§ÙØªÙ Ø§ÙØ­Ø§Ø¶Ø±Ø©, Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø§ÙÙØŽØ±, ÙØ³Ù
+ Ø¬Ø§Ù
+Ø¹Ù Ø§Ù Ù
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§Ø¹Ù
+Ø§Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">åºçè
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">äœ¿èµæºæäžºå¯ä»¥è·åŸå¹¶å¯çšçèŽ£ä»»è
+ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åºçè
+çå®äŸå
+æ¬äžªäœïŒç»ç»ïŒææå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒåºè¯¥çšåºçè
+çåç§°æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Vydavatel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita odpovÄdnÃ¡ za zpÅÃ­stupnÄnÃ­ zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady Vydavatele zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no vydavatele.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Uitgever</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De entiteit die verantwoordelijk is voor het beschikbaarstellen van de Internetbron in de huidig vorm. Bijvoorbeeld een uitgeversbedrijf, een universiteitsafdeling.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Editor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un entitate responsabile pro disponibilizar le ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de editor include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de editor pro indicar le entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ  à€à€ªà€²à€¬à¥à€§ à€à€°à¥à€š à€Šà¥à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.à€ à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€ , à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€š  à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ, à€žà¥à€µà€Ÿ    à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€² à€°à¥à€ªà€Ÿà€€  à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€à€à€à€°à€šà¥à€ à€µà€° à€à€ªà€²à€¬à¥à€§ à€à€°à¥à€š à€Šà¥à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">CÆ¡ quan xuáº¥t báº£n</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Tá» chá»©c chá»u trÃ¡ch nhiá»m lÃ m cho nguá»n tin nÃ y cÃ³ thá» truy xuáº¥t ÄÆ°á»£c</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ghi tÃªn cÃ¡ nhÃ¢n, tá» chá»©c cÆ¡ quan chá»u trÃ¡ch nhiá»m vá» xuáº¥t báº£n nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Contributor">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Contributor</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An entity responsible for making contributions to the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Examples of a Contributor include a person, an organisation, or a service. Typically, the name of a Contributor should be used to indicate the entity.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kaiwhakaaro</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te putahi nana, na ratou ranei nga whakakaupapatanga whakaaro o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tangata, he putahitanga, he ratonga ranei etahi tauira Kaiwhakaaro. Ko te tikanga ka whakamahia te ingoa o te Kaiwhakaaro hei tohu i te putahi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Contributeur</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une entitÃ© qui a contribuÃ© Ã  la crÃ©ation du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemples de Contributeur incluent une personne, une organisation, ou un service. Typiquement, le nom d&apos;un contributeur devrait Ãªtre utilisÃ© ici pour dÃ©signer l&apos;entitÃ©.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐžÑÐŸ, Ð²ÐœÐµÑÑÐµÐµ Ð²ÐºÐ»Ð°ÐŽ Ð² ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÑ, ÐŸÑÐ³Ð°ÐœÐžÐ·Ð°ÑÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ. ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐŒÑ Ð¡ÐŸÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐžÑÐµÐ»Ñ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐœÐŽÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Otros Colaboradores</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una persona u organizacion que haya tenido una contribuciÃ³n intelectual significativa en la creaciÃ³n del recurso pero cuyas contribuciones son secundarias en comparaciÃ³n a las de las personas u organizaciones especificadas en el elementeo Creator (por ejemplo, editor, ilustrador y traductor).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+ Ø§ÙØ§Ø®Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§ÙØºÙØ± Ù
+Ø°ÙÙØ± ØµØ±Ø§Ø­Ø© ÙÙ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù &quot; Ø§ÙÙ
+ØšØ¯Ø¹ &quot; Ù Ø§ÙØ°Ù ÙØ¯Ù
+ Ù
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø§Øª ÙÙØ±ÙØ© ÙØ§Ù
+Ø© ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±, ÙÙÙ Ù
+Ø³Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªÙØªØšÙÙ    Ø«Ø§ÙÙÙØ© Ù
+ÙØ§Ø±ÙØ© Ù
+Ø¹ Ø§ÙØŽØ®Øµ Ø£Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø€Ø³Ø³Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø°ÙÙØ±Ø© ÙØµØ§ ÙÙ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù &quot; Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØŽØŠ &quot; Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§Ù Ù
+ØµØ­Ø­, Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ±Ø¬Ù
+, Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ³Ø±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">å
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">å¯¹èµæºçå
+å®¹äœåºèŽ¡ç®çå
+¶ä»å®äœã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+çå®äŸå¯å
+æ¬äžªäººãç»ç»ææé¡¹æå¡ãäžè¬èèšïŒçšå
+¶ä»èŽ£ä»»è
+çåå­æ¥æ è¯è¿äžæ¡ç®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PÅispÄvatel</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Entita, kterÃ¡ pÅispÄla k vytvoÅenÃ­ obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PÅÃ­klady PÅispÄvatele zahrnujÃ­ osobu, organizaci nebo sluÅŸbu. K oznaÄenÃ­ entity se typicky pouÅŸÃ­vÃ¡ jmÃ©no pÅispÄvatele.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Andere medewerkers</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een persoon of organisatie die een belangrijke bijdrage heeft geleverd, maar die secondair is aan de persoon of organisatie die bij &quot;Creator&quot; genoemd wordt. Gedacht kan worden aan editors, vertalers en illustrators.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Contribuente</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un entitate responsabile pro facer contributiones al contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Exemplos de contribuente include un persona, un organization, o un servicio. Typicamente se utiliza un nomine de contribuente pro indicar le entitate.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label"> à€žà€¹à€¯à¥à€à€, à€žà€¹à€¯à¥à€à¥, à€žà€¹à€Ÿà€¯à¥à€¯à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€žà€à€à€²à¥à€€ à€à€°à€£à¥à¥à€Ÿà€ž  à€®à€Šà€€ à€à€°à€£à€Ÿà€°à¥ à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.à€ à€µà¥à€¯à€à¥à€€à¥, à€žà¥à€µà€Ÿ, à€žà€à€žà¥à€¥à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Äá»ng tÃ¡c giáº£</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">PhÃ¡p nhÃ¢n tham gia ÄÃ³ng gÃ³p vÃ o viá»c táº¡o ra ná»i dung cá»§a nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PhÃ¡p nhÃ¢n trong Contributor cÃ³ thá» lÃ  tÃ¡c giáº£ cÃ¡ nhÃ¢n hoáº·c cÆ¡ quan, tá» chá»©c, dá»ch vá»¥ (lÃ  tÃ¡c giáº£ táº­p thá») cÃ³ vai trÃ² quan trá»ng, song lÃ  vai trÃ² thá»© yáº¿u trong viá»c táº¡o ra ná»i dung. Nhá»¯ng phÃ¡p nhÃ¢n nÃ y khÃŽng ÄÆ°á»£c lá»±a chá»n ÄÆ°a vÃ o yáº¿u tá»  Creator (tÃ¡c giáº£)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Date">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Date</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A date associated with an event in the life cycle of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, Date will be associated with the creation or availability of the resource.  Recommended best practice for encoding the date value is defined in a profile of ISO 8601 and follows the YYYY-MM-DD format.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ra</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He ra e whai panga ana ki te huringa ora o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka whai panga te ra ki te hanganga, te wateatanga ranei, o te rauemi. Ko te huarahi tino pai hei tohu i te uara o te ra (date value) kua whakaritea i roto i te whakaritenga IS0 8601 [W3CDTF], a, e whai atu ana ki te whakatakotoranga YYYY-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Date</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une date associÃ©e avec un Ã©vÃ©nement dans le cycle de vie de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, une date sera associÃ©e Ã  la crÃ©ation ou Ã  la publication d&apos;une ressource. Il est fortement recommandÃ© d&apos;encoder la valeur de la date en utilisant le format dÃ©fini par l&apos;ISO 8601 [W3CDTF] sous la forme AAAA-MM-JJ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐ°ÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐ°ÑÐ°, ÑÐ²ÑÐ·Ð°ÐœÐœÐ°Ñ Ñ ÑÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐžÐµÐŒ Ð² Ð¶ÐžÐ·ÐœÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐžÐºÐ»Ðµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÐÐ°ÑÐ° Ð°ÑÑÐŸÑÐžÐžÑÑÐµÑÑÑ Ñ ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŽÐŸÑÑÑÐ¿ÐœÐŸÑÑÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. ÐÐ° Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÐºÐµ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐŸÐŽÐžÑÐŸÐ²ÐºÐž Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÐžÐ»Ñ ISO 8601 (Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÑ ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐž W3C), ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐÐÐÐ-ÐÐ-ÐÐ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Fecha</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una fecha en la que el recurso se puso a disposiciÃ³n del usuario en su forma actual. Esta fecha no ha de confundirse con la que pertenece al elemento Coverage, que serÃ­a asociada con el recurso sÃ³lo en la medida en que el contenido intelectual estÃ¡ de algÃºn modo relacionado con esa fecha. Recomendamos la utiliazaciÃ³n de uno de los formatos definidos en el documento &quot;Date and Time Formats&quot;, http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime basado en la norma ISO 8601 que incluye, entre otras, fechas en el formato AAAA y AAAA-MM-DD. De esta forma la fecha 1994-11-05 corresponderÃ­a al 5 de Noviembre de 1994.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±Ø®</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹ÙÙ ØšÙÙØª ÙØŽØŠ Ø£Ù ØªÙÙØ± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ù ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØ§ ÙØ®ÙØ· ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§ØŠØ¯ ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© , Ù Ø§ÙØ° Ù ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù    ÙÙØ­Ù ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± ÙÙØ· Ù
+Ù ÙØ§Ø­ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙØ§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙÙÙ ÙÙØ¹Ø§ Ù
+Ø§ ÙÙ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®. Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø³Ø«Ø­Ø³ÙØ© ÙÙØ§Ø­Ø³Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹Ø§Ø±Ù Ø¹ÙÙÙ    Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙØªØ·ØšÙÙ ÙÙ Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø¯Ø© ÙÙ ØªØŽÙÙÙ (ISO 8601) ØµÙØºØ© ØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ (ISO 8601) Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§Ø­ØžØ© Ø§ÙÙÙÙØ© http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime, W3C. ÙÙÙ    ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙÙØ³Ù , Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§, ØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ 1994-11-04 ÙÙØ§ØžØ± ÙÙÙ
+ 5 ÙÙÙÙ
+ØšØ± 1994</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æ¥æ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">äžèµæºçåœåšæäž­çäžäžªäºä»¶çžå
+³çæ¶éŽã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæ¥æåºäžèµæºçåå»ºæåºçæ¥æçžå
+³ãå»ºè®®éçšçæ¥ææ ŒåŒåºç¬ŠåISO 8601 [W3CDTF]è§    èïŒå¹¶äœ¿çšYYYY-MM-DDçæ ŒåŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Datum</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Datum spojenÃ© s urÄitou udÃ¡lostÃ­ bÄhem existence zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Datum bude typicky spojeno s vytvoÅenÃ­m nebo zpÅÃ­stupnÄnÃ­m zdroje. DoporuÄenÃœ postup pro kÃ³dovÃ¡nÃ­ hodnoty data je definovÃ¡n v ISO 8601 [W3CDTF]: formÃ¡t RRRR-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Datum</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De datum van de totstandkoming of beschikbaarstelling van een Internetbron. Deze datum moet niet verward worden met de datum in &quot;Coverage&quot;. De datum in &quot;Coverage&quot; geeft de tijdsperiode van de inhoud van de Internetbron aan. Voorgeschreven wordt de ISO 8601 standaard voor datum, zoals beschreven in W3C Technical Note http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime. Hierin wordt het formaat YYYY-MM-DD beschreven. Het formaat YYYY-MM-DD wordt de voorgeschreven standaard. 3 September 1998 wordt in dit geval 1998-09-03.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Data</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un data associate a un evento in le cyclo vital del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le data es associate al creation o disponibilization del ressource. Le practica recommendate pro codificar le valor del datas es definite in un profilo de ISO 8601 [W3CDTF] e seque le formato AAAA-MM-DD.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€,  à€Šà€¿à€šà€Ÿà€à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ à€€à€¯à€Ÿà€° à€à¥à€²à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€€à€Ÿà€°à¥à€  à€²à€¿à€¹à¥à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€žà¥à€µà€°à¥à€ª à€ à€µà€°à¥à€·. à€®à€¹à€¿à€šà€Ÿ. à€Šà€¿à€µà€ž à¥§à¥¯à¥«à¥Š. à¥Šà¥ª. à¥Šà¥ª</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Thá»i gian</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Thá»i gian liÃªn quan Äáº¿n vÃ²ng Äá»i cá»§a nguá»n tin (táº¡o láº­p, sá»­a Äá»i, v.v..)</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">NgÃ y thÃ¡ng cÃ³ thá» lÃ  thá»i gian liÃªn quan Äáº¿n viá»c táº¡o ra, hiá»u ÄÃ­nh hoáº·c lÃ m cho nguá»n tin tiáº¿p cáº­n ÄÆ°á»£c. Khuyáº¿n nghá» sá»­ dá»¥ng cÃ¡ch trÃ¬nh bÃ y thá»i gian theo tiÃªu chuáº©n ISO 8601 vÃ  theo khá» máº«u Bá»n sá» nÄm-hai sá» thÃ¡ng-hai sá» ngÃ y (YYYY-MM-DD)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Type">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Resource Type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The nature or genre of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Type includes terms describing general categories, functions, genres, or aggregation levels for content. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the working draft list of Dublin Core Types). To describe the physical or digital manifestation of the resource, use the FORMAT element.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Tumomo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te ahua, te tu-ahuatanga ranei o nga kaupapa o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Kei roto i te Tumomo nga kupu whakaatu i nga wehewehenga whanui, nga aheinga, nga tu-ahuatanga, te whakaritenga ranei o nga taumata o te/ nga kaupapa. Ko te huarahi tino pai kua tohua, ko te tipako i tetahi uara mai i nga kupu kua whakaritea (hei tauira, ko te tauira rarangi e whakamahia ana o nga Dublin Core Types [DCT1]. Hei whakaatu i te whakatinanatanga o te rauemi, whakamahia ko te huanga WHAKATAKOTORANGA (FORMAT).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La nature ou le genre du contenu de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Type inclut des termes dÃ©crivant des catÃ©gories, fonctions ou genres gÃ©nÃ©raux pour le contenu, ou des niveaux d&apos;agrÃ©gation. Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la valeur du type dans une liste de vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ© (par exemple, la liste provisoire de Types du Dublin Core[DCT1]). Pour dÃ©crire la matÃ©rialisation physique ou digitale de la ressource, il faut utiliser l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Format.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÑÐžÑÐŸÐŽÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð¶Ð°ÐœÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐµÑÐŒÐžÐœÑ, ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÑÐ²Ð°ÑÑÐžÐµ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐžÐµ ÐºÐ°ÑÐµÐ³ÐŸÑÐžÐž, ÑÑÐœÐºÑÐžÐž, Ð¶Ð°ÐœÑÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŸÐ±ÑÐµÐŽÐžÐœÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ ÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐœÐž ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐµÐºÑÐ° ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ° Ð¢ÐžÐ¿ÐŸÐ² Dublin Core DCT1). ÐÐ»Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐžÐ·ÐžÑÐµÑ-ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Tipo del Recurso</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La categorÃ­a del recurso, por ejemplo pÃ¡gina personal, romance, poema, minuta, diccionario. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, Type deberÃ­a ser seleccionado de entre una lista de valores que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo. En http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Metadata/types.html se puede consultar el estado actual de la discusiÃ³n en torno a este tema.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÙÙØ¹ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ ÙØŠØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù
+Ø«ÙØ§ Ø§ÙØµÙØ­Ø© Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+, Ø±ÙØ§ÙØ© , ÙØ·Ø¹Ø© ØŽØ¹Ø±ÙØ© , ÙØ±ÙØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù , ØªÙØ±ÙØ± ÙÙÙ , Ù
+ÙØ§Ù , ÙØ§Ù
+ÙØ³ . Ù Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù    ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØ®ØªØ§Ø± Ø§ÙÙÙØ¹ Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© ÙØ§ÙØªÙ ÙÙÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§ Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èµæºç±»å</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹çç¹åŸæç±»åã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èµæºç±»åå
+æ¬æè¿°èµæºå
+å®¹çäžè¬èçŽïŒåèœïŒç§å±ïŒæèç±»å±æ¬¡çæ¯è¯­ãå»ºè®®éçšæ¥èªäºåæ§è¯è¡š    äž­çåŒïŒäŸåŠDCMIç±»åè¯æ±è¡š[DCMITYPE]ïŒãèŠæè¿°èµæºçç©çææ°å­åè¡šç°åœ¢åŒïŒè¯·äœ¿çšâæ ŒåŒïŒFORMATïŒâå
+çŽ ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Typ zdroje</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Povaha nebo druh obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typ obsahuje termÃ­ny popisujÃ­cÃ­ obecnÃ© kategorie, funkce, druhy nebo agregaÄnÃ­ ÃºrovnÄ obsahu. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. pracovnÃ­ nÃ¡vrh seznamu TypÅ¯ Dublin Core [DCT1]). K popisu fyzickÃ© nebo digitÃ¡lnÃ­ reprezentace zdroje uÅŸijte prvek FormÃ¡t.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bestands type</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het soort Internetbron, bijvoorbeeld home page, gedicht, working paper, technical report, essay, woordenboek etc. De DC working groups zijn momenteel bezig met twee voorstellen; een minimalist draft: http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Metadata/minimalist.html en een structuralist draft: http://sunsite.berkely.edu/Metadata/structuralist.html. Het wordt sterk aanbevolen om &quot;Type&quot; van deze lijsten te selecteren.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Typo del ressource</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le natura o genere del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le typo del ressource include terminos que describe categorias general, functiones, generes, o nivellos de aggregation pro le contento. Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le lista de schizzos de travalio de typos de Dublin Core [DCT1]). Pro describer le manifestation physic o digital del ressource, utiliza le elemento Formato.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€µà€°à¥à€à¥à€à€°à€£, à€µà€°à¥à€à€µà€Ÿà€°à¥à€®à€§à¥à€¯à¥ à€à€à€Ÿà€Šà¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€šà¥à€à€Šà¥à€à€Ÿ à€®à¥à€à¥à€¯ à€à€à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€°</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Thá» loáº¡i</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">MÃŽ táº£ báº£n cháº¥t hoáº·c thá» loáº¡i cá»§a ná»i dung cá»§a nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">MÃŽ táº£ thá» loáº¡i cá»§a nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Format">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The physical or digital manifestation of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, Format may include the media-type or dimensions of the resource. Format may be used to determine the software, hardware or other equipment needed to display or operate the resource. Examples of dimensions include size and duration. Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the list of Internet Media Types [MIME] defining computer media formats).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Whakatakotoranga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te whakatinanatanga, te whakaputanga a-mati o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka taea te Whakatakotoranga te whakamahi hei whakarite i te rawa-ngohe (software), te rawa-maro (hardware), ma etahi taputapu ranei me matua whiwhi, hei whakahaere i te rauemi. Ko te rahi me te roanga etahi tauira hanga. Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua ko te tipako uara mai i tetahi whakaritenga kupu (hei tauira, te rarangi o nga Tumomo Papaho Ipurangi (Internet Media Types [MIME]) e whakaatu ana i nga whakatakotoranga papaho rorohiko.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La matÃ©rialisation physique ou digitale de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, Format peut inclure le media ou les dimensions de la ressource. Format peut Ãªtre utilisÃ© pour prÃ©ciser le logiciel, le matÃ©riel ou autre Ã©quipement nÃ©cessaire pour afficher ou faire fonctionner la ressource. Exemples de dimensions incluent la taille et la durÃ©e. Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la valeur du format dans une liste de vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ©(par exemple, la liste des types de media dÃ©finis sur Internet [MIME]).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð€ÐžÐ·ÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐµ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ ÑÐžÐ¿ Ð°ÑÐŽÐžÐŸÐ²ÐžÐ·ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÐž (ÐŒÐµÐŽÐžÐ°-ÑÐžÐ¿) ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐžÐœÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°. Ð€ÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ Ð°Ð¿Ð¿Ð°ÑÐ°ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, Ð¿ÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŒÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÐµÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŸÐ±ÐŸÑÑÐŽÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ, ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð²ÐŸÑÐ¿ÑÐŸÐžÐ·Ð²ÐµÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÑ Ñ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐŸÐŒ. ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ Ð²ÐµÐ»ÐžÑÐžÐœÑ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŒÐµÑ Ðž Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŽÐŸÐ»Ð¶ÐžÑÐµÐ»ÑÐœÐŸÑÑÑ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐ° ÐÐµÐŽÐžÐ°-ÑÐžÐ¿ÐŸÐ² ÐÐœÑÐµÑÐœÐµÑ MIME, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐŒÐ¿ÑÑÑÐµÑÐœÑÐµ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÑ Ð°ÑÐŽÐžÐŸÐ²ÐžÐ·ÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÐž).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Formato</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">El formato de datos de un recurso, usado para identificar el software y posiblemente, el hardware que se necesitarÃ­a para mostrar el recurso. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, los valores de Format deberÃ­an ser seleccionados de entre una lista de valores que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ù ØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± , Ù ØªØ³ØªØ®Ø¯Ù
+ ÙÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ ØšØ§ÙØšØ±Ù
+Ø¬ÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØšÙ
+Ø§ Ø§ÙØµÙØš ÙÙØ­Ø§Ø³ÙØš Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø£Ù ÙØ­ØªØ§Ø¬    ÙÙØ§ ÙØ¹Ø±Ø¶ Ø£Ù ØªØŽØºÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù, ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ØªØ®ØªØ§Ø± Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙØªÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§    Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æ ŒåŒ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºçç©çææ°å­è¡šç°åœ¢åŒã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæ ŒåŒå¯èœå
+æ¬èµæºçåªäœç±»åæèµæºçå€§å°ïŒæ ŒåŒå
+çŽ å¯ä»¥çšæ¥å³å®å±ç€ºææäœèµæºæé    çèœ¯ç¡¬ä»¶æå
+¶ä»çžåºè®Ÿå€ïŒäŸåŠå€§å°å
+æ¬èµæºæå çå­åšç©ºéŽåæç»­æ¶éŽãå»ºè®®éçšæ¥èªäºåæ§è¯è¡š    äž­çåŒïŒïŒäŸåŠInternetåªäœç±»å[MIME]å®ä¹è®¡ç®æºåªäœæ ŒåŒïŒã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">FormÃ¡t</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">FyzickÃ¡ nebo digitÃ¡lnÃ­ reprezentace zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicky mÅ¯ÅŸe FormÃ¡t obsahovat typ mÃ©dia nebo rozmÄry zdroje. FormÃ¡t lze pouÅŸÃ­vat k urÄenÃ­ softwaru, hardwaru nebo dalÅ¡Ã­ho zaÅÃ­zenÃ­ potÅebnÃ©ho k zobrazenÃ­ nebo k manipulaci se zdrojem. PÅÃ­klady rozmÄrÅ¯ zahrnujÃ­ velikost a dobu trvÃ¡nÃ­. DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. seznam typÅ¯ internetovÃœch mÃ©diÃ­ [MIME] definujÃ­cÃ­ formÃ¡ty poÄÃ­taÄovÃœch mÃ©diÃ­).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Format</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Het data formaat van het Internetbestand. Dit gegeven kan gebruikt worden om systeemvereisten (hard- en software) te identificeren die nodig zijn voor raadpleging of bediening van de Internetbron. &quot;Format&quot; is nog in ontwikkeling bij de DC workshop. Uit compatibiliteitsoverwegingen wordt aanbevolen formaatgegevens te selecteren uit een gecontroleerde lijst. Formaten kunnen van de Internet Media Types (MIME types) lijst gekozen worden: http://www.isi.edu/in-notes/iana/assignments/media-types/media-types</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Formato</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le manifestation physic o digital del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le formato pote includer le typo de medio o dimensiones del ressource. Le formato pote esser utilizate pro determinar le software o le equipamento necessari pro exhibir o operar le ressource. Exemplos de dimensiones include grandessa e duration. Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le lista de typos de medios de Internet [MIME] que defini formatos de medios).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ, à€šà€®à¥à€šà€Ÿà€¬à¥à€Š à€°à€à€šà€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€žà¥à€µà€°à¥à€ª, à€°à€à€šà€Ÿà€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€€à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€°à¥à€ª à€à€žà¥ à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€à€°à¥à€ª, à€žà€à€à€£à€à¥à€¯ à€°à¥à€ª, à€µà€¿à€Šà¥à€¯à¥à€€ à€ªà€°à€®à€Ÿà€£à¥à€à€à¥à€¯à€Ÿ à€žà€¹à€Ÿà€¯à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€šà¥ à€žà€à€à€£à€à¥à€à¥à€€ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Dáº¡ng máº«u dá»¯ liá»u</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">MÃŽ táº£ loáº¡i hÃ¬nh váº­t lÃœ hoáº·c sá» (Äiá»n tá»­) cá»§a nguá»n tin.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Vá» cÆ¡ báº£n, Yáº¿u tá» Format cung cáº¥p thÃŽng tin vá» váº­t mang tin cá»§a nguá»n tin náº¿u lÃ  nguá»n tin khÃŽng trá»±c tuyáº¿n. Yáº¿u tá» cÃ²n cung cáº¥p thÃŽng tin vá» kiá»u dá»¯ liá»u hoáº·c kÃ­ch thÆ°á»c, quy mÃŽ cá»§a nguá»n tin. Dáº¡ng máº«u cÃ³ thá» sá»­ dá»¥ng Äá» xÃ¡c Äá»nh pháº§n má»m, pháº§n cá»©ng hoáº·c thiáº¿t bá» khÃ¡c cáº§n thiáº¿t Äá» hiá»n thá» hoáº·c thao tÃ¡c vá»i nguá»n tin. Khuyáº¿n nghá» sá»­ dá»¥ng tá»« vá»±ng cÃ³ kiá»m soÃ¡t Äá» chá»n lá»±a thuáº­t ngá»¯ phÃ¹ há»£p (thÃ­ dá»¥ sá»­ dá»¥ng danh má»¥c tá»« chuáº©n tÃªn gá»i loáº¡i hÃ¬nh dá»¯ liá»u Internet (MIME) Äá» xÃ¡c Äá»nh dáº¡ng máº«u dá»¯ liá»u Äiá»n tá»­)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Identifier">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Resource Identifier</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Recommended best practice is to identify the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system. Example formal identification systems include the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (including the Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), the Digital Object Identifier (DOI) and the International Standard Book Number (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Taututanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro e hangai ana ki te rauemi i roto i tetahi horopaki.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tautu i te rauemi ma tetahi aho (string), tau ranei, e hangai ana ki tetahi punaha taututanga okawa. Ko etahi punaha taututanga okawa ko te Taututanga Rauemi Orite (Uniform Resource Identifier - URI), te Taututanga Rauemi Tohu-wahi (Uniform Resource Locator - URL), Te Mea A-mati (Digital Object Identifier - DOI) me te Tau Pukapuka Aro Whanui o te Ao (International Standard Book Number - ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Identifiant</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence non ambiguÃ« Ã  la ressource dans un contexte donnÃ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© d&apos;identifier la ressource par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšre ou un nombre conforme Ã  un sytÃšme formel d&apos;identification. Exemples de systemes formels d&apos;identification incluent le &quot;Uniform Resource Identifier&quot; (URI) (qui inclut le &quot;Uniform Resource Locator&quot; (URL)), le &quot;Digital Object Identifier&quot;(DOI) et le &quot;International Standard Book Number&quot;(ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐŽÐœÐŸÐ·ÐœÐ°ÑÐœÐ°Ñ ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÐ° ÐœÐ° ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð² Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»Ð°Ñ
+ ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐºÐŸÐœÑÐµÐºÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ. ÐÑÐžÐŒÐµÑÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÑÑ
+ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð£ÐœÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ Ð ÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° (URI), (Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ñ Ð£ÐœÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÑÐ¹ ÐÐŸÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ Ð ÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° URL), ÐÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÐŠÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐÐ±ÑÐµÐºÑÐ° (DOI) Ðž ÐÐµÐ¶ÐŽÑÐœÐ°ÑÐŸÐŽÐœÑÐ¹ Ð¡ÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐœÐžÐ¶ÐœÑÐ¹ ÐÐŸÐŒÐµÑ (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Identificador del Recurso</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Secuencia de caracteres usados para identificar unÃ­vocamente un recurso. Ejemplos para recursos en lÃ­nea pueden ser URLs y URNs (cuando estÃ©n implementados). Para otros recursos pueden ser usados otros formatos de identificadores, como por ejemplo ISBN (&quot;International Standard Book Number&quot; - NÃºmero Internacional Normalizado para Libros)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ù
+Ø¬Ù
+ÙØ¹Ø© Ø­Ø±ÙÙØ© Ø£Ù Ø±ÙÙ
+ ÙØ³ØªØ®Ø¯Ù
+ ÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§Ø­Ø¯ÙØ§ : Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ÙØ°Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙØŽØšÙÙØ©ØªØ¶Ù
+ ) URNs, URLs Ø¹ÙØ¯ ØšÙØ§ØŠÙØ§ (    ÙØ°ÙÙ ÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø§Ø¹ØªØšØ§Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹Ø±ÙØ§Øª Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ§Ø­Ø§Ø¯ÙØ© Ù
+Ø«Ù Ø§ÙØ±ÙÙ
+ Ø§ÙØ¯ÙÙÙ ÙØªØµÙÙÙ Ø§ÙÙØ§ØªØš (ISBN) Ù
+Ø±ØŽØ­Ø© ÙÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èµæºæ è¯ç¬Š</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">åšç¹å®çèåŽå
+ç»äºèµæºçäžäžªæç¡®çæ è¯ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å»ºè®®å¯¹èµæºçæ è¯éçšç¬Šåæäžæ­£åŒæ è¯äœç³»çå­ç¬Šäž²åæ°å­ç»åãäŸåŠæ­£åŒçæ è¯äœç³»å
+æ¬ç»äžèµ    æºæ è¯ç¬Š(URI) (å
+æ¬åäžèµæºå®äœç¬ŠURL)ãæ°å­å¯¹è±¡æ è¯ç¬Š(DOI)ååœé
+æ åä¹Šå·(ISBN)ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">IdentifikÃ¡tor zdroje</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">JednoznaÄnÃœ odkaz na zdroj v rÃ¡mci danÃ©ho kontextu.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄuje se identifikovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯. PÅÃ­klady formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯ zahrnujÃ­ Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (vÄetnÄ Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), Digital Object Identifier (DOI) a MezinÃ¡rodnÃ­ standardnÃ­ ÄÃ­slo knihy (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bestandsidentificatie</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een unieke string of nummer ter identificatie van de Internetbron. Voorbeelden zijn URL&apos;s of URN&apos;s Andere voorbeelden zijn International Standard Book Number (ISBN) of International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Identificator del ressource</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia inambigue al ressource intra un date contexto.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Se recommenda identificar le ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o numero conforme a un systema formal de identification. Exemplos de systemas formal de identification include le Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) (includente le Uniform Resource Locator (URL)), le Digital Object Identifier (DOI) e le International Standard Book Number (ISBN).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€à€³à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€à€ à€
+à€°à¥à€¥à¥ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ, à€µà€¿à€¶à€¿à€·à¥à€  à€žà¥à€¥à€³,  à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€à€à€€à€°à€°à€Ÿà€·à¥à€à¥à€°à¥à€¯  à€®à€Ÿà€šà€ à€à¥à€°à€®à€Ÿà€à€,  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€à€³à€ à€ªà€à€µà€¿à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€à€à€à€°à€šà¥à€ à€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Äá»nh danh</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Má»t tham chiáº¿u khÃŽng trÃ¹ng láº·p Äáº¿n nguá»n tin trong khung cáº£nh cá»¥ thá»</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Khuyáº¿n nghá» sá»­ dá»¥ng cÃ¡c Äá»nh danh nguá»n tin theo nhá»¯ng chuáº©n ÄÆ°á»£c cháº¥p nháº­n quy Äá»nh cho nhá»¯ng há» thá»ng Äá»nh danh hÃ¬nh thá»©c. ThÃ­ dá»¥ vá» há» thá»ng Äá»nh danh bao gá»m: Äá»nh danh Nguá»n tin thá»ng nháº¥t (Uniform Resource Identifier hoáº·c URI, trong ÄÃ³ cÃ³ Äá»nh vá» nguá»n tin thá»ng nháº¥t URL - Uniform Resource Locator, TÃªn nguá»n tin thá»ng nháº¥t URN - Uniform Resource Name vÃ  Äá»nh vá» nguá»n tin thá»ng nháº¥t á»n Äá»nh PURL - Persistent URL),  Äá»nh danh Äá»i tÆ°á»£ng sá» DOI (Digital Object Identifier), Chá» sá» sÃ¡ch chuáº©n quá»c táº¿ ISBN (International Standard Book Number),...</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Source">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Source</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A Reference to a resource from which the present resource is derived.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">The present resource may be derived from the Source resource in whole or in part.  Recommended best practice is to reference the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Matapuna</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro ki tetahi rauemi koira te matapuna o te rauemi e tirohia ana.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Tera pea i puta te katoa, tetahi wahanga ranei o te rauemi, e tirohia ana, mai i te Matapuna rauemi. Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua ko te tohutoro ki te rauemi ma te aho, ma te tau ranei e hangai ana ki tetahi punaha taututanga okawa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Source</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une ressource Ã  partir de laquelle la ressource actuelle a Ã©tÃ© dÃ©rivÃ©e.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">La ressource actuelle peut avoir Ã©tÃ© dÃ©rivÃ©e d&apos;une autre ressource source, en totalitÃ© ou en partie. Il est recommandÃ© de refÃ©rencer cette source par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšre ou un nombre conforme Ã  un systÃšme formel d&apos;identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐœÐžÐº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¡ÑÑÐ»ÐºÐ° ÐœÐ° ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ, ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœ ÐœÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ°ÑÑÐŸÑÑÐžÐ¹ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœ ÐžÐ· ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐœÐžÐºÐ° ÑÐµÐ»ÐžÐºÐŸÐŒ ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÑÐœÐŸ. ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Fuente</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Secuencia de caracteres utilizado para identificar unÃ­vocamente un trabajo a partir del cual proviene el recurso actual. Por ejemplo, es posible usar Source con la fecha de 1603 como descripciÃ³n de una pelÃ­cula basada en una obra de Shakespeare, pero es preferible, en ese caso, usar Relation &quot;IsBasedOn&quot; con una referencia a un recurso distinto cuya descripciÃ³n contenga el elemento Date con valor 1603.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø«Ø§ÙÙ Ù Ø§ÙØ°Ù Ø§Ø³ØªÙ
+Ø¯ Ù
+ÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ. Ù
+Ø¹ Ø£ÙÙ Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØµÙ ØšÙ Ø£Ù ØªÙØ¯Ù
+ Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§Ù
+Ù    Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø¹Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙØ· , ÙÙÙ
+ÙÙ Ø£Ù ÙØ­ÙÙ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®, Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØŽØŠ , Ø§ÙØµÙØºØ© , Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø¹Ø±Ù , Ø§Ù Ø§ÙØ© Ù
+ÙØ© - Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø§Ø®Ø±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ÙÙ Ø¹ÙØ¯Ù
+Ø§ ØªØ¹ØªØšØ± Ù
+ÙÙ
+Ø© ÙØ§ÙØªØŽØ§Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ , Ù ÙØ°Ø§ÙÙ ÙÙØµÙ Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙØªØ·ØšÙÙÙÙ Ø§Ø­Ø³Ù     Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹Ø§Ø±Ù Ø¹ÙÙÙ ØšØ§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ø¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ©</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æ¥æº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ç°æèµæºæ¥æºçåç
+§ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">åœåèµæºå¯èœéšåæå
+šéšæºèªè¯¥å
+çŽ ææ è¯çèµæºïŒå»ºè®®å¯¹è¿äžèµæºçæ è¯éçšäžäžªç¬Šåæ­£åŒæ è¯ç³»    ç»çå­äž²åæ°å­ç»å ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Zdroj</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Odkaz na zdroj, z nÄhoÅŸ je popisovanÃœ zdroj odvozen.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PopisovanÃœ zdroj mÅ¯ÅŸe bÃœt zcela nebo zÄÃ¡sti odvozen ze zdroje uvedenÃ©ho v prvku Zdroj. DoporuÄuje se odkazovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bron</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Informatie over een tweede bron waar de huidige Internetbron is van afgeleid. Bij &quot;Source&quot; mag een datum, auteur of maker, formaat, identificatie of andere metadata voor de tweede bron worden ingevuld. Voorbeeld: het is mogelijk om een &quot;Source&quot; datum 1603 in een omschrijving van een 1996 film bewerking van een Shakespeare stuk te gebruiken. &quot;Source&quot; is niet bruikbaar wanneer de huidige bron de orginele is.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Fonte</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia a un ressource del qual se deriva le ressource presente.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le ressource presente pote derivar se del ressource-fonte in toto o in parte. Le practica recommendate es facer referentia al ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o un numero conforme a un systema formal de identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€à€à€®</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿ à€à€à€® à€žà€Ÿà€à€à€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€à€à€
+à€°à¥à€¥à¥ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€ªà¥à€žà¥à€€à€, à€®à€Ÿà€žà€¿à€,  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿà€¯à€Ÿà€à€à€Ÿ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Nguá»n trÃ­ch</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Tham chiáº¿u vá» nguá»n gá»c mÃ  tá»« ÄÃ³ nguá»n tin hiá»n ÄÆ°á»£c mÃŽ táº£ ÄÆ°á»£c rÃºt ra hoáº·c táº¡o ra tá»« ÄÃ³</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Language">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Language</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A language of the intellectual content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute language="en" name="comment">Recommended best practice for the values of the Language element is defined by RFC 1766 which includes a two-letter Language Code (taken from the ISO 639 standard, followed optionally, by a two-letter Country Code (taken from the ISO 3166 standard). For example, &apos;en&apos; for English, &apos;fr&apos; for French, or &apos;en-uk&apos; for English used in the United Kingdom.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Reo</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te reo o te whakakaupapatanga o nga matauranga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua mo nga uara o te huanga Reo kua whakaritea ki te RFC 1766 [RFC1766] kei roto te Tohu Reo kupu-rua (two-letter Language Code) (no te aro whanui ISO 639 [ISO639], ka taea e tetahi tohu kupu-rua te whai atu (no te aro whanui ISO 3166) [ISO366]). Hei tauira, te &apos;en&apos; mo te English, te &apos;fr&apos; mo te French, &apos;te en-uk&apos; mo te English e whakamahia ana i Ingarangi (UK).</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Langue</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La langue du contenu intellectuel de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© d&apos;utiliser comme valeur de l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Langue celles definies par la RFC 1766 [RFC1766] qui comprend un code de langage Ã  deux caractÃšres(venant du standard ISO 639 [ISO639]), Ã©ventuellement suivi d&apos;un code Ã  deux lettres pour le pays (venant du standard ISO 3166 [ISO3166] ou en franÃ§ais [ISO3166]). Par exemple, &apos;en&apos; pour l&apos;anglais, &apos;fr&apos; pour le franÃ§ais, ou &apos;en-uk&apos; pour l&apos;anglais utilisÃ© au Royaume-Uni.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº ÐžÐœÑÐµÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° Ð¯Ð·ÑÐº, ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐµ RFC 1766 (Ð¢ÑÐ³Ðž ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐž ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ°), Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÐŒ ÐŽÐ²ÑÑ
+Ð±ÑÐºÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐŽ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐ° (Ð²Ð·ÑÑÑÐ¹ ÐžÐ· ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐ° ISO 639 (ÐÐŸÐŽÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ ÑÐ·ÑÐºÐŸÐ²)), Ð·Ð° ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐŒ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÑÐµÑ (Ð¿ÑÐž ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±Ñ
+ÐŸÐŽÐžÐŒÐŸÑÑÐž) ÐŽÐ²ÑÑ
+Ð±ÑÐºÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐŽ ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÑ (Ð²Ð·ÑÑÑÐŒÐž ÐžÐ· ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐ° ISO 3166 (ÐÐŸÐŽÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐ°Ðœ)). ÐÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, &quot;en&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð°ÐœÐ³Ð»ÐžÐ¹ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, &quot;fr&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÑÐ°ÐœÑÑÐ·ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, &quot;en-uk&quot; - ÐŽÐ»Ñ Ð°ÐœÐ³Ð»ÐžÐ¹ÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð² ÐÐµÐ»ÐžÐºÐŸÐ±ÑÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐžÐž.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Lengua</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Lengua/s del contenido intelectual del recurso. Practicamente el contenido de este campo deberÃ­a coincidir con los de la RFC 1766 (Tags para la identificaciÃ³n de lenguas, http://ds.internic.net/rfc/rfc1766.txt); por ejemplo: en, es, de, fi, ja y zh.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙÙØºØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ù ÙÙ ÙØºØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . ÙÙÙ
+Ø§ ÙØ§Ù  Ø¹Ù
+ÙÙØ§ , Ù
+Ø­ØªÙÙ ÙØžØ§ Ø§ÙØ­ÙÙ ÙØ¬Øš Ø£Ù ÙØªØ·Ø§ØšÙ Ù
+Ø¹ RFC 1766    ] Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ØªØ¶Ù
+ th, ja, fr, es, fi, de, en Ù zh ÙØ±Ù
+ÙØ² ÙÙØªØ¹Ø±ÙÙ ØšØ§ÙÙØºØ© [</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">è¯­ç§</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æè¿°èµæºç¥è¯å
+å®¹çè¯­ç§ã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">å»ºè®®æ¬å
+çŽ çåŒéçšRFC 3066[RFC3066]ïŒè¯¥æ åäžISO 639 [ISO639]äžèµ·å®ä¹äºç±äž€äžªåäžäžªè±    æå­æ¯ç»æçäž»è¯­èšæ ç­Ÿåå­æ ç­ŸäŸåŠå
+æ¬âenâæâengâæ¥è¡šç€ºEnglish, &quot;akk&quot; æ¥è¡šç€º    &quot;en-GB&quot;è¡šç€ºè±åœè±è¯­ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Jazyk</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Jazyk intelektuÃ¡lnÃ­ho obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄenÃœ postup pro hodnoty prvku Jazyk je definovÃ¡n v RFC 1766 [RFC1766]: dvouznakovÃœ kÃ³d jazyka (pÅevzatÃœ z normy ISO 639 [ISO639]) volitelnÄ nÃ¡sledovanÃœ dvouznakovÃœm kÃ³dem zemÄ (pÅevzatÃœm z normy ISO 3166 [ISO3166]). NapÅÃ­klad &apos;en&apos; pro angliÄtinu, &apos;fr&apos; pro francouzÅ¡tinu, &apos;cs&apos; pro ÄeÅ¡tinu, nebo &apos;en-uk&apos; pro angliÄtinu uÅŸÃ­vanou ve SpojenÃ©m krÃ¡lovstvÃ­.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Taal</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De taal waarin het document is beschreven. Voorgeschreven wordt de ISO639-1 norm, een twee karakter taalcode van de ISO 639(639-1 en 639-2) norm. Taalcodes kunnen van een lijst worden gekozen: http://www.ics.uci.edu/pub/ietf/http/related/iso639.txt, Eventueel kan ISO3166 (landencodes) gebruikt worden om aan te geven in welk gebied de taal wordt gesproken. Deze kunnen ook van een lijst worden gekozen:  http://www.ics.uci.edu/pub/ietf/http/related/iso3166.txt.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Lingua</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le lingua del contento intellectual del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le practica recommendate pro le valores del elemento lingua es definite per RFC 1766 [RFC1766], que include un codice de lingua de duo litteras (prendite del standard ISO 639 [ISO639]), sequite optionalmente per un codice de pais de duo litteras (prendite del standard ISO 3166 [ISO3166]). Per exemplo, &apos;ia&apos; pro interlingua, &apos;fr&apos; pro francese, o &apos;en-uk&apos; pro le anglese del Regno Unite.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€®à€°à€Ÿà€ à¥ - à€­à€Ÿà€°à€€à¥à€¯ à€­à€Ÿà€·à€Ÿ</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">NgÃŽn ngá»¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">NgÃŽn ngá»¯ cá»§a chÃ­nh vÄn cá»§a ná»i dung cá»§a nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Relation">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">A reference to a related resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Recommended best practice is to reference the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification system.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Whai Panga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">He tohutoro ki tetahi rauemi whai panga.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tohutoro ki te rauemi ma te aho, te tau ranei, e hangai ana ki te punaha taututanga okawa.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Une rÃ©fÃ©rence Ã  une autre ressource qui a un rapport avec cette ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Il est recommandÃ© de rÃ©fÃ©rencer cette ressource par une chaÃ®ne de caractÃšres ou un numÃ©ro conforme Ã  un systÃšme formel d&apos;identification.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÐœÐŸÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ð²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÑÐŸÐºÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÐžÑÐ»Ð°, ÑÐŸÐŸÑÐ²ÐµÑÑÑÐ²ÑÑÑÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐµ.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">RelaciÃ³n</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un identificador de un segundo recurso y su relaciÃ³n con el recurso actual. Este elemento permite enlazar los recursos relacionados y las descripciones de los recursos. Por ejemplo: IsVersionOf - Incluye la ediciÃ³n de un trabajo, IsBasedOn - La traducciÃ³n de un trabajo, IsPartOf - Un capÃ­tulo de un libro, IsFormatOf - Un mecanismo de transformaciÃ³n de un conjunto de datos en una imagen. Para asegurar la interoperabilidad, las relaciones deberÃ­an ser seleccionadas de una lista de elementos que actualmente se encuentra bajo desarrollo en un grupo de trabajo.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙØ°Ø§ Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ«Ø§ÙÙ Ù Ø¹ÙØ§ÙØªÙ ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ø§ÙØ­Ø§ÙÙ . ÙØ³Ù
+Ø­ ÙØ°Ø§ Ø§ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù ØšØªÙØ¶ÙØ­ Ø§ÙØ±ÙØ§ØšØ· ØšÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ§Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÙÙ
+ØªØ¹ÙÙØ©     ØšØšØ¹Ø¶ÙØ§ Ù ØªÙØµÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ø§ÙØ§Ù
+Ø«ÙØ© ØªØ¶Ù
+ Ø·ØšØ¹Ø© Ø§ÙØ¹Ù
+Ù ) ÙØ³Ø®Ø© Ù
+Ù ( ØªØ±Ø¬Ù
+Ø© Ø¹Ù
+Ù ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ ( ÙØµÙ Ù
+Ù ÙØªØ§Øš ) Ø¬Ø²Ø¡ Ù
+Ù (    Ù ØªØ­ÙÙÙÙ Ù
+ÙÙØ§ÙÙÙÙØ© ÙÙ
+Ø¬Ù
+ÙØ¹Ø© Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§ØªÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ ØµÙØ±Ø© ) ØµÙØºØ© Ù
+Ù ( Ù
+Ù Ø£Ø¬Ù Ø§ÙØªØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙÙ
+ØŽØªØ±Ù , ÙØ¬Øš Ø§Ø®ØªÙØ§Ø± Ø§ÙØ¹ÙØ§ÙØ§Øª Ù
+Ù    Ø§ÙÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ø§ÙÙ
+Ø±ÙÙ
+Ø© Ù Ø§ÙØªÙ ÙØªÙ
+ Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ÙØ§ Ø­Ø§ÙÙØ§ Ø¶Ù
+Ù Ø­ÙÙØ§Øª ÙØ±ØŽØ© Ø¹Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">å
+³è</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æ¶åççžå
+³èµæºã</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èåœçžå
+³èµæºæ¶ïŒå»ºè®®äœ¿çšç¬Šåæ­£åŒæ è¯ç³»ç»çå­ç¬Šäž²æè
+æ°å­ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">Vztah</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Odkaz na pÅÃ­buznÃœ zdroj.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">DoporuÄuje se odkazovat zdroj znakovÃœm ÅetÄzcem nebo ÄÃ­slem odpovÃ­dajÃ­cÃ­m nÄkterÃ©mu z formÃ¡lnÃ­ch identifikaÄnÃ­ch systÃ©mÅ¯.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Relatie</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een identificatie van een tweede bron en de relatie met de huide Internetbron. Voorbeelden zijn een editie van een werk (IsVersionOf), een vertaling van een werk (IsBasedOn), een hoofdstuk van een boek (IsPartOf) en een mechanische transformatie van een dataset in een plaatje (IsFormatOf). De DC Working Groups zijn bezig met een lijst met de meest verwachte relaties. Aanbevolen wordt om de relaties van deze lijst te gebruiken: http://purl.oclc.org/metadata/dublin_core/wrelationdraft.html.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="definition">Relation</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Un referentia a un ressource correlate.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le practica recommendate es facer referentia al ressource per medio de un catena de characteres o numero conforme a un systema de identification formal.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€šà€Ÿà€€à¥ , à€žà€à€¬à€à€§</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€¶à¥ à€žà€à€¬à€à€§ à€Šà€Ÿà€à€µà€£à€Ÿà€°à€Ÿ à€žà€à€Šà€°à¥à€­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ.  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥ à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€°à¥à€² à€ªà€€à¥à€€à€Ÿ(URL)</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Quan há»</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Tham chiáº¿u Äáº¿n cÃ¡c nguá»n tin liÃªn quan Äáº¿n nguá»n Äang mÃŽ táº£</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Coverage">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Coverage</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The extent or scope of the content of the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Coverage will typically include spatial location (a place name or geographic coordinates), temporal period (a period label, date, or date range) or jurisdiction (such as a named administrative entity). Recommended best practice is to select a value from a controlled vocabulary (for example, the Thesaurus of Geographic Names [TGN]) and that, where appropriate, named places or time periods be used in preference to numeric identifiers such as sets of coordinates or date ranges.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Kapitanga</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Te roanga, te whanuitanga ranei o te whakakaupapatanga o te rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, ka uru atu te wahi mokowa (te ingoa o tetahi wahi, whakapiritanga matawhenua ranei), whakaritenga wa (he tapatanga wa (period label, ra, whakatakotoranga whanui o nga ra), te whakaritenga ture (penei i te putahi whakahaere). Ko te tino huarahi kua tohua, ko te tipako uara mai i tetahi whakaritenga kupu (hei tauira, i tetahi Puna Kupu Ingoa Matawhenua (Geographic Names [TGN] i nga wahi tika, ko nga wahi me nga whakaritenga wa ka whakamahia i mua i te whakamahitanga o nga taututanga tau penei i nga huinga whakapiritanga me nga whakatakotoranga whanui o nga ra.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Couverture</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La portÃ©e ou la couverture spatio-temporelle de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">La couverture typiquement inclut une position gÃ©ographique (le nom d&apos;un lieu ou ses coordonnÃ©es), une pÃ©riode de temps (un nom de pÃ©riode, une date, ou un intervalle de temps) ou une juridiction (telle que le nom d&apos;une entitÃ© administrative). Il est recommandÃ© de choisir la  valeur de Couverture dans un vocabulaire contrÃŽlÃ© (par exemple, un thÃ©saurus de noms gÃ©ographiques, comme[TGN]) et, quand cela est appropriÃ©, des noms de lieux ou de pÃ©riodes plutÃŽt que des identifiants numÃ©riques tels que des coordonnÃ©es ou des intervalles de dates. </Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑ
+Ð²Ð°Ñ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÑÐŸÑÑÐ¶ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÑ Ðž Ð³ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÐœÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÑ
+Ð²Ð°Ñ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐºÐœÐŸÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð¿ÑÐŸÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸÐœÐ°Ñ
+ÐŸÐ¶ÐŽÐµÐœÐžÐµ (ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸÑÑÐž ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð³ÐµÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÐµ ÐºÐŸÐŸÑÐŽÐžÐœÐ°ÑÑ), Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŒÐµÐ¶ÑÑÐŸÐº (ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ Ð¿ÐµÑÐžÐŸÐŽÐ°, ÐŽÐ°ÑÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐŽ ÐŽÐ°Ñ) ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐžÑÐŽÐžÐºÑÐžÑ (ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÐµÐŽÐžÐœÐžÑÑ Ð°ÐŽÐŒÐžÐœÐžÑÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐ²ÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐžÑ). ÐÐ° Ð¿ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÐºÐµ ÑÐµÐºÐŸÐŒÐµÐœÐŽÑÐµÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÐ±ÐžÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð·ÐœÐ°ÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»ÐžÑÑÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, Ð¢ÐµÐ·Ð°ÑÑÑÑÐ° Ð³ÐµÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÑ
+ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹ TGN), Ðž, ÐµÑÐ»Ðž ÑÑÐŸ ÑÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸ, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÑÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸÑÐŽÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ ÑÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐžÑÐŒ ÐŒÐµÑÑÐœÐŸÑÑÐµÐ¹ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐŒÐµÐ¶ÑÑÐºÐŸÐ² Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸ ÑÐžÑÑÐŸÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐžÐŽÐµÐœÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ², ÐºÐ°Ðº, ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒ ÐºÐŸÐŸÑÐŽÐžÐœÐ°Ñ ÐžÐ»Ðž Ð²ÑÐµÐŒÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÑÐŽÐŸÐ².</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Cobertura</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">La caracterÃ­stica de cobertura espacial y/o temporal del contenido intelectual del recurso. La cobertura espacial se refiere a una regiÃ³n fÃ­sica (por ejemplo, sector celestial); uso de coordenadas (por ejemplo, longitud y latitud) o nombres de lugares extraidos de una lista controlada. La cobertura temporal se refiere al contenido del recurso en vez de a cuando fue creado o puesto accesible ya que este Ãºltimo pertenece al elemento Date. Se usa el mismo formato basado en http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØ®ØµØ§ØŠØµ Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§ÙÙØ© Ø§Ù Ø§ÙØ²Ù
+ÙÙØ© ÙÙÙ
+Ø­ØªÙÙ Ø§ÙÙÙØ±Ù ÙÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± . Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§ÙÙØ© ØªØŽÙØ± Ø§ÙÙ Ø¬ÙØ© Ø·ØšÙØ¹ÙØ© )Ù
+Ø«Ù , ÙØ·Ø§Ø¹ Ø³Ù
+Ø§ÙÙ (    Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ Ø§ÙØ§Ø­Ø¯Ø§Ø«ÙØ§Øª ) Ù
+Ø«Ù  Ø®Ø· Ø§ÙØ·ÙÙ Ù Ø®Ø· Ø§ÙØ¹Ø±Ø¶ ( ÙÙ Ø£Ø³Ù
+Ø§Ø¡ Ø§Ù
+ÙÙØ© Ù
+Ø³ØªØ­ÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªØ¬ÙØ§Øª ØšØ§ÙÙØ§Ù
+Ù . Ø§ÙØªØºØ·ÙØ© Ø§ÙØ²Ù
+ÙÙØ©    Ø«Ø¹ÙØ¯ Ø§ÙÙ Ù
+Ø§ ÙØ±Ø¬Ø¹ Ø§ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø± Ù ÙÙØ³ Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªÙ ØªÙ
+ ØªÙÙÙØ±Ù ) Ø§ÙØ§Ø®ÙØ± ÙØªØ¹ÙÙ ØšØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® ( Ø§Ø³ØªØ®Ø¯Ø§Ù
+ ÙÙØ³ ØµÙØºØ© Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ®  Ø§Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª    ) Ø¹Ø§Ø¯Ø© Ù
+Ø¯Ù ] ( ØµÙØ§ØºØ§Øª Ø§ÙÙÙÙ
+ Ù Ø§ÙÙÙØª ) Ø§Ø¹ØªÙ
+Ø§Ø¯Ø§ Ø¹ÙÙ (ISO 8601 Ø§ÙÙ
+ÙØ§Ø­ØžØ© Ø§ÙÙÙÙØ© [http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime, W3C    ÙÙ
+Ø§ ÙÙ Ù
+ÙØµÙ ØšÙ ÙØ¹Ø§Ù
+Ù Ø§ÙØªØ§Ø±ÙØ® Ø§Ù ÙØªØ±Ø§Øª Ø²Ù
+ÙÙØ© Ù
+Ù ÙØ§ØŠÙ
+Ø© Ù
+Ø³ØªØ­ÙÙ
+Ø© Ø§Ù Ù
+ØªØ¬ÙØ§Øª ØšØ§ÙÙØ§Ù
+Ù</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">èŠçèåŽ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">èµæºå
+å®¹ææ¶åçå€å»¶äžèŠçèåŽ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">èŠçèåŽäžè¬å
+æ¬ç©ºéŽäœçœ®ïŒäžäžªå°åæå°çåæ ïŒãæ¶éŽåºéŽïŒäžäžªæ¶éŽæ è¯ïŒæ¥ææäžäžªæ¥æè    åŽïŒãæè
+æéïŒæ¯åŠåœåçææå®äœïŒæšèèŠçèåŽæå¥œæ¯åèªäºäžäžªåæ§è¯è¡šïŒäŸåŠå°åè¯åº    [TGN]ïŒïŒå¹¶åºå°œå¯èœå°äœ¿çšç±æ°å­è¡šç€ºçåæ ææ¥æåºéŽæ¥æè¿°å°åäžæ¶éŽæ®µã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PokrytÃ­</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Rozsah nebo zÃ¡bÄr obsahu zdroje.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">PokrytÃ­ bude typicky obsahovat prostorovÃ© umÃ­stÄnÃ­ (jmÃ©no mÃ­sta nebo zemÄpisnÃ© souÅadnice), ÄasovÃ© obdobÃ­ (oznaÄenÃ­ obdobÃ­, datum nebo ÄasovÃœ interval) nebo jurisdikci (napÅ. jmÃ©no administrativnÃ­ jednotky). DoporuÄuje se vybÃ­rat hodnotu z ÅÃ­zenÃ©ho slovnÃ­ku (napÅ. Thesaurus of Geographic Names [TGN]) a tam, kde je to vhodnÃ©, uvÃ¡dÄt mÃ­sta nebo ÄasovÃ© Ãºseky spÃ­Å¡e jmÃ©nem neÅŸ ÄÃ­selnÃœmi identifikÃ¡tory jako jsou soubory souÅadnic nebo ÄasovÃ© intervaly.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Dekking</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">De ruimtelijke of tijdelijke karakteristieken van de intellectuele inhoud van de Internetbron. Ruimtelijke dekking verwijst naar een geografisch gebied. Gebruik coordinaten (longitude (lengtegraad) en latitude (breedtegraad)) of plaatsnamen die van een gecontroleerde lijst komen of volledig uitgeschreven zijn. Dekking in de tijd geeft de tijdsperiode aan waarop de inhoud van de Internetbron betrekking heeft en niet wanneer de Internetbron is gemaakt of beschikbaar is gesteld (dit laatste hoort ingevult te worden bij &quot;Date&quot;). Gebruik dezelfde datum/tijd formaat als bij &quot;Date&quot;; W3C Technical Note http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime of tijdsperioden die van een gecontroleerde lijst komen of volledig uitgeschreven zijn. Coverage is in ontwikkeling bij de Dublin Core Working group http://www.alexandria.ucsb.edu/docs/metadata/dc_coverage.html.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Copertura</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Le extension physic o abstracte del contento del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Le copertura typicamente include un location spatial (un nomine de localitate o coordinatas geographic), un periodo de tempore (un etiquetta de periodo, data, o gamma de datas), o un jurisdiction (tal como un entitate administrative nominate). Le practica recommendate es selectionar un valor a partir de un vocabulario controlate (per exemplo, le Thesaurus of Geographical Names [TGN]) e que, quando appropriate, localitates o periodos de tempore nominate sia utilizate in preferentia a identificatores numeric tales como collectiones de coordinatas o gammas de datas.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€žà€Ÿà€ à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à¥ à€­à¥à€à¥à€²à€¿à€  à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€à€Šà€Ÿ. à€­à¥à€à¥à€²à€¿à€ à€µà¥à€¯à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€€à¥</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Pháº¡m vi bao quÃ¡t</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">MÃŽ táº£ má»©c Äá» bao quÃ¡t cá»§a ná»i dung cá»§a nguá»n tin</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Pháº¡m vi bao quÃ¡t cÃ³ thá» lÃ  vá» pháº¡m vi khÃŽng gian (tÃªn Äá»a danh, toáº¡ Äá» khÃŽng gian,..), thá»i gian (giai Äoáº¡n, chuá»i ngÃ y thÃ¡ng, ...), pháº¡m vi vá» tÃ i phÃ¡n (tÃªn lÃ£nh thá», nÆ°á»c,..). Khuyáº¿n nghá» sá»­ dá»¥ng tá»« vá»±ng cÃ³ kiá»m soÃ¡t Äá» chá»n lá»±a thuáº­t ngá»¯ phÃ¹ há»£p. ThÃ­ dá»¥ sá»­ dá»¥ng tá»« Äiá»n tá»« chuáº©n vá» tÃªn Äá»a lÃœ, tÃªn Äá»a danh,...</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Rights">
+        <!-- English -->
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="label">Rights Management</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information about rights held in and over the resource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typically, a Rights element will contain a rights management statement for the resource, or reference a service providing such information. Rights information often encompasses Intellectual Property Rights (IPR), Copyright, and various Property Rights. If the Rights element is absent, no assumptions can be made about the status of these and other rights with respect to the resource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Maori -->
+        <Language code="mi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Motika</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Ko nga mohiohio ki nga motika o tetahi rauemi.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Ko te tikanga, kei te huanga Motika e pupuri ana he korero mo te whakaritenga motika mo te rauemi, he ratonga tohutoro e whakarato ana ranei i enei tumomo mohiohio. He nui nga wa, puta ai i roto i te mohiohio Motika te Mana Whakairo Hinegaro (Intellectual Property Rights - (IPR)), te Manatarua me nga Tuahua Mana Taonga (Property Rights). Ki te kore te huanga Motika, kaore e taea te pohehe noa ki te mana o enei, nga motika ranei e pa ana ki te rauemi.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- French -->
+        <Language code="fr">
+            <Attribute name="label">Droits</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information sur les droits sur et au sujet de la ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typiquement, un Ã©lÃ©ment Droits contiendra un Ã©tat du droit Ã  gÃ©rer une ressource, ou la refÃ©rence Ã  un service fournissant cette information. Ces droits souvent couvrent les droits de propriÃ©tÃ© intellectuelle (IPR), Copyright, et divers droits de propriÃ©tÃ©. Si l&apos;Ã©lÃ©ment Droits est absent, aucune hypothÃšse ne peut Ãªtre faite sur l&apos;Ã©tat de ces droits, ou de tout autre, par rapport Ã  la ressource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Russian -->
+        <Language code="ru">
+            <Attribute name="label">ÐÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐµ ÑÐµÐ³ÑÐ»ÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÐÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ, ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐ°ÑÑÑ Ð²ÐœÑÑÑÐž Ðž Ð²ÐœÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">ÐÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑ ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð° ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ Ð¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÑÑ
+ ÐœÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ
+, ÑÐµÐ³ÑÐ»ÐžÑÑÑÑÐžÑ
+ ÑÑÐœÐºÑÐžÐŸÐœÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ° ÐžÐ»Ðž ÑÑÑÐ»ÐºÑ ÐœÐ° ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ, Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐŸÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÑÑÑ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ. ÐÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²Ð°Ñ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑ ÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐ²ÐµÐŽÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐŸ ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+ ÐžÐœÑÐµÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÑÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÑÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÐŸÑÑÐž, ÐÐ²ÑÐŸÑÑÐºÐŸÐŒ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ðµ Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ ÐÐŒÑÑÐµÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+. ÐÑÑÑÑÑÑÐ²ÐžÐµ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° ÐÑÐ°Ð²Ð° ÐœÐµ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ ÑÐ²Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐžÐµÐŒ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ°ÐºÐžÑ
+-Ð»ÐžÐ±ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐŸÐ¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹ ÐŸ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²ÐŸÐ²ÐŸÐŒ ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÑÐµ Ðž ÐŽÑÑÐ³ÐžÑ
+ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ
+, ÐºÐ°ÑÐ°ÑÑÐžÑ
+ÑÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÑÐ°.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Spanish -->
+        <Language code="es">
+            <Attribute name="label">Derechos</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Una referencia (URL, por ejemplo) para una nota sobre derechos de autor, para un servicio de gestiÃ³n de derechos o para un servicio que darÃ¡ informaciÃ³n sobre tÃ©rminos y condiciones de acceso a un recurso. Una especificaciÃ³n formal del elemento Rights se encuentra catualmente en discusiÃ³n y por lo tanto su uso se considera experimental.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Arabic -->
+        <Language code="ar">
+            <Attribute name="label">Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø©</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø© Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© , Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ù
+Ø±ØªØšØ· ØšØ§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø© Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© , Ù
+Ø¹Ø±Ù Ù
+Ø±ØªØšØ· ØšØ®Ø¯Ù
+Ø© ØªÙØ¯Ù
+ Ù
+Ø¹ÙÙÙ
+Ø§Øª Ø¹Ù Ø­ÙÙÙ Ø§ÙØ§Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø© Ø§ÙØ®Ø§ØµØ© ØšØ§ÙÙ
+ØµØ¯Ø±</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Chinese - Simplified -->
+        <Language code="cn">
+            <Attribute name="label">æé</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">æå
+³èµæºæ¬èº«ææçæè¢«èµäºçæéä¿¡æ¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">äžè¬èèšïŒæéå
+çŽ åºå
+æ¬äžäžªå¯¹èµæºçæéå£°æïŒæè
+æ¯å¯¹æäŸè¿äžä¿¡æ¯çæå¡çåç
+§ãæéäžè¬    å
+æ¬ç¥è¯äº§æ(IPR)ïŒçææå
+¶ä»åç§åæ ·çäº§æãåŠææ²¡ææéå
+çŽ çæ æ³šïŒäžå¯ä»¥å¯¹äžèµæºçžå
+³    çäžè¿°æå
+¶ä»æå©çæ
+åµäœåºä»»äœåå®ã</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Czech -->
+        <Language code="cs">
+            <Attribute name="label">PrÃ¡va</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Informace o prÃ¡vech vztahujÃ­cÃ­ch se k popisovanÃ©mu zdroji.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Prvek PrÃ¡va bude typicky obsahovat ustanovenÃ­ o sprÃ¡vÄ autorskÃœch/vlastnickÃœch prÃ¡v ke zdroji nebo odkaz na sluÅŸbu poskytujÃ­cÃ­ takovÃ©to informace. Informace o prÃ¡vech Äasto zahrnujÃ­ prÃ¡va duÅ¡evnÃ­ho vlastnictvÃ­ (IPR), autorskÃ© prÃ¡vo a rÅ¯znÃ¡ vlastnickÃ¡ prÃ¡va. JestliÅŸe prvek PrÃ¡va chybÃ­, nelze odvozovat ÅŸÃ¡dnÃ© pÅedpoklady o stavu tÄchto a jinÃœch prÃ¡v vztahujÃ­cÃ­ch se k popisovanÃ©mu zdroji.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Dutch -->
+        <Language code="nl">
+            <Attribute name="label">Copyright</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Een copyright verklaring of een link naar een copyright verklaring of een link naar een service die informatie geeft over de copyright van de Internetbron.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Finnish -->
+        <Language code="fi">
+            <Attribute name="label"/>
+            <Attribute name="definition"/>
+            <Attribute name="comment"/>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Interlingua -->
+        <Language code="ia">
+            <Attribute name="label">Gestion de derectos</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Information super derectos detenite super e a proposito del ressource.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Typicamente le elemento derectos continera un declaration de gestion de derectos pro le ressource, o un referentia a un servicio que provide tal information. Information de derectos frequentemente involve derectos de proprietate intellectual (IPR), copyright e varie derectos de proprietate. Si le elemento Derectos es absente, necun hypothese pote esser facite quanto al stato de iste e altere derectos concernente ressource.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Marathi -->
+        <Language code="mr">
+            <Attribute name="label">à€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">à€¬à¥à€§à¥à€Šà€¿à€ à€žà€à€ªà€Šà¥à€à€Ÿà€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">à€žà¥à€µà€€à€à€¹à€Ÿà€à¥ à€²à¥à€à€š à€à€Ÿà€ªà¥à€š à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€®à€Ÿà€¹à€¿à€€à¥à€à€Ÿà€³à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€µà€° à€ªà¥à€°à€à€Ÿà€¶à€¿à€€ à€à€°à€£à¥à€¯à€Ÿà€à€Ÿ à€²à¥à€à€ à€
+à€¥à€µà€Ÿ à€²à¥à€à€¿à€à¥à€à€Ÿ à€¬à¥à€§à¥à€Šà€¿à€ à€žà€à€ªà€Šà¥à€à€Ÿà€¹à€à¥à€</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Vietnamese -->
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Quyá»n</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ThÃŽng tin vá» cÃ¡c quyá»n cÃ³ ÄÆ°á»£c Äá»i vá»i nguá»n tin hoáº·c Äá»i vá»i thÃŽng tin.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">Yáº¿u tá» Quyá»n chá»©a thÃŽng bÃ¡o vá» cÃ¡c quyá»n liÃªn quan Äáº¿n nguá»n tin hoáº·c chá» dáº«n Äáº¿n má»t dá»ch vá»¥ cung cáº¥p thÃŽng bÃ¡o nhÆ° váº­y vá» quyá»n. ThÃŽng tin vá» quyá»n cÃ³ thá» bao gá»m thÃŽng tin vá» quyá»n sá» há»¯u trÃ­ tuá», báº£n quyá»n vÃ  cÃ¡c quyá»n liÃªn quan khÃ¡c.</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <!-- Non-language specific -->
+        <Attribute name="version">1.1</Attribute>
+        <Attribute language="en" name="registration_authority">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="obligation">Optional</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="datatype">Charater String</Attribute>
+        <Attribute name="maximum_occurance">Unlimited</Attribute>
+    </Element>
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/metadata/ex.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet SYSTEM "http://www.greenstone.org/dtd/MetadataSet/1.0/MetadataSet.dtd">
+<MetadataSet contact="nzdl.org" creator="New Zealand Digital Libraries Project: Greenstone" family="Extracted Greenstone" lastchanged="Tue Sep 05 14:40:36 NZST 2006 - kjdon on kanuka" namespace="ex">
+	<SetLanguage code="en">
+    	<Name language="en">Extracted Greenstone Metadata 1.0</Name>
+    	<Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.0 of the automatically extracted Greenstone Metadata Element Set.</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <SetLanguage code="vi">
+        <Name>Bá» siÃªu dá»¯ liá»u Greenstone</Name>
+        <Description>MÃŽ táº£ vá» bá» siÃªu dá»¯ liá»u Greenstone phiÃªn báº£n 1.0 cho yáº¿u tá» siÃªu dá»¯ liá»u Greenstone ÄÆ°á»£c triáº¿t rÃºt tá»± Äá»ng</Description>
+    </SetLanguage>
+    <Element name="Encoding">
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="comment">Not always available.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The encoding of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="label">Encoding</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Bá» mÃ£ kÃœ tá»±</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">ThÃŽng tin bá» mÃ£ kÃœ tá»± cá»§a tÃ i liá»u ÄÆ°á»£c nháº­p kháº©u mÃ  Greenstone tá»± Äá»ng triáº¿t rut ÄÆ°á»£c</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">KhÃŽng pháº£i lÃºc nÃ o cÅ©ng cÃ³ sáºµn</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Language">
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="comment">Not always available.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The language of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="label">Language</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">NgÃŽn ngá»¯</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">TÃªn ngÃŽn ngá»¯ cá»§a tÃ i liá»u mÃ  Greenstone tá»± Äá»ng triáº¿t rÃºt ÄÆ°á»£c.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">KhÃŽng pháº£i lÃºc nÃ o cÅ©ng cÃ³ sáºµn</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Source">
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="comment">Hidden in the Librarian Interface as it already shown by the various file trees.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The filename of the document imported by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="label">Source</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">TÃªn tá»p tin</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">TÃªn tá»p tin cá»§Ã¢tÃ¬ liá»u ÄÆ°á»£c Greenstone nháº­p kháº©u vÃ o há» thá»ng.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">áºšn Äá»i vá»i GLI bá»i ÄÃ£ ÄÆ°á»£c hiá»n thá» trong cÃ¢y thÆ° má»¥c</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+    </Element>
+    <Element name="Title">
+        <Language code="en">
+            <Attribute name="comment">Not always available.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">The title of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="label">Title</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+        <Language code="vi">
+            <Attribute name="label">Nhan Äá»</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="definition">Nhan Äá» cá»§a tÃ i liá»u nháº­p kháº©u vÃ o Há» thá»ng vÃ  ÄÆ°á»£c Greenstone triáº¿t rÃºt tá»± Äá»ng</Attribute>
+            <Attribute name="comment">KhÃŽng pháº£i lÃºc nÃ o cÅ©ng sáºµn cÃ³</Attribute>
+        </Language>
+    </Element>
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/metadata/profile.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE Profiles [
+<!ELEMENT Profiles (Action*)>
+<!ELEMENT Action (#PCDATA)>
+<!ATTLIST Action
+                source     CDATA #REQUIRED
+                target     CDATA "">
+]>
+<Profiles/>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/style/IE50Fixes.css
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/style/IE50Fixes.css	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/style/IE50Fixes.css	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+/*
+** IE5.0 Fix Stylesheet
+*/
+
+#wikispecificstyle #column-content {
+    margin: 0 !important;
+    float: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #column-content #content { 
+    margin-top: 3em; 
+    height: 1%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #column-one {
+    position: absolute;
+    overflow: visible;
+    top: 0;
+    left: 0;
+    z-index: 3;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #footer {
+    margin: 0 0 0 13.6em;
+}
+
+/* IE 5 & 5.5 interpret keyword sizes one off */
+#wikispecificstyle body { font-size: xx-small; }
+/*
+** the edit tabs
+*/
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li {
+    float: left;
+    padding-top: 0;
+    padding-bottom: 0 !important;
+    height: 0.9em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li a {
+    display: block;
+    padding-bottom: 0.045em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li.selected a {
+    padding-bottom: 0.17em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li a:hover {
+    padding-bottom: 0.17em;
+}
+/* 5.0 doesn't like the background icon for external links and user */
+.link-external,
+#wikispecificstyle .external {
+    background: none;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal ul { float: right }
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal li { float: left }
+li#pt-userpage,
+li#pt-anonuserpage,
+li#pt-login,
+#wikispecificstyle li#pt-logout {
+    background: none;
+    padding-left: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .visualClear {
+    width:100%;
+    height: 0px;
+    padding:0;
+    margin:0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .firstHeading { margin-bottom: 0.3em; }
+#wikispecificstyle /*div{ border:1px solid Red !important;}*/
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/style/IE55Fixes.css
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/style/IE55Fixes.css	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/style/IE55Fixes.css	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
+/* IE5.5/win- only fixes */
+
+#wikispecificstyle #column-content { 
+    float: none; 
+    margin-left: 0;
+    height: 1%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #column-content #content {
+    position: relative;
+    z-index: 5;
+    margin-left: 12.2em;
+    margin-top: 3em;
+    height: 1%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #column-one {
+    position: absolute;
+    top: 0;
+    left: 0;
+    z-index: 4;
+    width: 100%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #footer {
+    margin-left: 13.6em;
+    border-left: 1px solid #fabd23;
+}
+
+/*#bodyContent div,
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent pre { overflow: auto; }*/
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal { padding-bottom: 0.1em; }
+
+#wikispecificstyle body { font-size: xx-small; }
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions {
+    width: 76% !important;
+    z-index: 3 !important;
+    float: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li {
+    padding-bottom: 0 !important;
+    border: none;
+    background-color: transparent;
+    cursor: default;
+    float: none !important;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li a {
+    display: inline-block !important;
+    vertical-align: top;
+    padding-bottom: 0;
+    border: solid #aaa;
+    border-width: 1px 1px 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li.selected a {
+    border-color: #fabd23;
+    padding-bottom: 0.17em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li a:hover {
+    padding-bottom: 0.17em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .portlet {
+    overflow:hidden;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a.external {
+    background: url(external.png) center right no-repeat;
+    padding-right: 13px;
+}
+/* show the hand */
+#wikispecificstyle #p-logo a,
+#wikispecificstyle #p-logo a:hover {
+    cursor: pointer;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .visualClear {
+    width:90%;
+    height: 1px;
+    padding:0;
+    margin:0;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #editform {
+    width: 100%;
+}
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/style/IE60Fixes.css
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/style/IE60Fixes.css	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/style/IE60Fixes.css	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+/* 6.0 - only fixes */
+/* content area */ 
+/* workaround for various ie float bugs */
+#wikispecificstyle #column-content { 
+    float: none; 
+    margin-left: 0;
+    height: 1%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #column-content #content {
+    margin-left: 12.2em;
+    margin-top: 3em;
+    height: 1%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #column-one {
+    position: absolute;
+    top: 0;
+    left: 0;
+    z-index: 4;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #footer {
+    margin-left: 13.6em;
+    border-left: 1px solid #fabd23;
+}
+
+/* the tabs */
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions {
+    z-index: 3;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li {
+    padding-bottom: 0 !important;
+    border: none;
+    background-color: transparent;
+    cursor: default;
+    float: none !important;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li a {
+    display: inline-block !important;
+    vertical-align: top;
+    padding-bottom: 0;
+    border: solid #aaa;
+    border-width: 1px 1px 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li.selected a {
+    border-color: #fabd23;
+    padding-bottom: 0.17em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li a:hover {
+    padding-bottom: 0.17em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #portal-personaltools {
+    padding-bottom: 0.1em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a.external {
+    background: url(external.png) center right no-repeat;
+    padding-right: 13px;
+}
+
+/* show the hand */
+#wikispecificstyle #p-logo a,
+#wikispecificstyle #p-logo a:hover {
+    cursor: pointer;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.visualClear {
+    width:100%;
+    line-height: 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle textarea {
+    width: 96%;
+}
+
+div.editsection,
+#wikispecificstyle #catlinks,
+div.tright,
+#wikispecificstyle div.tleft {
+    position: relative;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle /*{ border:1px solid Red !important;}*/
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/style/main.css
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/style/main.css	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/style/main.css	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,1237 @@
+/*
+** MediaWiki 'monobook' style sheet for CSS2-capable browsers.
+** Copyright Gabriel Wicke - http://wikidev.net/
+** License: GPL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/gpl.html)
+**
+** Loosely based on http://www.positioniseverything.net/ordered-floats.html by Big John
+** and the Plone 2.0 styles, see http://plone.org/ (Alexander Limi,Joe Geldart & Tom Croucher,
+** Michael Zeltner and Geir BÃŠkholt)
+** All you guys rock :)
+*/
+
+#wikispecificstyle #column-content {
+    width: 100%;
+    float: right;
+    margin: 0 0 .6em -13.5em;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #content {
+    margin: 3.0em 0 0 13.5em;
+    padding: 0 1em 1.5em 1em;
+    background: #E0F0E0;
+    color: black;
+    border: 1px solid #2E8B57;
+    border-right: none;
+    line-height: 1.5em;
+    position: relative;
+    z-index: 8;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #column-one {
+    padding-top: 160px;
+}
+/* the left column width is specified in class .portlet */
+
+/* Font size:
+** We take advantage of keyword scaling- browsers won't go below 9px
+** More at http://www.w3.org/2003/07/30-font-size
+** http://style.cleverchimp.com/font_size_intervals/altintervals.html
+*/
+
+#wikispecificstyle /*body */{
+    font: x-small sans-serif;
+    background-color: #f9f9f9; 
+    background-image: url(chalk.gif);     
+    background-position:0 30%;
+    background-repeat:repeat-y;	
+    color: black;
+    margin: 0;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+
+/* scale back up to a sane default */
+#wikispecificstyle #globalWrapper {
+    font-size: 127%;
+    width: 100%;
+    margin: 0;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .visualClear {
+    clear: both;
+}
+
+/* general styles */
+
+#wikispecificstyle table {
+    font-size: 100%;
+    background: white;
+    color: black;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle a {
+    text-decoration: none;
+    color: #002bb8;
+    background: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle a:visited {
+    color: #5a3696;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle a:active {
+    color: #faa700;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle a:hover {
+    text-decoration: underline;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle a.stub {
+    color: #772233;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle a.new, #p-personal a.new {
+    color: #ba0000;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle a.new:visited, #p-personal a.new:visited {
+    color: #a55858;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle img {
+    border: none;
+    vertical-align: middle;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle p {
+    margin: .4em 0 .5em 0;
+    line-height: 1.5em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle p img {
+    margin: 0;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle hr {
+    height: 1px;
+    color: #aaa;
+    background-color: #aaa;
+    border: 0;
+    margin: .2em 0 .2em 0;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 {
+    color: black;
+    background: none;
+    font-weight: normal;
+    margin: 0;
+    padding-top: .5em;
+    padding-bottom: .17em;
+    border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;
+}
+
+
+#wikispecificstyle h1 { font-size: 188%; }
+#wikispecificstyle h2 { font-size: 150%; }
+#wikispecificstyle h3, h4, h5, h6 {
+    border-bottom: none;
+    font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle h3 { font-size: 132%; }
+#wikispecificstyle h4 { font-size: 116%; }
+#wikispecificstyle h5 { font-size: 110%; }
+#wikispecificstyle h6 { font-size: 80%;  }
+
+#wikispecificstyle ul {
+    line-height: 1.5em;
+    list-style-type: square;
+    margin: .3em 0 0 1.5em;
+    padding: 0;
+    list-style-image: url(bullet.gif);
+}
+#wikispecificstyle ol {
+    line-height: 1.5em;
+    margin: .3em 0 0 3.2em;
+    padding: 0;
+    list-style-image: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle li {
+    margin-bottom: .1em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle dt {
+    font-weight: bold;
+    margin-bottom: .1em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle dl {
+    margin-top: .2em;
+    margin-bottom: .5em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle dd {
+    line-height: 1.5em;
+    margin-left: 2em;
+    margin-bottom: .1em;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle fieldset {
+    border: 1px solid #2f6fab;
+    margin: 1em 0 1em 0;
+    padding: 0 1em 1em;
+    line-height: 1.5em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle legend {
+    background: white;
+    padding: .5em;
+    font-size: 95%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle form {
+    border: none;
+    margin: 0;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle textarea {
+    width: 100%;
+    padding: .1em;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle input.historysubmit {
+    padding: 0 .3em .3em .3em !important;
+    font-size: 94%;
+    cursor: pointer;
+    height: 1.7em !important;
+    margin-left: 1.6em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle select {
+    vertical-align: top;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle abbr, acronym, .explain {
+    border-bottom: 1px dotted black;
+    color: black;
+    background: none;
+    cursor: help;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle q {
+    font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;
+    font-style: italic;
+}
+/* disabled for now
+#wikispecificstyle blockquote {
+    font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;
+    font-style: italic;
+}*/
+#wikispecificstyle code {
+    background-color: #f9f9f9;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle pre {
+    padding: 1em;
+    border: 1px dashed #2f6fab;
+    color: black;
+    background-color: #f9f9f9;
+    line-height: 1.1em;
+}
+
+/*
+** the main content area
+*/
+
+#wikispecificstyle #siteSub {
+    display: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #contentSub {
+    font-size: 84%;
+    line-height: 1.2em;
+    margin: 0 0 1.4em 1em;
+    color: #7d7d7d;
+    width: auto;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle span.subpages {
+    display: block;
+}
+
+/* Some space under the headers in the content area */
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent h1, #bodyContent h2 {
+    margin-bottom: .6em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent h3, #bodyContent h4, #bodyContent h5 {
+    margin-bottom: .3em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .firstHeading {
+    margin-bottom: .1em;
+}
+
+/* user notification thing */
+#wikispecificstyle .usermessage {
+    background-color: #ffce7b;
+    border: 1px solid #ffa500;
+    color: black;
+    font-weight: bold;
+    margin: 2em 0 1em;
+    padding: .5em 1em;
+    vertical-align: middle;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #siteNotice {
+    text-align: center;
+    font-size: 95%;
+    padding: 0 .9em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #siteNotice p {
+    margin: 0;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .error {
+    color: red;
+    font-size: larger;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #catlinks {
+    border: 1px solid #aaa;
+    background-color: #f9f9f9;
+    padding: 5px;
+    margin-top: 1em;
+    clear: both;
+}
+/* currently unused, intended to be used by a metadata box
+in the bottom-right corner of the content area */
+#wikispecificstyle .documentDescription {
+    /* The summary text describing the document */
+    font-weight: bold;
+    display: block;
+    margin: 1em 0;
+    line-height: 1.5em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .documentByLine {
+    text-align: right;
+    font-size: 90%;
+    clear: both;
+    font-weight: normal;
+    color: #76797c;
+}
+
+/* emulate center */
+#wikispecificstyle .center {
+    width: 100%;
+    text-align: center;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle *.center * {
+    margin-left: auto;
+    margin-right: auto;
+}
+/* small for tables and similar */
+#wikispecificstyle .small, .small * {
+    font-size: 94%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle table.small {
+    font-size: 100%;
+}
+
+/*
+** content styles
+*/
+
+#wikispecificstyle #toc,
+#wikispecificstyle .toc {
+	border: 1px solid #aaa;
+	background-color: #f9f9f9;
+	padding: 5px;
+	font-size: 95%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #toc h2,
+#wikispecificstyle .toc h2 {
+	display: inline;
+	border: none;
+	padding: 0;
+	font-size: 100%;
+	font-weight: bold;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #toc #toctitle,
+.toc #toctitle,
+#wikispecificstyle #toc .toctitle,
+#wikispecificstyle .toc .toctitle {
+	text-align: center;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #toc ul,
+#wikispecificstyle .toc ul {
+	list-style-type: none;
+	list-style-image: none;
+	margin-left: 0;
+	padding-left: 0;
+	text-align: left;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #toc ul ul,
+#wikispecificstyle .toc ul ul {
+	margin: 0 0 0 2em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #toc .toctoggle,
+#wikispecificstyle .toc .toctoggle {
+	font-size: 94%;
+}
+
+
+/* images */
+#wikispecificstyle div.floatright, table.floatright {
+    clear: right;
+    float: right;
+    position: relative;
+    margin: 0 0 .5em .5em;
+    border: 0;
+/*
+    border: .5em solid white;
+    border-width: .5em 0 .8em 1.4em;
+*/
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.floatright p { font-style: italic; }
+#wikispecificstyle div.floatleft, table.floatleft {
+    float: left;
+    position: relative;
+    margin: 0 .5em .5em 0;
+    border: 0;
+/*
+    margin: .3em .5em .5em 0;
+    border: .5em solid white;
+    border-width: .5em 1.4em .8em 0;
+*/
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.floatleft p { font-style: italic; }
+/* thumbnails */
+#wikispecificstyle div.thumb {
+    margin-bottom: .5em;
+    border-style: solid;
+    border-color: white;
+    width: auto;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.thumb div {
+    border: 1px solid #ccc;
+    padding: 3px !important;
+    background-color: #f9f9f9;
+    font-size: 94%;
+    text-align: center;
+    overflow: hidden;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.thumb div a img {
+    border: 1px solid #ccc;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.thumb div div.thumbcaption {
+    border: none;
+    text-align: left;
+    line-height: 1.4em;
+    padding: .3em 0 .1em 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.magnify {
+    float: right;
+    border: none !important;
+    background: none !important;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.magnify a, div.magnify img {
+    display: block;
+    border: none !important;
+    background: none !important;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.tright {
+    clear: right;
+    float: right;
+    border-width: .5em 0 .8em 1.4em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.tleft {
+    float: left;
+    margin-right: .5em;
+    border-width: .5em 1.4em .8em 0;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle .hiddenStructure {
+    display: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle img.tex {
+    vertical-align: middle;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle span.texhtml {
+    font-family: serif;
+}
+
+/*
+** classes for special content elements like town boxes
+** intended to be referenced directly from the wiki src
+*/
+
+/*
+** User styles
+*/
+/* table standards */
+#wikispecificstyle table.rimage {
+    float: right;
+    position: relative;
+    margin-left: 1em;
+    margin-bottom: 1em;
+    text-align: center;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .toccolours {
+    border: 1px solid #aaa;
+    background-color: #f9f9f9;
+    padding: 5px;
+    font-size: 95%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.townBox {
+    position: relative;
+    float: right;
+    background: white;
+    margin-left: 1em;
+    border: 1px solid gray;
+    padding: .3em;
+    width: 200px;
+    overflow: hidden;
+    clear: right;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.townBox dl {
+    padding: 0;
+    margin: 0 0 .3em;
+    font-size: 96%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.townBox dl dt {
+    background: none;
+    margin: .4em 0 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.townBox dl dd {
+    margin: .1em 0 0 1.1em;
+    background-color: #f3f3f3;
+}
+
+/*
+** edit views etc
+*/
+#wikispecificstyle .special li {
+    line-height: 1.4em;
+    margin: 0;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+
+/* Page history styling */
+/* the auto-generated edit comments */
+#wikispecificstyle .autocomment {
+    color: gray;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #pagehistory span.user {
+    margin-left: 1.4em;
+    margin-right: .4em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #pagehistory span.minor {
+    font-weight: bold;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #pagehistory li {
+    border: 1px solid white;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #pagehistory li.selected {
+    background-color: #f9f9f9;
+    border: 1px dashed #aaa;
+}
+
+/*
+** Diff rendering
+*/
+#wikispecificstyle table.diff, td.diff-otitle, td.diff-ntitle {
+    background-color: white;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle td.diff-addedline {
+    background: #cfc;
+    font-size: smaller;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle td.diff-deletedline {
+    background: #ffa;
+    font-size: smaller;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle td.diff-context {
+    background: #eee;
+    font-size: smaller;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle span.diffchange {
+    color: red;
+    font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+/*
+** keep the whitespace in front of the ^=, hides rule from konqueror
+** this is css3, the validator doesn't like it when validating as css2
+*/
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a[href ^="http://"],
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a[href ^="gopher://"] {
+    background: url(external.png) center right no-repeat;
+    padding-right: 13px;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a[href ^="https://"],
+#wikispecificstyle .link-https {
+    background: url(lock_icon.gif) center right no-repeat;
+    padding-right: 16px;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a[href ^="mailto:"],
+#wikispecificstyle .link-mailto {
+    background: url(mail_icon.gif) center right no-repeat;
+    padding-right: 18px;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a[href ^="news://"] {
+    background: url(news_icon.png) center right no-repeat;
+    padding-right: 18px;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a[href ^="ftp://"],
+#wikispecificstyle .link-ftp {
+    background: url(file_icon.gif) center right no-repeat;
+    padding-right: 18px;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a[href ^="irc://"],
+#wikispecificstyle .link-irc {
+    background: url(discussionitem_icon.gif) center right no-repeat;
+    padding-right: 18px;
+}
+/* disable interwiki styling */
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a.extiw,
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a.extiw:active {
+    color: #36b;
+    background: none;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent a.external {
+    color: #36b;
+}
+/* this can be used in the content area to switch off
+special external link styling */
+#wikispecificstyle #bodyContent .plainlinks a {
+    background: none !important;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+/*
+** Structural Elements
+*/
+
+/*
+** general portlet styles (elements in the quickbar)
+*/
+
+#wikispecificstyle .portlet {
+    background:white;
+    border: none; 
+    margin: 0 0 0 0 ;
+    padding: .2em 0 .4em;
+    float: none;
+    width: 12.8em;
+    overflow: hidden;
+        	
+ }
+
+#wikispecificstyle .portlet h4 {
+    font-size: 95%;
+    font-weight: normal;
+    white-space: nowrap;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle .portlet h5 {
+    background: white;
+    color:black;
+    padding: 0 1em 0 .5em;
+    display: inline;
+    height: 1em;
+    text-transform: lowercase;
+    font-size: 120%;
+    font-weight: bold;
+    white-space: nowrap;
+  
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .portlet h6 {
+    background: #ffae2e;
+    border: 1px solid #2f6fab;
+    border-style: solid solid none solid;
+    padding: 0 1em 0 1em;
+    text-transform: lowercase;
+    display: block;
+    font-size: 1em;
+    height: 1.2em;
+    font-weight: normal;
+    white-space: nowrap;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle .pBody {
+    font-size: 95%;
+    background-color: white;
+    color: black;
+    border-collapse: collapse;
+    border: 1px solid #2E8B57;
+    padding: 0 .5em .3em .2em;
+}
+.portlet h1,
+.portlet h2,
+.portlet h3,
+#wikispecificstyle .portlet h4 {
+    margin: 0;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle .portlet ul {
+    line-height: 1.5em;
+    list-style-type: square;
+    list-style-image: url(bullet.gif);
+    font-size: 95%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .portlet li {
+    padding: 0;
+    margin: 0;
+}
+
+/*
+** Logo properties
+*/
+
+
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-logo{
+    z-index: 3;
+    position: absolute; /*needed to use z-index */
+    top: 0;
+    left: 0;
+    height: 155px;
+    width: 12em;
+    overflow: visible;  
+        	 
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-logo h5 {
+    display: none;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-logo a,
+#wikispecificstyle #p-logo a:hover {
+    display: block;
+    height: 155px;
+    width: 11.2em;
+    background-image: url(toki_chalk.png) !important;
+    background-repeat: no-repeat;
+    background-position: 35% 50% !important;
+    text-decoration: none;
+   
+    }
+
+/*
+** the navigation portlet
+*/
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-navigation {
+    position: relative;
+    z-index: 3;
+}
+
+/*
+** Search portlet
+*/
+#wikispecificstyle #p-search {
+    position: relative;
+    z-index: 3;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-search .pBody {
+    text-align: center;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle input.searchButton {
+    margin-top: 1px;
+    font-size: 95%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #searchGoButton {
+    padding-left: .5em;
+    padding-right: .5em;
+    font-weight: bold;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #searchInput {
+    width: 10.9em;
+    margin: 0;
+    font-size: 95%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-search .pBody {
+    padding: .5em .4em .5em .4em;
+}
+
+/*
+** the personal toolbar
+*/
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal {
+    width: 100%;
+    white-space: nowrap;
+    padding: 0;
+    margin: 0;
+    position: absolute;
+    left: 0;
+    top: 0;
+    z-index: 0;
+    border: none;
+    background: none;
+    overflow: visible;
+    line-height: 1.2em;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal h5 {
+    display: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal .portlet,
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal .pBody {
+    padding: 0;
+    margin: 0;
+    border: none;
+    z-index: 0;
+    overflow: visible;
+    background: none;
+}
+/* this is the ul contained in the portlet */
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal ul {
+    border: none;
+    line-height: 1.4em;
+    color: #2f6fab;
+    padding: 0 2em 0 3em;
+    margin: 0;
+    text-align: right;
+    text-transform: lowercase;
+    list-style: none;
+    z-index: 0;
+    background: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal li {
+    z-index: 0;
+    border: none;
+    padding: 0;
+    display: inline;
+    color: #2f6fab;
+    margin-left: 1em;
+    line-height: 1.2em;
+    background: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal li a {
+    text-decoration: none;
+    color: #005896;
+    padding-bottom: .2em;
+    background: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-personal li a:hover {
+    background-color: white;
+    padding-bottom: .2em;
+    text-decoration: none;
+}
+
+/* the icon in front of the user name, single quotes
+in bg url to hide it from iemac */
+li#pt-userpage,
+li#pt-anonuserpage,
+#wikispecificstyle li#pt-login {
+    background: url(user.gif) top left no-repeat;
+    padding-left: 20px;
+    text-transform: none;
+}
+
+/*
+** the page-related actions- page/talk, edit etc
+*/
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions {
+    position: absolute;
+    top: 1.3em;
+    left: 13.5em;
+    margin: 0;
+    white-space: nowrap;
+    width: 76%;
+    line-height: 1.1em;
+    overflow: visible;
+    background: none;
+    border-collapse: collapse;
+    padding-left: 1em;
+    list-style: none;
+    font-size: 95%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions .hiddenStructure {
+    display: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions ul {
+    list-style: none;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li {
+    display: inline;
+    border: 1px solid #2E8B57;
+    border-bottom: none;
+    padding: 0 0 .1em 0;
+    margin: 0 .3em 0 0;
+    overflow: visible;
+    background: white;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li.selected {
+    border-color: #fabd23;
+    padding: 0 0 .2em 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li a {
+    background-color: white;
+    color: #002bb8;
+    border: none;
+    padding: 0 .8em .3em .8em;
+    text-decoration: none;
+    text-transform: lowercase;
+    position: relative;
+    z-index: 0;
+    margin: 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions .selected a {
+    z-index: 11;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions .new a {
+    color: #ba0000;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li a:hover {
+    z-index: 11;
+    text-decoration: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions h5 {
+    display: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li.istalk {
+    margin-right: 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions li.istalk a {
+    padding-right: .5em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #p-cactions #ca-addsection a {
+    padding-left: .4em;
+    padding-right: .4em;
+}
+/* offsets to distinguish the tab groups */
+#wikispecificstyle li#ca-talk {
+    margin-right: 1.6em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle li#ca-watch, li#ca-unwatch, li#ca-varlang-0, li#ca-print {
+    margin-left: 1.6em;
+}
+
+/*
+** the remaining portlets
+*/
+#wikispecificstyle #p-tbx,
+#wikispecificstyle #p-lang {
+    position: relative;
+    z-index: 11;
+}
+
+/*
+** footer
+*/
+#wikispecificstyle #footer {
+    background-color: white;
+    border-top: 1px solid #2E8B57;
+    border-bottom: 1px solid #2E8B57;
+    border-left: 1px solid #2E8B57;	
+    margin: 0.6em 0 1em 6em;
+    padding: 0.4em 0 1.2em 0;
+    text-align: center;
+    font-size: 90%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #footer li {
+    display: inline;
+    margin: 0 1.3em;
+}
+/* hide from incapable browsers */
+#wikispecificstyle head:first-child+body #footer li { white-space: nowrap; }
+#wikispecificstyle f-poweredbyico, #f-copyrightico {
+    margin: 10px 8px;
+    position: relative;
+    top: -2px; /* Bump it up just a tad */
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #f-poweredbyico {
+    float: right;
+    height: 1%;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #f-copyrightico {
+    float: left;
+    height: 1%;
+}
+
+/* js pref toc */
+#wikispecificstyle #preftoc {
+    float: left;
+    margin: 1em;
+    width: 13em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #preftoc li {
+    border: 1px solid white;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #preftoc li.selected {
+    background-color: #f9f9f9;
+    border: 1px dashed #aaa;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #preftoc a,
+#wikispecificstyle #preftoc a:active {
+    display: block;
+    color: #0014a6;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle #prefcontrol {
+    clear: both;
+    float: left;
+    margin-top: 1em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.prefsectiontip {
+    font-size: 95%;
+    margin-top: 1em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle fieldset.operaprefsection {
+    margin-left: 15em;
+}
+
+/*
+** IE/Mac fixes, hope to find a validating way to move this
+** to a separate stylesheet. This would work but doesn't validate:
+** @import("IEMacFixes.css");
+*/
+/* tabs: border on the a, not the div */
+#wikispecificstyle * > html #p-cactions li { border: none; }
+#wikispecificstyle * > html #p-cactions li a {
+    border: 1px solid #aaa;
+    border-bottom: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle * > html #p-cactions li.selected a { border-color: #fabd23; }
+/* footer icons need a fixed width */
+* > html #f-poweredbyico,
+#wikispecificstyle * > html #f-copyrightico { width: 88px; }
+* > html #bodyContent,
+#wikispecificstyle * > html #bodyContent pre {
+    overflow-x: auto;
+    width: 100%;
+    padding-bottom: 25px;
+}
+
+/* more IE fixes */
+/* float/negative margin brokenness */
+#wikispecificstyle * html #footer {margin-top: 0;}
+#wikispecificstyle * html #column-content {
+    display: inline;
+    margin-bottom: 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle * html div.editsection { font-size: smaller; }
+#wikispecificstyle #pagehistory li.selected { position: relative; }
+
+/* Mac IE 5.0 fix; floated content turns invisible */
+#wikispecificstyle * > html #column-content {
+    float: none;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle * > html #column-one {
+    position: absolute;
+    left: 0;
+    top: 0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle * > html #footer {
+    margin-left: 13.2em;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .redirectText {
+    font-size: 150%;
+    margin: 5px;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle .printfooter {
+    display: none;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle .not-patrolled {
+    background-color: #ffa;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle div.patrollink {
+    font-size: 75%;
+    text-align: right;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle span.newpage, span.minor, span.searchmatch {
+    font-weight: bold;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle span.unpatrolled {
+    font-weight: bold;
+    color: red;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle span.searchmatch {
+    color: red;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .sharedUploadNotice {
+    font-style: italic;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle span.updatedmarker {
+    color: black;
+    background-color: #0f0;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle span.newpageletter {
+    font-weight: bold;
+    color: black;
+    background-color: yellow;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle span.minoreditletter {
+    color: black;
+    background-color: #c5ffe6;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.gallery {
+    border: 1px solid #ccc;
+    margin: 2px;
+    padding: 2px;
+    background-color: white;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.gallery tr {
+    vertical-align: top;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.gallery td {
+    vertical-align: top;
+    background-color: #f9f9f9;
+    border: solid 2px white;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle div.gallerybox {
+    margin: 2px;
+    width:  150px;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle div.gallerybox div.thumb {
+    text-align: center;
+    border: 1px solid #ccc;
+    margin: 2px;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle div.gallerytext {
+    font-size: 94%;
+    padding: 2px 4px;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle span.comment {
+	font-style: italic;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle span.changedby {
+	font-size: 95%;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle .previewnote {
+	text-align: center;
+	color: #cc0000;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .editExternally {
+	border: 1px solid gray;
+	background-color: #ffffff;
+	padding: 3px;
+	margin-top: 0.5em;
+	float: left;
+	font-size: small;
+	text-align: center;
+}
+#wikispecificstyle .editExternallyHelp {
+	font-style: italic;
+	color: gray;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle li span.deleted {
+	text-decoration: line-through;
+	color: #888;
+	font-style: italic;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle .toggle {
+	margin-left: 2em;
+	text-indent: -2em;
+}
+
+/* Classes for EXIF data display */
+#wikispecificstyle table.metadata {
+	font-size: 0.8em;
+	margin-left: 0.5em;
+	margin-bottom: 0.5em;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.metadata caption {
+	font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.metadata th {
+	font-weight: normal;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.metadata td {
+	padding: 0.1em;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.metadata {
+	border: none;
+	border-collapse: collapse;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.metadata td, table.metadata th {
+	text-align: center;
+	border: 1px solid #aaaaaa;
+	padding-left: 0.1em;
+	padding-right: 0.1em;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.metadata th {
+	background-color: #f9f9f9;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.metadata td {
+	background-color: #fcfcfc;
+}
+
+/* filetoc */
+#wikispecificstyle ul#filetoc {
+	text-align: center;
+	border: 1px solid #aaaaaa;
+	background-color: #f9f9f9;
+	padding: 5px;
+	font-size: 95%;
+	margin-bottom: 0.5em;
+	margin-left: 0;
+	margin-right: 0;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #filetoc li {
+	display: inline;
+	list-style-type: none;
+	padding-right: 2em;
+}
+
+/* @bug 1714 */
+#wikispecificstyle input#wpSave, input#wpDiff {
+	margin-right: 0.33em;
+}
+
+
+/* Classes for article validation */
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.revisionform_default {
+	border: 1px solid #000000;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle table.revisionform_focus {
+	border: 1px solid #000000;
+	background-color:#00BBFF;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle tr.revision_tr_default {
+	background-color:#EEEEEE;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle tr.revision_tr_first {
+	background-color:#DDDDDD;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle p.revision_saved {
+	color: green;
+	font-weight:bold;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #mw_trackbacks {
+	border: solid 1px #bbbbff;
+	background-color: #eeeeff;
+	padding: 0.2em;
+}
+
+
+/* Allmessages table */
+
+#wikispecificstyle #allmessagestable th {
+	background-color: #b2b2ff;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #allmessagestable tr.orig {
+	background-color: #ffe2e2;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #allmessagestable tr.new {
+	background-color: #e2ffe2;
+}
+
+#wikispecificstyle #allmessagestable tr.def {
+	background-color: #f0f0ff;
+}
+
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/wiki-e.col
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/wiki-e.col	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wiki-e/wiki-e.col	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GathererCollection [
+  <!ELEMENT GathererCollection (Argument*, GathererConfig, BuildConfig)>
+  <!ELEMENT GathererConfig    (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT BuildConfig       (Build, Import)>
+  <!ELEMENT Build             (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Import            (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Schedule          (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Argument          (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Argument
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				enabled           CDATA "true">
+]>
+<GathererCollection>
+    <Argument name="built">false</Argument>
+    <Argument name="imported">true</Argument>
+    <Argument name="skimfile">true</Argument>
+    <GathererConfig/>
+    <BuildConfig>
+        <Build/>
+        <Import>
+            <Argument enabled="true" name="removeold"/>
+        </Import>
+        <Schedule/>
+    </BuildConfig>
+</GathererCollection>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wrdpdf-e/COPYING
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wrdpdf-e/COPYING	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wrdpdf-e/COPYING	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+The documents in this collection have been produced by members of the Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato.
+The University of Waikato holds copyright. They may be distributed freely, without any restrictions. 
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wrdpdf-e/etc/collect.cfg
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wrdpdf-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wrdpdf-e/etc/collect.cfg	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,313 @@
+creator		greenstone@cs.waikato.ac.nz
+public		true
+
+buildtype	mg
+
+plugin	WordPlugin
+plugin	RTFPlugin
+plugin	PDFPlugin
+plugin	PostScriptPlugin
+plugin	GreenstoneXMLPlugin
+plugin	MetadataXMLPlugin
+plugin	ArchivesInfPlugin
+plugin	DirectoryPlugin
+
+indexes		document:text
+
+classify	AZList -metadata Title
+
+format DocumentHeading ""
+format DocumentButtons ""
+
+format VList "<td valign=\"top\">[link][icon][/link]</td>
+<td valign=\"top\">[ex.srclink]{Or}{[ex.thumbicon],[ex.srcicon]}[ex./srclink]</td>
+<td valign=\"top\">[highlight]
+{Or}{[dc.Title],[exp.Title],[ex.Title],Untitled}
+[/highlight]{If}{[ex.Source],<br><i>([ex.Source])</i>}</td>"
+
+format HList "[link][highlight][ex.Title][/highlight][/link]"
+
+format DocumentText "[Text]"
+
+# -- English strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=en] "MSWord and PDF demonstration"
+
+collectionmeta	.document:text [l=en] "documents"
+
+# -- French strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=fr] "DÃ©monstration MSWord et PDF"
+
+collectionmeta	.document:text [l=fr] "documents"
+
+# -- Spanish strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=es] "DemostraciÃ³n de MSWord y PDF"
+
+collectionmeta	.document:text [l=es] "documentos"
+
+# -- Russian strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=ru] "ÐÐµÐŒÐŸÐœÑÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÑ MSWord Ðž PDF"
+
+collectionmeta	.document:text [l=ru] "ÐÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÑ"
+
+# -- Chinese strings ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionname [l=zh] "åŸ®èœ¯WordäžPDFæŒç€ºéŠè"
+
+collectionmeta	.document:text [l=zh] "ææ¡£"
+
+
+# -- English text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=en] "This collection demonstrates Greenstone\'s
+ability to build collections from documents provided in different formats.
+It contains a number of papers written by various members of the NZDL
+project in PDF, MSWord, RTF, and Postscript formats.\n
+<p>
+The documents in this collection have been produced by members of the Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato.
+The University of Waikato holds copyright. They may be distributed freely, without any restrictions.
+
+<h3>How the collection works</h3>\n
+<p>
+This collection\'s <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\"
+target=collect.cfg>configuration file</a> contains the four plugins
+<i>WordPlugin</i>, <i>RTFPlugin</i>, <i>PDFPlugin</i> and <i>PostScriptPlugin</i> (along with
+the standard four, <i>GreenstoneXMLPlugin</i>, <i>MetadataXMLPlugin</i>, <i>ArchivesInfPlugin</i> and <i>DirectoryPlugin</i>). These
+four plugins all extract <i>Title</i> and <i>Source</i> (i.e. filename)
+metadata. \n
+
+<p>
+Greenstone contains third-party software that is used to convert
+Word, RTF, PDF and PostScript files into HTML. The Greenstone team does not
+maintain these modules, although we do try to include the latest versions
+with each
+Greenstone release. Bugs arise with unusual Word documents (e.g. from older
+Macintosh systems), and sometimes the text is badly extracted. Some PDF files
+have no machine-readable text at all, comprising instead a sequence of page
+<i>images</i> from which text can only be extracted by optical character recognition
+(OCR), which Greenstone does not attempt. If you encounter these problems, you
+can either remove the offending documents from your collection, or try using
+some of the advanced plugin options to process the documents in different ways.
+For more information, see the Enhanced PDf and Word tutorials on the
+<a href=\'http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises\'>Greenstone wiki</a>.
+
+<p>
+The <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>configuration
+file</a> includes a single index, based on document text, and one classifier,
+an <i>AZList</i> based on <i>Title</i> metadata, shown
+<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\">here</a> (the alphabetic
+selector is suppressed automatically because the collection contains only a few
+documents). However, no format statement is specified. In the absence of
+explicit information, Greenstone supplies sensible defaults. In this case, the
+default format for the classifier gives:\n
+
+<ul>
+<li>
+an icon for the HTML version of the document (the text that is actually indexed,
+essentially the same as the Greenstone Archive format);\n
+<li>
+an icon for the original version of the document (clicking it opens the
+document in its original form);\n
+<li>
+<i>Title</i> metadata, extracted from the document;\n
+<li>
+<i>Source</i> (i.e. filename) metadata, extracted from the document.\n
+</ul>
+
+<p>
+Here is a format statement that achieves exactly the same effect explicitly. It
+applies to all <i>Vlists</i>, and so controls both search results list and the
+alphabetic title browser.\n
+
+<pre>
+format VList \"
+&lt;td&gt;[link][icon][/link]&lt;\/td&gt;\n
+&lt;td&gt;[srclink][srcicon][/srclink]&lt;\/td&gt;\n
+&lt;td&gt;[Title]&lt;br&gt;&lt;i&gt;([Source])&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/td&gt;\"\n
+</pre>
+"
+
+# -- French text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=fr] "Cette collection d&eacute;montre les capacit&eacute;s de Greenstone pour rassembler des collections &agrave; partir de documents existants en diff&eacute;rents formats. Elle contient plusieurs articles &eacute;crits par diff&eacute;rents membres du projet NZDL en format PDF, MSWord, RTF, et Postscript.
+<p>
+The documents in this collection have been produced by members of the Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato.
+The University of Waikato holds copyright. They may be distributed freely, without any restrictions.
+
+<p>
+<h3>Comment marche cette collection ?</h3>
+
+<p>
+Le <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\"
+target=collect.cfg>fichier de configuration</a> de cette collection contient quatre plugins, <i>WordPlugin</i>, <i>RTFPlugin</i>,
+<i>PDFPlugin</i> et <i>PostScriptPlugin</i> (ensemble avec les quatre plugins standards <i>GreenstoneXMLPlugin</i>, <i>MetadataXMLPlugin</i>, <i>ArchivesInfPlugin</i> et <i>DirectoryPlugin</i>).
+Tous ces quatre modules extraient les mÃ©ta-donnÃ©es <i>Titre</i> et <i>Source</i> (c.-a-d. nom de fichier).
+
+<p>
+Greenstone contient des logiciels de tierces parties utilisÃ©s pour convertir des fichiers Word, RTF, PDF et PostScript en HTML. L\'Ã©quipe Greenstone ne maintient pas ces modules bien que nous incluons les derniÃšres versions dans chaque Ã©dition de Greenstone. Des coquilles apparaissent avec les documents
+inhabituels de Word (par exemple Ã  partir de vieux systÃšmes Macintosh) et des fois, le texte est mal extrait. Certains fichiers PDF n\'ont pas du tout une forme lisible directement par les machines, mais sont reprÃ©sentÃ©s par une sÃ©quence de pages d\'<i>images</i> Ã  partir desquelless le texte ne peut Ãªtre extrait que par une reconnaissance optique de caractÃšres (ROC), ce que
+Greenstone ne tente pas de faire. Si vous rencontrez ce type de problÃšmes, vous pouvez soit supprimer les documents problÃ©matiques de votre collection, soit essayer d'utiliser les options avancÃ©es du plugiciel pour traiter les documents d'une autre faÃ§on. Pour plus d'informations, se reporter aux tutoriels avancÃ©s sur les documents PDF et Word, disponibles sur <a href=\'http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises\'>le wiki Greenstone</a>.
+
+<p>
+Le <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>fichier de configuration</a> comprend un index unique, basÃ© sur un texte de document
+et un classificateur, un <i>AZList</i> basÃ©e sur la mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>Titre</i>, montrÃ©e <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\">ici</a> (le sÃ©lecteur
+alphabÃ©tique est supprimÃ© automatiquement parce que la collection ne contient que peu de documents). Cependant aucune dÃ©claration de format n\'est spÃ©cifiÃ©e. A l\'absence d\'information explicite, Greenstone fournit des dÃ©fauts sensÃ©s. Dans ce cas le format par dÃ©faut pour le classificateur donne ceci :
+<ul>
+<li>
+une icÃŽne pour la version HTML du document (le texte est en fait indexÃ© en grande partie de la mÃªme faÃ§on que le format d\'archive Greenstone);
+<li>
+une icÃŽne pour la version originale du document (en cliquant dessus, on ouvre le document dans sa version originale);
+<li>
+mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>Titre</i> extraite du document;
+<li>
+mÃ©ta-donnÃ©e <i>Source</i> (c.-Ã -d. nom du fichier) extraite du document.
+</ul>
+
+<p>
+Voici une dÃ©claration de format qui fait exactement la mÃªme chose de maniÃšre explicite.
+Elle s\'applique Ã  tous les <i>VList</i> et contrÃŽle donc aussi bien les rÃ©sultats de recherche que la navigation alphabÃ©tique par titre.
+
+<pre>
+format VList \"
+&lt;td&gt;[link][icon][/link]&lt;\/td&gt;\n
+&lt;td&gt;[srclink][srcicon][/srclink]&lt;\/td&gt;\n
+&lt;td&gt;[Title]&lt;br&gt;&lt;i&gt;([Source])&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/td&gt;\"\n
+</pre>
+"
+
+# -- Spanish text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=es] "
+Esta colecciÃ³n demuestra la capacidad del programa Greenstone para construir colecciones con documentos en diferentes formatos. Contiene artÃ­culos escritos por varios de los miembros del proyecto NZDL en formato PDF, MSWord, RTF y Postscript.<p>
+Los documentos han sido producidos por miembros del Departamento de Ciencias de la ComputaciÃ³n, de la Universidad de Waikato. La Universidad tiene el copyright. Ellos pueden distribuirse libremente, sin ninguna restricciÃ³n.
+
+<h3>CÃ³mo trabaja esta colecciÃ³n</h3>
+
+Este <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n de la colecciÃ³n</a> contiene los cuatro plugins <i>WordPlugin, RTFPlugin, PDFPlugin</i> y <i>PostScriptPlugin</i> (junto con los cuatro plugins estÃ¡ndar, <i>GreenstoneXMLPlugin, MetadataXMLPlugin, ArchivesInfPlugin</i> y <i>DirectoryPlugin</i>). Los cuatro plugins extraen los metadatos de <i>TÃ­tulo</i> y <i>Fuente</i> (es decir, nombre del archivo).
+<p>
+
+Greenstone contiene un software de otro fabricante que se utiliza para convertir archivos Word, RTF, PDF y PostScript a HTML. El equipo de Greenstone no le da mantenimiento a estos mÃ³dulos, aunque incluimos las mÃ¡s recientes versiones con cada nueva versiÃ³n de Greenstone. Los errores lÃ³gicos surgen con documentos Word inusuales (p. ej. provenientes de sistemas Macintosh anteriores) y en ocasiones el texto no se extrae adecuadamente. Algunos archivos PDF no contienen textos legibles de ninguna manera, ya que estÃ¡n compuestos de una secuencia de <i>imÃ¡genes</i> de pÃ¡gina de las cuales el texto Ãºnicamente se puede extraer por medio del reconocimiento Ã³ptico de caracteres (OCR por sus siglas en inglÃ©s), que es algo que Greenstone no pretende hacer. Si encuentra estos problemas entonces puede remover el documento daÃ±ado de la colecciÃ³n, o tratar de usar alguna de las opciones avanzadas para procesar los documentos de diferentes maneras. Para mÃ¡s informaciÃ³n, vea los tutoriales avanzados sobre PDF y Word en la <a href=\'http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises\'>wiki de Greenstone</a>.
+<p>
+
+El <a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>archivo de configuraciÃ³n</a> incluye un solo Ã­ndice basado en el texto de los documentos y un clasificador <i>AZList</i> basado en el metadato de <i>TÃ­tulo</i>, tal como se muestra <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\">aquÃ­</a> (el selector alfabÃ©tico se suprime automÃ¡ticamente ya que la colecciÃ³n contiene Ãºnicamente unos cuantos documentos). Sin embargo, no se especifica ningÃºn enunciado de formato. En ausencia de informaciÃ³n explÃ­cita, Greenstone suministra los formatos por omisiÃ³n. En este caso, el formato por omisiÃ³n para el clasificador proporciona:
+<p>
+<ul>
+<li> un icono para la versiÃ³n HTML del documento (el texto que se estÃ¡ indexando, bÃ¡sicamente el mismo que el formato del Archivo Greenstone);
+
+<li> un icono para la versiÃ³n original del documento (al hacer click en Ã©l abre el documento en su forma original);
+
+<li> el metadato de <i>TÃ­tulo</i> extraÃ­do del documento;
+
+<li> el metadato de <i>Fuente</i> (es decir, el nombre de archivo) extraÃ­do del documento.
+</ul>
+<p>
+AquÃ­ se describe un enunciado de formato que logra exactamente el mismo efecto de manera explÃ­cita. Se aplica a todas las <i>Vlists</i> y por lo tanto controla tanto la lista de resultados de la bÃºsqueda como el explorador de tÃ­tulos por orden alfabÃ©tico.
+
+<pre>
+format VList \"
+&lt;td&gt;[link][icon][/link]&lt;\/td&gt;\n
+&lt;td&gt;[srclink][srcicon][/srclink]&lt;\/td&gt;\n
+&lt;td&gt;[Title]&lt;br&gt;&lt;i&gt;([Source])&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/td&gt;\"\n
+</pre>
+"
+
+# -- Russian text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=ru] "
+Ð­ÑÐ° ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÐŽÐµÐŒÐŸÐœÑÑÑÐžÑÑÐµÑ ÑÐ¿ÐŸÑÐŸÐ±ÐœÐŸÑÑÑ Greenstone Ðº Ð¿ÐŸÑÑÑÐŸÐµÐœÐžÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÐžÐ· ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ², Ð²ÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÐœÐµÐœÐœÑÑ
+ Ð² ÑÐ°Ð·Ð»ÐžÑÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ°Ñ
+. ÐÐœÐ° ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ ÐŒÐœÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑÑÐ²ÐŸ ÑÑÐ°ÑÐµÐ¹, ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÐžÑÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ ÑÐ°Ð·Ð»ÐžÑÐœÑÐŒÐž ÑÐ»ÐµÐœÐ°ÐŒÐž Ð¿ÑÐŸÐµÐºÑÐ° NZDL, Ð² ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ°Ñ
+ PDF, MSWord, RTF Ðž Postscript.
+<p>
+The documents in this collection have been produced by members of the Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato.
+The University of Waikato holds copyright. They may be distributed freely, without any restrictions.
+
+
+<h3>ÐÐ°Ðº ÑÐ°Ð±ÐŸÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ</h3>
+<p>
+
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>ÐÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»</a> ÑÑÐŸÐ¹ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÐž ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ ÑÐµÑÑÑÐµ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœÐ° <i>WordPlugin, RTFPlugin, PDFPlugin</i> Ðž <i>PostScriptPlugin</i> (ÐœÐ°ÑÑÐŽÑ Ñ ÑÐµÑÑÑÐµ ÑÑÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ°ÑÑÐœÑÐŒÐž <i>GreenstoneXMLPlugin, MetadataXMLPlugin, ArchivesInfPlugin</i> Ðž <i>DirectoryPlugin</i>). ÐÑÐµ ÑÑÐž ÑÐµÑÑÑÐµ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð³ÐžÐœÐ° ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÐºÐ°ÑÑ ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐžÐ· <i>ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ</i> (<i>Title</i>) Ðž <i>ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐœÐžÐºÐ°</i> (<i>Source</i>), ÑÐŸ ÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŒÑ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ð°.
+<p>
+
+Greenstone ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ ÑÑÐŸÑÐŸÐœÐœÐµÐµ Ð¿ÑÐŸÐ³ÑÐ°ÐŒÐŒÐœÐŸÐµ ÐŸÐ±ÐµÑÐ¿ÐµÑÐµÐœÐžÐµ, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÐŸÐµ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÐµÑÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ, ÑÑÐŸÐ±Ñ ÐºÐŸÐœÐ²ÐµÑÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ñ, ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ Ð² Word, RTF, PDF Ðž PostScript Ð² HTML. ÐÐŸÐŒÐ°ÐœÐŽÐ° Greenstone ÐœÐµ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ»ÑÐ¶ÐžÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÑÐž ÐŒÐŸÐŽÐµÐ»Ðž, Ñ
+ÐŸÑÑ ÐŒÑ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÐŒ ÐžÑ
+ ÑÐ°ÐŒÑÐµ Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÐœÐžÐµ Ð²ÐµÑÑÐžÐž Ð² ÐºÐ°Ð¶ÐŽÑÐ¹ Ð²ÑÐ¿ÑÑÐº Greenstone. ÐÑÐžÐ±ÐºÐž Ð²ÐŸÐ·ÐœÐžÐºÐ°ÑÑ Ñ ÐœÐµÐŸÐ±ÑÑÐœÑÑ
+ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ² Word (ÐœÐ°Ð¿ÑÐžÐŒÐµÑ, ÐŸÑ ÑÑÐ°ÑÑÑ
+ ÑÐžÑÑÐµÐŒ ÐÐ°ÐºÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐ°), Ðž ÐžÐœÐŸÐ³ÐŽÐ° ÑÐµÐºÑÑ ÑÐ¶Ð°ÑÐœÐŸ ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÐºÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ. ÐÐµÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐµ PDF ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ñ ÐœÐµ ÑÐŸÐ·ÐŽÐ°ÑÑ ÐœÐžÐºÐ°ÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÐœÐœÐŸÑÐžÑÐ°ÐµÐŒÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐ° Ð²ÐŸÐŸÐ±ÑÐµ, Ð° Ð²ÐŒÐµÑÑÐŸ ÑÑÐŸÐ³ÐŸ Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÑ Ð¿ÐŸÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÐŸÐ²Ð°ÑÐµÐ»ÑÐœÐŸÑÑÑ <i>ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐ¹</i> ÑÑÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑÑ, ÐžÐ· ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÑ
+ ÑÐµÐºÑÑ ÐŒÐŸÐ¶ÐµÑ Ð±ÑÑÑ ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœ ÑÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ Ð¿ÑÑÐµÐŒ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ³ÐŸ ÑÐ°ÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ·ÐœÐ°Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ (OCR), ÑÑÐŸ Ð² Greenstone ÐœÐµ Ð¿ÑÐµÐŽÑÑÐŒÐŸÑÑÐµÐœÐŸ. 
+<!-- _text1_ -->
+If you encounter these problems, you
+can either remove the offending documents from your collection, or try using
+some of the advanced plugin options to process the documents in different ways.
+For more information, see the Enhanced PDf and Word tutorials on the  
+<a href=\'http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises\'>Greenstone wiki</a>.
+<p>
+
+
+<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>ÐÐŸÐœÑÐžÐ³ÑÑÐ°ÑÐžÐŸÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»</a> Ð²ÐºÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÐµÐŽÐžÐœÑÑÐ²ÐµÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑ, ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐœÐ° ÑÐµÐºÑÑÐµ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° Ðž ÐŸÐŽÐžÐœ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑ <i>AZList</i>, ÐŸÑÐœÐŸÐ²Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ¹ ÐœÐ° ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÑ
+ <i>ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ</i>, Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐœÐœÑÐ¹ <a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\">Ð·ÐŽÐµÑÑ</a> (Ð°Ð»ÑÐ°Ð²ÐžÑÐœÑÐ¹ ÐŸÑÐ±ÐŸÑÑÐžÐº Ð°Ð²ÑÐŸÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐž ÐŸÑÐºÐ»ÑÑÐµÐœ, Ð¿ÐŸÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÑ ÐºÐŸÐ»Ð»ÐµÐºÑÐžÑ ÑÐŸÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÑ ÑÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÐœÐµÑÐºÐŸÐ»ÑÐºÐŸ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐŸÐ²). ÐÐŽÐœÐ°ÐºÐŸ ÐœÐžÐºÐ°ÐºÐžÑ
+ ÐŸÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐŸÐ² ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ° ÐœÐµ ÐŸÐ¿ÑÐµÐŽÐµÐ»ÐµÐœÐŸ. ÐÑÐž ÐŸÑÑÑÑÑÑÐ²ÐžÐž ÑÐ²ÐœÐŸÐ¹ ÐžÐœÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐžÐž Greenstone Ð¿ÐŸÐŽÐŽÐµÑÐ¶ÐžÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ Ð¿ÐŸ ÑÐŒÐŸÐ»ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ ÐœÐ°ÐžÐ±ÐŸÐ»ÐµÐµ ÐŸÑÑÑÐžÐŒÑÐµ. Ð ÑÑÐŸÐŒ ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°Ðµ Ð¿ÐŸ ÑÐŒÐŸÐ»ÑÐ°ÐœÐžÑ ÐžÑÐ¿ÐŸÐ»ÑÐ·ÑÑÑÑÑ ÑÐ»ÐµÐŽÑÑÑÐžÐµ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÑ ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑÐžÑÐžÐºÐ°ÑÐŸÑÐ°:
+<p>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>
+ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ (ÐžÐºÐŸÐœÐºÐ°) ÐŽÐ»Ñ HTML-Ð²ÐµÑÑÐžÐž ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° (ÑÐµÐºÑÑ, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ ÑÐ°ÐºÑÐžÑÐµÑÐºÐžÐžÐœÐŽÐµÐºÑÐžÑÐŸÐ²Ð°Ðœ, Ð¿ÐŸ ÑÑÑÐµÑÑÐ²Ñ ÑÐ°ÐºÐŸÐ¹ Ð¶Ðµ, ÐºÐ°Ðº ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°Ñ Ð°ÑÑ
+ÐžÐ²Ð° Greenstone);
+<li>
+ÐžÐ·ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð¶ÐµÐœÐžÐµ (ÐžÐºÐŸÐœÐºÐ°) ÐŽÐ»Ñ ÐŸÑÐžÐ³ÐžÐœÐ°Ð»ÑÐœÐŸÐ¹ Ð²ÐµÑÑÐžÐž ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ° (ÑÐµÐ»ÐºÐ°Ñ ÐœÐ° ÐœÐµÐŒ, ÐŸÑÐºÑÑÐ²Ð°ÑÑ ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑ Ð² ÐµÐ³ÐŸ ÐžÑÑ
+ÐŸÐŽÐœÐŸÐŒ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐµ);
+<li>
+ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ <i>ÐÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÑ</i> (<i>Title</i>), ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœÐœÑÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°;
+<li>
+ÐŒÐµÑÐ°ÐŽÐ°ÐœÐœÑÐµ <i>ÐÑÑÐŸÑÐœÐžÐºÐ°</i> (<i>Source</i>), ÑÐŸ ÐµÑÑÑ ÐžÐŒÑ ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð»Ð°, ÐžÐ·Ð²Ð»ÐµÑÐµÐœÐœÐŸÐµ ÐžÐ· ÐŽÐŸÐºÑÐŒÐµÐœÑÐ°.
+</ul>
+<p>
+
+ÐÐŒÐµÐµÑÑÑ ÐŸÐ¿ÐµÑÐ°ÑÐŸÑ ÑÐŸÑÐŒÐ°ÑÐ°, ÐºÐŸÑÐŸÑÑÐ¹ ÐŽÐŸÑÑÐžÐ³Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÐ°ÐºÐŸÐ¹ Ð¶Ðµ ÑÐ°ÐŒÑÐ¹ ÑÑÑÐµÐºÑ. ÐÐœ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°ÑÐ°ÐµÑÑÑ ÐºÐŸ Ð²ÑÐµÐŒ <i>Vlists</i> Ðž ÑÐ°ÐºÐžÐŒ ÐŸÐ±ÑÐ°Ð·ÐŸÐŒ ÐŸÑÑÑÐµÑÑÐ²Ð»ÑÐµÑ ÐºÐŸÐœÑÑÐŸÐ»Ñ ÐºÐ°Ðº ÐœÐ°ÐŽ ÑÐ¿ÐžÑÐºÐŸÐŒ ÑÐµÐ·ÑÐ»ÑÑÐ°ÑÐŸÐ² Ð¿ÐŸÐžÑÐºÐ°, ÑÐ°Ðº Ðž ÐœÐ°ÐŽ Ð°Ð»ÑÐ°Ð²ÐžÑÐœÑÐŒ Ð¿ÐŸÐºÐ°Ð·ÐŸÐŒ ÐœÐ°Ð·Ð²Ð°ÐœÐžÐ¹.
+
+<pre>
+format VList \"
+&lt;td&gt;[link][icon][/link]&lt;\/td&gt;\n
+&lt;td&gt;[srclink][srcicon][/srclink]&lt;\/td&gt;\n
+&lt;td&gt;[Title]&lt;br&gt;&lt;i&gt;([Source])&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/td&gt;\"\n
+</pre>
+"
+
+# -- Chinese text ----------------
+collectionmeta	collectionextra [l=zh] "
+æ¬éŠèæŒç€ºGreenstoneçšäžåæ ŒåŒææ¡£åå»ºéŠèçåèœãæ¬éŠèæ¶åœäºè¥å¹²NZDLé¡¹ç®ç»æåæåçè®ºæïŒæPDFïŒåŸ®èœ¯Wordä»¥åPostscriptæ ŒåŒã\n 
+<p> 
+æ¬éŠèäž­çææ¡£æ¥èªäºæå¡æå€§å­Šè®¡ç®æºç³»çæåãçæç±æå¡æå€§å­Šæå±ãè¿äºææ¡£å¯èªç±ååžïŒæ²¡æä»»äœéå¶ã 
+ 
+<h3>æ¬éŠèåŠäœå·¥äœ</h3>\n 
+<p>æ¬éŠèç<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>é
+çœ®æä»¶</a>å
+å«åäžªæä»¶ïŒ<i>WordPlugin</i>ïŒ<i>RTFPlugin</i>ïŒ<i>PDFPlugin</i>äž<i>PostScriptPlugin</i>ïŒä»¥ååäžªæ åæä»¶ïŒ<i>GreenstoneXMLPlugin</i>ïŒ<i>MetadataXMLPlugin</i>ïŒ<i>ArchivesInfPlugin</i>äž<i>DirectoryPlugin</i>ïŒãè¿åäžªæä»¶éœäŒæœå<i>é¢å</i>äž<i>æ¥æº</i>ïŒå³æä»¶åïŒå
+æ°æ®ã\n 
+ 
+<p>Greenstoneäœ¿çšç¬¬äžæ¹èœ¯ä»¶å°WordïŒRTFïŒPDFäžPostScriptæä»¶èœ¬æ¢æHTMLææ¡£ãGreenstoneå°ç»å¹¶äžèŽèŽ£ç»Žæ€è¿äºç¬¬äžæ¹èœ¯ä»¶ïŒå°œç®¡æä»¬å°œéåšååžæ¯äžªGreenstoneçæ¬äž­äœ¿çšææ°ççæ¬ãç¹æ®çWordææ¡£å¯èœäŒææäºé®é¢ïŒæ¯åŠæ§çMacintoshç³»ç»åå»ºçWordææ¡£ïŒïŒå¹¶äžææ¶ä»è¿äºææ¡£äž­æœåçææ¬èŽšéåŸå·®ãæäºPDFææ¡£äžå
+æ¬ä»»äœæºåšå¯è¯»çææ¬ïŒèæ¯ç±äžç³»åçé¡µé¢<i>åŸç</i>ç»æïŒåªèœçšå
+å­Šå­ç¬Šè¯å«ææ¯ïŒOCRïŒä»äž­è¯»åææ¬ïŒèGreenstoneå¹¶äžå
+æ¬OCRææ¯ãåŠæäœ éå°äºè¿äºé®é¢ïŒèŠä¹äœ å¯ä»¥ä»éŠèäž­å é€æé®é¢çææ¡£ïŒæè
+å°è¯é«çº§çæä»¶éé¡¹ïŒä»¥äžåçæ¹åŒå€çææ¡£ãæŽå€ä¿¡æ¯ïŒè¯·åé
+<a href=\'http://wiki.greenstone.org/wiki/index.php/Tutorial_exercises\'>Greenstone wiki</a>äž­çæé«çPDFäžWordææ¡£å€çæçšã 
+ 
+<p>æ¬éŠèç<a href=\"_httpcollection_/etc/collect.cfg\" target=collect.cfg>é
+çœ®æä»¶</a>äž­åªæäžäžªçŽ¢åŒïŒè¯¥çŽ¢åŒæ¯åºäºææ¡£ææ¬çïŒä»¥åäžäžªåç±»åšïŒäžäžªåºäº<i>é¢å</i>å
+æ°æ®ç<i>AZList</i>ïŒåŠ<a href=\"_gwcgi_?l=_cgiargl_&c=_cgiargc_&a=d&cl=CL1\">è¿é</a>æç€ºïŒè¿éèªåšéèäºæå­æ¯çéæ©æµè§æ¡ïŒå äžºæ¬éŠèåªæäžºæ°äžå€çå äžªææ¡£ïŒãç¶èïŒæ¬éŠèæ²¡æè®Ÿå®ä»»äœæ ŒåŒåéãåšæ²¡æå¶å®ç¹å®æ ŒåŒä¿¡æ¯æ¶ïŒGreenstoneæäŸåçççŒºçåŒãåšè¿ç§æ
+åµäžïŒçŒºççåç±»åšæ ŒåŒå°æŸç€ºïŒ\n 
+ 
+<ul><li>äžäžªåŸæ å¹¶éŸæ¥å°ææ¡£çHTMLçæ¬ïŒå³çæ­£è¢«çŽ¢åŒçææ¬ïŒæ¬èŽšäžäžGreenstoneå
+éšå­åšæ ŒåŒçžåïŒïŒ\n 
+<li>äžäžªåŸæ å¹¶éŸæ¥å°ææ¡£çåå§çæ¬ïŒç¹å»è¯¥åŸæ å°æåŒææ¡£çåå§æ ŒåŒïŒïŒ\n 
+<li><i>é¢å</i>å
+æ°æ®ïŒæœåèªææ¡£ïŒ\n 
+<li><i>æ¥æº</i>ïŒå³æä»¶åïŒå
+æ°æ®ïŒæœåèªææ¡£ã\n 
+</ul> 
+ 
+<p>è¿äžªç¹å®çæ ŒåŒåéå°åŸå°äžæš¡äžæ ·çå€è§ãå®éçšäºææç<i>Vlists</i>ïŒä¹æ§å¶æçŽ¢ç»æåè¡šäžå­æ¯é¡ºåºçé¢ååè¡šã\n 
+ 
+<pre> 
+format VList \"&lt;td&gt;[link][icon][/link]&lt;\/td&gt;\n 
+              &lt;td&gt;[srclink][srcicon][/srclink]&lt;\/td&gt;\n 
+              &lt;td&gt;[Title]&lt;br&gt;&lt;i&gt;([Source])&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/td&gt;\"\n 
+</pre>
+"
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wrdpdf-e/metadata/ex.mds
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wrdpdf-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wrdpdf-e/metadata/ex.mds	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE MetadataSet [
+
+  <!-- The outer tag of any metadata set. Contains some number of elements.             -->
+  <!-- @param contact     A contact address for the creator.                            -->
+  <!-- @param creator     The name of the entity resposibly for this set.               -->
+  <!-- @param family      The name of this sets family.                                 -->
+  <!-- @param lastchanged The full date, user name and machine name of the last editor. --> 
+  <!--   uses the form:                                                                 -->
+  <!--   Day Mon(th) dd hh:mm:ss yyyy '-' <username> on <machine>                       -->
+  <!-- @param namespace   The namespace of this metadata set.                           -->
+  <!ELEMENT MetadataSet ((Name|Description|Element)+)>
+  <!ATTLIST MetadataSet
+				contact     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				creator     CDATA #REQUIRED
+				description CDATA #REQUIRED
+            family      CDATA #REQUIRED
+				lastchanged CDATA #REQUIRED
+            name        CDATA #REQUIRED
+				namespace   CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- The name of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Name (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Name
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- The description of a metadata set. Is language specific. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Description (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Description
+            language CDATA "en">
+
+  <!-- An element in the metadata set. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Element (Attribute*,OptionList?)>
+  <!ATTLIST Element
+            name       CDATA #REQUIRED
+				occurances CDATA "0">
+
+  <!-- Each element has several attribute children. -->
+  <!ELEMENT Attribute (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Attribute
+            name CDATA #REQUIRED>
+
+  <!-- For listing predefined values for this element. -->
+  <!ELEMENT OptionList (Value+)>
+  <!ATTLIST OptionList
+            restricted (true|false) "false">
+]>
+
+<MetadataSet 
+contact     = "nzdl.org"
+creator     = "New Zealand Digital Libraries Project: Greenstone"
+family      = "Extracted Greenstone"
+lastchanged = "Tue May 20 10:30:32 2003 - jmt12 on narya"
+namespace   = "ex" 
+>
+
+  <Name language="en">Extracted Greenstone Metadata 1.0</Name>
+
+  <Description language="en">This document is the reference description, version 1.0 of the automatically extracted Greenstone Metadata Element Set.</Description>
+
+  <Element name="Encoding">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The encoding of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Encoding</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Language">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The language of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Language</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Source">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Hidden in the Librarian Interface as it already shown by the various file trees.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The filename of the document imported by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Source</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+  <Element name="Title">
+    <Attribute name="comment" language="en">Not always available.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="definition" language="en">The title of the imported document as extracted by Greenstone.</Attribute>
+    <Attribute name="identifier" language="en">Title</Attribute>
+  </Element>
+
+</MetadataSet>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wrdpdf-e/metadata/profile.xml
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wrdpdf-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wrdpdf-e/metadata/profile.xml	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE Profiles [
+<!ELEMENT Profiles (Action*)>
+<!ELEMENT Action (#PCDATA)>
+<!ATTLIST Action
+                source     CDATA #REQUIRED
+                target     CDATA "">
+]>
+<Profiles/>
Index: /documented-examples/trunk/wrdpdf-e/wrdpdf-e.col
===================================================================
--- /documented-examples/trunk/wrdpdf-e/wrdpdf-e.col	(revision 21010)
+++ /documented-examples/trunk/wrdpdf-e/wrdpdf-e.col	(revision 21010)
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE GathererCollection [
+  <!ELEMENT GathererCollection (Argument*, GathererConfig, BuildConfig, DirectoryMappings)>
+  <!ELEMENT GathererConfig    (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT BuildConfig       (Build, Import)>
+  <!ELEMENT Build             (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Import            (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Schedule          (Arguments*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Argument          (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Argument
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				enabled           CDATA "true">
+  <!ELEMENT DirectoryMappings (Mapping*)>
+  <!ELEMENT Mapping           (#PCDATA)>
+  <!ATTLIST Mapping 
+            name              CDATA #REQUIRED
+				file              CDATA #REQUIRED>
+]>
+<GathererCollection>
+    <Argument name="built">false</Argument>
+    <Argument name="imported">true</Argument>
+    <GathererConfig/>
+    <BuildConfig>
+        <Build/>
+        <Import>
+            <Argument enabled="true" name="removeold"/>
+        </Import>
+        <Schedule/>
+    </BuildConfig>
+    <DirectoryMappings/>
+</GathererCollection>
